,,religions ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,the ,,psychological ,,origin ,,and ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,religion ,,religions3 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,animism4 ,by ,,edward ,,clodd1 author of ,the ,story of ,creation4 ,pantheism4 ,by ,,james ,,allanson ,,picton1 author of ,the ,religion of the ,universe4 ,the ,religions of ,ancient ,china4 ,by ,professor ,,giles1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,chinese in the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,greece4 ,by ,,jane ,,harrison1 ,lecturer at ,newnham ,college1 ,cambridge1 author of ,prolegomena to ,study of ,greek ,religion4 ,islam4 ,by the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,,ameer ,,ali ,,syed1 of the ,judicial ,committee of ,his ,majesty's ,privy ,council1 author of ,the ,spirit of ,islam and ,ethics of ,islam4 ,magic and ,fetishism4 ,by ,dr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,,haddon1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,lecturer on ,ethnology at ,cambridge ,university4 ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt4 ,by ,professor ,w4 ,m4 ,,flinders ,,petrie1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,by ,,theophilus ,g4 ,,pinches1 late of the ,british ,museum4 ,early ,buddhism4 ,by ,professor ,,rhys ,,davids1 ,,ll4,d41 late ,secretary of ,the ,royal ,asiatic ,society4 ,hinduism4 ,by ,dr4 ,l4 ,d4 ,,barnett1 of the ,department of ,oriental ,printed ,books and ,,mss41 ,british ,museum4 ,scandinavian ,religion4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,craigie1 ,joint ,editor of the ,oxford ,english ,dictionary4 ,celtic ,religion4 ,by ,professor ,,anwyl1 ,professor of ,welsh at ,university ,college1 ,aberystwyth4 ,the ,mythology of ,ancient ,britain and ,ireland4 ,by ,,charles ,,squire1 author of ,the ,mythology of the ,british ,islands4 ,judaism4 ,by ,,israel ,,abrahams1 ,lecturer in ,talmudic ,literature in ,cambridge ,university1 author of ,jewish ,life in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,rome4 ,by ,,cyril ,,bailey1 ,m4,a4 ,shinto1 ,the ,ancient ,religion of ,japan4 ,by ,w4 ,g4 ,,aston1 ,c4 ,m4 ,g4 ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,mexico and ,peru4 ,by ,,lewis ,,spence1 ,m4,a4 ,early ,christianity4 ,by ,s4 ,b4 ,,black1 ,professor at ,m',gill ,university4 ,the ,psychological ,origin and ,nature of ,religion4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,h4 ,,leuba4 ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,palestine4 ,by ,,stanley ,a4 ,,cook4 ,mithraism4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,phythian-,,adams4 ,,philosophies ,early ,greek ,philosophy4 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,,benn1 author of ,the ,philosophy of ,greece1 ,rationalism in the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,stoicism4 ,by ,professor ,,st4 ,,george ,,stock1 author of ,deductive ,logic1 editor of the ,apology of ,plato1 etc4 ,plato4 ,by ,professor ,a4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,st4 ,andrews ,university1 author of ,the ,problem of ,conduct4 ,scholasticism4 ,by ,father ,,rickaby1 ,s4,j4 ,hobbes4 ,by ,professor ,a4 ,e4 ,,taylor4 ,locke4 ,by ,professor ,,alexander1 of ,owens ,college4 ,comte and ,mill4 ,by ,t4 ,,whittaker1 author of ,the ,neoplatonists ,apollonius of ,tyana and other ,essays4 ,herbert ,spencer4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,hudson1 author of ,an ,introduction to ,spencer's ,philosophy4 ,schopenhauer4 ,by ,t4 ,,whittaker4 ,berkeley4 ,by ,professor ,,campbell ,,fraser1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 ,swedenborg4 ,by ,dr4 ,,sewall4 ,nietzsche3 ,his ,life and ,works4 ,by ,,anthony ,m4 ,,ludovich4 ,bergson4 ,by ,,joseph ,,solomon4 ,rationalism4 ,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,robertson4 ,pragmatism4 ,by ,d4 ,l4 ,,murray4 ,rudolf ,eucken4 ,by ,w4 ,,tudor-,,jones4 ,epicurus4 ,by ,professor ,a4 ,e4 ,,taylor4 ,william ,james4 ,by ,,howard ,v4 ,,knox4 ,,the ,,psychological ,,origin ,,and ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,religion ,by ,,james ,h4 ,,leuba ,,bryn ,,mawr ,,college1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,london ,,constable ,,company ,,ltd #aj ,,and #ab ,,orange ,,street ,,leicester ,,square ,w4,c4#b #aiba ,,preface ,this little book1 the last of a series of similar volumes each containing an exposition by a recognised authority of one of the many ,religions the world has known1 might have been put with as much propriety at the head of the series1 there to show how ,religion originated in the mind of man1 what mental powers it presupposes1 what is its nature and what its relation to the non-religious life4 ,but one is1 no doubt1 better able to take up profitably these problems after having familiarised oneself with the several aspects of religious life4 ,therefore ,the ,psychological ,origin and the ,nature of ,religion was placed at the end1 where it fulfils the additional purpose of linking the concluded series of ,histories of ,religions with a cognate one1 now being prepared by the same publishers1 on ,ancient and ,modern ,systems of ,philosophy4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,fundamental ,,nature ,,of ,,religion1 #a ,,ii4 ,,three ,,types ,,of ,,behaviour ,,differentiated1 #aa ,,iii4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,ideas ,,of ,,ghosts1 ,,nature-,,beings1 ,,and ,,gods1 #ci ,,iv4 ,,magic ,,and ,,religion1 #dh ,magic classified1 #di ,two ,theses maintained3 7#a7 the probable priority of ,magic2 7#b7 the independence of ,religion from ,magic1 #ec ,magic and ,religion combine1 but never fuse1 #fe ,what did ,magic contribute to the making of ,religion8 #fh ,magic and the ,origin of ,science1 #gd ,v4 ,,the ,,original ,,emotion ,,of ,,primitive ,,religious ,,life1 #hj ,,vi4 ,,concluding ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,the ,,function ,,of ,,religion1 #hg ,,the ,,psychological ,,origin ,,and ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,religion ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,fundamental ,,nature ,,of ,,religion ,the opinions advanced in this essay and the arguments with which they are supported will be more readily appreciated if the fundamental nature of ,religion is set forth in a few introductory pages4 ,the students of ,religion have usually been content to describe it either in intellectual or in affective terms4 ',this particular idea or belief1' or 'this particular feeling or emotion1' is1 they have said1 'the essence' or the 'vital element' of ,religion4 ,so that most of the hundreds of definitions which have been proposed fall into two classes4 ,we have1 on the one hand1 the definitions of ,spencer1 ,max ,mueller1 ,romanes1 ,goblet d',alviella1 and others1 for whom ,religion is 'the recognition of a mystery pressing for interpretation1' or 'a department of thought1' or 'a belief in superhuman beings'2 and1 on the other1 the formulas of ,schleiermacher1 the ,ritschlian theologians1 ,tiele1 etc41 who hold that ,religion is 'a feeling of absolute dependence upon ,god1' or 'that pure and reverential disposition or frame of mind we call piety4' ,according to ,tiele1 'the essence of piety1 and1 therefore1 the essence of ,religion1 is adoration4' ,the recent advance of psychological science and the increasingly careful and minute work of ethnographists have tended to discredit these one-sided conceptions4 ,to-day it has become customary to admit that 'in ,religion all sides of the personality participate4 ,will1 feeling1 and intelligence are necessary and inseparable constituents of ,religion4' ,but statements such as this one do not necessarily imply a correct understanding of the functional relation of the three aspects of psychic life4 ,one may be acquainted with the three branches of government--legislative1 executive1 and judicial--and nevertheless grossly misunderstand their respective functions4 ,pfleiderer1 for instance1 hastens to add to the sentences last quoted1 ',of course we must recognise that knowing and willing are here in religion not ends in themselves1 as in science and in morality1 but rather subordinate to feeling as the real centre of religious consciousness4' ,thus feeling reappears as the real centre of religious consciousness4 ,what the author may well have meant here by 'centre1' ,i do not know4 ,a similar criticism is applicable to ,max ,mueller and to ,guyau4 ,the latter begins promisingly with a criticism of the one-sided formulas of ,schleiermacher and of ,feuerbach1 and declares that they should be combined4 ',the religious sentiment1' says he1 is 'primarily no doubt a feeling of dependence4 ,but this feeling of dependence really to give birth to ,religion must provoke in one a reaction--a desire for deliverance4' ,very good1 indeed6 ,but1 on proceeding1 the reader discovers that the opinion the book defends is that ',religion is the outcome of an effort to explain all things--physical1 metaphysical1 and moral--by analogies drawn from human society1 imaginatively and symbolically considered4 ,in short1 it is a universal1 sociological hypothesis1 mythical in form4'#a ,what is this but once more the intellectualistic position8 ,religion arising from an effort to explain2 ,religion an hypothesis6 ,it is ,herbert ,spencer over again with an additional statement concerning the way in which man attempts to explain 'the mystery pressing for interpretation4' ,it must be admitted1 however1 that several of the more recent definitions have completely broken with this bad psychology4 ,among these are those of ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 of ,a4 ,sabatier1 and of ,william ,james4 ,the first understands by ,religion 'propitiation1 or conciliation of powers superior to man1 which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life4'#b ,for ,a4 ,sabatier1 ,religion 'is a commerce1 a conscious and willed relation into which the soul in distress enters with the mysterious power on which it feels that it and its destiny depend4'#c ,william ,james expresses his mind thus3 ',in broadest and most general terms possible1 one might say that religious life consists in the belief that there is an unseen order1 and that our supreme good lies in harmoniously adjusting ourselves thereto4 ,this belief and this adjustment are the religious attitude of the soul4 ,in the ordinary sense of the word1 however1 no attitude is accounted religious unless it be grave and serious2 the trifling1 sneering attitude of a ,voltaire must be thrown out if we would not strain the ordinary use of language4 ,moreover1 there must be something solemn1 serious1 and tender about any attitude which we denominate ,religion4 ,if glad1 it must not grin or snigger2 if sad1 it must not scream or curse4 ,the sallies of a ,schopenhauer and a ,nietzsche lack the purgatorial note which religious sadness gives forth4 ,and finally we must exclude also the chilling reflections of ,marcus ,aurelius on the eternal reason1 as well as the passionate outcry of ,job4'#d ,but the battle against intellectualistic and affectivistic conceptions of ,religion is not yet won4 ,the recent definitions of ,tiele and of ,kaftan show only too clearly how strong the tendency remains to identify ,religion with some feeling or emotion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as the amazing discrepancies and contradictions offered by authorised definitions of ,religion arise1 in my opinion1 primarily from a faulty psychology1 a moment may profitably be devoted to an untechnical statement of the present teaching of that science upon the relation existing between the three acknowledged modes of consciousness--willing1 feeling1 and thinking4 ,aristotle characterised man as thinking-desire4 ,in swinging back from ,intellectualism to ,voluntarism1 modern psychology has accepted the fundamental truth excellently expressed by the ,greek philosopher4 ',will is not merely a function which sometimes accrues to consciousness1 and is sometimes lacking2 it is an integral property of consciousness4'#e ,will without intelligence may be possible2 but intelligence without will is not1 not even in the case of so-called disinterested1 theoretical thinking4 ,there is1 there can be1 no thinking without desire1 intention1 or purpose4 ',the one thing that stands out1' says1 for instance1 ,professor ,dewey1 'is that thinking is inquiry1 and that knowledge as science is the outcome of systematically directed inquiry4' ,thought absolutely undirected would be not even a dream--mere meaningless1 chaotic atoms of thought4 ,it is the intention1 the purpose1 which makes thought what it is2 that is to say1 significant4 ,we think because we will4 ,thought does not exist for itself2 it is the instrument of desire4 ,to discover ways and means of gratifying proximate or distant desires1 needs1 cravings1 is the function of intelligence4 ,the psychologist speaks1 therefore1 of the instrumental character of thought1 and considers cognition to be a function of conduct4 ,the mastery of desire over thought is abundantly illustrated in the history of belief1 and nowhere so strikingly as in ,religion4 ,with regard to the relation of feeling to the will and to the intellect1 it is to be observed that where there is desire for an object1 there liking is present2 and1 conversely1 where there is liking1 there actual or potential desire is felt4 ,as to sentiments and emotions1 they involve ideas and conative elements in addition to sensations and feelings4 ,an emotion is a reaction1 the response of an organism to a situation4 ,it is a form of action4 ,aristotle's characterisation of man is thus seen to be adequate2 it does not leave out the feelings1 as it might seem at first4 ,thinking-desire includes the affection since it is included in desire4 ,every pulse of consciousness is psychically compounded of will1 feeling1 and thought4 ,successive moments can differ one from the other neither in the absence of one or two of these three constituents1 nor in the essential relation they bear to one another--that is fixed and unchangeable--but only in the intensity and vividness of their respective components4 ,this1 then1 is the double teaching of psychology in this matter3--7#a7 ,will1 feeling1 and thought enter in some degree into every moment of consciousness which can be looked upon as an actuality1 and not merely as an abstraction2 they are necessary constituents of consciousness4 ,the unit of conscious life is neither thought1 nor feeling1 nor will1 but all three in movement towards an object4 7#b7 ,the will is primal2 or1 in other words1 conscious life is always oriented towards something to be secured or avoided immediately or ultimately4 ,if1 with this conception in mind1 we turn to ,religion1 we shall understand it to be compounded of will1 thought1 and feeling1 bearing to each other the relation which belongs to them in every department of life4 ,and it will1 moreover1 be clear that a purpose or an ideal1 i4e4 something to be attained or maintained1 must always be at the root of it4 ,the outcome of the application of current psychological teaching to religious life is1 then1 to lead us to regard ,religion as a particular kind of activity1 as a mode or type of behaviour1 and to make it as impossible for us to identify it with a particular emotion or with a particular belief1 as it would be to identify1 let us say1 family life with affection1 or to define trade as 'belief in the productivity of exchange'2 or commerce as 'greed touched with a feeling of dependence upon society4' ,and yet this last definition is no less informing and adequate than the far-famed formula of ,matthew ,arnold1 which ,i forbear to repeat4 ,we shall1 however1 have to remember that ,religion is multiform1 and that certain ideas1 emotions1 and purposes appear in it prominently at certain moments1 and other ideas1 emotions1 and purposes at other times4 ,but neither prominence nor predominance is synonymous with 'essence' or with 'vital element4' ,i do not intend1 at this stage of our inquiry1 to offer a complete definition of ,religion4 ,but ,i must guard against a possible misinterpretation4 ,in speaking of ,religion as an activity1 or as a type of behaviour1 ,i would not be understood to exclude from it whatever does not express itself in overt acts1 in rites of propitiation1 submission1 or adoration4 ,for1 just as man's relations with his fellow-men are not all directly expressed1 or expressible1 in actions1 so his relations with gods1 or their impersonal substitutes1 may not have any visible form2 they may remain purely subjective and none the less exercise a definite guiding and inspiring influence over his life4 ,the adjectives passive and active might be used to separate amorphous from organised ,religion1 i4e4 the feeling-attitude from the behaviour4 ',passive1' used in this connection1 would mean simply that the person does not actively seek those advantages the gods might procure1 but is content to be acted upon by them4 ,unorganised religiosity must be1 it seems1 the necessary precursor of organised ,religion2 it is its larval stage4 ,but it does not by any means disappear from society when a system of definite relations with gods1 or with impersonal sources of religious inspiration1 has been developed4 ,in all societies there is always a large number of people who live in the limbo of organised ,religion4 ,they are open to the influence of religious agents1 in which they believe more or less cold-heartedly1 without ever entering into definite and fixed relations with them4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,three ,,types ,,of ,,behaviour ,,differentiated ,in his dealings with the different kinds of objects or forces with which he is1 or thinks himself1 in relation1 man has developed three distinct types of behaviour4 ,a concrete illustration will bring them before us more forcibly than an abstract characterisation4 ,a stoker in the hold of a ship1 throwing coal into the furnace1 represents one of them4 ,his purpose is to produce propelling energy4 ,the amount of coal he shovels in1 together with the air-draught1 the condition of the boiler and other factors of the same sort1 determine1 as he understands the matter1 the velocity of the ship4 ,the same man1 playing cards of an evening1 and having lost uninterruptedly for a long time1 might get up and walk round the table backwards in order to change his luck4 ,he would then illustrate a second mode of behaviour4 ,if a storm threatens to sink the ship1 our stoker might be seen falling on his knees1 lifting his hands to heaven1 and addressing in passionate words an invisible being4 ,these are the three differentiated kinds of responses he has learned to make1 the three ways by which he endeavours to make use of the forces about him in his struggle for the preservation and the enrichment of life4 ,we may designate them as-- #a4 ,the mechanical behaviour4 #b4 ,the coercitive behaviour1 or ,magic4 #c4 ,the anthropopathic behaviour1 which includes ,religion4 ,the mechanical behaviour differs from the anthropopathic by the absence of any reference to personal beings4 ,in the sphere in which it obtains1 threats and presents are equally ineffective4 ,it implies instead the practical--not the theoretical--recognition of a fairly definite and constant quantitative relation between cause and effect4 ,if science is to be provided with an ancestor1 and only with one1 it should be this first type of behaviour rather than ,magic4 ,for1 the moment the existence of the fixed quantitative relations1 implicitly acknowledged in the first type of behaviour1 is explicitly recognised1 science is born4 ,magic separates itself1 on the one hand1 from the mechanical behaviour by the absence of implied quantitative relations1 and1 on the other hand1 from anthropopathic behaviour by the failure to use means of personal influence2 punishment and reward are just as foreign to ,magic as to mechanical behaviour4 ,as to the anthropopathic type of activity1 it includes the ordinary relations of men with men as well as those with gods4 ,one's frame of mind and behaviour when dealing with a human person1 especially if exalted far above us1 resembles ,religion so closely that it is proper to place them in the same class4 ,mechanical behaviour and ,religion are1 obviously1 by far the most common and important modes of activity among civilised peoples1 whereas in primitive culture the coercitive behaviour 7,magic7 is everywhere in evidence and ,religion may be practically unknown4 ,as one ascends from the lowest stages of culture1 ,magic gradually loses official recognition4 ,among us1 though it leads only a surreptitious existence1 it has by no means lost all influence4 ,the list of magical superstitions that have retained a hold among us would be found tediously long4 ,a numerous class of them includes the gambler's methods of securing luck4 ,so-called 'religious' practices may really be magical4 ,the cross1 the rosary1 relics1 and other accessories of ,religion1 acquire in the mind of many ,christians a power of the coercitive type2 that is1 for instance1 the case when the sign of the cross1 of itself1 without the mediation of ,god or ,saint1 is felt to have power2 or when 'saying one's beads' is held to possess a curative virtue of the kind ascribed to sacred relics by the superstitious4 ,even when the symbolism of the sign of the cross1 and the meaning of the ,ave ,maria are realised1 it happens not infrequently that signing oneself and saying one's beads are regarded as acting upon the ,virgin ,mary1 ,jesus ,christ1 or ,god1 in the manner of an incantation i4e4 magically4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been the habit of most students of the origin of ,religion to concern themselves exclusively with the origin of the god-idea1 as if belief in the existence of gods was identical with ,religion4 ,they have ignored its other essential components3 the motives or desires and the feelings1 as well as the means by which1 in ,religion1 the gratification of desire is sought4 ,but the limitation of the problem of origin to that of the god-idea is not entirely amiss4 ,for there are neither specifically religious motives1 nor specifically religious feelings4 ,any and every human need and longing may1 at some stage or other1 become a spring of ,religion1 and conversely the feelings and emotions met with in any form of ,religion appear also in non-religious experience4 ,as to the practical means of securing the favour of the gods1 it is agreed that they were at the beginning essentially the same as those men were already in the habit of using in their relations with their fellow-men4 ,it is the ,agent or the ,power with which man thinks himself in relation1 and through whom he endeavours to secure the gratification of his desires1 which alone is distinctive of religious life4 ,and so the origin of the idea of gods1 though not identical with the origin of ,religion1 is at any rate its central problem4 ,in the preceding remarks1 as also in practically all writings on the origin of ,religion1 it is assumed that the god-concept precedes1 in the mind of man1 the establishment of ,religion4 ,this opinion is1 as we shall see1 the correct one4 ,but it cannot be taken as a matter of course4 ,actions may become established in other ways4 ,our first problem is to discover how ,religion arose1 and what psychological capacities and conceptions it implies4 ,a comparative study of the three modes of behaviour is1 after all1 the shortest way of gaining a satisfactory understanding of the origin of ,religion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what are the abstract conceptions necessary to the establishment of the three modes of behaviour8--,there is usually little difficulty in determining what end any particular action is intended to secure4 ,it is quite otherwise if one wishes to ascertain the nature of the power from which the desired effect is supposed to proceed4 ,the philosopher1 suffering from the illusion to which his class is subject1 is in danger of imagining the presence of highly abstract notions where much simpler mental processes actually take place4 ,a comparatively easy way of getting oneself disentangled from these high-flown interpretations and of ascertaining what is the intellectual minimum really involved in these types of behaviour1 is to examine them in the least developed men known to us1 or1 better still--if they are to be found there--among animals4 ,let us accordingly turn for a moment to animal behaviour with the intention of determining what ideas of power1 or of agency1 are involved in their modes of action1 and thus take a preliminary step towards the solution of our problem4 ,apes1 dogs1 beavers1 in fact all the higher animals1 show by their behaviour a 'working understanding' of the more common physical forces4 ,they estimate weight1 resistance1 heat1 distance1 etc41 and adapt their actions more or less exactly to these factors when climbing1 swinging at the end of boughs1 breaking1 carrying1 etc4 ,i remember observing a chimpanzee trying to recover a stick which had fallen through the bars of his cage and rolled beyond the reach of his arm4 ,he looked around1 walked deliberately to the corner of the cage1 picked up a piece of burlap1 and threw the end of it over the stick4 ,then1 pulling gently1 he made the stick roll until near enough for him to get hold of it with his hand4 ,this ape dealt successfully with physical forces4 ,towards animals and men1 animal behaviour is quite different4 ,a dog will beg from a man2 he will not beg from a ham suspended out of his reach4 ,towards animals and men1 animal behaviour is similar to that of men when dealing with invisible anthropopathic beings4 ,one may well believe that the inner experiences of animals differ in these modes of behaviour as much as their external movements4 ,the feelings and emotions which appear in a dog's intercourse with his master are of the same species1 if not of the same variety1 as those felt by man when he deals with his fellow-men and with superhuman beings4 ,certain highly gifted animals feel blame and approbation1 independently of physical punishment or reward1 and attach themselves to their masters with a devoted affection possessing all the marks of altruism4 ,the higher animals do1 then1 without any doubt1 practise both the mechanical and the anthropopathic types of behaviour1 but they exercise the latter only towards actually present persons or animals4 ,we shall have to consider subsequently the significant psychological difference to which this fact points4 ,but1 is there no trace in animal life of the coercitive behaviour8 ,i know of none1 though some perplexity might be caused by certain reactions animals learn under the tuition of man4 ,what shall be said1 for instance1 of a dog who has learned to raise its forepaws when he wishes to be liberated from confinement under circumstances making the person causing the door to open invisible to him8 ,is this magical behaviour8 ,there is certainly no quantitative nor any qualitative relation between lifting up the forepaws and the opening of a door1 neither is there any visible continuity between cause and effect4 ,that the dog's action is not determined1 in this instance1 in the same way as that of a magician1 appears when it is observed that whereas the latter would perform the same magical rite in a great variety of external circumstances1 the dog will seek liberation by lifting its paws only when in the particular cage in which he has learned the trick1 or in one very much like it4#f ,but more about this presently4 ,it is not to be overlooked that without the interference of man1 the dog would never have learned to perform this quasi-magical trick4 ,this illustration serves1 if no other purpose1 at least to indicate how apparently slight is the impediment which prevents the higher animals from setting up a magical art4 ,it may be a matter for astonishment that two complicated and effective modes of reaction are arrived at by animals in the absence of abstract ideas about forces4 ,yet so it is2 before any speculation on power1 before any induction or deduction1 before any abstract notion of the nature of spirit and matter1 animals have learned to deal quite well with what we call physical and personal forces4 ,how did they do it8 ,the study under experimental conditions of the establishment of new reactions in animals reveals the process very clearly4 ,imagine a cat shut up in a cage1 the door of which can be opened by pressing down a latch4 ,when weary of confinement the cat begins to claw1 pull1 and bite1 here1 there1 and everywhere4 ,after half an hour1 or an hour of this purposive1 but unreasoned1 activity1 he chances to put his paw upon the latch and escapes4 ,if again put into the cage1 he does not seem to know any better than before how to proceed4 ,yet something has been gained by the first experience4 ,for now he directs his clawing1 pulling1 and biting more frequently towards the part of the cage occupied by the latch4 ,because of this improvement he finds himself released sooner than the first time4 ,the repetition of the experiment shows the cat learning to bring his movements to bear more and more exclusively upon the door or its immediate surroundings4 ,ultimately he will have learned to make just the necessary movement and no other4 ,in this gradual exclusion of useless movements1 the cat is guided entirely by results4 ,the psycho-physiological endowment required for acquisitions of this kind involves no abstract ideas but only 7#a7 the desire to escape2 7#b7 the impulse and ability to perform the various movements we have named2 7#c7 an indefinite remembrance of the position occupied when success was achieved1 combined with a tendency to repeat the same movements when in the same situation4 ,the method illustrated above by which animals learn to deal with forces in the midst of which they live has a much wider range of application in human existence than is generally supposed4 ,man's fundamental mode of learning is also the unreflective1 experimental1 one in which frequent blind attempts and chance successes slowly lead to the elimination of ineffective movements4 ,would you convince yourself of the vastly exaggerated role ascribed to abstract ideas and to logical processes in ordinary human behaviour1 inquire how 'power' is conceived of by those who use it4 ,what is in the mind of the stoker when he thinks of the power of coal8 ,what in the mind of the gambler when he tries to coerce fate8 ,what in the mind of the necromancer when he summons the shades of spirits8 ,nothing definite beyond a knowledge of what is to be done in order to secure the desired results and the anticipation of these results them selves4 ,the stoker thinks of what he sees and feels3 the coal1 in burning1 gives heat2 the heat makes the water boil2 the steam pushes the piston-rod1 and so forth4 ,each one of the successive links in the chain is vaguely thought of by him as striving to bring about the following one4 ,that is how he understands the coal-power4 ,and what does the ordinary person know1 for instance1 about electricity8 ,simply what is to be done in order to start the dynamo1 light the lamp1 switch the current1 and what the effect will be in each case1 nothing more4 ,the superstitious person1 whether belonging to a primitive tribe or to the ,anglo-,saxon civilisation of the twentieth century1 understands in no other than this practical way the forces he deals with4 ,i remember the delight shown by an elderly lady when a brood of swallows fell down our sitting-room chimney4 ',it will bring luck to the household1' said she4 ,i did my best1 patiently and in several ways1 to ascertain the sort of notion the lady had regarding the nature of the power that was to bring about the fortunate events predicted1 and also to discover her idea of the connection existing between the fall of the swallows and the exertion of the 'power' in our behalf4 ,i had to come to the conclusion that there was no idea whatsoever in her mind beyond those expressed by 'swallows-down-the-chimney' and 'happy-events-coming4' ,these two ideas were in her mind directly associated4 ,when ,i declared my inability to see the causal connection between the two1 she complained of my abnormal critical sense6 ,nothing more than the immediate association of an antecedent with its consequent need be looked for in the mind of most civilised1 superstitious persons1 and1 of course1 nothing more in the mind of a savage4 ,that is sufficient for practical purposes4 ,the words 'matter' and 'spirit' wield a very considerable influence among us2 what do they mean to most of those who use them8 ,physical science ascribes either extension alone1 or extension and weight1 to physical substances4 ,non-material forces are1 then1 according to science1 both spaceless and weightless4 ,i will venture to affirm that not one educated person in a thousand is acquainted with this distinction4 ,most of the few who have known it have forgotten it4 ,so that the words 'matter' and 'spirit' mean different things to the philosopher and to the layman4 ,in the popular mind1 if spirits are not perceptible it is because the senses are not sufficiently acute4 ,spirits are here or there1 diffused over wide areas or concentrated in narrow spaces4 ,the average ,christian1 whatever he may say to the contrary1 is1 theoretically speaking1 a materialist1 and1 ,i might add1 a polytheist4 ,whatever matter and spirit mean to him1 and they certainly have a substantial meaning1 the distinction made by the philosopher is for him non-existent4 ,the following facts may be of some interest in this connection4 ,a few years ago1 in a conversation with a shop-clerk1 ,i happened to mention a lead coffin made hermetic with solder4 ,he was shocked1 and objected to a dead body being shut up in a coffin of that description because it prevented the escape of the soul4 ,this man had had an ordinary grammar-school education4 ,here are two quotations taken from answers of ,american ,college students to questions requesting a description of their idea of ,god4 ,it should be added that the questions were given only to classes which had not yet taken up1 or were just beginning the study of philosophy4 ',god1 to me1 is a being of flesh and blood1 for without this form he would seem unnatural and unsympathetic as our leader4' 7,female1 twenty years old47--',i think of ,god as real1 actual flesh and blood and bones1 something we shall all see with our eyes some day4' 7,male1 twenty-one years old47 ,together with these1 and from the same classes of students1 came a great number of very different answers2 for instance this1 ',god is an impersonal being4444 ,i think of him as the embodiment of natural laws4' ,descartes' conception may serve as a point of comparison3 ',what the soul itself was1 ,i either did not stay to consider1 or1 if ,i did1 ,i imagined that it was something extremely rare and subtle1 like wind or flame1 or ether1 spread through my grosser parts4'#g ,if the philosophical distinction between matter and spirit is not ordinarily made1 these terms express none the less a very definite practical meaning of prime importance3 they mark the difference between forces that are not responsive to psychic influences 7desire and emotion1 ethical and aesthetic considerations7 and those that are4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the trial-and-error method which serves to establish the efficient modes of behaviour observed in animals is so far reaching in its possibilities that one might be tempted to regard it as accounting for the existence of ,magic and of ,religion4 ,were this theory tenable1 the origin of the three modes of human behaviour would have been brought back to one method of learning1 the unreasoning1 trial-and-error method4 ,but even a superficial consideration discovers insuperable obstacles in the way of this enticingly simple explanation1 and compels the admission that magical art and ,religion involve the operation of mental powers not required for the establishment of the mechanical1 and of the non-religious anthropopathic behaviours4 ,the first of the two differences ,i intend to bring out1 is that if a particular action is to be learned by an animal1 the gratification of the actuating desire must follow immediately1 or nearly so1 upon the performance of the successful act1 and be frequently repeated at short intervals2 whereas in man1 as far as ,magic and ,religion are concerned1 the results may follow quite irregularly upon the performance1 often only long after1 and1 not infrequently1 not at all4 ,had not the door opened every time the cat pressed the latch1 but1 let us say1 only once every ten times1 or1 if every time1 one week after the movement1 he would never have learned to make his escape4 ,no more would he have acquired the trick1 had he not been placed in the cage repeatedly and at short intervals4 ,an interesting instance of the gradual undoing of a habit in consequence of the absence of the sensory results for the sake and under the guidance of which the action had been learned1 is reported by ,lloyd ,morgan4#h ,he had brought up in his study a brood of ducks4 ,they had had a bath every morning in a tin tray4 ,after a while1 the tray was placed empty in its accustomed place4 ,the ducks got into it and went through all their ordinary ablutions4 ,the next day1 they again enjoyed the missing water1 but not as long as on the first day4 ,on the third day they gave up the useless practice of bathing in an empty tray4 ,in three days ducklings eliminate a habit which has become useless1 whereas generations after generations of men have gone through innumerable1 time-wasting1 often costly and painful ceremonies for results rarely secured1 and1 as we think1 never directly secured by the magical or the religious ceremonies themselves4 ,there is here a curious point of psychology3 animals establish habits under the guidance of immediate results while man develops the magical art and ,religion despite the usual absence of the results sought after4 ,the very possibility of deceiving himself reveals the superiority of man over animals1 for self-deception requires a degree of independence from sense-observation1 a capacity of constructive imagination1 a susceptibility to auto-suggestion1 not to be found in animals4 ,that the first glimmer of these capacities should have plunged man in the darkness of primitive ,magic and ,religion1 and made him the ridiculous fool he appears to be by the side of the matter-of-fact1 intelligent animal is1 however1 a very striking and singular fact4 ,if the constant and immediate appearance of the desired results does not seem necessary to the establishment of ,magic and ,religion1 it should not be thought1 however1 that these arts are altogether useless4 ,on the contrary1 they are1 even independently of the results at which they aim1 of a most substantial value to the cause of individual and social development4 ,let it be said first1 concerning the expected results1 that they happen more frequently1 perhaps1 than ,i may have seemed to imply4 ,when1 for instance1 the rain ceremonies are performed during a spell of dry weather1 success1 more or less distant1 always crowns the efforts of the magicians3 the rain does come and the earth does bring forth its fruits4 ,the ceremonies for the healing of disease are often followed by the recovery of the patient1 however absurd the treatment may have been4 ,one should not forget1 in this connection1 the considerable effect of suggestion upon the credulous savage4 ,many cures are1 no doubt1 performed in this manner by the medicine-man4 ,davenport1 speaking of tribes of ,puget ,sound1 says3 ',their cure for disease consists in the members of the cult shaking in a circle about a sick person1 dressed in ceremonial costume4 ,the religious practitioner waves a cloth in front of the patient1 with a gentle fanning motion1 and1 blowing at the same time1 proceeds to drive the disease out of the body1 beginning at the feet and working upward4 ,the assistant stands ready to seize the disease with his cloth when it is driven out of the head6 ,and they are able to boast of many real cures4'#i ,a psychologist is not inclined to doubt the report of ,curr1 that among the aborigines of ,victoria persons who knew themselves to have been devoted to destruction with magical ceremonies have pined away and died1#aj nor that of ,howitt1 who1 alluding to the habit of the medicine-men of certain tribes to knock a man insensible in order to remove the kidney fat for magical purposes1 writes1 ',in the ,kurnai tribe men have died believing themselves to have been deprived of their fat4'#aa ,but the intended results form only a part1 and that perhaps not the most important1 of the gains to be credited to the practice of ,magic and of ,religion4 ,the most noteworthy of these unsought by-products are3--7#a7 ,the gratification of the lust for power4 ,the ,magician and the ,priest are mediators between superior1 mysterious powers and their fellow-men4 ,the sense of mastery over1 or communion with1 these powers1 and the respect and fear with which ,magicians and ,priests are regarded1 are1 of themselves1 almost sufficient to keep up these practices47#b7 ,both these modes of behaviour1 but especially ,magic1 appeal to the gambling instinct4 ,all men crave excitement2 the savage is no exception4 ,in the daring game in which the rain-maker or the disease-healer engages1 the high tension of the gambling-table is1 to a certain extent1 present4 7#c7 ,less obvious1 perhaps1 than the preceding advantages1 but not less valuable1 is the general mental stimulation induced by ,magic and ,religion4 ,magic is the great social play of the savage4 ,if animal plays serve a highly valuable purpose in affording practice in sense-observation and motor-co-ordination1 ,magic makes its chief call upon the imagination2 in this consists one of its most far-reaching values4 ,it becomes a training for the achievement of those higher mental syntheses requiring the momentary disregard of the actual sense-impressions1 from which it is so difficult to liberate oneself1 in behalf of the accumulated experience of a whole life4 ,the second objection to the assumption that the trial-and-error method could have led to the establishment of magical and religious habits arises from the inability of animals to act towards unperceived objects as if they were actually present4 ,a dog never welcomes by gambols or licks the hand of an absent friend1 while ,religion1 and at times ,magic1 show primitive man in more or less systematic relations with powers he has never sensed4 ,when the ,shaman draws lines upon the sand1 describes various curves with his arms1 utters sundry incantations1 he does not address a power he perceives1 nor even one he has really seen1 although he may believe that he1 or some one else1 has seen it4 ,that animals are moved to action by memories of past perceptions1 is1 of course1 not open to doubt4 ,their whole life is a long testimony to that ability4 ,any one will recall instances of chains of concerted actions indicating clearly1 on the part of some one of the higher animals1 domesticated or wild1 the anticipation of a particular person1 object1 or event4 ,what they never do1 is to behave as if the remembered object was really present1 though not sensed4 ,h4 ,spencer1 discussing adversely ,a4 ,comte's opinion that fetichistic conceptions are formed by the higher animals1 relates the following observation concerning a retriever who had learned for herself to perform an 'act of propitiation4' ,she had associated the fetching of game with the pleasure of the person to whom she brought it1 and so1 'after wagging her tail and grinning1 she would perform this act of propitiation as nearly as practicable in the absence of a dead bird4 ,seeking about1 she would pick up a dead leaf1 a bit of paper1 a twig1 or other small object1 and would bring it with renewed manifestations of friendliness4 ,some kindred state of mind it is which1 ,i believe1 prompts the savage to certain fetichistic observances4'#ab ,so far the dog could go1 but she could not have imagined the presence of an unseen being and behaved towards him in the same manner4 ,another significant point is that the absent objects towards which animals may direct their actions are always1 so far as one may judge1 identical with those actually sensed by them at some time1 i4e4 their behaviour never shows that they have transformed1 imaginatively1 objects with which their senses have made them familiar4 ,whereas man can not only believe in the presence of unseen objects1 but he can also imagine beings never actually sensed by him1 and behave towards them according to the traits and capacities with which he has endowed them4 ,there are observations on record which compel the qualification of the assertion1 ,i may have seemed to make in the preceding paragraph1 of a clean break between man and animals4 ,certain dogs are thrown into paroxysms of fear by peals of thunder1 and run into hiding4 ,darwin relates how his dog1 'full grown and very sensible1' growled fiercely and barked whenever an open parasol standing at some distance was moved by a slight breeze4 ,he is of the opinion that the dog 'must have reasoned to himself1 in a rapid and unconscious manner1 that movement without any apparent cause indicated the presence of some strange living agent1 and that no stranger had a right to be on his territory4'#ac ,romanes1 in a short and interesting paper entitled ',fetichism in ,animals1'#ad after reporting the preceding illustration1 relates this observation touching a remarkably 'intelligent1' 'pugnacious1' and 'courageous' dog4 ',the terrier ,skye in question1 like many other dogs1 used to play with dry bones1 by tossing them in the air1 throwing them to a distance1 and generally giving them the appearance of animation1 in order to give himself the ideal pleasure of worrying them4 ,on one occasion1 therefore1 ,i tied a long and fine thread to a dry bone1 and gave him the latter to play with4 ,after he had tossed it about for a short time1 ,i took an opportunity1 when it had fallen at a distance from him1 and while he was following it up1 of gently drawing it away from him by means of the long and invisible thread4 ,instantly his whole demeanour changed4 ,the bone which he had previously pretended to be alive1 now began to look as if it really were alive1 and his astonishment knew no bounds4 ,he first approached it with nervous caution as ,mr4 ,spencer describes1 but as the slow receding motion continued1 and he became quite certain that the movement could not be accounted for by any residuum of the force which he had himself communicated1 his astonishment developed into dread1 and he ran to conceal himself under some articles of furniture1 there to behold at a distance the uncanny spectacle of a dry bone coming to life4' ,certain instances of instinctive fear of harmless things may help to interpret the preceding observations4 ,g4 ,stanley ,hall mentions a little girl who would scream when she saw feathers floating through the air4 ,to keep another child in a room1 it was sufficient to place a feather in the keyhole4#ae ,shall we hold that these animals interpreted the unusual experiences reported above as the work of hidden beings of the kind known to them1 or shall we agree rather with ,lloyd ,morgan1 ,romanes1 ,spencer1 and others1 in thinking that their behaviour indicated merely surprise1 astonishment1 and fear at the unexpected movements of familiar objects8 ,that explanation is probably sufficient4 ,the failure of an object to fit in with the psycho-physiological attitude of expectation which past experience has taught us to assume brings about the sudden disturbance called surprise1 astonishment1 or fear4 ,it is in substance what would happen to any person if1 on opening his bed in the dark1 his hands came in contact with some object concealed in it4 ,personalisation of the unexpected object is not necessary to cause fright4 ,and yet1 who shall say that in none of these instances is there anything corresponding to the anthropomorphic interpretation of natural event so common among men of low culture8 ,does not the growling of ,darwin's dog indicate as much8 ,it would seem to me an unjustifiably dogmatic assertion to affirm that no animal can think of thunder as caused by a being like those with which his senses have made him familiar4 ,were he to do so1 he would do as the savage who projects his ordinary notion of animated beings behind inanimate phenomena4 ,creative imagination is not any more required for such an interpretation than for the belief in survival after death when it is suggested by apparitions in dreams or trances4 ,it is quite in point1 at any rate1 to affirm that man and beasts are much nearer to each other1 regarding the possibility of interpreting animistically certain striking natural events1 than most people are willing to admit4 ,the most significant difference between men and animals is not found in the fact that animals may be unable to interpret animistically certain striking natural phenomena--an opinion open to question--but in their inability to fix by means of communicable signs any fleeting animistic interpretation which might chance to cross their mind4 ,without the advantage conferred by speech1 upon even the lowest savages1 to hold1 clarify1 keep alive1 and bring to fruition impressions of this evanescent nature1 ,i do not see how a stable belief in animism could have been established4 ,the decisive role played by language appears forcibly when one considers the part it takes in introducing dream experiences into waking life4 ,the baffling evanescence of dreams caught sight of on awakening is familiar to every one4 ,unless one succeeds in putting them in linguistic form they are soon completely lost2 verbal expression makes them part and parcel of our mental possessions4 ,the mental differences between man and the higher animals to which the presence of ,magic and ,religion is to be referred1 are not in themselves startling1 however considerable their consequences may have been4 ,psychological analysis leaves absolutely no standing ground to those who insist upon interpreting the advent of ,religion as the manifestation of essentially new kinds of powers1 of the birth of a 'spiritual life1' for instance4 ,we hope to have made clear that the use of this term in this connection constitutes a misrepresentation of the facts4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,ideas ,,of ,,ghosts1 ,,nature-,,beings ,,and ,,gods ,every savage tribe known to us has already passed beyond the naturistic stage of development4 ,the living savages believe in ghosts1 in spirits1 and all of them1 perhaps1 also in particular spirits elevated to the dignity of gods4 ,whence these ideas of unseen personal beings8 ,they may be traced to four independent sources4 7#a7 ,states of temporary loss of consciousness--trances1 swoons1 sleep1 etc4--seem in themselves sufficient to suggest to ignorant observers the existence of 'doubles1' i4e4 of beings dwelling within the body1 animating it1 and able to absent themselves from it for a time or permanently4 ,these alleged beings have been called 'ghosts' or 'souls4' ,the belief in a second life of the dead would also spring easily enough from these observations4 7#b7 ,apparitions in sleep1 in the hallucinations of fever1 of insanity1 etc41 of persons still living or dead1 seem also sufficient to lead to a belief in ghosts and in survival after death4 ,these two distinct classes of facts have no doubt co-operated in the production of the belief in ghosts1 so that ,i shall refer to them in the sequel as the double origin of the ghost-belief4 ,echos1 and reflections in water and in polished surfaces may have played a subsidiary role in establishing1 or confirming1 the belief in ghosts and in spirits4 7#c7 ,when discussing animal behaviour1 we saw reasons to admit that a fleeting personification of objects moving in an unusual way might be within the mental possibilities of the higher animals4 ,the third independent source of belief in unseen personal agents is the spontaneous personification of striking natural phenomena1 storms1 tornadoes1 thunder1 sudden spring-vegetation1 etc4 ,the report of ,tanner#af that one night ,picheto 7a ,north ,american ,chief71 becoming much alarmed at the violence of a storm1 got up1 offered some tobacco to the thunder and entreated it to stop1 should not excite surprise even though it should refer to the lowest savage4 ,there is1 of course1 a long way between the sudden1 temporary1 and isolated personification of a natural phenomenon and the stable and generalised belief in the existence of personal agents behind visible nature4 ,what we mean to assert here is merely that the systematised belief can have arisen out of the impulsive and occasional personification of awe-striking and frightening spectacles4 7#d7 ,many persons have observed with surprise the apparition in young children of the problem of creation4 ,a child notices a curiously-shaped stone1 and asks who made it4 ,he is told that it was formed in the stream by the water4 ,then1 suddenly1 he throws out1 in quick succession1 questions that are as much exclamations of astonishment as queries1 ',who made the stream1 who the mountain1 who the earth8' ,the necessity of a ,maker is1 no doubt1 borne in upon the savage at a very early time1 not upon every member of a tribe1 but upon some peculiarly gifted individual1 who imparts to his fellows the awe-striking idea of a mysterious1 all-powerful ,creator4 ,the form under which the ,creator is imagined is1 of course1 derived from the beings with which his senses have made the savage familiar4 ,in what chronological order did the three kinds of unseen beings appear8 ,which was first3 ghosts1 nature-beings1 or creator8 ,our present knowledge does not provide an answer to this query4 ,but this one may venture to affirm3 they need not have appeared in the same order everywhere4 ,it is conceivable that among certain groups of men the idea of a creator first attained clearness and influence1 while elsewhere the idea of ghosts implanted itself before the others4 ,a question of greater importance to the student of the origin of ,religion is that of the lineage of the first god or gods1 i4e4 of the first unseen1 personal agents with whom men entered into relations definite and influential enough to deserve the name ,religion4 ,are they descended from ghosts1 or are they nature-beings1 or creators8 ,i say1 'descended' from ghosts1 for ghosts have not1 originally1 all the qualities required of a divinity4 ,they are at first hardly greater than men1 though somewhat different4 ,they must be magnified and differentiated from human beings if they are to generate the religious attitude4 ,a comparison of the double-source of the ghost-belief with the source of the belief in nature-beings suggests the following remarks4 ,phenomena belonging to classes one and two necessarily lead to a belief in unseen man-like beings4 ,the familiar relation of ghosts with the tribe1 and also the great number of them1 offer a definite resistance to the process of deification4 ,it is otherwise with the personified nature-powers1 for they are not necessarily1 like ghosts1 mere dead men in another life4 ,in conceiving of an agent animating nature1 the imagination is not limited to the thought of a particular human being1 not even of a human being at all4 ,the thunder might be the voice of some monstrous animal4 ,the surpassing variety1 the magnitude and magnificence of nature1 stimulate the imagination into more original activity than the apparitions of men and women in dreams or in trances4 ,for these reasons1 if the choice was between ghosts and nature-beings1 it would be advisable to favour the hypothesis that the first gods were derived from the spontaneous personification of striking natural events4 ,but the idea of a creator must take precedence of ghosts and nature-beings in the making of ,religion1 for a world-creator possesses from the first the greatness necessary to the object of a cult1 and the creature who recognises a creator can hardly fail to feel his relationship to him4 ,a ,maker cannot1 moreover1 be an enemy to those who issue from him1 but must1 it seems1 appear as the ,great ,ancestor1 benevolently inclined towards his offspring4 ,incomparable greatness1 creative power1 benevolence1 are as many attributes favourable to the appearance of a ,religion in the high sense which1 as we shall see1 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith gives to the word4 ,the order in which appeared the three kinds of unseen agents is of considerable importance1 for if1 for instance1 the ghost-belief was first1 it seems unavoidable that ghosts should have been projected into natural objects and used to explain natural phenomena4 ,it is a task for the historian of ,religion to trace the rise of the idea of ,god in its several possible sources1 and to indicate in each particular case the contribution of each source to the making of the earliest gods4 99 99 99 99 99 ,belief in the existence of unseen1 anthropopathic beings is not ,religion4 ,it is only when man enters into relation with them that ,religion comes into existence4 ,the passage from the animistic interpretation of nature1 or from the mere belief in ghosts1 or in a creator1 to ,active ,religion is not to be taken as a matter of course1 for it may require on the one hand1 as we have said1 a transformation of the man-like or animal-like unseen beings1 such as will make entering into relation with them possible and worth while1 and1 on the other1 the invention of ways and means to that end1 or1 at least1 the adaptation of old habits of behaviour to the requirements of the new relation4 ,the slowness with which our modern ritual has been envolved should be sufficient to undeceive any one inclined to think that the establishment of the initial religious rites presented no difficulty4 ,that a belief in ghosts may coincide with only a pre-religious stage of culture is not a mere supposition4 ,there are tribes in ,south-,east ,australia among which it is customary to make fires in the graves1 and to place in them water1 food1 and weapons4 ,yet we are told that these people have no system of propitiation or of worship4 ,it appears probable that in certain instances of this sort1 the only motive of action is benevolence4 ,they wish the ghost to be able to warm himself1 eat1 drink1 and defend himself against enemies4 ,at times1 however1 the promptings of fear are discernible1 as1 for instance1 when the legs of the corpse are broken in order that he may not roam at night4 ,it seems that originally ghosts are not endowed with sufficient mischievous or benevolent power to cause the appearance and the organisation of propitiatory reactions4 ,but even when some particular ghost or spirit has been fabled into awe-striking magnitude1 systematic worship is not necessarily present4 ,how far the deification process can go without bringing with it active relations1 is well shown in the case of the ',father' of the tribes of ,south-,east ,australia4 ,different tribes call him by different names1 ,daramulun1 ,baiame1 etc4 ,howitt tells us that ,daramulun is an anthropomorphic1 supernatural being who used to dwell upon the earth1 but now lives in a land beyond the sky4 ,he can make himself visible1 and then appears in the form of an old man of the ,australian race4 ',he is imagined as the ideal of those qualities which are1 according to their standard1 virtues worthy of being imitated4 ,such would be a man who is skilful in the use of weapons of offence and defence1 all-powerful in magic1 but generous and liberal to his people2 who does no injury nor violence to any one1 yet treats with severity any breaches of custom or of morality4 ,such is1 according to my knowledge of the ,australian tribes1 their ideal of the ,head-man1 and naturally it is that of the ,biamban1 the master of the sky-country4' ,now1 despite their belief in this definite1 powerful1 and benevolent ,father1 'there is not any worship of him'2 but 'the dances round the figure of clay and the invocating of his name by the medicine-men1 certainly might have led up to it4'#ag ,for my part1 ,i see here an instance of what ,i have called ,passive ,religion4 ,the point of special interest to us is that nothing more than these simplest of rites co-exists with the belief in a being so definite and elevated so high above ordinary spirits and above man as is this ,all-,father of the ,australians4 ,it seems highly probable that for generations the relations maintained with ghosts1 nature-beings1 and creators1 by primitive man were too occasional and unofficial to permit of our regarding them as anything more than steps preliminary to the formation of ,positive ,religion4 ,rites and ceremonies serve1 in addition to their ostensible purpose1 to complete the work of fixation begun by language4 ,it is only when a belief has become embodied in a system of actions that it has attained the full measure of reality and durability of which it is capable4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,magic ,,and ,,religion ,in the preceding section1 ,i have compared animal with human behaviour in an attempt to single out the psychological traits whose presence in man accounts for his possession of ,religion and of ,magic4 ,i must now complete the characterisation and the account of the origin of these two higher types of behaviour4 ,the relation obtaining between ,magic and ,religion has been variously understood4 ,most authorities hold that ,magic preceded ,religion1 and that they are in some way genetically related4 ,in the following pages we shall argue in support of two opinions3 7#a7 the primary forms of ,magic probably antedated ,religion2 7#b7 whether ,magic antedated ,religion or not1 ,religion arose independently of ,magic2 they are different in principle and independent in origin4 ,but the word ,magic includes an almost endless number of practices so far quite inadequately classified4 ,we cannot go on without first marking out at least its more prominent groups4 ,and since the common bond of these practices is neither a common purpose 7,magic serves to gratify every kind of desire71 nor a common method 7the magician's methods are literally numberless71 but the non-personal nature of the power pressed into service1 we shall make use of this last element as a means of classification4 ,three groups are thus obtained4 ,magic classified4--,class #a is characterised by the absence of any idea of a power belonging to the operator or his instrument and passing from either one of them to the object of the magical art4 ,to this class belong many instances of so-called sympathetic ,magic2#ah a good many of the taboo customs2 most charms2 the casting of lots1 when a spirit or god is not supposed to guide the cast2 most modern superstitions1 those1 for instance1 regarding ,friday1 the number thirteen1 horse-shoes1 planting when the tide is coming in4 ,in these instances the effect is thought of as following upon the alleged cause1 without the mediation of a force conceived as passing1 let us say1 from the warm arrow to the wound and irritating it4 ,the idea of power is reduced here to its least possible complexity4 ,class #b4 ,a power1 not itself personal1 is supposed to belong to the magician1 to his instrument1 or to particular substances1 and to pass into1 or act upon1 the object4 ,howitt relates how some native ,australians begged him not to carry in a bag containing quartz crystals a tooth1 extracted at an initiation ceremony4 ,they thought that if he did so1 the evil power of the crystals would enter the tooth and so injure the body to which it had belonged4#ai ,the potency of many charms is of this nature1 while others have a fetichistic significance1 i4e4 they involve the action of spirits1 and so do not belong to this class4 ,rubbing oneself with1 or eating the fat1 or another portion1 of a brave and strong man in order to make oneself courageous and powerful1 belongs also to this second class1 together with most instances of contagion-magic4 ,so does1 usually1 the power defined in the following passage and the similar powers believed in and used in other than ,melanesian populations3 ',that invisible power which is believed by the natives to cause all such effects as transcend their conception of the regular course of nature1 and to reside in spiritual beings1 whether in the spiritual part of living men or in the ghosts of the dead1 being imparted to them1 to their names and to various things that belong to them1 such as stones1 snakes1 and indeed objects of all sorts1 is that generally known as mana4444 ,no man1 however1 has this power of his own2 all that he does is done by the aid of personal beings1 ghosts or spirits2 he cannot be said1 as a spirit can1 to be mana himself 444 he can be said to have mana4'#bj ,class #c4 ,perhaps a special class should be made of the cases in which the magician feels as if his will-effort was the efficient factor4 ,this is often true of spells1 of incantations1 and of solemn curses4 ,a man addressing the magical spear1 saying1 ',go straight1 go straight and kill him1' feels no doubt that1 somehow1 by the words in which quivers his whole soul he directs the spear on its errand of death4 ,though ,magic does not make an anthropopathic appeal it may1 and frequently does1 bring to bear its peculiar coercitive virtue upon anthropopathic beings4 ,it aims then at compelling souls1 spirits or gods1 into doing the operator's will1 or in preventing them from doing their own4 ,in necromancy1 spirits are summoned by means of spells and incantations4 ,in old ,egypt the art of dealing coercitively with spirits and gods reached a high development4 ,maspero1 speaking of a strange belief regarding names1 says1 'when the god in a moment of forgetfulness or of kindness had taught them what they wanted the sacred names1 there was nothing left for him but to obey them4'#ba ,at ,eleusis1 it was not the name but the intonation of the voice of the magician which produced the mysterious results4#bb ,but whether ,magic acts upon personal or impersonal objects1 its effective power is ever impersonal4 ,i would not give the impression in this attempt at classification1 that the conceptions of the savage are clear and definite4 ,i hold them to be1 on the contrary1 hazy and fluid4 ,what appears to him impersonal one moment may suddenly assume the characteristics of a spirit4 ,mana1 for instance1 although usually an impersonal force stored into plants1 stones1 animals or men1 assumes at times truly personal traits2 it becomes the god himself4 ,one should not be surprised to meet with cases that fall between rather than in the classes1 for the sharp lines of demarcation it suits us to draw are not often found in nature4 ,and now we return to our two theses4 #a4 ,the ,probable ,priority of ,magic4--,certain historical facts might be held to support the pre-religious origin of ,magic4 ,as one descends from the higher to the lower social levels1 ,religion dwindles and ,magic grows4 ,in the lowest societies of which we have extensive and accurate knowledge1 the ,central ,australian tribes1 ,religion is represented by mere rudiments1 whereas ,magic is everywhere and always in evidence4 ,i have had occasion in a preceding section to quote ,howitt with regard to the slight role played by ,religion among the ,south-,east ,australians4 ,the presence of ,religion in the lives of the tribes inhabiting the central portions of ,australia is still less obvious4 ,frazer reflects the views of ,spencer and ,gillen1 of ,howitt1 and probably of every recent first-hand student of that country1 when he writes3 ',among the aborigines of ,australia1 the rudest savages as to whom we possess accurate information1 ,magic is universally practised1 whereas ,religion1 in the sense of a propitiation or conciliation of the higher powers1 seems to be nearly unknown4 ,roughly speaking1 all men in ,australia are magicians1 but not one is a priest2 everybody fancies he can influence his fellows or the course of nature by sympathetic magic1 but nobody dreams of propitiating gods by prayer and sacrifice4'#bc ,if we may trust our knowledge of other savages1 the general fact thus affirmed of the native ,australians holds good with regard to every other uncivilised tribe4 ,but as the least civilised of existing tribes are far from being 'primitive' in the true sense of the word1 it could be argued that ,magic is1 after all1 the outcome of the corruption of a primitive ,religion1 of which almost nothing remains in the savage tribes of the present day4 ,and so we shall have to rest our case not upon historical evidences1 but upon considerations regarding the psychological nature of ,magic and ,religion1 and upon analogies we may discover between them and certain facts observed in children and in adults of uncivilised races4 ,in his attempt to support the belief in the priority of ,magic1 ,frazer1 who has put every student of ,religion in his debt by his monumental work1 affirms its greater simplicity when compared with ,religion4 ,the opinion itself is tenable1 but the defence of it1 made as it is from the standpoint of the old ,english associationism1 is unfortunately worthless4 ',magic1' he tells us1 'is nothing but a mistaken application of the very simplest and most elementary process of the mind1 namely1 the association of ideas by virtue of resemblance or contiguity1' while ',religion assumes the operation of conscious or personal agents1 superior to man1 behind the visible screen of nature4 ,obviously the concept of personal agent is more complex than a simple recognition of the similarity or contiguity of ideas4444 ,the very beasts associate the ideas of things that are like each other or that have been found together in their experience4444 ,but who attributes to the animals a belief that the phenomena are worked by a multitude of invisible animals or by one enormous and prodigiously strong animal behind the scenes8'#bd ,it is undoubtedly true that the mind of man tends to pass from an object to others like it1 or experienced at the same time1 but this psychological fact does not in itself account for ,magic4 ,the mind of animals is regulated in a similar manner4 ,in spring-time the sight of a feather makes the bird think of nest-building1 and the smell and sight of his master's coat brings the master to the dog's mind4 ,yet animals do not practise the magical art4 ,this fact should be sufficient to make one realise the insufficiency of 'a simple mistaken recognition of the similarity and contiguity of ideas' as an explanation of the origin of ,magic4 ,an animal might observe the colour-likeness between carrots and jaundice 7not1 however1 unless practical dealings with them had attracted his attention to the colour71 and 'coat' and 'master' might follow each other in a dog's mind4 ,but in order to treat the coat as he would the master1 and in order to eat carrots or give them to be eaten for the cure of jaundice1 there is required1 in addition to the association1 the belief that whatever is done to the coat will be suffered by the master1 and that the eating of carrots will cure the disease4 ,it is the existence of these ideas with their motor and affective values and of their dynamic connection which makes ,magic possible in beings subject to the laws of association4 ,this fundamental difference between mere association of ideas and the essential mental processes involved in ,magic1 ,frazer has completely overlooked4 ,the difference may be further illustrated by the instance of a dog biting in a rage the stick with which he is being beaten4 ,he is indeed doing to the stick what he would like to do to the man4 ,but in attacking the stick he does not conceive that1 although the stick is not the man1 the injury done to it will hurt the man4 ,his action is blindly impulsive1 while the form of ,magic in question involves generalisations and other mental processes not expressed by the laws of association4#be ,if magical actions cannot be deduced from the principle of association1 they can at least be classified according to the kind of association they illustrate4 ,for1 although the various ideas brought together in ,magic1 in a relation of cause and effect1 are frequently said to have come together by 'chance1' some of the conditions under which they have in fact become connected are expressed in the universal laws of association1 namely1 association by similarity or contrast1 by contiguity or spatial opposition1 and by emotional congruity or disparity4 ,whenever magical acts have been classified1 it has been according to the principle of association4#bf ,but every kind of activity involving mental operations falls in some of its relations under the laws of association1 hence the relative unfruitfulness of these classifications1 hence also our attempt at grouping magical practices according to a factor of greater significance1 namely1 the nature of the power they involve4 #b4 ,the ,independence of ,religion from ,magic4--,the following psychological arguments appear to me to go a long way towards proving that magical behaviour has had an origin independent of the animistic#bg belief1 and that some of its forms1 at least1 antedated it1 and therefore also ,religion3-- 7a7 ,the absorbing interest found by young children in the use of things1 and their complete indifference at first to the modus operandi1 point1 it would seem1 to a stage in human development at which the explanation of things is not yet desired4 ,it is well known that long before a child asks 'how8' he wearies his guardians with the question1 'what for8'#bh ,he wants to know what things are good for1 and1 in particular1 what he can do with them before he cares for an understanding of their origin1 and of their mechanism4 ,this keen interest in the production of results1 this curiosity about the practical meaning of things1 is apparently quite independent of any abstract idea of power4 ,since the child passes through a pre-interpretative stage1 may we not admit a corresponding period in racial development during which no explanatory soul-theory1 no animistic philosophy1 is entertained8 ,a mental attitude such as this would make ,religion impossible1 while it would provide the essential condition for a ,magic of our first class4 7b7 ,children--and adult savages resemble children in many respects--like to amuse themselves by setting up prohibitions and backing them up with threats of punishment4 ',if you do this1' they will say1 'that will happen to you4' ,the 'this' and the 'that' have usually no logical connection with each other1 neither is there in the mind of the child any thought of a particular kind of power1 or agent1 meting out the punishment4 ,this kind of play is strikingly similar to a large number of magical practices4 ,can it not be regarded as the prototype of most taboo customs8 ,in taboo there is usually no logical and no qualitative relation between the prohibition and the punishment4 ,neither is there1 ordinarily1 any notion of a particular agent carrying out the threat4 ,it involves1 it seems1 nothing more than the assumption of a causal connection between two facts brought together by 'chance' association under the pressure of a desire for food or success at war1 or for the enforcement of a rule of conduct4#bi ,the punishment announced is anything on the efficacy of which one may choose to rely4 ,in ,madagascar conjugal fidelity is enforced by the threat that the betrayed husband will be killed or wounded in the war2 among the indigenous tribes of ,sarawak1 the belief is that the camphor obtained by the men in the jungle will evaporate if the women are unfaithful during the absence of their husbands1 while in ,east ,africa1 the husband would1 in the same eventuality1 be killed or hurt by the elephant he is hunting4#cj ,the high sanction which the requirements of social life give to beliefs of this sort is readily understood4 7c7 ,it is a fact of common observation that in passionate moments1 men of every degree of culture act1 in the absence of the object of their passion1 more or less as if it was present4 ,a man grinds his teeth1 shakes his fist1 growls at the absent enemy2 a mother presses to her breast and talks fondly to the departed babe4 ,the pent-up motor tendencies must find an outlet4 ,to restrain every external sign of one's desires or intentions when under great emotional excitement is unendurable pain4 ,by the sick-bed of one beloved1 one must do something1 however useless to him4 ,who shall say that we do not have in this natural tendency the origin of the large class of magical acts represented by sticking pins into1 or burning1 an effigy8 ,the less a person is under the control of reason1 the more likely is he1 not only to yield to promptings of this order1 but also to be seduced by his wish into a belief in their efficacy4 ,if any one finds it difficult to admit that the savage can so easily be deceived1 ,i would direct his attention to the well-known instances of children's self-deceptions4 ,most of them behave1 at a certain age1 as if their dolls were alive and1 to all appearances1 there are some moments when they think so4 ,what they think at other moments is another matter4 ,we need not suppose that the savage cannot take1 at times1 a critical attitude and perhaps undeceive himself4 ,it is sufficient that at other moments1 when under the pressure of needs or in the excitement accompanying ceremonies of considerable social significance or of much personal importance1 he should be able to assume the attitude of the believer4 ,the behaviour of certain mentally deranged persons throws some light on this point4 ,such a person may believe that his hands are always dirty and be constantly washing them4 ,if reasoned with1 he may perhaps be convinced that they cannot be dirty4 ,yet a few seconds later he will exclaim1 ',but ,i feel they are dirty1' and return to the wash-basin4 ,the savage is under the control of his impulses and feelings to a degree approaching that of the person instanced4 ,in this connection1 the effect of repetition1 and of the tribal sanction obtained by magical customs1 should not be overlooked4 ,they tend to make doubt and criticism next to impossible4 ,what need is there in cases of this kind to introduce a middle term between the actions of the magician and their expected effect8 ,none whatsoever4 ,the thought of an efficient agent or power passing out of the magician or of his instrument to work upon the victim is no necessary part of this type of ,magic4 7d7 ,the belief at the root of a great variety of magical practices1 that 'like' produces 'like1' may have arisen in still other ways than the one just indicated4 ,nothing is more common than the invisible passage of things1 be they heat1 cold1 light1 thunderbolt1 odours1 diseases1 etc41 from one person or object to another1 either by contact or through space4 ,the frequent instances of diseases spreading by infection among men1 animals1 and vegetables1 seem in themselves sufficient to suggest the belief that 'like' produces 'like4' ,the idea of contagion must have appeared very early indeed4 ,now1 as the savage is quite unable to distinguish between the different agencies involved in the variety of experiences of this sort1 he cannot draw the line between the 'likes' that really produce 'likes' and those that do not2 hence his very strange expectations4 ,this class of ,magic also is independent of the conception of an agent effecting the connection between the objects related as cause and effect4 ,since ,tylor wrote his memorable work1 the doctrine of animism has become classical4 ,this passage from ,primitive ,culture1#ca ',what men's eyes behold is but the instrument to be used1 or the material to be shaped1 while behind it there stands some prodigious but half-human creature1 who grasps it with his hands or blows it with his breath1' expresses1 no doubt1 fairly correctly1 a very early philosophy of life4 ,i would not object even to its being termed the earliest philosophy1 provided it be granted that the progress of the human race was already well under way when it appeared4 ,but when it is assumed1 as it is by many1 that the animistic conception of nature is necessary to1 and antedates1 the establishment of ,magic1 ,i must dissent and affirm that a very large number of magical practices neither presuppose1 nor in any way involve1 a belief in animism1 and that there are good reasons for considering them original1 i4e4 not corruptions of practices primitively implying that belief4 ,so much ,i trust to have shown in the preceding pages4#cb ,i do not in the least deny that some of the magical practices in existence are derived from actions of a different character4 ,many of the 'superstitions' of civilised countries have had a long history4 ,several of the marriage customs2 for instance1 the cutting of the cake by the bride1 and the lifting of the bride over the threshold1 are vestiges of actions once necessary or useful4#cc ,but it would be absurd to conclude from the existence of derived magical practices that ,magic1 as a whole1 is to be accounted for on a theory of 'lapsed intelligence4' ,magic and ,religion combine but never fuse4--,when ghosts and nature-beings have become mental possessions of the savage1 one may expect the sphere of ,magic to extend so as to include these unseen1 mysterious beings4 ,why should not the magical power take effect upon ghosts and gods as well as upon men8 ,the savage1 like everybody else1 is anxious to use every available means to secure his preservation and his advancement4 ,why then should he not use both ,magic and the offering of food8 ,from the moment ,religion appears1 until the efficiency of ,magic is totally discredited1 we may expect to find these two modes of behaviour associated in men's dealings with gods1 except1 however1 where the god is clearly thought of as a world-creator4 ,for the savage could hardly have the presumption of attempting to control a power he recognises as the maker of the human race and of the world4 ,here are two instances of the combination of ,magic with ,religion4 ',in the ,babar ,archipelago1 when a woman desires to have a child1 she invites a man1 who is himself the father of a large family1 to pray on her behalf to ,upulero1 the spirit of the sun4 ,a doll is made of red cotton1 which the woman clasps in her arms1 as if she would suckle it4 ,then the father of many children takes a fowl and holds it by the legs to the woman's head1 saying1 ,o ,upulero1 make use of the fowl2 let fall1 let descend a child1 ,i beseech you1 ,i entreat you1 let a child fall into my hands and on my lap4 ,then he asks the woman1 ,has the child come8 and she answers1 ,yes1 it is sucking already4444 ,lastly1 the bird is killed1 and laid1 together with some betel1 on the domestic plate of sacrifice4444'#cd ,in this ceremony prayer and sacrifice to a god are associated with magical practices of a mimetic and sympathetic character4 ,in a large number of ceremonies1 the god is dealt with religiously in order to secure from him 'power1' and then ,magic is added to make the power effective4 ,in old ,egypt one of the formulas according to which the help of gods was secured began with an appeal to them under their popular names4 ,it was a prayer which they were free to heed or to neglect4 ,then followed1 in order to compel them to act1 an adjuration introducing the mystical names1 'those written at birth in their heart by their father and mother4'#ce ,the magician not only claimed the power to force the gods to do his bidding1 but also1 in case of disobedience1 to punish them1 even by destruction4 ,remnants of magical dealings with gods are found even in the ,christian ,religion1 if we are to believe the authors quoted by ,frazer4#cf ,magic and ,religion are so closely interwoven in the life of peoples of low culture that some authors have affirmed the impossibility of separating them4 ,their affirmation need not be contradicted unless it be intended to mean that originally they were one and the same thing4 ,however closely interwoven they may be1 ,magic and ,religion remain distinct1 as in the above instances4 ,one might say1 borrowing the language of the chemist1 that they do not form compounds1 but only mixtures4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what did ,magic contribute to the making of ,religion8 ,frazer's ,theory4--,our conclusions are1 so far1 that ,magic has had an independent origin1 that it very probably antedated ,religion1 and that they associate for common purposes without ever fusing1 for they are referable to different principles4 ,are we1 then1 driven to the opinion that even though ,magic should have antedated ,religion and been often combined with it in common undertakings1 it has1 nevertheless1 contributed in no way to the establishment of ,religion8 ,that conclusion is not unavoidable4 ,frazer's conception presents an alternative which1 however1 we cannot accept4 ,as he recognises not only a fundamental distinction1 but even an opposition of principle between ,magic and ,religion1 he cannot think of allowing the former a positive influence in the establishment of ,religion4 ,yet he admits a genetic relation between them3 it is1 according to him1 the recognition of the failure of ,magic that is the cause of the worship of gods4 ',i would suggest1' writes ,frazer1 'that a tardy recognition of the inherent falsehood and barrenness of ,magic set the more thoughtful part of mankind to cast about for a truer theory of nature and a more fruitful method of turning her resources to account4' ,when man saw that his magical actions were not the real cause of the activity of nature1 it occurred to him that1 'if the great world went on its way without the help of him or his fellows1 it must surely be because there were other beings1 like himself1 but far stronger1 who1 unseen themselves1 directed its course and brought about all the various series of events which he had hitherto believed to be dependent on his own ,magic4444 ,to these mighty beings1 whose handiwork he traced in all the gorgeous and varied pageantry of nature1 man now addressed himself1 humbly confessing his dependence on their invisible power1 and beseeching them of their mercy to furnish him with all good things4444 ,in this1 or some such way as this1 the deeper minds may be conceived to have made the transition from ,magic to ,religion4'#cg ,several obvious objections may be raised against this view4 ,i would remark first of all that ,frazer does not discredit the sources of the belief in ghosts and in nature-beings mentioned in the preceding section3 sleep and trances2 apparitions2 the impulse to personify great and startling natural phenomena2 the idea of creation4 ,his hypothesis of the origin of ,religion is1 therefore1 superfluous1 unless he could show that the transition from ,magic to ,religion took place in the manner he suggests before the experiences and reflections we have named had given rise to the idea of god4 ,the assumption on which ,frazer's hypothesis rests1 namely1 that sagacious men of wild races persuaded themselves and their fellows of the inefficiency of ,magic1 seems clearly contradicted by the history of the relation of ,magic to ,religion1 and also by the psychology of belief4 ,on the latter ground1 he may justly be accused of attributing neither enough influence to the will to believe nor to the support it receives from the many apparent or real successes of ,magic4 ,these successes1 with the help of the several ways of accounting for failures without giving up the belief1#ch were in my opinion sufficient to support a belief in the efficiency of ,magic until long after the birth of ,religion4 ,is not that the conclusion we must draw from the recent spread of the spiritualistic movement1 not only among the untutored1 but even among representatives of our higher culture8 ,the late gains of spiritism have been made despite numberless failures1 the repeated discovery of deception1 and the satisfactory scientific explanation of a large proportion of the alleged spiritistic facts1 and thanks merely to a desire to believe1 and to a few questionable facts not readily explained by accepted hypotheses4 ,to suppose that before ghosts and nature-beings had been thought of and made great enough to exercise a practical influence upon men's conduct1 there had existed1 in the barbarous circumstances implied in the supposition1 persons so keenly observant1 so capable of scientific generalisation1 and so free from the obscuring influences of passion as to be able to reject the many instances of apparent success of ,magic1 is to posit a miracle where a satisfactory natural explanation already exists4 ,in ,magic and ,religion1 ,andrew ,lang directs a vigorous and successful attack upon ,frazer's hypothesis4#ci ,a part of his argument1 based on generally accepted historical data1 is summarised in this passage3 ',if we find that the most backward race known to us believes in a power1 yet propitiates him neither by prayer nor sacrifice1 and if we find1 as we do1 that in many more advanced races in ,africa and ,america1 it is precisely the highest power which is left unpropitiated1 then we really cannot argue that gods were first invented as power who could give good things1 on receipt of other good things1 sacrifice and prayer4'#dj ,he remarks1 in addition1 that although one would not expect people who had recognised the uselessness of ,magic and turned to gods1 to continue the development of the magical art1 yet1 in order to find the highest ,magic one has to go to no less a civilisation than that of ,japan1 where gods are plentiful4 ,although the hypothesis that gods and ,religion are the consequence of the recognition of the failure of ,magic1 must be rejected1 it does not follow that two modes of activity in the service of common purposes1 as are ,magic and early ,religion1 do not act upon each other in many ways4 ,if ,magic was first in the field1 we may believe that the satisfaction it gave to man by its results1 apparent and real1 and in providing him with a means of expressing his desires1 tended to retard the establishment of any other method of securing the same ends4 ,the habit of doing a thing in a particular manner always stands more or less in the way of the discovery of other ways of doing the same thing4 ,so that ,magic was1 in these respects1 a hindrance to the making of ,religion4 ,there is1 however1 a grain of truth in ,frazer's hypothesis4 ,had ,magic completely satisfied man's multifarious desires1 he would1 in all probability1 have paid but scant attention to the gods1 for it is in times of trial that man turns to them4 ,it was thus greatly advantageous to the making of ,religion that the inadequacy of ,magic should have been felt4 ,moreover1 ,magic exercised1 in ways mentioned before1 a very considerable influence on the general mental growth of savage populations2 in this sense also it may be said to have helped ,religion4 ,in a penetrating comparison of ,magic with ,religion1 ,marett#da points out how easily our third class of ,magic--,spell-,magic--assumes 'the garb of an affair between persons1' and thus approaches very close to ,religion4 ,but even when ,magic involves the 'projection of an imperative will1' the fundamental difference between the two modes of behaviour remains quite distinct4 ,in ancient ,peru1 when a war expedition was contemplated1 they were wont to starve certain black sheep for some days and then slay them1 uttering the incantation1 ',as the hearts of these beasts are weakened1 so let our enemies be weakened4' ,if this utterance is to be regarded as expressing an attempt to project the operator's 'will' upon the enemies1 we are clearly in the realm of pure ,magic4 ,but if it is to be understood as addressed to a personal being1 it is a prayer1 and then we deal with an instance of the combination of ,magic with ,religion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,magic and the ,origin of ,science4--,a common opinion has it that ,magic and not the mechanical type of behaviour is the precursor of science4 ,before bringing this chapter to a close1 we shall try and determine in what sense this statement is to be understood4 ,the reader will remember that after discriminating roughly1 in the introduction1 the three modes of behaviour observable in man1 ,i added that the anthropopathic behaviour becomes ,religion when it is directed to gods1 and the mechanical becomes science when the principle of quantitative proportion it implies is definitively recognised4 ,frazer1 who sets forth in his great book the magical origin of science1 may stand as the representative of that theory4 ',magic1' he tells us1 'is next of kin to science1' for science 'assumes that in nature one event follows another necessarily and invariably without the intervention of any special spiritual or personal agency4 ,thus its fundamental conception is identical with that of modern science2 underlying the whole system is a faith1 implicit1 but real and firm1 in the order and uniformity of nature 444 his power the magician's1 great as he believes it to be1 is by no means arbitrary and unlimited4 ,he can wield it only so long as he strictly conforms to the rules of his art1 or to what may be called the laws of nature as conceived by him4444 ,thus the analogy between the magical and the scientific conception of the world is close4 ,in both of them the succession of events is perfectly regular and certain1 being determined by immutable laws1 the operation of which can be foreseen and calculated precisely4'#db ,upon this ,i observe1 first1 that the acknowledgment of a fixed relation between actions or beliefs and their results is not peculiar to ,magic2 it is implied also in ,religion and1 more perfectly1 in mechanical behaviour4 ,salvation is by the right practice1 or by the right faith1 or both4 ,the gods cannot be approached and conciliated in any way2 worshipper1 no less than magician1 has to conform to a definite ritual4 ,in certain not entirely barbarous communities salvation or damnation is held to follow1 respectively1 belief or disbelief in no less than thirty-nine articles6 ,so that 'definite and certain succession of events1' their determination 'by immutable laws' to the elimination of caprice1 chance1 or accident1 are expressions which apply1 on the whole1 as well to ,religion as to ,magic4 ,these phrases do not denote a kinship of ,magic to ,science1 which could not be claimed also by ,religion4 ,turning to another side of the matter1 we observe that ,frazer finds it convenient to minimise1 in this connection1 the considerable share of the personal1 i4e4 of the capricious1 the incalculable1 in ,magic4 ,the personality of the magician introduces an indeterminate and undeterminable factor about which enough has been said in preceding sections4 ,nothing could be in more direct antagonism to the scientific attitude than these two factors3 the influence accorded to the personality of the magician and the belief in occult powers belonging to particular objects and events4 ,so that it is truer to the facts to say that the fundamental conception of science1 so far from being identical with that of ,magic1 is absent from it4 ,for the essential presupposition of science--the one that differentiates it alike from ,magic and from ,religion--is the acknowledgment of definite and constant quantitative relations between causes and effects1 relations which completely exclude the personal element and the occult4 ,if that scientific presupposition is absent from ,magic and from ,religion1 it is implicitly present in mechanical behaviour4 ,the savage is nearer the scientific spirit and its method when he constructs a weapon to fit a particular purpose1 or when he adjusts his bow and his arrow to the direction and the strength of the wind1 than when he burns an enemy in effigy1 abstains from sexual intercourse to promote success in the hunt1 or exorcises diseases4 ,what magic shares with science is not the belief in the fundamental principle we have named1 but the desire to gain the mastery over the powers of nature and the practice of the experimental method4 ,the experimentation of ,magic is1 however1 so limited and so unconscious that it can hardly be assimilated to the modern scientific method4 ,if any one were to turn to history for an argument in support of the thesis defended by ,frazer1 and point out that the alchemist is the lineal ancestor of the scientist1 the sufficient answer would be--7#a7 ,historical succession does not imply continuity of principle4 ,although ,magic1 ,alchemy1 and ,science form an historical sequence1 the fundamental principle of the last is not to be found in the others4 7#b7 ,the clear recognition of the principle of fixed quantitative relations is1 whenever and wherever it appears1 the birth of ,science and the death of both ,magic and ,alchemy4 ,this last fact demonstrates clearly the fundamental enmity of these arts to the scientific principle4 ,the discovery of the scientific principle was probably almost as much hindered by the false notions and the pernicious habits of mind encouraged by ,magic1 as furthered by the gain in general mental activity and knowledge which it brought about4 ,magic1 no more than ,religion1 encourages the exact observation of external facts1 but rather self-deception with regard to them4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,original ,,emotion ,,of ,,primitive ,,religious ,,life ,the failure to recognise in ,religion three functionally related constituents--conation1 feeling1 and thought--is responsible for a confusing use of the term 'origin4' ,some have said that ,religion began with the belief in superhuman1 mysterious beings2 others that it had its origin in the emotional life1 and these usually specify fear2 while a third group have declared that its genesis is to be found in the will-to-live4 ,at this stage of our inquiry the reader realises no doubt that these three utterances are incomplete1 inasmuch as each one of them expresses either the origin1 or the original form1 of only one of the constituents of ,religion4 ,i have in the preceding sections dealt with the establishment of the religious attitude or behaviour and1 afterwards1 more specifically1 with the origin of the god-idea4 ,the space at my disposal does not allow me to say anything regarding the rise of the methods by which man entered in relation with the divine beings in whom he believes4 ,for the same reason1 ,i shall have to be very brief in dealing with the original emotional form of ,religion4 ,two opposed opinions divide the field4 ,the more widely held is that fear is the beginning of ,religion2 the other1 accepted by a small but weighty minority1 that it has its origin in a 'loving reverence for known gods4' ,we shall have little difficulty in arriving at an understanding of the matter in which these two views1 instead of opposing1 supplement each other4 ,the origin of the two emotions mentioned1 fear and love1 fall1 of course1 outside the limits of this essay1 since they both existed before ,religion4 ',fear begets gods1' said ,lucretius4 ,hume concluded that 'the first ideas of religion arose 444 from a concern with regard to the events of life and fears which actuate the human mind4' ,a similar opinion is maintained by most of our contemporaries4 ,among psychologists1 ,ribot1 for instance1 affirms that 'the religious sentiment is composed first of all of the emotion of fear in its different degrees1 from profound terror to vague uneasiness1 due to faith in an unknown1 mysterious1 impalpable ,power4'#dc ,the fear-theory is well supported by two classes of interdependent facts observed1 we are told1 in every uncivilised people3 7#a7 ,evil spirits are the first to attain a certain degree of definiteness2 7#b7 man enters into definite relations first with these evil spirits4 ,if the reader will refer to ,the ,origin of ,civilisation by ,lord ,avebury 7,sir ,john ,lubbock71 #crd ed41 pp4 #bab-bae1 he will see there how widely true is the opinion expressed by ,scheinfurth3--',among the ,bongos of central ,africa good spirits are quite unrecognised1 and1 according to the general negro idea1 no benefit can ever come from a spirit4' ,in many other tribes the good spirits are known1 but the savage always 'pays more attention to deprecating the wrath of the evil than securing the favour of the good beings4' ,the tendency is to let alone the good spirits1 because1 being good1 they will do us good of themselves1 just as evil spirits do us harm unsolicited4 ,shall we1 then1 admit the fear-origin of ,religion8 ,yes1 provided it be understood that fear represents only one of the three constituents of ,religion1 that it is not in virtue of a particular quality or property that fear is the primitive emotional form of ,religion1 and that this admission is not intended to imply the impossibility of ,religion having ever anywhere begun with aggressive or tender emotions4 ,regarding the second reservation1 it should be understood that the making of ,religion requires nothing found in fear that is not also present in other emotions4 ,if aggressive emotions are not conspicuous at the dawn of ,religion1 it is only because it so happens that the circumstances in which the least cultured peoples known to us live are such as to keep fear in the foreground of consciousness4 ,fear was the first of the well-organised emotional reactions4 ,it antedated the human species1 and appears to this day first in the young animal1 as well as in the infant4 ,no doubt1 before the protective fear-reaction could have been established1 the lust of life had worked itself out into aggressive habits1 those for the securing of food1 for instance4 ,but these desires did not1 as early as in the case of fear1 give rise to any emotional reaction possessing the constancy1 definiteness1 and poignancy of fear4 ,the place of fear in primitive ,religion is1 then1 due not to its intrinsic qualities1 but simply to circumstances which made it appear first as a well-organised emotion vitally connected with the maintenance of life4 ,it is for exactly the same reason that the dominant emotion in the relations of uncivilised men with each other1 and still more evidently so1 of wild animals with each other1 is usually that of fear4 ,when ,i said that fear need not have been the original religious emotion1 ,i had in mind the possibility of groups of primitive men having lived in circumstances so favourable to peace and safety that fear was not very often present with them4 ,this is not a preposterous supposition4 ,wild men need not1 any more than wild animals1 have found themselves so situated as to be kept in a constant state of fright4 ,if the ,african antelope runs for its life on an average twice a day1 as ,francis ,galton supposes1 the wild horse on the ,south ,american plains1 before the hunter appeared on his pastures1 ran chiefly for his pleasure4 ,travellers have borne testimony to the absence of fear in birds inhabiting certain regions4 ,but1 it may be asked1 would ,religion have come into existence under these peaceful circumstances8 ,a life of relative ease1 comfort1 and security is not precisely conducive to the establishment of practical relations with gods4 ,why should happy and self-sufficient men look to unseen1 mysterious beings for an assistance not really required8 ,under these circumstances the unmixed type of fear-,religion would never have come into existence4 ,religion would have appeared later1 and from the first in a nobler form4 ,in such peoples a feeling of dependence upon benevolent gods1 regarded probably as ,creators and ,all-,fathers1 eliciting admiration rather than fear or selfish desire1 would have characterised its beginnings4 ,this possibility should not be rejected a priori4 ,the other theory is well represented by ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4 ,he denies that the attempt to appease evil beings is the foundation of ,religion4 ,i quote3 ',from the earliest times religion1 as distinct from magic or sorcery1 addresses itself to kindred and friendly beings1 who may indeed be angry with their people for a time1 but are always placable except to the enemies of their worshippers or to renegade members of the community4 ,it is not with a vague fear of unknown powers but with a loving reverence for known gods who are knit to their worshippers by strong bonds of kinship1 that religion1 in the only sense of the word1 begins4'#dd ,one may agree with ,robertson ,smith without denying that certain practices intended to avert impending evils preceded the establishment of affectionate relations with benevolent powers4 ,as a matter of fact1 our author admits this fully4 ,what he denies is that the attempt to propitiate1 in dread1 evil spirits1 is ,religion4 ,it cannot be doubted that the inner experience as well as the outer attitude and behaviour of a person are substantially different when he seeks to conciliate a radically evil being and when he communes with a fundamentally benevolent one4 ,yet in both cases an anthropopathic relation with a personal being is established4 ,in this respect1 both stand opposed to magical behaviour4 ,this common element is so fundamental that it seems to us advisable to make the name ,religion include both types of relation4 ,and since they differ1 nevertheless1 in important respects1 the phrases ,negative ,religion may be used to designate man's dealings with radically bad spirits1 and ,positive ,religion his relations with fundamentally benevolent ones4 ,positive ,religion is at first not at all free from fear4 ,the benevolent gods are prompt to wrath1 and cruelly avenge their broken laws4 ,the more striking development of religious life is the gradual substitution of love for fear in worship4#de ,this is one more reason for not completely dissociating the propitiation of evil spirits from the worship of kindly gods4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,concluding ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,the ,,function ,,of ,,religion ,the organised1 historical ,religions are sufficiently described1 in their objective aspect1 as systems of practical relations with unseen1 hyperhuman1 and personal ,beings4 ,the experiences in which this type of ,religion consists1 when subjectively considered1 are the states of consciousness correlated with the aforesaid relations4 ,judged according to this definition1 several savage tribes and a very large number of persons among civilised peoples would have to be accounted non-religious4 ,most of them may1 however1 lay claim to what we have called ,passive ,religiosity4 ,in these concluding pages we propose to give increased precision and coherence to the conception of ,religion presented in this essay4 ,we shall do so under two heads1 7#a7 ,passive and 7#b7 ,godless ,religions4 #a4 ,andrew ,lang's polemic against ,frazer's definition of ,religion will serve as a convenient text for the introduction of what we wish to say under the first head4 ,according to the habit of anthropologists1 ,frazer has put forward as the mark of ,religion the propitiation or the conciliation of personal beings superior to man and believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life4 ,lang objects1 and very properly1 that this definition is too narrow4 ',i mean by ,religion1' says he1 'what ,mr4 ,frazer means and more4 ,the conciliation of higher powers by prayer and sacrifice is ,religion1 but it need not be the whole of ,religion4 ,the belief in a higher power who sanctions conduct and is a father and a loving one to mankind is also ,religion1'#df although it should not be accompanied by request for benefits4 ,the presence in the higher societies and even at the dawn of civilisation of persons strangers to any religious rite1 yet influenced by a belief in divine beings cannot be denied4 ,with regard to the most barbarous of the ,australian savages ,howitt writes3 ',if ,religion is defined as being the formulated worship of a divinity1 then these savages have no ,religion2 but ,i venture to assert that it can be no longer maintained that they have no belief which can be called ,religion1 that is1 in the sense of beliefs which govern tribal and individual morality under a supernatural sanction4'#dg ,the reader will remember that we included under the term ,religion the amorphous relations to which ,howitt alludes4 ,but the difference1 objective and subjective1 between the organised ,religions1 let us say that of ,saint ,ignatius1 and the guiding and restraining influence exercised upon an ,african savage or a ,parisian deist by the apprehension of a ,great ,ruler1 justifies the use of the differentiating appellations1 ,passive and ,active ,religion4 ,we take this opportunity of remarking how difficult it is even for particularly clear-headed persons to keep ,religion distinct from philosophy4 ,lang was ill-advised enough to write in the same place1 ',if men believe in a potent being who originally made or manufactured 444 things1 that is an idea so far religious that it satisfies1 by the figment of a supernatural agent1 the speculative faculty4' ,what has 'the speculative faculty' to do with ,religion8 ,as little as the gratification of the aesthetic or of any other 'faculty1' i4e4 nothing at all4 ,the outcome of speculative thinking is philosophy1 of which ,religion may make use1 but that is not a reason for confusing it with philosophy4 ,the religious experience consists not in seeking to understand ,god1 but in fearing ,him1 in feeding upon ,him1 in finding strength and joy in ,him4 ,if believers in ,ruling ,powers may be called religious1 it is not because they possess an idea of these powers1 but in virtue of the guiding and inspiring influence these powers exert upon them4 #b4 ,the ,godless ,religions4--,we have found it convenient up to this point to speak as if ,power had to be personal in order to become the centre of a ,religion4 ,that view would exclude original ,buddhism1 the ,religion of ,humanity1 and several other varieties of mental attitudes generally regarded as religious4 ,the significant fact that until recently every existing historical ,religion was a worship of a personal ,divinity1 is not a sufficient reason for refusing to recognise other types4 ,the affinity between the worship of a ,god and certain relations maintained with non-personal sources of power is substantial enough to be recognised by the use of a name common to both4 ,what are the ,religions that dispense with a ,god8 ,original ,buddhism1 and the ,religion of ,humanity formulated by ,a4 ,comte1 are the only ones possessing a somewhat definite form and organisation4 ,the ,buddha ,gautama discovered and offered to man a way of salvation in which the efficient power was not an external1 personal power1 but an indwelling1 psychic principle4 ,but the disciples speedily deified the ,master who had enjoined them to adore no one1 and substituted for his teaching the worship of the ,god ,gautama4 ,so that1 almost as soon as born1 ,buddhism ceased to exist as a ,godless ,religion4 ',humanity' is qualified to become the centre of a ,religion because its service accomplishes for man in essence and by similar methods precisely what the acknowledged ,religions do for their disciples4#dh ,i quote from ,a4 ,comte3 ',around this ,real1 ,great ,being1 immediate instigator of each individual and collective existence1 our feelings and desires centre as spontaneously as do our ideas and actions4444 ,more readily accessible to our feelings as well as to our thinking than the chimerical beings of the existing ,religions1 because of an identity of nature which does not preclude its superiority over all its servants1 a ,supreme ,being such as this excites deeply an activity destined to preserve and to improve it the ,supreme ,being4'#di ,the claim of original ,buddhism and of ,comtism to be called ,religions is1 in our opinion1 legitimate1 because they each provide an inclusive1 non-material source of power and a method of drawing upon it4 ,but the term ,religion is used by some in a still wider sense4 ,professor ,j4 ,r4 ,seeley1 for instance1 bestows that valued name upon 'any habitual and permanent admiration4'#ej ,should we concur in this extension1 it would be difficult to stop anywhere4 ,we should have to admit almost anything which any one may have a fancy for designating by that much-abused word1 even to 'the sense of eternity in connection with our higher experiences1' and 'the feeling of reality and permanence of all we most value4' ,but since the function of words is to delimitate1 one defeats the purpose of language by stretching the meaning of a word until it has lost all precision and unity of meaning4 ,we would therefore throw out of our definition anything which did not include3--7#a7 ,a belief in a great and superior psychic power--whether personal or not4 7#b7 ,a dynamic relation--formal and organised or otherwise--between man and that ,higher ,power tending to the preservation1 the increase1 and the ennobling of life4 ,this conception is broad enough to include even the uncrystallised form of ,religion conditioned1 in the words of ,professor ,james1 by 'an assurance that this natural order is not ultimate1 but a mere sign or vision1 the external staging of a many-storied universe1 in which spiritual forces have the last word and are eternal4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,active ,religion may properly be looked upon as that portion of the struggle for life1 in which use is made of the ,power we have roughly characterised as psychic and superhuman1 and for which other adjectives1 'spiritual1' 'divine1' for instance1 are commonly used4 ,in this biological view of ,religion1 its necessary and natural spring is the same as that of non-religious life1 i4e4 the 'will to live' in its multiform appearances1 while the ground of differentiation between the religious and the secular is neither specific feelings nor emotions1 nor yet distinctive impulses1 desires1 or purposes1 but the nature of the force which it is attempted to press into service4 ,the current terms1 'religious feeling1' 'religious desire1' 'religious purpose1' are deceptive if they are supposed to designate affective experiences1 desires and purposes met with only in religious life4 ,the conception of the ,source of ,psychic ,energy1 without the belief in which no ,religion can exist1 has undergone very interesting transformations in the course of historical development4 ,the human or animal form ascribed to the gods in the earlier ,religions became less and less definite4 ,at the same time the number of gods decreased4 ,the culmination of this double process was ,monotheism1 in which the ,one1 ,eternal1 ,creator and ,sustainer of life was no longer necessarily framed in the shape of man or beast3 though still anthropopathic1 he might be formless4 ,sympathy1 love1 and justice were among his attributes4 ,in a second phase1 this formless1 but personal1 ,god was gradually shorn of all the qualities and defects which make individuality4 ,he became the passionless ,absolute in which all things move and have their being4 ,thus1 the personifying work of centuries is undone1 and humanity1 after having1 as it were1 lived throughout its infancy and youth under the controlling eye and with the active assistance of personal divinities1 on reaching maturity1 finds itself bereft of these sources of life4 ,the present religious crisis marks the difficulty in the way of an adaptation to the new situation4 ,as belief in a ,god seems no longer possible1 man seeks an impersonal1 efficient substitute1 belief in which will not mean disloyalty to science4 ,for man will have life1 and have it abundantly1 and he knows from experience that its sources are not only in meat and drink1 but also in 'spiritual faith4' ,it is this problem which the ,comtists1 the ,immanentists1 the ,ethical ,culturists1 the ,mental ,scientists are all trying to solve4 ,any solution will have the right to the name ,religion that provides for the preservation and the perfectioning of life by means of faith in a superhuman psychic ,power4 ,printed in ,great ,britain by ,t4 and ,a4 ,,constable ,,ltd4 at the ,edinburgh ,university ,press ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,non-,religion of the ,future1 p4 #b4 #b ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd edition1 i4 p4 #fc4 #c ,outlines of a ,philosophy of ,religion1 p4 #bg4 #d ,the ,varieties of ,religious ,experience1 pp4 #ec1 #ch1 abbreviated and rearranged4 #e ,wuendt's ,ethics1 ,english tr41 iii4 p4 #f4 #f ,h4 ,b4 ,davis has this to say on the power of generalisation of the raccoon1 a very intelligent animal3 ',when an animal raccoon is forced to approach a new fastening from a new direction1 it is often as much bothered by it as by a new fastening4 ,nevertheless1 in course of time the animals seem to reach a sort of generalised manner of procedure which enables them to deal more promptly with any new fastening 7not too different from others of their experience74' ',the ,raccoon3 ,a ,study in ,animal ,intelligence1' ,amer4 ,jr4 of ,psy41 ,oct4 #aijg1 p4 #dhf4 #g ,meditationes1 ii4 p4 #aj1 ,amsterdam1 #afgh4 #h ,c4 ,lloyd ,morgan1 ,introduction to ,comparative ,psychology 7,the ,contemporary ,science ,series1 #ahid71 p4 #hi4 #i ,f4 ,m4 ,davenport1 ,primitive ,traits in ,religious ,revivals1 ,macmillan 7#aije71 p4 #cf2 quoted from the ,fourteenth ,annual ,report of the ,amer4 ,bureau of ,ethnology1 p4 #gfa4 #aj ,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 iii4 p4 #edg1 as quoted by ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ed41 i4 p4 #ac4 #aa ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,the ,native ,races of ,south-,east ,australia 7#aijd71 p4 #cgc4 #ab ,principles of ,sociology 7#crd edition1 #ahhe71 i4 ,appendix ,a1 p4 #ghh4 #ac ,the ,descent of ,man1 #bnd ed41 i4 p4 #ade4 #ad ,nature1 xvii4 7#ahgg-gh71 pp4 #afh-afi4 ,comp4 ,lloyd ,morgan1 ,introd4 to ,comparative ,psychology1 p4 #ib ff4 #ae ,a ,study in ,fears1 ,am4 ,jour4 of ,psy4 7#ahig71 viii4 p4 #aff4 #af ,lord ,avebury1 ,on the ,origin of ,civilisation 7#crd edition1 #ahge71 p4 #bab4 #ag ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 #ejj1 #ejf-ejh4 #ah ,hang a root of vervain around the neck in order to cause the disappearance of a tumour3 as the plant dries up1 so will the tumour4 ,if the fish do not appear in due season1 make one of wood and put it into the water4 ,keep the arrow that has wounded a friend in a cool place that the wound may not become inflamed4 #ai ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiii4 7#ahhd71 p4 #def1 quoted by ,frazer4 #bj ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 7,clarendon ,press1 #ahia71 p4 #aia4 #ba ',etudes de mythologie et d'archeologie egyptiennes' 7,paris1 #aijc71 ,bibliotheque ,egyptologique1 ii4 p4 #bih4 #bb ,foucart1 ',recherches sur la ,nature des ,mysteres d',eleusis1' ,memoires de l',institut1 xxxv4 #bnd part1 pp4 #ca-cb4 ,comp4 ,maspero1 ibid41 p4 #cjc4 #bc ',the ,beginnings of ,religion1' ,fortn4 ,rev41 lxxxiv4 7#aije71 p4 #afb4 ,comp4 ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ed41 i4 pp4 #ga-gc4 #bd ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ed41 i4 p4 #gj4 ,oldenburg 7,die ,religion des ,veda1 ,berlin1 #ahid7 was first1 ,i believe1 in holding to a pre-religious magical stage of culture4 ,but it is ,frazer who first made a clear separation1 not only between ,magic and ,religion1 but also between ,magic and belief in spirit-agents4 #be ,comp4 ,r4 ,r4 ,marett1 ',from ,spell to ,prayer1' ,folk-,lore1 xv4 7#aijd71 pp4 #acf-ada4 #bf ,the latest classification is probably that of ,frazer in ,lectures on the ,early ,history of the ,kingship 7,macmillan1 #aije71 p4 #ed4 ,a4 van ,gennep1 in a review of that book in the ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1 liii4 pp4 #cif-dja1 offers a somewhat different classification4 #bg ,i use 'animism' in the sense which ,tylor gave it1 i4e4 a belief in the animation of all things by beings similar to the 'souls' or 'ghosts' revealed to the savage by dreams and other natural experiences4 #bh ,the interested reader will find a summary of observations on this topic in ,alex4 ,f4 ,chamberlain's ,the ,child 7,the ,contemporary ,science ,series1 #aijj71 pp4 #adg-adh4 ,see also ,sully1 ,studies of ,childhood1 p4 #hb4 #bi ,see1 for instance1 many of the prohibitions included in the initiation ceremonies of the ,australians in ,spencer and ,gillen1 loc4 cit41 chapters vii-ix4 #cj ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ed41 ,i4 pp4 #bi-ca4 #ca ,fourth ed4 7#aijc71 i4 p4 #bhe4 #cb ,the word naturism should be adopted as a name for the pre-animistic and pre-religious stage of culture1 a stage corresponding to the one through which a child passes before he inquires into hidden causes and mechanisms4 ,see on this an excellent little book published in this series1 ,animism1 by ,edward ,clodd1 pp4 #bb-be4 #cc ,lord ,avebury1 ,on the ,origin of ,civilisation 7#crd ed41 #ahge71 pp4 #aac-aad4 #cd ,the ,golden ,bough1 i4 p4 #ai4 #ce ,maspero1 loc4 cit41 pp4 #bih-bii4 #cf ,amelie ,bosquet1 ,la ,normandie romanesque et merveilleuse 7,paris et ,rouen1 #ahde71 p4 #cjh4 #cg ,loc4 cit4 i41 pp4 #ge-gh4 #ch ,a widespread opinion ascribes the failures of the magician to a rival or to the counter-influence of some evil spirit4 ',if a man died in spite of the medicine-man1 they the ,chepara of ,south-,east ,africa said it was ,wulle1 an evil being1 that killed him4'--,howitt1 loc4 cit41 p4 #che4 #ci ,chap4 iii4 #dj ,ibid41 p4 #ei4 #da ,r4 ,r4 ,marett1 ',from ,spell to ,prayer1' ,folk-,lore1 xv4 7#aijd71 pp4 #acb-afe4 #db ,loc4 cit41 pp4 #fa-fb4 ,in the third volume 7pp4 #deh-dfa71 a change seems to have taken place in the author's opinion4 ,what it amounts to1 ,i cannot exactly make out4 #dc ,the ,psychology of the ,emotions1 p4 #cji4 #dd ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #ee4 #de ,see1 on this development1 my article1 ',fear1 ,awe1 and the ,sublime in ,religion1' ,american ,jr4 of ,religious ,psy4 and ,educ41 ii4 p4 #a4 #df ,magic and ,religion1 pp4 #dh-di1 #fi4 #dg ',on some ,australian ,customs of ,initiation1' ,jr4 of the ,anthrop4 ,inst41 xiii4 7#ahhc-ahhd71 p4 #dei4 #dh ,f4 ,harrison1 ,moral and ,religious ,socialism1 ,new ,year's ,address1 #ahia4 #di ,a4 ,comte1 ,catechisme ,positiviste1 ed4 ,apostolique 7#ahia71 pp4 #ec1 #ee4 #ej ,natural ,religion1 ,macmillan 7#ahhb71 p4 #gd4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,passages in bold are indicated by bold4