,,popular ,,technology2      ,,or1      
,,professions ,,and ,,trades4           
,illustration3 ,the ,,author4       ,,by
 ,,edward ,,hazen1 ,a4 ,m41             
,,author ,,of      ,,the ,,symbolical   
,,spelling-,,book1 ,,the ,,speller ,,and
     ,,definer1 ,,and ,a ,,practical    
,,grammar4      ,,embellished ,,with    
,,eighty-,,one ,,engravings4      ,,in  
,,two ,,volumes4      ,,vol4 ,i4        
,,new ,,york3     ,,harper  ,,brothers1 
,,publishers4         ,entered1         
according to ,act of ,congress1 in the  
year #ahda1 by      ,,harper            
,,brothers1      ,in the ,clerk's       
,office of the ,southern ,district of   
,new ,york4     ,,contents  ,,of  ,,the 
,,first ,,volume4                       
,page     ,preface                      
#g     ,the ,agriculturist              
#ac     ,the ,horticulturist            
#bh     ,the ,miller                    
#cd     ,the ,baker                     
#ci     ,the ,confectioner              
#dd     ,the ,brewer1 and the ,distiller

                         #dg     ,the   
,butcher                                
#ee     ,the ,tobacco ,planter1 and the 
,tobacconist              #ei     ,the  
,manufacturer of ,cloth                 
#ff     ,the ,dyer1 and the             
,calico-,printer                        
#gg     ,the ,hatter                    
#hd     ,the ,rope-,maker               
#ia     ,the ,tailor                    
#if     ,the ,milliner1 and the ,lady's 
,dress-,maker             #ajj     ,the 
,barber                                 
#ajd     ,the ,tanner1 and the ,currier 
#aaa     ,the ,shoe and ,boot ,maker    
#aaf     ,the ,saddler and              
,harness-,maker1 and the ,trunk-,maker  
#aba     ,the ,soap-,boiler1 and the    
,candle-,maker                #abe      
,the ,comb-,maker1 and the ,brush-,maker
                  #acd     ,the         
,tavern-,keeper                         
#adb     ,the ,hunter                   
#adg     ,the ,fisherman                
#aed     ,the ,shipwright               

#aga     ,the ,mariner                  
#agh     ,the ,merchant                 
#ahg     ,the ,auctioneer               
#bjd     ,the ,clergyman                
#bjh     ,the ,attorney at ,law         
#bae     ,the ,physician                
#bba     ,the ,chemist                  
#bbi     ,the ,druggist and ,apothecary 
#bcf     ,the ,dentist                  
#bdj     ,the ,teacher                  
#bdi     ,,preface4   ,the following    
work has been written for the use of    
schools and families1 as well as for    
miscellaneous readers4 ,it embraces a   
class of subjects in which every        
individual is deeply interested1 and    
with which1 as a mere philosophical     
inspector of the affairs of men1 he     
should become acquainted4  ,they1       
however1 challenge attention by         
considerations of greater moment than   
mere curiosity2 for1 in the present age1
 a great proportion of mankind pursue   
some kind of business as means of       
subsistence or distinction2 and in this 

country especially1 such pursuit is     
deemed honorable and1 in fact1          
indispensable to a reputable position in
 the community4  ,nevertheless1 it is a 
fact that cannot have escaped the       
attention of persons of observation1    
that many individuals mistake their     
appropriate calling1 and engage in      
employments for which they have neither 
mental nor physical adaptation2 some    
learn a trade who should have studied a 
profession2 others study a profession   
who should have learned a trade4 ,hence 
arise1 in a great measure1 the ill      
success and discontent which so         
frequently attend the pursuits of men4  
,for these reasons1 parents should be   
particularly cautious in the choice of  
permanent employments for their         
children2 and1 in every case1 capacity  
should be especially regarded1 without  
paying much attention to the comparative
 favor in which the several employments 
may be held2 for a successful           
prosecution of an humble business is far

 more honorable than inferiority or     
failure in one which may be greatly     
esteemed4  ,to determine the particular 
genius of children1 parents should give 
them1 at least1 a superficial knowledge 
of the several trades and professions4  
,to do this effectually1 a systematic   
course of instruction should be given1  
not only at the family fireside and in  
the schoolroom1 but also at places where
 practical exhibitions of the several   
employments may be seen4 ,these means1  
together with a competent literary      
education1 and some tools and other     
facilities for mechanical operations1   
can scarcely fail of furnishing clear   
indications of intellectual bias4  ,the 
course just proposed is not only        
necessary to a judicious choice of a    
trade or profession1 but also as means  
of intellectual improvement2 and as such
 it should be pursued1 at all events1   
even though the choice of an employment 
were not in view4  ,we are endowed with 
a nature composed of many faculties both

 of the intellectual and the animal     
kinds1 and the reasoning faculties were 
originally designed by the ,creator to  
have the ascendency4 ,in the present    
moral condition of man1 however1 they do
 not commonly maintain their right of   
precedence4 ,this failure arises from   
imbecility1 originating1 in part1 from a
 deficiency in judicious cultivation1   
and from the superior strength of the   
passions4  ,this condition is           
particularly conspicuous in youth1 and  
shows itself in disobedience to parents1
 and in various other aberrations from  
moral duty4 ,if1 therefore1 parents     
would have their children act a         
reasonable part1 while in their         
minority1 and1 also1 after they have    
assumed their stations in manhood1 they 
must pursue a course of early           
instruction1 calculated to secure the   
ascendency of the reasoning faculties4  
,the subjects for instruction best      
adapted to the cultivation of the young 
mind are the common things with which we

 are surrounded4 ,this is evident from  
the fact1 that it uniformly expands with
 great rapidity under their influence   
during the first three or four years of 
life2 for1 it is from them1 children    
obtain all their ideas1 as well as a    
knowledge of the language by which they 
are expressed4  ,the rapid progress of  
young children in the acquisition of    
knowledge often excites the surprise of 
parents of observation1 and the fact    
that their improvement is almost        
imperceptible1 after they have attained 
to the age of four or five years1 is    
equally surprising4 ,why1 it is often   
asked1 do not children continue to      
advance in knowledge with equal and     
increased rapidity1 especially1 as their
 capabilities increase with age8  ,the  
solution of this question is not        
difficult4 ,children continue to        
improve1 while they have the means of   
doing so2 but1 having acquired a        
knowledge of the objects within their   
reach1 at least1 so far as they may be  

capable at the time1 their advancement  
must consequently cease4 ,it is hardly  
necessary to remark1 that the march of  
mind might be continued with increased  
celerity1 were new objects or subjects  
continually presented4  ,in supplying   
subjects for mental improvement1 as they
 may be needed at the several stages of 
advancement1 there can be but little    
difficulty1 since we are surrounded by  
works both of nature and of art4 ,in    
fact1 the same subjects may be presented
 several times1 and1 at each            
presentation1 instructions might be     
given adapted to the particular state of
 improvement in the pupil4              
,instructions of this nature need never 
interfere injuriously with those on the 
elementary branches of education1       
although the latter would undoubtedly be
 considered of minor importance4 ,had   
they been always regarded in this light1
 our schools would now present a far    
more favorable aspect1 and we should    
have been farther removed from the      

ignorance and the barbarism of the      
middle ages4  ,were this view of        
education generally adopted1 teachers   
would soon find1 that the business of   
communicating instructions to the young 
has been changed from an irksome to a   
pleasant task1 since their pupils will  
have become studious and intellectual1  
and1 consequently1 more capable of      
comprehending explanations upon every   
subject4 ,such a course would also be   
attended with the incidental advantage  
of good conduct on the part of pupils1  
inasmuch as the elevation of the        
understanding over the passions         
uniformly tends to this result4  ,for   
carrying into practice a system of      
intellectual education1 the following   
work supplies as great an amount of     
materials as can be embodied in the same
 compass4 ,every article may be made the
 foundation of one lecture or more1     
which might have reference not only to  
the particular subject on which it      
treats1 but also to the meaning and     

application of the words4  ,the articles
 have been concisely written1 as must   
necessarily be the case in all works    
embracing so great a variety of         
subjects4 ,this particular trait1       
however1 need not be considered         
objectionable1 since all who may desire 
to read more extensively on any         
particular subject1 can easily obtain   
works which are exclusively devoted to  
it4  ,prolix descriptions of machinery  
and of mechanical operations have been  
studiously avoided2 for it has been     
presumed1 that all who might have       
perseverance enough to read such        
details1 would feel curiosity sufficient
 to visit the shops and manufactories1  
and see the machines and operations     
themselves4 ,nevertheless1 enough has   
been said1 in all cases1 to give a      
general idea of the business1 and to    
guide in the researches of those who may
 wish to obtain information by the      
impressive method of actual inspection4 
,a great proportion of the whole work is

 occupied in recounting historical      
facts1 connected with the invention and 
progress of the arts4 ,the author was   
induced to pay especial attention to    
this branch of history1 from the        
consideration1 that it furnishes very   
clear indications of the real state of  
society in past ages1 as well as at the 
present time1 and also that it would    
supply the reader with data1 by which he
 might1 in some measure1 determine the  
vast capabilities of man4  ,this kind of
 historical information will be         
especially beneficial to the youthful   
mind1 by inducing a habit of            
investigation and antiquarian research4 
,in addition to this1 a knowledge of the
 origin and progress of the various     
employments which are in active         
operation all around1 will throw upon   
the busy world an aspect exceedingly    
interesting4  ,it may be well1 however1 
to caution the reader against expecting 
too much information of this kind1 in   
regard to most of the trades practised  

in very ancient times4 ,many of the most
 useful inventions were effected1 before
 any permanent means of record had been 
devised2 and1 in after ages1 among the  
,greeks and ,romans1 the useful arts    
were practised almost exclusively by    
slaves4 ,the latter circumstance led to 
their general neglect by the writers    
among these distinguished people4  ,the 
information which may be obtained from  
this work1 especially when accompanied  
by the inspection of the operations     
which it describes1 may be daily applied
 to some useful purpose4 ,it will be    
particularly valuable in furnishing     
subjects for conversation1 and in       
preventing the mind from continuing in1 
or from sinking into1 a state of        
indifference in regard to the busy      
scenes of this world4  ,in the          
composition of this work1 all puerile   
expressions have been avoided1 not only 
because they would be offensive to adult
 individuals of taste1 but because they 
are at least useless1 if not positively 

injurious1 to younger persons4 ,what    
parent of reflection would suffer his   
children to peruse a book calculated to 
induce or confirm a manner of speaking  
or writing1 which he would not have them
 use after having arrived to manhood8   
,every sentence may be rendered         
perfectly plain by appropriate          
explanations and illustrations4  ,no    
formal classification of the professions
 and trades has been adopted1 although  
those articles which treat of kindred   
subjects have been placed near each     
other1 and in that order which seemed to
 be the most natural4 ,the paragraphs of
 the several articles have been numbered
 for the especial accommodation of      
classes in schools1 but this particular 
feature of the work need meet with no   
serious objection from miscellaneous    
readers1 as it has no other effect1 in  
reference to its use by them1 than to   
give it the aspect of a school-book4    
,while writing the articles on the      
different subjects1 the author consulted

 several works which embraced the arts  
and sciences generally1 as well as many 
which were more circumscribed in their  
objects4 ,he1 however1 relied more upon 
them for historical facts than for a    
knowledge of the operations and         
processes which he had occasion to      
detail4 ,for this he depended1 as far as
 practicable1 upon his own personal     
researches1 although in the employment  
of appropriate phraseology1 he          
acknowledges his obligations to         
predecessors4  ,with the preceding      
remarks1 the author submits his work to 
the public1 in the confident            
expectation1 that the subjects which it 
embraces1 that the care which has been  
taken in its composition1 and that the  
skill of the artists employed in its    
embellishment1 will secure to it an     
abundant and liberal patronage4         
,illustration3 ,,farmer4  ,,the         
,,agriculturist4   #a4 ,agriculture     
embraces1 in its broad application1     
whatever relates to the cultivation of  

the fields1 with the view of producing  
food for man and those animals which he 
may have brought into a state of        
domestication4  #b4 ,if we carry our    
observations so far back as to reach the
 antediluvian history of the earth1 we  
shall find1 from the authority of       
,scripture1 that the cultivation of the 
soil was the first employment of man1   
after his expulsion from the garden of  
,eden1 when he was commanded to till the
 ground from which he had been taken4   
,we shall also learn from the same      
source of information1 that ,cain was a 
husbandman1 and that ,abel was a keeper 
of sheep4 ,hence it may be inferred1    
that ,adam instructed his sons in the   
art of husbandry2 and that they1 in     
turn1 communicated the knowledge to     
their posterity1 together with the      
superadded information which had        
resulted from their own experience4     
,improvement in this art was probably   
thenceforth progressive1 until the      
overwhelming catastrophe of the flood4  

#c4 ,after the waters had retired from  
the face of the earth1 ,noah resorted to
 husbandry1 as the certain means of     
procuring the necessaries and comforts  
of life4 ,the art of cultivating the    
soil was uninterruptedly preserved in   
many branches of the great family of    
,noah2 but1 in others1 it was at length 
entirely lost4 ,in the latter case1 the 
people1 having sunk into a state of     
barbarism1 depended for subsistence on  
the natural productions of the earth1   
and on such animals as they could       
contrive to capture by hunting and      
fishing4 ,many of these degenerate      
tribes did not emerge from this         
condition for several succeeding ages2  
while others have not done so to the    
present day4  #d4 ,notwithstanding the  
great antiquity of agriculture1 the     
husbandmen1 for several centuries       
immediately succeeding the deluge1 seem 
to have been but little acquainted with 
any proper method of restoring fertility
 to exhausted soils2 for we find them   

frequently changing their residence1 as 
their flocks and herds required fresh   
pasturage1 or as their tillage land     
became unproductive4 ,as men1 however1  
became more numerous1 and as their      
flocks increased1 this practice became  
inconvenient and1 in some cases1        
impracticable4 ,they were1 therefore1   
compelled1 by degrees1 to confine their 
flocks and herds1 and their farming     
operations1 to lands of more narrow and 
specified limits4  #e4 ,the ,chaldeans  
were probably the people who first      
adopted the important measure of        
retaining perpetual possession of the   
soil which they had cultivated2 and1    
consequently1 were among the first who  
became skilful in agriculture4 ,but all 
the great nations of antiquity held this
 art in the highest estimation1 and     
usually attributed its invention to     
superhuman agency4 ,the ,egyptians even 
worshipped the image of the ox in       
gratitude for the services of the living
 animal in the labours of the field4    

#f4 ,the reader of ancient history can  
form some idea of the extent to which   
this art was cultivated in those days1  
from the warlike operations of different
 nations2 for1 from no other source1    
could the great armies which were then  
brought into the field1 have been       
supplied with the necessary provisions4 
,the ,greeks and the ,romans1 who were  
more celebrated than any other people   
for their military enterprise1 were also
 most attentive to the proper           
cultivation of the soil2 and many of    
their distinguished men1 especially     
among the ,romans1 were practical       
husbandmen4  #g4 ,nor was agriculture   
neglected by the learned men of         
antiquity4 ,several works on this       
subject1 by ,greek and ,latin authors1  
have descended to our times2 and the    
correctness of many of the principles   
which they inculcate1 has been confirmed
 by modern experience4  #h4 ,throughout 
the extensive empire of ,rome1          
agriculture maintained a respectable    

standing1 until the commencement of     
those formidable invasions of the       
northern hordes1 which1 finally1 nearly 
extinguished the arts and sciences in   
every part of ,europe4 ,during the long 
period of anarchy which succeeded the   
settlement of these barbarians in their 
newly-acquired possessions1 pasturage   
was1 in most cases1 preferred to        
tillage1 as being better suited to their
 state of civilization1 and as affording
 facilities of removal1 in cases of     
alarm from invading enemies4 ,but1 when 
permanent governments had been again    
established1 and when the nations       
enjoyed comparative peace1 the regular  
cultivation of the soil once more       
revived4  #i4 ,the art of husbandry was 
at a low ebb in ,england1 until the     
fourteenth century1 when it began to be 
practised with considerable success in  
the midland and south-western parts of  
the island2 yet1 it does not seem to    
have been cultivated as a science1 until
 the latter end of the sixteenth        

century4 ,the first book on husbandry1  
printed and published in the ,english   
language1 appeared in #aecd4 ,it was    
written by ,sir ,a4 ,fitzherbert1 a     
judge of the ,common ,pleas1 who had    
studied the laws of vegetation1 and the 
nature of soils1 with philosophical     
accuracy4  #aj4 ,very little improvement
 was made on the theory of this author1 
for upwards of a hundred years1 when    
,sir ,hugh ,platt discovered and brought
 into use several kinds of substances   
for fertilizing and restoring exhausted 
soils4  #aa4 ,agriculture again received
 a new impulse1 about the middle of the 
eighteenth century2 and1 in #agic1 a    
,board of ,agriculture was established  
by an act of ,parliament1 at the        
suggestion of ,sir ,john ,sinclair1 who 
was elected its first president4        
,through the influence of this board1 a 
great number of agricultural societies  
have been formed in the kingdom1 and    
much valuable information on rural      
economy has been communicated to the    

public1 through the medium of a         
voluminous periodical under its         
superintendence4  #ab4 ,after the       
example of ,great ,britain1 agricultural
 societies have been formed1 and        
periodical journals published1 in       
various parts of the continent of       
,europe1 as well as in the ,united      
,states4 ,the principal publications    
devoted to this subject in this country1
 are the ,american ,farmer1 at          
,baltimore2 the ,new-,england ,farmer1  
at ,boston2 and the ,cultivator1 at     
,albany4  #ac4 ,the modern improvements 
in husbandry consist1 principally1 in   
the proper application of manures1 in   
the mixture of different kinds of       
earths1 in the use of plaster and lime1 
in the rotation of crops1 in adapting   
the crop to the soil1 in the            
introduction of new kinds of grain1     
roots1 grasses1 and fruits1 as well as  
in improvements in the breeds of        
domestic animals1 and in the implements 
with which the various operations of the

 art are performed4  #ad4 ,for many of  
the improved processes which relate to  
the amelioration of the soil1 we are    
indebted to chemistry4 ,before this     
science was brought to the aid of the   
art1 the cultivators of the soil were   
chiefly guided by the precept and       
example of their predecessors1 which    
were often inapplicable4 ,by the aid of 
chemical analysis1 it is easy to        
discover the constituent parts of       
different soils2 and1 when this has been
 done1 there is but little difficulty in
 determining the best mode of improving 
them1 or in applying the most suitable  
crops4  #ae4 ,in the large extent of    
territory embraced within the ,united   
,states1 there is great variation of    
soil and climate2 but1 in each state1 or
 district1 the attention of the         
cultivators is directed to the          
production of those articles which1     
under the circumstances1 promise to be  
the most profitable4 ,in the northern   
portions of our country1 the cultivators

 of the soil are called farmers4 ,they  
direct their attention chiefly to the   
production of wheat1 rye1 corn1 oats1   
barley1 peas1 beans1 potatoes1 pumpkins1
 and flax1 together with grasses and    
fruits of various kinds4 ,the same class
 of men1 in the ,southern states1 are   
usually denominated planters1 who       
confine themselves principally to       
tobacco1 rice1 cotton1 sugar-cane1 or   
hemp4 ,in some parts of that portion of 
our country1 however1 rye1 wheat1 oats1 
and sweet potatoes1 are extensively     
cultivated2 and1 in almost every part1  
corn is a favourite article4  #af4 ,the 
process of cultivating most of the      
productions which have been mentioned1  
is nearly the same4 ,in general1 with   
the occasional exception of new lands1  
the plough is used to prepare the ground
 for the reception of the seed4 ,wheat1 
rye1 barley1 oats1 peas1 and the seeds  
of hemp and flax1 are scattered with the
 hand1 and covered in the earth with the
 harrow4 ,in ,great ,britain1 such seeds

 are sown in drills2 and this method is 
thought to be better than ours1 as it   
admits of the use of the hoe1 while the 
vegetable is growing4  #ag4 ,corn1      
beans1 potatoes1 and pumpkins1 are      
covered in the earth with the hoe4 ,the 
ground is ploughed several times during 
the summer1 to make it loose1 and to    
keep down the weeds4 ,the hoe is also   
used in accomplishing the same objects1 
and in depositing fresh earth around the
 growing vegetable4  #ah4 ,when ripe1   
wheat1 barley1 oats1 and peas1 are cut  
down with the sickle1 cradle1 or scythe2
 while hemp and flax are pulled up by   
the roots4 ,the seeds are separated from
 the other parts of the plants with the 
flail1 or by means of horses or oxen    
driven round upon them4 ,of late1       
threshing machines are used to effect   
the same object4 ,chaff1 and extraneous 
matter generally1 are separated from the
 grain1 or seeds1 by means of a         
fanning-mill1 or with a large fan made  
of the twigs of the willow4 ,the same   

thing was formerly1 and is yet          
sometimes1 effected by the aid of a     
current of air4  #ai4 ,when the corn1 or
 maize1 has become ripe1 the ears1 with 
the husks1 and sometimes the stalks1 are
 deposited in large heaps4 ,to assist in
 stripping the husks from the ears1 it  
is customary to call together the       
neighbours4 ,in such cases1 the owner of
 the corn provides for them a supper1   
together with some means of merriment   
and good cheer4  #bj4 ,this custom is   
most prevalent1 where the greater part  
of the labour is performed by slaves4   
,the blacks1 when assembled for a       
husking match1 choose a captain1 whose  
business it is to lead the song1 while  
the rest join in chorus4 ,sometimes1    
they divide the corn as nearly as       
possible into two equal heaps1 and      
apportion the hands accordingly1 with a 
captain to each division4 ,this is done 
to produce a contest for the most speedy
 execution of the task4 ,should the     
owner of the corn be sparing of his     

refreshments1 his want of generosity is 
sure to be published in song at every   
similar frolic in the neighborhood4     
#ba4 ,maize1 or ,indian corn1 and       
potatoes of all kinds1 were unknown in  
the eastern continent1 until the        
discovery of ,america4 ,their origin is1
 therefore1 known with certainty2 but   
some of the other productions which have
 been mentioned1 cannot be so           
satisfactorily traced4 ,this is         
particularly the case with regard to    
those which have been extensively       
cultivated for many centuries4  #bb4    
,the grasses have ever been valuable to 
man1 as affording a supply of food for  
domestic animals4 ,many portions of our 
country are particularly adapted to     
grazing4 ,where this is the case1 the   
farmers usually turn their attention to 
raising live stock1 and to making butter
 and cheese4 ,grass reserved in meadows1
 as a supply of food for the winter1 is 
cut at maturity with a scythe1 dried in 
the sun1 and stored in barns1 or heaped 

in stacks4  #bc4 ,rice was first        
cultivated in the eastern parts of      
,asia1 and1 from the earliest ages1 has 
been the principal article of food among
 the ,chinese and ,hindoos4 ,to this    
grain may be attributed1 in a great     
measure1 the early civilization of those
 nations2 and its adaptation to marshy  
grounds caused many districts to become 
populous1 which would otherwise have    
remained irreclaimable and desolate4    
#bd4 ,rice was long known in the east1  
before it was introduced into ,egypt and
 ,greece1 whence it spread over ,africa 
generally1 and the southern parts of    
,europe4 ,it is now cultivated in all   
the warm parts of the globe1 chiefly on 
grounds subject to periodical           
inundations4 ,the ,chinese obtain two   
crops a year from the same ground1 and  
cultivate it in this way from generation
 to generation1 without applying any    
manure1 except the stubble of the       
preceding crop1 and the mud deposited   
from the water overflowing it4  #be4    

,soon after the waters of the inundation
 have retired1 a spot is inclosed with  
an embankment1 lightly ploughed and     
harrowed1 and then sown very thickly    
with the grain4 ,immediately1 a thin    
sheet of water is brought over it1      
either by a stream or some hydraulic    
machinery4 ,when the plants have grown  
to the height of six or seven inches1   
they are transplanted in furrows2 and   
again water is brought over them1 and   
kept on1 until the crop begins to ripen1
 when it is withheld4  #bf4 ,the crop is
 cut with a sickle1 threshed with a     
flail1 or by the treading of cattle2 and
 the husks1 which adhere closely to the 
kernel1 are beaten off in a stone       
mortar1 or by passing the grain through 
a mill1 similar to our corn-mills4 ,the 
mode of cultivating rice in any part of 
the world1 varies but little from the   
foregoing process4 ,the point which     
requires the greatest attention1 is     
keeping the ground properly covered with
 water4  #bg4 ,rice was introduced into 

the ,carolinas in #afig1 where it is now
 produced in greater perfection than in 
any other part of the world4 ,the seeds 
are dropped along1 from the small end of
 a gourd1 into drills made with one     
corner of the hoe4 ,the plants1 when    
partly grown1 are not transferred to    
another place1 as in ,asia1 but are     
suffered to grow and ripen in the       
original drills4 ,the crop is secured   
like wheat1 and the husks are forced    
from the grain by a machine1 which      
leaves the kernels more perfect than the
 methods adopted in other countries4    
#bh4 ,cotton is cultivated in the ,east 
and ,west ,indies1 ,north and ,south    
,america1 ,egypt1 and in many other     
parts of the world1 where the climate is
 sufficiently warm for the purpose4     
,there are several species of this      
plant2 of which three kinds are         
cultivated in the southern states of the
 ,union--the nankeen cotton1 the green  
seed cotton1 and the black seed1 or sea 
island cotton4 ,the first two1 which    

grow in the middle and upland countries1
 are denominated short staple cotton3   
the last is cultivated in the lower     
country1 near the sea1 and on the       
islands near the main land1 and is of a 
fine quality1 and of a long staple4     
#bi4 ,the plants are propagated annually
 from seeds1 which are sown very thickly
 in ridges made with the plough or hoe4 
,after they have grown to the height of 
three or four inches1 part of them are  
pulled up1 in order that the rest1 while
 coming to maturity1 may stand about    
four inches apart4 ,it is henceforth    
managed1 until fully grown1 like ,indian
 corn4  #cj4 ,the cotton is inclosed in 
pods1 which open as fast as their       
contents become fit to be gathered4 ,in 
,georgia1 about eighty pounds of upland 
cotton can be gathered by a single hand 
in a day2 but in ,alabama and           
,mississippi1 where the plant thrives   
better1 two hundred pounds are          
frequently collected in the same time4  
#ca4 ,the seeds adhere closely to the   

cotton1 when picked from the pods2 but  
they are properly separated by machines 
called gins2 of which there are two     
kinds1--the roller-gin1 and the saw-gin4
 ,the essential parts of the former are 
two cylinders1 which are placed nearly  
in contact with each other4 ,by their   
revolving motion1 the cotton is drawn   
between them1 while the size of the     
seeds prevents their passage4 ,this     
machine1 being of small size1 is worked 
by hand4  #cb4 ,the saw-gin is much     
larger1 and is moved by animal1 steam1  
or water power4 ,it consists of a       
receiver1 having one side covered with  
strong wires1 placed in a parallel      
direction about an eighth of an inch    
apart1 and a number of circular saws1   
which revolve on a common axis4 ,the    
saws pass between these wires1 and      
entangle in their teeth the cotton1     
which is thereby drawn through the      
grating1 while the seeds1 from their    
size1 are forced to remain on the other 
side4  #cc4 ,before the invention of the

 saw-gin1 the seeds were separated from 
the upland cottons by hand1--a method so
 extremely tedious1 that their          
cultivation was attended with but little
 profit to the planter4 ,this machine   
was invented in ,georgia by ,eli        
,whitney1 of ,massachusetts4 ,it was    
undertaken at the request of several    
planters of the former state1 and was   
there put in operation in #agib4  #cd4  
,in the preceding year1 the whole crop  
of cotton in the ,united ,states was    
only sixty-four bales2 but1 in #ahcd1 it
 amounted to #a1jjj1fag4 ,the vast      
increase in the production of this      
article has arisen1 in part1 from the   
increased demand for it in ,europe1 and 
in the ,northern states1 but1 chiefly1  
from the use of the invaluable machine  
just mentioned4  #ce4 ,sugar-cane was   
cultivated by the ,chinese1 at a very   
early period1 probably two thousand     
years before it was known in ,europe2   
but sugar1 in a candied form1 was used  
in small quantities by the ,greeks and  

,romans in the days of their prosperity4
 ,it was probably brought from ,bengal1 
,siam1 or some of the ,east ,india      
,islands1 as it is supposed1 that it    
grew nowhere else at that time4  #cf4   
,in the thirteenth century1 soon after  
the merchants of the ,west began to     
traffic in ,indian articles of commerce1
 the plant was introduced into ,arabia  
,felix1 and thence into ,egypt1 ,nubia1 
,ethiopia1 and ,morocco4 ,the ,spaniards
 obtained it from the ,moors1 and1 in   
the fifteenth century1 introduced it    
into the ,canary ,islands4 ,it was      
brought to ,america1 and to the ,west   
,india ,islands1 by the ,spaniards and  
,portuguese4 ,it is now cultivated in   
the ,united ,states1 below the          
thirty-first degree of latitude1 and in 
the warm parts of the globe generally4  
#cg4 ,previous to the year #adff1 sugar 
was known in ,england chiefly1 as a     
medicine2 and1 although the sugar-cane  
was cultivated1 at that time1 in several
 places on the ,mediterranean1 it was   

not more extensively used on the        
continent4 ,now1 in extent of           
cultivation1 it ranks next to wheat and 
rice1 and first in maritime commerce4   
#ch4 ,the cultivators of sugar-cane     
propagate the plant by means of cuttings
 from the lower end of the stalks1 which
 are planted in the spring or autumn1 in
 drills1 or in furrows4 ,the new plants 
spring from the joints of the cuttings1 
and are fit to be gathered for use in   
eight1 ten1 twelve1 or fourteen months4 
,while growing1 sugar-cane is managed   
much like ,indian corn4  #ci4 ,when     
ripe1 the cane is cut and brought to the
 sugar-mill1 where the juice is         
expressed between iron or stone         
cylinders1 moved by steam1 water1 or    
animal power4 ,the juice thus obtained  
is evaporated in large boilers to a     
syrup1 which is afterwards removed to   
coolers1 where it is agitated with      
wooden instruments called stirrers4 ,to 
accelerate its cooling1 it is next      
poured into casks1 and1 when yet warm1  

is conveyed to barrels1 placed in an    
upright position over a cistern1 and    
pierced in the bottom in several places4
 ,the holes being partially stopped with
 canes1 the part which still remains in 
the form of syrup1 filters through them 
into the cistern beneath1 while the rest
 is left in the form of sugar1 in the   
state called muscovado4  #dj4 ,this     
sugar is of a yellow colour1 being yet  
in a crude1 or raw state4 ,it is further
 purified by various processes1 such as 
redissolving it in water1 and again     
boiling it with lime and bullocks'      
blood1 or with animal charcoal1 and     
passing the syrup through several canvas
 filters4  #da4 ,loaf-sugar is          
manufactured by pouring the syrup1 after
 it has been purified1 and reduced to a 
certain thickness by evaporation1 into  
unglazed earthen vessels of a conical   
shape4 ,the cones have a hole at their  
apex1 through which may filter the syrup
 which separates from the sugar above4  
,most of the sugar is imported in a raw 

or crude state1 and is afterward refined
 in the cities in sugar-houses4  #db4   
,molasses is far less free from         
extraneous substances than sugar1 as it 
is nothing more than the drainings from 
the latter4 ,rum is distilled from      
inferior molasses1 and other saccharine 
matter of the cane1 which will answer   
for no other purpose4  #dc4 ,sugar is   
also manufactured from the sap of the   
sugar-maple1 in considerable quantities1
 in the northern parts of the ,united   
,states1 and in the ,canadas4 ,the sap  
is obtained by cutting a notch1 or      
boring a hole1 in the tree1 and applying
 a spout to conduct it to a receiver1   
which is either a rude trough1 or a     
cheap vessel made by a cooper4 ,this    
operation is performed late in the      
winter1 or early in the spring1 when the
 weather is freezing at night1 and      
thawing in the day4  #dd4 ,the liquid in
 which the saccharine matter is         
suspended1 is evaporated by heat1 as in 
the case of the juice of the cane4      

,during the process of evaporation1     
slices of pork are kept in the kettle1  
to prevent the sap or syrup from boiling
 over4  #de4 ,when a sufficient quantity
 of syrup1 of a certain thickness1 has  
been obtained1 it is passed through a   
strainer1 and1 having been again placed 
over the fire1 it is clarified with eggs
 and milk1 the scum1 as it rises1 being 
carefully removed with a skimmer4 ,when 
sufficiently reduced1 it is usually     
poured into tin pans1 or basins1 in     
which1 as it cools1 it consolidates into
 hard cakes of sugar4  #df4 ,most of the
 lands in a state of nature1 are covered
 with forest trees4 ,this is especially 
the case in ,north ,america4 ,when this 
division of our continent was first     
visited by ,europeans1 it was nearly one
 vast wilderness1 throughout its entire 
extent2 and even now1 after a lapse of  
three centuries1 a great portion of it  
remains in the same condition4 ,the     
industrious settlers1 however1 are      
rapidly clearing away the natural       

encumbrances of the soil2 and1 before a 
similar period shall have passed away1  
we may expect1 that civilized men will  
have occupied every portion of this vast
 territory1 which may be worthy of      
cultivation4  #dg4 ,the mode of clearing
 land1 as it is termed1 varies in       
different parts of the ,united ,states4 
,in ,pennsylvania1 and in neighborhoods 
settled by people from that state1 the  
large trees are deadened by girdling    
them1 and the small ones1 together with 
the underbrush1 are felled and burned4  
,this mode is very objectionable1 for   
the reason1 that the limbs on the       
standing trees1 when they have become   
rotten1 sometimes peril the lives of    
persons and animals underneath4 ,it     
seems1 however1 that those who pursue   
this method1 prefer risking life in this
 way to wearing it out in wielding the  
axe1 and in rolling logs4  #dh4 ,a very 
different plan is pursued by settlers   
from ,new-,england4 ,the underbrush is  
first cut down1 and piled in heaps4 ,the

 large trees are then felled1 to serve  
as foundations for log-heaps2 and the   
smaller ones are cut so as to fall as   
nearly parallel to these as practicable4
 ,the smaller trees1 as well as the     
limbs of the larger ones1 are cut into  
lengths of twelve or fifteen feet4  #di4
 ,at a proper season of the year1 when  
the brush has become dry enough1 fire is
 applied1 which consumes much of the    
small stuff4 ,the logs are next hauled  
together with oxen or horses1 and rolled
 into heaps with handspikes4 ,the small 
stuff which has escaped the first       
burning1 is thrown upon the heaps1 and1 
fire being applied1 the whole is        
consumed together4  #ej4 ,in the        
,northern1 ,middle1 and ,western states1
 where a great proportion of the timber 
is beech1 maple1 and elm1 great         
quantities of ashes are obtained in this
 mode of clearing land4 ,from these     
ashes are extracted the pot and pearl   
ashes of commerce1 which have been1 and 
which still are1 among the principal    

exports of the ,united ,states4  #ea4   
,the usual process of making potash is  
as follows3 the crude ashes are put into
 large tubs1 or leeches1 with a small   
quantity of salt and lime4 ,the strength
 of this mixture is extracted by pouring
 upon it hot water1 which passes through
 it into a reservoir4 ,the water thus   
saturated is called black ley1 which is 
evaporated in large kettles4 ,the       
residuum is called black salts1 which   
are converted into potash by applying to
 the kettle an intense heat4  #eb4 ,the 
process of making pearlash is the same1 
until the ley has been reduced to black 
salts1 except that no lime or salt is   
used4 ,the salts are baked in large     
ovens1 heated by a blazing fire1 which  
proceeds from an arch below4 ,having    
been thus scorched1 the salts are       
dissolved in hot water4 ,the solution is
 allowed to be at rest1 until all       
extraneous substances have settled to   
the bottom1 when it is drawn off and    
evaporated as before4 ,the residuum is  

called white salts4 ,another baking1    
like the former1 completes the process4 
#ec4 ,very few of the settlers have an  
ashery1 as it is called1 in which the   
whole process of making either pot or   
pearl ash is performed4 ,they usually   
sell the black salts to the             
store-keepers in their neighborhood1 who
 complete the process of the            
manufacture4  #ed4 ,the trade in ashes  
is often profitable to the settlers2    
some of them even pay1 in this way1 the 
whole expense of clearing their land4   
,pot and pearl ashes are packed in      
strong barrels1 and sent to the cities1 
where1 previous to sale1 they are       
inspected1 and branded according to     
their quality4     ,illustration3       
,,gardener4  ,,the ,,horticulturist4    
#a4 ,the ,creator of the ,universe1     
having formed man from the dust of the  
ground1 provided a magnificent garden   
for his residence1 and commanded him to 
dress it and to keep it3 but1 having    
transgressed the commandment of his     

lawful ,sovereign1 he was driven from   
this delightful paradise1 thenceforth to
 gain a subsistence from the earth at   
large1 which had been cursed with       
barrenness1 thorns1 thistles1 and       
briars4  #b4 ,scripture does not inform 
us1 that ,adam turned his attention to  
gardening2 nor have we any means of     
determining the state of this art1 in   
the centuries previous to the flood2 but
 it is highly probable1 that it had     
arrived to considerable perfection1     
before the advent of this destructive   
visitation from ,heaven4  #c4 ,gardens1 
for useful purposes1 were probably made1
 soon after the waters had subsided2 and
 the statement in ,scripture1 that ,noah
 planted a vineyard1 may1 perhaps1 be   
regarded as evidence sufficient to      
establish it as a fact4 ,if this were   
the case1 the art1 doubtless1 continued 
progressive among those descendants of  
,noah1 who did not sink into a state of 
barbarism1 after the confusion of       
tongues4  #d4 ,among savage nations1 one

 of the first indications of advancement
 towards a state of civilization1 is the
 cultivation of a little spot of ground 
for raising vegetables2 and the degree  
of refinement among the inhabitants of  
any country1 may be determined1 with    
tolerable certainty1 by the taste and   
skill exhibited in their gardens4  #e4  
,ornamental gardening is never attended 
to1 in any country1 until the arts in   
general have advanced to a considerable 
degree of perfection2 and it uniformly  
declines with other fine or ornamental  
arts4 ,accordingly1 we do not read of   
splendid gardens among the ,babylonians1
 ,egyptians1 ,jews1 ,greeks1 ,romans1   
and other nations of antiquity1 until   
they had reached an exalted state of    
refinement2 and when these nations      
descended from this condition1 or were  
overthrown by barbarians1 this art      
declined or disappeared4  #f4 ,during   
the period of mental darkness1 which    
prevailed between the eighth and        
thirteenth centuries1 the practice of   

ornamental gardening had fallen into    
such general disuse1 that it was        
confined exclusively to the monks4      
,after this period1 it began again to   
spread among the people generally4 ,it  
revived in ,italy1 ,germany1 ,holland1  
and ,france1 long before any attention  
was paid to it in ,england4  #g4 ,in the
 latter country1 but few culinary       
vegetables were consumed before the     
beginning of the sixteenth century1 and 
most of these were brought from         
,holland2 nor was gardening introduced  
there1 as a source of profit1 until     
about one hundred years after that      
period4 ,peaches1 pears1 plums1         
nectarines1 apricots1 grapes1 cherries1 
strawberries1 and melons1 were luxuries 
but little enjoyed in ,england1 until   
near the middle of the seventeenth      
century4 ,the first hot and ice houses  
known on the island1 were built by      
,charles ,,ii41 who ascended the        
,british throne in #affj1 and soon after
 introduced ,french gardening at        

,hampton ,court1 ,carlton1 and          
,marlborough4  #h4 ,about the beginning 
of the eighteenth century1 this art     
attracted the attention of some of the  
first characters in ,great ,britain1 who
 gave it a new impulse in that country4 
,but the style which they imitated was  
objectionable1 inasmuch as the mode of  
laying out the gardens1 and of planting 
and trimming the trees1 was too formal  
and fantastical4  #i4 ,several eminent  
writers1 among whom were ,pope and      
,addison1 ridiculed this ,dutch mode of 
gardening1 as it was called1 and        
endeavoured to introduce another1 more  
consistent with genuine taste4 ,their   
views were1 at length1 seconded by      
practical horticulturists2 and those    
principles of the art which they        
advocated1 were adopted in every part of
 ,great ,britain4 ,the ,english mode has
 been followed and emulated by the      
refined nations of the ,eastern         
continent and by many opulent           
individuals in the ,united ,states4     

#aj4 ,since the beginning of the present
 century horticultural societies have   
been formed in every kingdom of ,europe4
 ,in ,great ,britain alone1 there are no
 less than fifty2 and1 it is            
satisfactory to add1 that there are also
 several of these institutions in the   
,united ,states4 ,the objects of the    
persons who compose these societies are1
 to collect and disseminate information 
on this interesting art1 especially in  
regard to the introduction of new and   
valuable articles of cultivation4  #aa4 
,the authors who have written upon      
scientific and practical gardening1 at  
different periods1 and in different     
countries1 are very numerous4 ,among the
 ancient ,greek writers1 were ,hesiod1  
,theophrastus1 ,xenophon1 and ,a,elian4 
,among the ,latins1 ,varo was the first2
 to whom succeeded1 ,cato1 ,pliny the   
elder1 ,columella1 and ,palladius4  #ab4
 ,since the revival of literature1      
horticulture1 in common with            
agriculture1 has shared largely in the  

labours of the learned2 and many works1 
on this important branch of rural       
economy1 have been published in every   
language of ,europe4 ,but the           
publications on this subject1 which     
attract the greatest attention1 are the 
periodicals under the superintendence of
 the great horticultural societies4     
,those of ,london and ,paris1 are       
particularly distinguished4  #ac4 ,it is
 impossible to draw a distinct line     
between horticulture and agriculture2   
since so many articles of cultivation   
are common to both1 and since a         
well-regulated farm approaches very     
nearly to a garden4  #ad4 ,the divisions
 of a complete garden1 usually adopted  
by writers on this subject1 are the     
following3 #ast4 the culinary garden2   
#b;d4 the flower garden2 #c;d4 the      
orchard1 embracing different kinds of   
fruits2 #dth4 the vineyard2 #eth4 the   
seminary1 for raising seeds2 #fth4 the  
nursery1 for raising trees to be        
transplanted2 #gth4 the botanical       

garden1 for raising various kinds of    
plants2 #hth4 the arboretum of          
ornamental trees2 and1 #ith4 the        
picturesque1 or landscape garden4 ,to   
become skilful in the management of even
 one or two of these branches1 requires 
much attention2 but to become proficient
 in all1 would require years of the     
closest application4  #ae4 ,in ,europe1 
the professed gardeners constitute a    
large class of the population4 ,they are
 employed either in their own gardens1  
or in those of the wealthy1 who engage  
them by the day or year4 ,there are many
 in this country who devote their       
attention to this business2 but they are
 chiefly from the other side of the     
,atlantic4 ,in our ,southern states1 the
 rich assign one of their slaves to the 
garden4  #af4 ,in the ,united ,states1  
almost every family in the country1 and 
in the villages1 has its garden for the 
production of vegetables1 in which are  
also usually reared1 a few flowers1     
ornamental shrubs1 and fruit-trees3 but 

horticulture1 as a science1 is studied  
and practised here by very few1         
especially that branch of it called     
picturesque1 or landscape4 ,to produce a
 pleasing effect1 in a garden of this   
kind1 from twenty to one hundred acres  
are necessary1 according to the manner  
in which the ground may be situated4 ,in
 an area of that extent1 every branch of
 this pleasing art can be advantageously
 embraced4  #ag4 ,delicate exotic       
plants1 which will not bear exposure to 
the open air during the winter1 are     
preserved from the effects of the cold  
in hot or green houses1 which may be    
warmed by artificial heat4 ,a hot-house 
is exhibited in the representation of a 
garden1 at the head of this article4 ,it
 is composed chiefly of window-glass set
 in sashes of wood4 ,a green-house is   
usually larger2 and is designed for the 
preservation of those plants requiring  
less heat4  #ah4 ,the vegetables        
commonly cultivated in gardens for the  
table1 are1--corn1 potatoes1 tomatoes1  

peas1 beans1 squashes1 cucumbers1       
melons1 strawberries1 raspberries1      
blackberries1 gooseberries1 currants1   
beets1 parsnips1 carrots1 onions1       
radishes1 cabbages1 asparagus1 lettuce1 
grapes1 and various kinds of fruits4    
,the flowers1 ornamental shrubs1 and    
trees1 are very numerous1 and are       
becoming more so by accessions from the 
forests1 and from foreign countries4    
#ai4 ,the scientific horticulturist1 in 
laying off his garden1 endeavours to    
unite beauty and utility1 locating the  
flowers1 ornamental shrubs1 and trees1  
where they will be most conspicuous1 and
 those vegetables less pleasing to the  
eye1 in more retired situations1 yet1 in
 a soil and exposure adapted to their   
constitution4 ,in improving the soil of 
his garden1 he brings to his aid the    
science of chemistry1 together with the 
experience of practical men4 ,he is also
 careful in the choice of his           
fruit-trees1 and in increasing the      
variety of their products by engrafting1

 and by inoculation4     ,illustration3 
,,miller4  ,,the ,,miller4   #a4 ,the   
,miller belongs to that class of        
employments which relates to the        
preparation of food and drinks for man4 
,his business consists1 chiefly1 in     
reducing the farinaceous grains to a    
suitable degree of fineness4  #b4 ,the  
simplest method by which grain can be   
reduced to meal1 or flour1 is rubbing or
 pounding it between two stones2 and    
this was probably the one first         
practised in all primitive conditions of
 society1 as it is still pursued among  
some tribes of uncivilized men4  #c4    
,the first machine for comminuting      
grain1 of which we have any knowledge1  
was a simple hand-mill1 composed of a   
nether stone fixed in a horizontal      
position1 and an upper stone1 which was 
put in motion with the hand by means of 
a peg4 ,this simple contrivance is still
 used in ,india1 as well as in some     
sequestered parts of ,scotland1 and on  
many of the plantations in the ,southern

 states of our ,union4 ,but1 in general1
 where large quantities of grain are to 
be ground1 it has been entirely         
superseded by mills not moved by manual 
power4  #d4 ,the modern corn and flour  
mill differs from the primitive         
hand-mill in the size of the stones1 in 
the addition of an apparatus for        
separating the hulls and bran from the  
farinaceous part of the grain1 and in   
the power applied for putting it in     
motion4  #e4 ,the grinding surfaces of  
the stones have channels1 or furrows1   
cut in them1 which proceed obliquely    
from the centre to the circumference4   
,the furrows are cut slantwise on one   
side1 and perpendicular on the other2 so
 that each of the ridges which they     
form1 has a sharp edge2 and1 when the   
upper stone is in motion1 these edges   
pass one another1 like the blades of a  
pair of scissors1 and cut the grain the 
more easily1 as it falls upon the       
furrows4  #f4 ,by a careful inspection  
of the following picture1 the whole     

machinery of a common mill may be       
understood4  ,illustration  ,a          
represents the water-wheel2 ,b1 the     
shaft to which is attached the cog-wheel
 ,c1 which acts on the trundle-head1 ,d2
 and this1 in turn1 acts on the moveable
 stone4 ,the spindle1 trundle-head1 and 
upper stone1 all rest entirely on the   
beam1 ,f1 which can be elevated or      
depressed1 at pleasure1 by a simple     
apparatus2 so that the distance between 
the stones can be easily regulated1 to  
grind either fine or coarse4 ,the grain 
about to be submitted to the action of  
the mill1 is thrown into the hopper1 ,h1
 whence it passes by the shoe1 or spout 
,i1 through a hole in the upper stone1  
and then between them both4  #g4 ,the   
upper stone is a little convex1 and the 
other a little concave4 ,there is a     
little difference1 however1 between the 
convexity and the concavity of the two  
stones3 this difference causes the space
 between them to become less and less   
towards their edges2 and the grain1     

being admitted between them1 is1        
consequently1 ground finer and finer1 as
 it passes out in that direction1 in    
which it is impelled by the centrifugal 
power of the moving stone4  #h4 ,if the 
flour1 or meal1 is not to be separated  
from the bran1 the simple grinding      
completes the operation2 but1 when this 
separation is to be made1 the comminuted
 grain1 as it is thrown out from between
 the stones1 is carried1 by little      
leathern buckets fastened to a strap1 to
 the upper end of an octagonal sieve1   
placed in an inclined position in a     
large box4 ,the coarse bran passes out  
at the lower end of the sieve1 or bolt1 
and the flour1 or fine particles of     
bran1 through the bolting-cloth1 at     
different places1 according to their    
fineness4 ,at the head of the bolt1 the 
superfine flour passes2 in the middle1  
the fine flour2 and at the lower end1   
the coarse flour and fine bran2 which1  
when mixed1 is called canel1 or shorts4 
#i4 ,the best material of which         

mill-stones are made1 is the burr-stone1
 which is brought from ,france in small 
pieces1 weighing from ten to one hundred
 pounds4 ,these are cemented together   
with plaster of ,paris1 and closely     
bound around the circumference with     
hoops made of bar iron4 ,for grinding   
corn or rye1 those made of sienite1 or  
granite rock1 are frequently used4  #aj4
 ,a mill1 exclusively employed in       
grinding grain1 consumed by the         
inhabitants of the neighborhood1 is     
called a grist or custom mill2 and a    
portion of the grist is allowed to the  
miller1 in payment for his services4    
,the proportion is regulated by law2    
and1 in our own country1 it varies      
according to the legislation of the     
different states4  #aa4 ,mills in which 
flour is manufactured1 and packed in    
barrels for sale1 are called merchant   
mills4 ,here1 the wheat is purchased by 
the miller1 or by the owner of the mill1
 who relies upon the difference between 
the original cost of the grain1 and the 

probable amount of its several products1
 when sold1 to remunerate him for the   
manufacture1 and his investments of     
capital4 ,in ,virginia1 and1 perhaps1 in
 some of the other states1 it is a      
common practice among the farmers1 to   
deliver to the millers their wheat1 for 
which they receive a specified quantity 
of flour4  #ab4 ,the power most commonly
 employed to put heavy machinery in     
operation1 is that supplied by water4   
,this is especially the case with regard
 to mills for grinding grain2 but1 when 
this cannot be had1 a substitute is     
found in steam1 or animal strength4 ,the
 wind is also rendered subservient to   
this purpose4 ,the wind-mill was        
invented in the time of ,augustus       
,caesar4 ,during the reign of this      
emperor1 and probably long before1 mules
 and asses were employed by both the    
,greeks and ,romans in turning their    
mills4 ,the period at which water-mills 
began to be used cannot be certainly    
determined4 ,some writers place it as   

far back as the ,christian era4  #ac4   
,wheat flour is one of the staple       
commodities of the ,united ,states1 and 
there are mills for its manufacture in  
almost every part of the country1 where 
wheat is extensively cultivated2 but our
 most celebrated flour-mills are on the 
,brandywine ,creek1 ,del41 at           
,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 and at ,richmond1  
,va4  #ad4 ,in our ,southern states1    
hommony is a favorite article of food4  
,it consists of the flinty portions of  
,indian corn1 which have been separated 
from the hulls and eyes of the grain4   
,to effect this separation1 the corn is 
sometimes ground very coarsely in a     
mill2 but the most usual method is that 
of pounding it in a mortar4  #ae4 ,the  
mortar is excavated from a log of hard  
wood1 between twelve and eighteen inches
 in diameter4 ,the form of the          
excavation is similar to that of a      
common iron mortar1 except that it is   
less flat at the bottom1 to prevent the 
corn from being reduced to meal during  

the operation4 ,the pestle is usually   
made by confining an iron wedge in the  
split end of a round stick1 by means of 
an iron ring4  #af4 ,the white flint    
corn is the kind usually chosen for     
hommony2 although any kind1 possessing  
the requisite solidity1 will do4 ,having
 been poured into the mortar1 it is     
moistened with hot water1 and           
immediately beaten with the pestle1     
until the eyes and hulls are forced from
 the flinty portions of the grain4 ,the 
part of the corn which has been reduced 
to meal by the foregoing process1 is    
removed by means of a sieve1 and the    
hulls1 by the aid of the wind4  #ag4    
,hommony is prepared for the table by   
boiling it in water for twelve hours    
with about one fourth of its quantity of
 white beans1 and some fat bacon4 ,it is
 eaten while yet warm1 with milk or     
butter2 or1 if suffered to get cold1 is 
again warmed with lard or some other fat
 substance1 before it is brought to the 
table4     ,illustration3 ,,baker4      

,,the ,,baker4   #a4 ,the business of   
the ,baker consists in making bread1    
rolls1 biscuits1 and crackers1 and in   
baking various kinds of provisions4  #b4
 ,man appears to be designed by nature1 
to eat all substances capable of        
affording nourishment to his system2    
but1 being more inclined to vegetable   
than to animal food1 he has1 from the   
earliest times1 used farinaceous grains1
 as his principal means of sustenance4  
,as these1 however1 cannot be eaten in  
their native state without difficulty1  
means have been contrived for extracting
 their farinaceous part1 and for        
converting it into an agreeable and     
wholesome aliment4  #c4 ,those who are  
accustomed to enjoy all the advantages  
of the most useful inventions1 without  
reflecting on the labour expended in    
their completion1 may fancy that there  
is nothing more easy than to grind      
grain1 to make it into paste1 and to    
bake it in an oven2 but it must have    
been a long time1 before men discovered 

any better method of preparing their    
grain1 than roasting it in the fire1 or 
boiling it in water1 and forming it into
 viscous cakes4 ,accident1 probably1 at 
length furnished some observing person a
 hint1 by which good and wholesome bread
 could be made by means of fermentation4
  #d4 ,before the invention of the oven1
 bread was exclusively baked in the     
embers1 or ashes1 or before the fire4   
,these methods1 with sometimes a little 
variation1 are still practised1 more or 
less1 in all parts of the world4 ,in    
,england1 the poor class of people place
 the loaf on the heated hearth1 and     
invert over it an iron pot or kettle1   
which they surround with embers or      
coals4  #e4 ,the invention of the oven  
must have added much to the conveniences
 and comforts of the ancients2 but it   
cannot be determined1 at what period1 or
 by whom1 it was contrived4 ,during that
 period of remote antiquity1 in which   
the people were generally erratic in    
their habits1 the ovens were made of    

clay1 and hardened by fire1 like        
earthenware2 and1 being small1 they     
could be easily transported from place  
to place1 like our iron bake-ovens4     
,such ovens are still in use in some    
parts of ,asia4  #f4 ,there are few     
nations that do not use bread1 or a     
substitute for it4 ,its general use     
arises from a law of our economy1 which 
requires a mixture of the animal fluids1
 in every stage of the process of       
digestion4 ,the saliva is1 therefore1   
essential2 and the mastication of dry   
food is required1 to bring it forth from
 the glands of the mouth4  #g4 ,the     
farinaceous grains most usually employed
 in making bread1 are1--wheat1 rye1     
barley1 maize1 and oats4 ,the flour or  
meal of two of these are often mixed2   
and wheat flour is sometimes            
advantageously combined with rice1 peas1
 beans1 or potatoes4  #h4 ,the component
 parts of wheat1 rye1 and barley flour1 
are1--fecula1 or starch1 gluten1 and    
saccharine mucilage4 ,fecula is the most

 nutritive part of grain4 ,it is found  
in all seeds1 and is especially abundant
 in the potato4 ,gluten is necessary to 
the production of light bread2 and wheat
 flour1 containing it in the greatest   
proportion1 answers the purpose better  
than any other4 ,the saccharine mucilage
 is equally necessary1 as this is the   
substance on which yeast and leaven act1
 in producing the internal commotion in 
the particles of dough during           
fermentation4  #i4 ,there are three     
general methods of making bread2 #ast4  
by mixing meal or flour with water1 or  
with water and milk2 #b;d4 by adding to 
the foregoing materials a small quantity
 of sour dough1 or leaven1 to serve as a
 fermenting agent2 and1 #c;d4 by using  
yeast1 to produce the same general      
effect4  #aj4 ,the theory of making     
light bread1 is not difficult to be     
understood4 ,the leaven or yeast acts   
upon the saccharine mucilage of the     
dough1 and1 by the aid of heat and      
moisture1 disengages carbonaceous       

matter1 which1 uniting with oxygen1     
forms carbonic acid gas4 ,this1 being   
prevented from escaping by the gluten of
 the dough1 causes the mass to become   
light and spongy4 ,during the process of
 baking1 the increased heat disengages  
more of the fixed air1 which is further 
prevented from escaping by the formation
 of the crust4 ,the superfluous moisture
 having been expelled1 the substance    
becomes firm1 and retains that spongy   
hollowness which distinguishes good     
bread4  #aa4 ,many other substances     
contain fermenting qualities1 and are1  
therefore1 sometimes used as substitutes
 for yeast and leaven4 ,the waters of   
several mineral springs1 both in ,europe
 and ,america1 being impregnated with   
carbonic acid gas1 are occasionally     
employed in making light bread4  #ab4   
,the three general methods of making    
bread1 and the great number of materials
 employed1 admit of a great variety in  
this essential article of food2 so much 
so1 that we cannot enter into details1  

as regards the particular modes of      
manufacture adopted by different        
nations1 or people4 ,there are1         
comparatively1 but few people on the    
globe1 among whom this art is not       
practised in some way or other4  #ac4   
,it is impossible to ascertain1 at what 
period of time the process of baking    
bread became a particular profession4   
,it is supposed1 that the first bakers  
in ,rome came from ,greece1 about two   
hundred years before the ,christian era2
 and that these1 together with some     
freemen of the city1 were incorporated  
into a college1 or company1 from which  
neither they nor their children were    
permitted to withdraw4 ,they held their 
effects in common1 without possessing   
any individual power of parting with    
them4  #ad4 ,each bake-house had a      
patron1 or superintendent2 and one of   
the patrons had the management of the   
rest1 and the care of the college4 ,so  
respectable was this class of men in    
,rome1 that one of the body was         

occasionally admitted1 as a member of   
the senate2 and all1 on account of their
 peculiar corporate association1 and the
 public utility of their employment1    
were exempted from the performance of   
the civil duties to which other citizens
 were liable4  #ae4 ,in many of the     
large cities of ,europe1 the price and  
weight of bread sold by bakers1 are     
regulated by law4 ,the weight of the    
loaves of different sizes must be always
 the same2 but the price may vary1      
according to the current cost of the    
chief materials4 ,the law was such in   
the city of ,london1 a few years ago1   
that if a loaf fell short in weight a   
single ounce1 the baker was liable to be
 put in the pillory2 but now1 he is     
subject only to a fine1 varying from one
 to five shillings1 according to the    
will of the magistrate before whom he   
may be indicted4  #af4 ,in this country1
 laws of a character somewhat similar   
have been enacted by the legislatures of
 several states1 and by city            

authorities1 with a view to protect the 
community against impositions2 but      
whether there is a law or not1 the      
bakers regulate the weight1 price1 and  
quality of their loaves by the general  
principles of trade4  #ag4 ,there is1   
perhaps1 no business more laborious than
 that of the baker of loaf bread1 who   
has a regular set of customers to be    
supplied every morning4 ,the twenty-four
 hours of the day are systematically    
appropriated to the performance of      
certain labours1 and to rest4  #ah4     
,after breakfast1 the yeast is prepared1
 and the oven-wood provided3 at two or  
three o'clock1 the sponge is set3 the   
hours from three to eight or nine       
o'clock1 are appropriated to rest4 ,the 
baking commences at nine or ten o'clock 
at night2 and1 in large bakeries1       
continues until five o'clock in the     
morning4 ,from that time until the      
breakfast hour1 the hands are engaged in
 distributing the bread to customers4   
,for seven months in the year1 and1 in  

some cases1 during the whole of it1 part
 of the hands are employed1 from eleven 
to one o'clock1 in baking pies1         
puddings1 and different kinds of meats1 
sent to them from neighboring families4 
#ai4 ,in large cities1 the bakers       
usually confine their attention to      
particular branches of the business4    
,some bake light loaf bread only2 others
 bake unleavened bread1 such as         
crackers1 sea-biscuit1 and cakes for    
people of the ,jewish faith4 ,some1     
again1 unite several branches together2 
and this is especially the case in small
 cities and towns1 where the demand for 
different kinds of bread is more        
limited4     ,illustration3             
,,confectioner4  ,,the ,,confectioner4  
#a4 ,the ,confectioner makes liquid and 
dry confects1 jellies1 marmalades1      
pastes1 conserves1 sugar-plums1         
ice-creams1 candies1 and cakes of       
various kinds4  #b4 ,many of the        
articles just enumerated1 are prepared  
in families for domestic use2 but1 as   

their preparation requires skill and    
practice1 and is likewise attended with 
some trouble1 it is sometimes better to 
purchase them of the confectioner4  #c4 
,liquid and dry confects are preserves  
made of various kinds of fruits and     
berries1 the principal of which         
are1--peaches1 apricots1 pears1 quinces1
 apples1 plums1 cherries1 grapes1       
strawberries1 gooseberries1 currants1   
and raspberries4 ,the fruit1 of whatever
 kind it may be1 is confected by boiling
 it in a thick clarified syrup of sugar1
 until it is about half cooked4 ,dry    
confects are made by boiling the fruit a
 little in syrup1 and then drying it    
with a moderate heat in an oven4 ,the   
ancients confected with honey2 but1 at  
present1 sugar is deemed more suitable  
for this purpose1 and is almost         
exclusively employed4  #d4 ,jellies     
resemble a thin transparent glue1 or    
size4 ,they are made by mixing the juice
 of the fruits mentioned in the         
preceding paragraph1 with a due         

proportion of sugar1 and then boiling   
the composition down to a proper        
consistence4 ,jellies are also made of  
the flesh of animals2 but such          
preparations cannot be long kept1 as    
they soon become corrupt4  #e4          
,marmalades are thin pastes1 usually    
made of the pulp of fruits that have    
some consistence1 and about an equal    
weight of sugar4 ,pastes are similar to 
marmalades1 in their materials1 and mode
 of preparation4 ,the difference        
consists only in their being reduced by 
evaporation to a consistence1 which     
renders them capable of retaining a     
form1 when put into moulds1 and dried in
 an oven4  #f4 ,conserves are a species 
of dry confects1 compounded of sugar and
 flowers4 ,the flowers usually employed1
 are1--roses1 mallows1 rosemary1 orange1
 violets1 jessamine1 pistachoes1        
citrons1 and sloes4 ,orange-peel is also
 used for the same purpose4  #g4        
,candies are made of clarified sugar1   
reduced by evaporation to a suitable    

degree of consistence4 ,they receive    
their name from the essence1 or         
substance1 employed in giving them the  
required flavour4  #h4 ,sugar-plums are 
small fruits1 seeds1 little pieces of   
bark1 or odoriferous and aromatic roots1
 incrusted with hard sugar4 ,these      
trifles are variously denominated2 but1 
in most cases1 according to the name of 
the substance inclosed by the           
incrustation4  #i4 ,ice-cream is an     
article of agreeable refreshment in hot 
weather4 ,it is sold in confectionary   
shops1 as well as at the public gardens1
 and other places of temporary resort in
 cities4 ,it is composed1 chiefly1 of   
milk or cream1 fruit1 and lemon-juice4  
,it is prepared by beating the materials
 well together1 and rubbing them through
 a fine hair sieve4 ,the congelation is 
effected by placing the containing      
vessel in one which is somewhat larger1 
and filling the surrounding vacancy with
 a mixture of salt and fine ice4  #aj4  
,cakes are made of a great variety of   

ingredients2 the principal of which are1
 flour1 butter1 eggs1 sugar1 water1     
milk1 cream1 yeast1 wine1 brandy1       
raisins1 currants1 caraway1 lemon1      
orange1 almonds1 cinnamon1 nutmeg1      
allspice1 cloves1 and ginger4 ,the      
different combinations of these         
materials1 produce so great a variety of
 cakes1 that it would be tedious to     
detail even their names4  #aa4 ,the     
confectioner1 in addition to those      
articles which may be considered        
peculiar to his business1 deals in      
various kinds of fruits and nuts1 which 
grow in different climates4 ,he also    
sells a variety of pickles1 which he    
usually procures from those who make it 
a business to prepare them4  #ab4       
,soda-water is likewise often sold by   
the confectioner4 ,this agreeable drink 
is merely water1 impregnated with       
carbonic acid gas1 by means of a        
forcing-pump4 ,the confectioners1       
however1 in large cities1 seldom prepare
 it themselves1 as they can procure it  

at less expense1 and with less trouble1 
ready made4  #ac4 ,sometimes1 the       
business of the pastry-cook is united   
with that of the confectioner1          
especially with that branch of it which 
relates to making cakes4 ,pies and tarts
 consist of paste1 which1 in baking1    
becomes a crust1 and some kind of fruit 
or meat1 or both1 with suitable         
seasoning4 ,the art of making pies and  
tarts is practised1 more or less1 in    
every family3 it is not1 therefore1     
essential to be particular in naming the
 materials employed1 or the manner in   
which they are combined4                
,illustration3 ,,distiller4  ,,the      
,,brewer1 ,,and ,,the ,,distiller4      
,,the ,,brewer4  #a4 ,brewing is the art
 of preparing a liquor1 which has       
received the general denomination of    
beer4 ,this beverage can be brewed from 
any kind of farinaceous grain2 but1 on  
various accounts1 barley is usually     
preferred4 ,it is prepared for the      
brewer's use by converting it into malt1

 which is effected by the following     
process4  #b4 ,the grain is soaked in a 
cistern of water about two days1 or     
until it is completely saturated with   
that fluid4 ,it is then taken out1 and  
spread upon a floor in a layer nearly   
two feet thick4 ,when the inside of this
 heap begins to grow warm1 and the      
kernels to germinate1 the maltster      
checks the rapid growth of the grain in 
that situation by changing it to the    
outside4 ,this operation is continued1  
until the saccharine matter in the      
barley has been sufficiently evolved by 
the natural process of germination4  #c4
 ,the grain is next transferred to the  
kiln1 which is an iron or tile floor1   
perforated with small holes1 and        
moderately heated beneath with a fire of
 coke or stone coal4 ,here1 the grain is
 thoroughly dried1 and the principle of 
germination completely destroyed4 ,the  
malt thus made is prepared for being    
brewed1 by crushing it in a common mill1
 or between rollers4 ,malting1 in ,great

 ,britain1 and in some other parts of   
,europe1 is a business distinct from    
brewing2 but1 in the ,united ,states1   
the brewers generally make their own    
malt4  #d4 ,the first part of the       
process of brewing is called mashing4   
,this is performed in a large tub1 or   
tun1 having two bottoms4 ,the upper one1
 consisting of several moveable pieces1 
is perforated with a great number of    
small holes2 the other1 though tight and
 immoveable at the edges1 has several   
large holes1 furnished with ducts1 which
 lead to a cistern beneath4  #e4 ,the   
malt1 designed for one mashing1 is      
spread in an even layer on the upper    
bottom1 and thoroughly saturated and    
incorporated with water nearly boiling1 
by means of iron rakes1 which are made  
to revolve and move round in the tub by 
the aid of machinery4 ,the water1       
together with the soluble parts of the  
malt1 at length passes off1 through the 
holes before mentioned1 into the        
reservoir beneath4  #f4 ,the malt       

requires to be mashed two or three times
 in succession with fresh quantities of 
water2 and the product of each mashing  
is appropriated to making liquors of    
different degrees of strength4  #g4 ,the
 product of the mashing-tun is called   
wort1 which1 being transferred to a     
large copper kettle1 is boiled for a    
considerable time with a quantity of    
hops1 and then drawn off into large     
shallow cisterns1 called coolers4 ,when 
the mixture has become cool enough to be
 submitted to fermentation1 it is drawn 
off into the working tun4  #h4 ,the     
fermentation is effected with yeast1    
which1 acting on the saccharine matter1 
disengages carbonic acid gas4 ,this part
 of the process requires from eighteen  
to forty-eight hours1 according to the  
degree of heat which may be in the      
atmosphere4  #i4 ,the beer is then drawn
 off into casks of different dimensions1
 in which it undergoes a still further  
fermentation1 sometimes called the      
brewer's cleansing4 ,during this        

fermentation1 the froth1 or yeast1 works
 out at the bung-hole1 and is received  
in a trough1 on the edges of which the  
casks have been placed4 ,the froth thus 
discharged from the beer1 is the yeast  
used by the brewers4  #aj4 ,the products
 of the brewery are denominated beer1   
ale1 and porter4 ,the difference between
 these liquors arises1 chiefly1 from the
 manner in which the malt has been      
prepared1 the relative strength imparted
 to each1 and the extent to which the   
fermentation has been carried4  #aa4    
,there are several kinds of beer2 such  
as table beer1 half and half1 and strong
 beer4 ,they are adapted to use soon    
after being brewed1 and differ from each
 other but little1 except in the degree 
of their strength4  #ab4 ,ale and porter
 are called stock liquors2 because1 not 
being designed for immediate            
consumption1 they are kept for a        
considerable time1 that they may improve
 in quality4 ,porter is usually prepared
 for consumption by putting it into     

bottles4 ,this is done either at the    
brewery1 or in bottling establishments4 
,in the latter case1 the liquor is      
purchased in large quantities from the  
brewer by persons who make it their     
business to supply retailers and private
 families4  #ac4 ,we have evidence that 
fermented liquor was in use three       
thousand years ago4 ,it was first used  
in ,egypt1 whence it passed into        
adjacent countries1 and afterward into  
,spain1 ,france1 and ,england4 ,it was  
sometimes called the wine of barley2 and
 one kind of it was denominated         
,pelusian drink1 from the city          
,pelusium1 where it was first made4     
#ad4 ,among the nations of modern times1
 the ,english are the most celebrated   
for brewing good liquors4 ,london porter
 is especially in great repute1 not only
 in that city1 but in distant countries4
 ,much fermented liquor of the different
 kinds1 is consumed in the ,united      
,states1 where it is also made in       
considerable perfection4   ,,the        

,,distiller4  #a4 ,although alcohol can 
be extracted from any substance         
containing saccharine matter1 yet       
sugar-cane1 grapes1 apples1 peaches1    
rye1 corn1 and rice1 on account of their
 abundance1 and superior adaptation to  
the purpose1 are more commonly used than
 any other4 ,as whiskey is the chief    
article of this kind1 manufactured in   
the ,united ,states1 it will be selected
 to illustrate the general principles of
 distillation4  #b4 ,corn and rye are   
the materials from which this liquor is 
mostly extracted2 and these are used    
either together or separately1 at the   
option of the distiller4 ,the meal is   
scalded and mashed in a large tub3 it is
 then permitted to stand1 until it has  
become a little sweet1 when more water  
is poured upon it1 and1 at a suitable   
temperature1 a quantity of yeast is     
added4 ,to aid in producing rapid       
fermentation1 a little malt is sprinkled
 on the top4  #c4 ,after an adequate    
fermentation has taken place1 the beer1 

as it is called1 is transferred to a    
large close tub1 from the top of which  
leads a tube extending to the worm in   
another tub filled with cold water4 ,the
 worm is a long pewter tube1 twisted    
spirally1 that it may occupy a small    
space4  #d4 ,the beer is heated in the  
close tub1 by means of steam1 which is  
conveyed to it1 from a large kettle or  
boiler1 by a copper or iron pipe4 ,the  
heat causes the alcoholic particles to  
rise like vapour1 and pass into the     
worm1 where they are condensed into a   
watery fluid1 which passes out into a   
receiver4  #e4 ,at first1 pure alcohol  
distils from the worm2 but the produce  
becomes gradually weaker1 until1 at     
length1 the spirit in the beer being    
exhausted1 it consists only of water    
condensed from steam4 ,the remains of   
the beer are given as feed to hogs and  
cattle4  #f4 ,brandy is distilled from  
grapes1 rum from sugar-cane1 arrack from
 rice1 whiskey from various kinds of    
grain1 peach-brandy from peaches1 and   

cider-brandy from apples4  #g4 ,the     
great variety of articles employed in   
the productions of different kinds of   
ardent spirits1 must necessarily vary   
the process of distillation in some     
particulars2 but1 in all cases1         
fermentation and heat are necessary to  
disengage the alcoholic properties of   
the saccharine matter1 and also an      
apparatus for condensing the same from a
 gaseous to a liquid form4 ,in some     
countries1 the alembic is used as a     
condenser1 instead of a worm4 ,the form 
of this instrument is much like that of 
the retort2 and when applied1 it is     
screwed upon the top of the boiler4  #h4
 ,spirits1 which come to market in a    
crude state1 are sometimes distilled for
 the purpose of improving their quality1
 or for disguising them with drugs and  
colouring substances1 that they may     
resemble superior liquors4 ,the process 
by which they are thus changed1 or      
improved1 is called rectification4 ,many
 distilleries in large cities1 are      

employed in this branch of business4    
#i4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no kind of      
merchandise in which the public is more 
deceived1 than in the quality of ardent 
spirits and wines4 ,to illustrate this1 
it is only necessary to observe1 that   
,holland gin is made by distilling      
,french brandy with juniper-berries2 but
 most of the spirits which are vended   
under that name1 consist only of rum or 
whiskey1 flavoured with the oil of      
turpentine4 ,genuine ,french brandy is  
distilled from grapes2 but the article  
usually sold under that denomination1 is
 whiskey or rum coloured with treacle or
 scorched sugar1 and flavoured with the 
oil of wine1 or some kind of drug4  #aj4
 ,the ancient ,greeks and ,romans were  
acquainted with an instrument for       
distillation1 which they denominated    
ambix4 ,this was adopted1 a long time   
afterward1 by the ,arabian alchemists1  
for making their chemical experiments2  
but they made some improvements in its  
construction1 and changed its name to   

alembic4  #aa4 ,the ancients1 however1  
knew nothing of alcohol4 ,the method of 
extracting this intoxicating substance1 
was probably discovered some time in the
 twelfth or thirteenth century2 but1 for
 many ages after the discovery1 it was  
used only as a medicine1 and was kept   
for sale exclusively in apothecary      
shops4 ,it is now used as a common      
article of stimulation1 in almost every 
quarter of the globe4  #ab4 ,but the    
opinion is becoming general1 among all  
civilized people1 that the use of       
alcohol1 for this purpose1 is           
destructive of health1 and the primary  
cause of most of the crimes and         
pauperism in all places1 where its      
consumption is common4 ,the formation of
 ,temperance ,societies1 and the        
publication of their reports1 together  
with the extensive circulation of       
periodical papers1 devoted to the cause 
of temperance1 have already diminished1 
to a very great extent1 the use of      
spirituous liquors4  #ac4 ,although the 

ancients knew nothing of distilling     
alcohol1 yet they were well versed in   
the art of making wine4 ,we read of the 
vineyard1 as far back as the time of    
,noah1 the second father of nations2    
and1 from that period to the present1   
the grape has been the object of careful
 cultivation1 in all civilized nations1 
where the climate and soil were adapted 
to the purpose4  #ad4 ,the general      
process of making wine from grapes1 is  
as follows4 ,the grapes1 when gathered1 
are crushed by treading them with the   
feet1 and rubbing them in the hands1 or 
by some other means1 with the view to   
press out the juice4 ,the whole is then 
suffered to stand in the vat1 until it  
has passed through what is termed the   
vinous fermentation1 when the juice1    
which1 in this state1 is termed must1 is
 drawn off into open vessels1 where it  
remains until the pressing of the husks 
is finished4  #ae4 ,the husks are       
submitted1 in hair bags1 to the press2  
and the must which is the result of this

 operation1 is mixed with that drawn    
from the vat4 ,the whole is then put    
into casks1 where it undergoes another  
fermentation1 called the spirituous1    
which occupies from six to twelve days4 
,the casks are then bunged up1 and      
suffered to stand a few weeks1 when the 
wine is racked off from the lees1 and   
again returned to the same casks1 after 
they have been perfectly cleansed4 ,two 
such rackings generally render the wine 
clear and brilliant4  #af4 ,in many     
cases1 sugar1 brandy1 and flavouring    
substances1 are necessary1 to render the
 wine palatable2 but the best kinds of  
grapes seldom require any of these      
additions4 ,wine-merchants often        
adulterate their wines in various ways1 
and afterwards sell them for those which
 are genuine4 ,to correct acidity1 and  
some other unpleasant qualities1 lead1  
copper1 antimony1 and corrosive         
sublimate1 are often used by the dealers
 in wine2 though the practice is        
attended with deleterious effects to the

 health of the consumers4  #ag4 ,the    
wines most usually met with in this     
country1 are known by the following     
denominations1 viz41 ,madeira and       
,teneriffe1 from islands of the same    
names2 ,port1 from ,portugal2 ,sherry   
and ,malaga1 from ,spain2 ,champagne1   
,burgundy1 and ,claret1 from ,france2   
and ,hock1 from ,germany4               
,illustration3 ,,butcher4  ,,the        
,,butcher4   #a4 ,man is designed by    
nature1 to subsist on vegetable and     
animal food4 ,this is obvious1 from the 
structure of his organs of mastication  
and digestion4 ,it does not follow1     
however1 that animal food is1 in all    
cases1 positively required4 ,in some    
countries1 the mass of the people       
subsist chiefly or entirely on          
vegetables4 ,this is especially the case
 in the ,east ,indies1 where rice and   
fruits are the chief articles of food4  
#b4 ,on the other hand1 the people who  
live in the higher latitudes subsist    
principally on the flesh of animals4    

,this is preferred1 not only because it 
is better suited to brace the system    
against the rigours of the climate1 but 
because it is most easily provided4 ,in 
temperate climates1 a due proportion of 
both animal and vegetable substances is 
consumed4  #c4 ,although the skins of   
beasts were used for the purpose of     
clothing1 soon after the fall of man1 we
 have no intimation from the            
,scriptures1 that their flesh1 or that  
of any other animal1 was used1 until    
after the flood4 ,the ,divine permission
 was then given to ,noah and his        
posterity1 to use1 for this purpose1    
every moving thing that liveth4 ,but in 
the law of ,moses1 delivered several    
centuries after this period1 many       
exceptions are to be found1 which were  
intended to apply only to the ,jewish   
people4 ,these restrictions were        
removed1 on the introduction of         
,christianity4 ,the unbelieving ,jews1  
however1 still adhere to their ancient  
law4  #d4 ,the doctrine of              

transmigration has had a great influence
 in diminishing the consumption of      
animal food4 ,this absurd notion arose  
somewhere in ,central ,asia1 and1 at a  
very early period1 it spread into       
,egypt1 ,greece1 ,italy1 and finally    
among the remote countries of the       
ancient world4 ,it is still entertained 
by the heathen nations of ,eastern      
,asia1 by the tribes in the vicinity of 
,mount ,caucasus1 and by some of the    
,american savages1 and ,african negroes4
  #e4 ,the leading feature of this      
doctrine is1 that the souls of departed 
men reappear on earth in the bodies of  
animals1 both as a punishment for crimes
 committed during life1 and as a means  
of purification from sin4 ,this dogma   
was adopted by the ,pythagoreans1 a sect
 of ,grecian philosophers2 and1 as a    
natural consequence1 it led them1 as it 
has ever done the votaries of this      
opinion1 to the veneration of animals1  
and to abstinence from their flesh1 lest
 they might devour that of some of their

 deceased friends or relatives4  #f4    
,people who dwell thinly scattered in   
the country1 rear and slaughter the     
animals for the supply of their own     
tables2 but1 in villages1 large towns1  
and cities1 the inhabitants depend      
chiefly on the butcher for their meat4  
,the animals commonly slaughtered are1  
sheep1 cattle1 and hogs4  #g4 ,the      
butchers obtain their animals from the  
farmers1 or from drovers1 who make it a 
business to purchase them in the        
country1 and drive them to market4 ,the 
farmers near large cities1 who have good
 grazing farms1 are accustomed to buy   
lean cattle1 brought from a distance1   
with a view to fatten them for sale4    
,there are also persons in the cities1  
who might1 with propriety1 be called    
cattle brokers2 since they supply the   
butchers of small capital with a single 
animal at a time1 on a credit of a few  
days4  #h4 ,every butcher who carries on
 the business1 has a house in which he  
kills his animals1 and prepares them for

 sale4 ,when it is intended to slaughter
 an ox1 a rope is thrown about his horns
 or neck1 with which he is forced into  
the slaughter-house1 and brought to the 
floor by the aid of a ring4 ,the butcher
 then knocks him on the head1 cuts his  
throat1 deprives him of his hide1 takes 
out his entrails1 washes the inside of  
his body with water1 and cuts him up    
into quarters4 ,the beef is now ready to
 be conveyed to the market-house4 ,the  
process of dressing other quadrupeds    
varies but little from this in its      
general details4 ,the cellular substance
 of mutton1 lamb and veal1 is often     
inflated with air1 that the meat may    
appear fat and plump4  #i4 ,in large    
cities and towns1 the meat is chiefly   
sold in the market-house1 where each    
butcher has a stall rented from the     
corporation4 ,it is carried there in a  
cart1 and cut into suitable pieces with 
a saw1 knife1 and a broad iron cleaver4 
#aj4 ,in some of the large cities1 it is
 a practice among the butchers1 to      

employ runners to carry the meat to the 
houses1 of those customers who may      
desire this accommodation4 ,in villages1
 where there is no market-house1 the    
butcher carries his meats from door to  
door in some kind of vehicle4  #aa4     
,those who follow this occupation       
usually enjoy good health1 and1 as they 
advance in years1 in most cases1 become 
corpulent4 ,their good health arises    
from exercise in the open air2 and their
 corpulency1 from subsisting principally
 on fresh meats4 ,it is thought1        
however1 that their longevity is not so 
great as that of men in many other      
employments4     ,illustration3         
,,tobacconist4  ,,the ,,tobacco         
,,planter1 ,,and ,,the ,,tobacconist    
,,the ,,tobacco ,,planter4  #a4 ,tobacco
 is a native production of ,america1    
which was in common use among nearly all
 of the ,indian tribes1 when this       
continent was discovered by ,europeans4 
,its original name among the nations of 
the islands1 was yoli2 whilst1 with     

those of the continent1 it was termed   
petum4 ,the ,spaniards1 however1 chose  
to call it tobacco1 a term in the       
,haytian language1 which designated the 
instrument in which the herb was smoked4
  #b4 ,this plant was first introduced  
into ,spain1 then into ,portugal and    
,france1 and1 at length1 into other     
countries of the ,eastern continent4    
,sir ,walter ,raleigh carried it from   
,virginia to ,england1 and taught his   
countrymen the various methods of       
consuming it among the natives4  #c4    
,the introduction of this nauseous plant
 into ,europe1 was everywhere attended  
with ridicule and opposition4 ,hundreds 
of pamphlets were published1 in various 
languages1 dissuading from its use in   
the strongest terms4 ,even ,james the   
,first1 king of ,great ,britain1 did not
 regard it as inconsistent with the     
royal dignity to take up his pen on the 
subject4 ,in his ,counterblast to       
,tobacco1 published in #afjc1 occurs the
 following remarkable passage3 ,it is a 

custom loathsome to the eye1 hateful to 
the nose1 harmful to the brain2 and1 in 
the black fume thereof1 nearest         
resembling the horrible ,stygian smoke  
of the pit that is bottomless4  #d4     
,pope ,urban ,,viii4 excommunicated     
those who took tobacco in churches2 and 
,queen ,elizabeth also prohibited its   
use in houses of public worship4 ,in    
#afhi1 an ordinance was published in    
,transylvania1 threatening those who    
should plant tobacco with the           
confiscation of their estates4 ,the     
grand-duke of ,moscow1 and the king of  
,persia1 prohibited its use under the   
penalty of the loss of the nose1 and    
even of life4 ,at present1 however1 the 
consumption of tobacco is looked upon   
with so much greater indulgence1 that   
all the sovereigns of ,europe1 and most 
of those of other nations1 derive a     
considerable revenue from the trade in  
this article4  #e4 ,but it is truly     
astonishing1 that a nauseous weed1 of an
 acrid taste1 disagreeable odour1 and   

deleterious qualities1 should have had  
so great an influence on the social     
condition of nations2 that its culture  
should have spread more rapidly than    
that of the most useful plants2 and that
 it should1 consequently1 have become an
 article of extensive commerce4  #f4 ,of
 this plant there are several species1  
which differ from each other1 in size1  
strength1 and flavour4 ,some one or more
 of these varieties1 are cultivated in  
various parts of the world3 but         
especially in ,north and ,south         
,america1 and in the ,west ,indies4 ,it 
is one of the staple productions of     
,maryland1 ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 and    
,ohio4 ,the whole value of the tobacco1 
exported annually from the ,united      
,states1 amounts to about five millions 
of dollars4  #g4 ,the following         
description of the mode of cultivating  
this plant1 and preparing it for the    
tobacconist1 is applicable to the state 
of ,maryland4 ,a little variation in    
some of the details1 would render it    

applicable to other parts of the world4 
#h4 ,a small piece of ground1 say       
one-sixteenth of an acre1 is prepared by
 burning a large quantity of brush upon 
it4 ,the surface is rendered light and  
even1 by means of a hoe and rake2 and   
the seeds1 mixed with ashes1 are sown as
 equally as possible4 ,after they have  
been covered with earth1 the ground is  
trodden down with the bare feet4 ,the   
tobacco beds are made in ,march1 and the
 plants become fit for the field in     
eight or ten weeks4  #i4 ,the field1 in 
which the cultivation of the crop is to 
be continued1 is ploughed two or three  
times1 and then cross-ploughed into     
equal checks1 in each of which is made a
 hill4 ,immediately after a rain1 the   
plants are transferred to these hills1  
in the same manner in which cabbages are
 transplanted4 ,while the tobacco is    
growing1 the ground is ploughed several 
times1 in order to keep it light1 and to
 aid in destroying the weeds4 ,when the 
plants are nearly grown1 the tops are   

lopped or cut off1 to prevent them from 
running to seed1 and to cause the leaves
 to grow larger and thicker4  #aj4 ,in  
,july or ,august1 the tobacco-worms     
begin to make their appearance1 and to  
threaten the whole crop with            
destruction4 ,to arrest the ravages of  
these insidious enemies1 all hands1 both
 great and small1 together with all the 
turkeys that can be mustered1 are       
brought into the field4 ,these worms are
 produced from the eggs of a large      
insect1 called the horn-bug4  #aa4 ,the 
tobacco1 when ripe1 is cut near the     
ground1 and hung on small sticks about  
five feet in length1 generally by pegs  
driven into the stalks4 ,these sticks   
are then laid upon poles1 arranged at   
proper distances from each other in the 
tobacco-house1 shed1 or hovel1 as the   
case may be4 ,it is then suffered to dry
 gradually in the atmosphere2 or a large
 fire is made in the tobacco-house1 to  
effect the drying more rapidly4  #ab4   
,the leaves are next stripped from the  

stalks1 and tied in small bunches       
according to their quality4 ,this can   
only be done when in order1 or rather1  
when the leaves are rendered tough by   
the absorption of moisture from the     
atmosphere4 ,these bunches1 when the    
leaves are so damp that they will not   
break1 and so dry that they will not    
heat1 are packed in hogs-heads by the   
aid of a large lever press4 ,the tobacco
 is inspected in public warehouses1 by  
men who have been appointed for the     
purpose by the public authorities4      
,,the ,,tobacconist4  #a4 ,it is the    
business of the tobacconist to convert  
the leaves of the tobacco plant into    
snuff1 cigars1 and smoking and chewing  
tobacco4  #b4 ,although there may seem  
to be a great variety of snuffs1 yet    
they may be all reduced to three kinds1 
viz41 ,scotch1 rappee1 and maccouba4    
,these are variously modified by the    
quality of the tobacco1 by some little  
variation in the manufacture1 and by the
 articles employed in communicating the 

desired flavour4  #c4 ,in manufacturing 
snuff1 the tobacco is ground in a mill  
of a peculiar construction4 ,before the 
weed is submitted to this operation1 it 
is reduced to a certain degree of       
fineness1 by means of a cutting machine2
 and then spread in a heap1 one or two  
feet thick1 and sprinkled with water1   
that it may heat and sweat4 ,the time   
required in this preparation depends    
upon the state of the weather1 and the  
kind of snuff for which the tobacco is  
designed4  #d4 ,scotch snuff is made of 
the strongest sort of tobacco1 and is   
put up in bladders and bottles without  
being scented4 ,rappee and maccouba are 
put up in jars and bottles2 and the     
former is generally scented with        
bergamot1 and the latter with the ottar 
of roses4 ,sometimes1 several           
ingredients1 agreeable to the olfactory 
nerves1 are employed4  #e4 ,cigars are  
composed of two parts1 called the       
wrapper and the filling4 ,the former is 
made of pieces of thin leaves1 cut to a 

proper shape1 and the latter of those   
which are more broken4 ,in all cases1   
the leaves used in the manufacture of   
cigars are deprived of the stems1 which 
are reserved1 either to be converted    
into inferior kinds of snuff1 or for    
exportation to ,holland1 where they are 
usually flattened between rollers1 and  
afterwards cut fine for smoking tobacco1
 to be sold to the poorer class of      
people4  #f4 ,the value of cigars       
depends chiefly on the quality of the   
tobacco4 ,the best kind for this        
purpose1 grows on the island of ,cuba1  
near ,havana4 ,tobacco from this seed is
 raised in many other places2 and such1 
among tobacconists1 is called seed2 but 
it passes1 among smokers of limited     
experience1 for the real ,havana4 ,a    
very fine silky tobacco of this sort1 is
 cultivated in ,connecticut1 which is   
much esteemed4  #g4 ,an expert hand will
 make five or six hundred ,spanish      
cigars in a day1 or from one thousand to
 fifteen hundred of those composed of   

,maryland or ,kentucky tobacco4 ,making 
cigars1 being light work1 is well       
adapted to females1 of whom great       
numbers are regularly employed in this  
branch of business4 ,tobacco intended   
for the pipe1 is cut in a machine2 and1 
after having been properly dried1 it is 
put up in papers of different sizes4    
#h4 ,chewing tobacco is almost          
exclusively prepared from the species of
 this plant which is cultivated in      
,virginia1 chiefly in the vicinity of   
,james river4 ,it is better adapted to  
this purpose than any other1 on account 
of its superior strength1 and the great 
amount of resinous matter which it      
contains4  #i4 ,the first operation in  
preparing chewing tobacco1 is that of   
depriving the leaves of the stems4 ,the 
former are then twisted by hand into    
plugs of different sizes1 or spun into a
 continued thread by the aid of the     
tobacco-wheel1 which is a simple machine
 moved by a crank4 ,the thread thus     
produced is formed into bunches1 or     

twists1 containing a definite amount of 
tobacco4  #aj4 ,the tobacco1 having been
 put into the form desired1 is moistened
 with water1 packed in strong kegs1 and 
then pressed with powerful              
screw-presses4 ,the whole process is    
completed by heating the kegs1 with     
their contents1 for several days1 in an 
oven or a tight room made for the       
purpose4 ,the same change in the quality
 of the tobacco is also produced by     
suffering it to stand nine or twelve    
months1 before it is disposed of to the 
consumers4  #aa4 ,snuff is very commonly
 used in the ,southern states1 as a     
dentifrice2 or1 at least1 it is applied 
to the teeth with this ostensible       
object4 ,the application is made by     
means of a small stick1 having the      
fibres minutely divided at one end4     
,although the tobacco seems to have the 
desired effect upon the teeth1 so far as
 respects their appearance1 yet its     
stimulating and narcotic powers are more
 to be dreaded in this mode of using it 

than in any other4 ,many females ruin   
their complexion and constitution1 by   
rubbing snuff2 and the deleterious      
effects of the practice are so well     
known1 that few are willing to avow it4 
#ab4 ,tobacco is used1 in some one of   
its various forms1 by a great majority  
of mankind2 and1 although it is         
generally acknowledged to be1 in most   
cases1 injurious to the constitution1   
and often destructive of health1 yet its
 consumption seems to be on the         
increase4 ,it is one of the objects of  
trade1 even in the most obscure parts of
 the world2 and its devotees must and   
will have a supply1 even though they    
stint themselves in food and clothing4  
#ac4 ,as regards the influence which    
this plant assumes over its votaries1 it
 may be classed with alcohol and opium2 
although its effects are not so         
destructive2 nor is the expense so      
considerable2 yet this is an item by no 
means unworthy of attention1 as the     
aggregate sum annually expended for this

 useless narcotic in the ,united        
,states1 would be sufficient for the    
support of common schools in every part 
of the country4  #ad4 ,the general use  
of tobacco is perpetuated from          
generation to generation1 by the desire1
 common to children and young people1 to
 act and appear like older persons4 ,few
 ever begin the use of this nauseous    
weed1 because it is agreeable to the    
senses to which it is applied2 but      
because they fancy1 in their childish   
simplicity1 that it confers upon them   
some additional importance4             
,illustration  ,,the ,,manufacturer ,,of
 ,,cloth4   #a4 ,men1 in the primitive  
ages1 were clad with the skins of       
animals1 until they had acquired        
sufficient skill to employ a better     
material4 ,it cannot be determined from 
history1 at what time cloth began to be 
manufactured from animal or vegetable   
fibre2 but it is evident1 that it was   
done at a very early period1 even long  
before the flood4  #b4 ,the fibres of   

the vegetable kind1 most commonly       
applied to this purpose1 are the bark of
 several kinds of trees1 together with  
hemp1 flax1 and cotton2 and those of the
 animal kingdom are1 silk1 the wool of  
the sheep and lama1 and the hair1 or    
wool1 of the goat and camel4  #c4 ,that 
the general process of manufacturing    
cloth may be perfectly understood1 the  
manner of performing several operations 
must be separately described4 ,for the  
purpose of illustration1 cotton1 wool1  
and flax1 will be selected2 because     
these are the materials of which our    
clothing is principally fabricated4 ,the
 operations of making cloth1 may be     
comprised under carding and combing1    
spinning1 weaving1 and dressing4  #d4   
,carding and ,combing4--,wool and cotton
 are carded1 with the view of           
disentangling the fibres1 and arranging 
them longitudinally in small rolls4     
,this is done by means of the teeth of  
two instruments1 called cards1 used by  
hand on the knee1 or by the carding     

machine1 which acts on the same         
principle1 although far more            
expeditiously4  #e4 ,machines for       
carding wool are to be found in every   
district of country in the ,united      
,states1 in which the people manufacture
 much of their woollen cloths in their  
own families4 ,on account of the        
roughness of the fibres of wool1 it is  
necessary to cover them well with grease
 or oil1 that they may move freely on   
each other during the carding and       
spinning4  #f4 ,long1 coarse1 or hard   
wools1 used in the manufacture of       
camlets1 bombazines1 circassians1 and   
other worsted fabrics1 are not carded1  
but combed4 ,in ,england1 and in other  
countries where much of this kind of    
wool is used1 wool-combing forms a      
distinct trade4 ,the operation consists1
 chiefly1 in drawing the locks through  
steel combs1 the teeth of which are     
similar to our common flax-hatchel4 ,the
 comb is heated to a certain            
temperature1 to cause the fibres to     

straighten1 and to remove from them the 
roughness which might otherwise cause   
the cloth made of them to thicken in    
washing1 like flannel4  #g4 ,the old    
method of combing wool1 however1 has    
been in part superseded by the          
application of machines1 the first of   
which was invented by ,edmund           
,cartwright1 of ,england1 about the year
 #agij4 ,the fibres of flax are arranged
 in a parallel direction1 and freed from
 tow1 by drawing them through a hatchel4
  #h4 ,spinning4--,the process of       
spinning consists in twisting the fibres
 into threads4 ,the most simple method  
by which this is effected1 is that by   
the common spinning-wheel4 ,of this     
well-known machine there are two kinds2 
one of which is applied to spinning     
wool1 cotton1 and tow1 and the other1 to
 spinning flax4  #i4 ,this operation is1
 in most cases1 performed by females in 
the following manner4 ,the roll of      
cotton or wool is attached to the       
spindle1 which is put in rapid motion by

 a band passing over it from the rim1 or
 periphery of the wheel4 ,while the     
spinster is turning the wheel with the  
right hand1 she brings back from the    
spindle her left1 with which she has    
laid hold of the roll a few inches from 
the upper end4 ,when the yarn thus      
produced has been sufficiently twisted1 
she turns it upon the spindle1 and      
repeats the same operation1 until it is 
full4 ,this yarn is formed into skeins  
by winding it upon a reel4  #aj4 ,the   
mode of spinning tow is a little        
different4 ,the material having been    
formed into bats by hand-cards1 the     
fibres are drawn out from between the   
fingers and thumb by the twisted thread1
 while the spinster gradually moves     
backward4 ,worsted is spun from combed  
wool nearly in the same manner4  #aa4   
,the flax or little wheel is moved by   
the foot1 so that both hands of the     
spinster are used in supplying1         
disposing1 and occasionally wetting the 
fibres1 as they are drawn from the      

distaff4 ,two bands pass from the       
periphery of the wheel1 each of which   
performs a distinct office3 the one     
keeps in motion the spindle1 which      
twists the thread2 the other moves the  
fliers1 which wind the thread upon a    
spool1 as fast as it is produced4  #ab4 
,spinning was almost exclusively        
performed in the modes just described1  
until the year #agfg1 when ,richard     
,heargreaves1 of ,england1 invented a   
machine for spinning cotton1 which he   
called a jenny4 ,this consisted1 at     
first1 of eight spindles1 moved by a    
common wheel1 or cylinder1 which was    
turned by hand4 ,the number of spindles 
was afterwards increased to eighty-four4
  #ac4 ,in #agfi1 ,richard ,arkwright1  
also an ,englishman1 invented the       
water-spinning-frame4 ,the essential and
 most important feature of this         
invention1 consists in drawing out the  
cotton1 by causing it to pass between   
successive pairs of rollers1 which      
revolve with different velocities1 and  

which act as substitutes for the thumb  
and fingers1 as applied in common       
spinning4 ,these rollers are combined   
with the spindle and fliers of the      
common flax-wheel4  #ad4 ,another       
machine was invented by ,samuel         
,crompton1 in #aggi4 ,it is called a    
mule1 because it combines the principles
 of the two preceding machines4 ,it     
produces finer yarn than either of them1
 and has nearly superseded the jenny4   
,before the cotton is submitted to the  
spinning machine1 it is prepared by     
several others1 by which it is carded1  
extended1 and partially twisted4  #ae4  
,in the manufactories1 the fine1 short  
wools1 used in the fabrication of       
broadcloths1 flannels1 and a variety of 
other cloths1 are carded by machinery1  
and spun on a slubbing or               
roving-machine1 or on a jenny or mule1  
in each of which the spindles are       
mounted on a carriage1 which is moved   
backwards in stretching and twisting the
 material1 and forwards in winding the  

thread upon the spindle4  #af4 ,worsted 
still continues to be spun1 in most     
cases1 on the common spinning-wheel1 as 
it can be done more perfectly in this   
way1 than by any other machine which has
 hitherto been invented4 ,several       
machines have been constructed1 which   
spin coarse threads of flax very well1  
and with great rapidity2 but the        
materials for fine linen fabrics are    
still spun on the ancient flax-wheel4   
#ag4 ,weaving4--,the first step         
preparatory to weaving1 is to form a    
warp1 consisting of a number of threads1
 which extend through the whole piece4  
,to produce this parallel arrangement1  
the yarn is wound upon spools1 which are
 afterwards placed in a frame           
perpendicularly by means of rods1 on    
which they move as upon an axle4 ,from  
these spools1 the yarns are stretched   
upon pegs to the length of the proposed 
web1 and are carried round or doubled a 
sufficient number of times to make it   
the proper width4 ,the same object is   

more expeditiously effected1 by winding 
the yarn spirally on a revolving frame4 
#ah4 ,the next step consists in winding 
the warp on a cylindrical beam1 which is
 usually about ten inches in diameter4  
,the threads1 having been put through a 
harness1 composed of moveable parts1    
called heddles1 and also through a sley1
 or reed1 are fastened on the other side
 to a large rod1 from which three ropes 
extend to another cylinder1 on which the
 cloth is wound1 as fast as it is woven4
  #ai4 ,the heddles are suspended from  
cross-pieces1 on the top of the loom1 by
 means of cords and pulleys1 and1 during
 the operation of weaving1 are moved up 
and down alternately by the aid of      
treadles4 ,this reciprocal motion causes
 the web to open2 and1 while in this    
position1 a shuttle1 containing the     
woof1 weft1 or filling on a quill or    
bobbin1 is passed through from right to 
left1 or from left to right1 as often as
 the position of the warp is changed4   
,the threads of the filling are beaten  

up by the reed1 or sley1 which is placed
 in the lay4  #bj4 ,weaving is a        
business extensive in its application1  
being divided into almost as many       
branches as there are woven fabrics4    
,plain cotton1 linen1 woollen1 and      
twilled cloths1 silks1 satins1 carpets1 
c41 are all woven in looms of some kind1
 constructed on the same general        
principles4 ,power-looms1 driven by     
water or steam1 are now generally       
introduced into the cotton and woollen  
manufactories1 both in ,europe and in   
this country4 ,one person can attend to 
two of these looms at the same time1 and
 each one will weave between twenty and 
forty yards in a day4  #ba4             
,dressing4--,cotton fabrics1 when the   
webs are taken from the loom1 are       
covered with an irregular nap1 or down1 
formed by the protruding ends of the    
fibres4 ,from the finest cottons1 this  
is removed1 by drawing them rapidly over
 an iron cylinder1 kept red-hot by a    
fire within4 ,the flame of coal-gas has 

recently been applied1 to effect the    
same object4  #bb4 ,common domestic     
fabrics are taken from the loom1 and1   
without further preparation1 are folded 
up into pieces for sale4 ,finer articles
 are usually whitened and calendered1   
before they pass from the hand of the   
manufacturer4 ,stuffs of all kinds1 made
 of vegetable fibres1 are now whitened  
by immersing them in a solution of      
oxymuriate of lime4 ,cotton and linen   
goods1 with a view of making them smooth
 and glossy1 are calendered1 or pressed1
 between steel rollers4  #bc4 ,many of  
the fine cottons are converted into     
calicoes1 by transferring to them       
various colors4 ,the process by which   
this is done1 is called calico-printing1
 which will be described in a separate  
article4  #bd4 ,the texture of the      
fabrics made of worsted1 or long wool1  
is completed1 when issued from the loom4
 ,the pieces are subsequently dyed1 and 
then pressed between heated metallic    
plates1 to communicate to them the      

required gloss4 ,but weaving does not   
always complete the texture of the      
stuffs made of the short wools4 ,when   
taken from the loom1 the web is too     
loose and open1 to answer the purposes  
to which such cloths are usually        
applied4 ,it is1 therefore1 submitted to
 another process1 called fulling4  #be4 
,fulling1 in common with almost every   
other operation pertaining to the       
manufacture of cloth1 constitutes a     
separate trade4 ,the art is only applied
 to stuffs composed of wool1 or hair1 as
 these only possess the properties which
 render it applicable4 ,the             
practicability of fulling cloth depends 
on a certain roughness of the fibres1   
which admits of motion in one way1 and  
retards it in another4 ,this may be more
 fully understood by consulting the     
article on making hats4  #bf4 ,the      
cloth1 having been prepared by a proper 
cleansing1 is deposited in a strong box1
 with a quantity of water and fuller's  
earth or soap1 and submitted to the     

action of the pestles1 or stampers1     
which are moved in a horizontal         
direction1 backwards and forwards1 by   
means of appropriate machinery4 ,this   
operation reduces the dimensions of the 
cloth1 and greatly improves the beauty  
and stability of the texture4 ,the cloth
 is afterwards dried in the open air on 
frames prepared for the purpose4  #bg4  
,after the cloth has been dyed1 a nap is
 raised on one side of it by means of   
the common teazle4 ,the nap is next cut 
off to an even surface4 ,this was       
formerly done with a huge pair of       
shears2 but1 within a few years1 it has 
most commonly been effected by a        
machine1 the essential part of which is 
a spiral blade1 that revolves in contact
 with another blade1 while the cloth is 
stretched over a bed1 or support1 just  
near enough for the projecting filaments
 to be cut off at a uniform length1     
without injuring the main texture4      
,pressing and folding the cloth complete
 the whole process4  #bh4 ,a great      

proportion of the woollen fabrics worn  
in the ,united ,states1 are manufactured
 in families1 part of which is sent to  
the clothiers to be dressed4 ,much      
cotton yarn1 spun at the manufactories1 
is purchased for domestic use4          
,formerly1 the raw material was         
procured1 and spun into yarn on the big 
wheel4 ,coarse linens are also          
extensively manufactured in families1   
especially among the ,german population4
  #bi4 ,the manufacture of cloth from   
wool was introduced into ,britain by the
 ,romans1 some time in the ,augustan    
age4 ,at ,winchester1 they conducted the
 business on a scale sufficiently large 
to supply their army4 ,after the ,romans
 withdrew from the island1 in the fifth 
century1 the art was comparatively      
neglected1 and gradually declined1 until
 the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,this      
monarch invited into his dominions      
workmen from ,flanders1 in which country
 the manufacture had1 for a long time1  
been in a flourishing condition4  #cj4  

,shortly after the first immigration of 
the ,flemish manufacturers into         
,england1 an act was passed prohibiting 
the wearing of cloths made in any other 
country2 and1 in the time of ,elizabeth1
 the manufacture had become so          
extensive1 that the exportation of the  
raw material was forbidden by law4  #ca4
 ,it is supposed that there are now1 in 
,great ,britain1 thirty millions of     
sheep2 whose annual produce of wool is  
worth1 on an average1 about seven       
millions of pounds sterling2 to this may
 be added five millions of pounds weight
 from foreign countries4 ,this amount is
 increased in value1 by manufacturing   
skill1 to twenty or thirty millions of  
pounds4 ,not less than three millions of
 persons are supposed to be employed in 
this branch of ,british industry4  #cb4 
,both the woollen and cotton            
manufactures have arisen to great       
importance1 of late years1 in the       
,united ,states2 and1 from the          
mechanical skill of our countrymen1 the 

abundance of the raw material1 and the  
vast amount of water-power1 there is    
every reason to anticipate a rapid and  
continual increase in these divisions of
 ,american enterprise4   ,,the          
,,silk-,,worm4  #a4 ,silk is the        
production of a worm1 of the caterpillar
 species1 which1 in due course1 passes  
through several transformations1 and at 
length becomes a butterfly1 like others 
of the genus4 ,it is produced from an   
egg1 and when about to die1 or rather   
again to change its form1 spins for     
itself an envelope1 called a cocoon4    
,the worm then changes to a chrysalis1  
and1 after remaining in this state from 
#e to #h days1 the butterfly1 or moth1  
comes out1 forcing its way through the  
cocoon4 ,the moths1 or butterflies1 eat 
nothing1 and die as soon as they have   
provided for the propagation of their   
species4 ,enough of these are suffered  
to come to maturity1 to provide a       
sufficient stock of eggs4 ,the rest are 
killed1 in a few days after they have   

spun their task1 either by heating them 
in an oven1 or by exposing them to the  
rays of the sun4  #b4 ,the fibres are   
wound upon a reel4 ,to render this      
practicable1 the cocoons are put into   
water heated to a suitable temperature1 
which dissolves the gummy substance that
 holds the fibres together4 ,a number of
 threads being detached1 and passed     
through a hole in an iron bar1 form1 by 
the aid of the remaining glutinous      
matter1 one thread1 which is wound upon 
a reel into skeins4  #c4 ,the raw silk1 
thus produced and prepared1 is sold to  
the manufacturers1 who twist and double 
the fibres variously1 and finally form  
them into threads for sewing2 or weave  
them into a great variety of fabrics1   
which are too well known to need        
particular description here4  #d4       
,according to the ancients1 the         
silk-worm was originally a native of    
,china1 and the neighboring parts of    
,asia1 and had there been domesticated  
for a long time1 before it was known in 

,europe4 ,for many years after silk was 
sold among the nations of the ,west1    
even the merchants were ignorant of both
 the manner and place of its production4
  #e4 ,the ,greeks became acquainted    
with silk1 soon after the time of       
,alexander the ,great2 and the ,romans  
knew little of the article1 until the   
reign of ,augustus4 ,dresses1 composed  
entirely of this material1 were seldom  
worn2 but the fabrics which had been    
closely woven in the ,east1 were        
unravelled1 and the threads were        
recomposed in a looser texture1         
intermixed with linen or woollen yarn4  
#f4 ,the prodigal ,hehogabalus is said  
to have been the first individual1 in   
the ,roman empire1 who wore a robe of   
pure silk4 ,it is also stated1 that the 
,emperor ,aurelian refused his wife a   
garment of this description1 on account 
of its exorbitant price4 ,at that time1 
as well as at previous periods1 it      
usually sold for its weight in gold4    
#g4 ,a kind of gauze1 originally made by

 the women on the island of ,cos1 was   
very celebrated4 ,it was dyed purple1   
with the substance usually employed in  
communicating that colour in those days2
 but this was done before it was woven1 
as in that state it was too frail to    
admit of the process4 ,habits1 made of  
this kind of stuff1 were denominated    
dresses of glass3 because the body could
 be seen through them4  #h4 ,the ,roman 
empire had been supplied with silk      
through the medium of the ,persians1    
until the time of ,justinian1 in the    
year #eee4 ,this emperor1 having become 
indignant at the rapacity of the        
silk-merchants1 determined1 if possible1
 to supply his people from the insect   
itself4  #i4 ,after many unsuccessful   
attempts1 he at length obtained a small 
quantity of the eggs from ,india1 by the
 assistance of two ,persian monks1 who  
had contrived to conceal them in the    
hollow of their canes4 ,the seeds of the
 mulberry-tree1 on the leaves of which  
the worm feeds1 were also procured at   

the same time1 together with            
instructions necessary for the          
management of the worms4  #aj4 ,for six 
hundred years after the period just     
mentioned1 the rearing of these worms1  
in ,europe1 was confined to the ,greek  
empire2 but1 in the twelfth century1    
,roger1 king of ,sicily1 introduced it  
into that island1 whence it gradually   
spread into ,italy1 ,spain1 ,france1 and
 other ,european countries4  #aa4 ,the  
silk-worm was introduced into ,england  
by ,james the ,first2 but it has never  
succeeded well in that country1 on      
account of the dampness and coldness of 
the climate4 ,the manufacture of fabrics
 from silk1 however1 is there very      
extensive1 the raw material being       
obtained1 chiefly1 from ,bengal and     
,italy4 ,in the latter of these         
countries1 in ,france1 and other parts  
of ,europe1 as well as in ,asia1 the    
manufacture is also extensive4  #ab4    
,some attention has been paid to the    
rearing of silk-worms in the ,united    

,states1 and attempts have been made to 
introduce the manufacture of silks4 ,the
 mulberry has been planted in various   
parts of the ,union2 and it is highly   
probable1 that1 in a few years1 we shall
 be able to obtain excellent silks1     
without sending for them to foreign     
countries4     ,illustration3 ,,dyer4   
,,the ,,dyer1 ,,and ,,the               
,,calico-,,printer4   ,,the ,,dyer4  #a4
 ,the art of dyeing consists in         
impregnating flexible fibres with any   
color which may be desired1 in such a   
manner1 that it will remain permanent1  
under the common exposures to which it  
may be liable4  #b4 ,the union of the   
coloring matter with the fibres         
receiving the dye1 is purely chemical1  
and not mechanical1 as in the case of   
the application of paints4 ,wool has the
 greatest attraction for coloring       
substances2 silk comes next to it2 then 
cotton2 and1 lastly1 hemp and flax4     
,these materials1 also1 absorb          
dye-stuffs in different proportions4    

#c4 ,previous to the application of the 
dye1 the greasy substance which covers  
the fibres of wool1 and the gluey matter
 on those of silk1 are removed by some  
kind of alkali4 ,their natural color is1
 also1 discharged by the fumes of       
sulphur4 ,the resinous matter and       
natural color of cotton and linen1 are  
removed by bleaching4  #d4 ,the         
materials used in dyeing are divided    
into two classes--substantive and       
adjective4 ,the former communicates     
durable tints without the aid of any    
other substance previously applied2 the 
latter requires the intervention of some
 agent which possesses an attraction for
 both the coloring matter and the stuff 
to be dyed1 in order to make the color  
permanent4 ,the substances used for this
 purpose are usually termed mordants4   
#e4 ,agents capable of acting in some   
way as mordants1 are very numerous2 but 
alumina1 alum1 the sulphate or acetate  
of iron1 the muriate of tin1 and        
nut-galls1 are principally employed4    

,the mordant not only fixes the color1  
but1 in many cases1 alters and improves 
the tints4 ,it is always dissolved in   
water1 in which the stuffs are immersed1
 previous to the application of the dye4
 ,dyeing substances are also very       
numerous2 but a few of the most         
important have1 in practice1 taken      
precedence of the others4  #f4 ,blue1   
red1 yellow1 and black1 are the chief   
colors1 for which appropriate coloring  
substances are applied2 but1 by a       
judicious combination of these same     
materials1 and by a proper application  
of mordants1 intermediate hues of every 
shade are produced2 thus1 a green is    
communicated by forming a blue ground of
 indigo1 and then adding a yellow by    
means of quercitron bark4  #g4 ,the blue
 dye is made of indigo2 the red dye1 of 
madder1 cochineal1 archil1 ,brazil-wood1
 or safflowers2 the yellow dye1 of      
quercitron bark1 turmeric1 hickory1     
weld1 fustic1 or saffron2 the black dye1
 of the oxide of iron combined with     

logwood1 or the bark of the common red1 
or soft maple1 and the sulphate or      
acetate of iron4 ,the dyes made of some 
of these substances require the aid of  
mordants1 and those from others do not4 
#h4 ,in communicating the intermediate  
hues1 the different dye-stuffs forming  
the leading colors1 are sometimes mixed2
 and1 at other times1 they are made into
 separate dyes1 and applied in          
succession4  #i4 ,in this country1 the  
business of the dyer is often united    
with that of the clothier2 but1 where   
the amount of business will justify it1 
as in manufactories1 and in cities or   
large towns1 it is a separate business4 
,the dyers sometimes confine their      
attention to particular branches4 ,some 
dye wool only or silk1 while others     
confine themselves to certain colors1   
such as scarlet and blue4 ,the principal
 profits of the dyer1 when unconnected  
with manufacturing establishments1 arise
 from dyeing garments or stuffs which   
have been partly worn4  #aj4 ,the origin

 of the art of dyeing is involved in    
great obscurity1 as the ancients have   
not furnished even a fable1 which might 
guide us in our researches4 ,it is      
evident1 however1 that the art must have
 made considerable progress1 long before
 authentic history begins4 ,moses speaks
 of stuffs dyed blue1 purple1 and       
scarlet1 and of sheep-skins dyed red4   
,the knowledge of the preparation of    
these colors1 implies an advanced state 
of the art1 at that early period4  #aa4 
,purple was the favorite color of the   
ancients1 and appears to have been the  
first which was brought to a state of   
tolerable perfection4 ,the discovery of 
the mode of communicating it1 is stated 
to have been accidental4 ,a shepherd's  
dog1 while on the sea-shore1 incited by 
hunger1 broke a shell1 the contents of  
which stained his mouth with a beautiful
 purple2 and the circumstance suggested 
the application of the shell-fish1 as a 
coloring substance4 ,this discovery is  
thought to have been made about fifteen 

hundred years before the advent of      
,christ4  #ab4 ,the ,jews esteemed this 
color so highly1 that they consecrated  
it especially to the service of the     
,deity1 using it in stuffs for          
decorating the tabernacle1 and for the  
sacred vestments of the high-priests4   
,the ,babylonians and other idolatrous  
nations clothed their idols in habits of
 purple1 and even supposed this color   
capable of appeasing the wrath of the   
gods4  #ac4 ,among the heathen nations  
of antiquity generally1 purple was      
appropriated to the use of kings and    
princes1 to the exclusion of their      
subjects4 ,in ,rome1 at a later period1 
purple habits were worn by the chief    
officers of the republic1 and1 at       
length1 by the opulent1 until the       
emperors reserved to themselves the     
distinguished privilege4  #ad4 ,there   
were several kinds of shell-fish1 from  
which this coloring substance was       
obtained1 each of which communicated a  
shade somewhat different from the       

others4 ,the kind collected near ,tyre  
was the best2 and hence the ,tyrian     
purple acquired especial celebrity4 ,so 
highly was it esteemed by the ,romans1  
in the time of ,augustus1 that wool     
imbued with this color was sold for one 
thousand denarii per pound1 which1 in   
our currency1 amounts to one hundred and
 sixty-eight dollars4  #ae4 ,after all1 
the boasted purple of antiquity is      
supposed to have been a very inferior   
dye1 when compared with many which we   
now possess2 and this is only one among 
many instances1 wherein modern science  
has given us a decided superiority over 
the ancients4  #af4 ,the color1 second  
in repute with the people of antiquity1 
was scarlet4 ,this color was            
communicated by means of an insect1     
called coccus1 and which is now         
denominated kermes4 ,besides the various
 hues of purple and scarlet1 several    
others were in some degree of favor2    
such as green1 orange1 and blue4 ,the   
use of vegetable dyes appears to have   

been but little known to the ,romans2   
but the ,gauls had the knowledge of     
imparting various colors1 even the      
purple and scarlet1 with the juice of   
certain herbs4  #ag4 ,the irruption of  
the northern barbarians into the ,roman 
empire1 destroyed this1 with the rest of
 the arts of civilization1 in the       
western parts of ,europe2 but1 having   
been preserved1 more or less1 in the    
,east1 it was again revived in the      
,west1 principally by means of the      
intercourse arising from the ,crusades4 
#ah4 ,although indigo seems to have been
 known to the ancient ,greeks and       
,romans1 yet it does not appear to have 
been used for dyeing4 ,the first that   
was applied to this purpose in ,europe1 
was brought from ,india by the ,dutch2  
but its general use was not established 
without much opposition from interested 
individuals4 ,it was strictly prohibited
 in ,england1 in the reign of           
,elizabeth1 and1 about the same time1 in
 ,saxony4 ,many valuable acquisitions   

were made to the materials employed in  
this art1 on the discovery of ,america1 
among which may be enumerated1          
cochineal1 logwood1 ,brazil-wood1 and   
,nicaragua1 together with the soft maple
 and quercitron barks4  #ai4 ,the first 
book on the art of dyeing was published 
in #adbi4 ,this1 of course1 appeared in 
manuscript1 as the art of printing had  
not then been discovered4 ,an edition   
was printed in #aeaj4 ,the authors to   
whom the world is most indebted for     
correct information on this subject1 are
 ,dufuy1 ,hallet1 ,macquir1 and         
,berthollet1 of ,france2 and ,henry and 
,bancroft1 of ,england2 all of whom     
wrote in the eighteenth century4   ,,the
 ,,calico-,,printer4  #a4               
,calico-printing is a combination of the
 arts of dyeing1 engraving1 and         
printing1 wherewith colors are applied  
in definite figures4 ,this art is       
applicable to woven fabrics1 and chiefly
 to those of which the material is      
cotton4  #b4 ,the first object1 after   

preparing the stuffs1 as in dyeing1 is  
to apply a mordant to those parts of the
 piece which are to receive the color4  
,this is now usually done by means of a 
steel or copper cylinder1 on which have 
been engraved the proposed figures1 as  
on plates for copperplate-printing4  #c4
 ,during the printing1 the cylinder1 in 
one part of its revolution1 becomes     
charged with the mordant1 the           
superfluous part of which is scraped off
 by a straight steel edge1 leaving only 
the portion which fills the lines of the
 figures4 ,as the cylinder revolves1 the
 cloth comes into forcible contact with 
it1 and receives the complete impression
 of the figures1 in the pale color of   
the mordant4  #d4 ,the cloth1 after     
having been washed and dried1 is passed 
through the coloring bath1 in which the 
parts previously printed1 become        
permanently dyed with the intended      
color4 ,although the whole piece        
receives the dye1 yet1 by washing the   
cloth1 and bleaching it on the grass in 

the open air1 the color is discharged   
from those parts not impregnated with   
the mordant4  #e4 ,by the use of        
different mordants1 successively        
applied1 and a single dye1 several      
colors are often communicated to the    
same piece of cloth2 thus1 if stripes   
are first made with the acetate of      
alumina1 and then others with the       
acetate of iron1 a coloring bath of     
madder will produce red and brown       
stripes4 ,the same mordants1 with a dye 
of quercitron bark1 give yellow and     
olive or drab4  #f4 ,sometimes1 the     
second mordant is applied by means of   
engravings on wooden blocks4 ,cuts1     
designed for this purpose1 are engraved 
on the side of the grain1 and not on the
 end1 like those for printing books4    
#g4 ,calico-printing1 so far as chemical
 affinities are concerned1 is the same  
with dyeing4 ,the difference consists1  
chiefly1 in the mode of applying the    
materials1 so as to communicate the     
desired tints and figures4 ,the         

dye-stuffs1 most commonly employed by   
calico-printers1 are indigo1 madder1 and
 quercitron bark2 by a dexterous        
application of these and the mordants1 a
 great variety of colors can be         
produced4 ,indigo1 being a substantive  
color1 does not require the aid of      
mordants1 but1 like them1 when other    
dyes are used1 is applied directly to   
the cloth1 sometimes by the engraved    
cylinder or block1 and at others with   
the pencil by hand4  #h4                
,calico-printing was practised in ,india
 twenty-two centuries ago1 when         
,alexander the ,great visited that      
country with his victorious army4 ,the  
operation was then performed with a     
pencil4 ,this method is still used in   
the ,east to the exclusion of every     
other4 ,the art was also practised in   
,egypt in ,pliny's time4  #i4 ,calicoes 
were first brought to ,england in the   
year #afca4 ,they derive their name from
 the city of ,calicut1 whence they were 
first exported to ,europe4 ,this branch 

of business was introduced into ,london 
in the year #afgf4 ,since that time1 it 
has been encouraged by several acts of  
,parliament2 but it never became        
extensive in ,england1 until the        
introduction of machinery for spinning  
cotton4 ,it is supposed1 that the amount
 of cottons annually printed in the     
,united ,states1 cannot be less than    
twenty millions of yards4               
,illustration3 ,,hatter4  ,,the         
,,hatter4   #a4 ,the business1 peculiar 
to the hatter1 consists in making hats  
from the fur or hair of animals1 by the 
process called felting4 ,the hair of    
animals is the only material which can  
be firmly matted together in this way2  
yet1 that of every animal is not        
suitable for this purpose4 ,the fur of  
the beaver1 the otter1 the seal1 the    
muskrat1 the rabbit1 the hare1 the      
coney1 and the nutria1 together with the
 wool of the lama1 sheep1 and camel1 are
 employed to the exclusion of almost    
every other4  #b4 ,the skin of all      

animals having fur1 is covered with two 
kinds of hair2 the one1 long and coarse2
 the other1 short1 fine1 and thickly    
set4 ,the coarse hair is pulled out from
 the skin1 by the aid of a shoe-knife1  
and thrown away1 while the fine1 which  
is the fur1 is cut from it with one of a
 circular form1 such as the saddlers and
 harness-makers use in cutting leather4 
#c4 ,in the application of the          
materials1 the first object of the      
hatter is to make the body4 ,in the     
common three1 four1 and five dollar     
hats1 the body is composed of the wool  
of the sheep2 but1 in those of greater  
value1 it is usually made of the wool of
 the lama1 and different kinds of cheap 
furs4 ,in describing the process of     
making hats1 one of the latter kind will
 be selected4  #d4 ,a sufficient        
quantity of the materials for the body  
is weighed out1 and divided into two    
equal parts4 ,one of these is placed on 
a table1 or1 as the hatters call it1 a  
hurl4 ,the individual hairs composing   

this portion1 are separated1 and lightly
 and regularly spread out into a proper 
form1 by the vibrations of a bow-string1
 which is plucked with a wooden pin4    
#e4 ,the fur is then carefully          
compressed with a flat piece of         
wicker-work1 denominated a hatter's     
basket1 and covered with a damp piece of
 linen cloth1 in which it is afterwards 
folded1 pressed1 and worked1 with the   
hands1 until it becomes matted together 
into a bat4 ,this bat is next folded    
over a triangular piece of paper1 and   
formed into a conical cap4  #f4 ,when   
another bat has been made in the same   
way1 from the other half of the         
materials1 the two are put together to  
form one1 which is then worked in the   
damp cloth as before1 until it is much  
contracted and matted together4 ,after  
this1 having been conveyed to another   
room1 it is rolled in a woollen cloth1  
pressed1 rubbed1 and worked1 with the   
hands and a rolling-pin1 around a kettle
 of hot water1 into which it is often   

plunged during the operation1 which is  
called planking4  #g4 ,in this way1 the 
materials are consolidated into felt1   
and the body contracted to the proper   
size4 ,the reason why the process just  
described produces this effect1 may be  
found in the nature of the fibres       
themselves4 ,upon a close examination1  
it will be observed1 that these are     
covered with little scales1 or beards1  
which admit of motion in one direction1 
but retard it in the other4 ,this       
peculiar formation causes them to       
interlock in such a way as to become    
closely matted together4  #h4 ,when the 
body has been dried1 and shaved on the  
knee with a sharp knife1 to free it from
 projecting filaments1 it is stiffened  
with gum-shellac dissolved in alcohol1  
and then steamed in a box1 to cause the 
stiffening to set4 ,it is now prepared  
for being napped4  #i4 ,the fur for the 
nap is prepared on the hurl1 like the   
conical cap first described4 ,in        
applying the nap to the body1 the latter

 is wet with hot water1 and flakes of   
the former are matted down upon it1 by  
working it on the planks around the     
kettle4 ,after three layers have been   
put on in this way1 the cap is beaten1  
while wet1 with sticks1 to raise the    
nap1 and then drawn over a cylindrical  
block1 which gives it the general form  
of a hat4  #aj4 ,the nap having been    
raised with a card1 the hat is prepared 
to be colored4 ,the dye is made1        
chiefly1 of the extract of logwood1     
copperas1 and verdigris4 ,the hats1 to  
the number of forty-eight or more1 are  
hung upon a wheel by means of pegs1     
which pass through the centre of the    
blocks4 ,this wheel can be turned1 so as
 to keep one half of the hats           
alternately in the dye4 ,after having   
been properly colored1 they are taken   
from the blocks1 washed1 and dried4     
#aa4 ,the hat is now prepared for the   
finisher1 who first whips up the nap    
with a ratan1 and1 after having rendered
 it pliable with steam1 draws it over   

the finishing block4 ,the fibres        
composing the nap1 are properly disposed
 with a card and brush1 and rendered    
smooth and glossy by means of a hot     
iron4 ,the superfluous part of the rim  
is cut off with a blade1 placed in a    
gauge4 ,the hat is finished by adding   
suitable trimmings1 the nature of which1
 and the mode of application1 can be    
easily learned by examining different   
kinds of hats4  #ab4 ,hats of various   
colors have been worn2 but those most in
 use are black1 white1 and drab4 ,the   
white hats1 which are intended only for 
ladies and children1 have a nap of      
rabbits' fur1 selected from the white   
skins4 ,drab hats are also made of      
stuffs of the natural color1 assorted   
for that purpose4  #ac4 ,the value of   
hats depends1 of course1 upon the       
workmanship1 and the cost of the        
materials used in the manufacture4 ,so  
great is the difference in these        
respects1 that their price ranges       
between seventy-five cents and fifteen  

dollars4 ,the woollen bodies used by    
hatters are now often procured from     
persons1 who devote their attention     
exclusively to their manufacture4  #ad4 
,several years ago1 woollen cloths were 
made in ,england1 by the process of     
felting2 but1 on trial1 they were found 
to be deficient in firmness and         
durability4 ,since the year #ahdj1 an   
,american citizen has been manufacturing
 cloths by this method2 but1 whether    
they are liable to the objection just   
mentioned1 is yet uncertain4  #ae4 ,some
 kind of covering for the head1 either  
for defence or ornament1 appears to have
 been usually worn in all ages and      
countries1 where the inhabitants have   
made the least progress in the arts of  
civilized life4  #af4 ,the form1        
substance1 and color1 of this article of
 dress1 have been exceedingly various in
 different ages1 according to the       
circumstances or humor of the wearer4   
,the ancient ,persians wore turbans1    
similar to those of the modern ,turks2  

and the nations inhabiting the ,indian  
,peninsula1 wore a kind of head-dress so
 large1 that it divested the person of  
all proportion4  #ag4 ,the imperial     
turban is said to have been composed of 
a great many yards of muslin1 twisted   
and formed into a shape nearly oval1 and
 surmounted with a woollen cap1         
encircled with a radiated crown4 ,the   
turban of the prime minister was smaller
 in its dimensions1 but of greater      
altitude4 ,the chief magi1 on account of
 his superior eminence1 wore a higher   
turban than those of the monarch and    
minister united4 ,those worn by the     
inferior magi1 were regulated by the    
dignity of the stations which they held4
  #ah4 ,the ,jewish people and the      
neighboring nations borrowed the turban 
from the ,persians2 but1 at a later     
period1 they very commonly adopted the  
cap which the ,romans were accustomed to
 give to their slaves1 on their         
manumission4  #ai4 ,the ancient helmet1 
made of steel1 brass1 and sometimes of  

more costly materials1 was worn as a    
piece of defensive armor in war1 instead
 of the ordinary coverings1 used while  
engaged in peaceful occupations4  #bj4  
,roman citizens went bare-headed1 except
 upon occasions of sacred rites1 games1 
and festivals2 or when engaged in       
travelling or in war4 ,they were        
accustomed1 however1 in the city1 to    
throw over their head the lappet of     
their toga1 as a screen from the wind or
 sun4 ,the people of ,scotland used to  
wear a kind of bonnet1 as in some parts 
of that country they do at the present  
time2 and the ,english1 before the      
invention of felt hats1 covered the head
 with knit caps and cloth hoods1 and    
sometimes with hats made of thrummed    
silk4  #ba4 ,the ,chinese do not wear   
hats1 but use a cap of peculiar         
structure1 which the laws of civility   
will not allow them to put off in       
public4 ,the form and material of this  
is varied with the change of the season4
 ,that used in summer is shaped like a  

cone1 is made of a beautiful kind of    
mat1 and lined with satin2 to this is   
added1 at the top1 a large tuft of red  
silk1 which falls all round to the lower
 part of the cap1 and which fluctuates  
gracefully on all sides1 while the      
wearer is in motion4 ,the kind worn in  
winter is made of shaggy cloth1 bordered
 with some kind of fur1 and ornamented  
in a similar manner4  #bb4              
,head-dresses1 from their variety1      
simplicity1 and mutability1 were but    
little regulated by commercial or       
manufacturing interests1 until the      
introduction of felt hats1 which has    
occasioned a uniformity in this article 
of dress1 unknown in former ages4  #bc4 
,curiosity is naturally excited to      
become acquainted with the particulars  
of the invention of the hat1 and the    
subsequent stages of improvement in the 
manufacture4 ,but the operation of      
individual interest1 so generally       
connected with the useful arts1 seems to
 have concealed the whole in obscurity2 

and little information on the subject   
can now be obtained4  #bd4 ,the hatters 
have a tradition1 that the art of       
felting originated with ,st4 ,clement1  
the fourth bishop of ,rome4 ,under this 
impression1 in ,catholic countries1 they
 adopt him as their patron saint1 and   
hold an annual festival in his honor4   
,the principle of felting is said to    
have been suggested to his mind by the  
following circumstance2 while fleeing   
from his persecutors1 his feet became   
blistered1 and1 to obtain relief1 he    
placed wool between them and his        
sandals4 ,on continuing his journey1 the
 wool1 by the perspiration1 motion1 and 
pressure of the feet1 assumed a compact 
form4  #be4 ,notwithstanding this       
tradition1 it appears1 that felt hats   
were invented at ,paris1 by a ,swiss1   
about the commencement of the fifteenth 
century2 but they were not generally    
known1 until ,charles the ,seventh made 
his triumphal entry into ,rouen1 in the 
year #adib1 when he astonished the      

people by wearing a hat1 lined with red 
silk1 and surmounted with a plume of    
feathers4  #bf4 ,when some of the clergy
 first adopted this article of dress1 it
 was considered an unwarrantable        
indulgence4 ,councils were held1 and    
regulations published1 forbidding any   
priest or monk to appear abroad wearing 
a hat2 and enjoining them to keep to the
 use of chaperons1 or hoods1 made of    
black cloth1 with decent cornets2 if    
they were poor1 they were1 at least to  
have cornets fastened to their hats1    
upon penalty of suspension and          
excommunication4  #bg4 ,at length1      
however1 the pope permitted even the    
cardinals to wear hats2 but1 enjoined   
them to wear those of a red color at    
public ceremonials1 in token of their   
readiness to spill their blood for their
 religion4  #bh4 ,in ,england1          
considerable opposition was made to the 
use of the hat4 ,by a statute1 enacted  
in the thirteenth year of the reign of  
,elizabeth1 every person between certain

 ages was obliged1 on ,sundays and      
holidays1 to wear a woollen cap1 made by
 some of the cappers of that kingdom1   
under the penalty of three shillings and
 four-pence for every day's neglect4    
,this law continued in force1 for about 
twenty-five years4 ,the manufacture of  
hats was commenced1 in ,england1 in the 
time of ,henry the ,eighth1 by ,dutchmen
 and ,spaniards4  #bi4 ,hats made of    
plaited straw1 grass1 or chip1 are much 
used in the summer2 and caps of cloth or
 fur are now frequently substituted for 
hats1 in cold weather4 ,silk hats have  
also been much worn1 since the year     
#ahbe4 ,they are made of the common hat 
body1 and a texture of silk with a long 
nap4 ,the silk is fastened to the body  
with glue4     ,illustration3 ,,rope    
,,maker4  ,,the ,,rope-,,maker4   #a4   
,ropes may be made of any vegetable     
substance which has a fibre sufficiently
 flexible and tenacious4 ,the ,chinese  
and other orientals1 in making ropes1   
use the ligneous parts of certain       

bamboos and reeds1 the fibrous covering 
of the cocoa-nut1 the filaments of the  
cotton pod1 and the leaves of certain   
grasses2 but the bark of plants and     
trees1 is the most productive of fibrous
 matter suitable to this manufacture4   
,that of the linden-tree1 the willow1   
and the bramble is frequently used4 ,in 
,europe and ,america1 however1 the      
fibres of hemp and flax are more        
frequently employed1 for this purpose1  
than any other material4  #b4 ,the      
operations of rope-making are commonly  
performed in rope-walks1 which are      
sometimes more than a quarter of a mile 
in length4 ,these are usually covered   
with a slight shed1 the nature and      
appearance of which are well exhibited  
in the preceding picture4  #c4 ,the     
first part of the process consists in   
spinning the material into yarn4 ,the   
principle on which this is effected1 is 
the same as that by which cotton or wool
 is drawn out and twisted into threads1 
although the machinery1 and the mode of 

operating1 are different4  #d4 ,the kind
 of wheel employed in spinning          
rope-yarn1 is also exhibited in the cut4
 ,a band passes around the periphery1   
and over the semicircle above it1 in    
which is placed a number of wheels1 the 
pivots of which terminate1 on the other 
side1 in a small hook4  #e4 ,the        
spinner1 having a quantity of the       
material properly disposed about the    
waist1 attaches a number of fibres to   
one of the hooks1 which1 being put in   
motion by the band passing over the     
whirl1 twists them rapidly into yarn4   
,the part already twisted draws along   
with it more fibres from the bundle1    
and1 as the spinner is regulating their 
uniform arrangement1 he walks backward  
towards the other end of the walk4  #f4 
,when the thread has been spun to the   
proposed length1 the spinner cries out  
to another1 who immediately takes it off
 from the hook1 gives it to a third     
person1 and1 in turn1 attaches his own  
fibres to the same hook4 ,in the        

meantime1 the first spinner keeps fast  
hold of the end of his yarn1 to prevent 
it from untwisting or doubling2 and1 as 
it is wound on the reel1 proceeds up the
 walk1 keeping the yarn of an equal     
tension throughout4  #g4 ,the second    
part of the process consists in forming 
the yarn into various kinds of ropes4   
,the component parts of cordage are     
called strands2 and the operation of    
uniting them with a permanent twist1 is 
called laying1 when applied to small    
ropes1 and closing1 when applied to     
cables or other large ropes4  #h4 ,the  
simplest twist is formed of two strands4
 ,the thread used by sail-makers1 and   
pack-thread1 furnish examples of this   
kind2 but cordage with two strands is   
not much used2 that with three is the   
most usual4 ,lines and cords less than  
one and a half inches in circumference1 
are laid by means of the spinning-wheel4
 ,preparatory to this operation1 the    
workman fastens the hither end of the   
yarns to separate whirl-hooks1 and the  

remote ends to the hook of a swivel1    
called the loper4  #i4 ,the strands     
having been properly distended1 the     
spinning-wheel is turned in the same    
direction as when twisting the yarns4 ,a
 further twisting of the strands1 during
 this part of the process1 is prevented 
by the motion of the loper1 which gives 
way to the strain1 and1 at the same     
time1 causes the strands to entwine     
about each other1 and form a cord4 ,to  
prevent them from entwining too rapidly1
 an instrument is interposed1 which1    
from its form1 is called the top4 ,it   
has two or more notches1 which terminate
 at the apex1 and a handle1 called a    
staff4 ,as the top is moved from the    
loper to the wheel1 it regulates the    
degree of twist which the cord or rope  
is to receive4  #aj4 ,the principle on  
which large cordage is laid1 or closed1 
is the same1 although some part of the  
machinery is different4 ,the strands for
 large ropes and cables are formed of   
many yarns1 and require considerable    

hardening4 ,this cannot be done with    
whirls driven by a wheel-band2 it       
requires the power of a crank1 turned by
 hand1 or by some other considerable    
force4 ,the strands1 also1 when properly
 hardened1 become very stiff1 and1 when 
bent round the top1 cannot transmit     
force enough to close the unpliant rope3
 it is1 therefore1 necessary that the   
loper1 also1 be moved by a crank4  #aa4 
,cordage1 which is to be exposed to the 
alternate action of air and water1 is   
usually tarred4 ,the application of this
 substance is made1 in most cases1 while
 the material is in a state of yarn4 ,in
 effecting this object1 the threads are 
drawn through boiling tar1 and then     
passed between rollers1 or through holes
 surrounded with oakum1 to remove the   
superfluous tar4 ,in like manner1 ropes 
and cables are superficially tarred4    
#ab4 ,various improvements have been    
made in the machinery1 for performing   
the different operations of rope-making2
 but1 these not having been generally   

adopted1 it is unnecessary to notice    
them more particularly2 especially1 as  
they do not affect the general          
principles of the art4  #ac4 ,within a  
few years1 cotton-yarn has been employed
 in the manufacture of ropes2 but this  
material has not yet been sufficiently  
tested1 to determine its fitness for the
 purpose4 ,a kind of vegetable fibre1   
brought from ,manilla1 and hence called 
,manilla hemp1 is very extensively      
applied in making ropes1 and1 for some  
purposes1 is preferred to other         
materials4  #ad4 ,the intestines of     
animals are composed of very powerful   
fibres1 and those of sheep and lambs are
 manufactured into what is called       
cat-gut1 for the use of musical         
instrument-makers1 hatters1             
watch-makers1 and a variety of other    
artificers4 ,animal hair1 as that from  
the tail and mane of horses1 is         
frequently employed as the material for 
ropes2 and such are durable1 elastic1   
and impervious to moisture4 ,they1      

however1 are not applicable in cases1   
where the rope is subject to            
considerable friction4  #ae4 ,hemp is   
cultivated in various parts of the      
world1 and especially in ,russia1 whence
 it is exported to other countries in   
great quantities4 ,it is also produced1 
to a considerable extent1 in the state  
of ,kentucky1 and in many other parts of
 the ,united ,states4 ,flax is still    
more generally cultivated than hemp2 but
 its chief application is to the        
manufacture of cloth1 as it does not    
answer well for any cordage larger than 
a bed-cord4 ,the formation of cloth from
 hemp is also very common2 and1 in this 
case1 the yarn for the coarse cloths is 
spun on the rope-maker's wheel in the   
manner already described4 ,the cloth is 
generally used for making bags1         
sacking-bottoms for beds1 and sails for 
vessels4  #af4 ,rope-making is a        
manufacture of general utility1 as      
cordage of some kind is used more or    
less in every family in all civilized   

communities2 nor are there many trades  
capable of being carried on1 with       
convenience1 without it4 ,but the great 
utility of cordage1 in all its          
varieties1 is most conspicuous in the   
rigging and equipment of vessels2 and   
the extensive demand for it1 in this    
application1 renders rope-making one of 
the most important and extensive of the 
primitive trades4  #ag4 ,nor does the   
utility of cordage end with its         
application to the purposes for which it
 was originally designed4 ,old ropes are
 converted into oakum by untwisting and 
picking them to pieces4 ,the oakum thus 
produced is driven into the seams of    
vessels1 to render them water-tight4    
#ah4 ,as regards the invention of this  
art1 nothing can be gathered from       
ancient records4 ,we only know1 in      
general1 that cordage was in            
considerable use among the nations of   
antiquity1 especially among the ,greeks 
and ,romans1 who probably learned its   
application to rigging vessels from the 

,phoenicians4     ,illustration3        
,,tailor4  ,,the ,,tailor4   #a4 ,the   
business of the tailor consists1        
principally1 in cutting out and making  
clothes for men and boys1 together with 
habits and cloaks for ladies4 ,it is    
usual for persons who carry on this     
business in cities and large towns1 to  
keep a stock of cloths and other stuffs 
adapted to the season1 which they make  
up into garments to the order of        
customers4 ,in such cases1 they are     
termed merchant tailors4  #b4 ,the      
operation1 preparatory to cutting out   
the cloth for a garment1 is that of     
taking the measure of the person for    
whom it is designed4 ,this is done with 
a narrow strip of paper or parchment1   
and the dimensions are either marked on 
the measure with the scissors1 or       
entered in a pattern-book kept for the  
purpose4  #c4 ,the cloth is cut to the  
proper shape1 with a large pair of      
shears4 ,this is performed either by the
 individual who carries on the business1

 or by a foreman4 ,the parts are sewed  
together1 and the trimmings applied1 by 
means of thread and silk2 this is       
commonly done by those who devote their 
attention to this branch of the trade4  
,it sometimes happens1 however1 that the
 same person performs the whole of the  
work1 particularly in country places1   
where the business is very limited in   
extent4  #d4 ,females often serve an    
apprenticeship to this business4 ,many  
of them learn to cut out1 and make with 
skill1 certain kinds of garments1 and   
are after wards employed in families1 or
 by the tailors4 ,most of the ready-made
 clothing1 kept for sale in cities1 is  
made up by females4  #e4 ,the           
instruments employed in performing the  
operations of the tailor1 are few and   
simple2 the principal of these are the  
shears1 the scissors1 the needle1 the   
thimble1 the bodkin1 the goose1 and the 
press-board4  #f4 ,the great art of a   
master tailor consists in fitting the   
dress to his customer1 in such a manner 

as to conceal any defect of form1 and   
display his person to the best          
advantage4 ,he should1 therefore1 be a  
good judge of the human figure2 as1 from
 this knowledge1 arises1 chiefly1 the   
superiority of one workman over another 
in this branch of the business4  #g4    
,the first hint on the art of clothing  
the human body1 was given to man by the 
,deity himself2 for we read in the      
,scriptures1 that ,unto ,adam and to his
 wife1 the ,lord ,god made coats of     
skins1 and clothed them4 ,from that time
 to the present1 the art of cutting out 
garments1 and of sewing their different 
parts together1 has been practised1 more
 or less1 in every place1 where there   
has been any degree of civilization4    
#h4 ,for a long time1 it is probable1   
that thongs and the sinews of animals   
were used1 for want of thread made of   
silk or vegetable fibre2 and1 doubtless1
 the same necessity caused the          
substitution of pointed bones and       
thorns1 instead of needles4 ,such rude  

materials and instruments are still     
employed for similar purposes by savage 
nations4 ,the dresses of the people of  
,greenland are sewed together with      
thongs made of the intestines of the    
seal1 or of some fish1 which they have  
the skill to cut fine1 after having     
dried them in the air2 and even the     
inhabitants of ,peru1 although          
considerably advanced in civilization1  
when that country was first visited by  
the ,spaniards1 made use of long thorns1
 in sewing and fixing their clothes4    
#i4 ,we have no means of determining the
 period of the world1 when this art was 
first practised1 as a particular        
profession4 ,we know1 in general1 that  
the dress of the ancients was usually   
more simple in its construction than    
that of the people of modern times2 and1
 consequently1 it required less skill to
 put the materials in the required form4
 ,it may1 therefore1 be inferred1 that  
either the females or the slaves of each
 family usually made up the clothing of 

all its members4  #aj4 ,the             
distinguishing dress of the ,romans was 
the toga1 or gown2 as that of the       
,greeks was the pallium1 or cloak4 ,the 
toga was a loose1 woollen robe1 and     
covered nearly the whole person2 it was 
round and close at the bottom1 and open 
at the top1 having no sleeves1 but a    
large flap1 or lappet1 which was either 
thrown over the left shoulder1 or over  
the head1 to protect it from the heat or
 cold4  #aa4 ,the ,romans1 at an early  
period of their history1 used no other  
dress1 and it was also1 at that time1   
worn by the women4 ,afterwards1 they    
wore1 under the toga1 a white woollen   
vest called tunica1 which extended a    
little below the knee4 ,at first it was 
without sleeves4 ,tunics1 reaching to   
the ancles1 or having sleeves1 were     
reckoned effeminate2 but1 under the     
emperors1 they became fashionable4  #ab4
 ,the toga was usually assumed at the   
age of seventeen4 ,until then1 the youth
 wore a kind of gown1 bordered with     

purple1 denominated toga praetexta2 and 
such a garment was also worn by females1
 until they were married4 ,the youthful 
dress was laid aside1 and the toga      
virilis1 or manly toga1 assumed with    
great solemnity2 as1 by this act1 the   
individual assumed the responsibilities 
of a citizen4 ,the toga was worn chiefly
 in the city1 and only by ,roman        
citizens4     ,illustration3 ,,milliner4
  ,,the ,,milliner1 ,,and ,,the         
,,lady',s ,,dress-,,maker4   ,,the      
,,milliner4  #a4 ,the milliner is one   
who manufactures and repairs bonnets and
 hats for ladies and children4 ,her     
business requires the use of pasteboard1
 wire1 buckram1 silks1 satins1 muslins1 
ribands1 artificial flowers1 spangles1  
and other materials too numerous to be  
mentioned4  #b4 ,the first part of the  
process of making a hat1 or bonnet1     
consists in forming a crown of buckram2 
which operation is performed on a block 
of suitable size and shape2 and to this 
is applied pasteboard1 or buckram1 edged

 with wire1 to form the front part4 ,the
 foundation having been thus laid1 it is
 usually covered and lined with some of 
the materials just enumerated1 and      
finished by applying to it the trimmings
 required by the fashion1 or by the     
individual customer4  #c4 ,ladies' hats 
are also made of rye straw1 and a kind  
of grass1 which grows in ,italy2 those  
made of the latter material are called  
,leghorns1 from the name of the city1 in
 or near which they are principally     
made4 ,a few years since1 these had     
almost superseded those made of straw2  
but the latter1 of late1 have nearly    
regained their former ascendency4  #d4  
,in the ,united ,states1 and likewise in
 various parts of ,europe1 there are    
several establishments for making straw 
hats1 in which the proprietors employ   
females to perform the whole labor4 ,the
 straw is first cut into several pieces1
 so as to leave out the joints1 and then
 whitened by smoking them with the fumes
 of brimstone4 ,they are next split     

longitudinally into several pieces by a 
simple machine1 and afterwards plaited  
with the fingers and thumbs4 ,the braid1
 or plait1 thus produced1 is sewn       
together to form hats adapted to the    
prevailing fashion4  #e4 ,great         
quantities of straw are1 also1 plaited  
in families1 especially in the          
,new-,england states1 and sold to       
neighboring merchants1 who1 in turn1    
dispose of it to those who form it into 
hats4 ,the milliners usually keep a     
supply of ,leghorn and straw hats1 which
 they line and trim according to the    
fancy of their customers4  #f4          
,head-dresses were probably used nearly 
as early as any other part of dress2 and
 their form and material have likewise  
been equally variable4 ,in the early    
days of ,rome1 the head-dress of the    
women of that city was very simple2 and1
 when they went abroad1 which was       
seldom1 they covered their faces with a 
veil2 but1 when riches and luxury had   
increased1 dress became1 with many1 the 

principal object of attention2 hence1 a 
woman's toilet and ornaments were called
 her world4  #g4 ,the head-dresses of   
the ladies1 in various parts of ,europe1
 especially in the eighteenth century1  
were particularly extravagant1 being    
sometimes so high1 that the face seemed 
to be nearly in the centre of the body4 
,in #agad1 this fashion was at its      
height in ,france2 but two ,english     
ladies visiting the court of            
,versailles1 introduced the low         
head-dresses of their own country4  #h4 
,the high head-dresses had no sooner    
fallen into disuse in ,france1 than they
 were adopted in ,england1 and even     
carried to a greater degree of          
extravagance4 ,to build one of these    
elevated structures in the fashionable  
style1 both the barber and milliner were
 necessary4 ,the head-dresses of the    
ladies of the present age1 are          
characterized by great simplicity1 when 
compared with those of several periods  
in preceding ages4   ,,the ,,lady',s    

,,dress-,,maker4  #a4 ,this business is 
nearly allied to the foregoing1 and is1 
therefore1 often carried on in          
conjunction with it4 ,this is especially
 the case in villages and small towns1  
where sufficient business cannot be     
obtained in the exclusive pursuit of one
 branch4  #b4 ,the customers of the     
lady's dress-maker are not always easily
 pleased1 as they frequently expect more
 from her skill than it is possible to  
accomplish4 ,she1 however1 can do much  
towards concealing the defects of       
nature2 and1 by padding and other means1
 can sometimes render the person        
tolerably well proportioned1 when1 in   
its natural shape1 it would be quite    
inelegant4 ,it is to be regretted1      
however1 that dress-makers are guided by
 fashion and whim in moulding the       
external form of females1 rather than by
 the best specimens of the human figure1
 as exhibited by eminent painters and   
sculptors4  #c4 ,the dress-maker should 
have some acquaintance with the anatomy 

and functions of those parts to which   
pressure is usually applied2 for1 who   
that knows the structure1 size1 and     
office of the liver1 and other internal 
organs of digestion and vitality1 would 
venture to apply to them a compressive  
force calculated to interfere most      
seriously1 if not dangerously1 with     
their healthful action8  #d4 ,the       
fashions for ladies' dresses are chiefly
 procured from ,france1 and the         
dress-makers from that country are1     
therefore1 often preferred by           
fashionable ladies4 ,sometimes1 however1
 a dress-maker1 having a name with a    
,french termination1 will answer the    
purpose4  #e4 ,corset-making is         
frequently a separate branch of         
business2 but corsets have become less  
necessary2 inasmuch as small waists are 
less admired by the gentlemen than      
formerly4 ,on this account1 also1 the   
ladies have discovered that tight lacing
 is somewhat uncomfortable1 especially  
in hot weather1 and in crowded          

assemblies4     ,illustration3 ,,barber4
  ,,the ,,barber4   #a4 ,it is the      
business of the barber to cut and dress 
the hair1 to make wigs and false curls1 
and to shave the beards of other men4   
,in ancient times1 he used also to trim 
the nails2 and even at the present day1 
in ,turkey1 this is a part of his       
employment4  #b4 ,the period1 when men  
began to shave their beards1 is not     
certainly known4 ,it appears that the   
practice was common among the           
,israelites in the time of ,moses2 as   
that legislator has left on record a    
prohibitory law concerning it4 ,they    
probably borrowed the custom from the   
,egyptians4 ,it is stated by ,plutarch1 
that ,alexander the ,great ordered his  
men to be shaved1 that their enemies    
might not lay hold of their beards in   
time of battle4 ,before this time1      
however1 many of the ,greeks shaved     
their beards4  #c4 ,the practice does   
not appear to have been introduced      
amongst the ancient ,romans1 until about

 the year #bif before the ,christian    
era1 when ,paulus ,ticinius ,maenas     
brought to ,rome a number of barbers    
from ,sicily4 ,scipio ,africanus was the
 first man who shaved his beard every   
day4  #d4 ,at first1 the barbers had no 
shops1 but shaved their customers at the
 corners of the streets4 ,after a while1
 they followed their vocation in shops1 
or shades2 and1 at this period1 it was  
customary for females to officiate in   
the various branches of the art4 ,these 
places1 however1 were frequented only by
 the poorer class of the people1 as     
opulent families generally kept slaves  
for the performance of these duties4    
,the day on which a young ,roman first  
cut off his beard1 was celebrated by him
 and his friends as one of peculiar     
interest2 and this much-desired         
indication of manhood was consecrated to
 some one of the gods1 generally to     
,jupiter ,capitolinus4  #e4 ,the return 
of barbarism1 in the fifth and sixth    
centuries1 banished this custom from the

 ,western empire2 nor was it again      
revived in ,europe1 until the           
seventeenth century4 ,during the reigns 
of ,louis ,,xiii4 and ,louis ,,xiv4 of  
,france1 both of whom ascended the      
throne in boyhood1 the courtiers and    
fashionable people began to use the     
razor1 that they might appear with      
smooth chins1 and thus resemble1 in this
 particular1 the youthful monarchs4     
,from ,france1 the fashion1 at length1  
spread all over ,europe4 ,at one time1  
in the reign of the ,english queen      
,elizabeth1 the fellows of ,lincoln's   
,inn were compelled by statute to shave 
their beards1 at least1 once in two     
weeks4 ,omission was punished with fine1
 loss of commons1 and finally with      
expulsion4  #f4 ,the custom of shaving  
was introduced into ,russia by ,peter   
the ,great1 who compelled his subjects  
to pay a tax for the privilege of       
retaining their beards4 ,this singular  
impost was exceedingly unpopular1 and   
excited greater complaints amongst the  

people than any other measure of that   
emperor4 ,the decree was rigidly        
enforced1 and every one who would not1  
or could not1 pay the tax1 was forcibly 
deprived of this favorite ornament1 if  
he would not remove it voluntarily4     
,some of the people saved the sad       
trimmings of their chins2 and1 that they
 might never be entirely separated from 
these precious relics1 ordered that they
 should be deposited with their bodies  
in their coffins4  #g4 ,among the       
,european nations that have been curious
 in whiskers1 the ,spaniards have been  
particularly distinguished2 and the loss
 of honor among them used to be punished
 by depriving the individual of his     
whiskers4  #h4 ,the ,portuguese were but
 little1 if at all1 behind the          
,spaniards in their estimate of these   
valuable ornaments4 ,as an evidence of  
this1 it is stated1 that1 in the reign  
of ,catharine1 ,queen of ,portugal1 the 
brave ,john de ,castro1 having taken the
 castle of ,diu in ,india1 and being    

afterwards in want of money1 applied to 
the inhabitants of ,goa to loan him one 
thousand piastres1 and1 as security for 
that sum1 sent them one of his whiskers1
 telling them that ,all the gold in the 
world cannot equal the value of this    
natural ornament of my valor4 ,the      
people1 in admiration of his            
magnanimity1 sent him the money1 and1 at
 the same time1 returned his            
incomparable whisker4  #i4 ,in the reign
 of ,louis ,,xiii4 of ,france1 whiskers 
attained the highest degree of favor4   
,they also continued in fashion during  
the early part of the succeeding reign4 
,louis ,,xiv4 and the great men of      
,france1 took a pride in wearing them4  
,it was no uncommon thing1 at that time1
 for the ladies to comb and dress the   
whiskers of their beaux2 and the men of 
fashion were particular in providing    
whisker-wax1 and every article necessary
 to this agreeable pastime4  #aj4 ,the  
whiskers belonging to the image of the  
,chinese philosopher ,confucius1 which  

is preserved by his countrymen1 are     
supposed to be capable of conferring    
upon those who might wear them1 a       
portion of the wisdom and manly beauty  
of that illustrious sage4 ,great care1  
however1 is taken that none shall enjoy 
these great personal qualifications by  
such easy means2 as decapitation is the 
penalty for plucking the whiskers from  
the position which they occupy4  #aa4   
,when the practice of shaving off the   
beard was again revived in ,europe1     
instrumental music was employed in the  
barber's shop1 to amuse customers       
waiting their turn2 but1 at the present 
time1 newspapers are furnished for this 
purpose4 ,in taking off the beard1 soft 
water1 good soap1 a brush1 and a sharp  
razor1 are the usual requisites4 ,the   
razor should be placed nearly flat on   
the face1 and be moved from point to    
heel4 ,barbers have usually some regular
 customers1 many of whom have a box of  
soap and a brush appropriated to their  
individual use4  #ab4 ,in ancient times1

 great attention was paid to dressing   
the hair4 ,the ,hebrew women plaited1   
and afterwards confined it with gold and
 silver pins2 they also adorned it with 
precious stones4 ,the ,greeks1 both male
 and female1 at every period of their   
ancient history1 wore long hair1 which  
they usually permitted to hang          
gracefully upon the shoulders1 back1 and
 sometimes upon the breast4  #ac4 ,adult
 males1 among the ,romans1 usually wore 
their hair short1 and dressed with great
 care1 especially in later ages1 when   
attention to this part of the person was
 carried to such excess1 that ointments 
and perfumes were used even in the army4
 ,the hair was cut for the first time1  
when the boy had attained his seventh   
year1 and the second time1 when he was  
fourteen years old4 ,his locks1 at each 
cutting1 were commonly dedicated to     
,apollo or ,bacchus4  #ad4 ,both men and
 women1 among the ,greeks and ,romans1  
sometimes permitted their hair to grow  
in honor of some divinity4 ,the ,jews1  

also1 when under the vow of a ,nazarite1
 were not permitted to trim their hair  
or beards4 ,in grief and mourning1 the  
,romans suffered their hair and beards  
to grow4 ,the ,greeks1 on the contrary1 
when in grief1 cut their hair and shaved
 their beards1 as likewise did some of  
the barbarous nations of early time4    
#ae4 ,artificial hair began to be       
fashionable1 at an early period1 and was
 used by the ,greeks1 ,carthaginians1   
and ,romans4 ,in the time of ,ovid1     
blond hair was in great favour at ,rome2
 and those ladies who did not choose to 
wear wigs1 powdered their hair with a   
kind of gold dust4 ,they wore hanging   
curls all round the head1 to which they 
were fastened with circular pins of     
silver4 ,every wealthy ,roman lady of   
fashion kept at least one slave to      
frizzle and curl the hair4  #af4 ,the   
time1 when wigs first came into use1    
cannot now be ascertained4 ,it is       
certain1 however1 that they were worn by
 females a long time before they became 

fashionable among the men4  #ag4 ,wigs1 
perukes1 or periwigs1 were revived in   
the seventeenth century4 ,in the reign  
of ,louis ,,xiii41 or about the year    
#afbi1 they became fashionable at       
,paris2 and1 as that city was generally 
imitated by the rest of ,europe in      
things of this nature1 they soon became 
common4 ,the wigs were very large1 as   
may be seen by examining ancient        
portraits1 and were covered with a      
profusion of hair-powder4 ,at first1 it 
was disreputable for young people to    
wear them1 as the loss of the hair at an
 early age was attributed to a disease1 
which was1 of itself1 discreditable4    
#ah4 ,when wigs were first introduced   
into ,england1 some of the clergy       
opposed them violently1 considering     
their use more culpable than wearing    
long hair2 since1 as they alleged1 it   
was more unnatural4 ,many preachers     
inveighed against wigs in their sermons1
 and cut their own hair shorter to      
manifest their abhorrence of the        

reigning mode4  #ai4 ,the worldly-wise1 
however1 observed that a periwig        
procured for the wearer a degree of     
respect and deference which otherwise   
might not have been accorded2 and hence 
there was a strong tendency to the use  
of this appendage4 ,the judges and      
physicians1 especially1 understood well 
this influence of the wig1 and gave to  
it all the advantages of length and     
breadth4 ,the fashion1 at length1 was   
adopted by the ecclesiastics themselves1
 not only in ,england1 but in most of   
the ,european kingdoms1 as well as in   
the ,british colonies of ,america4  #bj4
 ,the fashion1 however1 except in cases 
of baldness1 wherein alone it is        
excusable1 is now nearly banished from  
,europe and ,america4 ,this desirable   
change was effected principally by the  
example of republican ,america1 and by  
the influence of the ,french            
,revolution4 ,the law passed in ,england
 in #agie1 imposing a tax of a guinea a 
head per annum on those who wore        

hair-powder1 contributed to the same    
result1 as well as to diminish the use  
of that article4  #ba4 ,the manufacture 
of wigs and false curls is an important 
branch of the business of the barber4   
,the first process in forming a wig is  
to produce1 in the hair about to be used
 for this purpose1 a disposition to     
curl4 ,this is done by winding it on a  
cylinder of wood or earth1 and          
afterwards boiling it in water4 ,it is  
then dried1 and baked in an oven4 ,thus 
prepared1 it is woven on a strong       
thread1 and is subsequently sewn on a   
caul fitted to the head4 ,false curls   
are made on the same principle4  #bb4   
,wigs and false curls were not made in  
ancient times precisely in the same     
manner2 although their appearance1 when 
finished1 was probably similar4 ,the    
hair was then attached directly to a    
piece of thin leather1 by means of some 
adhesive substance1 or composition4     
#bc4 ,many barbers1 especially those who
 have a reputation for making wigs and  

false curls in a fashionable style1 keep
 for sale perfumery1 as well as a       
variety of cosmetics4  #bd4 ,from the   
eleventh to the eighteenth century1     
surgical operations were almost         
exclusively performed by the barbers and
 bath-keepers4 ,as phlebotomy was one of
 the chief sources of profit to the     
barbers1 they adopted a sign            
emblematical of this operation4 ,it     
consisted of a pole1 representing the   
staff which the individual held in his  
hand1 while the blood was flowing from  
the arm4 ,the white band wound spirally 
about the pole1 represented the fillet  
of linen with which the arm was         
afterwards secured4  #be4 ,it is hardly 
necessary to remark1 that the same sign 
is still employed by the barbers2       
although1 with a few exceptions1 they   
have ceased to perform the operation of 
which it was significant4               
,illustration3 ,,tanner  ,,currier4     
,,the ,,tanner1 ,,and ,,the ,,currier4  
,,the ,,tanner4  #a4 ,the art of tanning

 consists in converting hides and skins 
into leather1 by impregnating them with 
astringent matter4  #b4 ,it is          
impossible to determine the period at   
which the art of tanning was discovered4
 ,it was doubtless known to the         
ancients1 and probably to the           
antediluvians1 in some degree of        
perfection2 since skins were applied as 
means of clothing the human body1 before
 the arts of spinning and weaving were  
practised4 ,it is likely1 however1 that 
they were applied to this purpose1 for a
 considerable time1 in their natural    
state2 and that accident1 at length1    
suggested the means of rendering them   
more applicable1 by saturating them with
 certain mineral or vegetable           
substances4  #c4 ,although the art of   
converting skins into leather was       
practised in remote ages1 yet it was not
 until near the end of the eighteenth   
century1 that the true principle of the 
process was understood4 ,before this    
time1 it was supposed1 that the         

astringent principle of the agents      
employed1 was a resinous substance1     
which adhered mechanically to the       
fibres1 and thus rendered them firm and 
insoluble4 ,the correct explanation was 
first given by ,deyeux1 and afterwards  
more fully developed by ,m4 ,seguin4    
,these chemists clearly proved1 that the
 formation of leather was the result of 
a chemical union between a substance    
called tannin1 and the gelatinous part  
of the skin4  #d4 ,the subject1 however1
 was not thoroughly understood1 and     
reduced to scientific principles1 until 
the year #ahjc1 when ,sir ,humphrey     
,davy gave it a careful investigation1  
in a series of chemical experiments4    
,these inquiries resulted in the        
conviction1 that the method of tanning  
which had been in general use1 may1 with
 a few alterations1 be considered       
preferable to that by which the process 
is carried on with more rapidity4  #e4  
,the skin which envelopes the bodies of 
animals1 consists of three layers4 ,that

 on the outside is a thin1 white1       
elastic membrane1 called the cuticle1 or
 scarf skin2 that on the inside is a    
strong membrane1 denominated the cutis1 
or true skin2 between these two is a    
very thin membrane1 to which anatomists 
have given the name rete mucosum1 and in
 which is situated the substance which  
gives color to the animal4 ,the cutis is
 composed of fibres1 which run in every 
direction1 and1 being by far the        
thickest layer1 is the one that is      
converted into leather4  #f4 ,the skins 
of large animals1 such as those of the  
ox and horse1 are denominated hides2 and
 those of smaller animals1 as of the    
calf1 goat1 and sheep1 are called skins4
 ,of the former description1 is made    
thick1 of the latter1 thin leather4 ,the
 process of tanning different skins     
varies in many particulars1 according to
 the nature of the leather1 and the uses
 to which it is to be applied4  #g4 ,the
 general process of changing thick hides
 into sole-leather1 is as follows3 ,they

 are first soaked in water1 to free them
 from dirt and blood2 and then1 if      
rigid1 they are beaten and rubbed1 or   
rolled under a large stone1 to render   
them pliable4 ,they are next soaked in  
lime-water1 or hung up in a warm room1  
and smoked1 until a slight putrescency  
takes place4 ,the hair1 cuticle1 rete   
mucosum1 on one side1 and the fleshy    
parts on the other1 are then scraped    
off1 on a beam1 with a circular knife4  
#h4 ,nothing now remains but the cutis1 
or true skin4 ,several hides1 in this   
state of preparation1 are put together  
into a vat1 for the purpose of          
impregnating them with tannin4 ,this    
substance is found in astringent        
vegetables1 and is obtained1 in a proper
 state for application1 by infusion in  
water4 ,in that condition1 it is called 
ooze1 which is first applied in a weak  
state4  #i4 ,after the ooze1 of         
different degrees of strength1 has been 
renewed several times1 they are put     
between layers of bark1 and suffered to 

remain several months1 fresh bark1 from 
time to time1 being supplied4 ,the whole
 process generally occupies from twelve 
to sixteen months4 ,when strong         
solutions of tannin are used1 the       
leather is formed in a much shorter     
time2 but1 in that case1 it is much more
 rigid1 and more liable to crack4 ,it is
 rendered smooth and compact1 by beating
 it with a wooden beetle1 or by passing 
it between rollers4  #aj4 ,oak bark1 on 
account of its cheapness1 and the       
quantity of tannin which it contains1 is
 more extensively employed by tanners   
than any other vegetable substance4 ,in 
sections of country1 where this kind    
cannot be conveniently obtained1 the    
bark of the hemlock1 spruce1 and        
chestnut1 the leaves of the sumach1 and 
various other astringents1 are          
substituted4  #aa4 ,the process of      
tanning calf-skins is somewhat different
 in many of its details4 ,they are first
 put into a solution of lime1 where they
 remain during ten or fifteen days1 and 

are then scraped on both sides on the   
beam1 with a circular knife1 as in the  
former case1 and for the same purpose4  
,they are then washed in water1 and     
afterwards immersed in an infusion of   
hen or pigeon's dung4 ,here they are    
left for a week or ten days1 according  
to the state of the weather and other   
circumstances2 during which time1 they  
are frequently handled1 and scraped on  
both sides4 ,by these means1 the lime1  
oil1 and saponaceous matter1 are        
discharged1 and the skin is rendered    
pliable4  #ab4 ,they are next put into a
 vat containing weak ooze1 and          
afterwards removed to several others of 
regularly increasing strength4 ,in the  
mean time1 they are taken up and handled
 every day1 that they may be equally    
acted upon by the tanning principle4    
,the time occupied in the whole process1
 is from two to six months4 ,the light  
and thin sorts of hides1 designed for   
upper leather1 harnesses1 c41 are       
treated in a similar manner4  #ac4 ,the 

tanner procures his hides and skins from
 various sources1 but chiefly from the  
butcher1 and from individuals who kill  
the animals for their own consumption4  
,great quantities of dry hides are also 
obtained from ,south ,america1 where    
cattle are killed in great numbers1     
principally for the sake of this        
valuable envelope of their bodies4      
,,the ,,currier4  #a4 ,it is the        
business of the currier to dress the    
thinner kinds of leather4 ,in most      
cases1 in the ,united ,states1 except in
 and near large cities1 the business of 
tanning and currying are usually united 
in the same individual2 or1 at least1   
the two branches of business are carried
 on together1 by the aid of workmen1    
skilled in their respective trades4  #b4
 ,the mode of dressing the different    
kinds of skins1 varies in some respects2
 but1 as the general method of operating
 is the same in every sort1 a           
description applicable in one case will 
convey a sufficiently accurate idea of  

the whole4 ,we shall1 therefore1 select 
the calf-skin1 since it is more         
frequently the subject of the currier's 
skill than any other4  #c4 ,the skin is 
first soaked in water1 until it has     
become sufficiently soft1 and then      
shaved with the currier's knife1 on the 
inner side1 over the currier's beam4 ,it
 is then placed on a table1 somewhat    
inclined from the workman1 and scoured  
on both sides with the edge of a narrow1
 smooth stone1 set in a handle1 and     
again1 with an iron sleeker of a similar
 shape4 ,the skin is next stuffed with a
 composition of tallow and tanner's oil1
 on the flesh side1 and then hung up to 
dry4 ,afterwards it is rubbed on the    
hair side with a board1 and again       
scraped on the flesh side with the      
knife4 ,having been thus prepared1 the  
skin is blacked on the flesh side with  
lampblack and tanner's oil1 and         
subsequently rubbed with paste1 applied 
with a brush4 ,when it has been dried1  
the whole process is finished by rubbing

 both sides with a glass sleeker4  #d4  
,horse hides are blacked on the hair    
side1 or1 as the curriers term it1 on   
the grain1 with a solution of copperas  
water4 ,leather designed for harnesses1 
for covering carriages1 and for other   
similar purposes1 is also blacked on    
that side in the same manner4  #e4 ,the 
trade of the currier is divided into two
 or three branches4 ,some dress only    
calf-skins and other thick leather      
designed for shoes1 harnesses1 and      
carriages2 others confine themselves to 
dressing skins1 which are to be applied 
to binding books1 and to other purposes 
requiring thin leather4 ,it may be well 
to remark here1 that the dressers of    
thin leather usually tan the skins      
themselves1 using the leaves of sumach1 
instead of bark4     ,illustration3     
,,shoemaker4  ,,the ,,shoe ,,and ,,boot 
,,maker4   #a4 ,as the shoe is an       
article of primary utility1 it was used1
 more or less1 in the earliest ages4    
,some writers suppose1 that the ,deity1 

in clothing man with skins1 did not     
leave him to go barefooted1 but gave him
 shoes of the same material4  #b4 ,the  
shoes of the ancient ,egyptians were    
made of the papyrus4 ,the ,chinese1 as  
well as the inhabitants of ,india1 and  
some other nations of antiquity1        
manufactured them from silk1 rushes1    
linen1 wood1 the bark of trees1 iron1   
brass1 silver1 and gold1 and sometimes  
ornamented them with precious stones4   
#c4 ,the ,romans had various coverings  
for the feet1 the chief of which were   
the calceus and the solea4 ,the calceus 
somewhat resembled the shoe we wear at  
present1 and was tied upon the instep   
with a latchet or lace4 ,the solea1 or  
sandal1 was a thick cork sole1 covered  
above and beneath with leather1 and     
neatly stitched on the edge4 ,it left   
the upper part of the foot bare1 and was
 fastened to it by means of straps1     
which were crossed over the instep1 and 
wound about the ankle4 ,roman citizens  
wore the calceus with the toga1 when    

they went abroad in the city1 while the 
solea was worn at home and on journeys4 
,the solea was also used at             
entertainments2 but it was changed for  
the calceus1 when the guests were about 
to surround the table4  #d4 ,the        
senators wore shoes1 which came up to   
the middle of the leg1 and which had a  
golden or silver crescent on the top of 
the foot4 ,the shoes of the women were  
generally white1 sometimes red1 scarlet1
 or purple1 and were adorned with       
embroidery and pearls2 but those of the 
men were mostly black4 ,on days of      
public ceremony1 however1 the           
magistrates wore red shoes4  #e4 ,boots 
were used in very ancient times1 and    
were primarily worn1 as a kind of armor1
 with a view of protecting the lower    
extremities in battle4 ,they were1 at   
first1 made of leather1 afterwards of   
brass or iron1 and were proof against   
the thrusts and cuts of warlike weapons4
 ,the boot was called ocrea by the      
,romans1 who1 as well as the ,greeks1   

used it in the army1 and in riding on   
horseback1 and sometimes in pedestrian  
journeys4  #f4 ,the fashion of boots and
 shoes1 like every other part of dress1 
has been subject to a number of changes1
 as regards both their form and         
material4 ,in ,europe1 about one        
thousand years ago1 the greatest princes
 wore shoes with wooden soles4 ,in the  
reign of ,william ,rufus1 of ,england1  
the shoes of the great had long1 sharp  
points1 stuffed with tow1 and twisted   
like a ram's horn4 ,the clergy preached 
against this fashion2 but the points    
continued to increase in length1 until  
the reign of ,richard the ,second1 when 
they were tied to the knees with chains 
of silver or gold4 ,in the year #adfc1  
,parliament interposed1 and prohibited  
the manufacture or use of shoes or boots
 with pikes exceeding two inches in     
length4  #g4 ,lasts adapted to each     
foot1 commonly called rights and lefts1 
were not introduced into ,england1 until
 about the year #aghe2 nor was cramping1

 or crimping1 the front part of boots   
practised there for ten years after that
 period4 ,these improvements did not    
become generally known1 or1 at least1   
were not much used1 in the ,united      
,states1 for many years after their     
adoption in ,great ,britain4  #h4 ,many 
facts1 besides the preceding1 might be  
adduced to prove1 that the art of making
 shoes and boots1 although              
uninterruptedly practised from the      
earliest ages1 has received many        
important improvements within the last  
fifty years4  #i4 ,in ,europe and       
,america1 boots and shoes are commonly  
made of leather4 ,in shoes for females1 
however1 it is not unusual to use       
prunello1 which is a kind of twilled1   
worsted cloth4 ,in all cases1 thick     
leather is used for the soles4  #aj4    
,the business of making boots and shoes 
is carried on very systematically in    
large establishments4 ,the materials are
 cut out and fitted by the foreman1 or  
by the person who carries on the        

business1 whilst the pieces are stitched
 together1 and the work finished1 by    
workmen who sit upon the bench4  #aa4   
,as a matter of convenience1 the trade  
have fixed upon certain sizes1 which are
 designated by numbers2 and1            
corresponding to these1 the lasts are   
formed by the last-maker2 but1 to be    
still more exact1 individuals sometimes 
procure lasts corresponding to their    
feet1 on which they cause their boots   
and shoes to be made4  #ab4 ,the        
following is a description of the       
process of making a leather shoe3 after 
the materials have been cut out         
according to the measure1 or size1 and  
the parts of the uppers have been       
stitched together1 the sole-leather is  
hammered on the lapstone1 tacked to the 
last1 and trimmed with a knife4 ,the    
upper leather is next stretched on the  
last with a pair of pincers1 fastened to
 its proper place with tacks1 and then  
sewed to the bottom of the sole with a  
waxed thread4 ,a narrow strip of        

leather1 called a welt1 is also fastened
 to the sole by similar means1 and to   
this is stitched another sole4 ,a heel  
being added1 the shoe is finished by    
trimming and polishing it with          
appropriate instruments4  #ac4 ,the     
edges of fine leather shoes and boots1  
are trimmed with thin strips of the like
 material1 whilst those of prunello1 and
 other thin shoes for ladies1 are bound 
with narrow tape4 ,the binding is       
applied by females with thread1 by means
 of a common needle4  #ad4 ,shoe-thread 
is commonly spun from flax2 that from   
hemp is much stronger1 and was formerly 
preferred2 but it is now used only for  
very strong work4 ,the greater part of  
the shoe-thread used in the ,united     
,states1 is spun by machinery1 at       
,leeds1 in ,england1 from ,russian flax4
 ,the wax employed by shoemakers1 was   
formerly composed of tar and rosin2 but 
it is now most usually made of pitch4   
#ae4 ,the shoemaker1 in sewing together 
different parts of his work1 uses       

threads of various sizes1 which are     
composed of several small threads of    
different lengths4 ,a hog's bristle is  
fastened to each end of it1 which       
enables the workman to pass it with     
facility through the holes made with the
 awl4  #af4 ,an expeditious way of      
fastening the soles of boots and shoes  
to the upper leathers1 is found in the  
use of wooden pegs or brass nails4 ,the 
old method1 however1 is generally       
preferred1 on several accounts2 but     
chiefly1 because the work is more       
durable1 and because it can be more     
easily repaired4  #ag4 ,journeymen      
working at this trade most usually      
confine their labours to particular     
kinds of work2 as few can follow every  
branch with advantage4 ,some make shoes 
and boots for men2 others confine their 
labours to those designed for ladies2   
but1 by their aid1 the master-shoemaker 
can1 and usually does1 supply every kind
 at his store4  #ah4 ,it is no uncommon 
thing in the country1 for the farmers to

 purchase leather1 and employ the       
shoemaker to make it up2 and this is    
done1 in most cases1 on their own       
premises4 ,the shoemaker employed in    
this way1 removes from house to house1  
changing his location1 whenever he has  
completely served a whole family in his 
vocation4 ,in such cases1 he is said1 by
 the trade1 to be whipping the cat4 ,the
 set of tools with which he operates1 is
 called his kit4  #ai4 ,the shoemaker   
usually buys his leather from the       
manufacturer2 and procures his tools1   
tacks1 and various other articles of a  
similar nature1 at the finding stores4  
,in some cases1 the shoemaker with      
little or no capital1 gets his materials
 from the leather-cutter1 who makes it a
 business to supply them ready cut to   
the proper size and shape4 ,there are1  
however1 but few leather-cutters in our 
country2 but1 in ,england1 this branch  
of trade is one of considerable         
importance1 and is frequently connected 
with that of the leather-dresser4       

,illustration3 ,,harness ,,maker c4     
,,the ,,saddler ,,and ,,harness-,,maker1
 ,,and ,,the ,,trunk-,,maker4   ,,the   
,,saddler ,,and ,,harness-,,maker4  #a4 
,the invention of the saddle has been   
attributed to the ,selians1 a people of 
ancient ,franconia4 ,under this         
impression1 it has been supposed that   
the ,latins gave it the name of sella4  
,the period at which it was first used1 
cannot be ascertained4 ,it is certain1  
however1 that the horse had been        
rendered subservient to man1 several    
centuries before this convenient article
 was thought of4  #b4 ,at first1 the    
rider sat upon the bare back of the     
animal1 and guided him with a switch1   
but afterwards with a strap put round   
the nose4 ,in the course of time1 the   
rider came to use1 upon the back of the 
horse1 the skins of beasts1 in order to 
render his seat more easy4 ,the ,greeks1
 and many other refined nations of      
antiquity1 sometimes used superb        
trappings1 composed of cloth1 leather1  

and skins dressed with the hair on2 and1
 in addition to the gold1 silver1 and   
precious stones1 with which these were  
ornamented1 the horses were often       
otherwise decked with bells1 collars1   
and devices of various kinds4  #c4 ,the 
,romans1 in the days of the republic1   
deemed it more manly to ride on the bare
 back of the animal than on coverings4  
,at a later period1 they used a kind of 
square pannel1 without stirrups2 and    
about the year #cdj of the ,christian   
era1 they began to ride on saddles4 ,it 
appears1 that those first employed were 
very heavy1 as the ,emperor ,theodosius1
 in the same century1 forbade the use of
 any which weighed over sixty pounds4   
,the use of saddles was established in  
,england by ,henry the ,seventh1 who    
enjoined on his nobility the practice of
 riding upon them4  #d4 ,the frame of a 
saddle is called a tree4 ,it is not made
 by the saddlers1 but by persons who    
confine their attention to this branch  
of business4 ,the trees are constructed 

of wood1 with a small quantity of iron1 
and covered with canvas4  #e4 ,in making
 a common saddle1 the workman first     
extends two strips of straining web from
 the pommel to the hinder part of the   
tree1 and fastens them with tacks4 ,the 
tree is then covered on the upper side  
with two thicknesses of linen cloth1    
between which a quantity of wool is     
afterwards interposed4 ,a covering of   
thin leather1 usually made of           
hog's-skin1 is next tacked on1 and the  
flaps added4 ,under the whole are placed
 the pads and saddle-cloth2 the former  
of which is made of thin cotton or linen
 cloth1 and thin leather1 stuffed with  
hair4 ,the addition of four straps1 two 
girths1 two stirrup-leathers1 and as    
many stirrups1 completes the whole      
operation4  #f4 ,the roughness1 or the  
little indentations in the flaps1 are   
produced by passing the leather between 
rollers1 in contact with a rough        
surface1 or by beating it with a mallet1
 on the face of which has been fastened 

a piece of the skin from a species of   
shark1 commonly called the dog-fish4    
#g4 ,saddles are often covered with     
buckskin1 curiously stitched into       
figures1 and having the spaces between  
the seams stuffed with wool2 this is    
particularly the case in side-saddles4  
,the form of saddles1 and the quality of
 the materials1 together with the       
workmanship1 are considerably varied1 to
 suit the purposes to which they are to 
be applied1 and to accommodate the fancy
 of customers4  #h4 ,the process of     
making bridles and harness for horses1  
is extremely simple4 ,the leather is    
first cut out with a knife of some      
description1 but usually with one of a  
crescent-like form1 or with a blade set 
in a gauge1 and then stitched together  
with the kind of thread used by         
shoemakers4 ,the awl employed in        
punching the holes is straight2 and     
needles are most commonly used1 instead 
of the bristles which point the         
shoemaker's threads4 ,the mode of       

manufacturing saddle-bags1 portmanteaus1
 and valises1 is too obvious to need    
description4   ,,the ,,trunk-,,maker4   
#a4 ,the manufacture of trunks is       
equally simple with that of making      
harness4 ,in common cases1 it consists  
chiefly in lining the inside of a wooden
 box with paper1 or some kind of cloth1 
and covering the outside with a skin1 or
 with leather1 which is fastened to the 
wood by means of tacks4 ,narrow strips  
of leather are fastened upon hair trunks
 with brass nails1 by way of ornament1  
as well as to confine the work4  #b4    
,instead of a wooden box1 oblong rims of
 iron1 and very thick1 solid pasteboard1
 fastened together by means of strong   
thread1 are used in the best kinds of   
trunks4 ,the frame or body1 thus formed1
 is covered with some substantial       
leather1 which is first stuck on with   
paste1 and then secured by sewing it to 
the pasteboard with a waxed thread4     
,over the whole1 are applied strips of  
iron1 fastened with brass or copper     

nails with large heads4 ,the lines and  
figures on the leather1 added by way of 
ornament1 are produced by a crease1 a   
tool made of wood1 ivory1 or whalebone4 
,its form is much like that of the blade
 of a common paper-folder4  #c4 ,how    
long trunk-making has been a separate   
trade1 cannot be exactly ascertained4   
,the trunk-makers in ,france were       
incorporated into a company1 in #aeif4  
,in the ,united ,states1 this branch of 
business is very commonly united with   
that of the saddler and harness-maker4  
,illustration3 ,,soap  ,,candle ,,maker4
  ,,the ,,soap-,,boiler1 ,,and ,,the    
,,candle-,,maker4   ,,the               
,,soap-,,boiler4  #a4 ,the business of  
the soap-boiler consists in             
manufacturing soap1 by the combination  
of certain oily and alkaline substances4
  #b4 ,the earliest notice of this      
useful article occurs in the works of   
,pliny1 in which it is stated1 that soap
 was composed of tallow and ashes2 that 
the mode of combining them was          

discovered by the ,gauls2 but that the  
,german soap was the best4  #c4 ,for    
many ages before the invention of soap1 
saponaceous plants1 and several kinds of
 earth1 together with animal matters and
 the ley from ashes1 were employed for  
the purpose of cleansing the skin1 and  
articles of clothing4 ,the idea of      
combining some of these substances1 with
 the view of forming soap1 probably     
originated in accident4  #d4 ,the       
vegetable oils and animal fats1 capable 
of saponification1 are very numerous2   
but those most commonly employed in the 
manufacture of the soaps of commerce1   
are olive-oil1 whale-oil1 tallow1 lard1 
palm-oil1 and rosin2 and the alkalies   
with which these are most frequently    
combined1 are soda1 the ley of ashes1 or
 its residuum1 potash4  #e4 ,soda is    
sometimes called the mineral alkali2    
because it is found1 in some parts of   
the world1 in the earth4 ,it was known  
to the ancients1 at a very early period1
 under the denomination of natron4 ,it  

received this appellation from the lakes
 of ,natron1 in ,egypt1 from the waters 
of which it was produced by evaporation1
 during the summer season4  #f4 ,the    
soda of commerce is now chiefly obtained
 from the salsola1 a genus of plants    
which grows on the sea-shore4 ,in       
,spain1 the plant from which soda is    
obtained is denominated barilla2 hence1 
the substance produced from it by       
incineration has received the same      
appellation4 ,the ashes of a sea-weed   
which grows on the coasts of ,scotland  
and ,ireland1 is called kelp4 ,in       
,europe1 barilla and kelp are more      
extensively employed in the manufacture 
of soap than any other alkaline         
substances2 but1 in this country1 where 
wood is so much used for fuel1 common   
ashes are generally preferred4  #g4 ,the
 process of making the ordinary brown or
 yellow soap1 from wood-ashes1 is       
conducted in the following manner4 ,the 
alkali is first obtained in a state of  
solution in water1 by leeching the ashes

 as described in page #bf1 and then     
poured1 in a weak state1 into a copper  
or iron caldron1 having a large wooden  
tub carefully affixed to the top of it4 
#h4 ,when the ley has been properly     
heated1 the tallow1 either in a tried   
state or in the suet1 is gradually      
added4 ,more ley1 of greater            
concentration1 is poured in2 and the    
ingredients are moderately boiled for   
several hours2 while a person1 as       
represented in the preceding cut1 aids  
their chemical union by agitating them  
with a wooden spatula4  #i4 ,after a    
quantity of rosin has been added1 and   
properly incorporated with the other    
materials1 the fire is withdrawn until  
the next morning1 when it is again      
raised2 then1 with the view of forming  
the paste into hard soap1 a quantity of 
muriate of soda 7common salt7 is added4 
,the muriatic acid of this substance1   
uniting with the potash1 forms with it  
muriate of potash1 which dissolves in   
the water1 while the soda combines with 

the tallow and rosin4 ,hard soap1       
therefore1 contains no potash2 although 
this alkali is generally employed during
 the early part of the process of making
 it4  #aj4 ,after the addition of the   
muriate of soda1 the boiling and        
stirring are continued two or three     
hours1 when the fire is withdrawn1 and  
the contents of the caldron are suffered
 to be at rest4 ,when the soap has      
completely separated from the watery    
part and extraneous matters1 it is laded
 into another caldron1 again diluted    
with strong ley1 and heated4 ,the paste 
having been brought to a proper         
consistence1 more common salt is added  
as before1 and for the same purposes4   
#aa4 ,the chemical part of the process  
having been thus completed1 the soap is 
laded into single wooden boxes1 or into 
one or more composed of several distinct
 frames1 which can be removed separately
 from the soap1 after it has become     
solid enough to stand without such      
support4 ,the soap is cut into bars1 of 

nearly a uniform size1 by means of a    
small brass wire4  #ab4 ,manufacturers  
of soap have contrived various methods  
of adulterating this article1 or of     
adding ingredients which increase its   
weight1 without adding to its value4    
,the most common means employed for this
 purpose is water1 which may be added1  
in some cases1 in considerable          
quantities1 without greatly diminishing 
the consistence of the soap4  #ac4 ,this
 fraud may be detected by letting the   
soap lie for some time exposed to the   
atmosphere4 ,the water will thus be     
evaporated1 and its quantity can be     
known by weighing the soap1 after its   
loss of the superfluous liquid4 ,to     
prevent evaporation1 while the soap     
remains on hand1 it is said1 that some  
dealers keep it in saturated solutions  
of common salt4 ,another method of      
adulteration is found in the use of     
pulverized lime1 gypsum1 or pipe-clay4  
,these substances1 however1 can be      
easily detected by means of a solution  

in alcohol1 which precipitates them4    
#ad4 ,the process of manufacturing soft 
soap1 differs but little in its details 
from that described in the preceding    
paragraphs4 ,the chief difference       
consists in omitting the use of salt4   
,soft soap1 therefore1 is composed of a 
greater proportion of water1 and more   
alkali than is necessary to saturate the
 unctuous matters4 ,soft soap is made by
 almost every family in the country1    
from ashes1 grease1 and oily matters1   
reserved for the purpose4  #ae4 ,the    
celebrated ,marseilles white soap1 is   
composed of      ,soda1                 
#f4     ,olive-oil1                     
#fj4     ,water1                        
#cd4  ,castile soap1 of      ,soda1     
#i4     ,olive-oil1                     
#gf4e4     ,water1 with a little        
coloring matter1  #ad4e4  ,fine         
toilet-soaps are made with oil of       
almonds1 nut-oil1 palm-oil1 suet1 or    
butter1 combined with soda or potash1   
according to their preparation in a     

solid or pasty state4  #af4 ,in the     
manufacture of white soap1 the tallow is
 more carefully purified1 and no rosin  
is used4 ,in other particulars1 the     
process differs but little from that    
employed in the production of the common
 kind4 ,two tons of tallow should yield 
three tons of white soap4 ,in making the
 same quantity of common brown or yellow
 soap1 twelve hundred weight less is    
required1 on account of the substitution
 of that amount of yellow rosin4  #ag4  
,the mottled appearance of some soaps is
 caused by dispersing the ley through   
it1 towards the close of the operation1 
or by adding a quantity of sulphate of  
iron1 indigo1 or the oxide of manganese4
 ,castile soap1 now manufactured in the 
greatest perfection at ,marseilles1 in  
,france1 receives its beautifully       
marbled appearance from the sulphate of 
iron4   ,,the ,,candle-,,maker4  #a4    
,the subject of the candle-maker's      
labors may be defined to be a wick1     
covered with tallow1 wax1 or spermaceti1

 in a cylindrical form1 which serves1   
when lighted1 for the illumination of   
objects in the absence of the sun4 ,the 
business of candle-making is divided    
into two branches2 the one is confined  
to the manufacturing of tallow candles1 
and the other1 to making those composed 
of wax or spermaceti4  #b4 ,the process 
of making candles from tallow1 as       
conducted by the tallow-chandler1 needs 
only a brief description1 since it      
differs but little from the method      
pursued by families in the country1 with
 which most persons are familiar4 ,the  
difference lies chiefly in the          
employment of a few conveniences1 by    
which the candles are more rapidly      
multiplied4  #c4 ,the first part of the 
process consists in preparing a wick1 to
 serve as a foundation4 ,the coarse and 
slightly twisted yarn used for this     
purpose1 is spun in the                 
cotton-factories2 and1 being wound into 
balls1 is1 in that form1 sold to the    
tallow-chandlers1 as well as to         

individuals who make candles for their  
own consumption4  #d4 ,a sufficient     
number of threads is combined1 to form a
 wick of a proper size2 and1 as they are
 wound from the balls1 they are measured
 off1 and cut to the proper length1 by a
 simple contrivance1 which consists of a
 narrow board1 a wooden pin1 and the    
blade of a razor4 ,the pin and razor are
 placed perpendicular to the board1 at a
 distance determined by the length of   
the proposed wick4 ,the wicks are next  
put upon cylindrical rods1 about three  
feet long2 and a great number of these  
are arranged on a long frame4  #e4 ,to  
obtain the tallow in a proper state for 
use1 it is separated from the membranous
 part of the suet1 by boiling the latter
 in an iron or copper kettle1 and then  
subjecting the cracklings to the action 
of a press4 ,the substance that remains1
 after the tallow has been expressed1 is
 called greaves1 which are sometimes    
applied to fattening ducks for market4  
,this is especially the case in the city

 of ,london4  #f4 ,the tried tallow is  
prepared for application to the wicks1  
by heating it to a proper temperature4  
,it is then poured into a suitable      
receptacle1 where it is kept in order   
either by a moderate fire underneath1 or
 by the occasional addition of hot      
tallow4  #g4 ,the broaches1 as the      
sticks with their wicks are called1 are 
taken up1 several at a time1 either     
between the fingers or by means of a    
simple instrument denominated a rake1   
and dipped into the tallow4 ,they are   
then returned to the frame1 and suffered
 to cool1 while successive broaches are 
treated in the same way4 ,the dipping is
 repeated1 until the candles have been  
thickened to the proper size4  #h4 ,in  
the preceding plate1 is represented a   
workman in the act of dipping several   
broaches of candles1 suspended on a     
rake1 which he holds in his hands4 ,the 
mode of making dipped candles just      
described1 is more generally practised  
than any other1 and in this manner five 

or six hundred pounds can be made by one
 hand1 in a single day4 ,in some        
establishments1 however1 a more         
complicated apparatus is used1 by which 
every part of the process is greatly    
expedited4  #i4 ,mould candles are made 
very differently4 ,the moulds consist of
 a frame of wood1 in which are arranged 
several hollow cylinders1 generally made
 of pewter4 ,at the lower extremity of  
each cylinder1 is a small hole1 for the 
passage of the wick1 which is introduced
 by means of a hook on the end of a     
wire4 ,the cotton is fastened at the    
other end1 and placed in a perpendicular
 situation in the centre of the shafts1 
by means of a wire1 which passes through
 the loops of the wicks4 ,the melted    
tallow1 having been poured on the top of
 the wooden frame1 descends into each   
mould4 ,after the candles have become   
sufficiently cold1 they are extracted   
from the cylinders with a bodkin1 which 
is inserted into the loop of the wick4  
,one person can thus mould two or three 

hundred pounds in a day4  #aj4 ,candles 
are also made of bees-wax and           
spermaceti2 but the mode of their       
manufacture differs in no particular    
from that of common mould candles4 ,the 
wicks for wax-candles are usually made  
of a peculiar kind of cotton1 which     
grows in ,asiatic ,turkey4  #aa4 ,before
 the wax is applied to this purpose1 the
 coloring matter is discharged4 ,this is
 effected by bleaching the wax1 in the  
following manner4 ,it is first divided  
into flakes1 or thin laminae1 by pouring
 it1 in a melted state1 through a       
colander upon a cylindrical wheel1      
which1 at the same time1 is kept        
revolving1 while partly immersed in cold
 water4 ,the wax1 having been removed   
from the water1 is placed upon a table  
or floor covered with some kind of      
cloth4 ,here it is occasionally         
sprinkled with water1 until the         
bleaching has been completed4 ,the      
process occupies several weeks1 or even 
months1 according to the state of the   

weather1 that being best which is most  
favorable to a rapid evaporation4  #ab4 
,spermaceti is a substance separated    
from sperm oil1 which is obtained from a
 species of whale1 called physeter      
macrocephalus1 or spermaceti cachalot4  
,this oil is obtained from both the head
 and body of the animal1 but that       
procured from the former contains twice 
the quantity of spermaceti4  #ac4 ,to   
separate the spermaceti from the oil    
yielded by the body1 it is first heated1
 then put into casks1 and suffered to   
stand two or three weeks1 in order to   
granulate4 ,the oily part is now        
filtrated through strainers2 and the    
remainder1 which is called foots1 is    
again heated1 and put into casks4 ,after
 having stood several weeks1 these are  
put into bags1 and submitted to the     
action of a powerful press4 ,the        
spermaceti thus obtained1 is melted and 
moulded into cakes4 ,the oil thus       
separated from the spermaceti1 is called
 spring or fall strained2 because it is 

filtered and expressed only during those
 seasons of the year4  #ad4 ,the oil    
from the head of the whale is treated   
like that from the body1 in almost every
 particular4 ,the difference consists1  
principally1 in omitting the use of the 
strainer1 and in the employment of      
stronger bags and a more powerful press4
 ,the oil obtained from the head-matter1
 is called pressed1 since it is         
separated by the action of the press    
only4 ,it is also denominated           
winter-strained1 because the operation  
is performed in the cold weather4  #ae4 
,the spermaceti1 having been melted and 
moulded into cakes1 is reserved until   
the succeeding summer1 when it is cut   
into thin shavings1 by means of a large 
shave1 similar to the spoke-shave of the
 wheelwrights1 and again pressed as     
before4 ,the oil of this last pressing  
is called taut pressed1 and is the least
 valuable kind1 since a slight degree of
 cold causes it to become thick4 ,the   
spermaceti obtained from the oil of the 

body1 and that from the head-matter1 are
 melted together1 and purified by means 
of potash-ley4  #af4 ,the sperm-oil1    
thus freed from the spermaceti1 is      
extensively used in lamps as a means of 
illumination2 and1 for many purposes1 it
 is far more convenient than tallow4 ,in
 the country1 lard is frequently        
employed instead of oil1 especially by  
the ,german population4 ,in some        
,european and ,asiatic countries1       
vegetable oils supply the place of      
animal fats1 in this application4  #ag4 
,the origin of the art of making candles
 is not known4 ,it is evident1 however1 
that the business is comparatively      
modern1 since the ,greeks and ,romans1  
as well as other nations of antiquity1  
employed torches of pine and fir1 and   
lamps supplied with oil1 in the         
production of artificial light4 ,the    
words in the ,scriptures translated     
candle1 imply nothing more nor less than
 a light produced by some kind of oil   
consumed in a lamp4  #ah4 ,the lamps in 

ancient times were suspended by a chain 
or cord from the ceiling1 or supported  
on stands and moveable tables1 which    
were called by the ,romans lampadaria1  
or candelabra4 ,many specimens of this  
utensil are preserved in several museums
 of ,europe1 and some have lately been  
found in the ruins of ,herculaneum4     
#ai4 ,the ,chinese make their candles   
from the tallow obtained from the seeds 
and capsules of the tallow-tree4 ,this  
tree1 which is produced in great        
abundance in ,china1 is said to grow in 
various parts of ,south ,carolina and   
,georgia4 ,in appearance1 it resembles  
the ,lombardy poplar4     ,illustration3
 ,,comb-,,maker4  ,,the ,,comb-,,maker1 
,,and ,,the ,,brush-,,maker4   ,,the    
,,comb-,,maker4  #a4 ,the comb is a     
well-known instrument1 employed in      
cleansing1 dressing1 and confining the  
hair4 ,it is made of various materials1 
but most commonly of tortoise-shell1 the
 horns and hoofs of cattle1 ivory1 bone1
 and several kinds of hard wood4  #b4   

,it is impossible to determine the      
period of the world at which it was     
introduced1 since history and tradition1
 the sources from which we obtain       
information of this nature1 are silent  
with regard to its origin4 ,it is       
evident1 however1 that the comb is an   
instrument of primary necessity2 and    
hence it must have been invented in the 
earliest ages4 ,this opinion is         
confirmed by the fact1 that the comb has
 been frequently found in use amongst   
savages1 when first visited by civilized
 men4  #c4 ,combs employed in fixing the
 hair1 are made of tortoise-shell1 or of
 the horns of cattle4 ,the genuine      
tortoise-shell is taken from the testudo
 imbricata1 or hawk's-bill turtle2 but a
 kind of shell1 inferior in quality1 is 
obtained from the testudo caretta1 or   
loggerhead turtle4 ,these turtles       
inhabit the seas of warm and temperate  
climates2 but they are especially       
numerous in the ,west ,indian seas1     
where shell is a valuable article of    

commerce4 ,that from ,st4 ,domingo is   
especially esteemed for its brilliancy  
of shade and color4  #d4 ,the shell of  
the hawk's-bill turtle was extensively  
employed for ornamental purposes by the 
refined nations of antiquity2 although  
we have no account of its application to
 the manufacture of combs4 ,the ,greeks 
and ,romans decorated with it the doors 
and pillars of their houses1 as well as 
their beds and other furniture4 ,the    
,egyptians dealt largely with the       
,romans in this elegant article4  #e4   
,the general length of the hawk's-bill  
turtle is about three feet from the bill
 to the end of the shell2 but it has    
been known to measure five feet1 and to 
weigh five or six hundred pounds4 ,in   
the ,indian ,ocean1 especially1         
specimens of prodigious magnitude are   
said to have occurred4  #f4 ,the shell  
employed in the arts1 grows upon the    
back and feet of the animal4 ,that on   
the back1 consists of thirteen laminae1 
or plates1 which lap over each other1   

like tiles on the roof of a house4 ,the 
plates vary in thickness from one-eighth
 to one-fourth of an inch1 according to 
the age and size of the turtle4 ,the    
quantity of merchantable shell obtained 
from a single subject of the usual size1
 is about eight pounds1 which1 at the   
usual price1 is worth sixty or seventy  
dollars4  #g4 ,the process of making    
combs from the horns of cattle1 is not  
difficult to be understood4 ,the tips   
and buts are first cut off with a saw1  
and the remaining portion is also       
divided longitudinally on one side with 
the same instrument4 ,the horns are then
 soaked for several days1 and afterwards
 boiled in oil1 to render them pliable4 
,they are next spread out and pressed   
between hot iron plates4 ,this operation
 clarifies the horn1 and produces a     
plate of proper thickness4  #h4 ,after  
the plates thus produced1 have been cut 
in pieces corresponding in size to the  
proposed combs1 and when these have been
 shaved to a suitable thickness with    

instruments adapted to the purpose1 the 
teeth are cut either with a twinning    
saw1 as represented in the preceding    
cut1 or with a twinning machine4  #i4   
,in the former case1 the plate is       
fastened with a wooden clamp1 by the    
part which is designed to be left for   
the back of the comb2 and when twins1 or
 two combs1 are to be formed from one   
piece1 the other end is bent down1 so as
 to render the upper surface            
considerably convex4 ,to this surface   
the twinning saw is applied by the hand 
of the workman1 who makes a number of   
incisions2 which are completed both ways
 with two different kinds of saws1 and  
the end of each tooth is cut from the   
back of the opposite comb with an       
instrument called a plugging awl4  #aj4 
,the twinning machine was invented1     
about twenty years ago1 by a ,mr4       
,thomas1 of ,philadelphia2 but it has   
been successfully improved by several   
individuals since that time4 ,it is1    
altogether1 an ingenious and useful     

contrivance4 ,the cutting part consists 
of two chisels1 which are made to act on
 the plate alternately1 and in a        
perpendicular direction1 each chisel    
cutting one side of two teeth1 and      
severing one from the opposite back1 at 
every stroke4 ,it is impossible1        
however1 to form a clear conception of  
the manner in which the machine         
operates1 except by actual inspection4  
,it performs the work with great        
rapidity2 since from one to two hundred 
dozens of combs can be cut in twelve    
hours2 whereas1 not one-fourth of that  
number can be twinned in the old method1
 during the same time4  #aa4 ,after the 
teeth have been rounded1 and in other   
respects brought to the proper form with
 suitable instruments1 the combs are    
polished by rubbing them first with the 
dust of a peculiar kind of brick1 then  
by applying them to a moving cylinder   
covered with buff leather1 charged with 
rotten-stone1 ashes1 or brick-dust2 and1
 finally1 by rubbing them with the hand1

 charged with rotten-stone and vinegar4 
#ab4 ,the combs are next colored1 or    
stained2 and1 as the tortoise-shell is  
by far the best and most expensive      
material for this kind of comb1 the     
great object of the manufacturer is to  
produce colors as nearly resembling     
those of the real shell as practicable4 
,this is done in considerable           
perfection1 in the following manner3    
#ac4 ,the combs are first dipped in     
aqua-fortis1 and then covered with a    
paste made of lime1 pearlash1 and red   
lead4 ,to produce the requisite variety 
of shades1 both taste and judgment are  
necessary in applying the composition1  
and in determining the time which it    
should remain upon the combs4 ,to give  
the combs a still stronger resemblance  
to shell1 they are also immersed for    
fifteen or twenty minutes in a dye of   
,nicaragua4  #ad4 ,the combs having been
 covered with oil1 they are next heated 
upon iron plates1 and brought to the    
desired shape by bending them upon      

wooden blocks with a woollen list4 ,the 
whole process is finished by rubbing off
 the oil with a silk handkerchief4  #ae4
 ,the general process of making shell   
combs differs but little from that which
 has been just described1 varying only  
in a few particulars1 in compliance with
 the peculiar nature of the material4   
#af4 ,on account of the great value of  
shell1 the workmen are careful to make  
the most of every portion of it2        
accordingly1 when a piece falls short of
 the desired size1 it is enlarged by    
welding to it another of smaller        
dimensions4 ,the union is effected1 by  
lapping the two pieces upon each other1 
and then pressing them together between 
two plates of hot iron4 ,the heat of the
 iron is prevented from injuring the    
shell1 by the interposition of a wet    
linen cloth1 and by immersing the whole 
in hot water4 ,in a similar manner1     
broken combs are often mended2 and by   
the same method1 two pieces of horn can 
also be joined together4  #ag4 ,both    

horn and shell combs are often stamped  
with figures1 and otherwise ornamented  
with carved work4 ,in the latter case1  
the ornaments are produced1 by removing 
a part of the material with a saw and   
graver4 ,the saw employed is not more   
than the twelfth of an inch in width2   
and1 being fastened to a frame1 it is   
moved up and down1 with great rapidity1 
by means of the foot1 while the part of 
the comb to be cut away is applied to   
the teeth4 ,the operator is guided in   
the work by a pattern1 which has been   
struck on paper from an engraved plate4 
#ah4 ,combs for dressing and cleansing  
the hair1 are made of horn1 shell1 bone1
 ivory1 and wood2 but it is unnecessary 
to be particular in describing the      
manner in which every kind of comb is   
manufactured4 ,we will only add1 that   
the teeth of fine ivory and bone combs  
are cut with a buzz1 or circular saw1   
which1 fastened to a mandrel1 is moved  
in a lathe4   ,,the ,,brush-,,maker4    
#a4 ,there are few manufactured articles

 in more general use than brushes4 ,this
 has arisen from their great utility1   
and the low prices at which they can be 
purchased4 ,the productions of the      
brush-maker's labor are denominated     
variously1 according to the purposes to 
which they are to be applied4  #b4 ,the 
operations connected with this business 
are very simple1 as there is scarcely a 
tool employed which is not familiar to  
every other class of mechanics4 ,the    
brush-maker1 however1 does not          
manufacture every part of the brush4 ,he
 procures his wooden stocks and handles 
from various sources1 but chiefly from  
the turner1 and bone handles1 from the  
tooth-brush handle-maker4  #c4 ,the     
first part of the process which may be  
considered as belonging particularly to 
the brush-maker1 consists in boring the 
holes for the reception of the bristles4
 ,this is done with a bit of a proper   
size1 which is kept in motion with a    
lathe1 while the wood is brought against
 it with both hands4 ,to enable the     

operator to make the holes in the right 
place and in the proper direction1 a    
pattern is applied to the hither side of
 the stock4  #d4 ,the greater part of   
the bristles used by the brush-makers in
 the ,united ,states1 are imported from 
,russia and ,germany4 ,large quantities1
 however are obtained from              
,pennsylvania1 and some parts of the    
,western ,states4 ,american bristles are
 worth from thirty to fifty cents per   
pound1 a price sufficiently high1 one   
would suppose1 to induce the farmers to 
preserve them1 when they butcher their  
swine4 ,were this generally done1 a     
tolerable supply of the shorter kinds of
 bristles might be obtained in our own  
country4  #e4 ,when the bristles come   
into the hands of the brush-maker1 the  
long and short1 and frequently those of 
different colors1 are mixed together4   
,these are first assorted1 according to 
color2 and those of a whitish hue are   
afterwards washed with potash-ley and   
soap1 to free them from animal fat1 and 

then whitened by bleaching them with the
 fumes of brimstone4  #f4 ,the bristles 
are next combed with a row of steel     
teeth1 for the purpose of placing them  
in a parallel direction1 and with a view
 of depriving them of the short hair    
which may be intermixed4 ,the workman1  
immediately after combing a handful1    
assorts it into separate parcels of     
different lengths4 ,this is very readily
 done1 by pulling out the longest       
bristles from the top1 until those which
 remain in the hand have been reduced to
 a certain length1 which is determined  
by a gauge marked with numbers4 ,at each
 pulling1 the handful is reduced in     
height near half an inch4  #g4 ,the     
stocks and the bristles having been thus
 prepared1 they are next fastened       
together4 ,this is effected either with 
wire or by a composition of tar and     
rosin4 ,the wire is used in all cases in
 which the fibre is doubled2 but when   
the bristles are required in their full 
length1 as in sweeping-brushes1 the     

adhesive substance is employed4  #h4 ,it
 is superfluous to enter into detail1 to
 show the manner in which the wire and  
composition are applied in fixing the   
bristles1 as any person1 with an        
ordinary degree of observation1 can     
readily comprehend the whole1 by        
examining the different kinds of brushes
 which are met with in every            
well-regulated household4 ,the bristles1
 after having been fixed to the stock or
 handle1 are trimmed with the shears or 
knife1 according as they are required to
 be equal or unequal in length4  #i4    
,the brush is next handed over to the   
finisher1 who applies to the back of the
 stock a thin veneer of wood1 which     
secures the wire against the oxidizing  
influence of the atmosphere1 and gives  
to the brush a finished appearance4 ,the
 stock1 together with the veneer1 is    
then brought to the desired shape with  
suitable instruments1 polished with     
sand-paper1 and covered with varnish4   
#aj4 ,those brushes which the           

manufacturer designs to be ornamented1  
are sent in great quantities to the     
ornamenter1 who applies to them various 
figures1 in gold or ,dutch leaf1 japan  
or bronze1 and sometimes prints1 which  
have been struck on paper from engraved 
plates4     ,illustration3              
,,inn-,,keeper4  ,,the                  
,,tavern-,,keeper4   #a4 ,a house in    
which travellers are entertained is     
denominated a tavern1 inn1 coffee-house1
 hotel1 or house of public              
entertainment2 and an individual who    
keeps a house of this description1 is   
called an inn-keeper or tavern-keeper4  
,of these establishments there are      
various grades1 from the log cabin with 
a single room1 to the splendid and      
commodious edifice with more than a     
hundred chambers4  #b4 ,this business is
 one of great public utility2 since1 by 
this means1 travellers obtain necessary 
refreshments and a temporary home1 with 
very little trouble on their part1 and  
that1 in most cases1 for a reasonable   

compensation4 ,this is especially the   
case in the ,united ,states1 where the  
public houses1 taking them together1 are
 said to be superior to those of any    
other country4  #c4 ,travellers1 in the 
early ages of the world1 either carried 
with them the means of sustenance1 and  
protection from the weather1 or relied  
upon the hospitality of strangers2 but1 
as the intercourse between different    
places for the purposes of trade1       
increased1 houses of public             
entertainment were established1 which at
 first were chiefly kept by women4  #d4 
,the people of antiquity1 in every age  
and nation1 whether barbarous or        
civilized1 were1 however1 remarkable for
 their hospitality4 ,we find this virtue
 enjoined in the ,mosaic writings1 and  
scriptures generally1 in the poems of   
,homer1 as well as in other             
distinguished writings1 which have      
descended to our times4 ,the heathen    
nations were rendered more observant of 
the rites of hospitality by the belief1 

that their fabulous gods sometimes      
appeared on earth in human shape2 and   
the ,jews and ancient ,christians1 by   
the circumstance1 that ,abraham         
entertained angels unawares4  #e4 ,on   
account of the occasional acts of       
violence committed by both the guest1   
and the master of the house1 it became  
necessary to take some precautions for  
their mutual safety4 ,when1 therefore1 a
 stranger applied for lodgings1 it was  
customary among the ,greeks for both to 
swear by ,jupiter1 that they would do   
each other no harm4 ,this ceremony took 
place1 while each party stood with his  
foot placed on his own side of the      
threshold2 and a violation of this oath 
by either party1 excited against the    
offender the greatest horror4  #f4 ,the 
,greeks and ,romans1 in common with the 
people of many other nations1 were in   
the habit of making arrangements with   
persons at a distance from their homes1 
for mutual accommodation1 when either   
party might be in the vicinity of the   

other4 ,in these agreements1 the        
contracting parties included their      
posterity1 and delivered to each other  
tokens1 which might be afterwards       
exhibited in proof of ancient ties of   
hospitality between the families4 ,they 
swore fidelity to each other by the name
 of ,jupiter1 who was surnamed the      
,hospitable2 because he was supposed to 
be the protector of strangers1 and the  
avenger of their wrongs4  #g4 ,this     
relation was considered a very intimate 
one1 especially by the ,romans2 and1 in 
their language1 it was called hospitium1
 or jus hospitii2 hence1 the guest and  
entertainer were both called hostes1 a  
word from which host is derived1 which  
is employed to designate both the       
landlord and the guest4 ,the ,roman     
nobility used to build1 for the         
reception of strangers1 apartments      
called hospitalia1 on the right and left
 of the main building of their          
residence4  #h4 ,during the middle ages1
 also1 hospitality was very commonly    

practised2 and the virtue was not       
considered one of those which might be  
observed or neglected at pleasure2 the  
practice of it was even enjoined by     
statute1 in many countries1 as a        
positive duty1 which could not be       
neglected with impunity4 ,in some cases1
 the moveable goods of the inhospitable 
person were confiscated1 and his house  
burned4 ,if an individual had not the   
means of entertaining his guest1 he was 
permitted to steal1 in order to obtain  
the requisite supply4  #i4 ,the nobles  
of ,europe1 during this period1 were    
generally distinguished for their       
cordial entertainment of strangers1 and 
their immediate adherents4 ,their       
extraordinary liberality arose1 in part1
 from the general customs of the age1   
and partly from a desire to attach to   
their interests as great a number of    
retainers as possible1 with a view to   
maintain or increase their political    
importance4 ,strangers were also        
entertained at the monasteries1 which   

were numerous in almost every kingdom of
 ,europe4 ,several of these institutions
 were established in solitary places1   
with the express purpose of relieving   
travellers in distress4  #aj4 ,it is    
evident1 that the arrangements for      
mutual accommodation1 and the hospitable
 character of the ancients1 were        
unfavorable to the business of keeping  
tavern2 but the free intercourse between
 different nations1 which arose from the
 ,crusades1 and the revival of commerce1
 contributed greatly to the habit of    
regularly entertaining strangers for a  
compensation1 and led to the general    
establishment of inns4  #aa4 ,these     
inns1 however1 were not1 at first1 well 
supported2 inasmuch as travellers had   
been long accustomed to seek for        
lodgings in private houses4 ,in         
,scotland1 inns were established by law1
 ,a4,d4 #adbd2 and1 to compel travellers
 to resort to them1 they were forbidden1
 under a penalty of forty shillings1 to 
use private accommodations1 where these 

public houses were to be found4  #ab4   
,how far legislative enactments have    
been employed for the establishment of  
inns in other countries1 we have not    
been able to learn1 as the authorities  
to which we have referred for           
information on this point are silent    
with regard to it4 ,we know1 however1   
that laws have been made in almost every
 part of ,europe1 as well as in the     
,united ,states1 with the view of       
compelling the landlord to preserve     
proper order1 and to accommodate his    
customers at reasonable charges4  #ac4  
,in the ,united ,states1 and in all     
other commercial countries1 this        
business has become one of great        
importance1 not only to the individuals 
who have engaged in it1 but also to the 
community in general4 ,within the       
present century1 the amount of          
travelling has greatly increased1 and   
the excellence of the public houses has 
advanced in the same ratio4 ,some of    
these establishments in the cities and  

large towns1 are among the most         
extensive and splendid edifices of the  
country2 and1 in every place through    
which there is much travelling1 they are
 usually equal or superior to the       
private dwellings of the neighborhood4  
#ad4 ,the business of keeping tavern1   
however1 is not always confined to the  
proper object of entertaining           
travellers1 or persons at some distance 
from home4 ,a public house is frequently
 the resort of the people who live in   
the immediate vicinity1 and is often the
 means of doing much injury1 by         
increasing dissipation4  #ae4 ,in all   
cases in which ardent spirits are       
proposed to be sold1 a license must be  
obtained from the public authorities1   
for which must be paid the sum          
stipulated by law2 but any person is    
permitted to lodge travellers1 and to   
supply them with every necessary means  
of cheer and comfort for a compensation1
 without the formality of a legal       
permission2 yet1 a license to sell      

liquors is called a tavern-license2     
because most tavern-keepers regard the  
profits on the sale of ardent spirits as
 one of their chief objects4  #af4 ,a   
public house in which no strong drink is
 sold1 is called a temperance tavern2   
and such establishments are becoming    
common2 but they are not1 at present1 so
 well supported as those in which the   
popular appetite is more thoroughly     
complied with4 ,the time1 however1 may  
not be far distant1 when the public     
sentiment will undergo such a salutary  
change1 that the tavern-keepers         
generally will find it their best policy
 to relinquish the sale of this         
poisonous article4  #ag4 ,as travellers 
often apply to the bar for something to 
drink1 merely to remunerate the landlord
 for the use of his fire1 or some little
 attention1 the friends of temperance   
would essentially promote their cause1  
by encouraging the practice of paying   
for a glass of water1 or some trifle of 
this kind4 ,this would increase the     

number of temperance taverns1 and1      
perhaps1 be the means of preventing many
 generous people from forming those     
dissipated habits1 which are so often   
attended with ruinous results4          
,illustration3 ,the ,,hunter4  ,,the    
,,hunter4   #a4 ,hunting and fishing are
 usually considered the primary         
occupations of man2 not because they    
were the first employments in which he  
engaged1 but because they are the chief 
means of human sustenance among savage  
nations4  #b4 ,the great and rapid      
increase of the inferior animals1 and1  
probably1 the diminished fertility of   
the soil after the deluge1 caused many  
branches of the family of ,noah to      
forsake the arts of civilized life1     
especially after the dispersion caused  
by the confusion of tongues4  #c4 ,many 
of these families1 or tribes1 continued 
in this barbarous state for several     
ages1 or until their increase of        
numbers1 and the diminished quantity of 
wild game1 rendered a supply of food    

from the objects of the chase extremely 
precarious4 ,necessity then compelled   
them to resort to the domestication of  
certain animals1 and to the cultivation 
of the soil4 ,but the practice of       
hunting wild animals is not confined to 
the savage state2 as it is an amusement 
prompted by a propensity inherent in    
human nature4  #d4 ,the earliest        
historical notice of this sport is found
 in the tenth chapter of ,genesis1 in   
which ,nimrod is styled1 a mighty hunter
 before the ,lord4 ,so great was his    
prowess in this absorbing pursuit1 that 
he was proverbially celebrated on this  
account even in the time of ,moses4     
,nimrod is the first king of whom we    
read in history2 and it is by no means  
improbable1 that his skill and          
intrepidity in subduing the wild beasts 
of the forest1 contributed largely      
towards elevating him to the regal      
station4  #e4 ,although the spoils of   
the chase are of little consequence to  
men1 after they have united in regular  

communities1 in which the arts of       
civilized life are cultivated2 yet the  
propensity to hunt wild animals         
continues1 and displays itself more or  
less among all classes of men4  #f4 ,the
 reader of ,english history will        
recollect1 that ,william the ,conqueror1
 who began his reign in the year #ajff1 
signalized his passion for this         
amusement1 by laying waste1 and         
converting1 into one vast               
hunting-ground1 the entire county of    
,hampshire1 containing1 at that time1 no
 less than twenty-two populous parishes4
 ,severe laws were also enacted1        
prohibiting the destruction of certain  
kinds of game1 except by a few persons  
having specified qualifications4 ,with  
some modifications1 these laws are still
 in force in ,great ,britain4  #g4 ,in  
other countries of ,europe1 also1 large 
tracts have been appropriated by the    
kings and nobles to the same object4    
,this tyrannical monopoly is attempted  
to be justified by the unreasonable     

pretension1 that all wild animals       
belong1 of right1 to the monarch of the 
country1 where they roam4  #h4 ,the     
quadrupeds most hunted in ,europe1 are  
the stag1 the hare1 the fox1 the wolf1  
and the wild boar4 ,these beasts are    
pursued either on account of their      
intrinsic value1 or for sport1 or to rid
 the country of their depredations4 ,in 
some instances1 all three of these      
objects may be united4 ,the method of   
capturing or killing the animals is     
various1 according to the character and 
objects of the persons engaged in it4   
#i4 ,in ,asia1 the wolf is sometimes    
hunted with the eagle2 but1 in ,europe1 
the strongest greyhounds are employed to
 run him down4 ,this task1 however1 is  
one of extreme difficulty1 as he can    
easily run twenty miles upon a stretch1 
and is besides very cunning in the means
 of eluding his pursuers4 ,chasing the  
fox on horseback1 with a pack of hounds1
 is considered an animating and manly   
sport1 both in ,europe and in ,north    

,america4  #aj4 ,the most prominent     
victim of the hunter1 in ,africa1 is the
 lion4 ,he is usually sought in small   
parties on horseback with dogs2 but     
sometimes1 when one of these formidable 
animals has been discovered1 the people 
of the neighborhood assemble1 and       
encircle him in a ring1 three or four   
miles in circumference4 ,the circle is  
gradually contracted1 until the hunters 
have approached sufficiently near to the
 beast1 when they dispatch him1 usually 
with a musket-ball4  #aa4 ,in the       
southern parts of ,asia1 tiger-hunting  
is a favorite amusement4 ,seated upon an
 elephant1 trained especially for the   
purpose1 the hunter is in comparative   
safety1 while he pursues and fires upon 
the tiger1 until his destruction is     
effected4  #ab4 ,the white bear and the 
grisly bear are the most formidable     
animals in ,north ,america2 yet they are
 industriously hunted by both ,indians  
and white men1 on account of the value  
of their flesh and skins4 ,bisons1 or1  

as they are erroneously called1         
buffaloes1 are found in great numbers in
 the vast prairies which occur between  
the ,mississippi and the ,rocky         
,mountains4 ,they are commonly met with 
in droves1 which sometimes amount to    
several thousands4  #ac4 ,when the      
,indian hunters propose to destroy these
 animals1 they ride into the midst of a 
herd1 and dispatch them with repeated   
wounds2 or1 they get a drove between    
themselves and a precipice1 and1 by     
shouting and yelling1 cause the animals 
to crowd each other off upon the rocks  
below4 ,in this manner1 great numbers   
are disabled and taken at once4 ,the    
hunters1 at other times1 drive the      
bisons into inclosures1 and then shoot  
them down at their leisure4 ,the hide of
 this animal is dressed with the hair   
adhering to it2 and skins1 in this      
state1 are used by the savages for beds1
 and by the white people1 in wagons1    
sleighs1 and stages4  #ad4 ,north       
,america1 and the northern parts of     

,asia1 have been1 and1 in some parts1   
still are1 well stocked with fur-clad   
animals2 and these are the principal    
objects of pursuit1 with those who make 
hunting their regular business4 ,some of
 these animals were common in every part
 of ,north ,america1 when this portion  
of the western continent was first      
visited by ,europeans2 and a trade in   
peltries1 more or less extensive1 has   
been carried on with the natives1 ever  
since the first settlement of the       
country4  #ae4 ,for the purpose of      
conducting this trade with advantage1 a 
company was formed in ,england1 in      
#afgj1 by ,prince ,rupert and others1 to
 whom a charter was granted1 securing to
 them the exclusive privilege of trading
 with the ,indians about ,hudson's ,bay4
 ,another company was formed in #aghc-d1
 called the ,north-,west ,fur ,company4 
,between these companies1 there soon    
arose dissensions and hostilities1 and  
many injuries were mutually inflicted by
 the adherents of the parties4 ,both    

associations1 however1 were at length   
united1 under the title of the ,hudson's
 ,bay ,fur ,company4 ,the ,indian trade1
 on the great lakes and the ,upper      
,mississippi1 has long been in          
possession of the ,north ,american ,fur 
,company4 ,most of the directors of this
 company reside in the city of          
,new-,york4  #af4 ,the companies just   
mentioned supply the ,indians with      
coarse blue1 red1 and fine scarlet      
cloths1 coarse cottons1 blankets1       
ribands1 beads1 kettles1 firearms1      
hatchets1 knives1 ammunition1 and other 
articles adapted to the wants of the    
hunters1 receiving1 in return1 the skins
 of the muskrat1 beaver1 otter1 martin1 
bear1 deer1 lynx1 fox1 c4  #ag4 ,the    
intercourse with the ,indians is managed
 by agents1 called clerks1 who receive  
from the company a salary1 ranging from 
three to eight hundred dollars per      
annum4 ,the merchandise is conveyed to  
the place of trade1 in the autumn1 by   
the aid of ,canadian boatmen and        

half-,indians4 ,the most considerable   
portion of the goods are sold to the    
,indians on a credit1 with the          
understanding of their making payment in
 the following spring2 but1 as many     
neglect this duty1 a high price is      
affixed to the articles thus intrusted  
to savage honesty4 ,the clerk furnishes 
the debtor with a trap1 having his own  
name stamped upon it1 to show that the  
hunter has pledged every thing which may
 be caught in it4  #ah4 ,each clerk is  
supplied with four laborers and an      
interpreter4 ,the latter attends to the 
store in the absence of the clerk1 or   
watches the debtors in the ,indian camp1
 lest they again sell the produce of    
their winter's labors4 ,the peltries1   
when obtained by the clerk1 are sent to 
the general agent of the company4  #ai4 
,the fur trade is also prosecuted1 to   
some extent1 by a class of men in       
,missouri1 who proceed from the city of 
,st4 ,louis1 in bodies comprising from  
fifty to two hundred individuals4 ,after

 having ascended the ,missouri river1 or
 some of its branches1 and1 perhaps1    
after having passed the ,rocky          
,mountains1 they separate1 and pursue   
the different animals on their own      
individual account1 either alone or in  
small parties4 ,the ,indians regard     
these men as intruders on their         
territories2 and1 when a favorable      
opportunity is presented1 they          
frequently surprise and murder the      
wandering hunters1 and retain possession
 of their property4  #bj4 ,in           
consequence of the unremitted warfare   
which has1 for a long time1 been carried
 on against the wild animals of ,north  
,america1 their number has been greatly 
diminished2 and1 in many parts1 almost  
every species of the larger quadrupeds1 
and the fur-clad animals1 has been      
exterminated4 ,even on the ,mississippi1
 and the great lakes1 the latter        
description of animals has been so much 
reduced in number1 that the trade in    
peltries1 in those parts1 has become of 

little value4 ,another half century     
will1 probably1 nearly terminate the    
trade in every part of ,north ,america4 
#ba4 ,the fur trade was prosecuted with 
considerable success1 during the latter 
part of the last century1 principally by
 the ,english1 on the north-west coast  
of ,america1 and the adjacent islands4  
,the peltries obtained by these         
enterprising traders1 were carried      
directly to ,china4 ,the trade was      
interrupted for a while by the          
,spaniards1 who laid claim to those     
regions1 and seized the ,british traders
 engaged there1 together with the       
property in their possession4 ,this     
affair1 however1 was afterwards amicably
 adjusted by the ,spanish and ,english  
governments2 and the whole trade1 from  
,california north and to ,china1 was    
opened to the latter4  #bb4 ,the fur    
trade1 in those parts1 is now chiefly in
 the hands of the ,russian ,company in  
,america1 which has a capital of a      
million of dollars invested in the      

business4 ,most of the persons owning   
the stock1 are merchants1 residing at   
,irkutsk1 a town of ,siberia1 which is  
the centre of the fur trade of that     
country4 ,the skins obtained in ,russian
 ,america are chiefly procured from the 
sea-otter1 and several species of seal1 
together with those from foxes1 of a    
blue1 black1 and gray color1 which are  
brought from the interior4 ,parties of  
,russian hunters have already passed the
 ,rocky ,mountains1 and interfered with 
the trade of the ,hudson's ,bay         
,company4 ,the fur trade of ,siberia is 
chiefly carried on with ,china4  #bc4   
,the chief objects of the hunters in    
,siberia1 are the black fox1 the sable1 
the ermine1 the squirrel1 the beaver1   
and the lynx4 ,in the region near the   
,frozen ,ocean1 are also caught blue and
 white foxes4 ,siberia is the place of  
banishment for the ,russian empire2 and 
the exiles were formerly required to pay
 to the government an annual tribute of 
a certain number of sable-skins4 ,the   

conquered tribes in ,siberia1 were also 
compelled to pay their taxes in the     
skins of the fox and sable2 but now1    
those of less value1 or money1 are      
frequently substituted4  #bd4 ,although 
the skins of beasts were the first means
 employed to clothe the human body1 yet 
it does not appear that the ,greeks and 
,romans1 and the other refined nations  
of antiquity1 ever made use of furs for 
this purpose4 ,the custom of wearing    
them1 originated in those regions1 where
 the fur-clad animals were numerous1 and
 where the severity of the climate      
required this species of clothing4 ,the 
use of furs was introduced into the     
southern parts of ,europe by the ,goths1
 ,vandals1 ,huns1 and other barbarous   
nations1 which overran the ,roman       
empire4     ,illustration3 ,,whaler4    
,,the ,,fisherman4   #a4 ,although      
permission was given by the ,deity1     
immediately after the flood1 to employ  
for human sustenance every moving thing 
that liveth1 yet it is not probable1    

that fishes were used as food1 to any   
considerable extent1 for several        
centuries afterwards4 ,it is stated by  
,plutarch1 that the ,syrians and        
,greeks1 in very ancient times1         
abstained from fish4 ,menelaus1 one of  
,homer's heroes1 complains1 on a certain
 occasion1 that his companions had been 
reduced by hunger to the necessity of   
eating fish2 and there is no mention in 
,homer1 that the ,grecians1 at any time1
 used this food at the siege of ,troy1  
although1 for the ten years during which
 that contest was carried on1 their camp
 was on the sea-shore4  #b4 ,moses1 the 
,jewish lawgiver1 is very explicit in   
designating the land animals which might
 be used by the ,israelites as food2 and
 he was equally so with regard to the   
animals which inhabit the waters4 ,we   
learn1 from the twelfth chapter of      
,numbers1 that the children of ,israel1 
while journeying to the land of ,canaan1
 remembered the fish which they did eat1
 in ,egypt4  #c4 ,this is the earliest  

notice on record1 of the actual use of  
that class of animals for food2 although
 it is probable1 that they had been     
applied to this purpose1 in ,egypt1 six 
or seven hundred years before that      
period1 or soon after the settlement of 
this country by the descendants of ,ham4
  #d4 ,for a long time before the advent
 of ,our ,saviour1 fishing had been a   
regular business1 even in ,judea2 and   
from the class of men who followed this 
occupation1 he chose several of his     
apostles4 ,at the time just mentioned1  
fish had become a common article of     
diet1 in all parts of the world subject 
to the ,roman power1 and probably in    
almost all other countries4  #e4 ,the   
methods of catching fish1 pursued in    
ancient times1 were similar to those of 
the present day2 for then1 as now1 they 
were caught with a hook1 with a spear1  
and with a seine or net1 according to   
the character of the animal1 and the    
nature of the fishing station4 ,but the 
great improvements in navigation1 made  

since the twelfth century1 have given   
modern fishermen the command of the     
,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans1 and1    
consequently1 a knowledge of many       
species of fish which were formerly     
unknown4  #f4 ,according to ,linnaeus1  
the great naturalist1 about four hundred
 species of fish have come to our       
knowledge2 and he presumes1 that those  
which remain unknown are still more     
numerous4 ,notwithstanding this great   
variety1 the chief attention of         
fishermen is confined to a few kinds1   
which are the most easily caught1 and   
which are the most valuable when taken4 
#g4 ,every place which contains many    
inhabitants1 and which is located in the
 vicinity of waters well stored with    
fish1 is supplied with these animals by 
men who make fishing a business2 still1 
these fisheries may be considered local 
in their benefits1 and perhaps do not   
require particular notice in this       
article4 ,we will only remark1          
therefore1 that1 in large cities1 fresh 

fish are sold either in a fish-market1  
or are hawked about the streets4 ,the   
wives of the fishermen are very often   
employed in selling the fish caught by  
their husbands4 ,the fisheries which are
 of the greatest consequence1 in general
 commerce1 are those which relate to    
herring1 mackerel1 salmon1 seal1 and    
whale4  #h4 ,herring ,fishery4--,there  
are several species of herring2 but1 of 
these1 four kinds only are of much      
importance1 viz41 the common herring1   
the shad1 the hard head1 and the        
alewife2 of which1 the first is the most
 valuable1 being by far the most        
numerous1 and being1 also1 better       
adapted than the others for             
preservation4  #i4 ,the winter residence
 of the common herring is within the    
arctic circle1 whence it emigrates1 in  
the spring1 to more southern portions of
 the globe1 for the purpose of          
depositing its spawn4 ,the first body of
 these migratory animals1 appears on the
 coasts of both ,europe and ,america1 in

 ,april1 or about the first of ,may2 but
 these are only the precursors of the   
grand shoals which arrive in a few weeks
 afterwards4  #aj4 ,their first approach
 is indicated by the great number of    
birds of prey1 which follow them in     
their course2 but1 when the main body   
appears1 the number is so great1 that   
they alter the appearance of the ocean  
itself4 ,in this last and principal     
migration1 the shoals are five or six   
miles in length1 and three or four in   
breadth2 and1 before each of these      
columns1 the water is driven in a kind  
of ripple4 ,sometimes1 the fish sink    
together ten or fifteen minutes1 and    
then rise again to the surface1 when    
they reflect1 in clear weather1 the rays
 of the sun1 in a variety of splendid   
colors4  #aa4 ,these fish proceed as far
 south as ,france1 on the coasts of     
,europe1 and as far as ,georgia1 in     
,america1 supplying every bay1 creek1   
and river1 which opens into the         
,atlantic4 ,having deposited their      

spawn1 generally in the inland waters1  
they return to their head-quarters in   
the ,arctic ,ocean1 and recruit their   
emaciated bodies for another migration  
in the following spring4  #ab4 ,in a few
 weeks1 the young ones are hatched by   
the genial heat of the sun2 and1 as they
 are not found in southern waters in the
 winter1 it is evident that they proceed
 northward in the fall1 to their        
paternal haunts under the ice1 and thus 
repair the vast destruction of their    
race1 which had been caused by men1     
fowl1 and fish1 in the previous season4 
#ac4 ,these fish are caught in nearly   
every river1 from ,maine to ,georgia1   
which has a free communication with the 
,atlantic2 but the most extensive       
fisheries are on the ,hudson and        
,delaware ,rivers1 and on those which   
flow into the ,chesapeake ,bay4  #ad4   
,the instrument employed in catching    
these fish is called a seine1 which is a
 species of net1 sometimes in length    
several hundred fathoms1 and of a width 

suiting the depth of the water in which 
it is to be used4 ,the two edges of the 
net-work are fastened each to a rope2   
and1 to cause the seine to spread       
laterally in the water1 pieces of lead  
are fastened to one side1 and pieces of 
cork to the other4  #ae4 ,in spreading  
the seine in the water1 one end is      
retained on land by a number of persons1
 while the rest of it is strung along   
from a boat1 which is rowed in the      
direction from the shore4 ,the seine    
having been thus extended1 the further  
end is brought round1 in a sweeping     
manner1 to the shore2 and the fish that 
may be included are taken into the boats
 with a scoop-net1 or are hauled out    
upon the shore4 ,in this way1 two or    
three hundred thousands are sometimes   
taken at a single haul4 ,this fish dies 
immediately after having been taken from
 the water2 hence the common expression1
 ,as dead as a herring4  #af4 ,the      
herrings are sold1 as soon as caught1 to
 people who come to the fishing stations

 to procure them2 or1 in case an        
immediate sale cannot be effected1 they 
are cured with salt1 and afterwards     
smoked1 or continued in brine4 ,in the  
,southern states1 the herring is        
generally thought to be superior to any 
other fish for the purpose of salting   
down2 although the shad and some others 
are preferred while fresh4  #ag4 ,the   
importance of this fishery is superior  
to that of any other2 since the benefits
 resulting from it are more generally   
diffused4 ,the ancients1 however1 do not
 appear to have had any knowledge of    
this valuable fish4 ,it was first       
brought into notice by the ,dutch1 who  
are said to have commenced the herring  
fishery on the coasts of ,scotland1 in  
the year #aafd1 and to have retained    
almost exclusive possession of it1 until
 the beginning of the present century4  
#ah4 ,the shad is a species of herring1 
which inhabits the sea near the mouths  
of rivers1 and which ascends them in the
 spring1 to deposit its spawn4 ,it is   

caught in all the rivers terminating on 
our ,atlantic coasts1 as well as in some
 of the rivers of the ,north of ,europe4
 ,this fish is captured in the same     
manner and often at the same time with  
the common herring4 ,it is highly       
esteemed in a fresh state2 although it  
is not so good when salted1 as the      
herring and some other kinds of fish4   
#ai4 ,mackerel ,fishery4--,the common   
mackerel is a migratory fish1 like the  
herring1 and ranks next to that tribe of
 fishes in regard to numbers1 and       
perhaps in general utility4 ,its place  
of retirement in the winter1 is not     
positively known2 but it is supposed by 
some1 to be far north of the arctic     
circle2 and by others1 to be in some    
part of the ,atlantic farther south4    
,shoals of this fish appear on the      
coasts of both ,europe and ,america1 in 
the summer season4 ,of this fish there  
are twenty-two species4  #bj4 ,the mode 
of catching the mackerel1 is either with
 a net or with hooks and lines4 ,the    

latter method succeeds best1 when the   
boat or vessel is driven forward by a   
gentle breeze2 and1 in this case1 a bit 
of red cloth1 or a painted feather1 is  
usually employed as a bait4 ,several    
hooks are fastened to a single line1 and
 the fish bite so readily1 that the     
fishermen occasionally take one on each 
hook at a haul4 ,the mackerel is cured  
in the usual manner1 and packed in      
barrels1 to be sold to dealers4  #ba4   
,this fish was well known to the        
ancients1 as one of its places of       
resort1 in the summer1 was the          
,mediterranean ,sea4 ,it was highly     
esteemed by the ,romans1 for the reason1
 that it was the best fish for making   
their sarum1 a kind of pickle or sauce  
much esteemed by this luxurious people4 
#bb4 ,salmon ,fishery4--,the salmon is a
 celebrated fish1 belonging to the trout
 genus4 ,it inhabits the seas on the    
,european coasts1 from ,spitzbergen to  
,western ,france2 and1 on the western   
shore of the ,atlantic1 it is found from

 ,greenland to the ,hudson ,river4 ,it  
also abounds on both coasts of the      
,north ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the length of  
full-grown salmon is from three to four 
feet2 and their weight1 from ten to     
fifteen pounds4  #bc4 ,as soon as the   
ice has left the rivers1 the salmon     
begin to ascend them1 for the purpose of
 depositing their spawn4 ,it has been   
ascertained that these fish retain a    
remarkable attachment to the river which
 gave them birth2 and1 having once      
deposited their spawn1 they ever        
afterwards choose the same spot for     
their annual deposits4 ,this latter fact
 has been established by a curious      
,frenchman1 who1 fastening a ring to the
 posterior fin of several salmon1 and   
then setting them at liberty1 found that
 some of them made their appearance at  
the same place three successive seasons1
 bearing with them this distinguishing  
mark4  #bd4 ,in ascending the rivers1   
these fish usually proceed together in  
great numbers1 mostly swimming in the   

middle of the stream2 and1 being very   
timid1 a sudden noise1 or even a        
floating piece of timber1 will sometimes
 turn them from their course1 and send  
them back to the sea2 but having        
advanced a while1 they assume a         
determined resolution1 overcoming rapids
 and leaping over falls twelve or       
fifteen feet in perpendicular height4   
#be4 ,salmon are caught chiefly with    
seines1 and sometimes seven or eight    
hundred are captured at a single haul2  
but from fifty to one hundred is the    
most usual number1 even in a favorable  
season4 ,they are also taken in weirs1  
which are inclosures so constructed that
 they admit the ingress1 but not the    
regress of the fish4  #bf4 ,the salmon  
fisheries are numerous in ,great        
,britain and ,ireland1 as well as in    
most of the northern countries of       
,europe4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the   
most valuable fisheries of this kind are
 on the rivers in ,maine1 whence the    
towns and cities farther south are      

principally supplied with these fish1 in
 a fresh condition4 ,they are preserved 
in ice1 while on their way to market4   
,in the cured state1 salmon is highly   
esteemed2 although it is not easily     
digested4  #bg4 ,cod ,fishery4--,there  
are several species of cod-fish1 or     
gadus2 but the most important and       
interesting of the class1 is the common 
cod4 ,these fish are found in great     
abundance on the south and west coasts  
of ,iceland1 on the coasts of ,norway1  
off the ,orkney and ,western ,isles1 and
 in the ,baltic ,sea4 ,farther south1   
they gradually diminish in numbers1 and 
entirely disappear1 some distance from  
the ,straits of ,gibraltar4  #bh4 ,but  
the great rendezvous of cod-fish is on  
the coasts of ,labrador1 the banks of   
,newfoundland1 ,cape ,breton1 and ,nova 
,scotia4 ,they are invited to these     
situations by the abundance of small    
fish1 worms1 and other marine animals of
 the crustaceous and testaceous kinds1  
on which they feed4 ,the fishermen      

resort1 in the greatest numbers1 to the 
banks1 which1 stretch along the eastern 
coasts of ,newfoundland about four      
hundred and fifty miles4 ,the water on  
these banks varies from twenty to fifty 
fathoms in depth4  #bi4 ,by negociations
 with ,great ,britain1 the ,french1     
,dutch1 ,spanish1 and ,americans1 have  
acquired the right to catch and cure    
fish1 both on the ,grand ,banks1 and    
several other places on the coasts of   
the ,english possessions in ,north      
,america4 ,the number of vessels        
employed on the several fishing         
stations1 during each successive season1
 amounts to six or seven thousand1 each 
measuring from forty to one hundred and 
twenty tons1 and carrying eight or ten  
men4  #cj4 ,the fishing on the ,grand   
,banks commences in ,april1 and         
continues until about the first of      
,august4 ,here1 the fish are caught     
exclusively with hooks1 which are       
usually baited with a small fish called 
the capelin1 as well as with herring1   

clams1 and the gills of the cod itself4 
,but this fish is not very particular in
 its choice of bait1 it biting greedily 
at almost any kind which may be         
presented4 ,an expert fisherman will    
frequently catch from one hundred to    
three hundred cod in a single day4  #ca4
 ,as soon as the fish have been caught1 
their heads are cut off1 and their      
entrails taken out4 ,they are then      
salted away in bulk in the hold2 and1   
after having lain three or four days to 
drain1 they are taken to another part of
 the vessel1 and again salted in the    
same manner4 ,the fishermen from        
,new-,england1 however1 give them but   
one salting while on the fishing        
station2 but1 as soon as a cargo has    
been obtained1 it is carried home1 where
 conveniences have been prepared for    
curing the fish to greater advantage4   
,by pursuing this plan1 two or three    
trips are made during the season4 ,some 
of the fish are injured before they are 
taken from the vessel2 and these form an

 inferior quality1 called ,jamaica fish1
 because such are generally sold in that
 island1 for the use of the negroes4    
#cb4 ,the fish which are caught on the  
coasts of ,labrador1 at the entrance of 
,hudson's ,bay1 in the ,straits of      
,belleisle1 and on fishing stations of  
similar advantages1 are cured on the    
shore4 ,they are first slightly salted1 
and then dried in the sun1 either on the
 rocks1 or on scaffolds erected for the 
purpose4 ,in these coast fisheries1 the 
operations commence in ,june1 and       
continue until some time in ,august4    
,the cod are caught in large seines1 as 
well as with hook and line4  #cc4 ,seal 
,fishery4--,there are several species of
 the seal2 but the kind which is most   
numerous1 and most important in a       
commercial view1 is the common seal4 ,it
 is found on the sea-coasts throughout  
the world1 but in the greatest numbers  
in very cold climates1 where it         
furnishes the rude inhabitants with     
nearly all their necessaries and        

luxuries4  #cd4 ,the animal is valuable 
to the civilized world1 on account of   
its skin and oil4 ,the oil is pure1 and 
is adapted to all the purposes to which 
that from the whale is applied4 ,in the 
spring of the year1 the seals are very  
fat2 and1 at that time1 even small ones 
will yield four or five gallons of oil4 
,the leather manufactured from the      
skins1 is employed in trunk-making1 in  
saddlery1 and in making boots and shoes4
  #ce4 ,since the whale fishery has     
declined in productiveness in the       
northern seas1 sealing has arisen in    
importance2 and accordingly1 vessels are
 now frequently fitted out for this     
purpose1 in both ,europe and ,america2  
whereas1 a few years since1 it was      
regarded only as a part of the objects  
of a whaling voyage4  #cf4 ,our         
countrymen of ,new-,england have        
particularly distinguished themselves in
 this branch of business2 and the part  
of the globe which they have found to be
 the most favorable to their objects1   

has been the islands in the ,antarctic  
,ocean4 ,a sealing voyage to that       
quarter often occupies three years1     
during which time the hunters are       
exposed to great hardships1 being often 
left in small detachments on desolate   
islands1 for the purpose of pursuing the
 animals to greater advantage4  #cg4    
,the best time for sealing in the       
,arctic ,ocean1 is in ,march and ,april1
 when the seals are often met with in   
droves of several thousands on the ice1 
which is either fixed1 or floating in   
large pieces4 ,when the sealers meet    
with one of these droves1 they attack   
the animals with clubs1 and stun them by
 a single blow on the nose4 ,after all  
that can be reached1 have been disabled 
in this way1 the skin and blubber are   
taken off together4  #ch4 ,this         
operation is called flenching1 and is   
sometimes a horrible business2 since    
some of the seals1 being merely stunned1
 occasionally recover1 and1 in their    
denuded state1 often make battle1 and   

even leap into the water1 and swim off4 
,the skins1 with the blubber attached to
 them1 are packed away in the hold2 and1
 in case the vessel is to return home   
soon1 they are suffered to remain there1
 until she arrives in port2 but1 when   
this is not expected1 the skins1 as soon
 as convenient1 are separated from the  
blubber1 and the latter is put into     
casks4 ,there are other methods of      
capturing the seal2 but it is1 perhaps1 
not necessary to enter into further     
details4  #ci4 ,whale ,fishery4--,there 
are five species of the whale1 of which 
the ,balaena ,physalis1 or razor-back1  
is the largest4 ,when full grown1 it is 
supposed to be about one hundred feet in
 length1 and thirty or thirty-five feet 
in circumference4 ,it is so powerful an 
animal1 that it is extremely difficult  
to capture it2 and1 when captured1 it   
yields but little oil and whalebone4    
,the species to which whalers direct    
their attention is denominated the      
,mystecetus1 or the right whale4  #dj4  

,the mystecetus is found1 in the        
greatest numbers1 in the ,greenland     
seas1 about the island of ,spitzbergen1 
in ,davis' ,straits1 in ,hudson's and   
,baffin's ,bays1 and in the northern    
parts of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,it is    
also found in the ,antarctic ,ocean1 and
 along the coasts of ,africa and ,south 
,america1 and occasionally on the coasts
 of the ,united ,states4  #da4 ,each    
vessel engaged in this fishery1 is      
generally fitted out by several         
individuals1 who receive1 of the return 
cargo of oil and whalebone1 a portion   
corresponding to the amount which they  
have contributed to the common stock1   
after the men have received their       
proportion of it4 ,should the voyage    
prove altogether unsuccessful1 which    
seldom happens1 the owners lose the     
amount of the outfit1 and the captain   
and hands1 their time4  #db4 ,the       
whalers commence operations in the      
northern latitudes1 in the month of     
,may2 but the whales are most plentiful 

in ,june1 when they are met with between
 the latitudes #ge deg4 and #hj deg41 in
 almost every variety of situation1     
sometimes in the open seas1 at others in
 the loose ice1 or at the edges of the  
fields and floes1 which are near the    
main1 impervious body of ice4  #dc4 ,on 
the fishing station1 the boats are kept 
always ready for instant service1 being 
suspended from davits1 or cranes1 by the
 sides of the ship1 and being furnished 
with a lance and a harpoon1 to the      
latter of which is attached about one   
hundred and twenty fathoms of strong but
 flexible rope4 ,when the weather and   
situation are favorable1 the crow's     
nest1 which is a station at the         
mast-head1 is occupied by some person   
with a telescope4  #dd4 ,the moment a   
whale is discovered1 notice is given to 
the watch below1 who instantly man one  
or two boats1 and row with swiftness to 
the place4 ,sometimes1 a boat is kept   
manned and afloat near the ship1 that no
 time may be lost in making ready2 or1  

two or three are sent out on the        
look-out1 having every thing ready for  
an attack4  #de4 ,the whale being very  
timid and cautious1 the men endeavor to 
approach him unperceived1 and strike him
 with the harpoon1 before he is aware of
 their presence4 ,sometimes1 however1 he
 perceives their approach1 and dives    
into the water1 to avoid them2 but1     
being compelled to come again to the    
surface to breathe1 or1 as it is termed1
 to blow1 they make another effort to   
harpoon him4 ,in this way1 the whalers  
often pursue him for a considerable     
time1 and frequently without final      
success4 ,the animal1 when unmolested1  
remains about two minutes on the        
surface1 during which time he blows     
eight or nine times1 and then descends  
for five or ten minutes1 and often1     
while feeding1 for fifteen or twenty4   
#df4 ,when the whale has been struck1 he
 generally dives towards the bottom of  
the sea either perpendicularly or       
obliquely1 where he remains about thirty

 minutes1 and sometimes nearly an hour4 
,the harpoon has1 near its point1 two   
barbs1 or withers1 which cause it to    
remain fast in the integuments under the
 skin2 and the rope attached to it1 is  
coiled in the bow of the boat in such a 
way1 that it runs out without           
interruption4 ,when more line is wanted1
 it is made known to the other boats by 
the elevation of an oar4 ,should the    
rope prove too short for the great      
descent of the whale1 it becomes        
necessary to sever it from the boat1    
lest the latter be drawn under water2   
for this emergency1 the harpooner stands
 ready with a knife4  #dg4 ,when the    
whale reappears1 the assisting boats    
make for the place with their greatest  
speed2 and1 if possible1 each harpooner 
plunges his weapon into the back of the 
creature4 ,on convenient occasions1 he  
is also plied with lances1 which are    
thrust into his vitals4 ,at length1     
overcome with wounds1 and exhausted by  
the loss of blood1 his approaching      

dissolution is indicated by a discharge 
of blood from his blow-holes1 and       
sometimes by a convulsive struggle1 in  
which his tail1 raised1 whirled1 and    
jerked in the air1 resounds to the      
distance of several miles4 ,the whale   
having been thus conquered1 and deprived
 of life1 the captors express their joy 
with loud huzzas1 and communicate the   
information to the ship by striking     
their flag4  #dh4 ,a position near a    
large field of solid ice is very        
advantageous2 because a whale diving    
under it is obliged to return again to  
blow2 and this circumstance gives       
opportunity to make upon him several    
attacks4 ,close fields of drift ice     
present great difficulties2 since the   
boats cannot always pass through them   
with sufficient celerity4 ,in that case1
 the men sometimes travel over the ice1 
leaping from one piece to another1 and  
carrying with them lances and harpoons1 
with which they pierce the animal as    
often as possible4 ,if they succeed in  

thus killing him1 they drag him back    
under the ice with the fast line4  #di4 
,the whale1 having been towed to the    
ship1 and secured alongside1 is raised a
 little by means of powerful blocks1 or 
tackle4 ,the harpooners1 with spurs     
fastened to the bottom of their feet to 
prevent them from slipping1 descend upon
 the huge body1 and1 with spades and    
knives adapted to this particular       
purpose1 cut the blubber into oblong    
pieces1 which are peeled off1 and       
hoisted upon deck with the speck-tackle4
 ,these long strips are then cut into   
chunks1 which are immediately packed    
away in the hold4 ,after the animal has 
been thus successively flenched1 and the
 whale-bone taken out1 the carcase is   
dismissed to the sharks1 bears1 and     
birds of prey4  #ej4 ,the blubber is    
somewhat similar1 in consistence1 to the
 fat which surrounds the body of the    
hog1 although not quite so solid4 ,in   
young whales1 its color is yellowish    
white2 and1 in old ones1 yellow or red4 

,its thickness varies in different parts
 and in different individuals1 from     
eight to twenty inches4 ,the weight of a
 whale sixty feet in length1 is about   
seventy tons1 of which the blubber      
weighs about thirty tons4  #ea4 ,the    
whale-bone is situated in the mouth4    
,about three hundred laminae1 or blades1
 grow parallel to each other on either  
side of the upper jaw1 being about half 
an inch thick1 and ten or twelve inches 
wide1 where they are united by the gum4 
,as the whale grows old1 they increase  
in length1 and approach from each side  
to the roof of the mouth4 ,the whale1   
while feeding1 swims with his mouth wide
 open1 which admits a great quantity of 
water containing insects or small fish1 
on which he subsists4 ,the whale-bone   
acts as a filter1 or strainer1 in       
retaining the little animals1 while the 
water passes off at the corners of the  
mouth4  #eb4 ,before the whalers leave  
the fishing station1 they cut the       
blubber into small pieces1 and put it   

into close casks4 ,sometimes1 however1  
when the ship has been very successful1 
there is a deficiency of casks4 ,in that
 case1 it is slightly salted1 and packed
 away in the hold4 ,but1 as the ship    
must necessarily pass through a warmer  
climate1 on her voyage homeward1 the    
blubber1 while packed in this manner1 is
 liable to melt and be wasted1 unless   
the weather should prove uncommonly     
cool4  #ec4 ,when the vessel has arrived
 in port1 the blubber is found to be    
melted4 ,to separate the oil from the   
fritters1 or fenks1 as the integuments  
and other impurities are called1 the    
contents of the casks are poured into   
copper boilers1 and heated4 ,the heat   
causes a part of the latter to sink to  
the bottom1 and the former is drawn off 
into coolers1 where other extraneous    
matters settle4 ,the pure or fine oil is
 then drawn off for sale4 ,an inferior  
quality of oil1 called brown oil1 is    
obtained from the dregs of the blubber4 
#ed4 ,the spermaceti cachalot1 or       

,physeter ,macrocephalus1 is an animal  
belonging to the norwal genus2 although 
it is generally denominated the         
spermaceti whale4 ,it is found in the   
greatest abundance in the ,pacific      
,ocean1 where it is sought by ,american 
and other whalers1 for the sake of the  
oil and spermaceti4 ,this animal is     
gregarious1 and is often met with in    
herds containing more than two hundred  
individuals4  #ee4 ,whenever a number of
 the cachalot are seen1 several boats1  
manned each with six men provided with  
harpoons and lances1 proceed in pursuit2
 and1 if possible1 each boat strikes or 
fastens to a distinct animal1 which1 in 
most cases1 is overcome without much    
difficulty4 ,being towed to the ship1 it
 is deprived of its blubber1 and the    
matter contained in the head1 which     
consists of spermaceti combined with a  
small proportion of oil4 ,the oil is    
reduced from the blubber1 soon after it 
has been taken on board1 in try works1  
with which every ship engaged in this   

fishery is provided4  #ef4 ,about three 
tons of oil are commonly obtained from a
 large cachalot of this species1 and    
from one to two tons from a small one1  
besides the head-matter4 ,the manner in 
which these two products are treated1   
when brought into port1 has been        
described in the article on             
candle-making4  #eg4 ,the ,biscayans    
were the first people who prosecuted the
 whale fishery1 as a commercial pursuit4
 ,in the twelfth1 thirteenth1 and       
fourteenth centuries1 they carried on   
this business to a considerable extent2 
but the whales taken by them were not so
 large as those which have since been   
captured in the polar seas4 ,at length1 
the whales ceased to visit the ,bay of  
,biscay1 and the fishery in that quarter
 was of course terminated4  #eh4 ,the   
voyages of the ,english and ,dutch to   
the ,northern ,ocean1 in search of a    
passage to ,india1 led to the discovery 
of the principal haunts of the whale1   
and induced individuals in those nations

 to fit out vessels to pursue these     
animals in the northern latitudes1 the  
harpooners and part of the crews being  
,biscayans4 ,the whales were found in   
the greatest abundance about the island 
of ,spitzbergen1 and were1 at first1 so 
easily captured1 that extra vessels were
 sent out in ballast1 to assist in      
bringing home the oil and whalebone2 but
 the whales1 retiring to the centre of  
the ocean1 and to the other side to the 
,greenland seas1 soon became scarce     
about that island4  #ei4 ,the whale     
fishery was revived1 as above stated1   
about the beginning of the seventeenth  
century2 and1 with the ,dutch1 it was in
 the most flourishing condition in      
#afhj1 when it employed about two       
hundred and sixty ships1 and fourteen   
thousand men4 ,the wars about the       
beginning of the nineteenth century1    
extending their baleful influence to    
almost every part of the ocean1         
annihilated this branch of business     
among the ,dutch2 and1 in #ahbh1 only a 

single whale-ship sailed from ,holland4 
#fj4 ,the ,english whale fishery was1 at
 first1 carried on by companies enjoying
 exclusive privileges2 but the pursuit  
was attended with little success4 ,in   
#agcb1 ,parliament decreed a bounty of  
twenty shillings per ton1 on every      
whaler measuring more than two hundred  
tons2 and1 although this bounty was     
increased in #agdi to forty shillings1  
yet the ,english whale fishery has never
 been very flourishing4  #fa4 ,the whale
 fishery has been carried on with       
greater success from the ,united ,states
 than from any other country4 ,it was   
begun by the colonists1 on their own    
shores1 at a very early period2 but the 
whales having abandoned the coasts of   
,north ,america1 these hardy navigators 
pursued them into the northern and      
southern oceans4  #fb4 ,the number of   
,american vessels now employed in       
pursuit of the spermaceti cachalot and  
the mystecetus1 amounts to about four   
hundred1 and the number of men to about 

ten thousand4 ,the inhabitants of the   
island of ,nantucket1 and of the town of
 ,new-,bedford1 are more extensively    
engaged in these fisheries than the     
people of any other part of the ,united 
,states4     ,illustration3             
,,shipwright4  ,,the ,,shipwright4   #a4
 ,the earliest notice we have of the    
construction of a building to float on  
water1 is that which relates to ,noah's 
,ark4 ,this was the largest vessel that 
has ever been built1 and the            
circumstance proves that the arts1 at   
that early period1 had been brought to  
considerable perfection2 yet1 as several
 centuries had elapsed1 after the flood1
 before the descendants of ,noah had    
much occasion for floating vessels1 the 
art of constructing them seems to have  
been measurably lost4  #b4 ,early       
records1 which perhaps are worthy of    
credit1 state that the ,egyptians first 
traversed the river ,nile upon rafts1   
then in the canoe2 and that1 to these   
succeeded the boat1 built with joist1   

fastened together with wooden pins1 and 
rendered water-tight by interposing the 
leaves of the papyrus4 ,to this boat    
was1 at length1 added a mast of         
acanthus1 and a sail of papyrus2 but1   
being prejudiced against the sea because
 it swallowed up their sacred river1    
which they worshipped as a god1 they    
never attempted to construct vessels    
adapted to marine navigation4  #c4 ,the 
,phoenicians1 a nation nearly as ancient
 as the ,egyptian1 being situated       
directly on the sea1 without the        
advantages of a noble river1 were       
compelled to provide means for sailing  
on a wider expanse of water4 ,it is     
said1 however1 that they first traversed
 the ,mediterranean1 and even visited   
distant islands1 with no better means of
 conveyance than a raft of timber4 ,this
 is rendered somewhat probable1 from the
 fact1 that the ,peruvians1 even at the 
present time1 venture upon the ,pacific 
,ocean on their balza1 a raft made from 
a spongy tree of that name4  #d4 ,the   

vessels first constructed by the        
,phoenicians1 were used for commercial  
purposes4 ,they were flat-bottomed1     
broad1 and of a small draught2 and those
 of the ,carthaginians and ,greeks were 
similar in shape4 ,the ships of war1 in 
early times1 were generally mere        
row-boats1 in which the combatants      
rushed upon each other1 and decided the 
combat by valor and physical strength4  
#e4 ,by successive improvements1 the    
ships of antiquity were1 at length1     
brought to combine good proportion with 
considerable beauty4 ,the prows were    
sometimes ornamented with the sculptured
 figures of heathen deities1 and        
otherwise adorned with paint and        
gilding1 while the sterns1 which were   
usually in the form of a shield1 were   
elaborately wrought in carved work4 ,the
 approved length of a ship of war1 was  
six or eight times its breadth2 and that
 for mercantile purposes1 four times the
 breadth2 hence1 the distinction of long
 ships1 and round ships4  #f4 ,both the 

long and round ships had a single mast1 
which could be taken down or elevated at
 pleasure4 ,these vessels were1 however1
 propelled with oars on occasions that  
required it2 and the former1 in their   
improved state1 were properly galleys   
with one1 two1 or three banks of oars1  
which extended from one end of the      
vessel to the other4 ,the rowers were   
all placed under the deck2 and1 in time 
of battle1 the combatants contended     
above1 being in part defended from the  
missiles of opposing foes by shields    
carried on the arm1 and by screens and  
towers placed on the deck4 ,the bow of  
each vessel was armed with a brazen or  
iron beak1 with which the contending    
parties often stove in the sides of each
 other's vessels4  #g4 ,the general size
 of vessels in the best days of         
antiquity1 was not greater than that of 
our sloops and schooners2 but there are 
instances on record1 which prove that   
they occasionally equalled in capacity  
the largest of modern times4 ,in the    

early ages1 they were very small1 and1  
for several centuries1 were drawn upon  
the shore at the termination of every   
voyage4 ,stranding1 however1 became     
impracticable1 after the increase in    
size1 and the addition of the keel4 ,the
 anchor and cable were1 therefore1      
invented1 to confine the ship at a      
suitable distance from the shore4 ,at   
first1 the anchor was nothing more than 
a large stone4 ,afterwards1 it was wood 
and stone combined2 and1 finally1 iron  
was the sole material4  #h4 ,the        
invasion of the ,roman empire by the    
northern barbarians1 caused the         
operations of war to be almost          
exclusively conducted on the land4      
,this1 together with the destruction of 
commerce during the general desolation  
of those ruthless incursions1 and the   
barbarism of the conquerors1 occasioned 
a retrogression1 and1 in some parts of  
,europe1 nearly the total destruction of
 the art of building ships4  #i4 ,the   
active trade which arose in the         

,mediterranean1 during the middle ages1 
and the naval enterprises connected with
 the ,crusades1 occasioned a revival of 
the art of constructing ships2 yet1 it  
did not advance beyond the condition in 
which the ,carthaginians had left it1   
until about the middle of the fourteenth
 century4 ,at this era1 the             
inconsiderable galleys of former times  
began to be superseded by larger        
vessels1 in which1 however1 oars were   
not entirely dispensed with4  #aj4 ,the 
great change in the general construction
 of vessels1 arose from the discovery of
 the polarity of the magnet1 and the    
application of astronomy to nautical    
pursuits2 for1 by these means1 the      
mariner was released from his dependence
 on the sight of the land1 in guiding   
his vessel on its course4 ,larger ships 
were therefore constructed1 capable of  
withstanding more violent storms and    
loftier waves4  #aa4 ,to the ,italians1 
,catalans1 and ,portuguese1 was         
ship-building most considerably         

indebted1 in the early days of its      
revival4 ,the ,spaniards followed up    
their discovery of the ,new ,world with 
a rapid improvement in both the form and
 size of their ships2 some of which even
 rated at two thousand tons burden4 ,in 
more modern times1 it is said1 that the 
,spaniards and ,french are entitled to  
the credit of nearly all the            
improvements which have been made in the
 theory of the art1 the ,english having 
never contributed essentially to advance
 it1 although the greatest naval power  
of this or any other time4  #ab4 ,in the
 ,united ,states1 very great            
improvements have been made in the      
construction of vessels1 since the      
commencement of the present century4    
,our builders1 however1 are less guided 
by scientific rules than by experience  
and a practised eye2 yet1 it is         
generally conceded1 that our ships of   
war and first-rate merchantmen1 are     
superior in swiftness and beauty to     
those of any other country4  #ac4 ,in   

,europe1 the first thing done towards   
building a vessel1 is to exhibit it in  
three distinct views by as many separate
 drawings2 but1 in the ,united ,states1 
the builder commences by framing a      
complete wooden model of the proposed   
construction--the thing itself in       
miniature4 ,from this practice of our   
naval architects1 have arisen the       
superior beauty and excellence of our   
vessels4  #ad4 ,the timber generally    
used in the construction of ,american   
vessels1 is live-oak1 pine1 chestnut1   
locust1 and cedar4 ,the trees of mature 
growth are chosen1 and girdled in the   
beginning of winter1 at which time they 
contain but little sap4 ,when           
sufficiently dry and hardened1 the trees
 are felled2 and1 after the timber has  
been roughly hewn1 it is carefully      
stored in some dry1 airy place1 not much
 exposed to wind or sun4  #ae4 ,in      
collecting ship-timber1 the greatest    
difficulty is found in procuring the    
crooked sticks1 which form the sides or 

ribs of the skeleton of a vessel4 ,in   
countries where ship-timber has become  
an object of careful cultivation1 this  
difficulty is anticipated by bending the
 young trees to the desired form1 and   
confining them there1 until they have   
permanently received the proper         
inclination4 ,the timber is brought to  
market in its rough state1 and sold by  
the foot4  #af4 ,the timber having been 
selected1 the workmen proceed to fashion
 the various parts of the proposed      
vessel with appropriate tools1 being    
guided in their operations by patterns1 
which have been made after the exact    
form of the various parts of the model4 
,much care is taken to avoid cutting the
 wood contrary to the grain1 that its   
strength may not be impaired4  #ag4     
,after all the parts of the frame have  
been made ready1 they are put together4 
,the several blocks of timber on which  
the vessel is raised1 are called the    
stocks2 and to these pieces1 the        
foundation1 called the keel1 is         

temporarily fastened in an inclined     
position4 ,the keel is inserted into the
 stern-post at one end1 and into the    
stem at the other4 ,the floor-timbers   
are next fixed in the keel1 every other 
one being there firmly bolted and       
riveted4 ,each of these timbers is a    
branch and part of the body of a tree2  
and1 when composing a part of a vessel1 
they bear the same relation to it as the
 ribs to the human body4 ,with equal    
propriety1 the keel has been compared to
 the vertebral column1 or back-bone4    
#ah4 ,the next step is to apply and     
fasten the planks1 which serve not only 
to exclude the water1 but to bind all   
the parts firmly and harmoniously       
together4 ,simple as this part of the   
operation may seem to be1 it is the most
 difficult to be effected1 and requires 
a pre-concerted plan as much as any     
other part of the fabric4 ,when it is   
necessary to bend a plank at the bow or 
stern1 it is heated by steam1 and then  
forced into place with screws and       

levers4 ,the planks are fastened with   
iron or copper bolts4  #ai4 ,the        
planking having been finished1 and      
several particulars attended to1 which  
cannot be well understood from          
description1 the vessel is ready for the
 work of the caulker1 who carefully     
stops all the seams with oakum1 and     
smears them with pitch4 ,after the      
superfluous pitch has been cleared away 
with the scraper1 water is pumped into  
the hold1 to ascertain if there is any  
leak4  #bj4 ,the bottom of the vessel is
 next sheathed either with sheets of    
copper or pine boards1 to protect it    
from the worms4 ,the latter materials   
are employed when the planks have been  
fastened with iron since the copper     
would cause the bolt-heads to corrode1  
if placed against them4 ,in either case1
 sheets of paper1 soaked in hot pitch1  
are interposed between the planks and   
the sheathing4  #ba4 ,the vessel is now 
ready to be removed from the stocks to  
the water4 ,this removal is called      

launching1 which1 in many cases1        
requires much skill in the preparation  
and successive management4 ,if there is 
no permanent inclined plane in the slip1
 on which the vessel may glide into the 
water1 a temporary one is prepared1     
consisting of two platforms of solid    
timber1 erected one on each side of the 
keel1 at a distance of a few feet from  
it1 and extending from the stem into the
 water4 ,upon this double platform which
 is called the ways1 is erected another 
set of timbers1 and the space between   
these and the vessel is filled all along
 with wedges4 ,the whole of this        
superstructure is called the cradle1 and
 the extremities of it are fastened to  
the keel1 at the bow and stern1 with    
chains and ropes4  #bb4 ,every thing    
having been thus prepared1 the wedges   
are simultaneously driven on both sides4
 ,by this means1 the vessel is raised   
from the stocks1 and made to rest       
entirely on the cradle4 ,after the      
shores have been all removed1 the       

cradle1 with its weighty burden1 begins 
to move2 and1 in a moment1 the vessel is
 launched upon its destined element4    
#bc4 ,among the ancients1 a launch was  
ever an occasion of great festivity4    
,the mariners were crowned with wreaths1
 and the ship was bedecked with         
streamers and garlands4 ,safely afloat1 
she was purified with a lighted torch1  
an egg1 and brimstone1 and solemnly     
consecrated to the god whose image she  
bore4 ,in our less poetic times1 there  
is no lack of feasting and merriment2   
although the ceremony of consecration is
 different1 the oldest sailor on board  
merely breaking a bottle of wine or rum 
over the figure-head--still1 perchance1 
the image of father ,neptune or ,apollo4
  #bd4 ,the vessel1 now brought to the  
wharf1 is to be equipped4 ,the mode of  
doing this1 is varied according as it   
may be a ship1 brig1 hermaphrodite brig1
 schooner1 or sloop4 ,the masts are     
first erected1 and these are supplied   
with the necessary apparatus of spars1  

rigging1 and sails4 ,the latter are     
furnished by the sail-maker1 who is     
sometimes denominated the ship's tailor4
     ,illustration3 ,,mariner4  ,,the   
,,mariner4   #a4 ,the business of the   
mariner consists in navigating ships and
 other vessels from one port to another4
 ,this is an employment that requires   
much decisive resolution2 and ,horace   
has well said1 that his breast must have
 been bound with oak and triple brass1  
who first committed his frail bark to   
the tempestuous sea4 ,there is certainly
 nothing which speaks louder in praise  
of human ingenuity1 than that art by    
which man is able to forsake the land1  
contend successfully with winds and     
waves1 and reach1 with unerring         
certainty1 his destined port in some    
distant part of the world4  #b4 ,nor are
 the skill and intrepidity exhibited in 
this arduous employment1 more worthy of 
our admiration1 than the wonderful      
advantages resulting from it2 for1 we   
are indebted to the exercise of this    

art1 for those improvements in our      
condition1 which arise from the exchange
 of the superfluities of one country for
 those of another1 and1 above all1 for  
the interchange of sentiments1 which    
renders human knowledge coextensive with
 the world4  #c4 ,ship-building is so   
intimately connected with the art of    
navigation1 that the historical part of 
the former subject is equally applicable
 to the latter4 ,it is1 therefore1      
unnecessary to be particular on this    
point4 ,we shall merely supply some     
omissions in the preceding article4  #d4
 ,the sailors of antiquity confined     
their navigation chiefly to the rivers1 
lakes1 and inland seas1 seldom venturing
 out of sight of land1 unless1 from     
their knowledge of the coasts ahead1    
they were certain to meet with it again 
in a short time4 ,when they thus        
ventured from the land1 or were driven  
from it by tempests1 the stars and      
planets were their only guides4  #e4    
,the qualifications of a skilful pilot  

or master1 even for the ,mediterranean  
seas1 in those days1 required more study
 and more practical information1 than   
are necessary to render a mariner a     
complete general navigator1 in the      
present improved state of the science of
 navigation2 for then he must needs be  
acquainted1 not only with the general   
management of the ship1 but also with   
all the ports1 land-marks1 rocks1       
quicksands1 and other dangers1 which lay
 in the track of his course4 ,besides   
this1 he was required to be familiar    
with the course of the winds1 and the   
indications that preceded them1 together
 with the movements of the heavenly     
bodies1 and the influence which they    
were supposed to exert on the weather4  
,nor was the ability to read the various
 omens which were gathered from the     
sighing of the wind in the trees1 the   
murmurs of the waters1 and their dash   
upon the shore1 the flight of birds1 and
 the gambol of fishes1 a qualification  
to be dispensed with4  #f4 ,a voyage1 in

 ancient times1 was a momentous         
undertaking1 and was usually preceded by
 sacrifices to those gods who were      
supposed to preside over the winds and  
the waves4 ,all omens were carefully    
regarded2 and a very small matter1 such 
as the perching of swallows on the ship1
 or an accidental sneeze to the left1   
was sufficient to delay departure4      
,when1 under proper auspices1 a vessel  
or fleet had set sail1 and had advanced 
some distance1 it was customary to      
release a number of doves1 which had    
been brought from home4 ,the safe       
arrival of these birds at the houses of 
the voyagers1 was considered an         
auspicious omen of the return of the    
fleet4  #g4 ,having escaped the         
multiplied dangers of the sea1 the      
sailors1 on their return1 fulfilled the 
vows which they had made before their   
departure1 or in seasons of peril1      
offering thanks to ,neptune1 and        
sacrifices to ,jupiter1 or some other of
 their gods1 to whose protection they   

may have committed themselves4 ,those   
who had suffered shipwreck1 felt        
themselves under greater obligations of 
gratitude2 and1 in addition to the usual
 sacrifices1 they commonly offered the  
garment in which they had been saved1   
together with a pictorial representation
 of the disaster4 ,if the individual    
escaped only with life1 his clothing    
having been totally lost1 his hair was  
shorn from the head1 and consecrated to 
the tutelar deity4  #h4 ,there is much  
that is beautiful in these simple acts  
of piety2 and similar customs1 with     
regard to shipwrecked mariners1 are     
still in existence in the ,catholic     
countries of the ,mediterranean2 but the
 worship of the heathen deities having  
been discontinued1 a favourite saint1 or
 perchance the true ,god1 is substituted
 for them4 ,although such acts of piety 
may not avail to avert impending danger1
 yet their natural tendency doubtless is
 to inspire courage to meet it1 when it 
may arise4  #i4 ,the ,carthaginians1 for

 several centuries1 were more           
extensively engaged in commerce1 than   
any other people of antiquity2 and1 as  
they carried on their lucrative trade   
with other nations and their own        
colonies1 by means of ships1 they       
exceeded all others in the art of       
navigation4 ,not content with exploring 
every nook and corner of the            
,mediterranean1 they passed the ,pillars
 of ,hercules1 as the promontories of   
the ,straits of ,gibraltar were then    
called1 and visited the ,atlantic coasts
 of ,europe1 as far north as the ,scilly
 ,islands1 then denominated the         
,cassorides4 ,it is asserted by ,pliny1 
that ,hanno even circumnavigated        
,africa4  #aj4 ,the destruction of      
,carthage by the ,romans1 in the year   
before ,christ #adf1 interfered with    
improvements in the art of navigation2  
and the invasion of the northern        
barbarians1 several centuries           
afterwards1 extinguished nearly all the 
knowledge which had been previously     

acquired2 nor was it again revived1 and 
brought to the state in which it existed
 in the most flourishing era of         
antiquity1 until about the middle of the
 fourteenth century4  #aa4 ,after the   
period just mentioned1 improvements in  
this art followed each other in close   
succession4 ,the chief cause of this    
rapid advance was the discovery of the  
polarity of the magnet1 and the         
consequent invention of the mariner's   
compass4 ,the power of the loadstone to 
attract iron1 was early known to the    
,greeks and ,chinese2 but its property  
of pointing in a particular direction1  
when suspended1 and left to move freely1
 was not suspected until about the year 
#abjj of our era4  #ab4 ,at first1      
mariners were accustomed to place the   
magnetic needle on a floating straw1    
whenever they needed its guidance2 but1 
in #acjb1 one ,flavio ,giaio1 an obscure
 individual of the kingdom of ,naples1  
placed it on a permanent pivot1 and     
added a circular card4 ,still1 it was   

nearly half a century after this1 before
 navigators properly appreciated1 and   
implicitly relied on this new guide4    
,the compass did not reach its present  
improved state1 until the middle of the 
sixteenth century4  #ac4 ,as soon as the
 reputation of this instrument had      
become well established1 navigation     
assumed a bolder character2 and the     
capacity of vessels having been enlarged
 to meet this adventurous spirit1 oars  
were laid aside as inapplicable1 and    
sails alone were relied upon1 as means  
of propulsion4  #ad4 ,navigation1 in the
 early days of its revival1 was indebted
 to the ,portuguese for many valuable   
improvements4 ,to them1 also1 is the    
world under obligation for many splendid
 discoveries1 among which was that of a 
passage by sea to ,india4 ,this         
long-desired discovery was made in      
#adig1 by ,vasco de ,gama1 who had been 
sent out for the purpose by ,emanuel1   
king of ,portugal4  #ae4 ,five years    
before ,vasco de ,gama had found his way

 to ,india1 by the way of the ,cape of  
,good ,hope1 ,columbus made his         
discovery of the ,new ,world4 ,this     
great man had conceived or adopted the  
idea1 that the form of our earth was    
spherical1 in opposition to the         
generally received opinion1 that it was 
an extended plane2 and learning that    
,india stretched to an unknown distance 
eastward1 he supposed1 that1 by sailing 
in an opposite direction1 the navigator 
would meet with its eastern extremity4  
#af4 ,pursuing this idea1 he applied    
successively to the governments of      
several states and kingdoms for         
patronage to enable him to test its     
correctness2 and having1 at length1     
succeeded in obtaining three small      
vessels1 with the necessary equipments1 
from ,ferdinand and ,isabella1          
sovereigns of ,arragon and ,castile1 he 
proceeded on his proposed voyage1 which 
resulted in the discovery of the        
,american continent4  #ag4 ,these two   
great discoveries gave another powerful 

impulse to navigation2 and inventions   
and improvements multiplied in rapid    
succession4 ,the learned and ingenious1 
who at different times have turned their
 attention to the subject of navigation1
 have supplied the mariner with various 
means1 by which he can direct his course
 on the deep with accuracy and          
certainty4  #ah4 ,the instruments now   
employed in navigation1 are the         
mariner's compass1 the azimuth compass1 
the quadrant1 the sextant1 the          
chronometer1 the half minute-glass1 the 
log1 and the sounding-line4 ,in addition
 to these1 the general navigator needs  
accurate maps and charts1 lists of the  
latitude and longitude of every part of 
the world1 the time of high water at    
every port1 and a book of navigation1   
containing tables1 to aid him in        
performing various calculations with    
facility2 and1 with a view to calculate 
the longitude by observation1 he should 
be furnished with the ,nautical         
,almanac1 containing the places and     

declinations of the fixed stars and     
planets1 and especially the distances of
 the moon from the sun and other        
heavenly bodies4  #ai4 ,the mariner's   
compass1 as has been before observed1 is
 employed to indicate the various points
 of the horizon2 but the magnetic needle
 varying more or less from the exact    
northern and southern direction1 the    
azimuth compass is used1 to show the    
degree of that variation4 ,the quadrant 
and sextant are employed to ascertain   
the altitude and relative position of   
the heavenly bodies1 that the mariner   
may determine the latitude and longitude
 in which his vessel may be4 ,the       
chronometer is nothing more than a      
watch1 designed to measure time with    
great accuracy4 ,this instrument is used
 to determine the longitude4  #bj4 ,the 
log is used for ascertaining the        
velocity of the ship on the water4 ,it  
consists of a quadrangular piece of     
wood1 eight or nine inches long1 to     
which is attached a small cord1 having  

knots in it1 at proper distances from   
each other4 ,in the application1 the log
 is thrown upon the water1 where it will
 not be disturbed by the wake of the    
ship2 and the cord1 being wound upon a  
reel1 passes from it as fast as the     
vessel moves in the water4 ,the number  
of knots1 which pass off every half     
minute1 indicates the number of miles   
which the ship sails per hour2 hence1 in
 nautical language1 knots and miles are 
synonymous terms4 ,the sounding-line is 
a small cord1 with several pounds of    
lead of a conical figure attached to it2
 and is employed in trying the depth of 
the water1 and the quality of the       
bottom4  #ba4 ,navigation is either     
common or proper4 ,the former is usually
 called coasting1 as the vessel is      
either on the same or neighboring coast1
 and is seldom far from land1 or out of 
sounding4 ,the latter is applied to long
 voyages upon the main ocean1 when      
considerable skill in mathematics and   
astronomy1 together with an aptness in  

the use of instruments for celestial    
observations1 are required in the       
captain or master4  #bb4 ,the           
application of steam to the purposes of 
navigation1 is one of the greatest      
achievements of modern science and art4 
,the great utility of this agent is     
particularly conspicuous in our vast    
country1 where large rivers and bays and
 mighty lakes are numerous1 and where an
 energetic people and an active commerce
 require a rapid intercommunication4    
,steamboats are but little used on the  
great oceans2 as merchandise can there  
be more cheaply and safely transported  
in vessels propelled by sails4 ,since   
the year #ahci1 two lines of steam      
packets have been running regularly     
between this country and ,great         
,britain4 ,they commonly occupy1 in     
crossing the ,atlantic1 between twelve  
and fifteen days4  #bc4 ,the chief      
obstacle to the employment of steam1 in 
long voyages1 arises from the difficulty
 of generating a sufficient quantity of 

this agent1 with the fuel which could be
 carried without overburdening the      
vessel2 but a remedy for this           
inconvenience will probably be found1 in
 improvements in the construction of    
steam-generators4  #bd4 ,the power of   
confined steam acting by its expansive  
force1 was discovered by the celebrated 
,marquis of ,worcester1 about the middle
 of the seventeenth century2 but the    
first working steam-engine was          
constructed in #agje1 by ,thomas        
,newcomen1 a blacksmith of ,dartmouth1  
,devonshire1 ,england4 ,about the year  
#agfi1 ,james ,watt1 a native of        
,glasgow1 added a great number of       
improvements of his own invention4  #be4
 ,steam navigation was first suggested  
in ,england1 in #agcf1 by ,jonathan     
,hulls4 ,it was first tried in practice 
in ,france1 in #aghb1 by the ,marquis de
 ,jouffroy1 and nearly at the same time 
by ,james ,rumsey1 of ,virginia1 and    
,john ,fitch1 of ,philadelphia2 but it  
was first rendered completely successful

 at ,new-,york1 in #ahjg1 by ,robert    
,fulton4  #bf4 ,the sailors employed by 
the captain1 to aid him in navigating   
his ship1 are called a crew2 and the    
individuals composing it are responsible
 to the captain1 the captain to the     
owners1 and the owners to the merchants1
 for all damages to goods1 arising from 
negligence or bad management4  #bg4 ,in 
,england1 ample provisions are made at  
,greenwich ,hospital or by pensions1 for
 seamen disabled by age or otherwise4   
,these benefits1 however1 are extended  
only to those who have been engaged in  
the national service4 ,this noble and   
politic institution is supported partly 
by public bounty1 and in part by private
 donations1 and a tax of sixpence per   
month1 deducted from the wages of all   
the seamen of the nation4 ,marine       
,hospitals1 for the temporary           
accommodation of seamen1 suffering from 
disease1 have been established in       
several cities of the continent of      
,europe1 as well as of the ,united      

,states4  #bh4 ,mariners have ever been 
a distinct class of men1 and1 in their  
general characters1 very similar in     
every age of the world4 ,their          
superstitious regard of the many signs  
of good and bad luck1 is nearly the same
 now1 that it was two or three thousand 
years ago4 ,in ancient times1 they had  
their lucky and unlucky days2 and now1  
very few sailors are willing to leave   
port on ,friday1 lest the circumstance  
bring upon them some disaster1 before   
the conclusion of the proposed voyage4  
#bi4 ,superstitions of this nature1     
however1 are not confined to the        
navigators of the deep4 ,even in this   
country1 where the inhabitants enjoy    
superior intellectual advantages1 and   
boast a high degree of intelligence1    
thousands of persons who have never been
 on board of a ship1 are still under the
 influence of such heathen notions1     
notwithstanding their pretended belief  
in ,christianity1 which1 in all cases1  
when properly understood1 would prevent 

the forebodings of evil1 or expectations
 of good1 from unimportant prognostics4 
,illustration3 ,,merchant4  ,,the       
,,merchant4   #a4 ,the word merchant1 in
 its most extended application1         
signifies1 a person who deals in        
merchandise4 ,this definition1 with some
 exceptions1 agrees very well with      
general usage in this country2 although1
 in ,england1 the term is principally   
restricted to those dealers who export  
and import goods on their own account1  
either in their own or in chartered     
vessels4 ,in the ,united ,states1       
dealers of this class are denominated   
importing and exporting merchants2 or   
simply1 importers and exporters4  #b4   
,such merchants1 both here and in       
,europe1 are distinguished from each    
other by the kind of goods in which they
 traffic1 or by the foreign country in  
which they have their chief             
correspondence2 thus1 one who deals in  
tobacco is called a tobacco-merchant2 a 
wholesale dealer in wines is called a   

wine-merchant2 a ,west ,india1 ,east    
,india1 or ,turkey merchant1 exports    
goods to1 and imports goods from1 those 
respective countries4  #c4 ,the business
 of merchants1 in foreign countries1 is 
usually transacted by agents1 called    
factors1 or commission merchants1 to    
whom goods are consigned to be sold1 and
 by whom other articles of merchandise  
are purchased and returned according to 
order4 ,sometimes an agent1 called a    
supercargo1 accompanies the vessel2 or  
the captain may act in this capacity4   
,goods1 however1 are often obtained by  
order1 without the intervention of an   
agency of any kind4  #d4 ,almost every  
sort of foreign merchandise is subject  
to the imposition of duties by the      
government of the country in which it is
 received4 ,these duties are paid at the
 ,custom-,house1 to persons appointed by
 the constituted authorities to collect 
them4 ,as soon as a vessel from abroad  
has entered the harbor1 it is visited by
 a custom-house officer1 called a       

,tide-,waiter1 whose business it is to  
see that no part of the cargo is        
removed1 until measures have been taken 
to secure the customs4  #e4 ,goods      
brought into the country by importers1  
are frequently sold1 in succession1 to  
several merchants of different grades1  
before they come to the hands of the    
consumers4 ,cloths or stuffs of         
different kinds1 for instance1 may be   
first sold by the bale to one merchant1 
who1 in turn1 may dispose of them by the
 package to another1 and this last may  
retail them in small quantities to a    
greater number of customers4  #f4       
,dealers in a small way1 in cities and  
large towns1 are frequently denominated 
shop-keepers2 but those who do an       
extensive retail business1 are usually  
called merchants or grocers1 according  
as they deal in dry goods or groceries4 
,in cities1 the extensive demand for    
goods enables retailers to confine their
 attention to particular classes of     
articles2 such as groceries1 hardware1  

crockery1 a few kinds of dry goods1 or  
some articles of domestic manufacture2  
but in other places1 where trade is more
 limited1 the merchant is obliged to    
keep a more general assortment4  #g4    
,the general retail merchant is         
compelled to transact business with a   
great number of wholesale dealers1 to   
whom he pays cash in hand1 or agrees to 
pay it at some future period1 say1 in   
four1 six1 nine1 or twelve months4 ,the 
people in his vicinity1 in turn1        
purchase his goods on similar           
conditions1 with this difference1 that  
they often substitute for cash          
agricultural and other productions1     
which the merchant1 at length1 turns    
into ready money4  #h4 ,barter1 or the  
exchange of commodities1 prevails to a  
great extent1 in country places1 in     
almost every part of the ,united        
,states4 ,in such exchanges1 the        
currency of the country is made the     
standard of reference3 for example2 a   
merchant receiving from a customer      

twenty bushels of wheat1 estimated at   
one dollar per bushel1 gives in return  
twenty dollars' worth of goods1 at his  
marked prices2 or1 in other words1 he   
gives credit for the wheat1 and charges 
the goods4 ,on the same principle1      
merchants of the first class often      
exchange the productions of their own   
country for those of another4  #i4      
,merchants1 or store-keepers1 as they   
are indifferently called in some places1
 whose location is distant from the     
seaboard1 visit the city in which they  
deal once or twice a year1 for the      
purpose of laying in their stock of     
goods2 but1 in order to keep up their   
assortment1 they sometimes order small  
lots in the interim4 ,retailers more    
conveniently situated1 purchase a       
smaller amount of goods at a time1 and  
replenish their stores more frequently4 
#aj4 ,commerce1 on the principles of    
barter1 or a simple exchange of one     
commodity for another1 must have been   
practised in the early days of ,adam    

himself2 although we have no positive   
record of the fact2 for it cannot be    
imagined that the arts1 which are stated
 in the ,scripture to have flourished   
long before the flood1 could have       
existed without commercial transactions4
 ,the period at which the precious      
metals began to be employed as a        
standard of value1 or as a medium of    
commercial intercourse1 is not known4   
,they were used for this purpose in the 
time of ,abraham1 and probably many     
centuries before his day4  #aa4 ,the    
earliest hint respecting the existence  
of trade between different nations1 is  
to be found in the book of ,genesis1    
where the transaction regarding the sale
 of ,joseph to the ,ishmaelites1 or     
,midianites1 is mentioned4 ,these       
merchants1 it appears1 were travelling  
in a caravan to ,egypt1 then the most   
cultivated and refined part of the      
world4 ,their camels were loaded with   
balm1 myrrh1 and spices4 ,the first of  
these articles was the production of    

,gilead2 the second1 of ,arabia2 and the
 last was probably from ,india2 as in   
that country the finer spices are       
produced4 ,if this were really the case1
 commerce1 in its widest sense1 was     
carried on much earlier than is         
generally supposed4  #ab4 ,the fertility
 of ,egypt1 and its central position1   
made it an emporium of commerce2 and    
there it flourished1 in an eminent      
degree1 long before it was cultivated in
 ,europe and in ,western ,asia4 ,for    
several ages1 however1 the ,egyptians1  
on account of their superstitious       
prejudices against the sea1 carried on  
no maritime commerce4  #ac4 ,the        
,phoenicians were the first people who  
used the ,mediterranean ,sea1 as a      
highway for the transportation of       
merchandise4 ,tyre and ,sidon were their
 chief cities2 and the latter was called
 a great1 and the former a strong city1 
even in the time of ,joshua1 fifteen    
hundred years before the advent of      
,christ4 ,these people1 in their        

original association as a nation1       
possessed but a small territory2 and1   
being surrounded by many powerful       
nations1 they never attempted its       
enlargement on the land side4  #ad4 ,the
 settlement of the ,israelites in the   
,promised ,land1 circumscribed their    
limits to a very small territory1 and   
compelled them to colonize a great      
number of their inhabitants4 ,the       
colonies which they formed in the       
various countries bordering upon the    
,mediterranean and on the islands1      
enlarged the boundaries of civilization1
 and greatly extended their trade4  #ae4
 ,the ,phoenicians continued their      
colonial system for many centuries after
 the period just mentioned1 and even    
extended it to the ,atlantic coasts of  
,europe4 ,but the most distinguished of 
all their colonies was the one which    
founded the city of ,carthage1 on the   
northern coast of ,africa1 about the    
year #hfi before ,christ4 ,elissa1 or1  
as she is otherwise called1 ,dido1 the  

reputed leader of this colony1 makes a  
conspicuous figure in one of the books  
of ,virgil's ,a,eneid4  #af4 ,carthage1 
adopting the same system which had so   
long been pursued by the great cities of
 ,phoenicia1 rose1 in a few centuries1  
to wealth and splendor4 ,but1 changing1 
at length1 her mercantile for a military
 character1 she ruled her dependent     
colonies with a rod of despotism4 ,this 
produced a spirit of resistance on the  
part of her distant subjects1 who       
applied to ,rome for aid to resist her  
tyranny4 ,the consequence of this       
application was the three ,punic wars1  
so renowned in history1 and which       
terminated in the destruction of        
,carthage1 in the year #adf before the  
,christian era4 ,during the first ,punic
 war1 ,carthage contained seven hundred 
thousand inhabitants2 but at its        
destruction1 scarcely five thousand were
 found within its walls4  #ag4 ,the     
period of the greatest prosperity of    
,tyre1 may be placed #ehh years before  

,christ1 at which time the remarkable   
prophecies of ,ezekiel concerning it    
were delivered4 ,soon after this1 it was
 greatly injured by ,nebuchadnezzar2 and
 was finally destroyed by ,alexander the
 ,great1 about the year #ccb before     
,christ4  #ah4 ,a new channel was opened
 to commerce by the monarch just        
mentioned1 he having founded a city in  
,egypt1 to which he gave the name of    
,alexandria4 ,his object seems to have  
been1 to render this city the centre of 
the commercial world2 and its commanding
 position1 at the mouth of the ,nile1   
was well calculated to make it so2 since
 it was easy of access from the west by 
the ,mediterranean1 from the east by the
 ,red ,sea1 and from the central        
countries of ,asia by the ,isthmus of   
,suez4  #ai4 ,the plans of ,alexander   
were carried out with vigor by ,ptolemy1
 who received ,egypt as his portion of  
the ,macedonian empire1 after the death 
of his master2 and1 by his liberality1  
he induced great numbers of people to   

settle in the new metropolis for the    
purposes of trade4 ,far south1 on the   
,red ,sea1 he also founded a city1 which
 he called ,berenice1 and which he      
designed as a depot for the precious    
commodities brought into his kingdom    
from ,india4 ,from this city1 goods were
 transported on camels across the       
country1 to a port on the ,nile2 and    
thence they were taken down the river to
 ,alexandria4  #bj4 ,ptolemy also kept  
large fleets both on the ,mediterranean 
and on the ,red ,sea1 for the protection
 of commerce1 and the defence of his    
dominions2 yet1 the ,egyptians1 even    
under the ,ptolemies1 never attempted a 
direct trade to ,india4 ,they1 as the   
,phoenicians and their own progenitors  
had done for ages1 depended upon the    
,arabian merchants for the productions  
of that country4  #ba4 ,the ,greeks1    
before their subjugation to the ,roman  
power1 had paid much attention to       
nautical affairs2 but this had been     
chiefly for warlike dominion1 rather    

than for commercial purposes4 ,the city 
of ,corinth1 however1 had become wealthy
 by the attention of its inhabitants to 
manufactures and trade2 but it was      
destroyed by the same barbarian people  
who1 about this time1 annihilated       
,carthage4 ,both of these cities were   
afterwards favored by ,julius ,caesar2  
but they never regained anything like   
their former importance4  #bb4 ,rome    
having1 at length1 obtained the complete
 dominion of the ,mediterranean ,sea1   
and the countries bordering upon it1 as 
well as that of many others more        
distant1 and less easy of access1 became
 the great mart for the sale of         
merchandise of every description1 from  
all parts of the known world4 ,for the  
various commodities brought to the city1
 the ,romans paid gold and silver2 as   
they had nothing else to export in      
return4 ,the money which they had       
exacted as tribute1 or which they had   
obtained by plunder1 was thus returned  
to the nations from which it had been   

taken4  #bc4 ,the subjected provinces   
continued to pour their choicest        
productions into ,rome1 as long as she  
retained the control of the empire2 and 
thus they contributed to enervate1 by   
the many luxuries they afforded1 the    
power by which they had been subdued4   
,the eternal city1 as she is sometimes  
called1 in the days of her extensive    
dominion1 contained about three millions
 of inhabitants2 and1 although this     
immense population was chiefly supplied 
by importations1 the ,romans never      
esteemed the character of a merchant4   
,they despised the peaceful pursuits of 
industry1 whilst they regarded it       
honorable to attack without provocation1
 and plunder without remorse1 the weaker
 nations of the earth4  #bd4 ,in the    
year #cbh of the ,christian era1        
,byzantium was made the seat of         
government of the ,roman empire by      
,constantine1 who1 with a view of       
perpetuating his own name1 called his   
new capital ,constantinople4 ,however   

necessary this removal may have been1 to
 keep in subjugation the eastern        
provinces1 it was fatal to the security 
of the western division4 ,the rivalry   
between the two cities produced frequent
 contests for dominion2 and these1      
together with the general corruption and
 effeminacy of the people themselves1   
rendered it impossible to resist the    
repeated and fierce invasions of the    
barbarous people from the northern parts
 of ,europe4  #be4 ,these invasions     
commenced in the latter part of the     
fourth century2 and1 in less than two   
hundred years1 a great portion of the   
inhabitants was destroyed1 and the whole
 ,western empire was completely         
subverted4 ,the conquerors were too     
barbarous to encourage or protect       
commerce2 and1 like the arts of peace   
and civilization generally1 it sunk1    
with few exceptions1 amid the general   
ruin4  #bf4 ,the empire of              
,constantinople1 or1 as it is usually   
called1 the ,eastern empire1 continued  

in existence several centuries after the
 ,western empire had been overrun2 and  
commerce continued to flow1 for a       
considerable time1 through some of its  
former channels to the capital4 ,at     
length1 the ,indian trade1 which had so 
long been carried on chiefly through    
,egypt by the ,red ,sea1 was changed to 
a more northern route1 through ,persia4 
#bg4 ,soon after the commencement of the
 pretended mission of ,mohammed1 or     
,mahomet1 in #fji of the ,christian era1
 the power of the ,arabians1 since      
called ,saracens1 began to rise4 ,the   
followers of the ,prophet1 impelled by  
religious zeal1 and allured by plunder1 
in less than #aej years extended their  
dominion almost to the borders of ,china
 on the one side1 and to the            
,mediterranean and ,atlantic on the     
other4 ,the trade of the ,east1 of      
course1 fell into their hands2 and they 
continued to enjoy it1 until they1 in   
turn1 were subdued by the ,turks4  #bh4 
,so great was the prejudice of the      

,christians against the followers of    
,mohammed1 that1 for a long time1 it was
 considered heretical for the former to 
trade with the latter2 but the ,saracens
 having a vast extent of territory1 and 
having control of the ,mediterranean and
 ,red ,seas1 as well as of the ,persian 
,gulf1 carried on an extensive trade    
among themselves4  #bi4 ,the first      
,european power which rose to commercial
 eminence1 after the destruction of the 
,western empire1 was the republic of    
,venice4 ,this important city owed its  
origin to some fugitives1 who fled for  
their lives to a number of small islands
 in the ,adriatic ,sea1 during the      
invasion of ,italy by the ,huns1 under  
,attila1 in the year #deb4  #cj4 ,the   
houses first built by the refugees1 were
 constructed of mud and seagrass2 and1  
so insignificant were they in their     
appearance1 that a writer of that period
 compares them to a collection of the   
nests of water-fowls4 ,the number of    
these islands1 on which so splendid a   

city was afterwards built1 was1         
according to some1 seventy-two2 but1    
according to others1 ninety1 or even one
 hundred and fifty4 ,for a considerable 
time1 the distinction of rich and poor  
was not known2 for all lived upon the   
same fish-diet1 and in houses of similar
 form and materials4  #ca4 ,in less than
 a century1 the inhabitants of these    
islands had established a regular       
government2 and1 in the year #gcb1 we   
find them venturing beyond the ,adriatic
 into the ,mediterranean1 even as far as
 ,constantinople1 trading in silks1     
purple draperies1 and ,indian           
commodities4 ,in #hac1 the ,french      
commenced trading to ,alexandria1 and1  
in a few years1 the ,venetians followed 
their example1 in despite of the        
ecclesiastical prohibitions against     
intercourse with the followers of       
,mohammed4 ,in the tenth century1       
,amalfi1 ,pisa1 ,genoa1 and ,florence1  
began to rival ,venice in trade4  #cb4  
,the crusades1 which1 for two centuries 

from the year #ajie1 engaged so much of 
the attention of the ,christian nations 
of ,europe1 greatly promoted the        
interests of the commercial cities of   
,italy2 as the armies in these          
expeditions were dependent on them for  
provisions1 and for the means of        
crossing the sea1 which lay between them
 and the ,holy ,land4 ,they also gave a 
new and powerful impulse to commerce in 
general1 by giving the people1 in the   
unrefined parts of ,europe1 a knowledge 
of the elegances and luxuries of the    
,east4  #cc4 ,in the thirteenth century1
 commerce and manufactures began to     
command considerable attention in       
,germany and the adjacent states2 but as
 the seas and rivers were infested with 
pirates1 and the roads with banditti1 it
 became necessary for those engaged in  
commerce to adopt measures to protect   
their commodities1 while on the way from
 one place to another4 ,the citizens of 
,hamburg and ,lubeck first united for   
this purpose2 and the advantages of such

 a union of strength becoming apparent1 
many other cities soon entered into the 
confederation4  #cd4 ,this association  
was denominated the ,hanse1 or league1  
and the cities thus united were called  
,hanse ,towns4 ,most of the commercial  
towns in the northern parts of the      
continent of ,europe1 at length1 became 
parties to the ,hanseatic league4 ,the  
number of these cities varied1 at       
different periods2 but in the days of   
the greatest prosperity of the          
association1 it amounted to eighty-five4
  #ce4 ,representatives from the        
different cities met triennially at     
,lubeck1 where their common treasury and
 archives were kept4 ,by this assembly1 
which was called a diet1 rules for the  
regulation of commercial intercourse    
were made1 and other business           
transacted1 which related to the general
 welfare of the confederation4  #cf4 ,in
 the fourteenth century1 the league1 in 
all parts of ,europe1 attained a high   
degree of political importance1 and     

developed that commercial policy which  
it had originated1 and which has since  
been adopted by all civilized nations4  
,the objects of the allied cities were  
now declared to be--to protect their    
commerce against pillage1 to guard and  
extend their foreign trade1 and1 as far 
as possible1 to monopolize it1 to       
maintain and extend the privileges      
obtained from the princes of different  
nations1 and to make rules or laws for  
the regulation of trade1 as well as to  
establish the necessary tribunals for   
their due execution4 ,the decisions of  
their courts were respected by the civil
 authorities of the countries to which  
their trade extended4  #cg4 ,the        
treasury was chiefly supplied by duties 
on merchandise2 and the great wealth    
thus acquired enabled the allied cities 
to obtain commercial privileges from    
needy princes1 for pecuniary            
accommodations4 ,the league1 in         
defending its commerce1 even carried on 
wars against kingdoms2 and1 at length1  

by its wealth and naval power1 became   
mistress of the ,northern seas1 and     
rendered the different cities of the    
confederation in a great measure        
independent of the sovereigns of the    
countries in which they were situated4  
#ch4 ,the conduct of the ,hanse ,towns1 
at length1 excited the jealousies of    
those sovereigns who had1 for a long    
time1 favored their union2 and the      
princes of ,europe generally1 becoming  
acquainted with the value of commerce1  
both as means of enriching their people1
 and of filling their own coffers1      
combined against the association4 ,in   
#aeah1 the governments of several states
 commanded all their cities to withdraw 
from the league1 which soon after       
voluntarily excluded some others4 ,after
 this the ,hanse gradually sunk in      
importance1 and finally ceased to exist 
in #afcj4  #ci4 ,the trade to the ,east 
,indies continued to be carried on      
through ,persia and ,egypt1 subject to  
the extortions of the ,saracens1 and the

 still severer exactions of the         
merchants of the ,italian cities1 until 
the route to those countries1 by the    
,cape of ,good ,hope1 was discovered4   
#dj4 ,the use of this new pathway of    
commerce1 combined with the discovery of
 ,america1 caused an entire change in   
both the political and commercial state 
of ,europe4 ,a strong desire of visiting
 the remote parts of the world1 thus    
laid open to the people of ,europe1     
immediately arose1 not only among the   
,portuguese and ,spaniards1 but also    
among other nations4 ,colonies were soon
 planted in the ,east and in the ,west2 
and the whole world may be said to have 
been inspired with new energy4  #da4    
,the ,portuguese1 being considerably in 
advance of the other ,atlantic nations  
in the art of navigation1 soon gained   
the entire control of the ,east ,india  
trade1 and were thus raised to great    
eminence1 prosperity1 and power4 ,their 
dominions became extensive in ,africa   
and ,asia1 and their navy superior to   

any that had been seen for several ages 
before4  #db4 ,in #aehj1 or eighty-three
 years after ,vasco de ,gama found his  
way1 by the ,cape1 to ,calicut1         
,portugal was subdued by ,philip ,,ii41 
king of ,spain4 ,the ,spaniards1        
however1 were not enriched by the       
conquest2 since their commercial energy 
and enterprise had been destroyed1 by   
the vast quantities of the precious     
metals obtained from their ,american    
possessions4  #dc4 ,in #aegi1 the people
 of ,holland1 with those of six         
neighboring provinces1 being then       
subject to ,spain1 united1 under the    
,prince of ,orange1 for the purpose of  
regaining their liberties4 ,this        
produced a sanguinary war1 which        
continued for thirty years1 during which
 time the ,dutch wrested from the       
,spaniards most of their ,portuguese    
possessions in ,india1 and1 in addition 
to this1 formed many other settlements  
in various places from the ,river       
,tigris even to ,japan4 ,batavia1 on the

 ,island of ,java1 was made the grand   
emporium of trade1 and the seat of the  
government of their ,east ,india        
possessions4  #dd4 ,the prosperity of   
the ,united ,provinces increased with   
great rapidity2 and1 as they were but   
little interfered with by other nations 
in their ,eastern dominions1 they       
enjoyed1 for half a century or more1    
almost the whole of the trade of the    
,east4 ,besides this1 they shared       
largely with the rest of the world in   
almost every other branch of trade4     
,after the year #affj1 other nations1 by
 great exertions1 succeeded in obtaining
 considerable shares of the commerce of 
the ,east2 yet the ,dutch still retain  
valuable possessions there4  #de4 ,the  
chief articles exported from ,britain1  
in ancient times1 were tin1 lead1       
copper1 iron1 wool1 and cattle2 for     
which they received in return1 gold1    
silver1 and manufactured articles4 ,but 
the commerce of the ,british ,islands   
was inconsiderable1 when compared with  

that of many kingdoms on the ,continent1
 until the beginning of the eighteenth  
century4  #df4 ,when ,elizabeth ascended
 the throne of ,england1 in #aeeh1 the  
circumstances of the nation required an 
extensive navy for its protection2 and  
the great attention which the queen paid
 to this means of defence1 gave         
animation to all maritime concerns4     
,under her patronage1 several companies 
for trading in foreign countries were   
formed1 which1 at that time1 and for a  
long period afterwards1 were very       
beneficial to trade in general4 ,in her 
reign1 also1 the colonial system of     
,england had its origin1 which          
contributed eventually1 more than any   
thing else1 to the commercial prosperity
 of that nation4 ,since the reign of    
this wise and judicious princess1 the   
commerce and manufactures of ,great     
,britain have been1 with a few          
interruptions1 steadily advancing2 and1 
in these two particulars1 she surpasses 
every other nation4  #dg4 ,the ,united  

,states possess superior local          
advantages for trade1 and embrace a     
population unsurpassed for enterprise   
and energy4 ,since the ,revolution1 the 
resources of our country have been      
rapidly developing4 ,our exports and    
imports are already next in amount to   
those of ,great ,britain and ,france and
 the extensive improvements which have  
been made by the different states1 to   
facilitate internal intercourse1 are    
increasing with great rapidity4  #dh4   
,the banking system is very intimately  
interwoven with commercial affairs in   
general4 ,banks are of three kinds1     
viz41 of discount1 of deposit1 and of   
circulation4 ,the term bank1 in its     
original application1 signified a place 
of common deposit for money1 and where1 
in commercial transactions1 individuals 
could have the amount1 or any part of   
the amount1 of their deposits           
transferred to each other's accounts4   
#di4 ,the term bank is derived from the 
,italian word banco1 which signified a  

kind of bench1 or table1 on which the   
,jews were accustomed to place the money
 which they proposed to lend in the     
markets of the principal towns4 ,the    
first bank was established in ,venice1  
about the middle of the twelfth century2
 the ,bank of ,genoa1 in #acde2 the     
,bank of ,amsterdam1 in #afjg2 the ,bank
 of ,hamburg1 in #afai2 the ,bank of    
,rotterdam1 in #afce4 ,these were all   
banks of mere deposit and transfer4     
#ej4 ,lending-houses may be traced to a 
very ancient origin4 ,they were1 at     
first1 supported by humane persons1 with
 a view of lending money to the poor1 on
 pledges1 without interest4 ,augustus   
,caesar appropriated a part of the      
confiscated effects of criminals to this
 purpose2 and ,tiberias1 also1 advanced 
a large capital1 to be lent for three   
years1 without interest1 to those who   
could give security in lands equal to   
twice the value of the sum borrowed4    
#ea4 ,in the early ages of              
,christianity1 free gifts were collected

 and preserved by ecclesiastics1 partly 
to defray the expenses of divine        
service1 and partly to relieve the poor 
of the church2 and the funds thus       
provided came1 at length1 to be called  
montes pietatis--mountains of piety4    
,this appellation was afterwards applied
 to the loaning-houses1 established in  
modern ,italy in imitation of those of  
antiquity4  #eb4 ,in course of time1 the
 loaning-houses were permitted by the   
,roman pontiff to charge a moderate     
interest on a part of their capital1    
and1 finally1 upon the whole of it2     
still1 they retained1 for a long period1
 the original denomination of montes    
pietatis4 ,the receiving of interest on 
loans was declared lawful by the ,pope1 
about the middle of the fifteenth       
century4 ,soon after this period1 all   
the cities of ,italy hastened to        
establish these institutions2 and their 
example was1 at length1 followed in     
other parts of ,europe4  #ec4 ,but long 
before the ,pope had granted this       

privilege1 individuals were in the habit
 of loaning money at an exorbitant      
usury4 ,these were principally ,jews and
 merchants from ,lombardy2 hence1 all   
persons in those countries1 who dealt in
 money1 came to be called ,lombard      
merchants4 ,the prohibitions of the     
,church against receiving interest were 
eluded1 when necessary1 by causing it to
 be paid in advance1 by way of present  
or premium4  #ed4 ,in the twelfth       
century1 many of the dealers in money   
were expelled from ,england1 ,france1   
and the ,netherlands1 for usurious      
practices2 and1 in order to regain      
possession of their effects1 which they 
had1 in their haste1 left in the hands  
of confidential friends1 they adopted   
the method of writing concise orders or 
drafts4 ,hence originated bills of      
exchange1 so convenient in commercial   
transactions4  #ee4 ,the ,bank of       
,england was established in the year    
#afid4 ,hitherto1 the banks of deposit1 
and loaning-houses1 were entirely       

distinct2 but1 in this institution1     
these two branches of pecuniary         
operations were united4 ,it seems1 also1
 that this was the first bank that      
issued notes1 to serve as a medium of   
circulation1 and to supply1 in part1 the
 place of gold and silver4  #ef4 ,in the
 ,united ,states1 banking institutions  
are very numerous4 ,they are all        
established by companies1 incorporated  
by the legislatures of the different    
states1 or by the congress of the       
,united ,states4 ,the act which grants  
the privileges of banking1 also fixes   
the amount of the capital stock1 and    
divides it into equal shares4 ,the      
holders of the stock choose the officers
 to transact the business of the        
corporation4  #eg4 ,our banks receive   
deposits from individual customers1 loan
 money on notes of hand1 acceptances1   
and drafts1 issue notes of circulation1 
and purchase and sell bills of exchange4
 ,they are usually authorized1 by their 
charters1 to loan three times the       

amount1 and to issue bank-notes to twice
 the amount1 of the capital stock paid  
in4 ,few banking companies1 however1    
exercise these privileges to the full   
extent1 lest the bank be embarrassed by 
too great a demand for specie4 ,as soon 
as a bank ceases to pay specie for its  
notes1 it is said to be broken1 and its 
operations must cease4  #eh4 ,the ,bank 
of ,north ,america was the first        
institution of this kind1 established in
 the ,united ,states4 ,it was           
incorporated by ,congress1 in #agha1 at 
the suggestion of ,robert ,morris4 ,in  
#agia1 after the union of the states had
 been effected under the present        
constitution1 the first ,bank of the    
,united ,states was incorporated1 with a
 capital of ten millions of dollars4    
,most of the states soon followed this  
example2 and1 before the beginning of   
the present century1 the whole banking  
capital amounted to near thirty millions
 of dollars4  #ei4 ,the charter of the  
first ,bank of the ,united ,states      

expired1 by its own limitation1 in      
#ahaa2 and a new one1 with a capital of 
thirty-five millions of dollars1 was    
established in #ahaf1 which also closed 
its concerns1 as a national bank1 in    
#ahcf1 ,president ,jackson having vetoed
 the bill for its recharter4 ,in that   
year the number of banks was #efg1 and  
the bank capital #bea1hge1bib4 ,in the  
year #ahdj1 the number of banks had     
increased to #gbb1 and their capital to 
#ceh1ddb1fib4     ,illustration3        
,,auctioneer4  ,,the ,,auctioneer4   #a4
 ,the ,auctioneer is one who disposes of
 property at public sale to the highest 
bidder4 ,the sale of property in this   
manner is regulated1 in some            
particulars1 by legislative enactments1 
which have for their object the         
prevention of fraud1 or the imposition  
of duties4  #b4 ,in ,pennsylvania1 the  
present law provides for three classes  
of auctioneers1 each of which is        
required to pay to the state a specified
 sum for a license4 ,the first class    

pays two thousand dollars per annum2 the
 second1 one thousand2 and the third1   
two hundred2 and1 besides this1 one and 
a half per cent4 on the amount of all   
their sales is required to be paid into 
the treasury of the state4 ,to each     
class are granted privileges            
corresponding to the cost of the        
license4  #c4 ,in the state of          
,new-,york1 the number of auctioneers   
for the cities1 villages1 and counties1 
is limited by law2 and all persons who  
would follow the business are compelled 
to give security for the faithful       
execution of its duties4 ,the state     
requires a duty of one per cent4 on all 
merchandise imported from beyond the    
,cape of ,good ,hope1 one and a half per
 cent4 on such as may be imported from  
other foreign countries1 and two per    
cent4 on wines and ardent spirits1      
whether foreign or domestic4 ,the laws  
and usages regarding sales at auction1  
in most of the ,united ,states1 are     
similar1 in their general principles1 to

 those of ,pennsylvania or ,new-,york4  
#d4 ,a great amount of merchandise1 both
 foreign and domestic1 in our principal 
cities1 is sold by auction2 and the     
price which staple commodities there    
command is generally considered a       
tolerable criterion of their value at   
the time4 ,it very frequently happens1  
however1 that articles which are not in 
steady demand1 are sold at a great      
sacrifice4 ,auctioneers seldom import   
goods1 nor is it usual for them to own  
the property which they sell4  #e4 ,in  
all cases1 before an auction is held1   
due notice is given to the public4 ,this
 is usually done by the circulation of a
 printed hand-bill1 by a crier1 or by an
 advertisement in a newspaper2 or all   
three of these modes may be employed to 
give publicity to one and the same sale4
  #f4 ,persons desirous of becoming     
purchasers at the proposed auction1     
assemble at the time appointed2 and1    
after the auctioneer has stated the     
terms of sale1 as regards the payment of

 whatever may be purchased1 he offers   
the property to the persons present1 who
 make their respective bids1 he1 in the 
mean time1 crying the sum proposed4     
,when no further advance is expected1 he
 knocks down the article to the last    
bidder4  #g4 ,a mode of sale was        
formerly1 and1 in some cases is still1  
practised1 in various parts of ,europe1 
called sale by inch of candle4 ,the     
things for sale are offered in the      
ordinary manner1 as has been described  
in the preceding paragraph1 and1 at the 
same time1 a wax-candle1 an inch in     
length1 is lighted4 ,the purchasers bid 
upon each other1 until the candle has   
been all consumed2 and the last bidder1 
when the light goes out1 is entitled to 
the articles or goods in question4  #h4 
,auctioneers1 in large cities1 hold     
their sales at regular periods2         
sometimes1 every day or evening4 ,on    
extensive sales of merchandise1 credits 
of two1 three1 four1 six1 or nine       
months1 are commonly given4 ,in such    

cases1 the auctioneer often gives his   
own obligations for the goods1 and      
receives in return those of the         
purchasers4  #i4 ,this mode of sale is  
employed in the disposition of property 
taken by process of law for the payment 
of debts1 in every part of the world1   
where the influence of ,european law has
 extended4 ,it is used in preference to 
any other2 because it is the most ready 
way of sale1 and is moreover the most   
likely method to secure to the debtor   
something like the value of his         
property4  #aj4 ,executors and          
administrators often employ this        
convenient method of sale1 in settling  
the estates of deceased persons2 and    
they1 as well as sheriffs and           
constables1 ex-officio1 or by virtue of 
their office1 have a lawful right to act
 in the capacity of auctioneer1 in      
performing their respective duties2 and 
no tax is required by the state1 in such
 cases4  #aa4 ,the sale by auction was  
in use among the ,romans1 even in the   

early days of their city4 ,it was first 
employed in the disposition of spoils   
taken in war2 hence a spear was adopted 
as a signal of a public sale2 and this  
continued to be the auctioneer's emblem1
 even after this mode of sale was       
extended to property in general4 ,the   
red flag and spear1 or rather the handle
 of that instrument1 both emblematical  
of blood and war1 are still employed for
 the same purpose4  #ab4 ,several       
attempts have been made in the ,united  
,states1 to suppress sales of           
merchandise by auction2 but these       
endeavors were unsuccessful1 since      
experience had proved this mode of      
effecting exchanges to be prompt and    
convenient2 and since some of the states
 had derived considerable revenue from  
the duties4 ,so long as conflicting     
interests remain as they are1 this mode 
of sale will be likely to continue4     
,illustration3 ,the ,,clergyman4  ,,the 
,,clergyman4   #a4 ,the ,lord ,jesus    
,christ1 our ,saviour1 during his visit 

of mercy to the world1 chose from among 
his disciples twelve men1 to be his     
especial agents in establishing his     
church4 ,these men1 in our translation  
of the ,new ,testament1 are denominated 
apostles4 ,the grand commission which   
they received was1 ,go ye into all the  
world1 and preach my gospel to every    
creature4  #b4 ,the apostles commenced  
their noble enterprise on that memorable
 day of ,pentecost1 which next occurred 
after the ascension of their ,master2   
and1 in the city of his inveterate      
enemies1 soon succeeded in establishing 
a church of several thousand members4   
,the doctrines of ,christianity soon    
spread to other cities and countries2   
and1 before the close of that century1  
they were known and embraced1 more or   
less1 in every province of the ,roman   
empire4  #c4 ,the apostles1 however1    
were not the only agents engaged in     
spreading and maintaining the doctrines 
of ,christianity2 for1 in every church1 
persons were found capable of taking the

 supervision of the rest1 and of        
exercising the office of the ministry4  
,these were ordained either by the      
apostles themselves1 or by persons      
authorized by them to perform the       
ceremony4  #d4 ,after the ,church had   
passed through a great variety of       
persecutions1 during a period of nearly 
three centuries1 the ,christians became 
superior in numbers to the pagans in the
 ,roman empire4 ,in the early part of   
the fourth century1 a free toleration in
 religious matters was declared by      
,constantine the ,great1 who took the   
,church under his especial protection4  
#e4 ,the ,christians of the first and   
second centuries usually worshipped ,god
 in private houses1 or in the open air  
in retired places1 chiefly on account of
 the persecutions to which they were    
often subjected4 ,it was not until the  
third century1 that they ventured to    
give greater publicity to their service1
 by building churches for general       
accommodation4 ,when the ,cross had     

obtained the ascendency1 in the         
subsequent age1 many of the heathen     
temples were appropriated to ,christian 
purposes2 and many splendid churches    
were erected1 especially by ,constantine
 and his successors4  #f4 ,in the middle
 ages1 a great number of edifices were  
erected for the performance of divine   
worship1 which1 in loftiness and        
grandeur1 had never been surpassed2 and 
the greater part of these remain to the 
present day4 ,some of the most famous   
churches are1 ,st4 ,peter's1 at ,rome2  
,notre ,dame1 at ,paris2 ,st4           
,stephen's1 at ,vienna2 the church of   
,isaac1 at ,st4 ,petersburg2 the        
minsters at ,strasburg and ,cologne and 
,st4 ,paul's1 in ,london4  #g4 ,up to   
the time of the great change in favor of
 ,christianity1 just mentioned1 the     
whole ,church had often acted together  
in matters of common interest1 through  
the medium of general councils2 and this
 practice continued for several         
centuries afterwards4 ,but the variance 

and dissensions between the ,pope of    
,rome1 and the ,patriarch of            
,constantinople1 combined with some     
other causes1 produced1 about the close 
of the ninth century1 a total separation
 of the two great divisions of the      
,church4  #h4 ,at the time of this      
schism1 the whole ,christian world had  
become subject to these two prelates4   
,the part of the ,church ruled by the   
,patriarch1 was called the ,eastern1 or 
,greek ,church2 and that part which     
yielded obedience to the ,pope1 was     
denominated the ,western1 or ,latin     
,church4 ,many attempts have been since 
made to reunite these two branches of   
the ,church2 but these endeavors have   
hitherto proved unsuccessful4  #i4 ,the 
conquest of the ,roman empire1 so often 
mentioned in the preceding pages1 was   
particularly injurious to the ,church1  
especially that part of it subject to   
the ,roman pontiff2 since it nearly     
extinguished the arts and sciences1 and 
since the barbarous conquerors were     

received into the ,church1 before they  
had attained the proper moral           
qualifications4 ,from these causes1     
chiefly1 arose the conduct of the       
,church1 in the middle ages1 which has  
been so much censured by all enlightened
 men1 and which has been often unjustly 
attributed to ,christianity herself1    
rather than to the ignorance and        
barbarism of the times4  #aj4 ,in the   
year #aeag1 while ,leo ,x4 occupied the 
papal chair1 ,martin ,luther1 of        
,saxony1 commenced his well-known       
opposition to many practices and        
doctrines in the ,church1 which he      
conceived to be departures from the     
spirit of primitive ,christianity4 ,he  
was soon joined in his opposition by    
,philip ,melancthon1 ,ulric ,zuingle1   
and finally by ,john ,calvin1 as well as
 by many other distinguished divines of 
that century1 in various parts of       
,europe4  #aa4 ,these men1 with their   
followers and abettors1 for reasons too 
obvious to need explanation1 received or

 assumed the appellation of ,reformers2 
and1 on account of a solemn protest     
which they entered against a certain    
decree which had been issued against    
them1 they also became distinguished by 
the name of ,protestants4 ,the latter   
term is now applied to all sects1 of    
whatever denomination1 in the western   
division of the ,church1 that do not    
acknowledge the authority of the ,roman 
,see4  #ab4 ,the ,protestant division of
 the ,church is called by the ,roman    
,catholics1 the ,western schism1 to     
distinguish it from that of the ,greek  
,church1 which is termed the ,eastern   
schism4 ,the ,protestants are divided   
into a great number of sects1 or        
parties2 and1 although they differ from 
each other in many of their religious   
sentiments1 they agree in their steady  
opposition to the ,roman ,catholics4    
#ac4 ,the ostensible object of the      
founders of all the churches differing  
from the ,romish communion1 has been1 to
 bring back ,christianity to the state  

in which it existed on its first        
establishment2 and to prove their       
positions in doctrine and church        
government1 they appeal to the          
,scriptures1 and sometimes to the       
,christian writers of the first four or 
five centuries4 ,the advocates of the   
mother church1 on the contrary1 contend 
that1 being infallible1 she can never   
have departed from primitive principles1
 on any point essential to salvation4   
#ad4 ,as to the government of the       
several churches it is1 in most cases1  
either ,episcopal or ,presbyterian4 ,in 
the former case1 three orders of        
clergymen are recognized2 viz41 bishops1
 presbyters1 and deacons2 and these     
three orders are supposed1 by the       
advocates of episcopacy1 to have been   
ordained by the apostles4 ,this opinion 
is supported by the circumstance1 that  
these orders are mentioned in the       
,scriptures2 and also by the fact1      
supposed to be sustained by the         
primitive fathers1 that they were       

uniformly established early in the      
second century4  #ae4 ,it is believed by
 ,episcopalians1 that these three orders
 of ministers were instituted in the    
,christian ,church1 in imitation of the 
,jewish priesthood2 the bishop          
representing the high-priest2 the       
presbyters1 the priests2 and the        
deacons1 the ,levites4  #af4 ,on the    
other hand1 the advocates of the        
,presbyterian form of government1       
assert1 that in the first century of the
 ,church1 bishop and presbyter were the 
same order of ministers1 and that the   
former was nothing more than a          
presbyter1 who presided in ,christian   
assemblies1 when met to consult on      
church affairs4  #ag4 ,the deacons in   
the churches that have renounced        
episcopacy1 are not classed among the   
clergy1 but are chosen from among the   
private members1 to manage the          
temporalities of the congregation1 or   
church1 to which they belong1 to assist 
the minister1 on some occasions1 in     

religious assemblies1 or to take the    
lead in religious worship in his        
absence4 ,under this form of government1
 therefore1 there is recognized but one 
order of ministers1 and every clergyman 
is denominated presbyter1 priest1 or    
elder4  #ah4 ,the literary and religious
 qualifications required of candidates  
for orders have varied in different ages
 of the ,church1 according to the       
existing state of literature and        
religion2 and the requirements in these 
two particulars are now different1 in   
the several denominations4 ,nearly all1 
however1 require the profession in the  
candidate1 that he believes he is moved 
by the ,holy ,ghost to take upon him the
 office of the ministry4 ,some churches 
require a collegiate education1 with two
 or three years of the study of         
divinity2 but others1 only such as is   
usually obtained in common schools1     
combined with a tolerable capacity for  
public speaking4  #ai4 ,the clergy in   
the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 is of two 

kinds2 the one regular1 comprehending   
all the religious who have taken upon   
themselves monastic vows2 the other     
secular1 comprehending all the          
ecclesiastics who do not assume these   
obligations4 ,the latter1 however1 in   
common with the former1 take a vow of   
perpetual celibacy4  #bj4 ,it is the    
especial duty of clergymen1 to preach   
the gospel1 to administer the           
ordinances1 and to enforce the          
discipline of that branch of the ,church
 to which they belong4 ,they are also   
expected to administer consolation to   
persons in distress of mind1 arising    
from the complicated evils of this life1
 to unite persons by the bonds of       
matrimony1 and1 finally1 in attending on
 the burial of the dead1 to perform the 
last ceremony due from man to man4  #ba4
 ,ministers of the gospel occupy an     
elevated stand in all ,christian        
communities1 both on account of the high
 tone of moral feeling which they       
generally possess1 and on account of the

 interest which the people at large feel
 in the subject of religion4 ,the work  
of the ministry is emphatically a work  
of benevolence2 and no man can perform  
it with satisfaction to himself1 or with
 acceptance to the people of his charge1
 if destitute of love to ,god and man4  
#bb4 ,in most of the kingdoms of        
,europe1 some one of the several        
denominations is supported by legal     
enactments2 but1 in the ,united ,states1
 every branch of the ,church enjoys     
equal favor1 so far as legislation is   
concerned4 ,in most cases1 the          
institutions of religion are supported  
by voluntary contributions or           
subscriptions4  #bc4 ,the salary        
received by ministers of the gospel1 in 
the ,united ,states1 is exceedingly     
various in the different denominations1 
and in the same denomination from       
different congregations4 ,in some       
instances1 they receive nothing for     
their services1 in others1 a liberal    
compensation4  #bd4 ,it is but justice  

to this profession to remark1 that1     
taking the ability of its members into  
account1 there is no employment less    
productive of wealth2 and this is so    
evidently the case1 that some           
denominations distribute1 annually1 a   
considerable amount among the widows and
 orphans of those who have devoted their
 lives to the ministry4  #be4 ,the      
meagre support which the ministry       
usually receives1 arises1 in part1 from 
the opinion too commonly entertained1   
that this profession ought to be one of 
benevolence exclusively1 and that       
ministers should1 therefore1 be         
contented with a bare subsistence1 and  
look for their reward in the            
consciousness of doing their duty1 and  
in the prospect of future felicity4     
,this is a very convenient way of paying
 for the services of faithful servants1 
and of relieving the consciences of     
those whose duty it is to give them a   
liberal support4     ,illustration3 ,the
 ,,lawyer4  ,,attorney ,,at ,,law4   #a4

 ,a lawyer is one who1 by profession1   
transacts legal business for others1    
who1 in this relation1 are called       
clients4 ,a lawyer is either an attorney
 or councillor1 or both4 ,the part of   
legal business1 belonging peculiarly to 
the attorney1 consists in preparing the 
details of the pleadings and the briefs 
for the use of the councillor1 whose    
especial province it is to make the     
argument before the court4 ,when the    
lawyer prepares his own case and makes  
the argument1 as he generally does1 he  
acts in the capacity of both attorney   
and councillor4 ,in the court of        
chancery the lawyer is denominated      
solicitor1 and in the admiralty court1  
proctor4 ,before a person is permitted  
to practise law in our courts1 he is    
required to pass through a regular      
course of study1 and afterwards undergo 
an examination before persons learned in
 the law4  #b4 ,this profession has its 
foundation in the numerous and          
complicated laws which have been adopted

 by men1 to govern their intercourse    
with each other4 ,these laws1 as they   
exist in our country1 may be divided    
into constitutional and municipal4      
,constitutional law is that by which the
 government of the ,united ,states1 and 
those of the different states1 have been
 established1 and by which they are     
governed in their action4 ,the          
,constitution of the ,united ,states is 
the supreme law of the land4  #c4       
,municipal law embraces those rules of  
civil conduct prescribed by the supreme 
power of the state1 or of the ,united   
,states2 and is composed of statute and 
common law4 ,statute law is the express 
will of the legislative part of the     
government1 rendered authentic by       
certain forms and ceremonies prescribed 
by the ,constitution4  #d4 ,common law  
is a system of rules and usages1 which  
have been applied in particular cases of
 litigation4 ,it originated in the      
dictates of natural justice1 and        
cultivated reason1 and is found more    

particularly in the reports of the      
decisions of the courts of justice4 ,the
 common law is employed in cases which  
positive enactments do not reach1 and in
 construing and applying positive       
enactments4 ,the common law of ,england 
has been adopted by every state in the  
,union1 except ,louisiana4  #e4 ,the    
,constitution of the ,united ,states1   
and those of the several states1        
provides for three departments in their 
respective governments1 viz41 the       
legislative1 the executive1 and the     
judicial4 ,it is the chief province of  
the first to enact laws1 and of the     
second and third to see that they are   
duly executed4  #f4 ,the judicial power 
of the ,united ,states is vested in one 
supreme court and two inferior courts4  
,the ,supreme ,court is now composed of 
seven justices who commence their       
session in the ,capitol1 at ,washington1
 on the second ,monday in ,january4 ,the
 two inferior courts are the ,district  
and ,circuit ,courts4 ,in the first of  

these presides a single judge2 in the   
second1 one of the justices of the      
,supreme ,court1 and the district judge4
  #g4 ,the judiciary of the ,united     
,states takes cognisance of all cases   
which arise under the ,constitution1    
laws1 and treaties1 of the ,united      
,states1 and likewise of those cases    
arising under the law of nations4 ,it   
also embraces all cases of admiralty and
 maritime jurisdiction1 as well as those
 controversies to which the government  
of the ,united ,states is a party1 the  
controversies between two states1       
between a state and citizens of another 
state1 between citizens of different    
states1 and between a state or citizens 
thereof1 and foreign states1 citizens1  
or subjects4  #h4 ,the judicial systems 
of all the states correspond1 in many   
respects1 with each other4 ,in all1 the 
office of justice of the peace is       
similar4 ,to these magistrates1 the     
general police of the counties is       
chiefly committed1 as they have         

authority to cause criminals1 and other 
disturbers of the peace1 to be arrested2
 and1 if the offence is small1 to fix   
the penalty2 but1 if the offence is too 
great to be brought within their        
jurisdiction1 they commit the offenders 
to prison1 to be reserved for trial     
before a higher tribunal4  #i4 ,in many 
of the states1 the common magistrates of
 the county1 or a select number of them1
 form a court1 called ,county ,sessions1
 which has a comprehensive jurisdiction 
in matters of police1 and in regulating 
the affairs of the county2 such as      
building courthouses1 assessing county  
taxes1 opening roads1 and licensing     
taverns4  #aj4 ,in ,virginia1 the       
,county ,sessions is an important court4
 ,its jurisdiction extends to many      
criminal cases1 and to those of a civil 
nature involving the amount of #cjj4    
,although a great amount of business    
passes through these courts1 the        
justices discharge all their duties     
without compensation4 ,in most of the   

states1 the common magistrates1 in their
 individual or collective capacity1 have
 jurisdiction over civil cases1 varying 
in their greatest amount from thirteen  
to one hundred dollars1 a right of      
appeal being reserved to a higher court4
  #aa4 ,no definite qualifications are  
required by law or usage for practising 
in the magistrates' courts1 accordingly1
 there are many persons who plead causes
 here1 who do not properly belong to the
 profession of law2 these are called    
pettifoggers1 and the practice itself1  
by whomsoever performed1 is called      
pettifogging4 ,lawyers of inferior      
abilities and acquirements are1 also1   
frequently termed pettifoggers4  #ab4   
,in all the states1 a class of county   
courts is established1 denominated      
,courts of ,common ,pleas1 ,county      
,courts1 ,district or ,circuit ,courts1 
which have original jurisdiction of     
civil actions at law1 or indictments for
 crimes4 ,over these are established the
 ,superior or ,supreme ,courts1 or      

,courts of ,error and ,appeal1 to which 
appeals are admitted from the inferior  
courts4  #ac4 ,civil cases are          
frequently decided on principles of     
equity2 and1 in some states1 courts of  
chancery are established for this       
purpose4 ,but1 in most of the states1   
there are no decisions of this kind2 or 
the same courts act as courts of law and
 equity1 as is the case with the courts 
of the ,united ,states4  #ad4 ,there are
 several other courts that might be     
mentioned2 but enough has been said of  
these institutions1 to give an idea of  
the extensive range of the profession of
 the law4 ,it may be well to remark     
here1 that few lawyers aspire to the    
privilege of practising in the supreme  
courts2 since1 to be successful there it
 would require not only great abilities1
 but more extensive reading than the    
profession generally are willing to     
encounter4  #ae4 ,when a client has     
stated his case in detail to his        
attorney1 it is the province of the     

latter to decide upon the course most   
proper to be pursued in regard to it4   
,if the client is the plaintiff1 and    
litigation is determined upon1 the      
attorney decides upon the court in which
 the case should be brought forward1 and
 also upon the manner in which it should
 be conducted4  #af4 ,the suit having   
been brought1 say into the ,county      
,court1 it is tried according to law4   
,if it involves facts or damages1 it is 
canvassed before a jury of twelve men1  
who are bound by oath or affirmation to 
bring in their verdict according to the 
evidence presented by both parties4 ,it 
is the business of the lawyers1 each for
 his own client1 to sum up the evidence 
which may have been adduced1 and to     
present the whole in a light as         
favorable to his own side of the        
question as possible4  #ag4 ,when the   
case involves points of law which must  
needs be understood by the jury1 to     
enable them to make a correct decision1 
the advocates of the parties present    

their views with regard to them2 but1 if
 these happen to be wrong1 the judge1 in
 his charge to the jury1 rectifies the  
mistake or misrepresentation4 ,the case 
having been decided1 each party is bound
 to submit to the decision1 or appeal1  
if permitted by law1 to a higher        
tribunal4  #ah4 ,causes to be determined
 on legal principles only1 are brought  
before the judge or judges for          
adjudication4 ,in such cases1 the       
advocates present the statute or common 
law supposed to be applicable1 and then 
reports of similar cases1 which may have
 been formerly decided in the same or   
similar courts4 ,these reports are the  
exponents of the common law of the case1
 and are supposed1 in most instances1 to
 furnish data for correct decisions4    
#aj4 ,besides the management of causes  
in public courts1 the lawyer has a great
 mass of business of a private nature2  
such as drawing wills1 indentures1      
deeds1 and mortgages4 ,he is consulted  
in a great variety of cases of a legal  

nature1 where litigation is not         
immediately concerned1 and especially in
 regard to the validity of titles to    
real estate2 and the many impositions to
 which the community is liable from     
defective titles1 render the information
 which he is able to afford on this     
subject1 extremely valuable4  #bj4 ,in  
the preceding account of this           
profession1 it is easy to perceive that 
it is one of great utility and          
responsibility4 ,it is to the attorney1 
that the oppressed repair for redress   
against the oppressor2 and to him1 the  
orphan and friendless look1 to aid them 
in obtaining or maintaining their       
rights4 ,to this profession1 also1 as   
much as to any other1 the ,american     
people may confidently look for the     
maintenance of correct political        
principles4     ,illustration3 ,the     
,,physician4  ,,the ,,physician4   #a4  
,among the various avocations of men1   
that of the physician deserves to be    
placed in the foremost rank4 ,the       

profession is founded in the            
multiplicity of diseases to which       
humanity is liable1 and in the medical  
qualities of certain substances1 which  
have been found to supply a remedy4  #b4
 ,it is implied1 though not expressly   
declared1 in the ,scriptures1 that the  
diseases and other calamities pertaining
 to our earthly condition1 originated in
 the fall of man from his pristine      
innocence2 and the ,grecian fable of    
,pandora's box appears to have          
originated in a similar tradition4 ,it  
seems that ,jupiter1 being angry at     
,prometheus1 ordered ,vulcan to make a  
woman endowed with every possible       
perfection4 ,this workman having        
finished his task1 and presented the    
workmanship of his hands to the gods1   
they loaded her with presents1 and sent 
her to ,prometheus4  #c4 ,this prince1  
however1 suspecting a trick1 would have 
nothing to do with her2 but ,epimetheus 
was so captivated with her charms1 that 
he took her to be his wife4 ,the        

curiosity of ,epimetheus led him to look
 into a box1 given to her by ,jupiter1  
which he had no sooner opened1 than     
there issued from it the complicated    
miseries and diseases1 which have since 
afflicted the family of man4 ,he        
instantly shut the box2 but all had     
flown1 save ,hope1 which had not time to
 escape2 and this is consequently the   
only blessing that permanently remains  
with wretched mortals4  #d4 ,since the  
introduction of moral evil into the     
world1 it cannot be supposed that man   
has ever enjoyed the blessing of        
uninterrupted health2 and1 as it is an  
instinct of our nature to seek for means
 of relieving pain1 we may safely infer 
that medicinal remedies were applied in 
the earliest ages of the human race4    
#e4 ,among some of the ancient nations1 
the origin of diseases was attributed to
 the malignant influence of supernatural
 agents4 ,this notion produced a        
corresponding absurdity1 in the means of
 obtaining relief4 ,accordingly1        

idolatrous priests1 astrologers1 and    
magicians1 were resorted to1 who        
employed religious ceremonies1          
astrological calculations1 and          
cabalistic incantations4  #f4 ,the      
healing art was cultivated at a very    
early period in ,egypt2 but it was      
crippled in its infancy by ordinances1  
enjoining1 without discrimination1 the  
remedies for every disease1 and the     
precise time and mode of their          
application4 ,the practice was confined 
to the priests1 who connected with it   
the grossest superstitions4  #g4 ,we are
 informed by the most ancient           
historians1 that the ,chaldeans and     
,babylonians exposed their sick in      
places of public resort1 and on the     
highways2 and that strangers and others 
were required by law to give some advice
 in each case of disease4 ,amid the     
variety of suggestions which must       
necessarily have been given under such  
circumstances1 it was expected that some
 would prove efficacious4 ,this custom  

was well calculated to enlarge the      
boundaries of medical knowledge4  #h4   
,the first records of medicine were kept
 in the temples dedicated by the ,greeks
 to ,esculapius1 who1 on account of his 
skill in medicine1 was honored as the   
god of health4 ,the name or description 
of the disease1 and the method of cure1 
were engraved on durable tablets1 which 
were suspended1 where they could be     
readily seen by visitors4  #i4 ,but     
medicine did not assume the dignity of a
 distinct science1 until the days of    
,hippocrates1 who reckons himself the   
seventeenth from ,esculapius in a lineal
 descent4 ,this great man1 who          
flourished about #djj years before the  
,christian era1 is universally esteemed 
the ,father of ,medicine4 ,after his    
death1 the science was cultivated by the
 philosophers of ,greece1 to whom1      
however1 it owes but few improvements4  
#aj4 ,after the dismemberment of the    
,macedonian empire1 learning retreated  
from contending factions to ,egypt1     

where it was liberally fostered by the  
,ptolemies4 ,under their patronage1 a   
medical school at ,alexandria became    
eminent1 and the healing art flourished 
beyond all former example4 ,to the      
disciples of this school1 is the world  
indebted for the first correct          
description of the human structure4     
,their knowledge on this subject was    
obtained from the dissection of the     
bodies of criminals1 which had been     
assigned to them by the government4     
#aa4 ,the acquisitions of the ,greeks in
 medical science at length became the   
inheritance of the ,romans2 but ,rome   
had existed #ece years before a         
professional physician was known in the 
city4 ,this inattention to the subject  
of medicine arose1 chiefly1 from an     
opinion1 common to the semi-barbarous   
nations of those times1 that maladies   
were to be cured by the interposition of
 superior beings4 ,the sick1 therefore1 
applied to their idolatrous priests1 who
 offered sacrifices to the gods in their

 behalf1 and practised over the body of 
the patient a variety of magical        
ceremonies4  #ab4 ,sacrifices were      
especially offered to the gods in cases 
of pestilence2 and1 on one occasion of  
this kind1 a temple was erected to      
,apollo1 who was regarded as the god of 
physic2 and1 on another1 ,esculapius1   
under the form of a serpent1 was        
conducted from ,epidaurus1 in ,greece1  
and introduced1 with great pomp1 upon an
 islet in the ,tiber1 which was         
thenceforth devoted to his particular   
service4  #ac4 ,archagathus1 a ,greek1  
was the first who practised physic1 as  
an art1 at ,rome2 and he was soon       
followed by many more of his            
professional brethren4 ,these pioneers  
of medicine1 however1 were violently    
opposed by ,cato the ,censor1 who       
publicly charged them with a conspiracy 
to poison the citizens4 ,but the        
patients under their care generally     
recovering1 he began to regard them as  
impious sorcerers1 who counteracted the 

course of nature1 and restored men to   
life by means of unholy charms4  #ad4   
,cato having succeeded in producing a   
general conviction1 that the practice of
 these physicians was calculated to     
enervate the constitutions1 and corrupt 
the manners of the people1 restrictions 
were laid upon the profession1 and      
practitioners were even forbidden to    
settle at ,rome4 ,but after the people  
had become more vicious and luxurious1  
diseases became more frequent and       
obstinate1 and physicians more          
necessary4 ,the restrictions were1      
therefore1 at length removed4  #ae4     
,among the ,roman writers on medicine1  
,celsus was the first who is worthy of  
consideration4 ,he has been denominated 
the ,roman ,hippocrates1 because he     
imitated the close observation and      
practice of that physician4 ,his work1  
as well as that of his great prototype1 
is read with advantage1 even at the     
present day4 ,he flourished at or near  
the time of our ,saviour4  #af4 ,in the 

second century of the ,christian era1   
,galen1 a ,greek physician from         
,pergamus1 and a disciple of the        
,alexandrian school1 settled in ,rome4  
,he was learned in all branches of      
medicine1 and wrote more copiously on   
the subject generally1 than any other   
person amongst the ancients4 ,for #acjj 
years1 his opinions were received as    
oracular1 wherever medicine was         
cultivated4  #ag4 ,after the destruction
 of the ,western empire by the barbarous
 nations1 the science of medicine was   
cultivated only in the ,greek empire1   
and chiefly at ,alexandria1 until it    
began to arrest the attention of the    
,arabians1 in the seventh century4 ,the 
works of several ,greek philosophers and
 physicians were translated into        
,arabic1 under the patronage of the     
caliphs1 several of whom were zealous   
promoters of learning4  #ah4 ,in the    
eighth century1 the ,caliph ,almansur   
established1 at ,bagdad1 a hospital for 
the sick1 and an academy1 in which1     

among other branches of knowledge1 was  
taught the medical art4 ,but it was in  
,spain1 that ,arabian learning rose to  
the highest point1 and produced the most
 successful results4 ,the ,university of
 ,cordova became the most celebrated in 
the world1 and continued to maintain its
 reputation for a long series of years4 
,arabian medicine reached its greatest  
eminence1 in the eleventh century1 under
 ,avicenna4  #ai4 ,in the tenth century1
 this science began to be taught in the 
schools of other parts of ,europe2 but  
its professors derived their knowledge  
of the subject from the ,arabian school1
 or from ,arabic translations of the    
ancient authors2 and this continued to  
be the case1 until the conquest of      
,constantinople by the ,turks1 in #adec4
 ,at this time1 many erudite ,greeks    
fled into ,italy1 and carried with them 
the ancient writings4  #bj4 ,before the 
general revival of this science in      
,europe1 the cure of diseases was       
chiefly confided1 in the western        

nations1 to the priests and monks1 who1 
however1 generally relied more upon     
religious ceremonies1 and the influence 
of sacred relics1 than upon the         
application of medical remedies4 ,the   
superstitions of those barbarous times1 
respecting the means of curing diseases1
 have not yet entirely disappeared1 even
 from the most enlightened nations of   
,christendom4  #ba4 ,the science of     
chemistry began to attract much         
attention about the beginning of the    
sixteenth century2 and the many powerful
 medical agents which it supplied1 at   
length produced a great change in the   
theory and practice of medicine4 ,many  
valuable medicines of the vegetable     
kind1 were also obtained from ,america4 
,the discovery of the circulation of the
 blood by ,william ,harvey1 in #afbj1   
imparted a new impulse to medicine2 but1
 like chemistry1 it gave rise to many   
absurd and hurtful theories4  #bb4      
,researches in different branches of    
medicine were continued with ardor in   

the seventeenth century1 in various     
parts of ,europe2 and numerous          
discoveries of importance were made1    
especially in anatomy4 ,many theories   
regarding the origin of diseases1 and   
their treatment1 were proposed1         
advocated1 and controverted2 but all    
these were overthrown by ,stahl1        
,boerhaave1 and ,hoffman1 three eminent 
theorists1 in the early part of the     
eighteenth century4  #bc4 ,these        
distinguished men were followed by      
others of equal celebrity1 in the same  
century1 who1 in part at least1 exploded
 the doctrines of their predecessors4   
,the present century1 above all other   
periods1 is remarkable for men eminent  
in this profession2 and1 although all do
 not exactly agree in opinion1 yet1     
guided in their conclusions by a careful
 observation of facts1 they are less    
under the influence of visionary        
theories than physicians of former      
times4 ,besides1 many of the subjects of
 former controversy having been         

satisfactorily settled1 there are now   
fewer causes of division and excitement 
among the medical profession4  #bd4     
,medical science comprises several      
branches1 of which the following are the
 principal2 viz41 ,anatomy1 ,surgery1   
,materia ,medica1 ,chemistry1 the       
,theory and ,practice of ,physic4 ,on   
these subjects1 lectures are given in   
several colleges and universities in    
,europe1 and in the ,united ,states4 ,in
 this country1 an attendance on two     
regular courses of lectures entitles the
 student to the degree of ,doctor of    
,medicine1 provided he can sustain with 
sufficient ability1 an examination      
before the professors1 or1 as they are  
usually termed1 the medical faculty4    
#be4 ,the degree of ,m4 ,d4 conferred by
 a college or university1 is a passport 
to practice1 in every state of the      
,union2 and1 in some states1 none are   
permitted to attend the sick1           
professionally1 without having first    
obtained a diploma conferring such      

degree4 ,in other states1 however1 no   
legal restrictions are imposed on the   
practitioners of the healing art2 or1   
they are licensed by a board of         
physicians1 constituted by law for the  
purpose4  #bf4 ,the practice of this    
profession is generally attended with   
great labor1 and1 in many cases1 with   
much perplexity4 ,diseases are often    
stubborn or incurable1 and effectually  
baffle the most skilful practitioner4   
,in most cases1 however1 diseases are   
under the control of medical skill2 and 
the high satisfaction which a benevolent
 physician feels1 in relieving the      
sufferings of his fellow-creatures1 may 
serve as a recompense for the many      
adverse circumstances which attend the  
profession4     ,illustration3 ,the     
,,chemist4  ,,the ,,chemist4   #a4 ,this
 globe1 and every thing appertaining to 
it1 is composed of substances1 which    
exist either in a compound or simple    
state4 ,it is the object of the         
scientific chemist to investigate the   

properties of these substances1 and to  
show their action upon each other4 ,by  
this science1 therefore1 compound bodies
 are reduced to the simple elements of  
which they are composed1 or new         
combinations formed4  #b4 ,according to 
the preceding definitions1 chemistry    
comprehends an immense variety of       
objects4 ,it is scarcely possible to    
name a thing or phenomenon in the       
natural world1 to which it does not     
directly or indirectly apply2 even the  
growth of vegetables1 and the           
preparation and digestion of our food1  
depend upon chemical principles4  #c4   
,the word chemistry is supposed to be of
 ,egyptian origin1 and1 in its primary  
application1 was the same with our      
phrase natural philosophy4 ,its meaning 
was afterwards restricted to the art of 
working those metals which were most    
esteemed4 ,in the third century1 it came
 to be applied to the pretended art of  
transmuting baser metals into gold4 ,the
 science1 in the latter sense of the    

word1 was eagerly cultivated by the     
,greeks2 and from them it passed to the 
,arabians1 who introduced it into       
,europe under the name of alchemy4  #d4 
,the professors of the art were         
dignified with the appellation of       
alchemistic philosophers1 and the       
leading doctrine of the sect was1 that  
all metals are composed of the most     
simple substances2 and that1            
consequently1 base metals were capable  
of being changed into gold2 hence1 the  
chief object of their researches was the
 discovery of an agent1 by which this   
great change was to be effected4 ,the   
substance supposed to possess this      
wonderful property was called the       
philosopher's stone2 the touch of which 
was to change every kind of metal into  
gold4  #e4 ,the greatest rage for       
alchemy prevailed between the tenth and 
sixteenth centuries4 ,the writers on    
this subject who appeared during that   
period1 are very numerous1 most of whom 
are unintelligible1 except to those     

initiated into the art4 ,many of them1  
however1 display great acuteness1 and an
 extensive acquaintance with natural    
objects4 ,they all boast1 that they are 
in possession of the philosopher's      
stone1 and profess the ability of       
communicating a knowledge of making it  
to others4  #f4 ,their writings and     
confident professions gained almost     
implicit credit1 and many unwary persons
 were thus exposed to the tricks of     
impostors1 who offered to communicate   
their secret for a pecuniary reward4    
,having obtained the sum proposed1 they 
either absconded1 or wearied out their  
patrons with tedious and expensive      
processes4  #g4 ,chemists1 for a long   
time1 had supposed it possible to       
discover1 by their art1 a medicine which
 should not only cure1 but prevent all  
diseases1 and prolong life to an        
indefinite period1 even to immortality4 
,this notion gradually becoming         
prevalent1 the word chemistry acquired a
 more extensive application1 and        

embraced not only the art of making     
gold1 but also that of preparing the    
universal medicine4 ,some of these      
visionary men asserted1 that the        
philosopher's stone was this wonderful  
panacea4  #h4 ,few readers need be      
informed1 that the researches for the   
philosopher's stone1 and the universal  
remedy1 were1 at length1 abandoned1 as  
fruitless and visionary2 yet the        
numerous experiments which had been     
instituted on these accounts1 were      
attended with the incidental advantage  
of a considerable dexterity in the      
performance of chemical operations1     
together with the discovery of many new 
substances and valuable facts1 which1   
without these strong incentives1 would  
have remained1 at least1 much longer in 
obscurity4  #i4 ,although none of the   
medicines1 produced in the chemical     
laboratory1 answered the chimerical     
expectations of the chemists1 in curing 
all diseases1 and in rendering the      
perishable body of man immortal1 yet    

they proved sufficiently valuable in the
 healing art1 to command the attention  
of the profession all over ,europe4 ,the
 adoption of chemical medicines1        
however1 was1 at first1 everywhere      
opposed1 either as unsafe remedies1 or  
as being inferior in efficacy to those  
which had been used for so many         
centuries4  #aj4 ,these prejudices      
having given way to the light of        
experience1 chemical medicines came1 at 
length1 to occupy a conspicuous place in
 the ,materia ,medica2 and their value  
within the present century has become   
still more manifest4 ,one of the most   
useful branches of chemistry1 therefore1
 is to make the various preparations    
used in the medical art4  #aa4 ,the most
 efficient agent in the introduction of 
chemical medicines1 was ,theophilus     
,paracelsus4 ,this singular individual  
was born near ,zurich1 in ,switzerland4 
,having studied chemistry under two     
masters1 he commenced a rambling life1  
in pursuit of chemical and medical      

knowledge2 and1 having visited ,italy1  
,france1 and ,germany1 where he met with
 many whimsical adventures1 which       
contributed greatly to advance his      
reputation1 he was elected1 in #aebg1 to
 fill the chair of chemistry1 in the    
,university of ,basle4  #ab4 ,one of the
 first acts of this arrogant professor  
was to burn1 with the utmost solemnity1 
while seated in his chair1 the works of 
,galen and ,avicenna1 declaring to his  
audience1 that if ,god would not impart 
the secrets of physic1 it was not only  
allowable1 but even justifiable1 to     
consult the devil4 ,he also treated his 
contemporaries with the same insolence1 
telling them1 in a preface to one of his
 books1 that the very down on his bald  
pate had more knowledge than all their  
writers2 the buckle of his shoes more   
learning than ,galen and ,avicenna2 and 
his beard more experience than all their
 universities4  #ac4 ,it could not be   
expected1 that a man with such a temper 
could long retain his situation2 and1   

accordingly1 he was driven from it1 in  
#aebh1 by a quarrel with those who had  
conferred the appointment4 ,from this   
time1 he rambled about the country1     
chiefly in ,germany1 leading a life of  
extreme intemperance1 in the lowest     
company4 ,nevertheless1 he still        
maintained his reputation as a          
physician1 by the extraordinary cures   
occasionally effected by his powerful   
remedies2 although his failures were    
equally conspicuous4  #ad4 ,but the most
 signal failure of his remedies occurred
 in his own person2 for1 after having   
boasted for many years of possessing an 
elixir which would prolong life to an   
indefinite period1 he died1 in #aeda1 at
 ,salzburg1 with a bottle of his        
immortal catholicon in his pocket4 ,the 
medicines on which ,paracelsus chiefly  
relied1 were opium1 antimony1 and       
various preparations of mercury4 ,he has
 the merit of applying the last1        
especially1 to cases in which they had  
not been before used2 and upon this     

circumstance1 his great reputation      
depended4  #ae4 ,we have been thus      
particular in noticing this individual1 
because he was the first who gave public
 lectures on chemistry in ,europe1 and  
because he gave the first great impulse 
in favor of chemical medicines4 ,he also
 carried his speculations concerning the
 philosopher's stone and the universal  
remedy1 to the greatest height of       
absurdity2 and1 by exemplifying their   
inutility and fallacy in his own person1
 he contributed more than any one else  
to their disrepute1 and subsequent      
banishment from the science4  #af4      
,researches for the philosopher's stone1
 and the universal remedy1 having been1 
at length1 relinquished1 the chemical   
facts which had been collected became1  
in the general estimation1 a heap of    
rubbish of little value4 ,at this time1 
there arose an individual thoroughly    
acquainted with these facts1 and capable
 of perceiving the important purposes to
 which they might be applied4  #ag4 ,the

 name of this individual was ,john      
,joachim ,becher4 ,he published a work  
in #affi1 entitled ,physica             
,subterranica1 by which he gave a new   
direction to chemistry1 by applying it  
to analyzing and ascertaining the       
constituent parts of material bodies2   
and his system is the foundation of the 
science1 as it now exists4  #ah4 ,george
 ,ernest ,stahl1 a medical professor in 
the ,university of ,halle1 adopted the  
theory of ,becher1 and1 after his death1
 edited the work just mentioned2 but he 
so simplified and improved it1 that he  
made it entirely his own2 and1          
accordingly1 it has always been         
distinguished by the appellation of the 
,stahlian theory4 ,the principal work of
 ,stahl1 on this subject1 was published 
in #agbi2 and1 since that time1         
chemistry has been cultivated with ardor
 in ,germany1 and in other countries in 
the north of ,europe4  #ai4 ,in ,france1
 chemistry became a fashionable study1  
about the middle of the eighteenth      

century4 ,it had1 however1 been         
cultivated there by a few individuals1  
long before that period4 ,men of        
eminence now appeared in all parts of   
the kingdom1 and discoveries in the     
science were made in rapid succession4  
,some attention was also paid to it in  
,italy and ,spain4  #bj4 ,in ,great     
,britain1 this subject attracted but    
little attention1 except from a few     
individuals1 until ,dr4 ,cullen had     
become professor of the science1 in the 
,university of ,edinburgh1 in #agef4    
,this accurate investigator of natural  
phenomena1 succeeded in enkindling an   
enthusiasm for chemical investigations  
among the students2 and the subsequent  
experiments of ,dr4 ,black1 ,mr4        
,cavendish1 ,dr4 ,priestley1 and        
,lavoisier1 which resulted in the       
discovery of the constituent parts of   
air and water1 diffused the same ardor  
through every part of the kingdom4  #ba4
 ,lavoisier1 the celebrated ,french     
chemist1 having proved the ,stahlian    

theory to be incorrect1 founded another 
on the chemical affinities and          
combinations of oxygen with the various 
substances in nature4 ,this system has  
been generally adopted2 since it        
explains a great number of phenomena    
more satisfactorily than any other ever 
proposed4 ,the great chemical agent1 in 
the ,stahlian system1 was supposed to be
 an inflammable substance1 which was    
denominated by the theorist phlogiston4 
,to distinguish1 therefore1 the new     
theory from the one which it superseded1
 it was called the pneumatic1 or        
anti-phlogistic system4  #bb4 ,in #aghg1
 a new technical nomenclature was       
devised1 by the aid of which all the    
chemical facts are easily retained in   
the memory4 ,twelve or fifteen terms    
have been found sufficient for the      
foundation of a methodical language2    
and1 by changing the terminations of    
these radicals1 or by prefixing certain 
words or syllables1 the changes that    
take place in bodies are clearly        

expressed4 ,this valuable innovation    
originated with ,lavoisier and three    
other ,french chemists4  #bc4 ,in the   
present century1 many important         
discoveries have been made in this      
science2 and1 among those who have been 
distinguished for their researches into 
its mysteries1 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 of 
,great ,britain1 shines pre-eminent4 ,in
 the ,united ,states1 it has many able  
professors2 among whom are ,professors  
,hare and ,mitchell1 of ,philadelphia1  
,torrey1 ,renwick1 and ,draper1 of      
,new-,york1 ,henry1 of ,princeton1      
,beck1 of ,albany1 ,silliman1 of        
,new-,haven1 and ,johnson1 of           
,middletown4  #bd4 ,chemistry is so     
extensive in its application1 that we   
will not attempt to describe any of the 
operations of the laboratory4 ,we1      
therefore1 conclude this article by     
recommending this science to general    
attention2 assuring the uninitiated1    
that it is beset with fewer difficulties
 than they are apt to suppose1 and that 

every effort in the course will be      
attended with interesting facts and     
phenomena1 which will abundantly reward 
the labor of investigation4             
,illustration3 ,,apothecary4  ,,the     
,,druggist ,,and ,,apothecary4   #a4    
,the druggist is a wholesale dealer in  
drugs1 which1 in commerce1 embrace not  
only articles used or recommended by the
 medical profession1 but also spices1   
dye-stuffs1 and paints4 ,the commodities
 of his trade are obtained from almost  
every quarter of the globe2 but         
especially from the countries bordering 
upon the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and from  
the ,east ,indies and ,spanish ,america4
  #b4 ,the chemist looks to the druggist
 for most of the materials employed in  
his laboratory2 and from him the        
apothecary1 physician1 and country      
merchant1 obtain their chief supply of  
medicines4 ,there are1 however1 but few 
persons in the ,united ,states1 who     
confine themselves exclusively to this  
branch of business2 for most of the     

druggists are also apothecaries1 and    
sometimes operative or manufacturing    
chemists4  #c4 ,medicinals1 when they   
come into the warehouse of the druggist1
 are usually in a crude state2 and many1
 or most of them1 must necessarily      
undergo a variety of changes1 of a      
chemical or mechanical nature1 before   
they can be applied in practice4 ,the   
art by which these changes are effected 
is called ,pharmacy1 or ,pharmaceutics2 
and the books which treat of            
pharmaceutical operations are           
denominated ,pharmacopoeias1 or         
,dispensatories4  #d4 ,the operations of
 ,pharmacy1 which depend upon chemical  
principles1 are conducted chiefly by the
 operative chemist2 but those which     
consist merely in mechanical reduction1 
or in mixing together different         
ingredients1 to form compounds1 belong  
properly to the vocation of the         
apothecary4  #e4 ,the apothecary sells  
medicines in small quantities1 prepared 
for application4 ,many of the standing  

compound preparations which have been   
authorized by the ,pharmacopoeias1 and  
which are in regular demand1 he keeps   
ready prepared2 but a great proportion  
of his business consists in compounding 
and putting up the prescriptions of the 
physician1 as they are needed by the    
patient4  #f4 ,in country places1 where 
there are generally no apothecary-shops1
 the physicians compound and prepare    
their own prescriptions2 but in cities1 
where these establishments are numerous1
 the medical profession prefer to rid   
themselves of this trouble4 ,in most    
cases1 however1 they keep by them a few 
remedies1 which can be applied in cases 
of emergency4  #g4 ,in ,great ,britain1 
the apothecary is permitted to attend   
sick persons1 and administer medicines  
either according to his own judgment1 or
 in conformity with the directions of   
the physician4 ,he is1 therefore1 a     
physician of an inferior order2 and1 as 
his fees are more moderate than those of
 the regular profession1 his practice is

 extensive among persons who1 from      
necessity or inclination1 are induced to
 study economy4  #h4 ,the apothecaries  
in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1   
are obliged to make up their standing   
medicines according to the formulas of  
the ,dispensatories adopted in their    
respective countries2 and their shops   
are subject to the visitation of        
censors1 who have authority to destroy  
those medicines which they may consider 
unfit for use2 so that unwholesome or   
inefficient remedies be not imposed upon
 the sick4 ,the apothecaries' halls1 in 
,france1 are also under the supervision 
of the medical faculty4  #i4 ,in the    
,united ,states1 there is no censorship 
of this kind established by the public  
authorities2 yet the physicians are     
careful to recommend apothecaries1 in   
whom they have confidence1 to prepare   
their prescriptions4 ,the professors in 
our medical schools are1 also1          
particular in naming to their students  
those druggists whom they consider men  

of honor2 and omit1 at least1 to name   
those who have been detected in selling 
adulterated medicines4  #aj4 ,we have1  
also1 an incorporated college of        
pharmacy both in ,new-,york and         
,philadelphia1 and in each of these1    
chemical and pharmaceutical lectures are
 delivered by regular professors4 ,these
 institutions1 although of recent       
origin1 have exerted an important       
influence in reforming and preventing   
abuses in the preparation of medicines2 
and public opinion1 especially in the   
cities1 is beginning to render it       
important for students in pharmacy to   
obtain a degree from one of these       
colleges4 ,under the auspices of the    
institution at ,philadelphia1 is        
published a quarterly journal1 devoted  
to pharmaceutical science4  #aa4 ,a     
,pharmacopoeia for the ,united ,states  
was formed at ,washington1 in #ahbj1 by 
a delegation of physicians from the     
principal medical societies of the      
,union4 ,a revision of this work is     

expected to be made every ten years4    
,dispensatories1 as they exist in this  
country1 are founded upon the           
,pharmacopoeias1 and may be properly    
considered commentaries upon them1 since
 the former contain the whole of the    
latter1 together with more minute       
descriptions of the sensible and real   
properties of the medicines1 as well as 
their history and exact mode of         
preparation4     ,illustration3 ,the    
,,dentist4  ,,the ,,dentist4   #a4 ,the 
human family is subject to a variety of 
diseases in the teeth1 which generally  
cause the final destruction or loss of  
these important instruments1 unless     
judicious remedies are applied in proper
 season4 ,these remedies are            
administered by the dentist4  #b4 ,there
 are few persons1 in proportion to the  
great mass of the people1 who seem to be
 aware of the utility of dentistry2 for1
 taking the ,united ,states together1   
not more than one person in a hundred   
ever resorts to the professors of this  

art1 with the view of obtaining a remedy
 for any dental disease with which he   
may be afflicted4 ,the common sentiment 
seems to be1 that diseases of the teeth1
 and their final loss1 at different     
periods of life1 are inevitable         
inconveniences1 to which we must submit 
with the same philosophy with which we  
meet other misfortunes4  #c4 ,to enable 
readers who have never examined this    
subject1 to comprehend its general      
nature1 we will give a slight sketch of 
some of the irregularities and diseases 
to which the teeth are liable1 and1 as  
we proceed1 speak of the remedies       
applied by the dentist4  #d4 ,two sets  
of teeth regularly appear1 at different 
periods of life2 one in infancy1 and the
 other1 at a later period4 ,the first   
set consists of twenty1 and the second  
of thirty-two teeth2 the former are     
called infant1 and the latter adult2 and
 all these1 at the age of six or seven1 
are upon the jaws at the same time4  #e4
 ,at the age just mentioned1 the infant 

teeth begin to give way to those which  
lie deeper in the sockets1 and which are
 designed to supersede the former4 ,as  
the new teeth advance1 the roots of the 
first are absorbed2 and1 after having   
been thus deprived of their support1    
they are easily removed2 sometimes1 by a
 slight pressure of the tongue4  #f4 ,in
 a majority of cases1 the whole process 
is carried on by nature with the utmost 
regularity2 but1 as she is not uniformly
 successful in this operation1 there is 
no other period at which the teeth of   
children require so much attention and  
care4 ,sometimes the second set rise in 
the socket without causing the          
absorption of the roots of the first4   
,in such cases1 the former approach in  
an improper direction2 and1 unless the  
latter are removed in season1 deformity 
will be the consequence4  #g4 ,when1    
however1 these precautions have been    
neglected1 and the teeth stand in an    
irregular manner1 they can sometimes be 
reduced to symmetry by the dentist1     

without occasioning much pain4 ,when the
 front teeth are too much crowded by    
reason of the restricted dimensions of  
the jaw1 the small teeth1 situated next 
behind the eye1 or canine teeth1 are    
extracted1 one on each side1 to give    
room to the rest4  #h4 ,from the ages of
 six to fifteen years1 the teeth of     
children should be examined1 at least   
once in six months1 by a dentist1 who1  
if skilful1 can seldom fail of rendering
 these ornaments of the human           
countenance regular1 healthy1 and       
beautiful4 ,it is customary in ,england 
and ,france1 for the proprietors of     
seminaries of learning to employ a      
dentist to visit their establishments   
regularly1 for the purpose of performing
 such operations1 and of administering  
such remedies1 as their pupils may      
require4  #i4 ,the teeth are composed of
 very hard bone and enamel4 ,the latter 
is a substance exceeding in density any 
other in the body4 ,it covers the crown 
of the teeth1 and is thickest in those  

parts which are most exposed to forcible
 contact in mastication2 but1 in no     
place1 is it more than the twelfth of an
 inch in thickness4  #aj4 ,the most     
common disease of the teeth is caries1  
or decay1 and almost every part of them 
is liable to be affected by it1 but     
especially the sides of those in front1 
and the crowns of those on other parts  
of the jaws4  #aa4 ,the disease begins  
its attack either on the enamel or on   
the bony portion1 and gradually extends 
itself over the tooth1 until it reaches 
the nerves which supply its natural     
cavity4 ,these having become exposed to 
the sudden changes of temperature1 and  
to the contact of extraneous substances 
in mastication1 pain and inflammation   
are produced1 and the extraction of the 
tooth very commonly becomes the only    
means of relief4  #ab4 ,all persons are 
more or less subject to this disease1   
but some much more than others2 and     
caries of a peculiar character has been 
so often traced through whole families1 

from one generation to another1 that it 
is considered hereditary1 as much as any
 other disease to which the system is   
liable4 ,in many cases1 caries seems to 
be the effect of some serious disease   
which affected the constitution1 while  
the teeth were in the early stages of   
formation4  #ac4 ,although the teeth of 
some individuals possess but little     
durability1 and1 when caries attacks    
them1 go on rapidly to decay1 in spite  
of all the aid which science and skill  
can afford1 yet1 there are comparatively
 but few instances in which seasonable  
and judicious treatment will not arrest 
the progress of the disease4  #ad4 ,when
 the teeth are but slightly affected    
with caries1 especially on the sides1 a 
cure may be accomplished by the removal 
of the decayed portion4 ,this is        
effected1 by the most approved dentists1
 chiefly with small cutting instruments4
 ,formerly1 the file and the saw were   
employed for this purpose2 and1 by their
 indiscriminate and injudicious use1    

many teeth were ruined1 and the art of  
dentistry itself brought into disrepute4
  #ae4 ,notwithstanding the injuries    
which have been inflicted by the        
improper application of the saw and     
file1 in some instances they are        
indispensable2 and1 in the hands of the 
scientific operator1 they need not be   
feared4 ,they are especially useful in  
preparing the way for the employment of 
other instruments2 for1 in some cases1  
the affected part can with difficulty be
 reached by any other means4 ,but filing
 the teeth for the purpose of improving 
their appearance1 or for rendering the  
sides more accessible to the tooth-pick 
and brush1 seems to be reprobated by the
 most intelligent part of the           
profession4  #af4 ,when the caries has  
penetrated far into the tooth1 and1 in  
its removal1 a cavity of suitable form  
and dimensions can be produced1 it is   
filled with some substance1 with the    
view of protecting the bone from the    
action of extraneous agents4 ,the       

dentist is careful to remove every      
particle of the decayed portion1 and to 
render the cavity perfectly dry by      
repeated applications of lint or raw    
cotton1 before he attempts to fill it4  
#ag4 ,gold is the only substance which  
possesses sufficient solidity to        
withstand the ordinary friction of      
mastication1 and which1 at the same     
time1 is capable of resisting the       
chemical action of the substances that  
come in contact with it2 yet lead and   
tin are frequently employed2 and many   
have been made to believe that they     
answer as good1 if not a better purpose1
 than gold itself4 ,the durability of   
these metals1 however1 can never be     
depended upon1 and they ought not to be 
employed1 where the tooth is capable of 
resisting the mechanical force required 
to fill it properly with gold4  #ah4    
,the metal is prepared for the use of   
the dentist by the gold-beater1 in the  
manner described in the article which   
treats upon the business of the latter4 

,the leaves1 however1 are not beaten so 
thin as those designed for the common   
purposes of the arts4 ,the portion to be
 applied is cut from the leaf1 and1     
after having been twisted a little1 is  
forced into the cavity4 ,the metal is   
rendered perfectly solid by means of    
instruments adapted to the purpose4     
#ai4 ,this operation1 properly performed
 under favorable circumstances1         
generally renders the tooth as          
serviceable1 to the end of life1 as if  
it had never been diseased4 ,the hopes  
of the patient1 however1 are sometimes  
disappointed by the unskilfulness of the
 operator1 or by the general            
unhealthiness of the mouth1 arising from
 tartar1 other decayed teeth1 or want of
 care in keeping them free from the     
lodgment of particles of food4  #bj4 ,it
 is a common practice to have teeth     
extracted1 when they are affected with  
pain2 but this operation is not always  
necessary4 ,in many cases1 the nerve can
 be paralyzed1 and the tooth plugged4   

,by these means1 teeth which1 under the 
ordinary treatment1 would be prematurely
 sacrificed1 are often retained1 for    
years1 in a serviceable state4  #ba4    
,the next most destructive affection to 
which the teeth are liable1 is the      
accumulation of tartar4 ,this is an     
earthy substance1 deposited from the    
saliva1 and is more or less abundant in 
different individuals4 ,this deposit is 
extremely troublesome1 and generally    
does much injury to the mouth1 even     
before those who suffer from it are     
aware of the mischief4  #bb4 ,the tartar
 on the teeth of some individuals1 is of
 a black or greenish color1 and very    
hard2 on those of others1 brown or      
yellow1 and not so firm4 ,when it is    
first deposited1 it is soft1 and can be 
easily removed with a tooth-brush2 but1 
if suffered to remain1 it soon becomes  
indurated1 and gradually increases in   
thickness about the neck of the teeth4  
,the gums become irritated and inflamed4
 ,the sockets are next absorbed1 and the

 teeth1 being left without their natural
 support1 either fall out1 or become so 
loose1 that they can be easily removed4 
#bc4 ,from this cause1 old people lose  
their teeth1 when1 in many cases1 they  
are perfectly sound2 but comparatively  
very few are aware of the origin of this
 deprivation1 or suppose that these     
valuable instruments can be retained in 
old age4 ,the loss is attributed to the 
deleterious effects of calomel1 or is   
imagined to be an evil inseparable from 
advanced age4  #bd4 ,the affection of   
the gums1 arising from causes just      
mentioned1 is frequently called scurvy1 
and1 like caries1 produces fetor of the 
breath2 but1 when these two diseases are
 combined1 as is frequently the case1   
they render it extremely offensive4     
,besides1 the effluvia arising from     
these diseased parts give rise to many  
maladies which terminate fatally1 if a  
remedy is not applied sufficiently early
 to save the patient4  #be4 ,the obvious
 remedy for diseases arising from       

tartar1 is the removal of their cause4  
,this is effected by the dentist1 with  
small sharp cutting instruments of a    
suitable form4 ,to prevent the tartar   
from accumulating again1 and to restore 
the gums to a healthy state1 nothing    
more is generally requisite than the    
daily use of a stiff1 elastic brush1 and
 the occasional application of some     
approved dentrifice or astringent wash4 
,sometimes it may be necessary to       
scarify the gums1 or to apply leeches to
 them4  #bf4 ,the operations of         
dentistry1 mentioned in the preceding   
part of this article1 are those which   
relate to the preservation of the teeth2
 and1 if performed in a proper manner1  
and under favorable circumstances1 they 
will1 in most instances1 prove          
effectual4 ,but1 as few persons resort  
to the dentist1 until the near approach 
of deformity1 or until they are impelled
 by pain to seek relief1 a great        
proportion of dental operations consists
 in inserting artificial teeth1 and in  

extracting those which are past         
recovery4  #bg4 ,when a tooth has gone  
so far to decay1 that it cannot be cured
 by stopping1 it should not be suffered 
to remain in the mouth1 lest it infect  
the rest4 ,front teeth1 however1 when   
the roots remain sound1 and firmly based
 in the sockets1 ought not to be        
extracted1 as upon the latter artificial
 teeth can be placed with great         
advantage4 ,in such cases1 the removal  
of the crown only is necessary4  #bh4   
,the instruments commonly employed in   
extracting teeth1 are the key1 or       
turnkey1 the forceps1 the hook1 and the 
graver1 or punch4 ,these are supposed to
 be sufficient to perform all the       
operations of this kind which occur in  
practice2 and1 although many attempts   
have been made to invent others which   
might answer a better purpose1 yet those
 we have mentioned1 in their improved   
state1 are likely to continue in general
 use4  #bi4 ,it seems to be a common    
opinion1 that any one can pull teeth1   

who has a turnkey1 and sufficient       
physical strength to use it2            
accordingly1 blacksmiths1 barbers1 and  
medical students1 are the chief         
operators in this line of dental        
surgery4 ,the many fatal accidents which
 must inevitably be the consequence1    
such as breaking the tooth or jaw-bone1 
are considered matters of course4       
,these1 however1 seldom happen with     
skilful dentists2 and it is to be       
regretted1 that the latter are not      
always employed1 where unskilfulness may
 produce such serious consequences4     
#cj4 ,in the cut1 at the head of this   
article1 is represented a dentist1 about
 to extract a tooth for a lady1 who may 
be supposed to be in a state of alarm at
 the sight of the instruments2 but he1  
having thrown his right hand1 which     
holds them1 behind him1 shows the other 
containing nothing1 with the view of    
allaying her fears4 ,the manner in which
 teeth are extracted1 needs no          
description1 since it is an every-day   

operation in all parts of the world4    
#ca4 ,one of the chief sources of income
 to this profession1 is the insertion of
 artificial teeth2 for1 although few are
 willing to expend much to prevent the  
loss of their teeth1 many will incur    
great expense in supplying the          
deficiencies1 after they have occurred4 
,so perfectly and neatly is this        
operation performed1 by some dentists1  
that it is difficult to distinguish     
between teeth which are natural1 and    
those which are artificial4  #cb4 ,the  
materials for artificial teeth were     
formerly found chiefly in the teeth and 
tusks of the hippopotamus1 and in the   
teeth of some domestic animals2 but1    
within a few years1 a mineral           
composition1 called porcelain1 has come 
into great repute1 since it is very     
beautiful1 and is entirely proof against
 the most powerful acids4  #cc4         
,surgical operations upon the teeth were
 performed in ancient ,greece and ,rome1
 many of which were similar to those of 

the present day4 ,the extraction of     
teeth must have been practised at a     
period of antiquity to which the records
 of medicine do not reach4 ,the         
operation is recommended by             
,hippocrates1 who describes many of the 
diseases to which the teeth are liable4 
,he also mentions the practice of fixing
 the teeth by means of gold wire1 and   
gives several formulas for making       
dentrifices4  #cd4 ,celsus1 a ,roman    
writer on medicine1 who flourished about
 the beginning of the ,christian era1   
seems to have been the first author who 
described the method of extracting      
teeth1 and the first who notices the    
removal of tartar by means of cutting   
instruments1 as well as filling carious 
teeth with lead and other substances1   
with the view of preventing further     
decay4 ,soon after this period1 false   
teeth1 of bone and ivory1 were          
introduced4 ,actius1 a writer of the    
fourth century1 is the first who        
mentions the operation of filing the    

teeth4  #ce4 ,the return of barbarism to
 ,europe1 nearly extinguished the       
knowledge of dentistry4 ,as a branch of 
surgery1 however1 it was revived by the 
,arabian writer1 ,albucasis1 in the     
tenth century2 but1 for many hundred    
years after this period1 it received but
 little attention from men of science1  
the operations of surgery being confined
 chiefly to the barbers4  #cf4 ,the     
first modern work on the diseases of the
 teeth was published at ,lyons1 in      
#aeha4 ,this was followed by many other 
publications on the same subject1 in the
 succeeding century4 ,in the year #agjj1
 it began to be required in ,france1    
that all persons who intended to        
practise dentistry in that country1     
should undergo an examination1 to test  
their qualifications4 ,from this period 
is dated the establishment of the dental
 art as a distinct branch of medical    
practice4     ,illustration  ,,the      
,,teacher4   #a4 ,education1 in         
antiquity1 was entirely a matter of     

domestic concern4 ,in countries where   
priestly or royal despotism prevailed1  
schools for the benefit of the sons of  
the great1 and for the priests1 were    
established4 ,moses1 the ,jewish        
lawgiver1 was educated in a priestly    
school in ,egypt1 and ,cyrus1 at a      
seminary belonging to the ,persian      
court4 ,in ,palestine1 the ,scriptures  
were taught in the schools of the       
prophets2 and1 at later periods1 in the 
synagogues1 and in the schools of the   
,rabbis1 reading1 committing to memory  
the sacred books1 and hearing           
explanations of their meaning1          
constituted the chief exercises4  #b4   
,in the ,grecian cities1 boys and girls 
were taught reading1 writing1 and       
arithmetic in private schools2 and1     
after having completed the primary      
course1 those who aspired to higher     
degrees of knowledge1 resorted to the   
instructions of the philosophers and    
sophists4 ,this system was commenced as 
early as #ejj years before the advent of

 ,christ4  #c4 ,two hundred years after 
this period1 the ,romans began to have  
primary schools for boys1 in the cities2
 and1 from the time of ,julius ,caesar1 
who conferred on teachers the right of  
citizenship1 they possessed the higher  
institutions of the grammarians and the 
rhetoricians4 ,in the former of these1  
were taught the ,latin and ,greek       
languages2 and in the latter1 young men 
of talent were prepared1 by exercises in
 declamation1 for speaking in public4   
#d4 ,children1 among the ,greeks and    
,romans1 were accompanied to school by  
slaves1 who1 from the performance of    
this duty1 were called pedagogues2 but1 
after slaves and freedmen had made      
acquirements in literature and science1 
they were frequently employed as tutors2
 hence the term1 at length1 came to     
imply a teacher of children1 and it is  
still used in reference to this         
employment1 although we usually connect 
with it the idea of pedantry4  #e4      
,until the time of ,vespasian1 who      

commenced his reign in the year #gj of  
the ,christian era1 the schools were    
sustained entirely by private           
enterprise4 ,that emperor instituted    
public professorships of grammar and    
rhetoric with fixed salaries1 for the   
purpose of educating young men for the  
public service2 and1 in ,a4,d4 #aej1    
,antoninus ,pius founded imperial       
schools in the larger cities of the     
,roman empire4 ,the most celebrated     
place for the cultivation of science1 in
 the ancient world1 was ,athens2 and1 to
 this city1 students from all parts of  
,europe resorted1 even as late as the   
ninth century4  #f4 ,christianity1 by   
degrees1 gave a new turn to education2  
and1 in the ,east1 it came gradually    
under the influence of the clergy4      
,schools were instituted in the cities  
and villages for catechumens1 and1 in   
some places1 those of a higher grade1   
for the education of clergymen4 ,of the 
latter kind1 that in ,alexandria was the
 most flourishing1 from the second to   

the fourth century4  #g4 ,from the fifth
 century1 these higher institutions     
began to decline1 and others1 called    
cathedral or episcopal schools1 seem to 
have taken their place4 ,in these1      
besides theology1 were taught the seven 
liberal arts--grammar1 logic1 rhetoric1 
arithmetic1 geometry1 astronomy1 and    
music2 of which the three first were    
called the trivium1 and the four last   
the quadrivium4 ,the text-book employed 
was the ,encyclopaedia of ,marcianus    
,capella1 of ,africa4 ,this compendium  
was published at ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #dgj2    
and1 although a meagre production1 it   
maintained its reputation in the schools
 of ,europe more than #ajjj years4  #h4 
,the imperial schools established by    
,antoninus ,pius1 declined1 and finally 
became extinct1 in the confusion that   
followed the irruption of the           
barbarians2 but their places were       
supplied by the parochial and cathedral 
schools just mentioned4 ,these1 however1
 were surpassed1 in the sixth century1  

by the conventual schools1 which were   
originally designed to prepare persons  
for the monastic life1 but which soon   
began to be resorted to by laymen4  #i4 
,these schools were connected with the  
convents belonging to the order of ,st4 
,benedict1 and served as the chief      
glimmering lights during the darkest    
period between ancient and modern       
civilization1 in ,europe4 ,they         
flourished in ,ireland1 ,england1       
,france1 and ,germany1 from the sixth to
 the eleventh century4 ,the teachers of 
these seminaries were called            
scholastici1 and from them the          
scholastic philosophy derived its origin
 and name4  #aj4 ,in the year #ghi1     
,charlemagne1 king of the ,franks1      
issued a decree for the improvement of  
the schools of his empire1 and for      
increasing their number4 ,not only every
 bishop's see and every convent1 but    
every parish1 was to have its school2   
the two former for the education of     
clergymen and public officers1 and the  

latter for the lower classes of people4 
,this monarch instituted an academy of  
learned men1 to whom he himself resorted
 for instruction1 and whom he employed  
to educate his children1 and a select   
number of the sons of the nobility and  
distinguished persons4  #aa4 ,the       
encouragement which these schools had   
received from government was soon       
discontinued after the death of this    
monarch1 and his school establishment   
declined like that of ,alfred the       
,great1 which was commenced in the ninth
 century1 on a scale of equal           
liberality4 ,the designs of the ,english
 monarch were frustrated by the         
invasions of the ,danes4  #ab4 ,in the  
mean time1 the ,jewish rabbis had       
schools in ,syria and in ,northern      
,africa1 as well as in ,europe1 which   
contributed to the preservation of      
ancient learning4 ,arabian schools were 
also established1 in the ninth century1 
by the followers of ,mohammed1 in their 
,eastern and ,african caliphates1 and in

 their ,moorish dominions in ,spain4    
,through these institutions1 the        
mathematical and medical sciences were  
again revived in ,europe4  #ac4 ,the    
cathedral and conventual schools        
continued1 for a long time1 the         
principal institutions for education in 
,europe2 and from them proceeded many   
eminent men4 ,by degrees the light of   
science began to shine more brightly2   
teachers of eminence appeared in        
different places1 who collected around  
them a great number of scholars2 and a  
new kind of schools arose1 the heads of 
which assumed the name of rectores4     
#ad4 ,in ,paris1 several of these       
teachers gave instructions in various   
branches1 but chiefly in rhetoric1      
philosophy1 and theology4 ,the schools  
thus collected under different masters1 
were1 in #abjf1 united under one rector2
 and1 on this account1 the whole mass of
 teachers and scholars was denominated  
universitas4 ,universities1 in other    
parts of ,europe1 arose in a similar    

manner1 and some of them1 about the same
 time4 ,those of ,oxford and ,cambridge1
 according to some writers1 were        
established about the year #abjj2 and   
the two first of these institutions in  
,germany were founded at ,prague and    
,vienna1 the former in #acdh1 and the   
latter in #acfe4  #ae4 ,the division of 
the students into four nations was an   
essential feature in the early          
universities4 ,it arose from the        
circumstance that the pupils coming from
 different countries1 spoke different   
languages4 ,those whose language was the
 same or similar1 would naturally       
associate together1 and attend the      
instructions of the same teachers4 ,this
 division into nations is supposed to   
have grown up at ,paris1 previous to the
 formal union of the several schools    
under one rector4  #af4 ,the first      
teachers1 from whose exertions the      
universities originated1 commenced their
 public instructions without permission 
from established authority4             

,subsequently1 the state and university 
were careful to prevent all persons from
 giving lectures1 who were not well     
qualified for the employment4           
,examinations were therefore instituted 
to determine the capabilities of        
students4 ,those who were found         
competent1 received a formal permission 
to teach1 accompanied with certain      
symbols in the spirit of the age4  #ag4 
,the first academical degree was that of
 baccalaureus1 the second1 licentiatus2 
and the third magister4 ,the last of    
these entitled the student to all the   
privileges of his former teachers1 and  
constituted him one of the facultas     
artium--the faculty of the seven liberal
 arts1 since called the philosophic     
faculty4 ,the other faculties were those
 of theology1 law1 and medicine4 ,the   
first of these was instituted at ,paris 
in #abei1 and the two last1 in #abfj4   
,the faculties elected deans from among 
their number1 who1 with the             
procuratores1 or heads of the four      

nations of students1 represented the    
university4 ,these representatives      
possessed the power of conferring       
degrees in the different departments of 
literature and science4  #ah4 ,among the
 public institutions of the early       
universities were the colleges1         
7collegia17 buildings in which students1
 especially those who were poor1 might  
live together1 under superintendents1   
without paying for their lodging4 ,in   
some cases1 they received their board1  
and frequently other allowances1 gratis4
 ,these institutions were commenced at  
,paris2 but here1 as well as in other   
places1 they did not continue the       
asylums of the necessitous only4 ,in    
,france and ,england1 the buildings of  
universities are composed chiefly of    
these colleges1 in which the students   
reside1 and in which the business of    
instruction is mainly carried on4  #ai4 
,the teachers in the universities were  
at first paid for their services by the 
students4 ,at a later period1 the       

magistrates of the town or city where   
the institution was located1 made       
presents to eminent scholars1 to induce 
them to remain4 ,this practice finally  
led to the payment of regular salaries4 
,from and after the fourteenth century1 
universities were not left to grow up of
 themselves as formerly1 but were       
expressly established by public         
authorities or by the popes4  #bj4 ,the 
inactivity and luxury of the clergy1 had
 led to the neglect of the old          
seminaries of learning4 ,the            
universities were therefore necessary1  
not only to revive the taste for science
 and literature1 but also to form a new 
body of teachers4 ,these institutions1  
however1 at length became subject to    
undue clerical influence1 since the     
monks obtained admission into them as   
teachers1 and then labored to increase  
the importance of their several orders1 
as well as the power of the ,roman      
pontiff4  #ba4 ,the monks1 also1        
connected1 with their convents1 popular 

schools1 and undertook the education of 
the children in the cities4 ,but their  
method of instruction was exceedingly   
defective1 since the intelligent        
investigation of the subjects studied   
was little encouraged1 and since the    
memory of the pupils was brought into   
requisition to the almost entire        
exclusion of the other faculties of the 
mind4  #bb4 ,in the lower parish        
schools1 the children were not permitted
 to learn to write1 the monks being     
desirous of confining to the clergy the 
practice of this art1 which was very    
lucrative before the invention of       
printing4 ,the art was called ars       
clericalis2 and1 for a long time1 the   
privilege of establishing writing       
schools for the children of citizens1   
was a matter of negotiation between the 
magistrates and the clergy4  #bc4 ,but  
the citizens becoming1 at length1 more  
independent1 the magistrates themselves 
began to superintend the education of   
youth4 ,trivial schools were            

established1 in which the trivium1 and  
reading and writing1 were taught2 but   
for these1 as well as for the cathedral 
and parish schools1 which had been      
neglected for some time by the higher   
clergy1 itinerant monks and students    
were employed as teachers4  #bd4 ,the   
elder pupils of the highest class       
frequently wandered from one school to  
another1 under the pretence of pursuing 
their studies1 sometimes taking with    
them younger scholars1 whom they        
compelled to beg or steal1 in order to  
supply their wants4 ,as late as the     
sixteenth century1 ,luther complains    
that these vacantivi 7or idlers7 were   
the persons chiefly employed as         
schoolmasters in ,germany4  #be4 ,a     
pious fraternity1 called ,jeronymites1  
consisting of clergymen and laymen1 who 
lived together1 and occupied themselves 
partly in mechanic arts1 and partly in  
the instruction of youth1 exerted       
considerable influence on education in  
general4 ,they first established        

themselves in ,italy1 and afterwards in 
the ,netherlands1 on the ,rhine1 and in 
,northern ,germany4  #bf4 ,much was done
 during the last half of the fourteenth 
century1 and in the one hundred years   
that followed1 to encourage the study of
 the ancient classics4 ,the attention of
 literary men was turned to these       
interesting remains of antiquity by the 
arrival of many learned ,greeks1 who had
 fled from ,turkish oppression1 and who 
had brought with them the ancient       
writings4  #bg4 ,these treasures of     
former civilization were unfolded to the
 modern world by the art of printing1   
which was invented in #adda2 and the    
reformation1 which commenced in #aeag1  
also aided the advancement of education4
 ,the corporations of the ,german cities
 in which the reformed religion was     
received1 founded seminaries1 called    
gymnasia1 and lyceums1 with permanent   
professorships4 ,a vast amount of       
property1 belonging to the convents and 
the ,church1 was confiscated by the     

governments1 and appropriated chiefly to
 the promotion of education4  #bh4 ,the 
schools in the countries which adhered  
to the ,roman ,catholic religion1       
however1 continued in nearly the same   
state1 until the ,jesuit schools arose1 
towards the end of the sixteenth        
century4 ,these1 on account of the      
ability with which they were conducted1 
soon gained the ascendency1 and for a   
long time maintained their reputation2  
but they1 at length1 degenerated1 and   
finally became extinct1 on the          
suppression of the order of ,jesuits in 
#aggc4  #bi4 ,italy1 ,spain1 and        
,portugal1 have1 for a long time1 been  
inactive in relation to education1 it   
being left entirely to the clergy1 and  
the efforts of the people in their      
individual capacity4 ,much has been done
 in ,austria1 within fifty years1 to    
advance this important interest4 ,under 
the late emperor1 professorships were   
constituted1 in the universities and    
cathedral seminaries1 for the           

instruction of teachers2 and gymnasia1  
common and ,sunday schools1 were        
established in almost every part of the 
kingdom4  #cj4 ,the general organization
 of schools in ,france1 in the          
eighteenth century1 was similar to that 
of most other ,catholic countries4 ,the 
government did nothing for the education
 of the people at large2 and the        
,church1 which possessed a large        
proportion of the property of the       
nation1 left the people in total        
ignorance2 whence may have arisen much  
of the atrocity which marked the early  
part of the revolution4  #ca4 ,during   
the popular reign1 the education of     
youth was declared to be under the care 
of the state1 and many schools1 called  
polytechnic1 were established4          
,napoleon1 also1 afterwards instituted  
several military schools1 and           
contemplated the introduction of a      
system of general education4 ,with this 
view1 he instituted an imperial         
university1 which was to have the       

supreme direction of instruction in     
,france2 but his designs were but       
partially carried into effect4  #cb4    
,when the ,bourbons were again restored 
to the throne of ,france1 they1 with the
 clergy1 labored to restore the old     
order of things2 and1 to keep the common
 people from becoming dangerous1 the    
,lancasterian schools1 established in   
#ahaf1 were abolished4 ,efficient       
measures1 however1 have been lately     
adopted by ,louis ,philip to establish  
schools of different grades throughout  
his kingdom4  #cc4 ,in ,england and     
,ireland1 although the middling and     
higher classes are comparatively well   
educated1 no system of general          
instruction has ever been established   
for the benefit of the common people4   
,much1 however1 has been accomplished by
 charity and ,sunday schools2 the former
 of which were commenced in #afih1 and  
the latter in #ahab4 ,besides these1    
there are numerous charitable           
foundations on which many persons of    

limited means have been educated at the 
higher institutions4  #cd4 ,in          
,scotland1 more liberal provisions have 
been made for general education4 ,the   
system was commenced in the reign of    
,william and ,mary1 when1 by an act of  
,parliament1 every parish was required  
to maintain a school4 ,the people have  
so far improved their privileges1 that  
nearly all of the inhabitants of that   
part of ,great ,britain can read and    
write4  #ce4 ,the government of ,russia1
 during the last and present century1   
has directed some attention to the      
promotion of education4 ,according to   
the decrees of the ,emperor ,alexander1 
schools of different grades were to be  
established throughout the empire2 but  
these decrees have been yet only        
partially executed4  #cf4 ,in no part of
 the world has the education of all     
classes of people been more encouraged  
than in the ,united ,states4 ,this has  
arisen chiefly from the circumstance1   
that a remarkable proportion of the     

colonists were persons of education4    
,this was particularly the case with    
those of ,new-,england1 where the       
instruction of youth1 from the very     
beginning of the settlements1 was made a
 matter of public concern4  #cg4 ,the   
principle of making public provision for
 this purpose1 thus early adopted1 has  
never been deserted2 on the contrary1 it
 has become so deeply interwoven with   
the social condition of the people of   
,new-,england1 that there are few       
families in that part of the ,union1    
which are not within reach of a public  
school2 and1 in every state where the   
influence of the people from that       
section of the country is predominant1  
public schools have been organized by   
legal provisions1 and a fund has been   
provided1 by which at least a part of   
the expense of supporting them is paid4 
#ch4 ,in all the states in which these  
primary institutions are established by 
legislative enactments1 they are kept in
 operation1 in country places1 between  

six and nine months of the year4 ,a     
master is employed in the winter1 and a 
mistress1 in the summer3 the former     
receives for his services from ten to   
fifteen dollars per month1 and the      
latter1 from seventy-five cents to two  
dollars per week1 together with         
boarding4 ,the teachers1 however1 during
 their engagement are compelled to      
reside in the different families of the 
district1 their stay at each place being
 determined1 with scrupulous exactness1 
by the number of children sent to the   
school4  #ci4 ,from the low salaries    
received for these important services1  
and the short periods for which         
engagements are made1 it is evident1    
that teaching a district school cannot  
be pursued as a regular employment4     
,these schools are1 therefore1 supplied 
by persons who1 during the rest of the  
year1 follow some other business2 or by 
students1 who rely1 in part or entirely1
 on their own exertions to defray the   
expenses of their academical1           

collegiate1 or professional education4  
#dj4 ,these schools are1 no doubt1      
institutions of great value2 but1 in the
 states where they have been            
established1 they are evidently much    
overrated4 ,they fail in accomplishing  
the ends for which they have been       
instituted1 through the extreme tenacity
 with which the people adhere to ancient
 and defective methods of instruction1  
the frequent change of teachers1 and the
 small compensation allowed for the     
services of competent instructors4  #da4
 ,in the cities and populous towns or   
villages1 the public schools are kept up
 during the whole of the year1 and the  
system of instruction is generally      
better than that pursued in the country4
 ,in ,new-,york1 ,philadelphia1         
,baltimore1 and in some other cities1   
the ,lancasterian plan of mutual        
instruction1 with many modifications1 is
 preferred1 principally on account of   
its cheapness4  #db4 ,select-schools and
 private academies are1 also1 very      

numerous4 ,these are located chiefly in 
the cities and populous towns1 and are  
supported entirely by fees for tuition  
received from the parents or guardians  
of the pupils4 ,these institutions do   
not differ essentially from those of a  
private nature in similar situations in 
other parts of the ,united ,states1     
where common schools are not established
 by law4  #dc4 ,in the ,southern states1
 wealthy families often employ private  
tutors4 ,sometimes two1 three1 or more  
families1 and even a whole neighborhood1
 unite for the purpose of forming a     
school2 and1 to induce a teacher to     
commence or continue his labors among   
them1 an adequate amount is made up     
beforehand by subscription4 ,south of   
,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 and the ,ohio 
,river1 such engagements are commonly   
made for a year1 as1 in that section of 
the ,union1 the opinion prevails1 that a
 teacher can do but little towards      
improving his pupils in a much shorter  
time4  #dd4 ,the literary institutions  

which are next above the common schools1
 and which are established by           
legislative authority1 are the          
academies1 of which there are between   
five and six hundred in the ,united     
,states4 ,some of these have been       
founded by the funds of the state in    
which they are located1 some1 by the    
union of a few spirited individuals1 or 
by private bequests4  #de4 ,the course  
of instruction pursued in these         
seminaries of learning varies           
considerably from each other4 ,in some  
of them1 it is confined chiefly to the  
common branches of education2 in others1
 the course is pretty extensive1        
embracing natural and moral philosophy1 
chemistry1 belles lettres1 and a sound  
course of mathematics1 together with    
,latin1 ,greek1 and some of the modern  
languages4 ,one great object in these   
institutions is to prepare students for 
college4 ,the teacher who has charge of 
an academy is called the principal1     
while the teacher who may aid him in his

 labors is denominated the assistant or 
usher4  #df4 ,the highest institutions  
of learning among us are the colleges   
and universities4 ,between these1       
however1 there seems to be but little   
difference1 since the course of studies 
is nearly or quite the same in both1 and
 since the charters obtained from the   
legislatures grant to both similar      
powers of conferring honorary degrees4  
,the whole number of these              
establishments in the ,united ,states is
 about eighty4  #dg4 ,the principal     
teachers in the colleges are denominated
 professors1 who confine their labors to
 communicating instructions in          
particular branches of literature or    
science4 ,these are aided by assistants 
called tutors4 ,the latter are generally
 young men1 who devote two or three     
years to this employment1 before        
entering upon the practice of a         
profession4 ,the number of professors   
and tutors in the several colleges      
varies according to their amount of     

funds1 and number of students4          
,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4          99       
99       99       99       99           
,transcriber's ,notes3  ,obvious        
spelling and punctuation errors and     
inconsistencies were repaired1 but      
period spellings retained 7e4g4 grisly  
bear1 lama1 pistachoes1 hommony74       
,negociat- and negotiat-1 whale-bone and
 whalebone1 ancles and ankle1 color- and
 colour-1 endeavor- and endeavour-1     
favor- and favour-1 labor- and labour-1 
neighbor- and neighbour-1 were retained 
as in original4  ,contents page1        
,preface page number reads #g but       
actually appears on page vii2 retained4 
,contents page1 ,soapboiler changed to  
more frequent ,soap-,boiler4  ,p4 ix1   
removed from the ignorance1 original    
reads ignora ce4  ,p4 #af1 south-western
 parts1 hyphen added for consistency    
within text4  ,p4 #dg1 maltster checks1 
original reads malster4  ,p4 #ec1 render
 the wine palatable1 original reads     
palateable4  ,p4 #ff1 ,illustration at  

start of ,manufacturer of ,cloth chapter
 has no caption in original4  ,p4 #aja1 
sewn together to form hats1 original    
reads sown4  ,p4 #agd1 released from his
 dependence1 original reads dependance4 
,p4 #ahe1 ,thomas ,newcomen1 original   
reads ,newcomer4  ,p4 #bdi1             
,illustration at start of ,teacher      
chapter has no caption in original4  ,p4
 #bdi and #beb1 rabbis1 original reads  
rabbies4