,,being ,,well-,,born       ,,being     
,,well-,,born    ,,an ,,introduction    
,,to ,,eugenics     ,by   ,,michael ,f4 
,,guyer1 ,,ph4 ,d4   ,professor of      
,zoology1 ,the ,university of ,wisconsin
     ,childhood and ,youth ,series      
,edited by ,m4 ,v4 ,o',,shea            
,professor of ,education1 ,the          
,university of ,wisconsin               
,,indianapolis   ,,the ,,bobbs-,,merrill
 ,,company   ,,publishers               
,,copyright #aiaf   ,,the               
,,bobbs-,,merrill ,,company    ,,press  
,,of   ,,braunworth  ,,co4              
,,bookbinders ,,and ,,printers          
,,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4     ,,to ,,my ,,wife
  ,,helen ,m4 ,,guyer     ,,editor',s   
,,introduction   ,the writer recalls    
that when he was a young boy1 he heard  
the grown-up people in the community    
earnestly and incessantly debating the  
question3 ,does heredity play a greater 
part in shaping one's mind and body than
 does his environment8 ,from that day to
 this he has listened to men and women  

in every walk of life discussing the    
relation of heredity to environment in  
determining human traits4 ,teachers and 
parents are constantly asking3 ,are such
 and such characteristics in my children
 due to their inheritance or to the way 
they have been trained8 ,students of    
juvenile delinquency and of mental      
defect and deficiency are searching     
everywhere for light on this matter4 ,it
 is not to be wondered at that          
practically all people are peculiarly   
interested in this problem1 since it    
concerns intimately one's personal      
traits1 and it constantly confronts any 
one who is responsible for the care and 
culture of the young4  ,it is suggestive
 to note how people differ in their     
views regarding the extent to which a   
child's physical and mental qualities   
and capacities are fixed definitely by  
his inheritance4 ,the writer has often  
heard students in university classes    
discuss the subject2 and their handling 
of the problem has shown how            

superficially and even superstitiously  
most persons regard the mechanism and   
functions of heredity4 ,it is           
significant also to observe what extreme
 views many people hold regarding the   
possibility of affecting a child's      
traits and abilities by subjecting him  
to specific influences during his       
prenatal life4 ,in any group of one     
hundred persons chosen at random1       
probably seventy-five will believe in   
specific prenatal influence4 ,many of   
them will believe in birthmarks due to  
peculiar experiences of the mother4 ,a  
popular book recently published asserts 
among other things that if a mother will
 look upon beautiful pictures and listen
 to good music during the prenatal      
period of her child1 the latter will    
possess esthetic traits and interests in
 high degree4 ,on the other hand1 people
 generally do not seem to think that    
degenerate parents beget only degenerate
 children4 ,alcoholics1 feeble-minded   
persons and the like are permitted to   

bring children into the world4  ,very   
few people have any precise knowledge of
 the mechanism of heredity4 ,the whole  
thing is inscrutable to them1 and is    
shrouded in mystery4 ,superstition      
flourishes among even intelligent       
persons in respect to heredity1 and     
errors due to education1 and tragedies  
resulting from vicious social           
organization are all alike ascribed to  
its uncontrollable forces4 ,most people 
are none the wiser because they do not  
know to what extent the physical and    
mental defects and deviations of        
individuals are due to inheritance or to
 the malign influences of the           
individual's environment and training4  
,professor ,guyer1 who has studied the  
whole problem in a thoroughgoing1       
scientific way1 has prepared this book  
with a view to illuminating some of the 
mysteries that surround the subject of  
heredity1 and to dispelling the         
illusions that persist regarding it4 ,he
 shows the method which nature follows  

in the development of the individual4   
,he presents the laws which have become 
established respecting the extent to    
which and the manner in which immediate 
and remote ancestors contribute to the  
child's physical and mental organism4   
,he answers many questions which those  
who are engaged in social work or in    
education in the home or the school are 
asking to-day4 ,he discusses subjects   
upon which every serious-minded person  
wishes to be informed4 ,he has thus made
 a book which is both of theoretical and
 of practical interest4  ,he has written
 in a style which should make his book  
attractive to the parent and the teacher
 as well as to the student of the       
complicated mechanism of inheritance4   
,only a few special terms are used1 and 
these should not give any reader        
trouble1 because the treatment          
throughout is so concrete that the      
meaning of the terms will be easily     
grasped4 ,further1 the book is          
illustrated1 with many attractive and   

instructive illustrations which will    
show at a glance the working of the     
principles of inheritance which are     
developed in the text4  ,this book may  
be heartily commended to all who are    
interested in questions of human nature1
 education and social reform4 ,it should
 enable the parent1 the teacher and the 
legislator to understand more clearly   
than most of them now do in how far     
children's traits and possibilities are 
or can be fixed by inheritance as       
contrasted with environmental conditions
 and nurture in home1 school1 church and
 institutional life4  ,m4 ,v4 ,o',,shea4
  ,madison1 ,wisconsin4     ,,preface   
,one of the most significant processes  
at work in society to-day is the        
awakening of the civilized world to the 
rights of the child2 and it is coming to
 be realized that its right of rights is
 that of being well-born4 ,any series of
 publications1 therefore1 dealing       
primarily with the problems of child    
nature may very fittingly be initiated  

by a discussion of the factor of        
well-nigh supreme importance in         
determining this nature1 heredity4  ,no 
principles have more direct bearing on  
the welfare of man than those of        
heredity1 and yet on scarcely any       
subject does as wide-spread ignorance   
prevail4 ,this is due in part to the    
complexity of the subject1 but more to  
the fact that in the past no clear-cut  
methods of attacking the manifold       
problems involved had been devised4     
,happily this difficulty has at least in
 part been overcome4  ,it is no         
exaggeration to say that during the last
 fifteen years we have made more        
progress in measuring the extent of     
inheritance and in determining its      
elemental factors than in all previous  
time4 ,instead of dealing wholly now    
with vague general impressions and      
speculations1 certain definite          
principles of genetic transmission have 
been disclosed4 ,and since it is        
becoming more and more apparent that    

these hold for man as well as for plants
 and animals in general1 we can no      
longer ignore the social                
responsibilities which the new facts    
thrust upon us4  ,since what a child    
becomes is determined so largely by its 
inborn capacities it is of the greatest 
importance that teachers and parents    
realize something of the nature of such 
aptitudes before they begin to awaken   
them4 ,for education consists in large  
measure in applying the stimuli         
necessary to set going these            
potentialities and of affording         
opportunity for their expression4 ,of   
the good propensities1 some will require
 merely the start1 others will need to  
be fostered and coaxed into permanence  
through the stereotyping effects of     
proper habits2 of the dangerous or bad1 
some must be kept dormant by preventing 
improper stimulation1 others repressed  
by the cultivation of inhibitive        
tendencies1 and yet others smothered or 
excluded by filling their place with    

desirable traits before they themselves 
come into expression4  ,we must see     
clearly1 furthermore1 that even the best
 of pedagogy and parental training has  
obvious limits4 ,once grasp the truth   
that a child's fate in life is          
frequently decided long before birth1   
and that no amount of food or hospital  
service or culture or tears will ever   
wholly make good the deficiencies of bad
 blood1 or in the language of the       
biologist1 a faulty germ-plasm1 and the 
conviction must surely be borne home to 
the intelligent members of society that 
one thing of superlative importance in  
life is the making of a wise choice of a
 marriage mate on the one hand1 and the 
prevention of parenthood to the         
obviously unfit on the other4  ,in the  
present volume it is intended to examine
 into the natural endowment of the      
child4 ,and since full comprehension of 
it requires some understanding of the   
nature of the physical mechanism by     
which hereditary traits are handed on   

from generation to generation1 a small  
amount of space is given to this phase4 
,then1 that the reader may appreciate to
 their fullest extent the facts gathered
 concerning man1 a review of the more   
significant principles of genetics as   
revealed through experiments in breeding
 plants and animals has been undertaken4
 ,the main applications of these        
principles to man is pointed out in a   
general discussion of human heredity4   
,finally1 inasmuch as all available data
 indicate that the fate of our very     
civilization hangs on the issue1 the    
work concludes with an account of the   
new science of eugenics which is        
striving for the betterment of the race 
by determining and promulgating the laws
 of human inheritance so that mankind   
may intelligently go about conserving   
good and repressing bad human stocks4   
,in order to eliminate as many errors as
 possible and to avoid oversights ,i    
have submitted various chapters to      
certain of my colleagues and friends who

 are authorities in the special field   
treated therein4 ,while these gentlemen 
are in no way responsible for the       
material of any chapter they have added 
greatly to the value of the whole by    
their suggestions and comments4 ,thus ,i
 am indebted to ,professor ,leon ,j4    
,cole for reading the entire manuscript2
 to ,professors ,a4 ,s4 ,pearse and ,f4 
,c4 ,sharp for reading ,chapter ,,vii2  
to ,professor ,c4 ,r4 ,bardeen for      
reading special parts2 to ,doctor ,j4   
,s4 ,evans for reading ,chapter ,,vi and
 part of ,v2 to ,doctor ,w4 ,f4 ,lorenz1
 of the ,mendota ,hospital1 for reading 
,chapter ,,viii2 to ,judge ,e4 ,ray     
,stevens for reading ,chapter ,,ix1 and 
to ,helen ,m4 ,guyer for several        
readings of the entire manuscript4      
,grateful acknowledgment is made to all 
of these readers1 to various publishers 
and periodicals for the use of certain  
of the illustrations1 to the authors of 
the numerous books and papers from which
 much of the material in such a work as 

this must necessarily be selected1 and  
to my artist1 ,miss ,h4 ,j4 ,wakeman1   
for her painstaking endeavors to make   
her work conform to my ideas of what    
each diagram should show4  ,m4 ,f4 ,g4  
,,contents     ,,chapter                
,,page    ,i ,,heredity                 
#a    ,blood heritage--,kind determined 
by origin--,ancestry a network--        
,ancestry in royalty--,offspring derived
 from one parent only--,dual   ancestry 
an aid in studying                      
heredity--,reversion--,telegony--       
,prenatal influences apart from         
heredity--,parent body and germ not     
identical--,a hereditary character      
defined--,hereditary mingling a   mosaic
 rather than a blend--,determiners of   
characters1 not   characters themselves1
 transmitted--,our knowledge of heredity
   derived along three lines--,the      
method of experimental breeding--   ,the
 statistical method--,galton's law of   
regression--,correlations   between     
parents and offspring--,the biometrical 

method1   statistical1 not              
physiological--,mental as well as       
physical   qualities inheritable4       
,,ii ,,the ,,bearers ,,of ,,the         
,,heritage                              
#bj    ,the cell the unit of            
structure--,unicellular                 
organisms--,importance   of             
cell-theory--,heredity in unicellular   
forms--,reproduction and   heredity in  
colonial                                
protozoa--,conjugation--,specialization 
of   sex-cells--,the fertilized         
ovum--,advancement seen in the ,volvox  
colony--,natural death--,specialization 
in higher organisms--,sexual   phenomena
 in higher                              
forms--,cell-division--,chromosomes     
constant in   number and                
appearance--,significance of the        
chromosomes--,cleavage   of the         
egg--,chief processes operative in      
building the body--,the   origin of the 
new germ-cells--,significance of the    
early setting   apart of the            

germ-cells--,individuality of           
chromosomes--,pairs of                  
chromosomes--,reduction of the number of
 chromosomes by one-half--   ,maturation
 of the sperm-cell--,maturation of the  
egg-cell--,parallel   between the two   
processes--,fertilization--,significance
 of the   behavior of the               
chromosomes--,a single set of           
chromosomes   sufficient for the        
production of an organism--,the duality 
of the   body and the singleness of the 
germ--,the cytoplasm in                 
inheritance--,chromosomes possibly      
responsible for the   distinctiveness of
 given characters--,sex and             
heredity--,many   theories of sex       
determination--,the                     
sex-chromosome--,sex-linked   characters
 in man--,in lower forms4    ,,iii      
,,mendelism                             
#fg    ,new discoveries in the field of 
heredity--,mendel--,rediscovery of      
,mendelian principles--,independence of 
inheritable characters--   ,illustration

 in the ,andalusian fowl--,the cause of 
the ratio--   ,verification of the      
hypothesis--,dominant and recessive--   
,segregation in the next                
generation--,illustrated in             
guinea-pigs--   ,terminology--,the      
theory of presence and                  
absence--,additional                    
terminology--,dominance not always      
complete--,modifications of             
dominance--,mendel's own                
work--,dihybrids--,getting new          
combinations   of                       
characters--,segregations of the        
determiners--,four kinds of   gametes in
 each sex--,the #i3c3c3a                
ratio--,phenotype and genotype--   ,the 
question of blended                     
inheritance--,nilsson-,ehle's           
discoveries--   ,such cases easily      
mistaken for true blends--,skin-color in
 man--   ,questionable if real blends   
exist--,the place of the ,mendelian     
factors in the germ-cell--,parallel     
between the behavior of   ,mendelian    

factors and chromosomes--,a single      
chromosome not   restricted to carrying 
a single determiner4    ,,iv ,,mendelism
 ,,in ,,man                             
#ig    ,probably applicable to many     
characters in man--,difficult to get    
correct data--,a generalized            
presence-absence formula--,indications  
of incomplete dominance--,why after the 
first generation only half   the        
children may show the dominant          
character--,eye-color in man--          
,hair-color--,hair-shape--,irregularitie
s--,digital malformations--,eye         
defects--,other defects inherited as    
dominants--,recessive   conditions more 
difficult to deal                       
with--,albinism--,other recessive       
conditions in man--,breeding out        
defects--,other inheritable   conditions
 in man4    ,v ,,are ,,modifications    
,,acquired ,,directly ,,by ,,the ,,body 
,,inherited8         #aba    ,which new 
characters are inherited8--,examples of 
somatic   modifications--,use and       

disuse--,the problem stated--,special   
conditions in mammals--,three           
fundamental questions--,external        
influences may directly affect the      
germ-cells--,such effects   improbable  
in warm-blooded animals--,poisons may   
affect the   germ-plasm--,how can       
somatic modifications be registered in  
germ-cells8--,persistence of ,mendelian 
factors argues against such   a mode of 
inheritance--,experiments on            
insects--,on plants--,on                
vertebrates--,epilepsy in               
guinea-pigs--,effects of mutilations not
   inherited--,transplantation of       
gonads--,effects of body on germ1       
general not specific--,certain          
characters inexplicable as inherited    
somatic acquirements--,neuter           
insects--,origin of new characters in   
germinal variation--,sexual reproduction
 in relation to new   characters--,many 
features of an organism characterized by
   utility--,germinal variation a       
simpler and more inclusive              

explanation--,analysis of               
cases--,effects of                      
training--,instincts--                  
,disease--,reappearance not necessarily 
inheritance--,prenatal   infection not  
inheritance--,inheritance of a          
predisposition not   inheritance of a   
disease--,tuberculosis--,two individuals
 of   tubercular stock should not       
marry--,special susceptibility less of  
a factor in many                        
diseases--,deaf-mutism--,gout--,nervous 
and mental   diseases--,other disorders 
which have hereditary aspects--,induced 
immunity not inherited--,social1 ethical
 and educational   significance of      
non-inheritance of somatic              
modifications--,no cause   for          
discouragement--,improved environment   
will help conserve   superior strains   
when they do appear4    ,,vi ,,prenatal 
,,influences                            
#aea    ,all that a child possesses at  
birth not necessarily hereditary--      
,the myth of maternal                   

impressions--,injurious prenatal        
influences--   ,lead poisoning--,the    
expectant mother should have rest--,too 
short   intervals between               
children--,expectant mothers neglected--
   ,alcoholism--,unreliability of most  
data--,alcohol a germinal and   fetal   
poison--,various views of specialists on
 the effects of   alcoholism on         
progeny--,the affinity of alcohol for   
germinal   tissue--,innate degeneracy   
versus the effects of alcohol--         
,experimental alcoholism in lower       
animals--,further remarks on the        
situation in man--,much inebriety in man
 due to defective nervous               
constitution--,factors to be reckoned   
with in the study of                    
alcoholism--,venereal diseases--,the    
seriousness of the situation--          
,infantile blindness--,syphilis--,some  
of the effects--,a blood test--   ,many 
syphilitics married--,why permit        
existing conditions to                  
continue8--,ante-nuptial medical        

inspection--,the perils of venereal     
disease must be prevented at any        
cost--,bad environment can wreck   good 
germ-plasm4    ,,vii ,,responsibility   
,,for ,,conduct                         
#aie    ,all mental process accompanied 
by neural process--,gradations in       
nervous response from lower organisms to
 man--,behavior of many   animals often 
an automatic adjustment to simple       
external agents--   ,tropisms--,certain 
apparently complex volitions probably   
only   tropisms--,complicating          
factors--,many tropic responses         
apparently   purposeful--,tropisms grade
 into reflex actions and instincts--    
,adjustability of instincts opens the   
way for intelligent                     
behavior--,modification of habits       
possible in lower animals--,some   lower
 vertebrates profit by                  
experience--,rational behavior--        
,conceptual thought probably an         
outgrowth of simpler psychic            
states--,the capacity for alternative   

action in higher animals--,the          
elemental units of the nervous system   
are the same in lower and   higher      
animals--,neuron theory--,establishment 
of pathways through   the nervous       
system--,characteristic arrangements of 
nerve cells   subject to                
inheritance--,different parts of the    
cortex yield   different                
reactions--,skill acquired in one branch
 of learning   probably not transferred 
to another branch--,preponderance of    
cortex in highest animals--,special     
fiber tracts in the spinal cord   of man
 and higher apes--,great complexity in  
associations and more   neurons in the  
brain of man--,the nervous system in the
 main   already staged at the time of   
birth--,many pathways of conduction     
not yet established--,the extent of the 
modifiable zone unknown--   ,various    
possibilities of reaction in the        
child--,probable origin of   altruistic 
human conduct--,training in motive      
necessary--,actual   practise in        

carrying out projects                   
important--,interest and   difficulty   
both essential--,the realization of     
certain   possibilities of the germ     
rather than others is subject to        
control--,we must afford the opportunity
 and provide the proper   stimuli for   
the development of good traits--,moral  
responsibility4    ,,viii ,,mental ,,and
 ,,nervous ,,defects                    
#bbh    ,prevalence of                  
insanity--,imperfect adjustments of the 
brain   mechanism inheritable--,many    
mental defectives married--             
,disproportionate increase in number of 
mental defectives--,protests   voiced by
 alienists--,examples of hereditary     
feeble-mindedness--   ,difficult to     
secure accurate data--,feeble-mindedness
 and insanity   not the same--,many     
types of insanity--,not all insanities  
of the   same eugenical                 
significance--,difficulties of getting  
genealogies   of specific forms of      
insanity--,certain forms of insanity    

seem to   behave as ,mendelian          
recessives--,grades of                  
feeble-mindedness--,about   two-thirds  
of feeble-mindedness inherited--,some   
results of   non-restraint of the       
feeble-minded--,not all cases of mental 
deficiency                              
inherited--,epileptics--,feeble-mindedne
ss probably a   recessive--,many        
apparently normal people are carriers of
   neuropathic defects--,tests for      
mental deficiency--,the backward   child
 in school--,the exceptionally able     
child--,cost of caring for   our        
mentally disordered--,importance of     
rigid segregation of the                
feeble-minded--,importance of early     
diagnosis of insanity--,opinion   of    
competent psychiatrists essential--,some
 insanities not                         
hereditary--,importance of heredity in  
insanity not appreciated4    ,,ix       
,,crime ,,and ,,delinquency             
#bfc    ,heredity and environment in    
this field--,feeble-mindedness often a  

factor--,many delinquent girls mentally 
deficient--,institutional   figures     
misleading--,many prisoners mentally    
subnormal--,inhibitions   necessary to  
social welfare--,the high-grade moron a 
difficult   problem--,degenerate        
strains--,intensification of defects by 
inbreeding--,vicious surroundings not a 
sufficient explanation in   degenerate  
stocks--,not all delinquents            
defectives--,no special   inheritable   
crime-factor--,what is a born           
criminal8--,epileptic   criminal        
especially dangerous--,the mental       
disorders most   frequently associated  
with crime--,bearing of immigration on  
crime   and delinquency--,sexual        
vice--,school instruction in            
sex-hygiene--   ,mere knowledge not the 
crux of the sex problem--,early training
 in   self-restraint an important       
preventive of crime and delinquency--   
,multiplication of delinquent defectives
 must be prevented4    ,x ,,race        
,,betterment ,,through ,,heredity       

#bhi    ,questionable charity--,past    
protests--,an increasing flood of       
defectives--,natural elimination of     
defectives done away with--,why   not   
prevent our social maladies8--,eugenics 
defined--,improved   environment alone  
will not cure racial                    
degeneracy--,heredity and               
environment--,inter-racial              
marriage--,human conservation--,kindness
   in the long run--,the problem has two
 phases--,constructive eugenics   must  
be based on education--,inferior        
increasing more rapidly than   superior 
stocks--,an unselected population may   
contain much   valuable material--,the  
lack of criteria for judging            
fitness--,the   college                 
graduate--,native ability1 independence 
and energy   eugenically                
desirable--,four children to each       
marriage required to   maintain a       
stock--,factors contributing to low     
birth-rate in   desirable strains--,the 
educated public must be made to realize 

the   situation--,utilization of family 
pride as a basis for constructive       
eugenics--,the tendency for like to     
marry like--,public opinion as   an     
incentive to action--,choosing a        
marriage mate means choosing a          
parent--,the best eugenic marriage also 
a love match--,the   elimination of the 
grossly unfit urgent--,suggested        
remedies--   ,inefficacy of laws which  
forbid marriage of mental defectives--  
,systems of mating impracticable in the 
main--,corrective mating   presupposes  
knowledge of eugenics--,segregation has 
many   advocates--,sterilization as a   
eugenic measure--,to what conditions    
applicable--,in insanity--,in           
feeble-mindedness--,in cases of         
epilepsy--,sterilization laws--,social  
dangers in vasectomy--,our   present    
knowledge insufficient--,sterilization  
laws on trial--,an   educated public    
sentiment the most valuable eugenic     
agent--,the   question of personal      
liberty--,education of women in eugenics

   needed--,much yet to be done--,a     
working program--,which shall it be8    
,,glossary                              
#cdc    ,,references ,,for ,,further    
,,reading ,,and ,,study                 
#cee    ,,index                         
#cfa     ,,being ,,well-,,born          
,,chapter ,i  ,,heredity   ,it is a     
commonplace fact that offspring tend to 
resemble their parents4 ,so commonplace1
 indeed1 that few stop to wonder at it4 
,no one misunderstands us when we say   
that such and such a young man is a chip
 off the old block1 for that is simply  
an emphatic way of stating that he      
resembles one or the other of his       
parents4 ,the same is true of such      
familiar expressions as what's bred in  
the bone1 blood will tell1 and kindred  
catch phrases4 ,all are but recognitions
 of the same common fact that offspring 
exhibit various characteristics similar 
to those of their progenitors4  ,blood  
,heritage4--,to this phenomenon of      
resemblance in successive generations   

based on ancestry the term heredity is  
applied4 ,in man1 for instance1 there is
 a marked tendency toward the           
reappearance in offspring of structures1
 habits1 features1 and even personal    
mannerisms1 minute physical defects1 and
 intimate mental peculiarities like     
those possessed by their parents or more
 remote forebears4 ,these personal      
characteristics based on descent from a 
common source are what we may call the  
blood heritage of the child to          
discriminate it from a wholly different 
kind of inheritance1 namely1 the passing
 on from one generation to the next of  
such material things as personal        
property or real estate4  ,kind         
,determined by ,origin4--,it is         
inheritance in the sense of community of
 origin that determines whether a given 
living creature shall be man1 beast1    
bird1 fish1 or what not4 ,a given       
individual is human because his         
ancestors were human4 ,in addition to   
this stock supply of human qualities he 

has certain well-marked features which  
we recognize as characteristics of race4
 ,that is1 if he is of ,anglo-,saxon or 
,italian or ,mongolian parentage1       
naturally his various qualities will be 
,anglo-,saxon1 ,italian1 or ,mongolian4 
,still further1 he has many distinctive 
features of mind and body that we       
recognize as family traits and lastly1  
his personal characteristics such as    
designate him to us as ,tom1 ,harry1 or 
,james must be added4 ,the latter would 
include such minutiae as size and shape 
of ears1 nose or hands2 complexion2     
perhaps even certain defects2 voice2    
color of eyes2 and a thousand other     
particulars4 ,although we designate     
these manifold items as individual1 they
 are in reality largely more or less    
duplicates of similar features that     
occur in one or the other of his        
progenitors1 features which he would not
 have in their existing form but for the
 hereditary relation between him and    
them4    ,o ,damsel ,dorothy6 ,dorothy  

,q46   ,strange is the gift that ,i owe 
to you2      99       99       99       
99       99    ,what if a hundred years 
ago   ,those close-shut lips had        
answered ',no1'      99       99        
99       99       99    ,should ,i be   
,i1 or would it be   ,one-tenth another1
 to nine-tenths me8    ,soft is the     
breath of a maiden's yes2   ,not the    
light gossamer stirs with less2   ,but  
never a cable that holds so fast        
,through all the battles of wave and    
blast1   ,and never an echo of speech or
 song   ,that lives in the babbling air 
so long6   ,there were tones in the     
voice that whispered then   ,you may    
hear to-day in a hundred men4  ,when    
life steps into the world of matter     
there comes with it a sort of physical  
immortality1 so to speak2 not of the    
individual1 it is true1 but of the race4
 ,but the important thing to note is    
that the race is made up1 not of a      
succession of wholly unrelated forms1   
but a continuation of the same kind of  

living organisms1 and this sameness is  
due to the actual physical descent of   
each new individual from a predecessor4 
,in other words1 any living organism is 
the kind of organism it is in virtue of 
its hereditary relation to its          
ancestors4  ,it is part of the          
biologist's task to seek a material     
basis1 a continuity of actual substance1
 for this continuity of life and form   
between an organism and its offspring4  
,moreover1 inasmuch as the offspring is 
never precisely similar to its          
progenitors he must determine also what 
qualities are susceptible of            
transmission and in what measure4       
,ancestry a ,network4--,from the fact   
that each child has all of the ancestors
 of its mother as well as of its father1
 arises the great complications which   
are met with in determining the lineage 
of an individual4 ,a person has two     
parents1 four grandparents1 eight great 
grandparents1 and thus following out    
pedigree it is plain to be seen that    

through this process of doubling in each
 generation1 in the course of a few     
centuries one's ancestry is apparently  
enormous4 ,by actual computation1       
according to ,professor ,d4 ,s4 ,jordan1
 if we count thirty generations back to 
the ,norman invasion of ,england in     
#ajff1 at this ratio of duplication1 the
 child of to-day would have had at that 
time an ancestry of #h1eih1jid1eib      
persons4 ,but we know that the total    
number of inhabitants in ,england during
 the time of ,william the ,conqueror was
 but a small fraction of this enormous  
aggregate4 ,this means that we shall    
have to modify our inference that a     
child has twice as many ancestors as its
 parents2 a condition which at first    
sight seems evident1 but which is not   
literally true4 ,the fact is that the   
parents of the child1 in all            
probability1 have many ancestors in     
common--a state of affairs which is     
brought about through the intermarriage 
of relatives1 and this is especially    

frequent among remoter descendants of   
common progenitors4 ,time after time in 
genealogy strains of blood have crossed 
and recrossed until it is not improbable
 that a man of to-day who is of ,english
 origin has the blood in his veins from 
every inhabitant of ,england who lived  
during the time of ,william the         
,conqueror and left fruitful            
descendants4 ,instead of conceiving of  
ancestry as an ever branching and       
widening tree-like system as it recedes 
into the past1 it is more accurate1     
therefore1 to regard it in the light of 
an elaborate meshwork4 ,the family tree 
in reality becomes the family net4      
,ancestry in ,royalty4--,the pedigrees  
of royal families have proved to be of  
much importance in the study of human   
inheritance1 not that royal traits are  
any more heritable than any other1 but  
simply because the records have been    
carefully kept so that they are the most
 comprehensive and easily followed      
pedigrees available4 ,the netlike weave 

of ancestry is particularly well        
exemplified in some of these families   
because of much close intermarriage4    
,their heritage typifies on an          
intensified scale the heritage of the   
mass of mankind4 ,for example1 if we go 
six generations back in the ancestry of 
,frederick the ,great instead of the    
expected sixty-four individual ancestors
 we find only forty2 or in a still more 
closely woven stock1 in the ,spanish    
royal line of ,don ,carlos we find in   
six generations instead of sixty-four   
individual ancestors1 only twenty-eight4
 ,while the present ,german emperor     
might have had four thousand ninety-six 
ancestors in the twelfth generation     
back1 it is estimated that owing to     
intermarriage he probably had only five 
hundred thirty-three4  ,offspring       
,derived from ,one ,parent ,only4--,so  
far in our reckoning of heredity we have
 counted elements from both father and  
mother1 and the complications which     
arise from such a double ancestry are   

manifestly very perplexing ones4 ,if we 
could do away with the elements of sex  
and find offspring that are derived from
 one parent only1 it would seemingly    
simplify our problem very much for we   
should thus have a direct line of       
descent1 free from intermingling4 ,this1
 in fact1 occurs to a greater or less   
extent among lower animals in a number  
of instances4 ,there may be only female 
forms for a number of generations and   
the eggs which they produce develop     
directly into new individuals4          
,moreover1 many of the simpler organisms
 have the power of dividing their bodies
 into two and thus giving rise to two   
new forms1 each of which resembles the  
parent4 ,this shows plainly that we may 
have inheritance without the appearance 
of any male ancestor at all1 hence sex  
is not always a necessary factor in     
reproduction or heredity4 ,the          
development of eggs asexually1 that is1 
without uniting first with a male       
cognate1 is termed parthenogenesis4 ,the

 ordinary plant louse or aphid which is 
frequently found upon geraniums is a    
familiar example of an animal which     
reproduces largely in this way4 ,during 
the summer only the females exist and   
they are so astonishingly fertile that  
one such aphid and her progeny1         
supposing none dies1 will produce one   
hundred million in the course of five   
generations4 ,in the last broods of the 
fall1 males and females appear and      
fertile eggs are produced which lie     
dormant through the winter to start the 
cycle of the next year4 ,again1 the eggs
 of some kinds of animals which normally
 have to unite with a male germ before  
they develop1 can be made to develop by 
merely treating them with chemical      
solutions4 ,the difference between an   
offspring derived in such a manner1 and 
one which has developed from an egg     
fertilized by the male is that it is    
made up of characteristics from only one
 source1 the maternal4  ,dual ,ancestry 
an ,aid in ,studying                    

,heredity4--,although we have the       
factors of heredity in a more simplified
 form in the case of asexual            
transmission1 as a matter of fact most  
of our insight into the problems of     
heredity has been attained from a study 
of sexually reproducing forms1 because  
the very existence of two sets of more  
or less parallel features offers a kind 
of checking up system by which we can   
follow a given characteristic4          
,reversion4--,occasionally1 however1    
plants and animals do not develop the   
complete individuality we might expect1 
but stop short at or re-attain some     
ancestral stage along the line of       
descent1 and thus come to resemble some 
progenitor perhaps many generations back
 of their own time4 ,thus it is well    
known that as regards one or more       
characteristics a child may resemble a  
grandparent or often some remote        
ancestor much more closely than it does 
its immediate parent4 ,the reappearance 
of such ancestral traits the student of 

heredity designates as ,reversion or    
,atavism4  ,reversion may occur         
apparently in any class of plants or    
animals4 ,it is especially pronounced   
among domesticated forms1 which through 
man's selection have been produced under
 more or less artificial conditions4    
,for example1 among fancy breeds of     
pigeons1 there may be an occasional     
return to the old slaty blue color of   
the ancestral rock-pigeon1 with two dark
 cross-bars on the wings1 from which all
 modern breeds have been derived4 ,this 
is almost sure to happen if the fancy   
varieties are inter-crossed for two or  
three generations4 ,another example of  
reversion frequently cited is the       
occasional reappearance in domestic     
poultry of the reddish or brownish color
 pattern of the ancestral jungle-fowl to
 which1 among modern forms1 the ,indian 
game seems most nearly related in color4
 ,still another example is the          
cross-bars or stripes occasionally to be
 seen on the forelegs of colts1         

particularly mules1 reminiscent of the  
extinct wild progenitors which were     
supposedly striped4  ,fig4 #a1 p4 #i1 is
 a picture of a hybrid between the      
common fowl and the guinea-fowl4 ,the   
chevron-like markings on certain        
feathers show a reversion to a type of  
color pattern that is prevalent among   
both the primitive pheasants 7the       
domestic chicken is a pheasant7 and the 
primitive guinea-fowls4 ,although the   
common spotted guinea-fowl may be       
crossed with a black chicken which shows
 no trace of barring1 nevertheless the  
hybrid offspring are likely to bear a   
chevron-like pattern such as that shown 
in the picture4  ,there has been much   
quibbling over the relative meanings of 
reversion and atavism4 ,the general     
idea1 whichever term we use1 is that    
there is a throwing back in a noticeable
 degree through inheritance to some     
ancestral condition beyond the immediate
 parents4 ,a few recent authors have    
taken the term atavism in a restricted  

sense and use it to signify specifically
 those not uncommon cases in which a    
particular character of an offspring    
resembles the corresponding character of
 a grandparent instead of a parent4     
,such1 for example1 as the blue         
eye-color of a child with brown-eyed    
parents1 each of whom in turn has had a 
blue-eyed parent4 ,the tendency of other
 authors is to abandon the term entirely
 because of the diversity of meaning    
that has been attached to it in the     
past4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a        
,hybrid between the guinea-fowl and the 
common fowl1 showing in many feathers   
reversion to a primitive chevron-like   
barring4   ,certain classes of so-called
 reversions1 such as the case of the    
eye-color just cited1 are readily       
explicable on ,mendelian principles as  
we shall see in a later chapter1 but    
probably not all kinds of phenomena     
described as reversion can be so        
explained4 ,for example1 some seem to be
 cases of suppressed development4 ,the  

word reversion1 indeed1 must be looked  
on as a convenient descriptive term     
rather than as the name of a single     
specific condition4  ,telegony4--,there 
is yet a wide-spread belief in the      
supposed influence of an earlier sire on
 offspring born by the same mother to a 
later and different sire4 ,this alleged 
phenomenon is termed telegony4 ,for     
example1 many dog-breeders assert that  
if a thoroughbred bitch has ever had    
pups by a mongrel father1 her later     
offspring1 although sired by a          
thoroughbred1 will show taints of the   
former mongrel mating4 ,in such cases   
the female is believed to be ruined for 
breeding purposes4 ,other supposed      
instances of such influences have been  
cited among horses1 cattle1 sheep1 pigs1
 cats1 birds1 pets of various kinds and 
even men4 ,the historic case most       
frequently quoted is that of ,lord      
,morton's mare which bore a hybrid colt 
when bred to a quagga1 a striped        
zebra-like animal now extinct4 ,in later

 years the same mare bore two colts1    
sired by a black ,arabian horse4 ,both  
colts showed stripes on the neck and    
other parts of the body1 particularly on
 the legs4 ,it was inferred that this   
striping was a sort of after effect of  
the earlier breeding with the quagga4   
,in recent times1 however1 ,professor   
,ewart has repeated the experiment a    
number of times with different mares    
using a ,burchell zebra as the test     
sire4 ,although his experiments have    
been devised so as to conduce in every  
way possible to telegony his results    
have been negative4 ,moreover1 it has   
been pointed out that the stripes on the
 legs of the two foals alleged to show  
telegony could not have been derived    
from the quagga sire for1 unlike zebras1
 quaggas did not have their legs        
striped4 ,furthermore it is known that  
the occurrence of dark brown stripes on 
the neck1 withers and legs of ordinary  
colts is not uncommon1 some cases of    
which have exhibited more zebra-like    

markings than those of the colts from   
,lord ,morton's mare4 ,it seems much    
more probable1 therefore1 that the      
alleged instances are merely cases of   
ordinary reversion to the striped       
ancestral color pattern which probably  
characterized the wild progenitors of   
the domesticated horse4  ,various       
experiments on guinea-pigs1 horses1 mice
 and other forms1 especially devised to 
test out this alleged after-influence of
 an earlier sire1 have all proved       
negative and the general belief of the  
biologist to-day is that telegony is a  
myth4  ,prenatal ,influences ,apart from
 ,heredity4--,in discussing the problems
 of heredity it is necessary to consider
 also the possibilities of external     
influences apart from lineage which may 
affect offspring through either parent4 
,although modifications derived directly
 by the parent1 and prenatal influences 
in general1 are of extremely doubtful   
value as of permanent inheritable       
significance1 nevertheless they must be 

reckoned with in any inventory of a     
child's endowment at birth4 ,impaired   
vitality on the part of the mother1 bad 
nutrition and physical vicissitudes of  
various kinds all enter as factors in   
the birthright of the child1 who1       
moreover1 may bear in its veins         
slumbering poisons from some progenitor 
who has handed on blood taints not      
properly attributable to heredity4 ,of  
such importance is this kind of         
influence to the welfare of the         
immediate child that it will be         
necessary to discuss it in considerable 
detail in a later chapter4  ,parent     
,body and ,germ ,not                    
,identical4--,inasmuch as each new      
individual appears to arise from        
material derived from its parent1 taking
 the evidence at its face value one     
might suppose that any peculiarity of   
organization called forth in the living 
substance of the parent would naturally 
be repeated in the offspring1 but a     
closer study of the developing organism 

from its first inception to maturity    
shows this to be probably a wrong       
conclusion4 ,the parent-body and the    
reproductive substance contained in that
 body are by no means identical4 ,it    
becomes an important question to decide1
 in fact1 how much effect1 if any1      
either permanent or temporary1 the      
parent-body really has on the germ4  ,a 
given fertile germ 7,fig4 #b1 p4 #ac7   
gives rise by a succession of divisions 
to a body which we call the individual1 
but such a germ also gives rise to a    
series of new germ-cells which reside in
 that individual1 and it is these       
germ-cells1 not something derived from  
the body1 that pass on the determiners  
of distinguishing features or qualities 
from generation to generation4 ,it is   
only by grasping the significance of    
this fact that we can understand how in 
certain cases a totally different set of
 characters may appear in an offspring  
than those manifested in either parent4 
,an ,hereditary ,character              

,defined4--,by a character1 in          
discussions in heredity1 is meant simply
 a trait1 feature or other              
characteristic of an organism4 ,where we
 can pick out a single definable        
characteristic which acts as a unit in  
heredity1 for greater accuracy we term  
it a unit-character4 ,many traits are   
known to be inherited on a unit basis or
 are capable of being analyzed into     
factors which are so inherited4 ,these  
unit-characters are in large measure    
inherited independently of one another  
apparently1 although cases of characters
 inherited as a unit along with other   
characters are known4  ,hereditary      
,mingling a ,mosaic ,rather ,than a     
,blend4--,the independence of           
unit-characters in inheritance leads us 
to the important conclusion that the    
mingling of two lines of ancestry into a
 new individual is in no sense bringing 
them into the melting pot1 as it has    
been picturesquely expressed1 but it is 
rather to be regarded as the mingling of

 two mosaics1 each particle of which    
retains its own individuality1 and      
which1 even if overshadowed in a given  
generation1 may nevertheless manifest   
its qualities undimmed in later         
generations when conditions favorable to
 its expression transpire4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b  ,diagram      
illustrating germinal continuity4       
,through a series of divisions a        
germ-cell gives rise to a body or a soma
 and to new germ-cells4 ,the latter1 not
 the body1 give rise in turn to the next
 generation4   ,determiners of          
,characters1 ,not ,characters           
,themselves1 ,transmitted4--,the fact   
should be thoroughly understood that the
 actual thing which is transmitted by   
means of the germ in inheritance is not 
the character itself1 but something     
which will determine the character in   
the offspring4 ,it is important to      
remember this1 for often these          
determiners1 as they are called1 may lie
 unexpressed for one or more generations

 and may become manifest only in later  
descendants4 ,the truth of the matter   
is1 the child does not inherit its      
characters from corresponding characters
 in the parent-body1 but parent and     
child are alike because they are both   
products of the same line of germ-plasm1
 both are chips from the same old block4
   ,,methods ,,of ,,studying ,,heredity 
,before entering into details it will be
 well to get some idea of the methods   
which are commonly employed in arriving 
at conclusions in the field of heredity4
 ,some of these are extremely complex   
and all that we can do in an elementary 
presentation is to get a glimpse of the 
procedures4  ,our ,knowledge of         
,heredity ,derived ,along ,three        
,lines4--,our modern conceptions of     
heredity have been derived mainly from  
three distinct lines of investigation3  
,first1 from the study of embryology1 in
 which the biologist concerns himself   
with the genesis of the various parts of
 the individual1 and the mechanism of   

the germs which convey the actual       
materials from which these parts spring2
 second1 through experimental breeding  
of plants and animals to compare        
particular traits or features in        
successive generations2 and third1      
through the statistical treatment of    
observations or measurements of a large 
number of parents and their offspring   
with reference to a given characteristic
 in order to determine the average      
extent of resemblance between parents   
and children in that particular respect4
  ,the ,method of ,experimental         
,breeding4--,a tremendous impetus was   
given to the method of experimental     
breeding when it was realized that we   
can itemize many of the parts or traits 
of an organism into entities which are  
inherited independently one of another4 
,such traits1 or as we have already     
termed them1 unit-characters1 may be not
 only independently heritable but       
independently variable as well4 ,the    
experimental method seeks to isolate and

 trace through successive generations   
the separate factors which determine the
 individual unit-characters of the      
organism4 ,in this attempt              
cross-breeding is resorted to4 ,forms   
which differ in one or more respects are
 mated and the progeny studied4 ,next   
these offspring are mated with others of
 their own kind or mated back with the  
respective parent types4 ,in this way   
the behavior of a particular character  
may often be followed and the germinal  
constitutions of the individuals        
concerned can be formulated with        
reference to it4 ,inasmuch as we shall  
give much consideration to this method  
in the chapter on ,mendelism we need not
 consider it further here4  ,the        
,statistical ,method4--,the statistical 
method seeks to obtain large bodies of  
facts and to deal with evidence as it   
appears through mathematical analysis of
 these facts4 ,the attempt of its       
followers is to treat quantitatively all
 biological processes with which it is  

concerned4 ,historically ,sir ,francis  
,galton was the first to make any       
considerable application of statistical 
methods to the problems of heredity and 
variation4 ,in his attempts to determine
 the extent of resemblance between      
relatives of different degree as regards
 bodily1 mental and temperamental       
traits1 he devised new methods of       
statistical analysis which constitute   
the basis of modern statistical biology1
 or biometry as it is termed by its     
votaries4 ,professor ,karl ,pearson in  
particular has extended and perfected   
the mathematical methods of this field  
and stands to-day as perhaps its most   
representative exponent4 ,the system is 
in the main based on the calculus of    
probability4 ,the methods often are     
highly specialized1 requiring the use of
 higher mathematics1 and are therefore  
only at the command of specially trained
 workers4  ,just as insurance companies 
can tell us the probable length of human
 life in a given social group1 since    

although uncertain in any particular    
case1 it is reducible in mass to a      
predictable constant1 so the            
biometrician with even greater precision
 because of his improved methods can    
often1 when a large number of cases are 
concerned1 give us the intensity of     
ancestral influence with reference to   
particular characters4  ,for example1 it
 is clear that by measuring a large     
number of adult human beings one can    
compute the average height or determine 
the height which will fit the greatest  
number4 ,there will be some individuals 
below and some above it1 but the greater
 the divergence from this standard      
height the fewer will be the individuals
 concerned4  ,galton compared the       
heights of #bjd normal ,english parents 
and their #ibh adult offspring4 ,in     
order to equalize the measurements of   
men and women he found he had to        
multiply each female height by #a4jh4   
,then1 to take both parents into account
 when comparing height of parents to    

that of children he added the height of 
the father to the proportionately       
augmented height of the mother and      
divided by two1 thus securing the height
 of what he termed the mid-parent4 ,he  
found that the mid-parental heights of  
his subjects ranged from #fd4e to #gb4e 
inches1 and that the general mode was   
about #fh4e inches4 ,it should be       
mentioned that the mode1 in a given     
population1 represents the group        
containing the largest number of        
individuals of one kind2 it may or may  
not coincide with the average4 ,the     
children of all mid-parents having a    
given height were measured next and     
tabulated with reference to these       
mid-parents4 ,the results of ,galton's  
measurements may be expressed simply as 
follows3                                
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,,mode                                  
----------------------------------------
-----------------------   ,height of    

mid-parent                              
in inches                               
#fd4efe4eff4efg4efh4efi4egj4ega4egb4e   
,average height of                      
offspring                               
#fe4hff4gfg4bfg4ffh4cfh4ifi4efi4igb4b   
----------------------------------------
-------------------------  ,the ,law of 
,regression4--,it is plain from this    
table that the offspring of short       
mid-parents tend to be under average or 
modal height though not so far below as 
their parents4 ,likewise children of    
tall parents tend to be tall but less   
tall than their parents4 ,this fact     
illustrates what is known as ,galton's  
law of regression2 namely1 that if      
parents in a given population diverge a 
certain amount from the mode of the     
population as a whole1 their children1  
while tending to resemble them1 will    
diverge less from this mode4 ,it is     
clear that the extent of regression is  
an inverse measure of the intensity of  
inheritance from the immediate parents2 

if the deviation of the offspring from  
the general mode were nearly as great as
 that of their parents then the         
intensity of the inheritance must be    
high2 if but slight--that is1 if the    
offspring regressed nearly to the       
mode--then the intensity of the         
inheritance must be ranked as low4 ,in  
the example in question it must be      
ranked as relatively high4 ,computations
 show that as regards stature the       
fraction two-thirds represents          
approximately the amount of resemblance 
between the two generations where both  
parents are considered4  ,correlations  
,between ,parents and ,offspring4--,in  
modern researches the conception of     
mid-parent and mid-grandparent as       
utilized by ,galton has been largely    
abandoned4 ,it has been found more      
convenient as well as more accurate to  
keep the measurements of the two parents
 separate and to deal with correlations 
between fathers and sons1 fathers and   
daughters1 mothers and sons1 mothers and

 daughters1 brother and brother1 etc4   
,professor ,pearson and his pupils have 
found for a number of characters that   
the correlation between either parent   
and children1 whether sons or daughters1
 is relatively close4 ,the correlation  
between brother and brother1 sister and 
sister1 and brother and sister1 usually 
ranges a little higher than the         
corresponding relation between parents  
and children4  ,the ,biometrical        
,method1 ,statistical1 ,not             
,physiological4--,while biometry may in 
certain cases go far toward showing us  
the average intensity of the inheritance
 of certain characters it can not       
replace the method of the experimental  
breeder which deals with particular     
characters in individual pedigrees4 ,it 
must be borne in mind that the          
biometrical method is a statistical and 
not a physiological one and that it is  
applicable only when large numbers of   
individuals are considered in mass4 ,it 
is most valuable in cases where we are  

unable sharply to define single         
characters1 due probably to the         
concurrent action of a number of        
independent causes1 or where experiment 
is impossible so that we have to depend 
solely on numerical data gained by      
observation4  ,mental ,qualities        
,inheritable4--,galton showed by this   
method long ago1 and ,pearson and his   
school have extended and more clearly   
established the work1 that exceptional  
mental qualities tend to be inherited4  
,while on the average the children of   
exceptional parents tend to be less     
exceptional than their parents1 still   
they are far more likely to be          
exceptional than are the children of    
average parents4 ,by this method        
,professor ,pearson has shown that such 
mental and temperamental attributes as  
ability1 vivacity1 conscientiousness1   
temper1 popularity1 handwriting1 etc41  
are as essentially determined as are    
physical features through the hereditary
 endowment4     ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,the   

,,bearers ,,of ,,the ,,heritage         
,before we can make any detailed        
analysis of the inheritance of          
characters we should have some general  
idea of the physical structure of       
animals and particularly some           
familiarity with the development of an  
individual from the egg1 as well as some
 knowledge of the nature of the         
germ-cells4  ,the ,cell the ,unit of    
,structure4--,if we examine one of the  
higher animals1 as1 for example1 the    
horse1 the dog1 or man1 we find that it 
is made up of a large number of         
constituents1 such as bones1 muscles1   
nervous elements1 blood and other       
tissues4 ,each kind of tissue is        
composed of a number of living units1   
ordinarily microscopic in size1 which   
are known as cells4 ,a careful          
examination of various cells reveals    
that although they may differ greatly in
 size1 shape and minor details1 they all
 alike possess certain well-marked      
characteristics4 ,each when reduced to  

its fundamental form is seen to consist 
of a small mass of living matter termed 
protoplasm in which may usually be      
distinguished two regions--the cell-body
 or cytoplasm1 and the nucleus 7,fig4   
#c1 p4 #ba74 ,any cell1 whether it be of
 the brain1 of the liver1 or from any   
organ of an animal or plant1 has this   
same fundamental structure4 ,in         
addition1 a limiting membrane or wall of
 some kind is generally present1        
although it is not a necessary          
constituent of all cells4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c  ,diagram of a 
cell showing various parts4             
,unicellular ,organisms4--,while such a 
structure as a tree or a horse is       
composed of countless millions of cells1
 on the other hand numerous organisms1  
both plant and animal1 exist which      
consist of only one cell4 ,yet this cell
 is just as characteristically a cell as
 are the components of a complex animal 
or plant4 ,it has the necessary parts1  
the cell body and the nucleus4 ,moreover

 it exhibits all of the fundamental     
activities of life1 though in a         
simplified form1 that a complex higher  
organism does4  ,importance of          
,cell-,theory4--,this discovery that    
every living thing is a single cell or  
an aggregation of cooperating cells and 
cell-products is one of our most        
important biological generalizations    
because it has brought such a wide range
 of phenomena under a common point of   
view4 ,in the first place1 the structure
 of both plants and animals is reducible
 to a common fundamental unit of        
organization4 ,moreover1 both           
physiological and pathological phenomena
 are more readily understood since we   
recognize that the functions of the body
 in health or disease are in large      
measure the result of the activities of 
the individual cells of the functioning 
part4 ,then again1 the problems of      
embryological development have become   
much more sharply defined since it could
 be shown that the egg is a single cell 

and that it is through a series of      
divisions of this cell and subsequent   
changes in the new cells thus formed    
that the new organism is built up4 ,and 
lastly1 the problem of hereditary       
transmission has been rendered more     
definite and approachable by the        
discovery that the male germ is likewise
 a single cell1 that fertilization of   
the egg is therefore the union of two   
cells1 and that in consequence the      
mechanism of inheritance must be stowed 
away somehow in these two cells4        
,heredity in ,unicellular ,forms4--,in  
unicellular animals one can readily see 
how it is possible for an individual    
always to give rise to its own kind4    
,one of the simplest of the             
single-celled animals is the ,ameba     
7,fig4 #d1 p4 #bd74  ,the ameba eats and
 grows as do other animals4 ,sooner or  
later it reaches a size beyond which it 
can not increase advantageously1 yet it 
is continuously taking in new food      
material which stimulates it to further 

growth4 ,here then is a problem4 ,the   
ameba solves this difficulty by dividing
 to form two amebae4 ,such a division is
 illustrated in ,fig4 #d1 p4 #bd4 ,first
 the nucleus divides1 then the          
cell-body4 ,when the two new amebae     
separate completely each renews the     
occupation of eating and growing4 ,but  
what has become of the parent8 ,here1   
where once existed a large adult ameba  
are two young amebae4 ,the parent       
individual as such has disappeared1 yet 
there has been no death1 for we have    
simply two bits of living jelly in place
 of one4 ,they will in turn repeat the  
same process1 so will their offspring1  
and thus1 barring accident1 this growth 
and reproduction1 or overgrowth as we   
may regard it1 may go on forever1 as far
 as we know4 ,here the problem of       
heredity1 or the resemblance of         
offspring to parent1 is not a very      
complicated one4 ,the substance of the  
cell-body and cell-nucleus divides into 
two similar halves1 so that each        

descendant has the substance of the     
parent in its own body1 only it has but 
half as much4 ,it differs from the      
parent1 not in quality or kind1 but in  
size4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d  ,six  
successive stages in the division of    
,ameba polypodia 7after ,schulze74 ,the 
nucleus is seen as a dark spot in the   
interior4   ,reproduction and ,heredity 
in ,colonial ,protozoa4--,there are     
enormous numbers of these single-celled 
animals existing in all parts of the    
world4 ,some are simple like the ameba1 
others are very complex in structure4   
,many1 after division1 move apart and   
pursue wholly independent courses of    
existence4 ,on the other hand we find a 
modification appearing in some which is 
of the greatest importance4 ,after      
division instead of moving apart the two
 cells may remain side by side and      
divide further to form two more1 these  
in turn may divide and thus the process 
goes on until there is formed what is   
known as a colony4 ,each cell of such a 

colony resembles the original ancestral 
cell because each is a part of the      
actual substance of that cell4 ,as in   
the ameba1 the first two cells are the  
ancestral cell done up in two separate  
packets1 and thus finally the full quota
 of cells must be so many separate      
packets of the same kind of material4   
,inasmuch as each is but a repetition of
 its original ancestor1 it can1 and at  
times does1 produce a colony of the same
 kind as that ancestor produced4        
,conjugation4--,at longer or shorter    
intervals1 however1 we find that two    
individuals1 on the disruption of the   
old colony1 instead of continuing the   
routine of establishing new colonies    
through a series of cell divisions1 very
 radically alter their behavior4 ,they  
unite and fuse into a single larger     
individual4 ,this process is called     
conjugation4 ,we find it occurring even 
in some species of ameba4 ,the          
conjugating cells in some colonies are  
alike in size and appearance1 in others 

different4  ,specialization of          
,sex-,cells4--,a beautiful sphere-shaped
 colony known as ,volvox is to be found 
occasionally in roadside pools4         
,depending on the species of ,volvox to 
which it belongs1 the colony may be made
 up of from a few hundred to several    
thousand individuals arranged in a      
single layer about the fluid-filled     
center of the sphere and bound together 
by a clear jelly-like inter-cellular    
substance4 ,each individual cell also   
connects with its neighbors by means of 
thin threads of living matter4 ,one of  
the largest species is ,volvox globator1
 one edge of which is represented in    
,fig4 #e1 p4 #bg4 ,mutual pressure of   
the cells gives them a polygonal shape  
when viewed from the surface4 ,each     
cell1 with a few exceptions to be noted 
immediately1 bears two long flagella1   
whip-like structures which project out  
into the water4 ,the lashing of these   
flagella gives the ball a rotary motion 
and thus it moves about4 ,when the      

colony has reached its adult condition  
and is ready to reproduce itself1       
certain cells without flagella and      
somewhat larger than the ordinary cells 
become more rounded in outline and      
increase considerably in size through   
the acquisition of food materials4 ,they
 are then known as egg cells or ova4    
,each ovum finally enters on a series of
 cell-divisions forming a mass of       
smaller and smaller cells which         
gradually assumes the form of a hollow  
sphere like the parent colony4 ,the     
young colonies thus formed drop into the
 interior of the parent colony to escape
 later to the outside as independent    
swimming organisms when the old colony  
dies and disintegrates4  ,the           
,fertilized ,ovum ,termed a             
,zygote4--,after a number of generations
 of such asexual reproduction1 sexual   
reproduction occurs4 ,the ova arise as  
usual4 ,certain members of the colony1  
on the other hand1 go to the other      
extreme and divide up into bundles of   

from sixty-four to one hundred          
twenty-eight minute slender cells1 each 
provided with flagella for locomotion4  
,when mature these small flagellate     
cells1 now known as spermatozoa1 escape 
into the interior of the parent colony  
and swim about actively4 ,ultimately    
each ovum is penetrated by a            
spermatozoon1 the two cells fuse        
completely and thus form the single     
fertilized ovum or zygote4 ,the         
body-cells of the mother colony finally 
disintegrate4 ,after a period of rest   
each zygote1 through a series of        
cell-divisions1 develops into an adult  
,volvox4 ,in some species of ,volvox a  
still further advance is seen1 in that  
instead of both kinds of gametes being  
produced in the same colony1 the ova may
 be produced by one colony and the      
spermatozoa by another4 ,here1 then1 we 
have the foreshadowings of two sexes as 
separate individuals1 a phenomenon of   
universal occurrence among the highest  
forms of animal life4   ,illustration3  

,,fig4 #e  ,volvox globator 7from       
,hegner after ,oltmanns74 ,half of a    
sexually reproducing colony3 o1 eggs2 s1
 spermatozoa4   ,advancement ,seen in   
the ,volvox ,colony4--,in the ,volvox   
colony there is a distinct advance over 
the conditions met with in various lower
 protozoan colonies in that only certain
 individuals of the colony take part in 
the process of reproduction and these   
individuals are of two distinct types2  
one is a larger1 food-laden cell or egg 
and the other a small1 active1          
fertilizing cell4 ,the motile forms are 
produced in much greater numbers than   
the eggs1 plainly because they have to  
seek the egg and many will doubtless    
perish before this can be accomplished4 
,this disparity in number is only a     
means of insuring fertilization of the  
egg4 ,the remaining cells of the body   
carry on the ordinary activities of the 
colony such as locomotion and nutrition 
and have ceased to take any part in the 
production of new colonies4  ,natural   

,death ,appears ,with the ,establishment
 of a ,body ,distinct from the          
,germ4--,volvox is an organism of       
unusual interest because in it we see a 
prophecy of what is to come4 ,although  
still regarded as a colony of           
single-celled individuals1 it represents
 in reality a transition between the    
whole group of unicellular animals      
termed protozoa and the many celled     
animals characterized by the possession 
of distinct tissues1 known as ,metazoa4 
,moreover1 it shows an interesting stage
 in the establishment of a body or soma 
distinct from special reproductive cells
 which have taken on the function of    
reproducing the colony4 ,in such        
colonial forms natural death is found   
appearing for the first time1 the       
reproductive cells alone continuing to  
perpetuate the species4 ,then again     
,volvox represents an important step in 
the establishment of sex in the animal  
kingdom for in its sexual reproduction  
the conjugating cells known as gametes  

are no longer alike in appearance but   
have become differentiated into definite
 ova and spermatozoa4  ,in ,volvox as in
 the other organisms which we have      
studied we find that all of the cells   
including the germ-cells are produced by
 the repeated division of a parent cell1
 and consequently each must contain the 
characteristic living substance of that 
parent4 ,many other forms might be cited
 to illustrate reproduction in          
single-celled animals1 whether free or  
in colonies1 but all such cases would be
 practically but repetitions or         
modifications of those we have already  
examined4  ,specialization in ,higher   
,organisms4--,if we pass on to the      
higher animals and plants which are not 
single cells or colonies of similar     
cells but organisms made up of many     
different kinds of cells1 we find a     
pronounced extension of the phenomenon  
met with in ,volvox4 ,instead of each   
cell executing independently all of the 
life relations1 certain ones are set    

apart for the performance of certain    
functions to the exclusion of other     
functions which are carried on by other 
members of the aggregation4 ,thus the   
organism as a whole has all the life    
relations carried on1 but1 as it were1  
by specialists4  ,sexual ,phenomena in  
,higher ,forms4--,in the reproduction of
 multicellular organisms1 one sees      
likewise but a continuation of the      
phenomena exhibited in ,volvox4         
,ordinarily1 each new form is produced  
by the successive divisions of a single 
germ-cell which in the vast majority of 
cases has conjugated with another       
germ-cell4 ,in the development of the   
egg1 as the divisions proceed1 groups of
 cells become modified for their        
particular work until the entire        
organism is completed4 ,during          
development certain cells are set apart 
for reproduction of the form just as    
they were in ,volvox4 ,these two kinds  
of reproductive cells in multicellular  
organisms are derived ordinarily from   

two separate individuals known as male  
and female1 though there are some       
exceptions4 ,the main difference between
 these cells which will have to unite to
 form a single fertile germ-cell1 is    
that they have specialized in different 
directions2 one is small and active1 the
 other large1 food-laden and passive4   
,but with two such germ-cells coming as 
they do from two individuals1 one the   
male1 the other the female1 it is       
obvious that the actual living substance
 of which each germ is composed will be 
distinctive of its own parental line and
 that when the germs unite these        
distinctive factors commingle1 hence the
 complications of double ancestry arise4
  ,structure of the ,cell4--,before we  
can understand certain necessary details
 of the physical mechanism of           
inheritance we must inquire a little    
further into the finer structure of the 
cell and into the nature of cell        
division4 ,a typical cell1 as it would  
appear after treatment with various     

stains which bring out the different    
parts more distinctly1 is shown in ,fig4
 #c1 p4 #ba4 ,typical1 not that any     
particular kind of living cell resembles
 it very closely in appearance1 but     
because it shows in a diagrammatic way  
the essential parts of a cell4 ,in the  
diagram1 there are two well-marked      
regions2 a central nucleus and a        
peripheral cell-body or cytoplasm4      
,other structures are pictured but only 
a few of them need command our attention
 at present4 ,at one side of the nucleus
 one observes a small dot or granule    
surrounded by a denser area of          
cytoplasm4 ,this body is called the     
centrosome4 ,the nucleus in this        
instance is bounded by a well-marked    
nuclear membrane and within it are      
several substances4 ,what appear to be  
threads of a faintly staining material1 
the linin1 traverse it in every         
direction and form an apparent network4 
,the parts on which we wish particularly
 to rivet our attention are the densely 

stained substances scattered along or   
embedded in the strands of this network 
in irregular granules and patches4 ,this
 substance is called chromatin4 ,it     
takes its name from the fact that it    
shows great affinity for certain stains 
and becomes intensely colored by them4  
,this deeply colored portion of the     
cell1 the chromatin1 is by most         
biologists regarded as of great         
importance from the standpoint of       
heredity4 ,one or more larger masses of 
chromatin or chromatin-like material1   
known as chromatin nucleoli1 are often  
present1 and not infrequently a small   
spheroidal body1 differing in its       
staining reactions from the             
chromatin-nucleolus and sometimes called
 the true nucleolus1 exists4            
,cell-,division4--,in the simplest type 
of cell-division the nucleus first      
constricts in the middle1 and finally   
the two halves separate4 ,this          
separation is followed by a similar     
constriction and final division of the  

entire cell-body1 which results in the  
production of two new cells4 ,this form 
of cell-division is known as simple or  
direct division4 ,such a simple         
division1 while found in higher animals1
 is less frequent and apparently much   
less significant than another type of   
division which involves profound changes
 and rearrangements of the nuclear      
contents4 ,the latter is termed mitotic 
or indirect cell-division4 ,fig4 #f1 p4 
#cc1 illustrates some of the stages     
which are passed through in indirect    
cell-division4 ,the centrosome which    
lies passively at the side of the       
nucleus in the typical cell 7,fig4 #f;a1
 p4 #cc7 awakens to activity1 divides   
and the two components come to lie at   
the ends of a fibrous spindle4 ,in the  
meantime1 the interior of the nucleus is
 undergoing a transformation4 ,the      
granules and patches of chromatin begin 
to flow together along the nuclear      
network and become more and more crowded
 until they take on the appearance of   

one or more long deeply-stained threads 
wound back and forth in a loose skein in
 the nucleus 7,fig4 #f;b1 p4 #cc74 ,if  
we examine this thread closely1 in some 
forms it may be seen to consist of a    
series of deeply-stained chromatin      
granules packed closely together        
intermingled with the substance of the  
original nuclear network4  ,as the      
preparations for division go on the coil
 in the nucleus breaks up into a number 
of segments which are designated as     
chromosomes 7,fig4 #f;c1 p4 #cc74 ,the  
nuclear membrane disappears4 ,the       
chromosomes and the spindle-fibers      
ultimately become related in such a way 
that the chromosomes come to lie at the 
equator of the spindle as shown in ,fig 
#f;d1 p4 #cc4 ,each chromosome splits   
lengthwise to form two daughter         
chromosomes which then diverge to pass  
to the poles of the spindle 7,figs4 #f;e
 and f1 p4 #cc74 ,thus each end of the  
spindle comes ultimately to be occupied 
by a set of chromosomes4 ,moreover each 

set is a duplicate of the other1 because
 the substance of any individual        
chromosome in one group has its         
counterpart in the other4 ,in fact this 
whole complicated system of indirect    
division is regarded by most biologists 
as a mechanism for bringing about the   
precise halving of the chromosomes4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f  ,diagram      
showing representative stages in mitotic
 or indirect cell-division3 a1 resting  
cell with reticular nucleus and single  
centrosome2 b1 the two new centrosomes  
formed by division of the old one are   
separating and the nucleus is in the    
spireme stage2 c1 the nuclear wall has  
disappeared1 the spireme has broken up  
into six separate chromosomes1 and the  
spindle is forming between the two      
centrosomes2 d1 equatorial plate stage  
in which the chromosomes occupy the     
equator of the spindle2 e1 f1 each      
chromosome splits lengthwise and the    
daughter chromosomes thus formed        
approach their respective poles2 g1     

reconstruction of the new nuclei and    
division of the cell body2 h1           
cell-division completed4   ,the         
chromosomes of each group at the poles  
finally fuse and two new nuclei1 each   
similar to the original one1 are        
constructed 7,figs4 #f;g and h1 p4 #cc74
 ,in the meantime a division of the     
cell-body is in progress which1 when    
completed1 results in the formation of  
two complete new cells4  ,as all living 
matter if given suitable food1 can      
convert it into living matter of its own
 kind1 there is no difficulty in        
conceiving how the new cell or the      
chromatin material finally attains to   
the same bulk that was characteristic of
 the parent cell4 ,in the case of the   
chromatin1 indeed1 it seems that there  
is at times a precocious doubling of the
 ordinary amount of material before the 
actual division occurs4  ,chromosomes   
,constant in ,number and                
,appearance4--,with some minor          
exceptions1 to be noted later1 which    

increase rather than detract from the   
significance of the facts1 the          
chromosomes are always the same in      
number and appearance in all individuals
 of a given species of plants or        
animals4 ,that is1 every species has a  
fixed number which regularly recurs in  
all of its cell-divisions4 ,thus the    
ordinary cells of the rat1 when         
preparing to divide1 each display       
sixteen chromosomes1 the frog or the    
mouse1 twenty-four1 the lily            
twenty-four1 and the maw-worm of the    
horse only four4 ,the chromosomes of    
different kinds of animals or plants may
 differ very much in appearance4 ,in    
some they are spherical1 in others      
rod-like1 filamentous or perhaps of     
other forms4 ,in some organisms the     
chromosomes of the same nucleus may     
differ from one another in size1 shape  
and proportions1 but if such differences
 appear at one division they appear at  
others1 thus showing that in such cases 
the differences are constant from one   

generation to the next4  ,significance  
of the ,chromosomes4--,the question     
naturally arises as to what is the      
significance of the chromosomes4 ,why is
 the accurate adjustment which we have  
noted for their division necessary8 ,the
 very existence of an elaborate         
mechanism so admirably adapted to their 
precise halving1 predisposes one toward 
the belief that the chromosomes have an 
important function which necessitates   
the retention of their individuality and
 their equal division4 ,many biologists 
accept this along with other evidence as
 indicating that in chromatin we have a 
substance which is not the same         
throughout1 that different regions of   
the same chromosome have different      
physiological values4  ,when the cell   
prepares for divisions1 the granules1 as
 we have seen1 arrange themselves       
serially into a definite number of      
strands which we have termed            
chromosomes4 ,judging from all available
 evidence1 the granules are             

self-propagating units2 that is1 they   
can grow and reproduce themselves4 ,so  
that what really happens in mitosis in  
the splitting of the chromosomes is a   
precise halving of the series of        
individual granules of which each       
chromosome is constituted1 or in other  
words each granule has reproduced       
itself4 ,thus each of the two daughter  
cells presumably gets a sample of every 
kind of chromosomal particle1 hence1 the
 two cells are qualitatively alike4 ,to 
use a homely illustration we may picture
 the individual chromosomes to ourselves
 as so many separate trains of freight  
cars1 each car of which is loaded with  
different merchandise4 ,now1 if every   
one of the trains could split along its 
entire length and the resulting halves  
each grow into a train similar to the   
original1 so that instead of one there  
would exist two identical trains1 we    
should have a phenomenon analogous to   
that of a dividing chromosome4          
,cleavage of the ,egg4--,it is through a

 series of such divisions as these that 
the zygote or fertilized egg-cell builds
 up the tissues and organs of the new   
organism4 ,the process is technically   
spoken of as cleavage4 ,cleavage        
generally begins very shortly after     
fertilization4 ,the fertile egg-cell    
divides into two1 the resulting cells   
divide again and thus the process       
continues1 with an ever-increasing      
number of cells4  ,chief ,processes     
,operative in ,building the             
,body4--,although of much interest1     
space will not permit of a discussion in
 detail of the building up of the       
special organs and tissues of the body4 
,it must suffice merely to mention the  
four chief processes which are          
operative4 ,these are1 7#a7 infoldings  
and outfoldings of the various cell     
complexes2 7#b7 multiplication of the   
component cells2 7#c7 special changes   
7histological differentiation7 in groups
 of cells2 and 7#d7 occasionally        
resorption of certain areas of parts4   

,the ,origin of the ,new                
,germ-,cells4--,on account of the       
unusual importance from the standpoint  
of inheritance1 which attaches to the   
germ-cells1 a final word must be said   
about their origin in the embryo4 ,while
 the evidence is conflicting in some    
cases1 in others it has been well       
established that the germ-cells are set 
apart very early from the cells which   
are to differentiate into the ordinary  
body tissues4 ,fig4 #g;,a1 p4 #ch1 shows
 a section through the eight-celled     
stage of ,miastor1 a fly1 in which a    
single large1 primordial germ-cell 7p4  
g4 c47 has already been set apart at one
 end of the developing embryo4 ,the     
nuclei of the rest of the embryo still  
lie in a continuous protoplasmic mass   
which has not yet divided up into       
separate cells4 ,the densely stained    
nuclei at the opposite end of the       
section are the remnants of nurse-cells 
which originally nourished the egg4     
,fig4 #g;,b1 p4 #ch1 is a longitudinal  

section through a later stage in the    
development of ,miastor2 the primitive  
germ-cells 7ooeg7 are plainly visible4  
,still other striking examples might be 
cited4 ,even in vertebrates the         
germ-cells may often be detected at a   
very early period4  ,significance of the
 ,early ,setting ,apart of the          
,germ-,cells4--,it is of great          
importance for the reader to grasp the  
significance of this early setting apart
 of the germ-cells because so much in   
our future discussion hinges on this    
fact4 ,the truth of the statement made  
in a previous chapter that the body of  
an individual and the reproductive      
substance in that body are not identical
 now becomes obvious4 ,for in such cases
 as those just cited one sees the       
germinal substance which is to carry on 
the race set aside at an early period in
 a given individual2 it takes no part in
 the formation of that individual's     
body1 but remains a slumbering mass of  
potentialities which must bide its time 

to awaken into expression in a          
subsequent generation4 ,thus an egg does
 not develop into a body which in turn  
makes new germ-cells1 but body and      
germ-cells are established at the same  
time1 the body harboring and nourishing 
the germ-cells1 but not generating them 
7,fig4 #b1 p4 #ac74 ,the same must be   
true also in many cases where the       
earliest history of the germ-cells can  
not be visibly followed1 because in any 
event1 in all higher animals1 they      
appear long before the embryo is mature 
and must therefore be descendants of the
 original egg-cell and not of the       
functioning tissues of the mature       
individual4 ,this need not necessarily  
mean that the germ-cells have remained  
wholly unmodified or that they continue 
uninfluenced by the conditions which    
prevail in the body1 especially in the  
nutritive blood and lymph stream1       
although as a matter of fact most       
biologists are extremely skeptical as to
 the probability that influences from   

the body beyond such general indefinite 
effects as might result from            
under-nutrition or from poisons carried 
in the blood1 modify the intrinsic      
nature of the germinal substances to any
 measurable extent4   ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #g  ,a--,germ-cell 7p4 g4 c47 set
 apart in the eight-celled stage of     
cleavage in ,miastor americana 7after   
,hegner74 ,the walls of the remaining   
seven somatic cells have not yet formed 
though the resting or the dividing 7,m  
p7 nuclei may be seen2 c ,r1 chromatin  
fragments cast off from the somatic     
cells4  ,b--,section lengthwise of a    
later embryo of ,miastor2 the primordial
 egg-cells 7ooeg#c7 are conspicuous     
7after ,hegner74   ,germinal            
,continuity4--,the germ-cells are       
collectively termed the germinal        
protoplasm and it is obvious that as    
long as any race continues to exist1    
although successive individuals die1    
some germinal protoplasm is handed on   
from generation to generation without   

interruption4 ,this is known as the     
theory of germinal continuity4 ,when the
 organism is ready to reproduce its kind
 the germ-cells awaken to activity1     
usually undergoing a period of          
multiplication to form more germ-cells  
before finally passing through a process
 of what is known at maturation1 which  
makes them ready for fertilization4 ,the
 maturation process proper1 which       
consists typically of two rapidly       
succeeding divisions1 is preceded by a  
marked growth in size of the individual 
cells4  ,individuality of               
,chromosomes4--,before we can understand
 fully the significance of the changes  
which go on during maturation we shall  
have to know more about the conditions  
which prevail among the chromosomes of  
cells4 ,as already noted each kind of   
animal or plant has its own             
characteristic number and types of      
chromosomes when these appear for       
division by mitosis4 ,in many organisms 
the chromosomes are so nearly of one    

size as to make it difficult or         
impossible to be sure of the identity of
 each individual chromosome1 but on the 
other hand1 there are some organisms    
known in which the chromosomes of a     
single nucleus are not of the same size 
and form 7,fig4 #h1 p4 #da74 ,these     
latter cases enable us to determine some
 very significant facts4 ,where such    
differences of shape and proportion     
occur they are constant in each         
succeeding division so that similar     
chromosomes may be identified each time4
 ,moreover1 in all ordinary mitotic     
divisions where the conditions are      
accurately known1 these chromosomes of  
different types are found to be present 
as pairs of similar elements2 that is1  
there are two of each form or size4     
,pairs of ,similar ,chromosomes in the  
,nucleus ,because ,one ,chromosome      
,comes from ,each ,parent4--,when we    
recall that the original fertilized egg 
from which the individual develops is   
really formed by the union of two       

gametes1 ovum and spermatozoon1 and that
 each gamete1 being a true cell1 must   
carry its own set of chromosomes1 the   
significance of the pairs of similar    
chromosomes becomes evident2 one of each
 kind has probably been contributed by  
each gamete4 ,this means that the zygote
 or fertile ovum contains double the    
number of chromosomes possessed by      
either gamete1 and that1 moreover1 each 
tissue-cell of the new individual will  
contain this dual number4 ,for1 as we   
have seen1 the number of chromosomes is1
 with possibly a few exceptions1        
constant in the tissue-cells and early  
germ-cells in successive generations of 
individuals4 ,for this to be true it is 
obvious that in some way the nuclei of  
the conjugating gametes have come to    
contain only half the usual number4     
,technically the tissue-cells are said  
to contain the diploid number of        
chromosomes1 the gametes the reduced or 
haploid number4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#h  ,a--,chromosomes of the mosquito    

7,culex7 after ,stevens4                
,b--,chromosomes of the fruit-fly       
7,drosophila7 after ,metz4  ,both of    
these forms have an unusually small     
number of chromosomes4   ,in ,maturation
 the ,number of ,chromosomes ,is        
,reduced by ,one-,half4--,this halving1 
or as it is known1 reduction in the     
number of chromosomes is the essential  
feature of the process of maturation4   
,it is accomplished by a modification in
 the mitotic division in which instead  
of each chromosome splitting lengthwise1
 as in ordinary mitosis1 the chromosomes
 unite in pairs 7,fig4 #i;b1 p4 #db71 a 
process known technically as synapsis1  
and then apparently one member of each  
pair passes entire into one new daughter
 cell1 the other member going to the    
other daughter cell 7,fig4 #i;c1 p4     
#db74 ,in the pairing preliminary to    
this reduction division1 leaving out of 
account certain special cases to be     
considered later1 according to the best 
evidence at our command the union always

 takes place between two chromosomes    
which match each other in size and      
appearance4 ,since one of these is      
believed to be of maternal and the other
 of paternal origin1 the ensuing        
division separates corresponding mates  
and insures that each gamete gets one of
 each kind of chromosome although it    
appears to be a matter of mere chance   
whether or not a given cell gets the    
paternal or the maternal representative 
of that kind4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i
  ,diagram to illustrate                
spermatogenesis3 a1 showing the diploid 
number of chromosomes 7six is           
arbitrarily chosen7 as they occur in    
divisions of ordinary cells and         
spermatogonia2 b1 the pairing 7synapsis7
 of corresponding mates in the primary  
spermatocyte preparatory to reduction2  
c1 each secondary spermatocyte receives 
three1 the haploid number of            
chromosomes2 d1 division of the         
secondary spermatocytes to form e1      
spermatids1 which transform into f1     

spermatozoa4   ,maturation of the       
,sperm-,cell4--,in the maturation of the
 male gamete the germ-cell1 now known as
 a spermatogonium1 increases greatly in 
size to become a primary spermatocyte4  
,in each primary spermatocyte the       
pairing of the chromosomes already      
alluded to occurs as indicated in ,fig4 
#i;b1 p4 #db1 where six is taken        
arbitrarily to indicate the ordinary or 
diploid number of chromosomes1 and three
 the reduced or haploid number4 ,the    
division of the primary spermatocyte    
gives rise to two secondary             
spermatocytes 7c71 the paired           
chromosomes separating in such a way    
that a member of each pair goes to each 
secondary spermatocyte4 ,each secondary 
spermatocyte 7d7 soon divides again into
 two spermatids 7e71 but in this second 
division the chromosomes each split     
lengthwise as in an ordinary division so
 that there is no further reduction4 ,in
 some forms the reduction division      
occurs in the secondary spermatocytes   

instead of the primary4 ,each spermatid 
transforms into a mature spermatozoon   
7f74 ,the spermatozoa of most animals   
are of linear form1 each with a head1 a 
middle-piece and a long vibratile tail  
which is used for locomotion4 ,the head 
consists for the most part of the       
transformed nucleus and is consequently 
the part which bears the chromosomes4   
,maturation of the ,egg-,cell4--,as     
regards the behavior of the chromosomes 
the maturation of the ovum parallels    
that of the sperm-cell4 ,there are not  
so many primordial germ-cells formed and
 only one out of four of the ultimate   
cells becomes a functional egg4 ,as in  
maturation of the sperm-cell there is a 
growth period in which ooegonia enlarge 
to become primary ooecytes 7,fig4 #aj;b1
 p4 #de74 ,in each primary ooecyte as in
 the primary spermatocyte the           
chromosomes pair and two rapidly        
succeeding divisions follow in one of   
which the typical numerical reduction in
 the chromosomes occurs4 ,a peculiarity 

in the maturation of the ovum is that   
there is a very unequal division of the 
cytoplasm in cell division so that three
 of the resulting cells usually termed  
polar bodies are very small and appear  
like minute buds on the side of the     
fourth or egg-cell proper4  ,the scheme 
of this formation of the polar bodies is
 indicated in ,fig4 #aj1 p4 #de4 ,in    
,fig4 #aj;b the chromosomes are seen    
paired and ready for the first division2
 that is1 for the formation of the first
 polar body4 ,figs4 #aj;c1 d1 p4 #de1   
show the giving off of this body4 ,note 
that while only a small proportion of   
the cytoplasm passes into this tiny     
cell1 its chromatin content is as great 
as that of the ovum4 ,a second polar    
body 7,figs4 #aj;e1 f1 p4 #de7 is formed
 by the egg1 but in this case each      
chromosome splits lengthwise1 as in     
ordinary mitosis1 and there is no       
further numerical reduction4 ,in the    
meantime1 typically1 a third polar body 
is formed by division of the first4     

7,stages e1 f1 g47  ,parallel ,between  
the ,maturation of ,sperm- and          
,egg-,cell4--,this rather complex       
procedure of the germ-cells will be     
rendered more intelligible through a    
careful study of ,figs4 #i and #aj1 pp4 
#db and #de1 and ,fig4 #aa1 p4 #df1     
which indicates the parallel conditions 
in spermotogenesis and ooegenesis4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj  ,diagram to  
illustrate ooegenesis3 a1 showing the   
diploid number of chromosomes 7six is   
arbitrarily chosen7 as they occur in    
ordinary cells and ooegonia2 b1 the     
pairing of corresponding mates          
preparatory to reduction2 c1 d1         
reduction division1 giving off of first 
polar body2 e1 egg preparing to give off
 second polar body1 first polar body    
ready for division2 f1 g1 second polar  
body given off1 division of first polar 
body completed4 ,the egg nucleus1 now   
known as the female pronucleus1 and each
 body contain the reduced or haploid    
number of chromosomes4   ,the view now  

generally held regarding the polar      
bodies is that they are really abortive 
eggs4 ,they later disappear1 taking no  
part in embryo-formation4 ,it can       
readily be seen how such an unequal     
division is advantageous to the large   
cell1 for it receives all of the rich   
store of food material that would be    
distributed among the four cells if all 
were of equal size4 ,this increased     
amount of food is a favorable provision 
for the forthcoming offspring whose     
nourishment is thus more thoroughly     
insured4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa    
,diagram showing the parallel between   
maturation of the sperm-cell and        
maturation of the ovum4   ,on the other 
hand1 all of the sperm-cells develop    
into complete active forms1 which1 as   
aforesaid1 usually become very much     
elongated and develop a motile organ of 
some kind4 ,in such cells an            
accumulation of food to any large extent
 would hinder rather than help them1    
because it would seriously interfere    

with their activity4                    
,fertilization4--,in fertilization      
7,fig4 #ab1 p4 #dh7 the spermatozoon    
penetrates the wall of the ovum and     
after undergoing considerable alteration
 its nucleus fuses with the nucleus of  
the egg4 ,in some forms only the head   
7nucleus7 and middle-piece enter1 the   
tail being cut off by a so-called       
fertilization membrane which forms at   
the surface of the egg and effectually  
blocks the entrance of other            
spermatozoa4 ,thus normally only one    
spermatozoon unites with an egg4 ,in    
some forms while several may enter the  
egg only one becomes functional4 ,as    
soon as the nucleus of the spermatozoon1
 now known as the male pronucleus1      
reaches the interior of the egg1 it     
enlarges and becomes similar in         
appearance to the female pronucleus4 ,it
 swings around in such a way 7,fig4     
#ab;b1 p4 #dh7 that the middle piece1   
now transformed into a centrosome1 lies 
between it and the female pronucleus4   

,the two pronuclei 7c1 d1 e71 each      
containing the reduced number of        
chromosomes1 approach1 the centrosome   
divides1 the nuclear walls disappear1   
the typical division spindle forms1 and 
the chromosomes of paternal and maternal
 origin respectively come to lie side by
 side at the equator of the spindle     
ready for the first division or cleavage
 7f1 g74 ,it will be noted that the     
individual chromosomes do not           
intermingle their substance at this     
time1 but that each apparently retains  
its own individuality4 ,there is        
considerable evidence which indicates   
that throughout life the chromosomes    
contributed by the male parent remain   
distinct from those of the female       
parent4 ,inasmuch as each germ-cell1    
after maturation1 contains only half the
 characteristic number of chromosomes1  
the original number is restored in      
fertilization4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#ab  ,diagram to illustrate             
fertilization2 male1 male pronucleus2   

female1 female pronucleus2 observe that 
the chromosomes of maternal and paternal
 origin respectively do not fuse4       
,significance of the ,behavior of the   
,chromosomes4--,the question confronts  
us as to what is the significance of    
this elaborate system which keeps the   
chromosomes of constant size1 shape and 
number2 which partitions them so        
accurately in ordinary cell-divisions2  
and which provides for a reduction of   
their numbers by half in the germ-cell  
while yet securing that each mature     
gamete gets one of each kind of         
chromosome4 ,most biologists look on    
these facts as indicating that the      
chromosomes are specifically concerned  
in inheritance4  ,in the first place it 
is recognized that as regards the       
definable characters which separate     
individuals of the same species1        
offspring may inherit equally from      
either parent4 ,and it is a very        
significant fact that while the ovum and
 spermatozoon are very unequal in size  

themselves1 the chromosomes of the two  
germ-cells are of the same size and     
number4 ,this parity in chromosomal     
contribution points clearly to the means
 by which an equal number of            
character-determiners might be conveyed 
from each parent4 ,moreover it is mainly
 the nucleus of the sperm-cell in some  
organisms which enters the egg1 hence   
the determiners from the male line must 
exist wholly or largely somewhere in the
 nucleus4 ,and the bulk of the nucleus  
in the spermatozoon consists of the     
chromosomes or their products4  ,a      
,single ,set of ,chromosomes ,derived   
from ,one ,parent ,only ,is ,sufficient 
for the ,production of a ,complete      
,organism4--,that a single or haploid   
set of chromosomes as seen in the       
gametes is sufficient contribution of   
chromatin for the production of a       
complete organism is proved by the fact 
that the unfertilized eggs of various   
animals 7many echinoderms1 worms1       
mollusks1 and even the frog7 may be     

artificially stimulated to development  
without uniting at all with a           
spermatozoon4 ,the resulting individual 
is normal in every respect except that  
instead of the usual diploid number it  
has only the single or haploid number of
 chromosomes4 ,its inheritance of course
 is wholly of maternal origin4 ,the     
converse experiment in echinoderms in   
which a nucleus of male origin 7that is1
 a spermatozoon7 has been introduced    
into an egg from which the original     
nucleus has been removed shows that the 
single set of chromosomes carried by the
 male gamete is also sufficient to      
cooperate with the egg-cytoplasm in     
developing a complete individual4  ,the 
,duality of the ,body and the           
,singleness of the ,germ4--,since every 
maternal chromosome in the ordinary cell
 has an equivalent mate derived from the
 male parent1 it follows therefore1     
supposing the chromosomes do have the   
significance in inheritance attributed  
to them1 that as regards the measurable 

inheritable differences between two     
individuals1 the ordinary organism      
produced through the union of the two   
germ-cells is1 potentially at least1    
dual in nature4 ,on the other hand      
through the process of reduction the    
gametes are provided with only a single 
set of such representatives4 ,this      
duality of the body and singleness of   
the mature germ is one of the most      
striking facts that come to light in    
embryology4 ,how well the facts fit in  
with the behavior of certain hereditary 
characters will be seen later in our    
discussions of ,mendelism4  ,the        
,cytoplasm ,not ,negligible in          
,inheritance4--,just what part is played
 by the cytoplasm in inheritance is not 
clear1 but it is probably by no means a 
negligible one4 ,the cytoplasm of a     
given organism is just as distinctive of
 the species or of the individual of    
which it forms a part as are the        
chromosomes4 ,it is well established    
that neither nucleus nor cytoplasm can  

fully function or even exist long       
without the other1 and neither can alone
 produce the other4 ,they undoubtedly   
must cooperate in building up the new   
individual1 and the cytoplasm of the new
 individual is predominantly of maternal
 origin4 ,it is obvious that all of the 
more fundamental characters which make  
up an organism1 such1 for instance1 as  
make it an animal of a certain order or 
family1 as a human being or a dog or a  
horse1 are common to both parents1 and  
there is no way of measuring how much of
 this fundamental constitution comes    
from either parent1 since only closely  
related forms will interbreed4 ,in some 
forms1 moreover1 the broader fundamental
 features of embryogeny are already     
established before the entrance of the  
spermatozoon4 ,it is probable therefore 
that instead of asserting that the      
entire quota of characters which go to  
make up a complete individual are       
inherited from each parent equally1 we  
are justified only in maintaining that  

this equality is restricted to those    
measurable differences which veneer or  
top off1 as it were1 the individual4 ,we
 may infer that in the development of   
the new being the chromosomes of the egg
 together with those derived from the   
male work jointly on or with the other  
germinal contents which are mostly      
cytoplasmic materials of maternal       
origin4  ,the ,chromosomes ,possibly    
,responsible for the ,distinctiveness of
 ,given ,characters4--,it seems probable
 that in the establishment of certain   
basic features of the organism the      
cooperation of the cytoplasm with       
chromatin of either maternal or paternal
 origin might accomplish the same end1  
but that certain distinctive touches are
 added or come cumulatively into        
expression through influences carried1  
predominantly at least1 in the chromatin
 from one as against the other parent4  
,these last distinctive characters of   
the plant or animal constitute the      
individual differences of such          

organisms4 ,in this connection it is a  
significant fact that in young hybrids  
between two distinct species the early  
stages of development1 especially as    
regards symmetry and regional           
specifications1 are exclusively or      
predominantly maternal in character1 but
 the male influence becomes more and    
more apparent as development progresses 
until the final degree of intermediacy  
is attained4  ,from the evidence at hand
 this much seems sure1 that the paternal
 and maternal chromosomes respectively  
carry substances1 be they ferments1     
nutritive materials or what not1 that   
are instrumental in giving the final    
parity of personal characters which we  
observe to be equally heritable from    
either line of ancestry4 ,it is clear   
that most of the characters of an adult 
organism can not be merely the outcome  
of any unitary substance of the germ4   
,each is the product of many cooperating
 factors and for the final outcome any  
one cooperant is probably just as       

important in its way as any other4 ,the 
individual characters which we juggle to
 and fro in our breeding experiments    
seem apexed1 as it were1 on more        
fundamental features of organic chemical
 constitution1 polarity1 regional       
differentiation1 and physiological      
balance1 but since such individual      
characters parallel so closely the      
visible segregations and associations   
which go on among the chromosomes of the
 germ-cells it would seem that they1 at 
least1 are represented in the           
chromosomes by distinctive cooperants   
which give the final touch of           
specificity to those hereditary         
characters which can be shifted about as
 units of inheritance4  ,sex and        
,heredity4--,whatever the origin of     
fertilization may have been in the world
 of life1 or whatever its earliest      
significance1 the important fact remains
 that to-day it is unquestionably of    
very great significance in relation to  
the phenomena of heredity4 ,for in all  

higher animals1 at least1 offspring may 
possess some of the characteristics     
originally present in either of two     
lines of ancestry1 and this commingling 
of such possessions is possible only    
through sexual reproduction4 ,as has    
already been seen1 in the pairing of    
chromosomes previous to reduction1 the  
corresponding members of a pair always  
come together so that in the final      
segregation each gamete is sure to have 
one of each kind although whether a     
given chromosome of the haploid set is  
of maternal or paternal origin seems to 
be merely a matter of chance4 ,thus1 for
 instance1 if we arbitrarily represent  
the chromosomes of a given individual by
 ,,abc abc1 and regard ,a1 ,b and ,c as 
of paternal and a1 b and c as of        
maternal origin1 then in synapsis only  
,a and a can pair together1 ,b and b and
 ,c and c1 but each pair operates       
independently of the other so that in   
the ensuing reduction division either   
member of a pair may get into a cell    

with either member of the other pairs4  
,that is1 the line up for division at a 
given reduction might be any one of the 
following1 ,,abc_/abc ,a,bc_/ab,c       
,abc_/a,b,c ,ab,c_/a,bc4 ,this would    
yield the following eight kinds of      
gametes1 ,,abc1 abc1 ,a,bc1 ab,c1 ,abc1 
a,b,c1 ,ab,c1 a,bc1 each bearing one of 
each kind of chromosome required to     
cover the entire field of characters    
necessary to a complete organism4 ,and  
since each sex would be equally likely  
to have these eight types of gametes and
 any one of the eight in one individual 
might meet any one of the eight of the  
other1 the possible number of           
combinations in the production of a new 
individual from such germ-cells would be
 #hx#h1 or #fd4 ,with the larger numbers
 of chromosomes which exist in most     
animals it is readily seen that the     
number of possible combinations becomes 
very great4 ,thus any individual of a   
species with twenty chromosomes--and    
many animals1 including man1 have       

more--would have ten pairs at the       
reduction period and could therefore    
form 7#b7aj1 or #a1jbd different gametes
 in each sex4 ,and since any one of     
these in one sex would have an equal    
chance of meeting with any one in the   
opposite sex1 the total number of       
possible different zygotes that might be
 produced would be 7#a1jbd7b1 or        
#a1jdh1egf4 ,sex therefore1 through     
recombinations of ancestral materials1  
undoubtedly means1 among other things1  
the production of great diversity in    
offspring4   ,,determination ,,of ,,sex 
,many ,theories4--,from earliest times  
the problem of sex determination has    
been one of keen interest1 and needless 
to say hundreds of theories have been   
propounded to explain it4 ,geddes and   
,thomson say that ,drelincourt recorded 
two hundred sixty-two so-called theories
 of sex production and remark that since
 his time the number has at least been  
doubled4 ,the desirability of           
controlling sex has naturally appealed  

strongly to breeders of domesticated    
animals4  ,a study of animals born in   
litters1 or of twins1 is enough in      
itself to make us skeptical of theories 
of sex-determination based on           
nutritional or external factors4 ,in a  
litter of puppies1 for example1 there   
are usually both males and females1     
although in their prenatal existence    
they have all been subject to the same  
nutritional and environmental           
conditions4 ,likewise in ordinary human 
twins one may be a boy1 the other a     
girl1 whereas if the nutritional        
condition of the mother were the fact   
determining sex1 both should be boys or 
both girls4 ,however1 there are twins   
known as identical twins who are        
remarkably alike and who are always of  
the same sex4 ,but there is reason to   
suppose that identical twins in reality 
come from the same zygote4 ,presumably  
in early embryogeny1 probably at the    
two-celled stage of cleavage1 the two   
blastomeres become separated and each   

gives rise to a complete individual     
instead of only the half of one it would
 have produced had the two blastomeres  
remained together4 ,such twins are      
monochorial2 that is1 they grow inside  
the same fetal membrane1 whereas each   
ordinary twin has its own fetal membrane
 and has obviously originated from a    
separate ovum4 ,it has been established 
experimentally in several kinds of      
animals that early cleavage blastomeres 
when isolated can each develop into a   
complete individual4 ,in man1 ordinary  
twins are no more alike than ordinary   
brothers and sisters1 but identical     
twins are strikingly similar in         
structure1 appearance1 habits1 tastes1  
and even susceptibility to various      
maladies4 ,the fact that they are       
invariably of the same sex is a strong  
reason for believing that sex was       
already developed in the fertile ovum   
and consequently in the resulting       
blastomeres from that ovum4  ,the young 
of the nine-banded armadillo in a given 

litter are invariably of the same sex   
and are closely similar in all features4
 ,newman and ,patterson have shown that 
all the members of a litter come from   
the same egg4 ,patterson has established
 the fact that cleavage of the egg takes
 place in the usual manner1 but later   
separate centers of development appear  
in the early embryonic mass and give    
rise to the separate young individuals4 
,again in certain insects where one egg 
indirectly gives rise to a chain of     
embryos1 or to a number of separate     
larvae1 possibly as many as a thousand1 
all of the latter are of the same sex4  
,even in some plants researches have    
shown that sex is already determined at 
the beginning of development4 ,then1    
too1 much evidence has come to light    
recently showing that sex-characters in 
certain cases behave as heritable       
characters and are independent of       
external conditions4 ,lastly there is   
visible and convincing evidence         
obtainable through microscopical        

observations that sex is determined by a
 mechanism in the germ-cells themselves4
 ,it is chiefly to these latter facts   
that ,i wish to direct attention for the
 present4  ,the ,sex ,chromosome4--,the 
evidence centers about a special        
chromosome or chromosome-group commonly 
designated as the sex-chromosome or     
,x-element1 which has been found in     
various species of animals1 including   
man4 ,in the males of such animals this 
chromosome is present in addition to the
 regular number of pairs1 thus giving   
rise to an uneven instead of the        
conventional even number of chromosomes4
 ,this element remains undivided in one 
of the maturation divisions of the      
spermatocytes1 in some forms in the     
first in others in the second1 and      
passes entire to one pole of the spindle
 7,fig4 #ac1 p4 #eh74 ,this results in  
the production of two classes of cells1 
one containing the ,x-element and one   
not4 ,the outcome is that two           
corresponding classes of spermatozoa are

 produced4 ,the phenomena involved are  
diagrammatically represented in ,fig4   
#ac4 ,it has been clearly demonstrated  
in several cases that eggs fertilized by
 spermatozoa which possess this         
,x-element1 always become females1 those
 fertilized by spermatozoa which do not 
possess it always develop into males4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac  ,diagram     
illustrating the behavior of the        
x-element or sex-chromosome in the      
maturation of the sperm-cell4 ,in one of
 the two maturation divisions           
7represented here as in the first7 it   
passes undivided to one pole 7a1 b1 c71 
in the other it divides4 ,since the cell
 without the x-element also divides the 
result is that ultimately from the      
original primary spermatocyte 7a7 four  
cells are formed 7f71 two with the      
x-element and two without it4 ,half of  
the spermatozoa therefore will bear an  
x-element1 half will be without it4 ,in 
a the ordinary chromosomes1 arbitrarily 
indicated as #aj1 are supposed to have  

already paired for reduction so that the
 original diploid number in             
spermatogonia and body-cells of the male
 would be #bj plus the x-chromosome4    
,it has been found1 furthermore1 that in
 species in which the males possess this
 extra element the females have two of  
them4 ,that is1 if the original number  
in the somatic cells of the male were   
twenty-three1 twenty-two ordinary and   
one ,x-element1 the number in the       
somatic cells of the female would be    
twenty-four1 or twenty-two ordinary and 
two ,x-elements4 ,it has been found that
 when the chromosomes of the female pair
 for the reduction division1 each       
chromosome uniting with its             
corresponding fellow1 the two           
,x-elements in the female pair in the   
usual way so that every egg-cell        
possesses an ,x-element4 ,thus every    
mature egg has an ,x-element1 while only
 half of the spermatozoa have one4 ,that
 is1 if we assume twenty-three as the   
diploid number present originally in the

 somatic cells of the male and          
twenty-four as the number in the female1
 then one-half the spermatozoa of the   
male would contain the haploid number   
eleven1 and the other half1 the number  
twelve1 whereas every mature ovum would 
contain twelve4 ,since there are equal  
numbers of the spermatozoa with the     
,x-element and without it1 and inasmuch 
as presumably under ordinary conditions 
one kind is as likely to fertilize the  
egg as the other1 then there are equal  
chances at fertilization of producing a 
zygote with two ,x-elements or with but 
one4    ,thus1 ,spermatozoon  ,x by     
,ovum  ,x  ,zygote  ,,xx4               
,spermatozoon 7no ,x7 by ,ovum  ,x      
,zygote  ,x4  ,we have already seen that
 the former is always female1 the latter
 male4 ,it thus becomes possible to     
distinguish the sex of an embryo by     
counting the chromosomes of its cells4  
,this has been accomplished in several  
cases4  ,in some instances#a the        
conditions may be much more complex than

 the ones indicated--too complex in fact
 to warrant detailed discussion in an   
elementary exposition--but the principle
 remains the same throughout1 the very  
complexity when thoroughly understood1  
strengthening rather than weakening the 
evidence4 ,in a few forms an interesting
 reversal of conditions has been found  
in that the eggs instead of the         
spermatozoa show the characteristic     
dimorphism4  ,just what the exact       
relationship between sex-differentiation
 and the ,x-element is has never been   
clearly established4 ,it is possible    
that this element is an actual          
sex-determinant1 in the ordinary cases  
one ,x-element determining the male     
condition and two ,x-elements producing 
the female condition4 ,on the other hand
 it might be argued that it is not the  
determining factor but the expression of
 other cell activities which do         
determine sex2 that is1 a sex           
accompaniment4 ,or again1 it may be one 
of several essential factors which must 

cooperate to determine sex4             
,,sex-,,linked ,,characters  ,the       
discovery of the remarkable behavior of 
certain characters in heredity which can
 only be plausibly explained by         
supposing that they are linked with a   
sex-determining factor still further    
strengthens our belief in the existence 
of such a definite factor4 ,such        
characters are commonly termed          
sex-linked characters4  ,sex-,linked    
,characters in ,man4--,since there are a
 number of them in man we may choose one
 of these1 such as color-blindness1 for 
illustration4 ,the common form of       
color-blindness known as ,daltonism in  
which the subject can not distinguish   
reds from greens1 a condition which     
seems to be due to the absence of       
something which is present in           
individuals of normal color vision1 is  
far commoner in men than in women4 ,its 
type of inheritance1 sometimes termed   
crisscross heredity1 has been likened to
 the knight moves in a game of chess4   

,the condition is transmitted from a    
color-blind man through his daughter to 
half of her sons4 ,or1 to go more into  
detail1 a color-blind father and normal 
mother have only normal children whether
 sons or daughters4 ,the sons continue  
to have normal children but the         
daughters1 although of normal vision    
themselves1 transmit color-blindness to 
one-half of their own sons4 ,if such a  
woman marries a color-blind man1 as     
might easily happen in a marriage       
between cousins1 then as a rule one-half
 her daughters as well as one-half her  
sons will be color-blind4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad  ,diagram     
illustrating the inheritance of a       
sex-limited character such as           
color-blindness in man on the assumption
 that the factor in question is located 
in the sex-chromosome 7from ,loeb after 
,wilson74 ,the normal sex-chromosome is 
indicated by a black ,x1 the one lacking
 the factor for color perception1 by a  
light ,x4 ,it is assumed that a normal  

female is mated with a color-blind male4
   ,in such cases what appears to be a  
mysterious procedure becomes very simple
 if we assume that the defective        
character is associated with the        
sex-determining factor1 or to make it   
concrete let us say with the ,x-element4
 ,the chart shown in ,fig4 #ad1 p4 #fb1 
indicates what the germinal condition   
would be under the circumstances4 ,the  
column to the right represents the      
maternal1 the one to the left the       
paternal line4 ,since two ,x means      
female and one ,x male1 and inasmuch as 
we have assumed that the physical basis 
of the defect to which color-blindness  
is due is conveyed by the ,x-element1 we
 may represent the defective single ,x  
of the male in outline only 7see first  
row74 ,it is obvious that after the     
reduction divisions 7second row7 the    
mature sex-cells of the female will each
 contain a single normal ,x1 the        
corresponding sex cells of the male will
 contain either no ,x or a defective ,x4

 ,since if any member of the class of   
spermatozoa containing no ,x1 fertilizes
 an egg the resulting zygote 7row three7
 will have but one ,x and that a normal 
one1 the individual which develops from 
the zygote will be normal as regards    
color vision and moreover will be male  
because the condition one ,x always     
means maleness4 ,on the other hand1 if  
any member of the class of spermatozoa  
containing the defective ,x fertilizes  
an egg two ,x-elements are brought      
together and this of itself means       
femaleness4 ,in this case one of the    
,x-elements is defective but the single 
normal ,x is sufficient in itself to    
produce normal color vision4 ,but when  
it comes to the maturation of the       
sex-cells of this female1 the pair of   
,x-elements are separated in the usual  
way with the result that half of the    
mature ova contain a normal ,x and half 
a defective ,x 7row four74 ,since in a  
normal male1 however1 the mature        
reproductive cells will contain either a

 normal ,x or no ,x 7fourth row71 any   
one of four different kinds of matings  
may result4 ,a sex-cell carrying normal 
,x of the male may combine with an ovum 
containing normal ,x producing a normal 
female 7row five74 ,or such a cell may  
combine with an ovum carrying the       
defective ,x1 also producing a female   
but one who although of normal color    
vision herself1 like her mother1 is a   
carrier of the defect4 ,on the other    
hand1 any one of the spermatozoa without
 an ,x may combine with an ovum         
containing the normal ,x1 in which case 
a normal male is produced and1 moreover1
 one who1 like his mother's brothers1 is
 incapable of transmitting the defect4  
,however1 the sperm-cell devoid of an ,x
 is just as likely to fertilize an ovum 
carrying the defective ,x1 in which     
event the resulting individual1 a male1 
must be color-blind because he contains 
the defective ,x alone4 ,in other words1
 the chances are that one-half the sons 
of a woman whose father was color-blind 

will be color-blind1 the other half     
perfectly normal2 and that all of the   
daughters will be of normal color vision
 although one-half of them will probably
 transmit the defect to one-half of     
their sons4 ,from a glance at the       
diagram it is readily seen also that a  
color-blind female could result from the
 union of a color-blind man 7see first  
row7 and the daughter of a color-blind  
man 7see third row74 ,for half of the   
gametes of such a female would bear the 
defect as would also that half of the   
gametes of the male which carry ,x1     
hence the expectation would be that half
 of the daughters of such a union would 
be color-blind and half would be        
carriers of color-blindness2 and that   
half of the sons would be color-blind   
and half normal4 ,all the sons of a     
color-blind woman would be color-blind  
because she has only defective          
,x-elements to pass on4  ,the           
inheritance of various other conditions 
in man follows more or less accurately  

the same course as color-blindness4     
,among these may be mentioned3          
hemophilia1 a serious condition in which
 the blood will not clot properly1 thus 
rendering the affected individual       
constantly liable to severe or fatal    
hemorrhage2 near-sightedness 7myopia7 in
 some cases2 a degenerative disease of  
the spinal cord known as multiple       
sclerosis2 progressive atrophy of the   
optic nerve 7neuritis optica72 ,gower's 
muscular atrophy2 some forms of         
night-blindness2 in some cases          
ichthyosis1 a peculiar scaly condition  
of the skin4 ,in one of my own          
tabulations of a case of inheritance of 
webbed digits or syndactyly1 a condition
 in which two or more fingers or toes   
are more or less united1 a sex-linked   
inheritance is clearly indicated 7,fig4 
#ae71 although from the pedigrees       
recorded by other investigators this    
condition usually appears in some of    
both the sons and daughters of an       
affected individual4   ,illustration3   

,,fig4 #ae  ,chart showing the          
inheritance of a case of syndactyly     
after the manner of a sex-linked        
character4 ,the affected individuals are
 represented in black2 squares indicate 
males1 circles females4 ,the condition  
is seen to be inherited by males through
 unaffected females4   ,the ,occurrence 
of ,sex-,linkage in ,lower ,forms       
,renders ,experiments ,possible4--,the  
course followed by such characters in   
man can be inferred only from the       
pedigrees we can obtain from family     
histories4 ,fortunately1 however1 such  
sex-linkage also occurs in lower animals
 and we are able therefore to verify and
 extend our observations by direct      
experiments in breeding4 ,several       
sex-linked characters have been found to
 exist in a small fruit-fly known as    
,drosophila4 ,extensive breeding        
experiments with this fly by ,professor 
,t4 ,h4 ,morgan and his pupils have     
borne out remarkably the interpretation 
that the characters in question are     

really linked with a sex-determining    
factor4     ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,mendelism
   ,new ,discoveries in the ,field of   
,heredity4--,writing in #ahii1 one of   
,america's well-known zoologists asserts
 that1 ,it is easier to weigh an        
invisible planet than to measure the    
force of heredity in a single grain of  
corn4 ,and yet only two or three years  
later we find another prominent         
naturalist saying regarding heredity    
that1 ,the experiments which led to this
 advance in knowledge are worthy to rank
 with those that laid the foundation of 
the atomic laws of chemistry4 ,again1   
,the breeding pen is to us what the     
test-tube is to the chemist--an         
instrument whereby we examine the nature
 of our organisms and determine         
empirically their genetic properties4   
,here is a decided contrast of statement
 and yet both were justifiable at the   
time of utterance4 ,for even at the     
writing of the first statement the      
investigations were in progress which1  

together with the rediscovery of certain
 older work1 were to transfer our       
knowledge of heredity from the realm of 
speculation to that of experiment and   
disclose certain definite principles of 
genetic transmission4  ,through a       
knowledge of these principles in fact1  
the shifting of certain characters is   
reducible to a series of definitely     
predictable proportions and the skilled 
breeder may proceed to the building up  
of new and permanent combinations of    
desirable characters according to       
mathematical ratios and1 what is of     
equal importance1 he can secure the     
elimination of undesirable qualities4   
,while there are many limitations in the
 application of these principles and    
while new facts and modifications are   
constantly being discovered concerning  
them1 nevertheless they represent the   
first approximations to definite laws of
 hereditary transmission that we have   
ever been able to make1 and the         
practical fact confronts us that        

whatever our theoretical interpretations
 may be1 the principles are so definite 
that through their application important
 improvements of crops and domesticated 
animals have already actually been      
secured and one may confidently expect  
still others to follow4  ,mendel4--,the 
principles involved are called the      
,mendelian principles after their       
discoverer1 ,gregor ,johann ,mendel1    
abbot of a monastery at ,bruenn1        
,austria4 ,after eight years of patient 
experimenting in his cloister garden    
with plants1 chiefly edible peas1 he    
published his results and conclusions in
 #ahff1 in the ,proceedings of the      
,natural ,history ,society of ,bruenn4  
,while known to a few botanists of that 
day1 the full importance of the         
contribution was not recognized1 and in 
the excitement of the post-,darwinian   
controversy1 the facts were lost sight  
of and ultimately forgotten4            
,rediscovery of ,mendelian              
,principles4--,in #aijj three men1      

,correns1 ,de ,vries and ,tschermak1    
working independently--in different     
countries1 in fact--rediscovered the    
principles and called attention anew to 
the long-forgotten work of ,mendel which
 they had come upon in looking over the 
older literature on plant breeding4     
,these investigators added other        
examples from their own experiments4    
,since their rediscovery the principles 
have been confirmed in essential        
features and extended by numerous       
experimentalists with regard to a wide  
range of hereditary characters in both  
animals and plants4  ,independence of   
,inheritable ,characters4--,it has been 
found that many truly heritable         
characteristics or traits of an         
individual1 whether plant or animal1 are
 comparatively independent of one       
another and may be inherited            
independently4 ,where there are         
contrasted characters in father and     
mother1 such as white plumage and black 
plumage in fowls1 smooth coat and       

wrinkled coat in seed1 horns and        
hornlessness in cattle1 long fur and    
short fur in rabbits1 beard and         
beardlessness in wheat1 albino condition
 and normal condition1 etc41 there is   
obviously a bringing together of the    
determiners of the two traits in the    
resulting offspring4 ,in the third      
generation1 however1 in the progeny of  
these offspring1 the two distinct       
characters may be set apart again1 thus 
showing that in the second generation   
while perhaps one only was visible1 the 
factors which determine both were       
nevertheless present1 and moreover1 they
 were present in a separable condition4 
,illustration of ,mendelism in the      
,andalusian ,fowl4--,let us take as a   
simple example the case of the          
,andalusian fowl4 ,although it is not a 
case established by ,mendel it          
illustrates certain of the essential    
conditions underlying ,mendelism in a   
more obvious way than the cases worked  
out by ,mendel himself4 ,the so-called  

blue ,andalusian fowl results from a    
cross of a color variety of the fowl    
which is black with one which is white  
with black-splashed feathers4 ,the      
result is the same irrespective of which
 parent is black4 ,when bred with their 
like1 whether from the same parents or  
different parents1 these blue fowls     
produce three kinds of progeny1         
approximately one-fourth of which are   
black like the one grandparent1         
one-fourth white like the other         
grandparent1 and the remaining half1    
blue like the parents 7,fig4 #af74      
,moreover1 the black fowls obtained in  
this way will1 when interbred1 produce  
only black offspring and the same is    
true of the white fowls4 ,to all        
appearances as far as color is concerned
 they are of as pure type as the        
original grandparents4 ,with the blue   
fowls1 however1 the case is different1  
for when bred together they will produce
 the same three kinds of progeny that   
their parents produced and in the same  

proportions4 ,again the white and the   
black are true to type but the blue will
 always yield the three classes of      
offspring and this through generation   
after generation4   ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #af  ,diagram showing the scheme 
of inheritance in the blue ,andalusian  
fowl4   ,these facts may be illustrated 
graphically as follows where the word   
black indicates the original black      
parent1 white the original white 7black 
splashed7 parent and blue the hybrid    
offspring4    ,parental   ,generation   
7,p7          ,black x ,white           
,black x ,white                         
,first ,filial                          
,generation 7,f#a7          ,blue       
x           ,blue                       
----------------------------------------
--                                      
,second ,filial       ,black            
,blue                 ,white            
,generation 7,f#b7  7#be7               
7#ej7                7#be7              
-------------------------               

,third ,filial        ,black   ,black   
,blue          ,white  ,white           
,generation 7,f#c7         7#be7        
7#ej7         7#be7                     
-------------                           
,fourth ,filial       ,black   ,black   
,black  ,blue   ,white  ,white  ,white  
,generation 7,f#d7                 7#be7
  7#ej7  7#be7  ,the ,cause of the      
,mendelian ,ratio4--,concerning the     
cause of this peculiar ratio of         
inheritance in crossed forms ,mendel    
suggested a simple explanation4 ,animals
 or plants that can be cross-bred1      
obviously must be forms that produce a  
new individual from the union of two    
germ-cells1 one of which is provided by 
each parent4 ,mendel's idea was that    
there must be some process of           
segregation going on in the developing  
germ-cells of each hybrid whereby the   
factors for the two qualities are set   
apart in different cells with the result
 that half of the germ-cells of a given 
individual will contain the determiner  

of one character and half1 the          
determiner of the other4 ,that is1 a    
given germ-cell carries a factor for one
 or the other of the two alternate      
characters but not the factors for both4
 ,in a plant1 for example1 in the male  
line1 half of the pollen grains would   
bear germ-cells carrying the determiner 
of one character and half1 that of the  
other4 ,similarly1 in the female line1  
half of the ovules would contain the    
determiner of the one character and     
half1 that of the other4 ,likewise in   
animals as regards such pairs of        
characters there would be two classes of
 germ-cells in the male and two in the  
female4 ,in the case of the blue        
,andalusian fowls under discussion this 
would mean that half of the mature      
germ-cells of the male carry the        
black-producing factor1 and half carry  
the white-producing factor1 and the same
 is true of the germ-cells of the       
female4 ,thus when two such crossed     
forms are mated1 there are1 by the laws 

of chance1 four possible combinations1  
namely3 7#a7 white-determining          
sperm-cells and white-determining ovum2 
7#b7 white-determining sperm-cells and  
black-determining ovum2 7#c7            
black-determining sperm-cells and       
white-determining ovum2 and 7#d7        
black-determining sperm-cells and       
black-determining ovum4 ,manifestly1 the
 first combination can only give white  
offspring2 the second1 white and black1 
gives blue 7by such a cross the original
 blues were established72 likewise1 the 
third1 black and white1 gives blue2 and 
the fourth combination can only give    
black offspring4 ,this matter may be    
graphically represented by the following
 formulae in which ,b indicates the     
determiner of ,black in the germ-cell   
and ,w the determiner of ,white3 male   
signifies male2 female female4   ,,in   
,,the ,,original ,,parents    ,w x ,b   
,,wb  ,blue  ,,in ,,the ,,hybrids       
male female   germ-  germ-   cells      
cells     male female     ,w----,w      

,w   x   ,w  ,,ww  ,white       _/      
,w   x   ,b  ,,wb  ,blue       _/       
or    ,b   x   ,w  ,,bw  ,blue          
,b----,b          ,b   x   ,b  ,,bb     
,black  ,thus of the four possible      
combinations one only can produce white 
fowls1 two 7,,wb or ,,bw7 can produce   
blue fowls1 and one black fowls4 ,that  
is1 the ratio is #a3b3a or the #be1 #ej 
and #be per cent41 respectively1 of our 
diagram4 ,the black fowls or the white  
fowls will breed true in subsequent     
generations when mated with those of    
their own color because the determiner  
of the alternative character has been   
permanently eliminated from their       
germ-plasm2 but the blue fowls will     
always yield three types of offspring   
because they still possess the two      
classes of germ-cells4  ,verification of
 the ,hypothesis4--,the hypothesis that 
germ-cells of crossed forms are of two  
classes with respect to a given pair of 
,mendelian characters is further        
substantiated by the following facts4   

,if in the case of the fowls under      
discussion one of the blue fowls is     
mated with an individual of the white   
variety1 half of the progeny will be    
blue and half white4 ,for the hybrid has
 two kinds of germ-cells1 black         
producing1 which we have designated by  
the letter ,b1 and white producing 7or  
,w7 in equal number while the white     
parent has only one kind1 white         
producing4 ,it is obvious that if half  
the germ-cells of the hybrid form are of
 the type ,b then half the progeny will 
be of the ,,bw type1 which is blue1 and 
the other half will be of the ,,ww type1
 which is white4 ,in the same way if we 
mate a hybrid and a black fowl1 half of 
the progeny will be black and half will 
be blue1 that is1 there could only be   
,,wb and ,,bb types4  ,the fact must not
 be lost sight of that since the        
pairings are wholly determined by the   
laws of chance the proportions are      
likely to be only approximate4 ,it is   
obvious that the greater the number of  

individuals1 the nearer the results will
 approach the expected ratio4           
,,dominant ,,and ,,recessive  ,one      
,character ,may ,mask the ,other4--,in a
 large number of cases1 however1 the    
actual condition of affairs is not so   
evident as in the ,andalusian fowl1 for 
instead of being intermediate or        
different in appearance1 the generation 
produced by crossing resembles one      
parent to the exclusion of the other4   
,such an overshadowing is spoken of as  
dominance1 and the two characters are   
termed dominant and recessive4 ,thus    
when brown ring-doves and white         
ring-doves are mated the progeny are all
 brown1 or if wild gray mice are mated  
to white mice the progeny are all gray4 
,so black is dominant to white in       
rose-comb bantams2 brown eyes to blue   
eyes in man2 beardlessness to beard in  
wheat1 and likewise rough chaff to      
smooth1 and thick stem to thin2 tallness
 to dwarfness in various plants2 normal 
condition to the peculiar waltzing      

condition in the ,japanese waltzing     
mouse4 ,numerous other cases might be   
cited but these are sufficient to       
illustrate the condition4  ,segregation 
in the ,next ,generation4--,but now the 
question arises1 what do such crosses as
 show dominance transmit to the next    
generation8 ,experiments show regarding 
any given pair of these alternate       
characters that they are set apart again
 in the succeeding generation1 returning
 in a definite percentage to the        
respective grandparental types4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag  ,diagram     
showing the scheme of inheritance in    
guinea-pigs when black and albino forms 
are crossed4   ,dominance ,illustrated  
in ,guinea-,pigs4--,in guinea-pigs for  
example 7,fig4 #ag71 when an individual 
7either male or female7 of a black      
variety1 is crossed with one of a white 
variety1 the ,f#a generation are all    
black like the black parent4 ,when these
 are interbred or bred with other blacks
 which have had one black and one white 

parent1 only two visible types of       
progeny appear1 viz41 black and white1  
and these approximately in the ratio of 
three to one4  ,analysis by further     
breeding shows1 however1 that there are 
in reality three types1 but since       
dominance is complete the pure extracted
 dominant and the mixed                 
dominant-and-recessive type are         
indistinguishable to our eye4 ,that is1 
while the blacks are three times as     
numerous as the whites1 two out of every
 three of these blacks are really hybrid
 and correspond to the blue fowls of our
 former example4  ,the condition is     
readily comprehended when expressed     
diagrammatically thus3    ,generation ,p
           ,black x ,white       ,black 
x ,white                                
,generation ,f#a        ,black 7,white7 
x   ,black 7,white7                     
-------------------------------------   
,generation ,f#b  #a ,black       #b    
,black 7,white7       #a ,white  ,in    
other words1 the germ-cells of the one  

original parent 7,gen4 ,p7 would contain
 only determiners for black and that of 
the other parent would contain only     
determiners for white4 ,the condition of
 the individuals produced by the cross  
would be represented by the formula     
,b7,w74 ,but these determiners segregate
 in the germ-cells of the crossed form1 
whether it be male or female1 into ,b   
and ,w4 ,hence half the spermatozoa of  
the male hybrid 7generation ,f#a7 would 
carry the ,b determiners and half the ,w
 determiners4 ,the same is true of the  
mature ova of the female hybrid4        
,consequently1 in mating there are      
always four equally possible            
combinations1 viz41 ,,bb1 ,b7,w71       
7,w7,b1 and ,,ww4 ,since ,b is always   
dominant three out of the four matings  
would yield black individuals1 or in    
other words the ratio would be #c3a4    
,the pure blacks when mated together    
will breed true in subsequent           
generations1 likewise the whites1 but   
the blacks carrying white as a recessive

 will yield when interbred the same     
ratio of whites and black as did their  
hybrid parents 7,fig4 #ag1 p4 #ge74     
,terminology4--,as work in the study of 
,mendelian inheritance has progressed   
and expanded the need of a more precise 
terminology has become evident and such 
is gradually being established4 ,thus   
,professor ,bateson has coined the term 
allelomorph 7,gk4 one another1 and form7
 to express more exactly what we have   
thus far been calling a pair of         
alternate or opposite characters4 ,in   
the blue ,andalusian fowls discussed1   
the white condition in the one parent is
 the allelomorph of the black condition 
in the other4 ,the term generally means 
one of the pair of ,mendelian characters
 themselves as expressed in the         
individual plants or animals but when   
the germinal basis of such phenomena is 
under discussion1 it is sometimes used  
to refer to the determiners of such     
characters4 ,and by determiner is meant 
simply the condition which is necessary 

in the germ to bring about the          
occurrence of a definite character4 ,for
 example1 when we are studying a cross  
between a red flower and a white flower 
with reference to the color factors1 the
 difference between the two plants may  
lie in the fact that one produces a red 
coloring matter and the other does not4 
,that is1 the determiner for red is     
absent from the white variety4 ,what the
 exact relation of color production is  
to the parts of the germ-cell we do not 
know4 ,it could be the function of a    
single definite body or the resultant of
 several cooperating bodies4 ,the latter
 is far more likely to be the case4 ,we 
may suppose that a group of cooperating 
substances function to produce red in   
the red flower but that in the white    
flowers one of these bodies is absent or
 fails to perform its red-producing     
function4  ,it is customary where       
practicable to refer to the determiner  
of a character by the initial letter of 
the name of the character4 ,the letter  

when written as a capital indicates the 
determiner but when written as a small  
letter the absence of the determiner4   
,thus ,r may be taken to represent the  
determiner for red coloring matter and r
 its absence4 ,it is convenient also to 
have a brief symbol to denote a given   
generation and for this purpose ,bateson
 has introduced the symbol ,f#a for the 
hybrid progeny of the first cross1 the  
initial letter of the word filial4 ,f#b 
would indicate the next generation1 ,f#c
 the third and so on4 ,likewise ,p      
denotes the original parent generation4 
,the ,theory of ,presence and           
,absence4--,many1 if not all1           
allelomorphs consist of the presence and
 absence respectively of a given        
determiner4 ,in such cases the character
 represented by the presence of the     
determiner is dominant over the         
character represented by the absence of 
a determiner4 ,thus in the crosses from 
the wild gray mice and albino mice the  
progeny are all gray mice since one     

parent had the determiner or group of   
determiners for grayness and the hybrid 
offspring must also possess it4         
,likewise the presence of black in black
 guinea-pigs is dominant to its absence 
in albino guinea-pigs and the resulting 
progeny are all black4  ,however1 it has
 already been mentioned that            
beardlessness in wheat is dominant to   
beard and that the absence of horns in  
cattle is dominant to their presence1   
that is1 the progeny of hornless by     
horned cattle are without horns except  
for occasional traces of imperfect      
horns4 ,facts like these would seem at  
first sight to contradict the assertion 
just made that presence is dominant to  
absence1 but it is fairly well          
established that in such cases one is   
not dealing with true absences but with 
suppressions4 ,the polled breeds of     
cattle1 for example1 are hornless not   
because of the absence of determiners   
for horns but because of the presence of
 an additional inhibiting factor which  

prevents these determiners from         
functioning4 ,the horned breeds are     
without this inhibitor4 ,when horned and
 hornless individuals are crossed the   
presence of the inhibitor from one line 
of ancestry is sufficient to suppress   
the development of horns in the progeny4
 ,a similar explanation would1 of       
course1 apply to beardlessness in wheat4
  ,in writing double-lettered formulae  
to denote the determiners of characters 
in hybrids the condition is represented 
merely by the capital and small letter4 
,thus ,rr indicates that red is dominant
 to its absence4  ,additional           
,terminology4--,in pure breeds where the
 determiners are alike as ,,bb in black 
or bb in albino guinea-pigs1 the        
individual is said to be a homozygote   
7like things united7 with reference to  
that character1 while in those in which 
the determiners are unlike1 as ,bb1 the 
individual is termed a heterozygote     
7unlike things united7 with reference to
 the character4 ,or to use the adjective

 forms1 a pure black guinea-pig is      
homozygous for black pigment1 an albino 
guinea-pig is homozygous for absence of 
pigment1 while a cross between the two  
is heterozygous for pigment4 ,also1     
where the determiner of a given         
character is present in double quantity1
 that is1 from both lines of ancestry1  
the individual is said to be duplex1    
where represented in only the single    
form as in heterozygous individuals1    
simplex1 and where the determiner is    
absent entirely1 nulliplex1 with        
reference to the character in question4 
,thus black guinea-pigs of formula ,,bb 
are duplex with regard to the determiner
 for black color1 individuals of formula
 ,bb are simplex with reference to this 
determiner1 and those of formula bb are 
nulliplex4  ,a heterozygote in which    
dominance prevails can be identified    
with certainty by breeding to a known   
recessive and noting the kind of        
offspring produced4 ,if the individual  
was really a heterozygote1 approximately

 fifty per cent4 of the offspring should
 be of the recessive type4  ,dominance  
,not ,always ,complete4--,as a matter of
 fact close inspection shows that in    
numerous instances dominance is not     
absolute since traces of the recessive  
character may be detectable4 ,for       
example1 in the cross between smooth and
 bearded wheat while smoothness is      
regarded as the dominant character and  
beardlessness as the recessive1         
nevertheless in the hybrid offspring a  
slight tendency toward bearding is not  
infrequently seen4 ,or again when horned
 breeds of cattle are crossed with      
hornless ones1 a small proportion of    
such progeny will show traces of        
imperfect horns4  ,in some cases instead
 of either character dominating the     
other a form intermediate between the   
two parents may result1 as we have seen 
already in the case of the ,andalusian  
fowl4 ,thus1 certain white-flowered     
plants and certain red-flowered plants  
when crossed produce pink hybrids1 and  

longheaded and shortheaded wheats when  
crossed give offspring with heads of    
intermediate length4 ,or again1 crosses 
between white and red cattle may yield  
red roans1 and between black and white  
cattle1 blue roans4  ,thus1 while for   
such pairs of alternative characters as 
have been studied1 dominance to some    
considerable degrees at least1 seems to 
be the rule1 still we have gradations   
down to the intermediate condition1 and 
in some instances the hybrid with       
respect to a given character may be     
unlike either parent4 ,the things of    
chief importance in the ,mendelian      
discovery are the independent1 unitary  
nature of the characters and their      
segregation in the offspring of         
cross-bred forms4  ,modifications of    
,dominance4--,it should be noted also   
that there is such a condition as       
delayed dominance4 ,davenport found1 for
 example1 that chicks produced by       
crossing pure white with pure black     
,leghorn fowls are speckled black and   

white1 but later in the adult form white
 becomes dominant4 ,likewise conditions 
of delayed dominance are known in man in
 eye-color and notably in color of hair4
 ,some few cases have been recorded     
where a character is dominant at one    
time1 recessive at another4 ,according  
to ,davenport extra toe in fowls may    
behave in this way4  ,mendel's ,own     
,work4--,mendel#b himself worked out his
 principles on seven pairs of characters
 which he found in common culinary peas4
 ,placing the dominant characters first1
 these may be enumerated as follows3    
7#a7 ,tall by dwarf2 7#b7 green pod     
7unripe7 by yellow2 7#c7 pod inflated by
 pod constricted between the individual 
peas2 7#d7 flowers arranged along the   
axis of the plant by flowers bunched    
together at the top2 7#e7 seed skin     
colored by seed skin white2 7#f7        
cotyledons yellow by cotyledons green2  
7#g7 seed rounded by seed wrinkled4  ,he
 found that each pair of characters     
followed the same law as any other pair 

when more than one pair of the          
characters occurred in the same plants1 
but that each pair behaved independently
 of the other4 ,the meaning of this is  
that we may get various combinations of 
characters not associated in the        
original pure stocks1 the number of such
 combinations depending on the number of
 pairs of allelomorphs there are4       
,,dihybrids  ,getting ,new ,combinations
 of ,characters4--,since this principle 
is well illustrated in peas1 let us take
 two pairs of their characters1 viz41   
greenness and yellowness 7of the        
cotyledons7 and roundness and angularity
 to see exactly what happens when two   
pairs of allelomorphs are involved4     
,when a specific kind of yellow pea is  
crossed with a particular kind of green 
pea the offspring are always yellow     
7,fig4 #ah1 opposite p4 #hd74 ,when     
these hybrids 7generation ,f#a7 are     
self-fertilized there is the usual      
,mendelian segregation2 one-fourth the  
resulting offspring will be green1      

one-fourth pure yellow1 and one-half1   
although yellow in appearance1 will be  
of the mixed type4 ,the exact numbers   
found by ,mendel were #f1jbb yellow     
seeds to #b1jja green seeds4 ,now of the
 original peas 7generation ,p7 the      
yellow ones are round and the green ones
 angular 7really wrinkled74 ,choosing   
this roundness and angularity           
respectively as a pair of characters    
they are found to follow the same law   
that the colors follow 7,mendel obtained
 in the ,f#b generation #e1dgd round and
 #a1hej wrinkled seed71 but             
independently of the latter4 ,for while 
in the progeny of the hybrids 7,gen4    
,f#a71 twenty-five per cent4 will be    
round and of pure type as regards       
roundness1 twenty-five per cent4        
angular1 and fifty per cent4 round but  
containing hidden factors of angularity 
7i4 e41 roundness is dominant71 the     
roundness and the yellowness1 or the    
angularity and the greenness will not   
always go together as they did in the   

original grandparental strains1 but     
there will be in addition some new types
 of round green peas and some of angular
 yellow ones4 ,that is1 the factors of  
color and of shape have been inherited  
independently of one another1 so that   
instead of the two original kinds of    
peas1 four have been produced1 viz41    
7#a7 round-yellow 7one of the original  
types72 7#b7 round-green 7new type72    
7#c7 angular-yellow 7new type72 and 7#d7
 angular-green 7one of the original     
types74 ,furthermore1 these will be     
found to stand in the ratio of #i3c3c3a 
respectively4  ,segregations of the     
,determiners4--,how these combinations  
come about in this definite proportion  
is easily understood if the matter is   
expressed in terms of determiners and   
the possible matings tabulated 7,fig4   
#ah74 ,if we represent the yellow       
determiner by ,y and the green          
determiner by y1 and likewise the       
determiners of roundness and angularity 
by ,r and r respectively1 then the      

formulae for the determiners of these   
two pairs of characters in the body     
cells 7that is1 in the unreduced        
condition7 of the pure forms and of the 
,f#a generation hybrids respectively are
 as follows3    ,in pure round yellow   
peas       ,,rr ,,yy   ,in pure angular 
green peas      rr yy   ,in the hybrid  
,rr ,yy  ,but now in the segregation of 
these determiners in the germ-cells of  
the hybrids 7generation ,f#a7 the pair  
of determiners ,rr and the pair ,yy     
operate entirely independently of one   
another4 ,their only compulsion is that 
each pair be separated into the single  
determiners1 ,r and r in the one case   
and ,y and y in the other4 ,so in the   
separating division which brings about  
this divorcement ,r separates from r    
irrespective of whether it is           
accompanying ,y or y into the resulting 
daughter cell4 ,thus in some cases ,r   
and ,y would pass into one germ-cell1 in
 others ,r and y1 in others r and ,y1   
and in still others r and y1 depending  

entirely upon the chance relations of   
the respective pairs to the plane of    
division4 ,that is1 the segregation is  
equally likely to be ,,ry_/ry giving    
gametes ,,ry and ry1 or ,ry_/r,y giving 
gametes ,ry and r,y4   ,illustration3   
,female   ,male   ,,ry       ,ry        
r,y       ry                            
-------------------------------     ,,ry
    ,,rryy    ,r,r,yy    ,,rryy         
,rr,yy                                  
-------------------------------     ,ry 
,r,r,yy    ,r,ryy    ,rr,yy    ,rryy    
-------------------------------     r,y 
,rr,y,y    ,rr,yy    rr,y,y    rr,yy    
-------------------------------     ry  
,rr,yy   ,rryy    rr,yy    rryy         
-------------------------------         
7#a7 #a ,,rryy    7#d7 #b ,rr,y,y       
7#g7 #a rr,y,y       7#b7 #b ,r,r,yy    
7#e7 #d ,rr,yy    7#h7 #b rr,yy         
7#c7 #a ,r,ryy    7#f7 #b ,rryy    7#i7 
#a rr,yy                       #i3c3c3a 
,,fig4 #ah  ,diagram showing the        
possible combinations arising in the    

second filial generation 7,f#b7         
following a cross between yellow1 round 
7,,yyrr7 and green1 angular or wrinkled 
7yyrr7 peas4 ,y1 presence of factor for 
yellow2 y1 absence of such a factor2 ,r1
 presence of factor for smoothness or   
roundness2 r1 absence of such a factor2 
male male2 female female4   ,four ,kinds
 of ,gametes in ,each ,sex ,means       
,sixteen ,possible                      
,combinations4--,there are1 therefore1  
with reference to the two pairs of      
characters under consideration1 four    
kinds of gametes 7or mature germ-cells7 
produced in equal numbers in each       
hybrid1 viz41 ,,ry1 ,ry1 r,y1 and ry4   
,that is1 in the first type roundness   
and yellowness are associated1 in the   
second roundness and greenness1 in the  
third angularity 7lack of roundness7 and
 yellowness1 and in the fourth          
angularity and greenness4  ,but since   
both males and females have these four  
kinds of gametes1 when they are mated   
there will be sixteen possible          

combinations4 ,these may be tabulated as
 in ,fig4 #ah1 opposite p4 #hd4  ,the   
#i3c3c3a ,ratio4--,while there are      
sixteen possible and equally probable   
combinations1 these will give only nine 
distinct kinds because some of the      
matings are alike4 ,the numbers of the  
various kinds of matings are as follows3
    7#a7 #a ,,rryy    7#d7 #b ,rr,y,y   
7#g7 #a rr,y,y   7#b7 #b ,r,r,yy    7#e7
 #d ,rr,yy    7#h7 #b rr,yy   7#c7 #a   
,r,ryy    7#f7 #b ,rryy    7#i7 #a rr,yy
  ,since roundness 7,r7 and yellowness  
7,y7 are dominant to angularity 7r7 and 
greenness 7y7 in all combinations       
containing ,r or ,y1 the alternative    
determiners r or y would be obscured1   
with the result that individuals having 
certain of the combinations would look  
alike to our eye4 ,for example1 the     
individuals represented by numbers #a1  
#b1 #d and #e1 since they contain       
dominant ,r and ,y1 would all appear    
round and yellow1 although in reality   
,no4 #a would be the only one of pure   

type 7both elements homozygous7 and     
hence the only one that would breed true
 in subsequent generations4 ,the two    
individuals represented in ,no4 #b would
 breed true as regards shape 7,,rr7 but 
not color 7,yy74 ,just the reverse is   
true of ,no4 #d since shape is          
heterozygous 7,rr7 and color homozygous 
7,,yy74 ,the four individuals           
represented in ,no4 #e are heterozygous 
with regard to both elements4 ,thus nine
 individuals 7#a plus #b plus #b plus #d
  #i7 represented in ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #d   
and #e would be round and yellow1 three 
individuals 7,nos4 #c and #f7 would be  
round and green1 three 7,nos4 #g and #h7
 would be angular and yellow1 and only  
one 7,no4 #i7 would be angular and      
green4 ,that is to say1 the four classes
 discernible to the eye in generation   
,f#b would be present in the ratio of   
#i3c3c3a4  ,phenotype and               
,genotype4--,forms such as those        
represented in ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #d and #e  
which to the eye appear to be alike1    

regardless of their germinal            
constitution1 are said to be of the same
 phenotype4 ,those of the same          
hereditary constitution1 as the two     
individuals represented in ,no4 #h1 or  
the four individuals in ,no4 #e1 are    
said to be of the same genotype1 that   
is1 they are of identical gametic       
constitution4  ,as we have seen1 it is  
from the genotypical not the            
phenotypical constitution that an       
offspring is derived and what a given   
form will bring forth depends then on   
its genotype4  ,crosses ,with ,more     
,than ,two ,pairs of ,characters4--,in  
crosses in which more than two pairs of 
contrasted characters are involved the  
underlying principles are in no way     
different1 only with each pair of       
additional characters there is1 of      
course1 a greater number of possible    
combinations4 ,thus with three pairs of 
characters there will be eight different
 classes of gametes in each sex and     
consequently sixty-four possible        

combinations in mating1 giving eight    
different phenotypes in the proportion  
of #bg3i3i3i3c3c3c3a4 ,the largest class
 manifests the three dominant           
characters2 the smallest class1 the     
three recessives2 the three classes in  
the proportion of #i each exhibit two   
dominant and one recessive characters2  
and those in the proportion of #c each  
display two recessive and one dominant  
characters4   ,,the ,,question ,,of     
,,blended ,,inheritance  ,we come now to
 certain types of inheritance in which  
there seems to be a true fusion or blend
 of the contributions from the two      
parents1 the intermediate condition     
apparently persisting in subsequent     
generations without segregation4        
,numerous cases of blended inheritance  
have been cited in earlier literature of
 heredity1 but as our knowledge of      
genetics has progressed many            
experimental breeders have come to      
believe that the blends in such cases   
are apparent rather than real and that  

the phenomena can be best explained on a
 non-blending unit-character basis1 just
 as we would explain ordinary ,mendelian
 phenomena4  ,nilsson-,ehle's           
,discoveries4--,to get their point of   
view we may review certain experiments  
on wheat made by ,nilsson-,ehle1        
together with their ,mendelian          
interpretation4 ,nilsson-,ehle found    
that a certain brown-chaffed wheat when 
crossed with a white-chaffed strain     
yielded a brown-chaffed hybrid1         
apparently in accordance with the simple
 principle of ,mendelian dominance4 ,but
 these heterozygous brown-chaffed       
individuals did not in turn give the    
expected ratio of #c3a in the ,f#b      
generation but a ratio of #ae brown to  
#a white1 and furthermore the browns    
were not all of the same degree of      
brownness4 ,to be exact1 from fifteen   
different crosses of the strains he     
obtained #a1daj brown-chaffed and #id   
white-chaffed plants4  ,this apparent   
anomaly in segregation was easily       

explained1 however1 when it was finally 
figured out that there were really two  
independent determiners for brown color1
 either of which alone could produce a  
brown individual1 but when combined     
produced individuals of correspondingly 
deeper shades of brown4 ,in such a case 
then ,nilsson-,ehle discovered that he  
was dealing merely with a ,mendelian    
dihybrid where two different determiners
 ,b and ,b' and their respective        
absences b and b' are involved4 ,the    
original brown wheat had both ,b and ,b'
 and the original white b and b'4 ,the  
formula for the ,f#a heterozygote was   
therefore ,bb,b'b'4 ,the four possible  
types of gametes for male and female are
 ,,bb'1 ,bb'1 b,b'1 bb'1 and the        
tabulation would be as follows3         
-----------------------------------     
,,bb'     ,bb'     b,b'    bb'          
-------------------------------------   
,,bb'  ,,bbb',b'  ,,bbb'b'  ,bb,b',b'   
,bb,b'b'                                
-------------------------------------   

,bb'  ,,bbb'b'  ,bb',bb'  ,bb,b'b'      
,bbb'b'                                 
-------------------------------------   
b,b'  ,bb,b',b'  ,bb,b'b'  bb,b',b'     
bb,b'b'                                 
-------------------------------------   
bb'  ,bb,b'b'  ,bbb'b'  bb,b'b'  bbb'b' 
----------------------------------------
-  ,it will be observed that there are  
more brown determiners in some          
combinations than others4 ,for instance 
one of the sixteen contains four such   
determiners1 viz41 ,b1 ,b'1 ,b1 ,b'1    
four contain three determiners1 six     
contain two1 four contain only one1 and 
one contains none4 ,thus all but one of 
the sixteen contain at least one        
determiner and will therefore be brown  
in color but the depth of color will    
depend on the number of brown           
determiners in a given individual4 ,this
 is more graphically represented in     
,fig4 #ai1 p4 #ij4 ,the largest number  
of similar individuals1 six in all1     
contain two determiners each and        

represent an intermediate blend between 
the original brown-chaffed and          
white-chaffed strains4 ,the deeper and  
the lighter browns due to more or fewer 
determinants in an individual would if  
one did not know the units in this case 
look like the fluctuations around this  
average which we might expect in a      
blend4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai      
,diagram illustrating the proportionate 
distribution of determiners where either
 of two different determiners produces  
the same character1 the degree of       
expression of the character depending on
 the number of the determiners present4 
,the numerals indicate the number of    
brown determiners present in an         
individual4   ,nilsson-,ehle found      
another significant case in wheat where 
one particular red-grained strain of    
,swedish wheat when crossed with        
white-grained strains produced          
red-grained offspring1 but when these   
were interbred the ,f#b generation gave 
approximately sixty-three red to one    

white-grained individual4 ,here it was  
found that in the original red wheat    
there are three separate determiners    
which act independently of one another  
in heredity1 any one of which would make
 red color2 and that they together with 
their absences simply follow the        
,mendelian laws for a trihybrid4  ,such 
,cases ,easily ,mistaken for ,true      
,blends4--,if we should tabulate the    
possible combinations as we did the     
dihybrid we should see that we would get
 individuals having varying numbers of  
red determiners4 ,only one of the       
sixty-four possible combinations would  
be without a factor for red4 ,of the    
sixty-four1 one would have six          
determiners for red1 six would have     
five1 fifteen would have four1 twenty   
would have three1 fifteen would have    
two1 six would have one1 and one would  
have none4 ,since here every additional 
red factor means deeper redness in the  
individual there would be varying       
degrees of redness in the ,f#b          

generation with those having three      
determiners1 the largest group1 standing
 apparently intermediate4 ,not knowing  
the factors involved we might easily    
mistake such a case for a true blend    
with fluctuations about an average      
intermediate form4 ,nilsson-,ehle       
finally proved his interpretation by    
rearing an ,f#c generation from isolated
 and self-fertilized plants of this ,f#b
 generation4  ,this same principle of   
cumulative determiners has also been    
established in ,america by ,east with   
field corn4  ,as the number of duplicate
 determiners increases it can be readily
 seen that the number of apparent blends
 of different degrees of intermediacy   
between the two extremes would rapidly  
increase4  ,skin-,color in ,man4--,in   
man1 the skin-color of the hybrids      
between negroes and whites is often     
cited as a case of blended inheritance  
in contradistinction to ,mendelian      
inheritance4 ,the skin-color of the     
mulatto of the ,f#a generation is       

intermediate between that of the white  
and black parent4 ,this same degree of  
intermediacy is commonly supposed to    
persist in subsequent generations1 but  
as a matter of fact1 careful            
investigation has shown that while      
mulattoes rarely produce pure white or  
pure black children1 there is           
considerably greater range in the shades
 of color in the ,f#b generation and    
subsequent generations than in the ,f#a 
generation4 ,this is exactly what one   
would expect of a ,mendelian character  
in which several cooperating factors    
were involved4 ,indeed1 ,davenport who  
has made extensive studies#c on the     
inheritance of skin-color in man has    
come to the conclusion that the case is 
really one of ,mendelian inheritance in 
which several factors for skin-color are
 concerned4 ,even the skin of a white   
man is pigmented in some degree under   
normal conditions4 ,davenport has shown 
in the skin of both whites and blacks   
that there is a mixture of black1 yellow

 and red pigments4 ,he concludes that   
there are two double factors 7,,aabb7   
for black pigmentation in the           
full-blooded negro of the west coast of 
,africa and these are separably         
inheritable4 ,since these factors are   
lacking in white persons the            
intermediate color of an ,f#a mulatto   
would therefore be heterozygous for     
pigmentation1 and subsequent            
generations1 following the laws for     
segregation where a number of factors   
are concerned1 would show different     
degrees of color because of the varying 
combinations of factors4  ,some         
,investigators ,would ,question the     
,existence of ,real ,blends4--,still    
other reputed blends such as ear length 
in rabbits and the like have been shown 
to be analyzable into ,mendelian        
behavior if one will but postulate      
numerous or multiple factors4 ,just how 
far we are justified in so accounting   
for blends has not yet been established4
 ,some of our most careful              

experimentalists in heredity still      
believe that real blends exist1         
particularly where the character is     
quantitatively expressed--that is1 as   
more or less of a given size or         
amount--while others would maintain that
 all alleged blends will probably be    
found to be resolvable into factors     
which follow ,mendelian rule4 ,it must  
be left for future investigations to    
demonstrate which school is correct4    
,,the ,,place ,,of ,,the ,,mendelian    
,,factors ,,in ,,the ,,germ-,,cells     
,parallel ,between the ,behavior of     
,mendelian ,factors and                 
,chromosomes4--,the question arises as  
to whether there is any evidence from   
the study of germ-cells themselves to   
bear out the ,mendelian conception of   
separation of contrasted characters in  
the gametes of the ,f#a generation4 ,in 
the discussion of the maturation of     
germ-cells 7,chap4 ,,ii7 it has already 
been seen that the chromosomes of the   
germ-cells are in all probability       

arranged in homologous pairs1 one member
 being of maternal and the other of     
paternal origin1 and that furthermore   
they are closely associated with the    
phenomena of heredity4 ,and since in    
maturation there is an actual           
segregation of the chromosomes into two 
sets1 half going to one cell and half to
 its mate1 a physical basis adequate to 
the necessities of the case is really at
 hand4 ,it will be recalled that the    
individuals of a pair separate in such a
 way at the reduction division that the 
paternal member goes to one cell and the
 maternal member to the other1 although 
each pair seemingly acts independently  
of the others with the result that any  
mature germ-cell may contain chromosomes
 from each of the original parents but  
never the two chromosomes which earlier 
made up a pair4 ,the close parallel     
between the behavior of chromosomes and 
the behavior of ,mendelian factors1     
although the two sets of phenomena were 
discovered wholly independently of each 

other1 is obvious4 ,if we suppose that  
each chromosome bears the determiner of 
a ,mendelian character and that         
chromosomes bearing allelomorphic       
characters make up the various pairs    
which are seen in the early germ-cells  
of an individual before reduction       
occurs1 then the segregation of the     
individuals of an allelomorphic pair    
into different gametes must result in   
consequence of the passing of the       
corresponding chromosomes into separate 
gametes4 ,fig4 #bj1 p4 #ie1 from        
,professor ,wilson represents equally   
well the segregations of pairs of       
chromosomes or pairs of ,mendelian      
characters4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj 
,diagram showing union of factors from  
the two separate parents in             
fertilization and their segregation in  
the formation of germ-cells 7after      
,wilson74 ,with four pairs of factors   
7,aa1 ,bb1 ,cc1 ,dd71 sixteen types of  
gametes are possible1 as shown in the   
series of small circles at the right4   

,the same diagram equally well          
represents the pairings and segregations
 of chromosomes4   ,a ,single           
,chromosome not ,restricted to ,carrying
 a ,single ,determiner4--,it has been   
objected that there may be more pairs of
 independently heritable allelomorphic  
characters than there are pairs of      
chromosomes4 ,it is true that there are 
more pairs of characters than pairs of  
chromosomes but there is no reason for  
supposing that a given chromosome is    
restricted to carrying a single         
unit-determiner4 ,on the contrary it    
probably carries several or many4 ,some 
workers have pointed out that certain   
units might be interchanged during the  
pairing of chromosomes before the       
reduction division1 others that inasmuch
 as the chromosomes become diffuse and  
granulated during the intervals between 
divisions it is not improbable that the 
individual units may become separated   
from their original system during such  
times and that it is a matter of chance 

into which of the homologous            
chromosomes1 ,a or a1 they enter with   
the re-establishment of the chromosomes4
 ,on the other hand1 cases are known    
where two or more separate characters   
are permanently associated in           
inheritance1 that is1 if they enter a   
crossed form together they come out     
together in the grandchildren as if they
 were carried in the same unit-body in  
the germ-cell4 ,the only observable     
unit-bodies that fulfil the necessities 
of such cases are the chromosomes4 ,this
 tendency of characters to exist in     
groups which are inherited independently
 of one another is coming more and more 
into evidence as we penetrate farther   
into the intricacies of inheritance1 and
 it is exactly what we would expect on  
the supposition that each chromosome    
carries the determiners of a number of  
characters instead of a single one4     
,,chapter ,,iv  ,,mendelism ,,in ,,man  
,the ,mendelian ,principles ,probably   
,applicable to ,many ,characters of     

,man4--,we are really just beginning to 
make the proper observations and collect
 the necessary data with reference to   
the application of ,mendelian principles
 to the traits of man4 ,yet brief as has
 been our study we have disclosed much  
significant evidence which makes it seem
 highly probable that many of his       
characters1 good and bad1 of mind and   
body are as subservient to these laws as
 are the traits and features of lower   
forms4 ,davenport and ,plate record over
 sixty human characters or defects which
 are seemingly inherited in ,mendelian  
fashion4 ,although about fifty of these 
are pathological or abnormal conditions1
 this does not mean that such conditions
 are more prone to follow ,mendelian    
inheritance but merely that being       
relatively conspicuous or isolated they 
are easier to follow and tabulate4      
,difficult to get ,correct              
,data4--,while it must be said that in  
many cases no simple form of ,mendelian 
tabulation has been unequivocally       

established1 yet the general behavior of
 the various inheritable traits in      
question is so obviously related to the 
conventional ,mendelian course that     
there seems little reason for doubting  
that they are at bottom the same4       
,failure to obtain exact proportions may
 be attributable in part to the         
probability that what we loosely regard 
as a character should in reality be     
analyzed into more elemental components1
 and above all to the fact that from the
 very nature of the conditions under    
which human records must be obtained1   
there is considerable chance of         
inaccuracy or error in such accounts4   
,how many human traits follow ,mendelian
 rules remains largely for future       
investigators to establish4  ,we are    
handicapped at the outset in man by the 
many difficulties of getting correct    
data from the genealogies on which we   
must depend1 or in fact of getting any  
genealogy at all1 for in this country at
 least1 most families keep imperfect    

records of births and deaths and many of
 the institutions for the various kinds 
of defectives have little in their      
records that will help us in following  
out hereditary conditions4 ,then in     
matters of disease we meet with the fact
 that many former diagnoses were        
erroneous4 ,in yet other cases1 and this
 is particularly true among mental and  
moral defectives1 we are often not sure 
of the paternity of a given child4      
,furthermore1 one is likely to be misled
 by the proportions which may occur in  
the very limited number of children of  
any given couple4  ,still other         
difficulties exist4 ,among these is the 
fact1 for example1 that in many cases of
 defect or susceptibility to disease1 a 
given individual in the stock may have  
the trait in an expressible and         
transmissible form1 yet it never comes  
to expression because that individual   
has been fortunate enough to escape the 
environmental stimulus which would call 
it forth4 ,thus one highly susceptible  

to tuberculosis might escape infection1 
or persons hovering on the verge of     
insanity might never receive the        
precipitating stimulus which would      
topple them into actual insanity2 yet   
each would be wrongfully recorded in a  
genealogy looking to such traits as     
perfectly normal4 ,or again if it be a  
question of intellectual brilliancy as  
shown by accomplishment in the realm of 
scholarship1 or of worldly affairs1 the 
ones who although possessing them have  
had no chance to display unusual talents
 would be tabulated as average whereas  
in fact they should be recorded as of   
high rank4 ,that this is particularly   
likely to happen in the case of women is
 evident4  ,a ,generalized              
,presence-,absence ,formula for         
,man4--,in man as in lower forms some   
characters or traits are due presumably 
to the presence of determiners or to    
their absence4 ,likewise1 dominance and 
recessiveness are as much in evidence1  
for in tracing back pedigrees of various

 traits we find the same forms of       
tabulation that obtain for these        
conditions in plants and lower animals  
hold good4 ,for typical cases in man let
 us use a generalized presence-absence  
formula and the arbitrary symbol ,a for 
the presence of the determiner of the   
character 7double in the individual1    
single in the germ7 and a for its       
absence4 ,thus ,,aa represents a        
condition in which similar determiners  
have been derived from both parents and 
the individual is duplex as regards the 
character in question2 each mature      
germ-cell will have the determiner4 ,aa 
represents a condition in which the     
individual has received the determiner  
from only one parent and is therefore   
simplex with regard to the character2   
half of the gametes of such an          
individual will have the determiner and 
half will lack it4 ,lastly1 aa          
represents total absence of the         
determiner4 ,such an individual is      
nulliplex4 ,he or she will not have the 

determiner represented in any of the    
gametes1 and can not1 of course1        
transmit a trait represented by the     
determiner4  ,it is evident that six    
kinds of gametic matings are possible   
among individuals representing these    
various formulae4 ,these matings are as 
follows3                                
,possible                               
couplings           ,matings            
of gametes       ,product    #a4        
,nulliplex x ,nulliplex 7aa x aa7       
a------a  all nulliplex                 
_/                                      
_/                                      
a------a    #b4 ,nulliplex x ,simplex   
7aa x ,aa7    a------,a  #ej per cent4  
_/       with character                 
_/       nulliplex and                  
a------a    #ej per cent4               
with it                                 
simplex4    #c4 ,nulliplex x ,duplex 7aa
 x ,,aa7     a------,a  all with        
characters                              
_/       simplex                        

_/                                      
a------,a    #d4 ,simplex x ,simplex    
7,aa x ,aa7      ,a------,a  #be per    
cent4                                   
_/       with characters                
_/       duplex1 #ej per                
a------a    cent4 with it               
simplex and #be                         
per cent4 with                          
it nulliplex4    #e4 ,simplex x ,duplex 
7,aa x ,,aa7      ,a-------,a  #ej per  
cent4                                   
_/        with character                
_/        duplex and #ej                
a-------,a    per cent4 with            
it simplex4    #f4 ,duplex x ,duplex    
7,,aa x ,,aa7       ,a-------,a  all    
duplex4                                 
_/                                      
_/                                      
,a-------,a  ,indications of ,incomplete
 ,dominance4--,while in cases of strict 
,mendelian dominance it is not possible 
to distinguish directly the simplex from
 the duplex condition1 as a matter of   

fact the individual of simplex          
constitution sometimes has the character
 represented in the single determiner   
less perfectly developed than in the    
corresponding character of duplex       
origin4 ,in studying defects in man due 
to the absence of a determiner1 where   
theoretically presence of the determiner
 7normality7 is dominant over its       
absence in individuals of simplex       
constitution1 one finds it recorded with
 increasing frequency that such         
individuals are more or less            
intermediate or are tainted with the    
defect2 thus showing that the defect    
though obscured is not wholly in        
abeyance4 ,thus individuals carrying    
epilepsy or feeble-mindedness which are 
regarded as recessive traits1 while not 
showing specific feeble-mindedness or   
epilepsy1 may nevertheless apparently   
show a neuropathic taint in the form of 
migraine1 alcoholism or other lapse from
 normality4 ,the condition is seemingly 
more akin in some cases to that found in

 the offspring of certain red flowers   
crossbred with white flowers1 which     
though red do not show the same         
intensity of color as the original red  
parent4 ,just as here the single        
determiner or single dose of redness is 
insufficient to produce the intensity of
 color that appears when the offspring  
receive two determiners for red1 one    
from each parent1 so in man a single    
determiner for normality of a specific  
character is inadequate in some cases to
 make the individual wholly normal4 ,or 
possibly some cases are more of the type
 of those in which the character in     
question1 for instance the red color of 
some wheats and corn1 may be produced by
 any one of two or three determiners1   
the intensity of the characters 7red    
color1 e4 g47 depending on whether one1 
two or three determiners are present4   
,why ,after the ,first ,generation ,only
 ,half the ,children ,may ,show the     
,dominant ,character4--,if the trait is 
a simple dominant one it is clear that  

it will appear in each generation and   
always spring from an affected          
individual4 ,by referring back to our   
tabulation of possible matings on page  
#ajj where the dominant character is    
represented by the letter ,a1 this can  
be seen at a glance4 ,if the trait is   
present in the duplex condition in one  
parent and absent from the other1 then  
formula #c applies2 all children will   
show the trait1 but in the simplex form 
7,aa74 ,if the trait is present in the  
simplex form in one parent and absent in
 the other1 formula #b applies4 ,fifty  
per cent4 of the children will have the 
character in the simplex form 7,aa7     
which means also an even chance of      
transmitting it to their offspring2     
fifty per cent4 will not inherit it and 
will be incapable1 furthermore1 of      
transmitting it1 since they have become 
nulliplex 7aa74 ,in human genealogies if
 an individual having an unusual trait  
which is inherited as a dominant marries
 a normal person and half of the        

offspring show the trait 7and this is   
common71 this means that the parent     
manifesting the trait had it represented
 only in the simplex condition1         
otherwise all of the children would have
 shown it4 ,even though the original    
ancestor who first developed the        
condition or structure may have had it  
in a duplex form1 it would after the    
first mating1 if this were with an      
individual lacking the trait1 be        
represented only in the simplex form    
7see formula #e7 and could never become 
duplex again unless two individuals both
 having the character married1 and then 
only in twenty-five per cent4 of the    
offspring 7see formula #c74 ,if the     
trait is a defect all the children      
showing it1 even though marrying normal 
7nulliplex7 individuals1 will pass it on
 again to half their children1 but those
 who do not show it may ordinarily marry
 with impunity since its non-expression 
in their make-up means1 as far as we    
know at present1 that their germ-plasm  

has been purged of the defect and that  
they are therefore nulliplex with       
reference to it4  ,eye-,color in        
,man4--,of normal characters in man     
which follow the ,mendelian formula     
perhaps eye-color is the best           
established4 ,brown or black eye-color  
is due to a melanin pigment absent from 
the blue or gray eye4 ,that is1 a brown 
eye is practically a blue eye plus an   
additional layer of pigment on the outer
 surface of the iris4 ,the different    
shades of brown and the black are due to
 the relative abundance of this pigment4
 ,gray color and the shades of blue seem
 to be a modification of an original    
dark blue1 due to structural differences
 in the fibrous tissues of the iris4    
,in inheritance brown or black is       
dominant to blue or gray1 or in other   
words the presence and absence of a     
pigment ,p constitutes a pair of        
allelomorphs4 ,hence two brown-eyed     
parents1 if ,p is duplex in both 7or    
duplex in one and simplex in the other7 

can have only brown-eyed children4      
,thus1    #a4 ,,pp x ,,pp  ,,pp1 or all 
duplex brown4    #b4 ,,pp x ,pp  ,,pp   
and ,pp1 half duplex brown and half     
simplex brown4  ,if each parent has     
brown eyes but in simplex condition1    
then one-fourth of children will have   
blue or gray eyes2 for example1         
,mating   ,gametic              ,product
           couplings    ,pp x ,pp       
,p--,p     ,,pp1 ,pp1 p,p1 and pp1 or   
one-fourth              _/       duplex 
brown1 one-half simplex              _/ 
brown1 and one-fourth blue or           
p--p      gray4  ,if both parents have  
blue or gray eyes they can not have     
children with black or brown eyes1 since
 the recessive condition in each parent 
means total absence of brown pigment in 
both4  ,if one pair is duplex brown and 
the other blue1 then all children will  
have brown eyes but of simplex type4    
,if one parent has simplex brown eyes   
7type ,pp7 and one blue 7pp7 then       
one-half of the children will have brown

 eyes of simplex type and one-half will 
have blue eyes4  ,occasional objections 
have been raised against the ,mendelian 
interpretation of inheritance in        
eye-color1 but the cases cited in       
evidence against the theory usually     
narrow down to those in which the color 
is so diluted as to render              
classification uncertain4 ,for example1 
hazel eyes are sometimes called gray2   
they belong however to the melanic      
pigmented type although the brown       
pigment may be much diluted and occur   
mainly around the pupil4 ,so-called     
green eyes are due to yellow pigment on 
a blue background4 ,in the rare cases   
where in the same individual one eye is 
brown and the other blue1 the individual
 should probably be rated as brown-eyed 
on the supposition that in the one eye  
the development of brown pigment has in 
some way been suppressed4               
,hair-,color4--,the inheritance of      
hair-color has also been the subject of 
considerable study and while the        

conditions are not so simple as in the  
case of eye-color1 there is little doubt
 that it belongs in the ,mendelian      
category4 ,in human hair1 color has as  
its foundation apparently two pigments1 
black and red4 ,absence of one or both  
or various combinations or dilutions of 
these seemingly account for the         
prevailing colors in human hair4 ,in    
general dark hair is dominant to light1 
although because of the delay sometimes 
in the darkening of the hair in children
 this fact is often obscured4 ,black is 
dominant to red4 ,people with glossy    
black hair1 according to ,davenport1 are
 probably simplex for black1 the        
glossiness being due usually to         
recessive red4 ,the expectation would be
 for some of the children of such a pair
 to have red hair4  ,in man occasionally
 a congenital white lock contrasting    
strikingly with the remaining normally  
pigmented hair occurs4 ,it behaves as a 
simple dominant in heredity4            
,hair-,shape4--,again1 straight and     

curly hair seem to be distinct          
inheritable characters4 ,curly is       
incompletely dominant to straight1 the  
simplex condition yielding wavy hair4   
,not to enter into details of the       
matings1 statistics gathered by ,mr4 and
 ,mrs4 ,davenport show that1 two        
flaxen-haired parents have flaxen-haired
 children2 two golden-haired parents    
have only golden-haired children2 two   
parents with light brown hair have      
children with hair of that color or     
lighter1 but never darker2 two parents  
each with dark brown or black hair may  
have children with all the varieties of 
hair-color4 ,summing together a series  
of recessives ,davenport points out that
 two blue-eyed1 flaxen or golden and    
straight-haired parents will have only  
children like themselves4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba  ,diagram     
showing descent of brachydactyly through
 five generations2 black symbols        
indicate affected individuals2 male1    
male2 female1 female 7after ,farabee74  

,irregularities4--,if a dominant trait  
or defect depends on more than a single 
factor1 as is sometimes the case1 or if 
it is modified by sex or other          
conditions1 as is true of certain       
characters1 some of which1 such as      
color-blindness1 have already been      
examined1 then we shall find some       
apparently non-affected individuals     
having affected offspring4 ,certain     
diseases1 for example1 are generally    
transmitted by affected members of the  
family to their children in the expected
 ,mendelian ratio for a dominant1 yet an
 occasional skip of a generation may    
appear in which an apparently perfectly 
normal individual transmits to his      
children what1 except for the omission  
in his own case1 appears to be an       
ordinary dominant character4 ,this      
occasional lapse in the appearance of a 
character when theoretically it should  
appear is doubtless due in some         
instances to the fact that what is      
really inherited is a tendency1 and     

although this is present in the         
apparently normal individual1 for some  
reason the condition itself has not     
appeared4 ,this might especially be true
 in the case of a disease which does not
 manifest itself until late in life4 ,in
 other cases there are undoubtedly      
complicating accessory conditions which 
modify the behavior of the trait        
somewhat4   ,,other ,,cases ,,of        
,,dominance ,,in ,,man  ,among other    
normal characters in man1 as far as     
available evidence goes1 dark skin is   
dominant to light skin2 normally        
pigmented condition to albino2 and      
nervous temperament to phlegmatic4      
,digital ,malformations4--,an           
interesting and easily followed defect  
is a condition known as brachydactylism1
 in which the digits are shortened      
because of the absence or rudimentary   
condition of one segment4 ,the fingers1 
therefore1 appear to be only two-jointed
 like the thumb4 ,several families      
showing this defect have been charted   

and it appears to behave as a typical   
dominant4 ,in looking over such a chart 
7,fig4 #ba1 p4 #ajf7 one is struck by   
the fact that only half of the children 
from most of the matings show the       
defect1 but when we recall that the     
affected parent1 after the first        
generation1 probably carried the        
condition in only the simplex form and  
married a normal individual1 such a     
result is just what would be expected   
7see formula #b74  ,polydactylism       
7,figs4 #bb1 #bc1 pp4 #aji1 #aaj7 is a  
condition in which there are extra      
digits on hands or feet4 ,the character1
 with apparently slight exceptions in a 
few records1 behaves as a typical       
dominant4 ,among other digital defects  
which are inherited as a dominant is a  
condition known as syndactylism 7,fig4  
#bd1 p4 #aaa71 in which two or more     
digits are fused side by side4 ,for an  
example of syndactyly which seems to be 
in the class of sex-linked characters1  
see ,fig4 #ae1 p4 #fe4  ,eye            

,defects4--,congenital cataract is      
another not uncommon defect in man which
 is transmitted as a dominant 7,fig4    
#be1 p4 #aab7 with occasional           
irregularities4 ,it is a condition of   
opacity of the lens of the eye which    
produces partial or total blindness4 ,in
 a paper on ,hereditary ,blindness and  
,its ,prevention1 ,clarence ,loeb       
7#aiji7 mentions #cjd families of which 
pedigrees have been published4 ,of the  
#a1jab children in these families #ehi1 
or #eh per cent41 were affected4 ,it is 
obvious that this is near the expected  
percentage in the case of a dominant    
trait where matings of affected with    
normal individuals prevailed4 ,an       
unfortunate circumstance about this     
malady from the eugenic standpoint is   
the fact that it is frequently of the   
presenile form which comes on late in   
life so that it is usually impossible to
 predict whether an individual of       
marriageable age is immune or will later
 become affected4   ,illustration3      

,,fig4 #bb  ,radiograph 7,courtesy of   
,dr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,helm7 showing polydactyly 
in a child's hand4 ,for genealogy of    
this see ,fig4 #bc1 p4 #aaj4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc  ,chart       
showing a history of polydactylism      
through five generations in the ,b----  
family4 ,the individual whose hand is   
pictured in ,fig4 #bb1 p4 #aji1 is of   
the fifth generation4 ,squares represent
 males1 circles females4   ,another     
defect of the eye following the course  
of a dominant in heredity is a          
pigmentary degeneration of the retina   
known as retinitis pigmentosa4 ,atrophy 
of the optic nerve is also involved and 
the final result is blindness4 ,still   
another example frequently cited is that
 of hereditary night blindness          
7hemeralopia71 a disease in which the   
affected person can not see by any but  
the brightest light4 ,in most affected  
families the final outcome is usually   
total blindness4 ,one of the most       
remarkable pedigrees of defects in man  

ever collected is one of this disease   
published by ,nettleship4 ,he succeeded 
in tracing the defect through nine      
generations1 back to the seventeenth    
century4 ,the genealogy includes #b1aaf 
persons4 ,the character behaves as a    
single dominant in males1 but           
frequently1 though not always1 females  
may be carriers of the defect in        
transmissible form though not exhibiting
 it themselves4 ,that is1 males in which
 the condition is simplex 7,aa7 develop 
the defect but females of similar       
simplex constitution 7,aa7 frequently do
 not4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that      
normal males of such strains will have  
normal offspring but normal females may 
have affected children4   ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #bd  ,radiograph 7,courtesy of  
,dr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,helm7 showing a partial   
syndactyly in each hand of an           
individual4 ,some degree of webbing     
between the more distal portions of the 
affected parts is usual4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be  ,pedigree of 

a family with presenile cataract 7black 
symbols72 numbers in circles indicate   
unaffected individuals 7after           
,davenport74   ,other ,defects          
,inherited as ,dominants4--,not to go   
into details other defects which behave 
as dominants or modified dominants in   
human inheritance may be mentioned4 ,the
 following list is not complete and it  
must be understood that in some cases   
the statistics are insufficient to      
justify us in making anything but a     
tentative decision4 ,we may thus        
enumerate as dominant over normality3   
,achondroplasy 7abnormally short limbs  
with normal head and body72 ,keratosis  
7thickening of epidermis72              
,epidermolysis 7excessive formation of  
blisters72 ,hypotrichosis 7hairless1    
toothless condition72 ,diabetes         
insipidus2 ,diabetes mellitus2 ordinary 
7not ,gower's7 muscular atrophy2        
,glaucoma 7internal swelling and        
pressure of eye-ball72 displaced lens2  
,coloboma 7open suture in iris72        

spottedness of hair-coat2 and corneal   
opacity4  ,as a final illustration of a 
serious malady in man which acts as a   
dominant in inheritance1 let us take    
,huntington's chorea4 ,ordinary chorea1 
or ,st4 ,vitus' dance1 a disorder       
characterized by involuntary muscular   
movements1 is commonly though not always
 confined to children and usually ends  
in recovery1 but ,huntington's chorea   
appears typically in middle life and is 
a much more dangerous malady4 ,fig4 #bf1
 p4 #aad1 represents the family history 
of one of five cases which have been    
studied by ,doctor ,lorenz in the       
,mendota ,hospital for the ,insane4 ,all
 charts which have been platted of this 
malady show it to be inherited as a     
dominant4 ,this means that half of the  
children of an individual who carried   
the malady in the simplex condition1 and
 all the children of one who carries it 
in the duplex condition1 are probably   
marked for this terrible end4 ,and the  
true horror of it can only be           

appreciated by one who has seen the last
 stages of the malady4 ,the victim once 
in its grasp gradually becomes wrecked  
in mind and body2 the muscular          
twitchings and disorders of movement    
continually increase and dementia       
progresses until at last death ensues4  
,fig4 #bg1 p4 #aae1 is another chart    
showing inheritance of ,huntington's    
chorea4 ,in still a third case at the   
,mendota ,hospital1 the gravity of the  
situation can be appreciated when one   
realizes that the patient is the father 
of ten children1 ranging in age from one
 to seventeen and one-half years4 ,the  
calamitous fact that this disease does  
not manifest itself usually until middle
 life makes it likely that these        
children will all reach maturity1 marry 
and in turn probably produce offspring  
before the doomed members of the family 
realize their fate4   ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #bf  ,chart showing descent of   
,huntington's chorea in the ,p----      
family 7courtesy of ,dr4 ,w4 ,f4        

,lorenz74 ,squares represent male1      
circles female2 shaded figures are      
choreic members of the family2 partially
 shaded figures1 slightly affected or   
very nervous members4 ,the members of   
the last generation are for the most    
part still too young to show their      
condition4 ,the cross indicates the     
individual in the asylum from whom the  
record was traced back4   ,,cases ,,of  
,,recessiveness ,,in ,,man  ,recessive  
,conditions ,more ,difficult to ,deal   
,with ,because ,they ,are ,frequently   
,masked4--,coming now to the question of
 recessive conditions in man1 we find   
that defects are more likely to be of   
recessive than of dominant type4        
,apparently normality usually means the 
presence of normal determiners and      
abnormality1 the absence of some        
essential determiner4 ,in the latter    
case1 a unit-factor has seemingly been  
lost out in some way in the germ-plasm1 
and the product of such germ-plasm is   
therefore incomplete4 ,as long as the   

loss is counterbalanced by the presence 
of a single determiner from the other   
line of ancestry1 that is1 as long as   
the simplex 7,aa7 condition prevails1   
the loss may not be in evidence1 except 
in cases of incomplete dominance        
7taints1 etc471 but any mating which    
permits of the production of the        
nulliplex condition will bring the      
defect to expression again4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg  ,chart       
showing inheritance of ,huntington's    
chorea in the ,r---- family 7courtesy of
 ,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,lorenz72 #a1 #b have been
 patients at ,mendota ,hospital for the 
,insane2 #c1 died of paralysis2 the     
fourth or last generation indicated by  
the cross1 ranging in age from #f to    
#ad1 are too young yet to show their    
condition as regards this malady4   ,the
 obscure nature of recessives makes such
 conditions more difficult to deal with 
than dominant defects4 ,for as regards  
the latter we have seen that marriage of
 unaffected members of the family as far

 as that particular trait is concerned1 
is perfectly safe1 even to a cousin1 for
 once the germ-plasm is purged of such a
 positive factor1 it1 in so far as we   
know1 remains pure4 ,but in the case of 
a recessive character due to the absence
 of some necessary determiner a normal  
offspring of simplex constitution 7,aa7 
will probably transmit to half of his   
children the capacity for handing on the
 defect1 or if mated to another normal  
individual of simplex constitution 7,aa7
 is likely to have the actual defect    
revealed again in one-fourth of his     
children and latent in two-thirds of the
 remainder4  ,albinism a                
,recessive4--,as an easily understood   
illustration of this type of case we may
 take human albinism1 a condition which 
is due to the absence of a              
pigment-developing determiner4          
,according to ,davenport the albinic    
condition is recessive to normal        
condition4 ,if albino 7aa7 is mated with
 albino 7aa7 nothing but albino children

 may be expected4 ,an albino 7aa7 mated 
with a normal individual will have      
normal offspring 7,aa71 but they will   
have the capacity for transmitting      
albinism to their descendants4 ,thus the
 normal offspring 7,aa7 of an albino    
7aa7 and a normal parent 7,,aa7 if mated
 to another normal individual 7,aa7 who 
has also had an albino parent will      
probably transmit actual albinism to    
one-fourth of his children and the same 
capacity that he himself has of         
producing albinos1 to one-half of his   
children1 although the latter will      
appear to the eye to be normal4  ,other 
,recessive ,conditions in ,man4--,if for
 albinism we substitute certain forms of
 insanity1 hereditary feeble-mindedness 
7,fig4 #bh1 p4 #aah71 or hereditary     
epilepsy1 all of which apparently follow
 the same law1 we can readily understand
 how unfit such matings are where both  
strains are affected4 ,marriage with    
similarly defective stock will result in
 the affection appearing in one-fourth  

of the progeny1 and one-half of them1   
though apparently normal themselves1    
will have the capacity for transmitting 
the imperfection4 ,it is in the         
existence of such hidden factors that   
the chief danger in the marriage of     
cousins1 or in fact any consanguineous  
marriage lies4  ,a few of the various   
defects which seem to be inherited as   
recessives when mated with normality    
are3 susceptibility to cancer2 chorea   
7,st4 ,vitus' dance72 true dwarfism 7all
 parts proportionately reduced72        
,alkaptonuria 7urine darkens after      
passage72 alcoholism and criminality1   
where based on mental deficiency2       
hereditary hysteria2 multiple sclerosis 
7diffuse degeneration of nervous        
tissue72 ,friedreich's disease          
7degeneration of upper part of the      
spinal cord72 ,merriere's disease       
7dizziness and roaring in ears72        
,thomsen's disease 7lack of muscular    
tone72 hereditary ataxia2 possibly the  
tendency to become hard of hearing with 

increased age2 and possibly1            
non-resistance to tuberculosis4  ,of    
non-pathological conditions in man which
 are inherited as recessives1 apparently
 either very great or very small        
intellectual ability are examples4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh  ,chart       
showing descent of feeble-mindedness as 
a typical recessive 7after ,goddard74   
,squares represent males1 circles       
females2 ,,dd1 homozygous dominant2     
,,dr1 heterozygous dominant 7i4 e4      
normal although a carrier72 ,,rr1 pure  
recessive2 ,n1 normal2 ,f1              
feeble-minded2 ,a1 alcoholic4           
,breeding ,out ,defects4--,even though  
recessive defects occur in a stock1     
there is the possibility of diluting out
 the imperfection in successive         
generations if care is taken always to  
marry into a stock wholly free from it4 
,for example1 a normal individual       
carrying a recessive defect will bear   
the abnormality in half of his or her   
germ-cells4 ,this means that when such  

an individual marries a normal1         
non-carrier1 half of their children will
 be wholly normal 7,,aa7 and half will  
be carriers2 normal but of simplex      
constitution 7,aa74 ,if now this        
generation1 carriers and non-carriers1  
marry only into normal strains of duplex
 constitution1 then their combined issue
 will be likewise normal with only      
one-fourth of them carriers of the      
imperfections4 ,this means that even if 
all of this last generation were married
 to persons having the defect only one  
out of four would have children showing 
it although the remaining children would
 be carriers4 ,on the other hand if     
mated to normals only one-eight of the  
next generation would be carriers4 ,thus
 by continually marrying into strong    
strains liability to manifest any       
recessive defect can be diminished in a 
few generations until the descendants   
are no more likely to have defective    
children than are members of our        
ordinary population4  ,the proportion in

 which the recessive defect would appear
 in successive generations if all       
persons in a given generation married   
only normal individuals who were        
non-carriers is indicated in the        
following table where ,,aa indicates a  
normal individual1 ,aa one who is normal
 but a carrier1 and aa an individual    
with the imperfection expressed2 to     
indicate proportions simply after the   
first generation1 four is arbitrarily   
chosen as the number of children which  
results from each marriage3             
,matings   ,children   ,generation #a   
aa x ,,aa  ,aa    ,generation #b    ,aa 
x ,,aa  #b;,,aa  #b;,aa    ,generation  
#c    ,,aa x ,,aa  #d;,,aa              
,,aa x ,,aa  #d;,,aa                    
,aa x ,,aa  #b;,,aa  #b;,aa             
,aa x ,,aa  #b;,,aa  #b;,aa             
----------                              
#ab;,,aa  #d;,aa  ,other ,inheritable   
,conditions in ,man4--,while many       
pedigrees show beyond dispute that such 
qualities as musical ability1 literary  

ability1 memory1 calculating ability1   
mechanical skill1 longevity1            
peculiarities of handwriting1 obesity   
and muscular strength1 for example1 are 
inherited1 their modes of inheritance   
have not yet been sufficiently analyzed 
to express them exactly4     ,,chapter  
,v  ,,are ,,modifications ,,acquired    
,,directly ,,by ,,the ,,body            
,,inherited8   ,which ,new ,characters  
,are ,inherited8--,any new feature which
 appears in a given organism may have   
had its origin in some change which has 
come about in the germ from which it    
sprang1 or it may be merely the product 
of some unusual stimulus operating on   
the body4 ,while the outcome1 as far as 
the present individual is concerned1 is 
in each case a definite modification1   
the matter of inheritance is a very     
different question4 ,on the first       
alternative where the new character is  
the outcome of germinal change1 it is   
obvious that the altered germ-plasm will
 find expression in a similar way in    

succeeding generations as long as the   
new germinal combinations persist4 ,on  
the other hand1 if the new character has
 resulted merely from some influence    
operating on the body of the individual1
 then to be inherited it would also have
 in some way to be transferred to and   
incorporated in the germ-plasm4         
,inasmuch as the body or soma of any    
individual is highly plastic and since  
various of its ultimate features may be 
mere somatic modifications1 it is       
important to decide if possible whether 
or not somatic variations which are not 
of germinal origin can be inherited4    
,examples of ,somatic                   
,modifications4--,for example1 the small
 foot of the ,chinese woman of certain  
caste is the result of inherent germinal
 factor for the production of a foot    
plus the effects of binding which are in
 no wise germinal4 ,the hand of the     
skilled pianist is a normal hand of     
germinal origin and normal environment  
plus the effects of special training4   

,again1 the head of the ,flathead       
,indian is a normal head of germinal    
origin and environment plus the effects 
of flattening4 ,similarly1 almost any   
malformation of extrinsic origin may be 
cited1 ranging from mutilations and     
amputations1 scars and the like to      
monstrosities such as one-eyed fish     
which may be produced by subjecting a   
developing embryo to adverse conditions 
of development4  ,use and               
,disuse4--,even reactions set up through
 the organism's own activities must     
produce changes4 ,for example1 a muscle 
has a certain average of normal         
development in the average man2 it comes
 to this through the innate nature of   
its component cells plus a certain      
average amount of exercise4 ,it may1    
however1 be developed far beyond this   
average by excessive exercise4 ,on the  
other hand1 it is a well-known fact that
 an unused organ weakens or may remain  
but partially developed4 ,thus either   
use or disuse may play an important part

 in the molding of a given individual4  
,but whether or not in doing this it    
similarly affects the germ is a very    
different matter4  ,the ,problem        
,stated4--,the question is can such     
enhanced or suppressed development1 or  
can new or modified characters1 produced
 in an individual by external agencies  
be so reflected on the germ-cell of the 
individual that they tend to reappear as
 such in its offspring without requiring
 the same external factors for their    
production8  ,special ,conditions       
,prevail in ,mammals4--,before          
proceeding further we must recognize    
clearly the very special conditions     
which exist in most mammals4 ,with them 
environment is in part an intra-maternal
 environment and in part independent of 
parental influences4 ,thus the formula  
for most non-mammalia would be--        
,individual  egg  non-parental          
environment2 but  for most mammals1     
including man--    ,individual  egg     
intra-maternal environment  non-parental

   environment4  ,this condition in     
mammals introduces a complicating factor
 which is likely to obscure the whole   
issue unless we bear it constantly in   
mind4 ,in other words1 we must          
discriminate sharply1 in the discussion 
of inheritance in man1 for instance1    
between two classes of influences which 
may exist in the infant at birth1 that  
is1 which are congenital2 namely1 those 
which were truly inherent--were in the  
germ-cells--at the very inception of the
 young individual1 and 7#b7 those which 
might later have been derived from      
either parent by the yet unborn         
offspring4 ,the latter are not regarded 
as truly hereditary4 ,since certain     
diseases or their effects belong here we
 occasionally find a physician using the
 term inheritance for such prenatal     
influences1 but the more careful ones   
now employ the term transmission to     
discriminate between such conditions and
 true inheritance4 ,in its biological   
usage inheritance always refers to      

germinal constitution and never to any  
condition that may be thrust on a       
developing organism before birth4 ,it is
 clear1 then1 that congenital conditions
 are not all necessarily cases of       
inheritance4  ,three ,fundamental       
,questions4--,to get at the question of 
the inheritance of body modifications   
with the least confusion1 let us examine
 it in the form of three fundamental    
questions1 as follows3  #a4 ,can        
external influences directly affect the 
germ-cells8  #b4 ,can external          
influences1 operating through the       
intermediation of the parental body1    
affect the germ-cells8 ,if so1 is the   
effect a specific and a permanent one   
which persists in succeeding generations
 independently of external influences   
similar to those which originally       
produced it8 ,only such a condition as  
this would rank as the inheritance of a 
somatic modification4  #c4 ,can the     
appearance of new characters be         
explained on any other ground1 or on any

 more inclusive basis1 than through the 
transmission of somatic acquirements1 or
 do organisms possess heritable         
characters which are inexplicable as    
inheritance of such modifications8      
,obviously the only way the question can
 be settled is through careful          
experimentation in which all possible   
sources of error have been foreseen and 
guarded against4 ,much experimental work
 has been undertaken for the solution of
 this problem as the goal and we may    
therefore select typical ones of these  
experiments and apply the results toward
 answering our three questions4         
,external ,influences ,may ,directly    
,affect the ,germ-,cells4--,there is    
evidence that under special conditions  
external influences may in certain      
organisms affect the germ-cells1 but    
that this occurs commonly is extremely  
doubtful4 ,for example1 ,professor      
,mac,dougal1 by treating the germ-cells 
of the evening primrose with various    
solutions1 such as sugar1 zinc sulphate 

and calcium nitrate1 has apparently     
succeeded in producing definite germinal
 mutations4 ,he injected the solution   
into the ovary of the flower the        
forenoon of the day at the close of     
which pollination would occur4 ,he      
reports that in this way changes were   
produced in the germ which found        
expression in new and permanent         
characters4  ,professor ,tower has      
experimented for a number of years with 
various species of ,leptinotarsa1 the   
potato beetle4 ,by varying the          
conditions of temperature1 humidity and 
atmospheric pressure when females were  
laying their eggs1 he reports having    
produced variations in the young which  
came from these eggs although the       
mothers themselves were not changed4    
,according to ,professor ,tower slight  
increase or decrease in these           
environmental factors stimulated the    
activity of the color producing         
ferments1 giving rise to melanic or     
darker individuals4 ,greater increase or

 decrease1 inhibited them and produced  
albinos4 ,he found also that at times   
the same stimulus might show different  
results in different eggs4 ,the effect1 
therefore1 is a general and not a       
specific one4 ,ordinarily the eggs of   
these beetles are laid in batches4 ,when
 one of these batches was laid and left 
under normal conditions1 the usual form 
of young hatched from it1 but other     
batches from the same female under      
abnormal conditions resulted in the     
production of atypical forms4 ,for      
example1 a normal two-brooded form      
became five-brooded4 ,the commonest     
modification was the production of      
various color types4 ,these once        
established1 according to ,professor    
,tower1 behave as independent1          
inheritable units4  ,the experiments of 
,doctor ,bardeen with ,x-rays and of    
others with ,x-rays1 radium and other   
agents on the sperm and ova of amphibia 
show that these are very susceptible to 
injurious influence at or near the time 

of fertilization4  ,such ,effects       
,improbable in ,warm-,blooded           
,animals4--,however possible it may be  
to bring about germinal changes in      
invertebrata or lower vertebrata by such
 external agents as temperature and the 
like it is obvious that the probability 
of such extrinsic influences affecting  
the germ-cells of warm-blooded animals  
is very remote indeed4 ,in the latter   
the germ-cells are more or less distant 
from the exterior and are at practically
 a constant temperature4 ,such          
experiments1 therefore1 beyond showing  
the possibility of producing changes in 
germ-cells1 do not have very direct     
bearing on the problem of how           
inheritable variations are produced in  
man4 ,in his case about the only avenue 
of approach through which germ-cells    
might be influenced is the blood or     
lymph4  ,poisons in the ,blood ,may     
,affect the ,germ-,cells4--,any         
poisonous material in the latter might  
injuriously affect the gametes4 ,we     

know1 in fact1 that such poisons as     
alcohol1 lead and various drugs1 and    
also the toxins of various diseases1 do 
so affect germ-cells4 ,it seems         
plausible to suppose that changing      
conditions of nutrition may affect the  
constitution of the germ-cells and thus 
induce changes in the organism which    
arise from these cells1 but such        
nutritional effect is not yet a matter  
of established fact4  ,difficulty of    
,explaining ,how ,somatic ,modifications
 ,could be ,registered in               
,germ-,cells4--,as to our second query  
concerning the possibility of affecting 
the germ-cells through the              
intermediation of parental tissues1 it  
is evident at a glance that since the   
germ-cells are built up along with the  
body and are not a product of it 7,fig4 
#b1 p4 #ac71 if such effects are        
possible they must take place through   
the agency of some transporting medium4 
,the germ-cells1 being lineal           
descendants of the original fertile germ

 or zygote1 already have the same       
possibilities of developing into an     
adult that the zygote had1 and so the   
problem becomes one of modifying a      
complete germ already organized rather  
than of establishing a new germ by      
getting together samples of every part  
of the body4 ,this is all the more      
evident when one realizes that usually  
the germ-cells are set apart long before
 the body becomes adult1 that is1 before
 the body has developed most of its     
characteristics4 ,moreover1 among lower 
animals many instances are known where  
the immature young or even larvae will  
produce offspring which nevertheless    
ultimately manifest all the structures  
of the adult condition4  ,but supposing 
specific modifications of the germinal  
mechanism were possible1 it is difficult
 to comprehend how an influence at a    
distant point of the body could reach   
the germ-cell1 to say nothing of the    
even greater difficulty of understanding
 how it could become registered in the  

germ in a specific way as affecting a   
particular part4 ,for it must be        
remembered that the organs of the adult 
do not exist as such in the germ but are
 present there only as potentialities4  
,how1 for example1 can a change in the  
biceps muscle of one's arm be registered
 in a germ-cell in which there is no    
biceps muscle1 but merely the           
possibilities of developing one8 ,or how
 can increased mental ability which is  
contingent on the elaboration of certain
 brain-cells be impressed on a germ     
which has no brain-cells but only the   
capacity under certain conditions of    
producing such cells8 ,for the brain of 
a child is not descended from the brain 
of his parent1 but from a germ-cell     
carried by that parent4  ,persistence of
 ,mendelian ,factors ,argues ,against   
,such a ,mode of ,inheritance4--,on the 
face of things1 the apparent            
inviolability of ,mendelian factors     
which may remain unexpressed in the germ
 for one or many generations--indeed the

 whole matter of genotypical differences
 in the gametes of the same             
individual--shows the improbability of  
somatic interference with the           
germ-plasm4 ,but notwithstanding this1  
because of the great importance of the  
issue1 it is well to review in some     
considerable detail the various phases  
and possibilities of the question4      
,experiments on ,insects4--,some of the 
attempts to secure evidence of the      
transmission of personally acquired     
parental modifications in insects are   
very interesting4 ,many insects in the  
larval stages1 particularly just after  
pupation seem to be especially          
susceptible to external influences4     
,they have been much used1 therefore1   
for purposes of experiment4 ,it has long
 been known that differences in size1 in
 color and even in the shape of wings   
can be produced by various agents if    
applied at this period of development4  
,from the standpoint of heredity1       
however1 the important consideration is 

to determine if these experimentally    
induced changes have been reflected on  
to the germ-cells so that they reappear 
in the offspring of the modified        
individuals4  ,it has been found that in
 some cases where male and female are of
 different color1 the color of the      
female can be changed to that of the    
male by altering the conditions of      
temperature4 ,in certain cases types can
 be changed by cold so that they        
resemble varieties of the same species  
found farther north1 and by heat1       
varieties found farther south4 ,but not 
all individuals of a given lot are      
affected1 and often different           
individuals of the same kind show       
different effects4 ,moreover1 in some   
cases the same aberrations were produced
 by heat as by cold4 ,this indicates    
that it is not so much a question of    
specific effects as a general           
physiological change1 apparently mainly 
a matter of direct influence of         
temperature on the chemical composition 

of the pigments4 ,the ,countess von     
,linden in fact has shown that the      
extracted pigments can be made to       
undergo the same changes of color in a  
test-tube by heat and cold as in the    
pupae4 ,but there is no evidence that   
the germ-cells of the living insect were
 affected in a specific way4 ,in a small
 fraction of the offspring of such      
modified individuals abnormalities      
appeared1 but these were not always of  
the same kind as those which had been   
produced in the parent4 ,that is1 there 
was no evidence of a trait or character 
having been acquired by the body and    
handed on to the germ-cell4 ,where an   
effect was produced on the germ-cell it 
was probably produced directly as in the
 first cases discussed4  ,size1 colors  
and markings of butterflies have also   
been altered by subjecting the          
caterpillars or the pupae to such       
influences as strong light1 electricity1
 various chemical substances1           
centrifuging1 diminished oxygen supply1 

etc41 but the results were in the main  
confined to the immediate generations4  
,in the few cases where permanent       
inheritable changes were seemingly      
produced they were more reasonably      
interpreted as the effects of direct    
action on the germ-cells than as        
examples of inherited somatic           
modifications4  ,starvation experiments 
which resulted in the dwarfing of adult 
individuals have been performed on      
various insects1 and while the dwarf    
condition may persist through one or two
 generations due to a diminished food   
supply in the eggs of the dwarf1 the    
stock in question when returned to      
normal food conditions soon resumes its 
original characteristic size4           
,experiments on ,plants4--,many         
experiments have been performed with    
plants1 inasmuch as they are            
particularly prone to become modified by
 changes of food supply1 or climate4    
,for example1 plants which grow         
luxuriantly in a warm moist climate or a

 rich soil may become stunted and       
markedly changed if transplanted to a   
cold climate or a poor soil4 ,naturally1
 their progeny will exhibit the same    
behavior as long as they are kept under 
the new conditions4 ,experiments carried
 on through numerous generations1       
however1 practically all show that the  
germinal constitution of the plants     
remains unchanged1 for when their seeds 
are planted under the original favorable
 conditions of soil or climate1 the     
plants resume their former habits of    
growth4 ,naegeli1 for instance1 who made
 a study of many varieties of ,alpine   
plants1 and who carried on experiments  
with many of them for years in the      
,garden of ,munich1 concluded that no   
permanent effects had been produced by  
the ,alpine climate and conditions in   
plants from other regions which had come
 under its influence4 ,a few botanists  
have claimed to have found that the     
changes produced by the ,alpine climate 
have persisted for a generation or two  

and have then worn off4 ,more recent    
experiments on various of our field     
grains which have been stunted and cut  
down in productivity by growing for a   
number of generations under adverse     
conditions show that they have not been 
permanently modified by such treatment1 
for they resume normal productivity and 
size when grown again under favorable   
conditions4  ,on the other hand1        
,lederbaur found that a common weed1    
,capsella1 when transplanted from an    
,alpine habitat to the lowlands did not 
return to the lowland type of the weed1 
but retained certain of its ,alpine     
characteristics4 ,it is not clear1      
however1 that this particular species   
during its long sojourn of many         
generations in ,alpine conditions may   
not have undergone a series of germinal 
variations and have developed into a new
 variety or species quite independently 
of changes wrought in the germ by       
reflected somatic effects4 ,indeed1 in  
face of the preponderance of other cases

 to the contrary1 this interpretation   
would seem to be the more plausible one4
  ,experiments on ,vertebrates4--,in the
 vertebrates we may also find examples  
of various somatic modifications        
experimentally produced1 but evidence of
 their inheritance is as difficult to   
establish as in the invertebrates4 ,let 
us examine a few of the more significant
 of these which are alleged by some to  
bear evidence of such inheritance4  ,by 
decreasing the amount of water in an    
aquarium ,marie von ,chauvin was able to
 transform the aquatic1 gill-breathing  
salamander ,axolotl into the gill-less  
land form ,ambystoma1 heretofore        
regarded by systematists as a different 
species4 ,either of these forms when    
sexually mature produces its like4 ,the 
salamanders in question have both lungs 
and gills1 but after a time the ones    
which are to be land forms lose their   
gills and become exclusively            
lung-breathers4 ,what seems to have been
 accomplished then is the accelerating  

or forcing of normal natural tendencies 
already inherent in the organism instead
 of introducing something new into the  
inheritance by way of the soma4 ,axolotl
 is in all probability merely a larval  
form of ,ambystoma which with high      
temperature and an abundance of water   
reproduces without advancing to the     
final possible stage of its life cycle4 
,epilepsy in ,guinea-,pigs4--,perhaps   
the most frequently cited case and the  
one in which the defenders of the idea  
of somatic inheritance usually take     
final refuge is that of ,doctor         
,brown-,sequard's guinea-pigs1          
notwithstanding the fact that no one has
 had convincing success in repeating the
 experiments and that the original      
results are apparently open to more than
 one interpretation4 ,this experimenter 
rendered guinea-pigs epileptic by       
certain injuries to the nervous system4 
,epilepsy appeared in some of the       
offspring of these operated animals4 ,he
 regarded this as an example of the     

inheritance of an artificially induced  
epilepsy4 ,an indirect loss of toes     
occurred in some of the parents as a    
result of the operations on the nervous 
system4 ,some of their young also had   
missing toes4 ,however1 as has been     
pointed out by various critics1         
guinea-pigs are strongly predisposed    
toward epileptic-like seizures1 and the 
epilepsy in the young may have been     
merely a coincidence4 ,voison and ,peron
 believe they have shown that in        
epilepsy a toxin is produced that may   
affect the unborn fetus4 ,that is1 the  
result might have been due to a poison  
derived directly from the mother4 ,the  
experiments in fact show that it was    
mainly in the offspring of affected     
mothers that the condition appeared4    
,others maintain that we do not know the
 exact nature of epilepsy1 that in some 
cases it may be the result of infection 
by disease-germs1 and that              
,brown-,sequard's cases may1 therefore1 
have been merely the communication of a 

disease from parent to child4 ,as to the
 disappearance of toes it is a          
well-known fact that rodents in         
particular are likely to gnaw off the   
toes of their young very soon after     
birth1 and little credence can be put in
 a lack of toes in such young as cases  
of inheritance except under conditions  
of much more careful observation than   
existed in ,brown-,sequard's            
experiments4 ,a fuller account of these 
experiments will be found in ,romanes'  
,darwin and ,after ,darwin1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 
,chap4 #f4  ,effects of ,mutilations    
,not ,inherited4--,many experiments have
 been performed by investigators to     
determine whether or not the results of 
mutilation are transferred to succeeding
 generations1 but so far only with      
negative results4 ,many such experiments
 have been unwittingly carried on for   
many generations1 in fact1 by breeders  
and fanciers1 in the docking of horses1 
dogs and sheep1 the dehorning of cattle 
and the like1 yet no satisfactory       

evidence of the transmission of such    
conditions in any degree has ever been  
forthcoming4 ,the mutilations or        
distortions of the human body through   
various rites or social customs also    
fails to yield any convincing examples4 
,foot-binding1 head-binding1 or         
waist-binding must be repeated in each  
successive generation to produce the    
particular type of beauty that results  
from such deformities4 ,and lucky it is 
for man that injuries do not persist in 
subsequent generations1 otherwise the   
modern human being would be but a maimed
 relic of past misfortunes4             
,transplantation of ,gonads4--,an       
interesting experimental test regarding 
the effect of the body on the germ was  
made recently by ,castle and ,phillips  
with guinea-pigs4 ,it will be recalled  
from the discussion on ,mendelism that  
when a black guinea-pig is mated with a 
white one the offspring are always      
black4 ,these experimenters transplanted
 the ovaries from a young black         

guinea-pig to a young white female whose
 own ovaries had been previously        
removed4 ,this white female was later   
mated to a white male4 ,although she    
produced three different litters of     
young1 six individuals in all1 the      
latter were all black4 ,that is1 not a  
trace of coat-color of the white father 
or of the white foster-mother was       
impressed on the transplanted germ-cells
 or the developing young4 ,later        
experiments of the same kind by ,castle 
and ,phillips1 with other varieties of  
guinea-pigs1 have yielded the same      
results4 ,the body of the mother1       
indeed1 seems to serve merely as a      
protective envelope and a source of     
nutrition4  ,effects of ,body on        
,germ-,cells ,general1 ,not             
,specific4--,as far as the evidence     
regarding the modification of the       
germ-plasm by the body is concerned1 we 
must conclude then that while under     
special circumstances the germ-cells may
 be affected1 the effect is general     

rather than specific and the result as  
seen in the offspring has no            
discoverable correlation with any       
particular part or structure of the     
parental soma4 ,the effect is presumably
 of much the same nature as where the   
germ is directly affected by external   
agents4 ,where a new character or a     
modification of one already existing is 
produced by a given condition of        
environment1 in our experience so far to
 have the same repeated in the          
offspring1 a similar evocative condition
 must prevail in the environment of the 
latter4 ,or in other words the new      
character is not a permanent one which  
persists in succeeding generations      
independently of external influences    
similar to those which originally       
produced it4  ,certain ,characters      
,inexplicable as ,inherited ,somatic    
,acquirements4--,it would require       
remarkable credulity1 in fact1 to       
believe that some of the most striking  
features about certain plants or animals

 could have been developed by means of  
the inheritance of somatic              
modifications4 ,for example1 many       
animals such as the quail1 the rabbit1  
or the leaf-butterfly are protectively  
colored4 ,that is1 they harmonize in    
color-pattern with their surroundings so
 closely that they are overlooked by    
their enemies4 ,but how can this        
oversight on the part of an enemy so    
affect the bodies and through them the  
germ-cells of such individuals as to    
develop so high a degree of protective  
coloration8 ,or how1 indeed1 could any  
of numerous adaptive structures which   
one can think of1 such as the color or  
scent of flowers to lure insects for    
cross-pollenation1 the various grappling
 devices on many seeds to secure wide   
distribution by animals1 or the like1   
have been directly produced by use or   
disuse or by any variation produced in  
them by the agents to which they are    
adapted8  ,the ,case of ,neuter         
,insects4--,a very instructive example  

of the improbability that great skill1  
highly specialized structures1 or       
certain instincts are first developed in
 the parental body as the result of use 
and then passed on to the offspring1 is 
seen in the case of neuter insects4 ,in 
bees1 for example1 there are three      
classes of individuals3 the drones or   
males2 the queens or functional females2
 and the workers1 which are neuter1 that
 is1 take no part in reproduction4 ,the 
latter are really sexually undeveloped  
females4 ,the queen can lay either      
fertilized or unfertilized eggs4 ,the   
latter always give rise to males4 ,the  
workers gather the food1 attend the     
queen1 wait on the young1 construct the 
comb1 and in short perform all the      
ordinary functions of the colony except 
the reproductive4 ,they have many highly
 specialized structures on various parts
 of their bodies for carrying on their  
many activities1 as well as the very    
highly specialized instincts necessary  
to the maintenance of the colony4 ,but  

now1 complex and highly developed as    
these workers are1 since they do not    
give rise to offspring1 no matter how   
much experience or structural           
modifications they may acquire during   
their lifetime1 it can not be handed on 
to another generation4 ,nor can they    
have come to their present highly       
organized state through such a form of  
transmission since they are not the     
descendants of workers but of a queen4  
,any new modifications that appear in   
the workers of a colony must therefore  
have their origin in changes which have 
taken place in the germ-cells of the    
queen1 and not in the soma of some other
 worker4 ,it has been argued that the   
worker has not always been infertile2   
that at a more primitive stage of the   
evolution of the bee colony every female
 was both worker and mother1 and that   
individual somatic acquirements might   
therefore have been transmitted1 but    
this argument can not hold for many of  
the instincts or features of the modern 

bee because these have to do only with  
the conditions of life which exist in   
the colony in its present form4 ,it is  
obviously absurd to maintain1 for       
instance1 that all the highly           
specialized instincts incident to queen 
production1 queen attendance and the    
like were functionally produced through 
usage before there was any queen to     
produce or attend1 while on the other   
hand1 the very necessity of queen       
production and maintenance is the       
outcome of the infertility of the       
workers4 ,some workers have been known  
to lay eggs1 but as these are few in    
number and are never fertilized1 which  
means if they develop they can only     
produce males1 they can play no         
considerable part in inheritance4       
,,origin ,,of ,,new ,,characters        
,origin of ,new ,characters in ,germinal
 ,variation4--,this brings us to our    
last query as to whether the appearance 
of new characters can be explained on   
any other or any more inclusive ground  

than that which infers that changes     
undergone by the parent-body are in some
 way registered in the germ-cells so as 
to be repeated in a certain measure in  
the body of the offspring4 ,the answer  
to the question of how inheritable      
variations do come to appear in         
offspring if not through changes        
produced in the body of the parent1 is  
uncertain2 nevertheless most biologists 
believe that they do not have such a    
somatic origin but arise directly as    
germinal variations4 ,some would        
attribute them to the fluctuating nature
 of living substance in general4 ,the   
instability of protoplasm is one of its 
striking characteristics4 ,it is        
constantly being broken down and built  
up1 or1 in other words1 undergoing waste
 and repair4 ,like all other protoplasm1
 that of the germ-cells must also       
undergo these metabolic changes and it  
is possible though not proved that in   
this give and take of substances small  
changes occur in their constitution     

which find expression in the offspring  
as variations4 ,as already seen1        
substances in the blood other than food 
may also affect the constitution of the 
germ-cells4  ,sexual ,reproduction in   
,relation to ,new ,characters4--,some   
biologists attribute great importance to
 sexual reproduction as a basis of      
variation and the origin of new         
characters4 ,they argue that the        
mingling of determiners from two        
different lines must produce many new   
combinations and expressions of germinal
 potentialities4 ,plausible as the      
argument seems at first sight no one has
 succeeded as yet in securing proof that
 absolutely new characters can be       
originated in this way4 ,what seems to  
occur under such circumstances is merely
 a reshuffling or sorting of old        
unit-characters4 ,although innumerable  
permutations and combinations of these  
may be made which find new expression   
outwardly1 this is obviously not        
creating determiners of new             

unit-characters in the germ-plasm4      
,while many biologists would not deny   
the possibility or even the probability 
that the determiners of unit-characters 
may sometimes combine or influence one  
another so as to form actual permanent  
new characters1 the proof of such       
performance is wholly lacking4 ,on the  
other hand1 there are not a few         
biologists who argue that sexual        
reproduction accomplishes just the      
reverse of increasing the extent of     
variation or creating new characters2   
according to them it tends to annul     
exceptional peculiarities of either     
parent by throwing the offspring back to
 the average racial type4 ,it is thus   
looked on by these advocates as a       
stabilizer which reduces the amplitude  
of variations instead of increasing     
them4 ,as a matter of fact the two ideas
 are not mutually exclusive2 sexual     
reproduction may accomplish both of     
these ends4 ,a limited number of        
observations and experiments have been  

made to test out the correlation between
 sexual reproduction and variation1 but 
they have so far been too few or too    
inconclusive to enable us to come to a  
satisfactory conclusion4  ,while we are 
uncertain about the method of origin of 
new characters the fact remains that    
they do arise in abundance as abrupt    
mutations or otherwise and become a part
 of the permanent heritage of a stock4  
,it is clear that sexual reproduction   
may be one important means by which a   
given new character which has arisen in 
one or a few individuals may become     
incorporated in the species at large4   
,through ,mendelian combinations and    
segregations it would by cross-breeding 
be spread and gradually introduced into 
more and more strains of the general    
population4  ,why ,so ,many ,features of
 an ,organism ,are ,characterized by    
,utility4--,germinal variations are     
seemingly at first more or less hit or  
miss affairs as far as utility to the   
organism is concerned4 ,useless         

variations1 so long as they are not     
actually harmful1 may persist and       
apparently be indefinitely inherited4   
,however1 a special premium is put on   
variations which happen to be useful for
 they help the organism to succeed in   
its struggle for life and since success 
in the world of life means not only mere
 individual survival but also the       
production of progeny1 through this very
 means insured transmission to          
subsequent generations4 ,it is probable 
that the very many useful features of   
any organism1 that is1 its adaptations1 
have thus been established4 ,it is      
possible also that many variations which
 at their inception are indifferent may 
wax in strength in successive           
generations until they reach a point    
where they must become either useful or 
harmful4 ,in the former case they would 
mean increased insurance of survival for
 their possessors1 in the latter1       
elimination4 ,with such an automatic    
process as this operative in nature it  

is not astonishing that the main        
features of any organism are            
characterized by their utility to it4   
,germinal ,variation a ,simpler and     
,more ,inclusive ,explanation4--,the    
gist of the whole matter regarding the  
source of new characters in offspring   
seems to be that the explanation based  
on the idea of germinal variation is in 
last analysis the simpler and more      
inclusive1 and there is no alleged case 
of inheritance of parental modification1
 which can not be equally well explained
 as the result of a germinal variation4 
,there are numerous cases which can not 
be explained as transmissions of somatic
 acquirements even if this transmission 
could be established in certain cases4  
,so1 many biologists argue1 why have two
 explanations when one is sufficient1   
especially when the other has never been
 conclusively established as true in any
 case and is obviously untrue in certain
 test cases8 ,the attitude of most      
investigators is that of the open mind4 

,while feeling that the weight of       
probability is very decidedly against   
the theory of the inheritance of somatic
 modifications1 they still stand ready  
and willing to accept any evidence in   
its favor which when weighed in the     
balance is not found wanting4           
,,analysis ,,of ,,cases  ,while space   
will not permit extended discussion1 in 
order further to fix the nature of the  
problem in mind as well as to exemplify 
the conditions that must be satisfied to
 form convincing evidence of inherited  
somatic acquirements1 it will be well   
perhaps to analyze a few typical cases  
as they are frequently cited4  ,are the 
,effects of ,training                   
,inherited8--,breeders and trainers very
 commonly believe that the offspring of 
trained animals inherit in some measure 
the effects of the training4 ,thus the  
increased speed of the ,american        
trotting horse is often pointed to as   
strong evidence of such transmission4   
,according to ,w4 ,h4 ,brewer1 the      

earliest authentic record of a mile in  
three minutes was made in #ahah4 ,the   
improvement1 approximately by decades1  
from that time was as follows3          
,during #ast decade after #ahah1        
improved to #b3cd          #bnd         
#b3ca-a_/b          #crd                
#b3bi-a_/b          #dth                
#b3bd-a_/b          #eth                
#b3ag-a_/b          #fth                
#b3ac-a_/b          #gth                
#b3jh-a_/b  ,by #ahib1 the date of      
,professor ,brewer's publications 7,see 
,agricultural ,science1 ,vol4 #d1 #ahib7
 the record had reached #b3jh-a_/b4     
,since then it has been lowered still   
further4  ,on the face of it this looks 
like a good case of inheritance of      
training1 and ,brewer himself believed  
it such4 ,if so this would mean that    
colts of a highly trained trotter would 
be faster than they would have been if  
their parent had remained untrained4 ,it
 is impossible to get positive proof in 
the case of any trained horse since     

there is no way of establishing just how
 speedy the progeny would have been had 
the parent remained untrained4 ,if it   
could be shown that colts sired by a    
trotter late in life were on the whole  
faster than those sired by the same     
father when younger and as yet not      
highly exercised in trotting1 then the  
facts might give some evidence of value1
 but unfortunately no such records are  
available4  ,on the other hand1 even    
ignoring the fact that improvement in   
track and sulky are probably the biggest
 items in the shortening of records in  
recent times1 selection instead of      
inheritance of the effects of training  
will equally well account for any innate
 progress in trotting4 ,and since1 as   
pointed out by ,professor ,ritter1 there
 are even more striking cases of similar
 improvements in other fields1 such as  
college athletics1 where the factor of  
use-inheritance is entirely precluded1  
it is wholly unnecessary to postulate it
 in the case of the trotter4  ,for      

example an inspection of the records of 
college athletics for the last          
thirty-five years in running1 hurdling1 
pole-vaulting1 jumping1 putting the     
shot1 etc41 shows on the whole a steady 
advance year by year4 ,moreover1 the    
greatest improvement has occurred in    
those events in which skill and practise
 count for most together with selection 
of the inherently ablest candidate for  
the events4 ,but in the case of         
athletics the improvements shown in     
thirty-five years have all come within a
 single generation and hence the        
inheritance of the effects of training  
is ruled out as a factor4 ,selection and
 improved training are the only factors 
operative4  ,in the case of the trotter 
inheritance undoubtedly has also been a 
factor1 but inheritance based on        
selection of what the race-track has    
shown to be the speediest individual1   
not inheritance of the effects of       
training4 ,in other words1 horses which 
have shown the capacity for being       

trained to the highest degree of speed  
have naturally been selected as sires   
and dams and so through selection       
generation after generation a speedier  
strain has gradually been established4  
,instincts4--,when we turn to the realm 
of mental traits1 particularly of       
instincts1 we meet with a whole host of 
activities which are frequently pointed 
to by transmissionists as examples of   
inherited acquirements4 ,thus according 
to them1 habits at first acquired       
through special effort ultimately become
 instinctive1 or according to some1     
instinct is lapsed intelligence4        
,instances often cited are the pointing 
of the bird-dog1 the extraordinary      
crop-inflation of the pouter-pigeon1 or 
the tumbling of the tumbler pigeon4 ,we 
can not stop to discuss these cases     
beyond pointing out as many others have 
done that practically all dogs have more
 or less of an impulse to halt suddenly1
 crouch slightly and lift up one        
fore-foot when they scent danger or     

prey1 that all pigeons pout more or     
less1 and that practically all show more
 or less instincts of tumbling when     
pursued by a hawk4 ,thus in all of these
 cases the fundamental germinal tendency
 is already at hand for the fancier to  
base his choice on and thus through     
selection build up the type desired4    
,just as in the fan-tailed pigeon1 by   
repeatedly selecting for breeding       
purposes individuals which showed an    
unusual number of tail-feathers he has  
built up a type with an upright1        
fan-like tail having many more feathers 
than the twelve found in the tail of the
 ordinary pigeon1 so by similar         
procedure in the case of other forms he 
has markedly enhanced certain features4 
,the idea of instincts being lapsed     
intelligence is so clearly and concisely
 criticized in an article by the late   
,professor ,whitman#d that ,i can not do
 better than quote an excerpt4 ,his     
views to the contrary are as follows3   
,the view here taken places the primary 

roots of instinct in the                
constitutional activities of protoplasm 
and regards instinct in every     stage 
of its evolution as action depending    
essentially upon     organization4 ,it  
places instinct before intelligence in  
order of     development1 and is thus in
 accord with the broad facts of the     
present     distribution and relations  
of instinct and intelligence1 instinct  
becoming more general as we descend the 
scale1 while intelligence     emerges to
 view more and more as we ascend to the 
higher orders of     animal life4 ,it   
relieves us of the great inconsistencies
 involved in     the theory of instinct 
as lapsed intelligence4 ,instincts are  
universal among animals1 and that can   
not be said of intelligence4 ,it     ill
 accords with any theory of evolution1  
or with known facts1 to make            
instinct depend upon intelligence for   
its origin2 for if that were so1     we 
should expect to find the lowest animals
 free from instinct and     possessed of

 pure intelligence4 ,in the higher forms
 we should expect     to see            
intelligence lapsing more and more into 
pure instinct4 ,as a     matter of fact1
 we see nothing of the kind4 ,the lowest
 forms act by     instinct so           
exclusively that we fail to get decided 
evidence of     intelligence4 ,in higher
 forms not a single case of intelligence
     lapsing into instinct is known4 ,in
 forms that give indubitable            
evidence of intelligence we do not see  
conscious reflection     crystallizing  
into instinct1 but we do find instinct  
coming more and     more under the sway 
of intelligence4 ,in the human race     
instinctive     actions characterize the
 life of the savage1 while they fall    
more and     more into the background in
 the more intellectual races4  ,for     
further discussion of this field the    
reader is referred to an excellent      
chapter on ,are ,acquired ,habits       
,inherited8 in ,c4 ,lloyd ,morgan's     
book1 ,habit and ,instinct4             

,disease4--,perhaps in the realm of     
disease more than in any other has an   
interest in the inheritance of somatic  
acquirements been manifested4 ,the      
problem arising here is not essentially 
different from other questions of       
inheritance but since it is a matter of 
such practical importance to man1 we may
 well give it special attention4 ,we    
have to deal simply with the old        
questions of what is constitutionally in
 the germ1 what is acquired by the body1
 and lastly1 whether the somatically    
acquired is inherited4 ,while we all    
know in a general way what is meant by  
disease1 especially if some specific    
disorder such as scarlet fever1 malaria 
or tuberculosis is mentioned1 an attempt
 to give an accurate definition is much 
like trying to define a weed1 inasmuch  
as what is functionally all right at one
 time or place may be all wrong at      
another1 or what is normal in one animal
 may be abnormal in another4 ,in general
 we may say that disease is derangement 

or failure of physiological function4   
,reappearance of a ,disorder in         
,successive ,generations ,not           
,necessarily ,inheritance4--,in         
attempting to study the inheritance of  
diseases we must recognize clearly at   
the outset that reappearance of a       
disease in successive generations by no 
means necessarily signifies inheritance4
 ,before it can be pronounced such we   
must make sure that it is not a case of 
reimpressing similar modifications on   
the individuals of successive           
generations4 ,for example1 in ,england  
there is a well-recognized condition    
known as collier's lung which results   
from constant working in coal mines4    
,and while both father and son may      
exhibit it1 because of their similar    
occupations1 there is nothing hereditary
 about the malady4 ,likewise there is   
what is known as emery grinder's lung1  
and practically every large             
manufacturing city with soot-laden      
atmosphere leaves its impress on the    

lungs of the inhabitants4 ,this will    
occur1 of course1 generation after      
generation1 as long as such pollutions  
of the atmosphere continue to exist4 ,it
 is clear that any unhealthy occupation 
is likely to cause the reappearance of  
an associated typical disease generation
 after generation as long as the        
children follow the calling of their    
parents4 ,the common misconception that 
deformities or postures associated with 
a trade1 such as a shoemaker's or       
tailor's1 is genetically stamped on     
offspring by the end of the third or    
fourth generation results from failure  
to discriminate between real inheritance
 and mere reappearances under similar   
conditions of environment4  ,prenatal   
,infection ,not ,inheritance4--,again1  
we must recognize that prenatal         
infection is not inheritance4 ,we have  
already seen that the young mammal      
undergoes a certain period of           
intra-maternal development1 but         
influences operating on it during this  

period of gestation must be reckoned    
with as environmental1 not germinal4    
,for example1 it is said that an unborn 
child may take smallpox from its mother 
but this and all similar occurrences are
 cases of contagion4 ,we find the great 
pathologist1 ,virchow1 who with many    
others of his time was a believer in the
 inheritance of acquired characters1    
saying nevertheless regarding such      
instances that1 ,what operates on the   
germ after the fusion of the sex-nuclei1
 modifying the embryo1 or even inducing 
an actual deviation in the development1 
can not be spoken of as inherited4 ,it  
belongs to the category of early        
acquired deviations which are therefore 
frequently congenital4  ,inheritance of 
a ,predisposition ,not ,inheritance of a
 ,disease4--,we must discriminate       
sharply also between the inheritance of 
a predisposition and the inheritance of 
a disease itself4  ,we often hear the   
statement made that tuberculosis is     
inherited and have cited in evidence    

certain consumptive families or strains4
 ,but tuberculosis is a bacterial       
disease and children of tuberculous     
parents are never born with the disease 
except in the rarest of instances4      
,tuberculosis4--,what is really         
inherited is a constitutional           
susceptibility to this particular germ4 
,while almost any individual may        
contract tuberculosis when in a state of
 depressed vitality1 or under stress of 
adverse surroundings1 there is no doubt 
that certain families are more easily   
infected than others and much less      
resistant to the ravages of the disease 
when once it gains a foothold4 ,however1
 a predisposition is a vastly different 
thing from the inheritance of the actual
 disease4 ,for just as we are born with 
a nose well adapted to eye-glasses but  
not with eye-glasses on our nose1 so    
many of us are born tuberculizable      
though not tuberculous1 and every       
sanitary advance we make toward         
lessening the chances of infection is   

just so much more insurance for the     
susceptible4  ,the whole problem of     
tuberculosis is an extremely complex    
one4 ,we do not know just the measure of
 the inheritance of the predisposition4 
,some writers in the past have          
maintained that tuberculosis is mainly a
 question of infection and not of       
inherent susceptibility1 but steadily   
increasing evidence all points the other
 way4  ,where the predisposition exists 
the chances of infection are still1 even
 under the conditions of present-day    
sanitation1 very great4 ,the close      
association between a consumptive and   
other members of the family through a   
prolonged period of time1 of course1    
renders the latter likely to infection  
unless unusual care is exercised4 ,very 
often where a parent is consumptive a   
child contracts the malady shortly after
 birth and is particularly likely to do 
so if the mother1 who nurses it and     
cares for it most intimately1 is the    
tubercular member of the family4 ,where 

the mother is tubercular1 indeed1 the   
probabilities are that the child has    
already before birth had its vitality   
lowered through the toxins circulating  
in her blood or through defective       
nutrition1 and in consequence does not  
resist well any diseases4  ,undoubtedly 
a large proportion of our infant        
mortality is of tubercular origin4 ,it  
is now a well-established fact that much
 tuberculosis in children is            
attributable to drinking milk from      
tuberculous cows1 yet we find           
individuals so uninformed and dairymen  
so mercenary that they fight all        
attempts of the commonwealth to test out
 cattle for tuberculosis so as to       
condemn the infected individuals and    
thus save our babies4 ,recent           
investigations made in some of our large
 pork-packing establishments also       
indicate that hogs1 especially such as  
have been around tubercular cattle1 are 
often shot through and through with     
tuberculosis and that such flesh when   

used as food1 if not thoroughly cooked1 
may become a serious menace to our      
health4  ,with the wide prevalence of   
bovine and human tuberculosis it is     
little wonder that nearly every human   
being becomes more or less infected at  
some period of life4 ,autopsies on large
 numbers of individuals in some of our  
great hospitals have shown that as many 
as ninety-nine per cent4 of the subjects
 show tubercular lesions of some kind4  
,while it is true that the class of     
people who would come to autopsy in such
 public hospitals would perhaps be more 
likely to be tubercular than the average
 of the community1 still it can not be  
denied that a very large degree of      
infection exists4 ,pearson1 from        
statistics gathered in ,europe1 has     
shown that about eighty to ninety per   
cent4 of the population have tubercular 
lesions before the age of eighteen4     
,hamburger found that in ,vienna        
ninety-five per cent4 of the children of
 the poor1 between twelve and thirteen  

years of age1 were infected with        
tubercular bacilli and he estimates that
 all would be before maturity4          
,according to ,doctor ,mott1 pathologist
 to the ,london ,county ,asylums1 the   
insane between the ages of fifteen and  
thirty-five are about fifteen times as  
likely to acquire tuberculosis as the   
sane are4  ,yet the mortality from      
tuberculosis1 great though it be1 is    
obviously not in proportion to the      
enormous degree of infection4 ,the crux 
of the situation is mainly the matter of
 resistance4 ,from the standpoint of    
heredity1 therefore1 the question       
largely resolves itself into one of the 
inheritance or non-inheritance of       
constitutional resistance4 ,some are    
predisposed to be non-resistant and     
hence succumb4  ,the work of ,karl      
,pearson#e and other recent researches  
forcibly indicate that hereditary       
constitutional predisposition is one of 
the chief factors concerned in subjects 
who develop well defined attacks of the 

disease4 ,yet we must not forget that   
there are degrees of susceptibility and 
that therefore a constitutional         
predisposition which might be of little 
significance under good average         
conditions of nutrition and sanitation  
might be insufficient under unfavorable 
conditions4  ,before we can make any    
relatively accurate estimate of the     
exact degree to which the malady is     
based on inheritance we must have more  
data4 ,many difficulties beset the path 
of the investigator4 ,in the first      
place1 when one gets back a generation  
or two he finds that diagnosis was crude
 and uncertain2 a given malady may or   
may not have been tuberculosis4 ,the    
main error however was probably on the  
side of not recognizing it in mild or   
obscure cases4 ,then again the questions
 of virulence of the infection1 of size 
and frequency of the dose1 etc41 are    
also complicating factors4 ,moreover1 in
 very many cases the infection is a     
mixed one and hence we are dealing with 

other factors than straight             
tuberculosis4  ,two ,individuals of     
,tubercular ,stocks ,should ,not        
,marry4--,however1 sufficient is now    
known of the inheritance of             
susceptibility to the disease that we   
can have little conscience toward the   
welfare of the race if we in any way    
countenance the marriage of two         
individuals who come each of tubercular 
strains1 and marriage of even a normal  
person into a badly tainted strain1     
where the one married is tubercular1 is 
extremely hazardous looked at from the  
standpoint of the children likely to be 
born of such a union4 ,the ,supreme     
,court of ,new ,york recently held that 
the fraudulent concealment of           
tuberculosis by a person entering into a
 marriage relation is ground for the    
annulment of the marriage4  ,special    
,susceptibility ,less of a ,factor in   
,many ,diseases4--,with some diseases   
such as leprosy1 typhoid fever1 smallpox
 and cholera there seems to be less a   

question of special susceptibility since
 nearly all persons are vulnerable4 ,yet
 in cases of typhoid1 at least1 there   
are some indications that certain       
families are more likely to take the    
disease than others under similar       
exposure4 ,we know of no inherited      
effects of such diseases1 however4 ,for 
instance1 children of lepers do not     
inherit leprosy and if kept out of leper
 districts remain normal4               
,deaf-,mutism4--,in certain abnormal    
states there is danger of confusing     
similar conditions which may have two   
entirely different sources of origin4   
,deafness1 for example1 may be strictly 
inborn as the outcome of a germinal     
variation or it may result from         
extraneous influences such as accidents1
 infective diseases1 neglected tonsils  
and the like4 ,the former is            
inheritable1 the latter not4 ,bell in   
#aijf in a special census report to the 
,united ,states government showed that  
deaf-mutism is markedly hereditary1     

particularly where deaf-mutes intermarry
 as they are prone to do4 ,fay's        
extensive studies on ,marriage of the   
,deaf in ,america also demonstrate the  
hereditary nature of the congenital     
forms of deafness4 ,cut off as such     
individuals are from communication with 
normal people1 the association of the   
two sexes in special schools and        
institutions is of course highly        
conducive to such marriages4 ,the defect
 seems to behave in the manner of a     
,mendelian recessive4 ,two deaf-mutes   
should not have children and yet such   
marriages are occurring every day4 ,even
 if two persons marry from families     
which tend to become hard of hearing the
 evidence indicates that their children 
are likely also to develop this partial 
deafness as they grow older1 although it
 seems safe for a person of such        
tendency to marry into a family without 
it4  ,gout4--,in such disorders as gout 
there is little question but that a     
tendency to it runs in families4 ,on the

 other hand it may also be acquired     
without special susceptibility4 ,there  
is no evidence1 however1 that because a 
father has gout the effect of the gout  
is reflected on his germ-cells and the  
son has gout as a result4 ,indeed1 often
 a son who becomes gouty was born long  
before the father became gouty4 ,son and
 father both have gout then1 because    
each has innate germinal tendencies     
which when subjected to certain         
evocative stimuli become expressed as   
gout4  ,nervous and ,mental             
,diseases4--,inasmuch as the question of
 nervous and mental diseases has become 
one of such overshadowing importance at 
the present day1 a discussion of the    
subject at some length will be presented
 in a separate chapter4 ,i shall merely 
point out here that the general verdict 
of experts in nervous and mental        
disorders is to the effect that         
externally induced mental disorders are 
of rare occurrence except as the result 
of general poisoning or enfeeblement of 

the system in some way1 or by traumatic 
conditions such as a blow on the head1  
and that there is no evidence of the    
transmission of the effects of such     
conditions4 ,in most cases of insanity1 
supposedly caused by fright or worry1 a 
close study of the family stock will    
reveal nervous instability of some kind4
 ,the supposed cause has been merely the
 precipitating stimulus which has       
brought to expression a dormant weakness
 of germinal origin4 ,the stress and    
strain of modern life is particularly   
likely to test out and reveal such      
neurally unstable individuals4  ,other  
,disorders ,which ,have ,hereditary     
,aspects4--,space will not permit       
discussion of various other specific    
disorders which are known to have       
important hereditary aspects1 although  
none shows any convincing evidence of   
having become hereditary in nature      
through first affecting the soma4 ,some 
of these1 such as epilepsy and other    
nervous affections1 tuberculosis1       

color-blindness1 cataract and various   
malformations1 have already been        
mentioned4 ,others that may be listed   
are cancer1 arterio-sclerosis1 obesity  
and certain forms of rheumatism1 and of 
heart and kidney diseases4 ,in          
practically all of these cases in which 
heredity enters as a factor the         
condition is one of inheriting a special
 susceptibility and not the disease     
itself4 ,which means simply that the    
disorder in question is much more easily
 called forth in such persons by        
appropriate bacterial or other stimulus1
 than in the case of the normal         
individual4  ,induced ,immunity ,not    
,inherited4--,lastly1 it is well known  
that various animals1 including man1    
after recovery from an attack of any one
 of certain diseases1 become more or    
less immune from further attacks of the 
same disease4 ,moreover in some         
instances as in inoculation against     
typhoid or diphtheria1 immunity may be  
artificially induced by means of        

anti-toxins4 ,the question arises as to 
whether such immunity is transmitted to 
offspring4 ,experiments have been made  
7see ,bulletin ,no4 #cj1 ,u4 ,s4        
,hygienic ,laboratory7 to test this and 
it has been found that the condition is 
not inherited4 ,young guinea-pigs1 for  
instance1 born of mothers immunized     
during pregnancy are immune at birth but
 they lose their immunity in the course 
of a few weeks4 ,the effect is clearly  
one of direct transference from the     
blood of the mother4 ,the same temporary
 immunity can be produced in the young1 
in fact1 by merely having them nurse    
from an immunized mother4               
,non-,inheritance of ,parental          
,modifications ,has ,social1 ,ethical   
and ,educational ,significance4--,like  
many other biological conclusions these 
relative to the non-inheritance of      
parental modifications are of extreme   
importance to humanity4 ,it is clear    
that they have not only physical but    
social1 ethical and educational         

significance4 ,for if the education     
which we give our children of to-day1 or
 the desirable moral conduct which we   
inculcate does not affect the offspring 
of succeeding generations through       
inheritance1 then the actual progress of
 the race is much slower than is        
commonly supposed1 and the advance of   
modern over ancient times lies more in  
an improvement in extraneous conditions 
through invention and the accumulation  
and rendering accessible of knowledge1  
than in an actual innate individual     
superiority4 ,and when we face the issue
 squarely we have to admit that there is
 no more indication of the inheritance  
of parentally acquired characters as    
regards customs1 knowledge1 habits and  
moral traditions than there is of       
physical features4 ,in fact1 if such    
acquirements were inherited then we     
should soon have a race which would     
naturally1 spontaneously as it were1 do 
what its ancestors did with effort4 ,yet
 we do not find the children in our     

schools reading1 doing sums and         
developing proper social relations      
without ceaseless prompting and urging  
on the part of the teacher4 ,indeed ,i  
can testify that this necessity carries 
over even into a university4 ,in short1 
the habits and standards of each        
generation have to be instilled into the
 succeeding generation4  ,no ,cause for 
,discouragement4--,at first glance when 
we realize that notwithstanding our     
individual advancement1 that in spite of
 all our painstaking efforts toward     
self-improvement1 we can not add one jot
 or tittle to the native ability of our 
children1 that1 aside from possible     
advantageous germinal variations1 they  
will have to start in at approximately  
the same level as we did1 and like us   
will have to struggle1 or be coaxed1    
pulled or spurred up to the higher      
reaches of attainments1 we are apt to   
feel discouraged and to look on heredity
 as the hand of fate which irrevocably  
bars progress4 ,but there is another    

side to the picture4 ,this very fact of 
heredity which can not be altered at    
will is the conservative factor which   
maintains the excellence of our standard
 strains of plants and animals1 and     
sustains man himself at his present     
level of accomplishment4 ,while we are  
denied advancement through the efforts  
of the flesh1 we are also largely       
protected from our misfortunes and      
follies1 as witness the non-inheritance 
of mutilations1 of various maladies of  
extrinsic origin1 or of personally      
acquired bad habits4  ,improved         
,environment ,will ,help ,conserve the  
,superior ,strains ,when ,they ,do      
,appear4--,if we can not hand on to our 
descendants a personally enhanced blood 
heritage1 we at least can do our share  
toward building up a social heritage of 
established truth1 of efficient         
institutions and of stimulating ideals1 
through which their dormant capacities  
may be led to expand more surely and    
more effectively to their uttermost     

limits4 ,each advance in such social    
heritage will tend more and more to     
create an atmosphere which will make it 
sure that the occasional real           
progressive and permanent variations    
which occur from time to time will find 
adequate expression and preservation in 
future lines of descendants4 ,it will   
reduce the numbers of our mute1         
inglorious ,miltons by more certainly   
disclosing the individual of exceptional
 talents and insuring for him an        
opportunity of revealing them to the    
best advantage4 ,above all1 since       
surrounding influences are especially   
powerful on young and developing        
organisms1 we should realize that great 
care must be exercised in behalf of the 
young child to secure an environment    
which is saturated with wholesome       
influences4 ,for it is a rule of        
development that if the environment is  
faulty the organism is impaired4        
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,prenatal ,,influences 
,all ,that a ,child ,possesses at ,birth

 ,not ,necessarily ,hereditary4--,we    
come now to the more specific discussion
 of what may happen to offspring of     
mammals1 and particularly man1 in the   
interval between fertilization and      
birth2 that is1 during the              
intra-maternal period4 ,we have already 
seen that anything affecting the        
offspring during this period has to be  
reckoned as environmental1 our formula  
reading1 ,mammal  germ  intra-maternal  
environment  external environment4 ,it  
is evident1 then1 that all that a child 
possesses at birth is not necessarily   
hereditary1 since the unborn child may  
be influenced by conditions prevailing  
in either parent4  ,the ,myth of        
,maternal ,impressions4--,in order to   
clear the way for more urgent matters   
let us first inquire into the question  
of the production of changes in the     
unborn child as a result of maternal    
impressions4 ,as the tale generally     
goes1 structural changes are produced in
 the unborn child corresponding to some 

mental experience of the mother1 usually
 a vivid impression of strong emotion1  
but when a given individual is pinned   
down to sources1 it is usually a case of
 hearsay4  ,stock examples are3 ,the    
mother sees a mouse with the result that
 a mouse-shaped birthmark occurs on the 
child2 or she sees a crushed hand and in
 consequence bears a child later with   
some of the bones of the hand missing2  
the mother touches her body when        
frightened and thus marks the unborn    
child on the corresponding part of the  
body2 or she produces beauty in the     
child by long contemplation of a picture
 of a beautiful child2 and so on almost 
endlessly4 ,the favorite is usually the 
production of a red birthmark or marks  
on the child's body by strong desire on 
the part of the mother for strawberries1
 tomatoes1 etc4--the fruit must be red  
since the mark is red--or by fright from
 seeing a fire4 ,as a matter of fact it 
is not uncommon for the capillary blood 
vessels of the skin of a new-born infant

 to remain dilated in spots instead of  
contracting as they normally should do4 
,the result is more or less of a red or 
flame spot4 ,it is easy to see1         
therefore1 why such birthmarks are so   
frequently referred back by the         
credulous mother to her desire for or   
fear of some red object4  ,an analysis  
of the case of a child shuddering at the
 sight of peaches is of interest in this
 connection4 ,the child showed the      
greatest aversion to peaches1           
particularly to the fuzzy covering4 ,the
 mother's explanation was that peaches  
were unusually plentiful the year the   
child was born and that she had worked  
hour after hour at peeling and canning  
peaches shortly before his birth until  
she had become thoroughly sick of them4 
,this acquired aversion on her part she 
believed had been transferred to the    
child4 ,a few questions revealed the    
fact1 however1 that the mother1 herself1
 had never liked peaches and when asked 
if they were distasteful to any other   

member of her own family she exclaimed1 
,oh1 yes1 my mother would shudder and   
shake if a peach were brought near her4 
,and there we have it4 ,the idiosyncrasy
 was an inherited one as many similar   
peculiarities are4 ,the mental          
impression produced in the mother by her
 own experience with peaches had nothing
 to do with its occurrence in the child4
  ,very frequently also one encounters  
the mother who is sure she has          
engendered musical ability in her child 
by constant practise and study of music 
during pregnancy4 ,the child is musical2
 what better evidence does one want6 ,it
 seems never to occur to such a mother  
that the child is musically inclined    
because she herself is1 as is evinced by
 her own desire in the matter even if   
she is not a skillful performer4  ,when 
we take into account the extreme        
credulity of many people1 the           
unconscious tendency of mankind to give 
a dramatic interpretation to events     
where causes are not certainly known1   

the hosts of coincidences that occur in 
life1 and the multitude of cases where  
something should happen but nothing     
does1 we are compelled to believe that  
the whole matter of direct specific     
influence of the mother's mind on the   
developing fetus is a myth4 ,after      
seeing the conditions which prevail in  
,mendelism1 for example1 it will take   
strong faith to believe that a mother   
with duplex brown eyes can think or will
 blue eyes on her baby1 yet this would  
be a mild procedure compared to some we 
are asked to accept by believers in the 
transmission of maternal impressions4   
,most of all1 however1 when we recall   
the actual relation between the embryo  
and the mother--a narrow umbilical cord 
is the sole means of communication      
between the two--the physical           
impossibility of a connection between   
some particular mental happening of the 
mother and a corresponding specific     
modification in the fetus becomes       
evident4 ,for there are no nerves in the

 umbilical cord1 the only path of       
communication between mother and fetus  
being the indirect one by way of the    
blood stream4 ,even this method of      
communication is limited inasmuch as the
 mother's blood does not circulate      
through the blood vessels of the fetus4 
,gaseous and dissolved substances are   
merely interchanged through the thin    
walls of the capillary blood vessels in 
the placenta4  ,injurious ,prenatal     
,influences4--,however1 the denial that 
a particular mental impression of the   
mother is associated with a particular  
structural defect in a child does not   
carry with it the implication that      
prenatal influences of all kinds are    
negligible factors4 ,on the contrary any
 deleterious effect which can reach the 
fetus through absorption from the blood 
of the mother may be of grave           
consequence4 ,there is not the least    
doubt that malnutrition or serious      
ill-health on the part of the mother    
often has a prejudicial effect on the   

unborn offspring4 ,severe shock or      
grief1 worry1 nervous exhaustion1 the   
influence of certain diseases1 poisons  
in the blood or tissues of the parent1  
such as lead1 mercury1 phosphorus1      
alcohol and the like1 may all act       
detrimentally1 but they operate either  
by rendering nutrition defective1 by    
direct poisoning1 or by generating      
toxins in the blood of the parent which 
then poison the fetus4 ,among the latter
 may be mentioned the toxic products of 
tuberculosis and certain other bacterial
 diseases4 ,such factors operating on   
the unborn young or even on the         
germ-cells may cause malformations1     
arrests of development1 instabilities of
 the nervous system1 and general        
physical or mental weakness4 ,the       
effects are general1 however1 and not   
specific4  ,to distinguish certain of   
these prenatal effects1 particularly    
those of certain diseases or poisons1   
from true hereditary influences they are
 frequently spoken of as cases of       

transmission rather than inheritance    
from parents4 ,some writers use the     
technical term blastophthoria1 or       
false-heredity1 extending the meaning so
 as to include also any damage that     
might be inflicted on the germ-cells4   
,lead ,poisoning4--,by way of           
illustration of how certain cumulative  
poisons may act we may examine a        
tabulation of eighty-one cases of lead  
poisoning as reported by ,constantin    
,paul 7,fig4 #bi1 p4 #afd74  ,the table 
requires little comment4 ,the disastrous
 effects of such poisoning are apparent 
in every class of cases4 ,the sixth     
class where the husband alone was       
exposed to lead shows that the poison   
can operate directly through the        
germ-cell4 ,other observers note that in
 the children of workers in lead1 there 
is a distressing frequency of           
feeble-mindedness and epilepsy4  ,that  
lead poisoning operating through the    
germ-cells of the father can affect the 
development of the young harmfully is   

well shown in ,fig4 #cj1 p4 #afe1 which 
is a photograph of two young rabbits    
from the same litter ,the white young   
one is from a normal albino mother mated
 to an albino father which had received 
lead treatment4 ,the pigmented young one
 is from the same albino mother by a    
normal pigmented father4 ,although the  
white father was considerably larger    
than the pigmented father1 nevertheless 
the young of the former1 because of the 
harmful effects of the lead1 is         
distinctly smaller and less lively4 ,a  
number of litters1 each from the same   
mother but in part from a lead-poisoned 
father and in part from a normal father1
 have been secured4 ,all show more or   
less the same results4 ,the experiments 
are still in progress in the department 
of experimental breeding at the         
,university of ,wisconsin4              
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,number of cases4                       
----------------------------------------

                             ,number of 
pregnancies4                            
---------------------------------       
,abortions1 premature labor1 and        
stillbirths4                            
---------------------------             
,infants born living4                   
--------------------                    
,remarks4                               
----------------------------------------
-----------------------   #a4 ,mother   
showing                          ,one   
infant died   symptoms of plubism    #d 
#ae    #ac    #b   within #bd hours4    
#b4 ,mother working in                  
type foundry1 all                       
of whose previous                       
pregnancies had                         
,four of these died   been normal       
#e    #cf    #bi    #g   in first year4 
#c4 ,mother who during                  
period of work in                       
,after ceasing to   type foundry had    
work had   five pregnancies       #a    
#e     #e    #j   healthy child4        

#d4 ,mother working                     
,when away from   intermittently in     
work for some   type foundry2           
period of time   while working          
gave birth to   there                   
#c     #c     #c    #j   healthy        
children4                               
#e4 ,mother in whom                     
blue line on gum                        
the only sign of                        
lead poisoning         #f    #bi    #ba 
#h                                      
,of these1 eight died   #f4 ,husband    
alone                            in     
first year1   exposed to lead        8  
#cb    #ab   #bj   four in second1      
five in third4                          
----------------------------------------
----------------------------  ,,fig4 #bi
  ,tabulation of eighty-one cases of    
lead poisoning recorded by ,constantin  
,paul 7from ,adami74   ,illustration3   
,fig4 #cj  ,photograph of young rabbits 
from the same litter1 the smaller one   
stunted by lead-poisoning of its father 

7,courtesy of ,professor ,l4 ,j4 ,cole74
   ,the ,expectant ,mother ,should ,have
 ,rest4--,the mere matter of rest on the
 part of the pregnant mother is1 judging
 from the work of ,pinard1 a ,frenchman1
 and his pupils1 an important one4 ,in a
 number of detailed investigations they 
have shown that rest on the part of the 
working mother during the last three    
months before the child is born results 
in the production of markedly larger and
 more robust children than those born of
 mothers equally healthy but who have   
not had such rest4 ,moreover the danger 
of premature birth is considerably      
lessened4  ,too ,short ,intervals       
,between ,children4--,too short an      
interval between childbirths would also 
seem to be an infringement on the rights
 of the child as well as of the mother4 
,thus ,doctor ,r4 ,j4 ,ewart 7,the      
,influence of ,parental ,age on         
,offspring1 ,eugenic ,review1 ,october1 
#aiaa7 finds that children born at      
intervals of less than two years after  

the birth of the previous child still   
show at the age of six a notable        
deficiency in height1 weight and        
intelligence1 when compared with the    
children born after a longer interval1  
or even with first-born children4  ,our 
,duty to ,safeguard                     
,motherhood4--,doubtless the            
unventilated factory and tenement also  
do their share1 even though we can give 
no exact quantitative measure of it4    
,obviously1 it becomes a civic duty to  
protect as much as possible all members 
of our social system from such injurious
 factors as have just been discussed4   
,it is particularly necessary to        
safeguard mothers before confinement1   
especially working mothers4  ,expectant 
,mothers ,neglected4--,according to the 
claims of life insurance men1 expectant 
mothers are the most neglected members  
of our population4 ,doctor ,van ,ingen1 
of ,new ,york ,city1 estimates that     
ninety per cent4 of women in this       
country are wholly without prenatal     

care4 ,yet every prospective mother     
should be taught the probable meaning of
 such symptoms as headache1 hemorrhages1
 swelling of the feet and disturbed     
vision4 ,she should realize the         
importance of submitting a sample of    
urine for analysis at least once a month
 before childbirth and twice a month for
 a while thereafter4 ,she should be     
specially informed regarding work1      
exercise1 diet and dress4 ,a recent     
government bulletin written by ,mrs4    
,max ,west which may be had free by     
writing to the ,children's ,bureau1     
,department of ,labor1 ,washington1 ,d4 
,c41 gives much useful information on   
this subject4   ,,alcoholism            
,unreliability of ,much of the          
,data4--,one of the most important      
poisons that plays a prominent part     
among ante-natal influences is alcohol4 
,but when it comes to a study of the    
problem of alcoholism from the          
standpoint of heredity and parental     
influences we meet with many            

difficulties1 prominent among which are 
the inaccuracy and unreliability of many
 of the statistics brought forward in   
this connection4 ,many of the results   
are vitiated by the prejudices of       
propagandists who propose to make a case
 either for or against alcohol as a     
beverage whether or not the facts       
justify their conclusions4 ,when one    
tries to view the matter with an open   
mind he finds that there is a deplorable
 lack of statistics which are not       
susceptible to more than one            
interpretation4 ,however1 using as much 
as possible what seems to be unbiased   
data1 the evidence is almost wholly     
against alcohol as a beverage1 at least 
to any immoderate extent4  ,alcohol a   
,germinal or ,fetal ,poison4--,the bad  
effects as far as offspring are         
concerned reveal themselves in the main 
under the category of false heredity1 i4
 e41 germinal or fetal poisonings rather
 than of heritable changes induced in   
the germ-cells4 ,most investigators feel

 that there are too many criminal1      
imbecile1 insane and unhealthy persons  
among the offspring of drunkards to     
dismiss the matter as a coincidence4 ,in
 an investigation of ,imbault1 for      
example1 we find recorded of one hundred
 tuberculous children that while        
forty-one were of tuberculous parentage1
 thirty-six per cent1 were the offspring
 of inebriates4 ,furthermore ,imbault   
cites the observations of ,arrive on    
#a1ejf cases of juvenile meningitis to  
the effect that this malady is twice as 
frequent in the children of alcoholic as
 in those of tuberculous parentage4 ,it 
has been proved by ,nicloux             
7,l',obstetrique1 ,vol4 #ii1 #aijj7 that
 in dogs and guinea-pigs alcohol passes 
through the placenta and may be detected
 in fetal tissues2 hence it is in       
position to influence the fetus4 ,he    
found that in a very short time the     
amount of alcohol in the blood of the   
fetus about paralleled that in the blood
 of the mother4  ,progressive ,increase 

in ,death-,rate of ,offspring of        
,inebriate ,women4--,in an investigation
 on the effects of parental alcoholism  
on the offspring1 ,sullivan 7,journal of
 ,mental ,science1 ,vol4 #de1 #ahii7    
gives some important figures4 ,to avoid 
other complications he chose female     
drunkards in whom no other degenerative 
features were evident4 ,he found that   
among these the percentage of abortions1
 still-births and deaths of infants     
before their third year was #ee4h per   
cent4 as against #bc4i per cent4 in     
sober mothers4 ,in answer to the        
objection that this high percentage may 
be due merely to neglect1 and not to    
impairment of the fetus by alcoholism1  
he points out the fact based on the     
history of the successive births1 that  
there was a progressive increase in the 
death-rate of offspring in proportion to
 the length of time the mother had been 
an inebriate1 thus3                     
----------------------------------------
---------------------                   

,no4 of,per cent4,per cent4 dying       
,total                    cases born    
dead   before #c    percentage          
----------------------------------------
-----------------   ,first births       
#hj     #f4b        #bg4e         #cc4g 
,second births      #hj    #aa4b        
#dj4h         #ej4j   ,third births     
#hj     #g4f        #de4j         #eb4f 
,fourth and fifth  #aaa    #aj4h        
#ed4i         #fe4g   ,sixth to tenth   
#ic    #ag4b        #ed4h         #gb4j 
----------------------------------------
---------------------  ,views of a      
,psychiatrist on ,alcohol4--,forel1 who 
for years was the psychiatrist at the   
head of a large insane asylum at        
,zurich1 ,switzerland1 has this to say  
about the effects of narcotic poisons   
and alcohol in particular3      ,the    
offspring tainted with alcoholic        
blastophthoria suffer various     bodily
 and physical anomalies1 among which are
 dwarfism1 rickets1 a     predisposition
 to tuberculosis and epilepsy1 moral    

idiocy1 and idiocy     in general1 a    
predisposition to crime and mental      
diseases1 sexual     perversions1 loss  
of suckling in women1 and many other    
misfortunes4  ,in another passage he#f  
remarks as follows3      ,but what is of
 much greater importance is the fact    
that acute and     chronic alcoholic    
intoxication deteriorates the germinal  
protoplasm of     the procreators4444   
,the recent researches of ,bezzola seem 
to prove     that the old belief in the 
bad quality of children conceived during
     drunkenness is not without         
foundation4 ,relying on the ,swiss      
census of     #aijj1 in which there     
figure nine thousand idiots1 and after  
careful     examination of the bulletins
 concerning them1 this author has proved
     that there are two acute annual    
maximum periods for the conception of   
idiots 7calculated from nine months     
before birth72 the periods of           
carnival and vintage1 when the people   
drink most4 ,in the wine-growing        

districts the maximum conception of     
idiots is enormous1 while it is         
almost nil at other periods4 ,moreover1 
these two maximum periods come     at   
the time of year when conception is at a
 minimum among the rest of     the      
population1 the maximum of normal       
conceptions occurring at the            
beginning of summer4  ,another          
interpretation of ,bezzola's results has
 been suggested to the effect that the  
license of these periods enables the    
defective members of the community1 such
 as the feeble-minded1 an opportunity of
 mating more readily and that           
consequently the result is direct       
inheritance of idiocy and allied defects
 instead of idiocy produced through     
alcoholic poisoning of the parental     
germ-cell4  ,other ,views4--,there are  
indeed many competent investigators who 
believe that alcoholism in parents has  
little or no part in the direct         
production of mental defects in         
children4 ,for instance1 ,tredgold      

quotes ,doctor ,ireland's observations  
that although at ,new ,year1 when the   
fishermen return1 the whole population  
of certain villages in ,scotland gets   
drunk1 there is no noticeable excess of 
defectives born nine months later1 and  
remarks further that1 ,i have histories 
of idiots conceived under such          
circumstances1 but so ,i have of normal 
children1 and my opinion is1 that while 
this may be a cause in some cases1 the  
number of instances in this country at  
any rate is exceedingly small4 ,again1  
,goddard1 one of our best known         
,american students of feeble-mindedness1
 who has made careful study of this     
point under especially favorable        
conditions1 feels that his data do not  
prove that alcoholism of either the     
father or the mother causes             
feeble-mindedness in the child4 ,he     
concludes1 ,everything seems to indicate
 that alcoholism itself is only a       
symptom2 that it for the most part      
occurs in families where there is some  

form of neurotic taint1 especially      
feeble-mindedness4 ,goddard1 however1 in
 common with many other observers1 notes
 that miscarriages and deaths in infancy
 are far higher among inebriates than   
among abstainers4  ,doctor ,mjoeen cites
 an interesting parallel between the    
increase of feeble-mindedness in ,norway
 and a period from #ahaf to #ahce1 when 
every one was permitted to distil       
brandy4 ,in some districts many of the  
farmers distilled brandy from corn and  
potatoes1 and in such regions during    
this period feeble-mindedness increased 
nearly one hundred per cent4 ,later the 
home distillation of brandy was stopped4
 ,according to ,doctor ,mjoeen1 ,the    
enormous increase in idiots came and    
went with the brandy4 ,he is inclined to
 believe1 however1 that the alcohol     
operated injuriously mainly on stocks   
already defective4  ,the ,affinity of   
,alcohol for ,germinal                  
,tissue4--,nicloux and ,renault have    
shown that alcohol has a decided        

affinity for the reproductive glands4   
,in individuals who have recently taken 
alcohol the proportion of alcohol in the
 gonads is soon almost equal to the     
amount found in the blood4 ,thus in     
experiments on mammals it was found that
 the proportion of alcohol in the ovary 
to that in the blood was as three to    
five1 and in the testis as two to three4
 ,this would afford abundant opportunity
 for alcohol to act directly on the     
spermatozoon or the ovum4  ,a number of 
different investigators concur in       
finding that the germ-glands of the male
 human inebriate in many cases show more
 or less atrophy and other degenerative 
changes4 ,in guinea-pigs which have been
 repeatedly intoxicated with alcohol1   
,stockard found that while he could     
detect no visible abnormality in the    
gonad1 nevertheless their defective and 
weakened progeny showed that the        
germ-cells had been affected4  ,innate  
,degeneracy ,versus the ,effects of     
,alcohol4--,many observations on human  

beings have been brought forward which  
at first sight seem to indicate that    
noticeable defects1 particularly mental 
and nervous1 occur with appalling       
frequency in children resulting from    
conception during intoxication1         
although1 unfortunately1 the evidence is
 rarely clear as to whether the defects 
are really due to the effects of the    
alcohol or to the fact that the parent  
or parents were degenerate to begin     
with4  ,a very interesting human case   
cited by ,forel on the authority of     
,schweighofer is that of a normal woman 
who had three sound children when       
married to a normal man4 ,after the     
death of this husband she married an    
inebriate by whom she had three other   
children4 ,one of these suffered from   
infantilism1 one turned out to be a     
drunkard1 and the third became a social 
degenerate and drunkard4 ,moreover the  
first two contracted tuberculosis1      
although hitherto the family stock had  
been free from this malady4 ,ultimately 

the woman married again and by this     
third husband1 who was normal1 she again
 had sound children4 ,similar cases     
might be cited1 as1 for example1 a      
record of eighty-three epileptics1 of   
whom sixty had drunken parents1 but it  
can be urged against all of them1 of    
course1 that the defective offspring    
were due to an innate degeneracy of the 
drunken parent which made him a drunkard
 rather than to the effects of the      
alcohol he took4 ,while one is skeptical
 as to the validity of this objection in
 all of the many cases which occur with 
such monotonous frequency in man1 there 
is no way of escaping such an           
interpretation with the evidence at     
hand4 ,it must be admitted1 moreover1   
that there are many families with one or
 both parents alcoholic in which the    
children are not mentally defective4    
,experimental ,alcoholism in ,lower     
,animals4--,many of the objections that 
exist in the case of man1 however1 do   
not apply in that of lower animals4 ,if 

normal animals are experimentally       
alcoholized and are shown to produce    
defective offspring under such          
conditions1 then in their cases at      
least1 the disorders in the offspring   
must be due to the effects of alcohol   
and not to an innately degenerate       
condition of the parent4 ,disorders     
similar to some of those seen in the    
children of alcoholics do actually      
result in alcoholized animals of one    
kind or another4  ,against the earlier  
experiments on animals it has been urged
 that too few individuals were used to  
give conclusive results1 but this       
objection can not be brought against the
 recent experiments of ,stockard4 ,while
 he has published accounts of his work  
in various scientific periodicals       
lately1 the reader will find a full     
statement of his own experiments1       
together with a review of the whole     
subject of experimental alcoholism in   
animals and the effects on progeny in   
,the ,american ,naturalist1 ,vol4       

,,xlvii1 ,november1 #aiac1 together with
 a useful bibliography4  ,before taking 
up ,stockard's results we may select a  
few of the more significant experiments 
made earlier by other investigators4    
,laitinen alcoholized rabbits and       
guinea-pigs4 ,he found that the treated 
individuals had more still-born young   
than the control1 and also that growth  
of the living young was retarded4 ,his  
alcoholized rabbits and guinea-pigs     
produced more young than did the normal 
individuals used as a control4          
,laitinen's studies on man1 together    
with three other studies of the         
,eugenics ,laboratory in ,london1 show  
that in man also more children are born 
to alcoholics than to normal parents4   
,goddard's investigations in ,america   
corroborate this fact4  ,ceni found that
 only #dc per cent4 of the eggs from    
alcoholized fowls developed normally1 as
 against #gg per cent4 of normal        
development in the controls4 ,moreover  
the eggs of alcoholic fowls were shown  

to be less resistant to adverse         
conditions than normal eggs from the    
fact that fluctuations of temperature at
 the beginning of incubation kept all   
the alcoholic eggs from developing      
perfectly1 while #bg per cent4 of the   
control eggs developed normally under   
the same adverse circumstances4  ,hodge 
made a pair of dogs alcoholic4 ,of #bc  
pups obtained from the pair1 #h were    
deformed and #i were dead2 #d alone were
 viable4 ,from a control pair of dogs   
#de pups were obtained1 of which #d were
 deformed1 none were born dead1 and #da 
were viable4  ,stockard's ,experiments  
on ,guinea-,pigs4--,stockard's          
experiments demonstrate that the        
offspring of mammals may be injured or  
modified in their development by        
treating either parent repeatedly with  
alcohol4 ,the guinea-pigs used in the   
experiment were all first tested by     
normal matings and found to yield normal
 offspring4 ,the alcohol was given to   
them by inhalation4 ,it was found to be 

readily taken into the animals' blood   
and to produce intoxication4 ,while     
guinea-pigs alcoholized in this way as  
often as six times a week for two and   
one-half years would maintain their own 
bodily vigor and health apparently1 the 
deleterious effects on their progeny    
were marked4 ,the defects were general  
rather than specific1 although the      
central nervous system and special sense
 organs were apparently affected most4  
,out of #aai total young produced by the
 alcoholic animals1 only #eb1 or less   
than #dd per cent41 survived1 whereas   
out of #fd young produced from normal   
parents used as a control for the       
experiment1 #ef1 or over #hg per cent41 
survived4 ,in some cases alcoholic males
 were mated with normal females1 in     
other1 alcoholic females with normal    
males4 ,in still other instances both   
parents were alcoholic4  ,the results   
are summarized in the accompanying table
 7,fig4 #ca71 taken from ,stockard's    
paper3    ,,condition ,,of ,,the        

,,offspring ,,from ,,guinea-,,pigs      
,,treated ,,with ,,alcohol              
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,number of ,matings                     
--------------------------------------  
,negative ,result or ,early ,abortion   
---------------------------------       
,stillborn ,litters                     
----------------------------            
,number ,stillborn ,young               
---------------------                   
,living ,litters                        
----------------                        
,young ,dying ,soon                     
,after ,birth                           
---------   ,condition of               
,surviving    the ,animals              
,young                                  
----------------------------------------
------------------   ,alcoholic male by 
normal female     #ei  #be   #h   #ae   
#bf   #ba    #cc   ,normal male by      
alcoholic female  #ae   #c   #c    #i   
#i    #i    #aj   ,alcoholic male by    

alcoholic female  #bi  #ae   #c    #f   
#aa    #g     #i   ,,summary            
#ajc  #dc  #ad   #cj   #df   #cg    #eb 
,normal male by                         
normal female     #ce   #b   #a    #d   
#cb    #d    #ef   #b;d generation      
by normal            #c   #j   #j    #j 
#c    #j     #d   #b;d generation       
by alcoholic         #c   #j   #b    #e 
#a    #j     #b                         
#a def4             #b;d generation     
by #b;d generation    #ai   #g   #j     
#j   #ab    #f    #ac                   
#a def4   ,female treated               
during pregnancy     #d   #j   #j    #j 
#d    #a     #g                         
----------------------------------------
-------------------------  ,,fig4 #ca   
,table showing condition of the         
offspring from guinea-pigs treated with 
alcohol 7after ,stockard74  ,lines four 
and five give a comparison between the  
#ajc total matings of all treated       
individuals and #ce normal matings4 ,in 
the first case almost #db per cent4 of  

the matings gave negative results or    
early abortions1 whereas in the normal  
control matings1 failure to yield a     
full-term litter occurred in only two   
cases4 ,the #ajc matings of alcoholic   
animals gave only #df living litters1 or
 about #de per cent4 ,on the other hand 
the #ce control matings produced #cb    
living litters1 or #ia-a_/b per cent4   
,it will be observed also that from such
 of the #ajc matings of alcoholics as   
produced young there were #cj           
still-born1 #cg which died soon after   
birth1 and only #eb surviving young1    
whereas from the #ce matings of normal  
individuals there were only #d          
still-born young1 #d which died soon    
after birth1 and #ef surviving young4   
,the bottom line of the table1 although1
 as ,stockard points out1 containing too
 few cases to prove wholly convincing1  
indicates that alcoholizing erstwhile   
normal females during pregnancy was not 
particularly harmful to the embryos in  
utero4  ,some of the most interesting   

results were obtained when offspring    
termed second generation animals1       
derived from alcoholic parents though   
not themselves treated with alcohol1    
were mated in various ways4 ,when such  
individuals were mated with normal      
individuals1 although the litters were  
small1 the results were normal1 the     
normal mate having seemingly            
counteracted any defects which might    
have lurked in the second generation    
animal4 ,on the other hand1 out of three
 matings of second generation animals   
with alcoholic individuals1 two produced
 still-born young1 of which one was     
markedly deformed1 while the third      
yielded two living young4  ,however1 the
 most striking results were obtained    
when two second generation individuals1 
the offspring of alcoholic parents1 were
 bred together4 ,although themselves    
untreated1 these individuals1 of which  
#ai matings were made1 produced as many 
or more defective young than did their  
alcoholic parents4 ,seven of the matings

 were unfruitful4 ,the remaining #ab    
matings gave living litters consisting  
of #ai individuals in all4 ,six of these
 showed various nerve disorders 7spasms1
 epileptic-like seizures1 etc47 soon    
after birth2 one was eyeless and        
otherwise deformed4  ,stockard's        
,interpretation4--,stockard's           
interpretation of his experiments is as 
follows3 ,mammals treated with injurious
 substances1 such as alcohol1 ether1    
lead1 etc41 suffer from the treatments  
by having the tissues of their bodies   
injured4 ,when the reproductive glands  
and germ-cells become injured in this   
way they give rise to offspring showing 
weak and degenerative conditions of a   
general nature1 and every cell of these 
offspring having been derived from the  
injured egg or sperm-cell are           
necessarily similarly injured and can   
only give rise to other injured cells   
and thus the next generation of         
offspring are equally weak and injured  
and so on4 ,the only hope for such a    

line of individuals is that it can be   
crossed by normal stock1 in which case  
the vigor of the normal germ-cell in the
 combination may counteract1 or at any  
rate reduce1 the extent of injury in the
 body cells of the resulting animal4    
,he also believes that various          
deformities and developmental arrests   
such as harelip and cleft-palate may    
similarly be cases of transmission      
rather than true inheritance1 due to the
 weakening of the germ-cells in some    
way1 or to some lack of full vigor in   
the uterine environment4  ,further      
,remarks on the ,situation in           
,man4--,returning now to the question of
 alcoholism in man1 it seems in view of 
the strong circumstantial evidence in   
the case of man himself1 together with  
the result of experiments on animals1   
that little doubt remains that excessive
 alcoholism might result in the         
production of defective offspring4 ,on  
the other hand an antecedent degeneracy 
or neural instability undoubtedly plays 

an important part in many cases1 in the 
original production of drunkards1 and   
when such occurs1 it1 as well as the    
direct effects of alcoholic poisoning1  
must be reckoned with in the effects on 
progeny4 ,studies carried on by         
,pearson1 ,elderton and ,barrington of  
the ,eugenic ,laboratory in ,london lead
 these investigators to the conclusion  
that extreme alcoholism is a result not 
a cause of degeneracy4 ,that is1 the    
degeneracy is due to the defective      
stock1 not to alcohol4 ,they cite in    
evidence their records of four thousand 
school children of alcoholic and of     
sober parents1 which fail to show any   
unfavorable effect of alcohol on        
offspring4 ,some of their critics1      
however1 maintain that they did not     
choose subjects who were sufficiently   
alcoholic to give the injurious results 
that might legitimately be expected     
among the offspring of excessive        
drinkers or habitual drunkards4  ,where 
children show a hereditary inclination  

toward drink1 unquestionably one of the 
strongest factors is the inheritance of 
the same disposition1 the same unstable 
nervous constitution and its            
accompanying lack of self-control which 
led the parent to drink1 rather than the
 inheritance of the effects of the drink
 on the parent4 ,for in many cases a    
parent may not become a drunkard until  
after the children who also become      
drunkards are born4 ,that the tendency  
to drink immoderately is frequently due 
to a strain of feeble-mindedness or     
epilepsy becomes more evident every day4
 ,in many of the so-called periodical   
drunkards1 the accompanying features of 
their periodic attacks of drink-craving1
 such as clouding of memory1            
restlessness and depression1 are those  
commonly associated with ordinary       
epileptic attacks4  ,probably ,over     
,fifty ,per ,cent4 of ,inebriety in ,man
 ,due to ,defective ,nervous            
,constitution4--,branthwaite1 an        
,english authority on drunkenness1 finds

 that about sixty-three per cent4 of the
 inebriates who come to his notice are  
mentally defective4 ,in alcoholic       
insanities heredity is a potent factor4 
,it is coming to be realized more and   
more that pronounced alcoholism is due  
in a large percentage of cases1 perhaps 
over half1 to a defective nervous       
make-up4 ,while it is true that many    
drunkards would not develop without free
 access to alcohol1 on the other hand   
many would never develop without a bad  
heredity back of them1 which gives them 
a peculiar nervous constitution that    
renders alcohol an undue stimulus4 ,in a
 recent report of the ,new ,york ,state 
,hospital ,commission it is stated that 
in fifty-four per cent4 of the cases of 
alcoholic insanity1 a family history of 
insanity1 epilepsy or nervous disease   
exists4 ,thus in the presence of alcohol
 most of these unfortunates are helpless
 pawns of a hereditary weakness4  ,so   
when the question of alcoholism is      
viewed from all angles1 the children of 

the human drunkard would seem to run a  
double menace of misfortune1 since they 
may be subject both to the direct       
poisoning effects of alcohol and the    
results of an inheritable degeneracy4   
,factors to ,be ,reckoned ,with in the  
,study of ,alcoholism4--,in any         
thoroughgoing study of alcoholism in man
 many factors will have to be reckoned  
with4 ,first of all there is the        
question of inherent lack of control4   
,this is probably the principal thing   
inherited where heredity truly enters as
 a factor4 ,that example and social     
environment are important factors in    
addition to or in place of heredity is  
clear1 too1 when we observe that often  
it is the boys only who take after a    
drunken father1 for there is no evidence
 that the inherited tendency when it    
really exists is at all sex-linked4     
,again1 in certain occupations carried  
on under unwholesome influences relief  
is frequently sought in alcoholic       
stimulants1 and such custom may easily  

crystallize into habit4 ,furthermore1   
the accustoming young children to doses 
of alcohol1 or the unborn young to      
alcohol through the body of a drunken   
mother1 may be strongly contributory    
toward establishing inebriety in certain
 cases4 ,as we have seen from an        
abundance of experimental data on       
animals1 moreover1 the nurture effects  
on germ-cells may result in the         
production of weakened offspring4 ,such 
offspring in the case of man are        
probably less able to withstand         
temptations of all kinds and hence      
readily succumb to the habit-forming    
effects of alcohol if once its use is   
begun4 ,lastly1 it must not be forgotten
 that alcoholism in the father usually  
means poverty and the subsequent        
accompaniment of malnutrition and       
neglect of the children1 and this in    
itself may not only account for poor    
development of the latter1 but may also 
be strongly contributory toward         
establishing the habit of alcoholism in 

them4  ,an inherent bias plus most of   
the other conditions just enumerated is 
the not unusual lot of the offspring of 
drunkards4  ,venereal ,diseases4--,there
 is yet another very considerable class 
of maritally unfit who in any           
conscientious discussion of unfitness   
for marriage or of racial improvement   
must be considered4 ,i refer to those   
who are afflicted with the diseases     
which are inseparably associated with   
the so-called social evil4 ,to          
gonorrhea1 one of the most prevalent of 
these diseases1 more than one-fourth of 
our total one hundred and ten thousand  
blind in the ,united ,states are said to
 owe their affliction4 ,milder types of 
eye disease may also result from such   
infections4 ,as much as eighty per      
cent41 or some say practically all      
blindness in children born blind is     
caused by it1 the infection occurring at
 the time of birth or within a few days 
thereafter4 ,the terrible consequences  
of this disease to the innocent wife    

would alone make its discussion         
imperative4  ,the ,seriousness of the   
,situation4--,unfortunately the         
insidious nature of gonorrheal          
infections is unknown to most persons4  
,a cure is apparently effected1 yet as a
 matter of fact the germs may live for  
years and1 if in the male1 later be     
transmitted to the wife1 subjecting her 
to a future of invalidism and misery4   
,reliable statistics from various       
medical authorities reveal the appalling
 fact that seventy-five per cent4 or    
more of the surgical operations for     
inflammatory pelvic disorders peculiar  
to women1 such as pus tubes and         
peritonitis1 are attributable to this   
disease1 as is also the involuntary     
sterility of forty-five per cent4 of    
childless women4 ,unwelcome as the fact 
is there is an abundance of evidence to 
show that a large percentage of men in  
particular have at some period of their 
life been infected with venereal        
disease4 ,of our fourteen million males 

in the ,united ,states under the age of 
thirty we find estimates by some        
specialists in venereal diseases to the 
effect that five million of them1 that  
is1 one out of three1 suffer from some  
one of the social diseases or their     
consequences4 ,doctor ,hugh ,cabot1 one 
of the chief surgeons of the            
,massachusetts ,general ,hospital at    
,boston1 a member of the faculty of the 
,harvard ,medical ,school and president 
of the ,american ,association of        
,genito-,urinary ,surgeons1 has this to 
say about the situation3 ,we have of    
late years heard much about the         
frequency and serious consequences of   
tuberculosis2 it has been dubbed the    
'white plague1' and so active has been  
the campaign that a wide-spread         
understanding of this serious disease   
has resulted4 ,it may safely be averred 
that in the urban population at least   
there are two1 and perhaps three1       
individuals with syphilis to every one  
with tuberculosis4 ,the frequency of    

gonococcus infection is much higher4 ,he
 believes that over half the male       
population acquire a gonococcus         
infection at some period of their       
career4 ,while as a layman1 one can not 
but feel that a specialist's estimate   
may run unduly high because of the fact 
that he is encountering an inordinate   
proportion of such maladies every day1  
still such specialists are in position  
to get at the truth as no other person  
can and their calculations are probably 
not grossly in error4 ,in any event any 
one who has progressed in worldly       
knowledge beyond the naivete of a child 
must recognize the appalling prevalence 
of these maladies4  ,infantile          
,blindness4--,so serious has the matter 
of infantile blindness become that some 
state boards of health and some city    
health departments supply all physicians
 and midwives with specially prepared   
packages containing cotton and nitrate  
of silver solution for preventive or    
curative treatment of the eyes of all   

new-born children4 ,at the time of the  
first bath each eye is carefully washed 
with a separate pledget of cotton       
saturated with boric acid solution4     
,each then receives a drop of the silver
 solution1 which is made just strong    
enough to kill any gonococci that might 
be present without itself inflaming the 
eye4 ,water used in bathing the baby's  
body of course is not allowed to come in
 contact with its eyes4 ,such treatment 
should be given every child no matter   
how unsuspicious the circumstances may  
be4 ,german authorities who have been   
following this method now for some years
 assure us that nineteen-twentieths of  
the blindness of infancy can thus be    
prevented4  ,syphilis4--,as to syphilis1
 another and even more terrible of these
 diseases1 we have before us the absurd 
fact that while thousands upon thousands
 of dollars are being spent to establish
 a rigid inspection and preventive      
measures against the spread of a very   
similar disease in the horse1 this      

malady in man is allowed to pass        
unchallenged and we are confronted by   
the gruesome certainty that there are   
hundreds of these diseased persons about
 us to-day who1 on their mere           
affirmation that they are unmarried and 
of age1 will be given the right to marry
 and thus produce families of infected  
children irrevocably doomed to early    
death or to lifelong misery4  ,while    
syphilis is most commonly spread through
 relations between the sexes1 it may be 
acquired in various other ways1 as for  
example1 through a cut in shaving with  
the same razor an infected individual   
has used4 ,it is commonly transmitted   
from parent to child4 ,practically every
 prostitute is a center of              
dissemination4 ,katherine ,bement ,davis
 has shown in her studies made at the   
,new ,york ,state ,reformatory for      
,women that while ordinary clinical     
tests show that apparently only         
twenty-one per cent4 of these women are 
infected with venereal disease1 more    

careful laboratory tests showed at least
 ninety per cent4 to be infected4       
,syphilis is caused by ,treponema       
pallidum1 a small unicellular animal    
parasite4 ,given access to the blood by 
any means whatever1 possibly even       
through an abrasion in the lip by means 
of a kiss1 it multiplies rapidly and any
 part or organ of the body may be       
attacked4 ,usually a small sore occurs  
at the point of entrance to the body1   
but often it heals up readily with      
little indication of the seriousness of 
the infection4  ,the development of the 
malady is insidious and long continued4 
,as a matter of clinical convenience    
physicians divide its progress into     
successive stages although in reality   
the transitions are frequently variable 
and ill marked4 ,the symptoms that arise
 within the first few months or even    
years are readily controlled by         
appropriate treatment1 but to insure a  
cure prolonged and most thoroughgoing   
treatment is imperative4 ,the symptoms  

disappear so completely after a short   
period of treatment that it is very     
difficult to persuade the average       
patient that he is not yet cured4 ,two  
years at least are none too short a     
period of treatment1 yet the majority of
 patients1 fully convinced that they are
 merely being exploited by the physician
 as a source of revenue1 drift away at  
the end of a few months4 ,as a matter of
 fact1 however1 the germs usually       
persist long after the obvious symptoms 
of the disease have disappeared1 and in 
consequence many of the most serious    
results of syphilis may not manifest    
themselves for a period of perhaps ten1 
twenty or thirty years4  ,some of the   
,effects4--,it is now known that        
paresis1 also termed general paralysis  
or softening of the brain1 is probably  
invariably due to syphilis4 ,the work of
 ,flexner and ,noguchi on paresis and   
tabes dorsalis show that always in such 
afflictions the tissues of the central  
nervous system have been invaded by the 

parasite4 ,the original infection1      
however1 may have occurred so long      
before as to have been almost forgotten 
by the patient4 ,thus many an apparently
 robust man is stricken down in the     
prime of life4 ,earlier and prolonged   
treatment would in all probability have 
eradicated the germs and thus prevented 
the mental breakdown1 which can not be  
cured by any known treatment4           
,postmortem examination always shows    
that the ,treponema has wrought         
wide-spread damage in the brain4 ,the   
frequency of paresis may be realized    
when one learns that in some regions it 
is responsible for about one-fifth of   
all cases of insanity sent to hospitals 
for the insane4 ,it ranks next to the   
highest as a cause of insanity4         
,statistics show that in the state of   
,new ,york more deaths result annually  
from paresis than from smallpox1        
tetanus1 malaria1 dysentery and rabies  
all combined4  ,in some cases the       
disease attacks the membranes of the    

brain and the small blood vessels giving
 rise to a still different type of      
mental disorder4 ,practically all       
patients with locomotor ataxia owe their
 condition to an antecedent syphilis4   
,moreover it is one of the important    
causes of arterio-sclerosis1 or         
hardening of the blood vessels1 and is  
also a prominent factor in certain forms
 of heart-disease1 as well as by no     
means an unimportant cause of blindness 
in children4  ,as to specific cases of  
the effects of this disease on          
descendants the literature of the       
subject is crowded full4 ,while it is   
needless to conduct the reader through a
 chamber of horrors by reviewing        
clinical cases1 it is desirable to point
 out in a general way some of the       
effects4 ,doctor ,george ,h4 ,kirby1    
director of ,clinical ,psychiatry1      
,manhattan ,state ,hospital1 says3      
,we find that when either the father or 
the mother suffers from     paresis that
 many other members of the family may be

 infected with     syphilis1 and        
furthermore1 we find that a large number
 of children in     these families are  
feeble-minded1 nervous1 or in other ways
 abnormal4     ,doctor ,plant examined a
 group of #ajj children1 the offspring  
of cases     of paresis1 and found that 
#de per cent4 were plainly damaged      
mentally     or physically1 or in both  
fields2 the blood test showed that      
one-third     of these #ajj children had
 the syphilitic poison in their systems4
      ,another investigator found in a  
group of #aci children1 the             
descendants of parents who had          
syphilitic nervous disease1 that over   
#be per cent4 were definitely           
feeble-minded or affected with some     
serious nervous disorders4      ,other  
studies indicate that there exists a    
close relation between     syphilis and 
many of the hitherto unexplained cases  
of     feeble-mindedness1 including     
idiocy1 imbecility1 infantile paralysis1
     and some forms of epilepsy4 ,while 

the question is not yet settled1 it     
appears that syphilis is the real cause 
of many of these cases of     mental    
defect in children4  ,still other       
investigators give details of physical  
afflictions and distortions1 of         
suppressed development1 of inordinate   
percentages of stillbirths--perhaps the 
most merciful lot for the little        
victims--but sufficient has been said to
 indicate the full horror of the        
situation4  ,goddard1#g although not    
minimizing the terrible nature of the   
disease1 finds little evidence in his   
studies that syphilis in parents is a   
specific cause of feeble-mindedness4  ,a
 ,blood ,test4--,fortunately a delicate 
blood test known as the ,wasserman test 
has been discovered by means of which1  
through an examination of a few drops of
 blood1 any trace of syphilitic poison  
which exists in the body may usually be 
detected4 ,this is true even though the 
individual may at the time show no      
visible symptoms of syphilis4 ,the test 

is therefore of great value in detecting
 the latent germs of syphilis in        
individuals who have apparently been    
cured1 and also often in making an early
 diagnosis of paresis4 ,the ,wasserman  
test1 however1 is reliable only in the  
hands of a skilled operator4 ,it may    
occasionally give a positive reaction   
when syphilis does not exist and on the 
contrary a negative when it is present4 
,the luetin test is also now applied by 
some specialists1 but is too new a test 
to have come into general use4 ,it works
 on the same principle as the tuberculin
 test for tuberculosis4 ,some army      
physicians now also give what is termed 
a provocative ,wasserman4 ,that is1 in a
 suspicious case which gives only       
negative results by an ordinary         
,wasserman1 they can get1 if syphilis   
really exists1 a positive reaction after
 giving small doses of potassium iodide 
or salvarsan4  ,it should be well       
understood by every one that syphilis is
 usually curable provided the patient is

 given modern scientific treatment by a 
competent physician4 ,i emphasize       
competent because there are so many     
quacks in this field that one undergoing
 treatment can not be too careful in    
assuring himself of the competency of   
the physician4 ,in even a case of long  
standing1 where the symptoms have been  
in abeyance for a number of years1 the  
disease can be cured provided it has not
 developed into an active cerebro-spinal
 type1 and even the latter can be much  
benefited by proper treatment4 ,the     
great danger of the cerebro-spinal type 
is that it will result in paresis or    
locomotor ataxia4  ,as long as the blood
 of a patient shows a positive          
,wasserman reaction1 marriage should    
certainly not be consummated4 ,if after 
a proper course of treatment by a       
well-informed physician1 the patient    
shows a negative ,wasserman when tested 
by a competent examiner1 he probably    
would not infect his wife or offspring1 
although prudence would require that he 

wait at least six months or a year      
before marriage1 and marrying then only 
if later tests remain negative4  ,the   
only way for a patient to be sure that  
he is not harboring the cerebro-spinal  
form would be to have a spinal puncture 
made and the cerebro-spinal fluid       
examined4 ,while the cerebro-spinal     
phase often does not occur until long   
after the primary infection1 cases are  
known in which it has appeared within a 
few weeks4 ,evidence that the central   
nervous system is frequently invaded    
early in the course of the disease is   
increasing4 ,marriage of an individual  
suffering from the cerebro-spinal form  
should not take place1 since such a one 
is almost sure to become a burden on the
 family or the state4  ,many            
,syphilitics ,are ,married4--,it may    
seem to some that in a treatise on being
 well-born the subject of syphilis might
 be ignored as not being especially     
pertinent1 but the supposition that no  
considerable percentage of syphilitics  

marry is not borne out by the facts4    
,seventy-five per cent4 of men with     
insanity due to syphilis who are        
admitted to hospitals are married4 ,the 
insanity in such cases is mainly the    
result of infections in earlier years1  
often long before marriage4 ,while      
syphilis1 strictly speaking1 is not     
inherited1 that is1 does not become part
 and parcel of the germ-plasm1 still the
 frequency of its direct transmission to
 offspring is so appalling that the     
outcome1 as far as the immediate child  
is concerned1 is quite as disastrous as 
the most thoroughgoing real inheritance 
could be4  ,why ,permit ,conditions to  
,continue as ,they ,are8--,when one     
faces the easily ascertained facts      
regarding venereal disease1 it seems    
incredible that we1 an intelligent      
people1 can go on complacently handing  
our daughters and sisters over to the   
surgeon's knife and a life of personal  
misery1 and even in not a few instances 
to become mothers of incurably defective

 children1 yet the dire fact confronts  
us that we do4 ,we can no longer excuse 
ourselves on the plea of ignorance1 for 
the grisly record may now be read in    
many medical and not a few popular      
treatises1 and we find the theme        
entering even into the modern drama1 as 
witness ,brieux's ,damaged ,goods4      
,further indifference to these          
conditions can only be attributed to    
culpable apathy or prudery4  ,the       
extreme dangers to which parents are    
subjecting their daughters if they do   
not demand a clean bill of health on the
 part of their prospective husbands are 
obvious4 ,fathers and mothers perfectly 
willing to inquire into their future    
son-in-law's social connections1 his    
income1 securities1 or business chances 
become strangely modest when it comes to
 determining whether he is physically   
fit for marriage4  ,one great cause of  
ignorance in the past was the prudish   
taboo against frank discussions of      
venereal diseases which has thrown the  

veil of silence about the subject4      
,to-day1 however1 it is coming to be    
recognized that these maladies are      
diseases and not a standard of social   
propriety1 and that like most other     
diseases the surest way to secure       
prevention and gradual eradication is   
through the enlightenment of the public4
 ,they are prevalent in all classes of  
society4 ,moreover1 it must not be      
forgotten that there is no form of      
venereal disease which may not be       
innocently acquired4 ,even where        
acquired through transgression of moral 
law an ignorant attitude toward the     
sexual instinct is often at the bottom  
of the difficulty4  ,medical ,inspection
 ,before ,marriage4--,ante-nuptial      
medical inspection is certainly as      
necessary to the welfare of society as  
the certification of age and of the     
single state now required by law4 ,no   
one objects to a medical examination    
pertaining to venereal and other        
diseases when it comes to taking out a  

life insurance policy1 and why there    
should be any more objection to it as a 
preliminary to marriage is a mystery4 ,a
 few states already have compulsory     
ante-nuptial medical inspection4 ,the   
laws have been enacted too recently to  
judge adequately of their working4      
,there has been much debate in          
,wisconsin as to whether their law      
7,chapter #gch1 ,laws of #aiac71 which  
went into effect ,january #a1 #aiad1 is 
constitutional and whether it requires a
 ,wasserman test4 ,the ,wisconsin law   
applies to males only4 ,the ,supreme    
,court of the state has declared it     
constitutional and that its requirement 
of the application of the recognized    
clinical and laboratory tests of        
scientific search involves only such    
examination as the ordinary licensed    
physician is equipped to make and can   
reasonably be expected to make for three
 dollars1 the maximum fee specified in  
the law4  ,a number of the physicians of
 the state are still dissatisfied with  

the wording1 although most do not oppose
 the principle of the law4 ,many believe
 that it should apply to the women as   
well as to the men1 and others feel that
 the law should be extended to cover    
still other kinds of marital unfitness4 
,most of the practitioners with whom ,i 
have discussed the matter appreciate the
 motive underlying the law and are      
endeavoring to make it successful4  ,the
 general public of the state as a whole 
seems to be in favor of the provision4  
,at least one hears much favorable      
comment and little dissension among     
those who understand its purpose4 ,the  
very controversy over it which sprang up
 after its passage proved to be of great
 benefit in the education of the public 
regarding the necessity of such         
measures4 ,such physicians as ,i have   
been able to question report that the   
candidates for marriage rarely object to
 the requirement1 but on the contrary   
strongly favor it4 ,especially where    
they have suffered from venereal disease

 earlier in life most are eager to know 
their condition and to have medical     
advice4 ,to my own mind this last fact  
is the most significant of all1 as it   
will give every candidate for marriage a
 chance to know the truth4 ,most men are
 not so much brutal or vicious as       
ignorant in such matters4 ,the vast     
majority of those unfit for marriage as 
a consequence of venereal disease will1 
when they realize the danger their      
condition imposes on wife and children1 
take every possible means to put        
themselves into proper condition4       
,desirable as the ,wasserman test may   
be1 it requires special laboratory      
facilities and equipment as well as a   
specially trained examiner to make it a 
reliable test4 ,moreover it can not be  
given by the general practitioner for   
the very moderate fee that must obtain  
in a pre-nuptial examination compelled  
by law4 ,if it or the serum test for    
gonorrhea are to be applied then the    
legislative body of the state will find 

it necessary to establish a special     
public laboratory or laboratories for   
their application4 ,this1 however1 is   
not a matter of particular difficulty   
and would be capital well invested in   
any state4  ,the ,perils of ,venereal   
,disease ,must ,be ,prevented at ,any   
,cost4--,however1 no matter what the    
cost may be to the state1 no matter what
 the exaction from the individual1 the  
grave perils of venereal disease to     
society must be prevented4 ,we owe it to
 the cause of humanity that there be    
fewer victims born into a world of      
eternal night1 that from a parentage of 
polluted blood there spring no longer   
hosts of children with feeble misshapen 
bodies or with tarnished intellects1    
death-marked at the door of life4  ,bad 
,environment ,can ,wreck ,good          
,germ-,plasm4--,in conclusion it is     
evident from our discussion of prenatal 
influences that not all of being        
well-born is concerned with heredity in 
its proper sense1 since the unborn young

 may be influenced either directly or   
indirectly by environmental conditions  
which are in no sense products of       
heredity1 although as far as the        
immediate child is concerned the result 
may be quite as disastrous where the    
influence is a baneful one4 ,as to the  
production of beneficial prenatal       
effects1 while parents can do nothing   
toward modifying favorably such         
qualities as are predetermined in their 
germ-plasm1 nevertheless they must come 
to realize that bad environment can     
wreck good germ-plasm4 ,they can see to 
it that they keep themselves in good    
physical condition by wholesome         
temperate living1 and thereby insure as 
far as possible healthy germ-cells for  
the conception and good nutrition for   
the sustenance of their progeny4 ,their 
one sacred obligation to the immortal   
germ-plasm of which they are the        
trustees is to see that they hand it on 
with its maximal possibilities undimmed 
by innutrition1 poisons or vice4        

,,chapter ,,vii  ,,responsibility ,,for 
,,conduct   ,since both physical and    
mental attributes are unquestionably    
inherited1 it becomes a matter of       
importance to inquire into the nature of
 the entity we call personality4 ,to    
what extent is human conduct a product  
of parentage8 ,although apparently free 
agents are we in reality only by        
infinitely subtle indirections making   
the responses1 forming the habits1      
establishing the characters which result
 merely from the blind impulsions of an 
inherent constitution8 ,if so1 who is   
praiseworthy1 who blameworthy8 ,are men 
,but helpless pieces of the ,game ,he   
plays   ,upon this chequer-board of     
,nights and ,days4  ,all ,mental        
,process ,accompanied by ,neural        
,process4--,whatever the ultimate       
decision of psychologists may be        
regarding the relation of mind to the   
sensory and nervous mechanism of man it 
is certain that there is so close an    
association between them that the least 

alteration in the mechanism means a     
parallel effect in the mind1 or in the  
words of ,huxley1 every psychosis is    
definitely correlated with a neurosis4  
,the rind or cortex of gray matter which
 constitutes the surface of the large   
cerebral hemispheres of the human brain 
is regarded as the seat of              
consciousness4 ,the development of the  
mental powers in the infant is dependent
 on the development of the elements of  
this cortical substance and the waning  
of the mental faculties in old age goes 
hand in hand with its atrophy4 ,abnormal
 arrangements1 injuries or omissions in 
it mean mental unsoundness4 ,how the    
activity of the structural mechanism    
gives a reaction in consciousness is not
 understood1 but we know that in the    
living being the two phenomena are      
inseparably linked4 ,whether we accept  
the hypothesis that consciousness is an 
actual product of the structural        
mechanism or the hypothesis that the    
latter is only an instrument for the    

manifestations as consciousness of an   
outside force or entity1 just as the    
telegraphic instrument manifests the    
existence of electricity1 is neither    
here nor there for our purposes4 ,on    
either supposition the degree and manner
 of expression are determined by the    
structure of the mechanism4 ,our main   
problem is to decide as nearly as       
possible how much of the mechanism is   
rigidly inherited1 how much is at birth 
largely undestined1 so that its ultimate
 outcome is in part a product of the    
forces which play upon it1 or in other  
words of education and training4        
,gradation in ,nervous ,response from   
,lower ,organisms to ,man4--,to         
comprehend fully the basic nature of    
human neural responses one must seek the
 roots in the behavior of lower         
organisms4 ,for there is found in a     
simpler form many of the fundamental    
activities and the first dim gropings   
which emerge in man as memory1 reason   
and will4 ,as we ascend the scale of    

animal life we find a continuous advance
 in neural complexity and nervous       
response that in many respects grades up
 closely to the human type4  ,a windmill
 or a weather-vane points toward the    
source of the wind1 obviously not       
because either exercises any special    
choice in the matter1 but because it is 
constructed on such lines of symmetry   
that when the wind strikes it1 if it    
slants the slightest to left or right1  
the more exposed surface receives the   
greatest pressure and thus swings the   
body back into the line of least        
resistance4  ,behavior of ,many ,animals
 ,often an ,automatic ,adjustment to    
,simple ,external ,agents4--,it is a far
 cry1 of course1 from the responses of  
such a machine as a windmill to the     
responses of even the simplest living   
thing1 but in spite of the broad gap    
between the two1 there is much reason to
 believe that the behavior of many      
living organisms is due in a marked     
degree to the directive effects of      

comparatively simple external factors   
rather than to the complex internal     
volitions the casual observer is likely 
to attribute to them4  ,tropisms4--,it  
is a marked characteristic of all living
 protoplasm that it has the power of    
responding to external stimuli4 ,this   
power of response is termed excitability
 or irritability4 ,in describing the    
motor responses of living organisms to  
stimuli resulting from a change in      
surroundings the term tropism 7,gr4     
,trope1 turning7 is frequently used and 
the kind of stimulus is indicated by a  
prefix4 ,thus the term phototropism     
means a turning or orientation brought  
about by means of light4 ,an organism   
which reacts by a movement toward the   
source of light is said to be positively
 phototropic1 one which moves away from 
it1 negatively phototropic4 ,by using   
such a neutral terminology the          
physiologist avoids implying that       
necessarily likes or dislikes or any    
other psychic reaction enter into the   

movements4  ,several kinds of tropisms  
are recognized1 such as phototropism or 
heliotropism1 reaction to light2        
thermotropism1 reaction to heat2        
electrotropism or galvanotropism1 to    
electric current2 geotropism1 to        
gravity2 chemotropism1 to a chemical2   
rheotropism1 to current2 thigmotropism  
or stereotropism1 to contact2 and       
chromotropism1 to color4  ,many ,animals
 ,show ,tropic ,responses4--,many of the
 lower animals seem to have their       
movements determined more or less       
mechanically by the action of such      
external factors1 some being positively1
 others negatively responsive to a given
 kind of stimulus1 or the same          
individual may be at one time positive1 
at another negative1 according to       
modifying conditions to be mentioned    
presently4  ,in plants and in simpler   
lower animals there is no special       
nervous system4 ,the responses of these 
organisms depend on the general         
irritability of their constituent       

protoplasm4 ,in other animals a nervous 
system is developed1 crude and diffuse  
in lower forms1 extremely delicate1     
complex and definitely ordered in higher
 forms4 ,but it should be borne in mind 
that nerve protoplasm possesses only in 
high degree a capacity for irritability1
 conduction1 etc41 that is common to all
 living substance4 ,in keeping with     
other physiological divisions of labor  
or specialization which mark the        
increasing complexity of animals1 this  
enormously enhanced sensitivity and     
conductivity of certain tissues have    
come about1 and they have become set    
apart for these special functions4 ,in  
higher animals1 therefore1 the tropisms 
where operative must act more or less   
through the agency of the nervous system
 instead of directly through the general
 protoplasm of the organism4  ,certain  
,apparently ,complex ,volitions         
,probably ,only ,tropisms4--,where      
nervous systems enter into tropic       
responses there must be specific        

sensibility of certain nerve            
terminations 7i4 e41 sense organs7 at   
the surface of the body4 ,these sensory 
or receiving nerves connect through the 
central system with corresponding motor 
nerves which in turn supply certain     
specific muscles through the contraction
 of which the organism is as surely and 
as mechanically oriented as in the      
simpler cases4 ,for example1 if light is
 the stimulating agent1 when it strikes 
a positively phototropic animal1 if the 
latter is not already oriented1 the eyes
 or other nerve terminations sensitive  
to light transmit an impulse through the
 central nervous system to certain      
muscles causing them to increase their  
tension and thereby swing the animal    
around with its head toward the light4  
,progressive movements which the        
organism then makes must carry it toward
 the source of light4 ,thus it is not   
love of light that draws the moth into  
the flame but the mechanical steering of
 the body toward the source of light    

through the stimulations produced by the
 light waves4 ,it is chemotropism1 not  
solicitude for its offspring1 which     
drives the flesh fly to lay its eggs on 
decaying meat4 ,and it is stereotropism 
and not a desire for concealment which  
impels certain animals such as many     
worms and insects to get into a close   
contact with solid bodies1 or in other  
words to hide themselves in burrows and 
crevices4  ,complicating                
,factors4--,however1 beautifully as     
these theories of tropisms work out in a
 broad general way1 there are various   
additional factors entering which must  
be reckoned with1 and these become more 
numerous and of more consequence as the 
organism becomes more complex4 ,in the  
first place certain internal conditions 
must be considered4 ,living matter is   
characterized by its instability4 ,there
 are continual synthetic and disruptive 
processes in progress which the         
physiologist terms metabolic changes4   
,the very life of such matter seems to  

be the manifestation of such changes4   
,concerning what the ultimate source of 
these changes is1 whether or not        
indirectly they may be referred to      
external conditions as seems probable to
 many biologists1 no one so far has ever
 given a convincing1 positive answer4   
,it is sufficient for our purposes to   
know that they may have set up certain  
internal stimuli which may modify the   
behavior of the organism in which they  
reside1 and that the physiological state
 of the organism at the time of external
 or internal stimulation will condition 
the response4 ,this physiological       
condition may be dependent on the       
general metabolic equilibrium of the    
animal1 or on the extent of previous    
stimulation by means of the same or     
different agents4 ,thus the organism may
 not always react in the same way to the
 same stimulus4  ,the intensity of the  
stimulation and change in the intensity 
of the stimulation1 are also factors to 
be reckoned with4 ,moreover1 it must be 

taken into account that a given organism
 is often operating under the control of
 more than one external influence4 ,for 
example1 swarm spores in a dish of water
 which at a given temperature are       
positively phototropic1 that is1 gather 
at the side of the dish toward the      
light1 may1 if the temperature of the   
water is raised or in case of marine    
forms if the salinity is increased1     
become negatively phototropic4          
,sometimes two or more forms of stimuli 
may cooperate in bringing about certain 
behavior as1 for instance1 in the       
reaction of the earthworm to a suitable 
habitat1 through a combination of       
chemical and contact stimuli4 ,on the   
other hand1 two different stimuli may   
interfere with each other2 for example1 
the usual phototropic responses of      
certain animals do not manifest         
themselves when they are mating or      
feeding4 ,in short1 anything that alters
 the physiological state of the organism
 may cause it to react in a different   

manner4 ,and thus with the interplay of 
shifting external agents and variable   
internal state the bounds of behavior on
 these purely mechanical bases become   
considerably extended4  ,many ,tropic   
,responses ,apparently                  
,purposeful4--,the query arises as to   
why if these responses are mechanical   
they are so often apparently purposive2 
that is1 why do they so often subserve  
some useful end for the animal8 ,while  
they do not always work out to the      
animal's benefit1 as for instance in the
 case of the moth and the light or under
 many other conditions that can be      
devised experimentally1 as a matter of  
fact under normal natural conditions    
they are on the whole useful to the     
organism1 carrying it into suitable     
surroundings of food1 lessened danger1  
temperature1 and the like4  ,the        
probabilities are that in their first   
origin the reactions were not purposive4
 ,however1 if any proved harmful they   
would result in the extermination of    

their possessors and hence of that      
particular strain of individuals4 ,those
 types that happened to have useful     
reactions would be left and in course of
 time as the process of eliminating the 
others went on1 would become the        
prevailing types4 ,any organism which   
the useful reaction had preserved would 
tend to hand it down to the succeeding  
generation where again it would be the  
conserver of those individuals which    
possessed it in sufficient degree4      
,authorities ,not ,agreed on ,details of
 ,tropic ,responses4--,although all the 
foremost modern students of animal      
behavior accept as facts the more or    
less mechanical orienting effects of    
external stimuli1 there is by no means  
unanimity of opinion regarding details4 
,some stress as the directive factor the
 continuous action of the stimulating   
agent on sensitive tissues symmetrically
 situated4 ,others would maintain that  
it is the time rate of change in the    
intensity of the stimulating agent1 or  

that the factor is different in         
different cases4 ,some make much of an  
automatic sort of trial and error system
 by which certain organisms test out an 
inimical environment until the path of  
least irritation is hit upon as the way 
to safety4 ,the field is a broad one and
 to get at the finer shades of          
distinction the reader will have to     
refer to the works of such authorities  
as ,loeb1 ,jennings1 ,holmes and ,mast4 
,tropisms ,grade ,into ,reflex ,actions 
and ,instincts4--,the tropisms in many  
cases become indistinguishable from     
reflex actions and these in turn grade  
up into the instincts of animals4 ,the  
latter may be looked on as but subtler  
and more involved reactions made        
possible through a more intricate       
structural organization4 ,as might be   
expected of instincts1 the feature of   
utility is more in evidence than in     
simpler tropisms because they have      
become of proportionately greater       
magnitude1 but the same fundamental     

mechanism is apparently at bottom of    
both4 ,it has already been seen how the 
instinct of the blow-fly to lay its egg 
on meat is interpretable as a           
chemotropic response4 ,thus no elaborate
 psychic mechanism is necessary in such 
behavior4  ,instincts4--,in the typical 
instinct there is a series of chain     
reflexes in which one step determines   
the next until mechanically the whole   
gamut of changes is run to the last     
step4 ,it is characteristic of a purely 
instinctive act that an animal performs 
it without practise1 without            
instruction1 and without reason4        
,moreover1 all of the same kind of      
animals tend to perform the act in the  
same way4 ,but with instincts1 as with  
tropisms1 the physiological state of the
 organism must be regarded4 ,for        
instance1 the instinctive reactions of  
an animal sated with food or hungry will
 be different4  ,adjustability of       
,instincts ,opens the ,way for          
,intelligent ,behavior4--,as we progress

 in the scale of animal life this       
adjustability of instincts to new       
conditions comes more into evidence4    
,while prescribed in the main by        
internal impulse the carrying out of the
 action is capable of some adaptability 
to circumstances4 ,and in proportion as 
this adaptability releases the organism 
from a blind rigid working-out of a     
predetermined end1 there is opened up   
the possibility of intelligent behavior2
 that is1 of modification of the        
instinctive behavior by individually    
acquired experience4  ,while the        
generation of instinctive impulses still
 occurs it is left more for individual  
experience to teach discrimination      
between ends4 ,but we can not escape a  
fundamental structural mechanism1 for   
with this new capacity of educability   
must come new structural mechanisms in  
the nervous system and this must be as  
faithfully reproduced in each individual
 as is the basis for any other nervous  
response4 ,how low in the scale of      

animal life animals can profit from     
their experiences to the extent that    
their future conduct is conditioned     
thereby is not known4 ,some would place 
it as far back as the protozoa1 others  
would not4 ,where such modification of  
behavior is possible there must be some 
mechanism for the storage of impressions
 in the form of what we term memory4    
,modification of ,habits ,possible in   
,lower ,animals4--,among invertebrates  
such animals as crayfish will acquire   
new habits1 or rather will modify old   
ones4 ,even as lowly an organism as the 
starfish can have changes of habit      
thrust on it4 ,when a starfish is placed
 upon its back it rights itself by means
 of its arms or rays4 ,professor        
,jennings found that in a given         
individual the tendency was always to   
employ certain rays for this rather than
 others4 ,however1 by preventing the use
 of the rays customarily employed1 he   
found that the animal would use a       
different pair and that ultimately in   

this way it could be trained into the   
habit of using this pair of rays even   
when restrained in no way4 ,one starfish
 which was given one hundred eighty such
 lessons in eighteen days after an      
interval of seven days still retained   
the new habit2 young individuals were   
found to be more easily trained than old
 ones4  ,some ,lower ,vertebrates       
,profit by ,experience4--,among         
vertebrates it is known that those as   
low in organization as fish will profit 
by experience4 ,they will learn to come 
for food at a regular time and          
apparently learn more or less to        
appreciate the presence of certain      
obstacles with which they have had      
unsatisfactory experiences4 ,professor  
,sanford sums up what he believes are   
the limitations of the piscine mental   
organization as follows3 ,no fish is    
ever conscious of himself2 he never     
thinks of himself as doing this or that1
 or feeling in this way or that way4    
,the whole direction of the mind is     

outward4 ,he has no language and so can 
not think in verbal terms2 he never     
names anything2 he never talks to       
himself2 as ,huxley says of the         
crayfish1 he 'has nothing to say to     
himself or any one else4' ,he does not  
reflect2 he makes no generalizations4   
,all his thinking is in the present and 
in concrete terms4 ,he has no voluntary 
attention1 no volition in the true      
sense1 no self-control4  ,rational      
,behavior4--,finally1 however1 out of   
these first dull glimmerings of         
intelligence as exemplified in the      
higher invertebrates and the lower      
vertebrates1 which can modify behavior  
as the result of experience1 come the   
still higher factors so dominant in man1
 of rational behavior4 ,this higher     
mental process can realize the end to be
 reached and can deliberate on the means
 to be employed4 ,by means of his reason
 man can overcome difficulties in       
advance by thinking out suitable schemes
 of action4 ,some naturalists believe   

that man stands alone in possessing the 
power to reason1 although others believe
 that some of the other mammals1 notably
 the other primates1 possess the same   
attribute although in a much less       
degree4  ,conceptual ,thought ,probably 
an ,outgrowth of ,simpler ,psychic      
,states4--,is the capacity for such     
conceptual thought1 however1 which      
appears as the final efflorescence of   
complex neural activity something       
entirely new8 ,most students of         
comparative psychology maintain that it 
is not4 ,just as one kind of an instinct
 frequently grows out of another1 so has
 this grown out of the complex of       
psychic states which preceded it4 ,it   
apparently is the product of the        
increasing awareness on the part of     
animals of their neural processes and   
the outcome of these processes1 which   
becomes more and more prominent as we   
ascend the scale of animal life4 ,with  
the advent of associative memory the    
mind comes more and more to deal with   

attributes of objects instead of merely 
with each single concrete object as it  
presents itself1 and these attributes   
being common to many objects1 come to   
represent definite ideas which can be   
manipulated by the mind4 ,language1 of  
course1 has been an indispensable aid to
 man in this regard1 for words become   
descriptions of facts and symbols of    
concepts1 and thereby allow of abstract 
thought4  ,the ,capacity for            
,alternative ,action in ,high ,animals  
,renders ,possible ,more ,than ,one     
,form of ,behavior4--,with this         
modification of instinct by experience  
made possible1 there comes at the same  
time1 of course1 the capacity for a     
rational instead of a purely instinctive
 behavior4 ,this very capacity for      
alternative action opens up many new    
possibilities of behavior and together  
with the well-known fixative effects of 
habit1 also the opportunity of          
permanently establishing certain ones4  
,thus it is obvious that a behavior     

toward which in a strict sense there can
 not be said to have been an original   
specific tendency1 can be developed4    
,what was present in the first place was
 only a general possibility of the      
development of any one of several types 
of behavior4 ,the final choice of the   
alternatives together with repetition   
makes it the habitual behavior of the   
individual4 ,of course it can be urged  
that if the selection of the type of    
behavior is left to the individual then 
the latter will operate automatically   
toward the various impulsions of its    
neural make-up and one path will be     
followed because of stronger inclination
 in that direction1 so that the whole   
procedure is in the end the mere        
operation of an automaton4 ,but however 
this may be in the individual left to   
itself1 the fact is in man that the     
young individual is never left to itself
 and in the nature of things can not be1
 so that without entering into this     
troubled pool of controversy regarding  

freedom of the will1 ,i wish merely to  
point out that the possibility of more  
than one form of behavior exists and    
that if one is more desirable than the  
others then this one can be chosen by   
the ones responsible for the training of
 the young individual and clenched fast 
by the agency of habit4  ,intelligence1 
reason and habits1 however1 no less than
 instincts and tropism must have neural 
as well as psychical existence and we   
can not escape therefore the underlying 
mechanism4  ,the ,elemental ,units of   
the ,nervous ,system ,are the ,same in  
,lower and ,higher ,animals4--,it is    
interesting to note that the fundamental
 neural mechanism which underlies the   
mental processes of higher animals is   
not essentially different from that     
which serves in lower forms4 ,although  
as animals become more complex their    
nervous systems have become             
proportionately larger and incomparably 
more intricate1 still all the changes   
have been rung on the same basic neural 

unit1 the neuron or nerve-cell 7,fig4   
#cb;,a1 p4 #bji74 ,the higher nervous   
system differs from the lower in the    
number1 in the specializations and in   
the associations of these units rather  
than in possessing something of entirely
 different elemental structure4  ,neuron
 ,theory4--,according to the prevailing 
modern conception the entire nervous    
system is made up of a series of units  
called neurons4 ,each neuron is a single
 cell with all its processes4 ,the      
latter consists typically of short      
branching processes on the one hand1    
known as dendrites1 and of a single     
process on the other1 known as the axon1
 which extends from the cell to become a
 nerve fiber 7,fig4 #cb1 p4 #bji74 ,the 
various neurons1 with possibly a few    
exceptions1 are not anatomically        
continuous but contiguous4 ,they        
communicate with one another apparently 
by contact only4 ,the axon of each      
neuron ends in an elaborate series of   
fine branchings which lie in contact    

with the dendrites of another neuron1 or
 in some cases with the body of the     
other cell 7,fig4 #cb1 p4 #bji74 ,thus  
the nervous impulse passes from one     
neuron to the other at these points of  
contact4 ,an impulse is supposed to     
travel normally only in one direction   
through a neuron1 the dendrites being   
the receiving and the axon the          
discharging terminals4 ,there are       
various types of neurons4 ,some1        
particularly within the brain1 have     
their main processes so provided with   
branches and brushes that they may come 
into physiological connection with a    
number of other neurons4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb  ,a--,diagram 
to illustrate neurons and their method  
of connection2 a1 axon2 d1 dendrite2 s1 
synapse4 ,to simplify the diagram the   
medullary sheathes of such fibers as    
would have them have been omitted4 ,the 
arrows indicate the direction in which  
the impulse travels4 ,the lower series  
shows diagrammatically how from the same

 neuron in the cortex two subordinate   
neurons may be affected1 the one excited
 to cause contraction of a certain group
 of muscle fibers1 the other inhibited  
so that the antagonistic fibers may     
relax and thus not hinder the movement  
of a given part4  ,b--,section of a     
region of the cerebral cortex 7after    
,cajal74 ,the cells have been blackened 
with chrome-silver and are much less    
highly magnified than the diagrams in   
,a4 ,the numerals refer to certain      
characteristic layers of the cortex in  
this region4   ,establishment of        
,pathways ,through the ,nervous         
,system4--,it is believed that more or  
less resistance to transmission of      
stimuli prevails at the point of contact
 7synapse7 between two neurons but that 
this resistance is lessened by          
repetition of conduction4 ,the frequent 
traversing of a given pathway by similar
 impulses finally results in an         
automatic occurrence of the             
transmission1 or1 in other words1 the   

action becomes habitual4 ,education     
consists largely in establishing such   
routes through the nervous tissue4      
,because of the greater plasticity of   
the neural mechanism in youth it is     
easier to open up and fix pathways of   
conduction than in later years4         
,moreover the earlier established lines 
of conduction become the more permanent4
  ,characteristic ,arrangements of      
,nerve ,cells ,are as ,subject to       
,inheritance as ,other ,structures of   
the ,body4--,that the main features of  
the nervous system are inherited becomes
 obvious when we see that each kind of  
animal has its own distinctive numbers1 
arrangements and proportions of the     
various neural units4 ,in man1 for      
example1 there are certain              
characteristics1 types and groupings of 
nerve-cells which are reproduced        
generation after generation with        
remarkable fidelity4 ,this means that in
 so far as these represent the mental   
make-up of the individual1 his mentality

 is continuously linked with others     
which have gone before4 ,the new-born   
child has all the nerve-cells in its    
brain that it will ever have but the    
ultimate linkages of the finer          
connectives between them1 or at least   
the pathways of travel1 remain in large 
measure to be made4  ,as we have already
 seen1 the cerebral cortex is the seat  
of the chief mental faculties of man or 
at least of the highest of these4       
,professor ,lloyd ,morgan1 one of our   
greatest authorities on comparative     
psychology1 is inclined to believe that 
the instincts are located in the        
subcortical material4 ,in any event1 the
 inheritance of mental ability resolves 
itself into the inheritance of a certain
 cerebral mechanism4  ,different ,parts 
of the ,cortex ,yield ,different        
,reactions4--,the cerebral cortex1      
however1 is not functionally homogeneous
 throughout4 ,certain regions have been 
shown to be motor1 others sensory1 and  
moreover1 these regions are apparently  

further specialized so that a given one 
of them is associated with a specific   
type of sensory or motor response1 not  
merely with responses in general4 ,thus 
by injuring one of the sensory areas we 
might destroy vision but not other      
sensations1 or by stimulating one of the
 motor centers we would get a response  
in a corresponding motor organ but not  
in all such organs4 ,likewise1 it is    
probable that still different areas1 the
 so-called association areas1 relatively
 of much greater development in man than
 in any other animal1 are the regions in
 which various perceptions and          
conceptions are synthesized and formed  
into organized knowledge4 ,here also are
 engendered the volitions which when    
flashed through the motor centers become
 expressed in activity or behavior4  ,it
 seems highly probable that just as the 
sensory and motor areas differ in kind  
from one another1 so we must suppose    
there are qualitative differences in    
various parts of the association areas  

so that the different parts give        
different reactions in consciousness2   
that is1 each special mental ability of 
the individual is more or less centered 
in a special part of the cortex4 ,and   
just as there may be variations in other
 structures of the organism so there may
 be variations in these areas4 ,the     
gifted person in some one direction1    
whether it be in mathematics1 music1    
painting1 or what not1 is on this       
hypothesis one who has that particular  
area of his brain which forms the basis 
for the talent in question more highly  
developed than it is in the average     
individual4 ,and since such talents are 
handed down to descendants1 this can    
only mean that a similar grouping of the
 neurons in the region in question has  
occurred4  ,skill ,acquired in ,one     
,special ,branch of ,learning ,probably 
,not ,transferred to ,another           
,branch4--,such a differential          
arrangement of the brain-mechanism which
 presumably underlies the various mental

 abilities would lead to the inference  
that skill in one special branch of     
learning1 in so far as it involves only 
certain centers of the cortex1 would not
 be transferred to another branch based 
on different neural pathways and        
centers4 ,development of historical     
knowledge1 for example1 would not       
enhance one's mathematical ability1 or  
vice versa4 ,the testimony of various   
psychologists bears out this idea4 ,in  
so far as certain factors of training1  
such as habits of industry1             
concentration1 etc41 are common to the  
study of either mathematics or history1 
the good effects of either discipline   
will probably be much the same1 but the 
identity of effect vanishes as soon as  
the intrinsic characteristics of the    
subjects themselves are involved4  ,just
 how far we are warranted1 however1 in  
carrying this idea of localized         
functions as regards the association    
areas is a moot question4 ,our present  
attitude regarding the specificity of   

such localizations is largely a matter  
of inference based on analogy to        
conditions which obtain in other and    
better known parts of the brain1        
together with the indubitable           
differences in inborn abilities which   
exist between individuals4 ,some few    
brain physiologists maintain that the   
whole cortex operates more or less as a 
unit in all of the higher psychical     
activities4  ,preponderance of ,cortex  
in ,highest ,animals4--,one of the most 
interesting conditions in the nervous   
system of the highest types of animals  
is the way in which the cortex has      
outrun the other parts of the brain in  
size and complexity and has come to     
dominate the organism more and more both
 directly and indirectly4 ,aside from   
the proportionately greater increase in 
size of the cortex1 there is an         
abundance of anatomical evidence of this
 altered and probably altering system of
 control in man and the higher apes4    
,this is well illustrated in the fiber  

tracts 7nerve bundles7 of the spinal    
cord4  ,more ,long ,fiber ,tracts in the
 ,spinal ,cord of ,man4--,the spinal    
cord although having many nerve centers 
of its own is also in great part a large
 cable for conducting enormous numbers  
of fibers from one part of the cord to  
another1 or to and from the brain4 ,in  
man and the higher apes a considerably  
larger percentage of the total area of  
the cord is given up to the long fiber  
tracts from the brain to the body than  
in lower vertebrates4 ,this progressive 
increase in long fiber tracts in the    
higher anthropoids probably marks more  
and more domination of the body by the  
higher brain centers and correspondingly
 less by the direct activity of the cord
 and by the lower brain centers4        
,however1 even in man1 many of the      
simpler reflexes of the body still have 
their centers in the spinal cord4       
,special ,fiber ,tracts in the ,cord of 
,man and ,higher ,apes4--,there are     
certain special tracts of the cord that 

are particularly interesting in         
connection with the increasing          
domination of the brain over the body1  
namely1 the pyramidal tracts4 ,these    
were the latest tracts to appear in the 
animal kingdom and are apparently the   
latest to become functional in the      
individual4 ,it is believed that the    
development of the medullary substance  
7an enveloping sheath7 of the common    
medullated nerve fiber marks the time of
 entrance of the fiber into activity and
 it is a significant fact that the      
formation of this sheath occurs last of 
all in the fibers of the pyramidal      
tracts1 where it does not appear till   
after birth4 ,these tracts convey       
impulses from the brain to the body4    
,they consist of two sets of tracts1 in 
fact1 one the crossed1 the other the    
direct4 ,as an anomaly1 probably arising
 most frequently from instrumental      
injury at birth1 the pyramidal tracts   
fail to develop normally1 with the      
distressing result that the infant1     

although possessing perfectly normal    
brain activity and normal spinal cord   
reflexes1 is unable to exercise         
voluntary control of the body4 ,in other
 words the condition1 like hare-lip1 is 
one of suppressed development4 ,at least
 this seems to be the most plausible    
explanation of what is known as         
,little's disease4 ,such unfortunates   
usually die early although they may     
survive for a few years4  ,the direct   
pyramidal tracts occur only in man and  
man-like apes4 ,they vary considerably  
in extent in different individuals4     
,they originate in nests of             
characteristic large cells located in   
the cerebral cortex and are regarded as 
paths1 though not the only ones1 through
 which volitional impulses are conveyed 
from the brain4 ,they seem to control   
certain of the finer and more delicate  
movements of the body4  ,great          
,complexity in ,associations and ,more  
,neurons in the ,brain of ,man ,than of 
,other ,animals4--,it has already been  

noted that as animals stand higher in   
the scale of life while the general plan
 of their neural elements remain the    
same1 there is increasing complexity in 
the number and connections of the       
neurons4 ,the number of processes on    
individual nerve-cells is also greater4 
,there is in fact much greater          
complexity in the number of processes   
and the inter-connections of the neural 
cells than in the numbers of the cells  
themselves4 ,this would seem to indicate
 that the greater mental activities of  
higher animals depend more on richness  
in complex associations than on mere    
increase in number of neurons4 ,the     
latter1 however1 is by no means         
unimportant as may be seen in man1 for  
instance1 in whom it is estimated that  
the cerebral cortex1 that is1 that part 
of his brain in which his more complex  
mental processes transpire1 contains    
some nine billion more nerve cells than 
does the corresponding region of the    
brain of an anthropoid ape4  ,of        

especial significance in the psychic    
make-up of man is his vastly increased  
capacity for inhibition4 ,although not  
possessed by all men in equal measure   
and not entirely wanting in lower       
animals it is a distinctive feature in  
all human conduct4 ,much of any child's 
education1 particularly as it pertains  
to behavior1 must be concerned with     
training in the exercise of proper      
inhibitions4 ,he must learn to suppress 
certain primitive types of reaction in  
favor of higher ones4 ,this applies not 
only to motor activities but to trains  
of thought as well4 ,the essence of     
self-control consists mainly in ability 
to substitute for one impulse or idea   
other compensating ones4 ,and the secret
 of concentration lies in being able to 
banish irrelevant ideas and focus on the
 central thought4  ,the ,nervous ,system
 in the ,main ,already ,staged at the   
,time of ,birth for the ,part ,it ,must 
,play4--,it is clear from what is known 
of its anatomy that in the main the     

central nervous system is framed to     
respond in certain set ways1 that there 
are determinative elements in it which  
control or determine the responses1 and 
therefore the behavior of the body4 ,the
 same evidence shows also1 however1 in  
the incompleteness of many of the       
associations1 that while the stage is   
all set and some of the main features of
 the performance are determined at the  
time of birth1 considerable yet remains 
to be done toward fitting the parts     
together and working up the detail4     
,just exactly what and how much is      
rigidly determined no one knows4  ,many 
,pathways of ,conduction ,not           
,established at ,birth4--,as we have    
already seen the evidence is that many  
of the neural pathways are not yet fully
 established at birth1 and there is some
 indication that routes once opened may 
be altered4 ,to what degree this has    
bearing on behavior is still unknown1   
but since neurologists attribute so much
 importance to the richness and the     

associations of the cell-outgrowths1 it 
is evident that this increase in the    
number of pathways after birth with     
possible alternatives of connections may
 be a very important factor in the      
modification of behavior4 ,yet1 on the  
other hand1 we are completely in the    
dark as to what extent these later      
associations are predetermined in the   
earlier cells4  ,the ,extent of the     
,zone ,that ,can ,be ,modified ,is      
,unknown4--,there is little doubt that  
many of the paths of action are already 
firmly established4 ,others1 although   
not irrevocably fixed1 offer the least  
resistance and would naturally be taken 
if not counteracted or modified by the  
more or less artificial development and 
fixation of other paths through         
cultivation and habit4 ,yet others      
perhaps are largely neutral2 they still 
await the initial decisive push which   
choice or external environment may mete 
out to them4 ,as trainers of youth all  
that is left that we can do is to       

attempt to develop in certain ways the  
elements of this indefinite1 impressible
 zone4 ,unfortunately1 we must labor in 
the dark to a great extent as we have   
all too little indication of which the  
malleable factors of intellect and      
conduct are4 ,we can only infer from    
long1 intelligent and sympathetic       
observation of children in successive   
stages of their development4 ,it is only
 by having clearly in mind the nature of
 our problem that our conclusions will  
finally come to be of enhanced practical
 value in the training of children4     
,observation to the present time clearly
 indicates that many children are       
strongly predisposed this way or that as
 the sparks fly upward4  ,this is a     
point too frequently overlooked by      
educators4 ,they are often unduly       
actuated by the other piece of the truth
 that1 as the twig is bent the tree     
inclines4 ,they sometimes fail to       
realize that after all the tree remains 
the same kind of a tree4 ,if an apple   

tree1 while it may be bent from the     
normal path of development1 it can not  
produce other fruit than apples4 ,just  
how much the destiny of man can be      
influenced by training and the exercise 
of his own will power is the fundamental
 question not only of pedagogy but of   
ethics as well4 ,for if man's rational  
judgments are markedly conditioned by   
his neural make-up then the volitional  
judgments which underlie conduct are    
likewise conditioned since they are     
inextricably intermingled with his      
reason4 ,we must believe that to a      
considerable extent emotional           
expression1 as well as other mental     
functions1 is due to hereditary         
dispositions of the neurons in the      
various parts of the brain4  ,various   
,possibilities of ,reaction in the      
,child4--,despite the innate            
predeterminations of the tree1 it is    
nevertheless our province to see that   
the twig is bent1 but our work can only 
be done with due intelligence when we   

recognize something of the limitations  
of our material4 ,of the various        
possibilities of reaction we must see   
that certain desirable ones are         
realized1 even1 in some cases1 if only  
to have others thereby excluded4 ,it is 
a commonplace of psychology that all    
cerebral excitations1 no matter what the
 origin1 must vent themselves in some   
way and if this expression is not       
directed into proper channels it will   
very likely find improper ones4 ,we must
 see that the young wearer of the coat  
of undetermined capacities gets it set  
by repeated performance into the        
habitual wrinkles of normal social      
conduct4 ,for it is a trite observation 
that when habits are once well          
established it requires tremendous      
efforts to do otherwise than as they    
dictate4 ,there is not the least doubt  
that some of our subjects will respond  
much more readily to training in certain
 directions of habitual reactions than  
others1 but we have always the          

consolatory knowledge that no matter how
 difficult the art may be at first1     
repetition reduces the difficulty4      
,while much of any youth's character    
must be determined by external forces   
brought to bear upon it1 the ultimate   
climax of our effort and measure of our 
success will be the extent to which we  
have engendered in him the capacity for 
initiating and carrying out through his 
own volition those impulsions and       
inhibitions which tend to the highest   
good of humanity4  ,probable ,origin of 
,altruistic ,human ,conduct4--,those    
phases of human conduct which find      
expression in consideration for others  
seem no less than other mental          
attributes to have their origin in      
certain fundamental instincts4          
,altruistic conduct1 in last analysis1  
apparently resolves itself back largely 
to certain very fundamental impulsions1 
namely those which arise out of certain 
obligations for the welfare of others   
which are necessarily associated with   

the marital1 parental and filial        
relations that must exist where the     
young require post-natal care4 ,looked  
at from the standpoint of natural       
selection1 this would come about as a   
mere matter of survival value4 ,where   
the young1 as in man1 are helpless for a
 long period of time1 more opportunity  
would be afforded for the development of
 both conjugal and filial affection4    
,the sympathetic emotions once          
established in such family relations    
would partly through habit1 partly      
through community of interest1 readily  
become extended to clan or tribe and as 
a final consummation to all mankind4    
,training in ,motive ,necessary4--,in   
the training of children1 then1 we must 
recognize first of all that there are   
decided inclinations or bents which1 as 
long as they are not anti-social in     
nature1 must be respected if not always 
encouraged4 ,while it is necessary to   
utilize these as much as possible in    
their training still we must bear in    

mind that although it is natural for a  
child to follow certain interests1 the  
fact remains that as regards social     
worth these natural interests may not be
 the most valuable4 ,when this is true  
we must strive to develop others which  
will compel attention and thus become   
impelling factors in conduct4 ,where    
certain fundamental impulsions run      
contrary to the common welfare it is    
necessary to practise the child in the  
setting up of inhibitions or            
counter-impulses until this becomes     
habitual4 ,he must be led to construct a
 protective mantle of appropriate       
scruples1 doubts and fears4 ,it is all  
important to get the proper motives for 
action to prevail in his mind4  ,actual 
,practise in ,carrying ,out ,projects   
,is ,all ,important4--,but on the other 
hand it is equally important to see that
 the action is effectively carried out4 
,in the matter of self-discipline1      
particularly1 we may have many ideal    
impulses and realize that they should   

prevail over certain of our natural     
propensities1 but unless we put forth   
effort to overcome the propensities our 
ideal impulses are of no avail4 ,the    
world has many such moral paralytics    
to-day who can not seize their languor  
as it were a curling snake and cast it  
off4 ,it is training in this very       
overcoming of reluctance1 in this       
putting forth of actual effort toward   
worthy ends instead of merely memorizing
 precepts about the desirability of such
 accomplishments1 that is so sadly      
lacking in our school and home life     
to-day4 ,we prate of the importance of  
self-control1 we say with our lips that 
the way to learn to do is by doing1 we  
proclaim that it is more vital to instil
 good mental and physical habits into   
our pupils than to stock them with      
information1 we preach that mere fact   
training is as conducive to making a    
first-class rascal as an upright man1   
yet we jog on complacently in the       
well-beaten ruts of memory routine which

 require the memorizing of symbols      
rather than real understanding4 ,we     
seldom require that our proteges make   
intelligent judgments based on evidence1
 we rarely exact of them decisions in   
matters of ethics1 and almost never     
demand that they put their knowledge    
into efficient accomplishment4 ,it can  
not be too strongly urged that we need  
less of formulae learned by heart1 less 
dead erudition pigeonholed in the brain 
like so many foreign bodies1 and vastly 
more assimilation of knowledge into the 
living personality of the individual4   
,where in school or home to-day do we   
find provision for such training8 ,our  
tendency is1 in fact1 just the opposite4
 ,according to the modern code1 as it   
works out in many instances at least1   
the child must be taught through play4  
,though it is a truism that he who has  
not learned obedience can never be      
master of himself1 the child of to-day  
must not be made to obey but be wheedled
 into changing his mind4 ,if a given    

subject of study proves distasteful to  
him1 the fault is the teacher's for not 
making it interesting1 for he must      
always be led on by the thrill of       
fascination4 ,in other words1 the child 
must not only be allowed but be         
encouraged to take the path of least    
resistance4 ,his own pleasure is to be  
the standard of his actions4 ,let no    
stern demands of duty interfere6  ,is it
 any wonder that the products of such   
tutelage come into the activities of    
life self-indulgent and undisciplined1  
and although often recognizing our      
private and public shame in business1   
politics and conduct1 still remain      
supine1 evasive of the unpleasantness or
 hardships of reform1 or inefficient or 
unwilling in accomplishing unselfish    
ends8  ,interest and ,difficulty ,both  
,essential4--,the writer does not wish  
to be understood as minimizing the      
importance of interest on the part of   
the child in what he is doing4 ,interest
 is undeniably the open sesame to       

desirable mental development2 but what  
he does protest against is that not     
uncommon interpretation of interest     
which deems it necessary to eschew most 
serious consideration of a subject and  
evade such parts as present             
difficulties4 ,certainly if there is any
 fact that stands out prominently in    
human experience it is the fact that    
nothing conduces to the development of  
moral stamina so much as the overcoming 
of difficulties1 particularly           
distasteful difficulties4  ,conduct     
,developed ,through ,actual             
,performance4--,self-control and the    
will to do can be trained and           
crystallized into habit as well as can  
any other activity4 ,it is a fact that  
one well grounded in morals by habit    
will successfully resist subconscious   
impulsions to wrongdoing even when      
suggested in the hypnotic state4        
,conduct is largely a matter of growth  
through actual performance4 ,for proper 
guidance of this growth there must1 of  

course1 be high ideals around which the 
feelings are led to cluster and by which
 they gradually come to be controlled4  
,construction of ,ideals4--,the         
construction of such ideals through     
example1 through precept1 through appeal
 and through actual practise in         
self-denial and self-control on the part
 of the child1 should be the foremost   
duty of the parent or teacher4 ,above   
all it should be remembered that        
imitation of teacher1 of parents1 of    
companions1 is more of a factor than    
intellect in the moral action of        
children4 ,at present educationally we  
are in a fever for vocational training1 
for practical work1 and in general for  
all things conducive to coaching our    
pupils in how to make a living1 yet     
commendable as all this may be1 is it   
not of even more fundamental importance 
to train them how to live8  ,the        
,realization of ,certain ,possibilities 
of the ,germ ,rather ,than ,others ,is  
,subject to ,control4--,it may be said  

in a sense that there exists potentially
 in any germ all the things that can    
possibly come out of it under any       
obtainable conditions of environment4   
,the very initiation of a given mode of 
expression by some environmental factor1
 however1 often mutually excludes many  
of the others4 ,we get a given average  
result ordinarily because development   
normally takes place in a given average 
environment4  ,as may be easily shown by
 experiment1 this is manifest even in   
the instincts of lower animals4 ,in the 
young the various instincts do not come 
into expression at the same time1 and it
 not infrequently happens that if one of
 the earlier instincts becomes operative
 toward certain objects or situations1  
later instincts will have a wholly      
different relation toward these objects 
or situations than they would otherwise 
have had4 ,as a result the whole life   
conduct of the animal is markedly       
modified4 ,for example1 young animals   
immediately after birth have no instinct

 of fear4 ,they do1 however1 have a     
strong instinct to attach themselves to 
some moving thing and follow it4 ,the   
utility of such an instinct1 as for     
instance in the case of young chickens1 
is obvious4 ,the object of attachment is
 usually the parent1 but man may take   
the place of a parent and the young     
animal will fearlessly follow him about4
 ,however if the young animal has had no
 experience with man during its earliest
 infancy a later instinct1 that of fear 
or wildness1 will have come into play   
and it will flee from him4 ,it is clear1
 therefore1 that by familiarizing the   
young animal with man before its        
instinct of fear has come to expression1
 certain habitual reactions are set up  
in it which inhibit or limit the        
application of its instinct of wildness 
as regards man4 ,in other words1 the    
whole course of its life has been       
altered by this simple experience4 ,the 
same principle applies in even greater  
degree to the young of man4  ,we have   

seen in a former chapter that what in   
the ordinary course of nature was       
predestined to become one individual    
nevertheless contained the possibility  
of becoming four or more if the         
environing conditions were made such as 
to bring about a separation of the      
cleavage blastomeres4 ,or a fish egg    
that contained the possibility of       
becoming a normal two-eyed form also    
contained the possibility of becoming a 
one-eyed form and could be made to do so
 by certain unusual modifications of the
 conditions under which it develops4    
,however we must not be led so far by   
the plausibility of this comparison that
 we are misled1 for the fact is that we 
are not creating anything new by these  
environmental upheavals1 but are mainly 
altering features that already exist4   
,beyond doubt the nature of the material
 is of greater import in the specificity
 of the outcome than are the external   
forces brought to play on it4 ,the only 
point ,i wish to make is that even what 

seem ordinarily to be predestined ends  
can be altered by environment1 and that 
the probabilities are that certain      
features are relatively indifferent at  
their inception1 the environmental      
factor adding the final touch of        
specificity4 ,and our common experience 
in education would indicate that the    
same is true of mental conditions1      
including behavior4 ,the actual         
appearance of a particular trait is not 
necessarily always a matter of an       
initial trend1 but may be due merely to 
the fact that its development is        
possible under certain conditions of    
environment and that these conditions   
have prevailed in the given instance4   
,and even where there is a specific bent
 it may be arrested through the         
awakening of a contrary impulse1 or1 on 
the other hand1 its exercise may prevent
 the engendering of the opposite        
impulse4  ,our ,duty to ,afford the     
,opportunity and ,provide the ,proper   
,stimuli for the ,development of ,good  

,traits4--,it is clearly our duty to see
 that the expression of good traits is  
made possible4 ,we must throw a         
sheltering screen of social environment 
around the young individual which will  
fend off wrong forms of incitement and  
chances for harmful expression1 and we  
must provide proper stimuli and afford  
opportunity for development of proper   
modes of expression4 ,we must not forget
 that a normal instinct denied a        
legitimate outlet will not infrequently 
find an illegitimate one4 ,above all we 
must not forget the vital importance of 
establishing correct habits nor the     
possibility of even replacing           
undesirable ones by good ones4 ,if      
training can redirect the machine-like  
behavior of as lowly a creature as the  
starfish into new courses1 why should we
 be so willing as some of our genetists 
would seem to be to throw up our hands  
and admit failure in the case of man    
before we have even made a rational     
attempt to correct the evils in         

question8 ,even in lowly organisms we   
have seen that behavior is not only the 
result of an innate constitution but    
also of the degree and kind of          
stimulations to which it has been       
subjected4  ,if the individual himself  
has not the initiative or will to make  
the attempt to set up proper or         
corrective habits1 or to cultivate the  
necessary specific inhibitors1 then all 
the more is it our duty to see that he  
is led by suggestion and drill into the 
proper routine of activities for their  
establishment4 ,for if the individual   
with propensities toward moral obliquity
 is to be saved to society it must be   
through the stereotyping effects of good
 habits4  ,moral                        
,responsibility4--,beyond question      
different men have different degrees of 
capacity for mental and moral training4 
,all can not be held equally responsible
 ethically1 but the lowermost limit of  
obligatory response to social and       
ethical demands necessary to rank one as

 within the pale of normal conduct is at
 such a level that any one not an actual
 defective can in a reasonably wholesome
 environment surmount it4 ,all normal   
men are responsible for their conduct4  
,,chapter ,,viii  ,,mental ,,and        
,,nervous ,,defects   ,some of the most 
important and serious problems which    
confront humanity to-day lie in the     
realm of mental and neural              
maladjustments4 ,for human progress and 
social welfare are in last analysis     
based fundamentally on the results of   
normal reactions of human nervous       
systems4 ,any serious derangement of the
 latter may1 and in certain cases must1 
lead to more or less disaster for the   
individual and disorder for society of  
which he is a unit4 ,so appalling has   
the number of neuropathic subjects      
become in modern times that the matter  
may well cause even the most thoughtless
 citizen to pause and consider4         
,prevalence of ,insanity4--,as to the   
prevalence of insanity1 one learns from 

recent charts prepared by a member of   
the ,national ,committee for ,mental    
,hygiene that in #aiaj we had more      
insane 7#ahg1ded7 in our institutions   
than there were students 7#ahd1gab7 in  
all our colleges and universities in the
 ,united ,states1 or officers and       
enlisted men 7#adb1fie7 in our combined 
,united ,states army1 navy and marine   
corps2 further1 the yearly cost         
7#cb1hjd1dej7 of caring for these insane
 is greater than the annual cost of     
construction 7#cb1ebj1ajj7 on such a    
stupendous undertaking as the ,panama   
,canal4 ,in ,new ,york over twenty per  
cent4 of the revenues of the state go to
 support the insane4 ,doctor ,lewellys  
,f4 ,barker1 ,president of the ,national
 ,committee for ,mental ,hygiene1 says3 
,it is calculated that some #bej1jjj    
people in the ,united ,states are       
insane4 ,one of every five men          
discharged from the ,united ,states army
 for disability is discharged because of
 insanity1 #fj per cent4 of the cases   

being dementia precox4  ,even in        
individual states with exceptionally    
large university populations we still   
find these outnumbered by those of the  
insane4 ,thus in ,wisconsin by #aiad the
 state university had attained a        
population of about #d1gjj students     
resident at the university during the   
regular school year1 and of             
approximately #f1jjj attending during   
some part of the year1 but the number of
 insane under restraint in public       
institutions in the state ,june #bj1    
#aiab1 was #f1hea1 with an additional   
#a1bhd on parole4 ,this does not include
 the insane in various private          
sanatoria1 and moreover a considerable  
greater number of patients had been     
treated in these public institutions    
than were resident there ,june          
twentieth4  ,to make such comparisons   
complete one should1 of course1 know the
 average length of residence of students
 in college1 and of insane patients in  
institutions4 ,no accurate data on this 

point are at hand4 ,the average period  
of residence in hospitals for the       
acutely insane is doubtless considerably
 shorter than the average period of     
attendance of students in college1 while
 on the other hand the average period of
 residence of inmates in asylums for    
chronic insane is probably considerably 
longer4 ,for example1 the ,wisconsin    
,state ,hospital for the ,insane reports
 a total of #a1bbd patients under       
treatment1 but an average population at 
any one time of only #fbb during the    
year #aiaa1 and the ,northern ,hospital 
for the ,insane1 a total of #a1aid1 with
 a daily average of #fac during the same
 period4 ,the combined thirty-four      
county asylums in ,wisconsin1 for       
chronic insane1 had a total population  
of #e1chd during the year #aiaa1 with a 
loss of #eag1 or approximately #aj per  
cent4 ,during #aiab the figures for     
these same institutions run #e1geh and  
#gdb respectively1 or a loss of over    
#ab4e per cent4 ,the conditions in other

 states are probably much the same4  ,in
 other representative states we find the
 number of insane in public institutions
 as follows3 ,california1 #g1iji2       
,michigan1 #g1gjc2 ,minnesota1 #e1cbi2  
,pennsylvania1 #af1iib4 ,epileptics are 
estimated by alienists to be about equal
 in number to the insane1 feeble-minded 
to be more numerous4 ,the estimate that 
in the ,united ,states there are        
#cjj1jjj feeble-minded is probably a    
minimal figure4  ,imperfect ,adjustments
 of the ,brain ,mechanism ,often        
,inheritable4--,the outside layer or    
cortex of the brain is the region in    
which the more complicated adjustments  
occur1 especially such as pertain to    
human behavior1 and inasmuch as this    
portion of the brain is extremely       
complex and delicate in its mechanism1  
it is peculiarly liable to derangements 
which1 even when slight1 may have       
far-reaching effects4  ,this            
brain-mechanism is as much a product of 
ancestry as is any other structure of   

the body1 and it is obvious therefore   
that imperfect adjustments of its       
structure must be as subject to the laws
 of inheritance as are other            
malformations of the body4 ,and just as 
with other defects1 mental disorders may
 thus flow from pre-existing ancestral  
maladjustment of the nervous system or  
from immediate causes thrust upon it1   
such as syphilis1 alcoholism1           
degeneration of the blood vessels and   
traumata4 ,or1 in other words1 the      
mechanism of mentality may be faulty    
from the beginning1 or it may be made   
faulty by bad environmental conditions4 
,the records of the inheritance of      
insanity1 imbecility1 feeble-mindedness 
and other forms of nervous and mental   
defects are truly startling4 ,active    
researches in this field have been in   
progress now for several years1 and as  
each new set of investigations comes in 
the tale is always the same4 ,it is     
questionable if there is a single       
genuine case on record where a normal   

child has been born from a union of two 
imbeciles4 ,yet the universal tendency  
is for defective to mate with defective4
 ,davenport gives a list of examples1   
beginning with such a one as this3 ,a   
feeble-minded man of thirty-eight has a 
delicate wife who in twenty years has   
borne him nineteen defective children4  
,little wonder1 in the light of such    
facts as these1 that the number of      
degenerates is rapidly increasing in    
what are called civilized countries4    
,many ,mental ,defectives               
,married4--,but1 it may be urged1 these 
are exceptional cases1 there is surely  
no considerable number of mental        
defectives who are married4 ,let us look
 at the available facts4 ,in ,great     
,britain in #aija1 of #fj1jjj known     
feeble-minded1 imbeciles and idiots1    
#ai1jjj were married1 and in the same   
year1 of #aag1jjj lunatics1 #dg1jjj were
 married2 that is1 a sum-total of       
#ff1jjj mentally defective individuals  
were legally multiplying1 or had had the

 opportunity to multiply their kind1 to 
say nothing of the unmarried who were   
known to have produced children4  ,in   
the state of ,wisconsin ,i note from the
 tenth biennial report of the ,board of 
,control that of #egd patients admitted 
to the ,northern ,hospital for the      
,insane during the year from ,july #a1  
#aijh1 to ,june #cj1 #aiji1 #bgd were   
married and #bi others were known to    
have been married2 this is a total of   
#cjc out of #egd1 considerably over     
half4 ,at the ,wisconsin ,state         
,hospital for the ,insane we find the   
conditions are no better1 for out of    
#dii admitted in the year #aiji-aj1 #bjh
 were married and #fe others had at some
 time been married1 or a total of #bgc  
out of #dii4 ,there is every reason to  
believe that conditions are             
approximately similar in other states4  
,disproportionate ,increase in the      
,number of ,mental                      
,defectives4--,writing of conditions in 
,england the ,commissioners in ,lunacy  

state in their fifty-fourth report that 
now 7#aija7 there is one officially     
known lunatic to #cja4cb individuals of 
population1 whereas in #ahei there was  
only one to #ecf individuals of         
population4 ,in ,great ,britain1 taking 
into account mental defectives of all   
kinds1 the #aija census showed a total  
of #dhe1ejg1 or #a3he of total          
population4 ,rentoul estimates that     
#a3ej would be nearer the truth because 
of the fact that the number of          
officially known mental defectives is   
much less than the actual number4 ,the  
conditions in ,ireland are even more    
impressive1 for in #ahea there was one  
known lunatic to #feg individuals of    
population2 in #ahga1 one to #cbh1 and  
in #aija one to #agh4 ,when all         
allowance is made in these statistics   
for the greater accuracy of recent      
enumeration1 and for other modifying    
influences1 such as migration1 we are   
still forced to believe that an alarming
 increase in insanity is in progress and

 that society is woefully derelict in   
permitting the marriage of such         
unfortunates4  ,a census of the insane  
under public care in ,wisconsin ,june   
#cj1 #aiaj1 not counting the paroled1   
shows #f1ecg1 or one to each #ceg of    
population1 since the population of the 
state was then #b1ccc1hfj4 ,if1 however1
 we should add the number of insane in  
private sanatoria and the number        
unconfined the proportion of normal     
individuals would be very much reduced4 
,in the ,united ,states as a whole1     
while ,i know of no data giving the     
number of married insane1 it is         
estimated that at least one-fourth of   
the insane are not in asylums or        
hospitals4 ,in all states the number of 
insane in state institutions 7there are 
no available records of most private    
institutions7 is rapidly increasing4    
,according to the special census of     
#aijc covering a period of fourteen     
years1 during which the general         
population increased thirty per cent41  

the number of insane in institutions    
increased one hundred per cent4 ,this is
 due doubtless in part to the fact that 
because of better facilities for keeping
 them a proportionately greater number  
of insane are being sent to state       
hospitals than in former years4         
,moreover1 improved sanitation has cut  
down the death-rate in asylums4 ,the    
increase is in such vastly greater      
proportion than the increase in general 
population1 however1 that it seems      
impossible to attribute it wholly to the
 greater accuracy of recent enumerations
 and the increasing custom of confining 
the insane in asylums4 ,this is a matter
 that demands our gravest attention and 
one that should be investigated with the
 greatest thoroughness4 ,one of the most
 disquieting facts in the situation in  
most states is that many patients--an   
average of approximately one thousand a 
year1 in ,wisconsin for example--are on 
parole subject to recall4 ,this means   
that although it is recognized that     

these patients are likely to have to be 
returned to the asylum or hospital1     
little or no restraint in the meantime  
is placed on their marital relations4#h 
,protests ,voiced by ,alienists4--,is it
 any wonder under the circumstances that
 we find ,doctor ,charles ,gorst1       
superintendent at the ,mendota          
,hospital1 voicing in his #aiaj report  
the following vigorous protest--and     
certainly such men as he are in the best
 position to know4 ,he says3 ,no one    
doubts for a moment that defective      
mental conditions are transmitted from  
parent to child as surely as the        
physical defects and deformities4 ,every
 one knows that it is common for        
defectives to be attracted to each other
 and marry1 and that the defects of both
 parents are liable to be transmitted to
 the children4 ,it is also true that    
there are more children born in such    
families2 and for that reason the       
percentage of defectives is continually 
on the increase4 ,the report of the     

state of ,illinois shows the increase to
 be alarming1 and many other states are 
no better4 ,it is absolutely wicked that
 the persons suffering from periodical  
insanity should be allowed to return to 
their homes to propagate and scatter    
their children about the state as       
dependents4  ,examples of ,hereditary   
,feeble-,mindedness4--,no one can look  
at the remarkable series of charts and  
records brought together by ,doctor     
,goddard of the institution at          
,vineland1 ,new ,jersey1 and by other   
directors of similar institutions1 and  
doubt for an instant the inheritability 
of feeble-mindedness and allied defects4
 ,in some instances the family history  
has been followed back as far as five   
generations1 and it is always the same  
dire sequence of insanity1 idiocy1      
epilepsy or feeble-mindedness1 from     
generation to generation4 ,for example1 
,fig4 #cc1 p4 #bcf1 is one of ,doctor   
,goddard's charts4 ,it shows thirteen   
descendants of a supposedly normal      

father 7possibly a carrier7 and a       
feeble-minded mother1 of whom seven were
 feeble-minded1 the others dying in     
infancy4 ,the mother herself was one of 
seven feeble-minded children1 who were  
in turn the descendants of feeble-minded
 parents1 of whom the woman had five    
feeble-minded brothers and sisters4 ,in 
,fig4 #cd1 p4 #bcg1 he shows mental     
defects running through four            
generations4 ,fig4 #ce1 p4 #bch1 is a   
remarkable exhibit which1 starting in   
the fifth generation back with a        
feeble-minded1 alcoholic man--the mental
 condition of his wife being            
unknown--shows that in every generation 
down to and including the present there 
has been nothing but feeble-minded 7or  
worse7 offspring1 leaving out of account
 two unknown and a number who died in   
infancy without revealing their mental  
condition4 ,this is true notwithstanding
 the fact that in the course of the     
various generations there had been      
several matings with apparently normal  

individuals4 ,the new blood1 however1   
instead of redeeming the tainted stock1 
itself became vitiated4 ,the numerous   
specific cases of inheritance of family 
traits reviewed in recent books or in   
special reports of trained workers give 
us abundant confirmatory evidence of the
 inevitable inheritance of various      
nervous and mental defects4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc  ,inheritance 
of feeble-mindedness 7after ,goddard73  
squares represent males1 circles        
females2 ,f1 feeble-minded2 ,n1 normal2 
,e1 epileptic2 ,i1 insane2 ,c1 criminal2
 ,t1 tuberculous2 d4 inf41 died in      
infancy2 the hand shows the individual  
from whom the record was traced back2   
small black circle indicates            
miscarriage4   ,difficult to ,secure    
,accurate ,data4--,it is obvious1 of    
course1 that in tabulations such as     
these there may lurk considerable       
margins of error4 ,notwithstanding our  
,binet-,simon and other tests for       
feeble-mindedness1 for example1 there is

 yet much to be desired in the way of   
accuracy4 ,many cases just bordering    
normality are by no means easy to       
decide4 ,then again in most human       
records1 when one gets back beyond the  
third or1 at most1 the fourth           
generation1 the investigator has to     
depend on the hearsay evidence of       
relatives1 friends or neighbors1 and how
 vague this generally is can only be    
appreciated by those who have themselves
 tried to collect such data4 ,but in    
spite of all the difficulties1 there is 
little doubt that the more carefully    
prepared records are sufficiently       
accurate to establish the fact beyond   
dispute that defective tends in large   
measure to breed defective4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd  ,inheritance 
of feeble-mindedness 7after ,goddard72  
symbols same as in ,fig4 #cc1 p4 #bcf4  
,one serious drawback in making a study 
of the inheritability of insanity and   
other nervous disorders is that so far  
we have dealt mainly with mass effects  

rather than specific neuroses4 ,but even
 when the latter is attempted we are    
confronted by the fact that there are   
various intergradations of the          
recognized types of defect1 that because
 of varying degrees of defect in the    
same type a standard is hard to         
establish1 and above all that what      
appears as a specific mental malady in  
one individual may crop out in his      
descendants in an entirely different    
guise4 ,moreover1 not only the          
predisposition of the individual1 but   
age and precipitative cause enter as    
factors in determining the ultimate     
symptoms4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce   
,inheritance of feeble-mindedness 7after
 ,goddard72 symbols same as in ,fig4    
#cc1 p4 #bcf4   ,feeble-,mindedness and 
,insanity ,not the ,same4--,authorities 
make a sharp distinction between        
insanities on the one hand and          
feeble-mindedness on the other4         
,according to ,goddard1 not only is     
there no close relationship between the 

two conditions1 but in reality they     
stand at opposite ends of the psychical 
scale4 ,in general1 insanity is a       
degenerative process1 whereas           
feeble-mindedness is an arrest of       
development4 ,in the first case the     
victim loses part of the mentality he   
once had1 in the second he stops short  
of normal development4  ,many ,types of 
,insanity4--,the commonest              
manifestations of insanity are undue    
depression1 apathy1 excitement1         
instability1 obsessions1 hallucinations 
and delusions4 ,some mental disorders   
are associated with recognizable        
structural changes in the nervous       
system1 but the structural basis of many
 is not known4  ,in general there is    
more doubt about the inheritability of  
some of the insanities than about cases 
of mental deficiency4 ,the term insanity
 is merely a loose descriptive one1 and 
we shall gain little definite knowledge 
about the inheritance of such maladies  
until we study each separate insane     

diathesis specifically4 ,psychiatrists  
recognize many different forms of       
insanity1 some of them very distinct    
from others and the product of unrelated
 underlying causes4 ,often it is only a 
question of degree or sometimes a matter
 of chance as to whether a given        
individual is certified as insane or    
not4 ,a neuropathic person who manifests
 certain anti-social activities is sure 
to be classed as insane1 whereas another
 individual with the same diathesis in a
 less degree might pass unrecognized4   
,it is almost impossible in some        
instances to tell just where the        
border-line between a neuropathic and a 
normal constitution lies4 ,many of the  
idiosyncrasies of the insane1 indeed1   
are merely exaggerations of             
characteristics seen in normal people4  
,recent studies of the psychology of the
 insane show that most of their         
hallucinations and delusions are closely
 related to some previous mental        
experience they had before becoming     

insane4 ,and it has been found that the 
surest means toward removing the        
obsessions of the patient in curable    
cases is to ferret out these earlier    
experiences and correct the wrong       
impressions regarding them4 ,again1     
certain forms of insanity do not become 
manifest except as special reactions to 
particular environmental conditions1 and
 if these conditions do not happen to   
occur1 then the neuropathic constitution
 though existing would not be revealed4 
,certain critical periods of life such  
as puberty1 pregnancy and the close of  
sexual life are particularly likely to  
test out the mentally unstable1 although
 such individuals may have maintained   
normal mental balance up to the crisis  
in question4  ,not ,all ,insanities of  
the ,same ,eugenical ,significance4--,of
 the various kinds of insanity some seem
 to be of much greater eugenical        
significance than others1 not only      
because they are strongly heritable1 but
 also because of the periodicity of the 

attacks4 ,the patient may be repeatedly 
in and out of the asylum and in his sane
 intervals wholly unrestrained as far as
 propagating his kind is concerned4     
,manic depressive psychoses and dementia
 precox in the order named represented  
the largest number of admissions to the 
,wisconsin ,state ,hospital for the     
,insane in #aiaa and #aiab1 and both of 
these very frequently have a hereditary 
basis4 ,fig4 #cf1 a chart showing the   
insanity in a local family as worked out
 by one of my pupils1 is a good example 
of a recurrent type4 ,the father 7,fig4 
#cf1 p4 #bda7 was about eighty-two years
 old when the record was made4 ,his     
memory was poor and he could not talk   
connectedly1 although this was possibly 
attributable to old age rather than to  
insanity4 ,his brother1 written to in   
,ireland1 stated that to his knowledge  
there had never been insanity in his    
side of the family4 ,the mother 7#b7 was
 insane at nine1 again at twenty-nine   
and again at thirty-six4 ,in her later  

life she has been in the ,mendota       
,hospital for the ,insane five times and
 in the ,county ,asylum twice4 ,the     
eldest daughter 7#c7 has been in the    
,state ,asylum five times and is now at 
home4 ,the next daughter 7#d7 spent five
 months in the asylum in #ahhe4 ,another
 daughter 7#e7 likewise spent a short   
period in the asylum4 ,two sons 7#f1 #g7
 have each spent two periods in the     
asylum1 and a third son 7#h7 has had an 
attack of insanity4 ,the youngest child 
died at the age of three4 ,thus of the  
eight adult children six have been      
insane at some time4 ,the cases in this 
family seem all to be instances of      
manic-depressive insanity4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf  ,inheritance 
of insanity in the ,l---- family4 ,see  
text for description4   ,a ,neuropathic 
,constitution ,may ,express ,itself     
,differently ,under ,different          
,conditions4--,some of the difficulties 
of getting genealogies of specific forms
 of insanity are obvious from the       

following quotations chosen from the    
works of eminent psychiatrists4         
,kraepelin1 for instance1 expresses the 
opinion that3 ,the psychopathic charge  
of a family may reveal itself not only  
by the appearance of mental disorders   
but also by other forms of              
manifestation4 ,here belong before all1 
those diverse slighter deviations from  
mental health which go to make up the   
borderland of insanity3 nervousness1    
states of anxiety and compulsion1       
constitutional depressions1 slight      
hysterical disorders and forms of       
feeble-mindedness1 tics2 also odd       
characters1 peculiarities in mode of    
living1 criminal tendencies1 lack of    
self-control1 intemperance1 love of     
adventure1 mendacity1 suicide on an     
inner basis4  ,from the volume of       
,church and ,peterson on ,nervous and   
,mental ,diseases a further confirmatory
 opinion may be cited3 ,in determining  
the factor of heredity we must not be   
content with ascertaining the existence 

of psychoses in the ascendants1 but must
 seek1 by careful interrogation of      
various members of the family1 for some 
of the hereditary equivalents1 such as  
epilepsy1 chorea1 hysteria1             
neurasthenia1 somnambulism1 migraine1   
organic diseases of the central nervous 
system1 criminal tendencies1            
eccentricities of character1            
drunkenness1 etc41 for these equivalents
 are interchangeable from one generation
 to another1 and are simply evidence of 
instability of the nervous system4 ,it  
is the unstable nervous organization    
that is inherited1 not a particular     
neurosis or psychosis1 and it must be   
our aim in the investigation of the     
progenitors to discover the evidence of 
this4  ,certain ,forms of ,insanity1    
,but ,not ,all1 ,seem to ,behave as     
,mendelian ,recessives4--,a number of   
psychiatrists and investigators of the  
inheritance of insanities 7,rudin1      
,lunborg1 ,davenport1 ,rosanoff1        
,jolly71 although working independently 

and in different countries1 concur in   
the opinion that manic-depressive       
insanity1 dementia precox and allied    
psychopathic conditions tend to occur   
after the manner of a ,mendelian        
recessive4 ,on the other hand such      
maladies as ,huntington's chorea are    
transmitted as a dominant and in all    
probability at least half of the        
children of an afflicted individual will
 inherit and manifest the defect4 ,as to
 inheritance of various other psychoses 
we have too few accurately charted      
pedigrees for most types to make very   
positive statements about their degree  
or manner of inheritance4 ,little can be
 said beyond the statement that there is
 a decided tendency for various forms to
 recur in offspring4 ,where more than   
one case of insanity occurs in a given  
family or stock it is strong presumptive
 evidence that a hereditary defect is at
 the bottom of it4 ,as ,doctor ,wilmarth
 says1 ,mental accident may occur in any
 family1 but it is rarely a second case 

occurs unless there is a tendency to    
nerve degeneracy4 ,for example1 of #hah 
insane at the ,wisconsin ,state         
,hospital for the ,insane during the    
biennium #aiji-aj1 #ahg1 or practically 
one-fourth were positively known to have
 insane relatives4 ,of these1 #bd had   
insane fathers1 #ca insane mothers1 #cj 
insane brothers1 #bc insane sisters1 #be
 insane uncles1 #ba insane aunts1 and   
#ba insane cousins4 ,where definite     
information could be obtained it was    
found that of the #e1gjj admissions of  
insane patients to the ,new ,york state 
hospitals during the year ending        
,september #cj1 #aiaa1 #bg4g per cent4  
of the cases showed a history of        
insanity in the family and an additional
 #bb4i per cent4 showed a history of    
alcoholism1 nervous diseases and the    
like4  ,grades of                       
,feeble-,mindedness4--,as to the various
 grades of feeble-mindedness1 while no  
sharp lines of demarcation can be drawn1
 a rough and ready test usually applied 

is the relative ability of such         
subnormal individuals to take care of   
themselves4 ,in all1 the conditions     
exist from birth or shortly after4      
,idiots are such defective individuals  
as are unable to take care of themselves
 even to the matter of guarding against 
common physical dangers4 ,their         
mentality does not progress beyond that 
of a two-year-old child4 ,imbeciles can 
take care of themselves in the cruder   
physical ways1 but are unable to earn   
their living4 ,their mental age ranges  
from three to seven years inclusive4    
,morons1 or the feeble-minded in a more 
specific usage of the term1 can under   
proper direction become more or less    
self-supporting but they are as a rule  
incapable of undertaking affairs which  
demand judgment or involve unrestricted 
competition with normal individuals4    
,their intelligence ranges with that of 
normal children from seven to twelve    
years of age4 ,the last class grades up 
insensibly into the shiftless1          

ne'er-do-well types which exist in every
 community4 ,it is the hordes of the    
feeble-minded in the restricted sense   
that afford our most serious problems   
to-day4 ,the idiot and the imbecile are 
usually early and easily recognized and 
are kept more or less under restraint1  
but the higher grades of feeble-minded1 
the so-called moron type1 can be        
detected often only by carefully devised
 tests4  ,about ,two-,thirds of the     
,feeble-,minded ,have ,inherited ,their 
,condition4--,concerning the various    
types of feeble-mindedness there is     
strong evidence that heredity is a      
factor of greater magnitude than in most
 insanities4 ,all facts point to the    
conclusion that most mental deficiency  
is strongly inheritable and that the    
majority of our defectives of this type 
come from degenerate stocks4            
,practically all specialists at the     
heads of asylums and homes for the      
mentally deficient concur in the opinion
 that about two-thirds of the cases are 

hereditary4 ,for example1 ,doctor       
,alfred ,wilmarth1 superintendent of the
 ,wisconsin ,home for ,feeble-minded1   
says3 ,my own observations1 and those of
 others in this country and ,europe1    
would indicate that at least two-thirds 
of the feeble-minded have defective     
relatives4  ,in his study of two        
thousand children tested by the ,binet  
measuring scale for intelligence1       
,doctor ,henry ,h4 ,goddard1 director of
 the ,department of ,research at the    
,training ,school for ,feeble-minded at 
,vineland1 ,n4 ,j41 remarks concerning  
heredity of feeble-mindedness3 ,but we  
now know that sixty-five per cent4 of   
these children have inherited the       
condition1 and that if they grow up and 
marry they will transmit the same       
condition to their offspring4 ,indeed1  
we know that this class of people is    
increasing at an enormous rate in every 
community and unless we do something to 
stop this great stream of bad protoplasm
 we shall some day be swamped in a sea  

of degeneracy4  ,e4 ,r4 ,johnstone1     
superintendent of the training school at
 ,vineland1 ,n4 ,j41 in a recent        
bulletin remarks concerning             
feeble-minded and epileptics1 ,we are   
now convinced that from sixty to eighty 
per cent4 of the cases are hereditary4  
,again1 we find ,doctor ,a4 ,c4 ,rogers1
 superintendent of a school for         
feeble-minded in ,minnesota1 saying1 ,we
 have no survey of mentality in this    
country except in very small areas1 but 
probably about sixty-five per cent4 of  
the feeble-minded children that we know 
of are feeble-minded from heredity2 that
 is1 they come from families in which   
there is much feeble-mindedness1 usually
 associated with various neuroses or    
psychosis4 ,there are about thirty-five 
per cent4 approximately that are        
acquired cases4 ,these cases develop    
from various things4 ,full development  
may be prevented during gestation1 or   
early childhood1 or early adolescence1  
but these acquired cases are entirely   

distinct from the hereditary ones4  ,in 
a recent paper ,doctor ,martin ,w4      
,barr1 chief physician for the          
,pennsylvania ,training ,school for     
,feeble-minded ,children1 says3 ,in my  
individual study of #d1jej cases of     
imbecility1 ,i find #b1fea1 or #fe4cd   
per cent41 caused by malign heredities2 
and of these #a1jcj1 or #be4dc per      
cent41 are due to direct inheritance of 
idiocy2 and #bhj1 or #f4ia per cent41 to
 insanity4 ,from these figures it will  
be seen that ,doctors ,barr1 ,goddard1  
,wilmarth1 ,johnstone and ,rogers all   
agree in their estimates2 namely1 that  
two-thirds of our imbeciles are so      
through inheritance4  ,some ,results of 
,non-,restraint of the                  
,feeble-minded4--,the following excerpt 
from a paper by ,doctor ,barr1 is a fair
 sample of what happens when such       
defective individuals are not restrained
 from propagating their kind3      ,my  
own study and observation alone1 of over
 #d1jjj degenerates1 shows     such     

examples as3 ,a man #ch years of age1   
the father of #ai defective             
children1 all living1 he and his wife   
both under par mentally2 as was         
another couple1 with #i imbecile        
children2 an idiot woman with #g idiot  
children4 ,a forcible instance is that  
of a man with two daughters and     one 
illegitimate grandchild1 all            
feeble-minded4444 ,i could name a       
family1 one of the proudest in the land1
 where there are five     children1 an  
aunt and two uncles1 all feeble-minded4 
,yet another1 which in seven generations
 numbering some #ach     individuals1   
records #aj still-born children         
7premature births71 #af     insane1 #g  
imbeciles1 #c epileptics and #cb with   
mental peculiarities so     pronounced  
as to occasion remark4 ,of the #ach     
there remain #hj     apparently normal1 
who are nevertheless hopeless slaves of 
a neurotic     heredity1 direct or      
collateral4      ,in a study of #ae     
imbecile girls1 #c were recognized      

prostitutes1 #i had     each #a         
illegitimate child 7#b being the result 
of incestuous     intercourse with      
brothers72 #a had #b2 #b epileptics had1
 the one #c1 and     the other #d idiot 
children4      ,four feeble-minded women
 had #dj illegitimate children4      ,a 
feeble-minded woman living in an        
almshouse since early childhood1        
allowed to go out to service            
periodically1 had given birth to six    
illegitimate children1 all inheriting   
her defect4      ,an imbecile drunkard  
is the father of three feeble-minded    
children4     ,the daughter1 seduced    
before the age of sixteen1 gave birth to
 an     idiot child2 one son is a       
harmless imbecile1 but the other is a   
moral     imbecile1 a sexual pervert1 a 
thief on the streets1 and a pyromaniac1 
firing in sheer wantonness a large mill 
property4      ,another shows the entire
 family for three generations below     
normal4     ,father1 mother1 mother's   
sister1 and father's uncle1 all         

imbecile4     ,five children            
feeble-minded4 ,one girl had a proposal 
of marriage1 and     one boy is married 
to a feeble-minded girl4      ,one      
insane woman1 whose brother and sister  
committed suicide1 had     five sons4   
,the oldest1 feeble-minded1 a drunkard  
and hobo1 had one     son1 a criminal4  
,the second son1 insane1 had three      
imbecile children4     ,the third1 an   
insane epileptic1 had three imbecile    
sons1 one of whom     was an epileptic4 
,the fourth son was insane4 ,the fifth1 
apparently     normal1 had a morally    
imbecile son and an epileptic daughter4 
,yet striking as is the inheritance of  
these maladies1 ,doctor ,barr points out
 that of the #aj1jjj known cases of     
feeble-mindedness in ,pennsylvania1 only
 #c1ejj are sequestrated4 ,this leaves a
 balance in that state of #f1ejj totally
 irresponsible individuals to work havoc
 in society by producing their kind4    
,inheritance ,not a ,factor in ,some    
,cases of ,mental ,deficiency4--,on the 

other hand as our data show1 there      
remain about one-third of the mentally  
deficient type to be accounted for on   
other than a basis of heredity4 ,as     
already noted1 some of these are        
doubtless the product of suppressions of
 normal development by various          
extraneous factors operating before or  
shortly after birth4 ,there is one class
 particularly1 estimated by some        
authorities as constituting as high as  
thirty per cent4 of the feeble-minded   
which is unusually puzzling4 ,these are 
the so-called mongolians4 ,the name is  
given because the features of such      
individuals bear more or less           
resemblance to those of some of the     
,mongolian races4 ,the defect does not  
seem to be hereditary although it is    
usually congenital4 ,it appears to be   
due to something which interferes with  
prenatal development4 ,whatever the     
conditions1 whether lack of nutrition in
 the mother1 alcoholic or other         
poisoning1 the cases seem to be as      

hopelessly incurable as are the         
hereditary forms4 ,from the social      
standpoint1 of course1 such individuals 
are in their immediate generation1 as   
incompetent or as dangerous to society  
as those suffering from the more surely 
known hereditary forms of mental defect4
  ,epileptics4--,although epileptics are
 not classed as imbeciles ordinarily1 as
 a matter of fact no sharp distinction  
can be drawn between the two classes4   
,doctor ,wilmarth says1 ,epilepsy and   
mental deficiency are as closely related
 as branches on the same tree4444 ,over 
one-half and perhaps two-thirds of all  
feeble-minded are subject to convulsive 
seizures at some period of their lives1 
and we are never surprised at the       
appearance of epilepsy in any           
feeble-minded person4 ,on the other     
hand1 so small a percentage of          
epileptics maintain normal mental       
actions as hardly to be worth           
consideration 444 even those who retain 
a normal mind in the early stages of the

 diseases almost infallibly become      
imperfect later4 ,how slight a chance   
the epileptic has of ever becoming      
normal may be inferred from a statement 
made by ,doctor ,frank ,billings in a   
paper read before the ,illinois ,state  
,medical ,society in #aiji to the effect
 that ten per cent4 or more can be cured
 by proper care4  ,according to the     
estimates of ,the ,committee of ,fifty  
in the state of ,illinois1 who have been
 agitating for the establishment of a   
colony for epileptics1 there are #aj1jjj
 of these unfortunates in that state4   
,the consensus of opinion of experienced
 workers in various states is that there
 is about one epileptic to each three   
hundred fifty to five hundred           
inhabitants4  ,in ,heredity ,conditions 
of ,feeble-,mindedness ,are ,probably   
,recessive to ,normal ,condition4--,as  
to the mode of inheritance of the       
various forms of feeble-mindedness1 the 
evidence points to such defects in the  
main as being recessive4 ,however1 no   

particular grade can be picked out and  
shown to be a pure recessive4 ,for      
instance1 the children of two epileptics
 will be defective but it is impossible 
to predict always whether the defect    
will appear as epilepsy or              
feeble-mindedness4 ,this is doubtless   
due to the fact that mental deficiencies
 even of the inheritable type are not   
all due to the same specific cause1 and 
in many cases the individual is         
defective in more than one direction4   
,if one or more of a great number of    
units which are necessary for complete  
mental development are lacking1         
obviously mental deficiency will result4
 ,in other words1 feeble-mindedness and 
allied disorders may not be definite    
characters1 but simply evidences of the 
fact that the nervous system has not    
developed all factors necessary for     
normal mental coordination4 ,goddard1   
however1 one of our best authorities on 
the heredity of feeble-mindedness1 is   
inclined to regard the condition as a   

unit character1 due either to the       
presence of something which acts as an  
inhibitor1 or due to the absence of some
 stimulus which sends the normal brain  
on to further development4  ,supposing  
nervous defects finding expression in   
feeble-mindedness1 epilepsy and related 
conditions1 to act as a ,mendelian      
recessive1 then the marriage of one such
 defective with another should yield    
only mentally enfeebled offspring4 ,how 
nearly this expectation may be realized 
is seen from the following examples4    
,in an extensive study#i of             
feeble-mindedness1 just from the press1 
,doctor ,henry ,h4 ,goddard points out  
that of #dhb children with both parents 
feeble-minded all but six were          
feeble-minded4 ,even the exceptions may 
be apparent rather than real as there is
 possibility of mistake in judging the  
condition of the parents or of the      
children themselves4 ,moreover1 with the
 feeble-minded one is not always sure of
 the paternity of a child1 as is        

instanced by ,doctor ,goddard in a case 
quoted from ,doctor ,emerick in which of
 twelve children in a white family with 
both father and mother feeble-minded ten
 were feeble-minded and two were not1   
but these two were mulatto children4    
,in a paper by ,weeks 7,the ,inheritance
 of ,epilepsy71 in part an extension of 
an earlier joint paper by ,davenport and
 ,weeks1 is recorded among others a     
study of twenty-seven fraternities in   
which both parents were either epileptic
 or feeble-minded4 ,of the #bh progeny1 
#ai lived long enough to reveal their   
mental state4 ,of these #c were         
feeble-minded1 #h epileptic and #h1 from
 parents who developed epilepsy late in 
life1 were what ,doctor ,weeks terms    
tainted4 ,in #ae fraternities in which  
one parent was epileptic and the other  
feeble-minded he found there had been   
#ha conceptions4 ,of these #g were too  
young to classify and #ai had died      
before fourteen years of age4 ,of the   
remaining #ee1 #bh were epileptic1 #bf  

feeble-minded1 and #a insane4 ,again1 in
 #i families in which the parents were  
both feeble-minded1 of the #ch surviving
 offspring who were old enough to       
classify1 #g were epileptic1 #bi        
feeble-minded1 and #b drunkards4 ,in #e 
families where one parent was insane and
 the other epileptic or feeble-minded1  
#e children died before the age of      
fourteen1 the condition of #b was       
unknown1 #b were epileptic1 #d          
feeble-minded1 #a insane1 #h tainted1   
and #g seemingly normal4 ,regarding the 
latter ,doctor ,weeks says they came    
from two families where in one case the 
father's insanity seemed to be traumatic
 and in the other alcoholic4  ,in a few 
cases where the defect in one parent has
 apparently been of a type different    
from the defect of the other parent a   
normal child was produced4 ,that is1    
presumably each parent carried normality
 in the trait defective in the other so 
that the child became simplex with      
reference to each defect4 ,davenport    

points out that not infrequently two    
deaf-mutes whose defects are due to     
different causes may have normal        
children4  ,in general1 however1 the    
reasonable expectation is that where two
 feeble-minded individuals marry1 a very
 common occurrence1 the children will   
all show mental deficiency4 ,a mating   
between a feeble-minded person and one  
of perfectly normal stock will          
apparently result in normal children    
although they will be carriers4 ,there  
is some evidence1 however1 that such    
carriers may occasionally show taints of
 abnormality in the form of migraine    
7nervous sick headache71 alcoholism1    
queerness1 violent temper1 etc4 ,thus   
according to the studies of ,doctor     
,weeks1 ,in #ej matings where at least  
one parent is migrainous1 there were    
#cej conceptions1 of which number enough
 is known of #bab to classify #ee1 or   
#bf per cent41 as epileptic2 #ab1 or #f 
per cent41 as feeble-minded1 with the   
others tainted or normal4 ,in the #aca  

matings where at least one parent is    
alcoholic1 there were #hde conceptions4 
,of the #did classified1 #aea1 or #ca   
per cent41 were epileptic2 #ed1 or #aa  
per cent41 feeble-minded1 with the      
balance tainted or normal4 ,marriage    
between two carriers will cause the     
defect to reappear in active form in    
approximately #be per cent4 of the      
offspring and #ej per cent4 will        
continue to be carriers4  ,many         
,apparently ,normal ,people ,really     
,carriers of ,neuropathic               
,defects4--,there is considerable       
evidence that many apparently normal    
individuals of our average population   
are in reality carriers of some form of 
neuropathic defect1 some authorities    
placing the proportion provisionally at 
over thirty per cent4 ,this being true1 
then it is easy to explain the          
apparently unaccountable appearance of  
epilepsy1 feeble-mindedness1 or similar 
defects among the children of what pass 
for normal stocks4 ,the probabilities   

are that in many cases it means simply  
that the parents of the defective       
children have been carriers4  ,as to the
 contention that in preventing the      
propagation of the feeble-minded we may 
be depriving the world of geniuses1     
,doctor ,goddard remarks3 ,it is a      
significant fact that in our three      
hundred family histories totaling       
#aa1chi individuals not a single genius 
has been found4 ,not only are there no  
geniuses but the fact can not be too    
strongly emphasized that even the people
 who are considered normal 444 are not  
as a rule people of average             
intelligence4444 ,however1 between      
insanity and genius he finds more       
kindred spirit4  ,tests for ,mental     
,deficiency4--,as to tests for mental   
deficiency1 the one commonly meted out  
to victims in the every-day world is the
 social-economic one of survival in the 
competitions of life4 ,the mentally     
deficient fail4 ,although often         
unrecognized as feeble-minded they drift

 through life social and economical     
derelicts who have to be supported by   
the community4  ,of laboratory tests    
many have been devised4 ,while all yet  
leave much to be desired1 still through 
their application the majority of mental
 defectives can be detected4 ,fairly    
accurate standards of normality have    
been established from which the relative
 degree of backwardness can be          
determined4 ,we have just awakened to   
the importance of detecting defectives  
early in life1 hence many of our tests  
have been planned with reference to     
children4 ,they are based not so much on
 training or conscious learning as on   
fundamental processes which develop at  
certain ages in children4 ,another      
impetus toward securing adequate        
criteria of mental deficiency has been  
the crying need of having some easily   
applied standard for detecting the very 
large numbers of defective immigrants   
who are continually seeking to enter the
 ,united ,states4  ,most of the methods 

consist of performance tests which are  
planned to test the powers of           
perception1 concentration1 application1 
ingenuity and education of the subject4 
,previous environment1 education and the
 difficulties under which the subject   
may be laboring at the time of the test 
must1 of course1 be taken into account4 
,it is particularly difficult to get    
adequate tests for the immigrant which  
will enable one to distinguish between  
ignorance1 stupidity1 fear and temporary
 psychic depression on the one hand1 and
 congenital mental deficiency on the    
other4  ,perhaps the most successful    
single set of tests for mental          
deficiency is that known as the         
,binet-,simon ,scale4 ,from an          
examination of large numbers of ,french 
school children ,binet constructed a    
scale of tests of increasing complexity 
accurately graded to age and previous   
training of the average normal child4   
,in the ,binet-,simon system tests are  
given for each age from three years to  

thirteen4 ,when a child successfully    
passes the tests for his age he is      
classed as normal4 ,if he succeeds only 
in tests which normally are those given 
for a child a year younger then he is   
backward to the extent of one year4     
,similarly he may show by these graded  
tests that he is backward to the extent 
of two years1 three years and so on4 ,if
 a child is more than three years       
backward according to the test he is    
regarded as mentally defective4 ,various
 corrections and adjustments of the     
original scale have been worked out to  
allow for unevenness in mental          
development4 ,on the whole the scheme   
works out satisfactorily when applied by
 one skilled in its use4 ,the attitude  
of the examiner1 however1 is of so great
 importance that the tests are of less  
value in the hand of inexperienced      
workers4 ,a revision of the scale to    
adapt it better to ,american children   
has recently been made by ,doctor       
,goddard4#aj ,besides the ,binet-,simon 

tests various performance tests1        
standardized for children of different  
ages1 such as ,seguin's form board1     
,healy's pictorial completion test1     
,fernald's construction puzzle1 the     
,rossolimo test1 ,de ,sanctis test1     
etc41 are used by different             
investigators4 ,questions designed to   
reveal moral tone are also employed4    
,doctor ,howard ,a4 ,knox1 assistant    
surgeon ,united ,states ,public ,health 
,service1 in a recent article#aa gives  
an interesting account of the tests     
applied to determine the exact mentality
 of immigrants entering the ,united     
,states together with a brief review of 
various tests4 ,a full account and      
discussion of the various tests for the 
mentally subnormal will be found in a   
recent publication by ,doctor ,william  
,healy1#ab director of the ,juvenile    
,psychopathic ,institute1 ,chicago4     
,the ,backward ,child in ,school4--,it  
is only in recent times that we have    
come to realize the seriousness of the  

problem which the backward child        
presents in our schools4 ,it is of the  
utmost importance to discover early in  
school life which of the backward       
children owe their condition to         
adenoids1 defective sight or hearing1   
poor nutrition1 imperfect circulation1  
or other remediable defects1 and which  
are the victims of innate mental        
deficiency4 ,the treatment of the       
individual must be very different in the
 two cases4 ,in the one the condition   
can be cured by proper manipulations or 
other treatments2 in the other it can   
only be ameliorated4 ,all school        
children who are two or three years     
below grade should be rigidly inspected 
by the medical examiner4  ,from a study 
of about two thousand children          
comprising the first five grades of an  
entire public school system ,goddard    
found that eighteen per cent4 were      
definitely backward4 ,of these between  
two and three per cent4 were actually   
feeble-minded1 the condition in the     

remaining fifteen per cent4 being       
presumably capable of correction4 ,other
 similar surveys have given practically 
the same results4  ,the ,exceptionally  
,able ,child ,likely to ,be             
,neglected4--,however1 while we must not
 forget that it is important to         
recognize backward children and to see  
that they are segregated into small     
groups which are not required to do the 
full amount of work in regular time1 it 
is equally urgent to see that the       
unusually bright individual is also     
given opportunity to advance more       
rapidly than the rank and file4 ,only   
too often the holding back of a child in
 school leads to lack of interest and   
habits of mental laziness1 and sometimes
 to truancy and incorrigibility4 ,the   
general attempt in our graded schools to
 keep all children close to the average 
is to be strongly condemned4  ,cost of  
,caring for ,our ,mentally              
,disordered4--,doctor ,charles ,l4      
,dana1 member of the ,national          

,committee for ,mental ,hygiene1        
estimated in #aijd that the actual cost 
of caring for feeble-minded and insane  
in the ,united ,states amounted to sixty
 million dollars1 to which should be    
added the corresponding loss in         
industrial activity on the part of the  
afflicted1--at least twenty million     
dollars more1 and he figures that the   
amount was increasing at the rate of    
four per cent4 per annum4 ,many         
investigators concur in the opinion that
 our insane and feeble-minded alone cost
 us far above one hundred million       
dollars4 ,adding to this economic burden
 the cost of our delinquents and        
criminals the total expense becomes     
stupendous4 ,and when we consider still 
further the even greater burden of      
suffering of the unfortunates themselves
 and the sorrows of those to whom they  
are dear1 a burden not measurable in    
money1 the feeling that something must  
be done to relieve the situation becomes
 overpowering4  ,importance of ,rigid   

,segregation of ,feeble-,minded4--,as   
regards the really feeble-minded little 
can be done beyond making them as happy 
as possible and developing the limited  
gifts they have been given by nature4   
,their teaching must be in the main     
concrete and simple4 ,at the age of     
puberty it is imperative to see that the
 sexes are separated and kept under     
sufficient permanent supervision to     
prevent all possibility of procreation4 
,there is neither economic nor common   
sense in even allowing the remotest     
chance of such occurrences as the       
following3 ,this is the case of a       
feeble-minded and epileptic woman who   
had six children by various persons     
while an inmate of a county poor house4 
,one child at the age of eighteen died  
in the almshouse1 two died in infancy1  
one was epileptic 7the son of a man with
 a criminal record7 and two who are now 
living in the almshouse are             
feeble-minded1 one being the son of a   
negro4 ,again1 we find a superintendent 

of an ,english almshouse reporting that 
one hundred and two out of one hundred  
and five children born there in five    
years were feeble-minded4  ,as          
conditions are to-day every institution 
for the feeble-minded has a long waiting
 list and the same is true of most      
asylums for the insane4 ,instead of     
providing the prolonged care necessary  
for such patients1 institutions are     
forced to discharge many prematurely in 
order to make room for more urgent      
cases4  ,importance of ,early ,diagnosis
 of ,insanity4--,in insanities1 even    
when of hereditary origin1 there is much
 hope in certain cases of greatly       
benefiting the individual1 though a     
permanent cure1 or at least the         
establishment of procreative fitness may
 be impossible4 ,it is extremely        
important that the public realize how   
much can be done through early          
examination and advice in such mental   
afflictions4 ,most of the insane who    
recover usually do so within a few      

months of their first alienation1 hence 
the importance of losing no time in     
detecting the condition and securing    
early treatment4 ,it is now well known  
that many cases of chronic insanity may 
be measurably improved under the care of
 a psychiatrist by systematic           
re-education1 especially in industrial  
lines4 ,but how little of this may be   
expected at the hands of the untrained  
custodians who feed the inmates of our  
county almshouses1 to which in many     
states the chronic insane are entrusted1
 is obvious4  ,all ,insane ,should ,be  
,passed ,upon by ,competent             
,psychiatrists4--,the atrocious system  
of turning the chronic insane over to   
county poorhouses manned by supervisors 
whose chief qualification for the       
position has not infrequently been the  
lowness of their bid for boarding and   
caring for the inmates1 can not be too  
strongly condemned4 ,incredible as it   
may seem1 in some states the court can  
on its own judgment send patients       

directly to these institutions without  
first submitting them to the study of   
expert physicians in the state hospital 
for the insane4 ,the viciousness of such
 procedure is evident when one realizes 
that often careful scrutiny on the part 
of the very best experts1 extending over
 a considerable period of time1 is      
required before the true condition of   
the patient can be determined4 ,recently
 a psychiatrist of high standing1 who   
was gathering data on county asylums for
 a national organization1 informed the  
writer that beyond the shadow of a doubt
 he had come across case after case in  
county asylums which would have been    
curable under proper treatment4  ,here  
again the responsibility in last        
analysis must rest upon us as citizens1 
for it is largely through our           
intelligent demands as voters that      
conditions will be improved and         
competent experts be put in charge of   
county asylums as well as of the state  
hospitals for the acutely insane4  ,some

 ,insanities ,not of ,hereditary        
,origin4--,some alienists believe that  
self-poisoning known as                 
auto-intoxication1 due to improper      
elimination of poisons generated through
 faulty digestion or metabolism1 if of  
long standing1 may be not only a        
contributory but a more or less direct  
cause of insanity4 ,about twenty per    
cent4 of insanities of men living in    
cities and about fifteen per cent4 of   
those living in the country seem to be  
directly related to the intemperate use 
of alcohol4 ,the corresponding figures  
for women are seven per cent4 and one   
per cent4 respectively4 ,general paresis
 or softening of the brain is probably  
invariably preceded by syphilis4 ,about 
twenty-two and five-tenths per cent4 of 
the first admissions to hospitals for   
the insane from city-dwelling men1 and  
eight per cent4 from men living in the  
country in the state of ,new ,york are  
cases of this kind of insanity4 ,the    
corresponding figures for women are five

 and five-tenths per cent4 and two and  
five-tenths per cent4 respectively4     
,importance of ,heredity in ,insanity   
,not ,appreciated4--,we have already    
seen that heredity plays an important   
part in insanities4 ,there can be little
 doubt that the tendency is to          
under-estimate rather than over-estimate
 its importance4 ,many cases said to be 
caused by mental strain such as those   
occasioned by domestic infelicities1    
business reverses and the like should in
 all probability be fundamentally       
attributed to something far more        
deep-seated than the more obvious cause4
 ,in many such instances there is little
 doubt that an inherent weakness in     
mental make-up exists which predisposes 
the individual toward mental breakdown4 
,this is more apparent when one recalls 
that there are thousands of other       
individuals who undergo equally great or
 greater calamities without loss of     
mental balance4 ,there are              
well-recognized types of mental         

disposition which later contribute to   
corresponding forms of insanity4 ,in    
many instances the final catastrophe may
 be averted if the peculiar individual  
can be kept in good health and guided   
into right habits of thought4           
,undoubtedly certain infectious         
diseases1 arterio sclerosis1 various    
poisons in the blood1 child-birth1 and  
similar influences often enter as       
important contributory factors4 ,in all 
cases of cure1 however1 we must face the
 fact that under existing conditions    
these mentally restored individuals are 
released into society without let or    
hindrance as regards their marital      
relations4     ,,chapter ,,ix  ,,crime  
,,and ,,delinquency   ,the ,relative    
,importance of ,heredity and            
,environment in ,this ,field            
,uncertain4--,the whole question of     
crime and delinquency is a highly       
complex one4 ,here1 perhaps1 more than  
in any other phase of race betterment we
 find the greatest difficulty in        

separating the effects of hereditary    
predisposition from the results of      
unfavorable environment4 ,while there is
 no longer a reasonable doubt about such
 nervous disorders as epilepsy1         
feeble-mindedness and certain forms of  
insanity being rooted largely in        
ancestral taints1 the degree to which   
crime or delinquency is based on        
heredity is far more questionable4      
,every student of genetics knows that we
 may have dwarf plants because the      
constitution of the germ is of a nature 
to produce only such individuals1 or we 
may have dwarfed plants because of      
adverse conditions of soil and lack of  
an opportunity to climb or rise to their
 full capacity4 ,bateson pertinently    
remarks1 ,the stick will not make the   
dwarf pea climb1 though without it the  
tall can never rise4 ,education1        
sanitation1 and the rest are but the    
giving or withholding of opportunity4   
,the important sociological question for
 us to determine is which of these lowly

 peas of the human family are really    
dwarfs and which are dwarfed simply     
because the stick of opportunity on     
which to climb is lacking4  ,beyond     
doubt a considerable portion of crime   
and degeneracy is due in large measure  
to innate inclination1 but with just as 
little doubt much is the effect mainly  
of vicious habits acquired through an   
unwholesome environment4 ,a normal      
appetite or impulse may be given a      
pathological trend by bad influences4   
,and one has to reckon1 moreover1 with  
degrees of hereditary aptitude to crime4
 ,just what is the measure of normality8
 ,to what extent by developing to their 
highest point certain inhibitive or     
opposing tendencies1 can we counteract  
certain inherent proclivities for       
wrong-doing8 ,by what means shall we    
sift the congenital defectives from the 
victims of suppressed opportunities8    
,these and kindred questions confront us
 at the very outset of our studies of   
crime and delinquency4 ,it is obvious   

that although we may institute the      
strictest elimination of the socially   
unfit1 unless we can provide a wholesome
 environment for the fit1 lapses into   
unfitness are sure to recur4            
,feeble-,mindedness ,often a            
,factor4--,the conviction is steadily   
growing among students of human heredity
 that a considerable amount of crime1   
gross immorality and degeneracy is due  
at bottom to feeble-mindedness and that1
 therefore1 if we can once eliminate    
feeble-mindedness1 these vicious        
accompaniments will at the same time in 
equal measure disappear4 ,goddard1 for  
example1 one of our authorities on the  
inheritance of feeble-mindedness1 is    
convinced that a large proportion of the
 delinquent girls who fill our          
reformatories are actually              
feeble-minded4 ,they are often the      
higher grade or moron type1 and their   
mental condition remains unsuspected    
because they have never been thoroughly 
tested in this respect4  ,many          

,delinquent ,girls ,mentally            
,deficient4--,according to ,havelock    
,ellis1 #b1ejj of some #ae1jjj women who
 passed through ,magdalen homes in      
,england were definitely feeble-minded  
and were known to have added a thousand 
illegitimate children to the population4
  ,the preliminary reports of the       
so-called white slave investigations now
 in progress in ,new ,york ,city classes
 #be per cent4 of these unfortunate     
women as mentally incapable of taking   
care of themselves4 ,other              
investigations indicate that from #dj to
 #fj per cent4 of this class of women   
are defectives4 ,for example1 from the  
report of the ,massachusetts ,commission
 for the ,investigation of the ,white   
,slave ,traffic1 ,so-,called1 one reads3
 ,of #cjj prostitutes1 #aed1 or #ea per 
cent41 were feeble-minded4 ,all doubtful
 cases were recorded as normal4 ,the    
mental defect of these #aed women was so
 pronounced and evident as to warrant   
the legal commitment of each one as a   

feeble-minded person or as a defective  
delinquent4444 ,the #ace women          
designated as normal1 as a class were of
 distinctly inferior intelligence4 ,more
 time for study of these women1 more    
complete histories of their life in the 
community1 and opportunity for more     
elaborate psychological tests might     
verify the belief of the examiners that 
many of them were also feeble-minded or 
insane4  ,the data from some of our     
public reformatories1 industrial schools
 and state homes for delinquent girls1  
are very instructive in this respect4   
,reports from a number of such          
institutions show that many of their    
inmates are mentally subnormal4 ,the    
proportions range from thirty-three per 
cent4 in the ,new ,jersey ,reformatory  
at ,rahway to eighty-nine per cent4 in  
the institution at ,geneva1 ,illinois4  
,institutional ,figures                 
,misleading4--,however1 significant as  
are these figures from institutions for 
delinquents1 one should not be misled by

 them4 ,they are undoubtedly not        
representative of offenders in general1 
but of a selected group of the most     
hopeless cases4 ,in the first place the 
more capable individuals escape the     
dragnet which lands the defective       
delinquents in an institution1 and      
furthermore1 because of liberal systems 
of probation1 only the more incorrigible
 or the very stupid make up the bulk of 
the population of such places4 ,miss    
,augusta ,f4 ,bronner1 assistant        
director of the ,psychopathic ,institute
 of the ,juvenile ,court of ,chicago1   
from a careful study of five hundred and
 five cases of delinquent boys and girls
 in the ,detention ,home1 chosen with as
 little selection as possible1 finds the
 proportion of mentally subnormal among 
them to be less than ten per cent4      
,many ,prisoners ,mentally              
,subnormal4--,doctor ,walter ,s4        
,fernald1 of the ,massachusetts ,school 
for ,feeble-minded1 estimates that at   
least #be per cent4 of the inmates of   

our penal institutions are mentally     
defective4 ,among the various available 
estimates at hand this seems to be a    
fairly conservative approximation4      
,hastings ,h4 ,hart points out that this
 calculation of #be per cent4 means that
 there are #bj1jjj adult defective      
delinquents in prison1 and #f1jjj youths
 in juvenile reformatories1 or a total  
of #bf1jjj in custody in the ,united    
,states4  ,the ,inhibitions ,necessary  
to ,social ,welfare ,not ,well          
,established in ,all4--,but let us look 
at this matter of delinquency a little  
more in detail4 ,in common with other   
living creatures mankind has two        
strongly predominating instincts without
 which there can be no prolonged        
individual or racial existence1 namely1 
the self-preservative and the           
reproductive4 ,says ,schiller3 ,while   
philosophers are disputing about the    
government of the world1 ,hunger and    
,love are performing the task4 ,under   
self-preservative would be included     

everything pertaining to food1 property 
and self-protection4 ,in addition1      
however1 man1 together with certain     
other social animals1 has developed a   
third set of activities or instincts--an
 impulsion toward the preservation of   
the community to which he belongs--and  
so far has this evolved in his case that
 it outranks in importance the other    
two4 ,for the highest accomplishments   
and ideals of the race are in last      
analysis expressions of this social     
instinct4 ,but with this system of      
mutual help comes the necessity of      
certain restraints1 because for society 
to exist its members must impose upon   
themselves1 or have imposed upon them1  
certain inhibitions of their            
self-preservative and reproductive      
instincts4  ,being a late acquisition of
 the race and less firmly ingrained1 the
 social instinct is not well established
 in all individuals4 ,some have it      
sufficiently strong to exercise of their
 own accord the necessary inhibitions of

 other instincts4 ,experience has shown 
that others1 either through a lack or   
through a wrong cultivation of it1 can  
not or will not do so unaided4 ,for the 
latter1 society has instituted certain  
conventions and the criminal law whereby
 through a system of restraints and     
punishments such an individual is held  
in check either by actual physical      
restraint of his property or person or  
through the powerfully inhibitive       
factors of shame or fear4 ,man as a     
normal member of society must constantly
 take heed of the physical1 intellectual
 or moral danger the exercise of a given
 feeling1 action or procedure on his    
part will bring to humanity1 and govern 
himself accordingly4  ,but it is in just
 these very inhibitions that mental     
defectives are lacking4 ,they are almost
 invariably anti-social types because   
they are unable to establish the        
personal abstentions which are necessary
 for the good of the community4 ,while  
in the individual of innate normal      

mentality anti-social traits may have   
developed because of improper training  
or surroundings1 in mentally defective  
types some factor or factors necessary  
to normality have been left out of their
 make-up and as a result they are often 
wholly lacking in social instincts or   
have these so feebly developed that     
education and exhortations toward social
 ideals are fruitless4 ,we can not      
appeal successfully if there is nothing 
to appeal to2 we can not develop        
something out of nothing4  ,the         
,high-,grade ,moron a ,difficult        
,problem4--,one great difficulty in     
identifying the high-grade morons who   
are a bountiful source of our criminals 
is our almost universal failure to      
recognize that a memory test alone is   
not sufficient to determine the mental  
responsibility of an individual4 ,not   
only memory1 but judgment1 will-power   
and perhaps1 also1 to a lesser degree1  
the powers of attention and             
concentration are all indispensable     

elements in the make-up of a normal     
individual4 ,there are cases on record  
of imbeciles with prodigious memories1  
yet hopelessly incapable of caring for  
themselves or of respecting the rights  
of others4 ,in fact certain types of    
morons1 usually cunning1 often          
prepossessing and superficially clever1 
are characterized by good memories and  
will moralize volubly1 although their   
wills are too weak to inhibit impulses  
when they face temptation4 ,it is       
obvious that just in proportion as the  
intelligence of the high-grade          
degenerate approaches normality and yet 
remains abnormal1 the more dangerous he 
may become to society4  ,degenerate     
,strains4--,a number of family records  
are now available which show convincing 
evidence of the hereditary nature of a  
degeneracy which finds expression in    
pauperism1 immorality and crime4  ,as   
has already been pointed out1 there is  
reason to believe that much of this is  
based in some degree on                 

feeble-mindedness4 ,one of the most     
remarkable of these is the recent study 
on degeneracy by ,goddard as set forth  
in his book called ,the ,kallikak       
,family4 ,the record is that of six     
generations of descendants from an      
original progenitor to whom the         
fictitious name of ,kallikak has been   
assigned4 ,this individual1 descended   
from good stock1 before his marriage met
 a feeble-minded girl by whom he became 
the father of a feeble-minded son4      
,later he married a normal woman by whom
 he had normal children4 ,thus from one 
normal father have sprung two lines of  
progeny1 one vitiated with              
feeble-mindedness1 the other normal4    
,the comparison may be readily made by  
drawing up in parallel columns the data 
as follows3              ,,line ,a      
,,line ,b    ,in five generations #dhj  
direct     ,in five generations #dif    
descendants   descendants from a normal 
father   from the same normal father as 
in   father and a feeble-minded         

,line ,a and a normal mother have the   
mother have been accounted for          
following record3   as follows3    #adc 
known to be feeble-minded4     ,all but 
one of normal mentality4    #bia mental 
status unknown or       ,two men known  
to be alcoholic4   doubtful4    #cf     
illegitimate4                   ,one    
case of religious mania4    #cc sexually
 immoral1 mostly        ,among the rest 
have been found   prostitutes4          
nothing but good representative         
citizenship1 numbering doctors1   #bd   
confirmed alcoholics4           lawyers1
 educators1 judges1                     
traders1 etc4    #c epileptics4         
,no epileptics or criminals4    #hb died
 in infancy4                ,only       
fifteen children died in                
infancy4    #c criminals4    #h keepers 
of disreputable houses4    #df only ones
 known to ben ormal4  ,certainly there  
is abundant food for thought in these   
two records4  ,if we take still other   
families of criminal or degenerate      

antecedents the same multiplication of  
viciousness1 as a rule1 is in evidence4 
,thus1 ,margaret1 the ,mother of        
,criminals1 has left a progeny of some  
#gjj paupers1 prostitutes and criminals1
 some of the women bearing as many as   
twenty children4 ,the famous ,jukes     
family1 so often cited1 with its #caj   
professional paupers1 #cjj deaths in    
infancy1 #ddj physical wrecks from      
debauchery1 #ej prostitutes1 #fj        
habitual thieves1 #g murderers1 and #acj
 other convicts out of a total #a1bjj   
descendants who have been identified1   
has alone cost the state of ,new ,york  
#a1bej1jjj in the care of its criminal1 
defective and immoral progeny4  ,another
 family record1 the ,zeros1 reported by 
,poellman1 of ,bonn1 starts with a      
female confirmed drunkard4 ,in six      
generations of her descendants1 totaling
 #hjj people1 ,poellman found #ajb      
professional beggars1 #ajg              
illegitimates1 #aha prostitutes1 #ed in 
almshouse1 #gf convicted of serious     

crime1 #g of murder1 and costing some   
#a1bjf1jjj4 ,or we might cite the       
so-called ,tribe of ,ishmael1 the       
progeny of a neurotic man and a         
half-breed woman4 ,they have spread     
their ill-favored spawn over various of 
the central states in a veritable flood 
of imbecility and petty crime4 ,and to  
these families may be added the records 
of ,the ,hill ,folk1 ,the ,pineys1 or   
others of the several recent studies of 
degenerate strains4 ,all bear the same  
message of rapidly multiplying          
degeneracy4  ,intensification of        
,defects by ,inbreeding4--,most of these
 regional surveys that are now in       
progress show that there is particular  
danger in a population becoming broken  
up into small communities and isolated4 
,under such conditions there is a       
pronounced tendency to intermarry1 and  
if deterioration is already present in  
the stock such communities become       
centers of marked degeneracy4 ,the      
situation is well exemplified in the    

following excerpt from ,davenport3      
,i have been going over the records of  
one family in ,new ,york1 the           
so-called ,nam family4 ,there were #ee  
per cent4 consanguineous matings1       
marriage between cousins1 in one        
generation1 and1 owing to the fact      
that the strain was already loaded with 
defects1 we can see how these           
defects were concentrated by these      
cousin marriages1 so that about #ij     
per cent4 of the strain is              
feeble-minded4 ,there were fully #ij per
     cent4 of the men who are unable to 
resist the lure of liquor4              
,one-fourth of the children are born    
illegitimates4 ,infanticides1           
incest1 murder1 harlotry1 are all over  
the chart4 ,this is a highly     inbred 
community1 keeping a nearly pure strain 
of social defects1 and     the cost to  
the community has been a million and a  
half on a fair way     of figuring1 not 
directly in the care1 but indirectly in 
the damage     they have done4 ,these   

constitute a rural community4 ,out of   
this     community we can trace those   
who have gone to the cities and become  
murderers1 prostitutes and thieves4     
,they are not confined to one     state2
 they spread out over the country4 ,one 
branch of the family came     to the    
state of ,minnesota4 ,we sent to one of 
,doctor ,rogers' trained     field      
workers to learn whether she had ever   
heard of this family1 and     received a
 reply that the family was well known to
 social workers in     the state of     
,minnesota4 ,these strains of           
degenerates are not local     matters at
 all2 they are matters of national      
interest4  ,concerning crime and        
delinquency1 we find that all evidence  
tends to show that an alarming increase 
is in progress although satisfactory    
data are hard to obtain4 ,it is certain 
that there is a tremendously            
disproportionate increase in the number 
of prisoners in recent years compared   
with general population1 for while the  

total population has increased three and
 one-half fold1 the prison element has  
increased fifteen fold4 ,according to   
,wier1 in this country there are four   
and one-half times as many murders for  
every million of our population to-day  
as there were twenty years ago4  ,it may
 be urged that this increase in prison  
population is not a disproportionate    
increase in the number of defectives or 
criminals1 but only an increase in the  
number sent to prison1 and this is      
probably a partial truth--but when we   
recall such pedigree as those of the    
,nams1 the defective line of ,kallikaks 
and other known unsound strains1 he must
 be hopeful indeed who can find much    
consolation in this supposition4 ,in any
 event1 no such uncertainty exists      
regarding the number of murders and     
homicides1 since these have in all      
probability been as fully recorded in   
the past as at present4  ,vicious       
,surroundings ,not a ,sufficient        
,explanation in ,degenerate             

,stocks4--,it is sometimes urged that we
 are not dealing in such cases with     
degenerate strains1 but merely with     
unfortunate individuals who have been   
subjected to pernicious surroundings    
from the beginning4 ,and it can not be  
denied that parents who are mentally    
defective1 dissipated or syphilitic     
afford most noxious developmental and   
environmental conditions for their      
children4 ,but when one notes how       
intimately the moral degeneracy in such 
stocks is bound up with some degree of  
feeble-mindedness1 he is strongly       
skeptical toward the sufficiency of such
 an interpretation1 although environment
 undoubtedly intensifies the results4   
,concerning this point ,davenport says3 
,we have certain methods of testing     
whether it is bad environment or     bad
 breeding which produced these people4  
,some of the children have     been     
taken at an early age and 'placed out'4 
,we have traced their     subsequent    
history4 ,in most cases they have turned

 out quite as bad as     those who have 
remained at home4 ,in a few cases they  
have turned out     well1 but it is also
 true that some of the children who     
remained at     home in bad environment 
have turned out well4  ,and to          
,davenport's testimony may we add that  
of ,doctor ,wilmarth1 who1 speaking of  
children at the home for feeble-minded1 
says3      ,in no place is this subject 
of the power of heredity in relation to 
environment so easily studied as among  
our children4 ,a group of many          
little children came to us from the     
state school1 being untrainable         
there4 ,they have had with us the same  
teaching and the same     companionship4
 ,each one has lived1 eaten and slept   
among the others1     and1 so far as we 
know1 with but one exception1 those of  
vicious     parentage have turned       
instinctively to vicious traits by      
preference1     while those of simple   
but honest stock do evil things only    
under     strong temptation1 and do not 

persist in them after the wrong is      
pointed out4  ,by ,no ,means ,all       
,delinquents ,are ,defectives4--,one    
must not overlook the fact1 however1    
that delinquent and defective are by no 
means synonymous terms1 and that many   
delinquents are with little doubt the   
product of adverse social circumstances4
  ,the recent careful work of ,doctor   
,william ,healy#ac in connection with   
the juvenile delinquents of ,chicago    
shows convincingly that the underlying  
causations of delinquency are many4     
,such factors as immorality or constant 
quarreling of parents1 bad companions1  
lack of parental control1 defective     
sense organs1 debilitating habits1 lack 
of healthy mental interests and a host  
of other environmental factors are not  
infrequently sufficient in themselves to
 develop delinquency in the absence of  
inherited deficiency4 ,the present-day  
efforts of the student of heredity      
should not be misunderstood4 ,they are  
not attempts to make all delinquents out

 defectives1 but rather to determine    
what percentage of delinquents may be   
legitimately reckoned as defective and  
to make the facts known4 ,since there is
 no longer any reasonable doubt that1 to
 express it in the mildest terms1 an    
amount of delinquency far from          
negligible is due in great measure to   
congenital omissions or propensities1   
then the sooner the public learns this  
the better1 for we may then set about   
supplementing our present efforts at    
race betterment through external        
improvement by devising means of        
cleansing the fountain source as well4  
,it can scarcely be doubted that the    
average man differs little if any in    
inherent personality and capacity from  
many a criminal who is such by occasion 
rather than by undue predisposition4    
,who can truthfully answer how many     
individuals there are who are not       
potentially criminals to some extent1   
given sufficient evocative conditions of
 ignorance1 vice1 adverse economic      

pressure and undue temptation8          
,virtue itself turns vice1 being        
misapplied4  ,no ,special ,inheritable  
,crime-,factor4--,the main difficulty in
 trying to find a hereditary basis for  
crime lies in the multiplicity of things
 crime may be4 ,the individual          
impulsions which lead to certain        
offenses may be utterly different from  
those which conduce to others4          
,undoubtedly many inborn tendencies     
which are perfectly normal or neutral in
 themselves may be warped by            
circumstances into the commission of    
what are classified as crimes4 ,the     
moral man may have the same desire for a
 thing that the criminal does1 but when 
he finds that this desire can only be   
gratified by injury to others1 he       
inhibits it because of his repugnance to
 such injury4 ,the criminal makes no    
such inhibition4  ,in general1 crime    
means an offense of some kind against   
person1 property or state4 ,but a       
biological analysis of it1 could it be  

made1 would require among other things  
knowledge of crime in terms of motive or
 lack of motive1 whether the act was    
intended to benefit the perpetrator1    
some other person1 or even the race or  
state2 whether the offense was one of   
dishonesty1 of cupidity1 of lust1 or of 
violence against another4  ,as a matter 
of fact no satisfactory classification  
of crime can be made since so many      
factors enter and in such varying       
degrees4 ,most classifications made in  
our legal codes are a hodge-podge based 
on a mixture of motive on the part of   
the participant1 degree of turpitude    
involved1 nature and extent of the      
injury inflicted1 and the object against
 which the offense was perpetrated1     
whether an individual1 society or the   
state4 ,moreover1 it must not be        
forgotten that in many instances what   
was crime in the past is no longer so1  
and vice versa many things which are    
regarded as criminal to-day were not    
considered so in the past4 ,so the      

futility of seeking a specific inherent 
propensity for crime is manifest4 ,how1 
for instance1 in terms of hereditary    
determiners shall we draw the fine lines
 of distinction among those who bribe   
legislators and legal officials1 those  
who are avaricious and dishonest in the 
world of trade1 and those who are       
wilfully obtuse in providing proper     
safeguards for employees8  ,what ,is    
,meant by a ,born ,criminal8--,all we   
can do is to fall back on the assurance 
that any act directly or indirectly     
injurious to society is an offense1 and 
that those offenders who are            
congenitally unable to distinguish      
between what is generally accepted as   
right and wrong1 or who if recognizing  
this are nevertheless uncontrollably    
impelled toward or are unable to refrain
 from anti-social acts because of some  
inherent condition of intellectual or   
volitional make-up1 may be legitimately 
classed as individuals born with an     
aptitude for crime and social           

transgressions4 ,in such individuals the
 natural mental make-up is lacking in   
some of its necessary elements so that  
memory1 judgment1 or will-power are not 
up to the minimum that is necessary for 
the establishment of proper conduct4 ,in
 some cases1 apparently1 this lack finds
 expression in almost any kind of vice  
or crime into which circumstances happen
 to lead the individual4 ,in others1    
however1 there seem to be tendencies    
toward the commission of certain types  
of crime or vice4 ,certain family       
strains are characterized by petty      
thieving1 others by deeds of violence1  
and still others by sexual offenses4    
,certain types of mental defect are     
closely associated with certain crimes4 
,thus sufferers from incipient paresis  
seem particularly prone to commit       
assaults and larceny2 epileptics1 crimes
 of brutality and violence4  ,the       
,epileptic ,criminal ,especially        
,dangerous4--,one of the characteristics
 of epilepsy1 indeed1 emphasized by     

various psychiatrists1 is that          
frequently it leads to loss of those    
forms of self-restraint which are       
absolutely indispensable to morality and
 the safety of society4 ,cruelty1       
atrocious sexual offenses and other     
vicious crimes are the result4 ,it is a 
noteworthy fact1 moreover1 that often in
 the milder forms of affliction1 where  
instead of well-marked convulsions only 
momentary lapses of consciousness occur1
 the greatest amount of mental and moral
 deterioration and fluctuation is       
sometimes found4  ,the situation as     
regards the epileptic is well presented 
by ,doctor ,william ,healy1 ,director of
 the ,juvenile ,psycopathic ,institute  
of ,chicago1 in an article entitled     
,epilepsy and ,crime2 the ,cost1 in the 
,illinois ,medical ,journal1 ,november1 
#aiab4 ,he says3      ,in the work of   
our institute1#ad which represents the  
most     thoroughgoing research into the
 genetics of criminalism ever           
undertaken in this country1 we have with

 the help of parents and     others     
carefully studied nearly #a1jjj young   
repeated offenders4 ,we     have found  
that no less than #g-a_/b per cent4 of  
these are ordinary     epileptics1 and  
we have reason to suspect others4 ,this 
by no means     represents the total    
number of epileptics seen in connection 
with     juvenile court work1 where1 of 
course1 first offenders as well as      
large numbers of dependents are seen4   
,in addition to my above                
enumeration1 other cases seen by the    
,detention ,home physicians and         
myself amount up to many scores of      
cases4 ,if one remembers that it is     
ordinarily calculated that one person in
 every #ejj is epileptic1 the           
significance of this high criminal      
percentage is clear1 and the            
practical bearing of it is still further
 accentuated by the fact that     some  
of the worst repeaters are epileptics1  
and that many of the     gravest crimes 
are committed by those unfortunates4    

,the connection     between epilepsy and
 crime has everywhere been recognized by
 students     of the subject1 but it    
apparently needs constant emphasis in   
order     that common sense steps may be
 taken toward guardianship of these who 
suffer from a disease which wreaks such 
extravagant vengeance on     society4   
,mental ,disorders ,most ,frequently    
,associated ,with ,crime4--,doctor      
,charles ,mercier1 an ,english authority
 on crime and insanity1 in enumerating  
the mental disorders most frequently    
associated with crime1 places the       
insanity of drunkenness first4 ,any one 
who will take the trouble to verify the 
facts in his own community will find    
that a large percentage1 frequently     
considerably over half1 of the arrests  
made by the police are for acts         
committed while the offender was more or
 less under the influence of alcohol4   
,next to drunkenness among mental       
disorders which lead to crime ,doctor   
,mercier places feeble-mindedness4 ,next

 to feeble-mindedness comes epilepsy2   
then paranoia or systematized delusion2 
next paresis2 and lastly melancholia4   
,paranoics are peculiar in that they are
 particularly apt to attack persons of  
prominence4 ,highly egotistical1 they   
almost invariably believe themselves or 
some one or some cause dear to them1 the
 subject of a plot1 perhaps to rob them1
 to torture them1 to steal their        
inventions or literary productions1 or  
to persecute them in some way4 ,two if  
not three of our murdered presidents owe
 their assassinations to paranoics4     
,many rulers have been attacked and some
 killed by such insane individuals4     
,most of the cranks who write           
threatening letters are lunatics of this
 type4  ,of the kinds of mental         
unsoundness known to be inheritable     
which are of special significance from  
the standpoint of crime and delinquency 
undoubtedly feeble-mindedness ranks     
first4 ,we have already seen that as our
 methods for detecting the higher grades

 of feeble-mindedness become more       
accurate we disclose in border-line     
cases a veritable hot-bed of mental     
incapacity suitable for the engendering 
of the criminal and the vicious4 ,here  
in addition to some of the more         
pronounced criminal types belong hosts  
of our chronic petty offenders1 our     
sexually vicious and our won't-works4   
,one interesting outcome of a recent    
investigation into the army of          
unemployed in ,england was the discovery
 of the general unfitness of these      
unemployed4 ,in our own country the     
habitually unemployed are so not because
 of lack of work1 but largely because it
 is unprofitable to employ them4  ,the  
,bearing of ,immigration on ,crime and  
,delinquency4--,perhaps in no field more
 than this of crime and delinquency1    
especially in so far as it is based on  
innate deficiency1 does the gravity of  
the immigration question impress itself 
on us4 ,how stupendous this problem#ae  
has become may be realized from the fact

 that according to the census of #aiaj1 
#ac1cde1ede1 or one out of seven of the 
inhabitants of the ,united ,states1 were
 foreign born4 ,and if we add to these  
the #ah1hig1hcg of whom one or both     
parents were of foreign birth1 we reach 
the astonishing total of over           
#cb1jjj1jjj1 or more than one-third of  
our total population1 who are foreign   
born1 or who have one or both parents of
 foreign birth4  ,during the decade from
 #aijj to #aiaj1 #h1ejj1jjj foreigners  
came to the ,united ,states1 of whom    
#e1bej1jjj remained to make a permanent 
home4 ,this shows how rapidly our whole 
population might be radically changed4  
,in recent years the source of our      
immigrants has shifted proportionately  
from northwestern ,europe to southern   
and eastern ,europe 7,italy1            
,austria-,hungary and ,russia71 and     
whether for weal or woe this new blood  
must inevitably leave its impress upon  
us4 ,does it not behoove us then to seek
 with anxious eyes some knowledge of    

these invading hordes with whom we are  
to mingle our life-blood8  ,even the    
most superficial examination may well   
cause us grave concern4 ,we find that in
 one year 7#aijh7 at ,ellis ,island     
alone1 #c1gda paupers1 #b1ijj persons   
with contagious disease1 #ahd insane1   
#aba feeble-minded1 #acf criminals1 #abd
 prostitutes and #fe idiots were denied 
entrance1 and yet1 according to the     
estimate of ,doctor ,f4 ,k4 ,sprague1 of
 the ,united ,states ,public ,health    
,service1 probably only about #e per    
cent of the mentally deficient and #be  
per cent4 of those who will become      
insane have been detected4 ,when        
confronted by such data we can begin to 
realize what we are facing4 ,others     
estimate that from #f to #g per cent4 of
 the immigrants who are now arriving are
 feeble-minded4 ,we learn further that  
recently while the foreign-born         
population of ,new ,york state was about
 #cj per cent41 the foreign-born        
population of the insane hospitals of   

the state was over #dc per cent41 and at
 one time approximately #fe per cent4   
for ,new ,york ,city4 ,in one year      
7#aijh7 #hd per cent4 of the patients in
 ,bellevue ,hospital1 ,new ,york ,city1 
were of foreign parentage4 ,paresis1    
which probably always has syphilis as   
its antecedent1 is proportionately twice
 as prevalent among foreigners as among 
natives in ,new ,york ,city4  ,but from 
the standpoint of inheritance1 however  
great the danger may be from            
classifiable defectives1 it is probably 
far greater from that much larger class 
of aliens we are now receiving with open
 arms who are below the mental and      
physical average of their own countries4
 ,moreover1 with our present system of  
inspection there is no way of detecting 
the grades of feeble-mindedness above   
idiocy and imbecility in the great      
numbers of foreign children under five  
when brought in1 who are beginning to   
show up in alarming numbers in the      
schools of some of our larger cities4   

,about thirty per cent4 of the annual   
increment of our population is due to   
immigration and not to births2 and once 
in our country the alien far outbreeds  
the native stock1 with relatively little
 increase in death-rate1 thus making a  
double contribution to the increase of  
population4 ,when we take all these     
facts into consideration it certainly is
 high time that we arouse from our      
self-complacent attitude and consider   
the whole question of immigration most  
earnestly4  ,in spite of the fact that  
many individuals are caught in the net  
of inspection at our portals1 it is     
clear that still more rigid rejection#af
 is imperative4 ,the inspectors at our  
various ports are doing the best they   
can under the circumstances1 but there  
are at present too few of them and they 
are too restricted in their powers to   
meet the situation satisfactorily4      
,moreover1 when at one of our ports in  
one year 7#aiaj71 of #a1dhc immigrants  
certified by the inspecting surgeons as 

unfit to land because of serious mental 
or physical defects1 #a1cgj were landed 
anyway1 it is evident that there is a   
strong and reprehensible pull somewhere 
to evade the obvious intent of the law4 
,it remains for us as a people to decide
 whether we shall continue to let the   
large employers of cheap labor1 the     
railroad and steamship agents and       
brokers1 who care nothing about the     
innate fitness of the immigrants they   
bring1 determine the character of our   
future population1 or whether we shall  
insist on a proper regulation of this   
flood so that we may receive only an    
honest1 intelligent1 industrious and    
healthy stock4 ,to continue to absorb   
these aliens with as little selection as
 we now do is nothing short of criminal 
carelessness4 ,let us not be deceived by
 the promptings of a misguided          
sentiment1 ,the voice is ,jacob's voice1
 but the hands are the hands of ,esau4  
,the voice is ,jacob's voice1 nor should
 this voice of the easily persuaded1 the

 sentimentalist1 the interested         
organization to which the relatives of  
the defective alien belong1 or any other
 pressure move us from our obvious duty 
of refusing to fasten upon this country 
an incubus of degeneracy for which we as
 a nation are in no way responsible4    
,to render us safe we should not only   
have more carefully drawn laws and more 
rigid selection at our ports of entry1  
but we should if possible also know the 
stock from which our future citizens    
come4 ,this is peculiarly desirable for 
such defects as feeble-mindedness and   
various other mental imperfections1 some
 of which require prolonged observation 
for detection4 ,davenport estimates that
 it is wholly within the realm of       
possibility and good business sense to  
maintain a corps of trained inspectors  
abroad in the chief centers from which  
our immigrants come who shall certify   
the desirable applicants4 ,he makes the 
point that the national expense would be
 far less than the cost of maintaining  

the army of defectives we are now       
admitting to our own country1 many of   
whom almost immediately become public   
charges1 to say nothing of the hordes of
 carriers who though normal themselves1 
will transmit undesirable traits4       
,sexual ,vice4--,as to sexual vice1 the 
skein is indeed a tangled one4 ,since   
nine-tenths of the difficulty centers in
 a lack of self-restraint1 and inasmuch 
as the mating instinct is one of the    
strongest that tugs at the flesh of     
humanity1 it is obvious that those by   
nature deficient in volitional control  
will almost without exception give way  
to the call4 ,so as might be expected   
the hordes of our feeble-minded and     
epileptic are always a source of grave  
danger in this respect4 ,however1 the   
mentally enfeebled are by no means the  
only offenders2 indeed1 they are        
probably not the majority4 ,the true    
situation is finally dawning on society 
and the reformer's call for instruction 
in sex-hygiene resounds through the     

land4 ,the whole matter is one of the   
most perplexing and momentous that      
confronts us to-day4  ,the ,question of 
,school ,instruction in                 
,sex-,hygiene4--,while the writer does  
not for an instant underestimate the    
gravity of the situation1 and has only  
contempt for the nonsense that is palmed
 off on children about their origin1 or 
the indelicate self-consciousness which 
puts under the ban the discussion of so 
serious a problem by adults1 still he is
 not convinced that the universal       
teaching of the subject to children in  
schools by the average teacher1 as      
advocated by some1 is to be the solution
 of the matter or is even a wise attempt
 at solution4 ,yet he freely admits that
 he is possibly overfearful of the      
effects of the undesirable features of  
such instruction4 ,true it is that all  
children do learn1 frequently at an     
astonishingly early age1 about sex1 and 
their knowledge is usually of an        
undesirable kind from unreliable and    

often vicious sources1 and it is equally
 true that parents1 either through      
ignorance or prudery1 generally can not 
be depended on to give the child        
necessary instruction4 ,but before      
entering on a wide-spread campaign of   
undiluted sex-instruction in schools    
might it not be more prudent to make an 
attempt toward reaching fathers and     
mothers and convincing them of the      
necessity of dealing more frankly and   
intelligently with their children       
regarding sex8  ,even to the novice in  
psychology the powerful nature of       
suggestion is known1 and with this      
knowledge before us1 is it not wiser to 
strive in the main to keep the child's  
mind off of sex rather than specifically
 to focus it on it by special           
convocations and discourse8 ,if our     
psychology means anything1 then the     
worst possible thing we can do for a    
child is to make him unduly             
sex-conscious4 ,something might be done 
profitably perhaps in schools in an     

unobtrusive way by specially gifted     
persons1 but the self-conscious way in  
which most teachers go about topics of  
sex is certainly not reassuring to the  
thoughtful observer as regards the      
benefit derived from such instruction4  
,the one evident method of accomplishing
 wholesome sex-instruction in schools1  
devoid of all possibility of undesirable
 suggestion and sex-consciousness1 is in
 the form of biological work where      
plants and animals are studied in all   
their relations1 the subject of         
propagation being taken up in as        
matter-of-fact a way as the functioning 
of any other organ system of plants or  
animals4 ,in such a course1 long before 
the subject of sex in higher animals    
need be approached the pupil will have  
developed an attitude of mind which will
 lead him to see nothing unusual or     
suggestive in the function of sex no    
matter where it may be found4           
,incidentally1 inasmuch as the manner in
 which germs affect living organisms    

should be studied in such a course      
anyway1 it would be a simple matter to  
give all necessary information about the
 dangers of infection from venereal     
diseases4  ,mere ,knowledge ,not the    
,crux of the ,sex ,problem4--,however1  
desirable as correct knowledge about sex
 is1 knowledge alone is not the crux of 
the sex problem4 ,the moral dangers and 
abuses that we are trying to circumvent 
lie rather in the realm of the emotions 
than that of the intellect4 ,the problem
 must be solved from a broader          
foundation than mere information4 ,the  
all-important consideration is the early
 establishment of general habits of     
self-control so that these may become   
incorporated in the nervous organization
 of the child and become inhibitory     
anchors against passions and temptation4
 ,children must be taught to suppress   
the present impulse1 to sacrifice the   
immediate pleasure for the more distant 
or permanent good4 ,they must be        
practised in calling up feelings that   

will counteract other promptings which  
if followed blindly are inimical to     
social welfare4 ,their control must come
 from within not as a matter of external
 compulsion4 ,that way character lies4  
,so in viewing the problem of sexual    
hygiene the writer feels that our       
attempts toward damming the torrents in 
the adolescent by a belated effort at   
verbal instruction on sex-hygiene is at 
best only a palliative or an attempt to 
cure the symptoms of a more             
deeply-seated1 organic1 social malady4  
,the treatment should have been in      
progress long before in the form of     
training in self-control1 and in the    
inculcation of the sense of dignity and 
self-respect which springs from the     
individual's consciousness of being1 not
 a slave to his desires1 but his own    
master4 ,this1 together with the        
judicious schooling of boys in a greater
 chivalry and respect for womanhood1 and
 of girls in the necessity of meriting  
such esteem1 will1 in my estimation1    

carry us further than formal courses in 
sex-hygiene4  ,early ,training in       
,self-,restraint an ,important          
,preventive of ,crime and               
,delinquency4--,as to crime and         
delinquency in general1 it is evident   
that the same early training in         
self-restraint is a most important      
factor of prevention4 ,a wise warden in 
charge of a large prison says1 ,most of 
these men are here because they have not
 learned sufficiently the lesson of     
self-control4 ,this is the age of       
preventive medicine1 why not also of    
preventive crime and delinquency8       
,instead of confining our practise to   
punishing offenders1 necessary as this  
may be under the present conditions1 why
 not strive more to prevent the         
commission of offenses8 ,as far as      
normal individuals are concerned much   
can be done by early cultivation in     
self-discipline and through the         
establishment of moral backbone by      
training in the overcoming of           

difficulties4 ,much1 very much1 also    
remains to be done in the correction of 
wrong social conditions4  ,unpardonable 
to ,permit ,delinquent ,defectives to   
,multiply ,their ,kind4--,as for our    
mental defectives and moral imbeciles1  
knowing now how strongly hereditary the 
underlying factors of these conditions  
are1 and with no preventive or curative 
agents in sight1 to let them produce    
progeny1 is clearly unpardonable4       
,,chapter ,x  ,,race ,,betterment       
,,through ,,heredity   ,most of us have 
heard in one form or another the fairy  
story of the youth on adventure bent1   
who was captured by the giant and under 
dire penalty in case of failure was set 
the task of sweeping out the giant's    
stable before sundown4 ,the peculiarity 
of this stable1 it will be recalled1 was
 that1 as fast as the refuse was swept  
out at the door an even greater quantity
 poured in through the windows so that  
the sweeper1 just in proportion to his  
zeal1 became more and more encumbered   

with his burden4  ,a ,questionable ,form
 of ,charity4--,though we smile at the  
childishness of this legend1 are we not 
as a civilized people attempting through
 our charities a feat parallel to that  
of this unfortunate youth8 ,we foster   
and favor our social wastage with the   
inevitable result that it runs riot     
under our sheltering hand and deluges us
 with an ever accumulating flood of its 
like4 ,for are we not constantly        
building more asylums1 sanitaria and    
prisons1 to preserve more unfit1 to     
produce more defectives1 to require     
still greater numbers of asylums1       
sanitaria and prisons1 to preserve more 
unfit1 and so on in unending            
progression8  ,at nearly every period of
 history there have been certain        
individuals who have seen the necessity 
of a state eliminating its supply of    
defectives4  ,past ,protests4--,for     
instance1 we find the importance of this
 strongly urged by ,plato4 ,after       
pointing out the fact that the shepherd1

 in order to maintain the standard of   
his flocks1 bred only from the best     
individuals1 as did likewise the        
huntsman with his dogs and horses1 and  
the fancier with his various pets1      
,plato went on to show the danger to the
 state of allowing the constantly       
increasing body of defectives and       
degenerates to multiply their kind4     
,repeated expression of the same idea   
has occurred from time to time during   
the succeeding centuries4  ,little heed 
was paid to these remonstrances1        
however1 with the result that is known  
to us all4 ,to-day1 the glory that was  
,greece and the grandeur that was ,rome 
is still sung by the poet1 but the      
original nations themselves have long   
since passed into the night4  ,an       
,increasing ,flood of                   
,defectives4--,strive to ignore the     
unpleasant facts as we may1 we have to  
admit that the same problem of what the 
human harvest shall be is with us in    
grave form to-day4 ,the alarming phase  

of the situation1 however1 lies in the  
fact that we are facing an ever         
increasing flood of social wastage4     
,but why this increase of defectives8   
,it can not be attributed to oppression1
 to grinding poverty1 or to decline in  
attention to our sick and needy1 for    
never was prosperity greater1 never were
 charities more flourishing1 never such 
activity in the search for palliatives  
and cures4 ,the simple fact is that we  
are breeding our defectives4 ,the human 
harvest like the grain harvest is based 
fundamentally on heritage4 ,and to get a
 better crop of human beings1 we must1  
as with other crops1 weed out bad       
strains4  ,to whatever source of        
information we turn the facts are       
essentially the same4 ,abroad we find   
that in ,england1 for example1 the ratio
 of defectives to normals more than     
doubled between #agfd and #ahif4 ,at    
home1 from the investigation of         
,davenport and ,weeks we learn that in  
the state of ,new ,jersey the number of 

epileptics doubles every thirty years4  
,and other investigators estimate that  
the fecundity of mental defectives in   
general is about twice as great as that 
of the average of our population4 ,in a 
recent report of the ,new ,york ,state  
,board of ,charities we read1 ,there are
 about thirty thousand feeble-minded    
persons in the state of ,new ,york1 of  
whom four thousand are intermittently   
sequestered while twenty-six thousand   
who are a menace to society are at      
liberty and may produce the unfit4 ,and 
a passage from the last ,massachusetts  
report reads as follows3 ,we have been  
obliged to refuse a very large number of
 applicants for the admission of        
feeble-minded women--many of whom have  
given birth to one or more children4    
,the prolific progeny of these women    
almost without exception are public     
charges from the date of their birth4   
,how fertile defective types may be is  
shown by a passage in one of ,doctor    
,wilmarth's papers which runs as        

follows3 ,one feeble-minded woman1 now  
removed from this state1 had by         
different men eighteen children in      
nineteen years1 she alleges4 ,in a      
letter ,doctor ,wilmarth tells me that  
the birth of the twenty-third child of  
this woman has just been announced6 ,in 
one ,english workhouse ,potts reports   
sixteen feeble-minded women who have    
produced one hundred sixteen mentally   
defective children1 and ,branthwaite    
ninety-two female habitual drunkards who
 have had eight hundred fifty babies4   
,if we include the two million          
individuals cared for annually in       
various institutional homes1 hospitals  
and dispensaries as dependents1 the     
estimated total of insane1              
feeble-minded1 epileptic1 deaf and dumb1
 criminals1 juvenile delinquents1       
paupers and other dependents in the     
,united ,states in #aiaj was            
approximately three million1 or one in  
every thirty of our population6 ,with   
the higher fertility of certain of these

 classes and with only a small          
percentage under custodial care where   
will it all end8 ,is it not time for us 
to waken from our lethargy and stem this
 tide of national deterioration8        
,natural ,elimination of ,defectives    
,done ,away ,with4--,with our improved  
methods of sanitation and care of the   
sick1 the pauper and the defective1     
these classes have been freed from the  
stress of an environment that under     
natural conditions would have resulted  
in their premature death and consequent 
infertility4 ,or in the terminology of  
the biologist1 we have done away with   
the factor of natural selection1 the    
factor which in state of nature keeps   
all races purged of the unfit1 the      
ill-adapted4 ,with this restraining1 and
 purifying influence removed1 however1  
the weakling1 the defective1 may arrive 
at maturity and commingle his blood with
 that of the strong1 with the inevitable
 result that the general vigor of the   
progeny from generation to generation is

 sapped and progressively undermined4   
,thus we are confronted by the stubborn 
fact that through present humanitarian  
methods we are driving the race toward  
decadence4  ,why ,not ,prevent ,our     
,social ,maladies8--,now there is no    
reasonable person1 ,i think1 who will   
not admit that the motives underlying   
our modern altruistic practises are the 
noblest fruitage of our slow upward     
struggle from the brute to man4 ,as     
humane beings1 we can not cast aside    
these principles and return to the      
painful and pitiless method of nature   
which would leave the sick and the      
defective alone to perish miserably2 the
 sacrifice would be too great4  ,is     
there then no escape from this dilemma8 
,to this query the modern student of    
heredity answers yes2 let us but add    
more wisdom to our charity and the      
enigma is solved4 ,we need no sacrifice 
of pity but rather an expansion of it4  
,let us but extend our vision from      
immediate suffering to the prospective  

suffering of the countless unborn       
descendants of our present unfit and ask
 ourselves the question1 why should they
 be born8 ,why not prevent our social   
maladies instead of waiting to cure     
them8 ,this is the province of eugenics4
  ,eugenics ,defined4--,the term        
,eugenics was coined in #ahhc by        
,francis ,galton in his book entitled   
,inquiries ,into ,human ,faculties1 and 
we may therefore look to him for a      
satisfactory definition4 ,he says1      
,eugenics is the study of the agencies  
under social control1 that may improve  
or impair the racial qualities of future
 generations1 either physically or      
mentally4 ,and again1 ,i take ,eugenics 
very seriously1 feeling that its        
principles ought to become one of the   
dominant motives in a civilized nation1 
much as if they were one of its         
religious tenets4444 ,man is gifted with
 pity and other kindly feelings1 but he 
also has the power of preventing many   
kinds of suffering4 ,i conceive it to   

fall well within his province to replace
 natural selection by other processes   
that are more merciful and not less     
effective4 ,this is precisely the aim of
 ,eugenics4 ,its first object is to     
check the birth-rate of the unfit       
instead of allowing them to come into   
being1 though doomed in large numbers to
 perish prematurely4 ,the second object 
is the improvement of the race by       
furthering the productivity of the fit1 
by early marriages and the healthful    
rearing of their children4  ,improved   
,environment ,alone ,will ,not ,cure    
,racial ,degeneracy4--,while many an    
enthusiastic humanitarian is laboring   
under the assumption that if we can     
improve external conditions human       
deficiencies will disappear1 the student
 of heredity realizes that this is in   
large part a delusion unless we can     
secure an accompanying improvement in   
intrinsic qualities of the human species
 itself through the suitable mating of  
individuals4 ,just as the intelligent   

farmer to-day demands selected seed as  
well as good soil and proper            
cultivation1 so one with the facts of   
heredity at hand would1 as he views     
social problems1 urge the fundamental   
importance of having selected stock with
 which to start4 ,no shifts or shapings 
of environment will ever enable men to  
gather grapes of thorns or figs of      
thistles4  ,heredity and                
,environment4--,to wrangle over the     
question of which is the more important1
 heredity or environment1 is about as   
idle a proceeding as to argue which is  
the more important1 the stomach or      
something to put in the stomach4 ,man   
would soon come to grief without either4
 ,so1 too1 the question of human        
development is not one of heredity alone
 nor of environment alone2 both are     
necessary and must work hand in hand4   
,dormant capacities must have proper    
environment to call them forth1 but on  
the other hand no kind of environment   
can evoke responses if some degree of   

aptitude is not present4  ,professor    
,thorndike undertook experiments with   
groups of school children of high and of
 low initial ability respectively to    
determine whether equal opportunity or  
equal special training would produce an 
equalizing effect in easily alterable   
traits such as rapidity in addition and 
the like4 ,without exception he found   
that at the end of such experiments1    
although both groups had improved1 the  
superior individuals were farther ahead 
than ever1 that equality of opportunity 
and training had widened rather than    
narrowed the gap between the two        
classes4 ,others who have made special  
studies on the causes of individual     
differences have come to the same       
conclusion2 namely1 that individuals    
differ widely by original nature and    
that similarity in conditions of nurture
 and training will not avail in deleting
 these differences4  ,galton and others1
 from extensive studies based on        
,english sources1 have shown that       

notable achievements have run in certain
 families to a degree that is           
inexplicable on the basis of opportunity
 alone2 it can be fully accounted for   
only by attributing much to superior    
inborn capacity4 ,doctor ,woods has     
shown much the same thing for certain   
families in ,america4 ,schuster and     
,elderton have proved that there is a   
high degree of similarity in scholastic 
standing between fathers and sons in    
,oxford4 ,professor ,pearson's          
measurements of mental characters in    
brothers and sisters while at school    
show a high degree of innate resemblance
 in many cases and certain cases of     
decided contrast4 ,where contrasts exist
 in certain families they remain        
unreduced in spite of the similarity of 
environment1 thus proving that          
environment is less operative in the    
final intellectual establishment of such
 individuals than are their inborn      
aptitudes4 ,even in twins1 as both      
,galton and ,thorndike have shown1 there

 is no tendency for similar education1  
home life and the like to render those  
originally different any more similar   
with advancing years4  ,professor ,karl 
,pearson has done more perhaps than any 
other individual toward attempting      
actually to measure the relative        
strength of heredity and environment4   
,numerous statistical measurements lead 
him to conclude that it is a            
conservative estimate to regard heredity
 as at least five or ten times as       
important as environment in the         
development of the individual4 ,a       
vigorous defense by him of this position
 will be found in ,biometrika for       
,april1 #aiad4  ,inter-,racial          
,marriage4--,some of the dangers of     
racial deterioration which threaten us  
because of our laxity regarding         
immigration have already been indicated4
 ,it is high time that we give this     
whole question the most serious         
consideration of which we are capable4  
,from the rate at which immigrants are  

increasing it is obvious that our very  
life-blood is at stake4 ,for our own    
protection we must face the question of 
what types or races should be ruled out4
 ,aside from the dangers which lie in   
the defective or unsuccessful types     
already discussed in ,chapter ,,ix1 many
 students of heredity feel that there is
 great hazard in the mongrelizing of    
distinctly unrelated races no matter how
 superior the original strains may be4  
,unfortunately there is a great lack of 
reliable data on this point4 ,the       
mulatto of our own country1 the         
,eurasians in ,india and the mixed races
 of ,south ,america are1 according to   
the testimony of many observers1        
eloquent arguments against such         
hybridization4 ,agassiz remarked on this
 point as follows3      ,let any one who
 doubts the evil of the mixture of races
 and who is     inclined from mistaken  
philanthropy to break down all barriers 
between     them come to ,brazil4 ,he   
can not deny the deterioration          

consequent upon     the amalgamation of 
races1 more wide-spread here than in any
 other     country in the world1 and    
which is rapidly effacing the best      
qualities     of the white man1 the     
,indian1 and the negro1 leaving a       
mongrel     nondescript type deficient  
in physical and mental energy4  ,of the 
,american mulatto one not infrequently  
meets with the assertion that he is on  
the average inferior mentally1 morally  
and physically to either the white or   
the negro race4 ,thus ,doctor ,j4 ,b4   
,taylor#ag states that1 ,it is          
demonstrated by well-attested facts that
 these hybrids of black and white are   
vastly more susceptible to certain      
infections2 their moral as well as      
physical stamina is lower than that of  
either original race4 ,others would deny
 that conclusive evidence to this effect
 exists4 ,however1 it is certain that   
under existing social conditions in our 
own country only the most worthless and 
vicious of the white race will tend in  

any considerable numbers to mate with   
the negro and the result can not but    
mean deterioration on the whole for     
either race4  ,there is certainly not   
one iota of evidence that the crossing  
of any two widely different human races 
will yield superior offspring in any    
respect and there are many indications  
that such intermixture lowers the       
average of the population4 ,our evidence
 derived from plant and animal breeding 
is also against pronounced crosses4 ,the
 inferiority of the mongrel is          
universally recognized4 ,no sane farmer1
 for example1 would seek to improve his 
,jerseys or his ,herefords by crossing  
one with the other4 ,it is true that in 
pure breeds of plants and animals we    
sometimes venture on a cross to         
introduce some new desirable character  
but we follow up such mixture by a rigid
 selection in which is eliminated all   
but the rare individuals having the     
desired characteristics1 and we continue
 this elimination generation after      

generation to fix our characters again4 
,it is obvious that no such selection as
 this would be possible among the       
progeny of human crosses4  ,it clearly  
becomes our duty then to determine as   
accurately as possible the degree of    
non-relationship between races it is    
inadvisable to transcend in inter-racial
 marriages4 ,we are certainly taking    
great risks in accepting in any         
considerable numbers those races we can 
not assimilate to advantage into our own
 stock4  ,war4--,the deteriorating      
effect of war on national physique and  
vigor has been so frequently cited by   
eugenists#ah and is so obvious as       
scarcely to require further comment4 ,it
 should be pointed out1 however1 that   
where1 as is the case at present in     
,great ,britain1 armies are assembled   
from volunteers1 instead of by          
conscription1 there is the greatest     
danger from the eugenic standpoint1     
since not only physical but moral       
qualities are involved4 ,for it is the  

brave1 the generous1 the individual with
 a high sense of duty who goes forward  
to the slaughter leaving the cowardly1  
the selfish or the indifferent to father
 the race4 ,with the awful deadliness of
 modern warfare upon exhibition before  
our very eyes to-day1 the extreme       
seriousness of such selective action    
must be evident to every thoughtful     
person4  ,human ,conservation4--,we talk
 much in recent years of conservation2  
but what are our forests and frontiers1 
our minerals and our waterways1 compared
 with our national health and           
life-blood8 ,no farmer would think of   
setting aside a diseased or physically  
defective animal for breeding purposes1 
yet the same man together with the      
majority of mankind is wholly oblivious 
to similar faults when it comes to the  
mating of human beings4 ,but is it not  
as important to look to fitness in man  
as in ,poland ,china hogs or ,holstein  
cows8 ,certainly the various strains are
 as marked and breed as true in the     

human family as in our live stock4 ,why 
face complacently in our own families   
what we would not tolerate in our       
piggery8  ,from the expenditure of      
comparatively small sums in studying the
 inheritance of various qualities in    
wheat1 corn and other grain1            
improvements based on the laws of       
genetics have been secured which are    
enormously increasing our agricultural  
output and thereby adding to our        
national wealth4 ,but if it costs       
relatively little to discover and       
conserve millions of dollars' worth of  
hereditary qualities in our plants and  
animals1 what are we to think of        
ourselves1 an intelligent people who1   
knowing that every good tree bringeth   
forth good fruit1 but a corrupt tree    
bringeth forth evil fruit1 still go on  
placidly permitting the production of   
defectives and delinquents8 ,can we     
continue to drink the sluggish blood of 
the pauper and the imbecile into our    
veins and hope to escape unscathed8  ,we

 are all familiar with the fate of      
,babylon1 ,assyria1 ,persia1 ,egypt and 
,rome4 ,why not ,america8 ,certainly we 
have no pledge of special immunity from 
,divine ,powers4 ,if so1 what then is   
the meaning of our #cff hospitals for   
insane which cost us annually           
#ba1jjj1jjj2 our #fc institutions for   
feeble-minded costing us over           
#e1jjj1jjj2 our #a1cjj prisons          
maintained at a cost of more than       
#ac1jjj1jjj2 our #a1ejj hospitals whose 
annual maintenance requires at least    
#cj1jjj1jjj2 our #aae schools or homes  
for deaf and dumb2 our #b1ejj almshouses
 with an annual expense account of      
#bj1jjj1jjj and our #a1bjj refuge homes 
costing annually several millions of    
dollars more8 ,to say that we spend     
annually over #ajj1jjj1jjj on the       
custody of insane1 feeble-minded1       
paupers1 epileptics1 deaf1 blind and    
other charges is expressing the         
situation very conservatively4          
,kindness in the ,long ,run4--,there is 

no one ,i think who will not admit that 
the sympathy and charity of the human   
heart are its noblest virtues4 ,but we  
must face the problem of what is        
kindness in the long run4 ,havelock     
,ellis well says1 ,the superficially    
sympathetic man flings a coin to the    
beggar2 the more deeply sympathetic man 
builds an almshouse for him so that he  
need no longer beg2 but perhaps the most
 radically sympathetic of all is the man
 who arranges that the beggar shall not 
be born4  ,what shall we do8  ,the      
,problem ,has ,two ,phases4--,for an    
intelligent consideration of the problem
 one must recognize at the outset that  
it has two distinct phases2 namely1 7#a7
 a selective union of the fittest1 or in
 other words1 a conscious attempt to    
breed a superior race2 and 7#b7 the     
elimination of the obviously unfit by   
preventing their reproduction1 with the 
purpose of purifying the present race4  
,it is evident at a glance that these   
are two essentially distinct problems   

although the practise of either method  
could result in racial improvement4 ,the
 first is sometimes spoken of as        
positive or constructive eugenics1 the  
second as negative or restrictive       
eugenics4  ,constructive ,eugenics ,must
 ,be ,based on ,education4--,as to the  
first phase1 direct selection for       
superiority1 the campaign must1 in the  
very nature of things1 be one of        
education4 ,with the necessary knowledge
 of the facts in mind1 the awakening    
conscience of the individual together   
with an enlightened public opinion will 
form the safest guide4 ,increasing      
popular comprehension of the inevitable 
nature of human inheritance must        
engender a sense of responsibility as to
 the positive eugenic fitness of a      
contemplated marriage4 ,the growth of   
this sentiment will doubtless be slow1  
and properly so1 for as yet we have but 
half-lights on what are the most        
desirable types of humanity4 ,no one can
 say what the highest type of man should

 be1 but almost any one can readily pick
 out types which certainly should not   
be4  ,inferior ,increasing ,more        
,rapidly ,than ,superior                
,stocks4--,modern eugenists1 although   
realizing that the constructive phase is
 of great importance1 are making no     
attempt to map out any fixed mode of    
procedure for it beyond pointing out the
 desirability of larger families among  
the better classes4 ,the need for       
individuals of superior physical1 mental
 and moral qualities to multiply is so  
obvious as scarcely to require comment4 
,yet the fact is that judging from all  
appearances these are the very ones who 
have the lowest birth-rate4 ,eugenics is
 mainly concerned with the relative     
rates of increase of the various        
classes1 not with mere fertility in     
itself4 ,and the actual increase must be
 measured in terms of the extent to     
which birth-rate exceeds death-rate4 ,if
 a high birth-rate is accompanied by a  
high death-rate then it is not          

especially significant in increasing a  
given class as a whole4 ,all available  
evidence points to the fact that to-day 
the lower strata of society are far     
outbreeding the middle and higher1 with 
an almost negligible difference in      
death-rate1 and just in the measure that
 these lower strata are innately        
inferior just in that degree must the   
race deteriorate4 ,the seriousness of   
the whole situation as it exists to-day 
hinges1 therefore1 on the extent to     
which the lower strata are inferior to  
those above them4  ,an ,unselected      
,population ,may ,contain ,much         
,valuable ,material4--,in evaluating    
these lower strata a matter of very     
great importance is whether the         
population is a selected or an          
unselected one4 ,if the population has  
been long resident in a given region and
 has had fairly good opportunity for    
education then we will find in the lower
 reaches a larger percentage of         
sedimentation made up of the worthless  

and inferior stocks4 ,if1 however1 a    
continual fomentation and geographical  
shifting of the population is in        
progress as in parts of ,america1 or if 
adequate educational opportunities are  
lacking1 as in some parts of ,russia1   
the poor and less well-to-do classes may
 contain1 no one can tell how much1     
relatively valuable stock4  ,forel      
remarks on this point as follows3       
,if we compare the nature of            
delinquents1 abandoned children1        
vagabonds1 etc41 in a country where     
little or nothing has been done     for 
the people 7,russia1 ,galicia1 ,vienna1 
etc471 with that of the same            
individuals in ,switzerland1 for        
example1 where much has already been    
done for the poor1 we find this result3 
,in ,switzerland1 these     individuals 
are nearly all tainted with alcoholism1 
or pathological     heredity2 they      
consist of alcoholics1 incorrigibles1   
and congenital     decadents1 and       
education can do little for them because

 nearly all     those who have a better 
hereditary foundation have been able to 
earn     their living by honest work4   
,in ,russia1 ,galicia1 and even in      
,vienna1     we are1 on the contrary1   
astonished to see how many honest       
natures     there are among the         
disinherited when they are provided with
 work and     education4  ,the ,lack of 
,criteria for ,judging                  
,fitness4--,barring the untold hordes of
 actual defectives who have gravitated  
into this lower stratum1 there are few  
positive criteria by which we can       
measure the real fitness of the         
remainder4 ,before we can set out on a  
campaign of positive eugenics we must   
have some standard by which to steer1   
and it would be a rash advocate indeed  
who would assert that class distinction 
alone1 or even success as measured by   
public opinion to-day should be our     
whole criterion of fitness4 ,shall we   
measure fitness in terms of how         
successfully one can acquire worldly    

goods1 or in other words1 by the        
property test1 or what shall be our     
standard8  ,the ,college                
,graduate4--,many of our modern         
critiques of the birth-rate situation   
make much of the fact that our college  
graduates as a group are scarcely       
reproducing themselves4 ,according to   
,davenport1 ,bryn ,mawr ,college between
 #ahhh and #aiac has graduated #a1aic   
bachelors of arts1 but these women have 
produced up to ,january1 #aiac1 only    
#bfc girls to take their place in the   
next generation4 ,he also points out    
that statistics on some of the graduate 
classes of ,harvard of twenty years ago 
or earlier show that they are little    
more than maintaining themselves2 thus  
one class of #cbh graduates twenty years
 later had produced #aie sons1 and in   
another case a class of #bgh individuals
 had produced1 twenty-five years later1 
#ada sons4 ,relatively similar          
statistics can be cited for other       
eastern colleges4  ,all such cases of   

college graduates cited as especially   
deplorable declines in birth-rate are   
based on the assumption that these      
individuals are a particularly superior 
stock4#ai ,but one might question this  
premise as a generalization4 ,it may or 
may not be true4 ,are they superior or  
have they had mainly a combination of   
luck and incentive1 luck in that their  
parents had sufficient means1 acquired  
possibly through their own superiority1 
possibly not1 to send them to college1  
and incentive derived from a fortunate  
environment which awakened a desire in  
them--or in their parents for them--for 
college education8 ,is the woolly-witted
 son of opulence1 so abundant in our    
colleges to-day1 who is boosted through 
by hook or by crook1 of superior        
eugenical value to the alert eager      
boy--and his name is legion--destined   
for economic reasons to go to work at or
 before the completion of his           
high-school course1 perhaps because of  
the very fact of an unlimited fecundity 

in his own family which necessitates his
 help for the general support8  ,when   
one first learns of the declining       
birth-rate among college women and men  
he feels appalled1 but immediately the  
question flashes up1 if this is the     
superior stock1 and up to date it has   
died out or is dying out rapidly1 whence
 then this ever augmenting rush of young
 folk who fairly deluge our universities
 and colleges to-day8 ,does it not      
rather point to the fact that in our own
 country at least1 the man who will and 
can take a college education            
successfully is not so much the product 
of breeding from college men1 but of a  
prosperity which leaves a sufficient    
surplus in the family exchequer to      
enable sons and daughters to go to      
college1 and is it not reasonable to    
suppose that there is yet an abundant   
stock back of these who similarly await 
but the golden touch of opportunity8    
,when we consider such men as ,carlyle1 
,lincoln and a host of others who were  

not the sons of collegians1 although we 
may be university pedigreed ourselves we
 can not but feel doubtful of the       
validity of a premise which takes a     
college stock unqualifiedly as having   
any considerable monopoly of innate     
superiority4 ,after all1 college can    
mean little more than opportunity1 and  
the obtaining of such opportunity in    
this world of economic maladjustments   
and accidents of social position is too 
largely a matter of chance1 at least in 
,america1 to stamp the possessors of    
these advantages1 on this criterion     
alone1 as of inborn superiority4        
,undoubtedly much that is intrinsically 
good now slumbers in the lower strata of
 society because of lack of favorable   
environment to call forth the latent    
possibilities4  ,native ,ability1       
,independence and ,energy ,eugenically  
,desirable4--,although we can not sift  
out with certainty the superior from the
 inferior in our normal population by   
the property test or the educational    

standard alone1 it is undoubtedly true  
that1 on the whole1 native ability1     
independence and energy are present to a
 higher degree in our well-to-do and    
prosperous families than in the stocks  
which merely hold their own or which    
gradually decline1 and there is no      
gainsaying the fact that in so far as   
the lower classes are where they are    
through actual deficiency--and there are
 enormous numbers in this category--they
 threaten our very existence as a race4 
,it is imperative that the great middle 
class in particular establish in some   
way a selective birth-rate1 by increased
 fertility on their own part1 and       
diminished fecundity on the part of     
inferior stocks1 which will offset or   
more than offset the disproportionate   
increase of the socially unfit4  ,four  
,children to ,each ,marriage ,required  
to ,maintain a ,stock4--,it is estimated
 that under present conditions an       
average of at least four children should
 be born to each marriage if a stock is 

to maintain its numbers undiminished4   
,some of our most valuable strains are  
falling far short of this average4 ,in a
 statistical table on the relative      
fertility of different stocks1 prepared 
by ,pearson1 we find the mentally       
defective1 criminal1 deaf-mute and      
degenerate stocks heading the list with 
averages ranging from five to seven     
children per family1 while the ,american
 graduate 7based on ,harvard statistics7
 and the ,english intellectual types    
average less than two children per      
marriage4 ,while the death-rate is      
higher in the undesirable classes       
mentioned1 it is by no means enough     
higher to compensate for the difference 
in birth-rates4 ,thus while certain very
 desirable types are not maintaining    
themselves genetically1 other extremely 
undesirable ones are rapidly more than  
replacing themselves4 ,investigations   
made by ,heron in ,london show that this
 condition as regards ,english          
desirables did not exist sixty years    

ago2 then the richer a community was in 
professional men and well-to-do         
families1 the higher was the birth-rate4
  ,factors ,contributing to ,low        
,birth-,rate in ,desirable              
,strains4--,most students of the subject
 believe that the fecundity of much of  
the best blood in our country has       
reached such a low ebb as to threaten   
the whole fabric of our commonwealth4   
,how to correct this is the pressing    
problem to which no one has found a     
solution4 ,however much one may deplore 
it the fact remains that always in the  
history of the civilized world with the 
rise of material conditions in any class
 of a population there has come an      
accompanying limitation of child-birth4 
,explain this as we may in modern       
times--whether as an awakened           
individualism which looks only to the   
immediate interest of the individual as 
against the ultimate interest of the    
race1 or a desire for luxuries or for a 
better opportunity for smaller numbers  

of children1 or as a determined effort  
of the wage earner to better his        
conditions1 or to the feminist movement 
with its accompaniment of a greater     
personal freedom of married women and   
the recognition of the fact that        
marriage and child-bearing are often    
bars to employment1 or to general       
increasing pressure of economic         
burdens--in brief whatever the cause or 
causes1 there is no denying the fact of 
a diminishing birth-rate among our abler
 men and women4 ,moreover1 no amount of 
coaxing1 cajoling or dire prophecy seems
 to avail in altering the conditions4   
,various partial remedies1 many of them 
of questionable practicability1 have    
been proposed1 but so far there has been
 no far-reaching effort made to put any 
of them into effect4 ,it has been       
suggested that society return to the    
simple life so that our young folk may  
marry earlier and live more easily on   
limited means1 but so far few volunteers
 have appeared to lead the procession4  

,while there is no doubt that present   
economic conditions tend to penalize    
parenthood1 the simple life will not    
return for the mere asking4 ,it has been
 pointed out that the father is in      
unfair competition with the bachelor and
 is also unfairly taxed in comparison1  
and some would therefore tax unmarried  
men more heavily4 ,others would pay a   
direct bounty on reproduction1 but it is
 probable that such rewards would merely
 stimulate families of the lower types  
to increased fruitfulness4 ,and so one  
panacea after another may be weighed and
 found wanting4  ,the ,educated ,public 
,must ,be ,made to ,realize the         
,situation4--,it seems probable that the
 most success will be met with through  
the slow and unspectacular methods of   
education4 ,the necessity of the        
situation must be driven home so that it
 becomes part and parcel of the         
collective intelligence of the educated 
public4 ,different ideals of life will  
have to be established in the young4 ,if

 knowledge of the facts of heredity is  
thoroughly disseminated among the people
 and ideals regarding parenthood are    
fostered1 then much will have been      
accomplished by the psychic power of    
suggestion alone toward the end desired4
  ,utilization of ,family ,pride as a   
,basis for ,constructive                
,eugenics4--,there are few more powerful
 incentives to make the best of one's   
abilities1 or few greater deterrents    
from vice than family pride2 and there  
is no reason why this same sentiment may
 not be aroused in behalf of unborn     
generations4 ,the sentiment of caste or 
aristocracy in some form is well nigh   
universal in mankind4 ,the family of    
,mr4 ,a came over in the ,mayflower and 
is therefore worlds above the family of 
,mr4 ,b1 who arrived fifty years later4 
,mr4 ,x's income is #e1jjj a year1 ,mr4 
,y's only #a1ejj4 ,the poor family in   
the front suite of the tenement regards 
itself as far superior to the one in the
 rear4 ,among criminals the professional

 house-breaker feels himself to be of   
higher caste than the sneak-thief1 and  
in turn is surpassed by the             
bank-burglar4 ,even in the insane asylum
 the feeling is rampant4 ,with such a   
wide-spread tendency for a foundation   
the creation of a sentiment of eugenic  
aristocracy is by no means a visionary  
undertaking4  ,the ,tendency for ,like  
to ,marry ,like4--,even now there is a  
decided though unconscious tendency for 
like to marry like and thus create      
particular strains4 ,we have lines1 for 
instance1 which produce notably families
 of scholars1 others which yield mainly 
statesmen1 and still other strains of   
inventors1 of financiers1 of naval men1 
of soldiers1 and of actors respectively4
 ,and there is little doubt that people1
 with the facts of inheritance of       
ability once before them1 will be led to
 act more or less in accordance with    
their knowledge4 ,on the other hand1 due
 apparently to the same unconscious     
tendency for like to marry like1 we find

 produced criminalistic1 feeble-minded1 
deaf-mute and tubercular stocks4 ,the   
first type of family is often termed    
aristogenic and the second or defective 
type1 cacogenic4  ,public ,opinion as an
 ,incentive to ,action4--,much of our   
social conduct is the result of the     
pressure of public opinion1 yet so      
accustomed are we to this that we       
ordinarily do not feel it as a hardship4
 ,there is little doubt that similarly  
the more wholesome attitude toward      
parenthood advocated by the eugenist    
would be taken as a matter of course1   
once the idea became prevalent4 ,it     
would come to be one of those socially  
preconceived ideas which are as much    
actualities and which become unconscious
 guides to action no less certainly than
 do the more obvious personal habits of 
the individual4 ,and just in the degree 
that we as a race get the feeling that  
intellect1 morals and skill are highly  
desirable attributes in marriage        
selection1 just in that degree will     

one's affections in their earlier stages
 gravitate toward individuals who       
possess such qualities in high degree4  
,in the main1 those stocks which have   
shown by ancestral as well as personal  
achievement their superiority will tend 
to insure most certainly a continuation 
of this superiority in offspring4       
,choosing a ,marriage ,mate ,means      
,choosing a ,parent4--,although         
marriages1 as all young folks know1 are 
made in ,heaven1 it is interesting to   
see what a vast number of these         
foreordained matches coincide with      
propinquity in college1 in church1 or in
 the same social set4 ,moreover1        
children are born here on earth4 ,the   
one thing of all things that the        
eugenist desires is for these young folk
 to get a clear-eyed vision of the fact 
that in choosing a marriage mate they   
are also choosing the future father or  
mother of their children with all that  
this implies4  ,the ,best ,eugenic      
,marriage ,also a ,love ,match4--,a few 

recent writers1 who show an utter       
misconception of what the aim of modern 
eugenics is1 have raised the cry of give
 us the old-fashioned love match instead
 of the eugenic marriage1 as if the     
eugenist's ideal of moral cleanliness1  
freedom from transmissible physical     
taints or mental enfeeblement1 and an   
attitude of special approval toward     
marriages which bring together          
individuals of more than average mental 
or spiritual endowment1 had anything in 
it that was inimical to love4 ,no one   
better than he realizes the sordid      
depths to which marital relations devoid
 of mutual affection and regard must    
reach4 ,certainly there is nothing in   
the eugenic ideal when its full import  
is understood that can shock the        
sensibilities of the most               
delicate-minded4 ,indeed it is people of
 fine susceptibilities who will be the  
first to feel repugnance toward a       
marriage which means mental or physical 
deterioration of their own blood4  ,good

 ,traits ,no ,less ,than ,bad ,ones     
,inherited4--,an inspection of such     
charts as those shown in ,figs4 #cg1 #ch
 and #ci1 pp4 #cac1 #cad1 #caf--;and an 
abundance of such encouraging records   
may now be found--reassures us in our   
convictions that good traits are no less
 inheritable than bad ones4 ,and what   
any healthy1 mentally well-endowed      
person may be depriving the world of if 
he or she declines to enter into a      
fruitful marriage can not be better     
exemplified than in the following       
excerpt from ,davenport3      ,many a   
man at the opening of his life work     
vows1 as ,judge ,john ,lowell     of the
 middle of the eighteenth century did1  
as he was being graduated     from      
,harvard ,college1 that he will never   
marry4 ,but nature was too     strong   
for ,john ,lowell and he married three  
times1 and among his     descendants was
 the director of a great astronomical   
observatory1 the     president of       
,harvard ,college1 a principal founder  

and promoter of the     ,massachusetts  
,general ,hospital and the ,boston      
,atheneum2 the founder of     the city  
of ,lowell and its cotton mills2 the    
founder of the ,lowell     ,institute at
 ,boston2 the beloved ,general ,charles 
,russell ,lowell and     his brother1   
,james1 both of whom fell in the ,civil 
,war1 and ,james     ,russell ,lowell1  
poet1 professor and ambassador2 besides 
brilliant     lawyers and men entrusted 
with large interests as executors of    
estates4 ,do you think ,john ,lowell    
would have taken that vow could he      
have foreseen the future8               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg  ,pedigree of 
family with artistic 7dark upper        
section71 literary 7dark right section7 
and musical 7dark left section7 ability 
7from ,davenport74   ,the ,elimination  
of the ,grossly ,unfit ,urgent4--,but   
even if1 under present conditions of    
partial knowledge and lack of an        
adequate standard1 the constructive     
phase of eugenics must be left in the   

main to the awakening conscience of the 
individual as humanity improves in      
general enlightenment1 the second phase1
 the elimination of the grossly unfit is
 one of the greatest social obligations 
that confronts us to-day4 ,for if there 
is an alarming amount of mental         
impairment in civilized nations1 and if 
the problems of pauperism1 inebriety1   
prostitution and criminality are closely
 interwoven with the problems of mental 
unsoundness1 as we have every reason to 
believe from available data1 then any   
means which will operate toward securing
 normally functioning brains will at the
 same time operate toward diminishing1  
defects and delinquencies4 ,and inasmuch
 as a considerable proportion of        
defects1 both mental and physical1 are  
inheritable1 it is obvious that if we   
can diminish the number of children born
 into the world with defective brains or
 bodies we have made a long stride in   
the right direction4   ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #ch  ,inheritance of ability     

7from ,kellicott after ,whetham74       
,suggested ,remedies4--,but how go about
 it8 ,various schemes have been         
proposed1 of which the chief are as     
follows3      #a4 ,laws restricting     
marriage4      #b4 ,systems of mating   
with the purpose of covering up and     
gradually     diluting out defective    
traits4      #c4 ,segregation during the
 reproductive period4      #d4          
,sterilization4      #e4 ,education in  
the principles of eugenics4  ,inefficacy
 of ,laws ,which ,forbid ,marriage of   
,mental ,defectives4--,the utter        
inefficacy of the first proposition1    
namely the enactment of laws restricting
 marriage1 at least as regards the      
socially unfit whose condition is based 
on impaired mentality1 has been         
demonstrated time and again4 ,if they   
are forbidden marriage1 they merely have
 children without getting married4 ,most
 states have laws to prevent the        
marriage of such individuals but these  
laws are almost wholly ineffective in   

preventing procreation on their part4   
,we might as well recognize once for all
 that in such cases nothing short of    
close custodial care or sterilization   
will accomplish the end desired4  ,as to
 the second proposition1 systems of     
mating with the purpose of covering up  
and gradually diluting out defective    
traits1 this has been shown to be       
possible with certain types of          
defectives4 ,whether it is desirable or 
not is a different question4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci  ,inheritance 
of ability 7chart condensed and         
incomplete7 in three markedly able      
families 7from ,kellicott after         
,whetham73  #a1 ,charles ,darwin2 #b1   
his cousin1 ,francis ,galton1 founder of
 the modern eugenic movement4   ,systems
 of ,mating ,impracticable in the       
,main4--,by systems of mating1 it should
 be said1 is not meant the arbitrary    
marrying of two individuals willy-nilly1
 but rather it is the prevention from   
marriage of two individuals having      

similar defects4 ,in general the facts  
at our command indicate that in the     
majority of cases the offspring from a  
marriage of an insane1 feeble-minded or 
epileptic person with a normal          
individual free from all neuropathic    
taints are normal or at most show but   
slight effects of the taint4 ,but what  
normal individual would knowingly marry 
into such a stock8 ,with few exceptions 
such traits where inheritable are       
apparently negative1 that is1 not       
represented by some positive abnormal   
factor but due to the lack of some      
element or elements necessary to the    
proper working of the normal brain4 ,in 
the offspring of such a union the       
necessary missing factors are supplied  
by the normal parent4 ,or in ,mendelian 
phraseology1 the defective traits are   
recessive and are dominated by the      
normality of the other parent4 ,such    
offspring1 however1 while apparently    
normal of body are not normal of        
germ-plasm1 inasmuch as half of their   

germ-cells will carry the abnormality of
 the defective parent as earlier        
explained 7page #aai7 under ,mendelism4 
,we have already seen 7page #aai7 how by
 continually marrying into strong       
strains the liability to recessive      
defect can be diluted out until the     
descendants are no more likely to have  
defective children than are members of  
our ordinary population4 ,if1 however1  
as is estimated in ,bulletin ,no4 #e of 
the ,eugenics ,record ,office1 about    
thirty per cent4 of our general         
population already carry recessive      
neuropathic taints1 it certainly is a   
hazardous proceeding to attempt thus to 
breed out nervous defects unless one is 
absolutely sure of the normality of the 
strain into which it is proposed to     
marry4 ,the great difficulty is in      
determining whether or not there is a   
defective ancestry in a given stock4 ,we
 have at present no criteria for        
identifying normal individuals who have 
defective germ-plasm4 ,as a practical   

test1 however1 if no defect has appeared
 in the stock for three or four         
generations back1 the marriage would be 
relatively as safe as are the marriages 
of our average population to-day4       
,corrective ,mating ,presupposes        
,knowledge of ,eugenics4--,but such a   
scheme of corrective mating presupposes 
a relatively high degree of intelligence
 and judgment on the part of the        
participants1 and this is just what we  
do not have and in the nature of things 
can not get1 in the types of            
feeble-minded1 epileptic and degenerate 
strains we are striving to eliminate4   
,all our evidence shows that when       
unrestricted there is a marked tendency 
for feeble-minded to mate with          
feeble-minded1 degenerate with          
degenerate4 ,about sixteen per cent4 of 
the feeble-minded1 in fact1 come from   
consanguineous marriages4 ,if we try to 
legislate them into specific types of   
marriage then we encounter the same     
futility pointed out under our          

discussion of restrictive legislation1  
they will produce offspring without the 
formality of marriage4  ,in certain     
cases of insanity and in other than     
neuropathic defects one can see how the 
system might be inaugurated with greater
 prospects of success1 but even then a  
knowledge of the principles of eugenics 
would be necessary to the participants1 
or in other words we could only         
accomplish our end through our fifth    
proposition1 education4  ,segregation   
,has ,many ,advocates4--,as to the third
 proposition1 segregation during the    
reproductive period1 this seems to have 
a larger number of advocates than any   
other coercive measure4 ,while on       
theoretical grounds it is plausible     
enough1 when we face the actual putting 
of the method into practise we are      
confronted by the fact that tremendous  
sums of money would be required to      
sequestrate and maintain colonies or    
industrial refuges4  ,when one realizes 
that no state now provides for more than

 a small minority of its defectives1 and
 knowing also of the pressure that must 
be brought to bear on legislatures to   
secure sufficient funds to provide for  
these cases of extremest urgency1 one   
can not be overly optimistic about the  
practicability of extensive             
sequestration4  ,e4 ,r4 ,johnstone1 the 
superintendent of a large training      
school for feeble-minded in ,new        
,jersey1 points out that no state in the
 ,union is providing for many more than 
one-tenth of her feeble-minded and      
epileptics4 ,if his estimate is true1 to
 place in institutions1 treat and train 
all its feeble-minded and epileptics    
would even now almost swamp any state   
treasury4 ,but what will it be in the   
future if we permit this unrestricted   
nine-tenths to go on and multiply their 
kind8  ,leaving out of account the      
enormous sums spent in private charities
 even now from one-fifth to one-seventh 
the total public expenditures of almost 
any one of our states is going to       

maintain its defectives1 dependents and 
criminals4 ,from the #aiab report of the
 secretary of state1 in the state of    
,wisconsin1 for instance1 ,i learn that 
of the total expenses for #aiab1 sixteen
 per cent4 was for charitable and penal 
institutions4 ,the situation is even    
worse in some other states4 ,think of   
it6 ,think what a large total of expense
 it becomes6 ,and the expense is far    
secondary from the humanitarian         
standpoint to the misery involved4  ,in 
the ,survey of ,may #bd1 #aiac1 we find 
,mr4 ,hastings ,h4 ,hart1 ,director of  
the ,department of ,child ,helping of   
the ,russell ,sage ,foundation1         
proposing very specifically a working   
program for the extinction of the       
defective delinquent1 which involves    
segregation during the reproductive     
period4 ,he gives the number of         
feeble-minded under public care as      
#bj1jjj in institutions for the         
feeble-minded1 #af1jjj in almshouses1   
#e1jjj in hospitals for the insane1 and 

#bf1jjj in prisons and reformatories1 or
 a total of #fg1jjj already under       
custodial care4 ,and he asserts that as 
nearly as can be judged1 this is        
one-third of the feeble-minded persons  
in the ,united ,states4  ,between this  
estimate that one-third of our          
feeble-minded are in institutions and   
,doctor ,johnstone's that we are not    
providing for many more than one-tenth  
of our feeble-minded and epileptic1     
there is a wide discrepancy1 but ,i know
 of no accurate data#bj whereby the     
matter can be settled definitely4 ,one  
point of difference may be that ,doctor 
,johnstone specifically includes        
epileptics and another may be one of    
definition of feeble-minded4 ,however1  
supposing that we could get them all    
into institutions1 institutional care at
 present by no means also implies       
prevention of propagation4 ,it is not an
 unusual history of feeble-minded women 
in our county poor-houses that they     
alternate between periods of housework  

in some family and periods of residence 
in the almshouse1 the return to the     
latter being only too often to bear an  
additional child4  ,not a few students  
of the problem1 however1 advocate a     
rigid segregation as the only reasonable
 preventive measure1 no matter what the 
expense4 ,they point out that the cost  
is mounting up higher each year and that
 we are only increasing it ultimately by
 procrastination4 ,they urge1 moreover1 
that when counting the cost of the      
segregation of the feeble-minded we     
should bear in mind also that we are    
reducing the expenses of our other      
charity and penal institutions1 since   
much of degeneracy1 pauperism and petty 
criminality centers in mental           
enfeeblement4 ,some believe that        
colonies can be established which are in
 considerable measure self-supporting4  
,doctor ,johnstone1 for instance1       
although his estimates of the number of 
feeble-minded and epileptic is one of   
the highest1 sketches out in a recent   

paper 7in ,pediatrics1 ,august1 #aiab7 a
 plan which he considers feasible4  ,but
 what assurance have we that we can     
prevent the production of defectives by 
segregation8 ,in reply may be cited a   
recent experiment on an extensive scale4
 ,cretinism is a condition due to       
disease of the thyroid glands4 ,it is   
characterized by goiter1 marked         
deformities and imbecility4 ,it is      
hereditary and has been very prevalent  
in certain valleys of southern          
,switzerland and northern ,italy4       
,cretin mated with cretin and           
consequently a large new supply was     
constantly produced4 ,in recent years in
 certain communities the sexes have been
 segregated 7see ,eugenic ,review1      
#aiaj1 ,jordan7 with the result that in 
such places cretinism has about         
disappeared4  ,coming now to the fourth 
solution proposed1 namely1              
sterilization1#ba let us consider some  
of its alleged advantages and           
disadvantages4  ,sterilization4--,first 

of all1 since there is some considerable
 popular misunderstanding on the        
subject1 it should be made plain that by
 sterilization is not necessarily1 nor  
in fact generally1 meant asexualization1
 or the removal of the reproductive     
glands4 ,on the contrary1 in the male1  
sterilization is ordinarily accomplished
 by an operation known as vasectomy1 in 
which a small piece of each sperm duct  
is removed4 ,such reports on it as ,i   
have found indicate that it is a        
comparatively simple minor operation    
which involves no special inconvenience 
or hardship on the subject beyond the   
deprivation of offspring4 ,in fact1     
according to ,doctor ,sharp's report1 in
 the majority of cases where it has been
 put into practise the patient has      
usually submitted voluntarily after     
having the details of the situation     
explained to him and has often advised  
fellow delinquents to do likewise4      
,even should later developments show    
that a mistake had been made1 in all    

probability the matter could be remedied
 by a second operation in which the cut 
ends of the ducts can be reunited4 ,this
 has been accomplished experimentally in
 dogs1 and furthermore1 in men rendered 
sterile by occlusion of the duct through
 inflammatory diseases1 the sterility   
has been remedied by removing the       
blocked area and reuniting the ends of  
the duct on either side4  ,in women the 
corresponding operation--a section of   
the oviduct--is termed salpingectomy4   
,here1 however1 the operation is a more 
serious one as it usually involves      
opening the abdominal cavity and the    
accompanying hazard of infection1 a     
danger sufficiently great that it is    
safe to say that the operation will be  
resorted to more rarely than vasectomy  
in man4  ,as a ,eugenic                 
,measure4--,sterilization as a eugenic  
measure has many advocates and perhaps  
more opponents2 and among the latter1 it
 must be said1 are many competent and   
thoughtful students of the subject who  

recognize existing conditions and       
deplore their continuance as much as any
 one4 ,they maintain that while we may  
have to come to it as a last resort1 we 
are yet too ignorant of the actual      
effects of the operation1 or are too    
little informed on the inheritability of
 the specific traits we are trying to   
eradicate1 to launch forth on so radical
 a program4 ,we must not forget that    
when we put sterilization into effect we
 are going to have to deal with         
individual cases1 not general averages4 
,to ,what ,conditions ,applicable4--,and
 just here1 it seems to me1 is the crux 
of the situation4 ,when confronted by   
the defective individual1 in a practical
 case1 just what criteria are we going  
to use to determine whether this        
particular individual should be         
sterilized or not8 ,nearly all of the   
twelve states which have sterilization  
laws specify insanity1                  
feeble-mindedness1 epilepsy and         
criminality4  ,in ,insanity4--,when it  

comes to insanity ,i strongly suspect   
that those who have the selection of the
 examining board will have difficulty in
 finding an alienist who is willing to  
take the responsibility of deciding on  
just which insane individuals shall be  
operated on and which not4 ,for among   
the insane there are so many kinds and  
degrees of mental unsoundness1 and these
 are of such varying and as yet unknown 
eugenical significance1 that a positive 
decision is frequently out of the       
question4 ,of the twenty-seven or more  
recognized forms of insanity who knows  
with any considerable degree of         
certainty which are heritable1 which    
not8 ,shall we treat all                
manic-depressives alike8 ,shall we treat
 them as1 for instance1 we would those  
suffering from dementia precox8 ,who    
will take the responsibility of         
answering positively8 ,again1 what shall
 we do in cases of paresis1 or general  
paralysis of the insane1 an affliction  
which probably invariably has syphilis  

as its antecedent8 ,yet it constitutes  
one of the commonest forms of insanity  
found in asylums4 ,doctor ,george ,h4   
,kirby1 director of ,clinical           
,psychiatry1 ,manhattan ,state          
,hospital1 says that with one exception 
there are more admissions of paretics to
 ,manhattan ,state ,hospital than       
sufferers from any other form of mental 
disorder4 ,he continues1 ,we find that  
when either the father or the mother    
suffers from paresis that many other    
members of the family may be infected   
with syphilis1 and furthermore1 we find 
that a surprisingly large number of     
children in these families are          
feeble-minded1 nervous1 or in other ways
 abnormal4 ,but here1 it is clear1 the  
patient has done the damage before he   
reached the hospital1 nor was it paresis
 as such that did the harm but the      
syphilitic infection of which paresis   
itself was but the outcome4  ,certainly 
the one fact which stands out           
conspicuously when we face most concrete

 cases1 is that at present we need more 
urgently than sterilization laws for the
 insane1 exhaustive studies of the      
inheritability of specific mental       
infirmities that we may know with some  
degree of certainty which warrant       
sterilization4  ,yet on the other hand  
one of the most disquieting facts that  
confronts us to-day is the large number 
of patients who are on parole from our  
hospitals for the insane1 subject to    
recall4 ,what shall we do with them8    
,shall we submit them to the tremendous 
hardship of still remaining under       
custodial care although to all intents  
and purposes sane1 or shall we make     
their release contingent upon their     
submission to vasectomy or              
salpingectomy8  ,in a few cases such as 
,huntington's chorea 7,figs4 #bf1 #bg1  
pp4 #aad1 #aae7 we can proceed with a   
fair degree of assurance1 for we know   
that this dreadful malady is transmitted
 as a positive trait and that in all    
probability half of the children of an  

afflicted individual will inherit the   
defect4 ,such patients1 if they ever    
rally sufficiently temporarily to leave 
the hospital1 or where encountered      
outside the hospital should certainly be
 restrained from procreation4 ,it is    
questionable if even their children1    
though apparently normal1 should be     
allowed to have offspring1 for usually  
the disorder does not manifest itself   
until middle life and then it is too    
late to try to prevent its transmission 
since the affected individual has       
already probably married and had        
children4 ,but ,huntington's chorea is a
 comparatively rare form of insanity1   
and one of only a few about which our   
knowledge as regards its                
transmissibility is fairly satisfactory4
  ,in ,feeble-,mindedness4--,when we    
come to institutions for the            
feeble-minded1 however1 there seems to  
be much more unanimity of opinion among 
physicians in charge of such            
institutions that sterilization would be

 an effective and satisfactory          
disposition to make of many cases1 if we
 are to release the patients in question
 from custody4 ,unquestionably in cases 
of imbecility it is easier than in      
insanities to pass conclusive judgment  
on the inheritability of the condition  
in a large class of cases4 ,practically 
all are agreed that either permanent    
custodial care through the reproductive 
period or sterilization should be       
enforced4 ,some maintain that such      
individuals should remain permanently in
 institutions anyway and that therefore 
to sterilize them is needless1 while    
others urge that if sterilized many     
capable of making their own living could
 be freed and allowed to do so4         
,according to ,goddard the feeble-minded
 woman is about three times as likely to
 find a mate as a feeble-minded man1    
hence it would seem to be of much       
greater importance to sterilize the     
woman than the man4  ,again it might be 
urged with much justification1 that even

 though sterilized1 the feeble-minded   
individual because of lack of           
self-control will transgress sexually   
and will thus certainly become a menace 
to society in the spread of venereal    
diseases4 ,if ,mr4 ,hart's estimate is  
anywhere near correct1 that there are   
#fj1jjj feeble-minded women in the      
,united ,states of child-bearing age1   
and that #ac1jjj are already in custody1
 then the task of getting all women of  
this class into custody is not so       
insurmountable as would at first appear4
  ,in ,cases of ,epilepsy4--,as to      
epilepsy1 ,i find a very decided        
difference of opinion among physicians4 
,some consider it1 on account of its    
apparently strong inheritability1       
together with the shocking crimes       
perpetrated by epileptic criminal types1
 one of the most serious menaces1 while 
others point out that we know nothing of
 the real cause of epilepsy1 that there 
are all degrees and shades1 that it is  
probably referable to different causes  

in different cases and that no one is   
able to say what the offspring of any   
given epileptic will be4  ,as to        
criminal types1 here again we face the  
difficulty of deciding any particular   
case4 ,let us suppose that twenty-five  
per cent4 of criminals are mental       
defectives1 how shall we sift them out  
from the seventy-five per cent4 who are 
supposed to be eugenically normal8      
,doubtless in many of the twenty-five   
per cent4 class1 the indications of     
defective mentality are sufficiently    
evident to prevent mistakes1 but a      
considerable number of uncertain status 
must also remain near the border-line4  
,sterilization ,laws4--,although twelve 
of our states already have sterilization
 laws1 only two1 ,indiana and           
,california1 seem to have made any      
active attempt to enforce them4 ,the    
situation is too new yet in ,wisconsin1 
,michigan and ,pennsylvania for these   
states to have shown what they intend to
 do4 ,although the ,indiana law says1 it

 shall be compulsory for each and every 
institution to maintain the practise1 it
 has fallen into disuse since #aiaa1    
presumably because the governor believed
 the law unconstitutional4 ,it is of    
interest to see the motive underlying   
the law in various states4 ,in the      
majority it is purely eugenic4 ,in      
,connecticut it is mainly eugenic though
 partly therapeutic4 ,in ,california it 
is apparently in part therapeutic1 since
 it is stated as being for the physical1
 mental or moral benefit of inmates of  
various state institutions1 and in part 
punitive and eugenic1 since individuals 
twice committed for sexual offenses or  
three times for other crimes are subject
 to the operation4  ,in ,washington and 
,nevada the object is purely punitive1  
the persons specified being habitual    
criminals and persons adjudged guilty of
 carnal abuse of female persons under   
ten years of age1 or of rape4 ,in these 
states also the court orders the        
operation instead of leaving it to the  

decision of a board of medical experts4 
,social ,dangers in ,vasectomy4--,it has
 been urged against vasectomy that it   
will work untold harm because it        
relieves of the responsibility of a     
probable parentage4 ,this argument does 
not appeal to one as very weighty as far
 as the imbecile or other degenerate is 
concerned1 because one of the very      
traits characteristic of such           
individuals is lack of any sense of     
responsibility4 ,by this same token1    
however1 we have a very good argument   
for sequestration as against            
sterilization1 for the degenerate1 even 
though sterilized1 will not be          
restrained sexually and will be likely  
to disseminate venereal diseases or     
commit rape4 ,furthermore1 there will be
 the temptation to sterilize and        
liberate certain types that would       
otherwise have been kept permanently in 
custody4  ,our ,present ,knowledge      
,insufficient4--,when all is said and   
done1 after we take into account the    

meagerness of our present knowledge on  
the subject1 it is not to be wondered at
 that many thoughtful students of a     
conservative turn of mind1 feel that any
 considerable practise of sterilization 
is premature4 ,the problem has so many  
phases1 and despite occasional bits of  
positive knowledge1 we are yet in such a
 sea of ignorance regarding it1 that in 
no field is the good ,friar ,laurence's 
admonition of wisely and slow2 they     
stumble that run fast1 needed more at   
present than it is here4  ,there is     
little doubt that in theory the         
feeble-minded and similar defectives    
should be sent to institutions and kept 
there1 but the important practical      
question is1 can this be done8 ,we can  
have no final answer until it is tried4 
,while the initial expense would        
undoubtedly be great1 if we could keep  
our defectives from propagation for a   
single generation we could very         
materially lessen their numbers and in  
succeeding generations the expenses of  

their care would rapidly diminish4  ,the
 one crying need that stands out most   
prominently in this whole field is that 
of careful investigation of individual  
cases and specific types of malady1     
together with an accurate census of     
conditions as a whole4 ,our knowledge of
 individual malign heredities is too    
meager to carry us very far at present4 
,when we have found after adequate      
investigation in just which specific    
types of defects heredity is an         
important factor--and we shall          
undoubtedly find it to be one in many   
cases--then we can proceed confidently  
with sterilization1 if it will prove to 
be more practical and desirable than    
sequestration4  ,sterilization ,laws on 
,trial4--,it will be of great interest  
and instruction to see how extensively1 
in the various states which have        
recently passed sterilization laws1 the 
experts selected will find it expedient 
to carry on sterilization1 and what     
criteria they will use in deciding on   

individual cases4 ,that sterilization   
can be put into effect is indisputable1 
as may be seen from the fact that       
several hundred operations have been    
performed in ,indiana4 ,if the board on 
whom the decision depends happens to be 
one which feels that many people are    
likely to distress themselves unduly    
over the border-line cases1 and overlook
 the fact that there is always a goodly 
residue with which to proceed without   
great risk of mistake1 then we may      
expect to see a vigorous campaign       
inaugurated1 and those of us who are    
still undecided in the matter will have 
an opportunity of learning more         
certainly the merits or the failings of 
the scheme4  ,certain married degenerate
 types would seem to be the ones most   
urgently demanding attention4 ,having   
already begotten several defective      
children and with nothing else in       
prospect but the production of the same 
kind1 it is difficult to see from any   
standpoint why a vasectomy on the male  

would not be a merciful act4 ,there are 
not a few such families where the father
 is periodically in the hands of the law
 and yet not in permanent restraint4    
,once in custody his release could be   
made contingent on vasectomy4  ,an      
,educated ,public ,sentiment the ,most  
,valuable ,eugenic ,agent4--,coming now 
to the last proposition1 education of   
the public in the principles of         
eugenics1 this is the method calculated 
to be of more far-reaching service than 
any other1 in the negative as well as in
 the positive phases of eugenics4       
,education is necessary before we can   
have effective restrictive measures for 
the mentally incompetent established and
 enforced1 and it is also a prerequisite
 to intelligent procedure on the part of
 normal individuals in considering their
 own fitness for marriage4  ,of greatest
 importance in preventing undesirable   
marriages1 as far as people of normal   
intelligence is concerned1 will be the  
sentiment of disapproval which will     

arise on the part of society itself when
 it becomes really convinced that       
certain marriages are inimical to social
 welfare4 ,public opinion is1 in fact1  
one of the most potent influences in    
marital affairs1 simply because refusal 
to abide by the dictates of the         
community means social ostracism4  ,that
 social disapproval of certain unions   
can become a very real factor in        
preventing such marriage is evinced on  
all sides by the numerous barriers to   
marriage already in existence based on  
race1 religious sect or social status4  
,even in our much vaunted democracies   
one is looked down on who marries       
beneath his or her social set4 ,this    
sentiment of taboo1 so readily and often
 so senselessly cultivated in our       
present human society1 will inevitably  
spring up in consequence of a           
wide-spread knowledge of the facts of   
human heredity4 ,it is to such a growth1
 to the establishment of a disapproval  
which is the product of its own         

sentiments rather than to legislative   
enactments1 that society must look for  
the greatest furtherance of the eugenic 
program4  ,necessary as legal restraint 
is in certain cases1 it must obviously  
be restricted to only the most glaring  
defects4 ,moreover1 legislation can not 
run far in advance of public opinion4   
,the ,question of ,personal             
,liberty4--,it must be admitted that    
there is a reluctance on the part of    
many even thoughtful individuals to the 
application of methods which savor in   
any way of restraint4 ,an objection not 
infrequently urged by such persons      
against the application of certain      
eugenic principles is that they demand  
an unwarranted curtailment of personal  
liberty4  ,to those who hoist the flag  
of personal liberty1 it may fairly be   
asked1 how much personal liberty does   
the syphilitic accord his doomed and    
suffering wife and children1 or how much
 personal liberty is the portion of the 
offspring of feeble-minded parents8 ,or1

 what quota of personal liberty will    
accrue to the ill-fated descendants of  
the epileptic1 the habitual drunkard or 
criminal1 the gross moral pervert1 the  
congenially deaf and dumb1 or to even   
the progeny which may result from the   
union of two well-established tubercular
 strains8  ,we do not hesitate to send  
the pick of our stalwart healthy manhood
 to war to be slaughtered by the        
thousands and tens of thousands when an 
affront is offered to an abstraction    
which we term our national honor1 and1  
sublimely unconscious of the irony of it
 all1 we throw ourselves into a         
well-nigh hysterical frenzy of protest  
when it is proposed to stop the breeding
 of defectives by infringing to a       
certain extent on their personal        
liberties4  ,society has already found  
it necessary to suppress certain        
individuals and yet we hear little      
complaint about loss of personal liberty
 in such cases4 ,but if it is necessary 
to restrain the man who would steal a   

purse or a horse1 is it not still more  
urgent to restrain one who would poison 
the blood of a whole family or even of  
an entire stock for generations8 ,surely
 there can be but one answer2 society   
owes it to itself as a matter of        
self-preservation to enforce the        
restraint of persons infected with      
certain types of disease and of         
individuals possessing highly           
undesirable inheritable traits1 so that 
perpetuation of such defects is         
impossible4  ,education of ,women in    
,eugenics ,needed4--,one of the most    
crying needs of the present is the      
awakening and educating of women to the 
significance of the known facts4 ,for   
they are perhaps the greatest sufferers1
 and once informed1 as a mere matter of 
safety if for no other reason1 they will
 see the necessity of demanding a clean 
bill of health on the part of their     
prospective mates4 ,furthermore in the  
last analysis woman is the decisive     
factor in race betterment1 for it is she

 who says the final yea or nay which    
decides marriage and thus determines in 
large measure the qualities which will  
be possessed by her children4 ,above    
all1 young women must come to realize   
that the fast or dissipated young man1  
no matter how interestingly or          
romantically he may be depicted by the  
writer of fiction1 is in reality unsound
 physically1 and is an actual and       
serious danger to his future wife and   
children4  ,much ,yet to ,be            
,done4--,but plain as is our duty       
regarding the application of facts      
already known1 when we consider that the
 student of heredity has made only a    
beginning1 it is equally evident that he
 must be urged on in his quest for new  
facts1 and the establishment of new     
principles4 ,there is imperative need to
 carry on proper experiments with plants
 and animals1 to collect necessary data 
regarding man1 and for what is scarcely 
less important1 the publication of the  
facts already acquired so that the      

public may be guided aright4  ,just at  
present it is of the utmost importance  
to secure more trustworthy statistics in
 order that we may intelligently go     
about instituting suitable restrictive  
measures for undesirable human strains4 
,we must know the exact number and kinds
 of feeble-minded1 epileptic and insane 
in our population1 and we must have more
 insight into the personal status and   
pedigrees of our delinquents and        
criminals4 ,for purposes of rational    
procedure such information is           
indispensable4 ,much can be done by     
hospitals1 homes and penal institutions 
by determining and recording more       
accurately all obtainable facts         
regarding the ancestry of their charges4
 ,moreover1 in such states as           
,wisconsin1 where the state hospitals   
for the insane have each an             
after-care-agent1 the duties of such    
officers might well include the         
collection of more adequate data        
regarding the hereditary aspects of     

their patient's condition4 ,and lastly1 
if in every census1 whether state or    
national1 it were made an important part
 of the work to secure accurate vital   
statistics1 particularly as they pertain
 to human heredity1 the contribution    
toward enabling us ultimately to purge  
the blood of our nation of certain forms
 of suffering1 degeneracy and crime     
would be inestimably great4  ,a ,working
 ,program4--,and now after reviewing at 
some length various aspects of man's    
hereditary and congenital endowment1 the
 important question arises as to whether
 it is possible1 with the knowledge at  
present available1 to go ahead with a   
practical program which will insure to  
the child of the future its right of    
rights1 that of being well-born4 ,when  
one considers the matter it is evident  
that much can be done at once4 ,most of 
the needs set forth in the preceding    
paragraph can clearly be met in a fair  
degree by instituting the procedures    
indicated4  ,one of the obvious duties  

in a restrictive way that confronts us  
right at the start is the care and      
control of the feeble-minded and of the 
defective delinquent in such a way as to
 prevent procreation4 ,much help can be 
given also through intelligent agitation
 for the establishment of colonies for  
epileptics and the higher grades of     
feeble-minded which can be made in      
considerable measure self-supporting4 ,a
 given colony must1 of course1 be for   
one sex alone4 ,much can be done1       
furthermore1 by putting into operation1 
both in and out of institutions1        
effective systems of registering births 
and deaths together with accompanying   
facts which may prove of eugenical      
significance4  ,again1 we should more   
surely identify and exclude undesirable 
immigrants and also undertake           
thoroughgoing investigations to         
determine which races we can not        
profitably assimilate into our own      
blood4  ,physicians should pay more     
attention to the hereditary and         

congenital aspects of their cases and   
make it more a matter of conscience than
 they do at present to advise patients  
with regard to marriage4 ,prenuptial    
medical inspection should become the    
custom1 if not by law at least as a     
voluntary procedure4 ,every parent must 
come to realize the grave risk to which 
he is subjecting his daughter if a      
guarantee of physical fitness1 even more
 than assurance of financial standing or
 social position1 is not forthcoming    
from her prospective mate4  ,wholly     
apart from the field of heredity though 
in a realm intimately concerned with the
 birthright of the child1 much practical
 good can be accomplished by pondering  
the facts and the fictions of prenatal  
influence and in the light of the       
knowledge thus gained1 seeing that while
 foolish and unnecessary worries are    
abolished1 the conditions of health1    
nutrition and occupation surrounding the
 expectant mother are the best          
obtainable4 ,it is the sacred duty of   

every individual1 moreover1 to see that 
the maximal possibilities of his own    
germ-plasm are not lowered by vicious or
 unwholesome living4  ,as individuals we
 can cultivate a greater sense of       
responsibility regarding marriage and   
parenthood in those for whose training  
we are responsible4 ,we can study this  
whole subject conscientiously1 keep pace
 with new knowledge and see that other  
people are likewise informed4 ,in       
showing an enlightened interest in the  
ideals of eugenics and a sympathetic    
approval of wholesome marriages1 a      
sentiment toward parenthood will        
gradually arise which will make it seem 
more desirable to many worthy people    
than it does at present4 ,if we are of  
good stock ourselves we should recognize
 that it is highly desirable that we    
give to the race at least four children4
 ,on the other hand1 if we come from a  
strain which is eugenically undesirable 
we should with equal conscientiousness  
refrain from contributing to human      

misery4 ,for where serious obstacles to 
a union exist1 renunciation is certainly
 a higher manifestation of love than is 
consummation of a marriage which will   
result in untold misery to the object of
 the affections4 ,as a matter of fact1  
with adequate preliminary knowledge as  
to what actually constitutes a serious  
drawback to marriage1 where such really 
exists and is recognized by the         
associated individuals1 love of the kind
 that leads to marriage is not likely to
 arise4  ,as has been suggested by      
various students of eugenics1 it is even
 at present perhaps not infeasible for  
earnest individuals to start in a quiet 
way local centers for the keeping and   
filing of accurate records of their     
family traits for the future use of     
their descendants4 ,such groups1        
voluntary though they be1 would soon    
acquire a degree of distinction that    
would make other people of good         
endowments wish to join in and go on    
record as eugenically desirable4        

,lastly1 it should not be forgotten that
 good traits are inherited as certainly 
as bad ones4 ,moreover1 in the realm of 
human conduct1 even though the          
fundamental features of behavior are    
based on an inherited organization1 man 
is not always driven by an inexorable   
linkage of inherited neutral units into 
only one line of conduct1 since more or 
less capacity for alternative action is 
also inherited4 ,it is the personal duty
 of every member of society to aid in   
affording the opportunity and providing 
the proper stimuli to insure that out of
 the many possibilities of behavior     
which exist in the young at birth1 those
 forms are realized which are best worth
 while to the individual and to society4
 ,and while we recognize that improved  
environment alone can not correct human 
deficiencies we must nevertheless not   
relax our efforts to get cleaner foods1 
cleaner surroundings1 cleaner politics  
and cleaner hearts4  ,why go on         
alleviating various kinds of misery that

 might equally well be prevented8 ,when 
one squarely faces the issue1 surely the
 absurdity of our present practises can 
not but be evident to even the most     
thoughtless4  ,which ,shall ,it         
,be8--,as a matter of social evolution1 
human homes originated in the necessity 
of an abiding place for the nurture and 
training of the young past their first  
period of helplessness4 ,well in the    
foreground of the mental picture which  
arises when we hear the very word home1 
are children4 ,what shall the home of   
the future be with regard to its most   
important assets1 the children8 ,shall  
we as a people continue to be confronted
 at every turn by the dull countenance  
of the imbecile1 the inevitable product 
of a bad parental mating2 or the feeble 
body and the clouded intellect of the   
child sprung from a parentage of        
polluted blood2 or the furtive cunning  
of the born criminal1 the will-less mind
 of the bred degenerate1 or the         
shiftless spawn of the pauper8 ,or shall

 it be a type with laughing face1 with  
bounding muscles1 with unclouded brain1 
overflowing with health and             
happiness--in short1 the well-born      
child8  ,the answer is in our own hands4
 ,the fate of many future generations is
 ours to determine and we are false to  
our trusteeship if we evade the         
responsibility clearly laid before us4  
,how conscientiously we heed known      
facts1 how actively we acquaint         
ourselves with new facts1 and how       
effectively we execute the obvious      
duties demanded by these facts1 will    
give us the answer4   ,,the ,,end       
,,glossary   ,,acquired ,,characters1   
traits developed in the body through    
changes in environment or function1 in  
contra-distinction to those which have  
their specific causes in the germ-cells4
  ,,adaptation 7,l4 ad1 to2 aptus1 fit71
 fitness to environment4  ,,albinism    
7,l4 albus1 white71 a condition of      
deficiency in pigment4  ,,allelomorph   
7,gr4 allelon1 of one another2 morphe1  

form71 one of a pair of alternate       
,mendelian characters4  ,,ameba 7,gr4   
amoibe1 change71 a primitive            
single-celled animal4  ,,amphibian 7,gr4
 amphi1 both2 bios1 life71 capable of   
living both on land and in water4       
,,anthropoid 7,gr4 anthropos1 man2      
eidos1 form71 man-like4  ,,aristogenic  
7,gr4 aristos1 best2 genesis1 origin71  
pertaining to the genetically most      
desirable human strains4  ,,association 
,,areas1 those regions of the brain in  
which presumably the higher mental      
processes are effected4  ,,atavism 7,l4 
ad1 before2 avus1 grandfather71 a return
 in one or more characters to an        
ancestral type4 ,see p4 #h for          
restricted modern usage4  ,,atrophy     
7,gr4 a1 negative2 trophe1 nourishment71
 a wasting away of a part of a living   
organism4  ,,axon 7,gr4 axon1 axis71 the
 process from a nerve cell which becomes
 a nerve fiber4  ,,binet-,,simon        
,,scale1 a series of tests graded to age
 and previous training of the average   

normal child1 much used in measuring    
mental deficiency4  ,,biology 7,gr4     
bios1 life2 logos1 discourse71 the study
 of life and of living things4          
,,biometry 7,gr4 bios1 life2 metron1    
measure71 the study of biological       
problems by means of statistical        
methods4  ,,blastomere 7,gr4 blastos1   
germ2 meros1 part71 one of the early    
cells formed by the division of the     
ovum4  ,,blastophthoria 7,gr4 blastos1  
germ2 phtheiro1 destroy71 deterioration 
of the germ as the result of direct     
pathogenic or other disturbing agents4  
,,blending ,,inheritance1 inheritance in
 which the characters of the parents    
seem to blend in the offspring4         
,,cacogenic 7,gr4 kakos1 bad2 genesis1  
origin71 pertaining to genetically      
undesirable human strains4  ,,cell1 the 
fundamental unit of structure in plants 
and animals4  ,,centrosome 7,gr4        
kentron1 center2 soma1 body71 a small   
body which functions in indirect        
cell-division4  ,,character1 any        

distinguishing feature1 trait or        
property of an organism4  ,,chemotropism
 7chemical and tropism71 defined1 p4    
#aih4  ,,chromatin 7,gr4 chroma1 color71
 deeply staining substance of the       
cell-nucleus4  ,,chromosomes 7,gr4      
chroma1 color2 soma1 body71             
characteristic deeply staining bodies1  
typically constant in number and        
appearance in each species of animal or 
plant1 which appear in the cell during  
indirect division4  ,,chromotropism     
7,gr4 chroma1 color2 trope1 turning71   
defined1 p4 #aih4  ,,cleavage1 the      
division of the egg-cell into many      
cells4  ,,congenital 7,l4 con1 together2
 gigno1 bear71 present at birth4        
,,conjugation 7,l4 con1 together2 jugum1
 yolk71 the union of germ-cells or      
unicellular individuals for             
reproduction4  ,,constructive 7or       
positive7 ,,eugenics1 a system of       
securing a superior race through        
propagation of the fittest individuals4 
,,cortex 7,l4 cortex1 bark71 the outer  

or investing layer of the brain4        
,,cytoplasm 7,gr4 kytos1 cell2 plasso1  
form71 the protoplasm of the cell       
outside of the nucleus4  ,,daltonism1   
the commonest form of color-blindness in
 which the affected individual is unable
 to discriminate between red and green4 
,,dendrites 7,gr4 dendron1 tree71       
branching processes which spring from   
nerve-cells4  ,,determiner 7,l4         
determinare1 to determine71 the         
distinctive cause or unit in a germ-cell
 which determines the development of a  
particular character in the individual  
derived from that cell4 ,the terms gene 
and factor are sometimes used as        
synonyms of determiner4  ,,dihybrids    
7,l4 di1 two2 hybrida1 mongrel71 the    
offspring of parents differing in two   
characters4  ,,diploid 7,gr4 diploos1   
double2 eidos1 form71 the dual or       
somatic number of chromosomes4          
,,dominant ,,character 7,l4 dominare1 to
 be a master71 a character from one     
parent which manifests itself in        

offspring to the exclusion of a         
contrasted character from the other     
parent4  ,,drosophila1 a genus of       
fruit-flies of which there are several  
species4  ,,duplex 7,l4 duo1 two2 plico1
 fold71 the condition in which a        
character is represented by two         
determiners1 one from each parent4      
,,electrotropism 7,gr4 electron1 amber2 
trope1 turning71 defined1 p4 #aih4      
,,embryo 7,gr4 embryon71 the young      
organism in its earliest stages of      
development4  ,,embryogeny 7,gr4        
embryon2 genesis1 generation71 the      
development of the embryo4  ,,eugenics  
7,gr4 eugenes1 well-born71 the science  
relating to improvement of the human    
race through good breeding4  ,,factor1  
the determiner of a particular          
hereditary character4                   
,,feeble-,,mindedness1 deficiency in    
mental development4 ,for grades1 see p4 
#bdd4  ,,fertilization1 union of the    
sexual cells4  ,,fetus 7,l4 feuere1 to  
bring forth71 the unborn young animal in

 its later 7after the second month in   
man7 stages of development4  ,,flagellum
 7,l4 flagellum1 little whip71 a        
vibratile1 thread-like organ of         
locomotion4  ,,gamete 7,gr4 gamos1      
marriage71 a mature germ-cell4          
,,genetics 7,gr4 genesis1 origin71 the  
science which deals with heredity and   
the origin of individuals in general4   
,,genotype 7,gr4 genea1 race2 typto1    
strike71 the germinal constitution of an
 organism4  ,,geotropism 7,gr4 ge1      
earth2 trope1 turning71 defined1 p4     
#aih4  ,,germ-,,cell1 a reproductive    
cell4  ,,germinal ,,variations1         
variations which owe their origin to    
some modification in the germ-cells4    
,,germ-,,plasm1 the material basis of   
inheritance4  ,,gonad 7,gr4 gonos1      
generation71 a germ-gland4  ,,haploid   
7,gr4 haploos1 single2 eidos1 form71 the
 single or reduced number of chromosomes
 as found1 for instance1 in the mature  
germ-cells4  ,,heliotropism 7,gr4       
helios1 sun2 trope1 turning71 defined1  

p4 #aih4  ,,heredity 7,l4 heres1 heir71 
resemblance of individuals to their     
progenitors based on community of       
origin4  ,,heritage 7,l4 heres1 heir71  
all that is inherited by an individual4 
,,heterozygote 7,gr4 heteros1 other2    
zygon1 yolk71 an individual produced    
through the union of germ-cells which   
are unlike in one or more determiners4  
,adjective1 heterozygous4  ,,homozygote 
7,gr4 homos1 same2 zygon1 yolk71 an     
individual produced through the union of
 germ-cells which are alike in          
determiners4 ,adjective1 homozygous4    
,,hybrid 7,l4 hybrida1 mongrel71 the    
offspring of parents which differ in one
 or more characters4  ,,identical       
,,twins1 twins which show identical     
inborn characters1 both having come     
presumably from the same ovum4  ,,idiot 
7,gr4 idios1 peculiar1 private71        
defined1 p4 #bdd4  ,,imbecile 7,l4      
imbecillis1 weak71 defined1 p4 #bdd4    
,,inheritance 7,l4 in1 in2 heres1 heir71
 the sum of all characters which are    

transmitted by the germ-cells from      
generation to generation4  ,,inhibitor  
7,l4 in1 in2 habeo1 hold1 have71 that   
which checks or restrains4  ,,instinct  
7,l4 in1 in2 stingno1 prick71 defined1  
p4 #bjc4  ,,intra-,,uterine 7,l4 intra1 
within2 uterus1 the womb71 within the   
womb4  ,,irritability 7,l4 irrito1      
excite71 the property of responding to  
stimuli4  ,,linin 7,l4 linum1 flax71    
filaments of the cell-nucleus not       
readily stained by dyes4  ,,luetin      
,,test 7,l4 lues1 pest71 a test for     
syphilis2 see p4 #ahh4  ,,mammals 7,l4  
mamma1 breast71 warm-blooded1 hairy     
animals which suckle their young4       
,,maturation 7,l4 maturus1 ripe71 the   
final stages in the development of the  
sex-cells characterized by two divisions
 in one of which the number of          
chromosomes is reduced by one-half4     
,,mendelian1 ,,mendelism1 referring to  
,mendel1 the founder of a theory of     
heredity4 ,see p4 #fg4  ,,metazoa 7,gr4 
meta1 over2 zoon1 animal71 all animals  

higher than the protozoa4  ,,mitosis    
7,gr4 mitos1 thread71 indirect nuclear  
division1 characterized by the          
appearance of a fibrous spindle and a   
definite number of chromosomes4 ,the    
latter split to form daughter           
chromosomes which diverge to the poles  
of the spindle to form parts of the new 
nuclei4  ,,mongolian1 a type of         
feeble-minded individual1 see p4 #bdh4  
,,monohybrid 7,gr4 monos1 single2 ,l4   
hybrida1 mongrel71 the offspring of     
parents1 differing in one character4    
,,moron 7,gr4 moros1 foolish71 defined1 
p4 #bdd4  ,,mutations 7,l4 mutare1 to   
change71 abrupt1 inheritable germinal   
variations4 ,frequently though not      
necessarily they are changes of         
considerable extent4  ,,neural 7,gr4    
neuron1 nerve71 pertaining to the       
nervous system4  ,,neuron 7,gr4 neuron1 
nerve71 a nerve-unit consisting of a    
nerve-cell with branching processes     
called dendrites and an axon or axis    
cylinder process which gives rise to a  

nerve fiber4  ,,neuropathic 7,gr4       
neuron1 nerve2 pathos1 suffering71      
relating to disease of the nervous      
system4  ,,nucleolus 7,l4 dim4 of       
nucleus71 a well-defined body found     
within the nucleus of a cell4  ,,nucleus
 7,l4 nux1 a nut71 the central organ of 
a cell4  ,,nulliplex 7,l4 nullus1 not   
any2 plico1 fold71 the condition in     
which no determiners of a given         
character exist in a particular         
individual4  ,o,oe,c,y,t,e 7,gr4 oon1   
egg2 kytos1 cell71 the ovarian egg in   
one stage of development4               
,o,oe,g,e,n,e,s,i,s 7,gr4 oon1 egg2     
genesis1 origin71 the development of ova
 from primitive sex-cells4              
,o,oe,g,o,n,i,u,m 7,gr4 oon1 egg2 gonos1
 generation71 a primordial egg-cell4    
,,ovary 7,l4 ovum1 egg71 the organ in   
which the egg-cells multiply and are    
nourished4  ,,ovum 7,l4 ovum1 an egg71  
the female sex cell4  ,,parthenogenesis 
7,gr4 parthenos1 virgin2 genesis1       
origin71 development of an egg which has

 not united with a male gamete4         
,,phenotype 7,gr4 phaino1 show2 typto1  
strike71 the existing type of individual
 irrespective of hereditary             
possibilities which may reside in it    
undeveloped4  ,,phototropism 7,gr4 phos1
 light2 trope1 turning71 defined1 p4    
#aih4  ,,placenta 7,l4 placenta1 a flat 
cake71 the organ by which the fetus of  
the higher mammals is attached to the   
uterine wall of the mother for purposes 
of nourishment1 respiration and         
excretion4 ,in it the maternal and fetal
 blood1 although not intermingling1 are 
brought into such close proximity that  
an interchange of dissolved substances  
is possible4  ,,polar ,,bodies1 the     
minute cells which are separated from   
the egg in its maturation divisions4    
,,primate 7,l4 primus1 first71 the      
highest order of animals1 including     
monkeys1 apes and man4  ,,pronucleus1   
the nucleus of the mature ovum or       
sperm-cell4  ,,protoplasm 7,gr4 protos1 
first2 plasma1 form71 the essential     

living substance4  ,,protozoa 7,gr4     
protos1 first2 zoon1 animal71           
single-celled animals or animals        
composed of cells not separable into    
different tissues4  ,,psychical 7,gr4   
psyche1 the soul71 pertaining to the    
mind4  ,,recessive ,,character 7,l4     
recessus1 a going back71 a character    
from one parent which remains           
undeveloped in offspring when associated
 with the corresponding dominant        
character from the other parent4        
,,reduction ,,division1 a division of   
the maturing germ-cells in which the    
dual or somatic 7diploid7 number of     
chromosomes is reduced to the single    
7haploid7 number4  ,,reflex ,,action    
7,l4 re1 back2 flectere1 bend71 an      
automatic response of the nervous and   
motor mechanism of the body4            
,,restrictive 7or negative7 ,,eugenics1 
a system of improving the human race by 
preventing reproduction of the unfit4   
,,reversion 7,l4 re1 back2 verto1 turn71
 the reappearance of ancestral traits   

which have for some generations been in 
abeyance4  ,,rheotropism 7,gr4 rheo1 to 
flow2 trope1 turning71 defined1 p4 #aih4
  ,,salpingectomy 7,gr4 salpinx1        
trumpet2 ectome1 cutting out71 removal  
of part or all of a ,fallopian tube     
7oviduct74  ,,segregation 7,l4 se1      
aside2 grex1 flock71 separation4  ,,sex 
,,chromosome1 a special chromosome which
 is supposed to be concerned in the     
determination of sex4  ,,sex-,,linked   
,,characters1 defined1 p4 #fj4  ,,simian
 7,l4 simia1 ape71 ape-like4  ,,simplex 
7,l4 sim1 same2 plico1 fold71 the       
condition in which a character is       
represented by a determiner from only   
one of the two parents4  ,,soma 7,gr4   
soma1 body71 the body considered apart  
from the germ-cells4  ,,spermatid 7,gr4 
sperma1 seed71 a cell resulting from the
 last division of the germ-cell in      
spermatogenesis4 ,it transforms into the
 spermatozoon4  ,,spermatocytes 7,gr4   
sperma1 seed2 kytos1 cell71 cells       
concerned in the maturation divisions of

 the male germ-cells4  ,,spermatogenesis
 7,gr4 sperma1 seed2 genesis1 origin71  
the development of spermatozoa from     
primitive sex-cells4  ,,spermatogonium  
7,gr4 sperma1 seed2 gonos1 generation71 
a primordial sperm-cell4  ,,spermatozoon
 7,gr4 sperma1 seed2 zoon1 animal71 the 
functional male sex-cell4  ,,spindle1 a 
fibrous organ formed in indirect        
cell-division4  ,,spireme 7,l4 spira1   
coil71 a characteristic stage           
preliminary to indirect cell-division in
 which the chromatin material of the    
nucleus appears in the form of a skein  
of filaments4  ,,stereotropism 7,gr4    
stereos1 solid2 trope1 turning71        
defined1 p4 #aih4  ,,sterilization 7,l4 
sterilis1 barren71 deprivation of       
reproductive power4 ,for methods1 see p4
 #cbb4  ,,synapse 7,gr4 syn1 together2  
hapto1 unite71 the coming in contact of 
the processes of one nerve cell with the
 processes or body of another4          
,,synapsis 7,gr4 syn1 together2 hapto1  
unite71 union of the chromosomes in     

pairs preliminary to the reduction      
division4  ,,telegony 7,gr4 telegonos1  
born far away71 the supposed influence  
of an earlier sire on offspring born    
later of the same mother to a different 
sire4  ,,thermotropism 7,gr4 thero1     
heat2 trope1 turning71 defined1 p4 #aih4
  ,,thigmotropism 7,gr4 thigmo1 touch2  
trope1 turning71 defined1 p4 #aih4      
,,toxin 7,gr4 toxicon1 poison71         
poisonous compounds of animal1          
vegetable1 or bacterial origin4         
,,tropism 7,gr4 trope1 turning71 the    
automatic directing of an organism      
toward or away from a source of         
stimulus4  ,,unit-,,character1 a        
character which behaves as an           
indivisible unit in heredity4           
,,vasectomy 7,l4 vas1 vessel2 ektome1   
cutting out71 removal of a portion of   
the vas deferens 7duct for conveying    
spermatozoa74  ,,vestigeal 7,l4         
vestigium1 footstep71 representing      
organs which existed once in a more     
developed condition4  ,,volvox 7,l4     

volvo1 roll71 a small fresh-water       
organism occurring in spherical         
colonies4  ,,wasserman ,,reaction1 a    
test for syphilis1 see p4 #ahh4         
,x-,,element1 same as sex-chromosome4   
,,zygote 7,gr4 zygon1 yolk71 the product
 of the union of two gametes4           
,,references ,,for ,,further ,,reading  
,,and ,,study   ,,bateson1 ,w41 #aiji4  
,mendel's ,principles of ,heredity4     
,cambridge1 ,the ,university ,press4    
,the best technical account of          
,mendelism4 ,it contains also a         
translation of the original papers of   
,mendel4  ,,castle1 ,,william ,e41      
#aiaa4 ,heredity4 ,new ,york1 ,d4       
,appleton and ,company4  ,,castle1      
,,william ,e42 ,,coulter1 ,,john ,m42   
,,davenport1 ,,charles ,b42 ,,east1     
,,edward ,m42 ,,tower1 ,,william ,l41   
#aiab4 ,heredity and ,eugenics4         
,chicago1 ,the ,university of ,chicago  
,press4  ,,conklin1 ,,edwin ,,grant1    
#aiae4 ,heredity and ,environment in the
 ,development of ,men4 ,princeton1      

,princeton ,university ,press4          
,,davenport1 ,,charles ,b41 #aiaa4      
,heredity in ,relation to ,eugenics4    
,new ,york1 ,henry ,holt and ,company4  
,,doncaster1 ,l41 #aiaa4 ,heredity in   
the ,light of ,recent ,research4        
,cambridge1 ,the ,university ,press4    
,,doncaster1 ,l41 #aiae4 ,the           
,determination of ,sex4 ,cambridge1 ,the
 ,university ,press4  ,,ellis1          
,,havelock1 #aiab4 ,the ,task of ,social
 ,hygiene4 ,new ,york1 ,houghton        
,mifflin ,company4  ,,galton1 ,,francis1
 #ahfi4 ,hereditary ,genius3 an ,inquiry
 ,into ,its ,laws and ,consequences4    
,london1 ,macmillan and ,company4       
,,galton1 ,,francis1 #ahhi4 ,natural    
,inheritance4 ,new ,york1 ,the          
,macmillan ,company4  ,,galton1         
,,francis1 #ahie4 ,english ,men of      
,science2 ,their ,nature and ,nurture4  
,new ,york1 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 
,,galton1 ,,francis1 and ,,schuster1    
,,edgar1 #aijf4 ,noteworthy ,families   
7,modern ,science74 ,london1 ,j4        

,murray4  ,,goddard1 ,,henry ,,herbert1 
#aiab4 ,the ,kallikak ,family2 a ,study 
in the ,heredity of ,feeble-mindedness4 
,new ,york1 ,the ,macmillan ,company4   
,,goddard1 ,,henry ,,herbert1 #aiad4    
,feeble-mindedness2 ,its ,causes and    
,consequences4 ,new ,york1 ,the         
,macmillan ,company4  ,,healy1          
,,william1 #aiae4 ,the ,individual      
,delinquent4 ,boston1 ,little1 ,brown   
and ,company4  ,,kellicott1 ,,william   
,e41 #aiaa4 ,the ,social ,direction of  
,human ,evolution2 an ,outline of the   
,science of ,eugenics4 ,new ,york1 ,d4  
,appleton and ,company4  ,,morgan1      
,,thomas ,,hunt1 #aiac4 ,heredity and   
,sex4 ,new ,york1 ,columbia ,university 
,press4  ,,punnett1 ,r4 ,c41 #aiaa4     
,mendelism4 ,new ,york1 ,the ,macmillan 
,company4 ,the best popular account of  
,mendelism4  ,,saleeby1 ,,caleb         
,,william1 #aiji4 ,parenthood and ,race 
,culture2 an ,outline of ,eugenics4     
,london1 ,cassell and ,company4         
,,schuster1 ,,edgar1 #aiab4 ,eugenics4  

,london1 ,collins ,clear-,type ,press4  
,,thomson1 ,j4 ,,arthur1 #aijh4         
,heredity4 ,london1 ,john ,murray4      
,,walter1 ,,herbert ,,eugene1 #aiac4    
,genetics4 ,new ,york1 ,the ,macmillan  
,company4  ,,whetham1 ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 and   
,c4 ,d41 #aiji4 ,the ,family and the    
,nation4 ,london1 ,longmans1 ,green and 
,company4  ,,woods1 ,,frederick ,,adams1
 #aijf4 ,mental and ,moral ,heredity in 
,royalty4 ,new ,york1 ,henry ,holt and  
,company4  ,,various ,,authors1 #aiad4  
,eugenics2 ,twelve ,university          
,lectures4 ,new ,york1 ,dodd1 ,mead and 
,company4  ,,journals3      ,the        
,journal of ,heredity4 ,the organ of the
 ,american ,genetic     ,association1   
,washington1 ,d4 ,c4      ,the ,eugenics
 ,review4 ,issued at the ,university of 
,london4      ,memoirs and ,bulletins   
published by the ,eugenics ,record      
,office1 ,cold     ,spring ,harbor1     
,long ,island1 ,n4 ,y4  ,every one      
interested in eugenics should be        
acquainted with the work of this office4

 ,in its own words its functions are3   
#a4 ,to serve eugenical interests in the
 capacity of repository and     clearing
 house4      #b4 ,to build up an        
analytical index of the traits of       
,american families4      #c4 ,to train  
field workers to gather data of         
eugenical import4      #d4 ,to maintain 
a field force actually engaged in       
gathering such data4      #e4 ,to       
cooperate with other institutions and   
with persons concerned     with         
eugenical study4      #f4 ,to           
investigate the manner of inheritance of
 specific human traits4      #g4 ,to    
advise concerning the eugenical fitness 
of proposed marriages4      #h4 ,to     
publish results of researches4      ,to 
such persons as will undertake to fill  
them out it furnishes free     in       
duplicate 7one copy to be retained by   
the applicant7 the following     blank  
schedules3 #a4 ,record of ,family       
,traits4 #b4 ,index to                  
,germ-plasm--,a ,parallel ,family       

,record for ,prospective ,marriage      
,mates4     #c4 ,musical ,talent4 #d4   
,mathematical ,talent4 #e4              
,tuberculosis4 #f4     ,special ,trait  
,chart4 #g4 ,harelip and ,cleft-palate4 
,publications of the ,volta ,bureau of  
,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 an     institution
 given over entirely to data regarding  
deaf mutes4      ,studies in ,national  
,deterioration4 ,the ,university of     
,london4      ,memoirs and ,lectures1   
from the ,biometric ,laboratory1        
,university of     ,london4             
,treasury of ,human ,inheritance1 a     
series of studies being issued from     
the ,eugenics ,laboratory1 ,university  
,college1 ,london4     ,,index          
,ability3 #aah2     calculating1        
literary1 musical1 #abj4    ,able child 
likely to be neglected1 #beg4           
,achondroplasy1 #aac4    ,acquired      
characters1 inheritance of1 #aba4       
,adami1 #afd4    ,adaptations1          
establishment of1 #adj4    ,adaptive    
responses1 #bja4    ,agassiz1 #big4     

,albinism1 in man1 #aaf4    ,alcohol3   
and crime1 #bgi2     and degeneracy1    
#agb1 #agi2     and germinal tissue1    
#agb2     a poison1 #afh4               
,alcoholism3 #aja1 #aag1 #afg2          
factors in1 #ahj2     in lower animals1 
#agc-agh2     views regarding           
inheritance of1 #afi1 #agj1 #agb1 #agh1 
#agi1 #ahj4    ,alkaptonuria1 #aag4     
,allelomorph1 #gg4    ,alpine plants1   
non-inheritance of acquired characters1 
#aca4    ,alternative action in         
behavior1 #bjg4    ,altruism1 possible  
origin of1 #bbj4    ,ambystoma1 #acb4   
,ameba1 #bc1 #bd4    ,ancestors1 number 
of1 #d4    ,ancestry3 a network1 #c2    
dual1 #f2     in royalty1 #e2     pride 
of1 as a eugenic agent1 #cji4           
,backward child1 #bef4    ,backwardness1
 importance of early determination1     
#bef1 #beg4    ,bardeen1 #abf4          
,barker1 #bbi4    ,barr1 #bdf1 #bdg1    
#bdh4    ,barrington1 #agi4    ,bateson1
 #gg1 #hb4    ,bees1 inheritance in1    
#acf1 #acg4    ,behavior3 lower animals1

 #aig2     modifiability of1 #bjj1      
#bjd-bjg1 #bag1 #bai1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #ccg2 
not wholly established by heredity1     
#bag1 #bbg2     rational1 #bje1 #bjf2   
various forms of1 possible1 #bjg1 #bai4 
,bell1 #aeb4    ,bezzola1 #agj4         
,billings1 #bdi4    ,binet-,simon test1 
#bee4    ,biometry1 #af4    ,birthmarks1
 #aei1 #afj4    ,birth-rate3            
significance of1 #cjb2     too low in   
desirable stocks1 #cjb1 #cjd1 #cje1     
#cjg4    ,blastomeres1 #ee4             
,blastophthoria1 #afc4    ,blended      
inheritance1 #hg1 #ib1 #ic4    ,blends1 
mistakes for1 #ia4    ,blindness1       
infantile1 #ahc4    ,blistering1 #aac4  
,body3 how built up from germ1 #cf2     
duality of1 #ej4    ,brachydactylism1   
#ajg4    ,brain3 in higher animals1     
#bac2     mechanism1 maladjustments of1 
#bcj4    ,branthwaite1 #ahj1 #bib4      
,breeding1 experiments1 method of1 #ad1 
#ae4    ,brewer1 #adb4    ,brieux1 #aja4
    ,bronner1 #bff4    ,brown ,sequard1 
#acb1 #acc4     ,cabot1 #ahc4           

,cacogenic strains1 #caj4    ,cajal1    
#bji4    ,cancer1 #aag1 #aed4           
,capsella1 #aca4    ,castle1 #acd4      
,cataract1 presenile1 #aab4    ,cattle3 
horn characters1 #gi2     roan1 #ha4    
,cell3 a unit of structure1 #bj2        
diagram of1 #ba2     structure of1 #bj1 
#cj4    ,cell-division3 #ca2            
indirect 7mitosis71 #cb2     meaning of 
indirect1 #cd4    ,cell-theory1 #bb4    
,cellular basis of heredity1 #bb4       
,ceni1 #agd4    ,centrosome1 #ca4       
,cerebral cortex1 not functionally      
homogeneous1 #baa4    ,character3       
defined1 #ab2     dominant1 #gd2        
recessive1 #gd4    ,characters3         
contrasted1 #fi2     determiners of1    
#ac1 #ad2     independence of1 #fi2     
inheritable and non-inheritable1 #aba1  
#abb2     more than two pairs of1 #hg2  
new combinations of1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd2     
separable1 #fi2     symbols for1 #gh2   
two pairs of1 #hb4    ,chauvin1 #acb4   
,chemotropism1 #aih4    ,childbirths1   
intervals between1 #afe4    ,children of

 the future3 ours to determine quality  
of1 #cch1 #cci2     and home1 #cch4     
,cholera1 #aeb4    ,chorea3 #aag2       
,huntington's1 #aac-aae1 #bdc1 #cbe4    
,chromatin1 #ca4    ,chromosome1 #cb4   
,chromosomes3 individuality of1 #ci1    
#dh2     determiners in1 #id2     in    
germ and body cells1 #dj2     ,mendelian
 factors and1 #ic2     number and       
appearance1 #cd1 #da2     pairs of1 #dj1
 #ic1 #id2     significance of1 in      
heredity1 #ce1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed4 
,chromotropism1 #aih4    ,church1 #bdb4 
,cleavage1 #cf4    ,cleft-palate1 #agh4 
,cole1 #aff4    ,college graduates and  
birth-rate1 #cjd4    ,coloboma1 #aac4   
,color-blindness1 #fj-fb4    ,conceptual
 thought1 origin of1 #bjf4    ,conduct3 
importance to young of practise1 #bba1  
#bbc2     hereditary predisposition and1
 #bah1 #ccg2     responsibility for1    
#aie4    ,congenital traits1 #abc4      
,conjugation1 #be4    ,consciousness1   
#bjf4    ,conservation3 of superior     
strains1 #aeg2     human1 #bii1 #cjj4   

,constructive eugenics1 #cji4           
,corneal opacity1 #aac4    ,correns1    
#fh4    ,cortex of brain1 #aie1 #bac4   
,cost1 of caring for our disordered and 
delinquent1 #beg1 #cjj4    ,cretins1    
effects of segregating the sexes1 #cba4 
,crime3 and delinquency1 #bfc1 #bhg2    
and feeble-mindedness1 #bfd-bgj2        
bearings of immigration on1 #bhj2       
classifications of1 #bgf2     defined1  
#bgf2     heredity vs4 environment in1  
#bfc2     increase in1 #bgb2     mental 
disorders most frequently associated    
with1 #bgi2     no specific hereditary  
factor for1 #bge4    ,criminal3 the     
born1 #bgg2     the epileptic1 #bgg4    
,criminality1 #aag4    ,criss-cross     
inheritance1 #fa4    ,criteria for      
judging reproductive fitness1 #cjd1     
#cjf4    ,cytoplasm3 #cj2     in        
heredity1 #ea4     ,daltonism1 #fj4     
,dana1 #beg4    ,darwin1 pedigree of1   
#caf4    ,davenport1 #ib1 #aaf1 #bca1   
#bdc1 #beg1 #bga1 #bgc1 #bhd1 #bia1     
#cjd1 #cab4    ,davis1 #ahe4            

,deaf-mutism1 #aeb1 #aec4    ,death1    
natural1 #bh4    ,decline of nations1   
#bij1 #cjj4    ,defective delinquent1   
should prevent procreation of1 #cce4    
,defectives3 increase due to breeding1  
#bij1 #bia2     natural elimination done
 away with among1 #bib2     unpardonable
 to let multiply1 #bhh4    ,defects3    
breeding out1 #aah1 #aai2     mental and
 nervous1 #bbh4    ,degenerate strains3 
#bfi2     not a product of surroundings1
 #bgc4    ,degenerates1 sterilization of
 married1 #ccj4    ,delinquency1 causes 
of1 #bfg1 #bgd4    ,delinquents not all 
defectives1 #bgd4    ,delinquent women  
and girls1 many mentally defective1     
#bfe1 #bff4    ,dendrite1 #bjh4    ,de  
,sanctis1 #bef4    ,determiners3 #ac1   
#gg2     different producing the same   
character1 #hh1 #ij2     segregation of1
 #hd4    ,development3 in higher        
organisms1 #bh2     suppressed1 #i4     
,de ,vries1 #fh4    ,diabetes1 #aac4    
,difficulty1 educational value of1 #bbb1
 #bbc4    ,digital malformations1 #ajg4 

,dihybrids1 #hb4    ,diploid number of  
chromosomes1 #da1 #dc4    ,disease3     
defined1 #adf2     inheritance of1 #ih1 
#adh2     predisposition to1 #adh2      
reappearance of not necessarily         
inheritance1 #adf4    ,dominance3 #gd2  
delayed1 #ha2     incomplete1 #hj1 #ajj2
     in human genealogies1 #ajb2     in 
man1 #ii1 #ajg4    ,don ,carlos1 number 
of ancestors1 #e4    ,drosophila1 #ff4  
,duplex character1 #hj1 #ii4            
,dwarfing1 by starvation1 #acj4         
,dwarfs1 true1 #aag4     ,east1 #ia4    
,education3 actual practise in carrying 
out projects important1 #bba2           
affording opportunity for development of
 good traits1 #bbf2     effects of not  
inherited1 #adb1 #aee2     establishing 
pathways through the nervous system1    
#baj2     importance of difficulty in1  
#bbb1 #bbc2     non-transference of     
skill acquired in one line to other     
lines1 #bac2     providing proper       
stimuli1 #bbf2     training in motive   
necessary1 #bbj2     value of interest  

in1 #bbc4    ,egg1 a cell1 #bb4         
,egg-cell and sperm-cell contrasted1    
#bi4    ,elderton1 #agi1 #bif4          
,electrotropism1 #aih4    ,ellis1 #bfe1 
#cja4    ,embryo1 relation to mother1   
#afa4    ,embryogeny1 #cf4    ,emerick1 
#bea4    ,environment3 direct action on 
germ cells1 #abd1 #abe2     effects of  
faulty1 #aeh2     in crime and          
delinquency1 #bfc1 #bff1 #bgc1 #bgd4    
,epidermolysis1 #aac4    ,epilepsy3     
#aja1 #aag1 #bdb1 #bdi1 #bea1 #beb1     
#bec2     in guinea-pigs1 #acb2         
relation to feeble-mindedness1 #bdi4    
,epileptic1 the criminal type1 #bgg-bgi4
    ,epileptics1 number of1 #bcj1 #bdf1 
#bej4    ,eugenic agent1 educated public
 sentiment1 #ccj4    ,eugenics3 and     
education1 #cji2     and personal       
liberty1 #ccb2     a working program of1
 #cce2     constructive1 based on       
education1 #cja2     defined1 #bic2     
desirable traits1 #cjf2     education of
 women in1 #ccc2     influence of public
 opinion on1 #cca2     much yet to be   

done1 #ccc1 #ccd2     positive and      
negative1 #cja4    ,ewart1 #aj1 #afe4   
,exceptional child likely to be         
neglected1 #beg4    ,experimental       
breeding1 method of1 #ae4    ,external  
conditions1 influences of1 #acj4        
,eye-color3 #i1 #ajc2     inheritance   
of1 #ajd4    ,eye-defects1 #ajh1 #aaj4  
,family pride and eugenics1 #cji4       
,farabee1 #ajf4    ,fay1 #aec4          
,feeble-minded3 prevention of           
procreation in1 #beh1 #cce2     results 
of non-restraint1 #bdf4                 
,feeble-mindedness3 #aja1 #aag2     and 
crime1 #bfd-bfi1 #bgi2     grades of1   
#bdd2     inheritance of1 #bde2     not 
insanity1 #bch2     relation of alcohol 
to1 #afi-agb4    ,fernald1 #bef1 #bff4  
,fertilization1 #bf1 #bi1 #dg1 #dh4     
,fetus3 poisoning of1 #afb2     relation
 to mother1 #afa4    ,fiber-tracts in   
man1 #bad4    ,fitness1 criteria for    
judging1 #cjd1 #cjf4    ,flexner1 #ahf4 
,forel1 #afi1 #agc1 #cjc4    ,fowl1     
,andalusian1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga4             

,frederick the ,great1 number of        
ancestors1 #e4    ,friedreich's disease1
 #aag4    ,fruit-fly1 #ff4     ,galton1 
#bic1 #bie4    ,gamete1 #bh1 #dj4       
,gametes in dihybrids1 #he4    ,gametic 
matings in man1 #ajj4    ,geddes1 #ee4  
,genealogies1 imperfect1 #ih4           
,genotype1 #hf4    ,geotropism1 #aih4   
,germ and body distinct1 #cg1 #ch4      
,germ3 control of possibilities in1     
#bbd2     singleness of1 #ej4    ,german
 emperor1 number of ancestors1 #e4      
,germ-cells3 affected by poisons1 #abf2 
changes in1 #abf1 #abg2     early set   
apart1 #cg2     question of effects of  
body on1 #abh1 #ace2     effects of     
external influences on1 #abd2     in    
,miastor1 #cg1 #ch2     metabolic       
changes in1 #ach2     origin of1 #cf1   
#cg2     possibilities of development1  
#abg2     two classes of1 #ga1 #gc4     
,germinal continuity1 #ci4    ,germinal 
variation and the origin of new         
characters3 #ach2     cases analyzed1   
#ada2     sexual reproduction in        

relation to1 #ach4    ,germ-plasm and   
bad environment1 #aid4    ,gifted       
persons1 #bab4    ,glaucoma1 #aac4      
,goddard1 #aah1 #aga1 #agd1 #ahh1 #bce1 
#bch1 #bde1 #bej1 #bef1 #beg1 #bfd1     
#bfi1 #cbf4    ,gonads1 transplantation 
of1 #acd4    ,gonorrhoea3 seriousness   
of1 #ahb2     prevalence1 #ahc4         
,gorst1 #bcd4    ,gout1 #aec1 #bcd4     
,guinea-pigs3 alcoholism in1 #age2      
,mendelism in1 #ge4    ,guyer1 #ei4     
,habit1 #bai4    ,habits1 modification  
of in lower animals1 #bjd4              
,hair-color1 #aje4    ,hair shape1 #aje4
    ,hamburger1 #aej4    ,handwriting1  
#abj4    ,haploid number of chromosomes1
 #da1 #dc4    ,harelip1 #agh4    ,hart1 
#bff1 #cai1 #cbf4    ,healy1 #bef1 #bgd1
 #bgh4    ,hearing1 hardness of1 #aah4  
,heart disease1 #aed4    ,hegner1 #bg1  
#ch4    ,heliotropism1 #aih4    ,helm1  
#aji1 #aaa4    ,hemophilia1 #fd4        
,hereditary character defined1 #ab4     
,hereditary mingling1 mosaic rather than
 blend1 #ac4    ,hereditary             

transmission1 laws of1 #fh4             
,heredity3 and environment1 #bie2       
dual ancestry in1 #f2     defined1 #a2  
false1 #afc2     human1 uncertainty of  
records1 #ih2     in protozoa1 #bb1 #bc2
     in insanity1 importance of1 #bfa2  
in sexually reproducing forms1 #g2      
in unicellular forms1 #bb1 #bc2         
methods of study1 #ad1 #ae2     new     
discoveries in1 #fg2     not a blend1   
#ac2     race betterment through1 #bhi4 
,heritage1 blood1 #a4    ,heron1 #cjg4  
,heterozygote3 #hj2     detection of1   
#hj4    ,hill-folk1 the1 #bga4          
,hodge1 #age4    ,holmes1 #bjc4         
,home1 for children1 #cch4              
,homozygote1 #hj4    ,huntington's      
chorea1 #aac-aae1 #bdc1 #cbe4           
,huxley1 #aie1 #bje4    ,hybrids3 #eb2  
whites and negroes1 #big1 #bih4         
,hypotrichosis1 #aac4    ,hysteria1     
#aag4     ,ichthyosis1 #fe4    ,ideals1 
importance of establishing in children1 
#bbc4    ,idiots1 #bdd4    ,imbeciles1  
#bdd4    ,immigrants1 duty of excluding 

undesirable1 #cce4    ,immigration3 and 
mental unsoundness1 #bha1 #bhb2         
bearing on crime and delinquency1 #bhj2 
bearing on venereal diseases1 #bhb2     
importance of restricting1 #bhc1 #cce4  
,immortality3 of protozoa1 #bc2     of  
the race1 #c4    ,immunity1 artificial1 
not inherited1 #aee4    ,inbreeding1 in 
defectives1 #bga4    ,individual1 and   
race1 #c4    ,inebriate women1 offspring
 of1 #afh4    ,inebriety1               
constitutional1 #ahj4    ,infant        
mortality1 #adi4    ,infection1         
prenatal1 #adg4    ,inheritance3 and    
disease1 #adf2     blended1 #hg1 #ic2   
of tendencies1 #ajg4    ,inhibitions1   
#baf4    ,inhibitors1 #gi4    ,insane1  
increase in numbers of1 #bcc1 #bcd4     
,insanity3 #aag2     certain forms      
recessive1 #bdc2     eugenical          
significance of1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bdj2      
importance of early diagnosis1 #bei2    
some forms not hereditary1 #bfj2        
types of1 #bci2     prevalence in the   
,united ,states1 #bbh1 #bbi4    ,insect 

colors1 effect of temperature1 #abi4    
,instincts3 #bjc2     adjustable1 #bjc2 
not inherited acquirements1 #add2       
origin of intelligent behavior from1    
#bjc1 #bjd4    ,institutional figures   
misleading1 #bff4    ,intelligence1     
#bje1 #bjf4    ,intelligent behavior1   
opening up possibilities of1 #bjd4      
,ireland1 #aga4    ,irritability1       
characteristics of living protoplasm1   
#aig4     ,jennings1 #bjc1 #bjd4        
,johnson1 #cje4    ,johnstone1 #bde1    
#cai1 #cbj1 #cba4    ,jolly1 #bdc4      
,jordan1 #d1 #bii4    ,jukes1 #bgj4     
,kallikak family1 #bfi1 #bgj4           
,kellicott1 #cad1 #caf4    ,kellogg1    
#bii4    ,keratosis1 #aac4    ,kidney   
diseases1 #aed4    ,kirby1 #ahg1 #cbd4  
,knox1 #bef4    ,kraeplin1 #bdb4        
,laitinen1 #agd4    ,language1 as mental
 aid1 #bjf1 #bjg4    ,lapsed            
intelligence1 theory of1 #ade4          
,larval stages1 susceptibility of1 #abh4
    ,laws1 sterilization1 #cbc1 #cbg1   
#cbi4    ,lead-poisoning3 #afc2         

experiments on rabbits1 #afc4           
,lederbaur1 #aca4    ,legal restraint of
 defectives limited1 #cca4    ,lens3    
displaced1 #aac2     cataract1 #aab4    
,leprosy1 #aeb4    ,leptinotarsa1       
production of variations in1 #abe4      
,linden1 ,countess von1 #abi4    ,linin1
 #ca4    ,little's disease1 #bae4       
,locomotor ataxia1 #ahg4    ,loeb1 #fb1 
#bjc4    ,longevity1 #abj4    ,lord     
,morton's mare1 #aj4    ,lorenz1 #aac1  
#aad1 #aae4    ,low birth-rate1 #cjh4   
,lowell1 ,judge ,john1 #cab4    ,luetin 
test1 #ahh4    ,lunborg1 #bdc4          
,mac,dougal1 #abe4    ,margaret1 ,mother
 of ,criminals1 #bgj4    ,marriage3     
barriers to1 #cca2     inter-racial1    
#bif2     medical inspection before1    
#aia4    ,mast1 #bjc4    ,maternal      
impressions1 #aei-afj4    ,maturation3  
#ci1 #da1 #dc1 #dd2     parallel between
 egg and sperm-cell1 #dd1 #df4          
,mechanical skill1 #abj4    ,mechanism  
of heredity1 #bb1 #be1 #bf1 #bh1 #bi1   
#cj1 #ce1 #cg1 #dj-ed1 #id1 #ie4        

,melancholia and crime1 #bgi4           
,memory3 #abj1 #bjd2     not a complete 
test of normality1 #bfh1 #bfi4          
,mendel3 #fh2     work on peas1 #hb4    
,mendelian factors and chromosomes3 #ic2
     inheritance and man1 #ig2          
principles1 rediscovery of1 #fh2        
ratio1 cause of1 #ga4    ,mendelism1    
#fg1 #fi4    ,mental and nervous        
defects1 #bbh4    ,mental defective3    
defined1 #bee2     disproportionate     
increase in1 #bcb2     numbers married1 
#bca1 #bcb2     inefficiency of marriage
 laws concerning1 #cae4    ,mental      
deficiency3 not always inherited1 #bdh2 
tests for1 #bed1 #bee4    ,mental       
organization of lower vertebrates1 #bje4
    ,mental process as neural process1  
#aie4    ,mental unsoundness1 #aif4     
,mentality1 inheritance of1 #ai4        
,mentally disordered1 cost of caring    
for1 #beg1 #beh4    ,mercier1 #bgi4     
,merriere's disease1 #aag4    ,metazoa1 
#bh4    ,metz1 #da4    ,mice1 #gh4      
,michigan1 state report on mentally     

defective1 #bcd4    ,migraine1 #aja4    
,mind1 relation to brain1 #aie4         
,mitosis3 #cb1 #cc2     meaning of1 #cd1
 #cg4    ,mjoeen1 #aga4                 
,modifiability of behavior1 #bjj1 #bjd1 
#bje1 #bjg1 #bag1 #bai1 #bbd1 #bbe1     
#ccg4    ,mongolians1 #bdh4    ,moral   
responsibility1 #bbg4    ,morgan1 ,c4   
,lloyd1 #adf1 #baa4    ,morgan1 ,t4 ,h41
 #ei1 #ff4    ,moron1 #bdd1 #bfh4       
,morons and crime1 #bfh4    ,mosaic1    
heredity a1 #ac4    ,motherhood1        
safeguarding1 #afe4    ,motive1 training
 in1 #bbj4    ,mott1 #aej4              
,mulattoes1 #ib4    ,multiple sclerosis1
 #fd1 #aag4    ,muscular atrophy3 #aac2 
,gower's1 #fe4    ,musical ability1     
#abj4    ,mutations3 artificial         
production of1 #abe2     germinal1 #abe4
    ,mutilations1 non-inheritance of1   
#acd4    ,myopia1 #fd4     ,naegeli1    
#aca4    ,nam family1 #bga4    ,natural 
selection partly done away with in human
 society1 #bib4    ,near-sightedness1   
#fd4    ,nervous and mental diseases1   

#aec4    ,nervous organization1         
inheritable1 #bdb4    ,nervous response1
 in lower organisms1 #aif4    ,nervous  
system3 mainly inherited1 #baj1 #baf2   
establishment of pathways in1 #baj2     
maladjustments of1 #bca2     special    
developments in man1 #bac1 #bad1 #bae2  
units of1 #bjh4    ,nervous systems of  
anthropoids1 #bad4    ,neural pathways1 
not all established at birth1 #bag4     
,neuritis optica1 #fe4    ,neurons1     
#bjh4    ,neuron theory1 #bjh4          
,neuropathic constitution1 expression   
of1 #bda4    ,neuropathic defects1      
carriers of1 #bec4    ,neuter insects1  
heredity in1 #acf1 #acg4    ,new        
characters1 origin of1 #ach4    ,newman1
 #ef4    ,nicloux1 #agb4                
,night-blindness1 #fe4                  
,nilsson-,ehle1 #hh1 #hi4    ,noguchi1  
#ahf4    ,nucleolus1 #ca4    ,nucleus1  
structure of1 #ca4    ,nulliplex        
character1 #hj1 #ajj4     ,obesity1     
#abj1 #aed4    ,offspring3 from one     
parent only1 #e2     different from     

either parent1 #ab4    ,ooecyte1        
primary1 secondary1 #dd4    ,ooegenesis1
 #dd4    ,ooegonia1 #dd4    ,optic      
nerve1 atrophy of1 #fd4    ,organs1     
formation of1 #cf4    ,origin of sex    
cells1 #ab1 #cf4    ,ovaries1           
transplantation of1 #acd4    ,ovum1 #bf1
 #dj4     ,paralysis1 general1 #ahf4    
,paranoia1 #bgi4    ,parent-body and    
germ distinct1 #ab4    ,parenthood1     
cultivation of wholesome sentiment      
toward1 #ccf4    ,paresis3 #ahf2     and
 crime1 #bgi4    ,parthenogenesis1 #f4  
,patterson1 #ef4    ,paul1 #afc4        
,pearson1 #aej1 #aea1 #agi1 #bif1 #cjg4 
,peas1 #fh1 #hb4    ,performance tests1 
#bef4    ,peron1 #acc4    ,personality  
determined by heredity1 #b1 #aie4       
,peterson1 #bdb4    ,phenotype1 #hf4    
,phillips1 #acd1 #ace4    ,phototropism1
 #aih4    ,pinard1 #afe4    ,pineys1    
the1 #bga4    ,plato1 #bij4             
,poellman1 #bga4    ,polar bodies1 #dd1 
#de4    ,polydactyly1 #ajh4             
,potato-beetle1 production of variations

 in1 #abe4    ,potts1 #bib4             
,predisposition to disease1 #adh4       
,pregnancy1 neglect of mothers during1  
#afe4    ,prenatal care3 #ccf2          
infection1 #adg2     influence1 #aa1    
#aei1 #afb4    ,prenuptial medical      
inspection desirable1 #ccf4    ,presence
 and absence theory3 #gh2     formulae  
for man1 #ii4    ,primrose1 experiments 
on1 #abe4    ,principles1 ,mendelian1   
#fh4    ,prisoners1 many mentally       
subnormal1 #bff4    ,pronucleus1 #dg4   
,protective coloration1 not of somatic  
origin1 #ace1 #acf4    ,protoplasm1     
germinal1 #ci4    ,psychical            
development1 #aif1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bjf1    
#bac1 #bae4    ,pyramidal tracts1 #bad4 
,quagga hybrid1 #aj4     ,race          
amalgamation3 #big1 #bih2               
deterioration1 in a selected population1
 #cjc4    ,racial degeneracy1 not       
curable by improved environment alone1  
#bid4    ,ratio3 the #a3b3a1 #gc2       
the #c3a1 #gg2     the #i3c3c3a1 #he2   
the #bg3i3i3i3c3c3c3a1 #hg2     the     

#ae3a1 #hh2     the #fc3a1 #ij4         
,rational behavior1 #bje1 #bjf4         
,reason1 #bjf4    ,recessiveness3 #gd2  
in man1 #aae4    ,records of family     
traits desirable1 #ccg4    ,reduction   
division1 #da1 #db4    ,reflexes1 #bjc4 
,regression1 law of1 #ag4    ,renault1  
#agb4    ,rentoul1 #bcb4                
,reproduction3 asexual1 #f1 #bf2        
sexual1 #bf2     sexual and variation1  
#aci4    ,reproductive cells1 #bg1 #bh1 
#bi4    ,responsibility for conduct1    
#aie4    ,rest1 importance of1 in       
pregnancy1 #afe4    ,reversion3 #g1 #h2 
and atavism1 #h2     in guinea-chicken  
hybrids1 #h4    ,rheotropism1 #aih4     
,rheumatism1 #aed4    ,ritter1 #adc4    
,rogers1 #bdf1 #bgb4    ,romanes1 #acc4 
,rosanoff1 #bdc4    ,rossolimo1 #bef4   
,rudin1 #bdc4     ,salpingectomy1 #cbb4 
,sanford1 #bje4    ,st4 ,vitus' dance1  
#aag4    ,schulze1 #bd4    ,schuster1   
#bif4    ,sclerosis1 multiple1 #fd1     
#aag4    ,segregation3 in dihybrids1    
#hd2     ,mendelian1 #fi1 #gj1 #ge2     

of defectives1 #cah4    ,seguin1 #bef4  
,self-control1 importance of1 #bba1     
#bfg1 #bfh1 #bhd1 #bhf1 #bhg4    ,sex3  
and chromosomes1 #ei2     and heredity1 
#ec2     cells of ,volvox1 #be2         
chromosome1 #eg1 #eh2     determination1
 #ee2     differentiation and           
,x-element1 #fj2     evolution of1      
#be-cj2     hygiene1 question of school 
instruction in1 #bhe2     in certain    
insects1 #ef2     linked characters1    
#fj1 #fe2     not a necessary factor in 
heredity1 #f2     problem1 knowledge    
alone not sufficient1 #bhf4    ,sexual  
vice1 #bhd4    ,sharp1 #cbb4    ,simplex
 character1 #hj1 #ii4    ,skill1        
non-transference in brain1 #bab1 #bac4  
,skin1 color of1 #ib4    ,smallpox1     
#aeb4    ,social maladies1 prevention   
of1 #bic4    ,softening of the brain1   
#ahf4    ,soma1 #bh4    ,spermatid1 #dc4
    ,spermatocyte1 primary1 secondary1  
#dc4    ,spermatogenesis1 #db4          
,spermatogonium1 #dc4    ,spermatazoon3 
#bf1 #dj2     a cell1 #bb2     formation

 of1 #dc2     structure of1 #dc4        
,spindle1 in cell-division1 #cb4        
,spottedness of hair-coat1 #aac4        
,sprague1 #bha1 #cje4    ,starfish1     
training a1 #bjd4    ,statistical       
methods1 #ae4    ,statistics1           
trustworthy needed1 #ccd4    ,stature1  
inheritance of1 #ag4    ,stereotropism1 
#aih4    ,sterility1 #ahb4              
,sterilization3 #cbb2     in epilepsy1  
#cbf2     laws1 #cbc2     laws1 on      
trial1 #cbi2     laws1 states having1   
#cbg4    ,stevens1 #da4    ,stockard1   
#agd-agh4    ,strength1 muscular1 #abj4 
,stripes1 reversionary1 #h4             
,stutzman1 #cje4    ,sullivan1 #afh4    
,superior strains1 conservation of1     
#aeg4    ,synapse1 #baj4    ,synapsis1  
#da1 #db4    ,syndactyly1 #fe1 #ajh1    
#aaa4    ,syphilis3 #ahd-aij2     and   
prostitutes1 #ahe2     cerebro-spinal   
form1 #ahi-aij2     prenuptial          
inspection for1 #aij-aib2               
prevalence1 #ahf2     stages of1 #ahe2  
tests for1 #ahh4    ,syphilitics3       

children of1 #ahg1 #ahh2     married1   
#aij4     ,tabes dorsalis1 #ahf4        
,taints1 #aja4    ,talent1 inheritance  
of1 #bab4    ,taylor1 #big4             
,telegony1 alleged cases of1 #aj4       
,temperament1 inheritance of1 #ai4      
,thermotropism1 #aih4    ,thigmotropism1
 #aih4    ,third generation1 segregation
 in1 #fi4    ,thomsen's disease1 #aah4  
,thomson1 #ee4    ,thorndike1 #bif4     
,tower1 #abe4    ,training of children3 
and heredity1 #bah2     faults in1 #bba1
 #bbb4    ,transmission1 not necessarily
 inheritance1 #afc4    ,tredgold1 #agj4 
,treponema pallidum1 #ahe4    ,tribe of 
,ishmael1 #bga4    ,tropic responses3   
often purposeful1 #bja2                 
uncertainties in1 #bjb4    ,tropisms3   
#aig2     complications in1 #bjj2     in
 plants and animals1 #aih2     relations
 to reflex actions and instincts1 #bjc4 
,tschermak1 #fh4    ,tuberculosis1 #aah1
 #adh-afj1 #afb4    ,twins3 identical1  
#ee2     sex of1 #ee4    ,typhoid1 #aeb4
     ,unemployed1 frequently morons1    

#bhj4    ,unfit1 elimination of1 urgent1
 #cac4    ,unit-character3 #ab2         
inheritance of1 #ac4    ,unicellular    
organisms3 #ba2     inheritance in1 #bb1
 #bc4    ,use and disuse1 #abb4     ,van
 ,ingen1 #afg4    ,vasectomy1 #cbb4     
,venereal disease1 #ahb4    ,virchow1   
#adg4    ,voison1 #acc4    ,volitions as
 tropisms1 #aii4    ,volvox1 #be1 #bf1  
#bg4     ,war1 eugenical effects of1    
#bii4    ,wasserman1 provocative1 #ahi4 
,wasserman test1 #ahh1 #ahi4    ,webbed 
digits1 #fe4    ,weeks1 #bea1 #beb1     
#bec1 #bia4    ,west1 #afg4    ,wheat1  
#ge1 #ha1 #hh4    ,whetham1 #cad1 #caf4 
,whitman1 #ade4    ,wilmarth1 #bdc1     
#bde1 #bgd1 #bia4    ,wilson1 #ei1 #fb1 
#id1 #ie4    ,woods1 #bif4              
,x-element1 #eg1 #eh4     ,zebra        
hybrids1 #aj4    ,zeros1 the1 #bga4     
,zygote3 #bf1 #bg2     chromosomes of1  
#dj4     ,,footnotes3  #a ,the reader   
desiring more detailed information will 
find fuller discussions in the          
following3  ,wilson1 ,e4 ,b43 ,recent   

,researches on the ,determination and   
,heredity of ,sex4 ,science1 ,january   
#h1 #aiji4  ,wilson1 ,e4 ,b43 ,the      
,chromosomes in ,relation to the        
,determination of ,sex4 ,science        
,progress1 ,april1 #aiaj4  ,guyer1 ,m4  
,f43 ,recent ,progress in ,some ,lines  
of ,cytology4 ,transactions of the      
,american ,microscopical ,society1      
,april1 #aiaa4  ,morgan1 ,t4 ,h43       
,heredity and ,sex4 ,columbia           
,university ,press1 #aiac4  #b ,a       
translation of ,mendel's original papers
 will be found in ,mendel's ,principles 
of ,heredity1 by ,w4 ,bateson4  #c      
,heredity of ,skin ,color in ,negro and 
,white ,crosses3 ,publication ,no4 #ahh1
 of the ,carnegie ,institution of       
,washington4  #d ,whitman1 ,c4 ,o43     
,animal ,behavior1 ,biological          
,lectures1 ,marine ,biological          
,laboratory1 #ahih4  #e ,the ,fight     
,against ,tuberculosis and the ,death   
,rate from ,phthisis1 ,london1 ,dulau   
,co41 #aiaa4  #f ,forel1 ,august3 ,the  

,sexual ,question1 p4 #bfh4  #g ,loc4   
cit4 p4 #bea4  #h ,in this connection it
 is instructive to note from a ,michigan
 state report1 just off the press1 that1
 among #d1iag insane individuals        
concerning whom satisfactory information
 was obtained1 #fe4d per cent4 had among
 their ancestors or family such         
hereditary influences as insanity1      
apoplexy or paralysis1 psychopathic     
abnormalities or alcoholism4 ,see       
,report of the ,commission to           
,investigate the ,extent of             
,feeble-mindedness1 ,epilepsy1 ,insanity
 and ,other ,conditions of ,mental      
,defectiveness in ,michigan4 ,wynkoop   
,hollenbeck ,crawford ,co41 ,state      
,printers1 ,lansing1 ,michigan1 #aiae4  
#i ,feeble-mindedness2 ,its ,causes and 
,consequences1 by ,henry ,h4 ,goddard1  
,the ,macmillan ,company1 #aiad4  #aj   
,the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale for
 ,intelligence1 by ,henry ,h4 ,goddard1 
#aiaa4 ,the ,training ,school1          
,vineland1 ,n4 ,j4 ,price #ae cents4    

#aa ,tests for ,mental ,defects1 by     
,howard ,a4 ,knox1 ,journal of          
,heredity1 ,march1 #aiad4 ,see also     
,knox3 ,journal of the ,american        
,medical ,association1 #aiad4  #ab ,the 
,individual ,delinquent1 by ,william    
,healy1 ,m4 ,d4 ,little1 ,brown  ,co41  
,boston4  #ac ,the ,individual          
,delinquent1 by ,william ,healy1 ,m4 ,d4
 ,little1 ,brown  ,co41 ,boston4  #ad   
,the ,psycopathic ,laboratory in        
connection with the ,juvenile ,court of 
,chicago4  #ae ,see ,the ,foreign ,born 
in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,national  
,geographic ,magazine1 ,september1      
#aiad4  #af ,see ,first ,report of the  
,committee of the ,eugenic ,section of  
the ,american ,breeders' ,association1  
,on ,immigration1 ,american ,breeders'  
,magazine1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,no4 #d1 #aiab4 
,also ,second ,report of same1 ,the     
,journal of ,heredity1 ,july1 #aiad4    
#ag ,the ,negro and ,his ,health        
,problems1 ,medical ,record1 ,september 
#ab1 #aiab4  #ah ,see ,d4 ,s4 ,jordan1  

,the ,human ,harvest1 or ,v4 ,l4        
,kellogg1 ,eugenics and ,militarism4    
#ai ,for arguments indicating the       
superior eugenical fitness of college   
graduates see ,wellesley's ,birth-,rate1
 by ,roswell ,h4 ,johnson and ,bertha   
,stutzman1 ,the ,journal of ,heredity1  
,june1 #aiae4 ,see also1 ,education and 
,race ,suicide1 by ,robert ,j4 ,sprague1
 ibid41 ,april1 #aiae4  #bj ,since the  
present manuscript went to press an     
excellent government report 7,insane and
 ,feeble-,minded in ,institutions in    
#aiaj1 ,department of ,commerce1 ,bureau
 of the ,census1 #aiad1 ,washington1 ,d4
 ,c47 has appeared4 ,in it one finds the
 estimate that not over one-tenth of our
 feeble-minded are being cared for in   
special institutions4  #ba ,for         
summaries of existing sterilization laws
 and statements of the issues involved  
see 7#a7 ,the ,legal1 ,legislative1 and 
,administrative ,aspects of             
,sterilisation1 ,bulletin #aj;,b1       
,february #c1 #aiad1 ,eugenics ,record  

,office1 ,cold ,spring ,harbor1 ,n4 ,y42
 7#b7 ,sterilisation of ,criminals1     
,report of ,committee ,h of the         
,american ,institute of ,criminal ,law  
and ,criminology1 ,bulletin ,no4 ,,xv1  
,september1 #aiad4     ,transcriber's   
,notes3  ,passages in italics are       
indicated by italics4  ,passages in bold
 are indicated by bold4  ,superscripted 
characters are indicated by superscript4
  ,subscripted characters are indicated 
by subscript4  ,the original text       
contains a few letters with diacritical 
marks that are not represented in this  
text version4  ,the original text       
contains male and female symbols4 ,these
 are represented as male and female4