----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,,transcrib]',s ,,notes3                
99 ,transcription us$3                  
- italic texts 9 ! orig9al "w are       
repres5t$ "h betwe5        und]scores1 z
 9 text2                                
- boldface texts 9 ! orig9al "w are     
repres5t$ "h              betwe5 equal  
signs1 z 9 text2                        
- text pr9t$ 9 small capitals 9 !       
orig9al "w are               transcrib$ 
9 ,,all ,,capitals4                     
99 ,footnotes h be5 mov$ to directly "u 
! p>agraph !y        belong to4         
99 ,:]e a l9e ( text 0 miss+ f ! orig9al
 "w1 ?is is      indicat$ by 4444       
,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at !
 end ( ?is text4                        
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---------------------------             
,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,man4         
,,!   ,,_w ,,be=e ,,! ,,deluge4    ,,by 
,,l\is ,,figui]4     ,,newly ,,edit$ ,,&
 ,,revis$   ,,by   ,h4 ,w4 ,,bri/[1     

,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41    ,( !           
,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita92   
,hon4 ,fell[ ( ,k+'s   ,college1        
,london4     ,) #bce ,illu/rations4     
,,cassell1 ,,pett]1  ,,galp91           
,,london1 ,,p>is1 ,,& ,,new ,,york4     
,,cont5ts4                              
,,page    ,,g5]al ,,consid]ations       
#a     ,,consid]ation ,,( ,,fossils     
#d     ,,*emical ,,& ,,nebul> ,,hypo!ses
 ,,( ,,! ,,globe                #ae     
,,modifications ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s        
,,surface                        #bf    
,,eruptive ,,rocks                      
#cj     ,,plutonic ,,eruptions          
#ca         ,granite                    
#ca         ,sy5ite                     
#cd         ,protog9e                   
#ce         ,porphyry                   
#cg         ,s]p5t9e                    
#ch     ,,volcanic ,,rocks              
#ci         ,tra*ytic ,=mations         
#ci         ,basaltic ,=mations         
#dd         ,volcanic or ,lava ,=mations
                             #ea        

,,metamorphic ,,rocks                   
#ga         ,g5]al ,metamorphism        
#gd   ,,! ,,beg9n+                      
#hj   ,,prim>y ,,epo*                   
#ii     ,,cambrian ,,p]iod              
#aja     ,,silurian ,,p]iod             
#ajb         ,l[] ,silurian ,p]iod      
#ajd         ,upp] ,silurian ,p]iod     
#aaj     ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one ,,&        
,,devonian ,,p]iod                      
#aai     ,,c>bonif]\s ,,p]iod           
#acj         ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one      
#adj         ,coal ,measures            
#aej         ,=mation ( ,coal           
#aei     ,,p]mian ,,p]iod               
#agj         ,p]mian ,rocks             
#agg   ,,second>y ,,epo*                
#ahe     ,,triassic1 ,,or ,,new ,,r$    
,,p]iod                                 
#ahe         ,new ,r$ ,s&/one           
#ahg         ,mus*elkalk                
#ahh         ,keup] ,p]iod              
#aii     ,,rh,,tic 7,,p5>?7 ,,p]iod     
#bjg       ,,jurassic ,,p]iod           
#baa         ,liassic ,p]iod            

#baa         ,oolitic ,sub-,p]iod       
#bdc         ,l[] ,oolite ,fauna        
#bdd         ----   ----  ,rocks        
#bdi        ,middle ,oolite             
#bee        ,upp] ,oolite               
#bfe     ,,cretace\s ,,p]iod            
#bge         ,l[] ,cretace\s ,p]iod     
#bhf         ,upp] ,cretace\s ,p]iod    
#cjj   ,,t]ti>y ,,epo*                  
#cab         ,eoc5e ,p]iod              
#cae         ,mioc5e ,p]iod             
#ccf         ,plioc5e ,p]iod            
#ceg   ,,quat]n>y ,,epo*                
#cgh     ,,po/-,,plioc5e                
#cgh     ,,european ,,deluges           
#dbb     ,,glacial ,,p]iod              
#dce     ,,creation ,,( ,,man           
#dfd     ,,asiatic ,,deluge             
#dhj   ,,epilogue                       
#dhi   ,,table ,,& ,,diagram ,,(        
,,briti% ,,s$im5t>y ,,& ,,fossilif]\s   
,,/rata                                 
#dic     ,,full-,,page ,,illu/rations4  
,,frontispiece--,,! ,,fir/ ,,man4       
,,page        ,i4 ,de ,sancy ,peak1     

,mont ,dore                             
#db       ,,ii4 ,basaltic ,m\nta9 ( ,la 
,c\pe d',ayzac                 #df      
,,iii4 ,ext9ct ,volcanoes ( ,le ,puy    
#eb       ,,iv4 ,mud ,volcano ( ,turbaco
                                #fb     
,v4 ,great ,geys] ( ,icel&              
#ff       ,,vi4 ,! ,e>? 9 a gase\s /ate 
circulat+ 9 space     #hb      ,,vii4   
,cond5sation & ra9fall                  
#id     ,,viii4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( !     
,silurian ,p]iod               #ajd     
,,ix4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,devonian     
,p]iod               #aba        ,x4    
,ideal view ( m>9e life 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s 
,p]iod                                  
#adg       ,,xi4 ,ideal view ( a m>%y   
=e/ 9 ! ,coal ,p]iod     #aef           
,,xii4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,p]mian      
,p]iod                #agb     ,,xiii4  
,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,mus*elkalk ,p]iod  
#aia      ,,xiv4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( !    
,salif]\s or ,keup] ,p]iod   #aih       
,,xv4 ,ideal ,sc5e ( ! ,lias ,p]iod )   
,i*?yosaurus           & ,plesiosaurus  

#bca      ,,xvi4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( !    
,liassic ,p]iod                #bda     
,,xvii4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,l[] ,oolite
 ,p]iod           #bed    ,,xviii4      
,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,middle ,oolite     
,p]iod          #beh      ,,xix4        
,apiocr9ites rotundus & ,encr9us        
lilii=mis       #bfa       ,,xx4 ,ideal 
,l&scape ( ! ,upp] ,oolite ,p]iod       
#bfg      ,,xxi4 ,ideal ,sc5e ( ! ,l[]  
,cretace\s ,p]iod           #bif        
,,xxii4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,cretace\s  
,p]iod             #cjg    ,,xxiii4     
,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,eoc5e ,p]iod       
#cbh     ,,xxiv4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( !    
,mioc5e ,p]iod                #ceb      
,,xxv4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,plioc5e     
,p]iod               #cge     ,,xxvi4   
,skeleton ( ! ,mammo? 9 ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg
           ,museum                      
#cid    ,,xxvii4 ,skeleton ( ,mega!rium 
#djc   ,,xxviii4 ,ideal ,view ( !       
,quat]n>y ,epo*--,europe           #daf 
,,xxix4 ,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,quat]n>y   
,epo*--,am]ica     #dai      ,,xxx4     

,deluge ( ! ,nor? ( ,europe             
#dbe     ,,xxxi4 ,glaci]s ( ,switz]l&   
#dde    ,,xxxii4 ,appe>ance ( ,man      
#dfh   ,,xxxiii4 ,asiatic ,deluge       
#dhc   ,,diagram ,,at ,,end--,ideal     
,section ( ! ,e>?'s ,cru/1 %[+ !        
ord] ( sup]position or *ronological     
succession (           ! pr9cipal gr\ps 
( /rata4     ,,preface4   ,! object (   
8,! ,_w be=e ! ,deluge0 is to trace !   
progressive /eps by :i* ! e>? has rea*$ 
its pres5t /ate1 f t condition ( *aos :5
 x 80 )\t =m & void1 & d>kness 0 ^u !   
face ( ! deep10 & to describe ! v>i\s   
convulsions & trans=mations ?r\gh :i* x 
has successively pass$4 ,9 ! words ( !  
poet--      8,:]e rolls ! deep1 !re grew
 ! tree2        ,o ,e>?1 :at *anges ha/ 
?\ se56        ,!re1 :]e ! long /reet   
ro>s1 ha? be5      ,! sil5ce ( ! c5tral 
sea40  ,x has be5 ?\ght desirable t !   
pres5t edition ( ! "w %\ld und]go a     
?or\gh revision by a practical geologi/1
 a task :i* ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bri/[ has     
p]=m$4 ,mr4 ,bri/[ has h[ev] conf9$     

himself to su* alt]ations z 7 necess>y  
to secure accuracy 9 ! /atem5t ( facts1 
& su* additions z 7 necess>y to repres5t
 m precisely ! exi/+ /ate ( sci5tific   
op9ion4 ,_m po9ts :i* are m or less     
inf]5tial & !re=e matt]s ( individual   
op9ion1 & especially ^? on :i* ,m4      
,figui] bases 8 speculations1 h be5 left
 9 _! orig9al =m1 9 pref]5ce to mak+    
modifications :i* w\ld :olly *ange ! "* 
( ! book4 ,9 a "w ^: purpose is to give 
! g5]al read] a summ>is$ acc\nt ( !     
results at :i* sci5ce has arriv$1 & ( ! 
me?od ( reason+ reg>d+ ! facts on :i* ^!
 g5]alisations re/1 x w\ld be out (     
place1 z well z ineffective1 to obscure 
g5]al /atem5ts ) ^? limitations :i*     
caution imposes on ! sci5tific          
inve/igator4  ,9 ! orig9al "w ! ,au?or  
_h naturally en\gh drawn mo/ ( 8 facts f
 ,fr5* localities2 9 ! translation ^!   
are mo/ly pres]v$1 b o!rs drawn f       
,briti% ,geology h be5 add$1 ei!r f !   
translator's own k1 or f ! works (      
well-kn[n ,briti% writ]s4 ,x 0 consid]$ 

desirable1 = simil> reasons1 to enl>ge  
^u ! op9ions ( ,briti% geologi/s1 to :om
 ! ,fr5* "w sc>cely does ju/ice1        
consid]+ ! ext5t to :i* ! sci5ce is     
indebt$ to !m = its elucidation4  ,9 !  
orig9al "w ! *apt] on ,eruptive ,rocks  
comes at ! end ( ! "w1 b1 z ! "w        
proce$$1 s _m unexpla9$ allusions to t  
*apt] 7 f\nd t x seem$ m logical1 & m 9 
accordance ) *ronological ord]1 if !    
expression may be us$1 to place t *apt] 
at ! beg9n+4  ,a new edition ( ! ,fr5*  
"w hav+ appe>$ 9 ! e>ly "p ( #ahff1 to  
:i* ! ,au?or contribut$ a *apt] on      
,metamorphic ,rocks1 a translation ( x  
is app5d$ to ! *apt] on ,eruptive       
,rocks4  ,a *apt] on ! ,rhtic 7or ,p5>?7
 b$s has be5 ins]t$ 7among/ mu* o!r     
orig9al matt]71 ! /ratigraphical        
importance ( t s]ies hav+ be5 recognis$ 
s9ce ! publication ( ! ,fir/ ,edition4  
,9 ! pres5t ,edition ! text has be5 aga9
 ?or\ghly revis$ by ,mr4 ,bri/[1 & _m   
important additions made1 ! result ( !  
rec5t inve/igations ( himself & 8       

colleagues ( ! ,geological ,survey4     
,,!   ,,_w ,,be=e ,,! ,,deluge4         
,,g5]al ,,consid]ations4   ,! obs]v] :o 
glances ov] a ri* & f]tile pla91 wat]$  
by riv]s & /reams :i* h1 dur+ a long    
s]ies ( ages1 pursu$ ! same uni=m &     
tranquil c\rse2 ! travell] :o           
contemplates ! walls & monum5ts ( a     
great city1 ! fir/ f\nd+ ( :i* is lo/ 9 
! night ( ages1 te/ify+1 app>5tly1 to ! 
un*angeabl5ess ( ?+s & places2 !        
naturali/ :o exam9es a m\nta9 or o!r    
locality1 & f9ds ! hills & valleys & o!r
 accid5ts ( ! soil 9 ! v spot &         
condition 9 :i* !y are describ$ by      
hi/ory & tradition--none ( ^! obs]v]s   
w\ld at fir/ suspect t any s]i\s *ange  
_h ev] occurr$ to di/urb ! surface ( !  
globe4 ,nev]!less1 ! e>? has n always   
pres5t$ ! calm aspect ( /ability :i* x  
n[ exhibits2 x has _h its convulsions1 &
 its physical revolutions1 ^: /ory we   
are ab\t to trace4 ,! e>?1 l ! body ( an
 animal1 is wa/$1 z ! philosophical     
,hutton tells u1 at ! same "t t x is    

repair$4 ,x has a /ate ( gr[? &         
augm5tation2 x has ano!r /ate1 :i* is t 
( dim9ution & decay3 x is de/roy$ 9 "o  
"p to be r5ew$ 9 ano!r2 & ! op]ations by
 :i* ! r5ewal is accompli%$ are z evid5t
 to ! sci5tific eye z ^? by :i* x is    
de/roy$4 ,a ?\s& causes1 aque\s1 igne\s1
 & atmosph]ic1 are cont9ually at "w     
modify+ ! ext]nal =m ( ! e>?1 we>+ d[n !
 old] portions ( its surface1 &         
recon/ruct+ new] out ( ! old]2 s t 9 _m 
p>ts ( ! _w d5udation has tak5 place to 
! ext5t ( _m ?\s& feet4 ,buri$ 9 ! dep?s
 ( ! soil1 = example1 9 "o ( ^? va/     
excavations :i* ! intrepidity ( ! m9]   
has dug 9 se>* ( coal or o!r m9]als1 !re
 are num]\s ph5om5a :i* /rike ! m9d ( ! 
inquir]1 & c>ry _! own conclusions ) !m4
 ,a /rik+ increase ( temp]ature 9 ^!    
subt]ranean places is "o ( ! mo/        
rem>kable ( ^!4 ,x is f\nd t !          
temp]ature ( ! e>? rises "o degree = e  
sixty or sev5ty feet ( desc5t f its     
surface4 ,aga93 if ! m9e be exam9$      
v]tically1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( a s]ies

 ( lay]s or b$s1 sometimes horizontal1 b
 m frequ5tly incl9$1 upright1 or        
contort$ & undulat+--ev5 fold$ back ^u  
!mselves4 ,!n1 in/ances are num]\s :]e  
horizontal & p>allel b$s h be5 p5etrat$1
 & trav]s$ v]tically or obliquely by    
ve9s ( ores or m9]als totally diff]5t 9 
_! appe>ance & nature f ! surr\nd+      
rocks4 ,all ^! undulations & v>y+       
incl9ations ( /rata are indications t "s
 p[]ful cause1 "s viol5t me*anical      
action1 has int]v5$ to produce !m4      
,f9ally1 if ! int]ior ( ! b$s be exam9$ 
m m9utely--if1 arm$ ) ! m9]'s pick &    
hamm]1 ! rock is c>efully brok5 up--x is
 n impossible t ! v fir/ ef=ts at m9+   
may be rew>d$ by ! discov]y ( "s        
fossilis$ organic =m no long] f\nd 9 !  
liv+ /ate4 ,! rema9s ( plants & animals 
belong+ to ! e>li] ages ( ! _w1 are1 9  
fact1 v common2 entire /rata are        
sometimes =m$ ( !m2 & 9 "s localities ! 
rocks c sc>cely be di/urb$ )\t yield+   
fragm5ts ( bones & %ells1 or !          
impressions ( fossilis$ animals &       

vegetables--! buri$ rema9s ( ext9ct     
creations4  ,^! bones--^! rema9s (      
animals or vegetables :i* ! hamm] ( !   
geologi/ has torn f ! rock--belong      
possibly to "s organism :i* no long] any
 :]e exi/s3 x may n be id5tical ) any   
animal or plant liv+ 9 our times3 b x is
 evid5t t ^! be+s1 ^: rema9s are n[ s   
deeply buri$1 h n always be5 s cov]$2 !y
 once liv$ on ! surface ( ! e>? z plants
 & animals d 9 our days1 = _!           
organisation is ess5tially ! same4 ,!   
b$s 9 :i* !y n[ repose mu/1 !n1 9 old]  
times h =m$ ! surface ( ! e>?2 & !      
pres5ce ( ^! fossils proves t ! e>? has 
suff]$ great mutations at "s =m] p]iod (
 its hi/ory4  ,geology expla9s to u !   
v>i\s trans=mations :i* ! e>? has pass$ 
?r\gh be=e x arriv$ at its pres5t       
condition4 ,we c det]m9e1 ) its help1 ! 
comp>ative epo* to :i* any b$s belong1 z
 well z ! ord] 9 :i* o!rs h be5         
sup]impos$ ^u !m4 ,consid]+ t !         
/ratigraphical cru/ ( ! e>? ) :i* !     
geologi/ has to deal may be "s t5 miles 

?ick1 & t x has be5 deposit$ 9 di/9ct   
lay]s 9 a def9ite ord] ( succession1 !  
dates or epo*s ( ea* =mation may well be
 approa*$ ) hesitation & caution4  ,dr4 
,hutton1 ! e>lie/ ( our philosophical   
geologi/s1 eloqu5tly obs]ves1 9 8 8,!ory
 ( ! ,e>?10 t ! solid e>? is ev]y:]e    
wa/$ at ! surface4 ,! summits ( !       
m\nta9s are necess>ily degrad$4 ,! solid
 & weighty mat]ials ( ^! m\nta9s h      
ev]y:]e be5 c>ri$ ?r\gh ! valleys by !  
=ce ( runn+ wat]4 ,! soil :i* is produc$
 9 ! de/ruction ( ! solid e>? is        
gradually transport$ by ! mov+ wat]s1 & 
is z con/antly supply+ vegetation ) its 
necess>y aid4 ,?is drift$ soil is at la/
 deposit$ ^u "s coa/1 :]e x =ms a f]tile
 c\ntry4 ,b ! bill[s ( ! ocean aga9     
agitate ! loose mat]ial ^u ! %ore1 we>+ 
away ! coa/ ) endless repetitions ( ?is 
act ( p[] & imp>t$ =ce2 ! solid portion 
( our e>?1 ?us sapp$ to its f\ndations1 
is c>ri$ away into ! deep & sunk aga9 at
 ! bottom ( ! sea :5ce x _h orig9at$1 & 
f :i* soon] or lat] x w aga9 make its   

appe>ance4 ,we are ?us l$ to see a      
circulation ( de/ruction & r5ewal 9 !   
matt] ( :i* ! globe is =m$1 & a sy/em ( 
beautiful economy 9 ! works ( ,nature4  
,aga91 discrim9at+ betwe5 ! ord9>y &    
sci5tific obs]v]1 ! same writ] rem>ks1 t
 x is n giv5 to common obs]vation to see
 ! op]ation ( physical causes4 ,! %eph]d
 ?9ks ! m\nta9 on :i* he fe$s 8 flock   
has always be5 !re4 ,! inhabitant ( !   
valley cultivates ! soil z 8 fa!rs did  
be=e him1 & ?9ks ! soil coeval ) !      
valley or ! m\nta94 ,b ! sci5tific      
obs]v] looks into ! *a9 ( physical      
ev5ts1 sees ! great *anges t h be5 made1
 & =esees o!rs t mu/ foll[ f ! cont9u$  
op]ation ( l natural causes4 ,=1 z      
,py?agoras taught #b1cej ye>s ago1 8!   
m9]als & ! rocks1 ! isl&s & ! cont95ts1 
! riv]s & ! seas1 & all organic ,nature1
 are p]petually *ang+2 !re is no?+      
/ation>y on e>?40 ,to note ^! *anges--to
 deciph] ! records ( ?is sy/em ( wa/e & 
recon/ruction1 to trace ! physical      
hi/ory ( ! e>?--is ! prov9ce (          

,,geology1 :i*1 ! late/ ( all mod]n     
sci5ces1 is t :i* has be5 modifi$ mo/   
pr(\ndly & mo/ rapidly4 ,9 %ort1 re/+ z 
x does on obs]vation1 x has be5 modifi$ 
& trans=m$ accord+ to e s]ies ( facts   
record$2 b :ile _m ( ! facts ( geology  
admit ( easy & obvi\s demon/ration1 x is
 f> o!rwise ) ! inf]5ces :i* h be5 bas$ 
^u !m1 :i* are mo/ly hypo!tical1 & 9 _m 
in/ances f _! v nature incapable ( pro(4
 ,its applications are num]\s & v>i$1   
project+ new & useful lights ^u _m o!r  
sci5ces4 ,"h we ask ( x ! tea*+s :i*    
s]ve to expla9 ! orig9 ( ! globe--!     
evid5ce x furni%es ( ! progressive      
=mation ( ! diff]5t rocks & m9]al masses
 ( :i* ! e>? is compos$--! description &
 re/oration ( ! sev]al species ( animals
 & vegetables :i* h exi/$1 h di$ &      
become ext9ct1 & :i* =m1 9 ! language ( 
naturali/s1 ! ,fauna & ,flora ( ! anci5t
 _w4         99       99       99       
99       99  ,9 ord] to expla9 ! orig9 (
 ! e>?1 & ! cause ( its v>i\s           
revolutions1 mod]n geologi/s invoke ?ree

 ord]s ( facts1 or fundam5tal           
consid]ations3      ,i4 ,! hypo!sis ( ! 
orig9al inc&esc5ce ( ! globe4      ,,ii4
 ,! consid]ation ( fossils4      ,,iii4 
,! successive deposition ( ! s$im5t>y   
rocks4  ,z a coroll>y to ^!1 ! hypo!sis 
( ! upheaval ( ! e>?'s cru/             
foll[s--upheavals hav+ produc$ local    
revolutions4 ,! result ( ^! upheavals   
has be5 to sup]impose new mat]ials ^u ! 
old] rocks1 introduc+ extrane\s rocks   
call$ ,eruptive1 b5ea?1 ^u1 & among/    
prec$+ deposits1 9 su* a mann] z to     
*ange _! nature 9 div]s ways4 ,:5ce is  
d]iv$ a ?ird class ( rocks call$        
,metamorphic or alt]$ rocks1 our k ( :i*
 is ( comp>atively rec5t date4          
,,fossils4  ,! "n ( ,fossil 7f fossilis1
 dug up7 is giv5 to all organis$ bodies1
 animal or vegetable1 buri$ naturally 9 
! t]re/rial /rata1 & m or less petrifi$1
 t is1 conv]t$ into /one4 ,fossils ( !  
old] =mations are rema9s ( organisms    
:i*1 s f> z species is conc]n$1 are q   
ext9ct2 & only ^? ( rec5t =mations      

belong to g5]a liv+ 9 our days4 ,^!     
fossil rema9s h nei!r ! beauty nor !    
elegance ( mo/ liv+ species1 be+        
mutilat$1 discol\r$1 & (t5 almo/        
%apeless2 !y are1 !re=e1 int]e/+ only 9 
! eyes ( ! obs]v] :o w\ld int]rogate !m1
 & :o seeks to recon/ruct1 ) _!         
assi/ance1 ! ,fauna & ,flora ( pa/ ages4
 ,nev]!less1 ! light !y ?r[ ^u ! pa/    
hi/ory ( ! e>? is ( ! mo/ satisfactory  
description1 & ! sci5ce ( fossils1 or   
palontology1 is n[ an important bran* ( 
geological inquiry4 ,fossil %ells1 9 ! m
 rec5t deposits1 are f\nd sc>cely alt]$2
 9 "s cases only an impression ( !      
ext]nal =m is left--sometimes an entire 
ca/ ( ! %ell1 ext]ior & int]ior4 ,9 o!r 
cases ! %ell has left a p]fect          
impression ( its =m 9 ! surr\nd+ mud1 & 
has !n be5 dissolv$ & wa%$ away1 leav+  
only its m\ld4 ,?is m\ld1 aga91 has     
sometimes be5 fill$ up by calc>e\s sp>1 
silica1 or pyrites1 & an exact ca/ ( !  
orig9al %ell has ?us be5 obta9$4        
,petrifi$ wood is also ( v common       

occurr5ce4  ,^! rema9s ( an e>li]       
creation _h long be5 kn[n to ! curi\s1 &
 class$ z freaks ( ,nature1 = s we f9d  
!m describ$ 9 ! works ( ! anci5t        
philosoph]s :o wrote on natural hi/ory1 
& 9 ! few treatises on ! subject :i* !  
,middle ,ages h bequea!d to u4 ,fossil  
bones1 especially ^? ( elephants1 7 kn[n
 to ! anci5ts1 giv+ rise to all sorts ( 
leg5ds & fabul\s hi/ories3 ! tradition  
:i* attribut$ to ,a*illes1 to ,ajax1 &  
to o!r h]oes ( ! ,trojan w>1 a height ( 
tw5ty feet1 is attributable1 no d\bt1 to
 ! discov]y ( ! bones ( elephants ne> _!
 tombs4 ,9 ! "t ( ,p]icles we are assur$
 t 9 ! tomb ( ,ajax a patella1 or       
knee-bone ( t h]o1 0 f\nd1 :i* 0 z l>ge 
z a d9n]-plate4 ,?is 0 probably only !  
patella ( a fossil elephant4  ,! uses to
 :i* fossils are appli$ by ! geologi/   
are--,fir/1 to asc]ta9 ! relative age ( 
! =mations 9 :i* !y occur2 secondly1 !  
conditions "u :i* ^! 7 deposit$4 ,! age 
( ! =mation is det]m9$ by a comp>ison ( 
! fossils x conta9s ) o!rs ( asc]ta9$   

date2 ! conditions "u :i* ! rocks 7     
deposit$1 :e!r m>9e1 lacu/r9e1 or       
t]re/rial1 are readily inf]r$ f ! nature
 ( ! fossils4 ,! great arti/1 ,leon>do  
da ,v9ci1 0 ! fir/ to compreh5d ! real  
mean+ ( fossils1 & ,b]n>d ,palissy _h ! 
glory ( be+ ! fir/ mod]n writ] to       
proclaim ! true "* ( ! fossilis$ rema9s 
:i* are met )1 9 su* numb]s1 9 c]ta9    
=mations1 bo? 9 ,france & ,italy1       
p>ticul>ly 9 ^? ( ,t\ra9e1 :]e !y _h    
come m especially "u 8 notice4 ,9 8 "w  
on 8,wat]s & ,f\nta9s10 publi%$ 9 #aehj1
 he ma9ta9s t ! figur$ /ones1 z fossils 
7 !n call$1 7 ! rema9s ( organis$ be+s  
pres]v$ at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,b !       
exi/5ce ( m>9e %ells ^u ! summits (     
m\nta9s _h already arre/$ ! att5tion (  
anci5t au?ors4 ,witness ,ovid1 :o 9     
,book ,,xv4 ( ! 8,metamorphoses0 tells u
 he _h se5 l& =m$ at ! exp5se ( ! sea1 &
 m>9e %ells ly+ dead f> f ! ocean2 & m  
?an t1 an anci5t an*or _h be5 f\nd on ! 
v summit ( a m\nta94              8,vidi
 factas ex quore t]ras1     ,et procul a

 pelago con* jacu]e m>91     ,et vetus  
inv5ta e/ 9 montibus an*ora summis40    
,ov41 ,met41 ,book xv4  ,! ,dani%       
geologi/ ,/5o1 :o publi%$ 8 pr9cipal    
works 9 ,italy ab\t ! middle ( !        
sev5te5? c5tury1 _h deeply /udi$ !      
fossil %ells discov]$ 9 t c\ntry4 ,!    
,italian pa9t] ,scilla produc$ 9 #afgj a
 ,lat9 treatise on ! fossils (          
,calabria1 9 :i* he e/abli%$ ! organic  
nature ( fossil %ells4  ,! eighte5?     
c5tury gave bir? to two v opposite      
!ories z to ! orig9 ( our globe--namely1
 ! ,plutonian or igne\s1 & ! ,neptunian 
or aque\s !ory4 ,! ,italian geologi/s   
gave a m>k$ impulse to ! /udy ( fossils1
 & ! "n ( ,vallisn]i#a may be cit$ z !  
au?or to :om sci5ce is indebt$ = !      
e>lie/ acc\nt ( ! m>9e deposits (       
,italy1 & ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic organic    
rema9s :i* !y conta94 ,lazz>o ,moro#b   
cont9u$ ! /udies ( ,vallisn]i1 & ! monk 
,gem]elli r$uc$ to a complete sy/em !   
ideas ( ^! two geologi/s1 endeav\r+ to  
expla9 all ! ph5om5a z ,vallisn]i _h    

wi%$1 8)\t viol5ce1 )\t fiction1 )\t    
miracles40 ,m>selli & ,donati bo? /udi$ 
9 a v sci5tific mann] ! fossil %ells (  
,italy1 & 9 p>ticul> ^? ( ! ,adriatic1  
recognis+ ! fact t !y affect$ 9 _! b$s a
 regul> & con/ant ord] ( sup]position4#c
    #a ,dei corpi m>9i1 c41 #agba4    #b
 ,sui cro/accei ed altri corpi m>9i *e s
 trovano sui monti1       #agdj4    #c  
,consult ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples (         
,geology0 & ! six? edition (       !    
8,elem5ts10 ) mu* new matt]1 = fur!r    
in=mation       relative to ! /udy (    
fossils dur+ ! la/ two c5turies4  ,9    
,france ! celebrat$ ,buffon gave1 by 8  
eloqu5t writ+s1 great popul>ity to !    
notions ( ! ,italian naturali/s conc]n+ 
! orig9 ( fossil rema9s4 ,9 8 admirable 
8poques de la ,nature0 he s\ght to prove
 t ! %ells f\nd 9 great quantities buri$
 9 ! soil1 & ev5 on ! tops ( m\nta9s1   
belong$1 9 reality1 to species n liv+ 9 
our days4 ,b ?is idea 0 too novel n to  
f9d objectors3 x c\nt$ among its        
adv]s>ies ! bold philosoph] :o might h  

be5 expect$ to adopt x ) mo/ ard\r4     
,voltaire attack$1 ) 8 je/+ & bit+      
criticism1 ! doctr9es ( ! illu/ri\s     
innovator4 ,buffon insi/$1 reasonably   
en\gh1 t ! pres5ce ( %ells on ! summit (
 ! ,alps 0 a pro( t ! sea _h at "o "t   
occupi$ t position4 ,b ,voltaire ass]t$ 
t ! %ells f\nd on ! ,alps & ,ap5n9es _h 
be5 ?r[n !re by pilgrims return+ f      
,rome4 ,buffon might h repli$ to 8      
oppon5t1 by po9t+ out :ole m\nta9s =m$  
by ! accumulation ( ^! %ells4 ,he might 
h s5t him to ! ,pyr5ees1 :]e %ells (    
m>9e orig9 cov] imm5se areas to a height
 ( #f1fjj feet above ! pres5t sea-level4
 ,b 8 g5ius 0 av]se to controv]sy2 & !  
philosoph] ( ,f]ney himself put an end  
to a discussion 9 :i*1 p]haps1 he w\ld n
 h _h ! be/ ( ! argum5t4 8,i h no wi%10 
he wrote1 8to embroil myself ) ,monsieur
 ,buffon ab\t %ells40  ,x 0 res]v$ = !  
g5ius ( ,george ,cuvi] to draw f ! /udy 
( fossils ! mo/ wond]ful results3 x is !
 /udy ( ^! rema9s1 9 %ort1 :i*1 9       
conjunction ) m9]alogy1 con/itutes 9 ^! 

days positive geology4 8,x is to        
fossils10 says ! great ,cuvi]1 8t we owe
 ! discov]y ( ! true !ory ( ! e>?2 )\t  
!m we %\ld n h dream$1 p]haps1 t ! globe
 0 =m$ at successive epo*s1 & by a s]ies
 ( diff]5t op]ations4 ,!y alone1 9 %ort1
 tell u ) c]ta9ty t ! globe has n always
 _h ! same envelope2 we _c resi/ !      
conviction t !y mu/ h liv$ on ! surface 
( ! e>? be=e be+ buri$ 9 its dep?s4 ,x  
is only by analogy t we h ext5d$ to !   
prim>y =mations ! direct conclusions :i*
 fossils furni% u ) 9 respect to !      
second>y =mations2 & if we _h only      
unfossilif]\s rocks to exam9e1 no "o    
c\ld ma9ta9 t ! e>? 0 n =m$ all at      
once40#d    #d 8,ossem5ts ,fossiles0    
7#dto71 vol4 i41 p4 #bi4  ,! me?od      
adopt$ by ,cuvi] = ! recon/ruction &    
re/oration ( ! fossil animals f\nd 9 !  
pla/]-qu>ries ( ,montm>tre1 at ! gates (
 ,p>is1 has s]v$ z a model = all succe$+
 naturali/s2 let u li/51 !n1 to 8       
exposition ( ! va/ problem ^: solution  
he propos$ to himself4 8,9 my "w on     

fossil bones10 he says1 8,i propose to  
asc]ta9 to :at animals ! osse\s fragm5ts
 belong2 x is seek+ to trav]se a road on
 :i* we h z yet only v5tur$ a few /eps4 
,an antiqu>y ( a new k9d1 x seem$ to me 
necess>y to le>n bo? to re/ore ^!       
monum5ts ( pa/ revolutions1 & to deciph]
 _! mean+4 ,i _h to ga!r & br+ toge!r 9 
_! primitive ord] ! fragm5ts ( :i* !y   
are compos$2 to recon/ruct ! anci5t be+s
 to :i* ^! fragm5ts belong$2 to         
reproduce !m 9 _! proportions & ) _!    
*>act]i/ics2 to comp>e !m1 f9ally1 )    
o!rs n[ liv+ on ! surface ( ! globe3 an 
art at pres5t little kn[n1 & :i*        
supposes a sci5ce sc>cely t\*$ ^u z yet1
 namely1 t ( ! laws :i* preside ov] !   
co-exi/5ce ( ! =ms ( ! sev]al p>ts 9    
organis$ be+s4 ,i mu/1 !n1 prep>e myself
 = ^! rese>*es by o!rs1 /ill m ext5d$1  
^u exi/+ animals4 ,a g5]al review (     
actual creation c\ld alone give a "* (  
demon/ration to my acc\nt ( ^! anci5t   
inhabitants ( ! _w2 b x ought1 at ! same
 "t1 to give me a great collection (    

laws1 & ( relations n less demon/rable1 
?us =m+ a body ( new laws to :i* ! :ole 
animal k+dom c\ld n fail to f9d itself  
subject40#e    #e 8,ossem5ts ,fossiles0 
7#dto71 vol4 i41 pp4 #a1 #b4  8,:5 !    
sight ( a few bones inspir$ me1 m ?an   
tw5ty ye>s ago1 ) ! idea ( apply+ !     
g5]al laws ( comp>ative anatomy to !    
recon/ruction & det]m9ation ( fossil    
species2 :5 ,i began to p]ceive t ^!    
species 7 n q p]fectly repres5t$ by ^? (
 our days1 :i* resembl$ !m ! mo/--,i no 
long] d\bt$ t ,i trod ^u a soil fill$ ) 
spoils m extraord9>y ?an any ,i _h yet  
se51 & t ,i 0 de/9$ to br+ to light     
entire races unkn[n to ! pres5t _w1 &   
:i* _h be5 buri$ = incalculable ages at 
great dep?s 9 ! e>?4  8,i _h n yet giv5 
any att5tion to ! publi%$ notices ( ^!  
bones1 by naturali/s :o made no         
pret5sion to ! recognition ( _! species4
 ,to ,m4 ,vaur91 h[ev]1 ,i owe ! fir/   
intimation ( ! exi/5ce ( ^! bones1 ) :i*
 ! gypsum-qu>ries sw>m4 ,"s specim5s :i*
 he br\ght me "o day /ruck me )         

a/oni%m5t2 ,i le>n$1 ) all ! int]e/ !   
discov]y c\ld inspire me )1 t ?is       
indu/ri\s & zeal\s collector _h already 
furni%$ "s ( !m to o!r collectors4      
,receiv$ by ^! amateurs ) polit5ess1 ,i 
f\nd 9 _! collections mu* to confirm my 
hopes & height5 my curiosity4 ,f t "t ,i
 se>*$ 9 all ! qu>ries ) great c>e = o!r
 bones1 (f]+ su* rew>ds to ! workm5 z   
might awak5 _! att5tion4 ,i soon got    
toge!r m ?an _h ev] be5 previ\sly       
collect$1 & aft] a few ye>s ,i _h no?+  
to desire 9 ! %ape ( mat]ials4 ,b x 0   
o!rwise ) _! arrangem5t1 & ) !          
recon/ruction ( ! skeleton1 :i* c\ld    
alone lead to any j idea ( ! species4   
8,f ! fir/ mom5t ( discov]y ,i p]ceiv$  
t1 9 ^! rema9s1 ! species 7 num]\s4     
,soon aft]w>ds ,i saw t !y belong$ to _m
 g5]a1 & t ! species ( ! diff]5t g5]a 7 
ne>ly ! same size1 s t size 0 likely r  
to h9d] ?an aid me4 ,m9e 0 ! case ( a   
man to :om _h be5 giv5 at r&om !        
mutilat$ & imp]fect rema9s ( "s hundr$s 
( skeletons belong+ to tw5ty sorts (    

animals2 x 0 necess>y t ea* bone %\ld   
f9d itself alongside t to :i* x ought to
 be connect$3 x 0 almo/ l a small       
resurrection1 & ,i _h n at my disposal !
 all-p[]ful trumpet2 b ,i _h ! immutable
 laws prescrib$ to liv+ be+s z my guide2
 & at ! voice ( ! anatomi/ ea* bone &   
ea* "p ( a bone took its place4 ,i h n  
expressions ) :i* to describe ! pleasure
 ,i exp]i5c$ 9 f9d+ t1 z soon z ,i      
discov]$ ! "* ( a bone1 all !           
consequ5ces ( ! "*1 m or less =ese51    
develop$ !mselves 9 succession3 ! feet 7
 f\nd con=mable to :at ! tee? ann\nc$2 !
 tee? to t ann\nc$ by ! feet2 ! bones ( 
! legs1 ( ! ?ighs1 all ^? :i* ought to  
reunite ^! two extreme p>ts1 7 f\nd to  
agree z ,i expect$2 9 a ^w1 ea* species 
0 reproduc$1 s to speak1 f only "o ( its
 elem5ts40#f    #f 8,ossem5ts           
,fossiles10 vol4 iv4 7#dto71 p4 #cb4    
,:ile ! ,b>on ,cuvi] 0 ?us zeal\sly     
prosecut+ 8 inquiries 9 ,france1 assi/$ 
by _m em95t fell[-lab\r]s1 :at 0 ! /ate 
( geological sci5ce 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s8 

,ab\t t same "t1 ,dr4 ,william ,smi?1   
bett] kn[n z 8! fa!r ( ,engli% geology10
 0 prep>+1 unaid$1 ! fir/ geological map
 ( ?is c\ntry4 ,dr4 ,smi? 0 a native (  
,wilt%ire1 & a canal eng9e] 9           
,som]set%ire2 8 pursuits1 !re=e1 br\ght 
him 9 ! mid/ ( ^! hi]oglyphics (        
,nature4 ,x 0 8 practice1 :5 travell+   
pr(essionally1 dur+ _m ye>s to consult  
masons1 m9]s1 wagon]s1 & agriculturi/s4 
,he exam9$ ! soil2 & 9 ! c\rse ( 8      
inquiries he came to ! conclusion t !   
e>? 0 n all ( ! same age2 t ! rocks 7   
arrang$ 9 lay]s1 or /rata1 sup]impos$ on
 ea* o!r 9 a c]ta9 def9ite ord]1 & t !  
/rata1 :5 ( ! same age1 c\ld be id5tifi$
 by means ( _! organic rema9s4 ,9 #agid 
he =m$ ! plan ( 8 geological map1 %[+ ! 
sup]position ( ! v>i\s b$s2 = a qu>t] ( 
a c5tury did he pursue 8 self-allott$   
task1 :i* 0 at la/ complet$1 & 9 #ahja 0
 publi%$1 be+ ! fir/ attempt to con/ruct
 a /ratigraphical map4  ,tak+ ! m5 9 !  
ord] ( ! objects ( _! inve/igation1 r   
?an 9 *ronological ord]1 br+s be=e u !  

pati5t & sagaci\s inve/igator to :om we 
are indebt$ = our k ( ! ,silurian sy/em4
 ,= _m ye>s a va/ assemblage ( brok5 &  
contort$ b$s _h be5 obs]v$ on ! bord]s (
 ,nor? ,wales1 /ret*+ away to ! ea/ z f>
 z ,worce/]%ire1 & to ! s\? into        
,gl\ce/]1 n[ ris+ into m\nta9s1 n[ s9k+ 
into valleys4 ,! able/ geologi/s        
consid]$ !m z a m]e labyr9? ( ru9s1 ^:  
ord] ( succession & di/9ctive organic   
rema9s 7 entirely unkn[n1 8,b a man     
came10 z ,m4 ,esquiros eloqu5tly writes1
 8:o ?rew light ^u ?is sublime confusion
 ( elem5ts40 ,sir ,rod]ick ,impey       
,mur*ison1 !n a "y ,presid5t ( !        
,geological ,society1 _h 8 att5tion     
direct$1 z he himself in=ms u1 to "s (  
^! b$s on ! banks ( ! ,wye4 ,aft] sev5  
ye>s ( unremitt+ lab\r1 he 0 rew>d$ by  
success4 ,he e/abli%$ ! fact t ^!       
s$im5t>y rocks1 p5etrat$ "h & !re by    
eruptive masses ( igne\s orig91 =m$ a   
unique sy/em1 to :i* he gave ! "n (     
,silurian1 because ! rocks :i* he       
consid]$ ! mo/ typical ( ! :ole 7 mo/   

fully develop$1 *>g$ ) peculi> organic  
rema9s1 9 ! l& ( ! anci5t ,silures1 :o s
 bravely oppos$ ! ,roman invad]s ( _!   
c\ntry4 ,_m inve/igators h foll[$ 9 ,sir
 ,rod]ick's /eps1 b few m5 h s nobly    
e>n$ ! hon\rs & fame ) :i* 8 "n is      
associat$4  ,! success :i* att5d$ ,sir  
,r4 ,mur*ison's inve/igations soon      
attract$ ! att5tion ( o!r geologi/s4    
,pr(essor ,s$gwick exam9$ ! old] slaty  
/rata1 & succe$$ 9 prov+ ! position ( ! 
,cambrian rocks to be at ! base ( !     
,silurian4 ,/ill x 0 res]v$ = ,sir      
,william ,logan1 ! ,director ( !        
,canadian ,geological ,survey1 to       
e/abli% ! fact t imm5se masses (        
gneissic =mation lay at ! base ( !      
,cambrian2 &1 by subsequ5t              
inve/igations1 ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison  
satisfi$ himself t ?is =mation 0 n      
conf9$ to ,canada1 b 0 id5tical ) !     
rocks t]m$ by him ,fundam5tal ,gneiss1  
:i* exi/ 9 enorm\s masses on ! we/ coa/ 
( ,scotl&1 & :i* he prov$ to be ! olde/ 
/ratifi$ rocks 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4      

,subsequ5tly he demon/rat$ ! exi/5ce (  
^! same ,laur5tian rocks 9 ,bohemia &   
,bav>ia1 f> b5ea? ! ,silurian rocks (   
,b>r&e4  ,:ile ,mur*ison & ,s$gwick 7   
prosecut+ _! inquiries into ! ,silurian 
rocks1 ,hugh ,mill] & _m o!rs _h _!     
att5tion occupi$ ) ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one--!
 ,devonian ( ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison--:i*  
imm$iately ov]lies !m4 ,aft] a y\? pass$
 9 w&]+ among ! woods & rocks ( 8 native
 ,crom>ty1 ! day came :5 ,mill] f\nd    
himself tw5ty ye>s ( age1 &1 = ! "t1 a  
workman 9 a qu>ry4 ,a h>d fate he ?\ght 
x at ! "t1 b to him x 0 ! road to fame &
 success 9 life4 ,! qu>ry 9 :i* he      
lab\r$ 0 at ! bottom ( a bay =m$ by !   
m\? ( a riv] op5+ to ! s\?1 a cle>      
curr5t ( wat] on "o side1 z he vividly  
describ$ x1 & a ?ick wood on ! o!r4 ,9  
?is sil5t spot1 9 ! remote ,highl&s1 a  
curi\s fossil fi% ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 0
 reveal$ to him2 its appe>ance /ruck him
 ) a/oni%m5t2 a fell[-workman nam$ a    
spot :]e _m su* monum5ts ( a =m] _w 7   
scatt]$ ab\t2 he visit$ ! place1 &      

became a geologi/ & ! hi/orian ( ! 8,old
 ,r$40 ,& :at /range fanta/ic =ms did x 
aft]w>ds fall to 8 lot to describe6 8,! 
figures on a ,*9a vase or ,egyptian     
obelisk10 he says1 8diff] less f ! real 
repres5tation ( ! objects ?an ! fossil  
fi%es ( ! #8,old ,r$' diff] f ! liv+ =ms
 :i* n[ swim 9 our seas40  ,!           
,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 :i* und]lies !   
coal1 ! ,coal-measures !mselves1 ! ,new 
,r$ ,s&/one1 ! ,lias1 & ! ,*alk1 h 9 _! 
turn f\nd _! hi/orians2 b x w\ld be     
=eign to our object to dwell fur!r "h on
 ^! p>ticul> bran*es ( ! subject4  ,"s  
few ( ! fossilis$ be+s ref]r$ to        
resemble species /ill f\nd liv+1 b !    
great] "p belong to species :i* h become
 altoge!r ext9ct4 ,^! fossil rema9s may 
con/itute natural families1 none ( !    
g5]a ( :i* h surviv$4 ,su* is !         
,pt]odactyle among ,pt]osaurian         
reptiles2 ! ,ammonite among ,mollusca2 !
 ,i*?yosaurus & ! ,plesiosaurus among ! 
,enaliosaurian reptiles4 ,at o!r times  
!re are only ext9ct g5]a1 belong+ to    

families ( :i* !re are /ill "s g5]a n[  
liv+1 z ! g5us ,paloniscus among fi%es4 
,f9ally1 9 ,t]ti>y deposits1 we meet )  
"s ext9ct species belong+ to g5]a ( our 
exi/+ fauna3 ! ,mammo?1 = example1 ( !  
y\nge/ ,t]ti>y deposits1 is an ext9ct   
species ( ! g5us elephant4  ,"s fossils 
are t]re/rial1 l ! gigantic ,iri% /ag1  
,c]vus ,megac]os1 ! snail or ,helix2    
fluviatile or lacu/r9e1 l ! ,planorbis1 
! ,lymna1 ! ,physa1 & ! ,unio2 m>9e1 or 
inhabit+ ! sea exclusively1 z ! ,c[ry   
7,cypra71 & ! ,oy/]1 7,o/rea74  ,fossils
 are sometimes pres]v$ 9 _! natural     
/ate1 or are b v slightly *ang$4 ,su* is
 ! /ate ( "s ( ! bones extract$ f ! m   
rec5t caves2 su*1 also1 is ! condition (
 ! insects f\nd enclos$ 9 ! fossil res9s
 9 :i* !y h be5 pres]v$ f decomposition2
 & c]ta9 %ells1 f\nd 9 rec5t & ev5 9 old
 =mations1 su* z ! ,jurassic &          
,cretace\s /rata--9 "s ( :i* ! %ells    
reta9 _! col\rs1 z well z _! brilliant  
pe>ly lu/re or nacre4 ,at ,tr\ville1 9  
,norm&y1 9 ! ,kim]idge /rata1 magnific5t

 ,ammonites are f\nd 9 ! clay & m>l1 all
 brilliant ) ! col\rs ( "m-(-pe>l4 ,9 ! 
,cretace\s b$s at ,ma*romnil1 "s species
 ( ,ancyloc]as & ,hamites are f\nd /ill 
cov]$ ) a nacre1 display+ brilliant     
reflections ( blue1 gre51 & r$1 & reta9+
 an admirable lu/re4 ,at ,glos1 ne>     
,liseaux1 9 ! ,coral ,rag1 n only !     
,ammonites1 b ! ,trigoni & ,avicul h    
pres]v$ all _! brilliant nacre4         
,sometimes ^! rema9s are mu* *ang$1 !   
organic matt] hav+ entirely disappe>$2 x
 sometimes happ5s also1 ?\gh r>ely1 t !y
 become petrifi$1 t is to say1 ! ext]nal
 =m is pres]v$1 b ! orig9al organic     
elem5ts h :olly disappe>$1 & h be5      
replac$ by =eign m9]al                  
sub/ances--g5]ally by silica or by      
c>bonate ( lime4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#a4--,labyr9?odon pa*ygna?us & footm>ks4
  ,geology also enables u to draw v     
important conclusions f c]ta9 fossil    
rema9s ^: true nature 0 long            
misund]/ood1 & :i*1 "u ! "n (           
coprolites1 _h giv5 rise to mu*         

controv]sial discussion4 ,coprolites are
 ! petrifi$ excrem5ts ( ext9ct fossil   
animals4 ,! /udy ( ^! s+ul> rema9s has  
?r[n unexpect$ light on ! habits &      
physiological organisation ( "s ( !     
great ant$iluvian animals4 ,_!          
exam9ation has reveal$ ! scales & tee? (
 fi%es1 ?us enabl+ u to det]m9e ! k9d ( 
food 9 :i* ! animals ( ! anci5t _w      
indulg$3 = example1 ! coprolites ( !    
great m>9e reptile :i* be>s ! "n (      
,i*?yosaurus conta9 ! bones ( o!r       
animals1 toge!r ) ! rema9s ( ! v]tebr1  
or ( ! phalanges 7paddle-bones7 ( o!r   
,i*?yosauri2 %[+ t ?is animal habitually
 f$ on ! fle% ( its own species1 z _m   
fi%es1 especially ! m voraci\s ones1 d 9
 our days4  ,! impr9ts left ^u mud or   
s&1 :i* "t has h>d5$ & trans=m$ into    
s&/one1 furni% to ! geologi/ ano!r s]ies
 ( valuable indications4 ,! reptiles ( !
 anci5t _w1 ! turtles 9 p>ticul>1 h left
 ^u ! s&s1 :i* "t has trans=m$ into     
blocks ( /one1 impressions :i* evid5tly 
repres5t ! exact m\lds ( ! feet ( ^?    

animals4 ,^! impressions h1 sometimes1  
be5 suffici5t = naturali/s to det]m9e to
 :at species ! animal belong$ :i* ?us   
left its impress on ! wet gr\nd4 ,"s (  
^! exhibit tracks to :i* we %all h      
occasion to ref]2 o!rs pres5t traces ( !
 footpr9ts ( ! great reptile kn[n z !   
,labyr9?odon or ,*eiro!rium1 ^: footm>ks
 slightly resemble ! impression made by 
! human h& 7,fig4 #a74 ,ano!r well-kn[n 
impression1 :i* has be5 left ^u ! s&/one
 ( ,corncockle ,moor1 9 ,dumfries%ire1  
is suppos$ to be ! impress ( ! foot ( "s
 great fossil ,turtle4  ,illu/ration3   
,fig4 #b4--;,impressions ( ra9-drops4   
,we may be p]mitt$ to (f] a %ort rem>k  
on ?is subject4 ,! hi/orian & antiqu>y  
may trav]se ! battle-fields ( ! ,greeks 
& ,romans1 & se>* 9 va9 = traces ( ^?   
conqu]ors1 ^: armies ravag$ ! _w4 ,"t1  
:i* has ov]?r[n ! monum5ts ( _!         
victories1 has also effac$ ! m>ks ( _!  
foot/eps2 & ( ! _m millions ( m5 ^:     
invasions h spread desolation ?r\gh\t   
,europe1 n ev5 a trace ( a footpr9t is  

left4 ,^? reptiles1 on ! o!r h&1 :i*    
crawl$ ?\s&s ( ages ago on ! surface (  
our planet :5 x 0 /ill 9 its infancy1 h 
impress$ on ! soil indelible pro(s ( _! 
exi/5ce4 ,hannibal & 8 legions1 !       
b>b>ians & _! savage hordes1 h pass$ ov]
 ! l& )\t leav+ a mat]ial m>k ( _!      
passage2 :ile ! poor turtle1 :i* dragg$ 
itself along ! sil5t %ores ( ! primitive
 seas1 has bequea!d to le>n$ po/]ity !  
image & impression ( a "p ( its body4   
,^! impr9ts may be p]ceiv$ z di/9ctly on
 ! rocks1 z ! traces left on moi/ s& or 
9 newly-fall5 sn[ by "s animal walk+ "u 
our own eyes4 ,:at grave reflections    
%\ld be awak5$ )9 u at ! sight ( ^!     
blocks ( h>d5$ e>?1 :i* ?us c>ry back   
our ?\ghts to ! e>ly ages ( ! _w6 & h[  
insignificant seem ! discov]ies ( !     
ar*ologi/ :o ?r[s himself into ec/acies 
be=e "s piece ( ,greek or ,etruscan     
pott]y1 :5 comp>$ ) ^! v]itable         
antiquities ( ! e>?6  ,! palontologi/ 7f
  8anci5t10  8be+10  8disc\rse071 :o    
occupies himself ) ! /udy ( animat$ be+s

 :i* h liv$ on ! e>?1 takes c>eful      
acc\nt also ( ! sort ( m\lds left by    
organis$ bodies 9 ! f9e s$im5t :i* has  
envelop$ !m aft] dea?4 ,_m organic be+s 
h left no trace ( _! exi/5ce 9 ,nature1 
except _! impressions1 :i* we f9d       
p]fectly pres]v$ 9 ! s&/one & lime/one1 
9 m>l or clay1 & 9 ! coal-measures2 & ^!
 m\lds are suffici5t to tell u ! k9d to 
:i* ! liv+ animals belong$4 ,we %all1 no
 d\bt1 a/oni% our read]s :5 we tell !m t
 !re are blocks ( s&/one ) di/9ct       
impressions ( drops ( ra9 :i* _h fall5  
^u sea-%ores ( ! anci5t _w4 ,!          
impressions ( ^! ra9-drops1 made ^u !   
s&s1 7 pres]v$ by desiccation2 & ^! same
 s&s1 be+ trans=m$ by subsequ5t h>d5+   
into solid & coh]5t s&/ones1 _!         
impressions h be5 ?us pres]v$ to !      
pres5t day4 ,fig4 #b repres5ts          
impressions ( ?is k9d ^u ! s&/one (     
,connecticut riv] 9 ,am]ica1 :i* h be5  
reproduc$ f ! block itself by           
photography4 ,9 a depression ( !        
granitic rocks ( ,massa*usetts &        

,connecticut1 ! r$ s&/one occupies an   
area ( a hundr$ & fifty miles 9 l5g? f  
nor? to s\?1 & f five to t5 miles 9     
bread?4 8,on "s %ales ( ! f9e/ texture10
 says ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 8impressions (
 ra9-drops may be se51 & ca/s ( !m 9 !  
argillace\s s&/ones40 ,! same           
impressions occur 9 ! rec5t r$ mud ( !  
,bay ( ,fundy4 ,9 addition to ^!1 !     
undulations left by ! passage ( ! wat]s 
( ! sea1 ov] ! s&s ( ! primitive _w1 are
 pres]v$ by ! same physical ag5cy4      
,traces ( undulations ( ?is k9d h be5   
f\nd 9 ! neighb\rhood (                 
,b\logne-sur-,m]1 & else:]e4 ,simil>    
ph5om5a occur 9 a /ill m /rik+ mann] 9  
"s s&/one-qu>ries work$ at ,*al9drey    
7,haute-,m>ne74 ,! /rata !re pres5t     
traces ( ! same k9d ov] a l>ge area1 &  
along ) !m impressions ( ! excrem5ts (  
m>9e worms4 ,"o may almo/ imag9e oneself
 to be /&+ on ! sea-%ore :ile ! tide is 
ebb+4   ,,*emical ,,& ,,nebul>          
,,hypo!ses ,,( ,,! ,,globe4  ,among !   
innum]able hypo!ses :i* human +5uity has

 fram$ to expla9 ! ph5om5a :i* surr\nd !
 globe1 ! two :i* h f\nd mo/ ready      
acceptance h be5 t]m$ respectively !    
,,*emical1 & ! ,,nebul> or me*anical    
hypo!sis4 ,by ! fir/ ! solid cru/ is    
suppos$ to h conta9$ abundance (        
potassium1 sodium1 calcium1 magnesium1 &
 o!r metallic elem5ts4 ,! p]colat+      
wat]s1 com+ 9 contact ) ^! sub/ances1   
produce comb9ations result+ 9 !         
conv]sion ( ! metals into _!            
oxides--pota%1 soda1 lime1 &            
magnesia--all ( :i* ent] l>gely into !  
composition ( volcanic rocks4 ,! second 
hypo!sis involves ! idea ( an orig9al   
inc&esc5t mass ( vap\r1 succe$$ by a    
great & /ill exi/+ c5tral fire4  ,?is   
idea ( a great c5tral fire is a v anci5t
 hypo!sis3 admitt$ by ,desc>tes1        
develop$ by ,leibnitz1 & advocat$ by    
,buffon1 x is suppos$ to acc\nt = _m    
ph5om5a o!rwise inexplicable2 & x is    
confirm$ by a cr[d ( facts1 & adopt$1 or
 at lea/ n oppos$1 by ! lead+ au?orities
 ( ! age4 ,dr4 ,buckl& makes x ! basis (

 8 ,bridgewat] treatise4 ,h]s*el1 ,h9d1 
,mur*ison1 ,lyell1 ,phillips1 & o!r     
lead+ ,engli% a/ronom]s & geologi/s give
 a cauti\s adhesion to ! doctr9e4 ,!    
foll[+ are "s ( ! pr9cipal argum5ts     
adduc$ 9 support ( ! hypo!sis1 =1 9 !   
nature ( ! pro(s x admits (1 x c be no  
m4  ,:5 we desc5d into ! int]ior ( a    
m9e1 x is f\nd t ! temp]ature rises 9 an
 appreciable mann]1 & t x increases ) ! 
dep? bel[ ! surface4  ,! high temp]ature
 ( ! wat]s 9 ,artesian wells :5 ^! are v
 deep1 te/ifies to a great heat ( !     
int]ior ( ! e>?4  ,! !rmal wat]s :i*    
issue f ! e>?--( :i* ! temp]ature       
sometimes rises to #ajj ,c5tigrade &    
upw>ds--z1 = in/ance1 ! ,geys]s (       
,icel&--furni% ano!r pro( 9 support ( ! 
hypo!sis4  ,mod]n volcanoes are said to 
be a visible demon/ration ( ! exi/5ce ( 
c5tral heat4 ,! heat$ gases1 ! liquid   
lava1 ! flames :i* escape f _! crat]s1  
all t5d to prove suffici5tly t ! int]ior
 ( ! globe has a temp]ature prodigi\sly 
elevat$ z comp>$ ) t at its surface4  ,!

 dis5gagem5t ( gases & burn+ vap\rs     
?r\gh ! accid5tal fissures 9 ! cru/1 :i*
 accompany e>?quakes1 /ill fur!r t5ds to
 e/abli% ! exi/5ce ( a great heat 9 !   
int]ior ( ! globe4  ,we h already said t
 ! temp]ature ( ! globe increases ab\t  
"o degree = e sixty or sev5ty feet (    
dep? b5ea? its surface4 ,! correctness (
 ?is obs]vation has be5 v]ifi$ 9 a great
 numb] ( in/ances--inde$1 to ! greate/  
dep? to :i* man has p5etrat$1 & be5 able
 to make use ( ! !rmomet]4 ,n[1 z we "k 
exactly ! l5g? ( ! radius ( ! t]re/rial 
sph]e1 x has be5 calculat$ f ?is        
progression ( temp]ature1 suppos+ x to  
be regul> & uni=m1 t ! c5tre ( ! globe  
ought to h at ! pres5t "t a mean        
temp]ature ( #aie1jjj ,c5tigrade4 ,no   
matt] c\ld pres]ve its solid /ate at ?is
 excessive temp]ature2 x foll[s1 !n1 t !
 c5tre ( ! globe1 & all p>ts ne> !      
c5tre1 mu/ be 9 a p]man5t /ate (        
fluidity4  ,! works ( ,w]n]1 ( ,hutton1 
( ,leopold von ,bu*1 ( ,humboldt1 (     
,cordi]1 ,w4 ,hopk9s1 ,buckl&1 & "s o!r 

,engli% philosoph]s1 h r$uc$ ?is        
hypo!sis to a !ory1 on :i* has be5 bas$1
 to a consid]able ext5t1 ! :ole sci5ce (
 mod]n geology2 al?\gh1 prop]ly speak+1 
& 9 ! popul> acceptation ( ! t]m1 t     
sci5ce only deals ) ! solid cru/ ( !    
e>?4  ,! nebul> !ory ?us embraces ! :ole
 sol> sy/em1 &1 by analogy1 ! univ]se4  
,x assumes t ! ,,sun 0 orig9ally a mass 
( inc&esc5t matt]1 t va/ body be+ br\ght
 into a /ate ( evolution by ! action (  
laws to :i* ! ,creator1 9 ,8 div9e      
wisdom1 has subject$ all matt]4 ,9      
consequ5ce ( its imm5se expansion &     
att5uation1 ! ext]ior zone ( vap\r1     
exp&+ beyond ! sph]e ( attraction1 is   
suppos$ to h be5 ?r[n (f by c5trifugal  
=ce4 ,?is zone ( vap\r1 :i* may be      
suppos$ at "o "t to h resembl$ ! r+s (  
,saturn1 w\ld 9 "t break up into sev]al 
masses1 & ^! masses coalesc+ into       
globes1 w\ld 7by ! great] p[] (         
attraction :i* !y w\ld assume z         
consolidat$ bodies7 revolve r\nd ! sun1 
&1 f me*anical consid]ations1 w\ld also 

revolve ) a rot>y motion on _! own axes4
  ,?is doctr9e is appli$ to all !       
planets1 & assumes ea* to h be5 9 a /ate
 ( inc&esc5t vap\r1 ) a c5tral inc&esc5t
 nucleus4 ,z ! cool+ w5t on1 ea* ( ^!   
bodies may be suppos$ to h ?r[n (f      
simil> masses ( vap\r1 :i*1 by !        
op]ation ( ! same laws1 w\ld assume !   
rot>y /ate1 &1 z satellites1 revolve    
r\nd ! p>5t planet4 ,su*1 9 brief1 0 !  
gr& conception ( ,laplace2 & surely x   
detracts no?+ f our notions ( !         
omnipot5ce ( ! ,creator t x initiates ! 
creation /ep by /ep1 & "u ! laws to :i* 
matt] is subject$1 r ?an by ! direct    
fiat ( ! ,almighty4 ,! hypo!sis assumes 
t z ! vapor\s mass cool$ by ! radiation 
( heat into space1 ! p>ticles ( matt]   
w\ld approximate & solidify4  ,t !      
figure ( ! e>? is su* z a v l>ge mass ( 
matt] 9 a /ate ( fluidity w\ld assume f 
a /ate ( rotation1 seems to be admitt$1 
?us corroborat+ ! speculations (        
,leibnitz1 t ! e>? is to be look$ on z a
 heat$ fluid globe1 cool$1 & /ill cool+ 

at ! surface1 by radiation ( its        
sup]flu\s heat into space4 ,mr4 ,w4     
,hopk9s#g has put =? "s /rong b simple  
reasons 9 support ( a diff]5t !ory2     
al?\gh he does n attempt to solve !     
problem1 b leaves ! read] to =m 8 own   
conclusions4 ,z f> z we h be5 able to   
foll[ 8 reason+ we ga!r f x t3--    #g  
,see ,phil4 ,transactions1 #ahci-dj-db2 
also1 ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal (       !        
,geological ,society1 vol4 viii41 p4    
#ef4  ,if ! e>? 7 a fluid mass cool$ by 
radiation1 ! cool$ p>ts w\ld1 by ! laws 
( circulat+ fluids1 desc5d t[>ds !      
c5tre1 & be replac$ on ! surface by     
matt] at a high] temp]ature4  ,!        
consolidation ( su* a mass w\ld1 !re=e1 
be accompani$ by a /ruggle = sup]iority 
betwe5 pressure & temp]ature1 bo? ( :i* 
w\ld be at _! maximum at ! c5tre ( !    
mass4  ,at ! surface1 x w\ld be a "q (  
rapidity ( cool+1 by radiation1 z comp>$
 ) ! int]nal condition--= comp>+ :i*    
relations we are )\t data2 b on ! result
 ( :i* dep5ds :e!r su* a body w\ld mo/  

rapidly solidify at ! surface by        
radiation1 or at ! c5tre by pressure4   
,! effect ( ! fir/ w\ld be              
solidification at ! surface1 foll[$ by  
cond5sation at ! c5tre ?r\gh pressure4  
,!re w\ld ?us be two masses1 a sph]ical 
fluid nucleus1 & a sph]ical %ell or     
envelope1 ) a l>ge zone ( semi-fluid1   
pa/y matt] betwe51 cont9ually *ang+ its 
temp]ature z its out] or inn] surface   
became conv]t$ to ! solid /ate4  ,if    
pressure1 on ! o!r h&1 ga9$ ! victory1 !
 c5tre w\ld solidify be=e ! circulation 
( ! heat$ matt] _h ceas$2 & ! solidify+ 
process w\ld proce$ ?r\gh a l>ge portion
 ( ! globe1 & ev5 approa* ! surface be=e
 t w\ld become solid4 ,9 o!r words1     
solidification w\ld proce$ f ! c5tre    
until ! dim9i%+ p[] ( pressure 0 balanc$
 by radiation1 :5 ! gradual ab/raction (
 heat w\ld all[ ! p>ticles to           
approximate & become solid4  ,!         
t]re/rial sph]e may ?us be a solid      
indurat$ mass at ! c5tre1 ) a solid /ony
 cru/ at ! surface1 & a %ift+ visc\s1 b 

daily-decreas+1 mass betwe5 ! two2 a    
supposition :i* ! dim9i%$ & dim9i%+     
frequ5cy & magnitude ( volcanic & o!r   
eruptive convulsions seem to r5d] n     
improbable4  ,x is n to be suppos$ t    
among/ ! v>i\s hypo!ses ( :i* !         
cosmogony ( ! _w has be5 ! object1 a    
lit]al acceptation ( ! scriptural acc\nt
 f9ds no def5d]s among m5 ( sci5ce4     
8,:y10 asks "o ( ^! writ]s1#h aft] "s   
scornful rem>ks ^u ! geologi/s & _!     
sci5ce--8:y an omnipot5t ,creator %\ld h
 call$ into be+ a gase\s-granite nebul\s
 _w1 only to h to cool x d[n aga91      
consi/+ z x does ( an endless v>iety (  
sub/ances1 %\ld ev5 h be5 suppos$ to be 
orig9ally con/itut$ ( ! matt] ( granite 
alone1 = no?+ else 0 provid$ by ! !ory1 
nobody c rationally expla94 ,h[ ! e>?'s 
c5tre n[ c\ld be liquid fire ) its      
surface solid & cold & its seas n boil+ 
caldrons1 has nev] be5 attempt$ to be   
acc\nt$ =4 ,h[ educat$ g5tlem51 engag$ 9
 sci5tific inve/igations1 ev] came to   
accept su* a mon/r\sly /upid mass (     

absurdities z d$uctions ( #8sci5ce1' &  
put !m 9 comp>ison ) ! rational acc\nt (
 ! creation giv5 by ,moses1 is m        
difficult to und]/& ?an ev5 ?is vague   
!ory itself1 :i* x is impossible to     
describe4    #h 8,fre% ,spr+s ( ,tru?40 
,r4 ,griff9 & ,co4  8,( ! fir/ creation 
( ! *aotic _w10 ! same writ] goes on to 
say1 8or ! mat]ial elem5ts1 be=e !y 7   
%ap$ into _! pres5t =ms1 we c sc>ce h ! 
mo/ vague conception4 ,all our exp]i5ce 
relates to _! exi/+ conditions4 ,b kn[+ 
some:at ( ! v>iety ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts
 & _! di/9ct prop]ties1 by :i* !y       
manife/ _! exi/5ce to u1 we _c conceive 
( _! creation )\t presuppos+ a ,div9e   
wisdom1 &--if ,i may say s1 ) all       
rev]5ce1 & only to suit our human       
notions--a ,div9e +5uity10 & he foll[s =
 six days ! op]ations z describ$ by     
,moses1 ) a runn+ comm5t4 ,:5 light is  
creat$1 ! conception ( ! "w becomes     
simpl] to our m9ds4 ,its lea/           
manife/ation w\ld suffice at once to    
dispel d>kness1 & yet h[ m>vell\s is !  

light6 ,9 ! second day's "w ! firmam5t (
 heav5 is op5$2 ! expanse ( ! air betwe5
 ! heav5s & ! e>?1 divid+ ! wat]s above 
f ! wat]s bel[1 is ! "w record$ z p]=m$4
 ,n till ! ?ird day comm5ce ! fir/      
geological op]ations4 ,! wat]s ( ! e>?  
are ga!r$ toge!r into seas1 & ! dry l&  
is made to appe>4 ,x is n[ t we c imag9e
 t ! =mation ( ! prim>y /rata comm5c$1  
:ile by "s ( ! int]nal =ces ( matt] !   
e>? 0 elevat$ & /ood above ! wat]s4     
,imm$iately ! dry l& is rais$ above &   
sep>at$ f ! wat]s ! fiat goes =?1 8,let 
! e>? br+ =? grass1 & h]b & tree20      
vegetable life beg9s to exi/1 & ! _w is 
fir/ decorat$ ) its beaute\s flora1 )   
all its exquisite v>iety ( =ms &        
brilliancy ( col\r+1 ) :i* n ev5        
,solomon 9 all 8 glory c comp>e4 ,9 l   
mann]1 on ! six? day ! e>? is comm&$ to 
br+ =? l&-animals--! liv+ creature 8aft]
 8 k9d10 cattle & creep+ ?+1 & bea/ ( ! 
e>?1 8aft] 8 k9d20 & la/ ( all1 b on !  
same day1 man is creat$1 & made ! *ief &
 mon>* ( ,god's o!r liv+ creatures--= t 

is 8man's place 9 ,nature40 8,let u n[  
see10 he cont9ues1 8h[ ?is hi/ory came  
to be discr$it$ by ! opposition ( a     
falsely s-call$ #8sci5ce' ( geology1 t1 
:ile sp>$ by our !ologians1 has s9ce    
pull$ itself to pieces4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ! 
false inductions geology made arose f ! 
ra% d$uction1 t ! ord] 9 :i* ! fossil   
rema9s ( organic be+ 7 f\nd deposit$ 9 !
 v>i\s /rata necess>ily det]m9$ ! ord] (
 _! creation2 & ! next error arose f    
bl9dly ru%+ to ra% conclusions1 & ha/y  
g5]alisation f a v limit$ numb] ( facts1
 & ! mo/ imp]fect inve/igations4 ,!re 7 
also 7&1 inde$1 are /ill7 "s wild       
dogmatisms z to ! "t necess>y to produce
 c]ta9 geologic =mations2 b !           
absurdities ( sci5ce culm9at$ :5 x      
adopt$ f ,laplace ! irrational &        
un9telligible !ory ( a natural orig9 = !
 _w f a nebula ( gase\s granite1        
int5sely hot1 & suppos$ to be gradually 
cool$ :ile gyrat+ s5selessly 9 space40  
,9 ?is pap] ! writ] does n attempt to   
deal ) ! v>i\s ph5om5a ( volcanoes1     

e>?quakes1 hot spr+s1 & o!r matt]s :i*  
are usually consid]$ z pro(s ( great    
int]nal heat4 ,mr4 ,evan ,hopk9s1       
,c4,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 is m precise if less 
eloqu5t4 ,he %[s t1 9 tropical c\ntries1
 pla9s ( gravel may 9 a day be conv]t$  
into lagoons & m>%es2 t by ! fall ( an  
avalan*e riv]s h be5 block$ up1 :i*1    
bur/+ _! banks1 h cov]$ _m squ>e miles (
 f]tile c\ntry ) sev]al feet ( mud1 s&1 
& gravel4 8,two ?\s& f\r hundr$ ye>s    
ago10 he says1 8,n9eveh fl\ri%$ 9 all   
its gr&eur1 yet x is n[ buri$ 9         
oblivion1 & its site ov]:elm$ ) s&4     
,look at old ,tyre1 once ! que5 ( cities
 & mi/ress ( ! sea4 ,%e 0 9 all h] pride
 two ?\s& f\r hundr$ & =ty ye>s ago4 ,we
 n[ see b a b>e rock 9 ! sea1 on :i*    
fi%]m5 spread _! nets6 ,a ?\s& ye>s ago1
 accord+ to ,icel&ic hi/ories1 ,gre5l& 0
 a f]tile l& 9 ! s\?1 & support$ a l>ge 
population4 ,icel& at t p]iod 0 cov]$ ) 
=e/s ( bir* & fir1 & ! inhabitants      
cultivat$ b>ley & o!r gra94 ,we may1    
!re=e1 conclude1 ) ^! facts be=e u1 t   

!re is no necessity to assign myriads ( 
ages to t]re/rial *anges1 z assum$ by   
geologi/s1 z !y c be acc\nt$ = by means 
( alt]ations effect$ dur+ a few ?\s&    
ye>s1 = ! surface ( ! e>? is ev] *ang+4 
8,grant geological speculators10 ,mr4   
,hopk9s cont9ues1 8a few millions (     
c5turies1 ) a comm& ov] ! ag5cies (     
,nature to be br\ght into op]ation :5 & 
h[ !y please1 & !y ?9k !y c =m a _w ) e 
v>iety ( rock & vegetation1 & ev5       
trans=m a worm into a man6 ,yet ! wise/ 
( our philosoph]s w\ld be puzzl$ if     
call$ ^u to expla9 :y fluids become     
sph]es1 z dew-drops2 :y c>bonate ( lime 
acquires 9 solidify+ f a liquid ! figure
 ( an obtuse rhomboih$ron1 silica ( a   
six-sid$ prism2 & :y oxyg5 & hydrog5    
gases produce bo? fire & wat]4 ,& :at d 
!y ga910 he proce$s to ask1 8by c>ry+   
back ! hi/ory ( ! _w to ^! myriads (    
c5turies8 ,d !y1 by ! ext5sion ( ! p]iod
 to inf9ity1 expla9 h[ ! #8,orig9al'    
mat]ials 7 creat$8 ,b10 he adds1        
8geologi/s are by no means agre$ 9 _!   

assum$ geological p]iods6 ,! s-call$    
glacial p]iod has be5 comput$ by "s to  
be equal to ab\t eighty-?ree ?\s& ye>s1 
& by o!rs at ev5 z mu* z twelve hundr$ &
 eighty millions ( ye>s6 ,7 we to ask = 
a demon/rative pro( ( any giv5 deposit  
be+ m ?an f\r or five ?\s& ye>s old1 !y 
c\ld n give x4 ,:]e is ,babylon1 ! glory
 ( ! k+doms8 ,look at ,!bes1 & behold   
its colossal columns1 /atues1 temples1  
obelisks1 & palaces desolat$2 & yet ^?  
great cities fl\ri%$ )9 ! la/ ?ree ?\s& 
ye>s4 ,ev5 ,pompeii & ,h]culaneum 7 all 
b lo/ to hi/ory6 ,:at10 he asks aft] ^! 
brief allusions to ! pa/--8:at1 z a     
matt] ( fact1 h geologi/s discov]$1 z   
reg>ds ! great t]re/rial *anges1 m ?an 0
 kn[n to ,py?agoras & ! anci5t          
philosoph]s :o taught1 two ?\s& ?ree    
hundr$ & fifty ye>s ago1 #8t ! surface (
 ! e>? 0 ev] *ang+--solid l& conv]t$    
into sea1 sea *ang$ into dry l&1 m>9e   
%ells ly+ f> di/ant f ! deep1 valleys   
excavat$ by runn+ wat]1 & floods wa%+   
d[n hills into ! sea8'0  ,9 ref]5ce to !

 argum5t ( ! va/ antiquity ( ! e>?1     
f\nd$ on elevation ( coa/s at a giv5    
rate ( upheaval1 he adduces _m facts to 
%[ t upheavals ( equal ext5t h occurr$  
almo/ )9 ! memory ( man4 ,two hundr$ &  
fifty ye>s ago ,sir ,francis ,drake1 ) 8
 fleet1 sail$ into ,albem>le ,s\nd ?r\gh
 ,roanoke ,outlet1 :i* is n[ a s&-bank  
above ! rea* ( ! highe/ tides4 ,only    
sev5ty ye>s ago x 0 navigable by vessels
 draw+ twelve feet ( wat]4 ,! :ole      
,am]ican coa/1 bo? on ! ,atlantic &     
,pacific1 h und]gone great *anges )9 !  
la/ hundr$ ye>s4 ,! coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica 
has1 9 "s places1 be5 upheav$ tw5ty feet
 9 ! la/ c5tury2 9 o!rs1 a few hundr$   
miles di/ant1 x has be5 depress$ to an  
equal ext5t4 ,a transv]se section f ,rio
 ,santa ,cruz to ! base ( ! ,cordill]as1
 & ano!r 9 ! ,rio ,negro1 9 ,patagonia1 
%[$ t ! :ole s$im5t>y s]ies is ( rec5t  
orig94 ,scatt]$ ov] ! :ole at v>i\s     
heights above ! sea1 f ?irte5 hundr$    
feet d[nw>ds1 are f\nd rec5t %ells (    
littoral species ( ! neighb\r+          

coa/--d5ot+ upheavals :i* might h be5   
effect$ dur+ ! la/ ?ree ?\s& ye>s4      
,com+ ne>] home1 he %[s t 9 #aech ! :ole
 coa/ ( ,pozzuoli1 ne> ,naples1 0 rais$ 
tw5ty feet 9 a s+le night4 ,!n1 ) reg>d 
to m compact cry/all9e or semi-cry/all9e
 rocks1 no reliable op9ion c be =m$ on  
m]e inspection4 ,two blocks ( m>ble may 
appe> precisely alike1 ?\gh =m$ at      
diff]5t p]iods4 ,a cry/al ( c>bonate (  
lime1 =m$ 9 a few ye>s1 w\ld be f\nd q  
p]fect1 & z compact z a cry/al =m$ dur+ 
_m c5turies4 ,no?+ c be d$uc$ f !       
process ( petrifaction & cry/allisation1
 unless !y enclose relics ( a kn[n      
p]iod4 ,at ,san ,filippo1 a solid mass (
 lime/one ?irty feet ?ick has be5 =m$ 9 
ab\t tw5ty ye>s4 ,a h>d /ratum (        
trav]t9e a foot ?ick is obta9$1 f ^!    
!rmal spr+s1 9 ! c\rse ( f\r mon?s4 ,nor
 c geologi/s demon/rate t ! ,ami5s      
deposits1 9 :i* ! fl9t-implem5ts occur1 
are m ?an ?ree or f\r ?\s& ye>s old4  ,!
 causes ( ^! *anges & mutations are     
ref]r$ by "s p]sons to floods1 or to    

pre-,adamite convulsions1 :]eas ! cause 
is 9 con/ant op]ation2 !y are due to an 
invisible & subtle p[] :i* p]vades !    
air1 ! ocean1 & ! rocks bel[--9 :i* all 
are wrapp$ & p]meat$--:i* is univ]sally 
pres5t1 namely1 magnetism--a p[] always 
9 op]ation1 always 9 a /ate ( activity &
 t5sion4 ,x has an attractive p[] t[>ds 
! surface ( ! e>?1 z well z a directive 
action f pole to pole4 8,x is1 inde$10  
he adds1 emphatically1 8! t]re/rial     
gravitation4 ,magnetic ne$les freely    
susp5d$ %[ its m]idional or directive   
pol> =ce1 & t ! =ce conv]ges at two     
opposite p>ts1 :i* are b\nd$ by !       
,ant>ctic & ,arctic circles40  ,?is pol>
 =ce1 l a /ream1 is con/antly mov+ f    
pole to pole2 & exp]im5t proves t ?is   
movem5t is f ! ,s\? ,pole to ! ,nor?4   
8,h5ce ! v>i\s t]re/rial sub/ances1     
solids & fluids1 ?r\gh :i* ?is subtle & 
univ]sal p[] p]meates1 are controll$1   
propell$1 & modifi$ ov] ! entire surface
 ( our globe1 comm5c+ at ! s\? &        
dissolv+ at ! nor?4 ,?us1 all t]re/rial 

matt] moves t[>ds ! ,arctic region1 &   
f9ally disappe>s by dissolution &       
absorption1 to be r5ew$ aga9 & aga9 9 ! 
,ant>ctic ,sea to ! end ( "t40  ,9 ord] 
to prove t ! nor? pol> bas9 is !        
receptacle ( ! f9al dissolution ( all   
t]re/rial sub/ances1 ,mr4 ,hopk9s quotes
 ! ,gulf ,/ream4 ,bottles1 tropical     
plants1 & wrecks ca/ into ! sea 9 ! ,s\?
 ,atlantic1 are c>ri$ to ,gre5l& 9 a    
comp>atively %ort "t4 ,! great tidal    
waves comm5ce at ! f\nta9-head 9 !      
,ant>ctic circle1 imp+e aga9/ ! s\? coa/
 ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 ,new ,zeal&1 &    
,tasmania1 & are !n propell$ nor?w>d 9 a
 s]ies ( undulations4 ,! ,s\? ,atlantic 
/ream1 aft] d\bl+ ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1
 moves t[>ds ! ,gu9ea coa/1 b5ds t[>ds !
 ,c>ibbean ,sea1 produc+ ! trade w9ds2  
aga9 leaves ,florida z ! ,gulf ,/ream1 &
 wa%es ! coa/s ( ,gre5l& & ,norway1 &   
f9ally rea*es ! nor? pol> bas94  ,aga9 !
 great pol> =ce %[s itself 9 !          
arrangem5t ( ! m9]al /ructure bel[4 ,9  
all ! prim>y rocks 9 e qu>t] ( ! globe  

:]e !y h be5 exam9$1 its action is      
recognis$ 9 giv+ to ! cry/all9e         
masses--granites & _! lam9at$           
elongations--a pol> gra9 & v]tical      
cleavage4 8,_h x be5 possible to see our
 globe /ripp$ ( its s$im5t>y deposits & 
its oceanic cov]+1 we %\ld see x l a    
gigantic melon1 ) a uni=m gra9 ext5d+ f 
pole to pole40 ,?is /ructure appe>s to  
give pol>ity to e>?quakes--!rmal wat]s &
 e>?quakes--:i* are all traceable 9 !   
direction ( ! pol> gra9 or cleavage f   
nor? to s\?4  ,9 ,engl&1 = in/ance1     
!rmal & sal9e spr+s are traceable f     
,ba?1 ?r\gh ,*elt5ham1 to ,dudley4 ,9   
,c5tral ,france1 m9]al spr+s occur 9    
l9es1 m or less1 nor? & s\?4 ,all ! kn[n
 salt-spr+s 9 ,s\? ,am]ica occur 9      
m]idional b&s4 ,spr+s ( *loride ( sodium
 9 ! ,ea/]n ,cordill]as /ret* f ,p9ceima
 to ! ,llanoes de ,meta1 a di/ance (    
#bjj miles4 ,! mo/ productive           
metallif]\s deposits are f\nd 9         
m]idional b&s4 ,! wat]y volcanoes 9 ,s\?
 ,am]ica are g5]ally situat$ along !    

l9es ( ! m]idional splits & ! second>y  
eruptive pores on ! transv]se fractures4
 ,! sudd5 ruptures aris+ locally f      
increas+ t5sion ( ! pol> =ce1 & ! rapid 
expansion ( ! g5]at$ gases1 produce a   
vibratory j> 9 ! rocky /ructure bel[1   
:i* be+ propagat$ along ! planes ( !    
pol> cleavage1 gives rise to great      
sup]ficial oscillations1 & ?us causes   
e>?quakes & subt]ranean ?und] = ?\s&s ( 
miles1 f s\? to nor?4  ,9 #agig1 !      
di/rict r\nd ! volcano ( ,tunguraqua 9  
,quito1 dur+ "o ( ! great m]idional     
%ocks1 exp]i5c$ an undulat+ movem5t1 :i*
 la/$ upw>ds ( f\r m9utes1 & ?is 0      
propagat$ to ! %ores ( ! ,c>ibbean ,sea4
  ,all ^! movem5ts demon/rat$1 accord+  
to ,mr4 ,hopk9s1 t ! l& z well z ! ocean
 moves f ! s\? pole & nor? pole1 & t !  
magnetic p[] has a t5d5cy to proce$ f   
pole to pole 9 a spiral pa? f s\?-ea/ to
 nor?-we/1 a movem5t :i* produces an    
app>5t *ange 9 ! equ9oxes1 or ! out]    
section ( ! plane ( ! ecliptic ) !      
equator1 a ph5om5on kn[n to a/ronom]s z 

! precession ( ! equ9oxes4  ,su* is a v 
brief summ>y ( ! argum5ts by :i* ,mr4   
,evan ,hopk9s ma9ta9s ! lit]al          
correctness ( ! ,mosaic acc\nt ( !      
creation1 & attempts to %[ t all ! facts
 discov]$ by geologi/s may h occurr$ 9 !
 ages includ$ 9 ! ,mosaic *ronology4  ,t
 ! my/]i\s p[] ( t]re/rial magnetism c  
p]=m all t he claims = x1 we c p]haps   
admit4 ,b h[ does ?is expla9 !          
succession ( ,silurian1 ,old ,r$        
,s&/one1 ,c>bonif]\s & o!r /rata1 up to 
! ,t]ti>y deposits1 ) _! fossils1 ea*   
diff]+ 9 "* f ^? ( ! prec$+ s]ies8 ,t ^!
 7 successive creations admits ( no     
d\bt1 & :ile x is und5iable t ! fiat ( !
 ,creator c\ld readily produce all ^!   
ph5om5a1 x may reasonably be ask$ if x  
is probable t all ^! myriads ( organic  
be+s1 ^: rema9s s]ve z records ( _!     
exi/5ce1 7 creat$ only to be imm$iately 
de/roy$4  ,aga91 does n ! au?or ( !     
8,pr9ciples ( ,t]re/rial ,physics0 prove
 too mu*8 ,he admits t #c1jjj ye>s ago !
 climate ( ,engl& 0 tropical3 he does n 

d5y t a subsequ5t p]iod ( int5se cold   
int]v5$1 #b1eej ye>s ago4 ,he admits    
hi/orical records1 & #b1cej ye>s ago    
,py?agoras con/ruct$ 8 cosmography ( !  
_w1 :i* has nev] be5 s]i\sly impugn$2 & 
yet he has no suspicion t c\ntries s ne>
 to 8 own _h *ang$ _! climates fir/ f   
tropical to glacial1 & back aga9 to a   
temp]ate zone4 ,x is n reasonable to    
believe ?is p>able4  ,! s*ool (         
philosophy g5]ally consid]$ to be ! mo/ 
advanc$ 9 mod]n sci5ce has yet ano!r    
view ( cosmogony1 ( :i* we v5ture to    
give a brief outl9e4 ,space is inf9ite1 
says ! expon5t ( ?is sy/em1#i = :]ev] 9 
imag9ation we erect a b\nd>y1 we are    
compell$ to ?9k ( space z exi/+ beyond  
x4 ,! />ry heav5s proclaim t x is n     
entirely void2 b ! "q rema9s1 are ! va/ 
regions :i* surr\nd ! />s1 & across :i* 
light is propagat$1 absolutely empty8   
,no4 ,mod]n sci5ce1 :ile x rejects !    
notion ( ! lum9if]\s p>ticles ( ! old   
philosophy1 has cog5t pro(s ( ! exi/5ce 
( a lum9if]\s e!r ) def9ite me*anical   

prop]ties4 ,x is inf9itely m att5uat$1 b
 m solid ?an gas4 ,x resembles jelly r  
?an air1 & if n co-ext5sive ) space1 x  
ext5ds z f> z ! mo/ di/ant /> !         
telescope reveals to u2 x is ! vehicle (
 _! light 9 fact2 x takes up _! molecul>
 tremors & conveys !m ) inconceivable   
rapidity to our organs ( vision4 ,!     
spl5d\r ( ! firmam5t at night is due to 
?is vibration4 ,if ?is e!r has a b\nd>y1
 masses ( pond]able matt] may exi/      
beyond x1 b !y c\ld emit no light4 ,d>k 
suns may burn !re1 metals may be heat$  
to fusion 9 invisible furnaces1 planets 
may be molt5 amid int5se d>kness2 = !   
loss ( heat be+ simply ! ab/raction (   
molecul> motion by ! e!r1 :]e ?is m$ium 
is abs5t no cool+ c\ld take place4    #i
 ,pr(essor ,tyndall 9 ,=tnightly        
,review4  ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n conc]n u2 
z f> z our k ( space ext5ds1 we are to  
conceive ( x z ! hold] ( ?is lum9if]\s  
e!r1 ?r\gh :i* ! fix$ />s are int]sp]s$ 
at enorm\s di/ances ap>t4 ,associat$ )  
our planet we h a gr\p ( d>k planet>y   

masses revolv+ at v>i\s di/ances ar\nd  
x1 ea* rotat+ on its axis2 &1 connect$ )
 !m1 _! moons4 ,0 space furni%$ at once1
 by ! fiat ( ,omnipot5ce1 ) ^! burn+    
orbs8 ,! man ( sci5ce %\ld give no answ]
 to ?is "q3 b he has bett] mat]ials to  
guide him ?an anybody else1 & c cle>ly  
%[ t ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s may be         
d]ivative4 ,he c p]haps assign reasons  
:i* r5d] x probable t x is d]ivative4 ,!
 law ( gravitation enunciat$ by ,newton 
is1 t e p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se     
attracts e o!r p>ticle ) a =ce :i*      
dim9i%es z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance          
increases4 ,"u ?is law a /one falls to !
 gr\nd1 & heat is produc$ by ! %ock2    
meteors plunge into ! atmosph]e & become
 inc&esc5t2 %[]s ( su* d\btless fall    
incessantly ^u ! sun1 & 7 x /opp$ 9 its 
orbit1 ! e>? w\ld ru% t[>ds ! sun1      
develop+ heat 9 ! collision 7accord+ to 
! calculations ( ,,mm4 ,j\le1 ,may]1    
,helmholtz1 & ,?omson71 equal to !      
combu/ion ( five ?\s& worlds ( solid    
coal4 ,9 ! attraction ( gravity1 !re=e1 

act+ ^u ?is lum9\s matt]1 we h a s\rce (
 heat m p[]ful ?an c\ld be d]iv$ f any  
t]re/rial combu/ion4  ,to ! above       
conception ( space we mu/ add t ( its   
be+ 9 a cont9ual /ate ( tremor4 ,!      
s\rces ( vibration are ! pond]able      
masses ( ! univ]se4 ,our own planet is  
an aggregate ( solids1 liquids1 & gases4
 ,on clos] exam9ation1 ^! are f\nd to be
 compos$ ( /ill m elem5t>y p>ts3 ! wat] 
( our riv]s is =m$ by ! union1 9 def9ite
 proportions1 ( two gases1 oxyg5 &      
hydrog54 ,s1 likewise1 our *alk hills   
are =m$ by a comb9ation ( c>bon1 oxyg51 
& calcium2 elem5ts :i* 9 def9ite        
proportions =m *alk4 ,! fl9t f\nd )9 t  
*alk is comp\nd$ ( oxyg5 & silicon1 &   
our ord9>y clay is = ! mo/ "p =m$ by a  
union ( silicon1 oxyg51 & alum9um4 ,by  
f> ! great] "p ( ! e>?y cru/ is ?us     
comp\nd$ ( a few elem5t>y sub/ances4    
,su* is ,pr(essor ,tyndall's view ( !   
univ]se1 ris+ incid5tally out ( 8 !ory (
 heat1 8 ma9 object be+ to elucidate 8  
!ory ( heat & light4   ,,modifications  

,,( ,,! ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,globe4  ,z a
 consequ5ce ( ! hypo!sis ( c5tral heat1 
x is admitt$ t our planet has be5       
agitat$ by a s]ies ( local di/urbances2 
t is to say1 by ruptures ( its solid    
cru/ occurr+ at m or less di/ant        
int]vals4 ,^! p>tial revolutions at !   
surface are suppos$ to h be5 produc$1 z 
we %all h occasion to expla91 by        
upheavals or depressions ( ! solid cru/1
 result+ f ! fluidity ( ! c5tral p>ts1 &
 by ! cool+ d[n ( ! ext]nal cru/ ( !    
globe4  ,almo/ all bodies1 9 pass+ f a  
liquid to a solid /ate1 are dim9i%$ 9   
size 9 ! process4 ,9 molt5 metals :i*   
resume ! solid /ate by cool+1 ?is       
dim9ution am\nts to ab\t a t5? ( _!     
volume2 b ! decrease 9 size is n equal  
?r\gh\t ! :ole mass4 ,h5ce1 z a result (
 ! solidification ( ! int]nal p>ts ( !  
globe1 ! out] envelope w\ld be too l>ge2
 & w\ld no long] fit ! inn] sph]e1 :i*  
_h contract$ 9 cool+4 ,cracks & holl[s  
occur "u su* circum/ances1 ev5 9 small  
masses1 & ! effect ( conv]t+ su* a va/  

body z ! e>? f a liquid1 or r molt5     
condition1 to a solid /ate1 may be      
imag9$4 ,z ! int]ior became solid &     
concrete by cool+1 furr[s1 corrugations1
 & depressions 9 ! ext]nal cru/ ( !     
globe w\ld occur1 caus+ great           
inequalities 9 its surface2 produc+1 9  
%ort1 :at are n[ call$ *a9s ( m\nta9s4  
,at o!r times1 9 lieu ( furr[s &        
irregul>ities1 ! solid cru/ has become  
ruptur$1 produc+ fissures & fractures 9 
! out] envelope1 sometimes ( imm5se     
ext5t4 ,! liquid sub/ances conta9$ 9 !  
int]ior ( ! globe1 ) or )\t ! action ( !
 gases !y enclose1 escape ?r\gh ^!      
op5+s2 &1 accumulat+ on ! surface1      
become1 on cool+ & consolidat+1 m\nta9s 
( v>i\s heights4  ,x w\ld also happ51 & 
always f ! same cause1 namely1 f !      
int]nal contraction caus$ by ! unequal  
cool+ ( ! globe1 t m9or fissures w\ld be
 =m$ 9 ! e>?'s cru/2 inc&esc5t liquid   
matt] w\ld be aft]w>ds inject$ into ^!  
fissures1 fill+ !m up1 & =m+ 9 ! rocky  
cru/ ^? long n>r[ l9es ( =eign sub/ances

 :i* we call dykes4  ,f9ally1 x w\ld    
occasionally happ51 t 9 place ( molt5   
matt]1 su* z granite or metallif]\s     
comp\nds1 escap+ ?r\gh ^! fractures &   
fissures 9 ! globe1 actual riv]s ( boil+
 wat]1 abundantly *>g$ ) v>i\s m9]al    
salts 7t is to say1 ) silicates1 & )    
calc>e\s & magnesian comp\nds71 w\ld    
also escape1 s9ce ! elem5ts ( wat] w\ld 
be abundant 9 ! inc&esc5t mass4 ,add$ to
 ^! ! *emical & me*anical action ( !    
atmosph]e1 ( ra91 riv]s1 & ! sea1 h all 
a t5d5cy to de/roy ! h>de/ rocks4 ,!    
m9]al salts & o!r =eign sub/ances1 ent]+
 into comb9ation ) ^? already pres5t 9 !
 wat]s ( ! sea1 & sep>at+ at a subsequ5t
 p]iod f ^! wat]s1 w\ld be ?r[n d[n1 &  
?us con/itute ext5sive deposits--t is to
 say1 s$im5t>y =mations4 ,^! became1 on 
consolidation1 ! s$im5t>y rocks4  ,!    
furr[s1 corrugations1 & fractures 9 !   
t]re/rial cru/1 :i* s *ang$ ! aspect ( !
 surface1 & = ! "t displac$ ! sea-bas9s1
 w\ld be foll[$ by p]iods ( calm4 ,dur+ 
^! p]iods1 ! dbris1 torn by ! movem5t ( 

! wat]s f c]ta9 po9ts ( ! l&1 w\ld be   
transport$ to o!r p>ts ( ! globe by !   
oceanic curr5ts4 ,^! accumulat$         
het]og5e\s mat]ials1 :5 deposit$ at a   
lat] p]iod1 w\ld ultimately con/itute   
=mations--t is1 transport$ or drift$    
rocks4  ,we h v5tur$ to expla9 "s ( !   
!ories by :i* x is s\ght to expla9 !    
cosmography ( ! _w4 ,b our read]s mu/   
und]/& t all su* speculations are1 (    
necessity1 purely hypo!tical4  ,9       
con=mity ) ! prec$+ consid]ations we    
%all divide ! m9]al sub/ances ( :i* !   
e>? is compos$ into ?ree g5]al gr\ps1 "u
 ! foll[+ heads3--  #a4 ,eruptive       
,rocks4--,cry/all9e1 l ! second1 b =m$  
at all geological p]iods by ! irruption 
or intrusion ( ! liquid matt] occupy+ ! 
int]ior ( our globe ?r\gh all !         
pre-exi/+ rocks4  #b4 ,cry/all9e        
,rocks4--,t portion ( ! t]re/rial cru/  
:i* 0 prim>ily liquid1 ow+ to ! heat ( !
 globe1 b :i* solidifi$ at ! p]iod ( its
 fir/ cool+ d[n2 =m+ ! masses kn[n z    
,fundam5tal ,gneiss1 & ,laur5tian1 c4   

#c4 ,s$im5t>y ,rocks4--,consi/+ ( v>i\s 
m9]al sub/ances deposit$ by ! wat] ( !  
sea1 su* z silica1 ! c>bonates ( lime & 
magnesia1 c4  ,! m9]al masses :i*       
con/itute ! s$im5t>y rocks =m b$s1 or   
/rata1 hav+ among !mselves a con/ant    
ord] ( sup]position :i* indicates _!    
relative age4 ,! m9]al /ructure ( ^!    
b$s1 & ! rema9s ( ! organis$ be+s !y    
conta91 impress on !m *>act]s :i* enable
 u to di/+ui% ea* b$ f t :i* prec$es &  
foll[s x4  ,x does n foll[1 h[ev]1 t all
 ^! b$s are met )1 regul>ly sup]impos$1 
ov] ! :ole surface ( ! globe2 "u su*    
circum/ances geology w\ld be a v simple 
sci5ce1 only requir+ ! use ( ! eyes4 ,9 
consequ5ce ( ! frequ5t eruptions (      
granite1 porphyry1 s]p5t9e1 tra*yte1    
basalt1 & lava1 ^! b$s are (t5 brok51   
cut (f1 & replac$ by o!rs4  ,d5udation  
has be5 ano!r fruitful s\rce ( *ange4   
,pr(essor ,ramsay#aj %[s1 9 ! 8,memoirs 
( ! ,geological ,survey10 t b$s once    
exi/$ above a great "p ( ! ,m5dip ,hills
 to ! ext5t ( at lea/ #f1jjj feet1 :i* h

 be5 remov$ by ! d5ud+ ag5cy ( ! sea2   
:ile 9 ,s\? ,wales & ! adjac5t c\ntry1 a
 s]ies ( ,palaeozoic rocks1 elev5 ?\s&  
feet 9 ?ickness1 has be5 remov$ by !    
action ( wat]4 ,9 fact1 e foot ( ! e>?  
n[ =m+ ! dry l& is suppos$ to h be5 at  
"o "t "u wat]--to h em]g$1 & to h be5   
aga9 subm]g$1 & subject$ to ! de/ructive
 action ( ! ocean4 ,at c]ta9 po9ts a    
:ole s]ies ( s$im5t>y deposits1 & (t5   
sev]al ( !m1 h be5 remov$ by ?is cause1 
kn[n by geologi/s z ,d5udation4 ,!      
regul> s]ies ( rock =mations are1 9     
fact1 r>ely f\nd 9 unbrok5 ord]4 ,x is  
only by comb9+ ! collect$ obs]vations ( 
! geologi/s ( all c\ntries1 t we are    
enabl$ to arrange1 accord+ to _!        
relative ages1 ! sev]al b$s compos+ !   
solid t]re/rial cru/ z !y occur 9 !     
foll[+ ,table1 :i* proce$s f ! surface  
t[>ds ! c5tre1 9 desc5d+ ord]3--    #aj 
8,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey (     
,great ,brita910 vol4 i41 p4            
#big4  ,,ord] ,,( ,,/ratification4      
,quat]n>y ,epo*        ,mod]n ,p]iod4   

,plioc5e ,p]iod4   ,t]ti>y ,epo*        
,mioc5e ,p]iod4                         
,eoc5e ,p]iod4                          
,cretace\s ,rocks4   ,second>y ,epo*    
,jurassic ,rocks4                       
,triassic ,rocks4                       
,p]mian ,rocks4   ,prim>y ,epo*         
,c>bonif]\s ,rocks4                     
,devonian ,rocks4                       
,silurian ,rocks4    ,metamorphic ,s]ies
     ,cambrian ,rocks4                  
,fundam5tal ,gneiss1 or ,laur5tian4  ,"u
 ^! heads we propose to exam9e !        
successive trans=mations to :i* ! e>?   
has be5 subject$ 9 rea*+ its pres5t     
condition2 9 o!r words1 we propose1 bo? 
f an hi/orical & descriptive po9t (     
view1 to take a survey ( ! sev]al epo*s 
:i* c be di/+ui%$ 9 ! gradual =mation ( 
! e>?1 correspond+ ) ! =mation ( ! great
 gr\ps ( rocks enum]at$ 9 ! prec$+      
table4 ,we %all describe ! liv+         
creatures :i* h peopl$ ! e>? at ea* ( ^!
 epo*s1 & :i* h disappe>$1 f causes :i* 
we %all also endeav\r to trace4 ,we %all

 describe ! plants belong+ to ea* great 
phase 9 ! hi/ory ( ! globe4 ,at ! same  
"t1 we %all n pass ov] entirely 9 sil5ce
 ! rocks deposit$ by ! wat]s1 or ?r[n up
 by eruption dur+ ^! p]iods2 we propose1
 also1 to give a summ>y ( ! m9]alogical 
*>act]s & ( ! fossils *>act]i/ic (1 or  
peculi> to ea* =mation4 ,:at we propose1
 9 %ort1 is to give a hi/ory ( ! =mation
 ( ! globe1 & a description ( ! pr9cipal
 rocks :i* actually compose x2 & to take
 also a rapid glance at ! sev]al        
g5]ations ( animals & plants :i* h      
succe$$ & replac$ ea* o!r on ! e>?1 f ! 
v beg9n+ ( organic life up to ! "t (    
man's appe>ance4     ,,eruptive ,,rocks4
   ,no?+ is m difficult ?an to write a  
*ronological hi/ory ( ! revolutions &   
*anges to :i* ! e>? has be5 subject$    
dur+ ! ages :i* prec$$ ! hi/oric times4 
,! ph5om5a :i* h concurr$ to fa%ion its 
enorm\s mass1 & to give to x its pres5t 
=m & /ructure1 are s num]\s1 s v>i$1 &  
sometimes s ne>ly simultane\s 9 _!      
action1 t ! records defy ! p[]s (       

obs]vation to sep>ate !m4 ,! deposition 
( ! s$im5t>y rocks has be5 subject to   
int]ruption dur+ all ages ( ! _w4       
,viol5t igne\s eruptions h p5etrat$ !   
s$im5t>y b$s1 elevat+ !m 9 "s places1   
depress+ !m 9 o!rs1 & 9 all cases       
di/urb+ _! ord] ( sup]position1 & eject+
 masses ( cry/all9e rocks f ! inc&esc5t 
c5tre to ! surface4 ,amid/ ^!           
p]turbations1 sometimes /ret*+ ov] a va/
 ext5t ( c\ntry1 any?+ l a rigor\s      
*ronological record becomes impossible1 
= ! ph5om5a are s cont9u\s & complex t x
 is no long] possible to di/+ui% !      
fundam5tal f ! accid5tal & second>y     
causes4  ,9 ord] to r5d] ! subject      
some:at cle>]1 ! great facts relative to
 ! progressive =mation ( ! t]re/rial    
globe are divid$ into epo*s1 dur+ :i* ! 
s$im5t>y rocks 7 =m$ 9 due ord] 9 ! seas
 ( ! anci5t _w1 ! mud & s& 9 :i* 7      
deposit$ day by day4 ,aga91 ev5 :]e !   
l9e ( dem>cation is cle>e/ betwe5 "o    
=mation & ano!r1 x mu/ n be suppos$ !re 
is any %>ply def9$ l9e ( sep>ation      

betwe5 !m4 ,on ! contr>y1 "o sy/em      
gradually m]ges into t :i* succe$s x4 ,!
 rocks & fossils ( ! "o gradually       
disappe>1 to be succe$$ by ^? ( ! ov]ly+
 s]ies 9 ! regul> ord] ( succession4 ,! 
newly-made /rata became ! cemet]y ( !   
myriads ( be+s :i* liv$ & di$ 9 ! bosom 
( ! ocean4 ,! rocks ?us deposit$ 7 call$
 ,neptunian by ! old] geologi/s4  ,b    
:ile ! seas ( ea* epo* 7 ?us build+ up1 
gra9 by gra91 & b$ by b$1 ! new =mation 
out ( ! ru9s ( ! old]1 o!r influ5ces 7  
at "w1 sometimes1 to all appe>ance1     
imp$+ sometimes advanc+1 ! great "w4 ,! 
,plutonic rocks--! igne\s or eruptive   
rocks ( mod]n geology1 z we h se5 above1
 7 ! great di/urb+ ag5ts1 & ^!          
di/urbances occur 9 e age ( ! e>?'s     
hi/ory4 ,we %all h occasion to speak (  
^! eruptive =mations :ile describ+ !    
ph5om5a ( ! sev]al epo*s4 ,b x is ?\ght 
t ! n>rative w be made cle>] & m        
in/ructive by gr\p+ ?is class ( ph5om5a 
into "o *apt]1 :i* we place at !        
comm5cem5t1 inasmu* z ! con/ant ref]5ce 

to ! eruptive rocks w ?us be r5d]$ m    
intelligible4 ,to ^! are n[ add$ !      
section 8,metamorphic ,rocks10 f ! fif? 
edition ( ! ,fr5* "w4  ,! rocks :i*     
issu$ f ! c5tre ( ! e>? 9 a /ate (      
fusion are f\nd associat$ or            
int]/ratifi$ ) masses ( e epo*1 m       
especially ) ^? ( ! m anci5t /rata4 ,!  
=mations :i* ^! rocks h orig9at$ possess
 great int]e/2 fir/1 because !y ent]    
into ! composition ( ! t]re/rial cru/2  
secondly1 because !y h impress$ on its  
surface1 9 ! c\rse ( _! eruption1 "s ( !
 *>act]i/ics ( its configuration &      
/ructure2 f9ally1 because1 by _! means1 
! metals :i* are ! objects ( human      
indu/ry h be5 br\ght ne>] to ! surface4 
,accord+ to ! ord] ( _! appe>ance1 or z 
ne>ly s z c be asc]ta9$1 we %all class !
 eruptive rocks 9 two gr\ps3--  ,i4 ,!  
,volcanic ,rocks1 ( comp>atively rec5t  
orig91 :i* h giv5 rise to a succession (
 tra*ytes1 basalts1 & mod]n lavas4 ,^!1 
be+ ( loos] texture1 are presum$ to h   
cool$ m rapidly ?an ! ,plutonic rocks1 &

 at or ne> ! surface4  ,,ii4 ,!         
,plutonic ,rocks1 ( old] date1 :i* are  
exemplifi$ 9 ! v>i\s k9ds ( granites1 ! 
sy5ites1 ! protog9es1 porphyries1 c4 ,^!
 diff] f ! volcanic rocks 9 _! m compact
 cry/all9e /ructure1 9 ! abs5ce ( tufa1 
z well z ( pores & cavities2 f :i* x is 
inf]r$ t !y 7 =m$ at consid]able dep?s 9
 ! e>?1 & t !y h cool$ & cry/allis$     
sl[ly "u great pressure4   ,,plutonic   
,,eruptions4  ,! great eruptions (      
anci5t granite are suppos$ to h occurr$ 
dur+ ! prim>y epo*1 & *iefly 9 !        
c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,!y pres5t !mselves   
sometimes 9 consid]able masses1 = !     
e>?'s cru/ be+ /ill ?9 & p]meable1 x 0  
prep>$ z x 7 = absorb+ ! granite masses4
 ,9 consequ5ce ( its weak cohesion1 !   
primitive cru/ ( ! globe w\ld be r5t &  
p5etrat$ 9 all directions1 z repres5t$ 9
 ! foll[+ section ( ,cape ,wra?1 9      
,su!rl&%ire1 9 :i* ! ve9s ( granite     
ramify 9 a v irregul> mann] across !    
gneiss & hornbl5de-s*i/1 !re associat$ )
 x4 7,fig4 #c47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4    

#c4--,ve9s ( granite trav]s+ ! gneiss ( 
,cape ,wra?4  ,granite1 :5 x is s\nd1   
furni%es a f9e build+-/one1 b we mu/ n  
suppose t x des]ves t "* ( extreme      
h>dness ) :i* ! poets h gratuit\sly     
gift$ x4 ,its granul> texture r5d]s x   
unfit = road-/one1 :]e x gets cru%$ too 
quickly to du/4 ,) 8 hamm] ! geologi/   
easily %apes 8 specim5s2 & 9 ! ,russian 
,w>1 at ! bomb>dm5t ( ,bom>sund1 ! %ot f
 our %ips demon/rat$ t ramp>ts ( granite
 c\ld be z easily demoli%$ z ^?         
con/ruct$ ( lime/one4  ,! compon5t      
m9]als ( granite are felsp>1 qu>tz1 &   
mica1 9 v>y+ proportions2 felsp> be+    
g5]ally ! pr$om9ant +r$i5t1 & qu>tz m   
pl5tiful ?an mica--! :ole be+ unit$ into
 a confus$ly granul> or cry/all9e mass4 
,occasionally x passes ins5sibly f f9e  
to co>se-gra9$ granite1 & ! f9] gra9$ is
 ev5 sometimes f\nd emb$d$ 9 ! m co>sely
 granul> v>iety3 sometimes x assumes a  
porphyritic texture4 ,porphyritic       
granite is a v>iety ( granite1 !        
compon5ts ( :i*--qu>tz1 felsp>1 &       

mica--are set 9 a non-cry/allis$ pa/e1  
unit+ ! mass 9 a mann] :i* w be famili> 
to _m ( our read]s :o may h se5 !       
granite ( ! ,l&'s ,end1 9 ,cornwall4    
,alongside ^! or?oclase cry/als1 qu>tz  
is implant$1 usually 9 gra9s ( irregul> 
%ape1 m r>ely cry/allis$1 & seldom 9 !  
=m ( p]fect cry/als4 ,to ^! +r$i5ts are 
add$ ?9 scales or small hexagonal plates
 & cry/als ( :ite1 br[n1 black1 or      
gre5i%-col\r$ mica4 ,f9ally1 ! "n (     
qu>tzif]\s porphyry is res]v$ = ^?      
v>ieties :i* pres5t cry/als ( qu>tz2 !  
o!r v>ieties are simply call$           
porphyritic granite4 ,true porphyry     
pres5ts a pa/e ess5tially compos$ (     
compact felsp>1 9 :i* ! cry/als (       
or?oclase--t is1 felsp> ) a pota%       
base--are abundantly dissem9at$1 &      
sometimes ) great regul>ity4  ,granite  
is suppos$ to h be5 8=m$ at consid]able 
dep?s 9 ! e>?1 :]e x has cool$ &        
cry/allis$ sl[ly "u great pressure1 :]e 
! conta9$ gases c\ld n exp&40#aa 8,!    
influ5ce10 says ,lyell1 8( subt]ranean  

heat may ext5d d[nw>ds f ! crat] ( e    
active volcano to a great dep? bel[1    
p]haps sev]al miles or leagues1 & !     
effects :i* are produc$ deep 9 ! b[els (
 ! e>? may1 or r mu/1 be di/9ct2 s t    
volcanic & plutonic rocks1 ea* diff]5t 9
 texture1 & sometimes ev5 9 composition1
 may orig9ate simultane\sly1 ! "o at !  
surface1 ! o!r f> b5ea? x40 ,o!r views1 
h[ev]1 ( its orig9 are n unkn[n to      
sci5ce3 ,pr(essor ,ramsay & "s o!r      
geologi/s consid] granite to be         
metamorphic4 8,= my own "p10 says !     
,pr(essor1 8,i believe t 9 "o s5se x is 
an igne\s rock2 t is to say1 t x has be5
 completely fus$4 ,b 9 ano!r s5se x is a
 metamorphic rock1 p>tly because x is   
impossible 9 _m cases to draw any       
def9ite l9e betwe5 gneiss & granite1 =  
!y pass into ea* o!r by ins5sible       
gradations2 & granite frequ5tly occupies
 ! space t ought to be fill$ ) gneiss1 7
 x n t ! gneiss has be5 entirely fus$4  
,i believe !re=e t granite & its allies 
are simply ! effect ( ! extreme (       

metamorphism1 br\ght ab\t by great heat 
) pres5ce ( wat]4 ,9 o!r words1 :5 !    
metamorphism has be5 s great t all      
traces ( ! semi-cry/all9e lam9at$       
/ructure h disappe>$1 a m p]fect        
cry/allisation has tak5 place40#ab ,x is
 obvi\s t ! v result on :i* ! ,pr(essor 
f\nds 8 !ory1 namely1 ! difficulty 89 _m
 cases10 ( draw+ a l9e betwe5 ! granite 
& ! gneiss1 w\ld be produc$ by ! sudd5  
injection ( ! fluid m9]als into gneiss1 
compos$ ( ! same mat]ials4 ,moreov]1 x  
is only 9 "s cases t ! difficulty exi/s2
 9 _m o!rs ! l9e ( sep>ation is def9able
 en\gh4#ac    #aa ,lyell's 8,elem5ts (  
,geology10 p4 #fid4    #ab 8,physical   
,geology & ,geography ( ,great ,brita910
 by ,a4 ,c4        ,ramsay1 p4 #ch1 #bnd
 ed4    #ac ,at ! same "t x may be      
safely assum$ 7z ,pr(essor ,ramsay      
believes to be ! case7 t granite 9 mo/  
cases is a        metamorphic rock2 yet 
are !re _m in/ances 9 :i* x may        )
 great] tru? be consid]$ z a true       
plutonic rock4  ,! granitic rock call$  

,sy5ite1 9 :i* a "p ( ! mica is replac$ 
by hornbl5de or amphibole1 has to all   
appe>ance be5 erupt$ to ! surface       
subsequ5tly to ! granite1 & v (t5       
alongside ( x4 ,?us ! two extremities ( 
! ,vosges1 t[>ds ,bel=t & ,/rasburg1 are
 em95tly sy5itic1 :ile ! int]m$iate "p1 
t[>ds ,colm>1 is z m>k$ly granitic4 ,9 !
 ,lyonnais1 ! s\!rn region is granitic2 
! nor!rn region1 f ,arbresle1 is 9 great
 "p sy5itic4 ,sy5ite also makes its     
appe>ance 9 ! ,lim\s94  ,sy5ite1 into   
:i* rose-col\r$ felsp> (t5 ent]s1 =ms a 
beautiful rock1 because ! gre5 or ne>ly 
black hornbl5de height5s1 by contra/1 ! 
effect ( its col\r4 ,?is rock is a      
valuable adjunct = ar*itectural ornam5t2
 x is t out ( :i* ! anci5t ,egyptians   
%ap$ _m ( _! monum5tal columns1 sph9xes1
 & s>cophagi2 ! mo/ p]fect type ( x is  
f\nd 9 ,egypt1 n f> f ! city ( ,sy5e1 f 
:i* x d]ives its "n4 ,! obelisk ( ,luxor
 n[ 9 ,p>is1 sev]al ( ! ,egyptian       
obelisks 9 ,rome1 & ! celebrat$ sph9xes1
 ( :i* copies may be se5 9 front ( !    

,egyptian ,c\rt at ! ,cry/al ,palace1 ! 
p$e/al ( ! /atue ( ,pet] ! ,great at ,/4
 ,pet]sburg1 & ! fac+ ( ! sub-basem5t ( 
! column 9 ! ,place ,v5dme 9 ,p>is1 are 
( ?is /one1 ( :i* !re are qu>ries 9 !   
neighb\rhood ( ,plan*]-les-,m9es 9 !    
,vosges4  ,sy5ite dis9tegrates m readily
 ?an granite1 & x conta9s indurat$      
nodul> concretions1 :i* (t5 rema9 9 ! =m
 ( l>ge sph]ical balls1 9 ! mid/ ( !    
dbris result+ f dis9tegration ( ! mass4 
,x rema9s to be add$ t sy5itic masses   
are (t5 v v>iable z reg>ds _!           
composition2 ! hornbl5de is sometimes   
want+1 9 :i* case we c only recognise an
 anci5t granite4 ,9 o!r in/ances !      
hornbl5de pr$om9ates to su* a degree1 t 
a l>ge or small-gra9$ diorite1 or       
gre5/one1 results4 ,! geologi/ %\ld be  
prep>$ to obs]ve ^! transitions1 :i* are
 apt to lead him into error if pass$ ov]
 )\t be+ notic$4  ,protog9e is a talcose
 granite1 compos$ ( felsp>1 qu>tz1 &    
talc or *lorite1 or decompos$ mica1 :i* 
take ! place ( ! usual mica4            

,excessively v>iable 9 its texture1     
protog9e passes f ! mo/ p]fect granitic 
aspect to t ( a porphyry1 9 su* a mann] 
z to pres5t cont9ual subjects (         
unc]ta9ty1 r5d]+ x v difficult to       
det]m9e its geological age4 ,nev]!less1 
x is suppos$ to h come to ! surface be=e
 & dur+ ! coal-p]iod2 9 %ort1 at        
,creusot1 protog9e cov]s ! coal-fields s
 completely1 t x is necess>y to s9k !   
pits ?r\gh ! protog9e1 9 ord] to        
p5etrate to ! coal1 & ! rock has s      
manife/ly act$ on ! coal-measure /rata1 
z to h contort$ & metamorphos$ !m4      
,some?+ analog\s to ?is manife/s itself 
ne> ,mont ,blanc1 :]e ! colossal mass   
:i* pr$om9ates 9 t *a91 & ! peaks :i*   
belong to x1 consi/ ( protog9e4 ,b z no 
su* action c be p]ceiv$ 9 ! ov]ly+ rocks
 ( ! ,triassic p]iod1 x may be assum$ t 
at ! "t ( ! deposition ( ! ,new ,r$     
,s&/one ! protog9\s eruptions _h ceas$4 
,x is necess>y to add1 h[ev]1 t if !    
protog9e rises 9 su* bold p9nacles r\nd 
,mont ,blanc1 ! circum/ance only applies

 to ! m elevat$ p>ts ( ! m\nta91 & is   
influ5c$ by ! excessive rig\r ( !       
seasons1 :i* demoli%es & cont9ually we>s
 away all ! p>ts ( ! rock :i* h be5     
decompos$ by atmosph]ic ag5cy4 ,:]e     
protog9e occurs 9 mild] climates--ar\nd 
,creusot1 & at ,pi]re-sur-,autre1 9 !   
,=ez *a91 = in/ance--! m\nta9s %[ none (
 ! sc>p$ & bri/l+ peaks exhibit$ 9 ! *a9
 ( ,mont ,blanc4 ,only s+le isolat$     
masses occasionally =m rock+-/ones1 s   
call$ because1 re/+ ) a convex base ^u a
 p$e/al also convex1 b 9 a contr>y way1 
x is easy to move ^! naturally balanc$  
blocks1 al?\gh f _! va/ size x w\ld     
require v consid]able =ce to displace   
!m4 ,?is t5d5cy to fa%ion !mselves into 
r\nd$ or ellipsoidal =ms belongs1 also1 
to o!r granitic rocks1 & ev5 to "s ( !  
v>iegat$ s&/ones4 ,! rock+-/ones h (t5  
giv5 rise to leg5ds & popul> my?s4  ,!  
great eruptions ( granite1 protog9e1 &  
porphyry took place1 accord+ to ,m4     
,f\rnet1 dur+ ! c>bonif]\s p]iod1 =     
porphyritic pebbles are f\nd 9 !        

conglom]ates ( ! ,coal-measure p]iod4   
8,! granite ( ,d>tmoor1 9 ,devon%ire10  
says ,lyell1#ad 80 =m]ly suppos$ to be  
"o ( ! mo/ anci5t ( ! plutonic rocks1 b 
x is n[ asc]ta9$ to be po/]ior 9 date to
 ! culm-measures ( t c\nty1 :i* f _!    
position1 & z conta9+ true coal-plants1 
are reg>d$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick & ,sir 
,r4 ,mur*ison z memb]s ( ! true         
,c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,?is granite1 l !    
sy5itic granite ( ,*ri/iana1 has brok5  
?r\gh ! /ratifi$ =mations )\t mu* *ang+ 
_! /rike4 ,h5ce1 on ! nor?-we/ side (   
,d>tmoor1 ! successive memb]s ( !       
,culm-measures abut aga9/ ! granite1 &  
become metamorphic z !y approa*4 ,!     
granite ( ,cornwall is probably ( ! same
 date1 & !re=e z mod]n z ! ,c>bonif]\s  
/rata1 if n new]40    #ad 8,elem5ts (   
,geology10 p4 #gaf1 #f? edition4  ,!    
anci5t granites %[ !mselves 9 ,france 9 
! ,vosges1 9 ,auv]gne1 at ,esp9\se 9    
,langu$oc1 at ,plan-de-la-,t\r 9        
,prov5ce1 9 ! *a9 ( ! ,cv5nes1 at ,mont 
,pilat ne> ,lyons1 & 9 ! s\!rn "p ( !   

,lyonnaise *a94 ,!y r>ely imp>t boldness
 or gr&eur to ! l&scape1 z might be     
expect$ f _! cry/allis$ texture &       
h>dness2 = hav+ be5 expos$ to ! effects 
( atmosph]ic *anges f ! e>lie/ times ( !
 e>?'s consolidation1 ! rocks h become  
greatly worn away & r\nd$ 9 ! outl9es ( 
_! masses4 ,x is only :5 rec5t          
dislocations h brok5 !m up t !y assume a
 picturesque "*4  ,! ,*ri/iania granite 
allud$ to above 0 at "o "t ?\ght to h   
belong$ to ! ,silurian p]iod4 ,b1 9     
#ahac1 ,von ,bu* ann\nc$ t ! /rata 9 "q 
consi/$ ( lime/ones conta9+ or?oc]atites
 & trilobites2 ! %ales & lime/one be+   
only p5etrat$ by granite-ve9s1 & alt]$ =
 a consid]able di/ance f ! po9t (       
contact4#ae ,! same granite is f\nd to  
p5etrate ! anci5t gneiss ( ! c\ntry on  
:i* ! fossilif]\s b$s re/--uncon=mably1 
z ! geologi/s say2 t is1 !y re/ on !    
edges ( ! gneiss1 f :i* o!r /ratifi$    
deposits _h be5 wa%$ away1 leav+ !      
gneiss d5ud$ be=e ! s$im5t>y b$s 7      
deposit$4 8,betwe5 ! orig91 !re=e1 ( !  

gneiss & ! granite10#af says ,lyell1    
8!re int]v5$1 fir/1 ! p]iod :5 ! /rata (
 gneiss 7 d5ud$2 secondly1 ! p]iod ( !  
deposition ( ! ,silurian deposits4 ,yet 
! granite produc$ aft] ?is long int]val 
is (t5 s intimately bl5d$ ) ! anci5t    
gneiss at ! po9t ( ! junction1 t x is   
impossible to draw any o!r ?an an       
arbitr>y l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 !m2 &   
:]e ?is is n ! case1 tortu\s ve9s (     
granite pass freely ?r\gh gneiss1 end+  
sometimes 9 ?reads1 z if ! old] rock _h 
(f]$ no resi/ance to _! passage40 ,f ?is
 example ,sir ,*>les concludes t x is   
impossible to conjecture :e!r c]ta9     
granites1 :i* s5d ve9s into gneiss & o!r
 metamorphic rocks1 h be5 s inject$ :ile
 ! gneiss 0 sc>cely solidifi$1 or at "s 
"t dur+ ! ,second>y or ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,z
 x is1 no s+le mass ( granite c be po9t$
 out m anci5t ?an ! olde/ kn[n          
fossilif]\s deposits2 no ,l[] ,cambrian 
/ratum is kn[n to re/ imm$iately on     
granite2 no pebbles ( granite are f\nd 9
 ! conglom]ates ( ! ,l[] ,cambrian4 ,on 

! contr>y1 granite is usually f\nd1 z 9 
! case ( ,d>tmoor1 9 imm$iate contact ) 
prim>y =mations1 ) e sign ( elevation   
subsequ5t to _! deposition4 ,porphyritic
 pebbles are f\nd 9 ! ,coal-measures2   
porpyhries cont9ue dur+ ! ,triassic     
p]iod2 s9ce1 9 "s p>ts ( ,g]many1 ve9s (
 porphyry are f\nd trav]s+ ! ,new ,r$   
,s&/one1 or grs big>r ( ,fr5* geologi/s4
 ,sy5ites h especially react$ ^u !      
,silurian deposits & o!r old s$im5t>y   
rocks1 up to ^? ( ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s    
p]iod4    #ae 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4 
#gag4    #af ,ibid1 p4 #gah4  ,! t]m    
porphyry is usually appli$ to a rock ) a
 pa/e or base ( compact felsp>1 9 :i*   
felspa?ic cry/als ( v>i\s sizes assume  
_! natural =m4 ,! v>iety ( _!           
m9]alogical *>act]s1 ! admirable poli%  
:i* c be giv5 to !m1 & :i* r5d]s !m     
em95tly useful = ornam5tation1 give to !
 porphyries an arti/ic & indu/rial      
importance1 :i* w\ld be greatly enhanc$ 
if ! difficulty ( work+ su* a h>d       
mat]ial did n r5d] ! price s high4  ,!  

porphyries possess v>i\s degrees (      
h>dness & compactness4 ,:5 a f9e d>k-r$ 
col\r--:i* contra/s well ) ! :ite ( !   
felsp>--is comb9$ ) h>dness1 a          
magnific5t /one is ! result1 susceptible
 ( tak+ a poli%1 & fit = any k9d (      
ornam5tal "w2 = ! decoration ( build+s1 
= ! con/ruction ( vases1 columns1 c4 ,! 
r$ ,egyptian porphyry1 call$ ,rosso     
antico1 0 p>ticul>ly s\ght aft] by !    
anci5ts1 :o made sepul*res1 ba?s1 &     
obelisks ( x4 ,! gr&e/ kn[n mass ( ?is  
k9d ( porphyry is ! ,obelisk ( ,sextus  
,v4 at ,rome4 ,9 ! ,museum ( ! ,l\vre1 9
 ,p>is1 "s magnific5t bas9s & /atues1   
made ( ! same /one1 may also be se54  ,9
 spite ( its compact texture porphyry   
dis9tegrates1 l o!r rocks1 :5 expos$ to 
air & wat]4 ,"o ( ! sph9xes transport$ f
 ,egypt to ,p>is1 be+ accid5tally plac$ 
"u a gutt] ( ! ,l\vre1 soon began to    
exhibit signs ( exfoliation1 not)/&+ x  
_h rema9$ s\nd = ages "u ! climate (    
,egypt4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 & ev5 9 ,france1 
:]e ! climate is mu* dri]1 ! porphyries 

frequ5tly decompose s z to become       
sc>cely recognisable4 ,!y crop out 9    
v>i\s p>ts ( ,france1 b are only        
abundant 9 ! nor?-ea/]n "p ( ! c5tral   
plateau1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ! s\?4 ,!y =m    
m\nta9s ( a conical =m1 pres5t+1 ne>ly  
always1 consid]able depressions on _!   
flanks4 ,9 ! ,vosges !y atta9 a height (
 f ?ree to f\r ?\s& feet4  ,! ,s]p5t9e  
rocks are a sort ( compact talc1 :i* owe
 _! soapy texture & greasy feel to      
silicate ( magnesia4 ,_! s(tness p]mits 
( _! be+ turn$ 9 a la! & fa%ion$ into   
vessels ( v>i\s =ms4 ,ev5 /oves are     
con/ruct$ ( ?is sub/ance1 :i* be>s heat 
well4 ,! s]p5t9e qu>ri$ on ! banks (    
,lake ,como1 :i* be>s ! "n ( pi]re      
ollaire1 or pot-/one1 is excell5tly     
adapt$ = ?is purpose4 ,s]p5t9e %[s      
itself 9 ! ,vosges1 9 ! ,lim\s91 9 !    
,lyonnais1 & 9 ! ,v>2 x occupies an     
imm5se tract 9 ! ,alps1 z well z 9 !    
,ap5n9es4 ,mona m>ble is an example (   
s]p5t9e2 & ! ,liz>d ,po9t1 ,cornwall1 is
 a mass ( x4 ,a portion ( ! /ratifi$    

rocks ( ,tuscany1 & also ^? ( ! ,isl& ( 
,elba1 h be5 upheav$ & ov]turn$ by      
eruptions ( x4  ,z = ! ,briti% ,isl&s1  
plutonic rocks are ext5sively develop$ 9
 ,scotl&1 :]e ! ,cambrian & ,silurian   
rocks1 (t5 ( gneissic "*--associat$ "h &
 !re ) great bosses ( granite &         
sy5ite--=m by f> ! great] "p ( ! region 
kn[n z ! ,highl&s4 ,9 ! ,isle ( ,arran a
 circul> mass ( co>se-gra9$ granite     
protrudes ?r\gh ! s*i/s ( ! nor!rn "p ( 
! isl&2 :ile1 9 ! s\!rn "p1 a f9]-gra9$ 
granite & ve9s ( porphyry & co>se-gra9$ 
granite h brok5 ?r\gh ! /ratifi$        
rocks4#ag ,9 ,devon%ire & ,cornwall !re 
are f\r great bosses ( granite2 9 !     
s\!rn p>ts ( ,cornwall ! m9]al axis is  
def9$ by a l9e drawn ?r\gh ! c5tre ( !  
sev]al bosses f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/2 b 9
 ! nor? ( ,cornwall1 & ext5d+ into      
,devon%ire1 x /rikes ne>ly ea/ & we/4 ,!
 great granite mass 9 ,cornwall lies on 
! moors nor? ( ,/4 ,au/ell1 & indicates 
! exi/5ce ( m ?an "o di/urb+ =ce4 8,!re 
0 an elevat+ =ce10 says ,pr(essor       

,s$gwick1#ah 8protrud+ f ! ,/4 ,au/ell  
granite2 &1 if ,i int]pret ! ph5om5a    
correctly1 !re 0 a contemporane\s       
elevat+ =ce act+ f ! s\?2 & betwe5 ^!   
two =ces1 ! b$s1 n[ spread ov] ! surface
 f ! ,/4 ,au/ell granite to ! ,dodman & 
,n>ehead1 7 brok51 contort$1 & plac$ 9  
_! pres5t di/urb$ position4 ,"s great   
di/urb+ =ces10 he obs]ves1 8h modifi$ ! 
symmetry ( ?is "p ( ,cornwall1 affect+10
 he believes1 8! :ole transv]se section 
( ! c\ntry f ! headl&s ne> ,f[ey to ^?  
s\? ( ,pad/[40 ,?is great granite-axis 0
 upheav$ 9 a l9e comm5c+ at ! we/ end ( 
,cornwall1 ris+ ?r\gh ! slate-rocks ( ! 
old] ,devonian gr\p1 cont9u+ 9          
association ) !m z f> z ! boss nor? (   
,/4 ,au/ell1 produc+ mu* confusion 9 !  
/ratifi$ masses2 ! granite-mass betwe5  
,/4 ,cle> & ,camel=d rose betwe5 !      
deposition ( ! ,pe!rw9 & t ( ! ,plym\?  
gr\p2 la/ly1 ! ,d>tmoor granite rose1   
p>tially mov+ ! adjac5t slates 9 su* a  
mann] t its nor? end abuts aga9/ & tilts
 up ! base ( ! ,culm-tr\gh1 m9]alis+ !  

great ,culm-lime/one1 :ile on ! s\? x   
does ! same to ! base ( ! ,plym\?       
slates4 ,^! facts prove t ! granite (   
,d>tmoor1 :i* 0 =m]ly ?\ght to be ! mo/ 
anci5t ( ! ,plutonic rocks1 is ( a date 
subsequ5t to ! ,culm-measures (         
,devon%ire1 :i* are n[ reg>d$ z =m+ "p (
 ! true c>bonif]\s s]ies4    #ag        
8,geology ( ! ,isl& ( ,arran10 by ,&rew 
,c4 ,ramsay4 8,geology        ( ,arran &
 ,clydesdale10 by ,james ,bryce4    #ah 
,see ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,geological     
,society1 vol4 viii41 pp4 #i        &   
#aj4   ,,volcanic ,,rocks4  ,consid]$ z 
a :ole1 ! volcanic rocks may be gr\p$   
into ?ree di/9ct =mations1 :i* we %all  
notice 9 ! foll[+ ord]1 :i* is t ( _!   
relative antiquity1 namely3--#a4        
,tra*ytic2 #b4 ,basaltic2 #c4 ,volcanic 
or ,lava =mations4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 
#d4--;,a peak ( ! ,cantal *a94          
,,tra*ytic ,,=mations4  ,tra*yte 7d]iv$ 
f 1 r\gh71 hav+ a co>se1 cellul>        
appe>ance1 & a r\gh & gritty feel1      
belongs to ! class ( volcanic rocks4 ,! 

eruptions ( tra*yte seem to h comm5c$   
t[>ds ! middle ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 & to h
 cont9u$ up to its close4 ,! tra*ytes   
pres5t consid]able analogy 9 _!         
composition to ! felspa?ic porphyries1 b
 _! m9]alogical *>act]s are diff]5t4 ,_!
 texture is por\s2 !y =m a :ite1 grey1  
black1 sometimes yell[i% matrix1 9 :i*1 
z a rule1 felsp> pr$om9ates1 toge!r )   
dissem9at$ cry/als ( felsp>1 "s         
hornbl5de or augite1 & d>k-col\r$ mica4 
,9 its ext]nal appe>ance tra*yte is v   
v>iable4 ,x =ms ! ?ree mo/ elevat$      
m\nta9 ranges ( ,c5tral ,france2 ! gr\ps
 ( ,cantal & ,mont ,dore1 & ! *a9 ( !   
,velay 7,puy-de-,dme74#ai    #ai ,= full
 in=mation 9 ref]5ce to ! rocks &       
geology (        ?is "p ( ,france1 !    
read] is ref]r$ to ! ma/]ly "w        on
 8,! ,geology & ,ext9ct ,volcanoes (    
,c5tral ,france10 by ,g4        ,p\lett 
,scrope1 #bnd edition1 #aheh4           
,illu/ration3 ,i4--,peak ( ,sancy 9 !   
,mont ,dore gr\p1 ,auv]gne4  ,! igne\s  
gr\p ( ,cantal may be describ$ z a s]ies

 ( l(ty summits1 rang$ ar\nd a l>ge     
cavity1 :i* 0 at "o p]iod probably a    
volcanic crat]1 ! circul> base ( :i*    
occupies an area ( ne>ly fifte5 leagues 
9 diamet]4 ,! /rictly tra*ytic portion (
 ! gr\p rises 9 ! c5tre1 & is compos$ ( 
high m\nta9s1 ?r[+ (f spurs1 :i*        
gradually decrease 9 height1 & t]m9ate 9
 plateaux m or less incl9$4 ,^! c5tral  
m\nta9s atta9 a height v>y+ betwe5      
#d1ejj & #e1ejj feet above ! level ( !  
sea4 ,a scaly or s*i/ose v>iety (       
tra*yte1 call$ phonolite1 or cl9k/one 7f
 ! r++ metallic s\nd x emits :5 /ruck ) 
! hamm]71 ) an unusual proportion (     
felsp>1 or1 accord+ to ,gmel91 compos$ (
 felsp> & zeolite1 =ms ! /eep tra*ytic  
esc>pm5ts at ! c5tre1 :i* enclose !     
pr9cipal valleys2 _! abrupt peaks giv+ a
 rem>kably picturesque appe>ance to !   
l&scape4 ,9 ! engrav+ on p4 #dj 7,fig4  
#d7 ! slaty1 lam9at$ "* ( ! cl9k/one is 
well repres5t$ 9 "o ( ! phonolitic peaks
 ( ! ,cantal gr\p4 ,! gr\p at ,mont     
,dore consi/s ( sev5 or eight rocky     

summits1 occupy+ a circuit ( ab\t five  
leagues 9 diamet]4 ,! massive tra*ytic  
rock1 ( :i* ?is m\nta9\s mass is *iefly 
=m$1 has an av]age ?ickness ( #a1bjj to 
#b1fjj feet2 compreh5d+ ov] t range     
prodigi\s lay]s ( scori1 pumice\s       
conglom]ates1 & detritus1 int]/ratifi$ )
 b$s ( tra*yte & basalt1 be>+ ! signs ( 
an igne\s orig91 tufa =m+ ! base2 &     
betwe5 !m occur lay]s ( lignite1 or     
imp]fectly m9]alis$ woody fibre1 ! :ole 
be+ sup]impos$ on a primitive plateau ( 
ab\t #c1bej feet 9 height4 ,scor$ &     
furr[$ out by deep valleys1 ! visc\s    
mass 0 gradually upheav$1 until 9 !     
ne$le-l ,pic de ,sancy 7,,plate ,i471 a 
pyramidal rock ( porphyritic tra*yte1   
:i* is ! l(tie/ po9t ( ,mont ,dore1 x   
atta9s ! height ( #f1beh feet4 ,! ,pic  
de ,sancy1 repres5t$ on page #dj 7,fig4 
#d71 gives an excell5t idea ( ! g5]al   
appe>ance ( ! tra*ytic m\nta9s ( ,mont  
,dore4  ,^u ! same plateau ) ,mont      
,dore1 & ab\t sev5 miles nor? ( its la/ 
slopes1 ! tra*ytic =mation is repeat$ 9 

f\r r\nd$ domes--^? ( ,puy-de-,dme1     
,s>c\1 ,cli]z\1 & ,le ,gr& ,su*et4 ,!   
,puy-de-,dme1 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable      
volcanic domes 9 ,auv]gne1 pres5ts ano!r
 f9e & v /rik+ example ( an eruptive    
tra*ytic rock4 ,! rock "h assumes a     
peculi> m9]al "*1 :i* has caus$ ! "n (  
domite to be giv5 to x4  ,! *a9 ( !     
,velay =ms a zone1 compos$ ( indep5d5t  
plateaux & peaks1 :i* =ms ^u ! horizon a
 long & /rangely int]sect$ ridge4 ,!    
b>5ess ( ! m\nta9s1 _! =ms--po9t$ or    
r\nd$1 sometimes t]m9at+ 9 sc>p$        
plateaux--give to ! :ole l&scape an     
appe>ance at once picturesque &         
*>act]i/ic4 ,! peak ( ,le ,mez51 :i*    
rises #e1hbj feet above ! sea1 =ms !    
culm9at+ po9t ( ! *a94 ,! phonolites (  
:i* x consi/s h be5 erupt$ f fissures   
:i* pres5t !mselves at a great numb] (  
po9ts1 rang+ f nor?-nor?-we/ to         
s\?-s\?-ea/4  ,on ! banks ( ! ,rh9e & 9 
,hung>y ! tra*ytic =mation pres5ts      
itself 9 features id5tical ) ^? :i*     
indicate x 9 ,france4 ,9 ,am]ica x is   

pr9cipally repres5t$ by "s imm5se cones1
 sup]pos$ 9 ! *a9 ( ! ,&es2 ! colossal  
,*imborazo be+ "o ( ^? tra*ytic cones4  
,illu/ration3 ,,ii4--,m\nta9 & basaltic 
crat] ( ,la ,c\pe d',ayzac1 9 !         
,viv>ais4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#e4--,!oretical view ( a basaltic       
plateau4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#f4--;,basalt 9 prismatic columns4      
,,basaltic ,,=mations4  ,basaltic       
eruptions seem to h occurr$ dur+ !      
,second>y & ,t]ti>y p]iods4 ,basalt1    
accord+ to ,dr4 ,daub5y1#bj 9 its m     
/rict s5se1 8is compos$ ( an intimate   
mixture ( augite ) a zeolitic m9]al1 :i*
 appe>s to h be5 =m$ out ( labradorite  
7felsp> ( ,labrador71 by ! addition (   
wat]--! pres5ce ( wat] be+ 9 all        
zeolites ! cause ( t bubbl+-up "u !     
bl[-pipe to :i* !y owe _! appellation40 
,m4 ,delesse & o!r m9]alogi/s are (     
op9ion t ! idea ( augite be+ ! prevail+ 
m9]al 9 basalt1 mu/ be ab&on$2 & t      
al?\gh its pres5ce gives ! rock its     
di/9ctive "*1 z comp>$ ) tra*ytic & mo/ 

o!r trap rocks1 /ill ! pr9cipal elem5t 9
 _! composition is felsp>4 ,basalt1 a   
lava consi/+ ess5tially ( augite1       
labradorite 7or nephel9e7 & magnetic    
iron-ore is ! rock :i* pr$om9ates 9 ?is 
=mation4 ,x conta9s a small] quantity ( 
silica ?an ! tra*yte1 & a l>g]          
proportion ( lime & magnesia4 ,h5ce1    
indep5d5t ( ! iron 9 its composition1 x 
is heavi] 9 proportion1 z x conta9s m or
 less silica4 ,"s v>ieties ( basalt     
conta9 v l>ge quantities ( oliv9e1 a    
m9]al ( an olive-gre5 col\r1 ) a *emical
 composition diff]+ b slightly f        
s]p5t9e4 ,bo? basalts & tra*yte conta9 m
 soda & less silica 9 _! composition ?an
 granites2 "s ( ! basalts are highly    
fusible1 ! alkal9e matt] & lime 9 _!    
composition act+ z a flux to ! silica4  
,!re are examples ( basalt exi/+ 9      
well-def9$ fl[s1 :i* /ill adh]e to      
crat]s visible at ! pres5t day1 & )     
reg>d to ! igne\s orig9 ( :i* !re c be  
no d\bt4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ examples ( a 
basaltic cone is furni%$ by ! m\nta9 or 

crat] ( ,la ,c\pe d',ayzac1 9 !         
,viv>ais1 9 ! s\? ( ,france4 ,,plate    
,,ii41 on ! opposite page1 gives an     
accurate repres5tation ( ?is curi\s     
basaltic fl[4 ,! remnants ( ! /ream (   
liquefi$ basalt :i* once fl[$ d[n !     
flank ( ! hill may /ill be se5 adh]+ 9  
va/ masses to ! granite rocks on bo?    
sides ( a n>r[ valley :]e ! riv] ,volant
 has cut across ! lava & left a pavem5t 
or causeway1 =m+ an assemblage ( upright
 prismatic columns1 fitt$ toge!r )      
geometrical symmetry2 ! :ole re/+ on a  
base ( gneiss4 ,basaltic eruptions      
sometimes =m a plateau1 z repres5t$ 9   
,fig4 #e1 :]e ! process ( =mation is %[n
 !oretically & 9 a mann] :i* r5d]s fur!r
 explanation unnecess>y4 ,_m ( ^!       
basaltic table-l&s =m plateaux ( v      
consid]able ext5t & ?ickness2 o!rs =m   
fragm5ts ( ! same1 m or less dislocat$2 
o!rs1 aga91 pres5t !mselves 9 isolat$   
knolls1 f> remov$ f simil> =mations4 ,9 
%ort1 basaltic rocks pres5t !mselves 9  
ve9s or dykes1 m or less1 9 mo/         

c\ntries1 ( :i* ,c5tral ,france & !     
banks ( ! ,rh9e (f] _m /rik+ examples4  
,^! ve9s pres5t v evid5t pro(s t ! matt]
 has be5 introduc$ f bel[1 & 9 a mann]  
:i* c\ld only result f injection f !    
int]ior to ! ext]ior ( ! e>?4 ,su* are !
 pro(s pres5t$ by ! basaltic ve9s (     
,vill5euve-de-,b]g1 :i* t]m9ate 9 sl5d] 
filam5ts1 sometimes bifurcat$1 :i*      
gradually lose !mselves 9 ! rock :i* !y 
trav]se4 ,9 sev]al p>ts ( ! nor? (      
,irel&1 *alk-=mations ) fl9ts are       
trav]s$ by basaltic dykes1 ! *alk be+   
conv]t$ into granul> m>ble ne> ! basalt1
 ! *ange sometimes ext5d+ eight or t5   
feet f ! wall ( ! dyke1 & be+ greate/   
ne> ! surface ( contact4 ,9 ! ,isl& (   
,ra?l91 ! walls ( basalt trav]se ! *alk 
9 ?ree ve9s or dykes2 ! c5tral "o a foot
 ?ick1 t on ! "r tw5ty feet1 & on ! left
 ?irty-?ree feet ?ick1 & all1 accord+ to
 ,buckl& & ,conybe>e1 )9 ! bread? (     
n9ety feet4    #bj 8,volcanoes10 #bnd   
ed4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,basaltic
 ,causeway1 on ! banks ( ! riv] ,volant1

 9 ! ,ard*e4  ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+         
*>act]i/ics ( basalt is ! prismatic &   
column> /ructure :i* x (t5 assumes2 !   
lava be+ homog5e\s & ( v f9e gra91 !    
laws :i* det]m9e ! direction ( !        
fissures or divisional planes           
consolidat$ f a molt5 to a solid /ate1  
become "h v manife/--^! are always at "r
 angles to ! surfaces ( ! rock ?r\gh :i*
 ! heat ( ! fus$ mass escap$4 ,!        
basaltic rocks h be5 at all times       
rem>kable = ?is picturesque arrangem5t (
 _! p>ts4 ,!y usually pres5t columns (  
regul> prisms1 hav+ g5]ally six1 (t5    
five1 & sometimes f\r1 sev51 or ev5 ?ree
 sides1 ^: disposition is always        
p]p5dicul> to ! cool+ surfaces4 ,^! are 
(t5 divid$ transv]sely1 z 9 ,fig4 #f1 at
 ne>ly equal di/ances1 l ! jo9ts ( a    
wall1 compos$ ( regul>ly arrang$1       
equal-sid$ pieces adh]+ toge!r1 &       
frequ5tly ext5d+ ov] a m or less        
consid]able space4 ,! "n ( ,giant's     
,causeway has be5 giv51 f "t immemorial1
 to ^! curi\s column> /ructures (       

basalt4 ,9 ,france1 9 ! ,viv>ais & 9 !  
,velay1 !re are _m su* basaltic         
causeways4 ,t ( :i* ,fig4 #g is a sket* 
lies on ! banks ( ! riv] ,volant1 :]e x 
fl[s into ! ,ard*e4 ,irel& has always   
be5 celebrat$ = its ,giant's ,causeway1 
:i* ext5ds ov] ! :ole ( ! nor!rn "p (   
,antrim1 cov]+ all ! pre-exi/+ /rata (  
,*alk1 ,gre5s&1 & ,p]mian =mations2 !   
prismatic columns ext5d = miles along ! 
cliffs1 project+ into ! sea at ! po9t   
specially designat$ ! ,giant's          
,causeway4  ,^! column> =mations v>y    
consid]ably 9 l5g? & diamet]4           
,mc,culloch m5tions "s 9 ,skye1 :i* 8are
 ab\t f\r hundr$ feet high2 o!rs 9      
,morv5 n exce$+ an in* 7vol4 ii4 p4     
#acg74 ,9 diamet] ^? ( ,ailsa ,craig    
measure n9e feet1 & ^? ( ,morv5 an in*  
or less40 ,f+al's ,cave1 9 ! ,isle (    
,/affa1 is r5[n$ among basaltic rocks1  
al?\gh x 0 sc>cely kn[n on ! ma9l& a    
c5tury ago1 :5 ,sir ,joseph ,banks he>d 
( x accid5tally1 & 0 ! fir/ to visit &  
describe x4 ,f+al's ,cave has be5 holl[$

 out1 by ! sea1 ?r\gh a gall]y ( imm5se 
prismatic columns ( trap1 :i* are       
cont9ually beat5 by ! waves4 ,! columns 
are usually upright1 b sometimes !y are 
curv$ & slightly incl9$4 ,fig4 #h is a  
view ( ! basaltic grotto ( ,/affa4      
,grottoes are sometimes =m$ by basaltic 
eruptions on l&1 foll[$ by _! sep>ation 
into regul> columns4 ,! ,grotto (       
,*eeses1 at ,b]tri*-,bad51 betwe5 ,trves
 & ,cobl5tz1 is a rem>kable example (   
?is k9d1 be+ s call$ because its columns
 are =m$ ( r\nd1 & usually flatt5$1     
/ones plac$ "o above ! o!r 9 su* a mann]
 z to resemble a pile ( *eeses4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,basaltic     
cav]n ( ,/affa--ext]ior4  ,if we consid]
 t 9 basalt-fl[s ! l[] "p is compact1 & 
(t5 divid$ into prismatic columns1 :ile 
! upp] "p is por\s1 cellul>1 scoriace\s1
 & irregul>ly divid$--t ! po9ts (       
sep>ation on :i* !y re/ are small b$s   
pres5t+ fragm5ts ( ! por\s /ony         
concretions kn[n "u ! "n ( ,lapilli--t !
 l[] portions ( ^! masses pres5t a      

multitude ( po9ts :i* p5etrate ! rocks  
on :i* !y repose1 !reby d5ot+ t "s fluid
 matt] _h m\ld$ itself into its         
crevices--t ! neighb\r+ rocks are (t5   
calc9$ to a consid]able ?ickness1 & !   
includ$ vegetable rema9s c>bonis$--no   
d\bt c exi/ z to ! igne\s orig9 (       
basaltic rocks4 ,:5 x rea*$ ! surface   
?r\gh c]ta9 op5+s1 ! fluid basalt spread
 itself1 fl[+1 z x 71 ov] ! horizontal  
surface ( ! gr\nd2 = if x _h fl[$ ^u    
incl9$ surfaces x c\ld n h pres]v$ !    
uni=m surface & con/ant ?ickness :i* x  
g5]ally exhibits4  ,illu/ration3        
,,iii4--,ext9ct volcanoes =m+ !         
,puy-de-,dme ,*a94   ,,volcanic ,,or    
,,lava ,,=mations4  ,! lava =mations    
compreh5d bo? ext9ct & active volcanoes4
 8,! t]m10 says ,lyell1 8has a some:at  
vague signification1 hav+ be5 appli$ to 
all melt$ matt] obs]v$ to fl[ 9 /reams f
 volcanic v5ts4 ,:5 ?is matt]           
consolidates 9 ! op5 air1 ! upp] "p is  
usually scoriace\s1 & ! mass becomes m &
 m /ony z we desc5d1 or 9 proportion z x

 has consolidat$ m sl[ly & "u great]    
pressure40#ba    #ba 8,elem5ts (        
,geology10 p4 #eif4  ,! =mation ( ext9ct
 volcanoes is repres5t$ 9 ,france by !  
volcanoes situat$ 9 ! anci5t prov9ces ( 
,auv]gne1 ,velay1 & ! ,viv>ais1 b       
pr9cipally by ne>ly sev5ty volcanic     
cones ( v>i\s sizes & ( ! height ( f    
#ejj to #a1jjj feet1 compos$ ( loose    
scori1 lava1 & pozzuolana1 arrang$ ^u a 
granitic table-l&1 ab\t twelve miles    
wide1 :i* ov]looks ! t[n (              
,cl]mont-,f]r&1 & :i* seem to h be5     
produc$ along a longitud9al fracture 9 !
 e>?'s cru/1 runn+ 9 a direction f nor? 
to s\?4 ,x is a range ( volcanic hills1 
! 8*a9 ( ,puys0 ne>ly tw5ty miles 9     
l5g?1 by two 9 bread?4 ,by its cellul> &
 por\s /ructure1 :i* is also granul> &  
cry/all9e1 ! felspa?ic or pyrox5ic lava 
:i* fl[$ f ^! volcanoes is readily      
di/+ui%able f ! analog\s lavas :i*      
belong to ! basaltic or tra*ytic        
=mations4 ,_! surface is irregul>1 &    
bri/les ) asp]ities1 =m$ by heap$-up    

angul> blocks4  ,! volcanoes ( ! *a9 (  
,puys1 repres5t$ on opposite page 7,,pl4
 ,,iii47 are s p]fectly pres]v$1 _! lava
 is s frequ5tly sup]pos$ on %eets (     
basalt1 & pres5ts a composition &       
texture s di/9ct1 t !re is no difficulty
 9 e/abli%+ ! fact t !y are po/]ior to !
 basaltic =mation1 & ( v rec5t age4     
,nev]!less1 !y d n appe> to belong to ! 
hi/oric ages1 = no tradition atte/s _!  
eruption4 ,lyell places ^! eruptions 9 !
 ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod1 & _! greate/       
activity 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e   
eras4 8,ext9ct quadrup$s ( ^? eras10 he 
says1 8belong+ to ! g5]a ma/odon1       
rh9oc]os1 & o!rs1 7 buri$ 9 a%es & b$s (
 alluvial s& & gravel1 :i* owe _!       
pres]vation to ov]spread+ %eets (       
lava40#bb    #bb ,ibid1 p4 #fgg4        
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,section ( a   
volcano 9 action4  ,all volcanic ph5om5a
 c be expla9$ by ! !ory we h already    
indicat$1 ( fractures 9 ! solid cru/ ( !
 globe result+ f its cool+4 ,! v>i\s    
ph5om5a :i* exi/+ volcanoes pres5t to u 

are1 z ,humboldt has said1 8! result ( e
 action ex]cis$ by ! int]ior ( a planet 
on its ext]nal cru/40#bc ,we designate z
 volcanoes all conduits :i* e/abli% a   
p]man5t communication betwe5 ! int]ior (
 ! e>? & its surface--a conduit :i*     
gives passage at int]vals to eruptions (
 lava1 & 9 ,fig4 #i we h repres5t$1 9 an
 ideal section1 ! geological mode (     
action ( volcanic eruptions4 ,!         
volcanoes on ! surface ( ! globe1 kn[n  
to be 9 an occasional /ate ( activity1  
numb] ab\t ?ree hundr$1 & ^! may be     
divid$ into two classes3 ! isolat$ or   
c5tral1 & ! l9e> or ^? volcanoes :i*    
belong to a s]ies4#bd    #bc 8,cosmos10 
vol4 i41 p4 #be4 ,bohn4    #bd          
8,cosmos10 vol4 i41 p4 #bcg4  ,! fir/   
are active volcanoes1 ar\nd :i* !re may 
be e/abli%$ _m second>y active m\?s (   
eruption1 always 9 connection ) "s      
pr9cipal crat]4 ,! second are dispos$ l 
! *imneys ( furnaces1 along fissures    
ext5d+ ov] consid]able di/ances4 ,tw5ty1
 ?irty1 & ev5 a great] numb] ( volcanic 

cones may rise above "o su* r5t 9 !     
e>?'s cru/1 ! direction ( :i* w be      
indicat$ by _! l9e> c\rse4 ,! ,peak (   
,t5]iffe is an in/ance ( a c5tral       
volcano2 ! long ramp>t-l *a9 ( ! ,&es1  
pres5ts1 f ! s\? ( ,*ili to ! nor?-we/  
coa/ ( ,am]ica1 "o ( ! gr&e/ in/ances ( 
a cont95tal volcanic *a92 ! rem>kable   
range ( volcanoes 9 ! prov9ce ( ,quito  
belong to ! latt] class4 ,d>w9 relates t
 on ! #ai? ( ,m>*1 #ahce1 ! att5tion ( a
 s5try 0 call$ to some?+ l a l>ge /> :i*
 gradually increas$ 9 size till ab\t    
?ree o'clock1 :5 x pres5t$ a v          
magnific5t spectacle4 8,by ! aid ( a    
glass1 d>k objects1 9 con/ant           
succession1 7 se5 9 ! mid/ ( a great    
gl>e ( r$ light1 to be ?r[n up & to fall
 d[n4 ,! light 0 suffici5t to ca/ on !  
wat] a long bright reflection--x 0 !    
volcano ( ,osorno 9 action40 ,mr4 ,d>w9 
0 aft]w>ds assur$ t ,aconcagua1 9 ,*ili1
 #dhj miles to ! nor?1 0 9 action on !  
same night1 & t ! great eruption (      
,cosegu9a 7#b1gjj miles nor? (          

,aconcagua71 accompani$ by an e>?quake  
felt ov] #a1jjj miles1 also occurr$ )9  
six h\rs ( ?is same "t2 & yet ,cosegu9a 
_h be5 dormant = six-&-tw5ty ye>s1 &    
,aconcagua mo/ r>ely %[s any signs (    
action4#be ,x is also /at$ by ,pr(essor 
,dove t 9 ! ye> #ahce ! a%es dis*>g$ f !
 m\nta9 ( ,cosegu9a 7 c>ri$ #gjj miles1 
& t ! ro>+ noise ( ! eruption 0 he>d at 
,san ,salvador1 a di/ance ( #a1jjj      
miles4    #be ,d>w9's 8,j\rnal10 p4     
#bia1 #bnd edition4  ,9 ! sea ! s]ies ( 
volcanoes %[ !mselves 9 gr\ps ( isl&s   
dispos$ 9 longitud9al s]ies4  ,among ^! 
may be rang$ ! volcanic s]ies ( ,sunda1 
:i*1 accord+ to ! acc\nts ( ! matt]     
eject$ & ! viol5ce ( ! eruptions1 seem  
to be among ! mo/ rem>kable on ! globe2 
! s]ies ( ! ,moluccas & ( ! ,philipp9es2
 ^? ( ,japan2 ( ! ,m>ianne ,isl&s2 (    
,*ili2 ( ! d\ble s]ies ( volcanic       
summits ne> ,quito1 ^? ( ! ,antilles1   
,guatemala1 & ,mexico4  ,among ! c5tral1
 or isolat$ volcanoes1 we may class ^? (
 ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 :i* h ,/romboli1 9    

p]man5t activity1 = _! c5tre2 ,etna1    
,vesuvius1 ! volcanoes ( ! ,azores1 ( ! 
,can>ies1 ( ! ,cape de ,v]de1 ( !       
,galapagos ,isl&s1 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 !   
,m>quesas1 ! ,society ,isl&s1 ! ,fri5dly
 ,isl&s1 ,b\rbon1 &1 f9ally1 ,ar>at4    
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,exi/+ crat] 
( ,vesuvius4  ,! m\?s ( volcanic *imneys
 are1 almo/ always1 situat$ ne> ! summit
 ( a m or less isolat$ conical m\nta92  
!y usually consi/ ( an op5+ 9 ! =m ( a  
funnel1 :i* is call$ ! crat]1 & :i*     
desc5ds into ! int]ior ( ! volcanic     
*imney4 ,b 9 ! c\rse ( ages ! crat]     
becomes ext5d$ & enl>g$1 until1 9 "s ( !
 old] volcanoes1 x has atta9$ almo/     
incr$ible dim5sions4 ,9 #ahbb ! crat] ( 
,vesuvius 0 #b1jjj feet deep1 & ( a v   
consid]able circumf]5ce4 ,! crat] (     
,kilauea1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s gr\p1 is an 
imm5se *asm #a1jjj feet deep1 ) an out] 
circle no less ?an f two to ?ree miles 9
 diamet]1 9 :i* lava is usually se51    
,mr4 ,dana tells u1 to boil up at !     
bottom ( a lake1 ! level ( :i* v>ies    

cont9ually accord+ to ! active or       
quiesc5t /ate ( ! volcano4 ,! cone :i*  
supports ^! crat]s1 & :i* is designat$ !
 cone ( ejection1 is compos$ = ! mo/ "p 
( lava or scori1 ! products ( eruption4 
,_m volcanoes consi/ only ( a cone (    
scori4 ,su* is t ( ,b>r5 ,isle1 9 ! ,bay
 ( ,b5gal4 ,o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 pres5t a
 v small cone1 not)/&+ ! consid]able    
height ( ! volcanic *a94 ,z an example  
we may m5tion ! new crat] ( ,vesuvius1  
:i* 0 produc$ 9 #ahbi )9 ! =m] crat]    
7,fig4 #aj74  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4       
#aa4--;,fissures ne> ,loc>no4  ,!       
frequ5cy & int5sity ( ! eruptions be> no
 relation to ! dim5sions ( ! volcanic   
m\nta94 ,! eruption ( a volcano is      
usually ann\nc$ by a subt]ranean noise1 
accompani$ by %ocks1 quiv]+ ( ! gr\nd1 &
 sometimes by actual e>?quakes4 ,!      
noise1 :i* usually proce$s f a great    
dep?1 makes itself he>d1 sometimes ov] a
 great ext5t ( c\ntry1 & resembles a    
well-su/a9$ fire ( artill]y1 accompani$ 
by ! rattle ( musketry4 ,sometimes x is 

l ! heavy roll+ ( subt]ranean ?und]4    
,fissures are frequ5tly produc$ dur+ !  
eruptions1 ext5d+ ov] a consid]able     
radius1 z repres5t$ 9 ! woodcut on page 
#eg ( ! fissures ( ,loc>no 7,fig4 #aa71 
:]e !y pres5t a s+ul> appe>ance2 !      
clefts radiat+ f a c5tre 9 all          
directions1 n unlike ! />r$ fracture 9 a
 crack$ pane ( glass4 ,! eruption beg9s 
) a /rong %ock1 :i* %akes ! :ole int]ior
 ( ! m\nta92 masses ( heat$ vap\r &     
fluids beg9 to asc5d1 reveal+ !mselves 9
 "s cases by ! melt+ ( ! sn[ ^u ! flanks
 ( ! cone ( ejection2 :ile simultane\sly
 ) ! f9al %ock1 :i* ov]comes ! la/      
resi/ance oppos$ by ! solid cru/ ( !    
gr\nd1 a consid]able body ( gas1 & m    
especially ( /eam1 escapes f ! m\? ( !  
crat]4  ,! /eam1 x is important to      
rem>k1 is ess5tially ! cause ( ! t]rible
 me*anical effects :i* accompany        
volcanic eruptions4 ,granitic1          
porphyritic1 tra*ytic1 & sometimes ev5  
basaltic matt]s1 h rea*$ ! surface )\t  
produc+ any ( ^? viol5t explosions or   

ejections ( rocks & /ones :i* accompany 
mod]n volcanic eruptions2 ! old]        
granites1 porphyries1 tra*ytes1 &       
basalts 7 dis*>g$ )\t viol5ce1 because  
/eam did n accompany ^? melt$ rocks--a  
suffici5t pro( ( ! comp>ative calm :i*  
att5d$ ! anci5t z comp>$ ) mod]n        
eruptions4 ,well e/abli%$ by sci5tific  
obs]vations1 ?is is a fact :i* enables u
 to expla9 ! cause ( ! trem5d\s         
me*anical effects att5d+ mod]n volcanic 
eruptions1 contra/$ ) ! m tranquil      
eruptions ( e>li] times4  ,dur+ ! fir/  
mom5ts ( a volcanic eruption1 !         
accumulat$ masses ( /ones & a%es1 :i*   
fill ! crat]1 are %ot up into ! sky by !
 sudd5ly & p[]fully develop$ ela/icity (
 ! /eam4 ,?is /eam1 :i* has be5 dis5gag$
 by ! heat ( ! fluid lava1 assumes ! =m 
( great r\nd$ bubbles1 :i* are evolv$   
into ! air to a great height above !    
crat]1 :]e !y exp& z !y rise1 9 cl\ds ( 
dazzl+ :it5ess1 assum+ t appe>ance :i*  
,pl9y ! ,y\ng] comp>$ to a /one p9e ris+
 ov] ,vesuvius4 ,! masses ( cl\ds f9ally

 cond5se & foll[ ! direction ( ! w9d4   
,^! volcanic cl\ds are grey or black1   
accord+ to ! quantity ( a%es1 t is1 (   
pulv]ul5t matt] or du/1 mix$ ) wat]y    
vap\r1 :i* !y convey4 ,9 "s eruptions x 
has be5 obs]v$ t ^! cl\ds1 on desc5d+ to
 ! surface ( ! soil1 spread ar\nd an    
od\r ( hydro*loric or sulphuric acid1 & 
traces ( bo? ^! acids are f\nd 9 ! ra9  
:i* proce$s f ! cond5sation ( ^! cl\ds4 
,! fleecy cl\ds ( vap\r :i* issue f !   
volcanoes are /reak$ ) lightn+1 foll[$  
by cont9u\s peals ( ?und]2 9 cond5s+1 !y
 dis*>ge disa/r\s %[]s1 :i* sweep !     
sides ( ! m\nta94 ,_m eruptions1 kn[n z 
mud volcanoes1 & wat]y volcanoes1 are   
no?+ m ?an ^! heavy ra9s1 c>ry+ d[n ) !m
 %[]s ( a%es1 /ones1 & scori1 m or less 
mix$ ) wat]4  ,pass+ on to ! ph5om5a (  
:i* ! crat] is ! sc5e at ! "t ( an      
eruption1 x is /at$ t at fir/ !re is an 
incessant rise & fall ( ! lava :i* fills
 ! int]ior ( ! crat]4 ,?is d\ble movem5t
 is (t5 int]rupt$ by viol5t explosions (
 gas4 ,! crat] ( ,kilauea1 9 ! ,isl& (  

,hawaii1 conta9s a lake ( molt5 matt]   
#a1fjj feet broad1 :i* is subject to su*
 a d\ble movem5t ( elevation &          
depression4 ,ea* ( ! vapor\s bubbles z x
 issues f ! crat] presses ! molt5 lava  
upw>ds1 till x rises & bur/s ) great =ce
 at ! surface4 ,a portion ( ! lava1     
half-cool$ & r$uc$ to scori1 is ?us     
project$ upw>ds1 & ! sev]al fragm5ts are
 hurl$ viol5tly 9 all directions1 l ^? (
 a %ell at ! mom5t :5 x bur/s4  ,!      
great] numb] ( ! fragm5ts be+ ?r[n      
v]tically into ! air1 fall back into !  
crat] aga94 ,_m accumulat+ on ! edge ( !
 op5+ add m & m to ! height ( ! cone (  
eruption4 ,! light] & small] fragm5ts1 z
 well z ! f9e a%es1 are drawn upw>ds by 
! spiral vap\rs1 & sometimes transport$ 
by ! w9ds ov] almo/ incr$ible di/ances4 
,9 #agid ! a%es f ,vesuvius 7 c>ri$ z f>
 z ! extremity ( ,calabria4 ,9 #ahab !  
volcanic a%es ( ,sa9t ,v9c5t1 9 !       
,antilles1 7 c>ri$ ea/w>d z f> z        
,b>badoes1 spread+ su* obscurity ov] !  
isl&1 t1 9 op5 day1 pass5g]s c\ld n see 

_! way4 ,f9ally1 "s ( ! masses ( molt5  
lava are %ot s+ly into ! air dur+ an    
eruption ) a rapid rotatory motion1 :i* 
causes !m to assume ! r\nd$ %ape 9 :i*  
!y are kn[n by ! "n ( volcanic bombs4   
,we h already rem>k$ t ! lava1 :i* 9 a  
fluid /ate fills ! crat] & ! int]nal v5t
 or *imney ( ! volcano1 is =c$ upw>ds by
 gase\s fluids1 & by ! /eam :i* has be5 
g5]at$ f ! wat]1 entangl$ ) ! lava4 ,9  
"s cases ! me*anical =ce ( ?is vap\r is 
s great z to drive ! lava ov] ! edge ( !
 crat]1 :5 x =ms a fi]y torr5t1 spread+ 
ov] ! sides ( ! m\nta94 ,?is only happ5s
 9 ! case ( volcanoes ( inconsid]able   
height2 9 l(ty volcanoes x is n unusual 
= ! lava ?us to =ce an outlet = itself  
ne> ! base ( ! m\nta91 ?r\gh :i* ! fi]y 
/ream dis*>ges itself ov] ! surr\nd+    
c\ntry4 ,9 su* circum/ances ! lava cools
 some:at rapidly2 x becomes h>d &       
pres5ts a scoriace\s cru/ on ! surface1 
:ile ! vap\r escapes 9 jets ( /eam ?r\gh
 ! int]/ices4 ,b "u ?is sup]ficial cru/ 
! lava reta9s its fluid /ate1 cool+     

sl[ly 9 ! int]ior ( ! mass1 :ile !      
?ick5+ /ream moves sluggi%ly along1     
imp$$ 9 its progress by ! fragm5ts (    
rock :i* ?is burn+ riv] drives be=e x4  
,! rate at :i* a curr5t ( lava moves    
along dep5ds ^u its mass1 ^u its degree 
( fluidity1 & ^u ! incl9ation ( ! gr\nd4
 ,x has be5 /at$ t c]ta9 /reams ( lava h
 trav]s$ m ?an #c1jjj y>ds 9 an h\r2 b !
 rate at :i* !y travel is usually mu*   
less1 a man on foot be+ (t5 able to     
out/rip !m4 ,^! /reams1 also1 v>y       
greatly 9 dim5sions4 ,! mo/ consid]able 
/ream ( lava f ,etna _h1 9 "s p>ts1 a   
?ickness ( ne>ly #abj feet1 ) a bread? (
 a geographical mile & a half4 ,! l>ge/ 
lava-/ream :i* has be5 record$ issu$ f !
 ,skaptr ,jokul1 9 ,icel&1 9 #aghc4 ,x  
=m$ two curr5ts1 ^: extremities 7 tw5ty 
leagues ap>t1 & :i* f "t to "t pres5t$ a
 bread? ( f sev5 to fifte5 miles & a    
?ickness ( #fej feet4  ,a peculi>       
effect1 & :i* only simulates volcanic   
activity1 is obs]vable 9 localities :]e 
mud volcanoes exi/4 ,volcanoes ( ?is    

class are = ! mo/ "p conical hills ( l[ 
elevation1 ) a holl[ or depression at ! 
c5tre1 f :i* !y dis*>ge ! mud :i* is =c$
 upw>ds by gas & /eam4 ,! temp]ature ( !
 eject$ matt] is only slightly elevat$4 
,! mud1 g5]ally ( a greyi% col\r1 ) !   
od\r ( petroleum1 is subject to ! same  
alt]nat+ movem5ts :i* h be5 already     
ascrib$ to ! fluid lava ( volcanoes1    
prop]ly s call$4 ,! gases :i* =ce out   
?is liquid mud1 mix$ ) salts1 gypsum1   
naph?a1 sulphur1 sometimes ev5 (        
ammonia1 are usually c>burett$ hydrog5 &
 c>bonic acid4 ,ev]y?+ leads to !       
conclusion t ^! comp\nds proce$1 at lea/
 9 great "p1 f ! reaction produc$ betwe5
 ! v>i\s elem5ts ( ! subsoil "u !       
influ5ce ( infiltrat+ wat] betwe5       
bitum9\s m>ls1 complex c>bonates1 &     
probably c>bonic acid1 d]iv$ f acidulat$
 spr+s4 ,m4 ,f\rnet saw 9 ,langu$oc1 ne>
 ,r\jan1 traces ( "s ( ^! =mations2 & n 
f> f t neighb\rhood is ! bitum9\s spr+ (
 ,gabian4  ,illu/ration3 ,,iv4--,mud    
volcano at ,turbaco1 ,s\? ,am]ica4  ,mud

 volcanoes1 or salses1 exi/ 9 r num]\s  
localities4 ,sev]al are f\nd 9 !        
neighb\rhood ( ,mod5a4 ,!re are "s 9    
,sicily1 betwe5 ,aragona & ,girg5ti4    
,pallas obs]v$ !m 9 ! ,crimea--9 !      
p59sula ( ,k]t*1 & 9 ! ,isle ( ,tamn4   
,von ,humboldt has describ$ & figur$ a  
gr\p ( !m 9 ! prov9ce ( ,c>tag5a1 9 ,s\?
 ,am]ica4 ,f9ally1 !y h be5 obs]v$ 9 !  
,isl& ( ,tr9idad & 9 ,h9do/an4 ,9 #agig 
an eruption ( mud eject$ f ,tunguragua1 
9 ,quito1 fill$ a valley #a1jjj feet    
wide to a dep? ( #fjj feet4 ,on !       
opposite page is repres5t$ ! mud volcano
 ( ,turbaco1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,c>tag5a     
7,,plate ,,iv471 :i* is describ$ &      
figur$ by ,von ,humboldt 9 8 8,voyage to
 ! ,equatorial ,regions ( ,am]ica40  ,9 
c]ta9 c\ntries we f9d small hillocks (  
argillace\s =mation1 result+ f anci5t   
dis*>ges ( mud volcanoes1 f :i* all     
dis5gagem5t ( gas1 wat]1 & mud has long 
ceas$4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! ph5om5on    
returns & resumes its int]rupt$ c\rse ) 
great viol5ce4 ,slight %ocks ( e>?quakes

 are !n felt2 blocks ( dri$ e>? are     
project$ f ! anci5t crat]1 & new waves (
 mud fl[ ov] its edge1 & spread ov] !   
neighb\r+ gr\nd4  ,to return to ord9>y  
volcanoes1 t is to say1 ^? :i* eject    
lava4 ,at ! end ( a lava-fl[1 :5 !      
viol5ce ( ! volcanic action beg9s to    
subside1 ! dis*>ge f ! crat] is conf9$  
to ! dis5gagem5t ( vapor\s gases1 mix$ )
 /eam1 :i* make _! escape 9 m or less   
abundance ?r\gh a multitude ( fissures 9
 ! gr\nd4  ,! great numb] ( volcanoes   
:i* h ?us become ext9ct =m :at are call$
 solfat>as4 ,! sulphurett$ hydrog51 :i* 
is giv5 out ?r\gh ! fissures 9 ! gr\nd1 
is decompos$ by contact ) ! air1 wat]   
be+ =m$ by ! action ( ! oxyg5 ( !       
atmosph]e1 & sulphur deposit$ 9         
consid]able quantities on ! walls ( !   
crat]1 & 9 ! cracks ( ! gr\nd4 ,su* is !
 geological s\rce ( ! sulphur :i* is    
collect$ at ,pozzuoli1 ne> ,naples1 & 9 
_m o!r simil> regions--a sub/ance :i*   
plays a mo/ important "p 9 ! indu/rial  
occupations ( ! _w4 ,x is1 9 fact1 f    

sulphur extract$ f ! gr\nd ab\t ! m\?s (
 ext9ct volcanoes1 t is to say f !      
products ( solfat>as1 t sulphuric acid  
is frequ5tly made--sulphuric acid be+ ! 
fundam5tal ag5t1 "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful      
elem5ts1 ( ! manufactur+ productions (  
bo? worlds4  ,! la/ phase ( volcanic    
activity is ! dis5gagem5t ( c>bonic acid
 gas )\t any increase ( temp]ature4 ,9  
places :]e ^! cont9u$ emanations (      
c>bonic acid gas manife/ !mselves1 !    
exi/5ce ( anci5t volcanoes may be       
recognis$1 ( :i* ^! dis*>ges are ! clos+
 ph5om5on4 ,?is is se5 9 a mo/ rem>kable
 mann] 9 ,auv]gne1 :]e !re are a        
multitude ( acidulat$ spr+s1 t is to    
say1 spr+s *>g$ ) c>bonic acid4 ,dur+ ! 
"t :5 he 0 op5+ ! m9es ( ,pontgibaud1   
,m4 ,f\rnet _h to cont5d ) emanations   
:i* sometimes exhibit$ !mselves )       
explosive p[]4 ,jets ( wat] 7 ?r[n to   
great heights 9 ! gall]ies1 ro>+ ) !    
noise ( /eam :5 escap+ f ! boil] ( a    
locomotive eng9e4 ,! wat] :i* fill$ an  
ab&on$ m9e-%aft 01 on two sep>ate       

occasions1 upheav$ ) great viol5ce--half
 empty+ ! pit--:ile va/ volumes ( ! gas 
ov]spread ! :ole valley1 suffocat+ a    
horse & a flock ( geese4 ,! m9]s 7      
compell$ to fly 9 all ha/e at ! mom5t :5
 ! gas bur/ =?1 hold+ !mselves z upright
 z possible1 to avoid plung+ _! heads   
into ! c>bonic acid gas1 :i*1 f its l[  
specific gravity1 0 n[ fill+ ! l[] p>ts 
( ! gall]ies4 ,x repres5t$ on a small   
scale ! effect ( ! ,grotto del ,cane1   
:i* excites su* surprise among !        
ignorant ne> ,naples2 pass+1 also1 = "o 
( ! m>vels ( ,nature all ov] ! _w4 ,m4  
,f\rnet /ates t all ! m9ute fissures ( !
 metallif]\s gneiss ne> ,cl]mont are q  
saturat$ ) free c>bonic acid gas1 :i*   
rises pl5tifully f ! soil !re1 z well z 
9 _m p>ts ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,!       
compon5ts ( ! gneiss1 ) ! exception ( ! 
qu>tz1 are s(t5$ by x2 & fre%           
comb9ations ( ! acid ) lime1 iron1 &    
manganese are cont9ually tak+ place4 ,9 
%ort1 long aft] volcanoes h become      
ext9ct1 hot spr+s1 *>g$ ) m9]al +r$i5ts1

 cont9ue to fl[ 9 ! same area4  ,! same 
facts z ^? ( ! ,grotto del ,cane manife/
 !mselves ) ev5 great] int5sity 9 ,java1
 9 ! s-call$ ,valley ( ,poison1 :i* is  
an object ( t]ror to ! natives4 ,9 ?is  
celebrat$ valley ! gr\nd is said to be  
cov]$ ) skeletons & c>cases ( tig]s1    
goats1 /ags1 birds1 & ev5 ( human be+s2 
= asphyxia or suffocation1 x seems1     
/rikes all liv+ ?+s :i* v5ture into ?is 
desolate place4 ,9 ! same isl& a /ream (
 sulphur\s wat]1 z :ite z milk1 issues f
 ! crat] ( ,m\nt ,idi5ne1 on ! ea/ coa/2
 & on "o occasion1 z cit$ by ,nozet 9 ! 
,j\rnal de ,gologie1 a great body ( hot 
wat]1 *>g$ ) sulphuric acid1 0 dis*>g$ f
 ! same volcano1 inundat+ & de/roy+ all 
! vegetation ( a l>ge tract ( c\ntry by 
its noxi\s fumes & poison\s prop]ties4  
,illu/ration3 ,v4--,great ,geys] (      
,icel&4  ,x is kn[n t ! alkal9e wat]s ( 
,plombires1 9 ! ,vosges1 h a temp]ature 
( #afj ,fahr4 ,= #b1jjj ye>s1 accord+ to
 ,daubre1 ?r\gh b$s ( concrete1 ( lime1 
brick1 & s&/one1 ^! hot wat]s h p]colat$

 until !y h orig9at$ calc>e\s sp>1      
aragonite1 & fluor sp>1 toge!r )        
silice\s m9]als1 su* z opal1 :i* are    
f\nd fill+ ! int]/ices ( ! bricks &     
mort>4 ,f ^! & o!r simil> /atem5ts1 8we 
are l$10 says ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1#bf 8to
 inf] t :5 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? !re are    
l>ge volumes ( molt5 matt]1 conta9+     
heat$ wat] & v>i\s acids1 "u enorm\s    
pressure1 ^! subt]rane\s fluid masses w 
gradually "p ) _! heat by ! escape (    
/eam & v>i\s gases ?r\gh fissures       
produc+ hot spr+s1 or by ! passage ( !  
same ?r\gh ! pores ( ! ov]ly+ & inject$ 
rocks40 8,al?\gh10 he adds1#bg 8we c    
only /udy ! ph5om5a z exhibit$ at !     
surface1 x is cle> t ! gase\s fluids mu/
 h made _! way ?r\gh ! :ole ?ickness ( !
 por\s or fissur$ rocks1 :i* int]v5e    
betwe5 ! subt]rane\s res]voirs ( gas & !
 ext]nal air4 ,! ext5t1 !re=e1 ( ! e>?'s
 cru/ :i* ! vap\rs h p]meat$1 & are n[  
p]meat+1 may be ?\s&s ( fa?oms 9        
?ickness1 & _! heat+ & modify+ influ5ce 
may be spread ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ?is solid

 mass40    #bf 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4
 #gcb4    #bg ,ibid1 p4 #gcc4  ,!       
f\nta9s ( boil+ wat]1 kn[n "u ! "n (    
,geys]s1 are ano!r emanation connect$ ) 
anci5t crat]s4 ,!y are ei!r cont9u\s or 
int]mitt5t4 ,9 ,icel& we f9d great      
numb]s ( ^! gu%+ spr+s--9 fact1 ! isl&  
is "o entire mass ( eruptive rock4      
,ne>ly all ! volcanoes are situat$ ^u a 
broad b& ( tra*yte1 :i* trav]ses ! isl& 
f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/4 ,x is trav]s$ by 
imm5se fissures1 & cov]$ ) masses (     
lava1 su* z no o!r c\ntry pres5ts4 ,!   
volcanic action1 9 %ort1 goes on ) su*  
en]gy t c]ta9 p>oxysms ( ,m\nt ,hecla h 
la/$ = six ye>s )\t int]ruption4 ,b !   
,great ,geys]1 repres5t$ on ! opposite  
page 7,,plate ,v471 is1 p]haps1 ev5 m an
 object ( curiosity4 ,?is wat]-volcano  
projects a column ( boil+ wat]1 eight   
y>ds 9 diamet]1 *>g$ ) silica1 to !     
height1 x has be5 said1 ( ab\t #aej     
feet1 deposit+ va/ quantities ( silica z
 x cools aft] rea*+ ! e>?4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,!       

volcanoes 9 actual activity are1 z we h 
said1 v num]\s1 be+ m ?an #bjj 9 numb]1 
scatt]$ ov] ! :ole surface ( ! globe1 b 
mo/ly occurr+ 9 tropical regions4 ,!    
isl& ( ,java alone conta9s ab\t fifty1  
:i* h be5 mapp$ & describ$ by ,dr4      
,junghahn4 ,^? be/ kn[n are ,vesuvius1  
ne> ,naples2 ,etna1 9 ,sicily2 &        
,/romboli1 9 ! ,lip>i ,isl&s4 ,a rapid  
sket* ( a few ( ^! may int]e/ ! read]4  
,vesuvius is ( all volcanoes t :i* has  
be5 mo/ closely /udi$2 x is1 s to speak1
 ! classical volcano4 ,few p]sons are   
ignorant ( ! fact t x op5$--aft] a p]iod
 ( quiesc5ce ext5d+ beyond ! memory (   
liv+ man--9 ! ye> #gi ( our era4 ,?is   
eruption co/ ! eld] ,pl9y 8 life1 :o    
fell a sacrifice to 8 desire to witness 
"o ( ! mo/ impos+ ( natural ph5om5a4    
,aft] _m mutations ! pres5t crat] (     
,vesuvius consi/s ( a cone1 surr\nd$ on 
! side opposite ! sea by a semicircul>  
cre/1 compos$ ( pumice\s matt]1 =eign to
 ,vesuvius prop]ly speak+1 = we believe 
t ,m\nt ,vesuvius 0 orig9ally ! m\nta9  

to :i* ! "n ( ,somma is n[ giv54 ,! cone
 :i* n[ be>s ! "n ( ,vesuvius 0 probably
 =m$ dur+ ! celebrat$ eruption ( #gi1   
:i* buri$ "u its %[]s ( pumice\s a%es ! 
cities ( ,pompeii & ,h]culaneum4 ,?is   
cone t]m9ates 9 a crat]1 ! %ape ( :i*   
has und]gone _m *anges1 & :i* has1 s9ce 
its orig91 ?r[n out eruptions ( a v>i$  
"*1 toge!r ) /reams ( lava4 ,9 our days 
! eruptions ( ,vesuvius h only be5      
sep>at$ by int]vals ( a few ye>s4  ,!   
,lip>i ,isles conta9 ! volcano (        
,/romboli1 :i* is cont9ually 9 a /ate ( 
ignition1 & =ms ! natural ligh?\se ( !  
,tyrrh5ian ,sea2 su* x 0 :5 ,hom]       
m5tion$ x1 su* x 0 be=e old ,hom]'s "t1 
& su* x /ill appe>s 9 our days4 ,its    
eruptions are incessant4 ,! crat] :5ce  
!y issue is n situat$ on ! summit ( !   
cone1 b ^u "o ( its sides1 at ne>ly     
two-?irds ( its height4 ,x is 9 "p fill$
 ) fluid lava1 :i* is cont9ually        
subject$ to alt]nate elevation &        
depression--a movem5t provok$ by !      
ebullition & asc5sion ( bubbles ( /eam  

:i* rise to ! surface1 project+ upw>ds a
 tall column ( a%es4 ,dur+ ! night ^!   
cl\ds ( vap\r %9e ) a magnific5t r$     
reflection1 :i* lights up ! :ole isle & 
! surr\nd+ sea ) a lurid gl[4  ,situat$ 
on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,sicily1 ,etna appe>s1
 at ! fir/ glance1 to h a mu* m simple  
/ructure ?an ,vesuvius4 ,its slopes are 
less /eep1 m uni=m on all sides2 its va/
 base ne>ly repres5ts ! =m ( a buckl]4  
,! l[] portion ( ,etna1 or ! cultivat$  
region ( ! m\nta91 has an incl9ation (  
ab\t ?ree degrees4 ,! middle1 or =e/    
region1 is /eep]1 & has an incl9ation ( 
ab\t eight degrees4 ,! m\nta9 t]m9ates 9
 a cone ( an elliptical =m ( ?irty-two  
degrees ( incl9ation1 :i* be>s 9 !      
middle1 above a ne>ly horizontal t]race1
 ! cone ( eruption ) its circul> crat]4 
,! crat] is #aj1hgd feet high4 ,x gives 
out no lava1 b only vomits =? gas &     
vap\r1 ! /reams ( lava issu+ f sixte5   
small] cones :i* h be5 =m$ on ! slopes (
 ! m\nta94 ,! obs]v] may1 by look+ at ! 
summit1 conv9ce himself t ^! cones are  

dispos$ 9 rays1 & are bas$ ^u clefts or 
fissures :i* conv]ge t[>ds ! crat] z    
t[>ds a c5tre4  ,b ! mo/ extraord9>y    
display ( volcanic ph5om5a occurs 9 !   
,pacific ,ocean1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 & 9 
,java4 ,mauna ,loa & ,mauna ,kea1 9     
,hawaii1 are huge flatt5$ cones1 #ad1jjj
 feet high4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,dana1 ^!  
l(ty1 featureless hills sometimes ?r[   
out successive /reams ( lava1 n v f>    
bel[ _! summits1 (t5 two miles 9 bread? 
& six-&-tw5ty 9 l5g?2 & t n f "o v5t1 b 
9 e direction1 f ! apex ( ! cone d[n    
slopes v>y+ f f\r to eight degrees (    
incl9ation4 ,! lat]al crat] ( ,kilauea1 
on ! flank ( ,mauna ,loa1 is f #c1jjj to
 #d1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea--an  
imm5se *asm #a1jjj feet deep1 ) an out] 
circuit two to ?ree miles 9 diamet]4 ,at
 ! bottom lava is se5 to boil up 9 a    
molt5 lake1 ! level ( :i* rises or falls
 accord+ to ! active or quiesc5t /ate ( 
! volcano2 b 9 place ( ov]fl[+1 ! column
 ( melt$ rock1 :5 ! pressure becomes    
excessive1 =ces a passage ?r\gh         

subt]ranean communications lead+ to !   
sea4 ,"o ( ^! outbur/s1 :i* took place  
at an anci5t wood$ crat] six miles ea/ (
 ,kilauea1 0 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,coan1 a    
mission>y1 9 ,june1 #ahdj4 ,ano!r       
indication ( ! subt]ranean progress ( ! 
lava took place a mile or two beyond    
?is1 9 :i* ! fi]y flood spread itself   
ov] fifty acres ( l&1 & !n f\nd its way 
und]gr\nd = sev]al miles fur!r1 to      
reappe> at ! bottom ( a second anci5t   
wood$ crat] :i* x p>tly fill$ up4#bh    
#bh ,lyell's 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4  
#fag4  ,! volcanic m\nta9s ( ,java      
con/itute ! highe/ peaks ( a            
m\nta9-range runn+ ?r\gh ! isl& f ea/ to
 we/1 on :i* ,dr4 ,junghahn describ$ &  
mapp$ =ty-six conical em95ces1 rang+ f  
#d1jjj to #aa1jjj feet high4 ,at ! top (
 _m ( ! l(tie/ ( ^! ,dr4 ,junghahn f\nd 
! active cones & crat]s ( small size1 & 
surr\nd$ by a pla9 ( a%es & s&1 :i* he  
calls ! 8old crat] wall10 sometimes     
exce$+ #a1jjj feet 9 v]tical height1 &  
_m ( ! semicircul> walls enclos+ l>ge   

cavities or cald]as1 f\r geographical   
miles 9 diamet]4 ,f ! highe/ p>ts ( _m (
 ^! holl[s riv]s fl[1 :i*1 9 ! c\rse (  
ages1 h cut out deep valleys 9 !        
m\nta9's side4#bi    #bi ,lyell's       
8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4 #fbj4  ,to ?is
 rapid sket* ( actually exi/+ volcanic  
ph5om5a we may add a brief notice (     
subm>9e volcanoes4 ,if ^! are kn[n to u 
only 9 small numb]s1 ! circum/ance is   
expla9$ by ! fact t _! appe>ance above !
 bosom ( ! sea is almo/ inv>iably foll[$
 by a m or less complete disappe>ance2  
at ! same "t su* v /rik+ & visible      
ph5om5a af=d a suffici5t pro( ( !       
cont9u$ p]si/5ce ( volcanic action b5ea?
 ! b$ ( ! sea-bas94 ,at v>i\s times     
isl&s h sudd5ly appe>$1 amid ! ocean1 at
 po9ts :]e ! navigator _h n be=e notic$ 
!m4 ,9 ?is mann] we h witness$ ! isl&   
call$ ,graham's1 ,f]d9&a1 or ,julia1 :i*
 sudd5ly appe>$ (f ! s\?-we/ coa/       
,sicily 9 #ahca1 & 0 swept away by !    
waves two mon?s aft]w>ds4#cj ,at sev]al 
p]iods also1 & notably 9 #ahaa1 new     

isl&s 7 =m$ 9 ! ,azores1 :i* rais$      
!mselves above ! waves by repeat$ ef=ts 
all r\nd ! isl&s1 & at _m o!r po9ts4    
#cj ,ibid1 p4 #fbj4  ,! isl& :i* appe>$ 
9 #agif t5 leagues f ! nor!rn po9t (    
,unalaska1 "o ( ! ,aleutian gr\p (      
isl&s1 is specially rem>kable4 ,we fir/ 
see a column ( smoke issu+ f ! bosom ( !
 ocean1 aft]w>ds a black po9t appe>s1 f 
:i* bundles ( fi]y sp>ks seem to rise   
ov] ! surface ( ! sea4 ,dur+ ! _m mon?s 
t ^! ph5om5a cont9ue1 ! isl& increases 9
 bread? & 9 height4 ,f9ally smoke only  
is se52 at ! end ( f\r ye>s1 ev5 ?is la/
 trace ( volcanic convulsion altoge!r   
ceases4 ,! isl& cont9u$1 nev]!less1 to  
enl>ge & to increase 9 height1 & 9 #ahjf
 x =m$ a cone1 surm\nt$ by f\r o!r      
small] ones4  ,9 ! space compris$ betwe5
 ! isles ( ,santor91 ,?>asia1 &         
,aspronisi1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 !re arose1
 #afj ye>s be=e our era1 ! isl& ( ,hy]a1
 :i* 0 enl>g$ by ! upheaval ( islets on 
its m>g9 dur+ ! ye>s #ai1 #gbf1 & #adbg4
 ,aga91 9 #aggc1 ,micra-,kam5i1 & 9     

#agjg1 ,nea-,kam5i1 made _! appe>ance4  
,^! isl&s increas$ 9 size successively 9
 #agji1 9 #agaa1 9 #agab4 ,accord+ to   
anci5t writ]s1 ,santor91 ,?>asia1 &     
,aspronisi1 made _! appe>ance _m ages   
be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 at ! t]m9ation (   
e>?quakes ( great viol5ce4              
,,metamorphic ,,rocks4  ,! rocks compos+
 ! t]re/rial cru/ h n always rema9$ 9 _!
 orig9al /ate4 ,!y h frequ5tly und]gone 
*anges :i* h altoge!r modifi$ _!        
prop]ties1 physical & *emical4  ,:5 !y  
pres5t ^! *>act]i/ics1 we t]m !m        
,metamorphic ,rocks4 ,! ph5om5a :i*     
belong to ?is subject are at once       
important & new1 & h lately mu* attract$
 ! att5tion ( geologi/s4 ,we %all be/   
enlight5 our read]s on ! metamorphism ( 
rocks1 if we treat ( x "u ! heads (     
special & g5]al metamorphism4  ,:5 a    
mass ( eruptive rock p5etrates !        
t]re/rial cru/ x subjects ! rocks ?r\gh 
:i* x passes to a special               
metamorphism--to ! effects ( heat       
produc$ by contact4 ,su* effects may    

almo/ always be obs]v$ ne> ! m>g9 (     
masses ( eruptive rock1 & !y are        
attributable ei!r to ! communicat$ heat 
( ! eruptive rock itself1 or to !       
dis5gagem5t ( gases1 ( /eam1 or ( m9]al 
& !rmal wat]s1 :i* h accompani$ its     
eruption4 ,! effects v>y n only ) ! rock
 eject$1 b ev5 ) ! nature ( ! rock      
surr\nd+ x4  ,9 ! case ( volcanic lava  
eject$ 9 a molt5 /ate1 = in/ance1 !     
modifications x effects on ! surr\nd+   
rock are v *>act]i/ic4 ,its /ructure    
becomes prismatic1 full ( cracks1 (t5   
cellul> & scoriace\s4 ,wood & o!r       
combu/ibles t\*$ by ! lava are consum$  
or p>tially c>bonis$4 ,lime/one assumes 
a granul> & cry/all9e texture4 ,silice\s
 rocks are trans=m$1 n only into qu>tz l
 glass1 b !y also comb9e ) v>i\s bases1 
& yield vitre\s & cellul> silicates4 ,x 
is ne>ly ! same ) argillace\s rocks1 :i*
 adh]e toge!r1 & frequ5tly take ! col\r 
( r$ bricks4  ,! surr\nd+ rock is       
frequ5tly impregnat$ ) specul> iron-ore1
 & p5etrat$ ) hydro*loric or sulphuric  

acid1 & by div]s salts =m$ f ^! acids4  
,at a c]ta9 di/ance f ! place ( contact 
) ! lava1 ! action ( wat] aid$ by heat  
produces silica1 c>bonate ( lime1       
aragonite1 zeolite1 & v>i\s o!r m9]als4 
,f imm$iate contact ) ! lava1 !n1 !     
metamorphic rocks d5ote ! action ( a v  
/rong heat4 ,!y be> evid5t traces (     
calc9ation1 ( s(t5+1 & ev5 ( fusion4 ,:5
 !y pres5t !mselves z hydrosilicates &  
c>bonates1 ! silica & associat$ m9]als  
are mo/ frequ5tly at "s di/ance f !     
po9ts ( contact2 & ! =mation ( ^! m9]als
 is probably due to ! comb9ation ( wat] 
& heat1 al?\gh ?is la/ ceases to be !   
pr9cipal ag5t4  ,! hydrat$ volcanic     
rocks1 su* z ! basalts & trappean rocks 
9 g5]al1 cont9ue to produce effects (   
metamorphism1 9 :i* heat op]ates1 al?\gh
 its influ5ce is inconsid]able1 wat] be+
 mu* ! m p[]ful ag5t4 ,! metamorphosis  
:i* is obs]vable 9 ! /ructure &         
m9]alogical composition ( neighb\r+     
rocks is z foll[s3--,! /ructure (       
sep>ation becomes fragm5t>y1 column>1 or

 _m-sid$1 & ev5 prismatic4 ,x becomes   
especially prismatic 9 combu/ibles1 9   
s&/ones1 9 argillace\s =mations1 9      
felspa?ic rocks1 & ev5 9 lime/ones4     
,prisms are =m$ p]p5dicul> to ! surface 
( contact1 _! l5g? sometimes exce$+ six 
feet4 ,mo/ commonly !y /ill conta9 wat] 
or volatile matt]4 ,^! *>act]s may be   
obs]v$ at ! junction ( ! basalts :i* has
 be5 eject$ ^u ! argillace\s /rata ne>  
,cl]mont 9 ,auv]gne1 at ,polignac1 & 9 !
 neighb\rhood ( ,le ,puy-en-,velay4  ,if
 ! ve9 ( ,basalt or ,trap has trav]s$ a 
b$ ( coal or ( lignite1 we f9d !        
combu/ible /rongly metamorphos$ at !    
po9t ( contact4 ,sometimes x becomes    
cellul> & is *ang$ into coke4 ,?is is   
especially ! case 9 ! coal-bas9 (       
,brassac4 ,b m frequ5tly ! coal has lo/ 
all1 or "p (1 its bitum9\s & volatile   
matt]--x has be5 metamorphos$ into      
an?racite--z an example we may quote !  
lignite ( ,mont ,meisn]4  ,aga91 9 "s   
exceptional cases1 ! combu/ible may ev5 
be *ang$ into graphite ne> to its       

junction ) ,trap4 ,?is is obs]v$ at !   
coal-m9e ( ,new ,cumnock 9 ,ayr%ire4    
,:5 ne> its junction ) a trappean rock1 
a combu/ible has be5 metamorphos$ into  
coke or an?racite1 x is also frequ5tly  
impregnat$ by hydrat$ oxide ( iron1 by  
clay1 foliat$ c>bonate ( lime1 iron     
pyrites1 & by v>i\s m9]al ve9s4 ,x may  
happ5 t ! combu/ible has be5 r$uc$ to a 
pulv]ul5t /ate1 9 :i* case x is unfit = 
use4 ,su* is ! case 9 a coal-m9e at     
,newca/le1 :]e ! coal lies )9 ?irty y>ds
 ( a dyke ( ,trap4  ,:5 ,basalt & ,trap 
h be5 eject$ ?r\gh lime/one rock1 !     
latt] becomes m or less alt]$4 ,ne> !   
po9ts ( contact1 ! metamorphism :i* !y h
 und]gone is reveal$ by ! *ange ( col\r 
& aspect1 :i* is exhibit$ all ar\nd !   
ve91 (t5 also by ! developm5t ( a       
cry/all9e /ructure4 ,lime/one becomes   
granul> & sac*>oid--x is *ang$ into     
m>ble4 ,! mo/ rem>kable in/ance ( ?is   
metamorphism is ! ,c>r>a m>ble1 a       
non-fossilif]\s lime/one ( ! ,oolite    
s]ies1 :i* has be5 alt]$ & ! fossils    

de/roy$2 s t ! m>ble ( ^! celebrat$     
qu>ries1 once suppos$ to h be5 =m$ be=e 
! creation ( organic be+s1 is n[ %[n to 
be an alt]$ lime/one ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1
 & ! und]ly+ cry/all9e s*i/s are s&/ones
 & %ales ( second>y age modifi$ by      
plutonic action4  ,! action ( basalt ^u 
lime/one is obs]vable at ,vill5euve de  
,b]g1 9 ,auv]gne2 b /ill m 9 !          
neighb\rhood ( ,belfa/1 :]e we may see !
 ,*alk *ang$ into sac*>oid lime/one ne> 
to its contact ) ! ,trap4 ,sometimes !  
metamorphism ext5ds _m feet f ! po9t (  
contact2 nay1 m ?an t1 "s zeolites & o!r
 m9]als seem to be develop$ 9 !         
cry/allis$ lime/one4  ,:5 s&/one is f\nd
 9 contact ) trappean rock1 x pres5ts   
unequivocal traces ( metamorphism2 x    
loses its r$di% col\r & becomes :ite1   
grey1 gre51 or black2 p>allel ve9s may  
be detect$ :i* give x a jaspide\s       
/ructure2 x sep>ates into prisms        
p]p5dicul> to ! walls ( ! inject$ ve9s1 
:5 x assumes a brilliant & vitre\s      
lu/re4 ,sometimes x is ev5 also f\nd    

p5etrat$ by zeolites1 a family ( m9]als 
:i* melt be=e ! bl[pipe ) consid]able   
ebullition4 ,! mottl$ s&/ones ( ,g]many1
 :i* are trav]s$ by ve9s ( basalt1 (t5  
exhibit metamorphism1 p>ticul>ly at     
,wild5/]n1 9 ,wrtemb]g4  ,argillace\s   
rocks1 l all o!rs1 are subject to       
metamorphism :5 !y come 9 contact )     
eruptive trappean rocks4 ,9 ^!          
circum/ances !y *ange col\r & assume a  
v>i$ or prismatic /ructure2 at ! same "t
 _! h>dness increases1 & !y become      
li?oidal or /ony 9 /ructure4 ,!y may    
also become cellul>--=m zeolites 9 _!   
cavities ) foliat$ c>bonate ( lime1 z   
well z m9]als :i* commonly occur 9      
amygdaloid4 ,sometimes ev5 ! fissures   
are coat$ by ! metallic m9]als1 & ! o!r 
m9]als :i* accompany !m 9 _! metallif]\s
 b$s4 ,g5]ally !y lose a "p ( _! wat] & 
( _! c>bonic acid4 ,9 o!r circum/ances  
!y comb9e ) oxide ( iron & ! alkalies4  
,?is has be5 ass]t$1 = example1 at      
,essey1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,meur!1 :]e a v
 argillace\s s&/one is f\nd1 *>g$ )     

jasp] porcellanite1 ne> to ! junction ( 
! rock ) a ve9 ( basalt4  ,hi!rto we h  
spok5 only ( ! metamorphosis ! result ( 
volcanic action4 ,a few words w suffice 
to acqua9t ! read] ) ! metamorphism     
ex]cis$ by ! porphyries & granites4 ,by 
contact ) granite1 we f9d coal *ang$    
into an?racite or graphite4 ,x is       
important to note1 h[ev]1 t coal has    
seldom be5 metamorphos$ into coke4 ,z to
 ! lime/one1 x is sometimes1 z we h se51
 trans=m$ into m>ble2 we ev5 f9d 9 its  
int]ior div]s m9]als1 notably silicates 
) a calc>e\s base1 su* z g>nets1        
pyrox5e1 hornbl5de1 c4 ,! s&/ones &     
clay-slates h alike be5 alt]$4  ,!      
surr\nd+ deposit & ! eruptive rock are  
bo? frequ5tly impregnat$ ) qu>tz1       
c>bonate ( lime1 sulphate ( b>yta1      
fluorides1 &1 9 a ^w1 ) ! :ole tribe (  
metallif]\s m9]als1 :i* pres5t !mselves1
 besides1 ) ! *>act]i/ics :i* are common
 to !m 9 ! ve9s4   ,,g5]al              
,,metamorphism4  ,s$im5t>y rocks        
sometimes exhibit all ! symptoms (      

metamorphism :]e !re is no evid5ce (    
direct eruptive action1 & t ^u a scale  
mu* gr&] ?an 9 ! case ( special         
metamorphism4 ,x is obs]vable ov] :ole  
regions1 9 :i* x has modifi$ & alt]$    
simultane\sly all ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,?is
 /ate ( ?+s is call$ g5]al1 or normal1  
metamorphism4 ,! fundam5tal gneiss1 :i* 
cov]s su* a va/ ext5t ( c\ntry1 is ! mo/
 /rik+ in/ance kn[n ( g5]al             
metamorphism4 ,x 0 fir/ describ$ by ,sir
 ,w4 ,e4 ,logan1 ,director ( ! ,canadian
 ,geological ,survey1 :o e/imates its   
?ickness at #cj1jjj feet4 ,! ,laur5tian 
,gneiss is a t]m :i* is us$ by geologi/s
 to designate ^? metamorphic rocks :i*  
are kn[n to be old] ?an ! ,cambrian     
sy/em4 ,!y are p>ts ( ! old             
pre-,cambrian cont95ts :i* lie at ! base
 ( ! great ,am]ican cont95t1 ,sc&9avia1 
! ,hebrides1 c42 & :i* are l>gely       
develop$ on ! we/ coa/ ( ,scotl&4 ,9    
ord] to give ! read] "s idea ( ?is      
metamorphism1 we %all endeav\r to trace 
its effects 9 rocks ( ! same nature1    

indicat+ ! *>act]s successively pres5t$ 
by ! rocks accord+ to ! int5sity ( !    
metamorphism to :i* !y h be5 subject$4  
,combu/ibles1 :i* h a special           
composition1 totally diff]5t f all o!r  
rocks1 are obvi\sly ! fir/ objects (    
exam9ation4 ,:5 we desc5d 9 ! s]ies (   
s$im5t>y deposits1 ! combu/ibles are    
obs]v$ completely to *ange _! *>act]s4  
,f ! peat :i* is ! product ( our own    
epo*1 we pass to lignite1 to coal1 to   
an?racite1 & ev5 to graphite2 & f9d t _!
 d5sity increases1 v>y+ up to at lea/   
d\ble4 ,hydrog51 nitrog51 &1 above all1 
oxyg51 dim9i% rapidly4 ,volatile &      
bitum9\s matt]s decrease1 :ile c>bon    
und]goes a proportionate increase4  ,?is
 metamorphism ( ! combu/ible m9]als1 :i*
 takes place 9 deposits ( diff]5t ages1 
may also be obs]v$ ev5 9 ! same b$4 ,=  
in/ance1 9 ! coal =mations ( ,am]ica1   
:i* ext5d to ! we/ ( ! ,alleghany       
m\nta9s1 ! ,coal-measures conta9 a c]ta9
 proportion ( volatile matt]1 :i* goes  
on dim9i%+ 9 proportion z we approa* !  

granite rocks2 ?is proportion rises to  
fifty p] c5t4 ^u ! ,ohio1 b x falls to  
=ty ^u ! ,manon-,gahela1 & ev5 to sixte5
 9 ! ,alleghanies4 ,f9ally1 9 ! regions 
:]e ! /rata h be5 mo/ di/urb$1 9        
,p5nsylvania & ,massa*usetts1 ! coal has
 be5 metamorphos$ into an?racite & ev5  
into graphite or plumbago4  ,lime/one is
 "o ( ! rocks ^u :i* we c mo/ easily    
foll[ ! effects ( g5]al metamorphism4   
,:5 x has n be5 modifi$1 x is usually   
f\nd 9 s$im5t>y rocks 9 ! /ate ( compact
 lime/one1 ( co>se lime/one1 or ( e>?y  
lime/one su* z *alk4 ,b let u consid] x 
9 ! m\nta9s1 especially 9 m\nta9s :i*   
are at ! same "t granitic1 su* z !      
,pyr5ees1 ! ,vosges1 & ! ,alps4 ,we %all
 !n see its *>act]s completely modifi$4 
,9 ! long & deep valleys ( ! ,alps1 =   
example1 we c foll[ ! alt]ations ( !    
lime/one = _m leagues1 ! b$s los+ m & m 
_! regul>ity 9 proportion z we approa* !
 c5tral *a91 until !y lose !mselves 9   
solit>y p9nacles & projections enclos$ 9
 cry/all9e s*i/s or granitic rocks4     

,t[>ds ! upp] regions ( ! ,alps !       
lime/one divides itself into            
pseudo-regul> fragm5ts1 x is m /rongly  
cem5t$1 m compact1 m sonor\s2 its col\r 
becomes pal]1 & x passes f black to grey
 by ! gradual disappe>ance ( organic &  
bitum9\s matt] ) :i* x has be5          
impregnat$1 at ! same "t its cry/all9e  
/ructure increases 9 a mann] sc>cely    
p]ceptible4 ,x may ev5 be obs]v$ to be  
metamorphos$ into an aggregate (        
microscopic cry/als1 & f9ally to pass   
into a :ite sac*>oid lime/one4  ,?is    
metamorphism is produc$ )\t any         
decomposition ( ! lime/one2 x has r be5 
s(t5$ & half melt$ by ! heat1 t is1     
r5d]$ pla/ic1 s to speak1 = we f9d 9 x  
fossils /ill recognisable1 & among ^!1  
notably1 "s ,ammonites & ,belemnites1 ! 
pres5ce ( :i* enables u to /ate t x is !
 greyi%-black ,jurassic lime/one1 :i*   
has be5 trans=m$ into :ite sac*>oid or  
granul> lime/one4 ,if ! lime/one        
subject$ to ?is trans=mation 7 p]fectly 
pure1 x w\ld simply take a cry/all9e    

/ructure2 b x is g5]ally mix$ ) s& &    
v>i\s argillace\s matt]s1 :i* h be5     
deposit$ along ) x1 matt]s :i* g to =m  
new m9]als4 ,^! new m9]als1 h[ev]1 are n
 dissem9at$ by *ance2 !y develop        
!mselves 9 ! direction ( ! lam9ation1 s 
to speak1 ( ! lime/one1 & 9 its         
fissures1 9 su* a mann] t !y pres5t     
!mselves 9 nodules1 seams1 & sometimes 9
 ve9s4  ,among ! pr9cipal m9]als ( !    
sac*>oid lime/one we may m5tion         
graphite1 qu>tz1 "s v v>i$ silicates1   
su* z &alusite1 di/h5e1 s]p5t9e1 talc1  
g>net1 augite1 hornbl5de1 epidote1      
*lorite1 ! micas1 ! felsp>s2 f9ally1    
sp9el1 corundum1 phosphate ( lime1 oxide
 ( iron & oligi/e1 iron pyrites1 c4     
,besides ^!1 v>i\s m9]als 9 ve9s figure 
among ^? :i* exi/ m commonly 9 !        
sac*>oid lime/one4  ,:5 metamorphic     
lime/one is suffici5tly pure1 x is      
employ$ z /atu>y m>ble4 ,su* is !       
geological orig9 ( ,c>r>a m>ble1 :i* is 
qu>ri$ 9 ! ,apuan ,alps on a great      
scale2 su*1 also1 0 ! m>ble ( ,p>os &   

,antip>os1 /ill s celebrat$ = its       
purity4 ,on exam9ation1 h[ev]1 ) ! l5s !
 ,c>r>a m>ble exhibits blacki% ve9s &   
spangles ( graphite2 ! f9e/ blocks1     
also1 frequ5tly conta9 nodules (        
iron/one1 :i* are l9$ ) p]fectly limpid 
cry/als ( qu>tz4 ,^! accid5tal defects  
are v annoy+ to ! sculptor1 = !y are v  
m9ute1 & no?+ on ! ext]ior ( ! block    
betrays _! exi/5ce4 ,9 ! m>ble ( ,p>os1 
ev5 :5 x is /rongly transluc5t1 specks (
 mica are (t5 f\nd4 ,9 ! anci5t qu>ries 
! nodules are s num]\s z to h h9d]$ _!  
be+ work$1 up ev5 to ! pres5t "t4  ,:5 !
 mica :i* occurs 9 granul> lime/one     
takes a gre5 col\r & =ms ve9s1 x        
con/itutes ! ,cipol9e m>ble1 :i* is f\nd
 9 ,corsica1 & 9 ! ,val ,godem> 9 !     
,alps4 ,"s :ite m>bles are qu>ri$ 9     
,france1 *iefly at ,l\bie1 at ,so/1 at  
,sa9t-,bat 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 & at ,*ippal 9 
! ,vosges4 ,9 our c\ntry1 & especially 9
 ,irel&1 !re are num]\s qu>ries ( m>ble1
 ve9$ & col\r$ ( e hue1 b none ( a      
purity suitable = ! f9e/ /atu>y         

purposes4 ,all ^! m>bles are only       
metamorphos$ lime/ones4  ,! :ite m>bles 
employ$ almo/ all ov] ! _w are ^? (     
,c>r>a4 ,!y result f ! metamorphism (   
lime/one ( ! ,lias4 ,!y h n be5 p5etrat$
 by ! eruptive rocks1 b !y h be5        
subject$ ^u a great scale to a g5]al    
metamorphism1 to :i* _! cry/all9e       
/ructure may be attribut$4  ,x is easily
 und]/ood t ! calc>e\s /rata h n        
und]gone su* an en]getic metamorphism   
)\t ! b$s ( s&/one & clay1 associat$ )  
!m1 hav+ also und]gone "s modification (
 ! same k9d4 ,! silice\s b$s accompany+ 
! sac*>oid lime/one h1 9 %ort1 a "* ( _!
 own4 ,!y are =m$ ( small gra9s (       
transp>5t qu>tz m or less cem5t$ "o to !
 o!r 9 a mann] /rongly resembl+ ^? ( !  
sac*>oid lime/one4 ,betwe5 ^! gra9s are 
usually develop$ "s lamell ( mica (     
brilliant & silky lu/re1 ( :i* ! col\r  
is :ite1 r$1 or gre52 9 a ^w1 x has     
produc$ a qu>tzite4 ,"s ve9s ( qu>tz    
frequ5tly trav]se ?is qu>tzite 9 all    
directions4 ,indep5d5t ( ! mica1 x may  

conta91 besides1 ! diff]5t m9]als       
already m5tion$ z occurr+ 9 ! lime/one1 
& p>ticul>ly silicates--su* z di/h5e1   
&alusite1 /aurotide1 g>net1 & hornbl5de4
  ,! argillace\s b$s pres5t a s]ies (   
metamorphisms analog\s to ! prec$+4 ,we 
c foll[ !m readily ?r\gh all _!         
gradations :5 we direct our att5tion    
t[>ds su* granitic masses z ^? :i*      
con/itute ! ,alps1 ,pyr5ees1 ! ,bretagne
 ,m\nta9s1 or our own ,grampians4 ,!    
s*i/s may p]haps be consid]$ ! fir/ /ep 
t[>ds ! metamorphism ( c]ta9 argillace\s
 rocks2 9 fact1 ! s*i/s are n           
susceptible ( mix+ ) wat] l clay2 !y    
become /ony1 & acquire a mu* great]     
d5sity1 b _! *ief *>act]i/ic is a       
foliat$ /ructure4  ,exp]im5t proves t :5
 we subject a sub/ance to a great       
pressure a foliat$ /ructure is produc$ 9
 a direction p]p5dicul> to t 9 :i* !    
pressure is ex]cis$4 ,ev]y?+ leads u1   
!re=e1 to believe t pressure is !       
pr9cipal cause ( ! s*i/\s texture1 & ( !
 foliation ( clay-slates1 ! mo/         

*>act]i/ic v>iety ( :i* is ! ro(+-slate 
:i* is qu>ri$ s ext5sively 9 ,nor?      
,wales1 9 ,cumb]l&1 & v>i\s p>ts (      
,scotl& 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s2 9 !         
,ard5nes2 & 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,ang]s1 9
 ,france4  ,9 "s localities ! slate     
becomes silice\s & is *>g$ ) cry/als (  
felsp>4 ,nev]!less1 x /ill pres5ts      
itself 9 p>allel b$s1 & conta9s ! same  
fossil rema9s /ill 9 a recognisable     
/ate4 ,= example1 9 ! neighb\rhood (    
,?ann1 9 ! ,vosges1 c]ta9 vegetable     
impr9ts are p]fectly pres]v$ 9 !        
metamorphic s*i/1 & 9 _! mid/ are       
develop$ "s cry/als ( felsp>4           
,mica-s*i/1 :i* is =m$ ( lay]s ( qu>tz &
 mica1 is f\nd habitually associat$ )   
rocks :i* h tak5 a cry/all9e /ructure1  
proce$+ evid5tly f an en]getic          
metamorphism ( b$s orig9ally            
argillace\s4 ,*ia/olite1 di/h5e1        
/aurotide1 hornbl5de1 & o!r m9]als are  
f\nd 9 x4 ,mica-s*i/s occur ext5sively 9
 ,brittany1 9 ! ,vosges1 9 ! ,pyr5ees4  
,9 all cases1 z we approa* ! masses (   

granite1 9 ^! regions1 ! cry/all9e      
/ructure becomes m & m m>k$4  ,9        
describ+ ! v>i\s facts relat+ to !      
metamorphism ( rocks1 we h said little (
 ! causes :i* h produc$ x4 ,! causes    
are1 inde$1 9 ! region ( hypo!sis1 &    
some:at my/]i\s4  ,9 :at conc]ns special
 metamorphism1 ! cause is suppos$ to    
admit ( easy explanation--x is heat4 ,:5
 a rock is eject$ f ! int]ior ( ! e>? 9 
a /ate ( igne\s fusion1 we compreh5d    
readily en\gh t ! /rata1 :i* x trav]ses1
 %\ld su/a9 alt]ations due to ! influ5ce
 ( heat1 & v>y+ ) its int5sity4 ,?is is 
cle> en\gh 9 ! case ( lava4 ,on ! o!r   
h&1 z wat] always exi/s 9 ! int]ior ( ! 
e>?'s cru/1 & z ?is wat] mu/ be at a v  
high temp]ature 9 ! neighb\rhood (      
volcanic fires1 x contributes1 no d\bt1 
l>gely to ! metamorphism4 ,if ! rocks h 
n be5 eject$ 9 a /ate ( fusion1 x is    
evid5tly wat]1 ) ! diff]5t m9]al        
sub/ances x holds 9 solution1 :i* is !  
*ief actor 9 ! special metamorphism :i* 
is produc$4  ,9 g5]al metamorphism1 wat]

 appe>s /ill to be ! pr9cipal ag5t4 ,z x
 is infilt]$ ?r\gh ! v>i\s b$s x w      
modify _! composition1 ei!r by dissolv+ 
c]ta9 sub/ances1 or by introduc+ into ! 
metallif]\s deposits c]ta9 new          
sub/ances1 su* z may be se5 =m+1 ev5 "u 
our eyes1 9 m9]al spr+s4 ,?is has t5d$  
to r5d] ! s$im5t>y deposits pla/ic1 &   
has p]mitt$ ! developm5t ( t cry/all9e  
/ructure1 :i* is "o ( ! pr9cipal        
*>act]i/ics ( metamorphic rocks4 ,?is   
action has be5 second$ by o!r causes1   
notably by heat & pressure1 :i* w\ld h  
an imm5se increase ( p[] & en]gy :5     
metamorphism takes place at a great dep?
 b5ea? ! surface4 ,dr4 ,holl1 9 an able 
pap] descriptive ( ! geology ( ! ,malv]n
 ,hills1 read be=e ! ,geological        
,society 9 ,febru>y1 #ahfe1 adopts ?is  
hypo!sis z explanatory ( ! va/ ph5om5a  
:i* are !re display$4 ,aft] describ+ !  
position ( ?is int]e/+ & /rangely-m+l$  
range ( rocks1 he adds3 8,^! metamorphic
 rocks are = ! mo/ "p highly incl9$1 &  
(t5 9 a position ne>ly v]tical4 ,_!     

di/urbance & metamorphism1 _! be+       
trav]s$ by granitic ve9s1 & /ill lat] _!
 invasion by trap-dykes & _! subsequ5t  
elevation above ! sea-level1 7 all ev5ts
 :i* mu/ h occupi$ no inconsid]able     
p]iod1 ev5 ( geological "t4 ,i presume10
 he adds1 8t x w n be ma9ta9$ 9 ! pres5t
 day t ! metamorphism ( rocks ov] areas 
( any b v mod]ate ext5t is due to !     
intrusion ( ve9s & erupt$ masses4 ,!    
insuffici5cy ( su* ag5cy becomes ! m    
obvi\s :5 we consid] ! slight effects   
produc$ by ev5 tol]ably ext5sive        
outbur/s1 su* z ! ,d>tmoor granite2 :ile
 9 ! case ( ! ,malv]ns !re is an abs5ce 
( any local cause :atev]4 ,! m probable 
explanation 9 ! case ( ^! l>g] areas is1
 t !y 7 fault$ d[n1 or o!rwise depress$1
 s z to be br\ght )9 ! influ5ce ( !     
e>?'s int]nal heat1 & ?is is ! m likely 
z !y belong to an epo* :5 ! cru/ is     
believ$ to h be5 ?9n]40 ,:5 x is        
consid]$ t1 accord+ to ! doctr9e ( mod]n
 geology1 ! ,laur5tian rocks1 or _!     
equival5ts1 lie at ! base ( all !       

s$im5t>y deposits2 t ?is1 l o!r sy/ems (
 /ratifi$ rocks1 0 deposit$ 9 ! =m ( s&1
 mud1 & clay1 to ! ?ickness ( #cj1jjj   
feet2 & t ov] an area embrac+ ,sc&9avia1
 ! ,hebrides1 great "p ( ,scotl&1 &     
,engl& z f> s\? z ! ,malv]ns1 besides a 
l>ge proportion ( ! ,am]ican cont95t1 ) 
c]ta9 =ms ( animal life1 z rec5t        
inve/igations demon/rate--c ! m9d ( man 
realise any o!r cause by :i* ?is va/    
ext5t ( metamorphism c\ld h be5 produc$8
  ,electric & galvanic curr5ts1         
circulat+ 9 ! /ratifi$ cru/1 are n to be
 ov]look$4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4  
,fox & ,mr4 ,rob]t ,hunt sugge/ t1 9    
pass+ long-cont9u$ galvanic curr5ts     
?r\gh masses ( moi/5$ clay1 !re is a    
t5d5cy to produce cleavage & a          
semi-cry/all9e arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles (
 matt]4#ca    #ca ,report ( ! ,royal    
,cornwall ,polyte*nic ,society = #ahcg4 
,rob]t        ,hunt1 9 8,memoirs ( !    
,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita910  
vol4 i41 p4 #dcc4     ,,! ,,beg9n+4   ,!
 !ory :i* has be5 develop$1 & :i*       

consid]s ! e>? z an ext9ct sun1 z a />  
cool$ d[n f its orig9al heat$ condition1
 z a nebula1 or lum9\s cl\d1 :i* has    
pass$ f ! gase\s to ! solid /ate--?is   
f9e conception1 :i* unites s brilliantly
 ! k9dr$ sci5ces ( a/ronomy & geology1  
belongs to ! ,fr5* ma!matician1         
,laplace1 ! immortal au?or ( !          
8,mcanique ,cle/e40  ,! hypo!sis (      
,laplace assigns to ! sun1 & to all     
bodies :i* gravitate 9 :at ,desc>tes    
calls 8 t\rbillon1 a common orig94 8,9 !
 primitive /ate 9 :i* we mu/ suppose !  
sun to be10 he says1 8x resembles "o (  
^? nebul :i* ! telescope reveals to u1  
consi/+ ( a m or less brilliant c5tral  
nucleus1 surr\nd$ by lum9\s cl\ds1 :i*  
cl\ds1 cond5s+ at ! surface1 become     
trans=m$ into a />40  ,x has be5        
calculat$ t ! c5tre ( ! e>? has a       
temp]ature ( ab\t #aie1jjj ,c5t41 a     
degree ( heat :i* surpasses all t !     
imag9ation c conceive4 ,we c h no       
difficulty 9 admitt+ t1 at a heat s     
excessive1 all ! sub/ances :i* n[ ent]  

into ! composition ( ! globe w\ld be    
r$uc$ to ! /ate ( gas or vap\r4 ,our    
planet1 !n1 mu/ h be5 orig9ally an      
aggregation ( ari=m fluids--a mass (    
matt] entirely gase\s2 & if we reflect t
 sub/ances 9 _! gase\s /ate occupy a    
volume eighte5 hundr$ times l>g] ?an :5 
solid1 we %all h "s conception ( !      
enorm\s volume ( ?is gase\s mass4 ,x    
w\ld be z l>ge z ! sun1 :i* is f\rte5   
hundr$ ?\s& times l>g] ?an ! t]re/rial  
sph]e4 ,9 ,fig4 #ab we h attempt$ to    
give an idea ( ! va/ diff]5ce ( volume  
betwe5 ! e>? 9 its pres5t solid /ate & 9
 its primitive gase\s condition4 ,"o ( !
 globes1 ,a1 repres5ts ! =m]1 ,b !      
latt]4 ,x is simply a comp>ison ( size1 
:i* is made ! m /rik+ly app>5t by means 
( ^! geometrical figures--"o ! tw5tie?  
"p ( an in* 9 diamet]1 ! o!r two in*es &
 ?ree qu>t]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,,vi4--,!  
,e>? circulat+ 9 space 9 ! /ate ( a     
gase\s />4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#ab4--;,comp>ative volume ( ! e>? 9 !   
gase\s & solid /ate4  ,at ?is excessive 

temp]ature ! gase\s mass1 :i* we h      
describ$1 w\ld %9e 9 space z ! sun does 
at ! pres5t day2 & ) ! same brilliancy z
 t ) :i*1 to our eyes1 ! fix$ />s &     
planets %9e 9 ! s]5ity ( night1 z       
repres5t$ on ! opposite page 7,,plate   
,,vi474 ,circulat+ r\nd ! sun 9 ob$i5ce 
to ! laws ( univ]sal gravitation1 ?is   
inc&esc5t gase\s mass 0 necess>ily      
regulat$ by ! laws :i* gov]n o!r mat]ial
 sub/ances4 ,z x got cool] x gradually  
transf]r$ "p ( its w>m? to ! glacial    
regions ( ! int]-planet>y spaces1 9 !   
mid/ ( :i* x trac$ ! l9e ( its flam+    
orbit4 ,consequ5t on its cont9ual cool+ 
7b at ! end ( a p]iod ( "t ( :i* x w\ld 
be impossible1 ev5 approximately1 to fix
 ! duration71 ! />1 orig9ally gase\s1   
w\ld atta9 a liquid /ate4 ,x w\ld !n be 
consid]ably dim9i%$ 9 volume4  ,! laws (
 me*anics tea* u t liquid bodies1 :5 9 a
 /ate ( rotation1 assume a sph]ical =m2 
x is "o ( ! laws ( _! be+1 emanat+ f !  
,creator1 & is due to ! =ce (           
attraction4 ,?us ! ,e>? takes !         

sph]oidal =m1 belong+ to x1 9 common ) !
 great] numb] ( ! cele/ial bodies4  ,!  
,e>? is subject to two di/9ct movem5ts2 
namely1 a movem5t ( translation r\nd !  
sun1 & a movem5t ( rotation on its own  
axis--! latt] a uni=m movem5t1 :i*      
produces ! regul> alt]nations ( days &  
nights4 ,me*anics h also e/abli%$ !     
fact1 :i* is confirm$ by exp]im5t1 t a  
fluid mass 9 motion produces 7z ! result
 ( ! v>iation ( ! c5trifugal =ce on its 
diff]5t diamet]s71 a swell+ t[>ds !     
equatorial diamet] ( ! sph]e1 & a       
flatt5+ at ! poles or extremities ( its 
axis4 ,x is 9 consequ5ce ( ?is law1 t ! 
,e>?1 :5 x 0 9 a liquid /ate1 became    
swoll5 at ! equator1 & depress$ at its  
two poles2 & t x has pass$ f its        
primitive sph]ical =m to ! sph]oidal--t 
is1 has become flatt5$ at ea* ( its pol>
 extremities1 & has assum$ its pres5t   
%ape ( an oblate sph]oid4  ,?is bulg+ at
 ! equator & flatt5+ t[>ds ! poles af=d 
! mo/ direct pro(s1 t c be adduc$1 ( !  
orig9al liquid /ate ( our planet4 ,a    

solid & non-ela/ic sph]e--a /one ball1 =
 example--might turn = ages ^u its axis1
 & its =m w\ld su/a9 no *ange2 b a fluid
 ball1 or "o ( a pa/y consi/5ce1 w\ld   
swell out t[>ds ! middle1 &1 9 ! same   
proportion1 become flatt5$ at !         
extremities ( its axis4 ,x 0 ^u ?is     
pr9ciple1 namely1 by admitt+ ! primitive
 fluidity ( ! globe1 t ,newton ann\nc$  
priori ! bulg+ ( ! globe at ! equator & 
its flatt5+ at ! poles2 & he ev5        
calculat$ ! am\nt ( ?is depression4 ,!  
actual measurem5t1 bo? ( ?is expansion &
 flatt5+1 by ,maup]tuis1 ,clairaut1     
,camus1 & ,lemonni]1 9 #agcf1 prov$ h[  
exact ! calculations ( ! great          
geometrican 74 ,^? g5tlem51 toge!r ) !  
,abb ,ou?i]1 7 s5t into ,lapl& by !     
,academy ( ,sci5ces2 ! ,sw$i% a/ronom]1 
,celsius1 accompani$ !m1 & furni%$ !m ) 
! be/ in/rum5ts = measur+ & survey+4 ,at
 ! same "t ! ,academy s5t ,b\gu] &      
,condam9e to ! equatorial regions ( ,s\?
 ,am]ica4 ,! measurem5ts tak5 9 bo? ^!  
regions e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce ( !          

equatorial expansion & ! pol>           
depression1 z ,newton _h e/imat$ x to be
 9 8 calculations4  ,x does n foll[1 z a
 consequ5ce ( ! p>tial cool+ d[n ( !    
t]re/rial mass1 t all ! gase\s sub/ances
 compos+ x %\ld pass into a liquid /ate2
 "s ( ^! might rema9 9 ! /ate ( gas or  
vap\r1 & =m r\nd ! t]re/rial sph]oid an 
out] envelope or atmosph]e 7f ! ,greek  
words 1 vap\r1 & 1 sph]e74 ,b we %\ld =m
 a v inexact idea ( ! atmosph]e :i*     
surr\nd$ ! globe1 at ?is remote p]iod1  
if we comp>$ x ) t :i* surr\nds x n[4 ,!
 ext5t ( ! gase\s matt] :i* envelop$ !  
primitive e>? mu/ h be5 imm5se2 x       
d\btless ext5d$ to ! moon4 ,x includ$1 9
 %ort1 9 ! /ate ( vap\r1 ! enorm\s body 
( wat] :i*1 z su*1 n[ con/itutes our    
exi/+ seas1 add$ to all ! o!r sub/ances 
:i* pres]ve _! gase\s /ate at !         
temp]ature !n exhibit$ by ! inc&esc5t   
e>?2 & x is c]ta9ly no exagg]ation to   
place ?is temp]ature at #b1jjj          
,c5tigrade4 ,! atmosph]e w\ld p>ticipate
 9 ?is temp]ature2 & act$ on by su*     

excessive heat1 ! pressure t x w\ld ex]t
 on ! ,e>? w\ld be inf9itely great] ?an 
t :i* x ex]cises at ! pres5t "t4 ,to !  
gases :i* =m ! compon5t p>ts ( ! pres5t 
atmosph]ic air--namely1 nitrog51 oxyg51 
& c>bonic acid--to enorm\s masses (     
wat]y vap\r1 mu/ be add$ va/ quantities 
( m9]al sub/ances1 metallic or e>?y1    
r$uc$ to a gase\s /ate1 & ma9ta9$ 9 t   
/ate by ! temp]ature ( ?is gigantic     
furnace4 ,! metals1 !                   
*lorides--metallic1 alkal9e1 &          
e>?y--sulphur1 ! sulphides1 & ev5 !     
silicates ( alum9a & lime2 all1 at ?is  
temp]ature1 w\ld exi/ 9 a vapor\s =m 9 !
 atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! primitive globe4  
,x is to be inf]r$ t1 "u ^!             
circum/ances1 ! diff]5t sub/ances       
compos+ ?is atmosph]e w\ld be rang$ r\nd
 ! globe 9 ! ord] ( _! respective       
d5sities2 ! fir/ lay]--t ne>e/ to !     
surface ( ! globe--be+ =m$ ( ! heavi]   
vap\rs1 su* z ^? ( ! metals1 ( iron1    
plat9um1 & copp]1 mix$ d\btless ) cl\ds 
( f9e metallic du/ produc$ by ! p>tial  

cond5sation ( _! vap\rs4 ,?is fir/ &    
heavie/ zone1 & ! ?icke/ also1 w\ld be q
 opaque1 al?\gh ! surface ( ! e>? 0 /ill
 at a r$ heat4 ,above x w\ld come ! m   
vaporisable sub/ances1 su* z ! metallic 
& alkal9e *lorides1 p>ticul>ly ! *loride
 ( sodium or common salt1 sulphur &     
phosphorus1 ) all ! volatile comb9ations
 ( ^! sub/ances4 ,! upp] zone w\ld      
conta9 matt] /ill m easily conv]t$ into 
vap\r1 su* z wat] 7/eam71 toge!r ) o!rs 
naturally gase\s1 z oxyg51 nitrog51 &   
c>bonic acid4 ,?is ord] ( sup]position1 
h[ev]1 w\ld n always be pres]v$4 ,9     
spite ( _! diff]5ces ( d5sity1 ^! ?ree  
atmosph]ic lay]s w\ld (t5 become mix$1  
produc+ =midable /orms & viol5t         
ebullitions2 frequ5tly ?r[+ d[n1 r5d+1  
upheav+1 & conf\nd+ ^! inc&esc5t zones4 
,z to ! globe itself1 )\t be+ s mu*     
agitat$ z its hot & %ift+ atmosph]e1 x  
w\ld be no less subject to p]petual     
tempe/s1 occasion$ by ! ?\s& *emical    
actions :i* took place 9 its molt5 mass4
 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! electricity result+ f  

^! p[]ful *emical actions1 op]at+ on su*
 a va/ scale1 w\ld induce frightful     
electric detonations1 ?und] add+ to !   
horror ( ?is primitive sc5e1 :i* no     
imag9ation1 no human p5cil c\ld trace1 &
 :i* con/itutes t gloomy & disa/r\s *aos
 ( :i* ! leg5d>y hi/ory ( e anci5t race 
has transmitt$ ! tradition4 ,9 ?is mann]
 w\ld our globe circulate 9 space1 c>ry+
 9 its tra9 ! flam+ /reaks ( its        
multiple atmosph]e1 unfitt$1 z yet1 =   
liv+ be+s1 & imp5etrable to ! rays ( !  
sun1 ar\nd :i* x describ$ its va/ orbit4
  ,! temp]ature ( ! planet>y regions is 
inf9itely l[2 accord+ to ,laplace x _c  
be e/imat$ at less ?an #ajj bel[ z]o4 ,!
 glacial regions trav]s$ 9 its c\rse by 
! inc&esc5t globe w\ld necess>ily cool  
x1 at fir/ sup]ficially1 :5 x w\ld      
assume a pa/y consi/5ce4 ,x mu/ n be    
=gott5 t ! e>?1 on acc\nt ( its liquid  
/ate1 w\ld be ob$i5t 9 all its mass to !
 action ( flux & reflux1 :i* proce$s f !
 attraction ( ! sun & moon1 b to :i* !  
sea alone is n[ subject4 ,?is action1 to

 :i* all its liquid & movable p>ticles 7
 subject1 w\ld s+ul>ly accel]ate !      
comm5cem5t ( ! solidification ( !       
t]re/rial mass4 ,x w\ld ?us gradually   
assume t sort ( consi/5ce :i* iron      
atta9s1 :5 x is fir/ )drawn f ! furnace1
 9 ! process ( puddl+4  ,z ! e>? cool$1 
b$s ( concrete sub/ances w\ld necess>ily
 be =m$1 :i*1 float+ at fir/ 9 isolat$  
masses on ! surface ( ! semi-fluid      
matt]1 w\ld 9 c\rse ( "t come toge!r1   
consolidate1 & =m cont9u\s banks2 j z we
 see ) ! ice ( ! pres5t ,pol> ,seas1    
:i*1 :5 br\ght 9 contact by ! agitation 
( ! waves1 coalesces & =ms iceb]gs1 m or
 less movable4 ,by ext5d+ ?is ph5om5on  
to ! :ole surface ( ! globe1 !          
solidification ( its entire surface w\ld
 be produc$4 ,a solid1 b /ill ?9 &      
fragile cru/1 w\ld ?us envelop ! :ole   
e>?1 enclos+ entirely its /ill fluid    
int]ior4 ,! entire consolidation w\ld   
necess>ily be a mu* sl[] process--"o    
:i*1 accord+ to ! receiv$ hypo!sis1 is v
 f> f be+ complet$ at ! pres5t "t2 = x  

is e/imat$ t ! actual ?ickness ( ! e>?'s
 cru/ does n exce$ ?irty miles1 :ile !  
mean radius or di/ance f ! c5tre ( !    
t]re/rial sph]e1 approa*es #d1jjj miles1
 ! mean diamet] be+ #g1iabdji miles2 s t
 ! portion ( our planet1 suppos$ to be  
solidifi$1 repres5ts only a v small     
fraction ( its total mass4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,relative     
volumes ( ! solid cru/ & liquid mass ( !
 globe4  ,we say ?irty miles1 = su* is !
 ord9>y e/imat$ ?ickness ( ! e>?'s cru/1
 usually admitt$ by savants2 & ! foll[+ 
is ! process by :i* ?is result has be5  
obta9$4  ,we "k t ! temp]ature ( ! e>?  
increases "o degree ,c5tigrade = e      
hundr$ feet ( desc5t4 ,?is result has   
be5 borne out by a great numb] (        
measurem5ts1 made 9 _m ( ! m9es (       
,france1 9 ! t9 m9es ( ,cornwall1 9 !   
m9es ( ! ,erzgeb]ge1 ( ! ,ural1 (       
,scotl&1 &1 above all1 9 ! s\nd+s       
effect$ 9 ! ,artesian wells ( ,gr5elle &
 ,passy1 ne> ,p>is1 ( ,/4 ,&r de        
,iregny1 & at a great numb] ( o!r po9ts4

  ,! greate/ dep? to :i* m9]s h hi!rto  
p5etrat$ is ab\t #igc y>ds1 :i* has be5 
rea*$ 9 a bor+ execut$ 9 ,mond]f1 9 !   
,gr& ,du*y ( ,luxemb\rg4 ,at            
,neusalzw]k1 ne> ,m9d51 9 ,prussia1     
ano!r bor+ has be5 c>ri$ to ! dep? (    
#gfj y>ds4 ,9 ! coal-m9es ( ,monkwe>m\? 
! pits h be5 sunk #ebe y>ds1 & at       
,duk9field #gag y>ds4 ,! mean ( !       
!rmometic obs]vations made1 at all ^!   
po9ts1 leads to ! conclusion t !        
temp]ature increases ab\t "o degree     
,fahr5heit = e sixty feet 7,engli%7 (   
desc5t aft] ! fir/ hundr$4  ,9 admitt+ t
 ?is law ( temp]ature exi/s = all dep?s 
( ! e>?'s cru/1 we arrive at !          
conclusion t1 at a dep? ( f tw5ty-five  
to ?irty-five miles--:i* is only ab\t   
five times ! height ( ! highe/          
m\nta9s--! mo/ refractory matt] w\ld be 
9 a /ate ( fusion4 ,accord+ to ,m4      
,mits*]li*1 ! flame ( hydrog51 burn+ 9  
free air1 acquires a temp]ature ( #a1efj
 ,c5tigrade4 ,9 ?is flame plat9um w\ld  
be 9 a /ate ( fusion4 ,granite melts at 

a l[] temp]ature ?an s(t iron1 t is at  
ab\t #a1cjj2 :ile silv] melts at #a1jbc4
 ,9 imag9+ an increase ( temp]ature     
equal to "o degree = e hundr$ feet (    
desc5t1 ! temp]ature at tw5ty-five miles
 w be #a1dbj ,c4 or #b1ibe ,f42 ?irty   
miles bel[ ! surface !re w be a probable
 temp]ature ( #a1ehd ,c4 or #c1fcj ,f42 
x foll[s1 if ^! argum5ts be admitt$1 & !
 calculation correct1 t ! ?ickness ( !  
solid cru/ ( ! globe does n mu* exce$   
?irty miles4  ,?is result1 :i* gives to 
! t]re/rial cru/ a ?ickness equal to    
#a_/aij ( ! e>?'s diamet]1 has no?+1 x  
is true1 ( absolute c]ta9ty4  ,pr(4 ,w4 
,hopk9s1 ,f4,r4,s41 an em95t            
ma!matician1 has mu* insi/$ ^u ! fact1 t
 ! conductibility ( granite rocks1 =    
heat1 is mu* great] ?an t ( s$im5t>y    
rocks2 & he argues t 9 ! l[] /ratum ( ! 
e>? ! temp]ature increases mu* m sl[ly  
?an x does ne>] ! surface4 ,?is         
consid]ation has l$ ,mr4 ,hopk9s to     
e/imate ! probable ?ickness ( ! e>?'s   
solid cru/ at a m9imum ( #bjj miles4  ,9

 support ( ?is e/imate ,mr4 ,hopk9s puts
 =w>d ano!r argum5t1 bas$ ^u !          
precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,we "k t !     
t]re/rial axis1 in/ead ( always pres]v+ 
! same direction 9 space1 revolves 9 a  
cone r\nd ! pole ( ! ecliptic4 ,our     
globe1 x is calculat$1 w accompli% its  
revolution 9 ab\t #be1jjj ye>s4 ,9 ab\t 
?is p]iod x w return to its orig9al     
position4 ,?is balanc+1 :i* has be5     
comp>$ to t ( a top :5 ab\t to cease    
sp9n+1 produces ! movem5t kn[n z !      
precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,x is due to ! 
attraction :i* ! sun & moon ex]cise ^u !
 swell+ equatorial ( ! globe4 ,?is      
attraction w\ld act v diff]5tly ^u a    
globe entirely solid1 & ^u "o ) a liquid
 int]ior1 cov]$ by a comp>atively ?9    
cru/4 ,mr4 ,hopk9s subject$ ?is curi\s  
problem to ma!matical analysis1 & he    
calculat$ t ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1  
obs]v$ by a/ronom]s1 c\ld only be       
expla9$ by admitt+ t ! solid %ell ( !   
e>? c\ld n be less ?an f ab\t #hjj to   
#a1jjj miles 9 ?ickness4  ,9 8 rese>*es 

on ! rigidity ( ! e>?1 ,sir ,william    
,?omson f9ds t ! ph5om5a ( precession & 
nutation require t ! e>?1 if n solid to 
! core1 mu/ be ne>ly s2 & t no cont9u\s 
liquid vesicle at all approa*+ #f1jjj   
miles 9 diamet] c possibly exi/ 9 !     
e>?'s int]ior1 )\t r5d]+ ! ph5om5a 9 "q 
v s5sibly diff]5t f :at !y are4  ,!     
calculations ( ,mr4 ,h5nessey are 9     
direct opposition to ^? ( ,sir ,william 
,?omson1 & %[ t ! e>?'s cru/ _c be less 
?an eighte5 miles1 or m ?an #fjj miles 9
 ?ickness4  ,admitt+1 = ! pres5t1 t !   
t]re/rial cru/ is only ?irty miles 9    
?ickness1 we c express 9 a famili>1 b v 
intelligible fa%ion1 ! actual relation  
betwe5 ! dim5sions ( ! liquid nucleus & 
! solid cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,if we imag9e !   
e>? to be an orange1 a tol]ably ?ick    
%eet ( pap] appli$ to its surface w !n  
repres5t1 approximately1 ! ?ickness ( ! 
solid cru/ :i* n[ envelopes ! globe4    
,fig4 #ac w enable u to appreciate ?is  
fact /ill m correctly4 ,! t]re/rial     
sph]e hav+ a mean diamet] ( #g1iab      

miles1 or a mean radius ( #c1ief miles1 
& a solid cru/ ab\t ?irty miles ?ick1   
:i* is #a_/bfj ( ! diamet]1 or #a_/acj (
 ! radius1 ! engrav+ may be presum$ to  
repres5t ^! proportions ) suffici5t     
accuracy4  ,to det]m9e1 ev5             
approximately1 ! "t su* a va/ body w\ld 
take 9 cool+1 s z to p]mit ( ! =mation (
 a solid cru/1 or to fix ! duration ( ! 
trans=mations :i* we are describ+1 w\ld 
be an impossible task4  ,illu/ration3   
,fig4 #ad4--;,=mation ( primitive       
granitic m\nta9s4  ,! fir/ t]re/rial    
cru/ =m$1 z indicat$1 w\ld be incapable 
( resi/+ ! waves ( ! ocean ( int]nal    
fire1 :i* w\ld be depress$ & rais$ up at
 its daily flux & reflux 9 ob$i5ce to ! 
attraction ( ! sun & moon4 ,:o c trace1 
ev5 9 imag9ation1 ! fe>ful r5d+s1 !     
gigantic inundations1 :i* w\ld result f 
^! movem5ts6 ,:o w\ld d>e to pa9t !     
sublime horrors ( ^! fir/ my/]i\s       
convulsions ( ! globe6 ,amid torr5ts (  
molt5 matt]1 mix$ ) gases1 upheav+ &    
pi]c+ ! sc>cely consolidat$ cru/1 l>ge  

crevices w\ld be op5$1 & ?r\gh ^! gap+  
cracks waves ( liquid granite w\ld be   
eject$1 & !n left to cool & consolidate 
on ! surface4 ,fig4 #ad repres5ts !     
=mation ( a primitive granitic m\nta91  
by ! eruption ( ! int]nal granitic matt]
 :i* =ces its way to ! surface ?r\gh a  
fracture 9 ! cru/4 ,9 "s ( ^! m\nta9s1  
,b5 ,nevis = example1 ?ree diff]5t /ages
 ( ! eruption c be trac$4 8,b5 ,nevis1  
n[ ! und\bt$ mon>* ( ! ,scotti%         
m\nta9s10 says ,nicol1 8%[s well !      
div]se age & relations ( igne\s rocks4  
,! ,great ,moor f ,inv]lo*y & ,=t       
,william to ! foot ( ! hill is gneiss4  
,break+ ?r\gh1 & p>tly re/+ on ! gneiss 
is granite1 =m+ ! l[] two-?irds ( !     
m\nta9 up to ! small t>n on ! %\ld] ( ! 
hill4 ,high] /ill is ! huge prism (     
porphyry1 ris+ /eep & rugg$ all ar\nd40 
,9 ?is mann] w\ld ! fir/ m\nta9s be =m$4
 ,9 ?is way1 also1 might "s metallic    
ve9s be eject$ ?r\gh ! small] op5+s1    
true injections ( eruptive matt] produc$
 f ! int]ior ( ! globe1 trav]s+ !       

primitive rocks & con/itut+ ! preci\s   
depository ( metals1 su* z copp]1 z9c1  
antimony1 & lead4 ,fig4 #ae repres5ts ! 
int]nal /ructure ( "s ( ^! metallic     
ve9s4 ,9 ?is case ! fracture is only a  
fissure 9 ! rock1 :i* soon became fill$ 
) inject$ matt]1 (t5 ( diff]5t k9ds1 :i*
 9 cry/allis+ w\ld completely fill !    
holl[ ( ?is cleft1 or crack2 b sometimes
 =m+ cavities or geodes z a result ( !  
contraction ( ! mass4  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #ae4--,metallic ve9s4  ,b "s      
eruptions ( granitic & o!r sub/ances1   
eject$ f ! int]ior1 nev] rea* ! surface 
at all4 ,9 su* cases ! clefts &         
crevices--longitud9al or oblique--are   
fill$1 b ! fissures 9 ! cru/ d n        
!mselves ext5d to ! surface4 ,fig4 #af  
repres5ts an eruption ( granite ?r\gh a 
mass ( s$im5t>y rock--! granite eject$ f
 ! c5tre fills all ! clefts & fractures1
 b x has n be5 suffici5tly p[]ful to =ce
 its way to ! surface4  ,illu/ration3   
,fig4 #af4--;,eruption ( granite4  ,on !
 surface ( ! e>?1 !n1 :i* w\ld be at    

fir/ smoo? & unbrok51 !re 7 =m$1 f ! v  
beg9n+1 swell+ em95ces1 holl[s1 fold+s1 
corrugations1 & crevices1 :i* w\ld      
mat]ially alt] its orig9al aspect2 its  
arid & burn+ surface bri/l$ ) rugg$     
protub]ances1 or 0 trav]s$ by enorm\s   
fissures & cracks4 ,nev]!less1 z ! globe
 cont9u$ to cool1 a "t arriv$ :5 its    
temp]ature became insuffici5t to ma9ta91
 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 ! va/ masses ( wat]  
:i* float$ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,^! vap\rs    
w\ld pass into ! liquid /ate1 & !n !    
fir/ ra9 fell ^u ! e>?4 ,let u "h rem>k 
t ^! 7 v]itable ra9s ( boil+ wat]2 = 9  
consequ5ce ( ! v consid]able pressure ( 
! atmosph]e1 wat] w\ld be cond5s$ &     
become liquid at a temp]ature mu* above 
#ajj ,c5tigrade 7#bab ,fahr47           
,illu/ration3 ,,vii4--,cond5sation &    
ra9fall on ! primitive globe4  ,! fir/  
drop ( wat]1 :i* fell ^u ! /ill heat$   
t]re/rial sph]e1 m>k$ a new p]iod 9 its 
evolution--a p]iod ! me*anical & *emical
 effects ( :i* x is important to        
analyse4 ,! contact ( ! cond5s$ wat] ) !

 consolidat$ surface ( ! globe op5s up a
 s]ies ( modifications ( :i* sci5ce may 
und]take ! exam9ation ) a degree (      
confid5ce1 or at lea/ ) m positive      
elem5ts ( appreciation ?an any we       
possess = ! p]iod ( *aos2 "s ( !        
features ( :i* we h attempt$ to         
repres5t1 leav+ ( necessity mu* to !    
imag9ation1 & = ! read] to int]pret aft]
 8 own fa%ion4  ,! fir/ wat] :i* fell1 9
 ! liquid /ate1 ^u ! slightly cool$     
surface ( ! e>? w\ld be rapidly conv]t$ 
into /eam by ! elevation ( its          
temp]ature4 ,?us1 r5d]$ mu* light] ?an !
 surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 ^! vap\rs w\ld rise
 to ! utmo/ limits ( ! atmosph]e1 :]e !y
 w\ld become cond5s$ afre%1 9 consequ5ce
 ( _! radiation t[>ds ! glacial regions 
( space2 cond5s+ aga91 !y w\ld re-desc5d
 to ! e>? 9 a liquid /ate1 to re-asc5d z
 vap\r & fall 9 a /ate ( cond5sation4 ,b
 all ^! *anges1 9 ! physical condition (
 ! wat]1 c\ld only be ma9ta9$ by )draw+ 
a v consid]able am\nt ( heat f ! surface
 ( ! globe1 ^: cool+ w\ld be greatly    

ha/5$ by ^! cont9ual alt]nations ( heat 
& cold2 its heat w\ld ?us become        
gradually dissipat$ & lo/ 9 ! regions ( 
cele/ial space4  ,?is ph5om5on ext5d+   
itself by degrees to ! :ole mass ( wat]y
 vap\r exi/+ 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! wat]s     
cov]$ ! e>? 9 increas+ quantities2 & z !
 conv]sion ( all liquids into vap\r is  
provocative ( a notable dis5gagem5t (   
electricity1 a va/ quantity ( electric  
fluid necess>ily result$ f ! conv]sion (
 su* l>ge masses ( wat] into vap\r4     
,bur/s ( ?und]1 & bright fla%es (       
lightn+ 7 ! necess>y accompanim5ts ( ?is
 extraord9>y /ruggle ( ! elem5ts--a /ate
 ( ?+s :i* ,m4 ,maur&o has attempt$ to  
repres5t on ! opposite page 7,,plate    
,,vii474  ,h[ long did ?is /ruggle =    
supremacy betwe5 fire & wat]1 ) !       
incessant noise ( ?und]1 cont9ue8 ,all t
 c be said 9 reply is1 t a "t came :5   
wat] 0 triumphant4 ,aft] hav+ cov]$ va/ 
areas on ! surface ( ! e>?1 x f9ally    
occupi$ & entirely cov]$ ! :ole surface2
 = !re is good reason to believe t at a 

c]ta9 epo*1 at ! comm5cem5t1 s to speak1
 ( its evolution2 ! e>? 0 cov]$ by wat] 
ov] its :ole ext5t4 ,! ocean 0 univ]sal4
 ,f ?is mom5t our globe ent]$ on a      
regul> s]ies ( revolutions1 int]rupt$   
only by ! outbreaks ( ! int]nal fires   
:i* 7 conceal$ b5ea? its /ill imp]fectly
 consolidat$ cru/4  8,at ! e>ly p]iods 9
 :i* ! mat]ials ( ! anci5t cry/all9e    
s*i/s 7 accumulat$1 x _c be d\bt$ t !   
*emical processes :i* g5]at$ silicates 7
 mu* m active ?an 9 m rec5t times4 ,!   
heat ( ! e>?'s cru/ 0 probably !n f>    
great] ?an at pres5t1 :ile a high       
temp]ature prevail$ at comp>atively     
small dep?s1 & !rmal wat]s ab\nd$4 ,a   
d5s] atmosph]e1 *>g$ ) c>bonic acid gas1
 mu/ also h contribut$ to ma9ta91 at !  
e>?'s surface1 a great] degree ( heat1  
?\gh "o n incompatible ) ! exi/5ce (    
organic life4  8,^! conditions mu/ h    
fav\r$ _m *emical processes1 :i* 9 lat] 
times h ne>ly ceas$ to op]ate4 ,h5ce we 
f9d t subsequ5tly to ! eozoic times1    
silicat$ rocks ( cle>ly m>k$ *emical    

orig9 are comp>atively r>e40#cb    #cb  
8,address to ! ,am]ican ,association = !
 ,advancem5t (        ,sci5ce10 by      
,?omas ,/]ry ,hunt1 ,,ll4,d41 p4 #ef4   
#ahga4  ,9 ord] to compreh5d ! complex  
action1 n[ me*anical1 n[ *emical1 :i* ! 
wat]s1 /ill 9 a heat$ /ate1 ex]cis$ on !
 solid cru/1 let u consid] :at 7 !      
compon5ts ( ?is cru/4 ,! rocks :i* =m$  
its fir/ /ratum--! framework ( ! e>?1 ! 
f\ndation ^u :i* all o!rs repose--may be
 presum$ to h be5 a comp\nd :i*1 9 v>y+ 
proportions1 =ms granite & gneiss1 & has
 latt]ly be5 designat$ by geologi/s     
,laur5tian4  ,:at is ?is gneiss1 ?is    
granite1 speak+ ( x ) ref]5ce to its    
m9]alogical "*8 ,x is a comb9ation (    
silicates1 ) a base ( alum9a1 pota%1    
soda1 & sometimes lime--qu>tz1 felsp>1 &
 mica =m1 by _! simple aggregation1     
granite--x is ?us a t]n>y comb9ation1 or
 compos$ ( ?ree m9]als4  ,qu>tz1 ! mo/  
abundant ( all m9]als1 is silica m or   
less pure & (t5 cry/allis$4 ,felsp> is a
 cry/all9e or cry/allis$ m9]al1 compos$ 

( silicate ( alum9a1 pota%1 soda1 or    
lime2 pota%-felsp> is call$ or?oclase1  
soda-felsp> albite1 lime-felsp>         
anor?ite4 ,mica is a silicate ( alum9a &
 pota%1 conta9+ magnesia & oxide ( iron2
 x takes its "n f ! ,lat9 mic>e1 to %9e 
or glitt]4  ,granite 7f ! ,italian      
grano1 be+ granul> 9 its /ructure7 is1  
!n1 a comp\nd rock1 =m$ ( felsp>1 qu>tz1
 & mica1 & ! ?ree con/itu5t m9]als are m
 or less cry/all9e4 ,gneiss is a s*i/ose
 v>iety ( granite1 & compos$ ( ! same   
m9]als2 ! only diff]5ce betwe5 ! two    
rocks 7:atev] may be _! diff]5ce (      
orig97 be+ t ! con/itu5t m9]als1 in/ead 
( be+ confus$ly aggregat$1 z 9 granite1 
assume a foliat$ texture 9 gneiss4 ,?is 
foliat$ /ructure leads sometimes to     
gneiss be+ call$ /ratifi$ granite4 8,!  
t]m gneiss orig9at$ ) ! ,freib]g m9]s1  
:o f anci5t times h us$ x to designate !
 rock 9 :i* _! ve9s ( silv]-ore 7       
f\nd40#cc    #cc ,cotta's 8,rocks       
,classifi$ & ,describ$10 by ,p4 ,h4     
,lawr5ce1 p4        #bcb4  ,! felsp>1   

:i* ent]s into ! composition ( granite1 
is a m9]al t is easily decompos$ by     
wat]1 ei!r cold or boil+1 or by ! wat] (
 spr+s ri* 9 c>bonic acid4 ,! *emical   
action ( c>bonic acid & wat]1 & ! action
 7at once *emical & me*anical7 ( ! hot  
wat] 9 ! primitive seas1 p[]fully       
modifi$ ! granitic rocks :i* lay b5ea?  
!m4 ,! w>m ra9s :i* fell ^u !           
m\nta9-peaks & granitic p9nacles1 !     
torr5ts ( ra9 :i* fell ^u ! slopes or 9 
! valleys1 dissolv$ ! sev]al alkal9e    
silicates :i* con/itute felsp> & mica1 &
 swept !m away to =m else:]e /rata (    
clay & s&2 ?us 7 ! fir/ modifications 9 
! primitive rocks produc$ by ! unit$    
action ( air & wat]1 & ?us 7 ! fir/     
s$im5t>y rocks deposit$ f ! oceanic     
wat]s4  ,! argillace\s deposits produc$ 
by ?is decomposition ( ! felspa?ic &    
micace\s rocks w\ld p>ticipate 9 ! /ill 
heat$ temp]ature ( ! globe--w\ld be aga9
 subject$ to long cont9u$ heat2 & :5 !y 
became cool aga91 !y w\ld assume1 by a  
k9d ( semi-cry/allisation1 t p>allel    

/ructure :i* is call$ foliation4 ,all   
foliat$ rocks1 !n1 are metamorphic1 & ! 
result ( a metamorphic action to :i*    
s$im5t>y /rata 7& ev5 "s eruptive rocks7
 h be5 subject$ subsequ5tly to _!       
deposition & consolidation1 & :i* has   
produc$ a re-arrangem5t ( _! compon5t   
m9]al p>ticles1 & frequ5tly1 if n       
always1 ( _! *emical elem5ts also4  ,9  
?is mann] w\ld ! fir/ b$s ( cry/all9e   
s*i/1 su* z mica-s*i/1 be =m$1 probably 
out ( s&y & clayey muds1 or ar5ace\s &  
argillace\s %ales4  ,at ! end ( ?is fir/
 phase ( its exi/5ce1 ! t]re/rial globe 
01 !n1 cov]$1 ov] ne>ly its :ole        
surface1 ) hot & muddy wat]1 =m+        
ext5sive b %all[ seas4 ,a few isl&s1    
rais+ _! granitic peaks "h & !re1 w\ld  
=m a sort ( ar*ipelago1 surr\nd$ by seas
 fill$ ) e>?y matt] 9 susp5sion4 ,dur+ a
 long s]ies ( ages ! solid cru/ ( !     
globe w5t on increas+ 9 ?ickness1 z !   
process ( solidification ( ! und]ly+    
liquid matt] ne>e/ to ! surface proce$$4
 ,?is /ate ( tranquillity c\ld n la/    

long4 ,! solid portion ( ! globe _h n   
yet atta9$ suffici5t consi/5cy to resi/ 
! pressure ( ! gases & boil+ liquids :i*
 x cov]$ & compress$ ) its ela/ic cru/4 
,! waves ( ?is int]nal sea triumph$1 m  
?an once1 ov] ! feeble resi/ances :i* 7 
oppos$ to x1 mak+ enorm\s dislocations &
 brea*es 9 ! gr\nd--imm5se upheavals ( !
 solid cru/ rais+ ! b$s ( ! seas f>     
above _! previ\s levels--& ?us m\nta9s  
arose out ( ! ocean1 n n[ exclusively   
granitic1 b compos$1 besides1 ( ^?      
s*i/ose rocks :i* h be5 deposit$ "u     
wat]1 aft] long susp5sion 9 ! muddy     
seas4  ,on ! o!r h& ! ,e>?1 z x cont9u$ 
to cool1 w\ld also contract2 & ?is      
process ( contraction1 z we h already   
expla9$1 0 ano!r cause ( dislocation at 
! surface1 produc+ ei!r consid]able     
ruptures or simple fissures 9 !         
cont9uity ( ! cru/4 ,^! fissures w\ld be
 fill$1 at a subsequ5t p]iod1 by jets ( 
! molt5 matt] occupy+ ! int]ior ( !     
globe--by eruptive granite1 t is to     
say--or by v>i\s m9]al comp\nds2 !y also

 op5$ a passage to ^? torr5ts ( heat$   
wat] *>g$ ) m9]al salts1 ) silica1 !    
bic>bonates ( lime & magnesia1 :i*1 m+l+
 ) ! wat]s ( ! va/ primitive ocean1 7   
deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! seas1 ?us help+
 to increase ! mass ( ! m9]al sub/ances 
compos+ ! solid portion ( ! globe4  ,^! 
eruptions ( granitic or metallic        
matt]--^! va/ dis*>ges ( m9]al wat]s    
?r\gh ! fractur$ surface--w\ld be (     
frequ5t occurr5ce dur+ ! primitive epo* 
we are contemplat+4 ,x %\ld n1 !re=e1 be
 a matt] = surprise to f9d ! m anci5t   
rocks almo/ always fractur$1 r$uc$ 9    
dim5sions by faults & contortions1 & (t5
 trav]s$ by ve9s conta9+ metals or _!   
oxides1 su* z ! oxides ( copp] & t92 or 
_! sulphides1 su* z ^? ( lead1 (        
antimony1 or ( iron--:i* are n[ ! object
 ( ! m9]'s art4     ,,prim>y ,,epo*4    
,aft] ! t]rible tempe/s ( ! primitive   
p]iod--aft] ^! great di/urbances ( !    
m9]al k+dom--,nature w\ld seem to h     
ga!r$ h]self toge!r1 9 sublime sil5ce1 9
 ord] to proce$ to ! gr& my/]y ( !      

creation ( liv+ be+s4  ,dur+ ! primitive
 epo* ! temp]ature ( ! e>? 0 too high to
 admit ! appe>ance ( life on its        
surface4 ,! d>kness ( ?icke/ night %r\d$
 ?is cradle ( ! _w2 ! atmosph]e probably
 0 s *>g$ ) vap\rs ( v>i\s k9ds1 t !    
sun's rays 7 p[]less to pi]ce its       
opacity4 ,^u ?is heat$ surface1 & 9 ?is 
p]petual night1 organic life c\ld n     
manife/ itself4 ,no plant1 no animal1   
!n1 c\ld exi/ ^u ! sil5t e>?4 ,9 ! seas 
( ?is epo*1 !re=e1 only unfossilif]\s   
/rata 7 deposit$4  ,nev]!less1 our      
planet cont9u$ to be subject$ to a      
gradual refrig]ation on ! "o h&1 &1 on !
 o!r1 cont9u\s ra9s 7 purify+ its       
atmosph]e4 ,f ?is "t1 !n1 ! sun's rays1 
be+ less obscur$1 c\ld rea* its surface1
 &1 "u _! b5efic5t influ5ce1 life 0 n   
sl[ 9 disclos+ itself4 8,)\t light10    
said ! illu/ri\s ,lavoisi]1 8,nature 0  
)\t life2 x 0 dead & inanimate4 ,a      
b5evol5t ,god1 9 be/[+ light1 has spread
 on ! surface ( ! e>? organisation1     
s5tim5t1 & ?\ght40 ,we beg91 accord+ly1 

to see ^u ! e>?--! temp]ature ( :i* 0   
ne>ly t ( our equatorial zone--a few    
plants & a few animals make _!          
appe>ance4 ,^! fir/ g5]ations ( life w  
be replac$ by o!rs ( a high]            
organisation1 until at ! la/ /age ( !   
creation1 man1 end[$ ) ! supreme        
attribute :i* we call intellig5ce1 w    
appe> ^u ! e>?4 8,! ^w progress1 :i* we 
?9k peculi> to humanity1 & ev5 to mod]n 
times10 said ,alb]t ,gaudry1 9 a lecture
 on ! animals ( ! anci5t _w1 deliv]$ 9  
#ahfc1 80 pron\nc$ by ! ,deity on ! day 
:5 he creat$ ! fir/ liv+ organism40     
,did plants prec$e animals8 ,we "k n2 b 
su* w\ld appe> to h be5 ! ord] (        
creation4 ,x is c]ta9 t 9 ! s$im5t ( !  
olde/ seas1 & 9 ! ve/iges :i* rema9 to u
 ( ! e>lie/ ages ( organic life on !    
globe1 t is to say1 9 ! argillace\s     
s*i/s1 we f9d bo? plants & animals (    
advanc$ organisation4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1  
dur+ ! great] "p ( ! prim>y             
epo*--especially dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s     
age--! plants are p>ticul>ly num]\s1 &  

t]re/rial animals sc>cely %[ !mselves2  
?is w\ld lead u to ! conclusion t plants
 prec$$ animals4 ,x may be rem>k$1      
besides1 t f _! cellul> nature1 & _!    
loos] tissues compos$ ( elem5ts readily 
affect$ by ! air1 ! fir/ plants c\ld be 
easily de/roy$ )\t leav+ any mat]ial    
ve/iges2 f :i* x may be conclud$1 t1 9  
^? primitive times1 an imm5se numb] (   
plants exi/$1 no traces ( :i* n[ rema9  
to u4  ,we h /at$ t1 dur+ ! e>li] ages (
 our globe1 ! wat]s cov]$ a great "p (  
its surface2 & x is 9 !m t we f9d ! fir/
 appe>ance ( life4 ,:5 ! wat]s _h become
 suffici5tly cool to all[ ( ! exi/5ce ( 
organis$ be+s1 creation 0 develop$1 &   
advanc$ ) great en]gy2 = x manife/$     
itself by ! appe>ance ( num]\s & v      
diff]5t species ( animals & plants4  ,"o
 ( ! mo/ anci5t gr\ps ( organic rema9s  
are ! ,bra*iopoda1 a gr\p ( ,mollusca1  
p>ticul>ly typifi$ by ! g5us ,l+ula1 a  
species ( :i* /ill exi/ 9 ! pres5t seas2
 ! ,trilobites 7,fig4 #ag71 a family (  
,cru/aceans1 especially *>act]i/ic ( ?is

 p]iod2 !n come ,productas1 ,t]ebratul1 
& ,or?oc]atites--o!r g5]a ( ,mollusca4  
,! ,corals1 :i* appe>$ at an e>ly p]iod1
 seem to h liv$ 9 all ages1 & survive to
 ! pres5t day4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4     
#ag4--,p>adoxides ,bohemicus--,bohemia4 
,contemporane\sly ) ^! animals1 plants (
 inf]ior organisation h left _!         
impressions ^u ! s*i/s2 ^! are ,alg     
7aquatic plants1 ,fig4 #bh74 ,z !       
cont95ts enl>g$1 plants ( a high] type  
made _! appe>ance--! ,equisetace1       
h]bace\s ,f]ns1 & o!r plants4 ,^! we    
%all h occasion to specify :5 notic+ !  
p]iods :i* con/itute ! ,prim>y ,epo*1 & 
:i* consi/s ( ! foll[+ p]iods3 !        
,c>bonif]\s1 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 &      
,devonian1 ! ,silurian1 & ! ,cambrian4  
,,cambrian ,,p]iod4  ,! rese>*es (      
geologi/s h discov]$ b scanty traces (  
organic rema9s 9 ! rocks :i* =m ! base (
 ?is sy/em 9 ,engl&4 ,ar5icolites1 or   
worm-tracks & burr[s1 h be5 f\nd 9      
,%rop%ire1 by ,mr4 ,salt]1 to occur 9   
c\ntless numb]s ?r\gh a mile ( ?ickness 

9 ! ,longmynd rocks2 & o!rs 7 discov]$  
by ! late ,dr4 ,k9ahan 9 ,wickl[4 ,9    
,irel&1 9 ! picturesque tract ( ,bray   
,head1 on ! s\? & ea/ coa/s ( ,dubl91 we
 f9d1 9 slaty b$s ( ! same age z !      
,longmynd rocks1 a peculi> zoophyte1 :i*
 has be5 nam$ by ,edw>d ,=bes ,oldhamia1
 aft] its discov]]1 ,dr4 ,oldham1       
,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,geological ,survey (   
,india4 ,?is fossil repres5ts "o ( !    
e>lie/ inhabitants ( ! ocean1 :i* !n    
cov]$ ! great] "p ( ! ,briti% ,isles4   
8,9 ! h>d1 purpli%1 & s*i/ose rocks (   
,bray ,head10 says ,dr4 ,k9ahan1#cd 8z  
well z o!r p>ts ( ,irel& :i* are        
recognis$ z ,cambrian rocks1 m>k+s ( a v
 peculi> "* are f\nd4 ,!y occur 9       
masses1 & are recognis$ z hydrozoic     
animal assemblages4 ,!y h regul>ity (   
=m1 abundant1 b n univ]sal1 occurr5ce 9 
b$s1 & p]man5ce ( "* ev5 :5 ! b$s are at
 a di/ance f ea* o!r1 & dissimil> 9     
*emical & physical "*40 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8  
inve/igations1 ,dr4 ,k9ahan discov]$ at 
lea/ f\r species ( ,oldhamia1 :i* he has

 describ$ & figur$4    #cd ,trans4 ,roy4
 ,iri% ,acad41 vol4 xxiii41 p4 #eef4  ,!
 ,cambrian rocks consi/ ( ! ,llanb]is   
slates ( ,llanb]is & ,p5rhyn 9 ,nor?    
,wales1 :i*1 ) _! associat$ s&y /rata1  
atta9 a ?ickness ( ab\t #c1jjj feet1 & !
 ,b>m\? & ,h>le* ,s&/ones4 ,9 !         
,longmynd hills ( ,%rop%ire ^! la/ b$s  
atta9 a ?ickness ( #f1jjj feet2 & 9 "s  
p>ts ( ,m]ione?%ire !y are ( /ill great]
 ?ickness4  ,nei!r 9 ,nor? ,wales1 nor 9
 ! ,longmynd1 d ! ,cambrian rocks af=d  
any indications ( life1 except          
annelide-tracks & burr[s4 ,f ?is        
circum/ance1 toge!r ) g5]al abs5ce (    
,mollusca 9 ^! /rata1 & ! sudd5         
appe>ance ( num]\s %ells & trilobites 9 
! succe$+ ,l+ula ,flags1 a *ange (      
conditions seems to h ensu$ at ! close (
 ! ,cambrian p]iod4  ,believ+ t ! r$    
col\r ( rocks is frequ5tly connect$ ) _!
 deposition 9 inl& wat]s1 ,pr(essor     
,ramsay conceives x to be possible1 t ! 
abs5ce ( m>9e mollusca 9 ! ,cambrian    
rocks may be due to ! same cause t      

produc$ _! abs5ce 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 
& t ! pres5ce ( sun-cracks & ra9-pitt+s 
9 ! ,longmynd b$s is a corroboration (  
?is sugge/ion4#ce    #ce 8,on ! ,r$     
,rocks ( ,engl&10 by ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay4   
,qu>t4 ,j\r4        ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4  
xxvii41 p4 #bej4   ,,! ,,silurian       
,,p]iod4  ,! next p]iod ( ! ,prim>y     
,epo* is ! ,silurian1 a sy/em ( rocks   
univ]sal 9 ext5t1 ov]spread+ ! :ole e>? 
m or less completely1 & cov]+ up ! rocks
 ( old] age4 ,! t]m 8,silurian0 0 giv5  
by ! illu/ri\s ,mur*ison to ! epo* :i*  
n[ occupies our att5tion1 because !     
sy/em ( rocks =m$ by ! m>9e s$im5ts1    
dur+ ! p]iod 9 "q1 =m l>ge tracts (     
c\ntry 9 ,%rop%ire & ,wales1 a region   
=m]ly peopl$ by ! ,silures1 a ,celtic   
race :o f\ght glori\sly aga9/ ! ,romans1
 "u ,c>actacus or ,c>adoc1 ! ,briti% k+ 
( ^? tracts4 ,! read] may f9d !         
nom5clature /range1 z appli$ to ! va/   
range ( rocks :i* x repres5ts 9 all p>ts
 ( ! ,old & ,new ,_w1 b x indicates1 )  
suffici5t exactness1 ! p>ticul> region 9

 our own c\ntry 9 :i* ! sy/em typically 
prevails--reasons :i* l$ to ! t]m be+   
adopt$1 ev5 at a "t :5 its va/          
geographical ext5t 0 n suspect$4  ,on   
?is subject1 & on ! pr9ciples :i* h     
guid$ geologi/s 9 _! classification (   
rocks1 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick rem>ks 9 "o ( 
8 pap]s 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( !        
,geological ,society3 8,9 e c\ntry10 he 
says1#cf 8:i* is n made out by ref]5ce  
to a pre-exi/+ type1 our fir/ lab\r is t
 ( det]m9+ ! physical gr\ps1 & e/abli%+ 
_! relations by natural sections4 ,!    
lab\r next 9 ord] is ! det]m9ation ( !  
fossils f\nd 9 ! successive physical    
gr\ps2 &1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! natural   
gr\ps ( fossils are g5]ally f\nd to be  
ne>ly co-ord9ate ) ! physical gr\ps--ea*
 successive gr\p result+ f c]ta9        
conditions :i* h modifi$ ! di/ribution (
 organic types4 ,9 ! ?ird place comes ! 
collective arrangem5t ( ! gr\ps into    
sy/ems1 or gr\ps ( a high] ord]4 ,!     
e/abli%m5t ( ! ,silurian sy/em is an    
admirable example ( ?is :ole process4 ,!

 gr\ps call$ ,c>adoc1 ,w5lock1 ,ludl[1  
c41 7 physical gr\ps det]m9$ by good    
natural sections4 ,! successive gr\ps ( 
fossils 7 det]m9$ by ! sections2 & !    
sections1 z ! repres5tatives ( physical 
gr\ps1 7 h>dly at all modifi$ by any    
consid]ation ( ! fossils1 = ^! two      
di/9ct views ( ! natural hi/ory ( su*   
gr\ps l$ to co-ord9ate results4 ,!n     
foll[$ ! collective view ( ! :ole s]ies1
 & ! e/abli%m5t ( a nom5clature4 ,n only
 ! :ole s]ies 7consid]$ z a di/9ct      
sy/em71 b e subord9ate gr\p 0 def9$ by a
 geographical "n1 ref]r+ u to a local   
type )9 ! limits ( ,siluria2 9 ?is      
respect adopt+ ! pr9ciple ( gr\p+ &     
nom5clature appli$ by ,w4 ,smi? to our  
second>y rocks4 ,at ! same "t1 ! old]   
slate rocks ( ,wales 7inf]ior to ! sy/em
 ( ,siluria71 7 call$ ,cambrian1 & soon 
aft]w>ds ! next great collective gr\p ( 
rocks 7sup]ior to ! sy/em ( ,siluria7 0 
call$ ,devonian4 ,9 ?is way 0 e/abli%$ a
 p]fect congruity ( language4 ,x 0      
geographical 9 pr9ciple1 & x repres5t$ !

 actual developm5t ( all our old] rocks1
 :i* gave to x its true value & mean+40 
,! p]iod1 !n1 = ! purposes ( sci5tific  
description1 may be divid$ into ?ree    
sub-p]iods--! ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian1 & 
! ,cambrian4    #cf ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 
,soc41 vol4 iii41 p4 #aei4              
,illu/ration3 ,,viii4--,ideal ,l&scape (
 ! ,silurian ,p]iod4  ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #ah4--;,back ( ,asaphus caudatus  
7,dudley1 ,mus4 ,/okes71 ) ! eyes well  
pres]v$4 7,buckl&47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #ai4--;a1 ,side view ( ! left eye ( !  
above1 magnifi$1 7,buckl&47 b1 ,magnifi$
 view ( a portion ( ! eye ( ,calym5e    
macroph?almus4 7,hn+haus47  ,!          
*>act]i/ics ( ! ,silurian p]iod1 ( :i*  
we give an ideal view opposite 7,,plate 
,,viii471 are suppos$ to h be5 %all[    
seas ( great ext5t1 ) b>r5 subm>9e reefs
 & isolat$ rocks ris+ "h & !re out ( !  
wat]1 cov]$ ) ,alg1 & frequ5t$ by v>i\s 
,mollusca & articulat$ animals4 ,!      
e>lie/ traces ( vegetation belong to !  
,?allog5s1 fl[]less plants ( ! class    

,alg 7,fig4 #bh71 )\t leaves or /ems1   
:i* are f\nd among ! ,l[] ,silurian     
rocks4 ,to ^! succe$ o!r plants1 accord+
 to ,dr4 ,hook]1 belong+ to !           
,lycopodiace 7,fig4 #bh71 ! se$s ( :i*  
are f\nd sp>+ly 9 ! ,upp] ,ludl[ b$s4   
,among animals1 ! ,or?oc]atites l$ a    
pr$aci\s life 9 ! ,silurian seas4 ,_!   
organisation indicates t !y prey$ ^u o!r
 animals1 pursu+ !m into ! deepe/       
abysses1 & /rangl+ !m 9 ! embrace ( _!  
long arms4 ,! ,trilobites1 a rem>kable  
gr\p ( ,cru/acea1 possess+ simple &     
reticulat$ comp\nd eyes1 also highly    
*>act]ise ?is p]iod 7,figs4 #ag to #bj72
 pres5t+ at "o p]iod or o!r ( _! exi/5ce
 #a1fgg species1 #bbd ( :i* are met ) 9 
,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 z we are taught
 by ! 8,!saurus ,siluricus40#cg ,add to 
?is a sun1 /ruggl+ to p5etrate ! d5se   
atmosph]e ( ! primitive _w1 & yield+ a  
dim & imp]fect light to ! fir/ creat$   
be+s z !y left ! h& ( ! ,creator1       
organisms (t5 rudim5t>y1 b at o!r times 
suffici5tly advanc$ to indicate a       

progress t[>ds m p]fect creations4 ,su* 
is ! picture :i* ! arti/ has attempt$ to
 portray4    #cg 8,! ,flora & ,fauna ( !
 ,silurian ,p]iod10 by ,john ,t4        
,bigsby1        ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 #dto1 
#ahfh4  ,! elaborate & highly valuable  
8,!saurus ,siluricus0 conta9s ! names ( 
#h1iig species ( fossil rema9s1 b x     
probably does n tell u ( "o-t5? "p ( !  
,silurian life /ill ly+ buri$ 9 rocks ( 
t age 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,a ri* field 
is "h (f]$ to ! geological explor]4#ch  
#ch ,ibid1 p4 vi4   ,,l[] ,,silurian4   
,! ,silurian rocks h be5 e/imat$ by ,sir
 ,rod]ick ,mur*ison to occupy1 altoge!r1
 an area ( ab\t #g1fjj squ>e miles 9    
,engl& & ,wales1 #ah1dbj squ>e miles 9  
,scotl&1 & ne>ly #g1jjj squ>e miles 9   
,irel&4 ,?us1 z reg>ds ! ,briti% ,isles1
 ! ,silurian rocks rise to ! surface ov]
 ne>ly #cc1jjj squ>e miles4  ,!         
,silurian rocks h be5 trac$ f ,cumb]l&  
to ! ,l&'s ,end1 at ! s\!rn extremity ( 
,engl&4 ,!y lie at ! base ( ! s\!rn     
,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 f ! ,nor? ,*annel to

 ! ,nor? ,sea1 & !y range along ! entire
 we/]n coa/ ( t c\ntry4 ,9 a we/]ly     
direction !y ext5d$ to ! sea1 :]e !     
m\nta9s ( ,wales--! ,alps ( ! great     
*a9--w\ld /& out 9 bold relief1 "s ( !m 
fac+ ! sea1 o!rs 9 deta*$ gr\ps2 "s     
clo!d ) a /unt$ vegetation1 o!rs nak$ & 
desolate2 all ( !m wild & picturesque4  
,b an int]e/ surpass+ all o!rs belongs  
to ^! m\nta9s4 ,!y are among/ ! mo/     
anci5t s$im5t>y rocks :i* exi/ on our   
globe1 a page ( ! book 9 :i* is writt5 !
 hi/ory ( ! antiquities ( ,great        
,brita9--9 f9e1 ( ! _w4  ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #bj4 ,ogygia ,guett>di4 ,natural  
size4  ,9 ,%rop%ire & ,wales ?ree zones 
( ,silurian life h be5 e/abli%$4 ,9     
rocks ( ?ree diff]5t ages ,graptolites h
 left ! trace ( _! exi/5ce4 ,ano!r      
fossil *>act]i/ic ( ^! anci5t rocks is !
 ,l+ula4 ,?is %ell is horny or slightly 
calc>e\s1 :i* has probably be5 "o cause 
( its pres]vation4 ,! family to :i* !   
,l+ula belongs is s abundant 9 ! rocks (
 ! ,wel% m\nta9s1 t ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison  

has us$ x to designate a geological era4
 ,^! ,l+ula-flags m>k ! beg9n+ ( ! fir/ 
,silurian /rata4  ,9 ! ,l[] ,ll&ov]y    
b$s1 :i* m>k ! close ( ! p]iod1 o!r     
fossils pres5t !mselves1 ?us greatly    
augm5t+ ! =ms ( life 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian 
rocks4 ,^! are cl5t]ata1 articulata1 &  
mollusca4 ,!y m>k1 h[ev]1 only a v      
ephem]al passage ov] ! globe1 & soon    
disappe> altoge!r4  ,! v]tebrat$ animals
 are only repres5t$ by r>e ,fi%es1 & x  
is only on rea*+ ! ,upp] ,ludl[ rocks1 &
 specially 9 ^? b$s :i* pass upw>d into 
! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 t ! rema9s h be5    
f\nd ( fi%es--! mo/ anci5t be+s ( _!    
class4  ,! class ( ,cru/aceans1 ( :i* ! 
lob/]1 %rimp1 & ! crab ( our days are ! 
repres5tatives1 0 t :i* pr$om9at$ 9 ?is 
epo* ( animal life4 ,_! =ms 7 mo/ s+ul>1
 & diff]5t f ^? ( all exi/+ ,cru/aceans4
 ,!y consi/$ ma9ly ( ! ,trilobites1 a   
family :i* became entirely ext9ct at !  
close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s epo*1 b 9 ^:      
nicely-jo9t$ %ell ! arm\r] ( ! middle   
ages might h f\nd all 8 contrivances    

anticipat$1 ) n a few besides :i* he has
 fail$ to discov]4 ,! head pres5ts1 9   
g5]al1 ! =m ( an oval buckl]2 ! body is 
compos$ ( a s]ies ( articulations1 or   
r+s1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bj2 ! ant]ior 
portion c>ry+ ! eyes1 :i* 9 "s are      
reticulat$1 l ^? ( _m insects 7,figs4   
#ah & #ai72 ! m\? 0 plac$ =w>d & b5ea? !
 head4 ,_m ( ^! ,cru/aceans c\ld roll   
!mselves into balls1 l ! wood-l\se      
7,figs4 #bc & #be74 ,!y swam on _!      
backs4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4             
#ba4--,lituites cornu-arietis4 ,"o-?ird 
natural size4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4      
#bb4--;,hemicosmites pyri=mis4 ,"o-?ird 
natural size4  ,dur+ ! middle & lat]    
,silurian ages1 :ole rocks 7 =m$ almo/  
exclusively ( _! rema9s2 dur+ !         
,devonian p]iod !y seem to h gradually  
di$ out1 almo/ disappe>+ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s
 age1 & be+ only repres5t$ by "o d\btful
 species 9 ! ,p]mian rocks ( ,nor?      
,am]ica4 ,! ,trilobites are unique z a  
family1 m>k+ ) c]ta9ty ! rocks 9 :i* !y 
occur2 8& yet10 says ,hugh ,mill]1 8h[  

admirably d !y exhibit ! articulat$ type
 ( be+1 & illu/rate t unity ( design :i*
 p]vades all ,nature1 amid its endless  
div]sity60 ,among o!r be+s :i* h left _!
 traces 9 ! ,silurian /rata is ,n]eites 
,cambri5sis1 a species ( annelide1 ^:   
articulations are v di/9ctly m>k$ 9 !   
anci5t rocks4  ,besides ! ,trilobites1  
_m ord]s ( ,mollusca 7 num]\sly         
repres5t$ 9 ! ,silurian seas4 ,z ,sir   
,r4 ,mur*ison has obs]v$1 no zoological 
feature 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian rocks is m  
/rik+ ?an ! great increase & pr(usion ( 
,cephalopods1 _m ( !m ( great size1 :i* 
appe> 9 /rata ( ! age imm$iately        
antec$5t to ! dawn ( v]tebrat$ life4    
,among ! ,cephalopods we h ,gyroc]as &  
,lituites cornu-arietis 7,fig4 #ba71 ^: 
liv+ repres5tatives are ! ,nautilus &   
,cuttlefi% ( e sea4 ,! g5us ,bell]ophon 
7,figs4 #ed & #ef71 ) _m o!rs1 repres5t$
 ! ,ga/]opods1 & l ! liv+ c>9>ia sail$  
freely ov] ! sea by means ( its fle%y   
p>ts4 ,! ,ga/]opods1 ) ! ,lamellibran*s1
 ( :i* ! ,oy/] is a liv+ type1 & !      

,bra*iopods1 ^: cong5]s may /ill be     
detect$ 9 ! ,t]ebratula ( our ,highl&   
lo*s & bays1 & ! ,l+ul ( ! s\!rn        
hemisph]e1 7 all !n repres5t$4 ,!       
,lamellibran*iata are )\t a head1 &     
almo/ entirely de/itute ( p[] (         
locomotion4 ,among ! ,e*9od]mata we may 
cite ! ,hemiscosmites1 ( :i* ,h4        
pyri=mis 7,fig4 #bb7 may be consid]$ an 
example4  ,! rocks ( ! ,l[] ,silurian   
age 9 ,france are f\nd 9 ,langu$oc1 9 ! 
environs ( ,neffiez & ( ,bd>rieux4 ,!y  
occupy1 also1 great "p ( ,brittany4 ,!y 
occur 9 ,bohemia1 also 9 ,spa91 ,russia1
 & 9 ! ,new ,_w4 ,lime/ones1 s&/ones1 & 
s*i/s 7slates ( ,ang]s7 =m ! *ief "p (  
?is s]ies4 ,! ,cambrian slates are      
l>gely repres5t$ 9 ,canada & ! ,unit$   
,/ates4                            ,,l[]
 ,,silurian ,,gr\p4    ,=mation4        
,prevail+ ,rocks4           ,?ickness4  
,fossils4    ,l[]       ,h>d s&/ones1   
conglom]ates1     #fjj to  ,p5tam]us    
l5s4   ,ll&ov]y  & flaggy %aly b$s      
#a1jjj                  ,%elly s&/ones1 

%ales1 &               ,bra*iopods2     
slaty b$s1 ) grits1 con-                
,lamellibran*s2   ,c>adoc or  glom]ates1
 & occasional          #ab1jjj          
,pt]opods2   ,bala        calc>e\s b&s  
7,bala lime-                 ,cy/ideans2
               /one7                    
,graptolites2                           
,trilobites4                ,d>k-grey   
flag/ones1 occasionally    ,ll&eilo     
calc>e\s s&/ones1                ,flags 
) black slates1 conta9+                 
,trilobites               ,graptolites  
#a1jjj   7,fig4 #cf72                   
to    ,graptolites2                     
#a1ejj   ,het]opods2   ,l[]             
,d>k-grey & f]rug9\s                    
l>ge   ,ll&eilo   slates1 s&y %ales1 &  
blui%             ,cephalopods4         
,tremadoc    flags1 ) occasional b$s    
,slates      ( pisolitic iron-ore       
,trilobites               ,black & d>k  
%aly1 grey                   7,ol5us1   
& br[n slaty flag/ones                  
,conocoryphe1   ,l+ula     & s&/ones1 ) 

silice\s       #f1jjj   ,p>adoxides1    
,flags       grits & qu>tzites          
,fig4 #ag72                             
,bra*iopods2                            
,cy/ideans4                             
,,cambrian ,,gr\p4                      
,llanb]is slates1 ) s&y         #c1jjj  
,annelides4   ,cambrian    /rata        
,h>le* grits                            
#f1jjj    ,oldhamia4                    
,,laur5tian ,,gr\p4    ,upp]            
,/ratifi$1 highly-cry/all9e1     #ab1jfj
    ,eozoon4   ,laur5tian  & felspa?ic  
rocks                   ,l[]            
,gneiss1 qu>tzite1 hornbl5de            
#ah1jjj    ,none4   ,laur5tian  &       
mica-s*i/s                              
,,upp] ,,silurian ,,p]iod4              
,,upp] ,,silurian ,,gr\p4               
,li?ological ,*>act]s4       ,?ickness4 
,fossils4                ,passage ,b$s1 
,tile-/ones1 &               ,sea-we$s1 
,d[nton s&/ones1 at !             #hj   
,l+ul1               base ( ! bone-b$   
,mollusca4                              

,micace\s1 yell[i% &              #gjj  
,cru/acea &   ,ludl[      grey1 s&y     
mud/one                                 
,fi%-rema9s4   ,rocks                   
,argillace\s 7,ayme/ry7 lime/one        
#ej    ,cr9oids4                        
,argillace\s ,%ale ) impure       #ajjj 
,mollusca (               lime/ones     
_m g5]a4                ,argillace\s or 
semi-cry/all9e             ,mollusca (  
lime/one                                
_m g5]a4                                
,argillace\s %ales1 9 places            
,e*9od]mata2   ,w5lock     slaty        
#cjjj    ,act9ozoa2   ,rocks            
,trilobites4               ,woolhope    
,lime/one &                             
occasional b&s ( argillace\s            
,graptolites4               nodules     
,upp]       ,grey & yell[i% s&/ones     
,p5tam]us   ,ll&ov]y  7occasionally     
conglom]ates7          #hjj    oblongus1
   ,rocks       ) b&s (                 
,rhyn*onella1               lime/one    
,or?ides1 c4  ,among ! fossils ( ?is    

p]iod may be rem>k$ a numb] (           
,trilobites1 :i* !n atta9$ _! greate/   
developm5t4 ,among o!rs1 ,calym5e       
,blum5ba*ii 7,fig4 #bc71 "s             
,cephalopoda1 & ,bra*iopoda1 among :i*  
la/ may be nam$ ,p5tam]us ,knightii1    
,or?is1 c41 & "s ,corals1 z ,halysites  
cat5ul>ius 7,fig4 #bf71 or ! *a9 coral4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,calym5e     
,blum5ba*ii p>tially roll$ up4  ,!      
,trilobites1 we h already said1 7 able  
to coil !mselves into a ball1 l !       
wood-l\se1 d\btless z a means ( def5ce4 
,9 ,fig4 #bc1 "o ( ^! creatures1        
,calym5e ,blum5ba*ii1 is repres5t$ 9 t  
=m1 coil$ ^u itself4 7,see also ,illnus 
,b>ri5sis1 ,fig4 #be47  ,cru/aceans ( a 
v /range =m1 & 9 no respects resembl+ ! 
,trilobites1 h be5 met ) 9 ! ,silurian  
rocks ( ,engl& & ,am]ica--! ,pt]ygotus  
7,fig4 #bg7 & ! ,eurypt]us1 7,fig4 #bd74
 ,!y are suppos$ to h be5 ! inhabitants 
( fre% wat]4 ,!y 7 call$ 8,s]aphim0 by !
 ,scot* qu>rym51 f ! w+$ =m & fea!r-l   
ornam5tation ^u ! ?oracic app5dage1 ! "p

 mo/ usually met )4 ,agassiz figur$ !m 9
 8 "w on ! #8,fossil ,fi%es ( ! ,old ,r$
 ,s&/one1' b1 subsequ5tly recognis+ _!  
cru/acean "*1 remov$ !m f ! ,class (    
,fi%es1 & plac$ !m ) ! ,pcilipod        
,cru/acea4 ,! ,eurypt]id & ,pt]ygoti 9  
,engl& almo/ exclusively belong to !    
passage b$s--! ,d[nton s&/one & ! ,upp] 
,ludl[ rocks4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4      
#bd4--;,eurypt]us remipes4 ,natural     
size4  ,among ! m>9e plants :i* h be5   
f\nd 9 ! rocks correspond+ ) ?is        
sub-p]iod are "s species ( ,alg1 & o!rs 
belong+ to ! ,lycopodiace1 :i* become   
/ill m abundant 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one &  
,c>bonif]\s ,p]iods4 ,fig4 #bh repres5ts
 "s examples ( ! impressions !y h left4 
,! seas 71 evid5tly1 abundantly inhabit$
 at ! end ( ! ,upp] ,silurian p]iod1 =  
naturali/s h exam9$ ne>ly #a1ejj species
 belong+ to ^! b$s1 & ! numb] ( ,briti% 
species1 classifi$ & arrang$ = public   
inspection 9 our museums _c be mu* %ort 
( t numb]4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#be4--;,illnus ,b>ri5sis4--,dudley1     

,walsall4  ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,upp]     
,silurian sub-p]iod1 ! argillace\s b$s  
pass upw>ds into m s&y & %ore-l         
deposits1 9 :i* ! mo/ anci5t kn[n fossil
 ,fi%es occur1 & !n u%] u into ! fir/   
great i*?yic p]iod ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1
 or ,devonian1 s well m>k$ by its fossil
 fi%es 9 ,brita91 ,russia1 & ,nor?      
,am]ica4 ,! s-call$ fi%-bones h be5 !   
subject ( consid]able d\bt4 ,betwe5 !   
,upp] ,ludl[ rocks opposite ,d[nton     
,ca/le & ! next ov]ly+ /ratum1 !re      
occurs a ?9 b$ ( s(t e>?y %ale1 & f9e1  
s(t1 yell[i% gre5/one1 imm$iately ov]ly+
 ! ,ludl[ rock3 j bel[ ?is a rem>kable  
fi%-deposit occurs1 call$ ! ,ludl[      
bone-b$1 because ! bones ( animals are  
f\nd 9 ?is /ratum 9 great quantities4   
,old ,drayton treats ^! bones z a great 
m>vel3--                      8,) /range
 & sundry tales     ,( all _! wondr\s   
?+s2 & n ! lea/ 9 ,wales1     ,( t      
prodigi\s spr+ 7him neighb\r+ z he pa/71
     ,t little fi%es' bones cont9ually  
do? ca/40   ,,polyolbion4  ,above !     

yell[ b$s1 or ,d[nton s&/one1 z !y are  
call$1 organic rema9s are ext5sively    
diffus$ ?r\gh ! argillace\s /rata1 :i* h
 yield$ fragm5ts ( fi%es' bones 7be+ !  
e>lie/ trace yet f\nd ( v]tebrate life71
 ) se$s & l&-plants1 ! latt] cle>ly     
indicat+ ! neighb\rhood ( l&1 & ! pov]ty
 ( numb]s & ! small size ( ! %ells1 a   
*ange ( condition 9 ! nature ( ! wat]s 9
 :i* !y liv$4 8,x 0 ! c5tral "p only10  
says ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 8( ?is b&1 or a
 g+]-bread-col\r$ lay] ( a ?ickness (   
?ree or f\r in*es1 & dw9dl+ away to a   
qu>t] ( an in*1 exhibit+1 :5 my att5tion
 0 fir/ direct$ to x1 a matt$ mass (    
bony fragm5ts1 = ! mo/ "p ( small size &
 ( v peculi> "*4 ,"s ( ! fragm5ts ( fi% 
are ( a mahogany hue1 b o!rs ( s        
brilliant a black t :5 fir/ discov]$ !y 
convey$ ! impression t ! b$ 0 a heap (  
brok5 beetles40#ci    #ci 8,siluria10 p4
 #adh4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4             
#bf4--;,halysites cat5ul>ius4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,pt]ygotus    
bilobatus4  ,! fragm5ts ?us discov]$ 71 

aft] exam9ation on ! spot1 suppos$ to be
 ^? ( fi%es1 b1 ^u fur!r inve/igation1  
_m ( !m 7 f\nd to belong to ,cru/aceans4
 ,! i*?yic nature ( "s ( !m is1 h[ev]1  
n[ well e/abli%$4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4  
#bh4--,plants ( ! ,palozoic ,epo*4--#a &
 #b1 ,alg2 #c & #d1 ,lycopods4          
,silurian ,rocks are f\nd 9 ,france 9 ! 
dep>tm5ts ( ,la ,man*e1 ,calvados1 & ( !
 ,s>!1 & 9 ,langu$oc ! ,silurian =mation
 has occupi$ ! att5tion ( ,messrs4      
,graff & ,f\rnet1 :o h trac$ along !    
base ( ! ,esp9\se1 ! gre51 primordial   
*lorite-s*i/s1 surm\nt$ by clay-slates1 
:i* become m & m pure z ! di/ance f !   
masses ( granite & gneiss increases1 & !
 valley ( ! ,j\r is approa*$4 ,^u ^! la/
 ! ,silurian sy/em re/s1 s9k+ t[>ds !   
pla9 "u ,second>y & ,t]ti>y =mations4 ,9
 ,great ,brita91 ,silurian /rata are    
f\nd enorm\sly develop$ 9 ! ,we/ & ,s\? 
,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 on ! we/]n slopes ( 
! ,p5n9e *a9 & ! m\nta9s ( ,wales1 & 9 !
 adjo9+ c\nties ( ,%rop%ire--_! mo/     
typical region--& ,worce/]%ire4 ,9      

,spa92 9 ,g]many 7on ! banks ( ! ,rh9e72
 9 ,bohemia--:]e1 also1 !y are l>gely   
develop$1 especially 9 ! neighb\rhood ( 
,prague--9 ,sw$51 :]e !y compose !      
entire isl& ( ,go?l&2 9 ,norway2 9      
,russia1 especially 9 ! ,ural ,m\nta9s2 
& 9 ,am]ica1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,new    
,york1 & half way across ! cont95t--9   
all ^! c\ntries !y are m or less        
develop$4  ,we may add1 z a g5]al       
*>act]i/ic ( ! ,silurian sy/em z a :ole1
 t ( all =mations x is ! mo/ di/urb$4 ,9
 ! c\ntries :]e x prevails1 x only      
appe>s z fragm5ts :i* h escap$          
de/ruction amid ! num]\s *anges t h     
affect$ x dur+ ! e>li] ages ( ! _w4 ,!  
b$s1 orig9ally horizontal1 are turn$ up1
 contort$1 fold$ ov]1 & sometimes become
 ev5 v]tical1 z 9 ! slates ( ,ang]s1    
,llanb]is1 & ,irele?4 ,d',orbigny f\nd !
 ,silurian b$s ) _! fossils 9 ! ,am]ican
 ,&es1 at ! height ( #af1jjj feet above 
! level ( ! sea4 ,:at va/ upheavals mu/ 
h be5 necess>y to elevate ^! fossils to 
su* a height6  ,9 ! ,silurian p]iod !   

sea /ill occupi$ ! e>? almo/ entirely2 x
 cov]$ ! great] "p ( ,europe3 all ! area
 compris$ betwe5 ,spa9 & ! ,ural 0 "u   
wat]4 ,9 ,france only two isl&s _h em]g$
 f ! primordial ocean4 ,"o ( !m 0 =m$ ( 
! granitic rocks ( :at are n[ ,brittany 
& ,la ,v5de2 ! o!r con/itut$ ! great    
c5tral plateau1 & consi/$ ( ! same      
rocks4 ,! nor!rn p>ts ( ,norway1 ,sw$51 
& ( ,russian ,lapl& =m$ a va/ cont95tal 
surface4 ,9 ,am]ica ! em]g$ l&s 7 m     
ext5sive4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica an isl&      
ext5d$ ov] eighte5 degrees ( latitude1 9
 ! "p n[ call$ ,new ,brita94 ,9 ,s\?    
,am]ica1 9 ! ,pacific1 ,*ili =m$ "o     
elongat$ isl&4 ,^u ! ,atlantic1 a       
portion ( ,brazil1 to ! ext5t ( tw5ty   
degrees ( latitude1 0 rais$ above wat]4 
,f9ally1 9 ! equatorial regions1 ,guiana
 =m$ a lat] isl& 9 ! va/ ocean :i* /ill 
cov]$ mo/ o!r p>ts ( ! ,new ,_w4  ,!re  
is1 p]haps1 no sc5e ( great] geological 
confusion ?an t pres5t$ by ! we/]n      
flanks ( ! ,p5n9e *a94 ,a l9e drawn     
longitud9ally f ab\t ?ree degrees we/ ( 

,gre5wi*1 w\ld include on its we/]n side
 ,cross ,fell1 9 ,cumb]l&1 & ! great] "p
 ( ! ,silurian rocks belong+ to !       
,cambrian sy/em1 9 :i* ! ,cambrian &    
,l[] ,silurian rocks are n[ well        
det]m9$2 :ile ! upp] s]ies are s        
metamorphos$ by eruptive granite & !    
effects ( d5udation1 z to be sc>cely    
recognisable4 8,) ! r>e exception ( a   
seawe$ & a zoophyte10 says ! au?or (    
#8,siluria1' 8n a trace ( a fossil has  
be5 detect$ 9 ! ?\s&s ( feet ( /rata1 ) 
int]polat$ igne\s matt]1 :i* int]v5e    
betwe5 ! slates ( ,skiddaw & ! ,coni/on 
lime/one1 ) its ov]ly+ flags2 at t zone 
only d we beg9 to f9d any?+ l a fauna3  
"h1 judg+ f its fossils1 we f9d         
repres5tations ( ! ,c>adoc & ,bala      
rocks40 ,?is mu*-di/urb$ di/rict        
,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 aft] sev]al ye>s    
devot$ to its /udy1 has attempt$ to     
recon/ruct1 ! foll[+ be+ a brief summ>y 
( 8 argum5ts4 ,! region consi/s (3--    
,i4 ,b$s ( mud/one & s&/one1 deposit$ 9 
an anci5t sea1 app>5tly )\t ! calc>e\s  

matt] necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( %ells &   
corals1 & ) num]\s traces ( organic =ms 
( ,silurian age--^! 7 ! elem5ts ( !     
,skiddaw slates4  ,,ii4 ,plutonic rocks 
71 = _m ages1 p\r$ out among ! aque\s   
s$im5t>y deposits2 ! b$s 7 brok5 up &   
re-cem5t$--plutonic silt & o!r f9ely    
comm9ut$ matt] 7 deposit$ along ) !     
igne\s rocks3 ! process 0 aga9 & aga9   
repeat$1 till a deep sea 0 fill$ up ) a 
=mation _m ?\s&s ( feet ?ick by !       
mat]ials =m+ ! middle ,cambrian rocks4  
,,iii4 ,a p]iod ( comp>ative repose     
foll[$4 ,b$s ( %ells & b&s ( coral 7 =m$
 ^u ! m anci5t rocks1 int]rupt$ ) b$s ( 
s& & mud2 processes _m times repeat$3 & 
?us1 9 a long succession ( ages1 7 !    
deposits ( ! upp] s]ies complet$4  ,,iv4
 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! p]iod1 m\nta9-masses &
 eruptive rocks 7 pu%$ up ?r\gh ! old]  
deposits4 ,aft] _m revolutions1 all !   
divisions ( ! slate-s]ies 7 upheav$ &   
contort$ by movem5ts :i* did n affect ! 
new] =mations4  ,v4 ,! conglom]ates ( ! 
,old ,r$ ,s&/one 7 n[ spread out by !   

beat+ ( an anci5t surf1 cont9u$ ?r\gh _m
 ages1 aga9/ ! upheav$ & brok5 slates4  
,,vi4 ,ano!r p]iod ( comp>ative repose  
foll[$3 ! coral-reefs ( ! m\nta9        
lime/one1 & ! :ole c>bonif]\s s]ies1 7  
=m$1 b n )\t any oscillations betwe5 !  
l& & sea-levels4  ,,vii4 ,an age (      
disruption & viol5ce succe$$1 m>k$ by ! 
discordant position ( ! rocks1 & by !   
conglom]ate ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,at ! 
beg9n+ ( ?is p]iod ! great nor? & s\?   
8,crav5 fault10 :i* r5t (f ! ea/]n      
calc>e\s m\nta9s f ! old slates1 0 =m$4 
,soon aft]w>ds ! disruption ( ! great   
8,p5n9e fault10 :i* ranges f ! foot (   
,/anmore to ! coa/ ( ,nor? ,cumb]l&1    
occurr$1 lift+ up ! t]race ( ,cross     
,fell above ! pla9 ( ! ,ed54 ,ab\t !    
same "t "s ( ! nor? & s\? fissures1 :i* 
n[ =m ! valleys lead+ into ,morecambe   
,bay1 may h be5 =m$4  ,,viii4 ,! m      
tranquil p]iod ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one n[  
dawns1 b "h our facts fail u on ! skirts
 ( ! ,lake ,m\nta9s4  ,,ix4 ,?\s&s (    
ages roll$ away dur+ ! ,second>y &      

,t]ti>y p]iods1 9 :i* we c trace no     
movem5t4 ,b ! p[]s ( ,nature are nev]   
/ill3 dur+ ?is age ( app>5t repose _m a 
fissure may h />t$ into an op5 *asm1 _m 
a valley be5 scoop$ out ^u ! l9es (     
8fault40  ,x4 ,close to ! hi/oric times 
we h evid5ce ( new disruptions &        
viol5ce1 & ( va/ *anges ( level betwe5  
l& & sea4 ,anci5t valleys probably op5$ 
out anew or ext5d$1 & fre% ones =m$ 9 ! 
*anges ( ! oceanic level4 ,cracks among 
! /rata may n[ h become op5 fissures1   
v]tical esc>pm5ts =m$ by unequal        
elevations along ! l9es ( fault2 &      
subsid5ce may h giv5 rise to _m ( ! t>ns
 & lakes ( ! di/rict4  ,su* is ! picture
 :i* "o ( our mo/ em95t geologi/s gives 
z ! probable process by :i* ?is region  
has atta9$ its pres5t appe>ance1 aft] he
 _h devot$ ye>s ( /udy & obs]vation to  
its peculi>ities2 & 8 description ( "o  
spot applies 9 its g5]al scope to ! :ole
 di/rict4 ,at ! close ( ! ,silurian     
p]iod our isl& 0 probably an ar*ipelago1
 rang+ ov] t5 degrees ( latitude1 l _m (

 ! isl& gr\ps n[ f\nd 9 ! great ,pacific
 ,ocean2 ! old gneissic hills ( ! we/]n 
coa/ ( ,scotl&1 culm9at+ 9 ! granite    
range ( ,b5 ,nevis1 & /ret*+ to ! s\!rn 
,grampians1 =m+ ! nucleus ( "o isl&     
gr\p2 ! s\? ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 rang+ f 
! ,lamm]moor hills1 ano!r2 ! ,p5n9e *a9 
& ! ,malv]n hills1 ! ?ird1 & mo/ ea/]ly 
gr\p2 ! ,%rop%ire & ,wel% m\nta9s1 a    
f\r?2 & ,devon & ,cornwall /ret*+ f> to 
! s\? & we/4 ,! basis ( ! calculation   
be+1 t e spot ( ?is isl& ly+ n[ at a l[]
 elevation ?an #hjj feet above ! sea1 0 
"u wat] at ! close ( ! ,silurian p]iod1 
except 9 ^? in/ances :]e depression by  
subsid5ce has s9ce occurr$4  ,!re is1   
h[ev]1 ano!r elem5t to be consid]$1 :i* 
_c be bett] /at$ ?an 9 ! picturesque    
language ( ,m4 ,esquiros1 an em95t ,fr5*
 writ]1 :o has giv5 mu* att5tion to     
,briti% geology4 8,! ,silurian m\nta9s10
 he says1 8ru9s 9 !mselves1 conta9 o!r  
ru9s4 ,9 ! bosom ( ! ,longmynd rocks1   
geologi/s discov] conglom]ates ( r\nd$  
/ones :i* be> no resemblance to any     

rocks n[ ne> !m4 ,^! /ones consequ5tly  
prove ! exi/5ce ( rocks m anci5t /ill2  
!y are fragm5ts ( o!r m\nta9s1 ( o!r    
%ores1 p]haps ev5 ( cont95ts1 brok5 up1 
de/roy$1 & crumbl$ by e>li] seas4 ,!re  
is1 !n1 little hope ( "o discov]+ !     
orig9 ( life on ! globe1 s9ce ?is page (
 ! ,g5esis ( ! facts has be5 torn4 ,= "s
 ye>s geologi/s lov$ to re/ _! eyes1 9  
?is long night ( ages1 ^u an ideal limit
 beyond :i* plants & animals w\ld beg9  
to appe>4 ,n[1 ?is l9e ( dem>cation     
betwe5 ! rocks :i* are )\t ve/iges (    
organis$ be+s1 & ^? :i* conta9 fossils1 
is ne>ly effac$ among ! surr\nd+ ru9s4  
,on ! horizon ( ! primitive _w we see   
vaguely indicat$ a s]ies ( o!r worlds   
:i* h altoge!r disappe>$2 p]haps x is   
necess>y to resign ourselves to ! fact t
 ! dawn ( life is lo/ 9 ?is sil5t epo*1 
:]e age succe$s age1 till !y are clo!d 9
 ! g>b ( et]nity4 ,! riv] ( creation is 
l ! ,nile1 :i*1 z ,bossuet says1 hides  
its head--a figure ( spee* :i* "t has   
falsifi$--b ! endless speculations op5$ 

up by ^! & simil> consid]ations l$      
,lyell to say1 #8,"h ,i am almo/ prep>$ 
to believe 9 ! anci5t exi/5ce ( !       
,atlantis ( ,plato4'0  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #bi4--;,is*adites ,knigii4 ,upp]  
,ludl[ ,rocks4      ,,note4--,= accurate
 repres5tations ( ! typical fossils (   
! ,palozoic /rata ( ,brita91 ! read] may
 consult1 )     advantage1 ! c>efully   
execut$ 8,figures ( ,*>act]i/ic         
,briti% ,fossils10 by ,w4 ,h4 ,baily1   
,f4,g4,s4 7,van ,voor/74   ,,old ,,r$   
,,s&/one ,,& ,,devonian ,,p]iod4  ,ano!r
 great p]iod 9 ! ,e>?'s hi/ory op5s on  
u--! ,devonian or 8,old ,r$ ,s&/one10 s 
call$1 because ! =mation is v cle>ly    
display$ ov] a great ext5t ( c\ntry 9 ! 
c\nty ( ,devon4 ,! "n 0 fir/ propos$ by 
,mur*ison & ,s$gwick1 9 #ahcg1 = ^!     
/rata1 :i* _h previ\sly be5 ref]r$ to ! 
8transition0 or ,silurian s]ies4  ,!    
circum/ances :i* m>k$ ! passage ( !     
upp]mo/ ,silurian rocks into ,old ,r$   
,s&/one seem to h be53--,fir/1 a %all[+ 
( ! sea1 foll[$ by a gradual alt]ation 9

 ! physical geography ( ! di/rict1 s t !
 area became *ang$ into a s]ies ( m+l$  
fre% & bracki% lagoons1 :i*1 f9ally1 by 
cont9u$ t]re/rial *anges1 7 conv]t$ into
 a great fre%-wat] lake2 or1 if we take 
! :ole ( ,brita9 & l&s beyond1 into a   
s]ies ( lakes4#dj    #dj 8,on ! ,r$     
,rocks ( ,engl&10 by ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay4   
,qu>t4 ,j\r4        ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4  
xxvii41 p4 #bdc4  ,mr4 ,godw9 ,au/5 has1
 also1 /at$ 8 op9ion t ! ,old ,r$       
,s&/one1 z di/9ct f ! ,devonian rocks1 0
 ( lacu/r9e orig94  ,! abs5ce ( m>9e    
%ells helps to ?is conclusion1 & ! ne>e/
 liv+ analogues ( "s ( ! fi%es are f\nd 
9 ! fre% wat] ( ,africa & ,nor? ,am]ica4
 ,ev5 ! occurr5ce 9 ! ,devonian rocks ( 
,devon%ire & ,russia ( "s ,old ,r$      
,s&/one fi%es along ) m>9e %ells1 m]ely 
proves t "s ( !m 7 fitt$ to live 9 ei!r 
fre% or salt wat]1 l v>i\s exi/+ fi%es4 
,at ! pres5t day animals t are commonly 
suppos$ to be ess5tially m>9e1 are      
occasionally f\nd inhabit+ fre% wat]1 z 
is ! case 9 "s ( ! lakes ( ,sw$51 :]e x 

is said m>9e cru/acea are f\nd4 ,mr4    
,alex&] ,murray also /ates t 9 ! inl&   
fre%-wat] lakes ( ,newf\ndl& seals are  
common1 liv+ !re )\t ev5 visit+ ! sea4  
,& ! same is ! case 9 ,lake ,baikal1 9  
,c5tral ,asia4  ,! r$ col\r ( ! ,old ,r$
 ,s&/one ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 & ! total  
abs5ce ( fossils1 except 9 ! v upp]mo/  
b$s1 are consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,ramsay  
to indicate t ! /rata 7 deposit$ 9 inl& 
wat]s4 ,^! fossils are t]re/rial f]ns1  
,adiantites 7,pecopt]is7 ,hib]nicus1 & a
 fre%-wat] %ell1 ,anodon ,jukesii1      
toge!r ) ! fi% ,glyptolepis4#da    #da  
8,on ! ,r$ ,rocks ( ,engl&10 by ,a4 ,c4 
,ramsay4 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4        ,geol4     
,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #bdg4  ,! rocks  
deposit$ dur+ ! ,devonian p]iod exhibit 
"s species ( animals & plants ( a mu* m 
complex organisation ?an ^? :i* _h      
previ\sly made _! appe>ance4 ,we h se51 
dur+ ! ,silurian epo*1 organisms appe>+ 
( v simple type2 namely1 zoophytes1     
articulat$ & mollusc\s animals1 ) alg & 
lycopods1 among plants4 ,we %all see1 z 

! globe gr[s old]1 t organisation       
becomes m complex4 ,v]tebrat$ animals1  
repres5t$ by num]\s ,fi%es1 succe$      
,zoophytes1 ,trilobites1 & ,molluscs4   
,soon aft]w>ds ,reptiles appe>1 !n      
,birds & ,mammals2 until ! "t comes :5  
man1 ,8 supreme & la/ "w1 issues f ! h&s
 ( ! ,creator1 to be k+ ( all !         
e>?--man1 :o has = ! sign ( 8           
sup]iority1 intellig5ce--t cele/ial     
gift1 ! emanation f ,god4  ,va/ inl&    
seas1 or lakes cov]$ ) a few islets1 =m 
! ideal ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod4 ,^u 
! rocks ( ^! islets ! mollusca &        
articulata ( ! p]iod exhibit !mselves1 z
 repres5t$ on ! opposite page 7,,plate  
,,ix474 ,/r&$ on ! %ore we see          
arm\r-coat$ ,fi%es ( /range =ms4 ,a gr\p
 ( plants 7,a/]ophyllites7 cov]s "o ( ! 
islets1 associat$ ) plants ne>ly        
h]bace\s1 resembl+ mosses1 ?\gh ! true  
mosses did n appe> till a mu* lat]      
p]iod4 ,encr9ites & ,lituites occupy !  
rocks 9 ! =egr\nd ( ! left h&4  ,!      
vegetation is /ill simple 9 its         

developm5t1 = =e/-trees seem altoge!r   
want+4 ,! ,a/]ophyllites1 ) tall & sl5d]
 /ems1 rise s+ly to a consid]able       
height4 ,cryptogams1 ( :i* our mu%rooms 
convey "s idea1 w\ld =m ! *ief "p ( ?is 
primitive vegetation2 b 9 consequ5ce ( !
 s(tness ( _! tissues1 _! want (        
consi/5ce1 & ! abs5ce ( mu* woody fibre1
 ^! e>li] plants h come d[n to u only 9 
a fragm5t>y /ate4  ,illu/ration3        
,,ix4--,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,devonian    
,p]iod4  ,! plants belong+ to !         
,devonian p]iod diff] mu* f ! vegetation
 ( ! pres5t day4 ,!y resembl$ bo? mosses
 & lycopods1 :i* are fl[]less           
cryptogamic plants ( a l[ organisation4 
,! ,lycopods are h]bace\s plants1 play+ 
only a second>y "p 9 ! vegetation ( !   
globe2 b 9 ! e>li] ages ( organic       
creation !y 7 ! pr$om9ant =ms 9 !       
vegetable k+dom1 bo? z to individual    
size & ! numb] & v>iety ( _! species4   
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4--,plants ( !   
,devonian ,epo*4 #a4 ,alg4 #b4 ,zo/]a4  
#c4 ,psilophyton1 natural size4  ,9 !   

woodcut 7,fig4 #cj7 we h repres5t$ ?ree 
species ( aquatic plants belong+ to !   
,devonian p]iod2 !y are--#a1 ,fucoids   
7or ,alg72 #b1 ,zo/]a2 #c1 ,psilophyton4
 ,! ,fucoid closely resembles its mod]n 
ally2 b ) ! fir/ indications ( t]re/rial
 vegetation we pass f ! ,?allog5s1 to   
:i* ! ,alg belong 7plants ( simple      
organisation1 )\t fl[] or /em71 to !    
,acrog5s1 :i* ?r[ out _! leaves &       
bran*es at ! extremity1 & be> 9 ! axils 
( _! leaves m9ute circul> cases1 :i* =m 
! receptacles ( _! spore-l se$s4 8,if we
 /&10 says ,hugh ,mill]1 8on ! out] edge
 ( "o ( ^? iron-b\nd %ores ( ! ,we/]n   
,highl&s1 :]e rock & sk]ries are cr[n$ )
 sea-we$s2 ! long cyl9drical l9es (     
*orda-filum1 _m feet 9 l5g?1 ly+ aslant 
9 ! tideway2 long %aggy bun*es ( ,fucus 
s]ratus & ,f4 nodosus droop+ f ! sides (
 ! rock2 ! flat l$ges bri/l+ ) ! /iff   
c>tilag9\s _m-cleft fronds ( at lea/ two
 species ( ,*ondrus2 n[1 9 !            
?ickly-spread ,fucoids ( ?is ,highl&    
sc5e we h a n v improbable repres5tation

 ( ! ,?allog5\s vegetation4 ,if we add  
to ?is rocky tract1 s ri* 9 ,fucoids1 a 
subm>9e mead[ ( pale %elly s&1 cov]$ by 
a deep-gre5 swa! ( ,zo/]1 ) jo9t$ root &
 slim fl[]s1 unfurni%$ ) petals1 x w\ld 
be m repres5tative /ill40  ,let u n[    
take a glance at ! animals belong+ to   
?is p]iod4  ,! class ( ,fi%es seem to h 
held ! fir/ rank & importance 9 ! ,old  
,r$ ,s&/one fauna2 b _! /ructure 0 v    
diff]5t f t ( exi/+ fi%es3 !y 7 provid$ 
) a sort ( cuirass1 & f ! nature ( !    
scales 7 call$ ,ganoid fi%es4 ,num]\s   
fragm5ts ( ^! curi\s fi%es are n[ f\nd 9
 geological collections2 !y are ( /range
 =ms1 "s be+ completely cov]$ ) a       
cuirass ( _m pieces1 & o!rs furni%$ )   
w+-l pectoral f9s1 z 9 ,pt]i*?ys4  ,let 
any "o picture to himself ! surprise he 
w\ld feel %\ld he1 on tak+ 8 fir/ lesson
 9 geology1 & on fir/ break+ a /one--a  
pebble1 = in/ance1 exhibit+ e ext]nal   
sign ( a wat]-worn surface--f9d1 to     
appropriate ,ar*deacon ,paley's         
illu/ration1 a wat*1 or any o!r delicate

 piece ( me*anism1 9 its c5tre4 ,n[1    
?is1 ?irty ye>s ago1 is exactly ! k9d ( 
surprise t ,hugh ,mill] exp]i5c$ 9 !    
s&/one qu>ry op5$ 9 a l(ty wall ( cliff 
ov]hang+ ! nor!rn %ore ( ! ,moray ,fri?4
 ,he _h pick$ up a nodul> mass ( blue   
,lias-lime/one1 :i* he laid op5 by a    
/roke ( ! hamm]1 :51 behold6 an         
exquisitely %ap$ ,ammonite 0 display$   
be=e him4 ,x is n surpris+ t h5ce=? !   
half-mason1 half-sailor1 & poet1 became 
a geologi/4 ,he s\ght = in=mation1 &    
f\nd x2 he f\nd t ! rocks among :i* he  
lab\r$ sw>m$ ) ! relics ( a =m] age4 ,he
 pursu$ 8 inve/igations1 & f\nd1 :ile   
work+ 9 ?is zone ( /rata all ar\nd !    
coa/1 t a c]ta9 class ( fossils ab\nd$2 
b t 9 a high] zone ^! famili> =ms       
disappe>$1 & o!rs made _! appe>ance4    
,he read & le>n$ t 9 o!r l&s--l&s ( m   
rec5t =mation--/range =ms ( animal life 
_h be5 discov]$2 =ms :i* 9 _! turn _h   
disappe>$1 to be succe$$ by o!rs1 m 9   
accordance ) be+s n[ liv+4 ,he came to  
"k t he 0 surr\nd$1 9 8 native m\nta9s1 

by ! s$im5t>y deposits ( o!r ages2 he   
became alive to ! fact t ^! gr& m\nta9  
ranges _h be5 built up gra9 by gra9 9 ! 
b$ ( ! ocean1 & ! m\nta9s _h be5        
subsequ5tly rais$ to _! pres5t level by 
! upheaval ( "o "p ( its b$1 or by !    
subsid5ce ( ano!r4 ,! "y geologi/ n[    
ceas$ to wond] t ea* b$1 or s]ies ( b$s1
 %\ld conta9 9 its bosom records ( its  
own epo*2 x seem$ to him z if x _h be5 !
 object ( ! ,creator to furni% ! inquir]
 ) records ( ,8 wisdom & p[]1 :i* c\ld n
 be mis9t]pret$4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#ca4--;,fi%es ( ! ,devonian ,epo*4 #a4  
,cocco/eus1 "o-?ird natural size4 #b4   
,pt]i*?ys1 "o-f\r? natural size4 #c4    
,cephalaspis1 "o-f\r? natural size4     
,among ! ,fi%es ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 !   
,cocco/eus 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #a7 0 only  
p>tially cas$ 9 a def5sive arm\r2 ! upp]
 "p ( ! body d[n to ! f9s 0 def5d$ by   
scales4 ,pt]i*?ys 7,no4 #b71 a /range   
=m1 ) a v small head1 furni%$ ) two     
p[]ful paddles1 or arms1 l w+s1 & a m\? 
plac$ f> beh9d ! nose1 0 entirely cov]$ 

) scales4 ,! ,cephalaspis 7,no4 #c71 :i*
 has a consid]able outw>d resemblance to
 "s fi%es ( ! pres5t "t1 0 nev]!less    
mail-clad1 only on ! ant]ior "p ( !     
body4  ,o!r fi%es 7 provid$ ) no su*    
cuirass1 prop]ly s call$1 b 7 protect$  
by /rong resi/+ scales1 envelop+ ! :ole 
body4 ,su* 7 ! ,acan?odes 7#a71 !       
,climatius 7#b71 & ! ,diplacan?us 7#c71 
repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #cb4  ,illu/ration3   
,fig4 #cb4--;,fi%es ( ! ,devonian epo*4 
#a4 ,acan?odes4 #b4 ,climatius4 #c4     
,diplacan?us4  ,among ! organic be+s ( !
 ,devonian rocks we f9d worm-l animals1 
su* z ! ,annelides1 protect$ by an      
ext]nal %ell1 & :i* at ! pres5t day are 
probably repres5t$ by ! ,s]pul4 ,among  
,cru/aceans ! ,trilobites are /ill      
some:at num]\s1 especially 9 ! middle   
rocks ( ! p]iod4 ,we also f9d !re _m    
diff]5t gr\ps ( ,mollusca1 ( :i* !      
,bra*iopoda =m m ?an "o-half4 ,we may   
say ( ?is p]iod t x is ! reign (        
,bra*iopoda2 9 x !y assum$ extraord9>y  
=ms1 & ! numb] ( _! species 0 v great4  

,among ! mo/ curi\s we may in/ance !    
enorm\s ,/r+ocephalus ,burt9i1          
,davidsonia ,v]neuilli1 ,uncites        
gryphus1 & ,calceola ,s&al9a1 %ells (   
s+ul> & fanta/ic %ape1 diff]+ entirely f
 all kn[n =ms4 ,among/ ! mo/ *>act]i/ic 
( ^! ,mollusca1 ,atrypa reticul>is      
7,fig4 #cc7 holds ! fir/ rank1 )        
,spirif]a conc5trica1 ,leptna           
,mur*isoni1 & ,productus subaculeatus4  
,among ! ,cephalopoda we h ,clym5ia     
,s$gwickii 7,fig4 #cd71 includ+ !       
,goniatites1 illu/rat+ ! ,ammonites1 :i*
 s di/9ctly *>act]ise ! ,second>y epo*1 
b :i* 7 only =e%ad[$ 9 ! ,devonian      
p]iod4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4             
#cc4--;,atrypa reticul>is4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4--;,clym5ia     
,s$gwickii4  ,among ! ,radiata ( ?is    
epo*1 ! ord] ,cr9oidea are abundantly   
repres5t$4 ,we give z an example        
,cupressocr9us crassus 7,fig4 #ce74 ,!  
,encr9ites1 "u :i* "n ! :ole ( ^!       
animals are sometimes includ$1 liv$     
atta*$ to rocky places & 9 deep wat]1 z 

!y n[ d 9 ! ,c>ibbean sea4  ,!          
,encr9ites1 z we h se51 7 repres5t$ dur+
 ! ,silurian p]iod 9 a simple g5us1     
,hemicosmites1 b !y greatly increas$ 9  
numb]s 9 ! seas ( ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,!y
 dim9i% 9 numb]s1 z we retire f t       
geological age2 until ^? =ms1 :i* 7 s   
num]\s & v>i$ 9 ! e>lie/ seas1 are n[   
only repres5t$ by two g5]a4             
,illu/ration3 ,fig4                     
#ce4--;,cupressocr9us crassus4  ,! ,old 
,r$ ,s&/one rocks are compos$ ( s*i/s1  
s&/one1 & lime/ones4 ,! l9e ( dem>cation
 betwe5 ! ,silurian rocks & ^? :i*      
succe$ !m may be foll[$1 9 _m places1 by
 ! eye2 b1 on a clos] exam9ation1 !     
exact limits ( ! two sy/ems become m    
difficult to fix4 ,! b$s ( ! "o sy/em   
pass into ! o!r by a gradual passage1 = 
,nature r>ely admits ( viol5t contra/s1 
& %[s few sudd5 transitions4 ,by-&-by1  
h[ev]1 ! *ange becomes v decid$1 & !    
contra/ betwe5 ! d>k grey masses at !   
base & ! sup]9cumb5t yell[ & r$ rocks   
become suffici5tly /rik+4 ,9 fact1 !    

upp]mo/ b$s ( ! ,silurian rocks are !   
passage-b$s ( ! ov]ly+ sy/em1 consi/+ ( 
flag/ones1 occasionally r$di%1 & call$ 9
 "s di/ricts 8tile-/ones40 ,ov] ^! lie !
 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one conglom]ate1 !        
,cai?ness flags1 & ! great sup]9cumb5t  
mass :i* =ms ! upp] portion ( ! sy/em4  
,?\gh less abrupt ?an ! eruptive &      
,silurian m\nta9s1 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one   
sc5]y is1 nev]!less1 di/+ui%$ by its    
impos+ outl9e1 assum+ bold & l(ty       
esc>pm5ts 9 ! ,vans ( ,brecon1 9 ,grong>
 ,hill1 ne> ,ca]m>!n1 & 9 ! ,black      
,m\nta9 ( ,monm\?%ire1 9 ! c5tre ( a    
l&scape :i*1 wood1 rock1 & riv] comb9e  
to r5d] p]fect4 ,b x is 9 ! nor? (      
,scotl& :]e ?is rock assumes its gr&e/  
aspect1 wrapp+ its mantle r\nd ! l(tie/ 
m\nta9s1 & ris+ out ( ! sea 9 rugg$ &   
fanta/ic masses1 z f> nor? z ! ,orkneys4
 ,9 ,devon & ,cornwall1 :]e ! rocks are 
( a calc>e\s1 & sometimes s*i/ose or    
slaty "*1 !y are suffici5tly ext5sive to
 h giv5 a "n to ! s]ies1 :i* is         
recognis$ all ov] ! _w4  ,9 ,h]e=d%ire1 

,worce/]%ire1 ,%rop%ire1 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 &
 ,s\? ,wales1 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one is     
l>gely develop$1 & sometimes atta9s !   
?ickness ( f #h1jjj to #aj1jjj feet1    
divid$ into3 #a4 ,conglom]ate2 #b4 ,br[n
 /one1 ) ,eurypt]us2 #c4 ,m>l &         
corn/ones1 ) irregul> c\rses ( concrete 
lime/one1 9 :i* are sp9es ( ,fi%es &    
rema9s ( ,cephalaspis & ,pt]aspis2 #d4  
,?9 olive-col\r$ %ales & s&/one1        
int]calat$ ) b$s ( r$ m>l1 conta9+      
,cephalaspis & ,au*5aspis4 ,9 ,scotl&1  
s\? ( ! ,grampians1 a yell[ s&/one      
occupies ! base ( ! sy/em2 conglom]ate1 
r$ %ales1 s&/one & corn/ones1 conta9+   
,holopty*ius & ,cephalaspis1 & !        
,arbroa? pav+-/one1 conta9+ :at ,agassiz
 recognis$ z a huge ,cru/acean4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,tr9ucleus    
,lloydii4 7,ll&eilo ,flags47  ,"s ( !   
ph5om5a connect$ ) ! old] rocks (       
,devon%ire are difficult to unravel4 ,! 
,devonian1 x is n[ und]/ood1 is !       
equival5t1 9 ano!r area1 ( ! ,old ,r$   
,s&/one1 & 9 ,cornwall & ,devon%ire lie 

directly on ! ,silurian /rata1 :ile     
else:]e ! fossils ( ! ,upp] ,silurian   
are almo/ id5tical ) ^? 9 ! ,devonian   
b$s4 ,! late ,pr(essor ,jukes1 ) "s o!r 
geologi/s1 0 ( op9ion t ! ,devonian     
rocks ( ,devon%ire only repres5t$ ! ,old
 ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl& & ,s\? ,wales 9  
"p2 ! ,upp] ,devonian rocks ly+ betwe5 !
 ackn[l$g$ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & !         
,culm-measures be+ ! repres5tatives ( ! 
l[] c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,irel&4  ,mr4    
,e!ridge1 on ! o!r h&1 9 an elaborate   
memoir ^u ! same subject1 has endeav\r$ 
to prove t ! ,devonian & ,old ,r$       
,s&/one1 ?\gh contemporane\s 9 po9t (   
"t1 7 deposit$ 9 diff]5t areas & "u     
widely diff]5t conditions--! "o /rictly 
m>9e1 ! o!r altoge!r fre%-wat]--or1     
p]haps1 p>tly fre%-wat] & p>tly e/u>9e4 
,?is supposition is /rongly support$ by 
8 rese>*es into ! mollusca ( ! ,devonian
 sy/em1 & also by ! fi%-rema9s ( !      
,devonian & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl& &
 ! ,we/ ( ,engl& & ,wales4#db ,!        
difficulty ( draw+ a %>ply-def9$ l9e (  

dem>cation betwe5 diff]5t sy/ems is     
suffici5t to dispel ! idea :i* has      
sometimes be5 ent]ta9$ t special faun 7 
creat$ & annihilat$ 9 ! mass at ! close 
( ea* epo*4 ,!re 0 no close3 ea* epo*   
disappe>s or m]ges into t :i* succe$s x1
 & ) x ! animals belong+ to x1 mu* z we 
h se5 !m disappe> f our own fauna almo/ 
)9 rec5t times4    #db ,= full] details 
on ?is subject1 see ,j4 ,b4 ,jukes'     
8,manual (        ,geology10 #crd ed41  
p4 #gfb4 ,also1 ,r4 ,e!ridge1 ,qu>t4    
,j\rn4        ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 #bc1 p4
 #bea4   ,,c>bonif]\s ,,p]iod4  ,9 !    
hi/ory ( our globe ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod  
succe$s to ! ,devonian4 ,x is 9 !       
=mations ( ?is latt] epo* t we f9d !    
fossil fuel :i* has done s mu* to enri* 
& civilise ! _w 9 our own age4 ,?is     
p]iod divides itself into two great     
sub-p]iods3 #a4 ,! ,coal-measures2 & #b4
 ,! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one4 ,! fir/1 a   
p]iod :i* gave rise to ! great deposits 
( coal2 ! second1 to mo/ important m>9e 
deposits1 mo/ frequ5tly und]ly+ !       

coal-fields 9 ,engl&1 ,belgium1 ,france1
 & ,am]ica4  ,! lime/one-m\nta9s :i* =m 
! base ( ! :ole sy/em1 atta9 9 places1  
accord+ to ,pr(essor ,phillips1 a       
?ickness ( #b1ejj feet4 ,!y are ( m>9e  
orig91 z is app>5t by ! multitude (     
fossils !y conta9 ( ,zoophytes1         
,radiata1 ,cephalopoda1 & ,fi%es4 ,b !  
*ief *>act]i/ic ( ?is epo* is its       
/rictly t]re/rial flora--rema9s ( plants
 n[ become z common z !y 7 r>e 9 all    
previ\s =mations1 ann\nc+ a great       
increase ( dry l&4 ,9 old] geological   
times ! pres5t site ( our isl& 0 cov]$  
by a sea ( unlimit$ ext5t2 we n[ approa*
 a "t :5 x 0 a =e/1 or1 r1 an innum]able
 gr\p ( isl&s1 & m>%es cov]$ ) =e/s1 :i*
 spread ov] ! surface ( ! clu/]s ( isl&s
 :i* ?ickly /udd$ ! sea ( ! p]iod4  ,!  
monum5ts ( ?is era ( pr(use vegetation  
reveal !mselves 9 ! preci\s             
,coal-measures ( ,engl& & ,scotl&4 ,^!  
give u "s idea ( ! ri* v]dure :i* cov]$ 
! surface ( ! e>?1 newly ris5 f ! bosom 
( its p>5t waves4 ,x 0 ! p>adise (      

t]re/rial vegetation4 ,! gr& ,sigill>ia1
 ! ,/igm>ia1 & o!r f]n-l plants1 7      
especially typical ( ?is age1 & =m$ !   
woods1 :i* 7 left to gr[ undi/urb$2 = z 
yet no liv+ ,mammals seem to h appe>$2  
ev]y?+ indicates a uni=mly w>m1 humid   
temp]ature1 ! only climate 9 :i* !      
gigantic f]ns ( ! ,coal-measures c\ld h 
atta9$ _! magnitude4 ,9 ,fig4 #cg !     
read] has a re/oration ( ! arboresc5t & 
h]bace\s ,f]ns ( ! p]iod4 ,conif]s h be5
 f\nd ( ?is p]iod ) conc5tric r+s1 b ^! 
r+s are m slightly m>k$ ?an 9 exi/+     
trees ( ! same family1 f :i* x is       
reasonable to assume t ! seasonal *anges
 7 less m>k$ ?an !y are ) u4            
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,f]ns re/or$4
 #a & #b4 ,arboresc5t ,f]ns4 #c & #d4   
,h]bace\s ,f]ns4  ,ev]y?+ ann\nces t !  
"t occupi$ 9 ! deposition ( !           
,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one 0 "o ( va/        
duration4 ,pr(essor ,phillips calculates
 t1 at ! ord9>y rate ( progress1 x w\ld 
require #abb1djj ye>s to produce only   
sixty feet ( coal4 ,geologi/s believe1  

moreov]1 t ! upp] coal-measures1 :]e b$ 
has be5 deposit$ ^u b$1 = ages ^u ages1 
7 accumulat$ "u conditions ( comp>ative 
tranquillity1 b t ! end ( ?is p]iod 0   
m>k$ by viol5t convulsions--by ruptures 
( ! t]re/rial cru/1 :5 ! c>bonif]\s     
rocks 7 upturn$1 contort$1 dislocat$ by 
faults1 & subsequ5tly p>tially d5ud$1 & 
?us appe> n[ 9 depressions or bas9-%ap$ 
concavities2 & t ^u ?is d]ang$ & di/urb$
 f\ndation a f\r? geological sy/em1     
call$ ,p]mian1 0 con/ruct$4  ,!         
fundam5tal "* ( ! p]iod we are ab\t to  
/udy is ! imm5se developm5t ( a         
vegetation :i* !n cov]$ mu* ( ! globe4  
,! great ?ickness ( ! rocks :i* n[      
repres5t ! p]iod 9 "q1 ! v>iety ( *anges
 :i* are obs]v$ 9 ^! rocks :]ev] !y are 
met )1 lead to ! conclusion t ?is phase 
9 ! ,e>?'s hi/ory involv$ a long        
succession ( "t4  ,coal1 z we %all f9d1 
is compos$ ( ! m9]alis$ rema9s ( !      
vegetation :i* fl\ri%$ 9 remote ages ( !
 _w4 ,buri$ "u an enorm\s ?ickness (    
rocks1 x has be5 pres]v$ to our days1   

aft] be+ modifi$ 9 its inw>d nature &   
ext]nal aspect4 ,hav+ lo/ a portion (   
its elem5t>y con/itu5ts1 x has become   
trans=m$ into a species ( c>bon1        
impregnat$ ) ^? bitum9\s sub/ances :i*  
are ! ord9>y products ( ! sl[           
decomposition ( vegetable matt]4  ,?us1 
coal1 :i* supplies our manufactures &   
our furnaces1 :i* is ! fundam5tal ag5t (
 our productive & economic indu/ry--!   
coal :i* w>ms our h\ses & furni%es ! gas
 :i* lights our /reets & dwell+s--is !  
sub/ance ( ! plants :i* =m$ ! =e/s1 !   
vegetation1 & ! m>%es ( ! anci5t _w1 at 
a p]iod too di/ant = human *ronology to 
calculate ) any?+ l precision4 ,we %all 
n say--) "s p]sons1 :o believe t all 9  
,nature 0 made ) ref]5ce to man1 & :o   
?us =m a v imp]fect idea ( ! va/        
imm5sity ( creation--t ! vegetables ( ! 
anci5t _w h liv$ & multipli$ only1 "s   
day1 to prep>e = man ! ag5ts ( 8        
economic & indu/rial occupations4 ,we   
%all r direct ! att5tion ( our "y read]s
 to ! p[]s ( mod]n sci5ce1 :i* c ?us1   

aft] su* a prodigi\s int]val ( "t1 trace
 ! precise orig91 & /ate ) ! utmo/      
exactness1 ! g5]a & species ( plants1 ( 
:i* !re are n[ no id5tical              
repres5tatives exi/+ on ! face ( ! e>?4 
,let u pause = a mom5t1 & consid] !     
g5]al *>act]s :i* belong$ to our planet 
dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,heat--?\gh n 
necess>ily excessive heat--& extreme    
humidity 7 !n ! attributes ( its        
atmosph]e4 ,! mod]n allies ( ! species  
:i* =m$ its vegetation are n[ only f\nd 
"u ! burn+ latitudes ( ! tropics2 & !   
enorm\s dim5sions 9 :i* we f9d !m 9 !   
fossil /ate prove1 on ! o!r h&1 t !     
atmosph]e 0 saturat$ ) moi/ure4 ,dr4    
,liv+/one tells u t cont9ual ra9s1 add$ 
to int5se heat1 are ! climatic          
*>act]i/ic ( ,equatorial ,africa1 :]e ! 
vigor\s & tuft$ vegetation fl\ri%es :i* 
is s delightful to ! eye4  ,x is a      
rem>kable circum/ance t conditions (    
equable & w>m climate1 comb9$ )         
humidity1 d n seem to h be5 limit$ to   
any "o "p ( ! globe1 b ! temp]ature ( ! 

:ole globe seems to h be5 ne>ly ! same 9
 v diff]5t latitudes4 ,f ! ,equatorial  
regions up to ,melville ,isl&1 9 !      
,arctic ,ocean1 :]e 9 our days et]nal   
fro/ prevails--f ,spitzb]g5 to ! c5tre (
 ,africa1 ! c>bonif]\s flora is         
id5tically ! same4 ,:5 ne>ly ! same     
plants are f\nd 9 ,gre5l& & ,gu9ea2 :5 !
 same species1 n[ ext9ct1 are met ) (   
equal developm5t at ! equator z at !    
pole1 we _c b admit t at ?is epo* !     
temp]ature ( ! globe 0 ne>ly alike      
ev]y:]e4 ,:at we n[ call climate 0      
unkn[n 9 ^! geological times4 ,!re seems
 to h be5 !n only "o climate ov] ! :ole 
globe4 ,x 0 at a subsequ5t p]iod1 t is1 
9 lat] ,t]ti>y times1 t ! cold began to 
make itself felt at ! t]re/rial poles4  
,:5ce1 !n1 proce$$ ?is g5]al sup]ficial 
w>m?1 :i* we n[ reg>d ) s mu* surprise8 
,x 0 a consequ5ce ( ! great] or ne>]    
influ5ce ( ! int]ior heat ( ! globe4 ,! 
e>? 0 /ill s hot 9 itself1 t ! heat :i* 
rea*$ x f ! sun may h be5 inappreciable4
  ,ano!r hypo!sis1 :i* has be5 advanc$ )

 mu* less c]ta9ty ?an ! prec$+1 relates 
to ! *emical composition ( ! air dur+ ! 
,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,see+ ! enorm\s mass 
( vegetation :i* !n cov]$ ! globe1 &    
ext5d$ f "o pole to ! o!r2 consid]+1    
also1 ! great proportion ( c>bon &      
hydrog5 :i* exi/s 9 ! bitum9\s matt] (  
coal1 x has be5 ?\ght1 & n )\t reason1 t
 ! atmosph]e ( ! p]iod might be ri*] 9  
c>bonic acid ?an ! atmosph]e ( ! pres5t 
day4 ,x has ev5 be5 ?\ght t ! small     
numb] ( 7especially air-brea?+7 animals1
 :i* !n liv$1 might be acc\nt$ = by !   
pres5ce ( a great] proportion ( c>bonic 
acid gas 9 ! atmosph]e ?an is ! case 9  
our own times4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is pure     
assumption1 totally defici5t 9 pro(4    
,no?+ proves t ! atmosph]e ( ! p]iod 9  
"q 0 ri*] 9 c>bonic acid ?an is ! case  
n[4 ,s9ce we are only able1 !n1 to (f]  
vague conjectures on ?is subject1 we _c 
pr(ess ) any confid5ce to ent]ta9 !     
op9ion t ! atmosph]ic air ( !           
,c>bonif]\s p]iod conta9$ m c>bonic acid
 gas ?an t :i* we n[ brea!4 ,:at we c   

rem>k1 ) c]ta9ty1 z a /rik+ *>act]i/ic (
 ! vegetation ( ! globe dur+ ?is phase (
 its hi/ory1 0 ! prodigi\s developm5t   
:i* x assum$4 ,! ,f]ns1 :i* 9 our days &
 9 our climate1 are mo/ commonly only   
small p]5nial plants1 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s   
age sometimes pres5t$ !mselves "u l(ty &
 ev5 magnific5t =ms4  ,e "o kn[s ^?     
m>%-plants ) holl[1 *annell$1 &         
articulat$ cyl9drical /ems2 ^: jo9ts are
 furni%$ ) a membran\s1 d5ticulat$ %ea?1
 & :i* be> ! vulg> "n ( 8m>e's-tail20 _!
 fructification =m+ a sort ( catk9      
compos$ ( _m r+s ( scales1 c>ry+ on _!  
l[] surface sacs full ( spores or se$s4 
,^! humble ,equiseta 7 repres5t$ dur+ ! 
,coal-p]iod by h]bace\s trees f tw5ty to
 ?irty feet high & f\r to six in*es 9   
diamet]4 ,_! trunks1 *annell$           
longitud9ally1 & divid$ transv]sely by  
l9es ( articulation1 h be5 pres]v$ to u3
 !y be> ! "n ( ,calamites4 ,! engrav+   
7,fig4 #ch7 repres5ts "o ( ^! gigantic  
m>e's-tails1 or ,calamites1 ( !         
,coal-p]iod1 re/or$ "u ! directions (   

,m4 ,eug5e ,deslong*amps4 ,x is         
repres5t$ ) its fronds ( leaves1 & its  
organs ( fructification4 ,!y seem to h  
gr[n by means ( an und]gr\nd /em1 :ile  
new buds issu$ f ! gr\nd at int]vals1 z 
repres5t$ 9 ! engrav+4  ,! ,lycopods (  
our age are humble plants1 sc>cely a y>d
 9 height1 & mo/ commonly creep]s2 b !  
,lycopodiace ( ! anci5t _w 7 trees (    
eighty or n9ety feet 9 height4 ,x 0 !   
,lepidod5drons :i* fill$ ! =e/s4 ,_!    
leaves 7 sometimes tw5ty in*es long1 &  
_! trunks a y>d 9 diamet]4 ,su* are !   
dim5sions ( "s specim5s ( ,lepidod5dron 
c>9atum :i* h be5 f\nd4 ,ano!r ,lycopod 
( ?is p]iod1 ! ,lomatophloyos           
crassicaule1 atta9$ dim5sions /ill m    
colossal4 ,! ,sigill>ias sometimes      
exce$$ #ajj feet 9 height4 ,h]bace\s    
,f]ns 7 also exce$+ly abundant1 & grew  
b5ea? ! %ade ( ^! gigantic trees4 ,x 0 !
 comb9ation ( ^! l(ty trees ) su* %rubs 
7if we may s call !m71 :i* =m$ ! =e/s ( 
! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,! trunks ( two ( !
 gigantic trees1 :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ! =e/s ( 

! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 are repres5t$ 9    
,figs4 #ci & #dj1 r$uc$ respectively to 
"o-fif? & "o-t5? ! natural size4        
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,calamite    
re/or$4 ,?irty to =ty feet high4  ,:at  
c\ld be m surpris+ ?an ! aspect ( ?is   
exub]ant vegetation6--^! imm5se         
,sigill>ias1 :i* reign$ ov] ! =e/6 ^!   
,lepidod5drons1 ) flexible & sl5d] /ems6
 ^! ,lomatophloyos1 :i* pres5t !mselves 
z h]bace\s trees ( gigantic height1     
furni%$ ) v]dant leaflets6 ^!           
,calamites1 =ty feet high6 ^! elegant   
arboresc5t ,f]ns1 ) airy foliage1 z     
f9ely cut z ! mo/ delicate lace6 ,no?+  
at ! pres5t day c convey to u an idea ( 
! prodigi\s & imm5se ext5t ( nev]-*ang+ 
v]dure :i* clo!d ! e>?1 f pole to pole1 
"u ! high temp]ature :i* ev]y:]e        
prevail$ ov] ! :ole t]re/rial globe4 ,9 
! dep?s ( ^! inextricable =e/s p>asitic 
plants 7 susp5d$ f ! trunks ( ! great   
trees1 9 tufts or g>l&s1 l ! wild v9es (
 our tropical =e/s4 ,!y 7 ne>ly all     
pretty1 f]n-l plants--,sph5opt]is1      

,hym5ophyllites1 c42 !y atta*$ !mselves 
to ! /ems ( ! great trees1 l ! or*ids & 
,bromeliace ( our times4  ,illu/ration3 
,fig4 #ci4--,trunk ( ,calamites4        
,"o-fif? natural size4  ,illu/ration3   
,fig4 #dj4--,trunk ( ,sigill>ia4 ,"o-t5?
 natural size4  ,! m>g9 ( ! wat]s w\ld  
also be cov]$ ) v>i\s plants ) light &  
:orl$ leaves1 belong+1 p]haps1 to !     
,dicotyl$ons2 ,annul>ia f]tilis1        
,sph5ophyllites1 & ,a/]ophyllites4  ,h[ 
?is vegetation1 s impos+1 bo? on acc\nt 
( ! dim5sions ( ! individual trees & !  
imm5se space :i* !y occupi$1 s spl5did 9
 its aspect1 & yet s simple 9 its       
organisation1 mu/ h diff]$ f t :i* n[   
embelli%es ! e>? & *>ms our eyes6 ,x    
c]ta9ly possess$ ! advantage ( size &   
rapid gr[?2 b h[ poor x 0 9 species--h[ 
uni=m 9 appe>ance6 ,no fl[]s yet adorn$ 
! foliage or v>i$ ! t9ts ( ! =e/s4      
,et]nal v]dure clo!d ! bran*es ( !      
,f]ns1 ! ,lycopods1 & ,equiseta1 :i*    
compos$ to a great ext5t ! vegetation ( 
! age4 ,! =e/s pres5t$ an innum]able    

collection ( individuals1 b v few       
species1 & all belong+ to ! l[] types ( 
vegetation4 ,no fruit appe>$ fit =      
n\ri%m5t2 none w\ld seem to h be5 on !  
bran*es4 ,suffice x to say t few        
t]re/rial animals seem to h exi/$ yet2  
animal life 0 app>5tly almo/ :olly      
conf9$ to ! sea1 :ile ! vegetable k+dom 
occupi$ ! l&1 :i* at a lat] p]iod 0 m   
?ickly inhabit$ by air-brea?+ animals4  
,probably a few w+$ insects 7"s         
coleopt]a1 or?opt]a1 & neuropt]a7 gave  
animation to ! air :ile exhibit+ _!     
v>iegat$ col\rs2 & x 0 n impossible b t 
_m pulmonif]\s mollusca 7su* z          
l&-snails7 liv$ at ! same "t4  ,b1 we   
might ask1 = :at eyes1 = ^: ?\ghts1 = ^:
 wants1 did ! solit>y =e/s gr[8 ,= :om  
^! maje/ic & ext5sive %ades8 ,= :om ^!  
sublime sights8 ,:at my/]i\s be+s       
contemplat$ ^! m>vels8 ,a "q :i* _c be  
solv$1 & "o be=e :i* we are ov]:elm$1 & 
our p[]less reason is sil5t2 its        
solution re/s ) ,him :o said1 8,be=e !  
_w 01 ,i am60  ,! vegetation :i* cov]$ !

 num]\s isl&s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s sea       
consi/$1 !n1 ( ,f]ns1 ( ,equisetace1 (  
,lycopodiace1 & dicotyl$on\s            
,gymnosp]ms4 ,! ,annul>ia & ,sigill>i   
belong to families ( ! la/-nam$ class1  
:i* are n[ completely ext9ct4  ,!       
,annul>i 7 small plants :i* float$ on ! 
surface ( fre%-wat] lakes & ponds2 _!   
leaves 7 v]ticillate1 t is1 arrang$ 9 a 
great numb] ( :orls1 at ea* articulation
 ( ! /em ) ! bran*es4 ,! ,sigill>i 71 on
 ! contr>y1 great trees1 consi/+ ( a    
simple trunk1 surm\nt$ ) a bun* or      
panicle ( sl5d] droop+ leaves1 ) ! b>k  
(t5 *annell$1 & display+ impressions or 
sc>s ( ! old leaves1 :i*1 f _!          
resemblance to a seal1 sigillum1 gave   
orig9 to _! "n4 ,fig4 #da repres5ts !   
b>k ( "o ( ^! ,sigill>i1 :i* is (t5 met 
) 9 coal-m9es4  ,! ,/igm>i 7,fig4 #db71 
accord+ to palontologi/s1 7 roots (     
,sigill>i1 ) a subt]ranean              
fructification2 all t is kn[n ( !m is ! 
long roots :i* c>ry ! reproductive      
organs1 & 9 "s cases are z mu* z sixte5 

feet long4 ,^! 7 suspect$ by ,brongni>t1
 on botanical gr\nds1 to be ! roots (   
,sigill>ia1 & rec5t discov]ies h        
confirm$ ?is impression4 ,sir ,*>les    
,lyell1 9 company ) ,dr4 ,dawson1 exam9$
 sev]al erect ,sigill>i 9 ! sea-cliffs (
 ! ,s\? ,jogg9s 9 ,nova ,scotia1 & f\nd 
t f ! l[] extremities ( ! trunk !y s5t  
out ,/igm>i z roots1 :i* divid$ into f\r
 p>ts1 & ^! aga9 ?rew out eight         
cont9uations1 ea* ( :i* aga9 divid$ into
 pairs4 ,tw5ty-"o specim5s ( ,sigill>ia 
h be5 describ$ by ,dr4 ,dawson f !      
,coal-measures ( ,nova ,scotia2 b !     
diff]5ces 9 ! m>k+s 9 diff]5t p>ts ( !  
same tree are s great1 t ,dr4 ,dawson   
reg>ds ! great] "p ( ! recognis$ species
 ( ,sigill>i z m]ely provisional4#dc    
#dc ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4     
xxii41 p4 #abi4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4    
#da4--,sigill>ia lvigata4 ,"o-?ird      
natural size4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4      
#db4--,/igm>ia4 ,"o-t5? natural size4   
,two o!r gigantic trees grew 9 ! =e/s ( 
?is p]iod3 ^! 7 ,lepidod5dron c>9atum & 

,lomatophloyos crassicaule1 bo? belong+ 
to ! family ( ,lycopodiace1 :i* n[      
includes only v small species4 ,! trunk 
( ! ,lomatophloyos ?rew out num]\s      
bran*es1 :i* t]m9at$ 9 ?ick tufts ( l9e>
 & fle%y leaves4  ,! ,lepidod5drons1 (  
:i* !re are ab\t =ty kn[n species1 h    
cyl9drical bifurcat$ bran*es2 t is1 !   
bran*es 7 evolv$ 9 pairs1 or 7 di*otom\s
 to ! top4 ,! extremities ( ! bran*es 7 
t]m9at$ by a fructification 9 ! =m ( a  
cone1 =m$ ( l9e> scales1 to :i* ! "n (  
,lepido/robus 7,fig4 #de7 has be5 giv54 
,nev]!less1 _m ( ^! bran*es 7 /]ile1 &  
t]m9at$ simply 9 fronds 7elongat$       
leaves74 ,9 _m ( ! coal-fields fossil   
cones h be5 f\nd1 to :i* ?is "n has be5 
giv5 by e>li] palontologi/s4 ,!y        
sometimes =m ! nucleus ( nodul>1        
concretion>y balls ( clay-iron/one1 &   
are well pres]v$1 hav+ a conical axis1  
surr\nd$ by scales compactly imbricat$4 
,! op9ion ( ,brongni>t is n[ g5]ally    
adopt$1 t !y are ! fruit ( !            
,lepidod5dron4 ,at ,coalbrookdale1 &    

else:]e1 ^! h be5 f\nd z t]m9al tips ( a
 bran* ( a well-*>act]is$ ,lepidod5dron4
 ,bo? ,hook] & ,brongni>t place !m ) !  
,lycopods1 hav+ cones ) simil> spores & 
sporangia1 l t family4 ,mo/ ( !m 7 l>ge 
trees4 ,"o tree ( ,l4 ,/]nb]gii1 ne>ly  
fifty feet long1 0 f\nd 9 ! ,j>r[       
,colli]y1 ne> ,newca/le1 ly+ 9 ! %ale   
p>allel to ! plane ( /ratification4     
,fragm5ts ( o!rs f\nd 9 ! same %ale     
indicat$1 by ! size ( ! rhomboidal sc>s 
:i* cov]$ !m1 a /ill great] size4       
,lepidod5dron ,/]nb]gii 7,fig4 #dc7 is  
repres5t$ z x is f\nd b5ea? ! %ales 9 ! 
colli]ies ( ,sw9a1 9 ,bohemia4 ,fig4 #df
 repres5ts a portion ( a bran* ( ,l4    
elegans furni%$ ) leaves4 ,m4 ,eug5e    
,deslong*amps has drawn ! re/oration ( !
 ,lepidod5dron ,/]nb]gii1 repres5t$ 9   
,fig4 #dg1 :i* is %[n entire 9 ,fig4    
#dd1 ) its /em1 its bran*es1 fronds1 &  
organs ( fructification4 ,! ,f]ns       
compos$ a great "p ( ! vegetation ( !   
,coal-measure p]iod4  ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #dc4--,lepidod5dron ,/]nb]gii4    

,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,lepidod5dron 
,/]nb]gii re/or$4 ,=ty feet high4  ,!   
,f]ns diff] *iefly 9 "s ( ! details ( ! 
leaf4 ,pecopt]is1 = in/ance 7,fig4 #dh71
 h ! leaves once1 twice1 or ?rice       
p9natifid ) ! leaflets adh]+ ei!r by _! 
:ole base or by ! c5tre only2 ! midrib  
runn+ ?r\gh to ! po9t4 ,neuropt]is      
7,fig4 #di7 has leaves divid$ l         
,pecopt]is1 b ! midrib does n rea* !    
apex ( ! leaflets1 b divides "r & left  
into ve9s4 ,odontopt]is 7,fig4 #ea7 has 
p9natifid leaves1 l ! la/1 b its        
leaflets adh]e by _! :ole base to !     
/alk4 ,lon*opt]is 7,fig4 #ej7 has !     
leaves sev]al times p9natifid1 !        
leaflets m or less unit$ to "o ano!r1 & 
! ve9s reticulat$4 ,among ! mo/ num]\s  
species ( =ms ( ! ,coal-measure p]iod 0 
,sph5opt]is artemisifolia 7,fig4 #eb71 (
 :i* a magnifi$ leaf is repres5t$4      
,sph5opt]is has twice or ?rice p9natifid
 leaves1 ! leaflets n>r[ at ! base1 & ! 
ve9s g5]ally arrang$ z if !y radiat$ f !
 base2 ! leaflets are frequ5tly         

w$ge-%ap$4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#de4--,lepido/robus v>iabilis4          
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4--,lepidod5dron 
elegans4   ,,c>bonif]\s ,,lime/one4     
7,,sub-,,p]iod47  ,! seas ( ?is epo*    
includ$ an imm5se numb] ( ,zoophytes1   
ne>ly #djj species ( ,mollusca1 & a few 
,cru/aceans & ,fi%es4 ,among ! ,fi%es1  
,psammodus & ,cocco/eus1 ^: massive tee?
 ins]t$ 9 ! palate 7 suitable = gr9d+2 &
 ! ,holopty*ius & ,megali*?ys1 are ! mo/
 important4 ,! ,mollusca are *iefly     
,bra*iopods ( great size4 ,! ,product   
atta9$ "h exceptional developm5t1       
,producta ,m>t9i 7,fig4 #ec71 ,p4       
semi-reticulata & ,p4 gigantea1 be+ !   
mo/ rem>kable4 ,spirif]s1 also1 7       
equally abundant1 z ,spirif]a trigonalis
 & ,s4 glabra4 ,9 ,t]ebratula ha/ata !  
col\r$ b&s1 :i* adorn$ ! %ell ( ! liv+  
animal1 h be5 pres]v$ to u4 ,!          
,bell]ophon1 ^: convolut$ %ell 9 "s     
respects resembles ! ,nautilus ( our    
pres5t seas1 b )\t its *amb]$ %ell1 7 !n
 repres5t$ by _m species1 among o!rs by 

,bell]ophon co/atus 7,fig4 #ed71 & ,b4  
hiulcus 7,fig4 #ef74 ,aga91 among !     
,cephalopods1 we f9d ! ,or?oc]as 7,fig4 
#eg71 :i* resembl$ a /raight ,nautilus2 
& ,goniatites 7,goniatites evolutus1    
,fig4 #ee71 a *amb]$ %ell alli$ to !    
,ammonite1 :i* appe>$ 9 great numb]s    
dur+ ! ,second>y epo*4  ,illu/ration3   
,fig4 #dg4--,lepidod5dron ,/]nb]gii4    
,cru/aceans are r>e 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s     
,lime/one /rata2 ! g5us ,phillipsia is !
 la/ ( ! ,trilobites1 all ( :i* became  
ext9ct at ! close ( ?is p]iod4 ,z to !  
,zoophytes1 !y consi/ *iefly ( ,cr9oids 
& ,corals4 ,! ,cr9oids 7 repres5t$ by ! 
g5]a ,platycr9us & ,cya?ocr9us4 ,we also
 h 9 ^! rocks _m ,polyzoa4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,pecopt]is    
lon*itica1 a little magnifi$4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4--,neuropt]is   
gigantea4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#ej4--,lon*opt]is ,bricii4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,odontopt]is  
,br>dii4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#eb4--,sph5opt]is artemisifolia1        

magnifi$4  ,among ! corals ( ! p]iod1 we
 may include ! g5]a ,li?o/rotion &      
,lonsdalea1 ( :i* ,li?o/rotion          
basalti=me 7,fig4 #eh71 & ,lonsdalea    
flori=mis 7,fig4 #ei71 are respectively 
! repres5tatives1 ) ,amplexus           
corallodes4 ,among ! ,polyzoa are ! g5]a
 ,f5e/rella & ,polypora4 ,la/ly1 to ^!  
we may add a gr\p ( animals :i* w play a
 v important "p & become abundantly     
repres5t$ 9 ! b$s ( lat] geological     
p]iods1 b :i* already ab\nd$ 9 ! seas ( 
! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,we speak ( !      
,=am9if]a 7,fig4 #fj71 microscopic      
animals1 :i* clu/]$ ei!r 9 "o body1 or  
divid$ into segm5ts1 & cov]$ ) a        
calc>e\s1 _m-*amb]$ %ell1 z 9 ,fig4 #fj1
 ,fusul9a cyl9drica4 ,^! little         
creatures1 :i*1 dur+ ! ,jurassic &      
,cretace\s p]iods1 =m$ enorm\s banks &  
entire masses ( rock1 began to make _!  
appe>ance 9 ! p]iod :i* n[ engages our  
att5tion4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#ec4--,producta ,m>t9i4 ,"o-?ird nat4   
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4              

#ed4--;,bell]ophon co/atus4 ,half nat4  
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4              
#ee4--;,goniatites evolutus4 ,nat4 size4
  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4--;,bell]ophon
 hiulcus4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#eg4--,or?oc]as lat]ale4  ,illu/ration3 
,fig4 #eh4--,li?o/rotion basalti=me4    
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,lonsdalea    
flori=mis4  ,! plate opposite 7,,plate  
,x47 is a repres5tation ( an ideal      
aqu>ium1 9 :i* "s ( ! m prom95t species1
 :i* inhabit$ ! seas dur+ ! p]iod ( !   
,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 are repres5t$4   
,on ! "r is a tribe ( corals1 )         
reflections ( dazzl+ :ite3 ! species    
repres5t$ are1 ne>e/ ! edge1 !          
,lasmocya?us1 ! ,*tetes1 & ! ,ptylopora4
 ,! ,mollusc :i* occupies ! extremity ( 
! elongat$ & conical tube 9 ! %ape ( a  
sabre is an ,aploc]as4 ,x seems to      
prep>e ! way = ! ,ammonite2 = if ?is    
elongat$ %ell 7 coil$ r\nd itself x w\ld
 resemble ! ,ammonite & ,nautilus4 ,9 ! 
c5tre ( ! =egr\nd we h ,bell]ophon      
hiulcus 7,fig4 #ef71 ! ,nautilus        

,kon9ckii1 & a ,producta1 ) ! num]\s    
sp9es :i* surr\nd ! %ell4 7,see ,fig4   
#fb47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4              
#fj4--;,=am9if]a ( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 
=m+ ! c5tre ( an oolitic gra94 ,p[]     
#abj4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4              
#fa4--;,=am9if]a ( ! ,*alk1 obta9$ by   
bru%+ x 9 wat]4 ,p[] #abj4  ,on ! left  
are o!r corals3 ! ,cya?ophyllum )       
/raight cyl9drical /ems2 "s ,encr9ites  
7,cya?ocr9us & ,platycr9us7 w\nd r\nd ! 
trunk ( a tree1 or ) _! flexible /em    
float+ 9 ! wat]4 ,"s ,fi%es1            
,amblypt]us1 move ab\t among/ ^!        
creatures1 ! great] numb] ( :i* are     
immovably atta*$1 l plants1 to ! rock on
 :i* !y gr[4  ,illu/ration3 ,x4--,ideal 
view ( m>9e life 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4
  ,9 addition1 ?is engrav+ %[s u a s]ies
 ( islets1 ris+ out ( a tranquil sea4   
,"o ( ^! is occupi$ by a =e/1 9 :i* a   
di/ant view is pres5t$ ( ! g5]al =ms ( !
 gr& vegetation ( ! p]iod4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,x is (  
importance to "k ! rocks =m$ by m>9e    

deposits dur+ ! era ( ! ,c>bonif]\s     
,lime/one1 inasmu* z !y include coal1   
?\gh 9 mu* small] quantities ?an 9 !    
succe$+ sub-p]iod ( ! true coal-deposit4
 ,!y consi/ ess5tially ( a compact      
lime/one1 ( a greyi%-blue1 & ev5 black  
col\r4 ,! bl[ ( ! hamm] causes !m to    
exhale a some:at fetid od\r1 :i* is ow+ 
to decompos$ organic matt]--! modifi$   
sub/ance ( ! molluscs & zoophytes--( :i*
 x is to s great an ext5t compos$1 & ^: 
rema9s are /ill easily recognis$4       
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,producta     
horrida4 ,half natural size4  ,9 ! nor? 
( ,engl&1 & _m o!r p>ts ( ! ,briti%     
,isl&s1 ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one =ms1 z  
we h se51 l(ty m\nta9-masses1 to :i* !  
t]m ,m\nta9 ,lime/one is sometimes      
appli$4  ,9 ,d]by%ire ! =mation         
con/itutes rugg$1 l(ty1 &               
fanta/ically-%ap$ m\nta9s1 ^: summits   
m+le ) ! cl\ds1 :ile its picturesque "* 
appe>s "h1 z well z f>!r nor?1 9 ! dales
 or valleys1 :]e ri* mead[s1 ?r\gh :i* !
 m\nta9 /reams =ce _! way1 seem to be   

clos$ abruptly by masses ( rock1 ris+   
above !m l ! grey ru9s ( "s anci5t t[]2 
:ile ! m\nta9 bases are pi]c$ ) cav]ns1 
& _! sides cov]$ ) mosses & f]ns1 = !   
gr[? ( :i* ! lime/one is p>ticul>ly     
fav\rable4  ,! =mation is metallif]\s1 &
 yields ri* ve9s ( lead-ore 9 ,d]by%ire1
 ,cumb]l&1 & o!r c\nties ( ,great       
,brita94 ,! rock is f\nd 9 ,russia1 9 ! 
nor? ( ,france1 & 9 ,belgium1 :]e x     
furni%es ! common m>bles1 kn[n z ,fl&]s 
m>ble 7,m>bre de ,fl&res & ,m4 de petit 
granit74 ,^! m>bles are also qu>ri$ 9   
o!r localities1 su* z ,regneville 7,la  
,man*e71 ei!r = ! manufacture ( lime or 
= ornam5tal /onework2 "o ( ! v>ieties   
qu>ri$ at ,regneville1 be+ black1 ) l>ge
 yell[ ve9s1 is v pretty4  ,9 ,france1 !
 ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 ) its s&/ones & 
conglom]ates1 s*i/s & lime/ones1 is     
l>gely develop$ 9 ! ,vosges1 9 !        
,lyonnais1 & 9 ,langu$oc1 (t5 9 contact 
) sy5ites & porphyries1 & o!r igne\s    
rocks1 by :i* x has be5 p5etrat$ &      
di/urb$1 & ev5 metamorphos$ 9 _m ways1  

by reason ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( rocks ( :i* x
 is compos$4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !       
,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one =mation occupies a
 some:at gr& position 9 ! re> ( !       
,alleghanies4 ,x is also f\nd =m+       
consid]able ranges 9 our ,au/ralian     
colonies4  ,9 consequ5ce ( _! age1 z    
comp>$ ) ! ,second>y & ,t]ti>y          
lime/ones1 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks are      
g5]ally m m>k$ & v>i$ 9 "*4 ,! valley ( 
! ,meuse1 f ,namur to ,*ocki]1 above    
,lige1 is cut out ( ?is =mation2 & _m ( 
our read]s w rememb] ) delight !        
picturesque "* ( ! sc5]y1 especially t (
 ! left bank ( ! celebrat$ riv] 9 "q4   
,,coal ,,measures4 7,,sub-,,p]iod47     
,?is t]re/rial p]iod is *>act]is$1 9 a  
rem>kable mann]1 by ! abundance &       
/rang5ess ( ! vegetation :i* !n cov]$ ! 
isl&s & cont95ts ( ! :ole globe4 ,^u all
 po9ts ( ! e>?1 z we h said1 ?is flora  
pres5t$ a /rik+ uni=mity4 ,9 comp>+ x ) 
! vegetation ( ! pres5t day1 ! le>n$    
,fr5* botani/1 ,m4 ,brongni>t1 :o has   
giv5 p>ticul> att5tion to ! flora ( !   

,coal-measures1 has arriv$ at !         
conclusion t x pres5t$ consid]able      
analogy ) t ( ! isl&s ( ! equatorial &  
torrid zone1 9 :i* a m>itime climate &  
elevat$ temp]ature exi/ 9 ! highe/      
degree4 ,x is believ$ t isl&s 7 v num]\s
 at ?is p]iod2 t1 9 %ort1 ! dry l& =m$ a
 sort ( va/ ar*ipelago ^u ! g5]al ocean1
 ( no great dep?1 ! isl&s be+ connect$  
toge!r & =m$ into cont95ts z !y         
gradually em]g$ f ! ocean4  ,?is flora1 
!n1 consi/s ( great trees1 & also ( _m  
small] plants1 :i* w\ld =m a close1 ?ick
 turf1 or sod1 :5 p>tially buri$ 9 m>%es
 ( almo/ unlimit$ ext5t4 ,m4 ,brongni>t 
indicates1 z *>act]is+ ! p]iod1 #ejj    
species ( plants belong+ to families :i*
 we h already se5 mak+ _! fir/ appe>ance
 9 ! ,devonian p]iod1 b :i* n[ atta9 a  
prodigi\s developm5t4 ,! ord9>y         
dicotyl$ons & monocotyl$ons--t is1      
plants hav+ se$s ) two lobes 9 g]m9at+1 
& plants hav+ "o se$-lobe--are almo/    
entirely abs5t2 ! cryptogamic1 or       
fl[]less plants1 pr$om9ate2 especially  

,f]ns1 ,lycopodiace & ,equisetace--b (  
=ms insulat$ & actually ext9ct 9 ^! same
 families4 ,a few dicotyl$on\s          
gymnosp]ms1 or nak$-se$ plants =m+ g5]a 
( ,conif]s1 h completely disappe>$1 n   
only f ! pres5t flora1 b s9ce ! close ( 
! p]iod "u consid]ation1 !re be+ no     
trace ( !m 9 ! succe$+ ,p]mian flora4   
,su* is a g5]al view ( ! features mo/   
*>act]i/ic ( ! ,coal p]iod1 & ( !       
,prim>y epo* 9 g5]al4 ,x diff]s1        
altoge!r & absolutely1 f t ( ! pres5t   
day2 ! climatic condition ( ^! remote   
ages ( ! globe1 h[ev]1 enables u to     
compreh5d ! *>act]i/ics :i* di/+ui% its 
vegetation4 ,a damp atmosph]e1 ( an     
equable r ?an an int5se heat l t ( !    
tropics1 a s(t light veil$ by p]man5t   
fogs1 7 fav\rable to ! gr[? ( ?is       
peculi> vegetation1 ( :i* we se>* 9 va9 
= any?+ /rictly analog\s 9 our own days4
 ,! ne>e/ approa* to ! climate &        
vegetation prop] to ! geological p]iod  
:i* n[ occupies our att5tion1 w\ld      
probably be f\nd 9 c]ta9 isl&s1 or on ! 

littoral ( ! ,pacific ,ocean--! isl& (  
,*lo1 = example1 :]e x ra9s dur+ #cjj   
days 9 ! ye>1 & :]e ! light ( ! sun is  
%ut out by p]petual fogs2 :]e arboresc5t
 ,f]ns =m =e/s1 b5ea? ^: %ade gr[       
h]bace\s ,f]ns1 :i* rise ?ree feet &    
upw>ds above a m>%y soil2 :i* gives     
%elt] also to a mass ( cryptogamic      
plants1 greatly resembl+1 9 its ma9     
features1 ! flora ( ! ,coal-measures4   
,?is flora 01 z we h said1 uni=m & poor 
9 its botanic g5]a1 comp>$ to !         
abundance & v>iety ( ! flora ( ! pres5t 
"t2 b ! few families ( plants1 :i* exi/$
 !n1 includ$ _m m species ?an are n[    
produc$ 9 ! same c\ntries4 ,! fossil    
,f]ns ( ! coal-s]ies 9 ,europe1 =       
in/ance1 compreh5d ab\t #cjj species1   
:ile all ,europe n[ only produces fifty4
 ,! gymnosp]ms1 :i* n[ mu/] only        
tw5ty-five species 9 ,europe1 !n numb]$ 
m ?an #abj4  ,x w simplify !            
classification ( ! flora ( ! ,c>bonif]\s
 epo* if we give a tabul> arrangem5t    
adopt$ by ! be/ au?orities3--           

,dr4 ,l9dley4        ,brongni>t4        
,i4 ,?allog5s  ,cryptogam\s ,amphig5s1  
,li*5s1 ,sea-we$s1 ,fungi4              
or ,cellul> ,cryptogams      ,,ii4      
,acrog5s     ,cryptogam\s ,acrog5s      
,club-mosses1 ,equiseta1 ,f]ns1         
,lycopods1 ,lepidod5dra4    ,,iii4      
,gymnog5s    ,dicotyl$on\s ,gymnosp]ms  
,conif]s & ,cycads4                     
,composit1 ,legum9os1 ,umbel-    ,,iv4  
,exog5s      ,dicotyl$on\s ,angiosp]ms  
lif]1 ,crucif]1 ,hea?s4                 
,all ,european except ,conif]s4      ,v4
 ,endog5s     ,monocotyl$ons            
,palms1 ,lilies1 ,aloes1 ,ru%es1        
,grasses4  ,calamites are among ! mo/   
abundant fossil plants ( ! ,c>bonif]\s  
p]iod1 & occur also 9 ! ,devonian4 ,!y  
are pres]v$ z /riat$1 jo9t$1 cyl9drical1
 or compress$ /ems1 ) flut$ *annels or  
furr[s at _! sides1 & sometimes surr\nd$
 by a bitum9\s coat+1 ! rema9s ( a      
cortical integum5t4 ,!y 7 orig9ally     
holl[1 b ! cavity is usually fill$ up ) 
a sub/ance into :i* !y !mselves h be5   

conv]t$4 ,!y 7 divid$ into jo9ts or     
segm5ts1 & :5 brok5 across at _!        
articulations !y %[ a numb] ( /ri1      
orig9at+ 9 ! furr[s ( ! sides1 & turn+  
inw>ds t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! /em4 ,x is n   
kn[n :e!r ?is /ructure 0 connect$ ) an  
imp]fect diaphragm /ret*$ across ! holl[
 ( ! /em at ea* jo9t1 or m]ely repres5t$
 ! ends ( woody plates ( :i* ! solid "p 
( ! /em is compos$4 ,_! extremities h   
be5 discov]$ to tap] gradually to a     
po9t1 z repres5t$ 9 ,c4 cann=mis 7,fig4 
#fd71 or to end abruptly1 ! int]vals    
becom+ %ort] & small]4 ,! obtuse po9t is
 n[ f\nd to be ! root4 ,calamites are   
reg>d$ z ,equisetace\s plants2 lat]     
botani/s consid] t !y belong to an      
ext9ct family ( plants4 ,sigill>i are ! 
mo/ abundant ( all plants 9 ! coal      
=mation1 & 7 ^? pr9cipally conc]n$ 9 !  
accumulation ( ! m9]al fuel ( !         
,coal-measures4 ,n a m9e is op5$1 nor a 
heap ( %ale ?r[n out1 b !re occur       
fragm5ts ( its /em1 m>k$ ext]nally )    
small r\nd$ impressions1 & 9 ! c5tre    

slight tub]cles1 ) a qu9cuncial         
arrangem5t4 ,f ! tub]cles arise long    
ribbon-%ap$ bodies1 :i* h be5 trac$ 9 "s
 in/ances to ! l5g? ( tw5ty feet4       
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,sph5ophyllum 
re/or$4  ,9 ! family ( ! ,sigill>ias we 
h already pres5t$ ! b>k ( ,s4 lvigata1  
at page #ach2 on page #aeg we give a    
draw+ ( ! b>k ( ,s4 r5i=mis1 "o-?ird !  
natural size 7,fig4 #fe74  ,9 ! family (
 ! ,a/]ophyllites1 ! leaf ( ,a4 foliosa 
7,fig4 #ff72 & ! foliage ( ,annul>ia    
orifolia 7,fig4 #fg7 are rem>kable4 ,9  
addition to ^!1 we pres5t1 9 ,fig4 #fc1 
a re/oration ( "o ( ^! ,a/]ophyllites1 !
 ,sph5ophyllum1 aft] ,m4 ,eug5e         
,deslong*amps4 ,?is h]bace\s tree1 l !  
,calamites1 w\ld pres5t ! appe>ance ( an
 imm5se asp>agus1 tw5ty-five to ?irty   
feet high4 ,x is repres5t$ "h ) its     
bran*es & fronds1 :i* be> "s resemblance
 to ! leaves ( ! g9kgo4 ,! bud1 z       
repres5t$ 9 ! figure1 is t]m9al1 & n    
axill>y1 z 9 "s ( ! ,calamites4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4--;,calamites   

cann=mis4 ,"o-?ird natural size4  ,if1  
dur+ ! ,coal-p]iod1 ! vegetable k+dom _h
 rea*$ its maximum1 ! animal k+dom1 on !
 contr>y1 0 poorly repres5t$4 ,"s rema9s
 h be5 f\nd1 bo? 9 ,am]ica & ,g]many1   
consi/+ ( portions ( ! skeleton & !     
impressions ( ! foot/eps ( a ,reptile1  
:i* has receiv$ ! "n ( ,ar*egosaurus4 ,9
 ,fig4 #fh is repres5t$ ! head & neck ( 
,ar*egosaurus m9or1 f\nd 9 #ahdg 9 !    
coal-bas9 ( ,sa>bruck betwe5 ,/rasb\rg &
 ,trves4 ,among ! animals ( ?is p]iod we
 f9d a few ,fi%es1 analog\s to ^? ( !   
,devonian =mation4 ,^! are !            
,holopty*ius & ,megali*?ys1 hav+        
jaw-bones arm$ ) enorm\s tee?4 ,scales (
 ,pygopt]us h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,nor?umb]l&  
,coal-%ale at ,new%am ,colli]y1 & also 9
 ! ,/af=d%ire ,coal-%ale4 ,"s w+$       
insects w\ld probably jo9 ?is sl5d] gr\p
 ( liv+ be+s4 ,x may !n be said ) tru? t
 ! imm5se =e/s & m>%y pla9s1 cr[d$ )    
trees1 %rubs1 & h]bace\s plants1 :i* =m$
 on ! innum]able isles ( ! p]iod a ?ick 
& tuft$ sw>d1 7 almo/ de/itute (        

animals4  ,illu/ration3 ,,xi4--,ideal   
view ( a m>%y =e/ ( ! ,coal ,p]iod4     
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,sigill>ia    
r5i=mis4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#ff4--;,a/]ophyllites foliosa4  ,on !   
opposite page 7,,pl4 ,,xi47 ,m4 ,ri\ has
 attempt$1 "u ! directions ( ,m4        
,deslong*amps1 to reproduce ! aspect (  
,nature dur+ ! p]iod4 ,a m>% & =e/ ( !  
,coal-p]iod are "h repres5t$1 ) a %ort &
 ?ick vegetation1 a sort ( grass compos$
 ( h]bace\s ,f]n & m>e's-tail4 ,sev]al  
trees ( =e/-height raise _! heads above 
?is lacu/r9e vegetation4  ,on ! left are
 se5 ! nak$ trunk ( a ,lepidod5dron & a 
,sigill>ia1 an arboresc5t ,f]n ris+     
betwe5 ! two trunks4 ,at ! foot ( ^!    
great trees an h]bace\s ,f]n & a        
,/igm>ia appe>1 ^: long ramification (  
roots1 provid$ ) reproductive spores1   
ext5d to ! wat]4 ,on ! "r is ! nak$     
trunk ( ano!r ,sigill>ia1 a tree ^:     
foliage is altoge!r unkn[n1 a           
,sph5ophyllum1 & a ,conif]4 ,x is       
difficult to describe ) precision !     

species ( ?is la/ family1 ! impressions 
( :i* are1 nev]!less1 v abundant 9 !    
,coal-measures4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4    
#fg4--;,annul>ia orifolia4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4--;,head & neck 
( ,ar*egosaurus m9or4  ,9 front ( ?is   
gr\p we see two trunks brok5 & ov]?r[n4 
,^! are a ,lepidod5dron & ,sigill>ia1   
m+l+ ) a heap ( vegetable dbris 9 c\rse 
( decomposition1 f :i* a ri* humus w be 
=m$1 ^u :i* new g5]ations ( plants w    
soon develop !mselves4 ,"s h]bace\s     
,f]ns & buds ( ,calamites rise out ( !  
wat]s ( ! m>%4  ,a few ,fi%es belong+ to
 ! p]iod swim on ! surface ( ! wat]1 & !
 aquatic reptile ,ar*egosaurus %[s its  
long & po9t$ head--! only "p ( ! animal 
:i* has hi!rto be5 discov]$ 7,fig4 #fh74
 ,a ,/igm>ia ext5ds its roots into !    
wat]1 & ! pretty ,a/]ophyllites1 ) its  
f9ely-cut /ems1 rises above x 9 !       
=egr\nd4  ,a =e/1 compos$ ( ,lepidod5dra
 & ,calamites1 =ms ! backgr\nd to !     
picture4   ,,=mation ,,( ,,b$s ,,(      
,,coal4  ,coal1 z we h said1 is only !  

result ( a p>tial decomposition ( !     
plants :i* cov]$ ! e>? dur+ a geological
 p]iod ( imm5se duration4 ,no "o1 n[1   
has any d\bt t ?is is its orig94 ,9     
coal-m9es x is n unusual to f9d fragm5ts
 ( ! v plants ^: trunks & leaves        
*>act]ise ! ,coal-measures1 or          
,c>bonif]\s era4 ,imm5se trunks ( trees 
h also be5 met ) 9 ! middle ( a seam (  
coal4 ,9 ! coal-m9es ( ,treuil1#dd at   
,/4 ,eti5ne1 = in/ance1 v]tical trunks (
 fossil trees1 resembl+ bamboos or l>ge 
,equiseta1 are n only mix$ ) ! coal1 b  
/& erect1 trav]s+ ! ov]ly+ b$s (        
micace\s s&/one 9 ! mann] repres5t$ 9 ! 
engrav+1 :i* has be5 reproduc$ f a draw+
 by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t 7,fig4 #fi74    
#dd 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4 #dhj4  ,9 
,engl& x is ! same2 entire trees are    
f\nd ly+ across ! coal-b$s4 ,sir ,*>les 
,lyell tells u#de t 9 ,p>kfield         
,colli]y1 ,s\? ,/af=d%ire1 !re 0        
discov]$ 9 #ahed1 ^u a surface ( ab\t a 
qu>t] ( an acre1 a b$ ( coal :i* has    
furni%$ z _m z sev5ty-?ree /umps ( trees

 ) _! roots atta*$1 "s ( ! =m] measur+ m
 ?an eight feet 9 circumf]5ce2 _! roots 
=m$ "p ( a seam ( coal t5 in*es ?ick1   
re/+ on a lay] ( clay two in*es ?ick1 "u
 :i* 0 a second =e/ re/+ on a b& ( coal 
f two to five feet ?ick4 ,und]nea? ?is1 
aga91 0 a ?ird =e/1 ) l>ge /umps (      
,lepidod5dra1 ,calamites1 & o!r         
trees4#df    #de ,ibid1 p4 #dgi4    #df 
,ibid1 p4 #dgi4  ,9 ! l(ty cliffs ( !   
,s\? ,jogg9s1 9 ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 9 ,nova
 ,scotia1 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell f\nd 9 "o  
portion ( ! coal-field #a1ejj feet ?ick1
 z _m z sixty-eight diff]5t surfaces1   
pres5t+ evid5t traces ( z _m old soils (
 =e/s1 :]e ! trunks ( ! trees 7 /ill    
furni%$ ) roots4#dg    #dg ,ibid1 p4    
#dhc4  ,we w endeav\r to e/abli% "h !   
true geological orig9 ( coal1 9 ord] t  
no d\bt may exi/ 9 ! m9ds ( our read]s  
on a subject ( su* importance4 ,9 ord]  
to expla9 ! pres5ce ( coal 9 ! dep?s ( !
 e>?1 !re are only two possible         
hypo!ses4 ,?is vegetable dbris may ei!r 
result f ! bury+ ( plants br\ght f af> &

 transport$ by riv] or m>itime curr5ts1 
=m+ imm5se rafts1 :i* may h gr\nd$ 9    
diff]5t places & be5 cov]$ subsequ5tly  
by s$im5t>y deposits2 or ! trees may h  
gr[n on ! spot :]e !y p]i%$1 & :]e !y   
are n[ f\nd4 ,let u exam9e ea* ( ^!     
!ories4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4            
#fi4--,treuil coal-m9e1 at ,/4 ,eti5ne4 
,c ! coal-b$s result f ! transport by   
wat]1 & burial und]gr\nd1 ( imm5se rafts
 =m$ ( ! trunks ( trees8 ,! hypo!sis has
 aga9/ x ! enorm\s height :i* mu/ be    
conc$$ to ! raft1 9 ord] to =m          
coal-seams z ?ick z "s ( ^? :i* are     
work$ 9 our colli]ies4 ,if we take into 
consid]ation ! specific gravity ( wood1 
& ! am\nt ( c>bon x conta9s1 we f9d t ! 
coal-deposits c only be ab\t            
sev5-hundr$?s ( ! volume ( ! orig9al    
wood & o!r vegetable mat]ials f :i* !y  
are =m$4 ,if we take into acc\nt1       
besides1 ! num]\s voids necess>ily aris+
 f ! loose pack+ ( ! mat]ials =m+ !     
suppos$ raft1 z comp>$ ) ! compactness (
 coal1 ?is may fairly be r$uc$ to       

five-hundr$?s4 ,a b$ ( coal1 = in/ance1 
sixte5 feet ?ick1 w\ld h requir$ a raft 
#caj feet high = its =mation4 ,^!       
accumulations ( wood c\ld nev] h arrang$
 !mselves ) suffici5t regul>ity to =m ^?
 well-/ratifi$ coal-b$s1 ma9ta9+ a uni=m
 ?ickness ov] _m miles1 & t are se5 9   
mo/ coal-fields to lie "o above ano!r 9 
succession1 sep>at$ by b$s ( s&/one or  
%ale4 ,& ev5 admitt+ ! possibility ( a  
sl[ & gradual accumulation ( vegetable  
dbris1 l t :i* rea*es ! m\? ( a riv]1   
w\ld n ! plants 9 t case be buri$ 9     
great quantities ( mud & e>?8 ,n[1 9 mo/
 ( our coal-b$s ! proportion ( e>?y     
matt] does n exce$ fifte5 p] c5t4 ( !   
entire mass4 ,if we be> 9 m9d1 f9ally1 !
 rem>kable p>allelism exi/+ 9 !         
/ratification ( ! coal-=mation1 & ! /ate
 ( pres]vation 9 :i* ! impressions ( !  
mo/ delicate vegetable =ms are discov]$1
 x w1 we ?9k1 be prov$ to demon/ration1 
t ^? coal-seams h be5 =m$ 9 p]fect      
tranquillity4 ,we are1 !n1 =c$ to !     
conclusion t coal results f !           

m9]alisation ( plants :i* has tak5 place
 on ! spot2 t is to say1 9 ! v place :]e
 ! plants liv$ & di$4  ,x 0 sugge/$ long
 ago by ,bakewell1 f ! occurr5ce ( !    
same peculi> k9d ( fireclay "u ea* b$ ( 
coal1 t x 0 ! soil prop] = ! production 
( ^? plants f :i* coal has be5 =m$4#dh  
#dh 8,introduction to ,geology10 by     
,rob]t ,bakewell1 #e? ed41 p4 #agi4     
#ahch4  ,x has1 also1 be5 po9t$ out by  
,sir ,william ,logan1 z ! result ( 8    
obs]vations 9 ! ,s\? ,wales coal-field1 
& aft]w>ds by ,sir ,h5ry ,de la ,be*e1 &
 subsequ5tly confirm$ by ! obs]vations (
 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell 9 ,am]ica1 t n only 
9 ?is c\ntry1 b 9 ! coal-fields ( ,nova 
,scotia1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 c41 e lay] (  
true coal is co-ext5sive ) & inv>iably  
und]laid by a m>k$ /ratum ( ar5ace\s    
clay ( great] or less ?ickness1 :i*1 f  
its position relatively to ! coal has   
be5 long kn[n to coal-m9]s1 among o!r   
t]ms1 by ! "n ( "u-clay4  ,! clay-b$s1  
8:i* v>y 9 ?ickness f a few in*es to m  
?an t5 feet1 are p5etrat$ 9 all         

directions by a confus$ & tangl$        
collection ( ! roots & leaves1 z !y may 
be1 ( ! ,/igm>ia ficoides1 ^! be+       
frequ5tly traceable to ! ma9 /em        
7,sigill>ia71 :i* v>ies 9 diamet] f ab\t
 two in*es to half a foot4 ,! ma9 /ems  
are notic$ z occurr+ ne>] ! top ?an !   
bottom ( ! b$1 z usually ( consid]able  
l5g?1 ! leaves or roots radiat+ f !m 9 a
 tortu\s irregul> c\rse to consid]able  
di/ances1 & z s m+l$ ) ! "u-clay t x is 
n possible to cut out a cubic foot ( x  
:i* does n conta9 portions ( ! plant40  
7,logan 8,on ! ,*>act]s ( ! ,b$s ( ,clay
 imm$iately bel[ ! ,coal-seams ( ,s\?   
,wales10 ,geol4 ,transactions1 ,second  
,s]ies1 vol4 vi41 pp4 #dia-b4 ,an acc\nt
 ( ^! b$s _h previ\sly be5 publi%$ by   
,mr4 ,logan 9 ! ,annual ,report ( !     
,royal ,in/itution ( ,s\? ,wales =      
#ahci47  ,f ! circum/ance ( ! ma9 /em ( 
! ,sigill>ia1 ( :i* ! ,/igm>ia ficoides 
h be5 trac$ to be m]ely a cont9uation1 x
 0 inf]r$ by ! above-m5tion$ au?ors1 &  
has subsequ5tly be5 g5]ally recognis$ z 

probably ! tru?1 t ! roots f\nd 9 !     
und]clay are m]ely ^? ( ! plant         
7,sigill>ia71 ! /em ( :i* is met ) 9 !  
ov]ly+ coal-b$s--9 fact1 t ! ,/igm>ia   
ficoides is only ! root ( ! ,sigill>ia1 
& n a di/9ct plant1 z 0 once suppos$ to 
be ! case4  ,?is be+ grant$1 x is a     
natural inf]5ce to suppose t ! pres5t   
indurat$ "u-clay is only ano!r condition
 ( t s(t1 silty soil1 or ( t f9ely      
levigat$ muddy s$im5t--mo/ likely ( /ill
 & %all[ wat]--9 :i* ! vegetation grew1 
! rema9s ( :i* 7 aft]w>ds c>bonis$ &    
conv]t$ into coal4#di    #di ,= !       
op9ions respect+ ! ,/igm>ia ficoides1   
see a        ,memoir on 8,! ,=mation ( !
 ,rocks 9 ,s\? ,wales &                 
,s\?-,we/]n ,engl&10 by ,sir ,h5ry ,t4  
,de la ,be*e1 ,f4,r4,s41 9        !     
8,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey (     
,great ,brita910 vol4 i41        p4     
#adi4  ,9 ord] ?or\ghly to compreh5d !  
ph5om5a ( ! trans=mation into coal ( !  
=e/s & ( ! h]bace\s plants :i* fill$ !  
m>%es & swamps ( ! anci5t _w1 !re is    

ano!r consid]ation to be pres5t$4 ,dur+ 
! coal-p]iod1 ! t]re/rial cru/ 0        
subject$ to alt]nate movem5ts (         
elevation & depression ( ! int]nal      
liquid mass1 "u ! impulse ( ! sol> &    
lun> attractions to :i* !y w\ld be      
subject1 z our seas are n[1 giv+ rise to
 a sort ( subt]ranean tide1 op]at+ at   
int]vals1 m or less widely ap>t1 ^u !   
weak] p>ts ( ! cru/1 & produc+          
consid]able subsid5ces ( ! gr\nd4 ,x    
might1 p]haps1 happ5 t1 9 consequ5ce ( a
 subsid5ce produc$ 9 su* a mann]1 !     
vegetation ( ! coal-p]iod w\ld be       
subm]g$1 & ! %rubs & plants :i* cov]$ ! 
surface ( ! e>? w\ld f9ally become buri$
 "u wat]4 ,aft] ?is subm]g5ce new =e/s  
sprung up 9 ! same place4 ,ow+ to ano!r 
subm]g5ce1 ! second =e/s 7 depress$ 9 _!
 turn1 & aga9 cov]$ by wat]4 ,x is      
probably by a s]ies ( repetitions ( ?is 
d\ble ph5om5on--?is subm]g5ce ( :ole    
regions ( =e/1 & ! developm5t ^u ! same 
site ( new gr[?s ( vegetation--t !      
enorm\s accumulations ( semi-decompos$  

plants1 :i* con/itute ! ,coal-measures1 
h be5 =m$ 9 a long s]ies ( ages4  ,b1   
has coal be5 produc$ f ! l>g] plants    
only--= example1 f ! great =e/-trees ( !
 p]iod1 su* z ! ,lepidod5dra1 ,sigill>i1
 ,calamites1 & ,sph5ophylla8 ,t is      
sc>cely probable1 = _m coal-deposits    
conta9 no ve/iges ( ! great trees ( !   
p]iod1 b only ( ,f]ns & o!r h]bace\s    
plants ( small size4 ,x is1 !re=e1      
presumable t ! l>g] vegetation has be5  
almo/ unconnect$ ) ! =mation ( coal1 or1
 at lea/1 t x has play$ a m9or "p 9 its 
production4 ,9 all probability !re exi/$
 9 ! coal-p]iod1 z at ! pres5t "t1 two  
di/9ct k9ds ( vegetation3 "o =m$ ( l(ty 
=e/-trees1 gr[+ on ! high] gr\nds2 !    
o!r1 h]bace\s & aquatic plants1 gr[+ on 
m>%y pla9s4 ,x is ! latt] k9d (         
vegetation1 probably1 :i* has mo/ly     
furni%$ ! mat]ial = ! coal2 9 ! same way
 t m>%-plants h1 dur+ hi/oric times & up
 to ! pres5t day1 suppli$ our exi/+     
peat1 :i* may be reg>d$ z a sort (      
contemporane\s incipi5t coal4  ,to :at  

modification has ! vegetation ( ! anci5t
 _w be5 subject$ to atta9 t c>bonis$    
/ate1 :i* con/itutes coal8 ,! subm]g$   
plants w\ld1 at fir/1 be a light1 spongy
 mass1 9 all respects resembl+ !        
peat-moss ( our moors & m>%es4 ,:ile "u 
wat]1 & aft]w>ds1 :5 cov]$ ) s$im5t1 ^! 
vegetable masses und]w5t a p>tial       
decomposition--a moi/1 putrefactive     
f]m5tation1 accompani$ by ! production (
 mu* c>burett$ hydrog5 & c>bonic acid   
gas4 ,9 ?is way1 ! hydrog5 escap+ 9 ! =m
 ( c>burett$ hydrog51 & ! oxyg5 9 ! =m (
 c>bonic acid gas1 ! c>bon became m     
conc5trat$1 & coal 0 ultimately =m$4    
,?is emission ( c>burett$ hydrog5 gas   
w\ld1 probably1 cont9ue aft] ! peat-b$s 
7 buri$ b5ea? ! /rata :i* 7 deposit$ &  
accumulat$ ^u !m4 ,! m]e weight &       
pressure ( ! sup]9cumb5t mass1 cont9u$  
at an increas+ ratio dur+ a long s]ies (
 ages1 h giv5 to ! coal its d5sity &    
compact /ate4  ,! heat emanat+ f !      
int]ior ( ! globe w\ld1 also1 ex]cise a 
great influ5ce ^u ! f9al result4 ,x is  

to ^! two causes--t is to say1 to       
pressure & to ! c5tral heat--t we may   
attribute ! diff]5ces :i* exi/ 9 ! m9]al
 *>act]s ( v>i\s k9ds ( coal4 ,! inf]ior
 b$s are dri] & m compact ?an ! upp]    
ones2 or less bitum9\s1 because _!      
m9]alisation has be5 complet$ "u !      
influ5ce ( a high] temp]ature1 & at !   
same "t "u a great] pressure4  ,an      
exp]im5t1 attempt$ = ! fir/ "t 9 #ahcc1 
at ,sa9-,bel1 aft]w>ds repeat$ by ,m4   
,cagni>d de la ,t\r1 & complet$ at      
,sa9t-,eti5ne by ,m4 ,b>\li] 9 #aheh1   
fully demon/rates ! process by :i* coal 
0 =m$4 ,^! g5tlem5 succe$$ 9 produc+ a v
 compact coal artificially1 by subject+ 
wood & o!r vegetable sub/ances to !     
d\ble influ5ce ( heat & pressure comb9$4
  ,! app>atus employ$ = ?is exp]im5t by 
,m4 ,b>\li]1 at ,sa9t-,eti5ne1 all[$ !  
exposure ( ! /rongly compress$ vegetable
 matt] envelop$ 9 moi/ clay1 to !       
influ5ce ( a long-cont9u$ temp]ature ( f
 #bjj to #cjj ,c5tigrade4 ,?is app>atus1
 )\t be+ absolutely clos$1 (f]$ ob/acles

 to ! escape ( gases or vap\rs 9 su* a  
mann] t ! decomposition ( ! organic     
matt]s took place 9 ! m$ium saturat$ )  
moi/ure1 & "u a pressure :i* prev5t$ !  
escape ( ! elem5ts ( :i* x 0 compos$4   
,by plac+ 9 ^! conditions ! sawdu/ (    
v>i\s k9ds ( wood1 products 7 obta9$ :i*
 resembl$ 9 _m respects1 sometimes      
brilliant %9+ coal1 & at o!rs a dull    
coal4 ,^! diff]5ces1 moreov]1 v>i$ ) !  
conditions ( ! exp]im5t & ! nature ( !  
wood employ$2 ?us expla9+ ! /rip$       
appe>ance ( coal :5 compos$ alt]nately (
 %9+ & dull ve9s4  ,:5 ! /ems & leaves (
 f]ns are compress$ betwe5 b$s ( clay or
 pozzuolana1 !y are decompos$ by !      
pressure only1 & =m on ^! blocks a      
c>bonace\s lay]1 & impressions be>+ a   
close resemblance to ^? :i* blocks (    
coal frequ5tly exhibit4 ,^! la/-m5tion$ 
exp]im5ts1 :i* 7 fir/ made by ,dr4      
,tyndall1 leave no room = d\bt t coal   
has be5 =m$ f ! plants ( ! anci5t _w4   
,pass+ f ^! speculations to !           
,coal-measures3--  ,?is =mation is      

compos$ ( a succession ( b$s1 ( v>i\s   
?icknesses1 consi/+ ( s&/ones or        
grit/ones1 ( clays & %ales1 sometimes s 
bitum9\s z to be inflammable--& pass+1 9
 %ort1 into an imp]fect k9d ( coal4 ,^! 
rocks are int]/ratifi$ ) ea* o!r 9 su* a
 mann] t !y may consi/ ( _m alt]ations4 
,c>bonate ( protoxide ( iron            
7clay-iron/one7 may also be consid]$ a  
con/itu5t ( ?is =mation2 its ext5sive   
dissem9ation 9 connection ) coal 9 "s   
p>ts ( ,great ,brita9 has be5 ( imm5se  
advantage to ! ironworks ( ?is c\ntry1 9
 _m p>ts ( :i* bla/-furnaces = !        
manufacture ( iron rise by hundr$s      
alongside ( ! coal-pits f :i* !y are f$4
 ,9 ,france1 z is frequ5tly ! case 9    
,engl&1 ?is argillace\s iron-ore only   
occurs 9 nodules or l5ticul> masses1 mu*
 int]rupt$2 s t x becomes necess>y 9 t  
c\ntry1 z 9 ?is1 to f9d o!r ores ( iron 
to supply ! wants ( ! f\ndries4 ,fig4   
#gj gives an idea ( ! ord9>y arrangem5t 
( ! coal-b$s1 "o ( :i* is se5           
int]/ratifi$ betwe5 two p>allel & ne>ly 

horizontal b$s ( argillace\s %ale1      
conta9+ nodules ( clay iron-ore--a      
disposition v common 9 ,engli%          
colli]ies4 ,! coal-bas9 ( ,aveyron1 9   
,france1 pres5ts an analog\s mode (     
occurr5ce4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#gj4--,/ratification ( coal-b$s4  ,!    
frequ5t pres5ce ( c>bonate ( iron 9 !   
coal-measures is a mo/ =tunate          
circum/ance = m9+ indu/ry4 ,:5 ! m9]    
f9ds1 9 ! same spot1 ! ore ( iron & !   
fuel requir$ = smelt+ x1 arrangem5ts =  
work+ !m c be e/abli%$ "u ! mo/         
fav\rable conditions4 ,su* is ! case 9 !
 coal-fields ( ,great ,brita91 & also 9 
,france to a less ext5t--t is to say1   
only at ,sa9t-,eti5ne & ,alais4  ,!     
ext5t ( ! ,coal-measures1 9 v>i\s p>ts (
 ! _w1 may be briefly & approximately   
/at$ z foll[s3--  ,,e/imat$ ,,area ,,(  
,,! ,,coal-,,measures ,,( ,,! ,,_w4     
,squ>e ,miles4    ,unit$ ,/ates         
#bbj1aff     #dbj1aff                   
,lignites & inf]ior ,coals    #bjj1jjj  
,briti% ,possessions 9 ,nor? ,am]ica    

#b1bjj   ,great ,brita9                 
#c1jjj   ,france                        
#b1jjj   ,belgium                       
#dfh   ,rh5i% ,prussia & ,sa>brck       
#a1eej   ,we/phalia                     
#djj   ,bohemia                         
#fbj   ,saxony                          
#ff   ,! ,a/urias1 9 ,spa9              
#caj   ,russia                          
#aa1jjj   ,isl&s ( ! ,pacific & ,indian 
,ocean                   ,unkn[n4  ,!   
,am]ican cont95t1 !n1 conta9s mu* m     
ext5sive coal-fields ?an ,europe2 x     
possesses v ne>ly two squ>e miles (     
coal-fields = e five miles ( its        
surface2 b x mu/ be add$ t ^! imm5se    
fields ( coal h n1 hi!rto1 be5          
productive 9 proportion to _! ext5t4 ,! 
foll[+ ,table repres5ts ! annual produce
 ( ! colli]ies ( ,am]ica & ,europe3--   
,tons4    ,briti% ,isl&s        79      
#ahgj7      #aaj1dca1aib   ,unit$ ,/ates
                          #ad1eic1fei   
,belgium                79 #ahgj7       
#ac1fig1aah   ,france                 79

 #ahfd7       #aj1jjj1jjj               
79 #ahff7       #aa1hjg1adb   ,prussia  
79 #ahfd7       #ba1aig1bff   ,nassau   
79 #ahfd7        #b1cde1dei   ,ne!rl&s  
79 #ahfd7           #bd1hae   ,au/ria   
79 #ahfd7        #d1ehi1jad   ,spa9     
#ejj1jjj  ,we ?us see t ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
holds a second>y place z a coal-produc+ 
c\ntry2 rais+ "o-elev5? "p ( ! out-put (
 ! :ole ( ,europe1 & ab\t "o-eigh? "p ( 
! quantity produc$ by ,great ,brita94   
,! ,coal-measures ( ,engl& & ,scotl&    
cov] a l>ge area2 & attempts h be5 made 
to e/imate ! quantity ( fuel !y conta94 
,! e/imate made by ! ,royal ,commission 
on ! coal 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom may be      
consid]$ z ! ne>e/2 &1 9 ?is ,report1   
lately publi%$1 x is /at$ t 9 ! asc]ta9$
 coal-fields ( ! ,unit$ ,k+dom !re is an
 aggregate quantity ( #adf1dhj1jjj1jjj  
tons ( coal1 :i* may be reasonably      
expect$ to be available = use4 ,9 !     
coal-field ( ,s\? ,wales1 asc]ta9$ by   
actual measurem5t to atta9 ! extraord9>y
 ?ickness ( #aa1jjj feet (              

,coal-measures1 !re are #ajj diff]5t    
seams ( coal1 af=d+ an aggregate        
?ickness ( #abj feet1 mo/ly 9 ?9 b$s1 b 
v>y+ f six in*es to m ?an t5 feet4      
,pr(essor ,j4 ,phillips e/imates !      
?ickness ( ! coal-be>+ /rata ( ! nor? ( 
,engl& at #c1jjj feet2 b ^!1 9 common ) 
all o!r coal-fields1 conta91 along ) _m 
b$s ( ! m9]al 9 a m or less pure /ate1  
int]/ratifi$ b$s ( s&/ones1 %ales1 &    
lime/one2 ! real coal-seams1 to ! numb] 
( tw5ty or ?irty1 n exce$+ sixty feet 9 
?ickness 9 ! aggregate4 ,! ,scotti%     
,coal-measures h a ?ickness ( #c1jjj    
feet1 ) simil> int]calations ( o!r      
c>bonif]\s rocks4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4  
#ga4--;,contortions ( ,coal-b$s4        
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4--;,cycas       
circ9alis 7liv+ =m74  ,! coal-bas9 (    
,belgium & ( ! nor? ( ,france =ms a     
ne>ly cont9u\s zone f ,lige1 ,namur1    
,*>l]oi1 & ,mons1 to ,val5ci5nes1 ,d\ai1
 & ,b?une4 ,! b$s ( coal !re are f fifty
 to "o hundr$ & t5 9 numb]1 & _!        
?ickness v>ies f t5 in*es to six feet4  

,"s coal-fields :i* are situat$ b5ea? ! 
,second>y =mations ( ! c5tre & s\? (    
,france possess b$s few] 9 numb]1 b     
individually ?ick] & less regul>ly      
/ratifi$4 ,! two bas9s ( !              
,sane-et-,loire1 ! pr9cipal m9es ( :i*  
are at ,creuzot1 ,blanzy1 ,mont*an91 &  
,ep9ac1 only conta9 t5 b$s2 b "s ( ^! 7z
 at ,mont*an97 atta9 #cj1 #ajj1 & ev5   
#acj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! coal-bas9 ( !  
,loire is t :i* conta9s ! greate/ total 
?ickness ( coal-b$s3 ! seams !re are    
tw5ty-five 9 numb]4 ,aft] ^? ( !        
,nor?--( ! ,sane-et-,loire & ( !        
,loire--! pr9cipal bas9s 9 ,france are  
^? ( ! ,alli]1 :]e v important b$s are  
work$ at ,comm5try & ,bez5et2 ! bas9 (  
,brassac1 :i* comm5ces at ! conflu5ce ( 
! ,alli] & ! ,alagnon2 ! bas9 ( !       
,aveyron1 kn[n by ! colli]ies (         
,decazeville & ,aub92 ! bas9 ( ! ,g>d1 &
 ( ,gr&'-,combe4 ,besides ^! pr9cipal   
bas9s1 !re are a great _m o!rs ( sc>cely
 less importance1 :i* yield annually to 
,france f six to sev5 million tons (    

coal4  ,! seams ( coal are r>ely f\nd 9 
! horizontal position 9 :i* _! orig9al  
=mation took place4 ,!y h be5 s9ce mu*  
crumpl$ & di/ort$1 =c$ into bas9-%ap$   
cavities1 ) m9or undulations1 & affect$ 
by num]\s flexures & o!r di/urbances4   
,!y are frequ5tly f\nd brok5 up &       
di/ort$ by faults1 & ev5 fold$ back on  
!mselves into zigzag =ms1 z repres5t$ 9 
! engrav+ 7,fig4 #ga1 p4 #afg71 :i* is a
 mode ( occurr5ce common 9 all !        
,coal-measures ( ,som]set%ire & 9 !     
bas9s ( ,belgium & ! nor? ( ,france4    
,v]tical pits1 sunk on coal :i* has be5 
subject$ to ?is k9d ( contortion &      
di/urbance1 sometimes trav]se ! same b$s
 _m times4   ,,p]mian ,,p]iod4  ,! "n   
8,p]mian0 0 propos$ by ,sir ,rod]ick ,i4
 ,mur*ison1 9 ! ye> #ahda1 = c]ta9      
deposits :i* are n[ kn[n to t]m9ate     
upw>ds ! great primeval or ,palozoic    
,s]ies4#ej    #ej ,see 8,siluria10 p4   
#ad4 ,philosophical ,mag41 #crd s]ies1  
vol4        xix41 p4 #dai4  ,?is natural
 gr\p consi/s1 9 desc5d+ ord]1 9        

,g]many1 ( ! ,ze*/e91 ! ,kupf]-s*ief]1  
,ro?-lieg5de1 c4 ,9 ,engl& x is usually 
divid$ into ,magnesian ,lime/one or     
,ze*/e91 ) subord9ate ,m>l-slate or     
,kupf]-s*ief]1 & ,ro?lieg5de4 ,! *ief   
calc>e\s memb] ( ?is gr\p ( /rata is    
t]m$ 9 ,g]many ! 8,ze*/e910 9 ,engl& !  
8,magnesian ,lime/one20 b1 z magnesian  
lime/ones h be5 produc$ at _m geological
 p]iods1 & z ! ,g]man ,ze*/e9 is only a 
"p ( a gr\p1 ! o!r memb]s ( :i* are kn[n
 z 8,kupf]-s*ief]0 78copp]-slate071     
8,ro?-todt-lieg5de0 7! 8,l[] ,new ,r$0 (
 ,engli% geologi/s71 c41 x 0 manife/ t a
 s+le "n = ! :ole 0 mu* ne$$4 ,f9d+1 9 8
 exam9ation ( ,russia 9 ,europe1 t ?is  
gr\p 0 a great & unit$ physical s]ies ( 
m>ls1 lime/ones1 s&/ones1 &             
conglom]ates1 occupy+ a region mu* l>g] 
?an ,france1 & ( :i* ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,p]m 
=m$ a c5tral "p1 ,sir ,rod]ick propos$ t
 ! "n ( ,p]mian1 n[ 9 g5]al use1 %\ld be
 !reto appli$4  ,ext5d$ rese>*es h %[n1 
f ! "* ( its emb$d$ organic rema9s1 t x 
is closely alli$ to1 b di/9ct f1 !      

c>bonif]\s /rata bel[ x1 & is entirely  
di/9ct f ! ov]ly+ ,trias1 or ,new ,r$   
,s&/one1 :i* =ms ! base ( ! great s]ies 
( ! ,second>y rocks4  ,geology is1      
h[ev]1 n only indebt$ to ,sir ,rod]ick  
,mur*ison = ?is classification &        
nom5clature1 b also to him1 9           
conjunction ) ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 = ! "n
 8,devonian10 z an equival5t to 8,old   
,r$ ,s&/one20 :il/ e geologi/ kn[s t    
,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison is ! sole au?or ( !  
,,silurian ,,sy/em4  ,illu/ration3      
,,xii4--,ideal l&scape ( ! ,p]mian      
,p]iod4  ,! ,p]mian rocks h ( late ye>s 
assum$ great int]e/1 p>ticul>ly 9       
,engl&1 9 consequ5ce ( ! evid5ce _!     
correct det]m9ation af=ds ) reg>d to !  
probable ext5t1 b5ea? !m1 ( ! coal-be>+ 
/rata :i* !y ov]lie & conceal2 ?us t5d+ 
to ?r[ a light ^u ! duration ( our      
coal-fields1 "o ( ! mo/ important       
que/ions ( ! day 9 connection ) our     
indu/rial res\rces & national prosp]ity4
  ,on ! opposite page an ideal view ( ! 
e>? dur+ ! ,p]mian p]iod is repres5t$   

7,,pl4 ,,xii474 ,9 ! backgr\nd1 on ! "r1
 is se5 a s]ies ( sy5itic & porphyritic 
domes1 rec5tly ?r[n up2 :ile a mass (   
/eam & vap\r rises 9 columns f ! mid/ ( 
! sea1 result+ f ! heat giv5 out by !   
porphyries & sy5ites4 ,hav+ atta9$ a    
c]ta9 height 9 ! cool] atmosph]e1 !     
columns ( /eam become cond5s$ & fall 9  
torr5ts ( ra94 ,! evaporation ( wat] 9  
su* va/ masses be+ necess>ily accompani$
 by an enorm\s dis5gagem5t (            
electricity1 ?is impos+ sc5e ( !        
primitive _w is illum9at$ by brilliant  
fla%es ( lightn+1 accompani$ by         
rev]b]at+ peals ( ?und]4 ,9 ! =egr\nd1  
on ! "r1 rise gr\ps ( ,tree-f]ns1       
,lepidod5dra1 & ,wal*ias1 ( ! prec$+    
p]iod4 ,on ! sea-%ore1 & left expos$ by 
! retir+ tide1 are ,molluscs &          
,zoophytes peculi> to ! p]iod1 su* z    
,producta1 ,spirif]a1 & ,encr9ites2     
pretty plants--! ,a/]ophyllites--:i* we 
h notic$ 9 our description ( !          
,c>bonif]\s age1 are gr[+ at ! wat]'s   
edge1 n f> f ! %ore4  ,dur+ ! ,p]mian   

p]iod ! species ( plants & animals 7    
ne>ly ! same z ^? already describ$ z    
belong+ to ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4         
,footpr9ts ( reptilian animals h be5    
f\nd 9 ! ,p]mian b$s ne> ,k5ilwor?1 9 ! 
r$ s&/ones ( t age 9 ! ,vale ( ,ed51 & 9
 ! s&/ones ( ,corncockle ,moor1 & o!r   
p>ts ( ,dumfries%ire4 ,^! footpr9ts1    
toge!r ) ! occurr5ce ( curr5t-m>k+s or  
rippl+s1 sun-cracks1 & ! pitt+s (       
ra9-drops impress$ on ! surfaces ( !    
b$s1 indicate t !y 7 made ^u damp       
surfaces1 :i* aft]w>ds became dri$ by ! 
sun be=e ! flood$ wat]s cov]$ !m ) fre% 
deposits ( s$im5t1 9 ! way t n[ happ5s  
dur+ v>iations ( ! seasons 9 _m salt    
lakes4#ea ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t has       
describ$ ! =ms ( ! ,p]mian flora z be+  
int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ! ,c>bonif]\s    
p]iod & ( t :i* succe$s x4    #ea ,a4   
,c4 ,ramsay1 8,on ! ,r$ ,rocks (        
,engl&40 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4            
,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #bdf4  ,al?\gh ! 
,p]mian flora indicates a climate simil>
 to t :i* prevail$ dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s   

p]iod1 x has be5 po9t$ out by ,pr(essor 
,ramsay1 z long ago z #ahee1 t ! ,p]mian
 breccia ( ,%rop%ire1 ,worce/]%ire1 c41 
af=ds /rong pro(s ( be+ ! result (      
direct glacial action1 & ( ! consequ5t  
exi/5ce at ! p]iod ( glaci]s & iceb]gs4 
,t su* a /ate ( ?+s is n inconsi/5t ) ! 
preval5ce ( a moi/1 equable1 & temp]ate 
climate1 necess>y = ! pres]vation ( a   
luxuriant flora l t ( ! p]iod 9 "q1 is  
%[n 9 ,new ,zeal&2 :]e1 ) a climate &   
vegetation approximat+ to ^? ( !        
,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 !re are also glaci]s 
at ! pres5t day 9 ! s\!rn isl&4         
,pr(essor ,k+ has publi%$ a valuable    
memoir on ! ,p]mian fossils ( ,engl&1 9 
! ,proce$+s ( ! ,palontographical       
,society1 9 :i* ! foll[+ ,table is giv5 
79 desc5d+ ord]7 ( ! ,p]mian sy/em ( !  
,nor? ( ,engl&1 z comp>$ ) t (          
,?ur+ia3--      ,,nor? ,,( ,,engl&4     
,,?ur+ia4             ,,m9]al ,,"*4     
#a4 ,cry/all9e1 e>?y1      compact1 &   
oolitic       #a4 ,/9k/e9            #a4
 ,oolitic lime/ones4   lime/ones        

#b4 ,brecciat$ & pseudo-  #b4 ,rau*wacke
            #b4 ,conglom]ates4          
brecciat$ lime/ones         #c4         
,fossilif]\s           #c4 ,upp]        
,ze*/e91 or  #c4 ,m>l/ones4   lime/one  
,dolomit-,ze*/e9          #d4 ,compact  
lime/one        #d4 ,l[] ,ze*/e9        
#d4 ,magnesian lime/ones4    #e4        
,m>l-slate              #e4             
,m]gel-,s*ief] or   #e4 ,r$ & gre5 grits
                                        
,kupf]s*ief]          ) copp]-ore4      
#f4 ,:ite lime/one )   #f4 ,l[] s&/ones1
 &   #f4 ,todtelieg5de        gypsum &  
:ite   s&s ( v>i\s col\rs               
salt4  ,at ! base ( ! sy/em lies a b& ( 
l[] s&/one 7,no4 #f7 ( v>i\s col\rs1    
sep>at+ ! ,magnesian ,lime/one f ! coal 
9 ,york%ire & ,durham2 sometimes        
associat$ ) r$ m>l & gypsum1 b ) ! same 
obscure relations 9 all ^! b$s :i*      
usually att5d ! close ( "o s]ies & !    
comm5cem5t ( ano!r2 ! imb$d$ plants be+1
 9 "s cases1 /at$ to be id5tical ) ^? ( 
! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,9 ,?ur+ia !       

,ro?lieg5de1 or r$-ly]1 a great deposit 
( r$ s&/one & conglom]ate1 associat$ )  
porphyry1 basaltic trap1 & amygdaloid1  
lies at ! base ( ! sy/em4 ,among !      
fossils ( ?is age are ! silicifi$ trunks
 ( ,tree-f]ns 7,ps>onius71 ! b>k ( :i*  
is surr\nd$ by d5se masses ( air-roots1 
:i* (t5 d\ble or quadruple ! diamet] ( !
 orig9al /em2 9 ?is respect be>+ a /rong
 resemblance to ! liv+ arboresc5t f]ns (
 ,new ,zeal&4  ,! m>l-slate 7,no4 #e7   
consi/s ( h>d calc>e\s %ales1           
m>l-slates1 & ?9-b$d$ lime/one1 ! :ole  
ne>ly ?irty feet ?ick 9 ,durham1 &      
yield+ _m f9e specim5s ( ,ganoid &      
,placoid fi%es--,paloniscus1 ,pygopt]us1
 ,clacan?us1 & ,platysomus--g5]a :i* all
 belong to ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em1 & :i*   
,pr(essor ,k+ ?9ks probably liv$ at no  
great di/ance f ! %ore2 b ! ,p]mian     
species ( ! m>l-slate ( ,engl& are      
id5tical ) ^? ( ! copp]-slate ( ,?ur+ia4
 ,agassiz 0 ! fir/ to po9t out a        
rem>kable peculi>ity 9 ! =ms ( ! fi%es  
:i* liv$ be=e & aft] ?is p]iod4 ,9 mo/  

liv+ fi%es ! trunk seems to t]m9ate 9 ! 
middle ( ! root ( ! tail1 ^: free m>g9  
is 8homoc]cal0 7ev5-tail71 t is1 ei!r   
r\nd$1 or1 if =k$1 divid$ into two equal
 lobes4 ,9 ,paloniscus1 & mo/ ,palozoic 
fi%es1 ! axis ( ! body is cont9u$ into !
 upp] lobe ( ! tail1 :i* is ?us r5d]$   
unsymmetrical1 z 9 ! liv+ %>ks &        
/urgeons4 ,! latt] =m1 :i* ,agassiz t]m$
 8het]oc]cal0 7unequal-tail7 is only 9 a
 v g5]al way di/9ctive ( ,palozoic      
fi%es1 s9ce ?is asymmetry exi/s1 ?\gh 9 
a m9or degree1 9 _m liv+ g5]a besides ^?
 j m5tion$4 ,! compact lime/one 7,no4   
#d7 is ri* 9 ,polyzoa4 ,! fossilif]\s   
lime/one 7,no4 #c71 ,mr4 ,k+ consid]s1  
is a deep-wat] =mation1 f ! num]\s      
,polyzoa :i* x conta9s4 ,"o ( ^!1       
,f5e/ella reti=mis1 f\nd 9 ! ,p]mian    
rocks ( ,engl& & ,g]many1 sometimes     
measures eight in*es 9 wid?4  ,_m       
species ( ,mollusca1 & especially       
,bra*iopoda1 appe> 9 ! ,p]mian seas (   
?is age1 ,spirif]a & ,producta be+ ! mo/
 *>act]i/ic4  ,o!r %ells n[ occur1 :i* h

 n be5 obs]v$ 9 /rata new] ?an !        
,p]mian4 ,/rophalosia 7,fig4 #gc7 is    
abundantly repres5t$ 9 ! ,p]mian rocks (
 ,g]many1 ,russia1 & ,engl&1 & mu* m    
sp>+ly 9 ! yell[ magnesian lime/one1    
accompani$ by ,spirif]a undulata1 c4 ,s4
 ,s*lo!imii is widely dissem9at$ bo? 9  
,engl&1 ,g]many1 & ,russia1 ) ,l+ula    
,cr$n]i1 & o!r ,palozoic ,bra*iopoda4   
,"h also we note ! fir/ appe>ance ( !   
,oy/]1 b /ill 9 small numb]s4 ,f5e/ella 
repres5ts ! ,polyzoa4 ,s*izodus has be5 
f\nd by ,mr4 ,b9ney 9 ! ,upp] ,r$       
,p]mian ,m>ls ( ,man*e/]2 b no %ells (  
any k9d h hi!rto be5 met ) 9 !          
,ro?lieg5de ( ,lanca%ire1 or 9 ! ,vale (
 ,ed54  ,! brecciat$ lime/one 7,no4 #b7 
& ! concretion>y masses 7,no4 #a7 ov]ly+
 x 7al?\gh ,pr(essor ,k+ has attempt$ to
 sep>ate !m7 are consid]$ by ,pr(essor  
,s$gwick z diff]5t =ms ( ! same rock4   
,!y conta9 no =eign elem5ts1 b seem to  
be compos$ ( fragm5ts ( ! und]ly+       
lime/one1 ,no4 #c4 ,"s ( ! angul> masses
 at ,tynem\? cliff are two feet 9       

diamet]1 & none ( !m are wat]-worn4     
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,/rophalosia  
,morrisiana4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4       
#gd4--;,cyrtoc]as depressum4            
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,wal*ia       
,s*lo!imii4  ,! cry/all9e or            
concretion>y lime/one 7,no4 #a7 =mation 
is se5 ^u ! coa/ ( ,durham & ,york%ire1 
betwe5 ! ,we> & ! ,tees2 & ,mr4 ,k+ ?9ks
 t ! "* ( ! %ells & ! abs5ce ( corals   
indicate a deposit =m$ 9 %all[ wat]4  ,!
 plants also f\nd 9 "s ( ! ,p]mian /rata
 indicate ! neighb\rhood ( l&4 ,^! are  
l& species1 & *iefly ( g5]a common 9 !  
,coal-measures4 ,fragm5ts ( suppos$     
conif]\s wood 7g5]ally silicifi$7 are   
occasionally met ) 9 ! ,p]mian r$ b$s ( 
_m p>ts ( ,engl&4  ,among ! ,f]ns       
*>act]i/ic ( ! p]iod may be m5tion$     
,sph5opt]is di*otoma & ,s4              
,artemisifolia2 ,pecopt]is lon*itica &  
,neuropt]is gigantea1 figur$ on pp4     
#adc1 #add4 8,if we are10 says ,lyell1  
8to draw a l9e betwe5 ! ,second>y &     
,prim>y fossilif]\s /rata1 x mu/ be run 

?r\gh ! middle ( :at 0 once call$ !     
#8,new ,r$4' ,! inf]ior half ( ?is gr\p 
w rank z ,prim>y or ,palozoic1 :ile its 
upp] memb] w =m ! base ( ! ,second>y or 
,mesozoic s]ies40#eb ,among ! ,equiseta 
( ! ,p]mian =mation ( ,saxony1 ,colonel 
,von ,gutbi] f\nd ,calamites gigas &    
sixty species ( fossil plants1 mo/ ( !m 
,f]ns1 =ty ( :i* h n be5 f\nd else:]e4  
,among ^! are sev]al species ( ,wal*ia1 
a g5us ( ,conif]s1 ( :i* an example is  
giv5 9 ,fig4 #ge4    #eb 8,elem5ts (    
,geology10 p4 #def4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #gf4--,trigonoc>pum ,ngg]a?ii4  ,9 _!  
/ems1 leaves1 & cones1 !y be> "s        
resemblance to ! ,arauc>ias1 :i* h be5  
introduc$ f ,nor? ,am]ica into our      
pleasure-gr\nds dur+ ! la/ half-c5tury4 
,among ! g5]a enum]at$ by ,colonel ,von 
,gutbi] are "s fruits call$ ,c>dioc>pon1
 & ,a/]ophyllites & ,annul>ia1 s        
*>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>bonif]\s age4 ,!      
,lepidod5dron is also common to !       
,p]mian rocks ( ,saxony1 ,russia1 &     
,?ur+ia2 also ! ,ngg]a?ia1 a family (   

l>ge trees1 int]m$iate betwe5 ,cycads   
7,fig4 #gb7 & ! ,conif]s4 ,! fruit ( "o 
( ^! is repres5t$ 9 ,fig #gf4  ,,p]mian 
,,rocks4--,we n[ give a sket* ( !       
physiognomy ( ! e>? 9 ,p]mian times4 ,( 
:at d ! b$s consi/8 ,:at is ! ext5t1 &  
:at is ! m9]alogical con/itution ( !    
rocks deposit$ 9 ! seas ( ! p]iod8 ,!   
,p]mian =mation consi/s ( ?ree memb]s1  
:i* are 9 desc5d+ ord]--  #a4 ,upp]     
,p]mian s&/one1 or ,grs des ,vosges2 #b4
 ,magnesian ,lime/one1 or ,ze*/e92 #c4  
,l[] ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,m>l-slate or         
,kupf]s*ief]1 & ,ro?lieg5de4  ,! grs des
 ,vosges1 usually ( a r$ col\r1 & f #cjj
 to #dej feet ?ick1 composes all ! s\!rn
 "p ( ! ,vosges ,m\nta9s1 :]e x =ms     
frequ5t level summits1 :i* are evid5ces 
( an anci5t pla9 t has be5 act$ on by   
runn+ wat]4 ,x only conta9s a few       
vegetable rema9s4  ,! ,magnesian        
,lime/one1 ,pi]re de m9e1 or ,ze*/e91 s 
call$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! num]\s           
metallif]\s deposits met ) 9 its div]se 
b$s1 pres5ts 9 ,france only a few       

insignificant fragm5ts2 b 9 ,g]many &   
,engl& x atta9s ! ?ickness ( #dej feet4 
,x is compos$ ( a div]sifi$ mass (      
,magnesian ,lime/one1 g5]ally ( a yell[ 
col\r1 b sometimes r$ & br[n1 & bitum9\s
 clay1 ! la/ black & fetid4 ,!          
subord9ate rocks consi/ ( m>l1 gypsum1 &
 inflammable bitum9\s s*i/s4 ,! b$s (   
m>l slate are rem>kable = ! numb]s (    
peculi> fossil fi%es :i* !y conta92 & f 
! occurr5ce ( small proportions (       
arg5tif]\s grey copp]-ore1 met ) 9 !    
bitum9\s %ales :i* are work$ 9 ! di/rict
 ( ,mansfeld1 9 ,?ur+ia--! latt] are    
call$ ,kupf]s*ief] 9 ,g]many4  ,! ,l[]  
,r$ ,s&/one1 :i* atta9s a ?ickness ( f  
#cjj to #fjj feet1 is f\nd ov] great "p 
( ,g]many1 9 ! ,vosges1 & 9 ,engl&4 ,its
 fossil rema9s are few & r>e2 !y include
 silicifi$ trunks ( ,conif]s1 "s        
impressions ( ,f]ns1 & ,calamites4  ,9  
,engl& ! ,p]mian /rata1 to a great      
ext5t1 consi/ ( r$ s&/ones & m>ls2 & !  
,magnesian ,lime/one ( ! nor!rn c\nties 
is also1 ?\gh to a less degree1         

associat$ ) r$ m>ls4  ,9 ,lanca%ire ?9  
b$s ( ,magnesian ,lime/one are          
int]/ratifi$ ) r$ m>ls 9 ! upp] ,p]mian 
/rata1 b5ea? :i* !re are s(t ,r$        
,s&/ones1 e/imat$ by ,mr4 ,hull to be   
ab\t #a1ejj feet ?ick4 ,^! are suppos$  
to repres5t ! ,ro?lieg5de1 & no %ells ( 
any k9d h be5 f\nd 9 !m4 ,! upp] ,p]mian
 b$s1 h[ev]1 conta9 a few ,magnesian    
,lime/one species1 su* z ,g]villia      
antiqua1 ,pleurophorus co/atus1         
,s*izodus obscurus1 & "s o!rs1 b all    
small & dw>f$4  ,! coal-fields ( ,nor? &
 ,s\? ,/af=d%ire1 ,tamwor?1 ,coalbrook  
,dale1 & ( ! ,=e/ ( ,wyre1 are p>tly    
bord]$ by ,p]mian rocks1 :i* lie        
uncon=mably on ! ,coal-measures2 z is ! 
case1 also1 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( 
,man*e/]1 :]e !y skirt ! bord]s ( ! ma9 
coal-field1 & consi/ ( ! ,l[] ,r$       
,s&/one1 re/+ uncon=mably on diff]5t    
p>ts ( ! ,coal-measures1 & ov]laid by ! 
pebble-b$s ( ! ,trias4  ,at ,/ockport ! 
,p]mian /rata are /at$ by ,mr4 ,hull to 
be m ?an #a1ejj feet ?ick4  ,9          

,york%ire1 ,nott+ham%ire1 & ,d]by%ire1 !
 ,p]mian /rata are /at$ by ,mr4 ,avel9e 
to be divid$ into two *ief gr\ps3 !     
,ro?-lieg5de1 ( no great ?ickness1 & !  
,magnesian ,lime/one s]ies2 ! latt] be+ 
! l>ge/ & mo/ important memb] ( !       
,p]mian s]ies 9 ! nor!rn c\nties (      
,engl&4 ,! ,magnesian ,lime/one consi/s 
!re ( two great b&s1 sep>at$ by m>ls &  
s&/one1 & qu>ri$ = build+ & = lime4 ,9  
,d]by%ire & ,york%ire ! magnesian       
lime/one1 "u ! "n ( ,dolomite1 =ms an   
excell5t build+-/one1 :i* has be5 us$ 9 
! con/ruction ( ! ,h\ses ( ,p>liam5t4   
,9 ! midl& c\nties & on ! bord]s (      
,wales1 ! ,p]mian section is diff]5t f t
 ( ,nott+ham%ire & ! ,nor? ( ,engl&4 ,! 
,magnesian ,lime/ones are abs5t1 & !    
rocks consi/ pr9cipally ( d>k-r$ m>l1   
br[n & r$ s&/ones1 & calc>e\s           
conglom]ates & breccias1 :i* are almo/  
entirely unfossilif]\s4 ,9 ,w>wick%ire1 
:]e !y re/ con=mably on !               
,coal-measures1 !y occupy a v           
consid]able tract ( c\ntry1 & are ( v   

great ?ickness1 be+ e/imat$ by ,mr4     
,h[ell to be #b1jjj feet ?ick4  ,9 ! ea/
 ( ,engl& ! ,magnesian ,lime/one conta9s
 a num]\s m>9e fauna1 b mu* re/rict$ :5 
comp>$ ) t ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,!    
%ells ( ! =m] are all small & dw>f$ 9   
size :5 comp>$ ) _! cong5]s (           
,c>bonif]\s times1 :5 su* !re are1 & 9  
?is respect1 & ! small numb] ( g5]a1 !y 
resemble ! liv+ mollusca ( ! /ill less  
num]\s fauna ( ! ,caspian ,sea4         
,besides ! pov]ty & small size ( !      
mollusca1 ! lat] /rata ( ! true         
,magnesian ,lime/one seem to af=d /rong 
indications t !y may h be5 deposit$ 9 a 
great inl& salt-lake subject to         
evaporation4  ,! abs5ce ( fossils 9 mu* 
( ! =mation may be p>tly acc\nt$ = by   
its deposition 9 great measure f        
solution1 & ! uncong5ial nature ( !     
wat]s ( a salt-lake may acc\nt = !      
pov]ty-/rick5 "* ( ! :ole molluscan     
fauna4  ,! r$ col\r+-matt] ( ! ,p]mian  
s&/ones & m>ls is consid]$1 by ,pr(essor
 ,ramsay1 to be due to c>bonate ( iron  

introduc$ into ! wat]s1 & aft]w>ds      
precipitat$ z p]oxide ?r\gh ! oxidis+   
action ( ! air & ! escape ( ! c>bonic   
acid :i* held x 9 solution4 ,?is        
circum/ance ( ! r$ col\r ( ! ,p]mian b$s
 af=ds an indication t ! r$ ,p]mian     
/rata 7 deposit$ 9 inl& wat]s unconnect$
 ) ! ma9 ocean1 :i* wat]s may h be5 salt
 or fre% z ! case may be4  8,!          
,magnesian ,lime/one s]ies ( ! ea/ (    
,engl& may1 possibly1 h be5 connect$    
directly ) an op5 sea at ! comm5cem5t ( 
! deposition ( ^! /rata1 :atev] its     
subsequ5t hi/ory may h be52 = ! fi% ( ! 
m>l /rata h g5]ically /rong aff9ities ) 
^? ( ,c>bonif]\s age1 "s ( :i* 7 truly  
m>9e1 :ile o!rs c]ta9ly p5etrat$ %all[  
lagoons bord]$ by peaty flats40#ec      
#ec 8,on ! ,r$ ,rocks ( ,engl&10 by ,a4 
,c4 ,ramsay4 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4        ,geol4 
,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #bdf4  ,!re is   
indisputable evid5ce t ! ,p]mian ocean  
cov]$ an imm5se area ( ! globe4 ,9 !    
,p]mian p]iod ?is ocean ext5d$ f ,irel& 
to ! ,ural m\nta9s1 & probably to       

,spitzb]g51 ) its nor!rn b\nd>y def9$ by
 ! ,c>bonif]\s1 ,devonian1 ,silurian1 & 
,igne\s regions ( ,scotl&1 ,sc&9avia1 & 
,nor!rn ,russia2 & its s\!rn b\nd>ies   
app>5tly /ret*+ f> into ! s\? ( ,europe 
7,k+74 ,! *a9 ( ! ,vosges1 /ret*+ across
 ,rh5i% ,bav>ia1 ! ,gr& ,du*y ( ,bad51 z
 f> z ,saxony & ,silesia1 w\ld be "u    
wat]4 ,!y w\ld communicate ) ! ocean1   
:i* cov]$ all ! midl& & we/]n c\nties ( 
,engl& & "p ( ,russia4 ,9 o!r p>ts (    
,europe ! cont95t has v>i$ v little s9ce
 ! prec$+ ,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s ages4 
,9 ,france ! c5tral plateaux w\ld =m a  
great isl&1 :i* ext5d$ t[>ds ! s\?1     
probably z f> z ! foot ( ! ,pyr5ees2    
ano!r isl& w\ld consi/ ( ! mass (       
,brittany4 ,9 ,russia ! cont95t w\ld h  
ext5d$ itself consid]ably t[>ds ! ea/2  
f9ally1 x is probable t1 at ! end ( !   
,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 ! ,belgian cont95t   
w\ld /ret* f ! ,dep>tm5ts ( !           
,pas-de-,calais & ,du ,nord1 9 ,france1 
& w\ld ext5d up to & beyond ! ,rh9e4  ,9
 ,engl&1 ! ,silurian ar*ipelago1 n[     

fill$ up & occupi$ by deposits ( !      
,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s sy/ems1 w\ld be 
cov]$ ) c>bonif]\s vegetation2 dry l&   
w\ld n[ ext5d1 almo/ )\t int]ruption1 f 
,cape ,wra? to ! ,l&'s ,end2 b1 on its  
ea/]n %ore1 ! great mass ( ! region n[  
ly+ less ?an ?ree degrees we/ ( ,gre5wi*
 w\ld1 9 a g5]al s5se1 be "u wat]1 or =m
 isl&s ris+ out ( ! sea4 ,alphonse      
,esquiros ?us eloqu5tly closes ! *apt] (
 8 "w 9 :i* he treats ( ?is =mation 9   
,engl&3 8,we h se5 seas1 va/ wat]y      
des]ts1 become populat$2 we h se5 ! bir?
 ( ! fir/ l& & its increase2 ages       
succe$+ ea* o!r1 & ,nature 9 its        
progress advanc+ among ru9s2 ! anci5t   
inhabitants ( ! sea1 or at lea/ _!      
spoils1 h be5 rais$ to ! summit ( l(ty  
m\nta9s4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ^! va/ cemet]ies ( 
! primitive _w we h met ) ! rema9s (    
millions ( be+s2 entire species         
sacrific$ to ! developm5t ( life4 ,"h   
t]m9ates ! fir/ mass ( facts con/itut+ !
 infancy ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,b great   
*anges are /ill to produce !mselves on  

?is portion ( ! e>?'s surface40  ,hav+  
?us describ$ ! ,prim>y ,epo*1 x may be  
useful1 be=e ent]+ on :at is t]m$ by    
geologi/s ! ,second>y ,epo*1 to glance  
backw>ds at ! facts :i* we h _h "u      
consid]ation4  ,9 ?is ,prim>y p]iod     
plants & animals appe> = ! fir/ "t ^u ! 
surface ( ! cool+ globe4 ,we h said t ! 
seas ( ! epo* 7 !n dom9at$ by ! fi%es   
kn[n z ,ganoids 7f 1 glitt]71 f !       
brilliant poli% ( ! enamell$ scales :i* 
cov]$ _! bodies1 sometimes 9 a v        
complicat$ & fanta/ic mann]2 !          
,trilobites are curi\s ,cru/aceans1 :i* 
appe> & altoge!r disappe> 9 ! ,prim>y   
epo*2 an imm5se quantity ( ,mollusca1   
,cephalopoda1 & ,bra*iopoda2 !          
,encr9ites1 animals ( curi\s            
organisation1 :i* =m "s ( ! mo/ graceful
 ornam5ts ( our ,palontological         
collections4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4       
#gg4--,li?o/rotion4 7,fossil ,coral47   
,b1 among all ^! be+s1 ^? :i*           
prevail$--^? :i* 7 truly ! k+s ( !      
organic _w--7 ! ,fi%es1 &1 above all1 ! 

,ganoids1 :i* h left no animat$ be+     
beh9d !m ( simil> organisation4 ,furni%$
 ) a sort ( def5sive arm\r1 !y seem to h
 receiv$ f ,nature ?is means (          
protection to ensure _! exi/5ce1 & p]mit
 !m to triumph ov] all ! influ5ces :i*  
?reat5$ !m ) de/ruction 9 ! seas ( !    
anci5t _w4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#gh4--,rhyn*olites1 upp]1 side1 &       
int]nal views4 #a1 ,side view           
7,mus*elkalk ( ,luneville72 #b1 ,upp]   
view 7same locality72 #c1 ,upp] view    
7,lias ( ,lyme ,regis72 #d1 ,calc>e\s   
po9t ( an "u m&ible1 int]nal view1 f    
,luneville4 7,buckl&47  ,9 ! ,prim>y    
epo* ! liv+ creation 0 9 its infancy4   
,no ,mammals !n roam$ ! =e/s2 no bird _h
 yet display$ its w+s4 ,)\t ,mammals1   
!re=e1 !re 0 no mat]nal in/9ct2 none ( !
 s(t affections :i* are1 ) animals1 z x 
71 ! precursors ( intellig5ce4 ,)\t     
birds1 also1 !re c\ld be no songs 9 !   
air4 ,fi%es1 ,mollusca1 & ,cru/acea     
sil5tly pl\gh$ _! way 9 ! dep?s ( ! sea1
 & ! immovable ,cr9oid liv$ !re4 ,on !  

l& we only f9d a few m>%-frequ5t+       
,reptiles1 ( small size--=]unn]s ( ^?   
mon/r\s ,saurians :i* make _! appe>ance 
9 ! ,second>y epo*4  ,! vegetation ( !  
,prim>y epo* is *iefly ( inf]ior        
organisation4 ,) a few plants ( a high] 
ord]1 t is to say1 ,dicotyl$ons1        
,calamites1 ,sigill>ias1 x 0 !          
,cryptogamia 7also sev]al species (     
,f]ns1 ! ,lepidod5dra1 ,lycopodiace1 & !
 ,equisetace1 & "s d\btfully alli$ =ms1 
t]m$ ,ngg]a?ia71 !n at _! maximum (     
developm5t1 :i* =m$ ! great mass ( !    
vegetation4  ,let u also consid]1 9 ?is 
%ort analysis1 t dur+ ! epo* "u         
consid]ation1 :at we call climate may n 
h exi/$4 ,! same animals & ! same plants
 !n liv$ 9 ! pol> regions z at !        
equator4 ,s9ce we f9d1 9 ! ,prim>y      
=mations ( ! icy regions ( ,spitzb]g5 & 
,melville ,isl&s1 ne>ly ! same fossils  
:i* we meet ) 9 ^! same rocks 9 ! torrid
 zone1 we mu/ conclude t ! temp]ature at
 ?is epo* 0 uni=m all ov] ! globe1 & t !
 heat ( ! e>? itself 0 suffici5tly high 

to r5d] inappreciable ! calorific       
influ5ce ( ! sun4  ,dur+ ?is same p]iod 
! progressive cool+ ( ! e>? occasion$   
frequ5t ruptures & dislocations ( !     
gr\nd2 ! t]re/rial cru/1 9 op5+1 af=d$ a
 passage = ! rocks call$ igne\s1 su* z  
granite1 aft]w>ds to ! porphyries &     
sy5ites1 :i* p\r$ sl[ly ?r\gh ^! imm5se 
fissures1 & =m$ m\nta9s ( granite &     
porphyry1 or simple clefts1 :i*         
subsequ5tly became fill$ ) oxides &     
metallic sulphides1 =m+ :at are n[      
designat$ metallic ve9s4 ,! great       
m\nta9-range ( ,b5 ,nevis (f]s a /rik+  
example ( ! fir/ ( ^! ph5om5a2 ?r\gh !  
granite base a di/9ct natural section c 
be trac$ ( porphyry eject$ ?r\gh !      
granite1 & ( sy5ite ?r\gh ! porphyry4   
,^! geological commotions 7:i*          
occasion$1 n ov] ! :ole ext5t ( ! e>?1 b
 only 9 c]ta9 places1 great movem5ts ( !
 surface7 w\ld appe> to h be5 m frequ5t 
at ! close ( ! ,prim>y epo*2 dur+ !     
int]val :i* =ms ! passage betwe5 !      
,prim>y & ,second>y epo*s2 t is to say1 

betwe5 ! ,p]mian & ! ,triassic p]iods4  
,! ph5om5a ( eruptions1 & ! "* ( ! rocks
 call$ eruptive1 are treat$ ( 9 a =m]   
*apt]4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 a1     
,p5tacr9ites ,bri>eus1 r$uc$2 b1 ! same 
f ! ,lias ( ,lyme ,regis2 natural size4 
,! convulsions & di/urbances by :i* !   
surface ( ! e>? 0 agitat$ did n ext5d1  
let x be not$1 ov] ! :ole ( its         
circumf]5ce2 ! effects 7 p>tial & local4
 ,x w\ld1 !n1 be wrong to affirm1 z is  
ass]t$ by _m mod]n geologi/s1 t !       
dislocations ( ! cru/ & ! agitations ( !
 surface ( ! globe ext5d$ to bo?        
hemisph]es1 result+ 9 ! de/ruction ( all
 liv+ creatures4 ,! ,fauna & ,flora ( ! 
,p]mian p]iod did n diff] ess5tially f !
 ,fauna & ,flora ( ! ,coal-measures1 :i*
 %[s t no g5]al revolution occurr$ to   
di/urb ! entire globe betwe5 ^! two     
epo*s4 ,"h1 !n1 z 9 all analog\s cases1 
x is unnecess>y to recur to any g5]al   
cataclysm to expla9 ! passage f "o epo* 
to ano!r4 ,h we n1 almo/ 9 our our own  
day1 se5 c]ta9 species ( animals die out

 & disappe>1 )\t ! lea/ geological      
revolution8 ,)\t speak+ ( ! ,beav]1 :i* 
ab\nd$ two c5turies ago on ! banks ( !  
,rhne1 & 9 ! ,cv5nes1 :i* /ill liv$ at  
,p>is 9 ! little riv] ,bivre 9 ! middle 
ages1 its exi/5ce be+ n[ unkn[n 9 ^!    
latitudes1 al?\gh x is /ill f\nd 9      
,am]ica & o!r c\ntries1 we c\ld cite _m 
examples ( animals :i* h become ext9ct 9
 times by no means remote f our own4    
,su* are ! ,d9ornis & ! ,epyornis1      
colossal birds ( ,new ,zeal& &          
,madagasc>1 & ! ,dodo1 :i* liv$ 9 !     
,isle ( ,france 9 #afbf4 ,ursus spelu1  
,c]vus ,megac]os1 ,bos primig5ius1 are  
species ( ,be>1 ,de]1 & ,ox :i* 7       
contempor>y ) man1 b h n[ become ext9ct4
 ,9 ,france we no long] "k ! gigantic   
wood-/ag1 figur$ by ! ,romans on _!     
monum5ts1 & :i* !y _h br\ght f ,engl& = 
! f9e quality ( its fle%4 ,! ,eryman!an 
bo>1 s widely disp]s$ dur+ ! anci5t     
hi/orical p]iod1 no long] exi/s among   
our liv+ races1 any m ?an ! ,crocodiles 
lacunosus & lac9iatus f\nd by ,ge(froy  

,/4-,hilaire 9 ! catacombs ( anci5t     
,egypt4 ,_m races ( animals figur$ 9 !  
mosaics ( ,pale/r9a1 engrav$ & pa9t$    
along ) species n[ actually exi/+1 are  
no long] f\nd liv+ 9 our days any m ?an 
are ! ,lions ) curly manes1 :i* =m]ly   
exi/$ 9 ,syria1 & p]haps ev5 9 ,!ssaly &
 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,greece4 ,f :at happ5s 
9 our own "t1 we may inf] :at has tak5  
place 9 times antec$5t to ! appe>ance ( 
man2 & ! idea ( successive cataclysms ( 
! globe1 mu/ be re/ra9$ )9 b\nds4 ,mu/  
we imag9e a s]ies ( geological          
revolutions to acc\nt = ! disappe>ance (
 animals :i* h evid5tly become ext9ct 9 
a natural way8 ,:at has come to pass 9  
our days1 x is reasonable to conclude1  
may h tak5 place 9 ! times ant]ior to ! 
appe>ance ( man4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#hj4--,t]ebell>ia ramosissima4 7,rec5t  
,coral47     ,,second>y ,,epo*4   ,dur+ 
! ,prim>y ,epo* our globe w\ld appe> to 
h be5 *iefly appropriat$ to be+s :i*    
liv$ 9 ! wat]s--above all1 to !         
,cru/aceans & ,fi%es2 dur+ ! ,second>y  

,epo* ,reptiles seem to h be5 its       
prevail+ inhabitants4 ,animals ( ?is    
class assum$ a/oni%+ dim5sions1 & w\ld  
seem to h multipli$ 9 a mo/ s+ul> mann]2
 !y 71 app>5tly1 ! k+s ( ! e>?4 ,at !   
same "t1 h[ev]1 t ! animal k+dom ?us    
develop$ itself1 ! vegetation lo/ mu* ( 
its importance4  ,geologi/s h agre$     
among !mselves to divide ! ,second>y    
epo* into ?ree p]iods3 #a1 ! ,cretace\s2
 #b1 ! ,jurassic2 #c1 ! ,triassic--a    
division :i* x is conv5i5t to adopt4    
,,! ,,triassic1 ,,or ,,new ,,r$ ,,p]iod4
  ,?is p]iod has receiv$ ! "n (         
,triassic because ! rocks ( :i* x is    
compos$1 :i* are m fully develop$ 9     
,g]many ?an ei!r 9 ,engl& or ,france1 7 
call$ ! ,trias 7or ,triple ,gr\p71 by   
,g]man writ]s1 f its division into ?ree 
gr\ps1 z foll[s1 9 desc5d+ ord]3--      
,,engl&4                  ,,france4     
,,g]many4    ,salif]\s & gypse\s  ,m>nes
 irises            ,keup]4 #a1jjj feet4 
%ales & s&/one        ,want+            
,mus*elkalk or ,calcaire  ,mus*elkalk4  

#fjj feet4                              
coquilli]                  ,s&/one &    
qu>tzose  ,grs big>r                    
,bunt]-,s&/e94   conglom]ate            
#a1ejj ft4  ,! foll[+ has be5 %[n by    
,mr4 ,ed4 ,hull to be ! g5]al succession
 ( ! ,triassic =mation 9 ! midl& &      
nor?-we/]n c\nties ( ,engl&1 :]e x      
atta9s its greate/ v]tical developm5t1  
?9n+ away 9 ! direction ( ! m\? ( !     
,?ames3--                               
,=eign ,equival5ts4                     
--------------------     _/ ,,new ,,r$  
,,m>l4   ,r$ & grey %ales &     ,keup]4 
,m>nes                      m>ls1       
sometimes micace\s1              irises4
                      ) b$s ( rock-salt 
& gypsum1 conta9+                       
,e/h]ia & ,=a-                          
m9if]a 7,*ella/on74           ,,l[]     
,,keup]    ,?9ly-lam9at$ mica-          
,lett5      ,,s&/one4      ce\s s&/ones 
&        ,kohle 787          ,t         
m>ls 7wat]/ones72   ,r                  
pass+ d[nw>ds into   ,i                 

:ite1 br[n1 or r$di%   ,a               
s&/one1 ) a   ,s                  base (
 calc>e\s con-   ,s                     
glom]ate or breccia4   ,i    ,c  ,want+ 
9      444                              
,mus*elkalk4 ,calcaire      ,engl&4     
coquilli]4   ,s    ,e  ,,upp] ,,mottl$  
,s(t1 bright-r$ &        ,r  ,,s&/one4  
v>iegat$ s&/one        ,i               
7)\t pebbles74          ,e              
,s  ,,pebble ,,b$s4    ,h>d] r$di%-br[n 
,bunt]       ,grs big>r1   4            
s&/ones ) qu>tz-    ,s&/e94   or ,grs   
des                      ose pebbles1   
pass+                    ,vosges 79     
into conglom]ate2                       
"p74                      ) a base (    
calca-                          re\s    
breccia4                                
,,l[] ,,mottl$   ,s(t bright-r$ &       
,,s&/one4      v>iegat$ s&/one          
7)\t pebbles74       _/    ,p _/ ,,upp] 
,,p]mian4  ,r$ m>ls1 ) ?9-              
,ze*/e94   ,e                  b$d$     
fossilif]\s   ,r                        

lime/ones 7,man*e/]74   ,m    ,i        
_/ ,r$ & v>iegat$ s&-    ,a             
/one 7,collyhur/1 ,man-     ,n          
*e/]7 repres5t$ by                      
4444                      ,s            
,e  ,,l[]          ,r$di%-br[n & purple 
,ro!-todte- ,grs des   ,r               
s&/ones &             lieg5de4          
,vosges 79   ,i                 m>ls1 ) 
calc>e\s                  "p74   ,e     
conglom]ates &           ,s             
trappoid breccia4           4           
7,c5tral c\nties74      _/   ,,new ,,r$ 
,,s&/one4  ,9 ?is new phase ( !         
revolutions ( ! globe1 ! animat$ be+s on
 its surface diff] mu* f ^? :i* belong$ 
to ! ,prim>y epo*4 ,! curi\s ,cru/aceans
 :i* we h describ$ "u ! "n ( ,trilobites
 h disappe>$2 ! mollusc\s ,cephalopods &
 ,bra*iopods are "h few 9 numb]1 z are !
 ,ganoid & ,placoid ,fi%es1 ^: exi/5ce  
also seems to h t]m9at$ dur+ ?is p]iod1 
& vegetation has und]gone analog\s      
*anges4 ,! cryptogamic plants1 :i* rea*$
 _! maximum 9 ! ,prim>y epo*1 become n[ 

less num]\s1 :ile ! ,conif]s exp]i5c$ a 
c]ta9 ext5sion4 ,"s k9ds ( t]re/rial    
animals h disappe>$1 b !y are replac$ by
 g5]a z num]\s z new4 ,= ! fir/ "t !    
,turtle appe>s 9 ! bosom ( ! sea1 & on !
 bord]s ( lakes4 ,! ,saurian reptiles   
acquire a great developm5t2 !y prep>e ! 
way = ^? enorm\s ,saurians1 :i* appe> 9 
! foll[+ p]iod1 ^: skeletons pres5t su* 
va/ proportions1 & su* a /range aspect1 
z to /rike ) a/oni%m5t all :o           
contemplate _! gigantic1 &1 s to speak1 
awe-inspir+ rema9s4  ,! ,v>iegat$       
,s&/one1 or ,bunt]1 conta9s _m          
vegetable1 b few animal1 rema9s1 al?\gh 
we con/antly f9d impr9ts ( ! foot/eps ( 
! ,labyr9?odon4  ,! l[e/ ,bunt] =mation 
%[s itself 9 ,france1 9 ! ,pyr5ees1     
ar\nd ! c5tral plateau 9 ! ,v>1 & ^u bo?
 flanks ( ! ,vosges m\nta9s4 ,x is      
repres5t$ 9 s\?-we/]n & c5tral ,g]many1 
9 ,belgium1 9 ,switz]l&1 9 ,s>d9ia1 9   
,spa91 9 ,pol&1 9 ! ,tyrol1 9 ,bohemia1 
9 ,moravia1 & 9 ,russia4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny
 /ates1 f 8 own obs]vation1 t x cov]s   

va/ surfaces 9 ! m\nta9\s regions (     
,bolivia1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,x is         
recognis$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9          
,columbia1 9 ! ,great ,antilles1 & 9    
,mexico4  ,! ,bunt] 9 ,france is r$uc$  
to ! v>iegat$ s&/one1 except ar\nd !    
,vosges1 9 ! ,v>1 & ! ,black ,=e/1 :]e x
 is accompani$ by ! ,mus*elkalk4 ,9     
,g]many x furni%es build+-/one (        
excell5t quality2 _m great edifices1 9  
p>ticul> ! ca!drals1 s mu* admir$ on !  
,rh9e--su*1 = example1 z ^? ( ,/rasb\rg 
& ,frib\rg--are con/ruct$ ( ?is /one1 ! 
sombre t9ts ( :i* s+ul>ly relieve !     
gr&eur & maje/y ( ! ,go?ic ar*itecture4 
,:ole cities 9 ,g]many are built ( !    
br[ni%-r$ /ones drawn f its mottl$      
s&/one qu>ries4 ,9 ,engl&1 9 ,scotl&1 & 
9 ,irel& ?is =mation ext5ds f nor? to   
s\? ?r\gh ! :ole l5g? ( ! c\ntry4 8,?is 
old l&10 says ,pr(essor ,ramsay1#ed     
8consi/$ 9 great "p ( :at we n[ "k z    
,wales1 & ! adjac5t c\nties ( ,h]e=d1   
,monm\?1 & ,%rop%ire2 ( "p ( ,devon &   
,cornwall1 ,cumb]l&1 ! ,p5n9e *a91 & all

 ! m\nta9\s p>ts ( ,scotl&4 ,ar\nd old  
,wales1 & "p ( ,cumb]l&1 & probably all 
r\nd & ov] great "p ( ,devon &          
,cornwall1 ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one 0         
deposit$4 ,"p1 at lea/1 ( ?is olde/ ( ! 
,second>y rocks 0 =m$ ( ! mat]ial ( !   
old] ,palozoic /rata1 t _h !n ris5 above
 ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one
 s]ies consi/s 9 its l[] memb]s ( b$s ( 
r$ s&/one & conglom]ate1 m ?an #a1jjj   
feet ?ick1 & above !m are plac$ r$ &    
gre5 m>ls1 *iefly r$1 :i* 9 ,g]many are 
call$ ! ,keup] /rata1 & 9 ,engl& ! ,new 
,r$ ,m>l4 ,^! =mations range f ! m\? ( !
 ,m]sey1 r\nd ! bord]s ( ,wales1 to !   
e/u>y ( ! ,sev]n1 ea/w>ds into          
,w>wick%ire1 & !nce nor?w>ds into       
,york%ire & ,nor?umb]l&1 along ! ea/]n  
bord] ( ! ,magnesian ,lime/one4 ,!y also
 =m ! bottom ( ! valley ( ! ,ed51 &     
skirt ,cumb]l& on ! we/2 9 ! c5tre (    
,engl& ! unequal h>dness ( its          
sub-divisions sometimes giv+ rise to    
m9or esc>pm5ts1 ov]look+ pla9s &        
undulat+ gr\nds ( s(t] /rata40    #ed   

8,! ,physical ,geography & ,geology (   
,great ,brita910 #bnd ed41        p4    
#fj4  8,diff]5t memb]s ( ! gr\p re/ 9   
,engl&1 9 "s region or o!r10 says       
,lyell1 8on almo/ e pr9cipal memb] ( !  
,palozoic s]ies1 on ,cambrian1          
,silurian1 ,devonian1 ,c>bonif]\s1 &    
,p]mian rocks2 & !re is evid5ce ev]y:]e 
( di/urbance1 contortion1 p>tial        
upheaval into l&1 & va/ d5udations :i* !
 old] rocks und]w5t be=e & dur+ !       
deposition ( ! successive /rata ( ! ,new
 ,r$ ,s&/one gr\p40 78,elem5ts (        
,geology10 p4 #dci47  ,! ,mus*elkalk    
consi/s ( b$s ( compact lime/one1 (t5   
greyi%1 sometimes black1 alt]nat+ ) m>l 
& clay1 & commonly conta9+ su* numb]s ( 
%ells t ! "n ( %elly lime/one           
7,mus*elkalk7 has be5 giv5 to ! =mation 
by ! ,g]mans4 ,! b$s are sometimes      
magnesian1 especially 9 ! l[] /rata1 :i*
 conta9 deposits ( gypsum & rock-salt4  
,! seas ( ?is sub-p]iod1 :i* is nam$    
aft] ! innum]able masses ( %ells inclos$
 9 ! rocks :i* x repres5ts1 includ$1    

besides great numb]s ( ,mollusca1       
,saurian ,reptiles ( twelve diff]5t     
g5]a1 "s ,turtles1 & six new g5]a (     
,fi%es clo!d ) a cuirass4 ,let u pause  
at ! ,mollusca :i* peopl$ ! ,triassic   
seas4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4              
#ha4--;,c]atites nodosus4 7,mus*elkalk47
  ,among ! %ells *>act]i/ic ( !         
,mus*elkalk p]iod1 we m5tion ,natica    
,gaill>doti1 ,ro/ell>ia antiqua1 ,lima  
/riata1 ,avicula socialis1 ,t]ebratula  
vulg>is1 ,turbonilla dubia1 ,myophoria  
vulg>is1 ,nautilus hexagonalis1 &       
,c]atites nodosus4 ,! ,c]atites1 ( :i* a
 species is "h repres5t$ 7,fig4 #ha71 =m
 a g5us closely alli$ to ! ,ammonites1  
:i* seem to h play$ su* an important "p 
9 ! anci5t seas1 b :i* h no exi/5ce 9 ^?
 ( our era1 ei!r 9 species or ev5 9     
g5us4 ,?is ,c]atite is f\nd 9 !         
,mus*elkalk ( ,g]many1 a =mation :i* has
 no equival5t 9 ,engl&1 b :i* is a      
compact greyi% lime/one und]ly+ !       
salif]\s rocks 9 ,g]many1 & includ+ b$s 
( dolomite ) gypsum & rock-salt4  ,!    

,mytilus or ,mussel1 :i* prop]ly belong$
 to ?is age1 are acephal\s 7or headless7
 ,molluscs ) elongat$ triangul> %ells1 (
 :i* !re are _m species f\nd 9 our exi/+
 seas4 ,lima1 ,myophoria1 ,posidonia1 & 
,avicula1 are acephal\s ,molluscs ( !   
same p]iod4 ,! two g5]a ,natica &       
,ro/ell>ia belong to ! ,ga/]opoda1 & are
 abundant 9 ! ,mus*elkalk 9 ,france1    
,g]many1 & ,pol&4  ,among ! ,e*9od]ms   
belong+ to ?is p]iod may be m5tion$     
,encr9us monili=mis & ,e4 lilii=mis1 or 
lily encr9ite 7,fig4 #hb71 ^: rema9s1   
con/itut+ 9 "s localities :ole b$s (    
rock1 %[ ! sl[ progress ) :i* ?is       
zoophyte =m$ b$s ( lime/one 9 ! cle>    
seas ( ! p]iod4 ,to ^! may be add$1     
among ! ,mollusca1 ,avicula subco/ata & 
,myophoria vulg>is4  ,9 ! ,mus*elkalk   
are f\nd ! skull & tee? ( ,placodus     
gigas1 a reptile :i* 0 orig9ally plac$  
by ,agassiz among ! class ( ,fi%es2 b m 
p]fect specim5s h satisfi$ ,pr(essor    
,ow5 t x 0 a ,saurian ,reptile4  ,x may 
be add$1 t ! pres5ce ( a few g5]a1      

peculi> to ! ,prim>y epo*1 :i* entirely 
disappe>$ dur+ ! sub-p]iod1 & !         
appe>ance = ! fir/ "t ( "s o!r animals  
peculi> to ! ,jurassic p]iod1 give to ! 
,mus*elkalk fauna ! appe>ance ( be+ "o (
 passage f "o p]iod to ! o!r4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4--;,encr9us     
lilii=mis4  ,! seas1 !n1 conta9$ a few  
,reptiles1 probably inhabitants ( !     
banks ( riv]s1 z ,phytosaurus1          
,capitosaurus1 c41 & sundry ,fi%es1 z   
,sphrodus & ,pycnodus4 ,9 ?is sub-p]iod 
we %all say no?+ ( ! ,l&-,turtles1 :i* =
 ! fir/ "t n[ appe>2 b1 we %\ld note1 t 
at ! ,bunt] p]iod a gigantic ,reptile   
appe>s1 on :i* ! op9ions ( geologi/s 7 =
 a long :ile at v>iance4 ,9 !           
argillace\s rocks ( ! ,mus*elkalk p]iod 
impr9ts ( ! foot ( "s animal 7 discov]$ 
9 ! s&/ones ( ,/oreton ,hill1 9 ,*e%ire1
 & 9 ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( p>ts (        
,w>wick%ire1 z well z 9 ,?ur+ia1 &      
,hesseburg 9 ,saxony1 :i* v mu* resembl$
 ! impression t might be made 9 s(t clay
 by ! out/ret*$ f+]s & ?umb ( a human   

h&4 ,^! traces 7 made by a species (    
,reptile furni%$ ) f\r feet1 ! two      
=e-feet be+ mu* broad] ?an ! h9d] two4  
,! head1 pelvis1 & scapula only ( ?is   
/range-look+ animal h be5 f\nd1 b ^! are
 consid]$ to h belong$ to a gigantic    
air-brea?+ reptile closely connect$ ) ! 
,batra*ians4 ,x is ?\ght t ! head 0 n   
nak$1 b protect$ by a bony cu%ion2 t its
 jaws 7 arm$ ) conical tee?1 ( great    
/r5g? & ( a complicat$ /ructure4 ,?is   
curi\s & unc\?-look+ creature1 ( :i* !  
woodcut ,fig4 #hc is a re/oration1 has  
be5 nam$ ! ,*eiro!rium1 or ,labyr9?odon1
 f ! complicat$ arrangem5t ( ! cem5t+   
lay] ( ! tee?4 7,see also ,fig4 #a1 p4  
#ab47  ,ano!r ,reptile ( great          
dim5sions--:i* w\ld seem to h be5 int5d$
 to prep>e ! way = ! appe>ance ( !      
enorm\s ,saurians :i* pres5t !mselves 9 
! ,jurassic p]iod--0 ! ,no?osaurus1 a   
species ( m>9e ,crocodile1 ( :i* a      
re/oration has be5 attempt$ 9 ,,plate   
,,xiii4 opposite4  ,illu/ration3        
,,xiii4--,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,mus*elkalk

 ,sub-p]iod4  ,x has be5 suppos$1 f     
c]ta9 impressions :i* appe> 9 ! ,keup]  
s&/ones ( ! ,connecticut riv] 9 ,nor?   
,am]ica1 t ,birds made _! appe>ance 9 ! 
p]iod :i* n[ occupies u2 ! flags on :i* 
^! occur by ?\s&s %[ ! tracks ( an      
animal ( great size 7"s #bj in*es long &
 #d feet ap>t71 pres5t+ ! impression (  
?ree toes1 l "s ( ! ,/ru?ionid or       
,o/ri*es1 accompani$ by ra9drops4 ,no   
rema9s ( ! skeletons ( birds h be5 met )
 9 rocks ( ?is p]iod1 & ! footpr9ts 9 "q
 are all t c be alleg$ 9 support ( !    
hypo!sis4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#hc4--,labyr9?odon re/or$4 ,"o-tw5tie?  
natural size4  ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t      
places ! comm5cem5t ( dicotyl$on\s      
gymnosp]m plants 9 ?is age4 ,!          
*>act]i/ics ( ?is ,flora consi/ 9 num]\s
 ,f]ns1 con/itut+ g5]a n[ ext9ct1 su* z 
,anomopt]is & ,crematopt]is4 ,! true    
,equiseta are r>e 9 x4 ,! ,calamites1   
or1 r1 ! ,calamod5dra1 ab\nd4 ,!        
gymnosp]ms are repres5t$ by ! g5]a      
,conif]1 ,voltzia1 & ,haid+]a1 ( :i* bo?

 species & individuals are v num]\s 9 ! 
=mation ( ?is p]iod4  ,among ! species (
 plants :i* *>act]ise ?is =mation1 we   
may m5tion ,neuropt]is elegans1         
,calamites ar5aceus1 ,voltzia           
het]ophylla1 ,haid+]a speciosa4 ,!      
,haid+]a1 belong+ to ! tribe ( ,abiet91 
7 plants ) l>ge leaves1 analog\s to ^? (
 our ,dam>a1 gr[+ close toge!r1 & ne>ly 
imbricat$1 z 9 ! ,arauc>ia4 ,_! fruit1  
:i* are cones ) r\nd$ scales1 are       
imbricat$1 & h only a s+le se$1 ?us be>+
 out ! /rong resemblance :i* has be5    
trac$ betwe5 ^! fossil plants1 & !      
,dam>a4  ,! ,voltzias 7,fig4 #hd71 :i*  
seem to h =m$ ! great] "p ( ! =e/s 7 a  
g5us ( ,cupress9ace1 n[ ext9ct1 :i* are 
well *>act]is$ among ! fossil ,conif]s (
 ! p]iod4 ,! alt]nate spiral leaves1 =m+
 five to eight r[s sessile1 t is1 sitt+ 
close to ! bran* & droop+1 h mu* 9 !m   
analog\s to ! ,cryptom]ias4 ,_! fruit 0 
an oblong cone ) scales1 loosely        
imbricat$1 cunei=m or w$ge-%ap$1 &1     
commonly1 compos$ ( f ?ree to five      

obtuse lobes4 ,9 ,fig4 #hd we h a "p ( !
 /em1 a bran* ) leaves & cone4 ,9 8     
8,botanic ,geography10 ,m4 ,lecoq ?us   
describes ! vegetation ( ! anci5t _w 9 !
 fir/ p]iod ( ! ,triassic age3 8,:ile ! 
v>iegat$ s&/one & mottl$ clays 7 be+    
sl[ly deposit$ 9 regul> b$s by ! wat]s1 
magnific5t ,f]ns /ill exhibit$ _! light 
& elegantly-c>v$ leaves4 ,div]s         
,protopt]is & maje/ic ,neuropt]is       
associat$ !mselves 9 ext5sive =e/s1 :]e 
vegetat$ also ! ,crematopt]is typica (  
,s*imp]1 ! ,anomopt]is ,mongeotii (     
,brongni>t1 & ! pretty ,tri*omanites    
myriophyllum 7,gpp]t74 ,! ,conif]s ( ?is
 epo* atta9 a v consid]able developm5t1 
& w\ld =m graceful =e/s ( gre5 trees4   
,elegant monocotyl$ons1 repres5t+ ! =ms 
( tropical c\ntries1 seem to %[ !mselves
 = ! fir/ "t1 ! ,yuccites ,vogesiacus ( 
,s*imp] con/itut$ gr\ps at once ?ickly  
s]ri$ & ( great ext5t4  8,a family1     
hi!rto d\btful1 appe>s "u ! elegant =m (
 ,nilssonia ,hog>di1 ,s*imp42 ,ct5is    
,hog>di1 ,brongn4 ,x is /ill se5 9 !    

,zamites ,vogesiacus1 ,s*imp42 & ! gr\p 
( ! ,cycads %>+ at once 9 ! organisation
 ( ! ,conif]s & ! elegance ( ! ,palms1  
n[ decorate ! e>?1 :i* reveals 9 ^! new 
=ms its va/ fecundity4 7,see ,fig4 #gb1 
p4 #afh47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#hd4--;,bran* & cone ( ,voltzia re/or$4 
8,( ! h]bace\s plants :i* =m$ ! und]gr[?
 ( ! =e/s1 or :i* luxuriat$ 9 its cool  
m>%es1 ! mo/ rem>kable is ! !ophyllum   
speciosum1 ,s*imp4 ,_! organisation     
approximates to ! ,lycopodiace &        
,?yphace1 ! !ophyllum /ipul>e1 ,brongn41
 & ! curi\s ,s*izoneura p>adoxa1 ,s*imp4
 ,?us we c trace ! comm5cem5t ( ! reign 
( ! ,dicotyl$ons ) nak$ se$s1 :i*       
aft]w>ds become s widely dissem9at$1 9 a
 few ,angiosp]ms1 compos$ pr9cipally (  
two families1 ! ,conif]s & ,cycadeace1  
/ill repres5t$ 9 ! exi/+ vegetation4 ,! 
=m]1 v abundant at fir/1 associat$      
!mselves ) ! cellul> ,cryptogams1 :i*   
/ill ab\nd1 al?\gh !y are decreas+1 !n )
 ! ,cycadeace1 :i* pres5t !mselves      
sl[ly1 b w soon be obs]v$ to take a l>ge

 "p 9 ! brilliant h>monies ( ! vegetable
 k+dom40  ,! engrav+ at page #aia       
7,,plate ,,xiii47 gives an idealis$     
picture ( ! plants & animals ( ! p]iod4 
,! read] mu/ imag9e himself transport$  
to ! %ores ( ! ,mus*elkalk sea at a     
mom5t :5 its waves are agitat$ by a     
viol5t b pass+ /orm4 ,! reflux ( ! tide 
exposes "s ( ! aquatic animals ( !      
p]iod4 ,"s f9e ,encr9ites are se51 ) _! 
long flexible /ems1 & a few ,mytili &   
,t]ebratul4 ,! ,reptile :i* occupies !  
rocks1 & prep>es to ?r[ itself on its   
prey1 is ! ,no?osaurus4 ,n f> f x are   
o!r reptiles1 its cong5]s1 b ( a small] 
species4 ,^u ! dune on ! %ore is a f9e  
gr\p ( ! trees ( ! p]iod1 t is1 (       
,haid+]as1 ) l>ge trunks1 ) droop+      
bran*es & foliage1 ( :i* ! c$>s ( our   
own age give "s idea4 ,! elegant        
,voltzias are se5 9 ! second plane ( ?is
 curta9 ( v]dure4 ,! ,reptiles :i* liv$ 
9 ^! primitive =e/s1 & :i* w\ld give to 
x s /range a "*1 are repres5t$ by !     
,labyr9?odon1 :i* desc5ds t[>ds ! sea on

 ! "r1 leav+ ^u ! s&y %ore ^? curi\s    
tracks :i* h be5 s wond]fully pres]v$ to
 our days4  ,! footpr9ts ( ! reptilian  
animals ( ?is p]iod prove t !y walk$ ov]
 moi/ surfaces2 &1 if ^! surfaces _h be5
 simply left by a retir+ tide1 !y w\ld  
g5]ally h be5 oblit]at$ by ! return+    
flood1 9 ! same mann] t is se5 e day on 
our own s&y %ores4 ,x seems m likely t !
 surfaces1 on :i* fossil footpr9ts are  
n[ f\nd1 7 left b>e by ! summ]          
evaporation ( a lake2 t ^! surfaces 7   
aft]w>ds dri$ by ! sun1 & ! footpr9ts   
h>d5$1 s z to ensure _! pres]vation1    
be=e ! ris+ wat]s br\ght by flood$ muddy
 riv]s aga9 subm]g$ ! l[ flat %ores &   
deposit$ new lay]s ( salt1 j z !y d at !
 pres5t day r\nd ! ,dead ,sea & ! ,salt 
,lake ( ,utah4  ,illu/ration3           
,,xiv4--,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,keup]      
,sub-p]iod4   ,,keup] ,,sub-,,p]iod4  ,!
 =mation :i* *>act]ises ! ,keup]1 or    
salif]\s p]iod1 is ( mod]ate ext5t1 &   
d]ives ! latt] "n f ! salt deposits x   
conta9s4  ,^! rocks consi/ ( a va/ numb]

 ( argillace\s & m>ly b$s1 v>i\sly      
col\r$1 b *iefly r$1 ) t9ts ( yell[ &   
gre54 ,^! are ! col\rs :i* gave ! "n (  
v>iegatea 7,poikilitic7 to ! s]ies4 ,!  
b$s ( r$ m>l (t5 alt]nate ) s&/ones1 :i*
 are also v>iegat$ 9 col\r4 ,z          
subord9ate rocks1 we f9d 9 ?is =mation  
"s deposits ( a poor pyritic coal & (   
gypsum4 ,b :at especially *>act]ises !  
=mation are ! important deposits (      
rock-salt :i* are includ$ 9 x4 ,!       
salif]\s b$s1 (t5 tw5ty-five to =ty feet
 ?ick1 alt]nate ) b$s ( clay1 ! :ole    
atta9+ a ?ickness ( #afj y>ds4 ,9       
,g]many 9 ,wrtemb]g1 9 ,france at ,vic1 
at ,dieuze1 & at ,*teau-,sal9s1 !       
rock-salt ( ! salif]\s =mation has      
become an important bran* ( indu/ry4 ,9 
! ,jura1 salt is extract$ f ! wat] *>g$ 
) *lorides1 :i* issues f ?is =mation4   
,"s ( ^! deposits are situat$ at great  
dep?s1 & _c be rea*$ )\t v consid]able  
lab\r4 ,! salt-m9es ( ,wieliczka1 9     
,pol&1 = example1 c be procur$ on !     
surface1 or by gall]ies ( little dep?1  

because ! deposit belongs to ! ,t]ti>y  
p]iod2 b ! deposits ( salt1 9 !         
,triassic age1 lie s mu* deep]1 z to be 
only approa*able by a regul> process (  
m9+ by gall]ies1 & ! ord9>y mode ( rea*+
 ! salt is by digg+ pits1 :i* are       
aft]w>ds fill$ ) wat]4 ,?is wat]1 *>g$ )
 ! salt1 is !n pump$ up into tr\ghs1 :]e
 x is evaporat$1 & ! cry/allis$ m9]al   
obta9$4  ,:at is ! orig9 ( ! great      
deposits ( m>9e salt :i* occur 9 ?is    
=mation1 & :i* always alt]nate ) ?9 b$s 
( clay or m>l8 ,we c only attribute !m  
to ! evaporation ( va/ quantities (     
sea-wat] introduc$ into depressions1    
cavities1 or gulfs1 :i* ! s&y dunes     
aft]w>ds sep>at$ f ! great op5 sea4 ,9  
,,plate ,,xiv4 an attempt is made to    
repres5t ! natural fact1 :i* mu/ h be5 (
 frequ5t recurr5ce dur+ ! salif]\s      
p]iod1 to =m ! consid]able masses (     
rock-salt :i* are n[ f\nd 9 ! rocks ( ! 
p]iod4 ,on ! "r is ! sea1 ) a dune (    
consid]able ext5t1 sep>at+ x f a        
tranquil bas9 ( smoo? wat]4 ,at         

int]vals1 & f v>i\s causes1 ! sea1 cle>+
 ! dune1 ent]s & fills ! bas94 ,we may  
ev5 suppose t a gulf exi/s "h :i*1 at "o
 "t1 communicat$ ) ! sea2 ! w9ds hav+   
rais$ ?is s&y dune1 ! gulf becomes      
trans=m$1 by degrees1 into a bas9 or    
back-wat]1 clos$ on all sides4 ,h[ev] t 
may be1 x is pretty c]ta9 t if ! wat]s (
 ! sea 7 once %ut up 9 ?is bas91 ) an   
argillace\s bottom & )\t any op5+1      
evaporation f ! effects ( sol> heat w\ld
 take place1 & a b$ ( salt w\ld be !    
result ( ?is evaporation1 mix$ ) o!r    
m9]al salts :i* accompany *loride (     
sodium 9 sea-wat]1 su* z sulphate (     
magnesia1 *loride ( potassium1 c4 ,?is  
b$ ( salt1 left by ! evaporation ( !    
wat]1 w\ld soon receive an argillace\s  
cov]+ f ! clay & silt susp5d$ 9 ! muddy 
wat] ( ! bas91 ?us =m+ a fir/ alt]nation
 ( salt & ( clay or m>l4 ,! sea mak+    
fre% brea*es across ! b>ri]s1 ! same    
process took place ) a simil> result1   
until ! bas9 0 fill$ up4 ,by ! regul> & 
tranquil repetition ( ?is ph5om5on1     

cont9u$ dur+ a long succession ( ages1  
?is abundant deposit ( rock-salt has be5
 =m$1 :i* occupies s important a        
position 9 ! ,second>y rocks4  ,!re is 9
 ! delta ( ! ,indus a s+ul> region1     
call$ ! ,runn ( ,cut*1 :i* ext5ds ov] an
 area ( #g1jjj squ>e miles1 :i* is nei!r
 l& nor sea1 b is "u wat] dur+ !        
monsoons1 & 9 ! dry season is incru/$1  
"h & !re1 ) salt ab\t an in* ?ick1 !    
result ( evaporation4 ,dry l& has be5   
l>gely increas$ "h1 dur+ ! pres5t       
c5tury1 by subsid5ce ( ! wat]s &        
upheavals by e>?quakes4 8,t successive  
lay]s ( salt may h be5 ?r[n d[n "o ^u ! 
o!r on _m ?\s& squ>e miles1 9 su* a     
region1 is und5iable10 says ,lyell4 8,! 
supply ( br9e f ! ocean is z            
inexhau/ible z ! supply ( heat f ! sun4 
,! only assumption requir$ to enable u  
to expla9 ! great ?ickness ( salt 9 su* 
an area1 is ! cont9uance = an indef9ite 
p]iod ( a subsid5ce1 ! c\ntry pres]v+   
all ! "t a g5]al approa* to             
horizontally40 ,! obs]vations ( ,mr4    

,d>w9 on ! atolls ( ! ,pacific1 prove t 
su* a cont9u\s subsid5ce is probable4   
,hugh ,mill]1 aft] ably discuss+ v>i\s  
spots ( e>? :]e1 z 9 ! ,runn ( ,cut*1   
evaporation & deposit take place1 adds3 
8,if we suppose t1 in/ead ( a b>ri] (   
lava1 s&-b>s 7 rais$ by ! surf on a flat
 ar5ace\s coa/1 dur+ a sl[ & equable    
s9k+ ( ! surface1 ! wat]s ( ! out] gulf 
might occasionally topple ov] ! b> &    
supply a fre% br9e :5 ! fir/ /ock _h be5
 exhau/$ by evaporation40  ,pr(essor    
,ramsay has po9t$ out t bo? ! s&/ones & 
m>ls ( ! ,triassic epo* 7 =m$ 9 lakes4  
,9 ! latt] "p ( ?is epo*1 he is (       
op9ion1 t ! ,keup] m>ls ( ! ,briti%     
,isles 7 deposit$ 9 a l>ge lake1 or     
lakes1 :i* 7 fre% or bracki% at fir/1 b 
aft]w>ds salt & )\t outlets to ! sea2 & 
t ! same 0 occasionally ! case ) reg>d  
to o!r portions ( nor!rn ,europe & its  
adjo9+ seas4  ,by ! silt+ up ( su* lakes
 ) s$im5t1 & ! gradual evaporation ( _! 
wat]s "u fav\rable conditions1 su* z    
increas$ heat & dim9i%$ ra9fall--:]e !  

lakes might cease to h an outfl[ into ! 
sea & ! loss ( wat] by evaporation w\ld 
exce$ ! am\nt fl[+ into !m--! salt or   
salts conta9$ 9 solution w\ld1 by       
degrees1 become conc5trat$ & f9ally     
precipitat$4 ,9 ?is way ! great deposits
 ( rock-salt & gypsum1 common 9 ! ,keup]
 =mation1 may be acc\nt$ =4             
,subsequ5tly1 by increase ( ra9fall or  
decrease ( heat1 & s9k+ ( ! di/rict1 !  
wat]s became comp>atively less salt     
aga92 & a recurr5ce ( su* conditions    
la/$ until ! close ( ! ,keup] p]iod1 :5 
a p>tial influx ( ! sea took place1 & ! 
,rhtic b$s ( ,engl& 7 deposit$4  ,! r$  
col\r ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/ones & m>ls is   
caus$ by p]oxide ( iron1 :i* may also h 
be5 c>ri$ into ! lakes 9 solution1 z a  
c>bonate1 & aft]w>ds conv]t$ into       
p]oxide by contact ) air1 & precipitat$ 
z a ?9 pellicle ^u ! s$im5t>y gra9s (   
s&y mud1 ( :i* ! ,triassic b$s m or less
 consi/4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay fur!r        
consid]s t all ! r$-col\r$ /rata (      
,engl&1 includ+ ! ,p]mian1 ,old ,r$     

,s&/one1 & ev5 ! ,old ,cambrian =mation1
 7 deposit$ 9 lakes or inl& wat]s4#ee   
#ee ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4
 ,soc41 vol4 #bg1 p4 #aia4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,!re is  
little to be said ( ! animals :i* belong
 to ! ,salif]\s p]iod4 ,!y are ne>ly !  
same z ^? ( ! ,mus*elkalk1 c4  ,among ! 
mo/ abundant ( ! %ells belong+ to ! upp]
 ,trias1 9 all ! c\ntries :]e x has be5 
exam9$1 are ! ,avicula1 ,c>dium1 &      
,pect51 "o ( :i* is giv5 9 ,fig4 #he4   
,=am9if]a are num]\s 9 ! ,keup] m>ls4 ,!
 rema9s ( l&-plants1 & ! peculi>ities ( 
"s ( ! reptiles ( ! ,keup] p]iod1 t5d to
 confirm ! op9ion ( ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 t
 ! /rata 7 deposit$ 9 inl& salt-lakes4  
,9 ! ,keup] p]iod ! isl&s & cont95ts    
pres5t$ few m\nta9s2 !y 7 int]sect$ "h &
 !re by l>ge lakes1 ) flat & uni=m      
banks4 ,! vegetation on _! %ores 0 v    
abundant1 & we possess its rema9s 9     
great numb]s4 ,! ,keup] ,flora 0 v      
analog\s to ^? ( ! ,lias & ,oolite1 &   
consi/$ ( ,f]ns1 ,equisetace1 ,cycads1  

,conif]s1 & a few plants1 :i* ,m4 ,ad4  
,brongni>t classes among ! dubi\s       
monocotyl$ons4 ,among ! ,f]ns may be    
quot$ _m species ( ,sph5opt]is or       
,pecopt]is4 ,among !m1 ,pecopt]is       
,/uttg>ti5sis1 a tree ) *annell$ trunk1 
:i* rises to a consid]able height )\t   
?r[+ out bran*es1 & t]m9ates 9 a cr[n ( 
leaves f9ely cut & ) long petioles2 !   
,equisetites column>is1 a great         
,equisetum analog\s to ! horse-tails (  
our age1 b ( inf9itely l>g] dim5sions1  
its long flut$ trunk1 surm\nt$ by an    
elongat$ fructification1 t[]+ ov] all ! 
o!r trees ( ! m>%y soil4  ,illu/ration3 
,fig4 #he4--,pect5 orbicul>is4  ,!      
,pt]ophyllum ,jg]i & ,p4 ,mn/]i         
repres5t$ ! ,cycads1 ! ,taxodites       
,mn/]ianus repres5t$ ! ,conif]s1 &1     
f9ally1 ! trunk ( ! ,calamites 0 cov]$ )
 a creep+ plant1 hav+ elliptical leaves1
 ) a re-curv+ n]vature borne ^u its long
 petioles1 & ! fruit dispos$ 9 bun*es2  
?is is ! ,preissl]ia antiqua1 a d\btful 
monocotyl$on1 accord+ to ,brongni>t1 b  

,m4 ,ung] places x 9 ! family ( ,smilax1
 ( :i* x w ?us be ! e>lie/              
repres5tative4 ,! same botani/ classes )
 ! canes a m>%-plant v common 9 ?is     
p]iod1 ! ,paloxyris ,mn/]i1 :i*         
,brongni>t classes ) ! ,preissl]ia among
 8 d\btful ,monocotyl$ons4  ,!          
vegetation ( ! latt] "p ( ! ,triassic   
p]iod is ?us *>act]is$ by ,lecoq1 9 8   
8,botanical ,geography03 8,! cellul>    
,cryptogame pr$om9ate 9 ?is z !y d 9 !  
,c>bonif]\s epo*1 b ! species h *ang$1 &
 _m ( ! g5]a also are diff]5t2 !        
,cladephlebis1 ! ,sph5opt]is1 !         
,coniopt]is1 & ,pecopt]is pr$om9ate ov] 
! o!rs 9 ! numb] ( species4 ,!          
,equisetace are m develop$ ?an 9 any o!r
 =mation4 ,"o ( ! f9e/ species1 !       
,calamites ar5aceus ( ,brongni>t1 mu/ h 
=m$ great =e/s4 ,! flut$ trunks resemble
 imm5se columns1 t]m9at+ at ! summit 9  
leafy bran*es1 dispos$ 9 graceful       
v]ticillat$ tufts1 =e%ad[+ ! elegant =ms
 ( ,equisetum sylvaticum4 ,gr[+         
alongside ( ^! 7 a curi\s ,equisetum &  

s+ul> ,equisetites1 a species ( :i* la/1
 ,e4 column>is1 rais$ its h]bace\s /em1 
) its /]ile articulations1 to a great   
height4  8,:at a s+ul> aspect ^! anci5t 
rocks w\ld pres5t1 if we add to !m !    
=e/-trees ,pt]ophyllum & ! ,zamites ( ! 
f9e family ( ,cycadeace1 & ! ,conif]s1  
:i* seem to h made _! appe>ance 9 !     
humid soil at ! same "t6  8,x is dur+   
?is epo*1 :ile yet "u ! reign ( !       
dicotyl$on\s angiosp]ms1 t we discov] ! 
fir/ true monocotyl$ons4 ,! ,preissl]ia 
antiqua1 ) its long petals1 droop+ &    
creep+ r\nd ! old trunks1 its bun*es (  
bright-col\r$ b]ries l ! ,smilax ( our  
own age1 to :i* family x appe>s to h    
belong$4 ,besides1 ! ,triassic m>%es    
gave bir? to tufts ( ,paloxyris ,mn/]i1 
a cane-l species ( ! ,gram9e1 :i*1 9 all
 probability1 *e]$ ! o!rwise gloomy     
%ore4  8,dur+ ?is long p]iod ! e>?      
pres]v$ its primitive vegetation2 new   
=ms are sl[ly introduc$1 & !y multiply  
sl[ly4 ,b if our pres5t types (         
vegetation are defici5t 9 ^! di/ant     

epo*s1 we ought to recognise also t !   
plants :i* 9 our days repres5t !        
vegetation ( ! primitive _w are (t5 %orn
 ( _! gr&eur4 ,our ,equisetace &        
,lycopodiace are b poor repres5tatives (
 ! ,lepidod5drons2 ! ,calamites &       
,a/]ophyllites _h already run _! race   
be=e ! epo* ( :i* we write40  ,!        
pr9cipal features ( ,triassic vegetation
 are repres5t$ 9 ,,plate ,,xiv41 page   
#aih4 ,on ! cliff1 on ! left ( ! ideal  
l&scape1 ! graceful /ems & l(ty trees   
are gr\ps ( ,calamites ar5aceus2 bel[   
are ! great 8horse-tails0 ( ! epo*1     
,equisetum column>e1 a sl5d] tap]+      
species1 ( s(t & pulpy consi/5ce1 :i*1  
ris+ erect1 w\ld give a peculi>         
physiognomy to ! solit>y %ore4  ,!      
,keup] =mation pres5ts itself 9 ,europe 
at _m po9ts1 & x is n difficult to trace
 its c\rse4 ,9 ,france x appe>s 9 !     
dep>tm5t ( ! ,indre1 ( ! ,*]1 ( !       
,alli]1 ( ! ,nivre1 ( ! ,sane-et-,loire2
 ^u ! we/]n slopes ( ! ,jura its outli]s
 crop out ne> ,poligny & ,sal9s1 ^u !   

we/]n slopes ( ! ,vosges2 9 ! ,d\bs x   
%[s itself2 !n x skirts ! ,mus*elkalk   
area 9 ! ,haute-,m>ne2 9 ! ,vosges x    
assumes l>ge proportions 9 ! ,meur! at  
,luneville & ,dieuze2 9 ! ,moselle x    
ext5ds nor?w>d to ,b\zonville2 & on !   
,rh9e to ! ea/ ( ,luxemb\rg z f> z      
,dock5dorf4 ,"s traces ( x %[ !mselves  
^u ! ea/]n slopes ( ! ,vosges1 on ! l[] 
,rh9e4  ,x appe>s aga9 9 ,switz]l& & 9  
,g]many1 9 ! canton ( ,basle1 9         
,argovia1 9 ! ,gr& ,du*y ( ,wrtemb]g1 9 
! ,tyrol1 & 9 ,au/ria1 :]e x gives its  
"n to ! city ( ,salzburg4  ,9 ! ,briti% 
,isl&s ! ,keup] =mation comm5ces 9 !    
ea/]n p>ts ( ,devon%ire1 & a b&1 m or   
less regul>1 ext5ds into ,som]set%ire1  
?r\gh ,gl\ce/]%ire1 ,worce/]%ire1       
,w>wick1 ,leice/]%ire1 ,nott+ham%ire1 to
 ! banks ( ! ,tees1 9 ,york%ire1 ) a b$1
 indep5d5t ( all ! o!rs 9 ,*e%ire1 :i*  
ext5ds into ,lanca%ire4 8,at ,nantwi*1 9
 ! upp] ,trias ( ,*e%ire10 ,sir ,*>les  
,lyell /ates1 8two b$s ( salt1 9 great  
"p unmix$ ) e>?y matt]1 atta9 ! ?ickness

 ( #ij or #ajj feet4 ,! upp] surface ( !
 highe/ b$ is v unev51 =m+ cones &      
irregul> figures4 ,betwe5 ! two masses  
!re int]v5es a b$ ( indurat$ clay       
trav]s$ by ve9s ( salt4 ,! highe/ b$ ?9s
 (f t[>ds ! s\?-we/1 los+ fifte5 feet ( 
its ?ickness 9 ! c\rse ( a mile1 accord+
 to ,mr4 ,orm]od4 ,! horizontal ext5t ( 
^! b$s is n exactly kn[n1 b ! area      
conta9+ salif]\s clay & s&/ones is      
suppos$ to exce$ #aej miles 9 diamet]1  
:ile ! total ?ickness ( ! ,trias 9 !    
same region is e/imat$ by ,mr4 ,orm]od  
at #a1gjj feet4 ,ripple-m>k$ s&/ones & !
 footpr9ts ( animals are obs]v$ at s _m 
levels1 t we may safely assume ! :ole   
area to h und]gone a sl[ & gradual      
depression dur+ ! =mation ( ! ,new ,r$  
,s&/one40  ,n to m5tion ! importance (  
salt z a s\rce ( heal?1 x is 9 ,great   
,brita91 &1 inde$1 all ov] ! _w :]e !   
salif]\s rocks exi/1 a mo/ important    
bran* ( indu/ry4 ,! quantity ( ! m9]al  
produc$ 9 ,engl&1 f all s\rces1 is      
betwe5 #e1jjj & #f1jjj tons annually1 & 

! population engag$ 9 produc+ ! m9]al1 f
 s\rces suppos$ to be inexhau/ible1 is  
upw>ds ( #ab1jjj4  ,! l[] ,keup]        
s&/ones1 :i* lie at ! base ( ! s]ies (  
r$ m>ls1 frequ5tly give rise to spr+s1 &
 are 9 consequ5ce call$ 8wat]-/ones10 9 
,lanca%ire & ,*e%ire4  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #hf4--,productus ,m>t9i4          
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,patella      
vulgata4  7,liv+47  ,if ! ,keup] =mation
 is poor 9 organic rema9s 9 ,france1 x  
is by no means s on ! o!r side ( !      
,alps4 ,9 ! ,tyrol1 & 9 ! rem>kable b$s 
( ,sa9t ,cassian1 ,aussec1 & ,hall/adt1 
! rocks are made up ( an imm5se numb] ( 
m>9e fossils1 among !m ,cephalopods1    
,c]atites1 & ,ammonites ( peculi> =m4 ,!
 ,or?oc]as1 :i* we h se5 ab\nd+ 9 !     
,silurian p]iod1 & cont9u$ dur+ !       
deposit ( ! ,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s     
p]iods1 appe>s "h = ! la/ "t4 ,we /ill  
f9d "h a great numb] ( ,ga/]opods & (   
,lamellibran*s ( ! mo/ v>i$ =m4 ,sea    
,ur*9s--corals ( elegant =m--appe> to h 
occupi$1 on ! o!r side ( ! ,alps1 ! same

 seas :i* 9 ,france & ,g]many seem to h 
be5 ne>ly de/itute ( animals4 ,"s b$s   
are lit]ally =m$ ( accumulat$ %ells     
belong+ to ! g5us ,avicula2 b ^!        
la/-m5tion$ deposits are to be consid]$ 
z m prop]ly belong+ to ! ,rhtic or ,p5>?
 /rata1 into :i* ! ,new ,r$ or ,keup]   
,m>l gradually passes upw>ds1 & :i* are 
m fully describ$ at page #bjg4  ,9      
foll[+ ! gr& m\nta9\s slopes ( ! ,alps &
 ,c>pa?ians we discov] ! salif]\s rocks 
by ?is rem>kable accumulation ( ,avicul4
 ,! same facies pres5ts itself "u       
id5tical conditions 9 ,syria1 9 ,india1 
9 ,new ,cal$onia1 9 ,new ,zeal&1 & 9    
,au/ralia4 ,x is n ! lea/ curi\s "p (   
?is p]iod1 t x pres5ts1 on "o side ( !  
site ( ! ,alps1 :i* 7 n yet rais$1 an   
imm5se accumulation ( s$im5t1 *>g$ )    
gypsum1 rock-salt1 c41 )\t organic      
rema9s2 :ile beyond1 a region pres5ts   
itself equally rem>kable = ! extraord9>y
 accumulation ( ! rema9s ( m>9e         
,mollusca4 ,among ^! 7 ,myophoria       
l9eata1 :i* is (t5 conf\nd$ ) ,trigonia1

 & ,/ellispongia v>iabilis4  ,france at 
?is p]iod 0 /ill ! skeleton ( :at x has 
s9ce become4 ,a map ( t c\ntry repres5ts
 ! metamorphic rocks occupy+ ! site ( ! 
,alps1 ! ,cv5nes1 & ! ,puy-de-,dme1 !   
c\ntry r\nd ,nantes1 & ! ,isl&s (       
,brittany4 ,! ,prim>y rocks rea* ! foot 
( ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,cot5t91 ! ,vosges1 & ! 
,eifel ,m\nta9s4 ,"s b&s ( coal /ret*   
away f ,val5ci5nes to ! ,rh9e1 & on !   
nor? ( ! ,vosges1 ^! m\nta9s !mselves   
be+ *iefly compos$ ( ,triassic rocks4   
,,rh,,tic1 ,,or ,,p5>? ,,sub-,,p]iod4   
,! att5tion ( geologi/s has be5 direct$ 
)9 ! la/ few ye>s1 m especially1 to a   
s]ies ( deposits :i* int]v5e betwe5 !   
,new ,r$ ,m>l ( ! ,trias1 & ! blue      
argillace\s lime/ones & %ales ( ! ,l[]  
,lias4 ,! fir/-m5tion$ b$s1 al?\gh !y   
atta9 no great ?ickness 9 ?is c\ntry1   
nev]!less =m a well-def9$ & p]si/5t zone
 ( /rata betwe5 ! unfossilif]\s         
,triassic m>ls & ! l[] ,liassic lime/one
 ) ,o/rea ,liassica & ,ammonites        
planorbis1 ,a4 angulatus & ,a4 ,buckl&i2

 be+ ev]y:]e *>act]is$ by ! pres5ce ( ! 
same gr\ps ( organic rema9s1 & ! same   
g5]al li?ological "* ( ! b$s4 ,^! la/   
may be describ$ z consi/+ ( ?ree        
sub-divisions1 ! l[]mo/ compos$ (       
alt]nations ( m>ls1 clays1 & m>ly       
lime/ones 9 ! l[] "p1 =m+ a gradual     
passage d[nw>ds into ! ,new ,r$ ,m>ls ^u
 :i* !y repose4 #b4 ,a middle gr\p (    
black1 ?9ly lam9at$ or pap]-l %ales1 )  
?9 lay]s ( indurat$ lime/one1 & cr[d$ 9 
places ) ,pect5 ,valoni5sis1 ,c>dium    
,rhticum1 ,avicula contorta1 & o!r      
*>act]i/ic %ells1 z well z by ! pres5ce1
 ne>ly always1 ( a rem>kable b$1 :i* is 
commonly kn[n z ! 8,bone-b$40 ,?is ?9 b&
 ( /one1 :i* is s well kn[n at ,au/1    
,axm\?1 ,we/bury-on-,sev]n1 & else:]e1  
is a brecciat$ or conglom]at$ b& (      
v>iable ?ickness :i*1 sometimes a s&/one
 & sometimes a lime/one1 is always m or 
less compos$ ( ! tee?1 scales1 & bones (
 num]\s g5]a ( ,fi%es & ,saurians1      
toge!r ) _! fossilis$ excrem5t1 :i* w be
 m fully & subsequ5tly describ$ "u ! "n 

( ,coprolites1 "u ! ,liassic p]iod4  ,! 
mol> too? ( a small pr$ace\s fossil     
mammal ( ! ,microle/es family 71 little2
 1 bea/71 ^: ne>e/ liv+ repres5tative   
appe>s to be "s ( ! ,hypsiprymnid or    
,kang>oo ,rats1 has be5 f\nd by ,mr4    
,dawk9s 9 "s grey m>ls und]ly+ ! bone-b$
 on ! sea-%ore at ,wat*ett1 9           
,som]set%ire2 af=d+ ! e>lie/ kn[n trace 
( a fossil mammal 9 ! ,second>y rocks4  
,sev]al small tee? belong+ to ! g5us    
,microle/es h also be5 discov]$ by ,mr4 
,*>les ,moore 9 a breccia ( ,rhtic age1 
fill+ a fissure trav]s+ ,c>bonif]\s     
,lime/one ne> ,frome2 & 9 addition to ! 
discov]y ( ! rema9s ( ,microle/es1 ^? ( 
a mammal m closely alli$ to ! ,m>supials
 ?an any o!r ord]1 h be5 met ) at       
,dieg]lo*1 s\?-ea/ ( ,/uttg>t1 9 a      
rem>kable bone-breccia1 :i* also yield$ 
coprolites & num]\s traces ( fi%es &    
reptiles4  ,! upp]mo/ sub-division      
includes c]ta9 b$s ( :ite & cream-col\r$
 lime/one1 resembl+ 9 appe>ance ! smoo? 
fracture & clos5ess ( texture ( !       

li?ographic lime/one ( ,sol5h(51 & :i*1 
kn[n to geologi/s & qu>rym5 "u ! "n     
8:ite lias10 giv5 to x by ,dr4 ,william 
,smi?1 0 =m]ly always consid]$ to belong
 to1 & 0 includ$ 91 ! ,lias prop]4 ,!   
mo/ rem>kable b$ 9 ?is zone is "o ( only
 a few in*es 9 ?ickness1 b x has long   
be5 kn[n to collectors1 & s\ght aft] "u 
! "n ( ,co?am ,m>ble or ,l&scape ,/one1 
! latt] "n hav+ ref]5ce to ! curi\s     
d5dritic m>k+s :i* make _! appe>ance on 
break+ ! /one at "r angles to its b$d+1 
be>+ a s+ul> resemblance to a l&scape ) 
trees1 wat]1 c42 :ile ! fir/ "n is t    
d]iv$ f its occurr5ce abundantly at     
,co?am1 9 ! suburbs ( ,bri/ol1 :]e !    
/one 0 orig9ally f\nd & notic$4  ,?is b&
 ( /one is int]e/+ 9 ano!r respect1     
because x sometimes %[s by its unev51   
erod$1 & wat]-worn upp] surface1 t an   
int]val took place soon aft] x _h be5   
deposit$1 :5 ! newly-=m$ /one became    
p>tially dissolv$1 erod$1 or worn away  
by wat]1 be=e ! /ratum next 9 succession
 0 deposit$ ^u x4 ,! same ph5om5on is   

display$1 9 a m m>k$ degree1 9 ! upp]mo/
 lime/one or 8:ite lias0 b$ ( ! s]ies1  
:i* n only %[s an erod$ surface1 b !    
holes made by bor+ ,molluscs1 exactly z 
is produc$ at ! pres5t day by ! same    
class ( animals1 :i* excavate holes 9 ! 
rocks betwe5 high & l[-wat] m>ks1 to    
s]ve = _! dwell+-places1 & z a          
protection f ! waves to _! some:at      
delicate %ells4  ,! 8,:ite ,lias0 (     
,smi? is ! equival5t ( ! ,koess5 b$s :i*
 imm$iately und]lie ! ,l[] ,lias ( !    
,swabian ,jura1 & h be5 trac$ = a hundr$
 miles1 f ,g5eva to ! environs ( ,vi5na2
 &1 also1 ( ! ,upp] ,/4 ,cassian b$s1   
:i* are s call$ f _! occurr5ce at ,/4   
,cassian 9 ! ,au/rian ,alps4  ,! g5]al  
"* ( ! s]ies ( /rata j describ$1 is t ( 
a deposit =m$ 9 tol]ably %all[ wat]4 ,9 
! ,alps ( ,lomb>dy & ! ,tyrol1 9        
,luxemb\rg1 9 ,france1 &1 9 fact1       
?r\gh\t ne>ly ! :ole ( ,europe1 !y =m a 
sort ( fr+e 9 ! m>g9 ( ! ,triassic sea2 
&1 al?\gh ( comp>atively inconsid]able  
?ickness 9 ,engl&1 !y become highly     

develop$ 9 ,lomb>dy1 c41 to an enorm\s  
?ickness1 & con/itute ! great mass ( !  
,rhtian ,alps & a consid]able "p ( !    
well-kn[n b$s ( ,/4 ,cassian1 &         
,hall/adt 9 ! ,au/rian ,alps4 7,see page
 #bje47  ,! ,rhtic b$s ( ,europe 71 z a 
:ole1 =m$ "u v diff]5t conditions 9     
diff]5t areas4 ,! ?ickness ( ! /rata & !
 l>ge & well-develop$ fauna 7*iefly     
,mollusca7 indicate t ! ,rhtic /rata (  
,lomb>dy1 & o!r p>ts ( ! s\? & ea/ (    
,europe1 7 deposit$ 9 a broad op5 ocean4
 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! comp>atively ?9 b$s (  
?is age 9 ,engl& & nor?-we/]n ,europe1 !
 fauna ( :i*1 besides be+ poor 9 g5]a & 
species1 consi/s ( small & dw>f$ =ms1   
po9t to ! conclusion t !y 7 9 great "p  
deposit$ 9 %all[ seas & 9 e/u>ies1 or 9 
lagoons1 or 9 occasional salt lakes1 "u 
conditions :i* la/$ = a long p]iod4#ef  
#ef ,see ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 8,on !        
,physical ,relations ( ! ,new ,r$ ,m>l1 
,rhtic ,b$s1 & ,l[] ,lias10 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4
 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 #bg1        p4 #ahi4
  ,9 consequ5ce ( ! importance !y assume

 9 ,lomb>dy 7! anci5t ,rhtia71 ! "n     
8,rhtic ,b$s0 has be5 giv5 to ^! /rata  
by ,mr4 ,*>les ,moore2 ,dr4 ,?omas      
,wright has propos$ ! designation       
8,avicula ,contorta ,zone10 f ! pl5tiful
 occurr5ce ( t %ell 9 ! black %ales =m+ 
! well-m>k$ middle zone1 & :i* is       
ev]y:]e pres5t :]e ?is gr\p ( b$s is    
f\nd2 ,jules ,m>t9 & o!rs h propos$ !   
t]m 8,infra-lias10 or 8,infra-liassic   
/rata20 :ile ! "n 8,p5>? ,b$s0 has be5  
assign$ to ^! deposits 9 ?is c\ntry by  
,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bri/[1 at ! sugge/ion (   
,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison1 9 consequ5ce ( 
_! conspicu\s appe>ance & well-expos$   
sections 9 ! bold headl&s & cliffs ( t  
locality1 9 ! ,briti% ,*annel1 we/ (    
,c>diff4  ,a full] description ( ^! b$s 
w be f\nd 9 ! ,reports ( ! ,ba? ,meet+ (
 ! ,briti% ,association 7#ahfd71 by ,mr4
 ,bri/[2 also 9 communications to !     
,geological ,magaz9e1 = #ahfd1 by ,,mm4 
,bri/[ & ,dawk9s2#eg 9 pap]s read be=e !
 ,geological ,society by ,dr4 ,?omas    
,wright1#eh ,mr4 ,*>les ,moore1#ei &    

,mr4 ,ralph ,tate1#fj z pr9t$ 9 _!      
,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal2 & by ,mr4 ,e!ridge1 9 
! ,transactions ( ! ,cotteswold ,natural
 ,hi/ory ,club = #ahfe-ff4 ,! limits ( !
 ,p5>? ,b$s h also be5 lately accurately
 laid d[n by ,mr4 ,bri/[ 9 ! map ( !    
,geological ,survey ov] ! di/rict       
compris$ betwe5 ,ba?1 ,bri/ol1 & !      
,sev]n2 & elaborately detail$ typical   
sections ( mo/ ( ! localities 9 ,engl&1 
:]e ^! b$s occur1 h be5 con/ruct$ by    
,,mm4 ,bri/[1 ,e!ridge1 & ,woodw>d1 ( ! 
,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita91   
:i*1 :5 publi%$1 w greatly add to our k 
( ?is rem>kable & int]e/+ s]ies (       
deposits4    #eg ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4    
,soc41 vol4 xx41 p4 #cif4    #eh ,ibid1 
vol4 xvii41 p4 #dhc4    #ei ,ibid1 vol4 
xvi41 p4 #cgd4    #fj ,ibid1 vol4 xx41  
p4 #ajc4   ,,jurassic ,,p]iod4  ,?is    
p]iod1 "o ( ! mo/ important 9 ! physical
 hi/ory ( ! globe1 has receiv$ its "n f 
! ,jura m\nta9s 9 ,france1 ! ,jura range
 be+ compos$ ( ! rocks deposit$ 9 ! seas
 ( ! p]iod4 ,9 ! t]m ,jurassic1 !       

=mations designat$ z ! 8,oolite0 &      
8,lias0 are includ$1 bo? be+ f\nd 9 !   
,jura m\nta9s4 ,! ,jurassic p]iod       
pres5ts a v /rik+ assemblage (          
*>act]i/ics1 bo? 9 its vegetation & 9 ! 
animal rema9s :i* belong to x2 _m g5]a (
 animals exi/+ 9 ! prec$+ age h         
disappe>$1 new g5]a h replac$ !m1       
compris+ a v specially organis$ gr\p1   
conta9+ n less ?an #d1jjj species4  ,!  
,jurassic p]iod is sub-divid$ into two  
sub-p]iods3 ^? ( ! ,lias & ! ,oolite4   
,,! ,,lias  is an ,engli% prov9cial "n  
giv5 to an argillace\s lime/one1 :i*1 ) 
m>l & clay1 =ms ! base ( ! ,jurassic    
=mation1 & passes almo/ imp]ceptibly    
into ! ,l[] ,oolite 9 "s places1 :]e !  
,m>l/one ( ! ,lias p>takes ( ! m9]al "*1
 z well z ! fossil rema9s ( ! ,l[]      
,oolite2 & x is sometimes treat$ ( z    
belong+ to t =mation4 8,nev]!less1 !    
,lias may be trac$ ?r\gh\t a great "p ( 
,europe z a sep>ate & indep5d5t gr\p1 ( 
consid]able ?ickness1 v>y+ f #ejj to    
#a1jjj feet1 conta9+ _m peculi> fossils1

 & hav+ a v uni=m li?ological           
aspect40#fa ,! rocks :i* repres5t !     
,liassic p]iod =m ! base ( ! ,jurassic  
sy/em1 & h a mean ?ickness ( ab\t #a1bjj
 feet4 ,9 ! inf]ior "p we f9d           
argillace\s s&/ones1 :i* are call$ !    
s&/ones ( ! ,lias1 & compreh5d ! great] 
"p ( ! ,quad]s&/e91 or build+-/one ( !  
,g]mans1 above :i* comes compact        
lime/one1 argillace\s1 blui%1 & yell[i%2
 f9ally1 ! =mation t]m9ates 9 ! m>l/ones
 :i* are sometimes s&y1 & occasionally  
bitum9\s4    #fa ,lyell1 8,elem5ts (    
,geology10 p4 #dac4  ,! ,lias1 9 ,engl&1
 is g5]ally 9 ?ree gr\ps3 #a1 ! upp]1   
clays & %ales1 und]ly+ s&s2 #b1 !       
middle1 lias or m>l/one2 & #c1 ! l[]1   
clays & lime/one2 b ^! h be5 aga9       
sub-divid$--! la/ into six zones1 ea*   
m>k$ by its own peculi> species (       
,ammonites2 ! second into ?ree zones2 ! 
?ird consi/s ( clay1 %ale1 & argillace\s
 lime/one4 ,= ! purposes ( description  
we %all1 !re=e1 divide ! ,lias into ^!  
?ree gr\ps3--  #a4 ,upp] ,lias ,clay1   

consi/s ( blue clay1 or %ale1 conta9+   
nodul> b&s ( clay/ones at ! base1 cr[d$ 
) ,ammonites s]p5t9us1 ,a4 bifrons1     
,belemnites1 c4  #b4 ,! ,middle ,lias1  
commonly kn[n z ! ,m>l/one1 is surm\nt$ 
by a b$ ( oolitic iron/one1 l>gely work$
 9 ,leice/]%ire & 9 ! nor? ( ,engl& z a 
valuable ore ( iron4 ,! und]ly+ m>ls &  
s&s1 ! latt] ( :i* become some:at       
argillace\s bel[1 =m b$s f #bjj to #cjj 
feet ?ick 9 ,dorset%ire & ,gl\ce/]%ire2 
! fossils are ,ammonites m>g>itaceus1   
,a4 sp9atus1 ,belemnites trip>titus4 ,! 
upp] rock-b$s1 especially ! b$ (        
iron/one on ! top1 is g5]ally rem>kably 
ri* 9 fossils4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4     
#hh4--;,grypha incurva4  #c4 ,l[] ,lias 
7av]ag+ f #fjj to #ijj feet 9 ?ickness7 
consi/s1 9 ! l[] "p1 ( ?9 lay]s ( blui% 
argillace\s lime/one1 alt]nat+ ) %ales &
 clays2 ! :ole ov]laid by ! blue clay ( 
:i* ! l[] memb] ( ! ,liassic gr\p       
usually consi/s4 ,?is memb] ( ! s]ies is
 well develop$ 9 ,york%ire1 at ,lyme    
,regis & ,*>m\? 9 ,dorset%ire1 & g5]ally

 ov] ! ,s\?-,we/ & ,midl& ,c\nties (    
,engl&4 ,grypha incurva 7,fig4 #hh71 )  
s&y b&s1 occurs at ! base1 9 addition to
 :i* we f9d ,ammonites planorbis        
,buckl&i1 ,a4 ,o/rea liassica1 ,lima    
gigantea1 ,ammonites ,buckl&i1 c41 9 !  
l[] lime/ones & %ales4  ,above ! clay   
are yell[ s&s f #ajj to #bjj feet ?ick1 
und]ly+ ! lime/one ( ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4
 ,^! s&s 71 until lately1 consid]$ to   
belong to ! latt] =mation--z !y         
und\bt$ly d physically--until !y 7 %[n1 
by ,dr4 ,?omas ,wright1 ( ,*elt5ham1 to 
be m ne>ly alli$1 by _! fossils1 to !   
,lias bel[ ?an to ! ,inf]ior ,oolite    
above1 into :i* !y =m ! passage-b$s4  ,9
 ,france ! ,lias ab\nds 9 ! ,calvados1 9
 ,burgundy1 ,lorra9e1 ,norm&y1 & !      
,lyonnais4 ,9 ! ,vosges & ,luxemb\rg1   
,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont /ates t ! ,lias  
conta9+ ,grypha incurva & ,lima         
gigantea1 & "s o!r m>9e fossils1 becomes
 ar5ace\s2 & ar\nd ! ,h>z m\nta9s1 9    
,we/phalia & ,bav>ia1 9 its l[] p>ts !  
=mation is s&y1 & is sometimes a good   

build+-/one4  8,9 ,engl& ! ,lias        
con/itutes10 says ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 8a 
well-def9$ belt ( /rata1 runn+          
cont9u\sly f ,lyme ,regis1 on ! s\?-we/1
 ?r\gh ! :ole ( ,engl&1 to ,york%ire on 
! nor?-ea/1 & is an ext5sive s]ies (    
alt]nat+ b$s ( clay1 %ale1 & lime/one1 )
 occasional lay]s ( jet 9 ! upp] "p4 ,! 
unequal h>dness ( ! clays & lime/ones ( 
! ,liassic /rata causes "s ( its memb]s 
to /& out 9 ! di/9ct m9or esc>pm5ts1 (t5
 fac+ ! we/ & nor?-we/4 ,! ,m>l/one =ms 
! mo/ prom95t ( ^!1 & ov]looks ! broad  
mead[s ( ! l[] ,lias-clay1 t =m mu* ( ! 
c5tre ( ,engl&40 ,9 ,scotl& !re are few 
traces ( ! ,lias4 ,zoophytes1 ,mollusca1
 & ,fi%es ( a peculi> organisation1 b1  
above all1 ,reptiles ( extraord9>y size 
& /ructure gave to ! sea ( ! ,liassic   
p]iod an int]e/ & features q peculi>4   
,well might ,cuvi] exclaim1 :5 ! draw+s 
( ! ,plesiosaurus 7 s5t to him3 8,truly 
?is is altoge!r ! mo/ mon/r\s animal t  
has yet be5 dug out ( ! ru9s ( a =m]    
_w60 ,9 ! :ole ( ! ,engli% ,lias !re are

 ab\t #bdc g5]a1 & #dfg species (       
fossils4 ,! :ole s]ies has be5 divid$   
into zones *>act]is$ by p>ticul>        
,ammonites1 :i* are f\nd to be limit$ to
 !m1 at lea/ locally4  ,among !         
,e*9od]mata belong+ to ! ,lias we may   
cite ,a/]ias lumbricalis & ,palocoma    
,fur/emb]gii1 :i* con/itutes a g5us n   
dissimil> to ! />-fi%es1 ( :i* its      
radiat$ =m rem9ds u4 ,! ,p5tacr9ites1 ( 
:i* ,p5tacr9ites ,bri>eus is a type1    
ornam5ts _m collections by its elegant  
=m1 & is repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #gi & #hi4  
,x belongs to ! ord] ( ,cr9oidea1 :i* is
 repres5t$ at ! pres5t "t by a s+le liv+
 species1 ,p5tacr9us caput-,m$us1 "o ( !
 r>e & delicate ,zoophytes ( ! ,c>ibbean
 sea4  ,oy/]s 7,o/rea7 made _! appe>ance
 9 ! ,mus*elkalk ( ! la/ p]iod1 b only 9
 a small numb] ( species2 !y increas$   
greatly 9 importance 9 ! ,liassic seas4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4--,p5tacr9ites  
,bri>eus4 ,half natural size4  ,!       
,ammonites1 a curi\s g5us (             
,cephalopoda1 :i* made _! fir/ appe>ance

 9 small numb]s t[>ds ! close ( ! prec$+
 ,triassic p]iod1 become q special 9 !  
,second>y epo*1 ) ! close ( :i* !y      
disappe> altoge!r4 ,!y 7 v abundant 9 ! 
,jurassic p]iod1 &1 z we h already said1
 ea* zone is *>act]is$ by its peculi>   
species4 ,! "n is tak5 f ! resemblance (
 ! %ell to ! ram's-horn ornam5ts :i*    
decorat$ ! front ( ! temple ( ,jupit]   
,ammon & ! bas-reliefs & /atues ( t     
pagan deity4 ,!y 7 ,cephalopod\s        
,mollusca ) circul> %ells1 roll$ ^u     
!mselves symmetrically 9 ! same plane1 &
 divid$ into a s]ies ( *amb]s4 ,! animal
 only occupi$ ! out] *amb] ( ! %ell2 all
 ! o!rs 7 empty4 ,a siphon or tube issu+
 f ! fir/ *amb] trav]s$ all ! o!rs 9    
succession1 z is se5 9 all ! ,ammonites 
& ,nautili4 ,?is tube enabl$ ! animal to
 rise to ! surface1 or to s9k to !      
bottom1 = ! ,ammonite c\ld fill ! *amb]s
 ) wat] at pleasure1 or empty !m1 ?us   
r5d]+ itself light] or heavi] z occasion
 requir$4 ,! ,nautilus ( our seas is    
provid$ ) ! same curi\s organisation1 & 

rem9ds u =cibly ( ! ,ammonites (        
geological times4  ,%ells are ! only    
traces :i* rema9 ( ! ,ammonites4 ,we h  
no exact k ( ! animal :i* occupi$ &     
built !m4 ,! attempt at re/oration1 z   
exhibit$ 9 ,fig4 #ia1 w probably convey 
a fair idea ( ! ,ammonite :5 liv+4 ,we  
assume t x resembl$ ! ,nautilus ( mod]n 
times4 ,:at a curi\s aspect ^! e>ly seas
 mu/ h pres5t$1 cov]$ by myriads ( ^!   
,molluscs ( all sizes1 swimm+ ab\t 9    
eag] pursuit ( _! prey6  ,! ,ammonites (
 ! ,jurassic age pres5t !mselves 9 a    
great v>iety ( =ms & sizes2 "s ( !m (   
great beauty4 ,ammonites bifrons1 ,a4   
,noditianus1 ,a4 bisulcatus1 ,a4 ,turn]i
 7,fig4 #ij71 & ,a4 m>g>itatus1 are =ms 
*>act]i/ic ( ! ,lias4  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #ij4--;,ammonites ,turn]i1 f !    
,l[] ,lias4  ,! ,belemnites1 mollusc\s  
,cephalopods ( a v curi\s organisation1 
appe>$ 9 great numb]s1 & = ! fir/ "t1 9 
! ,jurassic seas4 ,( ?is ,mollusc we    
only possess ! fossilis$ int]nal 8bone10
 analog\s to t ( ! mod]n cuttle-fi% & ! 

calam>y ( ! pres5t seas4 ,?is simple    
relic is v f> f giv+ u an exact idea (  
:at ! animal 0 to :i* ! "n ( ,belemnite 
has be5 giv5 7f 1 a d>t7 f _! suppos$   
resemblance to ! head ( a javel94 ,!    
sl5d] cyl9drical bone1 ! only ve/ige    
rema9+ to u1 0 m]ely ! int]nal skeleton 
( ! animal4 ,:5 fir/ discov]$ !y 7      
call$1 by ! vulg>1 8,?und]-/ones0 &     
8,ladies' f+]s40 ,!y 71 at la/1 inf]r$  
to be ! %elly processes ( "s sort (     
anci5t cuttle-fi%4 ,unlike ! ,ammonite1 
:i* float$ on ! surface & sunk to !     
bottom at pleasure1 ! ,belemnite1 x has 
be5 ?\ght1 swam ne>] ! bottom ( ! sea1 &
 seiz$ its prey f bel[4  ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #ia4--;,ammonite re/or$4          
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,belemnite   
re/or$4  ,9 ,fig4 #ib is giv5 a         
re/oration ( ! liv+ ,belemnite1 by ,dr4 
,buckl& & ,pr(essor ,ow51 9 :i* ! t]m9al
 "p ( ! animal is m>k$ 9 a slightly d>k]
 t9t1 to indicate ! place ( ! bone :i*  
alone repres5ts 9 our days ?is fossilis$
 be+4 ,a suffici5tly exact idea ( ?is   

,mollusc may be arriv$ at f ! exi/+     
cuttle-fi%4 ,l ! cuttle-fi%1 !          
,belemnite secret$ a black liquid1 a    
sort ( ink or sepia2 & ! bag conta9+ !  
ink has frequ5tly be5 f\nd 9 a fossilis$
 /ate1 ) ! ink dri$ up1 & elaborate     
draw+s h be5 made ) ?is fossil pigm5t4  
,! beaks1 or horny m&ibles ( ! m\?1 :i* 
! ,belemnite possess$ 9 common ) ! o!r  
nak$ ,cephalopoda1 are repres5t$ 9 ,fig4
 #gh1 p4 #aha4  ,z ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e
 has po9t$ out1 ! de/ruction ( ! animals
 ^: rema9s are kn[n to u by ! "n (      
,belemnites 0 exce$+ly great :5 ! upp]  
"p ( ! ,lias ( ,lyme ,regis 0 deposit$4 
,multitudes seem to h p]i%$ almo/       
simultane\sly1 & millions are entomb$ 9 
a b$ b5ea? ,gold5 ,cap1 a l(ty cliff    
betwe5 ,lyme ,regis & ,bridport ,h>b\r1 
z well z 9 ! upp] ,lias g5]ally4#fb     
#fb ,de la ,be*e's 8,geological         
,manual10 #crd ed41 p4 #ddg4  ,among !  
,belemnites *>act]i/ic ( ! ,liassic     
p]iod may be cit$ ,b4 acutus 7,fig4     
#ic71 ,b4 pi/ili=mis1 & ,b4 sulcatus4   

,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4--;,belemnites  
acutus4  ,! seas ( ! p]iod conta9$ a    
great numb] ( ! fi%es call$ ,ganoids2   
:i* are s call$ f ! spl5d\r ( ! h>d &   
enamell$ scales1 :i* =m$ a sort (       
def5sive arm\r to protect _! bodies4    
,lepidotus gigas 0 a fi% ( great size   
belong+ to ?is age4 ,a small] fi% 0 !   
,tetragonolepis1 or *modus ,bu*ii4 ,!   
,acrodus nobilis1 ( :i* ! tee? are /ill 
pres]v$1 & popul>ly kn[n by ! "n (      
fossil lee*es1 0 a fi% ( :i* an entire  
skeleton has nev] be5 met )4 ,nei!r are 
we bett] in=m$ z to ! ,hybodus          
reticulatus4 ,! bony sp9es1 :i* =m !    
ant]ior "p ( ! dorsal f9 ( ?is fi%1 _h  
long be5 an object ( curiosity to       
geologi/s1 "u ! g5]al "n (              
,i*?yodorulites1 be=e !y 7 kn[n to be   
fragm5ts ( ! f9 ( ! ,hybodus4 ,!        
,i*?yodorulites 7 suppos$ by "s         
naturali/s to be ! jaw ( "s animal--by  
o!rs1 weapons l ^? ( ! liv+ ,bali/es or 
,silurus2 b ,agassiz has %[n !m to be   
nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r1 b bony sp9es on ! 

f91 l ^? ( ! liv+ g5]a ( ,ce/racions &  
,*imras1 9 bo? ( :i* ! concave face is  
arm$ ) small sp9es l ^? ( ! ,hybodus4 ,!
 sp9es 7 simply imb$d$ 9 ! fle%1 &      
atta*$ to x by /rong muscles4 8,!y      
s]v$10 says ,dr4 ,buckl&1 8z 9 ! ,*imra1
 to raise & depress ! f91 _! action     
resembl+ t ( a movable ma/ l[]+         
backw>d40  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#id4--;,i*?yosaurus communis4  ,let u   
ha/5 to say1 h[ev]1 t ^! are n ! be+s t 
*>act]is$ ! age1 & 7 ! sali5t features (
 ! g5]ation ( animals :i* exi/$ dur+ !  
,jurassic p]iod4 ,^! di/+ui%+ features  
are f\nd 9 ! enorm\s reptiles ) liz>d's 
head1 crocodile's conical tee?1 ! trunk 
& tail ( a quadrup$1 :ale-l paddles1 & !
 d\ble-concave v]tebr ( fi%es2 & ?is    
/range =m1 on su* a gigantic scale t ev5
 _! inanimate rema9s are exam9$ ) a     
curiosity n unmix$ ) awe4 ,! c\ntry r\nd
 ,lyme ,regis1 9 ,dorset%ire1 has long  
be5 celebrat$ = ! curi\s fossils        
discov]$ 9 its qu>ries1 & pres]v$ 9 !   
muddy accumulations ( ! sea ( ! ,liassic

 p]iod4 ,! c\ntry is hilly--8up "o hill 
& d[n ano!r10 is a pretty correct       
prov9cial description ( ! walk f        
,bridport to ,lyme ,regis--:]e "s ( !   
mo/ frightful creatures ! liv+ _w has   
probably ev] beheld1 sleep ! sleep (    
/ones4 ,! qu>ries ( ,lyme ,regis =m !   
cemet]y ( ! ,i*?yosauri2 ! sepul*re :]e 
lie int]r$ ^! dragons ( ! anci5t seas4  
,9 #ahaa a c\ntry girl1 :o made h]      
prec>i\s liv+ by pick+ up fossils = :i* 
! neighb\rhood 0 fam\s1 0 pursu+ h]     
avocation1 hamm] 9 h&1 :5 %e p]ceiv$ "s 
bones project+ a little out ( ! cliff4  
,f9d+1 on exam9ation1 t x 0 "p ( a l>ge 
skeleton1 %e cle>$ away ! rubbi%1 & laid
 b>e ! :ole creature imb$d$ 9 ! block ( 
/one4 ,%e hir$ workm5 to dig out ! block
 ( ,lias 9 :i* x 0 buri$4 ,9 ?is mann] 0
 ! fir/ ( ^! mon/]s br\ght to light3 8a 
mon/] "s ?irty feet long1 ) jaws ne>ly a
 fa?om 9 l5g?1 & huge sauc]-eyes2 :i* h 
s9ce be5 f\nd s p]fect1 t ! petrifi$    
l5ses h be5 split (f & us$ z magnifi]s10
 z a writ] 9 ,all ! ,ye> ,r\nd assures  

u4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4--;,head (  
,i*?yosaurus platydon4  ,9 ,fig4 #ie !  
head ( ,i4 platydon is repres5t$4 ,z 9 !
 ,saurians1 ! op5+s ( ! no/rils are     
situat$ ne> ! ant]ior angle ( ! orbits (
 ! eyes1 :ile ^? ( ! ,crocodile are ne> 
! sn\t2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 9 its o/eology &
 its mode ( d5tition x ne>ly resembles !
 ,crocodile2 ! tee? are po9t$ &         
conical--n1 h[ev]1 set 9 deep or sep>ate
 sockets1 b only implant$ 9 a long &    
deep cont9u\s groove holl[$ 9 ! bones ( 
! jaw4 ,^! /rong jaws h an enorm\s op5+2
 =1 9 "s in/ances1 !y h be5 f\nd eight  
feet 9 l5g? & arm$ ) #afj tee?4 ,let u  
add t tee? lo/ ?r\gh ! voracity ( !     
animal1 or 9 conte/s ) o!r animals1 c\ld
 be r5ew$ _m times2 =1 at ! inn] side ( 
! base ( e old too?1 !re is always !    
bony g]m ( a new "o4  ,! eyes ( ?is m>9e
 mon/] 7 mu* l>g] ?an ^? ( any animal n[
 liv+2 9 volume !y frequ5tly exce$ !    
human head1 & _! /ructure 0 "o ( _! mo/ 
rem>kable peculi>ities4 ,9 front ( !    
scl]otic coat or capsule ( ! eye !re is 

an annul> s]ies ( ?9 bony plates1       
surr\nd+ ! pupil4 ,?is /ructure1 :i* is 
n[ only met ) 9 ! eyes ( c]ta9 turtles1 
tortoises1 & liz>ds1 & 9 ^? ( _m birds1 
c\ld be us$ s z to increase or dim9i% ! 
curvature ( ! transp>5t cornea1 & ?us   
increase or dim9i% ! magnify+ p[]1      
accord+ to ! requirem5ts ( !            
animal--p]=m+ ! (fice1 9 %ort1 ( a      
telescope or microscope at pleasure4 ,! 
eyes ( ! ,i*?yosaurus 71 !n1 an optical 
app>atus ( wond]ful p[] & ( s+ul>       
p]fection1 enabl+ ! animal1 by _! p[] ( 
adaptation & int5sity ( vision1 to see  
its prey f> & ne>1 & to pursue x 9 !    
d>kness & 9 ! dep?s ( ! sea4 ,! curi\s  
arrangem5t ( bony plates we h describ$  
furni%$1 besides1 to its globul> eye1 ! 
p[] necess>y to be> ! pressure ( a      
consid]able weight ( wat]1 z well z !   
viol5ce ( ! waves1 :5 ! animal came to !
 surface to brea!1 & rais$ its head     
above ! waves4 ,?is magnific5t specim5 (
 ! fi%-liz>d1 or ,i*?yosaurus1 z x 0    
nam$ by ,dr4 ,ure1 n[ =ms "p ( !        

treasures ( ! ,briti% ,museum4  ,at no  
p]iod 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory h ,reptiles      
occupi$ s important a place z !y did 9 !
 ,jurassic p]iod4 ,nature seems to h    
wi%$ to br+ ?is class ( animals to !    
highe/ /ate ( developm5t4 ,! great      
,reptiles ( ! ,lias are z complicat$ 9  
_! /ructure z ! ,mammals :i* appe>$ at a
 lat] p]iod4 ,!y probably liv$1 = ! mo/ 
"p1 by fi%+ 9 %all[ creeks & bays def5d$
 f heavy break]s1 or 9 ! op5 sea2 b !y  
seem to h s\ght ! %ore f "t to "t2 !y   
crawl$ along ! bea*1 cov]$ ) a s(t sk91 
p]haps n unlike "s ( our ,cetace4 ,!    
,i*?yosaurus1 f its =m & /r5g?1 may h   
brav$ ! waves ( ! sea z ! porpoise does 
n[4 ,its de/ructiv5ess & voracity mu/ h 
be5 prodigi\s1 = ,dr4 ,buckl& describes 
a specim5 :i* _h betwe5 its ribs1 9 !   
place :]e ! /oma* might be suppos$ to h 
be5 plac$1 ! skeleton ( a small] "o--a  
pro( t ?is mon/]1 n cont5t ) prey+ on   
its weak] neighb\rs1 0 9 ! habit (      
dev\r+ its own k9d4 ,9 ! same wat]s liv$
 ! ,plesiosaurus1 ) long neck & =m m    

/range ?an t ( ! ,i*?yosaurus2 & ^!     
pot5tates ( ! seas 7 w>m$ by ! same sun 
& t5ant$ ! same banks1 9 ! mid/ ( a     
vegetation n unlike t :i* ! climate (   
,africa n[ produces4  ,! great ,saurians
 9 ! ,lias ( ,lyme ,regis seem to h     
suff]$ a some:at sudd5 dea?1 p>tly 9    
consequ5ce ( a s]ies ( small cata/rophes
 sudd5ly de/roy+ ! animals !n exi/+ 9   
p>ticul> spots4 8,9 g5]al ! bones are n 
scatt]$ ab\t1 & 9 a deta*$ /ate1 z w\ld 
happ5 if ! dead animal _h desc5d$ to !  
bottom ( ! sea1 to be decompos$1 or     
dev\r$ piecemeal1 z1 inde$1 might also  
happ5 if ! creature float$ = a "t on !  
surface1 "o animal dev\r+ "o "p1 & ano!r
 c>ry+ (f a diff]5t portion2 on !       
contr>y1 ! bones ( ! skeleton1 ?\gh     
frequ5tly compress$1 z mu/ arise f !    
enorm\s pressure to :i* !y h s long be5 
subject$1 are tol]ably connect$1        
frequ5tly 9 p]fect1 or ne>ly p]fect1    
ord]1 z if prep>$ by ! anatomi/4 ,! sk91
 moreov]1 may sometimes be trac$1 & !   
compress$ cont5ts ( ! inte/9es may at   

times be also obs]v$--all t5d+ to %[ t !
 animals 7 sudd5ly de/roy$1 & z sudd5ly 
pres]v$40#fc    #fc 8,geological        
,manual10 by ,h4 ,t4 ,de la ,be*e1 #crd 
ed41 p4 #cdf4  ,^! /range & gigantic    
,saurians seem almo/ to disappe> dur+ ! 
succe$+ geological p]iods2 =1 al?\gh !y 
h be5 discov]$ z l[ d[n z ! ,trias 9    
,g]many1 & z high up z ! ,*alk 9 ,engl&1
 !y only appe> z /raggl]s 9 ^! epo*s2 s1
 too1 ! ,reptiles1 ! exi/+ ,saurians    
are1 z x 71 only ! %ad[y1 feeble        
repres5tatives ( ^! p[]ful races ( !    
anci5t _w4  ,conf9+ ourselves to        
well-e/abli%$ facts1 we %all consid] 9  
"s detail ! be/ kn[n ( ^! fossil        
reptiles--! ,i*?yosaurus1 ,plesiosaurus1
 & ,pt]odactyle4  ,! extraord9>y        
creature :i* be>s ! "n ( ,i*?yosaurus 7f
 ! ,greek words  1 signify+ fi%-liz>d71 
pres5ts c]ta9 dispositions & organic    
arrangem5ts :i* are met ) disp]s$ 9     
c]ta9 classes ( animals n[ liv+1 b !y   
nev] seem to be aga9 reunit$ 9 any s+le 
individual4 ,x possesses1 z ,cuvi] says1

 ! sn\t ( a dolph91 ! head ( a liz>d1 ! 
jaws & tee? ( a crocodile1 ! v]tebr ( a 
fi%1 ! head & /]num ( a liz>d1 ! paddles
 l ^? ( a :ale1 & ! trunk & tail ( a    
quadrup$4  ,bayle appe>s to h furni%$ ! 
be/ idea ( ! ,i*?yosaurus by describ+ x 
z ! ,:ale ( ! ,saurians--! ,cetacean ( !
 primitive seas4 ,x 01 9 fact1 an animal
 exclusively m>9e2 :i*1 on %ore1 w\ld   
re/ motionless l an in]t mass4 ,its     
:ale-l paddles1 & fi%-l v]tebr1 ! l5g? (
 ! tail & o!r p>ts ( its /ructure1 prove
 t its habits 7 aquatic2 z ! rema9s (   
fi%es & reptiles1 & ! =m ( its tee?1 %[ 
t x 0 c>nivor\s4 ,l ! ,:ale1 also1 !    
,i*?yosaurus brea!d atmosph]ic air2 s t 
x 0 "u ! necessity ( com+ frequ5tly to !
 surface ( ! wat]1 l t inhabitant ( !   
deep4 ,we c ev5 believe1 ) ,bayle1 t x 0
 provid$1 l ! ,:ale1 ) v5ts or bl[]s1   
?r\gh :i* x eject$1 9 columns into !    
air1 ! wat] x _h swall[$4  ,! dim5sions 
( ! ,i*?yosaurus v>i$ ) ! species1 ( :i*
 five are kn[n & describ$4 ,^! are      
,i*?yosaurus communis1 ,i4 platydon1 ,i4

 int]m$ius1 ,i4 t5uiro/ris1 & ,i4       
,cuvi]ii1 ! l>ge/ be+ m ?an ?irty feet 9
 l5g?4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4             
#if4--;,i*?yosaurus platydon4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4--,l[] jaw (    
,i*?yosaurus4 7,dr4 ,buckl&47           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,skeleton (   
,i*?yosaurus4  ,conta9+ tee? & bones (  
,fi%es 9 a coprolitic =m4 ,"o-fifte5?   
natural size4  ,! %ort1 ?ick neck ( !   
,i*?yosaurus support$ a capaci\s head1 &
 0 cont9u$ backw>ds1 f beh9d ! eyes1 9 a
 column compos$ ( m ?an a hundr$ v]tebr4
 ,! animal be+ adapt$1 l ! :ale1 = rapid
 movem5t ?r\gh ! wat]1 its v]tebr _h    
none ( ! inv>iable solidity ( ^? ( !    
,liz>d or ,crocodile1 b r ! /ructure &  
lightness ( ^? ( ,fi%es4 ,! section ( ^!
 v]tebr pres5ts two holl[ cones1        
connect$ only by _! summits to ! c5tre (
 ! v]tebr1 :i* w\ld p]mit ( ! utmo/     
flexibility ( movem5t4 ,! ribs ext5d$   
along ! entire l5g? ( ! v]tebral column1
 f ! head to ! pelvis4 ,! bones ( !     
/]num1 or t "p ( ! frame :i* support$ ! 

paddles1 pres5t ! same comb9ations ) ^? 
( ! /]num 9 ! ,orni?orhyn*us1 or        
,duck-bill$ ,platypus1 ( ,new ,holl&1 an
 animal :i* pres5ts ! s+ul> comb9ation (
 a mammalian furr$ quadrup$ hav+ ! bill 
( a duck & webb$ feet2 :i* div$ to !    
bottom ( ! wat] 9 se>* ( its food1 &    
return$ to ! surface to brea! ! air4 ,9 
?is ph5om5on ( liv+ ,nature ! ,creator  
seems to h repeat$1 9 our days1 !       
organic arrangem5ts :i* he _h orig9ally 
provid$ = ! ,i*?yosaurus4  ,9 ord] t !  
animal %\ld be able to move ) rapidity 9
 ! wat]1 bo? its ant]ior & po/]ior      
memb]s 7 conv]t$ into f9s or paddles4 ,!
 ant]ior f9s 7 half z l>ge aga9 z !     
po/]ior4 ,9 "s species ea* paddle 0 made
 up ( ne>ly a hundr$ bones1 ( polygonal 
=m1 & dispos$ 9 s]ies repres5t+ !       
phalanges ( ! f+]s4 ,?is h&1 jo9t$ at ! 
arm1 be>s resemblance1 9 o/eological    
con/ruction1 to ! paddles1 )\t di/9ct   
f+]s1 ( ! ,porpoise & ! ,:ale4 ,a       
specim5 ( ! po/]ior f9 ( ,i4 communis1  
discov]$ at ,b>r[-on-,so>1 9            

,leice/]%ire1 9 #ahdj1 by ,sir ,philip  
,eg]ton1 exhibit$ on its po/]ior m>g9 ! 
rema9s ( c>tilag9\s rays1 :i* bifurcat$ 
z !y approa*$ ! edge1 l ^? 9 ! f9s ( a  
fi%4 8,x _h previ\sly be5 suppos$10 says
 ,pr(essor ,ow51 8t ! locomotive organs 
7 envelop$1 :ile liv+1 9 a smoo?        
integum5t1 l t ( ! turtle & porpoise1   
:i* has no o!r support ?an is af=d$ by !
 bones & ligam5ts )92 b x n[ appe>s t ! 
f9 0 mu* l>g]1 exp&+ f> beyond ! osse\s 
frame-"w1 & deviat+ widely 9 its fi%-l  
rays f ! ord9>y reptilian type40 ,!     
,pr(essor believes t1 besides !         
=e-paddles1 ^! /iff-neck$ ,saurians 7   
furni%$ at ! end ( ! tail ) a f9 to     
assi/ !m 9 turn+1 n plac$ horizontally1 
z 9 ! :ale1 b v]tically1 =m+ a p[]ful   
in/rum5t ( progression & motion4 ,x is  
obvi\s t ! ,i*?yosaurus 0 an animal     
p[]fully arm$ = (f5ce & def5ce4 ,we _c  
say1 ) c]ta9ty1 :e!r ! sk9 0 smoo?1 l t 
( ! :ale or liz>d1 or cov]$ ) scales1 l 
! great reptiles ( our own age4         
,nev]!less1 z ! scales ( ! ,fi%es & !   

cuirass & horny arm\r ( o!r ,reptiles ( 
! ,lias are pres]v$1 & z no su* def5sive
 scales h be5 f\nd belong+ to !         
,i*?yosaurus1 x is probable t ! sk9 0   
nak$ & smoo?4 ,! tail1 compos$ ( f      
eighty to eighty-five v]tebr1 0 provid$ 
) l>ge & long paddles1 arrang$ v]tically
 z 9 ! ,:ale4  ,x is curi\s to see to   
:at a degree ( p]fection has be5 c>ri$1 
9 our days1 ! k ( ! ant$iluvian animals1
 _! habits1 & _! economy4 ,fig4 #ih     
repres5ts ! skeleton ( an ,i*?yosaurus  
f\nd 9 ! ,lias ( ,lyme ,regis1 :i* /ill 
reta9s 9 its abdom9al cavity coprolites1
 t is to say1 ! residue ( dige/ion4 ,!  
s(t p>ts ( ! inte/9al canal h disappe>$1
 b ! fces !mselves are pres]v$1 & _!    
exam9ation in=ms u z to ! alim5t>y      
regim5 ( ?is animal :i* has p]i%$ f !   
e>? _m ?\s&s1 p]haps millions1 ( ye>s4  
,m>y ,ann+1 to :om we owe _m ( !        
discov]ies made 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,lyme
 ,regis1 h] native place1 _h 9 h]       
collection an enorm\s coprolite ( !     
,i*?yosaurus4 ,?is coprolite 7,fig4 #ii7

 conta9$ "s bones & scales ( ,fi%es1 & (
 div]s ,reptiles1 well en\gh pres]v$ to 
h _! species id5tifi$4 ,x only rema9s to
 be add$ t1 among ! bones1 ^? ( !       
,i*?yosaurus 7 (t5 f\nd1 especially ^? (
 "y individuals4 ,! pres5ce ( ! undige/$
 rema9s ( v]tebr & o!r bones ( animals (
 its own species 9 ! coprolites ( !     
,i*?yosaurus proves1 z we h already _h  
occasion to rem>k1 t ?is great ,saurian 
mu/ h be5 a mo/ voraci\s mon/]1 s9ce x  
habitually dev\r$ n only fi%1 b         
individuals ( its own race--! small]    
becom+ ! prey ( ! l>g]4 ,! /ructure ( ! 
jaw ( ! ,i*?yosaurus leads u to believe 
t ! animal swall[$ its prey )\t divid+  
x4 ,its /oma* & inte/9es mu/1 !n1 h =m$ 
a sort ( p\* ( great volume1 fill+      
entirely ! abdom9al cavity1 &           
correspond+ 9 ext5t to ! great          
developm5t ( ! tee? & jaws4             
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4--;,coprolite1  
enclos+ bones ( small ,i*?yosaurus4     
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--;,coprolite (
 ,i*?yosaurus4  ,! p]fection ) :i* its  

cont5ts h be5 pres]v$ 9 ! fossilis$     
coprolites1 furni%es indirect pro(s t ! 
inte/9al canal ( ! ,i*?yosaurus resembl$
 closely t ( ! %>k & ! dog-fi%--fi%es   
ess5tially voraci\s & de/ructive1 :i* h 
! inte/9al canal spirally convolut$1 an 
arrangem5t :i* is exactly t indicat$ 9  
"s ( ! coprolites ( ! ,i*?yosaurus1 z is
 evid5t f ! impressions :i* ! folds ( ! 
inte/9e h left on ! coprolite1 ( :i*    
,fig4 #ajj is a repres5tation4 ,9 !     
cliffs ne> ,lyme ,regis coprolites are  
abundant 9 ! ,liassic =mation1 & h be5  
f\nd dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! %ales &         
lime/ones along _m miles ( t coa/4  ,:at
 an admirable privilege ( sci5ce1 :i* is
 able1 by an exam9ation ( ! simple/ p>ts
 9 ! organisation ( be+s :i* liv$ ages  
ago1 to give to our m9ds su* solid      
tea*+s & su* true enjoym5ts6 8,:5 we    
discov]10 says ,dr4 ,buckl&1 89 ! body (
 an ,i*?yosaurus ! food :i* x has       
engulf$ an in/ant be=e its dea?1 :5 !   
int]vals betwe5 its sides pres5t        
!mselves /ill fill$ ) ! rema9s ( fi%es  

:i* x _h swall[$ "s t5 ?\s& ye>s ago1 or
 a "t ev5 twice z great1 all ^! imm5se  
int]vals vani%1 "t disappe>s1 & we f9d  
ourselves1 s to speak1 ?r[n into        
imm$iate contact ) ev5ts :i* took place 
9 epo*s immeasurably di/ant1 z if we    
occupi$ ourselves ) ! affairs ( !       
previ\s day40  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4      
#aja4--,skull ( ,plesiosaurus re/or$4   
7,conybe>e47  a1 pr(ile2 b1 se5 f above4
  ,! "n ( ,plesiosaurus 7f ! ,greek     
words 1 ne>1 & 1 liz>d7 rem9ds u t ?is  
animal1 ?\gh pres5t+ _m peculi>ities (  
g5]al /ructure1 is alli$ by its         
organisation to ! ,saurian or ,liz>d    
family1 &1 consequ5tly1 to !            
,i*?yosaurus4  ,! ,plesiosaurus pres5ts1
 9 its organic /ructure1 ! mo/ curi\s   
assemblage we h met ) among ! organic   
ve/iges ( ! anci5t _w4 ,! ,plesiosaurus 
0 a m>9e1 air-brea?+1 c>nivor\s reptile1
 comb9+ ! *>act]s ( ! head ( a ,liz>d1 !
 tee? ( a ,crocodile1 a neck ( excessive
 l5g? resembl+ t ( a ,swan1 ! ribs ( a  
,*ameleon1 a body ( mod]ate size1 & a v 

%ort tail1 &1 f9ally1 f\r paddles       
resembl+ ^? ( a ,:ale4 ,let u be/[ a    
glance ^u ! rema9s ( ?is /range animal  
:i* ! e>? has reveal$1 & :i* sci5ce has 
re/or$ to u4  ,! head ( ! ,plesiosaurus 
pres5ts a comb9ation ( ! *>act]s belong+
 to ! ,i*?yosaurus1 ! ,crocodile1 & !   
,liz>d4 ,its enorm\sly long neck        
comprises a great] numb] ( v]tebr ?an ! 
neck ( ei!r ! ,camel1 ! ,giraffe1 or ev5
 ! ,swan1 :i* ( all ! fea!r$ race has ! 
longe/ neck 9 comp>ison to ! re/ ( !    
body4 ,& x is to be rem>k$1 t1 contr>y  
to :at obta9s 9 ! ,mammals1 :]e ! v]tebr
 ( ! neck are always sev51 ! v]tebr 9   
birds increase 9 numb] ) ! l5g? ( !     
neck4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4              
#ajb4--,skeleton ( ,plesiosaurus        
doli*odeirus re/or$4 7,conybe>e         
pr9cipally47  ,! body is cyl9drical &   
r\nd$1 l t ( ! great m>9e ,turtles4 ,x  
01 d\btless1 nak$1 i4e41 n protect$ ) ! 
scales or c>apace ) :i* "s au?ors h     
inve/$ x2 = no traces ( su* cov]+s h be5
 f\nd ne> any ( ! skeletons :i* h be5   

hi!rto discov]$4 ,! dorsal v]tebr are   
atta*$ to ea* o!r by ne>ly plane        
surfaces l ^? ( t]re/rial quadrup$s1 a  
mode ( arrangem5t :i* mu/ h depriv$ !   
:ole ( its v]tebral column ( mu* ( its  
flexibility4 ,ea* pair ( ribs surr\nd$ !
 body ) a complete girdle1 =m$ ( five   
pieces1 z 9 ! ,*ameleon & ,iguana2 :5ce1
 no d\bt1 z ) ! ,*ameleon1 great        
facilities exi/$ = ! contraction &      
dilatation ( ! lungs4  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #ajc4--,/]num & pelvis (          
,plesiosaurus4 ,pub41 pubis2 ,is*41     
is*ium2 ,il41 ilium4  ,! brea/1 !       
pelvis1 & ! bones ( ! ant]ior & po/]ior 
extremities furni%$ an app>atus :i*     
p]mitt$ ! ,plesiosaurus1 l !            
,i*?yosaurus & exi/+ ,cetaceans1 to s9k 
9 ! wat] & return to ! surface at       
pleasure 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,pr(4 ,ow51 9 8  
8,report on ,briti% ,reptiles10         
*>act]ises !m z air-brea?+ & cold-blood$
 animals2 ! pro( t !y respir$ atmosph]ic
 air imm$iately1 be+ f\nd 9 ! position &
 /ructure ( ! nasal passages1 & ! bony  

me*anism ( ! ?oracic duct & abdom9al    
cavity4 ,9 ! fir/1 ! size & position ( !
 ext]nal no/rils 7,fig4 #ajb71 comb9$ ) 
! /ructure ( ! paddles1 indicate a /rik+
 analogy betwe5 ! ext9ct ,saurians & !  
,cetaceans1 (f]+1 z ! ,pr(essor obs]ves1
 8a beautiful example ( ! adaptation (  
/ructure to ! peculi> exig5cies (       
species40 ,:ile ! evid5ce t !y 7        
cold-blood$ animals is f\nd 9 ! flexible
 or unan*ylos$ condition ( ! osse\s     
pieces ( ! occiput & o!r cranial bones (
 ! l[] jaw1 & ( ! v]tebral column2 f :i*
 ! ,pr(essor draws ! conclusion t ! he>t
 0 adapt$ = transmitt+ a "p only ( !    
blood ?r\gh ! respiratory organs2 !     
abs5ce ( ! ball-&-socket articulations (
 ! bones ( ! v]tebr1 ! position ( !     
no/rils ne> ! summit ( ! head1 ! num]\s 
%ort & flat digital bones1 :i* mu/ h be5
 envelop$ 9 a simple undivid$           
integum5t>y %ea?1 =m+ 9 bo? =e & h9d    
extremities a paddle closely resembl+ t 
( ! liv+ ,cetacea4 ,! paddles are l>g] &
 m p[]ful ?an ^? ( ! ,i*?yosaurus1 to   

comp5sate = ! slight assi/ance ! animal 
d]iv$ f ! tail4 ,! latt]--%ort]1 z      
comp>$ ) ! l5g? ( ! re/ ( ! body1 ?an 9 
! ,i*?yosaurus--0 m calculat$ to act !  
"p ( a rudd]1 9 direct+ ! c\rse ( !     
animal ?r\gh ! wat]1 ?an z a p[]ful     
organ ( propulsion4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #ajd4--,rema9s ( ,plesiosaurus         
macrocephalus4 ,"o-twelf? natural size4 
,su* 7 ! /range comb9ations ( =m &      
/ructure 9 ! ,plesiosaurus &            
,i*?yosaurus--g5]a ( animals ^: rema9s  
h1 aft] an int]m5t ext5d+ to unkn[n     
?\s&s ( ye>s1 be5 reveal$ to light &    
submitt$ to exam9ation2 nay1 rebuilt1   
bone by bone1 until we h ! complete     
skeletons be=e u1 & ! habits ( ! animals
 describ$1 z if !y _h be5 obs]v$ 9 life4
 ,conybe>e ?us speaks ( ! suppos$ habits
 ( ^! ext9ct =ms1 :i* he _h built up f  
scanty mat]ials3 8,t ! ,plesiosaurus 0  
aquatic is evid5t f ! =m ( its paddles2 
t x 0 m>9e is equally s1 f ! rema9s )   
:i* x is univ]sally associat$2 t x may h
 occasionally visit$ ! %ore1 !          

resemblance ( its extremities to !      
turtle may lead u to conjecture2 its    
motion1 h[ev]1 mu/ h be5 v awkw>d on l&2
 its long neck mu/ h imp$$ its progress 
?r\gh ! wat]1 pres5t+ a /rik+ contra/ to
 ! organisation :i* s admirably fits !  
,i*?yosaurus = cutt+ ?r\gh ! waves4 ,may
 x n1 !re=e1 be conclud$ t x swam on or 
ne> ! surface1 ar*+ back its long neck l
 ! swan1 & occasionally d>t+ x d[n at ! 
fi% :i* happ5$ to float )9 its rea*8 ,x 
may1 p]haps1 h lurk$ 9 %all[ wat] along 
! coa/s1 conceal$ among ! sea-we$s1 &1  
rais+ its no/rils to ! surface f a      
consid]able dep?1 may h f\nd a secure   
retreat f ! assaults ( dang]\s enemies1 
:ile ! l5g? & flexibility ( its neck may
 h comp5sat$ = ! want ( /r5g? 9 its     
jaws1 & incapacity = swift motion ?r\gh 
! wat]1 by ! sudd5ness & agility ( !    
attack !y enabl$ x to make on e animal  
fitt$ to become its prey40  ,!          
,plesiosaurus 0 fir/ describ$ by ! ,rev4
 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybe>e & ,sir ,h5ry ,de la  
,be*e1 9 ! 8,geological ,society's      

,transactions0 = #ahba1 & a re/oration (
 ,p4 doli*odeirus1 ! mo/ common ( ^!    
fossils1 appe>$ 9 ! same "w = #ahbd4 ,! 
fir/ specim5 0 discov]$1 z !            
,i*?yosaurus _h be5 previ\sly1 9 ! ,lias
 ( ,lyme ,regis2 s9ce !n o!r individuals
 & species h be5 f\nd 9 ! same          
geological =mation 9 v>i\s p>ts (       
,engl&1 ,irel&1 ,france1 & ,g]many1 & ) 
su* v>iations ( /ructure t ,pr(essor    
,ow5 has felt himself ju/ifi$ 9 record+ 
sixte5 di/9ct species1 ( :i* we h       
repres5t$ ,p4 doli*odeirus 7,fig4 #ajb71
 z re/or$ by ,conybe>e1 & ,p4           
macrocephalus 7,fig4 #ajd71 ) its       
skeleton1 z m\ld$ f ! lime/one ( ,lyme  
,regis1 :i* has be5 plac$ 9 !           
,palontological ,gall]y ( ! ,briti%     
,museum4  ,illu/ration3 ,,xv4--,ideal   
sc5e ( ! ,lias ) ,i*?yosaurus &         
,plesiosaurus4  ,! ,plesiosaurus 0      
sc>cely s l>ge z ! ,i*?yosaurus4 ,!     
specim5 ( ,i4 platydon 9 ! ,briti%      
,museum probably belong$ to an animal   
f\r-&-tw5ty feet long1 & "s are said to 

indicate ?irty feet1 :ile !re are       
species ( ,plesiosauri measur+ eighte5 &
 tw5ty1 ! l>ge/ kn[n specim5 (          
,plesiosaurus ,cramptoni f\nd 9 ! lias (
 ,york%ire1 & n[ 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,royal 
,society ( ,dubl91 be+ tw5ty-two feet   
f\r in*es 9 l5g?4 ,on ! opposite page   
7,,plate ,,xv47 an attempt is made to   
repres5t ^! gr& reptiles ( ! ,lias 9 _! 
native elem5t1 & z !y liv$4  ,cuvi] says
 ( ! ,plesiosaurus1 8t x pres5ts ! mo/  
mon/r\s assemblage ( *>act]i/ics t has  
be5 met ) among ! races ( ! anci5t _w40 
,?is expression %\ld n be und]/ood 9 a  
lit]al s5se2 !re are no mon/]s 9        
,nature2 9 no liv+ creature are ! laws (
 organisation ev] positively infr+$2 & x
 is m 9 accordance ) ! g5]al p]fection (
 creation to see 9 an organisation s    
special1 9 a /ructure :i* diff]s s      
notably f t ( ! animals ( our own days1 
! simple developm5t ( a type1 &         
sometimes also ! introduction ( be+s1 & 
successive *anges 9 _! /ructure4 ,we    
%all see1 9 exam9+ ! curi\s s]ies (     

animals ( ! anci5t _w1 t ! organisation 
& physiological functions g on improv+  
unceas+ly1 & t ea* ( ! ext9ct g5]a :i*  
prec$$ ! appe>ance ( man1 pres5t1 = ea* 
organ1 modifications :i* always t5d     
t[>ds great] p]fection4 ,! f9s ( ! fi%es
 ( ,devonian seas become ! paddles ( !  
,i*?yosauri & ( ! ,plesiosauri2 ^!1 9 _!
 turn1 become ! membran\s foot ( !      
,pt]odactyle1 &1 f9ally1 ! w+ ( ! bird4 
,aft]w>ds comes ! articulat$ =e-foot ( !
 t]re/rial mammalia1 :i*1 aft] atta9+   
rem>kable p]fection 9 ! h& ( ! ape1     
becomes1 f9ally1 ! arm & h& ( man1 an   
in/rum5t ( wond]ful delicacy & p[]1     
belong+ to an enlight5$ be+ gift$ ) !   
div9e attribute ( reason6 ,let u1 !n1   
dismiss any idea ( mon/rosity ) reg>d to
 ^! ant$iluvian animals2 let u le>n1 on 
! contr>y1 to recognise1 ) admiration1 !
 div9e pro(s ( design :i* !y display1 & 
9 _! organisation to see only ! h&iwork 
( ! ,creator4  ,ano!r /range inhabitant 
( ! anci5t _w1 ! ,pt]odactylus 7f 1 a   
w+1 & 1 a f+]71 discov]$ 9 #ahbh1 made  

,cuvi] pron\nce x to be inconte/ably !  
mo/ extraord9>y ( all ! ext9ct animals  
:i* _h come "u 8 consid]ation2 & su* z1 
if we saw !m re/or$ to life1 w\ld appe> 
mo/ /range & dissimil> to any?+ t n[    
exi/s4 ,9 size & g5]al =m1 & 9 !        
disposition & "* ( its w+s1 ?is fossil  
g5us1 accord+ to ,cuvi]1 some:at        
resembl$ our mod]n bats & vampyres1 b _h
 its beak elongat$ l ! bill ( a         
woodcock1 & arm$ ) tee? l ! sn\t ( a    
crocodile2 its v]tebr1 ribs1 pelvis1    
legs1 & feet resembl$ ^? ( a liz>d2 its 
?ree ant]ior f+]s t]m9at$ 9 long hook$  
claws l t on ! =e-f+] ( ! bat2 & ov] its
 body 0 a cov]+1 nei!r compos$ ( fea!rs 
z 9 ! bird1 nor ( hair z 9 ! bat1 b     
probably a nak$ sk92 9 %ort1 x 0 a mon/]
 resembl+ no?+ t has ev] be5 he>d ( ^u  
e>?1 except ! dragons ( romance &       
h]aldry4 ,moreov]1 x 0 probably         
noctivag\s & insectivor\s1 & 9 bo? ^!   
po9ts resembl$ ! bat2 b diff]$ f x 9    
hav+ ! mo/ important bones 9 its body   
con/ruct$ aft] ! mann] ( ^? ( reptiles4 

,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4--,pt]odactylus
 crassiro/ris4  8,?us1 l ,milton's fi5d1
 all-qualifi$ = all s]vices & all       
elem5ts1 ! creature 0 a fit companion = 
! k9dr$ reptiles t sw>m$ 9 ! seas1 or   
crawl$ on ! %ores1 ( a turbul5t planet3 
8,! ,fi5d1     ,o'er bog1 or /eep1 ?r\gh
 /rait1 r\gh1 d5se1 or r>e1     ,) head1
 h&s1 w+s1 or feet1 pursues 8 way1      
,& s9ks1 or swims1 or wades1 or creeps1 
or flies4  ,p>adise ,lo/1 ,book ,,ii41  
l9e #idg4  8,) flocks ( su*-l creatures 
fly+ 9 ! air1 & %oals ( ,i*?yosauri &   
,plesiosauri sw>m+ 9 ! ocean1 & gigantic
 ,crocodiles & ,tortoises crawl+ on !   
%ores ( primval lakes & riv]s--air1 sea1
 & l& mu/ h be5 /rangely t5ant$ 9 ^!    
e>ly p]iods ( our infant _w40#fd    #fd 
,pr(essor ,buckl& on ! ,pt]odactylus4   
8,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc410 #bnd            
s]ies1 vol4 iii41 p4 #bag4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--,pt]odactylus
 breviro/ris4  ,! /range /ructure ( ?is 
animal gave rise to mo/ contradictory   
op9ions f ! e>li] naturali/s4 ,"o       

suppos$ x to be a bird1 ano!r a bat1 &  
o!rs a fly+ reptile4 ,cuvi] 0 ! fir/ to 
detect ! tru?1 & to prove1 f its        
organisation1 t ! animal 0 a ,saurian4  
8,behold10 he says1 8an animal :i* 9 its
 o/eology1 f its tee? to ! end ( its    
claws1 pres5ts all ! *>act]s ( !        
,saurians2 nor c we d\bt t _!           
*>act]i/ics exi/$ 9 its integum5ts &    
s(t] p>ts1 9 its scales1 its            
circulation1 its g5]ative organs3 x 0 at
 ! same "t provid$ ) ! means ( flight2 b
 :5 /ation>y x c\ld n h made mu* use (  
its ant]ior extremities1 ev5 if x did n 
keep !m always fold$ z birds fold _!    
w+s4 ,x might1 x is true1 use its small 
ant]ior f+]s to susp5d itself f !       
bran*es ( trees2 b :5 at re/ x mu/ h be5
 g5]ally on its h9d feet1 l ! birds     
aga91 & l !m x mu/ h c>ri$ its neck     
half-erect & curv$ backw>ds1 s t its    
enorm\s head %\ld n di/urb its          
equilibrium40 ,?is div]sity ( op9ion ne$
 n v mu* surprise u aft] all1 =1 ) !    
body & tail ( an ord9>y mammal1 x _h !  

=m ( a bird 9 its head & ! l5g? ( its   
neck1 ( ! bat 9 ! /ructure & proportion 
( its w+s1 & ( a reptile 9 ! smallness (
 its head & 9 its beak1 arm$ ) at lea/  
sixty equal %>p-po9t$ tee?1 diff]+      
little 9 =m & size4  ,dr4 ,buckl&       
describes eight di/9ct species1 v>y+ 9  
size f a snipe to a cormorant4 ,( ^!1   
,p4 crassiro/ris 7,fig4 #aje7 & ,p4     
breviro/ris 7,fig4 #ajf71 7 bo? discov]$
 9 ! ,lias ( ,sol5h(54 ,p4 macronyx     
belongs to ! ,lias ( ,lyme ,regis4  ,!  
,pt]odactyle 01 !n1 a reptile provid$ ) 
w+s some:at resembl+ ^? ( ,bats1 & =m$1 
z 9 t ,mammal1 ( a membrane :i* connect$
 ! body ) ! excessively elongat$        
phalanges ( ! f\r? f+]1 :i* s]v$ to exp&
 ! membrane t answ]$ ! purposes ( a w+4 
,! ,pt]odactyle ( ! ,liassic p]iod 01 z 
we h se51 an animal ( small size2 !     
l>ge/ species 9 ! old] ,lias b$s did n  
exce$ t5 or twelve in*es 9 l5g?1 or !   
size ( a rav51 :ile ! lat] =ms f\nd     
fossil 9 ! ,gre5s& & ,weald5 b$s mu/ h  
measur$ m ?an sixte5 feet betwe5 ! tips 

( ! exp&$ w+s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 its head 0 
( enorm\s dim5sions comp>$ ) ! re/ ( !  
body4 ,we _c admit1 !re=e1 t ?is animal 
c\ld really fly1 &1 l a bird1 beat !    
air4 ,! membran\s app5dage :i* connect$ 
its long f+] ) its body 0 r a p>a*ute   
?an a w+4 ,x s]v$ to mod]ate ! velocity 
( its desc5t :5 x dropp$ on its prey f a
 height4 ,ess5tially a climb]1 x c\ld   
only raise itself by climb+ up tall     
trees or rocks1 aft] ! mann] ( liz>ds1 &
 ?r[ itself !nce to ! gr\nd1 or ^u ! l[]
 bran*es1 by mak+ use ( its natural     
p>a*ute4  ,! ord9>y position ( !        
,pt]odactyle 0 probably ^u its two h9d  
feet1 ! l[] extremities be+ adapt$ = /&+
 & mov+ on ! gr\nd1 aft] ! mann] (      
birds4 ,habitually1 p]haps1 x p]*$ on   
trees2 x c\ld creep1 or climb along     
rocks & cliffs1 or susp5d itself f      
trees1 ) ! assi/ance ( its claws & feet1
 aft] ! mann] ( exi/+ ,bats4 ,x is ev5  
probable1 ,dr4 ,buckl& ?\ght1 t x _h !  
p[] ( swimm+ & div+1 s common to        
reptiles1 & possess$ by ! ,vampyre ,bat 

( ! isl& ( ,bon94 ,x is believ$ t !     
small] species liv$ ^u insects1 & ! l>g]
 prey$ ^u fi%es1 ^u :i* x c\ld ?r[      
itself l ! sea-gull4  ,! mo/ />tl+      
feature 9 ! organisation ( ?is animal is
 ! /range comb9ation ( two p[]ful w+s   
atta*$ to ! body ( a reptile4 ,!        
imag9ation ( ! poets long dwelt on su* a
 comb9ation2 ! ,dragon 0 a creation ( _!
 fancy1 & x play$ a great "p 9 fable & 9
 pagan my?ology4 ,! ,dragon1 or fly+    
reptile1 brea?+ fire & poison+ ! air ) 8
 fi]y brea?1 _h1 accord+ to ! fable1    
disput$ ) man ! possession ( ! e>?4     
,gods & demigods claim$1 among _! mo/   
fam\s exploits1 ! glory ( hav+ vanqui%$ 
?is p[]ful & r$\btable mon/]4  ,among ! 
animals ( our epo*1 only a s+le reptile 
is f\nd provid$ ) w+s1 or digital       
app5dages analog\s to ! membran\s w+s ( 
! bats1 & :i* c be comp>$ to !          
,pt]odactyle4 ,?is is call$ ! ,dragon1  
"o ( ! ,draconid1 a family ( ,saurians1 
:i* has be5 describ$ by ,daud91 z       
di/+ui%$ by ! fir/ six ribs1 in/ead (   

hoop+ r\nd ! abdom51 ext5d+ 9 ne>ly a   
/raight l9e1 & su/a9+ a prolongation (  
sk9 :i* =ms a sort ( w+ analog\s to t ( 
! ,pt]odactyle4 ,indep5d5t ( ! f\r feet1
 ?is w+ su/a9s ! animal1 l a p>a*ute1 z 
x leaps f bran* to bran*2 b ! creature  
has no p[] to beat ! air ) x z birds d  
:5 fly+4 ,?is reptile lives 9 ! =e/s ( !
 hotte/ p>ts ( ,africa1 & 9 "s isles ( !
 ,indian ,ocean1 especially 9 ,sumatra &
 ,java4 ,! only kn[n species is t figur$
 at page #bch 7,fig4 #ajg71 :i* comes f 
! ,ea/ ,indies4  ,:at a /range          
population 0 t :i* occupi$ ! e>? at ?is 
/age ( its hi/ory1 :5 ! wat]s 7 fill$ ) 
creatures s extraord9>y z ^? ^: hi/ory  
we h trac$6 ,plesiosauri & ,i*?yosauri  
fill$ ! seas1 ^u ! surface ( :i* float$ 
innum]able ,ammonites 9 light skiffs1 "s
 ( !m z l>ge z a good-siz$ c>t-:eel1    
:ile gigantic ,turtles & ,crocodiles    
crawl$ on ! banks ( ! riv]s & lakes4    
,only "o g5us ( ,mammals _h yet appe>$1 
b no birds2 no?+ broke ! sil5ce ( ! air1
 if we except ! brea?+ ( ! t]re/rial    

reptiles & ! flight ( w+$ insects4  ,!  
e>? cool$ progressively up to !         
,jurassic p]iod1 ! ra9s lo/ _! cont9uity
 & abundance1 & ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e
 s5sibly dim9i%$4 ,all ^! circum/ances  
fav\r$ ! appe>ance & ! multiplication ( 
innum]able species ( animals1 ^: s+ul>  
=ms !n %[$ !mselves on ! e>?4 ,we c     
sc>cely imag9e ! prodigi\s quantity (   
,molluscs & ,zoophytes ^: rema9s lie    
buri$ 9 ! ,jurassic rocks1 =m+ entire   
/rata ( imm5se ?ickness & ext5t4        
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--;,draco      
volans4  ,! same circum/ances concurr$  
to fav\r ! production ( plants4 ,if !   
%ores & seas ( ! p]iod receiv$ su* a    
t]rible aspect f ! =midable animals we h
 describ$1 ! vegetation :i* cov]$ ! l&  
_h also its peculi> "* & appe>ance4     
,no?+ t we "k ( 9 ! exi/+ sc5]y ( !     
globe surpasses ! ri* vegetation :i*    
decorat$ ! cont95ts ( ! ,jurassic p]iod4
 ,a temp]ature /ill ( great elevation1 a
 humid atmosph]e1 &1 we h no reason to  
d\bt1 a brilliant sun1 promot$ ! gr[? ( 

a luxuriant vegetation1 su* z "s ( !    
tropical isl&s1 ) _! burn+ temp]ature & 
m>itime climate1 c only give u an idea  
(1 :ile x recalls "s ( ! ,jurassic types
 ( vegetation4 ,! elegant ,voltzias ( ! 
,trias _h disappe>$1 b ! ,horse-tails   
7,equiseta7 rema9$1 ^: sl5d] & delicate 
/ems rose erect 9 ! air ) _! graceful   
panicles2 ! gigantic ru%es also rema9$2 
& ?\gh ! tree-f]ns _h lo/ _! enorm\s    
dim5sions ( ! ,c>bonif]\s age1 !y /ill  
pres]v$ _! f9e & delicately-cut leaves4 
,alongside ^! vegetable families1 :i*   
pass$ upw>ds f ! prec$+ age1 an entire  
family--! ,cycads 7,fig4 #gb1 p4        
#afh7--;appe> = ! fir/ "t4 ,!y soon     
became num]\s 9 g5]a1 su* z ,zamites1   
,pt]ophyllum 7,williamsonia71 &         
,nilssonia4 ,among ! species :i*        
*>act]ise ?is age1 we may cite ! foll[+1
 arrang+ !m 9 families3--    ,,f]ns4    
,,cycads4                   ,,conif]s4  
,odontopt]is cycadea4    ,zamites       
di/ans4           ,taxodites4           
,taumopt]is ,mun/]i4    ,zamites        

het]ophyllus4     ,p9ites4              
,camptopt]is cr5ata4    ,zamites        
gracilis4                               
,pt]ophyllum dubium4                    
,nilssonia contigua4                    
,nilssonia elegantissima4               
,nilssonia ,/]nb]gii4  ,! ,zamites seem 
to be =]unn]s ( ! ,palms1 :i* make _!   
appe>ance 9 ! foll[+ epo*2 !y 7 trees ( 
elegant appe>ance1 closely resembl+ !   
exi/+ ,zamias1 :i* are trees ( tropical 
,am]ica1 & especially ( ! ,we/ ,india   
,isl&s2 !y 7 s num]\s 9 species & 9     
individuals t !y seem to h =m$1 (       
!mselves alone1 "o half ( ! =e/s dur+ ! 
p]iod :i* engages our att5tion4 ,! numb]
 ( _! fossilis$ species exce$s t ( !    
liv+ species4 ,! trunk ( ! ,zamites1    
simple & cov]$ ) sc>s left by ! old     
leaves1 supports a ?ick cr[n ( leaves m 
?an six feet 9 l5g?1 dispos$ 9 fan-l    
%ape1 aris+ f a common c5tre4  ,!       
,pt]ophyllum 7,williamsonia71 =m$ great 
trees1 ( consid]able elevation1 & cov]$ 
) l>ge p9nat$ leaves f top to bottom4   

,_! leaves1 ?9 & membran\s1 7 furni%$ ) 
leaflets truncat$ at ! summit & trav]s$ 
by f9e n]vures1 n conv]g5t1 b abutt+ on 
! t]m9al truncat$ edge4  ,! ,nilssonia1 
f9ally1 7 ,cycadeace resembl+ !         
,pt]ophyllum1 b ) ?ick & coriace\s      
leaves1 & %ort leaflets contigu\s to1 & 
9 "p atta*$ to ! base2 !y 7 obtuse or   
ne>ly truncat$ at ! summit1 & w\ld      
pres5t n]vures ar*$ or conflu5t t[>ds t 
summit4  ,! ess5tial *>act]s ( !        
vegetation dur+ ! ,liassic sub-p]iod    
73--#a4 ,! great pr$om9ance ( !         
,cycadeace1 ?us cont9u+ ! developm5t :i*
 comm5c$ 9 ! previ\s p]iod1 exp&+ into  
num]\s g5]a belong+ bo? to ?is family & 
t ( ! ,zamites & ,nilssonia2 #b4 ,!     
exi/5ce among ! ,f]ns ( _m g5]a )       
reticulat$ ve9s or n]vures1 & "u =ms (  
little v>iation1 :i* sc>cely %[ !mselves
 9 ! m anci5t =mations4  ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #ajh4--,millepora alcicornis4     
7,rec5t ,coral47  ,illu/ration3         
,,xvi4--,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,liassic    
,p]iod4  ,on ! opposite page 7,,plate   

,,xvi47 is an ideal l&scape ( ! ,liassic
 p]iod2 ! trees & %rubs *>act]i/ic ( !  
age are ! elegant ,pt]ophyllum1 :i*     
appe>s 9 ! extreme left ( ! picture1 & !
 ,zamites1 :i* are recognisable by _!   
?ick & l[ trunk & fan-l tuft ( foliage4 
,! l>ge horsetail1 or ,equisetum ( ?is  
epo*1 m+les ) ! great ,tree-f]ns & !    
,cypress1 a ,conif] alli$ to ^? ( our   
own age4 ,among animals1 we see !       
,pt]odactyle specially repres5t$4 ,"o ( 
^! reptiles is se5 9 a /ate ( repose1   
re/+ on its h9d feet4 ,! o!r is         
repres5t$1 n fly+1 aft] ! mann] ( a     
bird1 b ?r[+ itself f a rock 9 ord] to  
seize ^u a w+$ insect1 ! dragon-fly     
7,libellula71 ! rema9s ( :i* h be5      
discov]$1 associat$ ) ! bones ( !       
,pt]odactyle1 9 ! li?ographic lime/one (
 ,papp5heim & ,sol5h(54   ,,oolitic     
,,sub-,,p]iod4  ,?is p]iod is s nam$    
because _m ( ! lime/ones ent]+ into !   
composition ( ! =mations x comprises1   
consi/ almo/ entirely ( an aggregation (
 r\nd$ concretion>y gra9s resembl+1 9   

outw>d appe>ance1 ! roe or eggs ( fi%es1
 & ea* ( :i* conta9s a nucleus ( s&1    
ar\nd :i* conc5tric lay]s ( calc>e\s    
matt] h accumulat$2 :5ce ! "n1 f 1 egg1 
& 1 /one4  ,! ,oolite s]ies is usually  
subdivid$ into ?ree sections1 ! ,l[]1   
,middle1 & ,upp] ,oolite4 ,^! rocks =m 9
 ,engl& a b& "s ?irty miles broad1 rang+
 across ! c\ntry f ,york%ire1 9 !       
nor?-ea/1 to ,dorset1 9 ! s\?-we/1 b ) a
 great div]sity ( m9]al "*1 :i* has l$  
to a fur!r subdivision ( ! s]ies1 f\nd$ 
on ! exi/5ce ( p>ticul> /rata 9 ! c5tral
 & s\?-we/]n c\nties3--       ,,upp]4   
,,middle4            ,,l[]4    #a4      
,purbeck ,b$s4       #a4 ,coral ,rag4   
#a4 ,cornbra%4   #b4 ,portl& ,/one      
#b4 ,ox=d ,clay4    #b4 ,great ,oolite  
,=e/      & ,s&4                        
,m>ble4   #c4 ,kim]idge ,clay4          
#c4 ,/onesfield ,slate4                 
#d4 ,full]'s ,e>?4                      
#e4 ,inf]ior ,oolite4  ,! alt]nations ( 
clay & masses ( lime/one 9 ! ,liassic & 
,oolite =mations imp>t "s m>k$ features 

to ! outl9e ( ! sc5]y bo? ( ,france &   
,engl&3 =m+ broad valleys1 sep>at$ f ea*
 o!r by ranges ( lime/one hills ( m or  
less elevation4 ,9 ,france1 ! ,jura     
m\nta9s are compos$ ( ! latt]2 9 ,engl&1
 ! slopes ( ?is =mation are m g5tle--!  
valleys are int]sect$ by brooks1 & clo!d
 ) a ri* vegetation2 x =ms :at is call$ 
a tame l&scape1 z comp>$ ) ! wild]      
gr&eur ( ! ,prim>y rocks--x pleases m   
?an x surprises4 ,x yields mat]ials     
also1 m useful ?an "s ( ! old] =mations1
 num]\s qu>ries be+ met ) :i* furni%    
excell5t build+-mat]ials1 especially    
ar\nd ,ba?1 :]e ! /one1 :5 fir/ qu>ri$1 
is s(t & easily work$1 b becomes h>d] on
 exposure to ! air4  ,! annex$ section  
7,fig4 #aji7 w give "s idea ( !         
configuration :i* ! /ratification       
assumes1 su* z may be obs]v$ 9 proce$+ f
 ! nor?-we/ to ! s\?-ea/1 f ,ca]m>!n%ire
 to ! banks ( ! ,ouse4   ,,l[] ,,oolite 
,,fauna4  ,! mo/ sali5t & *>act]i/ic    
feature ( ?is age is1 und\bt$ly1 !      
appe>ance ( animals belong+ to ! class (

 ,mammals4 ,b ! organisation1 q special1
 ( ! fir/ ( ! ,mammalia w c]ta9ly be a  
matt] ( a/oni%m5t to ! read]1 & mu/     
satisfy him t ,nature proce$$ 9 !       
creation ( animals by successive /eps1  
by transitions :i*1 9 an almo/          
imp]ceptible mann]1 connect ! be+s ( "o 
age ) o!rs m complicat$ 9 _!            
organisation4 ,! fir/ ,mammals :i*      
appe>$ ^u ! e>?1 = example1 did n enjoy 
all ! organic attributes belong+ to ! m 
rec5t creations ( ! class4 ,9 ! latt] ! 
"y are br\ght =? liv+1 & n f eggs1 l    
,birds1 ,reptiles1 & ,fi%es4 ,b ! =m]   
belong$ to t ord] ( animals q special1 &
 nev] num]\s1 ! "y ( :i* are transf]r$ 9
 a half-develop$ /ate1 f ! body ( ! "m  
to an ext]nal p\* 9 :i* !y rema9 until  
!y become p]fect$2 9 %ort1 to m>supial  
animals4 ,! "m nurses h] "y dur+ a c]ta9
 "t 9 a sort ( p\* ext]nal to ! body1 9 
! neighb\rhood ( ! abdom51 & provid$ )  
teats to :i* ! "y adh]e4 ,aft] a m or   
less prolong$ soj\rn 9 ?is p\*1 ! "y    
animal1 :5 suffici5tly matur$ & /rong   

en\gh to battle ) ! _w1 em]ges f its w>m
 retreat1 & ent]s fully into life &     
light2 ! process be+ a sort ( middle    
c\rse betwe5 ovip>\s g5]ation1 9 :i* !  
animals are hat*$ f eggs aft] exclusion 
f ! "m's body1 l ,birds2 & vivip>\s1 9  
:i* ! animals are br\ght =? alive1 z 9 !
 ord9>y ,mammals4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4  
#aji4--;,g5]al view ( ! succession (    
,briti% /rata1 ) ! elevations !y rea*   
above ! level ( ! sea4  ,g1 ,granitic   
rocks2 a1 ,gneiss2 b1 ,mica-s*i/2 c1    
,skiddaw or ,cumbrian ,slates2 d1       
,sn[don rocks2 e1 ,plynlymmon rocks2 f1 
,silurian rocks2 g1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one2 h1
 ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one2 i1 ,mill/one    
,grit2 k1 ,coal-measures2 l1 ,magnesian 
,lime/one2 m1 ,new ,r$ ,s&/one2 n1      
,lias2 o1 ,l[]1 ,middle1 & ,upp]        
,oolites2 p1 ,gre5s&2 q1 ,*alk2 r1      
,t]ti>y /rata4  ,9 /&>d works on natural
 hi/ory ! animals "u consid]ation are   
class$ z mammif]\s ,didelph4 ,!y are    
br\ght =? 9 an imp]fect /ate1 & dur+ _! 
transitional condition are suckl$ 9 a   

p\* support$ by bones call$ m>supial1   
:i* are atta*$ by _! extremities to !   
pelvis1 & s]ve to support ! m>supium1   
:5ce ! animals provid$ ) ^! provisions =
 br++ up _! prog5y are call$ ,m>supial  
,mammals4 ,! ,opossum1 ,kang>oo1 &      
,orni?orhyn*us are exi/+ repres5tatives 
( ?is gr\p4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4        
#aaj4--;,jaw ( ,?ylaco!rium ,prevo/ii4  
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--;,jaw (      
,phascolo!rium4  ,! "n ( ,?ylaco!rium1  
or ,amphi!rium1 or ,phascolo!rium1 is   
giv5 to ! fir/ ( ^! m>supial ,mammals   
:i* made _! appe>ance1 ^: rema9s h be5  
discov]$ 9 ! ,l[] ,oolite1 & 9 "o ( its 
high] /ages1 namely1 t call$ ! ,great   
,oolite4 ,fig4 #aaj repres5ts ! jaw ( ! 
fir/ ( ^! animals1 & ,fig4 #aaa !       
o!r--bo? ( ! natural size4 ,^! jaw-bones
 repres5t all t has be5 f\nd belong+ to 
^! e>ly m>supial animals2 & ,b>on ,cuvi]
 & ,pr(essor ,ow5 h bo? decid$ z to _!  
orig94 ,! fir/ 0 f\nd 9 ! ,/onesfield   
qu>ries4 ,! ,phascolo!rium1 also a      
,/onesfield fossil1 0 ! ornam5t ( ,mr4  

,brod]ip's collection4 ,! animals :i*   
liv$ on ! l& dur+ ! ,l[] ,oolitic p]iod 
w\ld be ne>ly ! same ) ^? ( ! ,liassic4 
,! insects 71 p]haps1 m num]\s4  ,! m>9e
 fauna includ$ ,reptiles1 ,fi%es1       
,molluscs1 & ,zoophytes4 ,among ! fir/ 7
 ! ,pt]odactyle1 & a great ,saurian1 !  
,teleosaurus1 belong+ to a family :i*   
made its appe>ance 9 ?is age1 & :i*     
reappe>s 9 ! foll[+ epo*4 ,among !      
,fi%es1 ! ,ganoids & ,ophiopsis         
pr$om9ate4 ,among ! ,ammonites1         
,ammonites ,humphriesianus1 ,a4 ,h]veyii
 7,fig4 #aab71 ,a4 ,brongni>ti1         
,nautilus l9eatus1 & _m o!r             
repres5tatives ( ! cephalopod\s         
,mollusca4 ,among ! ,bra*iopods are     
,t]ebratula digona 7,fig4 #aac7 & ,t4   
sp9osa4 ,among ! ,ga/]opoda !           
,pleurotom>ia conoidea is rem>kable f   
its elegant %ape & m>k+s1 & v unlike any
 ( ! liv+ ,pleurotoma z repres5t$ by ,p4
 ,babylonia 7,fig4 #aad74 ,o/rea ,m>%ii 
& ,lima proboscidea1 :i* belong to !    
,acephala1 are fossil ,mollusca ( ?is   

epo*1 to :i* also belong ,entalophora   
cell>ioides1 ,es*>a ,ranviliana1        
,bidia/opora c]vicornis2 elegant &      
*>act]i/ic mollusc\s ,polyzoa4 ,we give 
a repres5tation ( two liv+ species1 z   
exhibit+ ! =m ( ^! curi\s be+s4 7,figs4 
#aae & #aaf47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4      
#aab4--;,ammonites ,h]veyii4            
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4--,t]ebratula  
digona4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4            
#aad4--,pleurotoma ,babylonia4 7,rec5t47
  ,! ,e*9od]ms & ,polyps appe> 9 great  
numb]s 9 ! deposits ( ! ,l[] ,oolite3   
,apiocr9us elegans1 ,hyboclypus         
gibb]ulus1 ,dysa/] ,endesii repres5t !  
fir/2 ,montlivaltia c>yophyllata1       
,anabacia orbulites1 ,cryptocnia        
bacci=mis1 & ,eunomia radiata repres5t !
 second4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#aae4--;,adeona folif]a4  7,rec5t       
,polyzoa47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#aaf4--;,cell>ia loriculata4  7,rec5t   
,polyzoa47  ,?is la/ & mo/ rem>kable    
species ( ,zoophyte pres5ts itself 9    
great masses _m y>ds 9 circumf]5ce1 &   

necessitates a long p]iod ( "t = its    
production4 ,?is assemblage ( little    
creatures liv+ "u ! wat]s b only at a   
small dep? b5ea? ! surface1 z ,mr4 ,d>w9
 has demon/rat$1 has nev]!less produc$  
banks1 or r islets1 ( consid]able ext5t1
 :i* at "o "t con/itut$ v]itable reefs  
ris+ out ( ! ocean4 ,^! reefs 7         
pr9cipally con/ruct$ 9 ! ,jurassic      
p]iod1 & _! extreme abundance is "o ( ! 
*>act]i/ics ( ?is geological age4 ,!    
same ph5om5on cont9ues 9 our day1 b by !
 ag5cy ( a new race ( zoophytes1 :i*    
c>ry on _! op]ations1 prep>+ a new      
cont95t1 probably1 9 ! atolls ( !       
,pacific ,ocean4 7,see ,fig4 #ajh1 p4   
#bdj47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4  #a1  
,otopt]is dubia2 #b1 ,otopt]is obtusa2  
#c1 ,otopt]is acum9ata2 #d1 ,otopt]is   
cuneata4  ,! flora ( ! epo* 0 v ri*4 ,! 
,f]ns cont9ue to exi/1 b _! size & be>+ 
7 s5sibly inf]ior to :at !y _h be5 9 !  
prec$+ p]iod4 ,among !m ,otopt]is1      
di/+ui%$ = its simply p9nat$ leaves1 ^: 
leaflets are auriculate at ! base3 ( !  

five species1 #a1 ,o4 dubia2 & #b1 ,o4  
obtusa2 & #c1 ,o4 acum9ata2 & #d1 ,o4   
cuneata 7,fig4 #aag71 are f ! ,oolite4  
,9 addition to ^! we may "n ,coniopt]is 
,murrayana1 ,pecopt]is ,desnoy]sii1     
,pa*ypt]is lanceolata1 & ,phlebopt]is   
,phillipsii2 & among ! ,lycopods1       
,lycopodus falcatus4  ,! vegetation (   
?is epo* has a peculi> facies1 f !      
pres5ce ( ! family ( ! ,p&anace1 or     
screw-p9es1 s rem>kable = _! arial      
roots1 & = ! magnific5t tuft ( leaves   
:i* t]m9ates _! bran*es4 ,nei!r ! leaves
 nor ! roots ( ^! plants h1 h[ev]1 be5  
f\nd 9 ! fossil /ate1 b we possess      
specim5s ( _! l>ge & sph]ical fruit1 :i*
 leave no room = d\bt z to ! nature ( ! 
entire plant4  ,! ,cycads 7 /ill        
repres5t$ by ! ,zamias1 & by _m species 
( ,pt]ophyllum4 ,! ,conif]s1 t gr&      
family ( rec5t times1 to :i* ! p9es1    
firs1 & o!r trees ( our nor!rn =e/s     
belong1 began to occupy an important "p 
9 ! _w's vegetation f ?is epo*4 ,!      
e>lie/ ,conif]s belong$ to ! g5]a       

,?uites1 ,taxites1 & ,bra*yphyllum4 ,!  
,?uites 7 true ,?uyas1 ev]gre5 trees ( !
 pres5t epo*1 ) compress$ bran*es1 small
 imbricat$ & s]rat$ leaves1 some:at     
resembl+ ^? ( ! ,cypress1 b di/+ui%$ by 
_m po9ts ( special organisation4 ,!     
,taxites h be5 ref]r$1 ) "s d\bts1 to ! 
,yews4 ,f9ally1 ! ,bra*yphyllum 7 trees 
:i*1 accord+ to ! *>act]i/ics ( _!      
vegetation1 seem to h approa*$ ne>ly to 
two exi/+ g5]a1 ! ,ar?otaxis (          
,tasmania1 & ! ,w$dr+tonias ( ,s\?      
,africa4 ,! leaves ( ! ,bra*yphyllum are
 %ort & fle%y1 ) a l>ge & rhomboidal    
base4   ,,l[] ,,oolite ,,rocks4  ,!     
=mation :i* repres5ts ! ,l[] ,oolite1 & 
:i* 9 ,engl& atta9s an av]age ?ickness (
 f #ejj to #fjj feet1 =ms a v complex   
sy/em ( /ratification1 :i* includes !   
two =mations1 ,bajoci5 & ,ba?onian1     
adopt$ by ,m4 ,d',orbigny & 8 foll[]s4  
,! l[e/ b$s ( ! ,inf]ior ,oolite occur 9
 ,norm&y1 9 ! ,l[] ,alps                
7,basses-,alpes71 9 ! neighb\rhoods (   
,lyons & ,neu*atel4 ,!y are rem>kable   

ne> ,bayeux = ! v>iety & beauty ( _!    
fossils3 ! rocks are compos$ pr9cipally 
( lime/ones--yell[i%-br[n1 or r$1 *>g$ )
 hydrat$ oxide ( iron1 (t5 oolitic1 &   
repos+ on calc>e\s s&s4 ,^! deposits are
 surm\nt$ by alt]nate lay]s ( clay &    
m>l1 blue or yell[--! well-kn[n ,full]'s
 ,e>?1 :i* is s call$ f its use 9 !     
manufacture ( wooll5 fabrics to extract 
! grease f ! wool4 ,! second s]ies ( !  
,l[] ,oolite1 :i* atta9s a ?ickness ( f 
#aej to #bjj feet on ! coa/ ( ,norm&y1 &
 is well develop$ 9 ! neighb\rhood (    
,ca5 & 9 ! ,jura1 has be5 divid$1 9     
,brita91 into f\r =mations1 9 an asc5d+ 
scale3--  #a4 ,! ,great or ,ba? ,oolite1
 :i* consi/s pr9cipally ( a v           
*>act]i/ic1 f9e-gra9$1 :ite1 s(t1 &     
well-develop$ oolitic lime/one1 at ,ba?1
 & also at ,ca5 9 ,norm&y4 ,at ! base ( 
! ,great ,oolite ! ,/onesfield b$s      
occur1 9 :i* 7 f\nd ! bones ( ! m>supial
 ,mammals1 to :i* we h already allud$2 &
 along ) !m bones ( ,reptiles1          
pr9cipally ,pt]odactyles1 toge!r ) "s   

f9ely-pres]v$ fossil plants1 fruits1 &  
insects4  #b4 ,brad=d ,clay1 :i* is a   
blui% m>l1 conta9+ _m f9e ,encr9ites    
7commonly call$ /one-lilies71 b :i* _h  
only a local exi/5ce1 appe>+ to be almo/
 entirely conf9$ to ?is =mation4 8,9 ?is
 case1 h[ev]10 says ,lyell1 8x appe>s t 
! solid upp] surface ( ! #8,great       
,oolite' _h support$1 = a "t1 a ?ick    
subm>9e =e/ ( ^! beautiful ,zoophytes1  
until ! cle> & /ill wat] 0 invad$ ) a   
curr5t *>g$ ) mud1 :i* ?rew d[n !       
/one-lilies1 & broke mo/ ( _! /ems %ort 
(f ne> ! po9t ( atta*m5t4 ,! /umps /ill 
rema9 9 _! orig9al position40#fe ,see   
,fig4 #a1 ,,plate ,,xix41 p4 #bfa4      
7,brad=d1 or ,pe>1 ,encr9ite47    #fe   
8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4 #cii4  #c4    
,=e/ ,m>ble1 :i* consi/s ( an           
argillace\s %elly lime/one1 ab\nd+ 9    
m>9e fossils1 & s&y & qu>tzose m>ls1 is 
qu>ri$ 9 ! =e/ ( ,wi*wood1 9 ,wilt%ire1 
& 9 ! c\nties ( ,dorset1 ,wilts1 &      
,som]set4  #d4 ,! ,cornbra% 7:eat-l&s7  
consi/s ( b$s ( rubbly cream-col\r$     

lime/one1 :i* =ms a soil p>ticul>ly     
fav\rable to ! cultivation ( c]eals2    
h5ce its "n4#ff    #ff ,see ,bri/[ 9    
,descriptive ,catalogue ( ,rocks1 9     
,mus4 ,pract4        ,geol41 p4 #acd4   
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4--,me&r9a      
,ddala4  a1 entire figure1 r$uc$2 b1    
portion1 natural size4  7,rec5t ,coral47
  ,! ,l[] ,oolite ranges across ! great]
 "p ( ,engl&1 b 8atta9s its maximum     
developm5t ne> ,*elt5ham1 :]e x c be    
subdivid$1 at lea/1 into ?ree p>ts4     
,pass+ nor?1 ! two l[] divisions1 ea* m 
or less *>act]is$ by its own fossils1   
disappe>1 & ! ,rag/one nor?-ea/ (       
,*elt5ham lies directly ^u ! ,lias2     
app>5tly z con=mably z if x =m$ its true
 & imm$iate successor1 :ile at ,dundry !
 equival5ts ( ! upp] free/ones &        
rag/ones 7! l[] b$s be+ abs5t7 lie      
directly on ! exce$+ly ?9 s&s1 :i* !re  
ov]lie ! ,l[] ,lias4 ,9 ,dorset%ire1 on 
! coa/1 ! s]ies is aga9 p]fect1 ?\gh ?94
 ,ne> ,*ipp+ ,norton1 9 ,ox=d%ire1 !    
,inf]ior ,oolite disappe>s altoge!r1 & !

 ,great ,oolite1 hav+ fir/ ov]lapp$ !   
,full]s' ,e>?1 passes across ! ,inf]ior 
,oolite1 & 9 its turn seems to lie on ! 
,upp] ,lias ) a regul>ity z p]fect z if 
no =mation 9 ! neighb\rhood came betwe5 
!m4 ,9 ,york%ire ! *ang$ type ( !       
,inf]ior ,oolite1 ! preval5ce ( s&s1    
l&-plants1 & b$s ( coal1 occur 9 su* a  
mann] z to leave no d\bt ( ! pres5ce (  
t]re/rial surfaces on :i* ! plants grew1
 & all ^! ph5om5a lead to ! conclusion t
 v>i\s & consid]able oscillations (     
level took place 9 ! ,briti% area dur+ !
 deposition ( ! /rata1 bo? ( ! ,inf]ior 
,oolite & ( ! =mations :i* imm$iately   
succe$ x40#fg    #fg ,presid5t's        
,address1 by ,pr(essor ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay4 
,qu>t4 ,j\r4        ,geol4 ,soc41 #ahfd1
 vol4 xx41 p4 #d4  ,! ,inf]ior ,oolite  
"h allud$ to is a ?9 b$ ( calc>e\s      
free/one1 re/+ on1 & sometimes replac$  
by yell[ s&1 :i* con/itutes !           
passage-b$s f ! ,liassic s]ies4 ,!      
,full]s' ,e>? clay lies betwe5 !        
lime/ones ( ! ,inf]ior & ,great ,oolite1

 at ! base ( :i* la/ lies ! ,/onesfield 
slate--a slightly oolitic1 %elly        
lime/one1 or flaggy & fissile s&/one1 "s
 six feet ?ick1 ri* 9 organic rema9s1 & 
rang+ ?r\gh ,ox=d%ire t[>ds ! nor?-ea/1 
into ,nor?ampton%ire & ,york%ire4 ,at   
,colley ,we/on1 9 ,nor?ampton%ire1      
fossils ( ,pecopt]is polypodioides are  
f\nd4 ,9 ! ,great ,oolite =mation1 ne>  
,ba?1 are _m corals1 among :i* !        
,eunomia radiata is v conspicu\s4 ,!    
fossil is n unlike ! exi/+ bra9-coral ( 
! tropical seas 7,fig4 #aah74 ,! "w (   
?is coral seems to h be5 sudd5ly /opp$  
by 8an invasion10 says ,lyell1 8(       
argillace\s matt]1 :i* probably put a   
sudd5 /op to ! gr[? ( ,brad=d           
,encr9ites1 & l$ to _! pres]vation 9    
m>9e /rata40#fh ,! ,cornbra% is1 9      
g5]al1 a cream-col\r$ lime/one1 ab\t =ty
 feet ?ick1 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&1 &     
occupy+ a consid]able area 9 ,dorset%ire
 & ,nor? ,wilts1 z at ,cricklade1       
,malmesbury1 & ,*ipp5ham1 9 ! latt]     
c\nty4 ,t]ebratula obovata is its       

*>act]i/ic %ell1 & ,nucleolites         
clunicul>is1 ,lima gibbosa1 & ,avicula  
e*9ata occur con/antly 9 great numb]s4  
,:]ev] x occurs ! ,cornbra% af=ds a ri* 
& f]tile soil1 well adapt$ = ! gr[? (   
:eat1 :ile ! ,=e/ ,m>ble1 z a soil1 is  
g5]ally poor4 ,! ,cornbra% passes       
d[nw>ds into ! ,=e/ ,m>ble1 & sometimes1
 z at ,brad=d1 ne> ,ba?1 is replac$ by  
clay4 ,?is clay1 call$ ! ,brad=d clay1  
is almo/ :olly conf9$ to ! c\nty (      
,wilts4 ,t]ebratula decussata is "o ( ! 
mo/ *>act]i/ic fossils1 b ! mo/ common  
is ! ,apiocr9ites or pe>-%ap$ encr9ite1 
^: rema9s 9 ?is clay are s p]fectly     
pres]v$ t ! mo/ m9ute articulations are 
(t5 f\nd 9 _! natural positions4 ,,plate
 ,,xix41 p4 #bfa 7,fig4 #a71 repres5ts  
an adult atta*$ by a solid base to !    
rocky bottom on :i* x grew1 :il/ !      
small] individuals %[ ! ,encr9ite 9 its 
"y /ate--"o ) arms exp&$1 ! o!r ) !m    
clos$4 ,ripple-m>k$ slabs ( fissile ,=e/
 ,m>ble are us$ z a ro(+-slate1 & may be
 trac$ ov] a broad b& ( c\ntry 9        

,wilt%ire & ,gl\ce/]%ire1 sep>at$ f ea* 
o!r by ?9 seams ( clay1 9 :i* ! undulat+
 ridges ( ! s& are pres]v$1 & ev5 !     
footm>ks ( small ,cru/aceans are /ill   
visible4    #fh 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10  
p4 #djj4  ,illu/ration3 ,,xvii4--,ideal 
,l&scape ( ! ,l[] ,oolite ,p]iod4  ,on !
 opposite page 7,,plate ,,xvii47 is     
repres5t$ an ideal l&scape ( ! p]iod ( !
 ,l[] ,oolite4 ,on ! %ore are types ( ! 
vegetation ( ! p]iod4 ,! ,zamites1 )    
l>ge trunk cov]$ ) fan-l leaves1        
resembl$ 9 =m & be>+ ! exi/+ ,zamias (  
tropical regions2 a ,pt]ophyllum1 ) its 
/em cov]$ f base to summit ) its        
f9ely-cut fea!ry leaves2 ,conif]s       
closely resembl+ our ,cypress1 & an     
arboresc5t ,f]n4 ,:at di/+ui%es ?is     
sub-p]iod f t ( ! ,lias is a gr\p (     
magnific5t trees1 ,p&anus1 rem>kable =  
_! arial roots1 _! long leaves1 &       
globul> fruit4  ,^u "o ( ! trees ( ?is  
gr\p ! arti/ has plac$ ! ,phascolo!rium1
 n v unlike to our ,opossum4 ,x 0 among/
 ! fir/ ( ! ,mammalia :i* appe>$ 9 !    

anci5t _w4 ,! arti/ has "h enl>g$ !     
dim5sions ( ! animal 9 ord] to %[ its   
=m4 ,let ! read] r$uce x 9 imag9ation   
"o-six?1 = x 0 n l>g] ?an an ord9>y-siz$
 cat4  ,a ,crocodile & ! fle%less       
skeleton ( ! ,i*?yosaurus rem9d u t     
,reptiles /ill occupi$ an important     
place 9 ! animal creation4 ,a few       
,insects1 especially ,dragon-flies1 fly 
ab\t 9 ! air4 ,ammonites float on !     
surface ( ! waves1 & ! t]rible          
,plesiosaurus1 l a gigantic swan1 swims 
ab\t 9 ! sea4 ,! circul> reef ( coral1 !
 "w ( anci5t ,polyps1 =e%ad[s ! atolls (
 ! great ocean1 = x 0 dur+ ! ,jurassic  
p]iod t ! ,polyps ( ! anci5t _w 7 mo/   
active 9 ! production ( coral-reefs &   
islets4   ,,middle ,,oolite4  ,!        
t]re/rial flora ( ?is age 0 compos$ (   
,f]ns1 ,cycads1 & ,conif]s4 ,! fir/     
repres5t$ by ! ,pa*ypt]is microphylla1 !
 second by ,zamites ,moreana4           
,bra*yphyllum ,moreanum & ,b4 majus     
appe> to h be5 ! ,conif]s mo/ *>act]i/ic
 ( ! p]iod2 fruits h also be5 f\nd 9 !  

rocks ( ! p]iod1 :i* appe> to belong to 
,palms1 b ?is po9t is /ill obscure &    
d\btful4  ,num]\s ve/iges ( ! fauna :i* 
animat$ ! p]iod are also reveal$ 9 !    
rocks ( ?is age4 ,c]ta9 hemipt]\s       
insects appe> on ! e>? = ! fir/ "t1 & ! 
,bees among ! ,hym5opt]a1 ,butt]flies   
among ! ,lepidopt]a1 & ,dragon-flies    
among ! ,neuropt]a4 ,9 ! bosom ( !      
ocean1 or ^u its banks1 roam$ !         
,i*?yosaurus1 ,ceteosaurus1             
,pt]odactylus crassiro/ris1 & !         
,geosaurus2 ! latt] be+ v imp]fectly    
kn[n4  ,! ,ceteosaurus ^: bones h be5   
discov]$ 9 ! upp] b$s ( ! ,great ,oolite
 at ,ensl[ ,rocks1 at ! ,kirtl+ton      
,railway ,/ation1 nor? ( ,ox=d1 & "s o!r
 places1 0 a species ( ,crocodile ne>ly 
resembl+ ! mod]n ,gavial or ,crocodile (
 ! ,ganges4 ,?is huge :ale-l reptile has
 be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,john        
,phillips z unmat*$ 9 size & /r5g? by   
any ( ! l>ge/ inhabitants ( ! ,mesozoic 
l& or sea--p]haps ! l>ge/ animal t ev]  
walk$ ^u ! e>?4 ,a full-gr[n            

,ceteosaurus mu/ h be5 at lea/ fifty    
feet long1 t5 feet high1 & ( a          
proportionate bulk4 ,9 its habits x 01  
probably1 a m>%-lov+ or riv]-side       
animal1 dwell+ amid/ filic5e1           
cycadace\s1 & conif]\s %rubs & trees    
full ( insects & small mammalia4 ,! "o  
small & imp]fect too? :i* has be5 f\nd  
resembles t ( ,iguanodon m ?an ( any o!r
 reptile2 & x seems probable t !        
,ceteosaurus 0 n\ri%$ by vegetable food1
 :i* ab\nd$ 9 ! vic9ity ( its haunts1 & 
0 n oblig$ to cont5d ) ! ,megalosaurus =
 a scanty supply ( m /imulat+ diet4#fi  
#fi ,= a full acc\nt ( ! ,ceteosaurus1  
see 8,! ,geology ( !        ,?ames      
,valley10 by ,pr(4 ,john ,phillips1     
,f4,r4,s4 #ahga4  ,ano!r reptile alli$  
to ! ,pt]odactyle liv$ 9 ?is epo*--!    
,ramphoryn*us1 di/+ui%$ f ! ,pt]odactyle
 by a long tail4 ,! impr9ts :i* ?is     
curi\s animal has left ^u ! s&/one ( !  
p]iod are impressions ( its feet & !    
l9e> furr[ made by its tail4 ,l !       
,pt]odactyle1 ! ,ramphoryn*us1 :i* 0    

ab\t ! size ( a cr[1 c\ld n precisely   
fly1 b1 aid$ by ! w+ 7a sort ( natural  
p>a*ute =m$ by ! membrane connect+ !    
f+]s ) ! body71 x c\ld ?r[ itself f a   
height ^u its prey4 ,fig4 #aai repres5ts
 a re/oration ( ?is animal4 ,! footpr9ts
 9 ! soil are 9 imitation ( ^? :i*      
accompany ! rema9s ( ! ,ramphoryn*us 9 !
 ,oolitic rocks1 & !y %[ ! impr9ts ( !  
ant]ior & po/]ior feet & also ! m>ks    
made by ! tail4  ,?is tail 0 v long1 f> 
surpass+ 9 l5g? ! re/ ( ! v]tebral      
column1 & consi/+ ( m ?an ?irty         
v]tebr--:i* 7 at fir/ %ort1 b rapidly   
elongate1 reta9 _! l5g? = a consid]able 
di/ance1 & !n gradually dim9i% 9 size4  
,illu/ration3 ,,xviii4--,ideal l&scape (
 ! ,middle ,oolitic ,p]iod4  ,ano!r g5us
 ( ,reptiles appe>s 9 ! ,middle ,oolite1
 ( :i* we h _h a glimpse 9 ! ,lias &    
,great ,oolite ( ! prec$+ section4 ,?is 
is ! ,teleosaurus1 :i* ! rec5t          
inve/igations ( ,m4 ,e4 ,deslong*amps   
all[ ( re-con/ruction4 ,! ,teleosaurus  
enables u to =m a pretty exact idea ( ^!

 ,crocodiles ( ! anci5t seas--^!        
cuirass$ ,reptiles1 :i* ! ,g]man        
geologi/ ,cotta describes z 8! great    
b>ons ( ! k+dom ( ,neptune1 arm$ to !   
tee?1 & clo!d 9 an imp5etrable panoply2 
! true filibu/]s ( ! primitive seas40   
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4--,ramphoryn*us
 re/or$4 ,"o-qu>t] natural size4  ,!    
,teleosaurus resembl$ ! ,gavials (      
,india4 ,! =m] inhabit$ ! banks ( riv]s1
 p]haps ! sea itself2 !y 7 long]1 m     
sl5d]1 & m active ?an ! liv+ species2 !y
 7 ab\t ?irty feet 9 l5g?1 ( :i* ! head 
may be f ?ree to f\r feet1 ) _! enorm\s 
jaws sometimes ) an op5+ ( six feet1    
?r\gh :i* !y c\ld engulf1 9 ! dep?s ( _!
 enorm\s ?roat1 animals ( consid]able   
size4  ,! ,teleosaurus cadom5sis is     
repres5t$ on ! opposite page 7,,plate   
,,xviii471 aft] ! sket* ( ,m4 ,e4       
,deslong*amps1 c>ry+ f ! sea 9 its m\? a
 ,geoteu?is1 a species ( ,calam>y ( !   
,oolitic epo*4 ,?is creature 0 coat$ ) a
 cuirass bo? on ! back & belly4 ,9 ord] 
to %[ ?is peculi>ity1 a liv+ individual 

is repres5t$ on ! %ore1 & a dead "o is  
float+ on its back 9 %all[ wat]1 leav+ !
 v5tral cuirass expos$4  ,beh9d !       
,teleosaurus cadom5sis 9 ! engrav+1     
ano!r ,saurian1 ! ,hylosaurus1 is       
repres5t$1 :i* makes its appe>ance 9 !  
,cretace\s epo*4 ,we h "h adopt$ !      
re/oration :i* has be5 s ably execut$ by
 ,mr4 ,wat]h\se ,hawk9s1 at ! ,cry/al   
,palace1 ,syd5ham4  ,besides ! num]\s   
,fi%es ) :i* ! ,oolitic seas sw>m$1 !y  
conta9$ "s ,cru/aceans1 ,cirrip$es1 &   
v>i\s g5]a ( ,mollusca & ,zoophytes4    
,eryon arcti=mis1 repres5t$ 9 ,fig4     
#aai1 belongs to ! class ( ,cru/aceans1 
( :i* ! sp9y lob/] is ! type4 ,among !  
,mollusca 7 "s ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 
& ,oy/]s1 ( :i* _m hundr$ species h be5 
describ$4 ,( ^! we may m5tion ,ammonites
 refractus1 ,a4 ,jason & ,a4 cordatus1  
,o/rea dilatata1 ,t]ebratula diphya1    
,dic]as ariet5a1 ,belemnites ha/atus1 & 
,b4 ,puzosianus4 ,9 "s ( ! f9ely-lam9at$
 clays ! ,ammonites are v p]fect1 b     
some:at compress$1 ) ! out] lip or m>g9 

( ! ap]ture entire 7,fig4 #abj74 ,simil>
 prolongations h be5 notic$ 9           
,belemnites f\nd by ,dr4 ,mantell 9 !   
,ox=d ,clay1 ne> ,*ipp5ham4             
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4--;,eryon      
arcti=mis4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#aba4--,p]fect ,ammonite4  ,among !     
,e*9od]ms1 ,cid>is gl&if]us1 ,apiocr9us 
,roissyanus1 & ,a4 rotundus1 ! graceful 
,saccocoma pect9ata1 ,mill]icr9us       
nodotianus1 ,comatula co/ata1 &         
,hemicid>is cr5ul>is may be m5tion$2    
,apiocr9ites rotundus1 figur$ 9 ,,plate 
,,xix41 is a r$uc$ re/oration3 #a1 be+  
exp&$2 a1 clos$2 #c1 a cross section ( !
 upp] extremity ( ! pe>-%ap$ head2 #d1 a
 v]tical section %[+ ! enl>gem5t ( !    
alim5t>y canal1 ) ! holl[ l5ticul>      
spaces :i* desc5d ?r\gh ! axis ( !      
column1 =m+ ! jo9ts1 & giv+ ela/icity & 
flexure to ! :ole /em1 )\t risk (       
dislocation4 ,a4 rotundus is f\nd at    
,brad=d 9 ,wilt%ire1 ,abbotsbury 9      
,dorset1 at ,soissons1 & ,ro*elle4 ,?is 
species--kn[n z ! ,brad=d               

,pe>-,encr9ite--is only f\nd 9 ! /rata  
m5tion$4  ,illu/ration3 ,,xix4--,fig4   
#a4--;,apiocr9ites rotundus4 ,fig4      
#b4--;,encr9us lilii=mis4  ,! ,corals ( 
?is epo* occur 9 great abundance4 ,we h 
already rem>k$ t ^! aggregations (      
,polyps are (t5 met ) at a great dep? 9 
! /rata4 ,^! small calc>e\s /ructures h 
be5 =m$ 9 ! anci5t seas1 & ! same       
ph5om5on is ext5d+ ! t]re/rial surface 9
 our days 9 ! seas ( ,oceania1 :]e reefs
 & atolls ( coral are ris+ by sl[ &     
imp]ceptible /eps1 b ) no less c]ta9ty4 
,al?\gh _! mode ( production mu/ always 
rema9 to "s ext5t a my/]y1 !            
inve/igations ( ,m4 ,lam>\x1 ,mr4 ,*>les
 ,d>w91 & ,m4 ,d',orbigny h gone a long 
way t[>ds expla9+ _! op]ations2 = !     
,zoophyte 9 action is an aggregation (  
^! m9ute ,polyps4 ,describ+ :at he      
believes to be a sea-p51 a ,zoophyte    
alli$ to ,virgul>ia ,patagonia1 ,mr4    
,d>w9 says3 8,x consi/s ( a ?91 /raight1
 fle%y /em1 ) alt]nate r[s ( polypi on  
ea* side1 & surr\nd+ an ela/ic /ony     

axis4 ,! /em at "o extremity is         
truncate1 b at ! o!r is t]m9at$ by a    
v]mi=m fle%y app5dage4 ,! /ony axis :i* 
gives /r5g? to ! /em1 may be trac$ at   
?is extremity into a m]e vessel fill$ ) 
granul> matt]4 ,at l[ wat] hundr$s ( ^! 
zoophytes might be se51 project+ l      
/ubble1 ) ! truncate end upw>ds1 a few  
in*es above ! surface ( ! muddy s&4 ,:5 
t\*$ or pull$1 !y drew !mselves 9       
sudd5ly1 ) =ce1 s z ne>ly or q to       
disappe>4 ,by ?is action1 !             
highly-ela/ic axis mu/ be b5t at ! l[]  
extremity1 :]e x is naturally slightly  
curv$2 & ,i imag9e x is by ?is ela/icity
 alone t ! zoophyte is enabl$ to rise   
aga9 ?r\gh ! mud4 ,ea* polypus1 ?\gh    
closely unit$ to its bre?r51 has a      
di/9ct m\?1 body1 & t5tacula4 ,( ^!     
polypi1 9 a l>ge specim5 !re mu/ be _m  
?\s&s4 ,yet we see t !y act by "o       
movem5t2 t !y h "o c5tral axis1 connect$
 ) a sy/em ( obscure circulation40 ,su* 
is ! brief acc\nt giv5 by a v acute     
obs]v] ( ^! s+ul> be+s4 ,!y secrete !   

calc>e\s matt] held 9 solution 9 !      
oceanic wat]s1 & produce ! wond]ful     
/ructures we h n[ "u consid]ation2 & ^! 
calc>e\s banks h be5 9 c\rse ( =mation  
dur+ _m geological ages4 ,!y j rea* !   
level ( ! wat]s1 = ! polyps p]i% z soon 
z !y are s f> above ! surface t nei!r ! 
waves nor ! fl[ ( ! tides c rea* !m4 ,9 
! ,oolitic rocks ^! banks are frequ5tly 
f\nd f twelve to fifte5 feet ?ick1 & _m 
leagues 9 l5g?1 & pres]v+1 = ! mo/ "p1 !
 relative positions :i* !y occupi$ 9 !  
sea :ile 9 c\rse ( =mation4  ,! rocks   
:i* n[ repres5t ! ,middle ,oolitic      
,p]iod are usually divid$ into ! ,ox=d  
,clay1 ! l[] memb] ( :i* is an ar5ace\s 
lime/one1 kn[n z ! ,kellaways ,rock1 :i*
 9 ,wilt%ire & o!r p>ts ( ! s\?-we/ (   
,engl& atta9s a ?ickness ( eight or t5  
feet1 ) ! impressions ( num]\s          
,ammonites1 & o!r %ells4 ,9 ,york%ire1  
ar\nd ,sc>bor\gh1 x rea*es ! ?ickness ( 
?irty feet2 & =ms well-develop$ b$s (   
blui%-black m>l 9 ! dep>tm5t (          
,calvados1 9 ,france4 ,x is ! base ( ?is

 clay :i* =ms ! soil 7,argile de ,dives7
 ( ! valley ( ! ,auge1 r5[n$ = its ri*  
pa/urages & magnific5t cattle4 ,! same  
b$s =m ! base ( ! oddly-%ap$ b f9e rocks
 ( ,la ,man*e1 :i* are popul>ly kn[n z !
 ,va*es ,noires 7or black c[s7--a       
locality celebrat$1 also1 = its f9e     
,ammonites trans=m$ into pyrites4  ,!   
,ox=d ,clay con/itutes ! base ( ! hills 
9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,ox=d1 =m+ a b$ (    
clay sometimes m ?an #fjj feet ?ick4 ,x 
is f\nd well-develop$ 9 ,france1 at     
,tr\ville1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,calvados2 &
 at ,neuvisy1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,ard5nes1
 :]e x atta9s a ?ickness ( ab\t #cjj    
feet4 ,x is a blui%1 sometimes :iti%    
lime/one 7(t5 argillace\s71 & blui% m>l4
 ,! ,grypha dilatata is ! mo/ common    
fossil 9 ! ,ox=d ,clay4 ,! ,coral ,rag  
is s call$ f ! fact t ! lime/one ( :i* x
 is *iefly compos$ consi/s1 9 "p1 ( an  
aggregation ( consid]able masses (      
petrifi$ ,corals2 n unlike ^? n[ exi/+ 9
 ! ,pacific ,ocean1 suppos+ !m to be    
cov]$ up = ages & fossilis$4 ,?is coral 

/ratum ext5ds ?r\gh ! hills ( ,b]k%ire &
 ,nor? ,wilts1 & x occurs aga9 ne>      
,sc>bor\gh4 ,9 ! c\nties ( ,dorset1     
,b$=d1 ,buck+ham1 & ,cambridge1 & "s o!r
 p>ts ( ,engl&1 ! lime/one ( ! ,coral   
,rag disappe>s & is replac$ by clay--9  
:i* case ! ,ox=d ,clay is ov]laid       
directly by ! ,kim]idge ,clay4 ,9       
,france x is f\nd 9 ! dep>tm5ts ( !     
,meuse1 ( ! ,yonne1 ( ! ,a91 ( ! ,*>5te 
,infrieure4 ,9 ! ,alps ! ,dic]as        
lime/one is reg>d$1 by mo/ geologi/s1 z 
coeval ) ! ,engli% ,coral ,rag4   ,,upp]
 ,,oolite4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#abb4--;,bird ( ,sol5h(5 7,ar*opt]yx74  
,"s m>supial ,mammals h left _! rema9s 9
 ! ,upp] ,oolite z 9 ! ,l[]4 ,!y belong 
to ! g5us ,sphalaco!rium4 ,besides !    
,plesiosauri & ,teleosauri1 !re /ill    
liv$ 9 ! m>itime regions a ,crocodile1 !
 ,macrorhyn*us2 & ! mon/r\s             
,pcilopleuron1 ) %>p cutt+ tee?1 "o ( ! 
mo/ =midable animals ( ?is epo*2 !      
,hylosaurus1 ,cetiosaurus1 ,/5osaurus1 &
 ,/reptospondylus1 & among ! ,turtles1 !

 ,emys & ,platemys4 ,z 9 ! ,l[] ,oolite1
 s also 9 ! ,upp]1 ,insects simil> to ^?
 by :i* we are surr\nd$1 pursu$ _!      
flight 9 ! mead[s & hov]$ ov] ! surface 
( ! wat]4 ,( ^!1 h[ev]1 too little is   
kn[n = u to give any v precise          
indication on ! subject ( _! special    
organisation4  ,! mo/ rem>kable fact    
relat+ to ?is p]iod is ! appe>ance ( !  
fir/ bird4 ,hi!rto ! ,mammals1 & ( ^!   
only imp]fectly-organis$ species1       
namely1 ! ,m>supials1 h alone appe>$4 ,x
 is int]e/+ to witness birds appe>+     
imm$iately aft]4 ,9 ! qu>ries (         
li?ographic /one at ,sol5h(51 ! rema9s (
 a bird1 ) feet & fea!rs1 h be5 f\nd1 b 
)\t ! head4 ,^! curi\s rema9s are       
repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #abb1 9 ! position 9  
:i* !y 7 discov]$4 ,! bird is usually   
designat$ ! ,bird ( ,sol5h(54           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4  ,%ell (      
,physa font9alis4  ,! ,oolitic seas (   
?is s]ies conta9$ ,fi%es belong+ to !   
g5]a ,a/]acan?us1 ,/rephodes1           
,lepidotus1 & ,microdon4 ,!             

,cephalopod\s ,mollusca 7 n num]\s1 !   
pr$om9at+ g5]a belong+ to !             
,lamellibran*s & to ! ,ga/]opods1 :i*   
liv$ on ! %ore4 ,! reef-mak+ ,madrepores
 or ,corals 7 m num]\s4 ,a few          
,zoophytes 9 ! fossil /ate te/ify to !  
exi/5ce ( ^! extraord9>y animals4 ,!    
fossils *>act]i/ic ( ! fauna ( ! p]iod  
include ,ammonites decipi5s & ,a4       
giganteus1 ,natica elegans &            
hemisph]ica1 ,o/rea deltoidea & ,o4     
virgula1 ,trigonia gibbosa1 ,pholadomya 
multico/ata & ,p4 acutico/ata1          
,t]ebratula subsella1 & ,hemicid>is     
,purbeck5sis4 ,"s ,fi%es1 ,turtles1     
,palud9a1 ,physa 7,fig4 #abc71 ,unio1   
,planorbis 7,fig4 #bja71 & ! little     
cru/acean bivalves1 ! ,cypris1 con/itut$
 ! fre%-wat] fauna ( ! p]iod4  ,!       
t]re/rial flora ( ! p]iod consi/$ (     
,f]ns1 ,cycadeace1 & ,conif]s2 9 ! ponds
 & swamps "s ,zo/]4 ,! ,zo/] are        
monocotyl$on\s plants ( ! family ( !    
,nadace1 :i* gr[ 9 ! s&y mud ( m>itime  
regions1 =m+ !re1 ) _! long1 n>r[1 &    

ribbon-l leaves1 va/ prairies ( ! mo/   
beautiful gre54 ,at l[ tides ^! masses (
 v]dure appe> some:at expos$4 ,!y w\ld  
=m a retreat = a great numb] ( m>9e     
animals1 & af=d n\ri%m5t to o!rs4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,illu/ration3 ,,xx4--,ideal ,l&scape ( !
 ,upp] ,oolitic ,p]iod4  ,on ! opposite 
page an ideal l&scape ( ! p]iod 7,,plate
 ,,xx47 repres5ts "s ( ! features ( !   
,upp] ,oolite1 especially ! vegetation (
 ! ,jurassic p]iod4 ,! ,sph5ophyllum1   
among ! ,tree-f]ns1 is pr$om9ant 9 ?is  
vegetation2 "s ,p&anas1 a few ,zamites1 
& _m ,conif]s1 b we p]ceive no ,palms4  
,a coral islet rises out ( ! sea1 hav+  
some:at ( ! =m ( ! atolls ( ,oceania1   
indicat+ ! importance ^! =mations assum$
 9 ! ,jurassic p]iod4 ,! animals        
repres5t$ are ! ,crocodileimus (        
,j\rdan1 ! ,ramphoryn*us1 ) ! impr9ts   
:i* *>act]ise its foot/eps1 & "s ( !    
inv]tebrat$ animals ( ! p]iod1 z !      
,a/]ia1 ,comatula1 ,hemicid>is1         
,pt]oc]as4 ,al(t 9 ! air floats ! bird (

 ,sol5h(51 ! ,ar*opt]yx1 :i* has be5    
re-con/ruct$ f ! skeleton1 ) ! exception
 ( ! head1 :i* rema9s undiscov]$4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,! rocks :i* repres5t ! ,upp] ,oolite   
are usually divid$ into two s]ies3 #a4  
,! ,purbeck ,b$s2 #b4 ,! ,portl& ,/one &
 ,s&2 & #c4 ,! ,kim]idge ,clay4  ,!     
,kim]idge ,clay1 :i* 9 _m respects be>s 
a rem>kable resemblance to ! ,ox=d      
,clay1 is compos$ ( blue or yell[i%     
argillace\s b$s1 :i* occur 9 ! /ate (   
clay & %ale 7conta9+ locally b$s (      
bitum9\s s*i/1 sometimes =m+ a sort (   
e>?y impure coal71 & sev]al hundr$ feet 
9 ?ickness4 ,^! b$s are well develop$ at
 ,kim]idge1 9 ,dorset%ire1 :5ce ! clay  
takes its "n4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ,wilt%ire !  
b$s ( bitum9\s matt] h a %aly appe>ance1
 b !re is an abs5ce ( ! impressions (   
plants :i* usually accompany ! bitum51  
d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( plants4 ,^!   
rocks1 ) _! *>act]i/ic fossils1 ,c>dium 
/riatulum & ,o/rea deltoidea1 are f\nd  
?r\gh\t ,engl&3 9 ,france1 at ,tonn]re1 

,dept4 ,yonne2 at ,havre2 at ,honfleur2 
at ,mauvage2 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,meuse x  
is s ri* 9 %ells ( ,o/rea deltoidea &   
,o4 virgula1 t1 8ne> ,cl]mont 9         
,argonne1 a few leagues f ,/4 ,m5eh\ld10
 says ,lyell1#gj 8:]e ^! indurat$ m>ls  
crop out f b5ea? ! ,gault1 ,i h se5 !m  
7,grypha virgula7 on decompos+ leave !  
surface ( e pl\gh$ field lit]ally /rew$ 
ov] ) ?is fossil oy/]40    #gj 8,elem5ts
 ( ,geology10 p4 #cic4  ,! second       
section ( ?is s]ies consi/s ( ! oolitic 
lime/one ( ,portl&1 :i* is qu>ri$ 9 !   
,isle ( ,portl& & 9 ! cliffs ( ! ,isle (
 ,purbeck 9 ,dorset%ire1 & also at      
,*ilm>k 9 ! ,vale ( ,w>d\r1 9 ,wilt%ire4
 ,9 ,france1 ! ,portl& b$s are f\nd ne> 
,b\logne1 at ,cirey-le-,*teau1 ,aux]re1 
& ,gray 7,haute ,sane74  ,! ,isle1 or r 
p59sula ( ,portl&1#ga (f ! ,dorset%ire  
coa/1 rises consid]ably above !         
sea-level1 pres5t+ on ! side ( ! port a 
bold l9e ( cliffs1 connect$ ) ! ma9l& by
 ! ,*esil bank1#gb an extraord9>y       
=mation1 consi/+ ( a bea* ( %+le &      

pebbles loosely pil$ on ! blue ,kim]idge
 clay1 & /ret*+ t5 miles we/w>d along ! 
coa/4 ,! qu>ries are *iefly situat$ 9 ! 
nor!rly "p ( ! isl&4 ,! /ory told ( ?is 
rem>kable isl& is an epitome ( !        
revolutions ! surface ( ! e>? has       
und]gone4 ,! slaty ,purbeck b$s :i*     
ov]lie ! ,portl& /one are ( a           
d>k-yell[i% col\r2 !y are burnt 9 !     
neighb\rhood = lime4 ,! next b$ is ( a  
:it] & m lively col\r4 ,x is ! /one (   
:i* ! portico ( ,/4 ,paul's & _m ( !    
h\ses ( ,london1 built 9 ,que5 ,anne's  
"t1 7 con/ruct$4 ,! build+-/one conta9s 
fossils exclusively m>9e4 ,^u ?is /ratum
 re/s a b$ ( lime/one =m$ 9 lacu/r9e    
wat]s4 ,f9ally1 ^u ?is b$ re/s ano!r    
deposit ( a sub/ance :i* consi/s ( v    
well-pres]v$ vegetable e>? or humus1 q  
analog\s to our vegetable soil1 ( !     
?ickness ( f fifte5 to eighte5 in*es1 & 
( a blacki% col\r2 x conta9s a /rong    
proportion ( c>bonace\s e>?2 x ab\nds 9 
! silicifi$ rema9s ( ,conif]s & o!r     
plants1 analog\s to ! ,zamia &          

,cycas--?is soil is kn[n z ! 8dirt-b$40 
,! trunks ( great numb]s ( silicifi$    
trees & tropical plants are f\nd "h     
erect1 _! roots fix$ 9 ! soil1 & (      
species diff]+ f any ( our =e/ trees4   
8,! ru9s ( a =e/ ^u ! ru9s ( a sea10    
says ,esquiros1 8! trunks ( ^! trees 7  
petrifi$ :ile /ill gr[+4 ,! region n[   
occupi$ by ! n>r[ *annel & its environs 
_h be5 at fir/ a sea1 9 ^: b$ ! ,oolitic
 deposits :i* n[ =m ! ,portl& /one      
accumulat$3 ! b$ ( ! sea gradually rose 
& em]g$ f ! waves4 ,^u ! l& ?us rescu$ f
 ! deep1 plants began to gr[2 !y n[     
con/itute ) _! ru9s ! soil ( ! dirt-b$4 
,?is soil1 ) its =e/ ( trees1 0 aft]w>ds
 plung$ aga9 into ! wat]s--n ! bitt]    
wat]s ( ! ocean1 b 9 ! fre% wat]s ( a   
lake =m$ at ! m\? ( "s great riv]40     
#ga ,= details respect+ ^! /rata ! read]
 may consult1 )        advantage1 !     
useful h&book to ! geology ( ,weym\? &  
,portl&1 by ,rob]t ,damon4    #gb ,see  
,bri/[ & ,:itak] 8,on ! ,*esil ,bank10  
,geol4 ,mag41 vol4        vi41 p4 #dcc4 

,"t pass$ on1 h[ev]2 a calc>e\s s$im5t  
br\ght f ! int]ior by ! wat]s1 =m$ a    
lay] ( mud ov] ! dirt-b$2 f9ally1 ! :ole
 region 0 cov]$ by a succession (       
calc>e\s deposits1 until ! day :5 !     
,isle ( ,portl& 0 aga9 reveal$ to light4
 8,f ! facts obs]v$10 says ,lyell1 8we  
may inf]3--#a4 ,t ^? b$s ( ! ,upp]      
,oolite1 call$ ! ,portl&1 :i* are full (
 m>9e %ells1 7 ov]spread ) fluviatile   
mud1 :i* became dry l&1 & cov]$ ) a =e/1
 ?r\gh\t a portion ( space n[ occupi$ by
 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 ! climate be+ su* z to 
admit ( ! gr[? ( ! ,zamia & ,cycas4 #b4 
,?is l& at l5g? sank d[n & 0 subm]g$ )  
its =e/ b5ea? a body ( fre% wat] f :i*  
s$im5t 0 ?r[n d[n envelop+ fluviatile   
%ells4 #c4 ,! regul> & uni=m pres]vation
 ( ?is ?9 b$ ( black e>? ov] a di/ance (
 _m miles1 %[s t ! *ange f dry l& to !  
/ate ( a fre%-wat] lake1 or e/u>y1 0 n  
accompani$ by any viol5t d5udation or   
ru% ( wat]1 s9ce ! loose black e>?1     
toge!r ) ! trees :i* lay pro/rate on its
 surface1 mu/ inevitably h be5 swept    

away _h any su* viol5t cata/rophe tak5  
place40#gc    #gc 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10
 p4 #chi4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#abd4--;,geological humus4 a1 ,fre%-wat]
 calc>e\s slate 7,purbeck72 b1 ,dirt-b$1
 ) roots & /ems ( trees2 c1 ,fre%-wat]  
b$s2 d1 ,portl& ,/one4  ,! soil kn[n z !
 dirt-b$ is ne>ly horizontal 9 ! ,isle (
 ,portl&2 b we discov] x aga9 n f> f !re
 9 ! sea-cliffs ( ! ,isle ( ,purbeck1   
hav+ an incl9ation ( #de1 :]e ! trunks  
cont9ue p]fectly p>allel among !mselves1
 af=d+ a f9e example ( a *ange 9 !      
position ( b$s orig9ally horizontal4    
,fig4 #abd repres5ts ?is species (      
geological humus4 8,ea* dirt-b$0 says   
,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 8may1 no d\bt1 be ! 
memorial ( _m ?\s& ye>s or c5turies1    
because we f9d t two or ?ree feet (     
vegetable soil is ! only monum5t :i* _m 
a tropical =e/ has left ( its exi/5ce   
ev] s9ce ! gr\nd on :i* x n[ /&s 0 fir/ 
cov]$ ) its %ade40#gd    #gd ,ibid1 p4  
#cia4  ,?is b$ ( vegetable soil is1 !n1 
ne> ! summit ( t long & complicat$ s]ies

 ( b$s :i* con/itute ! ,jurassic p]iod2 
^! ru9s1 /ill vegetable1 rem9d u =cibly 
( ! coal-b$s1 = !y are no?+ else ?an a  
less advanc$ /ate ( t k9d ( vegetable   
fossilisation :i* 0 p]fect$ on su* an   
imm5se scale1 & dur+ an inf9ite l5g? (  
"t 9 ! coal p]iod4  ,! ,purbeck b$s1 :i*
 are sometimes subdivid$ into ,l[]1     
,middle1 & ,upp]1 are mo/ly fre%-wat]   
=mations1 intimately connect$ ) ! ,upp] 
,portl& b$s4 ,b !re !y beg9 & end1 be+  
sc>cely recognisable except 9           
,dorset%ire1 9 ! sea-cliffs ( :i* !y 7  
fir/ /udi$4 ,!y are f9ely expos$ 9      
,durdle/one ,bay1 ne> ,swanage1 & at    
,lulwor? ,cove1 on ! same coa/4 ,! l[]  
b$s consi/ ( a purely fre%-wat] m>l1    
eighty feet ?ick1 conta9+ %ells (       
,cypris1 ,limna1 & "s ,s]pul 9 a b$ (   
m>l ( bracki%-wat] orig91 & "s          
,cypris-be>+ %ales1 /rangely brok5 up at
 ! we/ end ( ! ,isle ( ,purbeck4  ,!    
,middle s]ies consi/s ( twelve feet (   
m>9e /rata kn[n z ! 8c9d]-b$s10 =m$ ( a 
va/ accumulation ( ,o/rea di/orta1 re/+ 

on fre%-wat] /rata full ( ,cypris       
fasciculata1 ,planorbis1 & ,limna1 by   
:i* ?is /rata has be5 id5tifi$ z f> inl&
 z ! vale ( ,w>d\r 9 ,wilt%ire4 ,above !
 c9d]-b$s are %ales & lime/ones1 p>tly (
 fre%-wat] & p>tly ( bracki%-wat] orig91
 9 :i* are ,fi%es1 _m species (         
,lepidotus1 & ! crocodilian reptile1    
,macrorhyn*us4 ,on ?is re/s a purely    
m>9e deposit1 ) ,pect51 ,avicula1 c4    
,above1 aga91 are bracki% b$s ) ,cyr5a1 
ov]ly+ :i* is ?irty feet ( fre%-wat]    
lime/one1 ) ,fi%es1 ,turtles1 &         
,cyprides4  ,! upp] b$s are purely      
fre%-wat] /rata1 ab\t fifty feet ?ick1  
conta9+ ,palud9a1 ,physa1 ,limna1 all v 
abundant4 ,9 ^! b$s ! ,purbeck m>ble1   
=m]ly mu* us$ 9 ! ornam5tal ar*itecture 
( ! old ,engli% ca!drals1 0 =m]ly       
qu>ri$4 7,see ,note1 page #bgd47        
99       99       99       99       99  
,a few words may be add$1 9 explanation 
( ! t]m oolite1 appli$ to ?is sub-p]iod 
( ! ,jurassic =mation4 ,9 a great numb] 
( rocks ( ?is s]ies ! elem5ts are nei!r 

cry/all9e nor amorph\s--!y are1 z we h  
already said1 oolitic2 t is to say1 !   
mass has ! =m ( ! roe ( c]ta9 fi%es4 ,! 
"q naturally en\gh arises1 ,:5ce ?is    
s+ul> oolitic /ructure assum$ by !      
compon5ts ( c]ta9 rocks8 ,x is ass]t$ t 
! gr9d+ action ( ! sea act+ ^u !        
precipitat$ lime/one produces r\nd$ =ms 
analog\s to gra9s ( s&4 ,?is hypo!sis   
may be well f\nd$ 9 "s cases4 ,! m>9e   
s$im5ts :i* are deposit$ 9 "s ( ! w>m   
bays ( ,t5]iffe are f\nd to take !      
sph]oidal granulat$ =m ( ! oolite4 ,b ^!
 local facts _c be made to apply to !   
:ole ext5t ( ! oolitic =mations4 ,we    
mu/1 !re=e1 look fur!r = an explanation 
( ! ph5om5a4  ,x is admitt$ t if !      
cascades ( ,tivoli1 = example1 c give   
bir? to ! oolitic gra9s1 ! same ?+      
happ5s 9 ! quiete/ bas9s1 t 9           
/alactite-cav]ns oolitic gra9s develop  
!mselves1 :i* aft]w>ds1 becom+ cem5t$   
toge!r f ! cont9u$1 b v sl[1 afflu5ce ( 
! calc>e\s wat]s1 give rise to c]ta9    
k9ds ( oolitic rocks4  ,on ! o!r h&1 x  

is kn[n t nodules1 m or less l>ge1      
develop !mselves 9 m>ls 9 consequ5ce ( !
 conc5tration ( ! calc>e\s elem5ts1 )\t 
! possibility ( any we>+ action ( wat]4 
,n[1 z !re exi/s e gradation ( size     
betwe5 ! smalle/ oolitic gra9s & ! l>ge/
 concretions1 x is reasonable to suppose
 t ! oolites are equally ! product (    
conc5tration4  ,f9ally1 f rese>* to     
rese>*1 x is f\nd t p]fectly con/itut$  
oolites--t is to say1 conc5tric lay]s1 z
 9 ! ,jurassic lime/one--develop        
!mselves 9 vegetable e>? 9 places :]e ! 
effects ( wat] 9 motion is n m          
admissible ?an 9 ! prec$+ in/ances4     
,?us we arrive at ! conclusion1 t if    
,nature sometimes =ms cry/als ) p]fect  
t]m9ations 9 magmas 9 ! c\rse (         
solidification1 %e gives rise also to   
sph]oidal =ms surr\nd+ v>i\s c5tres1 :i*
 sometimes orig9ate spontane\sly1 & 9   
o!r cases are accumulat$ r\nd ! dbris ( 
fossils1 or ev5 m]e gra9s ( s&4         
,nev]!less1 all m9]al sub/ances are n   
alike calculat$ to produce oolitic      

rocks2 putt+ aside "s p>ticul> cases1   
?is prop]ty is conf9$ to lime/one &     
oxide ( iron4         99       99       
99       99       99  ,) reg>d to !     
di/ribution ( ! ,jurassic =mation on !  
t]re/rial globe1 x may be /at$ t !      
,cotteswold ,hills 9 ,engl&1 & 9 ,france
 ! ,jura m\nta9s1 are almo/ entirely    
compos$ ( ^! rocks1 ! sev]al s]ies ( b$s
 be+ all repres5t$ 9 !m--?is            
circum/ance1 9 fact1 induc$ ,von        
,humboldt to "n ! =mation aft] ?is latt]
 range4 ,! ,upp] ,lias also exi/s 9 !   
,pyr5ees & 9 ! ,alps2 9 ,spa92 9 _m p>ts
 ( ,nor!rn ,italy2 9 ,russia1 especially
 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ,mosc[1 & 9 ! ,crimea2 b
 x is 9 ,g]many :]e x occupies ! mo/    
important place4 ,a ?9 b$ ( oolitic     
lime/one pres5ts1 at ,sol5h(5 9 ,bav>ia1
 a geological repository ( great        
celebrity1 conta9+ fossil ,plants1      
,fi%es1 ,insects1 ,cru/aceans1 ) "s     
,pt]odactyles1 admirably pres]v$2 x     
yield$ also "s ( ! e>lie/ ( ! fea!r$    
race4 ,! f9e qu>ries ( li?ographic /one 

at ,papp5heim1 s celebrat$ all ov]      
,europe1 belong to ! ,jurassic =mation4 
,x has rec5tly be5 ann\nc$ t ^! rocks h 
be5 f\nd 9 ,india2 !y contribute l>gely 
to ! =mation ( ! ma9 mass ( !           
,himalayas1 & to ! *a9 ( ! ,&es 9 ,s\?  
,am]ica2 f9ally1 f rec5t inve/igations1 
!y seem to be pres5t 9 ,new ,zeal&4  ,9 
,engl& ! ,lias con/itutes a well-def9$  
belt ab\t ?irty miles broad1 ext5d+ f   
,dorset%ire1 9 ! s\?1 to ,york%ire1 9 ! 
nor?1 =m$ ( alt]nate b$s ( clay1 %ales1 
& lime/one 7) lay]s ( jet71 on ! coa/   
ne> ,:itby4 ,x is ri*1 z we h se51 9    
anci5t life1 & t 9 ! /ronge/ =ms        
imag9able4 ,f ! unequal h>dness ( !     
rocks x comprises1 x /&s out boldly 9 "s
 ( ! m9or ranges ( hills1 add+ greatly  
to ! picturesque beauty ( ! sc5]y 9 !   
c5tre ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 ,scotl& ! =mation  
occupies a v limit$ space4  ,a map ( !  
c\ntry at ! close ( ! ,jurassic p]iod   
w\ld probably %[ d\ble ! ext5t ( dry l& 
9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 comp>$ ) :at x      
display$ z an isl& 9 ! primordial ocean2

 b ,devon & ,cornwall _h long ris5 f !  
sea1 & x is probable t ! ,jurassic b$s (
 ,dorset%ire & ,france 7 connect$ by a  
tongue ( l& runn+ f ,*]b\rg to !        
,liassic b$s ( ,dorset%ire1 & t         
,b\logne1 /ill an isl&1 0 simil>ly      
connect$ ) ! ,weald4  ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #abe4--;,crioc]as ,duvallii1      
,s[]by4 ,a non-involut$ ,ammonite4      
7,neocomian47      ,,note4--,sections ( 
! ,purbeck /rata ( ,dorset%ire h be5    
con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,bri/[1 f actual      
measurem5t1 9 !     sev]al localities 9 
! ,isle ( ,purbeck1 :]e !y are mo/      
cle>ly & in/ructively display$4      ,^!
 sections1 publi%$ by ! ,geological     
,survey1 %[ 9     detail ! b$s 9 _!     
regul> & natural ord] (     succession1 
) ! ?ickness1 m9]al "*1 & cont5ts1     z
 well z ! fossils1 ( ea* sep>ate b$4    
,,! ,,cretace\s ,,p]iod4  ,! "n         
,cretace\s 7f creta1 *alk7 is giv5 to   
?is epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( our globe because 
! rocks deposit$ by ! sea1 t[>ds its    
close1 are almo/ entirely compos$ ( *alk

 7c>bonate ( lime74  ,c>bonate ( lime1  
h[ev]1 does n n[ appe> = ! fir/ "t z a  
"p ( ! e>?'s cru/2 we h already se5     
lime/one occurr+1 among ! t]re/rial     
mat]ials1 f ! ,silurian p]iod2 !        
,jurassic =mation is l>gely compos$ (   
c>bonate ( lime 9 _m ( its b$s1 :i* are 
enorm\s 9 numb] z well z ext5t2 x       
appe>s1 !re=e1 t 9 ! p]iod call$        
,cretace\s by geologi/s1 c>bonate ( lime
 0 no new sub/ance 9 ! con/itution ( !  
globe4 ,if geologi/s h be5 l$ to give   
?is "n to ! p]iod1 x is because x       
accords bett] ?an any o!r ) !           
*>act]i/ics ( ! p]iod2 ) ! va/          
accumulations ( *alky or e>?y lime/one 9
 ! ,p>is bas91 & ! b$s ( s-call$        
,gre5s&1 & ,*alk ( ! same age1 s l>gely 
develop$ 9 ,engl&4  ,we h already       
endeav\r$ to e/abli% ! orig9 ( lime1 9  
speak+ ( ! ,silurian & ,devonian p]iods1
 b x may be useful to recapitulate !    
explanation "h1 ev5 at ! risk ( repeat+ 
ourselves4  ,we h said t lime 01 9 all  
probability1 introduc$ to ! globe by    

!rmal wat]s fl[+ abundantly ?r\gh !     
fissures1 dislocations1 & fractures 9 ! 
gr\nd1 :i* 7 !mselves caus$ by ! gradual
 cool+ ( ! globe2 ! c5tral nucleus be+ !
 gr& res]voir & s\rce ( ! mat]ials :i*  
=m ! solid cru/4 ,9 ! same mann]1 !re=e1
 z ! sev]al eruptive sub/ances--su* z   
granites1 porphyries1 tra*ytes1 basalts1
 & lava--h be5 eject$1 s h !rmal wat]s  
*>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 & (t5 accompani$
 by silica1 f\nd _! way to ! surface 9  
great abundance1 ?r\gh ! fissures1      
fractures1 & dislocations 9 ! cru/ ( !  
e>?4 ,we ne$ only m5tion "h ! ,icel&    
geys]s1 ! spr+s ( ,plombires1 & !       
well-kn[n !rmal spr+s ( ,ba? & else:]e 9
 ?is c\ntry4  ,b h[ comes lime 9 a /ate 
( bic>bonate1 dissolv$ 9 ^! !rmal wat]s1
 to =m rocks8 ,t is :at we propose to   
expla94  ,dur+ ! prim>y geological      
p]iods1 !rmal wat]s1 z !y rea*$ !       
surface1 7 dis*>g$ into ! sea & unit$   
!mselves ) ! waves ( ! va/ primordial   
ocean1 & ! wat]s ( ! sea became s5sibly 
calc>e\s--!y conta9$1 x is believ$1 f "o

 to two p] c5t4 ( lime4 ,! innum]able   
animals1 especially ,zoophytes1 &       
,mollusca ) solid %ells1 ) :i* ! anci5t 
seas sw>m$1 secret$ ?is lime1 out ( :i* 
!y built up _! m9]al dwell+--or %ell4 ,9
 ?is liquid & *emically calc>e\s m$ium1 
! ,=am9if]a & ,polyps ( all =ms sw>m$1  
=m+ an innum]able population4 ,n[ :at   
became ( ! bodies ( ^! creatures aft]   
dea?8 ,!y 7 ( all sizes1 b *iefly       
microscopic2 t is1 s small z to be      
individually all b invisible to ! nak$  
eye4 ,! p]i%able animal matt] disappe>$ 
9 ! bosom ( ! wat]s by decomposition1 b 
!re /ill rema9$ beh9d ! inde/ructible   
inorganic matt]1 t is to say1 ! c>bonate
 ( lime =m+ _! te/ace\s cov]+2 ^!       
calc>e\s deposits accumulat+ 9 ?ick b$s 
at ! bottom ( ! sea1 became compact$    
into a solid mass1 & =m$ a s]ies (      
cont9u\s b$s sup]impos$ on ea* o!r4 ,^!1
 increas+ imp]ceptibly 9 ! c\rse ( ages1
 ultimately =m$ ! rocks ( ! ,cretace\s  
p]iod1 :i* we h n[ "u consid]ation4  ,^!
 /atem5ts are n1 z ! read] might        

conceive f _! nature1 a romantic        
conception inv5t$ to please ! imag9ation
 ( ^? 9 se>* ( a sy/em--! "t is pa/ :5  
geology %\ld be reg>d$ z ! romance (    
,nature--nor has :at we advance at all !
 "* ( an arbitr>y conception4 ,"o is no 
d\bt /ruck ) surprise on le>n+1 = ! fir/
 "t1 t all ! lime/one rocks1 all !      
calc>e\s /ones employ$ 9 ! con/ruction (
 our dwell+s1 our cities1 our ca/les &  
ca!drals1 7 deposit$ 9 ! seas ( an e>li]
 _w1 & are only compos$ ( an aggregation
 ( %ells ( ,mollusca1 or fragm5ts ( !   
te/ace\s cov]+s ( ,=am9if]a & o!r       
,zoophytes--nay1 t !y 7 secret$ f ! wat]
 itself1 & !n assimilat$ by ^! m9ute    
creatures1 & t ?is w\ld appe> to h be5 !
 great object ( _! creation 9 su*       
myriads4 ,:oev] w take ! tr\ble to      
obs]ve1 & reflect on :at he obs]ves1 w  
f9d all 8 d\bts vani%4 ,if *alk be      
exam9$ ) a microscope1 x w be f\nd to be
 compos$ ( ! rema9s ( num]\s ,zoophytes1
 ( m9ute & div]s k9ds ( %ells1 &1 above 
all1 ( ,=am9if]a1 s small t _! v        

m9ut5ess seems to h r5d]$ !m            
inde/ructible4 ,a hundr$ & fifty ( ^!   
small be+s plac$ end to end1 9 a l9e1 w 
only occupy ! space ( ab\t "o-twelf? "p 
( an in*4  ,illu/ration3 ,*alk "u !     
,microscope4  ,fig4 #abf4--;,*alk (     
,meudon 7magnifi$74  ,mu* ( ?is curi\s  
in=mation 0 unkn[n1 or at lea/ only     
suspect$1 :5 ,ehr5b]g began 8           
microscopical inve/igations4 ,f small   
samples ( *alk r$uc$ to p[d]1 plac$ ^u !
 object-glass1 & exam9$ "u ! microscope1
 ,ehr5b]g prep>$ ! designs :i* we       
reproduce f 8 le>n$ micrographical "w1 9
 :i* "s ( ! elegant =ms discov]$ 9 !    
,*alk are illu/rat$1 greatly magnifi$4  
,fig4 #abf repres5ts ! *alk ( ,meudon1 9
 ,france1 9 :i* ammonite-l =ms (        
,=am9if]a & o!rs1 equally beautiful1    
appe>4 ,fig4 #abg1 f ! *alk ( ,graves5d1
 conta9s simil> objects4 ,fig4 #abh is  
an example ( *alk f ! isl& ( ,mon1 9    
,d5m>k2 & ,fig4 #abi1 t :i* is f\nd 9 ! 
,t]ti>y rocks ( ,cattolica1 9 ,sicily4  
,9 all ^! ! %ells ( ,ammonites appe>1 ) 

clu/]s ( r\nd ,=am9if]a & o!r           
,zoophytes4 ,9 two ( ^! engrav+s 7,figs4
 #abf & #abh71 ! *alk is repres5t$ 9 two
 modes--9 ! upp] half1 by transp>5cy or 
transmitt$ light2 9 ! l[] half1 ! mass  
is exhibit$ by sup]ficial or reflect$   
light4  ,illu/ration3 ,*alk "u !        
,microscope4  ,fig4 #abg4--;,*alk (     
,graves5d4 7,aft] ,ehr5b]g74--,magnifi$4
  ,obs]vation1 !n1 e/abli%es ! tru? ( ! 
explanation we h giv5 conc]n+ ! =mation 
( ! *alky or ,cretace\s rocks2 b ! "q   
/ill rema9s--,h[ did ^! rocks1 orig9ally
 deposit$ 9 ! sea1 become elevat$ into  
hills ( great height1 ) bold esc>pm5ts1 
l ^? kn[n 9 ,engl& z ! ,nor? & ,s\?     
,d[ns8 ,! answ] to ?is involves !       
consid]ation ( o!r que/ions :i* h1 at   
pres5t1 sc>cely got beyond hypo!sis4    
,illu/ration3 ,*alk "u ! ,microscope4   
,fig4 #abh4--;,*alk ( ! ,isle ( ,mon1   
,d5m>k4  ,illu/ration3 ,*alk "u !       
,microscope4  ,fig4 #abi4--;,*alk (     
,cattolica1 ,sicily 7magnifi$74  ,dur+ &
 aft] ! deposition ( ! ,portl& &        

,purbeck b$s1 ! entire ,oolite ,s]ies1 9
 ! s\? & c5tre ( ,engl& & o!r regions1 0
 rais$ above ! sea-level & became dry   
l&4 ,above ^! ,purbeck b$s1 z ,pr(essor 
,ramsay tells u 9 ! di/rict kn[n z !    
,weald1 8we h a s]ies ( b$s ( clays1    
s&/ones1 & %elly lime/ones1 indicat+ by 
_! fossils t !y 7 deposit$ 9 an e/u>y   
:]e fre% wat] & occasionally bracki%    
wat] & m>9e conditions prevail$4 ,!     
,weald5 & ,purbeck b$s inde$ repres5t ! 
delta ( an imm5se riv] :i* 9 size may h 
rivall$ ! ,ganges1 ,mississippi1        
,amazon1 c41 & ^: wat]s c>ri$ d[n to its
 m\? ! rema9s ( l&-plants1 small        
,mammals1 & great t]re/rial ,reptiles1 &
 m+l$ !m ) ! rema9s ( ,fi%es1 ,molluscs1
 & o!r =ms native to its wat]s4 ,i d n  
say t ?is imm5se riv] 0 =m$ or suppli$  
by ! dra9age ( :at we n[ call ,great    
,brita9--,i d n inde$ "k :]e ?is cont95t
 lay1 b ,i d "k t ,engl& =m$ a "p ( x1 &
 t 9 size x mu/ h be5 l>g] ?an ,europe1 
& 0 probably z l>ge z ,asia1 or ! great 
cont95t ( ,am]ica40 ,speak+ ( !         

geographical ext5t ( ! ,weald51 ,sir    
,*>les ,lyell says3 8,x _c be accurately
 laid d[n1 because s mu* ( x is conceal$
 b5ea? ! new] m>9e =mations4 ,x has be5 
trac$ ab\t #bjj miles f we/ to ea/2 f ! 
coa/ ( ,dorset%ire to ne> ,b\logne1 9   
,france2 & ne>ly #bjj miles f nor?-we/  
to s\?-ea/1 f ,surrey & ,hamp%ire to    
,beauvais1 9 ,france20#ge b he expresses
 d\bt1 suppos+ ! =mation to h be5       
cont9u\s1 if ! two areas 7              
contemporane\s1 ! region hav+ und]gone  
frequ5t *anges1 ! great e/u>y hav+ alt]$
 its =m1 & ev5 %ift$ its place4 ,speak+ 
( a hypo!tical cont95t1 ,sir ,*>les     
,lyell says3 8,if x be ask$ :]e !       
cont95t 0 plac$ f ! ru9s ( :i* ! ,weald5
 /rata 7 d]iv$1 & by ! dra9age ( :i* a  
great riv] 0 f$1 we are half tempt$ to  
speculate on ! =m] exi/5ce ( ! ,atlantis
 ( ,plato4 ,! /ory ( ! subm]g5ce ( an   
anci5t cont95t1 h[ev] fabul\s 9 hi/ory1 
mu/ h be5 true aga9 & aga9 z a          
geological ev5t40#gf    #ge 8,elem5ts ( 
,geology10 p4 #cdi4    #gf ,ibid1 p4    

#cej4  ,! pro( t ! ,weald5 s]ies 7      
accumulat$ "u fre%-wat] conditions & z a
 riv] deposit#gg lies p>tly 9 ! nature (
 ! /rata1 b *iefly 9 ! nature ( !       
organic rema9s4 ,! fi% give no positive 
pro(1 b a numb] ( ,crocodilian reptiles 
give m conclusive evid5ce1 toge!r ) !   
%ells1 mo/ ( !m be+ ( fre%-wat] orig91  
su* z ,palud9a1 ,planorbis1 ,lymna1     
,physa1 & su* l1 :i* are f\nd liv+ 9 _m 
ponds & riv]s ( ! pres5t day4 ,n[ & !n  
we f9d b&s ( m>9e rema9s1 n mix$ )      
fre%-wat] deposits1 b int]/ratifi$ ) !m2
 %[+ t at times ! m\? & delta ( ! riv]  
_h sunk a little1 & t x _h be5 invad$ by
 ! sea2 !n by gradual *ange x 0 lift$   
up1 & became an ext5sive fre%-wat] area4
 ,?is episode at la/ comes to an end by 
! complete subm]g5ce ( ! ,weald5 area2 &
 ^u ^! fre%-wat] /rata a set ( m>9e s&s 
& clays1 & ^u ^! aga9 ?ick b$s ( pure   
:ite e>?y lime/one ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod 
7 deposit$4 ,! l[e/ ( ^! =mations is    
kn[n z ! ,l[] ,gre5s&2 !n foll[$ ! clays
 ( ! ,gault1 :i* 7 succe$$ by ! ,upp]   

,gre5s&4 ,!n1 re/+ ^u ! ,upp] ,gre5s&1  
comes ! va/ mass ( ,*alk :i* 9 ,engl&   
consi/s ( s(t :ite e>?y lime/one1       
conta9+1 9 ! upp] "p1 num]\s b&s (      
int]/ratifi$ fl9ts1 :i* 7 mo/ly sponges 
orig9ally1 t h s9ce become silicifi$ &  
conv]t$ into fl9t4 ,! /rata ( *alk :]e  
?icke/ are f #a1jjj to #a1bjj feet 9    
?ickness4 ,_! upheaval into dry l&      
br\ght ?is epo* to an end2 ! conditions 
:i* _h contribut$ to its =mation ceas$ 9
 our area1 & z ! upp]mo/ memb] ( !      
,second>y rocks1 x closes ! record (    
,mesozoic times 9 ,engl&4    #gg 8,!    
,physical ,geology & ,geography ( ,great
 ,brita910 by ,a4 ,c4        ,ramsay1   
,f4,r4,s41 p4 #fd4  ,let u add1 to      
remove any rema9+ d\bts1 t 9 ! bas9 ( a 
mod]n ,european sea--! ,baltic--a curi\s
 assemblage ( ph5om5a1 be>+ on ! "q1 is 
n[ 9 op]ation4 ,! b$ & coa/-l9e ( !     
,baltic cont9ue sl[ly b unceas+ly to    
rise1 & h done s = sev]al c5turies1 9   
consequ5ce ( ! con/ant deposit :i* takes
 place ( calc>e\s %ells1 add$ to !      

natural accumulations ( s& & mud4 ,!    
,baltic ,sea w c]ta9ly be fill$ up 9 "t 
by ^! deposits1 & ?is mod]n ph5om5on1   
:i* we f9d 9 progress1 s to speak1 br+s 
directly "u our obs]vation an           
explanation ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! cretace\s 
rocks 7 produc$ 9 ! anci5t _w1 m        
especially :5 tak5 9 connection ) ano!r 
bran* ( ! same subject to :i* ,sir      
,*>les ,lyell call$ att5tion1 9 an      
address to ! ,geological ,society4 ,x   
appe>s t j z ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,sc&9avian 
cont95t is n[ ris+1 & :ile ! middle "p  
s\? ( ,/ockholm rema9s unmov$1 ! s\!rn  
extremity 9 ,scania is s9k+1 or at lea/ 
has sunk1 )9 ! hi/oric p]iod2 f :i* he  
argues t !re may h be5 a sl[ upheaval 9 
"o region1 :ile ! adjo9+ "o 0 /ation>y1 
or 9 c\rse ( subm]g5ce4  ,aft] ^!       
explanations z to ! mann] 9 :i* !       
cretace\s rocks 7 =m$1 let u exam9e into
 ! /ate ( animal & vegetable life dur+  
?is important p]iod 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory4   
,! vegetable k+dom ( ?is p]iod =ms an   
introduction to ! vegetation ( ! pres5t 

"t4 ,plac$ at ! close ( ! ,second>y     
epo*1 ?is vegetation prep>es u =        
transition1 z x 71 to ! vegetation ( !  
,t]ti>y epo*1 :i*1 z we %all see1 has a 
great aff9ity ) t ( our own times4  ,!  
l&scapes ( ! anci5t _w h hi!rto %[n u "s
 species ( plants ( =ms /range & little 
kn[n1 :i* are n[ ext9ct4 ,b dur+ ! p]iod
 ^: hi/ory we are trac+1 ! vegetable    
k+dom beg9s to fa%ion itself 9 a less   
my/]i\s mann]2 ,palms appe>1 & among !  
regul> species we recognise "s :i* diff]
 little f ^? ( ! tropics ( our days4 ,! 
dicotyl$ons increase slightly 9 numb]   
amid ,f]ns & ,cycads1 :i* h lo/ mu* ( _!
 importance 9 numb]s & size2 we obs]ve  
an obvi\s increase 9 ! dicotyl$ons ( our
 own temp]ate climate1 su* z ! ald]1 !  
wy*-elm1 ! maple1 & ! walnut1 c4  8,z we
 retire f ! times ( ! primitive         
creation10 says ,lecoq1 8& sl[ly approa*
 ^? ( our own epo*1 ! s$im5ts seem to   
)draw !mselves f ! pol> regions &       
re/rict !mselves to ! temp]ate or       
equatorial zones4 ,! great b$s ( s& &   

lime/one1 :i* con/itute ! ,cretace\s    
=mation1 ann\nce a /ate ( ?+s v diff]5t 
f t ( ! prec$+ ages4 ,! seasons are no  
long] m>k$ by indications ( c5tral heat2
 zones ( latitude already %[ signs ( _! 
exi/5ce4  8,hi!rto two classes (        
vegetation pr$om9at$3 ! cellul>         
,cryptogams at fir/1 ! dicotyl$on\s     
,gymnosp]ms aft]w>ds2 & 9 ! epo* :i* we 
h rea*$--! transition epo* (            
vegetation--! two classes :i* h reign$  
h]et(ore become enfeebl$1 & a ?ird1 !   
dicotyl$on\s ,angiosp]ms1 timidly take  
possession ( ! e>?--!y consi/ at fir/ ( 
a small numb] ( species1 & occupy only a
 small "p ( ! soil1 ( :i* !y aft]w>ds   
take _! full %>e2 & 9 ! succe$+ p]iods1 
z 9 our own times1 we %all see t _!     
reign is firmly e/abli%$2 dur+ !        
,cretace\s p]iod1 9 %ort1 we witness !  
appe>ance ( ! fir/ dicotyl$on\s         
,angiosp]ms4 ,"s arboresc5t ,f]ns /ill  
ma9ta9 _! position1 & ! elegant         
,protopt]is ,s+]i1 ,preissl41 & ,p4     
,buvign]i1 ,brongn41 /ill unfold _!     

light fronds to ! w9ds ( ?is p]iod4 ,"s 
,pecopt]i1 diff]+ f ! ,weald5 species1  
live along ) !m4 ,"s ,zamites1 ,cycads1 
& ,zamio/robi ann\nce t 9 ! ,cretace\s  
p]iod ! temp]ature 0 /ill high4 ,new    
,palms %[ !mselves1 &1 among o!rs1      
,flabell>ia *amropifolia is especially  
rem>kable = ! maje/ic cr[n at its       
summit4  8,! ,conif]s h endur$ bett] ?an
 ! ,cycade2 !y =m$ !n1 z n[1 great =e/s1
 :]e ,dam>ites1 ,cunn+hamias1           
,arauc>ias1 ,eleoxylons1 ,abietites1 &  
,p9ites rem9d u ( num]\s =ms /ill exi/+1
 b disp]s$ all ov] ! e>?4  8,f ?is epo* 
date ! ,comptonias1 attribut$ to !      
,myricace2 ,almites ,friesii1 ,nils41   
:i* we consid] z "o ( ! ,betulace2      
,c>p9ites ar5aceus1 ,gp41 :i* is "o ( ! 
,cupulif]2 ! ,salicites1 :i* are        
repres5t$ to u by ! arboresc5t will[s2 !
 ,ac]9 w\ld h _! ,ac]ites cretace1      
,nils41 & ! ,jugl&it1 ! ,jugl&ites      
elegans1 ,gp4 ,b ! mo/ int]e/+ botanical
 ev5t ( ?is p]iod is ! appe>ance ( !    
,cr$n]ia1 ) its triple-ve9$ leaves1 (   

:i* no less ?an eight species h be5 f\nd
 & describ$1 b ^: place 9 ! sy/ems (    
classification /ill rema9s unc]ta94 ,!  
,cr$n]ias1 l ! ,salicites1 7 c]ta9ly    
trees1 z 7 mo/ ( ! species ( ?is remote 
epo*40  ,9 ! foll[+ illu/ration are     
repres5t$ two ( ! ,palms belong+ to !   
,cretace\s p]iod1 re/or$ f ! impr9ts &  
fragm5ts ( ! fossil rema9s left by !    
trunk & bran*es 9 ! rocks ( ! p]iod     
7,fig4 #acj47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4      
#acj4--;,fossil ,palms re/or$4  ,b if ! 
vegetation ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod exhibits
 s5sible signs ( approximation to t (   
our pres5t era1 we _c say ! same ( !    
animal creation4 ,! "t has n yet come :5
 ,mammals analog\s to ^? ( our epo* gave
 animation to ! =e/s1 pla9s1 & %ores ( !
 anci5t _w2 ev5 ! ,m>supial ,mammals1   
:i* made _! appe>ance 9 ! ,liassic &    
,oolitic =mations1 no long] exi/1 s f> z
 is kn[n1 & no o!rs ( ! class h tak5 _! 
place4 ,no climb+ ,opossum1 ) its "y    
ones1 appe>s among ! leaves ( !         
,zamites4 ,! e>? appe>s to be /ill      

t5ant$ by ,reptiles1 :i* alone break !  
solitudes ( ! woods & ! sil5ce ( !      
valleys4 ,! ,reptiles1 :i* seem to h    
sw>m$ 9 ! seas ( ! ,jurassic p]iod1     
p>took ( ! crocodilian organisation1 &  
^? ( ?is p]iod seem to be> m resemblance
 to ! ,liz>ds ( our day4 ,9 ?is p]iod ! 
rema9s ( c]ta9 =ms indicate t !y /ood on
 high] legs2 !y no long] creep on ! e>?1
 & ?is is app>5tly ! only approximation 
:i* seems to connect !m m closely )     
high] =ms4  ,x is n )\t surprise t we   
adv]t to ! imm5se developm5t1 !         
extraord9>y dim5sions :i* ! ,saurian    
family atta9$ at ?is epo*4 ,^! animals  
:i*1 9 our days1 r>ely exce$ a y>d or s 
9 l5g?1 atta9$ 9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod z   
mu* z tw5ty4 ,! m>9e liz>d1 :i* we      
notice "u ! "n ( ,mosasaurus1 0 !n !    
sc\rge ( ! seas1 play+ ! "p ( !         
,i*?yosauri ( ! ,jurassic p]iod2 =1 f ! 
age ( ! ,lias to t ( ! ,*alk1 !         
,i*?yosauri1 ! ,plesiosauri1 & !        
,teleosauri 71 judg+ f _! organisation1 
! tyrants ( ! wat]s4 ,!y appe> to h     

become ext9ct at ! close ( ! ,cretace\s 
p]iod1 & to give place to ! ,mosasaurus1
 to :om fell ! =midable task ( keep+ )9 
prop] limits ! exub]ant production ( !  
v>i\s tribes ( ,fi%es & ,cru/aceans :i* 
inhabit$ ! seas4 ,?is creature 0 fir/   
discov]$ 9 ! celebrat$ rocks ( ,/4      
,pet]'s ,m\nt at ,mae/ri*t1 on ! banks (
 ! ,meuse4 ,! skull alone 0 ab\t f\r    
feet 9 l5g?1 :ile ! entire skeleton (   
,iguanodon ,mantelli1 discov]$ by ,dr4  
,mantell 9 ! ,weald5 /rata1 has s9ce be5
 met ) 9 ! ,ha/+s b$s ( ,tilgate ,=e/1  
measur+1 z ,pr(essor ,ow5 e/imates1     
betwe5 fifty & sixty feet 9 l5g?4 ,^!   
enorm\s ,saurians disappe> 9 _! turn1 to
 be replac$ 9 ! seas ( ! ,t]ti>y epo* by
 ! ,cetaceans2 & h5ce=? animal life     
beg9s to assume1 m & m1 ! appe>ance x   
pres5ts 9 ! actually exi/+ creation4    
,see+ ! great ext5t ( ! seas ( !        
,cretace\s p]iod1 ,fi%es 7 necess>ily   
num]\s4 ,! pike1 salmon1 & dory tribes1 
analog\s to ^? ( our days1 liv$ 9 ! seas
 ( ?is p]iod2 !y fl$ be=e ! %>ks &      

voraci\s dog-fi%es1 :i* n[ appe>$ 9     
great numb]s1 aft] j %[+ !mselves 9 !   
,oolitic p]iod4  ,! sea 0 /ill full (   
,polyps1 ,sea-ur*9s1 ,cru/aceans ( v>i\s
 k9ds1 & _m g5]a ( ,mollusca diff]5t f  
^? ( ! ,jurassic p]iod2 alongside (     
gigantic ,liz>ds are :ole piles (       
animalcul--^? ,=am9if]a ^: rema9s are   
scatt]$ 9 inf9ite pr(usion 9 ! ,*alk1   
ov] an enorm\s area & ( imm5se ?ickness4
 ,! calc>e\s rema9s ( ^! little be+s1   
incalculable 9 numb]1 h inde$ cov]$1 9  
all probability1 a great "p ( !         
t]re/rial surface4 ,x w give a suffici5t
 idea ( ! importance ( ! ,cretace\s     
p]iod 9 connection ) ^! organisms to    
/ate t1 9 ! rocks ( ! p]iod1 #bfh g5]a (
 animals1 hi!rto unkn[n1 & m ?an #e1jjj 
species ( special liv+ be+s h be5 f\nd2 
! ?ickness ( ! rocks =m$ dur+ ! p]iod   
be+ enorm\s4 ,:]e is ! geologi/ :o w    
v5ture to e/imate ! "t occupi$ 9 creat+ 
& de/roy+ ! animat$ masses ( :i* ?is    
=mation is at once bo? ! cemet]y & !    
monum5t8 ,= ! purposes ( description x w

 be conv5i5t to divide ! ,cretace\s     
s]ies into l[] & upp]1 accord+ to _!    
relative ages & _! peculi> fossils4     
,,! ,,l[] ,,cretace\s ,,p]iod4          
,engli% equival5ts4              ,fr5*  
classification4    ,l[] ,gre5s&1 upp]   
"p4      tage ,apti5 /4   ,l[] ,gre5s&1 
l[] "p4           ,nocomi5 suprieur4    
,weald clay & ,ha/+s s&s4               
,nocomi5 infrieur4  ,! ,l[] ,weald5 or  
,ha/+s ,s& consi/s ( s&1 s&/one1 &      
calcif]\s grit1 clay1 & %ale1 !         
argillace\s /rata pr$om9at+4 ,?is "p ( !
 ,weald5 consi/s1 9 desc5d+ ord]1 (3--  
,feet4   ,tunbridge ,wells s&--,s&/one &
 loam                        #aej       
,wadhur/ clay--,blue & br[n %ale & clay1
 ) a little   calc grit                 
#ajj   ,a%d[n s&s--,h>d s&1 ) b$s ( calc
 grit                #afj   ,a%burnham  
s&s--,mottl$1 :ite1 & r$ clay & s&/one  
#ccj  ,! ,ha/+s s& has a h>d b$ ( :ite  
s& 9 its upp] "p1 ^: /eep natural cliffs
 produce ! picturesque sc5]y ( ! 8,high 
rocks0 ( ,ha/+s 9 ,sussex4  ,calc>e\s   

s&/one & grit1 9 :i* ,dr4 ,mantell f\nd 
! rema9s ( ! ,iguanodon & ,hylosaurus1  
=m an upp] memb] ( ! ,tunbridge ,wells  
,s&4 ,! =mation ext5ds ov] ,hanov] &    
,we/phalia2 ! ,weald5 ( ^! c\ntries1    
accord+ to ,dr4 ,dunk] & ,von ,mey]1    
correspond+ 9 _! fossils & m9]al *>act]s
 ) ^? ( ! ,engli% s]ies4 ,s t 8we c     
sc>cely hesitate10 says ,lyell1 8to ref]
 ! :ole to "o great delta40#gh    #gh   
,lyell's 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4 #cdi4
  ,! ov]ly+ ,weald clay crops out f     
b5ea? ! ,l[] ,gre5s& 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,k5t
 & ,sussex1 & aga9 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 &
 9 ! ,isle ( ,purbeck1 :]e x reappe>s at
 ! base ( ! *alk4  ,! upp] division 7or 
! ,weald clay7 is1 z we h said1 ( purely
 fre%-wat] orig91 & is suppos$ to h be5 
! e/u>y ( "s va/ riv] :i*1 l ! ,african 
,quorra1 may h =m$ a delta "s hundr$s ( 
miles broad1 z sugge/$ by ,dr4 ,dunk] & 
,von ,mey]4  ,! ,l[] ,gre5s& is kn[n1   
also1 z ! ,nocomi51 aft] ,neocomium1 !  
,lat9 "n ( ! city ( ,neuf*atel1 9       
,switz]l&1 :]e ?is =mation is l>gely    

develop$1 & :]e1 also1 x 0 fir/         
recognis$ & e/abli%$ z a di/9ct =mation4
 ,dr4 ,fitton1 9 8 excell5t monograph ( 
! ,l[] ,cretace\s =mations1 gives !     
foll[+ desc5d+ succession ( rocks z     
obs]vable 9 _m p>ts ( ,k5t3--           
,feet4    #a4 ,s&1 :ite1 yell[i%1 or    
br[n1 ) concretions      ( lime/one &   
*]t                                     
#gj   #b4 ,s&1 ) gre5 matt]             
#gj to #ajj   #c4 ,calc>e\s /one1 call$ 
,k5ti% rag                #fj to  #hj   
,^! divisions1 :i* are traceable m or   
less f ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,isle ( ,wight to 
,hy! 9 ,k5t1 pres5t consid]able         
v>iations4 ,at ,a!rfield1 :]e sixty-?ree
 di/9ct /rata1 measur+ #hdc feet1 h be5 
notic$1 ! lime/one is :olly want+1 & "s 
fossils range ?r\gh ! :ole s]ies1 :ile  
o!rs are conf9$ to p>ticul> divisions2 b
 ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes /ates1 t :5 ! same     
conditions are repeat$ 9 ov]ly+ /rata ! 
same species reappe>2 b t *anges ( dep?1
 or ( ! m9]al nature ( ! sea-bottom1 !  
pres5ce or abs5ce ( lime or ( p]oxide ( 

iron1 ! occurr5ce ( a muddy1 s&y1 or    
gravelly bottom1 are m>k$ by ! abs5ce ( 
c]ta9 species1 & ! pr$om9ance ( o!rs4#gi
    #gi ,ibid1 p4 #cdj4  ,among ! m>9e  
fauna ( ! ,nocomian s]ies ! foll[+ are !
 pr9cipal4 ,among ! ,acephala1 "o ( !   
l>ge/ & mo/ abundant %ells ( ! l[]      
,nocomian1 z display$ 9 ! ,a!rfield     
section1 is ! l>ge ,p]na ,mulleti 7,fig4
 #aca74  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4            
#aca4--,p]na ,mulleti4 ,"o-qu>t] natural
 size4  a1 ext]ior2 b1 "p ( ! upp] h+e4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb4--;,hamites4   
,"o-?ird natural size4  ,! ,scaphites h 
a s+ul> boat-%ap$ =m1 w\nd ) contigu\s  
:orls 9 "o "p1 :i* is deta*$ at ! la/   
*amb]1 & projects 9 a m or less elongat$
 condition4  ,hamites1 ,crioc]as1 &     
,ancyloc]as h club-l t]m9ations at bo?  
extremities2 !y may almo/ be consid]$ z 
non-involut$ ,ammonites ) ! spiral      
evolutions disconnect$ or p>tially      
unroll$1 z 9 ! engrav+ 7,figs4 #abe &   
#acb74 ,ancyloc]as ,ma!ronianus seems to
 h _h sp9es project+ f ! ridge ( ea* ( !

 convolutions4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4     
#acc4--,%ell ( ,turritella t]ebra4      
7,liv+ =m47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4        
#acd4--,turrillites co/atus4  7,*alk47  
,! ,toxoc]as _h ! %ell also curv$1 & n  
spiral4  ,! ,baculites _h ! %ell diff]+ 
f all ,cephalopods1 inasmu* z x 0       
elongat$1 conical1 p]fectly /raight1    
sometimes v sl5d]1 & tap]+ to a po9t4   
,! ,turrilites h ! %ell regul>1 spiral1 
& s9i/ral2 t is1 turn+ to ! left 9 an   
oblique spiral ( contigu\s :orls4 ,!    
engrav+ w convey ! idea ( _! =m 7,fig4  
#acd74  ,among o!rs1 z examples ( =m1 we
 app5d ,figs4 #acc1 #ace1 #acf4  ,?is   
analysis ( ! m>9e fauna belong+ to !    
,nocomian =mation might be c>ri$ mu*    
fur!r1 did space p]mit1 or did x promise
 to be useful2 b1 )\t illu/ration1 any  
fur!r m]ely v]bal description w\ld be   
almo/ valueless4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#ace--,t]ebriro/ra lyra4  a1 back view2 
b1 side view4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4      
#acf4--,t]ebratula de=mis4  ,num]\s     
,reptiles1 a few ,birds1 among :i* are  

"s 8,wad]s10 belong to ! g5]a (         
,palornis or ,cimoliornis2 new ,molluscs
 9 consid]able quantities1 & "s         
extremely v>i$ ,zoophytes1 con/itute !  
ri* fauna ( ! ,l[] ,*alk4 ,a glance at !
 m important ( ^! animals1 :i* we only  
"k 9 a few mutilat$ fragm5ts1 is all our
 space all[s2 !y are true m$als ( !     
hi/ory ( our globe1 m$als1 x is true1   
half effac$ by "t1 b :i* consecrate !   
memory ( dep>t$ ages4  ,9 ! ye> #ahcb   
,dr4 ,mantell add$ to ! wond]ful        
discov]ies he _h made 9 ! ,weald (      
,sussex1 t ( ! great ,liz>d-(-!-woods1 !
 hylosaurus 71 wood1 1 liz>d74 ,?is     
discov]y 0 made 9 ,tilgate =e/1 ne>     
,cuckfield1 & ! animal appe>s to h be5 f
 tw5ty to ?irty feet 9 l5g?4 ,!         
o/eological *>act]s pres5t$ by ! rema9s 
( ! ,hylosaurus are describ$ by ,dr4    
,mantell z af=d+ ano!r example ( ! bl5d+
 ( ! ,crocodilian ) ! ,lac]tian type (  
/ructure2 = we h1 9 ! pectoral ar*1 !   
scapula or omoplate ( a crocodile       
associat$ ) ! coracoid ( a liz>d4 ,ano!r

 rem>kable feature 9 ^! fossils is !    
pres5ce ( ! l>ge angul> bones or sp9es1 
:i*1 !re is reason to inf]1 con/itut$ a 
s]rat$ cre/ along ! middle ( ! back2 & !
 num]\s small oval d]mal bones :i* appe>
 to h be5 arrang$ 9 longitud9al s]ies   
along ea* side ( ! dorsal fr+e4  ,!     
,megalosaurus1 ! e>lie/ appe>ance ( :i* 
is among ! m anci5t b$s ( ! ,liassic &  
,oolitic s]ies1 is aga9 f\nd at ! base (
 ! ,cretace\s rocks4 ,x 01 z we h se51  
an enorm\s liz>d1 borne ^u slightly     
rais$ feet2 its l5g? exce$$ =ty feet1 & 
9 bulk x 0 equal to an elephant sev5    
feet high4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#acg4--,l[] ,jaw ( ! ,megalosaurus4     
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,too? (      
,megalosaurus4  ,! ,megalosaurus f\nd 9 
! f]rug9\s s&s ( ,cuckfield1 9 ,sussex1 
9 ! upp] b$s ( ! ,ha/+s ,s&s1 mu/ h be5 
at lea/ sixty or sev5ty feet long4      
,cuvi] consid]$ t x p>took bo? ( !      
/ructure ( ! ,iguana & ! ,monitors1 !   
latt] ( :i* belong to ! ,lac]tian       
,reptiles :i* haunt ! banks ( ! ,nile & 

tropical ,india4 ,! ,megalosaurus 0     
probably an amphibi\s ,saurian4 ,!      
complicat$ /ructure & m>vell\s          
arrangem5t ( ! tee? prove t x 0         
ess5tially c>nivor\s4 ,x f$ probably on 
o!r ,reptiles ( mod]ate size1 su* z !   
,crocodiles & ,turtles :i* are f\nd 9 a 
fossil /ate 9 ! same b$s4 ,! jaw        
repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #acg is ! mo/         
important fragm5t ( ! animal we possess4
 ,x is ! l[] jaw1 & supports _m tee?3 x 
%[s t ! head t]m9at$ 9 a /raight muzzle1
 ?9 & flat on ! sides1 l t ( ! ,gavial1 
! ,crocodile ( ,india4 ,! tee? ( !      
,megalosaurus 7 9 p]fect accord ) !     
de/ructive functions ) :i* ?is =midable 
creature 0 end[$4 ,!y p>take at once ( !
 nature ( a knife1 sabre1 & saw4        
,v]tical at _! junction ) ! jaw1 !y     
assume1 ) ! increas$ age ( ! animal1 a  
backw>d curve1 giv+ !m ! =m ( a g>d5]'s 
prun+-knife 7,fig4 #ach2 also c4 ,fig4  
#agi74 ,aft] m5tion+ "s o!r p>ticul>s1  
respect+ ! tee?1 ,buckl& says3 8,) tee? 
con/ruct$ s z to cut ) ! :ole ( _!      

concave edge1 ea* movem5t ( ! jaws      
produc$ ! comb9$ effect ( a knife & a   
saw1 at ! same "t t ! po9t made a fir/  
incision l t made by a po9t ( a         
d\ble-cutt+ sword4 ,! backw>d curvature 
tak5 by ! tee? at _! full gr[? r5d]s !  
escape ( ! prey :5 once seiz$           
impossible4 ,we f9d "h1 !n1 ! same      
arrangem5ts :i* enable mank9d to put 9  
op]ation _m ( ! in/rum5ts :i* !y        
employ40  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#aci4--,nasal ,horn ( ,iguanodon4       
,two-?irds natural size4  ,illu/ration3 
,fig4 #adj4--;,ammonites ro/ratus4      
7,upp] ,gre5s&47  ,! ,iguanodon1        
signify+ ,iguana-too!d 7f ! ,greek ^w1 1
 too?71 0 m gigantic /ill ?an !         
,megalosaurus2 "o ( ! mo/ colossal1     
inde$1 ( all ! ,saurians ( ! anci5t _w  
:i* rese>* has yet expos$ to ! light (  
day4 ,pr(essor ,ow5 & ,dr4 ,mantell 7 n 
agre$ z to ! =m ( ! tail2 ! =m] g5tleman
 assign+ x a %ort tail1 :i* w\ld affect 
,dr4 ,mantell's e/imate ( its probable  
l5g? ( fifty or sixty feet2 ! l>ge/     

?igh-bone yet f\nd measures f\r feet    
eight in*es 9 l5g?4 ,! =m & disposition 
( ! feet1 add$ to ! exi/5ce ( a bony    
horn 7,fig4 #aci71 on ! upp] "p ( !     
muzzle or sn\t1 almo/ id5tifies x z a   
species ) ! exi/+ ,iguanas1 ! only      
,reptile :i* is kn[n to be provid$ ) su*
 a horn ^u ! nose2 !re is1 !re=e1 no    
d\bt z to ! resemblance betwe5 ^! two   
animals2 b :ile ! l>ge/ ( liv+ ,iguanas 
sc>cely exce$s a y>d 9 l5g?1 its fossil 
cong5] 0 probably fifte5 or sixte5 times
 t l5g?4 ,x is difficult to resi/ !     
feel+ ( a/oni%m5t1 n to say incr$ulity1 
:i* creeps ov] "o :ile contemplat+ s    
/rik+ a disproportion z t :i* subsi/s   
betwe5 ?is be+ ( ! anci5t _w & its ally 
( ! new4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#ada4--,tee? ( ,iguanodon4  a1 "y too?2 
b1 c1 tee? fur!r advanc$1 & worn4       
7,weald547  ,! ,iguanodon c>ri$1 z we h 
said1 a horn on its muzzle2 ! bone ( its
 ?igh1 z we h se51 surpass$ t ( !       
,elephant 9 size2 ! =m ( ! bone & feet  
demon/rates t x 0 =m$ = t]re/rial       

locomotion2 & its d5tal sy/em %[s t x 0 
h]bivor\s4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#adb4--;,fi%es ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4    
#a1 ,b]yx ,lewesi5sis2 #b1 ,osm]oides   
,mantelli4  ,! tee? 7,fig4 #ada71 :i*   
are ! mo/ important & *>act]i/ic organs 
( ! :ole animal1 are imb$d$ lat]ally 9  
grooves1 or sockets1 9 ! d5t>y bone2 !re
 are ?ree or f\r sockets ( successional 
tee? on ! inn] side ( ! base ( ! old    
tee?4 ,! place ?us occupi$ by ! edges ( 
! tee?1 _! tr5*ant & saw-l =m1 _! mode (
 curvature1 ! po9ts :]e !y become broad]
 or n>r[] :i* turn !m into a species (  
nipp]s or scissors--are all suitable =  
cutt+ & te>+ ! t\gh vegetable sub/ances 
:i* are also f\nd among ! rema9s buri$ )
 ?is colossal reptile1 a re/oration (   
:i* is repres5t$ 9 ,,plate ,,xxi41 p4   
#bif4         99       99       99      
99       99  ,! ,cretace\s seas conta9$ 
great numb]s ( ,fi%es1 among :i* "s 7   
rem>kable = _! /range =ms4 ,! ,b]yx     
,lewesi5sis 7#a71 & ! ,osm]oides        
,mantelli 7#b7 7,fig4 #adb71 are        

re/orations ( ^! two species z !y are   
suppos$ to h be5 9 life4 ,! ,odontaspis 
is a new g5us ( ,fi%es :i* may be       
m5tion$4 ,ammonites ro/ratus 7,fig4     
#adj71 & ,exogyra conica 7,fig4 #adg71  
are common %ells 9 ! ,upp] ,gre5s&4     
,illu/ration3 ,,xxi4--,ideal sc5e 9 !   
,l[] ,cretace\s ,p]iod1 ) ,iguanodon &  
,megalosaurus4  ,! seas ( ! ,l[]        
,cretace\s p]iod 7 rem>kable 9 a        
zoological po9t ( view = ! great numb] (
 species & ! multiplicity ( g5]ic =ms ( 
mollusc\s ,cephalopods4 ,! ,ammonites   
assume q gigantic dim5sions2 & we f9d   
among !m new species di/+ui%$ by _!     
furr[$ transv]se spaces1 z 9 ! ,hamites 
7,fig4 #acb74 ,"s ( ! ,ancyloc]as atta9$
 ! magnitude ( six feet1 & o!r g5]a1 z !
 ,scaphites1 ! ,toxoc]as1 ! ,crioc]as   
7,fig4 #abe71 & o!r ,mollusca1 unkn[n   
till ?is p]iod1 appe>$ n[4 ,_m          
,e*9od]ms1 or sea-ur*9s1 & ,zoophytes1 h
 enri*$ ^! rocks ) _! animal rema9s1 &  
w\ld give its seas a condition q        
peculi>4  ,on ! opposite page an ideal  

l&scape ( ! p]iod is repres5t$ 7,,plate 
,,xxi471 9 :i* ! ,iguanodon &           
,megalosaurus /ruggle = ! ma/]y 9 !     
c5tre ( a =e/1 :i* enables u also to    
convey "s idea ( ! vegetation ( ! p]iod4
 ,"h we note a vegetation at once exotic
 & temp]ate--a flora l t ( ! tropics1 & 
also resembl+ our own4 ,on ! left we    
obs]ve a gr\p ( trees1 :i* resemble !   
dicotyl$on\s plants ( our =e/s4 ,!      
elegant ,cr$n]ia is !re1 ^: botanical   
place is /ill d\btful1 = its fruit has n
 be5 f\nd1 al?\gh x is believ$ to h     
belong$ to plants ) two se$-leaves1 or  
dicotyl$on\s1 & ! arboresc5t ,am5tace4  
,an entire gr\p ( trees1 compos$ ( ,f]ns
 & ,zamites1 are 9 ! backgr\nd2 9 !     
extreme di/ance are "s ,palms4 ,we also 
recognise 9 ! picture ! ald]1 ! wy*-elm1
 ! maple1 & ! walnut-tree1 or at lea/   
species analog\s to ^!4         99      
99       99       99       99  ,!       
,nocomian b$s 9 ,france are f\nd 9      
,*ampagne1 9 ! dep>tm5ts ( ! ,aube1 !   
,yonne1 ! ,haute-,alps1 c4 ,!y are      

l>gely develop$ 9 ,switz]l& at          
,neuf*atel1 & 9 ,g]many4  #a4 ,! ,l[]   
,nocomian consi/s ( m>ls & greyi% clay1 
alt]nat+ ) ?9 b$s ( grey lime/one4 ,x is
 v ?ick1 & occurs at ,neuf*atel & 9 !   
,drme4 ,! fossils are ,spatangus        
retusus1 ,crioc]as 7,fig4 #abe71        
,ammonites ,a/]ianus1 c4  #b4 ,orgonian 
7! lime/one ( ,orgon74 ,?is gr\p exi/s1 
also1 at ,aix-les-,ba9s 9 ,savoy1 at    
,gr5oble1 & g5]ally 9 ! ?ick1 :ite1     
calc>e\s b$s :i* =m ! precipices ( !    
,drme4 ,! fossils ,*ama ammonia1        
,pigaulus1 c4  #c4 ,! ,apti5 7or        
,gre5s&7 consi/s g5]ally ( m>ls & clay4 
,9 ,france x is f\nd 9 ! dep>tm5t (     
,vaucluse1 at ,apt 7:5ce ! "n ,apti571 9
 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,yonne1 & 9 !           
,haute-,m>ne4 ,fossils1 ,ancyloc]as     
,ma!ronianus1 ,o/rea aquila1 &          
,plicatula placunea4 ,^! b$s consi/ "h (
 greyi% clay1 :i* is us$ = mak+ tiles2  
!re ( blui% argillace\s lime/one1 9     
black or br[ni% flags4 ,9 ! ,isle (     
,wight x becomes a f9e s&/one1 greyi% & 

slightly argillace\s1 :i* at ,havre1 & 9
 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry ( ,bray1 become     
well-develop$ f]rug9\s s&/ones4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adc4--;,cypris     
sp9ig]a4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#add4--;,cypris ,vald5sis4  ,we h not$ t
 ! ,l[] ,nocomian =mation1 al?\gh a m>9e
 deposit1 is 9 "s respects ! equival5t (
 ! ,weald ,clay1 a fre%-wat] =mation (  
consid]able importance on acc\nt ( its  
fossils4 ,we h se5 t x 0 ei!r =m$ at !  
m\? ( a great riv]1 or ! riv] 0         
suffici5tly p[]ful = ! fre%-wat] curr5t 
to be c>ri$ out to sea1 c>ry+ ) x "s    
animals1 =m+ a fluviatile1 or lacu/r9e  
fauna1 on a small scale4 ,^! 7 small    
,cru/aceans ( ! g5us ,cypris1 ) "s      
mollusc\s ,ga/]opoda ( ! g5]a ,melania1 
,palud9a1 & acephal\s ,mollusca ( ! five
 g5]a ,cyr5a1 ,unio1 ,mytilus1 ,cyclas1 
& ,o/rea4 ,( ^!1 ,cypris sp9ig]a 7,fig4 
#adc7 & ,cypris ,vald5sis 7,fig4 #add7  
may be consid]$ z among ! mo/ *>act]i/ic
 fossils ( ?is local fauna4  ,!         
,cretace\s s]ies is n int]e/+ = its     

fossils alone2 x pres5ts also an int]e/+
 subject = /udy 9 a m9]alogical po9t (  
view4 ,! :ite ,*alk1 exam9$ "u !        
microscope by ,ehr5b]g1 %[s a curi\s    
globi=m /ructure4 ,! gre5 "p ( its      
s&/one & lime/one con/itutes v s+ul>    
comp\nds4 ,accord+ to ! result (        
,b]?i]'s analysis1 we mu/ consid] !m z  
silicates ( iron4 ,! iron %[s itself "h 
n 9 b$s1 z 9 ! ,jurassic rocks1 b 9     
masses1 9 a species ( pocket 9 !        
,orgonian b$s4 ,!y are usually hydrates 
9 ! /ate ( hematites1 accompani$ by     
quantities ( o*re s abundant t !y are   
frequ5tly unworkable4 ,9 ! s\? ( ,france
 ^! ve9s 7 m9$ to a great dep? by !     
anci5t monks1 :o 7 ! metallurgi/s ( _!  
age4 ,b = ! arti/ ! important ,orgonian 
b$s possess a special int]e/2 _!        
admirable v]tical fractures1 _! erect   
p]p5dicul> peaks1 ea* surpass+ ! o!r 9  
boldness1 =m 8 f9e/ /udies4 ,9 ! ,v>1 ! 
defiles ( ,vsubia1 ( ! ,e/]on1 & ,t9a1  
are jamm$ up betwe5 walls ( peaks1 = _m 
hundr$s ( y>ds1 betwe5 :i* !re is       

sc>cely room = a n>r[ road by ! side ( !
 ro>+ torr5t4 8,9 ! ,drme10 says        
,f\rnet1 8! entrance to ! beautiful     
valley ( ! ,v]cors is clos$ dur+ a "p ( 
! ye>1 because1 9 ord] to ent]1 x is    
necess>y to cross ! two gullies1 !      
,great & ,little ,g\let1 ?r\gh :i* !    
wat]s escape f ! valley4 ,ev5 dur+ ! dry
 season1 he :o w\ld ent] ! gorge mu/    
take a foot-ba?4  8,?is /ate ( ?+s c\ld 
n la/2 & 9 #ahdh x 0 curi\s to see m9]s 
susp5d$ on ! sides ( "o ( ^! lat]al     
precipices1 "s #dej feet above ! torr5t1
 & ab\t an equal di/ance bel[ ! summit (
 ! ,*alk4 ,!re !y began to excavate     
cavities or ni*es 9 ! face ( ! rock1 all
 plac$ on ! same level1 & successively  
enl>g$4 ,^! 7 unit$ toge!r 9 su* a mann]
 z to =m a road practicable = c>riages2 
n[ ?r\gh a gall]y1 n[ cov]$ by a        
corbell+1 to look ov] :i* af=ds a       
succession ( surprises to ! travell]4   
8,?is is n all10 adds ,m4 ,f\rnet3 8he  
:o trav]ses ! high plateaux ( ! c\ntry  
f9ds at e /ep deep digg+s 9 ! soil1     

designat$ pits or scialets1 ! olde/ (   
:i* h _! sides clo!d ) a curi\s         
vegetation1 9 :i* ! ,aucol9 pr$om9ates2 
%elt] is f\nd 9 ^! pits f ! cutt+ w9ds  
:i* rage s furi\sly 9 ^! elevat$        
regions4 ,o!rs =m a k9d ( cav]n1 9 :i* a
 temp]ature obta9s suffici5t to freeze  
wat] ev5 9 ! middle ( summ]4 ,^!        
cavities =m natural glaci]s1 :i* we aga9
 f9d ^u "s ( ! table-l&s ( ! ,jura4  8,!
 cracks & crevasses ( ! lime/one receive
 ! wat]s produc$ by fall+ ra9 & melt$   
sn[2 true to ! laws ( all fluid bodies1 
!y filt] ?r\gh ! rocks until !y rea* !  
l[] & imp]vi\s m>ly b$s1 :]e !y =m %eets
 ( wat]1 :i* 9 c\rse ( "t f9d "s outlet 
?r\gh :i* !y dis*>ge !mselves4 ,9 ?is   
mann] subt]ranean gall]ies1 sometimes ( 
great ext5t1 are =m$1 9 :i* are assembl$
 all ! m>vels :i* crumbl+ /alactites1   
/alagmites1 placid lakes1 & headlong    
torr5ts c produce2 f9ally1 ^! wat]s1 =c+
 _! way ?r\gh ! ext]nal orifices1 give  
rise to ^? f9e cascades :i*1 ) ! fir/   
gu%+ torr5t1 =m an actual riv]40  ,!    

,albi5 ( ,alc4 ,d',orbigny1 :i* ,lyell  
consid]s to be ! equival5t ( ! ,gault1  
,fr5* au?ors treat z ! 8glauconie0      
=mation1 ! "n be+ drawn f a rock compos$
 ( *alk ) gre5i% gra9s ( glauconite1 or 
silicate ( iron1 :i* is (t5 mix$ ) !    
lime/one ( ?is =mation4 ,! fossils by   
:i* x is id5tifi$ are v v>i$4 ,among its
 num]\s types1 we f9d ,cru/aceans       
belong+ to ! g5]a ,arcania & ,cory/es2  
_m new ,mollusca1 ,bucc9um1 ,sol51      
,pt]odonta1 ,voluta1 ,*ama1 c42 great   
numb]s ( mollusc\s ,bra*iopods1 =m+     
highly-develop$ subm>9e /rata2 "s       
,e*9od]ms1 unkn[n up to ?is p]iod1 &    
especially a great numb] ( ,zoophytes2  
"s ,=am9if]a1 & _m ,polyzoa 7,bryozoa74 
,! glauconitic =mation consi/s ( two    
gr\ps ( /rata3 ! ,gault ,clay & !       
glauconitic *alk1 or ,upp] ,gre5s& &    
,*loritic ,m>l4   ,,upp] ,,cretace\s    
,,p]iod4  ,dur+ ?is phase ( ! t]re/rial 
evolutions1 ! cont95ts1 to judge f !    
fossilis$ wood :i* we meet ) 9 ! rocks  
:i* n[ repres5t x1 w\ld be cov]$ ) a v  

ri* vegetation1 ne>ly id5tical1 inde$1 )
 t :i* we h describ$ 9 ! prec$+         
sub-p]iod2 accord+ to ,adolphe          
,brongni>t1 ! 8age ( angiosp]ms0 _h     
fairly set 92 ! ,cretace\s flora        
displays1 he consid]s1 a transitional "*
 f ! ,second>y to ! ,t]ti>y vegetation2 
t ! l9e betwe5 ! gymnosp]ms1 or         
nak$-se$$ plants1 & ! angiosp]ms1 hav+  
_! se$s enclos$ 9 se$-vessels1 runs     
betwe5 ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,cretace\s        
=mations4 8,we c n[ affirm10 says       
,lyell1 8t ^! ,aix-la-,*apelle plants1  
call$ ,cr$n]ia1 fl\ri%$ be=e ! ri*      
reptilian fauna ( ! second>y rocks _h   
ceas$ to exi/4 ,! ,i*?yosaurus1         
,pt]odactyle1 & ,mosasaurus 7 ( coeval  
date ) ! oak1 ! walnut1 & ! fig40#hj    
#hj ,lyell's 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4  
#ccc4  ,! t]re/rial fauna1 consi/+ ( "s 
new ,reptiles haunt+ ! banks ( riv]s1 & 
,birds ( ! g5us ,snipe1 h c]ta9ly only  
rea*$ u 9 small numb]s4 ,! rema9s ( !   
m>9e fauna are1 on ! contr>y1           
suffici5tly num]\s & well pres]v$ to    

give u a great idea ( its ri*es1 & to   
enable u to assign to x a *>act]i/ic    
facies4  ,! sea ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s    
p]iod bri/l$ ) num]\s subm>9e reefs1    
occupy+ a va/ ext5t ( its b$--reefs =m$ 
( ,rudi/es 7,lam>ck71 & ( imm5se        
quantities ( v>i\s k9ds ( corals :i* are
 ev]y:]e associat$ ) !m4 ,! ,polyps1 9  
%ort1 atta9 "h "o ( ! pr9cipal epo*s (  
_! exi/5ce1 & pres5t a rem>kable        
developm5t ( =ms2 ! same occurs ) !     
,polyzoa 7,bryozoa7 & ,amorphozoa2 :ile1
 on ! contr>y1 ! reign ( ! ,cephalopods 
seems to end4 ,beautiful types ( ^!     
anci5t reefs h be5 reveal$ to u1 & we   
discov] t !y h be5 =m$ "u ! influ5ce (  
subm>9e curr5ts1 :i* accumulat$ masses (
 ^! animals at c]ta9 po9ts4 ,no?+ is m  
curi\s ?an ?is assemblage (             
,rudi/es--/ill /&+ erect1 isolat$ or 9  
gr\ps--z may be se51 = in/ance1 at !    
summit ( ! m\nta9s ( ! ,cornes 9 !      
,corbires1 ^u ! banks ( ! pond ( ,b]re 9
 ,prov5ce1 & 9 ! environs ( ,m>tigues1  
at ,la ,cadire1 at ,figuires1 &         

p>ticul>ly above ,beausset1 ne> ,t\lon4 
8,x seems10 says ,alcide ,d',orbigny1 8z
 if ! sea _h retir$ 9 ord] to %[ u1 /ill
 intact1 ! subm>9e fauna ( ?is p]iod1   
su* z x 0 :5 9 life4 ,!re are "h enorm\s
 gr\ps ( ,hippurites 9 _! places1       
surr\nd$ by ,polyps1 ,e*9od]ms1 &       
,molluscs1 :i* liv$ 9 union 9 ^! animal 
colonies1 analog\s to ^? :i* /ill exi/ 9
 ! coral-reefs ( ! ,antilles & ,oceania4
 ,9 ord] t ^! gr\ps %\ld h be5 pres]v$  
intact1 !y mu/ fir/ h be5 cov]$ sudd5ly 
by s$im5t1 :i*1 be+ remov$ by ! action (
 ! atmosph]e1 reveals to u1 9 _! mo/    
secret details1 ?is ,nature ( ! pa/40   
,9 ! ,jurassic p]iod we h already met ) 
^! isles or reefs =m$ by ! accumulation 
( ,coral & o!r ,zoophytes2 !y ev5       
con/itut$1 at t p]iod1 an entire =mation
 call$ ! ,coral-rag4 ,! same ph5om5on1  
reproduc$ 9 ! ,cretace\s seas1 gave rise
 to simil> calc>e\s =mations4 ,we ne$ n 
repeat :at we h said already on ?is     
subject :5 describ+ ! ,jurassic p]iod4  
,! coral or madrepore isles ( !         

,jurassic epo* & ! reefs ( ,rudi/es &   
,hippurites ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod h !    
same orig91 & ! atolls ( ,oceania are   
reproductions 9 our own day ( precisely 
simil> ph5om5a4  ,! inv]tebrate animals 
:i* *>act]ise ! ,cretace\s age are among
      ,,cephalopoda4      ,nautilus     
sublvigatus & ,n4 ,danicus2 ,ammonites  
ro/ratus2     ,belemnitella mucronata4  
,,ga/]opoda4      ,voluta elongata2     
,phorus canaliculatus2 ,n]9ea bisulcata2
     ,pleurotom>ia ,fleuriausa1 & ,p4   
,santon5sis2 ,natica     supracretacea4 
,,acephala4      ,trigonia scabra2      
,inoc]amus problematicus & ,i4          
,lam>ckii2     ,clavigella cretacea2    
,pholadomya quivalvis2 ,spondylus       
sp9osus2     ,o/rea vesicul>is2 ,o/rea  
l>va2 ,janira quadrico/ata2 ,arca       
,gravesii2 ,hippurites ,t\casianus & ,h4
 organisans2 ,capr9a     ,aguilloni2    
,radiolites radiosus1 & ,r4 acutico/us4 
,,bra*iopoda4      ,crania ,ignab]g5sis2
 ,t]ebratula obesa4      ,,polyzoa      
7,,bryozoa7 ,,& ,,es*9odemata4          

,reticulipora obliqua2 ,anan*ytes       
ovatus2 ,micra/]     cor-angu9um1       
,hemia/] buc>dium & ,h4 ,f\rneli2       
,gal]ites     albogal]us2 ,cid>is       
,=*amm]i2 ,palocoma ,fur/emb]gii4       
#a4 ,,polypi2 #b4 ,,=am9if]a2 #c4       
,,amorphozoa4      #a4 ,cycollites      
elliptica2 ,!cosmilia rudis2 ,enallocnia
 ramosa2     ,me&r9a ,pyr5aica2         
,synhelia ,%>peana4 #b4 ,orbitoides     
m$ia2     ,lituola nautiloidea2         
,flabell9a rugosa4 #c4 ,cosc9opora      
cupuli=mis2 ,cam]ospongia fungi=mis4    
,among ! num]\s be+s :i* inhabit$ !     
,upp] ,cretace\s seas !re is "o :i*1 by 
its organisation1 its proportions1 & !  
despotic empire :i* x w\ld ex]cise 9 !  
bosom ( ! wat]s1 is c]ta9ly mo/ wor?y ( 
our att5tion4 ,we speak ( ! ,mosasaurus1
 :i* 0 long kn[n z ! great animal (     
,mae/ri*t1 because its rema9s 7 f\nd ne>
 t city 9 ! mo/ mod]n ( ! ,cretace\s    
deposits4  ,9 #aghj a discov]y 0 made 9 
! qu>ries ( ,sa9t ,pet]'s ,rocks1 ne>   
,mae/ri*t1 ( ! head ( a great ,saurian1 

:i* may n[ be se5 9 ! ,museum ( ,natural
 ,hi/ory 9 ,p>is4 ,?is discov]y baffl$  
all ! sci5ce ( ! naturali/s1 at a p]iod 
:5 ! k ( ^! anci5t be+s 0 /ill 9 its    
infancy4 ,"o saw 9 x ! head ( a         
,crocodile2 ano!r1 t ( a ,:ale2 memoirs 
& monographs ra9$ d[n1 )\t ?r[+ mu*     
light on ! subject4 ,x requir$ all !    
ef=ts ( ,adrian ,camp]1 jo9$ to ^? ( !  
immortal ,cuvi]1 to assign its true     
zoological place to ! ,mae/ri*t animal4 
,! controv]sy ov] ?is f9e fossil engag$ 
! att5tion ( ! le>n$ = ! rema9d] ( ! la/
 c5tury & f> into ! pres5t4  ,mae/ri*t  
is a city ( ! ,ne!rl&s1 built on ! banks
 ( ! ,meuse4 ,at ! gates ( ?is city1 9 !
 hills :i* skirt ! left or we/]n bank ( 
! riv]1 !re rises a solid mass (        
cretace\s =mation kn[n z ,sa9t ,pet]'s  
,rocks4 ,9 composition ^! b$s correspond
 ) ! ,meudon *alk b$s1 & !y conta9      
simil> fossils4 ,! qu>ries are ab\t #ajj
 feet deep1 consi/+ 9 ! upp] "p ( tw5ty 
feet ab\nd+ 9 corals & ,polyzoa1 succe$$
 by fifty feet ( s(t yell[i% lime/one1  

furni%+ a f9e build+ /one1 :i* has be5  
qu>ri$ f "t immemorial1 & ext5ds up to !
 environs ( ,lige2 ?is is succe$$ by a  
few in*es ( gre5i% soil ) ,encr9ites1 & 
!n by a v :ite *alk ) lay]s ( fl9ts4 ,! 
qu>ry is fill$ ) m>9e fossils1 (t5 (    
great size4  ,^! fossil rema9s1         
naturally en\gh1 attract$ ! att5tion ( !
 curi\s1 & l$ _m to visit ! qu>ries2 b (
 all ! discov]ies :i* attract$ att5tion 
! greate/ int]e/ atta*$ to ! gigantic   
animal "u consid]ation4 ,among ^?       
int]e/$ by ! discov]y ( ^! /range       
ve/iges 0 an (fic] ( ! g>rison (        
,mae/ri*t1 nam$ ,dr\94 ,he pur*as$ !    
bones ( ! workm5 z ! pick dis5gag$ !m f 
! rock1 & conclud$ by =m+ a collection 9
 ,mae/ri*t1 :i* 0 spok5 ( ) admiration4 
,9 #agff1 ! tru/ees ( ! ,briti% ,museum1
 he>+ ( ?is curiosity1 pur*as$ x1 & _h x
 remov$ to ,london4 ,incit$ by ! example
 ( ,dr\91 ,h(fmann1 ! surgeon ( !       
g>rison1 set ab\t =m+ a simil>          
collection1 & 8 collection soon exce$$ t
 ( ,dr\9's ,museum 9 ri*es4 ,x 0 9 #aghj

 t he pur*as$ ( ! qu>rym5 ! magnific5t  
fossil head1 exce$+ six feet 9 l5g?1 :i*
 has s9ce s ex]cis$ ! sagacity (        
naturali/s4  ,h(fman did n long enjoy ! 
fruits ( 8 preci\s prize1 h[ev]2 ! *apt]
 ( ! *ur* ( ,mae/ri*t claim$1 ) m or    
less f\ndation1 c]ta9 rights ( prop]ty2 
& 9 spite ( all prote/1 ! head ( !      
,crocodile ( ,mae/ri*t1 z x 0 already   
call$1 pass$ into ! h&s ( ! ,dean ( !   
,*apt]1 nam$ ,godd91 :o enjoy$ !        
possession ( 8 ant$iluvian trophy until 
an un=ese5 incid5t *ang$ ! aspect ( ?+s4
 ,?is incid5t 0 no?+ less ?an !         
bomb>dm5t & surr5d] ( ,mae/ri*t to !    
,army ( ! ,nor? "u ,kleb]1 9 #agid4  ,! 
,army ( ! ,nor? did n ent] ^u a campaign
 to obta9 ! crania ( ,crocodiles1 b x _h
 on its /aff a savant :o 0 devot$ to su*
 pacific conque/s4 ,faujas de           
,sa9t-,fond1 :o 0 ! pr$ecessor ( ,cordi]
 9 ! ,zoological ,*air ( ! ,j>d9 des    
,plantes1 0 atta*$ to ! ,army ( ! ,nor? 
z ,sci5tific ,commission]2 & x is       
suspect$ t1 9 solicit+ ?is mission1 our 

naturali/ _h 9 8 eye ! already fam\s    
head ( ! ,crocodile ( ! ,meuse4 ,h[ev] t
 may be1 ,mae/ri*t fell into ! h&s ( !  
,fr5*1 & ,faujas eag]ly claim$ ! fam\s  
fossil = ! ,fr5* nation1 :i* 0 pack$ ) !
 c>e due to a relic numb]+ s _m ?\s&s ( 
ages1 & dispat*$ to ! ,museum ( ,natural
 ,hi/ory 9 ,p>is4 ,on its arrival1      
,faujas und]took a lab\r :i*1 z he      
?\ght1 0 to cov] him ) glory4 ,he       
comm5c$ ! publication ( a "w entitl$ 8,!
 ,m\nta9 ( ,sa9t ,pet] ( ,mae/ri*t10    
describ+ all ! fossil objects f\nd 9 !  
,dut* qu>ry !re1 especially ! ,great    
,animal ( ,mae/ri*t4 ,he endeav\r$ to   
prove t ?is animal 0 a ,crocodile4      
,un=tunately = ! glory ( ,faujas1 a     
,dut* savant _h devot$ himself to ! same
 /udy4 ,adrian ,camp] 0 ! son ( a great 
anatomi/ ( ,leyd51 ,pi]re ,camp]1 :o _h 
pur*as$ ( ! heirs ( ! surgeon ,h(fman "s
 p>ts ( ! skeleton ( ! animal f\nd 9 !  
qu>ry ( ,sa9t ,pet]4 ,he _h ev5 publi%$ 
9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions (      
,london1 z e>ly z #aghf1 a memoir1 9 :i*

 ! animal is class$ z a ,:ale4 ,at !    
dea? ( 8 fa!r1 ,adrian ,camp] re-exam9$ 
! skeleton1 & 9 a "w :i* ,cuvi] quotes )
 admiration1 he fix$ ! ideas :i* 7 until
 !n float+ ab\t4 ,he prov$ t ! bones    
belong$ nei!r to a ,fi%1 nor a ,:ale1   
nor to a ,crocodile1 b r to a p>ticul>  
g5us ( ,saurian ,reptiles1 or m>9e      
liz>ds1 closely resembl+ 9 _m important 
/ructural *>act]s1 exi/+ ,monitors &    
,iguanas1 & peculi> to rocks ( !        
,cretace\s p]iod1 bo? 9 ,europe &       
,am]ica4 ,long be=e ,faujas _h f9i%$ !  
publication ( 8 "w on ,la ,montagne de  
,sa9t-,pi]re t ( ,adrian ,camp] _h      
appe>$1 & totally *ang$ ! ideas ( ! _w  
on ?is subject4 ,x did n1 h[ev]1 h9d]   
,faujas f cont9u+ to call 8 animal !    
,crocodile ( ,mae/ri*t4 ,he ev5 ann\nc$1
 "s "t aft]1 t ,adrian ,camp] 0 also ( 8
 op9ion4 8,nev]!less10 says ,cuvi]1 8x  
is z f> f ! ,crocodile z x is f !       
,iguana2 & ^! two animals diff] z mu* f 
ea* o!r 9 _! tee?1 bones1 & visc]a1 z ! 
ape diff]s f ! cat1 or ! elephant f !   

horse40  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ade4  a1  
skull ( ,monitor ,niloticus2 b1 "u-jaw (
 same4  ,! ma/]ly memoir ( ,cuvi]1 :ile 
confirm+ all ! views ( ,camp]1 has      
re/or$ ! individuality ( ?is surpris+   
be+1 :i* has s9ce receiv$ ! "n (        
,mosasaurus1 t is to say1 ,saurian or   
,liz>d ( ! ,meuse4 ,x appe>s1 f !       
rese>*es ( ,camp] & ,cuvi]1 t ?is       
reptile ( ! anci5t _w =m$ an int]m$iate 
g5us betwe5 ! gr\p ( ! ,lac]tilia1 :i*  
compreh5ds ! ,monitors 7repres5t$ 9     
,fig4 #ade71 & ! ord9>y ,liz>ds2 & !    
,lac]tilia1 ^: palates are arm$ ) tee?1 
a gr\p :i* embraces ! ,iguana & !       
,anolis4 ,9 respect to ! ,crocodiles1 ! 
,mosasaurus resembles !m 9 s f> z !y all
 belong to ! same class ( ,reptiles4  ,!
 idea ( a liz>d1 adapt$ = liv+ & mov+ ) 
rapidity at ! bottom ( ! wat]1 is n     
readily conceiv$2 b a c>eful /udy ( !   
skeleton ( ! ,mosasaurus reveals to u ! 
secret ( ?is anatomical me*anism4 ,!    
v]tebr ( ! animal are concave 9 front & 
convex beh9d2 !y are atta*$ by means (  

orbicul> or ar*$ articulations1 :i*     
p]mitt$ x to execute easily movem5ts (  
flexion 9 any direction4 ,f ! middle ( !
 back to ! extremity ( ! tail ^! v]tebr 
are defici5t 9 ! articul> processes :i* 
support & /r5g!n ! trunk ( t]re/rial    
v]tebrat$ animals3 !y resemble 9 ?is    
respect ! v]tebr ( ! ,dolph9s2 an       
organisation necess>y to r5d] swimm+    
easy4 ,! tail1 compress$ lat]ally at !  
same "t t x 0 ?ick 9 a v]tical          
direction1 con/itut$ a /raight rudd]1   
%ort1 solid1 & ( great p[]4 ,an ar*$    
bone 0 firmly atta*$ to ! body ( ea*    
caudal v]tebra 9 ! same mann] z 9       
,fi%es1 = ! purpose ( giv+ increas$ p[] 
to ! tail2 f9ally1 ! extremities ( !    
animal c\ld sc>cely be call$ feet1 b r  
paddles1 l ^? ( ! ,i*?yosaurus1 !       
,plesiosaurus1 & ! ,:ale4 ,we see 9     
,fig4 #adf t ! jaws are arm$ ) num]\s   
tee?1 fix$ 9 _! sockets by an osse\s    
base1 bo? l>ge & solid4 ,moreov]1 an    
altoge!r peculi> d5tal sy/em occupies ! 
vault ( ! palate1 z 9 ! case ( c]ta9    

,s]p5ts & ,fi%es1 :]e ! tee? are direct$
 backw>ds1 l ! b>b ( a hook1 ?us oppos+ 
!mselves to ! escape ( prey4 ,su* a     
disposition ( ! tee? suffici5tly proves 
! de/ructive "* ( ?is ,saurian4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adf4--;,head (     
,mosasaurus ,camp]i4  ,! dim5sions ( ?is
 aquatic liz>d1 e/imat$ at tw5ty-f\r    
feet1 are calculat$ to excite surprise4 
,b1 z we h already se51 ! ,i*?yosauri & 
,teleosauri 7 ( great dim5sions1 z 7    
also ! ,iguanodon & ,megalosaurus1 :i* 7
 t5 times ! size ( liv+ ,iguanas4 ,9 all
 ^! colossal =ms we c only see a        
diff]5ce ( dim5sions1 ! aggr&isem5t ( a 
type2 ! laws :i* affect$ ! organisation 
( all ^! be+s rema9 un*ang$1 !y 7 n     
errors ( ,nature--mon/rosities1 z we are
 sometimes tempt$ to call !m--b simply  
types1 uni=m 9 _! /ructure1 & adapt$ by 
_! dim5sions to ! physical conditions ) 
:i* ,god _h surr\nd$ !m4  ,illu/ration3 
,,xxii4--,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,cretace\s 
,p]iod4  ,9 ,,plate ,,xxii4 is repres5t$
 an ideal view ( ! e>? dur+ ! ,upp]     

,cretace\s p]iod4 ,9 ! sea swims !      
,mosasaurus2 ,molluscs1 ,zoophytes1 &   
o!r animals peculi> to ! p]iod are se5  
on ! %ore4 ,! vegetation seems to       
approa* t ( our days2 x consi/s ( ,f]ns 
& ,cycade 7,pt]ophyllums71 m+l$ )       
,palms1 ,will[s1 & "s dicotyl$ons (     
species analog\s to ^? ( our pres5t     
epo*4 ,alg1 !n v abundant1 compos$ !    
vegetation ( ! sea-%ore4  ,we h said t !
 t]re/rial flora ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s   
p]iod 0 ne>ly id5tical ) t ( ! ,l[]4 ,! 
m>9e flora ( ^! two epo*s includ$ "s    
,alg1 ,conf]v1 & ,naad1 among :i* may be
 not$ ! foll[+ species3 ,conf]vites     
fasciculatus1 ,*ondrites ,mantelli1     
,s>gassites ,hynghianus4 ,among ! ,naad1
 ,zo/]ites ,orbigniana1 ,z4 l9eata1 &   
sev]al o!rs4  ,! ,conf]v are fossils :i*
 may be ref]r$1 b ) "s d\bt1 to !       
filam5t\s ,alg1 :i* compreh5d ! great   
gr\p ( ! ,conf]v4 ,^! plants 7 =m$ (    
simple or bran*+ filam5ts1 div]sely     
cross+ ea* o!r2 or subdivid$1 & pres5t+ 
traces ( transv]se p>titions4  ,!       

,*ondrites are1 p]haps1 fossil ,alg1 )  
?ick1 smoo? bran*+ fronds1 p9natifid1 or
 divid$ into pairs1 ) smoo? cyl9drical  
divisions1 & resembl+ ,*ondrus1         
,dumontia1 & ,halym5ia among liv+ g5]a4 
,! ,s>gassites1 f9ally1 h be5 vaguely   
ref]r$ to ! g5us ,s>gassum1 s abundant 9
 tropical seas4 ,^! ,alg are di/+ui%$ by
 a fili=m1 bran*$1 or ramose /em1 be>+  
foliace\s app5dages1 regul>1 (t5        
petiolate1 & altoge!r l leaves1 &       
globul> vesicles1 support$ by a small   
/alk4         99       99       99      
99       99  ,! rocks :i* actually      
repres5t ! ,upp] ,cretace\s p]iod divide
 !mselves naturally into six s]ies2 b   
,briti% & ,fr5* geologi/s make "s       
di/9ction3 ! =m] divid+ !m into #a1     
,mae/ri*t & ,faxoe b$s1 said n to occur 
9 ,engl&2 #b1 ,:ite ,*alk1 ) fl9ts2 #c1 
,:ite ,*alk1 )\t fl9ts2 #d1 ,*alk ,m>l2 
#e1 ,upp] ,gre5s&2 & #f1 ,gault4 ,!     
latt] f\r are divid$ by =eign geologi/s 
into #a1 ,turonian2 #b1 ,s5onian2 #c1   
,danian4  ,! ,gault is ! l[e/ memb] ( ! 

,upp] ,cretace\s gr\p4 ,x consi/s ( a   
blui%-black clay mix$ ) gre5s&1 :i*     
und]lies ! ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,ne>          
,cambridge1 :]e ! ,gault is ab\t #bjj   
feet ?ick1 a lay] ( %ells1 bones1 &     
nodules1 call$ ! 8,coprolite ,b$10 f n9e
 in*es to a foot ?ick1 repres5ts ! ,upp]
 ,gre5s&1 & re/s on ! top ( ! ,gault    
,clay4 ,^! nodules & fossils are        
ext5sively work$ on acc\nt ( !          
phosphatic matt] !y conta91 & :5 gr\nd &
 conv]t$ into sup]phosphate ( lime !y   
furni% a v valuable agricultural manure4
 ,! ,gault atta9s a ?ickness ( ab\t #ajj
 feet on ! s\?-ea/ coa/ ( ,engl&4 ,x    
ext5ds into ,devon%ire1 ,mr4 ,%>pe      
consid]+ ! ,black ,d[n b$s ( t c\ntry z 
its equival5ts4 ,x %[s itself 9 !       
,dep>tm5ts ( ! ,pas-de-,calais1 !       
,ard5nes1 ! ,meuse1 ! ,aube1 ! ,yonne1 !
 ,a91 ! ,calvados1 & ! ,se9e-,infrieure4
 ,x pres5ts v _m di/9ct m9]al =ms1 among
 :i* two pr$om9ate3 gre5 s&/one &       
blacki% or grey clays4 ,x is important  
to "k ?is =mation1 = x is at ?is level t

 ! ,artesian wat]s fl[ 9 ! wells (      
,passy & ,gr5elle1 ne> ,p>is4  ,!       
glauc\s *alk1 or ,upp] ,gre5s&1 :i* is  
repres5t$ typically 9 ! dep>tm5ts ( !   
,s>!1 ( ! ,*>5te-,infrieure1 ( ! ,yonne 
& ! ,v>1 is compos$ ( qu>tzose s&1 clay1
 s&/one1 & lime/one4 ,9 ?is =mation1 at 
! m\? ( ! ,*>5te1 we f9d a rem>kable b$1
 :i* has be5 describ$ z a subm>9e =e/4  
,x consi/s ( l>ge trees ) _! bran*es    
imb$d$ horizontally 9 vegetable matt]1  
conta9+ kidney-%ap$ nodules ( amb]1 or  
fossilis$ res94  ,! ,turonian b$s are s 
nam$ because ! prov9ce ( ,t\ra9e1 betwe5
 ,saumur & ,montri*>d1 possesses !      
be/-develop$ type ( ?is /rata4 ,!       
m9]alogical composition ( ! b$s is a f9e
 & grey m>ly *alk1 z at                 
,vitry-le-,franois2 ( a pure :ite *alk1 
) a v f9e gra91 slightly argillace\s1 & 
poor 9 fossils1 9 ! ,dep>tm5ts ( !      
,yonne1 ! ,aube1 & ! ,se9e-,infrieure2  
granul> tuface\s *alk1 :ite or yell[i%1 
mix$ ) spangles ( mica1 & conta9+       
,ammonites1 9 ,t\ra9e & a "p ( !        

,dep>tm5t ( ! ,s>!2 :ite1 grey1 yell[1  
or blui% lime/one1 inclos+ ,hippurites &
 ,radiolites4 ,9 ,engl& ! ,l[] ,*alk    
passes also into ,*alk ,m>l1 )          
,ammonites1 & !n into b$s kn[n z ! ,upp]
 ,gre5s&1 conta9+ gre5 p>ticles (       
glauconite1 mix$1 9 ,hamp%ire & ,surrey1
 ) mu* calc>e\s matt]4 ,9 ! ,isle (     
,wight ?is =mation atta9s a ?ickness (  
#ajj feet4 ,! ,s5onian b$s take _! "n f 
! anci5t ,s5ones4 ,! city ( ,s5s is 9 ! 
c5tre ( ! be/-*>act]is$ portion ( ?is   
=mation2 ,ep]nay1 ,meudon1 ,s5s1 ,v5dme1
 ,royau1 ,cognac1 ,sa9tes1 are ! typical
 regions ( ! =mation 9 ,france4 ,9 !    
,p>is bas91 inclusive ( ! ,t\rs b$s1 x  
atta9s a ?ickness ( upw>ds ( #a1ejj     
feet1 z 0 prov$ by ! samples br\ght up1 
dur+ ! s9k+ ( ! ,artesian well1 at      
,gr5elle1 by ! bor+s4  ,9 its           
geographical di/ribution ! ,*alk has an 
imm5se range2 f9e ,*alk ( ne>ly simil>  
aspect & composition be+ met ) 9 all    
directions ov] hundr$s ( miles1 alt]nat+
 9 its l[] b$s ) lay]s ( fl9ts4 ,9      

,engl& ! high] b$s usually consi/ ( a   
pure-:ite calc>e\s mass1 g5]ally too s(t
 = build+-/one1 b sometimes pass+ into a
 solid rock4  ,! ,danian b$s1 :i* occupy
 ! summit ( ! scale 9 ! ,cretace\s      
=mation1 are f9ely develop$ at          
,mae/ri*t1 on ! ,meuse2 & 9 ! ,isl& (   
,zeel&1 belong+ to ,d5m>k2 :]e !y are   
repres5t$ by a slightly yell[i%1 compact
 lime/one1 qu>ri$ = ! con/ruction ( !   
city ( ,faxoe4 ,x is slightly repres5t$ 
9 ! ,p>is bas9 at ,meudon1 & ,lav]s9es1 
9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,oise1 by a :ite & (t5
 rubbly lime/one kn[n z pisolitic       
lime/one4 ,9 ?is =mation ,ammonites     
,danicus is f\nd4 ,! yell[i% s&y        
lime/one ( ,mae/ri*t is ref]r$ to !     
,danian type4 ,besides ,molluscs1       
,polyps1 & ,polyzoa 7,bryozoa71 ?is     
lime/one conta9s rema9s ( ,fi%es1       
,turtles1 & ,crocodiles4 ,b :at has     
r5d]$ ?is rock s celebrat$ 0 t x conta9$
 ! rema9s ( ! great animal ( ,m/ri*t1 ! 
,msasaurus4  ,at ! close ( ! geological 
p]iod1 ^: natural physiognomy we h ?us  

trac$1 ,europe 0 /ill f> f display+ !   
configuration :i* x n[ pres5ts4 ,a map (
 ! p]iod w\ld repres5t ! great bas9 (   
,p>is 7) ! exception ( a zone ( ,*alk71 
! :ole ( ,switz]l&1 ! great] "p ( ,spa9 
& ,italy1 ! :ole ( ,belgium1 ,holl&1    
,prussia1 ,hung>y1 ,walla*ia1 & ,nor!rn 
,russia1 z "o va/ %eet ( wat]4 ,a b& (  
,jurassic rocks /ill connect$ ,france & 
,engl& at ,*]b\rg--:i* disappe>$ at a   
lat] p]iod1 & caus$ ! sep>ation ( !     
,briti% ,isl&s f :at is n[ ,france4     
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adg4--;,exogym     
conica4 ,upp] ,gre5s& & ,gault1 f       
,blackd[n ,hill4     ,,t]ti>y ,,p]iod4  
,a new organic creation makes its       
appe>ance 9 ! ,t]ti>y p]iod2 ne>ly all !
 animal life is *ang$1 & :at is mo/     
rem>kable 9 ?is new developm5t is !     
appe>ance1 9 l>g] numb]s1 ( ! great     
class ( ,mammif]a4  ,dur+ ! ,prim>y     
p]iod1 ,cru/aceans & ,fi%es pr$om9at$ 9 
! animal k+dom2 9 ! ,second>y p]iod !   
e>? 0 assign$ to ,reptiles2 b dur+ !    
,t]ti>y p]iod ! ,mammals 7 k+s ( ! e>?2 

nor d ^! animals appe> 9 small numb]1 or
 at di/ant int]vals ( "t2 great numb]s (
 ^! be+s appe> to h liv$ on ! e>?1 & at 
! same mom5t2 _m ( !m be+1 s to say1    
unkn[n & undescrib$4  ,if we except !   
,m>supials1 ! fir/ creat$ ,mammals w\ld 
appe> to h be5 ! ,pa*yd]ms1 to :i* !    
,elephant belongs4 ,?is ord] ( animals  
long held ! fir/ rank2 x 0 almo/ ! only 
repres5tative ( ! ,mammal dur+ ! fir/ ( 
! ?ree p]iods :i* con/itute ! ,t]ti>y   
epo*4 ,9 ! second & ?ird p]iods ,mammals
 appe> ( species :i* h n[ become ext9ct1
 & :i* 7 alike curi\s f _! enorm\s      
proportions1 & f ! s+ul>ity ( _!        
/ructure4 ,( ! species :i* appe>$ dur+ !
 latt] "p ( ! epo*1 ! great] numb] /ill 
exi/4 ,among ! new ,reptiles1 "s        
,salam&]s1 z l>ge z ,crocodiles1 & n v  
di/9ct f exi/+ =ms1 are add$ to ! animal
 creation dur+ ! ?ree p]iods ( ! ,t]ti>y
 epo*4 ,*elonians 7 abundant )9 !       
,briti% area dur+ ! old] epo*4 ,dur+ !  
same epo* ,birds are pres5t1 b 9 mu*    
few] numb]s ?an ! ,mammalia2 "h song/]s1

 !re birds ( prey1 9 o!r cases          
dome/ic--or1 r1 "s appe> to wait ! yoke 
& dome/ication f man1 ! future supreme  
"l ( ! e>?4  ,! seas 7 inhabit$ by a    
consid]able numb] ( be+s ( all classes1 
& ne>ly z v>i$ z ^? n[ liv+2 b we no    
long] f9d 9 ! ,t]ti>y seas ^?           
,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 & ,hippurites  
:i* peopl$ ! seas & multipli$ ) su*     
a/oni%+ pr(usion dur+ ! ,second>y p]iod4
 ,h5ce=? ! te/ace\s ,mollusca           
approximate 9 _! =ms to ^? ( ! pres5t   
"t4 ,! old] & new] ,t]ti>y ,s]ies conta9
 few peculi> g5]a4 ,b g5]a n[ f\nd 9    
w>m] climates 7 greatly develop$ )9 !   
,briti% area dur+ ! e>li] ,t]ti>y times1
 & species ( cold climates m>k ! close (
 ! lat] ,t]ti>ies4  ,:at occurs to u1   
h[ev]1 z mo/ rem>kable 9 ! ,t]ti>y epo* 
is ! prodigi\s increase ( animal life2 x
 seems z if x _h !n atta9$ its fulle/   
ext5sion4 ,sw>ms ( te/ace\s ,mollusca ( 
microscopic proportions--,=am9if]a &    
,nummulites--mu/ h inhabit$ ! seas1     
cr[d+ toge!r 9 ranks s s]ri$ t !        

agglom]at$ rema9s ( _! %ells =m1 9 "s   
places1 b$s hundr$s ( feet ?ick4 ,x is !
 mo/ extraord9>y display :i* has appe>$ 
9 ! :ole range ( creation4  ,vegetation 
dur+ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod pres5ts well-def9$ 
*>act]i/ics4 ,! ,t]ti>y flora approa*es1
 & is sometimes ne>ly id5tical )1 t (   
our days4 ,! class ( dicotyl$ons %[s    
itself !re 9 its fulle/ developm5t2 x is
 ! epo* ( fl[]s4 ,! surface ( ! e>? is  
embelli%$ by ! v>iegat$ col\rs ( ! fl[]s
 & fruits :i* succe$ !m4 ,! :ite spikes 
( ! ,gram9e display !mselves ^u ! v]dant
 mead[s )\t limit2 !y seem provocative (
 ! increase ( ,insects1 :i* n[ s+ul>ly  
multiply4 ,9 ! woods cr[d$ ) fl[]+      
trees1 ) r\nd$ tops1 l our oak & bir*1  
,birds become m num]\s4 ,! atmosph]e1   
purifi$ & disemb>rass$ ( ! veil ( vap\r 
:i* has hi!rto p]vad$ x1 n[ p]mits      
animals ) su* delicate pulmon>y organs  
to live & multiply _! race4  ,dur+ !    
,t]ti>y p]iod ! influ5ce ( ! c5tral heat
 may h ceas$ to make itself felt1 9     
consequ5ce ( ! increas$ ?ickness ( !    

t]re/rial cru/4 ,by ! influ5ce ( ! sol> 
heat1 climates w\ld be develop$ 9 !     
v>i\s latitudes2 ! temp]ature ( ! e>?   
w\ld /ill be ne>ly t ( our pres5t       
tropics1 & at ?is epo*1 also1 cold w\ld 
beg9 to make itself felt at ! poles4    
,abundant ra9s w\ld1 h[ev]1 cont9ue to  
p\r ^u ! e>? enorm\s quantities ( wat]1 
:i* w\ld give rise to important riv]s2  
new lacu/r9e deposits ( fre% wat] 7 =m$ 
9 great numb]s2 & riv]s1 by means ( _!  
alluvial deposits1 began to =m new l&4  
,x is1 9 %ort1 dur+ ! ,t]ti>y epo* t we 
trace an alt]nate succession ( b$s      
conta9+ organic be+s ( m>9e orig91 )    
o!rs peculi> to fre% wat]4 ,x is at !   
end ( ?is p]iod t cont95ts & seas take  
_! respective places z we n[ see !m1 & t
 ! surface ( ! e>? receiv$ its pres5t   
=m4  ,! ,t]ti>y epo*1 or s]ies1 embraces
 ?ree v di/9ct p]iods1 to :i* ! names ( 
,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e h be5 giv5  
by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell4 ,! etymology ( ^!
 names is d]iv$--,eoc5e1 f ! ,greek 1   
dawn1 & 1 rec5t2 ,mioc5e1 f 1 less1 1   

rec5t2 & ,plioc5e1 f 1 m1 1 rec5t2 by   
:i* x is simply meant to express1 t ea* 
( ^! p]iods conta9s a m9or or great]    
proportion ( rec5t species 7( ,te/acea71
 or is m or less remote f ! dawn ( life 
& f ! pres5t "t2#ha ! expressions are 9 
"o s5se =c$ & incorrect1 b usage has    
consecrat$ !m1 & !y h obta9$ univ]sal   
curr5cy 9 geological language1 f _!     
conv5i5ce & utility4    #ha ,lyell's    
8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4 #ahg4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adh4--,trigonia    
m>g>itacea4 7,liv+ =m47   ,,! ,,eoc5e   
,,p]iod4  ,dur+ ?is p]iod t]ra firma has
 va/ly ga9$ ^u ! doma9 ( ! sea2 furr[$ )
 /reams & riv]s1 & "h & !re ) great     
lakes & ponds1 ! l&scape ( ?is p]iod    
pres5t$ ! same curi\s mixture :i* we h  
not$ 9 ! prec$+ age1 t is to say1 a     
comb9ation ( ! vegetation ( ! primitive 
ages ) "o analog\s to t ( our own times4
 ,alongside ! bir*1 ! walnut1 ! oak1 !  
elm1 & ! ald]1 rise l(ty palm-trees1 (  
species n[ ext9ct1 su* z ,flabell>ia &  
,palmacites2 ) _m ev]gre5 trees         

7,conif]s71 = ! mo/ "p belong+ to g5]a  
/ill exi/+1 z ! firs1 ! p9es1 ! yews1 ! 
cypresses1 ! junip]s1 & ! ?uyas or tree 
( life4  ,! ,cupanioides1 among !       
,sap9dace2 ! ,cucumites1 among !        
,cucurbitace 7species analog\s to our   
bryony71 climb ! trunks ( great trees1 &
 hang 9 fe/oons ( a]ial g>l&s f _!      
bran*es4  ,! ,f]ns 7 /ill repres5t$ by !
 g5]a ,pecopt]is1 by ! ,tniopt]is1      
,aspl5ium1 ,polypodium4 ,( ! mosses1 "s 
,hepaticas =m$ a humble b elegant &     
lively vegetation alongside ! t]re/rial 
& frequ5tly ligne\s plants :i* we h     
not$4 ,equiseta & ,*> w\ld /ill gr[ 9   
m>%y places & on ! bord]s ( riv]s &     
ponds4  ,x is n )\t "s surprise t we    
obs]ve "h c]ta9 plants ( our own epo*1  
:i* seem to h _h ! privilege ( ornam5t+ 
! great] wat]c\rses4 ,among ^! we may   
m5tion ! ,wat] ,caltrop1 ,trapa natans1 
^: f9e rosettes ( gre5 & d5tat$ leaves  
float s gracefully 9 ornam5tal ponds1   
support$ by _! sp9dle-%ap$ petioles1 its
 fruit a h>d coriace\s nut1 ) f\r horny 

sp9es1 kn[n 9 ,france z wat]-*e/nuts1   
:i* enclose a f>9ace\s gra9 n unpleasant
 to ! ta/e2 ! pond-we$1 ,potamogeton1 ^:
 leaves =m ?ick tufts ( gre51 af=d+ food
 & %elt] to ! fi%es2 ,nympheace1 :i*    
spread beside _! l>ge r\nd & holl[      
leaves1 s admirably adapt$ = float+ on !
 wat]1 n[ ! deep-yell[ fl[]s ( ! ,n5uph>
 n[ ! pure :ite fl[]s ( ! ,nympha4 ,li/5
 to ,lecoq1 z he describes ! vegetation 
( ! p]iod3--8,! ,l[] ,t]ti>y p]iod10 he 
says1 8con/antly rem9ds u ( ! tropical  
l&scapes ( ! pres5t epo*1 9 localities  
:]e wat] & heat toge!r impress on       
vegetation a p[] & maje/y unkn[n 9 our  
climates4 ,! ,alg1 :i* h already be5    
obs]v$ 9 ! m>9e wat]s at ! close ( !    
,cretace\s p]iod1 repres5t$ !mselves "u 
/ill m v>i$ =ms1 9 ! e>li] ,t]ti>y      
deposits1 :5 !y h be5 =m$ 9 ! sea4      
,hepaticas & ,mosses grew 9 ! m humid   
places2 _m pretty ,f]ns1 z ,pecopt]is1  
,tniopt]is1 & ! ,equisetum /ell>e       
7,pomel7 vegetat$ 9 cool & humid places4
 ,! fre% wat]s are cr[d$ ) ,naiades1    

,*>a1 ,potamogeton1 ,caul9ites1 )       
,zo/]ites1 & ) ,halo*loris4 ,_! leaves1 
float+ or subm]g$1 l ^? ( our aquatic   
plants1 conceal$ legions ( ,molluscs ^: 
rema9s h also rea*$ u4  8,great numb]s (
 ,conif]s liv$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,m4      
,brongni>t enum]ates =ty-"o diff]5t     
species1 :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 rem9d u ( liv+
 =ms ) :i* we are famili>--( ,p9es1     
,cypresses1 ,?uyas1 ,junip]s1 ,firs1    
,yews1 & ,eph$ra4 ,palms m+l$ ) ^! gr\ps
 ( ev]gre5 trees2 ! ,flabell>ia         
,p>isi5sis ( ,brongni>t1 ,f4 raphifolia 
( ,/]nb]g1 ,f4 maxima ( ,ung]2 & "s     
,palmacites1 rais$ _! widely-spread+    
cr[ns ne> ! magnific5t ,hightea2        
,malvace1 or ,mall[s1 d\btless          
arboresc5t1 z _m among !m1 natives ( v  
hot climates1 are 9 our days4  8,creep+ 
plants1 su* z ! ,cucumites v>iabilis    
7,brongn471 & ! num]\s species (        
,cupaniodes--! "o belong+ to !          
,cucurbitace1 & ! o!r to !              
,sap9dace--tw9$ _! sl5d] /ems r\nd !    
trunks1 d\btless ligne\s1 ( v>i\s       

,legum9ace4  8,! family ( ,betulace ( ! 
ord] ,cupulif] %[ ! =m1 !n new1 (       
,qu]cus1 ! ,oak2 ! ,jugl&e1 & ,ulmace   
m+le ) ! ,proteace1 n[ limit$ to ! s\!rn
 hemisph]e4 ,d]matophyllites1 pres]v$ 9 
amb]1 seem to h belong$ to ! family ( ! 
,eric9e1 & ,tropa ,arctur ( ,ung]1 ( !  
gr\p no!re1 float$ on ! %all[ wat]s 9   
:i* grew ! ,*>a & ! ,potamogeton4  8,?is
 num]\s flora comprises m ?an #bjj kn[n 
species1 ( :i* #adc belong$ to !        
,dicotyl$ons1 ?irty-?ree to !           
,monocotyl$ons1 & ?irty-?ree to !       
,cryptogams4  8,trees pr$om9ate "h z 9 !
 prec$+ p]iod1 b ! great numb]s (       
aquatic plants ( ! p]iod are q 9        
accordance ) ! geological facts1 :i* %[ 
t ! cont95ts & isl&s 7 int]sect$ by     
ext5sive lakes & inl& seas1 :ile va/    
m>9e bays & arms ( ! sea p5etrat$ deeply
 into ! l&40  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4       
#adi4--;,bran* ( ,eucalyptus re/or$4  ,x
 is moreov] a peculi>ity ( ?is p]iod t !
 :ole ( ,europe compreh5d$ a great numb]
 ( ^? plants :i* are n[ conf9$ to       

,au/ralasia1 & :i* give s /range an     
aspect to t c\ntry1 :i* seems1 9 its    
vegetation1 z 9 its animals1 to h       
pres]v$ 9 its w>m latitudes ! la/       
ve/iges ( ! organic creations peculi> to
 ! primitive _w4 ,z a type (            
dicotyl$on\s trees ( ! epo*1 we pres5t  
"h a re/or$ bran* ( ,eucalyptus 7,fig4  
#adi71 ) its fl[]s4 ,all ! family ( !   
,proteace1 :i* compreh5ds ! ,banksia1 ! 
,hakea1 ! ,g]ilea protea1 exi/$ 9       
,europe dur+ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! family 
( ,mimosas1 compris+ ! ,acacia & ,+a1   
:i* 9 our age are only natives ( ! s\!rn
 hemisph]e1 ab\nd$ 9 ,europe dur+ ! same
 geological p]iod4 ,a bran* ( ,banksia1 
) its fructification1 tak5 f impressions
 discov]$ 9 rocks ( ! p]iod1 is         
repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #aej--;x is diff]5t f 
any species ( ,banksia liv+ 9 our days4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aej4--;,fruit-bran*
 ( ,banksia re/or$4  ,mammals1 ,birds1  
,reptiles1 ,fi%es1 ,insects1 &          
,molluscs1 =m ! t]re/rial fauna ( !     
,eoc5e p]iod4 ,9 ! wat]s ( ! lakes1 ^:  

surfaces are deeply pl\gh$ by ! passage 
( l>ge ,pelicans1 liv$ ,molluscs ( v>i$ 
=ms1 z ,physa1 ,limna1 ,planorbis2 &    
,turtles swam ab\t1 z ,trionyx & !      
,emides4 ,snipes made _! retreat among !
 re$s :i* grew on ! %ore2 sea-gulls     
skimm$ ! surface ( ! wat]s or ran ^u !  
s&s2 owls hid !mselves 9 ! cav]n\s      
trunks ( old trees2 gigantic buzz>ds    
hov]$ 9 ! air1 wat*+ = _! prey2 :ile    
heavy crocodiles sl[ly dragg$ _!        
unwieldy bodies ?r\gh ! high m>%y       
grasses4 ,all ^! t]re/rial animals h be5
 discov]$ 9 ,engl& or 9 ,france1        
alongside ! ov]?r[n trunks ( palm-trees4
 ,! temp]ature ( ^! c\ntries 0 !n mu*   
high] ?an x is n[4 ,! ,mammals :i* liv$ 
"u ! latitudes ( ,p>is & ,london are    
only f\nd n[ 9 ! w>me/ c\ntries ( !     
globe4  ,! ,pa*yd]ms 7f ! ,greek 1 ?ick1
 1 sk97 seem to h be5 among/ ! e>lie/   
,mammals :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 & 
!y held ! fir/ rank f _! importance 9   
numb] ( species z well z 9 size4 ,let u 
pause an in/ant ov] ^! ,pa*yd]ms4 ,_!   

pr$om9ance ov] o!r fossil ,mammals1 :i* 
exce$ consid]ably ! numb] n[ liv+1 is a 
fact mu* insi/$ on by ,cuvi]4 ,among !m 
7 a great numb] ( int]m$iate =ms1 :i* we
 seek = 9 va9 9 exi/+ g5]a4 ,9 fact1 !  
,pa*yd]ms are sep>at$1 9 our days1 by   
int]vals ( great] ext5t ?an we f9d 9 any
 o!r mammalian g5]a2 & x is v curi\s to 
discov] among ! animals ( ! anci5t _w ! 
brok5 l9k :i* connects ! *a9 ( ^! be+s1 
:i* h = _! great tomb ! pla/]-qu>ries ( 
,p>is1 ,montm>tre & ,pant9 be+ _! late/ 
refuge4  ,ea* block tak5 f ^? qu>ries   
encloses "s fragm5t ( a bone ( ^!       
,mammals2 & h[ _m millions ( ^! bones _h
 be5 de/roy$ be=e att5tion 0 direct$ to 
! subject6 ,! ,palo!rium & !            
,anoplo!rium 7 ! fir/ ( ^! animals :i*  
,cuvi] re/or$2 & subsequ5t discov]ies ( 
o!r fragm5ts ( ! same animals h only    
s]v$ to confirm :at ! g5ius ( ! great   
naturali/ div9$4 ,8 /udies 9 ! qu>ries (
 ,montm>tre gave ! signal1 z !y became !
 model1 = simil> rese>*es & re/orations 
( ! animals ( ! anci5t _w1 all ov]      

,europe--rese>*es :i*1 9 our age1 h     
drawn geology f ! /ate ( infancy 9 :i* x
 langui%$1 9 spite ( ! magnific5t &     
p]sev]+ lab\rs ( ,/5o1 ,w]n]1 ,hutton1 &
 ,saussure4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4        
#aea4--,palo!rium magnum re/or$4  ,!    
,palo!rium1 ,anoplo!rium1 & ,xiphodon 7 
h]bivor\s animals1 :i* mu/ h liv$ 9     
great h]ds4 ,!y appe> to h be5          
int]m$iate1 accord+ to _! organisation1 
betwe5 ! ,rh9oc]os1 ! ,horse1 & !       
,tapir4 ,!re seem to h exi/$ _m species 
( !m1 ( v diff]5t sizes4 ,aft] ! lab\rs 
( ,cuvi]1 no?+ is easi] ?an to repres5t 
! ,palo!rium z x liv$3 ! nose t]m9at+ 9 
a muscul> fle%y trunk1 or r sn\t1       
some:at l t ( ! ,tapir2 ! eye small1 &  
display+ little intellig5ce2 ! head     
enorm\sly l>ge2 ! body squat1 ?ick1 &   
%ort2 ! legs %ort & v /\t2 ! feet       
support$ by ?ree toes1 enclos$ 9 a ho(2 
! size1 t ( a l>ge horse4 ,su* 0 ! great
 ,palo!rium1 peaceful flocks ( :i* mu/ h
 inhabit$ ! valleys ( ! plateau :i*     
surr\nds ! anci5t bas9 ( ,p>is2 9 !     

lacu/r9e =mations ( ,orleans & ,arg5ton2
 9 ! ,t]ti>y =mations ( ,issil &        
,puy-en-,velay1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( !        
,gironde2 9 ! ,t]ti>y =mations ne>      
,rome2 & 9 ! b$s ( lime/one#hb at !     
qu>ries ( ,b9/$1 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4    
,fig4 #aea repres5ts ! great ,palo!rium1
 aft] ! design1 9 outl9e1 giv5 by ,cuvi]
 9 8 "w on fossil bones4    #hb ,?is    
lime/one belongs to ! ,bembridge b$s1 & 
=ms "p (        ! ,fluvio-m>9e s]ies4   
,see 8,survey ,memoir on ! ,geology (   
! ,isle ( ,wight10 by ,h4 ,w4 ,bri/[4   
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--,skull (     
,palo!rium magnum4  ,! discov]y &       
re-arrangem5t ( ^! & o!r =ms1 n[ swept f
 ! face ( ! globe1 are ! noble/ triumphs
 ( ! great ,fr5* zoologi/1 :o ga!r$ !m1 
z we h se51 f heaps ( confus$ fragm5ts1 
huddl$ toge!r pell-mell1 compris+ !     
bones ( a great _m species ( animals ( a
 =m] age ( ! _w1 all unkn[n )9 ! hi/oric
 p]iod4 ,! g5]ic *>act]s ( ,palo!rium   
give !m =ty-f\r tee?1 namely1 twelve    
mol>s1 two can9es1 & tw5ty-eight o!rs1  

?ree toes1 a %ort proboscis1 = !        
atta*m5t ( :i* ! bones ( ! nose 7       
%ort5$1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #aec1 leav+ 
a deep not* bel[ !m4 ,! mol> tee? be>   
consid]able resemblance to ^? ( !       
,rh9oc]os4 ,9 ! /ructure ( t "p ( !     
skull int5d$ to support ! %ort          
proboscis1 & 9 ! feet1 ! animal seems to
 h resembl$ ! ,tapir4  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #aec4--,skeletons ( ! ,palo!rium  
magnum 7a7 & m9imum 7b7 re/or$4  ,!     
geological place ( ! ext9ct ,palo!rium  
seems to h be5 9 ! fir/ great fre%-wat] 
=mation ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 :]e x is      
*iefly f\nd ) its allies1 ( :i* sev]al  
species h be5 f\nd & id5tifi$ by ,cuvi]4
 ,dr4 ,buckl& is n s+ul> 9 ?9k+ t !y    
liv$ & di$ on ! m>g9s ( lakes & riv]s1 z
 ! ,rh9oc]os & ,tapir d n[4 ,he is also 
( op9ion t "s retir$ into ! wat] to die1
 & t ! dead c>cases ( o!rs may h be5    
drift$ into ! deep] p>ts 9 seasons (    
flood4  ,! ,palo!rium v>i$ greatly 9    
size1 "s species be+ z l>ge z !         
,rh9oc]os1 :ile o!rs rang$ betwe5 ! size

 ( ! ,horse & t ( a ,hog or a ,roe4 ,!  
small] ,palo!rium resembl$ ! ,tapir4    
,less 9 size ?an a ,goat1 ) slim & light
 legs1 x mu/ h be5 v common 9 ! nor? (  
,france1 :]e x w\ld br[se on ! grass ( !
 wild prairies4 ,ano!r species1 ! ,p4   
m9imum1 sc>cely exce$$ ! ,h>e 9 size1 & 
x probably _h all ! lightness & agility 
( t animal4 ,x liv$ among ! bu%y ?ickets
 ( ! environs ( ,p>is1 9 ,auv]gne1 &    
else:]e4  ,all ^! animals liv$ ^u se$s &
 fruits1 on ! gre5 twigs1 or subt]ranean
 /ems1 & ! succul5t roots ( ! plants ( !
 p]iod4 ,!y g5]ally frequ5t$ !          
neighb\rhood ( fre% wat]4  ,illu/ration3
 ,fig4 #aed4--;,anoplo!rium commune4    
,"o-tw5tie? natural size4  ,!           
,anoplo!rium 7f 1 def5celess1 1 animal71
 _h ! po/]ior mol> tee? analog\s to ^? (
 ! ,rh9oc]os1 ! feet t]m9at+ 9 two great
 toes1 =m+ an equally divid$ ho(1 l t ( 
! ,ox & o!r ,rum9ants1 & ! t>sus ( !    
toes ne>ly l ^? ( ! ,camel4 ,x 0 ab\t ! 
size ( ! ,ass2 its head 0 light2 b :at  
w\ld di/+ui% x mo/ mu/ h be5 an enorm\s 

tail ( at lea/ ?ree feet 9 l5g?1 & v    
?ick at its junction ) ! body4 ,?is tail
 evid5tly s]v$ x z a rudd] & propell] :5
 swimm+ 9 ! lakes or riv]s1 :i* x       
frequ5t$1 n to seize fi% 7= x 0 /rictly 
h]bivor\s71 b 9 se>* ( roots & /ems (   
succul5t aquatic plants4 8,judg+ f its  
habits ( swimm+ & div+10 says ,cuvi]1 8!
 ,anoplo!rium w\ld h ! hair smoo?1 l !  
ott]2 p]haps its sk9 0 ev5 half nak$4 ,x
 is n likely ei!r t x _h long e>s1 :i*  
w\ld be inconv5i5t 9 its aquatic k9d (  
life2 & ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t1 9 ?is    
respect1 x resembl$ ! ,hippopotamus &   
o!r quadrup$s :i* frequ5t ! wat] mu*40  
,to ?is description ,cuvi] _h no?+ m to 
add4 ,8 memoir ^u ! pa*yd]mat\s fossils 
( ,montm>tre is accompani$ by a design 9
 outl9e ( ,anoplo!rium commune1 :i* has 
be5 closely foll[$ 9 ,fig4 #aed4  ,!re 7
 species ( ,anoplo!rium ( v small size4 
,a4 lepor9um 7or ! ,h>e-,anoplo!rium71  
^: feet are evid5tly adapt$ = spe$2 ,a4 
m9imum & ,a4 obliquum 7 ( /ill small]   
dim5sions2 ! la/1 especially1 sc>cely   

exce$$ ! size ( a rat4 ,l ! ,wat]-rats1 
?is species inhabit$ ! banks ( brooks & 
small riv]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4       
#aee4--,xiphodon gracile4  ,! ,xiphodon 
0 ab\t ?ree feet 9 height at ! )]s1 &   
g5]ally ab\t ! size ( ! ,*amois1 b      
light] 9 =m1 & ) a small] head4 ,9      
proportion z ! appe>ance ( !            
,anoplo!rium commune 0 heavy & sluggi%1 
s 0 t ( ,xiphodon gracile graceful &    
active2 light & agile z ! ,gazelle or ! 
,goat1 x w\ld rapidly run r\nd ! m>%es &
 ponds1 depa/ur+ on ! aromatic h]bs ( ! 
dry l&s1 or br[s+ on ! spr\ts ( ! "y    
%rubs4 8,its c\rse10 says ,cuvi]1 9 !   
memoir already quot$1 80 n emb>rass$ by 
a long tail2 b1 l all active h]bivor\s  
animals1 x 0 probably timid1 & ) l>ge & 
v mobile e>s1 l ^? ( ! /ag1 ann\nc+ !   
slighte/ approa* ( dang]4 ,nei!r is !re 
any d\bt t its body 0 cov]$ ) %ort smoo?
 hair2 & consequ5tly we only require to 
"k its col\r 9 ord] to pa9t x z x =m]ly 
exi/$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 :]e x has be5 dug up
 aft] s _m ages40 ,fig4 #aee is a       

reproduction f ! design 9 outl9e ) :i*  
,cuvi] accompani$ ! description ( ?is   
animal1 :i* he classes ) ! ,anoplo!rium1
 & :i* has receiv$ 9 our days ! "n (    
,xiphodon gracile4  ,! gypsum-qu>ries ( 
! environs ( ,p>is include1 moreov]1 !  
rema9s ( o!r ,pa*yd]ms3 ! ,*ropotamus1  
or ,riv]-hog 7f  71 :i* has "s analogy )
 ! liv+ ,pec>i1 ?\gh mu* l>g]2 !        
,adapis1 :i* rem9ds u1 9 its =m1 ( !    
,h$gehog1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 x 0 ?ree times !
 size4 ,x seems to h be5 a l9k betwe5 ! 
,pa*yd]ms & ! ,insectivor\s ,c>nivora4  
,! ,lophiodon1 ! size ( :i* v>i$ ) !    
species1 f t ( ! ,rabbit to t ( !       
,rh9oc]os1 0 /ill m closely alli$ to !  
,tapir ?an to ! ,anoplo!rium2 x is f\nd 
9 ! l[] b$s ( ! gypse\s =mation1 t is to
 say 9 ! 8,calcaire ,grossi]40  ,a      
,p>isian geologi/1 ,m4 ,desnoy]s1       
libr>ian ( ! ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory 
!re1 has discov]$ 9 ! gypse\s b$s ( !   
valley ( ,montmor5cy1 & else:]e 9 !     
neighb\rhood ( ,p>is1 z at ,pant91      
,cli*y1 & ,damm>t91 ! impr9ts ( !       

foot/eps ( "s ,mammals1 ( :i* !re seems 
to be "s "q1 especially ) reg>d to !    
,anoplo!rium & ,palo!rium4 ,footpr9ts ( 
,turtles1 ,birds1 & ev5 ( ,c>nivora1    
sometimes accompany ^! curi\s traces1   
:i* h a sort ( almond-%ape m or less    
lob$1 accord+ to ! divisions ( ! ho( ( !
 animal1 & :i* recall to m9d completely1
 9 _! mode ( production & pres]vation1  
^? impr9ts ( ! /eps ( ! ,labyr9?odon :i*
 h be5 m5tion$ z occurr+ 9 rocks ( !    
,triassic p]iod4 ,?is discov]y is       
int]e/+1 z x furni%es a means (         
comp>ison betwe5 ! impr9ts & ! animals  
:i* h produc$ !m4 ,x br+s into view1 z x
 71 ! mat]ial traces left 9 _! walks ^u 
! soil by animals n[ annihilat$1 b :o   
once occupi$ ! my/]i\s sites ( an e>li] 
_w4 7,see ,fig4 #a1 p4 #ab47  ,x is     
int]e/+ to picture 9 imag9ation ! va/   
pa/urages ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod sw>m+ )     
,h]bivora ( all sizes4 ,! c\ntry n[     
surr\nd+ ! city ( ,p>is belongs to !    
p]iod 9 "q1 & n f> f its gates1 ! woods 
& pla9s 7 cr[d$ ) 8game0 ( :i* !        

,p>isian sportsman little dreams1 b :i* 
w\ld nev]!less s+ul>ly animate ! e>? at 
?is di/ant epo*4 ,! abs5ce ( great      
,c>nivora expla9s ! rapid increase ( !  
agile & graceful d5iz5s ( ! wood1 ^:    
race seems to h be5 s multipli$ !n1 b   
:i* 0 ultimately annihilat$ by ! f]oci\s
 bea/s ( prey :i* aft]w>ds made _!      
appe>ance4  ,! same novelty1 ri*es1 &   
v>iety :i* di/+ui%$ ! ,mammals ( !      
,t]ti>y p]iod ext5d$ to o!r classes (   
animals4 ,! class ( ,birds1 ( :i* we c  
only "n ! mo/ rem>kable1 0 repres5t$ by 
! curi\s fossil kn[n z ! 8,bird (       
,montm>tre40 ,! bones ( o!r birds h be5 
obta9$ f ,hordwell1 z well z ! rema9s ( 
quadrup$s4 ,among ! latt] ! ,hynodon1   
suppos$ to be ! olde/ kn[n example ( a  
true c>nivor\s animal 9 ! s]ies (       
,briti% fossils1 & ! fossil ,bat kn[n z 
! ,vesp]tilio ,p>isi5sis4 ,among        
,reptiles ! ,crocodile1 :i* be>s ! "n ( 
,isle ( ,wight ,alligator1 ,crocodilus  
,toliapicus4 ,among ! ,turtles !        
,trionyx1 ( :i* !re is a f9e specim5 9 !

 ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ,p>is     
7,fig4 #aef74  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4      
#aef4--,trionyx1 or ,turtle1 ( ! ,t]ti>y
 p]iod4  ,9 ! class ,fi%es we n[ see !  
,pleuronectes1 or flat-fi%1 ( :i*       
,platax altissimus & ,rhombus m9imus are
 well-kn[n examples4 ,among !           
,cru/aceans we see ! e>lie/ crabs4 ,at !
 same "t multitudes ( new ,mollusca make
 _! appe>ance3 ,oliva1 ,triton1 ,cassis1
 ,h>pa1 ,crepidula1 c4  ,illu/ration3   
,,xxiii4--,ideal ,l&scape ( ! ,eoc5e    
,p]iod4  ,! hi!rto unkn[n =ms ( ,s*iza/]
 are rem>kable among ,e*9od]ms2 !       
,zoophytes are also abundant1 especially
 ! ,=am9if]a1 :i* seem to make up by _! 
numb]s = _! defici5cy 9 size4 ,x 0 9 ?is
 p]iod1 9 ! bosom ( its seas1 & f> f    
%ore1 t ! ,nummulites exi/$1 ^: calc>e\s
 envelopes play su* a consid]able "p z !
 elem5ts ( "s ( ! ,t]ti>y =mations4 ,!  
%elly agglom]ates ( ^! ,protozoan       
,rhizopods con/itute n[ v important     
rocks4 ,! ,nummulitic lime/one =ms1 9 ! 
*a9 ( ! ,pyr5ees1 entire m\nta9s ( great

 height2 9 ,egypt x =ms /rata (         
consid]able ext5t1 & x is ( ^! rocks t !
 anci5t pyramids 7 built4 ,:at an       
enorm\s "t mu/ h be5 necess>y to conv]t 
! rema9s ( ^! little %ells into b$s _m  
hundr$s ( feet ?ick6 ,! ,miliola 7 also 
s abundant 9 ! ,eoc5e seas z to         
con/itute ! great] "p ( calc>e\s        
rocks#hc out ( :i* ,p>is has be5 built4 
,agglom]at$ 9 ?is mann]1 ^! little %ells
 =m ! cont9u\s b$s ( lime/one :i* are   
qu>ri$ = build+ purposes 9 ! environs ( 
,p>is1 at ,g5tilly1 ,vaugir>d1 &        
,*tillon4    #hc ,simil> b$s (          
,miliolite lime/one are f\nd 9 ! ,middle
        ,bag%ot b$s on ! coa/ ( ,sussex1
 (f ,selsey--! only        in/ance 9    
,engl& ( ! occurr5ce ( su* calc>e\s     
deposits        ( ,middle ,eoc5e        
age4--,h4 ,w4 ,b4         99       99   
99       99       99  ,on ! opposite    
page we pres5t1 9 ,,plate ,,xxiii41 an  
imag9>y l&scape ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,we   
rem>k among/ its vegetation a mixture ( 
fossil species ) o!rs belong+ to !      

pres5t "t4 ,! ,ald]s1 ! ,wy*-elms1 & !  
,cypresses1 m+le ) ,flabell>ia2 ! ,palms
 ( ext9ct species4 ,a great ,bird--a    
wad]1 ! ,tantalus--occupies ! project+  
po9t ( a rock on ! "r2 ! ,turtle        
7,trionyx71 floats on ! riv]1 9 ! mid/ (
 ,nymphz1 ,n5uph>s1 & o!r aquatic       
plants2 :il/ a h]d ( ,palo!ria1         
,anoplo!ria1 & ,xiphodon peacefully     
br[se ! grass ( ! natural mead[s ( ?is  
peaceful oasis4  ,) a g5]al resemblance 
9 _! fossils1 no?+ c be m dissimil>1 on 
! :ole1 ?an ! li?ological or m9]al      
*>act]s ( ! ,eoc5e deposits ( ,france & 
,engl&2 8^? ( our own isl&10 says       
,lyell1#hd 8be+ almo/ exclusively (     
me*anical orig9--accumulations ( mud1   
s&1 & pebbles2 :ile 9 ! neighb\rhood (  
,p>is we f9d a great succession ( /rata 
compos$ ( lime/ones1 "s ( !m silice\s1 &
 ( cry/all9e gypsum & silice\s s&/one1 &
 sometimes ( pure fl9t us$ = mill/ones4 
,h5ce x is by no means an easy task to  
in/itute an exact comp>ison betwe5 !    
v>i\s memb]s ( ! ,engli% & ,fr5* s]ies4 

,x is cle> t1 on ! sites bo? ( ,p>is &  
,london1 a cont9ual *ange 0 go+ on 9 !  
fauna & flora by ! com+ 9 ( new species 
& ! dy+ out ( o!rs2 & contemporane\s    
*anges ( geographical conditions 7 also 
9 progress 9 consequ5ce ( ! ris+ & s9k+ 
( ! l& & bottom ( ! sea4 ,a p>ticul>    
subdivision1 !re=e1 ( "t 0 occasionally 
repres5t$ 9 "o area by l&1 9 ano!r by an
 e/u>y1 9 a ?ird by sea2 & ev5 :]e !    
conditions 7 9 bo? areas ( a m>9e "*1   
!re 0 (t5 %all[ wat] 9 "o1 & deep sea 9 
ano!r1 produc+ a want ( agreem5t 9 !    
/ate ( animal life40 ,! ,eoc5e rocks1 z 
develop$ 9 ,france & ,engl&1 may be     
tabulat$ z foll[s1 9 desc5d+ ord]3--    
#hd 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4 #bib4     
,engli%4                                
,fr5*4                  _/              
_/ ,calcaire de la ,beauce4             
,hemp/ead b$s4                   ,grs de
 ,fonta9ebleau4                         
,upp] ,eoc5e4                           
_/ ,calcaire silicieux or               
,bembridge b$s4    ,fluvio-m>9e         

,calcaire ,lacu/re                      
s]ies4        ,moy54 ,gypse\s           
s]ies ( ,montm>tre4                     
_/ ,osborne b$s4                    _/  
,grs de ,beau*amp                       
,headon b$s4      _/                &   
,calcaire ,m>94                         
,upp] ,bag%ot s&4                 ,upp] 
,sables ,moy5s4                         
,middle ,eoc5e4                         
_/ ,l[] ,sables ,moy5s1                 
,b>ton clay4       ,middle         ,l[] 
,calcaire                   ,brackle%am 
b$s4 _/ ,bag%ot4       ,grossi]1 &      
,glauconie ,grossire4                   
,l[] ,bag%ot                     _/     
,lits coquillires4                      
b$s4                                    
,glauconie ,moy5ne4                   _/
 ,london clay4                          
,want+4                                 
,woolwi* &                     _/       
,argile ,pla/ique4                      
,read+ b$s1 or                          
,glauconie ,infrieure4   ,l[] ,eoc5e4   

,pla/ic clay4    _/                     
,oldhav5 b$s4                           
,?anet s&s4                             
,sables ,infrieurs4  ,! ,woolwi* &      
,read+ ,b$s1 or ! ,pla/ic ,clay ( old]  
writ]s1 consi/s ( ext5sive b$s ( s& )   
occasional b$s ( pott]'s clay1 :i* lie  
at ! base ( ! ,t]ti>y =mation 9 bo?     
,engl& & ,france4 ,g5]ally v>iegat$1    
sometimes grey or :ite1 x is employ$ z a
 pott]'s e>? 9 ! manufacture ( delf-w>e4
  ,9 ,engl& ! r$-mottl$ clay ( !        
,woolwi* & ,read+ ,b$s 9 ,hamp%ire & !  
,isle ( ,wight is (t5 se5 9 contact ) ! 
*alk2 b 9 ! s\?-ea/]n "p ( ! ,london    
bas91 ,mr4 ,pre/wi* %[s t ! ,?anet ,s&  
7consi/+ ( a base ( f9e1 light-col\r$   
s&1 mix$ ) m or less argillace\s matt]7 
int]v5es betwe5 ! ,*alk & ! ,oldhav5    
,b$s1 or 9 _! abs5ce ! ,woolwi* & ,read+
 b$s1 :i* lie bel[ ! ,london ,clay4 ,!  
,?anet ,s&s d]ive _! "n f _! occurr5ce 9
 ! ,isle ( ,?anet1 9 ,k5t1 9 ! ea/]n "p 
( :i* c\nty !y atta9 _! greate/         
developm5t4 ,"u ,london & its s\!rn     

suburbs ! ,?anet s& is f ?irte5 to      
=ty-f\r feet ?ick1 b x becomes ?9n] 9 a 
we/]ly direction1 & does n occur beyond 
,eal+4#he    #he 8,memoir ( !           
,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita94 ,!
 ,geology (        ,middlesex1 c420 by  
,w4 ,:itak]1 p4 #i4  ,! ,woolwi* &      
,read+ b$s 9 ! ,hamp%ire bas9 re/       
imm$iately on ! ,*alk1 & sep>ate x f !  
ov]ly+ ,london ,clay1 z may be se5 9 !  
f9e exposure ( ! ,t]ti>y /rata 9 ,alum  
,bay1 at ! we/]n extremity ( ! ,isle (  
,wight1 & 9 ,/udl& ,bay1 on ! we/]n side
 ( ! ,isle ( ,purbeck1 9 ,dorset%ire4   
,9 ! ,london bas9 ! ,woolwi* & ,read+   
b$s also re/ on ! ,*alk1 :]e ! ,?anet   
,s&s are abs5t1 z is ! case1 = ! mo/ "p1
 ov] ! area we/ ( ,eal+ & ,lea!rhead4   
,! b$s 9 "q are v v>iable 9 "*1 b may be
 g5]ally describ$ z irregul> alt]nations
 ( clays & s&s--! =m] mo/ly r$1 mottl$ )
 :ite1 & f _! pla/ic nature suitable = !
 purposes ( ! pott]2 ! latt] also (     
v>i\s col\rs1 b sometimes pure :ite1 &  
sometimes conta9+ pebbles ( fl9t4  ,!   

,woolwi* & ,read+ b$s are call$ aft] !  
localities ( ! same names2 !y are fifty 
feet ?ick at ,woolwi*1 & f sixty to     
sev5ty feet at ,read+4  ,! ,oldhav5 b$s 
7s t]m$ by ,mr4 ,w4 ,:itak] f _!        
developm5t at ! place ( ! same "n 9     
,k5t7 are a local deposit1 occurr+ b5ea?
 ! ,london ,clay on ! s\? side ( !      
,london bas91 f ,croydon ea/w>d1 at !   
mo/ ea/]n "p ( ,surrey1 & ?r\gh ,k5t--9 
! nor?-we/]n corn] ( :i* c\nty !y =m "s 
comp>atively broad tracts4 ,! b$s consi/
 ( r\nd$ fl9t pebbles1 9 a f9e s&y base1
 or ( f9e light-col\r$ s&1 & are f      
eighty to n9ety feet ?ick "u ,london4   
,! ,london ,clay1 :i* has a bread? (    
tw5ty miles or m ab\t ,london1 consi/s (
 t5aci\s br[n & blui%-grey clay1 ) lay]s
 ( ! nodul> concretions1 call$ ,sept>ia1
 :i* are well kn[n on ! ,essex &        
,hamp%ire coa/s1 :]e !y are collect$ =  
mak+ ,roman cem5t4 ,! ,london ,clay has 
a maximum ?ickness ( ne>ly #ejj feet4 ,!
 fossils ( ! ,london ,clay are ( m>9e   
g5]a1 & v pl5tiful 9 "s di/ricts4 ,tak5 

altoge!r !y seem to indicate a mod]ate1 
r ?an a tropical climate1 al?\gh !      
,flora is1 z f> z c be judg$1 c]ta9ly   
tropical 9 its aff9ities4#hf ,! numb] ( 
species ( ext9ct ,turtles obta9$ f !    
,isle ( ,%eppey alone1 is /at$ by ,pr(4 
,agassiz to exce$ t ( all ! species (   
,*elone n[ kn[n to exi/ ?r\gh\t ! globe4
 ,above ?is great b$ lie ! ,brackle%am &
 ,bag%ot b$s1 :i* consi/ ( light-yell[  
s& ) an int]m$iate lay] ( d>k-gre5 &    
br[n clay1 ov] :i* lie ! ,b>ton ,clay 79
 ! ,hamp%ire bas97 & ! :ite ,upp]       
,bag%ot ,s&s1 :i* are succe$$ by !      
,fluvio-m>9e s]ies compris+ ! ,headon1  
,bembridge1 & ,hemp/ead s]ies1 & consi/+
 ( lime/ones1 clays1 & m>ls1 ( m>9e1    
bracki%1 & fre%-wat] orig94#hg ,= full] 
acc\nts ( ! ,t]ti>y /rata ( ,engl&1 !   
read] is recomm5d$ to ! num]\s excell5t 
memoirs ( ,mr4 ,pre/wi*1 to ! memoir    
8,on ! ,t]ti>y ,fluvio-m>9e ,=mations ( 
! ,isle ( ,wight10 by ,pr(essor ,edw>d  
,=bes1 & to ! memoir 8,on ! ,geology ( !
 ,london ,bas910 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,:itak]4   

#hf ,pre/wi*4 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41
 vol4 x41 p4 #ddh4    #hg ,detail$      
sections ( ! :ole ( ! ,t]ti>y /rata ( ! 
,isle        ( ,wight h be5 con/ruct$ by
 ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bri/[ f actual           
measurem5t ( ! b$s 9 _! regul> ord] (   
succession1 z        display$ at        
,hemp/ead1 ,:itecliff ,bay1 ,colwell &  
,toll&'s        ,bays1 ,headon ,hill1 & 
,alum ,bay4 ,^! sections1 publi%$ by !  
,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita91 %[
 ! ?ickness1 m9]al        "*1 & organic 
rema9s f\nd 9 ea* /ratum1 & are         
accompani$ by a pamphlet 9 explanation4 
,at ! base ( ! ,argile ,pla/ique (      
,france is a conglom]ate ( *alk & (     
div]s calc>e\s sub/ances1 9 :i* h be5   
f\nd at ,bas-,meudon "s rema9s (        
,reptiles1 ,turtles1 ,crocodiles1       
,mammals1 &1 m lately1 ^? ( a l>ge      
,bird1 exce$+ ! ,o/ri* 9 size1 !        
,ga/ornis1 :i* ,pr(essor ,ow5 classes   
among ! wad+ r ?an among aquatic birds4 
,9 ! ,soissonnais !re is f\nd1 at ! same
 horizon1 a great mass ( lignite1       

enclos+ "s %ells & bones ( ! mo/ anci5t 
,pa*yd]m yet discov]$1 ! ,coryphodon1   
:i* resembles at once bo? ! ,anoplo!rium
 & ! ,pig4 ,! ,sables ,infrieurs1 or    
,bra*eux ,s&s1 =m a m>9e b$ ( great     
?ickness ne> ,beauvais2 !y are          
pr9cipally s&s1 b include b$s (         
calcif]\s clay & banks ( %elly s&/one1 &
 are consid]$ to be old] ?an ! pla/ic   
clay & lignite1 & to correspond ) !     
,?anet ,s&s ( ,engl&4 ,!y are ri* 9     
%ells1 includ+ _m ,nummulites4 ,at ,la  
,fre1 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,aisne1 a fossil
 skull ( ,arctocyon primvus1 suppos$ to 
be relat$ bo? to ! ,be> & to ! ,k9kaj\1 
& to be ! olde/ kn[n ,t]ti>y ,mammal1 0 
f\nd 9 a deposit ( ?is age4 ,?is s]ies  
seems to h be5 =m$ *iefly 9 fre% wat]4  
,! ,calcaire grossi]1 consi/+ ( m>9e    
lime/ones ( v>i\s k9ds1 & ) a co>se1    
sometimes compact1 gra91 is suitable =  
mason-"w4 ,^! deposits1 :i* =m ! mo/    
*>act]i/ic memb] ( ! ,p>is bas91        
naturally divide !mselves into ?ree     
gr\ps ( /rata1 *>act]is$1 ! fir/1 by    

,nummulites2 ! second by ,miliolites2 & 
! ?ird or upp] b$s by ,c]i?ia4 ,! b$s   
are also sometimes nam$ ,nummulite      
lime/one1 ,miliolite lime/one1 &        
,c]i?ium lime/one4 ,above ^! a great    
mass1 g5]ally s&y1 is develop$4 ,x is   
m>9e at ! base1 & !re are indications ( 
bracki% wat] 9 its upp] p>ts2 x is call$
 ,beau*amp ,s&/one1 or ,sables ,moy5s   
7,grs de ,beau*amp74 ,^! s&s are v ri* 9
 %ells4 ,! silice\s lime/one1 or l[]    
trav]t91 is a compact silice\s lime/one 
ext5d+ ov] a wide area1 & resembles a   
precipitate f m9]al wat]s4 ,! gypse\s   
=mation consi/s ( a long s]ies ( m>ly & 
argillace\s b$s1 ( a greyi%1 gre51 or   
:ite col\r1 9 ! int]vals betwe5 :i* a   
?ick deposit ( gypsum1 or sulphate (    
lime1 is int]calat$4 ,?is gypsum b$ is  
f\nd 9 its greate/ ?ickness 9 ,france at
 ,montm>tre & ,pant9 ne> ,p>is4 ,!      
=mation ( ?is gypsum is probably due to 
! action ( free sulphuric acid ^u !     
c>bonate ( lime ( ! =mation2 ! sulphuric
 acid itself be+ produc$ by !           

trans=mation ( ! gase\s masses (        
sulphurett$ hydrog5 emanat+ f volcanic  
v5ts1 into t acid1 by ! action ( air &  
wat]4 ,x 01 z we h already said1 9 !    
gypsum-qu>ries ( ,montm>tre t ! num]\s  
bones ( ,palo!rium & ,anoplo!rium 7     
f\nd4 ,x is exclusively at ?is horizon t
 we f9d ! rema9s ( ^! animals1 :i* seem 
to h be5 prec$$ by ! ,coryphodon1 &     
aft]w>ds by ! ,lophiodon2 ! ord] (      
succession 9 ! appe>ance ( ^! animals is
 n[ p]fectly e/abli%$4 ,x may be add$ t 
r\nd ,p>is ! ,eoc5e =mation1 f its l[e/ 
b$s to ! highe/1 is compos$ ( b$s (     
pla/ic clay1 ( ! ,calcaire grossi] ) its
 ,nummulites1 ,miliolites1 &            
,alveolites1 foll[$ by ! gypse\s        
=mation2 ! s]ies t]m9at+ 9 !            
,fonta9ebleau ,s&/one1 rem>kable = its  
?ickness & also = its f9e sc5]y1 z well 
z = its usefulness 9 furni%+ pav+-/one =
 ! capital4 ,9 ,prov5ce ! same s]ies (  
rocks are cont9u$1 & atta9 an enorm\s   
?ickness4 ,?is upp] "p ( ! ,eoc5e       
deposit is entirely ( lacu/r9e =mation4 

,grignon has procur$ f a s+le spot1 :]e 
!y 7 emb$d$ 9 a calc>e\s s&1 no less ?an
 #djj fossils1 *iefly =m$ ( comm9ut$    
%ells1 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 7 well-pres]v$     
species bo? ( m>9e1 t]re/rial1 &        
fre%-wat] %ells4 ,( ! ,p>is bas91 ,sir  
,*>les ,lyell says3 8,no?+ is m /rik+ 9 
?is assemblage ( fossil te/acea ?an !   
great proportion ( species ref]able to !
 g5us ,c]i?ium4 ,!re occur no less ?an  
#acg species ( ?is g5us 9 ! ,p>is bas91 
& almo/ all ( !m 9 ! ,calcaire grossi]4 
,mo/ ( ! liv+ ,c]i?ia 7,figs4 #aeg &    
#afh7 inhabit ! sea ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s1 
:]e ! wat]s are bracki%2 s t _!         
abundance 9 ! m>9e /rata n[ "u          
consid]ation is 9 h>mony ) ! hypo!sis t 
! ,p>is bas9 =m$ a gulf into :i* sev]al 
riv]s fl[$40#hh    #hh 8,elem5ts (      
,geology10 p4 #cjj4  ,to give ! read] "s
 idea ( ! =mation1 fir/ come ! lime/ones
 & l[] m>ls1 :i* conta9 f9e lignite or  
wood-coal produc$ f vegetable matt]     
buri$ 9 moi/ e>?1 & exclud$ f all access
 ( air1 a mat]ial :i* is work$ 9 "s p>ts

 ( ! s\? ( ,france z actively z a       
coal-m9e4 ,9 ^! lignites ,anodon & o!r  
fre%-wat] %ells are f\nd4  ,f ! base (  
,sa9te-,victoire to ! o!r side ( ,aix1  
we trace a conglom]ate *>act]is$ by its 
r$ col\r1 b :i* dies away 9 its         
prolongation we/w>d4 ,?is conglom]ate   
conta9s l&-snails 7,helix7 ( v>i\s      
sizes1 mix$ ) fre%-wat] %ells4 ,^u ?is  
conglom]ate1 compris+ !re9 ! m>ls1 re/s 
a ?ick deposit ( lime/one ) ! gypsum (  
,aix & ,manosque1 :i* is believ$ to     
correspond ) t ( ,p>is4 ,"s ( ! b$s are 
rem>kably ri* 9 sulphur4 ,! calc>e\s    
m>ly lam9 :i* accompany ! gypsum ( ,aix 
conta9 ,insects ( v>i\s k9ds1 & ,fi%es  
resembl+ ,lebias cephalotes4 ,f9ally1 ! 
:ole t]m9ates at ,manosque 9 a fre%     
s]ies ( m>ls & s&/ones1 alt]nat+ ) b$s (
 lime/one ) ,limna & ,planorbis4 ,at !  
base ( ?is s]ies are f\nd ?ree or f\r   
b$s ( lignite m inflammable ?an coal1   
:i* also give out a v sulphur\s oil4 ,we
 may =m "s e/imate ( ! ?ickness ( ?is   
la/ /age1 if we add t1 above ! b$s (    

fusible lignite1 we may reckon sixty    
o!rs ( dry lignite1 "s ( !m capable (   
be+ v pr(itably work$ if ?is "p (       
,prov5ce 7 provid$ ) m conv5i5t roads4  
8,! ,nummulitic =mation1 ) its          
*>act]i/ic fossils10 says ,lyell1#hi    
8plays a f> m conspicu\s "p ?an any o!r 
,t]ti>y gr\p 9 ! solid framework ( !    
e>?'s cru/1 :e!r 9 ,europe1 ,asia1 or   
,africa4 ,x (t5 atta9s a ?ickness ( _m  
?\s& feet1 & ext5ds f ! ,alps to !      
,c>pa?ians1 & is 9 full =ce 9 ! nor? (  
,africa1 z1 = example1 9 ,alg]ia &      
,morocco4 ,x has be5 trac$ f ,egypt1 :]e
 x 0 l>gely qu>ri$ ( old = ! build+ ( ! 
,pyramids1 into ,asia ,m9or1 & across   
,p]sia1 by ,bagdad1 to ! m\? ( ! ,indus4
 ,x occurs n only 9 ,cut*1 b 9 ! m\nta9 
ranges :i* sep>ate ,sc9de f ,p]sia1 &   
:i* =m ! passes lead+ to ,cab\l2 & x has
 be5 foll[$ /ill fur!r ea/w>d into      
,india1 z f> z ea/]n ,b5gal & ! fronti]s
 ( ,*9a40    #hi ,ibid41 p4 #cje4  8,:5 
we h once arriv$ at ! conclusion10 he   
adds1 8t ! ,nummulitic =mation occupies 

a middle place 9 ! ,eoc5e s]ies1 we are 
/ruck ) ! comp>atively mod]n date to :i*
 "s ( ! greate/ revolutions 9 ! physical
 geography ( ,europe1 ,asia1 & nor!rn   
,africa mu/ be ref]r$4 ,all ! m\nta9    
*a9s1 su* z ! ,alps1 ,pyr5ees1          
,c>pa?ians1 & ,himalayas1 into !        
composition ( ^: c5tral & l(tie/ p>ts ! 
,nummulitic /rata ent] bodily1 c\ld h _h
 no exi/5ce till aft] ! ,middle ,eoc5e  
p]iod40  ,! ,eoc5e /rata1 ,pr(essor     
,ramsay ?9ks1 ext5d$ 9 _! day mu* fur!r 
we/1 8because10 he says1 8"h1 at !      
extreme edge ( ! *alk esc>pm5ts1 y f9d  
outly+ fragm5ts ( !m10 f :i* he argues t
 !y 7 orig9ally deposit$ all ov] ! ,*alk
 z f> z ^! po9ts1 b be+ =m$ ( s(t /rata 
!y 7 8d5ud$0 backw>ds4  ,! ,belopt]a    
repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #aie are curi\s       
,belemnite-l organisms1 occurr+ 9       
,t]ti>y /rata1 & evid5tly ! int]nal bone
 ( a ,cephalopod1 hav+ a w+-l projection
 or process on ea* side4 ,z a g5us x    
holds a place int]m$iate betwe5 !       
,cuttle-fi% & ! ,belemnite4             

,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--;,c]i?ium    
telescopium4  7,liv+ =m47   ,,! ,,mioc5e
 ,,p]iod4  ,! ,mioc5e =mation is n      
pres5t 9 ,engl&2 unless we suppose1 )   
,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 t x is repres5t$ by 
! ,hemp/ead b$s ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4  ,x 
is on ! ,european cont95t t we f9d ! mo/
 /rik+ *>act]i/ics ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,9
 our own isl&s traces ( x are few & f>  
betwe54 ,9 ! ,isl& ( ,mull c]ta9 b$s (  
%ale1 int]/ratifi$ ) basalt & volcanic  
a%1 are describ$ by ! ,duke ( ,argyll z 
( ,mioc5e date2#ij & ,mioc5e clay is    
f\nd int]/ratifi$ ) b&s ( imp]fect coal 
at ,bovey ,tracey4 ,! vegetation :i*    
di/+ui%$ ! p]iod is a mixture ( !       
vegetable =ms peculi> to ! burn+ climate
 ( ! pres5t tropical ,africa1 ) su* z n[
 gr[ 9 temp]ate ,europe1 su* z ,palms1  
,bamboos1 v>i\s k9ds ( ,laurels1        
,combretace 7,t]m9alia71 ) ! gr&        
,legum9ales ( w>m c\ntries 7z           
,phaseolites1 ,ery?r9a1 ,bauh9ia1       
,mimosites1 ,acacia72 ,apocyne analog\s 
to ! g5]a ( our tropical regions2 a     

,rubiacea altoge!r tropical 7,/e9hau]a7 
m+le ) "s ,maples1 ,walnut-trees1       
,bee*es1 ,elms1 ,oaks1 & ,wy*-elms1 g5]a
 n[ conf9$ to temp]ate & ev5 cold       
c\ntries4    #ij ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal (     
,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 vii41 p4 #hi4        
,besides ^!1 !re 71 dur+ ! ,mioc5e      
p]iod1 mosses1 mu%rooms1 *>as1          
fig-trees1 plane-trees1 popl>s1 &       
ev]gre5s4 8,dur+ ! second p]iod ( !     
,t]ti>y epo*10 says ,lecoq1 8! ,alg &   
m>9e ,monocotyl$ons 7 less abundant ?an 
9 ! prec$+ age2 ! ,f]ns also dim9i%$1 ! 
mass ( ,conif]s 7 r$uc$1 & ! ,palms     
multipli$ 9 species4 ,"s ( ^? cit$ 9 !  
prec$+ p]iod seem /ill to belong to ?is1
 & ! magnific5t ,flabell>ia1 ) ! f9e    
,phnicites1 :i* we see n[ = ! fir/ "t1  
gave animation to ! l&scape4 ,among !   
,conif]s "s new g5]a appe>2 among !m we 
di/+ui% ,podoc>p5s1 a s\!rn =m (        
vegetation ( ! pres5t age4 ,almo/ all ! 
arboresc5t families h _! repres5tatives 
9 ! =e/s ( ?is p]iod1 :]e = ! fir/ "t   
types s diff]5t are unit$4 ,! wat]s are 

cov]$ ) ,nympha ,ari?na 7,brongni>t72 & 
) ,myriophyllites capillifolius 7,ung]72
 ,culmites animalis 7,brongni>t72 & ,c4 
,gpp]ti 7,mun/]71 spr+ up 9 pr(usion ^u 
_! banks1 & ! gr& ,bambus9ites sepultana
 ?r[s ! %ad[ ( its long articulat$ /em  
across !m4 ,"s analog\s species occupy !
 banks ( ! great riv]s ( ! ,new ,_w2 "o 
,umbellif]a is ev5 indicat$1 by ,ung]1 9
 ! ,pimp9ellites zizioides4  ,( ?is     
p]iod date "s b$s ( lignite result+ f ! 
accumulation1 = ages1 ( all ^! diff]5t  
trees4 ,x seems t arboresc5t vegetation 
_h !n atta9$ its apogee4 ,"s ,smilacites
 int]lac$ l ! wild v9es ) ^! gr& plants1
 :i* fell on ! gr\nd :]e !y grew1 f     
decay2 "s p>ts ( ! e>?1 ev5 n[1 exhibit 
^! gr& sc5es ( vegetation4 ,!y h be5    
describ$ by travell]s :o h trav]s$ !    
tropical regions1 :]e ,nature (t5       
displays ! utmo/ luxury1 "u ! scre5 (   
cl\ds :i* does n all[ ! rays ( ! sun to 
rea* ! e>?4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny cites an    
int]e/+ in/ance :i* is mu* to ! po9t4   
8,i h rea*$ a zone10 he says 7speak+ (  

,rio ,*apura 9 ,s\? ,am]ica71 8:]e x    
ra9s regul>ly all ! ye> r\nd4 ,we c     
sc>cely p]ceive ! rays ( ! sun1 at      
int]vals1 ?r\gh ! scre5 ( cl\ds :i*     
almo/ con/antly veils x4 ,?is           
circum/ance1 add$ to ! heat1 gives an   
extraord9>y developm5t to ! vegetation4 
,! wild v9es fall on all sides1 9 g>l&s1
 f ! l(tie/ bran*es ( trees ^: summits  
are lo/ 9 ! cl\ds40  ,! fossil species (
 ?is p]iod1 to ! numb] ( #acc1 beg9 to  
resemble ^? :i* enri* our l&scapes4     
,already tropical plants are associat$ )
 ! vegetables ( temp]ate climates2 b !y 
are n yet ! same z exi/+ species4 ,oaks 
gr[ side by side ) ,palms1 ! ,bir* )    
,bamboos1 ,elms ) ,laurels1 ! ,maples   
are unit$ to ! ,combretace1 to !        
,legum9ales1 & to ! tropical ,rubiace4  
,! =ms ( ! species1 belong+ to temp]ate 
climates1 are r ,am]ican ?an ,european4 
,! luxuriance & div]sity ( ! ,mioc5e    
flora has be5 employ$ by a ,g]man savant
 9 id5tify+ & classify+ ! ,middle       
,t]ti>y or ,mioc5e /rata ( ,switz]l&4   

,we are indebt$ to ,pr(essor ,he]1 (    
,zuri*1 = ! re/oration ( m ?an #ijj     
species ( plants1 :i* he classifi$ &    
illu/rat$ 9 8 8,flora ,t]ti>ia          
,helveti40 ,9 ord] to appreciate ! value
 ( ! le>n$ ,pr(essor's und]tak+1 x is   
only necess>y to rem>k t1 :]e ,cuvi] _h 
to /udy ! position & "* ( a bone1 !     
botani/ _h to /udy ! outl9e1 n]vation1 &
 microscopic /ructure ( a leaf4 ,l !    
great ,fr5* naturali/1 he _h to con/ruct
 a new sci5ce at ! v outset ( 8 great   
"w4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--;,&rias 
,s*eu*z]i4  ,! ,mioc5e =mations (       
,switz]l& are call$ ,molasse 7f ! ,fr5* 
mol1 s(t71 a t]m :i* is appli$ to a s(t1
 incoh]5t1 gre5i% s&/one1 occupy+ !     
c\ntry betwe5 ! ,alps & ! ,jura1 & !y   
may be divid$ into l[]1 middle1 & upp]  
,mioc5e2 ! middle "o is m>9e1 ! o!r two 
be+ fre%-wat] =mations4 ,! upp]         
fre%-wat] ,molasse is be/ se5 at n+51 9 
! ,rh9e valley1 :]e1 accord+ to ,sir    
,rod]ick ,mur*ison1 x ranges t5 miles   
ea/ & we/ f ,b]l+51 on ! "r bank1 to    

,waug5 & to n+51 ne> ,/e91 on ! left    
bank4 ,9 ?is =mation ,pr(essor ,he]     
enum]ates tw5ty-"o b$s4 ,no4 #a1 a      
blui%-grey m>l sev5 feet ?ick1 )\t      
organic rema9s1 re/+ on ,no4 #b1        
lime/one1 ) fossil plants1 includ+      
leaves ( popl>1 c9namon1 & pond-we$     
7,potamogeton74 ,no4 #c1 bitum9\s rock1 
) ,ma/odon angu/id5s4 ,no4 #e1 two or   
?ree in*es ?ick1 conta9+ fossil ,fi%es4 
,no4 #i1 ! /one 9 :i* ! skeleton ( !    
great ,salam&] ,&rias ,s*eu*z]i 7,fig4  
#aeh7 0 f\nd4 ,bel[ ?is1 o!r /rata )    
,fi%es1 ,tortoises1 ! great ,salam&]1 z 
be=e1 ) fre%-wat] ,mussels1 & plants4 ,9
 ,no4 #af1 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison obta9$ !  
fossil fox ( n+51 ,galacynus n+5sis     
7,ow574 ,9 ^! b$s ,pr(essor ,he] _h1 z  
e>ly z #ahei1 det]m9$ #dge species (    
fossil plants1 & #ijj insects4  ,!      
plants ( ! ,swiss ,mioc5e p]iod h be5   
obta9$ f a c\ntry n "o-fif? ! size (    
,switz]l&1 yet su* an abundance (       
species1 :i* ,he] reckons at #c1jjj1    
does n exi/ 9 any area ( equal ext5t 9  

,europe4 ,x exce$s 9 v>iety1 he         
consid]s1 aft] mak+ e all[ance = all n  
hav+ exi/$ at ! same "t1 & f o!r        
consid]ations1 ! ,s\!rn ,am]ican =e/s1 &
 rivals su* tropical c\ntries z ,jamaica
 & ,brazil4 ,european plants occupy a   
second>y place1 :ile ! ev]gre5 ,oaks1   
,maples1 ,popl>s1 & ,plane-trees1       
,rob9ias1 & ,taxodiums ( ,am]ica & !    
small] ,atlantic isl&s1 occupy su* an   
important place 9 ! fossil flora t ,ung]
 0 induc$ to sugge/ ! hypo!sis1 t1 9 !  
,mioc5e p]iod ! pres5t bas9 ( !         
,atlantic 0 dry l&--& ?is hypo!sis has  
be5 ably advocat$ by ,he]4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,!       
t]re/rial animals :i* liv$ 9 ! ,mioc5e  
p]iod 7 ,mammals1 ,birds1 & ,reptiles4  
,_m new ,mammals _h appe>$ s9ce ! prec$+
 p]iod2 among o!rs1 ,apes1 ,*eiropt]as  
7,bats71 ,c>nivora1 ,m>supials1 ,rod5ts1
 ,dogs4 ,among ! fir/ we f9d ,pi!cus    
antiquus & ,mesopi!cus2 ! ,bats1 ,dogs1 
& ,coati inhabit$ ,brazil & ,guiana2 !  
,rats ,nor? ,am]ica2 ! ,g5ettes1 !      

,m>mots1 ! ,squirrels1 & ,opossums hav+ 
"s aff9ity to ! ,opossums ( ,am]ica4    
,?ru%es1 ,sp>r[s1 ,/orks1 ,flam+oes1 &  
,cr[s1 repres5t ! class ,birds4 ,among !
 ,reptiles appe> sev]al ,snakes1 ,frogs1
 & ,salam&]s4 ,! lakes & riv]s 7        
inhabit$ by ,p]*es & ,%ad4 ,b x is among
 ! ,mammals t we mu/ seek = ! mo/       
int]e/+ species ( animals ( ?is p]iod4  
,!y are bo? num]\s & rem>kable = _!     
dim5sions & peculi>ities ( =m2 b !      
species :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 z 
9 ^? :i* prec$$ x1 are n[ only kn[n by  
_! fossil rema9s & bones4  ,! ,d9o!rium 
7,fig4 #aei71 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! 
animals1 is ! l>ge/ t]re/rial ,mammal   
:i* has ev] liv$4 ,= a long "t we       
possess$ only v imp]fect portions ( !   
skeleton ( ?is animal1 ^u ! evid5ce (   
:i* ,cuvi] 0 induc$ errone\sly to place 
x among ! ,tapirs4 ,! discov]y ( a l[]  
jaw1 ne>ly p]fect1 arm$ ) def5sive tusks
 desc5d+ f its l[] jaw1 demon/rat$ t ?is
 hi!rto my/]i\s animal 0 ! type ( an    
altoge!r new & s+ul> g5us4 ,nev]!less1 z

 x 0 kn[n t !re 7 "s animals ( ! anci5t 
_w 9 :i* bo? jaws 7 arm$1 x 0 ?\ght = "s
 "t t su* 0 ! case ) ! ,d9o!rium4 ,b 9  
#ahcf1 a head1 ne>ly entire1 0 f\nd 9 ! 
already celebrat$ b$s at ,eppel%eim1 9 !
 ,gr& ,du*y ( ,hesse ,d>m/adt4 ,9 #ahcg 
?is f9e fragm5t 0 c>ri$ to ,p>is1 &     
expos$ to public view4 ,x 0 ne>ly a y>d 
& a half long1 & above a y>d wide4 ,!   
def5ces1 x 0 f\nd1 7 enorm\s1 & 7 c>ri$ 
at ! ant]ior extremity ( ! l[] maxill>y 
bone1 & mu* curv$ inw>ds1 z 9 ! ,morse4 
,! mol> tee? 7 9 _m respects analog\s to
 ^? ( ! ,tapir1 & ! great suborbital    
ap]tures1 jo9$ to ! =m ( ! nasal bone1  
r5d]$ ! exi/5ce ( a proboscis or trunk v
 probable4 ,b ! mo/ rem>kable bone      
belong+ to ! ,d9o!rium :i* has yet be5  
f\nd is an omoplate or scapula1 :i* by  
its =m rem9ds u ( t ( ! ,mole4          
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aei4--;,d9o!rium4  
,?is colossus ( ! anci5t _w1 respect+   
:i* !re has be5 s mu* argum5t1 some:at  
approa*es ! ,ma/odon2 x seems to ann\nce
 ! appe>ance ( ! ,elephant2 b its       

dim5sions 7 inf9itely great] ?an ^? (   
exi/+ ,elephants1 & sup]ior ev5 to ^? ( 
! ,ma/odon & ( ! ,mammo?1 bo? fossil    
,elephants1 ! rema9s ( :i* we %all h to 
describe pres5tly4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 
#afj4--,tee? ( ,ma/odon4  ,f its k9d (  
life1 & its frugal regim51 ?is ,pa*yd]m 
sc>cely m]it$ ! =midable "n ( ,d9o!rium 
:i* has be5 be/[$ on x by naturali/s 7f 
1 t]rible1 1 animal74 ,its size 01 no   
d\bt1 frightful en\gh1 b its habits seem
 to h be5 peaceful4 ,x is suppos$ to h  
inhabit$ fre%-wat] lakes1 or ! m\?s (   
great riv]s & ! m>%es bord]+ _! banks by
 pref]5ce4 ,h]bivor\s1 l ! ,elephant1 x 
employ$ its proboscis probably 9 seiz+ !
 plants :i* hung susp5d$ ov] ! wat]s1 or
 float$ on _! surface4 ,we "k t !       
elephants are v p>tial to ! roots (     
h]bace\s plants :i* gr[ 9 flood$ pla9s4 
,! ,d9o!rium appe>s to h be5 organis$ to
 satisfy ! same ta/es4 ,) ! p[]ful      
natural mattock :i* ,nature _h suppli$  
him = p5etrat+ ! soil1 he w\ld be able  
to te> f ! b$ ( ! riv]1 or lake1 fecul5t

 roots l ^? ( ! ,nympha1 or ev5 mu* h>d]
 ones1 = :i* ! mode ( articulation ( !  
jaws1 & ! p[]ful muscles int5d$ to move 
!m1 z well z ! l>ge surface ( ! tee?1 s 
well calculat$ = gr9d+1 7 evid5tly      
int5d$ 7,fig4 #afj74         99       99
       99       99       99  ,! ,ma/odon
 01 to all appe>ance1 v ne>ly ( ! size &
 =m ( our ,elephant--8 body1 h[ev]1 be+ 
some:at long]1 :ile 8 limbs1 on !       
contr>y1 7 a little ?ick]4 ,he _h tusks1
 & v probably a trunk1 & is *iefly      
di/+ui%$ f ! exi/+ ,elephant by ! =m ( 8
 mol> tee?1 :i* =m ! mo/ di/9ctive "* 9 
8 organisation4 ,^! tee? are ne>ly      
rectangul>1 & pres5t on ! surface ( _!  
cr[n great conical tub]osities1 ) r\nd$ 
po9ts dispos$ 9 pairs to ! numb] ( f\r  
or five1 accord+ to ! species4 ,_! =m is
 v di/9ct1 & may be easily recognis$4   
,!y d n be> any resemblance to ^? ( !   
c>nivora1 b are l ^? ( h]bivor\s        
animals1 & p>ticul>ly ^? ( !            
,hippopotamus4 ,! mol> tee? are at fir/ 
%>p & po9t$1 b :5 ! conical po9ts are   

gr\nd d[n by ma/ication1 !y assume !    
appe>ance pres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #afa4 ,:51 f  
cont9u$ gr9d+1 ! conical teat-l po9ts   
are m deeply worn1 !y beg9 to assume !  
appe>ance %[n 9 ,fig4 #afj4 ,9 ,fig4    
#afb we repres5t ! head & l[] jaw ( !   
,mioc5e ,ma/odon2 f :i* x w appe> t !   
animal _h two project+ tusks 9 ! l[]    
jaw1 correspond+ ) two ( mu* l>g]       
dim5sions :i* project$ f ! upp] jaw4    
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afa4--,mol> tee? ( 
,ma/odon1 worn4  ,x 0 only t[>ds !      
middle ( ! la/ c5tury t ! ,ma/odon fir/ 
attract$ att5tion 9 ,europe4 ,ab\t ! ye>
 #agje1 x is true1 "s bones ( ?is animal
 _h be5 f\nd at ,albany1 n[ ! capital ( 
,new ,york1 b ! discov]y attract$ little
 att5tion4 ,9 #agci1 a ,fr5* (fic]1 ,m4 
de ,longueil1 trav]s$ ! virg9 =e/s      
bord]+ ! great riv] ,ohio1 9 ord] to    
rea* ! great riv] ,mississippi1 & !     
savages :o escort$ him accid5tally      
discov]$ on ! bord]s ( a m>% v>i\s      
bones1 "s ( :i* seem$ to be ^? ( unkn[n 
animals4 ,9 ?is turfy m>%1 :i* ! natives

 designat$ ! ,great ,salt ,lake1 9      
consequ5ce ( ! _m /reams *>g$ ) salt :i*
 lose !mselves 9 x1 h]ds ( wild rum9ants
 /ill seek its banks1 attract$ by !     
salt--= :i* !y h a great fondness--su*  
be+ ! reason probably :i* _h caus$ !    
accumulation1 at ?is po9t1 ( ! rema9s ( 
s l>ge a numb] ( quadrup$s belong+ to ^!
 remote ages 9 ! hi/ory ( ! globe4 ,m4  
de ,longueil c>ri$ "s ( ^! bones ) him1 
&1 on 8 return to ,france1 he pres5t$ !m
 to ,daub5ton & ,buffon2 !y consi/$ ( a 
femur1 "o extremity ( a tusk1 & ?ree    
mol> tee?4 ,daub5ton1 aft] mature       
exam9ation1 decl>$ ! tee? to be ^? ( a  
,hippopotamus2 ! tusk & ! gigantic      
femur1 accord+ to 8 report1 belong$ to  
an ,elephant2 s t !y 7 n ev5 consid]$ to
 be p>ts ( "o & ! same animal4 ,buffon  
did n %>e ?is op9ion1 & he 0 n long 9   
conv]t+ ,daub5ton1 z well z o!r ,fr5*   
naturali/s1 to 8 views4 ,buffon decl>$ t
 ! bones belong$ to an ,elephant1 ^:    
race _h liv$ only 9 ! primitive ages ( !
 globe4 ,x 0 !n1 only1 t ! fundam5tal   

notion ( ext9ct species ( animals1      
exclusively peculi> to anci5t ages ( !  
_w1 began to be ent]ta9$ = ! fir/ "t by 
naturali/s--a notion :i* laid dormant   
dur+ ne>ly a c5tury1 be=e x bore !      
admirable fruits :i* h s9ce s enri*$ !  
natural sci5ces & philosophy4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afb4--;,head ( !   
,ma/odon ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod4  ,a1 ,b1 !  
:ole head2 ,c1 l[] jaw4  ,buffon gave ! 
fossil ! "n ( ! ,animal or ,elephant ( !
 ,ohio1 b he deceiv$ himself z to its   
size1 believ+ x to be f six to eight    
times ! size ( our exi/+ ,elephant2 an  
e/imate :i* he 0 l$ to make by an       
errone\s notion ) reg>d to ! numb] ( !  
,elephant's tee?4 ,! ,animal ( ! ,ohio  
_h only f\r mol>s1 :ile ,buffon imag9$ t
 x might h z _m z sixte51 conf\nd+ !    
g]ms1 or supplem5t>y tee?1 :i* exi/ 9 ! 
"y animal1 ) ! p]man5t tee? ( ! adult   
individual4 ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 !        
,ma/odon 0 n mu* l>g] ?an ! exi/+       
species ( ,african ,elephant4  ,!       
discov]y ( ?is animal _h produc$ a great

 impression 9 ,europe4 ,becom+ ma/]s (  
,canada by ! peace ( #agfc1 ! ,engli%   
s\ght eag]ly = m ( ^! preci\s rema9s4 ,!
 geograph] ,croghan trav]s$ anew !      
region ( ! ,great ,salt ,lake1 po9t$ out
 by ,de ,longueil1 & f\nd !re "s bones (
 ! same nature4 ,9 #agfg he =w>d$ _m    
cases to ,london1 address+ !m to div]s  
naturali/s4 ,coll9son1 among o!rs1 !    
fri5d & correspond5t ( ,frankl91 :o _h 8
 %>e 9 ?is consignm5t1 took !           
opportunity ( s5d+ a mol> too? to       
,buffon4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#afc4--,skeleton ( ,ma/odon giganteus4  
,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 till #ahja t ! rema9s ( !
 p]fect skeleton 7 discov]$4 ,an        
,am]ican naturali/1 nam$ ,peale1 0      
=tunate en\gh to get toge!r two ne>ly   
complete skeletons ( ?is important      
animal4 ,hav+ be5 appris$ t _m l>ge     
bones _h be5 f\nd 9 ! m>ly clay on !    
banks ( ! ,hudson1 ne> ,newburg1 9 !    
,/ate ( ,new ,york1 ,mr4 ,peale proce$$ 
to t locality4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #ahja a      
consid]able "p ( "o skeleton 0 f\nd by !

 f>m] :o _h dug x out ( ! gr\nd1 b1     
un=tunately1 x 0 mu* mutilat$ by 8      
awkw>dness1 & by ! precipitancy ( !     
workm54 ,hav+ pur*as$ ^! fragm5ts1 ,mr4 
,peale s5t !m on to ,philadelphia4      
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afd4--,ma/odon     
re/or$4  ,9 a m>%1 situat$ five leagues 
we/ ( ! ,hudson1 ! same g5tleman        
discov]$1 six mon?s aft]1 a second      
skeleton ( ! ,ma/odon1 consi/+ ( a      
p]fect jaw & a great numb] ( bones4 ,) !
 bones ?us collect$1 ! naturali/ manag$ 
to con/ruct two ne>ly complete          
skeletons4 ,"o ( ^! /ill rema9s 9 !     
,museum ( ,philadelphia2 ! o!r 0 s5t to 
,london1 :]e x 0 exhibit$ publicly4     
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afe4--,mol> too? ( 
,ma/odon4  ,discov]ies ne>ly analog\s to
 ^! foll[$1 ! mo/ curi\s ( :i* 0 made 9 
?is mann] by ,mr4 ,b>ton1 a ,pr(essor ( 
! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,at a dep? 
( six feet 9 ! gr\nd1 & "u a great bank 
( *alk1 bones ( ! ,ma/odon 7 f\nd       
suffici5t to =m a skeleton4 ,"o ( ! tee?
 f\nd weigh$ ab\t sev5te5 p\nds 7,fig4  

#afe72 b ! circum/ance :i* made ?is     
discov]y ! m rem>kable 01 t 9 ! middle (
 ! bones1 & envelop$ 9 a k9d ( sac :i* 0
 probably ! /oma* ( ! animal1 a mass (  
vegetable matt] 0 discov]$1 p>tly       
bruis$1 & compos$ ( small leaves &      
bran*es1 among :i* a species ( ru% has  
be5 recognis$ :i* is yet common 9       
,virg9ia4 ,we _c d\bt t ^! 7 ! undige/$ 
rema9s ( ! food1 :i* ! animal _h br[s$  
on j be=e its dea?4  ,! aborig9al       
natives ( ,nor? ,am]ica call$ ! ,ma/odon
 ! fa!r ( ! ox4 ,a ,fr5* (fic] nam$     
,fabri wrote ?us to ,buffon 9 #agdh4 ,! 
natives ( ,canada & ,l\isiana1 :]e ^!   
rema9s are abundant1 speak ( ! ,ma/odon 
z a fanta/ic creature :i* m+les 9 all _!
 traditions & 9 _! anci5t national      
songs4 ,"h is "o ( ^! songs1 :i* ,fabri 
he>d 9 ,canada3 8,:5 ! great ,manit\    
desc5d$ to ! e>?1 9 ord] to satisfy     
himself t ! creatures he _h creat$ 7    
happy1 he int]rogat$ all ! animals4 ,!  
bison repli$ t he w\ld be q cont5t$ ) 8 
fate 9 ! grassy mead[s1 :]e ! grass     

rea*$ 8 belly1 if he 7 n also compell$  
to keep 8 eyes con/antly turn$ t[>ds !  
m\nta9s to cat* ! fir/ sight ( ! fa!r ( 
ox51 z he desc5d$1 ) fury1 to dev\r him 
& 8 companions40  ,! ,*ey5ne ,indians h 
a tradition t ^! great animals liv$ 9   
=m] times1 conjo9tly ) a race ( m5 ^:   
size 0 proportionate to _! own1 b t !   
,great ,be+ de/roy$ bo? by repeat$      
/rokes ( 8 t]rible ?und]bolts4  ,!      
native ,indians ( ,virg9ia _h ano!r     
leg5d4 ,z ^! gigantic ,elephants de/roy$
 all o!r animals specially creat$ to    
supply ! wants ( ! ,indians1 ,god1 !    
?und]]1 de/roy$ !m2 a s+le "o only      
succe$$ 9 escap+4 ,x 0 8! great male1   
:i* pres5t$ its head to ! ?und]bolts &  
%ook !m (f z !y fell2 b be+ at l5g?     
w\nd$ 9 ! side1 he took to flight t[>ds 
! great lakes1 :]e he rema9s hidd5 to   
?is day40 ,all ^! simple fictions prove1
 at lea/1 t ! ,ma/odon has liv$ ^u ! e>?
 at "s n v di/ant p]iod4 ,we %all see1 9
 fact1 t x 0 contemporane\s ) ! ,mammo?1
 :i*1 x is n[ suppos$1 may h be5        

co-exi/5t ) ! e>li] races ( mank9d1 or  
only prec$$ a little ! appe>ance ( man4 
,buffon1 z we h said1 gave to ?is great 
fossil animal ! "n ( ! ,elephant ( !    
,ohio2 x has also be5 call$ ! ,mammo? ( 
! ,ohio4 ,9 ,engl& x 0 receiv$ )        
a/oni%m5t4 ,dr4 ,hunt] %[$ cle>ly en\gh1
 f ! ?igh-bone & ! tee?1 t x 0 no       
,elephant2 b hav+ he>d ( ! exi/5ce ( !  
,sib]ian ,mammo?1 he at once came to !  
conclusion t !y 7 bones ( t animal4 ,he 
!n decl>$ ! tee? to be c>nivor\s1 & !   
idea ( a c>nivor\s elephant became "o ( 
! wond]s ( ! day4 ,cuvi] at once        
dissipat$ ! cl\ds ( d\bt :i* surr\nd$ ! 
subject1 po9t+ out ! o/eological        
diff]5ces betwe5 ! sev]al species1 &    
giv+ to ! ,am]ican animal ! appropriate 
"n ( ,ma/odon 7f 1 a teat1 & 1 a too?71 
or teat-l-too!d animal4  ,_m bones ( !  
,ma/odon h be5 f\nd 9 ,am]ica s9ce t "t1
 b rema9s are r>ely met ) 9 ,europe1    
except z fragm5ts--z ! portion ( a      
jaw-bone discov]$ 9 ! ,r$ ,crag ne>     
,norwi*1 :i* ,pr(essor ,ow5 has nam$    

,ma/odon angu/id5s4 ,x 0 ev5 ?\ght1 = a 
long "t1 ) ,cuvi]1 t ! ,ma/odon belong$ 
exclusively to ! ,new ,_w2 b ! discov]y 
( _m ( ! bones mix$ ) ^? ( ! ,mammo?1   
7,elephas primig5ius7 has dispell$ t    
op9ion4 ,bones ( ,ma/odon h be5 f\nd 9  
great numb]s 9 ! ,val d',arno4 ,9 #aheh 
a magnific5t skeleton 0 discov]$ at     
,tur94  ,! =m ( ! tee? ( ! ,ma/odon %[s 
t x f$1 l ! ,elephant1 on ! roots &     
succul5t p>ts ( vegetables2 & ?is is    
confirm$ by ! curi\s discov]y made 9    
,am]ica by ,b>ton4 ,x liv$1 no d\bt1 on 
! banks ( riv]s & on moi/ & m>%y l&s4   
,besides ! great ,ma/odon ( :i* we h    
spok51 !re exi/$ a ,ma/odon "o-?ird     
small] ?an ! ,elephant1 & :i* inhabit$  
ne>ly all ,europe4  ,!re are "s curi\s  
hi/orical facts 9 connection ) ! rema9s 
( ! ,ma/odon :i* ought n to be pass$ ov]
 9 sil5ce4 ,on ! #aa? ( ,janu>y1 #afac1 
! workm5 9 a s&-pit situat$ ne> ! ,ca/le
 ( ,*aumont1 9 ,dauph9y1 betwe5 ! cities
 ( ,montric\rt & ,sa9t-,anto9e1 on !    
left bank ( ! ,rhne1 f\nd "s bones1 _m (

 :i* 7 brok5 up by !m4 ,^! bones belong$
 to "s great fossil ,mammal1 b ! exi/5ce
 ( su* animals 0 at t "t :olly unkn[n4  
,in=m$ ( ! discov]y1 a c\ntry surgeon   
nam$ ,mazuy] pur*as$ ! bones1 & gave out
 t he _h himself discov]$ !m 9 a tomb1  
?irty feet long by fifte5 broad1 built (
 bricks1 ^u :i* he f\nd ! inscription   
,,teutoboc*us ,,rex4 ,he add$ t1 9 !    
same tomb1 he f\nd half a hundr$ m$als  
be>+ ! effigy ( ,m>ius4 ,?is            
,teutoboc*us 0 a b>b>ian k+1 :o invad$  
,gaul at ! head ( ! ,cimbri1 & :o 0     
vanqui%$ ne> ,aqu ,sexti 7,aix 9        
,prov5ce7 by ,m>ius1 :o c>ri$ him to    
,rome to grace 8 triumphal procession4  
,9 ! notice :i* he publi%$ 9            
confirmation ( ?is /ory1 ,mazuy] rem9d$ 
! public t1 accord+ to ! te/imony (     
,roman au?ors1 ! head ( ! ,teuton k+    
exce$$ 9 dim5sions all ! trophies borne 
^u ! lances 9 ! triumph4 ,! skeleton :i*
 he exhibit$ 0 five-&-tw5ty feet 9 l5g? 
& t5 broad4  ,mazuy] %[$ ! skeleton ( ! 
pret5d$ ,teutoboc*us 9 all ! cities (   

,france & ,g]many1 & also to ,l\is      
,,xiii41 :o took great int]e/ 9         
contemplat+ ?is m>vel4 ,x gave rise to a
 long controv]sy1 or r an int]m9able    
dispute1 9 :i* ! anatomi/ ,riolan       
di/+ui%$ himself--argu+ aga9/ ,habicot1 
a physician1 ^: "n is all b =gott54     
,riolan attempt$ to prove t ! bones ( ! 
pret5d$ k+ 7 ^? ( an ,elephant4 ,num]\s 
pamphlets 7 ex*ang$ by ! two adv]s>ies1 
9 support ( _! respective op9ions4 ,we  
le>n also f ,gass5di1 t a ,jesuit (     
,t\rnon1 nam$ ,jacques ,tissot1 0 !     
au?or ( ! notice publi%$ by ,mazuy]4    
,gass5di also proves t ! pret5d$ m$als (
 ,m>ius 7 =g]ies1 on ! gr\nd t !y bore  
,go?ic *>act]s4 ,x seems v /range t ^!  
bones1 :i* are /ill pres]v$ 9 ! cases ( 
! ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ,p>is1   
:]e anybody may see !m1 %\ld ev] h be5  
mi/ak51 = a s+le mom5t1 = human rema9s4 
,! skeleton ( ,teutoboc*us rema9$ at    
,bordeaux till #ahcb1 :5 x 0 s5t to !   
,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ,p>is1 :]e 
,m4 de ,bla9ville decl>$ t x belong$ to 

a ,ma/odon4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4        
#aff4--,skeleton ( ,mesopi!cus4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afg4--,mesopi!cus  
re/or$4 ,"o-fif? natural size4  ,! ,apes
 made _! appe>ance at ?is p]iod4 ,9 !   
ossif]\s b$s ( ,sansan ,m4 ,l>tet       
discov]$ ! ,dryopi!cus1 z well z ,pi!cus
 antiquus1 b only 9 imp]fect fragm5ts4  
,m4 ,alb]t ,gaudry 0 m =tunate3 9 !     
,mioc5e rocks ( ,pik]mi1 9 ,greece1 he  
discov]$ ! entire skeleton (            
,mesopi!cus1 :i* we pres5t "h 7,fig4    
#aff71 toge!r ) ! same animal re/or$    
7,fig4 #afg74 ,9 its g5]al organisation 
x resembles ! dog-fac$ baboon or ape1 a 
piece ( in=mation :i* has guid$ ! arti/ 
9 ! re/oration ( ! animal4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,! seas (
 ! ,mioc5e p]iod 7 inhabit$ by great    
numb]s ( be+s altoge!r unkn[n 9 e>li]   
=mations2 we may m5tion no less ?an     
n9ety m>9e g5]a :i* appe> "h = ! fir/   
"t1 & "s ( :i* h liv$ d[n to our epo*4  
,among ^!1 ! mollusc\s ,ga/]opods1 su* z
 ,conus1 ,turb9ella1 ,ranella1 ,murex   

7,fig4 #afi71 & ,dolium are ! mo/       
abundant2 ) _m ,lamellibran*iata4       
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,c]i?ium    
plicatum4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#afi4--,murex ,turon5sis4  ,illu/ration3
 ,fig4 #agj4--,o/rea longiro/ris4 ,"o   
qu>t] natural size4  ,liv+ =m4  ,!      
,=am9if]a are also repres5t$ by new     
g5]a1 among :i* are ! ,boliv9a1         
,poly/omella1 & ,d5trit9a4  ,f9ally1 !  
,cru/aceans include ! g5]a ,pagurus 7or 
! ,h]mit crabs72 ,a/acus4 7! lob/]72 &  
,portunus 7or paddl+ crabs74 ,( ! fir/1 
x is d\btful if any fossil species h be5
 f\nd2 ( ! la/1 species h be5 discov]$  
be>+ "s resemblance to ,podoph?almus    
vigil1 z ,p4 ,defrancii1 :i* only diff]s
 f x 9 ! abs5ce ( ! %>p sp9es :i*       
t]m9ate ! lat]al angles ( ! c>apace 9 ! 
=m]2 :ile ,portunus leucodon 7,desm>e/7 
be>s "s analogy to ,lupea4              
,illu/ration3 ,,xxiv4--,ideal ,l&scape (
 ! ,mioc5e ,p]iod4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #aga4--,podoph?almus vigil4  ,an  

ideal l&scape ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 :i* is 
giv5 on ! opposite page 7,,plate        
,,xxiv471 repres5ts ! ,d9o!rium ly+ 9 ! 
m>%y grass1 ! ,rh9oc]os1 ! ,ma/odon1 &  
an ,ape ( great size1 ! ,dryopi!cus1    
hang+ f ! bran*es ( a tree4 ,! products 
( ! vegetable k+dom are1 = ! great] "p1 
analog\s to ^? ( ! pres5t "t4 ,!y are   
rem>kable = _! abundance1 & = _!        
graceful & s]ri$ vegetation2 & /ill     
rem9d u 9 "s respects1 ( ! vegetation ( 
! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a   
cont9uation ( ! *>act]i/ics ( t p]iod1 &
 f ! same cause1 namely1 ! subm]sion (  
l& "u m>%y wat]s1 :i* has giv5 bir? to a
 sort ( coal :i* is (t5 f\nd 9 ! ,mioc5e
 =mation1 & :i* we call lignite4 ,?is   
imp]fect coal does n q resemble t ( !   
,c>bonif]\s1 or true ,coal-measure      
p]iod1 because x is ( mu* m rec5t date1 
& because x has n be5 subject$ to ! same
 int]nal heat1 accompani$ by ! same     
pressure ( sup]9cumb5t /rata1 :i*       
produc$ ! old] coal-b$s ( ! ,prim>y     
epo*4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agb4--,lupea

 pelagica4  ,! lignites1 :i* we f9d 9 ! 
,mioc5e1 z 9 ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 con/itute1 
h[ev]1 a combu/ible :i* is work$ &      
utilis$ 9 _m c\ntries1 especially 9     
,g]many1 :]e x is made 9 _m places to   
s]ve 9 place ( coal4 ,^! b$s sometimes  
atta9 a ?ickness ( above tw5ty y>ds1 b 9
 ! environs ( ,p>is !y =m b$s ( a few   
in*es only1 :i* alt]nate ) clays & s&s4 
,we _c d\bt t lignites1 l true coal1 are
 ! rema9s ( ! buri$ =e/s ( an anci5t _w2
 9 fact1 ! sub/ance ( ! woods ( our     
=e/s1 (t5 9 a /ate p]fectly             
recognisable1 is frequ5tly f\nd 9 !     
lignite b$s2 & ! /udies ( mod]n botani/s
 h demon/rat$1 t ! species ( :i* !      
lignites are =m$1 belong to a vegetation
 closely resembl+ t ( ,europe 9 ! pres5t
 day4  ,ano!r v curi\s sub/ance is f\nd 
) ! lignite--yell[ amb]4 ,x is !        
m9]alis$ res91 :i* fl[$ f c]ta9 ext9ct  
p9e-trees ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*2 ! waves ( ! 
,baltic ,sea1 wa%+ ! amb] out ( !       
deposits ( s& & clay 9 :i* x lies buri$1
 ?is sub/ance1 be+ v little heavi] ?an  

wat]1 is ?r[n by ! waves ^u ! %ore4 ,=  
ages ! ,baltic coa/ has suppli$ comm]ce 
) amb]4 ,! ,phnicians asc5d$ its banks  
to collect ?is beautiful fossil res91   
:i* is n[ *iefly f\nd betwe5 ,dantzic & 
,memel1 :]e x is a gov]nm5t monopoly 9 !
 h&s ( contractors1 :o are protect$ by a
 law mak+ x !ft to ga!r or conceal x4   
,amb]1#ia :ile x has lo/ none ( its =m] 
comm]cial value1 is1 besides1 ( mu*     
palontological int]e/2 fossil insects1 &
 o!r extrane\s bodies1 are (t5 f\nd     
enclos$ 9 ! nodules1 :]e !y h be5       
pres]v$ 9 all _! orig9al col\r+ &       
integrity ( =m4 ,z ! poet says--    #ia 
,see ,bri/['s 8,gloss>y ( ,m9]alogy10 p4
 #aa4      8,! ?+s !mselves are nei!r   
ri* nor r>e1      ,! wond]'s h[ ! devil 
!y got !re40  ,! natural aromatic       
qualities ( ! amb] comb9$ ) exclusion ( 
air1 c41 h embalm$ !m1 & ?us transmitt$ 
to our times ! small] be+s & ! mo/      
delicate organisms ( e>li] ages4  ,!    
,mioc5e rocks1 ( m>9e orig91 are v      
imp]fectly repres5t$ 9 ! ,p>is bas91 &  

_! composition *anges ) ! localities4   
,!y are divid$ into two gr\ps ( b$s3 #a4
 ,molasse1 or s(t clay2 #b4 ,faluns1 or 
%elly m>l4  ,9 ! ,p>is bas9 ! ,molasse  
pres5ts1 at its base1 qu>tzose s&s (    
great ?ickness1 sometimes pure1         
sometimes a little argillace\s or       
micace\s4 ,!y include b$s ( s&/one 7) "s
 lime/one71 :i* are work$ 9 ! qu>ries ( 
,fonta9ebleau1 d',orsay1 & ,montmor5cy1 
= pav+-/one = ! /reets ( ,p>is & !      
neighb\r+ t[ns4 ,?is la/ =mation is     
altoge!r m>9e4 ,to ^! s&s & s&/ones     
succe$s a fre%-wat] deposit1 =m$ ( a    
:iti% & p>tly silice\s lime/one1 :i* =ms
 ! gr\nd ( ! plateau ( ,la ,beauce1     
betwe5 ! valleys ( ! ,se9e & ! ,loire3  
?is is call$ ! ,calcaire de la ,beauce4 
,x is !re mix$ ) a r$di% & m or less s&y
 clay1 conta9+ small blocks ( burrh-/one
 us$ = mill/ones1 easily recognis$ by _!
 yell[-o*re\s col\r1 & ! num]\s cavities
 or holl[s ) :i* _! texture is          
honeycomb$4  ,?is grit1 or silex meuli]1
 is mu* us$ 9 ,p>is = ! ar*es ( cell>s1 

und]gr\nd conduits1 sew]s1 c4  ,!       
,faluns 9 ! ,p>is bas9 consi/ ( div]s   
b$s =m$ ( %ells & ,corals1 almo/        
entirely brok5 up4 ,9 _m p>ts ( !       
c\ntry1 & especially 9 ! environs (     
,t\rs & ,bordeaux1 !y are dug out =     
manur+ ! l&4 ,to ! ,falun s]ies belong !
 fre%-wat] m>l1 lime/one1 & s&1 :i*     
compos$ ! celebrat$ m\nd ( ,sansan1 ne> 
,au*1 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,g]s1 9 :i* ,m4   
,l>tet f\nd a consid]able numb] ( bones 
( ,turtles1 ,birds1 & especially        
,mammals1 su* z ,ma/odon & ,d9o!rium1   
toge!r ) a species ( long-arm$ ape1 :i* 
he nam$ ,pi!cus antiquus1 f !           
circum/ance ( its af=d+ ! e>lie/ in/ance
 ( ! discov]y ( ! rema9s ( ! quadrumana1
 or monkey-tribe1 9 ,europe4 ,isolat$   
masses ( ,faluns occur1 also1 ne> ! m\? 
( ! ,loire & to ! s\? ( ,t\rs1 & 9      
,brittany4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4         
#agc4--;,c>yophylla cya?us4   ,,plioc5e 
,,p]iod4  ,?is la/ p]iod ( ! ,t]ti>y    
epo* 0 m>k$1 9 "s p>ts ( ,europe1 by    
great movem5ts ( ! t]re/rial cru/1      

always due to ! same cause--namely1 !   
cont9ual & gradual cool+ ( ! globe4 ,?is
 leads u to recall :at we h repeat$ly   
/at$1 t ?is cool+1 dur+ :i* ! out] zone 
( ! fluid mass pass$ to ! solid /ate1   
produc$ irregul>ities & inequalities 9 !
 ext]nal surface1 sometimes accompani$  
by fractures ?r\gh :i* ! semi-fluid or  
pa/y matt] p\r$ itself2 lead+ aft]w>ds  
to ! upheaval ( m\nta9 ranges ?r\gh ^!  
gap+ *asms4 ,?us1 dur+ ! ,plioc5e p]iod1
 _m m\nta9s & m\nta9-*a9s 7 =m$ 9       
,europe by basaltic & volcanic          
eruptions4 ,^! upheavals 7 prec$$ by    
sudd5 & irregul> movem5ts ( ! ela/ic    
mass ( ! cru/--by e>?quakes1 9          
%ort--ph5om5a :i* h be5 already         
suffici5tly expla9$4         99       99
       99       99       99  ,9 ord] to 
und]/& ! nature ( ! vegetation ( !      
p]iod1 z comp>$ ) t ) :i* we are        
famili>1 let u li/5 to ,m4 ,lecoq3      
8,arriv$1 f9ally10 says t au?or1 8at !  
la/ p]iod :i* prec$$ our own epo*--!    
epo* 9 :i* ! temp]ate zones 7 /ill      

embelli%$ by tropical =ms ( vegetation1 
:i* 71 h[ev]1 sl[ly decl9+1 driv5 out z 
x 7 by a cool+ climate & by ! invasion (
 m vigor\s species--great t]re/rial     
commotions took place3 m\nta9s are cov]$
 ) et]nal sn[2 cont95ts n[ take _!      
pres5t =ms2 b _m great lakes1 n[ dri$   
up1 /ill exi/$2 great riv]s fl[$        
maje/ically ?r\gh smil+ c\ntries1 ^:    
surface man _h n yet come to modify4    
8,two hundr$ & twelve species compose   
?is ri* flora1 9 :i* ! ,f]ns ( ! e>li]  
ages ( ! _w are sc>cely indicat$1 :]e ! 
,palms seem to h q disappe>$1 & we see  
=ms mu* m l ^? :i* are con/antly "u our 
obs]vation4 ,! ,culmites arund9aceus    
7,ung]7 ab\nds ne> ! wat]1 :]e also gr[s
 ! ,cyp]ites t]ti>ius 7,ung]71 :]e      
floats ,dotamogeton g5iculatus 7,braun71
 & :]e we see subm]g$ ,isoctites        
,brunnii 7,ung]74 ,great ,conif]s /ill  
=m ! =e/s4 ,?is f9e family has1 z we h  
se51 pass$ ?r\gh e epo*1 & /ill pres5ts 
u ) its elegant =ms & p]si/5t ev]gre5   
foliage2 ,taxodites1 ,?uyoxylum1        

,abietites1 ,p9ites1 ,eleoxylon1 &      
,taxites be+ /ill ! =ms mo/ abundant 9  
^! old natural =e/s4  8,! pr$om9at+ "* (
 ?is p]iod is ! abundance ( ! gr\p ( !  
,am5tace2 :il/ ! ,conif]s are ?irty-two 
9 numb]1 ( ! o!r we reckon fifty-two    
species1 among :i* are _m ,european     
g5]a1 su* z ,alnus2 ,qu]cus1 ! oak2     
,salix1 ! will[2 ,fagus1 ! bee*2        
,betula1 ! bir*1 c4  8,! foll[+ families
 con/itute ! arboresc5t flora ( ! p]iod 
besides ^? already                      
m5tion$3--,balsam9ace1 ,laurace1        
,?ymelace1 ,santalace1 ,cornace1        
,myrtace1 ,calycan?ace1 ,pomace1        
,rosace1 ,amygdale1 ,legum9os1          
,anac>diace1 ,jugl&ace1 ,rhamnace1      
,cela/r9ace1 ,sap9dace1 ,meliace1       
,ac]ace1 ,tiliace1 ,magnoliace1         
,capp>idace1 ,sapoteace1 ,/yracace1     
,oleace1 ,juncace1 ,ericace4  8,9 all ^!
 families great numb]s ( ,european g5]a 
are f\nd1 (t5 ev5 m abundant 9 species  
?an n[4 ,?us1 z ,brongni>t obs]ves1 9   
?is flora we reckon f\rte5 species (    

,maple2 ?ree species ( ,oak2 & ^!       
species proce$ f two or ?ree v          
circumscrib$ localities1 :i* w\ld n     
probably1 at ! pres5t "t1 repres5t 9 a  
radius ( sev]al leagues m ?an ?ree or   
f\r species ( ^! g5]a40  ,an important  
diff]5ce di/+ui%es ! ,plioc5e flora1 z  
comp>$ ) ^? ( prec$+ epo*s1 x is !      
abs5ce ( ! family ( ,palms 9 ! ,european
 flora1 z not$ by ,lecoq1 :i* =ms su* an
 ess5tial botanical feature 9 ! ,mioc5e 
p]iod4 ,we m5tion ?is1 because1 9 spite 
( ! g5]al analogy :i* exi/s betwe5 !    
vegetation ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod & t (     
temp]ate regions 9 ! pres5t day1 x does 
n appe> t !re is a s+le species ( ! =m] 
p]iod absolutely id5tical ) any "o n[   
gr[+ 9 ,europe4 ,?us1 ! ,european       
vegetation1 ev5 at ! mo/ rec5t          
geological epo*1 diff]s specifically f !
 vegetation ( our age1 al?\gh a g5]al   
resemblance is obs]vable betwe5 ! two4  
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,skeleton ( !
 ,ma/odon ( ,tur94  ,! t]re/rial animals
 ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod pres5t u ) a great  

numb] ( creatures alike rem>kable f _!  
proportions & f _! /ructure4 ,! ,mammals
 & ! batra*ian ,reptiles are alike      
des]v+ ( our att5tion 9 ?is epo*4 ,among
 ! =m] ! ,ma/odon1 :i* makes its fir/   
appe>ance 9 ! ,mioc5e =mations1 cont9ues
 to be f\nd1 b becomes ext9ct app>5tly  
be=e we rea* ! upp] b$s4 ,o!rs pres5t   
!mselves ( g5]a totally unkn[n till n[1 
"s ( !m1 su* z ! ,hippopotamus1 !       
,camel1 ! ,horse1 ! ,ox1 & ! ,de]1      
surviv+ to ! pres5t day4 ,! fossil      
horse1 ( all animals1 is p]haps t :i*   
pres5ts ! greate/ resemblance to exi/+  
individuals2 b x 0 small1 n exce$+ ! ass
 9 size4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#age4--;,head ( ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us1    
p>tly re/or$ "u ! direction ( ,eug5e    
,deslong*amps4  ,! ,ma/odon1 :i* we h   
consid]$ 9 our description ( ! prec$+   
p]iod1 /ill exi/$ 9 ,plioc5e times2 9   
,fig4 #agd ! species liv+ 9 ?is latt]   
age is repres5t$--x is call$ ! ,ma/odon 
( ,tur94 ,z we see1 x has only two      
project+ tusks or def5ces 9 ! upp] jaw1 

in/ead ( f\r1 l ! ,am]ican species1 :i* 
is describ$ 9 page #cdc4 ,o!r species   
belong+ to ?is p]iod are n uncommon2 !  
portion ( an upp] jaw-bone ) a too? :i* 
0 f\nd 9 ! ,norwi* ,crag at ,po/wick1   
ne> ,norwi*1 ,dr4 ,falcon] has %[n to be
 a ,plioc5e species1 fir/ obs]v$ 9      
,auv]gne1 & nam$ by ,messrs4 ,croizet & 
,job]t1 its discov]]s1 ,ma/odon         
,arv]n5sis4  ,! ,hippopotamus1 ,tapir1 &
 ,camel1 :i* appe> dur+ ! ,plioc5e      
p]iod1 pres5t no peculi> *>act]i/ics to 
arre/ our att5tion4  ,! ,apes beg9 to   
ab\nd 9 species2 ! ,/ags 7 already      
num]\s4  ,! ,rh9oc]os1 :i* made its     
appe>ance 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 appe>s 9   
great] numb]s 9 ! ,plioc5e deposits4 ,! 
species peculi> to ! ,t]ti>y epo* is ,r4
 ti*orh9us1 :i* is descriptive ( ! bony 
p>tition :i* sep>at$ its two no/rils1 an
 anatomical arrangem5t :i* is n f\nd 9  
our exi/+ species4 ,two horns surm\nt ! 
nose ( ?is animal1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4  
#age4 ,two liv+ species1 namely1 !      
,rh9oc]os ( ,africa & ,sumatra1 h two   

horns1 b !y are mu* small] ?an ^? ( ,r4 
ti*orh9us4 ,! exi/+ ,indian ,rh9oc]os   
has only "o horn4  ,! body ( ,r4        
ti*orh9us 0 cov]$ ) v ?ick hair1 & its  
sk9 0 )\t ! r\gh & call\s scales :i* we 
rem>k on ! sk9 ( ! liv+ ,african        
species4  ,contemporane\sly ) ?is       
gigantic species !re exi/$ a dw>f       
species ab\t ! size ( our ,hog2 & along 
) x sev]al int]m$iate species1 ^: bones 
are f\nd 9 suffici5t numb]s to enable u 
to recon/ruct ! skeleton4 ,! curvature (
 ! nasal bone ( ! fossil ,rh9oc]os & its
 gigantic horn h giv5 rise to _m tales &
 popul> leg5ds4 ,! fam\s bird1 ! ,roc1  
:i* play$ s great a "p 9 ! fabul\s my?s 
( ! p ( ,asia1 orig9at$ 9 ! discov]y 9 !
 bosom ( ! e>? ( ! cranium & horns ( a  
fossil ,rh9oc]os4 ,! fam\s dragons (    
we/]n tradition h a simil> orig94  ,9 ! 
city ( ,klag5fur?1 9 ,c>9?ia1 is a      
f\nta9 on :i* is sculptur$ ! head ( a   
mon/r\s dragon ) six feet1 & a head     
surm\nt$ by a /\t horn4 ,accord+ to !   
popul> tradition /ill preval5t at       

,klag5fur?1 ?is dragon liv$ 9 a cave1   
:5ce x issu$ f "t to "t to fright5 &    
ravage ! c\ntry4 ,a bold cavali] kills !
 dragon1 pay+ ) 8 life = ?is pro( ( 8   
c\rage4 ,x is ! same leg5d :i* is curr5t
 9 e c\ntry1 f t ( ! valiant ,/4 ,george
 & ! ,dragon & ( ,/4 ,m>?a1 :o ne>ly    
ab\t ! same age conqu]$ ! fabul\s       
,t>asque ( ! city ( ,langu$oc1 :i* be>s 
! "n ( ,t>ascon4  ,b at ,klag5fur? !    
popul> leg5d has happily f\nd a         
m\?-piece--! head ( ! pret5d$ dragon1   
kill$ by ! valor\s knight1 is pres]v$ 9 
! ,htel de ,ville1 & ?is head has       
furni%$ ! sculptor = 8 f\nta9 ) a model 
= ! head ( 8 /atue4 ,h]r ,ung]1 (       
,vi5na1 recognis$ at a glance ! cranium 
( ! fossil ,rh9oc]os2 its discov]y 9 "s 
cave _h probably orig9at$ ! fable ( !   
knight & ! dragon4 ,& all leg5ds are    
capable ( "s su* explanation :5 we c    
trace !m back to _! s\rces1 & reason ^u 
! circum/ances on :i* !y are f\nd$4  ,! 
travell] ,pallas gives a v int]e/+      
acc\nt ( a ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us :i* he   

saw1 ) 8 own eyes1 tak5 out ( ! ice 9   
:i* its sk91 hair1 & fle% _h be5        
pres]v$4 ,x 0 9 ,decemb]1 #agga1 t !    
body ( ! ,rh9oc]os 0 obs]v$ buri$ 9 !   
froz5 s& ^u ! banks ( ! ,vil\i1 a riv]  
:i* dis*>ges itself into ! ,l5a bel[    
,yakutsk1 9 ,sib]ia1 9 #fd nor?         
latitude4 8,i ought to speak10 ! le>n$  
naturali/ says1 8( an int]e/+ discov]y  
:i* ,i owe to ! ,*evali] de ,bril4 ,"s  
,yak\ts hunt+ ?is w9t] ne> ! ,vil\i f\nd
 ! body ( a l>ge unkn[n animal4 ,!      
,sieur ,ivan ,arg\n(1 inspector ( !     
,zimovic1 _h s5t on to ,irkutsk ! head &
 a =e & h9d foot ( ! animal1 all v well 
pres]v$40 ,! ,sieur ,arg\n(1 9 8 report1
 /ates t ! animal 0 half buri$ 9 ! s&2 x
 measur$ z x lay ?ree ells & ?ree-qu>t]s
 ,russian 9 l5g?1 & he e/imat$ its      
height at ?ree & a half2 ! animal1 /ill 
reta9+ its fle%1 0 cov]$ ) sk9 :i*      
resembl$ tann$ lea!r2 b x 0 s decompos$ 
t he c\ld only remove ! =e & h9d foot & 
! head1 :i* he s5t to ,irkutsk1 :]e     
,pallas saw !m4 8,!y appe>$ to me at    

fir/ glance10 he says1 8to belong to a  
,rh9oc]os2 ! head especially 0 q        
recognisable1 s9ce x 0 cov]$ ) its      
lea!ry sk91 & ! sk9 _h pres]v$ all its  
ext]nal *>act]s1 & _m %ort hairs4 ,!    
eyelids _h ev5 escap$ total decay1 & 9 !
 cranium "h & !re1 "u ! sk91 ,i p]ceiv$ 
"s matt] :i* 0 evid5tly ! rema9s (      
putrefi$ fle%4 ,i also rem>k$ 9 ! feet !
 rema9s ( ! t5dons & c>tilages :]e ! sk9
 _h be5 remov$4 ,! head 0 )\t its horn1 
& ! feet )\t ho(s4 ,! place ( ! horn1 & 
! rais$ sk9 :i* _h surr\nd$ x1 & !      
division :i* exi/$ 9 bo? ! h9d & =e     
feet1 7 evid5t pro(s ( its be+ a        
,rh9oc]os4 ,9 a diss]tation address$ to 
! ,academy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 ,i h giv5 a
 full acc\nt ( ?is s+ul> discov]y4 ,i   
give !re reasons :i* prove t a ,rh9oc]os
 _h p5etrat$ ne>ly to ! ,l5a1 9 ! mo/   
nor!rn regions1 & :i* h l$ to ! discov]y
 ( ! rema9s ( o!r /range animals 9      
,sib]ia4 ,i %all conf9e myself "h to a  
description ( ! c\ntry :]e ^! curi\s    
rema9s 7 f\nd1 & to ! cause ( _! long   

pres]vation4  8,! c\ntry wat]$ by !     
,vil\i is m\nta9\s2 all ! /ratification 
( ^! m\nta9s is horizontal4 ,! b$s      
consi/ ( sel5itic & calc>e\s s*i/s & b$s
 ( clay1 mix$ ) num]\s b$s ( pyrites4   
,on ! banks ( ! ,vil\i we meet ) coal   
mu* brok52 probably coal-b$s exi/ high] 
up ne> to ! riv]4 ,! brook ,kemt5do     
skirts a m\nta9 entirely =m$ ( sel5ite  
or cry/allis$ sulphate ( lime & (       
rock-salt1 & ?is m\nta9 ( alaba/] is m  
?an #cjj v]/s 7ab\t #bjj miles71 9      
asc5d+ ! ,vil\i1 f ! place :]e !        
,rh9oc]os 0 f\nd4 ,opposite to ! place  
we see1 ne> ! riv]1 a l[ hill1 ab\t a   
hundr$ feet high1 :i*1 ?\gh s&y1 conta9s
 "s b$s ( mill/one4 ,! body ( !         
,rh9oc]os _h be5 buri$ 9 co>se gravelly 
s& ne> ?is hill1 & ! nature ( ! soil1   
:i* is always froz51 _h pres]v$ x4 ,!   
soil ne> ! ,vil\i nev] ?aws to a great  
dep?1 =1 al?\gh ! rays ( ! sun s(t5 !   
soil to ! dep? ( two y>ds 9 ! m elevat$ 
s&y places1 9 ! valleys1 :]e ! soil is  
half s& & half clay1 x rema9s froz5 at !

 end ( summ] half an ell bel[ ! surface4
 ,)\t ?is int5se cold ! sk9 ( ! animal &
 _m p>ts ( x w\ld long s9ce h p]i%$4 ,! 
animal c\ld only h be5 transport$ f "s  
s\!rn c\ntry to ! froz5 nor? at ! epo* (
 ! ,deluge1 = ! mo/ anci5t *ronicles    
speak ( no *anges ( ! globe m rec5t1 to 
:i* we c\ld attribute ! deposit ( ^!    
rema9s & ( ! bones ( elephants :i* are  
f\nd disp]s$ all ov] ,sib]ia40#ib    #ib
 8,pallas's ,voyage10 vol4 iv41 pp4     
#acj-acd4  ,9 ?is extract ! au?or ref]s 
to a memoir previ\sly publi%$ by        
himself1 9 ! 8,comm5t>ii0 ( ! ,academy (
 ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 ,?is memoir1 writt5 9  
,lat91 & entitl$ 8,^u "s ,animals (     
,sib]ia10 has nev] be5 translat$4 ,aft] 
"s g5]al consid]ations1 ! au?or ?us     
relates ! circum/ances att5d+ ! discov]y
 ( ! fossil ,rh9oc]os1 ) "s (ficial     
docum5ts affirm+ _! correctness1 & !    
mann] 9 :i* ! facts 7 br\ght "u 8 notice
 by ! ,gov]nor ( ,irkutsk1 ,g5]al ,bril3
 8,! sk9 & t5dons ( ! head & feet /ill  
pres]v$ consid]able flexibility1 imbu$ z

 x 7 ) humidity f ! e>?2 b ! fle% exhal$
 a fetid ammoniacal od\r1 resembl+ t ( a
 latr9e4 ,compell$ to cross ! ,bakal    
,lake be=e ! ice broke up1 ,i c\ld nei!r
 draw up a suffici5tly c>eful           
description nor make sket*es ( ! p>ts ( 
! animal2 b ,i made !m place ! rema9s1  
)\t leav+ ,irkutsk1 ^u a furnace1 )     
ord]s t aft] my dep>ture !y %\ld be dri$
 by sl[ degrees & ) ! greate/ c>e1      
cont9u+ ! process = "s "t1 because !    
visc\s matt] :i* incessantly ooz$ out   
c\ld only be dissipat$ by great heat4 ,x
 happ5$1 un=tunately1 t dur+ ! op]ation 
! po/]ior "p ( ! upp] ?igh & ! foot 7   
burnt 9 ! ov]heat$ furnace1 & !y 7 ?r[n 
away2 ! head & ! extremity ( ! h9d foot 
only rema9$ intact & undamag$ by !      
process ( dry+4 ,! od\r ( ! s(t] p>ts1  
:i* /ill conta9$ visc\s matt] 9 _!      
int]ior1 0 *ang$ by ! desiccation into  
"o resembl+ t ( fle% decompos$ 9 ! sun4 
8,! ,rh9oc]os to :i* ! memb]s belong$ 0 
nei!r l>ge = its species nor advanc$ 9  
age1 z ! bones ( ! head atte/1 yet x 0  

evid5tly an adult f ! comp>ison made ( !
 size ( ! cranium z comp>$ ) t ( o!rs ( 
! same species m ag$1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds    
f\nd 9 a fossil /ate 9 div]s p>ts (     
,sib]ia4 ,! entire l5g? ( ! head f !    
upp] "p ( ! nape ( ! neck to ! extremity
 ( ! d5ud$ bone ( ! jaw 0 ?irty in*es2 !
 horns 7 n ) ! head1 b we c\ld /ill see 
evid5t ve/iges ( two horns1 ! nasal &   
frontal4 ,! front1 unequal & a little   
protub]ant betwe5 ! orbits1 & ( a       
rhomboidal egg-%ape1 is defici5t 9 !    
sk91 & only cov]$ by a light horny      
membrane1 bri/l+ ) /raight hairs z h>d z
 horn4  8,! sk9 :i* cov]s ! great] "p ( 
! head is 9 ! dri$ /ate1 a t5aci\s1     
fibr\s sub/ance1 l curri$ lea!r1 ( a    
br[ni%-black on ! outside & :ite 9 !    
inside2 :5 burnt1 x _h ! od\r ( common  
lea!r2 ! m\?1 9 ! place :]e ! lips %\ld 
h be5 s(t & fle%y1 0 putrid & mu*       
lac]at$2 ! extremities ( ! maxill>y bone
 7 b>e4 ,^u ! left side1 :i* _h probably
 be5 longe/ expos$ to ! air1 ! sk9 0 "h 
& !re decompos$ & rubb$ on ! surface2   

nev]!less1 ! great] "p ( ! m\? 0 s well 
pres]v$ on ! "r side t ! pores1 or      
little holes f :i* d\btless ! hairs _h  
fall51 7 /ill visible all ov] t side1 & 
ev5 9 front4 ,9 ! "r side ( ! jaw !re 7 
/ill 9 c]ta9 places num]\s hairs gr\p$ 9
 tufts1 = ! mo/ "p rubb$ d[n to ! roots1
 & "h & !re ( two or ?ree l9es /ill     
reta9+ _! full l5g?4 ,!y /& erect1 are  
/iff1 & ( an a%y col\r1 b ) "o or two   
black1 & a little /iff] ?an ! o!rs1 9   
ea* bun*4  8,:at 0 mo/ a/oni%+1 h[ev]1 0
 ! fact t ! sk9 :i* cov]$ ! orbits ( !  
eyes1 & =m$ ! eyelids1 0 s well pres]v$ 
& s heal?y t ! op5+s ( ! eyelids c\ld be
 se51 ?\gh de=m$ & sc>cely p5etrable to 
! f+]2 ! sk9 :i* surr\nd$ ! orbits1 ?\gh
 desiccat$1 =m$ circul> furr[s4 ,!      
cavities ( ! eyes 7 fill$ ) matt]1 ei!r 
argillace\s or animal1 su* z /ill       
occupi$ a "p ( ! cavity ( ! cranium4 ,"u
 ! sk9 ! fibres & t5dons /ill rema9$1 & 
above all ! rema9s ( ! temporal muscles2
 f9ally1 9 ! ?roat hung "s great bundles
 ( muscul> fibres4 ,! d5ud$ bones 7 "y &

 less solid ?an 9 o!r fossil crania ( ! 
same species4 ,! bone :i* gave support  
to ! nasal horn 0 n yet atta*$ to !     
vom]2 x 0 unprovid$ ) articulations l ! 
processes ( ! "y bones4 ,! extremities (
 ! jaws pres]v$ no ve/ige ei!r ( tee? or
 sockets1 b !y 7 cov]$ "h & !re ) !     
rema9s ( ! integum5t4 ,! fir/ mol> 0    
di/ant ab\t f\r in*es f ! extreme edge (
 ! jaw4  8,! foot :i* rema9s to me1 &   
:i*1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 belongs to !    
left h9d limb1 has n only pres]v$ its   
sk9 q intact & furni%$ ) hairs1 or _!   
roots1 z well z ! t5dons & ligam5ts ( ! 
heel 9 all _! /r5g?1 b also ! sk9 itself
 q :ole z f> z ! b5d 9 ! knee4 ,! place 
( ! muscles 0 fill$ ) black mud4 ,!     
extremity ( ! foot is clov5 into ?ree   
angles1 ! bony p>ts ( :i*1 ) ! p]io/eum1
 /ill rema9 "h & !re2 ! horny ho(s _h   
be5 deta*$4 ,! hairs adh]+ 9 _m places  
to ! sk9 7 f "o to ?ree l9es 9 l5g?1    
tol]ably /iff & a%-col\r$4 ,:at rema9s (
 x proves t ! foot 0 cov]$ ) bun*es (   
hair1 :i* hung d[n4  8,we h nev]1 s f> z

 ,i "k1 obs]v$ s mu* hair on any        
rh9oc]os :i* has be5 br\ght to ,europe 9
 our times1 z appe>s to h be5 pres5t$ by
 ! head & feet we h describ$4 ,i leave y
 !n to decide if our rh9oc]os ( ! ,l5a 0
 born or n 9 ! temp]ate climate (       
,c5tral ,asia4 ,9 fact1 ! rh9oc]os1 z ,i
 ga!r f ! relations ( travell]s1 belongs
 to ! =e/s ( ,nor!rn ,india2 & x is     
likely en\gh t ^! animals diff] 9 a m   
hairy sk9 f ^? :i* live 9 ! burn+ zones 
( ,africa1 j 9 ! same way t o!r animals 
( a hott] climate are less w>mly cov]$  
?an ^? ( ! same g5]a 9 temp]ate         
c\ntries40#ic    #ic 8,comm5t>ii        
,academi ,pet]sburgic10 p4 #c4  ,( all  
fossil rum9ants "o ( ! l>ge/ & mo/ s+ul>
 is ! ,siva!rium1 ^: rema9s h be5 f\nd 9
 ! valley ( ,murkunda1 9 ! ,sewalik     
bran* ( ! ,sub-,himalayan ,m\nta9s4 ,its
 "n is tak5 f t ( ,siva1 ! ,indian deity
 wor%ipp$ 9 t "p ( ,india4  ,!          
,siva!rium giganteum _h a body z bulky z
 t ( an ox1 & bore a sort ( resemblance 
to ! liv+ ,elk4 ,x comb9$ 9 itself !    

*>act]i/ics ( diff]5t k9ds ( ,h]bivores1
 at ! same "t t x 0 m>k$ by individual  
peculi>ities4 ,! massive head possess$  
f\r decidu\s1 holl[ horns1 l !          
,prongbuck2 two front ones conical1     
smoo?1 & rapidly ris+ to a po9t1 & two  
h9d] ones ( l>g] size1 & bran*$1        
project$ =w>d above ! eyes4#id ,?us x   
diff]$ f ! de]1 ^: solid horns annually 
drop (f1 & f ! antelope tribe1 %eep &   
ox51 ^: holl[ horns are p]si/5t1 &      
resembl$ only "o liv+ rum9ant1 !        
prongbuck1 9 hav+ _h holl[ horns subject
 to %$d+4 ,fig4 #agf is a repres5tation 
( ! ,siva!rium re/or$1 9 s f>1 at lea/1 
z x is possible to d s 9 ! case ( an    
animal ( :i* only ! cranium & a few o!r 
bones h be5 discov]$4    #id ,dr4 ,james
 ,murie1 ,geological ,magaz9e1 vol4     
viii41 p4 #dch4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4    
#agf4--,siva!rium re/or$4  ,z if to     
rival ^! gigantic ,mammals1 great numb]s
 ( ,reptiles seem to h liv$ 9 ! ,plioc5e
 p]iod1 al?\gh !y are no long] ( ! same 
importance z 9 ! ,second>y epo*4 ,only  

"o ( ^!1 h[ev]1 ne$ occupy our att5tion1
 x is ! ,salam&]4 ,! liv+ ,salam&]s are 
amphibi\s ,batra*ians1 ) smoo? sk9s1 &  
r>ely atta9+ ! l5g? ( tw5ty in*es4 ,!   
,salam&] ( ! ,t]ti>y epo* _h ! dim5sions
 ( a ,crocodile2 & its discov]y op5s a  
pregnant page 9 ! hi/ory ( geology4 ,!  
skeleton ( ?is ,reptile 0 long consid]$ 
to be t ( a human victim ( ! deluge1 & 0
 spok5 ( z 8homo diluvii te/is40 ,x     
requir$ all ! ef=ts ( ,camp] & ,cuvi] to
 eradicate ?is error f ! m9ds ( ! le>n$1
 & probably 9 ! m9ds ( ! vulg> x surviv$
 !m bo?4  ,^u ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e1 n  
f> f ,con/ance1 a little above ,/e91 &  
ne> ! village ( n+51 9 ,switz]l&1 !re   
are "s f9e qu>ries ( s*i/ose lime/one4  
,9 consequ5ce ( _! v>i$ products ^!     
qu>ries h (t5 be5 describ$ by           
naturali/s2 !y are ( ,t]ti>y age1 & 7   
visit$1 among o!rs1 by ,horace de       
,saussure1 by :om !y are describ$ 9 !   
?ird volume ( 8 8,voyage dans les       
,alpes40  ,9 #agbe1 a l>ge block ( /one 
0 f\nd1 incru/$ 9 :i* a skeleton 0      

discov]$1 rem>kably well pres]v$2 &     
,s*eu*z]1 a ,swiss naturali/ ( "s       
celebrity1 :o add$ to 8 sci5tific       
pursuits ! /udy ( !ology1 0 call$ ^u to 
give 8 op9ion z to ! nature ( ?is relic 
( anci5t times4 ,he ?\ght he recognis$ 9
 ! skeleton t ( a man4 ,9 #agbf he      
publi%$ a description ( ^! fossil rema9s
 9 ! 8,philosophical ,transactions0 (   
,london2 & 9 #agca he made x ! subject (
 a special diss]tation1 entitl$ 8,homo  
diluvii te/is0--,man1 a witness ( !     
,deluge4 ,?is diss]tation 0 accompani$  
by an engrav+ ( ! skeleton4 ,s*eu*z]    
return$ to ! subject 9 ano!r ( 8 works1 
8,physica ,sacra10 say+3 8,x is c]ta9 t 
?is s*i/ conta9s ! half1 or ne>ly s1 ( !
 skeleton ( a man2 t ! sub/ance ev5 ( ! 
bones1 &1 :at is m1 ( ! fle% & ( p>ts   
/ill s(t] ?an ! fle%1 are !re           
incorporat$ 9 ! /one2 9 a ^w1 x is "o ( 
! r>e/ relics :i* we h ( t accurs$ race 
:i* 0 buri$ "u ! wat]s4 ,! figure %[s u 
! cont\r ( ! frontal bone1 ! orbits ) ! 
op5+s :i* give passage to ! great n]ves 

( ! fif? pair4 ,we see !re ! rema9s ( ! 
bra91 ( ! sph5oidal bone1 ( ! roots ( ! 
nose1 a notable fragm5t ( ! maxill>y    
bone1 & "s ve/iges ( ! liv]40  ,& our   
pi\s au?or exclaims1 ?is "t tak+ !      
lyrical =m--      8,betrbtes ,be+]/ von 
e9em altem ,snd]      ,erwei*e1 ,/e91   
das ,h]z d] neu5 ,bo%eitsk9d]60      8,o
 deplorable skeleton ( an accurs$       
anci5t1      ,may/ ?\ s(t5 ! he>ts ( !  
late *ildr5 ( wick$ness60  ,! read] has 
be=e him ! fossil ( ! n+5 s*i/ 7,fig4   
#agg74 ,x is obvi\sly impossible to see 
9 ?is skeleton :at ! en?usia/ic savant  
wi%$ to p]ceive4 ,& we c =m an idea f   
?is in/ance1 ( ! errors to :i* a        
preconceiv$ idea1 bl9dly foll[$1 may    
sometimes lead4 ,h[ a naturali/ ( su*   
em95ce z ,s*eu*z] c\ld h p]ceiv$ 9 ?is  
enorm\s head1 & 9 ^! upp] memb]s1 ! lea/
 resemblance to ! osse\s p>ts ( a man is
 incompreh5sible6  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4  
#agg4--;,&rias ,s*eu*z]i4  ,!           
,pre-,adamite 8witness ( ! deluge0 made 
a great noise 9 ,g]many1 & no "o !re d>$

 to dispute ! op9ion ( ! ,swiss         
naturali/1 "u 8 d\ble au?ority (        
!ologian & savant4 ,?is1 probably1 is ! 
reason :y ,gesn] 9 8 8,trait des        
,ptrifactions10 publi%$ 9 #ageh1        
describes ) admiration ! fossil ( n+51  
:i* he attributes1 ) ,s*eu*z]1 to !     
ant$iluvian man4  ,pi]re ,camp] alone   
d>$ to oppose ?is op9ion1 :i* 0 !n      
univ]sally pr(ess$ ?r\gh\t ,g]many4 ,he 
w5t to n+5 9 #aghg to exam9e ! celebrat$
 fossil animal2 he _h no difficulty 9   
detect+ ! error into :i* ,s*eu*z] _h    
fall54 ,he recognis$ at once t x 0 a    
,reptile2 b he deceiv$ himself1         
nev]!less1 z to ! family to :i* x       
belong$2 he took x = a ,saurian4 8,a    
petrifi$ liz>d10 ,camp] wrote2 8c\ld x  
possibly pass = a man80 ,x 0 left to    
,cuvi] to place 9 its true family !     
fossil ( n+52 9 a memoir on ! subject he
 demon/rat$ t ?is skeleton belong$ to "o
 ( ! amphibi\s batra*ians call$         
,salam&]s4 8,take10 he says 9 8 memoir1 
8a skeleton ( a ,salam&] & place x      

alongside ! fossil1 )\t all[+ y\rself to
 be misl$ by ! diff]5ce ( size1 j z y   
c\ld easily d 9 comp>+ a draw+ ( !      
salam&] ( ! natural size ) "o ( ! fossil
 r$uc$ to a sixte5? "p ( its dim5sions1 
& ev]y?+ w be expla9$ 9 ! cle>e/ mann]40
  8,i am ev5 p]suad$10 adds ! great     
naturali/1 9 a subsequ5t edition ( ?is  
memoir1 8t1 if we c\ld re-arrange !     
fossil & look clos] into ! details1 we  
%\ld f9d /ill m num]\s pro(s 9 !        
articul> faces ( ! v]tebr1 9 ^? ( !     
jaws1 9 ! ve/iges ( v small tee?1 & ev5 
9 ! labyr9? ( ! e>40 ,& he invit$ !     
proprietors or deposit>ies ( ! preci\s  
fossil to proce$ to su* an exam9ation4  
,cuvi] _h ! gratification ( mak+1       
p]sonally1 ! inve/igation he sugge/$4   
,f9d+ himself at ,ha>lem1 he ask$       
p]mission ( ! ,director ( ! ,museum to  
exam9e ! /one :i* conta9$ ! suppos$     
fossil man4 ,! op]ation 0 c>ri$ on 9 !  
pres5ce ( ! director & ano!r naturali/4 
,a draw+ ( ! skeleton ( a ,salam&] 0    
plac$ ne> ! fossil by ,cuvi]1 :o _h !   

satisfaction ( recognis+1 z ! /one 0    
*ipp$ away "u ! *isel1 ea* ( ! bones1   
ann\nc$ by ! draw+1 z !y made _!        
appe>ance4 ,9 ! natural sci5ces !re are 
few in/ances ( su* triumphant           
results--few demon/rations s            
satisfactory z ?is1 ( ! c]titude ( !    
me?ods ( obs]vation & induction on :i*  
palontology is bas$4         99       99
       99       99       99  ,dur+ !    
,plioc5e p]iod ,birds ( v num]\s        
species1 & :i* /ill exi/1 gave animation
 to ! va/ solitudes :i* man _h n yet    
occupi$4 ,vultures & ,eagles1 among !   
rapaci\s birds2 & among o!r g5]a (      
birds1 gulls1 swall[s1 pies1 p>roquets1 
pheasants1 jungle-f[l1 ducks1 c4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,9 ! m>9e ,plioc5e fauna we see1 = !    
fir/ "t1 aquatic ,mammals or            
,cetaceans--! ,dolph9 & ,balna belong+  
to ! p]iod4 ,v little1 h[ev]1 is kn[n ( 
! fossil species belong+ to ! two g5]a4 
,"s bones ( ,dolph9s1 f\nd 9 diff]5t    
p>ts ( ,france1 apprise u1 h[ev]1 t !   

anci5t species diff]$ f ^? ( our days4  
,! same rem>k may be made respect+ !    
,n>:al4 ,?is ,cetacean1 s rem>kable =   
its long tusk1 or too?1 9 ! =m ( a horn1
 has at all times be5 an object (       
curiosity4  ,! ,:ales1 ^: rema9s are    
f\nd 9 ! ,plioc5e rocks1 diff] little f 
^? n[ liv+4 ,b ! obs]vations geologi/s h
 be5 able to make ^u ^! gigantic rema9s 
( ! anci5t _w are too few to all[ ( any 
v precise conclusion4 ,x is c]ta91      
h[ev]1 t ! fossil diff]s f ! exi/+ ,:ale
 9 c]ta9 *>act]s drawn f ! bones ( !    
cranium4 ,! discov]y ( an enorm\s       
fragm5t ( a fossil ,:ale1 made at ,p>is 
9 #aggi1 9 ! cell> ( a w9e-m]*ant 9 !   
,rue ,dauph9e1 creat$ a great s5sation4 
,sci5ce pron\nc$1 )\t mu* hesitation1 on
 ! true orig9 ( ^! rema9s2 b ! public _h
 "s difficulty 9 compreh5d+ ! exi/5ce ( 
a :ale 9 ! ,rue ,dauph9e4 ,x 0 9 digg+  
"s holes 9 8 cell>s t ! w9e-m]*ant made 
?is int]e/+ discov]y4 ,8 workm5 f\nd1 "u
 ! pick1 an enorm\s piece ( bone buri$ 9
 a yell[ clay4 ,its complete extraction 

caus$ him a great deal ( lab\r1 &       
pres5t$ _m difficulties4 ,little int]e/$
 9 mak+ fur!r discov]ies1 our w9e-m]*ant
 cont5t$ himself ) rais+1 ) ! help ( a  
*isel1 a portion ( ! mon/r\s bone4 ,!   
piece ?us deta*$ weigh$ #bbg p\nds4 ,x 0
 exhibit$ 9 ! w9e-%op1 :]e l>ge numb]s (
 ! curi\s w5t to see x4 ,lamanon1 a     
naturali/ ( t day1 :o exam9$ x1         
conjectur$ t ! bone belong$ to ! head ( 
a :ale4 ,z to ! bone itself1 x 0 pur*as$
 = ! ,teyl] ,museum1 at ,ha>lem1 :]e x  
/ill rema9s4  ,!re exi/s 9 ! ,museum (  
,natural ,hi/ory 9 ,p>is only a copy ( !
 bone ( ! :ale ( ! ,rue ,dauph9e1 :i*   
receiv$ ! "n ( ,balnodon ,lamanoni4 ,!  
exam9ation ( ?is figure by ,cuvi] l$ him
 to recognise x z a bone belong+ to "o (
 ! ant$iluvian ,baln1 :i* diff]$ n only 
f ! liv+ species1 b f all o!rs kn[n up  
to ?is "t4  ,s9ce ! days ( ,lamanon1 o!r
 bones ( ,balna h be5 discov]$ 9 ! soil 
9 diff]5t c\ntries1 b ! /udy ( ^!       
fossils has always left some?+ to be    
desir$4 ,9 #ahjf a fossil ,balna 0      

dis9t]r$ at ,monte-,pulgnasco by ,m4    
,cortesi4 ,ano!r skeleton1 sev5ty-two   
feet long1 0 f\nd on ! banks ( ! riv]   
,=?1 ne> ,alloa1 9 ,scotl&4 ,9 #ahaf _m 
bones ( ?is animal 7 discov]$ 9 a little
 valley =m$ by a brook runn+ into !     
,*iavana1 "o ( ! afflu5ts ( ! ,po4      
,cuvi] has e/abli%$1 among ! cetacean   
fossils1 a p>ticul> g5us1 :i* he        
designates "u ! "n ( ,ziphius4 ,!       
animals to :i* he gave ! "n1 h[ev]1 are 
n id5tical ei!r ) ! ,:ales 7,baln71 !   
,ca*elots or ,sp]m ,:ales1 or ) !       
,hyp]oodons4 ,!y hold1 9 ! ord] (       
,cetaceans1 ! place t ! ,palo!rium &    
,anoplo!rium occupy among ! ,pa*yd]ms1  
or t :i* ! ,mega!rium & ,megalonyx      
occupy 9 ! ord] ( ! ,ed5tates4 ,!       
,ziphius /ill lives 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4   
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agh4--,pect5       
,jacobu4  7,liv+ species47         99   
99       99       99       99  ,! g5]a (
 ,mollusca1 :i* di/+ui% ?is p]iod f all 
o!rs1 are v num]\s4 ,!y include !       
,c>dium1 ,panopa1 ,pect5 7,fig4 #agh71  

,fusus1 ,murex1 ,cypra1 ,voluta1        
,*5opus1 ,bucc9um1 ,nassa1 & _m o!rs4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,! ,plioc5e s]ies prevails ov] ,norfolk1
 ,suffolk1 & ,essex1 :]e x is popul>ly  
kn[n z ! ,crag4 ,9 ,essex x re/s        
directly on ! ,london ,clay4 ,ne>       
,norwi* x re/s on ! ,*alk4  ,! ,plioc5e 
rocks are divid$ into l[] & upp]4 ,!    
,old] ,plioc5e comprises ! ,:ite or     
,corall9e ,crag1 includ+ ! ,r$ ,crag (  
,suffolk1 conta9+ m>9e %ells1 ( :i*     
sixty p] c5t4 are ( ext9ct species4 ,!  
,new] ,plioc5e is repres5t$ by !        
,fluvio-m>9e or ,norwi* ,crag1 :i* la/1 
accord+ to ! ,rev4 ,osmond ,fi%]1 is    
ov]laid by ,*illes=d clay1 a v v>iable &
 m arctic deposit1 (t5 pass+ sudd5ly    
into s&s )\t a trace ( clay4  ,!        
,norfolk ,=e/ ,b$ re/s ^u ! ,*illes=d   
clay1 :5 t is n d5ud$4  ,a f]rug9\s b$1 
ri* 9 mammalian rema9s1 & kn[n z !      
,elephant b$1 ov]lies ! ,=e/ ,b$1 ( :i* 
x is consid]$ by ! ,rev4 ,john ,gunn to 
be an upp] division4  ,! ,crag1 divid$  

into ?ree portions1 is a local deposit (
 limit$ ext5t4 ,x consi/s ( v>iable b$s 
( s&1 gravel1 & m>l2 sometimes x is a   
%elly f]rug9\s grit1 z ! ,r$ ,crag2 at  
o!rs a s(t calc>e\s rock made up ( %ells
 & bryozoa1 z ! ,corall9e ,crag4  ,!    
,corall9e ,crag1 ( v limit$ ext5t 9 ?is 
c\ntry1 ranges ov] ab\t tw5ty miles     
betwe5 ! riv]s ,/\r & ,alde1 ) a bread? 
( ?ree or f\r4 ,x consi/s ( two         
divisions--an upp] "o1 =m$ *iefly ( !   
rema9s ( ,bryozoa1 & a l[] "o (         
light-col\r$ s&s1 ) a pr(usion ( %ells4 
,! upp] division is ab\t ?irty-six feet 
?ick at ,sudb\rne 9 ,suffolk1 :]e x     
consi/s ( a s]ies ( b$s almo/ entirely  
compos$ ( comm9ut$ %ells & rema9s (     
,bryozoa1 =m+ a s(t build+-/one4 ,! l[] 
division is ab\t =ty-sev5 feet ?ick at  
,sutton2 mak+ ! total ?ickness ( !      
,corall9e ,crag ab\t eighty-?ree feet4  
,_m ( ! ,corall9e ,crag ,mollusca belong
 to liv+ species2 !y are suppos$ to     
indicate an equable climate free f      
int5se cold--an inf]5ce r5d]$ m probable

 by ! preval5ce ( nor!rn =ms ( %ells1   
su* z ,glycim]is1 ,cypr9a1 & ,a/>te4 ,! 
late ,pr(essor ,edw>d ,=bes1 to :om     
sci5ce is indebt$ = s _m philosophical  
d$uctions1 po9ts out "s rem>kable       
inf]5ces drawn f ! fauna ( ! ,plioc5e   
seas4#ie ,x appe>s t 9 ! glacial p]iod1 
:i* we %all %ortly h "u consid]ation1 _m
 %ells1 previ\sly e/abli%$ 9 ! temp]ate 
zone1 retreat$ s\?w>ds1 to avoid an     
uncong5ial climate4 ,! ,pr(essor gives a
 li/ ( fifty :i* inhabit$ ! ,briti% seas
 :ile ! ,corall9e & ,r$ ,crag 7 =m+1 b  
:i* are all want+ 9 ! glacial           
deposits2#if f :i* he inf]s t !y migrat$
 at ! approa* ( ! glacial p]iod1 &      
return$ aga9 nor?w>ds1 :5 ! temp]ate    
climate 0 re/or$4#ig    #ie ,edw>d ,=bes
 9 8,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey (  
,great        ,brita910 vol4 i41 p4     
#ccf4    #if ,= full in=mation on ^!    
deposits ! read] is ref]r$ to        !  
8,memoirs on ! ,/ructure ( ! ,crag-b$s (
 ,norfolk &        ,suffolk10 by ,j4    
,pre/wi*1 ,f4,r4,s41 9 ! ,qu>t4 ,j\r4   

,geol4        ,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 pp4   
#aae1 #cbe1 & #deb 7#ahga74 ,also to !  
_m ,pap]s by ! ,messrs4 ,se>les ,wood   
publi%$ 9 ! ,qu>4        ,j\r4 ,geol4   
,soc41 ! ,ann4 ,nat4 ,hi/41 ! ,phil4    
,mag41 c4    #ig ,lyell's 8,elem5ts (   
,geology10 p4 #bjc4  ,9 ! ,upp] or      
,mammalif]\s 7or ,norwi*7 ,crag1 ( :i*  
!re is a good exposure 9 a pit ne> !    
asylum at ,?orpe1 bones ( ,mammalia are 
f\nd ) exi/+ species ( %ells4 ,! great] 
numb] ( ! ,mammalian rema9s h be5       
suppos$1 until lately1 to be extrane\s  
fossils2 b !y are n[ consid]$ by ,mr4   
,pre/wi* z truly contemporane\s4 ,!     
peculi> mixture ( s\!rn =ms ( life )    
o!rs ( a m nor!rn type lead to ! inf]5ce
 t1 at ?is e>ly p]iod1 a l[]+ (         
temp]ature began gradually to set 9 f ! 
p]iod ( ! ,corall9e ,crag to t ( ! ,=e/ 
,b$1 :i* m>ks ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,glacial 
,p]iod4  ,! di/9ction betwe5 !          
,mammalif]\s ,crag ( ,norwi* & ! ,r$    
,crag ( ,suffolk is purely              
palontological1 no case ( sup]position  

hav+ yet be5 discov]$1 & !y are n[      
g5]ally consid]$ z contemporane\s4 ,two 
,proboscidians abundant dur+ ! ,crag    
p]iod 7 ! ,ma/odon ,arv]n5sis & !       
,elephas m]idionalis4 ,9 ! ,r$ ,crag !  
,ma/odon is /at$ by ! ,rev4 ,john ,gunn 
to be m abundant ?an ! ,elephant1 :ile 9
 ! ,norwi* b$s _! proportions are ne>ly 
equal4  ,at or ne> ! base ( ! ,r$ ,crag 
!re is a rem>kable accumulation1 v>y+ 9 
?ickness f a few in*es to two feet1 (   
bones1 tee?1 & phosphatic nodules 7call$
 coprolites71 :i* are work$ = mak+      
sup]phosphate ( lime = agricultural     
manure4  ,! =eign equival5ts ( ! old]   
,plioc5e are f\nd 9 ! sub-,ap5n9e /rata4
 ,^! rocks are suffici5tly rem>kable 9 !
 c\nty ( ,suffolk1 :]e !y consi/ ( a    
s]ies ( m>9e b$s ( qu>tzose s&1 col\r$  
r$ by f]rug9\s matt]4  ,at ! foot ( !   
,ap5n9e *a91 :i* =ms ! backbone1 z x 71 
( ,italy1 ?r[+ out _m spurs1 ! =mations 
on ei!r side1 & on bo? sides ( !        
,adriatic1 are ,t]ti>y /rata2 !y =m 9 _m
 cases1 l[ hills ly+ betwe5 ! ,ap5n9es (

 ,second>y =mation & ! sea1 ! /rata     
g5]ally be+ a light-br[n or blui% m>l   
cov]$ ) yell[ calc>e\s s& & gravel1 ) "s
 fossil %ells1 :i*1 accord+ to ,broc*i1 
are f\nd all ov] ,italy4 ,b ?is wide    
range includes "s old] ,t]ti>y =mations1
 z 9 ! /rata ( ! ,sup]ga ne> ,tur91 :i* 
are ,mioc5e4  ,! ,antw]p ,crag1 :i* is (
 ! same age ) ! ,r$ & ,corall9e ,crag ( 
,suffolk1 =ms great accumulations ^u    
div]s po9ts ( ,europe3 at ,antw]p 9     
,belgium1 at ,c>5tan & ,p]pignan1 &1 we 
believe1 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,rhne1 9 ,france4 
,! ?icke/ deposits ( ?is rock consi/ (  
clay & s&1 alt]nat+ ) m>l & ar5ace\s    
lime/one4 ,^! con/itute ! sub-,ap5n9e   
hills1 allud$ to above z ext5d+ on bo?  
slopes ( ! ,ap5n9es4 ,?is deposit       
occupies ! ,upp] ,val d',arno1 above    
,flor5ce4 ,its pres5ce is recognis$ ov] 
a great "p ( ,au/ralia4 ,f9ally1 ! sev5 
hills ( ,rome are compos$1 9 "p1 ( m>9e 
,t]ti>y rocks belong+ to ! ,plioc5e     
p]iod4  ,9 ,,plate ,,xxv4 an ideal      
l&scape ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod is giv5 "u   

,european latitudes4 ,9 ! backgr\nd ( ! 
picture1 a m\nta91 rec5tly ?r[n up1     
rem9ds u t ! p]iod 0 "o ( frequ5t       
convulsions1 9 :i* ! l& 0 di/urb$ &     
upheav$1 & m\nta9s & m\nta9-ranges made 
_! appe>ance4 ,! vegetation is ne>ly    
id5tical ) ! pres5t4 ,we see assembl$ 9 
! =egr\nd ! m important animals ( !     
p]iod--! fossil species1 z well z ^? :i*
 h surviv$ to ! pres5t "t4  ,at ! close 
( ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 & 9 consequ5ce ( !  
deposits left by ! seas ( ! ,t]ti>y     
epo*1 ! cont95t ( ,europe 0 ne>ly :at x 
is n[2 few p]man5t *anges h occurr$ s9ce
 to di/urb its g5]al outl9e4 ,al?\gh !  
po9t does n admit ( actual pro(1 !re is 
/rong presumptive evid5ce t 9 ?is p]iod1
 or 9 t imm$iately subsequ5t to x1 !    
entire ,european area1 ) "s trifl+      
exceptions1 includ+ ! ,alps & ,ap5n9es1 
em]g$ f ! deep4 ,9 ,sicily1 ,new]       
,plioc5e rocks1 cov]+ ne>ly half !      
surface ( ! isl&1 h be5 rais$ f #b1jjj  
to #c1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4   
,fossil %ells h be5 obs]v$ at ! height (

 #h1jjj feet 9 ! ,pyr5ees2 &1 z if to   
fix ! date ( upheaval1 !re are great    
masses ( granite :i* h p5etrat$ ! ,lias 
& ! ,*alk4 ,fossil %ells ( ! p]iod are  
also f\nd at a height ( #aj1jjj feet 9 !
 ,alps1 at #ac1jjj feet 9 ! ,&es1 & at  
#ah1jjj feet 9 ! ,himalayas4            
,illu/ration3 ,,xxv4--,ideal ,l&scape ( 
! ,plioc5e ,p]iod4  ,9 ! m\nta9\s       
regions ( ! ,alps x is always difficult 
to det]m9e ! age ( b$s1 9 consequ5ce ( !
 di/urb$ /ate ( ! /rata2 = in/ance1 !   
l(ty *a9 ( ! ,swiss ,jura consi/s ( _m  
p>allel ridges1 ) int]v5+ longitud9al   
valleys2 ! ridges =m$ ( contort$        
fossilif]\s /rata1 :i* are ext5sive 9   
proportion to ! numb] & ?ickness ( !    
=mations :i* h be5 expos$ on upheaval4  
,! pro(s :i* ^! regions (f] (           
comp>atively rec5t elevation are num]\s4
 ,9 ! c5tral ,alps1 ,cretace\s1         
,oolitic1 ,liassic1 & ,eoc5e /rata are  
f\nd at ! l(tie/ summits1 pass+         
ins5sibly into metamorphic rocks (      
granul> lime/one1 & into talcose &      

mica-s*i/s4 ,9 ! ea/]n p>ts ( ! *a9 !   
old] fossilif]\s rocks are recognis$ 9  
simil> positions1 pres5t+ signs ( int5se
 ,plutonic action4 ,oolitic & ,cretace\s
 /rata h be5 rais$ #ab1jjj feet1 ,eoc5e 
#aj1jjj1 & ,mioc5e #d1jjj & #e1jjj feet 
above ! level ( ! sea4 ,equally /rik+   
pro(s ( rec5t elevation exi/ 9 !        
,ap5n9es2 ! celebrat$ ,c>r>a m>ble1 once
 suppos$--f its cry/all9e texture & !   
abs5ce ( fossils1 & f its re/+--#a4 on  
talcose s*i/s1 #b4 on qu>tz & gneiss--to
 be v anci5t1 n[ turns out to be an     
alt]$ lime/one ( ! ,oolitic s]ies1 & !  
und]ly+ cry/all9e rocks to be           
metamorphos$ ,second>y s&/ones & %ales4 
,_h all ^! rocks und]gone complete      
metamorphism1 ano!r page 9 ! e>?'s      
hi/ory w\ld h be5 obscur$4 ,z x is1 !   
pro(s ( :at we /ate are f\nd 9 ! gradual
 approa* ( ! rocks to _! unalt]$        
condition z ! di/ance f ! intrusive rock
 increases4 ,?is intrusive rock1 h[ev]1 
does n always rea* ! surface1 b x exi/s 
bel[ at no great dep?1 & is obs]v$ pi]c+

 ?r\gh ! talcose gneiss1 & pass+ up into
 ,second>y /rata4  ,at ! close ( ?is    
epo*1 !re=e1 !re is e probability t     
,europe & ,asia _h pretty ne>ly atta9$  
_! pres5t g5]al configuration4          
,,quat]n>y ,,epo*4   ,! ,quat]n>y epo* (
 ! hi/ory ( our globe comm5ces at !     
close ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*1 & br+s !        
n>rative ( its revolutions d[n to our   
own times4  ,! tranquillity ( ! globe 0 
only di/urb$ dur+ ?is era by c]ta9      
cataclysms ^: sph]e 0 limit$ & local1 & 
by an int]val ( cold ( v ext5d$         
duration2 ! deluges & ! glacial         
p]iod--^! are ! two mo/ rem>kable       
peculi>ities :i* di/+ui%$ ?is epo*4 ,b !
 fact :i* pr$om9ates 9 ! ,quat]n>y epo*1
 & di/+ui%es x f all o!r phases ( !     
e>?'s hi/ory is ! appe>ance ( man1 !    
culm9at+ & supreme "w ( ! ,creator ( !  
univ]se4  ,9 ?is la/ phase ( ! hi/ory ( 
! e>? geology recognises ?ree           
*ronological divisions3--      #a4 ,!   
,european ,deluges4      #b4 ,! ,glacial
 ,p]iod4      #c4 ,! creation ( man &   

subsequ5t ,asiatic ,deluge4  ,be=e      
describ+ ! ?ree ord]s ( ev5ts :i*       
occurr$ 9 ! ,quat]n>y epo*1 we %all     
pres5t a brief sket* ( ! organic k+doms 
( ,nature1 namely1 ( ! animals &        
vegetables :i* fl\ri%$ at ?is date1 & ! 
new =mations :i* arose4 ,lyell1 & "s o!r
 geologi/s1 designate ?is !             
,,po/-,,t]ti>y ,,epo*1 :i* !y divide    
into two subord9ate gr\ps4--#a4 ,!      
,po/-,plioc5e ,p]iod2 #b4 ,! ,rec5t or  
,plei/oc5e ,p]iod4   ,,po/-,,plioc5e    
,,p]iod4  ,9 ! days ( ,cuvi] ! ,t]ti>y  
=mations 7 consid]$ z a m]e *aos (      
sup]ficial deposits1 hav+ no di/9ct     
relations to ea* o!r4 ,x 0 res]v$ = !   
,engli% geologi/s1 ) ,sir ,*>les ,lyell 
at _! head1 to ?r[ light ^u ?is obscure 
page ( ! e>?'s hi/ory2 f ! /udy (       
fossils1 sci5ce has n only re-animat$ ! 
animals1 x has re-con/ruct$ ! !atre ( _!
 exi/5ce4 ,we see ! ,briti% ,isl&s n[ a 
/raggl+ ar*ipelago1 & !n ! m\? ( a va/  
riv]1 ( :i* ! cont95t is lo/2 =1 says   
,pr(essor ,ramsay1 8,we are n (         

necessity to consid] ,great ,brita9 z   
hav+ always be5 an isl&2 x is an accid5t
 t x is an isl& n[1 & x has be5 an isl& 
_m times be=e40 ,9 ! ,t]ti>y epo* we see
 x surr\nd$1 !n1 by %all[ seas sw>m+ )  
num]\s =ms ( animal life2 isl&s cov]$ ) 
bu%y ,palms2 banks on :i* ,turtles bask$
 9 ! sun2 va/ bas9s ( fre% or bracki%   
wat]1 9 :i* ! tide made itself felt1 &  
:i* ab\nd$ ) v>i\s species ( %>ks2 riv]s
 9 :i* ,crocodiles increas$ & multipli$2
 woods :i* %elt]$ num]\s ,mammals & "s  
,s]p5ts ( l>ge size2 fre%-wat] lakes :i*
 receiv$ ! spoils ( num]\s %ells4 ,dry  
l& _h increas$ imm5sely4 ,gr\ps ( anci5t
 isles we h se5 unit$ & become cont95ts1
 ) lakes1 bays1 & p]haps inl& seas4     
,gigantic ,elephants1 va/ly l>g] ?an any
 n[ exi/+1 close ! epo*1 & probably u%] 
9 ! succe$+ "o2 = we are n to suppose   
any sudd5 break to di/+ui% "o p]iod f   
ano!r 9 ,nature1 al?\gh x is conv5i5t to
 arrange !m s = ! purposes (            
description4 ,if we may judge f _!      
rema9s1 ^! animals mu/ h exi/$ 9 great  

numb]s1 = x is /at$ t on ! coa/ (       
,norfolk alone ! fi%]m51 9 trawl+ =     
oy/]s1 dr$g$ up betwe5 #ahbj & #ahcc1 no
 less ?an #b1jjj mol> tee? ( ,elephants4
 ,if we consid] h[ sl[ly ^! animals     
multiply1 ^! qu>ries ( ivory1 z we may  
call !m1 mu/ h requir$ _m c5turies = _! 
production & accumulation4  ,! same     
lakes & riv]s 7 at ?is "t occupi$1 also1
 by ! ,hippopotamus1 z l>ge & z =midably
 arm$ z t n[ inhabit+ ! ,african        
solitudes2 also ! two-horn$ ,rh9oc]os2 &
 ?ree species ( ,bos1 "o ( :i* 0 hairy &
 bore a mane4 ,"s ,de] ( gigantic size1 
z comp>$ ) liv+ species1 b\nd$ ov] !    
pla9s4 ,9 ! same savannahs liv$ !       
,re9de]1 ! ,/ag1 a ,horse ( small size1 
! ,ass1 ! ,be>1 & ! ,roe1 = ,mammals _h 
succe$$ ! ,i*?yosauri ( a =m] age4      
,nev]!less1 ! epo* _h its tyrants also4 
,a ,lion1 z l>ge z ! l>ge/ ( ! ,lions ( 
,africa1 hunt$ its prey 9 ! ,briti%     
jungles4 ,ano!r animal ( ! fel9e race1 !
 ,ma*airodus 7,fig4 #agi71 0 probably ! 
mo/ f]oci\s & de/ructive ( ,c>nivora2   

b&s ( ,hynas & a t]rible ,be>1 surpass+ 
9 size t ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 _h        
e/abli%$ !mselves 9 ! cav]ns2 two       
species ( ,beav] made _! appe>ance on ! 
sc5e4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agi4--;a1   
,too? ( ,ma*airodus1 imp]fect bel[1     
natural size2 b1 outl9e ( ca/ ( too?1   
p]fect1 half natural size2 c1 too? (    
,megalosaurus1 natural size4  ,! f9d+ ( 
! rema9s ( mo/ ( ^! animals 9 cav]ns 0  
p]haps among ! mo/ int]e/+ discov]ies ( 
geology4 ,! discov]y 0 fir/ made 9 !    
celebrat$ ,kirkdale ,cave 9 ,york%ire1  
:i* has be5 describ$ by ,dr4 ,buckl&2 & 
aft]w>ds at ,k5t's ,hole1 ne> ,torquay4 
,?is latt] pleasant ,devon%ire t[n is   
built 9 a creek1 %ut out f exposure on  
all sides except ! s\?4 ,9 ?is creek1   
holl[$ out ( ! rocks1 is ! great fissure
 or cav]n kn[n z ,k5t's ,hole2 l t (    
,kirkdale1 x has be5 "u wat]1 f :5ce1   
aft] a long] or %ort] int]val1 x em]g$1 
b rema9$ entirely clos$ till ! mom5t :5 
*ance l$ to its discov]y4 ,! pr9cipal   
cav]n is #fjj feet 9 l5g?1 ) _m crevices

 or fissures ( small] ext5t trav]s+ !   
rock 9 v>i\s directions4 ,a b$ ( h>d    
/alagmite ( v anci5t =mation1 :i* has   
be5 aga9 cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( soil1 =ms !
 floor ( ! cav]n1 :i* is a r$ s&y clay4 
,f ?is b$ ( r$ loam or clay 0 dis9t]r$ a
 mass ( fossil bones belong+ to ext9ct  
species ( ,be>1 ,lion1 ,rh9oc]os1       
,re9de]1 ,beav]1 & ,hyna4  ,su* an      
assemblage gave rise to all sorts (     
conjectures4 ,x 0 g5]ally ?\ght t !     
dwell+ ( "s bea/s ( prey _h be5         
discov]$1 :i* _h dragg$ ! c>cases (     
elephants1 de]1 & o!rs into ^! caves1 to
 dev\r !m at leisure4 ,o!rs ask$ if1 9  
"s cases1 in/9ct did n impel sick       
animals1 or animals brok5 d[n by old    
age1 to seek su* places = ! purpose (   
dy+ 9 quiet2 :ile o!rs1 aga91 sugge/$ t 
^! bones might h be5 engulf$ pell-mell 9
 ! hole dur+ "s anci5t inundation4      
,h[ev] t may be1 ! rema9s discov]$ 9 ^! 
caves %[ t all ^! ,mammals exi/$ at !   
close ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*1 & t !y all liv$ 
9 ,engl&4 ,:at 7 ! causes :i* l$ to _!  

ext9ction8  ,x 0 ! op9ion ( ,cuvi] & !  
e>ly geologi/s t ! anci5t species 7     
de/roy$ 9 "s great & sudd5 cata/rophe1 f
 :i* none made _! escape4 ,b rec5t      
geologi/s trace _! ext9ction to sl[1    
successive1 & det]m9ative action due to 
local causes1 ! *ief "o be+ ! gradual   
l[]+ ( ! temp]ature4 ,we h se5 t at !   
beg9n+ ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*1 9 ! old] ,eoc5e
 age1 palms1 cocoa-nuts1 & acacias1     
resembl+ ^? n[ met ) 9 c\ntries m fav\r$
 by ! sun1 grew 9 our isl&4 ,! ,mioc5e  
flora pres5ts indications ( a climate   
/ill w>m1 b less tropical2 & ! ,plioc5e 
p]iod1 :i* foll[s1 conta9s rema9s :i*   
ann\nce an approa* to our pres5t        
climate4 ,9 foll[+ ! vegetable          
productions ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*1 ! botani/ 
meets ) ! floras ( ,africa1 ,s\?        
,am]ica1 & ,au/ralia1 & f9ally settles 9
 ! flora ( temp]ate ,europe4 ,_m        
circum/ances demon/rate ?is decreas+    
temp]ature1 until we arrive at :at      
geologi/s call ! glacial p]iod--"o ( !  
w9t]s ( ! anci5t _w4  ,b be=e ent]+ on !

 evid5ces :i* exi/ ( ! glacial era we   
%all glance at ! picture pres5t$ by !   
animals ( ! p]iod2 ! vegetable products 
we ne$ n dwell on--x is1 9 fact1 t ( our
 own era1 ! flora ( temp]ate regions 9  
our own epo*4 ,! same rem>k w\ld apply  
to ! animals1 b = "s signal exceptions4 
,9 ?is epo* ,man appe>s1 & "s ( !       
,mammals ( ! la/ epo*1 b ( l>g]         
dim5sions1 h long disappe>$4 ,! m       
rem>kable ( ^! ext9ct animals we %all   
describe1 z we h ^? belong+ to ant]ior  
ages4 ,!y are n num]\s2 ^? ( our        
hemisph]e be+ ! ,mammo?1 ,elephas       
primig5ius2 ! ,be>1 ,ursus spelu2       
gigantic ,lion1 ,felis spela2 ,hyna1    
,hyna spela2 ,ox1 ,bison priscus1 ,bos  
primig5ius2 ! gigantic ,/ag1 ,c]vus     
megac]os2 to :i* we may add ! ,d9ornis &
 ,epiornis1 among birds4 ,9 ,am]ica !re 
exi/$ 9 ! ,quat]n>y epo* "s ,ed5tates ( 
colossal dim5sions & ( v peculi>        
/ructure1 ^! 7 ,mega!rium1 ,megalonyx1 &
 ,mylodon2 we %all pass ^! animals 9    
review1 beg9n+ ) ^? ( our own hemisph]e4

  ,! ,mammo?1 ! skeleton ( :i* is       
repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ahj1 surpass$ ! l>ge/
 exi/+ ,elephants ( ! tropics 9 size1 = 
x 0 f sixte5 to eighte5 feet 9 height4  
,! tee?1 & ! size ( ! mon/r\s tusks1 mu*
 curv$1 & ) a spiral turn outw>ds1 & :i*
 7 f t5 to fifte5 feet 9 l5g?1 s]ve to  
di/+ui% ! ,mammo? f ! two ,elephants    
liv+ at ! pres5t day1 ! ,african & !    
,indian4 ,! =m ( its tee? p]mits ( its  
be+ di/+ui%$ f its ally1 ! ,ma/odon2 =  
:ile ! tee? ( ! latt] h r\gh            
mammillations on _! surface1 ^? ( !     
,mammo?1 l ^? ( ! liv+ ,indian          
,elephant1 h a broad unit$ surface1 )   
regul> furr[$ l9es ( l>ge curvature4 ,! 
tee? ( ! ,mammo? are f\r 9 numb]1 l !   
,elephants1 two 9 ea* jaw :5 ! animal is
 adult1 its head is elongat$1 its =ehead
 concave1 its jaws curv$ & truncat$ 9   
front4 ,x has be5 an easy task1 z we    
%all see1 to recognise ! g5]al =m &     
/ructure ( ! ,mammo?1 ev5 to its sk94   
,we "k beyond a d\bt t x 0 ?ickly cov]$ 
) long %aggy hair1 & t a copi\s mane    

float$ ^u its neck & along its back2 its
 trunk resembl$ t ( ! ,indian ,elephant2
 its body 0 heavy1 ) a tail nak$ to !   
end1 :i* 0 cov]$ ) ?ick tufty hair1 &   
its legs 7 comp>atively %ort] ?an ^? ( !
 latt] animal1 _m ( ! habits ( :i* x    
nev]!less possess$4 ,blum5ba* gave x !  
specific "n ( ,elephas primig5ius4      
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,skeleton ( !
 ,mammo?1 ,elephas primig5ius4  ,9 all  
ages1 & 9 almo/ all c\ntries1 *ance     
discov]ies h be5 made ( fossil bones (  
elephants 9 ! soil4 ,pl9y has transmitt$
 to u a tradition1 record$ by ! hi/orian
 ,!ophra/us1 :o wrote #cbj ye>s be=e    
,jesus ,*ri/1 ( ! exi/5ce ( bones (     
fossil ivory 9 ! soil ( ,greece1 t !    
bones 7 sometimes trans=m$ into /ones4  
8,^! bones10 ! hi/orian gravely tells u1
 87 bo? black & :ite1 & born ( ! e>?40  
,"s ( ! elephant's bones hav+ a slight  
resemblance to ^? ( man1 !y h (t5 be5   
mi/ak5 = human bones4 ,9 ! e>li] hi/oric
 times ^! great bones1 accid5tally      
dis9t]r$1 h pass$ z hav+ belong$ to "s  

h]o or demigod2 at a lat] p]iod !y 7    
?\ght to be ! bones ( giants4 ,we h     
already spok5 ( ! mi/ake made by !      
,greeks 9 tak+ ! patella ( a fossil     
elephant = ! knee-bone ( ,ajax2 9 ! same
 mann] ! bones reveal$ by an e>?quake1 &
 attribut$ by ,pl9y to a giant1 belong$1
 no d\bt1 to a fossil elephant4 ,to a   
simil> orig9 we may assign ! pret5d$    
body ( ,ore/es1 ?irte5 feet 9 l5g?1 :i* 
0 discov]$ at ,tegea by ! ,sp>tans2 ^? (
 ,a/]ius1 ! son ( ,ajax1 discov]$ 9 !   
,isle ( ,ladea1 ( t5 cubits 9 l5g? 7ab\t
 eighte5 feet71 accord+ to ,pausanius2  
f9ally1 su* 7 ! great bones f\nd 9 !    
,isle ( ,rhodes1 ( :i* ,phlegon (       
,tralles speaks 9 8 8,mundus            
,subt]raneus40  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4     
#aha4--,too? ( ! ,mammo?4  ,we might    
fill volumes ) ! hi/ory ( ! rema9s (    
pret5d$ giants f\nd 9 anci5t tombs4 ,!  
books1 9 fact1 :i* exi/1 =m$ a volum9\s 
lit]ature 9 ! middle ages--entitl$      
,gigantology4 ,all ! facts1 m or less   
real1 true or imag9ative1 may be expla9$

 by ! accid5tal discov]y ( ! bones ( "s 
( ^! gigantic animals4 ,we f9d 9 works  
on ,gigantology1 ! hi/ory ( a pret5d$   
giant1 discov]$ 9 ! #d? c5tury1 at      
,trapani 9 ,sicily1 ( :i* ,boccaccio    
speaks1 & :i* may be tak5 = ,polyphemus2
 ( ano!r1 f\nd 9 ! #af? c5tury1 accord+ 
to ,fasellus1 ne> ,pal]mo2 o!rs1 accord+
 to ! same au?or1 at ,melilli betwe5    
,leontium & ,syracuse1 ,calatrasi &     
,petralia1 at ea* ( :i* places ! bones (
 suppos$ giants 7 dis9t]r$4 ,p4 ,kir*]  
speaks ( ?ree o!r giants be+ f\nd 9     
,sicily1 ( :i* only ! tee? rema9$       
p]fect4  ,9 #aegg1 a /orm hav+ uproot$  
an oak ne> ! cloi/]s ( ,reyd51 9 !      
,canton ( ,luc]ne1 9 ,switz]l&1 "s l>ge 
bones 7 expos$ to view4 ,sev5 ye>s aft]1
 ! celebrat$ physician & ,pr(essor at   
,basle1 ,felix ,plt51 be+ at ,luc]ne1   
exam9$ ^! bones1 & decl>$ !y c\ld only  
be ^? ( a giant4 ,! ,c\ncil ( ,luc]ne   
cons5t$ to s5d ! bones to ,basle = m    
m9ute exam9ation1 & ,plt5 ?\ght himself 
ju/ifi$ 9 attribut+ to ! giant a height 

( n9ete5 feet4 ,he design$ a human      
skeleton on ?is scale1 & return$ ! bones
 ) ! draw+ to ,luc]ne4 ,9 #agjf !re only
 rema9$ ( ^! bones a portion ( ! scapula
 & a fragm5t ( ! wri/ bone2 ! anatomi/  
,blum5ba*1 :o saw !m at ! beg9n+ ( !    
c5tury1 easily recognis$ 9 !m ! bones ( 
an ,elephant4 ,let u n omit to add1 z a 
complem5t to ?is /ory1 t s9ce ! sixte5? 
c5tury1 ! inhabitants ( ,luc]ne h adopt$
 ! image ( ?is fabul\s giant z !        
support] ( ! city arms4  ,spani% hi/ory 
pres]ves _m /ories ( giants4 ,! suppos$ 
too? ( ,/4 ,*ri/oph]1 %[n at ,val5ce1 9 
! *ur* d$icat$ to ! sa9t1 0 c]ta9ly !   
mol> too? ( a fossil ,elephant2 & 9     
#aghi1 ! canons ( ,/4 ,v9c5t c>ri$ ?r\gh
 ! /reets 9 public procession1 to       
procure ra91 ! pret5d$ arm ( a sa9t1 :i*
 0 no?+ m ?an ! femur ( an ,elephant4   
,9 ,france1 9 ! reign ( ,*>les ,,vii4   
7#adef71 "s ( ^! bones ( imag9>y giants 
appe>$ 9 ! b$ ( ! ,rhne4 ,a repetition (
 ! ph5om5on occurr$ ne> ,sa9t-,peirat1  
opposite ,val5ce1 :5 ! ,dauph91 aft]w>ds

 ,l\is ,,xi41 !n resid+ at ! latt]      
place1 caus$ ! bones to be ga!r$ toge!r 
& s5t to ,b\rges1 :]e !y long rema9$    
objects ( public curiosity 9 ! int]ior (
 ! ,sa9te-,*apelle4 ,9 #aefd a simil>   
discov]y took place 9 ! same            
neighb\rhood4 ,two peasants obs]v$ on ! 
banks ( ! ,rhne1 along a slope1 "s great
 bones /ick+ out ( ! gr\nd4 ,!y c>ri$ !m
 to ! neighb\r+ village1 :]e !y 7 exam9$
 by ,cassanion1 :o liv$ at ,val5ce4 ,x 0
 no d\bt apropos to ?is t ,cassanion    
wrote 8 treatise 8,de ,gigantibus40 ,!  
description giv5 by ! au?or ( a too?    
suffic$1 accord+ to ,cuvi]1 to prove t x
 belong$ to an ,elephant2 x 0 a foot 9  
l5g?1 & weigh$ eight p\nds4 ,x 0 also on
 ! banks ( ! ,rhne1 b 9 ,dauph9y1 z we h
 se51 t ! skeleton ( ! fam\s            
,teutoboc*us1 ( :i* we h spok5 9 a      
previ\s *apt]1 0 f\nd4  ,9 #affc ,otto  
de ,gu]icke1 ! illu/ri\s inv5tor ( !    
air-pump1 witness$ ! discov]y ( ! bones 
( an ,elephant1 buri$ 9 ! %elly         
lime/one1 or ,mus*elkalk4 ,along ) x 7  

f\nd its enorm\s tusks1 :i* %\ld h      
suffic$ to e/abli% its zoological orig94
 ,nev]!less !y 7 tak5 = horns1 & !      
illu/ri\s ,leibnitz compos$1 out ( !    
rema9s1 a /range animal1 c>ry+ a horn 9 
! middle ( its =ehead1 & 9 ea* jaw a    
doz5 mol> tee? a foot long4 ,hav+       
fabricat$ ?is fanta/ic animal1 ,leibnitz
 nam$ x also--he call$ x ! fossil       
unicorn4 ,9 8 8,protoga10 a "w rem>kable
 besides z ! fir/ attempt at a !ory ( ! 
e>?1 ,leibnitz gave ! description & a   
draw+ ( ?is imag9>y animal4 ,dur+ m ?an 
?irty ye>s ! unicorn ( ,leibnitz 0      
univ]sally accept$ ?r\gh\t ,g]many2 &   
no?+ less ?an ! discov]y ( ! entire     
skeleton ( ! ,mammo? 9 ! valley ( !     
,un/rut 0 requir$ to produce a *ange (  
op9ion4 ,?is skeleton 0 at once         
recognis$ by ,t9zel1 libr>ian to ! ,duke
 ( ,saxe-,go?a1 z t ( an ,elephant1 & 0 
e/abli%$ z su*2 n1 h[ev]1 )\t a ke5     
controv]sy ) adv]s>ies ( all k9ds4  ,9  
#agjj a soldi] ( ,wrtemb]g accid5tally  
obs]v$ "s bones %[+ !mselves project+   

out ( ! e>?1 9 an argillace\s soil1 ne> 
! city ( ,can/adt1 n f> f ! banks ( !   
,neck]4 ,hav+ address$ a report to !    
reign+ ,duke1 ! latt] caus$ ! place to  
be excavat$1 :i* occupi$ ne>ly six      
mon?s4 ,a v]itable cemet]y ( elephants 0
 discov]$1 9 :i* 7 n less ?an sixty     
tusks4 ,^? :i* 7 entire 7 pres]v$2 !    
fragm5ts 7 ab&on$ to ! c\rt physician1 &
 !y became a m]e vulg> m$ic9e4 ,9 ! la/ 
c5tury ! fossil bones ( be>s1 :i* 7     
abundant 9 ,g]many1 7 adm9i/]$ 9 t      
c\ntry m$ic9ally1 z an absorb5t1 a/r+5t1
 & sudorific4 ,x 0 !n call$ by ! ,g]man 
doctors ! ,ebur fossile1 or ,unicornu   
fossile1 ,licorn fossil4 ,! magnific5t  
tusks ( ! ,mammo? f\nd at ,can/adt help$
 to combat fev] & colic4 ,:at an        
intellig5t man ?is c\rt physician (     
,wrtemb]g mu/ h be56  ,num]\s discov]ies
 l ^? we h quot$ di/+ui%$ ! #ah? c5tury2
 b ! progress ( sci5ce has n[ r5d]$ su* 
mi/akes z we h _h to relate impossible4 
,^! bones 7 at l5g? univ]sally recognis$
 z belong+ to an ,elephant1 b erudition 

n[ int]v5$1 & help$ to obscure a subject
 :i* 0 o!rwise p]fectly cle>4 ,"s le>n$ 
p$ant decl>$ t ! bones f\nd 9 ,italy &  
,france 7 ! rema9s ( ! ,elephants :i*   
,hannibal br\ght f ,c>?age ) ! army 9 8 
exp$ition aga9/ ! ,romans4 ,! "p (      
,france :]e ! mo/ anci5t bones ( ^!     
,elephants 7 f\nd is 9 ! environs ( !   
,rhne1 & consequ5tly on ! r\te ( !      
,c>?ag9ian g5]al1 & ?is consid]ation    
appe>$ to ^! t]rible savants to be a    
p>ticul>ly triumphant answ] to !        
naturali/'s reason+4 ,aga91 at a lat]   
p]iod1 ,domitius nob>bus conduct$ !     
,c>?ag9ian armies1 :i* 7 foll[$ by a    
numb] ( ,elephants1 arm$ = w>4 ,cuvi]   
sc>cely took ! tr\ble to refute ?is     
insignificant objection4 ,x is m]ely    
necess>y to read1 9 8 le>n$ diss]tation1
 ( ! numb] ( elephants :i* c\ld rema9 to
 ,hannibal :5 he _h ent]$ ,gaul4  ,b !  
be/ reply t c be made to ?is /range     
objection rais$ by ! le>n$1 is to %[ h[ 
ext5sively ^! fossil bones ( ,elephants 
are scatt]$1 n 9 ,europe only1 b ov] !  

_w--!re are few regions ( ! globe 9 :i* 
_! rema9s are n f\nd4 ,9 ! nor? (       
,europe1 9 ,sc&9avia1 9 ,irel&1 9       
,belgium1 9 ,g]many1 9 ,c5tral ,europe1 
9 ,pol&1 9 ,middle ,russia1 9 ,s\?      
,russia1 9 ,greece1 9 ,italy1 9 ,africa1
 9 ,asia1 &1 z we h se51 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ! 
,new ,_w rema9s ( ! ,mammo? are also met
 )4 ,:at is mo/ s+ul> is t ^! rema9s    
exi/ m especially 9 great numb]s 9 !    
nor? ( ,europe1 9 ! froz5 regions (     
,sib]ia--regions altoge!r un9habitable =
 ! ,elephant 9 our days4 8,!re is n10   
says ,pallas1 89 all ,asiatic ,russia1 f
 ! ,don to ! extremity ( ! promontory ( 
,t*ut*is1 a /ream or riv]1 especially ( 
^? :i* fl[ 9 ! pla9s1 on ! banks ( :i*  
"s bones ( ,elephants & o!r animals     
=eign to ! climate h n be5 f\nd4 ,b 9 ! 
m elevat$ regions1 ! primitive & s*i/ose
 *a9s1 !y are want+1 z are m>9e         
petrifactions4 ,b 9 ! l[] slopes & 9 !  
great muddy & s&y pla9s1 above all1 9   
places :i* are swept by riv]s & brooks1 
!y are always f\nd1 :i* proves t we %\ld

 n ! less f9d !m ?r\gh\t ! :ole ext5t ( 
! c\ntry if we _h ! same means ( se>*+ =
 !m40  ,e ye> 9 ! season :5 ?aw takes   
place1 ! va/ riv]s :i* desc5d to !      
,froz5 ,ocean 9 ! nor? ( ,sib]ia sweep  
d[n ) _! wat]s num]\s portions ( !      
banks1 & expose to view bones buri$ 9 ! 
soil & 9 ! excavations left by ! ru%+   
wat]s4 ,cuvi] gives a long li/ ( places 
9 ,russia 9 :i* int]e/+ discov]ies h be5
 made ( ,elephants' bones2 & x is       
c]ta9ly curi\s t ! m we advance t[>ds ! 
nor? 9 ,russia ! m num]\s & ext5sive d !
 bone depositories become4 ,9 spite ( ! 
(t-repeat$ & und\bt$ te/imony ( num]\s  
travell]s1 we c sc>cely cr$it ! /atem5ts
 made respect+ "s ( ! isl&s ( ! glacial 
sea ne> ! poles1 situat$ opposite ! m\? 
( ! ,l5a & ( ! ,indighirka4 ,"h1 =      
example1 is an extract f 8,bill+'s      
,voyage0 conc]n+ ^! isles3 8,! :ole isl&
 7:i* is ab\t ?irty-?ree leagues 9      
l5g?71 except ?ree or f\r small rocky   
m\nta9s1 is a mixture ( ice & s&2 & z ! 
%ores fall1 f ! heat ( ! sun's ?aw+ !m1 

! tusks & bones ( ! mammont are f\nd 9  
great abundance4 ,to use ,*vo9(f's own  
expression1 ! isl& is =m$ ( ! bones (   
?is extraord9>y animal1 mix$ ) ! horns &
 heads ( ! buffalo1 or some?+ l x1 & "s 
horns ( ! rh9oc]os40  ,new ,sib]ia & !  
,l*[ ,isl&s (f ! m\? ( ! riv] ,l5a1 are1
 = ! mo/ "p1 only an agglom]ation ( s&1 
ice1 & ,elephants' tee?4 ,at e tempe/ ! 
sea ca/s a%ore new quantities ( mammo?s'
 tusks1 & ! inhabitants ( ,sib]ia c>ry  
on a pr(itable comm]ce 9 ?is fossil     
ivory4 ,e ye>1 dur+ ! summ]1 innum]able 
fi%]m5's b>ks direct _! c\rse t[>ds ?is 
isle ( bones2 &1 dur+ w9t]1 imm5se      
c>avans take ! same r\te1 all ! convoys 
drawn by dogs1 return+ *>g$ ) ! tusks ( 
! ,mammo?1 ea* weigh+ f #aej to #bjj    
p\nds4 ,! fossil ivory ?us )drawn f !   
froz5 nor? is import$ into ,*9a &       
,europe1 :]e x is employ$ = ! same      
purposes z ord9>y ivory1 :i* is furni%$1
 z we "k1 by ! exi/+ ,elephant &        
,hippopotamus ( ,africa & ,asia4  ,!    
,isle ( ,bones has s]v$ z a qu>ry ( ?is 

valuable mat]ial1 = export to ,*9a1 =   
#ejj ye>s2 & x has be5 export$ to       
,europe = upw>ds ( #ajj4 ,b ! supply f  
^! /range digg+s app>5tly rema9s        
practically undim9i%$4 ,:at a numb] (   
accumulat$ g5]ations ( ^! bones & tusks 
does n ?is pr(usion imply6  ,x 0 9      
,sib]ia t ! fossil ,elephant receiv$ !  
"n ( ! ,mammo?1 & its tusks t ( mammo?  
horns4 ,! celebrat$ ,russian savant1    
,pallas1 :o gave ! fir/ sy/ematic       
description ( ! ,mammo?1 ass]ts t ! "n  
is d]iv$ f ! ^w mama1 :i* 9 ! ,t>t>     
idiom signifies ! e>?4 ,accord+ to o!rs1
 ! "n is d]iv$ f behemo?1 m5tion$ 9 !   
,book ( ,job2 or f ! epi!t mahemo?1 :i* 
! ,arabs add to ! ^w 8elephant10 to     
designate "o ( unusual size4 ,a curi\s  
circum/ance en\gh is1 t ?is same leg5d (
 an animal liv+ exclusively "u gr\nd1   
exi/s among/ ! ,*9ese4 ,!y call x       
ti5-s*u1 & we read1 9 ! great ,*9ese "w 
on natural hi/ory1 :i* 0 writt5 9 !     
sixte5? c5tury3 8,! animal nam$ ti5-s*u1
 ( :i* we h already spok5 9 ! anci5t "w 

^u ! c]emonial entitl$ 8,lyki0 7a "w ( !
 fif? c5tury be=e ,jesus ,*ri/71 is     
call$ also tyn-s*u or yn-s*u1 t is to   
say1 ! m\se :i* hides itself4 ,x always 
lives 9 subt]ranean cav]ns2 x resembles 
a m\se1 b is ( ! size ( a buffalo or ox4
 ,x has no tail2 its col\r is d>k2 x is 
v /rong1 & excavates cav]ns 9 places    
full ( rocks1 & =e/s40 ,ano!r writ]1    
quot+ ! same passage1 ?us expresses     
himself3 8,! tyn-s*u haunts obscure &   
unfrequ5t$ places4 ,x dies z soon z x is
 expos$ to ! rays ( ! sun or moon2 its  
feet are %ort 9 proportion to its size1 
:i* causes x to walk badly4 ,its tail is
 a ,*9ese ell 9 l5g?4 ,its eyes are     
small1 & its neck %ort4 ,x is v /upid & 
sluggi%4 ,:5 ! inundations ( ! riv]     
,tams*uann-tuy took place 79 #aega71 a  
great _m tyn-s*u appe>$ 9 ! pla92 x f$  
on ! roots ( ! plant fu-kia40  ,!       
exi/5ce 9 ,russia ( ! bones & tusks ( ! 
,mammo? is suffici5tly confirm$ by !    
foll[+ extract f an old ,russian        
travell]1 ,ysbrants ,ides1 :o1 9 #afib1 

0 s5t by ,pet] ! ,great z ambassador to 
! ,emp]or ( ,*9a4 ,9 ! extract :i*      
foll[s1 we rem>k ! v surpris+ fact ( !  
discov]y ( a head & foot ( ! ,mammo? :i*
 _h be5 pres]v$ 9 ice ) all ! fle%4     
8,among/ ! hills :i* are situate        
nor?-ea/ ( ! riv] ,kata10 says !        
travell]1 8! ,mammuts' tongues & legs   
are f\nd1 z !y are also p>ticul>ly on ! 
%ores ( ! riv] ,j5ize1 ,trugan1         
,mongamsea1 ,l5a1 & ne> ,jakutskoi1 ev5 
z f> z ! ,froz5 ,ocean4 ,9 ! spr+1 :5 ! 
ice ( ?is riv] breaks1 x is driv5 9 su* 
va/ quantities & ) su* =ce by ! high    
swoll5 wat]s1 t x frequ5tly c>ries v    
high banks be=e x1 & breaks (f ! tops ( 
hills1 :i*1 fall+ d[n1 discov] ^!       
animals :ole1 or _! tee? only1 almo/    
froz5 to ! e>?1 :i* ?aw by degrees4 ,i  
_h a p]son ) me :o _h annually gone out 
9 se>* ( ^! bones2 he told x to me z a  
real tru?1 t he & 8 companions f\nd !   
head ( "o ( ^! animals1 :i* 0 discov]$  
by ! fall ( su* a froz5 piece ( e>?4 ,z 
soon z he op5$ x1 he f\nd ! greate/ "p (

 ! fle% rott51 b x 0 n )\t difficulty t 
!y broke out 8 tee?1 :i* 7 plac$ 9 !    
=e-"p ( 8 m\?1 z ^? ( ! ,elephants are2 
!y also took "s bones out ( 8 head1 &   
aft]w>ds came to 8 =e-foot1 :i* !y cut  
(f1 & c>ri$ "p ( x to ! city ( ,trugan1 
! circumf]5ce ( x be+ z l>ge z t ( !    
wai/ ( an ord9>y man4 ,! bones ( ! head 
appe>$ some:at r$1 z ?\gh !y 7 t9ctur$ )
 blood4  8,conc]n+ ?is animal !re are v 
diff]5t reports4 ,! hea!ns ( ,jakuti1   
,tungusi1 & ,o/iacki1 say t !y          
cont9ually1 or at lea/1 by reason ( ! v 
h>d fro/s1 mo/ly live "u gr\nd1 :]e !y g
 backw>ds & =w>ds2 to confirm :i* !y    
tell u1 t !y h (t5 se5 ! e>? heav$ up :5
 "o ( ^! bea/s 0 ^u ! m>*1 & aft] he 0  
pass$1 ! place s9k 91 & !reby make a    
deep pit4 ,!y fur!r believe1 t if ?is   
animal comes s ne> to ! surface ( !     
froz5 e>? z to smell ! air1 he          
imm$iately dies1 :i* !y say is ! reason 
t sev]al ( !m are f\nd dead on ! high   
banks ( ! riv]1 :]e !y unaw>es came out 
( ! gr\nd4  8,?is is ! op9ion ( !       

,infidels conc]n+ ^! bea/s1 :i* are nev]
 se54  8,b ! old ,sib]ian ,russians     
affirm1 t ! ,mammu? is v l ! ,elephant1 
) ?is diff]5ce only1 t ! tee? ( ! =m]   
are firm]1 & n s /raight z ^? ( ! latt]4
 ,!y also are ( op9ion t !re 7          
,elephants 9 ?is c\ntry be=e ! ,deluge1 
:5 ?is climate 0 w>m]1 & t _! dr[n$     
bodies1 float+ on ! surface ( ! wat] ( t
 flood1 7 at la/ wa%$ & =c$ into        
subt]ranean cavities2 b t aft] ?is      
univ]sal deluge1 ! air1 :i* be=e 0 w>m1 
0 *ang$ to cold1 & t ^! bones h la9     
froz5 9 ! e>? ev] s9ce1 & s are pres]v$ 
f putrefaction till !y ?aw1 & come to   
light1 :i* is no v unreasonable         
conjecture1 ?\gh x is n absolutely      
necess>y t ?is climate %\ld h be5 w>m]  
be=e ! ,flood1 s9ce ! c>cases ( ! dr[n$ 
elephants 7 v likely to float f o!r     
places sev]al hundr$ miles di/ant to ?is
 c\ntry 9 ! great deluge :i* cov]$ !    
surface ( ! :ole e>?4 ,"s ( ^! tee?1 :i*
 d\btless h la9 ! :ole summ] on ! %ore1 
are entirely black & brok51 & c nev] be 

re/or$ to _! =m] condition4 ,b ^? :i*   
are f\nd 9 good case1 are z good z      
ivory1 & are accord+ly transport$ to all
 p>ts ( ,muscovy1 :]e !y are us$ to make
 combs1 & all o!r su*-l ?+s1 in/ead (   
ivory4  8,! above-m5tion$ p]son also    
told me t he once f\nd two tee? 9 "o    
head t weigh$ above twelve ,russian     
p\nds1 :i* am\nt to f\r hundr$ ,g]man   
p\nds2 s t ^! animals mu/ ( necessity be
 v l>ge1 ?\gh a great _m less] tee? are 
f\nd4 ,by all t ,i c\ld ga!r f ! hea!ns1
 no p]son ev] saw "o ( ^! bea/s alive1  
or c give any acc\nt ( its %ape2 s t all
 we he>d said on ?is subject arises f   
b>e conjecture only40  ,x is possible   
?is recital may seem suspici\s to "s    
read]s4 ,we h ourselves felt "s         
difficulty 9 believ+ t ?is head & foot 7
 tak5 f ! ice1 ) ! fle% & sk91 :5 we    
consid] t ! animal to :i* !y belong$ has
 be5 ext9ct probably m ?an t5 ?\s& ye>s4
 ,b ! ass]tion ( ,ysbrants ,ides is     
confirm$ by respectable te/imony ( m    
rec5t date4 ,9 #ahjj1 a ,russian        

naturali/1 ,gabriel ,s>yts*ew1 travell$ 
9 nor!rn ,sib]ia4 ,hav+ arriv$ 9 !      
neighb\rhood ( ! ,froz5 ,ocean1 he f\nd 
^u ! banks ( ! ,alasia1 :i* dis*>ges    
itself into ?is sea1 ! entire body ( a  
,mammo? envelop$ 9 a mass ( ice4 ,! body
 0 9 a complete /ate ( pres]vation1 = ! 
p]man5t contact ( ! ice _h kept out !   
air & prev5t$ decomposition4 ,x is well 
kn[n t at z]o & bel[ x1 animal sub/ances
 w n putrefy1 s t 9 our h\seholds we c  
pres]ve all k9ds ( animal food z long z 
we c surr\nd !m ) ice2 & ?is is         
precisely :at happ5$ to ! ,mammo? f\nd  
by ,gabriel ,s>yts*ew 9 ! ice ( !       
,alasia4 ,! roll+ wat]s _h dis5gag$ !   
mass ( ice :i* _h imprison$ ! mon/r\s   
pa*yd]m = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,! body1 9 a    
complete /ate ( pres]vation & cov]$ )   
its fle% z well z its entire hide1 to   
:i* long hairs adh]$ 9 c]ta9 places1    
f\nd itself1 aga91 ne>ly erect on its   
f\r feet4  ,! ,russian naturali/ ,adams1
 9 #ahjf1 made a discov]y q z           
extraord9>y z ! prec$+4 ,we borr[ 8     

acc\nt f a pap] by ,dr4 ,tilesius 9 !   
8,memoirs ( ! ,imp]ial ,academy (       
,sci5ces ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg0 7vol4 v474 ,9
 #agii1 a ,tungusian *ief1 ,ossip       
,s*uma*(f1 :ile seek+ = mammo?-horns on 
! banks ( ! lake ,onc\l1 p]ceiv$ among !
 blocks ( ice a %apeless mass1 n at all 
resembl+ ! l>ge pieces ( float+ wood :i*
 are commonly f\nd !re4 ,! foll[+ ye> he
 notic$ t ?is mass 0 m dis5gag$ f !     
blocks ( ice1 & _h two project+ p>ts1 b 
he 0 /ill unable to make out :at x c\ld 
be4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! foll[+ summ] "o    
entire side ( ! animal & "o ( 8 tusks 7 
q free f ! ice4 ,b ! succe$+ summ] (    
#ahjb1 :i* 0 less w>m & m w9dy ?an      
common1 caus$ ! ,mammo? to rema9 buri$ 9
 ! ice1 :i* _h sc>cely melt$ at all4 ,at
 l5g?1 t[>ds ! end ( ! fif? ye> 7#ahjc71
 ! ice betwe5 ! e>? & ! ,mammo? hav+    
melt$ fa/] ?an ! re/1 ! plane ( its     
support became incl9$2 & ?is enorm\s    
mass fell by its own weight on a bank ( 
s&4 ,9 ! mon? ( ,m>*1 #ahjd1 ,s*uma*(f  
cut (f ! horns 7! tusks71 :i* he ex*ang$

 ) ! m]*ant ,bult5( = goods ( ! value ( 
fifty r\bles 7n q eight p\nds /]l+74 ,x 
0 n till two ye>s aft] ?is t ,mr4       
,adams1 ( ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy1 :o 
0 travell+ ) ,c\nt ,golovk91 s5t by !   
,cz> ( ,russia on an embassy to ,*9a1   
hav+ be5 told at ,jakutsk ( ! discov]y (
 an animal ( extraord9>y magnitude on ! 
%ores ( ! ,froz5 ,ocean1 ne> ! m\? ( !  
riv] ,l5a1 betook himself to ! place4   
,he f\nd ! ,mammo? /ill 9 ! same place1 
b altoge!r mutilat$4 ,! ,jak\tskis ( !  
neighb\rhood _h cut (f ! fle%1 ) :i* !y 
f$ _! dogs2 wild bea/s1 su* z :ite be>s1
 wolves1 wolv]9es1 & foxes1 _h also f$  
^u x1 & traces ( _! foot/eps 7 se5      
ar\nd4 ,! skeleton1 almo/ entirely cle>$
 ( its fle%1 rema9$ :ole1 ) ! exception 
( "o =e-leg4 ,! sp9e ( ! back1 "o       
scapula1 ! pelvis1 & ! o!r ?ree limbs 7 
/ill held toge!r by ! ligam5ts & by p>ts
 ( ! sk92 ! o!r scapula 0 f\nd n f> (f4 
,! head 0 cov]$ ) a dry sk92 "o ( ! e>s 
0 furni%$ ) a tuft ( hairs2 ! balls ( ! 
eyes 7 /ill di/+ui%able2 ! bra9 /ill    

occupi$ ! cranium1 b seem$ dri$ up2 !   
po9t ( ! l[] lip _h be5 gnaw$ & ! upp]  
lip _h be5 de/roy$ s z to expose ! tee?2
 ! neck 0 furni%$ ) a long fl[+ mane2 ! 
sk91 ( a d>k-grey col\r1 cov]$ ) black  
hairs & a r$di% wool1 0 s heavy t t5    
p]sons f\nd great difficulty 9          
transport+ x to ! %ore4 ,!re 0 collect$1
 accord+ to ,mr4 ,adams1 m ?an ?irty-six
 p\nds' weight ( hair & wool :i* ! :ite 
be>s _h trod into ! gr\nd1 :ile dev\r+ !
 fle%4 ,?is ,mammo? 0 a male s fat &    
well f$1 accord+ to ! ass]tion ( !      
,tungusian *ief1 t its belly hung d[n   
bel[ ! jo9ts ( its knees4 ,its tusks 7  
n9e feet six in*es 9 l5g?1 measur$ along
 ! curve1 & its head )\t ! tusks weigh$ 
#dad p\nds avoirdupois4  ,mr4 ,adams    
took e c>e to collect all t rema9$ ( ?is
 unique specim5 ( an anci5t creation1 & 
=w>d$ ! p>ts to ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 a       
di/ance ( #aa1jjj v]/s 7#g1ccj miles74  
,he succe$$ 9 re-pur*as+ :at he believ$ 
to be ! tusks at ,jakutsk1 & ! ,emp]or (
 ,russia1 :o became ! own] ( ?is preci\s

 relic1 paid him #h1jjj r\bles4 ,!      
skeleton is deposit$ 9 ! ,museum ( !    
,academy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 & ! sk9 /ill 
rema9s atta*$ to ! head & ! feet4 8,we h
 yet to f9d10 says ,cuvi]1 8any         
individual equal to x40  ,illu/ration3  
,,xxvi4--,skeleton ( ! ,mammo? 9 ! ,/4  
,pet]sburg ,museum4  ,beside ! skeleton 
( ?is fam\s ,mammo? !re is plac$ t ( an 
,indian ,elephant1 & ano!r ,elephant )  
sk9 & hair1 9 ord] t ! visitor may h a  
prop] appreciation ( ! va/ proportions (
 ! ,mammo?1 z comp>$ ) !m4 ,,plate      
,,xxvi41 on ! opposite page1 repres5ts !
 saloon ( ! ,museum ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1   
:i* conta9s ^! ?ree int]e/+ rema9s4     
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,mammo?      
re/or$4  ,9 #ahfj a great numb] ( bones 
( ! ,mammo?1 ) rema9s ( ,hyna1 ,horse1  
,re9de]1 ,rh9oc]os-meg>h9us1 & ,bison1 7
 f\nd 9 ,belgium 9 digg+ a canal at     
,li]re1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,antw]p4 ,an      
entire skeleton ( a "y ,mammo?1 elev5   
feet six in*es high 7to ! %\ld]71 has   
be5 recon/ruct$ f ^! rema9s by ,m4      

,dupont1 & is n[ plac$ 9 ! ,royal       
,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9            
,brussels4#ih    #ih ,h4 ,woodw>d1      
,geological ,magaz9e1 vol4 viii41 p4    
#aic4  ,we _c d\bt1 aft] su* te/imony1 (
 ! exi/5ce 9 ! froz5 nor?1 ( ! almo/    
entire rema9s ( ! ,mammo?4 ,! animals   
seem to h p]i%$ sudd5ly2 envelop$ 9 ice 
at ! mom5t ( _! dea?1 _! bodies h be5   
pres]v$ f decomposition by ! cont9u$    
action ( ! cold4 ,if we suppose t "o (  
^? animals _h sunk into a m>% :i* froze 
soon aft]w>ds1 or _h fall5 accid5tally  
into ! crevasse ( "s glaci]1 x w\ld be  
easy = u to und]/& h[ its body1 buri$   
imm$iately "u et]nal ice1 _h rema9$ !re 
= ?\s&s ( ye>s )\t und]go+              
decomposition4  ,9 ,cuvi]'s great "w on 
fossil bones1 he gives a long & m9ute   
enum]ation ( ! v>i\s regions ( ,g]many1 
,france1 ,italy1 & o!r c\ntries1 :i* h  
furni%$ 9 our days bones or tusks ( !   
,mammo?4 ,we v5ture to quote two ( ^!   
descriptions3--8,9 ,octob]1 #ahaf10 he  
says1 8!re 0 discov]$ at ,seilb]g1 ne>  

,can/adt1 9 ,wrtemb]g1 ne> :i* "s       
rem>kable discov]ies 7 made 9 #agjj1 a v
 rem>kable deposit1 :i* ! k+1 ,fr$]ick  
,i41 caus$ to be excavat$1 & its cont5ts
 collect$ ) ! greate/ c>e4 ,we are ev5  
assur$ t ! visit :i* ! pr9ce1 9 8 ard\r 
= all t 0 great1 paid to ?is spot1      
aggravat$ ! malady ( :i* he di$ a few   
days aft]4 ,an (fic]1 ,h]r ,natt]1      
comm5c$ "s excavations1 & 9 f\r-&-tw5ty 
h\rs discov]$ tw5ty-"o tee? or fragm5ts 
( tee? ( elephant1 mix$ ) a great numb] 
( bones4 ,! k+ hav+ ord]$ him to cont9ue
 ! excavations1 on ! second day !y came 
^u a gr\p ( ?irte5 tusks heap$ close ^u 
ea* o!r1 & along ) !m "s mol> tee?1 ly+ 
z if !y _h be5 pack$ artificially4 ,x 0 
on ?is discov]y t ! k+ caus$ himself to 
be transport$ ?i!r1 & ord]$ all !       
surr\nd+ soil to be dug up1 & e object  
to be c>efully pres]v$ 9 its orig9al    
position4 ,! l>ge/ ( ! tusks1 ?\gh x _h 
lo/ its po9ts & its roots1 0 /ill eight 
feet long & "o foot 9 diamet]4 ,_m      
isolat$ tusks 7 also f\nd1 ) a quantity 

( mol> tee?1 f two in*es to a foot 9    
l5g?1 "s /ill adh]+ to ! jaws4 ,all ^!  
fragm5ts 7 bett] pres]v$ ?an ^? ( #agjj1
 :i* 0 attribut$ to ! dep? ( ! b$1 &1   
p]haps1 to ! nature ( ! soil4 ,! tusks 7
 g5]ally mu* curv$4 ,9 ! same deposit "s
 bones ( ,horses & ,/ags 7 f\nd1 toge!r 
) a quantity ( tee? ( ! ,rh9oc]os1 &    
o!rs :i* 7 ?\ght to belong to a ,be>1 & 
"o specim5 :i* 0 attribut$ to ! ,tapir4 
,! place :]e ?is discov]y 0 made is nam$
 ,seilb]g2 x is ab\t #fjj paces f ! city
 ( ,can/adt1 b on ! opposite side ( !   
,neck]4  8,all ! great riv] bas9s (     
,g]many h1 l ^? ( ! ,neck]1 yield$      
fossil bones ( ! ,elephant2 ^?          
especially abutt+ on ! ,rh9e are too    
num]\s to be m5tion$1 nor is ,can/adt ! 
only place 9 ! valley ( ! ,neck] :]e !y 
are f\nd40  ,b ( all p>ts ( ,europe1 t 9
 :i* !y are f\nd 9 greate/ numb]s is !  
valley ( ! ,upp] ,arno4 ,we f9d !re a   
p]fect cemet]y ( ,elephants4 ,^! bones 7
 at "o "t s common 9 ?is valley1 t !    
peasantry employ$ !m1 indiscrim9ately ) 

/ones1 9 con/ruct+ walls & h\ses4 ,s9ce 
!y h le>n$ _! value1 h[ev]1 !y res]ve !m
 = sale to travell]s4  ,! bones & tusks 
( ! ,mammo? are met ) 9 ,am]ica z well z
 9 ! ,old ,_w1 scatt]$ ?r\gh ,canada1   
,oregon1 & ! ,nor!rn ,/ates z f> s\? z !
 ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,cuvi] enum]ates      
sev]al places on t cont95t :]e _! rema9s
 are met )1 m+l$ ) ^? ( ! ,ma/odon4 ,!  
,russian ,lieut5ant ,kotzebue f\nd !m on
 ! nor? coa/ ( ,am]ica1 9 ! cliffs (    
froz5 mud 9 ,es*%oltz ,bay1 )9 ,behr+'s 
,/rait1 & 9 o!r di/ant p>ts ( ! %ores ( 
! ,arctic ,seas1 :]e !y 7 s common t !  
sailors burnt _m pieces 9 _! fires4  ,x 
is v /range t ! ,ea/ ,indies1 t is1 "o (
 ! only two regions :i* is n[ ! home ( !
 ,elephant1 %\ld be almo/ ! only c\ntry 
9 :i* ! fossil bones ( ^! animals h n   
be5 discov]$4 ,9 %ort1 f ! prec$+       
enum]ation1 x appe>s t1 dur+ !          
geological p]iod ^: hi/ory we are       
record+ ! gigantic ,mammo? inhabit$ mo/ 
regions ( ! globe4 ,n[-a-days1 ! only   
climates :i* are suit$ = ! exi/+ race ( 

,elephants are ^? ( ,africa & ,india1 t 
is to say1 tropical c\ntries2 f :i* we  
mu/ draw ! conclusions to :i* s _m o!r  
inf]5ces lead1 t1 at ! epo* 9 :i* ^!    
animals liv$1 ! temp]ature ( ! e>? 0 mu*
 high] ?an 9 our days2 or1 m probably1 !
 ext9ct race ( ,elephants mu/ h be5     
adapt$ = liv+ 9 a cold] climate ?an t   
:i* !y n[ require4  ,among ! ant$iluvian
 ,c>nivora1 "o ( ! mo/ =midable seems to
 h be5 ! ,ursus spelu1 or ,cave-be>     
7,fig4 #ahc74 ,?is species mu/ h be5 a  
fif?1 if n a f\r?1 l>g] ?an ! ,br[n ,be>
 ( our days4 ,x 0 also m squat3 "s ( !  
skeletons we possess are f n9e to t5    
feet long1 & only ab\t six feet high4 ,!
 ,u4 spelu ab\nd$ 9 ,engl&1 ,france1    
,belgium1 & ,g]many2 & s ext5sively 9 ! 
latt] c\ntry1 t ! tee? ( ! ant$iluvian  
,be>1 z we h already /at$1 =m$ = a long 
"t "p ( its mat]ia m$ica1 "u ! "n (     
fossil licorn4 ,fig4 #ahc repres5ts !   
skull ( ! ,cave-be>4  ,at ! same "t ) ! 
,ursus spelu ano!r ,c>nivore1 ! ,felis  
spelu1 or ,cave-lion1 liv$ 9 ,europe4   

,?is animal is specifically id5tical ) !
 liv+ ,lion ( ,asia & ,africa3 b s9ce 9 
^! e>ly times he _h n to cont5d ) !     
hunt] = food1 he 01 on ! :ole1          
consid]ably l>g] ?an any ,lion n[ exi/+ 
on ! e>?4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#ahc4--;,head ( ,ursus spelu4  ,! ,hynas
 ( our age consi/ ( two species1 ! /rip$
 & ! spott$ ,hynas4 ,! la/ pres5ts      
consid]able con=mity 9 its /ructure ) t 
( ! ,po/-plioc5e p]iod1 :i* ,cuvi]      
designates "u ! "n ( ! fossil ,spott$   
,hyna4 ,x seems to h be5 only a little  
l>g] ?an ! exi/+ species4 ,fig4 #ahd    
repres5ts ! head ( ! ,hyna spela1 ^:    
rema9s1 ) ^? ( o!rs1 7 f\nd 9 ! caves ( 
,kirkdale & ,k5t's ,hole2 ! rema9s (    
ab\t #cjj be+ f\nd 9 ! =m]4 ,dr4 ,buckl&
 satisfi$ himself1 f ! quantity ( _!    
dung1 t ! ,hynas _h liv$ !re4 ,9 ! cave 
7 f\nd rema9s ( ! ox1 "y elephant1      
rh9oc]os1 horse1 be>1 wolf1 h>e1        
wat]-rat1 & sev]al birds4 ,all ! bones  
pres5t an appe>ance ( hav+ be5 brok5 &  
gnaw$ by ! tee? ( ! ,hynas1 & !y occur  

confus$ly mix$ 9 loam or mud1 or disp]s$
 ?r\gh ! cru/ ( /alagmite :i* cov]$ !   
cont5ts ( ! cave4  ,! ,horse dates f !  
,quat]n>y epo*1 if n f ! la/ p]iod ( !  
,t]ti>y epo*4 ,its rema9s are f\nd 9 !  
same rocks ) ^? ( ! ,mammo? & !         
,rh9oc]os4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f our exi/+   
,horse only by its size1 :i* 0          
small]--its rema9s ab\nd 9 !            
,po/-plioc5e rocks1 n only 9 ,europe1 b 
9 ,am]ica2 s t an aborig9al ,horse exi/$
 9 ! ,new ,_w long be=e x 0 c>ri$ ?i!r  
by ! ,spani>ds1 al?\gh we "k t x 0      
unkn[n at ! date ( _! arrival4 8,c]ta9ly
 x is a m>vell\s fact 9 ! hi/ory ( !    
,mammalia1 t 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 a native   
horse %\ld h liv$ & disappe>$1 to be    
succe$$ 9 aft] ages by ! c\ntless h]ds  
desc5d$ f ! few introduc$ ) ! ,spani%   
coloni/s60#ii    #ii 8,d>w9's ,j\rnal10 
p4 #acj4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4           
#ahd4--;,head ( ,hyna spela4  ,! ,ox5 ( 
! p]iod1 if n id5tical )1 7 at lea/ v   
ne> to our liv+ species4 ,!re 7 ?ree    
species3 ! ,bison priscus1 ,b4          

primig5ius1 & ,b4 ,pallasii2 ! fir/ )   
sl5d] legs1 ) convex frontal1 broad] ?an
 x 0 high1 & diff]+ b slightly f !      
,auro*s1 except 9 be+ tall] & by hav+   
l>g] horns4 ,! rema9s ( ,bison priscus  
are f\nd 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,italy1     
,g]many1 ,russia1 & ,am]ica4 ,bison     
primig5ius 01 accord+ to ,cuvi]1 ! s\rce
 ( our dome/ic cattle4 ,! ,bos ,pallasii
 is f\nd 9 ,am]ica & 9 ,sib]ia1 &       
resembles 9 _m respects ! ,musk-ox (    
,canada4  ,:]e ^! great ,mammals are    
f\nd we g5]ally discov] ! fossil rema9s 
( sev]al species ( ,de]4 ,!             
palontological "q z reg>ds ^! animals is
 v obscure1 & x is (t5 difficult to     
det]m9e :e!r ! rema9s belong to an      
ext9ct or an exi/+ species4 ,?is d\bt   
does n ext5d1 h[ev]1 to ! gigantic      
=e/-/ag1 ,c]vus megac]os1 "o ( ! mo/    
magnific5t ( ! ant$iluvian animals1 ^:  
rema9s are /ill frequ5tly f\nd 9 ,irel& 
9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,dubl92 m r>ely 9    
,france1 ,g]many1 ,pol&1 & ,italy4      
,int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,fall[-de] & !     

,elk1 ! ,c]vus megac]os p>takes ( ! ,elk
 9 its g5]al proportions & 9 ! =m ( its 
cranium1 b x approa*es ! ,fall[-de] 9   
its size & 9 ! disposition ( its horns4 
,^! magnific5t app5dages1 h[ev]1 :ile !y
 decorat$ ! head ( ! animal & gave a mo/
 impos+ appe>ance to x1 mu/ h sadly     
imp$$ its progress ?r\gh ! ?ick & tangl$
 =e/s ( ! anci5t _w4 ,! l5g? ( ^! horns 
0 betwe5 n9e & t5 feet2 & !y 7 s div]g5t
 t1 measur$ f "o extremity to ! o!r1 !y 
occupi$ a space ( betwe5 ?ree & f\r     
y>ds4  ,! skeleton ( ! ,c]vus megac]os  
is f\nd 9 ! deposits ( calc>e\s tufa1   
:i* und]lie ! imm5se peat moss ( ,irel&2
 sometimes 9 ! turf itself1 z ne> !     
,curragh 9 ,kild>e2 9 :i* position !y   
sometimes occur 9 little m\nds pil$ up 9
 a small space1 & ne>ly always 9 ! same 
attitude1 ! head al(t1 ! neck /ret*$    
out1 ! horns rev]s$ & ?r[n d[nw>ds t[>ds
 ! back1 z if ! animal1 sudd5ly imm]s$  
into m>%y gr\nd1 _h be5 "u ! necessity (
 ?r[+ up its head 9 se>* ( respirable   
air4 ,9 ! ,geological ,cab9et ( !       

,sorbonne1 at ,p>is1 !re is a magnific5t
 skeleton ( ,c]vus megac]os2 ano!r      
belongs to ! ,college ( ,surgeons 9     
,london2 & !re is a ?ird at ,vi5na4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,! mo/ rem>kable creatures ( ! p]iod1   
h[ev]1 7 ! great ,ed5tates--!           
,glyptodon1 ! gigantic ,mega!rium1 !    
,mylodon & ! ,megalonyx4 ,! ord] (      
,ed5tates is m p>ticul>ly *>act]is$ by !
 abs5ce ( tee? 9 ! =e "p ( ! m\?4 ,!    
ma/icat+ app>atus ( ! ,ed5tates consi/s 
only ( mol>s1 ! incisors & can9e tee?   
be+1 ) a few exceptions1 abs5t altoge!r1
 z ! animals compos+ ?is ord] fe$ *iefly
 on insects or ! t5d] leaves ( plants4  
,! ,armadillo1 ,anteat] & ,pangol91 are 
! liv+ examples ( ! ord]4 ,we may add1 z
 /ill fur!r *>act]i/ics1 l>gely develop$
 claws at ! extremities ( ! toes4 ,!    
ord] seems ?us to e/abli% itself z a    
zoological l9k 9 ! *a9 betwe5 ! ho($    
,mammals & ! ungulat$ animals1 or ^?    
arm$ ) claws4 ,all ^! animals are       
peculi> to ! cont95t ( ,am]ica4  ,!     

,glyptodon1 :i* appe>s dur+ ! ,quat]n>y 
p]iod1 belong$ to ! family (            
,armadilloes1 & _! mo/ rem>kable feature
 0 ! pres5ce ( a h>d1 scaly %ell1 or    
coat ( mail six feet 9 l5g?1 & compos$ (
 num]\s segm5ts1 :i* cov]$ ! entire upp]
 s]vice ( ! animal f ! head to ! tail4  
,x 01 9 %ort1 a mammif]\s animal1 :i*   
appe>s to h be5 enclos$ 9 a %ell l t ( a
 ,turtle2 x resembl$ 9 _m respects !    
,dasypus or ,anteat]1 & _h sixte5 tee? 9
 ea* jaw4 ,^! tee? 7 *annell$ lat]ally )
 two broad & deep grooves1 :i* divid$ ! 
surface ( ! mol>s into ?ree p>ts1 :5ce x
 0 nam$ ! ,glyptodon4 ,! h9d feet 7     
broad & massive1 & evid5tly design$ to  
support a va/ incumb5t mass2 x pres5t$  
phalanges arm$ ) %ort ?ick & depress$   
nails or claws4 ,! animal 01 z we h     
said1 envelop$ 91 & protect$ by1 a      
cuirass1 or solid c>apace1 compos$ (    
plates :i*1 se5 f b5ea?1 appe>$ to be   
hexagonal & unit$ by d5ticulat$ sutures3
 above !y repres5t$ d\ble rosettes4 ,!  
habitat ( ,glyptodon clavipes 0 ! pampas

 ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 & ! banks ( an afflu5t
 ( ! ,rio ,santo1 ne> ,monte ,video2    
specim5s h be5 f\nd n less ?an n9e feet 
9 l5g?4  ,! tesselat$ c>apace ( !       
,glyptodon 0 long ?\ght to belong to !  
,mega!rium2 b ,pr(essor ,ow5 %[s1 f !   
anatomical /ructure ( ! two animals1 t !
 cuirass belong$ to "o ( !m only1       
namely1 ! ,glyptodon4  ,! ,s*i/opleuron 
does n diff] ess5tially f ! ,glyptodon1 
b is suppos$ to h be5 a diff]5t species 
( ! same g5us2 ! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 ! 
two animals be+ 9 ! /ructure ( ! tail1  
:i* is massive 9 ! fir/ & 9 ! o!r       
compos$ ( half a score ( r+s4 ,9 o!r    
respects ! organisation & habits are    
simil>1 bo? be+ h]bivor\s1 & fe$+ on    
roots & vegetables4 ,fig4 #ahe repres5ts
 ! ,s*i/opleuron typus re/or$1 & z x    
appe>$ :5 alive4  ,"s ( ! fossil        
,tortoises discov]$ 9 ! sub-,himalayan  
b$s possess$ a c>apace twelve feet long 
by six feet 9 bread?1 :i* mu/ h         
correspond$ to an animal f eighte5 to   
tw5ty feet 9 l5g?2 & ! bones ( ! legs 7 

z massive z ^? ( ! ,rh9oc]os4  ,!       
,mega!rium1 or ,animal ( ,p>aguay1 z x 0
 call$1 is1 at fir/ view1 ! odde/ & mo/ 
rem>kable animal we h yet _h "u         
consid]ation1 :]e all h be51 accord+ to 
our notions1 /range1 extraord9>y1 &     
=midable4 ,! animal creation /ill goes  
on z if--      8,nature made !m & !n    
broke ! die40  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4      
#ahe4--,s*i/opleuron typus4 ,"o-tw5tie? 
natural size4  ,illu/ration3            
,,xxvii4--,skeleton ( ! ,mega!rium      
7,clift74  ,if we ca/ a glance at !     
skeleton figur$ on ! opposite page      
7,,plate ,,xxvii471 :i* 0 f\nd 9        
,p>aguay1 at ,bu5os ,ayres1 9 #aghh1 &  
:i* is n[ plac$1 9 a p]fect /ate (      
pres]vation1 9 ! ,museum ( ,natural     
,hi/ory 9 ,madrid1 x is impossible to   
avoid be+ /ruck ) its unusually heavy   
=m1 at once awkw>d z a :ole1 & pond]\s 9
 mo/ ( its p>ts4 ,x is alli$ to ! exi/+ 
g5us ( ,slo?s1 :i* ,buffon tells u is 8(
 all ! animal creation t :i* has receiv$
 ! mo/ vici\s organisation--a be+ to :i*

 ,nature has =bidd5 all enjoym5t2 :i*   
has only be5 creat$ = h>d%ips & mis]y40 
,?is notion ( ! romantic ,buffon is1    
h[ev]1 altoge!r incorrect4 ,an att5tive 
exam9ation ( ! ,animal ( ,p>aguay %[s t 
its organisation _c be consid]$ ei!r odd
 or awkw>d :5 view$ 9 connection ) its  
mode ( life & individual habits4 ,!     
special organisation :i* r5d]s !        
movem5ts ( ! ,slo?s s sluggi%1 &        
app>5tly s pa9ful on level gr\nd1 gives 
!m1 on ! o!r h&1 m>vell\s assi/ance :5  
!y live 9 trees1 ! leaves ( :i*         
con/itute _! exclusive food4 ,9 ! same  
mann]1 if we consid] t ! ,mega!rium 0   
creat$ to burr[ 9 ! e>? & fe$ ^u ! roots
 ( trees & %rubs1 e organ ( its heavy   
frame w\ld appe> to be p]fectly         
appropriate to its k9d ( life1 & well   
adapt$ to ! special purpose :i* 0       
assign$ to x by ! ,creator4 ,we ought to
 place ! ,mega!rium betwe5 ! ,slo?s & ! 
,anteat]s4 ,l ! fir/1 x usually f$ on ! 
bran*es & leaves ( trees2 l ! latt]1 x  
burr[$ deep 9 ! soil1 f9d+ !re bo? food 

& %elt]4 ,x 0 z l>ge z an ,elephant or  
,rh9oc]os ( ! l>ge/ species4 ,its body  
measur$ twelve or ?irte5 feet 9 l5g?1 & 
x 0 betwe5 five & six feet high4 ,!     
engrav+ on page #djc 7,,plate ,,xxvii47 
w convey1 m accurately ?an any m]e v]bal
 description1 an idea ( ! =m &          
proportions ( ! animal4  ,! ,engli%     
read] is *iefly indebt$ to ! zeal &     
en]gy ( ,sir ,woodb9e ,p>i% = ! mat]ials
 f :i* our naturali/s h be5 enabl$ to   
re-con/ruct ! hi/ory ( ! ,mega!rium4 ,! 
rema9s collect$ by him 7 f\nd 9 ! riv]  
,salado1 :i* runs ?r\gh ! flat alluvial 
pla9s call$ ,pampas to ! s\? ( ! city ( 
,bu5os ,ayres4 ,a succession ( ?ree     
unusually dry seasons _h l[]$ ! wat]s to
 su* a degree z to expose "p ( ! pelvis 
to view1 z ! skeleton /ood upright 9 !  
mud =m+ ! b$ ( ! riv]4 ,fur!r inquiries 
l$ to ! discov]y ( ! rema9s ( two o!r   
skeletons ne> ! place :]e ! fir/ _h be5 
f\nd2 & ) !m an imm5se %ell or c>apace 0
 met )1 mo/ ( ! bones associat$ ) :i*   
crumbl$ to pieces on exposure to ! air4 

,! osse\s /ructure ( ?is enorm\s animal1
 z furni%$ by ,mr4 ,clift1 an em95t     
anatomi/ ( ! day1 & "u ^: sup]9t5d5ce ! 
skeleton 0 drawn1 mu/ h exce$$ f\rte5   
feet 9 l5g?1 & upw>ds ( eight feet 9    
height4 ,! deeply %ad$ p>ts ( ! figure  
%[ ! portions :i* are defici5t 9 !      
,madrid skeleton4  ,cuvi] po9t$ out t ! 
skull v mu* resembl$ t ( ! ,slo?s1 b t !
 re/ ( ! skeleton bore relation%ip1     
p>tly to ! ,slo?s1 & p>tly to !         
,anteat]s4  ,! l>ge bones1 :i* desc5d f 
! zygomatic ar* along ! *eek-bones1 w\ld
 furni% a p[]ful means ( atta*+ ! motor 
muscles ( ! jaws4 ,! ant]ior "p ( !     
muzzle is fully develop$1 & riddl$ )    
holes = ! passage ( ! n]ves & vessels   
:i* mu/ h be5 !re1 n = a trunk1 :i* w\ld
 h be5 useless to an animal furni%$ ) a 
v long neck1 b = a sn\t analog\s to t ( 
! ,tapir4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4          
#ahf4--,skeleton ( ,mega!rium =e%ort5$4 
,! jaw & d5tal app>atus _c be exactly   
/at$1 because ! numb] ( tee? 9 ! l[] jaw
 is n kn[n4 ,! upp] jaw1 ,pr(essor ,ow5 

has %[n1 conta9$ five mol>s on ea* side2
 & f comp>ison & analogy ) !            
,scelido!rium x may be conjectur$ t !   
,mega!rium _h f\r on ea* side ( ! l[]   
jaw4 ,be+ )\t incisors or can9es1 !     
/ructure ( its eighte5 mol>s proves t x 
0 n c>nivor\s3 !y ea* resemble !        
composite mol>s ( ! ,elephant4          
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--;,bones ( !  
pelvis ( ! ,mega!rium4  ,! v]tebr ( !   
neck 7z exhibit$ 9 ! =e%ort5$ figure    
7,fig4 #ahf71 tak5 f ! "w ( ,p&] &      
,d',alton1 & %[+ ne>ly a front view ( ! 
head71 z well z ! ant]ior & po/]ior     
extremities ( ! ,madrid skeleton1 al?\gh
 p[]ful1 are n to be comp>$ 9 dim5sions 
to ^? ( ! o!r extremity ( ! body2 = !   
head seems to h be5 relatively light &  
def5celess4 ,! lumb> v]tebr increase 9 a
 degree correspond+ to ! enorm\s        
enl>gem5t ( ! pelvis & ! po/]ior memb]s4
 ,! v]tebr ( ! tail are enorm\s1 z is   
se5 9 ,fig4 #ahg1 :i* repres5ts ! bones 
( ! pelvis & h9d foot1 discov]$ by ,sir 
,woodb9e ,p>i%1 & n[ 9 ! ,museum ( !    

,college ( ,surgeons4 ,if we add to ^!  
osse\s organs ! muscles1 t5dons1 &      
integum5ts :i* cov]$ !m1 we mu/ admit t 
! tail ( ! ,mega!rium c\ld n be less ?an
 two feet 9 diamet]4 ,x is probable t1 l
 ! ,armadillo1 x employ$ ! tail to assi/
 9 support+ ! enorm\s weight ( its body2
 x w\ld also be a =midable def5sive     
organ :5 employ$1 z is ! case ) !       
,pangol9s & ,crocodiles4 ,! =e-feet w\ld
 be ab\t ?ree feet long & "o foot broad4
 ,!y w\ld =m a p[]ful implem5t =        
excavat+ ! e>?1 to ! greate/ dep?s at   
:i* ! roots ( vegetables p5etrate4 ,!   
=e-feet re/$ on ! gr\nd to _! full l5g?4
 ,?us solidly support$ by ! two h9d-feet
 & ! tail1 & 9 advance by "o ( !        
=e-feet1 ! animal c\ld employ ! =e-foot 
left at lib]ty 9 cle>+ away ! e>?1 9    
digg+ up ! roots ( trees1 or 9 te>+ d[n 
! bran*es2 ! toes ( ! =e-feet 71 = ?is  
purpose1 furni%$ ) l>ge & p[]ful claws1 
:i* lie at an oblique angle relatively  
to ! gr\nd1 mu* l ! burr[+ talons ( !   
mole4  ,! solidity & size ( ! pelvis mu/

 h be5 enorm\s2 its imm5se iliac bones  
are ne>ly at "r angles ) ! v]tebral     
column2 _! ext]nal edges are di/ant m   
?an a y>d & a half f ea* o!r :5 ! animal
 is /&+4 ,! femur is ?ree times !       
?ickness ( ! ?igh-bone ( ! ,elephant1 & 
! _m peculi>ities ( /ructure 9 ?is bone 
appe> to h be5 int5d$ to give solidity  
to ! :ole frame1 by means ( its %ort &  
massive proportions4 ,! two bones ( !   
leg are1 l ! femur1 %ort1 ?ick1 & solid2
 pres5t+ proportions :i* we only meet ) 
9 ! ,armadilloes & ,anteat]s2 burr[+    
animals ) :i*1 z we h said1 its two     
extremities seem to connect x4  ,!      
anatomical organisation ( ^! memb]s     
d5otes heavy1 sl[1 & p[]ful locomotion1 
b solid & admirable comb9ations =       
support+ ! weight ( an enorm\s s$5t>y   
creature2 a sort ( excavat+ ma*9e1 sl[ (
 motion b ( incalculable p[] = its own  
purposes4 ,9 %ort1 ! ,mega!rium exce$$ 9
 dim5sions all exi/+ ,ed5tates4 ,x _h ! 
head & %\ld]s ( ! ,slo?1 ! feet & legs  
comb9$ ! *>act]i/ics ( ! ,anteat]s &    

,slo?s1 ( enorm\s size1 s9ce x 0 at lea/
 twelve feet long :5 full gr[n1 its feet
 arm$ ) gigantic claws1 & its tail at   
once a means ( support+ its huge body & 
an in/rum5t ( def5ce4 ,an animal built )
 su* massive proportions c\ld evid5tly  
nei!r creep nor run2 its walk w\ld be   
excessively sl[4 ,b :at necessity 0 !re 
= rapid movem5t 9 a be+ only occupi$ 9  
burr[+ "u ! e>?1 seek+ = roots1 & :i*   
w\ld consequ5tly r>ely *ange its place8 
,:at ne$ _h x ( agility to fly f its    
enemies1 :5 x c\ld ov]?r[ ! ,crocodile )
 a sweep ( its tail8 ,secure f ! attacks
 ( o!r animals1 ?is robu/ h]bivor\s     
creature1 ( :i* ,figure #ahh is a       
re/oration1 mu/ h liv$ peacefully &     
respect$ 9 ! solit>y pampas ( ,am]ica4  
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,mega!rium   
re/or$4  ,! imm$iate cause ( ! ext9ction
 ( ! ,mega!rium is1 probably1 to be f\nd
 9 causes :i* are /ill 9 op]ation 9 ,s\?
 ,am]ica4 ,! p]iod betwe5 ! ye>s #ahbg &
 #ahcj is call$ ! 8gran seco10 or !     
great dr\ght1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica2 & accord+ 

to ,d>w91 ! loss ( cattle 9 ! prov9ce ( 
,bu5os ,ayres alone 0 calculat$ at      
#a1jjj1jjj head4 ,"o proprietor at ,san 
,p$ro1 9 ! middle ( ! f9e/              
pa/ure-c\ntry1 _h lo/ #bj1jjj cattle    
previ\sly to ^? ye>s4 8,i 0 in=m$ by an 
eyewitness10 he adds1 8t ! cattle1 9    
h]ds ( ?\s&s1 ru%$ into ! ,p>ana1 &1 be+
 exhau/$ by hung]1 !y 7 unable to crawl 
up ! muddy banks1 & ?us 7 dr[n$4 ,! arm 
( ! riv] :i* runs by ,san ,p$ro 0 s full
 ( putrid c>cases1 t ! ma/] ( a vessel  
told me t ! smell r5d]$ x q impassable4 
,all ! small riv]s became highly sal9e1 
& ?is caus$ ! dea? ( va/ numb]s 9       
p>ticul> spots2 = :5 an animal dr9ks (  
su* wat] x does n recov]4 ,az>a         
describes ! fury ( ! wild horses on a   
simil> occasion3 ru%+ into ! m>%es1 ^?  
:i* arriv$ fir/ be+ ov]:elm$ & cru%$ by 
^? :i* foll[$40#ajj ,! upright position 
9 :i* ! v>i\s specim5s ( ,mega!ria 7    
f\nd indicates "s su* cause ( dea?2 z if
 ! pond]\s animal1 approa*+ ! banks ( ! 
riv]1 :5 %runk )9 its banks1 _h be5     

bogg$ 9 s(t mud1 suffici5tly adhesive to
 hold x !re till x p]i%$4    #ajj       
8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es10 c41 #bnd ed41 p4 
#acc4 ,*>les ,d>w94  ,l ! ,mega!rium1 ! 
,mylodon closely resembl$ ! ,slo?1 & x  
belong$ exclusively to ! ,new ,_w4      
,small] ?an ! ,mega!rium1 x diff]$ f x  
*iefly 9 ! =m ( ! tee?4 ,^! organs      
pres5t$ only mol>s ) smoo? surfaces1    
indicat+ t ! animal f$ on vegetables1   
probably ! leaves & t5d] buds ( trees4  
,z ! ,mylodon pres5ts at once ho(s &    
claws on ea* foot1 x has be5 ?\ght t x  
=m$ ! l9k betwe5 ! ho($1 or ungulat$    
animals & ! ,ed5tates4 ,?ree species are
 kn[n1 :i* liv$ 9 ! pampas ( ,bu5os     
,ayres4  ,9 consequ5ce ( "s h9ts giv5 by
 ! illu/ri\s ,wa%+ton1 ,mr4 ,jeff]son1  
"o ( 8 successors z ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$
 ,/ates1 discov]$1 9 a cav]n ( ,we/]n   
,virg9ia1 ! bones ( a species ( gigantic
 ,slo?1 :i* he pron\nc$ to be ! rema9s (
 "s c>nivor\s animal4 ,!y consi/$ ( a   
femur1 a hum]us1 an ulna1 & ?ree claws1 
) half a doz5 o!r bones ( ! foot4 ,^!   

bones ,mr4 ,jeff]son believ$ to be      
analog\s to ^? ( ! lion4 ,cuvi] saw at  
once ! true analogies ( ! animal4 ,!    
bones 7 ! rema9s ( a species ( gigantic 
,slo?2 ! complete skeleton ( :i* 0      
subsequ5tly discov]$ 9 ! ,mississippi1 9
 su* a p]fect /ate ( pres]vation t !    
c>tilages1 /ill adh]+ to ! bones1 7 n   
decompos$4 ,jeff]son call$ ?is species !
 ,megalonyx4 ,x resembl$ 9 _m respects !
 ,slo?4 ,its size 0 t ( ! l>ge/ ox2 !   
muzzle 0 po9t$2 ! jaws 7 arm$ )         
cyl9drical tee?2 ! ant]ior limbs mu*    
long] ?an ! po/]ior2 ! articulation ( ! 
foot oblique to ! leg2 two great toes1  
%ort1 & arm$ ) long & v p[]ful claws2 ! 
index f+] m sl5d]1 & arm$ also ) a less 
p[]ful claw2 ! tail /rong & solid3 su* 7
 ! sali5t po9ts ( ! organisation ( !    
,megalonyx1 ^: =m 0 a little slight] ?an
 t ( ! ,mega!rium4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 
#ahi4--,mylodon robu/us4  ,! c\ntry 9   
:i* ! ,mega!rium has be5 f\nd is        
describ$ by ,mr4 ,d>w9 z belong+ to !   
great ,pampean =mation1 :i* consi/s     

p>tly ( a r$di% clay & 9 "p ( a highly  
calc>e\s m>ly rock4 ,ne> ! coa/ !re are 
"s pla9s =m$ f ! wreck ( ! upp] pla91 & 
f mud1 gravel1 & s& ?r[n up by ! sea    
dur+ ! sl[ elevation ( ! l&1 z %[n by ! 
rais$ b$s ( rec5t %ells4 ,at ,punta     
,alta !re is a highly-int]e/+ section ( 
"o ( ! lat]-=m$ little pla9s1 9 :i* _m  
rema9s ( ^! gigantic l&-animals h be5   
f\nd4 ,^! 71 says ,mr4 ,d>w93--8,fir/1  
p>ts ( ?ree heads & o!r bones ( !       
,mega!rium1 ! huge dim5sions ( :i* are  
express$ by its "n4 ,secondly1 !        
,megalonyx1 a great alli$ animal4       
,?irdly1 ! ,scelido!rium1 also an alli$ 
animal1 ( :i* ,i obta9$ a ne>ly p]fect  
skeleton3 x mu/ h be5 z l>ge z a        
rh9oc]os2 9 ! /ructure ( its head x     
comes1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ow51 ne>e/ 
to ! ,cape ,anteat]1 b 9 "s o!r respects
 x approa*es to ! ,armadilloes4 ,f\r?ly1
 ! ,mylodon ,d>w9ii1 a closely relat$   
g5us1 ( little inf]ior size4 ,fif?ly1   
ano!r gigantic ed5tal quadrup$4 ,six?ly1
 a l>ge animal ) an osse\s coat1 9      

comp>tm5ts1 v l t ( an armadillo4       
,sev5?ly1 an ext9ct k9d ( horse4        
,eigh?ly1 a too? ( a pa*yd]mat\s animal1
 probably ! same ) ! ,macrau*5ia1 a huge
 bea/ ) a long neck l a camel4 ,la/ly1 !
 ,toxodon1 p]haps "o ( ! /range/ animals
 ev] discov]$2 9 size x equall$ an      
,elephant or ,mega!rium1 b ! /ructure ( 
its tee?1 z ,pr(essor ,ow5 /ates1 proves
 indisputably t x 0 intimately relat$ to
 ! ,gnaw]s1 ! ord] :i*1 at ! pres5t day1
 includes mo/ ( ! smalle/ quadrup$s2 9  
_m details x is alli$ to ! pa*yd]mata2  
judg+ f ! position ( its eyes1 e>s1 &   
no/rils1 x 0 probably aquatic1 l !      
,dugong & ,manatee1 to :i* x is alli$4  
,h[ wond]fully are ! diff]5t ord]s--at !
 pres5t "t s well sep>at$--bl5d$ toge!r 
9 diff]5t po9ts 9 ! /ructure ( !        
,toxodon60#aja    #aja 8,j\rnal (       
,rese>*es10 c41 by ,*>les ,d>w91 p4 #ha4
  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aij4--,l[] jaw ( 
! ,mylodon4  ,! rema9s on :i* our k ( ! 
,scelido!rium is f\nd$ include !        
cranium1 :i* is ne>ly entire1 ) ! tee? &

 "p ( ! os hyoides1 sev5 c]vical1 eight 
dorsal1 & five sacral v]tebr1 bo? !     
scapul1 & "s o!r bones4 ,! rema9s ( !   
cranium indicate t its g5]al =m 0 an    
elongat$ sl5d] compress$ cone1 beg9n+   
beh9d by a flatt5$ v]tical base1 exp&+  
slightly to ! *eek-bone1 & !nce         
contract+ to ! ant]ior extremity4 ,all  
^! p>ts 7 discov]$ 9 _! natural relative
 positions1 indicat+1 z ,mr4 ,d>w9      
obs]ves1 t ! gravelly =mation 9 :i* !y 7
 discov]$ _h n be5 di/urb$ s9ce its     
deposition4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4        
#aia4--,skull ( ,scelido!rium4  ,! l[]  
jaw-bone ( ,mylodon1 :i* ,mr4 ,d>w9     
discov]$ at ! base ( ! cliff call$      
,punta ,alta1 9 ,nor!rn ,patagonia1 _h !
 tee? entire on bo? sides2 !y are       
implant$ 9 deep sockets1 & only ab\t    
"o-six? ( ! la/ mol> projects above !   
alveolus1 b ! proportion ( ! expos$ "p  
increases gradually 9 ! inn] tee? 7,fig4
 #aia74  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4            
#aib4--;,d9ornis1 & ,bos4  8,! habits ( 
life ( ^! ,mega!roid animals 7 a        

complete puzzle to naturali/s1 until    
,pr(essor ,ow5 solv$ ! problem )        
rem>kable +5uity4 ,! tee? indicate1 by  
_! simple /ructure1 t ^! ,mega!roid     
animals liv$ on vegetable food1 &       
probably on ! leaves & small twigs (    
trees2 _! pond]\s =ms & great /rong     
curv$ claws seem s little adapt$ =      
locomotion1 t "s em95t naturali/s h     
actually believ$ t1 l ! ,slo?s1 to :i*  
!y are intimately relat$1 !y subsi/$ by 
climb+ back d[nw>ds1 on trees1 & fe$+ on
 ! leaves4 ,x 0 a bold1 n to say        
prepo/]\s idea to conceive ev5          
ant$iluvian trees ) bran*es /rong en\gh 
to be> animals z l>ge z elephants4      
,pr(essor ,ow51 ) f> m probability1     
believes t1 in/ead ( climb+ on ! trees1 
!y pull$ ! bran*es d[n to !m1 & tore up 
! small] ones by ! roots1 & s f$ on !   
leaves4 ,! colossal bread? & weight ( _!
 h9d] qu>t]s1 :i* c h>dly be imag9$ )\t 
hav+ be5 se51 become1 on ?is view1 (    
obvi\s s]vice in/ead ( be+ an           
encumbrance2 _! app>5t clums9ess        

disappe>s4 ,) _! great tails & _! huge  
heels firmly fix$ l a tripod 9 ! gr\nd1 
!y c\ld freely ex]t ! full =ce ( _! mo/ 
p[]ful arms & great claws4 ,! ,mylodon1 
moreov]1 0 furni%$ ) a long ext5sile    
tongue1 l t ( ! giraffe1 :i* by "o ( ^? 
beautiful provisions ( ,nature1 ?us     
rea*es1 ) ! aid ( its long neck1 its    
leafy food40#ajb    #ajb 8,j\rnal (     
,rese>*es10 c41 by ,*>les ,d>w91 #bnd   
ed41 p4 #ha4  ,illu/ration3             
,,xxviii4--,ideal ,european ,l&scape 9 !
 ,quat]n>y ,epo*4         99       99   
99       99       99  ,two gigantic     
birds seem to h liv$ 9 ,new ,zeal& dur+ 
! ,quat]n>y epo*4 ,! ,d9ornis1 :i*1 if  
we may judge f ! tibia1 :i* is upw>ds ( 
?ree feet long1 & f its eggs1 :i* are   
mu* l>g] ?an ^? ( ! ,o/ri*1 mu/ h be5 ( 
mo/ extraord9>y size = a bird4 ,9 ,fig4 
#aib an attempt is made to re/ore ?is   
fe>fully great bird1 ! ,d9ornis4 ,z to !
 ,epiornis1 its eggs only h be5 f\nd4   
,on ! opposite page 7,,plate ,,xxviii47 
an attempt is made to repres5t !        

appe>ance ( ,europe dur+ ! epo* we h "u 
consid]ation4 ,! ,be> is seat$ at ! m\? 
( its d5--! cave 7?us rem9d+ u ( ! orig9
 ( its "n ( ,ursus spelu71 :]e x gnaws !
 bones ( ! ,elephant4 ,above ! cav]n !  
,hyna spela looks out1 ) savage eye1 = !
 mom5t :5 x w be prud5t to dispute      
possession ( ^! rema9s ) its =midable   
rival4 ,! great ,wood-/ag1 ) o!r great  
animals ( ! epo*1 occupies ! f>!/ %ore (
 a small lake1 :]e "s small hills rise  
out ( a valley cr[n$ ) ! trees & %rubs (
 ! p]iod4 ,m\nta9s1 rec5tly upheav$1    
rise on ! di/ant horizon1 cov]$ ) a     
mantle ( froz5 sn[1 rem9d+ u t ! glacial
 p]iod is approa*+1 & has already begun 
to manife/ itself4  ,all ^! fossil      
bones1 belong+ to ! great ,mammalia :i* 
we h be5 describ+1 are f\nd 9 !         
,quat]n>y =mation2 b ! mo/ abundant (   
all are ^? ( ! ,elephant & ! ,horse4 ,! 
extreme pr(usion ( ! bones ( ! ,mammo?1 
cr[d$ into ! m rec5tly =m$ deposits ( ! 
globe1 is only surpass$ by ! prodigi\s  
quantity ( ! bones ( ! ,horse :i* are   

buri$ 9 ! same b$s4 ,! s+ul> abundance (
 ! rema9s ( ^! two animals proves t1    
dur+ ! ,quat]n>y epo*1 ! e>? gave       
n\ri%m5t to imm5se h]ds ( ! ,horse & !  
,elephant4 ,x is probable t f "o pole to
 ! o!r1 f ! equator to ! two extremities
 ( ! axis ( ! globe1 ! e>? mu/ h =m$ a  
va/ & b\ndless prairie1 :ile an imm5se  
c>pet ( v]dure cov]$ its :ole surface2 &
 su* abundant pa/ures w\ld be absolutely
 necess>y to su/a9 ^! prodigi\s numb]s (
 h]bivor\s animals ( great size4  ,! m9d
 c sc>cely realise ! imm5se & v]dant    
pla9s ( ?is e>li] _w1 animat$ by !      
pres5ce ( an inf9ity ( su* inhabitants4 
,9 its burn+ temp]ature1 ,pa*yd]ms (    
mon/r\s =ms1 b ( peaceful habits1       
trav]s$ ! tall vegetation1 compos$ (    
grasses ( all sorts4 ,de] ( gigantic    
size1 _! heads ornam5t$ ) enorm\s horns1
 escort$ ! heavy h]ds ( ! ,mammo?2 :ile 
! ,horse1 small 9 size & compact ( =m1  
gallop$ & frisk$ r\nd ^! magnific5t     
horizons ( v]dure :i* no human eye _h   
yet contemplat$4  ,nev]!less1 all 0 n   

quiet & tranquil 9 ! l&scapes ( ! anci5t
 _w4 ,voraci\s & =midable c>nivor\s     
animals wag$ a bloody w> on ! in(f5sive 
h]ds4 ,! ,tig]1 ! ,lion1 & ! f]oci\s    
,hyna2 ! ,be>1 & ! ,jackal1 !re select$ 
_! prey4 ,on ! opposite page an endeav\r
 is made to repres5t ! great animals    
among ! ,ed5tates :i* inhabit$ !        
,am]ican pla9s dur+ ! ,quat]n>y epo*    
7,,plate ,,xxix74 ,we obs]ve !re !      
,glyptodon1 ! ,mega!rium1 ! ,mylodon1 &1
 along ) !m1 ! ,ma/odon4 ,a small ,ape  
7! ,or?opi!cus71 :i* fir/ appe>$ 9 !    
,mioc5e p]iod1 occupies ! bran* ( a tree
 9 ! l&scape4 ,! vegetation is t (      
tropical ,am]ica at ! pres5t "t4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,! deposits ( ?is age1 :i* are ( lat]   
date ?an ! ,crag1 & ( e>li] date ?an !  
,b\ld] ,clay1 ) its fragm5ts ( rocks    
frequ5tly transport$ f great di/ances1  
are class$ "u ! t]m 8pre-glacial40      
,aft] ! deposition ( ! ,=e/ ,b$1 :i* is 
se5 ov]ly+ ! ,crag = miles betwe5 high &
 l[-wat] m>k1 on ! %ore we/ ( ,crom]1 9 

,norfolk1 !re 0 a g5]al r$uction (      
temp]ature1 & a p]iod ( int5se cold1    
kn[n z ! 8glacial p]iod10 seems to h set
 91 dur+ :i* a great "p ( :at is n[ !   
,briti% ,isl&s 0 cov]$ ) a ?ick coat+ ( 
ice1 & probably unit$ ) ! ,cont95t4  ,at
 ?is "t ,engl& s\? ( ! ,bri/ol ,*annel  
7! e/u>y ( ! ,sev]n71 & ! ,?ames1 appe>s
 to h be5 above wat]4 ,! nor!rn "p ( !  
c\ntry1 & ! high-gr\nd g5]ally ( ,brita9
 & ,irel& 7 cov]$ ) glid+ glaci]s1 by ^:
 gr9d+ action ! :ole surface became     
m\ld$ & worn into its pres5t %ape1 :ile 
! float+ iceb]gs :i* broke (f at !      
sea-side f ^! glaci]s1 convey$ away &   
dropp$ on ! b$ ( ! sea ^? fragm5ts (    
rocks & ! gravel & o!r e>?y mat]ials :i*
 are n[ g5]ally recognis$ z glacial     
accumulations4  ,9 all directions1      
h[ev]1 pro(s are be+ gradually obta9$ t1
 ab\t ?is p]iod1 movem5ts ( subm]sion "u
 ! sea 7 9 progress1 all nor? ( !       
,?ames4  ,illu/ration3 ,,xxix4--,ideal  
,am]ican ,l&scape 9 ! ,quat]n>y ,epo*4  
,ramsay po9ts out indications1 fir/ ( an

 int5sely cold p]iod1 :5 l& 0 mu* m     
elevat$ ?an x is n[2 !n ( subm]g5ce     
b5ea? ! sea2 &1 la/ly1 re-elevation     
att5d$ by glacial action4 8,:5 we speak 
( ! vegetation & quadrup$s ( ,crom] ,=e/
 be+ pre-glacial10 says ,lyell1 8we     
m]ely mean t _! =mation prec$$ ! era ( !
 g5]al subm]g5ce ( ! ,briti% ,isles     
b5ea? ! wat]s ( ! glacial sea4 ,!       
successive deposits se5 9 direct        
sup]position on ! ,norfolk coa/10 adds  
,sir ,*>les1 8imply at fir/ ! preval5ce 
ov] a wide area ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e ,sea4
 ,aft]w>ds1 ! b$ ( ! sea 0 conv]t$ into 
dry l&1 & und]w5t sev]al oscillations ( 
level1 s z to be1 fir/1 dry l& support+ 
a =e/2 !n an e/u>y2 !n aga9 l&2 &1      
f9ally1 a sea ne> ! m\? ( a riv]1 till !
 d[nw>d movem5t became s great z to     
conv]t ! :ole area into a sea (         
consid]able dep?1 9 :i* mu* float+ ice1 
c>ry+ mud1 s&1 & b\ld]s melt$1 lett+ its
 bur!n fall to ! bottom4 ,f9ally1 ov] ! 
till ) b\ld]s /ratifi$ drift 0 =m$2 aft]
 :i*1 b n until ! total subsid5ce am\nt$

 to m ?an #djj feet1 an upw>d movem5t   
began1 :i* re-elevat$ ! :ole c\ntry1 s t
 ! l[e/ ( ! t]re/rial =mations1 or ! =e/
 b$1 0 br\ght up to ne>ly its pri/9e    
level1 9 su* a mann] z to be expos$ at a
 l[ tide4 ,bo? ! desc5d+ & asc5d+       
movem5t seem to h be5 v gradual40       
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aic4--,palophognos 
,gesn]i4 ,fossil ,toad4   ,,european    
,,deluges4  ,! ,t]ti>y =mations1 9 _m   
p>ts ( ,europe1 ( m or less ext5t1 are  
cov]$ by an accumulation ( het]og5e\s   
deposits1 fill+ up ! valleys1 & compos$ 
( v v>i\s mat]ials1 consi/+ mo/ly (     
fragm5ts ( ! neighb\r+ rocks4 ,!        
erosions :i* we rem>k at ! bottoms ( !  
hills1 & :i* h greatly enl>g$ already   
exi/+ valleys2 ! m\nds ( gravel         
accumulat$ at "o po9t1 & :i* is =m$ (   
roll$ mat]ials1 t is to say1 ( fragm5ts 
( rocks worn smoo? & r\nd by cont9ual   
friction dur+ a long p]iod1 9 :i* !y h  
be5 transport$ f "o po9t to ano!r--all  
^! signs indicate t ^! d5udations ( !   
soil1 ^! displacem5ts & transport ( v   

heavy bodies to great di/ances1 are due 
to ! viol5t & sudd5 action ( l>ge       
curr5ts ( wat]4 ,an imm5se wave has be5 
?r[n sudd5ly on ! surface ( ! e>?1 mak+ 
great ravages 9 its passage1 furr[+ !   
e>? & driv+ be=e x dbris ( all sorts 9  
its disord]ly c\rse4 ,geologi/s give !  
"n ( diluvium to a =mation ?us remov$ & 
scatt]$1 :i*1 f its het]og5e\s nature1  
br+s "u our eyes1 z x 71 ! rapid passage
 ( an impetu\s torr5t--a ph5om5on :i* is
 commonly designat$ z a deluge4  ,to :at
 cause are we to attribute ^! sudd5 &   
app>5tly tempor>y invasions ( ! e>?'s   
surface by rapid curr5ts ( wat]8 ,9 all 
probability to ! upheaval ( "s va/ ext5t
 ( dry l&1 to ! =mation ( "s m\nta9 or  
m\nta9-range 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! sea1  
or ev5 9 ! b$ ( ! sea itself4 ,! l&     
sudd5ly elevat$ by an upw>d movem5t ( ! 
t]re/rial cru/1 or by ! =mation ( ridges
 & furr[s at ! surface1 has1 by its     
reaction1 viol5tly agitat$ ! wat]s1 t is
 to say1 ! m mobile portion ( ! globe4  
,by ?is new impulse ! wat]s h be5 ?r[n )

 great viol5ce ov] ! e>?1 inundat+ !    
pla9s & valleys1 & = ! mom5t cov]+ !    
soil ) _! furi\s waves1 m+l$ ) ! e>?1   
s&1 & mud1 ( :i* ! deva/at$ di/ricts h  
be5 d5ud$ by _! abrupt invasion4 ,!     
ph5om5on has be5 sudd5 b brief1 l !     
upheaval ( ! m\nta9 or *a9 ( m\nta9s1   
:i* is presum$ to h be5 ! cause ( x2 b x
 0 (t5 repeat$3 witness ! valleys :i*   
occur 9 e c\ntry1 especially ^? 9 !     
neighb\rhood ( ,lyons & ( ! ,durance4   
,^! /rata indicate z _m successive      
deposits4 ,besides ?is1 ! displacem5t ( 
blocks ( m9]als f _! normal position is 
pro(1 n[ p]fectly recognisable1 ( ?is   
great ph5om5on4  ,!re h be51 d\btless1  
dur+ ! epo*s ant]ior to ! ,quat]n>y     
p]iod ( :i* we write1 _m deluges su* z  
we are consid]+4 ,m\nta9s & *a9s (      
m\nta9s1 ?r\gh all ! ages we h be5      
describ+1 7 =m$ by upheaval ( ! cru/    
into ridges1 :]e x 0 too ela/ic or too  
?ick to be fractur$4 ,ea* ( ^!          
subt]ranean commotions w\ld be          
provocative ( mom5t>y irruptions ( !    

waves4  ,b ! visible te/imony to ?is    
ph5om5on--! liv+ pro(s ( ?is d5udation1 
( ?is te>+ away ( ! soil1 are f\nd n[h]e
 s /rik+ly z 9 ! b$s sup]impos$1 f> &   
ne>1 ^u ! ,t]ti>y =mations1 & :i* be> ! 
geological "n ( diluvium4 ,?is t]m 0    
long employ$ to designate :at is n[     
bett] kn[n z ! 8b\ld]0 =mation1 a       
glacial deposit :i* is abundant 9       
,europe nor? ( ! #ej?1 & 9 ,am]ica nor? 
( ! #dj?1 p>allel1 & re-appe>+ aga9 9 ! 
s\!rn hemisph]e2 b altoge!r abs5t 9     
tropical regions4 ,x consi/s ( s& &     
clay1 sometimes /ratifi$1 mix$ ) r\nd$ &
 angul> fragm5ts ( rock1 g5]ally d]iv$ f
 ! same di/rict2 & _! orig9 has g5]ally 
be5 ascrib$ to a s]ies ( diluvial waves 
rais$ by hurricanes1 e>?quakes1 or !    
sudd5 upheaval ( l& f ! b$ ( ! sea1 :i* 
_h swept ov] cont95ts1 c>ry+ ) !m va/   
masses ( mud & heavy /ones1 & =c+ ^!    
/ones ov] rocky surfaces s z to poli% & 
impress !m ) furr[s & /ri4 ,o!r         
circum/ances occurr$1 h[ev]1 to e/abli% 
a connection betwe5 ?is =mation & !     

glacial drift4 ,! size & numb] ( !      
erratic blocks increase z we travel     
t[>ds ! ,arctic regions2 "s intimate    
association exi/s1 !re=e1 betwe5 ?is    
=mation & ! accumulations ( ice & sn[   
:i* *>act]ise ! approa*+ glacial p]iod4 
,z we h already /at$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is  
*apt]1 !re is v di/9ct evid5ce ( two    
successive deluges 9 our hemisph]e dur+ 
! ,quat]n>y epo*4 ,! two may be di/+ui%$
 z ! ,european ,deluge & ! ,asiatic4 ,! 
two ,european deluges occurr$ prior to !
 appe>ance ( man2 ! ,asiatic deluge     
happ5$ aft] t ev5t2 & ! human race1 !n 9
 ! e>ly days ( its exi/5ce1 c]ta9ly     
suff]$ f ?is cataclysm4 ,9 ! pres5t     
*apt] we conf9e ourselves to ! two      
cataclysms :i* ov]:elm$ ,europe 9 !     
,quat]n>y epo*4  ,! fir/ occurr$ 9 !    
nor? ( ,europe1 :]e x 0 produc$ by !    
upheaval ( ! m\nta9s ( ,norway4 ,comm5c+
 9 ,sc&9avia1 ! wave spread & c>ri$ its 
ravages into ^? regions :i* n[ con/itute
 ,sw$51 ,norway1 ,european ,russia1 & ! 
nor? ( ,g]many1 sweep+ be=e x all !     

loose soil on ! surface1 & cov]+ ! :ole 
( ,sc&9avia--all ! pla9s & valleys (    
,nor!rn ,europe--) a mantle ( transport$
 soil4 ,z ! regions 9 ! mid/ ( :i* ?is  
great m\nta9\s upheaval occurr$--z !    
seas surr\nd+ ^! va/ spaces 7 p>tly     
froz5 & cov]$ ) ice1 f _! elevation &   
neighb\rhood to ! pole--! wave :i* swept
 ^! c\ntries c>ri$ along ) x enorm\s    
masses ( ice4 ,! %ock1 produc$ by !     
collision ( ^! sev]al solid blocks (    
froz5 wat]1 w\ld only contribute to     
increase ! ext5t & int5sity ( ! ravages 
occasion$ by ?is viol5t cataclysm1 :i*  
is repres5t$ 9 ,,plate ,,xxx4  ,!       
physical pro( ( ?is deluge ( ! nor? (   
,europe exi/s 9 ! accumulation (        
un/ratifi$ deposits :i* cov]s all !     
pla9s & l[ gr\nds ( ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,on
 & 9 ?is deposit are f\nd num]\s blocks 
:i* h receiv$ ! *>act]i/ic & significant
 "n ( erratic blocks1 & :i* are         
frequ5tly ( consid]able size4 ,^! become
 m *>act]i/ic z we asc5d to high]       
latitudes1 z 9 ,norway1 ,sw$51 & ,d5m>k1

 ! s\!rn bord]s ( ! ,baltic1 & 9 !      
,briti% ,isl&s g5]ally1 9 all ( :i*     
c\ntries deposits ( m>9e fossil %ells   
occur1 :i* prove ! subm]g5ce ( l>ge     
areas ( ,sc&9avia1 ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 &
 o!r regions dur+ p>ts ( ! glacial      
p]iod4 ,"s ( ^! rocks1 *>act]is$ z      
erratic1 are ( v consid]able volume2    
su*1 = in/ance1 is ! granite block :i*  
=ms ! p$e/al ( ! /atue ( ,pet] ! ,great 
at ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 ,?is block 0 f\nd 9 !
 int]ior ( ,russia1 :]e ! :ole =mation  
is ,p]mian1 & its pres5ce !re c only be 
expla9$ by suppos+ x to h be5 transport$
 by "s va/ iceb]g1 c>ri$ by a diluvial  
curr5t4 ,?is hypo!sis alone enables u to
 acc\nt = ano!r block ( granite1 weigh+ 
ab\t #cdj tons1 :i* 0 f\nd on ! s&y     
pla9s 9 ! nor? ( ,prussia1 an imm5se    
model ( :i* 0 made = ! ,b]l9 ,museum4 ,!
 la/ ( ^! erratic blocks deposit$ 9     
,g]many cov]s ! grave ( ,k+ ,gu/avus    
,adolphus1 ( ,sw$51 kill$ at ! battle ( 
,lutz51 9 #afcb4 ,he 0 int]r$ b5ea? !   
rock4 ,ano!r simil> block has be5 rais$ 

9 ,g]many into a monum5t to ! geologi/  
,leopold von ,bu*4  ,illu/ration3       
,,xxx4--,deluge ( ! ,nor? ( ,europe4    
,^! erratic blocks :i* are met ) 9 !    
pla9s ( ,russia1 ,pol&1 & ,prussia1 & 9 
! ea/]n p>ts ( ,engl&1 are compos$ (    
rocks entirely =eign to ! region :]e !y 
are f\nd4 ,!y belong to ! prim>y rocks (
 ,norway2 !y h be5 transport$ to _!     
pres5t sites1 protect$ by a cov]+ ( ice1
 by ! wat]s ( ! nor!rn deluge4 ,h[ va/  
mu/ h be5 ! impulsive =ce :i* c\ld c>ry 
su* enorm\s masses across ! ,baltic1 & s
 f> inl& z ! places :]e !y h be5        
deposit$ = ! surprise ( ! geologi/ or ! 
contemplation ( ! ?\ghtful6         99  
99       99       99       99  ,! second
 ,european deluge is suppos$ to h be5 ! 
result ( ! =mation & upheaval ( ! ,alps4
 ,x has fill$ ) dbris & transport$      
mat]ial ! valleys ( ,france1 ,g]many1 & 
,italy ov] a circumf]5ce :i* has ! ,alps
 = its c5tre4 ,! pro(s ( a great        
convulsion at a comp>atively rec5t      
geological date are num]\s4 ,! ,alps may

 be f eighty to #ajj miles across1 & !  
probabilities are t _! exi/5ce is due1 z
 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell supposes1 to a      
succession ( unequal movem5ts ( upheaval
 & subsid5ce2 t ! ,alp9e region _h be5  
expos$ = c\ntless ages to ! action ( ra9
 & riv]s1 & t ! l>g] valleys 7 (        
pre-glacial times1 is highly probable4  
,9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! *a9 "s ( ! ,prim>y    
fossilif]\s rocks1 z well z ,oolitic &  
,cretace\s rocks1 & ev5 ,t]ti>y         
deposits1 are obs]vable2 b 9 ! c5tral   
,alps ^! disappe>1 & m rec5t rocks1 9 "s
 places ev5 ,eoc5e /rata1 graduate into 
metamorphic rocks1 9 :i* ,oolitic1      
,cretace\s1 & ,eoc5e /rata h be5 alt]$  
into granul> m>ble1 gneiss1 & o!r       
metamorphic s*i/s2 %[+ t eruptions      
cont9u$ aft] ! deposit ( ! ,middle      
,eoc5e =mations4 ,aga91 9 ! ,swiss &    
,savoy ,alps1 ,oolitic & ,cretace\s     
=mations h be5 elevat$ to ! height (    
#ab1jjj feet1 & ,eoc5e /rata #aj1jjj    
feet above ! level ( ! sea2 :ile 9 !    
,ro?al1 9 ! ,b]nese ,alps1 occurs a mass

 ( gneiss #a1jjj feet ?ick betwe5 two   
/rata conta9+ ,oolitic fossils4         
,besides ^! pro(s ( rec5t upheaval1 we c
 trace effects ( two diff]5t k9ds1      
result+ f ! p[]ful action ( masses (    
wat] viol5tly displac$ by ?is gigantic  
upheaval4 ,at fir/ broad tracks h be5   
holl[$ out by ! diluvial waves1 :i* h1  
at ^! po9ts1 =m$ deep valleys4 ,aft]w>ds
 ^! valleys h be5 fill$ up by mat]ials  
d]iv$ f ! m\nta9 & transport$ into !    
valley1 ^! mat]ials consi/+ ( r\nd$     
pebbles1 argillace\s & s&y mud1 g5]ally 
calc>e\s & f]rif]\s4 ,?is d\ble effect  
is exhibit$1 ) m or less di/9ctness1 9  
all ! great valleys ( ! c5tre & s\? (   
,france4 ,! valley ( ! ,g>onne is1 9    
respect to ^! ph5om5a1 classic gr\nd1 z 
x 74  ,z we leave ! little city (       
,muret1 ?ree successive levels w be     
obs]v$ on ! left bank ( ! ,g>onne4 ,!   
l[e/ ( ! ?ree is t ( ! valley1 prop]ly s
 call$2 :ile ! l(tie/ corresponds to !  
plateau ( ,sa9t-,gaud5s4 ,^! ?ree levels
 are di/9ctly m>k$ 9 ! ,t\l\sean c\ntry1

 :i* illu/rates ! diluvial ph5om5a 9 a  
rem>kable fa%ion4 ,! city ( ,t\l\se     
reposes ^u a slight em95ce ( diluvial   
=mation4 ,! flat diluvial plateau       
contra/s /rongly ) ! r\nd$ hills (      
,gascony & ,langu$oc4 ,!y are ess5tially
 con/itut$ ( a b$ ( gravel1 =m$ ( r\nd$ 
or oval pebbles1 & aga9 cov]$ ) s&y &   
e>?y deposits4 ,! pebbles are pr9cipally
 qu>tzose1 br[n or black ext]nally1 mix$
 ) portions ( h>d 8,old ,r$0 & ,new ,r$ 
,s&/one4 ,! s(t e>? :i* accompanies !   
pebbles & gravel is a mixture (         
argillace\s s& ( a r$ or yell[ col\r1   
caus$ by ! oxide ( iron :i* ent]s into  
its composition4 ,9 ! valley1 prop]ly s 
call$1 we f9d ! pebbles aga9 associat$ )
 o!r m9]als :i* are r>e at ! high]      
levels4 ,"s tee? ( ! ,mammo?1 &         
,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us1 h be5 f\nd at      
sev]al po9ts on ! bord]s ( ?is valley4  
,! small valleys1 tribut>y to ! pr9cipal
 valley1 w\ld appe> to h be5 excavat$   
second>ily1 p>tly out ( diluvial        
deposits1 & _! alluvium1 ess5tially     

e>?y1 has be5 =m$ at ! exp5se ( !       
,t]ti>y =mation1 & ev5 ( ! diluvium     
itself4 ,among o!r celebrat$ sites1 !   
diluvial =mation is l>gely develop$ 9   
,sicily4 ,! anci5t temple ( ! ,p>!non at
 ,a!ns is built on an em95ce =m$ (      
diluvial e>?4  ,9 ! valley ( ! ,rh9e1 9 
,alsace1 & 9 _m isolat$ p>ts ( ,europe1 
a p>ticul> sort ( diluvium =ms ?ick b$s2
 x consi/s ( a yell[i%-grey mud1 compos$
 ( argillace\s matt] mix$ ) c>bonate (  
lime1 qu>tzose & micace\s s&1 & oxide ( 
iron4 ,?is mud1 t]m$ by geologi/s loess1
 atta9s 9 "s places consid]able         
?ickness4 ,x is recognisable 9 !        
neighb\rhood ( ,p>is4 ,x rises a little 
bo? on ! "r & left1 above ! base ( !    
m\nta9s ( ! ,black ,=e/ & ( ! ,vosges2 &
 =ms ?ick b$s on ! banks ( ! ,rh9e4  ,! 
fossils conta9$ 9 diluvial deposits     
consi/1 g5]ally1 ( t]re/rial1 lacu/r9e1 
or fluviatile %ells1 = ! mo/ "p belong+ 
to species /ill liv+4 ,9 p>ts ( ! valley
 ( ! ,rh9e1 betwe5 ,b+5 & ,basle1 !     
fluviatile loam or loess1 n[ "u         

consid]ation1 is se5 =m+ hills sev]al   
hundr$ feet ?ick1 & conta9+1 "h & !re1  
?r\gh\t t ?ickness1 l& & fre%-wat]      
%ells2 f :i* x seems necess>y to        
suppose1 accord+ to ,lyell1 fir/1 a "t  
:5 ! loess 0 sl[ly accumulat$1 !n a lat]
 p]iod1 :5 l>ge portions ( x 7 remov$--&
 foll[$ by movem5ts ( oscillation1      
consi/+1 fir/1 ( a g5]al depression1 &  
!n ( a gradual re-elevation ( ! l&4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,we h already notic$ ! cav]ns 9 :i* su* 
extraord9>y accumulations ( animal      
rema9s 7 discov]$3 x w n be out ( place 
to give "h a rsum ( ! /ate ( our k      
conc]n+ bone-caves & bone-breccias4  ,! 
bone-caves are n simply cavities holl[$ 
out ( ! rock2 !y g5]ally consi/ ( num]\s
 *amb]s or cav]ns communicat+ ) ea* o!r 
by n>r[ passages 7(t5 ( consid]able     
l5g?7 :i* c only be trav]s$ by creep+4  
,"o 9 ,mexico ext5ds sev]al leagues4    
,p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable 9 ,europe is t (
 ,gail5reu? 9 ,franconia4 ,! ,h>z       
m\nta9s conta9 _m f9e cav]ns2 among     

o!rs1 ^? ( ,s*>rfeld & ,baumann's ,hohl1
 9 :i* _m bones ( ,hyna1 ,be>s1 & ,lions
 h be5 f\nd toge!r4 ,! ,kirkdale ,cave1 
s well kn[n f ! description giv5 ( x by 
,dr4 ,buckl&1 ly+ ab\t tw5ty-five miles 
nor?-nor?-ea/ ( ,york1 0 ! burial-place1
 z we h /at$1 ( at lea/ #cjj ,hynas     
belong+ to individuals ( diff]5t ages2  
besides conta9+ "s o!r rema9s1 mo/ly    
tee? 7^? ( ! ,hyna except$7 belong+ to  
rum9at+ animals4 ,buckl& /ates t ! bones
 ( all ! o!r animals1 ^? ( ! ,hynas n   
except$1 7 gnaw$4 ,he also notic$ a     
p>tial poli% & we>+ away to a           
consid]able dep? ( "o side ( _m ( ! be/ 
pres]v$ specim5s ( tee? & bones1 :i* c  
only be acc\nt$ = by ref]r+ ! p>tial    
de/ruction to ! cont9ual tread+ ( !     
,hynas1 & ! rubb+ ( _! sk9 on ! side t  
lay upp]mo/ at ! bottom ( ! d54  ,f ^!  
facts x w\ld appe> probable t ! ,cave at
 ,kirkdale 01 8dur+ a long succession ( 
ye>s1 inhabit$ z a d5 by ,hynas1 & t !y 
dragg$ into its recesses ! o!r animal   
bodies1 ^: rema9s are f\nd mix$         

indiscrim9ately ) _! own40#ajc ,?is     
conjecture is made almo/ c]ta9 by !     
discov]y made by ,dr4 ,buckl& ( _m      
coprolites ( animals t _h f$ on bones1 z
 well z traces ( ! frequ5t passage ( ^! 
animals to or f ! entrance ( ! cav]n or 
d54 ,a mod]n naturali/ visit+ ! ,cav]n (
 ,adelsb]g1 9 ,c>niola1 trav]s$ a s]ies 
( *amb]s ext5d+ ov] ?ree leagues 9 !    
same direction1 & 0 only /opp$ 9 8      
subt]ranean discov]ies by com+ to a lake
 :i* occupi$ its entire bread?4    #ajc 
8,reliqui ,diluvian10 by ! ,rev4 ,w4    
,buckl&1 #ahbc1 p4 #ai4  ,! int]ior     
walls ( ! bone-caves are1 9 g5]al1 r\nd$
 (f1 & furr[$1 pres5t+ _m traces ( !    
erosive action ( wat]1 *>act]i/ics :i*  
frequ5tly escape obs]vation because !   
walls are cov]$ ) ! calc>e\s deposit    
call$ /alactite or /alagmite--t is1 )   
c>bonate ( lime1 result+ f ! deposition 
left by infiltrat+ wat]1 ?r\gh ! ov]ly+ 
lime/one1 into ! int]ior ( ! cav]n4 ,!  
=mation ( ! /alactite1 ) :i* _m ( !     
bones 7 incru/$ 9 ! ,cave ( ,gail5reu?1 

is ?us describ$ by ,liebig4 ,! lime/one 
ov] ! cav]n is cov]$ ) a ri* soil1 9 :i*
 ! vegetable matt] is cont9ually decay+4
 ,?is m\ld1 or humus1 be+ act$ on by    
moi/ure & air1 evolves c>bonic acid1 :i*
 is dissolv$ by ra94 ,! ra9-wat] ?us    
impregnat$1 p]meat+ ! por\s lime/one1   
dissolves a portion ( x1 & aft]w>ds1 :5 
! excess ( c>bonic acid evaporates 9 !  
cav]ns1 p>ts ) ! calc>e\s matt]1 & =ms  
/alactite--! /alactites be+ ! p5d5t     
masses ( c>bonate ( lime1 :i* hang 9    
picturesque =ms ei!r 9 cont9u\s %eets1  
giv+ ! cave & its sides ! appe>ance (   
be+ hung ) drap]y1 or l icicles susp5d$ 
f ! ro( ( ! cave1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat]      
p]colates2 :ile ^? =m$ on ! surface ( ! 
floor =m /alagmite4 ,^! calc>e\s        
products ornam5t ! walls ( ^! gloomy    
cav]ns 9 a mo/ brilliant & picturesque  
mann]4  ,"u a cov]+ ( /alagmite1 ! floor
 ( ! cave frequ5tly pres5ts deposits (  
mud & gravel4 ,x is 9 excavat+ ?is soil 
t ! bones ( ant$iluvian animals1 mix$ ) 
%ells1 fragm5ts ( rocks1 & roll$        

pebbles1 are discov]$4 ,! di/ribution ( 
^! bones 9 ! middle ( ! gravelly        
argillace\s mud is z irregul> z         
possible4 ,! skeletons are r>ely entire2
 ! bones d n ev5 occur 9 _! natural     
positions4 ,! bones ( small ,rod5ts are 
f\nd accumulat$ 9 ! crania ( great      
,c>nivora4 ,! tee? ( ,be>s1 ,hynas1 &   
,rh9oc]os are cem5t$ ) ! jaw-bones (    
,rum9ants4 ,! bones are v (t5 poli%$ &  
r\nd$1 z if !y _h be5 transport$ f great
 di/ances2 o!rs are fissur$2 o!rs1      
nev]!less1 are sc>cely alt]$4 ,_! /ate (
 pres]vation v>ies ) _! position 9 !    
cave4  ,! bones mo/ frequ5tly f\nd 9    
caves are ^? ( ! ,c>nivora ( ! ,quat]n>y
 epo*3 ! ,be>1 ,hyna1 ! ,lion1 & ,tig]4 
,! animals ( ! pla91 & notably ! great  
,pa*yd]ms--! ,mammo? & ,rh9oc]os--are   
only v r>ely met )1 & always 9 small    
numb]s4 ,f ! cav]n ( ,gail5reu? m ?an a 
?\s& skeletons h be5 tak51 ( :i* #hjj   
belong$ to ! l>ge ,ursus spelu1 & sixty 
to ! small] species1 ) #bjj ,hynas1     
,wolves1 ,lions1 & ,gluttons4 ,a jaw ( !

 ,glutton has lately be5 f\nd by ,mr4   
,t4 ,mc,k4 ,hughes 9 a cave 9 ! ,m\nta9 
,lime/one at ,plas ,heaton1 associat$ ) 
,wolf1 ,bison1 ,re9de]1 ,horse1 & ,cave 
,be>2 prov+ t ! ,glutton1 :i* at !      
pres5t day inhabits ,sib]ia & ! inclem5t
 nor!rn regions ( ,europe1 inhabit$     
,great ,brita9 dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e or     
,quat]n>y ,p]iod4 ,9 ! ,kirkdale cave ! 
rema9s1 z we h se51 includ$ ^? ( n less 
?an #cjj ,hynas ( all ages4 ,dr4 ,buckl&
 concludes1 f ^! circum/ances1 t !      
,hynas alone made ?is _! d51 & t ! bones
 ( o!r animals accumulat$ !re _h be5    
c>ri$ ?i!r by !m z _! prey2 x is1 h[ev]1
 n[ admitt$ t ?is "p ( ! ,engli%        
geologi/'s conclusions d n apply to !   
cont5ts ( all bone-caves4 ,9 "s in/ances
 ! bones ( ! ,mammals are brok5 & worn z
 ) a long transport1 roll$1 accord+ to !
 te*nical geological expression1 &      
f9ally cem5t$ 9 ! same mud1 toge!r )    
fragm5ts ( ! rocks ( ! neighb\rhood4    
,besides bones ( ,hynas1 are f\nd n only
 ! bones ( in(f5sive h]bivora1 b rema9s 

( ,lions & ,be>s4  ,we ought to note1 9 
ord] to make ?is explanation complete1 t
 "s geologi/s consid] t ^! caves s]v$ z 
a refuge = sick & w\nd$ animals4 ,x is  
c]ta9 t we see1 9 our own days1 "s      
animals1 :5 attack$ by sickness1 seek   
refuge 9 ! fissures ( rocks1 or 9 !     
holl[s ( trunks ( trees1 :]e !y die2 to 
?is natural impulse x may1 probably1 be 
ascrib$ t ! skeletons ( animals are s   
r>ely f\nd 9 =e/s or pla9s4 ,we may     
conclude1 !n1 t besides ! m g5]al mode 9
 :i* ^! cav]ns 7 fill$ ) bones1 ! two   
o!r causes :i* we h enum]at$ may h be5 9
 op]ation2 t is to say1 !y 7 ! habitual 
soj\rn ( c>nivor\s & de/ructive animals1
 & !y became ! retreat ( sick animals on
 "s p>ticul> occasions4  ,:at 0 ! orig9 
( ^! caves8 ,h[ h ^! imm5se excavations 
be5 produc$8 ,ne>ly all ^! caves occur 9
 lime/one rocks1 p>ticul>ly 9 !         
,jurassic & ,c>bonif]\s =mations1 :i*   
pres5t _m va/ subt]ranean cav]ns4 ,at ! 
same "t "s f9e caves exi/ 9 ! ,silurian 
=mation1 su* z ! ,grotto des            

,demoiselles 7,fig4 #aid7 ne> ,ganges1 (
 ,hrault4 ,x %\ld be add$1 9 ord] to    
complete ! explanation ( ! cave         
=mations1 t ! great] "p ( ^! va/ int]nal
 excavations h be5 *iefly caus$ by      
subt]ranean wat]c\rses1 :i* h erod$ &   
wa%$ away a portion ( ! walls1 & 9 ?is  
mann] greatly enl>g$ _! orig9al         
dim5sions4  ,b !re are o!r modes ?an !  
above ( acc\nt+1 9 a m satisfactory     
mann]1 = ! exi/5ce ( ^! caves4 ,accord+ 
to ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 !re 0 a "t :5 7z 
n[7 lime/one rocks 7 dissolv$1 & :5 !   
c>bonate ( lime 0 c>ri$ away gradually  
by spr+s f ! int]ior ( ! e>?2 t ano!r   
era occurr$1 :5 engulf$ riv]s or        
occasional floods swept organic &       
inorganic dbris into ! subt]ranean      
holl[s previ\sly =m$2 f9ally1 !re 7     
*anges1 9 :i* engulf$ riv]s 7 turn$ into
 new *annels1 & spr+s dri$ up1 aft] :i* 
! cave-mud1 breccia1 gravel1 & fossil   
bones 7 left 9 ! position 9 :i* !y are  
n[ discov]$4 8,we "k10 says t em95t     
geologi/1#ajd 8t 9 e lime/one di/rict ! 

ra9-wat] is s(t1 or free f e>?y +r$i5ts1
 :5 x falls ^u ! soil1 & :5 x ent]s !   
rocks bel[2 :]eas x is h>d1 or *>g$ )   
c>bonate ( lime1 :5 x issues aga9 to !  
surface 9 spr+s4 ,! ra9 d]ives "s ( its 
c>bonic acid f ! air1 b m f ! decay (   
vegetable matt] 9 ! soil ?r\gh :i* x    
p]colates2 & by ! excess ( ?is acid1    
lime/one is dissolv$1 & ! wat] becomes  
*>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,! mass ( solid 
matt] sil5tly & unceas+ly subtract$ 9   
?is way f ! rocks 9 e c5tury is         
consid]able1 & mu/ 9 ! c\rse ( ?\s&s (  
ye>s be s va/1 t ! space x once occupi$ 
may well be express$ by a long suite (  
cav]ns40    #ajd 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 
p4 #abb4  ,! mo/ celebrat$ ( ^!         
bone-caves are ^? ( ,gail5reu?1 9       
,franconia2 ( ,nab5/e91 & ( ,brumb]g1 9 
! same c\ntry2 ! caves on ! banks ( !   
,meuse1 ne> ,lige1 ( :i* ! late ,dr4    
,s*m]l+ exam9$ =ty2 ( ,york%ire1        
,devon%ire1 ,som]set%ire1 & ,d]by%ire1 9
 ,engl&2 also sev]al 9 ,sicily1 at      
,pal]mo1 & ,syracuse2 9 ,france at      

,hrault1 9 ! ,cv5nes1 & ,fran*e ,comt2 &
 9 ! ,new ,_w1 9 ,k5tucky & ,virg9ia4   
,! ossif]\s breccia diff]s f !          
bone-caves only 9 =m4 ,! mo/ rem>kable (
 !m are se5 at ,cette1 ,antibes1 &      
,nice1 on ! %ores ( ,italy2 & 9 ! isles 
( ,corsica1 ,malta1 & ,s>d9ia4          
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aid4--;,grotto des 
,demoiselles1 ,hrault4  ,ne>ly ! same   
bones are f\nd 9 ! breccia :i* we f9d 9 
! caves2 ! *ief diff]5ce be+ t fossils (
 ! ,rum9ants are !re 9 great] abundance4
 ,! proportions ( bones to ! fragm5ts ( 
/one & cem5t v>y consid]ably 9 diff]5t  
localities4 ,9 ! breccia ( ,cagli>i1 :]e
 ! rema9s ( ,rum9ants are less abundant 
?an at ,gibralt> & ,nice1 ! bones1 :i*  
are ^? ( ! small ,rod5ts1 are1 s to     
speak1 m abundant ?an ! mud 9 :i* !y are
 emb$d$4 ,we f9d1 !re1 also1 ?ree or f\r
 species ( ,birds :i* belong to ,?ru%es 
& ,l>ks4 ,9 ! breccia at ,nice ! rema9s 
( "s great ,c>nivora are f\nd1 among :i*
 are recognis$ two species ( ,lion &    
,pan!r4 ,9 ! ,grotto di ,san-,ciro1 9 ! 

,monte ,griffone1 ab\t six miles f      
,pal]mo1 9 ,sicily1 ,dr4 ,falcon]       
collect$ rema9s ( two species (         
,hippopotamus & bones ( ,elephas        
antiquus1 ,bos1 ,/ag1 ,pig1 ,be>1 ,dog1 
& a l>ge ,felis1 "s ( :i* indicat$ a    
,plioc5e age4 ,l _m o!rs1 ?is cave      
conta9s a ?ick mass ( bone-breccia on   
its floor1 ! bones ( :i* h long be5     
kn[n1 & 7 =m]ly suppos$ to be ^? (      
giants2 :ile ,pr(4 ,f]r>a sugge/$ t !   
,elephants' bones 7 due to ! ,c>?ag9ian 
elephants import$ into ,sicily =        
purposes ( sport4#aje    #aje ,qu>t4    
,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #ahei4  ,b ! breccia
 is n conf9$ to ,europe4 ,we meet ) x 9 
all p>ts ( ! globe2 & rec5t discov]ies 9
 ,au/ralia indicate a =mation           
correspond+ exactly to ! ossif]\s       
breccia ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 9 :i* an      
o*re\s-r$di% cem5t b9ds toge!r fragm5ts 
( rocks & bones1 among :i* we f9d f\r   
species ( ,kang>oos4  ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #aie4--;,belopt]a ,sepioidea4     
,,glacial ,,p]iod4  ,! two cataclysms1 (

 :i* we h spok51 surpris$ ,europe at !  
mom5t ( ! developm5t ( an important     
creation4 ,! :ole scope ( animat$       
,nature1 ! evolution ( animals1 0       
sudd5ly arre/$ 9 t "p ( our hemisph]e   
ov] :i* ^! gigantic convulsions spread1 
foll[$ by ! brief b sudd5 subm]sion (   
entire cont95ts4 ,organic life _h       
sc>cely recov]$ f ! viol5t %ock1 :5 a   
second1 & p]haps sev]] bl[ assail$ x4 ,!
 nor!rn & c5tral p>ts ( ,europe1 ! va/  
c\ntries :i* ext5d f ,sc&9avia to !     
,m$it]ranean & ! ,danube1 7 visit$ by a 
p]iod ( sudd5 & sev]e cold3 ! temp]ature
 ( ! pol> regions seiz$ !m4 ,! pla9s (  
,europe1 b n[ ornam5t$ by ! luxuri\s    
vegetation develop$ by ! heat ( a burn+ 
climate1 ! b\ndless pa/ures on :i* h]ds 
( great ,elephants1 ! active ,horse1 !  
robu/ ,hippopotamus1 & great ,c>nivor\s 
animals graz$ & roam$1 became cov]$ ) a 
mantle ( ice & sn[4  ,to :at cause are  
we to attribute a ph5om5on s un=ese51 & 
ex]cis+ itself ) su* int5sity8 ,9 !     
pres5t /ate ( our k no c]ta9 explanation

 ( ! ev5t c be giv54 ,did ! c5tral      
planet1 ! sun1 :i* 0 long suppos$ to    
di/ribute light & heat to ! e>?1 lose   
dur+ ?is p]iod its calorific p[]s8 ,?is 
explanation is insuffici5t1 s9ce at ?is 
p]iod ! sol> heat is n suppos$ to h     
greatly influ5c$ ! e>?'s temp]ature4 ,7 
! m>9e curr5ts1 su* z ! ,gulf ,/ream1   
:i* c>ries ! ,atlantic ,ocean t[>ds !   
nor? & we/ ( ,europe1 w>m+ & rais+ its  
temp]ature1 sudd5ly turn$ 9 ! contr>y   
direction8 ,no su* hypo!sis is suffici5t
 to expla9 ei!r ! cataclysms or !       
glacial ph5om5a2 & we ne$ n hesitate to 
confess our ignorance ( ?is /range1 ?is 
my/]i\s1 episode 9 ! hi/ory ( ! globe4  
,!re h be5 attempts1 & v +5i\s ones too1
 to expla9 ^! ph5om5a1 ( :i* we %all    
give a brief summ>y1 )\t committ+       
ourselves to any fur!r op9ion1 us+ = t  
purpose ! in=mation conta9$ 9 ,m4 ,*4   
,m>t9s' excell5t "w4 8,! mo/ viol5t     
convulsions ( ! solid & liquid elem5ts10
 says ?is able writ]1 8appe> to h be5   
!mselves only ! effects due to a cause  

mu* m p[]ful ?an ! m]e expansion ( !    
pyrosph]e2 & x is necess>y to recur1 9  
ord] to expla9 !m1 to "s new & bold]    
hypo!sis ?an has yet be5 haz>d$4 ,"s    
philosoph]s h belief 9 an a/ronomical   
revolution :i* may h ov]tak5 our globe 9
 ! fir/ age ( its =mation1 & h modifi$  
its position 9 relation to ! sun4 ,!y   
admit t ! poles h n always be5 z !y are 
n[1 & t "s t]rible %ock displac$ !m1    
*ang+ at ! same "t ! incl9ation ( ! axis
 ( ! rotation ( ! e>?40 ,?is hypo!sis1  
:i* is ne>ly ! same z t prop\nd$ by !   
,dani% geologi/1 ,klee1 has be5 ably    
develop$ by ,m4 de ,b\*eporn4 ,accord+  
to ?is writ]1 _m multipli$ %ocks1 caus$ 
by ! viol5t contact ( ! e>? ) comets1   
produc$ ! elevation ( m\nta9s1 !        
displacem5t ( seas1 & p]turbations (    
climate--ph5om5a :i* he ascribes to !   
sudd5 di/urbance ( ! p>allelism ( ! axis
 ( rotation4 ,! ant$iluvian equator1    
accord+ to him1 makes a "r angle ) !    
exi/+ equator4  8,q rec5tly10 adds ,m4  
,m>t9s1 8a le>n$ ,fr5* ma!matician1 ,m4 

,j4 ,adhm>1 has tak5 up ! same idea2 b1 
dismiss+ ! m problematical elem5ts ( !  
concussion ) comets z unt5able1 he seeks
 to expla9 ! deluges by ! laws (        
gravitation & cele/ial me*anics1 & 8    
!ory has be5 support$ by v compet5t     
writ]s4 ,x is ?is3 ,we "k t our planet  
is influ5c$ by two ess5tial movem5ts--"o
 ( rotation on its axis1 :i* x          
accompli%es 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs2 ! o!r (   
translation1 :i* x accompli%es 9 a      
little m ?an #cfe days4 ,b besides ^!   
great & p]ceptible movem5ts1 ! e>? has a
 ?ird1 & ev5 a f\r? movem5t1 ) "o ( :i* 
we ne$ n occupy ourselves2 x is t       
designat$ nutation by a/ronom]s4 ,x     
*anges p]iodically1 b )9 v re/rict$     
limits1 ! incl9ation ( ! t]re/rial axis 
to ! plane ( ! ecliptic by a slight     
oscillation1 ! duration ( :i* is only   
eighte5 h\rs1 & its influ5ce ^u !       
relative l5g? ( day & night almo/       
inappreciable4 ,! o!r movem5t is t on   
:i* ,m4 ,adhm>'s !ory is f\nd$4  8,we "k
 t ! curve describ$ by ! e>? 9 its      

annual revolution r\nd ! sun is n a     
circle1 b an ellipse2 t is1 a slightly  
elongat$ circle1 sometimes call$ a      
circle ( two c5tres1 "o ( :i* is occupi$
 by ! sun4 ,?is curve is call$ !        
ecliptic4 ,we "k1 also1 t1 9 its movem5t
 ( translation1 ! e>? pres]ves su* a    
position t its axis ( rotation is       
int]cept$1 at its c5tre1 by ! plane ( ! 
ecliptic4 ,b 9 place ( be+ p]p5dicul>1  
or at "r angles ) ?is plane1 x crosses x
 obliquely 9 su* a mann] z to =m on "o  
side an angle ( "o-f\r?1 & on ! o!r an  
angle ( ?ree-f\r?s ( a "r angle4 ,?is   
incl9ation is only alt]$ 9 an           
insignificant degree by ! movem5t (     
nutation4 ,i ne$ sc>cely add t ! e>?1 9 
its annual revolution1 occupies         
p]iodically f\r pr9cipal positions on ! 
ecliptic1 :i* m>k ! limits ( ! f\r      
seasons4 ,:5 its c5tre is at ! extremity
 mo/ remote f ! sun1 or aphelion1 x is !
 summ] sol/ice = ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,:5
 its c5tre is at ! o!r extremity1 or    
p]ihelion1 ! same hemisph]e is at ! w9t]

 sol/ice4 ,! two int]m$iate po9ts m>k ! 
equ9oxes ( spr+ & autumn4 ,! great      
circle ( sep>ation ( light & %ade       
passes1 !n1 precisely ?r\gh ! poles1 !  
day & night are equal1 & ! l9e (        
int]section ( ! plane ( ! equator & t ( 
! ecliptic make "p ( ! vector ray f !   
c5tre ( ! sun to ! c5tre ( ! e>?--:at we
 call ! equ9octial l9e4  8,?us plac$1 x 
is evid5t t if ! t]re/rial axis rema9$  
always p>allel to itself1 ! equ9octial  
l9e w\ld always pass ?r\gh ! same po9t  
on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,b x is n       
absolutely ?us4 ,! p>allelism ( ! axis (
 ! e>? is *ang$ sl[ly1 v sl[ly1 by a    
movem5t :i* ,arago +5i\sly comp>es to ! 
v>y+ incl9ation ( a top :5 ab\t to cease
 sp9n+4 ,?is movem5t has ! effect ( mak+
 ! equ9octial po9ts on ! surface ( ! e>?
 retrograde t[>ds ! ea/ f ye> to ye>1 9 
su* a mann] t at ! end ( #be1hjj ye>s   
accord+ to "s a/ronom]s1 b #ba1jjj ye>s 
accord+ to ,adhm>1 ! equ9octial po9t has
 lit]ally made a circuit ( ! globe1 &   
has return$ to ! same position :i* x    

occupi$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is imm5se p]iod1 
:i* has be5 call$ ! #8great ye>4' ,x is 
?is retrograde evolution1 9 :i* !       
t]re/rial axis describes r\nd its own   
c5tre t revolution r\nd a d\ble conic   
surface1 :i* is kn[n z ! precession ( ! 
equ9oxes4 ,x 0 obs]v$ #b1jjj ye>s ago by
 ,hipp>*us2 its cause 0 discov]$ by     
,newton2 & its complete evolution       
expla9$ by ,d',alemb]t & ,laplace4      
8,n[1 we "k t ! consequ5ce ( !          
incl9ation ( ! t]re/rial axis ) ! plane 
( ! ecliptic is--  8#a4 ,t ! seasons are
 inv]se to ! two hemisph]es--t is to    
say1 ! nor!rn hemisph]e enjoys its spr+ 
& summ]1 :ile ! s\!rn hemisph]e passes  
?r\gh autumn & w9t]4  8#b4 ,:5 ! e>?    
approa*es ne>e/ to ! sun1 our hemisph]e 
has its autumn & w9t]2 & ! regions ne> !
 pole1 receiv+ none ( ! sol> rays1 are  
plung$ into d>kness1 approa*+ t ( night1
 dur+ six mon?s ( ! ye>4  8#c4 ,:5 ! e>?
 is mo/ di/ant f ! sun1 :5 mu* ! great] 
half ( ! ecliptic int]v5es betwe5 x & ! 
focus ( light & heat1 ! pole1 be+ !n    

turn$ t[>ds ?is focus1 con/antly        
receives its rays1 & ! re/ ( ! nor!rn   
hemisph]e enjoys its long days ( spr+ & 
summ]4  8,be>+ 9 m9d t1 9 go+ f ! equ9ox
 ( spr+ to ! autumnal equ9ox ( our      
hemisph]e1 ! e>? trav]ses a mu* long]   
curve ?an x does on its return2 be>+ 9  
m9d1 also1 ! accel]at$ movem5t x        
exp]i5ces 9 its approa* to ! sun f !    
attraction1 :i* increases 9 inv]se      
proportion to ! squ>e ( its di/ance1 we 
arrive at ! conclusion t our summ] %\ld 
be long] & our w9t] %ort] ?an ! summ] & 
w9t] ( our antipodes2 & ?is is actually 
! case by ab\t eight days4  8,i say     
actually1 because1 if we n[ look at !   
effects ( ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 we 
%all see t 9 a "t equal to half ( ! gr& 
ye>1 :e!r x be #ab1ijj or #aj1ejj ye>s1 
! conditions w be rev]s$2 ! t]re/rial   
axis1 & consequ5tly ! poles1 w h        
accompli%$ ! half ( _! bi-conical       
revolution r\nd ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,x w !n
 be ! nor!rn hemisph]e :i* w h ! summ]s 
%ort] & ! w9t]s long]1 & ! s\!rn        

hemisph]e exactly ! rev]se4 ,9 ! ye>    
#abdh be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 accord+ to   
,m4 ,adhm>1 ! nor? pole atta9$ its      
maximum summ] duration4 ,s9ce !n--t is  
to say = ! la/ #c1aab ye>s--x has begun 
to decrease1 & ?is w cont9ue to ! ye>   
#gchh ( our era be=e x atta9s its       
maximum w9t] duration4  8,b ! read] may 
ask1 fatigu$ p]haps by ^! ab/ract       
consid]ations1 ,:at is !re "h 9 common )
 ! deluges8  8,! gr& ye> is "h divid$1 =
 ea* hemisph]e1 into two great seasons1 
:i* ,de ,j\v5cel calls ! great summ] &  
w9t]1 :i* w ea*1 accord+ to ,m4 ,adhm>1 
be #aj1ejj ye>s4  8,dur+ ! :ole ( ?is   
p]iod "o ( ! poles has con/antly _h     
%ort] w9t]s & long] summ]s ?an ! o!r4 ,x
 foll[s t ! pole :i* exp]i5ces ! long   
w9t] und]goes a gradual & cont9u\s      
cool+1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! quantities (
 ice & sn[1 :i* melt dur+ ! summ]1 are m
 ?an comp5sat$ by ^? :i* are aga9       
produc$ 9 ! w9t]4 ,! ice & sn[ g on     
accumulat+ f ye> to ye>1 & f9i% at ! end
 ( ! p]iod by =m+1 at ! colde/ pole1 a  

sort ( cru/ or cap1 va/1 ?ick1 & heavy  
en\gh to modify ! sph]oidal =m ( ! e>?4 
,?is modification1 z a necess>y         
consequ5ce1 produces a notable          
displacem5t ( ! c5tre ( gravity1 or--= x
 am\nts to ! same ?+--( ! c5tre (       
attraction1 r\nd :i* all ! wat]y masses 
t5d to re/ore x4 ,! s\? pole1 z we h    
se51 f9i%$ its great w9t] 9 #abdh ,b4,c4
 ,! accumulat$ ice !n add$ itself to !  
sn[1 & ! sn[ to ! ice1 at ! s\? pole1   
t[>ds :i* ! wat]y masses all t5d$ until 
!y cov]$ ne>ly ! :ole ( ! s\!rn         
hemisph]e4 ,b s9ce t date ( #abdh1 our  
great w9t] has be5 9 progress4 ,our     
pole1 9 its turn1 goes on gett+ cool]   
cont9ually2 ice is be+ heap$ ^u sn[1 &  
sn[ ^u ice1 & 9 #g1chh ye>s ! c5tre (   
gravity ( ! e>? w return to its normal  
position1 :i* is ! geometrical c5tre ( !
 sph]oid4 ,foll[+ ! immutable laws (    
c5tral attraction1 ! s\!rn wat]s accru+ 
f ! melt$ ice & sn[ ( ! s\? pole w      
return to invade & ov]:elm once m !     
cont95ts ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 giv+ rise

 to new cont95ts1 9 all probability1 9 !
 s\!rn hemisph]e40  ,su* is a brief     
/atem5t ( ! hypo!sis :i* ,adhm> has v   
+5i\sly work$ out4 ,h[ f> x expla9s !   
my/]i\s ph5om5a :i* we h "u consid]ation
 we %all n attempt to say1 our conc]n   
be+ ) ! effects4 ,does ! evid5ce ( upw>d
 & d[nw>d movem5ts ( ! surface 9 ,t]ti>y
 times expla9 ! great *ange8 ,= if !    
cool+ :i* prec$$ & succe$$ ! two        
,european deluges /ill rema9s an unsolv$
 problem1 its effects are p]fectly      
appreciable4 ,! int5se cold :i* visit$ !
 nor!rn & c5tral p>ts ( ,europe result$ 
9 ! annihilation ( organic life 9 ^?    
c\ntries4 ,all ! wat]c\rses1 ! riv]s &  
/reams1 ! seas & lakes1 7 froz54 ,z     
,agassiz says 9 8 fir/ "w on 8,glaci]s03
 8,a va/ mantle ( ice & sn[ cov]$ !     
pla9s1 ! valleys1 & ! seas4 ,all ! spr+s
 7 dri$ up2 ! riv]s ceas$ to fl[4 ,to ! 
movem5ts ( a num]\s & animat$ creation  
succe$$ ! sil5ce ( dea?40 ,great numb]s 
( animals p]i%$ f cold4 ,! ,elephant &  
,rh9oc]os p]i%$ by ?\s&s 9 ! mid/ ( _!  

graz+ gr\nds1 :i* became trans=m$ into  
fields ( ice & sn[4 ,x is !n t ^! two   
species disappe>$1 & seem to h be5      
effac$ f creation4 ,o!r animals 7       
ov]:elm$1 )\t _! race hav+ be5 always   
entirely annihilat$4 ,! sun1 :i* lately 
light$ up ! v]dant pla9s1 z x dawn$ ^u  
^! froz5 /eppes1 0 only salut$ by !     
:i/l+ ( ! nor? w9ds1 & ! horrible r5d+ (
 ! crevasses1 :i* op5$ up on all sides  
"u ! heat ( its rays1 act+ ^u ! imm5se  
glaci] :i* =m$ ! sepul*re ( _m animat$  
be+s4  ,h[ c we accept ! idea t ! pla9s1
 b ye/]day smil+ & f]tile1 7 =m]ly      
cov]$1 & t = a v long p]iod1 ) an imm5se
 %eet ( ice & sn[8 ,to satisfy ! read] t
 ! pro( ( ?is c be e/abli%$ on suffici5t
 evid5ce1 x is necess>y to direct 8     
att5tion to c]ta9 p>ts ( ,europe4 ,x is 
ess5tial to visit1 at lea/ 9 idea1 a    
c\ntry :]e glacial ph5om5a /ill exi/1 & 
to prove t ! ph5om5a1 n[ conf9$ to ^?   
c\ntries1 7 spread1 dur+ geological     
times1 ov] spaces inf9itely va/]4 ,we   
%all *oose = our illu/ration1 & z an    

example1 ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps4 ,we %all  
%[ t ! glaci]s ( ,switz]l& & ,savoy h n 
always be5 re/rict$ to _! pres5t limits2
 t !y are1 s to speak1 only m9iature    
resemblances ( ! gigantic glaci]s (     
times pa/2 & t !y =m]ly ext5d$ ov] all !
 great pla9s :i* ext5d f ! foot ( ! *a9 
( ! ,alps4  ,to e/abli% ^! pro(s we mu/ 
ent] ^u "s consid]ation ( exi/+ glaci]s1
 ^u _! mode ( =mation1 & _! peculi>     
ph5om5a4  ,! sn[ :i*1 dur+ ! :ole ye>1  
falls ^u ! m\nta9s1 does n melt1 b      
ma9ta9s its solid /ate1 :5 ! elevation  
exce$s ! height ( #i1jjj feet or        
!reab\ts4 ,:]e ! sn[ accumulates to a   
great ?ickness1 9 ! valleys1 or 9 ! deep
 fissures 9 ! gr\nd1 x h>d5s "u !       
influ5ce ( ! pressure result+ f !       
incumb5t weight4 ,b x always happ5s t a 
c]ta9 quantity ( wat]1 result+ f !      
mom5t>y ?aw+ ( ! sup]ficial portions1   
trav]ses its sub/ance1 & ?is =ms a      
cry/all9e mass ( ice1 ) a granul>       
/ructure1 :i* ! ,swiss naturali/s       
designate nv4 ,f ! successive melt+ &   

freez+ caus$ by ! heat by day & ! cold  
by night1 & ! infiltration ( air & wat] 
into its int]/ices1 ! nv is sl[ly       
trans=m$ into a homog5e\s azure mass (  
ice1 full ( an inf9ite numb] ( little   
air-bubbles--?is 0 :at 0 =m]ly call$    
glace bulleuse 7bubble-ice74 ,f9ally1 ^!
 masses1 becom+ completely froz51 wat]  
replaces ! bubbles ( air4 ,!n !         
trans=mation is complete2 ! ice is      
homog5e\s1 & pres5ts ^? beautiful azure 
t9ts s mu* admir$ by ! t\ri/ :o trav]ses
 ! magnific5t glaci]s ( ,switz]l& &     
,savoy4  ,su* is ! orig9 (1 & su* is !  
mode 9 :i* ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps are =m$4 
,an important prop]ty ( glaci]s rema9s  
to be po9t$ out4 ,!y h a g5]al movem5t (
 translation 9 ! direction ( _! slope1  
"u ! influ5ce ( :i* !y make a c]ta9     
ye>ly progress d[nw>d1 accord+ to !     
angle ( ! slope4 ,! glaci] ( ! ,a>1 =   
example1 advances at ! rate ( ab\t #bej 
feet ea* ye>4  ,"u ! jo9t influ5ce ( !  
slope1 ! weight ( ! froz5 mass1 & !     
melt+ ( ! p>ts :i* t\* ! e>?1 ! glaci]  

?us always t5ds d[nw>ds2 b f ! effects (
 a m g5ial temp]ature1 ! l[] extremity  
melt+ rapidly1 has a t5d5cy to rec$e4 ,x
 is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two actions :i*
 con/itutes ! real progressive movem5t (
 ! glaci]4  ,! friction ex]cis$ by !    
glaci] ^u ! bottom & sides ( ! valley1  
ought necess>ily to leave its traces on 
! rocks ) :i* x may happ5 to be 9       
contact4 ,ov] all ! places :]e a glaci] 
has pass$1 9 fact1 we rem>k t ! rocks   
are poli%$1 levell$1 r\nd$1 &1 z x is   
t]m$1 m\tonnes4 ,^! rocks pres5t1       
besides1 /riations or scrat*es1 runn+ 9 
! direction ( ! motion ( ! glaci]1 :i* h
 be5 produc$ by h>d & angul> fragm5ts ( 
/ones imb$d$ 9 ! ice1 & :i* leave _!    
m>ks on ! h>de/ rocks "u ! irresi/ible  
pressure ( ! heavy-desc5d+ mass ( ice4  
,9 a "w ( great m]it1 :i* we h be=e     
quot$1 ,m4 ,*>les ,m>t9s expla9s !      
physical me*anism by :i* granite rocks  
borne onw>ds 9 ! progressive movem5ts ( 
a glaci]1 h scrat*$1 scor$1 & r\nd$ !   
s(t] rocks :i* ! glaci] has enc\nt]$ 9  

its desc5t4 8,! friction10 says ,m4     
,m>t9s1 8:i* ! glaci] ex]cises ^u !     
bottom & ^u ! walls1 is too consid]able 
n to leave its traces ^u ! rocks ) :i* x
 may be 9 contact2 b its action v>ies   
accord+ to ! m9]alogical nature ( !     
rocks1 & ! configuration ( ! gr\nd !y   
cov]4 ,if we p5etrate betwe5 ! soil & ! 
bottom ( ! glaci]1 tak+ advantage ( !   
ice-cav]ns :i* sometimes op5 at its edge
 or extremity1 we creep ov] a b$ (      
pebbles & f9e s& saturat$ ) wat]4 ,if we
 remove ?is b$1 we soon p]ceive t !     
und]ly+ rock is levell$1 poli%$1 gr\nd  
d[n by friction1 & cov]$ ) rectil9e>    
/ri1 resembl+ sometimes small grooves1 m
 frequ5tly p]fectly /raight scrat*es1 z 
?\gh !y _h be5 produc$ by means ( a     
grav]1 or ev5 a v f9e ne$le4 ,! me*anism
 by :i* ^! /ri h be5 produc$ is t :i*   
indu/ry employs to poli% /ones & metals4
 ,we rub ! metallic surface ) a f9e p[d]
 call$ em]y1 until we give x a          
brilliancy :i* proce$s f ! reflection ( 
! light f an inf9ity ( m9ute /ri4 ,! b$ 

( pebbles & mud1 int]pos$ betwe5 !      
glaci] & ! subjac5t rock1 "h repres5ts !
 em]y4 ,! rock is ! metallic surface1 & 
! mass ( ! glaci] :i* presses on &      
displaces ! mud 9 its desc5t t[>ds !    
pla91 repres5ts ! h& ( ! poli%]4 ,^! /ri
 always foll[ ! direction ( ! glaci]2 b 
z x is sometimes subject to small lat]al
 deviations1 ! /ri sometimes cross1 =m+ 
v small angles ) "o ano!r4 ,if we exam9e
 ! rocks by ! side ( a glaci]1 we f9d   
simil> /ri engrav$ on !m :]e !y h be5 9 
contact ) ! froz5 mass4 ,i h (t5 brok5 !
 ice :]e x ?us press$ ^u ! rock1 & h    
f\nd "u x poli%$ surfaces1 cov]$ )      
/riations4 ,! pebbles & gra9s ( s& :i*  
_h engrav$ !m 7 /ill encas$ 9 ! ice1    
fix$ l ! diamond ( ! glazi] at ! end ( !
 in/rum5t ) :i* he m>ks 8 glass4  8,!   
%>pness & dep? ( ! /ri or scrat*es dep5d
 on _m circum/ances3 if ! rock act$ ^u  
is calc>e\s1 & ! em]y is repres5t$ by   
pebbles & s& d]iv$ f h>d] rocks1 su* z  
gneiss1 granite1 or protog9e1 ! scrat*es
 are v m>k$4 ,?is we c v]ify at ! foot (

 ! glaci]s ( ,ros5laui1 & ( ! ,gr9d5wald
 9 ! ,canton ( ,b]ne4 ,on ! contr>y1 if 
! rock is gneissic1 granitic1 or        
s]p5t9\s1 t is to say1 v h>d1 ! scrat*es
 w be less deep & less m>k$1 z may be   
se5 9 ! glaci]s ( ! ,a>1 ( ,z]matt1 &   
,*am\nix4 ,! poli% w be ! same 9 bo?    
cases1 & x is (t5 z p]fect z 9 m>ble    
poli%$ = ar*itectural purposes4  8,!    
scrat*es engrav$ ^u ! rocks :i* conf9e  
^! glaci]s are g5]ally horizontal or    
p>allel to ! surface4 ,sometimes1 ow+ to
 ! contractions ( ! valley1 ^! /ri are  
ne>ly v]tical4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ne$ n       
surprise u4 ,=c$ onw>ds by ! sup]9cumb5t
 weight1 ! glaci] squeezes itself ?r\gh 
! n>r[ "p1 its bulk exp&+ upw>ds1 9 :i* 
case ! flanks ( ! m\nta9 :i* b>r$ its   
passage are m>k$ v]tically4 ,?is is     
admirably se5 ne> ! ,*lets ( ,/i]egg1 a 
n>r[ defile :i* ! l[] glaci] ( !        
,gr9d5wald has to cle> be=e x dis*>ges  
itself into ! valley ( ! same "n4 ,^u ! 
"r bank ( ! glaci] ! scrat*es are incl9$
 at an angle ( #de to ! horizon4 ,^u !  

left bank ! glaci] rises sometimes q up 
to ! neighb\r+ =e/1 c>ry+ ) x great     
clods ( e>? *>g$ ) rhodod5drons & clumps
 ( ald]1 bir*es1 & firs4 ,! m t5d] or   
foliat$ rocks 7 brok5 up & demoli%$ by !
 prodigi\s =ce ( ! glaci]2 ! h>d] rocks 
(f]$ m resi/ance1 b _! surface is plan$ 
d[n1 poli%$1 & /riat$1 te/ify+ to !     
enorm\s pressure :i* !y _h to und]go4 ,9
 ! same mann] ! glaci] ( ! ,a>1 at !    
foot ( ! promontory on :i* ,m4 ,agassiz'
 t5t 0 erect$1 is poli%$ to a great     
height1 & on ! face1 turn$ t[>ds ! upp] 
"p ( ! valley1 ,i h obs]v$ scrat*es     
incl9$ #fd4 ,! ice1 erect aga9/ ?is     
esc>pm5t1 seem$ to wi% to scale x1 b !  
granite rock held fa/1 & ! glaci] 0     
compell$ to pass r\nd x sl[ly4  8,9     
recapitulation1 ! consid]able pressure (
 a glaci]1 jo9$ to its movem5t (        
progression1 acts at once ^u ! bottom & 
flanks ( ! valley :i* x trav]ses3 x     
poli%es all ! rocks :i* may be too h>d  
to be demoli%$ by x1 & frequ5tly        
impresses ^u !m a peculi> & *>act]i/ic  

=m4 ,9 de/roy+ all ! asp]ities &        
inequalities ( ^! rocks1 x levels _!    
surfaces & r\nds !m on ! sides po9t+ up 
! /ream1 :il/ 9 ! opposite direction1 or
 d[n ! /ream1 !y sometimes pres]ve _!   
abrupt1 unequal1 & rugg$ surface4 ,we   
mu/ compreh5d1 9 %ort1 t ! =ce ( !      
glaci] acts pr9cipally on ! side :i* is 
t[>ds ! circle :5ce x desc5ds1 9 ! same 
way t ! piles ( a bridge are m damag$   
up-/ream1 ?an d[n1 by ! iceb]gs :i* !   
riv] br+s d[n dur+ ! w9t]4 ,se5 f a     
di/ance1 a gr\p ( rocks ?us r\nd$ &     
poli%$ rem9ds u ( ! appe>ance ( a flock 
( %eep3 h5ce ! "n ro*es m\tonnes giv5 !m
 by ! ,swiss naturali/s40  ,ano!r       
ph5om5on :i* plays an important "p 9    
exi/+ glaci]s1 & 9 ^?1 also1 :i* =m]ly  
cov]$ ,switz]l&1 is f\nd 9 ! fragm5ts ( 
rock1 (t5 ( enorm\s size1 :i* h be5     
transport$ & deposit$ dur+ _! movem5t ( 
progression4  ,! peaks ( ! ,alps are    
expos$ to cont9ual degradations4 ,=m$ ( 
granitic rocks--rocks em95tly alt]able  
"u ! action ( air & wat]1 !y become     

dis9tegrat$ & (t5 fall 9 fragm5ts m or  
less volum9\s4 8,! masses ( sn[10       
cont9ues ,m>t9s1 8:i* hang ^u ! ,alps   
dur+ w9t]1 ! ra9 :i* infiltrates betwe5 
_! b$s dur+ summ]1 ! sudd5 action (     
torr5ts ( wat]1 & m sl[ly1 b yet m      
p[]fully1 ! *emical aff9ities1 degrade1 
dis9tegrate1 & decompose ! h>de/ rocks4 
,! dbris ?us produc$ falls f ! summits  
into ! circles occupi$ by ! glaci]s ) a 
great cra%1 accompani$ by frightful     
noises & great cl\ds ( du/4 ,ev5 9 !    
middle ( summ] ,i h se5 ^! avalan*es (  
/one precipitat$ f ! highe/ ridges ( !  
,s*reckhorn1 =m+ ^u ! immaculate sn[ a  
long black tra91 consi/+ ( enorm\s      
blocks & an imm5se numb] ( small]       
fragm5ts4 ,9 ! spr+ a rapid ?aw+ ( !    
w9t] sn[s (t5 causes accid5tal torr5ts (
 extreme viol5ce4 ,if ! melt+ is sl[1   
wat] ins9uates itself into ! smalle/    
fissures ( ! rocks1 freezes !re1 & r5ds 
asund] ! mo/ refractory masses4 ,!      
blocks deta*$ f ! m\nta9s are sometimes 
( gigantic dim5sions3 we h f\nd !m sixty

 feet 9 l5g?1 & ^? measur+ ?irty feet   
ea* way are by no means r>e 9 !         
,alps40#ajf    #ajf ,revue des ,deux    
,mondes1 p4 #ibe2 ,m>* #a1 #ahdg4  ,?us1
 ! action ( aque\s infiltrations foll[$ 
by fro/1 ! *emical decomposition :i*    
granite und]goes "u ! influ5ce ( a moi/ 
atmosph]e1 degrade & dis9tegrate ! rocks
 :i* con/itute ! m\nta9s enclos+ !      
glaci]4 ,blocks1 sometimes ( v          
consid]able dim5sions1 (t5 fall at !    
foot ( ^! m\nta9s on to ! surface ( !   
glaci]4 ,7 x immovable ! dbris w\ld     
accumulate at its base1 & w\ld =m !re a 
mass ( ru9s heap$ up )\t ord]4 ,b ! sl[ 
progression1 ! cont9u\s displacem5t ( ! 
glaci]1 lead1 9 ! di/ribution ( ^!      
blocks1 to a c]ta9 k9d ( arrangem5t3 !  
blocks fall+ ^u its surface p>ticipate 9
 its movem5t1 & advance ) x4 ,b o!r     
d[nfalls take place daily1 & ! new dbris
 foll[+ ! fir/1 ! :ole =m a l9e along ! 
out] edge ( ! glaci]4 ,^! regul> tra9s (
 rocks be> ! "n ( 8mora9es40 ,:5 ! rocks
 fall f two m\nta9s1 & on ea* edge ( !  

glaci]1 & two p>allel l9es ( dbris are  
=m$1 !y are call$ lat]al mora9es4 ,!re  
are also m$ian mora9es1 :i* are =m$ :5  
two glaci]s are conflu5t1 9 su* a mann] 
t ! lat]al mora9e1 on ! "r ( ! "o1 tr5ds
 t[>ds ! left-h& "o ( ! o!r4 ,f9ally1 ^?
 mora9es are frontal1 or t]m9al1 :i*    
repose1 n ^u ! glaci]1 b at its po9t (  
t]m9ation 9 ! valleys1 & :i* are due to 
! accumulation ( blocks fall5 f ! t]m9al
 esc>pm5ts ( glaci]s !re arre/$ by "s   
ob/acle4 ,9 ,,plate ,,xxxi4 we h        
repres5t$ an actual ,swiss glaci]1 9 :i*
 are unit$ ! physical & geological      
peculi>ities belong+ to ^! enorm\s      
masses ( froz5 wat]3 ! mora9es "h are   
lat]al1 t is to say1 =m$ ( a d\ble l9e (
 dbris4  ,illu/ration3 ,,xxxi4--,glaci]s
 ( ,switz]l&4  ,transport$ sl[ly on !   
surface ( ! glaci]1 all ! blocks f !    
m\nta9 pres]ve _! orig9al =ms unalt]$2 !
 %>pness ( _! edges is nev] alt]$ by _! 
g5tle transport & almo/ imp]ceptible    
motion4 ,atmosph]ic ag5cy only c affect 
or de/roy ^! rocks :5 =m$ ( h>d resi/+  

mat]ial4 ,!y !n rema9 ne>ly ( ! same =m 
& volume !y _h :5 !y fell on ! surface (
 ! glaci]2 b x is o!rwise ) blocks &    
fragm5ts enclos$ betwe5 ! rock & !      
glaci]1 :e!r x be at ! bottom or betwe5 
! glaci] & its lat]al walls4 ,"s ( ^!1  
"u ! p[]ful & cont9u\s action ( ?is     
gigantic gr9d+ process1 w be r$uc$ to an
 impalpable mud1 o!rs are worn into     
facets1 :ile o!rs are r\nd$1 pres5t+ a  
multitude ( scrat*es cross+ ea* o!r 9   
all directions4 ,^! scrat*$ pebbles are 
( great importance 9 /udy+ ! ext5t (    
anci5t glaci]s2 !y te/ify1 on ! spot1 to
 ! exi/5ce ( pre-exi/+ glaci]s :i* %ap$1
 gr\nd1 & /riat$ ! pebbles1 :i* wat]    
does n2 on ! contr>y1 9 ! latt]1 !y     
become poli%$ & r\nd$1 & ev5 natural    
/riations are effac$4  ,?us1 huge blocks
 transport$ to great di/ances f _! true 
geological b$s1 t is1 erratic blocks1 to
 use ! prop] te*nical t]m1 r\nd$        
7m\tonnes71 poli%$1 & scrat*$ surfaces1 
mora9es2 f9ally1 pebbles1 gr\nd1 poli%$1
 r\nd$1 or worn into smoo? surfaces1 are

 all physical effects ( glaci]s 9       
motion1 & _! pres5ce alone af=ds        
suffici5t pro( to ! naturali/ t a glaci]
 =m]ly exi/$ 9 ! locality :]e he f9ds   
!m4 ,! read] w n[ compreh5d h[ x is     
possible to recognise1 9 our days1 !    
exi/5ce ( anci5t glaci]s 9 diff]5t p>ts 
( ! _w4 ,above all1 :]ev] we may f9d bo?
 erratic blocks & mora9es1 & obs]ve1 at 
! same "t1 indications ( rocks hav+ be5 
poli%$ & /riat$ 9 ! same direction1 we  
may pron\nce ) c]ta9ty z to ! exi/5ce ( 
a glaci] dur+ geological times4 ,let u  
take "s in/ances4  ,at ,pravolta1 9 !   
,alps1 go+ t[>ds ,monte ,santo-,primo1  
^u a calc>e\s rock1 we f9d ! mass (     
granite repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #aif4 ,?is    
erratic block exi/s1 ) ?\s&s ( o!rs1 on 
! slopes ( ! m\nta94 ,x is ab\t fifty   
feet long1 ne>ly =ty feet broad1 &      
five-&-tw5ty 9 height2 & all its edges &
 angles are p]fect4 ,"s p>allel /ri     
occur along ! neighb\r+ rocks4 ,all ?is 
cle>ly demon/rates t a glaci] exi/$1 9  
=m] times1 9 ?is "p ( ! ,alps1 :]e none 

appe> at ! pres5t "t4 ,x is a glaci]1   
!n1 :i* has transport$ & deposit$ "h ?is
 enorm\s block1 weigh+ ne>ly #b1jjj     
tons4  ,9 ! ,jura ,m\nta9s1 on ! hill ( 
,f\rvires1 a lime/one em95ce at ,lyons1 
blocks ( granite are f\nd1 evid5tly     
d]iv$ f ! ,alps1 & transport$ !re by !  
,swiss glaci]s4 ,! p>ticul> mode (      
transport is repres5t$ !oretically 9    
,fig4 #aig4 ,a repres5ts1 = example1 !  
summit ( ! ,alps1 ,b ! ,jura ,m\nta9s1  
or ! hill ( ,f\rvires1 at ,lyons4 ,at ! 
glacial p]iod1 ! glaci] ,a ,b ,c ext5d$ 
f ! ,alps to ! m\nta9 ,b4 ,! granitic   
dbris1 :i* 0 deta*$ f ! summit ( !      
,alp9e m\nta9s1 fell on ! surface ( !   
glaci]4 ,! movem5t ( progression ( ?is  
glaci] transport$ ^! blocks z f> z !    
summit ,b4 ,at a lat] p]iod ! temp]ature
 ( ! globe 0 rais$1 & :5 ! ice _h melt$1
 ! blocks1 ,d ,e1 7 quietly deposit$ on 
! spots :]e !y are n[ f\nd1 )\t hav+    
su/a9$ ! slighte/ %ock or injury 9 ?is  
s+ul> mode ( transport4  ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #aif4--;,erratic ,blocks 9 !      

,alps4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4             
#aig4--,transport$ blocks4  ,e day      
traces1 m or less recognisable1 are f\nd
 on ! ,alps ( anci5t glaci]s f> di/ant f
 _! exi/+ limits4 ,heaps ( dbris1 ( all 
sizes1 compreh5d+ blocks ) %>p-po9t$    
angles1 are f\nd 9 ! ,swiss pla9s &     
valleys4 ,blocs p]*s 7,p]*$ blocks71 z 9
 ,,pl4 ,,xxxi41 are (t5 se5 p]*$ ^u     
po9ts ( ! ,alps situat$ f> above exi/+  
glaci]s1 or disp]s$ ov] ! pla9 :i*      
sep>ates ! ,alps f ! ,jura1 or ev5      
pres]v+ an incr$ible equilibrium1 :5 _! 
great mass is tak5 into consid]ation1 at
 consid]able heights on ! ea/]n flank ( 
?is *a9 ( m\nta9s4 ,x is by ! aid ( ^!  
indications t ! geologi/ has be5 able to
 trace to extremely remote di/ances     
signs ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( ! anci5t glaci]s
 ( ! ,alps1 to foll[ !m 9 _! c\rse1 &   
fix _! po9t ( orig91 & :]e !y t]m9at$4  
,?us ! humble ,m\nt ,sion1 a            
g5tly-swell+ hill situat$ to ! nor? (   
,g5eva1 0 ! po9t at :i* ?ree great      
anci5t glaci]s _h _! conflu5ce--! glaci]

 ( ! ,rhne1 :i* fill$ all ! bas9 ( ,lake
 ,leman1 or ,lake ( ,g5eva2 t ( ! ,isre1
 :i* issu$ f ! ,annecy & ,b\rget ,lakes2
 & t ( ! ,arve1 :i* _h its s\rce 9 !    
valley ( ,*am\nix1 all conv]g$ at ?is   
po9t4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,g4 de ,mortillet1
 :o has c>efully /udi$ ?is geological   
"q1 ! ext5t & situation ( ^! anci5t     
glaci]s ( ! ,alps 7 z foll[s3--,^u its  
nor!rn flank ! glaci] ( ! ,rh9e occupi$ 
all ! bas9 ( ,lake ,con/ance1 & ext5d$  
to ! bord]s ( ,g]many2 t ( ! ,l9?1 :i* 0
 arre/$ at ! extremity ( ! ,lake (      
,zuri*--?is city is built ^u its t]m9al 
mora9e--t ( ! ,reus1 :i* cov]$ ! lake ( 
! f\r cantons ) blocks torn f ! peaks ( 
,sa9t-,go?>d2--t ( ! ,a>1 ! la/ mora9es 
( :i* cr[n ! hills 9 ! environs (       
,b]ne2--^? ( ! ,arve & ! ,isre1 :i*1 z  
we h said1 deb\*$ f ,lake ,annecy &     
,lake ,b\rget respectively2--t ( !      
,rhne1 ! mo/ important ( all4 ,x is ?is 
glaci] :i* has deposit$ ^u ! flanks ( ! 
,jura1 at ! height ( #c1djj feet above !
 level ( ! sea1 ! great erratic blocks  

already describ$4 ,?is mighty glaci] ( !
 ,rhne _h its orig9 9 all ! lat]al      
valleys =m$ by ! two p>allel *a9s ( !   
,valais4 ,x fill$ all ! ,valais1 &      
ext5d$ into ! pla91 ly+ betwe5 ! ,alps &
 ! ,jura1 f ,=t de ,l'cluse1 ne> ! fall 
( ! ,rhne1 up to ! neighb\rhood ( ,a>au4
  ,! fragm5ts ( rocks transport$ by !   
ice-sea :i* occupi$ all ! ,swiss pla9   
foll[1 9 nor!rly direction1 ! c\rse ( ! 
valley ( ! ,rh9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! glaci]
 ( ! ,rhne1 aft] rea*+ ! pla9 (         
,switz]l&1 turn$ (f obliquely t[>ds !   
s\?1 receiv$ ! glaci] ( ! ,arve1 !n t ( 
! ,isre1 pass$ betwe5 ! ,jura & !       
m\nta9s ( ! ,gr&e-,*>treuse1 spread ov] 
,la ,bresse1 !n ne>ly all ,dauph9y1 &   
t]m9at$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,lyons4  ,^u 
! s\!rn flank ( ! ,alps1 ! anci5t       
glaci]s1 accord+ to ,m4 de ,mortillet's 
map1 occupi$ all ! great valleys f t ( !
 ,dora1 on ! we/1 to t ( ! ,tagliam5to1 
on ! ea/4 8,! glaci] ( ! ,dora0 says de 
,mortillet1 ^: text we greatly abridge1 
8deb\*$ into ! valley ( ! ,po1 close to 

,tur94 ,t ( ! ,dora-,balta ent]$ ! pla9 
( ,ivra1 :]e x has left a magnific5t    
semicircle ( hills1 :i* =m$ its t]m9al  
mora9e4 ,t ( ! ,toce dis*>g$ itself into
 ,lake ,maggiore1 aga9/ ! glaci] ( !    
,tess91 & !n ?rew itself into ! valley (
 ,lake ,orta1 at ! s\!rn extremity ( :i*
 its t]m9al mora9es 7 situat$4 ,t ( !   
,tess9 fill$ ! bas9 ( ,lake ,maggiore1 &
 e/abli%$ itself betwe5 ,lugano & ,v>se4
 ,t ( ! ,adda fill$ ! bas9 ( ,lake      
,como1 & e/abli%$ itself betwe5         
,m5drizio & ,lecco1 ?us describ+ a va/  
semicircle4 ,t ( ! ,oglio t]m9at$ a     
little beyond ,lake ,iseo4 ,t ( !       
,adige1 f9d+ no passage ?r\gh ! n>r[    
valley ( ,rov]$o1 :]e ! valley became v 
n>r[1 took ano!r c\rse1 & fill$ ! imm5se
 valley ( ! ,lake ( ,g>da4 ,at ,novi x  
has left a magnific5t mora9e1 ( :i*     
,dante speaks 9 8 #8,inf]no4' ,t ( !    
,br5ta ext5d$ ov] ! pla9 ( t commune4 ,!
 ,drave & ! ,tagliam5to _h also _!      
glaci]s4 ,f9ally1 glaci]s occupi$ all ! 
valleys ( ! ,au/rian & ,bav>ian         

,alps40#ajg    #ajg 8,c>te des ,anci5s  
,glaci]s des ,alpes10 pp4 #h-aj4        
7#ahfj47  ,simil> traces ( ! exi/5ce (  
anci5t glaci]s occur 9 _m o!r ,european 
c\ntries4 ,9 ! ,pyr5ees1 9 ,corsica1 !  
,vosges1 ! ,jura1 c41 ext5sive ranges ( 
c\ntry h be5 cov]$1 9 geological times1 
by ^! va/ pla9s ( ice4 ,! glaci] ( !    
,moselle 0 ! mo/ consid]able ( ! glaci]s
 ( ! ,vosges1 receiv+ num]\s afflu5ts2  
its l[e/ frontal mora9e1 :i* is situat$ 
bel[ ,remiremont1 c\ld n be less ?an a  
mile & a qu>t] 9 l5g?4  ,b ! ph5om5on ( 
! glacial ext5sion :i* we h exam9$ 9 !  
,alps 0 n conf9$ to ,c5tral ,europe4 ,! 
same traces ( _! anci5t exi/5ce are     
obs]v$ 9 all ! nor? ( ,europe1 9        
,russia1 ,icel&1 ,norway1 ,prussia1 !   
,briti% ,isl&s1 "p ( ,g]many1 9 ! nor?1 
& ev5 9 "s p>ts ( ! s\?1 ( ,spa94 ,9    
,engl&1 erratic blocks ( granite are    
f\nd :i* 7 d]iv$ f ! m\nta9s ( ,norway4 
,x is evid5t t ^! blocks 7 borne by a   
glaci] :i* ext5d$ f ! nor? pole to      
,engl&4 ,9 ?is mann] !y cross$ ! ,baltic

 & ! ,nor? ,seas4 ,9 ,prussia simil>    
traces are obs]vable4  ,?us1 dur+ !     
,quat]n>y epo*1 glaci]s :i* are n[      
limit$ to ! ,pol> regions1 or to        
m\nta9\s c\ntries ( consid]able         
altitude1 ext5d$ v f> beyond _! pres5t  
kn[n limits2 &1 tak5 9 connection ) !   
deluge ( ! nor?1 & ! va/ am\nt ( organic
 life :i* !y de/roy$1 !y =m1 p]haps1 !  
mo/ /rik+ & my/]i\s ( all geological    
ph5om5a4  ,m4 ,ed\>d ,collomb1 to :om we
 owe mu* ( our k ( anci5t glaci]s1      
furni%es ! foll[+ note explanatory ( a  
map ( ,anci5t ,glaci]s :i* he has       
prep>$3--  8,! area occupi$ by ! anci5t 
,quat]n>y glaci]s may be divid$ into two
 orographical regions3--#a4 ,! region ( 
! nor?1 f lat4 #eb or #ee up to ! ,nor? 
,pole4 #b4 ,! region ( ,c5tral ,europe &
 "p ( ! s\?4  8,! region ( ! nor? :i*   
has be5 cov]$ by ! anci5t glaci]s       
compreh5ds all ! ,sc&9avian p59sula1    
,sw$51 ,norway1 & a "p ( ,we/]n ,russia1
 ext5d+ f ! ,niem5 on ! nor? 9 a curve  
:i* pass$ ne> ! s\rces ( ! ,dniep] & !  

,volga1 & !nce took a direction t[>ds ! 
%ores ( ! glacial ocean4 ,?is region    
compreh5ds ,icel&1 ,scotl&1 ,irel&1 !   
isles dep5d5t on !m1 &1 f9ally1 a great 
"p ( ,engl&4  8,?is region is b\nd$1 on 
all its sides1 by a wide zone f #b to #e
 9 bread?1 ov] :i* is recognis$ !       
exi/5ce ( erratic blocks ( ! nor?3 x    
includes ! middle region ( ,russia 9    
,europe1 ,pol&1 a "p ( ,prussia1 &      
,d5m>k2 los+ itself 9 ,holl& on ! ,zuid]
 ,zee1 x cut into ! nor!rn "p ( ,engl&1 
& we f9d a %r$ ( x 9 ,france1 ^u !      
bord]s ( ! ,cot5t94  8,! anci5t glaci]s 
( ,c5tral ,europe consi/$1 fir/1 ( ! gr&
 masses ( ! ,alps4 ,/ret*+ to ! we/ & to
 ! nor?1 !y ext5d$ to ! valley ( ! ,rhne
 z f> z ,lyons1 !n cross+ ! summit-level
 ( ! ,jura1 !y pass$ ne> ,basle1 cov]+  
,lake ,con/ance1 & /ret*+ beyond into   
,bav>ia & ,au/ria4 ,^u ! s\!rn slopes ( 
! ,alps1 !y turn$ r\nd ! summit ( !     
,adriatic1 pass$ ne> to ,ud9et1 cov]$   
,pes*i]a1 ,solf]9o1 ,como1 ,v>se1 &     
,ivra1 ext5d$ to ne> ,tur91 & t]m9at$ 9 

! valley ( ! ,/ura1 ne> ! ,col de ,t5da4
  8,9 ! ,pyr5ees1 ! anci5t glaci]s h    
occupi$ all ! pr9cipal valleys ( ?is    
*a91 bo? on ! ,fr5* & ,spani% sides1    
especially ! valleys ( ! c5tre1 :i*     
compreh5d ^? ( ,lu*on1 ,aude1 ,b>ges1   
,caut]ets1 & ,ossun4 ,9 ! ,cantabrian   
*a91 an ext5sion ( ! ,pyr5ees1 ! exi/5ce
 ( anci5t glaci]s has also be5          
recognis$4  8,9 ! ,vosges & ! ,black    
,=e/ !y cov]$ all ! s\!rn p>ts ( ^!     
m\nta9s4 ,9 ! ,vosges1 ! pr9cipal traces
 are f\nd 9 ! valleys ( ,sa9t-,am>91    
,giromagny1 ,mun/]1 ! ,moselle1 c4  8,9 
! ,c>pa?ians & ! ,caucasus ! exi/5ce (  
anci5t glaci]s ( great ext5t has also   
be5 obs]v$4  8,9 ! ,si]ra ,nevada1 9 !  
s\? ( ,spa91 m\nta9s upw>ds ( #aa1jjj   
feet high1 ! valleys :i* desc5d f !     
,pica*o de ,veleta & ,mulhac5 h be5     
cov]$ ) anci5t glaci]s dur+ ! ,quat]n>y 
epo*40  ,!re is no reason to d\bt t at  
?is epo* all ! ,briti% isl&s1 at lea/   
all nor? ( ! ,?ames1 7 cov]$ by glaci]s 
9 _! high] p>ts4 8,^?10 says ,pr(essor  

,ramsay1 8:o "k ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 w 
rememb] t1 ?\gh ! wea!r has _h a p[]ful 
influ5ce ^u !m1 r5d]+ !m 9 places rugg$1
 jagg$1 & cliffy1 yet1 not)/&+1 _! g5]al
 outl9es are (t5 rem>kably r\nd$ & fl[+2
 & :5 ! valleys are exam9$ 9 detail1 y  
f9d 9 _! bottoms & on ! sides ( ! hills 
t ! mammillat$ /ructure prevails4 ,?is  
r\nd$ =m is kn[n1 by ^? :o /udy glaci]s1
 by ! "n ( ro*es m\tonnes1 giv5 to !m by
 ! ,swiss writ]s4 ,^! mammillat$ =ms are
 exce$+ly common 9 _m ,briti% valleys1 &
 n only s1 b ! v same k9d ( groov+ &    
/riation1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! rocks 9 !    
,swiss valleys1 also m>ks ^? ( !        
,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 ( ,cumb]l&1 &       
,wales4 ,consid]+ all ^! ?+s1 geologi/s1
 l$ by ,agassiz "s five or six & tw5ty  
ye>s ago1 h by degrees come to !        
conclusion1 t a v l>ge "p ( our isl& 01 
dur+ ! glacial p]iod1 cov]$1 or ne>ly   
cov]$1 ) a ?ick coat+ ( ice 9 ! same way
 t ! nor? ( ,gre5l& is at pres5t2 & t by
 ! long-cont9u$ gr9d+ p[] ( a great     
glaci]1 or set ( glaci]s ne>ly univ]sal 

ov] ! nor!rn half ( our c\ntry1 & ! high
 gr\nd ( ,wales1 ! :ole surface became  
m\ld$ by ice40  ,:oev] trav]ses ,engl&1 
obs]v+ its features ) att5tion1 w rem>k 
9 c]ta9 places traces ( ! action ( ice 9
 ?is era4 ,"s ( ! m\nta9s pres5t on "o  
side a nak$ rock1 & on ! o!r a g5tle    
slope1 smil+ & v]dant1 giv+ a "* m or   
less abrupt1 bold1 & /rik+1 to !        
l&scape4 ,consid]able portions ( dry l& 
7 =m]ly cov]$ by a blui% clay1 :i*      
conta9$ _m fragm5ts ( rock or 8b\ld]s0  
torn f ! old ,cumbrian m\nta9s2 f !     
,p5n9e *a92 f ! mora9es ( ! nor? (      
,engl&2 & f ! ,*alk hills--h5ce call$   
8b\ld]0 clay--pres5t !mselves "h & !re1 
brok51 worn1 & gr\nd up by ! action (   
wat] & ice4 ,^! erratic blocks or       
8b\ld]s0 h cle>ly be5 deta*$ f ! p>5t   
rock by viol5ce1 & (t5 transport$ to    
consid]able di/ances4 ,!y h be5 c>ri$1 n
 only across pla9s1 b ov] ! tops (      
m\nta9s2 "s ( !m be+ f\nd #acj miles f !
 p>5t rocks4 ,we ev5 f9d1 z already     
h9t$1 "s rocks ( :i* no prototypes h be5

 f\nd ne>] ?an ,norway4 ,!re is1 !n1    
little room = d\bt+ ! fact ( an ext5sive
 sy/em ( glaci]s hav+ cov]$ ! l&1 al?\gh
 ! pro(s h only be5 ga!r$ labori\sly &  
by sl[ degrees 9 a long s]ies ( ye>s4 ,9
 #ahdj ,agassiz visit$ ,scotl&1 & 8 eye1
 accu/om$ to glaci]s 9 8 native m\nta9s1
 spe$ily detect$ _! signs4 ,dr4 ,buckl& 
became a zeal\s advocate ( ! same views4
 ,nor? ,wales 0 soon recognis$ z an     
indep5d5t c5tre ( a sy/em :i* radiat$ f 
l(ty ,sn[don1 ?r\gh sev5 valleys1 c>ry+ 
) !m l>ge /ones & groov+ ! rocks 9 _!   
passage4 ,9 ! pass ( ,llanb]is !re are  
all ! common pro(s ( ! valley hav+ be5  
fill$ ) glaci] ice4 8,:5 ! c\ntry 0 "u  
wat]10 says ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 8! drift 
0 deposit$ :i* m or less fill$ up _m ( !
 ,wel% valleys4 ,:5 ! l& _h ris5 aga9 to
 a consid]able height1 ! glaci]s        
increas$ 9 size3 al?\gh !y nev] rea*$ ! 
imm5se magnitude :i* !y atta9$ 9 ! e>li]
 portion ( ! icy epo*4 ,/ill !y became s
 l>ge t su* a valley z ! ,pass (        
,llanb]is 0 a second "t occupi$ by ice1 

:i* pl\gh$ out ! drift t m or less cov]$
 ! valley4 ,by degrees1 h[ev]1 z we     
approa* ne>] our own days1 ! climate    
sl[ly ameliorat$1 & ! glaci]s began to  
decl9e1 till1 gr[+ less & less1 !y crept
 up & up2 & "h & !re1 z !y di$ away1 !y 
left _! t]m9al & lat]al mora9es /ill z  
well def9$ 9 "s cases z mora9es 9 l&s   
:]e glaci]s n[ exi/4 ,frequ5tly1 too1   
masses ( /one1 t float$ on ! surface ( !
 ice1 7 left p]*$ ^u ! r\nd$ ro*es      
m\tonnes1 9 a mann] some:at puzzl+ to ^?
 :o are n geologi/s4  8,9 %ort1 !y 7 let
 d[n ^u ! surface ( ^! rocks s quietly &
 s s(tly1 t !re !y w lie1 until an      
e>?quake %akes !m d[n1 or until ! wa/+ (
 ! rock on :i* !y re/ precipitates !m to
 a l[] level40  ,x 0 ! op9ion (         
,agassiz1 aft] visit+ ,scotl&1 t !      
,grampians _h be5 cov]$ by a va/        
?ickness ( ice1 :5ce erratic blocks _h  
be5 disp]s$ 9 all directions z f a      
c5tre2 o!r geologi/s aft] a "t adopt$ ! 
op9ion--,mr4 ,rob]t ,*amb]s go+ s f> z  
to ma9ta91 9 #ahdh1 t ,scotl& _h be5 at 

"o "t m\ld$ by ice4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,f4        
,jamieson foll[$ 9 ! same track1 adduc+ 
_m new facts to prove t ! ,grampians    
once s5t d[n glaci]s 9 all directions   
t[>ds ! sea4 8,! glacial grooves10 he   
says1 8radiate outw>d f ! c5tral heights
 t[>ds all po9ts ( ! compass1 al?\gh !y 
d n /rictly con=m to ! actual %ape &    
cont\r ( ! m9or valleys & ridges40 ,b ! 
mo/ int]e/+ "p ( ,mr4 ,jamieson's       
inve/igations is und\bt$ly ! +5i\s mann]
 9 :i* he has work$ out ,agassiz'       
ass]tion t ,gl5roy1 ^: rem>kable        
8,p>allel ,roads0 h puzzl$ s _m         
inve/igators1 0 once ! bas9 ( a froz5   
lake4  ,gl5roy is "o ( ! _m romantic    
gl5s ( ,lo*ab]1 at ! head ( ! ,spey1 ne>
 to ! ,great ,gl51 or ! valley ( !      
,cal$onian ,canal1 :i* /ret*es obliquely
 across ! c\ntry 9 a nor?we/]ly         
direction f ,lo* ,l9nh to ,lo* ,ness1   
leav+ ,lo* ,arkaig1 ,lo* ,ai*1 ,gl5     
,g>ry1 & _m a highl& lo* besides1 on !  
left1 & ,gl5 ,spean1 9 :i* ,lo* ,treig1 
runn+ due nor? & s\?1 has its m\?1 on ! 

s\?4 ,gl5roy op5s into x f ! nor?1 :ile 
,gl5 ,gluoy op5s into ! ,great ,gl5     
opposite ,lo* ,arkaig4 ,mr4 ,jamieson   
comm5c$ 8 inve/igations at ! m\? ( ,lo* 
,arkaig1 :i* is ab\t a mile f ! lake    
itself4 ,"h he f\nd ! gneiss gr\nd d[n z
 if by ice com+ f ! ea/4 ,on ! hill1    
nor? ( ! lake1 ! gneiss1 ?\gh mu* worn &
 wea!r$1 /ill exhibit$ well-m>k$ /ri1   
direct$ up & d[n ! valley4 ,o!r m>k+s   
%[$ t ! ,gl5 ,arkaig glaci] n only      
block$ up ,gl5 ,gluoy1 b ! m\? ( ,gl5   
,spean1 :i* lies two miles or s nor? ( x
 on ! opposite side4  ,at ,bracklett]1  
on ! s\? side ( ,gl5 ,spean1 ne> its    
junction ) ,gl5 ,lo*y1 glacial scores   
po9t+ m ne>ly due we/1 b slightly incl9+
 to ! nor?1 7 obs]v$1 z if caus$ by !   
pressure ( ice f ,gl5 ,lui4 ,! s\? side 
( ,gl5 ,spean1 f its m\? to ,lo* ,treig1
 is b\nd$ by l(ty hills--an ext5sion (  
,b5 ,nevis1 ! highe/ ( ^! peaks exce$+  
#c1jjj feet4 ,num]\s gullies int]sect _!
 flanks1 & ! l>ge/ ( ^!1 ,corry ,n',eo91
 pres5ts a s]ies ( rocky amphi!atres1 or

 r l>ge caldrons1 ^: walls h be5 gr\nd  
d[n by long-cont9u$ glacial action3 !   
qu>tz-ve9s are all %orn d[n to ! level (
 ! gneiss1 & /reak$ ) f9e scrat*es1     
po9t+ d[n ! holl[s & f> up ! rocks on   
ei!r side4 ,dur+ all ^! op]ations !     
great valley 0 probably fill$ up ) ice1 
:i* w\ld close ,gl5 ,gluoy & ,gl5       
,spean1 & might also close ! l[e/ ( !   
l9es 9 ,gl5roy4 ,b h[ ab\t ! middle &   
upp] l9es8  ,a glaci] cross+ f ,lo*     
,treig1 & protrud+ across ,gl5 ,spean1  
w\ld cut (f ,gl5s ,glaibu & ,mak\l1 :5 !
 wat] 9 ,gl5roy c\ld only escape ov] !  
,col into ,/ra?spey1 :5 ! fir/ level    
w\ld be m>k$4  ,n[ let ! ,gl5 ,treig    
glaci] %r9k a little1 s z to let out    
wat] to ! level ( ! second l9e by !     
outl9e at ,mak\l1 & ! !ory is complete4 
,:5 ! fir/ & greate/ glaci] gave way1   
,gl5roy w\ld be ne>ly 9 its pres5t /ate4
  ,! glaci]1 on issu+ f ! gorge at ! end
 ( ,lo* ,treig1 w\ld dilate imm5sely1 ! 
"r flank spread+ ov] a r\gh expanse (   
sy5ite1 ! neighb\r+ hills be+           

mica-s*i/s1 ) ve9s ( porphyry4 ,n[ !    
sy5ite breaks into l>ge cuboidal blocks 
( imm5se size4 ,^! h be5 swept be=e !   
advanc+ glaci] along ) o!r dbris1 &     
deposit$ 9 a semicircle ( m\nds hav+ a  
sweep ( sev]al miles1 =m+ circul> b&s   
:i* m>k ! edges ( ! glaci] z x %runk f  
"t to "t "u ! influ5ce ( a mild]        
climate4  ,?is mora9e1 :i* 0 all t 0    
want+ to complete ! !ory laid d[n by    
,agassiz1 is f\nd on ! pony-road lead+ f
 ! m\? ( ,lo* ,treig t[>ds ,bad5o*4 ,a  
mile or s br+s ! travell] to !          
summit-level ( ! road1 & beyond ! hill a
 l[ moor /ret*es away to ! bottom ( !   
pla94 ,"h1 slant+ across ! slope ( !    
hill t[>ds ,lo* ,treig1 two l9es (      
mora9e /ret* across ! road4 ,at fir/ !y 
consi/ ( mica-s*i/s & bits ( porphyry1 b
 blocks ( sy5ite soon become int]m+l$4  
,outside ^! are old] hillocks1 ris+ 9 "s
 places sixty & sev5ty feet high1 =m+   
n>r[ /eep-sid$ m\nds1 ) blocks f\rte5   
feet 9 l5g? /ick+ out ( ! surface1 mix$ 
) fragm5ts ( mica-s*i/ & gneiss4 ,! inn]

 mora9e consi/s1 almo/ :olly1 ( l>ge    
blocks ( sy5ite1 five1 t51 fifte51 &    
five-&-tw5ty feet long4  ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #aih4--,p>allel roads ( ,gl5roy2 f
 a sket* by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,phillips4  ,!
 pres5t aspect ( ,gl5roy is t ( an upp] 
& l[] gl5 op5+ up f ! l>g] ,gl5 ,spean4 
,! head-wat]s ( ,lo*ab] ga!r 9 a wild   
m\nta9 tract1 ne> ! s\rce ( ! ,spey4 ,! 
upp] gl5 is an oval valley1 f\r miles   
long1 by ab\t "o broad1 b\nd$ on ea*    
side by high m\nta9s1 :i* ?r[ (f two    
/reams divid+ ! mica-s*i/ f ! gneissic  
sy/ems2 ! =m] pr$om9at+ on ! we/ side1 &
 ! latt] on ! ea/4 ,! unit$ /reams fl[  
to ! s\?-we/ = two miles1 :5 ! valley   
contracts to a rocky gorge :i* sep>ates 
! upp] f ! l[] gl54 ,pass+ f ! upp] to !
 l[] gl51 a l9e is obs]v$ to pass f ne> 
! junction ( ! two /reams1 on a level ) 
a flat rock at ! gorge1 & also ) !      
upp]mo/ ( ! ?ree l9es ( t]races 9 ! l[] 
gl54 ,?is l9e girdles ! sides ( ! hills 
"r & left1 ) a seem+ly high] sweep1 & is
 foll[$ by two o!r p]fectly p>allel &   

cont9u\s l9es till ,gl5roy exp&s into   
,gl5 ,spean1 :i* crosses its m\? & ent]s
 ! great gl5 a little s\? ( ,lo* ,lo*y4 
,at ! po9t1 h[ev]1 :]e ,gl5roy ent]s    
,gl5 ,spean1 ! two upp] t]races cease1  
:ile ! l[] ( ! ?ree appe>s on ! nor? &  
s\? side ( ,gl5 ,spean1 z f> z ! pass ( 
,gl5 ,muckal1 & s\?w>d a little way up !
 ,gubban riv] & r\nd ! head ( ,lo*      
,treig4  ,9 ,scotl&1 & 9 ,nor!rn ,engl& 
& ,wales1 !re is di/9ct evid5ce t !     
,glacial ,epo* comm5c$ ) an era (       
cont95tal ice1 ! l& be+ b slightly l[]  
?an at pres5t1 & possibly at ! same     
level1 dur+ :i* p]iod ! ,scotti% hills  
receiv$ _! r\nd$ outl9es1 & scrat*$ &   
smoo!d rock-surfaces2 & ! pla9s &       
valleys became fill$ ) ! /iff clay1 )   
angul> scrat*$ /ones1 kn[n z ! 8,till10 
:i* deposit is believ$ by ,messrs4      
,geikie1 ,jamieson1 & ,croll to be a    
mora9e pr(onde1 ! product ( a va/       
ice-%eet4  ,9 ,wales1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay 
has describ$ ! :ole ( ! valleys ( !     
,sn[donian range z fill$ ) enorm\s      

glaci]s1 ! level ( ! surface ( ! ice    
fill+ ! ,pass ( ,llanb]is1 ris+ #ejj    
feet above ! pres5t wat]%$ at           
,gorphwysfa4 ,9 ! ,lake ,di/rict (      
,cumb]l& & ,we/morl&1 ,mr4 ,de ,rance   
has %[n t a va/ s]ies ( glaci]s1 or     
small ice-%eets1 fill$ all ! valleys1   
radiat+ out 9 all directions f ! l>g]   
m\nta9s1 :i* =m$ c5tres ( disp]sion1 !  
ice actually pu%+ ov] _m ( ! less]      
wat]%$s1 & scoop+ out ! great rock-bas9s
 9 :i* lie ! lakes ,w9d]m]e1 ,ullswat]1 
,?irlm]e1 ,coni/on ,wat]1 & ,wa/wat]1 ! 
bottoms ( :i* are ne>ly all bel[ !      
sea-level4 ,! :ole ( ?is di/rict1 he has
 %[n1 exp]i5c$ a second glaciation1 aft]
 ! p]iod ( great subm]g5ce1 9 :i*       
valley-glaci]s scoop$ out ! m>9e drift1 
& left _! mora9es 9 ! ,liza1 ,langdale1 
& o!r valleys1 & high up 9 ! hills1 z at
 ,h>rison's ,/ickle1 :]e a t>n has be5  
=m$ by a little mora9e1 act+ z a dam1 z 
%[n by ,pr(essor ,hull4  ,9 ,wales1     
also1 valley-glaci]s exi/$ aft] !       
subm]g5ce b5ea? ! ,glacial sea4 ,?us 9  

,cwm-llaf>1 "u ! br[ ( ,c>n$d ,dafydd1 &
 ,c>n$d ,llewelyn1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay has
 %[n t a n>r[ glaci]1 ab\t two miles 9  
l5g?1 has pl\gh$ out a long n>r[ holl[ 9
 ! drift 7:i* 8=ms a succession (       
t]races1 ! result ( m>9e d5udation1 dur+
 pauses 9 ! re-elevation ( its          
subm]sion7 to a dep? ( m ?an #b1jjj     
feet40#ajh    #ajh ,pr(essor ,ramsay1   
8,! ,old ,glaci]s ( ,nor? ,wales40      
,longman1         #ahfj4  ,! pro(s ( ?is
 great subm]g5ce1 succe$+ ! era (       
8l&-ice10 are con/antly accumulat+4     
,s9ce #ahfc1 :5 ,pr(essor ,hull fir/    
divid$ ! ?ick glacial deposits ( ,ea/]n 
,lanca%ire & ,*e%ire into an ,upp]      
,b\ld] ,clay1 & ,l[] ,b\ld] ,clay divid$
 by a ,middle ,s& & ,gravel1 ! :ole (   
:i* are ( m>9e orig91 ^! subdivisions h 
be5 f\nd to hold good1 by himself & ,mr4
 ,a4 ,h4 ,gre51 ov] #fjj squ>e miles (  
c\ntry ar\nd ,man*e/]1 ,bolton1 &       
,congleton2 by ,mr4 ,de ,rance ov] ano!r
 #fjj squ>e miles1 ar\nd ,liv]pool1     
,pre/on1 ,blackpool1 ,blackburn1 &      

,lanca/]1 & also 9 ! l[ c\ntry ly+      
betwe5 ! ,cumb]l& & ,wel% m\nta9s & !   
sea4  ,9 ,irel&1 also1 ! same triplex   
arrangem5t appe>s to exi/4 ,pr(essors   
,h>kness & ,hull h id5tifi$ ! 8,lime/one
 & ,manure ,gravels0 ( ! c5tral pla91 z 
ref]able to ! 8,middle ,s& & ,gravel10 &
 ! 8,l[] ,b\ld] ,clay0 re/s on a        
glaciat$ rock-surface along ! coa/s (   
,antrim & ,d[n1 & is ov]la9 by s&1 :i*1 
9 #ahcb1 0 discov]$ by ,dr4 ,sc\l] to be
 %ell-be>+4 ,at ,k+/[n ! ?ree deposits  
are se5 re/+ on a m\tonned surface (    
granite1 scor$ f ! ,n4,n4,w4  ,9        
,lanca%ire & on ! coa/ ( ,nor? ,wales1  
betwe5 ,ll&udno & ,rhyl1 ,mr4 ,de ,rance
 has %[n t ^! deposits (t5 lie ^u !     
d5ud$ & erod$ surface ( ano!r clay1 (   
old] date1 :i* he believes to be !      
product ( l&-ice1 ! remnant ( ! mora9e  
pr(onde1 & ! equival5t ( ! ,scot*       
8,till40 ,he also %[s t ! ,l[] ,b\ld]   
,clay nev] rises above an elevation (   
fifty or eighty feet above ! sea-level2 
& t ! ,middle ,s& & ,%+le re/s directly 

^u ! rock1 or on ! surface ( ?is old    
,till4  ,ne> ,man*e/] ! ,l[] ,b\ld]     
,clay occasionally re/s ^u an old b$ (  
s& & gravel4 ,x is extremely local1 b   
its pres5ce has be5 record$ 9 sev]al    
sections by ,mr4 ,edw>d ,b9ney1 :o 0 !  
fir/ to %[1 9 #ahdb1aji t ! ,lanca%ire  
,b\ld] ,clays 7 =m$ 9 ! sea1 & t !      
erratic pebbles & b\ld]s1 ma9ly d]iv$ f 
! ,cumb]l& ,lake ,di/ricts1 7 br\ght s\?
 by means ( float+ ice4    #aji ,9 #ahdj
 ,dr4 ,buckl& describ$ ! occurr5ce (    
b\ld]s (         ,criffel ,granite      
betwe5 ,%albeck & ,c>lisle1 & attribut$ 
_! position to ! ag5cy ( ice float+     
across ! ,solway         ,fir?4  ,mo/ ( 
! erratic pebbles & b\ld]s 9 !          
,lanca%ire clays are m or less scrat*$ &
 scor$1 _m ( !m 7?\gh q r\nd$7 9 s _m   
directions t ,mr4 ,de ,rance believes ! 
,cumb]l& & ,we/morel& hills to h be5    
surr\nd$ by an ice-belt1 :i*1           
occasionally ?aw+ dur+ summ] or w>m     
episodes1 admitt$ 8break] action0 on !  
gradually subsid+ coa/1 we>+ ! fragm5ts 

( rocks br\ght d[n by riv]s or by       
glaci]s into pebbles t1 ) ! return ( !  
cold1 became cov]$ ) ! 8ice-belt10 :i*1 
lift$ by ! tides1 roll$ & d9t$ ! pebbles
 "o aga9/ ano!r1 & gradually all[$ !m to
 be impress$ into its mass1 ) :i* !y    
ev5tually float$ away4  ,! ,middle ,s&s 
& ,%+les 9 ,engl& h also af=d$ a great  
numb] ( %ells ( mollusca4 ,at           
,macclesfield !y h be5 describ$ by      
,messrs4 ,pre/wi* & ,d>bi%ire z occurr+ 
at an elevation ( #a1ajj to #a1bjj feet 
above ! level ( ! sea4#aaj    #aaj ,mr4 
,d>bi%ire records sev5ty species f      
,macclesfield &         ,moel ,tryfa51  
tak5 toge!r1 ( :i* #f are ,arctic1 & #ah
 are         n kn[n 9 ! ,upp] ,crag4    
,among o!r pro(s ( glacial action &     
subm]sion 9 ,wales may be m5tion$ ! case
 ( ,moel ,tryfa51 a hill #a1djj feet    
high1 ly+ to ! we/w>d ( ,ca]n>von ,bay1 
& six or sev5 miles f ,ca]n>von4 ,mr4   
,jo%ua ,trimm] _h obs]v$ /ratifi$ drift 
ne> ! summit ( ?is m\nta91 f :i* he     
obta9$ "s m>9e %ells2 b d\bts 7 ent]ta9$

 z to _! age until #ahfc1 :5 a deep &   
ext5sive cutt+ 0 made 9 se>* ( slates4  
,9 ?is cutt+ a /ratifi$ mass ( loose s& 
& gravel 0 laid op5 ne> ! summit1       
?irty-five feet ?ick1 conta9+ %ells1 "s 
entire1 b mo/ly 9 fragm5ts4 ,sir ,*>les 
,lyell exam9$ ! cutt+1 & obta9$ tw5ty   
species ( %ells1 & 9 ! l[] b$s ( !      
drift1 8l>ge heavy b\ld]s (             
f>-transport$ rocks1 glacially poli%$ & 
scrat*$ on m ?an "o side30 und]nea? !   
:ole1 ! edges ( v]tical slates 7 expos$ 
to view1 exhibit+ 8unequivocal m>ks (   
prolong$ glaciation40 ,! %ells belong$  
to species /ill liv+ 9 ,briti% or m     
nor!rn seas4  ,f ! gravels ( ! ,sev]n   
,valley1 describ$ by ,mr4 ,maw1         
?irty-five =ms ( mollusca h be5 id5tifi$
 by ,mr4 ,gwyn ,jeffreys4 ,9 ! ,%+le b$s
 ( ,leyl&1 ,euxton1 ,*orley1 ,pre/on1   
,lanca/]1 & ,blackpool1#aaa ,mr4 ,de    
,rance has obta9$ ne>ly ?irty species4  
#aaa ,! typical species 9 ,we/          
,lanca%ire are ,tell9a ,bal?ica1        
,c>dium edule1 ,c4 aculeatum1 ,c4       

ru/icum1 ,psammobia         f]ro5sis1   
,turritella t]ebra4  ,9 ,ea/]n          
,york%ire1 ,mr4 ,se>les ,v4 ,wood1      
,jun41 has divid$ ! glacial deposits    
into 8,purple ,clay )\t ,*alk10 8,purple
 ,clay ) ,*alk10 & 8,*alky ,clay10 !    
:ole be+ lat] ?an 8 8,middle ,glacial   
,s&s & ,gravel10 :i*1 9 ,ea/ ,anglia1   
are ov]la9 by ! 8,*alky ,clay10 & re/   
uncon=mably ^u ! 8,contort$ ,drift0 (   
,norfolk1 ! ,crom] ,till1 & ! ,=e/ ,b$4 
,8 ?ree ,york%ire clays are1 h[ev]1     
consid]$ by mo/ nor!rn geologi/s to be !
 repres5tatives ( ! 8,upp] ,b\ld] ,clay0
 we/ ( ! ,p5n9e ,*a91 ! 8,*alky ,clay0  
hav+ be5 =m$ be=e ! c\ntry _h           
suffici5tly subsid$ to all[ ! s&/ones & 
m>ls1 furni%+ ! r$ col\r+ matt]1 to h   
suff]$ d5udation2 :ile ! 8,purple ,clay 
)\t ,*alk1 & ) ,%ap ,granite10 0        
deposit$ :5 all ! *alk 0 ma9ly b5ea? !  
sea1 & ! granite f ,%ap ,fell1 :i* _h   
be5 brok5 up by break]-action dur+ !    
,middle ,s& era1 0 float$ across !      
passes ( ! ,p5n9e ,*a9 & s\?w>ds &      

nor?w>ds4 ,a solit>y pebble ( ,%ap      
granite has be5 f\nd by ,mr4 ,de ,rance 
at ,hoylake1 9 ,*e%ire2 & _m ( ,criffel 
,granite1 9 t c\nty1 & on ! coa/ ( ,nor?
 ,wales1 by ,mr4 ,mack9to%1 :o has also 
trac$ ! fl[ ( ?is granite 9 ! l[ c\ntry 
ly+ nor? & s\? ( ! ,cumb]l& m\nta9s4    
,at ,bridl+ton1 9 ,york%ire1 occurs a   
deposit at ! base ( ! 8,purple ,clay10 )
 a truly ,arctic fauna4 ,out ( sev5ty   
=ms ( mollusca record$ by ,mr4 ,s4 ,v4  
,wood1 ,jun41 n9ete5 are unkn[n to !    
,crag--( ^! ?irte5 are purely arctic1 & 
two n kn[n z liv+4  ,%ells h be5 f\nd 9 
! ,upp] ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,lanca%ire1 at   
,holl+wor? ,res]voir1 ne> ,mottram1 by  
,messrs4 ,b9ney1 ,bateman1 & ,pre/wi*1  
at an elevation ( #efh feet above ! sea1
 consi/+ ( ,fusus ,bamffius1 ,purpura   
lapillus1 ,turritilla t]ebra1 & ,c>dium 
edule4 ,! clay is describ$ by ,mr4      
,b9ney z s&y1 & br[n-col\r$1 ) pebbles (
 granite & gre5/one1 "s r\nd$ & "s      
angul>4 ,all ! above %ells1 z well z    
,tell9a ,bal?ica1 h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,upp]  

,clay ( ,pre/on1 ,g>/ang1 ,blackpool1 & 
,ll&udno1 by ,mr4 ,de ,rance1 :o has    
also f\nd all ! above species 7) !      
exception ( ,fusus71 z well z ,psammobia
 f]ro5sis1 & ! silice\s spicul ( m>9e   
sponges1 9 ! ,l[] ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,we/   
,lanca%ire4 ,he has describ$ ! ord9>y r$
 ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,lanca%ire z ext5d+     
cont9u\sly ?r\gh ,*e%ire & ,/af=d%ire   
into ,w>wick%ire1 gradually becom+ less 
r$ & m *alky1 ev]y:]e ov]ly+ int]mitt5t 
%eets ( 8s&s & %+le-b$s10 "o ( :i* is   
p>ticul>ly well se5 at ,leam+ton &      
,w>wick1 :]e x conta9s ,pect5s f !      
,crag1 ,grypha f ! ,lias1 & *alk fossils
 & fl9ts4 ,! latt] h also be5 f\nd by   
,mr4 ,lucy 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,m\nt     
,sorrel1 associat$ ) bits ( ! ,coral    
,rag ( ,york%ire4 ,! gravels ( ,leice/]1
 ,m>ket ,h>bor\gh1 & ,lutt]wor? 7 long  
ago describ$ by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4         
,conybe>e z af=d+ 8specim5s ( ! organic 
rema9s ( mo/ ( ! ,second>y ,/rata 9     
,engl&40  ,! ,rev4 ,o4 ,fi%]1 ,f4,g4,s41
 has paid mu* att5tion to ! sup]ficial  

cov]+ usually describ$ z 8head+10 or    
8drift10 z well z to ! cont\r ( !       
surface1 9 di/ricts compos$ ( ! s(t]    
/rata1 & has publi%$ 8 views 9 v>i\s    
pap]s 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,geological       
,society & 9 ! ,geological ,magaz9e4 ,he
 ?9ks t ! cont\r ( ! surface _c be      
ascrib$ entirely to ! action ( ra9 &    
riv]s1 b t ! *anges 9 ! anci5t cont\r   
s9ce produc$ by ^? *anges c be easily   
di/+ui%$4 ,he f9ds ! cov]+ b$s to consi/
 ( two memb]s--a l[] "o1 entirely       
de/itute ( organic rema9s1 & g5]ally    
un/ratifi$1 :i* has (t5 be5 =cibly      
ind5t$ into ! b$ b5ea? x1 sometimes     
exhibit+ slick5side at ! junction4  ,!re
 is evid5ce ( ?is l[] memb] hav+ be5    
pu%$ or dragg$ ov] ! surface1 f high] to
 l[] levels1 9 a pla/ic condition2 on   
:i* acc\nt he has nam$ x 8,! ,trail40   
,! upp] memb] ( ! cov]+ b$s consi/s (   
soil d]iv$ f ! l[] "o1 by wea!r+4 ,x    
conta9s1 "h & !re1 ! rema9s ( ! l&-%ells
 :i* liv$ 9 ! locality at a p]iod       
antec$5t to cultivation4 ,x is 8,! ,w>p0

 ( ,mr4 ,trimm]4  ,nei!r ( ^!           
accumulations occur on l[ flats1 :]e !  
surface has be5 modifi$ s9ce ! rec5t    
p]iod4 ,!y bo? alike pass bel[ high-wat]
 m>k1 & h be5 notic$ b5ea? e/u>9e       
deposits4  ,mr4 ,fi%] is ( op9ion t     
l&-ice has be5 in/rum5tal 9 =m+ ! cont\r
 ( ! surface1 & t ! trail is ! remnant (
 its mora9e pr(onde4 ,& he has giv5     
reasons#aab = believ+ t ! climate ( ^?  
latitudes may h be5 suffici5tly rigor\s 
= t result ab\t #ajj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,he  
attributes ! =mation ( ! sup]ficial     
cov]+ ( ,w>p to a p]iod ( mu* ra9fall & 
sev]e w9t]-fro/s1 aft] ! ice-%eet _h    
disappe>$4    #aab ,geological ,magaz9e1
 vol4 iii41 p4 #dhc4  ,! ph5om5a :i* s  
p[]fully affect$ our hemisph]e pres5t   
!mselves1 9 a mu* gr&] mann]1 9 ! ,new  
,_w4 ,! glaci]-sy/em appe>s to h tak5 9 
,am]ica ! same gigantic proportions :i* 
o!r objects assume !re4 ,nor is x       
necess>y1 9 ord] to expla9 ! p]man5t    
exi/5ce ( ?is icy mantle 9 temp]ate     
climates1 to inf] ! preval5ce ( any v   

extraord9>y degree ( cold4 ,on ?is      
subject ,m4 ,*4 ,m>t9s ?us expresses    
himself3 8,! mean temp]ature ( ,g5eva is
 #i #e ,c5t4 ,^u ! surr\nd+ m\nta9s !   
limit ( p]petual sn[ is f\nd at #h1hjj  
feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! great    
glaci]s ( ! valley ( ,*am\nix desc5d    
#e1jjj feet bel[ ?is l9e4 ,?us situat$1 
let u suppose t ! mean temp]ature (     
,g5eva 0 l[]$ only #d1 & ! av]age became
 #e #e2 ! decrease ( temp]ature ) !     
height be+ #a c4 = e #fjj feet1 ! limit 
( p]petual sn[ w\ld be l[]$ by #b1dcg   
feet1 & w\ld be #f1cfc feet above !     
level ( ! sea4 ,we c readily admit t !  
glaci]s ( ,*am\nix w\ld desc5d bel[ ?is 
new limit1 to an ext5t at lea/ equal to 
t :i* exi/s betwe5 _! pres5t limit & _! 
l[] extremity4 ,n[1 9 reality1 ! foot ( 
^! glaci]s is #e1jjj feet above ! ocean2
 ) a climate #d cold]1 x w\ld be #b1dcg 
feet l[]2 t is to say1 at ! level ( !   
,swiss pla94 ,?us1 ! l[]+ ( ! l9e (     
p]petual sn[ to ?is ext5t w\ld suffice  
to br+ ! glaci] ( ! ,arve to ! environs 

( ,g5eva4444 ,( ! climate :i* has fav\r$
 ! prodigi\s developm5t ( glaci]s we h a
 pretty correct idea2 x is t ( ,upsala1 
,/ockholm1 ,*ri/iana1 & "p ( ,nor?      
,am]ica1 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york4444 ,to 
dim9i% by f\r degrees ! mean temp]ature 
( a c\ntry 9 ord] to expla9 "o ( ! gr&e/
 revolutions ( ! globe1 is to v5ture on 
an hypo!sis n bold] ?an geology has     
sometimes p]mitt$ to itself40#aac       
#aac ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4  ,9 prov+
 t glaci]s cov]$ "p ( ,europe dur+ a    
c]ta9 p]iod1 t !y ext5d$ f ! ,nor? ,pole
 to ,nor!rn ,italy & ! ,danube1 we h    
suffici5tly e/abli%$ ! reality ( ?is    
glacial p]iod1 :i* we mu/ consid] z a   
curi\s episode1 z well z c]ta91 9 !     
hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,su* masses ( ice c\ld  
only h cov]$ ! e>? :5 ! temp]ature ( !  
air 0 l[]$ at lea/ "s degrees bel[ z]o4 
,b organic life is incompatible ) su* a 
temp]ature2 & to ?is cause mu/ we       
attribute ! disappe>ance ( c]ta9 species
 ( animals & plants--9 p>ticul>1 !      
,rh9oc]os & ! ,elephant--:i*1 be=e ?is  

sudd5 & extraord9>y cool+ ( ! globe1    
appe> to h limit$ !mselves1 9 imm5se    
h]ds1 to ,nor!rn ,europe1 & *iefly to   
,sib]ia1 :]e _! rema9s h be5 f\nd 9 su* 
prodigi\s quantities4 ,cuvi] says1      
speak+ ( ! bodies ( ! quadrup$s :i* !   
ice _h seiz$1 & 9 :i* !y h be5 pres]v$1 
) _! hair1 fle%1 & sk91 up to our own   
times3 8,if !y _h n be5 froz5 z soon z  
kill$1 putrefaction w\ld h decompos$ !m2
 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is et]nal fro/ c\ld n 
h previ\sly prevail$ 9 ! place :]e !y   
di$2 = !y c\ld n h liv$ 9 su* a         
temp]ature4 ,x 01 !re=e1 at ! same      
in/ant :5 ^! animals p]i%$ t ! c\ntry !y
 inhabit$ 0 r5d]$ glacial4 ,^! ev5ts mu/
 h be5 sudd51 in/antane\s1 & )\t any    
gradation40#aad    #aad 8,ossem5ts      
fossiles4 ,disc\rs sur les ,rvolutions  
du ,globe40  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4        
#aii4--;,fissurella nembosa4  7,liv+    
%ell47  ,h[ c we expla9 ! glacial p]iod8
 ,we h expla9$ ,m4 ,adhm>'s hypo!sis1 to
 :i* x may be object$ t ! cold ( !      
glacial p]iod 0 s g5]al ?r\gh\t ! ,pol> 

& temp]ate regions on bo? sides ( !     
equator1 t m]e local *anges 9 ! ext]nal 
configuration ( our planet & displacem5t
 ( ! c5tre ( gravity sc>cely af=d       
adequate causes = s great a revolution 9
 temp]ature4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1        
speculat+ ^u ! sugge/ion ( ,ritt] & !   
discov]y ( m>9e %ells spread f> & wide  
ov] ! ,sah>a ,des]t by ,messrs4 ,es*]   
von d] ,l9?1 ,desor1 & ,m>t9s--:i* seem 
to prove t ! ,african ,des]t has be5 "u 
wat] at a v rec5t p]iod--inf]s t !      
,des]t ( ,sah>a con/itut$ =m]ly a wide  
m>9e area1 /ret*+ sev]al hundr$ miles   
nor? & s\?1 & ea/ & we/4 8,f ?is area10 
he adds1 8! s\? w9d mu/ =m]ly h absorb$ 
moi/ure1 & mu/ h be5 /ill fur!r cool$ & 
saturat$ ) aque\s vap\r z x pass$ ov] ! 
,m$it]ranean4 ,:5 at l5g? x rea*$ !     
,alps1 &1 /rik+ !m1 0 driv5 into ! high]
 & m r>efi$ regions ( ! atmosph]e1 x    
w\ld "p ) its wat]y bur!n 9 ! =m ( sn[2 
s t ! same arial curr5t :i*1 "u ! "n ( !
 ,fhn1 or ,sirocco1 n[ plays a lead+ "p 
) its hot & dry brea?1 sometimes1 ev5 9 

! dep? ( w9t]1 9 melt+ ! sn[ & *eck+ !  
gr[? ( glaci]s1 mu/1 at ! p]iod allud$  
to1 h be5 ! pr9cipal fe$] ( ,alp9e sn[ &
 ice40#aae ,nev]!less1 we repeat1 no    
explanation pres5ts itself :i* c be     
consid]$ conclusive2 & 9 sci5ce we %\ld 
nev] be afraid to say1 ,i d n "k4       
#aae ,lyell's 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4 
#age4   ,,creation ,,( ,,man ,,& ,,!    
,,asiatic ,,deluge4  ,x 0 only aft] !   
glacial p]iod1 :5 ! e>? _h resum$ its   
normal temp]ature1 t man 0 creat$4 ,:5ce
 came he8  ,he came f :5ce orig9at$ !   
fir/ blade ( grass :i* grew ^u ! burn+  
rocks ( ! ,silurian seas2 f :5ce proce$$
 ! diff]5t races ( animals :i* h        
successively replac$ ea* o!r ^u ! globe1
 gradually1 b unceas+ly1 ris+ 9 ! scale 
( p]fection4 ,he emanat$ f ! supreme w (
 ! ,au?or ( ! worlds :i* con/itute !    
univ]se4  ,! e>? has pass$ ?r\gh _m     
phases s9ce ! "t :5--9 ! words ( !      
,sacr$ ,record--8! e>? 0 )\t =m & void2 
& d>kness 0 ^u ! face ( ! deep4 ,& ! ,_s
 ( ,god mov$ ^u ! face ( ! wat]s40 ,we h

 consid]$ all ^! phases2 we h se5 !     
globe float+ 9 space 9 a /ate ( gase\s  
nebulosity1 cond5s+ into liquidity1 &   
beg9n+ to solidify at ! surface4 ,we h  
pictur$ ! int]nal agitations1 !         
di/urbances1 ! p>tial dislocations to   
:i* ! e>? has be5 subject$1 almo/ )\t   
int]ruption1 :ile x c\ld n1 z yet1 resi/
 ! =ce ( ! waves ( ! fi]y sea imprison$ 
)9 its fragile cru/4 ,we h se5 ?is      
envelope acquir+ solidity1 & !          
geological cataclysms los+ _! int5sity &
 frequ5cy 9 proportion z ?is solid cru/ 
increas$ 9 ?ickness4 ,we h look$ on1 s  
to speak1 :ile ! "w ( organic creation 0
 proce$+4 ,we h se5 life mak+ its       
appe>ance ^u ! globe2 & ! fir/ plants & 
animals spr++ into exi/5ce4 ,we h se5   
?is organic creation multiply+1 becom+ m
 complex1 & con/antly made m p]fect )   
ea* advance 9 ! progressive phases ( !  
hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,we n[ arrive at !      
greate/ ev5t ( ?is hi/ory1 at ! cr[n+ ( 
! edifice1 si p>va licet compon]e       
magnis4  ,at ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*1 !

 cont95ts & seas assum$ ! respective    
limits :i* !y n[ pres5t4 ,! di/urbances 
( ! gr\nd1 ! fractures ( ! e>?'s cru/1 &
 ! volcanic eruptions :i* are !         
consequ5ce ( !m1 only occurr$ at r>e    
int]vals1 occasion+ only local &        
re/rict$ disa/]s4 ,! riv]s & _! afflu5ts
 fl[$ betwe5 tranquil banks4 ,animat$   
,nature is t ( our own days4 ,an        
abundant vegetation1 div]sifi$ by !     
exi/5ce ( a climate :i* has n[ be5      
acquir$1 embelli%es ! e>?4 ,a multitude 
( animals inhabit ! wat]s1 ! dry l&1 & !
 air4 ,nev]!less1 creation has n yet    
a*iev$ its greate/ "w--a be+ capable (  
compreh5d+ ^! m>vels & ( admir+ !       
sublime "w--a s\l is want+ to adore &   
give ?anks to ! ,creator4  ,god creat$  
man4  ,:at is man8  ,we might say t man 
is an intellig5t & moral be+2 b ?is w\ld
 give a v imp]fect idea ( 8 nature4     
,frankl9 says t man is "o t c make      
tools6 ,?is is to reproduce a portion ( 
! fir/ proposition1 :ile depreciat+ x4  
,ari/otle calls man ! 8wise be+10  4    

,l9nu1 9 8 8,sy/em ( ,nature10 aft] hav+
 appli$ to man ! epi!t ( wise 7homo     
sapi5s7 writes aft] ?is g5]ic title ^!  
pr(\nd words3 ,nosce te ipsum4 ,! ,fr5* 
naturali/ & philosoph]1 ,isidore        
,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire1 says1 8,! plant
 lives1 ! animal lives & feels1 man     
lives1 feels1 & ?9ks0--a s5tim5t :i*    
,voltaire _h already express$4 8,!      
,et]nal ,mak]10 says ! philosoph] (     
,f]ney1 8has giv5 to man organisation1  
s5tim5t1 & intellig5ce2 to ! animals    
s5tim5t1 & :at we call in/9ct2 to       
vegetables organisation alone4 ,8 p[] !n
 acts cont9ually ^u ^! ?ree k+doms40 ,x 
is probably ! animal :i* is "h          
depreciat$4 ,! animal on _m occasions   
und\bt$ly ?9ks1 reasons1 delib]ates )   
itself1 & acts 9 virtue ( a decision    
maturely weigh$2 x is n !n r$uc$ to m]e 
s5sation4  ,to def9e exactly ! human    
be+1 we believe t x is necess>y to      
*>act]ise ! nature & ext5t ( 8          
intellig5ce4 ,9 c]ta9 cases !           
intellig5ce ( ! animal approa*es ne>ly  

to t ( man1 b ! latt] is end[$ ) a c]ta9
 faculty :i* belongs to him exclusively2
 9 creat+ him1 ,god has add$ an entirely
 new /ep 9 ! asc5d+ scale ( animat$     
be+s4 ,?is faculty1 peculi> to ! human  
race1 is ab/raction4 ,we w say1 !n1 t   
man is an intellig5t be+1 gift$ ) !     
faculty ( compreh5d+ ! ab/ract4  ,x is  
by ?is faculty t man is rais$ to a      
pre-em95t degree ( mat]ial & moral p[]4 
,by x he has subdu$ ! e>? to 8 empire1 &
 by x also 8 m9d rises to ! mo/ sublime 
contemplations4 ,?anks to ?is faculty1  
man has conceiv$ ! ideal1 & realis$     
poesy4 ,he has conceiv$ ! inf9ite1 &    
creat$ ma!matics4 ,su* is ! di/9ction   
:i* sep>ates ! human race s widely f !  
animals--:i* makes him a creation ap>t &
 absolutely new ^u ! globe4 ,a be+      
capable ( compreh5d+ ! ideal & !        
inf9ite1 ( creat+ poetry & algebra1 su* 
is man6 ,to inv5t & und]/& ?is =mula--  
7a  b7  a  #b;ab  b1  or ! algebraic    
idea ( negative quantities1 ?is belongs 
to man4 ,x is ! greate/ privilege ( !   

human be+ to express & compreh5d ?\ghts 
l ! foll[+3      ,j'tais seul prs des   
flots1 p> une nuit d'toiles1     ,pas un
 nuage aux cieux1 sur les m]s pas de    
voiles1     ,mes yeux plongeai5t plus   
lo9 que le monde rel1     ,et les v5ts  
et les m]s1 et t\te la nature           
,semblai5t int]rog] dans un confus      
murmure1         ,les flots des m]s1 les
 feux du ciel4      ,et les toiles d'or1
 lgions inf9ies1      voix haute1  voix 
basse1 avec mille h>monies     ,disai5t1
 en incl9ant leur c\ronne de feu2       
,et les flots bleus1 que ri5 ne g\v]ne  
et n'arrte3     ,disai5t1 en rec\rbant  
l'cume de leur crte3           8,c'e/ le
 ,seigneur1 le ,seigneur ,dieu6099      
,,victor ,,hugo1 les ,ori5tales4        
99       99       99       99       99  
99 ,alone ) ! waves1 on a />ry night1   
,my ?\ghts f> away 9 ! inf9ite2         
,on ! sea n a sail1 n a cl\d 9 ! sky1   
,& ! w9d & ! waves ) sweet lullaby      
,seem to "q 9 murmurs ( my/]y1          
,! fires ( heav51 ! waves ( ! sea4      

,& ! gold5 />s ( ! heav5s rose high]1   
,h>moni\sly bl5d+ _! cr[ns ( fire1      
,& ! waves :i* no rul+ h& may "k1       
#8,mid/ a ?\s& murmurs1 n[ high1 n[ l[1 
,s+1 :ile curv+ _! foam+ cre/s to ! sea1
             8,x is ! ,"l ,god6 ,x is   
,he40  ,! 8,mcanique ,cle/e0 ( ,laplace1
 ! 8,pr9cipia0 ( ,newton1 ,milton's     
8,p>adise ,lo/10 ! 8,ori5tales0 by      
,victor ,hugo--are ! fruits ( ! faculty 
( ab/raction4  ,9 ! ye> #ahjj1 a be+1   
half savage1 :o liv$ 9 ! woods1 clamb]$ 
up ! trees1 slept ^u dri$ leaves1 & fl$ 
on ! approa* ( m51 0 br\ght to a        
physician nam$ ,p9el4 ,"s sportsm5 _h   
f\nd him2 he _h no voice1 & 0 devoid (  
intellig5ce2 he 0 kn[n z ! little savage
 ( ,aveyron4 ,! ,p>isian savants = a    
long "t disput$ ov] ?is /range          
individual4 ,0 x an ape8--0 x a wild    
man8  ,illu/ration3 ,,xxxii4--,appe>ance
 ( ,man4  ,! le>n$ ,dr4 ,it>d has       
publi%$ an int]e/+ hi/ory ( ! savage (  
,aveyron4 8,he w\ld sometimes desc5d10  
he writes1 8into ! g>d5 ( ! deaf & dumb1

 & seat himself ^u ! edge ( ! f\nta91   
pres]v+ 8 balance by rock+ himself to & 
fro2 aft] a "t 8 body became q /ill1 & 8
 face assum$ an expression ( pr(\nd     
melan*oly4 ,he w\ld rema9 ?us =         
h\rs--reg>d+ att5tively ! surface ( !   
wat]--^u :i* he w\ld1 f "t to "t1 ?r[   
blades ( grass & dri$ leaves4 ,at night1
 :5 ! cle> moonlight p5etrat$ into !    
*amb] he occupi$1 he r>ely fail$ to rise
 & place himself at ! w9d[1 :]e he w\ld 
rema9 "p ( ! night1 erect1 motionless1 8
 neck /ret*$ out1 8 eyes fix$ ^u !      
l&scape lit up by ! moon1 lo/ 9 a sort (
 ec/asy ( contemplation40 ,?is be+ 01   
und\bt$ly1 a man4 ,no ape ev] exhibit$  
su* signs ( intellig5ce1 su* dreamy     
manife/ations1 vague conceptions ( !    
ideal--9 o!r words1 t faculty (         
ab/raction :i* belongs to humanity      
alone4 ,9 ord] wor?ily to introduce !   
new inhabitant :o comes to fill ! e>? ) 
8 pres5ce--:o br+s ) him intellig5ce to 
compreh5d1 to admire1 to subdue1 & to   
rule ! creation 7,,pl4 ,,xxxii471 we    

require no?+ m ?an ! gr& & simple       
language ( ,moses1 :om ,bossuet calls 8!
 mo/ anci5t ( hi/orians1 ! mo/ sublime (
 philosoph]s1 ! wise/ ( legislators40   
,let u li/5 to ! words ( ! inspir$      
writ]3 8,& ,god said1 ,let u make man 9 
our image1 aft] our lik5ess3 & let !m h 
dom9ion ov] ! fi% ( ! sea1 & ov] ! f[l (
 ! air1 & ov] ! cattle1 & ov] all ! e>?1
 & ov] e creep+ ?+ t creepe? ^u ! e>?4  
,s ,god creat$ man 9 8 own image1 9 !   
image ( ,god creat$ he him2 male &      
female creat$ he !m40  8,& ,god saw     
ev]y?+ t he _h made1 &1 behold1 x 0 v   
good40         99       99       99     
99       99  ,volumes h be5 writt5 ^u ! 
"q ( ! unity ( ! human race2 t is1 :e!r 
!re 7 _m c5tres ( ! creation ( man1 or  
:e!r our race is d]iv$ solely f ! ,adam 
( ,scripture4 ,we ?9k1 ) _m naturali/s1 
t ! /ock ( humanity is unique1 & t !    
diff]5t human races1 ! negroes1 & !     
yell[ race1 are only ! result ( !       
influ5ce ( climate ^u organisation4 ,we 
consid] ! human race z hav+ appe>$ = !  

fir/ "t 7! mode ( 8 creation be+ veil$ 9
 ,div9e my/]y1 et]nally imp5etrable to  
u7 9 ! ri* pla9s ( ,asia1 on ! smil+    
banks ( ! ,euphrates1 z ! traditions ( !
 mo/ anci5t races tea* u4 ,x is !re1 :]e
 ,nature is s ri* & vigor\s1 9 !        
brilliant climate & "u ! radiant sky (  
,asia1 9 ! %ade ( its luxuriant masses (
 v]dure & its mild & p]fum$ atmosph]e1 t
 man loves to repres5t to himself ! fa!r
 ( 8 race z issu+ f ! h& ( 8 ,creator4  
,we are1 x w be se51 f> f %>+ ! op9ion (
 ^? naturali/s :o repres5t man1 at !    
beg9n+ ( ! exi/5ce ( 8 species1 z a sort
 ( ape1 ( hide\s face1 degrad$ mi51 &   
cov]$ ) hair1 inhabit+ caves l ! be>s & 
lions1 & p>ticipat+ 9 ! brutal in/9cts (
 ^? savage animals4#aaf ,!re is no d\bt 
t e>ly man pass$ ?r\gh a p]iod 9 :i* he 
_h to cont5d = 8 exi/5ce ) f]oci\s      
bea/s1 & to live 9 a primitive /ate 9 ! 
woods or savannahs1 :]e ,provid5ce _h   
plac$ him4 ,b ?is p]iod ( probation came
 to an end1 & man1 an em95tly social    
be+1 by comb9+ 9 gr\ps1 animat$ by !    

same int]e/s & ! same desires1 soon f\nd
 means to intimidate ! animals1 to      
triumph ov] ! elem5ts1 to protect       
himself f ! innum]able p]ils :i*        
surr\nd$ him1 & to subdue to 8 rule !   
o!r inhabitants ( ! e>?4 8,! fir/ m510  
says ,buffon1 8witnesses ( ! convulsive 
movem5ts ( ! e>?1 /ill rec5t & frequ5t1 
hav+ only ! m\nta9s = refuge f !        
inundations2 & (t5 driv5 f ?is asylum by
 volcanoes & e>?quakes1 :i* trembl$ "u  
_! feet2 un$ucat$1 nak$1 & expos$ to !  
elem5ts1 victims to ! fury ( f]oci\s    
animals1 ^: prey !y 7 c]ta9 to become2  
impress$ also ) a common s5tim5t (      
gloomy t]ror1 & urg$ by necessity1 w\ld 
!y n unite1 fir/1 to def5d !mselves by  
numb]s1 & !n to assi/ ea* o!r by work+ 9
 conc]t1 to make habitations & arms8 ,!y
 began by %ap+ into ! =ms ( hat*ets ^!  
h>d fl9ts1 ! ,jade1 & o!r /ones1 :i* 7  
suppos$ to h be5 =m$ by ?und] & fall5 f 
! cl\ds1 b :i* are1 nev]!less1 only !   
fir/ examples ( man's art 9 a pure /ate 
( ,nature4 ,he w soon draw fire f ^!    

same fl9ts1 by /rik+ !m aga9/ ea* o!r2  
he w seize ! flames ( ! burn+ volcano1  
or pr(it by ! fire ( ! r$-hot lava to   
light 8 fire ( bru%wood 9 ! =e/2 & by ! 
help ( ?is p[]ful elem5t he cleanses1   
purifies1 & r5d]s :olesome ! place he   
selects = 8 habitation4 ,) 8 hat*et (   
/one he *ops wood1 fells trees1 %apes   
timb]1 & puts x toge!r1 fa%ions         
in/rum5ts ( w>f>e & ! mo/ necess>y tools
 & implem5ts2 & aft] hav+ furni%$       
!mselves ) clubs & o!r weighty &        
def5sive arms1 did n ^! fir/ m5 f9d     
means to make light] weapons to rea* !  
swift-foot$ /ag f af>8 ,a t5don ( an    
animal1 a fibre ( ! aloe-leaf1 or !     
supple b>k ( "s ligne\s plant1 w\ld s]ve
 z a cord to br+ toge!r ! two           
extremities ( an ela/ic bran* ( yew1 =m+
 a b[2 & small fl9ts1 %ap$ to a po9t1   
arm ! arr[4 ,!y w soon h sn>es1 rafts1 &
 canoes2 !y w =m !mselves into          
communities compos$ ( a few families1 or
 r ( relations sprung f ! same family1 z
 is /ill ! case ) "s savage tribes1 :o h

 _! game1 fi%1 & fruits 9 common4 ,b 9  
all ^? c\ntries ^: area is limit$ by    
wat]1 or surr\nd$ by high m\nta9s1 ^!   
small nations1 becom+ too num]\s1 h be5 
9 "t =c$ to p>cel out ! l& betwe5 !m2 & 
f t mom5t ! e>? has become ! doma9 (    
man2 he has tak5 possession ( x by 8    
lab\r1 he has cultivat$ x1 & atta*m5t to
 ! soil foll[s ! v fir/ act (           
possession2 ! private int]e/ makes "p ( 
! national int]e/2 ord]1 civilisation1 &
 laws succe$1 & society acquires =ce &  
consi/5cy40#aag ,we love to quote !     
s5tim5ts ( a great writ]--b h[ mu* m    
eloqu5t w\ld ! words ( ! naturali/ h    
be51 if he _h add$ to 8 own gr& eloqu5ce
 ( language1 ! k :i* sci5ce has plac$ )9
 rea* ( ! writ]s ( ! pres5t "t--- if he 
c\ld h pa9t$ man 9 ! e>ly days ( 8      
creation1 9 pres5ce ( ! imm5se animal   
population :i* !n occupi$ ! e>?1 &      
fight+ ) ! wild bea/s :i* fill$ ! =e/s (
 ! anci5t _w6 ,man1 comp>atively v weak 
9 organisation1 de/itute ( natural      
weapons ( attack or def5ce1 incapable ( 

ris+ into ! air l ! birds1 or liv+ "u   
wat] l ! fi%es & "s reptiles1 might seem
 doom$ to spe$y de/ruction4 ,b he 0 m>k$
 on ! =ehead ) ! ,div9e seal4 ,?anks to 
! sup]ior gift ( an exceptional         
intellig5ce1 ?is be+1 9 appe>ance s     
helpless1 has by degrees swept ! mo/    
f]oci\s ( its occupants f ! e>?1 leav+  
^? only :o cat] to 8 wants or desires1  
or by ^: aid he *anges ! primitive      
aspects ( :ole cont95ts4    #aaf ,x is  
told ( a =m] di/+ui%$ & witty memb] ( ! 
,geological ,society t1 hav+ obta9$     
possession ( ! rooms         on a c]ta9 
day1 :5 !re 0 to be a g5]al meet+1 he   
decorat$ its walls ) a s]ies ( c>toons1 
9 :i* !         p>ts ( ! memb]s 7       
/rangely rev]s$4 ,9 "o c>toon           
,i*?yosauri & ,plesiosauri 7 occupi$ ) !
 skeleton (         ,homo sapi5s2 9     
ano!r1 a p>ty ( ,cru/aceans 7 occupi$   
) a cranium suspici\sly l ! same        
species2 :ile 9 a         ?ird1 a p>ty (
 ,pt]i*?ys 7 ab\t to d9e on a bip$ )    
a suspici\s resemblance to a c]ta9      

well-condition$ ,f4,g4,s4 (         !   
day4    #aag 8poques de la ,nature10    
vol4 xii41 pp4 #cbb-cbe4 #ahmo4 ,p>is1  
#aggh4         99       99       99     
99       99  ,! antiquity ( man is a "q 
:i* has l>gely engag$ ! att5tion (      
geologi/s1 & _m +5i\s argum5ts h be5    
haz>d$1 t5d+ to prove t ! human race & !
 great ext9ct ,mammalia 7               
contemporane\s4 ,! circum/ances be>+ on 
! "q are usually rang$ "u ?ree s]ies (  
facts3 #a4 ,! ,cave-deposits2 #b4 ,peat 
& %ell m\nds2 #c4 ,lacu/r9e habitations1
 or ,lake dwell+s4  ,we h already       
briefly t\*$ ^u ! ,cave-deposits4 ,9 !  
,kirkdale ,cave no rema9s or o!r traces 
( man's pres5ce seem to h be5 discov]$4 
,b 9 ,k5t's ,hole1 an unequal deposit ( 
loam & clay1 along ) brok5 bones mu*    
gnaw$1 & ! tee? ( bo? ext9ct & liv+     
,mammals1 implem5ts evid5tly fa%ion$ by 
! human h& 7 f\nd 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 9 !  
upp] "p ( ! clay1 artificially-%ap$     
fl9ts2 on ! clay re/$ a lay] (          
/alagmite1 9 :i* /reaks ( burnt *>coal  

occurr$1 & *>r$ bones ( exi/+ species ( 
animals4 ,above ! /alagmite a /one      
hat*et1 or celt1 made ( sy5ite1 ( m     
f9i%$ appe>ance1 0 met )1 ) articles (  
bone1 r\nd pieces ( blue slate &        
s&/one-grit1 pieces ( pott]y1 a numb] ( 
%ells ( ! mussel1 limpet1 & oy/]1 & o!r 
rema9s1 ,celtic1 ,briti%1 & ,roman1 ( v 
e>ly date2 ! l[] deposits are ^? ) :i*  
we are "h m p>ticul>ly conc]n$4 ,! ,rev4
 ,j4 ,mac,enery1 ! g5tleman :o explor$ &
 describ$ !m1 asc]ta9$ t !              
fl9t-in/rum5ts occupi$ a uni=m situation
 int]m$iate betwe5 ! /alagmite & ! upp] 
surface ( ! loam1 =m+ a connect+ l9k    
betwe5 bo?2 & 8 op9ion 0 t ! epo* ( !   
introduction ( ! knives mu/ be dat$     
antec$5tly to ! =mation ( ! /alagmite1 f
 ! era ( ! quiesc5t settlem5t ( ! mud4  
,f ?is view x w\ld foll[ t ! cave 0     
visit$ po/]iorly to ! introduction &    
subsid5ce ( ! loam1 & be=e ! =mation ( !
 new sup]-/ratum ( /alagmite1 by m5 :o  
ent]$ ! cave & di/urb$ ! orig9al        
deposit4 ,al?\gh fl9ts h be5 f\nd 9 !   

loam und]ly+ ! regul> cru/ ( /alagmite1 
m+l$ confus$ly ) ! bones1 & unconnect$ )
 ! evid5ce ( ! visits ( man--su* z !    
excavation ( ov5s or pits--,dr4 ,buckl& 
refus$ 8 belief to ! /atem5t t !        
fl9t-implem5ts 7 f\nd b5ea? ! /alagmite1
 & always cont5d$ t !y 7 ! "w ( m5 ( a m
 rec5t p]iod1 :o _h brok5 up ! sp>ry    
floor4 ,! doctor suppos$ t ! anci5t     
,britons _h scoop$ out ov5s 9 !         
/alagmite1 & t ?r\gh !m ! knives got    
admission to ! und]ly+ loam1 & t 9 ?is  
confus$ /ate ! sev]al mat]ials 7 cem5t$ 
toge!r4  ,9 #aheh ,dr4 ,falcon] he>d ( !
 newly-discov]$ cave at ,brixham1 on !  
opposite side ( ! bay to ,torquay1 & he 
took /eps to prev5t any d\bts be+       
ent]ta9$ ) reg>d to its cont5ts4 ,?is   
cave 0 compos$ ( sev]al passages1 ) f\r 
entrances1 =m]ly block$ up ) breccia &  
e>?y matt]2 ! ma9 op5+ be+ asc]ta9$ by  
,mr4 ,bri/[ to be sev5ty-eight feet     
above ! valley1 & n9ety-five feet above 
! sea1 ! cave itself be+ 9 "s places    
eight feet wide4 ,! cont5ts ( ! cave 7  

cov]$ ) a lay] ( /alagmite1 f "o to     
fifte5 in*es ?ick1 on ! top ( :i* 7 f\nd
 ! horns ( a ,re9de]2 "u ! /alagmite    
came r$di% loam or cave-e>?1 ) pebbles &
 "s angul> /ones1 f two to ?irte5 feet  
?ick1 conta9+ ! bones ( ,elephants1     
,rh9oc]os1 ,be>s1 ,hynas1 ,felis1       
,re9de]1 ,horses1 ,ox51 & sev]al        
,rod5ts2 &1 la/ly1 a lay] ( gravel1 &   
r\nd$ pebbles )\t fossils1 und]laid !   
cave-e>? & =m$ ! l[e/ deposit4  ,9 ^!   
b$s no human bones 7 f\nd1 b 9 almo/ e  
"p ( ! bone-b$ 7 fl9t-knives1 "o ( ! mo/
 p]fect be+ f\nd ?irte5 feet d[n 9 !    
bone-b$1 at its l[e/ "p4 ,! mo/         
rem>kable fact 9 connection ) ?is cave 0
 ! discov]y ( an entire left h9d-leg ( !
 ,cave-be> ly+ 9 close proximity to ?is 
knife2 8n wa%$ 9 a fossil /ate out ( an 
old] alluvium1 & swept aft]w>ds into ?is
 cave1 s z to be m+l$ ) ! fl9t          
implem5ts1 b hav+ be5 introduc$ :5 clo!d
 9 its fle%40 ,! implem5t & ! ,be>'s leg
 7 evid5tly deposit$ ab\t ! same "t1 & x
 only requir$ "s approximative e/imate (

 ! date ( ?is deposit1 to settle ! "q ( 
! antiquity ( man1 at lea/ 9 an         
affirmative s5se4  ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bri/[1 
:o 0 s5t by ! ,committee ( ! ,royal     
,society to make a plan & draw+s ( !    
,brixham ,cave1 f\nd t its entrance 0   
situat$ at a height ( n9ety-five feet   
above ! pres5t level ( ! sea4 ,9 8      
,report made to ! ,royal ,society1 9    
explanation ( ! plan & sections1 ,mr4   
,bri/[ /at$ t1 9 all probability1 at !  
"t ! cave 0 =m$1 ! l& 0 at a l[] level  
to ! ext5t ( ! obs]v$ di/ance (         
n9ety-five feet1 & t its m\? 0 !n       
situat$ at or ne> ! level ( ! sea4  ,!  
cave consi/$ ( wide gall]ies or passages
 runn+ 9 a nor? & s\? direction1 ) m9or 
lat]al passages bran*+ (f ne>ly at "r   
angles to ! ma9 op5+s--- ! :ole cave be+
 =m$ 9 ! jo9ts1 or natural divisional   
planes1 ( ! rock4  ,! m\? or entrance to
 ! cave orig9at$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 9 an
 op5 jo9t or fissure 9 ! ,devonian      
lime/one1 :i* became wid5$ by wat] fl[+ 
backw>ds & =w>ds1 & 0 p>tly enl>g$ by ! 

atmosph]ic wat]1 :i* p]colat$ ?r\gh !   
cracks1 fissures1 & op5 jo9ts 9 ! ov]ly+
 rock4 ,! pebbles1 =m+ ! l[e/ deposit 9 
! cave1 7 ord9>y %+le or bea*-gravel1   
wa%$ 9 by ! waves & tides4 ,! cave-e>? 0
 ! residual "p ( ! lime/one rock1 aft] !
 calc>e\s portion _h be5 dissolv$ &     
c>ri$ away 9 solution2 & ! /alactite &  
/alagmite 7 d]iv$ f ! lime deposit$ f ! 
p]colat+ wat]4  ,) reg>d to bone-caves  
g5]ally1 x w\ld seem t1 l o!r su* op5+s1
 !y are mo/ common 9 lime/one rocks1 :]e
 !y h be5 =m$ by wat]1 :i* has dissolv$ 
& c>ri$ away ! calc>e\s +r$i5t ( ! rock4
 ,9 ! case ( ! ,brixham cave1 ! mode (  
action ( ! wat] c\ld be cle>ly trac$ 9  
two ways3 fir/1 9 wid5+ out ! pr9cipal  
passages by ! ru% ( wat] backw>ds &     
=w>ds f ! sea2 &1 secondly1 by !        
infiltration & p]colation ( atmosph]ic  
wat] ?r\gh ! ov]ly+ rock4 ,9 bo? cases !
 active ag5ts 9 produc+ ! cave _h tak5  
advantage ( a pre-exi/+ fissure or      
crack1 or an op5 jo9t1 :i* !y gradually 
enl>g$ & wid5$ out1 until ! op5+ receiv$

 its f9al proportions4  ,! cave pres5t$ 
no appe>ance ( ev] hav+ be5 inhabit$ by 
man2 or ( hav+ be5 ! d5 ( ,hynas or o!r 
animals1 l ,wookey ,hole 9 ! ,m5dips1 & 
"s o!r bone-caves4 ,! mo/ probable      
supposition is1 t ! h9d qu>t] ( ! ,be> &
 o!r bones :i* 7 f\nd 9 ! cave-e>?1 _h  
be5 wa%$ into ! cave by ! sea1 9 :i* !y 
7 float+ ab\t4  ,we draw "s inf]5ces ( !
 greate/ int]e/ & significance f !      
,brixham cave & its cont5ts4  ,we le>n t
 ?is c\ntry 01 at "o "t1 inhabit$ by    
animals :i* are n[ ext9ct1 & ( ^:       
exi/5ce we h n ev5 a tradition2 t man1  
!n ignorant ( ! use ( metal1 & little   
bett] ?an ! brutes1 0 ! contempor>y ( ! 
animals ^: rema9s 7 f\nd 9 ! cave1      
toge!r ) a rude fl9t-implem5t--! only   
k9d ( weapon ) :i* our savage ance/or   
def5d$ himself aga9/ animals sc>cely    
wild] ?an himself4  ,we also le>n t aft]
 ! cave _h be5 =m$ & seal$ up aga91 z x 
71 toge!r ) all its cont5ts1 by !       
deposition ( a solid cru/ (             
/alagmite--an op]ation requir+ a v great

 l5g? ( "t to effect--! ,re9de] 7,c]vus 
,t>&us7 0 indig5\s to ?is c\ntry1 z is  
prov$ by ! occurr5ce ( an antl] ( t     
animal :i* 0 f\nd ly+ ^u1 & p>tly imb$d$
 91 ! /alagmite =m+ ! ro( or upp]mo/1 t 
is1 ! late/ =m$1 ( ! cave-deposits4     
,la/ly1 we le>n t1 at ! "t ! cave 0 =m$1
 & :ile ! l& 0 inhabit$ by man1 t "p ( !
 c\ntry 0 l[] by n9ety-five feet ?an x  
is n[2 & t ?is elevation has probably   
be5 produc$ s sl[ly & s gradually1 z to 
h be5 imp]ceptible dur+ ! "t x 0 tak+   
place1 :i* ext5d$ ov] a va/ int]val (   
"t1 p]haps ov] ?\s&s ( ye>s4  ,p]haps x 
may n be out ( place "h to describe !   
mode ( =mation ( bone-caves g5]ally1 & !
 causes :i* h produc$ ! appe>ances ^! n[
 pres5t4  ,caves 9 lime/one rocks h two 
pr9cipal phases--"o ( =mation1 & "o (   
fill+ up4 ,s long z ! wat] :i* ent]s !  
cavities 9 ! c\rse ( =mation1 & c>ries  
(f "s ( ! calc>e\s matt] 9 solution1 c  
f9d an easy exit1 ! cavity is cont9ually
 enl>g$2 b :51 f v>i\s causes1 ! wat]   
only ent]s 9 small quantities1 & does n 

escape1 or only f9ds its way out sl[ly1 
& ) difficulty1 ! lime1 in/ead ( be+    
remov$1 is re-deposit$ on ! walls1 ro(1 
sides1 & floor ( ! cavity1 9 ! =m (     
/alactites & /alagmite1 & ! "w (        
re-fill+ ) solid c>bonate ( lime !n     
takes place4  ,enc\rag$ by ! ,brixham   
discov]ies1 a congress ( ,fr5* & ,engli%
 geologi/s met at ,ami5s1 9 ord] to     
consid] c]ta9 evid5ce1 on :i* x 0 s\ght 
to e/abli% z a fact t man & ! ,mammo? 7 
=m]ly contempor>ies4  ,! valley ( !     
,somme1 betwe5 ,abbeville & ,ami5s1 is  
occupi$ by b$s ( peat1 "s tw5ty or ?irty
 feet deep1 re/+ on a ?9 b$ ( clay :i*  
cov]s o!r b$s1 ( s& & gravel1 & itself  
re/s on :ite ,*alk ) fl9ts4 ,bord]+ !   
valley1 "s hills rise ) a g5tle slope to
 a height ( #bjj or #cjj feet1 & "h &   
!re1 on _! summits1 are pat*es ( ,t]ti>y
 s& & clay1 ) fossils1 & aga9 m ext5sive
 lay]s ( loam4 ,! inf]5ce f ?is         
geological /ructure is t ! riv]1        
orig9ally fl[+ ?r\gh ! ,t]ti>y =mation1 
gradually cut its way ?r\gh ! v>i\s     

/rata d[n to its pres5t level4 ,f ! dep?
 ( ! peat1 its l[] "p lies bel[ !       
sea-level1 & x is suppos$ t a depression
 ( ! region has occurr$ at "s p]iod3    
aga91 9 l& ly+ q l[ on ! ,abbeville side
 ( ! valley1 b above ! tidal level1 m>9e
 %ells occur1 :i* indicate an elevation 
( ! region2 aga91 ab\t #ajj feet above !
 valley1 on ! "r bank ( ! riv]1 & on a  
slop+ surface1 is ! ,m\l9-,quignon1 :]e 
%all[ pits exhibit a floor ( *alk cov]$ 
by gravel & s&1 accompani$ by gravel &  
m>ly *alk & fl9ts m or less worn1       
well-r\nd$ ,t]ti>y fl9ts & pebbles1 &   
fragm5ts ( ,t]ti>y s&/one4 ,su* is !    
g5]al description ( a locality :i* has  
acquir$ consid]able celebrity 9         
connection ) ! "q ( ! antiquity ( man4  
,! ,quat]n>y deposits ( ,m\l9-,quignon &
 ! peat-b$s ( ! ,somme =m]ly furni%$    
,cuvi] ) "s ( ! fossils he describ$1 & 9
 lat] times *ipp$ fl9t-implem5ts f !    
qu>ries & bogs came into ! possession ( 
,m4 ,b\*] de ,p]!s2 ! /atem5ts 7 receiv$
 at fir/ n )\t suspicion--especially on 

! "p ( ,engli% geologi/s :o 7 famili> ) 
simil> attempts on _! own cr$ulity--t "s
 at lea/ ( ^! 7 manufactur$ by ! workm5 
( ! di/rict4 ,at l5g?1 ! discov]y ( a   
human jaw & too? 9 ! gravel-pits ( ,/4  
,a*eul1 ne> ,ami5s1 produc$ a rigor\s   
inve/igation into ! facts1 & x seems to 
h be5 e/abli%$ to ! satisfaction ( ,mr4 
,pre/wi* & 8 colleagues1 t              
fl9t-implem5ts & ! bones ( ext9ct       
,mammalia are met ) 9 ! same b$s1 & 9   
situations indicat+ v great antiquity4  
,9 ! slop+ & irregul> deposits ov]look+ 
! ,somme1 ! bones ( ,elephants1         
,rh9oc]os1 ) l& & fre%-wat] %ells (     
exi/+ species1 are f\nd m+l$ )          
fl9t-implem5ts4 ,%ells l ^? n[ f\nd 9 ! 
neighb\r+ /reams & h$ge-r[s1 ) ! bones (
 exi/+ quadrup$s1 h be5 obta9$ f ! peat1
 ) fl9t-tools ( m ?an usual f9i%1 &     
toge!r ) !m a few fragm5ts ( human      
bones4 ,( ^! reliqui1 ! ,celtic         
memorials lie bel[ ! ,gallo-,roman2     
above !m1 oaks1 ald]s1 & walnut trees   
occur1 sometimes root$1 b no succession 

( a new gr[? ( trees appe>4  ,! !ory ( !
 ,/4 ,a*eul b$s is ?is3 !y 7 deposit$ by
 fluviatile action1 & are probably      
among/ ! olde/ deposits 9 :i* human     
rema9s occur1 old] ?an ! peat-b$s ( !   
,somme--b :at is _! real age8 ,be=e     
submitt+ to ! read] ! v imp]fect answ]  
?is "q admits (1 a glance at ! previ\s  
discov]ies1 :i* t5d$ to give            
confirmation to ! obs]vations j n>rat$1 
may be useful4  ,implem5ts ( /one & fl9t
 h be5 cont9ually turn+ up dur+ ! la/   
c5tury & a half 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,9 ! 
neighb\rhood ( ,gray's ,inn ,lane1 9    
#agae1 a fl9t spe>-head 0 pick$ up1 &   
ne> x "s ,elephants' bones4 ,9 !        
alluvium ( ! ,wey1 ne> ,guild=d1 a      
w$ge-%ap$ fl9t-tool 0 f\nd 9 ! gravel & 
s&1 9 :i* ,elephants' tusks 7 also f\nd4
 ,"u ! cliffs at ,:it/able an oval-%ap$ 
fl9t-tool 0 f\nd 9 :at _h probably be5 a
 fre%-wat] deposit1 & 9 :i* bones ( !   
,be> & ,elephant 7 also discov]$4       
,betwe5 ,h]ne ,bay & ,reculv] five o!r  
fl9t-tools h be5 f\nd1 & ?ree m ne> !   

top ( ! cliff1 all 9 fre%-wat] gravel4  
,9 ! valley ( ! ,ouse1 at ,b$d5ham1 9   
,b$=d%ire1 fl9t-implem5ts1 l ^? ( ,/4   
,a*eul1 mix$ ) ! bones ( ,elephant1     
,rh9oc]os1 & ,hippopotamus1 h be5 f\nd1 
& ne> !m an oval & a spe>-%ap$ implem5t4
 ,9 ! peat ( ,irel& great numb]s ( su*  
implem5ts h be5 met )4 ,b n[h]e h !y be5
 s sy/ematically s\ght = & classifi$ z 9
 ! ,sc&9avian c\ntries4  ,!             
peat-deposits ( ^? c\ntries--( ,d5m>k   
especially--are =m$ 9 holl[s &          
depressions1 9 ! nor!rn drift & ,b\ld]  
clay1 f t5 to ?irty feet deep4 ,! l[]   
/ratum1 ( two or ?ree feet 9 ?ickness1  
consi/s ( sphagnum1 ov] :i* lies ano!r  
gr[? ( peat =m$ ( aquatic & m>% plants4 
,on ! edge ( ! bogs trunks ( ,scot* firs
 ( l>ge size are f\nd--a tree :i* has n 
gr[n 9 ! ,dani% isl&s )9 hi/oric times1 
& does n n[ ?rive :5 plant$1 al?\gh x 0 
evid5tly indig5\s )9 ! human p]iod1 s9ce
 ,/e5/rup took ) 8 own h&s a            
fl9t-implem5t f b5ea? ! trunk ( "o4 ,!  
sessile v>iety ( ! oak w\ld appe> to h  

succe$$ ! fir1 & is f\nd at a high]     
level 9 ! peat4 ,high] up /ill1 ! common
 oak1 ,qu]cus robur1 is f\nd along ) !  
bir*1 hazel1 & ald]4 ,! oak has 9 its   
turn be5 succe$$ by ! bee*4  ,ano!r     
s\rce f :i* num]\s relics ( e>ly        
humanity h be5 tak5 is ! midd5-heaps    
7,kjkk5-mdd57 f\nd along ! ,sc&9avian   
coa/4 ,^! heaps consi/ ( ca/away %ells  
mix$ ) bones ( quadrup$s1 birds1 &      
fi%es1 :i* reveal 9 "s respects ! habits
 ( ! e>ly races :i* inhabit$ ! coa/4    
,scatt]$ ?r\gh ^! m\nds are fl9t-knives1
 pieces ( pott]y1 & a%es1 b nei!r bronze
 nor iron4 ,! knives & hat*ets are said 
to be a degree less rude ?an ^? ( old]  
date f\nd 9 ! peat4 ,m\nds correspond+  
to ^!1 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell tells u1 occur
 along ! ,am]ican coa/1 f ,massa*usetts 
& ,georgia4 ,! bones ( ! quadrup$s f\nd 
9 ^! m\nds correspond ) ^? ( exi/+      
species1 or species :i* h exi/$ 9       
hi/oric times4  ,by collect+1 arrang+1 &
 comp>+ ! fl9t & /one implem5ts1 !      
,sc&9avian naturali/s h succe$$ 9       

e/abli%+ a *ronological succession (    
p]iods1 :i* !y designate--#a4 ,! ,age ( 
,/one2 #b4 ,! ,age ( ,bronze2 #c4 ,!    
,age ( ,iron4 ,! fir/1 or ,/one p]iod1 9
 ,d5m>k1 correspond$ ) ! age ( ! ,scot* 
fir1 &1 9 "p1 ( ! sessile oak4 ,a       
consid]able portion ( ! oak p]iod       
correspond$1 h[ev]1 ) ! age ( bronze1   
swords made ( t metal hav+ be5 f\nd 9 ! 
peat on ! same level ) ! oak4 ,! iron   
age co9cides ) ! bee*4 ,analog\s        
in/ances1 confirmatory ( ^! /atem5ts1   
occur 9 ,york%ire1 & 9 ! f5s (          
,l9coln%ire4  ,! traces left indicate t 
! aborig9es w5t to sea 9 canoes scoop$  
out ( a s+le tree1 br++ back deep-sea   
fi%es4 ,skulls obta9$ f ! peat & f      
tumuli1 & believ$ to be contemporane\s )
 ! m\nds1 are small & r\nd1 ) prom95t   
supra-orbital ridges1 some:at resembl+ !
 skulls ( ,lapl&]s4  ,! ?ird s]ies (    
facts 7,lake-dwell+s1 or lacu/r9e       
habitations7 consi/$ ( ! build+s on     
piles1 9 lakes1 & once common 9 ,asia & 
,europe4 ,!y are fir/ m5tion$ by        

,h]odotus z be+ us$ among ! ,?racians ( 
,ponia1 9 ! m\nta9-lake ,prasias1 :]e ! 
natives liv$ 9 dwell+s built on piles1 &
 connect$ ) ! %ore by a n>r[ causeway1  
by :i* means !y escap$ ! assaults (     
,x]xes4 ,build+s ( ! same description   
occupi$ ! ,swiss lakes1 9 ! mud ( :i*   
hundr$s ( implem5ts1 l ^? f\nd 9 ,d5m>k1
 h be5 dr$g$ up4 ,9 ,zuri*1 ,moosse$orf 
ne> ,b]ne1 & ,lake ,con/ance1 axes1     
celts1 pott]y1 & canoes made out ( s+le 
trees1 h be5 f\nd2 b ( ! human frame    
sc>cely a trace has be5 discov]$4 ,"o   
skull dr$g$ up at ,meil51 9 ! ,lake (   
,zuri*1 0 int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,lapp-l   
skull ( ! ,dani% tumuli & ! m rec5t     
,european type4  ,! age ( ! diff]5t     
=mations 9 :i* ^! records ( ! human race
 are f\nd w probably ev] rema9 a my/]y4 
,! evid5ce :i* w\ld make ! implem5ts =m$
 by man contemporane\s ) ! ,mammo? & o!r
 great ,mammalia w\ld g a great way to  
prove t man 0 also pre-glacial4 ,let u  
see h[ t argum5t /&s4  ,at ! p]iod :5 ! 
upp] ,norwi* ,crag 0 deposit$1 ! g5]al  

level ( ! ,briti% ,isles is suppos$ to h
 be5 ab\t #fjj feet above its pres5t    
level1 & s connect$ ) ! ,european       
cont95t z to h receiv$ ! elem5ts ( its  
fauna & flora f !nce4  ,by "s great     
*ange1 a p]iod ( depression occurr$1 9  
:i* all ! c\ntry nor? ( ! m\? ( ! ,?ames
 & ! ,bri/ol ,*annel 0 plac$ mu* bel[ ! 
pres5t level4 ,moel ,tryfa5 exp]i5c$ a  
subm]g5ce ( at lea/ #a1djj feet1 dur+   
:i* x receiv$ ! erratic blocks & o!r    
m>ks1 indicative ( float+ iceb]gs1 :i* h
 be5 describ$ 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,! c\ntry 0
 rais$ aga9 to some?+ l its orig9al     
level1 & aga9 occupi$ by plants1        
,molluscs1 ,fi%es & ,reptiles1 ,birds1 &
 ,mammif]a4 ,aga9 subsid5ce takes place1
 &1 aft] sev]al oscillations1 ! level   
rema9s z we n[ f9d x4 ,! e/imat$ "t     
requir$ = ^! v>i\s *anges is some?+     
enorm\s1 & might h ext5d$ ! t]m to d\ble
 ! numb] ( ye>s4 ,! unit ( ! calculation
 is ! upw>d rate ( movem5t obs]v$ on !  
,sc&9avian coa/2 appli$ to ! oscillation
 ( ! anci5t coa/ ( ,sn[donia1 ! figures 

repres5t #bbd1jjj ye>s = ! sev]al       
oscillations ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,add+ ! 
pre-glacial p]iod1 ! computation gives  
an additional #dh1jjj ye>s4 ,b1 let u   
repeat1 ! figures & data are some:at    
hypo!tical4  ,) reg>d to ! ,/4 ,a*eul   
b$s--said to be ! mo/ anci5t =mation 9  
:i* ! productions ( human h&s h be5     
f\nd--!y are confess$ly old] ?an !      
peat-b$s1 & ! "t requir$ = ! production 
( o!r peat-b$s ( equal ?ickness has be5 
e/imat$ at #g1jjj ye>s4 ,! antiquity ( !
 gravel-b$s ( ,/4 ,a*eul may be e/imat$ 
on two gr\nds3--#a4 ,g5]al elevation    
above ! level ( ! valley4 #b4 ,by       
e/imat+ ! animal-rema9s f\nd 9 !        
gravel-b$s1 & n 9 ! peat4 ,! fir/ "q    
implies ! d5udation ( ! valley bel[ !   
level ( ! gravel1 or ! elevation ( !    
:ole plateau4 ,ea* ( ^! op]ations w\ld  
involve an incalculable "t1 = want (    
data4 ,9 ! second case1 judg+ f ! sl[   
rate at :i* quadrup$s h disappe>$ 9     
hi/oric times1 ! ext9ct ,mammo? & o!r   
great animals mu/ h occupi$ _m c5turies 

9 dy+ out1 = ! notion t !y di$ out      
sudd5ly f %>p & sudd5 refrig]ation1 is n
 g5]ally admitt$4  ,) reg>d to ! ?ree   
ages ( /one1 bronze1 & iron1 ,m4 ,morlot
 has bas$ "s calculations ^u ! condition
 ( ! delta ( ,t9ire1 ne> ,vill5euve1 :i*
 lead him to assign to ! olde/1 or /one 
p]iod1 an age ( #e1jjj to #g1jjj ye>s1 &
 to ! bronze p]iod f #c1jjj to #d1jjj4  
,we may1 !n1 take leave ( ?is subject ) 
! av[al t1 :ile admitt+ ! probability t 
an imm5se lapse ( "t w\ld be requir$ = !
 op]ations describ$1 we are1 9 a great  
measure1 )\t reliable data = e/imat+ its
 actual ext5t4  ,! op9ion :i* places !  
creation ( man on ! banks ( ! ,euphrates
 9 ,c5tral ,asia is confirm$ by an ev5t 
( ! highe/ importance 9 ! hi/ory (      
humanity1 & by a cr[d ( concordant      
traditions1 pres]v$ by diff]5t races (  
m51 all t5d+ to confirm x4 ,we speak ( !
 ,asiatic deluge4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4  
#bjj4--,m\nt ,ar>at4  ,! ,asiatic       
deluge--( :i* sacr$ hi/ory has          
transmitt$ to u ! few p>ticul>s we "k--0

 ! result ( ! upheaval ( a "p ( ! long  
*a9 ( m\nta9s :i* are a prolongation ( !
 ,caucasus4 ,! e>? op5+ by "o ( !       
fissures made 9 its cru/ 9 c\rse (      
cool+1 an eruption ( volcanic matt]     
escap$ ?r\gh ! enorm\s crat] s produc$4 
,volumes ( wat]y vap\r or /eam          
accompani$ ! lava dis*>g$ f ! int]ior ( 
! globe1 :i*1 be+ fir/ dissipat$ 9 cl\ds
 & aft]w>ds cond5s+1 desc5d$1 9 torr5ts 
( ra91 & ! pla9s 7 dr[n$ ) ! volcanic   
mud4 ,! inundation ( ! pla9s ov] an     
ext5sive radius 0 ! imm$iate effect (   
?is upheaval1 & ! =mation ( ! volcanic  
cone ( ,m\nt ,ar>at1 ) ! va/ plateau on 
:i* x re/s1 altoge!r #ag1cbc feet above 
! sea1 ! p]man5t result4 ,! ev5t is     
graphically detail$ 9 ! sev5? *apt] (   
,g5esis4  #aa4 8,9 ! six hundr$? ye> (  
,noah's life1 9 ! second mon?1 !        
sev5te5? day ( ! mon?1 ! same day 7 all 
! f\nta9s ( ! great deep brok5 up1 & !  
w9d[s ( heav5 7 op5$4  #ab4 8,& ! ra9 0 
^u ! e>? =ty days & =ty nights40        
99       99       99       99       99  

#ag4 8,& ! flood 0 =ty days ^u ! e>?2 & 
! wat]s increas$1 & b>e up ! ark1 & x 0 
lift up above ! e>?4  #ah4 8,& ! wat]s  
prevail$1 & 7 increas$ greatly ^u ! e>?2
 & ! ark w5t ^u ! face ( ! wat]s4  #ai4 
8,& ! wat]s prevail$ exce$+ly ^u ! e>?2 
& all ! high hills1 t 7 "u ! :ole heav51
 7 cov]$4  #bj4 8,fifte5 cubits upw>d   
did ! wat]s prevail2 & ! m\nta9s 7      
cov]$4  #ba4 8,& all fle% di$ t mov$ ^u 
! e>?1 bo? ( f[l1 & ( cattle1 & ( bea/1 
& ( e creep+ ?+ t creepe? ^u ! e>?1 & e 
man3  #bb4 8,all 9 ^: no/rils 0 ! brea? 
( life1 ( all t 0 9 ! dry l&1 di$4  #bc4
 8,& e liv+ sub/ance 0 de/roy$ :i* 0 ^u 
! face ( ! gr\nd1 bo? man1 & cattle1 & !
 creep+ ?+s1 & ! f[l ( ! heav52 & !y 7  
de/roy$ f ! e>?3 & ,noah only rema9$    
alive1 & !y t 7 ) him 9 ! ark4  #bd4 8,&
 ! wat]s prevail$ ^u ! e>? an hundr$ &  
fifty days40  ,all ! p>ticul>s ( !      
,biblical n>rative "h recit$ are only to
 be expla9$ by ! volcanic & muddy       
eruption :i* prec$$ ! =mation ( m\nt    
,ar>at4 ,! wat]s :i* produc$ !          

inundation ( ^! c\ntries proce$$ f a    
volcanic eruption accompani$ by enorm\s 
volumes ( vap\r1 :i* 9 due c\rse became 
cond5s$ & desc5d$ on ! e>?1 inundat+ !  
ext5sive pla9s :i* n[ /ret* away f !    
foot ( ,ar>at4 ,! expression1 8! e>?10  
or 8all ! e>?0 z x is translat$ 9 !     
,vulgate1 :i* might be impli$ to mean ! 
entire globe1 is expla9$ by ,m>cel de   
,s]res1 9 a le>n$ book entitl$ 8,la     
,cosmogonie de ,mose10 & o!r            
philologi/s1 z be+ an inaccurate        
translation4 ,he has prov$ t ! ,hebrew  
^w ha>ets1 incorrectly translat$ 8all ! 
e>?10 is (t5 us$ 9 ! s5se ( region or   
c\ntry1 & t1 9 ?is in/ance1 ,moses us$ x
 to express only ! "p ( ! globe :i* 0 !n
 peopl$1 & n its entire surface4 ,9 !   
same mann] 8! m\nta9s0 7r5d]$ 8all !    
m\nta9s0 9 ! ,vulgate71 only implies all
 ! m\nta9s kn[n to ,moses4 ,simil>ly1   
,m4 ,glaire1 9 ! 8,*ri/oma?ie ,hbraque10
 :i* he has plac$ at ! end ( 8 ,gramm>1 
quotes ! passage 9 ?is s5se3 8,! wat]s 7
 s prodigi\sly increas$1 t ! highe/     

m\nta9s ( ! va/ horizon 7 cov]$ by !m20 
?us re/rict+ ! m\nta9s cov]$ by !       
inundation to ^? b\nd$ by ! horizon4    
,no?+ occurs1 !re=e1 9 ! description    
giv5 by ,moses1 to h9d] u f see+ 9 !    
,asiatic deluge a means made use ( by   
,god to *a/ise & puni% ! human race1 !n 
9 ! infancy ( its exi/5ce1 & :i* _h     
/ray$ f ! pa? :i* he _h m>k$ out = x4 ,x
 seems to e/abli% ! c\ntries ly+ at !   
foot ( ! ,caucasus z ! cradle ( ! human 
race2 & x seems to e/abli% also !       
upheaval ( a *a9 ( m\nta9s1 prec$$ by an
 eruption ( volcanic mud1 :i* dr[n$ va/ 
t]ritories entirely compos$1 9 ^!       
regions1 ( pla9s ( great ext5t4 ,( ?is  
deluge _m races besides ! ,jews h       
pres]v$ a tradition4 ,moses dates x f   
#a1ejj to #a1hjj ye>s be=e ! epo* 9 :i* 
he wrote4 ,b]osus1 ! ,*aldean hi/orian1 
:o wrote at ,babylon 9 ! "t ( ,alex&]1  
speaks ( a univ]sal deluge1 ! date ( :i*
 he places imm$iately be=e ! reign (    
,belus1 ! fa!r ( ,n9us4  ,! ,v$as1 or   
sacr$ books ( ! ,h9dus1 suppos$ to h be5

 compos$ ab\t ! same "t z ,g5esis1 t is1
 ab\t #c1cjj ye>s ago1 make out t !     
deluge occurr$ #a1ejj ye>s be=e _! "t4  
,! ,gueb]s speak ( ! same ev5t z hav+   
occurr$ ab\t ! same date4  ,confucius1 !
 celebrat$ ,*9ese philosoph] & lawgiv]1 
born t[>ds ! ye> #eea be=e ,*ri/1 beg9s 
8 hi/ory ( ,*9a by speak+ ( ! ,emp]or   
nam$ ,jas1 :om he repres5ts z mak+ !    
wat]s fl[ back1 :i*1 be+ rais$ to !     
heav5s1 wa%$ ! feet ( ! highe/ m\nta9s1 
cov]$ ! less elevat$ hills1 & inundat$ !
 pla9s4 ,?us ! ,biblical deluge 7,,plate
 ,,xxxiii47 is confirm$ 9 _m respects2 b
 x 0 local1 l all ph5om5a ( ! k9d1 & 0 !
 result ( ! upheaval ( ! m\nta9s ( we/]n
 ,asia4  ,illu/ration3 ,,xxxiii4--,!    
,asiatic ,deluge4  ,a deluge1 q ( mod]n 
date1 conveys a tol]ably exact idea (   
?is k9d ( ph5om5a4 ,we recall !         
circum/ances ! bett] to compreh5d ! true
 nature ( ! ravages ! deluge inflict$ ^u
 "s ,asiatic c\ntries 9 ! ,quat]n>y     
p]iod4 ,at six days' j\rney f ! city (  
,mexico !re exi/$1 9 #agei1 a f]tile &  

well-cultivat$ di/rict1 :]e grew        
abundance ( rice1 maize1 & bananas4 ,9 !
 mon? ( ,june frightful e>?quakes %ook !
 gr\nd1 & 7 cont9u$ unceas+ly = two :ole
 mon?s4 ,on ! night ( ! #bh? ,septemb] !
 e>? 0 viol5tly convuls$1 & a region (  
_m leagues 9 ext5t 0 sl[ly rais$ until x
 atta9$ a height ( ab\t #ejj feet ov] a 
surface ( _m squ>e leagues4 ,! e>?      
undulat$ l ! waves ( ! sea 9 a tempe/2  
?\s&s ( small hills alt]nately rose &   
fell1 &1 f9ally1 an imm5se gulf op5$1 f 
:i* smoke1 fire1 r$-hot /ones & a%es 7  
viol5tly dis*>g$1 & d>t$ to prodigi\s   
heights4 ,six m\nta9s em]g$ f ?is gap+  
gulf2 among :i* ! volcanic m\nta9       
,jorullo rises #b1hij feet above !      
anci5t pla91 to ! height ( #d1bfe feet  
above ! sea4  ,at ! mom5t :5 ! e>?quake 
comm5c$ ! two riv]s ,cuitimba & ,san    
,p$ro fl[$ backw>ds1 inundat+ all ! pla9
 n[ occupi$ by ,jorullo2 b 9 ! regions  
:i* cont9ually rose1 a gulf op5$ &      
swall[$ up ! riv]s4 ,!y reappe>$ to !   
we/1 b at a po9t v di/ant f _! =m] b$s4 

,?is inundation rem9ds u on a small     
scale ( ! ph5om5a :i* att5d$ ! deluge ( 
,noah4         99       99       99     
99       99  ,besides ! deposits result+
 f ! p>tial deluges :i* we h describ$ z 
occurr+ 9 ,europe & ,asia dur+ !        
,quat]n>y epo* !re 7 produc$ 9 ! same   
p]iod _m new =mations result+ f !       
deposition ( alluvia ?r[n d[n by seas & 
riv]s4 ,^! deposits are always few 9    
numb]1 & widely dissem9at$4 ,_!         
/ratification is z regul> z t ( any :i* 
belong to prec$+ p]iods2 !y are di/+ui%$
 f ^? ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*1 ) :i* !y are mo/
 likely to be conf\nd$1 by _! situation1
 :i* is v frequ5tly ^u ! %ores ( ! sea1 
& by ! pr$om9ance ( %ells ( a species   
id5tical ) ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! adjac5t seas4 
,a m>9e =mation ( ?is k9d1 :i*1 aft]    
con/itut+ ! coa/ ( ,sicily1 pr9cipally  
on ! side ( ,girg5ti1 ,syracuse1        
,catania1 & ,pal]mo1 occupies ! c5tre ( 
! isl&1 :]e x rises to ! height ( #c1jjj
 feet1 is among/ ! mo/ rem>kable ( !    
great ,quat]n>y ,european productions4  

,x is *iefly =m$ ( two great b$s2 ! l[] 
a blui% argillace\s m>l1 ! o!r a co>se b
 v compact lime/one1 bo? conta9+ %ells  
analog\s to ^? ( ! pres5t ,m$it]ranean  
coa/4 ,! same =mation is f\nd 9 !       
neighb\r+ isl&s1 especially 9 ,s>d9ia & 
,malta4 ,! great s&y des]ts ( ,africa1 z
 well z ! argillo-ar5ace\s =mation ( !  
/eppes ( ,ea/]n ,russia1 & ! f]tile     
,t*ornozem1 or 8black e>?0 ( its s\!rn  
pla9s1 h ! same geological orig92 s h ! 
,trav]t9es ( ,tuscany1 ,naples1 & ,rome1
 & ! ,tufas1 :i* are an ess5tial        
con/itu5t ( ! ,neapolitan soil4  ,!     
pampas ( ,s\? ,am]ica--:i* consi/ ( an  
argillace\s soil ( a deep r$di%-br[n    
col\r1 ) horizontal b$s ( m>ly clay &   
calc>e\s tufa1 conta9+ %ells ei!r       
actually liv+ n[ 9 ! ,atlantic1 or      
id5tical ) fre%-wat] %ells ( !          
c\ntry--ought surely to be consid]$ z a 
,quat]n>y deposit1 ( ev5 great] ext5t   
?an ! prec$+4  ,we are n[ approa*+ s ne>
 to our own age1 t we c1 z x 71 trace ! 
h& ( ,nature 9 h] works4 ,pr(essor      

,ramsay %[s1 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,gov]nm5t 
,geological ,survey1 t b$s ne>ly a mile 
9 ?ickness h be5 remov$ by d5udation f !
 summit ( ! ,m5dip ,hills1 & t broad    
areas 9 ,s\? ,wales & ! neighb\r+       
c\nties h be5 d5ud$ ( _! high] b$s1 !   
mat]ials be+ transport$ else:]e to =m   
new] /rata4 ,n[1 no comb9ation ( causes 
has be5 imag9$ :i* has n involv$        
subm]sion dur+ long p]iods1 & subsequ5t 
elevation = p]iods ( long] or %ort]     
duration4  ,we c h>dly walk any great   
di/ance along ! coa/1 ei!r ( ,engl& or  
,scotl&1 )\t rem>k+ "s flat t]race (    
unequal bread?1 & back$ by a m or less  
/eep esc>pm5t--^u su* a t]race _m ( !   
t[ns along ! coa/ are built4 ,no        
geologi/ n[ d\bts t ?is f9e plat=m1 at !
 base ( :i* is a deposit ( loam or s&y  
gravel1 ) m>9e %ells1 _h be51 at "s     
p]iod1 ! l9e ( coa/ aga9/ :i* ! waves ( 
! ocean once broke at high wat]4 ,at t  
p]iod ! sea rose tw5ty1 & ?irty1 & "s   
places a hundr$ feet high] ?an x does   
n[4 ,! anci5t sea-bea*es 9 "s places =m$

 t]races ( s& & gravel1 ) littoral      
%ells1 "s brok51 o!rs entire1 &         
correspond+ ) species 9 ! seas bel[2 9  
o!rs !y =m bold project+ promontories or
 deep bays4 ,9 an hi/orical po9t ( view1
 ?is coa/-l9e %\ld be v anci5t1 ?\gh x  
may be only ( ye/]day 9 a geological    
s5se--its orig9 asc5d+ f> beyond writt5 
tradition4 ,! wall ( ,anton9us1 rais$ by
 ! ,romans z a protection f ! attacks ( 
! ,cal$onians1 0 built1 9 ! op9ion ( !  
be/ au?orities1 n 9 connection ) ! old1 
b ) ! new coa/-l9e4 ,we may1 !n1        
conclude t 9 ,a4,d4 #adj1 :5 ! great] "p
 ( ?is wall 0 con/ruct$1 ! zone ( !     
anci5t coa/-l9e _h atta9$ its pres5t    
elevation above ! actual level ( ! sea4 
,! same pro(s ( a g5]al & gradual       
elevation ( ! c\ntry are obs]vable almo/
 ev]y:]e3 9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,clyde1 canoes &
 o!r works ( art h be5 exhum$1 & assign$
 to a rec5t p]iod4 ,ne> ,/4 ,au/ell1 &  
at ,c>non1 9 ,cornwall1 human skulls &  
o!r relics h be5 met ) b5ea? m>9e /rata1
 9 :i* ! bones ( :ales & /ill-exi/+     

species ( l&-quadrup$s 7 imb$d$4 ,b 9 ! 
c\ntries :]e h>d lime/one rocks prevail1
 9 ! anci5t ,peloponnesus1 along ! coa/ 
( ,argolis & ,arcadia1 ?ree & ev5 f\r   
ranges ( anci5t sea-cliffs are well     
pres]v$1 :i* ,messrs4 ,boblaye & ,v]let 
describe z ris+ "o above ! o!r1 at      
diff]5t di/ances f ! pres5t coa/1       
sometimes to ! height ( #a1jjj feet1 z  
if ! upheav+ =ce _h be5 susp5d$ = a "t1 
leav+ ! waves & curr5ts to ?r[ d[n &    
%ape ! successive ranges ( l(ty cliffs4 
,on ! o!r h&1 "s well-kn[n hi/orical    
sites may be adduc$ z af=d+ evid5ce ( ! 
subsid5ce ( ! coa/-l9e ( ! ,m$it]ranean 
9 times comp>atively mod]n4 ,9 ! ,bay ( 
,bai1 ! celebrat$ temple ( ,s]apis1 at  
,puzzuoli1 ne> ,naples1 :i* 0 orig9ally 
built ab\t #ajj feet f ! sea1 & at or   
ne> its pres5t level1 exhibits pro(s (  
hav+ gradually sunk n9ete5 feet1 & ( a  
subsequ5t elevation ( ! gr\nd on :i* !  
temple /&s ( ne>ly ! same am\nt4  ,s1   
also1 ab\t half a mile along ! sea-%ore1
 & /&+ at "s di/ance f x1 9 ! sea1 !re  

are ! rema9s ( build+s & columns :i* be>
 ! "n ( ! ,temples ( ! ,nymphs & (      
,neptune4 ,! tops ( ^! brok5 columns are
 n[ ne>ly on a level ) ! surface ( !    
wat]1 :i* is ab\t five feet deep4  ,)   
respect to ! littoral deposits ( !      
,quat]n>y p]iod1 !y are ( v limit$      
ext5t1 except 9 a few localities4 ,!y   
are f\nd on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,norway1 & on
 ! coa/s ( ,engl&4 ,9 ,france1 an       
ext5sive b$ ( ,quat]n>y =mation is se5  
on ! %ores ( ! anci5t ,gui5ne1 & on o!r 
p>ts ( ! coa/1 :]e x is sometimes       
conceal$ by trees & %rubs1 or by bl[n   
s&1 z at ,dax 9 ! ,l&es1 :]e a /eep bank
 may be trac$ ab\t twelve miles inl&1 & 
p>allel ) ! pres5t coa/1 :i* falls      
sudd5ly ab\t fifty feet f a high] plat=m
 ( ! l&1 to a l[] "o ext5d+ to ! sea4 ,9
 mak+ "s excavations = ! f\ndations ( a 
build+ at ,abesse1 9 #ahcj1 x 0 discov]$
 t ?is fall consi/$ ( drift-s&1 fill+ up
 a /eep p]p5dicul> cliff ab\t fifty feet
 high1 consi/+ ( a b$ ( ,t]ti>y clay    
ext5d+ to ! sea1 a b$ ( lime/one )      

,t]ti>y %ells & corals1 &1 at ! summit1 
! ,t]ti>y s& ( ! ,l&es4 ,! m>9e b$s1    
toge!r ) ! alluvium ( ! riv]s1 h giv5   
rise to ^? deposits :i* occur m         
especially ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s &         
wat]c\rses4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4        
#bja4--,%ell ( ,planorbis corneus4      
,,epilogue4   ,hav+ consid]$ ! pa/      
hi/ory ( ! globe1 we may n[ be p]mitt$  
to be/[ a glance ^u ! future :i* awaits 
x4  ,c ! actual /ate ( ! e>? be consid]$
 z def9itive8 ,! revolutions :i* h      
fa%ion$ its surface1 & produc$ ! ,alps 9
 ,europe1 ,m\nt ,ar>at 9 ,asia1 !       
,cordill]as 9 ! ,new ,_w--are !y to be !
 la/8 ,9 a ^w1 w ! t]re/rial sph]e = ev]
 pres]ve ! =m "u :i* we "k x--z x has   
be51 s to speak1 impress$ on our        
memories by ! maps ( ! geograph]s8  ,x  
is difficult to reply ) any confid5ce to
 ?is "q2 nev]!less1 our read]s w n      
object to accompany u a /ep fur!r1 :ile 
we express an op9ion1 f\nd$ on analogy &
 sci5tific induction4  ,:at are ! causes
 :i* h produc$ ! pres5t inequalities ( !

 globe--! m\nta9-ranges1 cont95ts1 &    
wat]s8 ,! primordial cause is1 z we h _h
 frequ5t occasion to repeat1 ! cool+ ( !
 e>?1 & ! progressive solidification ( !
 ext]nal cru/1 ! nucleus ( :i* /ill     
rema9s 9 a fluid or visc\s /ate4 ,^! h  
produc$ ! contortions1 furr[s1 &        
fractures :i* h l$ to ! elevation ( !   
great m\nta9-ranges & ! depression ( !  
great valleys--:i* h caus$ "s cont95ts  
to em]ge f ! b$ ( ocean & h subm]g$     
o!rs4 ,! second>y causes :i* h          
contribut$ to ! =mation ( a va/ ext5t ( 
dry l& are due to ! s$im5t>y deposits1  
:i* h result$ 9 ! creation ( new        
cont95ts by fill+ up ! bas9s ( ! anci5t 
seas4  ,n[ ^! two causes1 al?\gh 9 a    
m9or degree1 cont9ue 9 op]ation to !    
pres5t day4 ,! ?ickness ( ! t]re/rial   
cru/ is only a small fraction comp>$ to 
t ( ! int]nal liquid mass4 ,! pr9cipal  
cause1 !n1 ( ! great dislocations ( !   
e>?'s cru/ is1 s to speak1 at our gates2
 x ?reat5s u unceas+ly4 ,( ?is !        
e>?quakes & volcanic eruptions1 :i* are 

/ill frequ5t 9 our day1 give u disa/r\s 
& inconte/able pro(s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 our 
seas are cont9ually =m+ new l&3 ! b$ ( !
 ,baltic ,sea1 = in/ance1 is gradually  
ris+1 9 consequ5ce ( ! deposits :i* w   
obvi\sly fill up its area entirely 9 an 
int]val ( "t :i* x might n be impossible
 to calculate4  ,x is1 !n1 probable t ! 
actual condition ( ! surface & !        
respective limits ( seas & cont95ts h   
no?+ fix$ or def9ite 9 !m--t !y are1 on 
! contr>y1 op5 to great modifications 9 
! future4  ,!re is ano!r problem mu* m  
difficult ( solution ?an ! prec$+1 b =  
:i* nei!r induction nor analogy furni% u
 ) any c]ta9 data--viz41 ! p]petuity (  
our species4 ,is man doom$ to disappe> f
 ! e>? "s day1 l all ! races ( animals  
:i* prec$$ him1 & prep>$ ! way = 8      
adv5t8 ,w a new glacial p]iod1 analog\s 
to t :i*1 dur+ ! ,quat]n>y p]iod1 0 felt
 s rigor\sly1 aga9 come r\nd to put an  
end to 8 exi/5ce8 ,l ! ,trilobites ( !  
,silurian p]iod1 ! great ,reptiles ( !  
,lias1 ! ,ma/odons ( ! ,t]ti>y1 & !     

,mega!riums ( ! ,quat]n>y epo*1 is !    
human species to be annihilat$--to p]i% 
f ! globe by a simple natural ext9ction8
 ,or mu/ we believe t man1 gift$ ) !    
attribute ( reason1 m>k$1 s to say1 ) ! 
,div9e seal1 is to be ! ultimate &      
supreme t]m ( creation8  ,sci5ce _c     
pron\nce ^u ^! grave que/ions1 :i* exce$
 ! compet5ce1 & ext5d beyond ! circle ( 
human reason+4 ,x is n impossible t man 
%\ld be only a /ep 9 ! asc5d+ &         
progressive scale ( animat$ be+s4 ,!    
,div9e ,p[] :i* has lavi%$ ^u ! e>?     
life1 s5tim5t1 & ?\ght2 :i* has giv5    
organisation to plants2 to animals1     
motion1 s5sation1 & intellig5ce2 to man1
 9 addition to ^! multiple gifts1 !     
faculty ( reason1 d\bl$ 9 value by !    
ideal--res]ves to ,himself p]haps 9 ,8  
wisdom ! privilege ( creat+ alongside ( 
man1 or aft] him1 a be+ /ill m p]fect4  
,?is new be+1 religion & mod]n poesy    
w\ld pres5t 9 ! e!real & radiant type ( 
! ,*ri/ian angel1 ) moral qualities ^:  
nature & ess5ce w\ld escape our         

p]ceptions--( :i* we c\ld no m =m a     
notion ?an "o born bl9d c\ld conceive ( 
col\r1 or ! deaf & dumb ( s\nd4 ,erunt  
quales angelis ,dei4 8,!y w be z !      
angels ( ,god10 says ,holy ,scripture1  
speak+ ( man rais$ to ! life et]nal4    
,dur+ ! ,metamorphic epo* ! m9]al k+dom 
exi/$ alone2 ! rocks1 sil5t & solit>y1 7
 all t 0 yet =m$ ( ! burn+ e>?4 ,dur+ ! 
,prim>y epo*1 ! vegetable k+dom1 newly  
creat$1 ext5d$ itself ov] ! :ole globe1 
:i* x soon cov]$ f pole to pole ) an    
un9t]rupt$ mass ( v]dure4 ,dur+ !       
,second>y & ,t]ti>y epo*s1 ! vegetable &
 animal k+doms divid$ ! e>? betwe5 !m4  
,9 ! ,quat]n>y epo* ! human k+dom       
appe>$4 ,is x 9 ! future de/9ies ( our  
planet to receive yet ano!r "l8 ,& aft] 
! f\r k+doms :i* n[ occupy x1 is !re to 
be a new k+dom creat$1 ! attributes (   
:i* c nev] be any?+ b an imp5etrable    
my/]y1 & :i* w diff] f man 9 z great a  
degree z man diff]s f ! o!r animals1 &  
plants f rocks8  ,we mu/ be cont5t$ )   
sugge/+1 )\t hop+ to solve1 ?is =midable

 problem4 ,x is a great my/]y1 :i*1     
accord+ to ! f9e expression ( ,pl9y1    
8lies hidd5 9 ! maje/y ( ,nature10 latet
 9 maje/ate natur2 or 7to speak m 9 ! _s
 ( ,*ri/ian philosophy7 x is kn[n only  
to ! ,almighty ,creator ( ! ,univ]se4   
,,table   ,,(   ,,briti% ,,s$im5t>y ,,& 
,,fossilif]\s ,,/rata4    ,,by ,h4 ,w4  
,,bri/[4   ,illu/ration                 
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,,subdivisions4    ,,=eign      ,,orig94
      ,,comm]cial                       
,,equival5ts4                ,,products4
                                        
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,bl[n ,s&4                              
,peat4                      ,rais$      
,amb]4                      ,bea*es4    
,mud ( !                  ,gold1 ,dia-  
,,po/          ,alluvium4         ,nile4
                    monds1 &            
,,plioc5e4     ,brick ,e>?4  ,loess ( ! 
,v>i\s4     o!r ,gems                   

,riv] ,gravel4    ,rh9e4                
d]iv$                     ,cave         
,deposits4                              
f !                    ,glacial ,de-    
old] de-                    posits4     
posits4                                 
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,,plioc5e4     ,crags4                  
,sub-,ap5n9e     ,m>9e      ,phosphatic 
,/rata4                     ,nodules4   
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,leaf ,b$s &   ,molasse4                
,,mioc5e4      ,lignite4        ,faluns 
(       &        ,pipeclay4             
,t\ra9e4                                
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,upp] ,eoc5e4   ,calcaire    ,fre%wat]4 
,s&1 ,br[n                   ,bag%ot    
,b$s4   ,grossi]4                 ,coal1
 ,pipe-     ,,eoc5e4       ,london      
,clay4   ,nummulitic    ,e/u>9e    clay1
 ,cem5t                  ,read+ ,b$s1   

,lime/ones       &      ,/one1 ,bricks1 
c4           7,european &   ,m>9e4     &
 ,pott]y4                               
,asiatic74                              
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,:ite &     ,mae/ri*t                   
,fl9ts f    ,,upp]         ,grey ,*alk4 
,b$s4                       ,up4 ,*alk4 
,,cretace\s4   ,upp] ,gre5-  ,s5oni5    
,phosphate (                  s&4       
,turoni54     ,m>9e &       ,lime4      
,gault4                      ,fre%wat]  
,iron ,pyrites4   ,,l[]         ,l[]    
,gre5- ,albi54        7,weald574    ,s&y
 ,iron-    ,,cretace\s4   s&4           
,apti54                        /ones4   
,weald5 ,b$s1,neocomian4                
,build+                    c4           
,/one4                                  
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------   ,,upp]  
,purbeck4                   ,e/u>9e &   
,,oolitic4     ,portl& &                
,m>9e4                                  

,kim]idge4                              
,coal1 ,jet1     ,,middle        ,coral 
,rag                                    
,iron ,ores1     ,,oolitic4      ,ox=d  
,clay4                                  
,ro(+                    ,cornbra%4     
,slates1                    ,=e/ ,m>ble 
,jura                     ,build+       
& ,great      ,=mation4     ,m>9e4      
,/ones1 &     ,,l[]        ,oolite4     
,flags4       ,,oolitic4     ,/onesfield
                               ,alum    
,%ales4                 ,slate4         
,hydraulic                  ,inf]ior    
,lime/ones4                  ,oolite4   
,lias4                                  
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,rhtic4                                 
,new ,r$ ,m>l1                          
,gypsum4       ,,keup]4       ,s&/one1  
,mus*elkalk  ,inl& ,seas4   ,rock ,salt4
                   & ,conglom-    abs5t 
9                   ,build+             
,,bunt]4       erate4           ,briti% 

,salt ,lakes4     ,/ones4               
,s&/one        ,isles4                  
,pebble ,b$s4                           
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,r$ ,m>ls &                             
,,magnesian     ,magnesian              
,,lime/one4    ,lime/one4     ,ze*/e94  
,r$ ,m>l1        ,kupf]-      ,m>9e4    
,build+      ,,l[]         ,s&/one1     
s*ief]4                   ,/ones4       
,,p]mian4      & ,conglom-  ,ro?lieg5de4
                                        
erate4                                  
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,coal ,measures4  ,c>boni-              
,coal1 ,an?ra-                 ,mill/one
       f]i54                      cite4 
,,c>bonif]-   ,grit4                    
,t]re/rial   ,iron & ,lead   ,,ous4     
,yor$ale                        &       
,ores4                      ,rocks4     
,m>9e4     ,bldng4 ,/one1               
,m\nta9 ,lime-                          

,m>ble4                     /one4       
,oil ,spr+s4                            
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,ornam5tal     ,,devonian      ,devonian
                                        
,m>bles4      ,,&           ,slates &   
,eifel       ,m>9e ,&   ,s]p5t9e        
,,old ,,r$ ,,s&- ,lime/ones4            
,lime/one4    ,fre%wat]4    ,slates4    
,,/one4        ,old ,r$ ,s&-            
,t91 ,copp]1                  /one1 c4  
,lead1 ,silv]                           
,ores1 c4                               
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,ludl[4                                 
,,upp] ,,silu-  ,w5lock4                
,,rian4        ,upp]                    
,ro(+                    ,ll&ov]y4      
,slates4                    ,l[]        
,m>9e4       ,build+                    
,ll&ov]y4                               
,/ones4       ,,l[] ,,silu-  ,bala &    
,c>a-                            ,gold  

o!r    ,,rian4        doc4              
,metals4                    ,ll&eilo4   
,l+ula ,flags4 ,primordial              
,zone4                                  
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,h>le* ,grits4                          
,ro(+       ,,cambrian4     ,llanb]is   
,huronian (    ,m>9e4       ,slates4    
,slates4         ,am]ica4               
,gold  o!r                              
,metals4                                
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,gneiss                                 
( ! ,out]   ,labradorite                
,s]p5t9e4    ,,laur5tian4   ,hebrides1 &
   ,s]ies 9     ,m>9e4      ,graphite4  
,n4,w4 ,coa/ (    ,canada4              
,scotl&4                                
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,,metamorphic ,,rocks 7( all ages73--   
,gneiss1 ,mica-s*i/1 ,qu>tzite1         
,talcose-s*i/1 c4 7,s]p5t9e             

probably87                              
,,intrusive ,,rocks 7( all ages73--     
,lavas1 ,basalt1 ,tra*yte1 ,pit*/one1 c4
                                        
,granite1 ,sy5ite1 ,gre5/one1 ,fel/one1 
,porphyrites1 ,melaphyres1              
,mica-,traps1 c4 c4                     
----------------------------------------
---------------------------------       
,,ext5sion ,,( ,,! ,,previ\s ,,table4   
_/    _/             _/             _/  
,bl[n ,s& & ,%+le4                      
,alluvium & ,riv] ,deltas4              
,burtle ,b$s ( ,som]set4                
,,rec5t ,,&   ,clay1 ) ,scrobicul>ia (  
,pagham1                        ,,pre-  
,morecombe1 c4                          
,,hi/oric4    ,subm]g$ ,=e/s ( ,bri/ol  
,*annel1 c4                             
,peat ,bogs ( ,irel& & ,peat ,b$s       
,p                             ( ,engl&4
       ,o                      ,s       
_/ ,rais$ ,bea*es4       ,t             
_/ ,cave ,e>? & ,loam4                  
,,pleis-                   ,cave        

,deposits  ,/alagmite & ,bone-       ,t 
,,toc5e1                                
breccia4       ,e    ,,or               
,riv] ,gravels1 ,brick ,e>?s1 &       ,r
    ,,quat]-     ,po/         ,fre%wat] 
,clays1 ) ,mammalian       ,t    ,,n>y4 
,glacial      ,rema9s4       ,i         
,gravels ( ,b$=d ,levels1 ,salisbury1   
,a                             & o!r    
,old ,valley ,gravels &       ,r        
,alluvia4       ,y                      
,tufa & ,%ell-m>l4       4              
_/ ,kaimes or ,kames ( ,scotl&4         
,esk]s or ,esc>s ( ,irel&4              
,glacial      ,drift 7,upp] ,b\ld] ,clay
 or ,till1                              
,m>9e ,gravels1 ,l[] ,till &   ,a       
,mora9es71 ,scot* & ,wel%1   ,g         
,loess ( ! ,rh9e1 c4   ,e               
,pre-glacial   ,=e/ ,b$ ( ,norfolk      
,%ore4   ,o     ,f      _/              
_/                 ,norwi* &            
,mammalif]\s   ,*illes=d   ,m           
,crag            ,crag   ,a             
,,plioc5e4     ,crag        ,r$ ,crag   

7,new]   ,m                             
_/  ,plioc5e74   ,m                     
,corall9e ,crag 7,suffolk ,crag7   ,a   
_/              7,old] ,plioc5e74   ,l  
,k     ,s   ,a                          
_/ ,leaf ,b$ ( ,mull4   4   ,i          
,,mioc5e4                   ,lignite (  
,antrim4       ,n                       
,bovey ,b$s1 ) ,lignite4       ,o       
,z      _/        _/             _/     
,corbula ,b$s4                ,f        
,o               ,hemp/ead    ,upp]     
,fre%wat] &    l       ,i               
,b$s         ,middle    ,e/u>y          
u       ,o       ,,upp]                 
,l[]  _/   ,m>ls4            v  ,s      
1       ,,eo-                           
i  e               ,,c5e4   ,bembridge  
_/ ,bembridge ,m>ls4             o  r   
,o               ,b$s                   
,lime/one4         -  i       ,r        
,m  e                      _/ ,osborne  
_/ ,/4 ,hel5's ,s&s4           a  s     
,t               ,b$s                   
,nettle/one ,grits4           r  4      

,e   ,e                                 
i       ,r   ,o                       _/
 ,upp]                       n       ,t 
,c           ,headon       ,middle      
,headon ,b$s4       e       ,i   ,e     
,,middle  ,b$s         ,l[]  _/         
_/       ,a   ,n   ,,eo-           ,r   
,e   ,,c5e4               _/ ,upp]      
,bag%ot ,s&4       ,y   4               
,middle       _/ ,b>ton ,clay4       4  
,bag%ot                     ,brackle%am 
,b$s4                       ,b$s        
,l[]        ,s& & ,pipeclay1            
) ,plants4                              
_/             _/ ,london ,clay &       
,bognor ,b$s 7,upp]                     
,london ,t]ti>ies74               ,,l[] 
,london       ,oldhav5 ,b$s4            
,,eo-     ,t]ti>ies   ,woolwi* & ,read+ 
,b$s                ,,c5e4              
7,pla/ic ,clay74             ,l[]       
,?anet ,b$s4              _/  d4        
_/        _/     ,c _/                  
_/ ,upp] ,*alk1 ) ,lay]s ( ,fl9t        
,r                   7,mae/ri*t & ,faxoe

 ,b$s74                  ,e   ,*alk4    
,l[] ,*alk1 )\t ,fl9ts4               ,u
  ,t                   ,*alk ,m>l4      
,p  ,a                   ,*loritic ,m>l4
               ,p  ,c                ,e 
,e                    ,upp] ,gre5s&     
7,fire-/one (               ,r  ,o      
,surrey1 ,malm-rock71 c4                
,u         ,c         ,s                
,gault4        ,r         4        ,e   
,l    _/   _/    _/        _/ ,folke/one
 ,b$s 7,s&74        ,t      ,o          
,l[]   ,s&gate ,b$s 7) ,full]s'         
,a      ,w  ,o         ,gre5-  ,e>?74   
,c      ,e  ,r         s&4   ,hy! ,b$s  
7) ,k5ti% ,rag &        ,e      ,r      
,n          ,b>gate ,/one74        ,o   
,n      e          ,a!rfield ,clay4     
,u      ,c  ,e      o         ,s      ,r
  ,o  ,w   c         _/ ,weald ,clay 7) 
,sussex or ,be!rs-        4      ,e  ,c 
e   o          d5 ,m>ble & ,hor%am      
,/one74               ,t  ,o  a   m     
,a  ,m  l   i         _/ ,upp]          
,tunbridge ,wells                 ,c  ,i

  d   a          ,s&4                   
,tunbridge               ,e  ,a  e   n  
,has-    ,gr9/ead ,clay4          ,wells
               ,o  ,n  n   4  t+s   ,l[]
 ,tunbridge ,wells    ,b$s4             
,u  4  4      ,s&s4  ,s&4               
_/               ,s                     
,wadhur/ ,clay 7) ,iron ,ore74          
1                    ,a%d[n ,s&s4       
,a%burnham ,b$s4                        
_/    _/     ,o _/         ,pur-   _/   
,upp] 7) ,purbeck ,m>ble74 ,pur-        
,u  ,o          beck4   ,middle4        
beck              ,p  ,l                
,l[] 7) ,dirt ,b$s74     _/ ,b$s4       
,p  ,i              ,e  ,t              
_/ ,portl& ,/one4              ,r  ,e   
,portl&4        ,portl& ,s&4            
4                   ,kim]idge ,clay 7)  
,bitum9\s                               
,%ale74                          ,m  ,o 
_/ ,corall9e       _/ ,upp] ,calc>e\s   
,grit4   ,m          ,i  ,o  ,oolite4   
,coral ,rag 7) ,iron ,ore74   ,e        
,d  ,l                   ,l[] ,calc>e\s 

,grit4   ,s          ,d  ,i    ,o     ,o
    ,l  ,t  ,ox=d ,clay4    _/ ,ox=d    
,clay &   ,z     ,o    ,e  ,e           
,kellaways ,rock4   ,o     ,l       4   
,i     ,i         _/                 _/ 
,cornbra%4   ,c  ,j  ,t          ,=e/   
,m>ble4   ,=e/ ,m>ble & ,brad=d ,clay   
1  ,u  ,i                           7)  
,encr9ites74      ,r  ,c            ,o  
,a                             _/ ,great
 or ,ba? ,oolite 7) 8,ful-   ,r  ,s  ,s 
l]s' ,e>?0 at base1 9 ,s4 (      ,s  ,e 
,great ,oolite4    ,engl&74   ,s  ,i  ,r
                           ,/onesfield  
,slate1 ne> ! base1   ,e  ,c  ,i     ,l 
9 "p ( ,s4 ( ,engl&4   ,c     ,e     ,o 
,o  ,s  ,s     ,w                    _/ 
,upp] ,full]s' ,e>? 7,clay74   ,n  ,e  4
     ,e    ,full]s' ,e>?4  ,full]s' ,e>?
 ,rock 7,lime/one74   ,d  ,r        ,r  
,l[] ,full]s' ,e>? 7,clay74   ,a  ,i    
,r  ,e        ,o                    _/  
,nor?ampton ,s& 7) ,iron ,ore1   ,y  ,s 
,o                     9 ,n4 ,ox=d%ire &
 ,s4   4  4        ,l                   

,nor?ampton%ire74               ,i      
,rag/one & ,clypeus ,b$4  ,*el-         
,t                     ,upp] ,free/one4 
t5-               ,e    ,inf]ior        
,oolite ,m>l4               ham         
4    ,oolite4          ,l[] ,free/one4  
,sec-                                   
,pea ,grit4                _/  tions4   
7,colleywe/on ,slate1 at ! base         
( ! ,lime/one1 9 ,l9coln-               
%ire74                                  
,s&s4         ,,age ,,(   _/  ,l  _/    
,,reptiles1   i   ,upp] ,lias4  ,clay & 
,%ale4        ,,or ,,sauro-   a         
,middle ,lias1 or ,m>l/one 7,rock ,b$1 )
 ,iron          ,,zoic      s   ,ore1   
,s&1 c474         ,,epo*4     4   ,l[]  
,lias4  ,clay1 ,%ale1 & ,lime/one4      
_/ ,t  _/       _/                 _/   
8,:ite ,lias10 ,avicula contorta        
,r          ,rhtic1 or       ,b$s1 )    
,koess5 ,b$s4         ,i          ,p5>? 
,b$s4    ,bone ,b$s ( ,au/1 c4          
,a                           ,/4        
,cassian & ,hall/adt ,b$s4         ,s   

,u  ,t        ,p  1   ,p  ,r            
_/ ,r$ v>iegat$ ,m>l & ,upp]      ,o    
,p  ,i                    ,keup] ,s&/one
 7) ,gypsum &      ,i  ,o   ,e  ,a      
,rock ,salt74      ,k  ,r   ,r  ,s      
,keup]4          ,l[] ,keup] ,s&/one &  
,m>l      ,i         4                  
7,wat]/ones74      ,l  ,n               
,dolomitic ,conglom]ate 7( ,keup]       
,i  ,e                           ,age1  
,som]set1 ,gl\ce/]1 & ,s4      ,t  ,w   
,wales74      ,i          ,c  ,r   ,m   
,t  _/         ,e   ,i  ,r        ,s  ,d
   ,d  ,i                               
,mus*elkalk1 abs5t 9 ,brita94      ,e   
,d  ,a        ,r  ,s   ,l  ,s        ,i 
,a   ,e  4        ,e  ,n        ,s  ,d  
,l  ,t  _/      4  ,s   ,o  ,r          
_/ ,upp] ,r$ & ,mottl$ ,s&/one4         
,t   ,w  ,i   ,bunt]4          ,pebble  
,b$s1 ,calc>e\s ,con-         ,o   ,e   
,a                    glom]ate1 &       
,breccia4         ,n   ,r  ,s           
,l[] ,r$ & ,mottl$ ,s&/one4         ,e  
4           4                           

,,g]many4      _/   ,a _/   ,p          
_/,upp]1 or _/ ,upp] ,r$ ,m>l & ,s&/one4
          ,g    ,e    ,magnesian  ,upp] 
,magnesian ,lime/one4      ,ze*/e94     
,e    ,r    ,lime/one  ,l[] ,r$ ,m>l &  
,s&/one4               ,m     ,s]ies4   
,l[] ,magnesian ,lime/one4    _/        
,o    ,i             ,f    ,a    ,l[]1  
or _/ ,r$ ,m>l1 ,s&/one1 ,breccia1      
,r!-lieg5de1              ,n            
,ro?lie-  & ,conglom]ate4         ,f    
4      g5de4           ,i       ,u  ,s  
,c       _/                    ,,engl&4 
,,scotl&4      ,p  ,h ,a             ,p 
,e ,r  ,a  ,p            _/ ,upp] ,coal 
,measures4         ,e  ,s ,b  ,g  ,h    
,coal     ,middle ,coal ,measures4      
,upp] ,coal      ,r  1 ,o  ,e  ,y       
,measures4  ,p5nant ,grit4              
,measures4           ,n     ,t          
,l[] ,coal ,measures4         ,p  ,o ,i 
,o  ,o             ,ganni/] ,b$s4       
_/      ,a  ,r ,f  ,f  ,z       ,l    ,e
     ,o            _/ ,mill/one ,grit or
        ,moor        ,i ,r  ,p  ,i      

,f>ewell ,rock4         _/  ,rock4      
,o  ,c ,o  ,l  ,c       ,z  ,h ,u  ,a   
_/ ,upp] ,lime/one ,%ale    ,upp]       
,lime/ones4      ,o  ,t ,s  ,n  ,e      
7,yor$ale ,rocks74        ,edge ,coals  
,s]ies4      ,i  ,h    ,t  ,p           
,c>bonif]\s ,lime-      ,l[] ,lime/ones4
      ,c  ,y ,s  ,s  ,o   ,c>boni-      
/one4                 _/      4  ,o ,e  
1  ,c    f]\s1          ,z ,r     ,h    
or                                      
,s&/ones1 ,%ales1         ,o ,i  ,o  4  
,m\nta9  ,l[] ,lime/one ,%ale4   &      
,burdie ,h\se         ,i ,e  ,r         
,lime/one4                        _/    
,lime/one4         ,c ,s                
4                     ,p     ,e    ,a   
,p ,,old ,,r$ _/ ,old ,r$  _/ ,upp]     
,devonian or ,b>n/aple & ,m>wood ,b$s1  
,l     ,o  ,,s&-    ,s&-    ) ,pe!rw9   
,lime/one1 9 ,n4 ,e4 ,cornwall4         
,c  ,,/one  /one1 or  ,middle ,devonian 
or ,ilfracombe ,b$s1 )   ,o     ,h   ,,&
   ,devonian   ,fossilif]\s ,lime/ones &
 ,corn/ones4   ,z     4  ,,devoni-      

,b$s4    ,l[] ,devonian1 or ,lynton     
,b$s4   ,o          ,,an4     ,i        
,,wales ,,& ,,c5tral        ,,lake      
,,di/rict4   ,c                         
,,engl&4   1  ,l    _/   _/      _/     
,tile/ones 7,passage           ,o  ,a   
,b$s74                     ,o  ,w  ,n   
,kirkby ,moor   ,r  ,e  ,d              
_/ ,upp] ,ludl[ ,b$s 7)   ,flags4       
,r         ,u    ,ludl[     ,bone ,b$74 
_/   ,p     ,m      ,p    ,b$s4         
,ayme/ry ,lime/one4        ,r  ,p  ,o   
,p               ,l[] ,ludl[ ,b$s4      
,i  ,a  ,l      ,e                      
,bannisdale ,b$s4   ,m  ,l  ,l      ,r  
_/ ,w5lock ,lime/one4         ,a    ,u  
,w5lock ,%ale1 ,s&-       ,r  ,o  ,s    
,s               /one1 & ,flags4        
_/   ,y  ,z  ,c      ,i    ,w5lock      
,woolhope ,lime/one &    ,coni/on ,grits
   4  ,o  ,s ,s    ,l    ,b$s4          
,%ale4                    & ,flags4     
,i  1 ,i    ,u               ,d5bigh%ire
 ,grits1       ,/ockdale      ,c    ,l  
,r               ,%ales1 ,slates1 &     

,slates4      4  ,o ,u    ,i            
,flags4                  _/         ,r  
,r    ,a         ,a    ,i    ,n         
,t>annon ,%ale 7,pale ,slates74      ,g 
,m ,a    4         ,e  ,a ,n            
_/ ,upp] ,ll&ov]y ,rocks4         ,l 4  
,ll&o-    7,may ,hill ,s&/one74      ,o 
,a           v       7,p5tam]us ,b$s74  
,f  ,c           ,b$s4              ,o  
,l[] ,ll&ov]y ,rocks4      ,c  ,z       
,r  ,o        ,s _/ ,c>adoc1  _/ ,c>adoc
 & ,bala ,b$s4        ,u  ,i        ,i  
or ,bala   7,s&/ones (t5 %elly1         
,coni/on ,lime-      ,s  ,c     ,l  ,l  
,b$s4      ) ,bala ,lime/one1      /one1
 ,bala      ,t        ,o  ,u            
,%ale1 & ,slate74        7,lime/one &   
,a  ,e     ,w  ,r                       
,%ale74      ,c  ,p     ,e  ,i  ,llan-  
_/ ,ll&eilo ,flags &       ,skiddaw     
,slates4      ,e  ,o     ,r  ,a  deilo4 
,lime/one1 c4          _/      ,a  ,c   
,n             ,tremadoc ,slates4       
,n  ,h        4       ,s  4             
,l+ula     ,l+ula ,flags4 7,primordial  

,zone (                     ,b$s4       
,b>r&e74                 _/          _/ 
_/ ,h>le* ,grits1 c4                    
,purple ,slates & ,grits 7,/4 ,david's74
        ,e  ,,cambrian4  ,cambrian4     
,llanb]is ,grits & ,slates4        ,o   
,longmynd ,rocks4        ,z             
,r$ ,s&/one & ,conglom]ate 7,scotl&74   
,o                    ,i          ,c    
_/ ,fundam5tal ,gneiss ( ! ,out]        
,hebrides        4  ,,laur5tian4        
& ( ! ,n4 ,w4 coa/ ( ,scotl&1 c41       
conta9+ ! olde/ kn[n fossil1            
,eozoon ,canad5se4     ,,index4         
,,italics ,,are ,,woodcut               
,,illu/rations4     ,abbeville1 #dge4   
,peat-b$s & ,fl9t-tools (1 #dgf4        
,abiet91 #aic4   ,acacia1 #cah4         
,acan?odes1 #abf4   ,acephala ( !       
,oolite1 #bdf4   ,acephal\s or headless 
,molluscs1 #bhh4   ,ac]ites cretace1    
#bhc4   ,acrodus nobilis1 #bag4         
,acrog5s1 #abc4   ,adams1 ,mr41         
discov]ies (1 #cia4   ,adapis1 #cbe4    
,adelsb]g ,cave1 #dcj4   ,adeona        

folif]a1 #bdg4   ,adhm>'s ,glacial      
,hypo!sis1 #dcf4   ,adiantites1 #abj4   
,agassiz on ,glaci]s1 #dci4   ,age (    
,angiosp]ms1 #cjj4         ,=mations1 h[
 asc]ta9$1 #e4   ,ailsa ,craig1 #di4    
,air ,volcano at ,turbaco1 #fa1 #fc4    
,albi5 ( ,d',orbigny1 #cjj4   ,albite1  
#if4   ,aleutian ,isles1 #gj4   ,alg1   
#ajc1 #aad1 #abc1 #cji1 #ccf4   ,alkal9e
 ,wat]s ( ,plombires1 #fd4   ,alleghany 
,m\nta9s1 #ge4   ,alluvial ,deposits1   
#dhe4   ,almites ,frescii1 #bjc4        
,alps1 upheaval (1 #dbg4   ,alveolites1 
#ccc4   ,amb]1 #caj1 #caf1 #cee4        
,amblypt]us1 #adf4   ,ami5s1 ,peat-b$s  
(1 #dge4   ,ammonite1 a p]fect1 #bfj4   
re/oration ( an1 #baf4   ,ammonites1    
#aa1 #ab1 #bjg1 #bab1 #bad1 #bdf4       
ro/ratus1 #bib1 #bid4                   
,turn]i1 #bae4             ( ,jurassic  
,p]iod1 #bae4             rotundus1     
#bfc4             ,h]veyii1 #bdf4       
,danicus1 #caa4   ,amorphozoa1 #cja4    
,anci5t ,glaci]s ( ! ,rh9e1 ,l9?1 & !   
,reus1 #ddi4   ,anci5t ,granite1 #ca4   

,ancyloc]as1 #bhh4   ,&rias ,s*eu*z]i1  
#cfh4   ,angiosp]ms1 ,age (1 #cjj4      
,se$s1 9 a ,se$-vessel1 #bhc1 #cjj4     
,animal ( ! ,ohio1 #cdc4         (      
,p>aguay1 #dja4   ,annelides1 #abf4     
,ann+1 ,m>y1 #bai1 #bbe4   ,annul>ia1   
#acg1 #aed4             orifolia1 #aeh4 
,anodon1 #abj1 #ccd4   ,anomopt]is1     
#aic4   ,anoplo!rium1 #cai1 #cbc4       
commune1 #cbc4   ,anor?ite1 #if4        
,ant$iluvian ,glaci]s1 #ddi4            
,man1 #cfg4   ,an?racite1 #gb4          
,antiquity ( ,man1 #dfi4   ,antw]p      
,crag1 #cgc4   ,ape1 #cfj4   ,ape1 ,fir/
 ,appe>ance (1 #cdi4   ,apiocr9ites     
lilii=mis1 #bfa4                        
rotundus1 #bfa4   ,aploc]as1 #adf4      
,apti5 7,gre5s& ( ,apt7 ,fossils (      
,havre1 ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 #big4       
,apuan ,alps1 #gf4   ,arboresc5t ,f]ns1 
#acj4   ,arbroa? ,pav+-/one1 #abi4      
,ar*opt]yx1 #bfe4   ,ar*egosaurus m9or1 
#aed1 #aeh4   ,arctocyon primvus1 #ccb4 
,ar5icolites1 #aja4   ,argile de ,dives1
 #bfd4         pla/ique1 #ccb4          

,arm5tace1 #big4   ,arran1 ,granite (1  
#ch4   ,artesian ,wells1 #af1 #hh4      
,artificially-=m$ ,coal1 #afd4          
,asaphus caudatus1 #ajc4   ,a%burnham   
,s&s1 #bhf4   ,a%d[n ,s&s1 #bhf4        
,a%es1 ,%[]s ( ,volcanic1 #eh4          
,asiatic ,deluge1 #dbc2 caus$ by        
upheaval ( ,caucasian ,range1 #dhj4     
,aspl5ium1 #cae4   ,a/]acan?us1 #bff4   
,a/]ias lombricalis1 #bac4              
,a/]ophyllites1 #abj1 #aed1 #aeh1 #agc1 
#agg4                   foliosa1 #aeg4  
,a!rfield ,s]ies ( ,rocks1 #bhg4        
,atlantis ( ,plato1 #aah1 #bha4         
,atrypa reticul>is1 #abg4   ,au*5aspis1 
#abi4   ,aucol91 #bii4   ,augite1 #dd4  
,auv]gne1 ,m\nta9s (1 #fb4              
,acidulat$ ,spr+s 91 #fd4               
,ext9ct ,volcanoes (1 #ea4   ,aveyron   
,savage1 #dfi4   ,avicula1 #ahi1 #bje1  
#beb1 #bgb4           contorta1 #bjg4   
contorta zone1 #bjg4   ,azores1 ,new    
,isl&s =m$ 9 !1 #gj4    ,baculites1     
#bhi4   ,bag%ot ,b$s1 #ccb4   ,bajoci5  
,=mation1 #bdi4   ,bala ,b$s1 #aji4     

,balna ( ,monte ,pulgnasco1 #cgj4       
,balnodon ,lamanoni1 #cgj4   ,bali/es1  
or ,silurus1 #bah4   ,baltic ,sea fill+ 
up1 #bhb1 #dij4   ,banksia1 #cah4       
,b>m\? ,s&/one1 #aja4   ,basalt 9       
,prismatic ,columns1 #dg4   ,basalt1    
#dd4          ,action (1 ^u ,lime/one1  
#gb4          ( ,irel&1 #dh4            
,prismatic ,/ructure (1 #di4   ,basaltic
 ,=mations1 #dd4           ,causeways1  
#dh1 #di4           ,plateau1 !oretical 
view (1 #dg4           ,cav]n ( ,/affa1 
#ej4   ,bat1 #cbf1 #cch4   ,ba? ,oolite1
 #bdc1 #bej4   ,ba?onian ,=mation1 #bdi4
   ,batra*ian ,reptiles ( ,plioc5e1     
#ceh4   ,baumann's ,hohl1 #dbi4   ,bay (
 ,fundy1 #aei4   ,beav]1 ,disappe>ance  
(1 #ahd4          ( ,po/-,plioc5e       
,p]iod1 #cgi4   ,b$s ( ,coal1 ,=mation  
(1 #aei4   ,bees1 #bee4   ,belemnite    
re/or$1 #baf4             ( ,liassic    
,p]iod1 #bag4   ,belemnites1 #bab1 #bae1
 #bfj4              acutus1 #bag4       
,bell]ophon1 #ajh4                      
co/atus1 #ade4               hiulcus1   

#ade4   ,belopt]a ,sepioidea1 #aha1     
#dcd4   ,bembridge ,s]ies1 #ccj1 #ccb4  
,b5 ,nevis1 #ij1 #ahb4   ,b]nese ,alps1 
#dbg4   ,b]yx ,lewesi5sis1 #bid4        
,biblical ,acc\nt ( ,noa*ian ,deluge1   
#dhj4   ,bidia/opora c]vicornis1 #bdf4  
,bigsby1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,t41 on ,silurian     
,fauna & ,flora1 #ajd4   ,b9ney1 ,edw41 
on ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,lanca%ire1 #dfb4     
,bird ( ,sol5h(51 #bfe4        (        
,montm>tre1 #cbf4   ,birds1 ,fir/       
,appe>ance (1 #aic4         ( ,eoc5e    
,p]iod1 #cbf4         ( ,mioc5e ,p]iod1 
#cfi4   ,bison primig5ius1 #cii4        
priscus1 #cii4   ,bitum9\s ,f\nta9s1    
#fj4   ,black ,d[n ,b$s1 #caj4          
,boccaccio's ,giant1 #bhd4   ,bogs (    
,d5m>k1 #dgg4   ,bone-b$s ( ,rhtic1 or  
,p5>? ,s]ies1 #bjg4   ,bone-breccias1   
#dbi4   ,bone ,caves1 #dbi4             
,h4 ,w4 ,bri/[ on =mation (1 #dge4      
,bos1 #cgi1 #dad4         ,pallasii1    
#cii4         ,primig5ius1 #ahd4        
,bra*eux ,s&s1 #ccb4   ,bra*iopoda1     
#aji4               ,abundance (1 9     

,devonian ,p]iod1 #abf4               9 
,upp] ,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #cjj4          
,reign (1 #abf4   ,bra*yphyllum1 #bdi4  
,brackle%am ,b$s1 #ccb4   ,brad=d ,clay1
 #bej4           ,encr9ites1 #beb4      
,bran* ( ,banksia1 #cah4                
,eucalyptus1 #cag4   ,bray ,head1 #aja4 
,breccia1 ,ossif]\s1 #dcb4   ,brecciat$ 
,lime/one1 #agd1 #agf4   ,bridl+ton     
,b$s1 #dfj4   ,bri/[1 ,h4 ,w41 on       
,=mation ( ,bone ,caves1 #dge4          
on ,brixham ,bone-cave1 #dgc4           
on ,p5>? or ,rhtic ,b$s1 #bjg4   ,briti%
 ,isl&s at close ( ,jurassic ,p]iod1    
#bgd4   ,briti% ,/rata1 ,section (1     
#bdd4                    ,table (1      
#dic-dii4   ,brixham ,bone-cave1 #dgc4  
,brongni>t1 ,ad41 on ,upp] ,cretace\s   
,fauna1 #cja4   ,bronze ,age1 #dgh4     
,brumb]g ,cav]n1 #dcb4   ,buckl&1 ,dr41 
on ,kirkdale ,cave1 #chj4   ,buffon &   
,voltaire1 #f4         on ,man1 #dgj4   
on ,fossils1 #f4   ,bunt] ,s&/one1 #ahg4
   ,burrh ,/one1 #cee4   ,butt]flies1   
#bee4    ,cai?ness ,flags1 #abh4        

,calam>y1 #bae1 #bei4   ,calamite       
re/or$1 #ace4   ,calamites1 #acd1 #aeb1 
#agg1 #aic1 #bjb4             ar5aceus1 
#aid4             cann=mis1 #aed4       
,trunk (1 #acf4   ,calcaire de la       
,beauce1 #cee4           ,grossi]1 #cbe1
 #ccb4   ,calceola ,s&al9a1 #abg4       
,cald]as1 #gj4   ,calym5e ,blum5ba*ii1  
#aaj4   ,cambrian ,p]iod1 #aja4         
,fauna1 #aja4   ,camp]1 ,pi]re1 on !    
,mosasaurus1 #cjd4                   n+5
 ,skeleton1 #cfh4   ,camptopt]is cr5ata1
 #bci4   ,can/adt ,excavations1 #chf1   
#cif4   ,cantal ,gr\p ( ,m\nta9s1 #dc4  
a peak (1 #dj4   ,cape ,wra?1 ,granite &
 ,gneiss (1 #cb4   ,capitosaurus1 #aij4 
,c>adoc ,b$s1 #aji4   ,c>bonif]\s       
,flora1 #aea4                           
comp>$ ) t ( ,isl&s 9 ! ,pacific1 #aea4 
,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 #acj1 #adj4      
,p]iod1 #acj4                ,vegetation
 (1 #acj4                ,climate (1    
#acc4                ,=am9if]a (1 #adc1 
#adf4                ( ,france1 #aej4   
,cru/aceans (1 #ada4                    

,rocks1 #adi4                ,seas1     
#adf4   ,c>dioc>pon1 #agg4   ,c>dium    
,rhticum1 #bjg4          /riatulum1     
#bfi4   ,c>p9ites ar5aceus1 #bhc4       
,c>r>a ,m>ble1 #fe1 #gc1 #gf1 #cgg4     
,c>yophylla cya?us1 #cef4   ,causeways1 
,basaltic1 #di4   ,cave ,be>1 #cie1     
#dgc4       ,deposits1 #dfh1 #dgb4      
,hyna1 #cih4       ,lion1 #cih4         
,cav]ns1 _! ,orig91 #abi4   ,cell>ia    
loriculata1 #bdg4   ,c5tral ,heat ( !   
,e>?1 #ae4          ,increase ( 9 ,dep?1
 #af4   ,c5tral ,france1 ,puys (1 #ea4  
,cephalaspis1 #abe4   ,cephalopoda1     
#ajh1 #abg1 #bae1 #cja4   ,c]atites1    
#ahi4   ,c]atites nodosus1 #ahi4        
,c]i?ium1 #ccc1 #ccd4   ,c]i?ium        
plicatum1 #cej4             telescopium1
 #cce4   ,c]vus megac]os1 #ahd1 #djj4   
,ce/racion1 #bah4   ,cetaceans (        
,plioc5e ,p]iod1 #cfi4   ,cetiosaurus1  
#bef1 #bfe4   ,*ropotamus1 #cbe4        
,*tetes1 #adf4   ,*alk ,=mation1 #bge1  
#cji4                   ,=am9if]a (1    
#adf4   ,*alk ,m>l1 #cji4        ,:ite1 

#cji4        ( ,cattolica1 ,sicily1     
#bhj4        ( ,graves5d1 #bgh4        (
 ,isle ( ,mon1 #bgi4        ( ,meudon1  
#bgg4   ,*>a1 #cae4   ,*eiro!rium1 #ac1 
#ba1 #aij4   ,*emical ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1   
#ae4   ,*esil ,bank1 #bgj4   ,*illes=d  
,b$s1 #cgb4   ,*imra1 #bah4   ,*lo1     
,isle (1 #aea4   ,*ondrites1 #cji4      
,*orda-filum1 #abd4   ,*ri/iana ,granite
 & ,sy5ite1 #ch4   ,c9d] ,b$ ( ,purbeck1
 #bgb4   ,cipol9e ,m>ble1 #gf4          
,cirrip$es1 #bfj4   ,cl]mont-,f]r&1 #ea4
   ,climate ( ! ,coal ,p]iod1 #aea4     
,p]mian ,p]iod1 #agd4   ,climatius1     
#abf4   ,cl9k/one1 #dc4   ,clym5ia      
,s$gwickii1 #abg4   ,coal1 #acb4        
,=mation (1 #aei4        ,orig9 (1 #aei4
        ,!ories ,respect+ ,=mation (1   
#aei4        ,/ratification ( ,b$s (1   
#afe4        ,quantities annually rais$ 
9 diff]5t ,c\ntries1 #aff4              
,quantity (1 9 ,unit$ ,k+dom1 #afg4     
,coal ,measures1 #acj1 #aej4            
,composition (1 #afd4                   
,ext5t (1 #aff4                 ,flora  

(1 #aej4                 ( ,scotl&1     
#afg4                 ( ,s\? ,wales1    
#afg4                 ( ,belgium1 #afg4 
( ,france1 #afg4                 ,"t (  
,=mation1 #acb4                         
,composition (1 #acb4   ,coal ,m9es (   
,treuil1 #afj4   ,cocco/eus1 #abe1 #adb4
   ,clacan?us1 #age4   ,composition (   
,air 9 ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod1 #acc4        
,comptonia1 #bhc4   ,conf]v ( ! ,*alk1  
#cji4   ,conglom]ates1 #abi4   ,conif]s 
( ,jurassic ,p]iod1 #bdi1 #bfi4         
( ,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #bhc4           (  
,eoc5e ,p]iod1 #caf4           ( ,mioc5e
 ,p]iod1 #ccf4           ( ,plioc5e     
,p]iod1 #ceh4   ,contortions ( ,coal    
,b$s1 #afg4   ,conybe>e's ,acc\nt (     
,plesiosaurus1 #bbi4   ,copp] ,slate1   
,fossils (1 #agg4                       
( ,?ur+ia1 #agh4   ,coprolites1         
,petrifi$ ,excrem5ts ( ,ant$iluvian     
,animals1 #ab1 #bjg1 #cgc4              
( ,i*?yosaurus1 enclos+ ,bones1 #bbe4   
( ,i*?yosaurus1 %[+ ,ca/ ( ,inte/9es1   
#bbe4              ,b$ ( ,cambridge1    

#cji4   ,coral ,rag1 #bdc1 #bfd1 #cja4  
,corall9e ,crag1 ,corals (1 #cgb4       
,corals1 #ada1 #bje1 #bdj1 #bdg1 #bfc1  
#bff1 #cja4   ,cornbra%1 #bdc1 #bej1    
#beb4   ,corn/one1 #abi4   ,cornwall1   
,granite (1 #ch4   ,coryphodon1 #ccb4   
,co?am ,m>ble1 #bjh4   ,c\pe1 la1       
d',ayzac1 #df1 #dg4   ,crag1 #cgb4      
,creation ( ,man1 #dfd4                 
,evid5ces (1 #dfi4              ,_w1    
,scriptural ,acc\nt (1 ,def5d$1 #ah4    
,cr$n]ia1 #bhc1 #big-cjj4               
,crematopt]is1 #afc4   ,cretace\s       
,p]iod1 #bge1 #cjf4                     
,fauna (1 #bhb1 #bhe1 #cjj4             
,flora (1 #bhb1 #cjj4                   
,reptiles (1 #bhe4                      
,fi%es (1 #bhe1 #bid4   ,cr9oidea1 #abg4
   ,crioc]as1 #bhh1 #big4               
,duvallii1 #bgd4   ,crocodile (         
,mae/ri*t1 #ahd1 #cjc1 #cbf4            
,crocodilus ,toliapicus1 #cbf4   ,croll1
 ,j41 on ,till1 #deg4   ,cru/ ( ! ,e>?1 
,composition (1 #if4                    
,?ickness (1 #hg1 #hi4                  

,temp]ature (1 #hh4   ,cru/aceans1 #ajg1
 #aaj1 #ada1 #bhf4                      
,pr$om9ance (1 9 ,l[] ,silurian ,seas1  
#ajg4               ,r>ity ( 9          
,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod1 #ada4               
( ,eoc5e ,p]iod1 #cbf4               (  
,mioc5e ,p]iod1 #cej4   ,cryptogamia1   
#ahg1 #aid1 #bjc4   ,cry/all9e ,action1 
#ga4              ,lime/one1 #agd1 #agf4
              ,rocks ,def9$1 #bh4       
,cucumites1 #cae4   ,cupanioides1 #cae4 
,cupressocr9us crassus1 #abh4   ,cuvi]'s
 ,acc\nt ( ,plesiosaurus1 #bcc4         
,acc\nt ( ,pt]odactyle1 #cc4            
on ! ,re/oration ( ,ext9ct ,animals1 #g4
           on ! ,de/ruction ( ,species1 
#cha4           on ! ,mammo?1 #cif4     
,cya?ophyllum1 #adf4   ,cycadeace1 #bff4
   ,cycads1 #bci1 #bdi1 #bgj1 #bhc4     
,cycas circ9alis1 #afh4   ,cypress1     
#bdj1 #bdi4   ,cypris1 #bgb4            
fasciculata1 #bgb4          sp9ig]a &   
,c4 ,vald5sis1 #bih4   ,cyrtoc]as       
depressum1 #agf4    ,dam>a1 #aid4       
,danian ,b$s1 #cji1 #caa4   ,dani% ,peat

 ,mosses & ,kjkk5 ,mdd51 #dgg4          
,d>tmoor1 ,granite (1 #cf1 #cg1 #gi4    
,d>w91 ,c41 on ,coral ,=mations1 #bfc4  
,volcanoes ( ,quito1 #ee4   ,daub5y on  
,basalt1 #dd4   ,davidsonia ,v]neuilli1 
#abg4   ,dawk9s1 ,w4 ,b41 ,discov]] (   
,microle/es1 #bjg4   ,de la ,be*e on !  
,plesiosaurus1 #bbi4   ,de ,rance1 ,c4  
,e41 on ,glacial ,deposits1 #deh4       
,de]1 #cii4   ,deluge confirm$ by       
traditions ( all ,anci5t ,races1 #dhb4  
,d5udation1 #bh4   ,desc>tes1 #ae4      
,de/ruction ( ,successive ,creations1   
#ahd4   ,devon & ,cornwall1 ,granite (1 
#ch4   ,devonian ,p]iod1 #aai4          
,sy/em1 #agj4           ,flora1 #abj4   
,fi%es1 #abe4   ,diamet] ( ! ,e>?1 #hg4 
,dic]as ,lime/one1 #bfe4   ,dicotyl$ons1
 #ahb1 #bhb4   ,diluvium1 #dbb1 #dbc4   
,d9ornis1 #acd1 #chb4   ,d9ornis1 #dad1 
#dag4   ,d9o!rium1 #cci1 #cef4          
re/or$1 #cdj4   ,diorite1 #ce4          
,diplacan?us1 #abf4   ,dirt-b$1 ,fossils
 (1 #bga4   ,dodo1 #ahd4   ,dolomite1   
#agh4   ,domite1 #dc4   ,donati on      

,fossil ,%ells1 #f4   ,d[ns1 ,nor? &    
,s\?1 #bgh4   ,d[nton ,s&/one1 #aab4    
,draco volans1 #bch4   ,draconid1 #bcg4 
,dragon ,fly1 #bdc1 #bee4   ,dragons (  
,my?ology1 #bcg1 #cfa4   ,drift$ ,rocks1
 #bg4   ,drme1 !1 #bii4   ,dryopi!cus1  
#cej1 #cec4   ,dykes1 #bg4    ,e>ly     
,geologi/s1 #e4   ,e>?1 ,cool+ ( !1 #hj4
         ,!ories ( ! ,orig9 ( !1 #f4    
9 a ,gase\s ,/ate1 #ha4   ,e>?'s ,cru/1 
,?ickness (1 #hi4          ,surface1    
,*anges (1 #c4   ,e>?y ,lime/one1 #bha4 
,ebur ,fossile1 #chf4   ,e*9od]ms1 #ahi1
 #bac1 #bdg1 #bfa1 #big1 #cjj1 #cja1    
#cbf4   ,ed5tates1 #chb1 #djj1 #djg4    
,ehr5b]g's ,microscopic ,inve/igations1 
#bgg4   ,electric ,curr5ts1 ,action (1  
#gi4   ,elephant ( ! ,ohio1 #cdc1 #cdg4 
,elephants1 ,fossil1 #chf4   ,elephants'
 ,cemet]y at ,can/adt1 #chf4   ,elephas 
m]idionalis1 #cgb4          primig5ius1 
#cdg1 #chb1 #chc4   ,emys1 #bfe1 #cai4  
,encr9ites1 #abg1 #agc1 #aha1 #aif1     
#beb4              ,abundance ( dur+    
,devonian ,p]iod1 #abj4   ,encr9us      

lilii=mis1 #aij1 #bfa4   ,entalophora   
cell>ioides1 #bdf4   ,eoc5e ,/rata (    
,france & ,engl&1 #cbi4   ,eoc5e1 #cad4 
,p]iod1 #cae4          ,vegetation1     
#cae4          ,fauna1 ,seas1 #cai1     
#cbi4          ,*>act]s (1 #ccj4        
,table ( ,/rata1 #ccj4   ,epilogue1     
#dhi4   ,epiornis1 #ahd1 #chb1 #dag4    
,equiseta 7,horse-tails71 #acd1 #bjb1   
#bjc1 #bci1 #cae4   ,erratic ,blocks1   
#dbd4                  ( ! ,alps1 #ddh4 
,eruption ( ,granite1 #ib4   ,eruptive  
,rocks1 #d1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca4              
,plutonic ,eruptions1 #ca4              
,volcanic           #ea4   ,eryon       
arcti=mis1 #bfj4   ,eryman!an ,bo>1     
#ahd4   ,e/imat$ ,coal ,measures ( !    
,_w1 #aff4   ,e!ridge1 ,r41 on ,devonian
 & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #abi4   ,etna1     
,volcano ( ,m\nt1 #ef1 #fh4             
,eucalyptus1 #cag4   ,eunomia radiata1  
#bdg1 #beb4   ,europe at ,close (       
,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #caa4                
,plioc5e ,p]iod1 #cgg4   ,european      
,deluge1 #cgh1 #dbb4   ,eurypt]us1 #aaj4

              remipes1 #aaa4   ,exogyra 
conica1 #bid1 #caa4   ,expansion ( !    
,e>? at ! ,equator1 #hd4   ,ext9ct      
,volcanoes ( ,auv]gne1 #ea4   ,eye (    
,i*?yosaurus1 #bbj4    ,falcon]1 ,dr41  
on ,brixham ,cave1 #dgc4   ,faluns1     
#cee4          ( ,p>is ,bas91 #cef4     
,fans1 ( ,brecon1 #abh4   ,fault1 a     
,dislocation ( ,/rata1 #ga4   ,fauna1   
,def9ition ( ,t]m1 #d4                  
,devonian1 #abi4         ,neocomian1    
#bhg4         ( ,p]mian ,p]iod1 #ahc4   
( ! ,middle ,oolite1 #bee4         ( !  
,upp] ,oolite1 #bfe4         (          
,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #bhe1 #bid4         (
 ,eoc5e ,p]iod1 #cai4         ( ,plioc5e
 ,p]iod1 #ceh4         ( ,mioc5e ,p]iod1
 #cci4   ,faxoe ,b$s1 #cji4   ,felis    
spela1 #cih4   ,felsp>1 composition (1  
#if4   ,f5e/rella reti=mis1 #age4       
,f]ns1 #acj1 #acd1 #adj1 #agf1 #aic1    
#bci1 #bdh1 #bhb1 #cae4   ,f+al's ,cave1
 ,/affa1 #di1 #ej4   ,fi%]1 ,rev4 ,o41  
on ,*illes=d ,clay1 #cgb4          on   
,w>p & ,trail1 #dfa4   ,fi%es1          

,silurian1 #ajg4          ,bones (1     
#aab4          ( ,devonian ,p]iod1 #abe4
          ( ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod1 #adf4   
( ,oolitic ,seas1 #bff4          (      
,cretace\s ,seas1 #bhe1 #bid4          (
 ,eoc5e ,p]iod1 #cbf4          ( ,mioc5e
 ,p]iod1 #cci4   ,fissurella nembosa1   
#dfc4   ,fissures ne> ,loc>no1 #eg4     
,flabell>ia1 #cae1 #cbi1 #ccf4          
,*amropifolia1 #bhh4   ,fl9t-tools 9    
peat-b$s1 #dge4   ,fl9ts1 #bha4   ,flora
 ( ,upp] ,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #cji4       
( ,devonian ,p]iod1 #abj4        (      
,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #bhb4        (       
,t]ti>y ,p]iod1 #cac4        ( ,eoc5e   
,p]iod1 #cbi4        ( ,triassic ,p]iod1
 #aid4        ( ,mioc5e ,p]iod1 #cbf1   
#cec1 #cha4        ( ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod1
 #ace4        ( ,p]mian ,p]iod1 #agd1   
#ahc4        ( ,plioc5e ,p]iod1 #cha4   
( ,upp] ,oolite ,p]iod1 #bff4           
,fluvio-m>9e ,crag1 #cgb4   ,foliation1 
,cause (1 #gg4   ,footpr9ts 9 ,rocks1   
#aba1 #agc1 #aij1 #aif1 #bfi4           
at ,corncockle ,moor1 #ac4   ,=am9if]a1 

#adf1 #cac1 #cbf4                ( !    
,*alk1 #adf1 #bgf1 #bhf4                
( ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #adf4   ,=bes    
7,pr(essor ,ed47 on ! ,plioc5e ,m>9e    
,fauna1 #cgd4   ,=e/-b$ ( ,norfolk1     
#cgb1 #dah4   ,=e/ ,m>ble1 #bdc1 #bej1  
#beb4   ,=mation ( ,primitive ,granite1 
#ij4   ,fossil1 ,t]m ,def9$1 #d4        
,bones1 #d1 #e4          ,uses (1 #e4   
,condition (1 #aa4          ,footpr9ts1 
#ac4          ,species1 relations (1 to 
exi/+ ,species1 #aa4          ,ivory (  
,sib]ia1 #chh4          ,palms re/or$1  
#bhd4          ,%ells1 #d4              
,fi%es1 #age4          ,lee*es1 #bag4   
,licorn1 #cih4          ,unicorn1 #chf4 
,fossils ( ,p]mian ,=mation1 #agc4      
( ,keup] ,=mation1 #bja4          (     
,upp] ,oolite1 #bfe4          (         
,neocomian ,b$s1 #big4          (       
,orgonian ,b$s1 #big4          ( ,apti5 
,b$s1 #big4          ( ! ,glauconie1    
#cjj4          ( ,calcaire ,grossi]1    
#ccb4          ( ,mus*elkalk1 #ahi4     
( ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 #ahg4          (    

,argile ,pla/ique1 #ccb4   ,f\rnet on ! 
,drme1 #bii4          on ,eruptions (   
,granite1 c41 #cf4          on          
,eruptions ( ,gas & ,wat]1 #fd4   ,fox (
 n+51 #cch4   ,fucoids1 #abc4   ,full]'s
 ,e>?1 #bdc1 #bej4   ,fusul9a cyl9drica1
 #adc4   ,future ( ! ,e>? & ,man        
consid]$1 #dhi4    ,gabian1 ,bitum9\s   
,spr+s (1 #fj4   ,gail5reu?1 ,caves (1  
#dbi1 #dcj4   ,galacynus n+5sis1 #cci4  
,ganoid ,fi%es1 #aha1 #bag1 #bdf4       
,g>onne ,valley1 #dbh4   ,ga/ornis1     
#ccb4   ,gault1 #bha1 #cjj1 #cji4       
,gavials ( ,india1 #bei1 #bia4          
,geikie1 ,pr(41 on ,till1 #deg4         
,gem]elli on ,fossils1 #f4   ,geological
 humus1 #bga4              ,inf]5ces1   
,hypo!tical ,nature (1 #c4   ,geological
 ,record1 ,complexity (1 #cj4           
,geology1 ,objects (1 #b1 #c4           
a ,rec5t ,sci5ce1 #c4           its     
,influ5ce  on  o!r ,sci5ces1 #c4        
,h[ to be ,/udi$1 #c4   ,geosaurus1     
#bef4   ,geoteu?is1 #bei4   ,g]ilea     
protea1 #cah4   ,geys]s ( ,icel&1 #af1  

#fg4   ,giants' ,causeways1 #di4        
9 ! ,ard*e1 #dh4          ,leg5ds (1    
acc\nt$ =1 #e4   ,gigantology1 #chd4    
,glacial ,action dur+ ,p]mian ,p]iod1   
#agd4          ,deposits ( ,nor!rn      
,engl& & ,wales1 #deg4          ,p]iod1 
#cgb1 #cgh1 #dce4          ,evid5ces (1 
#dfc4          ,regions ( ,europe1 #dea4
          ,!ory ( ,m>t9s1 #dfb4         
,glaci] ,sy/em ( ,wales1 #ajf4          
,sy/ems1 #ddj4   ,glaci]s ( ,scotl&1    
#ded4           ( ,switz]l&1 #ddi4      
( ! ,briti% ,isles1 #deg4   ,glauconie1 
or ,glauconite1 #cjj4   ,glauc\s ,*alk1 
#cjj1 #caj4   ,gl5roy1 ,p>allel ,roads  
(1 #def4   ,globe1 ,modification (      
,surface (1 #bf4   ,glyptodon1 !1 #dja4 
,glyptolepis1 #abj4   ,gneiss ( ,cape   
,wra?1 #cb4         ,laur5tian1 #gd4    
,composition (1 #if4   ,goniatites1     
#abg4   ,goniatites evolutus1 #ade4     
,g\let1 ,great & ,little1 #bii4         
,granite1 #ahb4           ,m9]al        
,composition (1 #cb1 #if4           ,h[ 
,=m$1 #cc4           ( ,/4 ,au/ell1 #ci4

           ( ,*ri/iana1 #cf4           (
 ,d>tmoor1 #gi4           ( ,cornwall & 
,devon1 #cf1 #ch4           ,eruptions  
(1 #ij1 #ib1 #ih4           ,/ratifi$ or
 ,foliat$1 #ig4           ,qualities (1 
#cb4           ,h[ ,=m$1 #cc4           
,ve9s (1 at ,cape ,wra?1 #cb4           
,granitic ,eruptions1 #ib4   ,gran      
,seco1 #daj4   ,graptolites1 #ajg4      
,graves5d ,*alk1 "u ,microscope1 #bgh4  
,great ,animal ( ,mae/ri*t1 #cjd4       
,great ,oolite1 #bdc1 #bej4             
,reptiles (1 #bej4   ,great ,ye>1 !1    
#dcf4   ,gre51 ,a4 ,h41 on ,glacial     
,deposits1 #deh4   ,gre5s&1 ,upp] &     
,l[]1 #bge1 #bha1 #big1 #cji4           
,gre5/one1 #ce4   ,grs ,big>r1 #cg1     
#ahe4   ,grs de ,beau*amp1 #ccc4   ,grs 
des ,vosges1 #agh4   ,grotta del ,cane1 
#fd4   ,grotto des ,demoiselles1 #dcc4  
,grotto ( ,*eeses1 ,trves1 #ej4         
,grypha dilatata1 #bfd4                 
virgula1 #bfi4          incurva1 #bab4  
,gulf ,/ream1 #dce4   ,gymnog5s1 ,plants
 ) ,nak$ ,ov>y1 #aeb4   ,gymnosp]ms1    

#aic1 #bhc1 #cjj4   ,gypse\s ,=mation1  
#ccc4   ,gypsum ,qu>ries ( ,montm>tre1  
,fossils 91 #gc1 #cbe4   ,gyroc]as1     
#ajh4    ,haid+]a speciosa1 #aid4       
,hakea1 #cah4   ,hall/adt ,b$s1 #bje4   
,halysites cat5ul>ius1 #aac4   ,hamites1
 #bhh1 #big4   ,hannibal's ,elephants1  
#chg4   ,h>kness1 ,pr(41 on ,glacial    
,deposits1 #deh4   ,h>le* ,s&/ones1     
#aja4   ,ha/+s ,s&s1 #bhg4   ,hawaii1   
,volcanoes (1 #ei1 #fi4   ,head (       
,cave-be>1 #cih4        ( ,cave-hyna1   
#cii4        ( ,mosasaurus ,camp]i1     
#cjf4        ( ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us1     
#cfj4   ,headon ,b$s1 #ccj1 #ccb4       
,hemicosmites pyri=mis1 #ajh4           
,h5nessey1 on ! ,e>?'s ,cru/1 #hi4      
,hepaticas1 #cae4   ,h]bace\s f]ns1     
#aca4   ,h]bivora1 ,eoc5e1 #cbe4        
,het]oc]cal1 #age4   ,hippopotamus1     
#cfj1 #cgi4   ,hippurites1 #cja1 #caj4  
,holl1 ,dr41 on ,malv]n ,rocks1 #gh4    
,holopty*ius1 #aed4   ,homo diluvii     
te/is1 #cfg4   ,homoc]cal1 #age4        
,hopk9s1 ,evan1 on ,e>?'s ,antiquity1   

#bj4                on  ,t]re/rial      
,magnetism1 #bb4           ,w41 ,!ory ( 
,c5tral ,heat1 #ag4              on !   
,e>?'s ,cru/1 #hh4   ,horse1 #cgi1 #cii1
 #dag4   ,horse-tails1 #acd1 #bjb4      
,hot ,spr+s1 #fd4   ,hughes1 ,t4 ,mc,k41
 ,discov]y ( ,glutton by1 #dca4   ,hull1
 ,pr(41 on ,trias1 #ahe4                
on ,glacial ,deposits1 #deh4   ,human   
,jaw1 #dgb4        ,p]iod1 #dgd4        
,hunt1 ,rob41 ,electric ,exp]im5ts (1   
#gi4        ,pr(4 ,/]ry1 on ,=mation (  
,cry/all9e ,s*i/s1 #if4   ,hutton's     
,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 #c4   ,hyna ,spela1     
#cih1 #dag4                head (1 #cii1
 #dag4   ,hynodon1 #cif4   ,hybodus1    
#bag4   ,hy]a1 ,isl& (1 #gj4            
,hylosaurus1 ,liz>d ( ! ,woods1 #bje1   
#bjg1 #bbe1 #bij4   ,hym5opt]a1 #bbe4   
,icel&1 ,geys]s (1 #af1 #fe1 #fg4       
,lava ,/reams 91 #fj4                   
,volcanoes (1 #fj1 #fg4                 
,i*?yodorulites1 #bag4   ,i*?yosaurus1  
#bah1 #bbi1 #bee1 #bef4   ,i*?yosaurus1 
,coprolites (1 #ab4   ,i*?yosaurus      

communis1 #bah4                         
platydon1 #bai1 #bbb4   ,igne\s ,rocks1 
#ca1 #ahb4   ,iguana1 #bic4             
,iguanodon1 #bib4             ,mantelli1
 #bhe4             ,tee? (1 #bic4       
,illnus ,b>ri5sis1 #aab4   ,inc&esc5ce (
 ! ,globe1 #ag4                ( ! ,sun1
 #ag4   ,indian ,traditions ( ! ,fa!r ( 
! ,ox1 #cdg4   ,inf]ior ,oolite1 #bdi4  
,infra-,lias1 #bji4   ,inject$ ,ve9s (  
,granite1 #cb4   ,insects1 #aeg1 #bbe1  
#ccd4           ( ,coal-measures1 #aea4 
( ,oolites1 #bee1 #bff4   ,iron ,age1   
#dgh4       ,ore 9 ,coal-measures1 #afe4
          9 ,orgonian ,b$s1 #bih4       
,is*adites ,knigii1 #aah4   ,isl&s1     
,sudd5 ,appe>ance (1 #gj4   ,isle (     
,bones1 #chh4          ,l*[1 #chh4      
,portl&1 #bgj4          ,purbeck1 #bga4 
,wight ,alligator1 #cbf4    ,jamieson1  
,t4 ,f41 on ,gl5roy1 #ded4   ,j>r[      
,colli]y1 #aci4   ,java1 ,volcanic      
,m\nta9s (1 #fg1 #fi4        ,valley (  
,poison1 #fd4   ,jaw & ,too? (          
,megalosaurus1 #bia4                 (  

,phascolo!rium1 #bde4                 ( 
,?ylaco!rium1 #bde4   ,jet1 #bgd4       
,jugl&ites elegans1 #bhc4   ,jukes1 ,j4 
,b41 on ,devonian & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1   
#abi4   ,jura ,m\nta9s1 #bdc1 #bgc4     
,jurassic ,lime/one1 #bdc4              
,di/ribution (1 #bgb4                   
,reptiles (1 #bbj4           ,plants (  
!1 #bch4           ,s]ies1 ,di/+ui%+    
,features (1 #bae4    ,kang>oo1 #bde4   
,kea1 ,mauna1 #fa1 #fi4   ,kellaways    
,rock1 #bfd4   ,k5t's ,hole1 #chj1 #dgb4
   ,k5ti% ,rag1 #bhg4   ,keup]1 #aii1   
#bic4          ,rock ,salt 91 #aii1     
#bjd4   ,kilauea1 ,volcano (1 #ef4      
,eruption (1 #fi4           ,crat] (1   
#ef1 #ei4   ,kim]idge ,clay1 #ai1 #bdc1 
#bff1 #bfi4   ,k+1 ,pr(41 on ,p]mian    
,sy/em1 #agd4   ,kirkdale ,cave1 #chj1  
#cih1 #dbi4   ,kjkk5-,mdd51 #dgg4       
,koess5 ,b$s1 #bjh4   ,kupf] ,s*ief]1   
#agj4    ,labradorite1 #dd4             
,labyr9?odon1 #aij4                     
pa*ygna?us1 #ab4   ,labyr9?odon re/or$1 
#aic4   ,la ,c\pe d',ayzac1 ,crat] (1   

#de4   ,lacunosus lac9iatus1 #ahd4      
,lacu/r9e ,habitations1 #dgb4   ,ladies'
 ,f+]s1 #baf4   ,lake ,dwell+s1 #dgb4   
,lamellibran*s1 #bff4   ,l&scape ,/one1 
#bjh4   ,l&-turtles1 #aij4   ,laplace's 
,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 #ag1 #hj4               
,lasmocya?us1 #adf4   ,laur5tian        
,=mation 9 ,brita91 #aj1 #gi4           
,gneiss1 #gd4   ,lava ,=mations1 #ci1   
#ea1 #ei4       ,/reams (1 #ei4         
,lecoq1 on ,triassic ,vegetation1 #aid4 
,keup] ,flora1 #bjb4                    
,cretace\s ,flora1 #bhb4                
,t]ti>y ,flora1 #caf4            ,flora 
( ,mioc5e ,p]iod1 #ccf4            !    
,vegetation ( ,plioc5e ,p]iod1 #ceg4    
,leibnitz' ,fossil ,unicorn1 #chf4      
,lepidod5dra1 #acd1 #ach1 #aeg1 #agc4   
,lepidod5dron c>9atum1 #acd1 #ach4      
elegans1 #adj4                ,/]nb]gii1
 #aci1 #ada4                ,/]nb]gii   
re/or$1 #adb4   ,lepidopt]a1 #bee4      
,lepido/robus v>iabilis1 #adj4          
,lepidotus1 #bff1 #bgb4                 
gigas1 #bag4   ,leptna ,mur*isoni1 #abg4

   ,le ,puy1 ,*a9 (1 #ea4   ,lias1 ,!1  
#baa2       ,l[]1 ,upp]1 & ,middle1     
#bab4   ,liassic ,p]iod1 #baa1 #bag4    
,fauna1 #bac4          ,flora1 #bci4    
,libellula1 #bdc4   ,licorn ,fossil1    
#chf4   ,life1 ,fir/ ,appe>ance (1 #ii4 
,abundance (1 9 ,upp] ,silurian ,times1 
#ajd4   ,lignite1 #ccg1 #ced4   ,lima   
gigantea1 #bab4       /riata1 #ahi4     
proboseilea1 #bdf4   ,lime/one1 #bab4   
( ,la ,beauce1 #cee4             (      
,sol5h(51 #bdc1 #bgc4                   
,metamorphism (1 #gc1 #ge4   ,limna1    
#bgb1 #ccd4   ,l+ula1 #ajg4             
,cr$n]i1 #age4           ,flags1 #aja1  
#ajg4   ,lions ) ,curly ,manes1 #ahd4   
,lip>i ,isles1 #ee1 #fh4   ,li?ographic 
,lime/one ( ,sol5h(51 #cdc4             
,li?o/rotion1 #aha4                     
basalti=me1 #ade4   ,lituites           
cornu-arietis1 #ajh4   ,liz>d ( !       
,meuse1 #cje4   ,llanb]is ,slates1 #aja4
   ,ll&eilo ,flags1 #aji4   ,ll&ov]y    
,rocks1 #ajg4   ,loa1 ,mauna1 #ee4      
,loc>no1 ,fissures (1 #eg1 #eh4         

,logan1 ,sir ,w41 on ,laur5tian ,gneiss 
( ,canada1 #aj1 #gd4   ,logan1 ,sir ,w41
 on ,und]clay ( ,coal ,measures1 #afa4  
,lomatophloyos crassicaule1 #acd1 #ach4 
,lon*opt]is ,bricii1 #acd1 #add4        
,london ,clay1 ,flora (1 #cca4          
,longmynd ,hills1 #aja4   ,lonsdalea    
flori=mis1 #ade4   ,lophiodon1 #cbe1    
#ccc4   ,l[] ,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #bhf1   
#big4        ,keup] ,s&/one1 #ahf1 #bjd4
        ,neocomian1 #big4        ,lias1 
#bab4        ,silurian ,rocks1 #ajd4    
,oolite ,fauna1 #bdd4        ,oolite    
,rocks1 #bdi4        ,gre5s&1 #bha1     
#bhg4   ,luc]ne1 ,! ,giant (1 #che4     
,ludl[ ,bone-b$s1 #aab4         ,rocks1 
#aaa4   ,lupea pelagica1 #ced4          
,lycopodiace1 #acd1 #aea4   ,lycopods1  
#abc1 #acd4   ,lyell1 ,sir ,*>les1 on   
,=mation ( ,granite1 #cc1 #cf4   ,lyell1
 ,sir ,*>les1 on ! ,upp] ,cretace\s     
,flora1 #cjj4   ,lyme ,regis1 #bai1     
#bbe4    ,ma*airodus1 #cgi4             
,too? (1 #chj4   ,macrorhyn*us1 #bfe1   
#bgb4   ,madrepores1 #bff4   ,mae/ri*t  

,qu>ries1 #bhe4             ,animal (1  
#cjb4             ,b$s1 #cjc1 #cjd1     
#cji4   ,magnesian ,lime/one1 #agj1     
#agh4   ,magnetism1 ,t]re/rial1 ,evan   
,hopk9s on1 #bb4   ,malv]n ,hills1 ,dr4 
,holl on1 #gh4   ,mammals1 ,fir/        
,appe>ance (1 #bjg1 #bdd4           (   
,plioc5e ,p]iod1 #ceh4   ,mammalif]\s   
,crag1 #cgb4   ,mammif]\s ,didelph1     
#bde4   ,mammo?1 #cdg4           (      
,ohio1 #cdg4           ( ! ,un/rut1     
#chf4           ,orig9 ( ,"n1 #chh4     
,sib]ian ,acc\nts (1 #chg-cie4          
re/or$1 #cie4           ,skeleton ( !1  
#chc1 #cid4           ,tee? & ,tusks (1 
#cdb4           ,too? ( !1 #chd4   ,man 
& ,animals ,comp>$1 #dfe4      ,fir/    
,appe>ance (1 #chb4      ,antiquity (1  
consid]$1 #dgh4      ,age ( ,/4 ,a*eul  
,b$s1 #dgi4      ,morlot's ,calculation1
 #dgi4   ,mantell's1 ,dr41 ,discov]ies1 
#bij4   ,m>ble1 #gd4          ,c>r>a1   
#gc1 #gf4          ,cipol9e1 #gf4       
( ,france1 #gf4   ,m>bre de ,fl&res &   
,m4 de petit ,granit1 #aej4             

,m>e's-tail1 #acd4   ,m>l1 #aii4        
,m>l-slate1 #afj4   ,m>l/one ( ! ,lias1 
#bab4   ,m>supial ,mammals1 #bjg1 #bde1 
#bej1 #bfc4   ,m>t9s1 ,c41 on ,glaci]s1 
#dfb4   ,ma/odon1 #cda1 #cef1 #cfj4     
its ,discov]y1 #cdb4            ,op9ions
 ( ,naturali/s1 #cdc4                   
,diff]5ce f ,mammo?1 #cda4              
,mol> ,too? (1 #cdf4                    
,arv]n5sis1 #cgb4            angu/id5s1 
#cdg4            re/or$1 #cde4          
,skeleton (1 #cdd4            ,skeleton 
( ! ,tur91 #cei4            ,tee? (1    
#cda1 #cdb4   ,mauna ,loa & ,mauna ,kea1
 #ef1 #fi4   ,mazuy]'s ,pret5d$         
,discov]y1 #cdh4   ,me&r9a ,ddala1 #bea4
   ,me*anical ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 #ae4      
,megac]os ,hib]nicus1 #ahd1 #djj4       
,megalonyx1 #cga1 #chb1 #djj1 #daa4     
,megalosaurus1 #bia4               ,jaw 
(1 #bia4               ,too? (1 #bia1   
#chj4   ,megali*?ys1 #aed4   ,mega!rium1
 #chb1 #dja1 #dah4               ,pelvis
 (1 #djg4               ,re/or$1 #dji4  
,skeleton (1 #djc4                      

=e%ort5$1 #djf4   ,mega!roid ,animals1  
,habits (1 #dac4   ,m5dip ,hills1       
,d5udation (1 #bh4   ,mesopi!cus1 #cci1 
#cej4                re/or$1 #cdi4      
,skeleton (1 #cdi4   ,metallic ve9s1    
#ia4   ,metamorphic ,rocks1 #d1 #ga4    
,metamorphism1 ,special & ,g5]al1 #fe1  
#ga1 #gd4                ,action (1 on  
,lime/one1 #ga1 #gb1 #ge4               
( ,combu/ible ,mat]ials1 #ad1 #gb4      
( ,argillace\s ,b$s1 #gc4               
,cause (1 #gh4   ,meudon ,*alk "u       
,microscope1 #bgg4   ,mexican ,deluge1  
#dhe4   ,mez51 ,le1 ,peak (1 #dd4       
,mica1 ,composition (1 #if4             
,mica-s*i/1 #gg1 #cgg4   ,microdon1     
#bff4   ,microle/es1 #bjg4              
,discov]y ( tee? ( by ,mr4 ,c4 ,moore1  
#bjh4   ,middle ,lias1 #bab4            
,oolite1 #bee4   ,miliola1 #cbi4        
,millepora alcicornis1 #bdj4   ,mill]1  
,hugh1 ,h[ he became a ,geologi/1 #aj4  
,fir/ ,lesson 9 ,geology1 #abd4         
,milliolites1 #ccc4   ,mimosa1 #cah4    
,m9]al ,masses compos+ ! ,e>?'s ,cru/1  

#bg4   ,m9es1 ,greate/ ,dep?s (1 #hh4   
,mioc5e1 ,mean+ (1 #cad4   ,mioc5e      
,p]iod1 #ccf4          ,vegetation1     
#ccf1 #cci1 #cec1 #cha4          ,fauna1
 #cci1 #cej4          ,volcanoes (1 #ea4
          ,=am9if]a1 #cef4              
,rocks ( ,greece1 #cci4   ,moel ,tryfa51
 #dei4   ,mol> ,tee? ( ,ma/odon1 #cdf4  
,molasse1 or ,s(t ,clay1 #cch1 #cee4    
,mollusca1 #bde4            ( ,plioc5e1 
#cga4            ( ,eoc5e1 #cai4        
( ,mioc5e1 #cej4            ( ,crag1    
#cgc4            ,ga/]opod\s1 #bff4     
,monitor ,niloticus1 #cje4              
,monocotyl$ons1 #aea1 #bff4             
,montm>tre1 ,gypse\s ,s]ies (1 #ccc4    
,cuvi] on ,fossils (1 #g4   ,mont ,dore1
 #dj1 #dc4   ,mora9es1 #ddd4   ,moro1   
,lazz>o1 #f4   ,mortillet on ,glaci]s1  
#ddi4   ,mosaic ,acc\nt ( ,creation1    
#bd4   ,mosasaurus1 #bhe1 #cjb1 #cje4   
,camp]i1 #cjf4   ,mosses1 #ccf4         
,m\l9-,quignon1 ,*alk ,b$s (1 #dgf4     
,m\nt ,ar>at1 #dhj4         ,hecla1 #fg4
         ,idi5ne1 #fd4         ,sion1   

#ddi4   ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 #adi4        
,m\nta9s1 ,fir/ ,appe>ance (1 #ij4      
,*a9s1 ,=mation (1 #bh4   ,mud          
,volcanoes1 #ei4                 (      
,italy1 #fj1 #fc4   ,mur*ison1 ,sir ,r4 
,i41 ,f\nd] ( ,silurian ,sy/em1 #aj1    
#ajb4   ,murex ,turon5sis1 #cej4        
,mus*elkalk1 #ahe1 #ahh4   ,mussels1    
#ahi4   ,mylodon1 #chb1 #djj1 #daj1     
#dac1 #dah4           ,l[] ,jaw (1 #dab4
           re/or$1 #daa4   ,mytilus1    
#ahi4    ,nab5/e91 ,cav]n (1 #dcb4      
,nadace1 #bff4   ,nantwi* ,salt-works1  
#bjd4   ,nasal ,horn ( ,iguanodon1 #bib4
   ,natica1 #ahi4   ,nautilus1 #bae4    
,nebul> ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 #ae4   ,n5uph>1 
#caf4   ,neocomian ,b$s1 #bhg1 #big4    
( ,france1 #bhf1 #bhg4                  
,=mation1 #bhf4            ,fauna (1    
#bhg4   ,neptunian ,rocks1 #cj4         
,!ory1 #f4   ,n]eites ,cambri5sis1 #ajh4
   ,neuropt]a1 #bej4   ,neuropt]is      
elegans1 #aid4              gigantea1   
#adc1 #agf4   ,new ,r$ ,m>l1 #ahf4      
,p]iod1 #ahe4         ,s&/one1 #ahe1    

#ahg4         ,plants (1 #aic4          
,col\r (1 #bja4         ,fauna (1 #bja4 
,new ,zeal&1 ,birds (1 #ahd4   ,new]    
,plioc5e1 #cgb4                 ( ,alps1
 #cgg4                 ( ,sicily1 #cgd4 
,nicol1 ,pr(41 on ,b5 ,nevis1 #ij4      
,nilssonia1 #aid1 #bci4   ,ngg]a?ia1    
#agg4   ,norfolk ,=e/ ,b$1 #cgb4        
,nor!rn ,deluge1 #dbd4   ,norwi* ,crag1 
#cgb1 #dgh4   ,no?osaurus1 #aij1 #aif4  
,nummulites1 #cac1 #cbf1 #ccc4          
,nummulitic ,=mation1 #ccd4             
,lime/one1 #cbf4   ,nympheace1 #cae4    
,odontaspis1 #bid4   ,odontopt]is       
,br>dii1 #add4                ,cycades1 
#bab4   *modus ,bu*ii1 #bag4   n+5      
,=mation1 #cch4          ,lime/one1     
#cfg4   ,ogygia ,guett>di1 #ajg4   ,old 
,r$ ,s&/one1 #aai4         ,col\r (1    
#abj4         ,p]iod1 ,vegetation (1    
#abj4         ,fi%es (1 #abd4           
,rocks (1 #abh4         ,conglom]ate (1 
#abi4   ,old] ,plioc5e1 #cgb4           
,oldhamia1 #aja4   ,oldhav5 ,b$s1 #cca4 
,oliv9e1 #dd4   ,oolite1 #bdc1 #bgb4    

( ,sol5h(51 #bgc4          ,upp]1 #bdc4 
,l[]1 #bdc1 #bdd4          ,middle1     
#bdc4          ,great1 #bdc4            
,conif]s (1 #bdi4          ,rocks1 #bdi4
   ,oolitic ,fauna1 #bdd4               
,mollusca1 #bdf4          ,e*9od]ms1    
#bdg4          ,insects1 #bee1 #bff4    
,p]iod1 #bdc4          ,flora (1 #bdh1  
#bdi1 #bee1 #bff4          ,mammals (1  
#bee4          ,reptiles (1 #bef4       
,corals (1 #bdg4          ,zoophytes (1 
#bdg4   ,ophiopsis1 #bdf4   ,opossum1   
#bde4   ,orgon ,lime/one1 #big1 #bih1   
#bii4   ,orni?orhyn*us1 #bbc1 #bde4     
,or?oc]as1 #ada4                        
,disappe>ance (1 #bje4                  
lat]ale1 #ade4   ,or?oc]atites1 #ajd4   
,or?oclase1 #cc1 #if1 #dah4             
,or?opi!cus1 #dah4   ,osm]oides         
,mantelli1 #bid4   ,ossif]\s ,b$s (     
,sansan1 #cej4             ,breccia1 #b1
 #dcb4   ,o/rea deltoidea1 #bfi4        
di/orta1 #bgb4         liassica1 #bjg1  
#bab4         longiro/ris1 #cej4        
,m>%ii1 #bdf4         virgula1 #bfi4    

,otopt]is acum9ata1 #bdh4               
dubia1 #bdh4             obtusa1 #bdh4  
cuneata1 #bdh4   ,ovid a geologi/1 #f4  
,ow51 ,pr(41 on ,mega!roid ,animals1    
#dac4               on ,plesiosaurus1   
#bbh4   ,ox1 #chb1 #cii4   ,ox=d ,clay1 
#bdc1 #bfd4   ,oy/]s1 #age1 #bac4       
,pa*yd]ms1 #cab1 #cai1 #dah4            
,pa*ypt]is microphylla1 #bee4           
,palocoma ,fur/emb]gii1 #bac4           
,paloniscus1 #age4   ,palontology1 !    
,/udy ( ,anci5t ,life1 #e4              
,palontology ,def9$1 #ad4   ,palophognos
 ,gesn]i1 #dba4   ,palo!rium1 #cai4     
magnum & ,p4 m9imum1 ,skeletons (1 #cbb4
                ,skull (1 #cba4         
,paloxyris ,mn/]i1 #bjb4   ,palozoic    
,fi%es1 #agc4   ,palissy1 ,b]n>d1 on    
,fossils1 #e4   ,pallas on ! ,sib]ian   
,rh9oc]os1 #cfa4         on ! ,sib]ian  
,mammo?1 #chf4   ,palmacites1 #cae4     
,palms1 #bhb4         abs5ce (1 9       
,plioc5e ,p]iod1   #ceh4         (      
,t]ti>y ,epo*1 #ccf4         (          
,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #bhc1 #big4          

,fossil1 re/or$1 #bhd4   ,palud9a1 #bgb4
   ,pampean ,=mation1 #daa4   ,p&anace1 
,!1 #bdi4   ,p&anus1 #bee4   ,papp5heim1
 ,li?ographic ,/one (1   #bgc4          
,p>adoxides ,bohemicus1 #ajj4   ,p>allel
 ,roads ( ,gl5roy1 #def4   ,p>ian       
,m>ble1 #gf4   ,p>is ,bas91 ,sir ,c4    
,lyell on1 #cbi4   ,p>kfield ,colli]y1  
#aei4   ,patella vulgata1 #bje4   ,peaks
 ( ! ,cantal ,*a91 #dj4   ,pe>          
,encr9ite1 #bej4   ,peat-deposits &     
,%ell-m\nds1 #dgb4   ,pecopt]is1 #abj1  
#bjb1 #beb1 #cae4                       
lon*itica1 #adc4   ,pect51 #bja1 #bgb4  
,jacobu1 #cga4          orbicul>is1     
#bjb4          ,valoni5sis1 #bjg4       
,p5>? ,b$s1 #ahf1 #bje1 #bjg4   ,p5n9e  
,*a91 #aae4   ,p5tacr9ites ,bri>eus1    
#ahc1 #bad4   ,p]*$ ,blocks1 #ddi4      
,p]mian ,flora1 #agd4          ,rocks1  
#agg1 #ahf4          ,ocean1 #ahj4      
,p]iod1 #ae1 #agj4          ,fauna &    
,flora (1 #ahc4   ,p]na ,mulleti1 #bhh4 
,phascolo!rium1 #bde1 #bee4             
,philadelphia ,museum1 #cdf4            

,phillips1 ,pr(4 ,j41 on ,rate (        
,=mation ( ,coal1 #acb4   ,phillips1    
,pr(4 ,j41 on ,?ickness ( ,c>bonif]\s   
,lime/one1 #acj4   ,phonolite1 #dc4     
,physa font9alis1 #bff4   ,phytosaurus1 
#aij4   ,pic de ,sancy1 #da1 #dc4       
,pimp9ellites zizioides1 #ccg4          
,p9ites1 #bci4   ,pisolitic ,lime/one1  
#caa4   ,pi!cus antiquus1 #cci1 #cej1   
#cef4   ,placodus gigas1 #ahi4          
,planorbis1 #bff1 #bgb1 #ccd4           
corneus1 #dhh4   ,plants1 ,fir/         
,appe>ance (1 #ii4          ( ,devonian 
,p]iod1 #abc4          ( ! ,palozoic    
,epo*1 #aad4   ,pla/ic ,clay1 #ccj4     
,platemys1 #bee4   ,platycr9us1 #adf4   
,platysomus1 #agd4   ,plei/oc5e ,p]iod1 
#cgh4   ,plesiosaurus1 #bba1 #bbf1 #bee4
                ,cramptoni1 #bcj4       
,/]num (1 #bbh4                ,skull (1
 #bbf4                ,skeleton (1 #bbi4
   ,pleuronectes1 #cbf4   ,pleurotoma   
,babylonia1 #bdf4   ,pleurotom>ia       
conoidea1 #bdf4   ,plioc5e1 ,mean+ (1   
#cad4            ,p]iod1 #ceg4          

,birds (1 #cfi4            ,s]ies1 #cgb4
            ,vegetation (1 #ceg4        
,fauna (1 #cei1 #cfi4                   
,reptiles (1 #cfg4            ,mollusca 
(1 #cga4   ,plombires1 ,alkal9e ,wat]s  
(1 #fd4   ,plutonic ,rocks1 #ca4        
,!ory1 #f4           ,eruptions1 #ca4   
,anci5t ,granite1 #ca4   ,podoph?almus  
vigil1 #cec4   ,pcilopleuron1 #bfe4     
,poikilitic ,s]ies1 #aii4   ,polyphemus1
 ,suppos$ ,bones (1 #chd4   ,polypodium1
 #cae4   ,polyps ( ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod1  
#ada1 #bdf1 #bee1 #bhf1 #cja4           
,polyzoa1 #ada1 #adc1 #age1 #cjg4       
,pontgibaud ,m9es1 #fd4   ,porphyritic  
,granite1 #cc4   ,porphyry1 #cc1 #cg4   
,def9ition (1 #cg4            ,compon5ts
 (1 #cg4   ,portl& ,isle1 #bgj4         
,dirt ,b$1 #bga4           ,s&1 #bdc1   
#bff4           ,/one1 #bdc1 #bfi4      
,posidonia1 #ahi4   ,po/-plioc5e ,p]iod1
 #cgh4                ,animals ( !1     
#chb4                ,birds ( !1 #dag4  
,c>nivora (1 #dag4                      
,deposits 9 ,brita91 #dag4              

,po/-,t]ti>y ,epo*1 #cgh4               
,potamogeton1 #cae4   ,pravolta1 #ddg4  
,pre-glacial deposits1 #dah4            
,preissl]ia antiqua1 #bjb4   ,pre/wi*1  
,j41 on ,glacial ,deposits1 #dei4       
,,prim>y ,,epo*1 #ii4                   
,retrospective ,glance at1 #ahj4        
,vegetation (1 #ahb4   ,proboscideans ( 
,crag1 #cgb4   ,producta1 #agc1 #age4   
horrida1 #adi4   ,producta ,m>t9i1 #ade1
 #bje4            subaculeata1 #abg4    
,protog9e1 #ce4   ,protopt]is1 #bhc4    
,psammodus1 #ada4   ,ps>onius1 #agd4    
,psilophyton1 #abc4   ,pt]aspis1 #abi4  
,pt]i*?ys1 #abe4   ,pt]oc]as1 #bfi4     
,pt]odactyles1 #bba1 #bcc1 #bdj1 #bdc1  
#bde4                 breviro/ris1 #bce4
                 crassiro/ris1 #bcd1    
#bef4   ,pt]ophyllum1 #bci1 #bdi1 #bee4 
,jg]i1 #bjb4                ,mn/]i1     
#bjb4   ,pt]ygotus1 #aaj4               
bilobatus1 #aac4   ,ptylopora1 #adf4    
,purbeck ,b$s1 #bfi1 #bga1 #bgi4        
,m>ble1 #bgb4          ,isle (1 #bga4   
,puy-de-,dme1 #dj1 #dc4   ,puy-de-,dme1 

,ext9ct ,volcanoes (1 #ec4   ,puys1 ,*a9
 (1 9 ,c5tral ,france1 #ea4   ,pycnodus1
 #aij4   ,pygopt]us1 #agd4              
,quad]s&/e91 #baa4   ,,quat]n>y ,,epo*1 
#cgh4                   ,animals (1     
#chb4   ,qu>tz1 #if4   ,qu>tzif]\s      
,porphyry1 #cc4   ,qu>tzite1 #gg4       
,ra91 ,fir/ ,fall (1 #ie4   ,ra9drops1  
,impressions (1 9 ,rocks1 #ad1 #ajb1    
#agc4   ,rais$ ,bea*es1 #dhh4           
,ramphoryn*us1 #bee1 #bei1 #bfi4        
,ramsay1 ,a4 ,c41 on ! ,l[] ,oolite1    
#beb4                on ,=mation (      
,keup] ,m>ls1 #bja4                on   
,col\r ( ,r$ ,rocks1 #aja4              
on ,d5udation1 #bh4                on   
,=mation ( ,granite1 #cc4               
on ,glacial ,deposits1 #deh4   ,read+   
,b$s1 #ccj4   ,rec5t or ,hi/orical      
,p]iod1 #cgh4   ,re-con/ruction (       
,fossil ,animals f a ,"p1 #g4           
,difficulties ,att5dant on1 #h4   ,r$   
,crag1 #cgb4   ,re9de]1 #cgi4           
,relative ,volume ( ! ,e>?1 #hc4        
,rema9s ( ,plesiosaurus macrocephalus1  

#bbi4   ,reptiles1 ,preval5ce ( dur+    
,second>y ,epo*1 #bja1 #bbj4            
dur+ ,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #bhe4           
dur+ ! ,plioc5e ,p]iod1 #ceh1 #cff4     
,rhtic ,/rata1 #ahj1 #bje1 #bfg4        
,rh9oc]os1 #cfj4              ,discov]y 
(1 ,entire1 9 ,sib]ia1 #cfa1 #cgi4      
,head (1 #cfj4              ti*orh9us1  
#cfj1 #dbh4   ,rhombus m9imus1 #cbf4    
,rhyn*olites1 #aha4   ,rio ,*apura1     
,humidity (1 #ccg4   ,ripple-m>ks1 #ae4 
on ,s&/one1 #agc1 #bjd1 #beb4   ,riv]1  
,great1 ( ,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #bgi4      
,roc1 #cfa4   ,ro*es m\tonnes1 #ddc1    
#ddg4   ,rock1 9 ,geology1 #bh4   ,rocks
 compos+ ! ,e>?'s ,cru/1 #bg4        =m$
 dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one ,p]iod1   
#adi4        ,cry/all9e1 #bh4   ,rock   
,salt1 its ,orig91 #aii4                
,quantity produc$ 9 ,engl&1 #cjd4       
,rock+ ,/ones1 #ce4   ,rosso ,antico1   
#cg4   ,ro/ell>ia1 #ahi4   ,ro?lieg5de1 
#agj1 #agd4   ,rudi/es1 #cja4   ,runn ( 
,cut*1 #bjj4    ,sables ,infrieurs1     
#cca4         ,moy5s1 #ccc4   ,sac*>oid 

,lime/one1 ,m9]als (1 #gf4   ,/4 ,a*eul 
,gravel ,b$s1 #dgf4   ,/4 ,a*eul ,gravel
 ,b$s1 probable ,age (1 #dgi4   ,/4     
,au/ell1 ,granite (1 #ci4   ,/4 ,cassian
 ,b$s1 #bje4   ,/4 ,*ri/oph]'s ,too?1   
#che4   ,salam&] ( n+51 #cfg4           
,salicites1 #bhc4   ,salif]\s or ,keup] 
,p]iod1 #ahf1 #aii4                     
,fauna (1 #bja4   ,sal9e ,spr+s1 #bc4   
,salses1 #fj4   ,salt ,m9es1 #aii1 #bjd4
   ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 ,volcanoes (1 #ef1    
#fi4   ,s>gassites1 #cji4   ,s>gassum1  
#cji4   ,saurians1 #ahg4            (   
,cretace\s ,p]iod1 #bhe4            (   
,lias1 #bbi4   ,savoy ,alps1 #ddj4      
,sc&9avian ,cont95t1 ,upheaval &        
,depression (1 #bhb4   ,scaphites1 #bhh4
   ,scelido!rium1 #djf1 #dab4           
,skull (1 #dac4   ,s*eu*z]'s ,salam&]1  
#cfg4   ,s*i/1 #gg1 #ig4   ,s*i/opleuron
 typus1 #dja4                           
re/or$1 #djb4   ,s*iza/]1 #cbf4         
,scori1 ,volcanic1 #eg4   ,sea-,p51     
,virgul>ia ,patagonia1 #bfc4   ,sea     
,ur*9s1 #bje1 #bhf4   ,,second>y ,,epo*1

 #ahe4   ,section ( a ,volcano 9        
,action1 #eb4   ,sectional ,appe>ance ( 
! ,e>?1 #b4   ,s$gwick1 ,pr(4 ,a41 on   
,cambrian ,rocks1 #aj4                  
on ,granite ( ,devon & ,cornwall1 #ci4  
on ,classification ( ,rocks1 #ajb4      
,s$im5t>y ,rocks1 #bh4   ,s5onian ,b$s1 
#cji1 #caj4   ,sept>ia1 #cca4           
,s]p5t9e1 #ch4   ,s]p5ts ( ,t]ti>y      
,epo*1 #cgi4   ,s]pul1 #abf1 #bgb4      
,%ell ,m\nds1 #dgh4   ,%ells1 ,m>9e1 on 
,tops ( ,m\nta9s1 #e4   ,%eppey1 ,isle  
(1 #cca4                   ,turtles (1  
#cca4   ,sib]ia1 ,fossil ,elephants 91  
#chg4   ,sigill>ia1 #acj1 #acf1 #aeb1   
#aeg4              lavigata1 #ach4      
r5i=mis1 #aeg4   ,silex meuli]1 #cef4   
,silice\s ,lime/one1 #ccc4   ,silurian  
,p]iod1 #ajb4           ,divisions (1   
#aji1 #aaj4           ,*>act]i/ics (1   
#ajc4           ,fauna & ,flora (1 #ajd4
           ,fi%es (1 #ajg4              
,mollusca (1 #ajh4           ,plants (1 
#ajc4           ,sy/em1 #ajb4           
,siva!rium1 #cfe4               re/or$1 

#cff4   ,skaptr ,jokul1 #fj4   ,skeleton
 ( ,i*?yosaurus1 #bah4           (      
,plesiosaurus1 #bbg4   ,skull (         
,plesiosaurus1 #bbf4                    
,palo!rium magnum1 #cba4                
,scelido!rium1 #dac4   ,skye1 ,basalt ( 
,isle (1 #di4   ,smi?1 ,dr4 ,w41 ,lab\rs
 (1 #i4   ,smilax1 #bjb4   ,sol5h(51    
,lime/one (1 #bgc4   ,solfat>as1 #fc4   
,somma1 ,m\nt1 #fh4   ,somme1 ,riv]1    
,valley (1 #dge4         ,peat-,b$s ( !1
 #dge4   ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,depression &    
,upheaval (1 #ba4   ,spalaco!rium1 #bfe4
   ,sph5ophyllum1 #aed1 #bfi4           
re/or$1 #aec4   ,sph5ophyllites1 #acf4  
,sph5opt]is1 #acf4                      
artemisifolia1 #add4   ,spirif]a1 #agc1 
#age4             conc5trica1 #abg4     
undulata1 #age4   ,sphrodus1 #aij4      
,/affa1 ,grotto (1 #ej4   ,/ag1 gigantic
 ,=e/1 #cgi4   ,/alactite1 #dcj4        
,/alagmite1 #dcj4   ,/ellispongia       
v>iabilis1 #bje4   ,/5osaurus1 #bfe4    
,/]num & ,pelvis ( ,plesiosaurus1 #bbh4 
,/igm>ia1 #acj1 #acg1 #aeg1 #afb4       

,/igm>ia1 #ach4   ,/one ,age1 ,!1 #dgh4 
,/one ,lilies1 #abg4   ,/onesfield      
,slate1 #bdc1 #bde1 #bej1 #beb4         
,/rata1 ,disposition (1 #b4             
,/ratification1 ,ord] (1 #bi4           
( ,coal ,b$s1 #afe4   ,/rephodus1 #bff4 
,/reptospondylus1 #bfe4   ,/r+ocephalus 
,burt9i1 #abg4   ,/romboli1 ,volcanic   
,isl& (1 #ee1 #fh4   ,/rophalosia       
,morrisiana1 #agf4   ,/ru?ionid1 #aic4  
,subm>9e ,volcanoes1 #gj4   ,sub-,ap5n9e
 ,/rata1 #cgc4   ,suffolk ,crag1 #cgb4  
,sulphur\s ,/reams f ,m\nt ,idi5ne1 #fd4
   ,sun-cracks1 #ajb1 #agc4   ,sy5ite1  
#cd4    ,tniopt]is1 #cae4   ,taxoc]as1  
#bhi4   ,taxodites1 #bci4               
,mn/]ianus1 #bjb4   ,tee? ( ,mammo?1    
#chd4   ,tee? ( ,iguanodon1 #bic4       
,ma/odon1 #cdf4                         
,megalosaurus1 #bia1 #chj4              
,ma*airodus1 #chj4   ,teleosaurus1 #bde1
 #bef1 #bei4               cadom5sis1   
#bei4   ,temp]ature ( ! ,e>?1 ,increase 
( z we desc5d1 #b1 #af1 #hg4            
at ,v>i\s ,dep?s1 #af4                  

( ,deep ,m9es1 #af1 #hh4                
at ! ,c5tre1 #af4              (        
,planet>y ,regions1 #hf4                
uni=m1 9 ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod1 #acc4      
,gradual ,alt]ation (1 dur+ ,t]ti>y     
,p]iod1 #cac4              ( ,cretace\s 
,p]iod1 #bhc4   ,t]ebell>ia ramosissima1
 #ahd4   ,t]ebratula digona1 #bdf4      
decussata1 #beb4               ha/ata1  
#ada4               de=mis1 #bij4       
subsella1 #bff4   ,t]ebriro/ra lyra1    
#bij4   ,t]re/rial ,plants ( ,devonian  
,p]iod1 #abj4   ,t]ti>y ,p]iod1 #cab4   
,vegetation (1 #cac4                    
,animals (1 #cab4   ,tetragonolepis1    
#bag4   ,teutoboc*us ,rex1 #cdh4        
,?allog5s1 #abc4   ,?anet ,b$s1 #ccj4   
,!oretical ,view ( a ,plateau1 #dg4     
,!ories ( ! ,e>?1 #ae4   ,!ory1         
,hutton's1 #c4          ,laplace's1 #ag4
   ,!rmal ,spr+s1 #bc4   ,?ickness ( !  
,e>?'s ,cru/1 #hi4   ,?omson1 ,sir      
,william1 on ! ,e>?'s ,cru/1 #hi4       
,?ylaco!rium1 #bde4   ,tidal ,wave1 #bb4
   ,tile ,/ones1 #aaj4   ,till ,=mation1

 #deg4   ,tortoises1 #dja4   ,toxoc]as1 
#bhi4   ,toxodon1 #dab4   ,tra*yte1 #ci4
   ,tra*ytic ,=mations1 #ci4   ,trail1  
#dfa4   ,transition1 or ,prim>y ,epo*1  
#ii4   ,transport$ ,blocks1 #ddi4       
,rocks1 #bg4   ,trapa natans1 #cae4     
,trappean ,grotto1 ,/affa1 #dg4         
,trav]t91 #ccc4   ,tree ,f]ns1 #agd1    
#bdj4   ,tremadoc ,slates1 #aji4        
,treuil1 ,coal ,m9e at1 #afj4           
,triassic ,p]iod1 #ahe4                 
,flora1 #ahg1 #aic1 #bjb4   ,trigonia1  
#ab1 #bje4            m>g>itacea1 #cad4 
,trigonoc>pum ,ngg]a?ii1 #agg4          
,trilobites1 #ajd1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #abf1    
#ada1 #aha4   ,trimm]1 ,jo%ua1 on ,moel 
,tryfa51 #dei4   ,tr9ucleus ,lloydii1   
#abi4   ,trionyx ( ,t]ti>y ,p]iod1 #cbf4
   ,trionyx1 a ,turtle1 #cai1 #cbf1     
#cbi4   ,tropical ,vegetation1          
,d',orbigny on1 #ccg4   ,trunk (        
,calamites1 #acf4            ,sigill>ia1
 #acf4   ,tunbridge ,wells ,s&1 #bhf4   
,turbaco1 ,mud ,volcanoes (1 #fa4       
,turonian ,s]ies1 #cji1 #caj4           

,turrilites1 #bhi4                      
communis1 #bij4              co/atus1   
#bhi4   ,turritella t]ebra1 #bhi4       
,turtle1 #ahg1 #bcg1 #bgb1 #cai1 #cbf1  
#cbi1 #cca1 #cef4   ,tyndall's1         
,pr(essor1 ,!ory ( ,heat1 #bd4          
,uncites ,gryphus1 #abg4   ,"u ,clay1   
#afa4   ,unicornu ,fossile1 #chf4       
,unio1 #bff4   ,upp] ,cretace\s1        
#cjj-cjf4        ,gre5s&1 #cjj1 #cji4   
,oolite1 #bfe4        ,lias1 #bab1 #bgc4
        ,lias ,clay1 #bab4              
,silurian ,p]iod1 #aaj4   ,ursus spelu1 
#ahd1 #cie1 #dag4                 ,head 
(1 #ahd4    ,vale ( ,w>d\r1 #bfi4       
,valley ( ,poison1 #fd4   ,vallisn]i on 
,m>9e ,deposits ( ,italy1 #f4           
,v>iegat$ ,s&/one1 #ahg4   ,ve9s (      
,granite trav]s+ ,gneiss ( ,cape ,wra?1 
#cb4   ,velay1 ,*a9 ( !1 #dc4           
,v]tebrata1 ,fir/ ,appe>ance (1 #ajg4   
,vesp]tilio ,p>isi5sis1 #cbf4           
,vesuvius1 #ef1 #fh4            ,exi/+  
,crat] (1 #ef4   ,virgul>ia1 #bfc4      
,viv>ais1 ,valley (1 #dg4   ,volcanic   

,bombs1 #ei4           ,a%es1 #eh4      
,scori1 #eg4           ,eruptions1 #eg4 
,=mations1 #ea4           ,isl&s1 #ee4  
,rocks1 #ca1 #ci4   ,volcano 9 ,action1 
#eb4   ,volcanoes1 #ea4                 
,action (1 #eg1 #fc4                    
,active1 #ee1 #fg4             ,mud1    
#fj1 #fc4             ,ext9ct1 #fc4     
,s&wi* ,isl&s1 #ef4             ,wat]y1 
#bc1 #ei4   ,voltaire & ,buffon1 #f4    
,voltzia het]ophylla1 #aid4   ,voltzia  
re/or$1 #aie4   ,vosges ,m\nta9s1 #ge4  
,subm]g5ce ( 9 ,p]mian ,p]iod1 #ahj4    
,wadhur/ ,clay1 #bhf4   ,wal*ia1 #agg4  
,s*lo!imii1 #agf4   ,w>p1 #dfa4   ,wat]1
 ,fir/ ,cradle ( ,life1 #ajj4           
,wat]/ones1 #bde4   ,wat]y ,volcanoes1  
#bc1 #ei4   ,weald ,clay1 #bgi1 #bha1   
#bhf1 #bih4   ,weald5 ,b$s1 #bgi4       
,%ells1 #bha4   ,w5lock ,rocks1 #aaj4   
,:ale ( ! ,rue ,dauph9e1 #cgj4   ,:ite  
,*alk1 ,b]?i]'s ,analysis1 #bih4   ,:ite
 ,lias1 #bjh4   ,wild ,man ( ,aveyron1  
#dfi4   ,williamsonia1 #bci4   ,wood1   
,se>les ,v41 ,junr41 on ,glacial        

,deposits1 #dfj4   ,wookey ,hole1 #dgd4 
,woolwi* & ,read+ ,b$s1 #ccj4   ,wright1
 ,dr4 ,?os41 on ,p5>? ,b$s1 #bji4       
,xiphodon1 #cbj1 #cbd1 #cbi4            
gracile1 #cbd4    ,ysbrants ,ides'      
,acc\nt ( ,discov]y ( ,froz5 ,mammo?1   
#chi4   ,yuccites1 #aid4    ,zamia1     
#bdi1 #bgj4         ,moreana1 #bee4     
,zamites1 #aid1 #bci1 #bee1 #big4       
,ze*/e91 #agj4   ,zeolites1 #dd4        
,ziphius1 #cgj4   ,zones ( diff]5t      
d5sity r\nd ! inc&esc5t ,e>?1 #he4      
,zoophytes ( ,lias1 #bch4               
,middle ,oolite1 #bfc4            (     
,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod1 #ada4   ,zo/]a1     
#abc1 #bff4   ,,! ,,end4     ,,cassell1 
,,pett]1 ,,& ,,galp91 ,,belle ,,sauvage 
,,works1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4   #ggc        
,,messrs4 ,,cassell1 ,,pett]1  ,,galp9  
,publi%1 uni=m ) 8,! ,_w be=e !         
,deluge10 ,new & ,*eap] ,editions ( !   
foll[+ ,works1 conta9+ all ! ,orig9al   
,illu/rations1 ) ! ,text revis$ &       
correct$3--    ,! ,insect ,_w4--,a      
,popul> ,acc\nt ( ! ,ord]s ( ,insects4  

,by ,,l\is ,,figui]4 ,revis$ & ,correct$
 by ,p4 ,,m>t9 ,,duncan1   ,m4,d41      
,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,geology 9 ,k+'s 
,college1 ,london4   ,) #egf            
,illu/rations                           
#gs4 #f;d4    ,! ,vegetable ,_w4--,a    
,hi/ory ( ,plants1 ) _!   ,botanical    
,descriptions & ,peculi> ,prop]ties4 ,) 
a ,gloss>y   ( ,botanical ,t]ms4 ,by    
,,l\is ,,figui]4 ,revis$ & ,correct$ by 
an em95t ,botani/4 ,) #dgj ,illu/rations
              #gs4 #f;d4    ,! ,ocean   
,_w4--,a ,descriptive ,hi/ory ( ! ,sea &
   its ,inhabitants4 ,by ,,l\is         
,,figui]4 ,revis$ & ,correct$ by        
,pr(essor ,e4 ,,p]ceval ,,wright1 ,m4,d4
 ,) #dbg   ,illu/rations                
#gs4 #f;d4    ,reptiles & ,birds4--,by  
,,l\is ,,figui]4 ,newly ,edit$ &        
,revis$ by ,,p>k] ,,gillmore1 ,au?or (  
8,gun1 ,rod1 & ,saddle10   c4 ,) #cjg   
,illu/rations4 #ffd pp4                 
#gs4 #f;d4      8,admirable works (     
popul>is$ sci5ce40--,daily ,telegraph4  
,,cassell1 ,,pett]1  ,,galp91  ,,london1

 ,,p>is1 ,,& ,,new ,,york4     ,! ,new &
 ,*eap] ,edition (  ,,figui]',s ,,works1
  ,conta9+ all ! ,orig9al ,illu/rations1
 ) ! ,text ,revis$ & ,correct$1 extra   
cr[n #hvo1 clo? lett]$1 price #gs4 #f;d4
 ea*1 comprise      ,! ,_w be=e !       
,deluge4 ,newly ,edit$ & ,revis$ by ,h4 
,w4     ,,bri/[1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #bce      
,illu/rations4 ,?ird ,edition4      ,!  
,ocean ,_w4 ,a ,descriptive ,hi/ory ( ! 
,sea & its     ,inhabitants4 ,revis$ &  
,correct$ by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,,p]ceval    
,,wright1 ,m4,d4 ,) #dbg ,illu/rations4 
,?ird ,edition4      ,! ,vegetable ,_w4 
,revis$ & ,correct$ by an ,,em95t       
,,botani/4 ,) #dga ,illu/rations4 ,?ird 
,edition4      ,! ,insect ,_w4 ,revis$ &
 ,correct$ by ,p4 ,,m>t9 ,,duncan1      
,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,geology 
9 ,k+'s ,college1 ,london4     ,) #egf  
,illu/rations4 ,?ird ,edition4          
,reptiles & ,birds4 ,revis$ & ,correct$ 
by ,capta9 ,,p>k]     ,,gillmore4 ,)    
#cjg ,illu/rations4 ,second ,edition4   
,,popul> ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,,works4    

,,second ,,edition n[ ready1 price #afs4
      ,! ,trans=mations ( ,insects4 ,by 
,p4 ,,m>t9 ,,duncan1 ,f4,r4,s41         
,m4,d41 ,pr(essor ( ,geology1 ,k+'s     
,college1 ,london4 ,) #bdj              
highly-f9i%$ ,engrav+s4 ,royal #hvo1    
#ejj pp41 h&somely b\nd     9 clo? gilt4
  ,n[ ready1 complete 9 ,f\r ,vols41    
clo?4 #gs4 #f;d42 clo?1 gilt edges1     
#ajs4 #f;d4 ea*2 or ,two ,vols41        
half-calf1 #b #bs4      ,cassell's      
,brehm's ,book ( ,birds4 ,translat$ f ! 
,text (     ,dr4 ,,brehm by ,pr(essor   
,t4 ,,rym] ,,jones1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) upw>ds 
(     #djj ,engrav+s on ,wood1 & num]\s 
full-page ,plates1 pr9t$     9 ,col\rs1 
f ,orig9al ,designs by ,f4 ,w4 ,,keyl4  
,,second ,,edition1 #bef pages1 cr[n    
#hvo1 clo?1 price #es4      ,! ,dog3 )  
,simple ,directions = 8 ,treatm5t1 &    
,notices     ( ! ,be/ ,dogs ( ! ,day1 _!
 ,bre$]s & ,exhibitors4 ,by             
8,,id/one40 ,) #ab full-page ,portraits 
( ,fam\s ,dogs1 ,drawn     f ,life by   
,,george ,,e>l4  ,complete 9 ,two       

,vols41 cr[n #dto1 #a1ecb pp41 clo?1    
#cjs4      ,cassell's ,popul> ,natural  
,hi/ory4 ,pr(usely ,illu/rat$ )     ab\t
 #b1jjj spl5did ,engrav+s & ,t9t$       
,plates4 ,c also be     _h 9 ,two       
,volumes1 half-calf1 #des42             
half-morocco1 #ejs42 also1     ) ,col\r$
 ,illu/rations1 9 ,f\r ,volumes1 clo?1  
#dbs4  ,complete 9 ,"o ,volume1 #fjj    
pages1 demy #dto1 #cas4 #f;d4      ,!   
,illu/rat$ ,book ( ,p\ltry4 ,by ,l4     
,,wright1 ,au?or ( 8,!     ,practical   
,p\ltry-,keep]10 c4 ,) ,,fifty          
,,full-,,page ,,col\r$     ,,plates (   
,celebrat$ ,prize ,birds ( ,e ,bre$1    
rec5tly     ,pa9t$ f ,life expressly =  
?is ,"w1 & ) num]\s     ,woodcuts4      
,,cassell1 ,,pett]1  ,,galp91 ,,ludgate 
,,hill1 ,,london4                       
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,,transcrib]',s ,,notes3                
,! orig9al text has be5 ma9ta9$1 includ+
 inconsi/5cies      9 spell+1           
hyph5ation1 lay-out1 =matt+1 etc4 & 9 ! 

use    ( capitals1 diacriticals &       
acc5ts1 except z describ$ bel[      "u  
,*anges ,made4 ,important inconsi/5cies 
include3 ,sa>bruck_/     ,sa>brck1      
,coalbrookdale_/,coalbrook ,dale1       
,ro?-lieg5de_/                          
,ro?lieg5de_/,r!-lieg5de1               
,we/morl&_/,we/morel&1 bl[-pipe_/       
bl[pipe1 cuttle-fi%_/cuttlefi%1         
frame-"w_/framework1                    
fre%-wat]_/fre%wat]1                    
,kupf]-s*ief]_/,kupf]s*ief]1            
ra9-drops_/ra9drops1                    
re-con/ruct_/recon/ruct 7& relat$       
words71                                 
,ro?-todt-lieg5de_/,ro!-todte-lieg5de1  
sub-divide_/          subdivide 7&      
relat$ words71 tile-/ones_/tile/ones1   
"u-clay_/    und]clay1                  
wat]-/ones_/wat]/ones1 arial_/a]ial1    
,baikal_/,bakal1                        
,ceteosaurus_/,cetiosaurus1 ,colley     
,we/on_/,colleywe/on1 ,cupanioides_/    
,cupaniodes1 ,h(fman_/,h(fmann 7?is is  
app>5tly ! same p]son1    x is n cle>   

:at ! correct spell+ %\ld be72 ,kjkk5-  
,mdd5_/,kjkk5 ,mdd5_/,kjkk5-mdd51       
,m/ri*t_/,mae/ri*t1                     
,nocomian_/,neocomian1                  
pr$ace\s_/pr$aci\s1 proboscideans_/     
proboscidians1 &                        
,tunguragua_/,tunguraqua4               
,!re are slight diff]5ces 9 word+ betwe5
 ! ,table (          ,cont5ts1 ! ,index 
& ! text4 ,s9ce ! mean+ is n            
affect$1 ?is has n be5 /&>dis$4         
,textual rem>ks3                        
- ,page #aji 7table73 #ab1jfj %\ld      
possibly be #ab1jjj2                 -  
,page #aif 7table73 ,r$ & v>iegat$      
s&/one 7,collyhur/7 4443      !re is a  
l9e miss+ 9 ! orig9al "w t is n pres5t  
9 o!r editions ei!r4 ,?is l9e has be5   
replac$ by 4442     - ,page #bab3 ,!    
,lias1 9 ,engl&1 is g5]ally 9 ?ree      
gr\ps3         possibly !re is a ^w     
7divid$ or simil>7 miss+2              -
 ,page #cja3 ,! inv]tebrate animals :i* 
*>act]ise !             ,cretace\s age  
are among3 possibly !re is a ^w miss+ at

         ! end ( ! s5t5ce 7o!rs72       
- ,page #cci3 n "o-fif? ! size (        
,switz]l& %\ld possibly       be n      
"o-fif? ! size ( ,great ,brita92        
- ,index3 contr>y to ! rem>k at ! top ( 
! index1 n all        italic entries    
ref] to illu/rations4                   
,multi-page tables h be5 comb9$ into    
s+le tables4                            
,*anges made to orig9al text3           
- ,"s obvi\s typographical errors       
7includ+ punctuation7 h        be5      
correct$ sil5tly4                       
- ,table ( ,cont5ts3 entries ,eruptive  
,rocks & ,! ,beg9n+ h      be5 ind5t$ "o
 level less z 9 ! text2 entry           
,metamorphic        ,rocks has be5      
ind5t$ "o level less1 9 l9e ) ! o!r     
head+s pr9t$ 9 small capitals4          
,page #aa3 ,ancylyc]as *ang$ to         
,ancyloc]as2                            
,page #cd3 has disappe>$ *ang$ to h     
disappe>$2 ,/rasburg       *ang$ to     
,/rasb\rg z else:]e2                    
,page #cf3 ,cev5nes *ang$ to ,cv5nes z  

else:]e2                   ,page #cg3   
big>r *ang$ to big>r2 gres *ang$ to grs 
z          else:]e2 porpyhries *ang$ to 
porphyries2                             
,page #eg3 diamet]7 *ang$ to diamet]    
7bracket remov$72             ,page     
#aeb3 on page #aee *ang$ to on page     
#aeg2                         ,page     
#afg3 ,lige *ang$ to ,lige2             
,page #ahd3 ,cev5nes *ang$ to ,cv5nes z 
else:]e2 ,rhone *ang$    to ,rhne z     
else:]e2                                
,page #aid3 ,nilsonia *ang$ to          
,nilssonia z else:]e2                   
,page #bjf3 ,cev5nes *ang$ to ,cv5nes z 
else:]e2                  ,page #bac3   
,p5tatr9us *ang$ to ,p5tacr9us2         
,page #bbe3 ,i*y?yosaurus *ang$ to      
,i*?yosaurus2                    ,page  
#bci3 ,nilsonia *ang$ to ,nilssonia z   
else:]e2                 ,page #bdj3    
,nilsonia *ang$ to ,nilssonia z else:]e2
                 ,page #bdg1 caption fig
 #aae3 ,polyzoa4 *ang$ to ,polyzoa47    
7bracket     add$72                     

,page #bdh3 ,o4 cuneatea *ang$ to ,o4   
cuneata2                          ,page 
#bej3 fir/ footnote an*or miss+1 ins]t$ 
9 mo/ likely      place2                
,page #bfi3 ,gryphea *ang$ to ,grypha z 
else:]e2                    ,page #cje3 
repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #adf *ang$ to         
repres5t$ 9 ,fig4      #ade2            
,page #caf3 ,nymphea *ang$ to ,nympha2  
,page #cai3  *ang$ to 2                 
infriure_/infriurs *ang$ to             
infrieure_/infrieurs2                   
,page #cbi3 ,nympheas *ang$ to ,nymphz2 
,page #cch3 --a/odon *ang$ to ,ma/odon2 
,page #cda3 ,fig4 #afa *ang$ to ,fig4   
#afj2                                   
,page #cdh3 ,rhone *ang$ to ,rhne z     
else:]e2                        ,page   
#dja3 *anel$ *ang$ to *annell$ z        
else:]e2 ,fig #ahf        *ang$ to ,fig4
 #ahe2                                  
,page #dac3 ant$ulivian *ang$ to        
ant$iluvian2                       ,page
 #dbi3 ,bauman's *ang$ to ,baumann's2   
,page #dcj3 ,gail5ru? *ang$ to          

,gail5reu? z elsehw]e2             ,page
 #deb3 ,v>ese *ang$ to ,v>se2           
,page #dfb3 ,upsal *ang$ to ,upsala2    
,page #dgj1 footnote #aag3 ,epoques     
*ang$ to poques z else:]e2      ,page   
#dgi3 ,t9ire *ang$ to ,t9ire2           
,page #ejb3 ,ar*eopt]ix *ang$ to        
,ar*eopt]yx z 9 text2                   
,ba?onean *ang$ to ,ba?onian z 9 text2  
c]vicornus *ang$ to     c]vicornis z 9  
text2                                   
,page #ejc3 second entry ,c>bonif]\s    
,flora align$ ) ,flora1        ditto    
m>ks add$2                              
,page #ejd3 ditto m>k add$ "u ,man 9    
,creation ( ,man =           cl>ity2    
,c]i?ium plicatum #bej *ang$ to #cej2   
,cocco/eus #ada        *ang$ to #adb2   
,c\pe d',ayzac #de1 #dg *ang$ to #df1   
#dg2               ,page #eje3 ,dani5   
*ang$ to ,danian z 9 text2 ,duvalii     
*ang$ to     ,duvallii z 9 text 7! mod]n
 spell+ is ,duvalii1 ,lyell us$         
,duvallii72                             
,page #ejh3 ti*orhynus *ang$ to         

ti*orh9us z 9 text2              ,page  
#eji3 ,igne\s1 ,iguana & ,iguanodon mov$
 to prop] place 9      alphabetical     
ord]2 ,kellaway's *ang$ to ,kellaways z 
9 text2       ,la*[ *ang$ to ,l*[ z 9   
text2 lacumosus *ang$ to                
lacunosus z 9 text2 ,leptna *ang$ to    
,leptna z 9 text2          ,page #eaj3  
,limnea *ang$ to ,limna z 9 text2       
,li?o/rotion          cornu-arietis     
*ang$ to ,lituites cornu-arietis2       
,page #eaa3 page numb]s add$ aft]       
,mortillet on ,glaci]s &                
,mosaic ,acc\nt ( ,creation2 page       
ref]5ce #gcg *ang$ to #gc2         ,page
 #eab3 ,osm]odes *ang$ to ,osm]oides z 9
 text2                ,page #eac3       
,pecopt]is1 page numb]s plac$ 9 num]ical
 ord]2         ,fu/emb]gii *ang$ to     
,fur/emb]gii z 9 text2 second ref]5ce   
to ,otopt]is acum9ata remov$2 ,pect5    
obicul>is *ang$ to          ,pect5      
orbicul>is z 9 text2                    
,page #ead3 ,podophtalmus *ang$ to      
,podoph?almus z 9 text2                 

,purbeck ,b$s3 #bg *ang$ to #bgi42      
,page #eae3 ,reptiles1 ,preval5ce (3 two
 entries comb9$ into "o2     ,/4        
,cassian ,b$s mov$ to prop] alphabetical
 ord]2 ti*orhynus      *ang$ to         
ti*orh9us z 9 text2 entries on ,%eppey  
,isle mov$      to prop] alphabetical   
ord]2                                   
,page #eaf3 ,sphrodus *ang$ to ,sphrodus
 & mov$ to prop]          alphabetic    
place2 ,sun-,app59e *ang$ to            
,sub-,ap5n9e2               ,t]ebell>ia 
mov$ to prop] place 9 alphabetical ord]4
                                        
----------------------------------------
---------------------------