,,cyn?ia ,a4 ,,hoov]     ,,division ,,( 
,,musical ,,in/rum5ts    ,,national     
,,museum ,,( ,,hi/ory ,,& ,,te*nology   
,h>psi*ords & ,clavi*ords               
,,smi?sonian ,,in/itution ,,press       
,,city ,,( ,,wa%+ton    #aifi           
,cov]3 ,virg9al by ,giovanni ,batti/a   
,boni1 #afag 7see pages #bb-be7         
,photo3 ,rob]t ,lautman     ,= sale by !
 ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,docum5ts1 ,u4,s4        
,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+     ,(fice ,wa%+ton1   
,d4,c4 #bjdjb ,price #dj c5ts           
,h>psi*ords & ,clavi*ords   ,! h>psi*ord
 & ! clavi*ord repres5t ! two mo/       
important types ( /r+$ keybo>d in/rum5ts
 us$ f ! #ae? ?r\gh ! #ah? c5turies4 ,by
 ! #ai? c5tury1 ! piano _h become ! mo/ 
important dome/ic keybo>d in/rum5t4  ,9 
?is booklet are describ$ a few ( !      
re/or$ ,smi?sonian h>psi*ords &         
clavi*ords t are occasionally on exhibit
 9 ! ,hall ( ,musical ,in/rum5ts or 9   
use 9 ! s]ies ( conc]ts sponsor$ by !   
,division ( ,musical ,in/rum5ts4 ,models
 %[+ h[ ! s\nd is produc$ on ^!         

in/rum5ts are also on exhibit4  ,a      
complete li/ ( ! keybo>d collection is  
f\nd 9 ,a ,*eckli/ ( ,keybo>d ,in/rum5ts
 at ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution 7,wa%+ton1
 #aifg71 :i* is available f ! ,division 
( ,musical ,in/rum5ts1 ,smi?sonian      
,in/itution1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 #bjefj4   
,h>psi*ords   ,! h>psi*ord & its small] 
relatives1 ! virg9al & ! sp9et1 h /r+s t
 are pluck$4 ,! h>psi*ord is w+-%ap$1   
mo/ virg9als & sp9ets are ei!r          
rectangul> or polygonal4  ,:5 !         
h>psi*ord key is press$1 a wood5 jack is
 rais$ s t a quill or lea!r plectrum    
ins]t$ into ! jack tongue plucks ! /r+4 
,:5 ! key is releas$1 ! jack falls back 
into place1 ! pivot$ tongue all[+ !     
plectrum to pass ! /r+ )\t pluck+ x4 ,a 
felt damp] 7ins]t$ 9 a slit at ! top ( !
 jack7 t\*es ! /r+ to /op ! s\nd4       
,figure #a %[s ! jack arrangem5t 9 an   
#ah? c5tury ,engli% sp9et4 ,! second    
jack f ! left on ! front r[ has be5     
rais$ s t its quill is j ab\t to pluck !
 /r+4 ,note t ! quill has lift$ ! /r+   

above its re/ position4  ,inh]5t 9 !    
design ( a h>psi*ord is ! limitation (  
dynamic nuance4 ,! s\nd ( a h>psi*ord is
 n greatly alt]$ by increas+ or less5+ !
 impact ( f+]s on ! keys4 ,r1 ! dynamic 
level & quality ( s\nd c be *ang$ by    
v>y+ ! numb] ( /r+s pluck$ 7_m          
h>psi*ords h ?ree sets ( /r+s3 two sets 
tun$ 9 unison #h' & a ?ird tun$ an      
octave high] #d'71 by v>y+ ! location ( 
! pluck+ po9t1 & by mut+ ! /r+s ) felt  
or lea!r pads4  ,! tone ( a keybo>d     
in/rum5t is also affect$ by its g5]al   
outl9e1 ! mat]ial & ?ickness ( !        
s\ndbo>d1 ! l5g? & mat]ial ( ! /r+s1 & !
 type ( case con/ruction4 ,! case mu/ be
 /rong en\gh to c\nt]act ! t5sion ( !   
/r+s & yet light en\gh to all[ ! s\nd to
 resonate4  ,illu/ration3 #a4 ,h>psi*ord
 action4 ,photo3 ,rob]t ,lautman4       
,among ! ,smi?sonian's ext5sive keybo>d 
collection are f9e examples ( h>psi*ords
 t repres5t sev]al ( ! major national   
tr5ds 9 h>psi*ord build+3 ! ,flemi%1    
,italian1 ,engli%1 & ,fr5*4     ,flemi% 

,h>psi*ords   ,antw]p 0 ! h>psi*ord-mak+
 c5t] ( nor!rn ,europe dur+ ! #af? &    
#ag? c5turies4 ,! e>lie/ examples (     
h>psi*ords _h only "o keybo>d & "o or   
two sets ( #h' /r+s4 ,! progressive     
,flemi% mak]s add$ a second keybo>d &   
ano!r set ( /r+s1 tun$ an octave high]  
?an ! o!rs1 :i* all[$ a wid] range 9    
pit* & m v>iety 9 s\nd4 ,lat] ,fr5* &   
,engli% h>psi*ords 7 l>gely d]iv$ f !   
,flemi% /yle4   ,virg9al1 #afbj2 made by
 ,&reas ,ruck]s1 ,antw]p ,"o manual2    
,range ,c_/,e-c#c 7app>5t72 #ah'        
,illu/ration3 #b4 ,ruck]s virg9al3 ,plan
 view4  ,illu/ration3 #c4 ,ruck]s       
virg9al3 ,full view4  ,illu/ration3 #d4 
,ruck]s virg9al3 ,detail ( keybo>d4     
,photo3 ,rob]t ,lautman  ,illu/ration3  
#e4 ,ruck]s virg9al3 ,view ( s\ndbo>d & 
lid4 ,photo3 ,rob]t ,lautman  ,in/rum5ts
 built by ! fam\s ,ruck]s family 7 & are
 /ill highly priz$4 ,al?\gh simply pa9t$
 on ! ext]ior1 ! case ( ?is virg9al is  
decorat$ on ! inside 9 *>act]i/ic       
,ruck]s /yle4 ,block-pr9t$ pap]s cov] ! 

int]ior ( ! case2 ! inside ( ! lid be>s 
a ,lat9 motto & ! s\ndbo>d is pa9t$ )   
fl[]s & arabesques4 ,figure #d          
illu/rates a detail ( ! block pr9t+1 & (
 ! keys4 ,! arcades on ! end ( ! keys   
appe> to be cut f sev]al lay]s ( lea!r  
:i* 7 !n appli$ to ! key fronts4  ,?is  
in/rum5t is tun$ a f\r? high] ?an x     
might appe>4 ,:5 ! ,c key is press$1 !  
note s\nd$ is ,f1 a f\r? above4         
,%ort-,octave ,tun+  ,s9ce *romatic     
notes 9 ! l[e/ octave ( ! keybo>d 7 n   
(t5 ne$$ 9 ! music ( ! #af? & #ag?      
c5turies1 ! practice ( %ort-octave tun+ 
0 adopt$4  ,al?\gh ! l[e/ note on a     
%ort-octave in/rum5t appe>s to be ,e1 ! 
range 0 actually ext5d$ d[n to ,c4 7,!  
notation ,c_/,e indicates ?is           
arrangem5t47  ,illu/ration3 ,,normal    
,,tun+  ,illu/ration3 ,,%ort-,,octave   
,,tun+  ,a typical %ort-octave in/rum5t 
( ! #af? & #ag? c5turies w\ld be tun$ 9 
! foll[+ mann]3 ,e 7#a7 is tun$ d[n to  
,c 7,i72 ,f-%>p 7#b7 tun$ to ,d 7,,ii72 
& ,g-%>p 7#c7 tun$ to ,e 7,,iii74       

,h>psi*ord1 #agde2 made by ,johann      
,daniel ,dulck51 ,antw]p ,two manuals2  
,range ,,ff-f#c2 #bhv1 #ad'1 lute       
,typical ( nor!rn ,european in/rum5ts1 !
 ,dulck5 h>psi*ord has a heavy case1 two
 keybo>ds or manuals1 & two #h' *oirs & 
"o #d' *oir4 ,x also has a lute /op1 ^: 
jacks1 v close to ! nut1 pluck "o set ( 
unison /r+s to produce a pung5t1 nasal  
tone4  ,illu/ration3 #f4 ,dulck5        
h>psi*ord3 ,full view4 ,photo3 ,rob]t   
,lautman4  ,illu/ration3 #g4 ,front     
view4 ,photo3 ,rob]t ,lautman4          
,illu/ration3 #h4 ,dulck5 h>psi*ord3    
,plan view4  ,illu/ration3 #i4 ,dulck5  
h>psi*ord3 ,detail ( keybo>ds4 ,photo3  
,rob]t ,lautman  ,illu/ration3 #aj4     
,dulck5 h>psi*ord3 ,detail ( s\ndbo>d4  
,photo3 ,rob]t ,lautman     ,italian    
,h>psi*ords   ,typical ,italian         
h>psi*ords _h two *oirs ( unison /r+s & 
two jacks = ea* key4 ,!y 7 ( mu* light] 
con/ruction ?an ^? made 9 nor!rn        
,europe--! sides ( ! case 7 only ab\t an
 eigh? ( an in* ?ick4 ,^! fragile       

in/rum5ts 7 usually plac$ 9 heavi]1 (t5 
elaborately decorat$1 out] cases f :i* !
 h>psi*ord c\ld be remov$4   ,h>psi*ord1
 #afic2 mak] unkn[n1 ,italy ,"o manual2 
,range ,,gg-c#c 7no ,,gg-%>p72 #bh'  ,! 
typical con/ruction ( ,italian          
h>psi*ords c be se5 9 ?is l>ge ,italian 
in/rum5t4 ,! orig9al namebo>d is miss+2 
h[ev]1 z 0 common practice1 ! mak] m>k$ 
! date on ! tail ( ! l[e/ & highe/ keys4
  ,! ,italian h>psi*ord s]ves z an ideal
 basso cont9uo keybo>d in/rum5t because 
x bl5ds well 9 in/rum5tal comb9ations4  
,its clean1 crisp s\nd also all[s       
individual l9es to em]ge cle>ly f a     
polyphonic musical texture4             
,illu/ration3 #aa4 ,italian h>psi*ord   
7#afic73 ,full view ( in/rum5t 9 out]   
case4  ,illu/ration3 #ab4 ,italian      
h>psi*ord 7#afic73 ,plan view4          
,illu/ration3 #ac4 ,detail ( keybo>d4   
,photo3 ,rob]t ,lautman4   ,h>psi*ord1  
#afid2 made by ,nicolaus ,de,quoco1     
,italy ,"o-manual3 ,range ,c-c#c 7no    
,c-%>p72 #bh'1 #ad'  ,?is in/rum5t is "o

 ( ! few examples ( an ,italian         
h>psi*ord ) a ?ird set ( /r+s tun$ an   
octave high] ?an ! two unison *oirs4 ,x 
is possible t ! ?ird set 0 add$ to ?is  
in/rum5t sometime aft] x 0 con/ruct$ )  
two unison regi/]s4  ,figure #ae %[s !  
in/rum5t be=e re/oration2 ,figures #ad &
 #af %[ ! re/or$ h>psi*ord remov$ f its 
heavy out] case & details ( ! h&some    
keybo>d & mold+s typical ( ,italian     
in/rum5ts4  ,illu/ration3 #ad4 ,de,quoco
 h>psi*ord3 ,plan view4  ,illu/ration3  
#ae4 ,de,quoco h>psi*ord3 ,full view (  
in/rum5t 9 out] case4  ,illu/ration3    
#af4 ,de,quoco h>psi*ord3 ,view (       
in/rum5t remov$ f out] case4            
,illu/ration3 #ag4 ,de,quoco h>psi*ord3 
,inscription on wre/ plank4             
,illu/ration3 #ah4 ,de,quoco h>psi*ord3 
,detail ( keybo>d4 ,photo3 ,rob]t       
,lautman4   ,virg9al1 #afag2 made by    
,giovanni ,batti/a ,boni1 ,cortona ,"o  
manual2 ,range ,c_/,e-f#c2 #ah'  ,!     
small] virg9als & sp9ets 7 commonly f\nd
 9 homes ( mode/ means1 z well z 9 royal

 c\rts4 ,?is polygonal virg9al has six  
split keys :i* repres5t a complicat$    
tun+ s*eme4  ,illu/ration3 #ba4 ,tun+   
s*eme4  ,keys #a-b3 ,?is is a sy/em (   
%ort-octave tun+ 7see ,ruck]s ,virg9al7 
9 :i* ! two l[e/ accid5tals are split   
into two sections4 ,! back section is   
tun$ to ! app>5t accid5tal1 ! front     
section to ! %ort octave4 ,?us1 on !    
,boni1 ! back section ( ! bottom split  
key is tun$ ,f-%>p1 ! front section is  
tun$ ,d2 ! back section ( ! second l[e/ 
split key is tun$ ,a-flat1 ! front      
section is tun$ ,e4  ,keys #c-f3 ,! top 
f\r keys are split to provide =         
enh>monic tun+--t is1 bo? ,d-flat &     
,e-flat1 ,g-%>p & ,a-flat4 ,9 ! meantone
 sy/em ( tun+1 :i* 0 ! prevail+ tun+ ( !
 "t1 scales di/ant f ! key ( ,c 7 (t5   
out ( tune4 ,to improve ! intonation (  
^! scales1 "s mak]s divid$ "s ( !       
accid5tal keys to provide alt]nate      
tun+s4  ,illu/ration3 #ai4 ,boni        
virg9al3 ,full view4  ,illu/ration3 #bj4
 ,boni virg9al3 ,plan view4             

,illu/ration3 #ba4 ,boni virg9al3 ,view 
( keybo>d4 ,photo3 ,rob]t ,lautman4     
,engli% ,h>psi*ords   ,9 ! #ah? c5tury1 
,london became a c5t] ( h>psi*ord mak+4 
,! two mo/ important mak]s1 ,jacob      
,kirckman & ,burkat ,%udi1 7 ,swiss     
immigrants :o fir/ appr5tic$ ) ,h]mann  
,tabel1 a ,flemi% h>psi*ord mak] :o _h  
also emigrat$ to ,engl&4 ,9 ,am]ica1 :]e
 ,engli% culture 0 highly reg>d$1 ,?omas
 ,jeff]son own$ a ,kirckman h>psi*ord1  
,francis ,hopk9son a ,%udi & ,broadwood4
  ,! heavy cases ( ! typical ,engli%    
in/rum5ts 7 v5e]$ 9 walnut1 mahogany1 & 
lat] sat9wood1 & re/$ on tre/le /&s4 ,! 
usual range 0 five octaves3 ,,ff-f#c =  
h>psi*ords2 ,,gg-g#c = sp9ets 7&        
organs74 ,9 g5]al1 ! s\nd produc$ on an 
,engli% h>psi*ord is m ?ick & lu% ?an ! 
s\nd ( in/rum5ts f o!r ,european c5t]s4 
,sp9et1 ab\t #agaj2 made by ,?omas      
,hit*cock1 ,london ,"o manual2 ,range   
,,gg-g#c2 #ah'  ,! sp9et1 a memb] ( !   
h>psi*ord family1 0 a popul> dome/ic    
keybo>d in/rum5t 9 ,engl& & ,am]ica dur+

 ! #ah? c5tury & 0 m5tion$ 9 _m ,am]ican
 di>ies & inv5tories ( t "t4 ,! sp9et   
(t5 s]v$ z ! keybo>d in/rum5t = !       
h\sehold t c\ld n af=d or did n h room =
 ! h>psi*ord or organ4  ,! ,hit*cock    
family suppli$ _m sp9ets = e>ly         
#ah?-c5tury g5tility4 ,note 9 ,figure   
#bd ! h&some brass h+es1 "o ( _m        
examples ( ! beautiful h>dw>e us$ by    
,engli% build]s4 ,?is in/rum5t is quill$
 ) cr[ quill1 ! mo/ common mat]ial us$ =
 plectra at t "t4 ,a detail ( ! jacks & 
/r++ is %[n 9 ,figure #a4  ,illu/ration3
 #bb4 ,hit*cock sp9et3 ,full view &     
namebo>d4  ,illu/ration3 #bc4 ,hit*cock 
sp9et3 ,plan view4  ,illu/ration3 #bd4  
,hit*cock sp9et3 ,top view4 ,photo3     
,rob]t ,lautman4   ,h>psi*ord1 ab\t     
#agdc2 made by ,burkat ,%udi1 ,london   
,two manuals2 ,range ,,ff-f#c 7no       
,,ff-%>p72 #bh'1 #ad'1 lute1 buff  ,mo/ 
( ! /ops on e>ly h>psi*ords 7 *ang$ by  
h&4 ,f left to "r1 ! /op knobs %[n 9    
,figure #be op]ate ! foll[+ regi/]s3    
lute1 octave 7#d'71 buff 7mut+ ! second 

unison by press+ s(t lea!r pads aga9/ ! 
/r+s71 fir/ unison 7#h'71 & second      
unison 7#h'74 ,! lute /op plays f ! upp]
 manual1 ! fir/ unison f bo? manuals1 & 
! rema9+ /ops f ! l[] manual4  ,figures 
#be & #bf %[ ! in/rum5t be=e re/oration4
 ,! "n batt5 on :i* ! date ( #agdg      
appe>s is n orig9al to ! in/rum5t4 ,!   
date ( ! in/rum5t is bas$ on ! s]ial    
numb] #add /amp$ on ! l[] keybo>d4 ,f   
all records x appe>s ,%udi w\ld h built 
an in/rum5t ) t s]ial numb] 9 #agdc4    
,illu/ration3 #be4 ,%udi h>psi*ord3     
,view ( keybo>ds4  ,illu/ration3 #bf4   
,%udi h>psi*ord3 ,plan view4            
,illu/ration3 #bg4 ,%udi h>psi*ord3     
,full view4     ,fr5* ,h>psi*ords       
,al?\gh ,p>is claim$ _m h>psi*ord       
build]s1 few ,fr5* h>psi*ords rema9     
today4 ,_m 7 de/roy$ at ! "t ( !        
,revolution & lat] :5 firewood 0 ne$$ to
 heat ,cons]vatoire classrooms4  ,fr5*  
build]s1 ! mo/ fam\s among !m ! ,blan*et
 family & ,pascal ,task91 sp5t mu* ( _! 
"t recon/ruct+ ,ruck]s h>psi*ords to    

satisfy ! musical & decorative ta/es (  
#ah?-c5tury ,france4 ,includ$ 9 ?is     
recon/ruction or ravalem5t 7 ! ext5sion 
( compass 7usually f ,c-c#c to          
,,ff-f#c71 enl>gem5t ( ! case &         
s\ndbo>d1 & (t5 replacem5t ( keybo>ds1  
jacks1 & regi/]s4  ,h\s$ 9 elegantly    
pa9t$ cases support$ by cabriole or     
flut$ legs1 typical ,fr5* h>psi*ords _h 
two manuals & 7 prais$ = _! lightness ( 
t\*4 ,lat] #ah?-c5tury developm5ts      
includ$ a f\r? regi/] call$ peau de     
buffle 7plectra ( s(t *amois-type lea!r7
 & knee lev]s to op]ate ! regi/]s4      
,h>psi*ord1 #agfj2 made by ,b5oi/       
,/ehl91 ,p>is ,two manuals2 ,range      
,,ff-f#c2 #bh'1 #adv1 buff1 %ove c\pl]  
,9 rec5t ye>s ! ,smi?sonian 0 =tunate to
 acquire "o ( ! few rema9+ ,fr5*        
h>psi*ords4 ,! build]'s "n is kn[n f !  
design on ! s\ndbo>d rose :i* includes !
 initials ,b & ,s2 also1 ! "n ,b5oi/    
,/ehl9 is inscrib$ on two ( ! jacks4 ,! 
#agfj date is pa9t$ on ! left side ( !  
s\ndbo>d4 ,an inv5tory ( ,/ehl9's       

work%op & h\se made at ! "t ( 8 dea? 9  
#aggd li/s a ,ruck]s h>psi*ord alt]$ by 
,/ehl9 along ) sev]al o!r in/rum5ts 9   
v>i\s /ages ( completion4 ,figures #bh &
 #cj %[ ! in/rum5t be=e its re/oration4 
,illu/ration3 #bh4 ,/ehl9 h>psi*ord3    
,full view4  ,?is in/rum5t 0 re/or$ to  
play+ condition 9 ! cons]vation         
laboratory ( ! ,division ( ,musical     
,in/rum5ts 9 #aifh4 ,typical ( mo/ ,fr5*
 in/rum5ts1 x is equipp$ ) a %ove c\pl]1
 :i* enables ! play] to op]ate bo?      
manuals f ! l[] keybo>d by %ov+ ! upp]  
keybo>d away f him4 ,9 ?is pu%$-back    
position1 wood5 uprights 7dogs7 atta*$  
to ! upp] surface ( ! f> ends ( ! l[]   
key lev]s c\ple ! two manuals & cause ! 
upp] manual keys to desc5d :5 ! l[]     
manual keys are press$4  ,illu/ration3  
#bi4 ,/ehl9 h>psi*ord3 ,detail ( rose4  
,illu/ration3 #cj4 ,/ehl9 h>psi*ord3    
,plan view4     ,clavi*ords   ,dynamic  
%ad+s are possible 9 ! clavi*ord1 z 9 ! 
piano1 ?r\gh v>iation ( f+] pressure4 ,9
 bo?1 ! /r+s are /ruck--by metal tang5ts

 9 ! clavi*ord & by lea!r or felt hamm]s
 9 ! piano4  ,9 ! clavi*ord ! /r+s ext5d
 ov] a s\ndbo>d bridge on ! play]'s "r &
 are damp$ 7/opp$ f vibrat+7 by /rips ( 
clo? on ! left4 ,! metal hamm] 7tang5t7 
m\nt$ 9 ! end ( ! key /rikes ! /r+ &    
cont9ues to t\* x z long z ! play]      
presses ! key4 ,! tang5t1 :ile t\*+ !   
/r+1 divides x into two segm5ts--!      
segm5t on ! "r be+ free to vibrate1 !   
segm5t on ! left be+ damp$ by ! clo?4   
,:5 ! key is releas$1 ! clo? damps !    
entire /r+4  ,figure #ca %[s a play]    
depress+ a clavi*ord key 7middle c74 ,! 
tang5t at ! f> end ( ! key lev] has be5 
rais$ s t x has /ruck ! /r+s & has lift$
 !m above re/ position4 ,! damp+ clo? on
 ! left ( ?is rais$ /r+ c also be se54  
,kn[n z e>ly z ! #ae? c5tury1 !         
clavi*ord produces tones1 ?\gh limit$ 9 
volume1 t are v expressive & ev5 capable
 ( vibrato 7,bebung74 ,because x lacks  
c>ry+ p[]1 ! clavi*ord hi/orically 0 a  
solo or practice in/rum5t1 = x c\ld n be
 he>d 9 comb9ation ) o!r in/rum5ts or ) 

! voice4  ,illu/ration3 #ca4 ,clavi*ord 
action4 ,photo3 ,rob]t ,lautman4        
,frett$ ,clavi*ord1 ab\t #agjj2 mak]    
unkn[n1 ,g]many  ,unfrett$ ,clavi*ord1  
#ah? c5tury2 mak] unkn[n1 ,g]many  ,!   
clavi*ord 0 usually h\s$ 9 a rectangul> 
case :i* re/$ ^u a simple /&4 ,! range (
 ! e>li] in/rum5ts 0 ab\t f\r octaves4  
,by ! #ah? c5tury ! range _h be5 exp&$  
to five octaves4  ,! l>g]1 lat]         
clavi*ords _h sep>ate /r+s = ea* key & 7
 unfrett$ or bundfrei4 ,_m small] &     
e>li] clavi*ords 7 frett$ 7gebund571    
hav+ "s /r+s t w\ld produce m ?an "o    
pit* :5 /ruck at diff]5t po9ts by       
adjac5t keys4  ,figure #cb %[s ! frett$ 
clavi*ord keybo>d 9 m detail4 ,tang5ts  
on keys numb]$ #af & #ag /rike ! same   
/r+s to produce ! notes e-flat & e4 ,"s 
o!r frett$ notes %[n 9 ! picture        
include3 keys #ah & #ai 7f & f-%>p71    
keys #bj & #ba 7g & g-%>p71 keys #bc &  
#bd 7b-flat & b71 & keys #be & #bf      
7middle c & c-%>p74 ,figure #ca is also 
a detail f ?is clavi*ord4  ,!           

,smi?sonian clavi*ord %[n 9 ,figures #ce
 & #cf1 9 unre/or$ condition1 is typical
 ( ! l>ge unfrett$ in/rum5ts t became   
/&>d 9 ,g]many by ! mid-#ah? c5tury & = 
:i* ,c>l ,philipp ,emanuel ,ba* wrote _m
 solo keybo>d compositions4             
,illu/ration3 #cb4 ,frett$ clavi*ord3   
,detail ( frett+4 ,photo3 ,rob]t        
,lautman4  ,illu/ration3 #cc4 ,frett$   
clavi*ord3 ,full view4  ,illu/ration3   
#cd4 ,frett$ clavi*ord3 ,plan view4     
,illu/ration3 #ce4 ,unfrett$ clavi*ord3 
,full view4  ,illu/ration3 #cf4         
,unfrett$ clavi*ord3 ,plan view4  ,by ! 
beg9n+ ( ! #ah? c5tury ! desire 0 /rong 
= a m expressive keybo>d in/rum5t to use
 9 ensembles4 ,h>psi*ord build]s add$   
new /ops1 devis$ special lea!r plectra1 
& add$ ,v5etian swell effects & o!r     
innovations to alt] ! s\nd ( !          
h>psi*ord4 ,b no matt] :at !y did1 !y   
c\ld n produce en\gh dynamic gradation  
to satisfy musical ta/e4 ,! clavi*ord 0 
capable ( dynamic nuance1 b x lack$     
c>ry+ p[]4  ,in/rum5t build]s1 seek+ to 

satisfy ! dem&s creat$ by ! *ange 9     
s5sibility & musical ta/e1 turn$        
naturally to ! dome/ic in/rum5ts !y knew
 be/--! h>psi*ord & clavi*ord--z !      
process ( adaptation began4 ,= ?is      
reason1 z ! pian(orte 0 develop$ &      
p]fect$1 ! g5]al proportions &          
arrangem5t ( ! gr& piano resembl$ ^? ( !
 h>psi*ord4 ,simil>ly1 ! relation betwe5
 ! keybo>d & /r+s1 ! scal+1 & o!r       
features ( ! squ>e piano resembl$ ^? ( !
 clavi*ord4  ,by ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai?      
c5tury ! pian(orte1 an in/rum5t capable 
( subtle *anges betwe5 s(t & l\d1 _h    
become ! mo/ important dome/ic & conc]t 
keybo>d in/rum5t4 ,aft] #ahjj few       
clavi*ords or h>psi*ords 7 built or us$ 
until !y 7 reviv$ by e>ly music         
en?usia/s at ! end ( ! #ai? c5tury4     
,select$ ,bibliography   ,,boal*1       
,,donald4 ,mak]s ( ! ,h>psi*ord &       
,clavi*ord4 ,london3 ,george ,ronald1   
#aiee4  ,,hirt1 ,,franz ,,josef4        
,mei/]w]ke des ,klavi]baus4 ,olt51      
,switz]l&3 ,urs ,graf-,v]lag1 #aiee4    

,,hubb>d1 ,,frank4 ,h>psi*ord ,regulat+ 
& ,repair+4 ,bo/on3 ,tun]'s ,supply1    
,inc41 #aifc4  ,,hubb>d1 ,,frank4 ,?ree 
,c5turies ( ,h>psi*ord ,mak+4           
,cambridge1 ,massa*usetts3 ,h>v>d       
,univ]sity ,press1 #aife4  ,,james1     
,,philip4 ,e>ly ,keybo>d ,in/rum5ts4    
,london3 ,pet] ,davies1 #aicj4  ,,rip91 
,,edw9 ,m4 ,! ,e>ly ,clavi*ord1 ,musical
 ,qu>t]ly1 #ec7d7 7,octob] #aifg73      
#eah-ech4  ,,russell1 ,,raymond4 ,!     
,h>psi*ord & ! ,clavi*ord4 ,london3     
,fab] & ,fab]1 #aiei4  ,,%ortridge1     
,,john ,d4 ,italian ,h>psi*ord-,build+ 9
 ! #af? & #ag? ,c5turies4 ,unit$ ,/ates 
,national ,museum ,bullet91 #bbe 7#ae73 
#ic-ajg1 #aifj4