,,cynthia ,a4 ,,hoover ,,division ,,of ,,musical ,,instruments ,,national ,,museum ,,of ,,history ,,and ,,technology ,harpsichords and ,clavichords ,,smithsonian ,,institution ,,press ,,city ,,of ,,washington #aifi ,cover3 ,virginal by ,giovanni ,battista ,boni1 #afag 7see pages #bb-be7 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman ,for sale by the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office ,washington1 ,d4,c4 #bjdjb ,price #dj cents ,harpsichords and ,clavichords ,the harpsichord and the clavichord represent the two most important types of stringed keyboard instruments used from the #aeth through the #ahth centuries4 ,by the #aith century1 the piano had become the most important domestic keyboard instrument4 ,in this booklet are described a few of the restored ,smithsonian harpsichords and clavichords that are occasionally on exhibit in the ,hall of ,musical ,instruments or in use in the series of concerts sponsored by the ,division of ,musical ,instruments4 ,models showing how the sound is produced on these instruments are also on exhibit4 ,a complete list of the keyboard collection is found in ,a ,checklist of ,keyboard ,instruments at the ,smithsonian ,institution 7,washington1 #aifg71 which is available from the ,division of ,musical ,instruments1 ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 #bjefj4 ,harpsichords ,the harpsichord and its smaller relatives1 the virginal and the spinet1 have strings that are plucked4 ,the harpsichord is wing-shaped1 most virginals and spinets are either rectangular or polygonal4 ,when the harpsichord key is pressed1 a wooden jack is raised so that a quill or leather plectrum inserted into the jack tongue plucks the string4 ,when the key is released1 the jack falls back into place1 the pivoted tongue allowing the plectrum to pass the string without plucking it4 ,a felt damper 7inserted in a slit at the top of the jack7 touches the string to stop the sound4 ,figure #a shows the jack arrangement in an #ahth century ,english spinet4 ,the second jack from the left on the front row has been raised so that its quill is just about to pluck the string4 ,note that the quill has lifted the string above its rest position4 ,inherent in the design of a harpsichord is the limitation of dynamic nuance4 ,the sound of a harpsichord is not greatly altered by increasing or lessening the impact of fingers on the keys4 ,rather1 the dynamic level and quality of sound can be changed by varying the number of strings plucked 7many harpsichords have three sets of strings3 two sets tuned in unison #h' and a third tuned an octave higher #d'71 by varying the location of the plucking point1 and by muting the strings with felt or leather pads4 ,the tone of a keyboard instrument is also affected by its general outline1 the material and thickness of the soundboard1 the length and material of the strings1 and the type of case construction4 ,the case must be strong enough to counteract the tension of the strings and yet light enough to allow the sound to resonate4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,harpsichord action4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman4 ,among the ,smithsonian's extensive keyboard collection are fine examples of harpsichords that represent several of the major national trends in harpsichord building3 the ,flemish1 ,italian1 ,english1 and ,french4 ,flemish ,harpsichords ,antwerp was the harpsichord-making center of northern ,europe during the #afth and #agth centuries4 ,the earliest examples of harpsichords had only one keyboard and one or two sets of #h' strings4 ,the progressive ,flemish makers added a second keyboard and another set of strings1 tuned an octave higher than the others1 which allowed a wider range in pitch and more variety in sound4 ,later ,french and ,english harpsichords were largely derived from the ,flemish style4 ,virginal1 #afbj2 made by ,andreas ,ruckers1 ,antwerp ,one manual2 ,range ,c_/,e-c#c 7apparent72 #ah' ,illustration3 #b4 ,ruckers virginal3 ,plan view4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,ruckers virginal3 ,full view4 ,illustration3 #d4 ,ruckers virginal3 ,detail of keyboard4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman ,illustration3 #e4 ,ruckers virginal3 ,view of soundboard and lid4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman ,instruments built by the famous ,ruckers family were and are still highly prized4 ,although simply painted on the exterior1 the case of this virginal is decorated on the inside in characteristic ,ruckers style4 ,block-printed papers cover the interior of the case2 the inside of the lid bears a ,latin motto and the soundboard is painted with flowers and arabesques4 ,figure #d illustrates a detail of the block printing1 and of the keys4 ,the arcades on the end of the keys appear to be cut from several layers of leather which were then applied to the key fronts4 ,this instrument is tuned a fourth higher than it might appear4 ,when the ,c key is pressed1 the note sounded is ,f1 a fourth above4 ,short-,octave ,tuning ,since chromatic notes in the lowest octave of the keyboard were not often needed in the music of the #afth and #agth centuries1 the practice of short-octave tuning was adopted4 ,although the lowest note on a short-octave instrument appears to be ,e1 the range was actually extended down to ,c4 7,the notation ,c_/,e indicates this arrangement47 ,illustration3 ,,normal ,,tuning ,illustration3 ,,short-,,octave ,,tuning ,a typical short-octave instrument of the #afth and #agth centuries would be tuned in the following manner3 ,e 7#a7 is tuned down to ,c 7,i72 ,f-sharp 7#b7 tuned to ,d 7,,ii72 and ,g-sharp 7#c7 tuned to ,e 7,,iii74 ,harpsichord1 #agde2 made by ,johann ,daniel ,dulcken1 ,antwerp ,two manuals2 ,range ,,ff-f#c2 #bhv1 #ad'1 lute ,typical of northern ,european instruments1 the ,dulcken harpsichord has a heavy case1 two keyboards or manuals1 and two #h' choirs and one #d' choir4 ,it also has a lute stop1 whose jacks1 very close to the nut1 pluck one set of unison strings to produce a pungent1 nasal tone4 ,illustration3 #f4 ,dulcken harpsichord3 ,full view4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman4 ,illustration3 #g4 ,front view4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman4 ,illustration3 #h4 ,dulcken harpsichord3 ,plan view4 ,illustration3 #i4 ,dulcken harpsichord3 ,detail of keyboards4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman ,illustration3 #aj4 ,dulcken harpsichord3 ,detail of soundboard4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman ,italian ,harpsichords ,typical ,italian harpsichords had two choirs of unison strings and two jacks for each key4 ,they were of much lighter construction than those made in northern ,europe--the sides of the case were only about an eighth of an inch thick4 ,these fragile instruments were usually placed in heavier1 often elaborately decorated1 outer cases from which the harpsichord could be removed4 ,harpsichord1 #afic2 maker unknown1 ,italy ,one manual2 ,range ,,gg-c#c 7no ,,gg-sharp72 #bh' ,the typical construction of ,italian harpsichords can be seen in this large ,italian instrument4 ,the original nameboard is missing2 however1 as was common practice1 the maker marked the date on the tail of the lowest and highest keys4 ,the ,italian harpsichord serves as an ideal basso continuo keyboard instrument because it blends well in instrumental combinations4 ,its clean1 crisp sound also allows individual lines to emerge clearly from a polyphonic musical texture4 ,illustration3 #aa4 ,italian harpsichord 7#afic73 ,full view of instrument in outer case4 ,illustration3 #ab4 ,italian harpsichord 7#afic73 ,plan view4 ,illustration3 #ac4 ,detail of keyboard4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman4 ,harpsichord1 #afid2 made by ,nicolaus ,de,quoco1 ,italy ,one-manual3 ,range ,c-c#c 7no ,c-sharp72 #bh'1 #ad' ,this instrument is one of the few examples of an ,italian harpsichord with a third set of strings tuned an octave higher than the two unison choirs4 ,it is possible that the third set was added to this instrument sometime after it was constructed with two unison registers4 ,figure #ae shows the instrument before restoration2 ,figures #ad and #af show the restored harpsichord removed from its heavy outer case and details of the handsome keyboard and moldings typical of ,italian instruments4 ,illustration3 #ad4 ,de,quoco harpsichord3 ,plan view4 ,illustration3 #ae4 ,de,quoco harpsichord3 ,full view of instrument in outer case4 ,illustration3 #af4 ,de,quoco harpsichord3 ,view of instrument removed from outer case4 ,illustration3 #ag4 ,de,quoco harpsichord3 ,inscription on wrest plank4 ,illustration3 #ah4 ,de,quoco harpsichord3 ,detail of keyboard4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman4 ,virginal1 #afag2 made by ,giovanni ,battista ,boni1 ,cortona ,one manual2 ,range ,c_/,e-f#c2 #ah' ,the smaller virginals and spinets were commonly found in homes of modest means1 as well as in royal courts4 ,this polygonal virginal has six split keys which represent a complicated tuning scheme4 ,illustration3 #ba4 ,tuning scheme4 ,keys #a-b3 ,this is a system of short-octave tuning 7see ,ruckers ,virginal7 in which the two lowest accidentals are split into two sections4 ,the back section is tuned to the apparent accidental1 the front section to the short octave4 ,thus1 on the ,boni1 the back section of the bottom split key is tuned ,f-sharp1 the front section is tuned ,d2 the back section of the second lowest split key is tuned ,a-flat1 the front section is tuned ,e4 ,keys #c-f3 ,the top four keys are split to provide for enharmonic tuning--that is1 both ,d-flat and ,e-flat1 ,g-sharp and ,a-flat4 ,in the meantone system of tuning1 which was the prevailing tuning of the time1 scales distant from the key of ,c were often out of tune4 ,to improve the intonation of these scales1 some makers divided some of the accidental keys to provide alternate tunings4 ,illustration3 #ai4 ,boni virginal3 ,full view4 ,illustration3 #bj4 ,boni virginal3 ,plan view4 ,illustration3 #ba4 ,boni virginal3 ,view of keyboard4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman4 ,english ,harpsichords ,in the #ahth century1 ,london became a center of harpsichord making4 ,the two most important makers1 ,jacob ,kirckman and ,burkat ,shudi1 were ,swiss immigrants who first apprenticed with ,hermann ,tabel1 a ,flemish harpsichord maker who had also emigrated to ,england4 ,in ,america1 where ,english culture was highly regarded1 ,thomas ,jefferson owned a ,kirckman harpsichord1 ,francis ,hopkinson a ,shudi and ,broadwood4 ,the heavy cases of the typical ,english instruments were veneered in walnut1 mahogany1 and later satinwood1 and rested on trestle stands4 ,the usual range was five octaves3 ,,ff-f#c for harpsichords2 ,,gg-g#c for spinets 7and organs74 ,in general1 the sound produced on an ,english harpsichord is more thick and lush than the sound of instruments from other ,european centers4 ,spinet1 about #agaj2 made by ,thomas ,hitchcock1 ,london ,one manual2 ,range ,,gg-g#c2 #ah' ,the spinet1 a member of the harpsichord family1 was a popular domestic keyboard instrument in ,england and ,america during the #ahth century and was mentioned in many ,american diaries and inventories of that time4 ,the spinet often served as the keyboard instrument for the household that could not afford or did not have room for the harpsichord or organ4 ,the ,hitchcock family supplied many spinets for early #ahth-century gentility4 ,note in ,figure #bd the handsome brass hinges1 one of many examples of the beautiful hardware used by ,english builders4 ,this instrument is quilled with crow quill1 the most common material used for plectra at that time4 ,a detail of the jacks and stringing is shown in ,figure #a4 ,illustration3 #bb4 ,hitchcock spinet3 ,full view and nameboard4 ,illustration3 #bc4 ,hitchcock spinet3 ,plan view4 ,illustration3 #bd4 ,hitchcock spinet3 ,top view4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman4 ,harpsichord1 about #agdc2 made by ,burkat ,shudi1 ,london ,two manuals2 ,range ,,ff-f#c 7no ,,ff-sharp72 #bh'1 #ad'1 lute1 buff ,most of the stops on early harpsichords were changed by hand4 ,from left to right1 the stop knobs shown in ,figure #be operate the following registers3 lute1 octave 7#d'71 buff 7muting the second unison by pressing soft leather pads against the strings71 first unison 7#h'71 and second unison 7#h'74 ,the lute stop plays from the upper manual1 the first unison from both manuals1 and the remaining stops from the lower manual4 ,figures #be and #bf show the instrument before restoration4 ,the name batten on which the date of #agdg appears is not original to the instrument4 ,the date of the instrument is based on the serial number #add stamped on the lower keyboard4 ,from all records it appears ,shudi would have built an instrument with that serial number in #agdc4 ,illustration3 #be4 ,shudi harpsichord3 ,view of keyboards4 ,illustration3 #bf4 ,shudi harpsichord3 ,plan view4 ,illustration3 #bg4 ,shudi harpsichord3 ,full view4 ,french ,harpsichords ,although ,paris claimed many harpsichord builders1 few ,french harpsichords remain today4 ,many were destroyed at the time of the ,revolution and later when firewood was needed to heat ,conservatoire classrooms4 ,french builders1 the most famous among them the ,blanchet family and ,pascal ,taskin1 spent much of their time reconstructing ,ruckers harpsichords to satisfy the musical and decorative tastes of #ahth-century ,france4 ,included in this reconstruction or ravalement were the extension of compass 7usually from ,c-c#c to ,,ff-f#c71 enlargement of the case and soundboard1 and often replacement of keyboards1 jacks1 and registers4 ,housed in elegantly painted cases supported by cabriole or fluted legs1 typical ,french harpsichords had two manuals and were praised for their lightness of touch4 ,later #ahth-century developments included a fourth register called peau de buffle 7plectra of soft chamois-type leather7 and knee levers to operate the registers4 ,harpsichord1 #agfj2 made by ,benoist ,stehlin1 ,paris ,two manuals2 ,range ,,ff-f#c2 #bh'1 #adv1 buff1 shove coupler ,in recent years the ,smithsonian was fortunate to acquire one of the few remaining ,french harpsichords4 ,the builder's name is known from the design on the soundboard rose which includes the initials ,b and ,s2 also1 the name ,benoist ,stehlin is inscribed on two of the jacks4 ,the #agfj date is painted on the left side of the soundboard4 ,an inventory of ,stehlin's workshop and house made at the time of his death in #aggd lists a ,ruckers harpsichord altered by ,stehlin along with several other instruments in various stages of completion4 ,figures #bh and #cj show the instrument before its restoration4 ,illustration3 #bh4 ,stehlin harpsichord3 ,full view4 ,this instrument was restored to playing condition in the conservation laboratory of the ,division of ,musical ,instruments in #aifh4 ,typical of most ,french instruments1 it is equipped with a shove coupler1 which enables the player to operate both manuals from the lower keyboard by shoving the upper keyboard away from him4 ,in this pushed-back position1 wooden uprights 7dogs7 attached to the upper surface of the far ends of the lower key levers couple the two manuals and cause the upper manual keys to descend when the lower manual keys are pressed4 ,illustration3 #bi4 ,stehlin harpsichord3 ,detail of rose4 ,illustration3 #cj4 ,stehlin harpsichord3 ,plan view4 ,clavichords ,dynamic shadings are possible in the clavichord1 as in the piano1 through variation of finger pressure4 ,in both1 the strings are struck--by metal tangents in the clavichord and by leather or felt hammers in the piano4 ,in the clavichord the strings extend over a soundboard bridge on the player's right and are damped 7stopped from vibrating7 by strips of cloth on the left4 ,the metal hammer 7tangent7 mounted in the end of the key strikes the string and continues to touch it as long as the player presses the key4 ,the tangent1 while touching the string1 divides it into two segments--the segment on the right being free to vibrate1 the segment on the left being damped by the cloth4 ,when the key is released1 the cloth damps the entire string4 ,figure #ca shows a player depressing a clavichord key 7middle c74 ,the tangent at the far end of the key lever has been raised so that it has struck the strings and has lifted them above rest position4 ,the damping cloth on the left of this raised string can also be seen4 ,known as early as the #aeth century1 the clavichord produces tones1 though limited in volume1 that are very expressive and even capable of vibrato 7,bebung74 ,because it lacks carrying power1 the clavichord historically was a solo or practice instrument1 for it could not be heard in combination with other instruments or with the voice4 ,illustration3 #ca4 ,clavichord action4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman4 ,fretted ,clavichord1 about #agjj2 maker unknown1 ,germany ,unfretted ,clavichord1 #ahth century2 maker unknown1 ,germany ,the clavichord was usually housed in a rectangular case which rested upon a simple stand4 ,the range of the earlier instruments was about four octaves4 ,by the #ahth century the range had been expanded to five octaves4 ,the larger1 later clavichords had separate strings for each key and were unfretted or bundfrei4 ,many smaller and earlier clavichords were fretted 7gebunden71 having some strings that would produce more than one pitch when struck at different points by adjacent keys4 ,figure #cb shows the fretted clavichord keyboard in more detail4 ,tangents on keys numbered #af and #ag strike the same strings to produce the notes e-flat and e4 ,some other fretted notes shown in the picture include3 keys #ah and #ai 7f and f-sharp71 keys #bj and #ba 7g and g-sharp71 keys #bc and #bd 7b-flat and b71 and keys #be and #bf 7middle c and c-sharp74 ,figure #ca is also a detail from this clavichord4 ,the ,smithsonian clavichord shown in ,figures #ce and #cf1 in unrestored condition1 is typical of the large unfretted instruments that became standard in ,germany by the mid-#ahth century and for which ,carl ,philipp ,emanuel ,bach wrote many solo keyboard compositions4 ,illustration3 #cb4 ,fretted clavichord3 ,detail of fretting4 ,photo3 ,robert ,lautman4 ,illustration3 #cc4 ,fretted clavichord3 ,full view4 ,illustration3 #cd4 ,fretted clavichord3 ,plan view4 ,illustration3 #ce4 ,unfretted clavichord3 ,full view4 ,illustration3 #cf4 ,unfretted clavichord3 ,plan view4 ,by the beginning of the #ahth century the desire was strong for a more expressive keyboard instrument to use in ensembles4 ,harpsichord builders added new stops1 devised special leather plectra1 and added ,venetian swell effects and other innovations to alter the sound of the harpsichord4 ,but no matter what they did1 they could not produce enough dynamic gradation to satisfy musical taste4 ,the clavichord was capable of dynamic nuance1 but it lacked carrying power4 ,instrument builders1 seeking to satisfy the demands created by the change in sensibility and musical taste1 turned naturally to the domestic instruments they knew best--the harpsichord and clavichord--as the process of adaptation began4 ,for this reason1 as the pianoforte was developed and perfected1 the general proportions and arrangement of the grand piano resembled those of the harpsichord4 ,similarly1 the relation between the keyboard and strings1 the scaling1 and other features of the square piano resembled those of the clavichord4 ,by the beginning of the #aith century the pianoforte1 an instrument capable of subtle changes between soft and loud1 had become the most important domestic and concert keyboard instrument4 ,after #ahjj few clavichords or harpsichords were built or used until they were revived by early music enthusiasts at the end of the #aith century4 ,selected ,bibliography ,,boalch1 ,,donald4 ,makers of the ,harpsichord and ,clavichord4 ,london3 ,george ,ronald1 #aiee4 ,,hirt1 ,,franz ,,josef4 ,meisterwerke des ,klavierbaus4 ,olten1 ,switzerland3 ,urs ,graf-,verlag1 #aiee4 ,,hubbard1 ,,frank4 ,harpsichord ,regulating and ,repairing4 ,boston3 ,tuner's ,supply1 ,inc41 #aifc4 ,,hubbard1 ,,frank4 ,three ,centuries of ,harpsichord ,making4 ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts3 ,harvard ,university ,press1 #aife4 ,,james1 ,,philip4 ,early ,keyboard ,instruments4 ,london3 ,peter ,davies1 #aicj4 ,,ripin1 ,,edwin ,m4 ,the ,early ,clavichord1 ,musical ,quarterly1 #ec7d7 7,october #aifg73 #eah-ech4 ,,russell1 ,,raymond4 ,the ,harpsichord and the ,clavichord4 ,london3 ,faber and ,faber1 #aiei4 ,,shortridge1 ,,john ,d4 ,italian ,harpsichord-,building in the #afth and #agth ,centuries4 ,united ,states ,national ,museum ,bulletin1 #bbe 7#ae73 #ic-ajg1 #aifj4