---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 99 ,transcription used3 - italic texts in the original work are represented here between underscores1 as in text2 - boldface texts in the original work are represented here between equal signs1 as in text2 - text printed in small capitals in the original work are transcribed in ,,all ,,capitals4 99 ,footnotes have been moved to directly under the paragraph they belong to4 99 ,where a line of text was missing from the original work1 this is indicated by 4444 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,man4 ,,the ,,world ,,before ,,the ,,deluge4 ,,by ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,,newly ,,edited ,,and ,,revised ,,by ,h4 ,w4 ,,bristow1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain2 ,hon4 ,fellow of ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,with #bce ,illustrations4 ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 ,,galpin1 ,,london1 ,,paris1 ,,and ,,new ,,york4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,general ,,considerations #a ,,consideration ,,of ,,fossils #d ,,chemical ,,and ,,nebular ,,hypotheses ,,of ,,the ,,globe #ae ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,earth',s ,,surface #bf ,,eruptive ,,rocks #cj ,,plutonic ,,eruptions #ca ,granite #ca ,syenite #cd ,protogine #ce ,porphyry #cg ,serpentine #ch ,,volcanic ,,rocks #ci ,trachytic ,formations #ci ,basaltic ,formations #dd ,volcanic or ,lava ,formations #ea ,,metamorphic ,,rocks #ga ,general ,metamorphism #gd ,,the ,,beginning #hj ,,primary ,,epoch #ii ,,cambrian ,,period #aja ,,silurian ,,period #ajb ,lower ,silurian ,period #ajd ,upper ,silurian ,period #aaj ,,old ,,red ,,sandstone ,,and ,,devonian ,,period #aai ,,carboniferous ,,period #acj ,carboniferous ,limestone #adj ,coal ,measures #aej ,formation of ,coal #aei ,,permian ,,period #agj ,permian ,rocks #agg ,,secondary ,,epoch #ahe ,,triassic1 ,,or ,,new ,,red ,,period #ahe ,new ,red ,sandstone #ahg ,muschelkalk #ahh ,keuper ,period #aii ,,rh,,tic 7,,penarth7 ,,period #bjg ,,jurassic ,,period #baa ,liassic ,period #baa ,oolitic ,sub-,period #bdc ,lower ,oolite ,fauna #bdd ---- ---- ,rocks #bdi ,middle ,oolite #bee ,upper ,oolite #bfe ,,cretaceous ,,period #bge ,lower ,cretaceous ,period #bhf ,upper ,cretaceous ,period #cjj ,,tertiary ,,epoch #cab ,eocene ,period #cae ,miocene ,period #ccf ,pliocene ,period #ceg ,,quaternary ,,epoch #cgh ,,post-,,pliocene #cgh ,,european ,,deluges #dbb ,,glacial ,,period #dce ,,creation ,,of ,,man #dfd ,,asiatic ,,deluge #dhj ,,epilogue #dhi ,,table ,,and ,,diagram ,,of ,,british ,,sedimentary ,,and ,,fossiliferous ,,strata #dic ,,full-,,page ,,illustrations4 ,,frontispiece--,,the ,,first ,,man4 ,,page ,i4 ,de ,sancy ,peak1 ,mont ,dore #db ,,ii4 ,basaltic ,mountain of ,la ,coupe d',ayzac #df ,,iii4 ,extinct ,volcanoes of ,le ,puy #eb ,,iv4 ,mud ,volcano of ,turbaco #fb ,v4 ,great ,geyser of ,iceland #ff ,,vi4 ,the ,earth in a gaseous state circulating in space #hb ,,vii4 ,condensation and rainfall #id ,,viii4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,silurian ,period #ajd ,,ix4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,devonian ,period #aba ,x4 ,ideal view of marine life in the ,carboniferous ,period #adg ,,xi4 ,ideal view of a marshy forest in the ,coal ,period #aef ,,xii4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,permian ,period #agb ,,xiii4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,muschelkalk ,period #aia ,,xiv4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,saliferous or ,keuper ,period #aih ,,xv4 ,ideal ,scene of the ,lias ,period with ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus #bca ,,xvi4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,liassic ,period #bda ,,xvii4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,lower ,oolite ,period #bed ,,xviii4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,middle ,oolite ,period #beh ,,xix4 ,apiocrinites rotundus and ,encrinus liliiformis #bfa ,,xx4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,upper ,oolite ,period #bfg ,,xxi4 ,ideal ,scene of the ,lower ,cretaceous ,period #bif ,,xxii4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,cretaceous ,period #cjg ,,xxiii4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,eocene ,period #cbh ,,xxiv4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,miocene ,period #ceb ,,xxv4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,pliocene ,period #cge ,,xxvi4 ,skeleton of the ,mammoth in the ,st4 ,petersburg ,museum #cid ,,xxvii4 ,skeleton of ,megatherium #djc ,,xxviii4 ,ideal ,view of the ,quaternary ,epoch--,europe #daf ,,xxix4 ,ideal ,landscape of the ,quaternary ,epoch--,america #dai ,,xxx4 ,deluge of the ,north of ,europe #dbe ,,xxxi4 ,glaciers of ,switzerland #dde ,,xxxii4 ,appearance of ,man #dfh ,,xxxiii4 ,asiatic ,deluge #dhc ,,diagram ,,at ,,end--,ideal ,section of the ,earth's ,crust1 showing the order of superposition or chronological succession of the principal groups of strata4 ,,preface4 ,the object of 8,the ,world before the ,deluge0 is to trace the progressive steps by which the earth has reached its present state1 from that condition of chaos when it 8was without form and void1 and darkness was upon the face of the deep10 and to describe the various convulsions and transformations through which it has successively passed4 ,in the words of the poet-- 8,where rolls the deep1 there grew the tree2 ,o ,earth1 what changes hast thou seen6 ,there1 where the long street roars1 hath been ,the silence of the central sea40 ,it has been thought desirable that the present edition of the work should undergo a thorough revision by a practical geologist1 a task which ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bristow has performed4 ,mr4 ,bristow has however confined himself to such alterations as were necessary to secure accuracy in the statement of facts1 and such additions as were necessary to represent more precisely the existing state of scientific opinion4 ,many points which are more or less inferential and therefore matters of individual opinion1 and especially those on which ,m4 ,figuier bases his speculations1 have been left in their original form1 in preference to making modifications which would wholly change the character of the book4 ,in a work whose purpose is to give the general reader a summarised account of the results at which science has arrived1 and of the method of reasoning regarding the facts on which these generalisations rest1 it would be out of place1 as well as ineffective1 to obscure general statements with those limitations which caution imposes on the scientific investigator4 ,in the original work the ,author had naturally enough drawn most of his facts from ,french localities2 in the translation these are mostly preserved1 but others drawn from ,british ,geology have been added1 either from the translator's own knowledge1 or from the works of well-known ,british writers4 ,it was considered desirable1 for similar reasons1 to enlarge upon the opinions of ,british geologists1 to whom the ,french work scarcely does justice1 considering the extent to which the science is indebted to them for its elucidation4 ,in the original work the chapter on ,eruptive ,rocks comes at the end of the work1 but1 as the work proceeded1 so many unexplained allusions to that chapter were found that it seemed more logical1 and more in accordance with chronological order1 if the expression may be used1 to place that chapter at the beginning4 ,a new edition of the ,french work having appeared in the early part of #ahff1 to which the ,author contributed a chapter on ,metamorphic ,rocks1 a translation of it is appended to the chapter on ,eruptive ,rocks4 ,a chapter on the ,rhtic 7or ,penarth7 beds has been inserted 7amongst much other original matter71 the stratigraphical importance of that series having been recognised since the publication of the ,first ,edition4 ,in the present ,edition the text has been again thoroughly revised by ,mr4 ,bristow1 and many important additions made1 the result of the recent investigations of himself and his colleagues of the ,geological ,survey4 ,,the ,,world ,,before ,,the ,,deluge4 ,,general ,,considerations4 ,the observer who glances over a rich and fertile plain1 watered by rivers and streams which have1 during a long series of ages1 pursued the same uniform and tranquil course2 the traveller who contemplates the walls and monuments of a great city1 the first founding of which is lost in the night of ages1 testifying1 apparently1 to the unchangeableness of things and places2 the naturalist who examines a mountain or other locality1 and finds the hills and valleys and other accidents of the soil in the very spot and condition in which they are described by history and tradition--none of these observers would at first suspect that any serious change had ever occurred to disturb the surface of the globe4 ,nevertheless1 the earth has not always presented the calm aspect of stability which it now exhibits2 it has had its convulsions1 and its physical revolutions1 whose story we are about to trace4 ,the earth1 like the body of an animal1 is wasted1 as the philosophical ,hutton tells us1 at the same time that it is repaired4 ,it has a state of growth and augmentation2 it has another state1 which is that of diminution and decay3 it is destroyed in one part to be renewed in another2 and the operations by which the renewal is accomplished are as evident to the scientific eye as those by which it is destroyed4 ,a thousand causes1 aqueous1 igneous1 and atmospheric1 are continually at work modifying the external form of the earth1 wearing down the older portions of its surface1 and reconstructing newer out of the older2 so that in many parts of the world denudation has taken place to the extent of many thousand feet4 ,buried in the depths of the soil1 for example1 in one of those vast excavations which the intrepidity of the miner has dug in search of coal or other minerals1 there are numerous phenomena which strike the mind of the inquirer1 and carry their own conclusions with them4 ,a striking increase of temperature in these subterranean places is one of the most remarkable of these4 ,it is found that the temperature of the earth rises one degree for every sixty or seventy feet of descent from its surface4 ,again3 if the mine be examined vertically1 it is found to consist of a series of layers or beds1 sometimes horizontal1 but more frequently inclined1 upright1 or contorted and undulating--even folded back upon themselves4 ,then1 instances are numerous where horizontal and parallel beds have been penetrated1 and traversed vertically or obliquely by veins of ores or minerals totally different in their appearance and nature from the surrounding rocks4 ,all these undulations and varying inclinations of strata are indications that some powerful cause1 some violent mechanical action1 has intervened to produce them4 ,finally1 if the interior of the beds be examined more minutely--if1 armed with the miner's pick and hammer1 the rock is carefully broken up--it is not impossible that the very first efforts at mining may be rewarded by the discovery of some fossilised organic form no longer found in the living state4 ,the remains of plants and animals belonging to the earlier ages of the world1 are1 in fact1 very common2 entire strata are sometimes formed of them2 and in some localities the rocks can scarcely be disturbed without yielding fragments of bones and shells1 or the impressions of fossilised animals and vegetables--the buried remains of extinct creations4 ,these bones--these remains of animals or vegetables which the hammer of the geologist has torn from the rock--belong possibly to some organism which no longer any where exists3 it may not be identical with any animal or plant living in our times3 but it is evident that these beings1 whose remains are now so deeply buried1 have not always been so covered2 they once lived on the surface of the earth as plants and animals do in our days1 for their organisation is essentially the same4 ,the beds in which they now repose must1 then1 in older times have formed the surface of the earth2 and the presence of these fossils proves that the earth has suffered great mutations at some former period of its history4 ,geology explains to us the various transformations which the earth has passed through before it arrived at its present condition4 ,we can determine1 with its help1 the comparative epoch to which any beds belong1 as well as the order in which others have been superimposed upon them4 ,considering that the stratigraphical crust of the earth with which the geologist has to deal may be some ten miles thick1 and that it has been deposited in distinct layers in a definite order of succession1 the dates or epochs of each formation may well be approached with hesitation and caution4 ,dr4 ,hutton1 the earliest of our philosophical geologists1 eloquently observes1 in his 8,theory of the ,earth10 that the solid earth is everywhere wasted at the surface4 ,the summits of the mountains are necessarily degraded4 ,the solid and weighty materials of these mountains have everywhere been carried through the valleys by the force of running water4 ,the soil which is produced in the destruction of the solid earth is gradually transported by the moving waters1 and is as constantly supplying vegetation with its necessary aid4 ,this drifted soil is at last deposited upon some coast1 where it forms a fertile country4 ,but the billows of the ocean again agitate the loose material upon the shore1 wearing away the coast with endless repetitions of this act of power and imparted force2 the solid portion of our earth1 thus sapped to its foundations1 is carried away into the deep and sunk again at the bottom of the sea whence it had originated1 and from which sooner or later it will again make its appearance4 ,we are thus led to see a circulation of destruction and renewal in the matter of which the globe is formed1 and a system of beautiful economy in the works of ,nature4 ,again1 discriminating between the ordinary and scientific observer1 the same writer remarks1 that it is not given to common observation to see the operation of physical causes4 ,the shepherd thinks the mountain on which he feeds his flock has always been there4 ,the inhabitant of the valley cultivates the soil as his fathers did before him1 and thinks the soil coeval with the valley or the mountain4 ,but the scientific observer looks into the chain of physical events1 sees the great changes that have been made1 and foresees others that must follow from the continued operation of like natural causes4 ,for1 as ,pythagoras taught #b1cej years ago1 8the minerals and the rocks1 the islands and the continents1 the rivers and the seas1 and all organic ,nature1 are perpetually changing2 there is nothing stationary on earth40 ,to note these changes--to decipher the records of this system of waste and reconstruction1 to trace the physical history of the earth--is the province of ,,geology1 which1 the latest of all modern sciences1 is that which has been modified most profoundly and most rapidly4 ,in short1 resting as it does on observation1 it has been modified and transformed according to every series of facts recorded2 but while many of the facts of geology admit of easy and obvious demonstration1 it is far otherwise with the inferences which have been based upon them1 which are mostly hypothetical1 and in many instances from their very nature incapable of proof4 ,its applications are numerous and varied1 projecting new and useful lights upon many other sciences4 ,here we ask of it the teachings which serve to explain the origin of the globe--the evidence it furnishes of the progressive formation of the different rocks and mineral masses of which the earth is composed--the description and restoration of the several species of animals and vegetables which have existed1 have died and become extinct1 and which form1 in the language of naturalists1 the ,fauna and ,flora of the ancient world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in order to explain the origin of the earth1 and the cause of its various revolutions1 modern geologists invoke three orders of facts1 or fundamental considerations3 ,i4 ,the hypothesis of the original incandescence of the globe4 ,,ii4 ,the consideration of fossils4 ,,iii4 ,the successive deposition of the sedimentary rocks4 ,as a corollary to these1 the hypothesis of the upheaval of the earth's crust follows--upheavals having produced local revolutions4 ,the result of these upheavals has been to superimpose new materials upon the older rocks1 introducing extraneous rocks called ,eruptive1 beneath1 upon1 and amongst preceding deposits1 in such a manner as to change their nature in divers ways4 ,whence is derived a third class of rocks called ,metamorphic or altered rocks1 our knowledge of which is of comparatively recent date4 ,,fossils4 ,the name of ,fossil 7from fossilis1 dug up7 is given to all organised bodies1 animal or vegetable1 buried naturally in the terrestrial strata1 and more or less petrified1 that is1 converted into stone4 ,fossils of the older formations are remains of organisms which1 so far as species is concerned1 are quite extinct2 and only those of recent formations belong to genera living in our days4 ,these fossil remains have neither the beauty nor the elegance of most living species1 being mutilated1 discoloured1 and often almost shapeless2 they are1 therefore1 interesting only in the eyes of the observer who would interrogate them1 and who seeks to reconstruct1 with their assistance1 the ,fauna and ,flora of past ages4 ,nevertheless1 the light they throw upon the past history of the earth is of the most satisfactory description1 and the science of fossils1 or palontology1 is now an important branch of geological inquiry4 ,fossil shells1 in the more recent deposits1 are found scarcely altered2 in some cases only an impression of the external form is left--sometimes an entire cast of the shell1 exterior and interior4 ,in other cases the shell has left a perfect impression of its form in the surrounding mud1 and has then been dissolved and washed away1 leaving only its mould4 ,this mould1 again1 has sometimes been filled up by calcareous spar1 silica1 or pyrites1 and an exact cast of the original shell has thus been obtained4 ,petrified wood is also of very common occurrence4 ,these remains of an earlier creation had long been known to the curious1 and classed as freaks of ,nature1 for so we find them described in the works of the ancient philosophers who wrote on natural history1 and in the few treatises on the subject which the ,middle ,ages have bequeathed to us4 ,fossil bones1 especially those of elephants1 were known to the ancients1 giving rise to all sorts of legends and fabulous histories3 the tradition which attributed to ,achilles1 to ,ajax1 and to other heroes of the ,trojan war1 a height of twenty feet1 is attributable1 no doubt1 to the discovery of the bones of elephants near their tombs4 ,in the time of ,pericles we are assured that in the tomb of ,ajax a patella1 or knee-bone of that hero1 was found1 which was as large as a dinner-plate4 ,this was probably only the patella of a fossil elephant4 ,the uses to which fossils are applied by the geologist are--,first1 to ascertain the relative age of the formations in which they occur2 secondly1 the conditions under which these were deposited4 ,the age of the formation is determined by a comparison of the fossils it contains with others of ascertained date2 the conditions under which the rocks were deposited1 whether marine1 lacustrine1 or terrestrial1 are readily inferred from the nature of the fossils4 ,the great artist1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 was the first to comprehend the real meaning of fossils1 and ,bernard ,palissy had the glory of being the first modern writer to proclaim the true character of the fossilised remains which are met with1 in such numbers1 in certain formations1 both in ,france and ,italy1 particularly in those of ,touraine1 where they had come more especially under his notice4 ,in his work on 8,waters and ,fountains10 published in #aehj1 he maintains that the figured stones1 as fossils were then called1 were the remains of organised beings preserved at the bottom of the sea4 ,but the existence of marine shells upon the summits of mountains had already arrested the attention of ancient authors4 ,witness ,ovid1 who in ,book ,,xv4 of the 8,metamorphoses0 tells us he had seen land formed at the expense of the sea1 and marine shells lying dead far from the ocean2 and more than that1 an ancient anchor had been found on the very summit of a mountain4 8,vidi factas ex quore terras1 ,et procul a pelago conch jacuere marin1 ,et vetus inventa est in montibus anchora summis40 ,ov41 ,met41 ,book xv4 ,the ,danish geologist ,steno1 who published his principal works in ,italy about the middle of the seventeenth century1 had deeply studied the fossil shells discovered in that country4 ,the ,italian painter ,scilla produced in #afgj a ,latin treatise on the fossils of ,calabria1 in which he established the organic nature of fossil shells4 ,the eighteenth century gave birth to two very opposite theories as to the origin of our globe--namely1 the ,plutonian or igneous1 and the ,neptunian or aqueous theory4 ,the ,italian geologists gave a marked impulse to the study of fossils1 and the name of ,vallisneri#a may be cited as the author to whom science is indebted for the earliest account of the marine deposits of ,italy1 and of the most characteristic organic remains which they contain4 ,lazzaro ,moro#b continued the studies of ,vallisneri1 and the monk ,gemerelli reduced to a complete system the ideas of these two geologists1 endeavouring to explain all the phenomena as ,vallisneri had wished1 8without violence1 without fiction1 without miracles40 ,marselli and ,donati both studied in a very scientific manner the fossil shells of ,italy1 and in particular those of the ,adriatic1 recognising the fact that they affected in their beds a regular and constant order of superposition4#c #a ,dei corpi marini1 c41 #agba4 #b ,sui crostaccei ed altri corpi marini che s trovano sui monti1 #agdj4 #c ,consult ,lyell's 8,principles of ,geology0 and the sixth edition of the 8,elements10 with much new matter1 for further information relative to the study of fossils during the last two centuries4 ,in ,france the celebrated ,buffon gave1 by his eloquent writings1 great popularity to the notions of the ,italian naturalists concerning the origin of fossil remains4 ,in his admirable 8poques de la ,nature0 he sought to prove that the shells found in great quantities buried in the soil1 and even on the tops of mountains1 belonged1 in reality1 to species not living in our days4 ,but this idea was too novel not to find objectors3 it counted among its adversaries the bold philosopher who might have been expected to adopt it with most ardour4 ,voltaire attacked1 with his jesting and biting criticism1 the doctrines of the illustrious innovator4 ,buffon insisted1 reasonably enough1 that the presence of shells on the summit of the ,alps was a proof that the sea had at one time occupied that position4 ,but ,voltaire asserted that the shells found on the ,alps and ,apennines had been thrown there by pilgrims returning from ,rome4 ,buffon might have replied to his opponent1 by pointing out whole mountains formed by the accumulation of these shells4 ,he might have sent him to the ,pyrenees1 where shells of marine origin cover immense areas to a height of #f1fjj feet above the present sea-level4 ,but his genius was averse to controversy2 and the philosopher of ,ferney himself put an end to a discussion in which1 perhaps1 he would not have had the best of the argument4 8,i have no wish10 he wrote1 8to embroil myself with ,monsieur ,buffon about shells40 ,it was reserved for the genius of ,george ,cuvier to draw from the study of fossils the most wonderful results3 it is the study of these remains1 in short1 which1 in conjunction with mineralogy1 constitutes in these days positive geology4 8,it is to fossils10 says the great ,cuvier1 8that we owe the discovery of the true theory of the earth2 without them we should not have dreamed1 perhaps1 that the globe was formed at successive epochs1 and by a series of different operations4 ,they alone1 in short1 tell us with certainty that the globe has not always had the same envelope2 we cannot resist the conviction that they must have lived on the surface of the earth before being buried in its depths4 ,it is only by analogy that we have extended to the primary formations the direct conclusions which fossils furnish us with in respect to the secondary formations2 and if we had only unfossiliferous rocks to examine1 no one could maintain that the earth was not formed all at once40#d #d 8,ossements ,fossiles0 7#dto71 vol4 i41 p4 #bi4 ,the method adopted by ,cuvier for the reconstruction and restoration of the fossil animals found in the plaster-quarries of ,montmartre1 at the gates of ,paris1 has served as a model for all succeeding naturalists2 let us listen1 then1 to his exposition of the vast problem whose solution he proposed to himself4 8,in my work on fossil bones10 he says1 8,i propose to ascertain to what animals the osseous fragments belong2 it is seeking to traverse a road on which we have as yet only ventured a few steps4 ,an antiquary of a new kind1 it seemed to me necessary to learn both to restore these monuments of past revolutions1 and to decipher their meaning4 ,i had to gather and bring together in their primitive order the fragments of which they are composed2 to reconstruct the ancient beings to which these fragments belonged2 to reproduce them in their proportions and with their characteristics2 to compare them1 finally1 with others now living on the surface of the globe3 an art at present little known1 and which supposes a science scarcely touched upon as yet1 namely1 that of the laws which preside over the co-existence of the forms of the several parts in organised beings4 ,i must1 then1 prepare myself for these researches by others1 still more extended1 upon existing animals4 ,a general review of actual creation could alone give a character of demonstration to my account of these ancient inhabitants of the world2 but it ought1 at the same time1 to give me a great collection of laws1 and of relations not less demonstrable1 thus forming a body of new laws to which the whole animal kingdom could not fail to find itself subject40#e #e 8,ossements ,fossiles0 7#dto71 vol4 i41 pp4 #a1 #b4 8,when the sight of a few bones inspired me1 more than twenty years ago1 with the idea of applying the general laws of comparative anatomy to the reconstruction and determination of fossil species2 when ,i began to perceive that these species were not quite perfectly represented by those of our days1 which resembled them the most--,i no longer doubted that ,i trod upon a soil filled with spoils more extraordinary than any ,i had yet seen1 and that ,i was destined to bring to light entire races unknown to the present world1 and which had been buried for incalculable ages at great depths in the earth4 8,i had not yet given any attention to the published notices of these bones1 by naturalists who made no pretension to the recognition of their species4 ,to ,m4 ,vaurin1 however1 ,i owe the first intimation of the existence of these bones1 with which the gypsum-quarries swarm4 ,some specimens which he brought me one day struck me with astonishment2 ,i learned1 with all the interest the discovery could inspire me with1 that this industrious and zealous collector had already furnished some of them to other collectors4 ,received by these amateurs with politeness1 ,i found in their collections much to confirm my hopes and heighten my curiosity4 ,from that time ,i searched in all the quarries with great care for other bones1 offering such rewards to the workmen as might awaken their attention4 ,i soon got together more than had ever been previously collected1 and after a few years ,i had nothing to desire in the shape of materials4 ,but it was otherwise with their arrangement1 and with the reconstruction of the skeleton1 which could alone lead to any just idea of the species4 8,from the first moment of discovery ,i perceived that1 in these remains1 the species were numerous4 ,soon afterwards ,i saw that they belonged to many genera1 and that the species of the different genera were nearly the same size1 so that size was likely rather to hinder than aid me4 ,mine was the case of a man to whom had been given at random the mutilated and imperfect remains of some hundreds of skeletons belonging to twenty sorts of animals2 it was necessary that each bone should find itself alongside that to which it ought to be connected3 it was almost like a small resurrection1 and ,i had not at my disposal the all-powerful trumpet2 but ,i had the immutable laws prescribed to living beings as my guide2 and at the voice of the anatomist each bone and each part of a bone took its place4 ,i have not expressions with which to describe the pleasure ,i experienced in finding that1 as soon as ,i discovered the character of a bone1 all the consequences of the character1 more or less foreseen1 developed themselves in succession3 the feet were found conformable to what the teeth announced2 the teeth to that announced by the feet2 the bones of the legs1 of the thighs1 all those which ought to reunite these two extreme parts1 were found to agree as ,i expected2 in a word1 each species was reproduced1 so to speak1 from only one of its elements40#f #f 8,ossements ,fossiles10 vol4 iv4 7#dto71 p4 #cb4 ,while the ,baron ,cuvier was thus zealously prosecuting his inquiries in ,france1 assisted by many eminent fellow-labourers1 what was the state of geological science in the ,british ,islands8 ,about that same time1 ,dr4 ,william ,smith1 better known as 8the father of ,english geology10 was preparing1 unaided1 the first geological map of this country4 ,dr4 ,smith was a native of ,wiltshire1 and a canal engineer in ,somersetshire2 his pursuits1 therefore1 brought him in the midst of these hieroglyphics of ,nature4 ,it was his practice1 when travelling professionally1 during many years to consult masons1 miners1 wagoners1 and agriculturists4 ,he examined the soil2 and in the course of his inquiries he came to the conclusion that the earth was not all of the same age2 that the rocks were arranged in layers1 or strata1 superimposed on each other in a certain definite order1 and that the strata1 when of the same age1 could be identified by means of their organic remains4 ,in #agid he formed the plan of his geological map1 showing the superposition of the various beds2 for a quarter of a century did he pursue his self-allotted task1 which was at last completed1 and in #ahja was published1 being the first attempt to construct a stratigraphical map4 ,taking the men in the order of the objects of their investigation1 rather than in chronological order1 brings before us the patient and sagacious investigator to whom we are indebted for our knowledge of the ,silurian system4 ,for many years a vast assemblage of broken and contorted beds had been observed on the borders of ,north ,wales1 stretching away to the east as far as ,worcestershire1 and to the south into ,gloucester1 now rising into mountains1 now sinking into valleys4 ,the ablest geologists considered them as a mere labyrinth of ruins1 whose order of succession and distinctive organic remains were entirely unknown1 8,but a man came10 as ,m4 ,esquiros eloquently writes1 8who threw light upon this sublime confusion of elements40 ,sir ,roderick ,impey ,murchison1 then a young ,president of the ,geological ,society1 had his attention directed1 as he himself informs us1 to some of these beds on the banks of the ,wye4 ,after seven years of unremitting labour1 he was rewarded by success4 ,he established the fact that these sedimentary rocks1 penetrated here and there by eruptive masses of igneous origin1 formed a unique system1 to which he gave the name of ,silurian1 because the rocks which he considered the most typical of the whole were most fully developed1 charged with peculiar organic remains1 in the land of the ancient ,silures1 who so bravely opposed the ,roman invaders of their country4 ,many investigators have followed in ,sir ,roderick's steps1 but few men have so nobly earned the honours and fame with which his name is associated4 ,the success which attended ,sir ,r4 ,murchison's investigations soon attracted the attention of other geologists4 ,professor ,sedgwick examined the older slaty strata1 and succeeded in proving the position of the ,cambrian rocks to be at the base of the ,silurian4 ,still it was reserved for ,sir ,william ,logan1 the ,director of the ,canadian ,geological ,survey1 to establish the fact that immense masses of gneissic formation lay at the base of the ,cambrian2 and1 by subsequent investigations1 ,sir ,roderick ,murchison satisfied himself that this formation was not confined to ,canada1 but was identical with the rocks termed by him ,fundamental ,gneiss1 which exist in enormous masses on the west coast of ,scotland1 and which he proved to be the oldest stratified rocks in the ,british ,isles4 ,subsequently he demonstrated the existence of these same ,laurentian rocks in ,bohemia and ,bavaria1 far beneath the ,silurian rocks of ,barrande4 ,while ,murchison and ,sedgwick were prosecuting their inquiries into the ,silurian rocks1 ,hugh ,miller and many others had their attention occupied with the ,old ,red ,sandstone--the ,devonian of ,sedgwick and ,murchison--which immediately overlies them4 ,after a youth passed in wandering among the woods and rocks of his native ,cromarty1 the day came when ,miller found himself twenty years of age1 and1 for the time1 a workman in a quarry4 ,a hard fate he thought it at the time1 but to him it was the road to fame and success in life4 ,the quarry in which he laboured was at the bottom of a bay formed by the mouth of a river opening to the south1 a clear current of water on one side1 as he vividly described it1 and a thick wood on the other4 ,in this silent spot1 in the remote ,highlands1 a curious fossil fish of the ,old ,red ,sandstone was revealed to him2 its appearance struck him with astonishment2 a fellow-workman named a spot where many such monuments of a former world were scattered about2 he visited the place1 and became a geologist and the historian of the 8,old ,red40 ,and what strange fantastic forms did it afterwards fall to his lot to describe6 8,the figures on a ,china vase or ,egyptian obelisk10 he says1 8differ less from the real representation of the objects than the fossil fishes of the #8,old ,red' differ from the living forms which now swim in our seas40 ,the ,carboniferous ,limestone1 which underlies the coal1 the ,coal-measures themselves1 the ,new ,red ,sandstone1 the ,lias1 and the ,chalk1 have in their turn found their historians2 but it would be foreign to our object to dwell further here on these particular branches of the subject4 ,some few of the fossilised beings referred to resemble species still found living1 but the greater part belong to species which have become altogether extinct4 ,these fossil remains may constitute natural families1 none of the genera of which have survived4 ,such is the ,pterodactyle among ,pterosaurian reptiles2 the ,ammonite among ,mollusca2 the ,ichthyosaurus and the ,plesiosaurus among the ,enaliosaurian reptiles4 ,at other times there are only extinct genera1 belonging to families of which there are still some genera now living1 as the genus ,paloniscus among fishes4 ,finally1 in ,tertiary deposits1 we meet with some extinct species belonging to genera of our existing fauna3 the ,mammoth1 for example1 of the youngest ,tertiary deposits1 is an extinct species of the genus elephant4 ,some fossils are terrestrial1 like the gigantic ,irish stag1 ,cervus ,megaceros1 the snail or ,helix2 fluviatile or lacustrine1 like the ,planorbis1 the ,lymna1 the ,physa1 and the ,unio2 marine1 or inhabiting the sea exclusively1 as the ,cowry 7,cypra71 and the ,oyster1 7,ostrea74 ,fossils are sometimes preserved in their natural state1 or are but very slightly changed4 ,such is the state of some of the bones extracted from the more recent caves2 such1 also1 is the condition of the insects found enclosed in the fossil resins in which they have been preserved from decomposition2 and certain shells1 found in recent and even in old formations1 such as the ,jurassic and ,cretaceous strata--in some of which the shells retain their colours1 as well as their brilliant pearly lustre or nacre4 ,at ,trouville1 in ,normandy1 in the ,kimeridge strata1 magnificent ,ammonites are found in the clay and marl1 all brilliant with the colours of mother-of-pearl4 ,in the ,cretaceous beds at ,machromnil1 some species of ,ancyloceras and ,hamites are found still covered with a nacre1 displaying brilliant reflections of blue1 green1 and red1 and retaining an admirable lustre4 ,at ,glos1 near ,liseaux1 in the ,coral ,rag1 not only the ,ammonites1 but the ,trigoni and ,avicul have preserved all their brilliant nacre4 ,sometimes these remains are much changed1 the organic matter having entirely disappeared2 it sometimes happens also1 though rarely1 that they become petrified1 that is to say1 the external form is preserved1 but the original organic elements have wholly disappeared1 and have been replaced by foreign mineral substances--generally by silica or by carbonate of lime4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,labyrinthodon pachygnathus and footmarks4 ,geology also enables us to draw very important conclusions from certain fossil remains whose true nature was long misunderstood1 and which1 under the name of coprolites1 had given rise to much controversial discussion4 ,coprolites are the petrified excrements of extinct fossil animals4 ,the study of these singular remains has thrown unexpected light on the habits and physiological organisation of some of the great antediluvian animals4 ,their examination has revealed the scales and teeth of fishes1 thus enabling us to determine the kind of food in which the animals of the ancient world indulged3 for example1 the coprolites of the great marine reptile which bears the name of ,ichthyosaurus contain the bones of other animals1 together with the remains of the vertebr1 or of the phalanges 7paddle-bones7 of other ,ichthyosauri2 showing that this animal habitually fed on the flesh of its own species1 as many fishes1 especially the more voracious ones1 do in our days4 ,the imprints left upon mud or sand1 which time has hardened and transformed into sandstone1 furnish to the geologist another series of valuable indications4 ,the reptiles of the ancient world1 the turtles in particular1 have left upon the sands1 which time has transformed into blocks of stone1 impressions which evidently represent the exact moulds of the feet of those animals4 ,these impressions have1 sometimes1 been sufficient for naturalists to determine to what species the animal belonged which thus left its impress on the wet ground4 ,some of these exhibit tracks to which we shall have occasion to refer2 others present traces of the footprints of the great reptile known as the ,labyrinthodon or ,cheirotherium1 whose footmarks slightly resemble the impression made by the human hand 7,fig4 #a74 ,another well-known impression1 which has been left upon the sandstone of ,corncockle ,moor1 in ,dumfriesshire1 is supposed to be the impress of the foot of some great fossil ,turtle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,impressions of rain-drops4 ,we may be permitted to offer a short remark on this subject4 ,the historian and antiquary may traverse the battle-fields of the ,greeks and ,romans1 and search in vain for traces of those conquerors1 whose armies ravaged the world4 ,time1 which has overthrown the monuments of their victories1 has also effaced the marks of their footsteps2 and of the many millions of men whose invasions have spread desolation throughout ,europe1 not even a trace of a footprint is left4 ,those reptiles1 on the other hand1 which crawled thousands of ages ago on the surface of our planet when it was still in its infancy1 have impressed on the soil indelible proofs of their existence4 ,hannibal and his legions1 the barbarians and their savage hordes1 have passed over the land without leaving a material mark of their passage2 while the poor turtle1 which dragged itself along the silent shores of the primitive seas1 has bequeathed to learned posterity the image and impression of a part of its body4 ,these imprints may be perceived as distinctly on the rocks1 as the traces left on moist sand or in newly-fallen snow by some animal walking under our own eyes4 ,what grave reflections should be awakened within us at the sight of these blocks of hardened earth1 which thus carry back our thoughts to the early ages of the world6 and how insignificant seem the discoveries of the archologist who throws himself into ecstacies before some piece of ,greek or ,etruscan pottery1 when compared with these veritable antiquities of the earth6 ,the palontologist 7from 8ancient10 8being10 8discourse071 who occupies himself with the study of animated beings which have lived on the earth1 takes careful account also of the sort of moulds left by organised bodies in the fine sediment which has enveloped them after death4 ,many organic beings have left no trace of their existence in ,nature1 except their impressions1 which we find perfectly preserved in the sandstone and limestone1 in marl or clay1 and in the coal-measures2 and these moulds are sufficient to tell us the kind to which the living animals belonged4 ,we shall1 no doubt1 astonish our readers when we tell them that there are blocks of sandstone with distinct impressions of drops of rain which had fallen upon sea-shores of the ancient world4 ,the impressions of these rain-drops1 made upon the sands1 were preserved by desiccation2 and these same sands1 being transformed by subsequent hardening into solid and coherent sandstones1 their impressions have been thus preserved to the present day4 ,fig4 #b represents impressions of this kind upon the sandstone of ,connecticut river in ,america1 which have been reproduced from the block itself by photography4 ,in a depression of the granitic rocks of ,massachusetts and ,connecticut1 the red sandstone occupies an area of a hundred and fifty miles in length from north to south1 and from five to ten miles in breadth4 8,on some shales of the finest texture10 says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 8impressions of rain-drops may be seen1 and casts of them in the argillaceous sandstones40 ,the same impressions occur in the recent red mud of the ,bay of ,fundy4 ,in addition to these1 the undulations left by the passage of the waters of the sea1 over the sands of the primitive world1 are preserved by the same physical agency4 ,traces of undulations of this kind have been found in the neighbourhood of ,boulogne-sur-,mer1 and elsewhere4 ,similar phenomena occur in a still more striking manner in some sandstone-quarries worked at ,chalindrey 7,haute-,marne74 ,the strata there present traces of the same kind over a large area1 and along with them impressions of the excrements of marine worms4 ,one may almost imagine oneself to be standing on the sea-shore while the tide is ebbing4 ,,chemical ,,and ,,nebular ,,hypotheses ,,of ,,the ,,globe4 ,among the innumerable hypotheses which human ingenuity has framed to explain the phenomena which surround the globe1 the two which have found most ready acceptance have been termed respectively the ,,chemical1 and the ,,nebular or mechanical hypothesis4 ,by the first the solid crust is supposed to have contained abundance of potassium1 sodium1 calcium1 magnesium1 and other metallic elements4 ,the percolating waters1 coming in contact with these substances1 produce combinations resulting in the conversion of the metals into their oxides--potash1 soda1 lime1 and magnesia--all of which enter largely into the composition of volcanic rocks4 ,the second hypothesis involves the idea of an original incandescent mass of vapour1 succeeded by a great and still existing central fire4 ,this idea of a great central fire is a very ancient hypothesis3 admitted by ,descartes1 developed by ,leibnitz1 and advocated by ,buffon1 it is supposed to account for many phenomena otherwise inexplicable2 and it is confirmed by a crowd of facts1 and adopted1 or at least not opposed1 by the leading authorities of the age4 ,dr4 ,buckland makes it the basis of his ,bridgewater treatise4 ,herschel1 ,hind1 ,murchison1 ,lyell1 ,phillips1 and other leading ,english astronomers and geologists give a cautious adhesion to the doctrine4 ,the following are some of the principal arguments adduced in support of the hypothesis1 for1 in the nature of the proofs it admits of1 it can be no more4 ,when we descend into the interior of a mine1 it is found that the temperature rises in an appreciable manner1 and that it increases with the depth below the surface4 ,the high temperature of the waters in ,artesian wells when these are very deep1 testifies to a great heat of the interior of the earth4 ,the thermal waters which issue from the earth--of which the temperature sometimes rises to #ajj ,centigrade and upwards--as1 for instance1 the ,geysers of ,iceland--furnish another proof in support of the hypothesis4 ,modern volcanoes are said to be a visible demonstration of the existence of central heat4 ,the heated gases1 the liquid lava1 the flames which escape from their craters1 all tend to prove sufficiently that the interior of the globe has a temperature prodigiously elevated as compared with that at its surface4 ,the disengagement of gases and burning vapours through the accidental fissures in the crust1 which accompany earthquakes1 still further tends to establish the existence of a great heat in the interior of the globe4 ,we have already said that the temperature of the globe increases about one degree for every sixty or seventy feet of depth beneath its surface4 ,the correctness of this observation has been verified in a great number of instances--indeed1 to the greatest depth to which man has penetrated1 and been able to make use of the thermometer4 ,now1 as we know exactly the length of the radius of the terrestrial sphere1 it has been calculated from this progression of temperature1 supposing it to be regular and uniform1 that the centre of the globe ought to have at the present time a mean temperature of #aie1jjj ,centigrade4 ,no matter could preserve its solid state at this excessive temperature2 it follows1 then1 that the centre of the globe1 and all parts near the centre1 must be in a permanent state of fluidity4 ,the works of ,werner1 of ,hutton1 of ,leopold von ,buch1 of ,humboldt1 of ,cordier1 ,w4 ,hopkins1 ,buckland1 and some other ,english philosophers1 have reduced this hypothesis to a theory1 on which has been based1 to a considerable extent1 the whole science of modern geology2 although1 properly speaking1 and in the popular acceptation of the term1 that science only deals with the solid crust of the earth4 ,the nebular theory thus embraces the whole solar system1 and1 by analogy1 the universe4 ,it assumes that the ,,sun was originally a mass of incandescent matter1 that vast body being brought into a state of evolution by the action of laws to which the ,creator1 in ,his divine wisdom1 has subjected all matter4 ,in consequence of its immense expansion and attenuation1 the exterior zone of vapour1 expanding beyond the sphere of attraction1 is supposed to have been thrown off by centrifugal force4 ,this zone of vapour1 which may be supposed at one time to have resembled the rings of ,saturn1 would in time break up into several masses1 and these masses coalescing into globes1 would 7by the greater power of attraction which they would assume as consolidated bodies7 revolve round the sun1 and1 from mechanical considerations1 would also revolve with a rotary motion on their own axes4 ,this doctrine is applied to all the planets1 and assumes each to have been in a state of incandescent vapour1 with a central incandescent nucleus4 ,as the cooling went on1 each of these bodies may be supposed to have thrown off similar masses of vapour1 which1 by the operation of the same laws1 would assume the rotary state1 and1 as satellites1 revolve round the parent planet4 ,such1 in brief1 was the grand conception of ,laplace2 and surely it detracts nothing from our notions of the omnipotence of the ,creator that it initiates the creation step by step1 and under the laws to which matter is subjected1 rather than by the direct fiat of the ,almighty4 ,the hypothesis assumes that as the vaporous mass cooled by the radiation of heat into space1 the particles of matter would approximate and solidify4 ,that the figure of the earth is such as a very large mass of matter in a state of fluidity would assume from a state of rotation1 seems to be admitted1 thus corroborating the speculations of ,leibnitz1 that the earth is to be looked on as a heated fluid globe1 cooled1 and still cooling at the surface1 by radiation of its superfluous heat into space4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,hopkins#g has put forth some strong but simple reasons in support of a different theory2 although he does not attempt to solve the problem1 but leaves the reader to form his own conclusions4 ,as far as we have been able to follow his reasoning we gather from it that3-- #g ,see ,phil4 ,transactions1 #ahci-dj-db2 also1 ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 viii41 p4 #ef4 ,if the earth were a fluid mass cooled by radiation1 the cooled parts would1 by the laws of circulating fluids1 descend towards the centre1 and be replaced on the surface by matter at a higher temperature4 ,the consolidation of such a mass would1 therefore1 be accompanied by a struggle for superiority between pressure and temperature1 both of which would be at their maximum at the centre of the mass4 ,at the surface1 it would be a question of rapidity of cooling1 by radiation1 as compared with the internal condition--for comparing which relations we are without data2 but on the result of which depends whether such a body would most rapidly solidify at the surface by radiation1 or at the centre by pressure4 ,the effect of the first would be solidification at the surface1 followed by condensation at the centre through pressure4 ,there would thus be two masses1 a spherical fluid nucleus1 and a spherical shell or envelope1 with a large zone of semi-fluid1 pasty matter between1 continually changing its temperature as its outer or inner surface became converted to the solid state4 ,if pressure1 on the other hand1 gained the victory1 the centre would solidify before the circulation of the heated matter had ceased2 and the solidifying process would proceed through a large portion of the globe1 and even approach the surface before that would become solid4 ,in other words1 solidification would proceed from the centre until the diminishing power of pressure was balanced by radiation1 when the gradual abstraction of heat would allow the particles to approximate and become solid4 ,the terrestrial sphere may thus be a solid indurated mass at the centre1 with a solid stony crust at the surface1 and a shifting viscous1 but daily-decreasing1 mass between the two2 a supposition which the diminished and diminishing frequency and magnitude of volcanic and other eruptive convulsions seem to render not improbable4 ,it is not to be supposed that amongst the various hypotheses of which the cosmogony of the world has been the object1 a literal acceptation of the scriptural account finds no defenders among men of science4 8,why10 asks one of these writers1#h after some scornful remarks upon the geologists and their science--8why an omnipotent ,creator should have called into being a gaseous-granite nebulous world1 only to have to cool it down again1 consisting as it does of an endless variety of substances1 should even have been supposed to be originally constituted of the matter of granite alone1 for nothing else was provided by the theory1 nobody can rationally explain4 ,how the earth's centre now could be liquid fire with its surface solid and cold and its seas not boiling caldrons1 has never been attempted to be accounted for4 ,how educated gentlemen1 engaged in scientific investigations1 ever came to accept such a monstrously stupid mass of absurdities as deductions of #8science1' and put them in comparison with the rational account of the creation given by ,moses1 is more difficult to understand than even this vague theory itself1 which it is impossible to describe4 #h 8,fresh ,springs of ,truth40 ,r4 ,griffin and ,co4 8,of the first creation of the chaotic world10 the same writer goes on to say1 8or the material elements1 before they were shaped into their present forms1 we can scarce have the most vague conception4 ,all our experience relates to their existing conditions4 ,but knowing somewhat of the variety of the constituent elements and their distinct properties1 by which they manifest their existence to us1 we cannot conceive of their creation without presupposing a ,divine wisdom1 and--if ,i may say so1 with all reverence1 and only to suit our human notions--a ,divine ingenuity10 and he follows for six days the operations as described by ,moses1 with a running comment4 ,when light is created1 the conception of the work becomes simpler to our minds4 ,its least manifestation would suffice at once to dispel darkness1 and yet how marvellous is the light6 ,in the second day's work the firmament of heaven is opened2 the expanse of the air between the heavens and the earth1 dividing the waters above from the waters below1 is the work recorded as performed4 ,not till the third day commence the first geological operations4 ,the waters of the earth are gathered together into seas1 and the dry land is made to appear4 ,it is now that we can imagine that the formation of the primary strata commenced1 while by some of the internal forces of matter the earth was elevated and stood above the waters4 ,immediately the dry land is raised above and separated from the waters the fiat goes forth1 8,let the earth bring forth grass1 and herb and tree20 vegetable life begins to exist1 and the world is first decorated with its beauteous flora1 with all its exquisite variety of forms and brilliancy of colouring1 with which not even ,solomon in all his glory can compare4 ,in like manner1 on the sixth day the earth is commanded to bring forth land-animals--the living creature 8after his kind10 cattle and creeping thing1 and beast of the earth1 8after his kind20 and last of all1 but on the same day1 man is created1 and made the chief and monarch of ,god's other living creatures--for that is 8man's place in ,nature40 8,let us now see10 he continues1 8how this history came to be discredited by the opposition of a falsely so-called #8science' of geology1 that1 while spared by our theologians1 has since pulled itself to pieces4 ,the first step in the false inductions geology made arose from the rash deduction1 that the order in which the fossil remains of organic being were found deposited in the various strata necessarily determined the order of their creation2 and the next error arose from blindly rushing to rash conclusions1 and hasty generalisation from a very limited number of facts1 and the most imperfect investigations4 ,there were also 7and1 indeed1 are still7 some wild dogmatisms as to the time necessary to produce certain geologic formations2 but the absurdities of science culminated when it adopted from ,laplace the irrational and unintelligible theory of a natural origin for the world from a nebula of gaseous granite1 intensely hot1 and supposed to be gradually cooled while gyrating senselessly in space40 ,in this paper the writer does not attempt to deal with the various phenomena of volcanoes1 earthquakes1 hot springs1 and other matters which are usually considered as proofs of great internal heat4 ,mr4 ,evan ,hopkins1 ,c4,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 is more precise if less eloquent4 ,he shows that1 in tropical countries1 plains of gravel may in a day be converted into lagoons and marshes2 that by the fall of an avalanche rivers have been blocked up1 which1 bursting their banks1 have covered many square miles of fertile country with several feet of mud1 sand1 and gravel4 8,two thousand four hundred years ago10 he says1 8,nineveh flourished in all its grandeur1 yet it is now buried in oblivion1 and its site overwhelmed with sand4 ,look at old ,tyre1 once the queen of cities and mistress of the sea4 ,she was in all her pride two thousand four hundred and forty years ago4 ,we now see but a bare rock in the sea1 on which fishermen spread their nets6 ,a thousand years ago1 according to ,icelandic histories1 ,greenland was a fertile land in the south1 and supported a large population4 ,iceland at that period was covered with forests of birch and fir1 and the inhabitants cultivated barley and other grain4 ,we may1 therefore1 conclude1 with these facts before us1 that there is no necessity to assign myriads of ages to terrestrial changes1 as assumed by geologists1 as they can be accounted for by means of alterations effected during a few thousand years1 for the surface of the earth is ever changing4 8,grant geological speculators10 ,mr4 ,hopkins continues1 8a few millions of centuries1 with a command over the agencies of ,nature to be brought into operation when and how they please1 and they think they can form a world with every variety of rock and vegetation1 and even transform a worm into a man6 ,yet the wisest of our philosophers would be puzzled if called upon to explain why fluids become spheres1 as dew-drops2 why carbonate of lime acquires in solidifying from a liquid the figure of an obtuse rhomboihedron1 silica of a six-sided prism2 and why oxygen and hydrogen gases produce both fire and water4 ,and what do they gain10 he proceeds to ask1 8by carrying back the history of the world to these myriads of centuries8 ,do they1 by the extension of the period to infinity1 explain how the #8,original' materials were created8 ,but10 he adds1 8geologists are by no means agreed in their assumed geological periods6 ,the so-called glacial period has been computed by some to be equal to about eighty-three thousand years1 and by others at even as much as twelve hundred and eighty millions of years6 ,were we to ask for a demonstrative proof of any given deposit being more than four or five thousand years old1 they could not give it4 ,where is ,babylon1 the glory of the kingdoms8 ,look at ,thebes1 and behold its colossal columns1 statues1 temples1 obelisks1 and palaces desolated2 and yet those great cities flourished within the last three thousand years4 ,even ,pompeii and ,herculaneum were all but lost to history6 ,what10 he asks after these brief allusions to the past--8what1 as a matter of fact1 have geologists discovered1 as regards the great terrestrial changes1 more than was known to ,pythagoras and the ancient philosophers who taught1 two thousand three hundred and fifty years ago1 #8that the surface of the earth was ever changing--solid land converted into sea1 sea changed into dry land1 marine shells lying far distant from the deep1 valleys excavated by running water1 and floods washing down hills into the sea8'0 ,in reference to the argument of the vast antiquity of the earth1 founded on elevation of coasts at a given rate of upheaval1 he adduces many facts to show that upheavals of equal extent have occurred almost within the memory of man4 ,two hundred and fifty years ago ,sir ,francis ,drake1 with his fleet1 sailed into ,albemarle ,sound through ,roanoke ,outlet1 which is now a sand-bank above the reach of the highest tides4 ,only seventy years ago it was navigable by vessels drawing twelve feet of water4 ,the whole ,american coast1 both on the ,atlantic and ,pacific1 have undergone great changes within the last hundred years4 ,the coast of ,south ,america has1 in some places1 been upheaved twenty feet in the last century2 in others1 a few hundred miles distant1 it has been depressed to an equal extent4 ,a transverse section from ,rio ,santa ,cruz to the base of the ,cordilleras1 and another in the ,rio ,negro1 in ,patagonia1 showed that the whole sedimentary series is of recent origin4 ,scattered over the whole at various heights above the sea1 from thirteen hundred feet downwards1 are found recent shells of littoral species of the neighbouring coast--denoting upheavals which might have been effected during the last three thousand years4 ,coming nearer home1 he shows that in #aech the whole coast of ,pozzuoli1 near ,naples1 was raised twenty feet in a single night4 ,then1 with regard to more compact crystalline or semi-crystalline rocks1 no reliable opinion can be formed on mere inspection4 ,two blocks of marble may appear precisely alike1 though formed at different periods4 ,a crystal of carbonate of lime1 formed in a few years1 would be found quite perfect1 and as compact as a crystal formed during many centuries4 ,nothing can be deduced from the process of petrifaction and crystallisation1 unless they enclose relics of a known period4 ,at ,san ,filippo1 a solid mass of limestone thirty feet thick has been formed in about twenty years4 ,a hard stratum of travertine a foot thick is obtained1 from these thermal springs1 in the course of four months4 ,nor can geologists demonstrate that the ,amiens deposits1 in which the flint-implements occur1 are more than three or four thousand years old4 ,the causes of these changes and mutations are referred by some persons to floods1 or to pre-,adamite convulsions1 whereas the cause is in constant operation2 they are due to an invisible and subtle power which pervades the air1 the ocean1 and the rocks below--in which all are wrapped and permeated--which is universally present1 namely1 magnetism--a power always in operation1 always in a state of activity and tension4 ,it has an attractive power towards the surface of the earth1 as well as a directive action from pole to pole4 8,it is1 indeed10 he adds1 emphatically1 8the terrestrial gravitation4 ,magnetic needles freely suspended show its meridional or directive polar force1 and that the force converges at two opposite parts1 which are bounded by the ,antarctic and ,arctic circles40 ,this polar force1 like a stream1 is constantly moving from pole to pole2 and experiment proves that this movement is from the ,south ,pole to the ,north4 8,hence the various terrestrial substances1 solids and fluids1 through which this subtle and universal power permeates1 are controlled1 propelled1 and modified over the entire surface of our globe1 commencing at the south and dissolving at the north4 ,thus1 all terrestrial matter moves towards the ,arctic region1 and finally disappears by dissolution and absorption1 to be renewed again and again in the ,antarctic ,sea to the end of time40 ,in order to prove that the north polar basin is the receptacle of the final dissolution of all terrestrial substances1 ,mr4 ,hopkins quotes the ,gulf ,stream4 ,bottles1 tropical plants1 and wrecks cast into the sea in the ,south ,atlantic1 are carried to ,greenland in a comparatively short time4 ,the great tidal waves commence at the fountain-head in the ,antarctic circle1 impinge against the south coast of ,tierra del ,fuego1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,tasmania1 and are then propelled northward in a series of undulations4 ,the ,south ,atlantic stream1 after doubling the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 moves towards the ,guinea coast1 bends towards the ,caribbean ,sea1 producing the trade winds2 again leaves ,florida as the ,gulf ,stream1 and washes the coasts of ,greenland and ,norway1 and finally reaches the north polar basin4 ,again the great polar force shows itself in the arrangement of the mineral structure below4 ,in all the primary rocks in every quarter of the globe where they have been examined1 its action is recognised in giving to the crystalline masses--granites and their laminated elongations--a polar grain and vertical cleavage4 8,had it been possible to see our globe stripped of its sedimentary deposits and its oceanic covering1 we should see it like a gigantic melon1 with a uniform grain extending from pole to pole40 ,this structure appears to give polarity to earthquakes--thermal waters and earthquakes--which are all traceable in the direction of the polar grain or cleavage from north to south4 ,in ,england1 for instance1 thermal and saline springs are traceable from ,bath1 through ,cheltenham1 to ,dudley4 ,in ,central ,france1 mineral springs occur in lines1 more or less1 north and south4 ,all the known salt-springs in ,south ,america occur in meridional bands4 ,springs of chloride of sodium in the ,eastern ,cordilleras stretch from ,pinceima to the ,llanoes de ,meta1 a distance of #bjj miles4 ,the most productive metalliferous deposits are found in meridional bands4 ,the watery volcanoes in ,south ,america are generally situated along the lines of the meridional splits and the secondary eruptive pores on the transverse fractures4 ,the sudden ruptures arising locally from increasing tension of the polar force1 and the rapid expansion of the generated gases1 produce a vibratory jar in the rocky structure below1 which being propagated along the planes of the polar cleavage1 gives rise to great superficial oscillations1 and thus causes earthquakes and subterranean thunder for thousands of miles1 from south to north4 ,in #agig1 the district round the volcano of ,tunguraqua in ,quito1 during one of the great meridional shocks1 experienced an undulating movement1 which lasted upwards of four minutes1 and this was propagated to the shores of the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,all these movements demonstrated1 according to ,mr4 ,hopkins1 that the land as well as the ocean moves from the south pole and north pole1 and that the magnetic power has a tendency to proceed from pole to pole in a spiral path from south-east to north-west1 a movement which produces an apparent change in the equinoxes1 or the outer section of the plane of the ecliptic with the equator1 a phenomenon known to astronomers as the precession of the equinoxes4 ,such is a very brief summary of the arguments by which ,mr4 ,evan ,hopkins maintains the literal correctness of the ,mosaic account of the creation1 and attempts to show that all the facts discovered by geologists may have occurred in the ages included in the ,mosaic chronology4 ,that the mysterious power of terrestrial magnetism can perform all that he claims for it1 we can perhaps admit4 ,but how does this explain the succession of ,silurian1 ,old ,red ,sandstone1 ,carboniferous and other strata1 up to the ,tertiary deposits1 with their fossils1 each differing in character from those of the preceding series8 ,that these were successive creations admits of no doubt1 and while it is undeniable that the fiat of the ,creator could readily produce all these phenomena1 it may reasonably be asked if it is probable that all these myriads of organic beings1 whose remains serve as records of their existence1 were created only to be immediately destroyed4 ,again1 does not the author of the 8,principles of ,terrestrial ,physics0 prove too much8 ,he admits that #c1jjj years ago the climate of ,england was tropical3 he does not deny that a subsequent period of intense cold intervened1 #b1eej years ago4 ,he admits historical records1 and #b1cej years ago ,pythagoras constructed his cosmography of the world1 which has never been seriously impugned2 and yet he has no suspicion that countries so near to his own had changed their climates first from tropical to glacial1 and back again to a temperate zone4 ,it is not reasonable to believe this parable4 ,the school of philosophy generally considered to be the most advanced in modern science has yet another view of cosmogony1 of which we venture to give a brief outline4 ,space is infinite1 says the exponent of this system1#i for wherever in imagination we erect a boundary1 we are compelled to think of space as existing beyond it4 ,the starry heavens proclaim that it is not entirely void2 but the question remains1 are the vast regions which surround the stars1 and across which light is propagated1 absolutely empty8 ,no4 ,modern science1 while it rejects the notion of the luminiferous particles of the old philosophy1 has cogent proofs of the existence of a luminiferous ether with definite mechanical properties4 ,it is infinitely more attenuated1 but more solid than gas4 ,it resembles jelly rather than air1 and if not co-extensive with space1 it extends as far as the most distant star the telescope reveals to us2 it is the vehicle of their light in fact2 it takes up their molecular tremors and conveys them with inconceivable rapidity to our organs of vision4 ,the splendour of the firmament at night is due to this vibration4 ,if this ether has a boundary1 masses of ponderable matter may exist beyond it1 but they could emit no light4 ,dark suns may burn there1 metals may be heated to fusion in invisible furnaces1 planets may be molten amid intense darkness2 for the loss of heat being simply the abstraction of molecular motion by the ether1 where this medium is absent no cooling could take place4 #i ,professor ,tyndall in ,fortnightly ,review4 ,this1 however1 does not concern us2 as far as our knowledge of space extends1 we are to conceive of it as the holder of this luminiferous ether1 through which the fixed stars are interspersed at enormous distances apart4 ,associated with our planet we have a group of dark planetary masses revolving at various distances around it1 each rotating on its axis2 and1 connected with them1 their moons4 ,was space furnished at once1 by the fiat of ,omnipotence1 with these burning orbs8 ,the man of science should give no answer to this question3 but he has better materials to guide him than anybody else1 and can clearly show that the present state of things may be derivative4 ,he can perhaps assign reasons which render it probable that it is derivative4 ,the law of gravitation enunciated by ,newton is1 that every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force which diminishes as the square of the distance increases4 ,under this law a stone falls to the ground1 and heat is produced by the shock2 meteors plunge into the atmosphere and become incandescent2 showers of such doubtless fall incessantly upon the sun1 and were it stopped in its orbit1 the earth would rush towards the sun1 developing heat in the collision 7according to the calculations of ,,mm4 ,joule1 ,mayer1 ,helmholtz1 and ,thomson71 equal to the combustion of five thousand worlds of solid coal4 ,in the attraction of gravity1 therefore1 acting upon this luminous matter1 we have a source of heat more powerful than could be derived from any terrestrial combustion4 ,to the above conception of space we must add that of its being in a continual state of tremor4 ,the sources of vibration are the ponderable masses of the universe4 ,our own planet is an aggregate of solids1 liquids1 and gases4 ,on closer examination1 these are found to be composed of still more elementary parts3 the water of our rivers is formed by the union1 in definite proportions1 of two gases1 oxygen and hydrogen4 ,so1 likewise1 our chalk hills are formed by a combination of carbon1 oxygen1 and calcium2 elements which in definite proportions form chalk4 ,the flint found within that chalk is compounded of oxygen and silicon1 and our ordinary clay is for the most part formed by a union of silicon1 oxygen1 and aluminum4 ,by far the greater part of the earthy crust is thus compounded of a few elementary substances4 ,such is ,professor ,tyndall's view of the universe1 rising incidentally out of his theory of heat1 his main object being to elucidate his theory of heat and light4 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,globe4 ,as a consequence of the hypothesis of central heat1 it is admitted that our planet has been agitated by a series of local disturbances2 that is to say1 by ruptures of its solid crust occurring at more or less distant intervals4 ,these partial revolutions at the surface are supposed to have been produced1 as we shall have occasion to explain1 by upheavals or depressions of the solid crust1 resulting from the fluidity of the central parts1 and by the cooling down of the external crust of the globe4 ,almost all bodies1 in passing from a liquid to a solid state1 are diminished in size in the process4 ,in molten metals which resume the solid state by cooling1 this diminution amounts to about a tenth of their volume2 but the decrease in size is not equal throughout the whole mass4 ,hence1 as a result of the solidification of the internal parts of the globe1 the outer envelope would be too large2 and would no longer fit the inner sphere1 which had contracted in cooling4 ,cracks and hollows occur under such circumstances1 even in small masses1 and the effect of converting such a vast body as the earth from a liquid1 or rather molten condition1 to a solid state1 may be imagined4 ,as the interior became solid and concrete by cooling1 furrows1 corrugations1 and depressions in the external crust of the globe would occur1 causing great inequalities in its surface2 producing1 in short1 what are now called chains of mountains4 ,at other times1 in lieu of furrows and irregularities1 the solid crust has become ruptured1 producing fissures and fractures in the outer envelope1 sometimes of immense extent4 ,the liquid substances contained in the interior of the globe1 with or without the action of the gases they enclose1 escape through these openings2 and1 accumulating on the surface1 become1 on cooling and consolidating1 mountains of various heights4 ,it would also happen1 and always from the same cause1 namely1 from the internal contraction caused by the unequal cooling of the globe1 that minor fissures would be formed in the earth's crust2 incandescent liquid matter would be afterwards injected into these fissures1 filling them up1 and forming in the rocky crust those long narrow lines of foreign substances which we call dykes4 ,finally1 it would occasionally happen1 that in place of molten matter1 such as granite or metalliferous compounds1 escaping through these fractures and fissures in the globe1 actual rivers of boiling water1 abundantly charged with various mineral salts 7that is to say1 with silicates1 and with calcareous and magnesian compounds71 would also escape1 since the elements of water would be abundant in the incandescent mass4 ,added to these the chemical and mechanical action of the atmosphere1 of rain1 rivers1 and the sea1 have all a tendency to destroy the hardest rocks4 ,the mineral salts and other foreign substances1 entering into combination with those already present in the waters of the sea1 and separating at a subsequent period from these waters1 would be thrown down1 and thus constitute extensive deposits--that is to say1 sedimentary formations4 ,these became1 on consolidation1 the sedimentary rocks4 ,the furrows1 corrugations1 and fractures in the terrestrial crust1 which so changed the aspect of the surface1 and for the time displaced the sea-basins1 would be followed by periods of calm4 ,during these periods1 the dbris1 torn by the movement of the waters from certain points of the land1 would be transported to other parts of the globe by the oceanic currents4 ,these accumulated heterogeneous materials1 when deposited at a later period1 would ultimately constitute formations--that is1 transported or drifted rocks4 ,we have ventured to explain some of the theories by which it is sought to explain the cosmography of the world4 ,but our readers must understand that all such speculations are1 of necessity1 purely hypothetical4 ,in conformity with the preceding considerations we shall divide the mineral substances of which the earth is composed into three general groups1 under the following heads3-- #a4 ,eruptive ,rocks4--,crystalline1 like the second1 but formed at all geological periods by the irruption or intrusion of the liquid matter occupying the interior of our globe through all the pre-existing rocks4 #b4 ,crystalline ,rocks4--,that portion of the terrestrial crust which was primarily liquid1 owing to the heat of the globe1 but which solidified at the period of its first cooling down2 forming the masses known as ,fundamental ,gneiss1 and ,laurentian1 c4 #c4 ,sedimentary ,rocks4--,consisting of various mineral substances deposited by the water of the sea1 such as silica1 the carbonates of lime and magnesia1 c4 ,the mineral masses which constitute the sedimentary rocks form beds1 or strata1 having among themselves a constant order of superposition which indicates their relative age4 ,the mineral structure of these beds1 and the remains of the organised beings they contain1 impress on them characters which enable us to distinguish each bed from that which precedes and follows it4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that all these beds are met with1 regularly superimposed1 over the whole surface of the globe2 under such circumstances geology would be a very simple science1 only requiring the use of the eyes4 ,in consequence of the frequent eruptions of granite1 porphyry1 serpentine1 trachyte1 basalt1 and lava1 these beds are often broken1 cut off1 and replaced by others4 ,denudation has been another fruitful source of change4 ,professor ,ramsay#aj shows1 in the 8,memoirs of the ,geological ,survey10 that beds once existed above a great part of the ,mendip ,hills to the extent of at least #f1jjj feet1 which have been removed by the denuding agency of the sea2 while in ,south ,wales and the adjacent country1 a series of ,palaeozoic rocks1 eleven thousand feet in thickness1 has been removed by the action of water4 ,in fact1 every foot of the earth now forming the dry land is supposed to have been at one time under water--to have emerged1 and to have been again submerged1 and subjected to the destructive action of the ocean4 ,at certain points a whole series of sedimentary deposits1 and often several of them1 have been removed by this cause1 known by geologists as ,denudation4 ,the regular series of rock formations are1 in fact1 rarely found in unbroken order4 ,it is only by combining the collected observations of the geologists of all countries1 that we are enabled to arrange1 according to their relative ages1 the several beds composing the solid terrestrial crust as they occur in the following ,table1 which proceeds from the surface towards the centre1 in descending order3-- #aj 8,memoirs of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain10 vol4 i41 p4 #big4 ,,order ,,of ,,stratification4 ,quaternary ,epoch ,modern ,period4 ,pliocene ,period4 ,tertiary ,epoch ,miocene ,period4 ,eocene ,period4 ,cretaceous ,rocks4 ,secondary ,epoch ,jurassic ,rocks4 ,triassic ,rocks4 ,permian ,rocks4 ,primary ,epoch ,carboniferous ,rocks4 ,devonian ,rocks4 ,silurian ,rocks4 ,metamorphic ,series ,cambrian ,rocks4 ,fundamental ,gneiss1 or ,laurentian4 ,under these heads we propose to examine the successive transformations to which the earth has been subjected in reaching its present condition2 in other words1 we propose1 both from an historical and descriptive point of view1 to take a survey of the several epochs which can be distinguished in the gradual formation of the earth1 corresponding with the formation of the great groups of rocks enumerated in the preceding table4 ,we shall describe the living creatures which have peopled the earth at each of these epochs1 and which have disappeared1 from causes which we shall also endeavour to trace4 ,we shall describe the plants belonging to each great phase in the history of the globe4 ,at the same time1 we shall not pass over entirely in silence the rocks deposited by the waters1 or thrown up by eruption during these periods2 we propose1 also1 to give a summary of the mineralogical characters and of the fossils characteristic of1 or peculiar to each formation4 ,what we propose1 in short1 is to give a history of the formation of the globe1 and a description of the principal rocks which actually compose it2 and to take also a rapid glance at the several generations of animals and plants which have succeeded and replaced each other on the earth1 from the very beginning of organic life up to the time of man's appearance4 ,,eruptive ,,rocks4 ,nothing is more difficult than to write a chronological history of the revolutions and changes to which the earth has been subjected during the ages which preceded the historic times4 ,the phenomena which have concurred to fashion its enormous mass1 and to give to it its present form and structure1 are so numerous1 so varied1 and sometimes so nearly simultaneous in their action1 that the records defy the powers of observation to separate them4 ,the deposition of the sedimentary rocks has been subject to interruption during all ages of the world4 ,violent igneous eruptions have penetrated the sedimentary beds1 elevating them in some places1 depressing them in others1 and in all cases disturbing their order of superposition1 and ejecting masses of crystalline rocks from the incandescent centre to the surface4 ,amidst these perturbations1 sometimes stretching over a vast extent of country1 anything like a rigorous chronological record becomes impossible1 for the phenomena are so continuous and complex that it is no longer possible to distinguish the fundamental from the accidental and secondary causes4 ,in order to render the subject somewhat clearer1 the great facts relative to the progressive formation of the terrestrial globe are divided into epochs1 during which the sedimentary rocks were formed in due order in the seas of the ancient world1 the mud and sand in which were deposited day by day4 ,again1 even where the line of demarcation is clearest between one formation and another1 it must not be supposed there is any sharply defined line of separation between them4 ,on the contrary1 one system gradually merges into that which succeeds it4 ,the rocks and fossils of the one gradually disappear1 to be succeeded by those of the overlying series in the regular order of succession4 ,the newly-made strata became the cemetery of the myriads of beings which lived and died in the bosom of the ocean4 ,the rocks thus deposited were called ,neptunian by the older geologists4 ,but while the seas of each epoch were thus building up1 grain by grain1 and bed by bed1 the new formation out of the ruins of the older1 other influences were at work1 sometimes1 to all appearance1 impeding sometimes advancing1 the great work4 ,the ,plutonic rocks--the igneous or eruptive rocks of modern geology1 as we have seen above1 were the great disturbing agents1 and these disturbances occur in every age of the earth's history4 ,we shall have occasion to speak of these eruptive formations while describing the phenomena of the several epochs4 ,but it is thought that the narrative will be made clearer and more instructive by grouping this class of phenomena into one chapter1 which we place at the commencement1 inasmuch as the constant reference to the eruptive rocks will thus be rendered more intelligible4 ,to these are now added the section 8,metamorphic ,rocks10 from the fifth edition of the ,french work4 ,the rocks which issued from the centre of the earth in a state of fusion are found associated or interstratified with masses of every epoch1 more especially with those of the more ancient strata4 ,the formations which these rocks have originated possess great interest2 first1 because they enter into the composition of the terrestrial crust2 secondly1 because they have impressed on its surface1 in the course of their eruption1 some of the characteristics of its configuration and structure2 finally1 because1 by their means1 the metals which are the objects of human industry have been brought nearer to the surface4 ,according to the order of their appearance1 or as nearly so as can be ascertained1 we shall class the eruptive rocks in two groups3-- ,i4 ,the ,volcanic ,rocks1 of comparatively recent origin1 which have given rise to a succession of trachytes1 basalts1 and modern lavas4 ,these1 being of looser texture1 are presumed to have cooled more rapidly than the ,plutonic rocks1 and at or near the surface4 ,,ii4 ,the ,plutonic ,rocks1 of older date1 which are exemplified in the various kinds of granites1 the syenites1 the protogines1 porphyries1 c4 ,these differ from the volcanic rocks in their more compact crystalline structure1 in the absence of tufa1 as well as of pores and cavities2 from which it is inferred that they were formed at considerable depths in the earth1 and that they have cooled and crystallised slowly under great pressure4 ,,plutonic ,,eruptions4 ,the great eruptions of ancient granite are supposed to have occurred during the primary epoch1 and chiefly in the carboniferous period4 ,they present themselves sometimes in considerable masses1 for the earth's crust being still thin and permeable1 it was prepared as it were for absorbing the granite masses4 ,in consequence of its weak cohesion1 the primitive crust of the globe would be rent and penetrated in all directions1 as represented in the following section of ,cape ,wrath1 in ,sutherlandshire1 in which the veins of granite ramify in a very irregular manner across the gneiss and hornblende-schist1 there associated with it4 7,fig4 #c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,veins of granite traversing the gneiss of ,cape ,wrath4 ,granite1 when it is sound1 furnishes a fine building-stone1 but we must not suppose that it deserves that character of extreme hardness with which the poets have gratuitously gifted it4 ,its granular texture renders it unfit for road-stone1 where it gets crushed too quickly to dust4 ,with his hammer the geologist easily shapes his specimens2 and in the ,russian ,war1 at the bombardment of ,bomarsund1 the shot from our ships demonstrated that ramparts of granite could be as easily demolished as those constructed of limestone4 ,the component minerals of granite are felspar1 quartz1 and mica1 in varying proportions2 felspar being generally the predominant ingredient1 and quartz more plentiful than mica--the whole being united into a confusedly granular or crystalline mass4 ,occasionally it passes insensibly from fine to coarse-grained granite1 and the finer grained is even sometimes found embedded in the more coarsely granular variety3 sometimes it assumes a porphyritic texture4 ,porphyritic granite is a variety of granite1 the components of which--quartz1 felspar1 and mica--are set in a non-crystallised paste1 uniting the mass in a manner which will be familiar to many of our readers who may have seen the granite of the ,land's ,end1 in ,cornwall4 ,alongside these orthoclase crystals1 quartz is implanted1 usually in grains of irregular shape1 more rarely crystallised1 and seldom in the form of perfect crystals4 ,to these ingredients are added thin scales or small hexagonal plates and crystals of white1 brown1 black1 or greenish-coloured mica4 ,finally1 the name of quartziferous porphyry is reserved for those varieties which present crystals of quartz2 the other varieties are simply called porphyritic granite4 ,true porphyry presents a paste essentially composed of compact felspar1 in which the crystals of orthoclase--that is1 felspar with a potash base--are abundantly disseminated1 and sometimes with great regularity4 ,granite is supposed to have been 8formed at considerable depths in the earth1 where it has cooled and crystallised slowly under great pressure1 where the contained gases could not expand40#aa 8,the influence10 says ,lyell1 8of subterranean heat may extend downwards from the crater of every active volcano to a great depth below1 perhaps several miles or leagues1 and the effects which are produced deep in the bowels of the earth may1 or rather must1 be distinct2 so that volcanic and plutonic rocks1 each different in texture1 and sometimes even in composition1 may originate simultaneously1 the one at the surface1 the other far beneath it40 ,other views1 however1 of its origin are not unknown to science3 ,professor ,ramsay and some other geologists consider granite to be metamorphic4 8,for my own part10 says the ,professor1 8,i believe that in one sense it is an igneous rock2 that is to say1 that it has been completely fused4 ,but in another sense it is a metamorphic rock1 partly because it is impossible in many cases to draw any definite line between gneiss and granite1 for they pass into each other by insensible gradations2 and granite frequently occupies the space that ought to be filled with gneiss1 were it not that the gneiss has been entirely fused4 ,i believe therefore that granite and its allies are simply the effect of the extreme of metamorphism1 brought about by great heat with presence of water4 ,in other words1 when the metamorphism has been so great that all traces of the semi-crystalline laminated structure have disappeared1 a more perfect crystallisation has taken place40#ab ,it is obvious that the very result on which the ,professor founds his theory1 namely1 the difficulty 8in many cases10 of drawing a line between the granite and the gneiss1 would be produced by the sudden injection of the fluid minerals into gneiss1 composed of the same materials4 ,moreover1 it is only in some cases that the difficulty exists2 in many others the line of separation is definable enough4#ac #aa ,lyell's 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #fid4 #ab 8,physical ,geology and ,geography of ,great ,britain10 by ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 p4 #ch1 #bnd ed4 #ac ,at the same time it may be safely assumed 7as ,professor ,ramsay believes to be the case7 that granite in most cases is a metamorphic rock2 yet are there many instances in which it may with greater truth be considered as a true plutonic rock4 ,the granitic rock called ,syenite1 in which a part of the mica is replaced by hornblende or amphibole1 has to all appearance been erupted to the surface subsequently to the granite1 and very often alongside of it4 ,thus the two extremities of the ,vosges1 towards ,belfort and ,strasburg1 are eminently syenitic1 while the intermediate part1 towards ,colmar1 is as markedly granitic4 ,in the ,lyonnais1 the southern region is granitic2 the northern region1 from ,arbresle1 is in great part syenitic4 ,syenite also makes its appearance in the ,limousin4 ,syenite1 into which rose-coloured felspar often enters1 forms a beautiful rock1 because the green or nearly black hornblende heightens1 by contrast1 the effect of its colour4 ,this rock is a valuable adjunct for architectural ornament2 it is that out of which the ancient ,egyptians shaped many of their monumental columns1 sphinxes1 and sarcophagi2 the most perfect type of it is found in ,egypt1 not far from the city of ,syene1 from which it derives its name4 ,the obelisk of ,luxor now in ,paris1 several of the ,egyptian obelisks in ,rome1 and the celebrated sphinxes1 of which copies may be seen in front of the ,egyptian ,court at the ,crystal ,palace1 the pedestal of the statue of ,peter the ,great at ,st4 ,petersburg1 and the facing of the sub-basement of the column in the ,place ,vendme in ,paris1 are of this stone1 of which there are quarries in the neighbourhood of ,plancher-les-,mines in the ,vosges4 ,syenite disintegrates more readily than granite1 and it contains indurated nodular concretions1 which often remain in the form of large spherical balls1 in the midst of the dbris resulting from disintegration of the mass4 ,it remains to be added that syenitic masses are often very variable as regards their composition2 the hornblende is sometimes wanting1 in which case we can only recognise an ancient granite4 ,in other instances the hornblende predominates to such a degree1 that a large or small-grained diorite1 or greenstone1 results4 ,the geologist should be prepared to observe these transitions1 which are apt to lead him into error if passed over without being noticed4 ,protogine is a talcose granite1 composed of felspar1 quartz1 and talc or chlorite1 or decomposed mica1 which take the place of the usual mica4 ,excessively variable in its texture1 protogine passes from the most perfect granitic aspect to that of a porphyry1 in such a manner as to present continual subjects of uncertainty1 rendering it very difficult to determine its geological age4 ,nevertheless1 it is supposed to have come to the surface before and during the coal-period2 in short1 at ,creusot1 protogine covers the coal-fields so completely1 that it is necessary to sink the pits through the protogine1 in order to penetrate to the coal1 and the rock has so manifestly acted on the coal-measure strata1 as to have contorted and metamorphosed them4 ,something analogous to this manifests itself near ,mont ,blanc1 where the colossal mass which predominates in that chain1 and the peaks which belong to it1 consist of protogine4 ,but as no such action can be perceived in the overlying rocks of the ,triassic period1 it may be assumed that at the time of the deposition of the ,new ,red ,sandstone the protoginous eruptions had ceased4 ,it is necessary to add1 however1 that if the protogine rises in such bold pinnacles round ,mont ,blanc1 the circumstance only applies to the more elevated parts of the mountain1 and is influenced by the excessive rigour of the seasons1 which demolishes and continually wears away all the parts of the rock which have been decomposed by atmospheric agency4 ,where protogine occurs in milder climates--around ,creusot1 and at ,pierre-sur-,autre1 in the ,forez chain1 for instance--the mountains show none of the scarped and bristling peaks exhibited in the chain of ,mont ,blanc4 ,only single isolated masses occasionally form rocking-stones1 so called because1 resting with a convex base upon a pedestal also convex1 but in a contrary way1 it is easy to move these naturally balanced blocks1 although from their vast size it would require very considerable force to displace them4 ,this tendency to fashion themselves into rounded or ellipsoidal forms belongs1 also1 to other granitic rocks1 and even to some of the variegated sandstones4 ,the rocking-stones have often given rise to legends and popular myths4 ,the great eruptions of granite1 protogine1 and porphyry took place1 according to ,m4 ,fournet1 during the carboniferous period1 for porphyritic pebbles are found in the conglomerates of the ,coal-measure period4 8,the granite of ,dartmoor1 in ,devonshire10 says ,lyell1#ad 8was formerly supposed to be one of the most ancient of the plutonic rocks1 but it is now ascertained to be posterior in date to the culm-measures of that county1 which from their position1 and as containing true coal-plants1 are regarded by ,professor ,sedgwick and ,sir ,r4 ,murchison as members of the true ,carboniferous series4 ,this granite1 like the syenitic granite of ,christiana1 has broken through the stratified formations without much changing their strike4 ,hence1 on the north-west side of ,dartmoor1 the successive members of the ,culm-measures abut against the granite1 and become metamorphic as they approach4 ,the granite of ,cornwall is probably of the same date1 and therefore as modern as the ,carboniferous strata1 if not newer40 #ad 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #gaf1 #fth edition4 ,the ancient granites show themselves in ,france in the ,vosges1 in ,auvergne1 at ,espinouse in ,languedoc1 at ,plan-de-la-,tour in ,provence1 in the chain of the ,cvennes1 at ,mont ,pilat near ,lyons1 and in the southern part of the ,lyonnaise chain4 ,they rarely impart boldness or grandeur to the landscape1 as might be expected from their crystallised texture and hardness2 for having been exposed to the effects of atmospheric changes from the earliest times of the earth's consolidation1 the rocks have become greatly worn away and rounded in the outlines of their masses4 ,it is only when recent dislocations have broken them up that they assume a picturesque character4 ,the ,christiania granite alluded to above was at one time thought to have belonged to the ,silurian period4 ,but1 in #ahac1 ,von ,buch announced that the strata in question consisted of limestones containing orthoceratites and trilobites2 the shales and limestone being only penetrated by granite-veins1 and altered for a considerable distance from the point of contact4#ae ,the same granite is found to penetrate the ancient gneiss of the country on which the fossiliferous beds rest--unconformably1 as the geologists say2 that is1 they rest on the edges of the gneiss1 from which other stratified deposits had been washed away1 leaving the gneiss denuded before the sedimentary beds were deposited4 8,between the origin1 therefore1 of the gneiss and the granite10#af says ,lyell1 8there intervened1 first1 the period when the strata of gneiss were denuded2 secondly1 the period of the deposition of the ,silurian deposits4 ,yet the granite produced after this long interval is often so intimately blended with the ancient gneiss at the point of the junction1 that it is impossible to draw any other than an arbitrary line of separation between them2 and where this is not the case1 tortuous veins of granite pass freely through gneiss1 ending sometimes in threads1 as if the older rock had offered no resistance to their passage40 ,from this example ,sir ,charles concludes that it is impossible to conjecture whether certain granites1 which send veins into gneiss and other metamorphic rocks1 have been so injected while the gneiss was scarcely solidified1 or at some time during the ,secondary or ,tertiary period4 ,as it is1 no single mass of granite can be pointed out more ancient than the oldest known fossiliferous deposits2 no ,lower ,cambrian stratum is known to rest immediately on granite2 no pebbles of granite are found in the conglomerates of the ,lower ,cambrian4 ,on the contrary1 granite is usually found1 as in the case of ,dartmoor1 in immediate contact with primary formations1 with every sign of elevation subsequent to their deposition4 ,porphyritic pebbles are found in the ,coal-measures2 porpyhries continue during the ,triassic period2 since1 in some parts of ,germany1 veins of porphyry are found traversing the ,new ,red ,sandstone1 or grs bigarr of ,french geologists4 ,syenites have especially reacted upon the ,silurian deposits and other old sedimentary rocks1 up to those of the ,lower ,carboniferous period4 #ae 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #gag4 #af ,ibid1 p4 #gah4 ,the term porphyry is usually applied to a rock with a paste or base of compact felspar1 in which felspathic crystals of various sizes assume their natural form4 ,the variety of their mineralogical characters1 the admirable polish which can be given to them1 and which renders them eminently useful for ornamentation1 give to the porphyries an artistic and industrial importance1 which would be greatly enhanced if the difficulty of working such a hard material did not render the price so high4 ,the porphyries possess various degrees of hardness and compactness4 ,when a fine dark-red colour--which contrasts well with the white of the felspar--is combined with hardness1 a magnificent stone is the result1 susceptible of taking a polish1 and fit for any kind of ornamental work2 for the decoration of buildings1 for the construction of vases1 columns1 c4 ,the red ,egyptian porphyry1 called ,rosso antico1 was particularly sought after by the ancients1 who made sepulchres1 baths1 and obelisks of it4 ,the grandest known mass of this kind of porphyry is the ,obelisk of ,sextus ,v4 at ,rome4 ,in the ,museum of the ,louvre1 in ,paris1 some magnificent basins and statues1 made of the same stone1 may also be seen4 ,in spite of its compact texture porphyry disintegrates1 like other rocks1 when exposed to air and water4 ,one of the sphinxes transported from ,egypt to ,paris1 being accidentally placed under a gutter of the ,louvre1 soon began to exhibit signs of exfoliation1 notwithstanding it had remained sound for ages under the climate of ,egypt4 ,in this country1 and even in ,france1 where the climate is much drier1 the porphyries frequently decompose so as to become scarcely recognisable4 ,they crop out in various parts of ,france1 but are only abundant in the north-eastern part of the central plateau1 and in some parts of the south4 ,they form mountains of a conical form1 presenting1 nearly always1 considerable depressions on their flanks4 ,in the ,vosges they attain a height of from three to four thousand feet4 ,the ,serpentine rocks are a sort of compact talc1 which owe their soapy texture and greasy feel to silicate of magnesia4 ,their softness permits of their being turned in a lathe and fashioned into vessels of various forms4 ,even stoves are constructed of this substance1 which bears heat well4 ,the serpentine quarried on the banks of ,lake ,como1 which bears the name of pierre ollaire1 or pot-stone1 is excellently adapted for this purpose4 ,serpentine shows itself in the ,vosges1 in the ,limousin1 in the ,lyonnais1 and in the ,var2 it occupies an immense tract in the ,alps1 as well as in the ,apennines4 ,mona marble is an example of serpentine2 and the ,lizard ,point1 ,cornwall1 is a mass of it4 ,a portion of the stratified rocks of ,tuscany1 and also those of the ,island of ,elba1 have been upheaved and overturned by eruptions of it4 ,as for the ,british ,islands1 plutonic rocks are extensively developed in ,scotland1 where the ,cambrian and ,silurian rocks1 often of gneissic character--associated here and there with great bosses of granite and syenite--form by far the greater part of the region known as the ,highlands4 ,in the ,isle of ,arran a circular mass of coarse-grained granite protrudes through the schists of the northern part of the island2 while1 in the southern part1 a finer-grained granite and veins of porphyry and coarse-grained granite have broken through the stratified rocks4#ag ,in ,devonshire and ,cornwall there are four great bosses of granite2 in the southern parts of ,cornwall the mineral axis is defined by a line drawn through the centre of the several bosses from south-west to north-east2 but in the north of ,cornwall1 and extending into ,devonshire1 it strikes nearly east and west4 ,the great granite mass in ,cornwall lies on the moors north of ,st4 ,austell1 and indicates the existence of more than one disturbing force4 8,there was an elevating force10 says ,professor ,sedgwick1#ah 8protruding from the ,st4 ,austell granite2 and1 if ,i interpret the phenomena correctly1 there was a contemporaneous elevating force acting from the south2 and between these two forces1 the beds1 now spread over the surface from the ,st4 ,austell granite to the ,dodman and ,narehead1 were broken1 contorted1 and placed in their present disturbed position4 ,some great disturbing forces10 he observes1 8have modified the symmetry of this part of ,cornwall1 affecting10 he believes1 8the whole transverse section of the country from the headlands near ,fowey to those south of ,padstow40 ,this great granite-axis was upheaved in a line commencing at the west end of ,cornwall1 rising through the slate-rocks of the older ,devonian group1 continuing in association with them as far as the boss north of ,st4 ,austell1 producing much confusion in the stratified masses2 the granite-mass between ,st4 ,clear and ,camelford rose between the deposition of the ,petherwin and that of the ,plymouth group2 lastly1 the ,dartmoor granite rose1 partially moving the adjacent slates in such a manner that its north end abuts against and tilts up the base of the ,culm-trough1 mineralising the great ,culm-limestone1 while on the south it does the same to the base of the ,plymouth slates4 ,these facts prove that the granite of ,dartmoor1 which was formerly thought to be the most ancient of the ,plutonic rocks1 is of a date subsequent to the ,culm-measures of ,devonshire1 which are now regarded as forming part of the true carboniferous series4 #ag 8,geology of the ,island of ,arran10 by ,andrew ,c4 ,ramsay4 8,geology of ,arran and ,clydesdale10 by ,james ,bryce4 #ah ,see ,quarterly ,journal of ,geological ,society1 vol4 viii41 pp4 #i and #aj4 ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,considered as a whole1 the volcanic rocks may be grouped into three distinct formations1 which we shall notice in the following order1 which is that of their relative antiquity1 namely3--#a4 ,trachytic2 #b4 ,basaltic2 #c4 ,volcanic or ,lava formations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,a peak of the ,cantal chain4 ,,trachytic ,,formations4 ,trachyte 7derived from 1 rough71 having a coarse1 cellular appearance1 and a rough and gritty feel1 belongs to the class of volcanic rocks4 ,the eruptions of trachyte seem to have commenced towards the middle of the ,tertiary period1 and to have continued up to its close4 ,the trachytes present considerable analogy in their composition to the felspathic porphyries1 but their mineralogical characters are different4 ,their texture is porous2 they form a white1 grey1 black1 sometimes yellowish matrix1 in which1 as a rule1 felspar predominates1 together with disseminated crystals of felspar1 some hornblende or augite1 and dark-coloured mica4 ,in its external appearance trachyte is very variable4 ,it forms the three most elevated mountain ranges of ,central ,france2 the groups of ,cantal and ,mont ,dore1 and the chain of the ,velay 7,puy-de-,dme74#ai #ai ,for full information in reference to the rocks and geology of this part of ,france1 the reader is referred to the masterly work on 8,the ,geology and ,extinct ,volcanoes of ,central ,france10 by ,g4 ,poulett ,scrope1 #bnd edition1 #aheh4 ,illustration3 ,i4--,peak of ,sancy in the ,mont ,dore group1 ,auvergne4 ,the igneous group of ,cantal may be described as a series of lofty summits1 ranged around a large cavity1 which was at one period probably a volcanic crater1 the circular base of which occupies an area of nearly fifteen leagues in diameter4 ,the strictly trachytic portion of the group rises in the centre1 and is composed of high mountains1 throwing off spurs1 which gradually decrease in height1 and terminate in plateaux more or less inclined4 ,these central mountains attain a height varying between #d1ejj and #e1ejj feet above the level of the sea4 ,a scaly or schistose variety of trachyte1 called phonolite1 or clinkstone 7from the ringing metallic sound it emits when struck with the hammer71 with an unusual proportion of felspar1 or1 according to ,gmelin1 composed of felspar and zeolite1 forms the steep trachytic escarpments at the centre1 which enclose the principal valleys2 their abrupt peaks giving a remarkably picturesque appearance to the landscape4 ,in the engraving on p4 #dj 7,fig4 #d7 the slaty1 laminated character of the clinkstone is well represented in one of the phonolitic peaks of the ,cantal group4 ,the group at ,mont ,dore consists of seven or eight rocky summits1 occupying a circuit of about five leagues in diameter4 ,the massive trachytic rock1 of which this mountainous mass is chiefly formed1 has an average thickness of #a1bjj to #b1fjj feet2 comprehending over that range prodigious layers of scori1 pumiceous conglomerates1 and detritus1 interstratified with beds of trachyte and basalt1 bearing the signs of an igneous origin1 tufa forming the base2 and between them occur layers of lignite1 or imperfectly mineralised woody fibre1 the whole being superimposed on a primitive plateau of about #c1bej feet in height4 ,scored and furrowed out by deep valleys1 the viscous mass was gradually upheaved1 until in the needle-like ,pic de ,sancy 7,,plate ,i471 a pyramidal rock of porphyritic trachyte1 which is the loftiest point of ,mont ,dore1 it attains the height of #f1beh feet4 ,the ,pic de ,sancy1 represented on page #dj 7,fig4 #d71 gives an excellent idea of the general appearance of the trachytic mountains of ,mont ,dore4 ,upon the same plateau with ,mont ,dore1 and about seven miles north of its last slopes1 the trachytic formation is repeated in four rounded domes--those of ,puy-de-,dme1 ,sarcou1 ,clierzou1 and ,le ,grand ,suchet4 ,the ,puy-de-,dme1 one of the most remarkable volcanic domes in ,auvergne1 presents another fine and very striking example of an eruptive trachytic rock4 ,the rock here assumes a peculiar mineral character1 which has caused the name of domite to be given to it4 ,the chain of the ,velay forms a zone1 composed of independent plateaux and peaks1 which forms upon the horizon a long and strangely intersected ridge4 ,the bareness of the mountains1 their forms--pointed or rounded1 sometimes terminating in scarped plateaux--give to the whole landscape an appearance at once picturesque and characteristic4 ,the peak of ,le ,mezen1 which rises #e1hbj feet above the sea1 forms the culminating point of the chain4 ,the phonolites of which it consists have been erupted from fissures which present themselves at a great number of points1 ranging from north-north-west to south-south-east4 ,on the banks of the ,rhine and in ,hungary the trachytic formation presents itself in features identical with those which indicate it in ,france4 ,in ,america it is principally represented by some immense cones1 superposed in the chain of the ,andes2 the colossal ,chimborazo being one of those trachytic cones4 ,illustration3 ,,ii4--,mountain and basaltic crater of ,la ,coupe d',ayzac1 in the ,vivarais4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,theoretical view of a basaltic plateau4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,basalt in prismatic columns4 ,,basaltic ,,formations4 ,basaltic eruptions seem to have occurred during the ,secondary and ,tertiary periods4 ,basalt1 according to ,dr4 ,daubeny1#bj in its more strict sense1 8is composed of an intimate mixture of augite with a zeolitic mineral1 which appears to have been formed out of labradorite 7felspar of ,labrador71 by the addition of water--the presence of water being in all zeolites the cause of that bubbling-up under the blow-pipe to which they owe their appellation40 ,m4 ,delesse and other mineralogists are of opinion that the idea of augite being the prevailing mineral in basalt1 must be abandoned2 and that although its presence gives the rock its distinctive character1 as compared with trachytic and most other trap rocks1 still the principal element in their composition is felspar4 ,basalt1 a lava consisting essentially of augite1 labradorite 7or nepheline7 and magnetic iron-ore is the rock which predominates in this formation4 ,it contains a smaller quantity of silica than the trachyte1 and a larger proportion of lime and magnesia4 ,hence1 independent of the iron in its composition1 it is heavier in proportion1 as it contains more or less silica4 ,some varieties of basalt contain very large quantities of olivine1 a mineral of an olive-green colour1 with a chemical composition differing but slightly from serpentine4 ,both basalts and trachyte contain more soda and less silica in their composition than granites2 some of the basalts are highly fusible1 the alkaline matter and lime in their composition acting as a flux to the silica4 ,there are examples of basalt existing in well-defined flows1 which still adhere to craters visible at the present day1 and with regard to the igneous origin of which there can be no doubt4 ,one of the most striking examples of a basaltic cone is furnished by the mountain or crater of ,la ,coupe d',ayzac1 in the ,vivarais1 in the south of ,france4 ,,plate ,,ii41 on the opposite page1 gives an accurate representation of this curious basaltic flow4 ,the remnants of the stream of liquefied basalt which once flowed down the flank of the hill may still be seen adhering in vast masses to the granite rocks on both sides of a narrow valley where the river ,volant has cut across the lava and left a pavement or causeway1 forming an assemblage of upright prismatic columns1 fitted together with geometrical symmetry2 the whole resting on a base of gneiss4 ,basaltic eruptions sometimes form a plateau1 as represented in ,fig4 #e1 where the process of formation is shown theoretically and in a manner which renders further explanation unnecessary4 ,many of these basaltic table-lands form plateaux of very considerable extent and thickness2 others form fragments of the same1 more or less dislocated2 others1 again1 present themselves in isolated knolls1 far removed from similar formations4 ,in short1 basaltic rocks present themselves in veins or dykes1 more or less1 in most countries1 of which ,central ,france and the banks of the ,rhine offer many striking examples4 ,these veins present very evident proofs that the matter has been introduced from below1 and in a manner which could only result from injection from the interior to the exterior of the earth4 ,such are the proofs presented by the basaltic veins of ,villeneuve-de-,berg1 which terminate in slender filaments1 sometimes bifurcated1 which gradually lose themselves in the rock which they traverse4 ,in several parts of the north of ,ireland1 chalk-formations with flints are traversed by basaltic dykes1 the chalk being converted into granular marble near the basalt1 the change sometimes extending eight or ten feet from the wall of the dyke1 and being greatest near the surface of contact4 ,in the ,island of ,rathlin1 the walls of basalt traverse the chalk in three veins or dykes2 the central one a foot thick1 that on the right twenty feet1 and on the left thirty-three feet thick1 and all1 according to ,buckland and ,conybeare1 within the breadth of ninety feet4 #bj 8,volcanoes10 #bnd ed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,basaltic ,causeway1 on the banks of the river ,volant1 in the ,ardche4 ,one of the most striking characteristics of basalt is the prismatic and columnar structure which it often assumes2 the lava being homogeneous and of very fine grain1 the laws which determine the direction of the fissures or divisional planes consolidated from a molten to a solid state1 become here very manifest--these are always at right angles to the surfaces of the rock through which the heat of the fused mass escaped4 ,the basaltic rocks have been at all times remarkable for this picturesque arrangement of their parts4 ,they usually present columns of regular prisms1 having generally six1 often five1 and sometimes four1 seven1 or even three sides1 whose disposition is always perpendicular to the cooling surfaces4 ,these are often divided transversely1 as in ,fig4 #f1 at nearly equal distances1 like the joints of a wall1 composed of regularly arranged1 equal-sided pieces adhering together1 and frequently extending over a more or less considerable space4 ,the name of ,giant's ,causeway has been given1 from time immemorial1 to these curious columnar structures of basalt4 ,in ,france1 in the ,vivarais and in the ,velay1 there are many such basaltic causeways4 ,that of which ,fig4 #g is a sketch lies on the banks of the river ,volant1 where it flows into the ,ardche4 ,ireland has always been celebrated for its ,giant's ,causeway1 which extends over the whole of the northern part of ,antrim1 covering all the pre-existing strata of ,chalk1 ,greensand1 and ,permian formations2 the prismatic columns extend for miles along the cliffs1 projecting into the sea at the point specially designated the ,giant's ,causeway4 ,these columnar formations vary considerably in length and diameter4 ,mc,culloch mentions some in ,skye1 which 8are about four hundred feet high2 others in ,morven not exceeding an inch 7vol4 ii4 p4 #acg74 ,in diameter those of ,ailsa ,craig measure nine feet1 and those of ,morven an inch or less40 ,fingal's ,cave1 in the ,isle of ,staffa1 is renowned among basaltic rocks1 although it was scarcely known on the mainland a century ago1 when ,sir ,joseph ,banks heard of it accidentally1 and was the first to visit and describe it4 ,fingal's ,cave has been hollowed out1 by the sea1 through a gallery of immense prismatic columns of trap1 which are continually beaten by the waves4 ,the columns are usually upright1 but sometimes they are curved and slightly inclined4 ,fig4 #h is a view of the basaltic grotto of ,staffa4 ,grottoes are sometimes formed by basaltic eruptions on land1 followed by their separation into regular columns4 ,the ,grotto of ,cheeses1 at ,bertrich-,baden1 between ,trves and ,coblentz1 is a remarkable example of this kind1 being so called because its columns are formed of round1 and usually flattened1 stones placed one above the other in such a manner as to resemble a pile of cheeses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,basaltic cavern of ,staffa--exterior4 ,if we consider that in basalt-flows the lower part is compact1 and often divided into prismatic columns1 while the upper part is porous1 cellular1 scoriaceous1 and irregularly divided--that the points of separation on which they rest are small beds presenting fragments of the porous stony concretions known under the name of ,lapilli--that the lower portions of these masses present a multitude of points which penetrate the rocks on which they repose1 thereby denoting that some fluid matter had moulded itself into its crevices--that the neighbouring rocks are often calcined to a considerable thickness1 and the included vegetable remains carbonised--no doubt can exist as to the igneous origin of basaltic rocks4 ,when it reached the surface through certain openings1 the fluid basalt spread itself1 flowing1 as it were1 over the horizontal surface of the ground2 for if it had flowed upon inclined surfaces it could not have preserved the uniform surface and constant thickness which it generally exhibits4 ,illustration3 ,,iii4--,extinct volcanoes forming the ,puy-de-,dme ,chain4 ,,volcanic ,,or ,,lava ,,formations4 ,the lava formations comprehend both extinct and active volcanoes4 8,the term10 says ,lyell1 8has a somewhat vague signification1 having been applied to all melted matter observed to flow in streams from volcanic vents4 ,when this matter consolidates in the open air1 the upper part is usually scoriaceous1 and the mass becomes more and more stony as we descend1 or in proportion as it has consolidated more slowly and under greater pressure40#ba #ba 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #eif4 ,the formation of extinct volcanoes is represented in ,france by the volcanoes situated in the ancient provinces of ,auvergne1 ,velay1 and the ,vivarais1 but principally by nearly seventy volcanic cones of various sizes and of the height of from #ejj to #a1jjj feet1 composed of loose scori1 lava1 and pozzuolana1 arranged upon a granitic table-land1 about twelve miles wide1 which overlooks the town of ,clermont-,ferrand1 and which seem to have been produced along a longitudinal fracture in the earth's crust1 running in a direction from north to south4 ,it is a range of volcanic hills1 the 8chain of ,puys0 nearly twenty miles in length1 by two in breadth4 ,by its cellular and porous structure1 which is also granular and crystalline1 the felspathic or pyroxenic lava which flowed from these volcanoes is readily distinguishable from the analogous lavas which belong to the basaltic or trachytic formations4 ,their surface is irregular1 and bristles with asperities1 formed by heaped-up angular blocks4 ,the volcanoes of the chain of ,puys1 represented on opposite page 7,,pl4 ,,iii47 are so perfectly preserved1 their lava is so frequently superposed on sheets of basalt1 and presents a composition and texture so distinct1 that there is no difficulty in establishing the fact that they are posterior to the basaltic formation1 and of very recent age4 ,nevertheless1 they do not appear to belong to the historic ages1 for no tradition attests their eruption4 ,lyell places these eruptions in the ,lower ,miocene period1 and their greatest activity in the ,upper ,miocene and ,pliocene eras4 8,extinct quadrupeds of those eras10 he says1 8belonging to the genera mastodon1 rhinoceros1 and others1 were buried in ashes and beds of alluvial sand and gravel1 which owe their preservation to overspreading sheets of lava40#bb #bb ,ibid1 p4 #fgg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,section of a volcano in action4 ,all volcanic phenomena can be explained by the theory we have already indicated1 of fractures in the solid crust of the globe resulting from its cooling4 ,the various phenomena which existing volcanoes present to us are1 as ,humboldt has said1 8the result of every action exercised by the interior of a planet on its external crust40#bc ,we designate as volcanoes all conduits which establish a permanent communication between the interior of the earth and its surface--a conduit which gives passage at intervals to eruptions of lava1 and in ,fig4 #i we have represented1 in an ideal section1 the geological mode of action of volcanic eruptions4 ,the volcanoes on the surface of the globe1 known to be in an occasional state of activity1 number about three hundred1 and these may be divided into two classes3 the isolated or central1 and the linear or those volcanoes which belong to a series4#bd #bc 8,cosmos10 vol4 i41 p4 #be4 ,bohn4 #bd 8,cosmos10 vol4 i41 p4 #bcg4 ,the first are active volcanoes1 around which there may be established many secondary active mouths of eruption1 always in connection with some principal crater4 ,the second are disposed like the chimneys of furnaces1 along fissures extending over considerable distances4 ,twenty1 thirty1 and even a greater number of volcanic cones may rise above one such rent in the earth's crust1 the direction of which will be indicated by their linear course4 ,the ,peak of ,teneriffe is an instance of a central volcano2 the long rampart-like chain of the ,andes1 presents1 from the south of ,chili to the north-west coast of ,america1 one of the grandest instances of a continental volcanic chain2 the remarkable range of volcanoes in the province of ,quito belong to the latter class4 ,darwin relates that on the #aith of ,march1 #ahce1 the attention of a sentry was called to something like a large star which gradually increased in size till about three o'clock1 when it presented a very magnificent spectacle4 8,by the aid of a glass1 dark objects1 in constant succession1 were seen in the midst of a great glare of red light1 to be thrown up and to fall down4 ,the light was sufficient to cast on the water a long bright reflection--it was the volcano of ,osorno in action40 ,mr4 ,darwin was afterwards assured that ,aconcagua1 in ,chili1 #dhj miles to the north1 was in action on the same night1 and that the great eruption of ,coseguina 7#b1gjj miles north of ,aconcagua71 accompanied by an earthquake felt over #a1jjj miles1 also occurred within six hours of this same time2 and yet ,coseguina had been dormant for six-and-twenty years1 and ,aconcagua most rarely shows any signs of action4#be ,it is also stated by ,professor ,dove that in the year #ahce the ashes discharged from the mountain of ,coseguina were carried #gjj miles1 and that the roaring noise of the eruption was heard at ,san ,salvador1 a distance of #a1jjj miles4 #be ,darwin's 8,journal10 p4 #bia1 #bnd edition4 ,in the sea the series of volcanoes show themselves in groups of islands disposed in longitudinal series4 ,among these may be ranged the volcanic series of ,sunda1 which1 according to the accounts of the matter ejected and the violence of the eruptions1 seem to be among the most remarkable on the globe2 the series of the ,moluccas and of the ,philippines2 those of ,japan2 of the ,marianne ,islands2 of ,chili2 of the double series of volcanic summits near ,quito1 those of the ,antilles1 ,guatemala1 and ,mexico4 ,among the central1 or isolated volcanoes1 we may class those of the ,lipari ,islands1 which have ,stromboli1 in permanent activity1 for their centre2 ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 the volcanoes of the ,azores1 of the ,canaries1 of the ,cape de ,verde1 of the ,galapagos ,islands1 the ,sandwich ,islands1 the ,marquesas1 the ,society ,islands1 the ,friendly ,islands1 ,bourbon1 and1 finally1 ,ararat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,existing crater of ,vesuvius4 ,the mouths of volcanic chimneys are1 almost always1 situated near the summit of a more or less isolated conical mountain2 they usually consist of an opening in the form of a funnel1 which is called the crater1 and which descends into the interior of the volcanic chimney4 ,but in the course of ages the crater becomes extended and enlarged1 until1 in some of the older volcanoes1 it has attained almost incredible dimensions4 ,in #ahbb the crater of ,vesuvius was #b1jjj feet deep1 and of a very considerable circumference4 ,the crater of ,kilauea1 in the ,sandwich ,islands group1 is an immense chasm #a1jjj feet deep1 with an outer circle no less than from two to three miles in diameter1 in which lava is usually seen1 ,mr4 ,dana tells us1 to boil up at the bottom of a lake1 the level of which varies continually according to the active or quiescent state of the volcano4 ,the cone which supports these craters1 and which is designated the cone of ejection1 is composed for the most part of lava or scori1 the products of eruption4 ,many volcanoes consist only of a cone of scori4 ,such is that of ,barren ,isle1 in the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,others1 on the contrary1 present a very small cone1 notwithstanding the considerable height of the volcanic chain4 ,as an example we may mention the new crater of ,vesuvius1 which was produced in #ahbi within the former crater 7,fig4 #aj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,fissures near ,locarno4 ,the frequency and intensity of the eruptions bear no relation to the dimensions of the volcanic mountain4 ,the eruption of a volcano is usually announced by a subterranean noise1 accompanied by shocks1 quivering of the ground1 and sometimes by actual earthquakes4 ,the noise1 which usually proceeds from a great depth1 makes itself heard1 sometimes over a great extent of country1 and resembles a well-sustained fire of artillery1 accompanied by the rattle of musketry4 ,sometimes it is like the heavy rolling of subterranean thunder4 ,fissures are frequently produced during the eruptions1 extending over a considerable radius1 as represented in the woodcut on page #eg of the fissures of ,locarno 7,fig4 #aa71 where they present a singular appearance2 the clefts radiating from a centre in all directions1 not unlike the starred fracture in a cracked pane of glass4 ,the eruption begins with a strong shock1 which shakes the whole interior of the mountain2 masses of heated vapour and fluids begin to ascend1 revealing themselves in some cases by the melting of the snow upon the flanks of the cone of ejection2 while simultaneously with the final shock1 which overcomes the last resistance opposed by the solid crust of the ground1 a considerable body of gas1 and more especially of steam1 escapes from the mouth of the crater4 ,the steam1 it is important to remark1 is essentially the cause of the terrible mechanical effects which accompany volcanic eruptions4 ,granitic1 porphyritic1 trachytic1 and sometimes even basaltic matters1 have reached the surface without producing any of those violent explosions or ejections of rocks and stones which accompany modern volcanic eruptions2 the older granites1 porphyries1 trachytes1 and basalts were discharged without violence1 because steam did not accompany those melted rocks--a sufficient proof of the comparative calm which attended the ancient as compared with modern eruptions4 ,well established by scientific observations1 this is a fact which enables us to explain the cause of the tremendous mechanical effects attending modern volcanic eruptions1 contrasted with the more tranquil eruptions of earlier times4 ,during the first moments of a volcanic eruption1 the accumulated masses of stones and ashes1 which fill the crater1 are shot up into the sky by the suddenly and powerfully developed elasticity of the steam4 ,this steam1 which has been disengaged by the heat of the fluid lava1 assumes the form of great rounded bubbles1 which are evolved into the air to a great height above the crater1 where they expand as they rise1 in clouds of dazzling whiteness1 assuming that appearance which ,pliny the ,younger compared to a stone pine rising over ,vesuvius4 ,the masses of clouds finally condense and follow the direction of the wind4 ,these volcanic clouds are grey or black1 according to the quantity of ashes1 that is1 of pulverulent matter or dust1 mixed with watery vapour1 which they convey4 ,in some eruptions it has been observed that these clouds1 on descending to the surface of the soil1 spread around an odour of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid1 and traces of both these acids are found in the rain which proceeds from the condensation of these clouds4 ,the fleecy clouds of vapour which issue from the volcanoes are streaked with lightning1 followed by continuous peals of thunder2 in condensing1 they discharge disastrous showers1 which sweep the sides of the mountain4 ,many eruptions1 known as mud volcanoes1 and watery volcanoes1 are nothing more than these heavy rains1 carrying down with them showers of ashes1 stones1 and scori1 more or less mixed with water4 ,passing on to the phenomena of which the crater is the scene at the time of an eruption1 it is stated that at first there is an incessant rise and fall of the lava which fills the interior of the crater4 ,this double movement is often interrupted by violent explosions of gas4 ,the crater of ,kilauea1 in the ,island of ,hawaii1 contains a lake of molten matter #a1fjj feet broad1 which is subject to such a double movement of elevation and depression4 ,each of the vaporous bubbles as it issues from the crater presses the molten lava upwards1 till it rises and bursts with great force at the surface4 ,a portion of the lava1 half-cooled and reduced to scori1 is thus projected upwards1 and the several fragments are hurled violently in all directions1 like those of a shell at the moment when it bursts4 ,the greater number of the fragments being thrown vertically into the air1 fall back into the crater again4 ,many accumulating on the edge of the opening add more and more to the height of the cone of eruption4 ,the lighter and smaller fragments1 as well as the fine ashes1 are drawn upwards by the spiral vapours1 and sometimes transported by the winds over almost incredible distances4 ,in #agid the ashes from ,vesuvius were carried as far as the extremity of ,calabria4 ,in #ahab the volcanic ashes of ,saint ,vincent1 in the ,antilles1 were carried eastward as far as ,barbadoes1 spreading such obscurity over the island1 that1 in open day1 passengers could not see their way4 ,finally1 some of the masses of molten lava are shot singly into the air during an eruption with a rapid rotatory motion1 which causes them to assume the rounded shape in which they are known by the name of volcanic bombs4 ,we have already remarked that the lava1 which in a fluid state fills the crater and the internal vent or chimney of the volcano1 is forced upwards by gaseous fluids1 and by the steam which has been generated from the water1 entangled with the lava4 ,in some cases the mechanical force of this vapour is so great as to drive the lava over the edge of the crater1 when it forms a fiery torrent1 spreading over the sides of the mountain4 ,this only happens in the case of volcanoes of inconsiderable height2 in lofty volcanoes it is not unusual for the lava thus to force an outlet for itself near the base of the mountain1 through which the fiery stream discharges itself over the surrounding country4 ,in such circumstances the lava cools somewhat rapidly2 it becomes hard and presents a scoriaceous crust on the surface1 while the vapour escapes in jets of steam through the interstices4 ,but under this superficial crust the lava retains its fluid state1 cooling slowly in the interior of the mass1 while the thickening stream moves sluggishly along1 impeded in its progress by the fragments of rock which this burning river drives before it4 ,the rate at which a current of lava moves along depends upon its mass1 upon its degree of fluidity1 and upon the inclination of the ground4 ,it has been stated that certain streams of lava have traversed more than #c1jjj yards in an hour2 but the rate at which they travel is usually much less1 a man on foot being often able to outstrip them4 ,these streams1 also1 vary greatly in dimensions4 ,the most considerable stream of lava from ,etna had1 in some parts1 a thickness of nearly #abj feet1 with a breadth of a geographical mile and a half4 ,the largest lava-stream which has been recorded issued from the ,skaptr ,jokul1 in ,iceland1 in #aghc4 ,it formed two currents1 whose extremities were twenty leagues apart1 and which from time to time presented a breadth of from seven to fifteen miles and a thickness of #fej feet4 ,a peculiar effect1 and which only simulates volcanic activity1 is observable in localities where mud volcanoes exist4 ,volcanoes of this class are for the most part conical hills of low elevation1 with a hollow or depression at the centre1 from which they discharge the mud which is forced upwards by gas and steam4 ,the temperature of the ejected matter is only slightly elevated4 ,the mud1 generally of a greyish colour1 with the odour of petroleum1 is subject to the same alternating movements which have been already ascribed to the fluid lava of volcanoes1 properly so called4 ,the gases which force out this liquid mud1 mixed with salts1 gypsum1 naphtha1 sulphur1 sometimes even of ammonia1 are usually carburetted hydrogen and carbonic acid4 ,everything leads to the conclusion that these compounds proceed1 at least in great part1 from the reaction produced between the various elements of the subsoil under the influence of infiltrating water between bituminous marls1 complex carbonates1 and probably carbonic acid1 derived from acidulated springs4 ,m4 ,fournet saw in ,languedoc1 near ,roujan1 traces of some of these formations2 and not far from that neighbourhood is the bituminous spring of ,gabian4 ,illustration3 ,,iv4--,mud volcano at ,turbaco1 ,south ,america4 ,mud volcanoes1 or salses1 exist in rather numerous localities4 ,several are found in the neighbourhood of ,modena4 ,there are some in ,sicily1 between ,aragona and ,girgenti4 ,pallas observed them in the ,crimea--in the peninsula of ,kertch1 and in the ,isle of ,tamn4 ,von ,humboldt has described and figured a group of them in the province of ,cartagena1 in ,south ,america4 ,finally1 they have been observed in the ,island of ,trinidad and in ,hindostan4 ,in #agig an eruption of mud ejected from ,tunguragua1 in ,quito1 filled a valley #a1jjj feet wide to a depth of #fjj feet4 ,on the opposite page is represented the mud volcano of ,turbaco1 in the province of ,cartagena 7,,plate ,,iv471 which is described and figured by ,von ,humboldt in his 8,voyage to the ,equatorial ,regions of ,america40 ,in certain countries we find small hillocks of argillaceous formation1 resulting from ancient discharges of mud volcanoes1 from which all disengagement of gas1 water1 and mud has long ceased4 ,sometimes1 however1 the phenomenon returns and resumes its interrupted course with great violence4 ,slight shocks of earthquakes are then felt2 blocks of dried earth are projected from the ancient crater1 and new waves of mud flow over its edge1 and spread over the neighbouring ground4 ,to return to ordinary volcanoes1 that is to say1 those which eject lava4 ,at the end of a lava-flow1 when the violence of the volcanic action begins to subside1 the discharge from the crater is confined to the disengagement of vaporous gases1 mixed with steam1 which make their escape in more or less abundance through a multitude of fissures in the ground4 ,the great number of volcanoes which have thus become extinct form what are called solfataras4 ,the sulphuretted hydrogen1 which is given out through the fissures in the ground1 is decomposed by contact with the air1 water being formed by the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere1 and sulphur deposited in considerable quantities on the walls of the crater1 and in the cracks of the ground4 ,such is the geological source of the sulphur which is collected at ,pozzuoli1 near ,naples1 and in many other similar regions--a substance which plays a most important part in the industrial occupations of the world4 ,it is1 in fact1 from sulphur extracted from the ground about the mouths of extinct volcanoes1 that is to say from the products of solfataras1 that sulphuric acid is frequently made--sulphuric acid being the fundamental agent1 one of the most powerful elements1 of the manufacturing productions of both worlds4 ,the last phase of volcanic activity is the disengagement of carbonic acid gas without any increase of temperature4 ,in places where these continued emanations of carbonic acid gas manifest themselves1 the existence of ancient volcanoes may be recognised1 of which these discharges are the closing phenomenon4 ,this is seen in a most remarkable manner in ,auvergne1 where there are a multitude of acidulated springs1 that is to say1 springs charged with carbonic acid4 ,during the time when he was opening the mines of ,pontgibaud1 ,m4 ,fournet had to contend with emanations which sometimes exhibited themselves with explosive power4 ,jets of water were thrown to great heights in the galleries1 roaring with the noise of steam when escaping from the boiler of a locomotive engine4 ,the water which filled an abandoned mine-shaft was1 on two separate occasions1 upheaved with great violence--half emptying the pit--while vast volumes of the gas overspread the whole valley1 suffocating a horse and a flock of geese4 ,the miners were compelled to fly in all haste at the moment when the gas burst forth1 holding themselves as upright as possible1 to avoid plunging their heads into the carbonic acid gas1 which1 from its low specific gravity1 was now filling the lower parts of the galleries4 ,it represented on a small scale the effect of the ,grotto del ,cane1 which excites such surprise among the ignorant near ,naples2 passing1 also1 for one of the marvels of ,nature all over the world4 ,m4 ,fournet states that all the minute fissures of the metalliferous gneiss near ,clermont are quite saturated with free carbonic acid gas1 which rises plentifully from the soil there1 as well as in many parts of the surrounding country4 ,the components of the gneiss1 with the exception of the quartz1 are softened by it2 and fresh combinations of the acid with lime1 iron1 and manganese are continually taking place4 ,in short1 long after volcanoes have become extinct1 hot springs1 charged with mineral ingredients1 continue to flow in the same area4 ,the same facts as those of the ,grotto del ,cane manifest themselves with even greater intensity in ,java1 in the so-called ,valley of ,poison1 which is an object of terror to the natives4 ,in this celebrated valley the ground is said to be covered with skeletons and carcases of tigers1 goats1 stags1 birds1 and even of human beings2 for asphyxia or suffocation1 it seems1 strikes all living things which venture into this desolate place4 ,in the same island a stream of sulphurous water1 as white as milk1 issues from the crater of ,mount ,idienne1 on the east coast2 and on one occasion1 as cited by ,nozet in the ,journal de ,gologie1 a great body of hot water1 charged with sulphuric acid1 was discharged from the same volcano1 inundating and destroying all the vegetation of a large tract of country by its noxious fumes and poisonous properties4 ,illustration3 ,v4--,great ,geyser of ,iceland4 ,it is known that the alkaline waters of ,plombires1 in the ,vosges1 have a temperature of #afj ,fahr4 ,for #b1jjj years1 according to ,daubre1 through beds of concrete1 of lime1 brick1 and sandstone1 these hot waters have percolated until they have originated calcareous spar1 aragonite1 and fluor spar1 together with siliceous minerals1 such as opal1 which are found filling the interstices of the bricks and mortar4 ,from these and other similar statements1 8we are led10 says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1#bf 8to infer that when in the bowels of the earth there are large volumes of molten matter1 containing heated water and various acids1 under enormous pressure1 these subterraneous fluid masses will gradually part with their heat by the escape of steam and various gases through fissures producing hot springs1 or by the passage of the same through the pores of the overlying and injected rocks40 8,although10 he adds1#bg 8we can only study the phenomena as exhibited at the surface1 it is clear that the gaseous fluids must have made their way through the whole thickness of the porous or fissured rocks1 which intervene between the subterraneous reservoirs of gas and the external air4 ,the extent1 therefore1 of the earth's crust which the vapours have permeated1 and are now permeating1 may be thousands of fathoms in thickness1 and their heating and modifying influence may be spread throughout the whole of this solid mass40 #bf 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #gcb4 #bg ,ibid1 p4 #gcc4 ,the fountains of boiling water1 known under the name of ,geysers1 are another emanation connected with ancient craters4 ,they are either continuous or intermittent4 ,in ,iceland we find great numbers of these gushing springs--in fact1 the island is one entire mass of eruptive rock4 ,nearly all the volcanoes are situated upon a broad band of trachyte1 which traverses the island from south-west to north-east4 ,it is traversed by immense fissures1 and covered with masses of lava1 such as no other country presents4 ,the volcanic action1 in short1 goes on with such energy that certain paroxysms of ,mount ,hecla have lasted for six years without interruption4 ,but the ,great ,geyser1 represented on the opposite page 7,,plate ,v471 is1 perhaps1 even more an object of curiosity4 ,this water-volcano projects a column of boiling water1 eight yards in diameter1 charged with silica1 to the height1 it has been said1 of about #aej feet1 depositing vast quantities of silica as it cools after reaching the earth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the volcanoes in actual activity are1 as we have said1 very numerous1 being more than #bjj in number1 scattered over the whole surface of the globe1 but mostly occurring in tropical regions4 ,the island of ,java alone contains about fifty1 which have been mapped and described by ,dr4 ,junghahn4 ,those best known are ,vesuvius1 near ,naples2 ,etna1 in ,sicily2 and ,stromboli1 in the ,lipari ,islands4 ,a rapid sketch of a few of these may interest the reader4 ,vesuvius is of all volcanoes that which has been most closely studied2 it is1 so to speak1 the classical volcano4 ,few persons are ignorant of the fact that it opened--after a period of quiescence extending beyond the memory of living man--in the year #gi of our era4 ,this eruption cost the elder ,pliny his life1 who fell a sacrifice to his desire to witness one of the most imposing of natural phenomena4 ,after many mutations the present crater of ,vesuvius consists of a cone1 surrounded on the side opposite the sea by a semicircular crest1 composed of pumiceous matter1 foreign to ,vesuvius properly speaking1 for we believe that ,mount ,vesuvius was originally the mountain to which the name of ,somma is now given4 ,the cone which now bears the name of ,vesuvius was probably formed during the celebrated eruption of #gi1 which buried under its showers of pumiceous ashes the cities of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum4 ,this cone terminates in a crater1 the shape of which has undergone many changes1 and which has1 since its origin1 thrown out eruptions of a varied character1 together with streams of lava4 ,in our days the eruptions of ,vesuvius have only been separated by intervals of a few years4 ,the ,lipari ,isles contain the volcano of ,stromboli1 which is continually in a state of ignition1 and forms the natural lighthouse of the ,tyrrhenian ,sea2 such it was when ,homer mentioned it1 such it was before old ,homer's time1 and such it still appears in our days4 ,its eruptions are incessant4 ,the crater whence they issue is not situated on the summit of the cone1 but upon one of its sides1 at nearly two-thirds of its height4 ,it is in part filled with fluid lava1 which is continually subjected to alternate elevation and depression--a movement provoked by the ebullition and ascension of bubbles of steam which rise to the surface1 projecting upwards a tall column of ashes4 ,during the night these clouds of vapour shine with a magnificent red reflection1 which lights up the whole isle and the surrounding sea with a lurid glow4 ,situated on the eastern coast of ,sicily1 ,etna appears1 at the first glance1 to have a much more simple structure than ,vesuvius4 ,its slopes are less steep1 more uniform on all sides2 its vast base nearly represents the form of a buckler4 ,the lower portion of ,etna1 or the cultivated region of the mountain1 has an inclination of about three degrees4 ,the middle1 or forest region1 is steeper1 and has an inclination of about eight degrees4 ,the mountain terminates in a cone of an elliptical form of thirty-two degrees of inclination1 which bears in the middle1 above a nearly horizontal terrace1 the cone of eruption with its circular crater4 ,the crater is #aj1hgd feet high4 ,it gives out no lava1 but only vomits forth gas and vapour1 the streams of lava issuing from sixteen smaller cones which have been formed on the slopes of the mountain4 ,the observer may1 by looking at the summit1 convince himself that these cones are disposed in rays1 and are based upon clefts or fissures which converge towards the crater as towards a centre4 ,but the most extraordinary display of volcanic phenomena occurs in the ,pacific ,ocean1 in the ,sandwich ,islands1 and in ,java4 ,mauna ,loa and ,mauna ,kea1 in ,hawaii1 are huge flattened cones1 #ad1jjj feet high4 ,according to ,mr4 ,dana1 these lofty1 featureless hills sometimes throw out successive streams of lava1 not very far below their summits1 often two miles in breadth and six-and-twenty in length2 and that not from one vent1 but in every direction1 from the apex of the cone down slopes varying from four to eight degrees of inclination4 ,the lateral crater of ,kilauea1 on the flank of ,mauna ,loa1 is from #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet above the level of the sea--an immense chasm #a1jjj feet deep1 with an outer circuit two to three miles in diameter4 ,at the bottom lava is seen to boil up in a molten lake1 the level of which rises or falls according to the active or quiescent state of the volcano2 but in place of overflowing1 the column of melted rock1 when the pressure becomes excessive1 forces a passage through subterranean communications leading to the sea4 ,one of these outbursts1 which took place at an ancient wooded crater six miles east of ,kilauea1 was observed by ,mr4 ,coan1 a missionary1 in ,june1 #ahdj4 ,another indication of the subterranean progress of the lava took place a mile or two beyond this1 in which the fiery flood spread itself over fifty acres of land1 and then found its way underground for several miles further1 to reappear at the bottom of a second ancient wooded crater which it partly filled up4#bh #bh ,lyell's 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #fag4 ,the volcanic mountains of ,java constitute the highest peaks of a mountain-range running through the island from east to west1 on which ,dr4 ,junghahn described and mapped forty-six conical eminences1 ranging from #d1jjj to #aa1jjj feet high4 ,at the top of many of the loftiest of these ,dr4 ,junghahn found the active cones and craters of small size1 and surrounded by a plain of ashes and sand1 which he calls the 8old crater wall10 sometimes exceeding #a1jjj feet in vertical height1 and many of the semicircular walls enclosing large cavities or calderas1 four geographical miles in diameter4 ,from the highest parts of many of these hollows rivers flow1 which1 in the course of ages1 have cut out deep valleys in the mountain's side4#bi #bi ,lyell's 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #fbj4 ,to this rapid sketch of actually existing volcanic phenomena we may add a brief notice of submarine volcanoes4 ,if these are known to us only in small numbers1 the circumstance is explained by the fact that their appearance above the bosom of the sea is almost invariably followed by a more or less complete disappearance2 at the same time such very striking and visible phenomena afford a sufficient proof of the continued persistence of volcanic action beneath the bed of the sea-basin4 ,at various times islands have suddenly appeared1 amid the ocean1 at points where the navigator had not before noticed them4 ,in this manner we have witnessed the island called ,graham's1 ,ferdinanda1 or ,julia1 which suddenly appeared off the south-west coast ,sicily in #ahca1 and was swept away by the waves two months afterwards4#cj ,at several periods also1 and notably in #ahaa1 new islands were formed in the ,azores1 which raised themselves above the waves by repeated efforts all round the islands1 and at many other points4 #cj ,ibid1 p4 #fbj4 ,the island which appeared in #agif ten leagues from the northern point of ,unalaska1 one of the ,aleutian group of islands1 is specially remarkable4 ,we first see a column of smoke issuing from the bosom of the ocean1 afterwards a black point appears1 from which bundles of fiery sparks seem to rise over the surface of the sea4 ,during the many months that these phenomena continue1 the island increases in breadth and in height4 ,finally smoke only is seen2 at the end of four years1 even this last trace of volcanic convulsion altogether ceases4 ,the island continued1 nevertheless1 to enlarge and to increase in height1 and in #ahjf it formed a cone1 surmounted by four other smaller ones4 ,in the space comprised between the isles of ,santorin1 ,tharasia1 and ,aspronisi1 in the ,mediterranean1 there arose1 #afj years before our era1 the island of ,hyera1 which was enlarged by the upheaval of islets on its margin during the years #ai1 #gbf1 and #adbg4 ,again1 in #aggc1 ,micra-,kameni1 and in #agjg1 ,nea-,kameni1 made their appearance4 ,these islands increased in size successively in #agji1 in #agaa1 in #agab4 ,according to ancient writers1 ,santorin1 ,tharasia1 and ,aspronisi1 made their appearance many ages before the ,christian era1 at the termination of earthquakes of great violence4 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,the rocks composing the terrestrial crust have not always remained in their original state4 ,they have frequently undergone changes which have altogether modified their properties1 physical and chemical4 ,when they present these characteristics1 we term them ,metamorphic ,rocks4 ,the phenomena which belong to this subject are at once important and new1 and have lately much attracted the attention of geologists4 ,we shall best enlighten our readers on the metamorphism of rocks1 if we treat of it under the heads of special and general metamorphism4 ,when a mass of eruptive rock penetrates the terrestrial crust it subjects the rocks through which it passes to a special metamorphism--to the effects of heat produced by contact4 ,such effects may almost always be observed near the margin of masses of eruptive rock1 and they are attributable either to the communicated heat of the eruptive rock itself1 or to the disengagement of gases1 of steam1 or of mineral and thermal waters1 which have accompanied its eruption4 ,the effects vary not only with the rock ejected1 but even with the nature of the rock surrounding it4 ,in the case of volcanic lava ejected in a molten state1 for instance1 the modifications it effects on the surrounding rock are very characteristic4 ,its structure becomes prismatic1 full of cracks1 often cellular and scoriaceous4 ,wood and other combustibles touched by the lava are consumed or partially carbonised4 ,limestone assumes a granular and crystalline texture4 ,siliceous rocks are transformed1 not only into quartz like glass1 but they also combine with various bases1 and yield vitreous and cellular silicates4 ,it is nearly the same with argillaceous rocks1 which adhere together1 and frequently take the colour of red bricks4 ,the surrounding rock is frequently impregnated with specular iron-ore1 and penetrated with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid1 and by divers salts formed from these acids4 ,at a certain distance from the place of contact with the lava1 the action of water aided by heat produces silica1 carbonate of lime1 aragonite1 zeolite1 and various other minerals4 ,from immediate contact with the lava1 then1 the metamorphic rocks denote the action of a very strong heat4 ,they bear evident traces of calcination1 of softening1 and even of fusion4 ,when they present themselves as hydrosilicates and carbonates1 the silica and associated minerals are most frequently at some distance from the points of contact2 and the formation of these minerals is probably due to the combination of water and heat1 although this last ceases to be the principal agent4 ,the hydrated volcanic rocks1 such as the basalts and trappean rocks in general1 continue to produce effects of metamorphism1 in which heat operates1 although its influence is inconsiderable1 water being much the more powerful agent4 ,the metamorphosis which is observable in the structure and mineralogical composition of neighbouring rocks is as follows3--,the structure of separation becomes fragmentary1 columnar1 or many-sided1 and even prismatic4 ,it becomes especially prismatic in combustibles1 in sandstones1 in argillaceous formations1 in felspathic rocks1 and even in limestones4 ,prisms are formed perpendicular to the surface of contact1 their length sometimes exceeding six feet4 ,most commonly they still contain water or volatile matter4 ,these characters may be observed at the junction of the basalts which has been ejected upon the argillaceous strata near ,clermont in ,auvergne1 at ,polignac1 and in the neighbourhood of ,le ,puy-en-,velay4 ,if the vein of ,basalt or ,trap has traversed a bed of coal or of lignite1 we find the combustible strongly metamorphosed at the point of contact4 ,sometimes it becomes cellular and is changed into coke4 ,this is especially the case in the coal-basin of ,brassac4 ,but more frequently the coal has lost all1 or part of1 its bituminous and volatile matter--it has been metamorphosed into anthracite--as an example we may quote the lignite of ,mont ,meisner4 ,again1 in some exceptional cases1 the combustible may even be changed into graphite near to its junction with ,trap4 ,this is observed at the coal-mine of ,new ,cumnock in ,ayrshire4 ,when near its junction with a trappean rock1 a combustible has been metamorphosed into coke or anthracite1 it is also frequently impregnated by hydrated oxide of iron1 by clay1 foliated carbonate of lime1 iron pyrites1 and by various mineral veins4 ,it may happen that the combustible has been reduced to a pulverulent state1 in which case it is unfit for use4 ,such is the case in a coal-mine at ,newcastle1 where the coal lies within thirty yards of a dyke of ,trap4 ,when ,basalt and ,trap have been ejected through limestone rock1 the latter becomes more or less altered4 ,near the points of contact1 the metamorphism which they have undergone is revealed by the change of colour and aspect1 which is exhibited all around the vein1 often also by the development of a crystalline structure4 ,limestone becomes granular and saccharoid--it is changed into marble4 ,the most remarkable instance of this metamorphism is the ,carrara marble1 a non-fossiliferous limestone of the ,oolite series1 which has been altered and the fossils destroyed2 so that the marble of these celebrated quarries1 once supposed to have been formed before the creation of organic beings1 is now shown to be an altered limestone of the ,oolitic period1 and the underlying crystalline schists are sandstones and shales of secondary age modified by plutonic action4 ,the action of basalt upon limestone is observable at ,villeneuve de ,berg1 in ,auvergne2 but still more in the neighbourhood of ,belfast1 where we may see the ,chalk changed into saccharoid limestone near to its contact with the ,trap4 ,sometimes the metamorphism extends many feet from the point of contact2 nay1 more than that1 some zeolites and other minerals seem to be developed in the crystallised limestone4 ,when sandstone is found in contact with trappean rock1 it presents unequivocal traces of metamorphism2 it loses its reddish colour and becomes white1 grey1 green1 or black2 parallel veins may be detected which give it a jaspideous structure2 it separates into prisms perpendicular to the walls of the injected veins1 when it assumes a brilliant and vitreous lustre4 ,sometimes it is even also found penetrated by zeolites1 a family of minerals which melt before the blowpipe with considerable ebullition4 ,the mottled sandstones of ,germany1 which are traversed by veins of basalt1 often exhibit metamorphism1 particularly at ,wildenstern1 in ,wrtemberg4 ,argillaceous rocks1 like all others1 are subject to metamorphism when they come in contact with eruptive trappean rocks4 ,in these circumstances they change colour and assume a varied or prismatic structure2 at the same time their hardness increases1 and they become lithoidal or stony in structure4 ,they may also become cellular--form zeolites in their cavities with foliated carbonate of lime1 as well as minerals which commonly occur in amygdaloid4 ,sometimes even the fissures are coated by the metallic minerals1 and the other minerals which accompany them in their metalliferous beds4 ,generally they lose a part of their water and of their carbonic acid4 ,in other circumstances they combine with oxide of iron and the alkalies4 ,this has been asserted1 for example1 at ,essey1 in the department of the ,meurthe1 where a very argillaceous sandstone is found1 charged with jasper porcellanite1 near to the junction of the rock with a vein of basalt4 ,hitherto we have spoken only of the metamorphosis the result of volcanic action4 ,a few words will suffice to acquaint the reader with the metamorphism exercised by the porphyries and granites4 ,by contact with granite1 we find coal changed into anthracite or graphite4 ,it is important to note1 however1 that coal has seldom been metamorphosed into coke4 ,as to the limestone1 it is sometimes1 as we have seen1 transformed into marble2 we even find in its interior divers minerals1 notably silicates with a calcareous base1 such as garnets1 pyroxene1 hornblende1 c4 ,the sandstones and clay-slates have alike been altered4 ,the surrounding deposit and the eruptive rock are both frequently impregnated with quartz1 carbonate of lime1 sulphate of baryta1 fluorides1 and1 in a word1 with the whole tribe of metalliferous minerals1 which present themselves1 besides1 with the characteristics which are common to them in the veins4 ,,general ,,metamorphism4 ,sedimentary rocks sometimes exhibit all the symptoms of metamorphism where there is no evidence of direct eruptive action1 and that upon a scale much grander than in the case of special metamorphism4 ,it is observable over whole regions1 in which it has modified and altered simultaneously all the surrounding rocks4 ,this state of things is called general1 or normal1 metamorphism4 ,the fundamental gneiss1 which covers such a vast extent of country1 is the most striking instance known of general metamorphism4 ,it was first described by ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan1 ,director of the ,canadian ,geological ,survey1 who estimates its thickness at #cj1jjj feet4 ,the ,laurentian ,gneiss is a term which is used by geologists to designate those metamorphic rocks which are known to be older than the ,cambrian system4 ,they are parts of the old pre-,cambrian continents which lie at the base of the great ,american continent1 ,scandinavia1 the ,hebrides1 c42 and which are largely developed on the west coast of ,scotland4 ,in order to give the reader some idea of this metamorphism1 we shall endeavour to trace its effects in rocks of the same nature1 indicating the characters successively presented by the rocks according to the intensity of the metamorphism to which they have been subjected4 ,combustibles1 which have a special composition1 totally different from all other rocks1 are obviously the first objects of examination4 ,when we descend in the series of sedimentary deposits1 the combustibles are observed completely to change their characters4 ,from the peat which is the product of our own epoch1 we pass to lignite1 to coal1 to anthracite1 and even to graphite2 and find that their density increases1 varying up to at least double4 ,hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and1 above all1 oxygen1 diminish rapidly4 ,volatile and bituminous matters decrease1 while carbon undergoes a proportionate increase4 ,this metamorphism of the combustible minerals1 which takes place in deposits of different ages1 may also be observed even in the same bed4 ,for instance1 in the coal formations of ,america1 which extend to the west of the ,alleghany mountains1 the ,coal-measures contain a certain proportion of volatile matter1 which goes on diminishing in proportion as we approach the granite rocks2 this proportion rises to fifty per cent4 upon the ,ohio1 but it falls to forty upon the ,manon-,gahela1 and even to sixteen in the ,alleghanies4 ,finally1 in the regions where the strata have been most disturbed1 in ,pennsylvania and ,massachusetts1 the coal has been metamorphosed into anthracite and even into graphite or plumbago4 ,limestone is one of the rocks upon which we can most easily follow the effects of general metamorphism4 ,when it has not been modified1 it is usually found in sedimentary rocks in the state of compact limestone1 of coarse limestone1 or of earthy limestone such as chalk4 ,but let us consider it in the mountains1 especially in mountains which are at the same time granitic1 such as the ,pyrenees1 the ,vosges1 and the ,alps4 ,we shall then see its characters completely modified4 ,in the long and deep valleys of the ,alps1 for example1 we can follow the alterations of the limestone for many leagues1 the beds losing more and more their regularity in proportion as we approach the central chain1 until they lose themselves in solitary pinnacles and projections enclosed in crystalline schists or granitic rocks4 ,towards the upper regions of the ,alps the limestone divides itself into pseudo-regular fragments1 it is more strongly cemented1 more compact1 more sonorous2 its colour becomes paler1 and it passes from black to grey by the gradual disappearance of organic and bituminous matter with which it has been impregnated1 at the same time its crystalline structure increases in a manner scarcely perceptible4 ,it may even be observed to be metamorphosed into an aggregate of microscopic crystals1 and finally to pass into a white saccharoid limestone4 ,this metamorphism is produced without any decomposition of the limestone2 it has rather been softened and half melted by the heat1 that is1 rendered plastic1 so to speak1 for we find in it fossils still recognisable1 and among these1 notably1 some ,ammonites and ,belemnites1 the presence of which enables us to state that it is the greyish-black ,jurassic limestone1 which has been transformed into white saccharoid or granular limestone4 ,if the limestone subjected to this transformation were perfectly pure1 it would simply take a crystalline structure2 but it is generally mixed with sand and various argillaceous matters1 which have been deposited along with it1 matters which go to form new minerals4 ,these new minerals1 however1 are not disseminated by chance2 they develop themselves in the direction of the lamination1 so to speak1 of the limestone1 and in its fissures1 in such a manner that they present themselves in nodules1 seams1 and sometimes in veins4 ,among the principal minerals of the saccharoid limestone we may mention graphite1 quartz1 some very varied silicates1 such as andalusite1 disthene1 serpentine1 talc1 garnet1 augite1 hornblende1 epidote1 chlorite1 the micas1 the felspars2 finally1 spinel1 corundum1 phosphate of lime1 oxide of iron and oligiste1 iron pyrites1 c4 ,besides these1 various minerals in veins figure among those which exist more commonly in the saccharoid limestone4 ,when metamorphic limestone is sufficiently pure1 it is employed as statuary marble4 ,such is the geological origin of ,carrara marble1 which is quarried in the ,apuan ,alps on a great scale2 such1 also1 was the marble of ,paros and ,antiparos1 still so celebrated for its purity4 ,on examination1 however1 with the lens the ,carrara marble exhibits blackish veins and spangles of graphite2 the finest blocks1 also1 frequently contain nodules of ironstone1 which are lined with perfectly limpid crystals of quartz4 ,these accidental defects are very annoying to the sculptor1 for they are very minute1 and nothing on the exterior of the block betrays their existence4 ,in the marble of ,paros1 even when it is strongly translucent1 specks of mica are often found4 ,in the ancient quarries the nodules are so numerous as to have hindered their being worked1 up even to the present time4 ,when the mica which occurs in granular limestone takes a green colour and forms veins1 it constitutes the ,cipoline marble1 which is found in ,corsica1 and in the ,val ,godemar in the ,alps4 ,some white marbles are quarried in ,france1 chiefly at ,loubie1 at ,sost1 at ,saint-,bat in the ,pyrenees1 and at ,chippal in the ,vosges4 ,in our country1 and especially in ,ireland1 there are numerous quarries of marble1 veined and coloured of every hue1 but none of a purity suitable for the finest statuary purposes4 ,all these marbles are only metamorphosed limestones4 ,the white marbles employed almost all over the world are those of ,carrara4 ,they result from the metamorphism of limestone of the ,lias4 ,they have not been penetrated by the eruptive rocks1 but they have been subjected upon a great scale to a general metamorphism1 to which their crystalline structure may be attributed4 ,it is easily understood that the calcareous strata have not undergone such an energetic metamorphism without the beds of sandstone and clay1 associated with them1 having also undergone some modification of the same kind4 ,the siliceous beds accompanying the saccharoid limestone have1 in short1 a character of their own4 ,they are formed of small grains of transparent quartz more or less cemented one to the other in a manner strongly resembling those of the saccharoid limestone4 ,between these grains are usually developed some lamell of mica of brilliant and silky lustre1 of which the colour is white1 red1 or green2 in a word1 it has produced a quartzite4 ,some veins of quartz frequently traverse this quartzite in all directions4 ,independent of the mica1 it may contain1 besides1 the different minerals already mentioned as occurring in the limestone1 and particularly silicates--such as disthene1 andalusite1 staurotide1 garnet1 and hornblende4 ,the argillaceous beds present a series of metamorphisms analogous to the preceding4 ,we can follow them readily through all their gradations when we direct our attention towards such granitic masses as those which constitute the ,alps1 ,pyrenees1 the ,bretagne ,mountains1 or our own ,grampians4 ,the schists may perhaps be considered the first step towards the metamorphism of certain argillaceous rocks2 in fact1 the schists are not susceptible of mixing with water like clay2 they become stony1 and acquire a much greater density1 but their chief characteristic is a foliated structure4 ,experiment proves that when we subject a substance to a great pressure a foliated structure is produced in a direction perpendicular to that in which the pressure is exercised4 ,everything leads us1 therefore1 to believe that pressure is the principal cause of the schistous texture1 and of the foliation of clay-slates1 the most characteristic variety of which is the roofing-slate which is quarried so extensively in ,north ,wales1 in ,cumberland1 and various parts of ,scotland in the ,british ,islands2 in the ,ardennes2 and in the neighbourhood of ,angers1 in ,france4 ,in some localities the slate becomes siliceous and is charged with crystals of felspar4 ,nevertheless1 it still presents itself in parallel beds1 and contains the same fossil remains still in a recognisable state4 ,for example1 in the neighbourhood of ,thann1 in the ,vosges1 certain vegetable imprints are perfectly preserved in the metamorphic schist1 and in their midst are developed some crystals of felspar4 ,mica-schist1 which is formed of layers of quartz and mica1 is found habitually associated with rocks which have taken a crystalline structure1 proceeding evidently from an energetic metamorphism of beds originally argillaceous4 ,chiastolite1 disthene1 staurotide1 hornblende1 and other minerals are found in it4 ,mica-schists occur extensively in ,brittany1 in the ,vosges1 in the ,pyrenees4 ,in all cases1 as we approach the masses of granite1 in these regions1 the crystalline structure becomes more and more marked4 ,in describing the various facts relating to the metamorphism of rocks1 we have said little of the causes which have produced it4 ,the causes are1 indeed1 in the region of hypothesis1 and somewhat mysterious4 ,in what concerns special metamorphism1 the cause is supposed to admit of easy explanation--it is heat4 ,when a rock is ejected from the interior of the earth in a state of igneous fusion1 we comprehend readily enough that the strata1 which it traverses1 should sustain alterations due to the influence of heat1 and varying with its intensity4 ,this is clear enough in the case of lava4 ,on the other hand1 as water always exists in the interior of the earth's crust1 and as this water must be at a very high temperature in the neighbourhood of volcanic fires1 it contributes1 no doubt1 largely to the metamorphism4 ,if the rocks have not been ejected in a state of fusion1 it is evidently water1 with the different mineral substances it holds in solution1 which is the chief actor in the special metamorphism which is produced4 ,in general metamorphism1 water appears still to be the principal agent4 ,as it is infiltered through the various beds it will modify their composition1 either by dissolving certain substances1 or by introducing into the metalliferous deposits certain new substances1 such as may be seen forming1 even under our eyes1 in mineral springs4 ,this has tended to render the sedimentary deposits plastic1 and has permitted the development of that crystalline structure1 which is one of the principal characteristics of metamorphic rocks4 ,this action has been seconded by other causes1 notably by heat and pressure1 which would have an immense increase of power and energy when metamorphism takes place at a great depth beneath the surface4 ,dr4 ,holl1 in an able paper descriptive of the geology of the ,malvern ,hills1 read before the ,geological ,society in ,february1 #ahfe1 adopts this hypothesis as explanatory of the vast phenomena which are there displayed4 ,after describing the position of this interesting and strangely-mingled range of rocks1 he adds3 8,these metamorphic rocks are for the most part highly inclined1 and often in a position nearly vertical4 ,their disturbance and metamorphism1 their being traversed by granitic veins1 and still later their invasion by trap-dykes and their subsequent elevation above the sea-level1 were all events which must have occupied no inconsiderable period1 even of geological time4 ,i presume10 he adds1 8that it will not be maintained in the present day that the metamorphism of rocks over areas of any but very moderate extent is due to the intrusion of veins and erupted masses4 ,the insufficiency of such agency becomes the more obvious when we consider the slight effects produced by even tolerably extensive outbursts1 such as the ,dartmoor granite2 while in the case of the ,malverns there is an absence of any local cause whatever4 ,the more probable explanation in the case of these larger areas is1 that they were faulted down1 or otherwise depressed1 so as to be brought within the influence of the earth's internal heat1 and this is the more likely as they belong to an epoch when the crust is believed to have been thinner40 ,when it is considered that1 according to the doctrine of modern geology1 the ,laurentian rocks1 or their equivalents1 lie at the base of all the sedimentary deposits2 that this1 like other systems of stratified rocks1 was deposited in the form of sand1 mud1 and clay1 to the thickness of #cj1jjj feet2 and that over an area embracing ,scandinavia1 the ,hebrides1 great part of ,scotland1 and ,england as far south as the ,malverns1 besides a large proportion of the ,american continent1 with certain forms of animal life1 as recent investigations demonstrate--can the mind of man realise any other cause by which this vast extent of metamorphism could have been produced8 ,electric and galvanic currents1 circulating in the stratified crust1 are not to be overlooked4 ,the experiments of ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,fox and ,mr4 ,robert ,hunt suggest that1 in passing long-continued galvanic currents through masses of moistened clay1 there is a tendency to produce cleavage and a semi-crystalline arrangement of the particles of matter4#ca #ca ,report of the ,royal ,cornwall ,polytechnic ,society for #ahcg4 ,robert ,hunt1 in 8,memoirs of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain10 vol4 i41 p4 #dcc4 ,,the ,,beginning4 ,the theory which has been developed1 and which considers the earth as an extinct sun1 as a star cooled down from its original heated condition1 as a nebula1 or luminous cloud1 which has passed from the gaseous to the solid state--this fine conception1 which unites so brilliantly the kindred sciences of astronomy and geology1 belongs to the ,french mathematician1 ,laplace1 the immortal author of the 8,mcanique ,cleste40 ,the hypothesis of ,laplace assigns to the sun1 and to all bodies which gravitate in what ,descartes calls his tourbillon1 a common origin4 8,in the primitive state in which we must suppose the sun to be10 he says1 8it resembles one of those nebul which the telescope reveals to us1 consisting of a more or less brilliant central nucleus1 surrounded by luminous clouds1 which clouds1 condensing at the surface1 become transformed into a star40 ,it has been calculated that the centre of the earth has a temperature of about #aie1jjj ,cent41 a degree of heat which surpasses all that the imagination can conceive4 ,we can have no difficulty in admitting that1 at a heat so excessive1 all the substances which now enter into the composition of the globe would be reduced to the state of gas or vapour4 ,our planet1 then1 must have been originally an aggregation of ariform fluids--a mass of matter entirely gaseous2 and if we reflect that substances in their gaseous state occupy a volume eighteen hundred times larger than when solid1 we shall have some conception of the enormous volume of this gaseous mass4 ,it would be as large as the sun1 which is fourteen hundred thousand times larger than the terrestrial sphere4 ,in ,fig4 #ab we have attempted to give an idea of the vast difference of volume between the earth in its present solid state and in its primitive gaseous condition4 ,one of the globes1 ,a1 represents the former1 ,b the latter4 ,it is simply a comparison of size1 which is made the more strikingly apparent by means of these geometrical figures--one the twentieth part of an inch in diameter1 the other two inches and three quarters4 ,illustration3 ,,vi4--,the ,earth circulating in space in the state of a gaseous star4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,comparative volume of the earth in the gaseous and solid state4 ,at this excessive temperature the gaseous mass1 which we have described1 would shine in space as the sun does at the present day2 and with the same brilliancy as that with which1 to our eyes1 the fixed stars and planets shine in the serenity of night1 as represented on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,vi474 ,circulating round the sun in obedience to the laws of universal gravitation1 this incandescent gaseous mass was necessarily regulated by the laws which govern other material substances4 ,as it got cooler it gradually transferred part of its warmth to the glacial regions of the inter-planetary spaces1 in the midst of which it traced the line of its flaming orbit4 ,consequent on its continual cooling 7but at the end of a period of time of which it would be impossible1 even approximately1 to fix the duration71 the star1 originally gaseous1 would attain a liquid state4 ,it would then be considerably diminished in volume4 ,the laws of mechanics teach us that liquid bodies1 when in a state of rotation1 assume a spherical form2 it is one of the laws of their being1 emanating from the ,creator1 and is due to the force of attraction4 ,thus the ,earth takes the spheroidal form1 belonging to it1 in common with the greater number of the celestial bodies4 ,the ,earth is subject to two distinct movements2 namely1 a movement of translation round the sun1 and a movement of rotation on its own axis--the latter a uniform movement1 which produces the regular alternations of days and nights4 ,mechanics have also established the fact1 which is confirmed by experiment1 that a fluid mass in motion produces 7as the result of the variation of the centrifugal force on its different diameters71 a swelling towards the equatorial diameter of the sphere1 and a flattening at the poles or extremities of its axis4 ,it is in consequence of this law1 that the ,earth1 when it was in a liquid state1 became swollen at the equator1 and depressed at its two poles2 and that it has passed from its primitive spherical form to the spheroidal--that is1 has become flattened at each of its polar extremities1 and has assumed its present shape of an oblate spheroid4 ,this bulging at the equator and flattening towards the poles afford the most direct proofs1 that can be adduced1 of the original liquid state of our planet4 ,a solid and non-elastic sphere--a stone ball1 for example--might turn for ages upon its axis1 and its form would sustain no change2 but a fluid ball1 or one of a pasty consistence1 would swell out towards the middle1 and1 in the same proportion1 become flattened at the extremities of its axis4 ,it was upon this principle1 namely1 by admitting the primitive fluidity of the globe1 that ,newton announced priori the bulging of the globe at the equator and its flattening at the poles2 and he even calculated the amount of this depression4 ,the actual measurement1 both of this expansion and flattening1 by ,maupertuis1 ,clairaut1 ,camus1 and ,lemonnier1 in #agcf1 proved how exact the calculations of the great geometrican were4 ,those gentlemen1 together with the ,abb ,outhier1 were sent into ,lapland by the ,academy of ,sciences2 the ,swedish astronomer1 ,celsius1 accompanied them1 and furnished them with the best instruments for measuring and surveying4 ,at the same time the ,academy sent ,bouguer and ,condamine to the equatorial regions of ,south ,america4 ,the measurements taken in both these regions established the existence of the equatorial expansion and the polar depression1 as ,newton had estimated it to be in his calculations4 ,it does not follow1 as a consequence of the partial cooling down of the terrestrial mass1 that all the gaseous substances composing it should pass into a liquid state2 some of these might remain in the state of gas or vapour1 and form round the terrestrial spheroid an outer envelope or atmosphere 7from the ,greek words 1 vapour1 and 1 sphere74 ,but we should form a very inexact idea of the atmosphere which surrounded the globe1 at this remote period1 if we compared it with that which surrounds it now4 ,the extent of the gaseous matter which enveloped the primitive earth must have been immense2 it doubtless extended to the moon4 ,it included1 in short1 in the state of vapour1 the enormous body of water which1 as such1 now constitutes our existing seas1 added to all the other substances which preserve their gaseous state at the temperature then exhibited by the incandescent earth2 and it is certainly no exaggeration to place this temperature at #b1jjj ,centigrade4 ,the atmosphere would participate in this temperature2 and acted on by such excessive heat1 the pressure that it would exert on the ,earth would be infinitely greater than that which it exercises at the present time4 ,to the gases which form the component parts of the present atmospheric air--namely1 nitrogen1 oxygen1 and carbonic acid--to enormous masses of watery vapour1 must be added vast quantities of mineral substances1 metallic or earthy1 reduced to a gaseous state1 and maintained in that state by the temperature of this gigantic furnace4 ,the metals1 the chlorides--metallic1 alkaline1 and earthy--sulphur1 the sulphides1 and even the silicates of alumina and lime2 all1 at this temperature1 would exist in a vaporous form in the atmosphere surrounding the primitive globe4 ,it is to be inferred that1 under these circumstances1 the different substances composing this atmosphere would be ranged round the globe in the order of their respective densities2 the first layer--that nearest to the surface of the globe--being formed of the heavier vapours1 such as those of the metals1 of iron1 platinum1 and copper1 mixed doubtless with clouds of fine metallic dust produced by the partial condensation of their vapours4 ,this first and heaviest zone1 and the thickest also1 would be quite opaque1 although the surface of the earth was still at a red heat4 ,above it would come the more vaporisable substances1 such as the metallic and alkaline chlorides1 particularly the chloride of sodium or common salt1 sulphur and phosphorus1 with all the volatile combinations of these substances4 ,the upper zone would contain matter still more easily converted into vapour1 such as water 7steam71 together with others naturally gaseous1 as oxygen1 nitrogen1 and carbonic acid4 ,this order of superposition1 however1 would not always be preserved4 ,in spite of their differences of density1 these three atmospheric layers would often become mixed1 producing formidable storms and violent ebullitions2 frequently throwing down1 rending1 upheaving1 and confounding these incandescent zones4 ,as to the globe itself1 without being so much agitated as its hot and shifting atmosphere1 it would be no less subject to perpetual tempests1 occasioned by the thousand chemical actions which took place in its molten mass4 ,on the other hand1 the electricity resulting from these powerful chemical actions1 operating on such a vast scale1 would induce frightful electric detonations1 thunder adding to the horror of this primitive scene1 which no imagination1 no human pencil could trace1 and which constitutes that gloomy and disastrous chaos of which the legendary history of every ancient race has transmitted the tradition4 ,in this manner would our globe circulate in space1 carrying in its train the flaming streaks of its multiple atmosphere1 unfitted1 as yet1 for living beings1 and impenetrable to the rays of the sun1 around which it described its vast orbit4 ,the temperature of the planetary regions is infinitely low2 according to ,laplace it cannot be estimated at less than #ajj below zero4 ,the glacial regions traversed in its course by the incandescent globe would necessarily cool it1 at first superficially1 when it would assume a pasty consistence4 ,it must not be forgotten that the earth1 on account of its liquid state1 would be obedient in all its mass to the action of flux and reflux1 which proceeds from the attraction of the sun and moon1 but to which the sea alone is now subject4 ,this action1 to which all its liquid and movable particles were subject1 would singularly accelerate the commencement of the solidification of the terrestrial mass4 ,it would thus gradually assume that sort of consistence which iron attains1 when it is first withdrawn from the furnace1 in the process of puddling4 ,as the earth cooled1 beds of concrete substances would necessarily be formed1 which1 floating at first in isolated masses on the surface of the semi-fluid matter1 would in course of time come together1 consolidate1 and form continuous banks2 just as we see with the ice of the present ,polar ,seas1 which1 when brought in contact by the agitation of the waves1 coalesces and forms icebergs1 more or less movable4 ,by extending this phenomenon to the whole surface of the globe1 the solidification of its entire surface would be produced4 ,a solid1 but still thin and fragile crust1 would thus envelop the whole earth1 enclosing entirely its still fluid interior4 ,the entire consolidation would necessarily be a much slower process--one which1 according to the received hypothesis1 is very far from being completed at the present time2 for it is estimated that the actual thickness of the earth's crust does not exceed thirty miles1 while the mean radius or distance from the centre of the terrestrial sphere1 approaches #d1jjj miles1 the mean diameter being #g1iabdji miles2 so that the portion of our planet1 supposed to be solidified1 represents only a very small fraction of its total mass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,relative volumes of the solid crust and liquid mass of the globe4 ,we say thirty miles1 for such is the ordinary estimated thickness of the earth's crust1 usually admitted by savants2 and the following is the process by which this result has been obtained4 ,we know that the temperature of the earth increases one degree ,centigrade for every hundred feet of descent4 ,this result has been borne out by a great number of measurements1 made in many of the mines of ,france1 in the tin mines of ,cornwall1 in the mines of the ,erzgeberge1 of the ,ural1 of ,scotland1 and1 above all1 in the soundings effected in the ,artesian wells of ,grenelle and ,passy1 near ,paris1 of ,st4 ,andr de ,iregny1 and at a great number of other points4 ,the greatest depth to which miners have hitherto penetrated is about #igc yards1 which has been reached in a boring executed in ,monderf1 in the ,grand ,duchy of ,luxembourg4 ,at ,neusalzwerk1 near ,minden1 in ,prussia1 another boring has been carried to the depth of #gfj yards4 ,in the coal-mines of ,monkwearmouth the pits have been sunk #ebe yards1 and at ,dukinfield #gag yards4 ,the mean of the thermometic observations made1 at all these points1 leads to the conclusion that the temperature increases about one degree ,fahrenheit for every sixty feet 7,english7 of descent after the first hundred4 ,in admitting that this law of temperature exists for all depths of the earth's crust1 we arrive at the conclusion that1 at a depth of from twenty-five to thirty-five miles--which is only about five times the height of the highest mountains--the most refractory matter would be in a state of fusion4 ,according to ,m4 ,mitscherlich1 the flame of hydrogen1 burning in free air1 acquires a temperature of #a1efj ,centigrade4 ,in this flame platinum would be in a state of fusion4 ,granite melts at a lower temperature than soft iron1 that is at about #a1cjj2 while silver melts at #a1jbc4 ,in imagining an increase of temperature equal to one degree for every hundred feet of descent1 the temperature at twenty-five miles will be #a1dbj ,c4 or #b1ibe ,f42 thirty miles below the surface there will be a probable temperature of #a1ehd ,c4 or #c1fcj ,f42 it follows1 if these arguments be admitted1 and the calculation correct1 that the thickness of the solid crust of the globe does not much exceed thirty miles4 ,this result1 which gives to the terrestrial crust a thickness equal to #a_/aij of the earth's diameter1 has nothing1 it is true1 of absolute certainty4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,hopkins1 ,f4,r4,s41 an eminent mathematician1 has much insisted upon the fact1 that the conductibility of granite rocks1 for heat1 is much greater than that of sedimentary rocks2 and he argues that in the lower stratum of the earth the temperature increases much more slowly than it does nearer the surface4 ,this consideration has led ,mr4 ,hopkins to estimate the probable thickness of the earth's solid crust at a minimum of #bjj miles4 ,in support of this estimate ,mr4 ,hopkins puts forward another argument1 based upon the precession of the equinoxes4 ,we know that the terrestrial axis1 instead of always preserving the same direction in space1 revolves in a cone round the pole of the ecliptic4 ,our globe1 it is calculated1 will accomplish its revolution in about #be1jjj years4 ,in about this period it will return to its original position4 ,this balancing1 which has been compared to that of a top when about to cease spinning1 produces the movement known as the precession of the equinoxes4 ,it is due to the attraction which the sun and moon exercise upon the swelling equatorial of the globe4 ,this attraction would act very differently upon a globe entirely solid1 and upon one with a liquid interior1 covered by a comparatively thin crust4 ,mr4 ,hopkins subjected this curious problem to mathematical analysis1 and he calculated that the precession of the equinoxes1 observed by astronomers1 could only be explained by admitting that the solid shell of the earth could not be less than from about #hjj to #a1jjj miles in thickness4 ,in his researches on the rigidity of the earth1 ,sir ,william ,thomson finds that the phenomena of precession and nutation require that the earth1 if not solid to the core1 must be nearly so2 and that no continuous liquid vesicle at all approaching #f1jjj miles in diameter can possibly exist in the earth's interior1 without rendering the phenomena in question very sensibly different from what they are4 ,the calculations of ,mr4 ,hennessey are in direct opposition to those of ,sir ,william ,thomson1 and show that the earth's crust cannot be less than eighteen miles1 or more than #fjj miles in thickness4 ,admitting1 for the present1 that the terrestrial crust is only thirty miles in thickness1 we can express in a familiar1 but very intelligible fashion1 the actual relation between the dimensions of the liquid nucleus and the solid crust of the earth4 ,if we imagine the earth to be an orange1 a tolerably thick sheet of paper applied to its surface will then represent1 approximately1 the thickness of the solid crust which now envelopes the globe4 ,fig4 #ac will enable us to appreciate this fact still more correctly4 ,the terrestrial sphere having a mean diameter of #g1iab miles1 or a mean radius of #c1ief miles1 and a solid crust about thirty miles thick1 which is #a_/bfj of the diameter1 or #a_/acj of the radius1 the engraving may be presumed to represent these proportions with sufficient accuracy4 ,to determine1 even approximately1 the time such a vast body would take in cooling1 so as to permit of the formation of a solid crust1 or to fix the duration of the transformations which we are describing1 would be an impossible task4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,formation of primitive granitic mountains4 ,the first terrestrial crust formed1 as indicated1 would be incapable of resisting the waves of the ocean of internal fire1 which would be depressed and raised up at its daily flux and reflux in obedience to the attraction of the sun and moon4 ,who can trace1 even in imagination1 the fearful rendings1 the gigantic inundations1 which would result from these movements6 ,who would dare to paint the sublime horrors of these first mysterious convulsions of the globe6 ,amid torrents of molten matter1 mixed with gases1 upheaving and piercing the scarcely consolidated crust1 large crevices would be opened1 and through these gaping cracks waves of liquid granite would be ejected1 and then left to cool and consolidate on the surface4 ,fig4 #ad represents the formation of a primitive granitic mountain1 by the eruption of the internal granitic matter which forces its way to the surface through a fracture in the crust4 ,in some of these mountains1 ,ben ,nevis for example1 three different stages of the eruption can be traced4 8,ben ,nevis1 now the undoubted monarch of the ,scottish mountains10 says ,nicol1 8shows well the diverse age and relations of igneous rocks4 ,the ,great ,moor from ,inverlochy and ,fort ,william to the foot of the hill is gneiss4 ,breaking through1 and partly resting on the gneiss is granite1 forming the lower two-thirds of the mountain up to the small tarn on the shoulder of the hill4 ,higher still is the huge prism of porphyry1 rising steep and rugged all around40 ,in this manner would the first mountains be formed4 ,in this way1 also1 might some metallic veins be ejected through the smaller openings1 true injections of eruptive matter produced from the interior of the globe1 traversing the primitive rocks and constituting the precious depository of metals1 such as copper1 zinc1 antimony1 and lead4 ,fig4 #ae represents the internal structure of some of these metallic veins4 ,in this case the fracture is only a fissure in the rock1 which soon became filled with injected matter1 often of different kinds1 which in crystallising would completely fill the hollow of this cleft1 or crack2 but sometimes forming cavities or geodes as a result of the contraction of the mass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,metallic veins4 ,but some eruptions of granitic and other substances1 ejected from the interior1 never reach the surface at all4 ,in such cases the clefts and crevices--longitudinal or oblique--are filled1 but the fissures in the crust do not themselves extend to the surface4 ,fig4 #af represents an eruption of granite through a mass of sedimentary rock--the granite ejected from the centre fills all the clefts and fractures1 but it has not been sufficiently powerful to force its way to the surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,eruption of granite4 ,on the surface of the earth1 then1 which would be at first smooth and unbroken1 there were formed1 from the very beginning1 swelling eminences1 hollows1 foldings1 corrugations1 and crevices1 which would materially alter its original aspect2 its arid and burning surface bristled with rugged protuberances1 or was traversed by enormous fissures and cracks4 ,nevertheless1 as the globe continued to cool1 a time arrived when its temperature became insufficient to maintain1 in a state of vapour1 the vast masses of water which floated in the atmosphere4 ,these vapours would pass into the liquid state1 and then the first rain fell upon the earth4 ,let us here remark that these were veritable rains of boiling water2 for in consequence of the very considerable pressure of the atmosphere1 water would be condensed and become liquid at a temperature much above #ajj ,centigrade 7#bab ,fahr47 ,illustration3 ,,vii4--,condensation and rainfall on the primitive globe4 ,the first drop of water1 which fell upon the still heated terrestrial sphere1 marked a new period in its evolution--a period the mechanical and chemical effects of which it is important to analyse4 ,the contact of the condensed water with the consolidated surface of the globe opens up a series of modifications of which science may undertake the examination with a degree of confidence1 or at least with more positive elements of appreciation than any we possess for the period of chaos2 some of the features of which we have attempted to represent1 leaving of necessity much to the imagination1 and for the reader to interpret after his own fashion4 ,the first water which fell1 in the liquid state1 upon the slightly cooled surface of the earth would be rapidly converted into steam by the elevation of its temperature4 ,thus1 rendered much lighter than the surrounding atmosphere1 these vapours would rise to the utmost limits of the atmosphere1 where they would become condensed afresh1 in consequence of their radiation towards the glacial regions of space2 condensing again1 they would re-descend to the earth in a liquid state1 to re-ascend as vapour and fall in a state of condensation4 ,but all these changes1 in the physical condition of the water1 could only be maintained by withdrawing a very considerable amount of heat from the surface of the globe1 whose cooling would be greatly hastened by these continual alternations of heat and cold2 its heat would thus become gradually dissipated and lost in the regions of celestial space4 ,this phenomenon extending itself by degrees to the whole mass of watery vapour existing in the atmosphere1 the waters covered the earth in increasing quantities2 and as the conversion of all liquids into vapour is provocative of a notable disengagement of electricity1 a vast quantity of electric fluid necessarily resulted from the conversion of such large masses of water into vapour4 ,bursts of thunder1 and bright flashes of lightning were the necessary accompaniments of this extraordinary struggle of the elements--a state of things which ,m4 ,maurando has attempted to represent on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,vii474 ,how long did this struggle for supremacy between fire and water1 with the incessant noise of thunder1 continue8 ,all that can be said in reply is1 that a time came when water was triumphant4 ,after having covered vast areas on the surface of the earth1 it finally occupied and entirely covered the whole surface2 for there is good reason to believe that at a certain epoch1 at the commencement1 so to speak1 of its evolution2 the earth was covered by water over its whole extent4 ,the ocean was universal4 ,from this moment our globe entered on a regular series of revolutions1 interrupted only by the outbreaks of the internal fires which were concealed beneath its still imperfectly consolidated crust4 8,at the early periods in which the materials of the ancient crystalline schists were accumulated1 it cannot be doubted that the chemical processes which generated silicates were much more active than in more recent times4 ,the heat of the earth's crust was probably then far greater than at present1 while a high temperature prevailed at comparatively small depths1 and thermal waters abounded4 ,a denser atmosphere1 charged with carbonic acid gas1 must also have contributed to maintain1 at the earth's surface1 a greater degree of heat1 though one not incompatible with the existence of organic life4 8,these conditions must have favoured many chemical processes1 which in later times have nearly ceased to operate4 ,hence we find that subsequently to the eozoic times1 silicated rocks of clearly marked chemical origin are comparatively rare40#cb #cb 8,address to the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science10 by ,thomas ,sterry ,hunt1 ,,ll4,d41 p4 #ef4 #ahga4 ,in order to comprehend the complex action1 now mechanical1 now chemical1 which the waters1 still in a heated state1 exercised on the solid crust1 let us consider what were the components of this crust4 ,the rocks which formed its first stratum--the framework of the earth1 the foundation upon which all others repose--may be presumed to have been a compound which1 in varying proportions1 forms granite and gneiss1 and has latterly been designated by geologists ,laurentian4 ,what is this gneiss1 this granite1 speaking of it with reference to its mineralogical character8 ,it is a combination of silicates1 with a base of alumina1 potash1 soda1 and sometimes lime--quartz1 felspar1 and mica form1 by their simple aggregation1 granite--it is thus a ternary combination1 or composed of three minerals4 ,quartz1 the most abundant of all minerals1 is silica more or less pure and often crystallised4 ,felspar is a crystalline or crystallised mineral1 composed of silicate of alumina1 potash1 soda1 or lime2 potash-felspar is called orthoclase1 soda-felspar albite1 lime-felspar anorthite4 ,mica is a silicate of alumina and potash1 containing magnesia and oxide of iron2 it takes its name from the ,latin micare1 to shine or glitter4 ,granite 7from the ,italian grano1 being granular in its structure7 is1 then1 a compound rock1 formed of felspar1 quartz1 and mica1 and the three constituent minerals are more or less crystalline4 ,gneiss is a schistose variety of granite1 and composed of the same minerals2 the only difference between the two rocks 7whatever may be their difference of origin7 being that the constituent minerals1 instead of being confusedly aggregated1 as in granite1 assume a foliated texture in gneiss4 ,this foliated structure leads sometimes to gneiss being called stratified granite4 8,the term gneiss originated with the ,freiberg miners1 who from ancient times have used it to designate the rock in which their veins of silver-ore were found40#cc #cc ,cotta's 8,rocks ,classified and ,described10 by ,p4 ,h4 ,lawrence1 p4 #bcb4 ,the felspar1 which enters into the composition of granite1 is a mineral that is easily decomposed by water1 either cold or boiling1 or by the water of springs rich in carbonic acid4 ,the chemical action of carbonic acid and water1 and the action 7at once chemical and mechanical7 of the hot water in the primitive seas1 powerfully modified the granitic rocks which lay beneath them4 ,the warm rains which fell upon the mountain-peaks and granitic pinnacles1 the torrents of rain which fell upon the slopes or in the valleys1 dissolved the several alkaline silicates which constitute felspar and mica1 and swept them away to form elsewhere strata of clay and sand2 thus were the first modifications in the primitive rocks produced by the united action of air and water1 and thus were the first sedimentary rocks deposited from the oceanic waters4 ,the argillaceous deposits produced by this decomposition of the felspathic and micaceous rocks would participate in the still heated temperature of the globe--would be again subjected to long continued heat2 and when they became cool again1 they would assume1 by a kind of semi-crystallisation1 that parallel structure which is called foliation4 ,all foliated rocks1 then1 are metamorphic1 and the result of a metamorphic action to which sedimentary strata 7and even some eruptive rocks7 have been subjected subsequently to their deposition and consolidation1 and which has produced a re-arrangement of their component mineral particles1 and frequently1 if not always1 of their chemical elements also4 ,in this manner would the first beds of crystalline schist1 such as mica-schist1 be formed1 probably out of sandy and clayey muds1 or arenaceous and argillaceous shales4 ,at the end of this first phase of its existence1 the terrestrial globe was1 then1 covered1 over nearly its whole surface1 with hot and muddy water1 forming extensive but shallow seas4 ,a few islands1 raising their granitic peaks here and there1 would form a sort of archipelago1 surrounded by seas filled with earthy matter in suspension4 ,during a long series of ages the solid crust of the globe went on increasing in thickness1 as the process of solidification of the underlying liquid matter nearest to the surface proceeded4 ,this state of tranquillity could not last long4 ,the solid portion of the globe had not yet attained sufficient consistency to resist the pressure of the gases and boiling liquids which it covered and compressed with its elastic crust4 ,the waves of this internal sea triumphed1 more than once1 over the feeble resistances which were opposed to it1 making enormous dislocations and breaches in the ground--immense upheavals of the solid crust raising the beds of the seas far above their previous levels--and thus mountains arose out of the ocean1 not now exclusively granitic1 but composed1 besides1 of those schistose rocks which have been deposited under water1 after long suspension in the muddy seas4 ,on the other hand the ,earth1 as it continued to cool1 would also contract2 and this process of contraction1 as we have already explained1 was another cause of dislocation at the surface1 producing either considerable ruptures or simple fissures in the continuity of the crust4 ,these fissures would be filled1 at a subsequent period1 by jets of the molten matter occupying the interior of the globe--by eruptive granite1 that is to say--or by various mineral compounds2 they also opened a passage to those torrents of heated water charged with mineral salts1 with silica1 the bicarbonates of lime and magnesia1 which1 mingling with the waters of the vast primitive ocean1 were deposited at the bottom of the seas1 thus helping to increase the mass of the mineral substances composing the solid portion of the globe4 ,these eruptions of granitic or metallic matter--these vast discharges of mineral waters through the fractured surface--would be of frequent occurrence during the primitive epoch we are contemplating4 ,it should not1 therefore1 be a matter for surprise to find the more ancient rocks almost always fractured1 reduced in dimensions by faults and contortions1 and often traversed by veins containing metals or their oxides1 such as the oxides of copper and tin2 or their sulphides1 such as those of lead1 of antimony1 or of iron--which are now the object of the miner's art4 ,,primary ,,epoch4 ,after the terrible tempests of the primitive period--after these great disturbances of the mineral kingdom--,nature would seem to have gathered herself together1 in sublime silence1 in order to proceed to the grand mystery of the creation of living beings4 ,during the primitive epoch the temperature of the earth was too high to admit the appearance of life on its surface4 ,the darkness of thickest night shrouded this cradle of the world2 the atmosphere probably was so charged with vapours of various kinds1 that the sun's rays were powerless to pierce its opacity4 ,upon this heated surface1 and in this perpetual night1 organic life could not manifest itself4 ,no plant1 no animal1 then1 could exist upon the silent earth4 ,in the seas of this epoch1 therefore1 only unfossiliferous strata were deposited4 ,nevertheless1 our planet continued to be subjected to a gradual refrigeration on the one hand1 and1 on the other1 continuous rains were purifying its atmosphere4 ,from this time1 then1 the sun's rays1 being less obscured1 could reach its surface1 and1 under their beneficent influence1 life was not slow in disclosing itself4 8,without light10 said the illustrious ,lavoisier1 8,nature was without life2 it was dead and inanimate4 ,a benevolent ,god1 in bestowing light1 has spread on the surface of the earth organisation1 sentiment1 and thought40 ,we begin1 accordingly1 to see upon the earth--the temperature of which was nearly that of our equatorial zone--a few plants and a few animals make their appearance4 ,these first generations of life will be replaced by others of a higher organisation1 until at the last stage of the creation1 man1 endowed with the supreme attribute which we call intelligence1 will appear upon the earth4 8,the word progress1 which we think peculiar to humanity1 and even to modern times10 said ,albert ,gaudry1 in a lecture on the animals of the ancient world1 delivered in #ahfc1 8was pronounced by the ,deity on the day when he created the first living organism40 ,did plants precede animals8 ,we know not2 but such would appear to have been the order of creation4 ,it is certain that in the sediment of the oldest seas1 and in the vestiges which remain to us of the earliest ages of organic life on the globe1 that is to say1 in the argillaceous schists1 we find both plants and animals of advanced organisation4 ,but1 on the other hand1 during the greater part of the primary epoch--especially during the ,carboniferous age--the plants are particularly numerous1 and terrestrial animals scarcely show themselves2 this would lead us to the conclusion that plants preceded animals4 ,it may be remarked1 besides1 that from their cellular nature1 and their looser tissues composed of elements readily affected by the air1 the first plants could be easily destroyed without leaving any material vestiges2 from which it may be concluded1 that1 in those primitive times1 an immense number of plants existed1 no traces of which now remain to us4 ,we have stated that1 during the earlier ages of our globe1 the waters covered a great part of its surface2 and it is in them that we find the first appearance of life4 ,when the waters had become sufficiently cool to allow of the existence of organised beings1 creation was developed1 and advanced with great energy2 for it manifested itself by the appearance of numerous and very different species of animals and plants4 ,one of the most ancient groups of organic remains are the ,brachiopoda1 a group of ,mollusca1 particularly typified by the genus ,lingula1 a species of which still exist in the present seas2 the ,trilobites 7,fig4 #ag71 a family of ,crustaceans1 especially characteristic of this period2 then come ,productas1 ,terebratul1 and ,orthoceratites--other genera of ,mollusca4 ,the ,corals1 which appeared at an early period1 seem to have lived in all ages1 and survive to the present day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,paradoxides ,bohemicus--,bohemia4 ,contemporaneously with these animals1 plants of inferior organisation have left their impressions upon the schists2 these are ,alg 7aquatic plants1 ,fig4 #bh74 ,as the continents enlarged1 plants of a higher type made their appearance--the ,equisetace1 herbaceous ,ferns1 and other plants4 ,these we shall have occasion to specify when noticing the periods which constitute the ,primary ,epoch1 and which consists of the following periods3 the ,carboniferous1 the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and ,devonian1 the ,silurian1 and the ,cambrian4 ,,cambrian ,,period4 ,the researches of geologists have discovered but scanty traces of organic remains in the rocks which form the base of this system in ,england4 ,arenicolites1 or worm-tracks and burrows1 have been found in ,shropshire1 by ,mr4 ,salter1 to occur in countless numbers through a mile of thickness in the ,longmynd rocks2 and others were discovered by the late ,dr4 ,kinahan in ,wicklow4 ,in ,ireland1 in the picturesque tract of ,bray ,head1 on the south and east coasts of ,dublin1 we find1 in slaty beds of the same age as the ,longmynd rocks1 a peculiar zoophyte1 which has been named by ,edward ,forbes ,oldhamia1 after its discoverer1 ,dr4 ,oldham1 ,superintendent of the ,geological ,survey of ,india4 ,this fossil represents one of the earliest inhabitants of the ocean1 which then covered the greater part of the ,british ,isles4 8,in the hard1 purplish1 and schistose rocks of ,bray ,head10 says ,dr4 ,kinahan1#cd 8as well as other parts of ,ireland which are recognised as ,cambrian rocks1 markings of a very peculiar character are found4 ,they occur in masses1 and are recognised as hydrozoic animal assemblages4 ,they have regularity of form1 abundant1 but not universal1 occurrence in beds1 and permanence of character even when the beds are at a distance from each other1 and dissimilar in chemical and physical character40 ,in the course of his investigations1 ,dr4 ,kinahan discovered at least four species of ,oldhamia1 which he has described and figured4 #cd ,trans4 ,roy4 ,irish ,acad41 vol4 xxiii41 p4 #eef4 ,the ,cambrian rocks consist of the ,llanberis slates of ,llanberis and ,penrhyn in ,north ,wales1 which1 with their associated sandy strata1 attain a thickness of about #c1jjj feet1 and the ,barmouth and ,harlech ,sandstones4 ,in the ,longmynd hills of ,shropshire these last beds attain a thickness of #f1jjj feet2 and in some parts of ,merionethshire they are of still greater thickness4 ,neither in ,north ,wales1 nor in the ,longmynd1 do the ,cambrian rocks afford any indications of life1 except annelide-tracks and burrows4 ,from this circumstance1 together with general absence of ,mollusca in these strata1 and the sudden appearance of numerous shells and trilobites in the succeeding ,lingula ,flags1 a change of conditions seems to have ensued at the close of the ,cambrian period4 ,believing that the red colour of rocks is frequently connected with their deposition in inland waters1 ,professor ,ramsay conceives it to be possible1 that the absence of marine mollusca in the ,cambrian rocks may be due to the same cause that produced their absence in the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and that the presence of sun-cracks and rain-pittings in the ,longmynd beds is a corroboration of this suggestion4#ce #ce 8,on the ,red ,rocks of ,england10 by ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay4 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #bej4 ,,the ,,silurian ,,period4 ,the next period of the ,primary ,epoch is the ,silurian1 a system of rocks universal in extent1 overspreading the whole earth more or less completely1 and covering up the rocks of older age4 ,the term 8,silurian0 was given by the illustrious ,murchison to the epoch which now occupies our attention1 because the system of rocks formed by the marine sediments1 during the period in question1 form large tracts of country in ,shropshire and ,wales1 a region formerly peopled by the ,silures1 a ,celtic race who fought gloriously against the ,romans1 under ,caractacus or ,caradoc1 the ,british king of those tracts4 ,the reader may find the nomenclature strange1 as applied to the vast range of rocks which it represents in all parts of the ,old and ,new ,world1 but it indicates1 with sufficient exactness1 the particular region in our own country in which the system typically prevails--reasons which led to the term being adopted1 even at a time when its vast geographical extent was not suspected4 ,on this subject1 and on the principles which have guided geologists in their classification of rocks1 ,professor ,sedgwick remarks in one of his papers in the ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society3 8,in every country10 he says1#cf 8which is not made out by reference to a pre-existing type1 our first labour is that of determining the physical groups1 and establishing their relations by natural sections4 ,the labour next in order is the determination of the fossils found in the successive physical groups2 and1 as a matter of fact1 the natural groups of fossils are generally found to be nearly co-ordinate with the physical groups--each successive group resulting from certain conditions which have modified the distribution of organic types4 ,in the third place comes the collective arrangement of the groups into systems1 or groups of a higher order4 ,the establishment of the ,silurian system is an admirable example of this whole process4 ,the groups called ,caradoc1 ,wenlock1 ,ludlow1 c41 were physical groups determined by good natural sections4 ,the successive groups of fossils were determined by the sections2 and the sections1 as the representatives of physical groups1 were hardly at all modified by any consideration of the fossils1 for these two distinct views of the natural history of such groups led to co-ordinate results4 ,then followed the collective view of the whole series1 and the establishment of a nomenclature4 ,not only the whole series 7considered as a distinct system71 but every subordinate group was defined by a geographical name1 referring us to a local type within the limits of ,siluria2 in this respect adopting the principle of grouping and nomenclature applied by ,w4 ,smith to our secondary rocks4 ,at the same time1 the older slate rocks of ,wales 7inferior to the system of ,siluria71 were called ,cambrian1 and soon afterwards the next great collective group of rocks 7superior to the system of ,siluria7 was called ,devonian4 ,in this way was established a perfect congruity of language4 ,it was geographical in principle1 and it represented the actual development of all our older rocks1 which gave to it its true value and meaning40 ,the period1 then1 for the purposes of scientific description1 may be divided into three sub-periods--the ,upper and ,lower ,silurian1 and the ,cambrian4 #cf ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iii41 p4 #aei4 ,illustration3 ,,viii4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,silurian ,period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,back of ,asaphus caudatus 7,dudley1 ,mus4 ,stokes71 with the eyes well preserved4 7,buckland47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;a1 ,side view of the left eye of the above1 magnified1 7,buckland47 b1 ,magnified view of a portion of the eye of ,calymene macrophthalmus4 7,hninghaus47 ,the characteristics of the ,silurian period1 of which we give an ideal view opposite 7,,plate ,,viii471 are supposed to have been shallow seas of great extent1 with barren submarine reefs and isolated rocks rising here and there out of the water1 covered with ,alg1 and frequented by various ,mollusca and articulated animals4 ,the earliest traces of vegetation belong to the ,thallogens1 flowerless plants of the class ,alg 7,fig4 #bh71 without leaves or stems1 which are found among the ,lower ,silurian rocks4 ,to these succeed other plants1 according to ,dr4 ,hooker1 belonging to the ,lycopodiace 7,fig4 #bh71 the seeds of which are found sparingly in the ,upper ,ludlow beds4 ,among animals1 the ,orthoceratites led a predacious life in the ,silurian seas4 ,their organisation indicates that they preyed upon other animals1 pursuing them into the deepest abysses1 and strangling them in the embrace of their long arms4 ,the ,trilobites1 a remarkable group of ,crustacea1 possessing simple and reticulated compound eyes1 also highly characterise this period 7,figs4 #ag to #bj72 presenting at one period or other of their existence #a1fgg species1 #bbd of which are met with in ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 as we are taught by the 8,thesaurus ,siluricus40#cg ,add to this a sun1 struggling to penetrate the dense atmosphere of the primitive world1 and yielding a dim and imperfect light to the first created beings as they left the hand of the ,creator1 organisms often rudimentary1 but at other times sufficiently advanced to indicate a progress towards more perfect creations4 ,such is the picture which the artist has attempted to portray4 #cg 8,the ,flora and ,fauna of the ,silurian ,period10 by ,john ,t4 ,bigsby1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 #dto1 #ahfh4 ,the elaborate and highly valuable 8,thesaurus ,siluricus0 contains the names of #h1iig species of fossil remains1 but it probably does not tell us of one-tenth part of the ,silurian life still lying buried in rocks of that age in various parts of the world4 ,a rich field is here offered to the geological explorer4#ch #ch ,ibid1 p4 vi4 ,,lower ,,silurian4 ,the ,silurian rocks have been estimated by ,sir ,roderick ,murchison to occupy1 altogether1 an area of about #g1fjj square miles in ,england and ,wales1 #ah1dbj square miles in ,scotland1 and nearly #g1jjj square miles in ,ireland4 ,thus1 as regards the ,british ,isles1 the ,silurian rocks rise to the surface over nearly #cc1jjj square miles4 ,the ,silurian rocks have been traced from ,cumberland to the ,land's ,end1 at the southern extremity of ,england4 ,they lie at the base of the southern ,highlands of ,scotland1 from the ,north ,channel to the ,north ,sea1 and they range along the entire western coast of that country4 ,in a westerly direction they extended to the sea1 where the mountains of ,wales--the ,alps of the great chain--would stand out in bold relief1 some of them facing the sea1 others in detached groups2 some clothed with a stunted vegetation1 others naked and desolate2 all of them wild and picturesque4 ,but an interest surpassing all others belongs to these mountains4 ,they are amongst the most ancient sedimentary rocks which exist on our globe1 a page of the book in which is written the history of the antiquities of ,great ,britain--in fine1 of the world4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,ogygia ,guettardi4 ,natural size4 ,in ,shropshire and ,wales three zones of ,silurian life have been established4 ,in rocks of three different ages ,graptolites have left the trace of their existence4 ,another fossil characteristic of these ancient rocks is the ,lingula4 ,this shell is horny or slightly calcareous1 which has probably been one cause of its preservation4 ,the family to which the ,lingula belongs is so abundant in the rocks of the ,welsh mountains1 that ,sir ,r4 ,murchison has used it to designate a geological era4 ,these ,lingula-flags mark the beginning of the first ,silurian strata4 ,in the ,lower ,llandovery beds1 which mark the close of the period1 other fossils present themselves1 thus greatly augmenting the forms of life in the ,lower ,silurian rocks4 ,these are clenterata1 articulata1 and mollusca4 ,they mark1 however1 only a very ephemeral passage over the globe1 and soon disappear altogether4 ,the vertebrated animals are only represented by rare ,fishes1 and it is only on reaching the ,upper ,ludlow rocks1 and specially in those beds which pass upward into the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 that the remains have been found of fishes--the most ancient beings of their class4 ,the class of ,crustaceans1 of which the lobster1 shrimp1 and the crab of our days are the representatives1 was that which predominated in this epoch of animal life4 ,their forms were most singular1 and different from those of all existing ,crustaceans4 ,they consisted mainly of the ,trilobites1 a family which became entirely extinct at the close of the ,carboniferous epoch1 but in whose nicely-jointed shell the armourer of the middle ages might have found all his contrivances anticipated1 with not a few besides which he has failed to discover4 ,the head presents1 in general1 the form of an oval buckler2 the body is composed of a series of articulations1 or rings1 as represented in ,fig4 #bj2 the anterior portion carrying the eyes1 which in some are reticulated1 like those of many insects 7,figs4 #ah and #ai72 the mouth was placed forward and beneath the head4 ,many of these ,crustaceans could roll themselves into balls1 like the wood-louse 7,figs4 #bc and #be74 ,they swam on their backs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,lituites cornu-arietis4 ,one-third natural size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,hemicosmites pyriformis4 ,one-third natural size4 ,during the middle and later ,silurian ages1 whole rocks were formed almost exclusively of their remains2 during the ,devonian period they seem to have gradually died out1 almost disappearing in the ,carboniferous age1 and being only represented by one doubtful species in the ,permian rocks of ,north ,america4 ,the ,trilobites are unique as a family1 marking with certainty the rocks in which they occur2 8and yet10 says ,hugh ,miller1 8how admirably do they exhibit the articulated type of being1 and illustrate that unity of design which pervades all ,nature1 amid its endless diversity60 ,among other beings which have left their traces in the ,silurian strata is ,nereites ,cambriensis1 a species of annelide1 whose articulations are very distinctly marked in the ancient rocks4 ,besides the ,trilobites1 many orders of ,mollusca were numerously represented in the ,silurian seas4 ,as ,sir ,r4 ,murchison has observed1 no zoological feature in the ,upper ,silurian rocks is more striking than the great increase and profusion of ,cephalopods1 many of them of great size1 which appear in strata of the age immediately antecedent to the dawn of vertebrated life4 ,among the ,cephalopods we have ,gyroceras and ,lituites cornu-arietis 7,fig4 #ba71 whose living representatives are the ,nautilus and ,cuttlefish of every sea4 ,the genus ,bellerophon 7,figs4 #ed and #ef71 with many others1 represented the ,gasteropods1 and like the living carinaria sailed freely over the sea by means of its fleshy parts4 ,the ,gasteropods1 with the ,lamellibranchs1 of which the ,oyster is a living type1 and the ,brachiopods1 whose congeners may still be detected in the ,terebratula of our ,highland lochs and bays1 and the ,lingul of the southern hemisphere1 were all then represented4 ,the ,lamellibranchiata are without a head1 and almost entirely destitute of power of locomotion4 ,among the ,echinodermata we may cite the ,hemiscosmites1 of which ,h4 pyriformis 7,fig4 #bb7 may be considered an example4 ,the rocks of the ,lower ,silurian age in ,france are found in ,languedoc1 in the environs of ,neffiez and of ,bdarrieux4 ,they occupy1 also1 great part of ,brittany4 ,they occur in ,bohemia1 also in ,spain1 ,russia1 and in the ,new ,world4 ,limestones1 sandstones1 and schists 7slates of ,angers7 form the chief part of this series4 ,the ,cambrian slates are largely represented in ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,,lower ,,silurian ,,group4 ,formation4 ,prevailing ,rocks4 ,thickness4 ,fossils4 ,lower ,hard sandstones1 conglomerates1 #fjj to ,pentamerus lens4 ,llandovery and flaggy shaly beds #a1jjj ,shelly sandstones1 shales1 and ,brachiopods2 slaty beds1 with grits1 con- ,lamellibranchs2 ,caradoc or glomerates1 and occasional #ab1jjj ,pteropods2 ,bala calcareous bands 7,bala lime- ,cystideans2 stone7 ,graptolites2 ,trilobites4 ,dark-grey flagstones1 occasionally ,llandeilo calcareous sandstones1 ,flags with black slates1 containing ,trilobites ,graptolites #a1jjj 7,fig4 #cf72 to ,graptolites2 #a1ejj ,heteropods2 ,lower ,dark-grey and ferruginous large ,llandeilo slates1 sandy shales1 and bluish ,cephalopods4 ,tremadoc flags1 with occasional beds ,slates of pisolitic iron-ore ,trilobites ,black and dark shaly1 grey 7,olenus1 and brown slaty flagstones ,conocoryphe1 ,lingula and sandstones1 with siliceous #f1jjj ,paradoxides1 ,flags grits and quartzites ,fig4 #ag72 ,brachiopods2 ,cystideans4 ,,cambrian ,,group4 ,llanberis slates1 with sandy #c1jjj ,annelides4 ,cambrian strata ,harlech grits #f1jjj ,oldhamia4 ,,laurentian ,,group4 ,upper ,stratified1 highly-crystalline1 #ab1jfj ,eozoon4 ,laurentian and felspathic rocks ,lower ,gneiss1 quartzite1 hornblende #ah1jjj ,none4 ,laurentian and mica-schists ,,upper ,,silurian ,,period4 ,,upper ,,silurian ,,group4 ,lithological ,characters4 ,thickness4 ,fossils4 ,passage ,beds1 ,tile-stones1 and ,sea-weeds1 ,downton sandstones1 at the #hj ,lingul1 base of the bone-bed ,mollusca4 ,micaceous1 yellowish and #gjj ,crustacea and ,ludlow grey1 sandy mudstone ,fish-remains4 ,rocks ,argillaceous 7,aymestry7 limestone #ej ,crinoids4 ,argillaceous ,shale with impure #ajjj ,mollusca of limestones many genera4 ,argillaceous or semi-crystalline ,mollusca of limestone many genera4 ,argillaceous shales1 in places ,echinodermata2 ,wenlock slaty #cjjj ,actinozoa2 ,rocks ,trilobites4 ,woolhope ,limestone and occasional bands of argillaceous ,graptolites4 nodules ,upper ,grey and yellowish sandstones ,pentamerus ,llandovery 7occasionally conglomerates7 #hjj oblongus1 ,rocks with bands of ,rhynchonella1 limestone ,orthides1 c4 ,among the fossils of this period may be remarked a number of ,trilobites1 which then attained their greatest development4 ,among others1 ,calymene ,blumenbachii 7,fig4 #bc71 some ,cephalopoda1 and ,brachiopoda1 among which last may be named ,pentamerus ,knightii1 ,orthis1 c41 and some ,corals1 as ,halysites catenularius 7,fig4 #bf71 or the chain coral4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,calymene ,blumenbachii partially rolled up4 ,the ,trilobites1 we have already said1 were able to coil themselves into a ball1 like the wood-louse1 doubtless as a means of defence4 ,in ,fig4 #bc1 one of these creatures1 ,calymene ,blumenbachii1 is represented in that form1 coiled upon itself4 7,see also ,illnus ,barriensis1 ,fig4 #be47 ,crustaceans of a very strange form1 and in no respects resembling the ,trilobites1 have been met with in the ,silurian rocks of ,england and ,america--the ,pterygotus 7,fig4 #bg7 and the ,eurypterus1 7,fig4 #bd74 ,they are supposed to have been the inhabitants of fresh water4 ,they were called 8,seraphim0 by the ,scotch quarrymen1 from the winged form and feather-like ornamentation upon the thoracic appendage1 the part most usually met with4 ,agassiz figured them in his work on the #8,fossil ,fishes of the ,old ,red ,sandstone1' but1 subsequently recognising their crustacean character1 removed them from the ,class of ,fishes1 and placed them with the ,pcilipod ,crustacea4 ,the ,eurypterid and ,pterygoti in ,england almost exclusively belong to the passage beds--the ,downton sandstone and the ,upper ,ludlow rocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,eurypterus remipes4 ,natural size4 ,among the marine plants which have been found in the rocks corresponding with this sub-period are some species of ,alg1 and others belonging to the ,lycopodiace1 which become still more abundant in the ,old ,red ,sandstone and ,carboniferous ,periods4 ,fig4 #bh represents some examples of the impressions they have left4 ,the seas were1 evidently1 abundantly inhabited at the end of the ,upper ,silurian period1 for naturalists have examined nearly #a1ejj species belonging to these beds1 and the number of ,british species1 classified and arranged for public inspection in our museums cannot be much short of that number4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,illnus ,barriensis4--,dudley1 ,walsall4 ,towards the close of the ,upper ,silurian sub-period1 the argillaceous beds pass upwards into more sandy and shore-like deposits1 in which the most ancient known fossil ,fishes occur1 and then usher us into the first great ichthyic period of the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 or ,devonian1 so well marked by its fossil fishes in ,britain1 ,russia1 and ,north ,america4 ,the so-called fish-bones have been the subject of considerable doubt4 ,between the ,upper ,ludlow rocks opposite ,downton ,castle and the next overlying stratum1 there occurs a thin bed of soft earthy shale1 and fine1 soft1 yellowish greenstone1 immediately overlying the ,ludlow rock3 just below this a remarkable fish-deposit occurs1 called the ,ludlow bone-bed1 because the bones of animals are found in this stratum in great quantities4 ,old ,drayton treats these bones as a great marvel3-- 8,with strange and sundry tales ,of all their wondrous things2 and not the least in ,wales1 ,of that prodigious spring 7him neighbouring as he past71 ,that little fishes' bones continually doth cast40 ,,polyolbion4 ,above the yellow beds1 or ,downton sandstone1 as they are called1 organic remains are extensively diffused through the argillaceous strata1 which have yielded fragments of fishes' bones 7being the earliest trace yet found of vertebrate life71 with seeds and land-plants1 the latter clearly indicating the neighbourhood of land1 and the poverty of numbers and the small size of the shells1 a change of condition in the nature of the waters in which they lived4 8,it was the central part only10 says ,sir ,r4 ,murchison1 8of this band1 or a ginger-bread-coloured layer of a thickness of three or four inches1 and dwindling away to a quarter of an inch1 exhibiting1 when my attention was first directed to it1 a matted mass of bony fragments1 for the most part of small size and of very peculiar character4 ,some of the fragments of fish are of a mahogany hue1 but others of so brilliant a black that when first discovered they conveyed the impression that the bed was a heap of broken beetles40#ci #ci 8,siluria10 p4 #adh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,halysites catenularius4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,pterygotus bilobatus4 ,the fragments thus discovered were1 after examination on the spot1 supposed to be those of fishes1 but1 upon further investigation1 many of them were found to belong to ,crustaceans4 ,the ichthyic nature of some of them is1 however1 now well established4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--,plants of the ,palozoic ,epoch4--#a and #b1 ,alg2 #c and #d1 ,lycopods4 ,silurian ,rocks are found in ,france in the departments of ,la ,manche1 ,calvados1 and of the ,sarthe1 and in ,languedoc the ,silurian formation has occupied the attention of ,messrs4 ,graff and ,fournet1 who have traced along the base of the ,espinouse1 the green1 primordial chlorite-schists1 surmounted by clay-slates1 which become more and more pure as the distance from the masses of granite and gneiss increases1 and the valley of the ,jour is approached4 ,upon these last the ,silurian system rests1 sinking towards the plain under ,secondary and ,tertiary formations4 ,in ,great ,britain1 ,silurian strata are found enormously developed in the ,west and ,south ,highlands of ,scotland1 on the western slopes of the ,pennine chain and the mountains of ,wales1 and in the adjoining counties of ,shropshire--their most typical region--and ,worcestershire4 ,in ,spain2 in ,germany 7on the banks of the ,rhine72 in ,bohemia--where1 also1 they are largely developed1 especially in the neighbourhood of ,prague--in ,sweden1 where they compose the entire island of ,gothland2 in ,norway2 in ,russia1 especially in the ,ural ,mountains2 and in ,america1 in the neighbourhood of ,new ,york1 and half way across the continent--in all these countries they are more or less developed4 ,we may add1 as a general characteristic of the ,silurian system as a whole1 that of all formations it is the most disturbed4 ,in the countries where it prevails1 it only appears as fragments which have escaped destruction amid the numerous changes that have affected it during the earlier ages of the world4 ,the beds1 originally horizontal1 are turned up1 contorted1 folded over1 and sometimes become even vertical1 as in the slates of ,angers1 ,llanberis1 and ,ireleth4 ,d',orbigny found the ,silurian beds with their fossils in the ,american ,andes1 at the height of #af1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,what vast upheavals must have been necessary to elevate these fossils to such a height6 ,in the ,silurian period the sea still occupied the earth almost entirely2 it covered the greater part of ,europe3 all the area comprised between ,spain and the ,ural was under water4 ,in ,france only two islands had emerged from the primordial ocean4 ,one of them was formed of the granitic rocks of what are now ,brittany and ,la ,vende2 the other constituted the great central plateau1 and consisted of the same rocks4 ,the northern parts of ,norway1 ,sweden1 and of ,russian ,lapland formed a vast continental surface4 ,in ,america the emerged lands were more extensive4 ,in ,north ,america an island extended over eighteen degrees of latitude1 in the part now called ,new ,britain4 ,in ,south ,america1 in the ,pacific1 ,chili formed one elongated island4 ,upon the ,atlantic1 a portion of ,brazil1 to the extent of twenty degrees of latitude1 was raised above water4 ,finally1 in the equatorial regions1 ,guiana formed a later island in the vast ocean which still covered most other parts of the ,new ,world4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no scene of greater geological confusion than that presented by the western flanks of the ,pennine chain4 ,a line drawn longitudinally from about three degrees west of ,greenwich1 would include on its western side ,cross ,fell1 in ,cumberland1 and the greater part of the ,silurian rocks belonging to the ,cambrian system1 in which the ,cambrian and ,lower ,silurian rocks are now well determined2 while the upper series are so metamorphosed by eruptive granite and the effects of denudation1 as to be scarcely recognisable4 8,with the rare exception of a seaweed and a zoophyte10 says the author of #8,siluria1' 8not a trace of a fossil has been detected in the thousands of feet of strata1 with interpolated igneous matter1 which intervene between the slates of ,skiddaw and the ,coniston limestone1 with its overlying flags2 at that zone only do we begin to find anything like a fauna3 here1 judging from its fossils1 we find representations of the ,caradoc and ,bala rocks40 ,this much-disturbed district ,professor ,sedgwick1 after several years devoted to its study1 has attempted to reconstruct1 the following being a brief summary of his arguments4 ,the region consists of3-- ,i4 ,beds of mudstone and sandstone1 deposited in an ancient sea1 apparently without the calcareous matter necessary to the existence of shells and corals1 and with numerous traces of organic forms of ,silurian age--these were the elements of the ,skiddaw slates4 ,,ii4 ,plutonic rocks were1 for many ages1 poured out among the aqueous sedimentary deposits2 the beds were broken up and re-cemented--plutonic silt and other finely comminuted matter were deposited along with the igneous rocks3 the process was again and again repeated1 till a deep sea was filled up with a formation many thousands of feet thick by the materials forming the middle ,cambrian rocks4 ,,iii4 ,a period of comparative repose followed4 ,beds of shells and bands of coral were formed upon the more ancient rocks1 interrupted with beds of sand and mud2 processes many times repeated3 and thus1 in a long succession of ages1 were the deposits of the upper series completed4 ,,iv4 ,towards the end of the period1 mountain-masses and eruptive rocks were pushed up through the older deposits4 ,after many revolutions1 all the divisions of the slate-series were upheaved and contorted by movements which did not affect the newer formations4 ,v4 ,the conglomerates of the ,old ,red ,sandstone were now spread out by the beating of an ancient surf1 continued through many ages1 against the upheaved and broken slates4 ,,vi4 ,another period of comparative repose followed3 the coral-reefs of the mountain limestone1 and the whole carboniferous series1 were formed1 but not without any oscillations between the land and sea-levels4 ,,vii4 ,an age of disruption and violence succeeded1 marked by the discordant position of the rocks1 and by the conglomerate of the ,new ,red ,sandstone4 ,at the beginning of this period the great north and south 8,craven fault10 which rent off the eastern calcareous mountains from the old slates1 was formed4 ,soon afterwards the disruption of the great 8,pennine fault10 which ranges from the foot of ,stanmore to the coast of ,north ,cumberland1 occurred1 lifting up the terrace of ,cross ,fell above the plain of the ,eden4 ,about the same time some of the north and south fissures1 which now form the valleys leading into ,morecambe ,bay1 may have been formed4 ,,viii4 ,the more tranquil period of the ,new ,red ,sandstone now dawns1 but here our facts fail us on the skirts of the ,lake ,mountains4 ,,ix4 ,thousands of ages rolled away during the ,secondary and ,tertiary periods1 in which we can trace no movement4 ,but the powers of ,nature are never still3 during this age of apparent repose many a fissure may have started into an open chasm1 many a valley been scooped out upon the lines of 8fault40 ,x4 ,close to the historic times we have evidence of new disruptions and violence1 and of vast changes of level between land and sea4 ,ancient valleys probably opened out anew or extended1 and fresh ones formed in the changes of the oceanic level4 ,cracks among the strata may now have become open fissures1 vertical escarpments formed by unequal elevations along the lines of fault2 and subsidence may have given rise to many of the tarns and lakes of the district4 ,such is the picture which one of our most eminent geologists gives as the probable process by which this region has attained its present appearance1 after he had devoted years of study and observation to its peculiarities2 and his description of one spot applies in its general scope to the whole district4 ,at the close of the ,silurian period our island was probably an archipelago1 ranging over ten degrees of latitude1 like many of the island groups now found in the great ,pacific ,ocean2 the old gneissic hills of the western coast of ,scotland1 culminating in the granite range of ,ben ,nevis1 and stretching to the southern ,grampians1 forming the nucleus of one island group2 the south ,highlands of ,scotland1 ranging from the ,lammermoor hills1 another2 the ,pennine chain and the ,malvern hills1 the third1 and most easterly group2 the ,shropshire and ,welsh mountains1 a fourth2 and ,devon and ,cornwall stretching far to the south and west4 ,the basis of the calculation being1 that every spot of this island lying now at a lower elevation than #hjj feet above the sea1 was under water at the close of the ,silurian period1 except in those instances where depression by subsidence has since occurred4 ,there is1 however1 another element to be considered1 which cannot be better stated than in the picturesque language of ,m4 ,esquiros1 an eminent ,french writer1 who has given much attention to ,british geology4 8,the ,silurian mountains10 he says1 8ruins in themselves1 contain other ruins4 ,in the bosom of the ,longmynd rocks1 geologists discover conglomerates of rounded stones which bear no resemblance to any rocks now near them4 ,these stones consequently prove the existence of rocks more ancient still2 they are fragments of other mountains1 of other shores1 perhaps even of continents1 broken up1 destroyed1 and crumbled by earlier seas4 ,there is1 then1 little hope of one discovering the origin of life on the globe1 since this page of the ,genesis of the facts has been torn4 ,for some years geologists loved to rest their eyes1 in this long night of ages1 upon an ideal limit beyond which plants and animals would begin to appear4 ,now1 this line of demarcation between the rocks which are without vestiges of organised beings1 and those which contain fossils1 is nearly effaced among the surrounding ruins4 ,on the horizon of the primitive world we see vaguely indicated a series of other worlds which have altogether disappeared2 perhaps it is necessary to resign ourselves to the fact that the dawn of life is lost in this silent epoch1 where age succeeds age1 till they are clothed in the garb of eternity4 ,the river of creation is like the ,nile1 which1 as ,bossuet says1 hides its head--a figure of speech which time has falsified--but the endless speculations opened up by these and similar considerations led ,lyell to say1 #8,here ,i am almost prepared to believe in the ancient existence of the ,atlantis of ,plato4'0 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,ischadites ,knigii4 ,upper ,ludlow ,rocks4 ,,note4--,for accurate representations of the typical fossils of the ,palozoic strata of ,britain1 the reader may consult1 with advantage1 the carefully executed 8,figures of ,characteristic ,british ,fossils10 by ,w4 ,h4 ,baily1 ,f4,g4,s4 7,van ,voorst74 ,,old ,,red ,,sandstone ,,and ,,devonian ,,period4 ,another great period in the ,earth's history opens on us--the ,devonian or 8,old ,red ,sandstone10 so called1 because the formation is very clearly displayed over a great extent of country in the county of ,devon4 ,the name was first proposed by ,murchison and ,sedgwick1 in #ahcg1 for these strata1 which had previously been referred to the 8transition0 or ,silurian series4 ,the circumstances which marked the passage of the uppermost ,silurian rocks into ,old ,red ,sandstone seem to have been3--,first1 a shallowing of the sea1 followed by a gradual alteration in the physical geography of the district1 so that the area became changed into a series of mingled fresh and brackish lagoons1 which1 finally1 by continued terrestrial changes1 were converted into a great fresh-water lake2 or1 if we take the whole of ,britain and lands beyond1 into a series of lakes4#dj #dj 8,on the ,red ,rocks of ,england10 by ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay4 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #bdc4 ,mr4 ,godwin ,austen has1 also1 stated his opinion that the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 as distinct from the ,devonian rocks1 was of lacustrine origin4 ,the absence of marine shells helps to this conclusion1 and the nearest living analogues of some of the fishes are found in the fresh water of ,africa and ,north ,america4 ,even the occurrence in the ,devonian rocks of ,devonshire and ,russia of some ,old ,red ,sandstone fishes along with marine shells1 merely proves that some of them were fitted to live in either fresh or salt water1 like various existing fishes4 ,at the present day animals that are commonly supposed to be essentially marine1 are occasionally found inhabiting fresh water1 as is the case in some of the lakes of ,sweden1 where it is said marine crustacea are found4 ,mr4 ,alexander ,murray also states that in the inland fresh-water lakes of ,newfoundland seals are common1 living there without even visiting the sea4 ,and the same is the case in ,lake ,baikal1 in ,central ,asia4 ,the red colour of the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,england and ,scotland1 and the total absence of fossils1 except in the very uppermost beds1 are considered by ,professor ,ramsay to indicate that the strata were deposited in inland waters4 ,these fossils are terrestrial ferns1 ,adiantites 7,pecopteris7 ,hibernicus1 and a fresh-water shell1 ,anodon ,jukesii1 together with the fish ,glyptolepis4#da #da 8,on the ,red ,rocks of ,england10 by ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay4 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #bdg4 ,the rocks deposited during the ,devonian period exhibit some species of animals and plants of a much more complex organisation than those which had previously made their appearance4 ,we have seen1 during the ,silurian epoch1 organisms appearing of very simple type2 namely1 zoophytes1 articulated and molluscous animals1 with alg and lycopods1 among plants4 ,we shall see1 as the globe grows older1 that organisation becomes more complex4 ,vertebrated animals1 represented by numerous ,fishes1 succeed ,zoophytes1 ,trilobites1 and ,molluscs4 ,soon afterwards ,reptiles appear1 then ,birds and ,mammals2 until the time comes when man1 ,his supreme and last work1 issues from the hands of the ,creator1 to be king of all the earth--man1 who has for the sign of his superiority1 intelligence--that celestial gift1 the emanation from ,god4 ,vast inland seas1 or lakes covered with a few islets1 form the ideal of the ,old ,red ,sandstone period4 ,upon the rocks of these islets the mollusca and articulata of the period exhibit themselves1 as represented on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,ix474 ,stranded on the shore we see armour-coated ,fishes of strange forms4 ,a group of plants 7,asterophyllites7 covers one of the islets1 associated with plants nearly herbaceous1 resembling mosses1 though the true mosses did not appear till a much later period4 ,encrinites and ,lituites occupy the rocks in the foreground of the left hand4 ,the vegetation is still simple in its development1 for forest-trees seem altogether wanting4 ,the ,asterophyllites1 with tall and slender stems1 rise singly to a considerable height4 ,cryptogams1 of which our mushrooms convey some idea1 would form the chief part of this primitive vegetation2 but in consequence of the softness of their tissues1 their want of consistence1 and the absence of much woody fibre1 these earlier plants have come down to us only in a fragmentary state4 ,illustration3 ,,ix4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,devonian ,period4 ,the plants belonging to the ,devonian period differ much from the vegetation of the present day4 ,they resembled both mosses and lycopods1 which are flowerless cryptogamic plants of a low organisation4 ,the ,lycopods are herbaceous plants1 playing only a secondary part in the vegetation of the globe2 but in the earlier ages of organic creation they were the predominant forms in the vegetable kingdom1 both as to individual size and the number and variety of their species4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--,plants of the ,devonian ,epoch4 #a4 ,alg4 #b4 ,zostera4 #c4 ,psilophyton1 natural size4 ,in the woodcut 7,fig4 #cj7 we have represented three species of aquatic plants belonging to the ,devonian period2 they are--#a1 ,fucoids 7or ,alg72 #b1 ,zostera2 #c1 ,psilophyton4 ,the ,fucoid closely resembles its modern ally2 but with the first indications of terrestrial vegetation we pass from the ,thallogens1 to which the ,alg belong 7plants of simple organisation1 without flower or stem71 to the ,acrogens1 which throw out their leaves and branches at the extremity1 and bear in the axils of their leaves minute circular cases1 which form the receptacles of their spore-like seeds4 8,if we stand10 says ,hugh ,miller1 8on the outer edge of one of those iron-bound shores of the ,western ,highlands1 where rock and skerries are crowned with sea-weeds2 the long cylindrical lines of chorda-filum1 many feet in length1 lying aslant in the tideway2 long shaggy bunches of ,fucus serratus and ,f4 nodosus drooping from the sides of the rock2 the flat ledges bristling with the stiff cartilaginous many-cleft fronds of at least two species of ,chondrus2 now1 in the thickly-spread ,fucoids of this ,highland scene we have a not very improbable representation of the ,thallogenous vegetation4 ,if we add to this rocky tract1 so rich in ,fucoids1 a submarine meadow of pale shelly sand1 covered by a deep-green swathe of ,zoster1 with jointed root and slim flowers1 unfurnished with petals1 it would be more representative still40 ,let us now take a glance at the animals belonging to this period4 ,the class of ,fishes seem to have held the first rank and importance in the ,old ,red ,sandstone fauna2 but their structure was very different from that of existing fishes3 they were provided with a sort of cuirass1 and from the nature of the scales were called ,ganoid fishes4 ,numerous fragments of these curious fishes are now found in geological collections2 they are of strange forms1 some being completely covered with a cuirass of many pieces1 and others furnished with wing-like pectoral fins1 as in ,pterichthys4 ,let any one picture to himself the surprise he would feel should he1 on taking his first lesson in geology1 and on first breaking a stone--a pebble1 for instance1 exhibiting every external sign of a water-worn surface--find1 to appropriate ,archdeacon ,paley's illustration1 a watch1 or any other delicate piece of mechanism1 in its centre4 ,now1 this1 thirty years ago1 is exactly the kind of surprise that ,hugh ,miller experienced in the sandstone quarry opened in a lofty wall of cliff overhanging the northern shore of the ,moray ,frith4 ,he had picked up a nodular mass of blue ,lias-limestone1 which he laid open by a stroke of the hammer1 when1 behold6 an exquisitely shaped ,ammonite was displayed before him4 ,it is not surprising that henceforth the half-mason1 half-sailor1 and poet1 became a geologist4 ,he sought for information1 and found it2 he found that the rocks among which he laboured swarmed with the relics of a former age4 ,he pursued his investigations1 and found1 while working in this zone of strata all around the coast1 that a certain class of fossils abounded2 but that in a higher zone these familiar forms disappeared1 and others made their appearance4 ,he read and learned that in other lands--lands of more recent formation--strange forms of animal life had been discovered2 forms which in their turn had disappeared1 to be succeeded by others1 more in accordance with beings now living4 ,he came to know that he was surrounded1 in his native mountains1 by the sedimentary deposits of other ages2 he became alive to the fact that these grand mountain ranges had been built up grain by grain in the bed of the ocean1 and the mountains had been subsequently raised to their present level by the upheaval of one part of its bed1 or by the subsidence of another4 ,the young geologist now ceased to wonder that each bed1 or series of beds1 should contain in its bosom records of its own epoch2 it seemed to him as if it had been the object of the ,creator to furnish the inquirer with records of ,his wisdom and power1 which could not be misinterpreted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,fishes of the ,devonian ,epoch4 #a4 ,coccosteus1 one-third natural size4 #b4 ,pterichthys1 one-fourth natural size4 #c4 ,cephalaspis1 one-fourth natural size4 ,among the ,fishes of ,old ,red ,sandstone1 the ,coccosteus 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #a7 was only partially cased in a defensive armour2 the upper part of the body down to the fins was defended by scales4 ,pterichthys 7,no4 #b71 a strange form1 with a very small head1 furnished with two powerful paddles1 or arms1 like wings1 and a mouth placed far behind the nose1 was entirely covered with scales4 ,the ,cephalaspis 7,no4 #c71 which has a considerable outward resemblance to some fishes of the present time1 was nevertheless mail-clad1 only on the anterior part of the body4 ,other fishes were provided with no such cuirass1 properly so called1 but were protected by strong resisting scales1 enveloping the whole body4 ,such were the ,acanthodes 7#a71 the ,climatius 7#b71 and the ,diplacanthus 7#c71 represented in ,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,fishes of the ,devonian epoch4 #a4 ,acanthodes4 #b4 ,climatius4 #c4 ,diplacanthus4 ,among the organic beings of the ,devonian rocks we find worm-like animals1 such as the ,annelides1 protected by an external shell1 and which at the present day are probably represented by the ,serpul4 ,among ,crustaceans the ,trilobites are still somewhat numerous1 especially in the middle rocks of the period4 ,we also find there many different groups of ,mollusca1 of which the ,brachiopoda form more than one-half4 ,we may say of this period that it is the reign of ,brachiopoda2 in it they assumed extraordinary forms1 and the number of their species was very great4 ,among the most curious we may instance the enormous ,stringocephalus ,burtini1 ,davidsonia ,verneuilli1 ,uncites gryphus1 and ,calceola ,sandalina1 shells of singular and fantastic shape1 differing entirely from all known forms4 ,amongst the most characteristic of these ,mollusca1 ,atrypa reticularis 7,fig4 #cc7 holds the first rank1 with ,spirifera concentrica1 ,leptna ,murchisoni1 and ,productus subaculeatus4 ,among the ,cephalopoda we have ,clymenia ,sedgwickii 7,fig4 #cd71 including the ,goniatites1 illustrating the ,ammonites1 which so distinctly characterise the ,secondary epoch1 but which were only foreshadowed in the ,devonian period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,atrypa reticularis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--;,clymenia ,sedgwickii4 ,among the ,radiata of this epoch1 the order ,crinoidea are abundantly represented4 ,we give as an example ,cupressocrinus crassus 7,fig4 #ce74 ,the ,encrinites1 under which name the whole of these animals are sometimes included1 lived attached to rocky places and in deep water1 as they now do in the ,caribbean sea4 ,the ,encrinites1 as we have seen1 were represented during the ,silurian period in a simple genus1 ,hemicosmites1 but they greatly increased in numbers in the seas of the ,devonian period4 ,they diminish in numbers1 as we retire from that geological age2 until those forms1 which were so numerous and varied in the earliest seas1 are now only represented by two genera4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--;,cupressocrinus crassus4 ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone rocks are composed of schists1 sandstone1 and limestones4 ,the line of demarcation between the ,silurian rocks and those which succeed them may be followed1 in many places1 by the eye2 but1 on a closer examination1 the exact limits of the two systems become more difficult to fix4 ,the beds of the one system pass into the other by a gradual passage1 for ,nature rarely admits of violent contrasts1 and shows few sudden transitions4 ,by-and-by1 however1 the change becomes very decided1 and the contrast between the dark grey masses at the base and the superincumbent yellow and red rocks become sufficiently striking4 ,in fact1 the uppermost beds of the ,silurian rocks are the passage-beds of the overlying system1 consisting of flagstones1 occasionally reddish1 and called in some districts 8tile-stones40 ,over these lie the ,old ,red ,sandstone conglomerate1 the ,caithness flags1 and the great superincumbent mass which forms the upper portion of the system4 ,though less abrupt than the eruptive and ,silurian mountains1 the ,old ,red ,sandstone scenery is1 nevertheless1 distinguished by its imposing outline1 assuming bold and lofty escarpments in the ,vans of ,brecon1 in ,grongar ,hill1 near ,caermarthen1 and in the ,black ,mountain of ,monmouthshire1 in the centre of a landscape which1 wood1 rock1 and river combine to render perfect4 ,but it is in the north of ,scotland where this rock assumes its grandest aspect1 wrapping its mantle round the loftiest mountains1 and rising out of the sea in rugged and fantastic masses1 as far north as the ,orkneys4 ,in ,devon and ,cornwall1 where the rocks are of a calcareous1 and sometimes schistose or slaty character1 they are sufficiently extensive to have given a name to the series1 which is recognised all over the world4 ,in ,herefordshire1 ,worcestershire1 ,shropshire1 ,gloucestershire1 and ,south ,wales1 the ,old ,red ,sandstone is largely developed1 and sometimes attains the thickness of from #h1jjj to #aj1jjj feet1 divided into3 #a4 ,conglomerate2 #b4 ,brown stone1 with ,eurypterus2 #c4 ,marl and cornstones1 with irregular courses of concrete limestone1 in which are spines of ,fishes and remains of ,cephalaspis and ,pteraspis2 #d4 ,thin olive-coloured shales and sandstone1 intercalated with beds of red marl1 containing ,cephalaspis and ,auchenaspis4 ,in ,scotland1 south of the ,grampians1 a yellow sandstone occupies the base of the system2 conglomerate1 red shales1 sandstone and cornstones1 containing ,holoptychius and ,cephalaspis1 and the ,arbroath paving-stone1 containing what ,agassiz recognised as a huge ,crustacean4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,trinucleus ,lloydii4 7,llandeilo ,flags47 ,some of the phenomena connected with the older rocks of ,devonshire are difficult to unravel4 ,the ,devonian1 it is now understood1 is the equivalent1 in another area1 of the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and in ,cornwall and ,devonshire lie directly on the ,silurian strata1 while elsewhere the fossils of the ,upper ,silurian are almost identical with those in the ,devonian beds4 ,the late ,professor ,jukes1 with some other geologists1 was of opinion that the ,devonian rocks of ,devonshire only represented the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland and ,south ,wales in part2 the ,upper ,devonian rocks lying between the acknowledged ,old ,red ,sandstone and the ,culm-measures being the representatives of the lower carboniferous rocks of ,ireland4 ,mr4 ,etheridge1 on the other hand1 in an elaborate memoir upon the same subject1 has endeavoured to prove that the ,devonian and ,old ,red ,sandstone1 though contemporaneous in point of time1 were deposited in different areas and under widely different conditions--the one strictly marine1 the other altogether fresh-water--or1 perhaps1 partly fresh-water and partly estuarine4 ,this supposition is strongly supported by his researches into the mollusca of the ,devonian system1 and also by the fish-remains of the ,devonian and ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland and the ,west of ,england and ,wales4#db ,the difficulty of drawing a sharply-defined line of demarcation between different systems is sufficient to dispel the idea which has sometimes been entertained that special faun were created and annihilated in the mass at the close of each epoch4 ,there was no close3 each epoch disappears or merges into that which succeeds it1 and with it the animals belonging to it1 much as we have seen them disappear from our own fauna almost within recent times4 #db ,for fuller details on this subject1 see ,j4 ,b4 ,jukes' 8,manual of ,geology10 #crd ed41 p4 #gfb4 ,also1 ,r4 ,etheridge1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 #bc1 p4 #bea4 ,,carboniferous ,,period4 ,in the history of our globe the ,carboniferous period succeeds to the ,devonian4 ,it is in the formations of this latter epoch that we find the fossil fuel which has done so much to enrich and civilise the world in our own age4 ,this period divides itself into two great sub-periods3 #a4 ,the ,coal-measures2 and #b4 ,the ,carboniferous ,limestone4 ,the first1 a period which gave rise to the great deposits of coal2 the second1 to most important marine deposits1 most frequently underlying the coal-fields in ,england1 ,belgium1 ,france1 and ,america4 ,the limestone-mountains which form the base of the whole system1 attain in places1 according to ,professor ,phillips1 a thickness of #b1ejj feet4 ,they are of marine origin1 as is apparent by the multitude of fossils they contain of ,zoophytes1 ,radiata1 ,cephalopoda1 and ,fishes4 ,but the chief characteristic of this epoch is its strictly terrestrial flora--remains of plants now become as common as they were rare in all previous formations1 announcing a great increase of dry land4 ,in older geological times the present site of our island was covered by a sea of unlimited extent2 we now approach a time when it was a forest1 or1 rather1 an innumerable group of islands1 and marshes covered with forests1 which spread over the surface of the clusters of islands which thickly studded the sea of the period4 ,the monuments of this era of profuse vegetation reveal themselves in the precious ,coal-measures of ,england and ,scotland4 ,these give us some idea of the rich verdure which covered the surface of the earth1 newly risen from the bosom of its parent waves4 ,it was the paradise of terrestrial vegetation4 ,the grand ,sigillaria1 the ,stigmaria1 and other fern-like plants1 were especially typical of this age1 and formed the woods1 which were left to grow undisturbed2 for as yet no living ,mammals seem to have appeared2 everything indicates a uniformly warm1 humid temperature1 the only climate in which the gigantic ferns of the ,coal-measures could have attained their magnitude4 ,in ,fig4 #cg the reader has a restoration of the arborescent and herbaceous ,ferns of the period4 ,conifers have been found of this period with concentric rings1 but these rings are more slightly marked than in existing trees of the same family1 from which it is reasonable to assume that the seasonal changes were less marked than they are with us4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,ferns restored4 #a and #b4 ,arborescent ,ferns4 #c and #d4 ,herbaceous ,ferns4 ,everything announces that the time occupied in the deposition of the ,carboniferous ,limestone was one of vast duration4 ,professor ,phillips calculates that1 at the ordinary rate of progress1 it would require #abb1djj years to produce only sixty feet of coal4 ,geologists believe1 moreover1 that the upper coal-measures1 where bed has been deposited upon bed1 for ages upon ages1 were accumulated under conditions of comparative tranquillity1 but that the end of this period was marked by violent convulsions--by ruptures of the terrestrial crust1 when the carboniferous rocks were upturned1 contorted1 dislocated by faults1 and subsequently partially denuded1 and thus appear now in depressions or basin-shaped concavities2 and that upon this deranged and disturbed foundation a fourth geological system1 called ,permian1 was constructed4 ,the fundamental character of the period we are about to study is the immense development of a vegetation which then covered much of the globe4 ,the great thickness of the rocks which now represent the period in question1 the variety of changes which are observed in these rocks wherever they are met with1 lead to the conclusion that this phase in the ,earth's history involved a long succession of time4 ,coal1 as we shall find1 is composed of the mineralised remains of the vegetation which flourished in remote ages of the world4 ,buried under an enormous thickness of rocks1 it has been preserved to our days1 after being modified in its inward nature and external aspect4 ,having lost a portion of its elementary constituents1 it has become transformed into a species of carbon1 impregnated with those bituminous substances which are the ordinary products of the slow decomposition of vegetable matter4 ,thus1 coal1 which supplies our manufactures and our furnaces1 which is the fundamental agent of our productive and economic industry--the coal which warms our houses and furnishes the gas which lights our streets and dwellings--is the substance of the plants which formed the forests1 the vegetation1 and the marshes of the ancient world1 at a period too distant for human chronology to calculate with anything like precision4 ,we shall not say--with some persons1 who believe that all in ,nature was made with reference to man1 and who thus form a very imperfect idea of the vast immensity of creation--that the vegetables of the ancient world have lived and multiplied only1 some day1 to prepare for man the agents of his economic and industrial occupations4 ,we shall rather direct the attention of our young readers to the powers of modern science1 which can thus1 after such a prodigious interval of time1 trace the precise origin1 and state with the utmost exactness1 the genera and species of plants1 of which there are now no identical representatives existing on the face of the earth4 ,let us pause for a moment1 and consider the general characters which belonged to our planet during the ,carboniferous period4 ,heat--though not necessarily excessive heat--and extreme humidity were then the attributes of its atmosphere4 ,the modern allies of the species which formed its vegetation are now only found under the burning latitudes of the tropics2 and the enormous dimensions in which we find them in the fossil state prove1 on the other hand1 that the atmosphere was saturated with moisture4 ,dr4 ,livingstone tells us that continual rains1 added to intense heat1 are the climatic characteristic of ,equatorial ,africa1 where the vigorous and tufted vegetation flourishes which is so delightful to the eye4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance that conditions of equable and warm climate1 combined with humidity1 do not seem to have been limited to any one part of the globe1 but the temperature of the whole globe seems to have been nearly the same in very different latitudes4 ,from the ,equatorial regions up to ,melville ,island1 in the ,arctic ,ocean1 where in our days eternal frost prevails--from ,spitzbergen to the centre of ,africa1 the carboniferous flora is identically the same4 ,when nearly the same plants are found in ,greenland and ,guinea2 when the same species1 now extinct1 are met with of equal development at the equator as at the pole1 we cannot but admit that at this epoch the temperature of the globe was nearly alike everywhere4 ,what we now call climate was unknown in these geological times4 ,there seems to have been then only one climate over the whole globe4 ,it was at a subsequent period1 that is1 in later ,tertiary times1 that the cold began to make itself felt at the terrestrial poles4 ,whence1 then1 proceeded this general superficial warmth1 which we now regard with so much surprise8 ,it was a consequence of the greater or nearer influence of the interior heat of the globe4 ,the earth was still so hot in itself1 that the heat which reached it from the sun may have been inappreciable4 ,another hypothesis1 which has been advanced with much less certainty than the preceding1 relates to the chemical composition of the air during the ,carboniferous period4 ,seeing the enormous mass of vegetation which then covered the globe1 and extended from one pole to the other2 considering1 also1 the great proportion of carbon and hydrogen which exists in the bituminous matter of coal1 it has been thought1 and not without reason1 that the atmosphere of the period might be richer in carbonic acid than the atmosphere of the present day4 ,it has even been thought that the small number of 7especially air-breathing7 animals1 which then lived1 might be accounted for by the presence of a greater proportion of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere than is the case in our own times4 ,this1 however1 is pure assumption1 totally deficient in proof4 ,nothing proves that the atmosphere of the period in question was richer in carbonic acid than is the case now4 ,since we are only able1 then1 to offer vague conjectures on this subject1 we cannot profess with any confidence to entertain the opinion that the atmospheric air of the ,carboniferous period contained more carbonic acid gas than that which we now breathe4 ,what we can remark1 with certainty1 as a striking characteristic of the vegetation of the globe during this phase of its history1 was the prodigious development which it assumed4 ,the ,ferns1 which in our days and in our climate1 are most commonly only small perennial plants1 in the ,carboniferous age sometimes presented themselves under lofty and even magnificent forms4 ,every one knows those marsh-plants with hollow1 channelled1 and articulated cylindrical stems2 whose joints are furnished with a membranous1 denticulated sheath1 and which bear the vulgar name of 8mare's-tail20 their fructification forming a sort of catkin composed of many rings of scales1 carrying on their lower surface sacs full of spores or seeds4 ,these humble ,equiseta were represented during the ,coal-period by herbaceous trees from twenty to thirty feet high and four to six inches in diameter4 ,their trunks1 channelled longitudinally1 and divided transversely by lines of articulation1 have been preserved to us3 they bear the name of ,calamites4 ,the engraving 7,fig4 #ch7 represents one of these gigantic mare's-tails1 or ,calamites1 of the ,coal-period1 restored under the directions of ,m4 ,eugene ,deslongchamps4 ,it is represented with its fronds of leaves1 and its organs of fructification4 ,they seem to have grown by means of an underground stem1 while new buds issued from the ground at intervals1 as represented in the engraving4 ,the ,lycopods of our age are humble plants1 scarcely a yard in height1 and most commonly creepers2 but the ,lycopodiace of the ancient world were trees of eighty or ninety feet in height4 ,it was the ,lepidodendrons which filled the forests4 ,their leaves were sometimes twenty inches long1 and their trunks a yard in diameter4 ,such are the dimensions of some specimens of ,lepidodendron carinatum which have been found4 ,another ,lycopod of this period1 the ,lomatophloyos crassicaule1 attained dimensions still more colossal4 ,the ,sigillarias sometimes exceeded #ajj feet in height4 ,herbaceous ,ferns were also exceedingly abundant1 and grew beneath the shade of these gigantic trees4 ,it was the combination of these lofty trees with such shrubs 7if we may so call them71 which formed the forests of the ,carboniferous period4 ,the trunks of two of the gigantic trees1 which flourished in the forests of the ,carboniferous period1 are represented in ,figs4 #ci and #dj1 reduced respectively to one-fifth and one-tenth the natural size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,calamite restored4 ,thirty to forty feet high4 ,what could be more surprising than the aspect of this exuberant vegetation6--these immense ,sigillarias1 which reigned over the forest6 these ,lepidodendrons1 with flexible and slender stems6 these ,lomatophloyos1 which present themselves as herbaceous trees of gigantic height1 furnished with verdant leaflets6 these ,calamites1 forty feet high6 these elegant arborescent ,ferns1 with airy foliage1 as finely cut as the most delicate lace6 ,nothing at the present day can convey to us an idea of the prodigious and immense extent of never-changing verdure which clothed the earth1 from pole to pole1 under the high temperature which everywhere prevailed over the whole terrestrial globe4 ,in the depths of these inextricable forests parasitic plants were suspended from the trunks of the great trees1 in tufts or garlands1 like the wild vines of our tropical forests4 ,they were nearly all pretty1 fern-like plants--,sphenopteris1 ,hymenophyllites1 c42 they attached themselves to the stems of the great trees1 like the orchids and ,bromeliace of our times4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,trunk of ,calamites4 ,one-fifth natural size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,trunk of ,sigillaria4 ,one-tenth natural size4 ,the margin of the waters would also be covered with various plants with light and whorled leaves1 belonging1 perhaps1 to the ,dicotyledons2 ,annularia fertilis1 ,sphenophyllites1 and ,asterophyllites4 ,how this vegetation1 so imposing1 both on account of the dimensions of the individual trees and the immense space which they occupied1 so splendid in its aspect1 and yet so simple in its organisation1 must have differed from that which now embellishes the earth and charms our eyes6 ,it certainly possessed the advantage of size and rapid growth2 but how poor it was in species--how uniform in appearance6 ,no flowers yet adorned the foliage or varied the tints of the forests4 ,eternal verdure clothed the branches of the ,ferns1 the ,lycopods1 and ,equiseta1 which composed to a great extent the vegetation of the age4 ,the forests presented an innumerable collection of individuals1 but very few species1 and all belonging to the lower types of vegetation4 ,no fruit appeared fit for nourishment2 none would seem to have been on the branches4 ,suffice it to say that few terrestrial animals seem to have existed yet2 animal life was apparently almost wholly confined to the sea1 while the vegetable kingdom occupied the land1 which at a later period was more thickly inhabited by air-breathing animals4 ,probably a few winged insects 7some coleoptera1 orthoptera1 and neuroptera7 gave animation to the air while exhibiting their variegated colours2 and it was not impossible but that many pulmoniferous mollusca 7such as land-snails7 lived at the same time4 ,but1 we might ask1 for what eyes1 for whose thoughts1 for whose wants1 did the solitary forests grow8 ,for whom these majestic and extensive shades8 ,for whom these sublime sights8 ,what mysterious beings contemplated these marvels8 ,a question which cannot be solved1 and one before which we are overwhelmed1 and our powerless reason is silent2 its solution rests with ,him who said1 8,before the world was1 ,i am60 ,the vegetation which covered the numerous islands of the ,carboniferous sea consisted1 then1 of ,ferns1 of ,equisetace1 of ,lycopodiace1 and dicotyledonous ,gymnosperms4 ,the ,annularia and ,sigillari belong to families of the last-named class1 which are now completely extinct4 ,the ,annulari were small plants which floated on the surface of fresh-water lakes and ponds2 their leaves were verticillate1 that is1 arranged in a great number of whorls1 at each articulation of the stem with the branches4 ,the ,sigillari were1 on the contrary1 great trees1 consisting of a simple trunk1 surmounted with a bunch or panicle of slender drooping leaves1 with the bark often channelled1 and displaying impressions or scars of the old leaves1 which1 from their resemblance to a seal1 sigillum1 gave origin to their name4 ,fig4 #da represents the bark of one of these ,sigillari1 which is often met with in coal-mines4 ,the ,stigmari 7,fig4 #db71 according to palontologists1 were roots of ,sigillari1 with a subterranean fructification2 all that is known of them is the long roots which carry the reproductive organs1 and in some cases are as much as sixteen feet long4 ,these were suspected by ,brongniart1 on botanical grounds1 to be the roots of ,sigillaria1 and recent discoveries have confirmed this impression4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 in company with ,dr4 ,dawson1 examined several erect ,sigillari in the sea-cliffs of the ,south ,joggins in ,nova ,scotia1 and found that from the lower extremities of the trunk they sent out ,stigmari as roots1 which divided into four parts1 and these again threw out eight continuations1 each of which again divided into pairs4 ,twenty-one specimens of ,sigillaria have been described by ,dr4 ,dawson from the ,coal-measures of ,nova ,scotia2 but the differences in the markings in different parts of the same tree are so great1 that ,dr4 ,dawson regards the greater part of the recognised species of ,sigillari as merely provisional4#dc #dc ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxii41 p4 #abi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--,sigillaria lvigata4 ,one-third natural size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--,stigmaria4 ,one-tenth natural size4 ,two other gigantic trees grew in the forests of this period3 these were ,lepidodendron carinatum and ,lomatophloyos crassicaule1 both belonging to the family of ,lycopodiace1 which now includes only very small species4 ,the trunk of the ,lomatophloyos threw out numerous branches1 which terminated in thick tufts of linear and fleshy leaves4 ,the ,lepidodendrons1 of which there are about forty known species1 have cylindrical bifurcated branches2 that is1 the branches were evolved in pairs1 or were dichotomous to the top4 ,the extremities of the branches were terminated by a fructification in the form of a cone1 formed of linear scales1 to which the name of ,lepidostrobus 7,fig4 #de7 has been given4 ,nevertheless1 many of these branches were sterile1 and terminated simply in fronds 7elongated leaves74 ,in many of the coal-fields fossil cones have been found1 to which this name has been given by earlier palontologists4 ,they sometimes form the nucleus of nodular1 concretionary balls of clay-ironstone1 and are well preserved1 having a conical axis1 surrounded by scales compactly imbricated4 ,the opinion of ,brongniart is now generally adopted1 that they are the fruit of the ,lepidodendron4 ,at ,coalbrookdale1 and elsewhere1 these have been found as terminal tips of a branch of a well-characterised ,lepidodendron4 ,both ,hooker and ,brongniart place them with the ,lycopods1 having cones with similar spores and sporangia1 like that family4 ,most of them were large trees4 ,one tree of ,l4 ,sternbergii1 nearly fifty feet long1 was found in the ,jarrow ,colliery1 near ,newcastle1 lying in the shale parallel to the plane of stratification4 ,fragments of others found in the same shale indicated1 by the size of the rhomboidal scars which covered them1 a still greater size4 ,lepidodendron ,sternbergii 7,fig4 #dc7 is represented as it is found beneath the shales in the collieries of ,swina1 in ,bohemia4 ,fig4 #df represents a portion of a branch of ,l4 elegans furnished with leaves4 ,m4 ,eugene ,deslongchamps has drawn the restoration of the ,lepidodendron ,sternbergii1 represented in ,fig4 #dg1 which is shown entire in ,fig4 #dd1 with its stem1 its branches1 fronds1 and organs of fructification4 ,the ,ferns composed a great part of the vegetation of the ,coal-measure period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,lepidodendron ,sternbergii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,lepidodendron ,sternbergii restored4 ,forty feet high4 ,the ,ferns differ chiefly in some of the details of the leaf4 ,pecopteris1 for instance 7,fig4 #dh71 have the leaves once1 twice1 or thrice pinnatifid with the leaflets adhering either by their whole base or by the centre only2 the midrib running through to the point4 ,neuropteris 7,fig4 #di7 has leaves divided like ,pecopteris1 but the midrib does not reach the apex of the leaflets1 but divides right and left into veins4 ,odontopteris 7,fig4 #ea7 has pinnatifid leaves1 like the last1 but its leaflets adhere by their whole base to the stalk4 ,lonchopteris 7,fig4 #ej7 has the leaves several times pinnatifid1 the leaflets more or less united to one another1 and the veins reticulated4 ,among the most numerous species of forms of the ,coal-measure period was ,sphenopteris artemisifolia 7,fig4 #eb71 of which a magnified leaf is represented4 ,sphenopteris has twice or thrice pinnatifid leaves1 the leaflets narrow at the base1 and the veins generally arranged as if they radiated from the base2 the leaflets are frequently wedge-shaped4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,lepidostrobus variabilis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--,lepidodendron elegans4 ,,carboniferous ,,limestone4 7,,sub-,,period47 ,the seas of this epoch included an immense number of ,zoophytes1 nearly #djj species of ,mollusca1 and a few ,crustaceans and ,fishes4 ,among the ,fishes1 ,psammodus and ,coccosteus1 whose massive teeth inserted in the palate were suitable for grinding2 and the ,holoptychius and ,megalichthys1 are the most important4 ,the ,mollusca are chiefly ,brachiopods of great size4 ,the ,product attained here exceptional development1 ,producta ,martini 7,fig4 #ec71 ,p4 semi-reticulata and ,p4 gigantea1 being the most remarkable4 ,spirifers1 also1 were equally abundant1 as ,spirifera trigonalis and ,s4 glabra4 ,in ,terebratula hastata the coloured bands1 which adorned the shell of the living animal1 have been preserved to us4 ,the ,bellerophon1 whose convoluted shell in some respects resembles the ,nautilus of our present seas1 but without its chambered shell1 were then represented by many species1 among others by ,bellerophon costatus 7,fig4 #ed71 and ,b4 hiulcus 7,fig4 #ef74 ,again1 among the ,cephalopods1 we find the ,orthoceras 7,fig4 #eg71 which resembled a straight ,nautilus2 and ,goniatites 7,goniatites evolutus1 ,fig4 #ee71 a chambered shell allied to the ,ammonite1 which appeared in great numbers during the ,secondary epoch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,lepidodendron ,sternbergii4 ,crustaceans are rare in the ,carboniferous ,limestone strata2 the genus ,phillipsia is the last of the ,trilobites1 all of which became extinct at the close of this period4 ,as to the ,zoophytes1 they consist chiefly of ,crinoids and ,corals4 ,the ,crinoids were represented by the genera ,platycrinus and ,cyathocrinus4 ,we also have in these rocks many ,polyzoa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,pecopteris lonchitica1 a little magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,neuropteris gigantea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,lonchopteris ,bricii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,odontopteris ,brardii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,sphenopteris artemisifolia1 magnified4 ,among the corals of the period1 we may include the genera ,lithostrotion and ,lonsdalea1 of which ,lithostrotion basaltiforme 7,fig4 #eh71 and ,lonsdalea floriformis 7,fig4 #ei71 are respectively the representatives1 with ,amplexus corallodes4 ,among the ,polyzoa are the genera ,fenestrella and ,polypora4 ,lastly1 to these we may add a group of animals which will play a very important part and become abundantly represented in the beds of later geological periods1 but which already abounded in the seas of the ,carboniferous period4 ,we speak of the ,foraminifera 7,fig4 #fj71 microscopic animals1 which clustered either in one body1 or divided into segments1 and covered with a calcareous1 many-chambered shell1 as in ,fig4 #fj1 ,fusulina cylindrica4 ,these little creatures1 which1 during the ,jurassic and ,cretaceous periods1 formed enormous banks and entire masses of rock1 began to make their appearance in the period which now engages our attention4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,producta ,martini4 ,one-third nat4 size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--;,bellerophon costatus4 ,half nat4 size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--;,goniatites evolutus4 ,nat4 size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--;,bellerophon hiulcus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,orthoceras laterale4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,lithostrotion basaltiforme4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,lonsdalea floriformis4 ,the plate opposite 7,,plate ,x47 is a representation of an ideal aquarium1 in which some of the more prominent species1 which inhabited the seas during the period of the ,carboniferous ,limestone1 are represented4 ,on the right is a tribe of corals1 with reflections of dazzling white3 the species represented are1 nearest the edge1 the ,lasmocyathus1 the ,chtetes1 and the ,ptylopora4 ,the ,mollusc which occupies the extremity of the elongated and conical tube in the shape of a sabre is an ,aploceras4 ,it seems to prepare the way for the ,ammonite2 for if this elongated shell were coiled round itself it would resemble the ,ammonite and ,nautilus4 ,in the centre of the foreground we have ,bellerophon hiulcus 7,fig4 #ef71 the ,nautilus ,koninckii1 and a ,producta1 with the numerous spines which surround the shell4 7,see ,fig4 #fb47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,foraminifera of the ,mountain ,limestone1 forming the centre of an oolitic grain4 ,power #abj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--;,foraminifera of the ,chalk1 obtained by brushing it in water4 ,power #abj4 ,on the left are other corals3 the ,cyathophyllum with straight cylindrical stems2 some ,encrinites 7,cyathocrinus and ,platycrinus7 wound round the trunk of a tree1 or with their flexible stem floating in the water4 ,some ,fishes1 ,amblypterus1 move about amongst these creatures1 the greater number of which are immovably attached1 like plants1 to the rock on which they grow4 ,illustration3 ,x4--,ideal view of marine life in the ,carboniferous ,period4 ,in addition1 this engraving shows us a series of islets1 rising out of a tranquil sea4 ,one of these is occupied by a forest1 in which a distant view is presented of the general forms of the grand vegetation of the period4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is of importance to know the rocks formed by marine deposits during the era of the ,carboniferous ,limestone1 inasmuch as they include coal1 though in much smaller quantities than in the succeeding sub-period of the true coal-deposit4 ,they consist essentially of a compact limestone1 of a greyish-blue1 and even black colour4 ,the blow of the hammer causes them to exhale a somewhat fetid odour1 which is owing to decomposed organic matter--the modified substance of the molluscs and zoophytes--of which it is to so great an extent composed1 and whose remains are still easily recognised4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,producta horrida4 ,half natural size4 ,in the north of ,england1 and many other parts of the ,british ,islands1 the ,carboniferous ,limestone forms1 as we have seen1 lofty mountain-masses1 to which the term ,mountain ,limestone is sometimes applied4 ,in ,derbyshire the formation constitutes rugged1 lofty1 and fantastically-shaped mountains1 whose summits mingle with the clouds1 while its picturesque character appears here1 as well as farther north1 in the dales or valleys1 where rich meadows1 through which the mountain streams force their way1 seem to be closed abruptly by masses of rock1 rising above them like the grey ruins of some ancient tower2 while the mountain bases are pierced with caverns1 and their sides covered with mosses and ferns1 for the growth of which the limestone is particularly favourable4 ,the formation is metalliferous1 and yields rich veins of lead-ore in ,derbyshire1 ,cumberland1 and other counties of ,great ,britain4 ,the rock is found in ,russia1 in the north of ,france1 and in ,belgium1 where it furnishes the common marbles1 known as ,flanders marble 7,marbre de ,flandres and ,m4 de petit granit74 ,these marbles are also quarried in other localities1 such as ,regneville 7,la ,manche71 either for the manufacture of lime or for ornamental stonework2 one of the varieties quarried at ,regneville1 being black1 with large yellow veins1 is very pretty4 ,in ,france1 the ,carboniferous ,limestone1 with its sandstones and conglomerates1 schists and limestones1 is largely developed in the ,vosges1 in the ,lyonnais1 and in ,languedoc1 often in contact with syenites and porphyries1 and other igneous rocks1 by which it has been penetrated and disturbed1 and even metamorphosed in many ways1 by reason of the various kinds of rocks of which it is composed4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,carboniferous ,limestone formation occupies a somewhat grand position in the rear of the ,alleghanies4 ,it is also found forming considerable ranges in our ,australian colonies4 ,in consequence of their age1 as compared with the ,secondary and ,tertiary limestones1 the ,carboniferous rocks are generally more marked and varied in character4 ,the valley of the ,meuse1 from ,namur to ,chockier1 above ,lige1 is cut out of this formation2 and many of our readers will remember with delight the picturesque character of the scenery1 especially that of the left bank of the celebrated river in question4 ,,coal ,,measures4 7,,sub-,,period47 ,this terrestrial period is characterised1 in a remarkable manner1 by the abundance and strangeness of the vegetation which then covered the islands and continents of the whole globe4 ,upon all points of the earth1 as we have said1 this flora presented a striking uniformity4 ,in comparing it with the vegetation of the present day1 the learned ,french botanist1 ,m4 ,brongniart1 who has given particular attention to the flora of the ,coal-measures1 has arrived at the conclusion that it presented considerable analogy with that of the islands of the equatorial and torrid zone1 in which a maritime climate and elevated temperature exist in the highest degree4 ,it is believed that islands were very numerous at this period2 that1 in short1 the dry land formed a sort of vast archipelago upon the general ocean1 of no great depth1 the islands being connected together and formed into continents as they gradually emerged from the ocean4 ,this flora1 then1 consists of great trees1 and also of many smaller plants1 which would form a close1 thick turf1 or sod1 when partially buried in marshes of almost unlimited extent4 ,m4 ,brongniart indicates1 as characterising the period1 #ejj species of plants belonging to families which we have already seen making their first appearance in the ,devonian period1 but which now attain a prodigious development4 ,the ordinary dicotyledons and monocotyledons--that is1 plants having seeds with two lobes in germinating1 and plants having one seed-lobe--are almost entirely absent2 the cryptogamic1 or flowerless plants1 predominate2 especially ,ferns1 ,lycopodiace and ,equisetace--but of forms insulated and actually extinct in these same families4 ,a few dicotyledonous gymnosperms1 or naked-seed plants forming genera of ,conifers1 have completely disappeared1 not only from the present flora1 but since the close of the period under consideration1 there being no trace of them in the succeeding ,permian flora4 ,such is a general view of the features most characteristic of the ,coal period1 and of the ,primary epoch in general4 ,it differs1 altogether and absolutely1 from that of the present day2 the climatic condition of these remote ages of the globe1 however1 enables us to comprehend the characteristics which distinguish its vegetation4 ,a damp atmosphere1 of an equable rather than an intense heat like that of the tropics1 a soft light veiled by permanent fogs1 were favourable to the growth of this peculiar vegetation1 of which we search in vain for anything strictly analogous in our own days4 ,the nearest approach to the climate and vegetation proper to the geological period which now occupies our attention1 would probably be found in certain islands1 or on the littoral of the ,pacific ,ocean--the island of ,chlo1 for example1 where it rains during #cjj days in the year1 and where the light of the sun is shut out by perpetual fogs2 where arborescent ,ferns form forests1 beneath whose shade grow herbaceous ,ferns1 which rise three feet and upwards above a marshy soil2 which gives shelter also to a mass of cryptogamic plants1 greatly resembling1 in its main features1 the flora of the ,coal-measures4 ,this flora was1 as we have said1 uniform and poor in its botanic genera1 compared to the abundance and variety of the flora of the present time2 but the few families of plants1 which existed then1 included many more species than are now produced in the same countries4 ,the fossil ,ferns of the coal-series in ,europe1 for instance1 comprehend about #cjj species1 while all ,europe now only produces fifty4 ,the gymnosperms1 which now muster only twenty-five species in ,europe1 then numbered more than #abj4 ,it will simplify the classification of the flora of the ,carboniferous epoch if we give a tabular arrangement adopted by the best authorities3-- ,dr4 ,lindley4 ,brongniart4 ,i4 ,thallogens ,cryptogamous ,amphigens1 ,lichens1 ,sea-weeds1 ,fungi4 or ,cellular ,cryptogams ,,ii4 ,acrogens ,cryptogamous ,acrogens ,club-mosses1 ,equiseta1 ,ferns1 ,lycopods1 ,lepidodendra4 ,,iii4 ,gymnogens ,dicotyledonous ,gymnosperms ,conifers and ,cycads4 ,composit1 ,leguminos1 ,umbel- ,,iv4 ,exogens ,dicotyledonous ,angiosperms lifer1 ,crucifer1 ,heaths4 ,all ,european except ,conifers4 ,v4 ,endogens ,monocotyledons ,palms1 ,lilies1 ,aloes1 ,rushes1 ,grasses4 ,calamites are among the most abundant fossil plants of the ,carboniferous period1 and occur also in the ,devonian4 ,they are preserved as striated1 jointed1 cylindrical1 or compressed stems1 with fluted channels or furrows at their sides1 and sometimes surrounded by a bituminous coating1 the remains of a cortical integument4 ,they were originally hollow1 but the cavity is usually filled up with a substance into which they themselves have been converted4 ,they were divided into joints or segments1 and when broken across at their articulations they show a number of stri1 originating in the furrows of the sides1 and turning inwards towards the centre of the stem4 ,it is not known whether this structure was connected with an imperfect diaphragm stretched across the hollow of the stem at each joint1 or merely represented the ends of woody plates of which the solid part of the stem is composed4 ,their extremities have been discovered to taper gradually to a point1 as represented in ,c4 cannformis 7,fig4 #fd71 or to end abruptly1 the intervals becoming shorter and smaller4 ,the obtuse point is now found to be the root4 ,calamites are regarded as ,equisetaceous plants2 later botanists consider that they belong to an extinct family of plants4 ,sigillari are the most abundant of all plants in the coal formation1 and were those principally concerned in the accumulation of the mineral fuel of the ,coal-measures4 ,not a mine is opened1 nor a heap of shale thrown out1 but there occur fragments of its stem1 marked externally with small rounded impressions1 and in the centre slight tubercles1 with a quincuncial arrangement4 ,from the tubercles arise long ribbon-shaped bodies1 which have been traced in some instances to the length of twenty feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,sphenophyllum restored4 ,in the family of the ,sigillarias we have already presented the bark of ,s4 lvigata1 at page #ach2 on page #aeg we give a drawing of the bark of ,s4 reniformis1 one-third the natural size 7,fig4 #fe74 ,in the family of the ,asterophyllites1 the leaf of ,a4 foliosa 7,fig4 #ff72 and the foliage of ,annularia orifolia 7,fig4 #fg7 are remarkable4 ,in addition to these1 we present1 in ,fig4 #fc1 a restoration of one of these ,asterophyllites1 the ,sphenophyllum1 after ,m4 ,eugene ,deslongchamps4 ,this herbaceous tree1 like the ,calamites1 would present the appearance of an immense asparagus1 twenty-five to thirty feet high4 ,it is represented here with its branches and fronds1 which bear some resemblance to the leaves of the ginkgo4 ,the bud1 as represented in the figure1 is terminal1 and not axillary1 as in some of the ,calamites4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--;,calamites cannformis4 ,one-third natural size4 ,if1 during the ,coal-period1 the vegetable kingdom had reached its maximum1 the animal kingdom1 on the contrary1 was poorly represented4 ,some remains have been found1 both in ,america and ,germany1 consisting of portions of the skeleton and the impressions of the footsteps of a ,reptile1 which has received the name of ,archegosaurus4 ,in ,fig4 #fh is represented the head and neck of ,archegosaurus minor1 found in #ahdg in the coal-basin of ,saarbruck between ,strasbourg and ,trves4 ,among the animals of this period we find a few ,fishes1 analogous to those of the ,devonian formation4 ,these are the ,holoptychius and ,megalichthys1 having jaw-bones armed with enormous teeth4 ,scales of ,pygopterus have been found in the ,northumberland ,coal-shale at ,newsham ,colliery1 and also in the ,staffordshire ,coal-shale4 ,some winged insects would probably join this slender group of living beings4 ,it may then be said with truth that the immense forests and marshy plains1 crowded with trees1 shrubs1 and herbaceous plants1 which formed on the innumerable isles of the period a thick and tufted sward1 were almost destitute of animals4 ,illustration3 ,,xi4--,ideal view of a marshy forest of the ,coal ,period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,sigillaria reniformis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,asterophyllites foliosa4 ,on the opposite page 7,,pl4 ,,xi47 ,m4 ,riou has attempted1 under the directions of ,m4 ,deslongchamps1 to reproduce the aspect of ,nature during the period4 ,a marsh and forest of the ,coal-period are here represented1 with a short and thick vegetation1 a sort of grass composed of herbaceous ,fern and mare's-tail4 ,several trees of forest-height raise their heads above this lacustrine vegetation4 ,on the left are seen the naked trunk of a ,lepidodendron and a ,sigillaria1 an arborescent ,fern rising between the two trunks4 ,at the foot of these great trees an herbaceous ,fern and a ,stigmaria appear1 whose long ramification of roots1 provided with reproductive spores1 extend to the water4 ,on the right is the naked trunk of another ,sigillaria1 a tree whose foliage is altogether unknown1 a ,sphenophyllum1 and a ,conifer4 ,it is difficult to describe with precision the species of this last family1 the impressions of which are1 nevertheless1 very abundant in the ,coal-measures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,annularia orifolia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--;,head and neck of ,archegosaurus minor4 ,in front of this group we see two trunks broken and overthrown4 ,these are a ,lepidodendron and ,sigillaria1 mingling with a heap of vegetable dbris in course of decomposition1 from which a rich humus will be formed1 upon which new generations of plants will soon develop themselves4 ,some herbaceous ,ferns and buds of ,calamites rise out of the waters of the marsh4 ,a few ,fishes belonging to the period swim on the surface of the water1 and the aquatic reptile ,archegosaurus shows its long and pointed head--the only part of the animal which has hitherto been discovered 7,fig4 #fh74 ,a ,stigmaria extends its roots into the water1 and the pretty ,asterophyllites1 with its finely-cut stems1 rises above it in the foreground4 ,a forest1 composed of ,lepidodendra and ,calamites1 forms the background to the picture4 ,,formation ,,of ,,beds ,,of ,,coal4 ,coal1 as we have said1 is only the result of a partial decomposition of the plants which covered the earth during a geological period of immense duration4 ,no one1 now1 has any doubt that this is its origin4 ,in coal-mines it is not unusual to find fragments of the very plants whose trunks and leaves characterise the ,coal-measures1 or ,carboniferous era4 ,immense trunks of trees have also been met with in the middle of a seam of coal4 ,in the coal-mines of ,treuil1#dd at ,st4 ,etienne1 for instance1 vertical trunks of fossil trees1 resembling bamboos or large ,equiseta1 are not only mixed with the coal1 but stand erect1 traversing the overlying beds of micaceous sandstone in the manner represented in the engraving1 which has been reproduced from a drawing by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart 7,fig4 #fi74 #dd 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #dhj4 ,in ,england it is the same2 entire trees are found lying across the coal-beds4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell tells us#de that in ,parkfield ,colliery1 ,south ,staffordshire1 there was discovered in #ahed1 upon a surface of about a quarter of an acre1 a bed of coal which has furnished as many as seventy-three stumps of trees with their roots attached1 some of the former measuring more than eight feet in circumference2 their roots formed part of a seam of coal ten inches thick1 resting on a layer of clay two inches thick1 under which was a second forest resting on a band of coal from two to five feet thick4 ,underneath this1 again1 was a third forest1 with large stumps of ,lepidodendra1 ,calamites1 and other trees4#df #de ,ibid1 p4 #dgi4 #df ,ibid1 p4 #dgi4 ,in the lofty cliffs of the ,south ,joggins1 in the ,bay of ,fundy1 in ,nova ,scotia1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell found in one portion of the coal-field #a1ejj feet thick1 as many as sixty-eight different surfaces1 presenting evident traces of as many old soils of forests1 where the trunks of the trees were still furnished with roots4#dg #dg ,ibid1 p4 #dhc4 ,we will endeavour to establish here the true geological origin of coal1 in order that no doubt may exist in the minds of our readers on a subject of such importance4 ,in order to explain the presence of coal in the depths of the earth1 there are only two possible hypotheses4 ,this vegetable dbris may either result from the burying of plants brought from afar and transported by river or maritime currents1 forming immense rafts1 which may have grounded in different places and been covered subsequently by sedimentary deposits2 or the trees may have grown on the spot where they perished1 and where they are now found4 ,let us examine each of these theories4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,treuil coal-mine1 at ,st4 ,etienne4 ,can the coal-beds result from the transport by water1 and burial underground1 of immense rafts formed of the trunks of trees8 ,the hypothesis has against it the enormous height which must be conceded to the raft1 in order to form coal-seams as thick as some of those which are worked in our collieries4 ,if we take into consideration the specific gravity of wood1 and the amount of carbon it contains1 we find that the coal-deposits can only be about seven-hundredths of the volume of the original wood and other vegetable materials from which they are formed4 ,if we take into account1 besides1 the numerous voids necessarily arising from the loose packing of the materials forming the supposed raft1 as compared with the compactness of coal1 this may fairly be reduced to five-hundredths4 ,a bed of coal1 for instance1 sixteen feet thick1 would have required a raft #caj feet high for its formation4 ,these accumulations of wood could never have arranged themselves with sufficient regularity to form those well-stratified coal-beds1 maintaining a uniform thickness over many miles1 and that are seen in most coal-fields to lie one above another in succession1 separated by beds of sandstone or shale4 ,and even admitting the possibility of a slow and gradual accumulation of vegetable dbris1 like that which reaches the mouth of a river1 would not the plants in that case be buried in great quantities of mud and earth8 ,now1 in most of our coal-beds the proportion of earthy matter does not exceed fifteen per cent4 of the entire mass4 ,if we bear in mind1 finally1 the remarkable parallelism existing in the stratification of the coal-formation1 and the state of preservation in which the impressions of the most delicate vegetable forms are discovered1 it will1 we think1 be proved to demonstration1 that those coal-seams have been formed in perfect tranquillity4 ,we are1 then1 forced to the conclusion that coal results from the mineralisation of plants which has taken place on the spot2 that is to say1 in the very place where the plants lived and died4 ,it was suggested long ago by ,bakewell1 from the occurrence of the same peculiar kind of fireclay under each bed of coal1 that it was the soil proper for the production of those plants from which coal has been formed4#dh #dh 8,introduction to ,geology10 by ,robert ,bakewell1 #eth ed41 p4 #agi4 #ahch4 ,it has1 also1 been pointed out by ,sir ,william ,logan1 as the result of his observations in the ,south ,wales coal-field1 and afterwards by ,sir ,henry ,de la ,beche1 and subsequently confirmed by the observations of ,sir ,charles ,lyell in ,america1 that not only in this country1 but in the coal-fields of ,nova ,scotia1 the ,united ,states1 c41 every layer of true coal is co-extensive with and invariably underlaid by a marked stratum of arenaceous clay of greater or less thickness1 which1 from its position relatively to the coal has been long known to coal-miners1 among other terms1 by the name of under-clay4 ,the clay-beds1 8which vary in thickness from a few inches to more than ten feet1 are penetrated in all directions by a confused and tangled collection of the roots and leaves1 as they may be1 of the ,stigmaria ficoides1 these being frequently traceable to the main stem 7,sigillaria71 which varies in diameter from about two inches to half a foot4 ,the main stems are noticed as occurring nearer the top than the bottom of the bed1 as usually of considerable length1 the leaves or roots radiating from them in a tortuous irregular course to considerable distances1 and as so mingled with the under-clay that it is not possible to cut out a cubic foot of it which does not contain portions of the plant40 7,logan 8,on the ,characters of the ,beds of ,clay immediately below the ,coal-seams of ,south ,wales10 ,geol4 ,transactions1 ,second ,series1 vol4 vi41 pp4 #dia-b4 ,an account of these beds had previously been published by ,mr4 ,logan in the ,annual ,report of the ,royal ,institution of ,south ,wales for #ahci47 ,from the circumstance of the main stem of the ,sigillaria1 of which the ,stigmaria ficoides have been traced to be merely a continuation1 it was inferred by the above-mentioned authors1 and has subsequently been generally recognised as probably the truth1 that the roots found in the underclay are merely those of the plant 7,sigillaria71 the stem of which is met with in the overlying coal-beds--in fact1 that the ,stigmaria ficoides is only the root of the ,sigillaria1 and not a distinct plant1 as was once supposed to be the case4 ,this being granted1 it is a natural inference to suppose that the present indurated under-clay is only another condition of that soft1 silty soil1 or of that finely levigated muddy sediment--most likely of still and shallow water--in which the vegetation grew1 the remains of which were afterwards carbonised and converted into coal4#di #di ,for the opinions respecting the ,stigmaria ficoides1 see a ,memoir on 8,the ,formation of the ,rocks in ,south ,wales and ,south-,western ,england10 by ,sir ,henry ,t4 ,de la ,beche1 ,f4,r4,s41 in the 8,memoirs of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain10 vol4 i41 p4 #adi4 ,in order thoroughly to comprehend the phenomena of the transformation into coal of the forests and of the herbaceous plants which filled the marshes and swamps of the ancient world1 there is another consideration to be presented4 ,during the coal-period1 the terrestrial crust was subjected to alternate movements of elevation and depression of the internal liquid mass1 under the impulse of the solar and lunar attractions to which they would be subject1 as our seas are now1 giving rise to a sort of subterranean tide1 operating at intervals1 more or less widely apart1 upon the weaker parts of the crust1 and producing considerable subsidences of the ground4 ,it might1 perhaps1 happen that1 in consequence of a subsidence produced in such a manner1 the vegetation of the coal-period would be submerged1 and the shrubs and plants which covered the surface of the earth would finally become buried under water4 ,after this submergence new forests sprung up in the same place4 ,owing to another submergence1 the second forests were depressed in their turn1 and again covered by water4 ,it is probably by a series of repetitions of this double phenomenon--this submergence of whole regions of forest1 and the development upon the same site of new growths of vegetation--that the enormous accumulations of semi-decomposed plants1 which constitute the ,coal-measures1 have been formed in a long series of ages4 ,but1 has coal been produced from the larger plants only--for example1 from the great forest-trees of the period1 such as the ,lepidodendra1 ,sigillari1 ,calamites1 and ,sphenophylla8 ,that is scarcely probable1 for many coal-deposits contain no vestiges of the great trees of the period1 but only of ,ferns and other herbaceous plants of small size4 ,it is1 therefore1 presumable that the larger vegetation has been almost unconnected with the formation of coal1 or1 at least1 that it has played a minor part in its production4 ,in all probability there existed in the coal-period1 as at the present time1 two distinct kinds of vegetation3 one formed of lofty forest-trees1 growing on the higher grounds2 the other1 herbaceous and aquatic plants1 growing on marshy plains4 ,it is the latter kind of vegetation1 probably1 which has mostly furnished the material for the coal2 in the same way that marsh-plants have1 during historic times and up to the present day1 supplied our existing peat1 which may be regarded as a sort of contemporaneous incipient coal4 ,to what modification has the vegetation of the ancient world been subjected to attain that carbonised state1 which constitutes coal8 ,the submerged plants would1 at first1 be a light1 spongy mass1 in all respects resembling the peat-moss of our moors and marshes4 ,while under water1 and afterwards1 when covered with sediment1 these vegetable masses underwent a partial decomposition--a moist1 putrefactive fermentation1 accompanied by the production of much carburetted hydrogen and carbonic acid gas4 ,in this way1 the hydrogen escaping in the form of carburetted hydrogen1 and the oxygen in the form of carbonic acid gas1 the carbon became more concentrated1 and coal was ultimately formed4 ,this emission of carburetted hydrogen gas would1 probably1 continue after the peat-beds were buried beneath the strata which were deposited and accumulated upon them4 ,the mere weight and pressure of the superincumbent mass1 continued at an increasing ratio during a long series of ages1 have given to the coal its density and compact state4 ,the heat emanating from the interior of the globe would1 also1 exercise a great influence upon the final result4 ,it is to these two causes--that is to say1 to pressure and to the central heat--that we may attribute the differences which exist in the mineral characters of various kinds of coal4 ,the inferior beds are drier and more compact than the upper ones2 or less bituminous1 because their mineralisation has been completed under the influence of a higher temperature1 and at the same time under a greater pressure4 ,an experiment1 attempted for the first time in #ahcc1 at ,sain-,bel1 afterwards repeated by ,m4 ,cagniard de la ,tour1 and completed at ,saint-,etienne by ,m4 ,baroulier in #aheh1 fully demonstrates the process by which coal was formed4 ,these gentlemen succeeded in producing a very compact coal artificially1 by subjecting wood and other vegetable substances to the double influence of heat and pressure combined4 ,the apparatus employed for this experiment by ,m4 ,baroulier1 at ,saint-,etienne1 allowed the exposure of the strongly compressed vegetable matter enveloped in moist clay1 to the influence of a long-continued temperature of from #bjj to #cjj ,centigrade4 ,this apparatus1 without being absolutely closed1 offered obstacles to the escape of gases or vapours in such a manner that the decomposition of the organic matters took place in the medium saturated with moisture1 and under a pressure which prevented the escape of the elements of which it was composed4 ,by placing in these conditions the sawdust of various kinds of wood1 products were obtained which resembled in many respects1 sometimes brilliant shining coal1 and at others a dull coal4 ,these differences1 moreover1 varied with the conditions of the experiment and the nature of the wood employed2 thus explaining the striped appearance of coal when composed alternately of shining and dull veins4 ,when the stems and leaves of ferns are compressed between beds of clay or pozzuolana1 they are decomposed by the pressure only1 and form on these blocks a carbonaceous layer1 and impressions bearing a close resemblance to those which blocks of coal frequently exhibit4 ,these last-mentioned experiments1 which were first made by ,dr4 ,tyndall1 leave no room for doubt that coal has been formed from the plants of the ancient world4 ,passing from these speculations to the ,coal-measures3-- ,this formation is composed of a succession of beds1 of various thicknesses1 consisting of sandstones or gritstones1 of clays and shales1 sometimes so bituminous as to be inflammable--and passing1 in short1 into an imperfect kind of coal4 ,these rocks are interstratified with each other in such a manner that they may consist of many alterations4 ,carbonate of protoxide of iron 7clay-ironstone7 may also be considered a constituent of this formation2 its extensive dissemination in connection with coal in some parts of ,great ,britain has been of immense advantage to the ironworks of this country1 in many parts of which blast-furnaces for the manufacture of iron rise by hundreds alongside of the coal-pits from which they are fed4 ,in ,france1 as is frequently the case in ,england1 this argillaceous iron-ore only occurs in nodules or lenticular masses1 much interrupted2 so that it becomes necessary in that country1 as in this1 to find other ores of iron to supply the wants of the foundries4 ,fig4 #gj gives an idea of the ordinary arrangement of the coal-beds1 one of which is seen interstratified between two parallel and nearly horizontal beds of argillaceous shale1 containing nodules of clay iron-ore--a disposition very common in ,english collieries4 ,the coal-basin of ,aveyron1 in ,france1 presents an analogous mode of occurrence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,stratification of coal-beds4 ,the frequent presence of carbonate of iron in the coal-measures is a most fortunate circumstance for mining industry4 ,when the miner finds1 in the same spot1 the ore of iron and the fuel required for smelting it1 arrangements for working them can be established under the most favourable conditions4 ,such is the case in the coal-fields of ,great ,britain1 and also in ,france to a less extent--that is to say1 only at ,saint-,etienne and ,alais4 ,the extent of the ,coal-measures1 in various parts of the world1 may be briefly and approximately stated as follows3-- ,,estimated ,,area ,,of ,,the ,,coal-,,measures ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,square ,miles4 ,united ,states #bbj1aff #dbj1aff ,lignites and inferior ,coals #bjj1jjj ,british ,possessions in ,north ,america #b1bjj ,great ,britain #c1jjj ,france #b1jjj ,belgium #dfh ,rhenish ,prussia and ,saarbrck #a1eej ,westphalia #djj ,bohemia #fbj ,saxony #ff ,the ,asturias1 in ,spain #caj ,russia #aa1jjj ,islands of the ,pacific and ,indian ,ocean ,unknown4 ,the ,american continent1 then1 contains much more extensive coal-fields than ,europe2 it possesses very nearly two square miles of coal-fields for every five miles of its surface2 but it must be added that these immense fields of coal have not1 hitherto1 been productive in proportion to their extent4 ,the following ,table represents the annual produce of the collieries of ,america and ,europe3-- ,tons4 ,british ,islands 7in #ahgj7 #aaj1dca1aib ,united ,states #ad1eic1fei ,belgium 7in #ahgj7 #ac1fig1aah ,france 7in #ahfd7 #aj1jjj1jjj 7in #ahff7 #aa1hjg1adb ,prussia 7in #ahfd7 #ba1aig1bff ,nassau 7in #ahfd7 #b1cde1dei ,netherlands 7in #ahfd7 #bd1hae ,austria 7in #ahfd7 #d1ehi1jad ,spain #ejj1jjj ,we thus see that the ,united ,states holds a secondary place as a coal-producing country2 raising one-eleventh part of the out-put of the whole of ,europe1 and about one-eighth part of the quantity produced by ,great ,britain4 ,the ,coal-measures of ,england and ,scotland cover a large area2 and attempts have been made to estimate the quantity of fuel they contain4 ,the estimate made by the ,royal ,commission on the coal in the ,united ,kingdom may be considered as the nearest2 and1 in this ,report1 lately published1 it is stated that in the ascertained coal-fields of the ,united ,kingdom there is an aggregate quantity of #adf1dhj1jjj1jjj tons of coal1 which may be reasonably expected to be available for use4 ,in the coal-field of ,south ,wales1 ascertained by actual measurement to attain the extraordinary thickness of #aa1jjj feet of ,coal-measures1 there are #ajj different seams of coal1 affording an aggregate thickness of #abj feet1 mostly in thin beds1 but varying from six inches to more than ten feet4 ,professor ,j4 ,phillips estimates the thickness of the coal-bearing strata of the north of ,england at #c1jjj feet2 but these1 in common with all other coal-fields1 contain1 along with many beds of the mineral in a more or less pure state1 interstratified beds of sandstones1 shales1 and limestone2 the real coal-seams1 to the number of twenty or thirty1 not exceeding sixty feet in thickness in the aggregate4 ,the ,scottish ,coal-measures have a thickness of #c1jjj feet1 with similar intercalations of other carboniferous rocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--;,contortions of ,coal-beds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--;,cycas circinalis 7living form74 ,the coal-basin of ,belgium and of the north of ,france forms a nearly continuous zone from ,lige1 ,namur1 ,charleroi1 and ,mons1 to ,valenciennes1 ,douai1 and ,bthune4 ,the beds of coal there are from fifty to one hundred and ten in number1 and their thickness varies from ten inches to six feet4 ,some coal-fields which are situated beneath the ,secondary formations of the centre and south of ,france possess beds fewer in number1 but individually thicker and less regularly stratified4 ,the two basins of the ,sane-et-,loire1 the principal mines of which are at ,creuzot1 ,blanzy1 ,montchanin1 and ,epinac1 only contain ten beds2 but some of these 7as at ,montchanin7 attain #cj1 #ajj1 and even #acj feet in thickness4 ,the coal-basin of the ,loire is that which contains the greatest total thickness of coal-beds3 the seams there are twenty-five in number4 ,after those of the ,north--of the ,sane-et-,loire and of the ,loire--the principal basins in ,france are those of the ,allier1 where very important beds are worked at ,commentry and ,bezenet2 the basin of ,brassac1 which commences at the confluence of the ,allier and the ,alagnon2 the basin of the ,aveyron1 known by the collieries of ,decazeville and ,aubin2 the basin of the ,gard1 and of ,grand'-,combe4 ,besides these principal basins1 there are a great many others of scarcely less importance1 which yield annually to ,france from six to seven million tons of coal4 ,the seams of coal are rarely found in the horizontal position in which their original formation took place4 ,they have been since much crumpled and distorted1 forced into basin-shaped cavities1 with minor undulations1 and affected by numerous flexures and other disturbances4 ,they are frequently found broken up and distorted by faults1 and even folded back on themselves into zigzag forms1 as represented in the engraving 7,fig4 #ga1 p4 #afg71 which is a mode of occurrence common in all the ,coal-measures of ,somersetshire and in the basins of ,belgium and the north of ,france4 ,vertical pits1 sunk on coal which has been subjected to this kind of contortion and disturbance1 sometimes traverse the same beds many times4 ,,permian ,,period4 ,the name 8,permian0 was proposed by ,sir ,roderick ,i4 ,murchison1 in the year #ahda1 for certain deposits which are now known to terminate upwards the great primeval or ,palozoic ,series4#ej #ej ,see 8,siluria10 p4 #ad4 ,philosophical ,mag41 #crd series1 vol4 xix41 p4 #dai4 ,this natural group consists1 in descending order1 in ,germany1 of the ,zechstein1 the ,kupfer-schiefer1 ,roth-liegende1 c4 ,in ,england it is usually divided into ,magnesian ,limestone or ,zechstein1 with subordinate ,marl-slate or ,kupfer-schiefer1 and ,rothliegende4 ,the chief calcareous member of this group of strata is termed in ,germany the 8,zechstein10 in ,england the 8,magnesian ,limestone20 but1 as magnesian limestones have been produced at many geological periods1 and as the ,german ,zechstein is only a part of a group1 the other members of which are known as 8,kupfer-schiefer0 78copper-slate071 8,roth-todt-liegende0 7the 8,lower ,new ,red0 of ,english geologists71 c41 it was manifest that a single name for the whole was much needed4 ,finding1 in his examination of ,russia in ,europe1 that this group was a great and united physical series of marls1 limestones1 sandstones1 and conglomerates1 occupying a region much larger than ,france1 and of which the ,government of ,perm formed a central part1 ,sir ,roderick proposed that the name of ,permian1 now in general use1 should be thereto applied4 ,extended researches have shown1 from the character of its embedded organic remains1 that it is closely allied to1 but distinct from1 the carboniferous strata below it1 and is entirely distinct from the overlying ,trias1 or ,new ,red ,sandstone1 which forms the base of the great series of the ,secondary rocks4 ,geology is1 however1 not only indebted to ,sir ,roderick ,murchison for this classification and nomenclature1 but also to him1 in conjunction with ,professor ,sedgwick1 for the name 8,devonian10 as an equivalent to 8,old ,red ,sandstone20 whilst every geologist knows that ,sir ,r4 ,murchison is the sole author of the ,,silurian ,,system4 ,illustration3 ,,xii4--,ideal landscape of the ,permian ,period4 ,the ,permian rocks have of late years assumed great interest1 particularly in ,england1 in consequence of the evidence their correct determination affords with regard to the probable extent1 beneath them1 of the coal-bearing strata which they overlie and conceal2 thus tending to throw a light upon the duration of our coal-fields1 one of the most important questions of the day in connection with our industrial resources and national prosperity4 ,on the opposite page an ideal view of the earth during the ,permian period is represented 7,,pl4 ,,xii474 ,in the background1 on the right1 is seen a series of syenitic and porphyritic domes1 recently thrown up2 while a mass of steam and vapour rises in columns from the midst of the sea1 resulting from the heat given out by the porphyries and syenites4 ,having attained a certain height in the cooler atmosphere1 the columns of steam become condensed and fall in torrents of rain4 ,the evaporation of water in such vast masses being necessarily accompanied by an enormous disengagement of electricity1 this imposing scene of the primitive world is illuminated by brilliant flashes of lightning1 accompanied by reverberating peals of thunder4 ,in the foreground1 on the right1 rise groups of ,tree-ferns1 ,lepidodendra1 and ,walchias1 of the preceding period4 ,on the sea-shore1 and left exposed by the retiring tide1 are ,molluscs and ,zoophytes peculiar to the period1 such as ,producta1 ,spirifera1 and ,encrinites2 pretty plants--the ,asterophyllites--which we have noticed in our description of the ,carboniferous age1 are growing at the water's edge1 not far from the shore4 ,during the ,permian period the species of plants and animals were nearly the same as those already described as belonging to the ,carboniferous period4 ,footprints of reptilian animals have been found in the ,permian beds near ,kenilworth1 in the red sandstones of that age in the ,vale of ,eden1 and in the sandstones of ,corncockle ,moor1 and other parts of ,dumfriesshire4 ,these footprints1 together with the occurrence of current-markings or ripplings1 sun-cracks1 and the pittings of rain-drops impressed on the surfaces of the beds1 indicate that they were made upon damp surfaces1 which afterwards became dried by the sun before the flooded waters covered them with fresh deposits of sediment1 in the way that now happens during variations of the seasons in many salt lakes4#ea ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart has described the forms of the ,permian flora as being intermediate between those of the ,carboniferous period and of that which succeeds it4 #ea ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 8,on the ,red ,rocks of ,england40 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #bdf4 ,although the ,permian flora indicates a climate similar to that which prevailed during the ,carboniferous period1 it has been pointed out by ,professor ,ramsay1 as long ago as #ahee1 that the ,permian breccia of ,shropshire1 ,worcestershire1 c41 affords strong proofs of being the result of direct glacial action1 and of the consequent existence at the period of glaciers and icebergs4 ,that such a state of things is not inconsistent with the prevalence of a moist1 equable1 and temperate climate1 necessary for the preservation of a luxuriant flora like that of the period in question1 is shown in ,new ,zealand2 where1 with a climate and vegetation approximating to those of the ,carboniferous period1 there are also glaciers at the present day in the southern island4 ,professor ,king has published a valuable memoir on the ,permian fossils of ,england1 in the ,proceedings of the ,palontographical ,society1 in which the following ,table is given 7in descending order7 of the ,permian system of the ,north of ,england1 as compared with that of ,thuringia3-- ,,north ,,of ,,england4 ,,thuringia4 ,,mineral ,,character4 #a4 ,crystalline1 earthy1 compact1 and oolitic #a4 ,stinkstein #a4 ,oolitic limestones4 limestones #b4 ,brecciated and pseudo- #b4 ,rauchwacke #b4 ,conglomerates4 brecciated limestones #c4 ,fossiliferous #c4 ,upper ,zechstein1 or #c4 ,marlstones4 limestone ,dolomit-,zechstein #d4 ,compact limestone #d4 ,lower ,zechstein #d4 ,magnesian limestones4 #e4 ,marl-slate #e4 ,mergel-,schiefer or #e4 ,red and green grits ,kupferschiefer with copper-ore4 #f4 ,white limestone with #f4 ,lower sandstones1 and #f4 ,todteliegende gypsum and white sands of various colours salt4 ,at the base of the system lies a band of lower sandstone 7,no4 #f7 of various colours1 separating the ,magnesian ,limestone from the coal in ,yorkshire and ,durham2 sometimes associated with red marl and gypsum1 but with the same obscure relations in all these beds which usually attend the close of one series and the commencement of another2 the imbedded plants being1 in some cases1 stated to be identical with those of the ,carboniferous series4 ,in ,thuringia the ,rothliegende1 or red-lyer1 a great deposit of red sandstone and conglomerate1 associated with porphyry1 basaltic trap1 and amygdaloid1 lies at the base of the system4 ,among the fossils of this age are the silicified trunks of ,tree-ferns 7,psaronius71 the bark of which is surrounded by dense masses of air-roots1 which often double or quadruple the diameter of the original stem2 in this respect bearing a strong resemblance to the living arborescent ferns of ,new ,zealand4 ,the marl-slate 7,no4 #e7 consists of hard calcareous shales1 marl-slates1 and thin-bedded limestone1 the whole nearly thirty feet thick in ,durham1 and yielding many fine specimens of ,ganoid and ,placoid fishes--,paloniscus1 ,pygopterus1 ,clacanthus1 and ,platysomus--genera which all belong to the ,carboniferous system1 and which ,professor ,king thinks probably lived at no great distance from the shore2 but the ,permian species of the marl-slate of ,england are identical with those of the copper-slate of ,thuringia4 ,agassiz was the first to point out a remarkable peculiarity in the forms of the fishes which lived before and after this period4 ,in most living fishes the trunk seems to terminate in the middle of the root of the tail1 whose free margin is 8homocercal0 7even-tail71 that is1 either rounded1 or1 if forked1 divided into two equal lobes4 ,in ,paloniscus1 and most ,palozoic fishes1 the axis of the body is continued into the upper lobe of the tail1 which is thus rendered unsymmetrical1 as in the living sharks and sturgeons4 ,the latter form1 which ,agassiz termed 8heterocercal0 7unequal-tail7 is only in a very general way distinctive of ,palozoic fishes1 since this asymmetry exists1 though in a minor degree1 in many living genera besides those just mentioned4 ,the compact limestone 7,no4 #d7 is rich in ,polyzoa4 ,the fossiliferous limestone 7,no4 #c71 ,mr4 ,king considers1 is a deep-water formation1 from the numerous ,polyzoa which it contains4 ,one of these1 ,fenestella retiformis1 found in the ,permian rocks of ,england and ,germany1 sometimes measures eight inches in width4 ,many species of ,mollusca1 and especially ,brachiopoda1 appear in the ,permian seas of this age1 ,spirifera and ,producta being the most characteristic4 ,other shells now occur1 which have not been observed in strata newer than the ,permian4 ,strophalosia 7,fig4 #gc7 is abundantly represented in the ,permian rocks of ,germany1 ,russia1 and ,england1 and much more sparingly in the yellow magnesian limestone1 accompanied by ,spirifera undulata1 c4 ,s4 ,schlotheimii is widely disseminated both in ,england1 ,germany1 and ,russia1 with ,lingula ,credneri1 and other ,palozoic ,brachiopoda4 ,here also we note the first appearance of the ,oyster1 but still in small numbers4 ,fenestella represents the ,polyzoa4 ,schizodus has been found by ,mr4 ,binney in the ,upper ,red ,permian ,marls of ,manchester2 but no shells of any kind have hitherto been met with in the ,rothliegende of ,lancashire1 or in the ,vale of ,eden4 ,the brecciated limestone 7,no4 #b7 and the concretionary masses 7,no4 #a7 overlying it 7although ,professor ,king has attempted to separate them7 are considered by ,professor ,sedgwick as different forms of the same rock4 ,they contain no foreign elements1 but seem to be composed of fragments of the underlying limestone1 ,no4 #c4 ,some of the angular masses at ,tynemouth cliff are two feet in diameter1 and none of them are water-worn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,strophalosia ,morrisiana4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--;,cyrtoceras depressum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,walchia ,schlotheimii4 ,the crystalline or concretionary limestone 7,no4 #a7 formation is seen upon the coast of ,durham and ,yorkshire1 between the ,wear and the ,tees2 and ,mr4 ,king thinks that the character of the shells and the absence of corals indicate a deposit formed in shallow water4 ,the plants also found in some of the ,permian strata indicate the neighbourhood of land4 ,these are land species1 and chiefly of genera common in the ,coal-measures4 ,fragments of supposed coniferous wood 7generally silicified7 are occasionally met with in the ,permian red beds of many parts of ,england4 ,among the ,ferns characteristic of the period may be mentioned ,sphenopteris dichotoma and ,s4 ,artemisifolia2 ,pecopteris lonchitica and ,neuropteris gigantea1 figured on pp4 #adc1 #add4 8,if we are10 says ,lyell1 8to draw a line between the ,secondary and ,primary fossiliferous strata1 it must be run through the middle of what was once called the #8,new ,red4' ,the inferior half of this group will rank as ,primary or ,palozoic1 while its upper member will form the base of the ,secondary or ,mesozoic series40#eb ,among the ,equiseta of the ,permian formation of ,saxony1 ,colonel ,von ,gutbier found ,calamites gigas and sixty species of fossil plants1 most of them ,ferns1 forty of which have not been found elsewhere4 ,among these are several species of ,walchia1 a genus of ,conifers1 of which an example is given in ,fig4 #ge4 #eb 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #def4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,trigonocarpum ,nggerathii4 ,in their stems1 leaves1 and cones1 they bear some resemblance to the ,araucarias1 which have been introduced from ,north ,america into our pleasure-grounds during the last half-century4 ,among the genera enumerated by ,colonel ,von ,gutbier are some fruits called ,cardiocarpon1 and ,asterophyllites and ,annularia1 so characteristic of the ,carboniferous age4 ,the ,lepidodendron is also common to the ,permian rocks of ,saxony1 ,russia1 and ,thuringia2 also the ,nggerathia1 a family of large trees1 intermediate between ,cycads 7,fig4 #gb7 and the ,conifers4 ,the fruit of one of these is represented in ,fig #gf4 ,,permian ,,rocks4--,we now give a sketch of the physiognomy of the earth in ,permian times4 ,of what do the beds consist8 ,what is the extent1 and what is the mineralogical constitution of the rocks deposited in the seas of the period8 ,the ,permian formation consists of three members1 which are in descending order-- #a4 ,upper ,permian sandstone1 or ,grs des ,vosges2 #b4 ,magnesian ,limestone1 or ,zechstein2 #c4 ,lower ,red ,sandstone1 ,marl-slate or ,kupferschiefer1 and ,rothliegende4 ,the grs des ,vosges1 usually of a red colour1 and from #cjj to #dej feet thick1 composes all the southern part of the ,vosges ,mountains1 where it forms frequent level summits1 which are evidences of an ancient plain that has been acted on by running water4 ,it only contains a few vegetable remains4 ,the ,magnesian ,limestone1 ,pierre de mine1 or ,zechstein1 so called in consequence of the numerous metalliferous deposits met with in its diverse beds1 presents in ,france only a few insignificant fragments2 but in ,germany and ,england it attains the thickness of #dej feet4 ,it is composed of a diversified mass of ,magnesian ,limestone1 generally of a yellow colour1 but sometimes red and brown1 and bituminous clay1 the last black and fetid4 ,the subordinate rocks consist of marl1 gypsum1 and inflammable bituminous schists4 ,the beds of marl slate are remarkable for the numbers of peculiar fossil fishes which they contain2 and from the occurrence of small proportions of argentiferous grey copper-ore1 met with in the bituminous shales which are worked in the district of ,mansfeld1 in ,thuringia--the latter are called ,kupferschiefer in ,germany4 ,the ,lower ,red ,sandstone1 which attains a thickness of from #cjj to #fjj feet1 is found over great part of ,germany1 in the ,vosges1 and in ,england4 ,its fossil remains are few and rare2 they include silicified trunks of ,conifers1 some impressions of ,ferns1 and ,calamites4 ,in ,england the ,permian strata1 to a great extent1 consist of red sandstones and marls2 and the ,magnesian ,limestone of the northern counties is also1 though to a less degree1 associated with red marls4 ,in ,lancashire thin beds of ,magnesian ,limestone are interstratified with red marls in the upper ,permian strata1 beneath which there are soft ,red ,sandstones1 estimated by ,mr4 ,hull to be about #a1ejj feet thick4 ,these are supposed to represent the ,rothliegende1 and no shells of any kind have been found in them4 ,the upper ,permian beds1 however1 contain a few ,magnesian ,limestone species1 such as ,gervillia antiqua1 ,pleurophorus costatus1 ,schizodus obscurus1 and some others1 but all small and dwarfed4 ,the coal-fields of ,north and ,south ,staffordshire1 ,tamworth1 ,coalbrook ,dale1 and of the ,forest of ,wyre1 are partly bordered by ,permian rocks1 which lie unconformably on the ,coal-measures2 as is the case1 also1 in the immediate neighbourhood of ,manchester1 where they skirt the borders of the main coal-field1 and consist of the ,lower ,red ,sandstone1 resting unconformably on different parts of the ,coal-measures1 and overlaid by the pebble-beds of the ,trias4 ,at ,stockport the ,permian strata are stated by ,mr4 ,hull to be more than #a1ejj feet thick4 ,in ,yorkshire1 ,nottinghamshire1 and ,derbyshire1 the ,permian strata are stated by ,mr4 ,aveline to be divided into two chief groups3 the ,roth-liegende1 of no great thickness1 and the ,magnesian ,limestone series2 the latter being the largest and most important member of the ,permian series in the northern counties of ,england4 ,the ,magnesian ,limestone consists there of two great bands1 separated by marls and sandstone1 and quarried for building and for lime4 ,in ,derbyshire and ,yorkshire the magnesian limestone1 under the name of ,dolomite1 forms an excellent building-stone1 which has been used in the construction of the ,houses of ,parliament4 ,in the midland counties and on the borders of ,wales1 the ,permian section is different from that of ,nottinghamshire and the ,north of ,england4 ,the ,magnesian ,limestones are absent1 and the rocks consist principally of dark-red marl1 brown and red sandstones1 and calcareous conglomerates and breccias1 which are almost entirely unfossiliferous4 ,in ,warwickshire1 where they rest conformably on the ,coal-measures1 they occupy a very considerable tract of country1 and are of very great thickness1 being estimated by ,mr4 ,howell to be #b1jjj feet thick4 ,in the east of ,england the ,magnesian ,limestone contains a numerous marine fauna1 but much restricted when compared with that of the ,carboniferous period4 ,the shells of the former are all small and dwarfed in size when compared with their congeners of ,carboniferous times1 when such there are1 and in this respect1 and the small number of genera1 they resemble the living mollusca of the still less numerous fauna of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,besides the poverty and small size of the mollusca1 the later strata of the true ,magnesian ,limestone seem to afford strong indications that they may have been deposited in a great inland salt-lake subject to evaporation4 ,the absence of fossils in much of the formation may be partly accounted for by its deposition in great measure from solution1 and the uncongenial nature of the waters of a salt-lake may account for the poverty-stricken character of the whole molluscan fauna4 ,the red colouring-matter of the ,permian sandstones and marls is considered1 by ,professor ,ramsay1 to be due to carbonate of iron introduced into the waters1 and afterwards precipitated as peroxide through the oxidising action of the air and the escape of the carbonic acid which held it in solution4 ,this circumstance of the red colour of the ,permian beds affords an indication that the red ,permian strata were deposited in inland waters unconnected with the main ocean1 which waters may have been salt or fresh as the case may be4 8,the ,magnesian ,limestone series of the east of ,england may1 possibly1 have been connected directly with an open sea at the commencement of the deposition of these strata1 whatever its subsequent history may have been2 for the fish of the marl strata have generically strong affinities with those of ,carboniferous age1 some of which were truly marine1 while others certainly penetrated shallow lagoons bordered by peaty flats40#ec #ec 8,on the ,red ,rocks of ,england10 by ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay4 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #bdf4 ,there is indisputable evidence that the ,permian ocean covered an immense area of the globe4 ,in the ,permian period this ocean extended from ,ireland to the ,ural mountains1 and probably to ,spitzbergen1 with its northern boundary defined by the ,carboniferous1 ,devonian1 ,silurian1 and ,igneous regions of ,scotland1 ,scandinavia1 and ,northern ,russia2 and its southern boundaries apparently stretching far into the south of ,europe 7,king74 ,the chain of the ,vosges1 stretching across ,rhenish ,bavaria1 the ,grand ,duchy of ,baden1 as far as ,saxony and ,silesia1 would be under water4 ,they would communicate with the ocean1 which covered all the midland and western counties of ,england and part of ,russia4 ,in other parts of ,europe the continent has varied very little since the preceding ,devonian and ,carboniferous ages4 ,in ,france the central plateaux would form a great island1 which extended towards the south1 probably as far as the foot of the ,pyrenees2 another island would consist of the mass of ,brittany4 ,in ,russia the continent would have extended itself considerably towards the east2 finally1 it is probable that1 at the end of the ,carboniferous period1 the ,belgian continent would stretch from the ,departments of the ,pas-de-,calais and ,du ,nord1 in ,france1 and would extend up to and beyond the ,rhine4 ,in ,england1 the ,silurian archipelago1 now filled up and occupied by deposits of the ,devonian and ,carboniferous systems1 would be covered with carboniferous vegetation2 dry land would now extend1 almost without interruption1 from ,cape ,wrath to the ,land's ,end2 but1 on its eastern shore1 the great mass of the region now lying less than three degrees west of ,greenwich would1 in a general sense1 be under water1 or form islands rising out of the sea4 ,alphonse ,esquiros thus eloquently closes the chapter of his work in which he treats of this formation in ,england3 8,we have seen seas1 vast watery deserts1 become populated2 we have seen the birth of the first land and its increase2 ages succeeding each other1 and ,nature in its progress advancing among ruins2 the ancient inhabitants of the sea1 or at least their spoils1 have been raised to the summit of lofty mountains4 ,in the midst of these vast cemeteries of the primitive world we have met with the remains of millions of beings2 entire species sacrificed to the development of life4 ,here terminates the first mass of facts constituting the infancy of the ,british ,islands4 ,but great changes are still to produce themselves on this portion of the earth's surface40 ,having thus described the ,primary ,epoch1 it may be useful1 before entering on what is termed by geologists the ,secondary ,epoch1 to glance backwards at the facts which we have had under consideration4 ,in this ,primary period plants and animals appear for the first time upon the surface of the cooling globe4 ,we have said that the seas of the epoch were then dominated by the fishes known as ,ganoids 7from 1 glitter71 from the brilliant polish of the enamelled scales which covered their bodies1 sometimes in a very complicated and fantastic manner2 the ,trilobites are curious ,crustaceans1 which appear and altogether disappear in the ,primary epoch2 an immense quantity of ,mollusca1 ,cephalopoda1 and ,brachiopoda2 the ,encrinites1 animals of curious organisation1 which form some of the most graceful ornaments of our ,palontological collections4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,lithostrotion4 7,fossil ,coral47 ,but1 among all these beings1 those which prevailed--those which were truly the kings of the organic world--were the ,fishes1 and1 above all1 the ,ganoids1 which have left no animated being behind them of similar organisation4 ,furnished with a sort of defensive armour1 they seem to have received from ,nature this means of protection to ensure their existence1 and permit them to triumph over all the influences which threatened them with destruction in the seas of the ancient world4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,rhyncholites1 upper1 side1 and internal views4 #a1 ,side view 7,muschelkalk of ,luneville72 #b1 ,upper view 7same locality72 #c1 ,upper view 7,lias of ,lyme ,regis72 #d1 ,calcareous point of an under mandible1 internal view1 from ,luneville4 7,buckland47 ,in the ,primary epoch the living creation was in its infancy4 ,no ,mammals then roamed the forests2 no bird had yet displayed its wings4 ,without ,mammals1 therefore1 there was no maternal instinct2 none of the soft affections which are1 with animals1 as it were1 the precursors of intelligence4 ,without birds1 also1 there could be no songs in the air4 ,fishes1 ,mollusca1 and ,crustacea silently ploughed their way in the depths of the sea1 and the immovable ,crinoid lived there4 ,on the land we only find a few marsh-frequenting ,reptiles1 of small size--forerunners of those monstrous ,saurians which make their appearance in the ,secondary epoch4 ,the vegetation of the ,primary epoch is chiefly of inferior organisation4 ,with a few plants of a higher order1 that is to say1 ,dicotyledons1 ,calamites1 ,sigillarias1 it was the ,cryptogamia 7also several species of ,ferns1 the ,lepidodendra1 ,lycopodiace1 and the ,equisetace1 and some doubtfully allied forms1 termed ,nggerathia71 then at their maximum of development1 which formed the great mass of the vegetation4 ,let us also consider1 in this short analysis1 that during the epoch under consideration1 what we call climate may not have existed4 ,the same animals and the same plants then lived in the polar regions as at the equator4 ,since we find1 in the ,primary formations of the icy regions of ,spitzbergen and ,melville ,islands1 nearly the same fossils which we meet with in these same rocks in the torrid zone1 we must conclude that the temperature at this epoch was uniform all over the globe1 and that the heat of the earth itself was sufficiently high to render inappreciable the calorific influence of the sun4 ,during this same period the progressive cooling of the earth occasioned frequent ruptures and dislocations of the ground2 the terrestrial crust1 in opening1 afforded a passage for the rocks called igneous1 such as granite1 afterwards to the porphyries and syenites1 which poured slowly through these immense fissures1 and formed mountains of granite and porphyry1 or simple clefts1 which subsequently became filled with oxides and metallic sulphides1 forming what are now designated metallic veins4 ,the great mountain-range of ,ben ,nevis offers a striking example of the first of these phenomena2 through the granite base a distinct natural section can be traced of porphyry ejected through the granite1 and of syenite through the porphyry4 ,these geological commotions 7which occasioned1 not over the whole extent of the earth1 but only in certain places1 great movements of the surface7 would appear to have been more frequent at the close of the ,primary epoch2 during the interval which forms the passage between the ,primary and ,secondary epochs2 that is to say1 between the ,permian and the ,triassic periods4 ,the phenomena of eruptions1 and the character of the rocks called eruptive1 are treated of in a former chapter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 a1 ,pentacrinites ,briareus1 reduced2 b1 the same from the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis2 natural size4 ,the convulsions and disturbances by which the surface of the earth was agitated did not extend1 let it be noted1 over the whole of its circumference2 the effects were partial and local4 ,it would1 then1 be wrong to affirm1 as is asserted by many modern geologists1 that the dislocations of the crust and the agitations of the surface of the globe extended to both hemispheres1 resulting in the destruction of all living creatures4 ,the ,fauna and ,flora of the ,permian period did not differ essentially from the ,fauna and ,flora of the ,coal-measures1 which shows that no general revolution occurred to disturb the entire globe between these two epochs4 ,here1 then1 as in all analogous cases1 it is unnecessary to recur to any general cataclysm to explain the passage from one epoch to another4 ,have we not1 almost in our our own day1 seen certain species of animals die out and disappear1 without the least geological revolution8 ,without speaking of the ,beaver1 which abounded two centuries ago on the banks of the ,rhne1 and in the ,cvennes1 which still lived at ,paris in the little river ,bivre in the middle ages1 its existence being now unknown in these latitudes1 although it is still found in ,america and other countries1 we could cite many examples of animals which have become extinct in times by no means remote from our own4 ,such are the ,dinornis and the ,epyornis1 colossal birds of ,new ,zealand and ,madagascar1 and the ,dodo1 which lived in the ,isle of ,france in #afbf4 ,ursus spelus1 ,cervus ,megaceros1 ,bos primigenius1 are species of ,bear1 ,deer1 and ,ox which were contemporary with man1 but have now become extinct4 ,in ,france we no longer know the gigantic wood-stag1 figured by the ,romans on their monuments1 and which they had brought from ,england for the fine quality of its flesh4 ,the ,erymanthean boar1 so widely dispersed during the ancient historical period1 no longer exists among our living races1 any more than the ,crocodiles lacunosus and laciniatus found by ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire in the catacombs of ancient ,egypt4 ,many races of animals figured in the mosaics of ,palestrina1 engraved and painted along with species now actually existing1 are no longer found living in our days any more than are the ,lions with curly manes1 which formerly existed in ,syria1 and perhaps even in ,thessaly and the northern parts of ,greece4 ,from what happens in our own time1 we may infer what has taken place in times antecedent to the appearance of man2 and the idea of successive cataclysms of the globe1 must be restrained within bounds4 ,must we imagine a series of geological revolutions to account for the disappearance of animals which have evidently become extinct in a natural way8 ,what has come to pass in our days1 it is reasonable to conclude1 may have taken place in the times anterior to the appearance of man4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--,terebellaria ramosissima4 7,recent ,coral47 ,,secondary ,,epoch4 ,during the ,primary ,epoch our globe would appear to have been chiefly appropriated to beings which lived in the waters--above all1 to the ,crustaceans and ,fishes2 during the ,secondary ,epoch ,reptiles seem to have been its prevailing inhabitants4 ,animals of this class assumed astonishing dimensions1 and would seem to have multiplied in a most singular manner2 they were1 apparently1 the kings of the earth4 ,at the same time1 however1 that the animal kingdom thus developed itself1 the vegetation lost much of its importance4 ,geologists have agreed among themselves to divide the ,secondary epoch into three periods3 #a1 the ,cretaceous2 #b1 the ,jurassic2 #c1 the ,triassic--a division which it is convenient to adopt4 ,,the ,,triassic1 ,,or ,,new ,,red ,,period4 ,this period has received the name of ,triassic because the rocks of which it is composed1 which are more fully developed in ,germany than either in ,england or ,france1 were called the ,trias 7or ,triple ,group71 by ,german writers1 from its division into three groups1 as follows1 in descending order3-- ,,england4 ,,france4 ,,germany4 ,saliferous and gypseous ,marnes irises ,keuper4 #a1jjj feet4 shales and sandstone ,wanting ,muschelkalk or ,calcaire ,muschelkalk4 #fjj feet4 coquillier ,sandstone and quartzose ,grs bigarr ,bunter-,sandstein4 conglomerate #a1ejj ft4 ,the following has been shown by ,mr4 ,ed4 ,hull to be the general succession of the ,triassic formation in the midland and north-western counties of ,england1 where it attains its greatest vertical development1 thinning away in the direction of the mouth of the ,thames3-- ,foreign ,equivalents4 -------------------- _/ ,,new ,,red ,,marl4 ,red and grey shales and ,keuper4 ,marnes marls1 sometimes micaceous1 irises4 with beds of rock-salt and gypsum1 containing ,estheria and ,fora- minifera 7,chellaston74 ,,lower ,,keuper ,thinly-laminated mica- ,letten ,,sandstone4 ceous sandstones and ,kohle 787 ,t marls 7waterstones72 ,r passing downwards into ,i white1 brown1 or reddish ,a sandstone1 with a ,s base of calcareous con- ,s glomerate or breccia4 ,i ,c ,wanting in 444 ,muschelkalk4 ,calcaire ,england4 coquillier4 ,s ,e ,,upper ,,mottled ,soft1 bright-red and ,r ,,sandstone4 variegated sandstone ,i 7without pebbles74 ,e ,s ,,pebble ,,beds4 ,harder reddish-brown ,bunter ,grs bigarr1 4 sandstones with quartz- ,sandstein4 or ,grs des ose pebbles1 passing ,vosges 7in into conglomerate2 part74 with a base of calca- reous breccia4 ,,lower ,,mottled ,soft bright-red and ,,sandstone4 variegated sandstone 7without pebbles74 _/ ,p _/ ,,upper ,,permian4 ,red marls1 with thin- ,zechstein4 ,e bedded fossiliferous ,r limestones 7,manchester74 ,m ,i _/ ,red and variegated sand- ,a stone 7,collyhurst1 ,man- ,n chester7 represented by 4444 ,s ,e ,,lower ,reddish-brown and purple ,rothe-todte- ,grs des ,r sandstones and liegende4 ,vosges 7in ,i marls1 with calcareous part74 ,e conglomerates and ,s trappoid breccia4 4 7,central counties74 _/ ,,new ,,red ,,sandstone4 ,in this new phase of the revolutions of the globe1 the animated beings on its surface differ much from those which belonged to the ,primary epoch4 ,the curious ,crustaceans which we have described under the name of ,trilobites have disappeared2 the molluscous ,cephalopods and ,brachiopods are here few in number1 as are the ,ganoid and ,placoid ,fishes1 whose existence also seems to have terminated during this period1 and vegetation has undergone analogous changes4 ,the cryptogamic plants1 which reached their maximum in the ,primary epoch1 become now less numerous1 while the ,conifers experienced a certain extension4 ,some kinds of terrestrial animals have disappeared1 but they are replaced by genera as numerous as new4 ,for the first time the ,turtle appears in the bosom of the sea1 and on the borders of lakes4 ,the ,saurian reptiles acquire a great development2 they prepare the way for those enormous ,saurians1 which appear in the following period1 whose skeletons present such vast proportions1 and such a strange aspect1 as to strike with astonishment all who contemplate their gigantic1 and1 so to speak1 awe-inspiring remains4 ,the ,variegated ,sandstone1 or ,bunter1 contains many vegetable1 but few animal1 remains1 although we constantly find imprints of the footsteps of the ,labyrinthodon4 ,the lowest ,bunter formation shows itself in ,france1 in the ,pyrenees1 around the central plateau in the ,var1 and upon both flanks of the ,vosges mountains4 ,it is represented in south-western and central ,germany1 in ,belgium1 in ,switzerland1 in ,sardinia1 in ,spain1 in ,poland1 in the ,tyrol1 in ,bohemia1 in ,moravia1 and in ,russia4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny states1 from his own observation1 that it covers vast surfaces in the mountainous regions of ,bolivia1 in ,south ,america4 ,it is recognised in the ,united ,states1 in ,columbia1 in the ,great ,antilles1 and in ,mexico4 ,the ,bunter in ,france is reduced to the variegated sandstone1 except around the ,vosges1 in the ,var1 and the ,black ,forest1 where it is accompanied by the ,muschelkalk4 ,in ,germany it furnishes building-stone of excellent quality2 many great edifices1 in particular the cathedrals1 so much admired on the ,rhine--such1 for example1 as those of ,strasbourg and ,fribourg--are constructed of this stone1 the sombre tints of which singularly relieve the grandeur and majesty of the ,gothic architecture4 ,whole cities in ,germany are built of the brownish-red stones drawn from its mottled sandstone quarries4 ,in ,england1 in ,scotland1 and in ,ireland this formation extends from north to south through the whole length of the country4 8,this old land10 says ,professor ,ramsay1#ed 8consisted in great part of what we now know as ,wales1 and the adjacent counties of ,hereford1 ,monmouth1 and ,shropshire2 of part of ,devon and ,cornwall1 ,cumberland1 the ,pennine chain1 and all the mountainous parts of ,scotland4 ,around old ,wales1 and part of ,cumberland1 and probably all round and over great part of ,devon and ,cornwall1 the ,new ,red ,sandstone was deposited4 ,part1 at least1 of this oldest of the ,secondary rocks was formed of the material of the older ,palozoic strata1 that had then risen above the surface of the water4 ,the ,new ,red ,sandstone series consists in its lower members of beds of red sandstone and conglomerate1 more than #a1jjj feet thick1 and above them are placed red and green marls1 chiefly red1 which in ,germany are called the ,keuper strata1 and in ,england the ,new ,red ,marl4 ,these formations range from the mouth of the ,mersey1 round the borders of ,wales1 to the estuary of the ,severn1 eastwards into ,warwickshire1 and thence northwards into ,yorkshire and ,northumberland1 along the eastern border of the ,magnesian ,limestone4 ,they also form the bottom of the valley of the ,eden1 and skirt ,cumberland on the west2 in the centre of ,england the unequal hardness of its sub-divisions sometimes giving rise to minor escarpments1 overlooking plains and undulating grounds of softer strata40 #ed 8,the ,physical ,geography and ,geology of ,great ,britain10 #bnd ed41 p4 #fj4 8,different members of the group rest in ,england1 in some region or other10 says ,lyell1 8on almost every principal member of the ,palozoic series1 on ,cambrian1 ,silurian1 ,devonian1 ,carboniferous1 and ,permian rocks2 and there is evidence everywhere of disturbance1 contortion1 partial upheaval into land1 and vast denudations which the older rocks underwent before and during the deposition of the successive strata of the ,new ,red ,sandstone group40 78,elements of ,geology10 p4 #dci47 ,the ,muschelkalk consists of beds of compact limestone1 often greyish1 sometimes black1 alternating with marl and clay1 and commonly containing such numbers of shells that the name of shelly limestone 7,muschelkalk7 has been given to the formation by the ,germans4 ,the beds are sometimes magnesian1 especially in the lower strata1 which contain deposits of gypsum and rock-salt4 ,the seas of this sub-period1 which is named after the innumerable masses of shells inclosed in the rocks which it represents1 included1 besides great numbers of ,mollusca1 ,saurian ,reptiles of twelve different genera1 some ,turtles1 and six new genera of ,fishes clothed with a cuirass4 ,let us pause at the ,mollusca which peopled the ,triassic seas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--;,ceratites nodosus4 7,muschelkalk47 ,among the shells characteristic of the ,muschelkalk period1 we mention ,natica ,gaillardoti1 ,rostellaria antiqua1 ,lima striata1 ,avicula socialis1 ,terebratula vulgaris1 ,turbonilla dubia1 ,myophoria vulgaris1 ,nautilus hexagonalis1 and ,ceratites nodosus4 ,the ,ceratites1 of which a species is here represented 7,fig4 #ha71 form a genus closely allied to the ,ammonites1 which seem to have played such an important part in the ancient seas1 but which have no existence in those of our era1 either in species or even in genus4 ,this ,ceratite is found in the ,muschelkalk of ,germany1 a formation which has no equivalent in ,england1 but which is a compact greyish limestone underlying the saliferous rocks in ,germany1 and including beds of dolomite with gypsum and rock-salt4 ,the ,mytilus or ,mussel1 which properly belonged to this age1 are acephalous 7or headless7 ,molluscs with elongated triangular shells1 of which there are many species found in our existing seas4 ,lima1 ,myophoria1 ,posidonia1 and ,avicula1 are acephalous ,molluscs of the same period4 ,the two genera ,natica and ,rostellaria belong to the ,gasteropoda1 and are abundant in the ,muschelkalk in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,poland4 ,among the ,echinoderms belonging to this period may be mentioned ,encrinus moniliformis and ,e4 liliiformis1 or lily encrinite 7,fig4 #hb71 whose remains1 constituting in some localities whole beds of rock1 show the slow progress with which this zoophyte formed beds of limestone in the clear seas of the period4 ,to these may be added1 among the ,mollusca1 ,avicula subcostata and ,myophoria vulgaris4 ,in the ,muschelkalk are found the skull and teeth of ,placodus gigas1 a reptile which was originally placed by ,agassiz among the class of ,fishes2 but more perfect specimens have satisfied ,professor ,owen that it was a ,saurian ,reptile4 ,it may be added1 that the presence of a few genera1 peculiar to the ,primary epoch1 which entirely disappeared during the sub-period1 and the appearance for the first time of some other animals peculiar to the ,jurassic period1 give to the ,muschelkalk fauna the appearance of being one of passage from one period to the other4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4--;,encrinus liliiformis4 ,the seas1 then1 contained a few ,reptiles1 probably inhabitants of the banks of rivers1 as ,phytosaurus1 ,capitosaurus1 c41 and sundry ,fishes1 as ,sphrodus and ,pycnodus4 ,in this sub-period we shall say nothing of the ,land-,turtles1 which for the first time now appear2 but1 we should note1 that at the ,bunter period a gigantic ,reptile appears1 on which the opinions of geologists were for a long while at variance4 ,in the argillaceous rocks of the ,muschelkalk period imprints of the foot of some animal were discovered in the sandstones of ,storeton ,hill1 in ,cheshire1 and in the ,new ,red ,sandstone of parts of ,warwickshire1 as well as in ,thuringia1 and ,hesseburg in ,saxony1 which very much resembled the impression that might be made in soft clay by the outstretched fingers and thumb of a human hand4 ,these traces were made by a species of ,reptile furnished with four feet1 the two fore-feet being much broader than the hinder two4 ,the head1 pelvis1 and scapula only of this strange-looking animal have been found1 but these are considered to have belonged to a gigantic air-breathing reptile closely connected with the ,batrachians4 ,it is thought that the head was not naked1 but protected by a bony cushion2 that its jaws were armed with conical teeth1 of great strength and of a complicated structure4 ,this curious and uncouth-looking creature1 of which the woodcut ,fig4 #hc is a restoration1 has been named the ,cheirotherium1 or ,labyrinthodon1 from the complicated arrangement of the cementing layer of the teeth4 7,see also ,fig4 #a1 p4 #ab47 ,another ,reptile of great dimensions--which would seem to have been intended to prepare the way for the appearance of the enormous ,saurians which present themselves in the ,jurassic period--was the ,nothosaurus1 a species of marine ,crocodile1 of which a restoration has been attempted in ,,plate ,,xiii4 opposite4 ,illustration3 ,,xiii4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,muschelkalk ,sub-period4 ,it has been supposed1 from certain impressions which appear in the ,keuper sandstones of the ,connecticut river in ,north ,america1 that ,birds made their appearance in the period which now occupies us2 the flags on which these occur by thousands show the tracks of an animal of great size 7some #bj inches long and #d feet apart71 presenting the impression of three toes1 like some of the ,struthionid or ,ostriches1 accompanied by raindrops4 ,no remains of the skeletons of birds have been met with in rocks of this period1 and the footprints in question are all that can be alleged in support of the hypothesis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,labyrinthodon restored4 ,one-twentieth natural size4 ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart places the commencement of dicotyledonous gymnosperm plants in this age4 ,the characteristics of this ,flora consist in numerous ,ferns1 constituting genera now extinct1 such as ,anomopteris and ,crematopteris4 ,the true ,equiseta are rare in it4 ,the ,calamites1 or1 rather1 the ,calamodendra1 abound4 ,the gymnosperms are represented by the genera ,conifer1 ,voltzia1 and ,haidingera1 of which both species and individuals are very numerous in the formation of this period4 ,among the species of plants which characterise this formation1 we may mention ,neuropteris elegans1 ,calamites arenaceus1 ,voltzia heterophylla1 ,haidingera speciosa4 ,the ,haidingera1 belonging to the tribe of ,abietin1 were plants with large leaves1 analogous to those of our ,damara1 growing close together1 and nearly imbricated1 as in the ,araucaria4 ,their fruit1 which are cones with rounded scales1 are imbricated1 and have only a single seed1 thus bearing out the strong resemblance which has been traced between these fossil plants1 and the ,damara4 ,the ,voltzias 7,fig4 #hd71 which seem to have formed the greater part of the forests were a genus of ,cupressinace1 now extinct1 which are well characterised among the fossil ,conifers of the period4 ,the alternate spiral leaves1 forming five to eight rows sessile1 that is1 sitting close to the branch and drooping1 have much in them analogous to the ,cryptomerias4 ,their fruit was an oblong cone with scales1 loosely imbricated1 cuneiform or wedge-shaped1 and1 commonly1 composed of from three to five obtuse lobes4 ,in ,fig4 #hd we have a part of the stem1 a branch with leaves and cone4 ,in his 8,botanic ,geography10 ,m4 ,lecoq thus describes the vegetation of the ancient world in the first period of the ,triassic age3 8,while the variegated sandstone and mottled clays were being slowly deposited in regular beds by the waters1 magnificent ,ferns still exhibited their light and elegantly-carved leaves4 ,divers ,protopteris and majestic ,neuropteris associated themselves in extensive forests1 where vegetated also the ,crematopteris typica of ,schimper1 the ,anomopteris ,mongeotii of ,brongniart1 and the pretty ,trichomanites myriophyllum 7,gppert74 ,the ,conifers of this epoch attain a very considerable development1 and would form graceful forests of green trees4 ,elegant monocotyledons1 representing the forms of tropical countries1 seem to show themselves for the first time1 the ,yuccites ,vogesiacus of ,schimper constituted groups at once thickly serried and of great extent4 8,a family1 hitherto doubtful1 appears under the elegant form of ,nilssonia ,hogardi1 ,schimp42 ,ctenis ,hogardi1 ,brongn4 ,it is still seen in the ,zamites ,vogesiacus1 ,schimp42 and the group of the ,cycads sharing at once in the organisation of the ,conifers and the elegance of the ,palms1 now decorate the earth1 which reveals in these new forms its vast fecundity4 7,see ,fig4 #gb1 p4 #afh47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--;,branch and cone of ,voltzia restored4 8,of the herbaceous plants which formed the undergrowth of the forests1 or which luxuriated in its cool marshes1 the most remarkable is the theophyllum speciosum1 ,schimp4 ,their organisation approximates to the ,lycopodiace and ,thyphace1 the theophyllum stipulare1 ,brongn41 and the curious ,schizoneura paradoxa1 ,schimp4 ,thus we can trace the commencement of the reign of the ,dicotyledons with naked seeds1 which afterwards become so widely disseminated1 in a few ,angiosperms1 composed principally of two families1 the ,conifers and ,cycadeace1 still represented in the existing vegetation4 ,the former1 very abundant at first1 associated themselves with the cellular ,cryptogams1 which still abound1 although they are decreasing1 then with the ,cycadeace1 which present themselves slowly1 but will soon be observed to take a large part in the brilliant harmonies of the vegetable kingdom40 ,the engraving at page #aia 7,,plate ,,xiii47 gives an idealised picture of the plants and animals of the period4 ,the reader must imagine himself transported to the shores of the ,muschelkalk sea at a moment when its waves are agitated by a violent but passing storm4 ,the reflux of the tide exposes some of the aquatic animals of the period4 ,some fine ,encrinites are seen1 with their long flexible stems1 and a few ,mytili and ,terebratul4 ,the ,reptile which occupies the rocks1 and prepares to throw itself on its prey1 is the ,nothosaurus4 ,not far from it are other reptiles1 its congeners1 but of a smaller species4 ,upon the dune on the shore is a fine group of the trees of the period1 that is1 of ,haidingeras1 with large trunks1 with drooping branches and foliage1 of which the cedars of our own age give some idea4 ,the elegant ,voltzias are seen in the second plane of this curtain of verdure4 ,the ,reptiles which lived in these primitive forests1 and which would give to it so strange a character1 are represented by the ,labyrinthodon1 which descends towards the sea on the right1 leaving upon the sandy shore those curious tracks which have been so wonderfully preserved to our days4 ,the footprints of the reptilian animals of this period prove that they walked over moist surfaces2 and1 if these surfaces had been simply left by a retiring tide1 they would generally have been obliterated by the returning flood1 in the same manner that is seen every day on our own sandy shores4 ,it seems more likely that the surfaces1 on which fossil footprints are now found1 were left bare by the summer evaporation of a lake2 that these surfaces were afterwards dried by the sun1 and the footprints hardened1 so as to ensure their preservation1 before the rising waters brought by flooded muddy rivers again submerged the low flat shores and deposited new layers of salt1 just as they do at the present day round the ,dead ,sea and the ,salt ,lake of ,utah4 ,illustration3 ,,xiv4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,keuper ,sub-period4 ,,keuper ,,sub-,,period4 ,the formation which characterises the ,keuper1 or saliferous period1 is of moderate extent1 and derives the latter name from the salt deposits it contains4 ,these rocks consist of a vast number of argillaceous and marly beds1 variously coloured1 but chiefly red1 with tints of yellow and green4 ,these are the colours which gave the name of variegatea 7,poikilitic7 to the series4 ,the beds of red marl often alternate with sandstones1 which are also variegated in colour4 ,as subordinate rocks1 we find in this formation some deposits of a poor pyritic coal and of gypsum4 ,but what especially characterises the formation are the important deposits of rock-salt which are included in it4 ,the saliferous beds1 often twenty-five to forty feet thick1 alternate with beds of clay1 the whole attaining a thickness of #afj yards4 ,in ,germany in ,wrtemberg1 in ,france at ,vic1 at ,dieuze1 and at ,chteau-,salins1 the rock-salt of the saliferous formation has become an important branch of industry4 ,in the ,jura1 salt is extracted from the water charged with chlorides1 which issues from this formation4 ,some of these deposits are situated at great depths1 and cannot be reached without very considerable labour4 ,the salt-mines of ,wieliczka1 in ,poland1 for example1 can be procured on the surface1 or by galleries of little depth1 because the deposit belongs to the ,tertiary period2 but the deposits of salt1 in the ,triassic age1 lie so much deeper1 as to be only approachable by a regular process of mining by galleries1 and the ordinary mode of reaching the salt is by digging pits1 which are afterwards filled with water4 ,this water1 charged with the salt1 is then pumped up into troughs1 where it is evaporated1 and the crystallised mineral obtained4 ,what is the origin of the great deposits of marine salt which occur in this formation1 and which always alternate with thin beds of clay or marl8 ,we can only attribute them to the evaporation of vast quantities of sea-water introduced into depressions1 cavities1 or gulfs1 which the sandy dunes afterwards separated from the great open sea4 ,in ,,plate ,,xiv4 an attempt is made to represent the natural fact1 which must have been of frequent recurrence during the saliferous period1 to form the considerable masses of rock-salt which are now found in the rocks of the period4 ,on the right is the sea1 with a dune of considerable extent1 separating it from a tranquil basin of smooth water4 ,at intervals1 and from various causes1 the sea1 clearing the dune1 enters and fills the basin4 ,we may even suppose that a gulf exists here which1 at one time1 communicated with the sea2 the winds having raised this sandy dune1 the gulf becomes transformed1 by degrees1 into a basin or back-water1 closed on all sides4 ,however that may be1 it is pretty certain that if the waters of the sea were once shut up in this basin1 with an argillaceous bottom and without any opening1 evaporation from the effects of solar heat would take place1 and a bed of salt would be the result of this evaporation1 mixed with other mineral salts which accompany chloride of sodium in sea-water1 such as sulphate of magnesia1 chloride of potassium1 c4 ,this bed of salt1 left by the evaporation of the water1 would soon receive an argillaceous covering from the clay and silt suspended in the muddy water of the basin1 thus forming a first alternation of salt and of clay or marl4 ,the sea making fresh breaches across the barriers1 the same process took place with a similar result1 until the basin was filled up4 ,by the regular and tranquil repetition of this phenomenon1 continued during a long succession of ages1 this abundant deposit of rock-salt has been formed1 which occupies so important a position in the ,secondary rocks4 ,there is in the delta of the ,indus a singular region1 called the ,runn of ,cutch1 which extends over an area of #g1jjj square miles1 which is neither land nor sea1 but is under water during the monsoons1 and in the dry season is incrusted1 here and there1 with salt about an inch thick1 the result of evaporation4 ,dry land has been largely increased here1 during the present century1 by subsidence of the waters and upheavals by earthquakes4 8,that successive layers of salt may have been thrown down one upon the other on many thousand square miles1 in such a region1 is undeniable10 says ,lyell4 8,the supply of brine from the ocean is as inexhaustible as the supply of heat from the sun4 ,the only assumption required to enable us to explain the great thickness of salt in such an area1 is the continuance for an indefinite period of a subsidence1 the country preserving all the time a general approach to horizontally40 ,the observations of ,mr4 ,darwin on the atolls of the ,pacific1 prove that such a continuous subsidence is probable4 ,hugh ,miller1 after ably discussing various spots of earth where1 as in the ,runn of ,cutch1 evaporation and deposit take place1 adds3 8,if we suppose that1 instead of a barrier of lava1 sand-bars were raised by the surf on a flat arenaceous coast1 during a slow and equable sinking of the surface1 the waters of the outer gulf might occasionally topple over the bar and supply a fresh brine when the first stock had been exhausted by evaporation40 ,professor ,ramsay has pointed out that both the sandstones and marls of the ,triassic epoch were formed in lakes4 ,in the latter part of this epoch1 he is of opinion1 that the ,keuper marls of the ,british ,isles were deposited in a large lake1 or lakes1 which were fresh or brackish at first1 but afterwards salt and without outlets to the sea2 and that the same was occasionally the case with regard to other portions of northern ,europe and its adjoining seas4 ,by the silting up of such lakes with sediment1 and the gradual evaporation of their waters under favourable conditions1 such as increased heat and diminished rainfall--where the lakes might cease to have an outflow into the sea and the loss of water by evaporation would exceed the amount flowing into them--the salt or salts contained in solution would1 by degrees1 become concentrated and finally precipitated4 ,in this way the great deposits of rock-salt and gypsum1 common in the ,keuper formation1 may be accounted for4 ,subsequently1 by increase of rainfall or decrease of heat1 and sinking of the district1 the waters became comparatively less salt again2 and a recurrence of such conditions lasted until the close of the ,keuper period1 when a partial influx of the sea took place1 and the ,rhtic beds of ,england were deposited4 ,the red colour of the ,new ,red ,sandstones and marls is caused by peroxide of iron1 which may also have been carried into the lakes in solution1 as a carbonate1 and afterwards converted into peroxide by contact with air1 and precipitated as a thin pellicle upon the sedimentary grains of sandy mud1 of which the ,triassic beds more or less consist4 ,professor ,ramsay further considers that all the red-coloured strata of ,england1 including the ,permian1 ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and even the ,old ,cambrian formation1 were deposited in lakes or inland waters4#ee #ee ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 #bg1 p4 #aia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is little to be said of the animals which belong to the ,saliferous period4 ,they are nearly the same as those of the ,muschelkalk1 c4 ,among the most abundant of the shells belonging to the upper ,trias1 in all the countries where it has been examined1 are the ,avicula1 ,cardium1 and ,pecten1 one of which is given in ,fig4 #he4 ,foraminifera are numerous in the ,keuper marls4 ,the remains of land-plants1 and the peculiarities of some of the reptiles of the ,keuper period1 tend to confirm the opinion of ,professor ,ramsay1 that the strata were deposited in inland salt-lakes4 ,in the ,keuper period the islands and continents presented few mountains2 they were intersected here and there by large lakes1 with flat and uniform banks4 ,the vegetation on their shores was very abundant1 and we possess its remains in great numbers4 ,the ,keuper ,flora was very analogous to those of the ,lias and ,oolite1 and consisted of ,ferns1 ,equisetace1 ,cycads1 ,conifers1 and a few plants1 which ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart classes among the dubious monocotyledons4 ,among the ,ferns may be quoted many species of ,sphenopteris or ,pecopteris4 ,among them1 ,pecopteris ,stuttgartiensis1 a tree with channelled trunk1 which rises to a considerable height without throwing out branches1 and terminates in a crown of leaves finely cut and with long petioles2 the ,equisetites columnaris1 a great ,equisetum analogous to the horse-tails of our age1 but of infinitely larger dimensions1 its long fluted trunk1 surmounted by an elongated fructification1 towering over all the other trees of the marshy soil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--,pecten orbicularis4 ,the ,pterophyllum ,jgeri and ,p4 ,mnsteri represented the ,cycads1 the ,taxodites ,mnsterianus represented the ,conifers1 and1 finally1 the trunk of the ,calamites was covered with a creeping plant1 having elliptical leaves1 with a re-curving nervature borne upon its long petioles1 and the fruit disposed in bunches2 this is the ,preissleria antiqua1 a doubtful monocotyledon1 according to ,brongniart1 but ,m4 ,unger places it in the family of ,smilax1 of which it will thus be the earliest representative4 ,the same botanist classes with the canes a marsh-plant very common in this period1 the ,paloxyris ,mnsteri1 which ,brongniart classes with the ,preissleria among his doubtful ,monocotyledons4 ,the vegetation of the latter part of the ,triassic period is thus characterised by ,lecoq1 in his 8,botanical ,geography03 8,the cellular ,cryptogame predominate in this as they do in the ,carboniferous epoch1 but the species have changed1 and many of the genera also are different2 the ,cladephlebis1 the ,sphenopteris1 the ,coniopteris1 and ,pecopteris predominate over the others in the number of species4 ,the ,equisetace are more developed than in any other formation4 ,one of the finest species1 the ,calamites arenaceus of ,brongniart1 must have formed great forests4 ,the fluted trunks resemble immense columns1 terminating at the summit in leafy branches1 disposed in graceful verticillated tufts1 foreshadowing the elegant forms of ,equisetum sylvaticum4 ,growing alongside of these were a curious ,equisetum and singular ,equisetites1 a species of which last1 ,e4 columnaris1 raised its herbaceous stem1 with its sterile articulations1 to a great height4 8,what a singular aspect these ancient rocks would present1 if we add to them the forest-trees ,pterophyllum and the ,zamites of the fine family of ,cycadeace1 and the ,conifers1 which seem to have made their appearance in the humid soil at the same time6 8,it is during this epoch1 while yet under the reign of the dicotyledonous angiosperms1 that we discover the first true monocotyledons4 ,the ,preissleria antiqua1 with its long petals1 drooping and creeping round the old trunks1 its bunches of bright-coloured berries like the ,smilax of our own age1 to which family it appears to have belonged4 ,besides1 the ,triassic marshes gave birth to tufts of ,paloxyris ,mnsteri1 a cane-like species of the ,gramine1 which1 in all probability1 cheered the otherwise gloomy shore4 8,during this long period the earth preserved its primitive vegetation2 new forms are slowly introduced1 and they multiply slowly4 ,but if our present types of vegetation are deficient in these distant epochs1 we ought to recognise also that the plants which in our days represent the vegetation of the primitive world are often shorn of their grandeur4 ,our ,equisetace and ,lycopodiace are but poor representatives of the ,lepidodendrons2 the ,calamites and ,asterophyllites had already run their race before the epoch of which we write40 ,the principal features of ,triassic vegetation are represented in ,,plate ,,xiv41 page #aih4 ,on the cliff1 on the left of the ideal landscape1 the graceful stems and lofty trees are groups of ,calamites arenaceus2 below are the great 8horse-tails0 of the epoch1 ,equisetum columnare1 a slender tapering species1 of soft and pulpy consistence1 which1 rising erect1 would give a peculiar physiognomy to the solitary shore4 ,the ,keuper formation presents itself in ,europe at many points1 and it is not difficult to trace its course4 ,in ,france it appears in the department of the ,indre1 of the ,cher1 of the ,allier1 of the ,nivre1 of the ,sane-et-,loire2 upon the western slopes of the ,jura its outliers crop out near ,poligny and ,salins1 upon the western slopes of the ,vosges2 in the ,doubs it shows itself2 then it skirts the ,muschelkalk area in the ,haute-,marne2 in the ,vosges it assumes large proportions in the ,meurthe at ,luneville and ,dieuze2 in the ,moselle it extends northward to ,bouzonville2 and on the ,rhine to the east of ,luxembourg as far as ,dockendorf4 ,some traces of it show themselves upon the eastern slopes of the ,vosges1 on the lower ,rhine4 ,it appears again in ,switzerland and in ,germany1 in the canton of ,basle1 in ,argovia1 in the ,grand ,duchy of ,wrtemberg1 in the ,tyrol1 and in ,austria1 where it gives its name to the city of ,salzburg4 ,in the ,british ,islands the ,keuper formation commences in the eastern parts of ,devonshire1 and a band1 more or less regular1 extends into ,somersetshire1 through ,gloucestershire1 ,worcestershire1 ,warwick1 ,leicestershire1 ,nottinghamshire1 to the banks of the ,tees1 in ,yorkshire1 with a bed1 independent of all the others in ,cheshire1 which extends into ,lancashire4 8,at ,nantwich1 in the upper ,trias of ,cheshire10 ,sir ,charles ,lyell states1 8two beds of salt1 in great part unmixed with earthy matter1 attain the thickness of #ij or #ajj feet4 ,the upper surface of the highest bed is very uneven1 forming cones and irregular figures4 ,between the two masses there intervenes a bed of indurated clay traversed by veins of salt4 ,the highest bed thins off towards the south-west1 losing fifteen feet of its thickness in the course of a mile1 according to ,mr4 ,ormerod4 ,the horizontal extent of these beds is not exactly known1 but the area containing saliferous clay and sandstones is supposed to exceed #aej miles in diameter1 while the total thickness of the ,trias in the same region is estimated by ,mr4 ,ormerod at #a1gjj feet4 ,ripple-marked sandstones and the footprints of animals are observed at so many levels1 that we may safely assume the whole area to have undergone a slow and gradual depression during the formation of the ,new ,red ,sandstone40 ,not to mention the importance of salt as a source of health1 it is in ,great ,britain1 and1 indeed1 all over the world where the saliferous rocks exist1 a most important branch of industry4 ,the quantity of the mineral produced in ,england1 from all sources1 is between #e1jjj and #f1jjj tons annually1 and the population engaged in producing the mineral1 from sources supposed to be inexhaustible1 is upwards of #ab1jjj4 ,the lower ,keuper sandstones1 which lie at the base of the series of red marls1 frequently give rise to springs1 and are in consequence called 8water-stones10 in ,lancashire and ,cheshire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,productus ,martini4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,patella vulgata4 7,living47 ,if the ,keuper formation is poor in organic remains in ,france1 it is by no means so on the other side of the ,alps4 ,in the ,tyrol1 and in the remarkable beds of ,saint ,cassian1 ,aussec1 and ,hallstadt1 the rocks are made up of an immense number of marine fossils1 among them ,cephalopods1 ,ceratites1 and ,ammonites of peculiar form4 ,the ,orthoceras1 which we have seen abounding in the ,silurian period1 and continued during the deposit of the ,devonian and ,carboniferous periods1 appears here for the last time4 ,we still find here a great number of ,gasteropods and of ,lamellibranchs of the most varied form4 ,sea ,urchins--corals of elegant form--appear to have occupied1 on the other side of the ,alps1 the same seas which in ,france and ,germany seem to have been nearly destitute of animals4 ,some beds are literally formed of accumulated shells belonging to the genus ,avicula2 but these last-mentioned deposits are to be considered as more properly belonging to the ,rhtic or ,penarth strata1 into which the ,new ,red or ,keuper ,marl gradually passes upwards1 and which are more fully described at page #bjg4 ,in following the grand mountainous slopes of the ,alps and ,carpathians we discover the saliferous rocks by this remarkable accumulation of ,avicul4 ,the same facies presents itself under identical conditions in ,syria1 in ,india1 in ,new ,caledonia1 in ,new ,zealand1 and in ,australia4 ,it is not the least curious part of this period1 that it presents1 on one side of the site of the ,alps1 which were not yet raised1 an immense accumulation of sediment1 charged with gypsum1 rock-salt1 c41 without organic remains2 while beyond1 a region presents itself equally remarkable for the extraordinary accumulation of the remains of marine ,mollusca4 ,among these were ,myophoria lineata1 which is often confounded with ,trigonia1 and ,stellispongia variabilis4 ,france at this period was still the skeleton of what it has since become4 ,a map of that country represents the metamorphic rocks occupying the site of the ,alps1 the ,cvennes1 and the ,puy-de-,dme1 the country round ,nantes1 and the ,islands of ,brittany4 ,the ,primary rocks reach the foot of the ,pyrenees1 the ,cotentin1 the ,vosges1 and the ,eifel ,mountains4 ,some bands of coal stretch away from ,valenciennes to the ,rhine1 and on the north of the ,vosges1 these mountains themselves being chiefly composed of ,triassic rocks4 ,,rh,,tic1 ,,or ,,penarth ,,sub-,,period4 ,the attention of geologists has been directed within the last few years1 more especially1 to a series of deposits which intervene between the ,new ,red ,marl of the ,trias1 and the blue argillaceous limestones and shales of the ,lower ,lias4 ,the first-mentioned beds1 although they attain no great thickness in this country1 nevertheless form a well-defined and persistent zone of strata between the unfossiliferous ,triassic marls and the lower ,liassic limestone with ,ostrea ,liassica and ,ammonites planorbis1 ,a4 angulatus and ,a4 ,bucklandi2 being everywhere characterised by the presence of the same groups of organic remains1 and the same general lithological character of the beds4 ,these last may be described as consisting of three sub-divisions1 the lowermost composed of alternations of marls1 clays1 and marly limestones in the lower part1 forming a gradual passage downwards into the ,new ,red ,marls upon which they repose4 #b4 ,a middle group of black1 thinly laminated or paper-like shales1 with thin layers of indurated limestone1 and crowded in places with ,pecten ,valoniensis1 ,cardium ,rhticum1 ,avicula contorta1 and other characteristic shells1 as well as by the presence1 nearly always1 of a remarkable bed1 which is commonly known as the 8,bone-bed40 ,this thin band of stone1 which is so well known at ,aust1 ,axmouth1 ,westbury-on-,severn1 and elsewhere1 is a brecciated or conglomerated band of variable thickness which1 sometimes a sandstone and sometimes a limestone1 is always more or less composed of the teeth1 scales1 and bones of numerous genera of ,fishes and ,saurians1 together with their fossilised excrement1 which will be more fully and subsequently described under the name of ,coprolites1 under the ,liassic period4 ,the molar tooth of a small predaceous fossil mammal of the ,microlestes family 71 little2 1 beast71 whose nearest living representative appears to be some of the ,hypsiprymnid or ,kangaroo ,rats1 has been found by ,mr4 ,dawkins in some grey marls underlying the bone-bed on the sea-shore at ,watchett1 in ,somersetshire2 affording the earliest known trace of a fossil mammal in the ,secondary rocks4 ,several small teeth belonging to the genus ,microlestes have also been discovered by ,mr4 ,charles ,moore in a breccia of ,rhtic age1 filling a fissure traversing ,carboniferous ,limestone near ,frome2 and in addition to the discovery of the remains of ,microlestes1 those of a mammal more closely allied to the ,marsupials than any other order1 have been met with at ,diegerloch1 south-east of ,stuttgart1 in a remarkable bone-breccia1 which also yielded coprolites and numerous traces of fishes and reptiles4 ,the uppermost sub-division includes certain beds of white and cream-coloured limestone1 resembling in appearance the smooth fracture and closeness of texture of the lithographic limestone of ,solenhofen1 and which1 known to geologists and quarrymen under the name 8white lias10 given to it by ,dr4 ,william ,smith1 was formerly always considered to belong to1 and was included in1 the ,lias proper4 ,the most remarkable bed in this zone is one of only a few inches in thickness1 but it has long been known to collectors1 and sought after under the name of ,cotham ,marble or ,landscape ,stone1 the latter name having reference to the curious dendritic markings which make their appearance on breaking the stone at right angles to its bedding1 bearing a singular resemblance to a landscape with trees1 water1 c42 while the first name is that derived from its occurrence abundantly at ,cotham1 in the suburbs of ,bristol1 where the stone was originally found and noticed4 ,this band of stone is interesting in another respect1 because it sometimes shows by its uneven1 eroded1 and water-worn upper surface1 that an interval took place soon after it had been deposited1 when the newly-formed stone became partially dissolved1 eroded1 or worn away by water1 before the stratum next in succession was deposited upon it4 ,the same phenomenon is displayed1 in a more marked degree1 in the uppermost limestone or 8white lias0 bed of the series1 which not only shows an eroded surface1 but the holes made by boring ,molluscs1 exactly as is produced at the present day by the same class of animals1 which excavate holes in the rocks between high and low-water marks1 to serve for their dwelling-places1 and as a protection from the waves to their somewhat delicate shells4 ,the 8,white ,lias0 of ,smith is the equivalent of the ,koessen beds which immediately underlie the ,lower ,lias of the ,swabian ,jura1 and have been traced for a hundred miles1 from ,geneva to the environs of ,vienna2 and1 also1 of the ,upper ,st4 ,cassian beds1 which are so called from their occurrence at ,st4 ,cassian in the ,austrian ,alps4 ,the general character of the series of strata just described1 is that of a deposit formed in tolerably shallow water4 ,in the ,alps of ,lombardy and the ,tyrol1 in ,luxembourg1 in ,france1 and1 in fact1 throughout nearly the whole of ,europe1 they form a sort of fringe in the margin of the ,triassic sea2 and1 although of comparatively inconsiderable thickness in ,england1 they become highly developed in ,lombardy1 c41 to an enormous thickness1 and constitute the great mass of the ,rhtian ,alps and a considerable part of the well-known beds of ,st4 ,cassian1 and ,hallstadt in the ,austrian ,alps4 7,see page #bje47 ,the ,rhtic beds of ,europe were1 as a whole1 formed under very different conditions in different areas4 ,the thickness of the strata and the large and well-developed fauna 7chiefly ,mollusca7 indicate that the ,rhtic strata of ,lombardy1 and other parts of the south and east of ,europe1 were deposited in a broad open ocean4 ,on the other hand1 the comparatively thin beds of this age in ,england and north-western ,europe1 the fauna of which1 besides being poor in genera and species1 consists of small and dwarfed forms1 point to the conclusion that they were in great part deposited in shallow seas and in estuaries1 or in lagoons1 or in occasional salt lakes1 under conditions which lasted for a long period4#ef #ef ,see ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 8,on the ,physical ,relations of the ,new ,red ,marl1 ,rhtic ,beds1 and ,lower ,lias10 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 #bg1 p4 #ahi4 ,in consequence of the importance they assume in ,lombardy 7the ancient ,rhtia71 the name 8,rhtic ,beds0 has been given to these strata by ,mr4 ,charles ,moore2 ,dr4 ,thomas ,wright has proposed the designation 8,avicula ,contorta ,zone10 from the plentiful occurrence of that shell in the black shales forming the well-marked middle zone1 and which is everywhere present where this group of beds is found2 ,jules ,martin and others have proposed the term 8,infra-lias10 or 8,infra-liassic strata20 while the name 8,penarth ,beds0 has been assigned to these deposits in this country by ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bristow1 at the suggestion of ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 in consequence of their conspicuous appearance and well-exposed sections in the bold headlands and cliffs of that locality1 in the ,british ,channel1 west of ,cardiff4 ,a fuller description of these beds will be found in the ,reports of the ,bath ,meeting of the ,british ,association 7#ahfd71 by ,mr4 ,bristow2 also in communications to the ,geological ,magazine1 for #ahfd1 by ,,mm4 ,bristow and ,dawkins2#eg in papers read before the ,geological ,society by ,dr4 ,thomas ,wright1#eh ,mr4 ,charles ,moore1#ei and ,mr4 ,ralph ,tate1#fj as printed in their ,quarterly ,journal2 and by ,mr4 ,etheridge1 in the ,transactions of the ,cotteswold ,natural ,history ,club for #ahfe-ff4 ,the limits of the ,penarth ,beds have also been lately accurately laid down by ,mr4 ,bristow in the map of the ,geological ,survey over the district comprised between ,bath1 ,bristol1 and the ,severn2 and elaborately detailed typical sections of most of the localities in ,england1 where these beds occur1 have been constructed by ,,mm4 ,bristow1 ,etheridge1 and ,woodward1 of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain1 which1 when published1 will greatly add to our knowledge of this remarkable and interesting series of deposits4 #eg ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xx41 p4 #cif4 #eh ,ibid1 vol4 xvii41 p4 #dhc4 #ei ,ibid1 vol4 xvi41 p4 #cgd4 #fj ,ibid1 vol4 xx41 p4 #ajc4 ,,jurassic ,,period4 ,this period1 one of the most important in the physical history of the globe1 has received its name from the ,jura mountains in ,france1 the ,jura range being composed of the rocks deposited in the seas of the period4 ,in the term ,jurassic1 the formations designated as the 8,oolite0 and 8,lias0 are included1 both being found in the ,jura mountains4 ,the ,jurassic period presents a very striking assemblage of characteristics1 both in its vegetation and in the animal remains which belong to it2 many genera of animals existing in the preceding age have disappeared1 new genera have replaced them1 comprising a very specially organised group1 containing not less than #d1jjj species4 ,the ,jurassic period is sub-divided into two sub-periods3 those of the ,lias and the ,oolite4 ,,the ,,lias is an ,english provincial name given to an argillaceous limestone1 which1 with marl and clay1 forms the base of the ,jurassic formation1 and passes almost imperceptibly into the ,lower ,oolite in some places1 where the ,marlstone of the ,lias partakes of the mineral character1 as well as the fossil remains of the ,lower ,oolite2 and it is sometimes treated of as belonging to that formation4 8,nevertheless1 the ,lias may be traced throughout a great part of ,europe as a separate and independent group1 of considerable thickness1 varying from #ejj to #a1jjj feet1 containing many peculiar fossils1 and having a very uniform lithological aspect40#fa ,the rocks which represent the ,liassic period form the base of the ,jurassic system1 and have a mean thickness of about #a1bjj feet4 ,in the inferior part we find argillaceous sandstones1 which are called the sandstones of the ,lias1 and comprehend the greater part of the ,quadersandstein1 or building-stone of the ,germans1 above which comes compact limestone1 argillaceous1 bluish1 and yellowish2 finally1 the formation terminates in the marlstones which are sometimes sandy1 and occasionally bituminous4 #fa ,lyell1 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #dac4 ,the ,lias1 in ,england1 is generally in three groups3 #a1 the upper1 clays and shales1 underlying sands2 #b1 the middle1 lias or marlstone2 and #c1 the lower1 clays and limestone2 but these have been again sub-divided--the last into six zones1 each marked by its own peculiar species of ,ammonites2 the second into three zones2 the third consists of clay1 shale1 and argillaceous limestone4 ,for the purposes of description we shall1 therefore1 divide the ,lias into these three groups3-- #a4 ,upper ,lias ,clay1 consists of blue clay1 or shale1 containing nodular bands of claystones at the base1 crowded with ,ammonites serpentinus1 ,a4 bifrons1 ,belemnites1 c4 #b4 ,the ,middle ,lias1 commonly known as the ,marlstone1 is surmounted by a bed of oolitic ironstone1 largely worked in ,leicestershire and in the north of ,england as a valuable ore of iron4 ,the underlying marls and sands1 the latter of which become somewhat argillaceous below1 form beds from #bjj to #cjj feet thick in ,dorsetshire and ,gloucestershire2 the fossils are ,ammonites margaritaceus1 ,a4 spinatus1 ,belemnites tripartitus4 ,the upper rock-beds1 especially the bed of ironstone on the top1 is generally remarkably rich in fossils4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--;,grypha incurva4 #c4 ,lower ,lias 7averaging from #fjj to #ijj feet in thickness7 consists1 in the lower part1 of thin layers of bluish argillaceous limestone1 alternating with shales and clays2 the whole overlaid by the blue clay of which the lower member of the ,liassic group usually consists4 ,this member of the series is well developed in ,yorkshire1 at ,lyme ,regis and ,charmouth in ,dorsetshire1 and generally over the ,south-,west and ,midland ,counties of ,england4 ,grypha incurva 7,fig4 #hh71 with sandy bands1 occurs at the base1 in addition to which we find ,ammonites planorbis ,bucklandi1 ,a4 ,ostrea liassica1 ,lima gigantea1 ,ammonites ,bucklandi1 c41 in the lower limestones and shales4 ,above the clay are yellow sands from #ajj to #bjj feet thick1 underlying the limestone of the ,inferior ,oolite4 ,these sands were1 until lately1 considered to belong to the latter formation--as they undoubtedly do physically--until they were shown1 by ,dr4 ,thomas ,wright1 of ,cheltenham1 to be more nearly allied1 by their fossils1 to the ,lias below than to the ,inferior ,oolite above1 into which they form the passage-beds4 ,in ,france the ,lias abounds in the ,calvados1 in ,burgundy1 ,lorraine1 ,normandy1 and the ,lyonnais4 ,in the ,vosges and ,luxembourg1 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont states that the ,lias containing ,grypha incurva and ,lima gigantea1 and some other marine fossils1 becomes arenaceous2 and around the ,harz mountains1 in ,westphalia and ,bavaria1 in its lower parts the formation is sandy1 and is sometimes a good building-stone4 8,in ,england the ,lias constitutes10 says ,professor ,ramsay1 8a well-defined belt of strata1 running continuously from ,lyme ,regis1 on the south-west1 through the whole of ,england1 to ,yorkshire on the north-east1 and is an extensive series of alternating beds of clay1 shale1 and limestone1 with occasional layers of jet in the upper part4 ,the unequal hardness of the clays and limestones of the ,liassic strata causes some of its members to stand out in the distinct minor escarpments1 often facing the west and north-west4 ,the ,marlstone forms the most prominent of these1 and overlooks the broad meadows of the lower ,lias-clay1 that form much of the centre of ,england40 ,in ,scotland there are few traces of the ,lias4 ,zoophytes1 ,mollusca1 and ,fishes of a peculiar organisation1 but1 above all1 ,reptiles of extraordinary size and structure gave to the sea of the ,liassic period an interest and features quite peculiar4 ,well might ,cuvier exclaim1 when the drawings of the ,plesiosaurus were sent to him3 8,truly this is altogether the most monstrous animal that has yet been dug out of the ruins of a former world60 ,in the whole of the ,english ,lias there are about #bdc genera1 and #dfg species of fossils4 ,the whole series has been divided into zones characterised by particular ,ammonites1 which are found to be limited to them1 at least locally4 ,among the ,echinodermata belonging to the ,lias we may cite ,asterias lumbricalis and ,palocoma ,furstembergii1 which constitutes a genus not dissimilar to the star-fishes1 of which its radiated form reminds us4 ,the ,pentacrinites1 of which ,pentacrinites ,briareus is a type1 ornaments many collections by its elegant form1 and is represented in ,figs4 #gi and #hi4 ,it belongs to the order of ,crinoidea1 which is represented at the present time by a single living species1 ,pentacrinus caput-,medus1 one of the rare and delicate ,zoophytes of the ,caribbean sea4 ,oysters 7,ostrea7 made their appearance in the ,muschelkalk of the last period1 but only in a small number of species2 they increased greatly in importance in the ,liassic seas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--,pentacrinites ,briareus4 ,half natural size4 ,the ,ammonites1 a curious genus of ,cephalopoda1 which made their first appearance in small numbers towards the close of the preceding ,triassic period1 become quite special in the ,secondary epoch1 with the close of which they disappear altogether4 ,they were very abundant in the ,jurassic period1 and1 as we have already said1 each zone is characterised by its peculiar species4 ,the name is taken from the resemblance of the shell to the ram's-horn ornaments which decorated the front of the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon and the bas-reliefs and statues of that pagan deity4 ,they were ,cephalopodous ,mollusca with circular shells1 rolled upon themselves symmetrically in the same plane1 and divided into a series of chambers4 ,the animal only occupied the outer chamber of the shell2 all the others were empty4 ,a siphon or tube issuing from the first chamber traversed all the others in succession1 as is seen in all the ,ammonites and ,nautili4 ,this tube enabled the animal to rise to the surface1 or to sink to the bottom1 for the ,ammonite could fill the chambers with water at pleasure1 or empty them1 thus rendering itself lighter or heavier as occasion required4 ,the ,nautilus of our seas is provided with the same curious organisation1 and reminds us forcibly of the ,ammonites of geological times4 ,shells are the only traces which remain of the ,ammonites4 ,we have no exact knowledge of the animal which occupied and built them4 ,the attempt at restoration1 as exhibited in ,fig4 #ia1 will probably convey a fair idea of the ,ammonite when living4 ,we assume that it resembled the ,nautilus of modern times4 ,what a curious aspect these early seas must have presented1 covered by myriads of these ,molluscs of all sizes1 swimming about in eager pursuit of their prey6 ,the ,ammonites of the ,jurassic age present themselves in a great variety of forms and sizes2 some of them of great beauty4 ,ammonites bifrons1 ,a4 ,noditianus1 ,a4 bisulcatus1 ,a4 ,turneri 7,fig4 #ij71 and ,a4 margaritatus1 are forms characteristic of the ,lias4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--;,ammonites ,turneri1 from the ,lower ,lias4 ,the ,belemnites1 molluscous ,cephalopods of a very curious organisation1 appeared in great numbers1 and for the first time1 in the ,jurassic seas4 ,of this ,mollusc we only possess the fossilised internal 8bone10 analogous to that of the modern cuttle-fish and the calamary of the present seas4 ,this simple relic is very far from giving us an exact idea of what the animal was to which the name of ,belemnite has been given 7from 1 a dart7 from their supposed resemblance to the head of a javelin4 ,the slender cylindrical bone1 the only vestige remaining to us1 was merely the internal skeleton of the animal4 ,when first discovered they were called1 by the vulgar1 8,thunder-stones0 and 8,ladies' fingers40 ,they were1 at last1 inferred to be the shelly processes of some sort of ancient cuttle-fish4 ,unlike the ,ammonite1 which floated on the surface and sunk to the bottom at pleasure1 the ,belemnite1 it has been thought1 swam nearer the bottom of the sea1 and seized its prey from below4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4--;,ammonite restored4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,belemnite restored4 ,in ,fig4 #ib is given a restoration of the living ,belemnite1 by ,dr4 ,buckland and ,professor ,owen1 in which the terminal part of the animal is marked in a slightly darker tint1 to indicate the place of the bone which alone represents in our days this fossilised being4 ,a sufficiently exact idea of this ,mollusc may be arrived at from the existing cuttle-fish4 ,like the cuttle-fish1 the ,belemnite secreted a black liquid1 a sort of ink or sepia2 and the bag containing the ink has frequently been found in a fossilised state1 with the ink dried up1 and elaborate drawings have been made with this fossil pigment4 ,the beaks1 or horny mandibles of the mouth1 which the ,belemnite possessed in common with the other naked ,cephalopoda1 are represented in ,fig4 #gh1 p4 #aha4 ,as ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,beche has pointed out1 the destruction of the animals whose remains are known to us by the name of ,belemnites was exceedingly great when the upper part of the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis was deposited4 ,multitudes seem to have perished almost simultaneously1 and millions are entombed in a bed beneath ,golden ,cap1 a lofty cliff between ,lyme ,regis and ,bridport ,harbour1 as well as in the upper ,lias generally4#fb #fb ,de la ,beche's 8,geological ,manual10 #crd ed41 p4 #ddg4 ,among the ,belemnites characteristic of the ,liassic period may be cited ,b4 acutus 7,fig4 #ic71 ,b4 pistiliformis1 and ,b4 sulcatus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4--;,belemnites acutus4 ,the seas of the period contained a great number of the fishes called ,ganoids2 which are so called from the splendour of the hard and enamelled scales1 which formed a sort of defensive armour to protect their bodies4 ,lepidotus gigas was a fish of great size belonging to this age4 ,a smaller fish was the ,tetragonolepis1 or chmodus ,buchii4 ,the ,acrodus nobilis1 of which the teeth are still preserved1 and popularly known by the name of fossil leeches1 was a fish of which an entire skeleton has never been met with4 ,neither are we better informed as to the ,hybodus reticulatus4 ,the bony spines1 which form the anterior part of the dorsal fin of this fish1 had long been an object of curiosity to geologists1 under the general name of ,ichthyodorulites1 before they were known to be fragments of the fin of the ,hybodus4 ,the ,ichthyodorulites were supposed by some naturalists to be the jaw of some animal--by others1 weapons like those of the living ,balistes or ,silurus2 but ,agassiz has shown them to be neither the one nor the other1 but bony spines on the fin1 like those of the living genera of ,cestracions and ,chimras1 in both of which the concave face is armed with small spines like those of the ,hybodus4 ,the spines were simply imbedded in the flesh1 and attached to it by strong muscles4 8,they served10 says ,dr4 ,buckland1 8as in the ,chimra1 to raise and depress the fin1 their action resembling that of a movable mast lowering backward40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4--;,ichthyosaurus communis4 ,let us hasten to say1 however1 that these are not the beings that characterised the age1 and were the salient features of the generation of animals which existed during the ,jurassic period4 ,these distinguishing features are found in the enormous reptiles with lizard's head1 crocodile's conical teeth1 the trunk and tail of a quadruped1 whale-like paddles1 and the double-concave vertebr of fishes2 and this strange form1 on such a gigantic scale that even their inanimate remains are examined with a curiosity not unmixed with awe4 ,the country round ,lyme ,regis1 in ,dorsetshire1 has long been celebrated for the curious fossils discovered in its quarries1 and preserved in the muddy accumulations of the sea of the ,liassic period4 ,the country is hilly--8up one hill and down another10 is a pretty correct provincial description of the walk from ,bridport to ,lyme ,regis--where some of the most frightful creatures the living world has probably ever beheld1 sleep the sleep of stones4 ,the quarries of ,lyme ,regis form the cemetery of the ,ichthyosauri2 the sepulchre where lie interred these dragons of the ancient seas4 ,in #ahaa a country girl1 who made her precarious living by picking up fossils for which the neighbourhood was famous1 was pursuing her avocation1 hammer in hand1 when she perceived some bones projecting a little out of the cliff4 ,finding1 on examination1 that it was part of a large skeleton1 she cleared away the rubbish1 and laid bare the whole creature imbedded in the block of stone4 ,she hired workmen to dig out the block of ,lias in which it was buried4 ,in this manner was the first of these monsters brought to light3 8a monster some thirty feet long1 with jaws nearly a fathom in length1 and huge saucer-eyes2 which have since been found so perfect1 that the petrified lenses have been split off and used as magnifiers10 as a writer in ,all the ,year ,round assures us4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4--;,head of ,ichthyosaurus platydon4 ,in ,fig4 #ie the head of ,i4 platydon is represented4 ,as in the ,saurians1 the openings of the nostrils are situated near the anterior angle of the orbits of the eyes1 while those of the ,crocodile are near the snout2 but1 on the other hand1 in its osteology and its mode of dentition it nearly resembles the ,crocodile2 the teeth are pointed and conical--not1 however1 set in deep or separate sockets1 but only implanted in a long and deep continuous groove hollowed in the bones of the jaw4 ,these strong jaws have an enormous opening2 for1 in some instances1 they have been found eight feet in length and armed with #afj teeth4 ,let us add that teeth lost through the voracity of the animal1 or in contests with other animals1 could be renewed many times2 for1 at the inner side of the base of every old tooth1 there is always the bony germ of a new one4 ,the eyes of this marine monster were much larger than those of any animal now living2 in volume they frequently exceed the human head1 and their structure was one of their most remarkable peculiarities4 ,in front of the sclerotic coat or capsule of the eye there is an annular series of thin bony plates1 surrounding the pupil4 ,this structure1 which is now only met with in the eyes of certain turtles1 tortoises1 and lizards1 and in those of many birds1 could be used so as to increase or diminish the curvature of the transparent cornea1 and thus increase or diminish the magnifying power1 according to the requirements of the animal--performing the office1 in short1 of a telescope or microscope at pleasure4 ,the eyes of the ,ichthyosaurus were1 then1 an optical apparatus of wonderful power and of singular perfection1 enabling the animal1 by their power of adaptation and intensity of vision1 to see its prey far and near1 and to pursue it in the darkness and in the depths of the sea4 ,the curious arrangement of bony plates we have described furnished1 besides1 to its globular eye1 the power necessary to bear the pressure of a considerable weight of water1 as well as the violence of the waves1 when the animal came to the surface to breathe1 and raised its head above the waves4 ,this magnificent specimen of the fish-lizard1 or ,ichthyosaurus1 as it was named by ,dr4 ,ure1 now forms part of the treasures of the ,british ,museum4 ,at no period in the earth's history have ,reptiles occupied so important a place as they did in the ,jurassic period4 ,nature seems to have wished to bring this class of animals to the highest state of development4 ,the great ,reptiles of the ,lias are as complicated in their structure as the ,mammals which appeared at a later period4 ,they probably lived1 for the most part1 by fishing in shallow creeks and bays defended from heavy breakers1 or in the open sea2 but they seem to have sought the shore from time to time2 they crawled along the beach1 covered with a soft skin1 perhaps not unlike some of our ,cetace4 ,the ,ichthyosaurus1 from its form and strength1 may have braved the waves of the sea as the porpoise does now4 ,its destructiveness and voracity must have been prodigious1 for ,dr4 ,buckland describes a specimen which had between its ribs1 in the place where the stomach might be supposed to have been placed1 the skeleton of a smaller one--a proof that this monster1 not content with preying on its weaker neighbours1 was in the habit of devouring its own kind4 ,in the same waters lived the ,plesiosaurus1 with long neck and form more strange than that of the ,ichthyosaurus2 and these potentates of the seas were warmed by the same sun and tenanted the same banks1 in the midst of a vegetation not unlike that which the climate of ,africa now produces4 ,the great ,saurians in the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis seem to have suffered a somewhat sudden death1 partly in consequence of a series of small catastrophes suddenly destroying the animals then existing in particular spots4 8,in general the bones are not scattered about1 and in a detached state1 as would happen if the dead animal had descended to the bottom of the sea1 to be decomposed1 or devoured piecemeal1 as1 indeed1 might also happen if the creature floated for a time on the surface1 one animal devouring one part1 and another carrying off a different portion2 on the contrary1 the bones of the skeleton1 though frequently compressed1 as must arise from the enormous pressure to which they have so long been subjected1 are tolerably connected1 frequently in perfect1 or nearly perfect1 order1 as if prepared by the anatomist4 ,the skin1 moreover1 may sometimes be traced1 and the compressed contents of the intestines may at times be also observed--all tending to show that the animals were suddenly destroyed1 and as suddenly preserved40#fc #fc 8,geological ,manual10 by ,h4 ,t4 ,de la ,beche1 #crd ed41 p4 #cdf4 ,these strange and gigantic ,saurians seem almost to disappear during the succeeding geological periods2 for1 although they have been discovered as low down as the ,trias in ,germany1 and as high up as the ,chalk in ,england1 they only appear as stragglers in these epochs2 so1 too1 the ,reptiles1 the existing ,saurians are1 as it were1 only the shadowy1 feeble representatives of these powerful races of the ancient world4 ,confining ourselves to well-established facts1 we shall consider in some detail the best known of these fossil reptiles--the ,ichthyosaurus1 ,plesiosaurus1 and ,pterodactyle4 ,the extraordinary creature which bears the name of ,ichthyosaurus 7from the ,greek words 1 signifying fish-lizard71 presents certain dispositions and organic arrangements which are met with dispersed in certain classes of animals now living1 but they never seem to be again reunited in any single individual4 ,it possesses1 as ,cuvier says1 the snout of a dolphin1 the head of a lizard1 the jaws and teeth of a crocodile1 the vertebr of a fish1 the head and sternum of a lizard1 the paddles like those of a whale1 and the trunk and tail of a quadruped4 ,bayle appears to have furnished the best idea of the ,ichthyosaurus by describing it as the ,whale of the ,saurians--the ,cetacean of the primitive seas4 ,it was1 in fact1 an animal exclusively marine2 which1 on shore1 would rest motionless like an inert mass4 ,its whale-like paddles1 and fish-like vertebr1 the length of the tail and other parts of its structure1 prove that its habits were aquatic2 as the remains of fishes and reptiles1 and the form of its teeth1 show that it was carnivorous4 ,like the ,whale1 also1 the ,ichthyosaurus breathed atmospheric air2 so that it was under the necessity of coming frequently to the surface of the water1 like that inhabitant of the deep4 ,we can even believe1 with ,bayle1 that it was provided1 like the ,whale1 with vents or blowers1 through which it ejected1 in columns into the air1 the water it had swallowed4 ,the dimensions of the ,ichthyosaurus varied with the species1 of which five are known and described4 ,these are ,ichthyosaurus communis1 ,i4 platydon1 ,i4 intermedius1 ,i4 tenuirostris1 and ,i4 ,cuvierii1 the largest being more than thirty feet in length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,ichthyosaurus platydon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--,lower jaw of ,ichthyosaurus4 7,dr4 ,buckland47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,skeleton of ,ichthyosaurus4 ,containing teeth and bones of ,fishes in a coprolitic form4 ,one-fifteenth natural size4 ,the short1 thick neck of the ,ichthyosaurus supported a capacious head1 and was continued backwards1 from behind the eyes1 in a column composed of more than a hundred vertebr4 ,the animal being adapted1 like the whale1 for rapid movement through the water1 its vertebr had none of the invariable solidity of those of the ,lizard or ,crocodile1 but rather the structure and lightness of those of ,fishes4 ,the section of these vertebr presents two hollow cones1 connected only by their summits to the centre of the vertebr1 which would permit of the utmost flexibility of movement4 ,the ribs extended along the entire length of the vertebral column1 from the head to the pelvis4 ,the bones of the sternum1 or that part of the frame which supported the paddles1 present the same combinations with those of the sternum in the ,ornithorhynchus1 or ,duck-billed ,platypus1 of ,new ,holland1 an animal which presents the singular combination of a mammalian furred quadruped having the bill of a duck and webbed feet2 which dived to the bottom of the water in search of its food1 and returned to the surface to breathe the air4 ,in this phenomenon of living ,nature the ,creator seems to have repeated1 in our days1 the organic arrangements which he had originally provided for the ,ichthyosaurus4 ,in order that the animal should be able to move with rapidity in the water1 both its anterior and posterior members were converted into fins or paddles4 ,the anterior fins were half as large again as the posterior4 ,in some species each paddle was made up of nearly a hundred bones1 of polygonal form1 and disposed in series representing the phalanges of the fingers4 ,this hand1 jointed at the arm1 bears resemblance1 in osteological construction1 to the paddles1 without distinct fingers1 of the ,porpoise and the ,whale4 ,a specimen of the posterior fin of ,i4 communis1 discovered at ,barrow-on-,soar1 in ,leicestershire1 in #ahdj1 by ,sir ,philip ,egerton1 exhibited on its posterior margin the remains of cartilaginous rays1 which bifurcated as they approached the edge1 like those in the fins of a fish4 8,it had previously been supposed10 says ,professor ,owen1 8that the locomotive organs were enveloped1 while living1 in a smooth integument1 like that of the turtle and porpoise1 which has no other support than is afforded by the bones and ligaments within2 but it now appears that the fin was much larger1 expanding far beyond the osseous frame-work1 and deviating widely in its fish-like rays from the ordinary reptilian type40 ,the ,professor believes that1 besides the fore-paddles1 these stiff-necked ,saurians were furnished at the end of the tail with a fin to assist them in turning1 not placed horizontally1 as in the whale1 but vertically1 forming a powerful instrument of progression and motion4 ,it is obvious that the ,ichthyosaurus was an animal powerfully armed for offence and defence4 ,we cannot say1 with certainty1 whether the skin was smooth1 like that of the whale or lizard1 or covered with scales1 like the great reptiles of our own age4 ,nevertheless1 as the scales of the ,fishes and the cuirass and horny armour of other ,reptiles of the ,lias are preserved1 and as no such defensive scales have been found belonging to the ,ichthyosaurus1 it is probable that the skin was naked and smooth4 ,the tail1 composed of from eighty to eighty-five vertebr1 was provided with large and long paddles1 arranged vertically as in the ,whale4 ,it is curious to see to what a degree of perfection has been carried1 in our days1 the knowledge of the antediluvian animals1 their habits1 and their economy4 ,fig4 #ih represents the skeleton of an ,ichthyosaurus found in the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis1 which still retains in its abdominal cavity coprolites1 that is to say1 the residue of digestion4 ,the soft parts of the intestinal canal have disappeared1 but the fces themselves are preserved1 and their examination informs us as to the alimentary regimen of this animal which has perished from the earth many thousands1 perhaps millions1 of years4 ,mary ,anning1 to whom we owe many of the discoveries made in the neighbourhood of ,lyme ,regis1 her native place1 had in her collection an enormous coprolite of the ,ichthyosaurus4 ,this coprolite 7,fig4 #ii7 contained some bones and scales of ,fishes1 and of divers ,reptiles1 well enough preserved to have their species identified4 ,it only remains to be added that1 among the bones1 those of the ,ichthyosaurus were often found1 especially those of young individuals4 ,the presence of the undigested remains of vertebr and other bones of animals of its own species in the coprolites of the ,ichthyosaurus proves1 as we have already had occasion to remark1 that this great ,saurian must have been a most voracious monster1 since it habitually devoured not only fish1 but individuals of its own race--the smaller becoming the prey of the larger4 ,the structure of the jaw of the ,ichthyosaurus leads us to believe that the animal swallowed its prey without dividing it4 ,its stomach and intestines must1 then1 have formed a sort of pouch of great volume1 filling entirely the abdominal cavity1 and corresponding in extent to the great development of the teeth and jaws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--;,coprolite1 enclosing bones of small ,ichthyosaurus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--;,coprolite of ,ichthyosaurus4 ,the perfection with which its contents have been preserved in the fossilised coprolites1 furnishes indirect proofs that the intestinal canal of the ,ichthyosaurus resembled closely that of the shark and the dog-fish--fishes essentially voracious and destructive1 which have the intestinal canal spirally convoluted1 an arrangement which is exactly that indicated in some of the coprolites of the ,ichthyosaurus1 as is evident from the impressions which the folds of the intestine have left on the coprolite1 of which ,fig4 #ajj is a representation4 ,in the cliffs near ,lyme ,regis coprolites are abundant in the ,liassic formation1 and have been found disseminated through the shales and limestones along many miles of that coast4 ,what an admirable privilege of science1 which is able1 by an examination of the simplest parts in the organisation of beings which lived ages ago1 to give to our minds such solid teachings and such true enjoyments6 8,when we discover10 says ,dr4 ,buckland1 8in the body of an ,ichthyosaurus the food which it has engulfed an instant before its death1 when the intervals between its sides present themselves still filled with the remains of fishes which it had swallowed some ten thousand years ago1 or a time even twice as great1 all these immense intervals vanish1 time disappears1 and we find ourselves1 so to speak1 thrown into immediate contact with events which took place in epochs immeasurably distant1 as if we occupied ourselves with the affairs of the previous day40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--,skull of ,plesiosaurus restored4 7,conybeare47 a1 profile2 b1 seen from above4 ,the name of ,plesiosaurus 7from the ,greek words 1 near1 and 1 lizard7 reminds us that this animal1 though presenting many peculiarities of general structure1 is allied by its organisation to the ,saurian or ,lizard family1 and1 consequently1 to the ,ichthyosaurus4 ,the ,plesiosaurus presents1 in its organic structure1 the most curious assemblage we have met with among the organic vestiges of the ancient world4 ,the ,plesiosaurus was a marine1 air-breathing1 carnivorous reptile1 combining the characters of the head of a ,lizard1 the teeth of a ,crocodile1 a neck of excessive length resembling that of a ,swan1 the ribs of a ,chameleon1 a body of moderate size1 and a very short tail1 and1 finally1 four paddles resembling those of a ,whale4 ,let us bestow a glance upon the remains of this strange animal which the earth has revealed1 and which science has restored to us4 ,the head of the ,plesiosaurus presents a combination of the characters belonging to the ,ichthyosaurus1 the ,crocodile1 and the ,lizard4 ,its enormously long neck comprises a greater number of vertebr than the neck of either the ,camel1 the ,giraffe1 or even the ,swan1 which of all the feathered race has the longest neck in comparison to the rest of the body4 ,and it is to be remarked1 that1 contrary to what obtains in the ,mammals1 where the vertebr of the neck are always seven1 the vertebr in birds increase in number with the length of the neck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--,skeleton of ,plesiosaurus dolichodeirus restored4 7,conybeare principally47 ,the body is cylindrical and rounded1 like that of the great marine ,turtles4 ,it was1 doubtless1 naked1 i4e41 not protected with the scales or carapace with which some authors have invested it2 for no traces of such coverings have been found near any of the skeletons which have been hitherto discovered4 ,the dorsal vertebr are attached to each other by nearly plane surfaces like those of terrestrial quadrupeds1 a mode of arrangement which must have deprived the whole of its vertebral column of much of its flexibility4 ,each pair of ribs surrounded the body with a complete girdle1 formed of five pieces1 as in the ,chameleon and ,iguana2 whence1 no doubt1 as with the ,chameleon1 great facilities existed for the contraction and dilatation of the lungs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--,sternum and pelvis of ,plesiosaurus4 ,pub41 pubis2 ,isch41 ischium2 ,il41 ilium4 ,the breast1 the pelvis1 and the bones of the anterior and posterior extremities furnished an apparatus which permitted the ,plesiosaurus1 like the ,ichthyosaurus and existing ,cetaceans1 to sink in the water and return to the surface at pleasure 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,prof4 ,owen1 in his 8,report on ,british ,reptiles10 characterises them as air-breathing and cold-blooded animals2 the proof that they respired atmospheric air immediately1 being found in the position and structure of the nasal passages1 and the bony mechanism of the thoracic duct and abdominal cavity4 ,in the first1 the size and position of the external nostrils 7,fig4 #ajb71 combined with the structure of the paddles1 indicate a striking analogy between the extinct ,saurians and the ,cetaceans1 offering1 as the ,professor observes1 8a beautiful example of the adaptation of structure to the peculiar exigencies of species40 ,while the evidence that they were cold-blooded animals is found in the flexible or unanchylosed condition of the osseous pieces of the occiput and other cranial bones of the lower jaw1 and of the vertebral column2 from which the ,professor draws the conclusion that the heart was adapted for transmitting a part only of the blood through the respiratory organs2 the absence of the ball-and-socket articulations of the bones of the vertebr1 the position of the nostrils near the summit of the head1 the numerous short and flat digital bones1 which must have been enveloped in a simple undivided integumentary sheath1 forming in both fore and hind extremities a paddle closely resembling that of the living ,cetacea4 ,the paddles are larger and more powerful than those of the ,ichthyosaurus1 to compensate for the slight assistance the animal derived from the tail4 ,the latter--shorter1 as compared with the length of the rest of the body1 than in the ,ichthyosaurus--was more calculated to act the part of a rudder1 in directing the course of the animal through the water1 than as a powerful organ of propulsion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--,remains of ,plesiosaurus macrocephalus4 ,one-twelfth natural size4 ,such were the strange combinations of form and structure in the ,plesiosaurus and ,ichthyosaurus--genera of animals whose remains have1 after an interment extending to unknown thousands of years1 been revealed to light and submitted to examination2 nay1 rebuilt1 bone by bone1 until we have the complete skeletons before us1 and the habits of the animals described1 as if they had been observed in life4 ,conybeare thus speaks of the supposed habits of these extinct forms1 which he had built up from scanty materials3 8,that the ,plesiosaurus was aquatic is evident from the form of its paddles2 that it was marine is equally so1 from the remains with which it is universally associated2 that it may have occasionally visited the shore1 the resemblance of its extremities to the turtle may lead us to conjecture2 its motion1 however1 must have been very awkward on land2 its long neck must have impeded its progress through the water1 presenting a striking contrast to the organisation which so admirably fits the ,ichthyosaurus for cutting through the waves4 ,may it not1 therefore1 be concluded that it swam on or near the surface1 arching back its long neck like the swan1 and occasionally darting it down at the fish which happened to float within its reach8 ,it may1 perhaps1 have lurked in shallow water along the coasts1 concealed among the sea-weeds1 and1 raising its nostrils to the surface from a considerable depth1 may have found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous enemies1 while the length and flexibility of its neck may have compensated for the want of strength in its jaws1 and incapacity for swift motion through the water1 by the suddenness and agility of the attack they enabled it to make on every animal fitted to become its prey40 ,the ,plesiosaurus was first described by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybeare and ,sir ,henry ,de la ,beche1 in the 8,geological ,society's ,transactions0 for #ahba1 and a restoration of ,p4 dolichodeirus1 the most common of these fossils1 appeared in the same work for #ahbd4 ,the first specimen was discovered1 as the ,ichthyosaurus had been previously1 in the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis2 since then other individuals and species have been found in the same geological formation in various parts of ,england1 ,ireland1 ,france1 and ,germany1 and with such variations of structure that ,professor ,owen has felt himself justified in recording sixteen distinct species1 of which we have represented ,p4 dolichodeirus 7,fig4 #ajb71 as restored by ,conybeare1 and ,p4 macrocephalus 7,fig4 #ajd71 with its skeleton1 as moulded from the limestone of ,lyme ,regis1 which has been placed in the ,palontological ,gallery of the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,xv4--,ideal scene of the ,lias with ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus4 ,the ,plesiosaurus was scarcely so large as the ,ichthyosaurus4 ,the specimen of ,i4 platydon in the ,british ,museum probably belonged to an animal four-and-twenty feet long1 and some are said to indicate thirty feet1 while there are species of ,plesiosauri measuring eighteen and twenty1 the largest known specimen of ,plesiosaurus ,cramptoni found in the lias of ,yorkshire1 and now in the ,museum of the ,royal ,society of ,dublin1 being twenty-two feet four inches in length4 ,on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,xv47 an attempt is made to represent these grand reptiles of the ,lias in their native element1 and as they lived4 ,cuvier says of the ,plesiosaurus1 8that it presents the most monstrous assemblage of characteristics that has been met with among the races of the ancient world40 ,this expression should not be understood in a literal sense2 there are no monsters in ,nature2 in no living creature are the laws of organisation ever positively infringed2 and it is more in accordance with the general perfection of creation to see in an organisation so special1 in a structure which differs so notably from that of the animals of our own days1 the simple development of a type1 and sometimes also the introduction of beings1 and successive changes in their structure4 ,we shall see1 in examining the curious series of animals of the ancient world1 that the organisation and physiological functions go on improving unceasingly1 and that each of the extinct genera which preceded the appearance of man1 present1 for each organ1 modifications which always tend towards greater perfection4 ,the fins of the fishes of ,devonian seas become the paddles of the ,ichthyosauri and of the ,plesiosauri2 these1 in their turn1 become the membranous foot of the ,pterodactyle1 and1 finally1 the wing of the bird4 ,afterwards comes the articulated fore-foot of the terrestrial mammalia1 which1 after attaining remarkable perfection in the hand of the ape1 becomes1 finally1 the arm and hand of man1 an instrument of wonderful delicacy and power1 belonging to an enlightened being gifted with the divine attribute of reason6 ,let us1 then1 dismiss any idea of monstrosity with regard to these antediluvian animals2 let us learn1 on the contrary1 to recognise1 with admiration1 the divine proofs of design which they display1 and in their organisation to see only the handiwork of the ,creator4 ,another strange inhabitant of the ancient world1 the ,pterodactylus 7from 1 a wing1 and 1 a finger71 discovered in #ahbh1 made ,cuvier pronounce it to be incontestably the most extraordinary of all the extinct animals which had come under his consideration2 and such as1 if we saw them restored to life1 would appear most strange and dissimilar to anything that now exists4 ,in size and general form1 and in the disposition and character of its wings1 this fossil genus1 according to ,cuvier1 somewhat resembled our modern bats and vampyres1 but had its beak elongated like the bill of a woodcock1 and armed with teeth like the snout of a crocodile2 its vertebr1 ribs1 pelvis1 legs1 and feet resembled those of a lizard2 its three anterior fingers terminated in long hooked claws like that on the fore-finger of the bat2 and over its body was a covering1 neither composed of feathers as in the bird1 nor of hair as in the bat1 but probably a naked skin2 in short1 it was a monster resembling nothing that has ever been heard of upon earth1 except the dragons of romance and heraldry4 ,moreover1 it was probably noctivagous and insectivorous1 and in both these points resembled the bat2 but differed from it in having the most important bones in its body constructed after the manner of those of reptiles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--,pterodactylus crassirostris4 8,thus1 like ,milton's fiend1 all-qualified for all services and all elements1 the creature was a fit companion for the kindred reptiles that swarmed in the seas1 or crawled on the shores1 of a turbulent planet3 8,the ,fiend1 ,o'er bog1 or steep1 through strait1 rough1 dense1 or rare1 ,with head1 hands1 wings1 or feet1 pursues his way1 ,and sinks1 or swims1 or wades1 or creeps1 or flies4 ,paradise ,lost1 ,book ,,ii41 line #idg4 8,with flocks of such-like creatures flying in the air1 and shoals of ,ichthyosauri and ,plesiosauri swarming in the ocean1 and gigantic ,crocodiles and ,tortoises crawling on the shores of primval lakes and rivers--air1 sea1 and land must have been strangely tenanted in these early periods of our infant world40#fd #fd ,professor ,buckland on the ,pterodactylus4 8,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc410 #bnd series1 vol4 iii41 p4 #bag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--,pterodactylus brevirostris4 ,the strange structure of this animal gave rise to most contradictory opinions from the earlier naturalists4 ,one supposed it to be a bird1 another a bat1 and others a flying reptile4 ,cuvier was the first to detect the truth1 and to prove1 from its organisation1 that the animal was a ,saurian4 8,behold10 he says1 8an animal which in its osteology1 from its teeth to the end of its claws1 presents all the characters of the ,saurians2 nor can we doubt that their characteristics existed in its integuments and softer parts1 in its scales1 its circulation1 its generative organs3 it was at the same time provided with the means of flight2 but when stationary it could not have made much use of its anterior extremities1 even if it did not keep them always folded as birds fold their wings4 ,it might1 it is true1 use its small anterior fingers to suspend itself from the branches of trees2 but when at rest it must have been generally on its hind feet1 like the birds again1 and like them it must have carried its neck half-erect and curved backwards1 so that its enormous head should not disturb its equilibrium40 ,this diversity of opinion need not very much surprise us after all1 for1 with the body and tail of an ordinary mammal1 it had the form of a bird in its head and the length of its neck1 of the bat in the structure and proportion of its wings1 and of a reptile in the smallness of its head and in its beak1 armed with at least sixty equal sharp-pointed teeth1 differing little in form and size4 ,dr4 ,buckland describes eight distinct species1 varying in size from a snipe to a cormorant4 ,of these1 ,p4 crassirostris 7,fig4 #aje7 and ,p4 brevirostris 7,fig4 #ajf71 were both discovered in the ,lias of ,solenhofen4 ,p4 macronyx belongs to the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis4 ,the ,pterodactyle was1 then1 a reptile provided with wings somewhat resembling those of ,bats1 and formed1 as in that ,mammal1 of a membrane which connected the body with the excessively elongated phalanges of the fourth finger1 which served to expand the membrane that answered the purposes of a wing4 ,the ,pterodactyle of the ,liassic period was1 as we have seen1 an animal of small size2 the largest species in the older ,lias beds did not exceed ten or twelve inches in length1 or the size of a raven1 while the later forms found fossil in the ,greensand and ,wealden beds must have measured more than sixteen feet between the tips of the expanded wings4 ,on the other hand1 its head was of enormous dimensions compared with the rest of the body4 ,we cannot admit1 therefore1 that this animal could really fly1 and1 like a bird1 beat the air4 ,the membranous appendage which connected its long finger with its body was rather a parachute than a wing4 ,it served to moderate the velocity of its descent when it dropped on its prey from a height4 ,essentially a climber1 it could only raise itself by climbing up tall trees or rocks1 after the manner of lizards1 and throw itself thence to the ground1 or upon the lower branches1 by making use of its natural parachute4 ,the ordinary position of the ,pterodactyle was probably upon its two hind feet1 the lower extremities being adapted for standing and moving on the ground1 after the manner of birds4 ,habitually1 perhaps1 it perched on trees2 it could creep1 or climb along rocks and cliffs1 or suspend itself from trees1 with the assistance of its claws and feet1 after the manner of existing ,bats4 ,it is even probable1 ,dr4 ,buckland thought1 that it had the power of swimming and diving1 so common to reptiles1 and possessed by the ,vampyre ,bat of the island of ,bonin4 ,it is believed that the smaller species lived upon insects1 and the larger preyed upon fishes1 upon which it could throw itself like the sea-gull4 ,the most startling feature in the organisation of this animal is the strange combination of two powerful wings attached to the body of a reptile4 ,the imagination of the poets long dwelt on such a combination2 the ,dragon was a creation of their fancy1 and it played a great part in fable and in pagan mythology4 ,the ,dragon1 or flying reptile1 breathing fire and poisoning the air with his fiery breath1 had1 according to the fable1 disputed with man the possession of the earth4 ,gods and demigods claimed1 among their most famous exploits1 the glory of having vanquished this powerful and redoubtable monster4 ,among the animals of our epoch1 only a single reptile is found provided with wings1 or digital appendages analogous to the membranous wings of the bats1 and which can be compared to the ,pterodactyle4 ,this is called the ,dragon1 one of the ,draconid1 a family of ,saurians1 which has been described by ,daudin1 as distinguished by the first six ribs1 instead of hooping round the abdomen1 extending in nearly a straight line1 and sustaining a prolongation of skin which forms a sort of wing analogous to that of the ,pterodactyle4 ,independent of the four feet1 this wing sustains the animal1 like a parachute1 as it leaps from branch to branch2 but the creature has no power to beat the air with it as birds do when flying4 ,this reptile lives in the forests of the hottest parts of ,africa1 and in some isles of the ,indian ,ocean1 especially in ,sumatra and ,java4 ,the only known species is that figured at page #bch 7,fig4 #ajg71 which comes from the ,east ,indies4 ,what a strange population was that which occupied the earth at this stage of its history1 when the waters were filled with creatures so extraordinary as those whose history we have traced6 ,plesiosauri and ,ichthyosauri filled the seas1 upon the surface of which floated innumerable ,ammonites in light skiffs1 some of them as large as a good-sized cart-wheel1 while gigantic ,turtles and ,crocodiles crawled on the banks of the rivers and lakes4 ,only one genus of ,mammals had yet appeared1 but no birds2 nothing broke the silence of the air1 if we except the breathing of the terrestrial reptiles and the flight of winged insects4 ,the earth cooled progressively up to the ,jurassic period1 the rains lost their continuity and abundance1 and the pressure of the atmosphere sensibly diminished4 ,all these circumstances favoured the appearance and the multiplication of innumerable species of animals1 whose singular forms then showed themselves on the earth4 ,we can scarcely imagine the prodigious quantity of ,molluscs and ,zoophytes whose remains lie buried in the ,jurassic rocks1 forming entire strata of immense thickness and extent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--;,draco volans4 ,the same circumstances concurred to favour the production of plants4 ,if the shores and seas of the period received such a terrible aspect from the formidable animals we have described1 the vegetation which covered the land had also its peculiar character and appearance4 ,nothing that we know of in the existing scenery of the globe surpasses the rich vegetation which decorated the continents of the ,jurassic period4 ,a temperature still of great elevation1 a humid atmosphere1 and1 we have no reason to doubt1 a brilliant sun1 promoted the growth of a luxuriant vegetation1 such as some of the tropical islands1 with their burning temperature and maritime climate1 can only give us an idea of1 while it recalls some of the ,jurassic types of vegetation4 ,the elegant ,voltzias of the ,trias had disappeared1 but the ,horse-tails 7,equiseta7 remained1 whose slender and delicate stems rose erect in the air with their graceful panicles2 the gigantic rushes also remained2 and though the tree-ferns had lost their enormous dimensions of the ,carboniferous age1 they still preserved their fine and delicately-cut leaves4 ,alongside these vegetable families1 which passed upwards from the preceding age1 an entire family--the ,cycads 7,fig4 #gb1 p4 #afh7--;appear for the first time4 ,they soon became numerous in genera1 such as ,zamites1 ,pterophyllum 7,williamsonia71 and ,nilssonia4 ,among the species which characterise this age1 we may cite the following1 arranging them in families3-- ,,ferns4 ,,cycads4 ,,conifers4 ,odontopteris cycadea4 ,zamites distans4 ,taxodites4 ,taumopteris ,munsteri4 ,zamites heterophyllus4 ,pinites4 ,camptopteris crenata4 ,zamites gracilis4 ,pterophyllum dubium4 ,nilssonia contigua4 ,nilssonia elegantissima4 ,nilssonia ,sternbergii4 ,the ,zamites seem to be forerunners of the ,palms1 which make their appearance in the following epoch2 they were trees of elegant appearance1 closely resembling the existing ,zamias1 which are trees of tropical ,america1 and especially of the ,west ,india ,islands2 they were so numerous in species and in individuals that they seem to have formed1 of themselves alone1 one half of the forests during the period which engages our attention4 ,the number of their fossilised species exceeds that of the living species4 ,the trunk of the ,zamites1 simple and covered with scars left by the old leaves1 supports a thick crown of leaves more than six feet in length1 disposed in fan-like shape1 arising from a common centre4 ,the ,pterophyllum 7,williamsonia71 formed great trees1 of considerable elevation1 and covered with large pinnated leaves from top to bottom4 ,their leaves1 thin and membranous1 were furnished with leaflets truncated at the summit and traversed by fine nervures1 not convergent1 but abutting on the terminal truncated edge4 ,the ,nilssonia1 finally1 were ,cycadeace resembling the ,pterophyllum1 but with thick and coriaceous leaves1 and short leaflets contiguous to1 and in part attached to the base2 they were obtuse or nearly truncated at the summit1 and would present nervures arched or confluent towards that summit4 ,the essential characters of the vegetation during the ,liassic sub-period were3--#a4 ,the great predominance of the ,cycadeace1 thus continuing the development which commenced in the previous period1 expanding into numerous genera belonging both to this family and that of the ,zamites and ,nilssonia2 #b4 ,the existence among the ,ferns of many genera with reticulated veins or nervures1 and under forms of little variation1 which scarcely show themselves in the more ancient formations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--,millepora alcicornis4 7,recent ,coral47 ,illustration3 ,,xvi4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,liassic ,period4 ,on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,xvi47 is an ideal landscape of the ,liassic period2 the trees and shrubs characteristic of the age are the elegant ,pterophyllum1 which appears in the extreme left of the picture1 and the ,zamites1 which are recognisable by their thick and low trunk and fan-like tuft of foliage4 ,the large horsetail1 or ,equisetum of this epoch1 mingles with the great ,tree-ferns and the ,cypress1 a ,conifer allied to those of our own age4 ,among animals1 we see the ,pterodactyle specially represented4 ,one of these reptiles is seen in a state of repose1 resting on its hind feet4 ,the other is represented1 not flying1 after the manner of a bird1 but throwing itself from a rock in order to seize upon a winged insect1 the dragon-fly 7,libellula71 the remains of which have been discovered1 associated with the bones of the ,pterodactyle1 in the lithographic limestone of ,pappenheim and ,solenhofen4 ,,oolitic ,,sub-,,period4 ,this period is so named because many of the limestones entering into the composition of the formations it comprises1 consist almost entirely of an aggregation of rounded concretionary grains resembling1 in outward appearance1 the roe or eggs of fishes1 and each of which contains a nucleus of sand1 around which concentric layers of calcareous matter have accumulated2 whence the name1 from 1 egg1 and 1 stone4 ,the ,oolite series is usually subdivided into three sections1 the ,lower1 ,middle1 and ,upper ,oolite4 ,these rocks form in ,england a band some thirty miles broad1 ranging across the country from ,yorkshire1 in the north-east1 to ,dorset1 in the south-west1 but with a great diversity of mineral character1 which has led to a further subdivision of the series1 founded on the existence of particular strata in the central and south-western counties3-- ,,upper4 ,,middle4 ,,lower4 #a4 ,purbeck ,beds4 #a4 ,coral ,rag4 #a4 ,cornbrash4 #b4 ,portland ,stone #b4 ,oxford ,clay4 #b4 ,great ,oolite ,forest and ,sand4 ,marble4 #c4 ,kimeridge ,clay4 #c4 ,stonesfield ,slate4 #d4 ,fuller's ,earth4 #e4 ,inferior ,oolite4 ,the alternations of clay and masses of limestone in the ,liassic and ,oolite formations impart some marked features to the outline of the scenery both of ,france and ,england3 forming broad valleys1 separated from each other by ranges of limestone hills of more or less elevation4 ,in ,france1 the ,jura mountains are composed of the latter2 in ,england1 the slopes of this formation are more gentle--the valleys are intersected by brooks1 and clothed with a rich vegetation2 it forms what is called a tame landscape1 as compared with the wilder grandeur of the ,primary rocks--it pleases more than it surprises4 ,it yields materials also1 more useful than some of the older formations1 numerous quarries being met with which furnish excellent building-materials1 especially around ,bath1 where the stone1 when first quarried1 is soft and easily worked1 but becomes harder on exposure to the air4 ,the annexed section 7,fig4 #aji7 will give some idea of the configuration which the stratification assumes1 such as may be observed in proceeding from the north-west to the south-east1 from ,caermarthenshire to the banks of the ,ouse4 ,,lower ,,oolite ,,fauna4 ,the most salient and characteristic feature of this age is1 undoubtedly1 the appearance of animals belonging to the class of ,mammals4 ,but the organisation1 quite special1 of the first of the ,mammalia will certainly be a matter of astonishment to the reader1 and must satisfy him that ,nature proceeded in the creation of animals by successive steps1 by transitions which1 in an almost imperceptible manner1 connect the beings of one age with others more complicated in their organisation4 ,the first ,mammals which appeared upon the earth1 for example1 did not enjoy all the organic attributes belonging to the more recent creations of the class4 ,in the latter the young are brought forth living1 and not from eggs1 like ,birds1 ,reptiles1 and ,fishes4 ,but the former belonged to that order of animals quite special1 and never numerous1 the young of which are transferred in a half-developed state1 from the body of the mother to an external pouch in which they remain until they become perfected2 in short1 to marsupial animals4 ,the mother nurses her young during a certain time in a sort of pouch external to the body1 in the neighbourhood of the abdomen1 and provided with teats to which the young adhere4 ,after a more or less prolonged sojourn in this pouch1 the young animal1 when sufficiently matured and strong enough to battle with the world1 emerges from its warm retreat1 and enters fully into life and light2 the process being a sort of middle course between oviparous generation1 in which the animals are hatched from eggs after exclusion from the mother's body1 like ,birds2 and viviparous1 in which the animals are brought forth alive1 as in the ordinary ,mammals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4--;,general view of the succession of ,british strata1 with the elevations they reach above the level of the sea4 ,g1 ,granitic rocks2 a1 ,gneiss2 b1 ,mica-schist2 c1 ,skiddaw or ,cumbrian ,slates2 d1 ,snowdon rocks2 e1 ,plynlymmon rocks2 f1 ,silurian rocks2 g1 ,old ,red ,sandstone2 h1 ,carboniferous ,limestone2 i1 ,millstone ,grit2 k1 ,coal-measures2 l1 ,magnesian ,limestone2 m1 ,new ,red ,sandstone2 n1 ,lias2 o1 ,lower1 ,middle1 and ,upper ,oolites2 p1 ,greensand2 q1 ,chalk2 r1 ,tertiary strata4 ,in standard works on natural history the animals under consideration are classed as mammiferous ,didelph4 ,they are brought forth in an imperfect state1 and during their transitional condition are suckled in a pouch supported by bones called marsupial1 which are attached by their extremities to the pelvis1 and serve to support the marsupium1 whence the animals provided with these provisions for bringing up their progeny are called ,marsupial ,mammals4 ,the ,opossum1 ,kangaroo1 and ,ornithorhynchus are existing representatives of this group4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--;,jaw of ,thylacotherium ,prevostii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--;,jaw of ,phascolotherium4 ,the name of ,thylacotherium1 or ,amphitherium1 or ,phascolotherium1 is given to the first of these marsupial ,mammals which made their appearance1 whose remains have been discovered in the ,lower ,oolite1 and in one of its higher stages1 namely1 that called the ,great ,oolite4 ,fig4 #aaj represents the jaw of the first of these animals1 and ,fig4 #aaa the other--both of the natural size4 ,these jaw-bones represent all that has been found belonging to these early marsupial animals2 and ,baron ,cuvier and ,professor ,owen have both decided as to their origin4 ,the first was found in the ,stonesfield quarries4 ,the ,phascolotherium1 also a ,stonesfield fossil1 was the ornament of ,mr4 ,broderip's collection4 ,the animals which lived on the land during the ,lower ,oolitic period would be nearly the same with those of the ,liassic4 ,the insects were1 perhaps1 more numerous4 ,the marine fauna included ,reptiles1 ,fishes1 ,molluscs1 and ,zoophytes4 ,among the first were the ,pterodactyle1 and a great ,saurian1 the ,teleosaurus1 belonging to a family which made its appearance in this age1 and which reappears in the following epoch4 ,among the ,fishes1 the ,ganoids and ,ophiopsis predominate4 ,among the ,ammonites1 ,ammonites ,humphriesianus1 ,a4 ,herveyii 7,fig4 #aab71 ,a4 ,brongniarti1 ,nautilus lineatus1 and many other representatives of the cephalopodous ,mollusca4 ,among the ,brachiopods are ,terebratula digona 7,fig4 #aac7 and ,t4 spinosa4 ,among the ,gasteropoda the ,pleurotomaria conoidea is remarkable from its elegant shape and markings1 and very unlike any of the living ,pleurotoma as represented by ,p4 ,babylonia 7,fig4 #aad74 ,ostrea ,marshii and ,lima proboscidea1 which belong to the ,acephala1 are fossil ,mollusca of this epoch1 to which also belong ,entalophora cellarioides1 ,eschara ,ranviliana1 ,bidiastopora cervicornis2 elegant and characteristic molluscous ,polyzoa4 ,we give a representation of two living species1 as exhibiting the form of these curious beings4 7,figs4 #aae and #aaf47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4--;,ammonites ,herveyii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4--,terebratula digona4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4--,pleurotoma ,babylonia4 7,recent47 ,the ,echinoderms and ,polyps appear in great numbers in the deposits of the ,lower ,oolite3 ,apiocrinus elegans1 ,hyboclypus gibberulus1 ,dysaster ,endesii represent the first2 ,montlivaltia caryophyllata1 ,anabacia orbulites1 ,cryptocnia bacciformis1 and ,eunomia radiata represent the second4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4--;,adeona folifera4 7,recent ,polyzoa47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--;,cellaria loriculata4 7,recent ,polyzoa47 ,this last and most remarkable species of ,zoophyte presents itself in great masses many yards in circumference1 and necessitates a long period of time for its production4 ,this assemblage of little creatures living under the waters but only at a small depth beneath the surface1 as ,mr4 ,darwin has demonstrated1 has nevertheless produced banks1 or rather islets1 of considerable extent1 which at one time constituted veritable reefs rising out of the ocean4 ,these reefs were principally constructed in the ,jurassic period1 and their extreme abundance is one of the characteristics of this geological age4 ,the same phenomenon continues in our day1 but by the agency of a new race of zoophytes1 which carry on their operations1 preparing a new continent1 probably1 in the atolls of the ,pacific ,ocean4 7,see ,fig4 #ajh1 p4 #bdj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 #a1 ,otopteris dubia2 #b1 ,otopteris obtusa2 #c1 ,otopteris acuminata2 #d1 ,otopteris cuneata4 ,the flora of the epoch was very rich4 ,the ,ferns continue to exist1 but their size and bearing were sensibly inferior to what they had been in the preceding period4 ,among them ,otopteris1 distinguished for its simply pinnated leaves1 whose leaflets are auriculate at the base3 of the five species1 #a1 ,o4 dubia2 and #b1 ,o4 obtusa2 and #c1 ,o4 acuminata2 and #d1 ,o4 cuneata 7,fig4 #aag71 are from the ,oolite4 ,in addition to these we may name ,coniopteris ,murrayana1 ,pecopteris ,desnoyersii1 ,pachypteris lanceolata1 and ,phlebopteris ,phillipsii2 and among the ,lycopods1 ,lycopodus falcatus4 ,the vegetation of this epoch has a peculiar facies1 from the presence of the family of the ,pandanace1 or screw-pines1 so remarkable for their arial roots1 and for the magnificent tuft of leaves which terminates their branches4 ,neither the leaves nor the roots of these plants have1 however1 been found in the fossil state1 but we possess specimens of their large and spherical fruit1 which leave no room for doubt as to the nature of the entire plant4 ,the ,cycads were still represented by the ,zamias1 and by many species of ,pterophyllum4 ,the ,conifers1 that grand family of recent times1 to which the pines1 firs1 and other trees of our northern forests belong1 began to occupy an important part in the world's vegetation from this epoch4 ,the earliest ,conifers belonged to the genera ,thuites1 ,taxites1 and ,brachyphyllum4 ,the ,thuites were true ,thuyas1 evergreen trees of the present epoch1 with compressed branches1 small imbricated and serrated leaves1 somewhat resembling those of the ,cypress1 but distinguished by many points of special organisation4 ,the ,taxites have been referred1 with some doubts1 to the ,yews4 ,finally1 the ,brachyphyllum were trees which1 according to the characteristics of their vegetation1 seem to have approached nearly to two existing genera1 the ,arthotaxis of ,tasmania1 and the ,weddringtonias of ,south ,africa4 ,the leaves of the ,brachyphyllum are short and fleshy1 with a large and rhomboidal base4 ,,lower ,,oolite ,,rocks4 ,the formation which represents the ,lower ,oolite1 and which in ,england attains an average thickness of from #ejj to #fjj feet1 forms a very complex system of stratification1 which includes the two formations1 ,bajocien and ,bathonian1 adopted by ,m4 ,d',orbigny and his followers4 ,the lowest beds of the ,inferior ,oolite occur in ,normandy1 in the ,lower ,alps 7,basses-,alpes71 in the neighbourhoods of ,lyons and ,neuchatel4 ,they are remarkable near ,bayeux for the variety and beauty of their fossils3 the rocks are composed principally of limestones--yellowish-brown1 or red1 charged with hydrated oxide of iron1 often oolitic1 and reposing on calcareous sands4 ,these deposits are surmounted by alternate layers of clay and marl1 blue or yellow--the well-known ,fuller's ,earth1 which is so called from its use in the manufacture of woollen fabrics to extract the grease from the wool4 ,the second series of the ,lower ,oolite1 which attains a thickness of from #aej to #bjj feet on the coast of ,normandy1 and is well developed in the neighbourhood of ,caen and in the ,jura1 has been divided1 in ,britain1 into four formations1 in an ascending scale3-- #a4 ,the ,great or ,bath ,oolite1 which consists principally of a very characteristic1 fine-grained1 white1 soft1 and well-developed oolitic limestone1 at ,bath1 and also at ,caen in ,normandy4 ,at the base of the ,great ,oolite the ,stonesfield beds occur1 in which were found the bones of the marsupial ,mammals1 to which we have already alluded2 and along with them bones of ,reptiles1 principally ,pterodactyles1 together with some finely-preserved fossil plants1 fruits1 and insects4 #b4 ,bradford ,clay1 which is a bluish marl1 containing many fine ,encrinites 7commonly called stone-lilies71 but which had only a local existence1 appearing to be almost entirely confined to this formation4 8,in this case1 however10 says ,lyell1 8it appears that the solid upper surface of the #8,great ,oolite' had supported1 for a time1 a thick submarine forest of these beautiful ,zoophytes1 until the clear and still water was invaded with a current charged with mud1 which threw down the stone-lilies1 and broke most of their stems short off near the point of attachment4 ,the stumps still remain in their original position40#fe ,see ,fig4 #a1 ,,plate ,,xix41 p4 #bfa4 7,bradford1 or ,pear1 ,encrinite47 #fe 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #cii4 #c4 ,forest ,marble1 which consists of an argillaceous shelly limestone1 abounding in marine fossils1 and sandy and quartzose marls1 is quarried in the forest of ,wichwood1 in ,wiltshire1 and in the counties of ,dorset1 ,wilts1 and ,somerset4 #d4 ,the ,cornbrash 7wheat-lands7 consists of beds of rubbly cream-coloured limestone1 which forms a soil particularly favourable to the cultivation of cereals2 hence its name4#ff #ff ,see ,bristow in ,descriptive ,catalogue of ,rocks1 in ,mus4 ,pract4 ,geol41 p4 #acd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4--,meandrina ,ddala4 a1 entire figure1 reduced2 b1 portion1 natural size4 7,recent ,coral47 ,the ,lower ,oolite ranges across the greater part of ,england1 but 8attains its maximum development near ,cheltenham1 where it can be subdivided1 at least1 into three parts4 ,passing north1 the two lower divisions1 each more or less characterised by its own fossils1 disappear1 and the ,ragstone north-east of ,cheltenham lies directly upon the ,lias2 apparently as conformably as if it formed its true and immediate successor1 while at ,dundry the equivalents of the upper freestones and ragstones 7the lower beds being absent7 lie directly on the exceedingly thin sands1 which there overlie the ,lower ,lias4 ,in ,dorsetshire1 on the coast1 the series is again perfect1 though thin4 ,near ,chipping ,norton1 in ,oxfordshire1 the ,inferior ,oolite disappears altogether1 and the ,great ,oolite1 having first overlapped the ,fullers' ,earth1 passes across the ,inferior ,oolite1 and in its turn seems to lie on the ,upper ,lias with a regularity as perfect as if no formation in the neighbourhood came between them4 ,in ,yorkshire the changed type of the ,inferior ,oolite1 the prevalence of sands1 land-plants1 and beds of coal1 occur in such a manner as to leave no doubt of the presence of terrestrial surfaces on which the plants grew1 and all these phenomena lead to the conclusion that various and considerable oscillations of level took place in the ,british area during the deposition of the strata1 both of the ,inferior ,oolite and of the formations which immediately succeed it40#fg #fg ,president's ,address1 by ,professor ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay4 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #ahfd1 vol4 xx41 p4 #d4 ,the ,inferior ,oolite here alluded to is a thin bed of calcareous freestone1 resting on1 and sometimes replaced by yellow sand1 which constitutes the passage-beds from the ,liassic series4 ,the ,fullers' ,earth clay lies between the limestones of the ,inferior and ,great ,oolite1 at the base of which last lies the ,stonesfield slate--a slightly oolitic1 shelly limestone1 or flaggy and fissile sandstone1 some six feet thick1 rich in organic remains1 and ranging through ,oxfordshire towards the north-east1 into ,northamptonshire and ,yorkshire4 ,at ,colley ,weston1 in ,northamptonshire1 fossils of ,pecopteris polypodioides are found4 ,in the ,great ,oolite formation1 near ,bath1 are many corals1 among which the ,eunomia radiata is very conspicuous4 ,the fossil is not unlike the existing brain-coral of the tropical seas 7,fig4 #aah74 ,the work of this coral seems to have been suddenly stopped by 8an invasion10 says ,lyell1 8of argillaceous matter1 which probably put a sudden stop to the growth of ,bradford ,encrinites1 and led to their preservation in marine strata40#fh ,the ,cornbrash is1 in general1 a cream-coloured limestone1 about forty feet thick1 in the south-west of ,england1 and occupying a considerable area in ,dorsetshire and ,north ,wilts1 as at ,cricklade1 ,malmesbury1 and ,chippenham1 in the latter county4 ,terebratula obovata is its characteristic shell1 and ,nucleolites clunicularis1 ,lima gibbosa1 and ,avicula echinata occur constantly in great numbers4 ,wherever it occurs the ,cornbrash affords a rich and fertile soil1 well adapted for the growth of wheat1 while the ,forest ,marble1 as a soil1 is generally poor4 ,the ,cornbrash passes downwards into the ,forest ,marble1 and sometimes1 as at ,bradford1 near ,bath1 is replaced by clay4 ,this clay1 called the ,bradford clay1 is almost wholly confined to the county of ,wilts4 ,terebratula decussata is one of the most characteristic fossils1 but the most common is the ,apiocrinites or pear-shaped encrinite1 whose remains in this clay are so perfectly preserved that the most minute articulations are often found in their natural positions4 ,,plate ,,xix41 p4 #bfa 7,fig4 #a71 represents an adult attached by a solid base to the rocky bottom on which it grew1 whilst the smaller individuals show the ,encrinite in its young state--one with arms expanded1 the other with them closed4 ,ripple-marked slabs of fissile ,forest ,marble are used as a roofing-slate1 and may be traced over a broad band of country in ,wiltshire and ,gloucestershire1 separated from each other by thin seams of clay1 in which the undulating ridges of the sand are preserved1 and even the footmarks of small ,crustaceans are still visible4 #fh 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #djj4 ,illustration3 ,,xvii4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,lower ,oolite ,period4 ,on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,xvii47 is represented an ideal landscape of the period of the ,lower ,oolite4 ,on the shore are types of the vegetation of the period4 ,the ,zamites1 with large trunk covered with fan-like leaves1 resembled in form and bearing the existing ,zamias of tropical regions2 a ,pterophyllum1 with its stem covered from base to summit with its finely-cut feathery leaves2 ,conifers closely resembling our ,cypress1 and an arborescent ,fern4 ,what distinguishes this sub-period from that of the ,lias is a group of magnificent trees1 ,pandanus1 remarkable for their arial roots1 their long leaves1 and globular fruit4 ,upon one of the trees of this group the artist has placed the ,phascolotherium1 not very unlike to our ,opossum4 ,it was amongst the first of the ,mammalia which appeared in the ancient world4 ,the artist has here enlarged the dimensions of the animal in order to show its form4 ,let the reader reduce it in imagination one-sixth1 for it was not larger than an ordinary-sized cat4 ,a ,crocodile and the fleshless skeleton of the ,ichthyosaurus remind us that ,reptiles still occupied an important place in the animal creation4 ,a few ,insects1 especially ,dragon-flies1 fly about in the air4 ,ammonites float on the surface of the waves1 and the terrible ,plesiosaurus1 like a gigantic swan1 swims about in the sea4 ,the circular reef of coral1 the work of ancient ,polyps1 foreshadows the atolls of the great ocean1 for it was during the ,jurassic period that the ,polyps of the ancient world were most active in the production of coral-reefs and islets4 ,,middle ,,oolite4 ,the terrestrial flora of this age was composed of ,ferns1 ,cycads1 and ,conifers4 ,the first represented by the ,pachypteris microphylla1 the second by ,zamites ,moreana4 ,brachyphyllum ,moreanum and ,b4 majus appear to have been the ,conifers most characteristic of the period2 fruits have also been found in the rocks of the period1 which appear to belong to ,palms1 but this point is still obscure and doubtful4 ,numerous vestiges of the fauna which animated the period are also revealed in the rocks of this age4 ,certain hemipterous insects appear on the earth for the first time1 and the ,bees among the ,hymenoptera1 ,butterflies among the ,lepidoptera1 and ,dragon-flies among the ,neuroptera4 ,in the bosom of the ocean1 or upon its banks1 roamed the ,ichthyosaurus1 ,ceteosaurus1 ,pterodactylus crassirostris1 and the ,geosaurus2 the latter being very imperfectly known4 ,the ,ceteosaurus whose bones have been discovered in the upper beds of the ,great ,oolite at ,enslow ,rocks1 at the ,kirtlington ,railway ,station1 north of ,oxford1 and some other places1 was a species of ,crocodile nearly resembling the modern ,gavial or ,crocodile of the ,ganges4 ,this huge whale-like reptile has been described by ,professor ,john ,phillips as unmatched in size and strength by any of the largest inhabitants of the ,mesozoic land or sea--perhaps the largest animal that ever walked upon the earth4 ,a full-grown ,ceteosaurus must have been at least fifty feet long1 ten feet high1 and of a proportionate bulk4 ,in its habits it was1 probably1 a marsh-loving or river-side animal1 dwelling amidst filicene1 cycadaceous1 and coniferous shrubs and trees full of insects and small mammalia4 ,the one small and imperfect tooth which has been found resembles that of ,iguanodon more than of any other reptile2 and it seems probable that the ,ceteosaurus was nourished by vegetable food1 which abounded in the vicinity of its haunts1 and was not obliged to contend with the ,megalosaurus for a scanty supply of more stimulating diet4#fi #fi ,for a full account of the ,ceteosaurus1 see 8,the ,geology of the ,thames ,valley10 by ,prof4 ,john ,phillips1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ahga4 ,another reptile allied to the ,pterodactyle lived in this epoch--the ,ramphorynchus1 distinguished from the ,pterodactyle by a long tail4 ,the imprints which this curious animal has left upon the sandstone of the period are impressions of its feet and the linear furrow made by its tail4 ,like the ,pterodactyle1 the ,ramphorynchus1 which was about the size of a crow1 could not precisely fly1 but1 aided by the wing 7a sort of natural parachute formed by the membrane connecting the fingers with the body71 it could throw itself from a height upon its prey4 ,fig4 #aai represents a restoration of this animal4 ,the footprints in the soil are in imitation of those which accompany the remains of the ,ramphorynchus in the ,oolitic rocks1 and they show the imprints of the anterior and posterior feet and also the marks made by the tail4 ,this tail was very long1 far surpassing in length the rest of the vertebral column1 and consisting of more than thirty vertebr--which were at first short1 but rapidly elongate1 retain their length for a considerable distance1 and then gradually diminish in size4 ,illustration3 ,,xviii4--,ideal landscape of the ,middle ,oolitic ,period4 ,another genus of ,reptiles appears in the ,middle ,oolite1 of which we have had a glimpse in the ,lias and ,great ,oolite of the preceding section4 ,this is the ,teleosaurus1 which the recent investigations of ,m4 ,e4 ,deslongchamps allow of re-construction4 ,the ,teleosaurus enables us to form a pretty exact idea of these ,crocodiles of the ancient seas--these cuirassed ,reptiles1 which the ,german geologist ,cotta describes as 8the great barons of the kingdom of ,neptune1 armed to the teeth1 and clothed in an impenetrable panoply2 the true filibusters of the primitive seas40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4--,ramphorynchus restored4 ,one-quarter natural size4 ,the ,teleosaurus resembled the ,gavials of ,india4 ,the former inhabited the banks of rivers1 perhaps the sea itself2 they were longer1 more slender1 and more active than the living species2 they were about thirty feet in length1 of which the head may be from three to four feet1 with their enormous jaws sometimes with an opening of six feet1 through which they could engulf1 in the depths of their enormous throat1 animals of considerable size4 ,the ,teleosaurus cadomensis is represented on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,xviii471 after the sketch of ,m4 ,e4 ,deslongchamps1 carrying from the sea in its mouth a ,geoteuthis1 a species of ,calamary of the ,oolitic epoch4 ,this creature was coated with a cuirass both on the back and belly4 ,in order to show this peculiarity1 a living individual is represented on the shore1 and a dead one is floating on its back in shallow water1 leaving the ventral cuirass exposed4 ,behind the ,teleosaurus cadomensis in the engraving1 another ,saurian1 the ,hylosaurus1 is represented1 which makes its appearance in the ,cretaceous epoch4 ,we have here adopted the restoration which has been so ably executed by ,mr4 ,waterhouse ,hawkins1 at the ,crystal ,palace1 ,sydenham4 ,besides the numerous ,fishes with which the ,oolitic seas swarmed1 they contained some ,crustaceans1 ,cirripedes1 and various genera of ,mollusca and ,zoophytes4 ,eryon arctiformis1 represented in ,fig4 #aai1 belongs to the class of ,crustaceans1 of which the spiny lobster is the type4 ,among the ,mollusca were some ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 and ,oysters1 of which many hundred species have been described4 ,of these we may mention ,ammonites refractus1 ,a4 ,jason and ,a4 cordatus1 ,ostrea dilatata1 ,terebratula diphya1 ,diceras arietena1 ,belemnites hastatus1 and ,b4 ,puzosianus4 ,in some of the finely-laminated clays the ,ammonites are very perfect1 but somewhat compressed1 with the outer lip or margin of the aperture entire 7,fig4 #abj74 ,similar prolongations have been noticed in ,belemnites found by ,dr4 ,mantell in the ,oxford ,clay1 near ,chippenham4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--;,eryon arctiformis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4--,perfect ,ammonite4 ,among the ,echinoderms1 ,cidaris glandiferus1 ,apiocrinus ,roissyanus1 and ,a4 rotundus1 the graceful ,saccocoma pectinata1 ,millericrinus nodotianus1 ,comatula costata1 and ,hemicidaris crenularis may be mentioned2 ,apiocrinites rotundus1 figured in ,,plate ,,xix41 is a reduced restoration3 #a1 being expanded2 a1 closed2 #c1 a cross section of the upper extremity of the pear-shaped head2 #d1 a vertical section showing the enlargement of the alimentary canal1 with the hollow lenticular spaces which descend through the axis of the column1 forming the joints1 and giving elasticity and flexure to the whole stem1 without risk of dislocation4 ,a4 rotundus is found at ,bradford in ,wiltshire1 ,abbotsbury in ,dorset1 at ,soissons1 and ,rochelle4 ,this species--known as the ,bradford ,pear-,encrinite--is only found in the strata mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,xix4--,fig4 #a4--;,apiocrinites rotundus4 ,fig4 #b4--;,encrinus liliiformis4 ,the ,corals of this epoch occur in great abundance4 ,we have already remarked that these aggregations of ,polyps are often met with at a great depth in the strata4 ,these small calcareous structures have been formed in the ancient seas1 and the same phenomenon is extending the terrestrial surface in our days in the seas of ,oceania1 where reefs and atolls of coral are rising by slow and imperceptible steps1 but with no less certainty4 ,although their mode of production must always remain to some extent a mystery1 the investigations of ,m4 ,lamaroux1 ,mr4 ,charles ,darwin1 and ,m4 ,d',orbigny have gone a long way towards explaining their operations2 for the ,zoophyte in action is an aggregation of these minute ,polyps4 ,describing what he believes to be a sea-pen1 a ,zoophyte allied to ,virgularia ,patagonia1 ,mr4 ,darwin says3 8,it consists of a thin1 straight1 fleshy stem1 with alternate rows of polypi on each side1 and surrounding an elastic stony axis4 ,the stem at one extremity is truncate1 but at the other is terminated by a vermiform fleshy appendage4 ,the stony axis which gives strength to the stem1 may be traced at this extremity into a mere vessel filled with granular matter4 ,at low water hundreds of these zoophytes might be seen1 projecting like stubble1 with the truncate end upwards1 a few inches above the surface of the muddy sand4 ,when touched or pulled1 they drew themselves in suddenly1 with force1 so as nearly or quite to disappear4 ,by this action1 the highly-elastic axis must be bent at the lower extremity1 where it is naturally slightly curved2 and ,i imagine it is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte is enabled to rise again through the mud4 ,each polypus1 though closely united to its brethren1 has a distinct mouth1 body1 and tentacula4 ,of these polypi1 in a large specimen there must be many thousands4 ,yet we see that they act by one movement2 that they have one central axis1 connected with a system of obscure circulation40 ,such is the brief account given by a very acute observer of these singular beings4 ,they secrete the calcareous matter held in solution in the oceanic waters1 and produce the wonderful structures we have now under consideration2 and these calcareous banks have been in course of formation during many geological ages4 ,they just reach the level of the waters1 for the polyps perish as soon as they are so far above the surface that neither the waves nor the flow of the tides can reach them4 ,in the ,oolitic rocks these banks are frequently found from twelve to fifteen feet thick1 and many leagues in length1 and preserving1 for the most part1 the relative positions which they occupied in the sea while in course of formation4 ,the rocks which now represent the ,middle ,oolitic ,period are usually divided into the ,oxford ,clay1 the lower member of which is an arenaceous limestone1 known as the ,kellaways ,rock1 which in ,wiltshire and other parts of the south-west of ,england attains a thickness of eight or ten feet1 with the impressions of numerous ,ammonites1 and other shells4 ,in ,yorkshire1 around ,scarborough1 it reaches the thickness of thirty feet2 and forms well-developed beds of bluish-black marl in the department of ,calvados1 in ,france4 ,it is the base of this clay which forms the soil 7,argile de ,dives7 of the valley of the ,auge1 renowned for its rich pasturages and magnificent cattle4 ,the same beds form the base of the oddly-shaped but fine rocks of ,la ,manche1 which are popularly known as the ,vaches ,noires 7or black cows7--a locality celebrated1 also1 for its fine ,ammonites transformed into pyrites4 ,the ,oxford ,clay constitutes the base of the hills in the neighbourhood of ,oxford1 forming a bed of clay sometimes more than #fjj feet thick4 ,it is found well-developed in ,france1 at ,trouville1 in the department of the ,calvados2 and at ,neuvisy1 in the department of the ,ardennes1 where it attains a thickness of about #cjj feet4 ,it is a bluish1 sometimes whitish limestone 7often argillaceous71 and bluish marl4 ,the ,grypha dilatata is the most common fossil in the ,oxford ,clay4 ,the ,coral ,rag is so called from the fact that the limestone of which it is chiefly composed consists1 in part1 of an aggregation of considerable masses of petrified ,corals2 not unlike those now existing in the ,pacific ,ocean1 supposing them to be covered up for ages and fossilised4 ,this coral stratum extends through the hills of ,berkshire and ,north ,wilts1 and it occurs again near ,scarborough4 ,in the counties of ,dorset1 ,bedford1 ,buckingham1 and ,cambridge1 and some other parts of ,england1 the limestone of the ,coral ,rag disappears and is replaced by clay--in which case the ,oxford ,clay is overlaid directly by the ,kimeridge ,clay4 ,in ,france it is found in the departments of the ,meuse1 of the ,yonne1 of the ,ain1 of the ,charente ,infrieure4 ,in the ,alps the ,diceras limestone is regarded1 by most geologists1 as coeval with the ,english ,coral ,rag4 ,,upper ,,oolite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4--;,bird of ,solenhofen 7,archopteryx74 ,some marsupial ,mammals have left their remains in the ,upper ,oolite as in the ,lower4 ,they belong to the genus ,sphalacotherium4 ,besides the ,plesiosauri and ,teleosauri1 there still lived in the maritime regions a ,crocodile1 the ,macrorhynchus2 and the monstrous ,pcilopleuron1 with sharp cutting teeth1 one of the most formidable animals of this epoch2 the ,hylosaurus1 ,cetiosaurus1 ,stenosaurus1 and ,streptospondylus1 and among the ,turtles1 the ,emys and ,platemys4 ,as in the ,lower ,oolite1 so also in the ,upper1 ,insects similar to those by which we are surrounded1 pursued their flight in the meadows and hovered over the surface of the water4 ,of these1 however1 too little is known for us to give any very precise indication on the subject of their special organisation4 ,the most remarkable fact relating to this period is the appearance of the first bird4 ,hitherto the ,mammals1 and of these only imperfectly-organised species1 namely1 the ,marsupials1 have alone appeared4 ,it is interesting to witness birds appearing immediately after4 ,in the quarries of lithographic stone at ,solenhofen1 the remains of a bird1 with feet and feathers1 have been found1 but without the head4 ,these curious remains are represented in ,fig4 #abb1 in the position in which they were discovered4 ,the bird is usually designated the ,bird of ,solenhofen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,shell of ,physa fontinalis4 ,the ,oolitic seas of this series contained ,fishes belonging to the genera ,asteracanthus1 ,strephodes1 ,lepidotus1 and ,microdon4 ,the ,cephalopodous ,mollusca were not numerous1 the predominating genera belonging to the ,lamellibranchs and to the ,gasteropods1 which lived on the shore4 ,the reef-making ,madrepores or ,corals were more numerous4 ,a few ,zoophytes in the fossil state testify to the existence of these extraordinary animals4 ,the fossils characteristic of the fauna of the period include ,ammonites decipiens and ,a4 giganteus1 ,natica elegans and hemispherica1 ,ostrea deltoidea and ,o4 virgula1 ,trigonia gibbosa1 ,pholadomya multicostata and ,p4 acuticostata1 ,terebratula subsella1 and ,hemicidaris ,purbeckensis4 ,some ,fishes1 ,turtles1 ,paludina1 ,physa 7,fig4 #abc71 ,unio1 ,planorbis 7,fig4 #bja71 and the little crustacean bivalves1 the ,cypris1 constituted the fresh-water fauna of the period4 ,the terrestrial flora of the period consisted of ,ferns1 ,cycadeace1 and ,conifers2 in the ponds and swamps some ,zoster4 ,the ,zoster are monocotyledonous plants of the family of the ,nadace1 which grow in the sandy mud of maritime regions1 forming there1 with their long1 narrow1 and ribbon-like leaves1 vast prairies of the most beautiful green4 ,at low tides these masses of verdure appear somewhat exposed4 ,they would form a retreat for a great number of marine animals1 and afford nourishment to others4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,xx4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,upper ,oolitic ,period4 ,on the opposite page an ideal landscape of the period 7,,plate ,,xx47 represents some of the features of the ,upper ,oolite1 especially the vegetation of the ,jurassic period4 ,the ,sphenophyllum1 among the ,tree-ferns1 is predominant in this vegetation2 some ,pandanas1 a few ,zamites1 and many ,conifers1 but we perceive no ,palms4 ,a coral islet rises out of the sea1 having somewhat of the form of the atolls of ,oceania1 indicating the importance these formations assumed in the ,jurassic period4 ,the animals represented are the ,crocodileimus of ,jourdan1 the ,ramphorynchus1 with the imprints which characterise its footsteps1 and some of the invertebrated animals of the period1 as the ,asteria1 ,comatula1 ,hemicidaris1 ,pteroceras4 ,aloft in the air floats the bird of ,solenhofen1 the ,archopteryx1 which has been re-constructed from the skeleton1 with the exception of the head1 which remains undiscovered4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the rocks which represent the ,upper ,oolite are usually divided into two series3 #a4 ,the ,purbeck ,beds2 #b4 ,the ,portland ,stone and ,sand2 and #c4 ,the ,kimeridge ,clay4 ,the ,kimeridge ,clay1 which in many respects bears a remarkable resemblance to the ,oxford ,clay1 is composed of blue or yellowish argillaceous beds1 which occur in the state of clay and shale 7containing locally beds of bituminous schist1 sometimes forming a sort of earthy impure coal71 and several hundred feet in thickness4 ,these beds are well developed at ,kimeridge1 in ,dorsetshire1 whence the clay takes its name4 ,in some parts of ,wiltshire the beds of bituminous matter have a shaly appearance1 but there is an absence of the impressions of plants which usually accompany the bitumen1 derived from the decomposition of plants4 ,these rocks1 with their characteristic fossils1 ,cardium striatulum and ,ostrea deltoidea1 are found throughout ,england3 in ,france1 at ,tonnerre1 ,dept4 ,yonne2 at ,havre2 at ,honfleur2 at ,mauvage2 in the department of the ,meuse it is so rich in shells of ,ostrea deltoidea and ,o4 virgula1 that1 8near ,clermont in ,argonne1 a few leagues from ,st4 ,menehould10 says ,lyell1#gj 8where these indurated marls crop out from beneath the ,gault1 ,i have seen them 7,grypha virgula7 on decomposing leave the surface of every ploughed field literally strewed over with this fossil oyster40 #gj 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #cic4 ,the second section of this series consists of the oolitic limestone of ,portland1 which is quarried in the ,isle of ,portland and in the cliffs of the ,isle of ,purbeck in ,dorsetshire1 and also at ,chilmark in the ,vale of ,wardour1 in ,wiltshire4 ,in ,france1 the ,portland beds are found near ,boulogne1 at ,cirey-le-,chteau1 ,auxerre1 and ,gray 7,haute ,sane74 ,the ,isle1 or rather peninsula of ,portland1#ga off the ,dorsetshire coast1 rises considerably above the sea-level1 presenting on the side of the port a bold line of cliffs1 connected with the mainland by the ,chesil bank1#gb an extraordinary formation1 consisting of a beach of shingle and pebbles loosely piled on the blue ,kimeridge clay1 and stretching ten miles westward along the coast4 ,the quarries are chiefly situated in the northerly part of the island4 ,the story told of this remarkable island is an epitome of the revolutions the surface of the earth has undergone4 ,the slaty ,purbeck beds which overlie the ,portland stone are of a dark-yellowish colour2 they are burnt in the neighbourhood for lime4 ,the next bed is of a whiter and more lively colour4 ,it is the stone of which the portico of ,st4 ,paul's and many of the houses of ,london1 built in ,queen ,anne's time1 were constructed4 ,the building-stone contains fossils exclusively marine4 ,upon this stratum rests a bed of limestone formed in lacustrine waters4 ,finally1 upon this bed rests another deposit of a substance which consists of very well-preserved vegetable earth or humus1 quite analogous to our vegetable soil1 of the thickness of from fifteen to eighteen inches1 and of a blackish colour2 it contains a strong proportion of carbonaceous earth2 it abounds in the silicified remains of ,conifers and other plants1 analogous to the ,zamia and ,cycas--this soil is known as the 8dirt-bed40 ,the trunks of great numbers of silicified trees and tropical plants are found here erect1 their roots fixed in the soil1 and of species differing from any of our forest trees4 8,the ruins of a forest upon the ruins of a sea10 says ,esquiros1 8the trunks of these trees were petrified while still growing4 ,the region now occupied by the narrow channel and its environs had been at first a sea1 in whose bed the ,oolitic deposits which now form the ,portland stone accumulated3 the bed of the sea gradually rose and emerged from the waves4 ,upon the land thus rescued from the deep1 plants began to grow2 they now constitute with their ruins the soil of the dirt-bed4 ,this soil1 with its forest of trees1 was afterwards plunged again into the waters--not the bitter waters of the ocean1 but in the fresh waters of a lake formed at the mouth of some great river40 #ga ,for details respecting these strata the reader may consult1 with advantage1 the useful handbook to the geology of ,weymouth and ,portland1 by ,robert ,damon4 #gb ,see ,bristow and ,whitaker 8,on the ,chesil ,bank10 ,geol4 ,mag41 vol4 vi41 p4 #dcc4 ,time passed on1 however2 a calcareous sediment brought from the interior by the waters1 formed a layer of mud over the dirt-bed2 finally1 the whole region was covered by a succession of calcareous deposits1 until the day when the ,isle of ,portland was again revealed to light4 8,from the facts observed10 says ,lyell1 8we may infer3--#a4 ,that those beds of the ,upper ,oolite1 called the ,portland1 which are full of marine shells1 were overspread with fluviatile mud1 which became dry land1 and covered with a forest1 throughout a portion of space now occupied by the south of ,england1 the climate being such as to admit of the growth of the ,zamia and ,cycas4 #b4 ,this land at length sank down and was submerged with its forest beneath a body of fresh water from which sediment was thrown down enveloping fluviatile shells4 #c4 ,the regular and uniform preservation of this thin bed of black earth over a distance of many miles1 shows that the change from dry land to the state of a fresh-water lake1 or estuary1 was not accompanied by any violent denudation or rush of water1 since the loose black earth1 together with the trees which lay prostrate on its surface1 must inevitably have been swept away had any such violent catastrophe taken place40#gc #gc 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #chi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4--;,geological humus4 a1 ,fresh-water calcareous slate 7,purbeck72 b1 ,dirt-bed1 with roots and stems of trees2 c1 ,fresh-water beds2 d1 ,portland ,stone4 ,the soil known as the dirt-bed is nearly horizontal in the ,isle of ,portland2 but we discover it again not far from there in the sea-cliffs of the ,isle of ,purbeck1 having an inclination of #de1 where the trunks continue perfectly parallel among themselves1 affording a fine example of a change in the position of beds originally horizontal4 ,fig4 #abd represents this species of geological humus4 8,each dirt-bed0 says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 8may1 no doubt1 be the memorial of many thousand years or centuries1 because we find that two or three feet of vegetable soil is the only monument which many a tropical forest has left of its existence ever since the ground on which it now stands was first covered with its shade40#gd #gd ,ibid1 p4 #cia4 ,this bed of vegetable soil is1 then1 near the summit of that long and complicated series of beds which constitute the ,jurassic period2 these ruins1 still vegetable1 remind us forcibly of the coal-beds1 for they are nothing else than a less advanced state of that kind of vegetable fossilisation which was perfected on such an immense scale1 and during an infinite length of time in the coal period4 ,the ,purbeck beds1 which are sometimes subdivided into ,lower1 ,middle1 and ,upper1 are mostly fresh-water formations1 intimately connected with the ,upper ,portland beds4 ,but there they begin and end1 being scarcely recognisable except in ,dorsetshire1 in the sea-cliffs of which they were first studied4 ,they are finely exposed in ,durdlestone ,bay1 near ,swanage1 and at ,lulworth ,cove1 on the same coast4 ,the lower beds consist of a purely fresh-water marl1 eighty feet thick1 containing shells of ,cypris1 ,limna1 and some ,serpul in a bed of marl of brackish-water origin1 and some ,cypris-bearing shales1 strangely broken up at the west end of the ,isle of ,purbeck4 ,the ,middle series consists of twelve feet of marine strata known as the 8cinder-beds10 formed of a vast accumulation of ,ostrea distorta1 resting on fresh-water strata full of ,cypris fasciculata1 ,planorbis1 and ,limna1 by which this strata has been identified as far inland as the vale of ,wardour in ,wiltshire4 ,above the cinder-beds are shales and limestones1 partly of fresh-water and partly of brackish-water origin1 in which are ,fishes1 many species of ,lepidotus1 and the crocodilian reptile1 ,macrorhynchus4 ,on this rests a purely marine deposit1 with ,pecten1 ,avicula1 c4 ,above1 again1 are brackish beds with ,cyrena1 overlying which is thirty feet of fresh-water limestone1 with ,fishes1 ,turtles1 and ,cyprides4 ,the upper beds are purely fresh-water strata1 about fifty feet thick1 containing ,paludina1 ,physa1 ,limna1 all very abundant4 ,in these beds the ,purbeck marble1 formerly much used in the ornamental architecture of the old ,english cathedrals1 was formerly quarried4 7,see ,note1 page #bgd47 99 99 99 99 99 ,a few words may be added1 in explanation of the term oolite1 applied to this sub-period of the ,jurassic formation4 ,in a great number of rocks of this series the elements are neither crystalline nor amorphous--they are1 as we have already said1 oolitic2 that is to say1 the mass has the form of the roe of certain fishes4 ,the question naturally enough arises1 ,whence this singular oolitic structure assumed by the components of certain rocks8 ,it is asserted that the grinding action of the sea acting upon the precipitated limestone produces rounded forms analogous to grains of sand4 ,this hypothesis may be well founded in some cases4 ,the marine sediments which are deposited in some of the warm bays of ,teneriffe are found to take the spheroidal granulated form of the oolite4 ,but these local facts cannot be made to apply to the whole extent of the oolitic formations4 ,we must1 therefore1 look further for an explanation of the phenomena4 ,it is admitted that if the cascades of ,tivoli1 for example1 can give birth to the oolitic grains1 the same thing happens in the quietest basins1 that in stalactite-caverns oolitic grains develop themselves1 which afterwards1 becoming cemented together from the continued1 but very slow1 affluence of the calcareous waters1 give rise to certain kinds of oolitic rocks4 ,on the other hand1 it is known that nodules1 more or less large1 develop themselves in marls in consequence of the concentration of the calcareous elements1 without the possibility of any wearing action of water4 ,now1 as there exists every gradation of size between the smallest oolitic grains and the largest concretions1 it is reasonable to suppose that the oolites are equally the product of concentration4 ,finally1 from research to research1 it is found that perfectly constituted oolites--that is to say1 concentric layers1 as in the ,jurassic limestone--develop themselves in vegetable earth in places where the effects of water in motion is not more admissible than in the preceding instances4 ,thus we arrive at the conclusion1 that if ,nature sometimes forms crystals with perfect terminations in magmas in the course of solidification1 she gives rise also to spheroidal forms surrounding various centres1 which sometimes originate spontaneously1 and in other cases are accumulated round the dbris of fossils1 or even mere grains of sand4 ,nevertheless1 all mineral substances are not alike calculated to produce oolitic rocks2 putting aside some particular cases1 this property is confined to limestone and oxide of iron4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with regard to the distribution of the ,jurassic formation on the terrestrial globe1 it may be stated that the ,cotteswold ,hills in ,england1 and in ,france the ,jura mountains1 are almost entirely composed of these rocks1 the several series of beds being all represented in them--this circumstance1 in fact1 induced ,von ,humboldt to name the formation after this latter range4 ,the ,upper ,lias also exists in the ,pyrenees and in the ,alps2 in ,spain2 in many parts of ,northern ,italy2 in ,russia1 especially in the government of ,moscow1 and in the ,crimea2 but it is in ,germany where it occupies the most important place4 ,a thin bed of oolitic limestone presents1 at ,solenhofen in ,bavaria1 a geological repository of great celebrity1 containing fossil ,plants1 ,fishes1 ,insects1 ,crustaceans1 with some ,pterodactyles1 admirably preserved2 it yielded also some of the earliest of the feathered race4 ,the fine quarries of lithographic stone at ,pappenheim1 so celebrated all over ,europe1 belong to the ,jurassic formation4 ,it has recently been announced that these rocks have been found in ,india2 they contribute largely to the formation of the main mass of the ,himalayas1 and to the chain of the ,andes in ,south ,america2 finally1 from recent investigations1 they seem to be present in ,new ,zealand4 ,in ,england the ,lias constitutes a well-defined belt about thirty miles broad1 extending from ,dorsetshire1 in the south1 to ,yorkshire1 in the north1 formed of alternate beds of clay1 shales1 and limestone 7with layers of jet71 on the coast near ,whitby4 ,it is rich1 as we have seen1 in ancient life1 and that in the strongest forms imaginable4 ,from the unequal hardness of the rocks it comprises1 it stands out boldly in some of the minor ranges of hills1 adding greatly to the picturesque beauty of the scenery in the centre of the country4 ,in ,scotland the formation occupies a very limited space4 ,a map of the country at the close of the ,jurassic period would probably show double the extent of dry land in the ,british ,islands1 compared with what it displayed as an island in the primordial ocean2 but ,devon and ,cornwall had long risen from the sea1 and it is probable that the ,jurassic beds of ,dorsetshire and ,france were connected by a tongue of land running from ,cherbourg to the ,liassic beds of ,dorsetshire1 and that ,boulogne1 still an island1 was similarly connected with the ,weald4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4--;,crioceras ,duvallii1 ,sowerby4 ,a non-involuted ,ammonite4 7,neocomian47 ,,note4--,sections of the ,purbeck strata of ,dorsetshire have been constructed by ,mr4 ,bristow1 from actual measurement1 in the several localities in the ,isle of ,purbeck1 where they are most clearly and instructively displayed4 ,these sections1 published by the ,geological ,survey1 show in detail the beds in their regular and natural order of succession1 with the thickness1 mineral character1 and contents1 as well as the fossils1 of each separate bed4 ,,the ,,cretaceous ,,period4 ,the name ,cretaceous 7from creta1 chalk7 is given to this epoch in the history of our globe because the rocks deposited by the sea1 towards its close1 are almost entirely composed of chalk 7carbonate of lime74 ,carbonate of lime1 however1 does not now appear for the first time as a part of the earth's crust2 we have already seen limestone occurring1 among the terrestrial materials1 from the ,silurian period2 the ,jurassic formation is largely composed of carbonate of lime in many of its beds1 which are enormous in number as well as extent2 it appears1 therefore1 that in the period called ,cretaceous by geologists1 carbonate of lime was no new substance in the constitution of the globe4 ,if geologists have been led to give this name to the period1 it is because it accords better than any other with the characteristics of the period2 with the vast accumulations of chalky or earthy limestone in the ,paris basin1 and the beds of so-called ,greensand1 and ,chalk of the same age1 so largely developed in ,england4 ,we have already endeavoured to establish the origin of lime1 in speaking of the ,silurian and ,devonian periods1 but it may be useful to recapitulate the explanation here1 even at the risk of repeating ourselves4 ,we have said that lime was1 in all probability1 introduced to the globe by thermal waters flowing abundantly through the fissures1 dislocations1 and fractures in the ground1 which were themselves caused by the gradual cooling of the globe2 the central nucleus being the grand reservoir and source of the materials which form the solid crust4 ,in the same manner1 therefore1 as the several eruptive substances--such as granites1 porphyries1 trachytes1 basalts1 and lava--have been ejected1 so have thermal waters charged with carbonate of lime1 and often accompanied by silica1 found their way to the surface in great abundance1 through the fissures1 fractures1 and dislocations in the crust of the earth4 ,we need only mention here the ,iceland geysers1 the springs of ,plombires1 and the well-known thermal springs of ,bath and elsewhere in this country4 ,but how comes lime in a state of bicarbonate1 dissolved in these thermal waters1 to form rocks8 ,that is what we propose to explain4 ,during the primary geological periods1 thermal waters1 as they reached the surface1 were discharged into the sea and united themselves with the waves of the vast primordial ocean1 and the waters of the sea became sensibly calcareous--they contained1 it is believed1 from one to two per cent4 of lime4 ,the innumerable animals1 especially ,zoophytes1 and ,mollusca with solid shells1 with which the ancient seas swarmed1 secreted this lime1 out of which they built up their mineral dwelling--or shell4 ,in this liquid and chemically calcareous medium1 the ,foraminifera and ,polyps of all forms swarmed1 forming an innumerable population4 ,now what became of the bodies of these creatures after death8 ,they were of all sizes1 but chiefly microscopic2 that is1 so small as to be individually all but invisible to the naked eye4 ,the perishable animal matter disappeared in the bosom of the waters by decomposition1 but there still remained behind the indestructible inorganic matter1 that is to say1 the carbonate of lime forming their testaceous covering2 these calcareous deposits accumulating in thick beds at the bottom of the sea1 became compacted into a solid mass1 and formed a series of continuous beds superimposed on each other4 ,these1 increasing imperceptibly in the course of ages1 ultimately formed the rocks of the ,cretaceous period1 which we have now under consideration4 ,these statements are not1 as the reader might conceive from their nature1 a romantic conception invented to please the imagination of those in search of a system--the time is past when geology should be regarded as the romance of ,nature--nor has what we advance at all the character of an arbitrary conception4 ,one is no doubt struck with surprise on learning1 for the first time1 that all the limestone rocks1 all the calcareous stones employed in the construction of our dwellings1 our cities1 our castles and cathedrals1 were deposited in the seas of an earlier world1 and are only composed of an aggregation of shells of ,mollusca1 or fragments of the testaceous coverings of ,foraminifera and other ,zoophytes--nay1 that they were secreted from the water itself1 and then assimilated by these minute creatures1 and that this would appear to have been the great object of their creation in such myriads4 ,whoever will take the trouble to observe1 and reflect on what he observes1 will find all his doubts vanish4 ,if chalk be examined with a microscope1 it will be found to be composed of the remains of numerous ,zoophytes1 of minute and divers kinds of shells1 and1 above all1 of ,foraminifera1 so small that their very minuteness seems to have rendered them indestructible4 ,a hundred and fifty of these small beings placed end to end1 in a line1 will only occupy the space of about one-twelfth part of an inch4 ,illustration3 ,chalk under the ,microscope4 ,fig4 #abf4--;,chalk of ,meudon 7magnified74 ,much of this curious information was unknown1 or at least only suspected1 when ,ehrenberg began his microscopical investigations4 ,from small samples of chalk reduced to powder1 placed upon the object-glass1 and examined under the microscope1 ,ehrenberg prepared the designs which we reproduce from his learned micrographical work1 in which some of the elegant forms discovered in the ,chalk are illustrated1 greatly magnified4 ,fig4 #abf represents the chalk of ,meudon1 in ,france1 in which ammonite-like forms of ,foraminifera and others1 equally beautiful1 appear4 ,fig4 #abg1 from the chalk of ,gravesend1 contains similar objects4 ,fig4 #abh is an example of chalk from the island of ,mon1 in ,denmark2 and ,fig4 #abi1 that which is found in the ,tertiary rocks of ,cattolica1 in ,sicily4 ,in all these the shells of ,ammonites appear1 with clusters of round ,foraminifera and other ,zoophytes4 ,in two of these engravings 7,figs4 #abf and #abh71 the chalk is represented in two modes--in the upper half1 by transparency or transmitted light2 in the lower half1 the mass is exhibited by superficial or reflected light4 ,illustration3 ,chalk under the ,microscope4 ,fig4 #abg4--;,chalk of ,gravesend4 7,after ,ehrenberg74--,magnified4 ,observation1 then1 establishes the truth of the explanation we have given concerning the formation of the chalky or ,cretaceous rocks2 but the question still remains--,how did these rocks1 originally deposited in the sea1 become elevated into hills of great height1 with bold escarpments1 like those known in ,england as the ,north and ,south ,downs8 ,the answer to this involves the consideration of other questions which have1 at present1 scarcely got beyond hypothesis4 ,illustration3 ,chalk under the ,microscope4 ,fig4 #abh4--;,chalk of the ,isle of ,mon1 ,denmark4 ,illustration3 ,chalk under the ,microscope4 ,fig4 #abi4--;,chalk of ,cattolica1 ,sicily 7magnified74 ,during and after the deposition of the ,portland and ,purbeck beds1 the entire ,oolite ,series1 in the south and centre of ,england and other regions1 was raised above the sea-level and became dry land4 ,above these ,purbeck beds1 as ,professor ,ramsay tells us in the district known as the ,weald1 8we have a series of beds of clays1 sandstones1 and shelly limestones1 indicating by their fossils that they were deposited in an estuary where fresh water and occasionally brackish water and marine conditions prevailed4 ,the ,wealden and ,purbeck beds indeed represent the delta of an immense river which in size may have rivalled the ,ganges1 ,mississippi1 ,amazon1 c41 and whose waters carried down to its mouth the remains of land-plants1 small ,mammals1 and great terrestrial ,reptiles1 and mingled them with the remains of ,fishes1 ,molluscs1 and other forms native to its waters4 ,i do not say that this immense river was formed or supplied by the drainage of what we now call ,great ,britain--,i do not indeed know where this continent lay1 but ,i do know that ,england formed a part of it1 and that in size it must have been larger than ,europe1 and was probably as large as ,asia1 or the great continent of ,america40 ,speaking of the geographical extent of the ,wealden1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell says3 8,it cannot be accurately laid down1 because so much of it is concealed beneath the newer marine formations4 ,it has been traced about #bjj miles from west to east2 from the coast of ,dorsetshire to near ,boulogne1 in ,france2 and nearly #bjj miles from north-west to south-east1 from ,surrey and ,hampshire to ,beauvais1 in ,france20#ge but he expresses doubt1 supposing the formation to have been continuous1 if the two areas were contemporaneous1 the region having undergone frequent changes1 the great estuary having altered its form1 and even shifted its place4 ,speaking of a hypothetical continent1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell says3 8,if it be asked where the continent was placed from the ruins of which the ,wealden strata were derived1 and by the drainage of which a great river was fed1 we are half tempted to speculate on the former existence of the ,atlantis of ,plato4 ,the story of the submergence of an ancient continent1 however fabulous in history1 must have been true again and again as a geological event40#gf #ge 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #cdi4 #gf ,ibid1 p4 #cej4 ,the proof that the ,wealden series were accumulated under fresh-water conditions and as a river deposit#gg lies partly in the nature of the strata1 but chiefly in the nature of the organic remains4 ,the fish give no positive proof1 but a number of ,crocodilian reptiles give more conclusive evidence1 together with the shells1 most of them being of fresh-water origin1 such as ,paludina1 ,planorbis1 ,lymna1 ,physa1 and such like1 which are found living in many ponds and rivers of the present day4 ,now and then we find bands of marine remains1 not mixed with fresh-water deposits1 but interstratified with them2 showing that at times the mouth and delta of the river had sunk a little1 and that it had been invaded by the sea2 then by gradual change it was lifted up1 and became an extensive fresh-water area4 ,this episode at last comes to an end by the complete submergence of the ,wealden area2 and upon these fresh-water strata a set of marine sands and clays1 and upon these again thick beds of pure white earthy limestone of the ,cretaceous period were deposited4 ,the lowest of these formations is known as the ,lower ,greensand2 then followed the clays of the ,gault1 which were succeeded by the ,upper ,greensand4 ,then1 resting upon the ,upper ,greensand1 comes the vast mass of ,chalk which in ,england consists of soft white earthy limestone1 containing1 in the upper part1 numerous bands of interstratified flints1 which were mostly sponges originally1 that have since become silicified and converted into flint4 ,the strata of chalk where thickest are from #a1jjj to #a1bjj feet in thickness4 ,their upheaval into dry land brought this epoch to an end2 the conditions which had contributed to its formation ceased in our area1 and as the uppermost member of the ,secondary rocks1 it closes the record of ,mesozoic times in ,england4 #gg 8,the ,physical ,geology and ,geography of ,great ,britain10 by ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 ,f4,r4,s41 p4 #fd4 ,let us add1 to remove any remaining doubts1 that in the basin of a modern ,european sea--the ,baltic--a curious assemblage of phenomena1 bearing on the question1 is now in operation4 ,the bed and coast-line of the ,baltic continue slowly but unceasingly to rise1 and have done so for several centuries1 in consequence of the constant deposit which takes place of calcareous shells1 added to the natural accumulations of sand and mud4 ,the ,baltic ,sea will certainly be filled up in time by these deposits1 and this modern phenomenon1 which we find in progress1 so to speak1 brings directly under our observation an explanation of the manner in which the cretaceous rocks were produced in the ancient world1 more especially when taken in connection with another branch of the same subject to which ,sir ,charles ,lyell called attention1 in an address to the ,geological ,society4 ,it appears that just as the northern part of the ,scandinavian continent is now rising1 and while the middle part south of ,stockholm remains unmoved1 the southern extremity in ,scania is sinking1 or at least has sunk1 within the historic period2 from which he argues that there may have been a slow upheaval in one region1 while the adjoining one was stationary1 or in course of submergence4 ,after these explanations as to the manner in which the cretaceous rocks were formed1 let us examine into the state of animal and vegetable life during this important period in the earth's history4 ,the vegetable kingdom of this period forms an introduction to the vegetation of the present time4 ,placed at the close of the ,secondary epoch1 this vegetation prepares us for transition1 as it were1 to the vegetation of the ,tertiary epoch1 which1 as we shall see1 has a great affinity with that of our own times4 ,the landscapes of the ancient world have hitherto shown us some species of plants of forms strange and little known1 which are now extinct4 ,but during the period whose history we are tracing1 the vegetable kingdom begins to fashion itself in a less mysterious manner2 ,palms appear1 and among the regular species we recognise some which differ little from those of the tropics of our days4 ,the dicotyledons increase slightly in number amid ,ferns and ,cycads1 which have lost much of their importance in numbers and size2 we observe an obvious increase in the dicotyledons of our own temperate climate1 such as the alder1 the wych-elm1 the maple1 and the walnut1 c4 8,as we retire from the times of the primitive creation10 says ,lecoq1 8and slowly approach those of our own epoch1 the sediments seem to withdraw themselves from the polar regions and restrict themselves to the temperate or equatorial zones4 ,the great beds of sand and limestone1 which constitute the ,cretaceous formation1 announce a state of things very different from that of the preceding ages4 ,the seasons are no longer marked by indications of central heat2 zones of latitude already show signs of their existence4 8,hitherto two classes of vegetation predominated3 the cellular ,cryptogams at first1 the dicotyledonous ,gymnosperms afterwards2 and in the epoch which we have reached--the transition epoch of vegetation--the two classes which have reigned heretofore become enfeebled1 and a third1 the dicotyledonous ,angiosperms1 timidly take possession of the earth--they consist at first of a small number of species1 and occupy only a small part of the soil1 of which they afterwards take their full share2 and in the succeeding periods1 as in our own times1 we shall see that their reign is firmly established2 during the ,cretaceous period1 in short1 we witness the appearance of the first dicotyledonous ,angiosperms4 ,some arborescent ,ferns still maintain their position1 and the elegant ,protopteris ,singeri1 ,preissl41 and ,p4 ,buvigneri1 ,brongn41 still unfold their light fronds to the winds of this period4 ,some ,pecopteri1 differing from the ,wealden species1 live along with them4 ,some ,zamites1 ,cycads1 and ,zamiostrobi announce that in the ,cretaceous period the temperature was still high4 ,new ,palms show themselves1 and1 among others1 ,flabellaria chamropifolia is especially remarkable for the majestic crown at its summit4 8,the ,conifers have endured better than the ,cycade2 they formed then1 as now1 great forests1 where ,damarites1 ,cunninghamias1 ,araucarias1 ,eleoxylons1 ,abietites1 and ,pinites remind us of numerous forms still existing1 but dispersed all over the earth4 8,from this epoch date the ,comptonias1 attributed to the ,myricace2 ,almites ,friesii1 ,nils41 which we consider as one of the ,betulace2 ,carpinites arenaceus1 ,gp41 which is one of the ,cupulifer2 the ,salicites1 which are represented to us by the arborescent willows2 the ,acerin would have their ,acerites cretace1 ,nils41 and the ,juglandit1 the ,juglandites elegans1 ,gp4 ,but the most interesting botanical event of this period is the appearance of the ,credneria1 with its triple-veined leaves1 of which no less than eight species have been found and described1 but whose place in the systems of classification still remains uncertain4 ,the ,crednerias1 like the ,salicites1 were certainly trees1 as were most of the species of this remote epoch40 ,in the following illustration are represented two of the ,palms belonging to the ,cretaceous period1 restored from the imprints and fragments of the fossil remains left by the trunk and branches in the rocks of the period 7,fig4 #acj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4--;,fossil ,palms restored4 ,but if the vegetation of the ,cretaceous period exhibits sensible signs of approximation to that of our present era1 we cannot say the same of the animal creation4 ,the time has not yet come when ,mammals analogous to those of our epoch gave animation to the forests1 plains1 and shores of the ancient world2 even the ,marsupial ,mammals1 which made their appearance in the ,liassic and ,oolitic formations1 no longer exist1 so far as is known1 and no others of the class have taken their place4 ,no climbing ,opossum1 with its young ones1 appears among the leaves of the ,zamites4 ,the earth appears to be still tenanted by ,reptiles1 which alone break the solitudes of the woods and the silence of the valleys4 ,the ,reptiles1 which seem to have swarmed in the seas of the ,jurassic period1 partook of the crocodilian organisation1 and those of this period seem to bear more resemblance to the ,lizards of our day4 ,in this period the remains of certain forms indicate that they stood on higher legs2 they no longer creep on the earth1 and this is apparently the only approximation which seems to connect them more closely with higher forms4 ,it is not without surprise that we advert to the immense development1 the extraordinary dimensions which the ,saurian family attained at this epoch4 ,these animals which1 in our days1 rarely exceed a yard or so in length1 attained in the ,cretaceous period as much as twenty4 ,the marine lizard1 which we notice under the name of ,mosasaurus1 was then the scourge of the seas1 playing the part of the ,ichthyosauri of the ,jurassic period2 for1 from the age of the ,lias to that of the ,chalk1 the ,ichthyosauri1 the ,plesiosauri1 and the ,teleosauri were1 judging from their organisation1 the tyrants of the waters4 ,they appear to have become extinct at the close of the ,cretaceous period1 and to give place to the ,mosasaurus1 to whom fell the formidable task of keeping within proper limits the exuberant production of the various tribes of ,fishes and ,crustaceans which inhabited the seas4 ,this creature was first discovered in the celebrated rocks of ,st4 ,peter's ,mount at ,maestricht1 on the banks of the ,meuse4 ,the skull alone was about four feet in length1 while the entire skeleton of ,iguanodon ,mantelli1 discovered by ,dr4 ,mantell in the ,wealden strata1 has since been met with in the ,hastings beds of ,tilgate ,forest1 measuring1 as ,professor ,owen estimates1 between fifty and sixty feet in length4 ,these enormous ,saurians disappear in their turn1 to be replaced in the seas of the ,tertiary epoch by the ,cetaceans2 and henceforth animal life begins to assume1 more and more1 the appearance it presents in the actually existing creation4 ,seeing the great extent of the seas of the ,cretaceous period1 ,fishes were necessarily numerous4 ,the pike1 salmon1 and dory tribes1 analogous to those of our days1 lived in the seas of this period2 they fled before the sharks and voracious dog-fishes1 which now appeared in great numbers1 after just showing themselves in the ,oolitic period4 ,the sea was still full of ,polyps1 ,sea-urchins1 ,crustaceans of various kinds1 and many genera of ,mollusca different from those of the ,jurassic period2 alongside of gigantic ,lizards are whole piles of animalcul--those ,foraminifera whose remains are scattered in infinite profusion in the ,chalk1 over an enormous area and of immense thickness4 ,the calcareous remains of these little beings1 incalculable in number1 have indeed covered1 in all probability1 a great part of the terrestrial surface4 ,it will give a sufficient idea of the importance of the ,cretaceous period in connection with these organisms to state that1 in the rocks of the period1 #bfh genera of animals1 hitherto unknown1 and more than #e1jjj species of special living beings have been found2 the thickness of the rocks formed during the period being enormous4 ,where is the geologist who will venture to estimate the time occupied in creating and destroying the animated masses of which this formation is at once both the cemetery and the monument8 ,for the purposes of description it will be convenient to divide the ,cretaceous series into lower and upper1 according to their relative ages and their peculiar fossils4 ,,the ,,lower ,,cretaceous ,,period4 ,english equivalents4 ,french classification4 ,lower ,greensand1 upper part4 tage ,aptien st4 ,lower ,greensand1 lower part4 ,nocomien suprieur4 ,weald clay and ,hastings sands4 ,nocomien infrieur4 ,the ,lower ,wealden or ,hastings ,sand consists of sand1 sandstone1 and calciferous grit1 clay1 and shale1 the argillaceous strata predominating4 ,this part of the ,wealden consists1 in descending order1 of3-- ,feet4 ,tunbridge ,wells sand--,sandstone and loam #aej ,wadhurst clay--,blue and brown shale and clay1 with a little calc grit #ajj ,ashdown sands--,hard sand1 with beds of calc grit #afj ,ashburnham sands--,mottled1 white1 and red clay and sandstone #ccj ,the ,hastings sand has a hard bed of white sand in its upper part1 whose steep natural cliffs produce the picturesque scenery of the 8,high rocks0 of ,hastings in ,sussex4 ,calcareous sandstone and grit1 in which ,dr4 ,mantell found the remains of the ,iguanodon and ,hylosaurus1 form an upper member of the ,tunbridge ,wells ,sand4 ,the formation extends over ,hanover and ,westphalia2 the ,wealden of these countries1 according to ,dr4 ,dunker and ,von ,meyer1 corresponding in their fossils and mineral characters with those of the ,english series4 ,so that 8we can scarcely hesitate10 says ,lyell1 8to refer the whole to one great delta40#gh #gh ,lyell's 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #cdi4 ,the overlying ,weald clay crops out from beneath the ,lower ,greensand in various parts of ,kent and ,sussex1 and again in the ,isle of ,wight1 and in the ,isle of ,purbeck1 where it reappears at the base of the chalk4 ,the upper division 7or the ,weald clay7 is1 as we have said1 of purely fresh-water origin1 and is supposed to have been the estuary of some vast river which1 like the ,african ,quorra1 may have formed a delta some hundreds of miles broad1 as suggested by ,dr4 ,dunker and ,von ,meyer4 ,the ,lower ,greensand is known1 also1 as the ,nocomien1 after ,neocomium1 the ,latin name of the city of ,neufchatel1 in ,switzerland1 where this formation is largely developed1 and where1 also1 it was first recognised and established as a distinct formation4 ,dr4 ,fitton1 in his excellent monograph of the ,lower ,cretaceous formations1 gives the following descending succession of rocks as observable in many parts of ,kent3-- ,feet4 #a4 ,sand1 white1 yellowish1 or brown1 with concretions of limestone and chert #gj #b4 ,sand1 with green matter #gj to #ajj #c4 ,calcareous stone1 called ,kentish rag #fj to #hj ,these divisions1 which are traceable more or less from the southern part of the ,isle of ,wight to ,hythe in ,kent1 present considerable variations4 ,at ,atherfield1 where sixty-three distinct strata1 measuring #hdc feet1 have been noticed1 the limestone is wholly wanting1 and some fossils range through the whole series1 while others are confined to particular divisions2 but ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes states1 that when the same conditions are repeated in overlying strata the same species reappear2 but that changes of depth1 or of the mineral nature of the sea-bottom1 the presence or absence of lime or of peroxide of iron1 the occurrence of a muddy1 sandy1 or gravelly bottom1 are marked by the absence of certain species1 and the predominance of others4#gi #gi ,ibid1 p4 #cdj4 ,among the marine fauna of the ,nocomian series the following are the principal4 ,among the ,acephala1 one of the largest and most abundant shells of the lower ,nocomian1 as displayed in the ,atherfield section1 is the large ,perna ,mulleti 7,fig4 #aca74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4--,perna ,mulleti4 ,one-quarter natural size4 a1 exterior2 b1 part of the upper hinge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4--;,hamites4 ,one-third natural size4 ,the ,scaphites have a singular boat-shaped form1 wound with contiguous whorls in one part1 which is detached at the last chamber1 and projects in a more or less elongated condition4 ,hamites1 ,crioceras1 and ,ancyloceras have club-like terminations at both extremities2 they may almost be considered as non-involuted ,ammonites with the spiral evolutions disconnected or partially unrolled1 as in the engraving 7,figs4 #abe and #acb74 ,ancyloceras ,matheronianus seems to have had spines projecting from the ridge of each of the convolutions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4--,shell of ,turritella terebra4 7,living form47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4--,turrillites costatus4 7,chalk47 ,the ,toxoceras had the shell also curved1 and not spiral4 ,the ,baculites had the shell differing from all ,cephalopods1 inasmuch as it was elongated1 conical1 perfectly straight1 sometimes very slender1 and tapering to a point4 ,the ,turrilites have the shell regular1 spiral1 and sinistral2 that is1 turning to the left in an oblique spiral of contiguous whorls4 ,the engraving will convey the idea of their form 7,fig4 #acd74 ,among others1 as examples of form1 we append ,figs4 #acc1 #ace1 #acf4 ,this analysis of the marine fauna belonging to the ,nocomian formation might be carried much further1 did space permit1 or did it promise to be useful2 but1 without illustration1 any further merely verbal description would be almost valueless4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace--,terebrirostra lyra4 a1 back view2 b1 side view4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4--,terebratula deformis4 ,numerous ,reptiles1 a few ,birds1 among which are some 8,waders10 belong to the genera of ,palornis or ,cimoliornis2 new ,molluscs in considerable quantities1 and some extremely varied ,zoophytes1 constitute the rich fauna of the ,lower ,chalk4 ,a glance at the more important of these animals1 which we only know in a few mutilated fragments1 is all our space allows2 they are true medals of the history of our globe1 medals1 it is true1 half effaced by time1 but which consecrate the memory of departed ages4 ,in the year #ahcb ,dr4 ,mantell added to the wonderful discoveries he had made in the ,weald of ,sussex1 that of the great ,lizard-of-the-woods1 the hylosaurus 71 wood1 1 lizard74 ,this discovery was made in ,tilgate forest1 near ,cuckfield1 and the animal appears to have been from twenty to thirty feet in length4 ,the osteological characters presented by the remains of the ,hylosaurus are described by ,dr4 ,mantell as affording another example of the blending of the ,crocodilian with the ,lacertian type of structure2 for we have1 in the pectoral arch1 the scapula or omoplate of a crocodile associated with the coracoid of a lizard4 ,another remarkable feature in these fossils is the presence of the large angular bones or spines1 which1 there is reason to infer1 constituted a serrated crest along the middle of the back2 and the numerous small oval dermal bones which appear to have been arranged in longitudinal series along each side of the dorsal fringe4 ,the ,megalosaurus1 the earliest appearance of which is among the more ancient beds of the ,liassic and ,oolitic series1 is again found at the base of the ,cretaceous rocks4 ,it was1 as we have seen1 an enormous lizard1 borne upon slightly raised feet2 its length exceeded forty feet1 and in bulk it was equal to an elephant seven feet high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4--,lower ,jaw of the ,megalosaurus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,tooth of ,megalosaurus4 ,the ,megalosaurus found in the ferruginous sands of ,cuckfield1 in ,sussex1 in the upper beds of the ,hastings ,sands1 must have been at least sixty or seventy feet long4 ,cuvier considered that it partook both of the structure of the ,iguana and the ,monitors1 the latter of which belong to the ,lacertian ,reptiles which haunt the banks of the ,nile and tropical ,india4 ,the ,megalosaurus was probably an amphibious ,saurian4 ,the complicated structure and marvellous arrangement of the teeth prove that it was essentially carnivorous4 ,it fed probably on other ,reptiles of moderate size1 such as the ,crocodiles and ,turtles which are found in a fossil state in the same beds4 ,the jaw represented in ,fig4 #acg is the most important fragment of the animal we possess4 ,it is the lower jaw1 and supports many teeth3 it shows that the head terminated in a straight muzzle1 thin and flat on the sides1 like that of the ,gavial1 the ,crocodile of ,india4 ,the teeth of the ,megalosaurus were in perfect accord with the destructive functions with which this formidable creature was endowed4 ,they partake at once of the nature of a knife1 sabre1 and saw4 ,vertical at their junction with the jaw1 they assume1 with the increased age of the animal1 a backward curve1 giving them the form of a gardener's pruning-knife 7,fig4 #ach2 also c4 ,fig4 #agi74 ,after mentioning some other particulars1 respecting the teeth1 ,buckland says3 8,with teeth constructed so as to cut with the whole of their concave edge1 each movement of the jaws produced the combined effect of a knife and a saw1 at the same time that the point made a first incision like that made by a point of a double-cutting sword4 ,the backward curvature taken by the teeth at their full growth renders the escape of the prey when once seized impossible4 ,we find here1 then1 the same arrangements which enable mankind to put in operation many of the instruments which they employ40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4--,nasal ,horn of ,iguanodon4 ,two-thirds natural size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4--;,ammonites rostratus4 7,upper ,greensand47 ,the ,iguanodon1 signifying ,iguana-toothed 7from the ,greek word1 1 tooth71 was more gigantic still than the ,megalosaurus2 one of the most colossal1 indeed1 of all the ,saurians of the ancient world which research has yet exposed to the light of day4 ,professor ,owen and ,dr4 ,mantell were not agreed as to the form of the tail2 the former gentleman assigning it a short tail1 which would affect ,dr4 ,mantell's estimate of its probable length of fifty or sixty feet2 the largest thigh-bone yet found measures four feet eight inches in length4 ,the form and disposition of the feet1 added to the existence of a bony horn 7,fig4 #aci71 on the upper part of the muzzle or snout1 almost identifies it as a species with the existing ,iguanas1 the only ,reptile which is known to be provided with such a horn upon the nose2 there is1 therefore1 no doubt as to the resemblance between these two animals2 but while the largest of living ,iguanas scarcely exceeds a yard in length1 its fossil congener was probably fifteen or sixteen times that length4 ,it is difficult to resist the feeling of astonishment1 not to say incredulity1 which creeps over one while contemplating so striking a disproportion as that which subsists between this being of the ancient world and its ally of the new4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--,teeth of ,iguanodon4 a1 young tooth2 b1 c1 teeth further advanced1 and worn4 7,wealden47 ,the ,iguanodon carried1 as we have said1 a horn on its muzzle2 the bone of its thigh1 as we have seen1 surpassed that of the ,elephant in size2 the form of the bone and feet demonstrates that it was formed for terrestrial locomotion2 and its dental system shows that it was herbivorous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,fishes of the ,cretaceous period4 #a1 ,beryx ,lewesiensis2 #b1 ,osmeroides ,mantelli4 ,the teeth 7,fig4 #ada71 which are the most important and characteristic organs of the whole animal1 are imbedded laterally in grooves1 or sockets1 in the dentary bone2 there are three or four sockets of successional teeth on the inner side of the base of the old teeth4 ,the place thus occupied by the edges of the teeth1 their trenchant and saw-like form1 their mode of curvature1 the points where they become broader or narrower which turn them into a species of nippers or scissors--are all suitable for cutting and tearing the tough vegetable substances which are also found among the remains buried with this colossal reptile1 a restoration of which is represented in ,,plate ,,xxi41 p4 #bif4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,cretaceous seas contained great numbers of ,fishes1 among which some were remarkable for their strange forms4 ,the ,beryx ,lewesiensis 7#a71 and the ,osmeroides ,mantelli 7#b7 7,fig4 #adb71 are restorations of these two species as they are supposed to have been in life4 ,the ,odontaspis is a new genus of ,fishes which may be mentioned4 ,ammonites rostratus 7,fig4 #adj71 and ,exogyra conica 7,fig4 #adg71 are common shells in the ,upper ,greensand4 ,illustration3 ,,xxi4--,ideal scene in the ,lower ,cretaceous ,period1 with ,iguanodon and ,megalosaurus4 ,the seas of the ,lower ,cretaceous period were remarkable in a zoological point of view for the great number of species and the multiplicity of generic forms of molluscous ,cephalopods4 ,the ,ammonites assume quite gigantic dimensions2 and we find among them new species distinguished by their furrowed transverse spaces1 as in the ,hamites 7,fig4 #acb74 ,some of the ,ancyloceras attained the magnitude of six feet1 and other genera1 as the ,scaphites1 the ,toxoceras1 the ,crioceras 7,fig4 #abe71 and other ,mollusca1 unknown till this period1 appeared now4 ,many ,echinoderms1 or sea-urchins1 and ,zoophytes1 have enriched these rocks with their animal remains1 and would give its seas a condition quite peculiar4 ,on the opposite page an ideal landscape of the period is represented 7,,plate ,,xxi471 in which the ,iguanodon and ,megalosaurus struggle for the mastery in the centre of a forest1 which enables us also to convey some idea of the vegetation of the period4 ,here we note a vegetation at once exotic and temperate--a flora like that of the tropics1 and also resembling our own4 ,on the left we observe a group of trees1 which resemble the dicotyledonous plants of our forests4 ,the elegant ,credneria is there1 whose botanical place is still doubtful1 for its fruit has not been found1 although it is believed to have belonged to plants with two seed-leaves1 or dicotyledonous1 and the arborescent ,amentace4 ,an entire group of trees1 composed of ,ferns and ,zamites1 are in the background2 in the extreme distance are some ,palms4 ,we also recognise in the picture the alder1 the wych-elm1 the maple1 and the walnut-tree1 or at least species analogous to these4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,nocomian beds in ,france are found in ,champagne1 in the departments of the ,aube1 the ,yonne1 the ,haute-,alps1 c4 ,they are largely developed in ,switzerland at ,neufchatel1 and in ,germany4 #a4 ,the ,lower ,nocomian consists of marls and greyish clay1 alternating with thin beds of grey limestone4 ,it is very thick1 and occurs at ,neufchatel and in the ,drme4 ,the fossils are ,spatangus retusus1 ,crioceras 7,fig4 #abe71 ,ammonites ,asterianus1 c4 #b4 ,orgonian 7the limestone of ,orgon74 ,this group exists1 also1 at ,aix-les-,bains in ,savoy1 at ,grenoble1 and generally in the thick1 white1 calcareous beds which form the precipices of the ,drme4 ,the fossils ,chama ammonia1 ,pigaulus1 c4 #c4 ,the ,aptien 7or ,greensand7 consists generally of marls and clay4 ,in ,france it is found in the department of ,vaucluse1 at ,apt 7whence the name ,aptien71 in the department of the ,yonne1 and in the ,haute-,marne4 ,fossils1 ,ancyloceras ,matheronianus1 ,ostrea aquila1 and ,plicatula placunea4 ,these beds consist here of greyish clay1 which is used for making tiles2 there of bluish argillaceous limestone1 in black or brownish flags4 ,in the ,isle of ,wight it becomes a fine sandstone1 greyish and slightly argillaceous1 which at ,havre1 and in some parts of the country of ,bray1 become well-developed ferruginous sandstones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4--;,cypris spinigera4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4--;,cypris ,valdensis4 ,we have noted that the ,lower ,nocomian formation1 although a marine deposit1 is in some respects the equivalent of the ,weald ,clay1 a fresh-water formation of considerable importance on account of its fossils4 ,we have seen that it was either formed at the mouth of a great river1 or the river was sufficiently powerful for the fresh-water current to be carried out to sea1 carrying with it some animals1 forming a fluviatile1 or lacustrine fauna1 on a small scale4 ,these were small ,crustaceans of the genus ,cypris1 with some molluscous ,gasteropoda of the genera ,melania1 ,paludina1 and acephalous ,mollusca of the five genera ,cyrena1 ,unio1 ,mytilus1 ,cyclas1 and ,ostrea4 ,of these1 ,cypris spinigera 7,fig4 #adc7 and ,cypris ,valdensis 7,fig4 #add7 may be considered as among the most characteristic fossils of this local fauna4 ,the ,cretaceous series is not interesting for its fossils alone2 it presents also an interesting subject for study in a mineralogical point of view4 ,the white ,chalk1 examined under the microscope by ,ehrenberg1 shows a curious globiform structure4 ,the green part of its sandstone and limestone constitutes very singular compounds4 ,according to the result of ,berthier's analysis1 we must consider them as silicates of iron4 ,the iron shows itself here not in beds1 as in the ,jurassic rocks1 but in masses1 in a species of pocket in the ,orgonian beds4 ,they are usually hydrates in the state of hematites1 accompanied by quantities of ochre so abundant that they are frequently unworkable4 ,in the south of ,france these veins were mined to a great depth by the ancient monks1 who were the metallurgists of their age4 ,but for the artist the important ,orgonian beds possess a special interest2 their admirable vertical fractures1 their erect perpendicular peaks1 each surpassing the other in boldness1 form his finest studies4 ,in the ,var1 the defiles of ,vsubia1 of the ,esteron1 and ,tina1 are jammed up between walls of peaks1 for many hundreds of yards1 between which there is scarcely room for a narrow road by the side of the roaring torrent4 8,in the ,drme10 says ,fournet1 8the entrance to the beautiful valley of the ,vercors is closed during a part of the year1 because1 in order to enter1 it is necessary to cross the two gullies1 the ,great and ,little ,goulet1 through which the waters escape from the valley4 ,even during the dry season1 he who would enter the gorge must take a foot-bath4 8,this state of things could not last2 and in #ahdh it was curious to see miners suspended on the sides of one of these lateral precipices1 some #dej feet above the torrent1 and about an equal distance below the summit of the ,chalk4 ,there they began to excavate cavities or niches in the face of the rock1 all placed on the same level1 and successively enlarged4 ,these were united together in such a manner as to form a road practicable for carriages2 now through a gallery1 now covered by a corbelling1 to look over which affords a succession of surprises to the traveller4 8,this is not all10 adds ,m4 ,fournet3 8he who traverses the high plateaux of the country finds at every step deep diggings in the soil1 designated pits or scialets1 the oldest of which have their sides clothed with a curious vegetation1 in which the ,aucolin predominates2 shelter is found in these pits from the cutting winds which rage so furiously in these elevated regions4 ,others form a kind of cavern1 in which a temperature obtains sufficient to freeze water even in the middle of summer4 ,these cavities form natural glaciers1 which we again find upon some of the table-lands of the ,jura4 8,the cracks and crevasses of the limestone receive the waters produced by falling rain and melted snow2 true to the laws of all fluid bodies1 they filter through the rocks until they reach the lower and impervious marly beds1 where they form sheets of water1 which in course of time find some outlet through which they discharge themselves4 ,in this manner subterranean galleries1 sometimes of great extent1 are formed1 in which are assembled all the marvels which crumbling stalactites1 stalagmites1 placid lakes1 and headlong torrents can produce2 finally1 these waters1 forcing their way through the external orifices1 give rise to those fine cascades which1 with the first gushing torrent1 form an actual river40 ,the ,albien of ,alc4 ,d',orbigny1 which ,lyell considers to be the equivalent of the ,gault1 ,french authors treat as the 8glauconie0 formation1 the name being drawn from a rock composed of chalk with greenish grains of glauconite1 or silicate of iron1 which is often mixed with the limestone of this formation4 ,the fossils by which it is identified are very varied4 ,among its numerous types1 we find ,crustaceans belonging to the genera ,arcania and ,corystes2 many new ,mollusca1 ,buccinum1 ,solen1 ,pterodonta1 ,voluta1 ,chama1 c42 great numbers of molluscous ,brachiopods1 forming highly-developed submarine strata2 some ,echinoderms1 unknown up to this period1 and especially a great number of ,zoophytes2 some ,foraminifera1 and many ,polyzoa 7,bryozoa74 ,the glauconitic formation consists of two groups of strata3 the ,gault ,clay and the glauconitic chalk1 or ,upper ,greensand and ,chloritic ,marl4 ,,upper ,,cretaceous ,,period4 ,during this phase of the terrestrial evolutions1 the continents1 to judge from the fossilised wood which we meet with in the rocks which now represent it1 would be covered with a very rich vegetation1 nearly identical1 indeed1 with that which we have described in the preceding sub-period2 according to ,adolphe ,brongniart1 the 8age of angiosperms0 had fairly set in2 the ,cretaceous flora displays1 he considers1 a transitional character from the ,secondary to the ,tertiary vegetation2 that the line between the gymnosperms1 or naked-seeded plants1 and the angiosperms1 having their seeds enclosed in seed-vessels1 runs between the ,upper and ,lower ,cretaceous formations4 8,we can now affirm10 says ,lyell1 8that these ,aix-la-,chapelle plants1 called ,credneria1 flourished before the rich reptilian fauna of the secondary rocks had ceased to exist4 ,the ,ichthyosaurus1 ,pterodactyle1 and ,mosasaurus were of coeval date with the oak1 the walnut1 and the fig40#hj #hj ,lyell's 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #ccc4 ,the terrestrial fauna1 consisting of some new ,reptiles haunting the banks of rivers1 and ,birds of the genus ,snipe1 have certainly only reached us in small numbers4 ,the remains of the marine fauna are1 on the contrary1 sufficiently numerous and well preserved to give us a great idea of its riches1 and to enable us to assign to it a characteristic facies4 ,the sea of the ,upper ,cretaceous period bristled with numerous submarine reefs1 occupying a vast extent of its bed--reefs formed of ,rudistes 7,lamarck71 and of immense quantities of various kinds of corals which are everywhere associated with them4 ,the ,polyps1 in short1 attain here one of the principal epochs of their existence1 and present a remarkable development of forms2 the same occurs with the ,polyzoa 7,bryozoa7 and ,amorphozoa2 while1 on the contrary1 the reign of the ,cephalopods seems to end4 ,beautiful types of these ancient reefs have been revealed to us1 and we discover that they have been formed under the influence of submarine currents1 which accumulated masses of these animals at certain points4 ,nothing is more curious than this assemblage of ,rudistes--still standing erect1 isolated or in groups--as may be seen1 for instance1 at the summit of the mountains of the ,cornes in the ,corbires1 upon the banks of the pond of ,berre in ,provence1 and in the environs of ,martigues1 at ,la ,cadire1 at ,figuires1 and particularly above ,beausset1 near ,toulon4 8,it seems10 says ,alcide ,d',orbigny1 8as if the sea had retired in order to show us1 still intact1 the submarine fauna of this period1 such as it was when in life4 ,there are here enormous groups of ,hippurites in their places1 surrounded by ,polyps1 ,echinoderms1 and ,molluscs1 which lived in union in these animal colonies1 analogous to those which still exist in the coral-reefs of the ,antilles and ,oceania4 ,in order that these groups should have been preserved intact1 they must first have been covered suddenly by sediment1 which1 being removed by the action of the atmosphere1 reveals to us1 in their most secret details1 this ,nature of the past40 ,in the ,jurassic period we have already met with these isles or reefs formed by the accumulation of ,coral and other ,zoophytes2 they even constituted1 at that period1 an entire formation called the ,coral-rag4 ,the same phenomenon1 reproduced in the ,cretaceous seas1 gave rise to similar calcareous formations4 ,we need not repeat what we have said already on this subject when describing the ,jurassic period4 ,the coral or madrepore isles of the ,jurassic epoch and the reefs of ,rudistes and ,hippurites of the ,cretaceous period have the same origin1 and the atolls of ,oceania are reproductions in our own day of precisely similar phenomena4 ,the invertebrate animals which characterise the ,cretaceous age are among ,,cephalopoda4 ,nautilus sublvigatus and ,n4 ,danicus2 ,ammonites rostratus2 ,belemnitella mucronata4 ,,gasteropoda4 ,voluta elongata2 ,phorus canaliculatus2 ,nerinea bisulcata2 ,pleurotomaria ,fleuriausa1 and ,p4 ,santonensis2 ,natica supracretacea4 ,,acephala4 ,trigonia scabra2 ,inoceramus problematicus and ,i4 ,lamarckii2 ,clavigella cretacea2 ,pholadomya quivalvis2 ,spondylus spinosus2 ,ostrea vesicularis2 ,ostrea larva2 ,janira quadricostata2 ,arca ,gravesii2 ,hippurites ,toucasianus and ,h4 organisans2 ,caprina ,aguilloni2 ,radiolites radiosus1 and ,r4 acuticostus4 ,,brachiopoda4 ,crania ,ignabergensis2 ,terebratula obesa4 ,,polyzoa 7,,bryozoa7 ,,and ,,eschinodemata4 ,reticulipora obliqua2 ,ananchytes ovatus2 ,micraster cor-anguinum1 ,hemiaster bucardium and ,h4 ,fourneli2 ,galerites albogalerus2 ,cidaris ,forchammeri2 ,palocoma ,furstembergii4 #a4 ,,polypi2 #b4 ,,foraminifera2 #c4 ,,amorphozoa4 #a4 ,cycollites elliptica2 ,thecosmilia rudis2 ,enallocnia ramosa2 ,meandrina ,pyrenaica2 ,synhelia ,sharpeana4 #b4 ,orbitoides media2 ,lituola nautiloidea2 ,flabellina rugosa4 #c4 ,coscinopora cupuliformis2 ,camerospongia fungiformis4 ,among the numerous beings which inhabited the ,upper ,cretaceous seas there is one which1 by its organisation1 its proportions1 and the despotic empire which it would exercise in the bosom of the waters1 is certainly most worthy of our attention4 ,we speak of the ,mosasaurus1 which was long known as the great animal of ,maestricht1 because its remains were found near that city in the most modern of the ,cretaceous deposits4 ,in #aghj a discovery was made in the quarries of ,saint ,peter's ,rocks1 near ,maestricht1 of the head of a great ,saurian1 which may now be seen in the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,paris4 ,this discovery baffled all the science of the naturalists1 at a period when the knowledge of these ancient beings was still in its infancy4 ,one saw in it the head of a ,crocodile2 another1 that of a ,whale2 memoirs and monographs rained down1 without throwing much light on the subject4 ,it required all the efforts of ,adrian ,camper1 joined to those of the immortal ,cuvier1 to assign its true zoological place to the ,maestricht animal4 ,the controversy over this fine fossil engaged the attention of the learned for the remainder of the last century and far into the present4 ,maestricht is a city of the ,netherlands1 built on the banks of the ,meuse4 ,at the gates of this city1 in the hills which skirt the left or western bank of the river1 there rises a solid mass of cretaceous formation known as ,saint ,peter's ,rocks4 ,in composition these beds correspond with the ,meudon chalk beds1 and they contain similar fossils4 ,the quarries are about #ajj feet deep1 consisting in the upper part of twenty feet abounding in corals and ,polyzoa1 succeeded by fifty feet of soft yellowish limestone1 furnishing a fine building stone1 which has been quarried from time immemorial1 and extends up to the environs of ,lige2 this is succeeded by a few inches of greenish soil with ,encrinites1 and then by a very white chalk with layers of flints4 ,the quarry is filled with marine fossils1 often of great size4 ,these fossil remains1 naturally enough1 attracted the attention of the curious1 and led many to visit the quarries2 but of all the discoveries which attracted attention the greatest interest attached to the gigantic animal under consideration4 ,among those interested by the discovery of these strange vestiges was an officer of the garrison of ,maestricht1 named ,drouin4 ,he purchased the bones of the workmen as the pick disengaged them from the rock1 and concluded by forming a collection in ,maestricht1 which was spoken of with admiration4 ,in #agff1 the trustees of the ,british ,museum1 hearing of this curiosity1 purchased it1 and had it removed to ,london4 ,incited by the example of ,drouin1 ,hoffmann1 the surgeon of the garrison1 set about forming a similar collection1 and his collection soon exceeded that of ,drouin's ,museum in riches4 ,it was in #aghj that he purchased of the quarrymen the magnificent fossil head1 exceeding six feet in length1 which has since so exercised the sagacity of naturalists4 ,hoffman did not long enjoy the fruits of his precious prize1 however2 the chapter of the church of ,maestricht claimed1 with more or less foundation1 certain rights of property2 and in spite of all protest1 the head of the ,crocodile of ,maestricht1 as it was already called1 passed into the hands of the ,dean of the ,chapter1 named ,goddin1 who enjoyed the possession of his antediluvian trophy until an unforeseen incident changed the aspect of things4 ,this incident was nothing less than the bombardment and surrender of ,maestricht to the ,army of the ,north under ,kleber1 in #agid4 ,the ,army of the ,north did not enter upon a campaign to obtain the crania of ,crocodiles1 but it had on its staff a savant who was devoted to such pacific conquests4 ,faujas de ,saint-,fond1 who was the predecessor of ,cordier in the ,zoological ,chair of the ,jardin des ,plantes1 was attached to the ,army of the ,north as ,scientific ,commissioner2 and it is suspected that1 in soliciting this mission1 our naturalist had in his eye the already famous head of the ,crocodile of the ,meuse4 ,however that may be1 ,maestricht fell into the hands of the ,french1 and ,faujas eagerly claimed the famous fossil for the ,french nation1 which was packed with the care due to a relic numbering so many thousands of ages1 and dispatched to the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,paris4 ,on its arrival1 ,faujas undertook a labour which1 as he thought1 was to cover him with glory4 ,he commenced the publication of a work entitled 8,the ,mountain of ,saint ,peter of ,maestricht10 describing all the fossil objects found in the ,dutch quarry there1 especially the ,great ,animal of ,maestricht4 ,he endeavoured to prove that this animal was a ,crocodile4 ,unfortunately for the glory of ,faujas1 a ,dutch savant had devoted himself to the same study4 ,adrian ,camper was the son of a great anatomist of ,leyden1 ,pierre ,camper1 who had purchased of the heirs of the surgeon ,hoffman some parts of the skeleton of the animal found in the quarry of ,saint ,peter4 ,he had even published in the ,philosophical ,transactions of ,london1 as early as #aghf1 a memoir1 in which the animal is classed as a ,whale4 ,at the death of his father1 ,adrian ,camper re-examined the skeleton1 and in a work which ,cuvier quotes with admiration1 he fixed the ideas which were until then floating about4 ,he proved that the bones belonged neither to a ,fish1 nor a ,whale1 nor to a ,crocodile1 but rather to a particular genus of ,saurian ,reptiles1 or marine lizards1 closely resembling in many important structural characters1 existing ,monitors and ,iguanas1 and peculiar to rocks of the ,cretaceous period1 both in ,europe and ,america4 ,long before ,faujas had finished the publication of his work on ,la ,montagne de ,saint-,pierre that of ,adrian ,camper had appeared1 and totally changed the ideas of the world on this subject4 ,it did not1 however1 hinder ,faujas from continuing to call his animal the ,crocodile of ,maestricht4 ,he even announced1 some time after1 that ,adrian ,camper was also of his opinion4 8,nevertheless10 says ,cuvier1 8it is as far from the ,crocodile as it is from the ,iguana2 and these two animals differ as much from each other in their teeth1 bones1 and viscera1 as the ape differs from the cat1 or the elephant from the horse40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4 a1 skull of ,monitor ,niloticus2 b1 under-jaw of same4 ,the masterly memoir of ,cuvier1 while confirming all the views of ,camper1 has restored the individuality of this surprising being1 which has since received the name of ,mosasaurus1 that is to say1 ,saurian or ,lizard of the ,meuse4 ,it appears1 from the researches of ,camper and ,cuvier1 that this reptile of the ancient world formed an intermediate genus between the group of the ,lacertilia1 which comprehends the ,monitors 7represented in ,fig4 #ade71 and the ordinary ,lizards2 and the ,lacertilia1 whose palates are armed with teeth1 a group which embraces the ,iguana and the ,anolis4 ,in respect to the ,crocodiles1 the ,mosasaurus resembles them in so far as they all belong to the same class of ,reptiles4 ,the idea of a lizard1 adapted for living and moving with rapidity at the bottom of the water1 is not readily conceived2 but a careful study of the skeleton of the ,mosasaurus reveals to us the secret of this anatomical mechanism4 ,the vertebr of the animal are concave in front and convex behind2 they are attached by means of orbicular or arched articulations1 which permitted it to execute easily movements of flexion in any direction4 ,from the middle of the back to the extremity of the tail these vertebr are deficient in the articular processes which support and strengthen the trunk of terrestrial vertebrated animals3 they resemble in this respect the vertebr of the ,dolphins2 an organisation necessary to render swimming easy4 ,the tail1 compressed laterally at the same time that it was thick in a vertical direction1 constituted a straight rudder1 short1 solid1 and of great power4 ,an arched bone was firmly attached to the body of each caudal vertebra in the same manner as in ,fishes1 for the purpose of giving increased power to the tail2 finally1 the extremities of the animal could scarcely be called feet1 but rather paddles1 like those of the ,ichthyosaurus1 the ,plesiosaurus1 and the ,whale4 ,we see in ,fig4 #adf that the jaws are armed with numerous teeth1 fixed in their sockets by an osseous base1 both large and solid4 ,moreover1 an altogether peculiar dental system occupies the vault of the palate1 as in the case of certain ,serpents and ,fishes1 where the teeth are directed backwards1 like the barb of a hook1 thus opposing themselves to the escape of prey4 ,such a disposition of the teeth sufficiently proves the destructive character of this ,saurian4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4--;,head of ,mosasaurus ,camperi4 ,the dimensions of this aquatic lizard1 estimated at twenty-four feet1 are calculated to excite surprise4 ,but1 as we have already seen1 the ,ichthyosauri and ,teleosauri were of great dimensions1 as were also the ,iguanodon and ,megalosaurus1 which were ten times the size of living ,iguanas4 ,in all these colossal forms we can only see a difference of dimensions1 the aggrandisement of a type2 the laws which affected the organisation of all these beings remain unchanged1 they were not errors of ,nature--monstrosities1 as we are sometimes tempted to call them--but simply types1 uniform in their structure1 and adapted by their dimensions to the physical conditions with which ,god had surrounded them4 ,illustration3 ,,xxii4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,cretaceous ,period4 ,in ,,plate ,,xxii4 is represented an ideal view of the earth during the ,upper ,cretaceous period4 ,in the sea swims the ,mosasaurus2 ,molluscs1 ,zoophytes1 and other animals peculiar to the period are seen on the shore4 ,the vegetation seems to approach that of our days2 it consists of ,ferns and ,cycade 7,pterophyllums71 mingled with ,palms1 ,willows1 and some dicotyledons of species analogous to those of our present epoch4 ,alg1 then very abundant1 composed the vegetation of the sea-shore4 ,we have said that the terrestrial flora of the ,upper ,cretaceous period was nearly identical with that of the ,lower4 ,the marine flora of these two epochs included some ,alg1 ,conferv1 and ,naad1 among which may be noted the following species3 ,confervites fasciculatus1 ,chondrites ,mantelli1 ,sargassites ,hynghianus4 ,among the ,naad1 ,zosterites ,orbigniana1 ,z4 lineata1 and several others4 ,the ,conferv are fossils which may be referred1 but with some doubt1 to the filamentous ,alg1 which comprehend the great group of the ,conferv4 ,these plants were formed of simple or branching filaments1 diversely crossing each other2 or subdivided1 and presenting traces of transverse partitions4 ,the ,chondrites are1 perhaps1 fossil ,alg1 with thick1 smooth branching fronds1 pinnatifid1 or divided into pairs1 with smooth cylindrical divisions1 and resembling ,chondrus1 ,dumontia1 and ,halymenia among living genera4 ,the ,sargassites1 finally1 have been vaguely referred to the genus ,sargassum1 so abundant in tropical seas4 ,these ,alg are distinguished by a filiform1 branched1 or ramose stem1 bearing foliaceous appendages1 regular1 often petiolate1 and altogether like leaves1 and globular vesicles1 supported by a small stalk4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the rocks which actually represent the ,upper ,cretaceous period divide themselves naturally into six series2 but ,british and ,french geologists make some distinction3 the former dividing them into #a1 ,maestricht and ,faxoe beds1 said not to occur in ,england2 #b1 ,white ,chalk1 with flints2 #c1 ,white ,chalk1 without flints2 #d1 ,chalk ,marl2 #e1 ,upper ,greensand2 and #f1 ,gault4 ,the latter four are divided by foreign geologists into #a1 ,turonian2 #b1 ,senonian2 #c1 ,danian4 ,the ,gault is the lowest member of the ,upper ,cretaceous group4 ,it consists of a bluish-black clay mixed with greensand1 which underlies the ,upper ,greensand4 ,near ,cambridge1 where the ,gault is about #bjj feet thick1 a layer of shells1 bones1 and nodules1 called the 8,coprolite ,bed10 from nine inches to a foot thick1 represents the ,upper ,greensand1 and rests on the top of the ,gault ,clay4 ,these nodules and fossils are extensively worked on account of the phosphatic matter they contain1 and when ground and converted into superphosphate of lime they furnish a very valuable agricultural manure4 ,the ,gault attains a thickness of about #ajj feet on the south-east coast of ,england4 ,it extends into ,devonshire1 ,mr4 ,sharpe considering the ,black ,down beds of that country as its equivalents4 ,it shows itself in the ,departments of the ,pas-de-,calais1 the ,ardennes1 the ,meuse1 the ,aube1 the ,yonne1 the ,ain1 the ,calvados1 and the ,seine-,infrieure4 ,it presents very many distinct mineral forms1 among which two predominate3 green sandstone and blackish or grey clays4 ,it is important to know this formation1 for it is at this level that the ,artesian waters flow in the wells of ,passy and ,grenelle1 near ,paris4 ,the glaucous chalk1 or ,upper ,greensand1 which is represented typically in the departments of the ,sarthe1 of the ,charente-,infrieure1 of the ,yonne and the ,var1 is composed of quartzose sand1 clay1 sandstone1 and limestone4 ,in this formation1 at the mouth of the ,charente1 we find a remarkable bed1 which has been described as a submarine forest4 ,it consists of large trees with their branches imbedded horizontally in vegetable matter1 containing kidney-shaped nodules of amber1 or fossilised resin4 ,the ,turonian beds are so named because the province of ,touraine1 between ,saumur and ,montrichard1 possesses the best-developed type of this strata4 ,the mineralogical composition of the beds is a fine and grey marly chalk1 as at ,vitry-le-,franois2 of a pure white chalk1 with a very fine grain1 slightly argillaceous1 and poor in fossils1 in the ,departments of the ,yonne1 the ,aube1 and the ,seine-,infrieure2 granular tufaceous chalk1 white or yellowish1 mixed with spangles of mica1 and containing ,ammonites1 in ,touraine and a part of the ,department of the ,sarthe2 white1 grey1 yellow1 or bluish limestone1 inclosing ,hippurites and ,radiolites4 ,in ,england the ,lower ,chalk passes also into ,chalk ,marl1 with ,ammonites1 and then into beds known as the ,upper ,greensand1 containing green particles of glauconite1 mixed1 in ,hampshire and ,surrey1 with much calcareous matter4 ,in the ,isle of ,wight this formation attains a thickness of #ajj feet4 ,the ,senonian beds take their name from the ancient ,senones4 ,the city of ,sens is in the centre of the best-characterised portion of this formation2 ,epernay1 ,meudon1 ,sens1 ,vendme1 ,royau1 ,cognac1 ,saintes1 are the typical regions of the formation in ,france4 ,in the ,paris basin1 inclusive of the ,tours beds1 it attains a thickness of upwards of #a1ejj feet1 as was proved by the samples brought up1 during the sinking of the ,artesian well1 at ,grenelle1 by the borings4 ,in its geographical distribution the ,chalk has an immense range2 fine ,chalk of nearly similar aspect and composition being met with in all directions over hundreds of miles1 alternating in its lower beds with layers of flints4 ,in ,england the higher beds usually consist of a pure-white calcareous mass1 generally too soft for building-stone1 but sometimes passing into a solid rock4 ,the ,danian beds1 which occupy the summit of the scale in the ,cretaceous formation1 are finely developed at ,maestricht1 on the ,meuse2 and in the ,island of ,zeeland1 belonging to ,denmark2 where they are represented by a slightly yellowish1 compact limestone1 quarried for the construction of the city of ,faxoe4 ,it is slightly represented in the ,paris basin at ,meudon1 and ,laversines1 in the ,department of the ,oise1 by a white and often rubbly limestone known as pisolitic limestone4 ,in this formation ,ammonites ,danicus is found4 ,the yellowish sandy limestone of ,maestricht is referred to the ,danian type4 ,besides ,molluscs1 ,polyps1 and ,polyzoa 7,bryozoa71 this limestone contains remains of ,fishes1 ,turtles1 and ,crocodiles4 ,but what has rendered this rock so celebrated was that it contained the remains of the great animal of ,mstricht1 the ,msasaurus4 ,at the close of the geological period1 whose natural physiognomy we have thus traced1 ,europe was still far from displaying the configuration which it now presents4 ,a map of the period would represent the great basin of ,paris 7with the exception of a zone of ,chalk71 the whole of ,switzerland1 the greater part of ,spain and ,italy1 the whole of ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,prussia1 ,hungary1 ,wallachia1 and ,northern ,russia1 as one vast sheet of water4 ,a band of ,jurassic rocks still connected ,france and ,england at ,cherbourg--which disappeared at a later period1 and caused the separation of the ,british ,islands from what is now ,france4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4--;,exogym conica4 ,upper ,greensand and ,gault1 from ,blackdown ,hill4 ,,tertiary ,,period4 ,a new organic creation makes its appearance in the ,tertiary period2 nearly all the animal life is changed1 and what is most remarkable in this new development is the appearance1 in larger numbers1 of the great class of ,mammifera4 ,during the ,primary period1 ,crustaceans and ,fishes predominated in the animal kingdom2 in the ,secondary period the earth was assigned to ,reptiles2 but during the ,tertiary period the ,mammals were kings of the earth2 nor do these animals appear in small number1 or at distant intervals of time2 great numbers of these beings appear to have lived on the earth1 and at the same moment2 many of them being1 so to say1 unknown and undescribed4 ,if we except the ,marsupials1 the first created ,mammals would appear to have been the ,pachyderms1 to which the ,elephant belongs4 ,this order of animals long held the first rank2 it was almost the only representative of the ,mammal during the first of the three periods which constitute the ,tertiary epoch4 ,in the second and third periods ,mammals appear of species which have now become extinct1 and which were alike curious from their enormous proportions1 and from the singularity of their structure4 ,of the species which appeared during the latter part of the epoch1 the greater number still exist4 ,among the new ,reptiles1 some ,salamanders1 as large as ,crocodiles1 and not very distinct from existing forms1 are added to the animal creation during the three periods of the ,tertiary epoch4 ,chelonians were abundant within the ,british area during the older epoch4 ,during the same epoch ,birds are present1 but in much fewer numbers than the ,mammalia2 here songsters1 there birds of prey1 in other cases domestic--or1 rather1 some appear to wait the yoke and domestication from man1 the future supreme lord of the earth4 ,the seas were inhabited by a considerable number of beings of all classes1 and nearly as varied as those now living2 but we no longer find in the ,tertiary seas those ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 and ,hippurites which peopled the seas and multiplied with such astonishing profusion during the ,secondary period4 ,henceforth the testaceous ,mollusca approximate in their forms to those of the present time4 ,the older and newer ,tertiary ,series contain few peculiar genera4 ,but genera now found in warmer climates were greatly developed within the ,british area during the earlier ,tertiary times1 and species of cold climates mark the close of the later ,tertiaries4 ,what occurs to us1 however1 as most remarkable in the ,tertiary epoch is the prodigious increase of animal life2 it seems as if it had then attained its fullest extension4 ,swarms of testaceous ,mollusca of microscopic proportions--,foraminifera and ,nummulites--must have inhabited the seas1 crowding together in ranks so serried that the agglomerated remains of their shells form1 in some places1 beds hundreds of feet thick4 ,it is the most extraordinary display which has appeared in the whole range of creation4 ,vegetation during the ,tertiary period presents well-defined characteristics4 ,the ,tertiary flora approaches1 and is sometimes nearly identical with1 that of our days4 ,the class of dicotyledons shows itself there in its fullest development2 it is the epoch of flowers4 ,the surface of the earth is embellished by the variegated colours of the flowers and fruits which succeed them4 ,the white spikes of the ,gramine display themselves upon the verdant meadows without limit2 they seem provocative of the increase of ,insects1 which now singularly multiply4 ,in the woods crowded with flowering trees1 with rounded tops1 like our oak and birch1 ,birds become more numerous4 ,the atmosphere1 purified and disembarrassed of the veil of vapour which has hitherto pervaded it1 now permits animals with such delicate pulmonary organs to live and multiply their race4 ,during the ,tertiary period the influence of the central heat may have ceased to make itself felt1 in consequence of the increased thickness of the terrestrial crust4 ,by the influence of the solar heat1 climates would be developed in the various latitudes2 the temperature of the earth would still be nearly that of our present tropics1 and at this epoch1 also1 cold would begin to make itself felt at the poles4 ,abundant rains would1 however1 continue to pour upon the earth enormous quantities of water1 which would give rise to important rivers2 new lacustrine deposits of fresh water were formed in great numbers2 and rivers1 by means of their alluvial deposits1 began to form new land4 ,it is1 in short1 during the ,tertiary epoch that we trace an alternate succession of beds containing organic beings of marine origin1 with others peculiar to fresh water4 ,it is at the end of this period that continents and seas take their respective places as we now see them1 and that the surface of the earth received its present form4 ,the ,tertiary epoch1 or series1 embraces three very distinct periods1 to which the names of ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pliocene have been given by ,sir ,charles ,lyell4 ,the etymology of these names is derived--,eocene1 from the ,greek 1 dawn1 and 1 recent2 ,miocene1 from 1 less1 1 recent2 and ,pliocene1 from 1 more1 1 recent2 by which it is simply meant to express1 that each of these periods contains a minor or greater proportion of recent species 7of ,testacea71 or is more or less remote from the dawn of life and from the present time2#ha the expressions are in one sense forced and incorrect1 but usage has consecrated them1 and they have obtained universal currency in geological language1 from their convenience and utility4 #ha ,lyell's 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #ahg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4--,trigonia margaritacea4 7,living form47 ,,the ,,eocene ,,period4 ,during this period terra firma has vastly gained upon the domain of the sea2 furrowed with streams and rivers1 and here and there with great lakes and ponds1 the landscape of this period presented the same curious mixture which we have noted in the preceding age1 that is to say1 a combination of the vegetation of the primitive ages with one analogous to that of our own times4 ,alongside the birch1 the walnut1 the oak1 the elm1 and the alder1 rise lofty palm-trees1 of species now extinct1 such as ,flabellaria and ,palmacites2 with many evergreen trees 7,conifers71 for the most part belonging to genera still existing1 as the firs1 the pines1 the yews1 the cypresses1 the junipers1 and the thuyas or tree of life4 ,the ,cupanioides1 among the ,sapindace2 the ,cucumites1 among the ,cucurbitace 7species analogous to our bryony71 climb the trunks of great trees1 and hang in festoons of aerial garlands from their branches4 ,the ,ferns were still represented by the genera ,pecopteris1 by the ,tniopteris1 ,asplenium1 ,polypodium4 ,of the mosses1 some ,hepaticas formed a humble but elegant and lively vegetation alongside the terrestrial and frequently ligneous plants which we have noted4 ,equiseta and ,char would still grow in marshy places and on the borders of rivers and ponds4 ,it is not without some surprise that we observe here certain plants of our own epoch1 which seem to have had the privilege of ornamenting the greater watercourses4 ,among these we may mention the ,water ,caltrop1 ,trapa natans1 whose fine rosettes of green and dentated leaves float so gracefully in ornamental ponds1 supported by their spindle-shaped petioles1 its fruit a hard coriaceous nut1 with four horny spines1 known in ,france as water-chestnuts1 which enclose a farinaceous grain not unpleasant to the taste2 the pond-weed1 ,potamogeton1 whose leaves form thick tufts of green1 affording food and shelter to the fishes2 ,nympheace1 which spread beside their large round and hollow leaves1 so admirably adapted for floating on the water1 now the deep-yellow flowers of the ,nenuphar now the pure white flowers of the ,nympha4 ,listen to ,lecoq1 as he describes the vegetation of the period3--8,the ,lower ,tertiary period10 he says1 8constantly reminds us of the tropical landscapes of the present epoch1 in localities where water and heat together impress on vegetation a power and majesty unknown in our climates4 ,the ,alg1 which have already been observed in the marine waters at the close of the ,cretaceous period1 represented themselves under still more varied forms1 in the earlier ,tertiary deposits1 when they have been formed in the sea4 ,hepaticas and ,mosses grew in the more humid places2 many pretty ,ferns1 as ,pecopteris1 ,tniopteris1 and the ,equisetum stellare 7,pomel7 vegetated in cool and humid places4 ,the fresh waters are crowded with ,naiades1 ,chara1 ,potamogeton1 ,caulinites1 with ,zosterites1 and with ,halochloris4 ,their leaves1 floating or submerged1 like those of our aquatic plants1 concealed legions of ,molluscs whose remains have also reached us4 8,great numbers of ,conifers lived during this period4 ,m4 ,brongniart enumerates forty-one different species1 which1 for the most part1 remind us of living forms with which we are familiar--of ,pines1 ,cypresses1 ,thuyas1 ,junipers1 ,firs1 ,yews1 and ,ephedra4 ,palms mingled with these groups of evergreen trees2 the ,flabellaria ,parisiensis of ,brongniart1 ,f4 raphifolia of ,sternberg1 ,f4 maxima of ,unger2 and some ,palmacites1 raised their widely-spreading crowns near the magnificent ,hightea2 ,malvace1 or ,mallows1 doubtless arborescent1 as many among them1 natives of very hot climates1 are in our days4 8,creeping plants1 such as the ,cucumites variabilis 7,brongn471 and the numerous species of ,cupaniodes--the one belonging to the ,cucurbitace1 and the other to the ,sapindace--twined their slender stems round the trunks1 doubtless ligneous1 of various ,leguminace4 8,the family of ,betulace of the order ,cupulifer show the form1 then new1 of ,quercus1 the ,oak2 the ,juglande1 and ,ulmace mingle with the ,proteace1 now limited to the southern hemisphere4 ,dermatophyllites1 preserved in amber1 seem to have belonged to the family of the ,ericine1 and ,tropa ,arctur of ,unger1 of the group nothere1 floated on the shallow waters in which grew the ,chara and the ,potamogeton4 8,this numerous flora comprises more than #bjj known species1 of which #adc belonged to the ,dicotyledons1 thirty-three to the ,monocotyledons1 and thirty-three to the ,cryptogams4 8,trees predominate here as in the preceding period1 but the great numbers of aquatic plants of the period are quite in accordance with the geological facts1 which show that the continents and islands were intersected by extensive lakes and inland seas1 while vast marine bays and arms of the sea penetrated deeply into the land40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--;,branch of ,eucalyptus restored4 ,it is moreover a peculiarity of this period that the whole of ,europe comprehended a great number of those plants which are now confined to ,australasia1 and which give so strange an aspect to that country1 which seems1 in its vegetation1 as in its animals1 to have preserved in its warm latitudes the last vestiges of the organic creations peculiar to the primitive world4 ,as a type of dicotyledonous trees of the epoch1 we present here a restored branch of ,eucalyptus 7,fig4 #adi71 with its flowers4 ,all the family of the ,proteace1 which comprehends the ,banksia1 the ,hakea1 the ,gerilea protea1 existed in ,europe during the ,tertiary period4 ,the family of ,mimosas1 comprising the ,acacia and ,inga1 which in our age are only natives of the southern hemisphere1 abounded in ,europe during the same geological period4 ,a branch of ,banksia1 with its fructification1 taken from impressions discovered in rocks of the period1 is represented in ,fig4 #aej--;it is different from any species of ,banksia living in our days4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4--;,fruit-branch of ,banksia restored4 ,mammals1 ,birds1 ,reptiles1 ,fishes1 ,insects1 and ,molluscs1 form the terrestrial fauna of the ,eocene period4 ,in the waters of the lakes1 whose surfaces are deeply ploughed by the passage of large ,pelicans1 lived ,molluscs of varied forms1 as ,physa1 ,limna1 ,planorbis2 and ,turtles swam about1 as ,trionyx and the ,emides4 ,snipes made their retreat among the reeds which grew on the shore2 sea-gulls skimmed the surface of the waters or ran upon the sands2 owls hid themselves in the cavernous trunks of old trees2 gigantic buzzards hovered in the air1 watching for their prey2 while heavy crocodiles slowly dragged their unwieldy bodies through the high marshy grasses4 ,all these terrestrial animals have been discovered in ,england or in ,france1 alongside the overthrown trunks of palm-trees4 ,the temperature of these countries was then much higher than it is now4 ,the ,mammals which lived under the latitudes of ,paris and ,london are only found now in the warmest countries of the globe4 ,the ,pachyderms 7from the ,greek 1 thick1 1 skin7 seem to have been amongst the earliest ,mammals which appeared in the ,eocene period1 and they held the first rank from their importance in number of species as well as in size4 ,let us pause an instant over these ,pachyderms4 ,their predominance over other fossil ,mammals1 which exceed considerably the number now living1 is a fact much insisted on by ,cuvier4 ,among them were a great number of intermediate forms1 which we seek for in vain in existing genera4 ,in fact1 the ,pachyderms are separated1 in our days1 by intervals of greater extent than we find in any other mammalian genera2 and it is very curious to discover among the animals of the ancient world the broken link which connects the chain of these beings1 which have for their great tomb the plaster-quarries of ,paris1 ,montmartre and ,pantin being their latest refuge4 ,each block taken from those quarries encloses some fragment of a bone of these ,mammals2 and how many millions of these bones had been destroyed before attention was directed to the subject6 ,the ,palotherium and the ,anoplotherium were the first of these animals which ,cuvier restored2 and subsequent discoveries of other fragments of the same animals have only served to confirm what the genius of the great naturalist divined4 ,his studies in the quarries of ,montmartre gave the signal1 as they became the model1 for similar researches and restorations of the animals of the ancient world1 all over ,europe--researches which1 in our age1 have drawn geology from the state of infancy in which it languished1 in spite of the magnificent and persevering labours of ,steno1 ,werner1 ,hutton1 and ,saussure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4--,palotherium magnum restored4 ,the ,palotherium1 ,anoplotherium1 and ,xiphodon were herbivorous animals1 which must have lived in great herds4 ,they appear to have been intermediate1 according to their organisation1 between the ,rhinoceros1 the ,horse1 and the ,tapir4 ,there seem to have existed many species of them1 of very different sizes4 ,after the labours of ,cuvier1 nothing is easier than to represent the ,palotherium as it lived3 the nose terminating in a muscular fleshy trunk1 or rather snout1 somewhat like that of the ,tapir2 the eye small1 and displaying little intelligence2 the head enormously large2 the body squat1 thick1 and short2 the legs short and very stout2 the feet supported by three toes1 enclosed in a hoof2 the size1 that of a large horse4 ,such was the great ,palotherium1 peaceful flocks of which must have inhabited the valleys of the plateau which surrounds the ancient basin of ,paris2 in the lacustrine formations of ,orleans and ,argenton2 in the ,tertiary formations of ,issil and ,puy-en-,velay1 in the department of the ,gironde2 in the ,tertiary formations near ,rome2 and in the beds of limestone#hb at the quarries of ,binsted1 in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,fig4 #aea represents the great ,palotherium1 after the design1 in outline1 given by ,cuvier in his work on fossil bones4 #hb ,this limestone belongs to the ,bembridge beds1 and forms part of the ,fluvio-marine series4 ,see 8,survey ,memoir on the ,geology of the ,isle of ,wight10 by ,h4 ,w4 ,bristow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--,skull of ,palotherium magnum4 ,the discovery and re-arrangement of these and other forms1 now swept from the face of the globe1 are the noblest triumphs of the great ,french zoologist1 who gathered them1 as we have seen1 from heaps of confused fragments1 huddled together pell-mell1 comprising the bones of a great many species of animals of a former age of the world1 all unknown within the historic period4 ,the generic characters of ,palotherium give them forty-four teeth1 namely1 twelve molars1 two canines1 and twenty-eight others1 three toes1 a short proboscis1 for the attachment of which the bones of the nose were shortened1 as represented in ,fig4 #aec1 leaving a deep notch below them4 ,the molar teeth bear considerable resemblance to those of the ,rhinoceros4 ,in the structure of that part of the skull intended to support the short proboscis1 and in the feet1 the animal seems to have resembled the ,tapir4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4--,skeletons of the ,palotherium magnum 7a7 and minimum 7b7 restored4 ,the geological place of the extinct ,palotherium seems to have been in the first great fresh-water formation of the ,eocene period1 where it is chiefly found with its allies1 of which several species have been found and identified by ,cuvier4 ,dr4 ,buckland is not singular in thinking that they lived and died on the margins of lakes and rivers1 as the ,rhinoceros and ,tapir do now4 ,he is also of opinion that some retired into the water to die1 and that the dead carcases of others may have been drifted into the deeper parts in seasons of flood4 ,the ,palotherium varied greatly in size1 some species being as large as the ,rhinoceros1 while others ranged between the size of the ,horse and that of a ,hog or a ,roe4 ,the smaller ,palotherium resembled the ,tapir4 ,less in size than a ,goat1 with slim and light legs1 it must have been very common in the north of ,france1 where it would browse on the grass of the wild prairies4 ,another species1 the ,p4 minimum1 scarcely exceeded the ,hare in size1 and it probably had all the lightness and agility of that animal4 ,it lived among the bushy thickets of the environs of ,paris1 in ,auvergne1 and elsewhere4 ,all these animals lived upon seeds and fruits1 on the green twigs1 or subterranean stems1 and the succulent roots of the plants of the period4 ,they generally frequented the neighbourhood of fresh water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4--;,anoplotherium commune4 ,one-twentieth natural size4 ,the ,anoplotherium 7from 1 defenceless1 1 animal71 had the posterior molar teeth analogous to those of the ,rhinoceros1 the feet terminating in two great toes1 forming an equally divided hoof1 like that of the ,ox and other ,ruminants1 and the tarsus of the toes nearly like those of the ,camel4 ,it was about the size of the ,ass2 its head was light2 but what would distinguish it most must have been an enormous tail of at least three feet in length1 and very thick at its junction with the body4 ,this tail evidently served it as a rudder and propeller when swimming in the lakes or rivers1 which it frequented1 not to seize fish 7for it was strictly herbivorous71 but in search of roots and stems of succulent aquatic plants4 8,judging from its habits of swimming and diving10 says ,cuvier1 8the ,anoplotherium would have the hair smooth1 like the otter2 perhaps its skin was even half naked4 ,it is not likely either that it had long ears1 which would be inconvenient in its aquatic kind of life2 and ,i am inclined to think that1 in this respect1 it resembled the ,hippopotamus and other quadrupeds which frequent the water much40 ,to this description ,cuvier had nothing more to add4 ,his memoir upon the pachydermatous fossils of ,montmartre is accompanied by a design in outline of ,anoplotherium commune1 which has been closely followed in ,fig4 #aed4 ,there were species of ,anoplotherium of very small size4 ,a4 leporinum 7or the ,hare-,anoplotherium71 whose feet are evidently adapted for speed2 ,a4 minimum and ,a4 obliquum were of still smaller dimensions2 the last1 especially1 scarcely exceeded the size of a rat4 ,like the ,water-rats1 this species inhabited the banks of brooks and small rivers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4--,xiphodon gracile4 ,the ,xiphodon was about three feet in height at the withers1 and generally about the size of the ,chamois1 but lighter in form1 and with a smaller head4 ,in proportion as the appearance of the ,anoplotherium commune was heavy and sluggish1 so was that of ,xiphodon gracile graceful and active2 light and agile as the ,gazelle or the ,goat1 it would rapidly run round the marshes and ponds1 depasturing on the aromatic herbs of the dry lands1 or browsing on the sprouts of the young shrubs4 8,its course10 says ,cuvier1 in the memoir already quoted1 8was not embarrassed by a long tail2 but1 like all active herbivorous animals1 it was probably timid1 and with large and very mobile ears1 like those of the stag1 announcing the slightest approach of danger4 ,neither is there any doubt that its body was covered with short smooth hair2 and consequently we only require to know its colour in order to paint it as it formerly existed in this country1 where it has been dug up after so many ages40 ,fig4 #aee is a reproduction from the design in outline with which ,cuvier accompanied the description of this animal1 which he classes with the ,anoplotherium1 and which has received in our days the name of ,xiphodon gracile4 ,the gypsum-quarries of the environs of ,paris include1 moreover1 the remains of other ,pachyderms3 the ,chropotamus1 or ,river-hog 7from 71 which has some analogy with the living ,pecari1 though much larger2 the ,adapis1 which reminds us1 in its form1 of the ,hedgehog1 of which1 however1 it was three times the size4 ,it seems to have been a link between the ,pachyderms and the ,insectivorous ,carnivora4 ,the ,lophiodon1 the size of which varied with the species1 from that of the ,rabbit to that of the ,rhinoceros1 was still more closely allied to the ,tapir than to the ,anoplotherium2 it is found in the lower beds of the gypseous formation1 that is to say in the 8,calcaire ,grossier40 ,a ,parisian geologist1 ,m4 ,desnoyers1 librarian of the ,museum of ,natural ,history there1 has discovered in the gypseous beds of the valley of ,montmorency1 and elsewhere in the neighbourhood of ,paris1 as at ,pantin1 ,clichy1 and ,dammartin1 the imprints of the footsteps of some ,mammals1 of which there seems to be some question1 especially with regard to the ,anoplotherium and ,palotherium4 ,footprints of ,turtles1 ,birds1 and even of ,carnivora1 sometimes accompany these curious traces1 which have a sort of almond-shape more or less lobed1 according to the divisions of the hoof of the animal1 and which recall to mind completely1 in their mode of production and preservation1 those imprints of the steps of the ,labyrinthodon which have been mentioned as occurring in rocks of the ,triassic period4 ,this discovery is interesting1 as it furnishes a means of comparison between the imprints and the animals which have produced them4 ,it brings into view1 as it were1 the material traces left in their walks upon the soil by animals now annihilated1 but who once occupied the mysterious sites of an earlier world4 7,see ,fig4 #a1 p4 #ab47 ,it is interesting to picture in imagination the vast pasturages of the ,tertiary period swarming with ,herbivora of all sizes4 ,the country now surrounding the city of ,paris belongs to the period in question1 and not far from its gates1 the woods and plains were crowded with 8game0 of which the ,parisian sportsman little dreams1 but which would nevertheless singularly animate the earth at this distant epoch4 ,the absence of great ,carnivora explains the rapid increase of the agile and graceful denizens of the wood1 whose race seems to have been so multiplied then1 but which was ultimately annihilated by the ferocious beasts of prey which afterwards made their appearance4 ,the same novelty1 riches1 and variety which distinguished the ,mammals of the ,tertiary period extended to other classes of animals4 ,the class of ,birds1 of which we can only name the most remarkable1 was represented by the curious fossil known as the 8,bird of ,montmartre40 ,the bones of other birds have been obtained from ,hordwell1 as well as the remains of quadrupeds4 ,among the latter the ,hynodon1 supposed to be the oldest known example of a true carnivorous animal in the series of ,british fossils1 and the fossil ,bat known as the ,vespertilio ,parisiensis4 ,among ,reptiles the ,crocodile1 which bears the name of ,isle of ,wight ,alligator1 ,crocodilus ,toliapicus4 ,among the ,turtles the ,trionyx1 of which there is a fine specimen in the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,paris 7,fig4 #aef74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4--,trionyx1 or ,turtle1 of the ,tertiary period4 ,in the class ,fishes we now see the ,pleuronectes1 or flat-fish1 of which ,platax altissimus and ,rhombus minimus are well-known examples4 ,among the ,crustaceans we see the earliest crabs4 ,at the same time multitudes of new ,mollusca make their appearance3 ,oliva1 ,triton1 ,cassis1 ,harpa1 ,crepidula1 c4 ,illustration3 ,,xxiii4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,eocene ,period4 ,the hitherto unknown forms of ,schizaster are remarkable among ,echinoderms2 the ,zoophytes are also abundant1 especially the ,foraminifera1 which seem to make up by their numbers for their deficiency in size4 ,it was in this period1 in the bosom of its seas1 and far from shore1 that the ,nummulites existed1 whose calcareous envelopes play such a considerable part as the elements of some of the ,tertiary formations4 ,the shelly agglomerates of these ,protozoan ,rhizopods constitute now very important rocks4 ,the ,nummulitic limestone forms1 in the chain of the ,pyrenees1 entire mountains of great height2 in ,egypt it forms strata of considerable extent1 and it is of these rocks that the ancient pyramids were built4 ,what an enormous time must have been necessary to convert the remains of these little shells into beds many hundreds of feet thick6 ,the ,miliola were also so abundant in the ,eocene seas as to constitute the greater part of calcareous rocks#hc out of which ,paris has been built4 ,agglomerated in this manner1 these little shells form the continuous beds of limestone which are quarried for building purposes in the environs of ,paris1 at ,gentilly1 ,vaugirard1 and ,chtillon4 #hc ,similar beds of ,miliolite limestone are found in the ,middle ,bagshot beds on the coast of ,sussex1 off ,selsey--the only instance in ,england of the occurrence of such calcareous deposits of ,middle ,eocene age4--,h4 ,w4 ,b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the opposite page we present1 in ,,plate ,,xxiii41 an imaginary landscape of the ,eocene period4 ,we remark amongst its vegetation a mixture of fossil species with others belonging to the present time4 ,the ,alders1 the ,wych-elms1 and the ,cypresses1 mingle with ,flabellaria2 the ,palms of extinct species4 ,a great ,bird--a wader1 the ,tantalus--occupies the projecting point of a rock on the right2 the ,turtle 7,trionyx71 floats on the river1 in the midst of ,nymphas1 ,nenuphars1 and other aquatic plants2 whilst a herd of ,palotheria1 ,anoplotheria1 and ,xiphodon peacefully browse the grass of the natural meadows of this peaceful oasis4 ,with a general resemblance in their fossils1 nothing can be more dissimilar1 on the whole1 than the lithological or mineral characters of the ,eocene deposits of ,france and ,england2 8those of our own island10 says ,lyell1#hd 8being almost exclusively of mechanical origin--accumulations of mud1 sand1 and pebbles2 while in the neighbourhood of ,paris we find a great succession of strata composed of limestones1 some of them siliceous1 and of crystalline gypsum and siliceous sandstone1 and sometimes of pure flint used for millstones4 ,hence it is by no means an easy task to institute an exact comparison between the various members of the ,english and ,french series4 ,it is clear that1 on the sites both of ,paris and ,london1 a continual change was going on in the fauna and flora by the coming in of new species and the dying out of others2 and contemporaneous changes of geographical conditions were also in progress in consequence of the rising and sinking of the land and bottom of the sea4 ,a particular subdivision1 therefore1 of time was occasionally represented in one area by land1 in another by an estuary1 in a third by sea2 and even where the conditions were in both areas of a marine character1 there was often shallow water in one1 and deep sea in another1 producing a want of agreement in the state of animal life40 ,the ,eocene rocks1 as developed in ,france and ,england1 may be tabulated as follows1 in descending order3-- #hd 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #bib4 ,english4 ,french4 _/ _/ ,calcaire de la ,beauce4 ,hempstead beds4 ,grs de ,fontainebleau4 ,upper ,eocene4 _/ ,calcaire silicieux or ,bembridge beds4 ,fluvio-marine ,calcaire ,lacustre series4 ,moyen4 ,gypseous series of ,montmartre4 _/ ,osborne beds4 _/ ,grs de ,beauchamp ,headon beds4 _/ and ,calcaire ,marin4 ,upper ,bagshot sand4 ,upper ,sables ,moyens4 ,middle ,eocene4 _/ ,lower ,sables ,moyens1 ,barton clay4 ,middle ,lower ,calcaire ,bracklesham beds4 _/ ,bagshot4 ,grossier1 and ,glauconie ,grossire4 ,lower ,bagshot _/ ,lits coquillires4 beds4 ,glauconie ,moyenne4 _/ ,london clay4 ,wanting4 ,woolwich and _/ ,argile ,plastique4 ,reading beds1 or ,glauconie ,infrieure4 ,lower ,eocene4 ,plastic clay4 _/ ,oldhaven beds4 ,thanet sands4 ,sables ,infrieurs4 ,the ,woolwich and ,reading ,beds1 or the ,plastic ,clay of older writers1 consists of extensive beds of sand with occasional beds of potter's clay1 which lie at the base of the ,tertiary formation in both ,england and ,france4 ,generally variegated1 sometimes grey or white1 it is employed as a potter's earth in the manufacture of delf-ware4 ,in ,england the red-mottled clay of the ,woolwich and ,reading ,beds in ,hampshire and the ,isle of ,wight is often seen in contact with the chalk2 but in the south-eastern part of the ,london basin1 ,mr4 ,prestwich shows that the ,thanet ,sand 7consisting of a base of fine1 light-coloured sand1 mixed with more or less argillaceous matter7 intervenes between the ,chalk and the ,oldhaven ,beds1 or in their absence the ,woolwich and ,reading beds1 which lie below the ,london ,clay4 ,the ,thanet ,sands derive their name from their occurrence in the ,isle of ,thanet1 in ,kent1 in the eastern part of which county they attain their greatest development4 ,under ,london and its southern suburbs the ,thanet sand is from thirteen to forty-four feet thick1 but it becomes thinner in a westerly direction1 and does not occur beyond ,ealing4#he #he 8,memoir of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain4 ,the ,geology of ,middlesex1 c420 by ,w4 ,whitaker1 p4 #i4 ,the ,woolwich and ,reading beds in the ,hampshire basin rest immediately on the ,chalk1 and separate it from the overlying ,london ,clay1 as may be seen in the fine exposure of the ,tertiary strata in ,alum ,bay1 at the western extremity of the ,isle of ,wight1 and in ,studland ,bay1 on the western side of the ,isle of ,purbeck1 in ,dorsetshire4 ,in the ,london basin the ,woolwich and ,reading beds also rest on the ,chalk1 where the ,thanet ,sands are absent1 as is the case1 for the most part1 over the area west of ,ealing and ,leatherhead4 ,the beds in question are very variable in character1 but may be generally described as irregular alternations of clays and sands--the former mostly red1 mottled with white1 and from their plastic nature suitable for the purposes of the potter2 the latter also of various colours1 but sometimes pure white1 and sometimes containing pebbles of flint4 ,the ,woolwich and ,reading beds are called after the localities of the same names2 they are fifty feet thick at ,woolwich1 and from sixty to seventy feet at ,reading4 ,the ,oldhaven beds 7so termed by ,mr4 ,w4 ,whitaker from their development at the place of the same name in ,kent7 are a local deposit1 occurring beneath the ,london ,clay on the south side of the ,london basin1 from ,croydon eastward1 at the most eastern part of ,surrey1 and through ,kent--in the north-western corner of which county they form some comparatively broad tracts4 ,the beds consist of rounded flint pebbles1 in a fine sandy base1 or of fine light-coloured sand1 and are from eighty to ninety feet thick under ,london4 ,the ,london ,clay1 which has a breadth of twenty miles or more about ,london1 consists of tenacious brown and bluish-grey clay1 with layers of the nodular concretions1 called ,septaria1 which are well known on the ,essex and ,hampshire coasts1 where they are collected for making ,roman cement4 ,the ,london ,clay has a maximum thickness of nearly #ejj feet4 ,the fossils of the ,london ,clay are of marine genera1 and very plentiful in some districts4 ,taken altogether they seem to indicate a moderate1 rather than a tropical climate1 although the ,flora is1 as far as can be judged1 certainly tropical in its affinities4#hf ,the number of species of extinct ,turtles obtained from the ,isle of ,sheppey alone1 is stated by ,prof4 ,agassiz to exceed that of all the species of ,chelone now known to exist throughout the globe4 ,above this great bed lie the ,bracklesham and ,bagshot beds1 which consist of light-yellow sand with an intermediate layer of dark-green and brown clay1 over which lie the ,barton ,clay 7in the ,hampshire basin7 and the white ,upper ,bagshot ,sands1 which are succeeded by the ,fluvio-marine series comprising the ,headon1 ,bembridge1 and ,hempstead series1 and consisting of limestones1 clays1 and marls1 of marine1 brackish1 and fresh-water origin4#hg ,for fuller accounts of the ,tertiary strata of ,england1 the reader is recommended to the numerous excellent memoirs of ,mr4 ,prestwich1 to the memoir 8,on the ,tertiary ,fluvio-marine ,formations of the ,isle of ,wight10 by ,professor ,edward ,forbes1 and to the memoir 8,on the ,geology of the ,london ,basin10 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,whitaker4 #hf ,prestwich4 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 x41 p4 #ddh4 #hg ,detailed sections of the whole of the ,tertiary strata of the ,isle of ,wight have been constructed by ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bristow from actual measurement of the beds in their regular order of succession1 as displayed at ,hempstead1 ,whitecliff ,bay1 ,colwell and ,tolland's ,bays1 ,headon ,hill1 and ,alum ,bay4 ,these sections1 published by the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain1 show the thickness1 mineral character1 and organic remains found in each stratum1 and are accompanied by a pamphlet in explanation4 ,at the base of the ,argile ,plastique of ,france is a conglomerate of chalk and of divers calcareous substances1 in which have been found at ,bas-,meudon some remains of ,reptiles1 ,turtles1 ,crocodiles1 ,mammals1 and1 more lately1 those of a large ,bird1 exceeding the ,ostrich in size1 the ,gastornis1 which ,professor ,owen classes among the wading rather than among aquatic birds4 ,in the ,soissonnais there is found1 at the same horizon1 a great mass of lignite1 enclosing some shells and bones of the most ancient ,pachyderm yet discovered1 the ,coryphodon1 which resembles at once both the ,anoplotherium and the ,pig4 ,the ,sables ,infrieurs1 or ,bracheux ,sands1 form a marine bed of great thickness near ,beauvais2 they are principally sands1 but include beds of calciferous clay and banks of shelly sandstone1 and are considered to be older than the plastic clay and lignite1 and to correspond with the ,thanet ,sands of ,england4 ,they are rich in shells1 including many ,nummulites4 ,at ,la ,fre1 in the ,department of the ,aisne1 a fossil skull of ,arctocyon primvus1 supposed to be related both to the ,bear and to the ,kinkajou1 and to be the oldest known ,tertiary ,mammal1 was found in a deposit of this age4 ,this series seems to have been formed chiefly in fresh water4 ,the ,calcaire grossier1 consisting of marine limestones of various kinds1 and with a coarse1 sometimes compact1 grain1 is suitable for mason-work4 ,these deposits1 which form the most characteristic member of the ,paris basin1 naturally divide themselves into three groups of strata1 characterised1 the first1 by ,nummulites2 the second by ,miliolites2 and the third or upper beds by ,cerithia4 ,the beds are also sometimes named ,nummulite limestone1 ,miliolite limestone1 and ,cerithium limestone4 ,above these a great mass1 generally sandy1 is developed4 ,it is marine at the base1 and there are indications of brackish water in its upper parts2 it is called ,beauchamp ,sandstone1 or ,sables ,moyens 7,grs de ,beauchamp74 ,these sands are very rich in shells4 ,the siliceous limestone1 or lower travertin1 is a compact siliceous limestone extending over a wide area1 and resembles a precipitate from mineral waters4 ,the gypseous formation consists of a long series of marly and argillaceous beds1 of a greyish1 green1 or white colour1 in the intervals between which a thick deposit of gypsum1 or sulphate of lime1 is intercalated4 ,this gypsum bed is found in its greatest thickness in ,france at ,montmartre and ,pantin near ,paris4 ,the formation of this gypsum is probably due to the action of free sulphuric acid upon the carbonate of lime of the formation2 the sulphuric acid itself being produced by the transformation of the gaseous masses of sulphuretted hydrogen emanating from volcanic vents1 into that acid1 by the action of air and water4 ,it was1 as we have already said1 in the gypsum-quarries of ,montmartre that the numerous bones of ,palotherium and ,anoplotherium were found4 ,it is exclusively at this horizon that we find the remains of these animals1 which seem to have been preceded by the ,coryphodon1 and afterwards by the ,lophiodon2 the order of succession in the appearance of these animals is now perfectly established4 ,it may be added that round ,paris the ,eocene formation1 from its lowest beds to the highest1 is composed of beds of plastic clay1 of the ,calcaire grossier with its ,nummulites1 ,miliolites1 and ,alveolites1 followed by the gypseous formation2 the series terminating in the ,fontainebleau ,sandstone1 remarkable for its thickness and also for its fine scenery1 as well as for its usefulness in furnishing paving-stone for the capital4 ,in ,provence the same series of rocks are continued1 and attain an enormous thickness4 ,this upper part of the ,eocene deposit is entirely of lacustrine formation4 ,grignon has procured from a single spot1 where they were embedded in a calcareous sand1 no less than #djj fossils1 chiefly formed of comminuted shells1 in which1 however1 were well-preserved species both of marine1 terrestrial1 and fresh-water shells4 ,of the ,paris basin1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell says3 8,nothing is more striking in this assemblage of fossil testacea than the great proportion of species referable to the genus ,cerithium4 ,there occur no less than #acg species of this genus in the ,paris basin1 and almost all of them in the ,calcaire grossier4 ,most of the living ,cerithia 7,figs4 #aeg and #afh7 inhabit the sea near the mouths of rivers1 where the waters are brackish2 so that their abundance in the marine strata now under consideration is in harmony with the hypothesis that the ,paris basin formed a gulf into which several rivers flowed40#hh #hh 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #cjj4 ,to give the reader some idea of the formation1 first come the limestones and lower marls1 which contain fine lignite or wood-coal produced from vegetable matter buried in moist earth1 and excluded from all access of air1 a material which is worked in some parts of the south of ,france as actively as a coal-mine4 ,in these lignites ,anodon and other fresh-water shells are found4 ,from the base of ,sainte-,victoire to the other side of ,aix1 we trace a conglomerate characterised by its red colour1 but which dies away in its prolongation westward4 ,this conglomerate contains land-snails 7,helix7 of various sizes1 mixed with fresh-water shells4 ,upon this conglomerate1 comprising therein the marls1 rests a thick deposit of limestone with the gypsum of ,aix and ,manosque1 which is believed to correspond with that of ,paris4 ,some of the beds are remarkably rich in sulphur4 ,the calcareous marly lamin which accompany the gypsum of ,aix contain ,insects of various kinds1 and ,fishes resembling ,lebias cephalotes4 ,finally1 the whole terminates at ,manosque in a fresh series of marls and sandstones1 alternating with beds of limestone with ,limna and ,planorbis4 ,at the base of this series are found three or four beds of lignite more inflammable than coal1 which also give out a very sulphurous oil4 ,we may form some estimate of the thickness of this last stage1 if we add that1 above the beds of fusible lignite1 we may reckon sixty others of dry lignite1 some of them capable of being very profitably worked if this part of ,provence were provided with more convenient roads4 8,the ,nummulitic formation1 with its characteristic fossils10 says ,lyell1#hi 8plays a far more conspicuous part than any other ,tertiary group in the solid framework of the earth's crust1 whether in ,europe1 ,asia1 or ,africa4 ,it often attains a thickness of many thousand feet1 and extends from the ,alps to the ,carpathians1 and is in full force in the north of ,africa1 as1 for example1 in ,algeria and ,morocco4 ,it has been traced from ,egypt1 where it was largely quarried of old for the building of the ,pyramids1 into ,asia ,minor1 and across ,persia1 by ,bagdad1 to the mouth of the ,indus4 ,it occurs not only in ,cutch1 but in the mountain ranges which separate ,scinde from ,persia1 and which form the passes leading to ,caboul2 and it has been followed still further eastward into ,india1 as far as eastern ,bengal and the frontiers of ,china40 #hi ,ibid41 p4 #cje4 8,when we have once arrived at the conclusion10 he adds1 8that the ,nummulitic formation occupies a middle place in the ,eocene series1 we are struck with the comparatively modern date to which some of the greatest revolutions in the physical geography of ,europe1 ,asia1 and northern ,africa must be referred4 ,all the mountain chains1 such as the ,alps1 ,pyrenees1 ,carpathians1 and ,himalayas1 into the composition of whose central and loftiest parts the ,nummulitic strata enter bodily1 could have had no existence till after the ,middle ,eocene period40 ,the ,eocene strata1 ,professor ,ramsay thinks1 extended in their day much further west1 8because10 he says1 8here1 at the extreme edge of the chalk escarpments1 you find outlying fragments of them10 from which he argues that they were originally deposited all over the ,chalk as far as these points1 but being formed of soft strata they were 8denuded0 backwards4 ,the ,beloptera represented in ,fig4 #aie are curious ,belemnite-like organisms1 occurring in ,tertiary strata1 and evidently the internal bone of a ,cephalopod1 having a wing-like projection or process on each side4 ,as a genus it holds a place intermediate between the ,cuttle-fish and the ,belemnite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--;,cerithium telescopium4 7,living form47 ,,the ,,miocene ,,period4 ,the ,miocene formation is not present in ,england2 unless we suppose1 with ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 that it is represented by the ,hempstead beds of the ,isle of ,wight4 ,it is on the ,european continent that we find the most striking characteristics of the ,miocene period4 ,in our own islands traces of it are few and far between4 ,in the ,island of ,mull certain beds of shale1 interstratified with basalt and volcanic ash1 are described by the ,duke of ,argyll as of ,miocene date2#ij and ,miocene clay is found interstratified with bands of imperfect coal at ,bovey ,tracey4 ,the vegetation which distinguished the period is a mixture of the vegetable forms peculiar to the burning climate of the present tropical ,africa1 with such as now grow in temperate ,europe1 such as ,palms1 ,bamboos1 various kinds of ,laurels1 ,combretace 7,terminalia71 with the grand ,leguminales of warm countries 7as ,phaseolites1 ,erythrina1 ,bauhinia1 ,mimosites1 ,acacia72 ,apocyne analogous to the genera of our tropical regions2 a ,rubiacea altogether tropical 7,steinhauera7 mingle with some ,maples1 ,walnut-trees1 ,beeches1 ,elms1 ,oaks1 and ,wych-elms1 genera now confined to temperate and even cold countries4 #ij ,quarterly ,journal of ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 vii41 p4 #hi4 ,besides these1 there were1 during the ,miocene period1 mosses1 mushrooms1 charas1 fig-trees1 plane-trees1 poplars1 and evergreens4 8,during the second period of the ,tertiary epoch10 says ,lecoq1 8the ,alg and marine ,monocotyledons were less abundant than in the preceding age2 the ,ferns also diminished1 the mass of ,conifers were reduced1 and the ,palms multiplied in species4 ,some of those cited in the preceding period seem still to belong to this1 and the magnificent ,flabellaria1 with the fine ,phnicites1 which we see now for the first time1 gave animation to the landscape4 ,among the ,conifers some new genera appear2 among them we distinguish ,podocarpens1 a southern form of vegetation of the present age4 ,almost all the arborescent families have their representatives in the forests of this period1 where for the first time types so different are united4 ,the waters are covered with ,nympha ,arithna 7,brongniart72 and with ,myriophyllites capillifolius 7,unger72 ,culmites animalis 7,brongniart72 and ,c4 ,gpperti 7,munster71 spring up in profusion upon their banks1 and the grand ,bambusinites sepultana throws the shadow of its long articulated stem across them4 ,some analogous species occupy the banks of the great rivers of the ,new ,world2 one ,umbellifera is even indicated1 by ,unger1 in the ,pimpinellites zizioides4 ,of this period date some beds of lignite resulting from the accumulation1 for ages1 of all these different trees4 ,it seems that arborescent vegetation had then attained its apogee4 ,some ,smilacites interlaced like the wild vines with these grand plants1 which fell on the ground where they grew1 from decay2 some parts of the earth1 even now1 exhibit these grand scenes of vegetation4 ,they have been described by travellers who have traversed the tropical regions1 where ,nature often displays the utmost luxury1 under the screen of clouds which does not allow the rays of the sun to reach the earth4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny cites an interesting instance which is much to the point4 8,i have reached a zone10 he says 7speaking of ,rio ,chapura in ,south ,america71 8where it rains regularly all the year round4 ,we can scarcely perceive the rays of the sun1 at intervals1 through the screen of clouds which almost constantly veils it4 ,this circumstance1 added to the heat1 gives an extraordinary development to the vegetation4 ,the wild vines fall on all sides1 in garlands1 from the loftiest branches of trees whose summits are lost in the clouds40 ,the fossil species of this period1 to the number of #acc1 begin to resemble those which enrich our landscapes4 ,already tropical plants are associated with the vegetables of temperate climates2 but they are not yet the same as existing species4 ,oaks grow side by side with ,palms1 the ,birch with ,bamboos1 ,elms with ,laurels1 the ,maples are united to the ,combretace1 to the ,leguminales1 and to the tropical ,rubiace4 ,the forms of the species1 belonging to temperate climates1 are rather ,american than ,european4 ,the luxuriance and diversity of the ,miocene flora has been employed by a ,german savant in identifying and classifying the ,middle ,tertiary or ,miocene strata of ,switzerland4 ,we are indebted to ,professor ,heer1 of ,zurich1 for the restoration of more than #ijj species of plants1 which he classified and illustrated in his 8,flora ,tertiaria ,helveti40 ,in order to appreciate the value of the learned ,professor's undertaking1 it is only necessary to remark that1 where ,cuvier had to study the position and character of a bone1 the botanist had to study the outline1 nervation1 and microscopic structure of a leaf4 ,like the great ,french naturalist1 he had to construct a new science at the very outset of his great work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--;,andrias ,scheuchzeri4 ,the ,miocene formations of ,switzerland are called ,molasse 7from the ,french mol1 soft71 a term which is applied to a soft1 incoherent1 greenish sandstone1 occupying the country between the ,alps and the ,jura1 and they may be divided into lower1 middle1 and upper ,miocene2 the middle one is marine1 the other two being fresh-water formations4 ,the upper fresh-water ,molasse is best seen at ningen1 in the ,rhine valley1 where1 according to ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 it ranges ten miles east and west from ,berlingen1 on the right bank1 to ,waugen and to ningen1 near ,stein1 on the left bank4 ,in this formation ,professor ,heer enumerates twenty-one beds4 ,no4 #a1 a bluish-grey marl seven feet thick1 without organic remains1 resting on ,no4 #b1 limestone1 with fossil plants1 including leaves of poplar1 cinnamon1 and pond-weed 7,potamogeton74 ,no4 #c1 bituminous rock1 with ,mastodon angustidens4 ,no4 #e1 two or three inches thick1 containing fossil ,fishes4 ,no4 #i1 the stone in which the skeleton of the great ,salamander ,andrias ,scheuchzeri 7,fig4 #aeh7 was found4 ,below this1 other strata with ,fishes1 ,tortoises1 the great ,salamander1 as before1 with fresh-water ,mussels1 and plants4 ,in ,no4 #af1 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison obtained the fossil fox of ningen1 ,galacynus ningensis 7,owen74 ,in these beds ,professor ,heer had1 as early as #ahei1 determined #dge species of fossil plants1 and #ijj insects4 ,the plants of the ,swiss ,miocene period have been obtained from a country not one-fifth the size of ,switzerland1 yet such an abundance of species1 which ,heer reckons at #c1jjj1 does not exist in any area of equal extent in ,europe4 ,it exceeds in variety1 he considers1 after making every allowance for all not having existed at the same time1 and from other considerations1 the ,southern ,american forests1 and rivals such tropical countries as ,jamaica and ,brazil4 ,european plants occupy a secondary place1 while the evergreen ,oaks1 ,maples1 ,poplars1 and ,plane-trees1 ,robinias1 and ,taxodiums of ,america and the smaller ,atlantic islands1 occupy such an important place in the fossil flora that ,unger was induced to suggest the hypothesis1 that1 in the ,miocene period the present basin of the ,atlantic was dry land--and this hypothesis has been ably advocated by ,heer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the terrestrial animals which lived in the ,miocene period were ,mammals1 ,birds1 and ,reptiles4 ,many new ,mammals had appeared since the preceding period2 among others1 ,apes1 ,cheiropteras 7,bats71 ,carnivora1 ,marsupials1 ,rodents1 ,dogs4 ,among the first we find ,pithecus antiquus and ,mesopithecus2 the ,bats1 ,dogs1 and ,coati inhabited ,brazil and ,guiana2 the ,rats ,north ,america2 the ,genettes1 the ,marmots1 the ,squirrels1 and ,opossums having some affinity to the ,opossums of ,america4 ,thrushes1 ,sparrows1 ,storks1 ,flamingoes1 and ,crows1 represent the class ,birds4 ,among the ,reptiles appear several ,snakes1 ,frogs1 and ,salamanders4 ,the lakes and rivers were inhabited by ,perches and ,shad4 ,but it is among the ,mammals that we must seek for the most interesting species of animals of this period4 ,they are both numerous and remarkable for their dimensions and peculiarities of form2 but the species which appeared in the ,miocene period1 as in those which preceded it1 are now only known by their fossil remains and bones4 ,the ,dinotherium 7,fig4 #aei71 one of the most remarkable of these animals1 is the largest terrestrial ,mammal which has ever lived4 ,for a long time we possessed only very imperfect portions of the skeleton of this animal1 upon the evidence of which ,cuvier was induced erroneously to place it among the ,tapirs4 ,the discovery of a lower jaw1 nearly perfect1 armed with defensive tusks descending from its lower jaw1 demonstrated that this hitherto mysterious animal was the type of an altogether new and singular genus4 ,nevertheless1 as it was known that there were some animals of the ancient world in which both jaws were armed1 it was thought for some time that such was the case with the ,dinotherium4 ,but in #ahcf1 a head1 nearly entire1 was found in the already celebrated beds at ,eppelsheim1 in the ,grand ,duchy of ,hesse ,darmstadt4 ,in #ahcg this fine fragment was carried to ,paris1 and exposed to public view4 ,it was nearly a yard and a half long1 and above a yard wide4 ,the defences1 it was found1 were enormous1 and were carried at the anterior extremity of the lower maxillary bone1 and much curved inwards1 as in the ,morse4 ,the molar teeth were in many respects analogous to those of the ,tapir1 and the great suborbital apertures1 joined to the form of the nasal bone1 rendered the existence of a proboscis or trunk very probable4 ,but the most remarkable bone belonging to the ,dinotherium which has yet been found is an omoplate or scapula1 which by its form reminds us of that of the ,mole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4--;,dinotherium4 ,this colossus of the ancient world1 respecting which there has been so much argument1 somewhat approaches the ,mastodon2 it seems to announce the appearance of the ,elephant2 but its dimensions were infinitely greater than those of existing ,elephants1 and superior even to those of the ,mastodon and of the ,mammoth1 both fossil ,elephants1 the remains of which we shall have to describe presently4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4--,teeth of ,mastodon4 ,from its kind of life1 and its frugal regimen1 this ,pachyderm scarcely merited the formidable name of ,dinotherium which has been bestowed on it by naturalists 7from 1 terrible1 1 animal74 ,its size was1 no doubt1 frightful enough1 but its habits seem to have been peaceful4 ,it is supposed to have inhabited fresh-water lakes1 or the mouths of great rivers and the marshes bordering their banks by preference4 ,herbivorous1 like the ,elephant1 it employed its proboscis probably in seizing the plants which hung suspended over the waters1 or floated on their surface4 ,we know that the elephants are very partial to the roots of herbaceous plants which grow in flooded plains4 ,the ,dinotherium appears to have been organised to satisfy the same tastes4 ,with the powerful natural mattock which ,nature had supplied him for penetrating the soil1 he would be able to tear from the bed of the river1 or lake1 feculent roots like those of the ,nympha1 or even much harder ones1 for which the mode of articulation of the jaws1 and the powerful muscles intended to move them1 as well as the large surface of the teeth1 so well calculated for grinding1 were evidently intended 7,fig4 #afj74 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,mastodon was1 to all appearance1 very nearly of the size and form of our ,elephant--his body1 however1 being somewhat longer1 while his limbs1 on the contrary1 were a little thicker4 ,he had tusks1 and very probably a trunk1 and is chiefly distinguished from the existing ,elephant by the form of his molar teeth1 which form the most distinctive character in his organisation4 ,these teeth are nearly rectangular1 and present on the surface of their crown great conical tuberosities1 with rounded points disposed in pairs to the number of four or five1 according to the species4 ,their form is very distinct1 and may be easily recognised4 ,they do not bear any resemblance to those of the carnivora1 but are like those of herbivorous animals1 and particularly those of the ,hippopotamus4 ,the molar teeth are at first sharp and pointed1 but when the conical points are ground down by mastication1 they assume the appearance presented in ,fig4 #afa4 ,when1 from continued grinding1 the conical teat-like points are more deeply worn1 they begin to assume the appearance shown in ,fig4 #afj4 ,in ,fig4 #afb we represent the head and lower jaw of the ,miocene ,mastodon2 from which it will appear that the animal had two projecting tusks in the lower jaw1 corresponding with two of much larger dimensions which projected from the upper jaw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4--,molar teeth of ,mastodon1 worn4 ,it was only towards the middle of the last century that the ,mastodon first attracted attention in ,europe4 ,about the year #agje1 it is true1 some bones of this animal had been found at ,albany1 now the capital of ,new ,york1 but the discovery attracted little attention4 ,in #agci1 a ,french officer1 ,m4 de ,longueil1 traversed the virgin forests bordering the great river ,ohio1 in order to reach the great river ,mississippi1 and the savages who escorted him accidentally discovered on the borders of a marsh various bones1 some of which seemed to be those of unknown animals4 ,in this turfy marsh1 which the natives designated the ,great ,salt ,lake1 in consequence of the many streams charged with salt which lose themselves in it1 herds of wild ruminants still seek its banks1 attracted by the salt--for which they have a great fondness--such being the reason probably which had caused the accumulation1 at this point1 of the remains of so large a number of quadrupeds belonging to these remote ages in the history of the globe4 ,m4 de ,longueil carried some of these bones with him1 and1 on his return to ,france1 he presented them to ,daubenton and ,buffon2 they consisted of a femur1 one extremity of a tusk1 and three molar teeth4 ,daubenton1 after mature examination1 declared the teeth to be those of a ,hippopotamus2 the tusk and the gigantic femur1 according to his report1 belonged to an ,elephant2 so that they were not even considered to be parts of one and the same animal4 ,buffon did not share this opinion1 and he was not long in converting ,daubenton1 as well as other ,french naturalists1 to his views4 ,buffon declared that the bones belonged to an ,elephant1 whose race had lived only in the primitive ages of the globe4 ,it was then1 only1 that the fundamental notion of extinct species of animals1 exclusively peculiar to ancient ages of the world1 began to be entertained for the first time by naturalists--a notion which laid dormant during nearly a century1 before it bore the admirable fruits which have since so enriched the natural sciences and philosophy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4--;,head of the ,mastodon of the ,miocene period4 ,a1 ,b1 the whole head2 ,c1 lower jaw4 ,buffon gave the fossil the name of the ,animal or ,elephant of the ,ohio1 but he deceived himself as to its size1 believing it to be from six to eight times the size of our existing ,elephant2 an estimate which he was led to make by an erroneous notion with regard to the number of the ,elephant's teeth4 ,the ,animal of the ,ohio had only four molars1 while ,buffon imagined that it might have as many as sixteen1 confounding the germs1 or supplementary teeth1 which exist in the young animal1 with the permanent teeth of the adult individual4 ,in reality1 however1 the ,mastodon was not much larger than the existing species of ,african ,elephant4 ,the discovery of this animal had produced a great impression in ,europe4 ,becoming masters of ,canada by the peace of #agfc1 the ,english sought eagerly for more of these precious remains4 ,the geographer ,croghan traversed anew the region of the ,great ,salt ,lake1 pointed out by ,de ,longueil1 and found there some bones of the same nature4 ,in #agfg he forwarded many cases to ,london1 addressing them to divers naturalists4 ,collinson1 among others1 the friend and correspondent of ,franklin1 who had his share in this consignment1 took the opportunity of sending a molar tooth to ,buffon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,skeleton of ,mastodon giganteus4 ,it was not1 however1 till #ahja that the remains of the perfect skeleton were discovered4 ,an ,american naturalist1 named ,peale1 was fortunate enough to get together two nearly complete skeletons of this important animal4 ,having been apprised that many large bones had been found in the marly clay on the banks of the ,hudson1 near ,newburg1 in the ,state of ,new ,york1 ,mr4 ,peale proceeded to that locality4 ,in the spring of #ahja a considerable part of one skeleton was found by the farmer who had dug it out of the ground1 but1 unfortunately1 it was much mutilated by his awkwardness1 and by the precipitancy of the workmen4 ,having purchased these fragments1 ,mr4 ,peale sent them on to ,philadelphia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4--,mastodon restored4 ,in a marsh1 situated five leagues west of the ,hudson1 the same gentleman discovered1 six months after1 a second skeleton of the ,mastodon1 consisting of a perfect jaw and a great number of bones4 ,with the bones thus collected1 the naturalist managed to construct two nearly complete skeletons4 ,one of these still remains in the ,museum of ,philadelphia2 the other was sent to ,london1 where it was exhibited publicly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4--,molar tooth of ,mastodon4 ,discoveries nearly analogous to these followed1 the most curious of which was made in this manner by ,mr4 ,barton1 a ,professor of the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,at a depth of six feet in the ground1 and under a great bank of chalk1 bones of the ,mastodon were found sufficient to form a skeleton4 ,one of the teeth found weighed about seventeen pounds 7,fig4 #afe72 but the circumstance which made this discovery the more remarkable was1 that in the middle of the bones1 and enveloped in a kind of sac which was probably the stomach of the animal1 a mass of vegetable matter was discovered1 partly bruised1 and composed of small leaves and branches1 among which a species of rush has been recognised which is yet common in ,virginia4 ,we cannot doubt that these were the undigested remains of the food1 which the animal had browsed on just before its death4 ,the aboriginal natives of ,north ,america called the ,mastodon the father of the ox4 ,a ,french officer named ,fabri wrote thus to ,buffon in #agdh4 ,the natives of ,canada and ,louisiana1 where these remains are abundant1 speak of the ,mastodon as a fantastic creature which mingles in all their traditions and in their ancient national songs4 ,here is one of these songs1 which ,fabri heard in ,canada3 8,when the great ,manitou descended to the earth1 in order to satisfy himself that the creatures he had created were happy1 he interrogated all the animals4 ,the bison replied that he would be quite contented with his fate in the grassy meadows1 where the grass reached his belly1 if he were not also compelled to keep his eyes constantly turned towards the mountains to catch the first sight of the father of oxen1 as he descended1 with fury1 to devour him and his companions40 ,the ,cheyenne ,indians have a tradition that these great animals lived in former times1 conjointly with a race of men whose size was proportionate to their own1 but that the ,great ,being destroyed both by repeated strokes of his terrible thunderbolts4 ,the native ,indians of ,virginia had another legend4 ,as these gigantic ,elephants destroyed all other animals specially created to supply the wants of the ,indians1 ,god1 the thunderer1 destroyed them2 a single one only succeeded in escaping4 ,it was 8the great male1 which presented its head to the thunderbolts and shook them off as they fell2 but being at length wounded in the side1 he took to flight towards the great lakes1 where he remains hidden to this day40 ,all these simple fictions prove1 at least1 that the ,mastodon has lived upon the earth at some not very distant period4 ,we shall see1 in fact1 that it was contemporaneous with the ,mammoth1 which1 it is now supposed1 may have been co-existent with the earlier races of mankind1 or only preceded a little the appearance of man4 ,buffon1 as we have said1 gave to this great fossil animal the name of the ,elephant of the ,ohio2 it has also been called the ,mammoth of the ,ohio4 ,in ,england it was received with astonishment4 ,dr4 ,hunter showed clearly enough1 from the thigh-bone and the teeth1 that it was no ,elephant2 but having heard of the existence of the ,siberian ,mammoth1 he at once came to the conclusion that they were bones of that animal4 ,he then declared the teeth to be carnivorous1 and the idea of a carnivorous elephant became one of the wonders of the day4 ,cuvier at once dissipated the clouds of doubt which surrounded the subject1 pointing out the osteological differences between the several species1 and giving to the ,american animal the appropriate name of ,mastodon 7from 1 a teat1 and 1 a tooth71 or teat-like-toothed animal4 ,many bones of the ,mastodon have been found in ,america since that time1 but remains are rarely met with in ,europe1 except as fragments--as the portion of a jaw-bone discovered in the ,red ,crag near ,norwich1 which ,professor ,owen has named ,mastodon angustidens4 ,it was even thought1 for a long time1 with ,cuvier1 that the ,mastodon belonged exclusively to the ,new ,world2 but the discovery of many of the bones mixed with those of the ,mammoth1 7,elephas primigenius7 has dispelled that opinion4 ,bones of ,mastodon have been found in great numbers in the ,val d',arno4 ,in #aheh a magnificent skeleton was discovered at ,turin4 ,the form of the teeth of the ,mastodon shows that it fed1 like the ,elephant1 on the roots and succulent parts of vegetables2 and this is confirmed by the curious discovery made in ,america by ,barton4 ,it lived1 no doubt1 on the banks of rivers and on moist and marshy lands4 ,besides the great ,mastodon of which we have spoken1 there existed a ,mastodon one-third smaller than the ,elephant1 and which inhabited nearly all ,europe4 ,there are some curious historical facts in connection with the remains of the ,mastodon which ought not to be passed over in silence4 ,on the #aath of ,january1 #afac1 the workmen in a sand-pit situated near the ,castle of ,chaumont1 in ,dauphiny1 between the cities of ,montricourt and ,saint-,antoine1 on the left bank of the ,rhne1 found some bones1 many of which were broken up by them4 ,these bones belonged to some great fossil ,mammal1 but the existence of such animals was at that time wholly unknown4 ,informed of the discovery1 a country surgeon named ,mazuyer purchased the bones1 and gave out that he had himself discovered them in a tomb1 thirty feet long by fifteen broad1 built of bricks1 upon which he found the inscription ,,teutobocchus ,,rex4 ,he added that1 in the same tomb1 he found half a hundred medals bearing the effigy of ,marius4 ,this ,teutobocchus was a barbarian king1 who invaded ,gaul at the head of the ,cimbri1 and who was vanquished near ,aqu ,sexti 7,aix in ,provence7 by ,marius1 who carried him to ,rome to grace his triumphal procession4 ,in the notice which he published in confirmation of this story1 ,mazuyer reminded the public that1 according to the testimony of ,roman authors1 the head of the ,teuton king exceeded in dimensions all the trophies borne upon the lances in the triumph4 ,the skeleton which he exhibited was five-and-twenty feet in length and ten broad4 ,mazuyer showed the skeleton of the pretended ,teutobocchus in all the cities of ,france and ,germany1 and also to ,louis ,,xiii41 who took great interest in contemplating this marvel4 ,it gave rise to a long controversy1 or rather an interminable dispute1 in which the anatomist ,riolan distinguished himself--arguing against ,habicot1 a physician1 whose name is all but forgotten4 ,riolan attempted to prove that the bones of the pretended king were those of an ,elephant4 ,numerous pamphlets were exchanged by the two adversaries1 in support of their respective opinions4 ,we learn also from ,gassendi1 that a ,jesuit of ,tournon1 named ,jacques ,tissot1 was the author of the notice published by ,mazuyer4 ,gassendi also proves that the pretended medals of ,marius were forgeries1 on the ground that they bore ,gothic characters4 ,it seems very strange that these bones1 which are still preserved in the cases of the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,paris1 where anybody may see them1 should ever have been mistaken1 for a single moment1 for human remains4 ,the skeleton of ,teutobocchus remained at ,bordeaux till #ahcb1 when it was sent to the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,paris1 where ,m4 de ,blainville declared that it belonged to a ,mastodon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4--,skeleton of ,mesopithecus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4--,mesopithecus restored4 ,one-fifth natural size4 ,the ,apes made their appearance at this period4 ,in the ossiferous beds of ,sansan ,m4 ,lartet discovered the ,dryopithecus1 as well as ,pithecus antiquus1 but only in imperfect fragments4 ,m4 ,albert ,gaudry was more fortunate3 in the ,miocene rocks of ,pikermi1 in ,greece1 he discovered the entire skeleton of ,mesopithecus1 which we present here 7,fig4 #aff71 together with the same animal restored 7,fig4 #afg74 ,in its general organisation it resembles the dog-faced baboon or ape1 a piece of information which has guided the artist in the restoration of the animal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the seas of the ,miocene period were inhabited by great numbers of beings altogether unknown in earlier formations2 we may mention no less than ninety marine genera which appear here for the first time1 and some of which have lived down to our epoch4 ,among these1 the molluscous ,gasteropods1 such as ,conus1 ,turbinella1 ,ranella1 ,murex 7,fig4 #afi71 and ,dolium are the most abundant2 with many ,lamellibranchiata4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,cerithium plicatum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4--,murex ,turonensis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4--,ostrea longirostris4 ,one quarter natural size4 ,living form4 ,the ,foraminifera are also represented by new genera1 among which are the ,bolivina1 ,polystomella1 and ,dentritina4 ,finally1 the ,crustaceans include the genera ,pagurus 7or the ,hermit crabs72 ,astacus4 7the lobster72 and ,portunus 7or paddling crabs74 ,of the first1 it is doubtful if any fossil species have been found2 of the last1 species have been discovered bearing some resemblance to ,podophthalmus vigil1 as ,p4 ,defrancii1 which only differs from it in the absence of the sharp spines which terminate the lateral angles of the carapace in the former2 while ,portunus leucodon 7,desmarest7 bears some analogy to ,lupea4 ,illustration3 ,,xxiv4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,miocene ,period4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--,podophthalmus vigil4 ,an ideal landscape of the ,miocene period1 which is given on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,xxiv471 represents the ,dinotherium lying in the marshy grass1 the ,rhinoceros1 the ,mastodon1 and an ,ape of great size1 the ,dryopithecus1 hanging from the branches of a tree4 ,the products of the vegetable kingdom are1 for the greater part1 analogous to those of the present time4 ,they are remarkable for their abundance1 and for their graceful and serried vegetation2 and still remind us in some respects1 of the vegetation of the ,carboniferous period4 ,it is1 in fact1 a continuation of the characteristics of that period1 and from the same cause1 namely1 the submersion of land under marshy waters1 which has given birth to a sort of coal which is often found in the ,miocene formation1 and which we call lignite4 ,this imperfect coal does not quite resemble that of the ,carboniferous1 or true ,coal-measure period1 because it is of much more recent date1 and because it has not been subjected to the same internal heat1 accompanied by the same pressure of superincumbent strata1 which produced the older coal-beds of the ,primary epoch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4--,lupea pelagica4 ,the lignites1 which we find in the ,miocene1 as in the ,eocene period1 constitute1 however1 a combustible which is worked and utilised in many countries1 especially in ,germany1 where it is made in many places to serve in place of coal4 ,these beds sometimes attain a thickness of above twenty yards1 but in the environs of ,paris they form beds of a few inches only1 which alternate with clays and sands4 ,we cannot doubt that lignites1 like true coal1 are the remains of the buried forests of an ancient world2 in fact1 the substance of the woods of our forests1 often in a state perfectly recognisable1 is frequently found in the lignite beds2 and the studies of modern botanists have demonstrated1 that the species of which the lignites are formed1 belong to a vegetation closely resembling that of ,europe in the present day4 ,another very curious substance is found with the lignite--yellow amber4 ,it is the mineralised resin1 which flowed from certain extinct pine-trees of the ,tertiary epoch2 the waves of the ,baltic ,sea1 washing the amber out of the deposits of sand and clay in which it lies buried1 this substance1 being very little heavier than water1 is thrown by the waves upon the shore4 ,for ages the ,baltic coast has supplied commerce with amber4 ,the ,phnicians ascended its banks to collect this beautiful fossil resin1 which is now chiefly found between ,dantzic and ,memel1 where it is a government monopoly in the hands of contractors1 who are protected by a law making it theft to gather or conceal it4 ,amber1#ia while it has lost none of its former commercial value1 is1 besides1 of much palontological interest2 fossil insects1 and other extraneous bodies1 are often found enclosed in the nodules1 where they have been preserved in all their original colouring and integrity of form4 ,as the poet says-- #ia ,see ,bristow's 8,glossary of ,mineralogy10 p4 #aa4 8,the things themselves are neither rich nor rare1 ,the wonder's how the devil they got there40 ,the natural aromatic qualities of the amber combined with exclusion of air1 c41 have embalmed them1 and thus transmitted to our times the smaller beings and the most delicate organisms of earlier ages4 ,the ,miocene rocks1 of marine origin1 are very imperfectly represented in the ,paris basin1 and their composition changes with the localities4 ,they are divided into two groups of beds3 #a4 ,molasse1 or soft clay2 #b4 ,faluns1 or shelly marl4 ,in the ,paris basin the ,molasse presents1 at its base1 quartzose sands of great thickness1 sometimes pure1 sometimes a little argillaceous or micaceous4 ,they include beds of sandstone 7with some limestone71 which are worked in the quarries of ,fontainebleau1 d',orsay1 and ,montmorency1 for paving-stone for the streets of ,paris and the neighbouring towns4 ,this last formation is altogether marine4 ,to these sands and sandstones succeeds a fresh-water deposit1 formed of a whitish and partly siliceous limestone1 which forms the ground of the plateau of ,la ,beauce1 between the valleys of the ,seine and the ,loire3 this is called the ,calcaire de la ,beauce4 ,it is there mixed with a reddish and more or less sandy clay1 containing small blocks of burrh-stone used for millstones1 easily recognised by their yellow-ochreous colour1 and the numerous cavities or hollows with which their texture is honeycombed4 ,this grit1 or silex meulier1 is much used in ,paris for the arches of cellars1 underground conduits1 sewers1 c4 ,the ,faluns in the ,paris basin consist of divers beds formed of shells and ,corals1 almost entirely broken up4 ,in many parts of the country1 and especially in the environs of ,tours and ,bordeaux1 they are dug out for manuring the land4 ,to the ,falun series belong the fresh-water marl1 limestone1 and sand1 which composed the celebrated mound of ,sansan1 near ,auch1 in the ,department of ,gers1 in which ,m4 ,lartet found a considerable number of bones of ,turtles1 ,birds1 and especially ,mammals1 such as ,mastodon and ,dinotherium1 together with a species of long-armed ape1 which he named ,pithecus antiquus1 from the circumstance of its affording the earliest instance of the discovery of the remains of the quadrumana1 or monkey-tribe1 in ,europe4 ,isolated masses of ,faluns occur1 also1 near the mouth of the ,loire and to the south of ,tours1 and in ,brittany4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4--;,caryophylla cyathus4 ,,pliocene ,,period4 ,this last period of the ,tertiary epoch was marked1 in some parts of ,europe1 by great movements of the terrestrial crust1 always due to the same cause--namely1 the continual and gradual cooling of the globe4 ,this leads us to recall what we have repeatedly stated1 that this cooling1 during which the outer zone of the fluid mass passed to the solid state1 produced irregularities and inequalities in the external surface1 sometimes accompanied by fractures through which the semi-fluid or pasty matter poured itself2 leading afterwards to the upheaval of mountain ranges through these gaping chasms4 ,thus1 during the ,pliocene period1 many mountains and mountain-chains were formed in ,europe by basaltic and volcanic eruptions4 ,these upheavals were preceded by sudden and irregular movements of the elastic mass of the crust--by earthquakes1 in short--phenomena which have been already sufficiently explained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in order to understand the nature of the vegetation of the period1 as compared with that with which we are familiar1 let us listen to ,m4 ,lecoq3 8,arrived1 finally10 says that author1 8at the last period which preceded our own epoch--the epoch in which the temperate zones were still embellished by tropical forms of vegetation1 which were1 however1 slowly declining1 driven out as it were by a cooling climate and by the invasion of more vigorous species--great terrestrial commotions took place3 mountains are covered with eternal snow2 continents now take their present forms2 but many great lakes1 now dried up1 still existed2 great rivers flowed majestically through smiling countries1 whose surface man had not yet come to modify4 8,two hundred and twelve species compose this rich flora1 in which the ,ferns of the earlier ages of the world are scarcely indicated1 where the ,palms seem to have quite disappeared1 and we see forms much more like those which are constantly under our observation4 ,the ,culmites arundinaceus 7,unger7 abounds near the water1 where also grows the ,cyperites tertiarius 7,unger71 where floats ,dotamogeton geniculatus 7,braun71 and where we see submerged ,isoctites ,brunnii 7,unger74 ,great ,conifers still form the forests4 ,this fine family has1 as we have seen1 passed through every epoch1 and still presents us with its elegant forms and persistent evergreen foliage2 ,taxodites1 ,thuyoxylum1 ,abietites1 ,pinites1 ,eleoxylon1 and ,taxites being still the forms most abundant in these old natural forests4 8,the predominating character of this period is the abundance of the group of the ,amentace2 whilst the ,conifers are thirty-two in number1 of the other we reckon fifty-two species1 among which are many ,european genera1 such as ,alnus2 ,quercus1 the oak2 ,salix1 the willow2 ,fagus1 the beech2 ,betula1 the birch1 c4 8,the following families constitute the arborescent flora of the period besides those already mentioned3--,balsaminace1 ,laurace1 ,thymelace1 ,santalace1 ,cornace1 ,myrtace1 ,calycanthace1 ,pomace1 ,rosace1 ,amygdale1 ,leguminos1 ,anacardiace1 ,juglandace1 ,rhamnace1 ,celastrinace1 ,sapindace1 ,meliace1 ,acerace1 ,tiliace1 ,magnoliace1 ,capparidace1 ,sapoteace1 ,styracace1 ,oleace1 ,juncace1 ,ericace4 8,in all these families great numbers of ,european genera are found1 often even more abundant in species than now4 ,thus1 as ,brongniart observes1 in this flora we reckon fourteen species of ,maple2 three species of ,oak2 and these species proceed from two or three very circumscribed localities1 which would not probably1 at the present time1 represent in a radius of several leagues more than three or four species of these genera40 ,an important difference distinguishes the ,pliocene flora1 as compared with those of preceding epochs1 it is the absence of the family of ,palms in the ,european flora1 as noted by ,lecoq1 which forms such an essential botanical feature in the ,miocene period4 ,we mention this1 because1 in spite of the general analogy which exists between the vegetation of the ,pliocene period and that of temperate regions in the present day1 it does not appear that there is a single species of the former period absolutely identical with any one now growing in ,europe4 ,thus1 the ,european vegetation1 even at the most recent geological epoch1 differs specifically from the vegetation of our age1 although a general resemblance is observable between the two4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,skeleton of the ,mastodon of ,turin4 ,the terrestrial animals of the ,pliocene period present us with a great number of creatures alike remarkable from their proportions and from their structure4 ,the ,mammals and the batrachian ,reptiles are alike deserving of our attention in this epoch4 ,among the former the ,mastodon1 which makes its first appearance in the ,miocene formations1 continues to be found1 but becomes extinct apparently before we reach the upper beds4 ,others present themselves of genera totally unknown till now1 some of them1 such as the ,hippopotamus1 the ,camel1 the ,horse1 the ,ox1 and the ,deer1 surviving to the present day4 ,the fossil horse1 of all animals1 is perhaps that which presents the greatest resemblance to existing individuals2 but it was small1 not exceeding the ass in size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--;,head of ,rhinoceros tichorhinus1 partly restored under the direction of ,eugene ,deslongchamps4 ,the ,mastodon1 which we have considered in our description of the preceding period1 still existed in ,pliocene times2 in ,fig4 #agd the species living in this latter age is represented--it is called the ,mastodon of ,turin4 ,as we see1 it has only two projecting tusks or defences in the upper jaw1 instead of four1 like the ,american species1 which is described in page #cdc4 ,other species belonging to this period are not uncommon2 the portion of an upper jaw-bone with a tooth which was found in the ,norwich ,crag at ,postwick1 near ,norwich1 ,dr4 ,falconer has shown to be a ,pliocene species1 first observed in ,auvergne1 and named by ,messrs4 ,croizet and ,jobert1 its discoverers1 ,mastodon ,arvernensis4 ,the ,hippopotamus1 ,tapir1 and ,camel1 which appear during the ,pliocene period1 present no peculiar characteristics to arrest our attention4 ,the ,apes begin to abound in species2 the ,stags were already numerous4 ,the ,rhinoceros1 which made its appearance in the ,miocene period1 appears in greater numbers in the ,pliocene deposits4 ,the species peculiar to the ,tertiary epoch is ,r4 tichorhinus1 which is descriptive of the bony partition which separated its two nostrils1 an anatomical arrangement which is not found in our existing species4 ,two horns surmount the nose of this animal1 as represented in ,fig4 #age4 ,two living species1 namely1 the ,rhinoceros of ,africa and ,sumatra1 have two horns1 but they are much smaller than those of ,r4 tichorhinus4 ,the existing ,indian ,rhinoceros has only one horn4 ,the body of ,r4 tichorhinus was covered with very thick hair1 and its skin was without the rough and callous scales which we remark on the skin of the living ,african species4 ,contemporaneously with this gigantic species there existed a dwarf species about the size of our ,hog2 and along with it several intermediate species1 whose bones are found in sufficient numbers to enable us to reconstruct the skeleton4 ,the curvature of the nasal bone of the fossil ,rhinoceros and its gigantic horn have given rise to many tales and popular legends4 ,the famous bird1 the ,roc1 which played so great a part in the fabulous myths of the people of ,asia1 originated in the discovery in the bosom of the earth of the cranium and horns of a fossil ,rhinoceros4 ,the famous dragons of western tradition have a similar origin4 ,in the city of ,klagenfurth1 in ,carinthia1 is a fountain on which is sculptured the head of a monstrous dragon with six feet1 and a head surmounted by a stout horn4 ,according to the popular tradition still prevalent at ,klagenfurth1 this dragon lived in a cave1 whence it issued from time to time to frighten and ravage the country4 ,a bold cavalier kills the dragon1 paying with his life for this proof of his courage4 ,it is the same legend which is current in every country1 from that of the valiant ,st4 ,george and the ,dragon and of ,st4 ,martha1 who nearly about the same age conquered the fabulous ,tarasque of the city of ,languedoc1 which bears the name of ,tarascon4 ,but at ,klagenfurth the popular legend has happily found a mouth-piece--the head of the pretended dragon1 killed by the valorous knight1 is preserved in the ,htel de ,ville1 and this head has furnished the sculptor for his fountain with a model for the head of his statue4 ,herr ,unger1 of ,vienna1 recognised at a glance the cranium of the fossil ,rhinoceros2 its discovery in some cave had probably originated the fable of the knight and the dragon4 ,and all legends are capable of some such explanation when we can trace them back to their sources1 and reason upon the circumstances on which they are founded4 ,the traveller ,pallas gives a very interesting account of a ,rhinoceros tichorhinus which he saw1 with his own eyes1 taken out of the ice in which its skin1 hair1 and flesh had been preserved4 ,it was in ,december1 #agga1 that the body of the ,rhinoceros was observed buried in the frozen sand upon the banks of the ,viloui1 a river which discharges itself into the ,lena below ,yakutsk1 in ,siberia1 in #fd north latitude4 8,i ought to speak10 the learned naturalist says1 8of an interesting discovery which ,i owe to the ,chevalier de ,bril4 ,some ,yakouts hunting this winter near the ,viloui found the body of a large unknown animal4 ,the ,sieur ,ivan ,argounof1 inspector of the ,zimovic1 had sent on to ,irkutsk the head and a fore and hind foot of the animal1 all very well preserved40 ,the ,sieur ,argounof1 in his report1 states that the animal was half buried in the sand2 it measured as it lay three ells and three-quarters ,russian in length1 and he estimated its height at three and a half2 the animal1 still retaining its flesh1 was covered with skin which resembled tanned leather2 but it was so decomposed that he could only remove the fore and hind foot and the head1 which he sent to ,irkutsk1 where ,pallas saw them4 8,they appeared to me at first glance10 he says1 8to belong to a ,rhinoceros2 the head especially was quite recognisable1 since it was covered with its leathery skin1 and the skin had preserved all its external characters1 and many short hairs4 ,the eyelids had even escaped total decay1 and in the cranium here and there1 under the skin1 ,i perceived some matter which was evidently the remains of putrefied flesh4 ,i also remarked in the feet the remains of the tendons and cartilages where the skin had been removed4 ,the head was without its horn1 and the feet without hoofs4 ,the place of the horn1 and the raised skin which had surrounded it1 and the division which existed in both the hind and fore feet1 were evident proofs of its being a ,rhinoceros4 ,in a dissertation addressed to the ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,i have given a full account of this singular discovery4 ,i give there reasons which prove that a ,rhinoceros had penetrated nearly to the ,lena1 in the most northern regions1 and which have led to the discovery of the remains of other strange animals in ,siberia4 ,i shall confine myself here to a description of the country where these curious remains were found1 and to the cause of their long preservation4 8,the country watered by the ,viloui is mountainous2 all the stratification of these mountains is horizontal4 ,the beds consist of selenitic and calcareous schists and beds of clay1 mixed with numerous beds of pyrites4 ,on the banks of the ,viloui we meet with coal much broken2 probably coal-beds exist higher up near to the river4 ,the brook ,kemtendo skirts a mountain entirely formed of selenite or crystallised sulphate of lime and of rock-salt1 and this mountain of alabaster is more than #cjj versts 7about #bjj miles71 in ascending the ,viloui1 from the place where the ,rhinoceros was found4 ,opposite to the place we see1 near the river1 a low hill1 about a hundred feet high1 which1 though sandy1 contains some beds of millstone4 ,the body of the ,rhinoceros had been buried in coarse gravelly sand near this hill1 and the nature of the soil1 which is always frozen1 had preserved it4 ,the soil near the ,viloui never thaws to a great depth1 for1 although the rays of the sun soften the soil to the depth of two yards in the more elevated sandy places1 in the valleys1 where the soil is half sand and half clay1 it remains frozen at the end of summer half an ell below the surface4 ,without this intense cold the skin of the animal and many parts of it would long since have perished4 ,the animal could only have been transported from some southern country to the frozen north at the epoch of the ,deluge1 for the most ancient chronicles speak of no changes of the globe more recent1 to which we could attribute the deposit of these remains and of the bones of elephants which are found dispersed all over ,siberia40#ib #ib 8,pallas's ,voyage10 vol4 iv41 pp4 #acj-acd4 ,in this extract the author refers to a memoir previously published by himself1 in the 8,commentarii0 of the ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,this memoir1 written in ,latin1 and entitled 8,upon some ,animals of ,siberia10 has never been translated4 ,after some general considerations1 the author thus relates the circumstances attending the discovery of the fossil ,rhinoceros1 with some official documents affirming their correctness1 and the manner in which the facts were brought under his notice by the ,governor of ,irkutsk1 ,general ,bril3 8,the skin and tendons of the head and feet still preserved considerable flexibility1 imbued as it were with humidity from the earth2 but the flesh exhaled a fetid ammoniacal odour1 resembling that of a latrine4 ,compelled to cross the ,bakal ,lake before the ice broke up1 ,i could neither draw up a sufficiently careful description nor make sketches of the parts of the animal2 but ,i made them place the remains1 without leaving ,irkutsk1 upon a furnace1 with orders that after my departure they should be dried by slow degrees and with the greatest care1 continuing the process for some time1 because the viscous matter which incessantly oozed out could only be dissipated by great heat4 ,it happened1 unfortunately1 that during the operation the posterior part of the upper thigh and the foot were burnt in the overheated furnace1 and they were thrown away2 the head and the extremity of the hind foot only remained intact and undamaged by the process of drying4 ,the odour of the softer parts1 which still contained viscous matter in their interior1 was changed by the desiccation into one resembling that of flesh decomposed in the sun4 8,the ,rhinoceros to which the members belonged was neither large for its species nor advanced in age1 as the bones of the head attest1 yet it was evidently an adult from the comparison made of the size of the cranium as compared with that of others of the same species more aged1 which were afterwards found in a fossil state in divers parts of ,siberia4 ,the entire length of the head from the upper part of the nape of the neck to the extremity of the denuded bone of the jaw was thirty inches2 the horns were not with the head1 but we could still see evident vestiges of two horns1 the nasal and frontal4 ,the front1 unequal and a little protuberant between the orbits1 and of a rhomboidal egg-shape1 is deficient in the skin1 and only covered by a light horny membrane1 bristling with straight hairs as hard as horn4 8,the skin which covers the greater part of the head is in the dried state1 a tenacious1 fibrous substance1 like curried leather1 of a brownish-black on the outside and white in the inside2 when burnt1 it had the odour of common leather2 the mouth1 in the place where the lips should have been soft and fleshy1 was putrid and much lacerated2 the extremities of the maxillary bone were bare4 ,upon the left side1 which had probably been longest exposed to the air1 the skin was here and there decomposed and rubbed on the surface2 nevertheless1 the greater part of the mouth was so well preserved on the right side that the pores1 or little holes from which doubtless the hairs had fallen1 were still visible all over that side1 and even in front4 ,in the right side of the jaw there were still in certain places numerous hairs grouped in tufts1 for the most part rubbed down to the roots1 and here and there of two or three lines still retaining their full length4 ,they stand erect1 are stiff1 and of an ashy colour1 but with one or two black1 and a little stiffer than the others1 in each bunch4 8,what was most astonishing1 however1 was the fact that the skin which covered the orbits of the eyes1 and formed the eyelids1 was so well preserved and so healthy that the openings of the eyelids could be seen1 though deformed and scarcely penetrable to the finger2 the skin which surrounded the orbits1 though desiccated1 formed circular furrows4 ,the cavities of the eyes were filled with matter1 either argillaceous or animal1 such as still occupied a part of the cavity of the cranium4 ,under the skin the fibres and tendons still remained1 and above all the remains of the temporal muscles2 finally1 in the throat hung some great bundles of muscular fibres4 ,the denuded bones were young and less solid than in other fossil crania of the same species4 ,the bone which gave support to the nasal horn was not yet attached to the vomer2 it was unprovided with articulations like the processes of the young bones4 ,the extremities of the jaws preserved no vestige either of teeth or sockets1 but they were covered here and there with the remains of the integument4 ,the first molar was distant about four inches from the extreme edge of the jaw4 8,the foot which remains to me1 and which1 if ,i am not mistaken1 belongs to the left hind limb1 has not only preserved its skin quite intact and furnished with hairs1 or their roots1 as well as the tendons and ligaments of the heel in all their strength1 but also the skin itself quite whole as far as the bend in the knee4 ,the place of the muscles was filled with black mud4 ,the extremity of the foot is cloven into three angles1 the bony parts of which1 with the periosteum1 still remain here and there2 the horny hoofs had been detached4 ,the hairs adhering in many places to the skin were from one to three lines in length1 tolerably stiff and ash-coloured4 ,what remains of it proves that the foot was covered with bunches of hair1 which hung down4 8,we have never1 so far as ,i know1 observed so much hair on any rhinoceros which has been brought to ,europe in our times1 as appears to have been presented by the head and feet we have described4 ,i leave you then to decide if our rhinoceros of the ,lena was born or not in the temperate climate of ,central ,asia4 ,in fact1 the rhinoceros1 as ,i gather from the relations of travellers1 belongs to the forests of ,northern ,india2 and it is likely enough that these animals differ in a more hairy skin from those which live in the burning zones of ,africa1 just in the same way that other animals of a hotter climate are less warmly covered than those of the same genera in temperate countries40#ic #ic 8,commentarii ,academi ,petersburgic10 p4 #c4 ,of all fossil ruminants one of the largest and most singular is the ,sivatherium1 whose remains have been found in the valley of ,murkunda1 in the ,sewalik branch of the ,sub-,himalayan ,mountains4 ,its name is taken from that of ,siva1 the ,indian deity worshipped in that part of ,india4 ,the ,sivatherium giganteum had a body as bulky as that of an ox1 and bore a sort of resemblance to the living ,elk4 ,it combined in itself the characteristics of different kinds of ,herbivores1 at the same time that it was marked by individual peculiarities4 ,the massive head possessed four deciduous1 hollow horns1 like the ,prongbuck2 two front ones conical1 smooth1 and rapidly rising to a point1 and two hinder ones of larger size1 and branched1 projected forward above the eyes4#id ,thus it differed from the deer1 whose solid horns annually drop off1 and from the antelope tribe1 sheep and oxen1 whose hollow horns are persistent1 and resembled only one living ruminant1 the prongbuck1 in having had hollow horns subject to shedding4 ,fig4 #agf is a representation of the ,sivatherium restored1 in so far1 at least1 as it is possible to do so in the case of an animal of which only the cranium and a few other bones have been discovered4 #id ,dr4 ,james ,murie1 ,geological ,magazine1 vol4 viii41 p4 #dch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4--,sivatherium restored4 ,as if to rival these gigantic ,mammals1 great numbers of ,reptiles seem to have lived in the ,pliocene period1 although they are no longer of the same importance as in the ,secondary epoch4 ,only one of these1 however1 need occupy our attention1 it is the ,salamander4 ,the living ,salamanders are amphibious ,batrachians1 with smooth skins1 and rarely attaining the length of twenty inches4 ,the ,salamander of the ,tertiary epoch had the dimensions of a ,crocodile2 and its discovery opens a pregnant page in the history of geology4 ,the skeleton of this ,reptile was long considered to be that of a human victim of the deluge1 and was spoken of as 8homo diluvii testis40 ,it required all the efforts of ,camper and ,cuvier to eradicate this error from the minds of the learned1 and probably in the minds of the vulgar it survived them both4 ,upon the left bank of the ,rhine1 not far from ,constance1 a little above ,stein1 and near the village of ningen1 in ,switzerland1 there are some fine quarries of schistose limestone4 ,in consequence of their varied products these quarries have often been described by naturalists2 they are of ,tertiary age1 and were visited1 among others1 by ,horace de ,saussure1 by whom they are described in the third volume of his 8,voyage dans les ,alpes40 ,in #agbe1 a large block of stone was found1 incrusted in which a skeleton was discovered1 remarkably well preserved2 and ,scheuchzer1 a ,swiss naturalist of some celebrity1 who added to his scientific pursuits the study of theology1 was called upon to give his opinion as to the nature of this relic of ancient times4 ,he thought he recognised in the skeleton that of a man4 ,in #agbf he published a description of these fossil remains in the 8,philosophical ,transactions0 of ,london2 and in #agca he made it the subject of a special dissertation1 entitled 8,homo diluvii testis0--,man1 a witness of the ,deluge4 ,this dissertation was accompanied by an engraving of the skeleton4 ,scheuchzer returned to the subject in another of his works1 8,physica ,sacra10 saying3 8,it is certain that this schist contains the half1 or nearly so1 of the skeleton of a man2 that the substance even of the bones1 and1 what is more1 of the flesh and of parts still softer than the flesh1 are there incorporated in the stone2 in a word1 it is one of the rarest relics which we have of that accursed race which was buried under the waters4 ,the figure shows us the contour of the frontal bone1 the orbits with the openings which give passage to the great nerves of the fifth pair4 ,we see there the remains of the brain1 of the sphenoidal bone1 of the roots of the nose1 a notable fragment of the maxillary bone1 and some vestiges of the liver40 ,and our pious author exclaims1 this time taking the lyrical form-- 8,betrbtes ,beingerst von einem altem ,snder ,erweiche1 ,stein1 das ,herz der neuen ,bosheitskinder60 8,o deplorable skeleton of an accursed ancient1 ,mayst thou soften the hearts of the late children of wickedness60 ,the reader has before him the fossil of the ningen schist 7,fig4 #agg74 ,it is obviously impossible to see in this skeleton what the enthusiastic savant wished to perceive4 ,and we can form an idea from this instance1 of the errors to which a preconceived idea1 blindly followed1 may sometimes lead4 ,how a naturalist of such eminence as ,scheuchzer could have perceived in this enormous head1 and in these upper members1 the least resemblance to the osseous parts of a man is incomprehensible6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4--;,andrias ,scheuchzeri4 ,the ,pre-,adamite 8witness of the deluge0 made a great noise in ,germany1 and no one there dared to dispute the opinion of the ,swiss naturalist1 under his double authority of theologian and savant4 ,this1 probably1 is the reason why ,gesner in his 8,trait des ,ptrifactions10 published in #ageh1 describes with admiration the fossil of ningen1 which he attributes1 with ,scheuchzer1 to the antediluvian man4 ,pierre ,camper alone dared to oppose this opinion1 which was then universally professed throughout ,germany4 ,he went to ningen in #aghg to examine the celebrated fossil animal2 he had no difficulty in detecting the error into which ,scheuchzer had fallen4 ,he recognised at once that it was a ,reptile2 but he deceived himself1 nevertheless1 as to the family to which it belonged2 he took it for a ,saurian4 8,a petrified lizard10 ,camper wrote2 8could it possibly pass for a man80 ,it was left to ,cuvier to place in its true family the fossil of ningen2 in a memoir on the subject he demonstrated that this skeleton belonged to one of the amphibious batrachians called ,salamanders4 8,take10 he says in his memoir1 8a skeleton of a ,salamander and place it alongside the fossil1 without allowing yourself to be misled by the difference of size1 just as you could easily do in comparing a drawing of the salamander of the natural size with one of the fossil reduced to a sixteenth part of its dimensions1 and everything will be explained in the clearest manner40 8,i am even persuaded10 adds the great naturalist1 in a subsequent edition of this memoir1 8that1 if we could re-arrange the fossil and look closer into the details1 we should find still more numerous proofs in the articular faces of the vertebr1 in those of the jaws1 in the vestiges of very small teeth1 and even in the labyrinth of the ear40 ,and he invited the proprietors or depositaries of the precious fossil to proceed to such an examination4 ,cuvier had the gratification of making1 personally1 the investigation he suggested4 ,finding himself at ,haarlem1 he asked permission of the ,director of the ,museum to examine the stone which contained the supposed fossil man4 ,the operation was carried on in the presence of the director and another naturalist4 ,a drawing of the skeleton of a ,salamander was placed near the fossil by ,cuvier1 who had the satisfaction of recognising1 as the stone was chipped away under the chisel1 each of the bones1 announced by the drawing1 as they made their appearance4 ,in the natural sciences there are few instances of such triumphant results--few demonstrations so satisfactory as this1 of the certitude of the methods of observation and induction on which palontology is based4 99 99 99 99 99 ,during the ,pliocene period ,birds of very numerous species1 and which still exist1 gave animation to the vast solitudes which man had not yet occupied4 ,vultures and ,eagles1 among the rapacious birds2 and among other genera of birds1 gulls1 swallows1 pies1 parroquets1 pheasants1 jungle-fowl1 ducks1 c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the marine ,pliocene fauna we see1 for the first time1 aquatic ,mammals or ,cetaceans--the ,dolphin and ,balna belonging to the period4 ,very little1 however1 is known of the fossil species belonging to the two genera4 ,some bones of ,dolphins1 found in different parts of ,france1 apprise us1 however1 that the ancient species differed from those of our days4 ,the same remark may be made respecting the ,narwhal4 ,this ,cetacean1 so remarkable for its long tusk1 or tooth1 in the form of a horn1 has at all times been an object of curiosity4 ,the ,whales1 whose remains are found in the ,pliocene rocks1 differ little from those now living4 ,but the observations geologists have been able to make upon these gigantic remains of the ancient world are too few to allow of any very precise conclusion4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the fossil differs from the existing ,whale in certain characters drawn from the bones of the cranium4 ,the discovery of an enormous fragment of a fossil ,whale1 made at ,paris in #aggi1 in the cellar of a wine-merchant in the ,rue ,dauphine1 created a great sensation4 ,science pronounced1 without much hesitation1 on the true origin of these remains2 but the public had some difficulty in comprehending the existence of a whale in the ,rue ,dauphine4 ,it was in digging some holes in his cellars that the wine-merchant made this interesting discovery4 ,his workmen found1 under the pick1 an enormous piece of bone buried in a yellow clay4 ,its complete extraction caused him a great deal of labour1 and presented many difficulties4 ,little interested in making further discoveries1 our wine-merchant contented himself with raising1 with the help of a chisel1 a portion of the monstrous bone4 ,the piece thus detached weighed #bbg pounds4 ,it was exhibited in the wine-shop1 where large numbers of the curious went to see it4 ,lamanon1 a naturalist of that day1 who examined it1 conjectured that the bone belonged to the head of a whale4 ,as to the bone itself1 it was purchased for the ,teyler ,museum1 at ,haarlem1 where it still remains4 ,there exists in the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,paris only a copy of the bone of the whale of the ,rue ,dauphine1 which received the name of ,balnodon ,lamanoni4 ,the examination of this figure by ,cuvier led him to recognise it as a bone belonging to one of the antediluvian ,baln1 which differed not only from the living species1 but from all others known up to this time4 ,since the days of ,lamanon1 other bones of ,balna have been discovered in the soil in different countries1 but the study of these fossils has always left something to be desired4 ,in #ahjf a fossil ,balna was disinterred at ,monte-,pulgnasco by ,m4 ,cortesi4 ,another skeleton1 seventy-two feet long1 was found on the banks of the river ,forth1 near ,alloa1 in ,scotland4 ,in #ahaf many bones of this animal were discovered in a little valley formed by a brook running into the ,chiavana1 one of the affluents of the ,po4 ,cuvier has established1 among the cetacean fossils1 a particular genus1 which he designates under the name of ,ziphius4 ,the animals to which he gave the name1 however1 are not identical either with the ,whales 7,baln71 the ,cachelots or ,sperm ,whales1 or with the ,hyperoodons4 ,they hold1 in the order of ,cetaceans1 the place that the ,palotherium and ,anoplotherium occupy among the ,pachyderms1 or that which the ,megatherium and ,megalonyx occupy in the order of the ,edentates4 ,the ,ziphius still lives in the ,mediterranean4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4--,pecten ,jacobus4 7,living species47 99 99 99 99 99 ,the genera of ,mollusca1 which distinguish this period from all others1 are very numerous4 ,they include the ,cardium1 ,panopa1 ,pecten 7,fig4 #agh71 ,fusus1 ,murex1 ,cypra1 ,voluta1 ,chenopus1 ,buccinum1 ,nassa1 and many others4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,pliocene series prevails over ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 and ,essex1 where it is popularly known as the ,crag4 ,in ,essex it rests directly on the ,london ,clay4 ,near ,norwich it rests on the ,chalk4 ,the ,pliocene rocks are divided into lower and upper4 ,the ,older ,pliocene comprises the ,white or ,coralline ,crag1 including the ,red ,crag of ,suffolk1 containing marine shells1 of which sixty per cent4 are of extinct species4 ,the ,newer ,pliocene is represented by the ,fluvio-marine or ,norwich ,crag1 which last1 according to the ,rev4 ,osmond ,fisher1 is overlaid by ,chillesford clay1 a very variable and more arctic deposit1 often passing suddenly into sands without a trace of clay4 ,the ,norfolk ,forest ,bed rests upon the ,chillesford clay1 when that is not denuded4 ,a ferruginous bed1 rich in mammalian remains1 and known as the ,elephant bed1 overlies the ,forest ,bed1 of which it is considered by the ,rev4 ,john ,gunn to be an upper division4 ,the ,crag1 divided into three portions1 is a local deposit of limited extent4 ,it consists of variable beds of sand1 gravel1 and marl2 sometimes it is a shelly ferruginous grit1 as the ,red ,crag2 at others a soft calcareous rock made up of shells and bryozoa1 as the ,coralline ,crag4 ,the ,coralline ,crag1 of very limited extent in this country1 ranges over about twenty miles between the rivers ,stour and ,alde1 with a breadth of three or four4 ,it consists of two divisions--an upper one1 formed chiefly of the remains of ,bryozoa1 and a lower one of light-coloured sands1 with a profusion of shells4 ,the upper division is about thirty-six feet thick at ,sudbourne in ,suffolk1 where it consists of a series of beds almost entirely composed of comminuted shells and remains of ,bryozoa1 forming a soft building-stone4 ,the lower division is about forty-seven feet thick at ,sutton2 making the total thickness of the ,coralline ,crag about eighty-three feet4 ,many of the ,coralline ,crag ,mollusca belong to living species2 they are supposed to indicate an equable climate free from intense cold--an inference rendered more probable by the prevalence of northern forms of shells1 such as ,glycimeris1 ,cyprina1 and ,astarte4 ,the late ,professor ,edward ,forbes1 to whom science is indebted for so many philosophical deductions1 points out some remarkable inferences drawn from the fauna of the ,pliocene seas4#ie ,it appears that in the glacial period1 which we shall shortly have under consideration1 many shells1 previously established in the temperate zone1 retreated southwards1 to avoid an uncongenial climate4 ,the ,professor gives a list of fifty which inhabited the ,british seas while the ,coralline and ,red ,crag were forming1 but which are all wanting in the glacial deposits2#if from which he infers that they migrated at the approach of the glacial period1 and returned again northwards1 when the temperate climate was restored4#ig #ie ,edward ,forbes in 8,memoirs of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain10 vol4 i41 p4 #ccf4 #if ,for full information on these deposits the reader is referred to the 8,memoirs on the ,structure of the ,crag-beds of ,norfolk and ,suffolk10 by ,j4 ,prestwich1 ,f4,r4,s41 in the ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 pp4 #aae1 #cbe1 and #deb 7#ahga74 ,also to the many ,papers by the ,messrs4 ,searles ,wood published in the ,quar4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 the ,ann4 ,nat4 ,hist41 the ,phil4 ,mag41 c4 #ig ,lyell's 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #bjc4 ,in the ,upper or ,mammaliferous 7or ,norwich7 ,crag1 of which there is a good exposure in a pit near the asylum at ,thorpe1 bones of ,mammalia are found with existing species of shells4 ,the greater number of the ,mammalian remains have been supposed1 until lately1 to be extraneous fossils2 but they are now considered by ,mr4 ,prestwich as truly contemporaneous4 ,the peculiar mixture of southern forms of life with others of a more northern type lead to the inference that1 at this early period1 a lowering of temperature began gradually to set in from the period of the ,coralline ,crag to that of the ,forest ,bed1 which marks the commencement of the ,glacial ,period4 ,the distinction between the ,mammaliferous ,crag of ,norwich and the ,red ,crag of ,suffolk is purely palontological1 no case of superposition having yet been discovered1 and they are now generally considered as contemporaneous4 ,two ,proboscidians abundant during the ,crag period were the ,mastodon ,arvernensis and the ,elephas meridionalis4 ,in the ,red ,crag the ,mastodon is stated by the ,rev4 ,john ,gunn to be more abundant than the ,elephant1 while in the ,norwich beds their proportions are nearly equal4 ,at or near the base of the ,red ,crag there is a remarkable accumulation1 varying in thickness from a few inches to two feet1 of bones1 teeth1 and phosphatic nodules 7called coprolites71 which are worked for making superphosphate of lime for agricultural manure4 ,the foreign equivalents of the older ,pliocene are found in the sub-,apennine strata4 ,these rocks are sufficiently remarkable in the county of ,suffolk1 where they consist of a series of marine beds of quartzose sand1 coloured red by ferruginous matter4 ,at the foot of the ,apennine chain1 which forms the backbone1 as it were1 of ,italy1 throwing out many spurs1 the formations on either side1 and on both sides of the ,adriatic1 are ,tertiary strata2 they form in many cases1 low hills lying between the ,apennines of ,secondary formation and the sea1 the strata generally being a light-brown or bluish marl covered with yellow calcareous sand and gravel1 with some fossil shells1 which1 according to ,brocchi1 are found all over ,italy4 ,but this wide range includes some older ,tertiary formations1 as in the strata of the ,superga near ,turin1 which are ,miocene4 ,the ,antwerp ,crag1 which is of the same age with the ,red and ,coralline ,crag of ,suffolk1 forms great accumulations upon divers points of ,europe3 at ,antwerp in ,belgium1 at ,carentan and ,perpignan1 and1 we believe1 in the basin of the ,rhne1 in ,france4 ,the thickest deposits of this rock consist of clay and sand1 alternating with marl and arenaceous limestone4 ,these constitute the sub-,apennine hills1 alluded to above as extending on both slopes of the ,apennines4 ,this deposit occupies the ,upper ,val d',arno1 above ,florence4 ,its presence is recognised over a great part of ,australia4 ,finally1 the seven hills of ,rome are composed1 in part1 of marine ,tertiary rocks belonging to the ,pliocene period4 ,in ,,plate ,,xxv4 an ideal landscape of the ,pliocene period is given under ,european latitudes4 ,in the background of the picture1 a mountain1 recently thrown up1 reminds us that the period was one of frequent convulsions1 in which the land was disturbed and upheaved1 and mountains and mountain-ranges made their appearance4 ,the vegetation is nearly identical with the present4 ,we see assembled in the foreground the more important animals of the period--the fossil species1 as well as those which have survived to the present time4 ,at the close of the ,pliocene period1 and in consequence of the deposits left by the seas of the ,tertiary epoch1 the continent of ,europe was nearly what it is now2 few permanent changes have occurred since to disturb its general outline4 ,although the point does not admit of actual proof1 there is strong presumptive evidence that in this period1 or in that immediately subsequent to it1 the entire ,european area1 with some trifling exceptions1 including the ,alps and ,apennines1 emerged from the deep4 ,in ,sicily1 ,newer ,pliocene rocks1 covering nearly half the surface of the island1 have been raised from #b1jjj to #c1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,fossil shells have been observed at the height of #h1jjj feet in the ,pyrenees2 and1 as if to fix the date of upheaval1 there are great masses of granite which have penetrated the ,lias and the ,chalk4 ,fossil shells of the period are also found at a height of #aj1jjj feet in the ,alps1 at #ac1jjj feet in the ,andes1 and at #ah1jjj feet in the ,himalayas4 ,illustration3 ,,xxv4--,ideal ,landscape of the ,pliocene ,period4 ,in the mountainous regions of the ,alps it is always difficult to determine the age of beds1 in consequence of the disturbed state of the strata2 for instance1 the lofty chain of the ,swiss ,jura consists of many parallel ridges1 with intervening longitudinal valleys2 the ridges formed of contorted fossiliferous strata1 which are extensive in proportion to the number and thickness of the formations which have been exposed on upheaval4 ,the proofs which these regions offer of comparatively recent elevation are numerous4 ,in the central ,alps1 ,cretaceous1 ,oolitic1 ,liassic1 and ,eocene strata are found at the loftiest summits1 passing insensibly into metamorphic rocks of granular limestone1 and into talcose and mica-schists4 ,in the eastern parts of the chain the older fossiliferous rocks are recognised in similar positions1 presenting signs of intense ,plutonic action4 ,oolitic and ,cretaceous strata have been raised #ab1jjj feet1 ,eocene #aj1jjj1 and ,miocene #d1jjj and #e1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,equally striking proofs of recent elevation exist in the ,apennines2 the celebrated ,carrara marble1 once supposed--from its crystalline texture and the absence of fossils1 and from its resting--#a4 on talcose schists1 #b4 on quartz and gneiss--to be very ancient1 now turns out to be an altered limestone of the ,oolitic series1 and the underlying crystalline rocks to be metamorphosed ,secondary sandstones and shales4 ,had all these rocks undergone complete metamorphism1 another page in the earth's history would have been obscured4 ,as it is1 the proofs of what we state are found in the gradual approach of the rocks to their unaltered condition as the distance from the intrusive rock increases4 ,this intrusive rock1 however1 does not always reach the surface1 but it exists below at no great depth1 and is observed piercing through the talcose gneiss1 and passing up into ,secondary strata4 ,at the close of this epoch1 therefore1 there is every probability that ,europe and ,asia had pretty nearly attained their present general configuration4 ,,quaternary ,,epoch4 ,the ,quaternary epoch of the history of our globe commences at the close of the ,tertiary epoch1 and brings the narrative of its revolutions down to our own times4 ,the tranquillity of the globe was only disturbed during this era by certain cataclysms whose sphere was limited and local1 and by an interval of cold of very extended duration2 the deluges and the glacial period--these are the two most remarkable peculiarities which distinguished this epoch4 ,but the fact which predominates in the ,quaternary epoch1 and distinguishes it from all other phases of the earth's history is the appearance of man1 the culminating and supreme work of the ,creator of the universe4 ,in this last phase of the history of the earth geology recognises three chronological divisions3-- #a4 ,the ,european ,deluges4 #b4 ,the ,glacial ,period4 #c4 ,the creation of man and subsequent ,asiatic ,deluge4 ,before describing the three orders of events which occurred in the ,quaternary epoch1 we shall present a brief sketch of the organic kingdoms of ,nature1 namely1 of the animals and vegetables which flourished at this date1 and the new formations which arose4 ,lyell1 and some other geologists1 designate this the ,,post-,,tertiary ,,epoch1 which they divide into two subordinate groups4--#a4 ,the ,post-,pliocene ,period2 #b4 ,the ,recent or ,pleistocene ,period4 ,,post-,,pliocene ,,period4 ,in the days of ,cuvier the ,tertiary formations were considered as a mere chaos of superficial deposits1 having no distinct relations to each other4 ,it was reserved for the ,english geologists1 with ,sir ,charles ,lyell at their head1 to throw light upon this obscure page of the earth's history2 from the study of fossils1 science has not only re-animated the animals1 it has re-constructed the theatre of their existence4 ,we see the ,british ,islands now a straggling archipelago1 and then the mouth of a vast river1 of which the continent is lost2 for1 says ,professor ,ramsay1 8,we are not of necessity to consider ,great ,britain as having always been an island2 it is an accident that it is an island now1 and it has been an island many times before40 ,in the ,tertiary epoch we see it surrounded1 then1 by shallow seas swarming with numerous forms of animal life2 islands covered with bushy ,palms2 banks on which ,turtles basked in the sun2 vast basins of fresh or brackish water1 in which the tide made itself felt1 and which abounded with various species of sharks2 rivers in which ,crocodiles increased and multiplied2 woods which sheltered numerous ,mammals and some ,serpents of large size2 fresh-water lakes which received the spoils of numerous shells4 ,dry land had increased immensely4 ,groups of ancient isles we have seen united and become continents1 with lakes1 bays1 and perhaps inland seas4 ,gigantic ,elephants1 vastly larger than any now existing1 close the epoch1 and probably usher in the succeeding one2 for we are not to suppose any sudden break to distinguish one period from another in ,nature1 although it is convenient to arrange them so for the purposes of description4 ,if we may judge from their remains1 these animals must have existed in great numbers1 for it is stated that on the coast of ,norfolk alone the fishermen1 in trawling for oysters1 dredged up between #ahbj and #ahcc1 no less than #b1jjj molar teeth of ,elephants4 ,if we consider how slowly these animals multiply1 these quarries of ivory1 as we may call them1 must have required many centuries for their production and accumulation4 ,the same lakes and rivers were at this time occupied1 also1 by the ,hippopotamus1 as large and as formidably armed as that now inhabiting the ,african solitudes2 also the two-horned ,rhinoceros2 and three species of ,bos1 one of which was hairy and bore a mane4 ,some ,deer of gigantic size1 as compared with living species1 bounded over the plains4 ,in the same savannahs lived the ,reindeer1 the ,stag1 a ,horse of small size1 the ,ass1 the ,bear1 and the ,roe1 for ,mammals had succeeded the ,ichthyosauri of a former age4 ,nevertheless1 the epoch had its tyrants also4 ,a ,lion1 as large as the largest of the ,lions of ,africa1 hunted its prey in the ,british jungles4 ,another animal of the feline race1 the ,machairodus 7,fig4 #agi71 was probably the most ferocious and destructive of ,carnivora2 bands of ,hynas and a terrible ,bear1 surpassing in size that of the ,rocky ,mountains1 had established themselves in the caverns2 two species of ,beaver made their appearance on the scene4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4--;a1 ,tooth of ,machairodus1 imperfect below1 natural size2 b1 outline of cast of tooth1 perfect1 half natural size2 c1 tooth of ,megalosaurus1 natural size4 ,the finding of the remains of most of these animals in caverns was perhaps among the most interesting discoveries of geology4 ,the discovery was first made in the celebrated ,kirkdale ,cave in ,yorkshire1 which has been described by ,dr4 ,buckland2 and afterwards at ,kent's ,hole1 near ,torquay4 ,this latter pleasant ,devonshire town is built in a creek1 shut out from exposure on all sides except the south4 ,in this creek1 hollowed out of the rocks1 is the great fissure or cavern known as ,kent's ,hole2 like that of ,kirkdale1 it has been under water1 from whence1 after a longer or shorter interval1 it emerged1 but remained entirely closed till the moment when chance led to its discovery4 ,the principal cavern is #fjj feet in length1 with many crevices or fissures of smaller extent traversing the rock in various directions4 ,a bed of hard stalagmite of very ancient formation1 which has been again covered with a thin layer of soil1 forms the floor of the cavern1 which is a red sandy clay4 ,from this bed of red loam or clay was disinterred a mass of fossil bones belonging to extinct species of ,bear1 ,lion1 ,rhinoceros1 ,reindeer1 ,beaver1 and ,hyna4 ,such an assemblage gave rise to all sorts of conjectures4 ,it was generally thought that the dwelling of some beasts of prey had been discovered1 which had dragged the carcases of elephants1 deer1 and others into these caves1 to devour them at leisure4 ,others asked if1 in some cases1 instinct did not impel sick animals1 or animals broken down by old age1 to seek such places for the purpose of dying in quiet2 while others1 again1 suggested that these bones might have been engulfed pell-mell in the hole during some ancient inundation4 ,however that may be1 the remains discovered in these caves show that all these ,mammals existed at the close of the ,tertiary epoch1 and that they all lived in ,england4 ,what were the causes which led to their extinction8 ,it was the opinion of ,cuvier and the early geologists that the ancient species were destroyed in some great and sudden catastrophe1 from which none made their escape4 ,but recent geologists trace their extinction to slow1 successive1 and determinative action due to local causes1 the chief one being the gradual lowering of the temperature4 ,we have seen that at the beginning of the ,tertiary epoch1 in the older ,eocene age1 palms1 cocoa-nuts1 and acacias1 resembling those now met with in countries more favoured by the sun1 grew in our island4 ,the ,miocene flora presents indications of a climate still warm1 but less tropical2 and the ,pliocene period1 which follows1 contains remains which announce an approach to our present climate4 ,in following the vegetable productions of the ,tertiary epoch1 the botanist meets with the floras of ,africa1 ,south ,america1 and ,australia1 and finally settles in the flora of temperate ,europe4 ,many circumstances demonstrate this decreasing temperature1 until we arrive at what geologists call the glacial period--one of the winters of the ancient world4 ,but before entering on the evidences which exist of the glacial era we shall glance at the picture presented by the animals of the period2 the vegetable products we need not dwell on--it is1 in fact1 that of our own era1 the flora of temperate regions in our own epoch4 ,the same remark would apply to the animals1 but for some signal exceptions4 ,in this epoch ,man appears1 and some of the ,mammals of the last epoch1 but of larger dimensions1 have long disappeared4 ,the more remarkable of these extinct animals we shall describe1 as we have those belonging to anterior ages4 ,they are not numerous2 those of our hemisphere being the ,mammoth1 ,elephas primigenius2 the ,bear1 ,ursus spelus2 gigantic ,lion1 ,felis spela2 ,hyna1 ,hyna spela2 ,ox1 ,bison priscus1 ,bos primigenius2 the gigantic ,stag1 ,cervus megaceros2 to which we may add the ,dinornis and ,epiornis1 among birds4 ,in ,america there existed in the ,quaternary epoch some ,edentates of colossal dimensions and of very peculiar structure1 these were ,megatherium1 ,megalonyx1 and ,mylodon2 we shall pass these animals in review1 beginning with those of our own hemisphere4 ,the ,mammoth1 the skeleton of which is represented in ,fig4 #ahj1 surpassed the largest existing ,elephants of the tropics in size1 for it was from sixteen to eighteen feet in height4 ,the teeth1 and the size of the monstrous tusks1 much curved1 and with a spiral turn outwards1 and which were from ten to fifteen feet in length1 serve to distinguish the ,mammoth from the two ,elephants living at the present day1 the ,african and the ,indian4 ,the form of its teeth permits of its being distinguished from its ally1 the ,mastodon2 for while the teeth of the latter have rough mammillations on their surface1 those of the ,mammoth1 like those of the living ,indian ,elephant1 have a broad united surface1 with regular furrowed lines of large curvature4 ,the teeth of the ,mammoth are four in number1 like the ,elephants1 two in each jaw when the animal is adult1 its head is elongated1 its forehead concave1 its jaws curved and truncated in front4 ,it has been an easy task1 as we shall see1 to recognise the general form and structure of the ,mammoth1 even to its skin4 ,we know beyond a doubt that it was thickly covered with long shaggy hair1 and that a copious mane floated upon its neck and along its back2 its trunk resembled that of the ,indian ,elephant2 its body was heavy1 with a tail naked to the end1 which was covered with thick tufty hair1 and its legs were comparatively shorter than those of the latter animal1 many of the habits of which it nevertheless possessed4 ,blumenbach gave it the specific name of ,elephas primigenius4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,skeleton of the ,mammoth1 ,elephas primigenius4 ,in all ages1 and in almost all countries1 chance discoveries have been made of fossil bones of elephants in the soil4 ,pliny has transmitted to us a tradition1 recorded by the historian ,theophrastus1 who wrote #cbj years before ,jesus ,christ1 of the existence of bones of fossil ivory in the soil of ,greece1 that the bones were sometimes transformed into stones4 8,these bones10 the historian gravely tells us1 8were both black and white1 and born of the earth40 ,some of the elephant's bones having a slight resemblance to those of man1 they have often been mistaken for human bones4 ,in the earlier historic times these great bones1 accidentally disinterred1 have passed as having belonged to some hero or demigod2 at a later period they were thought to be the bones of giants4 ,we have already spoken of the mistake made by the ,greeks in taking the patella of a fossil elephant for the knee-bone of ,ajax2 in the same manner the bones revealed by an earthquake1 and attributed by ,pliny to a giant1 belonged1 no doubt1 to a fossil elephant4 ,to a similar origin we may assign the pretended body of ,orestes1 thirteen feet in length1 which was discovered at ,tegea by the ,spartans2 those of ,asterius1 the son of ,ajax1 discovered in the ,isle of ,ladea1 of ten cubits in length 7about eighteen feet71 according to ,pausanius2 finally1 such were the great bones found in the ,isle of ,rhodes1 of which ,phlegon of ,tralles speaks in his 8,mundus ,subterraneus40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4--,tooth of the ,mammoth4 ,we might fill volumes with the history of the remains of pretended giants found in ancient tombs4 ,the books1 in fact1 which exist1 formed a voluminous literature in the middle ages--entitled ,gigantology4 ,all the facts1 more or less real1 true or imaginative1 may be explained by the accidental discovery of the bones of some of these gigantic animals4 ,we find in works on ,gigantology1 the history of a pretended giant1 discovered in the #dth century1 at ,trapani in ,sicily1 of which ,boccaccio speaks1 and which may be taken for ,polyphemus2 of another1 found in the #afth century1 according to ,fasellus1 near ,palermo2 others1 according to the same author1 at ,melilli between ,leontium and ,syracuse1 ,calatrasi and ,petralia1 at each of which places the bones of supposed giants were disinterred4 ,p4 ,kircher speaks of three other giants being found in ,sicily1 of which only the teeth remained perfect4 ,in #aegg1 a storm having uprooted an oak near the cloisters of ,reyden1 in the ,canton of ,lucerne1 in ,switzerland1 some large bones were exposed to view4 ,seven years after1 the celebrated physician and ,professor at ,basle1 ,felix ,plten1 being at ,lucerne1 examined these bones1 and declared they could only be those of a giant4 ,the ,council of ,lucerne consented to send the bones to ,basle for more minute examination1 and ,plten thought himself justified in attributing to the giant a height of nineteen feet4 ,he designed a human skeleton on this scale1 and returned the bones with the drawing to ,lucerne4 ,in #agjf there only remained of these bones a portion of the scapula and a fragment of the wrist bone2 the anatomist ,blumenbach1 who saw them at the beginning of the century1 easily recognised in them the bones of an ,elephant4 ,let us not omit to add1 as a complement to this story1 that since the sixteenth century1 the inhabitants of ,lucerne have adopted the image of this fabulous giant as the supporter of the city arms4 ,spanish history preserves many stories of giants4 ,the supposed tooth of ,st4 ,christopher1 shown at ,valence1 in the church dedicated to the saint1 was certainly the molar tooth of a fossil ,elephant2 and in #aghi1 the canons of ,st4 ,vincent carried through the streets in public procession1 to procure rain1 the pretended arm of a saint1 which was nothing more than the femur of an ,elephant4 ,in ,france1 in the reign of ,charles ,,vii4 7#adef71 some of these bones of imaginary giants appeared in the bed of the ,rhne4 ,a repetition of the phenomenon occurred near ,saint-,peirat1 opposite ,valence1 when the ,dauphin1 afterwards ,louis ,,xi41 then residing at the latter place1 caused the bones to be gathered together and sent to ,bourges1 where they long remained objects of public curiosity in the interior of the ,sainte-,chapelle4 ,in #aefd a similar discovery took place in the same neighbourhood4 ,two peasants observed on the banks of the ,rhne1 along a slope1 some great bones sticking out of the ground4 ,they carried them to the neighbouring village1 where they were examined by ,cassanion1 who lived at ,valence4 ,it was no doubt apropos to this that ,cassanion wrote his treatise 8,de ,gigantibus40 ,the description given by the author of a tooth sufficed1 according to ,cuvier1 to prove that it belonged to an ,elephant2 it was a foot in length1 and weighed eight pounds4 ,it was also on the banks of the ,rhne1 but in ,dauphiny1 as we have seen1 that the skeleton of the famous ,teutobocchus1 of which we have spoken in a previous chapter1 was found4 ,in #affc ,otto de ,guericke1 the illustrious inventor of the air-pump1 witnessed the discovery of the bones of an ,elephant1 buried in the shelly limestone1 or ,muschelkalk4 ,along with it were found its enormous tusks1 which should have sufficed to establish its zoological origin4 ,nevertheless they were taken for horns1 and the illustrious ,leibnitz composed1 out of the remains1 a strange animal1 carrying a horn in the middle of its forehead1 and in each jaw a dozen molar teeth a foot long4 ,having fabricated this fantastic animal1 ,leibnitz named it also--he called it the fossil unicorn4 ,in his 8,protoga10 a work remarkable besides as the first attempt at a theory of the earth1 ,leibnitz gave the description and a drawing of this imaginary animal4 ,during more than thirty years the unicorn of ,leibnitz was universally accepted throughout ,germany2 and nothing less than the discovery of the entire skeleton of the ,mammoth in the valley of the ,unstrut was required to produce a change of opinion4 ,this skeleton was at once recognised by ,tinzel1 librarian to the ,duke of ,saxe-,gotha1 as that of an ,elephant1 and was established as such2 not1 however1 without a keen controversy with adversaries of all kinds4 ,in #agjj a soldier of ,wrtemberg accidentally observed some bones showing themselves projecting out of the earth1 in an argillaceous soil1 near the city of ,canstadt1 not far from the banks of the ,necker4 ,having addressed a report to the reigning ,duke1 the latter caused the place to be excavated1 which occupied nearly six months4 ,a veritable cemetery of elephants was discovered1 in which were not less than sixty tusks4 ,those which were entire were preserved2 the fragments were abandoned to the court physician1 and they became a mere vulgar medicine4 ,in the last century the fossil bones of bears1 which were abundant in ,germany1 were administered in that country medicinally1 as an absorbent1 astringent1 and sudorific4 ,it was then called by the ,german doctors the ,ebur fossile1 or ,unicornu fossile1 ,licorn fossil4 ,the magnificent tusks of the ,mammoth found at ,canstadt helped to combat fever and colic4 ,what an intelligent man this court physician of ,wrtemberg must have been6 ,numerous discoveries like those we have quoted distinguished the #ahth century2 but the progress of science has now rendered such mistakes as we have had to relate impossible4 ,these bones were at length universally recognised as belonging to an ,elephant1 but erudition now intervened1 and helped to obscure a subject which was otherwise perfectly clear4 ,some learned pedant declared that the bones found in ,italy and ,france were the remains of the ,elephants which ,hannibal brought from ,carthage with the army in his expedition against the ,romans4 ,the part of ,france where the most ancient bones of these ,elephants were found is in the environs of the ,rhne1 and consequently on the route of the ,carthaginian general1 and this consideration appeared to these terrible savants to be a particularly triumphant answer to the naturalist's reasoning4 ,again1 at a later period1 ,domitius nobarbus conducted the ,carthaginian armies1 which were followed by a number of ,elephants1 armed for war4 ,cuvier scarcely took the trouble to refute this insignificant objection4 ,it is merely necessary to read1 in his learned dissertation1 of the number of elephants which could remain to ,hannibal when he had entered ,gaul4 ,but the best reply that can be made to this strange objection raised by the learned1 is to show how extensively these fossil bones of ,elephants are scattered1 not in ,europe only1 but over the world--there are few regions of the globe in which their remains are not found4 ,in the north of ,europe1 in ,scandinavia1 in ,ireland1 in ,belgium1 in ,germany1 in ,central ,europe1 in ,poland1 in ,middle ,russia1 in ,south ,russia1 in ,greece1 in ,italy1 in ,africa1 in ,asia1 and1 as we have seen1 in ,england4 ,in the ,new ,world remains of the ,mammoth are also met with4 ,what is most singular is that these remains exist more especially in great numbers in the north of ,europe1 in the frozen regions of ,siberia--regions altogether uninhabitable for the ,elephant in our days4 8,there is not10 says ,pallas1 8in all ,asiatic ,russia1 from the ,don to the extremity of the promontory of ,tchutchis1 a stream or river1 especially of those which flow in the plains1 on the banks of which some bones of ,elephants and other animals foreign to the climate have not been found4 ,but in the more elevated regions1 the primitive and schistose chains1 they are wanting1 as are marine petrifactions4 ,but in the lower slopes and in the great muddy and sandy plains1 above all1 in places which are swept by rivers and brooks1 they are always found1 which proves that we should not the less find them throughout the whole extent of the country if we had the same means of searching for them40 ,every year in the season when thaw takes place1 the vast rivers which descend to the ,frozen ,ocean in the north of ,siberia sweep down with their waters numerous portions of the banks1 and expose to view bones buried in the soil and in the excavations left by the rushing waters4 ,cuvier gives a long list of places in ,russia in which interesting discoveries have been made of ,elephants' bones2 and it is certainly curious that the more we advance towards the north in ,russia the more numerous and extensive do the bone depositories become4 ,in spite of the oft-repeated and undoubted testimony of numerous travellers1 we can scarcely credit the statements made respecting some of the islands of the glacial sea near the poles1 situated opposite the mouth of the ,lena and of the ,indighirka4 ,here1 for example1 is an extract from 8,billing's ,voyage0 concerning these isles3 8,the whole island 7which is about thirty-three leagues in length71 except three or four small rocky mountains1 is a mixture of ice and sand2 and as the shores fall1 from the heat of the sun's thawing them1 the tusks and bones of the mammont are found in great abundance4 ,to use ,chvoinoff's own expression1 the island is formed of the bones of this extraordinary animal1 mixed with the horns and heads of the buffalo1 or something like it1 and some horns of the rhinoceros40 ,new ,siberia and the ,lchow ,islands off the mouth of the river ,lena1 are1 for the most part1 only an agglomeration of sand1 ice1 and ,elephants' teeth4 ,at every tempest the sea casts ashore new quantities of mammoths' tusks1 and the inhabitants of ,siberia carry on a profitable commerce in this fossil ivory4 ,every year1 during the summer1 innumerable fishermen's barks direct their course towards this isle of bones2 and1 during winter1 immense caravans take the same route1 all the convoys drawn by dogs1 returning charged with the tusks of the ,mammoth1 each weighing from #aej to #bjj pounds4 ,the fossil ivory thus withdrawn from the frozen north is imported into ,china and ,europe1 where it is employed for the same purposes as ordinary ivory1 which is furnished1 as we know1 by the existing ,elephant and ,hippopotamus of ,africa and ,asia4 ,the ,isle of ,bones has served as a quarry of this valuable material1 for export to ,china1 for #ejj years2 and it has been exported to ,europe for upwards of #ajj4 ,but the supply from these strange diggings apparently remains practically undiminished4 ,what a number of accumulated generations of these bones and tusks does not this profusion imply6 ,it was in ,siberia that the fossil ,elephant received the name of the ,mammoth1 and its tusks that of mammoth horns4 ,the celebrated ,russian savant1 ,pallas1 who gave the first systematic description of the ,mammoth1 asserts that the name is derived from the word mama1 which in the ,tartar idiom signifies the earth4 ,according to others1 the name is derived from behemoth1 mentioned in the ,book of ,job2 or from the epithet mahemoth1 which the ,arabs add to the word 8elephant10 to designate one of unusual size4 ,a curious circumstance enough is1 that this same legend of an animal living exclusively under ground1 exists amongst the ,chinese4 ,they call it tien-schu1 and we read1 in the great ,chinese work on natural history1 which was written in the sixteenth century3 8,the animal named tien-schu1 of which we have already spoken in the ancient work upon the ceremonial entitled 8,lyki0 7a work of the fifth century before ,jesus ,christ71 is called also tyn-schu or yn-schu1 that is to say1 the mouse which hides itself4 ,it always lives in subterranean caverns2 it resembles a mouse1 but is of the size of a buffalo or ox4 ,it has no tail2 its colour is dark2 it is very strong1 and excavates caverns in places full of rocks1 and forests40 ,another writer1 quoting the same passage1 thus expresses himself3 8,the tyn-schu haunts obscure and unfrequented places4 ,it dies as soon as it is exposed to the rays of the sun or moon2 its feet are short in proportion to its size1 which causes it to walk badly4 ,its tail is a ,chinese ell in length4 ,its eyes are small1 and its neck short4 ,it is very stupid and sluggish4 ,when the inundations of the river ,tamschuann-tuy took place 7in #aega71 a great many tyn-schu appeared in the plain2 it fed on the roots of the plant fu-kia40 ,the existence in ,russia of the bones and tusks of the ,mammoth is sufficiently confirmed by the following extract from an old ,russian traveller1 ,ysbrants ,ides1 who1 in #afib1 was sent by ,peter the ,great as ambassador to the ,emperor of ,china4 ,in the extract which follows1 we remark the very surprising fact of the discovery of a head and foot of the ,mammoth which had been preserved in ice with all the flesh4 8,amongst the hills which are situate north-east of the river ,kata10 says the traveller1 8the ,mammuts' tongues and legs are found1 as they are also particularly on the shores of the river ,jenize1 ,trugan1 ,mongamsea1 ,lena1 and near ,jakutskoi1 even as far as the ,frozen ,ocean4 ,in the spring1 when the ice of this river breaks1 it is driven in such vast quantities and with such force by the high swollen waters1 that it frequently carries very high banks before it1 and breaks off the tops of hills1 which1 falling down1 discover these animals whole1 or their teeth only1 almost frozen to the earth1 which thaw by degrees4 ,i had a person with me who had annually gone out in search of these bones2 he told it to me as a real truth1 that he and his companions found the head of one of these animals1 which was discovered by the fall of such a frozen piece of earth4 ,as soon as he opened it1 he found the greatest part of the flesh rotten1 but it was not without difficulty that they broke out his teeth1 which were placed in the fore-part of his mouth1 as those of the ,elephants are2 they also took some bones out of his head1 and afterwards came to his fore-foot1 which they cut off1 and carried part of it to the city of ,trugan1 the circumference of it being as large as that of the waist of an ordinary man4 ,the bones of the head appeared somewhat red1 as though they were tinctured with blood4 8,concerning this animal there are very different reports4 ,the heathens of ,jakuti1 ,tungusi1 and ,ostiacki1 say that they continually1 or at least1 by reason of the very hard frosts1 mostly live under ground1 where they go backwards and forwards2 to confirm which they tell us1 that they have often seen the earth heaved up when one of these beasts was upon the march1 and after he was passed1 the place sink in1 and thereby make a deep pit4 ,they further believe1 that if this animal comes so near to the surface of the frozen earth as to smell the air1 he immediately dies1 which they say is the reason that several of them are found dead on the high banks of the river1 where they unawares came out of the ground4 8,this is the opinion of the ,infidels concerning these beasts1 which are never seen4 8,but the old ,siberian ,russians affirm1 that the ,mammuth is very like the ,elephant1 with this difference only1 that the teeth of the former are firmer1 and not so straight as those of the latter4 ,they also are of opinion that there were ,elephants in this country before the ,deluge1 when this climate was warmer1 and that their drowned bodies1 floating on the surface of the water of that flood1 were at last washed and forced into subterranean cavities2 but that after this universal deluge1 the air1 which before was warm1 was changed to cold1 and that these bones have lain frozen in the earth ever since1 and so are preserved from putrefaction till they thaw1 and come to light1 which is no very unreasonable conjecture1 though it is not absolutely necessary that this climate should have been warmer before the ,flood1 since the carcases of the drowned elephants were very likely to float from other places several hundred miles distant to this country in the great deluge which covered the surface of the whole earth4 ,some of these teeth1 which doubtless have lain the whole summer on the shore1 are entirely black and broken1 and can never be restored to their former condition4 ,but those which are found in good case1 are as good as ivory1 and are accordingly transported to all parts of ,muscovy1 where they are used to make combs1 and all other such-like things1 instead of ivory4 8,the above-mentioned person also told me that he once found two teeth in one head that weighed above twelve ,russian pounds1 which amount to four hundred ,german pounds2 so that these animals must of necessity be very large1 though a great many lesser teeth are found4 ,by all that ,i could gather from the heathens1 no person ever saw one of these beasts alive1 or can give any account of its shape2 so that all we heard said on this subject arises from bare conjecture only40 ,it is possible this recital may seem suspicious to some readers4 ,we have ourselves felt some difficulty in believing that this head and foot were taken from the ice1 with the flesh and skin1 when we consider that the animal to which they belonged has been extinct probably more than ten thousand years4 ,but the assertion of ,ysbrants ,ides is confirmed by respectable testimony of more recent date4 ,in #ahjj1 a ,russian naturalist1 ,gabriel ,sarytschew1 travelled in northern ,siberia4 ,having arrived in the neighbourhood of the ,frozen ,ocean1 he found upon the banks of the ,alasia1 which discharges itself into this sea1 the entire body of a ,mammoth enveloped in a mass of ice4 ,the body was in a complete state of preservation1 for the permanent contact of the ice had kept out the air and prevented decomposition4 ,it is well known that at zero and below it1 animal substances will not putrefy1 so that in our households we can preserve all kinds of animal food as long as we can surround them with ice2 and this is precisely what happened to the ,mammoth found by ,gabriel ,sarytschew in the ice of the ,alasia4 ,the rolling waters had disengaged the mass of ice which had imprisoned the monstrous pachyderm for thousands of years4 ,the body1 in a complete state of preservation and covered with its flesh as well as its entire hide1 to which long hairs adhered in certain places1 found itself1 again1 nearly erect on its four feet4 ,the ,russian naturalist ,adams1 in #ahjf1 made a discovery quite as extraordinary as the preceding4 ,we borrow his account from a paper by ,dr4 ,tilesius in the 8,memoirs of the ,imperial ,academy of ,sciences of ,st4 ,petersburg0 7vol4 v474 ,in #agii1 a ,tungusian chief1 ,ossip ,schumachoff1 while seeking for mammoth-horns on the banks of the lake ,oncoul1 perceived among the blocks of ice a shapeless mass1 not at all resembling the large pieces of floating wood which are commonly found there4 ,the following year he noticed that this mass was more disengaged from the blocks of ice1 and had two projecting parts1 but he was still unable to make out what it could be4 ,towards the end of the following summer one entire side of the animal and one of his tusks were quite free from the ice4 ,but the succeeding summer of #ahjb1 which was less warm and more windy than common1 caused the ,mammoth to remain buried in the ice1 which had scarcely melted at all4 ,at length1 towards the end of the fifth year 7#ahjc71 the ice between the earth and the ,mammoth having melted faster than the rest1 the plane of its support became inclined2 and this enormous mass fell by its own weight on a bank of sand4 ,in the month of ,march1 #ahjd1 ,schumachoff cut off the horns 7the tusks71 which he exchanged with the merchant ,bultenof for goods of the value of fifty roubles 7not quite eight pounds sterling74 ,it was not till two years after this that ,mr4 ,adams1 of the ,st4 ,petersburg ,academy1 who was travelling with ,count ,golovkin1 sent by the ,czar of ,russia on an embassy to ,china1 having been told at ,jakutsk of the discovery of an animal of extraordinary magnitude on the shores of the ,frozen ,ocean1 near the mouth of the river ,lena1 betook himself to the place4 ,he found the ,mammoth still in the same place1 but altogether mutilated4 ,the ,jakoutskis of the neighbourhood had cut off the flesh1 with which they fed their dogs2 wild beasts1 such as white bears1 wolves1 wolverines1 and foxes1 had also fed upon it1 and traces of their footsteps were seen around4 ,the skeleton1 almost entirely cleared of its flesh1 remained whole1 with the exception of one fore-leg4 ,the spine of the back1 one scapula1 the pelvis1 and the other three limbs were still held together by the ligaments and by parts of the skin2 the other scapula was found not far off4 ,the head was covered with a dry skin2 one of the ears was furnished with a tuft of hairs2 the balls of the eyes were still distinguishable2 the brain still occupied the cranium1 but seemed dried up2 the point of the lower lip had been gnawed and the upper lip had been destroyed so as to expose the teeth2 the neck was furnished with a long flowing mane2 the skin1 of a dark-grey colour1 covered with black hairs and a reddish wool1 was so heavy that ten persons found great difficulty in transporting it to the shore4 ,there was collected1 according to ,mr4 ,adams1 more than thirty-six pounds' weight of hair and wool which the white bears had trod into the ground1 while devouring the flesh4 ,this ,mammoth was a male so fat and well fed1 according to the assertion of the ,tungusian chief1 that its belly hung down below the joints of its knees4 ,its tusks were nine feet six inches in length1 measured along the curve1 and its head without the tusks weighed #dad pounds avoirdupois4 ,mr4 ,adams took every care to collect all that remained of this unique specimen of an ancient creation1 and forwarded the parts to ,st4 ,petersburg1 a distance of #aa1jjj versts 7#g1ccj miles74 ,he succeeded in re-purchasing what he believed to be the tusks at ,jakutsk1 and the ,emperor of ,russia1 who became the owner of this precious relic1 paid him #h1jjj roubles4 ,the skeleton is deposited in the ,museum of the ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburg1 and the skin still remains attached to the head and the feet4 8,we have yet to find10 says ,cuvier1 8any individual equal to it40 ,illustration3 ,,xxvi4--,skeleton of the ,mammoth in the ,st4 ,petersburg ,museum4 ,beside the skeleton of this famous ,mammoth there is placed that of an ,indian ,elephant1 and another ,elephant with skin and hair1 in order that the visitor may have a proper appreciation of the vast proportions of the ,mammoth1 as compared with them4 ,,plate ,,xxvi41 on the opposite page1 represents the saloon of the ,museum of ,st4 ,petersburg1 which contains these three interesting remains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,mammoth restored4 ,in #ahfj a great number of bones of the ,mammoth1 with remains of ,hyna1 ,horse1 ,reindeer1 ,rhinoceros-megarhinus1 and ,bison1 were found in ,belgium in digging a canal at ,lierre1 in the province of ,antwerp4 ,an entire skeleton of a young ,mammoth1 eleven feet six inches high 7to the shoulder71 has been reconstructed from these remains by ,m4 ,dupont1 and is now placed in the ,royal ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,brussels4#ih #ih ,h4 ,woodward1 ,geological ,magazine1 vol4 viii41 p4 #aic4 ,we cannot doubt1 after such testimony1 of the existence in the frozen north1 of the almost entire remains of the ,mammoth4 ,the animals seem to have perished suddenly2 enveloped in ice at the moment of their death1 their bodies have been preserved from decomposition by the continued action of the cold4 ,if we suppose that one of those animals had sunk into a marsh which froze soon afterwards1 or had fallen accidentally into the crevasse of some glacier1 it would be easy for us to understand how its body1 buried immediately under eternal ice1 had remained there for thousands of years without undergoing decomposition4 ,in ,cuvier's great work on fossil bones1 he gives a long and minute enumeration of the various regions of ,germany1 ,france1 ,italy1 and other countries1 which have furnished in our days bones or tusks of the ,mammoth4 ,we venture to quote two of these descriptions3--8,in ,october1 #ahaf10 he says1 8there was discovered at ,seilberg1 near ,canstadt1 in ,wrtemberg1 near which some remarkable discoveries were made in #agjj1 a very remarkable deposit1 which the king1 ,frederick ,i41 caused to be excavated1 and its contents collected with the greatest care4 ,we are even assured that the visit which the prince1 in his ardour for all that was great1 paid to this spot1 aggravated the malady of which he died a few days after4 ,an officer1 ,herr ,natter1 commenced some excavations1 and in four-and-twenty hours discovered twenty-one teeth or fragments of teeth of elephant1 mixed with a great number of bones4 ,the king having ordered him to continue the excavations1 on the second day they came upon a group of thirteen tusks heaped close upon each other1 and along with them some molar teeth1 lying as if they had been packed artificially4 ,it was on this discovery that the king caused himself to be transported thither1 and ordered all the surrounding soil to be dug up1 and every object to be carefully preserved in its original position4 ,the largest of the tusks1 though it had lost its points and its roots1 was still eight feet long and one foot in diameter4 ,many isolated tusks were also found1 with a quantity of molar teeth1 from two inches to a foot in length1 some still adhering to the jaws4 ,all these fragments were better preserved than those of #agjj1 which was attributed to the depth of the bed1 and1 perhaps1 to the nature of the soil4 ,the tusks were generally much curved4 ,in the same deposit some bones of ,horses and ,stags were found1 together with a quantity of teeth of the ,rhinoceros1 and others which were thought to belong to a ,bear1 and one specimen which was attributed to the ,tapir4 ,the place where this discovery was made is named ,seilberg2 it is about #fjj paces from the city of ,canstadt1 but on the opposite side of the ,necker4 8,all the great river basins of ,germany have1 like those of the ,necker1 yielded fossil bones of the ,elephant2 those especially abutting on the ,rhine are too numerous to be mentioned1 nor is ,canstadt the only place in the valley of the ,necker where they are found40 ,but of all parts of ,europe1 that in which they are found in greatest numbers is the valley of the ,upper ,arno4 ,we find there a perfect cemetery of ,elephants4 ,these bones were at one time so common in this valley1 that the peasantry employed them1 indiscriminately with stones1 in constructing walls and houses4 ,since they have learned their value1 however1 they reserve them for sale to travellers4 ,the bones and tusks of the ,mammoth are met with in ,america as well as in the ,old ,world1 scattered through ,canada1 ,oregon1 and the ,northern ,states as far south as the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,cuvier enumerates several places on that continent where their remains are met with1 mingled with those of the ,mastodon4 ,the ,russian ,lieutenant ,kotzebue found them on the north coast of ,america1 in the cliffs of frozen mud in ,eschsholtz ,bay1 within ,behring's ,strait1 and in other distant parts of the shores of the ,arctic ,seas1 where they were so common that the sailors burnt many pieces in their fires4 ,it is very strange that the ,east ,indies1 that is1 one of the only two regions which is now the home of the ,elephant1 should be almost the only country in which the fossil bones of these animals have not been discovered4 ,in short1 from the preceding enumeration1 it appears that1 during the geological period whose history we are recording the gigantic ,mammoth inhabited most regions of the globe4 ,now-a-days1 the only climates which are suited for the existing race of ,elephants are those of ,africa and ,india1 that is to say1 tropical countries2 from which we must draw the conclusions to which so many other inferences lead1 that1 at the epoch in which these animals lived1 the temperature of the earth was much higher than in our days2 or1 more probably1 the extinct race of ,elephants must have been adapted for living in a colder climate than that which they now require4 ,among the antediluvian ,carnivora1 one of the most formidable seems to have been the ,ursus spelus1 or ,cave-bear 7,fig4 #ahc74 ,this species must have been a fifth1 if not a fourth1 larger than the ,brown ,bear of our days4 ,it was also more squat3 some of the skeletons we possess are from nine to ten feet long1 and only about six feet high4 ,the ,u4 spelus abounded in ,england1 ,france1 ,belgium1 and ,germany2 and so extensively in the latter country1 that the teeth of the antediluvian ,bear1 as we have already stated1 formed for a long time part of its materia medica1 under the name of fossil licorn4 ,fig4 #ahc represents the skull of the ,cave-bear4 ,at the same time with the ,ursus spelus another ,carnivore1 the ,felis spelus1 or ,cave-lion1 lived in ,europe4 ,this animal is specifically identical with the living ,lion of ,asia and ,africa3 but since in these early times he had not to contend with the hunter for food1 he was1 on the whole1 considerably larger than any ,lion now existing on the earth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--;,head of ,ursus spelus4 ,the ,hynas of our age consist of two species1 the striped and the spotted ,hynas4 ,the last presents considerable conformity in its structure with that of the ,post-pliocene period1 which ,cuvier designates under the name of the fossil ,spotted ,hyna4 ,it seems to have been only a little larger than the existing species4 ,fig4 #ahd represents the head of the ,hyna spela1 whose remains1 with those of others1 were found in the caves of ,kirkdale and ,kent's ,hole2 the remains of about #cjj being found in the former4 ,dr4 ,buckland satisfied himself1 from the quantity of their dung1 that the ,hynas had lived there4 ,in the cave were found remains of the ox1 young elephant1 rhinoceros1 horse1 bear1 wolf1 hare1 water-rat1 and several birds4 ,all the bones present an appearance of having been broken and gnawed by the teeth of the ,hynas1 and they occur confusedly mixed in loam or mud1 or dispersed through the crust of stalagmite which covered the contents of the cave4 ,the ,horse dates from the ,quaternary epoch1 if not from the last period of the ,tertiary epoch4 ,its remains are found in the same rocks with those of the ,mammoth and the ,rhinoceros4 ,it is distinguished from our existing ,horse only by its size1 which was smaller--its remains abound in the ,post-pliocene rocks1 not only in ,europe1 but in ,america2 so that an aboriginal ,horse existed in the ,new ,world long before it was carried thither by the ,spaniards1 although we know that it was unknown at the date of their arrival4 8,certainly it is a marvellous fact in the history of the ,mammalia1 that in ,south ,america1 a native horse should have lived and disappeared1 to be succeeded in after ages by the countless herds descended from the few introduced with the ,spanish colonists60#ii #ii 8,darwin's ,journal10 p4 #acj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4--;,head of ,hyna spela4 ,the ,oxen of the period1 if not identical with1 were at least very near to our living species4 ,there were three species3 the ,bison priscus1 ,b4 primigenius1 and ,b4 ,pallasii2 the first with slender legs1 with convex frontal1 broader than it was high1 and differing but slightly from the ,aurochs1 except in being taller and by having larger horns4 ,the remains of ,bison priscus are found in ,england1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,germany1 ,russia1 and ,america4 ,bison primigenius was1 according to ,cuvier1 the source of our domestic cattle4 ,the ,bos ,pallasii is found in ,america and in ,siberia1 and resembles in many respects the ,musk-ox of ,canada4 ,where these great ,mammals are found we generally discover the fossil remains of several species of ,deer4 ,the palontological question as regards these animals is very obscure1 and it is often difficult to determine whether the remains belong to an extinct or an existing species4 ,this doubt does not extend1 however1 to the gigantic forest-stag1 ,cervus megaceros1 one of the most magnificent of the antediluvian animals1 whose remains are still frequently found in ,ireland in the neighbourhood of ,dublin2 more rarely in ,france1 ,germany1 ,poland1 and ,italy4 ,intermediate between the ,fallow-deer and the ,elk1 the ,cervus megaceros partakes of the ,elk in its general proportions and in the form of its cranium1 but it approaches the ,fallow-deer in its size and in the disposition of its horns4 ,these magnificent appendages1 however1 while they decorated the head of the animal and gave a most imposing appearance to it1 must have sadly impeded its progress through the thick and tangled forests of the ancient world4 ,the length of these horns was between nine and ten feet2 and they were so divergent that1 measured from one extremity to the other1 they occupied a space of between three and four yards4 ,the skeleton of the ,cervus megaceros is found in the deposits of calcareous tufa1 which underlie the immense peat moss of ,ireland2 sometimes in the turf itself1 as near the ,curragh in ,kildare2 in which position they sometimes occur in little mounds piled up in a small space1 and nearly always in the same attitude1 the head aloft1 the neck stretched out1 the horns reversed and thrown downwards towards the back1 as if the animal1 suddenly immersed into marshy ground1 had been under the necessity of throwing up its head in search of respirable air4 ,in the ,geological ,cabinet of the ,sorbonne1 at ,paris1 there is a magnificent skeleton of ,cervus megaceros2 another belongs to the ,college of ,surgeons in ,london2 and there is a third at ,vienna4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the most remarkable creatures of the period1 however1 were the great ,edentates--the ,glyptodon1 the gigantic ,megatherium1 the ,mylodon and the ,megalonyx4 ,the order of ,edentates is more particularly characterised by the absence of teeth in the fore part of the mouth4 ,the masticating apparatus of the ,edentates consists only of molars1 the incisors and canine teeth being1 with a few exceptions1 absent altogether1 as the animals composing this order feed chiefly on insects or the tender leaves of plants4 ,the ,armadillo1 ,anteater and ,pangolin1 are the living examples of the order4 ,we may add1 as still further characteristics1 largely developed claws at the extremities of the toes4 ,the order seems thus to establish itself as a zoological link in the chain between the hoofed ,mammals and the ungulated animals1 or those armed with claws4 ,all these animals are peculiar to the continent of ,america4 ,the ,glyptodon1 which appears during the ,quaternary period1 belonged to the family of ,armadilloes1 and their most remarkable feature was the presence of a hard1 scaly shell1 or coat of mail six feet in length1 and composed of numerous segments1 which covered the entire upper service of the animal from the head to the tail4 ,it was1 in short1 a mammiferous animal1 which appears to have been enclosed in a shell like that of a ,turtle2 it resembled in many respects the ,dasypus or ,anteater1 and had sixteen teeth in each jaw4 ,these teeth were channelled laterally with two broad and deep grooves1 which divided the surface of the molars into three parts1 whence it was named the ,glyptodon4 ,the hind feet were broad and massive1 and evidently designed to support a vast incumbent mass2 it presented phalanges armed with short thick and depressed nails or claws4 ,the animal was1 as we have said1 enveloped in1 and protected by1 a cuirass1 or solid carapace1 composed of plates which1 seen from beneath1 appeared to be hexagonal and united by denticulated sutures3 above they represented double rosettes4 ,the habitat of ,glyptodon clavipes was the pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 and the banks of an affluent of the ,rio ,santo1 near ,monte ,video2 specimens have been found not less than nine feet in length4 ,the tesselated carapace of the ,glyptodon was long thought to belong to the ,megatherium2 but ,professor ,owen shows1 from the anatomical structure of the two animals1 that the cuirass belonged to one of them only1 namely1 the ,glyptodon4 ,the ,schistopleuron does not differ essentially from the ,glyptodon1 but is supposed to have been a different species of the same genus2 the chief difference between the two animals being in the structure of the tail1 which is massive in the first and in the other composed of half a score of rings4 ,in other respects the organisation and habits are similar1 both being herbivorous1 and feeding on roots and vegetables4 ,fig4 #ahe represents the ,schistopleuron typus restored1 and as it appeared when alive4 ,some of the fossil ,tortoises discovered in the sub-,himalayan beds possessed a carapace twelve feet long by six feet in breadth1 which must have corresponded to an animal from eighteen to twenty feet in length2 and the bones of the legs were as massive as those of the ,rhinoceros4 ,the ,megatherium1 or ,animal of ,paraguay1 as it was called1 is1 at first view1 the oddest and most remarkable animal we have yet had under consideration1 where all have been1 according to our notions1 strange1 extraordinary1 and formidable4 ,the animal creation still goes on as if-- 8,nature made them and then broke the die40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--,schistopleuron typus4 ,one-twentieth natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,xxvii4--,skeleton of the ,megatherium 7,clift74 ,if we cast a glance at the skeleton figured on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,xxvii471 which was found in ,paraguay1 at ,buenos ,ayres1 in #aghh1 and which is now placed1 in a perfect state of preservation1 in the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,madrid1 it is impossible to avoid being struck with its unusually heavy form1 at once awkward as a whole1 and ponderous in most of its parts4 ,it is allied to the existing genus of ,sloths1 which ,buffon tells us is 8of all the animal creation that which has received the most vicious organisation--a being to which ,nature has forbidden all enjoyment2 which has only been created for hardships and misery40 ,this notion of the romantic ,buffon is1 however1 altogether incorrect4 ,an attentive examination of the ,animal of ,paraguay shows that its organisation cannot be considered either odd or awkward when viewed in connection with its mode of life and individual habits4 ,the special organisation which renders the movements of the ,sloths so sluggish1 and apparently so painful on level ground1 gives them1 on the other hand1 marvellous assistance when they live in trees1 the leaves of which constitute their exclusive food4 ,in the same manner1 if we consider that the ,megatherium was created to burrow in the earth and feed upon the roots of trees and shrubs1 every organ of its heavy frame would appear to be perfectly appropriate to its kind of life1 and well adapted to the special purpose which was assigned to it by the ,creator4 ,we ought to place the ,megatherium between the ,sloths and the ,anteaters4 ,like the first1 it usually fed on the branches and leaves of trees2 like the latter1 it burrowed deep in the soil1 finding there both food and shelter4 ,it was as large as an ,elephant or ,rhinoceros of the largest species4 ,its body measured twelve or thirteen feet in length1 and it was between five and six feet high4 ,the engraving on page #djc 7,,plate ,,xxvii47 will convey1 more accurately than any mere verbal description1 an idea of the form and proportions of the animal4 ,the ,english reader is chiefly indebted to the zeal and energy of ,sir ,woodbine ,parish for the materials from which our naturalists have been enabled to re-construct the history of the ,megatherium4 ,the remains collected by him were found in the river ,salado1 which runs through the flat alluvial plains called ,pampas to the south of the city of ,buenos ,ayres4 ,a succession of three unusually dry seasons had lowered the waters to such a degree as to expose part of the pelvis to view1 as the skeleton stood upright in the mud forming the bed of the river4 ,further inquiries led to the discovery of the remains of two other skeletons near the place where the first had been found2 and with them an immense shell or carapace was met with1 most of the bones associated with which crumbled to pieces on exposure to the air4 ,the osseous structure of this enormous animal1 as furnished by ,mr4 ,clift1 an eminent anatomist of the day1 and under whose superintendence the skeleton was drawn1 must have exceeded fourteen feet in length1 and upwards of eight feet in height4 ,the deeply shaded parts of the figure show the portions which are deficient in the ,madrid skeleton4 ,cuvier pointed out that the skull very much resembled that of the ,sloths1 but that the rest of the skeleton bore relationship1 partly to the ,sloths1 and partly to the ,anteaters4 ,the large bones1 which descend from the zygomatic arch along the cheek-bones1 would furnish a powerful means of attaching the motor muscles of the jaws4 ,the anterior part of the muzzle is fully developed1 and riddled with holes for the passage of the nerves and vessels which must have been there1 not for a trunk1 which would have been useless to an animal furnished with a very long neck1 but for a snout analogous to that of the ,tapir4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--,skeleton of ,megatherium foreshortened4 ,the jaw and dental apparatus cannot be exactly stated1 because the number of teeth in the lower jaw is not known4 ,the upper jaw1 ,professor ,owen has shown1 contained five molars on each side2 and from comparison and analogy with the ,scelidotherium it may be conjectured that the ,megatherium had four on each side of the lower jaw4 ,being without incisors or canines1 the structure of its eighteen molars proves that it was not carnivorous3 they each resemble the composite molars of the ,elephant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--;,bones of the pelvis of the ,megatherium4 ,the vertebr of the neck 7as exhibited in the foreshortened figure 7,fig4 #ahf71 taken from the work of ,pander and ,d',alton1 and showing nearly a front view of the head71 as well as the anterior and posterior extremities of the ,madrid skeleton1 although powerful1 are not to be compared in dimensions to those of the other extremity of the body2 for the head seems to have been relatively light and defenceless4 ,the lumbar vertebr increase in a degree corresponding to the enormous enlargement of the pelvis and the posterior members4 ,the vertebr of the tail are enormous1 as is seen in ,fig4 #ahg1 which represents the bones of the pelvis and hind foot1 discovered by ,sir ,woodbine ,parish1 and now in the ,museum of the ,college of ,surgeons4 ,if we add to these osseous organs the muscles1 tendons1 and integuments which covered them1 we must admit that the tail of the ,megatherium could not be less than two feet in diameter4 ,it is probable that1 like the ,armadillo1 it employed the tail to assist in supporting the enormous weight of its body2 it would also be a formidable defensive organ when employed1 as is the case with the ,pangolins and ,crocodiles4 ,the fore-feet would be about three feet long and one foot broad4 ,they would form a powerful implement for excavating the earth1 to the greatest depths at which the roots of vegetables penetrate4 ,the fore-feet rested on the ground to their full length4 ,thus solidly supported by the two hind-feet and the tail1 and in advance by one of the fore-feet1 the animal could employ the fore-foot left at liberty in clearing away the earth1 in digging up the roots of trees1 or in tearing down the branches2 the toes of the fore-feet were1 for this purpose1 furnished with large and powerful claws1 which lie at an oblique angle relatively to the ground1 much like the burrowing talons of the mole4 ,the solidity and size of the pelvis must have been enormous2 its immense iliac bones are nearly at right angles with the vertebral column2 their external edges are distant more than a yard and a half from each other when the animal is standing4 ,the femur is three times the thickness of the thigh-bone of the ,elephant1 and the many peculiarities of structure in this bone appear to have been intended to give solidity to the whole frame1 by means of its short and massive proportions4 ,the two bones of the leg are1 like the femur1 short1 thick1 and solid2 presenting proportions which we only meet with in the ,armadilloes and ,anteaters2 burrowing animals with which1 as we have said1 its two extremities seem to connect it4 ,the anatomical organisation of these members denotes heavy1 slow1 and powerful locomotion1 but solid and admirable combinations for supporting the weight of an enormous sedentary creature2 a sort of excavating machine1 slow of motion but of incalculable power for its own purposes4 ,in short1 the ,megatherium exceeded in dimensions all existing ,edentates4 ,it had the head and shoulders of the ,sloth1 the feet and legs combined the characteristics of the ,anteaters and ,sloths1 of enormous size1 since it was at least twelve feet long when full grown1 its feet armed with gigantic claws1 and its tail at once a means of supporting its huge body and an instrument of defence4 ,an animal built with such massive proportions could evidently neither creep nor run2 its walk would be excessively slow4 ,but what necessity was there for rapid movement in a being only occupied in burrowing under the earth1 seeking for roots1 and which would consequently rarely change its place8 ,what need had it of agility to fly from its enemies1 when it could overthrow the ,crocodile with a sweep of its tail8 ,secure from the attacks of other animals1 this robust herbivorous creature1 of which ,figure #ahh is a restoration1 must have lived peacefully and respected in the solitary pampas of ,america4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,megatherium restored4 ,the immediate cause of the extinction of the ,megatherium is1 probably1 to be found in causes which are still in operation in ,south ,america4 ,the period between the years #ahbg and #ahcj is called the 8gran seco10 or the great drought1 in ,south ,america2 and according to ,darwin1 the loss of cattle in the province of ,buenos ,ayres alone was calculated at #a1jjj1jjj head4 ,one proprietor at ,san ,pedro1 in the middle of the finest pasture-country1 had lost #bj1jjj cattle previously to those years4 8,i was informed by an eyewitness10 he adds1 8that the cattle1 in herds of thousands1 rushed into the ,parana1 and1 being exhausted by hunger1 they were unable to crawl up the muddy banks1 and thus were drowned4 ,the arm of the river which runs by ,san ,pedro was so full of putrid carcases1 that the master of a vessel told me that the smell rendered it quite impassable4 ,all the small rivers became highly saline1 and this caused the death of vast numbers in particular spots2 for when an animal drinks of such water it does not recover4 ,azara describes the fury of the wild horses on a similar occasion3 rushing into the marshes1 those which arrived first being overwhelmed and crushed by those which followed40#ajj ,the upright position in which the various specimens of ,megatheria were found indicates some such cause of death2 as if the ponderous animal1 approaching the banks of the river1 when shrunk within its banks1 had been bogged in soft mud1 sufficiently adhesive to hold it there till it perished4 #ajj 8,journal of ,researches10 c41 #bnd ed41 p4 #acc4 ,charles ,darwin4 ,like the ,megatherium1 the ,mylodon closely resembled the ,sloth1 and it belonged exclusively to the ,new ,world4 ,smaller than the ,megatherium1 it differed from it chiefly in the form of the teeth4 ,these organs presented only molars with smooth surfaces1 indicating that the animal fed on vegetables1 probably the leaves and tender buds of trees4 ,as the ,mylodon presents at once hoofs and claws on each foot1 it has been thought that it formed the link between the hoofed1 or ungulated animals and the ,edentates4 ,three species are known1 which lived in the pampas of ,buenos ,ayres4 ,in consequence of some hints given by the illustrious ,washington1 ,mr4 ,jefferson1 one of his successors as ,president of the ,united ,states1 discovered1 in a cavern of ,western ,virginia1 the bones of a species of gigantic ,sloth1 which he pronounced to be the remains of some carnivorous animal4 ,they consisted of a femur1 a humerus1 an ulna1 and three claws1 with half a dozen other bones of the foot4 ,these bones ,mr4 ,jefferson believed to be analogous to those of the lion4 ,cuvier saw at once the true analogies of the animal4 ,the bones were the remains of a species of gigantic ,sloth2 the complete skeleton of which was subsequently discovered in the ,mississippi1 in such a perfect state of preservation that the cartilages1 still adhering to the bones1 were not decomposed4 ,jefferson called this species the ,megalonyx4 ,it resembled in many respects the ,sloth4 ,its size was that of the largest ox2 the muzzle was pointed2 the jaws were armed with cylindrical teeth2 the anterior limbs much longer than the posterior2 the articulation of the foot oblique to the leg2 two great toes1 short1 and armed with long and very powerful claws2 the index finger more slender1 and armed also with a less powerful claw2 the tail strong and solid3 such were the salient points of the organisation of the ,megalonyx1 whose form was a little slighter than that of the ,megatherium4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--,mylodon robustus4 ,the country in which the ,megatherium has been found is described by ,mr4 ,darwin as belonging to the great ,pampean formation1 which consists partly of a reddish clay and in part of a highly calcareous marly rock4 ,near the coast there are some plains formed from the wreck of the upper plain1 and from mud1 gravel1 and sand thrown up by the sea during the slow elevation of the land1 as shown by the raised beds of recent shells4 ,at ,punta ,alta there is a highly-interesting section of one of the later-formed little plains1 in which many remains of these gigantic land-animals have been found4 ,these were1 says ,mr4 ,darwin3--8,first1 parts of three heads and other bones of the ,megatherium1 the huge dimensions of which are expressed by its name4 ,secondly1 the ,megalonyx1 a great allied animal4 ,thirdly1 the ,scelidotherium1 also an allied animal1 of which ,i obtained a nearly perfect skeleton3 it must have been as large as a rhinoceros2 in the structure of its head it comes1 according to ,professor ,owen1 nearest to the ,cape ,anteater1 but in some other respects it approaches to the ,armadilloes4 ,fourthly1 the ,mylodon ,darwinii1 a closely related genus1 of little inferior size4 ,fifthly1 another gigantic edental quadruped4 ,sixthly1 a large animal with an osseous coat1 in compartments1 very like that of an armadillo4 ,seventhly1 an extinct kind of horse4 ,eighthly1 a tooth of a pachydermatous animal1 probably the same with the ,macrauchenia1 a huge beast with a long neck like a camel4 ,lastly1 the ,toxodon1 perhaps one of the strangest animals ever discovered2 in size it equalled an ,elephant or ,megatherium1 but the structure of its teeth1 as ,professor ,owen states1 proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the ,gnawers1 the order which1 at the present day1 includes most of the smallest quadrupeds2 in many details it is allied to the pachydermata2 judging from the position of its eyes1 ears1 and nostrils1 it was probably aquatic1 like the ,dugong and ,manatee1 to which it is allied4 ,how wonderfully are the different orders--at the present time so well separated--blended together in different points in the structure of the ,toxodon60#aja #aja 8,journal of ,researches10 c41 by ,charles ,darwin1 p4 #ha4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4--,lower jaw of the ,mylodon4 ,the remains on which our knowledge of the ,scelidotherium is founded include the cranium1 which is nearly entire1 with the teeth and part of the os hyoides1 seven cervical1 eight dorsal1 and five sacral vertebr1 both the scapul1 and some other bones4 ,the remains of the cranium indicate that its general form was an elongated slender compressed cone1 beginning behind by a flattened vertical base1 expanding slightly to the cheek-bone1 and thence contracting to the anterior extremity4 ,all these parts were discovered in their natural relative positions1 indicating1 as ,mr4 ,darwin observes1 that the gravelly formation in which they were discovered had not been disturbed since its deposition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4--,skull of ,scelidotherium4 ,the lower jaw-bone of ,mylodon1 which ,mr4 ,darwin discovered at the base of the cliff called ,punta ,alta1 in ,northern ,patagonia1 had the teeth entire on both sides2 they are implanted in deep sockets1 and only about one-sixth of the last molar projects above the alveolus1 but the proportion of the exposed part increases gradually in the inner teeth 7,fig4 #aia74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4--;,dinornis1 and ,bos4 8,the habits of life of these ,megatheroid animals were a complete puzzle to naturalists1 until ,professor ,owen solved the problem with remarkable ingenuity4 ,the teeth indicate1 by their simple structure1 that these ,megatheroid animals lived on vegetable food1 and probably on the leaves and small twigs of trees2 their ponderous forms and great strong curved claws seem so little adapted for locomotion1 that some eminent naturalists have actually believed that1 like the ,sloths1 to which they are intimately related1 they subsisted by climbing back downwards1 on trees1 and feeding on the leaves4 ,it was a bold1 not to say preposterous idea to conceive even antediluvian trees with branches strong enough to bear animals as large as elephants4 ,professor ,owen1 with far more probability1 believes that1 instead of climbing on the trees1 they pulled the branches down to them1 and tore up the smaller ones by the roots1 and so fed on the leaves4 ,the colossal breadth and weight of their hinder quarters1 which can hardly be imagined without having been seen1 become1 on this view1 of obvious service instead of being an encumbrance2 their apparent clumsiness disappears4 ,with their great tails and their huge heels firmly fixed like a tripod in the ground1 they could freely exert the full force of their most powerful arms and great claws4 ,the ,mylodon1 moreover1 was furnished with a long extensile tongue1 like that of the giraffe1 which by one of those beautiful provisions of ,nature1 thus reaches1 with the aid of its long neck1 its leafy food40#ajb #ajb 8,journal of ,researches10 c41 by ,charles ,darwin1 #bnd ed41 p4 #ha4 ,illustration3 ,,xxviii4--,ideal ,european ,landscape in the ,quaternary ,epoch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,two gigantic birds seem to have lived in ,new ,zealand during the ,quaternary epoch4 ,the ,dinornis1 which1 if we may judge from the tibia1 which is upwards of three feet long1 and from its eggs1 which are much larger than those of the ,ostrich1 must have been of most extraordinary size for a bird4 ,in ,fig4 #aib an attempt is made to restore this fearfully great bird1 the ,dinornis4 ,as to the ,epiornis1 its eggs only have been found4 ,on the opposite page 7,,plate ,,xxviii47 an attempt is made to represent the appearance of ,europe during the epoch we have under consideration4 ,the ,bear is seated at the mouth of its den--the cave 7thus reminding us of the origin of its name of ,ursus spelus71 where it gnaws the bones of the ,elephant4 ,above the cavern the ,hyna spela looks out1 with savage eye1 for the moment when it will be prudent to dispute possession of these remains with its formidable rival4 ,the great ,wood-stag1 with other great animals of the epoch1 occupies the farthest shore of a small lake1 where some small hills rise out of a valley crowned with the trees and shrubs of the period4 ,mountains1 recently upheaved1 rise on the distant horizon1 covered with a mantle of frozen snow1 reminding us that the glacial period is approaching1 and has already begun to manifest itself4 ,all these fossil bones1 belonging to the great ,mammalia which we have been describing1 are found in the ,quaternary formation2 but the most abundant of all are those of the ,elephant and the ,horse4 ,the extreme profusion of the bones of the ,mammoth1 crowded into the more recently formed deposits of the globe1 is only surpassed by the prodigious quantity of the bones of the ,horse which are buried in the same beds4 ,the singular abundance of the remains of these two animals proves that1 during the ,quaternary epoch1 the earth gave nourishment to immense herds of the ,horse and the ,elephant4 ,it is probable that from one pole to the other1 from the equator to the two extremities of the axis of the globe1 the earth must have formed a vast and boundless prairie1 while an immense carpet of verdure covered its whole surface2 and such abundant pastures would be absolutely necessary to sustain these prodigious numbers of herbivorous animals of great size4 ,the mind can scarcely realise the immense and verdant plains of this earlier world1 animated by the presence of an infinity of such inhabitants4 ,in its burning temperature1 ,pachyderms of monstrous forms1 but of peaceful habits1 traversed the tall vegetation1 composed of grasses of all sorts4 ,deer of gigantic size1 their heads ornamented with enormous horns1 escorted the heavy herds of the ,mammoth2 while the ,horse1 small in size and compact of form1 galloped and frisked round these magnificent horizons of verdure which no human eye had yet contemplated4 ,nevertheless1 all was not quiet and tranquil in the landscapes of the ancient world4 ,voracious and formidable carnivorous animals waged a bloody war on the inoffensive herds4 ,the ,tiger1 the ,lion1 and the ferocious ,hyna2 the ,bear1 and the ,jackal1 there selected their prey4 ,on the opposite page an endeavour is made to represent the great animals among the ,edentates which inhabited the ,american plains during the ,quaternary epoch 7,,plate ,,xxix74 ,we observe there the ,glyptodon1 the ,megatherium1 the ,mylodon1 and1 along with them1 the ,mastodon4 ,a small ,ape 7the ,orthopithecus71 which first appeared in the ,miocene period1 occupies the branch of a tree in the landscape4 ,the vegetation is that of tropical ,america at the present time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the deposits of this age1 which are of later date than the ,crag1 and of earlier date than the ,boulder ,clay1 with its fragments of rocks frequently transported from great distances1 are classed under the term 8pre-glacial40 ,after the deposition of the ,forest ,bed1 which is seen overlying the ,crag for miles between high and low-water mark1 on the shore west of ,cromer1 in ,norfolk1 there was a general reduction of temperature1 and a period of intense cold1 known as the 8glacial period10 seems to have set in1 during which a great part of what is now the ,british ,islands was covered with a thick coating of ice1 and probably united with the ,continent4 ,at this time ,england south of the ,bristol ,channel 7the estuary of the ,severn71 and the ,thames1 appears to have been above water4 ,the northern part of the country1 and the high-ground generally of ,britain and ,ireland were covered with gliding glaciers1 by whose grinding action the whole surface became moulded and worn into its present shape1 while the floating icebergs which broke off at the sea-side from these glaciers1 conveyed away and dropped on the bed of the sea those fragments of rocks and the gravel and other earthy materials which are now generally recognised as glacial accumulations4 ,in all directions1 however1 proofs are being gradually obtained that1 about this period1 movements of submersion under the sea were in progress1 all north of the ,thames4 ,illustration3 ,,xxix4--,ideal ,american ,landscape in the ,quaternary ,epoch4 ,ramsay points out indications1 first of an intensely cold period1 when land was much more elevated than it is now2 then of submergence beneath the sea2 and1 lastly1 re-elevation attended by glacial action4 8,when we speak of the vegetation and quadrupeds of ,cromer ,forest being pre-glacial10 says ,lyell1 8we merely mean that their formation preceded the era of the general submergence of the ,british ,isles beneath the waters of the glacial sea4 ,the successive deposits seen in direct superposition on the ,norfolk coast10 adds ,sir ,charles1 8imply at first the prevalence over a wide area of the ,newer ,pliocene ,sea4 ,afterwards1 the bed of the sea was converted into dry land1 and underwent several oscillations of level1 so as to be1 first1 dry land supporting a forest2 then an estuary2 then again land2 and1 finally1 a sea near the mouth of a river1 till the downward movement became so great as to convert the whole area into a sea of considerable depth1 in which much floating ice1 carrying mud1 sand1 and boulders melted1 letting its burthen fall to the bottom4 ,finally1 over the till with boulders stratified drift was formed2 after which1 but not until the total subsidence amounted to more than #djj feet1 an upward movement began1 which re-elevated the whole country1 so that the lowest of the terrestrial formations1 or the forest bed1 was brought up to nearly its pristine level1 in such a manner as to be exposed at a low tide4 ,both the descending and ascending movement seem to have been very gradual40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4--,palophognos ,gesneri4 ,fossil ,toad4 ,,european ,,deluges4 ,the ,tertiary formations1 in many parts of ,europe1 of more or less extent1 are covered by an accumulation of heterogeneous deposits1 filling up the valleys1 and composed of very various materials1 consisting mostly of fragments of the neighbouring rocks4 ,the erosions which we remark at the bottoms of the hills1 and which have greatly enlarged already existing valleys2 the mounds of gravel accumulated at one point1 and which is formed of rolled materials1 that is to say1 of fragments of rocks worn smooth and round by continual friction during a long period1 in which they have been transported from one point to another--all these signs indicate that these denudations of the soil1 these displacements and transport of very heavy bodies to great distances1 are due to the violent and sudden action of large currents of water4 ,an immense wave has been thrown suddenly on the surface of the earth1 making great ravages in its passage1 furrowing the earth and driving before it dbris of all sorts in its disorderly course4 ,geologists give the name of diluvium to a formation thus removed and scattered1 which1 from its heterogeneous nature1 brings under our eyes1 as it were1 the rapid passage of an impetuous torrent--a phenomenon which is commonly designated as a deluge4 ,to what cause are we to attribute these sudden and apparently temporary invasions of the earth's surface by rapid currents of water8 ,in all probability to the upheaval of some vast extent of dry land1 to the formation of some mountain or mountain-range in the neighbourhood of the sea1 or even in the bed of the sea itself4 ,the land suddenly elevated by an upward movement of the terrestrial crust1 or by the formation of ridges and furrows at the surface1 has1 by its reaction1 violently agitated the waters1 that is to say1 the more mobile portion of the globe4 ,by this new impulse the waters have been thrown with great violence over the earth1 inundating the plains and valleys1 and for the moment covering the soil with their furious waves1 mingled with the earth1 sand1 and mud1 of which the devastated districts have been denuded by their abrupt invasion4 ,the phenomenon has been sudden but brief1 like the upheaval of the mountain or chain of mountains1 which is presumed to have been the cause of it2 but it was often repeated3 witness the valleys which occur in every country1 especially those in the neighbourhood of ,lyons and of the ,durance4 ,these strata indicate as many successive deposits4 ,besides this1 the displacement of blocks of minerals from their normal position is proof1 now perfectly recognisable1 of this great phenomenon4 ,there have been1 doubtless1 during the epochs anterior to the ,quaternary period of which we write1 many deluges such as we are considering4 ,mountains and chains of mountains1 through all the ages we have been describing1 were formed by upheaval of the crust into ridges1 where it was too elastic or too thick to be fractured4 ,each of these subterranean commotions would be provocative of momentary irruptions of the waves4 ,but the visible testimony to this phenomenon--the living proofs of this denudation1 of this tearing away of the soil1 are found nowhere so strikingly as in the beds superimposed1 far and near1 upon the ,tertiary formations1 and which bear the geological name of diluvium4 ,this term was long employed to designate what is now better known as the 8boulder0 formation1 a glacial deposit which is abundant in ,europe north of the #ejth1 and in ,america north of the #djth1 parallel1 and re-appearing again in the southern hemisphere2 but altogether absent in tropical regions4 ,it consists of sand and clay1 sometimes stratified1 mixed with rounded and angular fragments of rock1 generally derived from the same district2 and their origin has generally been ascribed to a series of diluvial waves raised by hurricanes1 earthquakes1 or the sudden upheaval of land from the bed of the sea1 which had swept over continents1 carrying with them vast masses of mud and heavy stones1 and forcing these stones over rocky surfaces so as to polish and impress them with furrows and stri4 ,other circumstances occurred1 however1 to establish a connection between this formation and the glacial drift4 ,the size and number of the erratic blocks increase as we travel towards the ,arctic regions2 some intimate association exists1 therefore1 between this formation and the accumulations of ice and snow which characterise the approaching glacial period4 ,as we have already stated at the beginning of this chapter1 there is very distinct evidence of two successive deluges in our hemisphere during the ,quaternary epoch4 ,the two may be distinguished as the ,european ,deluge and the ,asiatic4 ,the two ,european deluges occurred prior to the appearance of man2 the ,asiatic deluge happened after that event2 and the human race1 then in the early days of its existence1 certainly suffered from this cataclysm4 ,in the present chapter we confine ourselves to the two cataclysms which overwhelmed ,europe in the ,quaternary epoch4 ,the first occurred in the north of ,europe1 where it was produced by the upheaval of the mountains of ,norway4 ,commencing in ,scandinavia1 the wave spread and carried its ravages into those regions which now constitute ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,european ,russia1 and the north of ,germany1 sweeping before it all the loose soil on the surface1 and covering the whole of ,scandinavia--all the plains and valleys of ,northern ,europe--with a mantle of transported soil4 ,as the regions in the midst of which this great mountainous upheaval occurred--as the seas surrounding these vast spaces were partly frozen and covered with ice1 from their elevation and neighbourhood to the pole--the wave which swept these countries carried along with it enormous masses of ice4 ,the shock1 produced by the collision of these several solid blocks of frozen water1 would only contribute to increase the extent and intensity of the ravages occasioned by this violent cataclysm1 which is represented in ,,plate ,,xxx4 ,the physical proof of this deluge of the north of ,europe exists in the accumulation of unstratified deposits which covers all the plains and low grounds of ,northern ,europe4 ,on and in this deposit are found numerous blocks which have received the characteristic and significant name of erratic blocks1 and which are frequently of considerable size4 ,these become more characteristic as we ascend to higher latitudes1 as in ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark1 the southern borders of the ,baltic1 and in the ,british ,islands generally1 in all of which countries deposits of marine fossil shells occur1 which prove the submergence of large areas of ,scandinavia1 of the ,british ,isles1 and other regions during parts of the glacial period4 ,some of these rocks1 characterised as erratic1 are of very considerable volume2 such1 for instance1 is the granite block which forms the pedestal of the statue of ,peter the ,great at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,this block was found in the interior of ,russia1 where the whole formation is ,permian1 and its presence there can only be explained by supposing it to have been transported by some vast iceberg1 carried by a diluvial current4 ,this hypothesis alone enables us to account for another block of granite1 weighing about #cdj tons1 which was found on the sandy plains in the north of ,prussia1 an immense model of which was made for the ,berlin ,museum4 ,the last of these erratic blocks deposited in ,germany covers the grave of ,king ,gustavus ,adolphus1 of ,sweden1 killed at the battle of ,lutzen1 in #afcb4 ,he was interred beneath the rock4 ,another similar block has been raised in ,germany into a monument to the geologist ,leopold von ,buch4 ,illustration3 ,,xxx4--,deluge of the ,north of ,europe4 ,these erratic blocks which are met with in the plains of ,russia1 ,poland1 and ,prussia1 and in the eastern parts of ,england1 are composed of rocks entirely foreign to the region where they are found4 ,they belong to the primary rocks of ,norway2 they have been transported to their present sites1 protected by a covering of ice1 by the waters of the northern deluge4 ,how vast must have been the impulsive force which could carry such enormous masses across the ,baltic1 and so far inland as the places where they have been deposited for the surprise of the geologist or the contemplation of the thoughtful6 99 99 99 99 99 ,the second ,european deluge is supposed to have been the result of the formation and upheaval of the ,alps4 ,it has filled with dbris and transported material the valleys of ,france1 ,germany1 and ,italy over a circumference which has the ,alps for its centre4 ,the proofs of a great convulsion at a comparatively recent geological date are numerous4 ,the ,alps may be from eighty to #ajj miles across1 and the probabilities are that their existence is due1 as ,sir ,charles ,lyell supposes1 to a succession of unequal movements of upheaval and subsidence2 that the ,alpine region had been exposed for countless ages to the action of rain and rivers1 and that the larger valleys were of pre-glacial times1 is highly probable4 ,in the eastern part of the chain some of the ,primary fossiliferous rocks1 as well as ,oolitic and ,cretaceous rocks1 and even ,tertiary deposits1 are observable2 but in the central ,alps these disappear1 and more recent rocks1 in some places even ,eocene strata1 graduate into metamorphic rocks1 in which ,oolitic1 ,cretaceous1 and ,eocene strata have been altered into granular marble1 gneiss1 and other metamorphic schists2 showing that eruptions continued after the deposit of the ,middle ,eocene formations4 ,again1 in the ,swiss and ,savoy ,alps1 ,oolitic and ,cretaceous formations have been elevated to the height of #ab1jjj feet1 and ,eocene strata #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea2 while in the ,rothal1 in the ,bernese ,alps1 occurs a mass of gneiss #a1jjj feet thick between two strata containing ,oolitic fossils4 ,besides these proofs of recent upheaval1 we can trace effects of two different kinds1 resulting from the powerful action of masses of water violently displaced by this gigantic upheaval4 ,at first broad tracks have been hollowed out by the diluvial waves1 which have1 at these points1 formed deep valleys4 ,afterwards these valleys have been filled up by materials derived from the mountain and transported into the valley1 these materials consisting of rounded pebbles1 argillaceous and sandy mud1 generally calcareous and ferriferous4 ,this double effect is exhibited1 with more or less distinctness1 in all the great valleys of the centre and south of ,france4 ,the valley of the ,garonne is1 in respect to these phenomena1 classic ground1 as it were4 ,as we leave the little city of ,muret1 three successive levels will be observed on the left bank of the ,garonne4 ,the lowest of the three is that of the valley1 properly so called2 while the loftiest corresponds to the plateau of ,saint-,gaudens4 ,these three levels are distinctly marked in the ,toulousean country1 which illustrates the diluvial phenomena in a remarkable fashion4 ,the city of ,toulouse reposes upon a slight eminence of diluvial formation4 ,the flat diluvial plateau contrasts strongly with the rounded hills of ,gascony and ,languedoc4 ,they are essentially constituted of a bed of gravel1 formed of rounded or oval pebbles1 and again covered with sandy and earthy deposits4 ,the pebbles are principally quartzose1 brown or black externally1 mixed with portions of hard 8,old ,red0 and ,new ,red ,sandstone4 ,the soft earth which accompanies the pebbles and gravel is a mixture of argillaceous sand of a red or yellow colour1 caused by the oxide of iron which enters into its composition4 ,in the valley1 properly so called1 we find the pebbles again associated with other minerals which are rare at the higher levels4 ,some teeth of the ,mammoth1 and ,rhinoceros tichorhinus1 have been found at several points on the borders of this valley4 ,the small valleys1 tributary to the principal valley1 would appear to have been excavated secondarily1 partly out of diluvial deposits1 and their alluvium1 essentially earthy1 has been formed at the expense of the ,tertiary formation1 and even of the diluvium itself4 ,among other celebrated sites1 the diluvial formation is largely developed in ,sicily4 ,the ancient temple of the ,parthenon at ,athens is built on an eminence formed of diluvial earth4 ,in the valley of the ,rhine1 in ,alsace1 and in many isolated parts of ,europe1 a particular sort of diluvium forms thick beds2 it consists of a yellowish-grey mud1 composed of argillaceous matter mixed with carbonate of lime1 quartzose and micaceous sand1 and oxide of iron4 ,this mud1 termed by geologists loess1 attains in some places considerable thickness4 ,it is recognisable in the neighbourhood of ,paris4 ,it rises a little both on the right and left1 above the base of the mountains of the ,black ,forest and of the ,vosges2 and forms thick beds on the banks of the ,rhine4 ,the fossils contained in diluvial deposits consist1 generally1 of terrestrial1 lacustrine1 or fluviatile shells1 for the most part belonging to species still living4 ,in parts of the valley of the ,rhine1 between ,bingen and ,basle1 the fluviatile loam or loess1 now under consideration1 is seen forming hills several hundred feet thick1 and containing1 here and there1 throughout that thickness1 land and fresh-water shells2 from which it seems necessary to suppose1 according to ,lyell1 first1 a time when the loess was slowly accumulated1 then a later period1 when large portions of it were removed--and followed by movements of oscillation1 consisting1 first1 of a general depression1 and then of a gradual re-elevation of the land4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have already noticed the caverns in which such extraordinary accumulations of animal remains were discovered3 it will not be out of place to give here a rsum of the state of our knowledge concerning bone-caves and bone-breccias4 ,the bone-caves are not simply cavities hollowed out of the rock2 they generally consist of numerous chambers or caverns communicating with each other by narrow passages 7often of considerable length7 which can only be traversed by creeping4 ,one in ,mexico extends several leagues4 ,perhaps the most remarkable in ,europe is that of ,gailenreuth in ,franconia4 ,the ,harz mountains contain many fine caverns2 among others1 those of ,scharrfeld and ,baumann's ,hohl1 in which many bones of ,hyna1 ,bears1 and ,lions have been found together4 ,the ,kirkdale ,cave1 so well known from the description given of it by ,dr4 ,buckland1 lying about twenty-five miles north-north-east of ,york1 was the burial-place1 as we have stated1 of at least #cjj ,hynas belonging to individuals of different ages2 besides containing some other remains1 mostly teeth 7those of the ,hyna excepted7 belonging to ruminating animals4 ,buckland states that the bones of all the other animals1 those of the ,hynas not excepted1 were gnawed4 ,he also noticed a partial polish and wearing away to a considerable depth of one side of many of the best preserved specimens of teeth and bones1 which can only be accounted for by referring the partial destruction to the continual treading of the ,hynas1 and the rubbing of their skin on the side that lay uppermost at the bottom of the den4 ,from these facts it would appear probable that the ,cave at ,kirkdale was1 8during a long succession of years1 inhabited as a den by ,hynas1 and that they dragged into its recesses the other animal bodies1 whose remains are found mixed indiscriminately with their own40#ajc ,this conjecture is made almost certain by the discovery made by ,dr4 ,buckland of many coprolites of animals that had fed on bones1 as well as traces of the frequent passage of these animals to or from the entrance of the cavern or den4 ,a modern naturalist visiting the ,cavern of ,adelsberg1 in ,carniola1 traversed a series of chambers extending over three leagues in the same direction1 and was only stopped in his subterranean discoveries by coming to a lake which occupied its entire breadth4 #ajc 8,reliqui ,diluvian10 by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,buckland1 #ahbc1 p4 #ai4 ,the interior walls of the bone-caves are1 in general1 rounded off1 and furrowed1 presenting many traces of the erosive action of water1 characteristics which frequently escape observation because the walls are covered with the calcareous deposit called stalactite or stalagmite--that is1 with carbonate of lime1 resulting from the deposition left by infiltrating water1 through the overlying limestone1 into the interior of the cavern4 ,the formation of the stalactite1 with which many of the bones were incrusted in the ,cave of ,gailenreuth1 is thus described by ,liebig4 ,the limestone over the cavern is covered with a rich soil1 in which the vegetable matter is continually decaying4 ,this mould1 or humus1 being acted on by moisture and air1 evolves carbonic acid1 which is dissolved by rain4 ,the rain-water thus impregnated1 permeating the porous limestone1 dissolves a portion of it1 and afterwards1 when the excess of carbonic acid evaporates in the caverns1 parts with the calcareous matter1 and forms stalactite--the stalactites being the pendent masses of carbonate of lime1 which hang in picturesque forms either in continuous sheets1 giving the cave and its sides the appearance of being hung with drapery1 or like icicles suspended from the roof of the cave1 through which the water percolates2 while those formed on the surface of the floor form stalagmite4 ,these calcareous products ornament the walls of these gloomy caverns in a most brilliant and picturesque manner4 ,under a covering of stalagmite1 the floor of the cave frequently presents deposits of mud and gravel4 ,it is in excavating this soil that the bones of antediluvian animals1 mixed with shells1 fragments of rocks1 and rolled pebbles1 are discovered4 ,the distribution of these bones in the middle of the gravelly argillaceous mud is as irregular as possible4 ,the skeletons are rarely entire2 the bones do not even occur in their natural positions4 ,the bones of small ,rodents are found accumulated in the crania of great ,carnivora4 ,the teeth of ,bears1 ,hynas1 and ,rhinoceros are cemented with the jaw-bones of ,ruminants4 ,the bones are very often polished and rounded1 as if they had been transported from great distances2 others are fissured2 others1 nevertheless1 are scarcely altered4 ,their state of preservation varies with their position in the cave4 ,the bones most frequently found in caves are those of the ,carnivora of the ,quaternary epoch3 the ,bear1 ,hyna1 the ,lion1 and ,tiger4 ,the animals of the plain1 and notably the great ,pachyderms--the ,mammoth and ,rhinoceros--are only very rarely met with1 and always in small numbers4 ,from the cavern of ,gailenreuth more than a thousand skeletons have been taken1 of which #hjj belonged to the large ,ursus spelus1 and sixty to the smaller species1 with #bjj ,hynas1 ,wolves1 ,lions1 and ,gluttons4 ,a jaw of the ,glutton has lately been found by ,mr4 ,t4 ,mc,k4 ,hughes in a cave in the ,mountain ,limestone at ,plas ,heaton1 associated with ,wolf1 ,bison1 ,reindeer1 ,horse1 and ,cave ,bear2 proving that the ,glutton1 which at the present day inhabits ,siberia and the inclement northern regions of ,europe1 inhabited ,great ,britain during the ,pleistocene or ,quaternary ,period4 ,in the ,kirkdale cave the remains1 as we have seen1 included those of not less than #cjj ,hynas of all ages4 ,dr4 ,buckland concludes1 from these circumstances1 that the ,hynas alone made this their den1 and that the bones of other animals accumulated there had been carried thither by them as their prey2 it is1 however1 now admitted that this part of the ,english geologist's conclusions do not apply to the contents of all bone-caves4 ,in some instances the bones of the ,mammals are broken and worn as with a long transport1 rolled1 according to the technical geological expression1 and finally cemented in the same mud1 together with fragments of the rocks of the neighbourhood4 ,besides bones of ,hynas1 are found not only the bones of inoffensive herbivora1 but remains of ,lions and ,bears4 ,we ought to note1 in order to make this explanation complete1 that some geologists consider that these caves served as a refuge for sick and wounded animals4 ,it is certain that we see1 in our own days1 some animals1 when attacked by sickness1 seek refuge in the fissures of rocks1 or in the hollows of trunks of trees1 where they die2 to this natural impulse it may1 probably1 be ascribed that the skeletons of animals are so rarely found in forests or plains4 ,we may conclude1 then1 that besides the more general mode in which these caverns were filled with bones1 the two other causes which we have enumerated may have been in operation2 that is to say1 they were the habitual sojourn of carnivorous and destructive animals1 and they became the retreat of sick animals on some particular occasions4 ,what was the origin of these caves8 ,how have these immense excavations been produced8 ,nearly all these caves occur in limestone rocks1 particularly in the ,jurassic and ,carboniferous formations1 which present many vast subterranean caverns4 ,at the same time some fine caves exist in the ,silurian formation1 such as the ,grotto des ,demoiselles 7,fig4 #aid7 near ,ganges1 of ,hrault4 ,it should be added1 in order to complete the explanation of the cave formations1 that the greater part of these vast internal excavations have been chiefly caused by subterranean watercourses1 which have eroded and washed away a portion of the walls1 and in this manner greatly enlarged their original dimensions4 ,but there are other modes than the above of accounting1 in a more satisfactory manner1 for the existence of these caves4 ,according to ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 there was a time when 7as now7 limestone rocks were dissolved1 and when the carbonate of lime was carried away gradually by springs from the interior of the earth2 that another era occurred1 when engulfed rivers or occasional floods swept organic and inorganic dbris into the subterranean hollows previously formed2 finally1 there were changes1 in which engulfed rivers were turned into new channels1 and springs dried up1 after which the cave-mud1 breccia1 gravel1 and fossil bones were left in the position in which they are now discovered4 8,we know10 says that eminent geologist1#ajd 8that in every limestone district the rain-water is soft1 or free from earthy ingredients1 when it falls upon the soil1 and when it enters the rocks below2 whereas it is hard1 or charged with carbonate of lime1 when it issues again to the surface in springs4 ,the rain derives some of its carbonic acid from the air1 but more from the decay of vegetable matter in the soil through which it percolates2 and by the excess of this acid1 limestone is dissolved1 and the water becomes charged with carbonate of lime4 ,the mass of solid matter silently and unceasingly subtracted in this way from the rocks in every century is considerable1 and must in the course of thousands of years be so vast1 that the space it once occupied may well be expressed by a long suite of caverns40 #ajd 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #abb4 ,the most celebrated of these bone-caves are those of ,gailenreuth1 in ,franconia2 of ,nabenstein1 and of ,brumberg1 in the same country2 the caves on the banks of the ,meuse1 near ,lige1 of which the late ,dr4 ,schmerling examined forty2 of ,yorkshire1 ,devonshire1 ,somersetshire1 and ,derbyshire1 in ,england2 also several in ,sicily1 at ,palermo1 and ,syracuse2 in ,france at ,hrault1 in the ,cvennes1 and ,franche ,comt2 and in the ,new ,world1 in ,kentucky and ,virginia4 ,the ossiferous breccia differs from the bone-caves only in form4 ,the most remarkable of them are seen at ,cette1 ,antibes1 and ,nice1 on the shores of ,italy2 and in the isles of ,corsica1 ,malta1 and ,sardinia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4--;,grotto des ,demoiselles1 ,hrault4 ,nearly the same bones are found in the breccia which we find in the caves2 the chief difference being that fossils of the ,ruminants are there in greater abundance4 ,the proportions of bones to the fragments of stone and cement vary considerably in different localities4 ,in the breccia of ,cagliari1 where the remains of ,ruminants are less abundant than at ,gibraltar and ,nice1 the bones1 which are those of the small ,rodents1 are1 so to speak1 more abundant than the mud in which they are embedded4 ,we find1 there1 also1 three or four species of ,birds which belong to ,thrushes and ,larks4 ,in the breccia at ,nice the remains of some great ,carnivora are found1 among which are recognised two species of ,lion and ,panther4 ,in the ,grotto di ,san-,ciro1 in the ,monte ,griffone1 about six miles from ,palermo1 in ,sicily1 ,dr4 ,falconer collected remains of two species of ,hippopotamus and bones of ,elephas antiquus1 ,bos1 ,stag1 ,pig1 ,bear1 ,dog1 and a large ,felis1 some of which indicated a ,pliocene age4 ,like many others1 this cave contains a thick mass of bone-breccia on its floor1 the bones of which have long been known1 and were formerly supposed to be those of giants2 while ,prof4 ,ferrara suggested that the ,elephants' bones were due to the ,carthaginian elephants imported into ,sicily for purposes of sport4#aje #aje ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #ahei4 ,but the breccia is not confined to ,europe4 ,we meet with it in all parts of the globe2 and recent discoveries in ,australia indicate a formation corresponding exactly to the ossiferous breccia of the ,mediterranean1 in which an ochreous-reddish cement binds together fragments of rocks and bones1 among which we find four species of ,kangaroos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4--;,beloptera ,sepioidea4 ,,glacial ,,period4 ,the two cataclysms1 of which we have spoken1 surprised ,europe at the moment of the development of an important creation4 ,the whole scope of animated ,nature1 the evolution of animals1 was suddenly arrested in that part of our hemisphere over which these gigantic convulsions spread1 followed by the brief but sudden submersion of entire continents4 ,organic life had scarcely recovered from the violent shock1 when a second1 and perhaps severer blow assailed it4 ,the northern and central parts of ,europe1 the vast countries which extend from ,scandinavia to the ,mediterranean and the ,danube1 were visited by a period of sudden and severe cold3 the temperature of the polar regions seized them4 ,the plains of ,europe1 but now ornamented by the luxurious vegetation developed by the heat of a burning climate1 the boundless pastures on which herds of great ,elephants1 the active ,horse1 the robust ,hippopotamus1 and great ,carnivorous animals grazed and roamed1 became covered with a mantle of ice and snow4 ,to what cause are we to attribute a phenomenon so unforeseen1 and exercising itself with such intensity8 ,in the present state of our knowledge no certain explanation of the event can be given4 ,did the central planet1 the sun1 which was long supposed to distribute light and heat to the earth1 lose during this period its calorific powers8 ,this explanation is insufficient1 since at this period the solar heat is not supposed to have greatly influenced the earth's temperature4 ,were the marine currents1 such as the ,gulf ,stream1 which carries the ,atlantic ,ocean towards the north and west of ,europe1 warming and raising its temperature1 suddenly turned in the contrary direction8 ,no such hypothesis is sufficient to explain either the cataclysms or the glacial phenomena2 and we need not hesitate to confess our ignorance of this strange1 this mysterious1 episode in the history of the globe4 ,there have been attempts1 and very ingenious ones too1 to explain these phenomena1 of which we shall give a brief summary1 without committing ourselves to any further opinion1 using for that purpose the information contained in ,m4 ,ch4 ,martins' excellent work4 8,the most violent convulsions of the solid and liquid elements10 says this able writer1 8appear to have been themselves only the effects due to a cause much more powerful than the mere expansion of the pyrosphere2 and it is necessary to recur1 in order to explain them1 to some new and bolder hypothesis than has yet been hazarded4 ,some philosophers have belief in an astronomical revolution which may have overtaken our globe in the first age of its formation1 and have modified its position in relation to the sun4 ,they admit that the poles have not always been as they are now1 and that some terrible shock displaced them1 changing at the same time the inclination of the axis of the rotation of the earth40 ,this hypothesis1 which is nearly the same as that propounded by the ,danish geologist1 ,klee1 has been ably developed by ,m4 de ,boucheporn4 ,according to this writer1 many multiplied shocks1 caused by the violent contact of the earth with comets1 produced the elevation of mountains1 the displacement of seas1 and perturbations of climate--phenomena which he ascribes to the sudden disturbance of the parallelism of the axis of rotation4 ,the antediluvian equator1 according to him1 makes a right angle with the existing equator4 8,quite recently10 adds ,m4 ,martins1 8a learned ,french mathematician1 ,m4 ,j4 ,adhmar1 has taken up the same idea2 but1 dismissing the more problematical elements of the concussion with comets as untenable1 he seeks to explain the deluges by the laws of gravitation and celestial mechanics1 and his theory has been supported by very competent writers4 ,it is this3 ,we know that our planet is influenced by two essential movements--one of rotation on its axis1 which it accomplishes in twenty-four hours2 the other of translation1 which it accomplishes in a little more than #cfe days4 ,but besides these great and perceptible movements1 the earth has a third1 and even a fourth movement1 with one of which we need not occupy ourselves2 it is that designated nutation by astronomers4 ,it changes periodically1 but within very restricted limits1 the inclination of the terrestrial axis to the plane of the ecliptic by a slight oscillation1 the duration of which is only eighteen hours1 and its influence upon the relative length of day and night almost inappreciable4 ,the other movement is that on which ,m4 ,adhmar's theory is founded4 8,we know that the curve described by the earth in its annual revolution round the sun is not a circle1 but an ellipse2 that is1 a slightly elongated circle1 sometimes called a circle of two centres1 one of which is occupied by the sun4 ,this curve is called the ecliptic4 ,we know1 also1 that1 in its movement of translation1 the earth preserves such a position that its axis of rotation is intercepted1 at its centre1 by the plane of the ecliptic4 ,but in place of being perpendicular1 or at right angles with this plane1 it crosses it obliquely in such a manner as to form on one side an angle of one-fourth1 and on the other an angle of three-fourths of a right angle4 ,this inclination is only altered in an insignificant degree by the movement of nutation4 ,i need scarcely add that the earth1 in its annual revolution1 occupies periodically four principal positions on the ecliptic1 which mark the limits of the four seasons4 ,when its centre is at the extremity most remote from the sun1 or aphelion1 it is the summer solstice for the northern hemisphere4 ,when its centre is at the other extremity1 or perihelion1 the same hemisphere is at the winter solstice4 ,the two intermediate points mark the equinoxes of spring and autumn4 ,the great circle of separation of light and shade passes1 then1 precisely through the poles1 the day and night are equal1 and the line of intersection of the plane of the equator and that of the ecliptic make part of the vector ray from the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth--what we call the equinoctial line4 8,thus placed1 it is evident that if the terrestrial axis remained always parallel to itself1 the equinoctial line would always pass through the same point on the surface of the globe4 ,but it is not absolutely thus4 ,the parallelism of the axis of the earth is changed slowly1 very slowly1 by a movement which ,arago ingeniously compares to the varying inclination of a top when about to cease spinning4 ,this movement has the effect of making the equinoctial points on the surface of the earth retrograde towards the east from year to year1 in such a manner that at the end of #be1hjj years according to some astronomers1 but #ba1jjj years according to ,adhmar1 the equinoctial point has literally made a circuit of the globe1 and has returned to the same position which it occupied at the beginning of this immense period1 which has been called the #8great year4' ,it is this retrograde evolution1 in which the terrestrial axis describes round its own centre that revolution round a double conic surface1 which is known as the precession of the equinoxes4 ,it was observed #b1jjj years ago by ,hipparchus2 its cause was discovered by ,newton2 and its complete evolution explained by ,d',alembert and ,laplace4 8,now1 we know that the consequence of the inclination of the terrestrial axis with the plane of the ecliptic is-- 8#a4 ,that the seasons are inverse to the two hemispheres--that is to say1 the northern hemisphere enjoys its spring and summer1 while the southern hemisphere passes through autumn and winter4 8#b4 ,when the earth approaches nearest to the sun1 our hemisphere has its autumn and winter2 and the regions near the pole1 receiving none of the solar rays1 are plunged into darkness1 approaching that of night1 during six months of the year4 8#c4 ,when the earth is most distant from the sun1 when much the greater half of the ecliptic intervenes between it and the focus of light and heat1 the pole1 being then turned towards this focus1 constantly receives its rays1 and the rest of the northern hemisphere enjoys its long days of spring and summer4 8,bearing in mind that1 in going from the equinox of spring to the autumnal equinox of our hemisphere1 the earth traverses a much longer curve than it does on its return2 bearing in mind1 also1 the accelerated movement it experiences in its approach to the sun from the attraction1 which increases in inverse proportion to the square of its distance1 we arrive at the conclusion that our summer should be longer and our winter shorter than the summer and winter of our antipodes2 and this is actually the case by about eight days4 8,i say actually1 because1 if we now look at the effects of the precession of the equinoxes1 we shall see that in a time equal to half of the grand year1 whether it be #ab1ijj or #aj1ejj years1 the conditions will be reversed2 the terrestrial axis1 and consequently the poles1 will have accomplished the half of their bi-conical revolution round the centre of the earth4 ,it will then be the northern hemisphere which will have the summers shorter and the winters longer1 and the southern hemisphere exactly the reverse4 ,in the year #abdh before the ,christian era1 according to ,m4 ,adhmar1 the north pole attained its maximum summer duration4 ,since then--that is to say for the last #c1aab years--it has begun to decrease1 and this will continue to the year #gchh of our era before it attains its maximum winter duration4 8,but the reader may ask1 fatigued perhaps by these abstract considerations1 ,what is there here in common with the deluges8 8,the grand year is here divided1 for each hemisphere1 into two great seasons1 which ,de ,jouvencel calls the great summer and winter1 which will each1 according to ,m4 ,adhmar1 be #aj1ejj years4 8,during the whole of this period one of the poles has constantly had shorter winters and longer summers than the other4 ,it follows that the pole which experiences the long winter undergoes a gradual and continuous cooling1 in consequence of which the quantities of ice and snow1 which melt during the summer1 are more than compensated by those which are again produced in the winter4 ,the ice and snow go on accumulating from year to year1 and finish at the end of the period by forming1 at the coldest pole1 a sort of crust or cap1 vast1 thick1 and heavy enough to modify the spheroidal form of the earth4 ,this modification1 as a necessary consequence1 produces a notable displacement of the centre of gravity1 or--for it amounts to the same thing--of the centre of attraction1 round which all the watery masses tend to restore it4 ,the south pole1 as we have seen1 finished its great winter in #abdh ,b4,c4 ,the accumulated ice then added itself to the snow1 and the snow to the ice1 at the south pole1 towards which the watery masses all tended until they covered nearly the whole of the southern hemisphere4 ,but since that date of #abdh1 our great winter has been in progress4 ,our pole1 in its turn1 goes on getting cooler continually2 ice is being heaped upon snow1 and snow upon ice1 and in #g1chh years the centre of gravity of the earth will return to its normal position1 which is the geometrical centre of the spheroid4 ,following the immutable laws of central attraction1 the southern waters accruing from the melted ice and snow of the south pole will return to invade and overwhelm once more the continents of the northern hemisphere1 giving rise to new continents1 in all probability1 in the southern hemisphere40 ,such is a brief statement of the hypothesis which ,adhmar has very ingeniously worked out4 ,how far it explains the mysterious phenomena which we have under consideration we shall not attempt to say1 our concern being with the effects4 ,does the evidence of upward and downward movements of the surface in ,tertiary times explain the great change8 ,for if the cooling which preceded and succeeded the two ,european deluges still remains an unsolved problem1 its effects are perfectly appreciable4 ,the intense cold which visited the northern and central parts of ,europe resulted in the annihilation of organic life in those countries4 ,all the watercourses1 the rivers and streams1 the seas and lakes1 were frozen4 ,as ,agassiz says in his first work on 8,glaciers03 8,a vast mantle of ice and snow covered the plains1 the valleys1 and the seas4 ,all the springs were dried up2 the rivers ceased to flow4 ,to the movements of a numerous and animated creation succeeded the silence of death40 ,great numbers of animals perished from cold4 ,the ,elephant and ,rhinoceros perished by thousands in the midst of their grazing grounds1 which became transformed into fields of ice and snow4 ,it is then that these two species disappeared1 and seem to have been effaced from creation4 ,other animals were overwhelmed1 without their race having been always entirely annihilated4 ,the sun1 which lately lighted up the verdant plains1 as it dawned upon these frozen steppes1 was only saluted by the whistling of the north winds1 and the horrible rending of the crevasses1 which opened up on all sides under the heat of its rays1 acting upon the immense glacier which formed the sepulchre of many animated beings4 ,how can we accept the idea that the plains1 but yesterday smiling and fertile1 were formerly covered1 and that for a very long period1 with an immense sheet of ice and snow8 ,to satisfy the reader that the proof of this can be established on sufficient evidence1 it is necessary to direct his attention to certain parts of ,europe4 ,it is essential to visit1 at least in idea1 a country where glacial phenomena still exist1 and to prove that the phenomena1 now confined to those countries1 were spread1 during geological times1 over spaces infinitely vaster4 ,we shall choose for our illustration1 and as an example1 the glaciers of the ,alps4 ,we shall show that the glaciers of ,switzerland and ,savoy have not always been restricted to their present limits2 that they are1 so to speak1 only miniature resemblances of the gigantic glaciers of times past2 and that they formerly extended over all the great plains which extend from the foot of the chain of the ,alps4 ,to establish these proofs we must enter upon some consideration of existing glaciers1 upon their mode of formation1 and their peculiar phenomena4 ,the snow which1 during the whole year1 falls upon the mountains1 does not melt1 but maintains its solid state1 when the elevation exceeds the height of #i1jjj feet or thereabouts4 ,where the snow accumulates to a great thickness1 in the valleys1 or in the deep fissures in the ground1 it hardens under the influence of the pressure resulting from the incumbent weight4 ,but it always happens that a certain quantity of water1 resulting from the momentary thawing of the superficial portions1 traverses its substance1 and this forms a crystalline mass of ice1 with a granular structure1 which the ,swiss naturalists designate nv4 ,from the successive melting and freezing caused by the heat by day and the cold by night1 and the infiltration of air and water into its interstices1 the nv is slowly transformed into a homogeneous azure mass of ice1 full of an infinite number of little air-bubbles--this was what was formerly called glace bulleuse 7bubble-ice74 ,finally1 these masses1 becoming completely frozen1 water replaces the bubbles of air4 ,then the transformation is complete2 the ice is homogeneous1 and presents those beautiful azure tints so much admired by the tourist who traverses the magnificent glaciers of ,switzerland and ,savoy4 ,such is the origin of1 and such is the mode in which the glaciers of the ,alps are formed4 ,an important property of glaciers remains to be pointed out4 ,they have a general movement of translation in the direction of their slope1 under the influence of which they make a certain yearly progress downward1 according to the angle of the slope4 ,the glacier of the ,aar1 for example1 advances at the rate of about #bej feet each year4 ,under the joint influence of the slope1 the weight of the frozen mass1 and the melting of the parts which touch the earth1 the glacier thus always tends downwards2 but from the effects of a more genial temperature1 the lower extremity melting rapidly1 has a tendency to recede4 ,it is the difference between these two actions which constitutes the real progressive movement of the glacier4 ,the friction exercised by the glacier upon the bottom and sides of the valley1 ought necessarily to leave its traces on the rocks with which it may happen to be in contact4 ,over all the places where a glacier has passed1 in fact1 we remark that the rocks are polished1 levelled1 rounded1 and1 as it is termed1 moutonnes4 ,these rocks present1 besides1 striations or scratches1 running in the direction of the motion of the glacier1 which have been produced by hard and angular fragments of stones imbedded in the ice1 and which leave their marks on the hardest rocks under the irresistible pressure of the heavy-descending mass of ice4 ,in a work of great merit1 which we have before quoted1 ,m4 ,charles ,martins explains the physical mechanism by which granite rocks borne onwards in the progressive movements of a glacier1 have scratched1 scored1 and rounded the softer rocks which the glacier has encountered in its descent4 8,the friction10 says ,m4 ,martins1 8which the glacier exercises upon the bottom and upon the walls1 is too considerable not to leave its traces upon the rocks with which it may be in contact2 but its action varies according to the mineralogical nature of the rocks1 and the configuration of the ground they cover4 ,if we penetrate between the soil and the bottom of the glacier1 taking advantage of the ice-caverns which sometimes open at its edge or extremity1 we creep over a bed of pebbles and fine sand saturated with water4 ,if we remove this bed1 we soon perceive that the underlying rock is levelled1 polished1 ground down by friction1 and covered with rectilinear stri1 resembling sometimes small grooves1 more frequently perfectly straight scratches1 as though they had been produced by means of a graver1 or even a very fine needle4 ,the mechanism by which these stri have been produced is that which industry employs to polish stones and metals4 ,we rub the metallic surface with a fine powder called emery1 until we give it a brilliancy which proceeds from the reflection of the light from an infinity of minute stri4 ,the bed of pebbles and mud1 interposed between the glacier and the subjacent rock1 here represents the emery4 ,the rock is the metallic surface1 and the mass of the glacier which presses on and displaces the mud in its descent towards the plain1 represents the hand of the polisher4 ,these stri always follow the direction of the glacier2 but as it is sometimes subject to small lateral deviations1 the stri sometimes cross1 forming very small angles with one another4 ,if we examine the rocks by the side of a glacier1 we find similar stri engraved on them where they have been in contact with the frozen mass4 ,i have often broken the ice where it thus pressed upon the rock1 and have found under it polished surfaces1 covered with striations4 ,the pebbles and grains of sand which had engraved them were still encased in the ice1 fixed like the diamond of the glazier at the end of the instrument with which he marks his glass4 8,the sharpness and depth of the stri or scratches depend on many circumstances3 if the rock acted upon is calcareous1 and the emery is represented by pebbles and sand derived from harder rocks1 such as gneiss1 granite1 or protogine1 the scratches are very marked4 ,this we can verify at the foot of the glaciers of ,rosenlaui1 and of the ,grindenwald in the ,canton of ,berne4 ,on the contrary1 if the rock is gneissic1 granitic1 or serpentinous1 that is to say1 very hard1 the scratches will be less deep and less marked1 as may be seen in the glaciers of the ,aar1 of ,zermatt1 and ,chamounix4 ,the polish will be the same in both cases1 and it is often as perfect as in marble polished for architectural purposes4 8,the scratches engraved upon the rocks which confine these glaciers are generally horizontal or parallel to the surface4 ,sometimes1 owing to the contractions of the valley1 these stri are nearly vertical4 ,this1 however1 need not surprise us4 ,forced onwards by the superincumbent weight1 the glacier squeezes itself through the narrow part1 its bulk expanding upwards1 in which case the flanks of the mountain which barred its passage are marked vertically4 ,this is admirably seen near the ,chlets of ,stieregg1 a narrow defile which the lower glacier of the ,grindenwald has to clear before it discharges itself into the valley of the same name4 ,upon the right bank of the glacier the scratches are inclined at an angle of #de to the horizon4 ,upon the left bank the glacier rises sometimes quite up to the neighbouring forest1 carrying with it great clods of earth charged with rhododendrons and clumps of alder1 birches1 and firs4 ,the more tender or foliated rocks were broken up and demolished by the prodigious force of the glacier2 the harder rocks offered more resistance1 but their surface is planed down1 polished1 and striated1 testifying to the enormous pressure which they had to undergo4 ,in the same manner the glacier of the ,aar1 at the foot of the promontory on which ,m4 ,agassiz' tent was erected1 is polished to a great height1 and on the face1 turned towards the upper part of the valley1 ,i have observed scratches inclined #fd4 ,the ice1 erect against this escarpment1 seemed to wish to scale it1 but the granite rock held fast1 and the glacier was compelled to pass round it slowly4 8,in recapitulation1 the considerable pressure of a glacier1 joined to its movement of progression1 acts at once upon the bottom and flanks of the valley which it traverses3 it polishes all the rocks which may be too hard to be demolished by it1 and frequently impresses upon them a peculiar and characteristic form4 ,in destroying all the asperities and inequalities of these rocks1 it levels their surfaces and rounds them on the sides pointing up the stream1 whilst in the opposite direction1 or down the stream1 they sometimes preserve their abrupt1 unequal1 and rugged surface4 ,we must comprehend1 in short1 that the force of the glacier acts principally on the side which is towards the circle whence it descends1 in the same way that the piles of a bridge are more damaged up-stream1 than down1 by the icebergs which the river brings down during the winter4 ,seen from a distance1 a group of rocks thus rounded and polished reminds us of the appearance of a flock of sheep3 hence the name roches moutonnes given them by the ,swiss naturalists40 ,another phenomenon which plays an important part in existing glaciers1 and in those1 also1 which formerly covered ,switzerland1 is found in the fragments of rock1 often of enormous size1 which have been transported and deposited during their movement of progression4 ,the peaks of the ,alps are exposed to continual degradations4 ,formed of granitic rocks--rocks eminently alterable under the action of air and water1 they become disintegrated and often fall in fragments more or less voluminous4 8,the masses of snow10 continues ,martins1 8which hang upon the ,alps during winter1 the rain which infiltrates between their beds during summer1 the sudden action of torrents of water1 and more slowly1 but yet more powerfully1 the chemical affinities1 degrade1 disintegrate1 and decompose the hardest rocks4 ,the dbris thus produced falls from the summits into the circles occupied by the glaciers with a great crash1 accompanied by frightful noises and great clouds of dust4 ,even in the middle of summer ,i have seen these avalanches of stone precipitated from the highest ridges of the ,schreckhorn1 forming upon the immaculate snow a long black train1 consisting of enormous blocks and an immense number of smaller fragments4 ,in the spring a rapid thawing of the winter snows often causes accidental torrents of extreme violence4 ,if the melting is slow1 water insinuates itself into the smallest fissures of the rocks1 freezes there1 and rends asunder the most refractory masses4 ,the blocks detached from the mountains are sometimes of gigantic dimensions3 we have found them sixty feet in length1 and those measuring thirty feet each way are by no means rare in the ,alps40#ajf #ajf ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 p4 #ibe2 ,march #a1 #ahdg4 ,thus1 the action of aqueous infiltrations followed by frost1 the chemical decomposition which granite undergoes under the influence of a moist atmosphere1 degrade and disintegrate the rocks which constitute the mountains enclosing the glacier4 ,blocks1 sometimes of very considerable dimensions1 often fall at the foot of these mountains on to the surface of the glacier4 ,were it immovable the dbris would accumulate at its base1 and would form there a mass of ruins heaped up without order4 ,but the slow progression1 the continuous displacement of the glacier1 lead1 in the distribution of these blocks1 to a certain kind of arrangement3 the blocks falling upon its surface participate in its movement1 and advance with it4 ,but other downfalls take place daily1 and the new dbris following the first1 the whole form a line along the outer edge of the glacier4 ,these regular trains of rocks bear the name of 8moraines40 ,when the rocks fall from two mountains1 and on each edge of the glacier1 and two parallel lines of dbris are formed1 they are called lateral moraines4 ,there are also median moraines1 which are formed when two glaciers are confluent1 in such a manner that the lateral moraine1 on the right of the one1 trends towards the left-hand one of the other4 ,finally1 those moraines are frontal1 or terminal1 which repose1 not upon the glacier1 but at its point of termination in the valleys1 and which are due to the accumulation of blocks fallen from the terminal escarpments of glaciers there arrested by some obstacle4 ,in ,,plate ,,xxxi4 we have represented an actual ,swiss glacier1 in which are united the physical and geological peculiarities belonging to these enormous masses of frozen water3 the moraines here are lateral1 that is to say1 formed of a double line of dbris4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxi4--,glaciers of ,switzerland4 ,transported slowly on the surface of the glacier1 all the blocks from the mountain preserve their original forms unaltered2 the sharpness of their edges is never altered by their gentle transport and almost imperceptible motion4 ,atmospheric agency only can affect or destroy these rocks when formed of hard resisting material4 ,they then remain nearly of the same form and volume they had when they fell on the surface of the glacier2 but it is otherwise with blocks and fragments enclosed between the rock and the glacier1 whether it be at the bottom or between the glacier and its lateral walls4 ,some of these1 under the powerful and continuous action of this gigantic grinding process1 will be reduced to an impalpable mud1 others are worn into facets1 while others are rounded1 presenting a multitude of scratches crossing each other in all directions4 ,these scratched pebbles are of great importance in studying the extent of ancient glaciers2 they testify1 on the spot1 to the existence of pre-existing glaciers which shaped1 ground1 and striated the pebbles1 which water does not2 on the contrary1 in the latter1 they become polished and rounded1 and even natural striations are effaced4 ,thus1 huge blocks transported to great distances from their true geological beds1 that is1 erratic blocks1 to use the proper technical term1 rounded 7moutonnes71 polished1 and scratched surfaces1 moraines2 finally1 pebbles1 ground1 polished1 rounded1 or worn into smooth surfaces1 are all physical effects of glaciers in motion1 and their presence alone affords sufficient proof to the naturalist that a glacier formerly existed in the locality where he finds them4 ,the reader will now comprehend how it is possible to recognise1 in our days1 the existence of ancient glaciers in different parts of the world4 ,above all1 wherever we may find both erratic blocks and moraines1 and observe1 at the same time1 indications of rocks having been polished and striated in the same direction1 we may pronounce with certainty as to the existence of a glacier during geological times4 ,let us take some instances4 ,at ,pravolta1 in the ,alps1 going towards ,monte ,santo-,primo1 upon a calcareous rock1 we find the mass of granite represented in ,fig4 #aif4 ,this erratic block exists1 with thousands of others1 on the slopes of the mountain4 ,it is about fifty feet long1 nearly forty feet broad1 and five-and-twenty in height2 and all its edges and angles are perfect4 ,some parallel stri occur along the neighbouring rocks4 ,all this clearly demonstrates that a glacier existed1 in former times1 in this part of the ,alps1 where none appear at the present time4 ,it is a glacier1 then1 which has transported and deposited here this enormous block1 weighing nearly #b1jjj tons4 ,in the ,jura ,mountains1 on the hill of ,fourvires1 a limestone eminence at ,lyons1 blocks of granite are found1 evidently derived from the ,alps1 and transported there by the ,swiss glaciers4 ,the particular mode of transport is represented theoretically in ,fig4 #aig4 ,a represents1 for example1 the summit of the ,alps1 ,b the ,jura ,mountains1 or the hill of ,fourvires1 at ,lyons4 ,at the glacial period1 the glacier ,a ,b ,c extended from the ,alps to the mountain ,b4 ,the granitic dbris1 which was detached from the summit of the ,alpine mountains1 fell on the surface of the glacier4 ,the movement of progression of this glacier transported these blocks as far as the summit ,b4 ,at a later period the temperature of the globe was raised1 and when the ice had melted1 the blocks1 ,d ,e1 were quietly deposited on the spots where they are now found1 without having sustained the slightest shock or injury in this singular mode of transport4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4--;,erratic ,blocks in the ,alps4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4--,transported blocks4 ,every day traces1 more or less recognisable1 are found on the ,alps of ancient glaciers far distant from their existing limits4 ,heaps of dbris1 of all sizes1 comprehending blocks with sharp-pointed angles1 are found in the ,swiss plains and valleys4 ,blocs perchs 7,perched blocks71 as in ,,pl4 ,,xxxi41 are often seen perched upon points of the ,alps situated far above existing glaciers1 or dispersed over the plain which separates the ,alps from the ,jura1 or even preserving an incredible equilibrium1 when their great mass is taken into consideration1 at considerable heights on the eastern flank of this chain of mountains4 ,it is by the aid of these indications that the geologist has been able to trace to extremely remote distances signs of the former existence of the ancient glaciers of the ,alps1 to follow them in their course1 and fix their point of origin1 and where they terminated4 ,thus the humble ,mount ,sion1 a gently-swelling hill situated to the north of ,geneva1 was the point at which three great ancient glaciers had their confluence--the glacier of the ,rhne1 which filled all the basin of ,lake ,leman1 or ,lake of ,geneva2 that of the ,isre1 which issued from the ,annecy and ,bourget ,lakes2 and that of the ,arve1 which had its source in the valley of ,chamounix1 all converged at this point4 ,according to ,m4 ,g4 de ,mortillet1 who has carefully studied this geological question1 the extent and situation of these ancient glaciers of the ,alps were as follows3--,upon its northern flank the glacier of the ,rhine occupied all the basin of ,lake ,constance1 and extended to the borders of ,germany2 that of the ,linth1 which was arrested at the extremity of the ,lake of ,zurich--this city is built upon its terminal moraine--that of the ,reus1 which covered the lake of the four cantons with blocks torn from the peaks of ,saint-,gothard2--that of the ,aar1 the last moraines of which crown the hills in the environs of ,berne2--those of the ,arve and the ,isre1 which1 as we have said1 debouched from ,lake ,annecy and ,lake ,bourget respectively2--that of the ,rhne1 the most important of all4 ,it is this glacier which has deposited upon the flanks of the ,jura1 at the height of #c1djj feet above the level of the sea1 the great erratic blocks already described4 ,this mighty glacier of the ,rhne had its origin in all the lateral valleys formed by the two parallel chains of the ,valais4 ,it filled all the ,valais1 and extended into the plain1 lying between the ,alps and the ,jura1 from ,fort de ,l'cluse1 near the fall of the ,rhne1 up to the neighbourhood of ,aarau4 ,the fragments of rocks transported by the ice-sea which occupied all the ,swiss plain follow1 in northerly direction1 the course of the valley of the ,rhine4 ,on the other hand1 the glacier of the ,rhne1 after reaching the plain of ,switzerland1 turned off obliquely towards the south1 received the glacier of the ,arve1 then that of the ,isre1 passed between the ,jura and the mountains of the ,grande-,chartreuse1 spread over ,la ,bresse1 then nearly all ,dauphiny1 and terminated in the neighbourhood of ,lyons4 ,upon the southern flank of the ,alps1 the ancient glaciers1 according to ,m4 de ,mortillet's map1 occupied all the great valleys from that of the ,dora1 on the west1 to that of the ,tagliamento1 on the east4 8,the glacier of the ,dora0 says de ,mortillet1 whose text we greatly abridge1 8debouched into the valley of the ,po1 close to ,turin4 ,that of the ,dora-,balta entered the plain of ,ivra1 where it has left a magnificent semicircle of hills1 which formed its terminal moraine4 ,that of the ,toce discharged itself into ,lake ,maggiore1 against the glacier of the ,tessin1 and then threw itself into the valley of ,lake ,orta1 at the southern extremity of which its terminal moraines were situated4 ,that of the ,tessin filled the basin of ,lake ,maggiore1 and established itself between ,lugano and ,varse4 ,that of the ,adda filled the basin of ,lake ,como1 and established itself between ,mendrizio and ,lecco1 thus describing a vast semicircle4 ,that of the ,oglio terminated a little beyond ,lake ,iseo4 ,that of the ,adige1 finding no passage through the narrow valley of ,roveredo1 where the valley became very narrow1 took another course1 and filled the immense valley of the ,lake of ,garda4 ,at ,novi it has left a magnificent moraine1 of which ,dante speaks in his #8,inferno4' ,that of the ,brenta extended over the plain of that commune4 ,the ,drave and the ,tagliamento had also their glaciers4 ,finally1 glaciers occupied all the valleys of the ,austrian and ,bavarian ,alps40#ajg #ajg 8,carte des ,anciens ,glaciers des ,alpes10 pp4 #h-aj4 7#ahfj47 ,similar traces of the existence of ancient glaciers occur in many other ,european countries4 ,in the ,pyrenees1 in ,corsica1 the ,vosges1 the ,jura1 c41 extensive ranges of country have been covered1 in geological times1 by these vast plains of ice4 ,the glacier of the ,moselle was the most considerable of the glaciers of the ,vosges1 receiving numerous affluents2 its lowest frontal moraine1 which is situated below ,remiremont1 could not be less than a mile and a quarter in length4 ,but the phenomenon of the glacial extension which we have examined in the ,alps was not confined to ,central ,europe4 ,the same traces of their ancient existence are observed in all the north of ,europe1 in ,russia1 ,iceland1 ,norway1 ,prussia1 the ,british ,islands1 part of ,germany1 in the north1 and even in some parts of the south1 of ,spain4 ,in ,england1 erratic blocks of granite are found which were derived from the mountains of ,norway4 ,it is evident that these blocks were borne by a glacier which extended from the north pole to ,england4 ,in this manner they crossed the ,baltic and the ,north ,seas4 ,in ,prussia similar traces are observable4 ,thus1 during the ,quaternary epoch1 glaciers which are now limited to the ,polar regions1 or to mountainous countries of considerable altitude1 extended very far beyond their present known limits2 and1 taken in connection with the deluge of the north1 and the vast amount of organic life which they destroyed1 they form1 perhaps1 the most striking and mysterious of all geological phenomena4 ,m4 ,edouard ,collomb1 to whom we owe much of our knowledge of ancient glaciers1 furnishes the following note explanatory of a map of ,ancient ,glaciers which he has prepared3-- 8,the area occupied by the ancient ,quaternary glaciers may be divided into two orographical regions3--#a4 ,the region of the north1 from lat4 #eb or #ee up to the ,north ,pole4 #b4 ,the region of ,central ,europe and part of the south4 8,the region of the north which has been covered by the ancient glaciers comprehends all the ,scandinavian peninsula1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 and a part of ,western ,russia1 extending from the ,niemen on the north in a curve which passed near the sources of the ,dnieper and the ,volga1 and thence took a direction towards the shores of the glacial ocean4 ,this region comprehends ,iceland1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 the isles dependent on them1 and1 finally1 a great part of ,england4 8,this region is bounded1 on all its sides1 by a wide zone from #b to #e in breadth1 over which is recognised the existence of erratic blocks of the north3 it includes the middle region of ,russia in ,europe1 ,poland1 a part of ,prussia1 and ,denmark2 losing itself in ,holland on the ,zuider ,zee1 it cut into the northern part of ,england1 and we find a shred of it in ,france1 upon the borders of the ,cotentin4 8,the ancient glaciers of ,central ,europe consisted1 first1 of the grand masses of the ,alps4 ,stretching to the west and to the north1 they extended to the valley of the ,rhne as far as ,lyons1 then crossing the summit-level of the ,jura1 they passed near ,basle1 covering ,lake ,constance1 and stretching beyond into ,bavaria and ,austria4 ,upon the southern slopes of the ,alps1 they turned round the summit of the ,adriatic1 passed near to ,udinet1 covered ,peschiera1 ,solferino1 ,como1 ,varse1 and ,ivra1 extended to near ,turin1 and terminated in the valley of the ,stura1 near the ,col de ,tenda4 8,in the ,pyrenees1 the ancient glaciers have occupied all the principal valleys of this chain1 both on the ,french and ,spanish sides1 especially the valleys of the centre1 which comprehend those of ,luchon1 ,aude1 ,barges1 ,cauterets1 and ,ossun4 ,in the ,cantabrian chain1 an extension of the ,pyrenees1 the existence of ancient glaciers has also been recognised4 8,in the ,vosges and the ,black ,forest they covered all the southern parts of these mountains4 ,in the ,vosges1 the principal traces are found in the valleys of ,saint-,amarin1 ,giromagny1 ,munster1 the ,moselle1 c4 8,in the ,carpathians and the ,caucasus the existence of ancient glaciers of great extent has also been observed4 8,in the ,sierra ,nevada1 in the south of ,spain1 mountains upwards of #aa1jjj feet high1 the valleys which descend from the ,picacho de ,veleta and ,mulhacen have been covered with ancient glaciers during the ,quaternary epoch40 ,there is no reason to doubt that at this epoch all the ,british islands1 at least all north of the ,thames1 were covered by glaciers in their higher parts4 8,those10 says ,professor ,ramsay1 8who know the ,highlands of ,scotland1 will remember that1 though the weather has had a powerful influence upon them1 rendering them in places rugged1 jagged1 and cliffy1 yet1 notwithstanding1 their general outlines are often remarkably rounded and flowing2 and when the valleys are examined in detail1 you find in their bottoms and on the sides of the hills that the mammillated structure prevails4 ,this rounded form is known1 by those who study glaciers1 by the name of roches moutonnes1 given to them by the ,swiss writers4 ,these mammillated forms are exceedingly common in many ,british valleys1 and not only so1 but the very same kind of grooving and striation1 so characteristic of the rocks in the ,swiss valleys1 also marks those of the ,highlands of ,scotland1 of ,cumberland1 and ,wales4 ,considering all these things1 geologists1 led by ,agassiz some five or six and twenty years ago1 have by degrees come to the conclusion1 that a very large part of our island was1 during the glacial period1 covered1 or nearly covered1 with a thick coating of ice in the same way that the north of ,greenland is at present2 and that by the long-continued grinding power of a great glacier1 or set of glaciers nearly universal over the northern half of our country1 and the high ground of ,wales1 the whole surface became moulded by ice40 ,whoever traverses ,england1 observing its features with attention1 will remark in certain places traces of the action of ice in this era4 ,some of the mountains present on one side a naked rock1 and on the other a gentle slope1 smiling and verdant1 giving a character more or less abrupt1 bold1 and striking1 to the landscape4 ,considerable portions of dry land were formerly covered by a bluish clay1 which contained many fragments of rock or 8boulders0 torn from the old ,cumbrian mountains2 from the ,pennine chain2 from the moraines of the north of ,england2 and from the ,chalk hills--hence called 8boulder0 clay--present themselves here and there1 broken1 worn1 and ground up by the action of water and ice4 ,these erratic blocks or 8boulders0 have clearly been detached from the parent rock by violence1 and often transported to considerable distances4 ,they have been carried1 not only across plains1 but over the tops of mountains2 some of them being found #acj miles from the parent rocks4 ,we even find1 as already hinted1 some rocks of which no prototypes have been found nearer than ,norway4 ,there is1 then1 little room for doubting the fact of an extensive system of glaciers having covered the land1 although the proofs have only been gathered laboriously and by slow degrees in a long series of years4 ,in #ahdj ,agassiz visited ,scotland1 and his eye1 accustomed to glaciers in his native mountains1 speedily detected their signs4 ,dr4 ,buckland became a zealous advocate of the same views4 ,north ,wales was soon recognised as an independent centre of a system which radiated from lofty ,snowdon1 through seven valleys1 carrying with them large stones and grooving the rocks in their passage4 ,in the pass of ,llanberis there are all the common proofs of the valley having been filled with glacier ice4 8,when the country was under water10 says ,professor ,ramsay1 8the drift was deposited which more or less filled up many of the ,welsh valleys4 ,when the land had risen again to a considerable height1 the glaciers increased in size3 although they never reached the immense magnitude which they attained in the earlier portion of the icy epoch4 ,still they became so large that such a valley as the ,pass of ,llanberis was a second time occupied by ice1 which ploughed out the drift that more or less covered the valley4 ,by degrees1 however1 as we approach nearer our own days1 the climate slowly ameliorated1 and the glaciers began to decline1 till1 growing less and less1 they crept up and up2 and here and there1 as they died away1 they left their terminal and lateral moraines still as well defined in some cases as moraines in lands where glaciers now exist4 ,frequently1 too1 masses of stone1 that floated on the surface of the ice1 were left perched upon the rounded roches moutonnes1 in a manner somewhat puzzling to those who are not geologists4 8,in short1 they were let down upon the surface of these rocks so quietly and so softly1 that there they will lie1 until an earthquake shakes them down1 or until the wasting of the rock on which they rest precipitates them to a lower level40 ,it was the opinion of ,agassiz1 after visiting ,scotland1 that the ,grampians had been covered by a vast thickness of ice1 whence erratic blocks had been dispersed in all directions as from a centre2 other geologists after a time adopted the opinion--,mr4 ,robert ,chambers going so far as to maintain1 in #ahdh1 that ,scotland had been at one time moulded by ice4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,f4 ,jamieson followed in the same track1 adducing many new facts to prove that the ,grampians once sent down glaciers in all directions towards the sea4 8,the glacial grooves10 he says1 8radiate outward from the central heights towards all points of the compass1 although they do not strictly conform to the actual shape and contour of the minor valleys and ridges40 ,but the most interesting part of ,mr4 ,jamieson's investigations is undoubtedly the ingenious manner in which he has worked out ,agassiz' assertion that ,glenroy1 whose remarkable 8,parallel ,roads0 have puzzled so many investigators1 was once the basin of a frozen lake4 ,glenroy is one of the many romantic glens of ,lochaber1 at the head of the ,spey1 near to the ,great ,glen1 or the valley of the ,caledonian ,canal1 which stretches obliquely across the country in a northwesterly direction from ,loch ,linnh to ,loch ,ness1 leaving ,loch ,arkaig1 ,loch ,aich1 ,glen ,garry1 and many a highland loch besides1 on the left1 and ,glen ,spean1 in which ,loch ,treig1 running due north and south1 has its mouth1 on the south4 ,glenroy opens into it from the north1 while ,glen ,gluoy opens into the ,great ,glen opposite ,loch ,arkaig4 ,mr4 ,jamieson commenced his investigations at the mouth of ,loch ,arkaig1 which is about a mile from the lake itself4 ,here he found the gneiss ground down as if by ice coming from the east4 ,on the hill1 north of the lake1 the gneiss1 though much worn and weathered1 still exhibited well-marked stri1 directed up and down the valley4 ,other markings showed that the ,glen ,arkaig glacier not only blocked up ,glen ,gluoy1 but the mouth of ,glen ,spean1 which lies two miles or so north of it on the opposite side4 ,at ,brackletter1 on the south side of ,glen ,spean1 near its junction with ,glen ,lochy1 glacial scores pointing more nearly due west1 but slightly inclining to the north1 were observed1 as if caused by the pressure of ice from ,glen ,lui4 ,the south side of ,glen ,spean1 from its mouth to ,loch ,treig1 is bounded by lofty hills--an extension of ,ben ,nevis1 the highest of these peaks exceeding #c1jjj feet4 ,numerous gullies intersect their flanks1 and the largest of these1 ,corry ,n',eoin1 presents a series of rocky amphitheatres1 or rather large caldrons1 whose walls have been ground down by long-continued glacial action3 the quartz-veins are all shorn down to the level of the gneiss1 and streaked with fine scratches1 pointing down the hollows and far up the rocks on either side4 ,during all these operations the great valley was probably filled up with ice1 which would close ,glen ,gluoy and ,glen ,spean1 and might also close the lowest of the lines in ,glenroy4 ,but how about the middle and upper lines8 ,a glacier crossing from ,loch ,treig1 and protruding across ,glen ,spean1 would cut off ,glens ,glaibu and ,makoul1 when the water in ,glenroy could only escape over the ,col into ,strathspey1 when the first level would be marked4 ,now let the ,glen ,treig glacier shrink a little1 so as to let out water to the level of the second line by the outline at ,makoul1 and the theory is complete4 ,when the first and greatest glacier gave way1 ,glenroy would be nearly in its present state4 ,the glacier1 on issuing from the gorge at the end of ,loch ,treig1 would dilate immensely1 the right flank spreading over a rough expanse of syenite1 the neighbouring hills being mica-schists1 with veins of porphyry4 ,now the syenite breaks into large cuboidal blocks of immense size4 ,these have been swept before the advancing glacier along with other dbris1 and deposited in a semicircle of mounds having a sweep of several miles1 forming circular bands which mark the edges of the glacier as it shrunk from time to time under the influence of a milder climate4 ,this moraine1 which was all that was wanting to complete the theory laid down by ,agassiz1 is found on the pony-road leading from the mouth of ,loch ,treig towards ,badenoch4 ,a mile or so brings the traveller to the summit-level of the road1 and beyond the hill a low moor stretches away to the bottom of the plain4 ,here1 slanting across the slope of the hill towards ,loch ,treig1 two lines of moraine stretch across the road4 ,at first they consist of mica-schists and bits of porphyry1 but blocks of syenite soon become intermingled4 ,outside these are older hillocks1 rising in some places sixty and seventy feet high1 forming narrow steep-sided mounds1 with blocks fourteen feet in length sticking out of the surface1 mixed with fragments of mica-schist and gneiss4 ,the inner moraine consists1 almost wholly1 of large blocks of syenite1 five1 ten1 fifteen1 and five-and-twenty feet long4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4--,parallel roads of ,glenroy2 from a sketch by ,professor ,j4 ,phillips4 ,the present aspect of ,glenroy is that of an upper and lower glen opening up from the larger ,glen ,spean4 ,the head-waters of ,lochaber gather in a wild mountain tract1 near the source of the ,spey4 ,the upper glen is an oval valley1 four miles long1 by about one broad1 bounded on each side by high mountains1 which throw off two streams dividing the mica-schist from the gneissic systems2 the former predominating on the west side1 and the latter on the east4 ,the united streams flow to the south-west for two miles1 when the valley contracts to a rocky gorge which separates the upper from the lower glen4 ,passing from the upper to the lower glen1 a line is observed to pass from near the junction of the two streams1 on a level with a flat rock at the gorge1 and also with the uppermost of the three lines of terraces in the lower glen4 ,this line girdles the sides of the hills right and left1 with a seemingly higher sweep1 and is followed by two other perfectly parallel and continuous lines till ,glenroy expands into ,glen ,spean1 which crosses its mouth and enters the great glen a little south of ,loch ,lochy4 ,at the point1 however1 where ,glenroy enters ,glen ,spean1 the two upper terraces cease1 while the lower of the three appears on the north and south side of ,glen ,spean1 as far as the pass of ,glen ,muckal1 and southward a little way up the ,gubban river and round the head of ,loch ,treig4 ,in ,scotland1 and in ,northern ,england and ,wales1 there is distinct evidence that the ,glacial ,epoch commenced with an era of continental ice1 the land being but slightly lower than at present1 and possibly at the same level1 during which period the ,scottish hills received their rounded outlines1 and scratched and smoothed rock-surfaces2 and the plains and valleys became filled with the stiff clay1 with angular scratched stones1 known as the 8,till10 which deposit is believed by ,messrs4 ,geikie1 ,jamieson1 and ,croll to be a moraine profonde1 the product of a vast ice-sheet4 ,in ,wales1 ,professor ,ramsay has described the whole of the valleys of the ,snowdonian range as filled with enormous glaciers1 the level of the surface of the ice filling the ,pass of ,llanberis1 rising #ejj feet above the present watershed at ,gorphwysfa4 ,in the ,lake ,district of ,cumberland and ,westmorland1 ,mr4 ,de ,rance has shown that a vast series of glaciers1 or small ice-sheets1 filled all the valleys1 radiating out in all directions from the larger mountains1 which formed centres of dispersion1 the ice actually pushing over many of the lesser watersheds1 and scooping out the great rock-basins in which lie the lakes ,windermere1 ,ullswater1 ,thirlmere1 ,coniston ,water1 and ,wastwater1 the bottoms of which are nearly all below the sea-level4 ,the whole of this district1 he has shown1 experienced a second glaciation1 after the period of great submergence1 in which valley-glaciers scooped out the marine drift1 and left their moraines in the ,liza1 ,langdale1 and other valleys1 and high up in the hills1 as at ,harrison's ,stickle1 where a tarn has been formed by a little moraine1 acting as a dam1 as shown by ,professor ,hull4 ,in ,wales1 also1 valley-glaciers existed after the submergence beneath the ,glacial sea4 ,thus in ,cwm-llafar1 under the brow of ,carnedd ,dafydd1 and ,carnedd ,llewelyn1 ,professor ,ramsay has shown that a narrow glacier1 about two miles in length1 has ploughed out a long narrow hollow in the drift 7which 8forms a succession of terraces1 the result of marine denudation1 during pauses in the re-elevation of its submersion7 to a depth of more than #b1jjj feet40#ajh #ajh ,professor ,ramsay1 8,the ,old ,glaciers of ,north ,wales40 ,longman1 #ahfj4 ,the proofs of this great submergence1 succeeding the era of 8land-ice10 are constantly accumulating4 ,since #ahfc1 when ,professor ,hull first divided the thick glacial deposits of ,eastern ,lancashire and ,cheshire into an ,upper ,boulder ,clay1 and ,lower ,boulder ,clay divided by a ,middle ,sand and ,gravel1 the whole of which are of marine origin1 these subdivisions have been found to hold good1 by himself and ,mr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,green1 over #fjj square miles of country around ,manchester1 ,bolton1 and ,congleton2 by ,mr4 ,de ,rance over another #fjj square miles1 around ,liverpool1 ,preston1 ,blackpool1 ,blackburn1 and ,lancaster1 and also in the low country lying between the ,cumberland and ,welsh mountains and the sea4 ,in ,ireland1 also1 the same triplex arrangement appears to exist4 ,professors ,harkness and ,hull have identified the 8,limestone and ,manure ,gravels0 of the central plain1 as referable to the 8,middle ,sand and ,gravel10 and the 8,lower ,boulder ,clay0 rests on a glaciated rock-surface along the coasts of ,antrim and ,down1 and is overlain by sand1 which1 in #ahcb1 was discovered by ,dr4 ,scouler to be shell-bearing4 ,at ,kingstown the three deposits are seen resting on a moutonned surface of granite1 scored from the ,n4,n4,w4 ,in ,lancashire and on the coast of ,north ,wales1 between ,llandudno and ,rhyl1 ,mr4 ,de ,rance has shown that these deposits often lie upon the denuded and eroded surface of another clay1 of older date1 which he believes to be the product of land-ice1 the remnant of the moraine profonde1 and the equivalent of the ,scotch 8,till40 ,he also shows that the ,lower ,boulder ,clay never rises above an elevation of fifty or eighty feet above the sea-level2 and that the ,middle ,sand and ,shingle rests directly upon the rock1 or on the surface of this old ,till4 ,near ,manchester the ,lower ,boulder ,clay occasionally rests upon an old bed of sand and gravel4 ,it is extremely local1 but its presence has been recorded in several sections by ,mr4 ,edward ,binney1 who was the first to show1 in #ahdb1aji that the ,lancashire ,boulder ,clays were formed in the sea1 and that the erratic pebbles and boulders1 mainly derived from the ,cumberland ,lake ,districts1 were brought south by means of floating ice4 #aji ,in #ahdj ,dr4 ,buckland described the occurrence of boulders of ,criffel ,granite between ,shalbeck and ,carlisle1 and attributed their position to the agency of ice floating across the ,solway ,firth4 ,most of the erratic pebbles and boulders in the ,lancashire clays are more or less scratched and scored1 many of them 7though quite rounded7 in so many directions that ,mr4 ,de ,rance believes the ,cumberland and ,westmoreland hills to have been surrounded by an ice-belt1 which1 occasionally thawing during summer or warm episodes1 admitted 8breaker action0 on the gradually subsiding coast1 wearing the fragments of rocks brought down by rivers or by glaciers into pebbles that1 with the return of the cold1 became covered with the 8ice-belt10 which1 lifted by the tides1 rolled and dinted the pebbles one against another1 and gradually allowed them to be impressed into its mass1 with which they eventually floated away4 ,the ,middle ,sands and ,shingles in ,england have also afforded a great number of shells of mollusca4 ,at ,macclesfield they have been described by ,messrs4 ,prestwich and ,darbishire as occurring at an elevation of #a1ajj to #a1bjj feet above the level of the sea4#aaj #aaj ,mr4 ,darbishire records seventy species from ,macclesfield and ,moel ,tryfaen1 taken together1 of which #f are ,arctic1 and #ah are not known in the ,upper ,crag4 ,among other proofs of glacial action and submersion in ,wales may be mentioned the case of ,moel ,tryfaen1 a hill #a1djj feet high1 lying to the westward of ,caernarvon ,bay1 and six or seven miles from ,caernarvon4 ,mr4 ,joshua ,trimmer had observed stratified drift near the summit of this mountain1 from which he obtained some marine shells2 but doubts were entertained as to their age until #ahfc1 when a deep and extensive cutting was made in search of slates4 ,in this cutting a stratified mass of loose sand and gravel was laid open near the summit1 thirty-five feet thick1 containing shells1 some entire1 but mostly in fragments4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell examined the cutting1 and obtained twenty species of shells1 and in the lower beds of the drift1 8large heavy boulders of far-transported rocks1 glacially polished and scratched on more than one side30 underneath the whole1 the edges of vertical slates were exposed to view1 exhibiting 8unequivocal marks of prolonged glaciation40 ,the shells belonged to species still living in ,british or more northern seas4 ,from the gravels of the ,severn ,valley1 described by ,mr4 ,maw1 thirty-five forms of mollusca have been identified by ,mr4 ,gwyn ,jeffreys4 ,in the ,shingle beds of ,leyland1 ,euxton1 ,chorley1 ,preston1 ,lancaster1 and ,blackpool1#aaa ,mr4 ,de ,rance has obtained nearly thirty species4 #aaa ,the typical species in ,west ,lancashire are ,tellina ,balthica1 ,cardium edule1 ,c4 aculeatum1 ,c4 rusticum1 ,psammobia ferroensis1 ,turritella terebra4 ,in ,eastern ,yorkshire1 ,mr4 ,searles ,v4 ,wood1 ,jun41 has divided the glacial deposits into 8,purple ,clay without ,chalk10 8,purple ,clay with ,chalk10 and 8,chalky ,clay10 the whole being later than his 8,middle ,glacial ,sands and ,gravel10 which1 in ,east ,anglia1 are overlain by the 8,chalky ,clay10 and rest unconformably upon the 8,contorted ,drift0 of ,norfolk1 the ,cromer ,till1 and the ,forest ,bed4 ,his three ,yorkshire clays are1 however1 considered by most northern geologists to be the representatives of the 8,upper ,boulder ,clay0 west of the ,pennine ,chain1 the 8,chalky ,clay0 having been formed before the country had sufficiently subsided to allow the sandstones and marls1 furnishing the red colouring matter1 to have suffered denudation2 while the 8,purple ,clay without ,chalk1 and with ,shap ,granite10 was deposited when all the chalk was mainly beneath the sea1 and the granite from ,shap ,fell1 which had been broken up by breaker-action during the ,middle ,sand era1 was floated across the passes of the ,pennine ,chain and southwards and northwards4 ,a solitary pebble of ,shap granite has been found by ,mr4 ,de ,rance at ,hoylake1 in ,cheshire2 and many of ,criffel ,granite1 in that county1 and on the coast of ,north ,wales1 by ,mr4 ,mackintosh1 who has also traced the flow of this granite in the low country lying north and south of the ,cumberland mountains4 ,at ,bridlington1 in ,yorkshire1 occurs a deposit at the base of the 8,purple ,clay10 with a truly ,arctic fauna4 ,out of seventy forms of mollusca recorded by ,mr4 ,s4 ,v4 ,wood1 ,jun41 nineteen are unknown to the ,crag--of these thirteen are purely arctic1 and two not known as living4 ,shells have been found in the ,upper ,boulder ,clay of ,lancashire1 at ,hollingworth ,reservoir1 near ,mottram1 by ,messrs4 ,binney1 ,bateman1 and ,prestwich1 at an elevation of #efh feet above the sea1 consisting of ,fusus ,bamffius1 ,purpura lapillus1 ,turritilla terebra1 and ,cardium edule4 ,the clay is described by ,mr4 ,binney as sandy1 and brown-coloured1 with pebbles of granite and greenstone1 some rounded and some angular4 ,all the above shells1 as well as ,tellina ,balthica1 have been found in the ,upper ,clay of ,preston1 ,garstang1 ,blackpool1 and ,llandudno1 by ,mr4 ,de ,rance1 who has also found all the above species 7with the exception of ,fusus71 as well as ,psammobia ferroensis1 and the siliceous spicul of marine sponges1 in the ,lower ,boulder ,clay of ,west ,lancashire4 ,he has described the ordinary red ,boulder ,clay of ,lancashire as extending continuously through ,cheshire and ,staffordshire into ,warwickshire1 gradually becoming less red and more chalky1 everywhere overlying intermittent sheets of 8sands and shingle-beds10 one of which is particularly well seen at ,leamington and ,warwick1 where it contains ,pectens from the ,crag1 ,grypha from the ,lias1 and chalk fossils and flints4 ,the latter have also been found by ,mr4 ,lucy in the neighbourhood of ,mount ,sorrel1 associated with bits of the ,coral ,rag of ,yorkshire4 ,the gravels of ,leicester1 ,market ,harborough1 and ,lutterworth were long ago described by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybeare as affording 8specimens of the organic remains of most of the ,secondary ,strata in ,england40 ,the ,rev4 ,o4 ,fisher1 ,f4,g4,s41 has paid much attention to the superficial covering usually described as 8heading10 or 8drift10 as well as to the contour of the surface1 in districts composed of the softer strata1 and has published his views in various papers in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society and in the ,geological ,magazine4 ,he thinks that the contour of the surface cannot be ascribed entirely to the action of rain and rivers1 but that the changes in the ancient contour since produced by those changes can be easily distinguished4 ,he finds the covering beds to consist of two members--a lower one1 entirely destitute of organic remains1 and generally unstratified1 which has often been forcibly indented into the bed beneath it1 sometimes exhibiting slickenside at the junction4 ,there is evidence of this lower member having been pushed or dragged over the surface1 from higher to lower levels1 in a plastic condition2 on which account he has named it 8,the ,trail40 ,the upper member of the covering beds consists of soil derived from the lower one1 by weathering4 ,it contains1 here and there1 the remains of the land-shells which lived in the locality at a period antecedent to cultivation4 ,it is 8,the ,warp0 of ,mr4 ,trimmer4 ,neither of these accumulations occur on low flats1 where the surface has been modified since the recent period4 ,they both alike pass below high-water mark1 and have been noticed beneath estuarine deposits4 ,mr4 ,fisher is of opinion that land-ice has been instrumental in forming the contour of the surface1 and that the trail is the remnant of its moraine profonde4 ,and he has given reasons#aab for believing that the climate of those latitudes may have been sufficiently rigorous for that result about #ajj1jjj years ago4 ,he attributes the formation of the superficial covering of ,warp to a period of much rainfall and severe winter-frosts1 after the ice-sheet had disappeared4 #aab ,geological ,magazine1 vol4 iii41 p4 #dhc4 ,the phenomena which so powerfully affected our hemisphere present themselves1 in a much grander manner1 in the ,new ,world4 ,the glacier-system appears to have taken in ,america the same gigantic proportions which other objects assume there4 ,nor is it necessary1 in order to explain the permanent existence of this icy mantle in temperate climates1 to infer the prevalence of any very extraordinary degree of cold4 ,on this subject ,m4 ,ch4 ,martins thus expresses himself3 8,the mean temperature of ,geneva is #i #e ,cent4 ,upon the surrounding mountains the limit of perpetual snow is found at #h1hjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the great glaciers of the valley of ,chamounix descend #e1jjj feet below this line4 ,thus situated1 let us suppose that the mean temperature of ,geneva was lowered only #d1 and the average became #e #e2 the decrease of temperature with the height being #a c4 for every #fjj feet1 the limit of perpetual snow would be lowered by #b1dcg feet1 and would be #f1cfc feet above the level of the sea4 ,we can readily admit that the glaciers of ,chamounix would descend below this new limit1 to an extent at least equal to that which exists between their present limit and their lower extremity4 ,now1 in reality1 the foot of these glaciers is #e1jjj feet above the ocean2 with a climate #d colder1 it would be #b1dcg feet lower2 that is to say1 at the level of the ,swiss plain4 ,thus1 the lowering of the line of perpetual snow to this extent would suffice to bring the glacier of the ,arve to the environs of ,geneva4444 ,of the climate which has favoured the prodigious development of glaciers we have a pretty correct idea2 it is that of ,upsala1 ,stockholm1 ,christiana1 and part of ,north ,america1 in the ,state of ,new ,york4444 ,to diminish by four degrees the mean temperature of a country in order to explain one of the grandest revolutions of the globe1 is to venture on an hypothesis not bolder than geology has sometimes permitted to itself40#aac #aac ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,in proving that glaciers covered part of ,europe during a certain period1 that they extended from the ,north ,pole to ,northern ,italy and the ,danube1 we have sufficiently established the reality of this glacial period1 which we must consider as a curious episode1 as well as certain1 in the history of the earth4 ,such masses of ice could only have covered the earth when the temperature of the air was lowered at least some degrees below zero4 ,but organic life is incompatible with such a temperature2 and to this cause must we attribute the disappearance of certain species of animals and plants--in particular1 the ,rhinoceros and the ,elephant--which1 before this sudden and extraordinary cooling of the globe1 appear to have limited themselves1 in immense herds1 to ,northern ,europe1 and chiefly to ,siberia1 where their remains have been found in such prodigious quantities4 ,cuvier says1 speaking of the bodies of the quadrupeds which the ice had seized1 and in which they have been preserved1 with their hair1 flesh1 and skin1 up to our own times3 8,if they had not been frozen as soon as killed1 putrefaction would have decomposed them2 and1 on the other hand1 this eternal frost could not have previously prevailed in the place where they died2 for they could not have lived in such a temperature4 ,it was1 therefore1 at the same instant when these animals perished that the country they inhabited was rendered glacial4 ,these events must have been sudden1 instantaneous1 and without any gradation40#aad #aad 8,ossements fossiles4 ,discours sur les ,rvolutions du ,globe40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4--;,fissurella nembosa4 7,living shell47 ,how can we explain the glacial period8 ,we have explained ,m4 ,adhmar's hypothesis1 to which it may be objected that the cold of the glacial period was so general throughout the ,polar and temperate regions on both sides of the equator1 that mere local changes in the external configuration of our planet and displacement of the centre of gravity scarcely afford adequate causes for so great a revolution in temperature4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 speculating upon the suggestion of ,ritter and the discovery of marine shells spread far and wide over the ,sahara ,desert by ,messrs4 ,escher von der ,linth1 ,desor1 and ,martins--which seem to prove that the ,african ,desert has been under water at a very recent period--infers that the ,desert of ,sahara constituted formerly a wide marine area1 stretching several hundred miles north and south1 and east and west4 8,from this area10 he adds1 8the south wind must formerly have absorbed moisture1 and must have been still further cooled and saturated with aqueous vapour as it passed over the ,mediterranean4 ,when at length it reached the ,alps1 and1 striking them1 was driven into the higher and more rarefied regions of the atmosphere1 it would part with its watery burthen in the form of snow2 so that the same arial current which1 under the name of the ,fhn1 or ,sirocco1 now plays a leading part with its hot and dry breath1 sometimes1 even in the depth of winter1 in melting the snow and checking the growth of glaciers1 must1 at the period alluded to1 have been the principal feeder of ,alpine snow and ice40#aae ,nevertheless1 we repeat1 no explanation presents itself which can be considered conclusive2 and in science we should never be afraid to say1 ,i do not know4 #aae ,lyell's 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #age4 ,,creation ,,of ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,asiatic ,,deluge4 ,it was only after the glacial period1 when the earth had resumed its normal temperature1 that man was created4 ,whence came he8 ,he came from whence originated the first blade of grass which grew upon the burning rocks of the ,silurian seas2 from whence proceeded the different races of animals which have successively replaced each other upon the globe1 gradually1 but unceasingly1 rising in the scale of perfection4 ,he emanated from the supreme will of the ,author of the worlds which constitute the universe4 ,the earth has passed through many phases since the time when--in the words of the ,sacred ,record--8the earth was without form and void2 and darkness was upon the face of the deep4 ,and the ,spirit of ,god moved upon the face of the waters40 ,we have considered all these phases2 we have seen the globe floating in space in a state of gaseous nebulosity1 condensing into liquidity1 and beginning to solidify at the surface4 ,we have pictured the internal agitations1 the disturbances1 the partial dislocations to which the earth has been subjected1 almost without interruption1 while it could not1 as yet1 resist the force of the waves of the fiery sea imprisoned within its fragile crust4 ,we have seen this envelope acquiring solidity1 and the geological cataclysms losing their intensity and frequency in proportion as this solid crust increased in thickness4 ,we have looked on1 so to speak1 while the work of organic creation was proceeding4 ,we have seen life making its appearance upon the globe2 and the first plants and animals springing into existence4 ,we have seen this organic creation multiplying1 becoming more complex1 and constantly made more perfect with each advance in the progressive phases of the history of the earth4 ,we now arrive at the greatest event of this history1 at the crowning of the edifice1 si parva licet componere magnis4 ,at the close of the ,tertiary epoch1 the continents and seas assumed the respective limits which they now present4 ,the disturbances of the ground1 the fractures of the earth's crust1 and the volcanic eruptions which are the consequence of them1 only occurred at rare intervals1 occasioning only local and restricted disasters4 ,the rivers and their affluents flowed between tranquil banks4 ,animated ,nature is that of our own days4 ,an abundant vegetation1 diversified by the existence of a climate which has now been acquired1 embellishes the earth4 ,a multitude of animals inhabit the waters1 the dry land1 and the air4 ,nevertheless1 creation has not yet achieved its greatest work--a being capable of comprehending these marvels and of admiring the sublime work--a soul is wanting to adore and give thanks to the ,creator4 ,god created man4 ,what is man8 ,we might say that man is an intelligent and moral being2 but this would give a very imperfect idea of his nature4 ,franklin says that man is one that can make tools6 ,this is to reproduce a portion of the first proposition1 while depreciating it4 ,aristotle calls man the 8wise being10 4 ,linnus1 in his 8,system of ,nature10 after having applied to man the epithet of wise 7homo sapiens7 writes after this generic title these profound words3 ,nosce te ipsum4 ,the ,french naturalist and philosopher1 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 says1 8,the plant lives1 the animal lives and feels1 man lives1 feels1 and thinks0--a sentiment which ,voltaire had already expressed4 8,the ,eternal ,maker10 says the philosopher of ,ferney1 8has given to man organisation1 sentiment1 and intelligence2 to the animals sentiment1 and what we call instinct2 to vegetables organisation alone4 ,his power then acts continually upon these three kingdoms40 ,it is probably the animal which is here depreciated4 ,the animal on many occasions undoubtedly thinks1 reasons1 deliberates with itself1 and acts in virtue of a decision maturely weighed2 it is not then reduced to mere sensation4 ,to define exactly the human being1 we believe that it is necessary to characterise the nature and extent of his intelligence4 ,in certain cases the intelligence of the animal approaches nearly to that of man1 but the latter is endowed with a certain faculty which belongs to him exclusively2 in creating him1 ,god has added an entirely new step in the ascending scale of animated beings4 ,this faculty1 peculiar to the human race1 is abstraction4 ,we will say1 then1 that man is an intelligent being1 gifted with the faculty of comprehending the abstract4 ,it is by this faculty that man is raised to a pre-eminent degree of material and moral power4 ,by it he has subdued the earth to his empire1 and by it also his mind rises to the most sublime contemplations4 ,thanks to this faculty1 man has conceived the ideal1 and realised poesy4 ,he has conceived the infinite1 and created mathematics4 ,such is the distinction which separates the human race so widely from the animals--which makes him a creation apart and absolutely new upon the globe4 ,a being capable of comprehending the ideal and the infinite1 of creating poetry and algebra1 such is man6 ,to invent and understand this formula-- 7a b7 a #b;ab b1 or the algebraic idea of negative quantities1 this belongs to man4 ,it is the greatest privilege of the human being to express and comprehend thoughts like the following3 ,j'tais seul prs des flots1 par une nuit d'toiles1 ,pas un nuage aux cieux1 sur les mers pas de voiles1 ,mes yeux plongeaient plus loin que le monde rel1 ,et les vents et les mers1 et toute la nature ,semblaient interroger dans un confus murmure1 ,les flots des mers1 les feux du ciel4 ,et les toiles d'or1 lgions infinies1 voix haute1 voix basse1 avec mille harmonies ,disaient1 en inclinant leur couronne de feu2 ,et les flots bleus1 que rien ne gouverne et n'arrte3 ,disaient1 en recourbant l'cume de leur crte3 8,c'est le ,seigneur1 le ,seigneur ,dieu6099 ,,victor ,,hugo1 les ,orientales4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,alone with the waves1 on a starry night1 ,my thoughts far away in the infinite2 ,on the sea not a sail1 not a cloud in the sky1 ,and the wind and the waves with sweet lullaby ,seem to question in murmurs of mystery1 ,the fires of heaven1 the waves of the sea4 ,and the golden stars of the heavens rose higher1 ,harmoniously blending their crowns of fire1 ,and the waves which no ruling hand may know1 #8,midst a thousand murmurs1 now high1 now low1 ,sing1 while curving their foaming crests to the sea1 8,it is the ,lord ,god6 ,it is ,he40 ,the 8,mcanique ,cleste0 of ,laplace1 the 8,principia0 of ,newton1 ,milton's 8,paradise ,lost10 the 8,orientales0 by ,victor ,hugo--are the fruits of the faculty of abstraction4 ,in the year #ahjj1 a being1 half savage1 who lived in the woods1 clambered up the trees1 slept upon dried leaves1 and fled on the approach of men1 was brought to a physician named ,pinel4 ,some sportsmen had found him2 he had no voice1 and was devoid of intelligence2 he was known as the little savage of ,aveyron4 ,the ,parisian savants for a long time disputed over this strange individual4 ,was it an ape8--was it a wild man8 ,illustration3 ,,xxxii4--,appearance of ,man4 ,the learned ,dr4 ,itard has published an interesting history of the savage of ,aveyron4 8,he would sometimes descend10 he writes1 8into the garden of the deaf and dumb1 and seat himself upon the edge of the fountain1 preserving his balance by rocking himself to and fro2 after a time his body became quite still1 and his face assumed an expression of profound melancholy4 ,he would remain thus for hours--regarding attentively the surface of the water--upon which he would1 from time to time1 throw blades of grass and dried leaves4 ,at night1 when the clear moonlight penetrated into the chamber he occupied1 he rarely failed to rise and place himself at the window1 where he would remain part of the night1 erect1 motionless1 his neck stretched out1 his eyes fixed upon the landscape lit up by the moon1 lost in a sort of ecstasy of contemplation40 ,this being was1 undoubtedly1 a man4 ,no ape ever exhibited such signs of intelligence1 such dreamy manifestations1 vague conceptions of the ideal--in other words1 that faculty of abstraction which belongs to humanity alone4 ,in order worthily to introduce the new inhabitant who comes to fill the earth with his presence--who brings with him intelligence to comprehend1 to admire1 to subdue1 and to rule the creation 7,,pl4 ,,xxxii471 we require nothing more than the grand and simple language of ,moses1 whom ,bossuet calls 8the most ancient of historians1 the most sublime of philosophers1 the wisest of legislators40 ,let us listen to the words of the inspired writer3 8,and ,god said1 ,let us make man in our image1 after our likeness3 and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea1 and over the fowl of the air1 and over the cattle1 and over all the earth1 and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth4 ,so ,god created man in his own image1 in the image of ,god created he him2 male and female created he them40 8,and ,god saw everything that he had made1 and1 behold1 it was very good40 99 99 99 99 99 ,volumes have been written upon the question of the unity of the human race2 that is1 whether there were many centres of the creation of man1 or whether our race is derived solely from the ,adam of ,scripture4 ,we think1 with many naturalists1 that the stock of humanity is unique1 and that the different human races1 the negroes1 and the yellow race1 are only the result of the influence of climate upon organisation4 ,we consider the human race as having appeared for the first time 7the mode of his creation being veiled in ,divine mystery1 eternally impenetrable to us7 in the rich plains of ,asia1 on the smiling banks of the ,euphrates1 as the traditions of the most ancient races teach us4 ,it is there1 where ,nature is so rich and vigorous1 in the brilliant climate and under the radiant sky of ,asia1 in the shade of its luxuriant masses of verdure and its mild and perfumed atmosphere1 that man loves to represent to himself the father of his race as issuing from the hand of his ,creator4 ,we are1 it will be seen1 far from sharing the opinion of those naturalists who represent man1 at the beginning of the existence of his species1 as a sort of ape1 of hideous face1 degraded mien1 and covered with hair1 inhabiting caves like the bears and lions1 and participating in the brutal instincts of those savage animals4#aaf ,there is no doubt that early man passed through a period in which he had to contend for his existence with ferocious beasts1 and to live in a primitive state in the woods or savannahs1 where ,providence had placed him4 ,but this period of probation came to an end1 and man1 an eminently social being1 by combining in groups1 animated by the same interests and the same desires1 soon found means to intimidate the animals1 to triumph over the elements1 to protect himself from the innumerable perils which surrounded him1 and to subdue to his rule the other inhabitants of the earth4 8,the first men10 says ,buffon1 8witnesses of the convulsive movements of the earth1 still recent and frequent1 having only the mountains for refuge from the inundations2 and often driven from this asylum by volcanoes and earthquakes1 which trembled under their feet2 uneducated1 naked1 and exposed to the elements1 victims to the fury of ferocious animals1 whose prey they were certain to become2 impressed also with a common sentiment of gloomy terror1 and urged by necessity1 would they not unite1 first1 to defend themselves by numbers1 and then to assist each other by working in concert1 to make habitations and arms8 ,they began by shaping into the forms of hatchets these hard flints1 the ,jade1 and other stones1 which were supposed to have been formed by thunder and fallen from the clouds1 but which are1 nevertheless1 only the first examples of man's art in a pure state of ,nature4 ,he will soon draw fire from these same flints1 by striking them against each other2 he will seize the flames of the burning volcano1 or profit by the fire of the red-hot lava to light his fire of brushwood in the forest2 and by the help of this powerful element he cleanses1 purifies1 and renders wholesome the place he selects for his habitation4 ,with his hatchet of stone he chops wood1 fells trees1 shapes timber1 and puts it together1 fashions instruments of warfare and the most necessary tools and implements2 and after having furnished themselves with clubs and other weighty and defensive arms1 did not these first men find means to make lighter weapons to reach the swift-footed stag from afar8 ,a tendon of an animal1 a fibre of the aloe-leaf1 or the supple bark of some ligneous plant1 would serve as a cord to bring together the two extremities of an elastic branch of yew1 forming a bow2 and small flints1 shaped to a point1 arm the arrow4 ,they will soon have snares1 rafts1 and canoes2 they will form themselves into communities composed of a few families1 or rather of relations sprung from the same family1 as is still the case with some savage tribes1 who have their game1 fish1 and fruits in common4 ,but in all those countries whose area is limited by water1 or surrounded by high mountains1 these small nations1 becoming too numerous1 have been in time forced to parcel out the land between them2 and from that moment the earth has become the domain of man2 he has taken possession of it by his labour1 he has cultivated it1 and attachment to the soil follows the very first act of possession2 the private interest makes part of the national interest2 order1 civilisation1 and laws succeed1 and society acquires force and consistency40#aag ,we love to quote the sentiments of a great writer--but how much more eloquent would the words of the naturalist have been1 if he had added to his own grand eloquence of language1 the knowledge which science has placed within reach of the writers of the present time--- if he could have painted man in the early days of his creation1 in presence of the immense animal population which then occupied the earth1 and fighting with the wild beasts which filled the forests of the ancient world6 ,man1 comparatively very weak in organisation1 destitute of natural weapons of attack or defence1 incapable of rising into the air like the birds1 or living under water like the fishes and some reptiles1 might seem doomed to speedy destruction4 ,but he was marked on the forehead with the ,divine seal4 ,thanks to the superior gift of an exceptional intelligence1 this being1 in appearance so helpless1 has by degrees swept the most ferocious of its occupants from the earth1 leaving those only who cater to his wants or desires1 or by whose aid he changes the primitive aspects of whole continents4 #aaf ,it is told of a former distinguished and witty member of the ,geological ,society that1 having obtained possession of the rooms on a certain day1 when there was to be a general meeting1 he decorated its walls with a series of cartoons1 in which the parts of the members were strangely reversed4 ,in one cartoon ,ichthyosauri and ,plesiosauri were occupied with the skeleton of ,homo sapiens2 in another1 a party of ,crustaceans were occupied with a cranium suspiciously like the same species2 while in a third1 a party of ,pterichthys were about to dine on a biped with a suspicious resemblance to a certain well-conditioned ,f4,g4,s4 of the day4 #aag 8poques de la ,nature10 vol4 xii41 pp4 #cbb-cbe4 #ahmo4 ,paris1 #aggh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the antiquity of man is a question which has largely engaged the attention of geologists1 and many ingenious arguments have been hazarded1 tending to prove that the human race and the great extinct ,mammalia were contemporaneous4 ,the circumstances bearing on the question are usually ranged under three series of facts3 #a4 ,the ,cave-deposits2 #b4 ,peat and shell mounds2 #c4 ,lacustrine habitations1 or ,lake dwellings4 ,we have already briefly touched upon the ,cave-deposits4 ,in the ,kirkdale ,cave no remains or other traces of man's presence seem to have been discovered4 ,but in ,kent's ,hole1 an unequal deposit of loam and clay1 along with broken bones much gnawed1 and the teeth of both extinct and living ,mammals1 implements evidently fashioned by the human hand were found in the following order3 in the upper part of the clay1 artificially-shaped flints2 on the clay rested a layer of stalagmite1 in which streaks of burnt charcoal occurred1 and charred bones of existing species of animals4 ,above the stalagmite a stone hatchet1 or celt1 made of syenite1 of more finished appearance1 was met with1 with articles of bone1 round pieces of blue slate and sandstone-grit1 pieces of pottery1 a number of shells of the mussel1 limpet1 and oyster1 and other remains1 ,celtic1 ,british1 and ,roman1 of very early date2 the lower deposits are those with which we are here more particularly concerned4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mac,enery1 the gentleman who explored and described them1 ascertained that the flint-instruments occupied a uniform situation intermediate between the stalagmite and the upper surface of the loam1 forming a connecting link between both2 and his opinion was that the epoch of the introduction of the knives must be dated antecedently to the formation of the stalagmite1 from the era of the quiescent settlement of the mud4 ,from this view it would follow that the cave was visited posteriorly to the introduction and subsidence of the loam1 and before the formation of the new super-stratum of stalagmite1 by men who entered the cave and disturbed the original deposit4 ,although flints have been found in the loam underlying the regular crust of stalagmite1 mingled confusedly with the bones1 and unconnected with the evidence of the visits of man--such as the excavation of ovens or pits--,dr4 ,buckland refused his belief to the statement that the flint-implements were found beneath the stalagmite1 and always contended that they were the work of men of a more recent period1 who had broken up the sparry floor4 ,the doctor supposed that the ancient ,britons had scooped out ovens in the stalagmite1 and that through them the knives got admission to the underlying loam1 and that in this confused state the several materials were cemented together4 ,in #aheh ,dr4 ,falconer heard of the newly-discovered cave at ,brixham1 on the opposite side of the bay to ,torquay1 and he took steps to prevent any doubts being entertained with regard to its contents4 ,this cave was composed of several passages1 with four entrances1 formerly blocked up with breccia and earthy matter2 the main opening being ascertained by ,mr4 ,bristow to be seventy-eight feet above the valley1 and ninety-five feet above the sea1 the cave itself being in some places eight feet wide4 ,the contents of the cave were covered with a layer of stalagmite1 from one to fifteen inches thick1 on the top of which were found the horns of a ,reindeer2 under the stalagmite came reddish loam or cave-earth1 with pebbles and some angular stones1 from two to thirteen feet thick1 containing the bones of ,elephants1 ,rhinoceros1 ,bears1 ,hynas1 ,felis1 ,reindeer1 ,horses1 ,oxen1 and several ,rodents2 and1 lastly1 a layer of gravel1 and rounded pebbles without fossils1 underlaid the cave-earth and formed the lowest deposit4 ,in these beds no human bones were found1 but in almost every part of the bone-bed were flint-knives1 one of the most perfect being found thirteen feet down in the bone-bed1 at its lowest part4 ,the most remarkable fact in connection with this cave was the discovery of an entire left hind-leg of the ,cave-bear lying in close proximity to this knife2 8not washed in a fossil state out of an older alluvium1 and swept afterwards into this cave1 so as to be mingled with the flint implements1 but having been introduced when clothed in its flesh40 ,the implement and the ,bear's leg were evidently deposited about the same time1 and it only required some approximative estimate of the date of this deposit1 to settle the question of the antiquity of man1 at least in an affirmative sense4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bristow1 who was sent by the ,committee of the ,royal ,society to make a plan and drawings of the ,brixham ,cave1 found that its entrance was situated at a height of ninety-five feet above the present level of the sea4 ,in his ,report made to the ,royal ,society1 in explanation of the plan and sections1 ,mr4 ,bristow stated that1 in all probability1 at the time the cave was formed1 the land was at a lower level to the extent of the observed distance of ninety-five feet1 and that its mouth was then situated at or near the level of the sea4 ,the cave consisted of wide galleries or passages running in a north and south direction1 with minor lateral passages branching off nearly at right angles to the main openings--- the whole cave being formed in the joints1 or natural divisional planes1 of the rock4 ,the mouth or entrance to the cave originated1 in the first instance1 in an open joint or fissure in the ,devonian limestone1 which became widened by water flowing backwards and forwards1 and was partly enlarged by the atmospheric water1 which percolated through the cracks1 fissures1 and open joints in the overlying rock4 ,the pebbles1 forming the lowest deposit in the cave1 were ordinary shingle or beach-gravel1 washed in by the waves and tides4 ,the cave-earth was the residual part of the limestone rock1 after the calcareous portion had been dissolved and carried away in solution2 and the stalactite and stalagmite were derived from the lime deposited from the percolating water4 ,with regard to bone-caves generally1 it would seem that1 like other such openings1 they are most common in limestone rocks1 where they have been formed by water1 which has dissolved and carried away the calcareous ingredient of the rock4 ,in the case of the ,brixham cave1 the mode of action of the water could be clearly traced in two ways3 first1 in widening out the principal passages by the rush of water backwards and forwards from the sea2 and1 secondly1 by the infiltration and percolation of atmospheric water through the overlying rock4 ,in both cases the active agents in producing the cave had taken advantage of a pre-existing fissure or crack1 or an open joint1 which they gradually enlarged and widened out1 until the opening received its final proportions4 ,the cave presented no appearance of ever having been inhabited by man2 or of having been the den of ,hynas or other animals1 like ,wookey ,hole in the ,mendips1 and some other bone-caves4 ,the most probable supposition is1 that the hind quarter of the ,bear and other bones which were found in the cave-earth1 had been washed into the cave by the sea1 in which they were floating about4 ,we draw some inferences of the greatest interest and significance from the ,brixham cave and its contents4 ,we learn that this country was1 at one time1 inhabited by animals which are now extinct1 and of whose existence we have not even a tradition2 that man1 then ignorant of the use of metal1 and little better than the brutes1 was the contemporary of the animals whose remains were found in the cave1 together with a rude flint-implement--the only kind of weapon with which our savage ancestor defended himself against animals scarcely wilder than himself4 ,we also learn that after the cave had been formed and sealed up again1 as it were1 together with all its contents1 by the deposition of a solid crust of stalagmite--an operation requiring a very great length of time to effect--the ,reindeer 7,cervus ,tarandus7 was indigenous to this country1 as is proved by the occurrence of an antler of that animal which was found lying upon1 and partly imbedded in1 the stalagmite forming the roof or uppermost1 that is1 the latest formed1 of the cave-deposits4 ,lastly1 we learn that1 at the time the cave was formed1 and while the land was inhabited by man1 that part of the country was lower by ninety-five feet than it is now2 and that this elevation has probably been produced so slowly and so gradually1 as to have been imperceptible during the time it was taking place1 which extended over a vast interval of time1 perhaps over thousands of years4 ,perhaps it may not be out of place here to describe the mode of formation of bone-caves generally1 and the causes which have produced the appearances these now present4 ,caves in limestone rocks have two principal phases--one of formation1 and one of filling up4 ,so long as the water which enters the cavities in the course of formation1 and carries off some of the calcareous matter in solution1 can find an easy exit1 the cavity is continually enlarged2 but when1 from various causes1 the water only enters in small quantities1 and does not escape1 or only finds its way out slowly1 and with difficulty1 the lime1 instead of being removed1 is re-deposited on the walls1 roof1 sides1 and floor of the cavity1 in the form of stalactites and stalagmite1 and the work of re-filling with solid carbonate of lime then takes place4 ,encouraged by the ,brixham discoveries1 a congress of ,french and ,english geologists met at ,amiens1 in order to consider certain evidence1 on which it was sought to establish as a fact that man and the ,mammoth were formerly contemporaries4 ,the valley of the ,somme1 between ,abbeville and ,amiens1 is occupied by beds of peat1 some twenty or thirty feet deep1 resting on a thin bed of clay which covers other beds1 of sand and gravel1 and itself rests on white ,chalk with flints4 ,bordering the valley1 some hills rise with a gentle slope to a height of #bjj or #cjj feet1 and here and there1 on their summits1 are patches of ,tertiary sand and clay1 with fossils1 and again more extensive layers of loam4 ,the inference from this geological structure is that the river1 originally flowing through the ,tertiary formation1 gradually cut its way through the various strata down to its present level4 ,from the depth of the peat1 its lower part lies below the sea-level1 and it is supposed that a depression of the region has occurred at some period3 again1 in land lying quite low on the ,abbeville side of the valley1 but above the tidal level1 marine shells occur1 which indicate an elevation of the region2 again1 about #ajj feet above the valley1 on the right bank of the river1 and on a sloping surface1 is the ,moulin-,quignon1 where shallow pits exhibit a floor of chalk covered by gravel and sand1 accompanied by gravel and marly chalk and flints more or less worn1 well-rounded ,tertiary flints and pebbles1 and fragments of ,tertiary sandstone4 ,such is the general description of a locality which has acquired considerable celebrity in connection with the question of the antiquity of man4 ,the ,quaternary deposits of ,moulin-,quignon and the peat-beds of the ,somme formerly furnished ,cuvier with some of the fossils he described1 and in later times chipped flint-implements from the quarries and bogs came into the possession of ,m4 ,boucher de ,perthes2 the statements were received at first not without suspicion--especially on the part of ,english geologists who were familiar with similar attempts on their own credulity--that some at least of these were manufactured by the workmen of the district4 ,at length1 the discovery of a human jaw and tooth in the gravel-pits of ,st4 ,acheul1 near ,amiens1 produced a rigorous investigation into the facts1 and it seems to have been established to the satisfaction of ,mr4 ,prestwich and his colleagues1 that flint-implements and the bones of extinct ,mammalia are met with in the same beds1 and in situations indicating very great antiquity4 ,in the sloping and irregular deposits overlooking the ,somme1 the bones of ,elephants1 ,rhinoceros1 with land and fresh-water shells of existing species1 are found mingled with flint-implements4 ,shells like those now found in the neighbouring streams and hedge-rows1 with the bones of existing quadrupeds1 have been obtained from the peat1 with flint-tools of more than usual finish1 and together with them a few fragments of human bones4 ,of these reliqui1 the ,celtic memorials lie below the ,gallo-,roman2 above them1 oaks1 alders1 and walnut trees occur1 sometimes rooted1 but no succession of a new growth of trees appear4 ,the theory of the ,st4 ,acheul beds is this3 they were deposited by fluviatile action1 and are probably amongst the oldest deposits in which human remains occur1 older than the peat-beds of the ,somme--but what is their real age8 ,before submitting to the reader the very imperfect answer this question admits of1 a glance at the previous discoveries1 which tended to give confirmation to the observations just narrated1 may be useful4 ,implements of stone and flint have been continually turning up during the last century and a half in all parts of the world4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,gray's ,inn ,lane1 in #agae1 a flint spear-head was picked up1 and near it some ,elephants' bones4 ,in the alluvium of the ,wey1 near ,guildford1 a wedge-shaped flint-tool was found in the gravel and sand1 in which ,elephants' tusks were also found4 ,under the cliffs at ,whitstable an oval-shaped flint-tool was found in what had probably been a fresh-water deposit1 and in which bones of the ,bear and ,elephant were also discovered4 ,between ,herne ,bay and ,reculver five other flint-tools have been found1 and three more near the top of the cliff1 all in fresh-water gravel4 ,in the valley of the ,ouse1 at ,beddenham1 in ,bedfordshire1 flint-implements1 like those of ,st4 ,acheul1 mixed with the bones of ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 and ,hippopotamus1 have been found1 and near them an oval and a spear-shaped implement4 ,in the peat of ,ireland great numbers of such implements have been met with4 ,but nowhere have they been so systematically sought for and classified as in the ,scandinavian countries4 ,the peat-deposits of those countries--of ,denmark especially--are formed in hollows and depressions1 in the northern drift and ,boulder clay1 from ten to thirty feet deep4 ,the lower stratum1 of two or three feet in thickness1 consists of sphagnum1 over which lies another growth of peat formed of aquatic and marsh plants4 ,on the edge of the bogs trunks of ,scotch firs of large size are found--a tree which has not grown in the ,danish islands within historic times1 and does not now thrive when planted1 although it was evidently indigenous within the human period1 since ,steenstrup took with his own hands a flint-implement from beneath the trunk of one4 ,the sessile variety of the oak would appear to have succeeded the fir1 and is found at a higher level in the peat4 ,higher up still1 the common oak1 ,quercus robur1 is found along with the birch1 hazel1 and alder4 ,the oak has in its turn been succeeded by the beech4 ,another source from which numerous relics of early humanity have been taken is the midden-heaps 7,kjkken-mdden7 found along the ,scandinavian coast4 ,these heaps consist of castaway shells mixed with bones of quadrupeds1 birds1 and fishes1 which reveal in some respects the habits of the early races which inhabited the coast4 ,scattered through these mounds are flint-knives1 pieces of pottery1 and ashes1 but neither bronze nor iron4 ,the knives and hatchets are said to be a degree less rude than those of older date found in the peat4 ,mounds corresponding to these1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell tells us1 occur along the ,american coast1 from ,massachusetts and ,georgia4 ,the bones of the quadrupeds found in these mounds correspond with those of existing species1 or species which have existed in historic times4 ,by collecting1 arranging1 and comparing the flint and stone implements1 the ,scandinavian naturalists have succeeded in establishing a chronological succession of periods1 which they designate--#a4 ,the ,age of ,stone2 #b4 ,the ,age of ,bronze2 #c4 ,the ,age of ,iron4 ,the first1 or ,stone period1 in ,denmark1 corresponded with the age of the ,scotch fir1 and1 in part1 of the sessile oak4 ,a considerable portion of the oak period corresponded1 however1 with the age of bronze1 swords made of that metal having been found in the peat on the same level with the oak4 ,the iron age coincides with the beech4 ,analogous instances1 confirmatory of these statements1 occur in ,yorkshire1 and in the fens of ,lincolnshire4 ,the traces left indicate that the aborigines went to sea in canoes scooped out of a single tree1 bringing back deep-sea fishes4 ,skulls obtained from the peat and from tumuli1 and believed to be contemporaneous with the mounds1 are small and round1 with prominent supra-orbital ridges1 somewhat resembling the skulls of ,laplanders4 ,the third series of facts 7,lake-dwellings1 or lacustrine habitations7 consisted of the buildings on piles1 in lakes1 and once common in ,asia and ,europe4 ,they are first mentioned by ,herodotus as being used among the ,thracians of ,ponia1 in the mountain-lake ,prasias1 where the natives lived in dwellings built on piles1 and connected with the shore by a narrow causeway1 by which means they escaped the assaults of ,xerxes4 ,buildings of the same description occupied the ,swiss lakes1 in the mud of which hundreds of implements1 like those found in ,denmark1 have been dredged up4 ,in ,zurich1 ,moosseedorf near ,berne1 and ,lake ,constance1 axes1 celts1 pottery1 and canoes made out of single trees1 have been found2 but of the human frame scarcely a trace has been discovered4 ,one skull dredged up at ,meilen1 in the ,lake of ,zurich1 was intermediate between the ,lapp-like skull of the ,danish tumuli and the more recent ,european type4 ,the age of the different formations in which these records of the human race are found will probably ever remain a mystery4 ,the evidence which would make the implements formed by man contemporaneous with the ,mammoth and other great ,mammalia would go a great way to prove that man was also pre-glacial4 ,let us see how that argument stands4 ,at the period when the upper ,norwich ,crag was deposited1 the general level of the ,british ,isles is supposed to have been about #fjj feet above its present level1 and so connected with the ,european continent as to have received the elements of its fauna and flora from thence4 ,by some great change1 a period of depression occurred1 in which all the country north of the mouth of the ,thames and the ,bristol ,channel was placed much below the present level4 ,moel ,tryfaen experienced a submergence of at least #a1djj feet1 during which it received the erratic blocks and other marks1 indicative of floating icebergs1 which have been described in a former chapter4 ,the country was raised again to something like its original level1 and again occupied by plants1 ,molluscs1 ,fishes and ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammifera4 ,again subsidence takes place1 and1 after several oscillations1 the level remains as we now find it4 ,the estimated time required for these various changes is something enormous1 and might have extended the term to double the number of years4 ,the unit of the calculation is the upward rate of movement observed on the ,scandinavian coast2 applied to the oscillation of the ancient coast of ,snowdonia1 the figures represent #bbd1jjj years for the several oscillations of the glacial period4 ,adding the pre-glacial period1 the computation gives an additional #dh1jjj years4 ,but1 let us repeat1 the figures and data are somewhat hypothetical4 ,with regard to the ,st4 ,acheul beds--said to be the most ancient formation in which the productions of human hands have been found--they are confessedly older than the peat-beds1 and the time required for the production of other peat-beds of equal thickness has been estimated at #g1jjj years4 ,the antiquity of the gravel-beds of ,st4 ,acheul may be estimated on two grounds3--#a4 ,general elevation above the level of the valley4 #b4 ,by estimating the animal-remains found in the gravel-beds1 and not in the peat4 ,the first question implies the denudation of the valley below the level of the gravel1 or the elevation of the whole plateau4 ,each of these operations would involve an incalculable time1 for want of data4 ,in the second case1 judging from the slow rate at which quadrupeds have disappeared in historic times1 the extinct ,mammoth and other great animals must have occupied many centuries in dying out1 for the notion that they died out suddenly from sharp and sudden refrigeration1 is not generally admitted4 ,with regard to the three ages of stone1 bronze1 and iron1 ,m4 ,morlot has based some calculations upon the condition of the delta of ,tinire1 near ,villeneuve1 which lead him to assign to the oldest1 or stone period1 an age of #e1jjj to #g1jjj years1 and to the bronze period from #c1jjj to #d1jjj4 ,we may1 then1 take leave of this subject with the avowal that1 while admitting the probability that an immense lapse of time would be required for the operations described1 we are1 in a great measure1 without reliable data for estimating its actual extent4 ,the opinion which places the creation of man on the banks of the ,euphrates in ,central ,asia is confirmed by an event of the highest importance in the history of humanity1 and by a crowd of concordant traditions1 preserved by different races of men1 all tending to confirm it4 ,we speak of the ,asiatic deluge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--,mount ,ararat4 ,the ,asiatic deluge--of which sacred history has transmitted to us the few particulars we know--was the result of the upheaval of a part of the long chain of mountains which are a prolongation of the ,caucasus4 ,the earth opening by one of the fissures made in its crust in course of cooling1 an eruption of volcanic matter escaped through the enormous crater so produced4 ,volumes of watery vapour or steam accompanied the lava discharged from the interior of the globe1 which1 being first dissipated in clouds and afterwards condensing1 descended1 in torrents of rain1 and the plains were drowned with the volcanic mud4 ,the inundation of the plains over an extensive radius was the immediate effect of this upheaval1 and the formation of the volcanic cone of ,mount ,ararat1 with the vast plateau on which it rests1 altogether #ag1cbc feet above the sea1 the permanent result4 ,the event is graphically detailed in the seventh chapter of ,genesis4 #aa4 8,in the six hundredth year of ,noah's life1 in the second month1 the seventeenth day of the month1 the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up1 and the windows of heaven were opened4 #ab4 8,and the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights40 99 99 99 99 99 #ag4 8,and the flood was forty days upon the earth2 and the waters increased1 and bare up the ark1 and it was lift up above the earth4 #ah4 8,and the waters prevailed1 and were increased greatly upon the earth2 and the ark went upon the face of the waters4 #ai4 8,and the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth2 and all the high hills1 that were under the whole heaven1 were covered4 #bj4 8,fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail2 and the mountains were covered4 #ba4 8,and all flesh died that moved upon the earth1 both of fowl1 and of cattle1 and of beast1 and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth1 and every man3 #bb4 8,all in whose nostrils was the breath of life1 of all that was in the dry land1 died4 #bc4 8,and every living substance was destroyed which was upon the face of the ground1 both man1 and cattle1 and the creeping things1 and the fowl of the heaven2 and they were destroyed from the earth3 and ,noah only remained alive1 and they that were with him in the ark4 #bd4 8,and the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days40 ,all the particulars of the ,biblical narrative here recited are only to be explained by the volcanic and muddy eruption which preceded the formation of mount ,ararat4 ,the waters which produced the inundation of these countries proceeded from a volcanic eruption accompanied by enormous volumes of vapour1 which in due course became condensed and descended on the earth1 inundating the extensive plains which now stretch away from the foot of ,ararat4 ,the expression1 8the earth10 or 8all the earth0 as it is translated in the ,vulgate1 which might be implied to mean the entire globe1 is explained by ,marcel de ,serres1 in a learned book entitled 8,la ,cosmogonie de ,mose10 and other philologists1 as being an inaccurate translation4 ,he has proved that the ,hebrew word haarets1 incorrectly translated 8all the earth10 is often used in the sense of region or country1 and that1 in this instance1 ,moses used it to express only the part of the globe which was then peopled1 and not its entire surface4 ,in the same manner 8the mountains0 7rendered 8all the mountains0 in the ,vulgate71 only implies all the mountains known to ,moses4 ,similarly1 ,m4 ,glaire1 in the 8,christomathie ,hbraque10 which he has placed at the end of his ,grammar1 quotes the passage in this sense3 8,the waters were so prodigiously increased1 that the highest mountains of the vast horizon were covered by them20 thus restricting the mountains covered by the inundation to those bounded by the horizon4 ,nothing occurs1 therefore1 in the description given by ,moses1 to hinder us from seeing in the ,asiatic deluge a means made use of by ,god to chastise and punish the human race1 then in the infancy of its existence1 and which had strayed from the path which he had marked out for it4 ,it seems to establish the countries lying at the foot of the ,caucasus as the cradle of the human race2 and it seems to establish also the upheaval of a chain of mountains1 preceded by an eruption of volcanic mud1 which drowned vast territories entirely composed1 in these regions1 of plains of great extent4 ,of this deluge many races besides the ,jews have preserved a tradition4 ,moses dates it from #a1ejj to #a1hjj years before the epoch in which he wrote4 ,berosus1 the ,chaldean historian1 who wrote at ,babylon in the time of ,alexander1 speaks of a universal deluge1 the date of which he places immediately before the reign of ,belus1 the father of ,ninus4 ,the ,vedas1 or sacred books of the ,hindus1 supposed to have been composed about the same time as ,genesis1 that is1 about #c1cjj years ago1 make out that the deluge occurred #a1ejj years before their time4 ,the ,guebers speak of the same event as having occurred about the same date4 ,confucius1 the celebrated ,chinese philosopher and lawgiver1 born towards the year #eea before ,christ1 begins his history of ,china by speaking of the ,emperor named ,jas1 whom he represents as making the waters flow back1 which1 being raised to the heavens1 washed the feet of the highest mountains1 covered the less elevated hills1 and inundated the plains4 ,thus the ,biblical deluge 7,,plate ,,xxxiii47 is confirmed in many respects2 but it was local1 like all phenomena of the kind1 and was the result of the upheaval of the mountains of western ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxiii4--,the ,asiatic ,deluge4 ,a deluge1 quite of modern date1 conveys a tolerably exact idea of this kind of phenomena4 ,we recall the circumstances the better to comprehend the true nature of the ravages the deluge inflicted upon some ,asiatic countries in the ,quaternary period4 ,at six days' journey from the city of ,mexico there existed1 in #agei1 a fertile and well-cultivated district1 where grew abundance of rice1 maize1 and bananas4 ,in the month of ,june frightful earthquakes shook the ground1 and were continued unceasingly for two whole months4 ,on the night of the #bhth ,september the earth was violently convulsed1 and a region of many leagues in extent was slowly raised until it attained a height of about #ejj feet over a surface of many square leagues4 ,the earth undulated like the waves of the sea in a tempest2 thousands of small hills alternately rose and fell1 and1 finally1 an immense gulf opened1 from which smoke1 fire1 red-hot stones and ashes were violently discharged1 and darted to prodigious heights4 ,six mountains emerged from this gaping gulf2 among which the volcanic mountain ,jorullo rises #b1hij feet above the ancient plain1 to the height of #d1bfe feet above the sea4 ,at the moment when the earthquake commenced the two rivers ,cuitimba and ,san ,pedro flowed backwards1 inundating all the plain now occupied by ,jorullo2 but in the regions which continually rose1 a gulf opened and swallowed up the rivers4 ,they reappeared to the west1 but at a point very distant from their former beds4 ,this inundation reminds us on a small scale of the phenomena which attended the deluge of ,noah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides the deposits resulting from the partial deluges which we have described as occurring in ,europe and ,asia during the ,quaternary epoch there were produced in the same period many new formations resulting from the deposition of alluvia thrown down by seas and rivers4 ,these deposits are always few in number1 and widely disseminated4 ,their stratification is as regular as that of any which belong to preceding periods2 they are distinguished from those of the ,tertiary epoch1 with which they are most likely to be confounded1 by their situation1 which is very frequently upon the shores of the sea1 and by the predominance of shells of a species identical with those now living in the adjacent seas4 ,a marine formation of this kind1 which1 after constituting the coast of ,sicily1 principally on the side of ,girgenti1 ,syracuse1 ,catania1 and ,palermo1 occupies the centre of the island1 where it rises to the height of #c1jjj feet1 is amongst the most remarkable of the great ,quaternary ,european productions4 ,it is chiefly formed of two great beds2 the lower a bluish argillaceous marl1 the other a coarse but very compact limestone1 both containing shells analogous to those of the present ,mediterranean coast4 ,the same formation is found in the neighbouring islands1 especially in ,sardinia and ,malta4 ,the great sandy deserts of ,africa1 as well as the argillo-arenaceous formation of the steppes of ,eastern ,russia1 and the fertile ,tchornozem1 or 8black earth0 of its southern plains1 have the same geological origin2 so have the ,travertines of ,tuscany1 ,naples1 and ,rome1 and the ,tufas1 which are an essential constituent of the ,neapolitan soil4 ,the pampas of ,south ,america--which consist of an argillaceous soil of a deep reddish-brown colour1 with horizontal beds of marly clay and calcareous tufa1 containing shells either actually living now in the ,atlantic1 or identical with fresh-water shells of the country--ought surely to be considered as a ,quaternary deposit1 of even greater extent than the preceding4 ,we are now approaching so near to our own age1 that we can1 as it were1 trace the hand of ,nature in her works4 ,professor ,ramsay shows1 in the ,memoirs of the ,government ,geological ,survey1 that beds nearly a mile in thickness have been removed by denudation from the summit of the ,mendip ,hills1 and that broad areas in ,south ,wales and the neighbouring counties have been denuded of their higher beds1 the materials being transported elsewhere to form newer strata4 ,now1 no combination of causes has been imagined which has not involved submersion during long periods1 and subsequent elevation for periods of longer or shorter duration4 ,we can hardly walk any great distance along the coast1 either of ,england or ,scotland1 without remarking some flat terrace of unequal breadth1 and backed by a more or less steep escarpment--upon such a terrace many of the towns along the coast are built4 ,no geologist now doubts that this fine platform1 at the base of which is a deposit of loam or sandy gravel1 with marine shells1 had been1 at some period1 the line of coast against which the waves of the ocean once broke at high water4 ,at that period the sea rose twenty1 and thirty1 and some places a hundred feet higher than it does now4 ,the ancient sea-beaches in some places formed terraces of sand and gravel1 with littoral shells1 some broken1 others entire1 and corresponding with species in the seas below2 in others they form bold projecting promontories or deep bays4 ,in an historical point of view1 this coast-line should be very ancient1 though it may be only of yesterday in a geological sense--its origin ascending far beyond written tradition4 ,the wall of ,antoninus1 raised by the ,romans as a protection from the attacks of the ,caledonians1 was built1 in the opinion of the best authorities1 not in connection with the old1 but with the new coast-line4 ,we may1 then1 conclude that in ,a4,d4 #adj1 when the greater part of this wall was constructed1 the zone of the ancient coast-line had attained its present elevation above the actual level of the sea4 ,the same proofs of a general and gradual elevation of the country are observable almost everywhere3 in the estuary of the ,clyde1 canoes and other works of art have been exhumed1 and assigned to a recent period4 ,near ,st4 ,austell1 and at ,carnon1 in ,cornwall1 human skulls and other relics have been met with beneath marine strata1 in which the bones of whales and still-existing species of land-quadrupeds were imbedded4 ,but in the countries where hard limestone rocks prevail1 in the ancient ,peloponnesus1 along the coast of ,argolis and ,arcadia1 three and even four ranges of ancient sea-cliffs are well preserved1 which ,messrs4 ,boblaye and ,verlet describe as rising one above the other1 at different distances from the present coast1 sometimes to the height of #a1jjj feet1 as if the upheaving force had been suspended for a time1 leaving the waves and currents to throw down and shape the successive ranges of lofty cliffs4 ,on the other hand1 some well-known historical sites may be adduced as affording evidence of the subsidence of the coast-line of the ,mediterranean in times comparatively modern4 ,in the ,bay of ,bai1 the celebrated temple of ,serapis1 at ,puzzuoli1 near ,naples1 which was originally built about #ajj feet from the sea1 and at or near its present level1 exhibits proofs of having gradually sunk nineteen feet1 and of a subsequent elevation of the ground on which the temple stands of nearly the same amount4 ,so1 also1 about half a mile along the sea-shore1 and standing at some distance from it1 in the sea1 there are the remains of buildings and columns which bear the name of the ,temples of the ,nymphs and of ,neptune4 ,the tops of these broken columns are now nearly on a level with the surface of the water1 which is about five feet deep4 ,with respect to the littoral deposits of the ,quaternary period1 they are of very limited extent1 except in a few localities4 ,they are found on the western coast of ,norway1 and on the coasts of ,england4 ,in ,france1 an extensive bed of ,quaternary formation is seen on the shores of the ancient ,guienne1 and on other parts of the coast1 where it is sometimes concealed by trees and shrubs1 or by blown sand1 as at ,dax in the ,landes1 where a steep bank may be traced about twelve miles inland1 and parallel with the present coast1 which falls suddenly about fifty feet from a higher platform of the land1 to a lower one extending to the sea4 ,in making some excavations for the foundations of a building at ,abesse1 in #ahcj1 it was discovered that this fall consisted of drift-sand1 filling up a steep perpendicular cliff about fifty feet high1 consisting of a bed of ,tertiary clay extending to the sea1 a bed of limestone with ,tertiary shells and corals1 and1 at the summit1 the ,tertiary sand of the ,landes4 ,the marine beds1 together with the alluvium of the rivers1 have given rise to those deposits which occur more especially near the mouths of rivers and watercourses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4--,shell of ,planorbis corneus4 ,,epilogue4 ,having considered the past history of the globe1 we may now be permitted to bestow a glance upon the future which awaits it4 ,can the actual state of the earth be considered as definitive8 ,the revolutions which have fashioned its surface1 and produced the ,alps in ,europe1 ,mount ,ararat in ,asia1 the ,cordilleras in the ,new ,world--are they to be the last8 ,in a word1 will the terrestrial sphere for ever preserve the form under which we know it--as it has been1 so to speak1 impressed on our memories by the maps of the geographers8 ,it is difficult to reply with any confidence to this question2 nevertheless1 our readers will not object to accompany us a step further1 while we express an opinion1 founded on analogy and scientific induction4 ,what are the causes which have produced the present inequalities of the globe--the mountain-ranges1 continents1 and waters8 ,the primordial cause is1 as we have had frequent occasion to repeat1 the cooling of the earth1 and the progressive solidification of the external crust1 the nucleus of which still remains in a fluid or viscous state4 ,these have produced the contortions1 furrows1 and fractures which have led to the elevation of the great mountain-ranges and the depression of the great valleys--which have caused some continents to emerge from the bed of ocean and have submerged others4 ,the secondary causes which have contributed to the formation of a vast extent of dry land are due to the sedimentary deposits1 which have resulted in the creation of new continents by filling up the basins of the ancient seas4 ,now these two causes1 although in a minor degree1 continue in operation to the present day4 ,the thickness of the terrestrial crust is only a small fraction compared to that of the internal liquid mass4 ,the principal cause1 then1 of the great dislocations of the earth's crust is1 so to speak1 at our gates2 it threatens us unceasingly4 ,of this the earthquakes and volcanic eruptions1 which are still frequent in our day1 give us disastrous and incontestable proofs4 ,on the other hand1 our seas are continually forming new land3 the bed of the ,baltic ,sea1 for instance1 is gradually rising1 in consequence of the deposits which will obviously fill up its area entirely in an interval of time which it might not be impossible to calculate4 ,it is1 then1 probable that the actual condition of the surface and the respective limits of seas and continents have nothing fixed or definite in them--that they are1 on the contrary1 open to great modifications in the future4 ,there is another problem much more difficult of solution than the preceding1 but for which neither induction nor analogy furnish us with any certain data--viz41 the perpetuity of our species4 ,is man doomed to disappear from the earth some day1 like all the races of animals which preceded him1 and prepared the way for his advent8 ,will a new glacial period1 analogous to that which1 during the ,quaternary period1 was felt so rigorously1 again come round to put an end to his existence8 ,like the ,trilobites of the ,silurian period1 the great ,reptiles of the ,lias1 the ,mastodons of the ,tertiary1 and the ,megatheriums of the ,quaternary epoch1 is the human species to be annihilated--to perish from the globe by a simple natural extinction8 ,or must we believe that man1 gifted with the attribute of reason1 marked1 so to say1 with the ,divine seal1 is to be the ultimate and supreme term of creation8 ,science cannot pronounce upon these grave questions1 which exceed the competence1 and extend beyond the circle of human reasoning4 ,it is not impossible that man should be only a step in the ascending and progressive scale of animated beings4 ,the ,divine ,power which has lavished upon the earth life1 sentiment1 and thought2 which has given organisation to plants2 to animals1 motion1 sensation1 and intelligence2 to man1 in addition to these multiple gifts1 the faculty of reason1 doubled in value by the ideal--reserves to ,himself perhaps in ,his wisdom the privilege of creating alongside of man1 or after him1 a being still more perfect4 ,this new being1 religion and modern poesy would present in the ethereal and radiant type of the ,christian angel1 with moral qualities whose nature and essence would escape our perceptions--of which we could no more form a notion than one born blind could conceive of colour1 or the deaf and dumb of sound4 ,erunt quales angelis ,dei4 8,they will be as the angels of ,god10 says ,holy ,scripture1 speaking of man raised to the life eternal4 ,during the ,metamorphic epoch the mineral kingdom existed alone2 the rocks1 silent and solitary1 were all that was yet formed of the burning earth4 ,during the ,primary epoch1 the vegetable kingdom1 newly created1 extended itself over the whole globe1 which it soon covered from pole to pole with an uninterrupted mass of verdure4 ,during the ,secondary and ,tertiary epochs1 the vegetable and animal kingdoms divided the earth between them4 ,in the ,quaternary epoch the human kingdom appeared4 ,is it in the future destinies of our planet to receive yet another lord8 ,and after the four kingdoms which now occupy it1 is there to be a new kingdom created1 the attributes of which can never be anything but an impenetrable mystery1 and which will differ from man in as great a degree as man differs from the other animals1 and plants from rocks8 ,we must be contented with suggesting1 without hoping to solve1 this formidable problem4 ,it is a great mystery1 which1 according to the fine expression of ,pliny1 8lies hidden in the majesty of ,nature10 latet in majestate natur2 or 7to speak more in the spirit of ,christian philosophy7 it is known only to the ,almighty ,creator of the ,universe4 ,,table ,,of ,,british ,,sedimentary ,,and ,,fossiliferous ,,strata4 ,,by ,h4 ,w4 ,,bristow4 ,illustration ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,subdivisions4 ,,foreign ,,origin4 ,,commercial ,,equivalents4 ,,products4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,blown ,sand4 ,peat4 ,raised ,amber4 ,beaches4 ,mud of the ,gold1 ,dia- ,,post ,alluvium4 ,nile4 monds1 and ,,pliocene4 ,brick ,earth4 ,loess of the ,various4 other ,gems ,river ,gravel4 ,rhine4 derived ,cave ,deposits4 from the ,glacial ,de- older de- posits4 posits4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,pliocene4 ,crags4 ,sub-,apennine ,marine ,phosphatic ,strata4 ,nodules4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,leaf ,beds and ,molasse4 ,,miocene4 ,lignite4 ,faluns of and ,pipeclay4 ,touraine4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,upper ,eocene4 ,calcaire ,freshwater4 ,sand1 ,brown ,bagshot ,beds4 ,grossier4 ,coal1 ,pipe- ,,eocene4 ,london ,clay4 ,nummulitic ,estuarine clay1 ,cement ,reading ,beds1 ,limestones and ,stone1 ,bricks1 c4 7,european and ,marine4 and ,pottery4 ,asiatic74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,white and ,maestricht ,flints from ,,upper ,grey ,chalk4 ,beds4 ,up4 ,chalk4 ,,cretaceous4 ,upper ,green- ,senonien ,phosphate of sand4 ,turonien4 ,marine and ,lime4 ,gault4 ,freshwater ,iron ,pyrites4 ,,lower ,lower ,green- ,albien4 7,wealden74 ,sandy ,iron- ,,cretaceous4 sand4 ,aptien4 stones4 ,wealden ,beds1,neocomian4 ,building c4 ,stone4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,upper ,purbeck4 ,estuarine and ,,oolitic4 ,portland and ,marine4 ,kimeridge4 ,coal1 ,jet1 ,,middle ,coral ,rag ,iron ,ores1 ,,oolitic4 ,oxford ,clay4 ,roofing ,cornbrash4 ,slates1 ,forest ,marble ,jura ,building and ,great ,formation4 ,marine4 ,stones1 and ,,lower ,oolite4 ,flags4 ,,oolitic4 ,stonesfield ,alum ,shales4 ,slate4 ,hydraulic ,inferior ,limestones4 ,oolite4 ,lias4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,rhtic4 ,new ,red ,marl1 ,gypsum4 ,,keuper4 ,sandstone1 ,muschelkalk ,inland ,seas4 ,rock ,salt4 and ,conglom- absent in ,building ,,bunter4 erate4 ,british ,salt ,lakes4 ,stones4 ,sandstone ,isles4 ,pebble ,beds4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,red ,marls and ,,magnesian ,magnesian ,,limestone4 ,limestone4 ,zechstein4 ,red ,marl1 ,kupfer- ,marine4 ,building ,,lower ,sandstone1 schiefer4 ,stones4 ,,permian4 and ,conglom- ,rothliegende4 erate4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,coal ,measures4 ,carboni- ,coal1 ,anthra- ,millstone ferien4 cite4 ,,carbonifer- ,grit4 ,terrestrial ,iron and ,lead ,,ous4 ,yoredale and ,ores4 ,rocks4 ,marine4 ,bldng4 ,stone1 ,mountain ,lime- ,marble4 stone4 ,oil ,springs4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ornamental ,,devonian ,devonian ,marbles4 ,,and ,slates and ,eifel ,marine ,and ,serpentine ,,old ,,red ,,sand- ,limestones4 ,limestone4 ,freshwater4 ,slates4 ,,stone4 ,old ,red ,sand- ,tin1 ,copper1 stone1 c4 ,lead1 ,silver ,ores1 c4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ludlow4 ,,upper ,,silu- ,wenlock4 ,,rian4 ,upper ,roofing ,llandovery4 ,slates4 ,lower ,marine4 ,building ,llandovery4 ,stones4 ,,lower ,,silu- ,bala and ,cara- ,gold other ,,rian4 doc4 ,metals4 ,llandeilo4 ,lingula ,flags4 ,primordial ,zone4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,harlech ,grits4 ,roofing ,,cambrian4 ,llanberis ,huronian of ,marine4 ,slates4 ,slates4 ,america4 ,gold other ,metals4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,gneiss of the ,outer ,labradorite ,serpentine4 ,,laurentian4 ,hebrides1 and ,series in ,marine4 ,graphite4 ,n4,w4 ,coast of ,canada4 ,scotland4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,metamorphic ,,rocks 7of all ages73-- ,gneiss1 ,mica-schist1 ,quartzite1 ,talcose-schist1 c4 7,serpentine probably87 ,,intrusive ,,rocks 7of all ages73-- ,lavas1 ,basalt1 ,trachyte1 ,pitchstone1 c4 ,granite1 ,syenite1 ,greenstone1 ,felstone1 ,porphyrites1 ,melaphyres1 ,mica-,traps1 c4 c4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,previous ,,table4 _/ _/ _/ _/ ,blown ,sand and ,shingle4 ,alluvium and ,river ,deltas4 ,burtle ,beds of ,somerset4 ,,recent ,,and ,clay1 with ,scrobicularia of ,pagham1 ,,pre- ,morecombe1 c4 ,,historic4 ,submerged ,forests of ,bristol ,channel1 c4 ,peat ,bogs of ,ireland and ,peat ,beds ,p of ,england4 ,o ,s _/ ,raised ,beaches4 ,t _/ ,cave ,earth and ,loam4 ,,pleis- ,cave ,deposits ,stalagmite and ,bone- ,t ,,tocene1 breccia4 ,e ,,or ,river ,gravels1 ,brick ,earths1 and ,r ,,quater- ,post ,freshwater ,clays1 with ,mammalian ,t ,,nary4 ,glacial ,remains4 ,i ,gravels of ,bedford ,levels1 ,salisbury1 ,a and other ,old ,valley ,gravels and ,r ,alluvia4 ,y ,tufa and ,shell-marl4 4 _/ ,kaimes or ,kames of ,scotland4 ,eskers or ,escars of ,ireland4 ,glacial ,drift 7,upper ,boulder ,clay or ,till1 ,marine ,gravels1 ,lower ,till and ,a ,moraines71 ,scotch and ,welsh1 ,g ,loess of the ,rhine1 c4 ,e ,pre-glacial ,forest ,bed of ,norfolk ,shore4 ,o ,f _/ _/ ,norwich and ,mammaliferous ,chillesford ,m ,crag ,crag ,a ,,pliocene4 ,crag ,red ,crag 7,newer ,m _/ ,pliocene74 ,m ,coralline ,crag 7,suffolk ,crag7 ,a _/ 7,older ,pliocene74 ,l ,k ,s ,a _/ ,leaf ,bed of ,mull4 4 ,i ,,miocene4 ,lignite of ,antrim4 ,n ,bovey ,beds1 with ,lignite4 ,o ,z _/ _/ _/ ,corbula ,beds4 ,f ,o ,hempstead ,upper ,freshwater and l ,i ,beds ,middle ,estuary u ,o ,,upper ,lower _/ ,marls4 v ,s 1 ,,eo- i e ,,cene4 ,bembridge _/ ,bembridge ,marls4 o r ,o ,beds ,limestone4 - i ,r ,m e _/ ,osborne _/ ,st4 ,helen's ,sands4 a s ,t ,beds ,nettlestone ,grits4 r 4 ,e ,e i ,r ,o _/ ,upper n ,t ,c ,headon ,middle ,headon ,beds4 e ,i ,e ,,middle ,beds ,lower _/ _/ ,a ,n ,,eo- ,r ,e ,,cene4 _/ ,upper ,bagshot ,sand4 ,y 4 ,middle _/ ,barton ,clay4 4 ,bagshot ,bracklesham ,beds4 ,beds ,lower ,sand and ,pipeclay1 with ,plants4 _/ _/ ,london ,clay and ,bognor ,beds 7,upper ,london ,tertiaries74 ,,lower ,london ,oldhaven ,beds4 ,,eo- ,tertiaries ,woolwich and ,reading ,beds ,,cene4 7,plastic ,clay74 ,lower ,thanet ,beds4 _/ do4 _/ _/ ,c _/ _/ ,upper ,chalk1 with ,layers of ,flint ,r 7,maestricht and ,faxoe ,beds74 ,e ,chalk4 ,lower ,chalk1 without ,flints4 ,u ,t ,chalk ,marl4 ,p ,a ,chloritic ,marl4 ,p ,c ,e ,e ,upper ,greensand 7,fire-stone of ,r ,o ,surrey1 ,malm-rock71 c4 ,u ,c ,s ,gault4 ,r 4 ,e ,l _/ _/ _/ _/ ,folkestone ,beds 7,sand74 ,t ,o ,lower ,sandgate ,beds 7with ,fullers' ,a ,w ,o ,green- ,earth74 ,c ,e ,r sand4 ,hythe ,beds 7with ,kentish ,rag and ,e ,r ,n ,bargate ,stone74 ,o ,n e ,atherfield ,clay4 ,u ,c ,e o ,s ,r ,o ,w c _/ ,weald ,clay 7with ,sussex or ,bethers- 4 ,e ,c e o den ,marble and ,horsham ,stone74 ,t ,o a m ,a ,m l i _/ ,upper ,tunbridge ,wells ,c ,i d a ,sand4 ,tunbridge ,e ,a e n ,has- ,grinstead ,clay4 ,wells ,o ,n n 4 tings ,lower ,tunbridge ,wells ,beds4 ,u 4 4 ,sands4 ,sand4 _/ ,s ,wadhurst ,clay 7with ,iron ,ore74 1 ,ashdown ,sands4 ,ashburnham ,beds4 _/ _/ ,o _/ ,pur- _/ ,upper 7with ,purbeck ,marble74 ,pur- ,u ,o beck4 ,middle4 beck ,p ,l ,lower 7with ,dirt ,beds74 _/ ,beds4 ,p ,i ,e ,t _/ ,portland ,stone4 ,r ,e ,portland4 ,portland ,sand4 4 ,kimeridge ,clay 7with ,bituminous ,shale74 ,m ,o _/ ,coralline _/ ,upper ,calcareous ,grit4 ,m ,i ,o ,oolite4 ,coral ,rag 7with ,iron ,ore74 ,e ,d ,l ,lower ,calcareous ,grit4 ,s ,d ,i ,o ,o ,l ,t ,oxford ,clay4 _/ ,oxford ,clay and ,z ,o ,e ,e ,kellaways ,rock4 ,o ,l 4 ,i ,i _/ _/ ,cornbrash4 ,c ,j ,t ,forest ,marble4 ,forest ,marble and ,bradford ,clay 1 ,u ,i 7with ,encrinites74 ,r ,c ,o ,a _/ ,great or ,bath ,oolite 7with 8,ful- ,r ,s ,s lers' ,earth0 at base1 in ,s4 of ,s ,e ,great ,oolite4 ,england74 ,s ,i ,r ,stonesfield ,slate1 near the base1 ,e ,c ,i ,l in part of ,s4 of ,england4 ,c ,e ,o ,o ,s ,s ,w _/ ,upper ,fullers' ,earth 7,clay74 ,n ,e 4 ,e ,fullers' ,earth4 ,fullers' ,earth ,rock 7,limestone74 ,d ,r ,r ,lower ,fullers' ,earth 7,clay74 ,a ,i ,r ,e ,o _/ ,northampton ,sand 7with ,iron ,ore1 ,y ,s ,o in ,n4 ,oxfordshire and ,s4 4 4 ,l ,northamptonshire74 ,i ,ragstone and ,clypeus ,bed4 ,chel- ,t ,upper ,freestone4 ten- ,e ,inferior ,oolite ,marl4 ham 4 ,oolite4 ,lower ,freestone4 ,sec- ,pea ,grit4 _/ tions4 7,colleyweston ,slate1 at the base of the ,limestone1 in ,lincoln- shire74 ,sands4 ,,age ,,of _/ ,l _/ ,,reptiles1 i ,upper ,lias4 ,clay and ,shale4 ,,or ,,sauro- a ,middle ,lias1 or ,marlstone 7,rock ,bed1 with ,iron ,,zoic s ,ore1 ,sand1 c474 ,,epoch4 4 ,lower ,lias4 ,clay1 ,shale1 and ,limestone4 _/ ,t _/ _/ _/ 8,white ,lias10 ,avicula contorta ,r ,rhtic1 or ,beds1 with ,koessen ,beds4 ,i ,penarth ,beds4 ,bone ,beds of ,aust1 c4 ,a ,st4 ,cassian and ,hallstadt ,beds4 ,s ,u ,t ,p 1 ,p ,r _/ ,red variegated ,marl and ,upper ,o ,p ,i ,keuper ,sandstone 7with ,gypsum and ,i ,o ,e ,a ,rock ,salt74 ,k ,r ,r ,s ,keuper4 ,lower ,keuper ,sandstone and ,marl ,i 4 7,waterstones74 ,l ,n ,dolomitic ,conglomerate 7of ,keuper ,i ,e ,age1 ,somerset1 ,gloucester1 and ,s4 ,t ,w ,wales74 ,i ,c ,r ,m ,t _/ ,e ,i ,r ,s ,d ,d ,i ,muschelkalk1 absent in ,britain4 ,e ,d ,a ,r ,s ,l ,s ,i ,a ,e 4 ,e ,n ,s ,d ,l ,t _/ 4 ,s ,o ,r _/ ,upper ,red and ,mottled ,sandstone4 ,t ,w ,i ,bunter4 ,pebble ,beds1 ,calcareous ,con- ,o ,e ,a glomerate1 and ,breccia4 ,n ,r ,s ,lower ,red and ,mottled ,sandstone4 ,e 4 4 ,,germany4 _/ ,a _/ ,p _/,upper1 or _/ ,upper ,red ,marl and ,sandstone4 ,g ,e ,magnesian ,upper ,magnesian ,limestone4 ,zechstein4 ,e ,r ,limestone ,lower ,red ,marl and ,sandstone4 ,m ,series4 ,lower ,magnesian ,limestone4 _/ ,o ,i ,f ,a ,lower1 or _/ ,red ,marl1 ,sandstone1 ,breccia1 ,rthe-liegende1 ,n ,rothlie- and ,conglomerate4 ,f 4 gende4 ,i ,u ,s ,c _/ ,,england4 ,,scotland4 ,p ,h ,a ,p ,e ,r ,a ,p _/ ,upper ,coal ,measures4 ,e ,s ,b ,g ,h ,coal ,middle ,coal ,measures4 ,upper ,coal ,r 1 ,o ,e ,y ,measures4 ,pennant ,grit4 ,measures4 ,n ,t ,lower ,coal ,measures4 ,p ,o ,i ,o ,o ,gannister ,beds4 _/ ,a ,r ,f ,f ,z ,l ,e ,o _/ ,millstone ,grit or ,moor ,i ,r ,p ,i ,farewell ,rock4 _/ ,rock4 ,o ,c ,o ,l ,c ,z ,h ,u ,a _/ ,upper ,limestone ,shale ,upper ,limestones4 ,o ,t ,s ,n ,e 7,yoredale ,rocks74 ,edge ,coals ,series4 ,i ,h ,t ,p ,carboniferous ,lime- ,lower ,limestones4 ,c ,y ,s ,s ,o ,carboni- stone4 _/ 4 ,o ,e 1 ,c ferous1 ,z ,r ,h or ,sandstones1 ,shales1 ,o ,i ,o 4 ,mountain ,lower ,limestone ,shale4 and ,burdie ,house ,i ,e ,r ,limestone4 _/ ,limestone4 ,c ,s 4 ,p ,e ,a ,p ,,old ,,red _/ ,old ,red _/ ,upper ,devonian or ,barnstaple and ,marwood ,beds1 ,l ,o ,,sand- ,sand- with ,petherwin ,limestone1 in ,n4 ,e4 ,cornwall4 ,c ,,stone stone1 or ,middle ,devonian or ,ilfracombe ,beds1 with ,o ,h ,,and ,devonian ,fossiliferous ,limestones and ,cornstones4 ,z 4 ,,devoni- ,beds4 ,lower ,devonian1 or ,lynton ,beds4 ,o ,,an4 ,i ,,wales ,,and ,,central ,,lake ,,district4 ,c ,,england4 1 ,l _/ _/ _/ ,tilestones 7,passage ,o ,a ,beds74 ,o ,w ,n ,kirkby ,moor ,r ,e ,d _/ ,upper ,ludlow ,beds 7with ,flags4 ,r ,u ,ludlow ,bone ,bed74 _/ ,p ,m ,p ,beds4 ,aymestry ,limestone4 ,r ,p ,o ,p ,lower ,ludlow ,beds4 ,i ,a ,l ,e ,bannisdale ,beds4 ,m ,l ,l ,r _/ ,wenlock ,limestone4 ,a ,u ,wenlock ,shale1 ,sand- ,r ,o ,s ,s stone1 and ,flags4 _/ ,y ,z ,c ,i ,wenlock ,woolhope ,limestone and ,coniston ,grits 4 ,o ,s ,s ,l ,beds4 ,shale4 and ,flags4 ,i 1 ,i ,u ,denbighshire ,grits1 ,stockdale ,c ,l ,r ,shales1 ,slates1 and ,slates4 4 ,o ,u ,i ,flags4 _/ ,r ,r ,a ,a ,i ,n ,tarannon ,shale 7,pale ,slates74 ,g ,m ,a 4 ,e ,a ,n _/ ,upper ,llandovery ,rocks4 ,l 4 ,llando- 7,may ,hill ,sandstone74 ,o ,a very 7,pentamerus ,beds74 ,f ,c ,beds4 ,o ,lower ,llandovery ,rocks4 ,c ,z ,r ,o ,s _/ ,caradoc1 _/ ,caradoc and ,bala ,beds4 ,u ,i ,i or ,bala 7,sandstones often shelly1 ,coniston ,lime- ,s ,c ,l ,l ,beds4 with ,bala ,limestone1 stone1 ,bala ,t ,o ,u ,shale1 and ,slate74 7,limestone and ,a ,e ,w ,r ,shale74 ,c ,p ,e ,i ,llan- _/ ,llandeilo ,flags and ,skiddaw ,slates4 ,e ,o ,r ,a deilo4 ,limestone1 c4 _/ ,a ,c ,n ,tremadoc ,slates4 ,n ,h 4 ,s 4 ,lingula ,lingula ,flags4 7,primordial ,zone of ,beds4 ,barrande74 _/ _/ _/ ,harlech ,grits1 c4 ,purple ,slates and ,grits 7,st4 ,david's74 ,e ,,cambrian4 ,cambrian4 ,llanberis ,grits and ,slates4 ,o ,longmynd ,rocks4 ,z ,red ,sandstone and ,conglomerate 7,scotland74 ,o ,i ,c _/ ,fundamental ,gneiss of the ,outer ,hebrides 4 ,,laurentian4 and of the ,n4 ,w4 coast of ,scotland1 c41 containing the oldest known fossil1 ,eozoon ,canadense4 ,,index4 ,,italics ,,are ,,woodcut ,,illustrations4 ,abbeville1 #dge4 ,peat-beds and ,flint-tools of1 #dgf4 ,abietin1 #aic4 ,acacia1 #cah4 ,acanthodes1 #abf4 ,acephala of the ,oolite1 #bdf4 ,acephalous or headless ,molluscs1 #bhh4 ,acerites cretace1 #bhc4 ,acrodus nobilis1 #bag4 ,acrogens1 #abc4 ,adams1 ,mr41 discoveries of1 #cia4 ,adapis1 #cbe4 ,adelsberg ,cave1 #dcj4 ,adeona folifera1 #bdg4 ,adhmar's ,glacial ,hypothesis1 #dcf4 ,adiantites1 #abj4 ,agassiz on ,glaciers1 #dci4 ,age of ,angiosperms1 #cjj4 ,formations1 how ascertained1 #e4 ,ailsa ,craig1 #di4 ,air ,volcano at ,turbaco1 #fa1 #fc4 ,albien of ,d',orbigny1 #cjj4 ,albite1 #if4 ,aleutian ,isles1 #gj4 ,alg1 #ajc1 #aad1 #abc1 #cji1 #ccf4 ,alkaline ,waters of ,plombires1 #fd4 ,alleghany ,mountains1 #ge4 ,alluvial ,deposits1 #dhe4 ,almites ,frescii1 #bjc4 ,alps1 upheaval of1 #dbg4 ,alveolites1 #ccc4 ,amber1 #caj1 #caf1 #cee4 ,amblypterus1 #adf4 ,amiens1 ,peat-beds of1 #dge4 ,ammonite1 a perfect1 #bfj4 restoration of an1 #baf4 ,ammonites1 #aa1 #ab1 #bjg1 #bab1 #bad1 #bdf4 rostratus1 #bib1 #bid4 ,turneri1 #bae4 of ,jurassic ,period1 #bae4 rotundus1 #bfc4 ,herveyii1 #bdf4 ,danicus1 #caa4 ,amorphozoa1 #cja4 ,ancient ,glaciers of the ,rhine1 ,linth1 and the ,reus1 #ddi4 ,ancient ,granite1 #ca4 ,ancyloceras1 #bhh4 ,andrias ,scheuchzeri1 #cfh4 ,angiosperms1 ,age of1 #cjj4 ,seeds1 in a ,seed-vessel1 #bhc1 #cjj4 ,animal of the ,ohio1 #cdc4 of ,paraguay1 #dja4 ,annelides1 #abf4 ,anning1 ,mary1 #bai1 #bbe4 ,annularia1 #acg1 #aed4 orifolia1 #aeh4 ,anodon1 #abj1 #ccd4 ,anomopteris1 #aic4 ,anoplotherium1 #cai1 #cbc4 commune1 #cbc4 ,anorthite1 #if4 ,antediluvian ,glaciers1 #ddi4 ,man1 #cfg4 ,anthracite1 #gb4 ,antiquity of ,man1 #dfi4 ,antwerp ,crag1 #cgc4 ,ape1 #cfj4 ,ape1 ,first ,appearance of1 #cdi4 ,apiocrinites liliiformis1 #bfa4 rotundus1 #bfa4 ,aploceras1 #adf4 ,aptien 7,greensand of ,apt7 ,fossils of ,havre1 of the ,isle of ,wight1 #big4 ,apuan ,alps1 #gf4 ,arborescent ,ferns1 #acj4 ,arbroath ,paving-stone1 #abi4 ,archopteryx1 #bfe4 ,archegosaurus minor1 #aed1 #aeh4 ,arctocyon primvus1 #ccb4 ,arenicolites1 #aja4 ,argile de ,dives1 #bfd4 plastique1 #ccb4 ,armentace1 #big4 ,arran1 ,granite of1 #ch4 ,artesian ,wells1 #af1 #hh4 ,artificially-formed ,coal1 #afd4 ,asaphus caudatus1 #ajc4 ,ashburnham ,sands1 #bhf4 ,ashdown ,sands1 #bhf4 ,ashes1 ,showers of ,volcanic1 #eh4 ,asiatic ,deluge1 #dbc2 caused by upheaval of ,caucasian ,range1 #dhj4 ,asplenium1 #cae4 ,asteracanthus1 #bff4 ,asterias lombricalis1 #bac4 ,asterophyllites1 #abj1 #aed1 #aeh1 #agc1 #agg4 foliosa1 #aeg4 ,atherfield ,series of ,rocks1 #bhg4 ,atlantis of ,plato1 #aah1 #bha4 ,atrypa reticularis1 #abg4 ,auchenaspis1 #abi4 ,aucolin1 #bii4 ,augite1 #dd4 ,auvergne1 ,mountains of1 #fb4 ,acidulated ,springs in1 #fd4 ,extinct ,volcanoes of1 #ea4 ,aveyron ,savage1 #dfi4 ,avicula1 #ahi1 #bje1 #beb1 #bgb4 contorta1 #bjg4 contorta zone1 #bjg4 ,azores1 ,new ,islands formed in the1 #gj4 ,baculites1 #bhi4 ,bagshot ,beds1 #ccb4 ,bajocien ,formation1 #bdi4 ,bala ,beds1 #aji4 ,balna of ,monte ,pulgnasco1 #cgj4 ,balnodon ,lamanoni1 #cgj4 ,balistes1 or ,silurus1 #bah4 ,baltic ,sea filling up1 #bhb1 #dij4 ,banksia1 #cah4 ,barmouth ,sandstone1 #aja4 ,basalt in ,prismatic ,columns1 #dg4 ,basalt1 #dd4 ,action of1 upon ,limestone1 #gb4 of ,ireland1 #dh4 ,prismatic ,structure of1 #di4 ,basaltic ,formations1 #dd4 ,causeways1 #dh1 #di4 ,plateau1 theoretical view of1 #dg4 ,cavern of ,staffa1 #ej4 ,bat1 #cbf1 #cch4 ,bath ,oolite1 #bdc1 #bej4 ,bathonian ,formation1 #bdi4 ,batrachian ,reptiles of ,pliocene1 #ceh4 ,baumann's ,hohl1 #dbi4 ,bay of ,fundy1 #aei4 ,beaver1 ,disappearance of1 #ahd4 of ,post-,pliocene ,period1 #cgi4 ,beds of ,coal1 ,formation of1 #aei4 ,bees1 #bee4 ,belemnite restored1 #baf4 of ,liassic ,period1 #bag4 ,belemnites1 #bab1 #bae1 #bfj4 acutus1 #bag4 ,bellerophon1 #ajh4 costatus1 #ade4 hiulcus1 #ade4 ,beloptera ,sepioidea1 #aha1 #dcd4 ,bembridge ,series1 #ccj1 #ccb4 ,ben ,nevis1 #ij1 #ahb4 ,bernese ,alps1 #dbg4 ,beryx ,lewesiensis1 #bid4 ,biblical ,account of ,noachian ,deluge1 #dhj4 ,bidiastopora cervicornis1 #bdf4 ,bigsby1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,t41 on ,silurian ,fauna and ,flora1 #ajd4 ,binney1 ,edw41 on ,boulder ,clay of ,lancashire1 #dfb4 ,bird of ,solenhofen1 #bfe4 of ,montmartre1 #cbf4 ,birds1 ,first ,appearance of1 #aic4 of ,eocene ,period1 #cbf4 of ,miocene ,period1 #cfi4 ,bison primigenius1 #cii4 priscus1 #cii4 ,bituminous ,fountains1 #fj4 ,black ,down ,beds1 #caj4 ,boccaccio's ,giant1 #bhd4 ,bogs of ,denmark1 #dgg4 ,bone-beds of ,rhtic1 or ,penarth ,series1 #bjg4 ,bone-breccias1 #dbi4 ,bone ,caves1 #dbi4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bristow on formation of1 #dge4 ,bos1 #cgi1 #dad4 ,pallasii1 #cii4 ,primigenius1 #ahd4 ,bracheux ,sands1 #ccb4 ,brachiopoda1 #aji4 ,abundance of1 in ,devonian ,period1 #abf4 in ,upper ,cretaceous ,period1 #cjj4 ,reign of1 #abf4 ,brachyphyllum1 #bdi4 ,bracklesham ,beds1 #ccb4 ,bradford ,clay1 #bej4 ,encrinites1 #beb4 ,branch of ,banksia1 #cah4 ,eucalyptus1 #cag4 ,bray ,head1 #aja4 ,breccia1 ,ossiferous1 #dcb4 ,brecciated ,limestone1 #agd1 #agf4 ,bridlington ,beds1 #dfj4 ,bristow1 ,h4 ,w41 on ,formation of ,bone ,caves1 #dge4 on ,brixham ,bone-cave1 #dgc4 on ,penarth or ,rhtic ,beds1 #bjg4 ,british ,islands at close of ,jurassic ,period1 #bgd4 ,british ,strata1 ,section of1 #bdd4 ,table of1 #dic-dii4 ,brixham ,bone-cave1 #dgc4 ,brongniart1 ,ad41 on ,upper ,cretaceous ,fauna1 #cja4 ,bronze ,age1 #dgh4 ,brumberg ,cavern1 #dcb4 ,buckland1 ,dr41 on ,kirkdale ,cave1 #chj4 ,buffon and ,voltaire1 #f4 on ,man1 #dgj4 on ,fossils1 #f4 ,bunter ,sandstone1 #ahg4 ,burrh ,stone1 #cee4 ,butterflies1 #bee4 ,caithness ,flags1 #abh4 ,calamary1 #bae1 #bei4 ,calamite restored1 #ace4 ,calamites1 #acd1 #aeb1 #agg1 #aic1 #bjb4 arenaceus1 #aid4 cannformis1 #aed4 ,trunk of1 #acf4 ,calcaire de la ,beauce1 #cee4 ,grossier1 #cbe1 #ccb4 ,calceola ,sandalina1 #abg4 ,calderas1 #gj4 ,calymene ,blumenbachii1 #aaj4 ,cambrian ,period1 #aja4 ,fauna1 #aja4 ,camper1 ,pierre1 on the ,mosasaurus1 #cjd4 ningen ,skeleton1 #cfh4 ,camptopteris crenata1 #bci4 ,canstadt ,excavations1 #chf1 #cif4 ,cantal ,group of ,mountains1 #dc4 a peak of1 #dj4 ,cape ,wrath1 ,granite and ,gneiss of1 #cb4 ,capitosaurus1 #aij4 ,caradoc ,beds1 #aji4 ,carboniferous ,flora1 #aea4 compared with that of ,islands in the ,pacific1 #aea4 ,carboniferous ,limestone1 #acj1 #adj4 ,period1 #acj4 ,vegetation of1 #acj4 ,climate of1 #acc4 ,foraminifera of1 #adc1 #adf4 of ,france1 #aej4 ,crustaceans of1 #ada4 ,rocks1 #adi4 ,seas1 #adf4 ,cardiocarpon1 #agg4 ,cardium ,rhticum1 #bjg4 striatulum1 #bfi4 ,carpinites arenaceus1 #bhc4 ,carrara ,marble1 #fe1 #gc1 #gf1 #cgg4 ,caryophylla cyathus1 #cef4 ,causeways1 ,basaltic1 #di4 ,cave ,bear1 #cie1 #dgc4 ,deposits1 #dfh1 #dgb4 ,hyna1 #cih4 ,lion1 #cih4 ,caverns1 their ,origin1 #abi4 ,cellaria loriculata1 #bdg4 ,central ,heat of the ,earth1 #ae4 ,increase of in ,depth1 #af4 ,central ,france1 ,puys of1 #ea4 ,cephalaspis1 #abe4 ,cephalopoda1 #ajh1 #abg1 #bae1 #cja4 ,ceratites1 #ahi4 ,ceratites nodosus1 #ahi4 ,cerithium1 #ccc1 #ccd4 ,cerithium plicatum1 #cej4 telescopium1 #cce4 ,cervus megaceros1 #ahd1 #djj4 ,cestracion1 #bah4 ,cetaceans of ,pliocene ,period1 #cfi4 ,cetiosaurus1 #bef1 #bfe4 ,chropotamus1 #cbe4 ,chtetes1 #adf4 ,chalk ,formation1 #bge1 #cji4 ,foraminifera of1 #adf4 ,chalk ,marl1 #cji4 ,white1 #cji4 of ,cattolica1 ,sicily1 #bhj4 of ,gravesend1 #bgh4 of ,isle of ,mon1 #bgi4 of ,meudon1 #bgg4 ,chara1 #cae4 ,cheirotherium1 #ac1 #ba1 #aij4 ,chemical ,theory of the ,earth1 #ae4 ,chesil ,bank1 #bgj4 ,chillesford ,beds1 #cgb4 ,chimra1 #bah4 ,chlo1 ,isle of1 #aea4 ,chondrites1 #cji4 ,chorda-filum1 #abd4 ,christiana ,granite and ,syenite1 #ch4 ,cinder ,bed of ,purbeck1 #bgb4 ,cipoline ,marble1 #gf4 ,cirripedes1 #bfj4 ,clermont-,ferrand1 #ea4 ,climate of the ,coal ,period1 #aea4 ,permian ,period1 #agd4 ,climatius1 #abf4 ,clinkstone1 #dc4 ,clymenia ,sedgwickii1 #abg4 ,coal1 #acb4 ,formation of1 #aei4 ,origin of1 #aei4 ,theories ,respecting ,formation of1 #aei4 ,stratification of ,beds of1 #afe4 ,quantities annually raised in different ,countries1 #aff4 ,quantity of1 in ,united ,kingdom1 #afg4 ,coal ,measures1 #acj1 #aej4 ,composition of1 #afd4 ,extent of1 #aff4 ,flora of1 #aej4 of ,scotland1 #afg4 of ,south ,wales1 #afg4 of ,belgium1 #afg4 of ,france1 #afg4 ,time of ,formation1 #acb4 ,composition of1 #acb4 ,coal ,mines of ,treuil1 #afj4 ,coccosteus1 #abe1 #adb4 ,clacanthus1 #age4 ,composition of ,air in ,carboniferous ,period1 #acc4 ,comptonia1 #bhc4 ,conferv of the ,chalk1 #cji4 ,conglomerates1 #abi4 ,conifers of ,jurassic ,period1 #bdi1 #bfi4 of ,cretaceous ,period1 #bhc4 of ,eocene ,period1 #caf4 of ,miocene ,period1 #ccf4 of ,pliocene ,period1 #ceh4 ,contortions of ,coal ,beds1 #afg4 ,conybeare's ,account of ,plesiosaurus1 #bbi4 ,copper ,slate1 ,fossils of1 #agg4 of ,thuringia1 #agh4 ,coprolites1 ,petrified ,excrements of ,antediluvian ,animals1 #ab1 #bjg1 #cgc4 of ,ichthyosaurus1 enclosing ,bones1 #bbe4 of ,ichthyosaurus1 showing ,cast of ,intestines1 #bbe4 ,bed of ,cambridge1 #cji4 ,coral ,rag1 #bdc1 #bfd1 #cja4 ,coralline ,crag1 ,corals of1 #cgb4 ,corals1 #ada1 #bje1 #bdj1 #bdg1 #bfc1 #bff1 #cja4 ,cornbrash1 #bdc1 #bej1 #beb4 ,cornstone1 #abi4 ,cornwall1 ,granite of1 #ch4 ,coryphodon1 #ccb4 ,cotham ,marble1 #bjh4 ,coupe1 la1 d',ayzac1 #df1 #dg4 ,crag1 #cgb4 ,creation of ,man1 #dfd4 ,evidences of1 #dfi4 ,world1 ,scriptural ,account of1 ,defended1 #ah4 ,credneria1 #bhc1 #big-cjj4 ,crematopteris1 #afc4 ,cretaceous ,period1 #bge1 #cjf4 ,fauna of1 #bhb1 #bhe1 #cjj4 ,flora of1 #bhb1 #cjj4 ,reptiles of1 #bhe4 ,fishes of1 #bhe1 #bid4 ,crinoidea1 #abg4 ,crioceras1 #bhh1 #big4 ,duvallii1 #bgd4 ,crocodile of ,maestricht1 #ahd1 #cjc1 #cbf4 ,crocodilus ,toliapicus1 #cbf4 ,croll1 ,j41 on ,till1 #deg4 ,crust of the ,earth1 ,composition of1 #if4 ,thickness of1 #hg1 #hi4 ,temperature of1 #hh4 ,crustaceans1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #ada1 #bhf4 ,predominance of1 in ,lower ,silurian ,seas1 #ajg4 ,rarity of in ,carboniferous ,period1 #ada4 of ,eocene ,period1 #cbf4 of ,miocene ,period1 #cej4 ,cryptogamia1 #ahg1 #aid1 #bjc4 ,crystalline ,action1 #ga4 ,limestone1 #agd1 #agf4 ,rocks ,defined1 #bh4 ,cucumites1 #cae4 ,cupanioides1 #cae4 ,cupressocrinus crassus1 #abh4 ,cuvier's ,account of ,plesiosaurus1 #bcc4 ,account of ,pterodactyle1 #cc4 on the ,restoration of ,extinct ,animals1 #g4 on the ,destruction of ,species1 #cha4 on the ,mammoth1 #cif4 ,cyathophyllum1 #adf4 ,cycadeace1 #bff4 ,cycads1 #bci1 #bdi1 #bgj1 #bhc4 ,cycas circinalis1 #afh4 ,cypress1 #bdj1 #bdi4 ,cypris1 #bgb4 fasciculata1 #bgb4 spinigera and ,c4 ,valdensis1 #bih4 ,cyrtoceras depressum1 #agf4 ,damara1 #aid4 ,danian ,beds1 #cji1 #caa4 ,danish ,peat ,mosses and ,kjkken ,mdden1 #dgg4 ,dartmoor1 ,granite of1 #cf1 #cg1 #gi4 ,darwin1 ,c41 on ,coral ,formations1 #bfc4 ,volcanoes of ,quito1 #ee4 ,daubeny on ,basalt1 #dd4 ,davidsonia ,verneuilli1 #abg4 ,dawkins1 ,w4 ,b41 ,discoverer of ,microlestes1 #bjg4 ,de la ,beche on the ,plesiosaurus1 #bbi4 ,de ,rance1 ,c4 ,e41 on ,glacial ,deposits1 #deh4 ,deer1 #cii4 ,deluge confirmed by traditions of all ,ancient ,races1 #dhb4 ,denudation1 #bh4 ,descartes1 #ae4 ,destruction of ,successive ,creations1 #ahd4 ,devon and ,cornwall1 ,granite of1 #ch4 ,devonian ,period1 #aai4 ,system1 #agj4 ,flora1 #abj4 ,fishes1 #abe4 ,diameter of the ,earth1 #hg4 ,diceras ,limestone1 #bfe4 ,dicotyledons1 #ahb1 #bhb4 ,diluvium1 #dbb1 #dbc4 ,dinornis1 #acd1 #chb4 ,dinornis1 #dad1 #dag4 ,dinotherium1 #cci1 #cef4 restored1 #cdj4 ,diorite1 #ce4 ,diplacanthus1 #abf4 ,dirt-bed1 ,fossils of1 #bga4 ,dodo1 #ahd4 ,dolomite1 #agh4 ,domite1 #dc4 ,donati on ,fossil ,shells1 #f4 ,downs1 ,north and ,south1 #bgh4 ,downton ,sandstone1 #aab4 ,draco volans1 #bch4 ,draconid1 #bcg4 ,dragon ,fly1 #bdc1 #bee4 ,dragons of ,mythology1 #bcg1 #cfa4 ,drifted ,rocks1 #bg4 ,drme1 the1 #bii4 ,dryopithecus1 #cej1 #cec4 ,dykes1 #bg4 ,early ,geologists1 #e4 ,earth1 ,cooling of the1 #hj4 ,theories of the ,origin of the1 #f4 in a ,gaseous ,state1 #ha4 ,earth's ,crust1 ,thickness of1 #hi4 ,surface1 ,changes of1 #c4 ,earthy ,limestone1 #bha4 ,ebur ,fossile1 #chf4 ,echinoderms1 #ahi1 #bac1 #bdg1 #bfa1 #big1 #cjj1 #cja1 #cbf4 ,edentates1 #chb1 #djj1 #djg4 ,ehrenberg's ,microscopic ,investigations1 #bgg4 ,electric ,currents1 ,action of1 #gi4 ,elephant of the ,ohio1 #cdc1 #cdg4 ,elephants1 ,fossil1 #chf4 ,elephants' ,cemetery at ,canstadt1 #chf4 ,elephas meridionalis1 #cgb4 primigenius1 #cdg1 #chb1 #chc4 ,emys1 #bfe1 #cai4 ,encrinites1 #abg1 #agc1 #aha1 #aif1 #beb4 ,abundance of during ,devonian ,period1 #abj4 ,encrinus liliiformis1 #aij1 #bfa4 ,entalophora cellarioides1 #bdf4 ,eocene ,strata of ,france and ,england1 #cbi4 ,eocene1 #cad4 ,period1 #cae4 ,vegetation1 #cae4 ,fauna1 ,seas1 #cai1 #cbi4 ,characters of1 #ccj4 ,table of ,strata1 #ccj4 ,epilogue1 #dhi4 ,epiornis1 #ahd1 #chb1 #dag4 ,equiseta 7,horse-tails71 #acd1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bci1 #cae4 ,erratic ,blocks1 #dbd4 of the ,alps1 #ddh4 ,eruption of ,granite1 #ib4 ,eruptive ,rocks1 #d1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca4 ,plutonic ,eruptions1 #ca4 ,volcanic #ea4 ,eryon arctiformis1 #bfj4 ,erymanthean ,boar1 #ahd4 ,estimated ,coal ,measures of the ,world1 #aff4 ,etheridge1 ,r41 on ,devonian and ,old ,red ,sandstone1 #abi4 ,etna1 ,volcano of ,mount1 #ef1 #fh4 ,eucalyptus1 #cag4 ,eunomia radiata1 #bdg1 #beb4 ,europe at ,close of ,cretaceous ,period1 #caa4 ,pliocene ,period1 #cgg4 ,european ,deluge1 #cgh1 #dbb4 ,eurypterus1 #aaj4 remipes1 #aaa4 ,exogyra conica1 #bid1 #caa4 ,expansion of the ,earth at the ,equator1 #hd4 ,extinct ,volcanoes of ,auvergne1 #ea4 ,eye of ,ichthyosaurus1 #bbj4 ,falconer1 ,dr41 on ,brixham ,cave1 #dgc4 ,faluns1 #cee4 of ,paris ,basin1 #cef4 ,fans1 of ,brecon1 #abh4 ,fault1 a ,dislocation of ,strata1 #ga4 ,fauna1 ,definition of ,term1 #d4 ,devonian1 #abi4 ,neocomian1 #bhg4 of ,permian ,period1 #ahc4 of the ,middle ,oolite1 #bee4 of the ,upper ,oolite1 #bfe4 of ,cretaceous ,period1 #bhe1 #bid4 of ,eocene ,period1 #cai4 of ,pliocene ,period1 #ceh4 of ,miocene ,period1 #cci4 ,faxoe ,beds1 #cji4 ,felis spela1 #cih4 ,felspar1 composition of1 #if4 ,fenestrella retiformis1 #age4 ,ferns1 #acj1 #acd1 #adj1 #agf1 #aic1 #bci1 #bdh1 #bhb1 #cae4 ,fingal's ,cave1 ,staffa1 #di1 #ej4 ,fisher1 ,rev4 ,o41 on ,chillesford ,clay1 #cgb4 on ,warp and ,trail1 #dfa4 ,fishes1 ,silurian1 #ajg4 ,bones of1 #aab4 of ,devonian ,period1 #abe4 of ,carboniferous ,period1 #adf4 of ,oolitic ,seas1 #bff4 of ,cretaceous ,seas1 #bhe1 #bid4 of ,eocene ,period1 #cbf4 of ,miocene ,period1 #cci4 ,fissurella nembosa1 #dfc4 ,fissures near ,locarno1 #eg4 ,flabellaria1 #cae1 #cbi1 #ccf4 ,chamropifolia1 #bhh4 ,flint-tools in peat-beds1 #dge4 ,flints1 #bha4 ,flora of ,upper ,cretaceous ,period1 #cji4 of ,devonian ,period1 #abj4 of ,cretaceous ,period1 #bhb4 of ,tertiary ,period1 #cac4 of ,eocene ,period1 #cbi4 of ,triassic ,period1 #aid4 of ,miocene ,period1 #cbf1 #cec1 #cha4 of ,carboniferous ,period1 #ace4 of ,permian ,period1 #agd1 #ahc4 of ,pliocene ,period1 #cha4 of ,upper ,oolite ,period1 #bff4 ,fluvio-marine ,crag1 #cgb4 ,foliation1 ,cause of1 #gg4 ,footprints in ,rocks1 #aba1 #agc1 #aij1 #aif1 #bfi4 at ,corncockle ,moor1 #ac4 ,foraminifera1 #adf1 #cac1 #cbf4 of the ,chalk1 #adf1 #bgf1 #bhf4 of the ,mountain ,limestone1 #adf4 ,forbes 7,professor ,ed47 on the ,pliocene ,marine ,fauna1 #cgd4 ,forest-bed of ,norfolk1 #cgb1 #dah4 ,forest ,marble1 #bdc1 #bej1 #beb4 ,formation of ,primitive ,granite1 #ij4 ,fossil1 ,term ,defined1 #d4 ,bones1 #d1 #e4 ,uses of1 #e4 ,condition of1 #aa4 ,footprints1 #ac4 ,species1 relations of1 to existing ,species1 #aa4 ,ivory of ,siberia1 #chh4 ,palms restored1 #bhd4 ,shells1 #d4 ,fishes1 #age4 ,leeches1 #bag4 ,licorn1 #cih4 ,unicorn1 #chf4 ,fossils of ,permian ,formation1 #agc4 of ,keuper ,formation1 #bja4 of ,upper ,oolite1 #bfe4 of ,neocomian ,beds1 #big4 of ,orgonian ,beds1 #big4 of ,aptien ,beds1 #big4 of the ,glauconie1 #cjj4 of ,calcaire ,grossier1 #ccb4 of ,muschelkalk1 #ahi4 of ,new ,red ,sandstone1 #ahg4 of ,argile ,plastique1 #ccb4 ,fournet on the ,drme1 #bii4 on ,eruptions of ,granite1 c41 #cf4 on ,eruptions of ,gas and ,water1 #fd4 ,fox of ningen1 #cch4 ,fucoids1 #abc4 ,fuller's ,earth1 #bdc1 #bej4 ,fusulina cylindrica1 #adc4 ,future of the ,earth and ,man considered1 #dhi4 ,gabian1 ,bituminous ,springs of1 #fj4 ,gailenreuth1 ,caves of1 #dbi1 #dcj4 ,galacynus ningensis1 #cci4 ,ganoid ,fishes1 #aha1 #bag1 #bdf4 ,garonne ,valley1 #dbh4 ,gastornis1 #ccb4 ,gault1 #bha1 #cjj1 #cji4 ,gavials of ,india1 #bei1 #bia4 ,geikie1 ,prof41 on ,till1 #deg4 ,gemerelli on ,fossils1 #f4 ,geological humus1 #bga4 ,inferences1 ,hypothetical ,nature of1 #c4 ,geological ,record1 ,complexity of1 #cj4 ,geology1 ,objects of1 #b1 #c4 a ,recent ,science1 #c4 its ,influence on other ,sciences1 #c4 ,how to be ,studied1 #c4 ,geosaurus1 #bef4 ,geoteuthis1 #bei4 ,gerilea protea1 #cah4 ,geysers of ,iceland1 #af1 #fg4 ,giants' ,causeways1 #di4 in the ,ardche1 #dh4 ,legends of1 accounted for1 #e4 ,gigantology1 #chd4 ,glacial ,action during ,permian ,period1 #agd4 ,deposits of ,northern ,england and ,wales1 #deg4 ,period1 #cgb1 #cgh1 #dce4 ,evidences of1 #dfc4 ,regions of ,europe1 #dea4 ,theory of ,martins1 #dfb4 ,glacier ,system of ,wales1 #ajf4 ,systems1 #ddj4 ,glaciers of ,scotland1 #ded4 of ,switzerland1 #ddi4 of the ,british ,isles1 #deg4 ,glauconie1 or ,glauconite1 #cjj4 ,glaucous ,chalk1 #cjj1 #caj4 ,glenroy1 ,parallel ,roads of1 #def4 ,globe1 ,modification of ,surface of1 #bf4 ,glyptodon1 the1 #dja4 ,glyptolepis1 #abj4 ,gneiss of ,cape ,wrath1 #cb4 ,laurentian1 #gd4 ,composition of1 #if4 ,goniatites1 #abg4 ,goniatites evolutus1 #ade4 ,goulet1 ,great and ,little1 #bii4 ,granite1 #ahb4 ,mineral ,composition of1 #cb1 #if4 ,how ,formed1 #cc4 of ,st4 ,austell1 #ci4 of ,christiana1 #cf4 of ,dartmoor1 #gi4 of ,cornwall and ,devon1 #cf1 #ch4 ,eruptions of1 #ij1 #ib1 #ih4 ,stratified or ,foliated1 #ig4 ,qualities of1 #cb4 ,how ,formed1 #cc4 ,veins of1 at ,cape ,wrath1 #cb4 ,granitic ,eruptions1 #ib4 ,gran ,seco1 #daj4 ,graptolites1 #ajg4 ,gravesend ,chalk1 under ,microscope1 #bgh4 ,great ,animal of ,maestricht1 #cjd4 ,great ,oolite1 #bdc1 #bej4 ,reptiles of1 #bej4 ,great ,year1 the1 #dcf4 ,green1 ,a4 ,h41 on ,glacial ,deposits1 #deh4 ,greensand1 ,upper and ,lower1 #bge1 #bha1 #big1 #cji4 ,greenstone1 #ce4 ,grs ,bigarr1 #cg1 #ahe4 ,grs de ,beauchamp1 #ccc4 ,grs des ,vosges1 #agh4 ,grotta del ,cane1 #fd4 ,grotto des ,demoiselles1 #dcc4 ,grotto of ,cheeses1 ,trves1 #ej4 ,grypha dilatata1 #bfd4 virgula1 #bfi4 incurva1 #bab4 ,gulf ,stream1 #dce4 ,gymnogens1 ,plants with ,naked ,ovary1 #aeb4 ,gymnosperms1 #aic1 #bhc1 #cjj4 ,gypseous ,formation1 #ccc4 ,gypsum ,quarries of ,montmartre1 ,fossils in1 #gc1 #cbe4 ,gyroceras1 #ajh4 ,haidingera speciosa1 #aid4 ,hakea1 #cah4 ,hallstadt ,beds1 #bje4 ,halysites catenularius1 #aac4 ,hamites1 #bhh1 #big4 ,hannibal's ,elephants1 #chg4 ,harkness1 ,prof41 on ,glacial ,deposits1 #deh4 ,harlech ,sandstones1 #aja4 ,hastings ,sands1 #bhg4 ,hawaii1 ,volcanoes of1 #ei1 #fi4 ,head of ,cave-bear1 #cih4 of ,cave-hyna1 #cii4 of ,mosasaurus ,camperi1 #cjf4 of ,rhinoceros tichorhinus1 #cfj4 ,headon ,beds1 #ccj1 #ccb4 ,hemicosmites pyriformis1 #ajh4 ,hennessey1 on the ,earth's ,crust1 #hi4 ,hepaticas1 #cae4 ,herbaceous ferns1 #aca4 ,herbivora1 ,eocene1 #cbe4 ,heterocercal1 #age4 ,hippopotamus1 #cfj1 #cgi4 ,hippurites1 #cja1 #caj4 ,holl1 ,dr41 on ,malvern ,rocks1 #gh4 ,holoptychius1 #aed4 ,homo diluvii testis1 #cfg4 ,homocercal1 #age4 ,hopkins1 ,evan1 on ,earth's ,antiquity1 #bj4 on ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 #bb4 ,w41 ,theory of ,central ,heat1 #ag4 on the ,earth's ,crust1 #hh4 ,horse1 #cgi1 #cii1 #dag4 ,horse-tails1 #acd1 #bjb4 ,hot ,springs1 #fd4 ,hughes1 ,t4 ,mc,k41 ,discovery of ,glutton by1 #dca4 ,hull1 ,prof41 on ,trias1 #ahe4 on ,glacial ,deposits1 #deh4 ,human ,jaw1 #dgb4 ,period1 #dgd4 ,hunt1 ,rob41 ,electric ,experiments of1 #gi4 ,prof4 ,sterry1 on ,formation of ,crystalline ,schists1 #if4 ,hutton's ,theory of the ,earth1 #c4 ,hyna ,spela1 #cih1 #dag4 head of1 #cii1 #dag4 ,hynodon1 #cif4 ,hybodus1 #bag4 ,hyera1 ,island of1 #gj4 ,hylosaurus1 ,lizard of the ,woods1 #bje1 #bjg1 #bbe1 #bij4 ,hymenoptera1 #bbe4 ,iceland1 ,geysers of1 #af1 #fe1 #fg4 ,lava ,streams in1 #fj4 ,volcanoes of1 #fj1 #fg4 ,ichthyodorulites1 #bag4 ,ichthyosaurus1 #bah1 #bbi1 #bee1 #bef4 ,ichthyosaurus1 ,coprolites of1 #ab4 ,ichthyosaurus communis1 #bah4 platydon1 #bai1 #bbb4 ,igneous ,rocks1 #ca1 #ahb4 ,iguana1 #bic4 ,iguanodon1 #bib4 ,mantelli1 #bhe4 ,teeth of1 #bic4 ,illnus ,barriensis1 #aab4 ,incandescence of the ,globe1 #ag4 of the ,sun1 #ag4 ,indian ,traditions of the ,father of the ,ox1 #cdg4 ,inferior ,oolite1 #bdi4 ,infra-,lias1 #bji4 ,injected ,veins of ,granite1 #cb4 ,insects1 #aeg1 #bbe1 #ccd4 of ,coal-measures1 #aea4 of ,oolites1 #bee1 #bff4 ,iron ,age1 #dgh4 ,ore in ,coal-measures1 #afe4 in ,orgonian ,beds1 #bih4 ,ischadites ,knigii1 #aah4 ,islands1 ,sudden ,appearance of1 #gj4 ,isle of ,bones1 #chh4 ,lchow1 #chh4 ,portland1 #bgj4 ,purbeck1 #bga4 ,wight ,alligator1 #cbf4 ,jamieson1 ,t4 ,f41 on ,glenroy1 #ded4 ,jarrow ,colliery1 #aci4 ,java1 ,volcanic ,mountains of1 #fg1 #fi4 ,valley of ,poison1 #fd4 ,jaw and ,tooth of ,megalosaurus1 #bia4 of ,phascolotherium1 #bde4 of ,thylacotherium1 #bde4 ,jet1 #bgd4 ,juglandites elegans1 #bhc4 ,jukes1 ,j4 ,b41 on ,devonian and ,old ,red ,sandstone1 #abi4 ,jura ,mountains1 #bdc1 #bgc4 ,jurassic ,limestone1 #bdc4 ,distribution of1 #bgb4 ,reptiles of1 #bbj4 ,plants of the1 #bch4 ,series1 ,distinguishing ,features of1 #bae4 ,kangaroo1 #bde4 ,kea1 ,mauna1 #fa1 #fi4 ,kellaways ,rock1 #bfd4 ,kent's ,hole1 #chj1 #dgb4 ,kentish ,rag1 #bhg4 ,keuper1 #aii1 #bic4 ,rock ,salt in1 #aii1 #bjd4 ,kilauea1 ,volcano of1 #ef4 ,eruption of1 #fi4 ,crater of1 #ef1 #ei4 ,kimeridge ,clay1 #ai1 #bdc1 #bff1 #bfi4 ,king1 ,prof41 on ,permian ,system1 #agd4 ,kirkdale ,cave1 #chj1 #cih1 #dbi4 ,kjkken-,mdden1 #dgg4 ,koessen ,beds1 #bjh4 ,kupfer ,schiefer1 #agj4 ,labradorite1 #dd4 ,labyrinthodon1 #aij4 pachygnathus1 #ab4 ,labyrinthodon restored1 #aic4 ,la ,coupe d',ayzac1 ,crater of1 #de4 ,lacunosus laciniatus1 #ahd4 ,lacustrine ,habitations1 #dgb4 ,ladies' ,fingers1 #baf4 ,lake ,dwellings1 #dgb4 ,lamellibranchs1 #bff4 ,landscape ,stone1 #bjh4 ,land-turtles1 #aij4 ,laplace's ,theory of the ,earth1 #ag1 #hj4 ,lasmocyathus1 #adf4 ,laurentian ,formation in ,britain1 #aj1 #gi4 ,gneiss1 #gd4 ,lava ,formations1 #ci1 #ea1 #ei4 ,streams of1 #ei4 ,lecoq1 on ,triassic ,vegetation1 #aid4 ,keuper ,flora1 #bjb4 ,cretaceous ,flora1 #bhb4 ,tertiary ,flora1 #caf4 ,flora of ,miocene ,period1 #ccf4 the ,vegetation of ,pliocene ,period1 #ceg4 ,leibnitz' ,fossil ,unicorn1 #chf4 ,lepidodendra1 #acd1 #ach1 #aeg1 #agc4 ,lepidodendron carinatum1 #acd1 #ach4 elegans1 #adj4 ,sternbergii1 #aci1 #ada4 ,sternbergii restored1 #adb4 ,lepidoptera1 #bee4 ,lepidostrobus variabilis1 #adj4 ,lepidotus1 #bff1 #bgb4 gigas1 #bag4 ,leptna ,murchisoni1 #abg4 ,le ,puy1 ,chain of1 #ea4 ,lias1 ,the1 #baa2 ,lower1 ,upper1 and ,middle1 #bab4 ,liassic ,period1 #baa1 #bag4 ,fauna1 #bac4 ,flora1 #bci4 ,libellula1 #bdc4 ,licorn ,fossil1 #chf4 ,life1 ,first ,appearance of1 #ii4 ,abundance of1 in ,upper ,silurian ,times1 #ajd4 ,lignite1 #ccg1 #ced4 ,lima gigantea1 #bab4 striata1 #ahi4 proboseilea1 #bdf4 ,limestone1 #bab4 of ,la ,beauce1 #cee4 of ,solenhofen1 #bdc1 #bgc4 ,metamorphism of1 #gc1 #ge4 ,limna1 #bgb1 #ccd4 ,lingula1 #ajg4 ,credneri1 #age4 ,flags1 #aja1 #ajg4 ,lions with ,curly ,manes1 #ahd4 ,lipari ,isles1 #ee1 #fh4 ,lithographic ,limestone of ,solenhofen1 #cdc4 ,lithostrotion1 #aha4 basaltiforme1 #ade4 ,lituites cornu-arietis1 #ajh4 ,lizard of the ,meuse1 #cje4 ,llanberis ,slates1 #aja4 ,llandeilo ,flags1 #aji4 ,llandovery ,rocks1 #ajg4 ,loa1 ,mauna1 #ee4 ,locarno1 ,fissures of1 #eg1 #eh4 ,logan1 ,sir ,w41 on ,laurentian ,gneiss of ,canada1 #aj1 #gd4 ,logan1 ,sir ,w41 on ,underclay of ,coal ,measures1 #afa4 ,lomatophloyos crassicaule1 #acd1 #ach4 ,lonchopteris ,bricii1 #acd1 #add4 ,london ,clay1 ,flora of1 #cca4 ,longmynd ,hills1 #aja4 ,lonsdalea floriformis1 #ade4 ,lophiodon1 #cbe1 #ccc4 ,lower ,cretaceous ,period1 #bhf1 #big4 ,keuper ,sandstone1 #ahf1 #bjd4 ,neocomian1 #big4 ,lias1 #bab4 ,silurian ,rocks1 #ajd4 ,oolite ,fauna1 #bdd4 ,oolite ,rocks1 #bdi4 ,greensand1 #bha1 #bhg4 ,lucerne1 ,the ,giant of1 #che4 ,ludlow ,bone-beds1 #aab4 ,rocks1 #aaa4 ,lupea pelagica1 #ced4 ,lycopodiace1 #acd1 #aea4 ,lycopods1 #abc1 #acd4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 on ,formation of ,granite1 #cc1 #cf4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 on the ,upper ,cretaceous ,flora1 #cjj4 ,lyme ,regis1 #bai1 #bbe4 ,machairodus1 #cgi4 ,tooth of1 #chj4 ,macrorhynchus1 #bfe1 #bgb4 ,madrepores1 #bff4 ,maestricht ,quarries1 #bhe4 ,animal of1 #cjb4 ,beds1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cji4 ,magnesian ,limestone1 #agj1 #agh4 ,magnetism1 ,terrestrial1 ,evan ,hopkins on1 #bb4 ,malvern ,hills1 ,dr4 ,holl on1 #gh4 ,mammals1 ,first ,appearance of1 #bjg1 #bdd4 of ,pliocene ,period1 #ceh4 ,mammaliferous ,crag1 #cgb4 ,mammiferous ,didelph1 #bde4 ,mammoth1 #cdg4 of ,ohio1 #cdg4 of the ,unstrut1 #chf4 ,origin of ,name1 #chh4 ,siberian ,accounts of1 #chg-cie4 restored1 #cie4 ,skeleton of the1 #chc1 #cid4 ,teeth and ,tusks of1 #cdb4 ,tooth of the1 #chd4 ,man and ,animals ,compared1 #dfe4 ,first ,appearance of1 #chb4 ,antiquity of1 considered1 #dgh4 ,age of ,st4 ,acheul ,beds1 #dgi4 ,morlot's ,calculation1 #dgi4 ,mantell's1 ,dr41 ,discoveries1 #bij4 ,marble1 #gd4 ,carrara1 #gc1 #gf4 ,cipoline1 #gf4 of ,france1 #gf4 ,marbre de ,flandres and ,m4 de petit ,granit1 #aej4 ,mare's-tail1 #acd4 ,marl1 #aii4 ,marl-slate1 #afj4 ,marlstone of the ,lias1 #bab4 ,marsupial ,mammals1 #bjg1 #bde1 #bej1 #bfc4 ,martins1 ,c41 on ,glaciers1 #dfb4 ,mastodon1 #cda1 #cef1 #cfj4 its ,discovery1 #cdb4 ,opinions of ,naturalists1 #cdc4 ,difference from ,mammoth1 #cda4 ,molar ,tooth of1 #cdf4 ,arvernensis1 #cgb4 angustidens1 #cdg4 restored1 #cde4 ,skeleton of1 #cdd4 ,skeleton of the ,turin1 #cei4 ,teeth of1 #cda1 #cdb4 ,mauna ,loa and ,mauna ,kea1 #ef1 #fi4 ,mazuyer's ,pretended ,discovery1 #cdh4 ,meandrina ,ddala1 #bea4 ,mechanical ,theory of the ,earth1 #ae4 ,megaceros ,hibernicus1 #ahd1 #djj4 ,megalonyx1 #cga1 #chb1 #djj1 #daa4 ,megalosaurus1 #bia4 ,jaw of1 #bia4 ,tooth of1 #bia1 #chj4 ,megalichthys1 #aed4 ,megatherium1 #chb1 #dja1 #dah4 ,pelvis of1 #djg4 ,restored1 #dji4 ,skeleton of1 #djc4 foreshortened1 #djf4 ,megatheroid ,animals1 ,habits of1 #dac4 ,mendip ,hills1 ,denudation of1 #bh4 ,mesopithecus1 #cci1 #cej4 restored1 #cdi4 ,skeleton of1 #cdi4 ,metallic veins1 #ia4 ,metamorphic ,rocks1 #d1 #ga4 ,metamorphism1 ,special and ,general1 #fe1 #ga1 #gd4 ,action of1 on ,limestone1 #ga1 #gb1 #ge4 of ,combustible ,materials1 #ad1 #gb4 of ,argillaceous ,beds1 #gc4 ,cause of1 #gh4 ,meudon ,chalk under ,microscope1 #bgg4 ,mexican ,deluge1 #dhe4 ,mezen1 ,le1 ,peak of1 #dd4 ,mica1 ,composition of1 #if4 ,mica-schist1 #gg1 #cgg4 ,microdon1 #bff4 ,microlestes1 #bjg4 ,discovery of teeth of by ,mr4 ,c4 ,moore1 #bjh4 ,middle ,lias1 #bab4 ,oolite1 #bee4 ,miliola1 #cbi4 ,millepora alcicornis1 #bdj4 ,miller1 ,hugh1 ,how he became a ,geologist1 #aj4 ,first ,lesson in ,geology1 #abd4 ,milliolites1 #ccc4 ,mimosa1 #cah4 ,mineral ,masses composing the ,earth's ,crust1 #bg4 ,mines1 ,greatest ,depths of1 #hh4 ,miocene1 ,meaning of1 #cad4 ,miocene ,period1 #ccf4 ,vegetation1 #ccf1 #cci1 #cec1 #cha4 ,fauna1 #cci1 #cej4 ,volcanoes of1 #ea4 ,foraminifera1 #cef4 ,rocks of ,greece1 #cci4 ,moel ,tryfaen1 #dei4 ,molar ,teeth of ,mastodon1 #cdf4 ,molasse1 or ,soft ,clay1 #cch1 #cee4 ,mollusca1 #bde4 of ,pliocene1 #cga4 of ,eocene1 #cai4 of ,miocene1 #cej4 of ,crag1 #cgc4 ,gasteropodous1 #bff4 ,monitor ,niloticus1 #cje4 ,monocotyledons1 #aea1 #bff4 ,montmartre1 ,gypseous ,series of1 #ccc4 ,cuvier on ,fossils of1 #g4 ,mont ,dore1 #dj1 #dc4 ,moraines1 #ddd4 ,moro1 ,lazzaro1 #f4 ,mortillet on ,glaciers1 #ddi4 ,mosaic ,account of ,creation1 #bd4 ,mosasaurus1 #bhe1 #cjb1 #cje4 ,camperi1 #cjf4 ,mosses1 #ccf4 ,moulin-,quignon1 ,chalk ,beds of1 #dgf4 ,mount ,ararat1 #dhj4 ,hecla1 #fg4 ,idienne1 #fd4 ,sion1 #ddi4 ,mountain ,limestone1 #adi4 ,mountains1 ,first ,appearance of1 #ij4 ,chains1 ,formation of1 #bh4 ,mud ,volcanoes1 #ei4 of ,italy1 #fj1 #fc4 ,murchison1 ,sir ,r4 ,i41 ,founder of ,silurian ,system1 #aj1 #ajb4 ,murex ,turonensis1 #cej4 ,muschelkalk1 #ahe1 #ahh4 ,mussels1 #ahi4 ,mylodon1 #chb1 #djj1 #daj1 #dac1 #dah4 ,lower ,jaw of1 #dab4 restored1 #daa4 ,mytilus1 #ahi4 ,nabenstein1 ,cavern of1 #dcb4 ,nadace1 #bff4 ,nantwich ,salt-works1 #bjd4 ,nasal ,horn of ,iguanodon1 #bib4 ,natica1 #ahi4 ,nautilus1 #bae4 ,nebular ,theory of the ,earth1 #ae4 ,nenuphar1 #caf4 ,neocomian ,beds1 #bhg1 #big4 of ,france1 #bhf1 #bhg4 ,formation1 #bhf4 ,fauna of1 #bhg4 ,neptunian ,rocks1 #cj4 ,theory1 #f4 ,nereites ,cambriensis1 #ajh4 ,neuroptera1 #bej4 ,neuropteris elegans1 #aid4 gigantea1 #adc1 #agf4 ,new ,red ,marl1 #ahf4 ,period1 #ahe4 ,sandstone1 #ahe1 #ahg4 ,plants of1 #aic4 ,colour of1 #bja4 ,fauna of1 #bja4 ,new ,zealand1 ,birds of1 #ahd4 ,newer ,pliocene1 #cgb4 of ,alps1 #cgg4 of ,sicily1 #cgd4 ,nicol1 ,prof41 on ,ben ,nevis1 #ij4 ,nilssonia1 #aid1 #bci4 ,nggerathia1 #agg4 ,norfolk ,forest ,bed1 #cgb4 ,northern ,deluge1 #dbd4 ,norwich ,crag1 #cgb1 #dgh4 ,nothosaurus1 #aij1 #aif4 ,nummulites1 #cac1 #cbf1 #ccc4 ,nummulitic ,formation1 #ccd4 ,limestone1 #cbf4 ,nympheace1 #cae4 ,odontaspis1 #bid4 ,odontopteris ,brardii1 #add4 ,cycades1 #bab4 chmodus ,buchii1 #bag4 ningen ,formation1 #cch4 ,limestone1 #cfg4 ,ogygia ,guettardi1 #ajg4 ,old ,red ,sandstone1 #aai4 ,colour of1 #abj4 ,period1 ,vegetation of1 #abj4 ,fishes of1 #abd4 ,rocks of1 #abh4 ,conglomerate of1 #abi4 ,older ,pliocene1 #cgb4 ,oldhamia1 #aja4 ,oldhaven ,beds1 #cca4 ,olivine1 #dd4 ,oolite1 #bdc1 #bgb4 of ,solenhofen1 #bgc4 ,upper1 #bdc4 ,lower1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,middle1 #bdc4 ,great1 #bdc4 ,conifers of1 #bdi4 ,rocks1 #bdi4 ,oolitic ,fauna1 #bdd4 ,mollusca1 #bdf4 ,echinoderms1 #bdg4 ,insects1 #bee1 #bff4 ,period1 #bdc4 ,flora of1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bee1 #bff4 ,mammals of1 #bee4 ,reptiles of1 #bef4 ,corals of1 #bdg4 ,zoophytes of1 #bdg4 ,ophiopsis1 #bdf4 ,opossum1 #bde4 ,orgon ,limestone1 #big1 #bih1 #bii4 ,ornithorhynchus1 #bbc1 #bde4 ,orthoceras1 #ada4 ,disappearance of1 #bje4 laterale1 #ade4 ,orthoceratites1 #ajd4 ,orthoclase1 #cc1 #if1 #dah4 ,orthopithecus1 #dah4 ,osmeroides ,mantelli1 #bid4 ,ossiferous ,beds of ,sansan1 #cej4 ,breccia1 #b1 #dcb4 ,ostrea deltoidea1 #bfi4 distorta1 #bgb4 liassica1 #bjg1 #bab4 longirostris1 #cej4 ,marshii1 #bdf4 virgula1 #bfi4 ,otopteris acuminata1 #bdh4 dubia1 #bdh4 obtusa1 #bdh4 cuneata1 #bdh4 ,ovid a geologist1 #f4 ,owen1 ,prof41 on ,megatheroid ,animals1 #dac4 on ,plesiosaurus1 #bbh4 ,ox1 #chb1 #cii4 ,oxford ,clay1 #bdc1 #bfd4 ,oysters1 #age1 #bac4 ,pachyderms1 #cab1 #cai1 #dah4 ,pachypteris microphylla1 #bee4 ,palocoma ,furstembergii1 #bac4 ,paloniscus1 #age4 ,palontology1 the ,study of ,ancient ,life1 #e4 ,palontology ,defined1 #ad4 ,palophognos ,gesneri1 #dba4 ,palotherium1 #cai4 magnum and ,p4 minimum1 ,skeletons of1 #cbb4 ,skull of1 #cba4 ,paloxyris ,mnsteri1 #bjb4 ,palozoic ,fishes1 #agc4 ,palissy1 ,bernard1 on ,fossils1 #e4 ,pallas on the ,siberian ,rhinoceros1 #cfa4 on the ,siberian ,mammoth1 #chf4 ,palmacites1 #cae4 ,palms1 #bhb4 absence of1 in ,pliocene ,period1 #ceh4 of ,tertiary ,epoch1 #ccf4 of ,cretaceous ,period1 #bhc1 #big4 ,fossil1 restored1 #bhd4 ,paludina1 #bgb4 ,pampean ,formation1 #daa4 ,pandanace1 ,the1 #bdi4 ,pandanus1 #bee4 ,pappenheim1 ,lithographic ,stone of1 #bgc4 ,paradoxides ,bohemicus1 #ajj4 ,parallel ,roads of ,glenroy1 #def4 ,parian ,marble1 #gf4 ,paris ,basin1 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell on1 #cbi4 ,parkfield ,colliery1 #aei4 ,patella vulgata1 #bje4 ,peaks of the ,cantal ,chain1 #dj4 ,pear ,encrinite1 #bej4 ,peat-deposits and ,shell-mounds1 #dgb4 ,pecopteris1 #abj1 #bjb1 #beb1 #cae4 lonchitica1 #adc4 ,pecten1 #bja1 #bgb4 ,jacobus1 #cga4 orbicularis1 #bjb4 ,valoniensis1 #bjg4 ,penarth ,beds1 #ahf1 #bje1 #bjg4 ,pennine ,chain1 #aae4 ,pentacrinites ,briareus1 #ahc1 #bad4 ,perched ,blocks1 #ddi4 ,permian ,flora1 #agd4 ,rocks1 #agg1 #ahf4 ,ocean1 #ahj4 ,period1 #ae1 #agj4 ,fauna and ,flora of1 #ahc4 ,perna ,mulleti1 #bhh4 ,phascolotherium1 #bde1 #bee4 ,philadelphia ,museum1 #cdf4 ,phillips1 ,prof4 ,j41 on ,rate of ,formation of ,coal1 #acb4 ,phillips1 ,prof4 ,j41 on ,thickness of ,carboniferous ,limestone1 #acj4 ,phonolite1 #dc4 ,physa fontinalis1 #bff4 ,phytosaurus1 #aij4 ,pic de ,sancy1 #da1 #dc4 ,pimpinellites zizioides1 #ccg4 ,pinites1 #bci4 ,pisolitic ,limestone1 #caa4 ,pithecus antiquus1 #cci1 #cej1 #cef4 ,placodus gigas1 #ahi4 ,planorbis1 #bff1 #bgb1 #ccd4 corneus1 #dhh4 ,plants1 ,first ,appearance of1 #ii4 of ,devonian ,period1 #abc4 of the ,palozoic ,epoch1 #aad4 ,plastic ,clay1 #ccj4 ,platemys1 #bee4 ,platycrinus1 #adf4 ,platysomus1 #agd4 ,pleistocene ,period1 #cgh4 ,plesiosaurus1 #bba1 #bbf1 #bee4 ,cramptoni1 #bcj4 ,sternum of1 #bbh4 ,skull of1 #bbf4 ,skeleton of1 #bbi4 ,pleuronectes1 #cbf4 ,pleurotoma ,babylonia1 #bdf4 ,pleurotomaria conoidea1 #bdf4 ,pliocene1 ,meaning of1 #cad4 ,period1 #ceg4 ,birds of1 #cfi4 ,series1 #cgb4 ,vegetation of1 #ceg4 ,fauna of1 #cei1 #cfi4 ,reptiles of1 #cfg4 ,mollusca of1 #cga4 ,plombires1 ,alkaline ,waters of1 #fd4 ,plutonic ,rocks1 #ca4 ,theory1 #f4 ,eruptions1 #ca4 ,ancient ,granite1 #ca4 ,podophthalmus vigil1 #cec4 ,pcilopleuron1 #bfe4 ,poikilitic ,series1 #aii4 ,polyphemus1 ,supposed ,bones of1 #chd4 ,polypodium1 #cae4 ,polyps of ,carboniferous ,period1 #ada1 #bdf1 #bee1 #bhf1 #cja4 ,polyzoa1 #ada1 #adc1 #age1 #cjg4 ,pontgibaud ,mines1 #fd4 ,porphyritic ,granite1 #cc4 ,porphyry1 #cc1 #cg4 ,definition of1 #cg4 ,components of1 #cg4 ,portland ,isle1 #bgj4 ,dirt ,bed1 #bga4 ,sand1 #bdc1 #bff4 ,stone1 #bdc1 #bfi4 ,posidonia1 #ahi4 ,post-pliocene ,period1 #cgh4 ,animals of the1 #chb4 ,birds of the1 #dag4 ,carnivora of1 #dag4 ,deposits in ,britain1 #dag4 ,post-,tertiary ,epoch1 #cgh4 ,potamogeton1 #cae4 ,pravolta1 #ddg4 ,pre-glacial deposits1 #dah4 ,preissleria antiqua1 #bjb4 ,prestwich1 ,j41 on ,glacial ,deposits1 #dei4 ,,primary ,,epoch1 #ii4 ,retrospective ,glance at1 #ahj4 ,vegetation of1 #ahb4 ,proboscideans of ,crag1 #cgb4 ,producta1 #agc1 #age4 horrida1 #adi4 ,producta ,martini1 #ade1 #bje4 subaculeata1 #abg4 ,protogine1 #ce4 ,protopteris1 #bhc4 ,psammodus1 #ada4 ,psaronius1 #agd4 ,psilophyton1 #abc4 ,pteraspis1 #abi4 ,pterichthys1 #abe4 ,pteroceras1 #bfi4 ,pterodactyles1 #bba1 #bcc1 #bdj1 #bdc1 #bde4 brevirostris1 #bce4 crassirostris1 #bcd1 #bef4 ,pterophyllum1 #bci1 #bdi1 #bee4 ,jgeri1 #bjb4 ,mnsteri1 #bjb4 ,pterygotus1 #aaj4 bilobatus1 #aac4 ,ptylopora1 #adf4 ,purbeck ,beds1 #bfi1 #bga1 #bgi4 ,marble1 #bgb4 ,isle of1 #bga4 ,puy-de-,dme1 #dj1 #dc4 ,puy-de-,dme1 ,extinct ,volcanoes of1 #ec4 ,puys1 ,chain of1 in ,central ,france1 #ea4 ,pycnodus1 #aij4 ,pygopterus1 #agd4 ,quadersandstein1 #baa4 ,,quaternary ,,epoch1 #cgh4 ,animals of1 #chb4 ,quartz1 #if4 ,quartziferous ,porphyry1 #cc4 ,quartzite1 #gg4 ,rain1 ,first ,fall of1 #ie4 ,raindrops1 ,impressions of1 in ,rocks1 #ad1 #ajb1 #agc4 ,raised ,beaches1 #dhh4 ,ramphorynchus1 #bee1 #bei1 #bfi4 ,ramsay1 ,a4 ,c41 on the ,lower ,oolite1 #beb4 on ,formation of ,keuper ,marls1 #bja4 on ,colour of ,red ,rocks1 #aja4 on ,denudation1 #bh4 on ,formation of ,granite1 #cc4 on ,glacial ,deposits1 #deh4 ,reading ,beds1 #ccj4 ,recent or ,historical ,period1 #cgh4 ,re-construction of ,fossil ,animals from a ,part1 #g4 ,difficulties ,attendant on1 #h4 ,red ,crag1 #cgb4 ,reindeer1 #cgi4 ,relative ,volume of the ,earth1 #hc4 ,remains of ,plesiosaurus macrocephalus1 #bbi4 ,reptiles1 ,prevalence of during ,secondary ,epoch1 #bja1 #bbj4 during ,cretaceous ,period1 #bhe4 during the ,pliocene ,period1 #ceh1 #cff4 ,rhtic ,strata1 #ahj1 #bje1 #bfg4 ,rhinoceros1 #cfj4 ,discovery of1 ,entire1 in ,siberia1 #cfa1 #cgi4 ,head of1 #cfj4 tichorhinus1 #cfj1 #dbh4 ,rhombus minimus1 #cbf4 ,rhyncholites1 #aha4 ,rio ,chapura1 ,humidity of1 #ccg4 ,ripple-marks1 #ae4 on ,sandstone1 #agc1 #bjd1 #beb4 ,river1 ,great1 of ,cretaceous ,period1 #bgi4 ,roc1 #cfa4 ,roches moutonnes1 #ddc1 #ddg4 ,rock1 in ,geology1 #bh4 ,rocks composing the ,earth's ,crust1 #bg4 formed during the ,carboniferous ,limestone ,period1 #adi4 ,crystalline1 #bh4 ,rock ,salt1 its ,origin1 #aii4 ,quantity produced in ,england1 #cjd4 ,rocking ,stones1 #ce4 ,rosso ,antico1 #cg4 ,rostellaria1 #ahi4 ,rothliegende1 #agj1 #agd4 ,rudistes1 #cja4 ,runn of ,cutch1 #bjj4 ,sables ,infrieurs1 #cca4 ,moyens1 #ccc4 ,saccharoid ,limestone1 ,minerals of1 #gf4 ,st4 ,acheul ,gravel ,beds1 #dgf4 ,st4 ,acheul ,gravel ,beds1 probable ,age of1 #dgi4 ,st4 ,austell1 ,granite of1 #ci4 ,st4 ,cassian ,beds1 #bje4 ,st4 ,christopher's ,tooth1 #che4 ,salamander of ningen1 #cfg4 ,salicites1 #bhc4 ,saliferous or ,keuper ,period1 #ahf1 #aii4 ,fauna of1 #bja4 ,saline ,springs1 #bc4 ,salses1 #fj4 ,salt ,mines1 #aii1 #bjd4 ,sandwich ,islands1 ,volcanoes of1 #ef1 #fi4 ,sargassites1 #cji4 ,sargassum1 #cji4 ,saurians1 #ahg4 of ,cretaceous ,period1 #bhe4 of ,lias1 #bbi4 ,savoy ,alps1 #ddj4 ,scandinavian ,continent1 ,upheaval and ,depression of1 #bhb4 ,scaphites1 #bhh4 ,scelidotherium1 #djf1 #dab4 ,skull of1 #dac4 ,scheuchzer's ,salamander1 #cfg4 ,schist1 #gg1 #ig4 ,schistopleuron typus1 #dja4 restored1 #djb4 ,schizaster1 #cbf4 ,scori1 ,volcanic1 #eg4 ,sea-,pen1 ,virgularia ,patagonia1 #bfc4 ,sea ,urchins1 #bje1 #bhf4 ,,secondary ,,epoch1 #ahe4 ,section of a ,volcano in ,action1 #eb4 ,sectional ,appearance of the ,earth1 #b4 ,sedgwick1 ,prof4 ,a41 on ,cambrian ,rocks1 #aj4 on ,granite of ,devon and ,cornwall1 #ci4 on ,classification of ,rocks1 #ajb4 ,sedimentary ,rocks1 #bh4 ,senonian ,beds1 #cji1 #caj4 ,septaria1 #cca4 ,serpentine1 #ch4 ,serpents of ,tertiary ,epoch1 #cgi4 ,serpul1 #abf1 #bgb4 ,shell ,mounds1 #dgh4 ,shells1 ,marine1 on ,tops of ,mountains1 #e4 ,sheppey1 ,isle of1 #cca4 ,turtles of1 #cca4 ,siberia1 ,fossil ,elephants in1 #chg4 ,sigillaria1 #acj1 #acf1 #aeb1 #aeg4 lavigata1 #ach4 reniformis1 #aeg4 ,silex meulier1 #cef4 ,siliceous ,limestone1 #ccc4 ,silurian ,period1 #ajb4 ,divisions of1 #aji1 #aaj4 ,characteristics of1 #ajc4 ,fauna and ,flora of1 #ajd4 ,fishes of1 #ajg4 ,mollusca of1 #ajh4 ,plants of1 #ajc4 ,system1 #ajb4 ,sivatherium1 #cfe4 restored1 #cff4 ,skaptr ,jokul1 #fj4 ,skeleton of ,ichthyosaurus1 #bah4 of ,plesiosaurus1 #bbg4 ,skull of ,plesiosaurus1 #bbf4 ,palotherium magnum1 #cba4 ,scelidotherium1 #dac4 ,skye1 ,basalt of ,isle of1 #di4 ,smith1 ,dr4 ,w41 ,labours of1 #i4 ,smilax1 #bjb4 ,solenhofen1 ,limestone of1 #bgc4 ,solfataras1 #fc4 ,somma1 ,mount1 #fh4 ,somme1 ,river1 ,valley of1 #dge4 ,peat-,beds of the1 #dge4 ,south ,america1 ,depression and ,upheaval of1 #ba4 ,spalacotherium1 #bfe4 ,sphenophyllum1 #aed1 #bfi4 restored1 #aec4 ,sphenophyllites1 #acf4 ,sphenopteris1 #acf4 artemisifolia1 #add4 ,spirifera1 #agc1 #age4 concentrica1 #abg4 undulata1 #age4 ,sphrodus1 #aij4 ,staffa1 ,grotto of1 #ej4 ,stag1 gigantic ,forest1 #cgi4 ,stalactite1 #dcj4 ,stalagmite1 #dcj4 ,stellispongia variabilis1 #bje4 ,stenosaurus1 #bfe4 ,sternum and ,pelvis of ,plesiosaurus1 #bbh4 ,stigmaria1 #acj1 #acg1 #aeg1 #afb4 ,stigmaria1 #ach4 ,stone ,age1 ,the1 #dgh4 ,stone ,lilies1 #abg4 ,stonesfield ,slate1 #bdc1 #bde1 #bej1 #beb4 ,strata1 ,disposition of1 #b4 ,stratification1 ,order of1 #bi4 of ,coal ,beds1 #afe4 ,strephodus1 #bff4 ,streptospondylus1 #bfe4 ,stringocephalus ,burtini1 #abg4 ,stromboli1 ,volcanic ,island of1 #ee1 #fh4 ,strophalosia ,morrisiana1 #agf4 ,struthionid1 #aic4 ,submarine ,volcanoes1 #gj4 ,sub-,apennine ,strata1 #cgc4 ,suffolk ,crag1 #cgb4 ,sulphurous ,streams from ,mount ,idienne1 #fd4 ,sun-cracks1 #ajb1 #agc4 ,syenite1 #cd4 ,tniopteris1 #cae4 ,taxoceras1 #bhi4 ,taxodites1 #bci4 ,mnsterianus1 #bjb4 ,teeth of ,mammoth1 #chd4 ,teeth of ,iguanodon1 #bic4 ,mastodon1 #cdf4 ,megalosaurus1 #bia1 #chj4 ,machairodus1 #chj4 ,teleosaurus1 #bde1 #bef1 #bei4 cadomensis1 #bei4 ,temperature of the ,earth1 ,increase of as we descend1 #b1 #af1 #hg4 at ,various ,depths1 #af4 of ,deep ,mines1 #af1 #hh4 at the ,centre1 #af4 of ,planetary ,regions1 #hf4 uniform1 in ,carboniferous ,period1 #acc4 ,gradual ,alteration of1 during ,tertiary ,period1 #cac4 of ,cretaceous ,period1 #bhc4 ,terebellaria ramosissima1 #ahd4 ,terebratula digona1 #bdf4 decussata1 #beb4 hastata1 #ada4 deformis1 #bij4 subsella1 #bff4 ,terebrirostra lyra1 #bij4 ,terrestrial ,plants of ,devonian ,period1 #abj4 ,tertiary ,period1 #cab4 ,vegetation of1 #cac4 ,animals of1 #cab4 ,tetragonolepis1 #bag4 ,teutobocchus ,rex1 #cdh4 ,thallogens1 #abc4 ,thanet ,beds1 #ccj4 ,theoretical ,view of a ,plateau1 #dg4 ,theories of the ,earth1 #ae4 ,theory1 ,hutton's1 #c4 ,laplace's1 #ag4 ,thermal ,springs1 #bc4 ,thickness of the ,earth's ,crust1 #hi4 ,thomson1 ,sir ,william1 on the ,earth's ,crust1 #hi4 ,thylacotherium1 #bde4 ,tidal ,wave1 #bb4 ,tile ,stones1 #aaj4 ,till ,formation1 #deg4 ,tortoises1 #dja4 ,toxoceras1 #bhi4 ,toxodon1 #dab4 ,trachyte1 #ci4 ,trachytic ,formations1 #ci4 ,trail1 #dfa4 ,transition1 or ,primary ,epoch1 #ii4 ,transported ,blocks1 #ddi4 ,rocks1 #bg4 ,trapa natans1 #cae4 ,trappean ,grotto1 ,staffa1 #dg4 ,travertin1 #ccc4 ,tree ,ferns1 #agd1 #bdj4 ,tremadoc ,slates1 #aji4 ,treuil1 ,coal ,mine at1 #afj4 ,triassic ,period1 #ahe4 ,flora1 #ahg1 #aic1 #bjb4 ,trigonia1 #ab1 #bje4 margaritacea1 #cad4 ,trigonocarpum ,nggerathii1 #agg4 ,trilobites1 #ajd1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #abf1 #ada1 #aha4 ,trimmer1 ,joshua1 on ,moel ,tryfaen1 #dei4 ,trinucleus ,lloydii1 #abi4 ,trionyx of ,tertiary ,period1 #cbf4 ,trionyx1 a ,turtle1 #cai1 #cbf1 #cbi4 ,tropical ,vegetation1 ,d',orbigny on1 #ccg4 ,trunk of ,calamites1 #acf4 ,sigillaria1 #acf4 ,tunbridge ,wells ,sand1 #bhf4 ,turbaco1 ,mud ,volcanoes of1 #fa4 ,turonian ,series1 #cji1 #caj4 ,turrilites1 #bhi4 communis1 #bij4 costatus1 #bhi4 ,turritella terebra1 #bhi4 ,turtle1 #ahg1 #bcg1 #bgb1 #cai1 #cbf1 #cbi1 #cca1 #cef4 ,tyndall's1 ,professor1 ,theory of ,heat1 #bd4 ,uncites ,gryphus1 #abg4 ,under ,clay1 #afa4 ,unicornu ,fossile1 #chf4 ,unio1 #bff4 ,upper ,cretaceous1 #cjj-cjf4 ,greensand1 #cjj1 #cji4 ,oolite1 #bfe4 ,lias1 #bab1 #bgc4 ,lias ,clay1 #bab4 ,silurian ,period1 #aaj4 ,ursus spelus1 #ahd1 #cie1 #dag4 ,head of1 #ahd4 ,vale of ,wardour1 #bfi4 ,valley of ,poison1 #fd4 ,vallisneri on ,marine ,deposits of ,italy1 #f4 ,variegated ,sandstone1 #ahg4 ,veins of ,granite traversing ,gneiss of ,cape ,wrath1 #cb4 ,velay1 ,chain of the1 #dc4 ,vertebrata1 ,first ,appearance of1 #ajg4 ,vespertilio ,parisiensis1 #cbf4 ,vesuvius1 #ef1 #fh4 ,existing ,crater of1 #ef4 ,virgularia1 #bfc4 ,vivarais1 ,valley of1 #dg4 ,volcanic ,bombs1 #ei4 ,ashes1 #eh4 ,scori1 #eg4 ,eruptions1 #eg4 ,formations1 #ea4 ,islands1 #ee4 ,rocks1 #ca1 #ci4 ,volcano in ,action1 #eb4 ,volcanoes1 #ea4 ,action of1 #eg1 #fc4 ,active1 #ee1 #fg4 ,mud1 #fj1 #fc4 ,extinct1 #fc4 ,sandwich ,islands1 #ef4 ,watery1 #bc1 #ei4 ,voltaire and ,buffon1 #f4 ,voltzia heterophylla1 #aid4 ,voltzia restored1 #aie4 ,vosges ,mountains1 #ge4 ,submergence of in ,permian ,period1 #ahj4 ,wadhurst ,clay1 #bhf4 ,walchia1 #agg4 ,schlotheimii1 #agf4 ,warp1 #dfa4 ,water1 ,first ,cradle of ,life1 #ajj4 ,waterstones1 #bde4 ,watery ,volcanoes1 #bc1 #ei4 ,weald ,clay1 #bgi1 #bha1 #bhf1 #bih4 ,wealden ,beds1 #bgi4 ,shells1 #bha4 ,wenlock ,rocks1 #aaj4 ,whale of the ,rue ,dauphine1 #cgj4 ,white ,chalk1 ,berthier's ,analysis1 #bih4 ,white ,lias1 #bjh4 ,wild ,man of ,aveyron1 #dfi4 ,williamsonia1 #bci4 ,wood1 ,searles ,v41 ,junr41 on ,glacial ,deposits1 #dfj4 ,wookey ,hole1 #dgd4 ,woolwich and ,reading ,beds1 #ccj4 ,wright1 ,dr4 ,thos41 on ,penarth ,beds1 #bji4 ,xiphodon1 #cbj1 #cbd1 #cbi4 gracile1 #cbd4 ,ysbrants ,ides' ,account of ,discovery of ,frozen ,mammoth1 #chi4 ,yuccites1 #aid4 ,zamia1 #bdi1 #bgj4 ,moreana1 #bee4 ,zamites1 #aid1 #bci1 #bee1 #big4 ,zechstein1 #agj4 ,zeolites1 #dd4 ,ziphius1 #cgj4 ,zones of different density round the incandescent ,earth1 #he4 ,zoophytes of ,lias1 #bch4 ,middle ,oolite1 #bfc4 of ,carboniferous ,period1 #ada4 ,zostera1 #abc1 #bff4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 ,,and ,,galpin1 ,,belle ,,sauvage ,,works1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 #ggc ,,messrs4 ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 ,,galpin ,publish1 uniform with 8,the ,world before the ,deluge10 ,new and ,cheaper ,editions of the following ,works1 containing all the ,original ,illustrations1 with the ,text revised and corrected3-- ,the ,insect ,world4--,a ,popular ,account of the ,orders of ,insects4 ,by ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,revised and ,corrected by ,p4 ,,martin ,,duncan1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professor of ,geology in ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,with #egf ,illustrations #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,vegetable ,world4--,a ,history of ,plants1 with their ,botanical ,descriptions and ,peculiar ,properties4 ,with a ,glossary of ,botanical ,terms4 ,by ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,revised and ,corrected by an eminent ,botanist4 ,with #dgj ,illustrations #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,ocean ,world4--,a ,descriptive ,history of the ,sea and its ,inhabitants4 ,by ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,revised and ,corrected by ,professor ,e4 ,,perceval ,,wright1 ,m4,d4 ,with #dbg ,illustrations #gs4 #f;d4 ,reptiles and ,birds4--,by ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,newly ,edited and ,revised by ,,parker ,,gillmore1 ,author of 8,gun1 ,rod1 and ,saddle10 c4 ,with #cjg ,illustrations4 #ffd pp4 #gs4 #f;d4 8,admirable works of popularised science40--,daily ,telegraph4 ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 ,,galpin1 ,,london1 ,,paris1 ,,and ,,new ,,york4 ,the ,new and ,cheaper ,edition of ,,figuier',s ,,works1 ,containing all the ,original ,illustrations1 with the ,text ,revised and ,corrected1 extra crown #hvo1 cloth lettered1 price #gs4 #f;d4 each1 comprise ,the ,world before the ,deluge4 ,newly ,edited and ,revised by ,h4 ,w4 ,,bristow1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #bce ,illustrations4 ,third ,edition4 ,the ,ocean ,world4 ,a ,descriptive ,history of the ,sea and its ,inhabitants4 ,revised and ,corrected by ,professor ,e4 ,,perceval ,,wright1 ,m4,d4 ,with #dbg ,illustrations4 ,third ,edition4 ,the ,vegetable ,world4 ,revised and ,corrected by an ,,eminent ,,botanist4 ,with #dga ,illustrations4 ,third ,edition4 ,the ,insect ,world4 ,revised and ,corrected by ,p4 ,,martin ,,duncan1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professor of ,geology in ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,with #egf ,illustrations4 ,third ,edition4 ,reptiles and ,birds4 ,revised and ,corrected by ,captain ,,parker ,,gillmore4 ,with #cjg ,illustrations4 ,second ,edition4 ,,popular ,,natural ,,history ,,works4 ,,second ,,edition now ready1 price #afs4 ,the ,transformations of ,insects4 ,by ,p4 ,,martin ,,duncan1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,d41 ,professor of ,geology1 ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,with #bdj highly-finished ,engravings4 ,royal #hvo1 #ejj pp41 handsomely bound in cloth gilt4 ,now ready1 complete in ,four ,vols41 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d42 cloth1 gilt edges1 #ajs4 #f;d4 each2 or ,two ,vols41 half-calf1 #b #bs4 ,cassell's ,brehm's ,book of ,birds4 ,translated from the ,text of ,dr4 ,,brehm by ,professor ,t4 ,,rymer ,,jones1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with upwards of #djj ,engravings on ,wood1 and numerous full-page ,plates1 printed in ,colours1 from ,original ,designs by ,f4 ,w4 ,,keyl4 ,,second ,,edition1 #bef pages1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 price #es4 ,the ,dog3 with ,simple ,directions for his ,treatment1 and ,notices of the ,best ,dogs of the ,day1 their ,breeders and ,exhibitors4 ,by 8,,idstone40 ,with #ab full-page ,portraits of ,famous ,dogs1 ,drawn from ,life by ,,george ,,earl4 ,complete in ,two ,vols41 crown #dto1 #a1ecb pp41 cloth1 #cjs4 ,cassell's ,popular ,natural ,history4 ,profusely ,illustrated with about #b1jjj splendid ,engravings and ,tinted ,plates4 ,can also be had in ,two ,volumes1 half-calf1 #des42 half-morocco1 #ejs42 also1 with ,coloured ,illustrations1 in ,four ,volumes1 cloth1 #dbs4 ,complete in ,one ,volume1 #fjj pages1 demy #dto1 #cas4 #f;d4 ,the ,illustrated ,book of ,poultry4 ,by ,l4 ,,wright1 ,author of 8,the ,practical ,poultry-,keeper10 c4 ,with ,,fifty ,,full-,,page ,,coloured ,,plates of ,celebrated ,prize ,birds of ,every ,breed1 recently ,painted from ,life expressly for this ,work1 and with numerous ,woodcuts4 ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 ,,galpin1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,,london4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,the original text has been maintained1 including inconsistencies in spelling1 hyphenation1 lay-out1 formatting1 etc4 and in the use of capitals1 diacriticals and accents1 except as described below under ,changes ,made4 ,important inconsistencies include3 ,saarbruck_/ ,saarbrck1 ,coalbrookdale_/,coalbrook ,dale1 ,roth-liegende_/ ,rothliegende_/,rthe-liegende1 ,westmorland_/,westmoreland1 blow-pipe_/ blowpipe1 cuttle-fish_/cuttlefish1 frame-work_/framework1 fresh-water_/freshwater1 ,kupfer-schiefer_/,kupferschiefer1 rain-drops_/raindrops1 re-construct_/reconstruct 7and related words71 ,roth-todt-liegende_/,rothe-todte-liegen de1 sub-divide_/ subdivide 7and related words71 tile-stones_/tilestones1 under-clay_/ underclay1 water-stones_/waterstones1 arial_/aerial1 ,baikal_/,bakal1 ,ceteosaurus_/,cetiosaurus1 ,colley ,weston_/,colleyweston1 ,cupanioides_/ ,cupaniodes1 ,hoffman_/,hoffmann 7this is apparently the same person1 it is not clear what the correct spelling should be72 ,kjkken- ,mdden_/,kjkken ,mdden_/,kjkken-mdden1 ,mstricht_/,maestricht1 ,nocomian_/,neocomian1 predaceous_/predacious1 proboscideans_/ proboscidians1 and ,tunguragua_/,tunguraqua4 ,there are slight differences in wording between the ,table of ,contents1 the ,index and the text4 ,since the meaning is not affected1 this has not been standardised4 ,textual remarks3 - ,page #aji 7table73 #ab1jfj should possibly be #ab1jjj2 - ,page #aif 7table73 ,red and variegated sandstone 7,collyhurst7 4443 there is a line missing in the original work that is not present in other editions either4 ,this line has been replaced by 4442 - ,page #bab3 ,the ,lias1 in ,england1 is generally in three groups3 possibly there is a word 7divided or similar7 missing2 - ,page #cja3 ,the invertebrate animals which characterise the ,cretaceous age are among3 possibly there is a word missing at the end of the sentence 7others72 - ,page #cci3 not one-fifth the size of ,switzerland should possibly be not one-fifth the size of ,great ,britain2 - ,index3 contrary to the remark at the top of the index1 not all italic entries refer to illustrations4 ,multi-page tables have been combined into single tables4 ,changes made to original text3 - ,some obvious typographical errors 7including punctuation7 have been corrected silently4 - ,table of ,contents3 entries ,eruptive ,rocks and ,the ,beginning have been indented one level less as in the text2 entry ,metamorphic ,rocks has been indented one level less1 in line with the other headings printed in small capitals4 ,page #aa3 ,ancylyceras changed to ,ancyloceras2 ,page #cd3 has disappeared changed to have disappeared2 ,strasburg changed to ,strasbourg as elsewhere2 ,page #cf3 ,cevennes changed to ,cvennes as elsewhere2 ,page #cg3 bigarr changed to bigarr2 gres changed to grs as elsewhere2 porpyhries changed to porphyries2 ,page #eg3 diameter7 changed to diameter 7bracket removed72 ,page #aeb3 on page #aee changed to on page #aeg2 ,page #afg3 ,lige changed to ,lige2 ,page #ahd3 ,cevennes changed to ,cvennes as elsewhere2 ,rhone changed to ,rhne as elsewhere2 ,page #aid3 ,nilsonia changed to ,nilssonia as elsewhere2 ,page #bjf3 ,cevennes changed to ,cvennes as elsewhere2 ,page #bac3 ,pentatrinus changed to ,pentacrinus2 ,page #bbe3 ,ichythyosaurus changed to ,ichthyosaurus2 ,page #bci3 ,nilsonia changed to ,nilssonia as elsewhere2 ,page #bdj3 ,nilsonia changed to ,nilssonia as elsewhere2 ,page #bdg1 caption fig #aae3 ,polyzoa4 changed to ,polyzoa47 7bracket added72 ,page #bdh3 ,o4 cuneatea changed to ,o4 cuneata2 ,page #bej3 first footnote anchor missing1 inserted in most likely place2 ,page #bfi3 ,gryphea changed to ,grypha as elsewhere2 ,page #cje3 represented in ,fig4 #adf changed to represented in ,fig4 #ade2 ,page #caf3 ,nymphea changed to ,nympha2 ,page #cai3 changed to 2 infriure_/infriurs changed to infrieure_/infrieurs2 ,page #cbi3 ,nympheas changed to ,nymphas2 ,page #cch3 --astodon changed to ,mastodon2 ,page #cda3 ,fig4 #afa changed to ,fig4 #afj2 ,page #cdh3 ,rhone changed to ,rhne as elsewhere2 ,page #dja3 chaneled changed to channelled as elsewhere2 ,fig #ahf changed to ,fig4 #ahe2 ,page #dac3 antedulivian changed to antediluvian2 ,page #dbi3 ,bauman's changed to ,baumann's2 ,page #dcj3 ,gailenruth changed to ,gailenreuth as elsehwere2 ,page #deb3 ,varese changed to ,varse2 ,page #dfb3 ,upsal changed to ,upsala2 ,page #dgj1 footnote #aag3 ,epoques changed to poques as elsewhere2 ,page #dgi3 ,tinire changed to ,tinire2 ,page #ejb3 ,archeopterix changed to ,archeopteryx as in text2 ,bathonean changed to ,bathonian as in text2 cervicornus changed to cervicornis as in text2 ,page #ejc3 second entry ,carboniferous ,flora aligned with ,flora1 ditto marks added2 ,page #ejd3 ditto mark added under ,man in ,creation of ,man for clarity2 ,cerithium plicatum #bej changed to #cej2 ,coccosteus #ada changed to #adb2 ,coupe d',ayzac #de1 #dg changed to #df1 #dg2 ,page #eje3 ,danien changed to ,danian as in text2 ,duvalii changed to ,duvallii as in text 7the modern spelling is ,duvalii1 ,lyell used ,duvallii72 ,page #ejh3 tichorhynus changed to tichorhinus as in text2 ,page #eji3 ,igneous1 ,iguana and ,iguanodon moved to proper place in alphabetical order2 ,kellaway's changed to ,kellaways as in text2 ,lachow changed to ,lchow as in text2 lacumosus changed to lacunosus as in text2 ,leptna changed to ,leptna as in text2 ,page #eaj3 ,limnea changed to ,limna as in text2 ,lithostrotion cornu-arietis changed to ,lituites cornu-arietis2 ,page #eaa3 page numbers added after ,mortillet on ,glaciers and ,mosaic ,account of ,creation2 page reference #gcg changed to #gc2 ,page #eab3 ,osmerodes changed to ,osmeroides as in text2 ,page #eac3 ,pecopteris1 page numbers placed in numerical order2 ,fustembergii changed to ,furstembergii as in text2 second reference to ,otopteris acuminata removed2 ,pecten obicularis changed to ,pecten orbicularis as in text2 ,page #ead3 ,podophtalmus changed to ,podophthalmus as in text2 ,purbeck ,beds3 #bg changed to #bgi42 ,page #eae3 ,reptiles1 ,prevalence of3 two entries combined into one2 ,st4 ,cassian ,beds moved to proper alphabetical order2 tichorhynus changed to tichorhinus as in text2 entries on ,sheppey ,isle moved to proper alphabetical order2 ,page #eaf3 ,sphrodus changed to ,sphrodus and moved to proper alphabetic place2 ,sun-,appenine changed to ,sub-,apennine2 ,terebellaria moved to proper place in alphabetical order4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------