,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,i ,section of the ,holy ,carpet of the ,mosque of ,ardebil1 in the ,royal ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington1 ,london4 ,described on ,pages #hc and #hd4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,holy ,,carpet ,,of ,,the ,,mosque ,,at ,,ardebil1 ,size3 #cd ft4 #f in4 by #ag ft4 #f in4 ,,translation ,,of ,,inscription4 ,i have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold1 ,my head has no protection other than this porchway2 ,the work of the ,slave of this ,holy ,place4 ,maksoud of ,kashan4 #idf ,a4 ,h4 #aedj ,a4 ,d4 ,,formerly ,,in ,,the ,,possession ,,of ,,vincent ,,robinson ,,co41 ,,ltd41 #cd ,,wigmore ,,street1 ,,london1 ,w41 ,and ,sold by them in #ahib to ,,the ,,royal ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,,south ,,kensington1 ,,london4 ,,oriental ,,rugs ,,antique ,,and ,,modern ,,by ,,walter ,a4 ,,hawley ,,with ,,eleven ,,full-,,page ,,plates ,,in ,,colour ,,eighty ,,half-,,tone ,,engravings ,,and ,,four ,,maps ,,new ,,york ,,dodd1 ,,mead ,,and ,,company #aibg ,,copyright1 #aiac ,,by ,,john ,,lane ,,company ,printed in ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,preface ,,since the appearance1 in #aijj1 of the excellent work of ,mr4 ,john ,kimberly ,mumford on ,oriental ,rugs1 the public interest in these fabrics has so largely increased that the author feels warranted in offering this monograph1 which aims to treat the subject in a way that will not only appeal to the general reader but be of value to the student4 ,in the chapter entitled 8,rug ,weaving ,before the ,,xviii ,century0 is a brief review of some of the notable achievements in this branch of art2 and in order that the public may as far as possible have access to the masterpieces described1 the carpets on exhibition in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art in ,new ,york have been given unusual prominence4 ,the chapters on 8,how to ,distinguish ,rugs0 and on 8,purchasing ,rugs0 should prove serviceable to those who are collecting or are buying for use2 and the chapter on 8,weaving0 contains many details which have not previously received from connoisseurs the consideration they deserve4 ,the descriptions of all but the least important classes of rugs in the ,persian1 ,asia ,minor1 ,caucasian1 and ,central ,asiatic groups include not only a general statement of their most striking features1 but also a technical analysis that is termed 8,type ,characteristics40 ,it should be understood1 however1 that these characteristics are not invariable1 but are remarkably constant4 ,they may interest chiefly those who aim to acquire expert information1 yet they will doubtlessly prove valuable to every owner of a rug as a means for its identification4 ,it would be difficult to acknowledge all the assistance received by the author since he began the study of rugs2 for sometimes a mere suggestion has started a line of investigation resulting in interesting discoveries4 ,he has freely consulted well-known authorities1 who are quoted in the body of the work2 and has received valuable suggestions and assistance from ,messrs4 ,t4 ,s4 ,hawley1 of ,santa ,barbara1 ,cal41 ,george ,harootunian and ,frank ,loftus1 of ,los ,angeles1 ,cal42 ,george ,stevenson1 of ,new ,york2 ,g4 ,graf1 of the ,persische ,teppiche ,gesellschaft1 of ,tabriz2 and ,p4 de ,andrea ,co41 of ,constantinople4 ,he gratefully acknowledges the permission of ,messrs4 ,c4 ,f4 ,williams1 of ,norristown1 ,penn41 and ,james ,f4 ,ballard1 of ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 to study their valuable collections2 and the permission of ,dr4 ,wilhelm ,r4 ,valentiner1 ,curator of ,decorative ,arts in the ,metropolitan ,museum in ,new ,york1 to examine the carpets of the museum and to take photographs of them4 ,he also wishes particularly to mention the kindness of the following collectors and firms who have allowed their rugs to be used for illustrations3 ,miss ,emily ,davis1 of ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y42 the ,misses ,palache1 and ,messrs4 ,nathan ,bentz and ,t4 ,s4 ,hawley1 of ,santa ,barbara1 ,cal42 ,mr4 ,r4 ,y4 ,struble1 of ,fredericktown1 ,ohio2 ,mr4 ,e4 ,l4 ,pierce1 of ,syracuse1 ,n4,y42 ,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,merritt1 of ,pasadena1 ,cal42 ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,ballard1 of ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,williams1 of ,norristown1 ,penn42 ,major ,l4 ,b4 ,lawton1 ,u4,s4,a41 of ,seneca ,falls1 ,n4,y42 ,messrs4 ,mihran ,co41 of ,los ,angeles1 ,cal42 ,messrs4 ,b4 ,altman ,co41 ,benguiat ,keresey1 ,wm4 ,baumgarten ,co41 ,jones ,brindisi1 ,jos4 ,wild ,co41 ,w4 ,j4 ,sloane1 and the ,tiffany ,studios1 of ,new ,york ,city4 ,he is also indebted to ,vincent ,robinson ,co41 ,ltd41 of ,london1 for the use of the colour plate of the ,royal ,garden ,carpet1 now owned by them1 and to the ,royal ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington1 ,london1 for permission to obtain a colour plate of the ,holy ,carpet of the ,mosque of ,ardebil4 ,,walter ,a4 ,,hawley4 ,,new ,,york1 ,june1 #aiac4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,,introduction #ae ,,ii ,,physical ,,features ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,rug-,,producing ,,lands #bj ,,iii ,,materials #cj ,,iv ,,dyeing #cg ,v ,,weaving #dd ,,vi ,,designs ,,and ,,symbols #eh ,,vii ,,rug ,,weaving ,,before ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century #gd ,,viii ,,classification ,,of ,,modern ,,rugs #ig ,,ix ,,persian ,,rugs #ajb ,x ,,asia ,,minor ,,rugs #afc ,,xi ,,caucasian ,,rugs #aig ,,xii ,,central ,,asiatic ,,rugs #bcc ,,xiii ,,indian ,,rugs #bec ,,xiv ,,chinese ,,rugs #bfc ,,xv ,,kilims #bgf ,,xvi ,,how ,,to ,,distinguish ,,rugs #bhb ,,xvii ,,purchasing ,,rugs #bie ,,index #cji ,,illustrations ,,coloured ,,plates ,,plate ,i ,the ,holy ,carpet of the ,mosque of ,ardebil ,frontispiece ,,opposite ,,page ,,ii ,oushak ,carpet #dj ,,iii ,mosul ,rug #ff ,,iv ,bergamo ,rug #ajb ,v ,ghiordes ,prayer ,rug #acj ,,vi ,royal ,persian ,garden ,carpet ,between pages #afj and #afa ,,vii ,ladik ,prayer ,rug #aij ,,viii ,soumak ,rug #baj ,,ix ,samarkand ,rug #bdj ,x ,kang-hi ,rug #bgj ,,xi ,keen-lung ,rug #cjj ,,half-,,tone ,,engravings ,plate #a ,khorassan ,rug #bb 0 #b ,meshed ,rug #bf 0 #c ,kirman ,rug #cj 0 #d ,shiraz ,rug #cd 0 #e ,niris ,rug #cf 0 #f ,feraghan ,rug #db 0 #g ,feraghan ,rug #df 0 #h ,hamadan ,rug #eb 0 #i ,sarouk ,rug #ef 0 #aj ,sarabend ,rug #eh 0 #aa ,carpet from ,northwestern ,persia #fd 0 #ab ,carpet from ,northwestern ,persia #fh 0 #ac ,compartment ,carpet #gj 0 #ad ,persian ,animal ,carpet #gb 0 #ae ,persian ,animal ,carpet #gf 0 #af ,persian ,animal ,carpet #gh 0 #ag ,so-called ,polish or ,polonaise ,carpet #hj 0 #ah ,so-called ,ispahan #hd 0 #ai ,armenian ,carpet #hf 0 #bj ,asia ,minor ,dragon and ,phnix ,carpet #hh 0 #ba ,portrait of ,georg ,gyze by ,hans ,holbein #ib 0 #bb ,oushak ,carpet #id 0 #bc ,sehna ,rug #ih ,map of ,persia #ajd 0 #bd ,bijar ,rug #ajf 0 #be ,kermanshah ,rug #aaj 0 #bf ,kurdistan ,rug with ,mina ,khani ,pattern #aad 0 #bg ,gorevan ,rug #aah 0 #bh ,bergamo ,prayer ,rug #abb 0 #bi ,ghiordes ,prayer ,rug #abf 0 #cj ,ghiordes ,rug #acb 0 #ca ,kulah ,prayer ,rug #acf 0 #cb ,melez ,prayer ,rug #adj 0 #cc ,melez ,rug #add 0 #cd ,rhodian ,rug #adh 0 #ce ,konieh ,prayer ,rug #aeb 0 #cf ,kir-,shehr ,prayer ,rug #aed 0 ,e ,primary ,border-,stripes of ,persian ,rugs #aef 0 ,f ,secondary ,border-,stripes of ,persian ,rugs #aeh ,map of ,asia ,minor #afd 0 #cg ,anatolian ,prayer ,rug #aff 0 #ch ,mudjar ,prayer ,rug #afh 0 #ci ,daghestan ,prayer ,rug #agb 0 #dj ,kabistan ,rug #agf 0 #da ,kuba ,rug #ahj 0 #db ,chichi ,rug #ahd 0 #dc ,tcherkess ,rug #ahh 0 ,g ,primary ,border-,stripes of ,asia ,minor ,rugs #aib 0 ,h ,secondary ,border-,stripes of ,asia ,minor ,rugs #aid ,map of ,caucasia #aih 0 #dd ,baku ,rug #bjj 0 #de ,shirvan ,rug #bjb 0 #df ,soumak ,rug #bjd 0 #dg ,kazak ,prayer ,rug #bjh 0 #dh ,kazak ,rug #bab 0 #di ,karabagh ,prayer ,rug #bad 0 #ej ,gengha ,prayer ,rug #bah 0 #ea ,royal ,bokhara ,rug #bbb 0 #eb ,princess ,bokhara ,rug #bbd 0 ,i ,primary ,border-,stripes of ,caucasian ,rugs #bbf 0 ,j ,primary ,border-,stripes of ,caucasian ,rugs #bbh 0 ,k ,secondary ,border-,stripes of ,caucasian ,rugs #bcj ,map of ,turkestan #bcd 0 #ec ,turkoman ,rug with ,katchli ,pattern #bcf 0 #ed ,turkoman ,rug with ,pind ,pattern #bch 0 #ee ,turkoman ,rug of the ,salor ,tribes #bdd 0 #ef ,yomud ,rug #bdh 0 ,l ,primary and ,secondary ,border-,stripes of ,central ,asiatic ,rugs #bej 0 #eg ,beshire ,prayer ,rug #bed 0 #eh ,beshire ,rug #beh 0 #ei ,afghan ,rug #bfj 0 #fj ,beluchistan ,prayer ,rug #bfd 0 #fa ,turkoman ,saddle-bags #bfh 0 ,m ,medallions in ,chinese ,rugs #bgb 0 ,n ,primary and ,secondary ,border-,stripes of ,chinese ,rugs4 #bgd 0 #fb ,srinagar ,rug #bgh 0 #fc ,,xviii ,century ,chinese ,rug #bhb 0 #fd ,keen-lung ,rug #bhf 0 #fe ,keen-lung ,rug #bib 0 #ff ,kurdish ,prayer ,kilim #bif ,,black ,,and ,,white ,,engravings ,plate ,a ,an ,upright ,loom #de 0 ,b ,technicalities of ,weaving #di 0 ,c ,prayer ,arches of ,persian1 ,caucasian1 and ,centra ,asiatic ,rugs #fa 0 ,d ,prayer ,arches of ,asia ,minor ,rugs #fc 0 ,o ,general ,designs #bia ,,charts ,periods when ,antique ,carpets were made #if ,technicalities in the weave of ,persian ,rugs #afa ,technicalities in the weave of ,persian ,rugs #afb ,technicalities in the weave of ,asia ,minor ,rugs #aif ,technicalities in the weave of ,caucasian ,rugs #bcb ,technicalities in the weave of ,central ,asiatic ,rugs #beb ,,oriental ,,rugs ,,antique ,,and ,,modern ,,oriental ,,rugs ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,,it is not altogether surprising that in a most materialistic age many of a race distinguished more for its utilitarian than artistic accomplishments should fail to see in ,oriental carpets high artistic expression2 yet during the last twenty years choice specimens have been sold for sums which not only are very large1 but show a tendency to increase with each succeeding year4 ,in #ahic a woollen rug1 known as the ,ardebil carpet and regarded1 on account of its beautiful designs and exquisite colours1 as one of the finest products of ,oriental art1 was purchased for the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,since it had a length of thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half1 the price of #bejj1 which was the sum paid1 was at the rate of twenty dollars per square foot4 ,at an auction sale in ,new ,york in #aiaj1a a woollen rug five and a half feet long by three and three quarters wide was sold for the sum of #aj1bjj1 or at the rate of four hundred and ninety-one dollars per square foot2 and a silk rug seven feet and two inches long by six feet and four inches wide was sold for the sum of #ce1ejj1 or at the rate of nine hundred and thirty dollars per square foot4 ,as it was the general opinion of connoisseurs that the prices paid for these two rugs were low1 and as it is well known that these rugs are not more valuable than some others of equal size1 it is not unreasonable to assume that many of the best judges of ,oriental rugs would declare that at the present time the sum of five hundred dollars per square foot is a fair price for some antique woollen rugs1 and the sum of one thousand dollars per square foot a fair price for some antique silk rugs4 ,if these judges were asked on what they based their opinion of the value of these old pieces1 which are less serviceable for wear than new rugs that can be bought of an ,american factory at twenty cents per square foot1 they might with reason reply that they are works of art1 woven in those days when ,michelangelo1 ,titian1 ,rubens1 and ,rembrandt were busy in their studios2 that they are as scarce as the paintings of these masters2 and that they might justly be compared with them in beauty and artistic execution4 ,though granting that the technique of weaving makes it impossible to represent a design as perfectly as can be done with a brush1 they would claim that the drawing of dainty vines1 scrolls1 and arabesques was often represented by lines that in abstract beauty of form are unsurpassed1 and that no artist had ever produced from his palette colours which equalled in brilliant sheen and marvellously changing hue those of the woven masterpieces4 ,whoever is inclined to disagree with these judges and with those art critics of ,europe and ,america who assert that in an aesthetic sense the people of the ,orient are cultured to a standard beyond the comprehension of the ,western world1 should remember that the taste for any kind of art is based on convention and is largely a matter of cultivation4 ,the ,occidental1 who for generations has cultivated the taste for paintings and statuary1 looks to the painter and sculptor for the highest expression of artistic genius2 but the ,oriental takes greater delight in his marvellous creations of porcelain or woven fabrics4 ,there is1 too1 a marked difference in treatment4 ,the ,occidental demands that in art 8everything should be stated with the utmost fullness of a tedious realism before he can grasp its meaning0#b and fails to recognise the more subtle beauty of various forms of ,oriental art4 ,the ,oriental1 on the other hand1 is far less realistic and is better satisfied if his subject suggests abstract qualities that depend for their fullest appreciation on those quickening experiences that at different times have touched the soul of the observer4 ,moreover1 as ,buddhism1 which prevails in many of the countries of ,asia1 teaches that a universal spirit is manifested in each form of nature1 determining its character1 and a similar idea pervades other religions of the ,east1 the highest aim of ,asiatic art is to express that inner spirit4 ,it is largely this difference in artistic cultivation that accounts for the difference in taste4 ,whoever then would fully appreciate these rugs must view them not only with an eye trained to see the beautiful harmonies of colour and design1 but with the artistic temperament of the ,oriental4 ,by study and cultivation the ,european as well as the ,american is growing to value more highly the products of ,oriental art4 ,when the old sea captains carried on trade with ,japan1 they imported into ,europe large quantities of ,imari ware1 which the ,japanese purposely decorated with crude and vulgar colours to meet the less refined taste of the ,europeans1 who regarded many of them as fine specimens of ceramic art and studiously copied them in their factories4 ,but so great has been the change in artistic taste since then that now they are valued principally as objects of curiosity4 ,likewise1 many beautiful ,japanese ,makimonos1 in which a few strong lines gave but a hint of the essential thought1 formerly passed before the eyes of ,europeans as the paintings of semi-barbarians4 ,but now we begin to see1 as did ,whistler1 that they are often the products of great genius and that they express thought and feeling with marvellous power4 ,there has been a similar growth in the appreciation of ,oriental rugs4 ,even within the last generation this growth has been apparent1 so that the few who wisely bought those old worn pieces which thirty years ago hung at doors of little shops where dark-faced foreigners invited acquaintance1 are now the envy of the many who1 too late1 have learned that to-day they can scarcely be bought at any price4 ,the more we study the several fields of art in the ,orient1 the better we realise the wonderful creative genius of its people and learn to value the products of any one field4 ,japan has awakened the admiration of the highest art critics for its bronzes1 some of which exceed in size any other castings in the world1 and for its netsuks1 which are the smallest of carvings4 ,its blades of steel are superior to those of ,damascus and ,toledo2 and its lacquer1 which is the most wonderful of its artistic products1 displays genius of a very high order4 ,to ,china1 a country that we often regard as barbarous1 we owe the invention of silks1 the printing press1 and gunpowder2 yet it is in porcelain1 that was manufactured even in those days when ,caesar was marching with his legions against the barbarous races of ,central and ,northern ,europe1 that ,china has surpassed the world and set a standard that probably will never again be reached4 ,in the land where glide the ,indus and the ,ganges stand temples1 erected by the descendants of the house of ,tamerlane1 before which the beholder1 even if familiar with the wonders of ,st4 ,peter's1 is lost in admiration of the intricate delicacy of detail1 the majesty of proportions1 and the gorgeous splendour of colour with which some of the spirit of the ,east is expressed in material form4 ,when we realise that in these different lines of artistic effort the genius of ,asia has rivalled and surpassed that of ,europe and ,america1 we become the better prepared to believe that choice specimens of woven fabrics1 in weaving which every class of every country of ,asia has been engaged from time immemorial1 are to be regarded as works of the highest art4 ,however pleasing the design or elaborate the detail1 it is principally in the colouring that these rugs claim our interest and admiration4 ,the colours which are derived from vegetable or animal dyes grow more mellow and beautiful with passing years1 and applied to wools of finest texture acquire a lustre and softness which in the choicest specimens are like the radiant throat of a humming bird1 or tints at the close of an autumn day4 ,the different shades have different moods1 expressing peace1 joy1 pensiveness1 sorrow1 the deep meaning of which the ,oriental mind with its subtle and serious imagination has grasped as has none other4 ,moreover1 in all truly fine pieces there is perfect harmony of tone4 ,it is in this richness1 suggestiveness1 and harmony that the greatest artistic value lies4 ,that all do not appreciate these qualities is not because they do not exist2 for the keen perception of colour1 like the keen perception of music1 is a faculty granted to one person but denied to another4 ,even to those who take delight in colour there are different degrees of appreciation4 8,the fact is10 said ,john ,ruskin1 8we none of us enough appreciate the nobleness and sacredness of colour40 ,but as the ear can be cultivated to a higher taste for music1 so can the eye be cultivated to a higher taste for colour2 and to fully appreciate the beauties of ,oriental rugs it is necessary to develop this faculty to its fullest extent4 ,and yet it is not alone as works of art that ,oriental rugs interest us4 ,they suggest something of the life and religious thought of the people who made them4 ,some seem redolent with the fragrance of flowers1 others reflect the spirit of desert wastes and wind-swept steppes4 ,so1 too1 in the colours and designs of some appear the symbols of that mysticism with which the minds of the followers of ,zoroaster in their effort to commune with the unseen forces of the universe were imbued2 and though the original meaning of many of these symbols has been forgotten1 the study of others leads to a better understanding of the life-thought of the weavers4 ,realising1 then1 that ,asia has been the cradle from which has come the highest expression of many forms of artistic achievement1 and that the ,western mind is now assigning to its woven fabrics their proper place in the galleries of art1 we may begin the study of ,oriental rugs with the assurance that the further it is pursued the greater will be the appreciation and delight4 ,it will take us among strange and interesting people1 and over fields that were historic grounds before the walls of ,rome were built4 ,it will lead beyond the dome of ,st4 ,sophia to the land of the ,arabian tales1 where the splendour of former days is reflected in tomb and mosque1 and where1 perhaps1 when the ,western world grows old1 there will rise again from crumbling ruins another nation that will revive the poetic and artistic genius of the ,east with all the majesty and creative power of the past4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,physical ,,features ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,rug-,,producing ,,lands ,,the artistic character of ,oriental rugs1 like every other artistic impulse1 is subject to the influence of physical environment4 ,this influence is not alone that to which an individual weaver has been subjected1 but is the transmitted effect of the accumulated experiences of many generations4 ,it appears in the colours which simulate tones displayed by varying phases of nature1 and also in the designs or symbols which1 derived from older types by a long process of evolution1 partially reflect feelings engendered in a people of highly imaginative and poetic temperament by long contact with elemental forces4 ,moreover1 the quality of material used depends almost exclusively on the climate and physical conditions of countries where it is produced4 ,accordingly1 the artistic and essential characteristics of rugs are better understood by a knowledge of the salient physical features of the countries where they are woven4#c ,the principal ,oriental countries that continue to produce rugs are ,china1 ,india1 ,afghanistan1 ,beluchistan1 ,persia1 ,turkestan1 ,caucasia1 and ,asia ,minor4 ,as all of them are contiguous1 they may be regarded as a geographic unit2 and though there is much diversity of detail1 there is also much in common4 ,from near the western boundary of ,asia ,minor a vast plateau stretches eastward into ,central ,asia1 increasing in altitude towards the east4 ,its mean elevation in ,asia ,minor is from two thousand to three thousand feet1 and as it extends beyond the ,zagros ,mountains and crosses the northern half of ,persia1 it rises from four thousand to five thousand feet4 ,continuing eastward through ,southern ,turkestan and ,afghanistan it increases in altitude until it has risen to nearly twelve thousand feet in the lofty table-lands of ,central ,asia1 where it begins to descend as it extends farther into the desert of ,gobi4 ,from the western part of this plateau a spur extends northward between the ,black and ,caspian seas1 to form the high table-land of ,caucasia1 which has a mean elevation of about seven thousand feet4 ,the general topographic features of this plateau include great stretches of comparatively level land1 broad tracts from which there is no drainage to the sea1 and sandy desert wastes4 ,on almost every side it is bounded by mountain chains and is intersected by transverse ridges that lift still higher peaks where rests the perpetual snow4 ,throughout the deserts and large parts of the table-lands the rainfall is slight1 so that there are but few important river courses4 ,the cultivated portions of this vast area are relatively small1 and consist largely of strips of land in fertile valleys1 through which flow perennial streams4 ,from time immemorial these streams have been used for irrigation1 and the inhabitants of the districts have prospered by abundant harvests4 ,in one or another of these valleys have been built the principal cities1 within the walls of which were imposing temples that stimulated religious fervour1 schools of learning to quicken the intellect1 and gardens where perfumed flowers and the songs of birds delighted the aesthetic senses4 ,in these cities science1 philosophy1 religion1 and art received their highest development4 ,in them lived the most skilled artisans and artists of the ,orient2 and the products of the loom were of the finest quality4 ,beyond these valleys are great stretches of uncultivated tracts consisting of plains1 hills1 and mountains4 ,some of these tracts are naturally fertile and could be made productive1 but at present are used only for pasturage1 and over them numberless tribes of fierce nomads drive their flocks of sheep4 ,on the other hand1 where the land has no drainage to the sea1 so that the streams and rivers that flow into it empty into small lakes or are finally absorbed1 the soil becomes impregnated with alkali deposited from the waters1 and the grass is scanty4 ,there are also sandy wastes of great extent where scarcely any animal life can exist4 ,moreover in many parts of the country the rain falls only during a few months of the year1 and more abundantly in the higher altitudes1 so that the nomads are constantly searching for fresh pasturage1 and moving from the lowlands1 where the grass dies after the rainy season1 to the higher altitudes1 from which they return again at the approach of winter4 ,so numerous are the flocks that in the struggle for pasture the weaker tribes are driven to the poorer land4 ,the pastoral life1 the necessity of moving from place to place1 the strife resulting from the difference in quality of pasture1 have affected the temperament and character of the people4 ,the boundless stretches of land1 the clear atmosphere1 the burning desert sands1 the delicate mirage1 and the starry heavens1 have made men hospitable1 thoughtful1 devotional2 constant wanderings have made them independent2 the struggle for pasturage has made them lawless and cruel4 ,these qualities are reflected to some extent in their woven fabrics1 which lack the high artistic finish of those woven in cities4 ,a large proportion of them are prayer rugs and contain symbols of the sun and fire worship4 ,the designs are barbaric1 and many are doubtless the same as those used hundreds of years ago4 ,the colours of the old pieces1 woven on upland plains or in mountain fastnesses1 blend less harmoniously than those woven by more cultured weavers2 but they frequently possess rich1 pure tones1 which are no longer seen in the modern rugs4 ,as even a partial expression of the thoughts and feelings of a people1 there are no rugs from the ,orient more worthy of study than the rare old pieces woven by nomadic tribes4 ,not only physical environment but the conquests of foreign enemies1 as well as political struggles at home1 have had an important influence on all art4 ,it will be of interest1 therefore1 to briefly review the histories of ,central and ,southwestern ,asia1 where rugs have been made for over three thousand years1 in order to understand the different racial influences which have affected their artistic development4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #a4 ,,khorassan ,,rug ,in the rich valleys near the mouths of the ,tigris and ,euphrates dwelt in the remote past a race of unknown origin called ,sumerians1 and to the north of them lived another people known as the ,accadians4 ,these races built canals1 cultivated the soil1 established towns1 and invented the cuneiform writing4 ,they lived in harmony with one another1 and continued to prosper until about #cjjj ,b4,c41 when the ,semitic race of the ,chaldees1 appearing from an unknown land1 subdued them4 ,the ,chaldees1 however1 allowed the conquered races to retain part of their lands1 adopted their civilisation1 and about the year #bejj ,b4,c4 built the city of ,babylon1 the foundation of which biblical students claim was laid by the mighty hunter ,nimrod4 ,by cultivating the surrounding country1 by developing its trade and commerce1 the ,babylonians became a wealthy and powerful nation2 and by encouraging manufactures1 art1 and science1 they became noted for their delicate fabrics1 magnificent temples1 and knowledge of mathematics and astronomy4 ,about the year #bjjj ,b4,c4 a number of tribesmen1 among whom was ,abraham1 migrated with their flocks to the upper valleys of the ,tigris and founded ,nineveh4 ,a century later the land occupied by colonists who settled about ,nineveh was known as ,assyria4 ,it increased in numbers and in power until1 in #acjj ,b4,c41 it gained its first victory over ,babylon2 and during the next four hundred years1 though meeting with occasional reverses1 it extended its rule over ,babylonia1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,assyria1 and received tribute even from ,egypt4 ,it thus became the first great conquering power in ,southwestern ,asia4 ,in their magnificent palaces of ,nineveh1 surrounded by luxury1 the rulers of ,assyria were resting in supposed security when a powerful and unexpected enemy appeared from the land now known as ,persia4 ,when the valleys of the ,tigris and the ,euphrates were inhabited by ,sumerians and ,accadians1 ,iran1 which included modern ,persia1 was similarly inhabited by races of unknown origin4 ,subsequently1 but at an exceedingly remote period1 from the region about the ,oxus river in ,western ,asia two branches of the great ,aryan family migrated to ,iran4 ,one of these1 which settled in the northern part1 was known as the ,medes2 the other1 which settled in the southern part1 was known as the ,persians4 ,both ,medes and ,persians subdued the native races and in the course of centuries constructed powerful empires4 ,the former were the first to extend their conquests1 and forming an alliance with the viceroy of ,babylon they attacked ,nineveh in the year #fjf ,b4,c4 and destroyed it4 ,babylon now became the mistress of all ,mesopotamia1 and under ,nebuchadnezzar it was enlarged to cover an area of one hundred square miles1 and surrounded by walls three hundred feet high4 ,these walls enclosed parks1 orchards1 gardens1 and a city that soon became famous for its palaces1 its temple of ,bel1 and its ,hanging ,gardens4 ,while ,babylon was rising in power changes were occurring in ,iran4 ,cyrus1 leader of the ,persians1 instigated a revolt against the ,medes and conquered them4 ,but not satisfied with making the ,persians rulers of ,iran he extended his conquests westward1 and in the year #ech ,b4,c41 by diverting the waters of the ,euphrates1 surprised ,belshazzar in his banquet hall and became master of ,babylonia4 ,the complete subjection of all ,asia ,minor followed1 and for the next two centuries the warlike ,persians were the dominant power in ,western ,asia4 ,but in the year #cca ,b4,c41 when ,alexander the ,great defeated their armies under ,darius1 the ,persian ,empire melted away4 ,whether in ,egypt or ,china or by the ,tigris the art of weaving first took definite form1 it was in this land of ,babylon and ,nineveh1 of the ,medes and the ,persians1 of ,abraham1 ,belshazzar1 and ,cyrus1 where a few remaining monuments attest the delicate textiles of those early days1 that in more recent ages have been woven the most perfect carpets of which there is any knowledge4 ,during the succeeding five hundred years ,persia1 ,asia ,minor1 ,caucasia1 and ,syria became the prey of the ,parthians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 to whom petty tribes1 recognising no sovereign power and secure in their mountain fastnesses1 bade occasional defiance4 ,about the year #bbf ,a4 ,d4 an able leader of one of the ,persian tribes founded the dynasty of the ,sassanides1 which during the reign of ,chosroes 7#eca-egi ,a4 ,d47 and his grandson ,chosroes ,,ii 7#eij-fbh ,a4 ,d47 ruled over the country from the ,oxus on the north to ,arabia and ,egypt on the south1 and from ,india on the east to ,assyria on the west4 ,this was a period of prosperity and luxury1 the glory of which continued until the middle of the ,,vii ,century1 when it was overthrown by a new power rising from a most unexpected quarter4 ,in the inhospitable land of ,arabia1 noted for its coffee1 dates1 and myrrh1 for its dreary1 sandy1 waterless wastes1 a land hitherto almost unknown in history1 ,mohammed promulgated the religion which1 suited to the temperament and desires of the ,bedouins1 united them into a fanatic1 militant body of conquerors4 ,after his death his successors1 known as the ,caliphs1 extended his conquests4 ,their successful armies quickly overran ,persia and overthrew the ,sassanian rule2 then marching northward into ,turkestan and as far east as the ,indus they overcame all resistance4 ,from the ,greeks1 by whom they were known as the ,saracens1 they snatched ,palestine and ,syria1 and invading ,egypt1 conquered it after the long stubborn siege of ,alexandria4 ,a little later the ,arabs became masters of ,northern ,africa1 and settling there intermarried with the native races4 ,near the ,straits of ,gibraltar their ,african descendants1 known as the ,moors1 crossed to ,spain1 where in the year #gaa they vanquished a powerful army that opposed them4 ,during the following year they subdued all of that country and began an invasion of ,northern ,europe4 ,but on the rich pasture lands near ,tours1 where the infantry of ,charles ,martel met the ,mussulman cavalry in one of the most decisive battles of history1 they were defeated with terrible slaughter and ,christian ,europe was saved4 ,these conquests of the ,mohammedans had not only a political and religious significance1 but also an important influence on art at a time when ,europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism4 ,fond of magnificence and luxury1 the ,caliphs founded great capitals in ,assyria1 ,egypt1 and ,spain1 and built palaces that have histories which sound like fairy tales4 ,bagdad on the banks of the ,tigris1 with its sixteen hundred canals1 one hundred and five bridges1 and nearly a million people1 with its countless baths1 its many thousand mosques1 and its royal palace1 where was collected the best of ,asiatic taste1 elegance1 and splendour1 possessed more grandeur than any other city in the world4 ,gibbon states that within the palace1 furnished with ,oriental luxury1 hung thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry1 one third of which were of silk embroidered with gold1 and that on the floors lay twenty-two thousand carpets4 ,in ,cairo and in ,cordova1 likewise1 the ,caliphs surrounded themselves with similar splendour1 of which1 unfortunately1 but few traces now exist2 but the ,castle of the ,alhambra still remains as a powerful reminder of their taste and artistic genius4 ,it is largely to the influence of this race that were due many of the beautiful ,spanish rugs such as ,queen ,eleanor in the ,,xiii ,century took to ,england from ,cordova and ,granada1 as well as those of other periods4 ,moreover1 in some of the choicest pieces of ,asia ,minor and ,persia1 woven during the ,,xvi and ,,xvii ,centuries1 are traces of this early ,saracenic art4 ,for about five centuries the militant power of these ,mohammedans was dominant in ,southwestern ,asia when another conquering race appeared4 ,the great wall of ,china1 which was built over two hundred years before ,christ by the famous ,che-,hwang-te1 to protect it against the invasions of the ,tartars1 turned westward many wandering hordes from the more fertile pastures and valleys of ,southeastern ,asia4 ,one of these hordes was of ,turks1 who1 leaving their homes near the sources of the ,irtish and ,yenisei rivers in the ,altai ,mountains1 settled in ,turkestan4 ,many centuries afterwards1 to escape from other hordes pressing westward and to reach fresh pastures1 different branches of them migrated southward and westward4 ,about the year #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 one of these branches known as the ,seljukian ,turks gained a foothold in ,persia1 and under ,malek ,shah1 in #ajgb1 made ,ispahan its capital4 ,about the same time it extended its power over ,asia ,minor and overran ,georgia1 where it destroyed the capital ,tiflis after slaughtering the inhabitants4 ,to this ,turkoman race should probably be accredited the earliest ,mongolian influence on ,persian textile art4 ,somewhat later a people numbering forty thousand tents were ranging that part of ,mongolia which lies north of the desert of ,gobi in search of pasture and water4 ,one of their number gathered about him a few followers1 and by his own genius gained the ascendency over his tribes4 ,he then allied himself with another powerful tribe1 and reducing to obedience all the ,mongolians who dwelt north of the desert of ,gobi1 in #abjf1 in the presence of his chiefs1 he assumed the title of ,genghis ,khan4 ,after becoming the ruler of millions of nomads of the great central plateau of ,asia and conquering part of ,china1 which was then enjoying a period of great wealth and prosperity1 he invaded ,western ,asia4 ,bokhara offered no resistance and might have been spared1 but learning that some of the ,sultan's garrison were concealed he ordered the city to be burned4 ,samarkand1 which surrendered after three days' siege1 was pillaged and the inhabitants were slaughtered4 ,herat appeased his anger by opening its gates4 ,even his death did not stop the ravages of the ,mongol horde that captured and sacked ,bagdad1 and1 crossing the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 pillaged all ,asia ,minor4 ,in #abeh1 ,hulaku ,khan1 grandson of ,genghis1 conquered ,persia and established his capital in the province of ,azerbijan1 where his descendants ruled for over a century4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #b4 ,,meshed ,,rug ,with these invasions another wave of ,mongolian influence was felt in ,western ,asia4 ,whatever may have been the effect on local art by the settlement of the ,seljukian ,turks in ,persia and ,asia ,minor during the early part of the ,,xi ,century1 it was inappreciable as compared with that of ,genghis ,khan and his followers4 ,for the influence of ,bagdad over ,southwestern ,asia was like that of ,rome over the empire of the ,csars1 and when in the middle of the ,,xiii ,century it was plundered for forty days1 and other important cities of ,asia ,minor and ,persia similarly treated1 there was no longer the same incentive to work1 so that art for a time languished4 ,but in some cities the artistic spirit of the people prevailed over the loss of independence1 and the more skilled workmen were encouraged by their new masters1 who1 recognising the beauty of the ,persian carpets1 sent many ,persian artists to ,china and brought many ,chinese artists to ,persia1 that the different races might derive advantages from the instruction of one another4 ,it is therefore not surprising that from this time the influence of ,chinese art has been recognised in the woven fabrics and metal work made in the southwestern part of ,asia4 ,in fact1 the ,chinese motive known as the 8key pattern10 as well as other less familiar designs of distinctly ,mongolian origin1 appeared for the first time in some of the carpets and metal work of this period4 ,like ,turkestan1 ,asia ,minor has been one of the great battle-grounds of the world4 ,during parts of the ,,xi1 ,,xii1 and ,,xiii ,centuries not only ,seljukian ,turks1 but ,mongols and ,ottoman ,turks under ,murad and ,bajazet1 rose in influence until all ,asia ,minor1 as well as ,thrace and ,macedonia1 was subject to them4 ,but still another power from the far ,east was to overrun ,asia and divert ,bajazet from the walls of ,constantinople4 ,under ,tamerlane1 the descendant of ,genghis ,khan1 the ,mongol hordes were again united and again attempted the conquest of the world4 ,from the walls of ,china to the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and from the ,steppes of ,turkestan to the ,arabian deserts1 his victorious armies overcame all opposition4 ,never was conqueror more rapacious1 more bloodthirsty4 ,at ,ispahan1 seventy thousand inhabitants were slain4 ,georgia was laid waste and the people were massacred4 ,in #adja1 ,bagdad was besieged and1 when taken1 a pyramid of ninety thousand human victims was raised as a monument to the ,tartar conqueror4 ,in the following year1 when the armies of ,bajazet and ,tamerlane met on the plains near ,angora1 the ,turks were defeated and ,bajazet was captured4 ,but now the tide of ,mongol invasion receded2 and laden with spoils ,tamerlane returned to his capital at ,samarkand1 where he enjoyed the remaining years of his life by surrounding himself with a brilliant court and by building palaces and temples1 which he adorned with royal splendour4 ,with all his atrocious barbarities he had a higher appreciation of art than his ,mongolian predecessors4 ,at his capital were assembled skilled artisans from ,eastern and ,western ,asia2 and there at the beginning of the ,,xiv ,century ,european travellers saw innumerable art treasures1 including carpets of wonderful workmanship and beauty4 ,the ,mongol power also gained an important foothold in ,india4 ,this country1 like ,iran1 had been subjugated by a branch of the ,aryan race1 which conquered the native ,dravidians1 and remained dominant until the ,,vii and ,,viii ,centuries4 ,then the ,mohammedans invaded it1 and were still in ascendency when ,tamerlane crossed the mountains and attacked ,delhi4 ,after the lapse of more than a hundred years his descendants1 ,baber1 ,akbar1 and ,shah ,jahan1 rose to power4 ,the magnificence of their courts and the splendour of the temples which they built stimulated ,indian art2 and under the instruction of ,persian artisans1 who were induced to settle in that country1 the natives attained their highest skill in weaving4 ,with the death of ,tamerlane1 in #adje1 the ,ottoman power in ,persia and ,asia ,minor rose again1 and ,turkish victories followed in quick succession until in #adec ,constantinople fell and the church of ,st4 ,sophia became a mosque4 ,after the lapse of half a century ,shah ,ismael of the family of the ,safavids defeated the ,turkomans in #aejb1 and founded a new dynasty in ,persia4 ,with his rise began one of the most splendid periods in its history4 ,within a few years victories extended his empire from the ,euphrates river to ,afghanistan and from the ,oxus to the ,persian gulf4 ,this was the land of ancient ,iran1 over which from his court at ,ardebil he ruled until his death4 ,in the early part of the reign of ,shah ,tamasp1 which lasted from #aebd to #aegf1 the new dynasty was threatened by the ,turkish ruler1 ,soliman the ,magnificent1 after he had taken ,rhodes from the ,knights of ,st4 ,john and invaded ,southern ,europe4 ,in #aecd he captured ,bagdad and ,tabriz1 as well as conquered ,shirvan and ,georgia4#d ,but the lost territory was soon regained and the new ,persian capital was established at ,tabriz where1 as will be seen later1 were woven many of the greatest masterpieces of ,persian textile fabrics4 ,much as these monarchs had accomplished1 it was ,shah ,abbas the ,great who1 after ten years of internal strife1 succeeded by expelling the ,turks from ,persia1 restoring tranquillity1 and establishing commerce1 in elevating his country from one of devastation and confusion to one of greatness such as it had not known for many ages4 ,he transferred his court to ,ispahan1 where1 while adding to the magnificence of the city1 he encouraged art even to the extent of sending to ,italy1 for study1 a number of the most skilled artists of ,persia4 ,these in time returned and exerted an influence that appeared in the more elaborate designs of carpets of a subsequent period4 ,it is also probable that he rendered valuable assistance to ,akbar of ,india in founding carpet-weaving in that country4 ,he ruled from #aehf to #afbh4 ,this period1 during which ,america was a wilderness and ,england under ,queen ,elizabeth was still struggling with the feudal system1 was the golden age of ,persian history and ,persian art2 but with his death the ,safavid dynasty declined and art decadence began4 ,in #agbb1 the ,afghans conquered ,persia and for a number of years ruled it with horrible cruelty2 but they were finally defeated by ,nadir ,shah1 who captured ,herat in #agca1 extended his dominion into ,georgia1 and recovered some of the lost territory from the ,turkish ,empire in the ,west4 ,after his death the sovereignty of ,persia again waned1 until in time it was confined to its present limits4 ,it thus appears that from the earliest times recorded in history the southwestern part of ,asia has been subject to invasion1 and to constant struggles between the different races of the ,east for supremacy4 ,even from the desert of ,gobi1 the flanks of the ,altai ,mountains1 and the deserts of ,arabia have poured forth armies to devastate the land4 ,one victorious power after another has extended its sway from the banks of the ,indus to the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the result is that the present ,oriental textile art is of a composite character1 which can be understood only by taking into consideration the value of these racial influences that have contributed to it some of its most interesting and subtle charms4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,materials ,,as was the case with the earliest shepherd weavers1 many nomads living in unfrequented parts of ,asia spin the wool taken from their own flocks1 then colour it with dyes brewed from roots and herbs that they have personally gathered1 and finally weave it according to well-known patterns into fabrics4 ,but in large1 enlightened communities the manufacture of an ,oriental rug involves a division of labour4 ,from the shepherds the professional dyers obtain the wool1 which1 after colouring1 they sell to weavers2 and these in turn often receive their patterns from others4 ,a knowledge of these separate steps involving the industries of producing the different materials and the crafts of dyeing1 weaving1 and designing is essential to a full understanding of any ,oriental woven fabric4 ,the materials that were formerly used in weaving were generally of animal origin1 such as the wool of sheep1 goats1 and camels4 ,to a more limited extent silk and cotton also were used1 and occasionally hair of the yak1 cow1 and even human hair4 ,in later years1 when there arose a western demand for eastern fabrics so that the aim of the weaver was to produce an article as cheaply as possible1 flax1 hemp1 jute1 and larger quantities of cotton were sometimes substituted4 ,since all of these materials are indigenous to the country where they are used1 and are affected by its climate1 altitude1 humidity1 and fertility1 they acquire qualities that frequently give to rugs a distinctly local character4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #c4 ,,kirman ,,rug ,the wool of sheep constitutes the warp and weft of at least half the ,oriental rugs and the pile of over ninety per cent4 ,to be sure1 in ,japan the pile is largely jute and cotton2 in a few of the districts of ,asia ,minor and ,persia it is mercerised cotton or silk2 and in districts where the camel is still a beast of burden its wool and fine hair are often substituted for other kinds2 but throughout all the rug-weaving countries of the ,east the wool of the sheep has been and still is preferred to all other materials for the pile of rugs4 ,this is due not alone to its warmth1 to the facility with which it can be spun and twisted into knots1 but also to the fact that from the remotest times the inhabitants of these districts1 like ,abraham of old1 have been shepherds1 who followed their calling because over the steppes of ,tartary and the great plateaus that extend through ,asia ,minor1 ,persia1 ,afghanistan1 and ,turkestan spread vast pasture lands that seem better suited than any other parts of the world for the nourishment of sheep with fine fleeces4 ,in fact1 a part of these districts seems to be the natural habitat of the sheep2 for among the crags of some of the lofty mountain chains of ,central ,asia1 and farther west where ,eastern and ,western ,turkestan meet in the lofty plateau of ,pamir1 called the 8,roof of the ,world10 still wander great bands of magnificent native sheep with enormous horns and brownish grey wool1 from which it is believed sprang the vast flocks that now browse on every hill and mountain slope of ,western ,asia4 ,centuries of care have effected an important evolution in this native stock1 for in no other part of the world are there sheep with longer and more silky fleeces4 ,nevertheless there are different grades1 as the quality depends in a measure on the climate and pasturage as well as on the care of the sheep4 ,thus in the hot1 sandy lands the wool shows some deterioration2 but in the cold1 dry climates of the many high lands of ,western ,asia and in the pastures of particular localities the wool is long1 fine1 and lustrous4 ,for instance1 in parts of ,khorassan1 on the flanks of high mountains near ,kirman and ,shiraz1 on the shores of ,lake ,niris in ,farsistan1 among the rolling uplands of ,asia ,minor1 are produced uncommonly fine and beautiful fleeces4 ,when1 moreover1 the sheep of these localities receive the care that is given by some of the nomadic tribes1 as the ,uzbeck ,tartars1 who not only shelter them but cover them with blankets1 the wool acquires a soft and silky quality that is unsurpassed4 ,the wool produced in many parts of ,india1 on the other hand1 is poor2 for not only are the serrations1 on which largely depends its value for textile purposes1 less numerous than in better varieties1 but it is harsh and contains many long hairs that do not well unite with it and that take up very little dye4 ,the wool of the goat is much less extensively used1 yet appears in some rugs1 not only as warp and weft1 but also as pile4 ,the goats of ,kashmir1 which live in the cold climate of a table-land three miles above the ocean level1 produce the finest and most beautiful wool2 but as it grows near the skin1 and beneath wiry hairs from which it can be removed only with tedious care1 it is too precious to be used excepting for the most beautiful shawls and choicest carpets4 ,of next importance and finest texture is the wool of the ,angora goat1 known to commerce as mohair4 ,formerly there was not much demand for it1 but now1 on account of the consideration that it has received in the carpet factories of recent ,sultans1 it is found in many of the rugs of ,asia ,minor4 ,as it grows to an average length of five to six inches it is easily spun2 and its soft1 lustrous sheen gives to the rugs in which it is used a silky and brilliant appearance4 ,some of the ,bokhara goats1 also1 yield fine wool that is used in rugs4 ,yet1 as a rule1 yarn made from the fleece of the goat is not regarded with favour by weavers1 since it is apt to be coarse and to pack closely4 ,nor does the wool of the goat mix well with the wool of the sheep4 ,there is1 however1 a much finer grade growing next to the skin1 which may be removed with a knife when it is exposed by combing the longer fleece in a direction reverse to that in which it lies4 ,the tougher grades are preferred to any other material by weavers of the ,afghanistan1 ,beluchistan1 and some ,turkoman rugs for selvages at the sides1 as they afford excellent protection against hard usage4 ,goat's hair is also sometimes used in these rugs for warp4 ,unless mixed with wool it is very rarely used for weft1 as it is not sufficiently pliable4 ,of more frequent use than the wool of the goat is the wool of the camel which grows close to the skin beneath the long hair4 ,in the tropical countries1 as in ,soudan1 the camel has no wool1 but in more northern latitudes it yields a crop which increases in quantity and improves in quality as the climate grows colder4 ,thus in ,arabia1 ,asia ,minor1 and in most of ,persia and ,turkestan the yield is small1 in the table-lands of ,eastern ,persia and ,afghanistan it is much larger1 and on the lofty plateaus of ,turkestan and ,chinese ,tartary as much as ten pounds of wool is obtained yearly from each beast4 ,the clip is taken at the usual moulting season during the spring of the year4 ,the wool of the older camels is coarse and dark1 what is taken from the young is finer and lighter1 and the most silky and valuable of all is what is obtained from the unborn4 ,the best grade has been more highly esteemed than the wool of any other animal1 and rugs in which it constitutes the pile are more valuable than those in which the wool of sheep is used4 ,it is seldom woven in modern rugs1 but dyed wool or goats' hair of similar colour is often substituted for it4 ,the wool or underhair of the yak is used only among the mountain tribes of ,tartary1 and is never found in any of the choicer grades of rugs4 ,occasionally the hair of the horse or cow is employed to a limited extent in the pile of nomadic rugs1 where it may be distinguished by its coarse and wiry character4 ,in old rugs of which the pile is much worn cows' hair will now and then protrude like the hairs of small bristle brushes4 ,only very rarely is human hair seen in a rug4 ,natural colours of the several kinds of wool1 which have made it possible to dispense with their dyeing1 have always been taken advantage of by weavers4 ,the only black yarn on which the wear of time has left no impress is from the fleece of the proverbially despised black sheep4 ,shades of white1 ivory1 brown1 grey1 rufus1 and even a plum are obtained from different varieties4 ,likewise a wide range of rich chestnut colours are furnished by the camel4 ,it is but natural that the nomad should depend on the wool of his flocks and herds for warp1 weft1 and pile2 but people of fixed habitations have employed other kinds of material also4 ,where the sensuous luxury of the ,east called for magnificent carpets1 they were often woven almost entirely of silk1 which was easily obtained1 as silkworms thrive on the mulberry trees that grow wild on the plains of ,central and ,southwestern ,asia4 ,silk rugs are still woven in a few cities of ,asia ,minor and ,persia4 ,for the cheaper grades of rugs flax1 hemp1 and jute have been sparingly used2 and during recent years cotton has been widely adopted1 particularly in ,persian1 ,indian1 and ,chinese rugs1 on account of its cheapness as compared with wool4 ,it is1 however1 almost entirely as warp and weft and rarely as pile that it is used4 ,though much less durable than wool1 its white colour is far less likely to darken with age2 yet there is a poorer variety which1 after being thoroughly wet1 acquires a dark colour4 ,in the preparation of these different textile materials wool requires the greatest care4 ,in some parts of the ,orient it is not washed1 and the lustrous hues of the pile are attributed to the fact that it is dyed in its naturally greasy state2 but in other parts the grease and dirt are carefully removed4 ,this cleansing is a craft that has been transmitted from parent to child1 and is practised according to different methods in different parts of the country4 ,one of the chief essentials is an abundance of clear running water free from alkali2 for when the water is hard1 as is often the case in the more arid parts of the country1 it loses some of its cleansing properties1 and potash or other chemicals are required to counter-act this unfavourable quality4 ,after the wool has been thoroughly washed it is carefully dried in the sun and open air4 ,the next important step is the proper sorting1 picking1 and combing4 ,the sorting consists of the separation of black and light wool1 or of an inferior from a better grade2 and the picking consists of the removal of burrs or foreign particles4 ,the object of combing is to effect an orderly arrangement of the wool so that it is ready for spinning4 ,one method1 corresponding to carding1 is to draw the wool repeatedly between rows of upright spikes set in a wooden frame until every matted particle has been separated and all the fibres are disentangled4 ,the older method1 still employed in nearly every part of the ,orient1 consists of 8teasing0 with the cord of a heavy bow1 which is suspended or held firmly by the left hand over the wool1 while with the right hand the cord is made to vibrate either by striking it with a wooden instrument or plucking it1 so that the fibres of wool are separated and assorted by the vibrations4 ,when the wool has thus been prepared1 it is wound about the distaff and then spun into yarn4 ,in many parts of the ,orient the common spinning-wheel has been introduced and adopted for both wool and cotton2 in other parts are crudely made spinning-wheels of different design and about the height of a man4 ,the natives of districts more remote from civilisation still cling to the primeval spindle1 which sometimes consists of no more than a rounded stick half an inch in diameter and a foot in length with a ball of clay at one end4 ,many of the nomadic tribes of ,asia ,minor and ,mesopotamia use in place of it a small stone of convenient shape1 to which is tied a strip of linen a few inches in length4 ,a few fibres of wool are attached to the end of the linen by twisting them about it1 and a few more fibres are similarly attached to these when the stone is suspended and twirled4 ,as the fibres become closely twisted together more fibres are added until on account of the length of the thread thus formed the stone reaches the ground4 ,the thread is then wound about the stone and secured by a couple of loops so as to leave a piece only a few inches in length1 to which more wool is attached in continuing the spinning4 ,when a large ball of thread has been spun1 it is removed from the stone and the process begun again4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #d4 ,,shiraz ,,rug ,one advantage of these simple devices is that they can easily be carried anywhere4 ,even to-day a not unusual sight is a half barbaric shepherd following his flock1 while he spins with simple distaff and spindle or stone1 as did his ancestors thousands of years ago4 ,on the end of the distaff1 that rests beneath his left arm1 is the ball of wool from which he selects and twists the fibres1 while he deftly turns the short spindle or twirls the stone with thumb and forefinger of the right hand4 ,the threads spun by professional spinners on spinning-wheels are of small diameter and are the most regular in size and texture1 those spun with the small spindle are of larger diameter and less regular1 and those spun by twirling a stone are made of the coarsest diameter in order to insure sufficient stoutness1 since they are the most irregular in size and texture2 yet yarn so made is the most highly valued by all weavers4 ,only very rarely1 indeed1 is one of these single threads used for yarn1 since it would be apt to part4 ,two of them1 therefore1 are twisted together to form a double thread4 ,a simple device used by many nomadic tribes for this purpose consists of two short sticks crossing at right angles1 and another piece with end like a crochet needle perpendicular to them4 ,the threads which are attached to this piece pass through a hole at the intersection of the crossed sticks and are twisted by twirling them4 ,it is very seldom that three single threads are twisted to make a triple thread1 and when such is the case it is the work of a professional spinner who uses a large spinning-wheel1 and never the work of a nomad4 ,for the weft of many rugs1 and for the pile of a few rugs such as ,sarouks and ,kashans1 a double thread alone is used2 whilst for the pile of most rugs the double thread is again doubled1 trebled1 or quadrupled1 so as to form yarn of two1 three1 or four ply1 and even yarn of six ply is sometimes used4 ,a distinction also exists in the manner of twisting together double threads to make yarn of two or more ply1 since according to the custom of different tribes they may be twisted so loosely that in the length of an inch they do not describe more than a single revolution or so tightly as to describe several4 ,until the introduction of the modern spinning-wheel wool was spun in the ,orient exactly as it was ages ago4 ,it is this almost incredible disposition to adhere as with religious fanaticism to methods transmitted from father to son and to resist as pernicious every attempt at innovation that makes a precise analysis of rugs possible4 ,accordingly1 the evenness or unevenness of single threads1 the looseness or tightness with which double threads are twisted together to form yarn of different ply1 as well as the number of the ply used1 are a few of the important indices for distinguishing between rugs of different districts4 ,even after the yarn is spun it is not always ready for the dyer1 and in order that it may properly absorb the dye it is often washed and rewashed4 ,in some parts of the ,orient it is first soaked in warm water and carefully rinsed in cold water4 ,it is then placed in a copper pot or vat containing boiling water to which has been added carbonate or sulphate of soda and potash1 and stirred for about an hour4 ,after this thorough cleansing it is again washed very carefully in soft water and thoroughly dried in the sun4 ,the wonderful sheen of many old rugs is due almost entirely to the materials of which they are made4 ,this material1 as a rule1 is unsurpassed by similar products of any other part of the world1 and is prepared by patient races who know little of the value of time4 ,the simple labour required is in itself prosaic enough1 yet without a doubt the earlier spinners and weavers1 while following their flocks with minds free from all conventions and limitations of art1 discerned the elemental forces of nature in all their freshness and power1 and from them drew inspiration that bore fruit in the exquisite colouring and delicate tracery of the woven carpets4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #e4 ,,niris ,,rug ,,chapter ,,iv ,,dyeing ,,however remarkable the achievements of ,oriental art in any field1 their most pleasing effect has always been associated with colour4 ,without it the beauty of the lustre tiles of ,persia1 the marvellous porcelains of ,china1 and the delicate textiles of ,western ,asia would fade into insignificance4 ,it is indeed the wonderful harmonies of exquisite tints chosen by the touch of genius from a palette of many thousand pigments that awaken the appreciation of the luxurious splendour of the ,east4 ,this love for colour is inherent in every rug-producing race of ,asia and is older than history4 ,it is but natural1 then1 that the earliest carpets should be radiant with glorious tints1 which in a lesser measure are reflected in modern fabrics4 ,if high praise is due to the artist who1 by a skilful association of different colours of co-ordinate tones1 creates the picture that delights the sense1 a fair measure is also due to the artisan who not only controls the secrets of the dyes1 but has mastered the difficult knowledge of their proper application2 for the beauty of the finished woven product depends on the judicious dyeing of the yarn more than on anything else4 ,from father to son for many generations has been transmitted a knowledge of those particular vegetable and animal products of root1 leaf1 fruit1 and insect1 and the manner of their use1 by which the imperishable lustrous sheen and colour of the finest woven fabrics are produced4 ,indeed1 this art requires to-day more technical knowledge than any other branch of rug weaving1 since modern designs are no longer more than the imitation of those in older carpets2 and so important is it regarded that a successful dyer is a man of distinction in his tribe4 ,the sources from which are obtained many of the dyes that give the innumerable carpet colours are recorded4 ,a few of them are received from remote countries1 but most of the plants from which they are extracted grow in marshes and on hills and plains where the nomads wander with their flocks4 ,many of them are used without blending1 but even some of the seven primary colours are derived by proper blending2 and from a number of dyes of different strengths and qualities are produced an infinite number of rich and delicate shades4 ,the principal blues of ,oriental rugs are obtained from indigo4 ,this is derived from colouring matter in the leaves of plants of the genus ,indigofera1 that grow to a height of four to six feet in the ,east ,indies1 when they are cut and placed in a vat containing water4 ,in about twelve hours fermentation ensues2 and after this subsides the liquid is drawn off into another vat1 where after one or two hours of agitation the indigo forms as a precipitate4 ,many different species of this plant grow wild throughout ,asia1 and from the earliest times have been used to produce dye-stuff4 ,indigo is one of the most valuable of all dyes1 as by using it in conjunction with others an infinite variety of shades result4 ,some reds are obtained from the plant madder 7,rubia tinctorum71 that grows abundantly in ,central and ,southwestern ,asia1 ,its colouring properties were known to the ancients2 and for a long period it has been cultivated in ,asia ,minor1 where the succulent roots of the second and third years' growth are regularly dried and prepared for use4 ,other reds are derived from the insect cochineal 7,coccus ilicis7 that lives on oaks of the countries bordering the ,mediterranean1 and was known among the ,arabs as 8kermes10 signifying ,red ,dye4 ,after the discovery of ,america another species 7,coccus cacti7 was found that was more productive of dyeing qualities4 ,the females1 which alone are valuable1 are plucked from the trees and killed by exposing them to vapours of acetic acid1 or placing them in hot water1 or in an oven4 ,from their dried bodies1 of which over fifty thousand are necessary to make a pound1 the dye is produced4 ,as both these dyes are noted for their fastness1 they are constantly used1 but when silk or wool is to be dyed cochineal is preferable to madder4 ,the yellow dyes are obtained from several sources4 ,some are from the berries of plants of ,western ,asia4 ,others are from the leaves of the sumach bushes1 that are indigenous to nearly every part of the world4 ,an orange tinge is derived from the turmeric extracted from the short root stocks of a plant of the genus ,curcuma4 ,from time immemorial a beautiful yellow has been obtained from saffron4 ,it is the product of the stigmas of the fragrant crocus1 which are so small that over four thousand are necessary to furnish an ounce of dried saffron2 yet the dye is so powerful that it will give a distinct tint to seven hundred thousand times its weight of water4 ,as saffron has something of a stimulating effect on the human system1 it has been taken by the ,persians when mixed with their rice4 ,with none of these three basic colours was any national feeling associated1 yet the ,persians excelled in the use of blues4 ,the ,turkomans of ,turkestan and ,asia ,minor produced better reds than any other colour1 and the best yellows1 even if generally inferior in positiveness to blues and reds1 were those of the ,chinese4 ,though other primary and secondary colours sometimes result from the application of a single dye1 the many thousand different tints can only be produced by the blending of two or more4 ,moreover1 the qualities of the same dye vary greatly1 as they depend on the soil where the plant grew1 the time of year when it was removed1 and the weather and other conditions prevailing during the dyeing4 ,in nature green is one of the most pleasing colours1 but in carpets it is most unsatisfactory1 as it has generally a faded appearance1 due probably to the fact that one of the dyes of which it is formed by blending is less permanent than the other4 ,the ,chinese greens obtained from the buckthorns are generally the best4 ,greys and browns are sometimes derived from gall nuts1 and reddish brown from henna4 ,for very dark browns and black1 iron pyrites has been largely used in both old and modern rugs2 but unfortunately the dye has a corrosive effect on the wool1 so that the black knots of old rugs are often worn to the warp4 ,in parts of ,india flowers of the bastard teak 7,butea frondosa7 make a favourite dye1 from which are produced1 by blending with other dyes1 a large number of shades ranging from deep yellow to brownish copper tones4 ,another well known dye is ,butti lac1 obtained from an insect1 ,coccus lacca1 that lives on the twigs of trees4 ,it is a substitute for cochineal and produces different shades of red1 crimson1 terra cotta1 and purple1 according to the other dyes and the mordants with which it is blended4 ,besides these few dyes are innumerable others that are used either singly or in combination4 ,furthermore1 different colour effects are produced by the application of different mordants1 which it is necessary to use for the reason that without them many fibrous materials are unable to absorb a large number of the dyes4 ,the most valuable of all mordants is alum2 and the sulphate of iron and tin are largely employed in the case of red colours4 ,of the vegetable mordants1 pomegranate rind1 which contains some yellow colouring matter1 is the best known4 ,valonia also is sometimes used1 as well as limes1 lemons1 the fruit of the tamarind1 and the mango4 ,in the monograph of ,mr4 ,harris on the 8,carpet ,weaving ,industry of ,southern ,india0 are a number of directions from an old manuscript owned by a dyer who stated that he was the descendant of twenty generations of dyers who originally came from ,tabriz1 and that he had made his copy from a ,persian book of dyes which had belonged to his grandfather4 ,a few of these are given below1 because they show not only the dyes and mordants1 but also the methods employed4 8,birbuls ,blue4 ,take cinnabar1 indigo1 and alum1 grind and sift lighter than the light dust of the high hills2 soak for ten hours2 keep stirring it2 put in the wool and soak for many hours4 ,boil for three hours2 wash in kurd water1 water in which kurds and whey have been well beaten up2 leave for three hours1 and then wash and beat again in water4 8,a ,fine ,indigo ,blue4 ,take indigo1 soak it in water for twelve hours1 grind it to a fine paste in a mortar1 add some ,terminalia citrina1 pomegranate peel1 and alum2 and mix thoroughly4 ,boil2 put the water into the hot bath and keep stirring till cold4 ,now mix in some iron-filings water1 and boil steadily for another two and a half to three hours2 wash with a beating and dry4 8,ruddy ,brown ,grey4 ,take sulphate of iron1 ,terminalia citrina1 oak galls1 and alum2 mix well2 dry2 then steep for twenty-four hours4 ,put in the wool2 soak it for twenty-four hours1 then boil for two or three hours4 ,dip in a soda-bath1 wash1 and dry4 8,cinnamon4 ,take oak galls1 acacia bark1 cinnabar1 and alum1 and steep for a night4 ,put in the wool1 and soak for twenty or thirty hours2 boil the water for two or three hours and give a soda-bath wash2 dip in acidulated water2 and wash again with beating4 8,crimson4 ,take lac colour and cochineal4 ,steep for from four to six days in the sun1 in hot weather for the lesser time1 stirring constantly till a rich deep colour comes where some has stood for a few minutes in a thin glass bottle and settled4 ,then strain through two cloths1 and put in pomegranate rind and good iron-filings water4 ,add mineral acid2 steep wool for thirty-six hours1 then boil for three hours1 wash well1 and dry4 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,,ii--,,oushak ,,carpet ,the colours and pattern of this antique ,oushak are similar to those of the best examples that remain of the carpets woven in ,asia ,minor during the ,,xv and ,,xvi ,centuries4 ,the deep blue of the central field1 the rich red of the medallions1 and the golden yellow of the leaves are entirely unlike the more subdued hues found in ,persian rugs4 ,strongly contrasting with them are the more delicate tones of the tendrils and leaves1 which display in their drawing a keen sense of refinement4 ,in the formal pattern of the field are stateliness and elegance2 in the narrow borders are simplicity and grace4 ,such colours and drawing show that the early ,asia ,minor weavers had an intense appreciation of the ennobling qualities of beauty and harmony4 ,loaned by ,mr4 ,james ,f4 ,ballard 8,pale ,greyish ,green4 ,take copper rust1 asburg1#e and alum4 ,mix well with any hot water1 not boiling2 soak wool for eighteen hours1 then boil for three hours4 ,give a bath with water acidulated with some limes1 and dry in shade4 8,old ,gold and ,rich ,yellow4 ,take turmeric and asburg1 cinnabar and alum4 ,soak all night4 ,steep wool for twenty-four hours1 boil for four and a half hours1 wash with a beating1 and dry in shade4 8,dark ,grey4 ,take of the fruit of ,cupressus sempervirens1 seeds and seed pods of babul 7,acacia arabica71 iron-filings water1 and alum4 ,steep over night4 ,now add the water and let it soak for twenty-four hours1 then boil for two or three hours1 until the colour is right1 then wash and dry in the sun4 8,rose ,colour4 ,take ratanjot 7,onosma echioides71 a thought of cochineal1 manjit 7,rubia cordifolia7 or lac colour a very little1 and cinnabar4 ,add water1 soak them for twelve hours1 put in wool1 and steep for thirty-six hours2 cook it for three hours1 then bathe the wool in alum and wash nicely2 afterward dry in the shade4 8,persian ,scarlet4 ,take lac colour1 and if you choose a little cochineal for richness1 and soak from four to six days2 strain it in two cloths and add alum and a little turmeric2 let it stand for three hours4 ,put wool in and steep for twenty-four hours1 then boil for two hours4 ,take out the wool and add mineral acid2 re-enter wool and boil an hour more4 ,wash fifteen minutes when cold1 and dry in the shade4 8,saffron ,yellow4 ,take turmeric1 cinnabar1 and soda1 add water and keep for a full day4 ,then add some alum1 make the dip1 and soak the wool for thirty hours4 ,cook it for several hours1 and dry in the shade after beating and good washing4 8,rich ,yellow4 ,take asburg and turmeric1 soak for a night in water1 steep the wool for twenty-four hours1 add alum1 shake out1 and dry in shade40 ,identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in all parts of the ,orient1 not only for the reason that soil1 moisture1 and climate affect the colour values of dye-stuff1 but because each family of dyers preserve inviolable the craft secrets transmitted from their forefathers4 ,thus it happens that different parts of the rug-producing countries adhere to particular tones that help to identify the locality where the fabrics were woven4 ,unfortunately the ,western aniline dyes1 which were introduced about the year #ahfj and quickly adopted because they are cheaper and less complicated in their application1 have to such an extent transplanted some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number of the richest and most delicate colours found in the rugs of a former century are no longer produced4 ,thus the superb blue of the fine old ,ispahans1 as well as of lustre tiles and illuminated manuscripts1 belongs to a lost art4 ,the disadvantages of the aniline dyes are several3 they have a tendency to make the fibres of the textile fabric brittle1 and when it is wet the colours will frequently run4 ,some dyes also fade more readily than others1 so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes1 the resultant tint may be totally unlike the original4 ,on the other hand1 not all vegetable dyes are fast2 but as they fade they mellow into more pleasing shades4 ,efforts have been made to encourage the use of old vegetable dyes2 but unless the laws which have been enacted in parts of ,asia to restrict the importation of aniline dyes be more stringently enforced than in the past1 the cultivation in the garden patch of the dye-producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the time-honoured occupation it was in days gone by4 ,almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that of properly applying them to the yarns4 ,it is an art that demands infinite pains in its technique1 as well as a lifetime to acquire4 ,it is in itself a separate profession practised by artisans who guard with jealousy the sacred secrets that transmitted from generation to generation occupy their thoughts to the exclusion of almost everything else4 ,the homes of these professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long experience has proven especially suitable as solvents for the different kinds of colouring matter4 ,ranged about the walls of their low dwellings are jars or vats containing liquid dye of various colours4 ,suspended above them1 from hooks driven into beams1 are the yarns from which1 after immersion in the proper vats1 the liquids are allowed to drain4 ,after this the yarns are exposed for the proper length of time to the dry air and burning sun4 ,it is1 therefore1 the suitable mordants1 the preparation of the proper dyes for the vats1 the immersion of the yarn in correct sequence and for the correct length of time1 as well as the exposure to the glare and heat of the sun for a definite period to be gauged to the exact moment1 on which the colour results depend4 ,this complicated process by which1 for instance1 the infinitely different shades of a red1 a blue1 or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the same dyes but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest precision1 for which no rule but an experience amounting almost to instinct is the guide4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #f4 ,,feraghan ,,rug ,there was a time when the ,oriental had not learned the meaning of tempus fugit or seen the glitter of ,western gold1 when his dyeing and weaving were proud callings1 in which entered his deepest feelings4 ,then the old vegetable dyes that mellow1 grow softer and more lustrous1 were almost exclusively used2 but now throughout all weaving countries the dyer has deteriorated so that he can no longer produce some of the rich colours in use half a century ago4 ,yet remote from the principal lines of travel1 on the edges of the desert1 in lonely valleys1 among rugged mountains1 half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their hand-spun yarn as did their fathers' fathers4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,weaving ,,near the tents of some nomadic tribes may occasionally be seen crude looms on which are woven some of the most interesting rugs that now reach the ,western markets4 ,in all probability they are not dissimilar to what were used thousands of years ago1 for it would be impossible to construct a simpler loom4 ,where two trees suitably branching are found growing a few feet apart1 all of the upper branches are removed excepting two1 which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same height in each tree4 ,in each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam1 and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short distance above the ground from trunk to trunk4 ,or1 as is more frequently the case1 roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in the ground and horizontal beams are stretched between them4 ,in the upper one is a groove with a rod to which one end of the warp1 consisting of strong threads of yarn numbering from ten to thirty to the inch1 is attached1 while the other end is tightly stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal beam4 ,sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed perpendicularly1 so that the weaver may stand and move sideways as the work progresses4 ,but among a very large number of those tribes that are constantly wandering in search of new pastures for their flocks and herds1 it is customary to let the loom lie flat on the ground1 while the weaver sits on the finished part of the rug4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,a4--,,an ,,upright ,,loom ,under more favourable circumstances1 when the tribes live in villages or cities1 the looms are so made that the weavers are not compelled to bend in order to tie the first row of knots or stand erect to finish the last rows of a long rug4 ,of the several devices by which the weaver may remain seated while at work1 the crudest consists of a plank used as a seat1 which rests on the rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each other at the sides of the rug4 ,as the work progresses1 the plank is raised and rested upon the higher rungs4 ,more frequently1 however1 both upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of small diameter1 which revolve between the upright posts4 ,the lower ends of the threads of warp are attached to the lower beam1 and the other ends may either be wound several times around the upper one or else pass over it and be kept taut by weights attached to them4 ,such a loom is generally used for weaving very large rugs1 which are rolled up on the lower beam as the work progresses4 ,in ,plate ,a 7,page #de7 is represented a loom commonly used in many parts of the ,orient4 ,when preparing it for weaving two stakes are driven in the ground at a suitable distance apart1 and about them the warp is wound in the way a figure eight is formed4 ,the warp is then carefully transferred to two rods that are attached to the upper and lower beams4 ,if it has been carefully wound1 none of the threads should be slack2 but if desired the tension may be further increased by different devices4 ,two other rods1 known as 8,healds10 are then attached to the front and back threads of warp2 or in the case of a single rod1 it is attached to the back threads1 as shown in the ,plate4 ,a lease rod is next inserted between the threads of warp that cross below the upper beam1 and another is placed below it where1 if necessary1 it is supported in position by loops4 ,when the weaving begins1 a short web is generally woven at the lower end to protect the knots from wear4 ,after the first row has been tied1 the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between the front and back threads of warp2 the heald rod attached to these back threads is then pulled forward1 so that they are now in front of the others1 and the shuttle is passed back4 ,if the rug is narrow1 only one shuttle is used2 but if the rug is wide1 or if the weft consists of two threads of unequal thickness1 a shuttle is passed across from each side4 ,every thread of warp is in this way completely encircled by the thread of weft as it passes and repasses4 ,when weaving large rugs1 there is an advantage in having two heald rods1 as by their use the distance between the front and back threads of warp may be increased4 ,the object of the lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing forward the threads of warp1 and is accomplished in a very simple manner1 as will be seen by studying the drawing2 since when the tension of the back threads is increased by drawing them forward1 the tension of the front threads is also increased by displacing the lease rods which thereby stretches them4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #g4 ,,feraghan ,,rug ,the products of the loom are divided according to their weave into three separate classes4 ,the simplest of these are the kilims1 which are without pile and consist only of warp and weft to which a few embroidered stitches representing some symbol are occasionally added4 ,a more elaborately made class are the ,soumaks4 ,they consist of warp covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft which extends across and back between each row of stitches in the old rugs and between each second and third row of stitches in the new rugs4 ,in the narrow1 perpendicular lines that define both borders and designs the stitch is made by the yarn encircling two adjacent threads of warp2 but in other parts of the rug it is made by the yarn passing across two adjacent threads of warp at the front1 and after encircling them at the back1 recrossing them again at the front4 ,it is then continued across the next pair of adjacent threads of warp4 ,the result is that at the back of these rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn appears as a separate cord1 while at the front the yarn passes diagonally across four threads of warp4 ,as this diagonal movement is reversed in each succeeding row1 the surface has an uneven appearance sometimes termed 8herring bone0 weave4 ,by far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile4 ,when making them1 the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each pair of adjacent threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a horizontal row4 ,a thread of weft is then passed1 as often as desired1 between the threads of warp and pressed more or less firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the knots1 when they are trimmed with a knife to the desired length4 ,another horizontal row of knots is tied to the threads of warp2 again the yarn of weft is inserted2 and so the process continues until the pile is completed4 ,in tying the knots1 work almost invariably proceeds from left to right and from the bottom to the top4 ,it is but rarely that the warp is stretched horizontally and that the knots are tied in rows parallel to the sides4 ,it is still more infrequently that a rug is found in which the knots are tied by working from the centre to the right and left1 and to the top and bottom4 ,these interesting exceptions may easily be discovered by rubbing the hand over the pile1 when it will be noticed that the knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction1 which is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced1 or as is generally the case1 from top to bottom4 ,the compactness1 durability1 and value of a rug depend somewhat on the number of knots in any particular area4 ,yet if the yarn is coarse1 the rug may be compact even though the number of knots be small2 and if the yarn is fine1 the rug may be loosely woven1 either because the rows of knots have not been firmly pressed down1 or because there are several 8filling threads0 of weft1 and still the number of knots be large4 ,a square inch is a convenient size for measurement2 but since all parts of a rug are not woven with equal compactness1 the measurement should be made in several places if exactness be required4 ,in loosely woven pieces1 such as the ,oushaks and some of the ,genghas1 there may be less than twenty knots to the square inch2 but among the more closely woven1 as the ,kirmans and ,bokharas1 are frequently several hundred4 ,these knots are of two classes1 the ,ghiordes and the ,sehna4 ,the ,ghiordes are found in all rugs of ,asia ,minor and ,caucasia1 in some of the rugs of ,india1 and in most of the rugs of ,persia4 ,they are named after the town of ,ghiordes in ,asia ,minor1 where some of the finest ,asiatic pieces were made1 and which tradition states was once the ancient ,gordion1 noted even in the days of ,alexander4 ,in tying the knot1 the two ends of yarn appear together at the surface included between two#f adjacent threads of warp around which they have been passed1 so that the tighter the yarn is drawn the more compact the knot becomes4 ,the three different ways of tying this knot are shown in ,plate ,b1 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c 7,page #di71 of which the second is known as a 8right hand0 and the third as a 8left hand0 knot4 ,the ,sehna knots1 which are used in the ,turkoman1 ,chinese1 many of the ,persian1 and in some of the ,indian rugs1 take their name from the city of ,sehna in ,persia4 ,in tying them1 a piece of yarn encircles a thread of warp and is twisted so that its ends appear at the surface1 one at each side of the adjacent thread of warp1 as is shown in ,plate ,b1 ,figs4 #d1 #e1 and #f4 ,according as this thread of warp is to the right or the left of the one they encircle1 the knots are known as 8right-hand0 or 8left-hand0 knots1#g but in the appearance of the carpet there is no distinction4 ,if the pile of a rug is carefully parted1 the two ends of yarn forming a ,sehna knot can be separated2 but with the ,ghiordes knot this is impossible1 as will be understood by studying ,plate ,b1 in which ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #g1 #h1 and #i are ,ghiordes knots1 and ,figs4 #d1 #e1 #f1 and #aj are ,sehna knots4 ,as a rule1 the ,sehna knots1 which permit of closer weaving and clearer definition of pattern1 appear in rugs of shorter nap4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,b4--,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #g1 #h1 #i1 ,ghiordes knots4 ,nos4 #d1 #e1 #f1 #aj1 ,sehna knots4 ,no4 #aa1 ,weft-overcasting4 ,no4 #ab1 ,double-overcasting4 ,no4 #ac1 ,weft-selvage4 ,no4 #ad1 ,double-selvage4 ,nos4 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 illustrate one1 two1 and three threads of weft passing between two rows of knots4 ,the nice distinctions in the technique of weaving are rarely understood even by those who are familiar with ,oriental rugs4 ,the general pattern1 which next to colour is the characteristic that most quickly arrests the attention1 is often the sole guide by which novices guess the class4 ,the more experienced will observe if the knot be ,ghiordes or ,sehna1 and examine the finish at the sides and ends2 but few give the peculiarities of the weave the consideration they deserve4 ,this1 perhaps1 is because only those who have made a special study would believe the constancy with which members of a tribe or locality have followed the same method of tying the knot and inserting the weft4 ,the different methods of treatment by separate tribes are sometimes only slight1 but they afford a most important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful classes4 ,in fact1 nearly every class has a typical weave differentiating it from all other classes4 ,to be sure1 there are exceptions to the established type which are inevitable2 since1 for instance1 a man from the ,feraghan district might marry a woman from the adjoining ,hamadan district1 who1 to please her husband1 might weave a rug with pattern common to his district but follow the style of weaving that she has been familiar with from childhood4 ,nevertheless1 weavers of a particular district adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do to any other characteristic of a rug4 ,nor is this surprising1 since weaving is learned in earliest childhood2 and as it contains no elements calculated to stimulate the imagination1 it is mechanically followed with stereotyped precision4 ,an innovation in pattern1 by copying some strange designs that strike the fancy1 is far more likely4 ,these distinctions in weaving may be conveniently divided into those that affect the knot1 the warp1 and the weft4#h ,,the ,,knot4--,not only may a knot be tied as a ,ghiordes or a ,sehna knot1 but it may have other distinguishing peculiarities2 as1 for instance1 it may be of fine or coarse wool4 ,this is most conveniently observed at the back1 where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the ,bokhara1 ,kirman1 ,joshaghan1 and ,bergamo are tied with fine yarn2 while the knots of other rugs1 as the ,samarkand1 ,bijar1 ,gorevan1 ,kurdistan1 ,yuruk1 and ,kazak are tied with coarse yarn4 ,whether the yarn be fine1 medium1 or coarse1 all specimens of any class will show a remarkable conformity4 ,also in some rugs the knots are drawn very tight against the warp1 while in others the yarn encircles the warp loosely4 ,any one who has examined the back of many ,sarouks1 ,kashans1 ,kirmans1 or ,daghestans1 and rubbed the finger-nail against them1 could not possibly mistake them for a ,shiraz1 ,kulah1 ,yuruk1 or ,karabagh1 which are less tightly woven4 ,again1 as a result of using yarn in which the double thread that forms two or more ply has been very loosely or very tightly twisted together1 there is some difference in the direction or slant of the strands forming the yarn1 where it shows at the back1 though this feature is not pronounced4 ,for example1 in most ,afghans1 ,yuruks1 ,bijars1 and others the strands of yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the most part in a direction parallel to the weft2 while in other rugs1 as ,mosuls1 ,kurdistans1 and ,kazaks1 the strands of yarn slant irregularly4 ,furthermore1 in some rugs1 as the ,melez and ,yuruks1 as a result of the threads of yarn being strung rather far apart1 each half of a knot encircling a thread of warp stands out at the back distinctly from the other with clear cut edges2 while in many rugs1 as the ,shiraz or ,sehna1 each half is very closely pressed together4 ,also in some rugs1 as ,sarabends and ,afshars1 each of these half knots where they show at the back have the same length1 measured in a direction parallel to the warp1 as width1 measured in a direction parallel to the weft2 while in such rugs as the ,kazaks1 since the yarn generally consists of several ply1 the length exceeds the width2 and in a few rugs the length is less than the width4 ,,the ,,warp4--,the appearance of the back of a rug is partly due to the relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot4 ,if1 for instance1 in any ,kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a single perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface1 it will be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot lie side by side with equal prominence4 ,this is shown in ,plate ,b1 ,figs4 #g and #g-;a 7,page #di71 in which the former represents a section of a rug cut transversely to the threads of warp1 and the latter the appearance of the rug at the back4 ,the same will be found true of ,beluchistans1 ,feraghans1 ,yuruks1 and many others4 ,if1 however1 a ,kulah1 ,persian-,kurdish1 or ,karabagh be similarly examined1 it will be seen that one thread of warp to each knot is depressed1 so that the back has a slightly corrugated appearance 7as in ,plate ,b1 ,figs4 #h and #h-;a74 ,and in the case of a ,bijar or ,sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp1 included in every knot1 has been doubled under so as to be entirely concealed from view2 with the result that the foundation of warp has a double thickness1 which makes the rug much stronger1 as in ,plate ,b1 ,fig4 #i1 representing a ,ghiordes knot1 and ,fig4 #aj representing a ,sehna knot4 ,to be sure1 it occasionally happens that in rugs of a particular class some may have each thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent and others may have one slightly depressed2 or that in rugs of another class some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it entirely concealed2 but as a rule these tribal features show a remarkable constancy4 ,these relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of closeness with which the threads of warp are strung1 also partly to the method of inserting the threads of weft or 8filling0 between the rows of knots2 but more than all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is pulled when they are tied4 ,,the ,,weft4--,in the character and arrangement of weft are technical differences that are more serviceable than any other feature for distinguishing between the rugs of different tribes and districts4 ,so subtle are some of them that they can be learned only by long and painstaking study1 and are appreciated by few except native weavers4 ,nevertheless1 to any one who will carefully examine almost any well-known classes1 it will be apparent that these differences in the weave are real1 and that they are sufficiently constant to differentiate one class from another4 ,the fine brown weft of the ,bokhara1 or equally fine bluish weft of a ,sarouk that is almost concealed between firmly tied knots2 the fine thread of cotton weft passing but once between two rows of knots and covered only by the transverse warp of the ,sehna2 the coarse thread of cotton weft similarly passing but once between two rows of knots in the ,hamadan2 the coarse thread of cotton weft that once crossing and recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of knots in ,kermanshahs2 the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft that1 as a rule1 pass many times between two rows of knots in ,genghas2 the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and recrossing once between the rows of knots in modern ,mosuls2 the very fine reddish brown weft that entirely conceals from view the warp in old ,bergamos1 --are features peculiar to these separate classes with which every rug expert is familiar4 ,the weft of many other classes is equally distinctive1 though there are exceptions to the types4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred and fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only fifty years ago2 and that many modern pieces cheaply made for commercial purposes are more crudely woven than were the same classes thirty years ago4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #h4 ,,hamadan ,,rug ,these distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which it is made1 its colour1 the size of the diameter1 the way in which it is spun1 to its loose or compressed condition between separate rows of knots1 as well as to the number of times it crosses the warp between them1 and to whether it is inserted with much or little slack4 ,most rugs are woven with woollen weft of a natural colour1 but occasionally it has a reddish brown1 a blue1 or a yellow tint4 ,when cotton1 jute1 or hemp are used1 they are almost invariably of natural colour2 only in a very few pieces1 as some of the ,kulahs1 are both wool and jute ever used in the same piece4 ,the weft of some classes1 as ,bokharas1 ,sarouks1 and ,bergamos1 is of a very small diameter1 and of others1 as the ,hamadans and ,kurdistans1 it is of relatively large diameter4 ,in some classes1 as the ,karajes and ,genghas1 the weft is tightly spun like twine2 while in the ,beluchistans1 ,mosuls1 and ,kurdistans it is loosely spun1 so that the projecting fibres of wool give a rough appearance to its surface4 ,also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very firmly the yarn of weft between every two rows of knots1 while other weavers compress it only to a slight degree2 as1 for instance1 in the ,afghan1 ,tabriz1 and ,kirman the rows of knots are pressed down so firmly that the weft is almost concealed at the back and the transverse threads of warp are entirely covered2 whilst1 on the other hand1 in the ,karabagh or ,kazak between every two rows of knots the weft and part of the transverse threads of warp are exposed to view4 ,according as the rows of knots are pressed down upon the threads of weft or not1 one of the two halves of each separate knot1 as shown at the back1 may extend slightly or very much beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug1 or each of them may lie in a straight line at right angles to the warp4 ,comparing ,kazak1 ,kutais1 and ,tiflis rugs1 for example1 it will be noticed that as a rule the line thus formed in ,tiflis rugs is nearly an even1 clear cut line at right angles to the warp1 that in the ,kutais part of one knot extends beyond the other1 while in ,kazaks this unevenness is even more conspicuous4 ,or again1 if typical ,shirvans1 ,kabistans1 and ,daghestans be compared1 it will be noticed that in ,shirvans the half-knots1 or parts of the knot encircling the two adjacent threads of warp1 are often inclined at an angle of at least thirty degrees to the line of weft so as to present a serrated appearance1 but that the alignment formed by knots of ,daghestans is nearly even1 and that of ,kabistans is intermediate4 ,to be sure1 there are exceptions to this rule1 but these features are remarkably constant4 ,the number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between two rows of knots varies with the practice of different localities1 but is almost constant in each locality4 ,weavers of ,sehna rugs insert only a single thread of weft between every two rows of knots1 which winds in front of and behind alternate threads of warp1 with the result that the back of these rugs have a checkered or quincunx appearance1 caused by minute portions of exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles4 ,in ,hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before and behind alternate threads of warp1 so that the appearance of the weave is very similar to that of ,sehnas4#i ,in almost all other rugs the weft crosses twice1 that is1 across and back once1 between every two rows of knots so as to completely encircle each thread of warp4 ,the weave of a few rugs1 as some ,anatolians1 shows the weft crossing three times1 that is1 twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction4 ,in the ,genghas1 ,tcherkess1 ,bergamos1 and in many rugs over one hundred and fifty years old1 the threads of weft frequently cross many times2 and it is not unusual for the number to vary in different parts of the same rug4 ,in ,plate ,b1 ,figs4 #ae1 #af1 and #ag 7,page #di71 is illustrated the appearance of the back of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once1 twice1 and three times between two adjacent rows of knots4 ,there are likewise rugs in which the number varies with methodical regularity2 for instance1 in ,khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of weft inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots2 in many ,herats the threads of weft cross twice between several successive rows of knots1 then three times between the following several rows1 and so continue to alternate2 and in some of the ,kulahs a thread of woollen weft that crosses twice alternates with a single coarser thread of jute4 ,as the shuttle passes back and forth1 the thread of weft may be allowed considerable slack1 so that when it is pressed down by the comb it will fit about the sides of the warp2 or it may be drawn tightly across1 so that it has a tendency to displace the threads of warp4 ,if1 for instance1 a ,hamadan and one of the ,feraghans which1 unlike the majority of them1 has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of knots1 be examined1 it will be seen that in the ,hamadan the weft crosses with hardly any slack1 so that the warp stands out clearly and well defined at the back2 but that in the ,feraghan the weft crosses with much slack1 so that it folds about the warp1 which accordingly seems slightly imbedded in it at the back4 ,in some rugs the weft is passed across once with very slight slack1 and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack4 ,these features of the weave1 which are followed with remarkable constancy in the same class1 can be observed to advantage in a fragment of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp4 ,if1 for instance1 the weft which crosses and recrosses between the rows of knots be carefully removed so as not to disturb its mould1 it will be noticed in the case of many rugs that each thread of yarn has a similar shape of moderately deep undulations1 which show how it conformed to the warp and indicate how slack it was when inserted4 ,in the case of a few rugs1 as the ,luristans1 each thread will likewise have similar undulations1 but they will be very prominent4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the weft be removed from some classes1 as the ,tabriz1 ,sarouk1 and ,kashan1 one of the two threads will be almost straight or have slight undulations1 while the other thread will have deep undulations4 ,the weft of the ,herez1 ,herats1 old ,khorassans1 and ,koniehs have the same peculiarities1 excepting that the thread with very slight undulations is of three or four ply1 while the other is of a single ply4 ,the only instruments employed in weaving are the knife1 comb1 and scissors4 ,the first is used1 after each row of knots has been tied1 to cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length2 the second1 to press firmly each row of knots2 and the last1 to trim the nap with care1 so that the finished product may present an even and compact appearance4 ,,finish ,,of ,,sides4--,as the sides are constantly exposed to wear weavers of different districts strengthen them in different ways1 which may be designated as ,weft ,overcasting1 ,double ,overcasting1 ,weft ,selvage1 ,double ,selvage1 and ,added ,selvage4 ,each of these terms1 though not euphonious1 suggests the method employed4 ,in ,weft ,overcasting 7,plate ,b1 ,fig4 #aa1 ,page #di7 the thread of weft1 after encircling the threads of warp to which the knots are tied1 is wound about a much heavier cord that is strung at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the knots4 ,it then partly encircles the threads of warp between the next two rows of knots as it passes to the other side1 when it is wound about the heavy cord there4 ,as this process continues1 the cords at the sides are completely overcast with the thread of weft4 ,when the sides have a ,double ,overcasting 7,plate ,b1 ,fig4 #ab71 heavy yarn is wound about the cord that has previously been encircled by the weft4 ,frequently several threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord4 ,weft ,selvage 7,plate ,b1 ,fig4 #ac7 is made by placing two or more heavy cords instead of a single one at the side of the warp1 and encircling them by the weft in figure-eight fashion4 ,as they extend beyond the rows of knots they form a plain flat selvage4 ,the ,double ,selvage 7,plate ,b1 ,fig4 #ad7 is used among nomadic tribes such as the ,beluches and ,afghans1 whose rugs receive an unusual amount of hard wear1 so that an extra selvage is necessary4 ,in adding this extra selvage the threads of weft are carried about the heavy cords1 as in weft selvage1 and then the extra yarn is wound over it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy cords4 ,in ,added ,selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the weft1 but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn that winds about them figure-eight fashion1 and also encircles two or more adjoining threads of warp4 ,sometimes also the selvage is 8,mixed10 or made by the weft encircling only one or two of the heavy cords1 and then an extra yarn is wound about these and the remaining cord or cords4 ,moreover1 the ,double ,overcasting and ,double ,selvage may be 8attached0 more firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in figure-eight fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp between the two rows of knots4 ,when a ,double ,overcasting is thus 8attached10 it is somewhat similar to a two-cord ,double ,selvage4 ,these are the principal methods of finishing the sides1 though they are sometimes modified by tribal customs4 ,simple as they seem1 skill is required in both overcasting and making the selvage2 for if carelessly done the sides are frequently made to curl4 ,this is occasionally found to be the defect of old rugs1 the worn sides of which have been recently overcast by inexperienced weavers4 ,when such is the case1 removing the stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the defect4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #i4 ,,sarouk ,,rug ,,finish ,,of ,,ends4--,the ends1 which receive more attention than the sides1 are treated in several different ways2 and in many rugs a distinction exists between the treatment of each end4 ,the simplest finish is where the warp and weft are woven like the threads of a kilim1 and extend beyond the pile as a web1 which may be exceedingly short1 or1 as in ,beluches and ,afghans1 several inches long4 ,frequently the ends are finished by a selvage formed by cords heavier than the weft braided into the warp2 or the upper end may be doubled back and hemmed4 ,it is not unusual to find both web and selvage2 but though the finish be web1 selvage1 or web and selvage1 the warp of the end finished last generally forms a fringe1 and often each end will have a fringe4 ,sometimes each separate thread of warp hangs loose2 sometimes a number a foot or more in length are twisted together in cords2 and again they are knotted or are tied to one another diagonally so as to form a network from which hang the loose ends4 ,very frequently the loops formed by the warp that encircled the rod extend beyond the web at the lower end of the rug1 or else are braided about the ultimate thread of weft in the web4 ,though the warp and weft are generally undyed in the body of the rug1 the web of the ends is very frequently coloured4 ,some of the webs1 particularly those of the ,beluches1 are embroidered2 and through others1 as the ,kurdistans1 a parti-coloured cord runs transversely2 still others1 as ,bergamos1 are adorned with shells1 beads1 or other articles to avert the evil eye4 ,in the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect of rough usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of the ends have frequently disappeared1 leaving short fringes composed of the ends of warp from which some rows of knots have been removed1 and that recent overcasting of the sides may take the place of former selvage4 ,the many characteristics of knot1 warp1 weft1 sides1 and ends1 with all the variations made by innumerable tribes1 remarkably constant in their methods1 are technical peculiarities that are uninteresting to those who feel only an aesthetic interest in rugs1 yet they demand the most careful consideration of whoever would learn to differentiate accurately between the many classes4 ,though admitting of exceptions1 these peculiarities are real and definite1 yet their analyses often require the subtlest perception of small though exact distinctions1 without which expert understanding would be impossible4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,designs ,,and ,,symbols ,,however well woven1 however resplendent in rich modulations of colour1 ,oriental rugs would quickly lose their fascination if in patterns and designs there were not at least some partial expression of the simple lives of the people1 of their religious feelings1 and of that veiled mysticism which pervades the thought of every ,eastern race4 ,in all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable reminders of common life4 ,it may be only crude outlines of the goat or camel1 or realistically drawn rose and lily2 but even these are suggestive of associations4 ,religion1 too1 exercised on the character of rugs an important influence1 which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs and colour4 ,without a doubt1 some of these well-known designs have been transmitted from the earliest times1 and were once associated with different forms of idolatry4 ,thus1 among the old ,babylonians the sun and moon1 which are sometimes seen in the old pieces1 represented particular deities2 and very many of the oldest ,chinese rugs that remain also contain symbols of their deities4 ,in the early religion of ,iran1 which over #ajjj years ,b4,c4 was reduced to a system by ,zoroaster1 the elements were worshipped1 so that designs representing these elements would likewise represent the divine forces they personified4 ,this ancient fire worship of the ,parsees1 which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of ,persia1 and the kindred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of ,oriental rugs4 ,buddhism also has contributed its share2 and with the spread of ,mohammedanism appeared a ,saracenic influence that is frequently recognised4 ,even the two great sects of ,mohammedan followers1 the ,shiites and ,sunnites1 have had distinct effects in the use of designs1 as the former employed animal figures and the latter prohibited them4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4 ,,sarabend ,,rug ,there was1 moreover1 a symbolism that in a manner expressed the vague philosophic teachings of the ancient races4 ,it was but natural that the early weaver engaged in tedious sedentary work1 often requiring many months of constant application to complete1 should endeavour to express therein not only artistic taste1 but also the spirit of his innermost thoughts4 ,so as he wove he sometimes left the result1 though poorly defined and little understood to-day1 of that struggle to interpret the great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe1 from which arose the crude beginnings of philosophy4#aj ,the patterns1 however1 of many ,oriental rugs are chiefly decorative4 ,even a casual examination shows that in all of them the coloured knots of the surface represent a border surrounding a central field4 ,the former serves much the same function to the latter as a frame to a picture2 yet its office is in no wise subordinate4 ,nor is there any part of the pattern more useful in determining the place of its origin4 ,for this reason it is well to clearly define the special names which in this work are applied to its different parts4 ,the lineal divisions are designated 8,stripes10 though they are frequently spoken of as separate borders4 ,at or near the centre of the border is the main stripe1 which is generally accompanied by a much narrower pair1 one on each side1 known as 8,guard stripes40 ,very narrow stripes are sometimes called 8,ribbon stripes10 and those of only one or two knots in width are called 8,lines40 ,the latter are of solid colour or have the simplest geometric device4 ,the decoration of the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple2 but in the main stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often exceedingly elaborate1 of exquisite colours1 and co-ordinate in character with those of the field4 ,the fields display even greater diversity of pattern than the borders4 ,frequently they are covered with a heterogeneous mass of detached and unrelated figures1 as in many of the nomadic rugs2 or1 on the other hand1 are entirely covered with repetitive patterns1 as in the ,turkomans2 or with intricate and correlated designs1 as in the diaper and floral patterns of so many of the ,persian and ,indian rugs4 ,others consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated formal designs1 as in some of the ,khorassans1 or medallions on which are represented smaller figures1 as in some of the old ,sehnas and ,feraghans4 ,occasionally the medallions are so large as to extend to the sides and ends of the fields1 and thus separate the corners into nearly triangular shaped sections1 such as are characteristic of a number of ,persian and one or two ,caucasian rugs4 ,in a few of the latter1 also1 the fields are covered with large geometric figures suggesting the medallions4 ,it is only within comparatively modern times that weavers have used solid colours for large portions of the fields4 ,the intent no doubt was a saving in labour and pains1 but the effect is frequently most gratifying2 as when1 for instance1 the space beneath the arch of ,asia ,minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red1 blue1 or cream1 relieved only by a gracefully suspended lamp1 the tree of life1 or some other emblem of immortality4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,c4--,,prayer ,,arches ,,of ,,persian1 ,,caucasian1 ,,and ,,central ,,asiatic ,,rugs ,no4 #a1 ,antique silk4 ,no4 #b1 ,kermanshah4 ,no4 #c1 ,khorassan4 ,no4 #d1 ,sarouk4 ,no4 #e1 ,persian1 ,,xvi ,century4 ,no4 #f1 ,kashan4 ,no4 #g1 ,feraghan4 ,no4 #h1 ,shiraz4 ,no4 #i1 ,daghestan1 ,kabistan1 ,shirvan1 ,chichi1 ,kazak1 ,karabagh4 ,no4 #aj1 ,kazak4 ,no4 #aa1 ,shirvan4 ,no4 #ab1 ,karabagh 7not usual74 ,no4 #ac1 ,beluchistan4 ,no4 #ad1 ,bokhara1 ,tekke4 ,no4 #ae1 ,khiva4 ,no4 #af1 ,beshire4 ,the patterns of prayer rugs are not only pleasing1 but have a peculiar importance1 as weavers of certain sections of the country adhere so strictly to time-honoured traditions that the shape of the arch1 or mihrab1 which is the principal feature1 often denotes the class1 as well as the group1 to which they belong4 ,some of these arches are illustrated in ,plates ,c and ,d 7,pages #fa and #fc71 from which it will be seen that in ,persian rugs they are formed by gracefully curving lines1 but that in rugs of other groups1 with the exception of a very few old ,ghiordes pieces1 they are geometric4 ,the peculiarities of the arches of the several classes1 also1 are observable2 as those of the ,beluchistans1 which are rectilinear and relatively high1 and those of the ,bokharas1 which are tent-shaped1 flat1 and small4 ,in the ,caucasian group they have a marked resemblance to one another and also to those of the ,turkoman rugs1 but are larger than the latter4 ,again1 the arch of almost all ,asia ,minor rugs rises higher than those of any others1 excepting the ,persian1 and extends from one side of the field to the other4 ,in many of them a panel is placed above the spandrel1 and occasionally a second panel is placed beneath the field4 ,above the niche of some ,asia ,minor and ,caucasian prayer rugs is woven a small rhomboidal figure1 where the suppliant plants the pebble or bit of earth that he has brought from ,mecca2 and at the sides of a few arches are crude figures1 where are placed the hands during the act of worship4 ,more than one arch is the exception2 but now and then are seen two and even four1 one above the other1 or several parallel to one another4 ,these and other special features associated with prayer rugs will be considered more fully in subsequent chapters4 ,the smaller designs that appear in rugs and compose the general pattern are distinguished as geometric and floral ornamentation4 ,the former is adopted in those countries where the population is principally nomadic2 and the latter is the accepted style in countries where exist numerous towns and cities in which the arts have been cultivated and where a large percentage of the population have enjoyed an advanced state of society4 ,thus in ,caucasia1 ,turkestan1 ,afghanistan1 and ,beluchistan geometric designs are characteristic of the rugs2 but in ,china1 ,india1 ,persia1 and part of ,asia ,minor floral designs prevail4 ,sir ,george ,birdwood1 an eminent authority on ,oriental rugs1 has made the statement that the geometric designs are found among the lower ,turanian and the floral among the higher ,aryan4 ,but it seems most probable that the adoption of the geometric or floral style of ornamentation is due not so much to racial distinctions as to the state to which the textile art had advanced among the different peoples and to the waves of influence that at times spread over the countries4 ,thus the early rugs of ,asia ,minor had patterns that were more geometric than those of later times1 and during the period when the ,mongols ruled in ,persia geometric patterns were more frequently employed in the rugs of that country than subsequently4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,d4--,,prayer ,,arches ,,of ,,asia ,,minor ,,rugs ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,ghiordes4 ,nos4 #e1 #f1 #g1 ,kulah4 ,no4 #h1 ,ladik4 ,nos4 #i1 #aj1 ,bergamo4 ,nos4 #aa1 #ab1 ,melez4 ,no4 #ac1 ,kir-shehr1 ,mudjar4 ,nos4 #ad1 #ae1 ,konieh4 ,no4 #af1 ,anatolian4 ,in all rugs1 however1 some trace of the floral design appears4 ,even in the ,turkoman weavings1 the pattern of which is strictly geometric1 some vestige of the tree of life is manifest4 ,in the fields of ,caucasian rugs1 in which are represented squares1 octagons1 triangles1 diagonals1 lozenges1 stars1 etc41 the weavers have depicted designs that are almost as geometric as those of the ,turkoman rugs by which they have been influenced2 but1 on the other hand1 large numbers of the border designs are distinctly floral4 ,in the rugs of ,china and ,asia ,minor are found both geometric and floral ornamentation1 the latter predominating in pieces woven during the last two centuries1 and the former in those of earlier date4 ,among the woven fabrics of ,india and ,persia1 however1 few traces of the geometric pattern remain2 but vines1 leaves1 and flowers form the favourite theme for decoration4 ,the floral patterns are the result of many centuries of growth1 that reached its highest development in the ,persian carpets of the ,,xvi and ,,xvii ,centuries2 and since then till the present time they have continued as the most characteristic features of the rugs of that country and ,india4 ,they represent the highest technique of the weaver4 ,in the borders are generally represented vines from which are pendant rosettes1 palmettes1 or flowers2 and in the fields1 particularly those of the fine antique rugs1 are a profusion of floral forms realistically portrayed4 ,on long1 gracefully twining and intertwining stems is often the rose1 pink1 violet1 lotus1 crocus1 narcissus1 or daisy4 ,but if the rug is more modern1 in its field of uniform colour may be represented a central medallion covered with delicate tracings enriched by bright-coloured conventionalised flowers4 ,in the general pattern of all rugs are interwoven particular designs or motives that give them a distinctive character and render the greatest assistance in distinguishing the groups and classes4 ,thus the serrated leaf and wine cup 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #a1 opp4 ,page #bbf7 is found only in ,caucasian and old ,armenian rugs2 and the design represented in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #aj 7opp4 ,page #aid71 suggestive of some ,chinese character1 is found almost exclusively in ,kulahs4 ,not only are all designs important as aids in classification1 but they have a special interest1 as it is maintained by writers of the highest authority that when employed by the earliest weavers each had a symbolic meaning4 ,to be sure1 the origin of many has been lost in the remote past and is unknown even to those who now employ them2 but others still represent definite ideas1 as they did centuries ago1 and portray to some extent the thought of the weaver4 ,they therefore deserve the most careful study4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aa4 ,,carpet ,,from ,,northwestern ,,persia ,loaned by ,c4 ,f4 ,williams1 ,esq41 to the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new ,york ,few of these designs have been transmitted from a more remote past or have been more universally employed than has been the figure ,symbol3 ,s or ,symbol3 horizontal ,s4 ,it appears in each of the groups of ,oriental rugs excepting the ,chinese2 and two of the forms it assumes are exceedingly like the arms of the swastika and parts of the fret as occasionally seen in ,chinese designs4 ,in ,indian rugs it is rarely found except in the borders1 which may have been copied from those of other countries4 ,it is very commonly seen in the ,beluchistans1 ,tekkes1 and ,beshires1 of the ,central ,asiatic group2 and in the rugs of the ,persian group that show nomadic influences4 ,there is probably not a single class of the ,caucasian group1 nor any of the ,asia ,minor group1 with the exception of the old ,ghiordes1 in which it is not sometimes represented4 ,it may be seen near the corner of the ,asia ,minor 8,dragon and ,phnix0 carpet of the ,,xiv ,century1 illustrated in ,plate #bj 7opp4 ,page #hh72 and appears in some of the old ,armenian carpets1 which are believed to be even older4 ,that it was associated with sun worship and regarded as an emblem of light and the deity is the accepted belief4 ,it is possible1 however1 that it was intended by some weavers to represent the serpent1 which among many different races is emblematic of superhuman knowledge4 ,probably no other design has been more universally employed than the swastika1 which appears in the textile fabrics of ,north ,american ,indians1 on the ,maya ruins of ,yucatan1 among the monuments of the ,nile1 and on the temples of ,india4 ,widely as is its distribution1 its most usual form of intersecting right angles is found in each of these countries4 ,it is not improbable that it originated in ,china1 where it is a most common decorative motive1 and was almost invariably represented in the borders and in many of the medallions of rugs woven before the beginning of the ,,xviii ,century4 ,it is also very frequently seen in the rugs of ,samarkand1 and occasionally in those of ,caucasia4 ,it seldom appears in the rugs of ,persia1 ,asia ,minor1 or ,turkestan4 ,the universality of the design indicates its great antiquity1 yet its primitive symbolic meaning of abundance1 fertility1 and prosperity has never been lost4 ,some of its different forms are shown in ,plate ,o1 ,figs4 #e-;a1 #e-;b1 #e-;c1 #e-;d1 #e-;e1 and #e-;f 7,page #bia74 ,the reciprocal trefoil 7,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #ag1 opp4 ,page #aeh7 is a very usual design in ,caucasian and ,persian rugs2 it is often found in some of the rugs of ,india and in ,beluchistans1 but is very rarely seen in other classes of the ,central ,asiatic or in the ,chinese and ,asia ,minor groups4 ,its origin is uncertain1 but since it appears in the 8,polish ,carpets0 and other antique ,persian carpets of strictly floral pattern1 where its drawing is more elaborate than in modern rugs1 it is not improbable that it is the conventionalised form of the lily or a spray bearing three leaves1 and that it has the emblematic significance of the tree form4 ,among all primitive races the sun1 moon1 and stars have been associated with their religion1 so that it is surprising that so few emblems of them are recognised in rugs4 ,in the theology of the ,chaldees1 from which the earliest weavers must have received inspiration1 the sun was regarded as one of their principal deities and the moon as another4 ,the sun is generally represented by a plain circle1 a circle with diameters intersecting at right angles1 or a circle with small ovals intersecting at right angles2 the moon is represented by the crescent4 ,of much more frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed star1 another inheritance of those ancient times when all primitive races worshipped the heavenly bodies4 ,it represented the female principle of the ,chaldean sun god2 and it is believed1 too1 that it represented the deity to the ,medes1 ancestors of many of the present ,persians4 ,there is a tradition among some ,eastern races that ,king ,solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged in the form of an eight-pointed star1 and also a crown containing a large star of which the eight points and centre were composed of precious stones of different colour4 ,a star now and then seen in rugs with colours so arranged is known as 8,mohammedan's jewel design40 ,the six-pointed star1 a ,jewish symbol for the 8shield of ,david10 was adopted as a talisman by some of the ,moslems4 ,all of these stars are chiefly nomadic symbols1 they rarely if ever are seen in the rugs of ,china or ,india1 they are only occasionally found in those of ,persia1 and are of most frequent occurrence in the ,caucasian pieces4 ,another design is an octagonal-shaped disc 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #aj1 ,page #bia71 usually about two and a half inches in diameter1 on the face of which and extending the full width are figures somewhat like hour-glasses placed at right angles to one another4 ,it seems not improbable that it is of the same origin as the large designs that appear in the field of the ,holbein rug of the ,,xv ,century1 illustrated in ,plate #ba 7opp4 ,page #ib74 ,it is a very old motive1 and is sometimes regarded as a dial symbolising the diurnal motion of the earth4 ,it is of very frequent occurrence in nomadic rugs2 and is found in ,beluchistans1 in nearly all ,caucasians1 in some rugs from ,asia ,minor1 and in only a very few from ,persia4 ,the zigzag line1 known as the water motive1 is found in many of the rugs of ,china1 ,india1 ,persia1 ,caucasia1 and ,asia ,minor1 as well as in the ,beluchistans and ,beshires of the ,central ,asiatic group1 though in some instances it appears as little more than a serrated line4 ,it is represented in the narrow guard-stripes of some of the ,western ,asia ,minor carpets of the ,,xv ,century4 ,according to ,mr4 ,john ,mumford1 8even in the oldest ,egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by implication for eternity2 and a succession of these arranged to represent the sea has long been a recognised carpet design in ,india1 ,china1 and ,persia40 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,,iii--,,mosul ,,rug ,long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the weavers of the ,orient1 one or more of them dwelling in the ,mesopotamian valley tied the knots of this old ,mosul4 ,the central field is of camel's hair that shades from a rich dark chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the other1 and is enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on the river's banks4 ,this variation of ground colour1 the small geometric designs at the extreme ends of the fields1 the eight-pointed stars of the main stripe of the border1 and some of the drawing are nomadic characteristics4 ,the dainty vine and flower of the narrow guard stripes1 on the other hand1 show ,persian influence4 ,this piece represents a type of which few now remain4 ,property of the ,author ,one of the most common designs is what has been called the 8latch-hook40 ,when there is a long succession of latch-hooks with the straight ends resting on a line and the hooked ends inclined in the same direction1 as in ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #bj 7opp4 ,page #bcj71 they are called 8running latch-hooks40 ,since they appear in the ,dragon and ,phnix rug 7opp4 ,page #hh71 that was probably woven about the end of the ,,xiv ,century1 they are evidently a very old design1 which not improbably was derived from the ,chinese fret4 ,the hook is of different shapes1 and is sometimes perpendicular1 sometimes inclined4 ,its particular function is to shade or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one colour to another that is entirely different4 ,as such a device is unnecessary in artistic rugs of intricate designs1 it is rarely seen in any ,indian or ,persian piece1 excepting the modern ,shiraz that frequently adopts geometric patterns2 but it is found in all the rugs of ,caucasia1 ,central ,asia1 and in most of those of ,asia ,minor4 ,it is in fact as universal as the reciprocal trefoil4 ,in rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both ,greek and ,roman crosses4 ,the latter are represented in most of the ,soumak rugs1 and appear profusely in old ,asia ,minor or ,armenian rugs1 in which they were probably woven with the intent to convey a religious significance2 but in many instances crosses are not used symbolically4 ,the design of a comb 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #aa1 ,page #bia7 is a ,mohammedan emblem suggestive of cleanliness1 yet it is not improbable that it is sometimes intended to represent the instrument employed in pressing the threads of weft closely against the knots4 ,it is found mostly in ,caucasian rugs1 and rarely in those of other groups4 ,in a large number of the finest carpets woven in ,persia three or four centuries ago was represented what is known as the ,chinese cloud-band 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #g74 ,it appeared in ,persia about the middle of the ,,xv ,century1 and was conspicuous in the carpets of ,herat1 ,tabriz1 and ,gilan1 as well as in many of the 8,polish ,carpets40 ,later it was introduced into ,asia ,minor1 but was never represented in any of the strictly nomadic weavings4 ,it appears in only a very few of the modern rugs1 and these are mostly ,persian4 ,nor is it recognised in its usual form in any of the ,chinese rugs that now exist2 though without a doubt it originated with the ,chinese1 since their early mythology placed the abode of the ,supreme ,ruler in the ,constellation of ,ursa ,major1 of which the stars of the ,big ,dipper were represented in early art as enveloped in a band of clouds2 but in more conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted and the band remains4 ,as a motive1 then1 it is symbolic of heaven and the deity4 ,in almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life1 as a twig1 vine1 flower1 or tree4 ,sometimes they are most naturalistic1 again they are partly conventionalised1 or so disguised1 as in nomadic rugs of geometric designs1 that only by study and comparison of many forms in a series can their origin be established4 ,this universal adoption of floral form was due to something more than an aesthetic love for the beautiful1 since in every country of the ,east some part of the tree or plant was emblematic4 ,moreover1 a tree form known as the ,tree of ,life had a religious significance among many races4 ,the ,jews were told that in the ,garden of ,eden grew the 8,tree of ,knowledge of ,good and ,evil20 and in the ,book of ,revelation the ,apostle ,john speaks of 8,the ,tree of ,life which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month1 and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations40 ,from this passage may have been borrowed the belief of the ,mohammedans in the ,tree of ,life which grew in ,paradise1 and spread its branches that true believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits and the companionship of beautiful houri4 ,in the ancient lore of ,china is the ,taoist tradition of the ,tree of ,life1 growing by the ,sea of ,jade1 that confers immortality on the fortunate who may gather and eat its fruits2 also the tradition of the mountain top where grows the sacred tree on which the elect may climb and mount to heaven4 ,even among the ancient ,chaldees was a story of a tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the earth4 ,in different countries the ,tree of ,life is represented by different kinds2 in ,yarkand of ,eastern ,turkestan it takes the form of a cedar2 in ,persia it is generally the cypress4 ,wherever employed it is symbolic of knowledge1 resurrection1 immortality4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab4 ,,carpet ,,from ,,northwestern ,,persia ,loaned by ,c4 ,f4 ,williams1 ,esq41 to the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new ,york ,no other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in ,oriental symbolism as the lotus flower 7,plate ,o1 ,figs4 #af-;a1 b1 and c71 since the ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,indian1 ,chinese1 and ,persian alike did it reverence4 ,it was1 perhaps1 first employed emblematically in the valley of the ,nile1 but later it was held in high esteem by the inhabitants of ,india where the floating blossom is regarded as an emblem of the world4 ,it was inseparately associated with ,buddha1 and its religious significance must have extended with the spread of ,buddhism4 ,professor ,goodyear regards a large number of designs that apparently are not related in form as derived from it through a long series of evolutions4 ,during the highest development of the textile art in ,persia it appears most realistically drawn in a large number of the carpets1 especially the so-called ,ispahans1 or ,herats1 and the so-called ,polish4 ,it is also most artistically represented in the fabrics of ,india1 and is a favourite design for ,chinese weavers4 ,but in other modern rugs it is seldom used as a motive1 and is so conventionalised as often to escape notice4 ,if the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early woven fabrics1 as seems not improbable1 several others have met with greater favour among modern weavers4 ,of these the rose1 which is cultivated extensively in the gardens of the ,east1 appears in a large number of the rugs of ,persia and ,asia ,minor4 ,moreover1 a pattern frequently seen in many old ,persian rugs is an all-over pattern of small bushes with flowering roses4 ,almost equally popular is the lily1 which is characteristic of many of the rugs of ,india and of a few of ,western ,asia ,minor4 ,the 8,euphrates flower10 which grows by the river banks of the ,mesopotamian valley1 is also occasionally found as an all-over pattern in some of the rugs of ,western ,iran and ,southern ,caucasia4 ,less frequently seen and still less frequently recognised1 as they are generally woven in small figures1 are the daisy1 anemone1 crocus1 narcissus1 pink1 and violet4 ,all are depicted chiefly on account of their associations and beauty1 and whatever emblematic meaning they are intended to convey is generally no more than that of their colours4 ,there are1 however1 in a few old ,persian carpets designs of sunflowers1 which were accepted by the ,zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire worshippers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light4 ,of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than the pomegranate1 which was sculptured in temples of ,mesopotamia and embroidered on the robes of ,assyrian and ,jewish priests4 ,in the days of ,king ,solomon it was cultivated in ,palestine1 where the ,israelites1 like modern ,persians1 made a sherbet by mixing its juice with sugar and spices4 ,at the time of ,homer it was cultivated in ,phrygia4 ,now it grows wild over vast tracts of ,syria1 ,persia1 and ,asia ,minor4 ,yet it rarely appears conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the ,ladik prayer rugs1 in which it is invariably seen4 ,since the weavers of these1 whether ,christian or ,moslem1 would probably be familiar with many of the old ,jewish and ,assyrian rites1 it is not unlikely that it refers emblematically to its religious associations rather than symbolises1 as has been suggested1 the idea of fruitfulness as expressed in the ,turkish wedding custom where the bride throws a pomegranate at her feet that the scattered seed may fore-tell the number of her children4 ,in almost every rug of ,persia1 ,india1 and ,asia ,minor there is in some part of the border a vine with pendant leaves1 flowers1 rosettes1 or palmettes2 and even in many ,caucasian rugs of geometric pattern the vine with its appendages is seen in conventionalised form4 ,in a few of the more sumptuous carpets1 where the drawing is elaborate1 delicate tendrils bearing flowers or the more formal designs of the ,herati border take the place of the vine1 from which they were evolved4 ,in such borders the designs generally convey no symbolic meaning1 but the simpler vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency4 ,one of the most interesting designs 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #f1 ,page #bia7 is known as the ,cone1 ,palm1 ,mango1 ,almond1 ,river ,loop1 and ,pear4 ,by some it is believed to represent no more than the closed palm of the hand1 since there is an old tradition in ,persia that a weaver once asked his little son to devise for him a new design1 whereupon the boy thrust his hand into a pot of dye1 then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white linen1 on which became impressed the 8palm0 design formed by the hand and incurving small finger4 ,by some it is regarded as a cluster of old ,iranian crown jewels4 ,to others1 who point to the well-known pattern of the ,kashmir weaving1 it denotes the bend of the river ,jhelum above ,srinagar in the valley of ,kashmir2 and to ,sir ,george ,birdwood it symbolises the flame sacred to ancient fire worshippers4 ,in this work it will be called the ,pear1 the name now generally applied to it4 ,in the course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin1 and in its migration through ,india1 ,persia1 ,turkestan1 ,caucasia1 and ,asia ,minor1 it has adopted more strange shapes than any other device4 ,in the rugs of ,sarabend it is represented in its best-known form of simple curving lines1 in the ,bakus its identity is almost lost on account of its geometric appearance1 and in the fabrics of ,india it is often very ornate4 ,though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past1 when its antiquity is considered1 and also the devotion of the early races to the glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires1 it is not surprising that it has been regarded as a relic of the ,zoroastrian faith of old ,iran1 symbolising the eternal flames before which the ,parsees worshipped4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ac4 ,,compartment ,,carpet ,,in ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york ,if the floral designs are more beautiful1 others are more truly symbolic1 and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns they are more interesting4 ,of these the creeping things are represented by the serpent1 scorpion1 turtle1 crab1 and tarantula4 ,among a few races of ,asia the serpent1 which is found in a few old ,persian carpets1 has been regarded as emblematic of immortality1 but has been more frequently considered as the symbol of knowledge4 ,the scorpion1 also1 was supposed to represent the idea of knowledge4 ,it does not often appear in woven design1 but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in ,caucasian fabrics4 ,the turtle or tortoise stands for constancy4 ,what is called the 8turtle border0 7,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #c1 opp4 ,page #aef71 which was probably derived from interlacing arabesques1 occurs most frequently in ,feraghans and also in some other ,persian rugs1 as ,muskabads1 ,sarabends1 ,serapis1 and even the ,sehnas4 ,the tarantula and crab designs are found exclusively in borders of ,caucasian rugs4 ,as their resemblance to the animals they are supposed to represent is remote1 it is most probable that they are simply the conventionalised forms of the star and palmette4 ,among the designs seen in ,chinese rugs are several not found in any others4 ,of these the dragon1 originally intended as a symbol of the infinite1 denotes imperial power2 the stork1 long life2 the duck1 conjugal felicity2 the bat1 happiness2 and the butterfly1 a spirit4 ,these designs will be noticed in the chapter on ,chinese rugs4 ,with few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are represented are the ,persian4 ,the drawing as a rule is far from natural2 but in the fine old carpets it is often so accurate as to show unmistakably the order to which they belong4 ,several of them were used symbolically1 as the bird of paradise1 suggestive of felicity2 the peacock1 symbol of fire2 the eagle1 emblem of power4 ,the attitude1 to be sure1 in which they appear1 affects in a measure their symbolic meaning2 as an eagle in flight denotes good fortune1 but one in the act of descending denotes ill luck4 ,as the ,mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and beasts as well as human forms1 they are rarely seen in any rug of ,western ,asia ,minor1 which is inhabited by the ,sunnites1 the strict conformists to the law of the ,koran2 but in ,mohammedan countries lying farther to the east1 where the ,shiites or nonconformists live1 animal designs are very common4 ,in modern rugs of ,persia and ,caucasia1 dogs1 goats1 and camels are the most popular animal subjects1 but the drawing is often so poor that the identity is in doubt4 ,in the old carpets1 on the other hand1 animals and human beings were most realistically drawn1 and were intended to represent symbolically the weaver's thought4 ,in fact1 those masterpieces of ,persian art known as the 8,hunting ,carpets0 would lose much of their interest if their many forms of animal life were without symbolic meaning4 ,in them the lion is a symbol of victory1 power1 the sun1 and the day2 the antelope and unicorn are symbols of restfulness and the moon4 ,the lion destroying an antelope would mean1 then1 the victory of day over night1 or of a powerful over a weak foe4 ,leopards and hounds likewise symbolise success and fame4 ,there are also mythological creatures1 as the phnix1 emblematic of life and resurrection1 and the winged djinni or ,persian spirits1 that often adorn the fields and borders of some of the elaborate antique carpets of ,iran4 ,not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their relative attitudes to one another were intended to convey a symbolic meaning1 but among almost all ancient races colours had a special significance4 ,to the ,moslems no colour was more sacred than the green1 which1 though difficult to produce in beautiful tones1 they have placed in the fields of many of their prayer rugs4 ,to them1 also1 blue was the emblem of eternity1 and in the spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the sky4 ,though to the ,hindoo it denotes ill luck1 it was the chosen colour of the ,persians1 as well as one of the imperial colours of the ,chinese4 ,among all nations yellow1 another imperial colour of ,china1 and red are suggestive of joy and happiness4 ,such colours1 when used in conjunction with other emblems1 expressed not only beauty1 but also different shades of thought4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ad4 ,,persian ,,animal ,,carpet ,,in ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york ,these are but a few of the many motives that are employed by the weaver4 ,some of them represent objects intimately associated with his daily life4 ,some of them reflect his thoughts and emotions4 ,others are the still unsolved hieroglyphics of his craft4 ,when1 then1 we examine some old worn rug1 we may see only an exquisite pattern resplendent in the deep rich colours of an art now lost2 but if to an aesthetic taste be added an interest in a symbolism that expresses something of the thought and life of the weaver1 we may find in the study of the various designs another charm that increases with the discovery of any previously hidden meaning4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,rug ,,weaving ,,before ,,the ,,xviii ,,century ,,there are no records to definitely indicate in what land the art of rug weaving originated1 or to disprove that it developed independently in different lands4 ,it would be unreasonable1 then1 to assume that rugs were not woven in northern regions as early as in southern4 ,in fact1 during the ,neolithic age the ,lake-dwellers of ,switzerland grew and spun flax1 and it is believed that they had looms4 ,moreover1 it is probable that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave garments with the long wool of their sheep or goats2 and the similar process of weaving mats for the floors of their huts would naturally follow4 ,nevertheless1 such evidence as now remains points to the civilisations of the ,euphrates or the ,nile1 as the birthplace of this art4 ,though we do not know when the first rugs were made1 without a doubt they existed before the pyramids of ,egypt or the palaces of ,babylon had risen from the plains4 ,among the rock-cut tombs of ,beni-,hassan in ,egypt1 that date from about #bejj ,b4 ,c4 are pictures of men with spindles1 of looms and weavers4 ,there is also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity of a high state of the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the ,tigris and the ,euphrates4 ,on carved walls of the palaces of ,nineveh1 where dwelt the rulers of ,assyria over three thousand years ago1 are elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable workmanship were then in use4 ,in the borders of some of the robes worn by the rulers are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks1 and on one is depicted the tree of life1 similar to what may be seen in modern rugs4 ,nor are ancient writers silent4 ,in the ,old ,testament are frequent references to woven fabrics4 ,homer1 also1 speaks of them in his ,odyssey4 ,herodotus1 ,diodorus1 ,pliny1 ,strabo1 in fact almost all classic writers have mentioned them4 ,moreover1 designs on pottery1 bowls1 tiles1 and walls1 similar in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets1 carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character4 ,this art1 that necessity created1 comfort nourished1 and luxury matured1 has been a process of slow development4 ,to the mind of some dark tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the rushes gathered from a sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor of her master's hut several thousand years ago1 may have been suggested the first idea of a mat4 ,indeed1 from earliest times mats of reeds1 straw1 bamboo1 or other pliable material have been constantly made4 ,at first they were doubtless without ornament2 later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots and herbs to increase their attractiveness2 finally designs symbolic of nature or the deity were embroidered on them4 ,as wealth and luxury increased the ornamentation became more elaborate1 until during the rule of the ,caliphs the mats rivalled in beauty the carpets for which1 during the summer months1 they were substituted4 8,on these mats10 wrote the eminent authority1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,r4 ,martin1 8the artist found free scope for displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets1 and gold threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the most expensive silk and gold carpets40 ,long1 however1 before they had reached such a high state of perfection1 they would have suggested the idea of making warmer and more durable floor coverings4 ,the first of these was a simple web of warp and woof2 later they assumed a character not dissimilar to the kilims now made in the lands of their origin4 ,with further advance1 more elaborate carpets and tapestries were made2 but it was not until the art had been developing for a great many centuries1 that there appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that were similar in kind but superior in quality to the modern pieces4 ,slow as was this development1 as early as the ,christian era1 the work of the most skilled weavers of the ,orient deserved to be classed as a fine art4 ,during the time of the ,sassanian kingdom 7extending from about #bbf ,a4 ,d4 to #fcb ,a4 ,d47 carpets of elaborate design and finish were produced in ,mesopotamia and ,syria4 ,most of them were of the wool of sheep or goats2 and in them were represented designs of trees1 birds1 animals1 and other figures4 ,other pieces were made of silk richly embroidered with silver and gold4 ,moreover1 authentic evidence from the ,,vi ,century ,a4 ,d4 not only gives us positive knowledge of the marvellous workmanship of that time1 but enables us to conjecture through what a long period of progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such results4 ,dr4 ,karabacek1 director of the ,imperial ,library of ,vienna1 in his monograph 8,die ,persische ,nadelmalerei ,susandschird10 gave the following description of the 8,spring of ,chosroes0 carpet3 8,when ,ctesiphon1 the residence of the ,sassanides1 fell into the hands of the ,arabs in the year #fcg ,a4 ,d41 they found in the royal palace1 the ruins of which still remain1 a colossal carpet of #ajea square metres1#aa which was originally made for ,chosroes ,i4 ,his successor1 ,anoschar 7#eca-egi ,a4 ,d471 used it also1 but only during the stormy weather1 when remaining in the gardens was impracticable4 ,the festivities were then transferred to the palace1 where a garden with the beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of the carpet4 ,this was the ,winter ,carpet that was called in ,persia the ,spring of ,chosroes4 ,its material1 which was marvellous and costly1 consisted of silk1 gold1 silver1 and precious stones4 ,on it was represented a beautiful pleasure ground with brooks and interlacing paths1 with trees and flowers of springtime4 ,on the wide borders surrounding it were represented flower-beds in which precious stones coloured blue1 red1 yellow1 white1 and green denoted the beauty of the flowers4 ,gold imitated the yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks1 where the water was represented by crystals4 ,gravel paths were indicated by stones of the size of pearls4 ,the stalks of trees were of gold and silver1 the leaves and flowers of silk1 the fruits of many-coloured stones40 ,as the value of this carpet was estimated at about three quarters of a million dollars1 it was regarded as too precious to fall to the lot of a single captor1 and was accordingly divided into segments to be distributed as booty among the soldiers4 ,even if during this period there was no other fabric so valuable and elaborate1 it represented the importance of the textile art during the dynasty of the ,sassanides4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ae4 ,,persian ,,animal ,,carpet ,,in ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york ,during the ,caliphate 7#fcb to #abeh ,a4 ,d47 the ,moslem rulers1 devoted to luxury1 preserved the art treasures of their conquered subjects and encouraged them to renewed efforts4 ,this is particularly true of the ,caliphs and sultans of ,syria and ,egypt4 ,a carpet that adorned the banquet hall of the ,caliph ,hisham of ,egypt1 who died #gdc ,a4 ,d41 was of silk interwoven with strands of gold1 and had a length of three hundred feet and a breadth of one hundred and fifty feet4 ,all of the rooms of the ,egyptian palaces1 occupied by the sultans1 contained carpets of silk and satin2 and the mosques of ,syria were similarly furnished4 ,in the year #ajfg ,a4 ,d4 one of the ,caliphs was forced to sell his accumulated treasures1 which consisted1 besides jewels and works of art1 of about four thousand bales of carpets4 ,dr4 ,martin states that a single one of these bales contained several hundred perfect carpets1 which were woven in silk and gold1 and that some of them contained portraits of entire royal families4 ,one of them1 valued at about #cjj1jjj1 was made for the ,caliph el ,mirz li alla in the year #ifd ,a4 ,d4 ,it was of blue silk1 on which were represented the heavens and the earth1 seas and rivers1 as well as the holy cities ,mecca and ,medina4 ,such was the character of some of the carpets woven during the days of the ,caliphs4 ,as the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that the finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques and palaces of ,syria and ,egypt1 it has been assumed that they were woven by the native artisans4 ,to some extent this is doubtless true1 as rug weaving was one of the oldest industries of these countries4 ,but it is more probable that most of them were made elsewhere and were acquired as presents or by purchase4 ,some were made in ,armenia1 ,assyria1 and ,turkestan2 but the largest number1 as well as the most costly and elaborate1 doubtless came from the same hills and towns of ,persia where many of the finest pieces are woven to-day4 ,in several of these towns as many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work2 and since the carpets consisted of warp and weft only1 it is probable that they were produced far more rapidly than modern rugs in which knots are tied to the warp4 ,but if they lacked the richness of deep1 heavy pile1 they were elaborately woven with threads of gold and silver1 and were often embellished with precious stones4 ,,antique ,,persian ,,carpets ,to the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to which antiquity adds value1 there is no exception in the case of ,oriental rugs1 yet there is good reason to believe that a few pieces still exist that were woven in ,persia as early as the ,,xiii or ,,xiv ,century4 ,indeed1 we cannot positively affirm that there may not be religiously preserved some relic of the ,seljukian dynasty1 which ruled in ,persia till about #aaej ,a4 ,d41 for we have little knowledge of what some of the old mosques which no ,christian has ever entered may contain2 but it is more probable that the oldest remaining pieces belong to the ,mongolian period1 which began with the invasion of the armies of ,genghis ,khan in the first half of the ,,xiii ,century4 ,this conclusion is based partly on the facts that their archaic patterns indicate a very remote period1 and that they suggest early ,mongolian influences4 ,moreover1 as the age of rugs of a somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of similarity of their designs with those of early tiles1 metal work1 pottery1 and miniatures1 of established age1 it is possible to infer the relative age of these older pieces by comparison of patterns showing a progressive development4 ,one of the oldest ,persian pieces now existing1 the property of ,c4 ,f4 ,williams1 ,esq41 of ,norristown1 ,pa41 is in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art of ,new ,york 7,plate #aa1 opp4 ,page #fd74 ,it is also one of the most interesting4 ,in it are found ,persian1 ,armenian1 ,caucasian1 and ,mongolian characteristics1 which serve to determine the district where it was woven and to suggest its age4 ,its ,sehna knot1 cotton warp and weft1 as well as much of the drawing1 are typical of ,persia4 ,the tri-cleft leaf and stem seen in the two lower corners1 in the main stripe1 and in parts of the field are found in almost all ,armenian rugs4 ,the reciprocal sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric inner stripe are ,caucasian features4 ,certain colour tones1 the octagonal discs at each end of the large central palmettes1 and more particularly the tendrils or scrolls of the main stripe of the border which resemble the foliate forms as they appear in ,chinese rugs and porcelains of the late ,ming and ,kang-hi periods1 are ,mongolian4 ,the combination of these characteristics indicates that it was made in the most northwesterly part of ,persia where in #abeh ,hulaku ,khan established his capital1 and his successors ruled for over a century4 ,here undoubtedly the craft of weaving flourished for a long period1 and exercised an important influence on the surrounding countries4 ,to judge by the colours2 the formal character of the border2 the rigid lines of the large palmette motives of the field1 which are not seen in carpets of a much later period2 and the stiff1 archaic character of the bushes with foliage and blossoms arranged mechanically on the thick trunks1 it is not unreasonable to place this piece as early as the middle of the ,,xiv ,century1 during the interval between the overthrow of the ,seljukian dynasty by the followers of ,genghis ,khan and the later invasion of the ,timurids4 ,in fact1 it may be even older1 since those graceful lines that belong to the highest art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking4 ,but in the drawing is strength1 and in the colours1 a few of which have faded1 are beauty and harmony4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #af4 ,,persian ,,animal ,,carpet ,,in ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york ,such old pieces are very rare1 yet a similar one1 belonging to ,prof4 ,w4 ,bode1 is in the ,kaiser ,friedrich ,museum at ,berlin4 ,its drawing is more regular1 and the trunks of the trees are broader4 ,these two carpets represent the art of weaving at a very early period4 ,of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet 7,plate #ab1 opp4 ,page #fh71 belonging to ,c4 ,f4 ,williams1 ,esq41 and at present in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art but formerly in the possession of ,j4 ,bhler of ,munich4 ,it has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of nearly twelve4 ,there are about three hundred knots to the square inch4 ,though much of that stiffness of drawing found in the earlier pieces remains1 the more pliant branches and less regular setting of the flowers indicate a later date2 so that it is not improbable that it was woven about the first of the ,,xv ,century4 ,dr4 ,martin regards this piece as one of the oldest of the ,timurid period if not from the ,mongolian1 and says that the trees resemble those in a ,mongolian miniature in the ,muse des ,arts ,decoratifs in ,paris1 and in a manuscript from the year #acif4 ,at any rate1 they display more formal drawing than the trees of more recent carpets4 ,the character of pattern and the colouring suggest that it was woven in ,northwestern ,persia4 ,the field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of flowers1 from which slender trees rise and partly screen from view more stately cypresses4 ,the subdivisions are further indicated by pairs of palmettes1 of which the upper pair mark a transition between the lower pair and those more elegant forms commonly seen two centuries later4 ,there are likewise palmettes of simpler form in the two guard stripes4 ,but the principal ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques of three different colours1 which are decorated with a slender wreath of leaf and flower4 ,there is1 moreover1 a particular interest in the grouping of the arabesques since they form a design which may be the prototype of the so-called turtle borders so frequently seen in ,feraghans and ,gorevans1 and is itself derived1 according to ,dr4 ,martin1 from a still older form in which branching arabesques extend across the whole field4 ,it may not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has been handed down from that earlier period when a ,saracenic influence was felt in all the weavings4 ,if the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern1 its greatest charm lies in its soft1 dainty colours1 some of which are exquisitely beautiful4 ,they are expressed in delicate shades of orange1 ivory1 light green1 sable brown1 and light and dark blue on a background of pinkish red4 ,this pattern and colouring suggest an ,eastern wood when the first frost of autumn has left its touch on the leaves4 ,the border contains the same colours as the field but is strong and effective1 since the soft tones are in the narrow guard stripes and the deeper colours appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses and in immediate contact4 ,if this carpet was woven about #adjj ,a4 ,d41 as seems not improbable1 the drawing of the trees1 palmettes1 and border designs becomes by comparison an important guide for determining the age of other antique ,persian carpets4 ,very different1 indeed1 from the preceding is a woollen piece 7,plate #ac1 opp4 ,page #gj71 sixteen feet four inches long by eleven feet two inches wide1 that was formerly in the collection of ,mr4 ,vincent ,robinson of ,london1 but is now in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new ,york1 which bought it at the ,yerkes sale in #aiaj1 for #ai1fjj4 ,it has about six hundred knots to the square inch1 and is woven with warp of cotton and silk1 and with weft of silk4 ,the pile is velvety1 and the texture1 drawing1 and colouring display a high grade of artistic craftsmanship4 ,another of similar character is represented in the ,vienna ,publication of ,oriental ,carpets of #ahhi1 at which time it belonged to the ,countess ,clotilde ,clam-,gallas of ,vienna2 and a third belongs to the ,palais de ,commerce at ,lyons4 ,in no other rugs from ,iran is the effect of ,mongolian tradition on design more noticeable2 but that this was due to the ,timurid invasion at the end of the ,,xiv ,century is doubtful1 and it is not improbable that more immediate intervention with ,china determined the motives4 ,nor is the ,saracenic influence obscured1 since in every part of the field and border is seen the perfect rhythm of graceful arabesques4 ,such carpets represent1 in fact1 the transition from those earlier pieces to the higher products of ,persian looms4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag4 ,,so-,,called ,,polish ,,or ,,polonaise ,,carpet ,,in ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york ,one of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard it as consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded octagon encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons1 and with a smaller rounded octagon at the centre of the diagonal lines connecting them4 ,on the large octagons1 which are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of sable brown1 is represented the fight of dragon and phnix so common in the ornamentation of the ,ming dynasty2 and in the smaller octagons1 which are plum colour1 are four running lions in red1 blue1 and green4 ,the eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue1 and have arabesques and ,chinese ducks4 ,the large pentagonal-shaped areas of the ivory field are covered with a most symmetrically drawn tracery of tendrils and flowers in red1 yellow1 and blue2 and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped areas are cloud bands of similar colours4 ,the border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding piece4 ,the main stripe1 which follows a pattern that with slight modification is adopted in many of the carpets of this and a later period1 consists of a chain-like series of octagons similar to those of the field1 separating elongated panels with crenated edges4 ,the latter are adorned with cloud bands in yellow interlaced with delicate tendrils supporting flowers in red1 yellow1 green1 and white1 on a dark blue field2 and surrounding them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and flowers4 ,the outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils bearing flowers in red1 green1 and blue on a ground of golden yellow4 ,all the colours of both field and border have mellowed into rich1 beautiful hues in which is the most perfect harmony4 ,the intricacy and character of design1 the delicacy of drawing1 and the tones of colour indicate that this piece was woven near the beginning of the ,safavid dynasty1 in the early part of the ,,xvi ,century4 ,mr4 ,robinson ascribes its origin to ,bagdad2 but it seems far more probable that it came from the northwestern part of ,persia1 which was an important centre of textile art only a few years later4 ,this piece and the two others described on the pages just preceding are among the most interesting carpets now existing2 for they represent not only a very high standard of the textile craft1 but also most important steps in its development4 ,there is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were woven in ,persia4 ,dr4 ,martin found a piece with archaic drawing1 that from its resemblance to an old tile of established age1 he placed at about the year #acjj ,a4 ,d42 but it was about the beginning of the ,,xvi ,century that were woven the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals surrounded by a maze of floral life4 ,lions1 leopards1 boars1 deer1 and hounds were the principal motives4 ,to each of these was ascribed some principle or quality1 so that it has been assumed that the aim of the weaver was to give expression to some theme of interest4 ,a number of these carpets represent the chase and are called 8,hunting ,carpets40 ,the best of them are regarded by ,dr4 ,martin as belonging to the latter half of the ,,xvi ,century for reasons indicated in the following extract from his work3 8,the manuscript of ,nizami1 one of the pearls of the ,british ,museum1 which was executed in ,tabriz #aeci-aedb for the ,shah ,tamasp1 has the most wonderful designs on the margins4 ,although the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by ,persia's most renowned masters1 there is nothing to give a hint as to who has drawn these magnificent borders4 ,this manuscript1 which at the time it was written1 was considered one of the most remarkable #8the like of which the eye of time never beheld1' plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about #aefj-aegj4 ,both animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier character in the manuscript40 ,one of the best of these pieces with animals 7,plate #ad1 opp4 ,page #gb7 is in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 in ,new ,york1 by which it was purchased at the ,yerkes sale in #aiaj1 for #ae1bjj4 ,it has a length of ten feet eleven inches with a breadth of five feet ten inches1 and an average of four hundred and eighty knots to the square inch4 ,both warp and weft are of silk1 and the pile is of wool4 ,as it was confidently believed by ,mr4 ,edward ,stebbing#ab that this piece belonged for a long time to the ,mosque of ,ardebil1 where ,ismael had established his capital1 and from which ,tamasp subsequently moved2 it is not improbable that it belongs to the early period1 between the closing years of ,ismael's reign and the first part of the reign of ,tamasp4#ac ,nor is there anything in the technique of colour or design to convey a different impression1 as the general colour of the field is a claret red1 and that of the border a dark blue characteristic of this period4 ,the most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of animal life amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral figures4 ,four-fifths of the field can be divided into two perfect squares with sides equal to the breadth of the field2 and the remainder will be equivalent to one-half of one of these squares4 ,each quarter of a square contains animals1 probably intended to represent a lion1 leopard1 and boar1 that are perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating quarters4 ,moreover1 the same balance exists in the case of the smaller animals and floral forms4 ,thus it appears that each square forms a perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable relation between all parts4 ,such mathematical exactness indicates the highest artistic skill4 ,the repetition of pattern also accentuates the predominant idea of animal life1 which is rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow of some of the group4 ,whoever has studied the early ,iranian monuments remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been copied during subsequent generations2 so that it is not surprising that ,mr4 ,stebbing should call attention to the resemblance of some of the animals in this carpet to those of the rock-carved sculptures of ,tak-i-,bostan near ,kermanshah4 ,as is the case with most modern ,persian rugs1 there is no correspondence between the size of the animals and the flowers4 ,nevertheless the lack of harmony is not felt1 as the animal and the floral life are intended to be regarded separately4 ,the principal flowers of the field are peonies1 some of which are woven with silver threads4 ,they also appear in the border arranged with perfect precision within the folds of symmetrical cloud-bands and interlacing arabesques4 ,the latter form a well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern1 as it is sometimes called1 which received its highest development in the silk rugs of a later century4 ,on the whole1 this piece is not far short of the highest sumptuary standard of a subsequent period1 and is an excellent example of the artistic development of the earliest part of the ,safavid dynasty4 ,in few other carpets is combined such intricacy of design with richness and simplicity of colour4 ,of still greater interest than the last is the ,arbedil ,carpet1 now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,it has a length of thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half2 the texture shows about three hundred and twenty-five knots to the square inch2 and the pile is of wool tied to warp and weft of silk4 ,it has been very carefully studied by ,mr4 ,edward ,stebbing1 from whose description the following extracts are taken3 8,the body ground is blue1 covered with a floral tracery of exquisite delicacy and freedom of treatment4 ,a central medallion of pale yellow terminates on its outer edge in sixteen minaret-shaped points from which spring sixteen cartouches2 four green1 four red1 and eight light cream2 and from two of these again1 as it were1 suspended and hanging in the direction of the respective ends of the carpet1 two of the sacred lamps of the mosque4 8,quarter sections of the central medallion also on a pale yellow ground1 relieved by tracery1 form the angles2 while a broader border completes the glorious design1 a border of the alternate elongated and rounded cartouches filled with floral and other tracery1 the former on a base of red1 the latter on a rich brown ground flanked on the inner side by a broad band of cream seven inches wide1 relieved by a variation of a so-called cloud pattern1 and a narrower band of crimson near the body of the carpet2 and on the outer side by a single broad band1 also seven inches wide1 of tawny hue1 shading from dark to light1 and relieved by a bold design in blue40 ,but however exquisite the tracery1 however delicate the colouring1 the greatest interest centres in the fact that in a panel adjoining the border of the upper end is the following inscription3 8,i have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold2 8,my head has no protection other than thy porchway2 8,the work of the slave of the holy place1 ,maksoud of ,kashan1 in the year #idf40 ,here is revealed the age of the carpet1 which not only determines the character of workmanship of a particular period1 but affords a standard for determining by comparison the relative age of other pieces4 ,the year #idf corresponds with our year #aedj ,a4 ,d41 and the position of the date indicates that it was inscribed a little before the completion of the fabric4 ,accordingly1 it would not be unreasonable to assume that the carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of ,ismael1 who died at ,ardebil in #aebd1 and that it was finished during the reign of ,tamasp ,i4 ,to infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a mistake2 since this was doubtless woven by the order of the court1 and by one of the most skilled artisans1 who may have made it the crowning labour of his life4 ,it indicates the highest technique acquired in the early part of the ,safavid dynasty4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ah4 ,,so-,,called ,,ispahan ,,in ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york ,besides the mosque carpets1 other pieces such as small prayer rugs were used for devotional purposes4 ,when the first of them were made is unknown1 though they existed in the days of the ,caliphs1 when the words of the ,prophet were still fresh in the memories of his followers2 and they were also used at an early period among ,turkomans4 ,the oldest that remain belong to the early part of the ,safavid rule4 ,one that was formerly in the collection of ,stefano ,bardini of ,florence and is now owned by ,mr4 ,benjamin ,altman1 appeared at the exhibit of the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art in #aiaj4 ,it is a woollen piece with a length of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and a quarter4 ,in the central field is a prayer arch resembling some of a later period1 with outlines gracefully recurving near the base and broken on each side by a pentagonal-shaped flower4 ,all parts of each of the two trees that rise from the bottom of the field are reversely duplicated in the other4 ,some of the stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains1 but the blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is more skilful4 ,the effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of the spandrel2 of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of red1 yellow1 and pink2 and of the blossoming trees beneath1 is most pleasing2 but the chief interest centres in the outer border stripe1 where appear features that are more interesting than harmonious1 features derived from ,persia1 ,assyria1 ,mongolia1 and ,arabia4 ,the rounded octagons have ,cufic lettering that recalls early ,mesopotamian civilisation2 the cartouches at the bottom with their cloud-bands suggest ,mongolian conquests2 and the upper cartouches contain the following verses from the ,koran3 8,iman the victorious and expected ,mahdi1 the ,lord of the ,age4 ,zalsi and ,hason2 and bless the standing proof4 ,oh ,lord bless ,mohammed the chosen one4 ,ali1 the elect1 ,fatimeh the ,immaculate4 ,jofer ,sadik1 ,mooza ,kazin1 ,ali ,riza ,mohammed ,taki1 ,mohammed ,nakee1 ,ali4 ,the two branches ,harson and ,hussein ,bless ,ali ,zaimulubbad ,mohammed ,bak'r40 ,these verses1 the archaic lamp1 and the green of the field1 a colour sacred to ,moslems1 all indicate the religious character of the carpet4 ,similar features also appear in another antique piece of about the same age1 but the ,cufic characters of the border are within squares surrounded by circles that resemble ,chinese seals as they appear in early manuscripts4 ,both of these pieces were probably woven in ,northwestern ,persia about the middle of the ,,xvi ,century4 ,few such prayer carpets remain1 though without doubt they were used by devotees during succeeding periods1 and it is not unusual to see1 even in modern ,kermanshahs1 prayer arches of the same pattern4 ,of totally different character but of about the same age is an animal rug 7,plate #ae1 opp4 ,page #gf7 that belongs to the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art4 ,it was bought at the ,yerkes sale in #aiaj1 for #e1fjj1 and had previously belonged to the collection of ,vincent ,robinson of ,london4 ,it has a length of about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five and a half1 and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by woollen weft4 ,the weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern ,sarouks2 as the knot is ,sehna1 one thread of warp is doubled under the other in each knot1 and the coloured thread of weft1 which crosses twice1 is partly exposed at the back4 ,like so many of the old ,persian pieces1 the ground colour of red appears in the main field1 and is strongly contrasted with the dark blue of the medallion and dark green of the corners4 ,red and green also appear in the border contrasted with yellow4 ,this association of colour is not usual1 nor is the repetitive pattern of the border with its sharp cusps at many of the angles1 nor the trapeziform corners1 and the nearly rectangular medallion4 ,likewise the mechanically formed bushes with their quince-like fruit1 on which sit birds of disproportionate size1 show a departure from the accepted traditions of the ,safavid schools4 ,yet these very features awaken new interest1 and suggest that it was probably woven in some part of ,northern or ,western ,persia where the influence of the court was not paramount4 ,nevertheless the accurate balance of the different halves1 and the drawing of the palmettes show that it is distinctly ,iranian4 ,if this last piece be compared with the animal rug 7,plate #af1 opp4 ,page #gh7 that was presented to the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art by ,mr4 ,cochran1 the wide contrast will at once be noticeable4 ,as the latter has a length of about eight and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six1 the difference in size and proportions is not great2 nor is there any particular difference in the number of animals2 nor in the balanced relation of upper and lower1 right and left halves2 nor in the red ground of the main fields4 ,but here the resemblance ends4 ,whereas in the former the animals are one of the most prominent features1 in the latter they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and palmette forms1 that occupy not only the field but also the border4 ,it is1 indeed1 a piece that marks a transition from the animal rugs1 so prominent in the early part of the ,,xvi ,century but rarely woven later than its end1 to the more elegant pieces1 so characteristic of the court of ,ispahan1 which belong almost exclusively to the ,,xvii ,century4 ,it accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the year #afjj4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ai4 ,,armenian ,,carpet ,,in ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,museum ,,of ,,art1 ,,new ,,york ,not only do these different elements that denote a transition add interest2 they also give a most pleasing effect4 ,the main border stripe of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes surrounded by vines and foliated stalks1 on which rest naturally drawn birds of handsome plumage1 and the chaste floral designs of the narrow guards1 serve as a tasteful frame to the central picture4 ,here again the outer field1 with artistic effect1 brings into greater relief the central medallion1 where on a ground of greenish yellow1 standing and seated amidst blossoming shrubs in red1 blue1 and green1 as in a garden1 are richly dressed human forms4 ,apart from these1 yet perhaps intended in some way to reflect the tenor of their thoughts1 are four ducks1 emblematic of matrimonial happiness4 ,whatever may have been the original shade of the central medallion1 it is now slightly out of harmony with the surrounding colours1 and is perhaps the only jarring note in this exquisite piece of workmanship4 ,not improbably the present shade is due to the unfriendly hand of time1 since the artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed in the masterly arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and precision of the drawing of the perfectly balanced floral and animal forms4 ,the difficulty of determining the locality where the antique carpets were woven is often greater than in the case of modern rugs1 but this piece was probably one of the last of those fine old animal carpets that were woven in the northwestern part of ,persia4 ,though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen pieces1 the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the choicest products of weaving4 ,as a rule1 they were the work of the most skilled artists employed in the imperial factory under the direction and patronage of the court4 ,it was during the reign of ,shah ,tamasp that they received special attention4 ,following a custom that had been in vogue of sending carpets as presents to foreign courts1 in #aeff he sent to the ,sultan of ,constantinople a number of pieces on which flowers1 birds1 and animals were woven with silk on threads of gold4 ,but it was doubtless after his successor ,shah ,abbas ,i had begun to embellish his capital at ,ispahan1 that were made the famous 8,polish0 silk or 8,polonaise0 carpets about which there has been so much controversy4 ,it is true that ,mr4 ,robinson in his 8,eastern ,carpets0 claims that they were woven in ,poland by ,persians taken there by a ,pole named ,mersherski2 but it seems far more probable that they were woven under the supervision of the ,persian court and were either sent as presents to ,european sovereigns or purchased by wealthy connoisseurs of art4 ,how many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and mosques of the far ,east it is impossible to determine1 but two hundred would be a very conservative estimate of the number owned by the different courts of ,europe and by private collectors of that country and ,america4 ,one of them was presented to the ,danish court as late as #afci2 and it is believed that all that reached ,europe arrived there between the years #afjd and #afej4 ,their beauty is exquisite and chaste4 ,to the threads of silver and gold is tied silken nap that often displays a striking brilliancy4 ,unlike the earlier ,persian carpets which had more subdued hues1 these pieces have light tones such as salmon1 rose1 and green1 which are arranged with perfect harmony4 ,moreover1 there is an elegance of design representing the highest types of ,iranian1 ,saracenic1 and ,mongolian influences combined4 ,here in perfection are dainty floral forms1 the rhythmic tracery of arabesques1 and delicate cloud-bands4 ,in them the textile art of the ,east reached a perfection that probably has never been surpassed4 ,one of these 7,plate #ag1 opp4 ,page #hj71 that has a length of about nine feet and a breadth of five and a half1 belongs to the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art4 ,in many respects it is typical of its class1 though threads of yellow and grey are substituted for the usual gold and silver of the foundation4 ,on a field of rose are outlined palmettes1 leaves1 and scrolls in green1 blue1 brown1 and salmon1 that harmonise with the light blue of the border4 ,all of these colours blend with pleasing effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh4 ,furthermore with all its complexity of detail1 every part of the pattern is arranged with mathematical precision4 ,that a carpet with such perfect balance of every part1 such intricacy of elaborate detail1 such graceful curves of the heavy foliate leaves should be woven without copying some older pattern or a carefully executed drawing1 seems improbable4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj4 ,,asia ,,minor ,,dragon ,,and ,,phoenix ,,carpet ,,in ,,the ,,kaiser ,,friedrich ,,museum1 ,,berlin ,in this piece and in others of the same class can be recognised what is probably the prototype of more conventionalised and less elegant designs so often seen in modern ,persian pieces1 since the palmette with encircling lancet leaves in its borders is most suggestive of the borders of modern ,herats2 and the rhomboidal-shaped figure connecting four palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the ,herati or fish pattern seen in the field of innumerable ,feraghans4 ,it was also during the reign of ,shah ,abbas#ad and his immediate successors that most of the so-called ,ispahans were woven1 though some of them appeared as early as the ,,xv and some as late as the close of the ,,xvii ,century4 ,as in the case with the ,polish silk carpets1 within recent years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the place of their manufacture4 ,after careful research1 ,dr4 ,martin believes that they came from ,herat and with this idea some other authorities concur4 ,it is true that ,herat belonged to the ,persian ,empire during the reign of the ,safavid dynasty1 and that even in the days of ,shah ,ismael magnificent carpets were woven there4 ,it is also true that during the time of ,tamasp and ,abbas it was as important an art centre as ,tabriz1 and that the weaving of carpets was a leading industry there4 ,furthermore1 there has not been found the same evidence to show that ,ispahan was at this period an equally important centre of weaving4 ,on the other hand1 it is well known that the splendid industrial and art products of this period were largely due to the direct encouragement and favour of the court1 and that the court was for most of the time at ,ispahan4 ,it is also known that skilled artisans were repeatedly removed from one district to another at the command of a sovereign1 so that carpets of similar character might be woven contemporaneously in remote parts of ,persia4 ,it accordingly seems not improbable that the original type of these carpets was evolved at ,herat and that many of them at least were made at ,herat1 but that others were also made at ,ispahan4 ,at any rate they were made to a great extent under the influence that emanated from ,ispahan4 ,almost without exception they are pieces of large size and oblong shape4 ,the ground colour of the field is usually red1 the border blue2 but blue is occasionally used in the field and green in the border4 ,their distinguishing feature is the use of the palmette1 that was probably derived from the lotus1 so frequently associated with the ,buddhist cult of ,india and ,china4 ,in the field it generally occurs in pairs that slightly vary in size4 ,of almost equal importance are the ,chinese cloud-bands and the scrolls or arabesques4 ,these three designs were constant motives in almost all the ,ispahans2 but they were subject to modifications in size and shape1 which appearing in chronological order furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven4 ,for instance1 the palmettes were at first small and distributed plentifully over the field2 later they became larger1 until in a few instances they were a yard in diameter4 ,dr4 ,martin says that in the first part of the ,,xvii ,century the palmettes began to be very large and the richness of the interior design to disappear2 until at the end of the ,,xvii ,century only a few were sufficient to cover the ground that one hundred years before was almost hidden by innumerable designs of small palmettes1 cloud-bands1 and scroll work4 ,he also states that towards the middle of the ,,xvii ,century the borders began to lose their importance and that the palmettes were surrounded by two long1 narrow leaves4 ,though most of the antique ,iranian carpets that remain were woven in the ,northern provinces1 it is well known that even from earliest times carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique were also woven in ,southern ,persia4 ,in fact1 many of the wonderful pieces that adorned the palaces and mosques of the ,fatimid ,caliphs of ,egypt came from the districts of ,fars and ,kirman4 ,the latter1 notwithstanding invasions of ,seljukian ,turks1 ,mongolians1 and ,afghans1 has continued almost uninterruptedly as a centre of the textile industry2 yet comparatively few pieces exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago4 ,their colour scheme harmonises more with that of the carpets of ,western ,persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets and ,ispahans1 or with the brighter hues of the so-called ,polish4 ,their patterns also show a distinction from those of northern textile fabrics4 ,the fields are often artificially divided1 by foliate stalks or lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges1 into rhomboidal figures that contain mechanically drawn shrubs1 palmettes1 or flowers4 ,in the main stripe of the border are generally represented interlacing arabesques adorned with flowering vines or arabesques and a sub-pattern of vines4 ,mongolian designs are rarely seen in any of these pieces1 which probably represent more closely than any other ,persian carpets native art unaffected by foreign influences4 ,almost all of them are now owned in ,europe4 ,of the early rugs1 those woven in ,armenia are far less known than those from ,persia4 ,nevertheless1 it may reasonably be assumed that the high culture that was manifested in ,bagdad and ,ctesiphon during the sway of the ,caliphs was felt among the mountainous districts to the north2 and that the ,seljukian rulers1 who left such artistic monuments in the old ,armenian capitals1 appreciated and encouraged the manufacture of fine woollen fabrics4 ,in fact1 ,marco ,polo1 who travelled through that region during the latter part of the ,,xiii ,century1 referred to them as being remarkably handsome4 ,probably the oldest remaining pieces are the so-called ,dragon carpets1 which1 it is believed1 were produced from the ,,xiv to the ,,xvii ,century and possibly even earlier4 ,not infrequently the length is at least twice the breadth2 the very narrow border occasionally consists of only a single stripe2 and the field is occupied by a trellis-like pattern of narrow1 conventionalised leaves1 within which are designs containing archaic flowers and dragons4 ,the ground colour of the field is generally some shade of red1 that of the border white1 and the leaves are yellow1 blue1 or green4 ,in the borders of many of them appear an ,s motive from which undoubtedly was derived the design so frequently seen in panels of more recent ,asia ,minor prayer rugs4 ,in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art of ,new ,york is a ,,xv ,century carpet 7,plate #ai1 opp4 ,page #hf71 which1 though widely differing from these pieces in general pattern1 so closely resembles them in the essential characteristics of weave and colour that it is unquestionably of the same class4 ,the field is occupied by concentric diamonds with stepped sides4 ,the encircling bands1 that are mostly red1 yellow1 and violet1 and the corners1 that are white1 contain numerous archaic forms1 including palmettes1 trees1 birds1 and animals4 ,there are also numerous small designs of the tri-cleft leaf so common to the ,circassian and ,soumak rugs2 and the ray-like edges of the central lozenge1 as well as the four palmettes that rest upon it1 suggest the origin of the effulgent stars of old ,daghestans and ,kabistans4 ,an effort has been made to balance similar designs in corresponding parts of the field1 though its centre is at one side of the geometric centre of the diamonds4 ,the palmettes show distinctly a strong ,persian influence and the animal forms likewise show that it was not woven by a sectarian ,sunnite of ,western ,asia ,minor4 ,part of a very unusual carpet 7,plate #bj1 opp4 ,page #hh71 from a district in ,eastern ,asia ,minor1 is in the ,kaiser ,friedrich ,museum at ,berlin4 ,its principal interest lies in the fact that it is very old and that its approximate age has been determined4 ,in the hospital at ,siena1 ,italy1 a similar rug is represented in a fresco called the 8,wedding of the ,foundling10 painted by ,domenico di ,bartolo about the year #addj1 so that it is reasonable to conclude that this particular piece was woven not much later4 ,in fact1 its character would indicate that it or some other from which it has been copied was much older4 ,each of the nearly square compartments contain octagons1 within which on a yellow field are represented the mythical fight of the dragon and phnix that was adopted as the ,ming coat of arms4 ,it is interesting to note that the chain pattern of the brownish-black main border stripe is not unlike what is seen in modern pieces1 but the running latch hooks of the corners and the small ,s designs are unusually stiff4 ,this disposition to formal drawing1 which is conspicuous in all parts of the rug1 shows an archaic style noticeable only in the very earliest carpets4 ,in the celebrated painting of ,georg ,gyze 7,plate #ba1 opp4 ,page #ib7 which hangs in the ,berlin ,gallery1 is represented a rug of a class so frequently seen in the paintings of ,hans ,holbein that they are known as 8,holbein rugs40 ,their marked dissimilarity to those previously described indicates that they were woven under different circumstances if not in different regions4 ,neither in the fields nor borders is any trace of ,mongolian or ,persian influences2 and the absence of all floral1 leaf1 and animal forms so usual in most antique carpets is noticeable4 ,indeed1 the fact that animal forms rarely appear in the art of the ,sunni ,mohammedans aids in determining the place of their origin4 ,they came from ,asia ,minor or ,western ,armenia4 ,it has generally been assumed that they were woven in ,western ,asia ,minor1 because they were purchased there in former centuries and taken thence to ,europe2 but they possess many features that indicate they may have been woven farther to the east1 whence many could easily have been transported westward in caravans4 ,their borders contain the well-known pattern derived from ,cufic letters which1 more conventionalised1 appears in later years only in such rugs as the ,kabistans and ,daghestans of ,eastern ,caucasia4 ,most of them also contain the small octagonal discs and larger octagonal figures with ,greek crosses at the centre that suggest forcibly the designs of ,southeastern ,caucasia4 ,the narrow stripes of ribbon and chain pattern found in many of them also are very common in ,caucasian rugs2 so that it seems not improbable that these ,holbein rugs were made within the boundaries of that greater ,armenia which1 embracing the upper ,mesopotamian valley1 extended over the eastern part of ,asia ,minor and the southern part of modern ,caucasia4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ba4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,georg ,,gyze ,,by ,,hans ,,holbein1 ,,showing ,a ,,holbein ,,rug ,,with ,,cufic ,,border ,these rugs claim the attention not only because they have borders of such interesting origin1 but by the fact that the age when they were woven is ascertainable4 ,as ,holbein lived between the years #adig and #aedc1 and some other rugs of this type appear in the works of early ,flemish and ,italian painters1 it may reasonably be assumed that some of them were made before the end of the ,,xv ,century4 ,a very excellent example of this class1 owned by ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,williams1 is now in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art4 ,it has a length of about five feet with a breadth of three and a half4 ,the ground colour of the field is an olive green and that of the main stripe of the border is red4 ,the prevailing colours of the designs1 which are entirely geometric1 are blue1 green1 and ivory4 ,all of these rugs are small or of moderate size1 and are slightly oblong4 ,some of them have a ground colour of green2 and yellow is frequently found in the pattern4 ,the weaving is rather loose2 and compared with ,persian rugs they have fewer knots to the square inch4 ,another carpet from ,asia ,minor that also belongs to ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,williams appears in ,plate #bb1 opp4 ,page #id4 ,it is the only entire rug with this pattern that is known1 though a piece of a similar rug is in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum at ,london4 ,on fields of blue and red are outlined three large four-pointed stars separated by smaller diamonds4 ,within these figures and in the surrounding field is a network of tracery supporting conventionalised leaf and floral forms4 ,between the field and the main stripe of the narrow border is a close co-ordination of pattern1 but the simple ribbon of the inner guard seems alien4 ,it appears without modification in many later ,asia ,minor and ,caucasian rugs4 ,an important feature are the double knots at the corners of the stars1 since they are identical with designs found in a manuscript made for one of the ,shahs in #adce1 and thus assist to determine the age of the rug4 ,for this reason and on account of its general character1 it seems not unreasonable to place it as early as the middle of the ,,xv ,century4 ,similar carpets were woven during a long period1 and it is probable that in the latter half of the following century they were largely influenced by the weavers that ,solyman the ,magnificent1 after capturing ,tabriz in #aecd1 transported to his own country4 ,the same general features still remained1 but the detail was more elaborate and ornate4 ,arabesques1 palmettes1 and floral forms1 both of field and border1 resembled more nearly the ,iranian character4 ,but at a later period1 after the beginning of the general decadence to which every industry and art were subject1 the patterns became much simpler1 and the colours were reduced almost exclusively to red and blue with a little green4 ,at length1 both pattern and colours assumed the type of modern ,oushaks1 that by a slow process of devolution originated from these antique pieces4 ,in ,armenia and ,asia ,minor it is probable that weaving existed before the ,christian era1 and that the earliest carpets which remain1 though affected by more eastern influences1 are largely the product of an indigenous art4 ,but in ,india it was otherwise4 ,it is true that ,sir ,george ,birdwood is authority for the statement that the ,saracens introduced carpet-weaving there2 but it is most probable that at the time of the invasion of the armies of ,tamerlane and during the lives of many of his successors1 whatever carpets were woven were very crude4 ,even when the ,moguls began to build and embellish palaces1 they obtained their carpets from ,persia4 ,but at length ,shah ,akbar established manufacturies at ,lahore about the year #aehj1 and invited ,persian weavers to settle there4 ,from them the native workmen acquired much of their knowledge of patterns and technique4 ,it was during the reign of ,shah ,jahan 7#afbh-afeh71 builder of the famous peacock throne and ,taj ,mahal1 that most of the choicest pieces that now remain were woven4 ,in delicacy of texture they rival those of any other country1 and it is not unusual to find pieces with nearly eight hundred knots to the square inch2 moreover1 all their designs are depicted with remarkable clearness of definition4 ,one of the most noted of these carpets is the woollen piece1 about eight yards long by two and a half wide1 that was made at the royal factory at ,lahore and presented to the ,girdlers ,company of ,london in #afcd4 ,the mingling of leaf and floral forms1 as well as the ,herati designs of rosette and crumpled leaf1 on a field of red1 shows unmistakably its relation to ,persian carpets4 ,at the same period were woven large numbers of others with fields covered with an imposing display of superbly drawn flowers1 of which every part from root to leaf tips was represented with astonishing realism4 ,another class included the animal or hunting carpets1 which unlike their ,persian prototypes seem intended not so much to portray symbolically some historic event or abstract idea1 as to convey a correct impression of an actual event4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bb4 ,,oushak ,,carpet ,loaned by ,c4 ,f4 ,williams1 ,esq41 to the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new ,york ,one of these1 a woollen piece with a length of eight and a quarter feet and a breadth of five and a quarter1 is in the ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts4 ,the inspiration was from some old ,persian piece1 but the rendering is peculiarly ,indian4 ,in this representation of an ,oriental jungle is a strange mingling of the real and unreal4 ,the struggle of a monster bird with a winged beast1 half lion1 half elephant1 and the demoniac faces of the border suggest the inspiration of early pagan mythology2 but the movements of the running gazelles and the stealthily creeping tiger1 the attitude of the driver of the cart and his attendant1 are most natural4 ,the drawing as a whole is exceedingly delicate4 ,the ground colour of the field is the red of most ,ispahans and ,herats of this period1 but the border is a cream colour1 a combination not in accord with ,persian tradition4 ,the other colours are fawn1 blue1 pink1 grey and brown4 ,it is probably the only ,indian hunting carpet of its kind4 ,few strictly antique carpets from other countries of the ,orient are known4 ,of the innumerable pieces that were surely woven in ,caucasia and ,western ,turkestan before the end of the ,,xvii ,century1 scarcely a vestige can be found4 ,nor are there many from the looms of ,syria1 though in the days of the ,caliphs every mosque was adorned with magnificent carpets4 ,it is true a few sterling pieces of ,saracenic character1 that have been ascribed to the region about ,damascus1 still exist4 ,there are also a few rare and beautiful pieces that have come to light in ,china4#ae ,but of the countless thousands that in almost every country of the ,orient once covered floors of palaces and mosques1 representing one of the most refined arts1 now nearly lost1 only an insignificant fraction remains4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,indicating ,,periods ,,when ,,antique ,,carpets ,,were ,,made ,,chapter ,,viii ,,classification ,,of ,,modern ,,rugs ,,rugs contribute to the comfort of the nomad more than any other fabric4 ,with them he closes the entrance to his tent or covers the floor and couches on which he sits and sleeps4 ,thrown over other objects they form the table1 made into saddle bags they take the place of trunks4 ,the followers of ,islam when at prayer kneel on a rug1 and in token of affection spread one over the grave of a friend4 ,to dwellers in cities1 also1 rugs contribute largely to the comfort and luxury of the home4 ,indeed1 without them the splendour of ,oriental life would seem incomplete1 since they are the principal furnishings of every house1 where stout woven pieces with long pile are spread as floor coverings1 and lighter ones are hung as portires and tapestries4 ,yet it is in the assembly or dining hall that the finest rugs are used1 though here the most valued are exposed only on great occasions4 ,in the ,east a rug receives a particular name according to which of these special purposes it is adapted4 ,the large1 almost square piece that is used to cover the centre of the assembly hall is known as the 8,khali20 and the narrow strips or 8runners0 that are placed at its sides and ends are known as the 8,kenares40 ,it is on the ,kenares that the servants are required to walk and the less honoured guests to stand1 for they are rarely of such fine quality as the former4 ,before the divan1 that generally surrounds three walls and is covered with fine cloth and velvet1 are seats on which are placed carpets called 8,sedjadeh40 ,they are nearly twice as long as broad1 and since they are of moderate size and excellent quality they are frequently used for many other purposes4 ,the hearth rug1 termed 8,odjalik10 can generally be distinguished from others1 as each end of the field is of triangular shape with the apex at the extremity4 ,however much any of these may be valued1 the one that to every worshipper of ,allah has the most sacred association is the 8,namazlik10 or prayer rug1 at one end of which is an arch in token of the mosque4 ,at call for prayer the faithful ,moslem spreads his rug with arch directed towards ,mecca1 and kneeling with the palms of his hands at each side of the centre he bows his head till it touches the rug4 ,as the ,mohammedans of ,persia are unwilling that a ,namazlik be trampled by the foot of an infidel1 few from there can be bought2 but the ,mohammedans of other countries are less scrupulous1 so that many of the prayer rugs sold in ,america have been made solely for trade and have never been used in worship4 ,they may be beautiful1 but special interest attaches to old pieces of which the well-worn nap shows where the knees of both father and son for over half a century have often pressed4 ,in addition to these are other rugs with technical names1 but a classification of much greater importance is that which depends on the country or district where they are woven4 ,when the ,oriental rugs first appeared in the market of the ,united ,states1 they were spoken of as 8,turkish10 for the reason that importers purchased them from ,turkish merchants of ,constantinople4 ,but when it became known that they had been taken there by caravans from countries farther to the east1 and that large numbers of them came from ,persia1 the name 8,persian10 that to the mind of many conveys ideas of splendour1 was at once applied2 even to-day all classes of ,oriental rugs are often spoken of as ,persian4 ,as objects of ornament or utility1 their value is independent of their place of origin2 yet it is known that the wool of the nap and the dyes used in some districts are superior to those in others1 and that in consequence the beauty of some rugs will improve with age far more than that of others4 ,it is also known that because in certain districts the material of warp and weft1 as well as the workmanship1 is of a superior quality1 the rugs made there will wear better than others4 ,the knowledge1 then1 of where a rug is made is important in determining the quality and value1 which otherwise only a critical examination1 that few people are able to make1 would show4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bc4 ,,sehna ,,rug ,furthermore1 the knowledge of where a rug is made1 suggesting the class of people who wove it1 adds immeasurably to our interest4 ,when1 for instance1 we look at an old piece of ,kurdish weave with its nomadic designs and shaggy nap1 on which a ,moslem savage as an ,apache often rested fully half a century ago1 there is called up a picture of the dark-visaged tribesman1 fearless and untamed as were his ancestors who contested the march of ,xenophon over two thousand years ago4 ,we see him wandering with his flocks over the hills while he watches for a chance to fall upon an unsuspecting stranger4 ,we picture to ourselves the hut of brush upon the mountain side where a slender barbaric girl bends to tie1 with wonderful patience1 the knots one by one4 ,so if we would enjoy our ,oriental rugs1 we should know what people made them1 and whence and how they journeyed1 before they reached our fireside4 ,at the request of a purchaser the vendor is ever ready to classify a rug1 but his statements are not always reliable4 ,this is partly due to the fact that even the great importing houses are often deceived4 ,throughout ,asia ,minor1 ,persia1 ,turkestan1 even farther east1 great fairs are regularly held4 ,here gather the representatives of tribes from far distant quarters to enjoy for a few days or weeks the gay life and abandon of the ,east while bartering the products of their different crafts4 ,here come the purchasing agents looking for rugs2 and the pieces that may be brought from afar are bought and shipped by camel and rail to such great marts as ,tabriz1 ,tiflis1 and ,constantinople1 where the bales are unpacked and the rugs assorted1 classified and labelled1 before they are resold to the importing houses of ,europe and ,america4 ,thus both in the buying from the itinerant agent of rugs assembled from different quarters and in the reassortment at the exporting cities there is frequent opportunity for errors of classification4 ,the characteristics of the different groups and classes of rugs are given in later chapters1 but it should not be presumed that these are infallible guides to the locality where they were made4 ,often a ruler1 by fostering art1 has drawn to his capital artists and artisans from other districts4 ,thus designs and quality of workmanship characteristic of one district would be adopted in another4 ,so1 too1 the great caravans that pass along regular routes eastward and westward1 and the annual pilgrimages to ,meshed and ,mecca1 have been most potent influences for the dissemination of designs4 ,yet taking into consideration the general pattern and smaller designs2 the material of warp1 weft1 and pile2 the knot2 the dyes2 the finish of sides and ends1 and the peculiarities of the weave1 it is possible with a reasonable amount of certainty to determine in what districts almost all ,oriental rugs are woven4 ,it should be borne in mind1 however1 that the names by which some of the rugs are known in ,america are not the same as those by which they are known in ,asia4 ,for instance1 the rugs made by some of the tribes of the ,tekke ,khanate are known in the ,orient as 8,tekkes20 but as the great depot for ,turkestan carpets was formerly the city of ,bokhara1 they are generally known in this country as 8,bokharas40 ,on the other hand1 there are local distinctions in the eastern countries not known in the western4 ,the accompanying classification1 therefore1 is slightly arbitrary1 but should be convenient for reference2 since the classes represent the cities or districts where are woven the several different kinds1 excepting the ,chinese1 which are divided chronologically4 ,the names of the groups are not in each instance entirely satisfactory1 but are probably the best that can be chosen4 ,the fourth group1 for example1 has frequently been called the 8,turkoman20 but as it includes some of the rugs of ,afghanistan1 and also those of ,beluchistan1 which is remote from ,turkestan1 that name is not sufficiently comprehensive4 ,the district where these rugs are made is1 strictly speaking1 the western and southwestern part of ,central ,asia2 but the term here employed has the authority of some ,german writers of note4 ,so1 too1 the rugs of ,herat1 though it is now a city of ,afghanistan1 are included with the ,persian group2 but it should be remembered that ,herat1 as well as the districts of ,mosul and ,kurdistan1 was once part of the old ,persian ,empire4 ,,group ,i4 ,,persian4 7a7 ,khorassan district3 ,herat1 ,khorassan1 ,meshed4 7b7 ,shiraz district3 ,ispahan1 ,kirman1 ,yezd1 ,shiraz1 ,niris4 7c7 ,feraghan district3 ,feraghan1 ,hamadan1 ,kara-,geuz1 ,bibikabad1 ,iran1 ,sarouk1 ,kashan1 ,sarabend1 ,burujird1 ,sultanabad1 ,muskabad1 ,mahal1 ,joshaghan1 ,gulistan1 ,teheran4 7d7 ,sehna district1 or ,adelan province3 ,sehna1 ,bijar1 ,kermanshah1 ,persian ,kurdistan1 ,karaje4 7e7 ,tabriz district3 ,tabriz1 ,gorevan1 ,bakshis1 ,serapi1 ,herez1 ,suj-,bulak1 ,karadagh1 ,afshar4 7f7 ,kurdistan district3 ,western ,kurdistan1 ,mosul1 ,gozene4 ,,group ,,ii4 ,,asia ,,minor ,,or ,,turkish4 7a7 ,west ,asia ,minor district3 ,bergamo1 ,ghiordes1 ,kulah1 ,oushak1 ,ak-,hissar1 ,demirdji1 ,kutayah1 ,smyrna1 ,melez1 ,isbarta1 ,rhodian1 ,broussa1 ,hereke4 7b7 ,central ,asia ,minor district3 ,konieh1 ,ladik1 ,kir-,shehr1 ,anatolian1 ,karaman1 ,sivas1 ,mudjar1 ,nigde1 ,tuzla1 ,kaisariyeh1 ,zile1 ,yuruk4 ,,group ,,iii4 ,,caucasian4 7a7 ,north ,caucasian3 ,daghestan1 ,kabistan1 ,kuba1 ,derbend1 ,lesghian1 ,chichi1 ,tcherkess4 7b7 ,trans ,caucasian3 ,baku1 ,shirvan1 ,soumak1 ,shemakha1 ,tiflis1 ,kutais1 ,kazak1 ,karabagh1 ,shusha1 ,gengha4 ,,group ,,iv4 ,,central ,,asiatic4 7a7 ,west ,turkoman sub-group1 ,western influence3 ,royal ,bokhara1 ,princess ,bokhara1 ,tekke1 ,yomud1 ,khiva1 ,afghan1 ,beshir4 7b7 ,east ,turkoman sub-group1 ,eastern influence3 ,samarkand1 ,kashgar1 ,yarkand4 7c7 ,beluchistan4 ,,group ,v4 ,,indian4 7a7 ,northern ,india3 ,srinagar1 ,amritsar1 ,lahore1 ,multan1 ,agra1 ,allahabad1 ,mirzapur1 ,zabalpur1 ,patna1 ,jaipur4 7b7 ,southern ,india3 ,madras1 ,mysore1 ,bangalore1 ,warangal1 ,malabar1 ,hyderabad1 ,marsulipatam4 ,,group ,,vi4 ,,chinese4#af 7a7 ,,xvii ,century3 ,late ,ming #afjj-afdc and ,early ,kang-hi 7#affb-agjj74 7b7 ,,xviii ,century3 #a4 ,late ,kang-hi 7#agjj-agbb74 #b4 ,yung-ching 7#agbb-agcf74 #c4 ,keen-lung 7#agcf-agie74 7c7 ,early and ,middle ,,xix ,century4 7d7 ,late ,,xix ,century or ,modern4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,persian ,,rugs ,,in the grouping of ,oriental rugs1 it is not always desirable to follow the present political divisions of territory1 since great and frequent changes in national boundaries have occurred without corresponding changes in the traditional style of weaving4 ,thus it happens that with the rugs made in ,persia1 which is still called ,iran by its inhabitants1 it is desirable to group those made within that former ,iran that included the valley of ,mesopotamia on the west and part of ,afghanistan on the east4 ,the woven products of all this territory have characteristics that are similar to one another and that differentiate them from those of other countries4 ,their patterns are distinctly floral1 representing leaf1 bud1 and flower1 and show a tendency to naturalistic drawing with graceful and often intricate lines4 ,moreover1 their colour schemes of delicate tones are not only beautiful but in perfect harmony4 ,in marked contrast with them are the rugs of ,caucasia1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,central ,asia1 which have patterns of geometric shape or highly conventionalised flower forms1 and colours that often appear in bold contrast4 ,in the ,chinese rugs1 also1 is generally less harmony of colour1 as well as less co-ordination of design1 than in the ,persian4 ,the scroll and floral patterns appear on the field in isolated figures1 or else imitate with more formal drawing the diaper pattern of some ,iranian carpets4 ,only in the rugs of ,india is there a similarity to the patterns and colour tones of those of ,persia2 but the designs are more realistically drawn1 less artistically arranged1 and less profuse4 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,,iv--,,bergamo ,,rug ,the weaver of this interesting ,bergamo followed the early ,asia ,minor traditions in the use of rich1 deep blue and red of field and border1 yet in respect to pattern showed his freedom from conventionality by departing from types peculiar to his district and adopting many nomadic designs prevalent throughout ,anatolia4 ,reciprocal latch-hooks form the background of the central field1 on which are three upright panels containing octagonal discs2 and latch-hooks surrounding lozenges and forming what may originally have been intended to represent the tree of life appear almost as conspicuously in the border4 ,there are also combs1 knots of destiny1 and innumerable ,s-forms4 ,the panels at the upper and lower ends of the field and the reciprocal vandykes are most suggestive of ,ladiks1 but in the place of pomegranates at the ends of the upright stalks are small checquered squares4 ,bergamos with such patterns are now rarely seen4 ,loaned by ,mr4 ,hulett ,c4 ,merritt ,the similarity in the rugs of the ,persian group is due to past political influences as well as to common ties of race and religion4 ,from the time when ,ctesiphon and ,babylon vied with the cities of ,persia in the splendour of their capitals1 all of this territory was repeatedly under one and the same dominant power1 which at different times was held by ,saracens1 ,seljukian ,turks1 ,timurids1 and ,safavids2 and even after the end of the ,safavid dynasty the influence of ,nadir ,shah was felt over ,mesopotamia as well as ,western ,afghanistan4 ,a still stronger influence is that of race2 for ,aryans1 ,arabs1 ,armenians1 and ,turks have blended with the early people of the whole territory1 until not only do all resemble one another1 but their craftsmanship is similar4 ,furthermore1 with the exception of a few rapidly disappearing ,parsees1 who still cling to the early ,zoroastrian faith1 all are ,mohammedans2 and in their frequent pilgrimages to the same shrines is a constant interchange of ideas and exchange of fabrics4 ,it is true ,asia ,minor1 ,caucasia1 and ,india have shared to some extent the same influences1 but to a much less degree4 ,a resemblance1 also1 exists between many of the physical features of the entire country that affect the habits and industries of the people4 ,to be sure the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 that wind sluggishly through the great ,mesopotamian valley1 and the great ranges of the ,elburz and ,zagros1 that extend from ,mt4 ,ararat easterly and southeasterly through ,persia1 have no counterpart2 but on the other hand in ,mesopotamia1 ,persia1 and ,western ,afghanistan are great stretches of sandy wastes where there is little vegetation1 high table-lands where during rainless summer months the earth is parched1 and little valleys of fertile soil that are watered by streams from the encircling mountain ridges4 ,throughout this territory1 wherever physical conditions are similar1 the people follow similar pursuits4 ,in the deserts the impoverished ,bedouins live2 in the higher lands some two millions of nomads follow their sheep and goats1 pitching their tents wherever there is pasture2 in the valleys are several millions of people1 who1 with the placid contentment of the ,east1 irrigate their garden patches1 fashion simple articles of metal1 and weave artistic rugs4 ,a general decadence in social1 political1 and industrial life pervades the whole country2 yet due partly to the inheritance of a past associated with the glories of ,persepolis and ,ecbatana1 ,babylon and ,nineveh1 ,bagdad and ,ctesiphon1 and to the more immediate influence of the textile masterpieces of three centuries ago1 rugs are still produced that in delicacy of weave1 beauty of design1 and harmony of colours surpass those of any other part of the world4 ,in the weave of the best examples is displayed a technical skill only approached by a few of the ,royal ,bokharas4 ,in the fine rhythm of lines and in the colour scheme of harmonious and delicate tones1 with which a few of the best products of ,india alone compare1 is united the touch of both artist and artisan4 ,the fields of the old pieces are lavishly covered with intricate designs of buds and blossoms supported by vines or tendrils1 and frequently encircled by arabesques that interlace so as to form an harmonious whole4 ,the fields of the modern pieces are frequently of solid colour1 with central medallions and triangular corners defined by graceful lines4 ,again1 the ground colour of the field1 which is either uniform or slightly shading from one end to the other1 is covered with realistically drawn or conventionalised floral designs that are arranged with studied precision1 and are now and then relieved by some nomadic design4 ,surrounding the fields are borders of several stripes1 some of which contain an undulating vine with pendent flowers or palmettes co-ordinate in drawing and colouring with the main pattern4 ,it is1 however1 principally in the colours1 which are delicate yet rich1 subdued yet lustrous1 that these rugs surpass all others4 ,their most distinctive tones are blues1 reds1 browns1 and greens1 so arranged that the ground colours of border and field generally contrast yet remain in perfect harmony2 as where there is some moss green in border and wine colour in field1 each being subordinated to other superimposed colours representing floral detail4 ,,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,persia ,the best known of the floral patterns1 repeated with formal precision throughout the field1 is the ,herati pattern1 which is of uncertain antiquity and origin4 ,it consists of a central figure that generally represents a rose1 but sometimes a peony or rosette1 about which are grouped other figures like crumpled or lance-shaped leaves4 ,probably both the central and encircling figures are of ,persian origin1 though the latter have been regarded by some authorities as representing fish and attributed to ,egypt or to ,china2 in fact1 they are occasionally drawn so as distinctly to show eyes and fins4 ,very frequently four of these figures are arranged about a lattice-shaped design with pendants and a central rosette1 as in ,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #d 7,page #bia74 ,this ,herati or ,fish ,pattern1 as it is frequently called1 appears in many of the old ,persian rugs and in most of the modern pieces1 particularly the ,feraghans and ,herats4 ,a less frequently seen floral pattern1 which has been used from a very remote time and is still represented in modern rugs1 is the ,guli ,hinnai1 or ,flower of ,hinnai 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #c74 ,of this plant ,mohammed was so fond that he called it the 8chief of this world and the next40 ,it occurs as a formal pattern in many of the ,feraghans1 and in several other rugs in which its bright five-petalled flowers are scattered informally over the field4 ,another floral pattern frequently seen is the ,mina ,khani1 illustrated in ,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #b1 that was named after ,mina ,khan1 a former ,persian ruler4 ,it is particularly characteristic of ,persian ,kurdish pieces in which a dark blue field is covered by a network of intersecting olive-coloured vines4 ,at the intersections are placed large flowers that alternate in regular series according to their different designs and colours2 and between them often appear other flowers1 such as the smaller and brighter coloured ,hinnai1 so as to destroy too great stiffness of design4 ,as the flowers are relatively large and sufficiently separate to show the intervening blue field1 this is one of the most effective of the formal repetitive floral patterns4 ,a still more formal pattern 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #a71 which appeared in some of the ,persian rugs of the ,,xvi and ,,xvii centuries1 was named after ,shah ,abbas4 ,it is not unlikely that it was suggested by the ,mina ,khani design1 to which it bears a slight resemblance2 but the principal motive is so conventionalised that it has lost much of the floral character4 ,between the large and formal palmettes1 that are arranged with mathematical precision1 are grouped with similar regularity smaller palmettes1 connected by angular vines and leafy branches4 ,only a few ,persian rugs have the formal repetitive patterns1 such as the ,herati1 ,guli ,hinnai1 ,mina ,khani1 and ,shah ,abbas4 ,others have the repetitive pattern of bushes1 flowers1 or the pear1 on a field of rich colour4 ,the remainder have patterns consisting largely of scrolls1 vines1 or tendrils1 drawn with exquisite art and decorated with leaves1 flowers1 and buds in beautiful profusion2 also birds1 beasts1 human beings1 demons1 and other imaginary shapes1 sometimes associated with the foliage but frequently bearing no apparent relation to it1 appear as special motives4 ,since many of these forms1 which originated in the remote past1 have been transplanted from one country to another1 and conventionalised to meet the new environment1 it is interesting to observe the designs in the different classes of rugs and trace as far as possible the influences to which they are due4 ,,herats4--,on great lines of travel between ,india1 ,turkestan1 and ,persia1 the city of ,herat in ,northwestern ,afghanistan for centuries occupied commercially a most important position1 so that its people long since became familiar with the best fabrics of the surrounding countries4 ,during the ,,xv ,century it reached its greatest prosperity1 and exerted an important influence on the art and culture of ,western ,asia4 ,before the art decadence that followed the capture of the city by ,nadir ,shah in #agca1 and the removal of many of its artisans to ,persia1 its looms were producing some of the best rugs of the ,orient1 which excelled in delicacy of drawing and in perfect harmony of colours4 ,the fields contained patterns of serrated leaves entwined with flowing arabesques1 scrolls1 and ,chinese cloud-bands4 ,conspicuous among this tracery were palmettes and such flowers as the lotus and peony1 which were often most realistically drawn4#ag ,these rugs are of further interest1 as they contained in field and border the design that1 slightly changed1 appears in many of the later rugs of ,persia as the ,herati pattern4 ,the modern rugs are as unlike other ,afghans as were the antique pieces and show a close relationship to those of ,persia4 ,nor is this surprising1 as the weavers1 though falling far short of the high standards of the time when ,herat was part of ,persia1 are still mindful of the early traditions4 ,moreover1 many of the rugs are made across the border in ,khorassan1 and have the silky pile peculiar to the rugs of that province2 but their tones of colour1 consisting principally of red or blue in the field1 and light green1 yellow1 and ivory in the border1 as well as most of the patterns1 are dissimilar4 ,in one type the fields are covered with pear designs2 but their bent narrow ends always turn in the same direction1 whilst those of other rugs turn in different directions in alternate rows4 ,another type suggests the ,feraghans1 because their fields are covered with the ,herati or ,fish pattern2 but the borders of the ,feraghans usually have the well-known turtle pattern1 while the borders of these adhere to the traditional ,herati design4 ,it is also not unusual to see a large central medallion1 in which blue or red predominates1 separated by a field of lighter colour from the triangular patterns of the corners4 ,now and then1 a nomadic influence is seen in the small adventitious figures of the field4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bd4 ,,bijar ,,rug ,one of the most characteristic features of this class are the borders1 that generally have three stripes1 of which the central consists of a continuous vine of crumpled leaves so conventionalised as to be merely bent1 thorny stalks partly enveloping formal rosettes4 ,the other stripes are narrow1 and have some simple undulating vine4 ,this typical border1 the stout1 closely woven warp and weft of cotton1 their large1 almost square shapes and rather coarse weave1 are important aids in distinguishing this class from all others4 ,some of the rugs recently made are coarse2 but the older rugs have excellent dyes1 lustrous nap1 and matured tones of well-blended colours4 ,type ,characteristics4#ah ,colours1 principally red and blue with minor quantities of green1 yellow1 and ivory4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes1 rarely ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally1 eight to eleven2 perpendicularly1 nine to twelve4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is about as long1 measured in direction of length of rug1 as wide4#ai ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back4 ,warp1 of cotton1 rarely wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally doubled under the other1 sometimes it is only depressed4 ,weft1 wool1 occasionally cotton2 of coarse diameter4 ,for a short space a thread of weft crosses twice1 that is across and back once1 between every two rows of knots1 then three times1 and so alternates every several rows4 ,pile1 wool of medium length1 soft1 and silky4 ,border1 three to five stripes1 and frequently an outer edging of uniform colour4 ,sides1 a double overcasting4 ,both ends1 narrow web and loose warp fringe4 ,texture1 stout and firm4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 eight to twenty feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to three quarters length4 ,,khorassans4--,among ,iranians1 ,khorassan is often spoken of as the ,land of the ,sun4 ,in its northern part are long ranges of mountains where herds and flocks find excellent pastures1 and intervening valleys where the soil is cultivated4 ,but the remainder of the province1 with the exception of scattered oases1 where small towns and villages are located1 is almost entirely a desert1 from which in classic times the ,parthians advanced to harass the armies of ,greece and ,rome1 then retreated to seek the protection of its vast salt marshes and inhospitable wastes4 ,nevertheless1 in the little villages surrounded by a dreary wilderness have been produced as beautiful rugs as in those more favoured spots where prevailed cultured influences that could develop an ,omar ,khayyam and produce the sacred shrine of ,meshed4 ,even before the ,mongolian invasion several hundred looms1 each employing four or five women1 were busy in the town of ,toon in ,central ,khorassan4 ,lying farther to the east is the district of ,kain1 which was once renowned for its beautiful rugs of ,herati pattern1 but of later years has produced coarser pieces with inferior designs and bad colours4 ,still better known was ,birjand1 in the southeastern part of the province1 where formerly were woven pieces of superior workmanship that contained from two hundred to three hundred knots to the square inch4 ,their colours were of delicate shades2 and it was not unusual to employ ivory or other light tones for the ground1 with which was contrasted the darker tones of the ,herati or pear patterns4 ,over a century ago many such towns in ,khorassan were weaving rugs of artistic design and beautiful colours1 but as a rule the present products fall far below the early standards4 ,most of the ,khorassans now seen were made almost fifty years or more ago and rival the best of modern ,persian rugs4 ,as a rule1 they are of large size and have closely woven texture4 ,they can be distinguished from most others by the silkiness of their moderately long nap1 which is often due to the fact that it is from the fleece of a yearling lamb as well as because it is cut long and unevenly4 ,another characteristic is the use of some shade of red1 as a pink1 rose1 or wine colour4 ,very frequently it is magenta or even purple1 which are rarely found in other ,persian rugs4 ,blue and cream are also largely employed4 ,their colours are generally softened by age1 yet are warm1 and at times brilliant1 as when a large field of bright rose red or blue surrounds a central medallion4 ,the diversity of pattern in ,khorassans is partly due to copying designs of rugs brought from other provinces by the pilgrims who yearly visit ,meshed1 and to the remoteness from one another of different centres of weaving in a province occupying one fourth of all ,persia4 ,one pattern1 however1 based upon the treatment of the pear design1 which is employed in many of these pieces1 at once distinguishes them from rugs of other districts4 ,it consists of large pears arranged in regular order on a field of dark colour with their principal axes inclined diagonally in the same direction1 and of two or three much smaller pears partly resting on them and partly projecting beyond their edges4 ,unlike the pear designs in other ,persian rugs1 which are oval1 these are elongated like those of ,indian rugs2 and within them1 as well as in the field1 are often small floral figures4 ,this distinctive pattern is rendered more effective by the colour scheme2 since frequently pears of red or magenta1 defined by lines of yellow and containing white petalled flowers1 rest upon a ground of dark blue4 ,the ,herati design is also frequently employed1 and in very old pieces are occasionally represented birds and animals naturalistically drawn4 ,it is not unusual to see a central medallion or large vase of flowers surrounded by a field of bright uniform colour1 and in some rugs are two medallions4 ,when the centre contains a medallion1 the triangular-shaped corners are set off by lines that are much simpler than those in ,sarouks and ,kermanshahs4 ,few other rugs have more noticeable borders2 for not only are they very wide1 but in the main stripe1 which is as wide as several guard stripes1 is some characteristic pattern4 ,occasionally it contains the ,herati design1 but more frequently it consists of a heavy undulating vine with incipient flower forms1 that at times almost assume the appearance of a bird's head resting on a sub-pattern of double floral vine4 ,this stripe1 illustrated in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #b1 7opp4 ,page #aef7 is so frequently met with in ,khorassans as to be characteristic of them4 ,the narrow guard stripes usually contain some simple vine or ornate reciprocal figure4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally rose1 blue1 and ivory1 with minor quantities of yellow and green4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,many are 8left-hand40 ,knots to inch horizontally1 eight to thirteen2 perpendicularly1 twelve to twenty4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back4 ,warp1 cotton2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other4 ,a few short lengths of threads of warp hang loose at the back of some pieces4 ,weft1 almost always cotton1 occasionally wool of fine diameter and usually dyed blue4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between two rows of knots1 excepting at intervals of every six or eight rows of knots1 where it crosses three or more times4 ,pile1 wool of medium length1 silky and unevenly clipped4 ,border1 three to six stripes1 and generally an outer edging of uniform colour4 ,sides1 a double overcasting of same colour as edging4 ,both ends1 a narrow web and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of moderately fine grain4 ,usual length1 five to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to three quarters length4 ,,mesheds4--,in few parts of the ,east have the weavers received greater inspiration from sacred and historic association than those of ,meshed4 ,to ,shiite ,mohammedans it contains the most holy spot in ,persia2 for within a mosque resplendent with faade of blue and white tiles1 and with gilded minarets of exquisite design1 lie the remains of ,ali ,riza1 the eighth ,imam or ,moslem priest1 in a tomb that is viewed yearly by nearly one hundred thousand pilgrims4 ,it was for a short time the capital of ,shah ,abbas1 who beautified its mosques2 and here ,nadir ,shah1 whose remains lie in the mausoleum1 held his court after the capture of ,delhi4 ,within its walls was born ,firdousi1 the ,homer of ,persia2 and not far away1 among the mountains to the west1 was the home of the poet and astronomer1 ,omar ,khayyam4 ,not only devotees but large numbers of merchants regularly visit the city in the caravans from ,khiva1 ,bokhara1 ,herat1 ,yezd1 and ,teheran1 so that it is also a city of commercial importance4 ,it is possible that a few of those matchless pieces which were attributed to ,herat before its destruction by ,nadir ,shah were made in the district near ,meshed1 since according to an ,arabian traveller#bj who visited it during the ,,xiv ,century many fine carpets then lay on the floor of its mosque4 ,it is also believed that within the shrine1 which has never been entered by an unbeliever1 still remain some of the most magnificent carpets of the ,orient4 ,but for more than a century the textile industry has been declining1 and the rugs now seen are generally of recent manufacture4 ,as a rule1 these rugs are of the ,khorassan type1 and have the same silky appearance of nap1 though it is shorter and more evenly clipped4 ,the pattern1 however1 is generally different1 as seldom is the field completely covered with the pear design1 but whenever used1 it is of elaborate drawing and frequently very large4 ,nor is the characteristic ,khorassan border stripe1 illustrated in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #b 7opp4 ,page #aef71 employed4 ,on the other hand1 it is not usual to see large central medallions1 with floral designs in tones of rose or pink on fields of blue or ivory1 and borders with undulating floral vines1 in which appears evidence of ,herati influence4 ,most of the rugs that now exist were made within the last fifty years1 and are of large size and almost square shape4 ,the colour scheme inclines to light and often brilliant tones1 which at times are strongly contrasted with small masses of much darker shades4 ,the wool is excellent1 and the warp and weft are rarely coarse4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #be4 ,,kermanshah ,,rug ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally rose or pink1 blue and white1 with minor quantities of yellow and green4 ,knot1 generally ,sehna1 rarely ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally1 eight to fifteen2 perpendicularly1 twelve to seventeen4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back4 ,warp1 generally cotton1 occasionally wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other4 ,weft1 wool or cotton1 of fine diameter and usually dyed blue4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of fine quality and medium length4 ,border1 usually from three to six stripes1 occasionally as many as eight1 and generally an outer edging of uniform colour4 ,sides1 a double overcasting of same colour as edging4 ,lower end1 a narrow web and warp fringe4 ,upper end1 a web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 six to fourteen feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to seven eighths length4 ,,ispahans4--,still imposing in the ruins of its former splendour1 surrounded by orchards1 vineyards1 and groves of trees that shade a broad1 well-watered plain1 is the ancient city of ,ispahan4 ,under the ,caliphs it became the capital of ,persia2 and though sacked by ,tamerlane1 who slew seventy thousand of its inhabitants1 it rose to such importance that in the ,,xvii ,century it contained within its walls several palaces1 one hundred and sixty mosques1 over two score of colleges1 nearly two thousand caravansaries1 and about three quarters of a million people4 ,now the population has dwindled to about sixty thousand2 and the few stately mosques and colleges that remain amid miles of deserted streets1 abandoned bazaars1 and ruined homes but feebly reflect the magnificence of the former capital4 ,here was the royal court of ,shah ,abbas1 who sent to ,italy1 for the purpose of studying decorative art1 a number of the most experienced artisans1 to whom are accredited some of the gracefully drawn designs of many of the early carpets4 ,here1 in the days of its greatest prosperity1 were founded many industries1 and on its looms were undoubtedly woven some of the best of old ,persian carpets4 ,though ,herat is now regarded by some authorities as the centre where the so-called ,ispahan rugs were made1 it is improbable1 as previously pointed out1 that all of them came from there4 ,but after the death of ,shah ,abbas the rug industry began to decline2 and with the removal of the capital to ,shiraz1 in #agfj1 ,ispahan ceased to be a rug-producing centre of consequence4 ,there may be a doubt whether such enormous carpets1 as the one with length of sixty feet and breadth of thirty that ,sir ,purdon ,clark in his monograph on ,oriental ,carpets mentions as lying in the hall of ,chehel ,sutoon at ,ispahan1 were made there or were imported from other cities2 but the weaving of rugs has never entirely ceased2 and so great is the fame of the former glory of the city that even now ,oriental dealers will often apply to rugs the term 8,ispahan0 as an epithet of superiority4 ,the few modern pieces which reach the western markets bear little resemblance to their prototypes2 and even among themselves show little similarity of pattern1 though the pear and ,herati designs are not uncommon4 ,in some rugs a century old the field is almost covered with what is known as the ,persian crown jewel1 and in others the field contains diamond-shaped medallions arranged in regular order with small foliate and floral forms placed between them4 ,small figures of animals are also occasionally represented4 ,the border is generally narrow and lacking in impressive individuality1 so that the character of the rugs depends largely on the pattern of the field and the well-seasoned colours1 which are always rich and harmonious4 ,some shade of red or blue is usually chosen for the ground2 and in the designs are green1 yellow1 and white4 ,the weave has variations rarely found in other rugs2 for the warp1 which is usually cotton1 may also be wool1 or wool and cotton twisted together2 and the weft may likewise be wool or cotton1 and may cross between the rows of knots either once or twice in different rugs1 or even once or twice in the same rug4 ,type ,characteristics4#ba ,colours1 principally red and blue1 with minor quantities of green and yellow4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to nine2 perpendicularly1 eight to fourteen4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down4 ,warp1 usually cotton1 occasionally wool2 in a few pieces wool or cotton are twisted together4 ,each thread of warp is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool or cotton4 ,a thread of weft crosses once or twice between two rows of knots4 ,if it is wool1 it generally crosses twice2 if of cotton1 two threads are generally placed side by side and cross together once as a single thread4 ,pile1 wool1 of short or medium length4 ,sides1 a double selvage of two or three chords4 ,lower end1 a web4 ,upper end1 a web and fringe4 ,occasionally the web is turned back and hemmed4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is moderately coarse4 ,usual length1 six to fourteen feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to two thirds length4 ,,kirmans4--,on account of the isolated position of ,kirman in ,southeastern ,persia1 where the almost impassable saline and sandy deserts by which it is surrounded on the north and east1 and the mountain ridges that separate it from the fertile valleys of ,persia on the west1 in a measure protected it from the repeated invasions that disturbed the political and industrial conditions of ,northern ,persia1 it has continuously for over a thousand years been an important centre for the manufacture of rugs4 ,moreover1 during all this period it has been noted for the excellence of their quality4 ,as early as the ,mohammedan conquests its fabrics were taken to furnish the floors and divans of ,caliphs' palaces4 ,when ,marco ,polo visited ,persia in #abgj he wrote of the beautiful shawls and carpets made by the women of ,kirman2 and the noted ,french traveller ,chardin1 who lived in that country during part of the ,,xvii ,century1 also spoke most favourably of them4 ,even after ,nadir ,shah removed many of the most skilled weavers to the northern part of ,persia subsequent to ascending the throne in #agci1 and ,aga ,mohammed ,khan pillaged the city and massacred many of the inhabitants in #agid1 the rug industry continued to prosper1 and to-day that district is producing the best of modern pieces4 ,to this isolation is also largely due the excellence of the weave and dyes1 since the artisans have in a measure escaped the pernicious influences of market demands and aniline colours4 ,and to it must be attributed the fact that the old ,iranian textile art appears nowhere else in greater purity2 for of all the rugs on the market to-day these conform more nearly in texture1 colour1 and design to the masterpieces of earlier times1 and show none of the foreign influences appearing in pieces woven in the north4 ,and yet in ,kirman is complexity of race as well as religion2 for the ,beluches who have wandered across the desert mingle with the ,persians2 and the ,guebres1 still practising in secret their fire worship1 meet with the ,mohammedans4 ,for long ages silkworms have been cultivated in the district about ,kirman and fed on the mulberry trees that grow wild among its hills1 so that it is not surprising that small quantities of silk are sometimes used in the rugs2 but as a rule the pile is entirely of wool1 yet of such fine quality and so well woven that many of the old pieces have a lustrous and silky appearance4 ,this wool1 which is white and of unusually fine texture1 is partly the product of the native sheep and partly the product of a variety of goats that live among the ridges and yield fleeces almost as fine as those of ,kashmir4 ,it is probably because of the fondness of the people of ,kirman for roses1 which they cultivate for the attar1 that they depict them so profusely in their rugs4 ,sometimes they represent them as filling vases set in rows1 or again as formal bouquets arranged in regular order upon the field4 ,they also weave them in the borders among green leaves1 as placed there tenderly and not hanging from such stiffly formed vines as are seen in other ,persian rugs4 ,nor are they conventionalised like the flowers of most modern rugs2 but petal1 leaf1 and stem are drawn with a precision that suggests the work of ,indian weavers4 ,usually they are red contrasting with a ground colour of soft1 ashy grey in the field1 and of golden yellow in the rich1 harmonious border4 ,sometimes1 instead of a profusion of roses1 there are other flowers1 such as the sunflower1 suggesting the old ,zoroastrian faith1 the cypress1 or the sacred 8cocos40 ,again1 the general design may be modified from one strictly floral1 and amid the foliage may be introduced birds1 animals1 or human beings2 but the naturalistic drawing is always noticeable4 ,in modern pieces the central medallion is often adopted1 yet the general resemblance to older pieces is evident4 ,as a rule the border has five stripes1 of which the main one is twice the width of any other1 and surrounding the outer is a narrow edging that is usually pinkish red2 though now and then1 according to the general colour scheme1 a very pleasing effect is obtained by substituting an edging of moss green4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bf4 ,,kurdistan ,,rug ,,with ,,mina ,,khani ,,pattern ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally grey or ivory1 with minor quantities of faun1 yellow1 rose1 and blue4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally eleven to twenty2 perpendicularly1 eleven to twenty4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back4 ,warp1 cotton2 one of the two threads encircled by knot is doubled under the other4 ,weft1 generally wool of fine diameter1 occasionally cotton1 and frequently dyed blue4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 short1 soft1 and silky4 ,border1 usually of five stripes and an outer edging of uniform colour that is generally pink but sometimes green4 ,sides1 a double overcasting of the same colour as edging4 ,both ends1 a narrow web and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 very firm4 ,weave at back is of moderately fine grain4 ,usual length1 five to seven feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to two thirds length4 ,,yezd4--,in the centre of a sandy plain1 midway between ,kirman and ,kashan1 is the city of ,yezd1 where almost the last of the ,iranian fire-worshippers1 now a small part of the total population1 still follow the ancient faith4 ,though partly shut off from the great desert of ,khorassan by a mountain range1 the city is only an oasis1 where the drifting sands that buried the old city ever suggest to the inhabitants the dread spirit of desolation which finds an echo in ruined walls within4 ,at the present time very few piled rugs are woven there and they are rarely seen in ,western markets2 yet on account of the historic interest in its people1 the name is sometimes applied to modern products made in other districts4 ,at one time it was noted for its silk rugs1 and also for its felt 8namads10 which are generally too heavy to be transported1 since some of them have a thickness of two inches and a superficial area of ten thousand square feet4 ,,shiraz4--,near the centre of a small1 well-cultivated valley encircled by mountains is ,shiraz1 capital of ,farsistan4 ,during the reign of ,kerim ,khan1 from #agfj to #aggi1 it was the capital of ,persia2 but since then it has suffered from earthquakes and neglect until now much of its former glory has departed4 ,and yet there still remain associations to kindle the imagination1 for without the gates are the gardens that ,persian poets have extolled in verse2 the tombs of ,saadi and ,hafiz2 and not far away are the spots where ,cyrus1 ,darius1 and ,xerxes lived1 and the ruined palaces that ,alexander destroyed in a night of drunken revelry4 ,as early as the time of the ,caliphs this district produced large numbers of carpets2 though few1 if any1 remain that were woven before the ,,xv ,century4 ,as is the case with modern pieces1 all of them were distinguished for their soft and beautiful wool1 which is to be attributed to the climate and pasture of the surrounding mountains and valleys4 ,one of the oldest existing rugs of this district which displays the characteristic wool is referred to by ,dr4 ,f4 ,r4 ,martin in the following words3#bb 8,as soon as ,i had touched it1 ,i was certain that we had to deal with a very rare kind of carpets which were made at ,shiraz1 or at least with the brilliant ,shiraz wool4 ,most of the carpets made of that wool are lost1 because the material was such a soft one that it was easily worn out4 ,i know of very few which are older than the eighteenth century4 ,no wool in all ,persia takes such rich and deep colour as the ,shiraz wool4 ,the deep blue and the dark ruby red are equally extraordinary1 and that is due to the brilliancy of the wool1 which is firmer and1 so to say1 more transparent than silk1 and makes one think of translucent enamel4 ,as a piece of colour this carpet is certainly one of the finest1 and there are very few carpets that have greater charm1 which even the best reproduction could not give4 ,in its colours there is something of an early ,gothic stained-glass window1 where the dust of ages has so covered the design that it has become obscured and the imagination of the spectator must complete it4 ,certainly the ,persians for whom this carpet was made used to sit and dream for hours over the beauty of its colours1 beautiful as the wonderful landscape surrounding ,shiraz40 ,on account of the design and workmanship of this remarkable piece it is referred by ,dr4 ,martin to the ,,xv ,century4 ,during the two following centuries the carpets of ,shiraz attained the high standard of excellence prevalent in the principal cities of ,persia2 but most of those pieces are now extremely rare1 as they were woven chiefly for imperial use or for exchange with foreign rulers4 ,this city experienced the art decadence that began with the ,,xviii ,century1 yet under the patronage of ,kerim ,khan imperial factories for weaving were again established there4 ,though some of the rugs made eighty or even sixty years ago are certainly beautiful1 these modern pieces1 as a rule1 lack the excellent qualities of early rugs1 and those more recently woven are still poorer4 ,on a few of them are depicted designs that are strictly ,persian2 but they generally depart widely from the early traditions1 and floral forms are very much conventionalised4 ,in a large number of this class the field is covered with pear designs which are described by straight lines and angles4 ,sometimes they are as small as in the ,sarabends1 occupying the whole field as the principal motive2 or they may be placed less prominently within diagonal or perpendicular stripes4 ,again1 they may be as large as in ,khorassans and grouped with other designs4 ,another very common pattern1 known as the 8pole-medallion10 consists of a narrow perpendicular bar connecting two or more large diamond-shaped figures on which are grouped conventionalised floral forms and geometric designs4 ,in other pieces the pattern is as geometric as that of any ,caucasian rug1 and it is not unusual to see both field and border profusely adorned with latch-hooks enclosed within and surrounding geometric figures4 ,nor is it unusual to see small figures of men and animals scattered through the field4 ,indeed1 there is no other ,persian rug in which the pattern is so heterogeneous4 ,the borders usually consist of a number of narrow stripes1 or a wide one with narrow guard stripes4 ,one of them1 at least1 almost invariably contains some form of vine and leaves1 and not infrequently the row of small ,x figures that also appear in ,shirvans4 ,in fact1 the rugs are sometimes mistaken for ,shirvans on account of the resemblance in geometric designs4 ,though there is such variety in the patterns1 these rugs are not difficult to recognise4 ,there is something distinctive about the dark blues and reds contrasted with smaller areas of ivory and yellow4 ,they are1 as a rule1 loosely woven1 and many of them have a trait of lying unevenly on the floor4 ,not infrequently an extra band of pile is woven between the border and the broad embroidered webs of the ends1 from which hang a loose fringe4 ,the sides are overcast with heavy strands of wool varied like a barber-pole at regular intervals2 and1 as is not the case with any other class1 they are often ornamented at intervals with coloured tassels4 ,there are also large numbers of ,shiraz saddle-bags1 which are superior to any others made4 ,they resemble the ,caucasian1 as the patterns are geometric2 but they may be distinguished from them by the finer wool and a slightly different colour scheme4 ,not infrequently the term 8,mecca0 is applied to ,shiraz rugs1 and the impression is conveyed that they were made there4 ,nor is the statement always entirely devoid of truth2 for each year caravans aggregating some two hundred thousand souls enter that city to make their devotions to ,allah1 to walk around the sacred stone within the ,kaaba1 and leaving behind their forgotten sins to return homeward with a bit of sacred earth or a strip of the temple's covering4 ,each of these pilgrims bears offerings for propitiation1 of which a large proportion are rugs2 and whatever their size1 they are invariably the choicest the devotee can offer4 ,since the ,mohammedan priests regard the best interests of their religion and themselves as conserved by a disposition of all articles not directly available for their use1 they sell large quantities of such rugs1 that find their way to ,cairo1 ,damascus1 and ,constantinople4 ,furthermore1 the pilgrims carry many pieces which are sold or exchanged along the routes of the caravans or at ,mecca1 and ultimately reach the same markets4 ,such a large number of the pieces that years ago came from these sources were of the well-known type of ,shiraz rugs that they and similar pieces which had never left ,persia were called ,mecca rugs4 ,this deception is still encouraged by some dealers1 because for many buyers a special interest is attached to a piece that they are persuaded has been carried on this pilgrimage as an offering4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 red1 and ivory1 with minor quantities of yellow and green4 ,knot1 generally ,sehna1 frequently ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve2 perpendicularly1 eight to twelve4 ,at back one of the half knots is generally smaller than the other and pressed to one side4 ,the other half knot is about as long as wide1 and the yarn is not drawn tight against the warp4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that their alignment is slightly irregular1 and the warp is concealed at back4 ,warp1 almost always wool2 in a few modern rugs goats' hair is used4 ,each of the threads encircled by a knot is almost equally prominent at back1 or occasionally one to each knot is depressed4 ,weft1 wool of medium diameter1 frequently coloured red4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 short to medium1 and silky4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,beyond the borders1 at each end1 is frequently a narrow band of pile4 ,sides1 a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole stripe or in short lengths of different colours1 which generally consist of two of the following colours3 red1 yellow1 green1 and blue4 ,in some pieces small tufts of wool protrude from the sides at regular intervals of one or more feet4 ,lower end1 a broad web of coloured stripes1 through which may run a dovetailed coloured cord1 and warp loops4 ,upper end1 a broad web of coloured stripes1 through which may run a dovetailed coloured cord1 and warp fringe4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 five to nine feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to four fifths length4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bg4 ,,gorevan ,,rug ,,niris4--,a resemblance exists between the rugs that take their name from ,lake ,niris and those of ,shiraz1 which is distant only fifty miles to the westward2 for many of each class are woven with the same silky wool1 obtained from sheep that graze in the intervening mountain ranges1 and the shepherd weavers about the lake have acquired ideas from the old capital4 ,this resemblance exists mostly in the soft1 floccy appearance of the nap1 and in the barber-pole or parti-coloured overcasting of the sides4 ,the webs of each end are broad and have long fringes2 but generally those of the ,shiraz are embroidered and crossed with one or more parti-coloured cords1 whilst those of ,niris pieces are1 as a rule1 flatly woven in stripes of different colours4 ,there is also an occasional resemblance in pattern1 but the best known pattern of the ,niris is rarely seen in the ,shiraz4 ,on the other hand1 they are more firmly woven2 and there is a slight difference in the character of their weave1 since one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is depressed below the other1 and the weft is of wool coloured red1 whereas in the ,shiraz it is frequently of cotton4 ,the pears are the favourite design1 and1 like those in ,sarabends1 extend over the field in orderly array2 but they are much larger and consist of an assemblage of bright colours isolated from one another1 yet grouped gracefully in a way that might readily suggest the origin of crown jewels sometimes ascribed to them4 ,frequently the ground is a dark blue1 and the pears are of red1 blue1 green1 and ivory4 ,violet and yellow are also employed4 ,in other types1 less usually seen1 the field is covered with a lattice-work pattern containing small figures4 ,the typical border has a broad central stripe of vine and flower1 with narrow guards of simpler vine or reciprocal trefoil4 ,barber-pole stripes are also characteristic of the borders4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 red1 yellow1 green1 and ivory4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to eleven2 perpendicularly1 seven to fifteen4 ,the rows of knots are not closely pressed down1 so that at the back the warp is noticeable and the weft conspicuous4 ,warp1 wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back and frequently doubled under the other4 ,weft1 wool of medium diameter1 generally dyed red4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 generally of three stripes1 sometimes as many as seven4 ,sides1 a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole stripe or in short lengths of different colours1 such as red1 blue1 green1 yellow1 and black4 ,both ends1 a broad web of coloured stripes1 one row of knots1 and loose warp fringe4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 four to seven feet4 ,usual width1 three quarters to four fifths length4 ,,feraghans4--,stretching eastward from the base of ,mt4 ,elwund is the plain of ,feraghan4 ,its length does not exceed forty-five miles1 nor its breadth ten or fifteen1 yet here are clustered several hundred villages4 ,on account of its altitude of seven thousand feet1 the ground is covered with snow in winter1 and the people are then huddled in their low mud houses1 and the flocks and herds are gathered within the village walls4 ,but in the spring the men are cultivating the fields1 and the sheep are grazing on the banks of numerous streams4 ,it is a plain of fertility and industry4 ,for generations it has been productive of large numbers of fine rugs1 and it is still possible among its villages to find some of those old pieces that have been regarded by the ,persians themselves as the best examples of the textile art4 ,when the characteristic patterns of ,feraghans have once been carefully observed1 they are never forgotten2 yet it is surprising to note the many distinctions observable in a large collection4 ,these patterns may conveniently be divided into two groups1 namely3 one in which the field is entirely covered with diaper designs1 and the other in which the field contains a central medallion surrounded by uniform colour4 ,probably nine tenths of these rugs fall within the first group1 which is divisible into three sub-groups3 those in which the field is covered with the ,herati design2 those in which the field is covered with the ,guli ,hinnai design2 and those in which the field is covered with some other small diaper design4 ,the ,herati design is the one most frequently seen1 and is found in the very oldest of existing ,feraghans4 ,as a rule1 the crumpled leaf does not exceed a length of four or five inches1 and the rosettes are proportionally small1 so that the ground colour is almost entirely concealed1 and at a short distance is not distinguishable2 but there are other pieces in which the leaf is over a foot in length1 and the figures less closely clustered1 so that the ground enters prominently into the colour scheme4 ,the prevailing colour of the leaf and rosette is generally rose red1 which gives a distinctly reddish tone to the rug2 though the small designs have shades of green1 yellow1 white1 and light blue4 ,the ground is usually a rich1 dark blue2 but occasionally red or even ivory is used4 ,in very few other rugs are the corners separated from the field1 unless there is a central medallion2 but in almost all ,feraghans small triangular-shaped corners1 with colours contrasting with those of the field1 are separated from it by lines bearing teeth or serrated edges4 ,surrounding the field is a border that has from five to seven stripes4 ,the main stripe is about three times as wide as any other1 and may have a ground colour of red1 blue1 or ivory white2 but in many of the best pieces it is moss green1 with blue1 yellow1 or red appearing in the overlying pattern4 ,of different but corresponding shades is the colour of the ground and designs of other stripes4 ,probably three fourths of the ,feraghans now seen have the well-known turtle design in the main stripe2 but it is sometimes replaced by the rose design shown in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #ab 7opp4 ,page #aef71 or by an undulating vine with rosette or palmettes4 ,on the innermost stripe1 which is very narrow1 is invariably represented some reciprocal figure1 as the trefoil or sawtooth2 and on the other stripes are undulating vines1 with floral or quasi-floral figures4 ,the ,feraghans with fields covered with ,guli ,hinnai designs instead of the ,herati show a difference in both drawing and colouring1 though the general effect is much the same4 ,in place of crumpled leaves and rosettes of reddish hue are the star-like flowers of the ,hinnai plants that brighten the mountains surrounding the ,feraghan plain with their large yellow or ivory coloured petals4 ,the pattern1 as a whole1 is slightly more prominent1 and the prevailing colour tone1 which is rich1 is less red and more yellow4 ,there is1 however1 a very noticeable difference in the pattern of the third sub-group1 though specimens are not frequently seen4 ,in these the small figures of conventionalised flowers sometimes have geometric shapes and are arranged in diagonal or perpendicular rows4 ,moreover1 they generally lack the rich colouring of the preceding sub-groups4 ,the central medallion is found not only in modern but also in old ,feraghans4 ,it is generally of diamond or hexagonal shape1 with serrated edges and with pendants4 ,almost invariably ,herati figures cover its surface1 and not infrequently some lattice-work design with small conventionalised leaves or flowers appear faintly on the field of uniform colour surrounding it4 ,as a rule1 pieces of this group are of a more striking and handsome appearance than those in which the entire field is covered with numerous minute figures of equally rich hues that blend and produce1 when viewed at a distance1 an undefined colour4 ,the border designs are similar to those of the other group4 ,all of the old pieces were stoutly woven2 and though the nap was short1 many of those that remain are still serviceable4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and dark blue1 with minor quantities of yellow1 light blue1 green1 and white4 ,knot1 ,sehna1 rarely ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen2 perpendicularly1 seven to eighteen4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is usually concealed at back4 ,warp1 cotton2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 cotton1 occasionally dyed blue or pink4 ,a thread of weft of fine or medium diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots1 or occasionally a thread of coarse diameter with much slack crosses only once1 so that the transverse warp produces a quincunx effect4 ,pile1 wool1 clipped short4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 a double overcasting in dark colour4 ,lower end1 a web4 ,upper end1 a web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 four to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to two thirds length4 ,,hamadans4--,a little to the northeast of ,elwund and at an altitude that overlooks a small1 well-cultivated valley adjacent to the ,feraghan plain is the city of ,hamadan4 ,on this site was the ancient city of ,ecbatana1 capital of ,media2 and here guarded by ,jews is a tomb1 which tradition declares is the burial place of ,esther and ,mordecai4 ,within the encircling walls are gardens1 bazaars1 and mosques2 yet the present city of forty thousand inhabitants with its general misery and squalor has little to remind one of the magnificence of that former capital which for a short period was mistress of the world4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bh4 ,,bergamo ,,prayer ,,rug ,like ,yezd1 ,hamadan is famous for its namads2 and like ,yezd it once produced1 according to tradition1 most beautiful silk carpets1 though no longer are any woven there4 ,but its looms have been busy for the last few generations weaving rugs of wool and camels' hair1 which have such marked individuality that they bear unmistakably on their face the stamp of identification4 ,the few old rugs that remain are sterling pieces1 which are stoutly woven and of excellent dyes4 ,they come in many sizes2 some are simply mats1 others sedjadehs1 and an unusually large number are runners4 ,the typical pattern of the mats and smaller sedjadehs consists of a central diamond-shaped medallion1 surrounded by a field of contrasting colour1 from which are set off the triangular-shaped corners4 ,in the large sedjadehs and in the runners1 which are sometimes twenty feet or more in length1 are often three or more pole medallions1 though the pole device may be omitted4 ,these medallions and corners are covered with small1 carefully drawn geometric figures1 or more frequently with floral designs such as appear in ,feraghans1 and as a rule are defined by serrated lines or are fringed with hooks or comb-like teeth4 ,the colour of the surrounding field is unobtrusive4 ,in some pieces it is void of pattern1 and its monotonous tone is broken only by slight variations of shade2 yet not infrequently it is marked with faint lines of slightly darker or lighter tint1 like a delicate tracery4 ,not only are the borders wide1 but a broad edging1 which is at least one half and sometimes two thirds as wide as all the coloured stripes combined1 surrounds them4 ,as it is usually of camels' hair and without pattern1 it is a very noticeable characteristic4 ,the main stripe has an undulating vine with conventionalised flowers1 and the two guard stripes have a simpler vine1 or1 more frequently1 the reciprocal trefoils4 ,to this general type1 however1 are many exceptions4 ,sometimes the figures of the medallion and corners are more geometric2 sometimes the corners are omitted2 the outside edging may be decorated with large conventionalised floral or geometric figures2 and occasionally a camel or some other animal is represented in the field or border4 ,a few of the old rugs were strikingly handsome4 ,dr4 ,george ,birdwood refers to a large ,hamadan that formerly hung in the ,india ,museum in these words3#bc 8,an irregular lozenge form1 a little island of bright clustering flowers1 of which the prevailing colours are red and blue1 adorns the centre2 while the wide extended ground of yellow1 in irregular shades1 surrounds it with a rippling amber sea2 and there are blue pieces in the corners1 within the broad blue border worked in arabesques4 ,it is a carpet not to be laid on a floor1 but to be hung in a gallery1 to be looked at like a golden sunset4 ,it was a sacrilege to remove it from the mosque where it evidently was once spread under the great dome4 ,beati possidentes40 ,most of the old pieces have disappeared1 and in their places are modern products with pile of wool or goat's hair often dyed in garish colours4 ,there are also many nondescript rugs1 which were gathered from wandering tribes or surrounding villages and taken to ,hamadan1 since for a long time it has been one of the great rug markets of ,persia4 ,when exported from there they were often classed as products of that city4 ,moderately old ,hamadans contain more camel's hair than any other class of rugs1 since in very many of them it forms the pile of both field and outer edging1 where its soft tones of pale chestnut colour contrast with the bright shades of blue1 red1 and yellow yarn used in other parts of the field and border4 ,this lavish use of camel's hair1 the broad encircling edging1 the cotton warp1 and a single thread of coarse weft passing once between two rows of knots1 distinguish them from all other rugs4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally the chestnut of camel's hair with red and blue4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally1 six to nine2 perpendicularly1 eight to twelve4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down4 ,warp1 cotton2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 generally cotton1 frequently wool2 of coarse diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses only once without slack between every two rows of knots1 so that the white spots of transverse cotton warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance4 ,pile1 in old rugs1 mostly camel's hair and some wool2 in recent rugs1 mostly wool clipped short4 ,border1 wide1 generally of three or four stripes1 and a broad outer edging of camel's hair4 ,sides1 overcast1 generally in brown or red4 ,lower end1 a narrow web and warp loops4 ,upper end1 a narrow web turned back and hemmed4 ,texture1 very firm4 ,weave1 at back is of moderately coarse grain4 ,length1 three to twenty-four feet4 ,width1 two fifths to three quarters length4 ,,irans4--,although neither a city nor district of ,persia is called ,iran1 a well-defined class of rugs is known to the trade by that name4 ,they are woven by some of the old ,iranian stock dwelling principally in the province of ,irak-,ajemi4 ,these people follow no particular pattern or colour scheme of their own1 but to a large extent copy those of a few well-known ,persian classes2 yet in other respects their rugs have a noticeable individuality4 ,they are woven with a ,ghiordes knot and so loosely that if the rug be observed from the front1 as it is bent backward in a plane parallel to the direction of the weft1 the foundation threads of warp and weft1 which are of cotton1 will show distinctly between the knots4 ,each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot are equally prominent at the back4 ,ordinarily the threads of weft cross twice between the rows of knots1 but occasionally they cross only once1 as in ,hamadans4 ,many of the fabrics regarded as ,sarabends1 ,feraghans1 and even ,hamadans are in reality ,irans1 which on account of their inferior workmanship are much less valuable4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue and red1 with minor quantities of ivory1 yellow1 green1 and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally1 six to eleven2 perpendicularly1 seven to eleven4 ,a half knot as it appears at back is frequently longer1 measured in the direction of the length of the rug1 than wide4 ,the rows of knots are not pressed down closely1 so that the warp is noticeable at back4 ,warp1 cotton2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back2 they are not closely strung1 so that each half knot stands out distinctly4 ,weft1 cotton2 a thread of weft of coarse diameter as a rule crosses twice between each two rows of knots1 and only rarely crosses but once4 ,the weft is conspicuous between the knots at front when the rug is bent backwards4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 generally four to six stripes4 ,sides1 a heavy double overcasting that is generally brown or black1 but sometimes red4 ,lower end1 a narrow web4 ,upper end1 a narrow web and loose warp fringe4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 five to ten feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to three quarters length4 ,,sarouks4--,towards the western end of the ,feraghan plain and at an altitude of seventy-five hundred feet is the mud-walled village of ,sarouk4 ,here1 shaded by poplars1 are clustered one hundred and fifty houses1 with floors1 roofs1 and sides of mud that has dried and cracked until it admits the wind4 ,the sun and light enter through the open doors1 for there are no windows4 ,nor are there chimneys1 but simply openings between the rafters to permit the escape of smoke from the open fireplace in the floor below and the entrance of more wind4 ,at times the atmosphere is not only oppressive with smoke1 but is laden with odours that arise from the pens beneath and beside the houses1 where fowls1 sheep1 and goats are huddled4 ,during the winter and early spring snow lies on the ground2 a little later a hot summer follows4 ,yet amid these depressing surroundings and under these adverse conditions lived weavers who gave the name of their little village to some of the most beautiful rugs made in all the ,east4 ,now and then is seen an old piece with surface like velvet and with mellowed tones of perfect harmony that has come from these huts or surrounding hills2 but probably not one in a score1 perhaps not one in a hundred1 of the ,sarouks now offered for sale in this country was woven there1 as most of them are made in the work-houses of larger cities1 though they follow essentially the general appearance and technique of old and genuine pieces1 even if lacking some of their best qualities4 ,nevertheless1 the modern pieces are of handsome colour1 of graceful pattern1 and are well woven4 ,some of them1 which were made two or three decades ago1 had large designs of the cypress1 willow1 or the tree of life1 as well as realistically drawn animals represented in the fields2 but the great majority of those now seen invariably follow a pattern consisting of a large medallion with pendants1 or of two or more concentric medallions resting on the field1 from which are set off the four corners4 ,defining the edges of both medallions and corners are lines that are most artistically irregular1 yet correspond with one another4 ,between each part is the greatest co-ordination1 for the designs of field1 corners1 medallions1 and borders are similar4 ,on long delicate stems that bend and interlock like carved tracery are leaves1 buds1 and flowers1 suggesting the craftsmanship of the best days of old ,iran4 ,the borders generally have only three stripes3 a broad main stripe on which appears an elaborately drawn undulating vine with pendent flowers1 and a narrow guard stripe on each side4 ,sometimes the guards are ornamented with only a simple vine1 but more frequently with a reciprocal pattern1 which1 however1 is so well drawn as to conflict in no wise with the harmony of the floral forms4 ,in the drawing of the borders the weavers exercise greater latitude than in any other part of the rug2 for occasionally they add a narrow outer edging of dark colour1 place the reciprocal figure next to the innermost stripe as a fringe to the field1 or increase the number of stripes to seven4 ,rarely is the medallion wanting in modern pieces1 but now and then the pendants are replaced by bunches of flowers1 and in some pieces the corners extend along the sides in undulating lines until they meet near the centre4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bi4 ,,ghiordes ,,prayer ,,rug ,all of these pieces are so closely woven that the fine bluish weft is hardly discernible at the back4 ,very few other rugs have such short-cut wool1 which has a velvety appearance1 rendered more effective by the soft1 rich colours that are always in perfect harmony and excellent taste4 ,as a rule they are dark4 ,ever present in the ground colours are deep blues and reds1 suggestive of the hues of the so-called 8,ispahans20 while olives1 delicate greens1 and ivory represent with consummate dignity of tone and design a lavish tracery of leaves and foliage motives4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark blue and red1 with minor quantities of green1 olive1 buff1 and ivory4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen2 perpendicularly1 twelve to twenty4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back4 ,warp1 cotton1 rarely linen2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is almost always doubled under the other2 in a few pieces it is only depressed4 ,weft1 cotton1 of small diameter1 dyed blue4 ,a thread of weft of fine diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 short and velvety4 ,border1 generally of three stripes but sometimes as many as seven4 ,occasionally there is an outer edging of dark colour4 ,sides1 a tightly wound double overcasting of red1 blue1 or black wool4 ,both ends1 a narrow web1 or web and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 very firm4 ,weave at back is of fine grain4 ,length1 four to twelve feet4 ,width1 two thirds to three quarters length4 ,,kashans4--,near the centre of the province of ,irak-,ajemi1 on the ancient and well-travelled highway between ,ispahan and ,teheran1 is the city of ,kashan1 from which1 according to an old tradition1 the three ,wise ,men of the ,east followed the ,star of ,bethlehem4 ,like many of the cities of ,persia it is now largely in ruins2 its homes are infested with scorpions2 for many months of the year the heat1 which in a measure is due to the proximity of the great salt desert that extends far into ,khorassan1 is unendurable2 yet in spite of these inconveniences1 for which perhaps familiarity has in a measure lent contempt1 forty thousand people live there4 ,in the past it has produced some of the greatest artists and artisans of weaving4 ,it was once the home of ,maksoud1 whom ,shah ,ismael ,i ordered to weave the famous carpet of the ,mosque of ,ardebil1 which1 ranking among the greatest woven products that still exist1 bears unmistakable evidence of the wonderful technique and artistic skill then practised in ,kashan4 ,without a doubt other textile masterpieces of the ,,xvi and ,,xvii ,centuries were woven there1 for it would be unreasonable to believe that the city where ,maksoud had learned his art was not at that time a prominent rug-producing centre4 ,according to ,persian tradition many of the antique silk carpets came from ,kashan4 ,at any rate1 it has been for a long time customary to take the raw silk from other places to be spun and dyed there4 ,some of it is woven into rugs1 which are considered among the best of modern pieces1 though the demand for them is small4 ,on the other hand1 the woollen pieces are now found in every market1 though it is only within recent years that they have been generally known4 ,occasionally they are defined as a higher grade of ,sarouks1 on account of the striking resemblance in texture1 colours1 and designs2 yet there are certain distinctions3 the warp is often linen1 the nap is a little shorter1 the texture slightly firmer1 and there are a great number of border stripes4 ,a feature that is more frequently found in these two classes than in any other is the fringe of hooks or short comb-like teeth that border the innermost stripe and extend into the field4 ,without doubt ,kashans are among the most perfect as well as the most expensive woollen products of the modern ,persian looms4 ,their velvet-like surface and rich sheen give them an appearance that to those unfamiliar with rugs seems like that of silken pieces4 ,the fine wool is dyed with rich1 deep tones of blue1 olive1 red1 and brown2 the perfectly balanced pattern is artistic as well as ornate2 and on account of the very short nap the drawing of each minute detail is clear4 ,in place of bold designs accentuated by masses of colour are delicate tracings of floral and foliage motives1 of graceful arabesques and foliated stalks1 so expressed in rhythmic lines and harmonious tones as to give a sense of the greatest refinement4 ,even though these rugs be modern and chemically washed1 their wealth of artistic workmanship and exquisite colour make them exceedingly handsome4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark blue1 red1 and yellowish brown1 with minor quantities of light blue and green4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally sixteen to twenty2 perpendicularly1 sixteen to twenty-four4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down so that the warp is concealed and the weft almost hidden at back4 ,warp1 generally cotton1 rarely linen2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other4 ,weft1 generally cotton1 of small diameter1 dyed blue2 rarely linen4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 very short and velvety4 ,border1 generally of seven stripes4 ,sides1 a tightly wound double overcasting in dark red1 blue1 or brown4 ,lower end1 a narrow web4 ,upper end1 a narrow web and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 very firm4 ,weave at back is of very fine grain4 ,usual length1 six to ten feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to three quarters length4 ,,sababends4--,standing on the top of lofty ,elwund1 that rises on the boundary between the provinces of ,ardelan and ,irak-,ajemi1 in ,northwestern ,persia1 one would see within a radius of ninety miles as prolific a centre of rug weaving as anywhere exists4 ,just within this distance to the northwest are ,sehna and ,bijar1 to the southeast is ,sultanabad1 to the southwest is ,kermanshah2 and skirting the mountain on the eastern side are the high plains where lie the districts of ,hamadan1 ,feraghan1 and ,sarawan1 as well as the village of ,sarouk and less important centres of weaving4 ,among the valleys of the ,sarawan district1 that lies on the northern flanks of mountain ranges extending as far as ,ispahan1 are made the rugs which1 by a corruption of the word ,sarawan1 are known as the ,sarabends4 ,no other rugs of ,persia have a pattern that is so simple1 and that for generations has been followed with so little variation4 ,nor are there any other modern rugs that have changed less from the old styles in respect to colour and quality4 ,the typical pattern of the field consists of rows of pear designs arranged in transverse lines1 with the smaller ends pointing in different directions in alternate lines4 ,the pears of the field show great diversity of shape1 but those of the borders are long1 narrow1 and most angular2 yet they never assume the rectilinear figures found in ,baku rugs4 ,only very rarely is there any departure from this pattern2 though in a few old pieces is an adaptation of the ,herati design1 and now and then is seen a geometric figure1 or human form1 or the date when the piece was woven4 ,the ground colour of the field may be blue1 red1 or white4 ,if blue1 it is so largely covered with pinkish or rose-coloured pears that the prevailing hue1 when the pieces are viewed from a distance1 is light red4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the field is red1 the pears are mostly blue2 and if the field is ivory white1 the pears are red and blue4 ,in all old pieces the blue has rich1 deep tones1 the red has mellowed into soft rose or delicate pink1 and the white has turned to ivory4 ,this pleasing effect is increased by shades of yellow and green1 which are added to the other colours of the pears4 ,with few exceptions the borders have a large number of narrow stripes1 of which the central is about one third the aggregate width4 ,its ground colour is ivory white1 but the angular vine and pendent1 narrow pears have the same colours as those of the field4 ,on each side of it is usually a stripe with ground colour corresponding to that of the field and with an undulating vine and rosette4 ,almost invariably there is an outer stripe of reciprocal trefoil in red and blue1 which may be balanced by a reciprocal sawtooth adjoining the field4 ,it is not unusual to see large pieces with two white stripes1 and very rarely one is seen with three4 ,the best of these pieces are made in the town of ,mirabad1 which signifies the 8city of ,mir10 and are accordingly called ,mir-,sarabends4 ,they can be distinguished from others1 known to the trade as ,royal ,sarabends1 by the fact that in tying the knots the yarn is so twisted that one thread of warp is doubled under the other2 and in the latter each of the two threads appear with equal prominence at the back4 ,neither of them should ever be mistaken for ,iran imitations1 in which the pile is of much looser texture and is tied with the ,ghiordes knot4 ,for durability1 there are very few modern pieces that will give the satisfaction of ,sarabends2 for as a rule they are stoutly and closely woven1 and though there is monotony in the pattern1 those coloured with vegetable dyes will grow more beautiful with age4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red or blue1 with minor quantities of ivory1 yellow1 and green4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen2 perpendicularly1 nine to thirteen4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 cotton4 ,in ,mir-,sarabends one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other at back4 ,in ,royal ,sarabends each is equally prominent4 ,weft1 cotton1 of fine diameter1 and dyed red or blue4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of short or medium length4 ,border1 five to seven stripes1 and occasionally even more4 ,sides1 a red double overcasting4 ,lower end1 a web1 or web and short warp fringe4 ,upper end1 a web and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is of moderately fine grain4 ,length1 five to eighteen feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to two thirds length4 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,v--,,ghiordes ,,prayer ,,rug ,only now and then is seen a prayer ,ghiordes that represents such a high type of artistic skill4 ,the weaving follows more closely the fine technique of the ,persian than that of the ,asia ,minor weaver4 ,yet it is the drawing and colouring that claim attention4 ,the delicate tracery of the spandrel1 the minute delineation of tendril and leaf in the border1 and the perfect balance of every part of one side with a corresponding part in the other1 resemble the finest workmanship of old ,iran4 ,not only so1 but the beautiful border pattern of rosette and leaf is so suggestive of the well-known ,herati design that it seems not improbable that here is shown the influence of those ,persian weavers that ,solyman the ,magnificent took with him to ,asia ,minor after his capture of ,tabriz4 ,the colour also displays dainty tones and careful shading found in no other class of ,asia ,minor rugs4 ,such pieces are usually regarded as products of the ,,xvi ,century4 ,property of the ,author ,,burujirds4--,about sixty miles to the west of ,sultanabad and forty to the south of the ,sarawan district is the city of ,burujird4 ,it is in a rich1 well-watered valley and is surrounded by numerous hamlets4 ,most of the population are engaged in agriculture2 and only a small part1 who are stimulated by the increased prices occasioned by the rug industry of ,sultanabad1 are weavers4 ,they produce pieces that resemble closely the ,sarabend rugs1 as the field is generally occupied with pear designs2 but on account of the ,ghiordes knot and cotton warp and weft1 they might be mistaken for ,iran rugs4 ,,sultanabads4--,southeastward from the plain of ,feraghan is the city of ,sultanabad1 which in recent years has become important as the centre of a great rug industry controlled by ,europeans and ,americans4 ,higher prices1 resulting from the constantly increasing ,western demand for ,persian rugs1 have stimulated the native weavers to more persistent efforts4 ,those who are too poor to purchase wool and dyes#bd are supplied by the companies4 ,others1 who are more dependent1 are paid regular wages4 ,thus it happens that not only large numbers of looms are constantly at work in the city1 but a hundred hamlets and villages that lie within a day's journey produce rugs that are marketed there4 ,but while the output has been increased the true artistic spirit has been suppressed1 and patterns favoured or supplied by foreign purchasers only are in demand4 ,most of the rugs are well woven1 though there is a difference in grades4 ,some take the name of the city1 others are called ,savalans1 from a range of mountains that lie to the north1 and others are known as ,mahals4 ,most of them are large pieces1 rather coarsely woven4 ,,muskabads4--,in the district of ,muskabad1 a short distance to the northwest of ,sultanabad1 are produced rugs very similar to the ,mahals4 ,they come in the same large carpet sizes and nearly square shapes2 they have almost the same harmonious colour scheme of unobtrusive red1 yellow1 blue1 green1 and ivory2 they have the same cotton warp and weft1 the same finish of sides and ends2 but as a rule they are less closely woven4 ,the patterns are varied4 ,occasionally they have large figures such as are seen in ,gorevans1 though these are more usual in ,mahals4 ,in some of them the field is covered with conventionalised leaf and floral form4 ,but the usual type has two or more concentric medallions of different colours covered with the small ,herati designs so distinctive of the ,feraghans4 ,when such is the case1 the border has usually the turtle pattern in the main stripe and some stiffly drawn vine and floral pattern in the smaller stripes4 ,but the velvety appearance1 the elegant finish of old ,feraghans1 is always lacking4 ,the nap is of soft wool of medium length1 but the surface of the back displays coarse texture4 ,these pieces lack the artistic qualities of most ,persian rugs2 but on account of their excellent quality of material and stoutness of weave they are very serviceable4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 and ivory1 with minor quantities of green and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes or ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to fourteen2 perpendicularly1 eight to twelve4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down4 ,warp1 cotton2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed at back1 and frequently nearly doubled under the other4 ,weft1 cotton1 of medium to coarse diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 three to five stripes1 with a narrow outer edging4 ,sides1 a double overcasting4 ,lower end1 a very narrow web and short warp fringe4 ,upper end1 short warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of very coarse grain4 ,length1 ten to eighteen feet4 ,width1 two thirds to seven eighths length4 ,,joshaghans4--,lying to the southeast of ,sultanabad and to the north of ,ispahan is a district where a century ago were woven some of the best carpets of ,persia1 known as ,joshaghans or ,djushghans4 ,even long before then it was noted for its textile fabrics2 but during the reign of ,nadir ,shah1 who removed many of the best artisans from the central to the northwestern part of ,persia1 the carpet weaving received a new impulse1 and continued to flourish there until nearly the middle of the last century4 ,since that time it has almost ceased1 so that the genuine ,joshaghans of rich1 deep colour and skilfully drawn pattern are all sixty or more years of age4 ,they may still be found scattered throughout the country1 and should be carefully preserved2 for they merit the high esteem accorded to them by the ,persians themselves4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cj4 ,,ghiordes ,,rug ,in a few of these pieces are seen the ,shah ,abbas pattern4 ,in other pieces the field is covered with scrolls1 or with a lattice-work pattern in which small floral forms are the motives4 ,again it is occupied by pear designs encircled by small rounded figures1 which combined form the outlines of a larger pear1 while in the intervening spaces are small floral forms4 ,the principal border stripe generally consists of floral designs1 which not infrequently are some form of the ,herati pattern4 ,the secondary stripes often contain floral vines4 ,whatever the pattern of the field1 the effect is always striking and beautiful2 for the lines are never harsh1 and the colours are rich4 ,the ground is very frequently a rose tint1 but is sometimes dark blue2 and the overlying designs are rose1 yellow1 green1 and ivory4 ,the colours of the border are generally the same as those of the smaller designs1 so that the effect is always harmonious4 ,these rugs are excellently woven2 and the soft lustrous wool of the pile1 which is usually longer than that of ,sarabends and ,feraghans1 has often an appearance like plush4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and blue1 with lesser quantities of yellow1 green1 brown1 and ivory4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven2 perpendicularly1 eight to thirteen4 ,the rows of knots are not always firmly pressed down1 so that the warp may be seen at back4 ,warp1 usually cotton1 occasionally wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below the other at the back4 ,weft1 wool1 sometimes dyed red1 brown1 or reddish brown1 but frequently of natural colour4 ,a thread of weft generally crosses twice1 but sometimes three times between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of short or medium length4 ,border1 usually three stripes4 ,sides1 a double overcasting that is generally brown or black4 ,lower end1 a web4 ,upper end1 a web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of moderately fine grain4 ,usual length1 eight to sixteen feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to two thirds length4 ,,sehnas4--,seldom has prophecy been more precisely fulfilled than the one made a decade ago that the old ,persian rugs would rapidly disappear from the market4 ,nor is it better exemplified than in the case of those woven before the middle of the last century in ,sehna1 capital of ,ardelan1 for to-day it is exceedingly difficult to obtain any of them4 ,nevertheless1 there are still many looms among the four or five thousand families of the city1 where true to early traditions are woven modern fabrics that maintain the same floral ,persian patterns1 the same colour1 the same general character of weave2 but they lack the fine technique of the older pieces4 ,it is1 indeed1 surprising that these modern pieces so closely resemble the old in all save quality1 when it is considered that ,sehna is distant only fifty miles from the western border of ,persia2 that it is surrounded by ,kurdish tribes who for generations have woven rugs with nomadic features2 and that it is not far distant from other important rug centres4 ,to one familiar with the leading characteristics it is possible at once to distinguish these rugs4 ,their nap is exceedingly short1 and the weave is so distinctive that with eyes closed an expert will generally recognise them after rubbing the hand across the front and back4 ,their patterns1 also1 conform to well-established types1 yet have sufficient variety to be always interesting4 ,they may be conveniently divided into two groups3 one represents the entire field covered with floral designs1 and the other represents a field of uniform colour with a medallion at the centre1 or with two or more concentric medallions4 ,the former1 which is undoubtedly the older group1 has generally a small diaper pattern of the ,herati design or floral figures daintily drawn4 ,to obviate too great monotony1 a number of the old pieces have the leaves and flowers so adjusted that the ground conveys the effect of lattice work1 or less often have small trees of cypress regularly placed amid the other floral designs4 ,again1 the field may be covered with large pear designs placed in rows4 ,of modern pieces the most beautiful pattern1 as a rule1 consists of a field of rich1 uniform colour1 as ivory or red1 containing at its centre a single medallion of contrasting ground colour1 which is generally dark blue or even black4 ,the four corners of the field have serrated edges and are covered with floral designs similar to those of the medallion4 ,the borders1 which are invariably narrow1 usually consist of three stripes1 but sometimes of only two4 ,with very few exceptions they are floral1 and in the main one1 that has a ground colour of yellow or red1 are represented designs which are also similar to those of the medallion4 ,some of the old ,sehnas had borders that were less floral than more modern pieces1 and the turtle design so common to ,feraghans was often used4 ,isolated and adventitious designs1 such as are seen in all nomadic rugs1 are never found in these pieces1 nor are the floriated scrolls that are peculiar to ,sarouks1 ,kashans1 and ,kermanshahs4 ,as is seldom the case with modern rugs1 occasionally both linen and silk are used for the warp1 and silk for overcasting1 but generally the warp is cotton and the overcasting is of wool4 ,the city of ,sehna has given its name to the kind of knot with which almost all the rugs of ,china and ,turkestan as well as many of the rugs of ,india and ,persia are tied2 yet strange as it may seem1 its own weavers have been inconsistent in its use4 ,to be sure1 most of its rugs have the ,sehna knot1 but a surprisingly large proportion of both recent and comparatively old pieces have the ,ghiordes knot4 ,only a few other rugs ever adopt the same style of weaving2 for a thread of weft passes between two rows of knots but once1 so that at the back only alternate threads of white cotton warp appear between these knots and thus give to the weave a checkered appearance or quincunx effect4 ,moreover1 the yarn of the knots is not drawn tightly against the warp1 so that in whatever direction the hand is rubbed the surface feels like a file4 ,very few other rugs are so closely woven1 as four hundred knots to the square inch are not uncommon2 and in very old pieces nearly double that number are now and then met with4 ,since both warp and weft are of fine threads and the nap is very short1 these rugs are exceedingly thin and1 accordingly1 are not well adapted for floor use4 ,some old saddle-bags are still to be found1 rich in their fields of deep blues and floral forms of brighter tones1 but unfortunately they are somewhat marred by the long slit in the centre made to fit the saddle4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark blue1 red1 and ivory1 with lesser quantities of green1 light blue1 and yellow4 ,knot1 ,sehna1 often ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally eleven to twenty2 perpendicularly1 twelve to twenty-four4 ,the rows of knots are closely pressed down1 but the yarn of knots is not drawn tight against the warp4 ,warp1 generally cotton1 occasionally linen1 rarely silk4 ,each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 generally cotton1 occasionally wool or linen1 rarely silk4 ,a single thread of small diameter crosses only once between every two rows of knots1 so that the white spots of transverse warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance4 ,pile1 wool clipped very short4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 a tightly wound double overcasting4 ,lower end1 a short web1 or web and warp loops1 or web and short warp fringe4 ,upper end1 short web and fringe4 ,texture1 very firm4 ,weave at back is of fine grain but very rough4 ,length1 three to seven feet4 ,width1 two thirds to three quarters length4 ,,bijars4--,one hundred miles beyond ,hamadan1 on the road to ,tabriz1 is the city of ,bijar1 capital of the district of ,gehrous4 ,it is surrounded by barren mountains that rise out of high table-lands1 where for miles scarcely a habitation or bush breaks the monotony1 and where not even a blade of grass or flower brightens the cracked and sun-parched earth1 except for a short season of the year4 ,as is the case throughout nearly all ,persia1 the spirit of desolation has crept into the city2 the grapevine climbs over ruined walls2 the shade of poplars and willows falls alike on decaying palace and crumbling houses4 ,yet there still remain caravansaries1 schools1 and mosques1 as well as a population of five thousand people4 ,without doubt the importance of the city is partly due to the regiment of soldiers that the governor maintains to keep in subjection the bands of robbers and fierce ,kurds who1 in large numbers1 live throughout the surrounding country4 ,nor are they the only tribes of fierce foreign blood dwelling in this region2 for it is stated that during the invasions of the ,timurids1 a body of ,turkomans from the fortress town of old ,saraks1 where the corners of ,persia and ,afghanistan meet ,turkestan1 followed the conqueror westward and settled here4 ,after them is named a small river that flows a short distance to the north and finally empties into ,lake ,urumiah2 and it is not unusual to apply the name ,saraks to the rugs woven about ,bijar1 though they have none of the ,turkoman characteristics4 ,by adopting some of the best qualities of both ,persian and ,kurdish rugs1 the ,bijar weavers have produced pieces of unusual merit4 ,the foundation is generally of wool2 but unlike almost all other rugs with nomadic features one thread of warp to each knot is doubled beneath the other in the process of weaving1 so that it is almost or entirely concealed4 ,bijars are accordingly pieces of great firmness and durability4 ,moreover1 their threads of warp and weft are of coarse diameter1 so that they are invariably thick even when the nap is not long4 ,they are also distinctive in the effective massing of bright and strong colours4 ,perhaps the association with ranges of treeless hills1 with salt wastes1 with vast plains where rainless months leave the grass parched and the flowers withered1 has deadened the ,persian love for the brilliant1 joyous colours so acutely cherished in other parts of ,asia2 but by the weavers of ,bijar it is not unusual to discard many of the ,persian colours1 which1 however rich1 are subdued and sombre1 and adopt the brighter hues seen in some of the rugs of ,asia ,minor4 ,yet1 as is not always the case with the latter1 there is no sense of outraged taste2 and though crimson reds1 deep blues1 or tawny camel's hair be brought in relief against a field of strongly contrasting colour1 the effect1 except in modern pieces of poor dyes1 is never displeasing4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ca4 ,,kulah ,,prayer ,,rug ,in the pattern much latitude is exercised1 but only in the oldest pieces are found the gracefully flowing lines suggestive of the highest ,persian art4 ,in many pieces a central medallion and triangular-shaped corners1 separated by a field of plain or slightly shaded colour1 is a favourite pattern4 ,but the defining lines are severe1 and lack the delicate drawing characteristic of ,kermanshahs and ,sarouks4 ,or the field may be covered with a lattice-work pattern that contains small repetitive forms1 consisting of slender stems supporting one or more flowers4 ,frequently a rug is covered with a medley of designs composed of conventionalised flowers1 crudely drawn trees1 as well as birds1 animals1 or human beings4 ,the borders generally consist of an outer edging of plain colour1 and three stripes1 on which are often represented purely geometric forms1 but more frequently the undulating vine and pendent leaves1 such as are common to most ,persian rugs4 ,fortunately many sterling pieces still remain that have none of the earmarks of factory-made rugs1 but are beautiful with their soft wool and lustrous colours1 as well as interesting with their blending of ,persian and ,kurdish features4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 also blue1 ivory1 green1 yellow1 and chocolate4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to ten2 perpendicularly1 eight to twelve4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed at back and the weft partly hidden4 ,warp1 wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium or coarse diameter1 frequently dyed red4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 of medium length1 usually wool1 but frequently partly of camel's hair4 ,border1 of three stripes1 often with an outer edging4 ,sides1 a double overcasting in red or purple4 ,lower end1 a web that is occasionally coloured or a narrow braided selvage4 ,upper end1 a web with loose warp fringe and sometimes a braided selvage4 ,the webbing is occasionally turned back and hemmed4 ,texture1 very firm4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,length1 six to sixteen feet4 ,width1 one quarter to three fifths length4 ,,kermanshahs4--,on an ancient highway between ,bagdad and ,teheran is the city of ,kermanshah4 ,as it is situated near the frontiers of northwestern ,persia1 facing the ,turkish provinces1 and is surrounded by mountains where once wandered bands of homeless marauding ,kurds who recognised no government1 it was formerly a most important stronghold of defence4 ,a century ago ,robert ,kerr ,porter1 who visited the city1 referred to the luxurious gardens and orchards that surrounded it1 and to the villages of the vicinity in which were made 8carpets of most beautiful colour and fabric40 ,within later years the moat has filled with rubbish1 the encircling walls have crumbled1 and the deserted bazaars and caravansaries show that its present population of about twelve thousand is but a small part of what it has been4 ,with its decline in political importance followed a decline in industrial activities2 yet for a long time it remained a rug-producing centre of importance4 ,in #ahhj ,sir ,george ,birdwood wrote that 8the finest ,oriental rugs of our time1 which at the ,vienna ,exhibition astonished all beholders1 are those made in the palace of the ,governor of ,kermanshah1 in ,kurdistan1 and are only disposed of as presents40#be ,and in #ahij a traveller#bf spoke of the weaving as follows3 8,it is a process carried on in homes1 hovels1 and tents by women and children4444 ,the vegetable dyes used are soft and artistic1 especially a wonderful red and the various shades of indigo4 ,the dull1 rich tints1 even when new1 are quite beautiful4 ,the women pursue their work chiefly in odds and ends of time1 and in some cases make it much of a pastime40 ,from this city and the surrounding hills are still obtained large quantities of rugs1 which follow the same patterns that for years have been characteristic of this district4 ,yet most of the modern ,kermanshahs are made elsewhere in the work-houses of exporting companies4 ,so noticeable is the resemblance in drawing and colouring of some of them to the ,kirmans of ,southeastern ,persia1 that they are offered now and then by dealers as real ,kirmans1 though they lack the fine technique and artistic merit of the latter4 ,they possess1 however1 the same wealth of floral expression1 for throughout border and field are sprays of flowers on delicate vines and foliate stalks4 ,most of the pieces now seen contain at the centre of the field a large medallion1 which may have serrated or lobed edges1 be oval or of diamond shape1 and with or without pendants4 ,the corners are defined by lines that do not always conform to those of the medallion2 and the borders have always several stripes1 of which the main one is usually but little wider than the others4 ,in all these different parts are floral and foliage motives that find expression in sunflowers1 roses1 tulips1 daisies1 and many simpler forms1 supported by delicate branching sprays and vines4 ,there are1 however1 other patterns less frequently met with1 as it is not unusual to see elaborate pear designs1 and sometimes the cypress or the palm tree naturalistically drawn4 ,covering the field of a rare old ,kermanshah recently seen were thirty large panels1 which like so many small rugs contained central fields that were alternately coloured blue and ivory4 ,surrounding each of these little fields1 on which were represented the arch of a temple and the tree of life1 were borders wherein were woven verses from the ,koran1 and at the intersections of the borders were floral designs like roses4 ,encircling all the panels was a wide border containing escutcheons in which were woven other verses4 ,without doubt this rug was used for sacred purposes4 ,in fact1 a larger proportion of ,kermanshahs than almost any other ,persian rugs have prayer arches as well as verses from the ,koran inscribed in some part of them1 but with very few exceptions they are recently woven and bear no evidence of devotional usage4 ,the general colour scheme is distinctive1 for the tones are much lighter than those of most other ,persian rugs4 ,frequently a field of ivory surrounds the central medallion1 though sometimes a light rose red is used4 ,other colours are light blue1 green1 and buff1 which are softened by the floccy quality of the excellent and moderately short-clipped wool4 ,one feature common to almost all of them is the narrow edging of pinkish red that surrounds the border4 ,this edging1 the foliate scrolls1 the soft light tones1 and the rather coarse weaving1 that leaves the white or sometimes pinkish weft exposed at the back1 are characteristics by which these rugs may readily be distinguished4 ,as they come in all sizes from small mats to large carpets1 and have tones that harmonise with almost any surroundings1 they are a most popular class with those who care little for association and ignore the fact that they are chemically washed4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally light rose and ivory1 also blue1 green1 and buff4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen1 perpendicularly eleven to eighteen4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed at back1 but the weft is conspicuous4 ,warp1 cotton2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other4 ,weft1 cotton1 of medium diameter1 sometimes dyed pink4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 soft and of medium length4 ,border1 frequently of three stripes of almost equal width1 but sometimes many stripes2 also an outer edging that is generally red1 but occasionally blue4 ,sides1 a double overcasting in same colour as edging4 ,lower end1 a narrow web and warp loops1 or short warp fringe4 ,upper end1 a narrow web and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is of moderately coarse grain4 ,usual length1 four to fourteen feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to four fifths length4 ,,western ,,kurdistans4--,within the land lying between the ,anti-,taurus and ,zagros mountains1 where the ,euphrates and ,tigris rivers have their sources1 dwell a people almost as untamed as when in the dawn of history they were designated the 8,warriors20 or centuries later1 under the name 8,carduchis10 opposed the retreat of ,xenophon and his ten thousand ,greeks4 ,now they are known as 8,kurds10 of whom large numbers1 wild1 brave1 and hospitable1 live a nomadic life among table-lands partly covered with sycamores and oaks1 or follow their sheep over lofty pine-crowned mountains1 that for long months are enveloped in snow4 ,doubtless the cheering influence of green hillsides and the rich vegetation of innumerable valleys1 where streams flow perennially1 is in a measure responsible for their more sprightly aspect when contrasted with that of the ,persians4 ,they recognise no law but the will of their chief1 to whom they maintain strictest fealty4 8,there was up to a recent period no more picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the ,east than the court of one of these great ,kurdish chiefs1 where1 like another ,saladin1 the bey ruled in patriarchial state1 surrounded by his clansmen with reverence and affection1 and attended by a body-guard of young ,kurdish warriors1 clad in chain armor1 with flaunting silken scarfs1 and bearing javelin1 lance1 and sword1 as in the time of the ,crusades40#bg ,illustration3 ,,plate #cb4 ,,melez ,,prayer ,,rug ,large numbers1 also1 are settled in ,persia1 where they cultivate the soil of small tracts of land1 or live in villages of stone houses4 ,many of them are scattered around ,lake ,urumiah4 ,others have made their homes in the district of ,kermanshah1 and not a few have wandered as far as ,khorassan4 ,but wherever they may be1 they are distinguished by their appearance2 for the men are bold and handsome1 and the young women1 whom custom permits to appear unveiled in public1 are beautiful as well as graceful4 ,there is no racial distinction between the ,kurds who live the pastoral life and those who dwell in villages1 or between the ,kurds of ,asiatic ,turkey and those of ,persia2 yet environment has produced a marked difference in their textile fabrics4 ,those woven by the tribes that live among the mountains that encircle ,lake ,van and extend to the north of ,diarbekr embody the wild characteristics of the weavers4 ,they are strong and coarse1 with close weave1 long nap1 and bold patterns1 that suggest ,caucasian influence devoid of artistic feeling4 ,in some of them is a large central diamond or lozenge surrounded by latch-hooks1 as well as floral forms so conventionalised as to be purely geometric2 now and then ,arabic symbols and letters are scattered over the field4 ,moreover1 the colours lack the delicate shades of ,persian rugs1 but possess rich1 strong hues obtained from native dyes that applied to the excellent wool give it a warm1 lustrous appearance4 ,brown is very largely used4 ,there are also dark reds and blues brightened by dashes of white and yellow4 ,only the ,kazaks1 ,tcherkess1 and one or two ,asia ,minor weaves are trimmed with such long nap1 which1 together with the deep colours and long shaggy fringe1 give these pieces a semi-barbaric appearance possessed by no other rugs4 ,sometimes they are confused with the ,mosuls2 but as a rule the pile is longer1 and they are more coarsely woven4 ,in fact1 the yarn is so coarse that it is not unusual to see pieces with only thirty or forty knots to the square inch4 ,like the ,persian-,kurdish rugs1 they rarely come in large1 almost square shapes1 and are frequently decidedly oblong4 ,they may1 however1 easily be distinguished from them by their cruder patterns1 darker colours1 coarser texture1 and the fact that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally brown1 red1 and blue1 with minor quantities of yellow1 green1 and white1 and the natural colour of the undyed wool4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally four to seven2 perpendicularly1 six to nine4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as1 or longer than1 wide4 ,the rows of knots are closely pressed down4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of coarse diameter1 and often dyed a reddish colour4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 occasionally camel's or goat's hair clipped long4 ,border1 generally of three stripes4 ,sides1 a heavy double overcasting1 usually in brown or black1 occasionally in several different colours4 ,lower end1 a narrow web1 through which runs a coloured cord1 and warp loops4 ,upper end1 a narrow web1 one or more rows of knots and long1 coarse warp fringe4 ,texture1 very stout4 ,weave at back is of very coarse grain4 ,length1 five to sixteen feet4 ,width1 two fifths to two thirds length4 ,,persian ,,kurdistans4--,nowhere is the influence of association among weavers more evident than in the ,kurdish rugs woven by the tribes settled in the rich valleys of ,northwestern ,persia1 as is apparent in weave1 colours1 and pattern1 which differ widely from those seen in the ,kurdish rugs of ,asiatic ,turkey4 ,the warp is only rarely of coarse goats' hair1 and is generally soft1 brown wool4 ,the pile is much shorter1 so that the drawing is clearly defined4 ,likewise1 the colours are more varied and of more delicate tones so as to include lighter shades of green1 rose1 and ivory with the darker reds1 blues1 and browns4 ,but the chief distinction consists of the more artistic pattern4 ,the medallion in the centre of the field with corner pieces in which appear some form of repetitive pattern is most common4 ,instead of large figures are often the more dainty ,herati designs borrowed from the ,feraghans and the ,sehnas1 or the pear design from the ,sarabends4 ,now and then is seen a rare old piece with field completely covered with drawings of the tree of life and strange floral conceits2 but the pattern that is pre-eminently typical of this type of ,kurdish pieces is the ,mina ,khani1 though it is occasionally adopted in other rugs4 ,the white and yellowish flowers1 connected by a lattice work sub-pattern of brown or olive1 rests on a ground of dark blue1 that in accordance with a feature peculiar to rugs of ,kurdish weaves varies from one end of the field to the other1 so as to suggest that their wandering life often made it difficult to obtain the roots and herbs necessary to produce similar shades4 ,as is rarely the case with other patterns1 the naturalistic flowers that are pendent from the undulating vine of the main stripe and the flowers of the field have nearly the same drawing4 ,the two remaining stripes of the narrow border have most simple vines4 ,almost without exception rugs of this class are stoutly woven4 ,to assure firmness1 one thread of warp is depressed below the other in tying the knots2 and the weft that is thrown across for filling is of fair quality4 ,on account of the firm texture1 excellent wool1 and good colours it is still possible to obtain moderately old pieces1 that as objects of utility as well as ornament are desirable for their sterling qualities4 ,a similarity exists between the ,persian-,kurdish1 ,mosul1 and ,bijar rugs2 but a precise1 even if easily overlooked1 difference in the weave serves to distinguish one from the other4 ,as may be seen by examining the backs of typical specimens1 in ,mosuls every thread of warp lies in the same plane parallel with the surface of the pile2 in the ,persian ,kurdistans one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is depressed at an acute angle to that plane2 and in ,bijars one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is doubled under the other so as to be at right angles to that plane4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and blue1 also yellow1 green1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to ten2 perpendicularly1 eight to twelve4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is no longer than wide and is frequently not so long4 ,the yarn is loosely woven1 so that each separate ply is distinct4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is largely concealed and the weft partly hidden at back4 ,warp1 wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other at back2 but sometimes each is equally prominent4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft usually crosses twice between every two rows of knots1 only rarely once4 ,pile1 wool1 and occasionally some camel's hair of medium length4 ,border1 three to four stripes4 ,sides1 a heavy double overcasting in dark colour4 ,lower end1 web crossed by a parti-coloured cord1 and warp loops4 ,upper end1 web crossed by a parti-coloured cord1 and loose warp fringe4 ,texture1 very firm4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 six to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 five eighths to two thirds length4 ,,karajes4--,dwelling near ,hamadan1 in the northwestern part of ,persia1 are tribes who weave rugs that are known in the markets as ,karajes4 ,in their colour scheme1 length of nap1 and texture they resemble many of the ,kurdistans2 but in the technicalities of weave they show a marked difference4 ,as a rule1 a single thread of weft crosses only once between two rows of knots1 or in a few pieces two threads of weft pass side by side as though one4 ,in this particular they resemble ,hamadans2 but the alignment of their knots at the back is more regular1 their weft is inserted with some slack1 their warp is of wool1 and their weft is almost always of wool4 ,they are generally runners1 with long nap of soft1 lustrous wool1 with rich colours1 and with border of three stripes4 ,the pattern is ,iranian1 and very often consists of a small bush or sprig of leaf and flower disposed in formal array throughout the field4 ,sometimes the floral forms are placed within the diamonds formed by a trellis pattern1 but more frequently they are arranged in rows like the pear designs of ,sarabends4 ,in some pieces they are very much conventionalised and suggest similar figures seen in rugs of ,southern ,caucasia2 and in others stem1 leaf1 and flower are very realistic4 ,another pattern frequently followed consists of three or four large diamond-shaped medallions extending from one end of the field to the other4 ,the borders are moderately narrow1 and an undulating vine of well-known ,persian character generally appears in one or more of the stripes4 ,as these pieces are almost always comparatively old1 the vegetable dyes that were used for colouring have mellowed1 and have a richness of tone that is accentuated by the depth of pile and softness of wool4 ,the prevailing tone of many is a deep plum colour4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark blue or plum and red1 with minor quantities of yellow1 brown1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to twelve2 perpendicularly1 seven to twelve4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as wide1 and occasionally is longer4 ,the rows of knots1 which have even alignment at back1 are not firmly pressed down4 ,warp1 wool1 rarely cotton2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool1 rarely cotton2 a single thread of medium diameter crosses once between every two rows of knots2 but in parts of the same rug two1 three1 or even four threads of small diameter will cross side by side as a single coarse thread4 ,occasionally a thread of weft crosses three or four times4 ,the filling of weft stands up as high as the knots at the back1 giving an even surface4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length or moderately long4 ,border1 of three stripes4 ,sides1 a heavy double overcasting4 ,lower end1 web and warp loops4 ,upper end1 web and short fringe4 ,texture1 moderately loose4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 eight to fourteen feet4 ,usual width1 three eighths to one half length4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cc4 ,,melez ,,rug ,,tabriz4--,although ,tabriz1 capital of the province of ,azerbijan1 is situated in a remote corner of ,persia1 from the earliest times it has been one of the most important centres in the ,orient for the production of carpets4 ,they were well known in the days of the ,caliphs2 and some of the earliest masterpieces that now remain were woven there during the reign of ,shah ,tamasp1 who extended to this industry his royal patronage4 ,this city has been for a long period on the great routes of caravans passing to ,trebizond and ,tiflis from the country to the south and east1 so that it has become the principal mart of ,persia for the export of rugs gathered from surrounding regions4 ,nevertheless1 it still continues to produce its own pieces2 but the weavers are in the employ of foreign companies who prescribe the character of workmanship4 ,as a consequence1 the rugs are of good material1 excellently woven2 and though many of the old dyes are no longer used1 the colours as a rule are fair2 yet on account of the mathematical exactness of their formal patterns the truly ,oriental spirit is largely lacking4 ,since the rugs are made solely to meet the requirements of ,western buyers1 the patterns are various4 ,most of them consist of a large central medallion surrounded by a broad field of ivory1 blue1 or red that extends to the sides and ends4 ,in others1 a small diamond occupies the centre and is surrounded by a series of concentric medallions4 ,although in these respects they correspond with ,kermanshahs1 ,sarouks1 and ,kashans1 the patterns of their fields lack the long scrolls and interlacing branches1 and consist frequently of short1 slender stems supporting fronds1 leaves1 flowers1 or the pear designs arranged so as to present almost the appearance of lace-work4 ,sometimes the drawing is a delicate tracery representing intertwining arabesques4 ,a field completely covered with the small designs peculiar to ,sehnas1 or containing the disjunct forms of nomadic rugs1 is never seen2 and yet it is not improbable that many of the early ,tabriz weavers were ,kurds4 ,sometimes the flowers are similar to the roses of ,kirmans1 or are realistically drawn composit surrounded by delicate leaves on graceful stems2 some times the small designs are as formal as the palmettes of old ,ispahans1 from which they were doubtless copied2 again1 the naturalistic and conventional may be blended together in an harmonious whole4 ,but whatever the pattern1 the different parts show the perfect balance so frequently seen in the antique pieces of three or four centuries ago4 ,nevertheless1 to these types are many exceptions1 since the weavers will produce for hire any class of rug or copy any coloured drawing4 ,the borders differ from those of ,kermanshahs1 with which these rugs are frequently compared1 in the fact that in their central stripe the continuous vine of leaf and flower is less conspicuous2 and in its place are often palmettes1 pears1 shrubs1 or formal trees separated by foliated scrolls4 ,not infrequently the smaller stripes1 also1 have a repetitive pattern of leaf and flower1 though in some of the many stripes is usually a well-drawn vine4 ,again1 the border may consist of a series of cartouches that have been copied from much older rugs and contain verses of the ,koran or of ,persian poets4 ,within recent years this tendency among the ,tabriz and ,kermanshah weavers to imitate not only borders but also fields of old masterpieces is increasing4 ,a feature peculiar to a very large number of these rugs is the adoption of very finely spun linen for the warp2 though cotton1 which is used for the weft1 is sometimes substituted4 ,the knots are carefully tied1 and the closely woven texture presents an appearance at the back similar to that of ,sarouks2 but the almost concealed weft is generally either white or pink4 ,the weave compared with that of ,kermanshahs is finer1 but the wool of the closely shorn nap is neither so soft to the touch nor so silky1 the colours are harsher1 and the patterns more formal4 ,these rugs are made in all sizes1 though most are large and almost square4 ,type characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 and ivory4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally twelve to twenty2 perpendicularly1 ten to twenty-two4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is hidden and the weft partly concealed at back4 ,warp1 generally cotton1 frequently linen2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other4 ,weft1 as a rule1 is cotton1 occasionally it is wool or linen1 of fine diameter1 and frequently dyed pink4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 clipped short and harsh to the touch4 ,border1 from five to eight stripes and an outer edging4 ,sides1 a two-cord selvage4 ,both ends1 a narrow web and loose warp fringe4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is of fine texture4 ,usual length1 nine to eighteen feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to four fifths length4 ,,gorevans4--,of the many rugs now made in ,persia and designed primarily for use1 few are of such moderate price as the ,gorevans1 which1 during recent years1 have been imported in large numbers from the province of ,azerbijan in ,northwestern ,persia4 ,a hasty glance suggests ,occidental craftsmanship1 but in every essential they are distinctly ,oriental4 ,their stout weave1 large size1 and nearly square shape place them in the class of ,persian pieces often called carpets1 to which belong the ,kermanshahs1 ,muskabads1 ,mesheds1 and rugs of ,tabriz4 ,yet they are frequently larger than any of these1 and are readily distinguished from them by their colours and patterns4 ,it is true that they have the same light shades1 but the tones are in a distinctly different scale1 consisting principally of dull brick-red1 light terra cotta1 buff1 dark blue1 dull green1 yellow1 and ivory1 which1 when once recognised1 are rarely mistaken for those of any other rugs4 ,nor are the colours distributed in patches so small as to blend when viewed at a short distance1 but are of sufficient masses to be separately observed and analysed4 ,the patterns are equally distinctive4 ,the field is generally covered with a number of concentric hexagonal-shaped medallions1 of which the longer sides of the largest are often marked with conspicuous indentations such as are not seen in classes made in other districts4 ,all of the medallions are covered with large designs1 in which the artist has departed from the usual forms of vine1 leaf1 and flower1 that poorly imitate the splendid examples of so-called 8,ispahans10 and in many instances has represented them in the archaic drawing of the oldest remaining ,persian carpets4 ,hard1 straight lines with angles replacing graceful curves define the medallions1 corners1 stems1 leaves1 and flowers4 ,and not infrequently the formal treatment shows a ,european influence1 as when all semblance of leaf and flower has disappeared in the extremely conventionalised forms that are placed with set regularity in the field4 ,a very noticeable feature of these rugs is the manner in which the designs are coloured1 as it is not unusual to represent a large figure in two strongly contrasting colours1 as blue and pink separated by a stiffly drawn line4 ,the designs of the corners are similar to those of the central medallions1 but the designs of the borders are dissimilar4 ,the small stripes are marked with ,persian vines of well-known floral and leaf forms that show nothing of the drawing characteristic of the field4 ,the main stripe occasionally has cartouches and star medallions1 but in most instances has the turtle pattern1 though its treatment differs from the usual form seen in ,feraghans4 ,a co-ordination in colour exists between field and border4 ,the ground of both the main stripe and one of the medallions is often a dark blue or a red1 while the ground of the other stripes corresponds with those of other medallions4 ,all of the ,gorevans are modern pieces1 and so lack the interest of those that follow traditional patterns2 but their stout weave1 warm colours1 and archaic designs make them both serviceable and pleasing4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dull red1 dark blue1 and buff1 with minor quantities of green1 yellow1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to eight2 perpendicularly1 six to ten4 ,the most conspicuous half of a knot1 as it appears at the back1 is1 as a rule1 longer than wide4 ,the rows of knots are somewhat pressed down1 but the warp is rarely entirely concealed at back4 ,warp1 cotton2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below the other at back2 sometimes both threads are equally prominent4 ,weft1 cotton1 of coarse diameter1 sometimes dyed blue4 ,a thread of weft crosses only once between every two rows of knots1 or frequently twice4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 generally of three stripes1 occasionally four or five4 ,sides1 a two-cord double selvage4 ,both ends1 a short warp fringe4 ,texture1 rather loose4 ,weave at back is of very coarse grain4 ,usual length1 ten to sixteen feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to three quarters length4 ,,bakshis4--,a close relationship exists between the ,gorevans1 which are a comparatively modern product1 and several other less known sub-classes of earlier origin that are woven in small towns in the east central part of the province of ,azerbijan4 ,one of these towns1 located fifty miles to the southeast of ,tabriz1 is ,bakshis1 which formerly produced rugs that were highly esteemed by the ,persians1 before the weavers were corrupted by a spirit of commercialism4 ,those which are exported to-day are of little artistic value1 are poorly coloured1 and carelessly woven4 ,the patterns are inferior copies of other well-known classes4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cd4 ,,rhodian ,,rug ,,serapis4--,the rugs known as ,serapis are named after the village of ,sirab in the mountainous district between ,tabriz and ,ardebil2 but they are made not only there1 but also in the country farther to the east4 ,the large sizes are frequently mistaken for ,gorevans1 as they are of similar shape and have similar finish of sides and ends1 yet as a rule they are better woven4 ,many of them follow the same patterns of concentric medallions1 but the lines of others are more artistically drawn4 ,although the borders lack the gracefully symmetric vines of old ,iranian pieces1 the drawing is interesting in its individuality and is in harmony with that of the field4 ,all the colours are cheerful4 ,a field of ivory or some light shade of buff usually surrounds the central medallions1 on which appear soft and pleasing tones of smaller designs4 ,yet on the whole there is a tendency to employ richer and deeper tones than those of ,gorevans4 ,the smaller pieces often contain more elaborate patterns1 but there are always the same pleasing and unobtrusive shades of colour4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 and ivory1 with minor quantities of green and yellow4 ,knot1 generally ,sehna1 frequently ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to ten2 perpendicularly1 seven to twelve4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 cotton2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other at back1 and frequently doubled under the other4 ,weft1 cotton1 of coarse diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 a double selvage of two cords1 or double overcasting attached figure-eight fashion to the sides4 ,the selvage or overcasting is usually in red or buff4 ,lower end1 a narrow web and warp loops or short warp fringe4 ,upper end1 a narrow web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 stout4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 ten to eighteen feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to three quarters length4 ,,herez4--,the city of ,herez is in the extreme eastern part of the province of ,azerbijan1 where for a long time the weavers steadily adhered to the sterling values of early fabrics and produced pieces that were followed with slight modification in many of the former ,gorevans4 ,in a measure the rugs of ,tabriz also are reflected in the medallion pattern of some of these pieces1 but for their gracefully flowing lines are substituted more rectangular ones2 and in place of many colours are few1 of which blue and a reddish copper are particularly noticeable4 ,another well-known and interesting type consists of a field of white1 on which1 with formal precision1 are represented1 in delicate shades of red1 blue1 yellow1 and green1 archaic leaves and flowers supported by stems and tendrils that are so conventionalised as to form geometric lines and angles4 ,at regular intervals the branching tendrils assume the shape of arches1 of which in larger pieces there are frequently one or two dozen2 and so closely do they resemble prayer arches that these rugs are sometimes mistaken for namazliks4 ,the borders usually consist of three stripes4 ,the outer and inner are narrow guards containing some simple floral figure1 and the broad central stripe has often a continuous vine with formal leaves and a conspicuous design suggestive of the cloud-band4 ,the tones are never harsh2 many of the pieces are large and almost square1 and the wool of the pile is generally excellent4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally ivory1 light blue1 and reddish brown1 also some yellow and green4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to ten2 perpendicularly1 six to twelve4 ,the most conspicuous half of a knot1 as it appears at the back1 is longer than wide4 ,the rows of knots are only slightly pressed down1 so that the weft is noticeable at back4 ,warp1 cotton2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back1 or each thread is equally prominent4 ,weft1 of cotton1 seldom of wool1 of moderately coarse diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 generally of three stripes4 ,sides1 a two-cord double selvage4 ,lower end1 a very narrow web and short warp fringe4 ,upper end1 a short warp fringe4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave at back is of very coarse grain4 ,usual length1 nine to fifteen feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to seven eighths length4 ,,suj-,,bulaks4--,about fifty miles to the south of ,lake ,urumiah and the same distance from the western boundary of ,persia is the old ,kurdish capital of ,suj-,bulak4 ,kurds still largely predominate in the district and comprise most of the population of the city1 to the discomfort of the much smaller number of ,persians1 for whose protection a large garrison was formerly maintained4 ,accordingly1 the rugs made in this vicinity are strongly characteristic of ,kurdish pieces in the strong texture1 the excellent quality of wool1 the rich1 dark colours1 the finish of sides and ends4 ,the patterns also are largely ,kurdish1 but frequently show the influence of ,persian association4 ,in typical old pieces deep reds and blues are largely used4 ,one of them is generally the ground colour of the central field1 and shows the ,kurdish influence by a gradual shading from end to end2 the other appears in the overlying pattern1 which partakes of a floral character4 ,the drawing sometimes represents flowering plants1 such as the rose bush1 arranged in perpendicular rows and brightened by tints of white1 green1 or yellow4 ,detached flowers not infrequently line the edges of the field4 ,the wide borders also1 as a rule1 have vines and floral forms4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark red and blue1 with minor quantities of brown1 green1 yellow1 and ivory4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to ten2 perpendicularly1 eight to twelve4 ,the rows of knots are1 as a rule1 pressed down1 so that the alignment of each half knot is very uneven2 but frequently this feature is not regularly maintained in all parts of the same rug1 so that here and there the warp is noticeable at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back1 but occasionally one is depressed below the other4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 of three to four stripes4 ,sides1 a double selvage of two or three cords in blue1 red1 or brown4 ,lower end1 a web through which runs a parti-coloured cord1 and a warp fringe4 ,frequently there is a braided selvage in addition to the web4 ,upper end1 the same as lower1 excepting that the web is occasionally turned back and hemmed4 ,texture1 moderately loose4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 six to seven feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to three fifths length4 ,,karadaghs4--,in the extreme northwestern part of ,persia1 between the city of ,tabriz and the river ,aras1 is a mountain range called ,kara ,dagh1 which signifies the 8,black ,mountain10 ,on its slopes and in the adjoining valleys rugs have been woven for at least several hundred years1 and at one time were well known in ,europe1 but few have reached this country4 ,most of them are produced for home use1 so that they are1 as a rule1 well woven1 of good material1 and of vegetable dyes4 ,they resemble in colour scheme1 weave1 and finish of sides and ends the rugs of ,karabagh1 which immediately adjoins this district on the north4 ,indeed1 in no other rugs of ,persia are the traditions of ,iranian weavers so much disregarded and ,caucasian ideas so closely followed4 ,the field of many of these rugs is completely covered with conventionalised flowers of several different colours1 so arranged that diagonal lines are of similar colours4 ,sometimes it is covered with a pattern of hexagonal-shaped figures containing geometric forms or conventionalised floral designs4 ,again1 it may contain the ,herati pattern or one similar to the ,mina-,khani4 ,in fact1 some repetitive pattern of small design is the usual type2 but now and then some form of pole medallion1 which the weavers have learned from their more southern neighbours1 is substituted4 ,the patterns of the borders are either mechanically drawn vines or contain geometric figures characteristic of ,caucasian pieces4 ,for guard stripes the reciprocal trefoil is constantly used4 ,the colour scheme is generally bright and pleasing4 ,a favourite colour for the field is blue or a camel's hair yellow2 sometimes rose is seen4 ,the nap of modern pieces is medium long and of old pieces is short4 ,the weave of the latter is excellent1 so that the closely pressed knots and stout threads of weft make at the back an even surface unlike the coarse appearance of many rugs4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 red1 yellow1 green1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven2 perpendicularly1 seven to eleven4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down1 so that the warp appears at back1 and the weft is prominent4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the threads encircled by a knot is equally distinct at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of coarse diameter1 occasionally dyed4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of moderate length4 ,border1 three to six stripes4 ,sides1 a double selvage of two or three cords4 ,both ends1 a narrow web and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of rather coarse grain4 ,usual length1 five to nine feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to two thirds length4 ,,mosuls4--,near the ruins of ancient ,nineveh1 on the bank of the ,tigris1 is the city of ,mosul4 ,once it was not only an important mart for wares carried up and down the river1 and for vast caravans from east and west1 but it became noted for its textiles from which was derived the name 8muslin40 ,at length on account of pestilence1 misrule1 and the sack of armies its population and industries have dwindled2 though it is still the capital and commercial centre of a district that lies between the high table-lands surrounding ,lake ,van and the low plains of ,bagdad1 and that extends across the ,mesopotamian valley to the mountain ridges bordering ,western ,persia4 ,within this extensive area are large stretches of rich pasture1 where ,abraham once fed his flocks1 and where each year ,kurdish nomads from the north drive their sheep when the winter snows cover their own hillsides4 ,arabs1 ,turks1 ,armenians1 ,jews1 and ,christians likewise mingle with the natives1 so that the population is as mixed as can be found anywhere in the ,orient4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ce4 ,,konieh ,,prayer ,,rug ,thus it happens that the rugs marketed in the city of ,mosul are made by different races and show great diversity of character4 ,it would1 indeed1 be often difficult to distinguish them if the weave were disregarded2 for though they are prone to yellow and russet hues1 and the long wool is floccy as well as lustrous1 there is no pattern that can be considered truly typical4 ,many of them borrow ,caucasian designs1 such as stars1 latch-hooks1 diagonal bands1 and barber-pole stripes4 ,others have patterns adopted almost bodily from ,kurdish pieces4 ,but however much the nomadic rugs are copied1 a ,persian influence is always shown by the way in which the severer features are softened4 ,in fact1 a very large percentage of rugs that come from ,mosul are made by the tribes that wander as far east as the great mountain divides along the borders of ,western ,persia1 and adopt patterns and colour schemes current in ,azerbijan and ,ardelan4 ,it accordingly happens that medallion patterns resembling those of ,bijars1 but with bolder and less graceful outlines1 are seen4 ,more frequently the field is covered with small figures common to ,feraghans1 as well as with the well-known pear designs2 but the former are coarsely drawn1 and the latter lack the gracefully rounded lines seen in ,sarabends and are often as geometric as those of the ,baku rugs4 ,somewhere in almost all these pieces appears evidence of some conventionalised floral form2 but now and then a rare old piece is found which was woven in the plains of ,mesopotamia1 with field completely covered with a naturalistically drawn tulip that grows on the banks of the ,tigris and ,euphrates4 ,its bright flowers and leaves1 supported by a delicate stalk1 constitute one of the most beautiful designs seen in any rug4 ,the borders are rarely wide1 and generally consist of three stripes1 one of which usually has some simple vine1 and the others some well-known geometric pattern4 ,it is1 also1 not unusual to find an outer edging surrounding the border4 ,in a few of these pieces camel's hair is used even to the extent of occupying the whole field2 and goat's hair or sheep's wool1 dyed to a similar colour1 is constantly employed4 ,one of the most usual colours is some shade of yellow4 ,reddish hues also prevail4 ,these rugs frequently have the same pleasing effect of slightly graduated changes so common in the ground colour of ,kurdistans1 but as a whole the colour scheme is lighter4 ,on the other hand1 they follow the shading adopted in ,persian rugs1 which in a measure eliminates the sudden transition between adjacent areas of strongly contrasting colour so noticeable in nomadic pieces4 ,on account of the present remoteness of the ,mosul district from important highways of travel1 many excellent pieces1 which with careful use should acquire the rich tones of those now old1 are still woven there4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally yellow and brownish red1 with minor quantities of blue1 green1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to seven2 perpendicularly1 seven to nine4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as wide and frequently longer4 ,the yarn is not drawn tightly against the warp4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed at back4 ,warp1 almost always wool1 rarely cotton2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 generally of wool1 of coarse diameter and frequently dyed red or orange1 but occasionally of cotton4 ,as a rule1 a thread of weft crosses twice between two rows of knots1 but sometimes crosses only once2 or two or three threads cross side by side1 as in ,karajes4 ,pile1 wool and occasionally camel's hair1 of medium length4 ,border1 of three stripes with frequently an outer edging of solid colour4 ,sides are generally a heavy double overcasting1 but in a few pieces there is a two-cord weft selvage or double selvage4 ,lower end1 a web4 ,upper end1 a web and warp fringe2 occasionally there is a heavy braided selvage1 or the web is turned back and hemmed4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 six to ten feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to three quarters length4 ,now and then are seen comparatively scarce rugs1 such as the ,teheran1 ,gulistan1 ,kara-,geuz1 ,bibikabad1 ,afshar1 and ,gozene1 that were woven within the ,iranian boundaries4 ,some of them are no longer produced1 and others are woven in such small numbers that but few are exported4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cf4 ,,kir-,,shehr ,,prayer ,,rug ,the ,teherans were formerly made in the present capital of ,persia4 ,the typical pattern consists of the ,herati design or some floral form occupying the central field1 which is two or three times as long as wide4 ,the weave resembles that of ,irans1 since the knot is ,ghiordes1 each of the two threads of warp that it encircles is equally prominent at the back1 and both warp and weft are cotton4 ,the borders are wide1 and the sides are finished with a two-cord selvage4 ,gulistan is the ,persian name for a flower garden1 and the rugs known by that name were once made in a district not far from ,kashan1 where rose bushes bloomed profusely4 ,the fields may be covered with conventionalised floral and leaf patterns1 or again they may contain roses naturalistically drawn with extended petals1 as if viewed from above4 ,the most striking characteristic is the opulence of colour1 such as red1 blue1 and yellow softened by shades of brown and green4 ,even the weft and the webs of the ends are red1 blue1 or brown4 ,the sides have a two-cord selvage1 warp and weft are usually of cotton1 and one thread of warp to each knot is depressed at the back4 ,these rugs1 which formerly came in large sizes1 are no longer made4 ,only a short distance to the northeast of ,hamadan is the district of ,kara-,geuz1 which is occupied by a large tribe1 who in the past have furnished some of the best of ,persian cavalry4 ,the people are industrious1 and not only cultivate the land but engage in weaving4 ,some of their rugs closely resemble the ,kurdish pieces1 and others correspond with the ,irans4 ,in the technique of weave they often follow the ,hamadans4 ,on the outskirts of this district is the town of ,bibikabad1 where1 also1 rugs are woven for market4 ,for a number of generations the country adjoining ,lake ,urumiah on the west and stretching into the ,turkish domain has been partly occupied by a powerful race of brave and active people who are known as ,afshars4 ,they are regarded as a branch of the ,yuruks of ,asia ,minor1 and the rugs of both tribes have many points of similarity4 ,the wool of the nap is generally the coarse product of the mountain sheep4 ,the patterns incorporate some of the floral features of ,persian rugs1 though they display many ,caucasian characteristics4 ,these ,afshars bear a close resemblance to the ,kazaks1 from which they may be distinguished by observing a fold as they are bent backwards1 which will show the fibres of the yarn of a knot standing out at front as a unit1 while in ,kazaks they have a greater tendency to blend4 ,also at the back1 each half of a knot is no longer than wide1 nor is it drawn closely against the warp1 while in ,kazaks each half of a knot is often double its width and is drawn closer4 ,in the country about ,gozene1 in the watershed of the ,euphrates river1 are made a few rugs for local use1 though they occasionally reach ,western markets4 ,the pattern1 which is very simple1 usually consists of some small diaper figure of brown or grey colour1 or of dull tones of maroon4 ,many of this class have a double foundation of warp2 and frequently1 at the back1 the knots do not form regular lines parallel with the length1 as is the case with other rugs4 ,this is due to the fact that any thread of warp may be encircled by both the left half of some knots and the right half of others4 ,occasionally1 also1 a knot is tied about four threads of warp4 ,in other rugs of this class which have a single foundation of warp the weave resembles that of ,mosuls4 ,,border ,,stripes ,the most noticeable feature of ,persian border stripes is their floral character1 which is very frequently represented by a vine winding from side to side with pendent flowers marking each flexure4 ,some of these vines have been evolved from arabesques1 and others from naturalistic tendrils1 but all are graceful4 ,in a few pieces the stripes contain rows of detached flowers1 rosettes1 or pears1 expressed in rich yet unobtrusive colours1 that are always in perfect harmony with those of the field4 ,rarely is the pattern geometric4 ,accordingly1 with the exception of the ,indian and some of the ,chinese1 they are the most elegant1 pleasing1 and artistic of all border stripes4 ,moreover1 some of them follow almost the same patterns that were in use centuries ago4 ,primary ,stripes4--,in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #a 7opp4 ,page #aef71 is represented a typical ,herat stripe derived from some of the ,,xv and ,,xvi ,century carpets4 ,it shows close relationship to the pattern of conventional rosette and pair of attendant leaves so frequently seen on the fields of such rugs as the ,feraghans and ,sehnas4 ,in this stripe the angular and serrated leaves are extended to form a vine4 ,one of the best known ,khorassan stripes1 shown in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #b1 bears a resemblance to the ,herat stripe2 and it is not unlikely that they had a common origin1 since they were designed in adjoining and freely communicating districts4 ,the enlargements of the vine at the centre of each flexure are doubtless leaves1 but they occasionally resemble the heads of birds4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,e4 ,primary ,border-,stripes of ,persian ,rugs ,the so-called turtle pattern1 ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #c1 has probably been derived from the interlacing arabesques that appeared in rugs at least as early as the beginning of the ,,xv ,century1 as is indicated on ,page #gi4 ,the rosette and attendant leaves between adjacent 8turtles0 suggest the ,herati pattern4 ,this stripe is found principally in ,feraghans1 ,irans1 ,sehnas1 and ,muskabads4 ,one that is similar1 but more mechanically drawn and with wider spreading arms1 is typical of ,gorevans and ,serapis4 ,a stripe found in ,joshaghans1 representing a row of floral bushes1 is shown in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #d4 ,it is also seen in some of the old rugs of ,northwestern ,persia4 ,another ,joshaghan stripe1 which also suggests the ,herati pattern1 is represented in ,fig4 #e4 ,a single row of pears 7,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #f7 is a characteristic ,luristan stripe4 ,the dainty pattern of ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #g1 in which the vine has been abandoned and serrated leaves nearly surround a floral device1 shows a not unusual ,herez stripe4 ,as a rule the drawing of ,persian-,kurdish stripes is never crowded1 and represents a simple vine with bright pendent flowers4 ,a stripe commonly seen in this class is represented in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #h4 ,it is also seen in the ,bijars4 ,on account of the geographic position of the ,karadagh district1 which is separated only by the ,aras river from ,caucasia1 its stripes show a combination of floral and geometric design not usual in other ,persian pieces4 ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #i1 represents one of these stripes with a rosette1 and the serrated leaf so common among the ,shirvans4 ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #aj1 represents another stripe of the same class with eight-petalled star-shaped flowers pendent from an angular vine4 ,a beautiful stripe1 representing a vine and pendant flower1 which is frequently seen in some of the ,persian-,kurdish rugs1 is shown in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #ab1 is illustrated a very dainty pattern of vine and roses that now and then is seen in old ,feraghans2 and in ,fig4 #ac are also represented vine and roses as they occasionally appear in old rugs of ,northwestern ,persia4 ,the very mechanically drawn double vine shown in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #ad1 is sometimes seen in stripes of ,hamadans4 ,in fact1 simplicity of border is a characteristic of this class4 ,mosul and ,kurdish stripes show a similarity1 but the former are often more mechanically drawn than the latter4 ,in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #ae1 is a stripe from an old and beautiful ,mosul with conventionalised vine and ,king ,solomon's eight-pointed star4 ,undoubtedly the most typical of any class of ,persian stripes is the well-known ,sarabend pattern of formal vine with pendent pear on white ground4 ,it is very rarely that a rug of this class is without this stripe 7,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #af74 ,its presence at once indicates that the piece is either a ,sarabend or an ,iran copy4 ,in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #ag1 is the well-known pear pattern of a ,meshed stripe4 ,the graceful form1 resembling in a measure the ,indian drawing1 is peculiar to these stripes4 ,the ,kirman stripe 7,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #ah7 invariably contains red roses naturalistically drawn1 surrounded by a profusion of leaves and stems4 ,this is one of the most beautiful of ,persian border patterns4 ,somewhat similar1 but far more formal1 is the ,kermanshah stripe1 one of which appears in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #ai1 with mechanically drawn flowers1 leaves1 and vines4 ,the formal pattern 7,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #bj7 of octagons surrounded by latch-hooks is now and then found in borders of ,shiraz rugs1 and indicates how great a concession their weavers at times make to nomadic influences4 ,the main stripe of ,sehnas is always narrow and contains some floral form1 though frequently much conventionalised4 ,one of these stripes is shown in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #ba4 ,very few ,persian rugs have such wealth of floral ornamentation in the borders as the ,sarouks and ,kashans4 ,a stripe typical of the former is represented in ,plate ,e1 ,fig4 #bb4 ,secondary and ,tertiary ,stripes4--,the ornamentation of a large proportion of secondary stripes of ,persian rugs consists of running vines1 which fall within two divisions1 according to the absence or presence of pendants4 ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #a 7opp4 ,page #aeh71 taken from an inner stripe of a ,kermanshah1 shows one of the simplest vines with budding tendrils at each flexure4 ,in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #b1 is a simple stripe seen in such rugs as ,gorevans4 ,similar stripes are very common4 ,as there is no pendant1 the character of the vine depends upon the form it assumes in alternating flexures1 one of which in this instance is an eight-petalled star4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,f4 ,,secondary ,,border-,,stripes ,,of ,,persian ,,rugs ,in many of the ,karadaghs is seen the ,caucasian stripe 7,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #c7 consisting of an angular vine1 from each flexure of which spring small designs like three-leaf clover4 ,another type peculiar to some rugs of ,northwestern ,persia1 as the ,bijars and even ,sehnas1 is shown in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #d4 ,here one flexure is a serrated leaf1 and the other is a small rosette with short curving tendrils4 ,a simple vine of somewhat similar order appears in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #e4 ,at each flexure is a flower of four petals1 and from alternating flexures spring tendrils of colour different from that of the vine4 ,stripes of similar drawing appeared in ,persian carpets as early as #acej ,a4 ,d4 ,a further stage in the development of the same pattern is illustrated in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #f4 ,one of the simplest forms of a vine with pendant is shown in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #g4 ,it appears in ,asia ,minor carpets woven during the ,,xiii ,century1 and also in some of the earliest ,iranian carpets4 ,now and then it is seen in modern ,persian rugs4 ,a very common form of a vine with pendant is shown in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #h4 ,this pattern is seen in a large number of ,persian rugs1 such as ,mosuls1 ,bijars1 ,kurdistans1 and ,hamadans4 ,each flexure of the vine is enlarged to almost the form of a leaf1 and between them is a branching pendant4 ,in another stripe 7,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #i71 taken from a ,feraghan1 there is no particular enlargement to the vine1 and the alternating pendants are buds and flowers of four petals4 ,a more geometric form that appears in such rugs as ,muskabads is shown in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,in this the vine represents serrated leaves1 and suggests one of the ,shirvan patterns4 ,a very similar stripe 7,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #aa71 taken from a ,sehna1 should be compared with those of ,figs4 #h and #aj1 as it serves to illustrate the evolution of vine patterns4 ,in fact1 if a very large number of stripes were arranged in proper order1 they would show almost imperceptible gradations from one type to another4 ,one of the simplest vines with pendant1 adopted by the ,kurdish tribes1 is shown in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #ab2 and in ,fig4 #ac is another vine with pendent pear alternating with a rosette4 ,not all the patterns1 however1 are vines4 ,in ,plate ,f1 ,figs4 #ad and #ae1 for instance1 is represented the same secondary stripe as it appears at the sides and the ends of some moderately old ,persian rugs4 ,the former pattern bears a resemblance to the one in ,fig4 #e1 and each illustrates a series of connecting links4 ,a graceful pattern that is seen in ,bijars1 ,hamadans1 and other rugs of ,northwestern ,persia is represented in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #af4 ,it was probably derived from an old form of leaf and tendril4 ,the reciprocal trefoil 7,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #ag7 which is constantly used in a tertiary stripe1 is probably a degenerate form of an ornate floral design4 ,it is more widely used for a border stripe than any other pattern1 as it is found not only in such ,persian rugs as ,sarabends1 ,bijars1 ,sarouks1 and ,kashans1 but in many of the ,indian and ,beluchistan rugs1 and in almost all of the ,caucasian group4 ,it was commonly used in ,persian rugs as early as the year #aejj4 ,in many of the rugs of ,persia and ,asia ,minor is seen as a tertiary stripe the simple ribbon pattern 7,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #ah74 ,its origin is lost in the dim past1 and it is not improbable that once it had a symbolic meaning4 ,a very interesting tertiary stripe1 because of its well-authenticated age1 contains the 8,y0 pattern shown in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #ai4 ,it is found in some ,persian carpets that were woven as early as #aeej4 ,one of the simplest guard stripes1 shown in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #bj1 is frequently found in modern ,persian rugs1 as well as in ,iranian carpets woven six centuries ago4 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,persian ,,garden ,,carpet ,this carpet and the one at the ,naesby ,house1 ,sweden1 which it resembles in pattern but not in colouring1 are1 so far as known1 the only complete carpets of this type4 ,the ,naesby carpet has been assigned to the middle of the ,,xviii4 ,century2 this is undoubtedly much older4 ,a #af,,th ,,century ,,persian ,,royal 8,,garden0 ,,carpet 7,reputed to have been made for ,shah ',abbs for ,safavi ,palace47 ,date #aehg-afbh4 #ca ft4 #j in4 x #ab ft4 #c in4 ,statement of the owner ,,originally ,,imported ,,by ,,vincent ,,robinson ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,,london4 ,the pattern represents a ,persian garden divided into four sections by two intersecting streams1 which are bordered by rows of cypress trees1 alternating with bushes on which are birds4 ,these sections are similarly divided by smaller streams1 that meet at the four pavilions of each side1 into plots containing trees and flowering bushes4 ,four peacocks rest above the central basin4 ,the colours are harmonious1 and show the mellowing influence of time4 ,,technicalities ,,in ,,the ,,weave ,,of ,,persian ,,rugs ,legend3 ,,knot-- ,h ,horizontally ,p ,perpendicularly ,,warp-- s silk l linen e each equally prominent d #a to the knot depressed h #a to the knot doubled under ,,weft-- s silk l linen ,no4 ,no4 times crossing bet4 two round knots ,,sides-- ,o overcast ,s selvage ,,lower ,,end ,w web ,s ,selvage ,k ,rows knots ,l warp loops ,f fringe ,,upper ,,end ,w web ,s selvage ,k ,rows knots ,t turned back and hemmed ,f fringe ,,knot ,,warp ,,persian ,number to ,at back ,inches ,g ,s w c ,ghiordes ,sehna ,h ,p wool cotton s_/l e d h ,bijar ,g #f-aj #h-ab w h ,feraghan ,g ,s #h-ac #g-ah c e ,gorevan ,g #f-h #f-aj c e d ,hamadan ,g #f-i #h-ab c e ,herat ,g ,s #h-aa #f-ab w c d h ,herez ,g #e-aj #f-ab c e d ,iran ,g #f-aa #g-aa c e ,mod4 ,ispahan ,g #f-i #h-aa w c e ,joshaghan ,g #g-aa #h-ac w c e d ,kashan ,s #af-bjaf-bd c l h ,karadagh ,g #g-aa #g-aa w e ,karaje ,g #f-aa #g-ab w c e ,kermanshah ,s #ab-ahaa-ah c h ,khorassan ,s #h-acab-bj c h ,kirman ,s #aa-bjaa-bj c h ,,weft ,,sides ,,lower ,,end ,,persian w c wool cotton s_/l ,p ,o ,s ,w_/,s ,k ,l ,f ,bijar w #b ,o ,w ,s ,feraghan c #b ,o ,w ,gorevan c #a-b ,s ,f ,hamadan w c #a ,o ,w ,l ,herat w c #b ,o ,w ,l #c-d ,herez w c #b ,s ,w ,f ,iran c #b_/a ,o ,w ,mod4 ,ispahan w c #a-b ,o ,w ,joshaghan w #b ,o ,w ,f ,kashan c l #b ,o ,w ,karadagh w #b ,s ,w ,f ,karaje w c #a ,o ,w ,l ,kermanshah c #b ,o ,w ,l ,f ,khorassan w c #b ,o ,w ,f #f-h ,kirman w c #b ,o ,w ,f ,,upper ,,end ,,nap ,,weave ,,texture ,,persian l long f fine l loose m medium m medium m medium ,w_/,s ,k ,t ,f s short c coarse f firm ,bijar ,w ,f m m f ,s ,feraghan ,w ,f s m m ,gorevan ,f m c l ,hamadan ,w ,t m_/s m f ,herat ,w ,f m c f ,herez ,f m c l ,iran ,w ,f m c l ,mod4 ,ispahan ,w ,k,t ,f m_/s m f ,joshaghan ,w ,f m f m ,kashan ,w ,f s f f ,karadagh ,w ,f m m_/c m_/f ,karaje ,w ,f m_/l c l ,kermanshah ,w ,f m c f ,khorassan ,w ,f m m_/f m_/f ,kirman ,w ,f s f f ,,knot ,,warp ,,persian ,number to ,at back ,inches ,g ,s w c ,ghiordes ,sehna ,h ,p wool cotton s_/l e d h ,persian ,kurdistan ,g #e-i #f-ac w e d ,western ,kurdistan ,g #d-g #f-i w e ,mahal ,g ,s #g-ab #f-ab c e d ,meshed ,g ,s #h-aeab-ag w c h ,mosul ,g #e-g #g-i w c e ,muskabad ,g ,s #f-aa #f-aa c d h ,niris ,g #f-aa #g-ae w d h ,sarabend ,s #h-ac #i-ac c e h ,sarouk ,s #ab-ahab-bj c l d h ,sehna ,g ,s #aa-bjab-bd c l e ,serapi ,g ,s #f-aj #g-ab c d h ,shiraz ,g ,s #g-ab #h-ab w g e d ,suj-,bulak ,g #g-aj #h-ab w e d ,tabriz ,g #ab-bjaj-bb c l h ,,weft ,,sides ,,lower ,,end ,,persian w c wool cotton s_/l ,p ,o ,s ,w_/,s ,k ,l ,f ,persian ,kurdistan w #b ,o ,w ,l ,western ,kurdistan w #b ,o ,w ,k,l ,mahal c #b ,o ,w ,f ,meshed w c #b ,o ,w ,f ,mosul w c #b_/a ,o ,s ,w ,muskabad c #b ,o ,w ,f ,niris w #b ,o ,w ,k ,f ,sarabend c #b ,o ,w ,f ,sarouk c #b ,o ,w ,f ,sehna c #a ,o ,w ,f ,serapi c #b ,s ,w ,l ,f ,shiraz w #b ,o ,w ,l ,suj-,bulak w #b ,s ,w ,f ,tabriz w c l #b ,s ,w ,f ,,upper ,,end ,,nap ,,weave ,,texture ,,persian l long f fine l loose m medium m medium m medium ,w_/,s ,k ,t ,f s short c coarse f firm ,persian ,kurdistan ,w ,f l c f ,western ,kurdistan ,w ,k ,t ,f l c f ,mahal ,w ,f m c m_/f ,meshed ,w ,f m m m_/f ,mosul ,w_/,s ,t ,f m c m_/f ,muskabad ,w ,f m c m_/f ,niris ,w ,k ,f m m l ,sarabend ,w ,f m_/s m_/f f ,sarouk ,w ,f s f f ,sehna ,w ,f s m m ,serapi ,w ,f m c f ,shiraz ,w ,f m m l ,suj-,bulak ,w ,t ,f m m_/c m_/l ,tabriz ,w ,f s f f indicates the less frequent condition4 ,,chapter ,x ,,asia ,,minor ,,rugs ,,all rugs that are woven in the ,turkish provinces of ,asia are frequently grouped together and called 8,turkish0 rugs2 but a more natural classification is to distinguish between those made to the east and those made to the west of a line drawn from the ,gulf of ,iskenderoon to ,trebizond1 deflecting slightly in its course so as to follow the ridges that divide the watershed of the western forks of the ,euphrates river from the plateau of ,anatolia4 ,with the exception of the very few pieces that come from ,syria or other southerly districts1 those woven in the ,turkish provinces east of this line show such a relationship to those of ,persia that they are more properly classed with them2 while on the other hand1 with the exception of the rugs of the wandering ,yuruks1 those woven to the west of this line and in the neighbouring islands of the ,mediterranean conform so closely to a common type that they fall naturally into a separate group4 ,it is better1 therefore1 to treat them separately and to call them the ,asia ,minor ,rugs4 ,though a certain glamour attaches to all that comes from ,persia1 the ,indes1 or ,far ,cathay1 in no part of the ,orient are rugs woven on more classic ground than are the ,asia ,minor pieces4 ,they are still made in the shadow of the walls where ,crsus lived and among villages where ,homer trod4 ,their yarn is spun with crude distaff by the shepherd who still drives his flock along the same road where ,artaxerxes marched1 across the bridges that ,roman legions built1 and over the green slopes of ,mt4 ,ida4 ,in fact the names of some of them call to mind pictures of the ,crusades1 the journey of ,paul1 the march of ,alexander's conquering army1 and of cities founded before the beginning of history4 ,when analysing the rugs of ,asia ,minor1 it is necessary to make a distinction that has been previously noticed in the case of ,persian rugs1 though with them it is less important4 ,from the time when there arose a large demand in the markets of ,europe and ,america for the rugs of the ,east the natural supply decreased1 and1 as a consequence1 the price of those that remained increased4 ,to meet this deficiency1 and because of the higher prices1 there was established a system by which large numbers of women and children were constantly employed2 although many worked in their own homes1 using such material as was furnished by their employers and receiving fixed daily wages4 ,in the western and southern parts of ,asia ,minor1 which are connected by railroads with seaports1 are a number of communities where this system is in vogue4 ,one of these is at ,demirdji in the province of ,smyrna1 where there are a small number of looms2 others are in the districts of ,ghiordes and ,kulah1 which together have about one thousand looms2 and ,oushak1 the principal rug-weaving centre of ,asia ,minor1 has as many more4#bh ,almost all rugs produced at such places are now shipped to ,smyrna1 which itself has but very few looms1 or to ,constantinople1 whence they are reshipped to ,western markets4 ,these products lack much of the oldtime artistic spirit and individuality of character1 on account of the dependence of the weavers on their employers1 who demand the largest output consistent with fair quality4 ,furthermore1 the weavers are frequently required to reproduce ,western patterns4 ,the result is that most of these rugs possess little of the firmness of texture1 the harmonious relations of designs1 and the excellent colour of old fabrics4 ,since1 then1 they represent in a measure ,european influences1 and are subject to further changes to meet the demands of a fluctuating foreign taste1 it would be of little use to describe them1 especially as all their original characteristics exist in the old pieces4 ,the striking features of ,asia ,minor rugs woven over fifty years ago are the colour schemes1 main patterns1 and the separate designs1 which may be either independent of the pattern or constitute part of it4 ,the colour effect of ,asia ,minor rugs is as a rule brighter than that of the ,central ,asian1 ,indian1 or ,persian groups2 for the reds1 blues1 and yellows are less subdued4 ,some of their tones never appear in ,chinese rugs1 and on the whole they most closely resemble those of the ,caucasian pieces2 yet it is not unusual to see such colours as mauve1 lavender1 and canary yellow1 that rarely appear even among these4 ,moreover1 in a few of them masses of strongly contrasting colours are placed beside one another without the customary shading of ,persian rugs or the artificial device of ,caucasian latch-hooks to soften the effect of harsh combinations4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,asia ,,minor ,the difference1 nevertheless1 between the ,asia ,minor rugs and those of other groups is less apparent in the colour schemes than in the main patterns1 for in the ,asia ,minor rugs is evidence of an independent inspiration and development4 ,there are lacking the rigid octagonal figures of the ,central ,asian groups2 the frets and floral sprays distinctive of ,chinese2 the naturalistic floral treatment of the ,indian2 the delicate tracings1 rhythm of movement1 and wealth of foliage motives that characterise the ,persian2 as well as the severely geometric forms and conventionalised motives of the ,caucasian4 ,instead of gracefully flowing lines we find strong rectangular ones2 instead of flowers realistically balanced on interlacing1 foliate stalks1 they are arranged separately in formal rows4 ,but if their patterns lack the fertility of invention or the refinement of ,persian and ,indian pieces1 they excel them in the strength of their clear definition1 accentuated by massing of colour4 ,it is1 however1 in the prayer patterns1 which appear in the majority of ,asia ,minor rugs1 that the weavers attain their best results2 for in such work they have the inspiration of a high religious as well as artistic spirit4 ,in these patterns1 which differ from those of any other group of rugs1 is often manifest singular beauty and grace1 as well as delicate sentiment derived from worship in ,moslem chapels2 for in many is represented the burning lamp that1 projected against a background of sacred green1 hangs from the column-supported arch1 above which is spread a spandrel of blue typifying the vaulted heavens4 ,likewise many of the small designs that are found in other groups of rugs are rarely1 if ever1 seen in this one2 as1 for instance1 animals1 birds1 fishes1 and human beings are never employed1 on account of the religious prejudice of the ,sunnite ,mohammedans1 who prevail in the country4 ,nor1 with very few exceptions1 is the ,herati design1 so characteristic of ,persian rugs1 nor the pear design1 so characteristic of both ,persian and ,indian rugs1 ever seen4 ,furthermore1 the reciprocal trefoil1 that is used as a motive for a small border stripe in all ,caucasian and many ,persian rugs1 is very rarely found in ,asia4 ,minor pieces woven during the last two centuries1 though it appears in some of an earlier era4 ,but in its place are the water motive and ribbon1 which are less frequently employed by the weavers of any other country4 ,there are also many small floral motives that appear only in ,asia ,minor rugs1 and that will be noticed in connection with the separate classes4 ,these characteristics of colour1 pattern1 and design are not the result of a spontaneous growth unalloyed by foreign influences2 for a natural art never existed in ,asia ,minor1 which has never enjoyed a national existence2 but they are the results of artistic movements that at different times have swept over that country4 ,thus1 as an heirloom of dynasties that once flourished farther east1 are the ,cufic characters that appear in some of the early border patterns2 and as a relic of the ,mongol and ,timurid invasions are the dragon and other designs found in the oldest pieces4 ,in ,oushaks1 as well as others1 are seen the evidences of ,persian treatment2 while the drawing and colour schemes of the prayer rugs forcibly suggest ,saracenic1 ,grecian1 and ,christian ideas4 ,in fact1 the rugs of ,asia ,minor1 while possessing co-ordination of colour and design1 are in a measure composite4 ,they never reach the high artistic development of ,persian rugs1 because the latter were produced under the fostering care of great kings whose royal magnificence could secure from years of patient labour suitable furnishings for palaces and mosques2 yet they are none the less interesting subjects for speculation and study4 ,,bergamos4--,in the valley of the ,cacus and twenty miles from the gean ,sea is the city of ,pergamus1 that gives its name to the ,bergamo rugs4 ,it is of unknown antiquity1 and may have stood when ,agamemnon was warring with the house of ,priam before the walls of that other city of the same name4 ,in turn1 ,persians1 ,macedonians1 ,thracians1 ,syrians1 and ,romans had taken possession of it before the ,apostle ,paul founded there one of the seven churches of ,asia4 ,greek sculptors chiselled its monuments1 philosophers taught beneath the shade of its trees1 and scholars gathered there the library that rivalled that of ,alexandria4 ,partly encircled by mountains and enclosed by the wall of this old city1 that was wellnigh destroyed during the ,turkish wars1 is the modern city of some fifteen thousand inhabitants4 ,it is to-day one of the flourishing cities of the ,levant1 yet only in the surrounding ruins is there any reminder of its former greatness and splendour4 ,but in these crumbling relics of the past and in the excellence of its woven fabrics of more recent times are traces of the artistic spirit that once prevailed there4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cg4 ,,anatolian ,,prayer ,,rug ,it is still possible to obtain many good specimens of ,bergamos representing the craftsmanship of fifty or more years ago1 when aniline dyes and ,european patterns were unknown east of the ,hellespont4 ,almost without exception they are sterling fabrics that glory in a wealth of colour accentuated by depth of pile and sheen of soft lustrous wool4 ,an observer is at once impressed by the tones of deep blue and madder red that a few lines or patches of ivory white bring out more clearly1 and forms a favourable estimate of the value of these pieces independently of the drawing1 which seems subservient to the part of giving spirit and quality to the colour scheme4 ,in fact1 it is to the genius of the dyer who applies his knowledge to the tinting of carefully selected wool1 and to the pains of the weaver in constructing the foundation of warp and weft rather than to his skill in arranging artistic designs1 that these pieces command as high a price as old ,kirmans of similar age4 ,in two particulars ,bergamos differ from most ,asia ,minor rugs3 in shape they are nearly square1 and prayer rugs are the exception rather than the rule4 ,nor do all the prayer rugs follow the same general pattern1 as is usually the case with other classes4 ,they may have low tent-shaped arches like those of ,daghestans1 high triangular arches with stepped sides and a panel above the spandrels as in the ,kir-,shehrs1 or they may have shapes unlike those of any other class4 ,moreover1 the pieces not used as prayer rugs also have great diversity of pattern2 but as a rule some large figure1 as a medallion1 occupies the centre of the field4 ,very frequently it is of hexagonal shape1 with the sides at upper and lower ends of the rug serrated or fringed with latch-hooks4 ,as is not the case with many of the ,persian rugs1 the field surrounding the medallion is almost always covered with small designs1 arranged with careful precision so as to show a perfect balance with reference to the centre4 ,eight-pointed stars and other geometric figures are frequently used1 but there is a leaning to floral designs1 which1 however1 are often so conventionalised as almost to lose their identity4 ,most prominent of these is the ,rhodian lily and the pomegranate2 but the lily never shows such graceful drawing or such dainty colouring as in the ,kulahs1 and in some pieces even loses all resemblance to a floral form4 ,the pomegranate1 which suggests the ,ladik1 is more frequently seen in the main border stripe4 ,undulating vines do not find favour among the ,bergamo weavers1 and small isolated geometric designs are largely employed in the narrow border stripes1 while larger1 more complex figures often replace the floral in the main stripe4 ,in no other class of rugs are so many and such painstaking devices to avert the spell of the evil eye4 ,should an unexpected visitor surprise the weaver while at work1 he may be required to part with a bit of his frock1 which is then attached to the wide web of the end2 should a similar occurrence of ill omen follow1 another bit of different material and colour may be sewn upon this2 and as a crowning talisman1 a button may be affixed to both4 ,small cowrie shells from the gean shores are often used for such purposes2 and now and then may be seen a woollen tassel dangling from the centre or from one of the ends of the rug4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and blue1 with minor quantities of yellow1 white1 and green4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five and one half to nine2 perpendicularly1 seven to eleven4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool of fine diameter1 dyed red4 ,a thread of weft crosses from two to six times between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool2 generally of medium length but frequently long4 ,border1 from one to four stripes2 most frequently of three4 ,sides1 a weft selvage of two1 three1 or four cords1 coloured red or blue1 with occasionally some green or yellow4 ,both ends1 a web1 that is sometimes six or seven inches wide1 coloured red and crossed by broad longitudinal stripes1 which are generally blue1 but may be black1 white1 brown1 or yellow4 ,some device to avert the evil eye is frequently attached to the webs4 ,beyond the web is a tasselled warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of fine grain4 ,usual length1 three to seven feet4 ,usual width1 three quarters to nine tenths length4 ,,ghiordes4--,whether1 as has been maintained1 the town of ,ghiordes1 that lies a day's journey to the east of ,pergamus1 is on the site of the ancient ,gordion where tradition says the father of ,midas dedicated his chariot to ,jupiter1 and ,alexander severed the bark which bound the pole to the yoke1 it claims attention from the fact that the rugs woven there one and two centuries ago not only excelled similar products in all other parts of ,asia ,minor1 but equalled the best fabrics woven in ,persia during the same period4 ,indeed1 a few connoisseurs would rank them still higher2 yet with reference to technique of weave and delicacy of colour and drawing1 very few should be classed with those woven in the previous century by the protgs of ,tamasp and ,shah ,abbas4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ch4 ,,mudjar ,,prayer ,,rug ,so essentially do the modern rugs of the ,ghiordes district differ from the old pieces in weave1 colour1 and pattern1 and so great is their inferiority1 that they have little interest2 but fortunately it is still possible to purchase pieces from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty years of age1 and others still older are in the hands of collectors or in museums4 ,in determining their age the colours and drawing1 as well as weave and pattern1 are important indices4 ,for instance1 the reddish tones of the fields of pieces less than a century old have a pinkish or even magenta tinge1 while in the oldest the red is of rich1 deep colour4 ,similarly1 in the case of blues1 greens1 yellows1 and even the ivories that rarely occupy the field1 a riper and richer colour marks the greater age4 ,likewise with the drawing1 greater painstaking and higher artistic skill are apparent in the older rugs2 though in some of the oldest the designs are less ornate than in those of a subsequent period4 ,this is also true of the patterns as a whole2 since the best types are found in rugs that are probably from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty years old1 whereas in the extremely old pieces there is an approach to archaic forms4 ,the difference between the odjaliks and namazliks1 which are the kinds most frequently seen1 is most noticeable4 ,the colours1 to be sure1 are much the same1 though as a rule lighter and duller tones predominate in the odjaliks4 ,their borders show a greater tendency to use geometric figures1 some of which are profusely fringed with latch-hooks suggestive of ,caucasian influences4 ,they also contain archaic designs believed to be associated with sun worship1 as well as many floral forms common to the prayer rugs4 ,it is1 however1 in the fields that the distinction is most noticeable2 since the large masses of uniform colour that make the namazliks so effective are wanting1 and instead are frequently seen hexagonal-shaped medallions that are fringed with large rounded latch-hooks and contain a lozenge or other geometric design in the centre4 ,at both ends of the fields are sometimes narrow panels containing quasi-floral forms1 and stiff conventions occupy the intervening corner spaces4 ,in striking contrast to these odjaliks are the old ,ghiordes prayer rugs1 with the rich tones of solid colour in the fields and the delicate drawing of the borders4 ,no doubt they were made with unusual care1 since they were intended for religious purposes4 ,the pattern represents an entrance into a mosque2 and it is not improbable that some of the earliest rugs were copied directly from archways1 many of which still exist in ,mohammedan countries4#bi ,near the base of all ,ghiordes arches1 at each side1 is a shoulder1 which in old pieces was supported by a single pilaster or a pair4 ,sometimes these were ornamented with scroll work or floral forms1 but finally many of them degenerated into floral devices that bore slight resemblance to columns1 and in other rugs they have entirely disappeared4 ,in some very old pieces the shoulders and the mihrab were rounded1 but as a rule the shoulders are flattened at a very obtuse angle2 and the mihrab is either plain or has stepped sides that culminate in a blunted apex4 ,to further suggest the sacred purposes of the rug a lamp is often suspended from the niche1 though floral forms may take its place1 and not infrequently these too are wanting4 ,almost without exception some reminder of the tree of life1 such as the small floral sprig or the ,rhodian lily1 is projected from the inner side of the arch and from all sides of the border against the field4 ,in the spandrel1 also1 is almost invariably some floral or leaf form2 though these may be very much conventionalised or even supplanted by geometric figures4 ,above the spandrel is a panel1 which may contain some floral form1 scroll device1 or verse from the ,koran2 and another panel1 though generally with different design1 is almost invariably placed beneath the field4 ,a scroll resembling a large ,s 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #i1 ,page #bia7 frequently appears in these panels4 ,its resemblance to forms found in ,armenian dragon carpets of earlier centuries is very noticeable4 ,the border surrounding the field is as characteristic of this class as is the prayer arch4 ,there are invariably a number of stripes1 which generally consist of a wide central one1 two secondary1 and two or more small guard stripes4 ,the drawing is distinctly floral1 yet is widely different from the ,persian4 ,a design 7,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #a1 opp4 ,page #aib7 frequently seen in the central stripe represents a large palmette or rosette partly surrounded by leaves1 suggestive of the ,herati design1 and connected by tendrils with more delicate flowers or leaves4 ,but the more usual design 7,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #c7 consists of flowers and fruits that are arranged in quadrangular shape1 so that the alternate units face in different directions as they extend around the border4 ,though it is far from naturalistic1 its delicate lace-like drawing with clear definition and its tones in harmony with the central field1 contribute largely to the beauty of the rug4 ,the secondary stripes have generally repetitive leaf forms2 and running through the guard stripes is a simple vine1 ribbon1 or wave design4 ,occasionally1 however1 the typical ,ghiordes border is replaced by one borrowed from the near district of ,kulah1 and instead of the broad central stripe are several narrow parallel stripes studded by perpendicular rows of small floral figures 7,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ab74 ,an unusual feature of these rugs is the linen nap which is sometimes used in the field instead of wool1 for the reason that it retains its colour while wool darkens with age2 and another is the silken fringe which is often seen at the corners of fine specimens4 ,the nap is always short1 and the rugs are closely woven4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 yellow1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve2 perpendicularly1 eight to sixteen4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back4 ,warp1 wool or cotton and in a few pieces raw silk4 ,one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually slightly depressed below the other at the back4 ,weft1 wool or cotton4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 and occasionally some cotton1 clipped very short so as to be harsh to the touch4 ,border1 six to nine stripes4 ,sides1 a weft selvage of two or three cords1 or only infrequently an added selvage of silk4 ,both ends1 a narrow web and warp fringe4 ,a few pieces have an added silk fringe at the corners4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is of very fine grain1 but slightly rough4 ,usual length1 five to seven feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to three quarters length4 ,,kulahs4--,about fifty miles from ,ghiordes1 in a southeasterly direction1 is the ,turkish village of ,kulah4 ,both places are surrounded by the same general character of hills and plains1 and for the last several centuries the people of each have been subject to the same influences of race and religion4 ,they have undoubtedly visited1 intermarried1 and become familiar with the arts and crafts of one another4 ,it is not1 therefore1 surprising that some of their rugs should have similar technique of weave1 and that a few resemble one another in general pattern and small designs4 ,moreover1 such a close correspondence exists between many of the old rugs of both districts1 that even the most experienced are sometimes at a loss to distinguish between them4 ,in fact it is surprising that there is so marked a distinction between most of them4 ,in the ,kulahs the border designs are not so elaborately drawn1 nor are the prayer arches so high4 ,they have rarely the fringe that adorns the corners of some ,ghiordes rugs1 or more than one panel4 ,the field usually contains floral figures1 arranged in formal order2 the spandrel is almost always extended in two narrow stripes1 one at each side of the field2 and the colours are always subdued4 ,these and other characteristics of each class make it possible to distinguish between most of them4 ,as is the case with ,ghiordes rugs1 sedjadehs are almost unknown2 but it is not unusual to see odjaliks4 ,these resemble prayer rugs in the following respects3 the borders are almost identical2 the central fields contain the same floral figures resting on a similarly coloured ground2 both ends of the hexagonal-shaped field resemble a mihrab2 and the space between the field and border is covered with designs peculiar to the spandrels of the prayer rugs4 ,on account of their artistic drawing and soft colours the prayer rugs are favourite pieces with all collectors4 ,it is true that the arch is flatter than that of any other rug of this group1 and is defined either by plain sloping lines1 or more frequently by stepped edges1 so that it lacks the classic beauty of the ,ghiordes type2 but on the other hand the ,rhodian lily and other floral forms characteristic of these pieces are delineated with a realism and graceful delicacy that are unequalled in any other ,asia ,minor rugs4 ,arranged on slender sprays along each side of the field1 hanging as long clusters from the niche in place of a lamp1 or placed on the panel in formal rows1 they accentuate with their bright tones the subdued richness of the ground colours4 ,sometimes1 however1 these simple field designs are replaced by more formal drawings that represent a plat of land with a tomb shaded by a tall cypress and other trees with many leafy branches4 ,rugs with these designs are not uncommon in ,germany1 whither large quantities of ,asia ,minor prayer rugs were shipped many years ago1 and where they are known as 8,friedhofteppiche10 or 8,grave ,rugs10 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ci4 ,,daghestan ,,prayer ,,rug ,the most pleasing features are in the fields1 but the most distinguishing features are in the borders1 which are invariably of several stripes4 ,instead of the large central stripe with floral and repetitive designs common to most rugs is a series of parallel bands1 from five to ten in number and about an inch in width1 that contain rows of minute floral forms4 ,these narrow bands are a distinguishing feature of the ,kulahs1 though they have occasionally been copied by the ,ghiordes weavers4 ,nevertheless1 they are sometimes replaced by the broad stripe containing rows of geometric-shaped designs1 as in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ac 7opp4 ,page #aib71 which also are peculiar to these rugs4 ,strange as it may seem1 these designs have doubtless been derived from leaf forms by successive degradation1 as will be seen by comparing ,figs4 #ac-;a1 #ac-;b1 #ac-;c1 and #ac-;d of ,plate ,o 7,page #bia74 ,there is still another border design that is so constantly found in the secondary stripe of these pieces and so rarely in any others that it might well be designated the 8,kulah stripe0 7,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #aj1 opp4 ,page #aid74 ,the design consists of a repetitive figure suggestive of some ,chinese device1 but is in reality a degraded form of a vine1 as will be seen by observing some of the very old border stripes4 ,between the inner secondary stripe and the field is usually a narrow stripe containing a continuous ribbon design1 or a simple vine-like form1 as in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #ah 7opp4 ,page #aeh74 ,often a part of each succeeding undulation of the vine has been omitted and the remaining parts have been compressed1 so as to leave small detached figures like a row of 8f's10 as in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #b4 ,it is not unusual to see both vine and detached figures in the same rug4 ,diversity prevails in the colours of field1 spandrel1 panel1 and borders4 ,in the field is generally a mellowed red1 or a yellow tint that is described both as golden brown and apricot2 blue also is occasionally seen1 and white is very rare4 ,but whatever the colour of the field1 that of the spandrel is generally a light blue1 indicative of the sky1 and the overlying panel is frequently a dark blue4 ,green and brown often appear in the border1 as well as a canary yellow peculiar to ,asia ,minor rugs4 ,moreover1 a few of these pieces have a single small area of red or blue1 that was doubtless inserted to avert the evil eye1 since it shows no more relation to the surrounding colours than spilt ink might have2 yet in spite of these contrasts and the fact that the nap lacks the lustre peculiar to many other classes1 some of them are as beautiful as ,ghiordes4 ,between these old fabrics and the modern1 which factory-like are produced in large quantities to meet the demands of a ,western market and taste1 is the most noticeable difference1 for the latter are inferior to the former in patterns1 weave1 and dyes4 ,furthermore1 with the wool of many is mixed mohair1 so that rapid deterioration follows slight usage4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 brownish yellow1 and blue1 with minor quantities of green1 dark brown1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes1 ,knots to inch horizontally five to ten2 perpendicularly1 seven to twelve4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down4 ,warp1 wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is noticeably depressed at the back4 ,weft1 in most rugs1 of wool of medium diameter1 sometimes dyed yellow4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,in other rugs1 even very old1 the weft consists of a coarse thread of jute crossing once between two rows of knots and alternating with a small thread of jute and another of wool crossing side by side once between the next two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of short or medium length4 ,border1 six to nine stripes4 ,sides1 a coloured mixed selvage of two1 three1 or four cords4 ,both ends1 a coloured web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave at back is of moderately coarse grain4 ,usual length1 five to seven feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to three quarters length4 ,,oushaks4--,fifty miles eastward from ,kulah is the city of ,oushak1 famous during the ,,xv and ,,xvi ,centuries for the carpets exported thence to ,europe to adorn the halls of cathedrals and thrones of monarchs4 ,but with the subsequent decadence in ,asiatic art its glory ebbed1 so that half a century ago it was but a small mud-housed city known for the excellence of its dyes and the wool which was taken there from the interior to be washed1 spun1 and then sold to the weavers of the surrounding country4 ,since then1 however1 its population has steadily grown1 and the weaving industry has thrived1 until now it is one of the most populous cities of ,asia ,minor1 with looms more numerous than those of any other city4 ,the weaving is done entirely by women and girls1 most of whom are ,mohammedans4 ,though they live principally in private houses1 they are under the direction of large firms1 who furnish the wool as well as the patterns1 which are in accordance with ,european and ,american demands4 ,important distinctions exist between the different grades of these rugs4 ,some are known as 8,turkish ,kirmans10 in which ,persian designs are frequently introduced1 others are of still finer workmanship1 but the oldest and coarsest pieces were formerly known as 8,yapraks40 ,these are distinguishable by their strong colours of red1 green1 and blue1 of which only two as a rule are seen in a single rug1 and are massed to produce striking effects4 ,their foundation of warp and weft1 which are dyed in the same colours1 is loosely woven and often of an inferior grade of wool4 ,many of them are too large and heavy for domestic use1 but are well adapted for salons and public halls4 ,with such slight variations in pattern and none in colour1 ,oushaks would be of little interest were it not that their prototypes were striking pieces woven by artisans whom ,sultan ,solyman the ,magnificent brought from the northwestern part of ,persia1 when he conquered it in the ,,xvi ,century4 ,some of them appear in the paintings of old masters1 and when contrasted with the modern fabrics indicate how great is the decline in the craftsmanship of the weavers4 ,of the beautiful well-balanced designs once represented in the fields1 only large stars and diamonds1 defined by less pleasing lines and placed with less regularity1 remain4 ,all of the graceful arabesques and dainty floral motives that appeared as sub-patterns are omitted4 ,as works of art1 the modern products are little esteemed2 but their durability1 depth of pile1 and wealth of colour make them excellent objects of utility4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 and green4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally four to eight2 perpendicularly1 four to nine4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is longer than wide4 ,the rows of knots are not closely pressed down4 ,warp1 wool4 ,each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back1 or one is slightly depressed below the other4 ,weft1 wool of medium diameter and generally dyed red4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 clipped long4 ,border1 usually of three stripes4 ,sides1 generally a double overcasting1 occasionally a selvage4 ,both ends1 generally a web coloured red and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 very loose4 ,weave at back is of moderately coarse grain4 ,length1 carpet sizes4 ,usual width1 two thirds to four fifths length4 ,,ak-,,hissar4--,almost seventy-five miles by rail from ,smyrna and a short distance to the west of ,ghiordes is the ,turkish town of ,ak-,hissar1 the ,white ,citadel4 ,even before the building of the railroad rugs were woven in this district2 and in recent years the work-house system has been established1 and large quantities1 that bear some resemblance to the modern products of ,kulah and ,oushak1 have been exported4 ,,demirdji4--,half a century ago the town of ,demirdji was almost uninhabited2 but as a result of the ,occidental demand for ,oriental rugs and the disappearance of old pieces1 it has grown to be an important manufacturing centre4 ,many of its weavers learned their trade at the historic ,ghiordes1 which is about twenty-five miles distant2 but the fabrics are more closely woven and the wool is more carefully selected than is the case with the modern ,ghiordes4 ,,kutayah4--,on the main railroad that will eventually connect the ,bosphorus with the ,euphrates is the town of ,kutayah4 ,as it is on the edge of the ,anatolian plateau1 wool and goat's hair have been for a long period important articles in its trade4 ,both of them are now used in the local manufacture of rugs1 which in a measure resemble the products of ,oushak4 ,,smyrna4--,the location of ,smyrna on a magnificent harbour and its connection by rail with all the important rug districts of the interior1 have made it the principal centre for the export trade in ,asia ,minor rugs4 ,many of the people are also largely engaged in the industry of weaving1 but almost all weavers are now in the employ of large companies who furnish the materials and patterns4 ,as a result1 the ,smyrna rugs are mere copies of well-known types of other ,turkish pieces1 or1 as is generally the case1 of stereotyped patterns that have been evolved to meet the requirements of ,european and ,american tastes4 ,many of the rugs1 to be sure1 are well woven and serviceable1 but they lack individuality of character4 ,,melez4--,about seventy-five miles to the south of ,smyrna and twenty from the ,mediterranean ,sea is the town of ,melassa1 or ,melez4 ,it is now little known1 but was once the market place of an important rug-producing district1 which included a large part of the classic province of ,caria4 ,accordingly1 the pieces that came from there were sometimes called ,carian1 but are more generally known as ,melez4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dj4 ,,kabistan ,,rug ,on their face they show a close relationship to the ,anatolians1 and also1 though in a less degree1 to many other ,asia ,minor rugs2 yet as is to be expected of the products from one corner of the country1 they have a distinct individuality in both pattern and colour4 ,occasionally an old piece is seen1 in which the border is very narrow and the whole field is covered with parallel stripes on which are systematically arranged geometric and semi-floral forms2 but as a rule the fields are not much wider1 and often less wide1 than each of the adjacent borders4 ,within this central space are frequently arranged prominent designs1 which are widely different from the designs of any other rugs1 and are suggestive of ,chinese ornament1 but were doubtless derived from floral or tree forms 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #ab1 ,page #bia74 ,moreover1 projecting in regular order from the alternate sides of the narrow border stripe1 next to the field1 are sometimes seen thumb-like figures1 that fit against one another like the cogs of a wheel 7,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #ae1 opp4 ,page #aid74 ,each of these features1 though not always present1 is peculiar to this class4 ,of the several border stripes1 the central is generally as wide as the remainder and not altogether dissimilar to that of the ,ladiks4 ,very frequently it consists of a row of palmettes between which are conventionalised leaves and flowers on slender stems2 but now and then the palmettes are replaced by eight-pointed stars or other geometric figures1 and the intervening spaces filled with corresponding designs4 ,the secondary stripes are of a pronounced ,caucasian type2 and almost invariably in a smaller tertiary stripe is represented a waving line or the reciprocal sawtooth4 ,the prayer rugs are equally characteristic4 ,in typical examples the lines defining the mihrab descend from the niche to meet the sides of the narrow field at an angle of forty-five degrees1 and are then deflected towards its centre1 to return again to its sides4 ,the resulting drawing shows two equilateral triangles on each side of the field at the base of the mihrab1 which in conjunction with the upper sides of the triangles has the appearance of an incomplete diamond4 ,this effect1 moreover1 is frequently accentuated by a perpendicular row of diamonds extending from just below the niche to the base of the field4 ,the sides of mihrab1 field1 and central designs are1 as a rule1 fringed with small geometric or conventionalised floral forms2 and in the spacious spandrel are more realistic floral designs arranged on a trellis-like sub-pattern4 ,this individuality of pattern is accompanied by a less marked yet noticeable individuality of colour scheme4 ,as is the case with many ,bergamos1 the principal tone is a dark red1 which generally appears in the central field1 and is also used almost without exception in the broad end webs1 the side selvages1 and the threads of weft4 ,ivory white for the spandrel1 some yellow and green for the borders1 are common colours2 but the one that rarely appears in any appreciable quantity in other rugs is a characteristic tone of lavender or mauve1 which is present in almost every old ,melez4 ,not always are these tones pleasing1 as many of the rugs have been poorly dyed2 but there are other pieces1 now rapidly growing scarce1 of which the colours are exceedingly rich and harmonious4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 with minor quantities of blue1 yellow1 white1 and some mauve4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to eight2 perpendicularly1 six to eleven4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as wide or slightly longer4 ,the rows of knots are not closely pressed down1 yet the warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool of small diameter1 dyed blue or red4 ,a thread of weft generally crosses four times between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length and sometimes short4 ,border1 wide1 from three to seven stripes4 ,sides1 a selvage of two to four cords1 usually coloured red4 ,lower end1 a red web and loose warp fringe4 ,upper end1 a red web1 a braided selvage1 and loose warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately loose4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 four and one half to six feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to three quarters length4 ,,isbarta4--,in the town of ,isbarta in the southern part of the province of ,konieh are woven rugs which are sometimes known to the trade as 8,spartas40 ,like many other pieces made to meet the ,western demand1 they lack spontaneous individuality1 but are often of excellent quality and coloured in delicate tones1 arranged harmoniously4 ,,rhodian4--,even at a very early period the people of the islands bordering the southwestern coast of ,asia ,minor produced textile fabrics that rivalled many of the best products of the mainland4 ,none of them were more beautiful or more interesting than those which came from the ,island of ,rhodes1 where were blended the vigorous ,grecian and the more subtle ,oriental arts4 ,here was the inspiration of the sea1 cloudless skies1 luxuriant vegetation4 ,here was felt the deep influence of the ,mohammedan and ,christian religions1 as well as an early pagan mythology2 and there is little doubt that the cathedral walls and picturesque church of the valiant knights of ,st4 ,john made an impression on the weavers4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the fabrics should be of deep1 rich colour full of suggestion1 and that the drawing of the long central panels should remind one of cathedral windows4 ,of the many beautiful rugs formerly woven in ,rhodes only a few now remain1 and these are generally in the hands of collectors4 ,some are odjaliks1 some namazliks1 some sedjadehs2 but all1 with the exception of a few crude and coarsely woven pieces1 have colours and weave that bespeak a ripe age1 amounting in many instances to one hundred years or more4 ,on the field of odjaliks are represented as a rule the usual hexagonal figure with two sides at each end forming a triangle2 and on the fields of the namazliks are prayer arches which1 though characteristic1 never equal the graceful drawing seen in ,ghiordes rugs4 ,it is the sedjadehs that awaken the greatest interest1 as they have some striking peculiarities rarely seen in rugs of the mainland4 ,their field is divided into two or three panels that extend almost the full length of the field1 and terminate at one end in flat and often serrated arches4 ,the spandrels are small2 and placed transversely above them is a low panel1 that contains designs of mechanically drawn leaves1 vandykes resembling those of ,ladiks1 and other figures common to ,asia ,minor rugs4 ,in fact1 these pieces at once suggest prayer rugs containing two or more prayer arches1 but the pattern is generally regarded as a representation of cathedral windows4 ,both colouring and designs give force to this idea4 ,in each of the principal panels is a different ground colour1 as red1 blue1 or green1 which is never gaudy1 yet exceedingly rich on account of the depth of pile2 and in the overlying figures there is often a strangely contrasting splendour of brighter colouring4 ,furthermore1 one of the most usual of these designs1 arranged like pole medallions1 consists of large eight-pointed stars with effulgent rays of brilliant hues4 ,as we look at some of the rare old pieces with this pattern1 cathedral windows almost appear before us with bright sunshine streaming in golden rays through the stained glass and brightening the interior with its more sombre tones of 8dim religious light40 ,sometimes the pole design is modified so as to suggest a tree of life extending from one end of the panel to the other4 ,an equally common design represents six very mechanically drawn leaves assembled in the form of a medallion 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #ae1 ,page #bia74 ,each of these leaves has two straight edges meeting at right angles and containing at the corner a small rectangular spot2 but the remaining sides that form the circumference of the medallion are deeply serrated1 so as to produce much the same effect as the rays of effulgent stars4 ,in the fields are also frequently seen latch-hooks1 and occasionally checkerboards with different colours for separate squares4 ,between field and border is a close correspondence in both colours and small designs4 ,the latter consist principally of geometric and semi-floral forms1 as eight-pointed stars1 the octagonal disc1 and the geometric leaf that is typical of ,kulah rugs4 ,no other design is more prevalent than the last1 which may be found in all parts of these rugs4 ,sometimes it is drawn most realistically so as to resemble the flower forms so common in spandrels of ,kulahs2 but again the outlines are most conventional with square-like projections at the edges and a bar of underlying field of contrasting colour crossing the face diagonally1 as in the border stripe of ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ac1 7opp4 ,page #aib71 which shows the foliate origin of the latter4 ,the name 8,makri0 is frequently applied to these rugs1 since they were often bought in the city of that name1 which is one of the harbours of ,southwestern ,asia ,minor nearest to ,rhodes4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and blue1 also considerable yellow1 green1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to eight2 perpendicularly1 seven to nine4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down1 so that the warp shows in places at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back1 occasionally one to each knot is slightly depressed below the other4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium diameter1 coloured red4 ,a thread of warp usually crosses twice between every two rows of knots1 rarely only once1 and sometimes as many as four times4 ,pile1 wool1 clipped long4 ,border1 two to three stripes4 ,sides1 a double selvage of two1 three1 or four cords1 usually coloured red or blue4 ,lower end1 a web1 either red or of several colours1 and long warp fringe hanging loose or braided4 ,upper end1 a web1 either red or of several colours1 beyond which is often a heavy braided selvage2 also a long warp fringe hanging loose or braided4 ,texture1 moderately loose4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,length1 four to seven feet4 ,width1 three fifths to four fifths length4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #da4 ,,kuba ,,rug ,,broussa4--,at the base of ,mt4 ,olympus and distant only twenty-five miles from the ,sea of ,marmora1 with which it is connected by rail1 is the city of ,broussa4 ,by reason of this location and its proximity to ,constantinople1 it is an important commercial centre2 and on account of the excellence of the wool and silk obtained in the surrounding country1 rugs are woven here for foreign markets4 ,the fabrics are stoutly made and compare favourably with those of ,smyrna4 ,,hereke4--,in the town of ,hereke1 on the ,sea of ,marmora1 is a ,turkish factory1 where large numbers of silk rugs are manufactured4 ,most of the silk is obtained in the immediate neighbourhood and from the country about ,mt4 ,olympus4 ,as the early weavers were brought from ,kirman to instruct the artisans of the ,sultan1 and the patterns have been largely copied from old ,persian and ,asia ,minor pieces1 it is not surprising that many of the fabrics compare favourably with the silk rugs of ,persia4 ,,koniehs4--,at the base of ,mt4 ,taurus and overlooking the salt desert of ,central ,asia ,minor is the city of ,konieh4 ,within its present walls is all that is left of the ancient ,iconium that opened its gates to ,xenophon1 ,cyrus1 and ,alexander1 but drove forth the ,apostle ,paul4 ,finally it surrendered to ,seljukian conquerors1 who1 realising the importance of its situation on one of the great highways between east and west and in an oasis of well-watered fields1 orchards1 and gardens which face a great barren plain1 established there a ,mussulman capital1 that became noted for its opulence and culture4 ,in later years it successfully resisted the assault of ,frederic ,barbarossa2 but subsequently it declined1 until now the only remaining vestiges of its former importance are several colleges1 one hundred mosques1 and the famous green tower surmounting the tomb of the whirling dervishes4 ,in few other cities of ,asia ,minor were greater inducements offered to the rug weavers4 ,surrounding them lay hills and plains that produced sheep with soft1 fine fleeces4 ,on the oaks that grew not far to the north lived the kermes1 from which were obtained the vermilion dyes famous even through ,persia4 ,the political and commercial importance of the city1 as well as the religious fanaticism of the people1 aided them4 ,accordingly a great many choice pieces were formerly woven there1 but on account of the remoteness of the city from the markets that supplied ,europe1 few found their way into channels of trade4 ,large numbers were used solely for religious purposes1 but other kinds are as frequently seen4 ,all of them contain both geometric and floral forms4 ,the geometric forms resemble designs prevalent in ,eastern ,anatolia and in ,caucasia1 such as latch-hooks1 eight-pointed stars1 and barber-pole stripes2 and the floral forms consist of mechanically drawn palm leaves and the tree-of-life design4 ,probably in no other ,asia ,minor rug is such latitude in the drawing of the prayer arch4 ,sometimes it begins below the middle of the field and rises at a sharp angle to a point near the upper end2 again it may be exceedingly flat2 but generally it has the same pitch as the arches of ,kulahs1 and1 like them1 the sides1 as a rule1 are stepped or serrated4 ,furthermore1 it is not unusual to see latch-hooks projecting from each step or serration into the spandrel1 which is filled with small floral and geometric forms4 ,from the niche is occasionally suspended a lamp2 and arranged against the border1 on each side of the field1 is a row of conventionalised flowers1 or small sprigs which resemble three triangular-shaped petals at the end of a straight stem4 ,these floral or foliate designs are one of the most constant features of this class4 ,the borders are more geometric than those of almost any other ,asia ,minor rugs1 and even when vines are represented they are drawn with stiff formality4 ,whatever may be lacking in artistic drawing is frequently atoned for by the excellence of the colour scheme1 which occasionally rivals that of the ,ghiordes and ,kulahs4 ,rich reds or blues are almost invariably found in the fields1 where there is sufficient depth of nap to enhance their richness2 and the borders are brightened by attractive tones of yellow1 green1 and white4 ,contrasted with these old pieces1 the modern rugs of ,konieh have little artistic merit1 but are large pieces desirable solely for their durability4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and blue1 with minor quantities of yellow1 green1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to eight2 perpendicularly1 six to ten4 ,the rows of knots are not very firmly pressed down4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium diameter1 dyed red4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 from two to five stripes1 with frequently an outer edging4 ,sides1 generally a selvage of two or three cords1 but occasionally an overcasting4 ,both ends1 a web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 only moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 four and one half to six feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to three quarters length4 ,,ladiks4--,on the ruins of ancient ,laodicea is the mud-walled town of the village of ,ladik1 once the centre of an important rug industry4 ,among the surrounding hills are still woven pieces which resemble in pattern1 though they poorly imitate in weave and colour1 the early prototypes that have been classed among the masterpieces of ,asia ,minor4 ,few of these old rugs remain1 and they are often badly worn in spots2 yet they display tones mellowed by the touch of more than a century1 and rival the ,ghiordes in beauty of design4 ,as is the case with other classes of rugs woven in ,turkish countries1 the sedjadehs and odjaliks lack the interesting details of the namazliks1 from which they widely differ4 ,on the central fields of many of them are oblong hexagonal-shaped medallions1 often three in number1 that contain designs of stars or other geometric figures4 ,between the fields and the borders of the ends are generally spacious panels1 on which are represented rows of vandykes4 ,these figures are one of the most permanent characteristics of this class of rugs2 and though their origin is uncertain1 it is not improbable that they are derived from arrowheads1 which were one of the emblems of the ,chaldean deity ,hoa1 the reputed inventor of ,cufic writing4 ,the borders are also geometric1 consisting1 as a rule1 of three stripes1 of which the central contains an angular vine that in different pieces may be very simple or very ornate4 ,one of the central stripes often adopted is represented in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #aj 7opp4 ,page #aib7 and shows a vine with conventionalised leaf4 ,latch-hooks are common in the sedjadehs1 and when floral forms are present the fact is generally disguised by the harsh1 mechanical drawing4 ,in contrast with these pieces1 the namazliks with their interesting arches and dainty drawing are most pleasing4 ,in a large number of them the central fields occupy about one half the space within the border1 the spandrels extend for a considerable distance above the arch1 and the panels are larger than in any other prayer rug4 ,occasionally arches resembling those of the ,ghiordes or ,kir-,shehrs are seen2 but they are to be regarded merely as copies1 since the typical arch differs widely from any other and gives to this class one of its greatest charms4 ,instead of rising to the apex in lines of many serrations1 each side of the arch rises from the border and falls in one large serration1 then rises again to form the niche4 ,the arch is often fringed with latch-hooks1 and extending above the apex of each serration and the niche are perpendicular devices that may1 also1 be a development of the latch-hook1 since they have not been traced to any other satisfactory origin4 ,but whatever their origin may be1 their shape as well as that of the arch at once suggests ,saracenic mosques4 ,in the spandrel are constantly seen serrated leaves1 rosettes1 and designs peculiar to the ,ladik4 ,the large panel is equally typical1 and consists of reciprocally drawn vandykes1 from which rise perpendicular stems supporting leaves and pomegranates4 ,these are generally five in number1 and are so gracefully and naturalistically drawn that it seems surprising that the vandykes1 from which they spring1 are ornamented with a profusion of latch-hooks4 ,the central fields are sometimes without ornament1 but as a rule they contain some suggestions of the tree of life either in the central design or in the three-leaf sprigs arranged about the borders4 ,the latter are as characteristic as any other part of the rug1 and consist of four stripes separated by dotted lines4 ,the main stripe most frequently contains a row of delicately drawn lilies alternating with rosettes1 though occasionally a very formal vine with conventionalised leaf is substituted for it4 ,in the stripes at each side are very angular vines with three-cleft leaves1 and in the narrow innermost stripe is generally a ribbon pattern4 ,all of the drawing has clear definition accentuated by rich and strongly contrasting colours4 ,the fields of the namazliks1 like those of the ,ghiordes1 are entirely occupied by masses of unshaded blue1 red1 or brown1 that are relieved only by the colours of superimposed designs4 ,but as is not the case with ,ghiordes1 there is often a strong contrast between the colours of centre and ends2 yet the tones are always in perfect harmony4 ,other rugs may have more delicate drawing or more exquisite finish2 but in the barbaric arrangement of strong colour and in the uniqueness of graceful designs1 none exceed the old prayer ,ladiks4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #db4 ,,chichi ,,rug ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and blue1 with minor quantities of green1 yellow1 and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally nine to twelve2 perpendicularly1 ten to thirteen4 ,a half knot as it appears at back is longer than wide4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back4 ,warp1 wool4 ,one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed below the other at the back4 ,weft1 wool of fine diameter1 generally dyed red4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,sides1 a red added selvage of two or three cords4 ,both ends1 a narrow web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of medium grain4 ,usual length1 four and one half to seven feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to two thirds length4 ,,kir-,,shehrs4--,to the north of the great salt desert and in the southern part of the province of ,angora is the town of ,kir-,shehr4 ,it stands between two mountain ranges1 on which are raised sheep with fine fleeces1 and is on the branch of the ,kizil ,irmak1 whose waters are well suited for preparing wool for the dyes obtained in the surrounding country4 ,on account of the excellence of wool1 water1 and natural dyes1 as well as the remoteness of the town from main highways of travel1 many of the old rugs were excellent pieces1 free from the taint of ,western influences1 and possessing the charm of individuality4 ,it was due1 moreover1 to the fact that its three or four thousand inhabitants1 and the ,turkomans who roamed the surrounding country1 rarely felt the influence of larger cities that they were so untrammelled by conventionalities4 ,unhesitatingly they grouped together large spaces of red1 yellow1 and blue1 as well as grass-coloured green1 for which they had a particular fondness and employed to a greater extent than almost any other weavers2 yet in the case of these old pieces the artistic sense is rarely shocked1 since the individual colours are good and the tones are harmonious4 ,furthermore1 the patterns show an unusual blending of floral and geometric forms4 ,most of the pieces come in moderate sizes2 some are mats1 others small sedjadehs1 but the choicest are the prayer rugs4 ,the serrated sides of the arch1 which rise at a steep angle from the centres of each side of the rather narrow fields1 are formed of several parallel lines of different colour4 ,in a not unusual rug1 for instance1 eight narrow lines separating the spandrel of grass-green from the inner field of brick-red appeared in the following order3 red1 black1 white1 yellow1 lavender1 yellow1 red1 and blue4 ,the inmost line is frequently fringed with tri-cleft floral forms1 which1 as in ,koniehs1 extend in a row along the sides of the field4 ,from the niche is usually suspended the design of an inverted tree of life1 and above it are projected latch-hooks or similar devices4 ,it is not unusual to see two arches1 and there are sometimes as many as four1 placed one within the other4 ,the spacious spandrel that is continued in narrow stripes along the borders to the bottom of the field is covered with geometric or conventionalised floral forms2 and the horizontal panel1 which may be placed at either end of the field1 contains designs in harmony with the remaining parts4 ,on the whole1 the wide borders have some of the most characteristic features2 for1 as a rule1 not only are one or two of the stripes of a peculiar cherry red and one a rich yellow1 but three or four of the narrow stripes next to the field are similar in width and ornamentation to those of the ,kulah4 ,when contrasted with them the broad central stripe and the outer one seem lacking in harmony1 for they are distinctly floral and suggestive of ,persian influences4 ,on account of the quality of their wool and weave1 these rugs are soft and flexible4 ,they resemble in some minor details others of the ,anatolian plateau1 yet they can be distinguished by the presence of grass-green colour and the shape of the prayer arch4 ,the nap of these old pieces1 like that of ,kulahs and ,ladiks1 is of medium length2 though in modern pieces it is often longer1 and the weft and webs are coloured as are those of ,bergamos4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and green1 also some blue1 brown1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to nine2 perpendicularly1 five to ten4 ,a half knot as it appears at back is as long as1 or longer than1 wide4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down1 so that in places the warp shows4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back1 or occasionally one is slightly depressed4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium or coarse diameter and generally of different colours in the same rug4 ,a thread of weft crosses from two to six times between two rows of knots1 varying in the same rug4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 from five to eight stripes4 ,sides1 a weft selvage of two1 three1 or four cords of different colours4 ,lower end1 web and warp loops4 ,upper end1 a web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 four to six feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to four fifths length4 ,,anatolians4--,to all of ,asia ,minor was once applied the term 8,anatolia10 which signifies the ,land of the ,rising ,sun2 so that any product of this country might well be called ,anatolian1 just as any product of ,persia might be called ,iranian4 ,in fact1 many of the less known classes1 as the ,nigde1 ,tuzla1 ,mudjar1 and even the ,kir-,shehr1 ,melez1 and ,konieh1 are often called ,anatolian4 ,but as there is a special type of rugs known as ,iranians1 so is there a special type known as ,anatolians4 ,they are1 however1 a mixed lot1 that come from parts of a wide stretch of territory1 extending over the interior table-land to the home of the ,kurds1 and incorporating ideas received from many districts4 ,it is1 accordingly1 difficult to define them as a type2 but1 as a rule1 they are small pieces that are often used for mats and pillows1 with moderately long nap of soft1 floccy wool1 with narrow borders1 and a colour scheme that inclines to bright and sometimes garish colours4 ,doubtless the best of them come from the provinces of ,angora and ,konieh1 lying within a radius of one hundred miles of ,lake ,tuz ,gul4 ,here can be obtained the best of wool and dyes2 and in some of the old pieces appears the artistic drawing of the more important rug centres farther to the west1 but with a strange blending of geometric and floral forms4 ,eight-pointed stars as well as latch-hooks are seen everywhere1 and a very old design with the shape of ram's horns is frequently used4 ,in many of the prayer rugs the arches are of the ,kir-,shehr order1 though the panels may contain vandykes suggestive of ,ladiks4 ,there is the greatest latitude in the width of the borders1 which occasionally are their most noticeable feature and again are most insignificant2 but in either case they rarely contain more than three stripes1 and not infrequently only one4 ,red1 blue1 green1 and brown are the usual colours1 but pink and canary yellow are sometimes used4 ,farther to the east1 among the foot-hills of the ,anti-,taurus mountains1 is woven a coarser type by the ,kurdish tribes4 ,with the exception of wool and dyes they have little to their credit2 for their usual unsymmetric shapes1 crude geometric designs1 long uneven nap1 and braided fringe of warp at the ends are lacking in all elegance4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 green1 brown1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to nine2 perpendicularly1 six to twelve4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is generally as long as wide1 or longer4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down1 yet the warp is frequently concealed at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium or coarse diameter and usually dyed1 ,a thread of weft crosses two1 three1 and four times between two rows of knots frequently varying in the same piece4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 one to three stripes1 and occasionally an edging4 ,sides1 a weft selvage of two or three cords4 ,both ends1 a web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 two and one half to six feet4 ,usual width1 one half to two thirds length4 ,,karamans4--,at the foot of ,mt4 ,taurus and overlooking the plain that stretches northward into the heart of ,asia ,minor is the city of ,karaman4 ,before its subjection in the ,,xv ,century by ,bajazet ,,ii and the removal of the capital to ,konieh1 that lies sixty miles to the northwest1 it was the seat of a ,turkish government extending to the ,mediterranean ,sea2 but to-day the only reminder of its early importance are several ,saracenic mosques covered with rich arabesques4 ,of the rugs woven there during the early period almost nothing is known1 but1 on account of the former importance of the city1 it is not improbable that they compared favourably with the rugs of other parts of the ,turkish ,empire4 ,on the other hand1 some of the modern products are among the poorest rugs of the ,east1 and contain little artistic merit4 ,a feature peculiar to many of them is the use of natural wool of reddish brown colour1 obtained from sheep which live on the mountain ranges to the south of ,karaman4 ,the pile is long1 the weave is never very firm1 and at each end is a coloured web4 ,,sivas4--,in the city of ,sivas1 at the eastern end of ,anatolia1 and in the villages of the surrounding plain1 girls and women have woven rugs from time immemorial2 but on account of the difficulties of transportation few of them reach this country4 ,the carefully finished sides and ends1 the formal character of the pattern1 and the almost harsh effect of the strongly contrasting colours of many of them are unlike what are found in the nomadic rugs made farther to the east and west4 ,in the weave is a hint of ,persian influence2 for not only are both warp and weft of cotton1 but the warp is of small diameter and well spun1 and one of the two threads to which a knot is tied is depressed below the other4 ,the pattern1 on the other hand1 is distinctly ,turkish4 ,one of the best known types consists of a large hexagon that reaches to the sides and ends1 and contains within it a medallion on which are designs similar to those seen in ,bergamos4 ,on the white field surrounding the medallion are often small rosettes and floral figures4 ,the corners of the field may be fringed with running latch-hooks or a row of formal ,t's1 and contain a rosette at their centre4 ,the borders are rarely wide1 and often consist of a single stripe that contains some conventionalised floral form4 ,although these rugs are well woven1 their crude blending of floral and geometric figures1 as well as their formality of drawing1 which is accentuated by the shortness of the nap1 are most suggestive of ,occidental conventions4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dc4 ,,tcherkess ,,rug ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and white2 also dull blue1 green1 and light yellow4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven2 perpendicularly1 nine to fifteen4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is not as long as wide4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 cotton1 well spun and of small diameter4 ,one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back and sometimes doubled under the other4 ,weft1 cotton1 of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of short to medium length4 ,border1 narrow1 one to three stripes4 ,sides1 an added selvage of four or five cords attached in places1 and with weft encircling inner cord of selvage4 ,both ends1 narrow web and loose warp fringe4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is only slightly coarse4 ,usual length1 three and one half to six and one half feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to four fifths length4 ,,mudjars4--,near the river ,kizil ,irmak in ,central ,asia ,minor is the city of ,mudjar1 which produces rugs that occasionally reach this country4 ,they are often classed as ,anatolians1 but their colour scheme covers a wider range1 including red1 yellow1 green1 blue1 mauve1 and pink1 all of which may be seen in the same piece4 ,in fact no other rug of ,asia ,minor contains as a rule so many colours1 which appear in the broad borders of old1 well-woven pieces with glistening wool almost like mosaic work4 ,many of this class are namazliks with arches very similar to the arches in the rugs of ,kir-,shehr1 which is distant only twenty-five miles to the north2 and in the panels above the spandrel are not infrequently designs of vandykes borrowed from the ,ladiks4 ,some suggestion of the tree of life often appears in the field1 and again rows of flowers may extend into it from the sides4 ,some of the best examples are very handsome4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 yellow1 blue1 green1 and ivory1 also mauve and pink4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to nine2 perpendicularly1 seven to twelve4 ,warp1 wool4 ,each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is frequently equally prominent at the back1 but generally one is depressed below the other4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium to coarse diameter dyed red or brown4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 broad1 of three to four stripes4 ,sides1 a three-cord selvage1 frequently red4 ,both ends1 coloured webs and fringe4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave1 moderately coarse4 ,usual length1 four to six feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to three quarters length4 ,,nigdes4--,near the base of the ,anti-,taurus mountains in the eastern part of the province of ,konieh is the city of ,nigde1 which is little known in this country as a rug-producing centre1 though its fabrics reach ,europe4 ,many of them are namazliks1 that are distinguished by their high geometric arches4 ,the borders often show the influence of the ,kurdish tribes1 and contain patterns common in the ,mesopotamian valley2 but their colour scheme of red1 blue1 and yellow more closely resembles the ,anatolian4 ,most of them are of small size and are poorly woven4 ,,tuzlas4--,another class of ,asia ,minor rugs rarely seen are the ,tuzlas4 ,they are generally regarded as ,anatolians1 but are made by people who live about ,lake ,tuz ,gul in the province of ,konieh4 ,some of them are well woven1 and have soft woollen pile and attractive patterns4 ,the prayer arch of the namazliks bears some resemblance to the arch of the ,kir-,shehrs2 the panel is relatively high2 and not infrequently the borders have rosettes similar to those of ,bergamos4 ,the principal colours are red1 blue1 green1 and ivory4 ,,kaisariyeh4--,one of the few ,asia ,minor centres for the manufacture of silk textiles is the city of ,kaisariyeh1 the ancient ,csarea1 near the eastern part of ,anatolia4 ,formerly rugs of excellent quality were made there2 but the modern products are1 as a rule1 inferior both in workmanship and material to those of ,hereke4 ,frequently their dyes are aniline and the colours garish4 ,many of them are prayer rugs with arches resembling the ,ghiordes pattern1 but their borders are more conventional4 ,woollen rugs which are copies of other well-known ,asia ,minor pieces are also woven there4 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,,vii--,,ladik ,,prayer ,,rug ,the rug here represented conforms in every particular to one of the best types of ,ladik prayer rugs4 ,it contains the beautiful border stripe of ,rhodian lilies1 the pomegranates and vandykes in the panel below the central field1 and the queer designs of scrolls and serrated leaves so peculiar to these rugs4 ,it is interesting to see how the pattern of the innermost stripe1 which consists of a row of ,s-forms at the top and sides1 is changed so as to resemble a ribbon at the bottom1 to note the eight-pointed stars resting on octagons in the lower panel1 so suggestive of nomads1 and also the designs which have been placed near the two corners on the left1 between the rosettes and ,rhodian lilies of the main stripe1 as if to divert the spell of the 8evil-eye40 ,such irregularities1 denoting the idiosyncrasies of the weaver1 add to the charm of ,oriental rugs4 ,loaned by ,mr4 ,hulett ,c4 ,merritt ,,yuruks4--,suggestive of gipsies1 yet widely unlike them1 are the tribes of ,turkoman descent known as ,yuruks4 ,this term means 8,wanderers20 and they are well named1 since throughout the western part of ,asia ,minor they follow their sheep1 cattle1 and camels from the rich pastures among the mountain tops of the interior1 where they live in summer1 to the fertile1 sunny plains bordering the seashore in winter4 ,even near ,smyrna and the slopes of ,mt4 ,olympus may be seen their black goat's-hair tents1 where the unexpected guest is always welcome4 ,in their rugs is the reflection of their untrammelled lives1 unaffected by the refinements of cities2 and as their lives are different from those of all other inhabitants of ,asia ,minor1 so are these rugs entirely distinct1 resembling more than anything else the work of the wild ,kazaks of the ,caucasus4 ,in them will be recognised the same long nap1 the same massing of colour1 the same profusion of latch-hooks1 and other simple designs4 ,the colours1 however1 are less brilliant1 bright reds and yellows being more sparingly used2 but on the other hand the depth of floccy nap gives a subdued richness to the dark metallic madder1 blue1 green1 and brown1 such as is rarely seen in any ,kazak4 ,the patterns show the usual diversity of nomadic rugs4 ,the fields may contain crude1 unrelated figures1 or diagonal stripes on which are small geometric designs4 ,again from the ,kurdish tribes to the east may be adopted the pear designs as well as floral forms1 but the drawing is always far from realistic4 ,most of the modern rugs have fine wool coloured with vegetable dyes1 and stout warp and weft woven to give flexibility2 but their patterns show a want of all artistic feeling4 ,now and then1 however1 comes to light a piece that has stood the wear of more than a century1 showing the touch of a higher craftsmanship1 and with colours softened by each succeeding year4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally brown1 red1 and blue1 with minor quantities of yellow1 green1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to seven2 perpendicularly1 six to nine4 ,the rows of knots are not closely pressed down1 yet the warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 wool or goat's hair2 each of the two threads encircled by a half knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses two1 three1 or four times between every two rows of knots1 varying in the same rug4 ,pile1 wool1 clipped long4 ,border1 from four to six stripes1 occasionally with an outer edging4 ,sides1 generally a heavy double overcasting1 but occasionally a double selvage of two or three cords4 ,lower end1 a coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord1 and warp loops2 or the warp threads may be knotted and hang loose4 ,upper end1 a coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord1 a braided selvage1 and a warp fringe2 or the warp ends may be braided together at short intervals4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave at back is of moderately coarse grain4 ,usual length1 four to nine feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to two thirds length4 ,,asia ,,minor ,,border ,,stripes ,regarded as a whole1 the borders of ,asia ,minor rugs show but slight relationship to either the geometric patterns of the ,caucasian1 or the floral patterns of the ,persian2 for as a rule the geometric features either are subordinate or suggest an origin by degradation from floral designs1 and the floral features generally are represented by an orderly arrangement of disjunct forms rather than by continuous vines with pendent flowers4 ,yet there is no doubt that some were copied by ,caucasian weavers1 and that many were derived from ,persian patterns4 ,they are frequently1 however1 more artistic than the former1 more interesting than the latter1 and rival both in beautiful colouring and delicate drawing4 ,primary ,stripes4--,several different stripes peculiar to ,ghiordes prayer rugs are illustrated in ,plate ,g1 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e 7opp4 ,page #aib74 ,the first of these is probably the oldest4 ,it is so strikingly suggestive of the ,herati design of rosette and attendant leaves that there can be little doubt of its ,persian origin4 ,the seed-like processes of the alternate rosettes are noticeable4 ,the second1 which is found in many of the ,ghiordes rugs1 shows the same pattern more conventionalised1 with the rosette resembling an open pod and with the leaves almost octagonal-shaped4 ,the third is a still greater evolution of the same pattern in which leaves and rosettes of nearly equal shape and size are placed at three angles of a quadrangular space4 ,the last1 which is a very elaborate pattern somewhat similar to the first1 is found in a few old rugs4 ,besides these1 a number of parallel lines similar to those of ,kulah rugs 7,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ab7 are sometimes seen in the ,ghiordes4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,g4 ,,primary ,,border-,,stripes ,,of ,,asia ,,minor ,,rugs ,one of the best known ,ghiordes stripes found in odjaliks and sedjadehs is shown in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #f4 ,it is a broad stripe with wide1 vine-like bands covered with rows of small flecks or flowers4 ,between each flexure of the band are designs probably symbolic of early sun worship4 ,in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #g1 is represented the most usual and beautiful stripe of the ,ladik prayer rugs4 ,the principal motives are ,rhodian lilies1 and rosettes identical with ,persian forms1 that are probably conventionalised roses4 ,another stripe1 in which the lily is replaced by a conventionalised vine1 is shown in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #h4 ,both these stripes are found only in ,ladik rugs4 ,other stripes seen now and then in ,ladik and ,melez sedjadehs are illustrated in ,plate ,g1 ,figs4 #i1 #aj1 and #aa1 each of which shows a conventionalised leaf4 ,one of the most typical ,kulah stripes is seen in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ab4 ,it might in fact be regarded as a number of parallel stripes1 but as will be evident by observing a large series of ,kulahs it serves the function of a single broad stripe4 ,often the separate bands are replaced by a ground of uniform colour marked by parallel rows of minute flowers of regularly varying colour4 ,occasionally this stripe is copied by ,ghiordes weavers4 ,in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ac1 is a well-known stripe that appears both in ,kulah and ,rhodian rugs4 ,as previously explained1 its origin is probably floral1 though the drawing is geometric4 ,a formal stripe found in ,bergamos1 and consisting largely of diamonds and eight-pointed stars1 is represented in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ad4 ,figs4 #ae and #af of ,plate ,g illustrate the border stripes of ,melez rugs4 ,each contains regularly spaced rosettes1 separated by conventionalised leaf forms4 ,a much more geometric ,melez border1 in which the rosettes are replaced by eight-pointed stars and the leaves by discs1 is shown in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ag4 ,a geometric stripe of uncertain origin that is found in some ,koniehs is shown in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ah4 ,in ,plate ,g1 ,figs4 #ai and #bj1 are represented two stripes characteristic of ,kir-,shehrs4 ,the former is a dainty pattern consisting of a row of bushes separated by the lily design4 ,it is occasionally found in the ,melez also4 ,a typical ,mudjar stripe in which the geometric patterns are subdivided into small and richly coloured mosaic work is seen in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #ba4 ,in ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #bb1 is illustrated a ,yuruk border stripe such as is frequently seen in modern pieces4 ,secondary and ,tertiary ,stripes4--,in ,plate ,h1 ,figs4 #a and #b 7opp4 ,page #aid71 are illustrated two secondary stripes frequently seen in ,ghiordes and ,kulah rugs4 ,the first is most suggestive of a running vine1 and the second has doubtless been derived from it4 ,a more ornate pattern1 which generally accompanies the broad band of perpendicular lines peculiar to ,ghiordes and ,kulah rugs1 is shown in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #c4 ,the arrangement of three leaves in angles of quadrangular spaces suggests relationship to the primary stripe of ,plate ,g1 ,fig4 #c 7opp4 ,page #aib74 ,two other secondary stripes found in ,ghiordes rugs are seen in ,plate ,h1 ,figs4 #d and #e4 ,the former1 which is also found in ,kulahs is a vine and flower subject to many modifications4 ,a tertiary stripe containing a ribbon-like vine is very usual in ,ghiordes and ,kulah pieces4 ,one of these1 which is very graceful1 is shown in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #f4 ,another angular vine with pendent flower1 that appears as a secondary stripe of a large number of ,ladik prayer rugs1 is illustrated in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #g4 ,this resembles a few ,persian stripes1 but the drawing of the pendent leaf is characteristic of ,asia ,minor4 ,figs4 #h and #i of ,plate ,h represent two tertiary stripes often seen in ,ladiks and ,kulahs4 ,they illustrate the evolution of patterns2 for in the same stripe of a rug will sometimes be seen the first of these and the simple ribbon pattern of ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #ah 7opp4 ,page #aeh71 and also in the same stripe of another rug will sometimes be seen the second of these and a continuous row of 8ff0 designs1 as in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #b4 ,the most typical of all ,kulah secondary stripes1 though it is also seen in ,rhodian rugs and occasionally in an old ,ghiordes1 is illustrated in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a somewhat similar stripe is shown in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,the design looks like a ,chinese motive1 but that it is evolved from a vine will be seen by comparing these stripes with those in ,figs4 #d and #ab4 ,all of them are ,asia ,minor border stripes4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,h4 ,,secondary ,,and ,,tertiary ,,border-,,stripes ,,of ,,asia ,,minor ,,rugs ,in ,figs4 #ac and #ad of ,plate ,h are illustrated the swastika and ,s stripe1 which are seen now and then in ,asia ,minor rugs1 such as ,kulahs1 and also in ,caucasian rugs4 ,one of the most typical of ,melez secondary stripes1 representing processes like cogs projecting in a row from alternating sides of the stripe1 is shown in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #ae4 ,the stripes shown in ,figs4 #af and #ag of ,plate ,h1 representing a row of small rosettes and a row of octagonal discs1 are also occasionally seen in ,melez rugs4 ,the very angular vine shown in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #ah1 is sometimes seen in ,koniehs4 ,a very unusual secondary stripe 7,plate ,h1 ,fig #ai71 found in a few ,anatolians1 represents a fret pattern1 which was probably copied from some monument4 ,the chain pattern 7,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #bj7 is occasionally seen as a tertiary stripe in the ,ghiordes4 ,it appeared in ,asia ,minor rugs of several centuries ago1 and has been copied by the weavers of ,caucasia4 ,sometimes the lines are angular1 and again the ,s's are separated by small round or square dots4 ,,technicalities ,,in ,,the ,,weave ,,of ,,asia ,,minor ,,rugs ,legend3 ,,knot-- ,h ,horizontally ,p ,perpendicularly ,,warp-- g goat's hair s silk e each equally prominent d #a to the knot depressed h #a to the knot doubled under ,,weft-- s silk j jute ,no4 ,no4 times crossing bet4 two round knots ,,sides-- ,o overcasting ,s selvage ,,lower ,,end ,w web ,s ,selvage ,k ,rows knots ,l warp loops ,f fringe ,,upper ,,end ,w web ,s selvage ,k ,rows knots ,t turned back and hemmed ,f fringe ,,knot ,,warp ,,asia ,,minor ,number to ,at back ,inches ,g ,s w c ,ghiordes ,sehna ,h ,p wool cotton s_/l e d h ,anatolian ,g #e-i #f-ab w e ,bergamo ,g #e-i #g-aj w e ,ghiordes ,g #g-ab #h-af w c s e d ,karaman ,g #f-i #h-ac w d ,kir-,shehr ,g #e-i #e-aj w e d ,konieh ,g #e-h #f-aj w e ,kulah ,g #e-aj #g-ab w e d ,ladik ,g #i-abaj-ac w e d ,meles ,g #e-h #f-aa w e ,rhodian ,g #e-h #g-i w e d ,sivas ,g #g-aa #i-ae c d h ,youruk ,g #e-g #f-i w g e ,,weft ,,sides ,,lower ,,end ,,asia ,,minor w c wool cotton s_/l ,p ,o ,s ,w_/,s ,k ,l ,f ,anatolian w #b-d ,s ,w ,f ,bergamo w #b-f ,s ,w ,f ,ghiordes w c s #b ,s ,w ,f ,karaman w #b ,o ,s ,w_/,s ,l ,kir-,shehr w #b-f ,s ,w ,l ,konieh w #b ,s ,w ,f ,kulah w j #b_/a ,s ,w ,f ,ladik w #b ,s ,w ,f ,meles w #d ,s ,w ,f ,rhodian w #b_/a-d ,s ,w ,f ,sivas w c #b ,s ,w ,f ,youruk w #b-d ,o ,s ,w ,k ,l ,f ,,upper ,,end ,,nap ,,weave ,,texture ,,asia ,,minor l long f fine l loose m medium m medium m medium ,w_/,s ,k ,t ,f s short c coarse f firm ,anatolian ,w ,f m c l ,bergamo ,w ,f m_/l f m ,ghiordes ,w ,f s f m ,karaman ,w_/,s ,t ,f l c l ,kir-,shehr ,w ,f m c l ,konieh ,w ,f m m_/c m_/f ,kulah ,w ,f m_/s m_/c l ,ladik ,w ,f m m m_/f ,meles ,w_/,s ,f m_/s m_/c l ,rhodian ,w_/,s ,f l m_/c m_/l ,sivas ,w ,f m_/s m_/c f ,youruk ,w ,k ,t ,f l c l indicates the less frequent condition4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,caucasian ,,rugs ,,aside from the facts that the ,caucasus is rugged1 that during the ,middle ,ages it was ruled by the illustrious ,tamara1 and that till recently the physical charms of its women made them favourites in the slave markets of ,constantinople1 the character and history of that country are to-day almost as unknown to the average reader as they were when the bards of ancient ,greece bound ,prometheus to its rocks and hung the ,golden ,fleece from its oaken boughs4 ,yet it is a country of wonderful interest4 ,above its gorges1 rivalling those of the ,himalayas1 rise mountains higher than the ,alps4 ,on the southwestern slope are combined the luxuriant vegetation of tropical lowlands with virgin forests of fir and pine1 and in meadows and beside shaded brooks grow flowers of strange beauty4 ,beneath the ground is undeveloped wealth of ores and mineral oil4 ,the river ,phasis is the natural home of the pheasant2 the crags are the resorts of ibex2 and in secluded glens sharing solitude with bear1 wolf1 and boar are hidden the wild aurochs4 ,moreover1 the philologist1 ethnologist1 and historian can here follow his favourite pursuit with as much zest as the ,alpine climber1 botanist1 mineralogist1 and sportsman2 for within the confines of this region are spoken some seventy languages by as many distinct clans1 each of remote origin4 ,some are the descendants of the early dwellers2 some are the ,aryan stock that found its way to ,europe before the beginning of history2 still others are but the offspring of the flotsam and jetsam which recurring waves of ,asiatic conquerors1 surging westward in ancient times1 left stranded here4 ,nevertheless1 for so many generations have the present inhabitants remained among their mountain strongholds1 unabsorbed and unassimilating1 that they have been regarded as a type sufficiently pure and characteristic to give its name to the great ,caucasian race4 ,though enjoying greater isolation than surrounding countries1 the ,caucasus at different times and in different ways has felt their influences4 ,during the ,augustan age of ,tamara's rule she attracted by her brilliancy1 taste1 and industry foreign courtiers and artisans4 ,hardly was she dead before ,genghis ,khan's horde of conquering ,mongols poured over the land2 and rival suitors1 enraptured by her daughter's beauty1 pressed their claims by invading it with their ,mohammedan armies4 ,for long succeeding years ,persia struggled with ,turkey for the mastery of the country1 and was about to take it when ,russia grasped the prize1 but only after ,shamyl with a few brave thousands had defeated vast armies4 ,each of these foreign guests or foes left some impression on the native art2 so that ,caucasian rugs show traces of ,turkoman1 ,turkish1 and ,persian influences4 ,it is rarely1 excepting in a few small geometric figures1 that there is any evidence of the ,turkoman influence2 but it is not unusual to see border stripes and field designs adopted from the ,turkish rugs4 ,some of these stripes represent both geometric and floral patterns1 either copied directly or derived with slight modifications from rugs woven three or four centuries ago in ,asia ,minor or ,armenia4 ,the ,persian influence is apparent only in the floral forms4 ,it doubtless inspired the stripe of dainty carnations so common in a large number of ,caucasian pieces1 the pear design inseparable from ,baku rugs1 as well as many other figures that first appeared in the rugs of ,persia4 ,nevertheless1 these rugs have their own distinct characteristics1 which have a boldness and virility that are to be attributed in a measure to grand and rugged scenery as well as to centuries of struggle for independence1 since in art the influence of environment is most apparent4 ,they lack something of the sobriety1 artistic drawing1 and delicate colouring of those woven in vast deserts1 amid the monuments of fallen empires1 and in the gardens of the ,east2 they contain on the other hand1 both in line and colour1 the forceful expression of untrammelled thought4 ,the patterns are largely geometric2 the tones of colour1 in which clear red1 blue1 green1 and yellow predominate1 are strong4 ,on the whole1 they possess an individuality of character that is not surpassed by the rugs of any other group4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,caucasia ,,daghestans4--,in no part of ,caucasia have better rugs been woven than in ,daghestan1 8the mountain country40 ,nor is it surprising that this province should produce distinctive types1 when it is considered that it has a length of over two hundred miles2 that its topography is diversified by glaciated mountains1 barren steppes1 and fertile valleys2 and that it is occupied by numerous clans1 many of whom differ in origin as well as religion4 ,some of the rugs come from the city of ,derbend on the ,caspian ,sea2 some come from ,kuba in the southeastern corner2 others1 called ,kabistans1 are produced in the country about ,kuba2 a few are made by the ,lesghians who live among the lofty mountains2 and in other parts of the province are woven pieces which formerly were sent in large numbers to ,europe and ,america1 where they soon became known as ,daghestans4 ,though their resemblance to the ,kabistans is so great that it is often difficult to distinguish between them1 the rugs which acquired the trade name of ,daghestans are different from almost all other ,caucasian pieces4 ,this is largely because the province is bounded on three sides by a sea and a nearly impassable mountain range1 which render communication with surrounding territory difficult1 and create a natural isolation1 where in the course of many generations a distinct type was developed4 ,moreover1 these same physical conditions have impeded both the introduction of aniline dyes1 so that even among modern pieces spurious colours are not frequently seen2 and also the adoption of new designs1 so that the patterns of two or three centuries ago are still largely used4 ,it is among the oldest rugs of the ,daghestan weave that are found many of the best examples of ,caucasian textile art4 ,the dark1 rich reds and blues of the fields1 which are brightened by the ivory1 light blue1 green1 and yellow of the small designs1 resemble the fine colouring of choice ,persian carpets4 ,but the patterns are totally dissimilar2 for it is only in a few rare old pieces1 in which are copied some designs such as the lotus1 or the running vine with leaf and bud1 that there is any likeness to the realism of ,persian floral ornamentation4 ,the drawing1 however1 is never crude1 and on account of the short nap and strongly contrasting colours always appears with clear definition4 ,with the exception of conventionalised pears1 the three-leaf sprig1 which is commonly seen in the field1 and the narrow border stripes of carnations1 almost all of the figures are geometric2 and are so carefully drawn1 so closely clustered1 that they represent an appearance frequently compared to mosaic work4 ,even when the patterns represent large medallions or stars1 they contain smaller concentric forms1 or are divided and redivided into smaller stars1 diamonds1 or tessellated figures1 so that the effect is the same4 ,in some form or other the latch-hook is seen in almost all these pieces4 ,of small designs1 the octagonal disc is almost invariably found2 and animals1 human beings1 and the pear are not infrequently seen4 ,as the population of the province is largely ,mohammedan1 namazliks as well as sedjadehs are made2 but with the exception of the unobtrusive arch of the namazlik1 which is represented in ,plate ,c1 ,fig4 #i 7,page #fa71 there is little difference between them4 ,there is never any panel as in ,asia ,minor rugs2 nor is there a noticeable spandrel1 since the space above the arch contains designs similar to those on the rest of the field4 ,as a rule1 the borders consist of three or four stripes separated by coloured lines4 ,only in the secondary stripes are any floral forms employed2 and these1 with the exception of the carnation design1 are rare4 ,the reciprocal trefoil is most characteristic as an outer stripe2 the serrated line is also employed2 and it is not unusual to find next to the field a broad stripe of diagonal barber-pole bars1 on which are small dotted lines4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 red1 and ivory1 with minor quantities of green and yellow4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve2 perpendicularly1 eight to fifteen4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as wide and occasionally longer4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down1 so that their alignment is even and the warp shows at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back2 occasionally in old pieces one thread is slightly depressed below the other4 ,weft1 wool of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 clipped short4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,sides1 a selvage of two1 three1 or four cords1 or occasionally a weft-overcasting4 ,both ends1 a web1 one row of knots or more1 and loose warp fringe4 ,occasionally there is also a narrow braided selvage4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of fine grain4 ,usual length1 five to ten feet4 ,usual width1 one half to two thirds length4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dd4 ,,baku ,,rug ,,kabistans4--,within recent years most of the rugs shipped from the southern part of ,daghestan have become known in ,western markets as ,kabistans1 though the distinction between them and the type that takes the name of the province is so slight that it is determinable only by the strictest analysis4 ,in fact1 ,kabistans are merely a variety of ,daghestans4 ,both have short nap and occasionally adopt the same colour scheme and patterns1 so that many of each class are indistinguishable from one another4 ,on the other hand1 there are a few interesting points of difference between the best types1 which are largely attributable to geographic environment4 ,as the only easy access to this province from the south is by the shore of the ,caspian1 where the great mountain wall that forms an almost impassable barrier between ,northern and ,southern ,caucasia descends to the plain1 the district adjacent to this entrance on the line of travel would naturally feel and show a foreign influence1 while the remote and more inaccessible parts of the province would be unaffected4 ,accordingly1 the designs of ,kabistans are more varied1 and it is not surprising to find in them evidences of ,persian influence not so apparent in the ,daghestans4 ,in some1 for instance1 are pear designs1 like those occasionally seen in ,shiraz pieces2 and the rich tones1 that are usually more subdued than those of the ,daghestans1 suggest the finest dyes of the ,feraghans4 ,there is also a slight difference in weave4 ,both display the two threads of warp encircled by each knot with equal prominence at the back2 but in the ,daghestans the alignment of the two halves of the knot1 as they appear at the back1 is more regular2 while in the ,kabistans one extends beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug1 as is the case with the ,shirvans woven in the adjoining country to the south4 ,frequently the weft of ,kabistans is of cotton2 and the filling is not as wide as that of ,daghestans1 which is of wool4 ,moreover1 the ,kabistans may be either overcast or have a selvage at the sides1 but the ,daghestans have almost always a narrow selvage4 ,among the modern pieces there is a tendency for both classes to follow the side finish of the ,shirvans4 ,a well-known type of old ,kabistans1 that is also sometimes repeated in ,daghestans1 has a dark blue field on which are spaced in regular order white bracket-like designs1 in which the perpendicular arms are usually connected 7,plate ,o1 ,figs4 #ah-;a and #ah-;b1 ,page #bia74 ,their origin is unknown2 but when their shape and their position in reference to the rosettes or effulgent stars that are placed near them are considered1 the thought is at once suggested that in them is reproduced after a long process of slow change a conventionalised form of the ,herati design4 ,other small harmonious designs are properly spaced throughout the fields1 and in the main stripe of the border1 on a cream-coloured ground1 is frequently seen the beautiful pattern of ,cufic origin represented in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #ai 7opp4 ,page #bbh74 ,old pieces of this pattern1 which are now growing rare1 represent in weave1 colour1 and design the masterpieces of ,caucasian textile art4 ,another pattern consists of diagonal stripes with small geometric figures1 or of small floral forms arranged in rows1 so that those of similar colour fall in diagonal lines4 ,again1 the entire field may be covered with rectangular pears like those of ,baku rugs4 ,oblong odjaliks are often seen with fields of dark colour1 at each end of which are large geometric figures symmetrically balanced with reference to the centre4 ,but they are so fringed with latch-hooks and so subdivided into smaller devices1 which are accentuated by the shortness of the nap1 that they have the effect of an assemblage of smaller designs4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 also some red1 ivory1 green1 and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve2 perpendicularly1 eight to sixteen4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as wide and occasionally longer4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down2 their alignment is less even than in ,daghestans1 yet the warp may be seen at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool or cotton1 of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots and occasionally three times4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,sides1 generally a weft-overcasting1 or a two-cord weft selvage2 occasionally a double overcasting or selvage4 ,lower end1 a narrow web1 not infrequently a fine braided selvage and warp loops4 ,upper end1 a narrow web1 occasionally a fine braided selvage and warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of medium grain4 ,usual length1 five to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 one half to three quarters length4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #de4 ,,shirvan ,,rug ,,kubas4--,not far from the southeast corner of the province of ,daghestan1 in a plain watered by streams that debouch from the ,caucasus1 is the small town of ,kuba4 ,it is on the site of an old ,persian fort1 about which in the course of time sprang up a town sufficiently important to be the residence of a ,khan4 ,for a long period previous to the treaty of ,gulistan1 in #ahac1 the influence of the ,persians had been predominant in this part of the country2 and it is not improbable that some of the oldest ,kuba rugs now existing are the work of their weavers4 ,many1 on the other hand1 have few foreign characteristics either of weave or design1 and show a relationship to the work of the ,shemakha tribes1 who inhabit an adjoining district in ,shirvan4 ,in some of this class the floral form receives more elaborate treatment than in any other ,caucasian rug4 ,one of the patterns of undoubted ,iranian inspiration represents a large oval panel or medallion1 with graceful outlines resting on a field of deep blue and sable brown1 streaked with waving lines of gold4 ,within the medallion is a lavish display of large flowers en masse1 and not detached from one another or arranged in set form1 as is the case with most floral patterns4 ,in each corner is a rose with spreading petals that equals the largest seen in nature1 and with colour that suggests the beauty of a ,duchess or ,marechal ,niel4 ,surrounding all is a narrow dainty border of some well-known ,persian vine4 ,the most recent copies of this pattern1 that has been followed for at least a century and a half1 are so crude as to resemble but slightly the oldest1 which suggest the work of some early ,kirman weaver and are unsurpassed in beauty and artistic elegance by any other ,caucasian rug4 ,other patterns are more distinctly representative of the native art4 ,the field of some is occupied by large1 irregular1 octagonal-shaped figures defined by serrated edges and subdivided by mosaic work1 at the centre of which is some well-known design4 ,one of the most pleasing patterns consists of a field on which with mathematical precision are placed large effulgent stars4 ,at their centre is often a much smaller star enclosed by a diamond from which extend broad rays directed towards the eight principal points of the compass4 ,when softened by time the different shades1 such as light blue1 ivory1 and deep red of the enveloping rays1 contrasted with other shades at the centre and with a dark blue of the ground1 are exceedingly beautiful4 ,the ,kubas and ,shemakhas have similar tones of colour1 consisting principally of blues1 reds1 sable brown1 and yellow1 to which the soft1 velvety character of the wool of the best examples gives a quality of richness that is distinctive4 ,the finish of their sides and ends1 which is usually similar to that of the ,soumaks1 is also identical1 so that they are frequently mistaken for one another1 and can only be distinguished by a difference of pattern and a slight difference of weave4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 red1 and brown1 occasionally some green4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to nine2 perpendicularly1 seven to thirteen4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is almost hidden at back4 ,warp1 fine wool2 the two threads encircled by a knot are equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool of fine or medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 one to three stripes4 ,sides1 a blue double selvage of two or three cords4 ,both ends1 a narrow blue web of 8herring-bone0 weave1 a knotted selvage or several rows of knots1 and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 slightly loose4 ,weave at back is of moderately fine grain4 ,usual length1 four to nine feet4 ,usual width1 one half to two thirds length4 ,,derbends4--,near the great walls built by ,alexander on the ,caspian ,sea1 where mountains rise abruptly so as to leave only a narrow pass1 is one of the oldest cities of ,caucasia4 ,it was known by the ,romans as ,albana1 and was renamed by the ,persians of the ,,vi ,century 8,derbend10 which in their language signifies a gateway4 ,no other city of ,caucasia has been visited by more foreign foes4 ,tartar tribes passed that way when entering ,europe2 ,mongolians captured it as late as the ,,xiii ,century2 ,russians and ,persians in turn held it4 ,moreover1 the sea has offered an easy approach to the ,turkoman tribes dwelling to the east4 ,it is therefore somewhat surprising that there is so little evidence of artistic foreign influence in the weavings2 but this is due1 perhaps1 to the fact that pieces with an authentic age of over two centuries no longer exist1 and such old rugs as remain are very scarce2 whilst the modern pieces are derived largely from the mountainous districts that find a market in the city4 ,occasionally1 however1 there comes to light a very old piece that reaches the standard of the finest ,kabistan4 ,the field of such a one may be filled with elaborately drawn pears like those seen in many of the ,niris rugs4 ,again1 it may be covered with a checkered or lattice-work pattern that contains within the diamonds geometric or semi-floral mosaic designs4 ,surrounding this field are three or four stripes1 of which the outer has a reciprocal pattern4 ,the nap is of fine wool of moderate length4 ,at the back of these older rugs is sometimes displayed finely spun reddish dyed threads of woollen weft pressed closely together between lines of knots carefully tied to brownish threads of woollen warp2 but not infrequently cotton is used for both warp and weft4 ,such designs and technique suggest the rugs woven much farther to the south4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #df4 ,,soumak ,,rug ,in contrast with these beautiful but rare pieces1 the modern products are sad commentaries on the retrogression in weaving2 for those that are ordinarily found in the market are like poor imitations of inferior ,daghestans4 ,they are of slightly larger size1 and have longer nap1 looser weave1 and cruder colours4 ,moreover1 they show evidences of ,turkoman influences2 for not infrequently the warp is of brown goat's hair1 and at each end is a reddish brown web like what may be seen in the rugs of ,yomud tribes living on the eastern shores of the ,caspian4 ,still other nomadic characters1 resembling the workmanship of ,kazak tribes1 appear in the large star-like or diamond-shaped figures which1 fringed with latch-hooks and coloured with bright tones of red1 blue1 or green1 are often placed in simple array on a field of strongly contrasting colour4 ,there is nothing1 however1 offensive in the colour scheme1 excepting when aniline dyes are used4 ,with wear the nap of many of them acquires the soft and pleasing effect of ,beluchistans4 ,furthermore1 they are both flexible and durable1 though entirely lacking in artistic qualities4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 red1 and ivory1 with minor quantities of green1 yellow1 and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to nine2 perpendicularly1 six to twelve4 ,each half knot is about as long as wide1 and occasionally longer4 ,the rows of knots are generally pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed at back4 ,warp1 generally wool1 occasionally cotton4 ,the separate threads are not strung closely together4 ,each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back4 ,weft1 generally wool1 but often cotton4 ,in some pieces a thread of weft of medium diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots2 not infrequently it crosses both twice and three times in the same piece2 rarely a thread of coarse diameter crosses only once4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 a double selvage of two or three cords1 or occasionally a double overcasting4 ,both ends have a web1 frequently a knotted selvage1 and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately loose4 ,weave at back is of medium grain4 ,usual length1 five to seven feet4 ,usual width1 one half to two thirds length4 ,,lesghians4--,on the northern flank of the high mountain ranges that extend eastward from ,kazbek into the province of ,daghestan1 live the numerous tribes classed as ,lesghians4 ,their different dialects and languages would indicate unrelated origins2 but their common religion1 mode of life1 and struggle for liberty have established between all of them strong bonds of sympathy4 ,they are nominally ,christians1 but essentially ,mohammedans4 ,most of them live in almost inaccessible spots1 beneath the snow covered1 glaciated ridges1 and beside fierce flowing torrents1 where on occasions they have converted their homes into almost impregnable fortresses4 ,these are the people who united with the ,circassians in the long-continued struggle against the ,russian ,empire1 and followed ,shamyl to repeated victory among the mountain defiles4 ,it might naturally be expected that the rugs of such people would partake of a character totally distinct from those woven in the sunny atmosphere of ,kirman1 amid the sacred influences of ,meshed1 or among the peaceful hills of ,ghiordes4 ,such1 in fact1 is the case1 since both patterns and colouring display extreme simplicity1 as well as strength and beauty4 ,large numbers of these rugs are of moderate size and slightly oblong2 and are flexible yet stout4 ,both warp and weft are of fine brown wool2 and as is rarely the case with any other ,caucasian rugs excepting the ,shushas1 one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is often almost doubled beneath the other4 ,the knotted fringe of the ends suggests the work of tribes living further westward1 but the selvage of the sides shows relationship to the ,daghestans4 ,the patterns of some of these rugs are not unlike those of rugs woven south of the ,caucasus2 and not infrequently the fields contain unrelated designs such as the lozenge fringed with hooks1 the octagonal disc1 eight-pointed stars1 and ,s forms4 ,the borders usually consist of two or three stripes1 on which is some geometric pattern4 ,the colours are few and characteristic4 ,blue and yellow are generally present1 and frequently red and brown4 ,on the whole1 these pieces have an interesting individuality unlike that of any other rugs4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 blue1 yellow1 red1 brown1 and ivory4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to nine2 perpendicularly1 six to eleven4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp is almost hidden at back4 ,warp1 brown wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back1 or doubled under the other4 ,weft1 wool of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 usually three stripes4 ,sides1 an added selvage1 which is generally wool but occasionally cotton1 of two1 three1 or four cords4 ,both ends1 a web1 two or three rows of knots1 and a warp fringe4 ,in some pieces there is also a braided selvage4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 five to eight feet4 ,usual width1 one half to two thirds length4 ,,chichis4--,on the lower slope of the ,caucasus1 extending down into the valley of the ,terek are the homes of the ,tchechens1 the weavers of pieces so often spoken of as ,chichis4 ,beyond them to the north are great stretches of ,russian steppes1 and to the south is the land of the hardy ,lesghians4 ,nevertheless1 their rugs show little relationship to the work of the latter or of any other tribes to the north of the mountain chain2 but resemble more closely the work of the ,shirvans in the valley of the ,kur1 so that not infrequently they are mistaken for them4 ,indeed1 their general character is remote from anything barbaric1 and is more in keeping with the pleasing effect of the ,persian sense of harmony4 ,all floral forms are conventionalised1 but the geometric designs have a delicacy of drawing1 a refinement of detail1 from which every jarring note is eliminated4 ,like almost all weavers1 the ,tchechens adopt different patterns4 ,on the field of some of the rugs is a plentiful array of small devices surrounding two or three large geometric figures2 or again the field may be covered with pear designs arranged in regular order2 but most of the rugs now seen follow a common type4 ,in this the field resembles a floor inlaid with beautiful mosaic work1 formed of carefully cut stones of various hues1 studiously arranged in the form of small diamonds1 eight-pointed stars1 or rosettes4 ,not infrequently the rosettes are outlined by a fret device surrounding a central star4 ,they are invariably arranged in lines parallel to the ends of the rugs1 and this horizontal effect is sometimes accentuated by inserting between each row narrow bands composed of conventionalised leaves4 ,the colours of these small designs are generally ivory1 light blue1 pale yellow1 or red2 and appear more pronounced by contrast with the underlying ground of light blue4 ,now and then the nomadic instinct of the ,tchechen tribes1 who lead their flocks regularly from the green pastures of the ridges to the valley of the ,terek1 crops out in unrelated devices such as combs and ,s forms1 which they weave in the field4 ,but they usually arrange them so as to harmonise with the main pattern1 or else place them near the sides and ends1 which are almost invariably fringed with either a serrated line or a row of reciprocal trefoils projecting from the border into the field4 ,this feature of a reciprocal trefoil employed as a fringe to the edges of a field independently of the lines of a stripe1 is seen in very few other classes4 ,often the borders1 which contain a large number of stripes1 are as wide as the central field1 with which they harmonise both in colour and design4 ,there is something chaste in the simplicity of the geometric figures of the secondary stripes and of the conventionalised floral drawing of the main stripe4 ,the latter1 as represented in the type generally seen 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #f1 opp4 ,page #bbf71 consists of a row of about eight rosettes1 connected by an angular vine drawn with such breadth and regularity as to resemble a number of parallel bars diagonal to the sides4 ,in fact1 this pattern would be entirely geometric were it not for the three-cleft leaves1 which spring from opposite sides of the rosettes4 ,of the secondary stripes1 the outer almost invariably has the reciprocal trefoil1 and one has frequently a continuous line of eight-pointed stars4 ,the arch of the prayer rugs is similar to that of ,daghestans4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally ivory1 blue1 and red1 with minor quantities of green and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to ten2 perpendicularly1 eight to twelve4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down1 so that the warp may be seen at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of short or medium length4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,sides1 generally a double overcasting1 but occasionally a double selvage of two or three cords4 ,both ends1 a web1 one row of knots or more1 and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of medium grain4 ,usual length1 four and one half to six and one half feet4 ,usual width1 five eighths to three quarters length4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dg4 ,,kazak ,,prayer ,,rug ,,tcherkess4--,the narrow strip of fertile and beautiful country that reaches from the ,kuban valley southward along the shore of the ,black ,sea for a distance of two hundred miles is occupied by a people known to the western world as ,circassians4 ,in their own land they are called 8,tcherkesses10 a ,tartar term for 8cutter of roads0 or highwaymen2 and they have been in the habit of speaking of themselves as 8,adighies0 or ,nobles4 ,in fact1 there has been no prouder ,caucasian race1 even though their homes were often log huts and their daughters were sold in the markets of ,constantinople4 ,these are the people1 who half a century ago finally yielded after a long1 fierce struggle for independence2 but a hundred thousand families1 preferring exile to submission to the ,czar1 migrated to ,armenia and ,asia ,minor1 where they intermarried with other races1 and are rapidly losing their identity4 ,very few of the ,circassian or ,tcherkess rugs have been woven by those who left their country4 ,the best were made before the exodus2 and on account of the hardships and poverty of the people1 many that have come to the market within recent years are greatly inferior to the excellent pieces of former times and are often mistaken for the work of nomadic tribes4 ,not only so1 but crude and foreign devices have crept into some of them4 ,it is1 therefore1 to the older pieces that we must turn for a better understanding of this class4 ,something of the ruggedness of lives spent in struggles with men and nature found expression in the fabrics1 which show firmness of texture1 boldness of design1 richness of colour4 ,in fact they resemble the ,kazaks so closely in their long nap1 and finish of sides and ends that they are constantly mistaken for them2 yet they may be distinguished from all classes by the large amount of brownish red or tawny colour of the field and their stereotyped patterns4 ,these usually consist of diamond-shaped figures sometimes called 8sun-bursts10 that are often regarded as crude copies of the ,russian coat of arms2 but there is little doubt that they have been derived from the medallions of some old ,armenian rugs of the ,,xiv and ,,xv ,centuries1 in which also appear the same tri-cleft leaves so common in both this class and the ,soumaks4 ,these patterns are sufficiently large to occupy the full breadth of the field2 and there are seldom less than two and occasionally as many as four or five extending from one end to the other4 ,the strong contrast between the blue and ivory of the figures and the red or tawny colour of the ground is softened by the depth of pile1 which in turn adds warmth and richness4 ,the borders are always of three stripes4 ,the main one almost invariably has the tarantula design and is enclosed by guards with the serrated sawtooth design4 ,many of these old pieces are excellently woven and have a dignity of pattern and wealth of harmonious colour rarely seen in nomadic rugs4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red and tawny yellow1 with minor quantities of blue and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to nine2 perpendicularly1 seven to ten4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as wide or longer4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 wool2 generally each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back1 occasionally one is depressed below the other4 ,weft1 wool of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft usually crosses only twice between every two rows of knots1 but in some pieces as many as four or six times4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 a two-cord double selvage4 ,both ends1 as a rule have a web1 a heavy braided selvage1 and knotted warp fringe2 occasionally either web or selvage may be omitted4 ,texture1 very firm4 ,weave at back of medium grain4 ,usual length1 five to ten feet4 ,usual width1 one half to two thirds length4 ,,bakus4--,no other rugs of ,caucasia have greater individuality of colour and design than the ,bakus4 ,this1 perhaps1 is partly due to the fact that the district from which they come is dissimilar to any other4 ,it consists largely of the peninsula of scanty vegetation1 where the great mountain chain extends to the dreary ,caspian1 leaving at its base the narrow strip of land now famous for its immense accumulations of mineral oil4 ,hither1 during the past1 the followers of ,zoroaster have come from all directions to worship in the temple of the ,guebres1 where day and night the priests watched the blue flame that rose perpetually from the ground1 and once in long intervals spread over the waters like a sea of fire4 ,this sacred spot has been owned in turn by ,saracens1 ,persians1 ,turks1 ,russians1 and the ,princes of ,shirvan2 so that the influences of different religions and different races have been felt here4 ,the most noticeable feature of many of these rugs is their dull colours1 that give the impression of being partly bleached or having faded4 ,there are subdued tones of light blue1 tan1 pale ocherous yellow1 and black1 as well as light1 medium1 and dark brown colours of natural wool2 but in the rugs woven a century ago the colours were much richer4 ,none of them are used in large masses excepting for the underground2 nor are there striking contrasts1 so that the effect is somewhat monotonous4 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,,viii--,,soumak ,,rug ,the shape1 colouring1 and particularly the pattern of this interesting ,soumak1 which was probably woven seventy-five or more years ago1 not only are unusual but belong to a higher type than is often seen4 ,arranged in diagonal rows on a field of red are flowering bushes1 that for the most part are blue and pink1 but at one end are green1 yellow1 and brown4 ,the accurate drawing of these bushes and of the reciprocal trefoils of the guard stripes1 the care with which the stitches have been inserted1 and the fine texture of the wool1 as is shown even in the cream-white warp at the knotted ends1 alike proclaim the excellent quality of this rare piece4 ,loaned by ,mr4 ,theodore ,s4 ,hawley ,an equally important characteristic is the large number of pear designs1 which are unlike those of any other rug4 ,these designs 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #f;b1 ,page #bia7 are so rectangular that they have lost all resemblance to floral drawing2 and to add to their formality1 each is placed in the field with studied regularity and often surrounded by a delicate hexagonal shaped sub-pattern giving a diaper effect4 ,sometimes1 also1 they appear in the border between an array of other designs1 to which they show no relation2 but they never constitute the sole feature of the rug as they do in ,sarabends4 ,at the centre of the field is often a star-shaped design surrounded by a large diamond or other figure fringed with radiating lines4 ,these lines suggest the effulgence of light2 and it is not improbable that their origin lay in the mysticism of fire worship4 ,in sedjadehs the corners are set off by quadrants of octagons1 of which the diagonal sides are serrated and frequently fringed with radiating lines like the central medallions4 ,throughout both corners and fields often appear eight-pointed and effulgent stars1 the three-cleft leaf1 ,s designs1 crude human and animal forms1 and other small geometric devices like those seen in ,daghestans and ,shirvans4 ,but more noticeable than any of these are the realistic but mechanically drawn birds1 which are represented in larger numbers and more frequently than in any other rugs woven within the last century4 ,the borders contain from three to five stripes1 of which one at least is always geometric2 and another1 as a rule1 has some suggestion of floral form4 ,often it is only the carnation in profile2 but now and then it is a running vine with leaf or flower1 adopted without modification from ,persian rugs4 ,this is not1 however1 surprising1 when it is remembered that during the reign of ,shah ,abbas1 ,baku belonged to ,persia1 which for centuries had been the home of devout ,parsees1 some of whom undoubtedly made pilgrimages to the sacred temple4 ,these rugs can at once be recognised by their short nap1 and their characteristic colours and designs4 ,they are always interesting on account of their marked individuality and the still unsolved symbols of ,zoroastrian mysticism they may contain2 but in spite of the careful delineation of the design and the delicate mosaic effect of the central medallions1 very few1 excepting the old pieces1 are handsome4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally brown1 tan1 blue1 yellow1 and black4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to nine2 perpendicularly1 seven to eleven4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back1 occasionally one is depressed slightly below the other4 ,weft1 usually cotton1 sometimes wool1 of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 clipped short4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,sides1 a weft overcasting or a narrow weft selvage4 ,both ends1 a web1 one row of knots or more1 and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 six to nine feet4 ,usual width1 one half to two thirds length4 ,,shirvans4--,between the rugs of ,shirvan and ,daghestan is a relationship easily accounted for by the fact that they are adjoining provinces1 and that almost the only approach to ,daghestan for the ,asiatic races among whom the art of weaving reached its highest development was through ,shirvan4 ,both districts1 therefore1 received ideas from the same sources2 but since ,shirvan has been at times more completely under the sway of ,persia1 it has yielded more readily to the influence of the ,persian weavers1 as is observable in the flower and foliate forms which are used more frequently and are drawn more realistically in its rugs than in those of ,daghestan4 ,on the other hand1 the technique of weave as well as finish of sides and ends in the ,shirvans lacks something of the refinement observable in the ,daghestans4 ,the oldest existing ,shirvans are absorbingly interesting4 ,in them the foliate forms are more noticeable than in almost any other ,caucasian rugs1 though they may in a measure be disguised by formal treatment4 ,sometimes they appear as large figures covering a great part of the field and acting as sub-patterns for superimposed smaller devices2 but they are most frequently found in the borders4 ,other old pieces contain lattice-work of hexagonal-shaped diaper patterns1 within which may be designs abounding in latch-hooks and figures strongly suggestive of ,chinese devices4 ,such patterns1 however1 are unusual2 as the fields of most old ,shirvans are covered with large medallions1 stars1 and diamonds similar to those of ,daghestans1 although the drawing inclines to greater simplicity of outline and detail2 and they have greater diversity of colour1 as tones of blue1 red1 green1 and brown in a field of ivory are not unusual4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dh4 ,,kazak ,,rug ,the patterns of the more modern rugs have become corrupted into a mere mechanical copying of conventional forms lacking all artistic spirit4 ,some of them resemble those found in both ,daghestans and ,kabistans1 but generally the designs are drawn less clearly in ,shirvans4 ,this is partly because1 as a rule1 they are not so closely woven and the nap is not quite so short4 ,now and then the large medallions so common to ,soumaks are seen2 and not infrequently the field is covered with diagonal parallel stripes on which are small geometric devices4 ,there is1 however1 one pattern peculiar to ,shirvans that rarely1 if ever1 is adopted in any other class4 ,it has somewhat the appearance of pole medallions and consists of a panel that occupies nearly the whole field and contains broad incisions at each side1 which nearly divide it into three or four rectangular sections4 ,within each of them are octagonal figures1 and an octagonal shape is given to both ends of the panel so as to leave small corners to the field4 ,each part often contains small designs such as latch-hooks1 octagonal discs1 ,s forms1 eight-pointed stars1 and combs1 as well as crudely drawn dogs and other animal or human forms4 ,with slight modifications this pattern is sometimes repeated in the prayer rugs 7,plate ,c1 ,fig4 #aa1 ,page #fa71 but the section at one end is more completely an octagon1 and the remainder is an oblong rectangle4 ,a more usual pattern for prayer rugs has the same form of arch that is common in ,daghestans4 ,whatever the fields of these rugs may lack in delicacy of drawing is amply compensated for by the diversity and beauty of some of their borders1 which have a well balanced harmony of colours4 ,they have seldom less than three1 nor more than five stripes1 of which the secondary are often as interesting as the primary4 ,the best known is the one with serrated leaf and wine glass1 represented in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #a1 opp4 ,page #bbf1 which is found in such a large percentage of ,shirvans that it is almost typical of them4 ,if the figures of the field contain latch-hooks1 they are very apt to be expressed in some form in the primary stripe4 ,such a one appears in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #b2 and the beautiful ,georgian pattern 7,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #i1 opp4 ,page #bbh7 is also occasionally seen4 ,a very much rarer stripe1 which is shown in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #h1 is only used when the field has a large central panel with a corresponding pattern4 ,now and then appears a stripe with no other ornamentation than a formal row of pear designs4 ,of the secondary stripes1 the one with the designs of carnations 7,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #a1 opp4 ,page #bcj7 is very frequently seen1 but its beauty depends largely upon the delicacy of its drawing and colour scheme4 ,on the whole1 the ,shirvan dyer displays a wider scope in the selection of colours than his ,daghestan neighbour1 but the tones are not always so rich or harmonious4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 red1 and ivory4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve2 perpendicularly1 eight to twelve4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the transverse warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 generally wool1 occasionally cotton1 of medium or coarse diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of short or medium length4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,sides1 generally a weft selvage of two or three cords or a double selvage1 occasionally a double overcasting4 ,both ends1 a web1 one row of knots or more1 and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 slightly loose4 ,weave at back is moderately coarse4 ,usual length1 four to six feet4 ,usual width1 one half to four fifths length4 ,,soumaks4--,seventy miles to the northwest of ,baku1 and about the same distance to the south of ,kuba1 where the high ranges of the ,caucasus begin to descend to the sea1 is the city of ,shemakha4 ,it was almost destroyed by ,nadir ,shah1 but recovered sufficiently within the last century to become the capital of ,shirvan and a manufacturing centre of silks4 ,it is the market place for many tribes from the mountains of ,daghestan and the valley of the ,kur1 who take thither their rugs1 from which its own weavers often borrow patterns4 ,by a corruption of the name of the city1 their fabrics are called ,soumaks1 though they are more popularly known as ,kashmirs1 because ends of yarn hang loosely at the back1 as is the case with the beautiful shawls of the noted valley of ,india4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #di4 ,,karabagh ,,prayer ,,rug ,it is1 of course1 the finish at the back and the absence of pile that make them so different from all other rugs and place them in a class by themselves2 but even apart from these characteristics1 they are as distinct a type as any in ,caucasia4 ,on the fields of most of them are three or four diamond-shaped medallions1 that occupy nearly the full width of the field and extend from one end to the other4 ,almost without exception they are slightly hexagonal1 and are incised on the diagonal sides to represent crosses4 ,these patterns are doubtless derived from very old ,armenian rugs2 and it is possible that once the crosses had a religious significance1 as it is claimed that the earlier weavers of this type were a ,christian sect2 but the present weavers are mostly ,mohammedans4 ,at the centre of the medallions and in the triangular spaces at the sides are flattened octagons1 which are generally ornamented with some star-shaped devices4 ,superimposed on these larger patterns and surrounding them on the field1 are also many small designs1 which as a rule are grouped with a regularity suggestive of the mosaic4 ,some are common to other ,caucasian pieces2 but a few are more frequently seen in this class than in any other1 as for instance1 the knot of destiny 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #ag1 ,page #bia71 and the tri-cleft leaf1 drawn like a bird's claw1 which appeared in ,armenian rugs at least five centuries ago4 ,sometimes the medallions and octagons are replaced by smaller and more ornate figures1 but the geometric character is seldom entirely lost4 ,there are also some old pieces with a totally different pattern1 and with fine colours that are most pleasing in the rich harmony of tones4 ,they may contain geometric1 foliate1 or floral designs4 ,one recently examined had a field of rose red completely covered with diagonal rows of innumerable dainty figures1 which were evidently the conventionalised forms of small flower bushes4 ,not a single other design appeared in the field1 yet the richness of colour and chasteness of pattern made it exceedingly beautiful4 ,the patterns of the border stripes1 that number from two to five1 are generally distinctive2 though occasionally they follow well known ,caucasian drawing4 ,the outer one has so frequently the running latch-hook that it is almost typical4 ,as a rule1 it has the simple form shown in ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #bj 7opp4 ,page #bcj72 but now and then the more elaborate drawing of the ,georgian stripe 7,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #i1 opp4 ,page #bbh7 is followed4 ,sometimes this is replaced by the reciprocal trefoil1 which is used also for the inner stripe2 and a running vine and rosette1 such as the one in ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #d1 is not infrequently used for a secondary stripe4 ,the primary stripes1 on the other hand1 although most dissimilar to those of other rugs1 differ so widely among themselves1 that no one is typical4 ,separating these primary and secondary parts of the border are frequently narrow lines with the barber-pole device4 ,the old pieces are of fine texture and excellent wool1 which even in the warp displays a silky character4 ,the dyes are faultless1 though the colours never acquire a lustre4 ,red and blue are largely employed1 but they are partly replaced by brown in the more modern pieces2 and in both old and modern is usually an orange yellow that rarely appears in other ,caucasian rugs4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 brown1 some yellow1 and white4 ,knot1 flat stitch4 ,knots to inch horizontally eight to fourteen2 perpendicularly1 six to sixteen4 ,warp1 wool2 each thread is equally prominent at the back4 ,weft1 wool1 of fine or medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots in old rugs1 and between every second and third row in modern rugs4 ,border1 two to five stripes4 ,sides1 generally a double selvage of several cords1 occasionally an overcasting4 ,both ends1 narrow web1 one or more rows of knots and fringe2 sometimes heavy added selvage4 ,no nap4 ,usual length1 five and one half to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 one half to three quarters length4 ,,shemakhas4--,flatly woven ,soumaks are not the only rugs of the ,shemakha tribes4 ,some of the same people1 who dwell among the ranges of the ,caucasus a short distance to the north1 make rugs of pile that occasionally surpass in quality of material and beauty of colour scheme the best of ,daghestans1 and are sometimes spoken of by dealers as 8,royal ,daghestans20 yet they are seldom seen and little known4 ,in fact1 they are frequently mistaken for ,persian fabrics on account of the subdued richness of their deep reds1 blues1 greens1 yellows1 and browns1 and the patterns which are largely floral4 ,very often the principal border stripe is the well-known ,georgian pattern1 that occurs in so many ,soumaks1 even though the secondary stripe be some ,persian pattern4 ,these rugs also resemble the ,soumaks in the coloured woollen selvage of the sides1 and in the narrow coloured web of 8herring-bone0 weave and knotted fringe of the ends4 ,in some1 the field is divided by diagonal bars into large diamond-shaped figures containing conventionalised flowers2 in others1 it is merely a background over which are strewn more realistically drawn floral forms2 and in all is expressed an artistic perception of design and colour not frequently found in ,caucasian pieces4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 red1 and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven2 perpendicularly1 seven to thirteen4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is almost hidden4 ,warp1 wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of fine or medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 two to three stripes4 ,sides1 a blue selvage of two or three cords4 ,both ends1 a narrow blue web of 8herring-bone0 weave1 a knotted selvage or several rows of knots1 and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 slightly firm4 ,weave at back is of moderately fine grain4 ,usual length1 four to eight feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to two thirds length4 ,,tiflis4--,when it is considered that for centuries ,tiflis has been the ,georgian capital1 where culture and art received more encouragement than in the provinces2 that it was in constant communication with the rug-producing countries on all sides2 and was on one of the great highways between ,persia and ,europe1 it is surprising that what has been written hitherto about ,caucasian rugs has contained almost no reference to a type peculiar to this city and district4 ,this is undoubtedly due to the fact that within recent years hardly any rugs have been produced there1 and that the old pieces are few and but little known4 ,nevertheless1 now and then come to light beautiful old rugs which are dissimilar to those of all other classes4 ,the wool of their moderately long nap has a silkiness that suggests a ,shiraz or a ,meshed2 the colour scheme includes a very wide range of bright and positive tones1 such as blue1 green1 rose1 and ivory2 the weave of delicate and fine threads is as close as that of old ,bergamos4 ,a glance at the ends and back helps to determine the type2 for the warp is occasionally of cotton1 which is a peculiarity not seen in many other ,caucasian classes2 the weft which crosses from three to five times is of very finely spun wool mostly dyed a brown or dull red1 and strung with great exactness2 and the knots are tied with care4 ,there is also something distinctive in many of the patterns2 for however interesting they may be1 precision of drawing is often combined with discordance of detail4 ,one part of the field1 for instance1 may consist of a well executed diaper pattern2 another part may represent a number of stiff1 perpendicular1 parallel bars1 occupying the full width of the field2 and still another part may be entirely occupied by hexagonal-shaped pear designs4 ,adjoining these may be other pear designs of totally dissimilar shape as well as mystic symbols and other strange devices4 ,likewise1 many different colours may be placed in close relation1 yet the wool is so soft and the tones so delicate that the effect is not harsh4 ,some sort of tree-form is not unusual2 but on the whole1 the designs of both field and border are geometric4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue and red1 with minor quantities of yellow1 green1 and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to ten2 perpendicularly1 six to ten4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as wide or longer4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 generally wool1 occasionally cotton2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of fine diameter1 usually dyed red or brown4 ,a thread of weft crosses from three to five times between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 soft wool of medium length4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,sides1 a double overcasting or narrow selvage4 ,both ends1 a web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is of moderately fine grain4 ,usual length1 six to eleven feet4 ,usual width1 three eighths to two thirds length4 ,,kutais4--,among a large assortment of ,caucasian rugs are occasionally seen a few pieces from ,kutais1 once famed as the home of ,media1 and now the capital of ,imeritia4 ,the gardens surrounding its homes1 that line both banks of the river ,rion1 are fragrant with lilacs and roses2 in the valley beyond the city1 pink rhododendrons and yellow azaleas blossom beneath the oaks4 ,here is woodland scenery not found in other parts of ,caucasia1 and it might be expected that the weavings of the people would have a striking individuality of their own2 but they are little known as a distinct class4 ,in fact1 they bear such a resemblance to the ,kazaks that they are constantly mistaken for them2 though as a rule they have a more oblong shape and somewhat shorter nap2 they are less stoutly woven1 less barbaric1 and contain fewer crude1 nomadic devices4 ,moreover1 as this district was producing rugs before the ,cossacks had settled permanently in ,southern ,caucasia1 it is not improbable that some of its patterns were copied by them4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ej4 ,,gengha ,,rug ,a peculiarity of this class is the drawing of the pear designs1 which are found in a very large number of the rugs4 ,the extension of the narrower end1 instead of being a short1 curved hook1 is generally more developed1 so that it may be as long as the major axis of the pear and frequently stands almost at right angles to it4 ,also attached to the sides of the pear are rectangular bead-like processes 7,plate ,o1 ,fig4 #f;c1 ,page #bia74 ,in many of these rugs1 the field is divided into a number of bands parallel with the sides2 and through them run vines1 from which the pears are suspended4 ,or the pears may be arranged in regular order on the field without the bands and vines4 ,sometimes the field is reduced to a very small space by a broad border consisting of a number of stripes1 some of which are often of striking patterns4 ,one of them is represented in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #ae 7opp4 ,page #bbf71 which suggests the grape vine common to the gardens of ,kutais4 ,some form of the tree of life and floral forms are also seen in old pieces4 ,a resemblance exists between the weave of ,kutais and ,tiflis rugs1 as in each the weft usually crosses several times2 it is generally coloured blue or red1 and is formed of fine threads of yarn4 ,the wool of the nap is of the same fine quality2 but the warp of the ,kutais rugs1 which is almost invariably of wool1 frequently consists of a brown and white thread twisted together2 and the knots are tied less evenly1 so that the alignment at the back is a little more irregular1 yet less so than in ,kazaks4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 and white1 with minor quantities of yellow1 brown1 and black4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to nine2 perpendicularly1 six to eleven4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as wide or longer4 ,the rows of knots are slightly pressed down4 ,the alignment is more even than in ,kazaks4 ,warp1 generally wool1 occasionally cotton2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back4 ,weft1 wool1 of fine or medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft usually crosses three times1 occasionally only once1 and again four or five times4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length or long4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,sides1 either a double overcasting1 or a double selvage of two or three cords4 ,both ends1 a web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back1 generally of medium fine grain but occasionally coarse4 ,usual length1 six to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 one third to two thirds length4 ,,kazaks4--,of the warlike ,cossack tribes1 which were once stationed along the southeastern border of ,russia to protect it from the depradations of ,caucasians1 a number settled permanently in ,circassia1 and a few crossed the mountains to the high plateau lying between ,lake ,gotcha and ,mt4 ,ararat4 ,here they adopted more sedentary lives2 but there still lingers the inherited spirit that generations ago won for them the name ,kazaks1 which denotes to the ,tartars1 from whom many have doubtless sprung1 a ,marauder4 ,all of these tribes weave2 but the rugs seen in this country come principally from the southern district1 where may also be found the fabrics of other races such as ,armenians1 ,tartars1 and the native people4 ,nevertheless1 the ,kazak weavings are of a most distinct type1 to which even the smaller ,kazakjes conform4 ,they have bright1 rich colours1 of which a liberal amount of green is almost invariably present1 though sparingly used in other ,caucasian rugs4 ,only the ,tcherkess vie with them in the length of the nap2 and no other class has such noticeable patterns of incongruous sizes and shapes4 ,they have1 in fact1 the most nomadic1 unconventional patterns of all this northern group2 and in their barbaric characteristics1 they bear much the same relation to other ,caucasian rugs as those of ,western ,kurdish and ,yuruk tribes bear to ,persian and ,asia ,minor pieces4 ,in marked contrast to the almost mosaic drawing of ,chichis and many ,daghestans1 the ,kazaks show a tribal fondness for large patterns4 ,sometimes the field is divided into three horizontal panels1 which may be entirely plain except for a simple design fringing the edges2 or as is more frequently the case1 it may be occupied by large1 slightly elongated octagons1 within which are represented smaller figures4 ,occupying almost the entire field of other pieces are large patterns like medallions1 perfectly balanced with reference to the centre and subdivided into small sections1 each of which contains individual motives4 ,a few of this class1 also1 have the 8sunburst0 pattern1 so characteristic of the ,tcherkess4 ,at least half the pieces now seen are without any formal pattern1 but contain a heterogeneous lot of geometric designs characteristic of nomadic weavings2 but even these are generally arranged with the idea of symmetrical balance4 ,for instance1 at the centre may be a large geometric figure surrounded at equal distances by pairs of smaller and similar figures4 ,not infrequently the drawing of the upper and lower half1 or of the right and left side1 shows an almost perfect correspondence1 notwithstanding the many separate designs4 ,the most common of these are eight-pointed stars1 lozenges fringed with latch-hooks1 and what are known as the 8tarantula0 device4 ,of the innumerable small figures1 the octagonal discs and ,s forms are the most common2 crude animal and human figures are also seen4 ,excepting the addition of the arch1 there is little distinction between namazliks and sedjadehs4 ,it is small and less graceful than that of ,asia ,minor pieces1 and follows stiff lines in harmony with the general pattern4 ,it is1 however1 drawn in two different ways4 ,generally it has the shape of half an octagon1 or of a wall-tent with apex flattened2 but not infrequently it is square or slightly oblong4 ,the narrow bands that form the arch are extended transversely from each side of the base to the borders2 and occasionally they are continued down the sides of the field to form at the bottom a figure similar to the square-shaped arch4 ,now and then a comb1 or small figure of diamond shape1 on which to place the bit of sacred earth from ,mecca1 is outlined within the mihrab2 and now and then crude palm-like figures1 indicating where the hands are to be rested in the act of devotion1 are represented at the sides4 ,however many stripes the border may contain1 rarely are there more than one of any consequence2 since the guard stripes have generally only the reciprocal sawtooth or trefoil patterns1 the barber-pole or dotted lines4 ,the absence of important secondary stripes1 however1 brings out more prominently the drawing and colouring of the main one4 ,the most common pattern is what is known as the 8tarantula0 represented in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #h 7opp4 ,page #bbf74 ,very similar is the crab pattern 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #g71 which was undoubtedly derived from the double vine of some ,persian rug1 as the crab-like figure may be resolved into a rosette to which are attached four conventionalised leaves4 ,another pattern1 which is also seen in ,kutais rugs1 is the crude but striking vine shown in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #ae1 which1 when represented in bold1 rich colours on an ivory field1 makes a most effective and beautiful border stripe4 ,other border stripes frequently employed in these rugs appear in ,plate ,i4 ,unfortunately1 during recent years1 many inferior rugs of other tribes have been sold as ,kazaks1 which in a measure they often resemble though they lack their spirit and character4 ,the very modern ,kazaks1 also1 are often of poor quality1 but those made two generations or more ago were carefully and stoutly woven1 with silky wool dyed with the best of vegetable colours4 ,there is always something interestingly barbaric in their long1 almost shaggy nap1 their masses of rich red and green1 their bold designs surrounded by smaller nomadic figures1 all of which collectively find no counterpart in any other ,caucasian rugs4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 green1 and yellow1 also some blue1 white1 and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to nine2 perpendicularly1 seven to ten4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is hidden at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of coarse diameter1 usually dyed red or brown4 ,a thread of weft generally crosses only twice between every two rows of knots1 but occasionally three or four times4 ,pile1 wool1 clipped long4 ,border1 three to five stripes4 ,sides1 a double overcasting attached in figure-eight fashion to the sides1 or a double selvage having from three to five cords4 ,lower end1 a red or brown web and warp loops1 or a braided selvage and fringe4 ,upper end1 a red or brown web1 occasionally a braided selvage or several rows of knots1 and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 stout4 ,weave at back is of very coarse grain4 ,usual length1 five to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 one third to three quarters length4 ,,karabaghs4--,to the southeast of ,lake ,gotcha and north of the river ,aras1 that divides ,caucasia from ,persia1 is the district of ,karabagh1 a name signifying 8,black ,vineyard40 ,on account of its geographic position1 it has been subject to the ,shahs for long periods1 during the many struggles between the two countries4 ,it is1 moreover1 separated from the rug-producing district of ,karadagh by the river only2 and its southern border is less than eighty miles distant from the city of ,tabriz1 to which many of its rugs are taken4 ,for these reasons it would be only natural to expect that the weavings of ,karabagh would show more of the ,persian influence than those of any other part of ,caucasia4 ,such1 indeed1 is true1 when applied to the oldest pieces2 but it is not at all true in the case of a large percentage of the modern products4 ,within recent years large numbers of these coarsely made and wretchedly dyed rugs have reached the ,western markets4 ,some of them resemble ,kazaks in their geometric figures2 but differ from them in their workmanship1 since one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed2 they are much more loosely woven2 they are not so large2 nor for the most part are they so heavy4 ,other pieces often lack the symbolic and other small designs that render nomadic rugs so interesting4 ,occasionally the central field is almost figureless1 or there may be large expanses of white or some raw colour such as startling red1 yellow1 or blue1 on which appear stiffly and crudely drawn nondescript devices4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ea4 ,,royal ,,bokhara ,,rug ,it is a relief to turn from these poor pieces to those woven half a century ago1 with less obtrusive colouring and more chaste patterns4 ,many of the old pieces are oblong sedjadehs1 which have often a length almost twice the breadth2 though the more modern pieces incline to smaller and nearly square sizes4 ,there are also namazliks that do not always religiously follow the usual pattern2 for now and then one is seen with an arch of several steps1 rising from near the middle of the sides1 and with a diamond for the sacred earth or pebble from ,mecca1 as is shown in ,plate ,c1 ,fig4 #ab 7,page #fa74 ,the particular piece from which this was drawn was over fifty years old and was three fourths as wide as long4 ,scattered over the main field1 which was yellowish brown1 and the spandrels1 which were white1 were geometrically shaped flowers with long angular stems tinted with blue1 green1 and pinkish red4 ,the borders show as great diversity as the fields1 but one stripe usually contains a concession to the ,persian and another to the ,caucasian tradition4 ,for instance1 the primary stripe may be of ,iranian character flanked by the running latch-hook2 or it may be the well-known crab pattern1 while the adjacent stripe may be a running vine of simple form4 ,many of these old pieces are very handsome and equal in artistic finish the best of ,caucasian rugs2 the drawing is carefully executed2 the colours are rich2 the weave is fair2 but like the rare old rugs of ,daghestan and ,tiflis1 are now seldom seen4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 yellow1 and white4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to ten2 perpendicularly1 seven to ten4 ,the rows of knots are only slightly pressed down1 yet the warp is generally concealed at back4 ,warp1 wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a half knot is depressed below the other at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium or coarse diameter1 sometimes dyed red4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of short or medium length4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 generally a double selvage of two or three cords1 in lengths of different colours2 occasionally a double overcasting attached figure-eight fashion4 ,lower end1 a web and warp loops1 or a braided selvage1 one row of knots or more1 and a warp fringe4 ,upper end1 a web1 a web turned back and hemmed1 or a braided selvage1 one row of knots or more1 and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 loose4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 four to nine feet4 ,usual width1 one half to three quarters length4 ,,shushas4--,about seventy miles to the southeast of ,lake ,gotcha is ,shusha1 capital of ,karabagh4 ,nearly two centuries ago1 it was built by ,nadir ,shah on an almost inaccessible mountain side to guard the northern boundary of ,persia1 which had been extended to the ,caucasus4 ,it has now about twelve thousand inhabitants1 and is the market place for numerous tribes that are scattered over the dry plains as far as the ,aras river4 ,in this city and in the suburbs are woven rugs that are frequently imported to this country and sold under several names1 yet are of a distinct type4 ,they resemble the ,karabaghs of the surrounding country but differ from them in their richer and more subdued colours as well as in the stoutness of weave4 ,one thread of warp to each knot is doubled beneath the other1 whereas in the rugs of the desert tribes it is only depressed4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark blue1 red1 and brown1 with minor quantities of green and yellow4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve2 perpendicularly1 six to eleven4 ,the rows of knots are only slightly pressed down1 so that the warp shows at back4 ,warp1 wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is much depressed below the other at back1 and frequently doubled under the other4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium diameter1 generally dyed red4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 a double selvage of two or three cords1 often attached to the sides in figure-eight fashion4 ,lower end1 a narrow web and warp loops4 ,upper end1 a web that is sometimes turned back and hemmed1 and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back is of slightly coarse grain4 ,usual length1 four to nine feet4 ,usual width1 one half to three quarters length4 ,,genghas4--,over the land lying between lakes ,gotcha1 ,van1 and ,urumiah1 in ,caucasia1 ,armenia1 and ,persia1 tribes of mixed origin wander back and forth1 but frequently gather at the yearly fair of ,elizabethpol4 ,during the period when the ,persian rule extended over the country1 it was the residence of a ,khan and an important centre of trade4 ,as it was then known as ,ganja or ,gengha1 the weavings of these nomads1 which were marketed there1 acquired that name4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #eb4 ,,princess ,,bokhara ,,rug ,naturally they are a heterogeneous lot containing ideas incorporated from many sources2 but they resemble the ,kazaks more than anything else1 and are frequently mistaken for them4 ,yet some of the distinctions are very marked3 they have a more oblong shape2 the nap is shorter2 and they are less stoutly woven4 ,in the ,kazaks a thread of weft1 as a rule1 crosses only twice between two rows of knots1 which are firmly pressed down2 but in these rugs a thread of weft crosses from four to eight times between two rows of knots1 which are not firmly pressed down1 so that the narrow filling of weft is sometimes even four times as wide as a row of knots and presents a bead-like appearance4 ,in the colour scheme of numerous pieces1 which in many respects resembles that of ,karabaghs1 is often a preponderance of ivory white4 ,there is no characteristic pattern4 ,the field may be covered with diagonal stripes as in some ,shirvans2 it may consist largely of lozenges fringed with latch-hooks and tarantula devices2 again1 it may have some large central figure surrounded by a motley lot of emblematic as well as apparently meaningless devices1 or crudely drawn human1 animal1 or floral forms4 ,the borders1 likewise1 include a wide scope of patterns4 ,it is1 therefore1 largely by the character of the weave1 quality of material1 and finish of sides and ends1 that these pieces can be distinguished from other nomadic products4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally blue1 red1 and white1 with minor quantities of green1 yellow1 and brown4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to eight2 perpendicularly1 six to nine4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is longer than wide4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down1 so that the warp shows at the back4 ,warp1 generally wool1 occasionally goat's hair2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium diameter and usually dyed red4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots1 but generally three and frequently as many as six or eight times4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 three or four stripes4 ,sides1 a double selvage of two1 three1 or four cords4 ,lower end1 a web1 usually coloured red1 and warp loops4 ,upper end1 a web to which a braided selvage is often added1 and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 very loose4 ,weave at back is of coarse grain4 ,usual length1 five to nine feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to two thirds length4 ,,border ,,stripes ,disregarding a very few floral secondary stripes that have been derived from ,persian rugs1 the ,caucasian borders are characterised by geometric patterns1 which distinguish them from other groups4 ,but were it possible to trace them to their origin1 it would doubtless be found that a very large number that are now strictly geometric have degenerated from leaf and flower patterns4 ,of the remainder1 some are symbolic and others are crude copies of familiar objects4 ,the more artistic and realistically drawn floral patterns appear in the less conspicuous secondary stripes2 but on the other hand the primary stripes contain a number of unusually interesting patterns1 which have been copied for centuries4 ,,primary ,,stripes4--,the cup and serrated leaf pattern 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #a1 opp4 ,page #bbf7 appears so frequently in ,shirvans as to be almost typical4 ,it is also occasionally seen in ,daghestans and ,kabistans2 but probably originated in ,southern ,caucasia or ,armenia1 since it is found similarly drawn in rugs woven in that district about #aejj ,a4 ,d4 ,it is a pattern that scarcely varies with time or locality except in the number of serrations to the leaf and in the shape of the cup4 ,serrated leaf patterns1 represented in ,figs4 #b and #c1 ,plate ,i1 are sometimes seen in ,kazak and other nomadic rugs4 ,it is not improbable that they have a common origin with the ,shirvan cup and leaf pattern4 ,in the stripe represented in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #d1 is a series of wine cup rosettes that are occasionally seen in the old rugs from the ,shirvan district4 ,in fact1 the wine cup design is a favourite there4 ,another stripe1 in which a somewhat similar cup appears1 is shown in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #e4 ,this is an old nomadic pattern not frequently seen4 ,fig4 #f of ,plate ,i1 represents the well-known ,chichi border stripe1 composed of rosettes separated by diagonally drawn ribbon-like bars4 ,to the rosettes are attached tri-cleft leaves4 ,this stripe suggests at once some ,persian vine and flower4 ,what is known as the crab pattern 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #g71 is seen in ,kazaks and other ,caucasian nomadic rugs1 as well as in a few very modern ,asia ,minor pieces4 ,though its resemblance to a crab is noticeable1 it is really a rosette to which are attached four crudely drawn leaves1 that frequently contain smaller designs at their centres4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,,primary ,,border-,,stripes ,,of ,,caucasian ,,rugs ,slightly resembling the last is the so-called tarantula pattern 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #h71 that was possibly derived from the stripe with an eight-pointed star 7,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #ab1 opp4 ,page #bcj72 but it seems more probable that the inspiration is ,iranian and that it is intended for rosette and double vine4 ,this stripe is found in ,kazaks1 ,genghas1 ,tcherkess1 and other nomadic rugs4 ,somewhat like the last is the stripe of ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #i1 that is now and then seen in old ,tiflis and other rugs of ,southern ,caucasia4 ,it suggests a geometric rosette and double vine4 ,occasionally the dainty clover-leaf design1 represented in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #aj1 is used by the nomadic weavers4 ,it is almost the only reciprocal pattern found in a ,caucasian primary stripe4 ,the repetitive urn-shaped pattern of ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #aa is once in a while seen in old rugs of the ,daghestan country4 ,on account of the resemblance between the stripes shown in ,plate ,i1 ,figs4 #ab and #ac1 they have probably a common origin4 ,both are found in rugs of the ,daghestan and ,shirvan districts1 and the former is occasionally seen in rugs of ,asia ,minor4 ,sometimes smaller adventitious devices are placed at the sides of the stripes between the rosettes4 ,resembling the last is the pattern shown in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #ad1 which is commonly seen in ,shirvan rugs and kilims4 ,it is purely geometric and resembles one used in ,western ,asia ,minor rugs of the ,,xv ,century1 from which it may have been derived4 ,though greatly conventionalised1 the pattern represented in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #ae is a vine and leaf derived from much more ornate forms1 which may be seen in a ,,xvi ,century ,asia ,minor piece that is in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is now seldom copied1 but was once a popular pattern for the ,kazak and ,kutais weavers4 ,some form of the latch-hook appears in a large number of ,caucasian stripes1 but mostly in nomadic pieces4 ,figs4 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 and #bj of ,plate ,i1 represent patterns found mostly in old ,kazaks and kindred rugs4 ,the last one is also occasionally used as a secondary stripe4 ,the patterns shown in ,plate ,i1 ,figs4 #ba and #bb are from stripes sometimes seen in the ,daghestan and ,shirvan districts4 ,a much more interesting stripe because of its well authenticated antiquity1 is the one shown in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #a 7opp4 ,page #bbh74 ,it is found in rugs made in ,southern ,caucasia two centuries ago1 and according to ,dr4 ,martin has been used since the ,,xii ,century4 ,probably as the result of copying1 the design appears reversed in many old rugs4#cj ,these stripes are seen in comparatively recent pieces1 but principally in those of the ,daghestan and ,shirvan districts4 ,though the latch-hook is suggested by the small triangular parts1 it is more probable that originally they were intended for leaves4 ,in a few stripes the design is elongated1 and in place of a single crossbar there are several1 forming a figure that slightly resembles a poinsetta1 which is the term occasionally applied to it by weavers4 ,the stripe shown in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #b1 which is found in ,kazak and other nomadic rugs1 is interesting as representing a vine of which the pendant flower is replaced by a ,t formed by latch-hooks4 ,in ,figs4 #c and #d of ,plate ,j1 are patterns of stripes found in rugs of the ,shirvan and ,daghestan districts4 ,as they are several centuries old1 they may be derived from ,armenian patterns1 to which they show kinship4 ,both patterns are at times reversed as the result of copying4#ca ,a stripe also used in the same districts and probably of similar origin is seen in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #e4 ,differing from any of these because of their utilitarian origin1 are the separate designs1 which arranged in perpendicular rows1 form the 8churn0 stripe of ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #f4 ,each of them represents crude machines for churning milk1 which were formerly used by the nomadic tribes of ,southern ,caucasia and ,armenia1 who constructed them out of logs with a length of about five feet1 and placed the sharpened base in the ground4 ,then hanging a goat's skin filled with milk over each of the sides1 and seating themselves in the middle1 they turned first one then the other4 ,as might be expected1 these stripes belong entirely to nomadic rugs4 ,figs4 #g and #h of ,plate ,j1 represent stripes sometimes seen in ,shirvans4 ,the latter is undoubtedly derived from the prayer patterns that are often used in these rugs4 ,what is known as the ,georgian stripe is shown in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #i4 ,it is found in ,daghestans1 ,kabistans1 ,shirvans1 ,soumaks1 ,shemakhas1 and ,kubas4 ,though a primary stripe1 it is rarely placed at the centre of the border1 but at the outer or the inner side1 or at both sides with a less ornate stripe between4 ,as a rule it accompanies only the more artistic rugs4 ,generally the primary stripes of ,soumaks are different from those of other rugs4 ,a few appear in ,figs4 #aj1 #aa and #ab of ,plate ,j4 ,the last is interesting on account of the leaf-like forms of the octagonal designs4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,j4 ,,primary ,,border-,,stripes ,,of ,,caucasian ,,rugs ,the stripes seen in ,plate ,j1 ,figs4 #ac1 #ad and #ae are found only in nomadic rugs4 ,the last is interesting principally on account of the swastikas4 ,and old form now and then seen in the ,daghestan-,shirvan classes appear in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #af4 ,it is an archaic pattern copied from a most interesting ,daghestan prayer rug4 ,the stripe shown in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #ag is sometimes adopted in rugs of ,southern ,caucasia1 such as the ,kutais and ,kazak4 ,another very old pattern found in the borders of the ,daghestan-,shirvan classes is shown in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #ah4 ,though it suggests the narrow tertiary stripes known as 8barber-poles10 it differs from them by being very much wider1 and by containing bars of many different colours1 as red1 yellow1 cream1 blue1 green1 and brown1 which generally contain short1 oblong dashes4 ,a very interesting stripe1 found almost exclusively in rugs from the districts of ,daghestan and ,shirvan1 is the ,cufic pattern of ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #ai4 ,it is particularly characteristic of old ,daghestans and ,kabistans1 but must have been introduced through ,shirvan from ,armenia1 as it can be traced through a gradation of changes to stripes of ,cufic characters used in ,asia ,minor rugs of the ,,xv ,century4 ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #bj represents a 8bracket-chain0 pattern that probably originated in ,asia ,minor1 but is occasionally found in the rugs of ,caucasia4 ,in ,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #ba is a stripe representing scorpions1 that is very rarely seen in ,shirvans2 and in ,fig4 #bb is a stripe representing birds1 sometimes seen in ,bakus4 ,,secondary ,,and ,,tertiary ,,stripes4--,as the pattern shown in ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #a 7opp4 ,page #bcj7 shows in profile flowers representing carnations1 it has been called the 8carnation pattern40 ,it is very common in ,shirvans1 ,kabistans1 and ,daghestans4 ,less frequently seen are the rectangular vine with a design like a three-leaf clover1 shown in ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #b1 and the very graceful vine with leaf and flower shown in ,fig4 #c1 both of which are indiscriminately used in place of the carnation pattern in rugs with the same primary stripe4 ,the latter is the most dainty and graceful ,caucasian floral stripe4 ,it is found in pieces of the ,kabistan and ,daghestan classes made over a century and a half ago1 and is probably of ,iranian extraction4 ,another floral pattern from the same district is seen in ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #d4 ,it often accompanies the ,georgian stripe of ,daghestans and ,soumaks1 with which its stiff drawing harmonises4 ,likewise1 the stripe shown in ,fig4 #e is found now and then in the same classes of rugs4 ,similar rosettes are sometimes represented in ,persian stripes that show the influence of nomadic weavers4 ,simple forms of the running vine which are seen mostly in the rugs of ,southern ,caucasia are represented in ,plate ,k1 ,figs4 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 and #aj4 ,all are old patterns4 ,the third appears in an ,asia ,minor carpet woven about #abej ,a4 ,d4 ,the fourth is found in some of the oldest remaining rugs from ,southern ,caucasia1 that date back two and a half centuries2 and a pattern similar to the last is seen in some ,persian carpets made about #afej ,a4 ,d4 ,plate ,k1 ,figs4 #aa and #ab represent stripes sometimes seen in ,chichis and a few other ,caucasian rugs4 ,a very simple pattern1 but one that at times is very attractive on account of its delicate colouring1 is shown in ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #ac1 and another is shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,both are used principally in rugs of ,southern ,caucasia4 ,the stripe represented in ,plate ,k1 ,fig1 #ae1 is found in very old rugs of the ,daghestan and ,derbend types2 and there is a tradition among some of the native weavers that the designs originally represented boat hooks used by the sailors of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,it is not unreasonable to suppose that the early weavers imitated objects of utility before those of mere ornament2 but even if there is any basis for the tradition1 it is equally probable that these designs are derived from the lily or other floral forms1 and were introduced from ,persia4 ,somewhat similar to the last is the reciprocal trefoil1 which generally appears with more simple drawing than is shown in ,plate ,f1 ,fig4 #ag 7opp4 ,page #aeh74 ,it is more widely used for a border stripe than any other pattern1 as it is found in almost all ,caucasian1 in a large number of ,persian1 in ,indian1 and ,beluchistan rugs4 ,it was commonly used in ,persian rugs as early as the year #aejj4 ,the dainty ,chain pattern of ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #af has a well authenticated antiquity1 as it is found in ,asia ,minor carpets of the ,,xv ,century1 from which it was probably derived4 ,without doubt it was a favourite pattern three centuries ago1 as it appears in some of the early paintings in which ,oriental carpets are represented4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,k4 ,,secondary ,,and ,,tertiary ,,border-,,stripes ,,of ,,caucasian ,,rugs ,not infrequently the right-angled corners are rounded so as to give it a more graceful form4 ,as the purely geometric pattern of ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #ag is entirely lacking in ornamental features1 it is used principally to separate more important stripes4 ,occasionally it is found in such rugs as the ,chichis and ,shirvans4 ,another very simple pattern that is sometimes used as an inside stripe is seen in ,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #ah4 ,this is evidently an archaic form and is found principally in pieces of the ,shirvan district4 ,the reciprocal sawtooth and the running latch-hook patterns 7,plate ,k1 ,figs4 #ai and #bj7 belong to the less important stripes of not only ,caucasian but a number of ,persian rugs4 ,the former pattern appears constantly on the monuments of ancient ,susa1 and doubtless had once some symbolic meaning4 ,the latter is seen in the corners of the ,dragon and ,phnix carpet 7,plate #bj1 opp4 ,page #hh7 which was woven about #acej ,a4 ,d4 ,,technicalities ,,in ,,the ,,weave ,,of ,,caucasian ,,rugs ,legend3 ,,knot-- ,h ,horizontally ,p ,perpendicularly ,,warp-- g goat's hair e each equally prominent d #a to the knot depressed h #a to the knot doubled under ,,weft-- ,no4 ,no4 times crossing bet4 two round knots ,,sides-- ,o overcast ,s selvage ,,lower ,,end ,w web ,s ,selvage ,k ,rows knots ,l warp loops ,f fringe ,,upper ,,end ,w web ,s selvage ,k ,rows knots ,t turned back and hemmed ,f fringe ,,knot ,,warp ,,caucasian ,number to ,at back ,inches ,g ,s w c ,ghiordes ,sehna ,h ,p wool cotton s_/l e d h ,baku ,g #f-i #g-aa w e ,chichi ,g #g-aj #h-ab w e ,daghestan ,g #g-aj #h-ae w e d ,derbend ,g #e-i #f-ab w c e ,gengha ,g #f-h #f-i w g e ,kabistan ,g #g-ab #h-af w e ,karabagh ,g #f-aj #g-aj w d ,kasak ,g #f-i #g-aj w e ,kuba ,g #f-i #g-ac w e ,kutais ,g #e-i #g-ab w c e ,lesghian ,g #f-i #f-aa w e d h ,shemakha ,g #g-aa #g-ac w d ,shirvan ,g #g-ab #h-ab w e ,shousha ,g #g-ab #f-aa w d h ,soumak #h-ad #f-af w e ,tcherkess ,g #f-i #g-aj w e d ,tiflis ,g #f-aj #f-aj w c e ,,weft ,,sides ,,lower ,,end ,,caucasian w c wool cotton ,no4 ,o ,s ,w_/,s ,k ,l ,f ,baku w #b ,o ,s ,w ,k ,f ,chichi w #b ,o ,s ,w ,k ,f ,daghestan w #b ,o ,s ,w ,k ,f ,derbend w c #b_/a ,o ,s ,w ,k ,f ,gengha w #b-d ,s ,w ,l #f-h ,kabistan w c #b_/c ,o ,s ,w_/,s ,l ,karabagh w #b ,o ,s ,w_/,s,k ,l ,f ,kasak w #b_/c-d ,o ,s ,w_/,s ,l ,f ,kuba w #b ,s ,w ,k ,f ,kutais w #c_/a-e ,o ,s ,w ,f ,lesghian w #b ,s ,w ,k ,f ,shemakha w #b ,s ,w_/,s ,f ,shirvan w c #b ,o ,s ,w ,k ,f ,shousha w #b ,s ,w ,l ,soumak w #b ,o ,s ,w_/,s ,k ,f ,tcherkess w #b_/d-f ,s ,w_/,s ,k ,f ,tiflis w #c-e ,o ,s ,w ,f ,,upper ,,end ,,nap ,,weave ,,texture ,,caucasian l long f fine l loose m medium m medium m medium ,w_/,s ,k ,t ,f s short c coarse f firm ,baku ,w ,k ,f s m m_/f ,chichi ,w ,k ,f m_/s m m ,daghestan ,w ,k ,f s f m_/f ,derbend ,w ,k ,f m m m_/l ,gengha ,w_/,s ,f m c l ,kabistan ,w_/,s ,f m m m_/f ,karabagh ,w_/,s,k ,t ,f m c l ,kasak ,w_/,s,k ,f l c f ,kuba ,w_/,s,k ,f m m m_/l ,kutais ,w ,f m m_/c m_/f ,lesghian ,w ,k ,f m c f ,shemakha ,w_/,s ,f m m_/f m_/f ,shirvan ,w ,k ,f m_/s m_/c m_/l ,shousha ,w ,t ,f m m_/c m_/f ,soumak ,w_/,s ,k ,f m m ,tcherkess ,w_/,s ,k ,f m m f ,tiflis ,w ,f m m_/f f indicates the less frequent condition4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,central ,,asiatic ,,rugs ,,the land that extends eastward about fourteen hundred miles from the ,caspian ,sea to the western boundary of the ,chinese ,empire1 and northward for a similar distance from the ,arabian ,sea through ,beluchistan and ,afghanistan to the steppes of ,western ,siberia1 is one of the least civilised parts of the eastern continent4 ,here until within a few recent years1 the people lived the same untrammelled lives that their ancestors pursued for past centuries2 and the encroachments of the ,russian ,empire on the north and the ,english on the southeast1 have as yet made little impression on their uncultured natures4 ,to these circumstances it is largely due that the rugs termed ,central ,asiatic1 which come from this district1 still possess to a large degree the originality of design1 virility of character1 and beauty of colour that are so rapidly disappearing from the woven products of countries more subject to the influence of ,western civilisation4 ,these rugs may conveniently be divided into three natural sub-groups1 which include3 #a4 ,the ,turkoman1 consisting of what are known in this country as ,royal and ,princess ,bokharas1 the ,tekkes1 ,yomuds1 ,khivas1 and ,beshires1 all of which are made in ,turkestan2#cb and the ,afghan1 of which part are made in ,turkestan and part in ,afghanistan4 #b4 ,the ,turko-,chinese1 consisting of the ,samarkands1 which re made in ,western ,turkestan1 and the ,kasghars and ,yarkands made in ,eastern ,turkestan4 #c4 ,the ,beluchistans or ,beluches1 made principally in ,beluchistan4 ,no other rugs adhere more strictly to uniformity of colour and design than the ,turkoman4 ,and1 when it is considered that their prevailing tones and their simple1 geometric designs are such as would readily be adopted by people with primitive ideas of ornamentation1 it seems probable that they have been copied with only slight modification for a great many centuries1 even though more gorgeous and elaborate carpets were woven during the short period when ,samarkand was capital of the ,east4 ,this is probably true1 notwithstanding no other country in the world has been subject to more conquests than ,turkestan or overrun by so many different races4 ,for here1 as we learn by the aid of philology1 dwelt the ,aryans even before the light of history had come to dispel the mists of antiquity4 ,two or three thousand years later it was overrun by ,cyrus and added to the dominion of the ,medes and ,persians4 ,in the ,v ,century ,a4 ,d41 ,tartar tribes conquered it2 and in the following century ,turks and ,persians divided it between them4 ,still later it was again overrun by the ,arabs1 who1 sword in hand1 converted the vanquished to the creed of ,islam4 ,when a few more centuries had rolled away the ,mongol hordes of ,genghis ,khan swept over it2 and once again it suffered desolation under the iron hand of ,tamerlane1 8,scourge of ,asia40 ,but in spite of these waves of conquest and the minor struggles with ,persians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 that left their impress on the country1 each of the several classes of ,turkoman rugs1 including even those made two centuries ago1 show a remarkable conformity to definite types1 however much may be their modification in small detail4 ,their nap is invariably short2 in all of them some shade of dark red is the predominating colour2 and in most of them some form of an octagon appears4 ,they are1 moreover1 the best woven and the most beautiful of the ,central ,asiatic rugs4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,turkestan ,though the ,turko-,chinese rugs are made in places subject to the influence of ,turkomans and far removed from the culture of ,chinese1 they are unlike the rugs of the former and resemble those of the latter4 ,not improbably this is because ,tamerlane had gathered at ,samarkand noted artists and artisans from ,china1 whose influence continued long after his death4 ,and as traditional patterns have been transmitted for centuries1 there is little doubt that some of the modern rugs1 even though falling far short of the standard of their early prototypes1 more closely resemble them than they do any other rugs of ,asia4 ,in these pieces ,turkoman simplicity of geometric figures is replaced by an elaboration of conventional floral forms and by designs associated with early philosophies2 sobriety of colour yields to the bright and even gaudy tones not infrequent in modern textile fabrics4 ,the ,beluchistans1 which are regarded as a sub-group of the ,central ,asiatic rugs1 show a closer relationship to the ,turkoman rugs than to any others4 ,a few of them have octagonal patterns suggestive of ,bokharas1 and all have the long webs at the ends and the heavy goat's hair selvage at the sides peculiar to ,afghans and ,tekkes4 ,on the other hand1 many of the patterns both of field and border resemble ,persian workmanship2 so that placing these rugs in the same group with the ,turkoman and ,turko-,chinese rugs1 which are not made in an adjoining territory1 is slightly arbitrary4 ,,royal ,,bokharas4--,the best known district in ,turkestan is the ,khanate of ,bokhara1 which extends from the offshoots of the lofty ,pamir mountains in the east to the desolate sandy plains beyond the ,amu ,daria1 or ,oxus river1 on the west4 ,situated in its northern half and near the centre of a fertile valley is its capital1 ,bokhara1 8,the ,noble40 ,though noted for its cruelty1 it was once the intellectual centre of ,asia1 and still possesses nearly a hundred schools and innumerable mosques4 ,these and its bazaars are almost all that remain of the splendour of those days when the great caravans that came from ,china1 ,india1 ,persia1 and ,russia made it one of the great marts of the ,east4 ,on account of its commercial importance1 the wild tribes of the ,kirghiz steppes1 the ,turkomans from ,kizil ,kum1#cc the ,afghans who dwell north of the ,paropamisus range1 and the fierce ,tekkes and ,yomuds from the west1 came and bartered their rugs for other necessities4 ,many of these rugs were taken in caravans1 that often numbered several thousand camels1 and sold in the ,russian market places of ,astrakan1 ,orenburg1 or ,nijni ,novgorod4 ,since they came from the same place1 the term ,bokhara was often applied to each of the different classes4 ,thus we hear of ,royal ,bokharas1 ,princess ,bokharas1 ,tekke ,bokharas1 ,yomud ,bokharas1 and ,khiva ,bokharas4 ,of these five classes the ,royal ,bokharas1 as a rule1 not only are the best woven1 but are made of the finest material2 even the warp of many of them is of soft1 silky white wool4 ,the old rugs were made in the city and suburbs of ,bokhara1 where now only a few pieces are made4 ,both old and new are found only as sedjadehs4 ,they have two well-known patterns1 one of which consists of an octagon surrounding a quartered hexagon4 ,of these quarters1 which are either plain or contain a small triangle of contrasting colour1 a pair that are opposite are always white or cream coloured1 and the other pair are of some shade of red4 ,small triangular figures are invariably seen above and below the hexagons1 as well as small diamond1 oval1 or spear-shaped figures at each end of the major axis4 ,in the other pattern the contour of the octagon is rounder2 and the hexagon is replaced by an eight-pointed star1 at the centre of which is a diamond containing a rectangle or occasionally a ,greek cross4 ,projecting into the four corners from the star are small designs1 that careful observation of a large number in many different kinds of rugs shows to be leaf forms4 ,between the diagonally placed octagons of both these types are stars or diamond-shaped figures1 that are usually of the same design regardless of the shape of the octagon4 ,in large rugs the centres of the octagons are generally joined by straight lines of dark blue colour4 ,it is uncertain why the term ,royal has been applied to this class of ,bokharas1 but it is eminently befitting the old well-woven1 velvet-like pieces4 ,a few have small patches of pink or ruby coloured silk2 and all have a prevailing tone of red diversified by deep blues and touches of lighter red and ivory1 that convey an idea of opulence and dignity worthy of a king4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark red1 with minor quantities of blue1 pink or orange1 and ivory4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally eight to twelve2 perpendicularly1 sixteen to twenty-four4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed at back and the weft is almost hidden4 ,warp1 fine white wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of fine diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 fine wool1 or occasionally silk1 clipped short4 ,border1 three stripes divided by smaller coloured lines4 ,sides1 a blue double overcasting4 ,both ends1 a narrow web and short warp fringe4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back is of fine grain4 ,usual length1 four to ten feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to four fifths length4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ec4 ,,turkoman ,,rug ,,with ,,katchli ,,pattern ,,princess ,,bokharas4--,the rugs known as ,princess ,bokharas are woven by the ,mohammedan tribes who dwell in parts of the ,khanate of ,bokhara4 ,they are nearly square and the field is divided into four equal sections by perpendicular and horizontal bands4 ,because of this pattern they are called 8,katchlis10 a word derived from the ,armenian language signifying 8like a cross40 ,the bands generally have designs that are co-ordinate with those in part of the border2 but not infrequently the designs of the horizontal band differ from those of the perpendicular one1 and in a few rare instances consist of an octagonal figure4 ,it is generally believed that the well-known ,y-shaped motive characteristic of the field and the border is intended to represent the tree of life1 but some native weavers suggest a different interpretation4 ,to them the whole rug symbolises a mosque2 the perpendicular arm of the cross is the entrance2 the ,y-shaped designs are benches2 and the broad diagonal lines with serrated edges in the borders are groves of trees surrounding the mosque4 ,a very large percentage of these pieces are namazliks4 ,one of their peculiarities is the position of their unobtrusive tent-shaped prayer arch1 which is in a panel entirely within their upper border4 ,compared with ,royal ,bokharas their nap is rarely of as fine quality1 the warp is usually of brown instead of cream white wool1 and the weave is coarser4 ,also1 the tones of colour are more sombre1 and of browner shades2 but in rare old pieces the rich mahogany and bronze hues of the ground1 on which are represented small designs in shades of cream and dark blue1 are exceedingly rich and pleasing4 ,unfortunately1 within recent years large numbers of this class have been made solely for commercial purposes1 and lack the finer qualities of their prototypes4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark red or brown1 with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally eight to twelve2 perpendicularly1 fourteen to eighteen4 ,the rows of knots are firmly pressed down1 so that the warp is concealed at back and the weft partly hidden4 ,warp1 brown wool or goat's hair2 each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back4 ,weft1 wool1 of fine diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of short or medium length2 occasionally some goat's hair is used4 ,border1 three stripes1 separated by narrow lines4 ,sides1 a double overcasting or a double goat's hair selvage of three cords4 ,both ends1 a web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 stout4 ,weave at back is of moderately fine grain4 ,usual length1 four and one half to six feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to four fifths length4 ,,tekkes4--,a little over two centuries ago there lived on the peninsula of ,mangishlar1 on the eastern shore of the ,caspian ,sea1 an almost unknown tribe called the 8,tekke10 a term which is said to denote a mountain goat1 and was applied on account of the headlong pace at which the men rode over rough mountain sides4 ,about the beginning of the ,,xviii ,century they packed their khibitkas1#cd and after moving southward to escape from the attacks of a more powerful tribe1 they met the ,yomuds in the southwestern corner of ,turkestan and robbed them of their lands4 ,further eastward they snatched the fertile oasis of ,ak-kal from some ,kurds1 whose ancestors a ,shah of ,persia had located there in earlier times to protect his kingdom from fierce northern tribes4 ,by irrigating and cultivating the soil1 they prospered and increased rapidly in population1 until1 about #ahcj1 they numbered one hundred thousand4 ,one fourth of them then moved eastward2 and after settling on the banks of the ,tajand1 not far from the ,persian town of ,saraks1 they attacked the inhabitants of ,merv and captured the city4 ,growing thus to be a powerful people1 they occupied much of the country between ,persia and the ,amu ,daria4 ,ever restless1 they were constantly looking for weaker foes on whom to fall2 and when a leader would announce an intended raid1 hundreds or even thousands would meet at the appointed rendezvous prepared to blindly follow him4 ,sometimes it was through the passes that looked down into the fertile valleys of ,northern ,persia4 ,stealthily creeping through them they would fall unexpectedly upon an unprotected village and dash away with young women and children4 ,if pursued1 they would stab their captives1 and if necessary1 ride more than one hundred miles a day in flight4 ,at other times1 they would attack caravans crossing the deserts and carry away both camels and wares4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ed4 ,,turkoman ,,prayer ,,rug1 ,,which ,,according ,,to ,a4 ,,bogolubow ,,has ,,the ,,typical ,,pind ,,pattern ,their raids1 however1 were not viewed with complacence by the ,russians1 who had been steadily advancing on the land lying between the ,caspian and the ,amu ,daria1 and whose armies the ,tekkes harassed4 ,at length in ,january1 #ahha1 came the final death struggle in the memorable attack on the fortress of ,geok ,teppe1 where thirty-three thousand tribesmen and seven thousand women and children had taken refuge4 ,with the fall of that stronghold and the terrible punishment that followed1 the power of the ,tekkes was completely crushed2 and a people whose ancestors for countless centuries had roamed the desert1 recognising no master1 yielded finally to the advance of civilisation4 ,these were the people whose wives and daughters wove the rugs generally known as ,tekke ,bokharas1 of which large numbers with excellent weave and sterling dyes can still be found4 ,as few of them were designed for mosques or palaces1 it is very unusual to find pieces over one hundred years old1 and even these are rare4 ,indeed1 any that are now forty years old should possess great interest1 as they were woven at a time when the ,tekkes were still a fierce race4 ,very many have the ,katchli pattern4 ,the prayer arch1 which is similar to that of ,princess ,bokharas1 is in a panel exterior to the field and within the border4 ,not infrequently there are three arches in the same horizontal panel1 which1 as a rule1 is above the field1 but occasionally below it4 ,in a great many of these rugs the three-leaf clover is found in some part of the field2 and in the band of pile that extends beyond the border at one end are usually small conventionalised bushes with white and yellow flowers4 ,the pattern shown in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #d 7opp4 ,page #bej71 appears almost invariably in the outer stripe4 ,there are other types1 into one of which it would seem as if the very spirit of the desert had crept4 ,their dark ground colours are brightened by lighter tones that give an effect of strange yet not inharmonious beauty4 ,a few would seem to speak of the early ,zoroastrian faith1 for in their fields are designs like stars with effulgent rays that suggest the burning altars of fire worshippers4 ,the shape or some peculiarity of the rug indicates the purpose for which it was intended4 ,for instance1 the rugs which were made for doors of the khibitkas have at the upper end a selvage with the web turned back and hemmed1 and at each corner a heavy braided cord of about two feet in length1 by which they were suspended4 ,other pieces have webs at both ends4 ,many beautiful pieces are made for use on horses or camels4 ,those intended for camels are of oblong shape with a field usually containing large octagons1 between which are smaller octagons similar to those in ,royal ,bokharas4 ,tekkes may be distinguished from the ,princess ,bokharas1 which they resemble1 by their goat's hair selvage at the sides1 by one thread of warp to each knot being slightly depressed at the back1 and by their coarser character4 ,there is1 however1 a great similarity in the colours1 though in the ,tekkes tones of deep plum and rich red are not uncommon4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark red1 brown1 or plum1 with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve2 perpendicularly1 nine to fourteen4 ,the rows of knots are slightly pressed down1 but the warp shows at back4 ,warp1 wool or goat's hair2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back4 ,weft1 wool of fine or medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 or occasionally goat's hair of short or medium length4 ,border1 three stripes1 separated by coloured lines4 ,sides1 a three-cord double goat's hair selvage4 ,lower end1 a wide coloured web and long warp fringe4 ,upper end1 a braided selvage turned back and hemmed1 or occasionally a wide coloured web and long warp fringe4 ,texture1 firm4 ,weave at back of moderately fine grain4 ,length1 five to eight feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to four fifths length4 ,,khivas4--,on the west bank of the ,amu ,daria1 and stretching for two hundred miles above its mouth1 is the plain of the ,khanate of ,khiva4 ,most of the people live in khibitkas1 and either follow a nomad's life or raise from the alluvial soil1 that is watered by innumerable canals1 crops of cotton1 corn1 and rice1 as well as melons1 peaches1 and pomegranates4 ,a large population1 also1 inhabits the city of ,khiva1 which before the building of the ,siberian railway1 was on one of the direct highways between east and west4 ,caravans of nearly two thousand camels regularly passed through it en route to ,orenburg in spring and to ,astrakan in fall1 carrying wares from districts farther to the east as well as its own rugs and manufactured articles4 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,,ix--,,samarkand ,,rug ,although this rug is an excellent example of that class generally known as ,samarkands1 it was bought in ,yarkand4 ,undoubtedly it was woven in some part of ,turkestan that lies between these two cities2 yet with the exception of the eight-pointed stars at the centre of the upper and lower medallions the pattern is characteristic of ,chinese ornamentation4 ,surrounding the central medallion1 on a ground of rich deep blue1 are six conventionalised butterflies1 and near them are four clusters of pomegranates4 ,at each end of the field are designs that suggest the tree of life1 which under different forms appears so persistently in the woven fabrics of the ,east4 ,the delicate drawing of these motives is accentuated by the formal character of the four corners and by the broad border of well-known stripes4 ,it is a piece in which beauty of line and colour is combined with unsolved symbolism4 ,loaned by ,mr4 ,hulett ,c4 ,merritt ,on account of the constant intercourse between the ,khiva and ,bokhara tribes1 their woven fabrics show a close relationship in patterns and colours2 yet they contain important differences4 ,those made by the ,khiva tribes are cruder1 and reflect the effect of constant struggles against the rigours of the desert and the fierce ,kirghiz from the steppes to the north4 ,the wool is also coarser and longer1 and the knots are much fewer to the inch4 ,occasionally geometric as well as animal designs suggestive of ,caucasian influence occur4 ,moreover1 the brownish threads of weft that separate each row of knots1 are noticeable at the back1 whereas in other ,turkoman rugs the weft is hardly perceptible4 ,many of the old pieces were very handsome1 as is shown by the following description of an antique goat's hair carpet from ,khiva by ,dr4 ,birdwood4#ce 8,the ground is of madder red1 decorated with leaves and scrolls and lozenge-shaped forms in red1 white1 and orange1 each lozenge being defined by a deep line of indigo blue4 ,the ends terminate in a fringe4 ,professor ,vambery says that these rich lustrous carpets are made entirely by the nomad women about ,khiva1 the head worker tracing out the design in the desert sand and handing out to her companions the dyed materials of different colours as required in the progress of weaving40 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark red1 with minor quantities of blue and ivory4 ,knot1 ,ghiordes or ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to ten2 perpendicularly1 eight to fourteen4 ,the rows of knots are but slightly pressed down1 so that the warp shows at back4 ,warp1 wool or goat's hair2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back4 ,weft1 wool of medium or coarse diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool of medium length4 ,border1 generally three stripes4 ,sides1 a double selvage of two or three cords1 which is generally of goat's hair4 ,both ends1 a web1 one or more rows of knots and a warp fringe4 ,texture1 stout4 ,usual length1 four and one half to six feet4 ,usual width1 three fifths to three quarters length4 ,,yomuds4--,when1 in #agah1 the ,yomuds were driven by the ,tekkes from their homes in the well-watered region about ,kizil ,arvat1 they moved to a less fertile country to the north and west4 ,though now numbering about one hundred thousand1 they have few villages2 and regardless of the dreary sand storms1 the biting cold of winter1 or the terrible heat of summer1 they wander with their sheep and goats from place to place in search of more favoured spots4 ,sometimes their khibitkas are seen along the border of the ,caspian ,sea as far south as ,astrabad in ,khorassan1 or among the sandy trackless wastes of ,kara ,kum1 nearly as far north as the ,aral ,sea4 ,many of their rugs rival the ,royal ,bokharas in wealth of colour4 ,the prevailing tone of the field is usually red or maroon1 but is sometimes rose1 plum1 or dark brown2 and the remaining shades correspond with the blue1 green1 brown1 and white of ,tekkes4 ,contrasted with these is the ivory ground of the border1 which1 as a rule1 has a much brighter colour than the field4 ,furthermore1 the pile of the old pieces has a lustre that is due to the excellence of the dyes and the thick soft wool4 ,there are several distinct types1 of which only one is well-known4 ,its pattern is clearly ,turkoman1 though the lesser designs show that there has been frequent intercourse with the weavers of ,caucasia4 ,covering the field of these pieces are regularly placed diamond-shaped figures that suggest those of the ,royal ,bokharas1 from which they may have been developed to the almost entire exclusion of the octagon2 though the latter appears much less prominently in the centre of the diamonds4 ,in the border occurs the running latch-hook1 the barber-pole stripe1 and a geometrically drawn vine4 ,the webs of the ends1 which are usually red and striped1 are broad and have a fringe of goat's hair1 sometimes braided into ropelike tassels1 but more often hanging loose4 ,the saddle bags are of irregular shape resembling a flat walled tent1 and contain in both field and border much brighter colour than the rugs4 ,their field is checkered with diamond-shaped figures rich in ivory colour and separated from each other by diagonal barber-pole stripes2 their border contains the running latch-hook4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark red and mahogany brown1 with minor quantities of blue1 green1 and white4 ,knot1 generally ,sehna1 occasionally ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to eight2 perpendicularly1 seven to ten4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is largely concealed at back4 ,warp1 coarse wool or goat's hair2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back1 or one is slightly depressed below the other4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium diameter1 or occasionally wool mixed with goat's hair4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 either a two-cord selvage of red alternating with blue or brown1 or a goat's hair double selvage of three or four cords4 ,both ends1 a broad1 reddish brown web through which1 as a rule1 run coloured lines or several narrow stripes1 and a long warp fringe4 ,texture1 stout4 ,weave at back is moderately coarse4 ,usual length1 five to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to three quarters length4 ,,beshires4--,on the ,amu ,daria and not far from ,afghanistan is a small district from which the rugs known as ,beshires now and then find their way to this country4 ,as it is not far from several routes of caravans1 these rugs show a relationship to the products of other ,turkoman tribes4 ,their colour scheme is principally the dark red and brownish tones found in ,bokharas1 ,yomuds1 and ,khivas4 ,the ends1 too1 have the web crossed by several lines1 such as blue1 green1 and yellowish brown1 that are usual in ,afghans4 ,the patterns sometimes contain a suggestion of the geometric figures of the ,yomuds and some ,caucasian pieces2 and yet they have a striking character of their own4 ,not infrequently the field is covered with broad1 irregular scrolls or foliate forms1 unlike anything seen in any other class of rugs4 ,again the field may be occupied with a trellis pattern1 which divides it into diamond-shaped figures4 ,within these are smaller diamonds surrounded by eight-pointed stars and quasi-floral forms4 ,the borders1 as a rule1 are narrow and have simple designs that incline to the geometric2 but a few are of fair width and are ornamented with rosettes and conventionalised leaves4 ,in namazliks1 which are rarely seen1 the prayer arch lies within the field4 ,almost all of this class found in this country are old rugs2 and on account of their rich1 harmonious colours and unobtrusive yet distinctive patterns1 are always pleasing and interesting4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark red and brown1 with minor quantities of blue1 yellow1 and white4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve2 perpendicularly1 seven to twelve4 ,a half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as1 or longer than1 wide4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is almost hidden at back4 ,warp1 generally goat's hair4 ,each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back1 or occasionally one is slightly depressed4 ,weft1 wool or goat's hair of medium or coarse diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 generally three stripes1 occasionally only one4 ,sides1 a goat's hair selvage of two to four cords4 ,both ends1 a wide web1 crossed with several coloured stripes4 ,texture1 stout4 ,weave1 coarse4 ,length1 four to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 two fifths to two thirds length4 ,,afghans4--,one of the most distinctive classes of ,turkoman rugs is known in this country both as ,afghans and ,khivas4 ,both of these names are unfortunately applied2 for their only title to be called the latter is that many were formerly exported from the bazaars of ,khiva1 and that they slightly resemble the rugs of that city4 ,nor are they strictly ,afghans1 since they come from the territory of mountain ridges and fertile valleys that stretches from the ,hindu ,koosh ,mountains northward across the eastern part of the ,khanate ,bokhara1 and are made by the tribesmen of both countries4 ,in fact1 they differ considerably from the rugs of ,central and ,southern ,afghanistan1 and bear no resemblance to those of floral pattern woven about ,herat4 ,within the territory where these rugs are made the ,aryan and ,teutonic races have met and blended2 and across it have passed the armies of the greatest conquerors of ,asia4 ,here still exist some of the most untamed races of the ,east1 feeding their flocks on lofty table-lands1 or cultivating patches of valleys1 through which flow icy streams to form the ,amu ,daria4 ,here the rights of hospitality are held sacred1 but wrongs are revenged without recourse to any tribunal4 ,when the antecedents1 customs1 and surroundings of the people are taken into consideration1 it is not strange that their rugs should be strong and firm in texture1 bold in design1 positive and striking in colour4 ,most of them are large and almost square in shape1 though mats are not uncommon4 ,the traditional pattern consists of perpendicular rows1 usually three in number1 of large octagons1 that are almost in contact4 ,between these rows are much smaller diamond-shaped designs1 which consist in some pieces of a cluster of eight-pointed stars1 and in others of a geometric figure that is occasionally fringed with hooks and contains within its centre an eight-pointed star4 ,with a few exceptions the octagons1 which closely resemble those of ,royal ,bokharas1 are symmetrical1 and all their details are drawn as regularly as if the rugs were factory woven4 ,they are invariably divided into quarters which usually are marked with a small figure like a three-leaf clover4 ,the field contains but few adventitious designs and they are rarely animal1 as the ,afghans are ,sunni ,mohammedans4 ,one of the most common of these designs1 which appears also in the ,tekkes and ,yomuds1 is probably intended to represent part of the headstall of camel trappings4 ,the pattern of the border conforms to that of the field1 but frequently has crudely drawn floral forms and a conventionalised vine4 ,the sides have an added selvage of brown goat's hair2 and the ends are finished with reddish brown webs1 from which hang loose fringes of dark wool or goat's hair4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ee4 ,,turkoman ,,rug ,,of ,,the ,,salor ,,tribes ,as characteristic as the large bold octagons are the colours1 which however subdued are invariably of rich hues4 ,those of the field consist of dark red1 maroon1 or reddish brown4 ,the quarters of the octagon are of a deep blue alternating with a red that is lighter than the field4 ,in some pieces this red is blood colour1 or nearly crimson1 standing out in bold relief against the adjacent blue and a field of maroon4 ,lines of green1 orange1 yellow1 and white often appear in the body of the rug2 lines of dark blue and a checkered pattern in red and blue are frequent in the red webs of the ends4 ,though these rugs are1 as a rule1 heavier and coarser in texture than most other ,turkoman rugs1 the old pieces have a soft plushy nap of fine wool and goat's fleece1 as well as richness of tone1 that is very attractive4 ,they are exceedingly durable and moderate in price4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally dark red and mahogany brown1 with minor quantities of blue1 green1 yellow1 and white4 ,knot1 generally ,sehna1 occasionally ,ghiordes4 ,knots to inch horizontally five to eight2 perpendicularly1 seven to ten4 ,the rows of knots are pressed down1 so that the warp is largely concealed at back4 ,warp1 coarse wool or goat's hair2 each thread encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back1 or one is slightly depressed below the other4 ,weft1 wool1 of medium diameter1 or occasionally wool mixed with goat's hair4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 a goat's hair double selvage of three or four cords4 ,both ends1 a broad web of reddish brown colour through which run several narrow lines or several narrow stripes1 and a long fringe4 ,texture1 stout4 ,weave at back is moderately coarse4 ,usual length1 five to twelve feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to three quarters length4 ,,samarkands4--,a little over one hundred miles east of ,bokhara1 and on the southern border of the desert of ,red ,sands1 the river ,zarafshan1 8,strewer of ,gold10 has turned a plain of yellow loam into an oasis4 ,forty-three large canals bring its waters to fields of cotton2 to vineyards2 to orchards of apple1 pear1 peach1 and pomegranate2 and to gardens of fragrant flowers4 ,here is ,samarkand1 8,the ,mirror of the ,world40 ,few cities as old remain after passing through so many vicissitudes of fortune4 ,alexander forced his way through its gates1 the ,chinese ,empire annexed it1 and finally ,tamerlane seized and made it the magnificent capital of one third of the known world4 ,his tomb and other remaining monuments attest the grandeur of that time when there was fostered here the art1 the luxury1 and the splendour of the ,east4 ,the rugs known as ,samarkands are woven in a district somewhat eastward from the city and are often called 8,malgarans40 ,they are not to be compared with the magnificent carpets that adorned the palaces and mosques of the capital of ,tamerlane2 yet they possess a special interest1 as in them are combined features derived from both ,eastern and ,western ,asia4 ,either because this city1 known as ,samo-,kien1 was once part of the ,chinese ,empire1 or as is more probable1 because it is on one of the great highways of caravan travel between ,china and ,western ,asia1 the ,chinese element is particularly noticeable4 ,it appears in the colours that are in strong contrast2 in the general pattern that shows little affinity for those of ,persian or ,west ,asian rugs2 and even in the weave1 in which silk is occasionally mixed with the wool of both warp and pile4 ,the ground colour of the field is usually some shade of red or madder1 with blue and yellow appearing conspicuously in the principal designs and border stripes4 ,or again1 the field may be blue1 soft brown1 gray1 or tan1 with which the colours of the designs and borders1 that may contain red1 yellow1 and blue1 invariably appear in strong contrast4 ,few rugs have a more noticeable pattern1 which consists principally of rounded medallions4 ,if there be but one1 it is in the centre2 and if there be many1 one is at each corner4 ,they are usually ornamented with ,chinese scrolls or some geometric design1 as an eight-pointed star2 but dragons1 birds1 or fishes are not uncommon4 ,occasionally1 also1 flowers of ,persian design1 with eight rounded petals1 appear in the medallion1 and others of larger size cover the field2 or they may even exclude the medallion and constitute the principal motive4 ,some simple design in fretwork gives finish to the corners of the field1 which is further covered with ,chinese butterflies1 scrolls1 or archaic flower forms4 ,the borders are equally distinctive1 and unlike those of ,chinese rugs are relatively wide and consist of several stripes surrounded by an edging of uniform colour4 ,one of the stripes has generally a stiffly undulating vine2 another a continuous swastika design2 and a third is marked with frets1 the barber-pole design1 or a design which by some is regarded as the sacred ,chinese mountain rising from the waves4 ,in most pieces warp and weft are loosely woven1 and the pile is of a medium grade of wool2 but in very old pieces the wool is fine and lustrous4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 and yellow4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to eight2 perpendicularly1 five to eight4 ,each half knot1 as it appears at back1 is as long as1 or longer than1 wide4 ,the rows of knots are not firmly pressed down1 so that the warp shows at back4 ,warp1 generally cotton1 occasionally wool2 one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other4 ,weft1 generally cotton1 occasionally wool1 of coarse diameter and frequently dyed4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice1 between every two rows of knots1 and occasionally three times4 ,pile1 wool1 of medium length4 ,border1 three stripes with a pink edging4 ,sides1 a red or pink overcasting4 ,lower end1 web and warp loops4 ,upper end1 web and warp fringe4 ,texture1 moderately firm4 ,weave at back1 rather coarse4 ,length1 six to fourteen feet4 ,usual width1 one half to three fifths length4 ,,kashgars ,,and ,,yarkands4--,among the foothill plains at the western end of the ,chinese ,empire1 are the mud-walled cities of ,kashgar and ,yarkand1 that were ancient even in the days when ,marco ,polo visited there4 ,situated in populous and fertile districts1 each has been a city of political and industrial importance2 but on account of the great divides that separate them from ,western ,turkestan1 ,persia1 and ,india1 their commerce has been principally with ,thibet and ,china4 ,thus it has happened that only within recent years have any of their textile fabrics reached ,europe and ,america1 where they are still almost unknown4 ,yet even in the remote past1 these cities gained a reputation for the culture of silk and the weaving of carpets4 ,moreover1 at different periods they were centres of luxury1 so that it may safely be assumed that many of their woven products were of a high order of excellence4 ,these rugs1 to be sure1 come from a district lying within the ,chinese ,empire2 but it is so remote from the centres where the well-known ,chinese rugs have been and are woven1 and is so much nearer to ,west ,turkestan and ,afghanistan1 that it seems best to place them in the ,central ,asiatic group4 ,as a rule1 such pieces as reach this country show crude workmanship entirely lacking in graceful floral patterns or artistic drawing4 ,octagonal forms1 animals1 and even mythical creatures are often distributed over the fields so as to give them a decidedly ,chinese character4 ,the narrow border stripes ornamented with the swastika and fret forms are often similar to some of the ,samarkand stripes4 ,the colours1 which lack the subdued richness of ,persian pieces1 are often light2 but they occasionally consist largely of tones of dark blue and red which show ,turkoman influences4 ,most of these rugs are interesting on account of their quaintness and individuality2 but few compare in quality of material1 weave1 or artistic finish with other classes of this group4 ,,beluches ,,or ,,beluchistans4--8,when creating the world1 the ,almighty made ,beluchistan out of the refuse0 are the words of an old proverb1 that refers to a land which formerly produced some of the most interesting rugs of the ,east4 ,in fact1 the thought is not surprising when the desolate character of the country is considered2 for a sandy1 waterless waste stretches over the greater part1 and only in a corner to the northeast and in narrow strips1 where streams from mountain sides water small valleys1 is any cultivation4 ,across this sparsely settled land and farther westward into the southeastern part of ,persia1 untamed tribes of ,beluches and ,brahoes wander with their sheep1 goats1 and large numbers of camels4 ,their rugs1 woven on crudely made looms1 bear little resemblance to the more artistic floral pieces of the ,indian weavers to the east or to those of ,kirman to the west4 ,nor are they closely related to the ,turkoman rugs with which they are usually grouped4 ,in fact1 they possess an individuality that once recognised is never forgotten2 an individuality due to the isolated condition of a country that is protected from its nearest neighbours by barriers of deserts and mountain ridges1 and is possessed by a still unconquered people4 ,to these circumstances1 also1 it is due that the rugs are rarely coloured with aniline dyes1 though many modern pieces have been chemically washed by dealers4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ef4 ,,yomud ,,rug ,one of the most distinguishing features of ,beluchistans are their tones of colour1 that rarely depart from traditional usage4 ,they are principally a red of the shade of madder1 a blue with purple cast1 and a dark brown that has sometimes a slight olive tinge1 particularly when appearing in the webs4 ,frequently1 too1 dull tones of green are seen4 ,contrasting with these more subdued ground colours is almost invariably some ivory which appears as small detached figures in part of the border1 or as outlines of principal designs4 ,the patterns also show individuality and diversity4 ,most frequently they are geometric and represent some ill defined octagons suggesting ,turkoman rugs4 ,or they may consist of a field covered with diagonal bands1 with large lozenges1 or medallions1 all of which are decorated profusely with latch-hooks4 ,still others have some crudely drawn flower design1 as the ,mina ,khani1 that tells of ,persian influences4 ,a fair proportion have the prayer pattern1 consisting of a large rectangular shaped mihrab1 which is as high as1 and frequently higher than1 wide4 ,the borders1 as a rule1 consist of three or four stripes4 ,the main stripe is geometric and in the guard stripes are running latch-hooks or the reciprocal trefoil1 though occasionally they are replaced by some conventionalised vine or ribbon pattern4 ,proportionally to their length few other rugs have such long webs at the end1 though they are sometimes entirely worn away while the body of the rug is still serviceable4 ,they are usually coloured in harmony with the colours of the field1 and are marked with embroidered lines or simple designs4 ,no other rugs have a surface with more lustrous sheen1 due to the soft1 fine wool of the pile1 which in old pieces is short and closely woven1 giving a play of colours1 and velvety appearance unsurpassed by any other nomadic rugs4 ,many of the choicest pieces of ,beluchistan weave now on the market are the small saddle bags1 that are of rich yet subdued colours1 and possess the character and sheen of very old rugs4 ,type ,characteristics4 ,colours1 principally red1 blue1 and brown1 with minor quantities of white4 ,knot1 ,sehna4 ,knots to inch horizontally six to nine2 perpendicularly1 seven to ten4 ,the rows of knots are usually pressed down1 so that the warp does not show at back4 ,warp1 wool2 each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back1 or one is slightly depressed below the other4 ,weft1 of coarse1 wiry wool1 of medium diameter4 ,a thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots4 ,pile1 wool1 and occasionally camel's hair1 of medium length4 ,border1 three stripes4 ,sides1 a heavy goat's hair selvage of three or four cords4 ,both ends1 a broad embroidered web with warp fringe4 ,texture1 slightly loose4 ,weave at back is moderately coarse4 ,usual length1 four and one half to six feet4 ,usual width1 two thirds to three quarters length4 ,,border ,,stripes ,the border stripes of the ,central ,asiatic group are even more geometric than the ,caucasian2 for it is rarely that any floral forms are seen in them1 though they may appear in the pile that extends beyond the borders of the ends4 ,even the vines are so angular as almost to lose their identity4 ,octagonal figures1 stars1 frets1 and latch-hooks are common4 ,in fact1 the group as a whole1 shows the influence of the ,caucasian and ,chinese groups more than the ,persian4 ,,primary ,,stripes ,the stripe shown in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #a 7opp4 ,page #bej7 is one of many found in the rugs known as ,royal ,bokharas4 ,the eight-pointed stars1 as well as the small tent-like designs1 which may have been derived from the headstalls of horses1 are almost always found in it4 ,a well-known stripe of ,princess ,bokharas corresponding with the pattern of the field1 appears in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #b4 ,it represents a continuous series of designs shaped like a ,y1 that were doubtless derived from forms of trees4 ,more frequently the stripe 7,fig4 #c7 of broad1 serrated diagonal lines1 that originally may have been intended to represent foliage1 is seen4 ,another stripe found in ,princess ,bokharas and also in ,tekkes and ,khivas is shown in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #d4 ,it forcibly suggests the ,chinese fret4 ,sometimes it is used as a primary but more frequently as a secondary stripe4 ,in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #e1 is a stripe frequently seen in ,tekkes1 which is interesting on account of the eight-pointed stars and latch-hooks similar to those of ,caucasian rugs4 ,without doubt this is only one of the many instances illustrating the migration of designs4 ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #f represents a stripe peculiar to ,yomuds4 ,the running vine is most mechanically drawn and fringed with latch-hooks1 which are a constant feature of this class4 ,another ,yomud stripe with vine in which serrations take the place of latch-hooks is shown in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #g4 ,pendent from the vine are other hooks shaped like frets4 ,very similar to an old ,caucasian stripe is the one represented in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #h2 but in this stripe the small designs are drawn so that the proportion of length to width is greater2 and it is probable that they were copied from a wreath of leaves4 ,this stripe is very commonly seen in ,beluchistans4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,l4 ,,primary ,,and ,,secondary ,,border-,,stripes ,,of ,,central ,,asiatic ,,rugs ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #i represents a mechanically drawn vine found in ,beshires4 ,well-known ,afghan stripes are shown in ,plate ,l1 ,figs4 #aj and #aa4 ,in ,plate ,l1 ,figs4 #ab and #ac are two of the most typical and interesting stripes of ,samarkands and ,yarkands4 ,the first is supposed to represent the sacred mountain of ,chinese lore rising out of the waves4 ,the second is a vine with leaves and flowers1 which suggest ,persian influences4 ,a stripe with simple archaic pattern peculiar to ,yarkands is seen in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #ad4 ,,secondary ,,stripes ,in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #ae 7opp4 ,page #bej71 is a well-known form of a secondary stripe found in ,royal ,bokharas4 ,a stripe seen in both ,princess ,bokharas and ,tekkes is shown in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #af4 ,it bears a slight resemblance to some conventionalised vines found in other groups4 ,stripes of running latch-hooks 7,plate ,k1 ,fig4 #bj1 opp4 ,page #bcj7 are frequently found in ,yomuds1 and occasionally in ,beluchistans4 ,in ,beluchistans the reciprocal trefoils1 so well-known in ,caucasian and ,persian rugs1 are very frequently used4 ,the pattern of a double vine1 illustrated in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #ag1 is a ,beshire stripe that suggests a ,persian influence4 ,in ,plate ,l1 ,fig4 #ah1 is the narrow pear stripe that appears in a very large number of ,afghans and in some ,khivas4 ,two well-known stripes that belong to ,samarkands are shown in ,plate ,l1 ,figs4 #ai and #bj4 ,the pattern of the conventionalised vine speaks of ,persian origin1 and the swastikas suggest ,chinese origin4 ,in ,tekkes1 ,yomuds1 ,afghans1 and ,beluchistans the small barber-pole stripes are constantly employed4 ,,technicalities ,,in ,,the ,,weave ,,of ,,central ,,asiatic ,,rugs ,legend3 ,,knot-- ,h ,horizontally ,p ,perpendicularly ,,warp-- g goat's hair e each equally prominent d #a to the knot depressed h #a to the knot doubled under ,,weft-- g goat's hair ,no4 ,no4 times crossing bet4 two round knots ,,sides-- ,o overcasting ,s selvage ,,lower ,,end ,w web ,s ,selvage ,k ,rows knots ,l warp loops ,f fringe ,,upper ,,end ,w web ,s selvage ,k ,rows knots ,t turned back and hemmed ,f fringe ,,knot ,,warp ,,central ,number to ,at back ,,asiatic ,inches ,g ,s w c ,ghiordes ,sehna ,h ,p wool cotton s_/l e d h ,afghan ,g ,s #e-h #g-aj w g e d ,beluchistan ,s #f-i #g-aj w g e d ,beshire ,s #f-i #h-aa w c g e d ,princess ,bokhara ,s #h-abaf-bd w e d ,royal ,bokhara ,s #h-abad-ah w g e ,tekke ,bokhara ,s #g-ab #i-ad w g d ,khiva ,g ,s #f-aj #h-ad w g e ,samarkand ,s #f-h #e-h w c h ,yomud ,g ,s #g-ab #i-ag w g e d ,,weft ,,sides ,,lower ,,end ,,central ,,asiatic w c wool cotton g ,no4 ,o ,s ,w_/,s ,k ,l ,f ,afghan w #b ,s ,w ,f ,beluchistan w #b ,s ,w ,f ,beshire w c g #b_/a ,s ,w ,f ,princess ,bokhara w #b ,o ,w ,f ,royal ,bokhara w #b ,o ,s ,w ,f ,tekke ,bokhara w #b ,s ,w ,f ,khiva w #b ,s ,w ,k ,f ,samarkand w c #b ,o ,w ,l ,yomud w #b ,s ,w ,f ,,upper ,,end ,,nap ,,weave ,,texture ,,central l long f fine l loose ,,asiatic m medium m medium m medium ,w_/,s ,k ,t ,f s short c coarse f firm ,afghan ,w ,f m m_/c f ,beluchistan ,w ,f m c m_/l ,beshire ,w ,f m c f ,princess ,bokhara ,w ,f s f f ,royal ,bokhara ,w ,f m_/s m_/s f ,tekke ,bokhara ,w ,t ,f m_/s m_/f f ,khiva ,w ,f m m f ,samarkand ,w ,f m c m ,yomud ,w ,f m m_/c f indicates the less frequent condition4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,indian ,,rugs ,,throughout parts of ,india are woven rugs known as ,dari1 which are unlike the rugs of any other country4 ,they are pileless cotton fabrics1 that may represent an indigenous craft old as the ,aryan migrations4 ,their designs are of the simplest order2 usually no more than plain stripes of blue1 red1 and black1 or only blue and white modified occasionally by simple geometric figures4 ,furthermore1 their workmanship is poor1 so that they possess little artistic merit4 ,some pieces of large size are exported1 but they awaken but little interest compared with other kinds of rugs4 ,the weaving of pile carpets in ,india1 on the other hand1 does not appear to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to have flourished without artificial encouragement4 ,it was probably introduced by the ,saracens1 but carpets of elaborate design and workmanship were not made till the reign of ,shah ,akbar1 who imported ,persian weavers4 ,under his patronage and the encouragement of his royal successors1 the manufacture of pieces that rivalled those of ,persia continued for a hundred years1 but after the death of ,shah ,jahan1 in #afeh1 the industry began to decline4 ,nevertheless1 for nearly a hundred years longer excellent fabrics were produced as the result of the system that was maintained in all the provinces by lesser potentates4 ,this system1 which was also in vogue in parts of ,persia1 is described by ,dr4 ,george ,birdwood as follows3 8,the princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry1 who are the chief patrons of these grand fabrics1 collect together in their own houses and palaces all who gain a reputation for special skill in their manufacture4 ,these men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are so little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to execute private orders also4 ,their salaries are continued even when through age or accident they are past work2 and on their death they pass to their sons1 should they have become skilled in their father's art4 ,upon the completion of any extraordinary work1 it is submitted to the patron2 and some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary increased4 ,it is under such conditions that the best art work of the ,east has always been produced40 ,after the overthrow of the ,mogul dominion by ,nadir ,shah1 in #agca1 the production of carpets rapidly diminished and the quality deteriorated4 ,this was due to several causes4 ,with the conquests of the ,east ,indian ,company1 that began in the middle of the ,,xviii ,century1 and the extension of trade into every district1 large quantities of antique carpets became the property of the ,company or of those in its employ4 ,many of them1 including sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of the descendants of ,tamerlane1 found their way to ,england4 ,thus were removed many of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the weavers4 ,moreover1 with the overthrow of native princes their patronage ceased2 and later1 when looms were established in jails for the employment of convicts1 undesirable competition reduced the wages of free labour4 ,still more pernicious was the introduction of aniline dyes1 and the elimination of individual taste by supplying patterns1 that were often of ,european origin1 to be mechanically copied4 ,thus it followed that1 in spite of the efforts of ,mr4 ,robinson and of others1 for nearly half a century1 to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former condition1 weaving in ,india1 to-day1 rests purely on a commercial basis2 and the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of machine-made carpets in ,europe or ,america4 ,yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of ,india is a brighter lining4 ,european companies have established factories where natives are employed making rugs that in quality equal the products of ,smyrna and ,sultanabad4 ,some of them1 indeed1 are even more firmly woven than the ,persian products from which they are copied4 ,in many of the towns1 also1 are looms where the weavers1 who are mostly boys1 enjoy more independence4 ,moreover1 the companies1 realising that the future of their business depends on the quality of the fabrics1 are largely discarding aniline dyes4 ,it is now possible1 therefore1 to obtain ,indian rugs of excellent workmanship and colours at very moderate prices2 but individuality1 representative of native character and temperament1 is entirely lacking2 and in its place is simply a reproduction of ,persian or ,european patterns4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #eg4 ,,beshire ,,prayer ,,rug ,any arrangement of these rugs in sub-groups must be arbitrary1 as similar conditions of early foreign influence1 royal patronage1 and the jail and factory systems1 have prevailed throughout ,india4 ,yet since the northern part has been more directly under the influence of the courts and more intimately connected with ,herat1 which seems to have left a strong impress on the weavings of all the surrounding country1 it is convenient to make a distinction between the rugs of ,northern and ,southern ,india4 ,the principal rug-producing centres of ,northern ,india at present are ,srinagar1 ,amritsar1 ,lahore1 ,multan1 ,allahabad1 ,agra1 ,mirzapur1 ,sindh1 ,jubbulpur1 and ,jaipur4 ,,srinagar4--,from the extreme northern part of ,india come the rugs of ,kashmir1 which are often named after the capital of the province1 ,srinagar1 the 8,city of the ,sun40 ,to a large extent1 they resemble the far more famous shawls that were woven in the central valley1 where winds the ,jhelum1 that some believe first suggested the pear design4 ,the pieces woven before the ,british occupation of ,india were of excellent quality and contained delicate colour schemes1 that were exceedingly pleasing2 but the products of the last half century show deterioration4 ,the colours are harsher1 the mechanical drawing of the patterns show ,european influence1 and the borders resemble too closely the central field to have distinct characters4 ,yet many of them are now dyed with vegetable colours1 and are stoutly woven with the soft and silky wool for which this district is renowned4 ,,amritsar4--,on account of famine and several other causes1 a large number of the people of ,kashmir migrated about the year #ahdj4 ,some of them settled at ,amritsar1 where they followed their former craft of making shawls1 until a change of fashion1 that occurred about the year #ahgj1 deprived many of their occupation4 ,these turned to rug weaving and thus gave an impetus to that industry4 ,amritsar is now the most populous and wealthy city of the ,punjab2 and as some twenty thousand men and boys are employed at the looms1 it is one of the leading rug-producing centres of ,india4 ,yet before the exhibition of ,indian rugs at the ,world's ,fair in ,chicago1 in #ahic1 there had not been any demand in this country for its rugs4 ,for a long period it has been the home of weavers who found in the surrounding mountains and valleys the best of wool1 but before the revival of the industry their patterns and workmanship were of an inferior character4 ,under the factory system1 conducted by ,american and ,english firms1 has been a marked improvement4 ,both dyes and wool are excellent1 and the technique of weave equals what is found in the best of ,persian products1 ,to the square inch are frequently two hundred ,sehna knots2 and since when tying a knot one thread of warp is doubled under the other1 as in ,bijars1 and the threads of weft are pressed down very firmly1 the texture is unusually close4 ,the nap is short2 the sides are overcast2 and as a rule1 the lower end has a cotton web and the upper end a web and fringe4 ,the moderate prices for rugs of such excellent dyes and workmanship are possible only on account of the wage of the weaver1 which does not exceed one eighth what he would receive in this country4 ,there is nothing1 however1 in the pattern to distinguish these rugs from others2 for in the drawing the greatest latitude is exercised4 ,it may be a copy of a ,european carpet1 or some ,indian or ,iranian antique4 ,of recent years1 many well-known modern ,persian patterns have been followed1 so that not infrequently these pieces are mistaken for the products of ,kermanshah or ,sultanabad4 ,,lahore4--,about the year #aehj1 the imperial carpet factory of ,shah ,akbar was established at ,lahore1 the capital of the ,punjab2 where during the reign of the ,mogul princes were produced many of the best examples of ,indian weaving4 ,it was here that1 in #afcd1 was woven the well-known carpet now in the possession of the ,girdler's ,company of ,london4 ,some of the pieces that still remain show wonderful delicacy of drawing and brilliancy of colouring4 ,at a much later period1 under the ,british rule1 the jail system of weaving was inaugurated1 and rugs were made with both woollen and cotton foundation4 ,within more recent years the factory system followed2 and on account of the nearness of ,amritsar to the capital1 some foreign firms have weaving establishments in both cities4 ,it is not surprising1 then1 that there should be a resemblance in their products1 which is seen in the finish of sides and ends and in the character of weaving1 which usually shows one thread of warp to each knot doubled under the other2 but as a rule the rugs of ,lahore come in lighter shades and are woven with fewer knots to the square inch4 ,in the guards of the border often appear geometric figures2 but the patterns in other respects largely follow well-known ,persian drawing1 though leaf and flower are more artistically portrayed and the designs are less crowded4 ,,multans4--,one of the most ancient cities of the ,punjab is ,multan1 which during the vicissitudes of centuries was more than once captured by early ,mohammedan conquerors and also by ,tamerlane4 ,its woven fabrics are of three types3 the ,dari1 which are made almost exclusively in the jails2 rugs of cotton pile1 that have been made only within the last sixty years2 and rugs of woollen pile1 that have been produced for an unknown period4 ,as the looms on which they are made are unlike those of other districts1 and the weavers are but little affected by external influences1 it is not surprising that the pile carpets not only display uniqueness of pattern rarely seen in other ,indian pieces but also possess peculiarities of weaving as well as of material4 ,usually they are of moderate size1 but some have a breadth of twelve feet4 ,there are seldom more than one hundred knots to the square inch and occasionally only nine1 so that the texture is coarse4 ,not infrequently a single knot encircles four threads of warp1 and between two rows of knots is a single thread of weft4 ,almost all of the weavers are ,mohammedans1 who have a tradition that they originally came from ,persia2 yet their products contain few of the ,iranian characteristics1 since the field is usually occupied by geometric designs or crudely drawn floral patterns4 ,as is seldom the case with weavers who dwell in cities1 these dye their own wool1 using both vegetable and aniline dyes4 ,the principal colours are bold and strongly contrasting tones of red1 yellow1 and blue4 ,some of the cotton rugs1 however1 have a single colour of bluish shade4 ,on the whole1 the ,multan rugs possess great individuality but little artistic merit4 ,,agra4--,almost within sight of the minarets of the ,taj ,mahal are prison walls where convicts of ,agra ploddingly weave4 ,in #ahia1 ,dr4 ,john ,hurst 8saw a long row of prisoners for life1 who were chained to each other by the feet1 engaged in weaving a rug for ,queen ,victoria1 and another for the ex-,empress ,eugenie40 ,most of these pieces are of cotton foundation4 ,each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back1 and the texture is looser than in ,amritsars4 ,the nap is short1 and the fibres of the knots blend well together4 ,not infrequently the fields are monotones of delicate shades of blue1 green1 or fawn colour4 ,as a rule1 the rugs are very large and heavy2 and it would seem that this has always been the case1 as ,mr4 ,robinson suggested that the reason for establishing looms at this place was the early demand for carpets too large to be imported on elephants4 ,,allahabad4--,situated like ,benares on the banks of the ,ganges1 and next to it the most sacred city of ,india to the faithful ,brahman1 is ,allahabad1 capital of the northwestern provinces4 ,its geographic and political importance1 as well as the fact that each year half a million or more devotees visit it1 have been important factors in the growth of its industries1 one of which is the weaving of rugs4 ,yet the numbers produced have never been great4 ,as a rule they are of large size1 and are loosely woven with each thread of warp equally distinct at the back4 ,few of them equal the best examples of the ,amritsar looms4 ,,mirzapur4--,when it is considered that ,mirzapur is the centre of a very populous cotton-producing district in the valley of the ,ganges1 to the west of ,benares1 and is the seat of important manufactures1 it is not surprising that it is noted for its carpets4 ,those made half a century ago were well woven and dyed with fast colours1 but largely on account of the employment of convicts1 the texture of those made since then is coarse and loose1 the patterns are poor1 the colours crude4 ,to a limited extent a higher grade of wool has been imported as a substitute for the harsh local product1 but the result has not been satisfactory4 ,these rugs accordingly find small favour among those who appreciate artistic qualities1 and give little satisfaction where durability is the chief requisite4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that within recent years efforts have been made to raise their standard4 ,,jubbulpur4--,two hundred miles to the southwest of ,allahabad is ,jubbulpur1 capital of a district of over half a million people4 ,a century ago many beautiful rugs were woven there2 but since the establishment of a ,school of ,industry1 in #ahej1 the character of weaving has retrograded rather than advanced4 ,in #ahhj1 ,dr4 ,birdwood wrote of its rugs as follows3 8,the foundation1 as now scamped is quite insufficient to carry the heavy pile which is a feature of this work2 and is moreover so short in the staple as to be incapable of bearing the tension even of the process of manufacture4 ,jubbulpur carpets often reach this country 7,england7 which will not bear sweeping1 or even unpacking4 ,i know of two which were shaken to pieces in the attempt to shake the dust out of them when first unpacked4 ,the designs once had some local character1 but have lost it during the last four or five years40 ,within recent years few have been exported4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #eh4 ,,beshire ,,rug ,,sindh4--,formerly good rugs were woven at ,sindh1 one hundred miles above the mouth of the ,indus2 but after the introduction of aniline dyes their colours1 as well as patterns1 deteriorated4 ,in the poorest pieces the foundation was of cotton and hemp1 and cow hair was frequently used for pile4 ,very few of them have been imported into this country4 ,,jaipur4--,in the palace of the ,maharajah at ,jaipur1 the great commercial centre of ,rajputana1 are some of the most beautiful carpets that remain in ,india4 ,native appreciation is also apparent in the present workmanship of the district weavers4 ,there is nothing crass or inelegant in the patterns which follow the pleasing drawing of ,persian rugs4 ,the vine1 leaf1 and flower1 trees1 and animals are faithfully portrayed4 ,the texture of weave is excellent4 ,the principal rug-producing centres of ,southern ,india are ,madras1 ,marsulipatam1 ,ellore1 ,vellore1 and ,bangalore4 ,rugs are also woven in ,hyderabad1 ,warangal1 and ,ayyampet in the ,tanjore district4 ,,madras4--,only within a comparatively recent period have rugs been made at ,madras1 the early stronghold of the ,british in ,south ,india4 ,over half a century ago1 native products1 woven in the interior towns of the ,dekkan1 were shipped by way of ,coconada to that city and were sometimes known as ,madras rugs4 ,two of these pieces1 which were sent by ,mr4 ,vincent ,robinson to the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 differ widely in harmony of colours1 beauty of design1 and delicacy of workmanship from the present products of ,madras4 ,yet the latter have much to commend them4 ,some are made in the jail1 others in the ,school of ,fine ,arts1 and others in the ,anjuman ,industrial ,school4 ,all are made of good wool1 coloured with vegetable dyes4 ,great diversity appears in the patterns1 as some are copied from antique carpets represented in the 8,vienna ,carpet ,book10 others are copied from rugs of ,northern ,india1 ,persia1 and ,asia ,minor4 ,as a rule1 the fields are well covered with repetitive designs1 that give them the appearance of factory-made carpets4 ,,marsulipatam4--,two hundred and fifty miles north of ,madras on the ,coromandel coast is the city of ,marsulipatam1 one of the earliest of the ,british settlements in ,india1 from which the ,east ,india ,company shipped rugs over two centuries ago4 ,at that time they were among the finest produced in that country1 but the demands of agents for articles that could be produced as cheaply as possible resulted in the use of inferior materials and in poorer workmanship4 ,most of the dyes are aniline4 ,the patterns1 that once were executed with marvelous beauty of detail1 gave way to crude drawing until 8these glorious carpets of ,marsulipatam have sunk to a mockery and travesty of their former selves40#cf ,few of them are any longer imported into this country4 ,,ellore4--,not far from the delta of the ,godavari river is the town of ,ellore1 where a few centuries ago some ,persians settled1 and where their descendants1 faithful to early tradition1 have followed the craft of weaving4 ,here in former times were produced some of the best rugs in ,southern ,india2 and even as late as #ahhc1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,havell wrote that he had seen pieces woven to meet special orders which were equal in point of interest and material to the old specimens in the hands of connoisseurs of ,london or in native palaces4 ,this is one of the few districts in ,southern ,india where the industry exists outside of jails4 ,in the town and surrounding country are about four hundred looms operated by some three thousand people1 who are ,mohammedans4 ,in the better class of rugs1 in which vegetable dyes are still used1 and the yarn is often a native product of wool obtained from sheep of the uplands and spun by shepherds1 something of the old style of craftsmanship remains4 ,on the other hand1 a very large percentage of the rugs which are intended solely for export trade are of an inferior order1 since many of their colours are obtained from aniline1 their weaving is inferior1 and their patterns are ordinary4 ,mr4 ,henry ,t4 ,harris1 in his report on the ,madras ,industrial and ,art ,exhibition1 #aijc1 said3 8,the exhibits of carpets sent from ,ellore were poor in conception1 weave1 and colour4444 ,the patterns in use were poor and often modifications of cheap ,wilton1 ,kidderminster1 and ,german power loom designs4 ,some of the old patterns are still with the weavers1 but unfortunately there is no trade demand for this fine class of goods1 the old dyes are being forgotten and have given place to cheap anilines unskilfully applied40 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ei4 ,,afghan ,,rug ,in length1 the rugs are from a few feet to twenty-four feet4 ,the warp is of cotton1 and the weft is sometimes of jute or hemp4 ,the pile is of an inferior quality1 as it consists largely of the wool taken from a sheep after death1 known as 8dead0 wool1 or as 8,chunam0 or 8limed0 wool1 since it is necessary to treat it with lime4 ,unfortunately vegetable dyes do not produce in it the same results as in 8live0 wool2 and since the scarcity of wool in ,southern ,india frequently necessitates its use1 aniline dyes are for this reason alone often employed4 ,the number of knots to the square inch is relatively small4 ,the patterns show great diversity1 as ,persian features predominate in the older rugs2 but both geometric and floral designs are employed in the modern4 ,,vellore4--,almost a hundred miles to the west of ,madras is the town of ,vellore1 where native weavers once produced fine woollen carpets on their own looms4 ,a few specimens of these old pieces are preserved in the jail to serve as patterns for the convicts1 who now weave the only rugs of the district4 ,there are some fifty looms2 and as the largest is about thirty feet wide1 almost any size of rug may be obtained4 ,the product rests on a commercial basis and depends on the market demands1 restricted by the material available and the limitations of the weavers4 ,according to the order1 the rugs may be coloured with vegetable or aniline dyes2 they may have warp and weft of cotton1 jute or hemp2 and they may have from six to sixteen knots to the inch measured horizontally and perpendicularly4 ,in the patterns1 which are as promiscuous as those of ,ellore and often similar1 the ,herati design with a corresponding border is not infrequently used4 ,recently an effort has been made to exclude all but vegetable dyes and improve the craftsmanship4 ,,bangalore4--,the principal weaving industry in the ,mysore state is centred about ,bangalore1 a city of about two hundred thousand inhabitants4 ,its founder1 ,hyder ,ali1 is said to have established looms and to have imported the first weavers4 ,in #aijh1 the nine jail looms1 of which the largest had a length of nearly thirty feet1 were constantly occupied in making rugs to order4 ,the number of knots to the square inch varied greatly according to the quality required2 and the dyes were almost entirely aniline4 ,in the city are employed a much larger number of weavers1 who clean and spin the wool produced in the district1 as well as dye it by secret processes1 that they guard most carefully4 ,the closeness of texture2 the colouring by aniline or vegetable dyes2 and the use of cotton1 jute1 or hemp1 for warp and weft1 are regulated by the requirements of the trade1 which is conducted largely by two or three ,english firms4 ,,hyderabad4--,splendid craftsmanship was once displayed in the rugs made in the cities of ,hyderabad and ,warangal1 in the district of ,hyderabad4 ,the weave was exceedingly fine1 and the colours were brilliant but harmonious4 ,now few rugs are produced in these cities1 and they have poor patterns and wretched colours4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,chinese ,,rugs ,,the existence of ,chinese rugs of age and merit was almost unknown to the ,western world until the close of the last century1 when a few pieces reached ,europe1 where they aroused the just admiration of art connoisseurs4 ,about the beginning of this century a larger number1 which were obtained during the ,boxer revolution by reason of the spoliation of homes1 temples1 and palaces1 that never before had been entered by foreigners1 were exported to this country4 ,in ,new ,york ,city1 between the years #aijh and #aiaj1 some of them were sold at public auctions for prices that stimulated collectors in ,china to search for more4 ,but they have proved to be scarce when compared with other ,oriental rugs1 so that1 as yet1 the general public are only slightly familiar with them4 ,moreover1 little is known about their antecedents1 for written records are exceedingly meagre4 ,it has been suggested that many were made in ,eastern ,turkestan along the highways that extend to ,persia and ,india4 ,but it is more probable that they were woven in ,eastern ,china1 where other branches of art reached a remarkable development under the patronage of wealthy mandarins and the imperial court4 ,even if they are not the product of an indigenous growth1 the knowledge of weaving may easily have been acquired from ,western ,asia2 since it was not unusual several centuries ago to import weavers from one country to another to instruct native craftsmen4 ,furthermore1 the features which at a glance differentiate these rugs from all others1 proclaim their ,chinese character4 ,the diaper patterns that cover the fields of some of them1 and the foliate and floral forms that appear in most of them1 not only are unlike those of any other groups1 but have well-known ,chinese elements4 ,a more distinctive feature are the colours1 which are relatively few4 ,many of them1 as tan1 yellow1 and blue1 are of shades unlike what are seen in other rugs4 ,even more distinctive than these are the reds1 which never have the primary colours found in other groups but resemble the tints of ripe apricot1 peach1 pomegranate1 and persimmon4 ,similar tones are seen in old ,chinese porcelain4 ,the geometric and floral ornamentation also shows relationship to what is found in the products of other branches of ,chinese art4 ,more characteristic still are the small designs which are so related to the philosophic and religious thought of the people and to the industrial and social life that their ,chinese origin is unmistakable4 ,though it be granted that nearly all were woven in ,eastern ,china1 it is not possible satisfactorily to assign them to different classes based on locality2 yet without doubt important distinctions1 observable also in the early paintings and porcelains and resulting largely from differences of race and character of country1 exist between those woven in ,northern ,china1 where the highest appreciation of art existed1 and those woven in ,southern ,china4 ,it is probable1 however1 that such marked local distinctions as are found in other groups never existed in ,chinese rugs4 ,such distinctions as do exist relate more to stages in development of the textile art1 so that the natural classification is based on the successive periods when they were woven4 ,the absence of written and traditional history regarding the weaving of these periods is by no means an insuperable obstacle to such classification4 ,by a careful examination of large numbers of rugs1 it is possible to arrange them with reasonable accuracy in series that represent progressive forms of ornamentation and design from the archaic to the modern4 ,a most important aid to this arrangement is the interdependence so conspicuous in the several arts of ,china2 for designs of innumerable articles with well-established ages1 especially of the ceramic art1 have been copied by the weavers4 ,technical peculiarities in weaving are also an aid in determining the period to which rugs belong4 ,an important distinction1 for instance1 often exists in the manner in which the material is spun4 ,if pieces of yarn be taken from old rugs and carefully examined1 as they are untwisted1 the simpler1 cruder methods of spinning practised in former days are often apparent4 ,in some of the oldest fabrics that remain the wool was very loosely spun4 ,irregularities in the size of yarn are also more noticeable in old than in modern pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fj4 ,,beluchistan ,,prayer ,,rug ,more important often in determining the relative age of a rug than either design or technical peculiarities of weaving1 is the shade of colour2 for however excellent were the original dyes and whatever care was exercised in their application1 they slowly changed under the mellowing influence of time to tones that are obtained by no human process4 ,furthermore1 as is the case with porcelains1 certain colours were peculiar to certain periods4 ,for instance1 golden browns are seen mostly in pieces woven before the middle of the ,,xviii ,century1 and azure blue in pieces woven before the ,,xix ,century4 ,yellow with a lemon or citron cast is found principally in pieces woven since the beginning of the ,,xviii ,century2 and green is rarely found in pieces woven before the middle of the ,,xviii ,century4 ,aniline dyes were not introduced into ,china much before the year #ahgj4 ,the time when a rug was woven may safely be regarded as not more remote than the period when the ornamentation and designs it contains were generally adopted2 yet it may be much more recent1 as the oldest designs were copied even after the adoption of newer ones4 ,it is necessary1 then1 in determining the age of a rug to consider not only the evidence of the spinning1 the weaving and designs1 but also the evidence of colour4 ,though ,chinese rugs have features that distinguish them from other groups and divide them into separate classes2 they also have many features in common4 ,all are woven with the ,sehna knot4 ,in all but the earliest rugs the warp and weft are of cotton2 each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back2 and the weft1 which is coarser than the warp1 crosses twice between two rows of knots4 ,the nap of both old and modern rugs is almost always wool or silk1 and rarely1 if ever1 jute or cotton4 ,the sides are finished by carrying the weft around the outer threads of warp1 but never so as to form a wide selvage4 ,the lower end1 as a rule1 has a very narrow web and warp loops2 and the upper end has a narrow web and fringe4 ,compared with other groups they are generally more loosely woven4 ,these and other features of resemblance and of distinction will be more fully noticed in considering the rugs of different periods4 ,in rugs of this group are constantly seen symbols intimately associated with the religious and philosophic thought of ,china4 ,one of them is the ,sacred ,mountain rising out of the waves of eternity1 which is an old ,chinese emblem1 though more frequently found in rugs of ,samarkand and ,yarkand4 ,others are the cloud-band and the ,joo-e4 ,there are also mythical creatures1 as the dragon1 emblem of imperial power2 the ,ky-lin1 partly deer1 partly unicorn2 the ,fung-,kwang or phnix2 and the lion-dog4 ,still other symbolic and decorative designs are the figure ,shou and the stork1 emblems of longevity2 the bat and butterfly1 denoting happiness2 the conch1 wheel of law1 and the two fishes1 which are ,buddhist emblems2 and the lyre and chess board1 which are symbols of the literati4 ,it is not improbable that rugs were woven during the ,sung dynasty 7#ifj-abhj ,a4 ,d471 when for nearly three centuries prosperity prevailed1 literature and art flourished1 and the court at ,hang ,chow was maintained with imperial splendour2 but as far as is known1 none of them exist4 ,nor do any remain that may have been woven during the ,yuan dynasty 7#abhj-acgj7 distinguished by the reign of the illustrious ,mongol prince1 ,kublai ,khan2 though designs appearing in later rugs were used in kindred arts of these and preceding periods4 ,,ming ,,rugs4--,the oldest ,chinese rugs that remain were probably woven near the end of the ,ming period1 or during the first half of the ,,xvii ,century4 ,it may reasonably be assumed that they were superior in quality to those of any former period1 since during this time ,persia and ,india were producing their greatest woven masterpieces2 and other branches of ,chinese art were marked by an advance over the work that had preceded4 ,yet1 on the whole1 it was a period of ebb in the splendid accomplishments of intellectual and artistic effort that marked the ,tang and ,sung dynasties4 ,such pieces as exist are distinguished by careful workmanship1 archaic designs1 and sobriety of colour4 ,most of the rugs were woven with warp and weft of cotton4 ,some1 intended principally for wealthy mandarins or the imperial court1 had pile of silk attached to warp and weft of cotton2 and others were made entirely of silk4 ,fewer in number1 but constituting the most sumptuous products of the ,chinese weavers' art1 were the rugs of silk woven on a web of metal threads4 ,the field of many of these early rugs contained all-over patterns4 ,sometimes the repeat designs are of octagonal shape and are arranged in horizontal and perpendicular lines1 so as to leave small diamond-shaped spaces between diagonally placed octagons4 ,within these designs are often the emblems of happiness or longevity1 floral motives1 and sometimes archaic dragons4 ,in another well-known pattern the field is completely covered with a swastika-fret and marked at regular intervals with diagonal rows of bats1 emblematic of happiness4 ,occasionally a field of plain colour contains an irregular arrangement of objects used for sacrificial or sacred purposes4 ,again1 it may be covered with an all-over pattern of small archaically drawn dragons resembling some of the earliest designs in ,chinese decorative art1 or of most conventionalised floral forms on mechanically drawn stems4 ,the essential feature1 however1 of a large number of these rugs1 and one that probably antedates the all-over pattern1 is a central medallion surrounded by a field that is either plain1 that is marked with a subdued diaper pattern1 or contains what is known as the 8tiger skin0 pattern1 consisting of waving lines repeated throughout the field4 ,the medallions may be either octagonal or1 as is more frequently the case1 rounded2 but the defining lines are angular and generally represent frets4 ,sometimes they contain archaic dragons1 which are so conventionalised in a few pieces that it is apparent that from them originated many of the ,chinese scrolls4 ,in other pieces1 the shape of the central medallions and the designs which cover them suggest most forcibly that they were copied from old mirror backs4 ,the corners of the fields may contain simple scrolls1 but more frequently they correspond closely in drawing with the central medallions4 ,the borders are equally typical4 ,they are invariably narrow1 and generally consist of a single stripe which is figured and surrounded with a coloured edging4 ,probably over three quarters of the rugs of this period have a stripe with a pattern of swastika-frets4 ,two of these stripes1 which are very old patterns1 are illustrated in ,plate ,n1 ,figs4 #a and #b 7opp4 ,page #bgd74 ,occasionally some form of the key pattern appears in the inner stripe1 but almost all ,chinese rugs that have two border stripes with figures belong to a later period4 ,many of the oldest borders are without figured stripes1 and consist merely of one or more stripes of plain colour4 ,the few colours used in the rugs of this period have deep1 rich tones4 ,undyed dark brown or blackish wool was occasionally used in the outer edging that surrounded the field or in the narrow border stripes2 but more frequently the same colour effect was obtained by the use of corrosive dyes that in time have often eaten the wool almost to the foundation of warp and weft4 ,wools dyed with corrosive browns are also used in the fields and enhance the effect of designs of contrasting colours1 which stand out in bold relief4 ,other colours1 as soft dull yellow and shades of blue1 are also seen in the borders4 ,the field is usually richer4 ,in some pieces it is a deep red2 in others it is a soft yellow1 golden brown or yellowish tan1 that shows the effect of time on what were originally several shades of apricot4 ,dark and light blues1 sky blue1 and robin's egg blue1 as well as jade green and bottle green1 are also found in these old pieces4 ,in the metal and silk rugs the glint of silver even though tarnished1 adds lustre to colours that have grown deeper and richer with age4 ,,kang-,,hi4--,during the first years of the ,tsing dynasty1 that continued from #afdd to its recent overthrow1 the country was so occupied by wars waged between the conquering ,manchoos and the still resisting followers of the ,ming dynasty that art was nearly at a standstill4 ,but during the reign of the illustrious ,kang-hi1 #affb-agbb1 art revived and enjoyed one of the most splendid periods of its history4 ,there is1 however1 a noticeable difference between the rugs that belong to the early and to the late part of this reign2 so that it is convenient to divide them into the early ,kang-hi pieces1 that were woven during the last part of the ,,xvii ,century1 and the late ,kang-hi pieces1 almost all of which were woven at the beginning of the ,,xviii ,century4 ,this division is also convenient2 as many rugs cannot be definitely assigned to the reign of a particular emperor1 and1 accordingly1 the broader distinction of assigning them to different centuries is frequently adopted4 ,in weaving1 as in making porcelain1 many of the products of the late ,ming were still copied during the early ,kang-hi period1 but there was a freer use of colour and a more decorative ornamentation4 ,many of the figures are still geometric4 ,frets are conspicuous in the fields of large numbers of these pieces4 ,the dragon also is a favourite motive2 but in the scrolls that represent the legs and bifurcated tail1 and in the conventionalised head1 the resemblance to the mythical monster is almost lost4 ,sometimes two or more of these constitute a medallion in the centre of the field1 in which others are grouped with regularity2 while similar forms occupy the corners4 ,some of the rugs in which the fields are covered with sundry objects1 as scrolls1 vases1 altar pieces1 and sacred plants1 also belong to this period4 ,the borders of these and late ,kang-hi pieces have frequently an outer edging of brown and a single border stripe with swastika-fret4 ,in a few pieces1 the stripe has a well-balanced scroll which has been developed from designs of conventionalised dragons and frets that appear in the central medallion and in the corners of the field4 ,occasionally1 however1 there is an inner stripe with the key meander4 ,the colour scheme of the late ,ming1 including the golden browns and deep blues1 is largely employed in rugs of this period4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fa4 ,,turkoman ,,saddle-,,bags ,the same influences that resulted during the late ,kang-hi period in the remarkable development of decorative art as applied to porcelains1 produced a corresponding effect in the rugs woven at the same time4 ,manchurian ideas and taste gave renewed spirit to earlier ,chinese style4 ,the fields were not infrequently covered with sub-patterns of fret work1 on which medallions appeared more prominently4 ,the geometric figures were largely supplanted by foliate forms4 ,even when the central medallions and corner figures are of frets or stiffly conventionalised dragons1 the fields are often covered with delicate scroll or foliate sub-patterns that support floral forms resembling the lotus or the peony4 ,the drawing of some of these has a ,western character1 and there is little doubt that at this time the art of ,persia had a strong influence on the weaving of ,china4 ,in other pieces of this class1 the foliate and floral forms no longer appear as sub-patterns but become the prominent feature in the decoration of the field2 and the conventionalised flowers are arranged with precision in diagonal or perpendicular lines4 ,to this period also belong rugs of a distinct type1 in which the field represents a blending of pictorial and symbolic ideas1 as1 for instance1 a homeward flight of swallows2 or a grove where butterflies flit among the leaves1 and deer with sacred fungus1 emblematic of longevity1 wander4 ,the employment of border stripes of uniform colour was still continued1 but there was a tendency to employ more elaborate designs in many of the figured stripes4 ,it is not unusual to see single or double vines with conventionalised flowers2 and though the drawing is mechanical1 the relationship to ,persian art is apparent4 ,yet in most of these pieces the swastika-fret is used4 ,a noticeable difference also exists in the colour scheme of many of the late ,kang-hi rugs1 which frequently display brighter colours4 ,much of the yellow1 for instance1 contains more red1 giving it a golden hue known as the 8imperial yellow40 ,,yung-,,ching4--,during the short reign of ,yung-ching 7#agbb-agcf71 though many of the old patterns were followed1 the tendency to adopt more ornate forms begun during the first part of the ,,xviii ,century continued4 ,manchurian ideas were now a strong factor in ,chinese art1 so that the use of colours and ornamentation followed broader lines4 ,to this period are assigned most of those rugs in which designs are defined by lines of contrasting colour that has been so treated that the lines are depressed and throw the designs into bold relief4 ,it is very difficult1 however1 to definitely determine that any particular rug belongs to this period2 since the transition in colour scheme and patterns was gradual2 and the effect of time on dyes1 one of the most reliable factors in determining age1 depends somewhat on their exposure to the elements and to use4 ,but broadly speaking1 figures of leaf and flower were more frequently adopted than in preceding periods and designs became less conventionalised and more artistic4 ,lemon and citron shades of yellow1 also1 became more prominent during this period4 ,,keen-,,lung4--,the long reign of ,keen-lung1 lasting from #agcf to #agie1 was one of the most prolific for ,chinese art4 ,to this period may safely be assigned most of the existing rugs made before the ,,xix ,century1 as well as many of the finest porcelains4 ,the rugs partake of a more cosmopolitan character than those which had preceded2 for not only are many of the designs and colours strictly ,chinese1 but others are of a ,persian character1 and others still suggest ,mohammedan influences observable in the products of ,turkestan and ,india4 ,moreover1 many of the designs show a delicate shading that is not observable in the rugs made during the early part of the century4 ,as a whole they are the most ornate of ,chinese rugs4 ,woven after the inspiration of ,persian masterpieces had left its strongest impress on ,chinese weavers1 and decoration in kindred arts had assumed a luxurious style1 they represent in the drawing of leaf and flower1 of birds1 butterflies1 and emblems of early philosophy and faith1 and in the colours that blend with rare harmony1 the most elaborate and voluptuous expression of native craftsmanship4 ,in the best examples the geometric1 and many of the stiff conventional forms which continued through the ,,xvii and the early part of the ,,xviii ,century1 disappeared4 ,in their place was a greater refinement of design1 a greater accuracy of drawing1 which found expression in floral forms that reached their highest development at this time and became characteristic of it4 ,occasionally they are represented in profile as is usually the practice in ,western ,asia1 but more often are represented as viewed from above4 ,some of them1 as chrysanthemums1 peonies1 sunflowers1 and orchids1 are most dainty and naturalistic4 ,the fields of many of these pieces are covered with such flowers carefully arranged in harmonious groupings of leaf1 bud and flower1 but never with the formal and exact balance of old ,persian carpets4 ,not infrequently mingled with them in the same piece are more conventional designs that belong to an earlier period2 sometimes there is a single central medallion2 and occasionally there are a large number of them4 ,as a rule these medallions are entirely floral1 and in rugs made during the latter part of this period they display elaborate ornamentation that distinguishes them from earlier ones2 but now and then they contain fabulous creatures1 as the lion-dogs1 by which in a few instances they are entirely replaced4 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,x--,,chinese ,,rug ,perfect technique of weaving1 accuracy of drawing1 and subdued rich colouring are the characteristics of this unusual piece4 ,the knots of the fine woollen yarn are tied with a precision not frequently seen in ,chinese rugs1 and the shortness of nap discloses the faithfulness with which an artist of no ordinary ability has represented plants and flowers4 ,their soft tones stand out in relief against a background now darkened and enriched by the mellowing influence of time4 ,moreover1 the motives of the upper and the lower half of the field1 even to the minutest detail1 show an exact balance4 ,many old ,chinese rugs are of uncertain age1 but this piece has been attributed1 not without reason1 to the ,kang-hi period4 ,loaned by ,mr4 ,nathan ,bentz ,there are also many other well-known types of ,keen-lung rugs4 ,surrounding the central medallion of some pieces are grouped the ,taoist symbols2 emblems of the literati1 as chess boards1 scrolls1 and the lyre2 as well as tripods1 flower vases1 fans of state1 fruits of abundance1 emblems of honours1 and symbols of longevity and happiness4 ,to this class also belong many of the pieces which have neither medallions nor corner pieces1 but have fields completely covered with a pattern of continuous foliate stems and conventional flowers1 repeated with exact precision of drawing4 ,likewise1 in a few pieces the field is completely covered with an all-over pattern of small hexagonal or other geometric figures containing a conventionalised flower1 strongly suggesting ,turkoman influences4 ,some of the 8,grain of ,rice0 rugs1 also1 were woven during this period4 ,the borders are as distinctive as the fields4 ,only in a few pieces is the swastika meander seen1 but in its place is often the ,t pattern4 ,the key patterns represented in ,plate ,n1 ,figs4 #g and #h 7opp4 ,page #bgd71 as well as the dotted line 7,fig4 #bb71 are also largely employed4 ,almost all of these rugs have two ornamented stripes1 and occasionally three1 to which is added an outer margin of plain colour4 ,in a few pieces both stripes are geometric2 but generally one is floral and one geometric1 in which case the wider1 that1 with very few exceptions1 is the floral1 is the inner one4 ,very rarely the border contains two floral stripes2 and now and then ,buddhist emblems and other devices are introduced4 ,the breadth of artistic conception expressed in designs is accompanied by a wider scope of colour1 in the use of which these rugs may conveniently be grouped in three sub-classes4 ,the first is the ,blue and ,white1 with ground of ivory or ashy white and designs that have shades of light or dark blue4 ,the second comprises those in which the ground is some shade of yellow4 ,sometimes it has a tinge of lemon1 orange1 or apricot4 ,again it is what is known as dull1 golden1 mandarin1 or imperial yellow4 ,the overlying designs may contain a different shade of yellow from that of the field1 an ivory white1 a blue1 or a red4 ,the third subclass comprises those in which the ground colour is some shade of red2 such as persimmon1 terra cotta1 crushed strawberry1 apricot red1 or a deep salmon pink1 which is rare4 ,the overlying designs may be a shade of blue1 ivory white1 yellow1 gray1 and even green4 ,colours of both field and border are sometimes the same but are more frequently complementary4 ,as a whole1 the elaborate designs1 delicate shading1 and rich colours rank these rugs among the most beautiful products of the ,chinese loom4 ,the rugs woven during the reigns of ,kea-king 7#agif-ahbj7 and ,tao-,kwang 7#ahba-ahej71 extending to the middle of last century1 repeat with slight modification the patterns of the preceding period1 though there is a tendency to use larger and coarser designs4 ,the colours1 too1 are similar1 yet they lack the deep richness that is matured only with the lapse of great time4 ,many of these rugs1 as well as some woven still later1 before the introduction of aniline dyes and factory processes1 are beautiful2 but as a rule the modern pieces lack the refinement of technique observable only in those produced before the beginning of the ,,xix ,century4 ,,medallions ,the study of medallions which occur in fields of ,chinese rugs is not only interesting but is an important aid in determining their age2 yet it should be remembered that approved patterns were often repeated even after the introduction of more elaborate styles4 ,many of the oldest medallions were copied from bronzes or mirror backs1 and their drawing is geometric except as embellished by some conventionalised figures of the dragon4 ,by a process of evolution these figures1 in turn1 were converted into scrolls1 which in time were replaced by elaborate leaf and flower patterns4 ,in ,plate ,m1 ,fig4 #a 7opp4 ,page #bgb71 is a 8,shou0 design of octagonal shape1 copied from an old rug which was probably woven during the early part of the ,,xvii ,century4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,m4 ,,medallions ,,in ,,chinese ,,rugs ,figs4 #b1 #c and #d of ,plate ,m1 represent fret-covered medallions1 which also are found in rugs of the same period4 ,the first is probably the oldest pattern2 and the last1 to judge by the panel surrounding it1 was apparently copied from a bronze mirror back4 ,in ,plate ,m1 ,fig4 #e1 is a copy of a medallion similar to the one shown in ,plate ,m1 ,fig4 #b1 but with the dragons replaced by frets4 ,a medallion of greater interest is illustrated in ,plate ,m1 ,fig4 #f4 ,it shows the evolution of scrolls from dragons1 of which the heads alone betray their origin4 ,such medallions are found mostly in the earliest rugs4 ,by comparing ,fig4 #g of ,plate ,m with the preceding1 it is apparent that its scrolls had a similar origin1 but in this one the dragon heads have entirely disappeared4 ,the design is characteristic of the early ,kang-hi rugs4 ,in ,plate ,m1 ,fig4 #h1 is represented a medallion that closely resembles some of the earliest period2 but the more accurate drawing and clearer definition of lines shows that it is a later copy4 ,it is found in late ,kang-hi pieces4 ,to this period1 also1 belongs the geometric pattern with swastikas represented in ,plate ,m1 ,fig4 #i4 ,another medallion with frets and dragon heads is shown in ,plate ,m1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,the particular rug from which it was copied was probably woven about the ,yung-ching period2 but there is little doubt that similar medallions appeared in older rugs4 ,in ,figs4 #aa and #ab of ,plate ,m1 are represented two medallions with foliate designs that were largely employed in the early ,keen-lung period4 ,a comparison of the first with ,fig4 #ac of ,plate ,m1 shows an interesting step in the evolution of the ,chinese drawing4 ,a very different medallion pattern of the same age is shown in ,plate ,m1 ,fig4 #ad1 in which an encircling border consists of cloud-bands4 ,also during the ,keen-lung time first appeared medallions with accurately drawn flower designs4 ,one of this period is shown in ,plate ,m1 ,fig4 #ae4 ,wreath-like borders1 such as are seen in this and the preceding one1 are found in ,,xviii and ,,xix ,century pieces4 ,,chinese ,,border ,,stripes ,the knowledge that certain border stripes antedate others in definite sequence of time1 is another aid in determining the age of ,chinese rugs4 ,as was seen to be the case with medallions1 the earliest stripes were purely geometric4 ,in others1 still very old1 appeared forms of conventionalised dragons1 which again were replaced by simple scrolls and these by ornate floral forms4 ,but it should be remembered that earlier designs were often copied in later rugs1 so that the evidence of age is merely contributory4 ,stripes containing the swastika meander were used almost exclusively in the oldest rugs4 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c of ,plate ,n 7opp4 ,page #bgd71 represent three old forms1 which rarely appear in any pieces woven since the ,kang-hi time4 ,the pattern of ,plate ,n1 ,fig4 #d1 in which alternate swastikas are reversed1 is also very old4 ,the usual drawing of the swastika stripe is shown in ,plate ,n1 ,fig4 #e4 ,it is found largely in ,kang-hi rugs1 and if used in more recent fabrics1 is often accompanied by a stripe with some other pattern4 ,as illustrated here1 the facing of the swastika is reversed in the middle of the stripe4 ,the shading of ,plate ,n1 ,fig4 #f1 which is somewhat similar to ,plate ,n1 ,fig4 #d1 is characteristic of the ,keen-lung and subsequent periods4 ,in ,figs4 #g1 #h1 #i1 and #aj1 of ,plate ,n1 are ,key and ,t patterns1 which are found in rugs of the ,kang-hi and subsequent periods1 but rarely in earlier pieces4 ,when employed in rugs woven later than the middle of the ,,xviii ,century they are often shaded4 ,these meander and key-patterns are of great antiquity2 and though the drawing is exceedingly simple1 it is supposed that the figures from which they were derived once symbolised clouds and thunder4 ,a very interesting stripe derived from dragons is illustrated in ,plate ,n1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,the rectangular frets represent bodies of which conventionalised heads alone betray their origin4 ,the graceful scroll in the middle was also probably derived from dragon forms4 ,this stripe is seen in old ,kang-hi rugs4 ,the rectangular frets and floral forms are combined in an unusual stripe 7,plate ,n1 ,fig4 #ab7 that appeared in rugs which were probably woven about the ,yung-ching period4 ,it shows the influence of older traditions on which are ingrafted the later inspiration4 ,still more interesting is a stripe 7,plate ,n1 ,fig4 #ac7 seen in what are known as ,buddhist rugs of the ,keen-lung period4 ,in different parts of the border appear the ,buddhist emblems1 the ,joo-e1 conch1 wheel of law1 and knot of destiny1 separated by cloud-bands and foliate and floral motives4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,n4 ,,primary ,,and ,,secondary ,,border-,,stripes ,,of ,,chinese ,,rugs ,the tendency to use more ornate forms in the ,keen-lung and later rugs is shown in ,plate ,n1 ,figs4 #ad1 #ae1 and #af1 which illustrate three stripes that with slight modifications are found in large numbers of ,chinese rugs of the last half of the ,,xviii and the ,,xix ,centuries4 ,the stripe illustrated in ,plate ,n1 ,fig4 #ag1 on which are represented halves of octagonal discs containing conventional flower forms1 is found in some rugs woven as early as the first part of the ,,xviii ,century1 as well as in more subsequent pieces4 ,the central fields of some rugs in which it is found have geometric ,ming patterns1 and others have floral conceits that suggest ,persian influences4 ,in ,figs4 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 and #ba1 of ,plate ,n1 are represented simple stripes found in ,,xviii ,century rugs4 ,the last of these1 which is found in ,keen-lung porcelain1 shows a marked resemblance to the reciprocal trefoil so common in ,persian pieces4 ,the simple dotted stripe 7,plate ,n1 ,fig4 #bb7 was rarely employed before the middle of the ,,xviii ,century1 but has been constantly used since then4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,kilims ,,kilims have a special interest apart from their beauty and utility1 as some of them undoubtedly resemble the early fabrics of the ,egyptians and ,babylonians from which were evolved the more durable pile carpets4 ,the different links in this evolution can only be conjectured4 ,yet it is not unlikely that such pieces as the nomadic kilims1 which occasionally have little tufts of wool attached for ornament or loose threads of weft hanging from one side1 first suggested the greater durability and warmth that would be derived from a woven fabric completely covered with tufts of yarn4 ,it is also certain that the most delicately woven kilims have likewise been evolved from cruder forms4 ,in fact1 the different steps in this evolution correspond to three separate styles of weaving still in vogue4 ,the earliest products which were made subsequent to the primitive weaving of uncoloured warp and weft were doubtless similar to the simple fabrics now used to line the under side of saddle bags1 and consisted of a warp and weft of uniformly coloured threads4 ,a much more advanced style1 induced by a desire for ornamentation1 was the representation of patterns which required the use of different coloured threads of weft4 ,as these threads were never carried beyond the edges of each pattern1 their loose ends were at first allowed to hang at the back1 giving an appearance somewhat similar to what is seen in ,soumaks4 ,the third and most finished style1 representing much higher workmanship1 was produced by deftly disposing of the ends of threads of weft so that they should be concealed and thus permit each surface of the kilim to be exactly the same4 ,each of these kinds of weaving is constantly seen in the ,east4 ,the first not only is used as a lining for saddle bags1 but is frequently substituted for them4 ,it is also sometimes used as the only floor covering1 or again is laid as a protection beneath valuable carpets4 ,it often replaces the heavier felt for tents1 and indeed is utilised for all purposes requiring a strong material like canvas4 ,the second is found among nomadic weavers1 especially those of ,asia ,minor2 who naturally waste no unnecessary labour in weaving kilims with a delicate finish1 which would be quickly marred by the rough usage that they receive4 ,the third1 which is the more elegant product1 is invariably not only of excellent finish but of carefully drawn patterns4 ,in this country1 the last two are used principally for portires and couch coverings2 but in the ,orient they still serve1 as they have from the remotest times1 for floor coverings2 and because of the custom of removing the shoes when entering a house1 last for a great many years4 ,though these three styles represent the principal variations in kilim weaving1 there are a few pieces with embroidered pattern2 and embroidered stitches are sometimes added to represent some simple design1 or as is frequently the case in ,shirvans1 to make more prominent the separate horizontal compartments4 ,when weaving a kilim1 the threads of warp are strung as in piled rugs1 and number from six to eighteen to the inch according to the texture4 ,there are generally about twenty threads of weft to the inch1 measured at the front or back2 but in pieces of the finest workmanship1 there may be as many as fifty1 and in the crudest only eight or nine4 ,at the sides of the kilim1 the threads of weft encircle the last thread of warp as at the sides of any pattern2 but at the ends1 the threads of warp are braided about a heavier added cord1 or else are tied in knots1 from which their loose ends are permitted to hang like tassels4 ,the patterns are usually geometric2 and even when an attempt is made to copy floral figures1 the drawing inclines to the rectilinear4 ,if a straight line representing the side of a figure is horizontal1 or in the direction of the weft1 it will often be several inches in length2 but a straight perpendicular line never exceeds an inch in length4 ,this is because the threads of weft are never carried from one pattern to another or to the adjoining field1 but are turned back at its defining edges1 so that an opening is left1 which would impair the strength of the fabric if it were of much length4 ,accordingly1 if it is desired to represent a pattern with perpendicular sides1 it is necessary that the edges be slightly uneven4 ,but here necessity is turned to advantage1 as this unevenness or fringing softens lines that otherwise would be harsh4 ,defining the outlines of many figures is yarn of different colours1 which either may be woven like other threads of weft1 or when it serves the purpose of closing the space between adjacent threads of warp1 may be attached by stitches4 ,borders find slight favour with kilim weavers1 and in most pieces they are entirely wanting or only present at one end4 ,even when they completely surround the field1 there is generally some difference in design or colour between the stripes of side and end4 ,prayer arches are found in some of the kilims1 but their outlines rarely correspond closely with those of piled rugs4 ,the colours1 by which alone the patterns are distinguished1 are largely responsible for the character of the kilim4 ,threads of weft of every hue that is seen in piled rugs are employed in these pieces2 yet the colouring never appears the same1 since there are lacking the lustre and deep wealth of tones due to the length of pile1 in which appears an almost imperceptible gradation from the ends that are exposed to the light and have incurred the mellowing influence of the elements to the part which retains more of the original colours and seems darker1 because it is more concealed4 ,indeed1 on account of the lack of pile1 the colours and patterns would seem harsh were it not for the irregularities of perpendicular and diagonal lines1 the devices of latch-hooks1 and other peculiarities that convey to the eye an impression of blending4 ,moreover when the designs are large1 the effect of the colour is always severe2 but when the field is covered with innumerable small figures1 it is greatly softened4 ,as kilims are much less durable than rugs that have a pile to protect the warp and weft1 it is not surprising that few of great age remain4 ,the oldest piece of which we have any knowledge is a fragment obtained by ,dr4 ,m4 ,a4 ,stein1 the archological explorer1 from the ruins near ,khotan1 in ,eastern ,turkestan1 of an ancient settlement1 which was buried by sand drifts about the fourth or fifth century anno domini4 ,the weave is almost identical with that of modern kilims1 and has about fourteen threads of warp and sixteen threads of weft to the inch4 ,the pattern consists of narrow stripes of blue1 green1 brownish yellow1 and red1 containing very small geometric designs4 ,with this one exception1 so peculiarly preserved1 there are probably very few over a century old4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fb4 ,,srinagar ,,rug ,though kilims are now made in most of the districts where piled carpets are woven1 very few classes are recognised4 ,this is because it is difficult to distinguish between most of them1 and such differences as exist are with few exceptions unimportant4 ,the best known classes are the ,sehna1 ,shirvan1 ,karaman1 ,kurdish1 ,turkish1 and ,merv4 ,the ,sehna kilims are usually of small size1 and rarely exceed a breadth of four and a half feet and a length of seven4 ,they are far superior to all others in the delicacy of colour1 daintiness of design1 quality of material1 and character of workmanship4 ,their patterns1 including border1 are identical with those of the piled rugs2 and the colours1 to which at a short distance the small figures of the ,herati design give the effect of blending1 are the same4 ,as is not the case with other kilims1 the warp is of cotton or linen and there are generally from fourteen to sixteen threads to the inch4 ,the weft is of wool1 and to an inch there are often nearly fifty threads encircling a thread of warp as they cross and recross4 ,the old pieces1 like the rugs of which they are true copies1 are rapidly becoming scarce4 ,they resemble tapestries and are unfit for hard usage4 ,a large percentage of the kilims now sold in this country are ,shirvans4 ,their fields are divided into a number of parallel horizontal compartments or bands a foot or more in width separated by narrower bands4 ,not infrequently the principal figures of the wide bands are hexagons surrounding smaller geometric figures2 and through the more narrow bands runs a waving line or a parti-coloured cord4 ,another peculiarity1 occasionally seen1 are the ray-like projections of uniform colour fringing the edges of the sides4 ,as a rule1 there are no borders1 but at each end are two or more narrow bands that give the effect of a border4 ,in some pieces webs of plain colour extend beyond the bands2 and the ends are fringed with loose threads of warp4 ,the colours are always pronounced1 because of lack of shading1 and consist mostly of red1 blue1 and ivory4 ,yellow and green are also used4 ,these kilims are much heavier than the ,sehnas1 and also larger1 as the average size is about five by nine feet2 and some are even seven by twelve feet4 ,from the district of ,karaman in ,southern ,asia ,minor1 such a large number of kilims were formerly imported into ,europe that the general name of ,karamani was applied to all kilims4 ,they are still made there by many of the tribes of ,turkish or ,turkoman origin1 who wander over the ,taurus mountains1 and like all their fabrics are stoutly woven4 ,their average size is about four and a half by eight feet4 ,in colours and patterns1 they resemble many of the ,kurdish kilims from the districts farther to the east4 ,a distinction similar to what exists in the piled rugs of the ,kurds1 and dependent on the district in which they are made1 is observable in their kilims1 as those which come from the ,persian border have carefully drawn designs1 that are generally lacking in others woven in the mountainous watershed of the ,tigris and the ,euphrates4 ,many of these are coarsely woven1 and from the back hang the loose ends of threads of weft1 that in more artistic pieces1 are removed4 ,moreover1 in modern pieces the colours are often crude or even garish4 ,some of the kilims have large diamond-shaped figures containing small designs2 others have horizontal bands in which are woven embroidered devices suggestive of the so-called ,bagdad portires2 in many are wide spaces without designs2 but whatever the pattern1 there is usually a parti-coloured cord running through the web at the end4 ,in many parts of ,asia ,minor are made kilims that are usually classed as ,turkish4 ,they are of large size1 and since they are used mostly for portires or curtains1 are divided perpendicularly into equal halves1 that at times are united by stitches4 ,the tribes that make them also make large numbers of smaller prayer kilims with pointed arches suggesting the ,ghiordes design4 ,some of them are beautifully woven1 yet the finest workmanship is shown in pieces known as 8,kis-kilims0 or girl's kilims4 ,these are made with the utmost care1 since they are intended as a bride's gift to her husband2 and a sentiment of romance1 and the hope that her skill may weigh favourably in the estimation of her accomplishments1 contribute to influence the weaver4 ,sometimes even a lock of hair is added as a charm1 or coloured beads as a talisman4 ,the ,christians who live permanently about ,oushak1 and are1 accordingly1 not under the necessity of making such small pieces as can conveniently be carried by wandering tribes1 weave some of the largest kilims4 ,most of them are at least six feet in width and many are much wider4 ,the best known kilims from the ,central ,asiatic group are known as 8,merv ,kilims10 since they are woven by ,turkoman tribes who inhabit the desert near the old capital of ,merv4 ,the brilliant colours found in the products of more ,western tribes are entirely wanting1 and in their place are the few subdued1 rich tones so characteristic of all ,turkoman weavings4 ,these pieces are stoutly woven1 and since the pattern is represented by diagonal lines1 there is no open work4 ,the designs are largely of diamond-shape1 and are arranged in parallel horizontal lines on a field that is usually surrounded by a border profusely ornamented with carefully drawn latch-hooks4 ,a heavy embroidered selvage1 from which hang loose threads of warp1 often occurs at the ends4 ,these kilims are noted for their durability1 and are usually of large size4 ,in the city of ,dera ,ghazi ,khan1 four miles from the ,indus river1 are woven kilims in which warp and weft are of wool1 as is not the case with almost all the rugs of ,india4 ,they are made by the women in their own homes and display an individuality which also is rare in ,indian textile fabrics4 ,in a monograph on 8,carpet ,weaving in the ,punjab10 ,mr4 ,c4 ,latimer says3 8,the ,dera ,ghazi ,khan rug1 which belongs really to the kind of fabrics known as kilims1 is woven in stripes1 with designs between them1 and it is interesting to notice that the patterns employed were by local tradition originally copied from the robes of the ,pharaohs of ,egypt40 ,though all such ,oriental weavings lack the precision of drawing and the delicacy of minutely varied colour so frequently found in piled rugs2 though they never display high1 artistic perception or poetic instinct1 nevertheless some of the oldest pieces with designs suggestive of the workings of a primitive imagination untrammelled by the conventions of art1 and with a chaste simplicity of colour that lends an atmosphere of dignity1 possess a subtle charm that awakens an intense interest4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,how ,,to ,,distinguish ,,rugs ,,the owner of an ,oriental rug will find the pleasure to be derived from it will be greater if he knows where and by whom it was made4 ,this is particularly true if it is one of those pieces of which the charm depends more on its individuality than on the masterly handling of line and colour4 ,the study of classification1 therefore1 will well repay the effort2 though unfortunately it is often discouraging1 since it involves a consideration of the characteristics of a hundred different classes1 almost all of which are found to have exceptions to the best known types4 ,to add to the difficulty1 the opinions of dealers in regard to the less known classes are very often erroneous2 and detailed descriptions1 even at the best1 are unsatisfactory4 ,without a long personal experience in handling rugs1 combined with careful study1 it is impossible to become expert2 but familiarity with one class makes it easier by comparison and a process of elimination to distinguish others4 ,the beginner should first learn to identify each of the six groups4 ,of these the ,chinese can readily be distinguished by their well-known patterns1 which are found in no other part of the ,orient except in the rugs known as ,samarkands1 ,yarkands1 and ,kashgars2 and the ,indian may generally be recognised by the realism and formal arrangement of their floral patterns4 ,relatively few of either group are found in the ,united ,states2 and as about ninety per cent of the rugs belong to the other four groups1 they alone will be considered in detail4 ,leaving out of consideration1 then1 the ,chinese and ,indian rugs1 it should be remembered3 7a7 ,that1 as a rule1 rugs from ,persia have floral patterns2 and rugs from ,asia ,minor1 ,caucasia1 and ,central ,asia have geometric4 7b7 ,that figures with latch-hooks belong principally to rugs of the ,caucasian group and1 to a limited extent1 to the rugs of the ,asia ,minor group4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fc4 ,,xviii ,,century ,,chinese ,,rug 7c7 ,that fields covered with designs of octagonal or diamond shape belong to rugs of the ,central ,asian group4 7d7 ,that about two thirds of the ,persian group have cotton warp2 and the remaining third1 as well as the ,asia ,minor and almost all the ,caucasian and ,central ,asian group have woollen warp4 7e7 ,that about one third of the ,persian group have one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot doubled under the other so as to be hidden at the back2 and that this is not the case with the remaining two thirds nor with almost all classes of other groups4 7f7 ,that1 with few exceptions1 the ,persian rugs have a side finish of overcasting2 and the other groups have both overcasting and selvage4 7g7 ,that the rugs from ,persia and ,central ,asia have both light and dark colours which1 though rich1 are subdued and harmonious2 that the rugs of ,asia ,minor and ,caucasia have colours that are often gaudy and inharmonious2 and that the rugs of the ,central ,asian group have dark tones of red1 blue1 and brown4 7h7 ,that all of the rugs of ,asia ,minor and ,caucasia have the ,ghiordes knot2 that the rugs of ,central ,asia1 with rare exceptions1 have the ,sehna knot2 that the rugs of ,persia with woollen warp have the ,ghiordes knot2 and that those with cotton warp have either the ,ghiordes or the ,sehna knot4 7i7 ,that the few classes of rugs which have very long end-webs belong to the ,central ,asian group4 ,of the classes with moderately long end-webs1 several belong to the ,central ,asian and the ,asia ,minor groups1 only two belong to the ,persian group1 and none belongs to the ,caucasian group4 ,excluding the ,indian and ,chinese rugs1 it follows from the above statements that3 7#a7 ,a rug is from ,persia or ,central ,asia1-- ,if it has a ,sehna knot4 7#b7 ,a rug is probably ,persian1-- ,if the patterns are distinctly floral2 ,if the warp is cotton2 ,if one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is doubled under the other4 7#c7 ,a rug is probably from ,asia ,minor1 ,caucasia1 or ,central ,asia1-- ,if the pattern is geometric2 ,if the sides are selvaged4 7#d7 ,a rug is probably from ,asia ,minor or ,caucasia1-- ,if the colours are gaudy or inharmonious4 7#e7 ,a rug is probably from ,caucasia1-- ,if the designs are largely fringed with latch-hooks4 7#f7 ,a rug is probably from ,central ,asia1-- ,if the field is covered with octagons or diamond-shaped designs1 and has dark tones of red1 blue or brown2 ,if it has long webs at the ends4 ,of these four groups the ,persian has the largest number of classes1 some of which can only with difficulty be distinguished from one another4 ,they may1 however1 conveniently be divided into the following sub-groups1 depending on the technical peculiarities of the weaving and the material of the warp1 so that the task of learning the class of a particular rug will be greatly facilitated by first determining to which of these sub-groups it belongs1 and then eliminating the others from consideration4 ,kashan ,kermanshah ,khorassan ,sehna ,knot 7,a7 ,kirman ,one thread of ,meshed warp to each knot ,mir ,sarabend doubled under and ,sarouk4 hidden at back4 ,gorevan ,herat ,ghiordes ,knot 7,b7 ,herez ,serapi ,tabriz ,feraghan ,cotton ,each thread of ,sehna ,knot 7,c7 ,mahal ,warp warp equally prominent ,muskabad at back or ,royal ,sarabend one slightly depressed ,gulistan ,ghiordes ,knot 7,d7 ,iran ,joshaghan ,luristan ,sultanabad ,sehna ,knot 7,e7 ,sehna ,quincunx effect of weft at back4 ,ghiordes ,knot 7,f7 ,hamadan ,ispahan 7modern7 ,it should be remembered1 when studying the foregoing table1 that all classes of rugs are subject to occasional variations in the technicalities of their weave1 as for instance1 the ,herats may have woollen warp and ,sehna knots2 the ,tabriz very often have linen warp2 some of the ,feraghans1 ,mahals1 ,muskabads1 and ,sehnas have the ,ghiordes knot and some of the ,sultanabads have the ,sehna knot2 the ,joshaghans may have woollen warp2 and in modern ,ispahans the weft sometimes crosses twice between two rows of knots4 ,one thread of warp to each knot doubled 7,g7 ,bijar4 under at back ,niris#cg ,karadagh4 ,woolen ,suj-,bulak ,warp1 ,each of the two threads of warp to a knot ,kurdistan4 ,ghiordes equally prominent at back1 or one slightly 7,h7 ,afshar4 ,knot4 depressed ,mosul4 ,shiraz4#ch ,quincunx effect of weft at back 7,i7 ,karaje4#ci ,with reference to size1 these rugs may conveniently be divided as follows3 ,gorevan4 ,mahal4 ,rugs invariably of carpet size ,muskabad4 ,serapi4 ,sultanabad ,bijar4 ,herat4 ,kermanshah4 ,rugs frequently1 but not always1 of carpet size ,khorassan4 ,meshed4 ,sarabend4 ,tabriz4 ,hamadan4 ,rugs frequently seen as runners ,karaje4 ,kurdistan4 ,mosul4 ,of the sub-groups represented on ,page #bhd1 8,a0 includes those that have the closest and finest woven texture4 ,in this respect the ,kashans1 ,sarouks1 and ,kirmans are1 in the order named1 superior to the others2 and the ,kermanshahs are the coarsest and the least evenly woven4 ,in sub-group 8,b0 the ,tabriz are the best woven and have the shortest nap4 ,the ,gorevans and ,serapis have several concentric medallions1 in which are designs of archaically drawn leaves1 and have generally the so-called turtle border4 ,the ,herats have the typical ,herati border4 ,of the classes of sub-group 8,c10 the ,royal ,sarabends are the closest woven4 ,the ,feraghans are slightly coarser and the ,mahals and ,muskabads are much coarser and have longer nap4 ,the ,luristans1 ,joshaghans1 and ,gulistans are the best woven of sub-group 8,d40 ,at the back of ,luristans each half knot is distinct from the other like a separate bead2 and in a few ,joshaghans each half knot is almost as distinct4 ,both ,irans and ,sultanabads are coarsely woven4 ,comparing sub-groups 8,e0 and 8,f10 the weave of ,sehnas presents a file-like appearance at the back2 and in ,hamadans the weft is of much coarser diameter than in the other two classes4 ,the ,bijars of sub-group 8,g0 are much stouter than the ,niris and have one of the two threads of weft to each knot more completely doubled under the other4 ,the webs at the ends of the ,niris are very much longer than those of ,bijars4 ,sub-group 8,h0 contains the ,kurdistans1 ,suj-,bulaks and ,mosuls1 all of which are woven in territory where for generations the ,kurds have held sway1 and show ,kurdish characteristics4 ,the ,western ,kurdistans may easily be distinguished by their brown colours1 nomadic character1 and coarse warp and weft4 ,the ,persian ,kurdistans are very stoutly and firmly woven1 and usually have one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot depressed below the other4 ,the ,mosuls have each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot equally prominent at the back2 and a characteristic feature is the coloured1 crudely spun yarn of weft1 which on account of the size of its diameter stands up as high as the yarn of the knots at the back4 ,in a typical ,suj-,bulak the alignment of knots at the back appears uneven or serrated4 ,the ,karadaghs have ,caucasian characteristics2 the ,afshars have coarse1 wiry wool for the weft1 and threads of warp strung so that each half knot is distinct4 ,although the technicalities of weaving are the most reliable evidence for determining the class to which a rug belongs1 the patterns are important guides4 ,it will be well1 therefore1 to remember that3 ,a ,persian rug is probably a ,shiraz1 ,karadagh1 ,karaje1 ,mosul1 ,kurdistan1 or ,afshar1 if the pattern is partly geometric4 ,if the field has concentric medallions1 the rug may be a ,kermanshah1 ,sarouk1 ,kashan1 ,sehna1 ,gorevan1 ,herez1 ,tabriz1 ,mahal1 ,muskabad1 or ,sultanabad4 ,if the field is covered with pear designs1 the rug may be a ,sarabend1 ,burujird1 ,khorassan1 ,shiraz1 ,niris1 ,iran1 ,joshaghan1 or ,luristan4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fd4 ,,chinese ,,rug ,,of ,,the ,,keen-,,lung ,,period ,if the field is covered with small ,herati designs1 the rug may be a ,feraghan1 ,sehna1 or an ,iran4 ,if the field is covered with small designs of the ,guli ,hinnai plant1 the rug may be a ,feraghan4 ,if the field is covered with the ,mina ,khani pattern1 the rug may be a ,persian ,kurdistan4 ,a ,persian rug is usually a ,shiraz1 ,niris1 ,mosul1 or ,kurdistan if the nap is long4 ,it is almost invariably either a ,shiraz or a ,niris if the webs of the ends are long1 and the overcasting of the sides has a barber-pole design or has short lengths of different colours4 ,the ,niris resembles the ,shiraz2 but one thread of warp to each knot is more depressed1 the ends generally have longer webs1 and the field is more frequently covered with large pear designs4 ,it is a ,shiraz if short tassels or tufts project at regular intervals from the ends2 and it is probably a ,niris if it has a long end-web of different coloured stripes4 ,it is probably a ,karadagh1 ,gorevan1 ,serapi1 ,herez1 or ,tabriz if the sides are finished with a selvage4 ,many of these classes have features by which they can be distinguished at once from all others4 ,for instance3 ,the ,sarabend has a field completely covered with pear designs of moderate size facing in opposite directions in alternate lines2 borders of several stripes1 of which one or two are ivory white with an angular vine from which are suspended mechanically drawn pear designs1 and one or two narrow stripes with reciprocal trefoils4 ,only two other classes are similar3 the ,iran copies1 which are always woven more coarsely and have the ,ghiordes knot1 and the ,burujirds1 which are rarely seen4 ,most ,feraghans have fields that are completely covered with small ,herati or ,guli ,hinnai designs1 and have the turtle pattern in the border4 ,the only other rugs that are similar are the ,iran copies1 which have the ,ghiordes knot and are more coarsely woven4 ,almost all ,hamadans may be distinguished at once by the broad band of camel's hair surrounding the border1 and the coarse weft crossing only once between two rows of knots so as to give a quincunx effect at the back4 ,gorevans are invariably of carpet size4 ,they have fields almost covered with central medallions on which are archaically drawn leaves1 and a broad central border stripe with a large conventionalised turtle pattern4 ,they have usually the same colour tones1 which once seen are not forgotten4 ,the ,serapis are similar to ,gorevans but are usually older and of better colours4 ,the ,kermanshahs have tones of ivory1 pink1 and light green1 that are softer and lighter than those of almost any other rug4 ,the fields have concentric medallions with dainty floral forms that are rarely seen in other classes except the ,sarouks and ,kashans2 and the borders1 that correspond in drawing and colouring with the field1 have an outer edging that is almost invariably of pink1 but sometimes dark blue4 ,the drawing and colours1 which are not easily described but quickly learned1 at once distinguish these pieces from all others4 ,some ,mesheds resemble ,kermanshahs1 but the nap is more silky1 uneven1 and lustrous4 ,the texture at the back is finer4 ,the rugs of ,tabriz1 which are usually made in carpet sizes1 may be distinguished by their linen nap hanging in a short fringe at the ends4 ,they are not likely to be confused with any classes but the ,mesheds1 ,khorassans1 and ,kermanshahs2 but the nap is shorter1 and harsher to the touch2 the knot is ,ghiordes1 and the drawing more formal4 ,almost the only ,persian rug that has small1 geometric1 adventitious designs and latch-hooks is the ,shiraz4 ,it is the only one that has small tufts of wool projecting from the sides2 and with the exception of the ,niris is the only one that1 as a rule1 has a barber-pole overcasting and a long web at the ends4 ,it is also one of the most loosely woven4 ,the ,sarouk and ,kashan may be distinguished from all others by their short velvety nap2 dark rich colours2 fields of graceful foliated stalks and floral forms resting on concentric medallions2 and the fine1 firm1 texture of the weave4 ,a carefully drawn design of the running latch-hook appears in the borders2 and the weft is usually some shade of blue4 ,the ,kashans are almost the same as ,sarouks but have closer weave and finer texture4 ,they very rarely come in large sizes4 ,muskabads and ,mahals are invariably made in large carpet sizes4 ,their texture is firm2 they are very coarsely woven2 and there is great irregularity in the size of the knots as shown at the back4 ,of the two1 the ,mahals are the better grade4 ,a large rug with woollen warp and with one thread of warp to each knot doubled under the other is almost always a ,bijar4 ,sehnas are always very thin rugs and of small or moderate size4 ,with few exceptions the field is covered with ,herati or pear designs4 ,they can be identified by the quincunx appearance of the fine cotton weft at the back and the file-like feeling of the weave4 ,the only ,persian rug that has a side selvage and also shows evidence of ,caucasian influence in the geometric drawing of the patterns is the ,karadagh4 ,the ,gozenes may be distinguished from other classes by their dull colours4 ,in many of them each thread of warp is encircled by the right half of some knots and the left half of others4 ,the ,asia ,minor rugs have so many features in common that they cannot conveniently be divided into sub-groups4 ,for instance3 almost all have a coloured weft1 a coloured web with fringe at the ends1 and a selvage at the sides2 all1 excepting the ,ghiordes and a few modern pieces1 have woollen warp and weft2 and all have the ,ghiordes knot4 ,to be sure1 a distinction may be made in the length of the nap1 since as a rule the ,bergamo1 ,rhodian1 ,karaman1 ,yuruk1 and some of the ,anatolians have a long nap2 and the remainder usually have a short nap2 and also in the weaving1 as in the ,bergamo1 ,ghiordes1 ,karaman1 ,kulah1 and ,ladik1 one thread of warp to each knot is generally depressed1 and in the remaining classes all threads of warp are equally prominent2 furthermore1 ,anatolians1 ,bergamos1 ,karamans1 ,rhodians1 and ,koniehs1 have rarely more than three stripes to the border2 and ,kir-,shehrs1 ,kulahs1 ,ladiks1 and ,ghiordes have seldom less than five2 but these features are not always constant and pronounced4 ,the patterns1 therefore1 and those smaller designs which frequently are peculiar to a single class are of considerable assistance in distinguishing one from the other4 ,the arch of the namazliks is also an invaluable feature for identification since its shape is different in each class as will be seen by reference to ,plates ,c and ,d 7,pages #fa and #fc74 ,leaving out of consideration modern pieces1 made to meet the demands of exporting companies1 the ,bergamo and ,rhodian have certain points of resemblance4 ,as a rule1 they are almost square1 and have long nap1 long webs with coloured bands at the ends1 a side selvage1 and coloured weft4 ,the ,rhodian may generally be distinguished by their brighter colours and their panels1 suggesting windows1 placed parallel to the length of the rug4 ,the ,bergamos1 which are more frequently seen1 have rich1 deep blue and red colouring1 and more devices to avert the evil eye than any other ,oriental rug4 ,two panels1 one above the arch and the other below the field1 are almost invariably seen in the ,ghiordes prayer rugs and occasionally in the ,kulahs1 but rarely in any other classes4 ,the typical pattern of the central border stripe of ,ghiordes prayer rugs1 consisting of most conventionalised leaf and rosette1 is not seen in any other rugs2 nor is the pattern of the broad border stripe of the odjaliks and sedjadehs1 consisting of an undulating band covered with small flecks and fringed with latch-hooks4 ,the most characteristic features in the pattern of ,kulahs are the numerous narrow fleck-covered bands that occupy the centre of the border1 and the secondary stripe with design like a ,chinese device represented in ,plate ,h1 ,fig4 #aj 7opp4 ,page #aid74 ,the pomegranates at the end of the field1 and the ,rhodian lilies in the main stripe of the border1 distinguish ,ladik prayer rugs from all others4 ,figures of vandykes1 which are seen in some ,anatolians and ,mudjars1 are also a constant feature of ,ladiks4 ,a characteristic feature of ,koniehs is the row of sprigs with three triangular-shaped petals that project from the border against the field4 ,as a rule1 the ,kir-,shehrs contain in the field a larger amount of grass-green colour than any other rug4 ,the narrow border stripe of thumb-like processes that fit one another like cogs and the mauve or heliotrope colour are important aids in distinguishing ,melez rugs4 ,on account of their long pile and their patterns of latch-hooks and other geometric figures1 the ,yuruks alone of all this group resemble the ,caucasian rugs4 ,they may also be distinguished from other ,asia ,minor rugs by the facts that the weft is of coarse1 wiry wool1 and the threads of warp are not strung closely together1 so that at the back each half knot appears very distinct from the other4 ,a similarity prevails in the technique of most ,caucasian rugs1 as all have the ,ghiordes knot1 and almost all have warp and weft of wool1 sides that are selvaged1 and ends with a web and loose fringe4 ,moreover1 classes that are in a measure geographically related show resemblances1 as for instance3 the ,chichi1 ,daghestan1 ,kabistan1 and ,shirvan1 which have short nap2 the ,tcherkess1 ,kazak1 and ,genghas which have medium to long nap2 and the ,soumak1 ,shemakha1 and ,kuba1 which have a similar selvage at sides and ends4 ,the only classes in which one thread of warp to each knot is depressed or doubled under the other are the ,karabagh1 ,shemakha1 and ,shusha1 from the southeastern part of ,caucasia1 and the ,lesghian from the northern part4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,o4 ,no4 #a1 ,shah ,abbas design4 ,no4 #b1 ,mina ,khani design4 ,no4 #c1 ,guli ,hinnai design4 ,no4 #d1 ,herati design4 ,nos4 #e-;a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 ,swastikas4 ,nos4 #f-;a1 b4 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 h1 i1 j1 k1 l1 m1 ,pear designs4 ,no4 #g1 ,cloud-bands4 ,no4 #h1 ,pitcher4 ,no4 #i1 ,motives of ,asia ,minor and ,armenian rugs4 ,no4 #aj1 ,octagonal disc4 ,no4 #aa1 ,combs4 ,no4 #ab1 ,motives of ,melez rugs4 ,nos4 #ac-;a1 b1 c1 d1 #ad1 #ae1 conventionalised leaf-forms in ,asia ,minor rugs4 ,nos4 #af-;a1 b1 c1 ,the lotus4 ,no4 #ag1 ,knot of destiny4 ,nos4 #ah-;a1 b1 ,motives of ,daghestans and ,kabistans4 ,the ,soumak with its flat stitch and with ends of yarn hanging loose at the back is unlike all other rugs4 ,at the sides is a carefully woven selvage1 and next to the nap at the end is a narrow selvage of fine spun threads4 ,the rugs of ,shemakha1 woven by some of the same tribes who dwell nearer the mountains1 have similar selvages at the sides of blue or bluish green1 similar ends of a narrow web of 8herring-bone0 weave and one or more rows of knots1 and a medium long nap of rich blues1 reds1 yellows1 browns1 and greens4 ,the ,kuba rugs are almost identical with them1 except that each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back1 whereas in the ,shemakhas one thread to each knot is depressed4 ,when once these selvages1 the narrow end-webs of 8herring-bone0 weave1 and the particular tones of colour characteristic of these rugs have been carefully observed1 they are not forgotten4 ,the well-known ,georgian stripe 7,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #i1 opp4 ,page #bbh7 is rarely found in any but these three classes4 ,the ,baku rug may be distinguished by its geometric-shaped pear designs1 and stiffly drawn birds4 ,if modern1 the tones are dull4 ,long1 shaggy nap1 strong colours1 of which red and green are almost invariably present1 and large designs surrounded by numerous small nomadic figures are the general features of a ,kazak4 ,the ,tcherkess has a striking resemblance to it1 so that they are constantly mistaken for one another2 but the ,tcherkess is generally better woven and the pattern usually consists of what is known as the 8,sunburst0 resting on a field of dull red or a tawny shade4 ,the border is almost invariably of three stripes1 of which the central has the tarantula design1 and the two guards have a reciprocal sawtooth design4 ,the field of the typical ,chichi has an all-over pattern of small geometric design2 and its main border stripe has rosettes separated by diagonal ribbon-like bars1 as shown in ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #f 7opp4 ,page #bbf74 ,rugs from the ,karabagh district may frequently be recognised by the ,persian influence in the drawing of their patterns4 ,genghas may readily be distinguished from other classes of this group by the fact that the weft crosses more than twice and frequently many times1 between every two rows of knots1 which are not appressed1 so that the weft1 as it encircles the warp1 appears at the back like a narrow beaded surface4 ,daghestans1 ,kabistans1 and ,shirvans have so many different patterns that it is not always easy to distinguish the classes2 but it will be some assistance to remember that the border design of wine cup and serrated leaf 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #a1 opp4 ,page #bbf7 is found in about one half of the ,shirvans1 and that the bracket design 7,plate ,j1 ,fig4 #ai1 opp4 ,page #bbh7 is peculiar to ,daghestans and ,kabistans4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fe4 ,,chinese ,,rug ,,of ,,the ,,keen-,,lung ,,period ,the small ,central ,asiatic group is not only unlike other groups1 but may naturally be divided into three sub-groups1 which are also distinct from one another and contain well-defined classes1 viz43 7a7 ,afghan1 ,royal ,bokhara1 ,princess ,bokhara1 ,tekke1 ,khiva1 ,yomud1 and ,beshire4 7b7 ,samarkand1 ,kashgar1 and ,yarkand4 7c7 ,beluchistan4 ,in the first sub-group the prevailing colours are dark reds and browns with minor quantities of blue1 green1 and ivory4 ,the ,afghans are almost always of large size1 and may be recognised at once by the broad web of the ends and the large octagonal shaped figures placed in contact in perpendicular rows4 ,the ,royal ,bokharas are smaller1 the end webs are not so wide1 the octagons are never in contact and are separated diagonally by diamond-shaped figures4 ,the ,princess ,bokharas and many ,tekkes have the ,katchli pattern4 ,the ,yomuds resemble the other classes of this sub-group in colour2 but in the fields1 diamond designs have entirely replaced the octagons4 ,the rugs of sub-group 8b0 almost always have cotton warp2 whereas the rugs of sub-groups 8a0 and 8c0 invariably have woollen or goat's hair warp4 ,the ,samarkands are somewhat similar in colours and patterns to ,chinese rugs1 but may be distinguished by the fact that they almost invariably have three border stripes1 whereas the ,chinese usually have only one or two4 ,the ,kashgar and ,yarkand also show ,chinese influence4 ,the ,beluchistans with brown1 blue1 green1 and claret colours may be identified at once by their long embroidered webs at each end4 ,in the determination of the class to which a rug belongs1 the pattern first of all attracts attention2 and if it be one peculiar to a single class1 it is an important guide4 ,but in the great majority of cases1 this will not be sufficient4 ,it is1 therefore1 desirable to observe if the designs be floral or geometric1 if the colours be subdued or obtrusive1 if the knot be ,sehna or ,ghiordes1 if the warp be cotton or wool4 ,the variations in finish of sides and ends are also an index of the class4 ,the pattern and these few technical details are the only characteristics by which most dealers attempt to determine the different kinds of rugs4 ,but in the case of half of them1 such evidence is far from conclusive4 ,the back should be even more carefully examined than the front2 because here are shown those subtle1 but nevertheless positive distinctions1 relating to the manner of tying the knot and the treatment of warp and weft1 which are the most permanent tribal characteristics of ,oriental weaving4 ,it should be noticed1 then1 if each thread of warp encircled by the yarn that forms the knot lies in the same plane parallel with the surface and is equally prominent2 or if one to each knot be depressed below the other1 or if it be doubled under the other so as to be concealed4 ,it should also be noticed if the weft be coloured or uncoloured1 of fine or of coarse diameter2 and if a thread of weft crosses only once or two or more times from side to side between every two rows of knots4 ,furthermore1 the knots themselves should be carefully scrutinised to see if each row of them is firmly pressed down upon the weft1 if each knot has a length equal or exceeding its width1 if the yarn of which they are formed is drawn tight against the warp1 and if it is loosely or closely spun4 ,only by consideration of all these different points1 and sometimes even more1 such as the nature of the colours1 the character of wool1 and the manner in which it is spun1 is it possible to determine doubtful cases of identification4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,purchasing ,,rugs ,,as those who have expert knowledge of the value of ,oriental rugs are exceedingly few1 compared with those who admire and wish to own them1 the object of this chapter is to make suggestions regarding a proper selection1 when purchasing1 and to point out some of the pitfalls that beset the inexperienced4 ,in estimating the value of any rug1 three distinct qualities are to be considered3 rarity1 artistic beauty1 and utility4 ,rarity may depend on the age of a rug1 the locality where it was woven1 or its type4 ,in determining the age1 which as a rule is greatly exaggerated1 a number of facts should be considered4 ,one is the condition resulting from wear2 though at times this is misleading1 since of two pieces1 one may have been handled with almost religious solicitude and the other exposed to the elements and to hard usage4 ,moreover1 an artificial appearance of natural wear is sometimes counterfeited4 ,another is the pattern1 since1 as has been shown in the case of antique carpets1 the character of drawing changed with succeeding periods4 ,even when the patterns of old carpets are copied in modern pieces1 a distinction is usually discernible to a careful observer4 ,the colours1 too1 play an important part in determining age2 for not only are some characteristic of different periods1 as particular shades of yellow and green of ,chinese rugs and the blue of ,persian2 but the mellowing influences of time1 acting through the agencies of exposure and wear1 cause effects that cannot be produced by any artificial process4 ,occasionally the time when a rug is made is recorded in ,arabic numbers woven above a word denoting 8year40 ,if they are indistinct on account of the length of the nap1 they may be more clearly read in reverse order at the back4 ,in the following lines1 each of them is represented below the one in our own notation1 to which it corresponds4 #j1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i ,illustration3 ,arabic numerical symbols ,these numbers represent not the ,christian but the ,mohammedan year1 which1 dating from the time of the ,hegira1 began about the middle of ,july #fbb1 or a little before the actual flight from ,medina4 ,it should also be remembered that the lunar and not the solar year is considered in ,moslem chronology2 which1 according to our reckoning1 gains about one year in every thirty-three and seven tenths years4 ,to calculate1 then1 the year of our time corresponding with the year expressed in the rug1 from the number should be subtracted one thirty-three and seven tenths part of itself1 and then should be added six hundred and twenty-two4 ,thus1 if the year #abdg was woven in the rug1 our corresponding year would be ,a4 ,d4 #abdg less #cg 7or #abaj7 plus #fbb1 or #ahcb4 ,when such dates appear in old rugs1 they are generally to be depended on1 but in modern ones they are more likely to be antedated to give the effect of greater age4 ,with reference to the time when woven1 rugs may conveniently be divided into three broad classes2 ,antique rugs or carpets made over two centuries ago2 old rugs made fifty or more years ago2 and modern rugs made since the introduction of aniline dyes1 or within the last fifty years4 ,the number of antique carpets that exist is undetermined1 as it is impossible to estimate how many remain in ,oriental mosques and palaces4 ,nor has any complete catalogue been made of those that are owned in ,europe and ,america4 ,they consist principally of the products of ,persia1 ,asia ,minor1 ,armenia1 and ,china4 ,many belong to the museums and the remainder to sovereigns and wealthy collectors4 ,like rare porcelains and old paintings1 their value increases with each passing year2 and the prices received for them range according to the fancy and caprice of the purchaser4 ,they are the most valued and the most costly of all rugs4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ff4 ,,kurdish ,,prayer ,,kilim ,the number of rugs over fifty years of age1 but not belonging to the previous class1 is very large4 ,a few are sufficiently prized to be placed in art museums1 some belong to collectors1 large numbers embellish the halls and drawing rooms of people of refinement1 and others are yearly brought from the ,orient2 but dealers and the public already realise that their numbers are limited4 ,even now they are searched for in the remotest corners of every rug-producing country2 and in a few years the last1 now cherished as family heirlooms1 will have been exchanged for western gold4 ,almost all are well woven1 though some are too much worn to be trodden longer under foot4 ,none are treated with aniline dyes1 but the colours mellowed by time are exceptionally good and frequently contain rare tones characteristic of the first class4 ,moreover1 large numbers contain emblems of a symbolism still shrouded in mysteries that increase their fascination4 ,on the whole1 this is the choicest stock from which to choose elegant carpetings for luxurious homes4 ,when it is considered that rugs of this class are beginning to disappear from the market1 the prices at which they may be purchased are moderate compared with the prices of more modern pieces4 ,the great majority of existing ,oriental rugs have been woven within the last fifty years4 ,a few of them1 including many of the newest1 have colours that compare favourably with those of older pieces2 but a large number show the effect of aniline dyes4 ,some woven by nomads or dwellers in remote villages1 without thought of sale1 have designs and workmanship such as have characterised the fabrics of these people for past generations2 but others1 which are the products of the work-house system1 though well woven as a rule1 lack the charm of spontaneous individuality4 ,age alone has little influence in determining the value of these modern rugs1 since they have not yet become rare2 yet even in them the wear of time affects their other qualities4 ,other things being equal1 they cost less than the old and the antique rugs4 ,the locality where a rug was woven is also to be considered in determining its rarity and therefore its value4 ,of the countless carpets that once existed in ,egypt1 of the very early rugs of ,caucasia and ,turkestan1 not a piece remains2 but if one were to be found it would be almost priceless4 ,the antique carpets of ,syria1 or of ,kirman1 ,shiraz1 and ,tabriz1 woven over three centuries ago1 are more valuable than others of equally good workmanship1 of which relatively large numbers remain4 ,so1 too1 of the rugs classed as old1 but falling short of the venerable age of the real antiques1 those which are now difficult to be obtained on account of their scarcity1 are more valuable than those which are being produced in larger numbers4 ,rugs such as the ,joshaghan1 ,tiflis1 and many others of sixty or more years of age1 are no longer woven4 ,modern products from the same districts may adopt the old names1 but they are not the same4 ,accordingly1 it will be only a short time when they too will disappear from the market4 ,good examples of such pieces should therefore receive more careful consideration on the part of purchasers and collectors1 as their value is increasing with each passing year4 ,furthermore1 the rarity of an old rug is often independent of its age or the locality where it was made1 and is due to its peculiar type4 ,for instance1 the ,ming ,rugs of ,china with silver threads and the so-called ,garden ,carpets of ,iran represent types rather than localities4 ,likewise the ,hunting ,carpets of ,persia1 the ,holbein ,carpets of ,asia ,minor1 and the ,dragon ,carpets of ,armenia1 represent1 as far as we know1 the textile craft of no well-defined district of limited area1 as is the case of modern rugs1 but rather rare types4 ,such pieces are valuable1 not alone on account of their age1 but also because they represent these rare types4 ,a rug is also valued for its artistic beauty4 ,the innumerable rugs which centuries ago were in daily use soon disappeared1 and only those intended for palaces or temples have been preserved4 ,it is but natural1 then1 that the antique carpets representing the highest art of their time should be not only rare but also beautiful4 ,yet even in them is often a distinction that affects their value4 ,fortunately1 very many of the larger number of rugs of less age1 but classed as old1 likewise possess artistic beauty4 ,this chiefly depends on the drawing and the colouring4 ,it will be noticed that almost without exception careful drawing accompanies workmanship of a high class4 ,this is partly due to the facts that the more excellent the weave the easier it is to clearly define patterns2 and that on shortness of nap1 which as a rule is found in closely woven rugs1 depends accuracy of delineation4 ,the charm of rugs often depends1 also1 on the graceful flow of lines1 the careful balance of different parts of patterns1 and the proper co-ordination between border and field4 ,careful attention should accordingly be given to the drawing when selecting a rug4 ,the artistic beauty of ,oriental rugs depends still more on the colouring1 since1 as has been elsewhere expressed1 drawing1 which is intellectual1 finds its highest development in the ,occident1 and colouring1 which is sensuous1 finds its highest development in the ,orient4 ,it at once suggests sumptuous luxury4 ,in all of the antique carpets that remain and in very many rugs over fifty years of age1 all the colours employed in a single piece are in tones of perfect harmony1 and are so placed with reference to one another that the effect is most agreeable4 ,but in some of the modern pieces1 such as are produced in parts of ,asia ,minor and ,caucasia1 are colours which1 like discordant notes of music1 grate harshly on the senses4 ,the most pleasing effect is when colours of border and field are complementary1 yet so in harmony as to accentuate the qualities of each4 ,there are also colours which1 independent of their association1 are in themselves good or bad4 ,the best are found in the antique carpets woven when the art of the dyer was an honourable profession4 ,the colours are also very good in still later pieces2 but for a century now some of the finest have not been used1 and even the secret of producing them has been lost4 ,here and there dyers and weavers cling to early traditions1 so that among modern rugs are many examples of good colouring2 but the most recent pieces1 excepting when softened by artificial processes1 often display harsh and garish colours4 ,this distinction is in a measure due to the fact that old colours were largely produced by vegetable dyes and the modern are too often produced by aniline4 ,not infrequently both vegetable and aniline colours are used in the same piece1 and sometimes the quantity of aniline colour is so small that it is scarcely objectionable2 but as a rule it is best never to purchase a rug that is so tainted4 ,one objection to the use of aniline dyes is that by removing some of the natural oil of the wool they are apt to make it brittle1 so that it is less able to stand wear4 ,another is that in time some of the dyes1 which have been applied collectively to produce a single colour1 will fade or even disappear1 so that the final colour may be a most undesirable shade not in harmony with those that surround it4 ,if the fibres are brittle and become harsher to the touch when wet with water1 it is an indication that aniline dyes have been used4 ,another test is the application of weak vegetable acids1 which will make the colour spread if produced by aniline dyes1 but are not likely to affect it if produced by vegetable dyes4 ,many native weavers can distinguish by placing the wool in their mouths1 when they experience a sweet or bitter taste1 according as vegetable or aniline dyes have been used4 ,it is a mistake1 however1 to assume that the dyes are aniline because the wool has a brighter colour at the surface of the nap than at the foundation2 or because the colour spreads when wet with water2 since in time even some of the vegetable colours will fade2 and when fresh they will run during the first washing in water1 but afterwards they are little affected either by water or weak acids4 ,even when the same colours and the same kind of dyes were used1 there is a marked distinction in the appearance of old and of recently woven rugs1 which is due to wear as well as exposure to sun and weather4 ,the effect of time1 imperceptible at first1 is shown in rich tones of remarkable softness and beauty1 that add greatly to the value of a rug4 ,it accordingly happens that artificial processes are adopted to create as far as possible the same results without the lapse of time4 ,some of these are as novel as were the efforts of the distinguished viceroy of ,king-te ,chin1 in the reign of ,kang-hi1 to produce antique porcelains4#dj ,henry ,savage ,landor says#da that 8to manufacture #8,antique ,carpets' is one of the most lucrative branches of modern ,persian carpet making4 ,the new carpets are spread in the bazar in the middle of the street1 where it is most crowded1 and trampled upon for days or weeks1 according to the days required1 foot passengers and their donkeys1 mules and camels making a point of treading on them in order to #8add to age' in the manufacturer's goods4 ,when sufficiently worn down the carpet is removed1 brushed1 and ordinarily sold for double or treble the actual price1 owing to its antiquity40 ,illustration3 ,,colour ,,plate ,,xi--,,chinese ,,rug ,this large ,chinese carpet represents some of the best workmanship of the ,keen-lung period4 ,in it are shown the graceful drawing of leaf1 fruit1 flower1 and butterfly1 and the dainty colouring of blue1 yellow1 brown1 and apricot on a field of ivory that are so characteristic of this time4 ,the usual balance of designs throughout the field is maintained with precision2 but1 as is not always the case1 different motives occupy corresponding positions4 ,thus a cluster of leaves and fruit may be balanced with a cluster of leaves and flowers4 ,the conventional drawing of the corners and the somewhat formal panel that surrounds the central medallion give to the pattern strength of character while they detract nothing from its beauty4 ,loaned by ,mr4 ,nathan ,bentz ,whatever may be their character1 the methods employed to give softened effects to the colours are known as 8washing40 ,most of those in vogue in the ,orient1 such as washing with lime water1 do little real injury4 ,in this country to artificially mellow the colours has become a regular business of firms1 who guard the secret of their different methods4 ,some use ammonia1 borax1 and soap1 which also do very little injury to the rug4 ,others use chloride of lime1 boracic acid1 vinegar1 or oxalic acid1 that remove some of the natural oils of the wool and accordingly impair its qualities for wear4 ,in fact1 pieces are occasionally injured to the extent that the wool has become brittle and may readily be plucked out4 ,nevertheless1 it does not necessarily follow that all rugs washed with an acid solution have been seriously injured2 but the colours never have the same richness as those which have been softened by natural processes operating for a long period of years4 ,to be sure1 rugs that have been washed are often more attractive than they were in their raw colours2 but the older1 more beautiful rugs with genuine tones mellowed by time are always to be preferred4 ,over ninety per cent of the ,kermanshahs1 ,sarouks1 ,kashans1 ,tabriz1 ,muskabads1 ,mahals1 and ,gorevans1 and a large percentage of all other modern rugs sold in this country1 have been treated by some artificial process to soften their colours or give them the appearance of age4 ,it is generally necessary1 when selecting a large rug for a floor covering1 to accept a washed piece2 but when a smaller rug or a runner will meet the requirements1 it is preferable to choose the older unwashed piece1 which1 as a rule1 is more beautiful and costs but little more4 ,in the case of most pieces1 the tones of colour are sufficient to enable one who is experienced to distinguish between those that are artificially aged and those that are not4 ,in the case of others1 a simple test is to rub them thoroughly with a wet rag2 when1 if acid or chloride of lime has been used1 it can generally be detected by the odour4 ,the artistic beauty of a rug also depends somewhat on the fineness of the nap2 as the soft1 floccy fibres of some wools acquire a velvety appearance1 or give to the colours a sheen and a lustre compared with which other rugs look harsh and coarse4 ,for instance1 the rugs of ,shiraz and ,meshed1 the ,beluchistans1 and many ,bokharas are noted for the lustre of their colours2 but on the other hand many of the rugs of ,asia ,minor and ,caucasia have colours that are without lustre1 and the rugs of ,india which are made of dead or 8,chunam0 wool1 seem lifeless4 ,when selecting any rug1 then1 the purchaser should carefully observe if the patterns are well drawn and their different parts show a proper balance4 ,he should observe if the colour tones are harmonious with one another1 if each colour in itself is good1 and if they have been softened by natural processes acting for a long time4 ,and he should notice if the wool is coarse1 dead1 and lustreless1 or if it has a sheen and glint in the light of day2 for these are the qualities that make up the artistic beauty of a rug4 ,the utility to be derived from rugs that properly belong to museums and collectors receives small consideration1 though even with them the more perfect their condition the more valuable they are4 ,but in case of the great majority of rugs1 which are intended for use as well as for ornament1 their utility is an important consideration to the purchaser4 ,rugs that have warp and weft of strong yarn and a close firm texture1 will wear better than others4 ,also1 such rugs as ,bijars1 in which one thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the other1 will be found to wear better than such rugs as ,mosuls which have each thread of warp equally prominent at the back4 ,for durability1 long nap is also to be preferred to short1 since it protects the foundations of the knots from wearing and becoming loose4 ,before purchasing an old rug1 it should be spread on the floor to see if it lies flat and if its shape is regular4 ,it should be examined by daylight and not by electric light1 which gives a false impression of colour and sheen4 ,it should be held up with the back turned to the purchaser1 and carefully examined for weak spots through which the light may pass2 since1 when so held1 many pieces which seem in good condition when lying on the floor1 resemble a sieve4 ,the foundation threads should also be carefully inspected1 as sometimes they rot and will tear with slight tension4 ,moreover1 as the selvage or overcasting of the sides and the webs of the ends are intended primarily not for ornament but for protection1 it should be noted if they are in good condition4 ,sometimes the webs of the ends are entirely gone1 so that continual fraying of the nap is prevented with difficulty4 ,sometimes the selvage or overcasting of the sides is broken and some of the threads of warp are injured4 ,or the sides may be well protected by a stout overcasting2 but on examination it will be seen that it is not the original finishing1 and that some of the border has disappeared4 ,again1 it may have been overcast too tightly1 so that the sides curl and turn under1 and thus expose the border to injury when trodden on4 ,careful examination will often reveal surprises4 ,in many old rugs the field is full of rents1 that have been sewn together2 in others entire pieces have been removed1 so that they are no longer of their original length2 or parts of the border are gone1 or even the whole of it has been replaced by the border of another rug2 yet all so deftly done that the changes are scarcely noticeable4 ,nevertheless1 old pieces1 if otherwise meritorious1 are not to be discarded on account of a few imperfections1 since what can be accomplished in the hands of a careful repairer is remarkable4 ,broken threads of warp and weft can be mended2 missing knots can be replaced with others of similar yarn2 crooked pieces can be straightened by loosening here and stretching there2 borders that curl can be flattened by removing the yarn and overcasting again more carefully4 ,in fact1 if the nap be not so worn that the foundation of warp and weft is exposed1 it is far better to choose an old rug with some rents than a new one with garish aniline dyes4 ,nor should a piece be slighted1 because the brownish black areas of wool dyed with iron pyrites are worn low2 since often the most beautiful effects are obtained by a surface of brighter colours standing out in relief1 on account of the worn blackish nap that surrounds it4 ,now and then a bargain can be had by buying a rug which1 because of some imperfection that is not serious1 has been passed by2 and now and then a piece reeking with dirt has proved1 when properly cleansed1 to be a gem4 ,the foundation1 consisting of the warp and weft1 receives but little consideration from purchasers2 yet it is one of the most important indices of the quality of a rug1 and its strength is one of the most necessary conditions for utility4 ,the warp is best observed at the ends4 ,in most ,chinese and ,indian rugs and in some of the ,persian1 it is of cotton2 in others it is of wool or goat's hair4 ,in the ,chinese rugs the diameter of the threads of warp is much smaller than the diameter of the threads of the weft1 and has little strength1 but in almost all other rugs it is at least as large and as stout4 ,the weft may readily be observed at the back4 ,in very many of the best rugs1 it consists of fine spun wool2 but in many modern ones1 it is of coarse wool or cotton4 ,the number of knots to the square inch does not of itself demonstrate the quality of texture1 since a rug may have only a few knots of coarse diameter and be firmly woven1 or it may have many knots of fine diameter and be loosely woven2 but in the same class the better rug has generally more knots than a poorer one4 ,when selecting a rug1 then1 the back should be most carefully observed2 for here may be seen if the yarn that forms the knots is well spun1 if the knots themselves are drawn tight and well pressed down1 and if the threads of weft are carefully inserted and have a texture that indicates fine workmanship4 ,almost invariably it will be found that if the back of a rug shows good material1 and has an appearance of firmness and skilful1 painstaking weaving1 the front will correspond with good colours and careful drawing4 ,the value of antique carpets1 which depends to some extent on their size1 and to a much greater extent on their rarity and character1 is constantly increasing2 for the reason that their number is limited and each year they are more highly appreciated4 ,it is1 therefore1 impossible to affix even approximate prices2 but the sums paid at the ,yerkes sale in #aiaj1 when some thirty pieces were sold at auction for an average of about #i1djj1 will serve as a guide4 ,the following are some of the pieces sold and the prices realised3 ,carpet1 size #g feet #d inches by #e feet #d inches1 attributed to ,western ,persia1 at end of ,,xvi ,century1 and purchased by the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,n4 ,y4 #e1fjj ,persian carpet1 ,,xvi ,century1 described on page #hf #e1fjj ,polish silk carpet1 ,,xvi ,century1 size #f feet #f inches by #d feet #g inches #d1gjj ,polish silk carpet1 ,,xvi ,century1 size #f feet #f inches by #d feet #g inches #c1ejj ,polish silk carpet1 ,,xvi ,century1 size #f feet #aa inches by #d feet #aj inches #ab1cjj ,silk carpet1 ,,xvi ,century1 size #g feet #b inches by #f feet #e inches1 stated to have belonged to the ,ardebil ,mosque #ce1ejj ,moorish carpet1 ,,xvi ,century1 size #aj feet #aa inches by #e feet #aj inches1 stated to have belonged to the ,ardebil ,mosque and purchased by the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,n4 ,y4 #ae1bjj ,hispano ,moresque ,mosque carpet1 size #cd feet #e inches by #af feet #h inches1 flat stitch #h1fjj ,carpet attributed to ,western ,iran1 size #af feet #d inches by #aa feet #b inches1 and purchased by the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,n4 ,y4 #ai1fjj ,carpet similar to the ,mosque carpet of ,ardebil1 ,,xvi ,century1 size #bc feet #aa inches by #ac feet #e inches #bg1jjj ,the value of rugs over fifty years of age but not sufficiently old to belong to the antique class also depends as much on the technique of weave1 drawing1 colouring1 and rarity as on the size2 yet even this must be taken into consideration4 ,in proportion to their size the most expensive of these rugs are the ,kirmans1 ,sehnas1 and ,niris from ,persia2 the ,ghiordes and ,ladiks from ,asia ,minor2 the ,daghestans and ,kabistans from ,caucasia2 and the ,royal ,bokharas and ,yomuds from ,central ,asia4 ,considering both utility and attractiveness the least expensive are probably the ,sarabends and ,mosuls from the ,persian group1 the ,yuruks from ,asia ,minor1 ,kazaks and ,tcherkess from ,caucasia1 and ,afghans and ,beluchistans from ,central ,asia4 ,as is the case with antique carpets1 the prices of all old rugs in good condition are steadily advancing4 ,there is likewise a tendency for the prices of modern rugs to increase with each year1 since on account of the gradual opening of ,oriental countries to the markets of the world1 and the greater demand for rugs1 the wages of weavers are increasing4 ,some of them1 as the ,tabriz1 ,gorevans1 ,kermanshahs1 ,muskabads1 ,mahals1 ,sarouks1 and ,kashans1 are now made almost exclusively under the direction of the work-house system1 and are sold at prices that fluctuate but slightly4 ,but in a short time the prices of all of them will doubtless be higher4 ,when a rug of carpet size is required1 the ,kermanshahs are generally preferred on account of their soft colouring and refined patterns1 that harmonise with the furnishings of most reception rooms4 ,less expensive and more showy are the ,gorevans1 which are suitable for halls or dining rooms4 ,in the ,afghans1 which are splendid rugs for a den1 are combined durability with a moderate price4 ,within recent years some of the ,indian rugs1 as the ,amritsars and ,lahores1 have been growing in favour1 as they not only have good colours1 artistic patterns1 and exceedingly good texture1 but are reasonable in price4 ,of smaller rugs required both for ornament and use1 the ,shiraz1 ,feraghan1 ,mosul1 ,bergamo1 ,tcherkess1 ,bokhara1 and ,beluchistan are desirable4 ,as is the case with other works of art1 so much deception can be practised in the sale of rugs that a purchaser cannot use too much circumspection4 ,sometimes through ignorance or with intention1 a dealer will declare that the wool of a rug which has been coloured with aniline dyes has been coloured with vegetable dyes only2 that a rug washed with acid has matured naturally2 that a new rug which has been artificially worn almost to the knot is an antique2 or that a particular rug belongs to the class desired1 as where a ,shirvan is offered for a ,shiraz or a ,bijar for a ,bergamo1 which ordinarily are worth much more4 ,it is1 accordingly1 discreet to buy only of such firms as have a reputation which is above reproach2 and if for any reason it is difficult to learn the standing of a firm1 the purchaser would do well to make an effort to test its reliability by inquiring about the qualities of some class of rugs with which he is familiar before purchasing others2 and if there appears to be any intention to deceive1 he should at once look elsewhere4 ,in any event1 he should take a guarantee that the rug purchased is as represented4 ,firms that have gained an honourable reputation by honest dealing deserve the patronage of the public1 and will always be found ready to make restitution if any mistake has been made4 ,at times1 the best rugs may be bought at auctions and at the fairest prices4 ,auctions such as the ,yerkes1 where estates are being closed or where firms are dissolved1 occasionally occur1 when every opportunity is given the purchaser to thoroughly examine in advance pieces which are sold without reservation to the highest bidder4 ,on such occasions1 rare pieces are sometimes bought at very moderate prices4 ,but as a rule1 unless the purchaser is a good judge and has previously carefully examined a coveted piece in broad daylight1 it is better not to buy at auctions4 ,during the sale it is impossible to properly examine a rug4 ,the glare of electric light thrown upon it gives a too favourable impression of its beauty4 ,the competitive bids of other real or fictitious purchasers and the words of the auctioneer too often lead beyond the dictates of good judgment4 ,at such times one would do well to remember the old words caveat emptor4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,yerkes sale4 #b ,stewart ,dix1 in 8,arts of ,old ,japan40 #c ,the influence of the physical aspects of a country on its art as expressed in architecture is nowhere more clearly shown than in ,egypt1 and there is little doubt that1 likewise1 the character of the native rugs was influenced by the spirit of the sluggish ,nile and the boundless desert wastes4 ,but as ,egypt long ago ceased to be a rug-producing country1 and none of its ancient rugs remain1 it will only be briefly referred to in this work1 though symbolic designs which had their origin there during the ,caliphate or even earlier were adopted by foreign weavers and occasionally appear with modified form in modern rugs4 #d ,it is said that he carried ,persian weavers as captives to ,asia ,minor and ,constantinople4 #e ,this is a product of flowers of the genus ,delphinum that grows in the ,himalayas4 ,it is also obtained as a powder from ,afghanistan4 #f ,in a few rare instances a knot is tied to four threads of warp4 #g ,most ,sehna knots are right-hand knots1 but the ,sehna knots of a large proportion of ,khorassan rugs are left-hand knots4 #h ,as far as the writer is aware1 no one has hitherto called attention to the many precise distinctions there are in weaving1 and to the fact that each class of rugs follows a distinct type of its own4 ,for this reason this branch of the subject is treated more fully than would otherwise be necessary4 #i ,a few of the weavers about ,gozene in ,asia ,minor make rugs with a double foundation1 in which a single thread of coarse weft crosses twice between parallel rows of threads of warp4 ,only rarely is this method followed in other districts4 #aj ,sir ,george ,birdwood has made the statement that 8,a deep and complicate symbolism1 originating in ,babylonia and possibly in ,india1 pervades every denomination of ,oriental carpet4 ,thus the carpet itself prefigures space and eternity1 and the general pattern or filling1 as it is technically termed1 the fleeting1 finite universe of animated beauty4 ,every colour has its significance2 and the design1 whether mythological or natural1 human1 bestial1 or floral1 has its hidden meaning4 ,even the representatives of men hunting wild beasts have their special indications4 ,so have the natural flowers of ,persia their symbolism1 wherever they are introduced1 generally following that of their colours4 ,the very irregularities either in drawing or colouring1 to be observed in almost every ,oriental carpet1 and invariably in ,turkoman carpets1 are seldom accidental1 the usual deliberate intention being to avert the evil eye and insure good luck40 #aa ,the equivalent of #ajf feet square4 #ab ,see his work1 8,the ,holy ,carpet of the ,mosque at ,ardebil40 #ac ,ismael reigned1 #aejb-aebd2 ,tamasp reigned1 #aebd-aegf4 #ad #aehf-afbh4 #ae ,these will be considered in a later chapter4 #af ,this group includes both antique and modern rugs4 #ag ,robert ,kerr ,porter1 a well-known traveller1 stated that the floor of the audience hall of the governor at ,tabriz1 whom he visited in #ahah1 8was entirely overspread with ,herat carpets1 those of that manufacture being the richest that can be made40 #ah ,by 8,type ,characteristics0 is meant the characteristics of such types of the class as are most frequently seen4 ,there are exceptions to these types4 #ai ,as this is the case with most rugs1 only the exceptions to this feature will be noticed in the type characteristics of other classes4 #bj ,ibn ,batutah4 #ba ,of modern ,ispahans4 #bb 8,burlington ,magazine10 ,december1 #aiji4 #bc ,in 8,industrial ,arts of ,india40 #bd ,sidney ,churchill in the ,imperial ,vienna ,book says that 8the dyes of ,sultanabad have perhaps the most extensive colour scheme in ,persia40 #be 8,industrial ,arts of ,india40 #bf ,mrs4 ,elizabeth ,bishop in 8,journeys in ,persia and ,kurdistan40 #bg ,encyclopedia ,britannica4 #bh ,it is also to be noted that within the last few years large numbers of pieces bearing resemblance to old ,oriental rugs have been woven about ,constantinople4 #bi ,one of the most interesting is at ,sivas1 where are the remains of a most beautiful ,seljuk gateway1 with architectural lines that might well have been taken for a weaver's model4 ,as in many prayer rugs1 the engaged columns support a high arch over which a panel rests above a figured spandrel4 ,the outlines of each of these parts suggest most forcibly the drawing of the prayer rug1 and the resemblance is carried even further2 for corresponding with the border stripes is the chiselled masonry that once rested above the panel and still extends to the foot of the entrance at each side of the arch4 #cj ,one of these is represented in ,dr4 ,bode's 8,knupfteppiche10 where it appears as a secondary stripe4 #ca ,an intermediate pattern suggested by each is found in an old ,asia ,minor piece owned by ,dr4 ,bode4 #cb ,a4 ,bogolubow1 in his excellent work 8,tapis de l',asie ,centrale10 divides the ,transcaspian ,turkomans into two principal groups1 the ,salors and ,yomuds1 each of which includes sub-groups4 ,these are again divisible into many tribes1 almost all of whom weave4 ,as their rugs1 though resembling one another1 show different characteristics1 they might properly be separated into numerous classes2 but since only a few of them are known in this country1 they alone will be described4 #cc 8,desert of ,red ,sands40 #cd ,a tent in which an average of five people live4 #ce ,in 8,industrial ,arts of ,india40 #cf ,dr4 ,birdwood4 #cg ,sometimes ,sehna knot4 #ch ,sometimes one thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the other4 #ci ,rarely ,iran1 ,feraghan1 ,mosul1 and ,kurdistan4 #dj ,it is stated that in the short space of a few weeks he created valuable antique porcelains to present to his noble friends by placing recent copies of old specimens in a vessel containing very greasy soup1 where they were duly boiled for a month1 and after that placing them in the 8foulest drain of the neighbourhood10 where they remained until seasoned4 #da ,in 8,across ,coveted ,lands1 #aijc40 #db ,all references of an unimportant character are indicated by the page number only4 ,,index#db ,a ,abbas1 ,shah1 #hh1 #hi1 #afi1 #baa2 pattern named after1 #aje2 sent artisans to ,india1 #aaa2 rug industry declined after death of1 #aab4 ,abraham1 #bc1 #ca4 ,acacia used as a dye1 #dj1 #da4 ,accadians1 #bc4 ,adighies1 #bji4 ,afghan rugs1 #bic1 #cjd1 #cje2 geometric designs of1 #fb2 technicalities in weave of1 #ea1 #ec1 #ef1 #eg1 #bce4 ,rugs described1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bde2 border stripes1 #bea4 ,afghan tribes1 #ij4 ,afghanistan1 #da1 #ajc1 #bcc1 #bdc1 #bdd2 camel's wool of1 #hb4 ,afshar rugs1 #ajj1 #bhf2 technicalities in weave of1 #ea4 ,rugs described1 #aee4 ,aga ,mohammed ,khan pillaged ,kirman1 #aac4 ,agamemnon1 #aff4 ,agra1 #bee1 #beg4 ,agra rugs described1 #beg4 ,akbar1 ,shah1 #bh2 received assistance from ,shah ,abbas1 #bi2 established rug weaving at ,lahore1 #id2 imported ,persian weavers1 #bec2 carpet factory of1 #bef4 ,ak-,hissar1 #age4 ,ak-,hissar rugs1 #aja4 ,rugs described1 #age1 #agf4 ,ak-kal1 oasis of1 #bch4 ,albana1 #bjd4 ,alexander the ,great1 #afi1 #aha1 #bdf2 destroyed ,shiraz1 #aae2 built walls at ,derbend1 #bjd4 ,alhambra1 #be4 ,ali ,riza1 ,imam1 #aaj4 ,allahabad1 #beh4 ,allahabad rugs described1 #beh4 ,altai ,mts41 #bi2 original home of the ,turks1 #bf4 ,altman1 ,benjamin1 #he4 ,alum1 used as a mordant1 #dj1 #da4 ,amritsar1 #bee1 #beh4 ,amritsar rugs1 #aja1 #beg1 #cje4 ,rugs described1 #bee4 ,amu ,daria4 ,see ,oxus river4 ,anatolia1 #afc1 #ahb2 the 8,land of the ,rising ,sun10 #ahg4 ,anatolian rugs1 #aja1 #agf1 #aij1 #bhi1 #bij2 illustration of prayer arch of1 #fc4 ,rugs described1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi2 border stripes1 #aie4 ,angora1 #bg1 #ahe1 #ahg2 goat's wool1 #cb4 ,anilines4 ,see ,dyes4 ,animal carpets1 #hf1 #hg4 ,anjuman ,industrial ,art ,school1 #bei4 ,anoschar1 #gf4 ,anti-,taurus ,mts41 #adj1 #ahg1 #aij4 ,arabia1 #bd1 #bi1 #cb4 ,arabic features in rugs1 #he2 notation1 #bif2 symbolism in ,western ,kurdistan rugs1 #ada4 ,arabs1 in ,persia1 #ajc2 overran ,turkestan1 #bcd4 ,ararat1 ,mt41 #ajc1 #bai4 ,aras river1 #aea1 #aeg1 #bbd4 ,ardebil1 ,persian capital under ,ismael1 #bh2 mosque of1 #hb1 #abg4 ,ardebil carpet1 #ae2 described1 #hc1 #hd4 ,ardelan district1 #ajj1 #abi1 #acc1 #aec4 ,armenia1 #bji2 origin of some ,caucasian border stripes of1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,armenian rugs1 #ia1 #agj1 #bji1 #bbj2 designs derived from1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #bji1 #bad1 #bae4 ,rugs described1 #ia4 ,armenians in ,persia1 #ajc2 in ,mosul1 #ajc4 ,artaxerxes1 #ajc4 ,aryan races1 in ,india1 #bh2 in ,persia1 #ajc2 in ,caucasia1 #aig2 in ,turkestan1 #bcd2 floral ornamentation employed by1 #fb4 ,asburg used as a dye1 #da4 ,astrabad1 #bda4 ,astrakan1 market for ,bokharas1 #bce2 for caravans from ,khiva1 #bdj4 ,auctions1 #cjf4 ,ayyampet1 #bei4 ,azerbijan province1 #bf1 #ade1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aec4 ,b ,baber1 ,shah1 #bh4 ,babylon1 #bc1 #bd1 #gd1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,bagdad1 #ha1 #ach1 #aeb2 carpets covering the floors of1 #be2 captured by ,tartars1 #bg1 by ,solyman the ,magnificent1 #bh4 ,bajazet1 defeated by ,tamerlane1 #bg2 ,karaman subject to1 #ahh4 ,bakshis rugs described1 #adh4 ,baku1 #baj1 #bad4 ,baku rugs1 #aja1 #bib2 pear design in1 #gj1 #abi1 #aec1 #aih1 #bjb4 ,rugs described1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab2 border stripes1 #bbi4 ,bangalore1 #bei1 #bfa4 ,bangalore rugs1 #aja1 #bei4 ,rugs described1 #bfa4 ,barbarossa1 ,frederic1 #aha4 ,bardini1 ,stefano1 #he4 ,bastard teak used as a dye1 #ci4 ,bedouins1 #ajc4 ,belshazzar1 #bd4 ,beluches1 in ,kirman1 #aac2 untamed tribes of1 #bdh4 ,beluchistan1 #bcc4 ,beluchistan rugs1 #bje1 #bcd1 #bci1 #cja1 #cje2 technicalities in weave of1 #ec1 #ef1 #eg2 illustration of prayer arch of1 #fa2 geometric designs in1 #fb2 ,s design in1 #fd2 zigzag line in1 #ff2 reciprocal trefoil in1 #afj1 #bcj4 ,rugs described1 #bdh1 #bdi2 border stripes1 #bea4 ,beni-,hassan1 tombs of1 #gd4 ,bergamo rugs1 #aja1 #bhi1 #cje2 technicalities in weave of1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #eg2 illustration of prayer arch of1 #fc2 prevailing colour tone of1 #agh4 ,rugs described1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh2 border stripes1 #aic4 ,berlin gallery1 #ib4 ,beshire rugs1 #aja1 #bcc1 #bic2 illustration of prayer arch of1 #fa2 ,s design in1 #fe2 zigzag line in1 #ff4 ,rugs described1 #bdc2 border stripes1 #bea4 ,bibikabad1 town of1 #aed4 ,bibikabad rugs described1 #aee4 ,bijar1 #abi1 #acf4 ,bijar rugs1 #ajj1 #aec1 #bef1 #bhf1 #bhh1 #cjb1 #cje2 technicalities in weave of1 #ea1 #eb2 compared with ,persian-,kurdistans and ,mosuls1 #adc4 ,rugs described1 #acf1 #acg2 border stripes1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afj4 ,birbul's blue used as a dye1 #dj4 ,bird figures in rugs4 ,see ,designs4 ,birdwood1 ,sir ,george1 cited1 #fb1 #gj1 #id1 #abb1 #ach2 quoted1 #ei1 #bda1 #bec1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,birjand1 #ajh4 ,bishop1 ,mrs4 ,i4 ,b41 quoted1 #ach4 ,bode1 ,dr4 ,wm41 cited1 #gi1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,bogolubow1 ,a41 cited1 #bcc4 ,bhler1 ,j41 cited1 #gi4 ,bokhara1 #ajj1 #aaj1 #bde2 captured by ,genghis ,khan1 #bf2 the 8,noble10 #bcf4 ,bokhara rugs1 #ajj1 #bdc1 #cje2 goat's hair in1 #cb2 technicalities in weave of1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec4 ,bokhara1 ,princess1 rugs1 #aja1 #bcc1 #bce1 #bic2 illustration of prayer arch of1 #fa4 ,rugs described1 #bcg1 #bch2 border stripes1 #bej1 #bea4 ,bokhara1 ,royal1 rugs1 #aja1 #ajc1 #bcc1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bic1 #cjd2 compared with ,princess1 #bcg2 the arch compared with that of ,tekkes1 #bci4 ,rugs described1 #bce1 #bcf2 border stripes1 #bej1 #bea4 ,border stripes1 defined1 #ei2 ,persian1 described1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj2 ,asia ,minor1 described1 #aib1 #aic1 #aid1 #aie2 ,caucasian1 described1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bca2 ,central ,asiatic1 described1 #bej1 #bea2 ,chinese1 described1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bge4 ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 #id4 ,brahoes1 #bdh4 ,british ,museum1 #hb4 ,broussa1 #aha4 ,rugs described1 #aha4 ,buckthorns used as a dye1 #ci4 ,buddhism1 influence on ,asiatic art1 #af2 on symbolism1 #eh2 the lotus an emblem of1 #fi4 ,buddhist emblems1 #bga1 #bgd4 ,burujird1 #aca4 ,burujird rugs described1 #aca4 ,butea fondosa used as a dye1 #ci4 ,butti lac used as a dye1 #ci4 ,c ,csarea4 ,see ,kaisariyeh4 ,cacus valley1 #aff4 ,cairo1 ,caliphs in1 #be2 ,mecca rugs sold in1 #aah4 ,caliphate1 #bj1 #gf4 ,caliphs1 #bd1 #be1 #gg1 #ij1 #ia1 #aae2 prayer rugs in time of1 #he2 ,ispahan under1 #aaa2 ,kirman rugs in palaces of1 #aac2 ,tabriz rugs known in days of1 #ade4 ,caliph ,hisham1 carpet of1 #gf4 ,camel's hair4 ,see ,wool4 ,carduchis1 #adj4 ,caria4 ,see ,melez4 ,chaldees1 #bc2 symbolism derived from1 #ff4 ,chardin cited1 #aac4 ,charles ,martel1 #be4 ,chehel ,sutoon1 enormous carpet of1 #aab4 ,che-,hwang-te1 #bf4 ,chichi rugs1 #ajj1 #bij1 #bib2 illustration of prayer arch of1 #fa2 ,kazaks contrasted with1 #bbj4 ,rugs described1 #bjg1 #bjh2 border stripes1 #bbf1 #bca4 ,chinese fret1 #fg1 #afe2 influence1 #bic2 medallions1 #bgb1 #bgc4 ,chosroes ,i1 8,spring of ,chosroes0 carpet made for1 #gf4 ,chunam wool1 #bfa1 #cja4 ,churchill1 ,sidney1 ,a4 ,t41 quoted1 #aca4 ,cinnabar used as a dye1 #dj1 #da4 ,circassians4 ,see ,tcherkess4 ,clark1 ,sir ,purdon1 cited1 #aab4 ,clotilde ,clam-,gallas1 ,countess1 cited1 #hj4 ,coccus cacti used as a dye1 #ch4 ,coccus ilicus used as a dye1 #ch4 ,coccus lacca used as a dye1 #ch4 ,cochineal used as a dye1 #ch4 ,cochran1 ,wm4 ,alexander ,smith1 #hf4 ,coconada1 #bei4 ,colour1 the artistic value of1 #ah2 the symbolism of1 #ei1 #gb4 ,cone design4 ,see ,designs4 ,constantinople1 #bg1 #ih1 #ii1 #aah1 #aha1 #aig1 #bji2 ,persian weavers taken to1 #bh2 silk carpets sent to ,sultan of1 #hg4 ,conventions in art1 #af4 ,cordova1 #be4 ,cossacks1 #bah1 #bai4 ,cotton1 used in weaving #cj2 mercerized1 #cj4 ,cow's hair used in weaving1 #cj1 #cc4 ,crocus used as a dye1 #ci4 ,crsus1 #afc4 ,crown jewel design4 ,see ,designs4 ,ctesiphon1 #gf1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,cufic lettering1 in ,altman carpet1 #he2 in borders of ,asia ,minor and ,caucasian rugs1 #ib1 #aff1 #bjb1 #bbi2 reputed inventor of1 #ahc4 ,cupressus sempervirens used as a dye1 #da4 ,curcuma used as a dye1 #ch4 ,cyrus1 #bd1 #aae1 #aha2 ,turkestan overrun by1 #bcd4 ,d ,daghestan1 #aih1 #bjf1 #bad4 ,daghestan rugs1 #bje1 #bab1 #bac1 #baf1 #bij1 #bib1 #bic1 #cjd2 technicalities in weave of1 #ea1 #ed2 illustration of prayer arch of1 #fa2 effulgent stars in1 #ia2 ,cufic borders of1 #ib2 ,bergamo prayer arch compared with that of1 #afg2 weave of ,kabistans compared with that of1 #bja2 designs in1 #baa2 colour scheme of ,shirvans compared with that of1 #bad2 mosaic drawing of1 #bbj4 ,rugs described1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjj2 border stripes1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,daghestan1 ,royal1 #baf4 ,damascus1 #ag2 antique carpets of1 #ie2 ,mecca rugs sold in1 #aah4 ,dari1 #baa1 #beg4 ,darius1 #bae4 ,dekkan1 rugs woven in interior of1 #bei4 ,delhi1 #bh1 #aaj4 ,demirdji1 #afd1 #agf4 ,demirdji rugs described1 #agf4 ,deodorus1 #gd4 ,dera ,ghazi ,khan1 #bhj2 ,kilims1 #bha4 ,derbend1 #aii1 #bjd4 ,derbend rugs described1 #bjd1 #bje2 border stripes1 #bcj4 ,designs1 geometric1 #fb1 #fd1 #ahe2 floral1 #fb1 #fd1 #fh1 #ahe2 almond1 #gj2 animal1 #hi1 #hc1 #ia1 #aab1 #aad1 #abf1 #acg1 #afe1 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#bgi1 #bhj1 #bha4 ,king-te ,chin1 #cjj4 ,kirghiz1 steppes1 #bce2 tribes1 #bdj4 ,kirman1 #aac1 #aae1 #bjc1 #bjf1 #bdh2 wool of1 #ca2 carpets made during ,caliphate at1 #ij2 early weavers taken to ,asia ,minor from1 #aha4 ,kirman rugs1 #ajj1 #bhe1 #big1 #cjd2 technicalities in weave of1 #ej1 #ea1 #ec2 resemblance of ,kermanshahs to1 #ach2 flowers in ,tabriz rugs compared with those of1 #ade2 some old ,bergamos as valuable as1 #afg4 ,rugs described1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae2 border stripes1 #aeh4 ,kirmans1 ,turkish1 #agd4 ,kir-,shehr1 #ahe4 ,kir-,shehr rugs1 #aja1 #bhi1 #bij2 illustration of prayer arch of1 #fc2 prayer arches of ,bergamos compared with those of1 #afg2 prayer arches of ,ladiks compared with those of1 #ahc2 often called ,anatolian1 #ahg2 prayer arches of ,mudjars compared with those of1 #ahi2 prayer arches of ,tuzlas compared with those of1 #aij4 ,rugs described1 #ahe1 #ahf2 border stripes1 #aic4 ,kis-kilims1 #bhj4 ,kizil ,arvat1 #bda4 ,kizil ,irmak river1 #ahe1 #ahi4 ,kizil ,kum1 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