,,practical ,,bookbinding4 ,illustration ,,practical ,,bookbinding ,,by ,,paul ,,adam1 ,director of the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school of ,artistic and ,practical ,bookbinding4 ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,german ,,by ,,thos4 ,e4 ,,maw1 ,,librarian ,,king',s ,,lynn ,,public ,,library4 ,,with #abg ,,illustrations4 ,,london ,,scott1 ,,greenwood ,,co4 #ai ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,e4,c4 ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,van ,,nostrand ,,co4 #bc ,,murray ,,street #aijc 7,the sole right of translation into ,english rests with ,scott1 ,greenwood ,co47 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,metric ,,and ,,british ,,systems ,,compared vi4 ,,preface vii4 ,introductory ,remarks on ,working ,methods and ,materials #a ,a4--,materials for ,sewing and ,pasting #a ,b4--,materials for ,covering the ,book #d ,c4--,materials for ,decorating and ,finishing #g ,d4--,tools #i ,,part ,i4 ,,forwarding4 ,chapter ,i4--,general ,preparatory ,work #ac ,chapter ,,ii4--,sewing #dj ,chapter ,,iii4--,forwarding3 ,cutting1 ,rounding1 and ,backing #ed ,chapter ,,iv4--,forwarding3 ,decoration1 of ,edges and ,headbanding #fb ,chapter ,v4--,boarding #he ,,part ,,ii4 ,,finishing4 ,the ,book ,cover #ic ,chapter ,,vi4--,making the ,cover #ie ,chapter ,,vii4--,work with the ,blocking ,press #ajc ,chapter ,,viii4--,treatment of ,sewn ,books1 ,fastening in ,covers1 and ,finishing ,off #aai ,chapter ,,ix4--,hand ,finishing #abi ,chapter ,x4--,account ,books #aeg ,chapter ,,xi4--,school ,books1 ,mounting ,maps1 ,drawings1 c4 #afi ,conclusion #agg ,index #ahj ,list of ,illustrations ,page4 ,fig4 #a ,glue-pot for heating by petroleum4 #c ,figs4 #b #c ,holding whilst folding4 #ae ,fig4 #d ,lifting into the ,press4 #ai ,fig4 #e ,open sheets laid out for gathering4 #bj ,fig4 #f ,sections fanned out for drawing out4 #bb ,fig4 #g ,sections fanned out for pasting4 #bc ,fig4 #h ,suggestions for mounting on guards4 #be ,figs4 #i-ac ,suggestions for folding plates and maps4 #bf ,fig4 #ad ,collating4 #bh ,fig4 #ae ,rolling machine4 #ca ,fig4 #af ,sewing frame4 #cc ,fig4 #ag ,arrangement on the sewing frame4 #cc ,fig4 #ah ,arrangement of threads in hollaendering4 #ce ,fig4 #ai ,small stapling machine for single sheets4 #ce ,fig4 #bj ,arrangement of staples in brochures4 #ce ,fig4 #ba ,arrangement of threads in old style of sewing4 #da ,fig4 #bb ,arrangement of threads with double cords4 #da ,fig4 #bc ,divisions for sawing-in4 #db ,fig4 #bd ,machine for sawing-in4 #dc ,fig4 #be ,suggestions for single and double end papers4 #de ,fig4 #bf ,suggestion for double end paper with tear-off4 #de ,fig4 #bg ,overcast end paper4 #df ,fig4 #bh ,loops for attaching to frame hooks4 #dg ,fig4 #bi ,loops for taking frame keys4 #dg ,fig4 #cj ,suggestion for sewing on four cords4 #dh ,fig4 #ca ,suggestion for sewing on six cords4 #dh ,fig4 #cb ,suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on4 #ej ,fig4 #cc ,thread-sewing machine4 #ec ,fig4 #cd ,wire-sewing machine4 #ec ,fig4 #ce ,rotary guillotine4 #ed ,fig4 #cf ,lever guillotine4 #ee ,fig4 #cg ,top edge arranged for when trimming three edges4 #ef ,fig4 #ch ,rounding the book4 #eg ,fig4 #ci ,rounding machine4 #eh ,fig4 #dj ,backing machine for small shops4 #ei ,fig4 #da ,backing machine for large shops4 #ei ,fig4 #db ,backed book arranged for trimming4 #fj ,fig4 #dc ,marbling outfit4 #ff ,fig4 #dd ,suggestion for sprinkling colour4 #fh ,fig4 #de ,comb marbling4 #fi ,fig4 #df ,suggestion for curl marbling4 #fi ,fig4 #dg ,bouquet or peacock marbling4 #gj ,fig4 #dh ,eye marbling4 #gj ,figs4 #di #ej ,arrangement of flat and rounded edges4 #gd ,fig4 #ea ,top edge arranged for gilding4 #hj ,fig4 #eb ,headband shears4 #hb ,fig4 #ec ,headband working4 #hc ,fig4 #ed ,board-cutting machine4 #hf ,fig4 #ee ,spring back4 #hg ,fig4 #ef ,boarded book4 #hh ,fig4 #eg ,section of edge rule4 #hi ,fig4 #eh ,english style of lacing boards4 #ij ,fig4 #ei ,view of the most general styles of binding1 showing the divisions of the work4 7,table7 #id ,fig4 #fj ,corners cut for turning in4 #if ,fig4 #fa ,corners3 ,right and wrong4 #if ,fig4 #fb ,paring with ,offenbach or ,berlin knife4 #ig ,fig4 #fc ,paring with ,french knife4 #ii ,fig4 #fd ,blocking press4 #aje ,fig4 #fe ,appliances used in blocking backs4 #ajg ,fig4 #ff ,colour roller4 #aae ,fig4 #fg ,stuck-on gauges4 #aah ,fig4 #fh ,turning in the head4 #aba ,figs4 #fi #gj ,the head3 good and bad4 #abb ,fig4 #ga ,the pasted-down book4 #abe ,fig4 #gb ,treatment of tear-off4 #abh ,figs4 #gc #gd ,simple line designs4 #aca ,fig4 #ge ,half-calf extra tooled in blind4 #acc ,fig4 #gf ,leather binding with simple design in blind4 #acd ,fig4 #gg ,simple gold tooling on sides4 #ace ,fig4 #gh ,tooled cover4 #acf ,fig4 #gi ,specimen of tooling done in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 #acg ,fig4 #hj ,leather binding by ,oswald ,kob1 ,bozen4 #ach ,fig4 #ha ,cover with laurel motive done in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 #aci ,fig4 #hb ,leather binding with fern motive done in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 #adc ,fig4 #hc ,simple gold tooling on squares4 #add ,fig4 #hd ,design in gold for squares4 ,tools by1 ,f4 ,clement ,leipzig4 #ade ,figs4 #he #hf ,two designs in gold for squares4 #ade ,figs4 #hg1 ,three simple backs4 ,t1 d1 ,b ,title2 ,n1 ,t #hh1 #hi ,sub ,title4 #adg ,fig4 #ij ,type-holder with centre position4 #adh ,figs4 #ia1 #ib1 ,four backs tooled in the ,duesseldorf ,technical #ic1 #id ,school4 #adi ,fig4 #ie ,group of backs tooled in ,carlsruhe ,technical ,school4 #aej ,figs4 #if #ig ,two richly decorated insides done in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 #aej ,figs4 #ih1 #ii1 ,four richly tooled backs #ajj #ajb #aea ,fig4 #ajb ,rich half-calf extra binding4 #aeb ,figs4 #ajc #ajd ,tooling on heads4 #aec ,figs4 #aje1 ,tooling on the edges of the boards4 #ajf1 #ajg #aed ,fig4 #ajh ,motive executed in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 #aed ,fig4 #aji ,case to protect book4 #aee ,fig4 #aaj ,cut-out case4 #aee ,fig4 #aaa ,book cover4 #aee ,fig4 #aab ,cover in case form4 #aee ,figs4 #aac #aad ,end papers for account books4 #aeh ,fig4 #aae ,boards cut out at head4 #afj ,fig4 #aaf ,suggestion for account book back4 ,k ,pared edge2 ,t ,part to be pasted4 #afa ,fig4 #aag ,suggestion for account book back4 #afb ,fig4 #aah ,boarded account book4 #afc ,fig4 #aai ,to show where turn-in is to be cut4 #afd ,fig4 #abj ,hand numbering machine4 #afe ,fig4 #aba ,suggestion for back of guard book4 #aff ,fig4 #abb ,pattern for dust flaps4 7,leinwand ,linen hinge47 #afg ,fig4 #abc ,eyeleting machine4 #agb ,figs4 #abd-abg ,showing stages of pinning down for stretching4 #agc ,,the ,,metric ,,and ,,british ,,systems4 ,,table ,,of ,,comparison4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,metres4,decimetres4,centimetres4,millim etres4,inches4 ---------------------------------------- --------- 4#jja 4#ja 4#a #a 4#jci 4#jjb 4#jb 4#b #b 4#jgi 4#jjc 4#jc 4#c #c 4#aah 4#jjd 4#jd 4#d #d 4#aeg 4#jje 4#je 4#e #e 4#aig 4#jjf 4#jf 4#f #f 4#bcf 4#jjg 4#jg 4#g #g 4#bgf 4#jjh 4#jh 4#h #h 4#cae 4#jji 4#ji 4#i #i 4#ced 4#ja 4#a #a #aj 4#cid 4#jb 4#b #b #bj 4#ghg 4#jc 4#c #c #cj #a4aha 4#jd 4#d #d #dj #a4ege 4#je 4#e #e #ej #a4ifh 4#jf 4#f #f #fj #b4cfb 4#jg 4#g #g #gj #b4gef 4#jh 4#h #h #hj #c4aej 4#ji 4#i #i #ij #c4edc 4#a #a #aj #ajj #c4id 4#b #b #bj #bjj #g4hg 4#c #c #cj #cjj #aa4ha 4#d #d #dj #djj #ae4ge 4#e #e #ej #ejj #ai4fi 4#f #f #fj #fjj #bc4fb 4#g #g #gj #gjj #bg4ef 4#h #h #hj #hjj #ca4ej 4#i #i #ij #ijj #ce4dc #a #aj #ajj #ajjj #ci4cg ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,weight4 #a gramme #ae4dd grains4 #bh-a_/c grammes #a oz4 avoird4 #a kilogramme #ajjj grammes #b4bj lb4 avoird4 ,,length4 #a metre #ajj centimetres #ci4cg inches4 ,roughly speaking1 #a metre a yard and a tenth4 #a centimetre two-fifths of an inch4 #a kilometre #ajjj metres five-eighths of a mile4 ,,volume4 #a cubic metre #ajjj litres #ce4cb cubic feet4 #a litre #ajjj cubic centimetres 4#bbjb gall4 ,,heat4 #a calorie #c4if ,british thermal units4 ,,comparison ,,between ,,fahrenheit ,,and ,,centigrade ,,thermometers4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ,c4 ,f4 ---------------------------------------- ------ -#be -#ac #e #da #be #gg #fe #adi #aje #bba -#bj -#d #h #df4d #cj #hf #gj #aeh #aaj #bcj -#ag #a4d #aj #ej #ce #ie #ge #afg #aae #bci -#ae #e #ab #ec4f #dj #ajd #hj #agf #abj #bdh -#aj #ad #ae #ei #de #aac #he #ahe #abe #beg -#e #bc #ag #fb4f #ej #abb #ij #aid #acj #bff #j #cb #ah #fd4d #ee #aca #ie #bjc #ace #bge #a #cc4h #bj #fh #fj #adj #ajj #bab #adj #bhd ---------------------------------------- ------ ,to ,convert3-- ,degrees ,c4 to ,degrees ,f41 multiply by #i1 divide by #e1 then add #cb4 ,degrees ,f4 to ,degrees ,c41 first subtract #cb1 then multiply by #e and divide by #i4 ,,preface4 ,nowadays the bookbinder does not bind only those books given to him for this purpose as was the case in former years1 for present conditions necessitate his undertaking many kinds of work which have little or nothing to do with the binding of books1 particularly such as are connected with the making or finishing of printed matter and paper goods1 or where pasting1 gumming1 and glueing are required1 which1 in their turn1 are connected with paper and cardboard4 ,on the other hand1 some branches of the bookbinder's craft have now become quite distinct1 and have developed into special industries1 and have so enlarged and extended that even their particular methods of working and technical terms have quite changed4 ,cardboard goods1 leather goods1 photo albums1 maps1 and even account-books are treated by particular firms as specialities4 ,as we must now keep within clearly defined limits1 we shall treat here only the work of bookbinding proper as far as it is concerned with the making of the book for publisher1 bookseller1 and buyer1 and also the making of account-books1 whilst the other work given to the binder1 commonly called fancy goods1 must be excluded4 ,editions de luxe1 charters1 illuminated addresses1 c41 are likewise excluded1 as they are quite apart from the ordinary work of the bookbinder1 belonging solely to artistic bookbinding4 ,when any such work is required the intelligent worker will not be at a loss2 besides1 he will derive ample assistance from the illustrations for this class of work4 ,the parts of this little book have been so arranged as to correspond to our present-day division of work3 preparatory work1 forwarding1 covering1 and finishing4 ,in ,england and ,france the various processes have for a long time been similarly termed1 and although in ,germany we could not follow their lead without any deviation1 because our method of work and division of labour are so different1 yet the basis of this arrangement has been used in this book4 ,every text-book has some drawback1 the greatest of these being that a practical demonstration on the subject is more helpful than the most detailed written description1 and yet even in the latter a text-book is limited4 ,for the rest1 ,i have tried to be as brief and clear as ever possible and to avoid faults which ,i have discovered in my former writings of a similar kind4 ,paul ,adam4 ,duesseldorf1 ,germany1 #ahih4 ,,introductory ,,remarks ,,on ,,working ,,methods ,,and ,,materials4 ,the bookbinder works with quite a large variety of materials which are mostly what we might call half-made1 that is to say1 such materials as have already undergone some hand or machine process in order to make them fit for the work of the bookbinder4 ,this is not the place to go into details as to the source of all these materials or the manner of their production3 that may be seen in special treatises4 ,we separate into various groups the materials we use4 ,a4--,,materials ,,for ,,sewing ,,and ,,pasting4 ,the bookbinder himself prepares his paste from wheaten flour and boiling water4 ,put in a shallow vessel1 by preference a stone or enamelled metal wash-basin1 the quantity of flour required for about eight days1 pour in as much water as will make a mixture by soaking and stirring of the consistency of honey4 ,add to it boiling water1 first slowly1 then quicker1 stirring all the time4 ,it does not do to add the water too quickly1 as that is likely to make the paste knotty or lumpy1 because it cannot be stirred quickly enough and the gluten develops unequally4 ,if added too slowly1 the starch is not heated quickly enough and does not thicken sufficiently or not quickly enough1 and the paste turns out too thin4 ,good paste1 when cold1 should not be stiff like pudding1 but should be easily worked with a brush4 ,in order to prevent a skin forming on the top whilst cooling1 pour over the paste as much cold water as will cover the surface immediately after the mixing with the boiling water2 this water is afterwards poured off4 ,in summer when the paste is made1 and whilst still hot1 add a few drops of turpentine and mix well2 this preserves the paste and keeps off insects4 ,the addition of alum to the paste tends to make it watery1 besides having no preservative properties4 ,if required1 paste may be thinned by adding a little warm water4 ,potato flour is often used fraudulently for making paste1 but this should only be taken when it is possible to use it up quickly1 and not for books1 but only for fancy goods1 as this flour does not possess great adhesive power and is unsuitable for leather4 ,glue is made from the well-known cake glue4 ,the best ,english glue1 although the dearest1 is the cheapest to use4 ,good glue whilst soaking in water should still retain a certain degree of stickiness1 must not be greasy1 and should have no disagreeable smell4 ,glue if weighed before soaking and afterwards dried and again weighed should give no perceptible loss in weight4 ,good glue should not have a disagreeable taste1 and above all should not betray the presence of salt4 ,to obtain the proper consistency in glue for bookbinding1 a quantity of the cakes is taken and sufficient water poured over it to cover well4 ,the next day the gelatinous mass is taken out of the water and dissolved in the glue-pot by placing the softened glue in a pot standing in an outer vessel containing boiling water4 ,glue should never be boiled nor placed directly on the fire1 as that causes the loss of the best part of its adhesive property4 ,glue and paste are generally worked with a brush4 ,for paste a large hollow brush is used2 this holds a large quantity of paste and covers a large surface4 ,for glue a closer brush with a metal fastening is used1 because here the hairs cannot be secured with pitch owing to the brush being constantly exposed to heat4 ,on the paste brush there must be neither ring nor anything else of iron1 as this used in paste would cause rust1 and rust would give iron stains to light-coloured leathers4 ,for the same reason no enamelled vessel should be used for paste after the enamel has once been chipped or worn4 ,laying the glue or paste on a material is called glueing or pasting4 ,a zinc-plate is the most serviceable pasting-board1 as the paste is easily washed off4 ,glue can be scraped or soaked off and used again4 ,pasting-boards of mill-board or paper are hardly to be recommended1 as their use entails a considerable loss of material4 ,of other adhesive substances1 dextrine1 gum1 gelatine1 and isinglass are used for certain purposes4 ,the two former are always used cold1 the two latter warm4 ,the former are dissolved in cold water2 gelatine and isinglass are soaked exactly like glue1 the water poured off1 and then melted in the glue-pot4 ,dextrine and gum are used by the bookbinder almost exclusively for pasting larger surfaces1 and for laying on these substances a broad thin brush fastened with a metal strip is used4 ,fig4 #a4--;,glue-pot for heating by petroleum4 ,to heat the glue and to maintain the heat a glue-heating apparatus is used4 ,the upper part always consists of the glue-pot4 ,the better kinds are made of copper or brass wrought or moulded in one piece4 ,for the sake of convenience a partition is let into this pot so that thick and thin glue may be ready for use at the same time4 ,the glue is not heated directly over the flame1 but by hot water2 to do this the glue-pot is placed within a larger vessel containing water1 the glue-pot at the same time closely fitting to the outer rim of the larger vessel4 ,this contrivance is placed over a petroleum1 gas1 or spirit lamp1 which gives the required heat4 ,in some districts where brown coal is found1 it is heated on a specially made contrivance with the brown coal waste4 ,the latest method of heating is by electricity4 ,the apparatus necessary for this has been put on the market by the firm ,w4 ,leo1 ,stuttgart4 ,the majority of bookbinderies1 large and small1 use a strong linen hemp-spun thread for sewing1 the strength of which depends upon the weight and size of the sheets to be sewn4 ,as it is inconvenient to be obliged to be continually beginning a new thread or knotting1 most bookbinders use a reel of thread4 ,the so-called ,marschall thread is the best4 ,the book is held together by cords1 for which the so-called sewing cord is used4 ,there are now special kinds made for the purposes of the bookbinder2 these are lightly twisted out of a long fibrous material so that afterwards they can be easily undone for the subsequent necessary scraping out4 ,certain kinds of bindings are sewn upon tapes2 strong raw linen tape of #a-a-a_/b cm4 being the material most generally used4 ,for machine sewing1 thread is generally used4 ,tinned iron wire1 ready wound on spools1 is also used4 ,it is made in various sizes and used according to the weight of the sheets4 ,b4--,,material ,,for ,,covering ,,the ,,book4 ,the real protection against outward injury to the book lies in the cover1 the inside of which consists of boards more or less strong4 ,of the kinds on the market the bookbinder uses grey-board1 which is made from waste paper and rags4 ,it is grey1 very tough1 and flexible1 but dearer than other raw materials4 ,straw-boards made from straw and waste paper are cheaper1 but less flexible1 and are easily broken4 ,they take a very high polish under the calendering machine and become very hard1 and are therefore very suitable for some work if flexibility is not essential4 ,they are generally used in all cloth binding4 ,so-called leather-boards are unsuitable1 for1 in spite of great toughness and pliancy1 they are certain to cockle and always remain spongy4 ,wooden-boards are unsuitable for bookbinding on account of their small resistance1 but are indispensable for fancy goods and portfolios1 as they can be so nicely cut and are less liable to subsequent cockling than any other kind4 ,besides these1 yellow and blue boards are made4 ,these are coloured to suit and serve quite special purposes1 mostly fancy goods2 but they also are not used in bookbinding1 on account of their high price4 ,the thinnest boards are known as middles4 ,this is a strong whitish material made entirely from waste-paper4 ,it is used for lining backs1 limp bindings1 and in all cases where flexibility1 together with durability1 is required4 ,in finished work--books1 fancy goods1 maps--the boards are never left exposed to view1 but are covered with paper1 cloth1 or leather4 ,for the inner side of the cover of the book white or coloured paper is frequently used1 note-paper of the smallest size being more rarely used4 ,all marbled or pressed papers are made in one standard size4 ,besides the end papers for inside of books1 a figured paper has of late been made known as litho printed for fancy goods4 ,this has been put on the market in the most varied kinds1 and also with cloth-like impressions1 under the names damask1 brocade1 and ,leipzig end papers4 ,the use of this paper has of late been almost discontinued4 ,the dearest are those printed with designs in gold4 ,cloth is more durable than paper1 calico being mostly used4 ,this is made in all colours and designs1 and was formerly imported from ,england2 but to-day ,german manufacturers produce a really good article4 ,plain linen cloth1 black1 green1 or grey1 sail cloth1 buckram1 mole-skin1 and beaver are used in the making of account-books4 ,silk is used in the bookbindery as end papers in extra work1 and also for fancy goods and for lining boxes4 ,the lower grades are seldom used1 the better qualities being mostly taken4 ,to-day velvet is still used in the bindery1 chiefly as a covering for portfolios1 albums1 and addresses1 and except for metal clasps remains without ornamentation4 ,the bookbinder's best material1 to which is given the choicest1 most expensive1 and most painstaking decoration1 is leather in its various kinds4 ,sheep-skin1 undyed or split and dyed1 serves for school books and other cheap work4 ,goat-skin and morocco are better kinds1 the latter being preferable both as regards price and quality4 ,morocco is made from the skin of the goat4 ,morocco1 ,levant morocco1 and maroquin all denote the same kind4 ,it is a strong1 coarse-grained leather imported from the ,levant1 very tough and durable4 ,cape morocco1 also called maroquin ecrase1 is similar to this4 ,this has a very large1 artificially smooth-pressed grain1 and hitherto has been higher in price than all other leathers4 ,calf 7matt or polished7 is quite smooth and is only used for fine work4 ,cowhide is similar to this1 but of coarser texture1 and is only used for leather goods1 portfolios1 and albums2 for other work in the bindery it is not easily enough worked4 ,celluloid is one of the latest materials used for covers4 ,there is evidently a good opening for this in the wholesale manufacturies1 stamped goods1 and small fancy goods2 whilst on the other hand it is of little value to the smaller shops1 as it requires machinery for gilding4 ,c4--,,materials ,,for ,,decorating ,,and ,,finishing4 ,for the decoration of our work1 either during or after production1 there will be a large variety of materials used4 ,colours are used for the decoration of the cut edges and the cut heads of books4 ,the smooth1 uniformly coloured edges are made by a body colour--carmine1 scarlet1 chrome yellow1 silk green1 indigo blue4 ,all these colours must be very finely ground before using2 the addition of a little paste or dissolved gelatine makes the colour adhere4 ,for marbling the edges ,halfer's marbling colours are now exclusively used2 these are to be had ready for use4 ,amongst the binders' materials gold takes quite an important place4 ,leaf-gold in various colours is supplied either by the gold-beater or the wholesale dealer4 ,the colour most used at the present time is orange gold1 which is about the same in tint as our current gold coinage4 ,red gold is somewhat deeper in tone4 ,green gold and lemon gold are considerably altered by an alloy of silver1 and are sold cheaper4 ,besides gold there are still other leaf-metals used1 principally aluminium as a substitute for silver4 ,the latter is still being used1 but its unfortunate property of turning black will by-and-by drive it from our workshops4 ,bronze-leaf is also used for very small jobs in large quantities--makers' names on hat linings1 ties1 c4 ,like silver1 it is also liable to rapid oxidization1 which takes place with especial rapidity upon leather4 ,gold leaf is made in various sizes4 ,the larger size1 about #he mm41 is the best to use1 whilst the very small sizes are better suited for some work4 ,as a ground-work for gilt edges1 the so-called poliment 7,armenian bole7 is now generally used4 ,this is cleaned bole1 made into a paste1 and applied in a solution not too thin4 ,to make the gold stick to the surface1 glair or white of egg is used in all cases4 ,it must be properly diluted according to whether it is to be used for gilt edges or hand-tooling4 ,finished work1 especially smooth surfaces1 is improved by the application of varnish1 and is at the same time rendered damp-proof4 ,the so-called bookbinder's or leather varnish is used for leather1 cloth1 or pressed dark papers4 ,map varnish1 also sold as photographer's varnish1 is suitable for light articles1 maps1 placards1 c4 ,at present1 spirit varnish with its quick drying and high surface is almost exclusively used for this purpose4 ,turpentine varnishes are no longer generally used in bookbinderies2 in colour printing copal and amber varnishes are used4 ,the ready-made headband is an article specially manufactured for the bookbinder4 ,it is fastened on the book in suitable lengths to cover the place where the body and back of books join at head and tail4 ,these headbands are to be had in the most varied styles1 according to price and requirement4 ,for ordinary work a cheap cotton is good enough1 for fine half-calf bindings a silk headband is used if it is not intended to weave by hand a headband of silk thread for decoration known as a worked headband4 ,besides the headband1 the book-marker is required1 generally a silk braid in bright colours4 ,it is often necessary to fix clasps to heavy books and also to the smaller hymn-books and prayer-books4 ,these are made to suit all requirements and in various styles by firms making a speciality of this work4 ,the stronger the metal used1 the better the clasp and the easier for the worker to handle1 as clasps of poorer quality are sometimes spoilt even whilst being fixed to the books4 ,imitation metal fastenings are necessary for certain purposes1 although their use is now considerably limited4 ,these are the stamped metal rims and corner pieces1 which are indispensable in the manufacture of sample cases1 c4 ,the fancy goods with their decorated borders which were so popular at one time have disappeared from the trade2 on the other hand1 there has been a demand for fancy coloured cords made by twisting cords together4 ,d4--,,tools4 ,the bookbinder's workshop of to-day presents quite a different aspect from that of our forefathers1 even if we go back only #ej years4 ,the work benches as now found in small leather or jobbing shops stand near wide and lofty windows1 each bench having a large drawer at each worker's place4 ,underneath1 between the legs of the bench1 there is a board fixed on supports upon which boxes containing colours or any other materials in use are placed within easy reach2 and so that the board may not inconvenience the worker sitting in front of it1 a semi-circular opening is cut at each worker's place4 ,at each place there is a stool1 somewhat higher than an ordinary chair1 with three legs and a round flat seat4 ,the legs are connected by strong bars for the worker to rest his feet upon4 ,shelves for the larger tools are conveniently arranged on the walls1 so as not to be a hindrance1 but still within easy reach4 ,a few smaller chests with drawers are required for the storing of smaller tools and pieces of metal ornament1 c4 ,a sufficient number of wooden presses1 pressing boards in folio1 quarto1 and octavo1 with the screw key1 as well as the press jack belonging thereto1 must be conveniently placed4 ,the screw key is used when applying heavy pressure2 the press jack serves as a support during certain work which necessitates laying the press on the edge of the bench4 ,if we add a few larger and smaller cutting boards and a few sewing frames1 we have completed the list of the large wooden tools4 ,the bookbinder requires very many small tools1 even if we take into account only those necessary for ordinary shop-work4 ,iron rules and squares in various sizes1 shears1 knives1 compasses and spring dividers1 folders1 files1 pincers and hammers of different sizes1 chisels1 gouges1 and punches4 ,the finisher's tools are3 ,gold cushion1 gold knife1 scraper1 steel2 and furthermore1 for hand-tooling1 letter-box1 fillets1 rolls1 ornaments1 and letters1 all very fine and very dear tools1 which must be kept in special cupboards and boxes so as to protect from possible injury4 ,the higher the class of work done in the shop1 the larger must be the stock of these tools4 ,these are the tools for general work and which no shop could be without2 but what makes our modern workshop so different in character from what it was in former times are the many mechanical contrivances without the aid of which practical and profitable work is now inconceivable4 ,the most necessary iron ally of the bookbinder is the cutting machine1 either with lever or wheel action1 the former for light1 the latter for heavy work4 ,machine manufacturers vie with one another in their efforts to introduce inventions and improvements2 but to-day it would seem impossible to make a discovery likely to be of any importance4 ,the second most necessary machine is for cutting boards4 ,those with a wooden pedestal and table are not so much to be recommended as those made entirely of iron4 ,when gilding in large quantities has to be done1 a blocking press is necessary2 lever action is always to be preferred to the balance or rotary action1 the latter being of advantage for blocking or relief work1 and also for fancy paper work4 ,even the best blocking press has some drawback2 to be of any value1 it necessitates quite an arsenal of plates and dies for blocking1 and also calls for the constant replenishing and renewing of the same4 ,the standing press is used for heavy pressure applied to large batches of books4 ,an iron press with two uprights will be found sufficient even for heavy use in most bookbinderies4 ,the rounding machine is now out of use4 ,the binder rounds the back of the book with a hammer1 and then it is backed in a backing machine1 which puts the ridges on both sides of the book4 ,the latest machine now being used in some of our large binding shops for this purpose is called the rounding and backing machine1 which completely rounds and backs the book4 ,the rolling machine of to-day is lighter than were the first models of this machine2 besides1 the work is in many cases unnecessary1 as modern printed books are generally carefully rolled before they leave the printer4 ,the wire-stitching machine came into use in ,england about #bj years ago1 but is now abandoned4 ,the wire-stapling machine is used for pamphlets1 school-books1 c4 ,eyeleting and round-cornering machines are smaller appliances1 whilst the backing machine mentioned above is a very useful ally4 ,machines for scraping and paring leather are used least of all1 as there is little for them to do in a small bookbindery4 ,the foregoing is not an exhaustive list of our tools and machines1 but we will bring to a close these introductory remarks on the usual appliances1 as mention will be made of the others in their proper place4 ,,part ,i4 ,,forwarding4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,general ,,preparatory ,,work4 ,books reach the bookbinder either in the sheets just as they left the printing press or folded and stitched4 ,this folding and stitching is1 of course1 part of the binder's work1 so we will begin with the sheet as it left the press2 this sheet must in the first place be folded ready for further manipulations4 ,by folding we mean the arranging of the parts of a sheet in the order of succession required for reading4 ,to facilitate this work the printer marks not only the page numbers on each sheet but also gives each sheet a number1 these numbers being known as signatures4 ,every sheet is printed on both sides2 the front side is called the first side1 the other side the perfecting impression4 ,both sides are marked by a number or 7more rarely7 a letter4 ,this mark stands at the right-hand side at foot of first page and is called the first signature2 the second signature takes the same position on the second side of the sheet1 that is1 on page #c4 ,take any book haphazard and you will find the true signature on the first and the second signature on the perfecting impression1 always in the same position4 ,in order to show at a glance whether the signature is the first or the second1 the compositor adds an asterisk1 thus-- #a #a99 or ,a ,a99 first second first second signature4 ,we will see later that there is still another reason for the signature in the place mentioned4 ,when the sheets are to be folded1 all the sheets of an impression are laid one on top of the other and all lying the same way4 ,the modern quick-printing presses gather the sheets automatically1 so that a sheet is rarely laid the wrong way1 excepting through want of care in looking over them1 or in the knocking-up in the printing office a few sheets or a whole batch are thrown out of order4 ,according as we are dealing with folio1 #dto1 or #hvo format we must order the gathering of the sheets and1 of course1 the position of the signature4 ,the commonest format is #hvo1 that is to say1 the size which gives eight printed leaves 7or #af pages7 to the sheet4 ,at the same time1 the method of folding this format is the most economical and includes the others as well4 ,when folding #hvo sheets the pile lies in front of the worker in such a way that all the second signatures lie uppermost at the foot of the outside right page and all the first signatures at the left on the under side of the sheet2 or1 in other words1 all first-side leaves are turned face downward and perfecting impressions face upward4 ,printed sheets are never folded according to the edges of the paper1 but always registered by the printed columns or the page numbers4 ,the novice finds this by holding the sheet against the light1 but the experienced worker is able to fold the sheet without so much as lifting it from the table4 ,figs4 #b and #c--;,holding whilst folding4 ,the manipulations for the folding of an #hvo sheet are as follows3 ,the right hand holds the paper-folder and creases down the folds1 the left gathers the sheets and moves them about aided by the right4 #a4--,the right hand takes hold of the sheet at the right a little below the middle1 brings it over to the left1 when it is taken by the left hand and properly adjusted according to page numbers or corner of printed page 7,fig4 #b74 #b4--;,crease with folder from bottom to top 7the folder is held slanting to the crease1 but the edge is used74 #c4--,with the right hand the right and the left hand the left of the folded sheet are taken hold of at about the middle of the longer sides1 nip together1 make a short turn so that the left hand brings the sheet with its fore-edge to the folder's body1 the left hand lets go1 takes hold of the sheet between both ends at the middle fold1 and adjusts pages and edge of fold alike 7,fig4 #c74 #d4--,the right hand creases from top to bottom4 #e4--,left hand turns sheet over to other side1 both hands take hold as before1 nip together last fold1 and adjust pages and fold4 #f4--;,crease from top to bottom1 laying aside sheet to left1 fold lying to right4 ,the whole process1 which demands considerable dexterity1 is only to be thoroughly learned by example and imitation2 but study the illustrations1 which are correctly drawn from life4 ,this is the way sheets are folded when they come direct from the press2 but if they had already been folded in quires1 as is usually the case with school and hymn books1 the sheets would simply be folded in the middle for convenience of storage and despatch4 ,in this case the quires must first be opened1 the crease taken out1 and the sheets laid open4 ,this work is called breaking the backs4 ,the unfolded sheets are folded in exactly the same manner1 but before the last crease the sheet is turned1 creased from bottom to top1 and put aside in such a way that the sheet is turned over1 that is face downwards4 ,if this precaution is not observed1 the folded sheets would afterwards be found in wrong order4 ,at this point we might remark that the top1 both of the book and the single page1 is called the head1 the bottom the tail4 ,these commonly used terms will very frequently crop up4 ,the folding of a #dto sheet is exactly the same1 excepting that the last fold is omitted2 the second signature lies face upwards at top on the right1 the first signature lies downwards at top left hand4 ,folios are made up but rarely nowadays1 except in artistic editions de luxe1 ,bibles1 and missals2 they are simply folded in the middle2 the signatures appear as in #hvo format4 ,duodecimo format1 that is1 a sheet printed to make #ab pages on each side1 is so printed that the third part of the sheet has to be cut off with a knife or machine4 ,this work is done in various ways3 the sheet may be folded without regard to the one-sided elongation2 after folding the part is cut off with a knife or machine at the proper place and the detached portion inserted in the middle of the main section2 the small section is therefore called the inset4 ,on the other hand1 the inset may be cut off before folding and then separately folded and inserted4 ,this is the more usual method4 ,the cutting off of the inset prior to folding can be done in such a way with the modern quick-printing presses that the sheets are adjusted and cut off in the machine1 or they may be folded in sections of six--eight sheets and cut open in the fold4 ,for cutting open such sections a very sharp knife is required1 either the usual bookbinder's knife or1 better still1 a somewhat longer two-edged paper-knife rounded at the end4 ,formerly1 when printing was not done with such accuracy as now1 the sheets were folded into sections by means of points4 ,the compositor made a point on both sides between main sheet and inset in the furniture where the division had to be made2 if pins were stuck into the table through these points each of the sheets following could be placed on the pins4 ,thus all sheets are brought to perfect register and may be cut with knife and rule or machine exactly through the points4 ,this work is called working to points4 ,the detached portion appears as a long printed slip upon which are four pages or columns side by side4 ,they are folded in a very simple manner4 ,the page on the right is brought over to lie on the page to the left1 registered1 and creased in the middle1 and the double sheet is now folded once more in exactly the same way4 ,inserting is done as follows3 ,the sheets for insertion are placed to the right1 the main sheets at the left side of them2 the right hand takes a sheet to be inserted at about the middle of the fore-edge1 the left hand at the same time taking a main sheet in such a way that thumb1 middle1 and index finger open the sheet about the middle of the upper fold1 and raise it so that the right hand can easily slip in the insertion4 ,whilst doing this1 the left hand slips to the back1 where the forefinger manages the adjustment of the sheet inserted4 ,the insertion is nicely fitted into the back and must lie close to it4 ,this work is also very easy1 but it also is much easier to learn it from example and imitation than by written instruction4 ,if the insets were already arranged before folding1 that is to say1 had the sheets been arranged according to page numbers immediately after printing as before mentioned1 strict attention must be given to see that each main sheet has its insertion1 otherwise the page sequence would be thrown into confusion in binding4 ,in folding1 every fold must be sharply creased down2 but a firmness of body in the sheets1 a smoothness of the single sheet1 and a proper sharpness in each separate fold can only be obtained by pressing the sheets4 ,for this purpose the sheets must first be knocked up1 that is1 they must first be adjusted at head and back by knocking them together on the table4 ,sheets are never pressed without being counted at the same time2 this is done both for convenience in pressing and for checking the work4 ,knocking-up can only be done upon a firm level surface2 the beginner had better not take too many sheets at one time1 say from #bj to #be3 these are moved to and fro between the palms of the hands so that the back fold and upper fold are worked in turn1 and at these sides the sheets are brought into line4 ,knocking-up proceeds quickly if the sheets are handled lightly and freely4 ,the single batches thus levelled are brought together and they in turn knocked up in the same way4 ,care must be taken that single sheets do not hang back1 i4e41 that all sheets come up to the levelled edge4 ,the knocked-up sheets are counted off--thin paper in hundreds1 thick paper in fifties4 ,to do this any big lot is taken hold of with the right hand--one soon learns to judge the quantity to be taken by the fingers--by the fore-edge1 giving the hand a turn so as to bring the backs uppermost1 when the sheets will fan out at the back and thus make the counting an easy matter4 ,the left hand counts--pardon1 the head counts1 but the left hand tells off the sheets in such a way that the middle and index fingers are alternately inserted in #d1 #h1 #ab1 #af1 c41 whilst counting #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 c41 and at the same time throwing over the sheets held4 ,every #beth lot of four sheets gives #ajj1 and1 of course1 any other number you please can be counted in the same manner4 ,each lot is once more knocked up1 placed in piles crosswise1 and afterwards pressed4 ,fig4 #d--,lifting into the ,press4 ,the contrivance for pressing most generally used nowadays is still the bookbinder's little wooden hand-press1 with wooden1 or perhaps iron1 screws2 the former are lighter and handier1 the latter heavier but more durable and therefore of advantage where heavy pressure is demanded4 ,each lot is placed between pressing-boards2 these are about #a-a_/b cm4 thick and vary in length and width according to the sheets or books to be pressed4 ,according to the grain of the wood we speak of long and cross boards4 ,on top of the upper and underneath the lower batch we place a cross board2 it does not matter which way the grain runs in the other boards used4 ,this precaution is taken to obviate the probable breakage when the cheeks of the press run parallel with the grain of the two outer pressing-boards4 ,the pile of sheets between the pressing-boards is so placed that the nuts of the press are at first raised as high as the pile about to be pressed requires1 then the press is put on the table to the right in front of the worker so that the head of one screw at the front touches the table edge4 ,the pile is drawn on to the front edge of the table1 the left hand slips underneath1 and the chin presses on top4 ,whilst raising the upper cheek of the press with the right hand1 the pile is inserted between the opened cheeks1 is adjusted1 and the press screwed up1 first by the hand screws and then by the screw key used for this purpose4 ,to do this the press with its high cheeks is held firmly between the legs and the nuts screwed up with the screw key as tightly as ever possible4 ,at this stage we might mention a work which is very frequently done in the printery1 but seldom in the bindery3 this is the so-called gathering before folding4 ,this work1 as we have already mentioned1 is done so that printed matter for publication can be properly stored or prepared for sending away4 ,fig4 #e--,open sheets laid out for gathering4 ,the sheets are taken just as they left the press and piled up side by side in a row in order of number on a long table1 each pile of sheets in exactly the same position as the others and just as they would be placed for folding2 that is to say1 for #hvos the first signature at the bottom left-hand side underneath1 the second signature being at the bottom right-hand side on the top4 ,generally the work is gathered in batches of #e-f sheets4 ,the sheets in question are then laid out 7see ,fig4 #e74 ,the worker takes a board the required size1 upon which he places the sheets when gathered2 he begins at ,no4 #a pile1 takes off the top sheet1 being very careful not to take two1 lays it upon the board1 and so he goes the length of the table1 taking the top sheet from each pile4 ,he lays the pile of gathered sheets on the end of the table or another table standing behind4 ,they are there received by another worker1 knocked up1 and folded in the middle4 ,if only one worker can be spared for the job1 the gathered sections are placed to one side1 but each is laid crosswise over the other so that they are easily picked up afterwards for knocking up and folding4 ,if the work has more than five or six sections1 the separately gathered sections must be afterwards again gathered in the same manner4 ,perhaps there may be placed in the last section parts of a sheet--the title1 addenda1 corrigenda1 frontispiece1 diagrams1 c4 ,the treatment of these will be dealt with presently 7pp4 #bb-bd74 ,sheets so gathered must be afterwards opened out for folding in the bindery4 ,the section is opened1 the crease well pressed out1 and the whole smoothed down quite flat1 care being taken that all sheets lie the same way1 the opened sections lying side by side according to the signatures4 ,before the folded sheets are arranged or gathered1 there is frequently still some pasting to be done4 ,the title1 for instance1 is seldom printed with the first sheet1 but is usually made up with the preface1 contents1 c41 after printing the last page1 often as part of the last sheet4 ,on this account the last sheet must be examined before folding to see how it is composed4 ,if it happens that the sheet is to be exactly halved1 it is best to cut the sheet in the middle and fold each half separately4 ,it is even worth while cutting the sheet into quarters if the sheets can be pinned on1 because it is then possible to fold the cut sheets in lots of five or six and to draw out each one singly1 as it is commonly called pulling out4 ,this pulling out is very easy work2 each folded batch is separately opened in the middle1 fanned out with a paper folder so that each sheet stands back about #a_/b-a cm4 behind the other1 and the batch folded together again2 it would then appear as in ,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #f--,sections fanned out for drawing out4 ,take the batch lightly between the finger and the thumb of the left hand1 and with the right draw off the sheets from the top one by one1 knock them up1 and firmly press down the back fold4 ,every part of a sheet which after folding makes less than four pages 7equal to two leaves7 must be pasted on4 ,to do this the parts to be pasted are fanned out from the back with the pasting side uppermost1 that is to say1 the sheets are fanned out with the folder in the same way as described for pulling out1 until they lie like steps or stairs1 each sheet displaying an edge of about #c mm4 ,in this manner all sheets so lie upon each other that each is about #c mm4 behind the one under it4 ,the narrow margin is pasted2 to avoid pasting more than the proper margin of the top sheet1 a piece of waste paper should be laid on top at the right distance from the edge4 ,each leaf has thus a narrow pasted edge by which it is secured to the main sheet4 ,so that the pasted edges do not stick together whilst each sheet is being fixed in its place1 which1 of course1 takes time1 the batch is taken between the fingers immediately after pasting1 and by a few light movements the sheets are worked a little further apart4 ,fig4 #g--,sections fanned out for pasting4 ,take the batch at ,a between the finger and thumb of the right hand1 at ,b in the same way with the left2 the upper leaves slip gently backwards if the right hand bends the batch lightly upwards so that the sheets are pushed to ,b1 the left first allows the sheets to slip back and then holds them firmly so that the right may repeat this movement several times4 ,the batch is then so placed across the table that it lies to the right of the worker with the pasted edge away from him1 whilst the pile of sheets to which the parts are to be pasted lies to the left1 also with the back edge away from him4 ,leaf after leaf is taken up1 carefully adjusted to back and upper fold1 and pasted on to the main section and lightly rubbed down to right and left with the finger-tips1 putting aside to the left each sheet as finished4 ,under certain conditions1 the pasting on of a so-called correction may be a very disagreeable task4 ,if errors have been made in composing or printing a page which escaped notice and correction at the proper time1 a revised page is printed1 and this must be inserted by the binder in the place of the faulty one4 ,this inserting is done after the folding2 the faulty leaf is so cut off that a narrow margin is left in the back to which the rectified leaf is pasted4 ,if maps or plans accompany the work these also must be inserted2 thin sheets need simply be pasted on the back edge like other sheets and fixed in their right place2 but thick paper is not easily pasted on and1 besides1 would always pull away the next leaf4 ,it is therefore joined to a narrow strip of paper about #a cm4 in width and this is pasted and fixed in the back4 ,if several plates have to be inserted at the same place1 or to be fixed at the end of the book1 they are joined together in sections of suitable thickness4 ,for this1 thin paper is hinged in the back of the book1 that is1 the two plates are pasted over each other after pasting a narrow margin of about #c mm4 ,when dry1 the double leaf so obtained is folded together in the middle of the pasted little guard4 ,as this process lessens the leaf which has the back-fold by as much as is pasted to the other1 the latter is cut down by #c mm4 beforehand4 ,if there are many such plates to be joined together1 they are made up in sections of #d or #f according to the thickness of the paper1 and every #b or #c cut down according to circumstances1 and the same number left the full size4 ,when all have been properly cut1 the edges are fanned out and pasted4 ,then as many as make up a section are taken up and fanned out a little further1 the pasted edge of ,no4 #a is laid on #f1 #b on #e1 #c on #d1 and the batch set aside on the left and the same process gone through with the next lot4 ,when dry1 the plates thus guarded together are creased together at the back4 ,plates on thick paper must likewise be mounted on strips of paper4 ,these are cut from thin1 strong note-paper and are so arranged that their thickness in the back is the same as the thickness of the plates4 ,it is well to select a paper which when double is as thick as the plates4 ,in case the plates are extra thick1 the guard is made four-fold4 ,the width of the guard must be measured to correspond4 ,if a guard of double thickness only is required for filling up1 it is cut twice the width of the guard and #c mm4 added for pasting on the plate4 ,this gives #b x #a cm4 #c mm4 #bc mm4 ,if a guard of four-fold thickness is necessary1 the result is #d x #a cm4 #c mm4 #dc mm4 ,the plates are fanned out narrowly with the back edge uppermost1 pasted1 and each plate affixed to one of the made guards4 ,this work is called mounting on guards4 ,when the pasted plates are dry they are folded in the back on the following plan according to whether the guard must be two-fold or three-fold4 ,fig4 #h--,suggestions for mounting on guards4 ,thus the folded guard completely fills out the space in the back of the book4 ,besides1 two1 three1 or more plates can easily be made into a section if the little guards are made up within each other4 ,despite this levelling work1 the pasted part will still be noticeable2 the thoroughly dried sections are therefore taken in batches of four or five1 knocked up at the back edge1 and the thick part carefully hammered on a stone or iron bed4 ,just as paper strips have been used in this work1 linen can be used for guarding atlases and mounting large maps which are intended for long and constant use4 ,to fill out the back1 cardboard or thick drawing-paper the thickness of the plates 7or1 if anything1 a little less7 is used4 ,of this material strips are cut #a cm4 in width and same length as the height of the work1 cutting a strip for each plate of course4 ,besides these strips1 cut some soft white calico into strips #c cm4 in width4 ,these are pasted1 laid quite straight upon a clean board1 two strips of paper are placed in the centre side by side on top of the pasted strip1 and at right and left of each a map is hinged on1 the first face downwards1 the second face upwards4 ,when dry1 the section so made is creased in the middle1 knocked down with the hammer1 and pressed for a time4 ,by this method two plates are hinged on each guard2 by the other each plate had its own guard4 ,many books are issued with plates larger than the format of the book itself2 they must be brought to the right size by folding1 but in such a way that the folded plate is secure from injury during any subsequent trimming4 ,before making a single fold in the plate1 the worker should clearly see his way through his scheme for folding1 so as to bring the plate to the size required with the smallest possible number of creases4 ,plates which are slightly wider and longer than the size of the book are easily made to fit if they are folded once or1 if necessary1 twice across the middle1 pasting the edge of one fold on a guard and then fixing in its place in the book4 ,figs4 #i-ac--,suggestions for folding plates and maps4 ,if this will not do1 the plate must first be folded up from the bottom edge far enough to escape damage in trimming1 and then the long side must be similarly folded4 ,larger plates must take more folds1 always working on the principle that the length of the book should first be obtained in the best possible way1 and afterwards the width is taken as the guide in making the folds4 ,in doing this the plate must be folded now to the front1 then to the back1 so that on drawing it out it opens in a zigzag fashion4 ,for the sake of clearness we give illustrations showing the most general methods of folding4 ,the part marked ,a is secured in its place in the book by mounting on a paper guard2 but one may1 by cutting out the map properly1 leave a small margin which will serve as a guard as shown in ,figs4 #aj1 #ab1 and #ac4 ,in all cases1 however1 it is essential that the thickness of the folded plates should be equalised by inserting guards in the back of the book4 ,formerly1 when several plates were inserted one after the other1 it was customary to place them in such a way that they were trimmed at top and bottom alternately2 now they are placed so that they are all trimmed at the top edge3 this is much better1 because it keeps the top edge smooth and close1 thereby keeping out dust and insects4 ,the accompanying sketches are based upon this principle4 ,the so-called two-page illustrations in periodicals must be treated in the same way4 ,these are only possible in the middle of a section1 where they would be caught into the back and injured if the following precaution were not observed4 ,such illustrations are taken out1 the back edge pasted1 and then placed in the back so as to adhere to the following sheets1 projecting about #a_/b cm4 ,the printed sheets thus treated must now be collected by the same process--that is if they have not been gathered in open sheets in the printery--into volumes2 this work is generally known as gathering after folding4 ,as in gathering open sheets1 the piles of folded sheets are placed side by side2 but as these take up so much less room than the open sheets1 in most cases the whole work may be laid out at one time4 ,clear the longest table procurable1 which if not long enough must be extended by the addition of small tables1 trestles1 c41 upon which are laid the batches of sheets in fifties1 and1 beginning with the last sheet1 work up the row until the title page is reached and the gathering ended4 ,starting from the left1 the gathered sheets are placed to the right2 after the last sheet1 i4e41 the title page1 there should be sufficient room for placing the gathered sheets and also1 if possible1 for knocking up and collating1 that is1 checking the sequence of the sheets4 ,the gatherer begins with the last sheet on the left1 draws the top sheet with the right hand on to the left hand held flat to receive it1 and so goes along the row1 drawing from each pile one sheet1 which drops into its place on top of the preceding one in the left hand4 ,this work can be carried on simultaneously by several persons following each other1 but there must be a sufficient number of persons stationed at the end ready to knock up and collate the gathered sheets4 ,in order to simplify this work and to enable one to take up the completed gathering at the title page1 the pile containing the title page sheet is plainly marked across the back with a blue or red pencil1 so that one sees on the back of each single sheet a coloured mark easily seen in the gathered and knocked-up sheets4 ,fig4 #ad--;,collating4 ,to collate a book it is taken in both hands4 ,taking a good hold of it by the right hand at the top edge1 it is lightly held by the left at the bottom towards the back4 ,now make a turn downwards with the right so that the whole pack of sheets springs upwards and spreads out at the back like a fan1 and the controlling left hand lets them go one at a time1 whilst checking the sequence of the signatures1 that is to say1 the sheets must be checked to see whether instead of the right signatures following in due order there is not a second signature or perhaps none at all4 ,in such a case the sheet must be taken out and re-folded4 ,it may be well to refer now to another more detailed branch of this work which is necessary for certain purposes4 ,if books which have already been used or bound are sent for re-binding it would be very unsafe to rely upon the pages being in proper order1 especially if they have been much torn and have to be mended4 ,very frequently the leaves of a section have been misplaced4 ,in such cases the book is laid flat upon the table1 the head lying to the top1 and1 beginning at the title1 leaf by leaf is lifted with the point of a knife after the way some ignorant persons have of using a moistened finger4 ,the knife point is not inserted under the leaf lying uppermost but is lightly placed at the top of the leaf near the page number and the leaf pushed up from the side so that the left index finger takes it as it separates from the succeeding leaf whilst the eye scans the page numbers #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 c4 ,also with other things that do not admit of any other method of collating1 e4g41 ledgers1 documents1 c41 this is the only possible way of doing it4 ,nowadays1 paper received in the printery has been so well calendered beforehand--that is to say1 polished between rollers--and after printing the sheets are once more so well rolled that the gathered sheets may at once be prepared for sewing4 ,old paper1 however1 must be beaten or rolled to make it firm and solid4 ,the former work will be completely forgotten at no very distant date1 as the younger generation of masters and men show less and less inclination to learn it4 ,for beating1 a stone about the height of a low table1 and a surface about the size of a sheet may be used1 or a cast-iron plate about #f cm4 in thickness embedded in a block of wood the same height as the stone4 ,upon this firm base--which1 of course1 must stand on the ground floor or in the cellar--the book1 or section of it if too thick1 is beaten with a short-handled iron hammer1 the face of which measures about #ajj sq4 cm4 ,all corners and edges are well rounded off1 and the face is slightly convex4 ,the handle must be short1 not above #ab cm4 long1 cut oval1 and just thick enough to be well grasped4 ,the hole in the hammer is made so that the handle drops a little at the 7outer7 end4 ,in beating1 the sections should be held by the left hand after being knocked up4 ,in order to prevent injury to the paper1 the sections are placed between pieces of waste paper of same size1 also a mill-board or piece of waste paper to size is laid upon the beating stone4 ,the right hand wields the hammer1 which must strike the sections 7or book7 fairly and squarely with the full face4 ,the beating is begun at the edge1 and blow after blow is given in gradually lessening circles until the centre is reached1 the left hand1 of course1 keeping up the necessary motion of the sections4 ,it requires considerable practice to do this without shifting the sections1 but if this happens they must again be knocked up4 ,the experienced workman knows by the touch where the book has been beaten much or little and works accordingly4 ,the main thing in this1 as in all other work1 is that the book should be again pressed for some time--for a night at the least4 ,the beaten volumes are divided into several lots or sections about a finger thick1 and pressing-boards placed between them4 ,if any sections show folds or creases even after pressing1 they must be once more beaten and pressed4 ,fig4 #ae--,rolling machine4 ,the work of beating1 as already said1 has been almost entirely superseded by the rolling machine4 ,in treatises by theorists1 one finds over and over again that books are not so well bound nowadays owing to the practice of hand-beating being discontinued4 ,this opinion is absurd1 and arises from a very superficial technical knowledge and wholly imperfect acquaintance with the requirements of our craft4 ,a machine-rolled or unbeaten book is always much better than one imperfectly beaten1 for here nothing is demanded but sheer force1 and that is always exercised with better results by a machine4 ,as already pointed out1 our modern printed books do not require any such work2 besides1 the so-called surface papers and printed illustrations prohibit both beating and rolling1 as such work would destroy the high surface of the paper4 ,old books1 on the contrary1 where the paper is unsized1 spongy1 and swollen1 require some such work1 as pressing alone1 even for days1 has not the required effect4 ,in beating1 the work should be divided into sections or lots of #ae to #bj sheets2 they need not be counted1 they are measured by the eye4 ,for rolling1 however1 the sheets must be counted off exactly1 from #h to #ab2 they are knocked up and placed between zinc plates of same size and passed through the rollers obliquely1 the upper back corner being first inserted4 ,it is well to introduce the second lot before the first has quite passed through the rollers2 this not only saves the rollers but avoids the extra pressure on the lower corner when a section leaves the rollers4 ,for this reason it is advisable to insert the lots right and left alternately4 ,the first lot rolled should be examined to test the amount of pressure1 and at first a lighter pressure should be applied to avoid risk of injury4 ,we have now come to the end of the processes through which a book has to pass before it is actually made up into book form4 ,before we take up this work there is incidental work to be mentioned which comes before the work of binding proper4 ,this is the stitching and treatment of stitched or bound books for binding and the necessary repairs thereto4 ,the stitched or brochured book is no true book form2 it is nothing more than the gathered sheets of a work in a temporary form1 handier and more convenient1 and therefore more saleable4 ,to prevent leaves from falling out in the event of their being cut open1 they are lightly stitched together--hollaendert4 ,how did the name originate8 ,it is difficult to say4 ,perhaps books stitched in this manner were first brought out in ,holland4 ,with this method of sewing1 the sheet only gets one short thread in the middle2 but as the sewing of each sheet separately would entail a considerable loss of time1 that old contrivance of the bookbinder for most kinds of sewing work1 the sewing frame1 is here made use of4 ,a base or bed has on each front corner a perpendicular screw1 upon which is placed a movable cross-bar with a slit4 ,this bar is regulated by two screws2 lay cords are fastened to hooks which are slipped through the slits1 the other ends being knotted to metal keys fixed under the base4 ,a narrow movable bar1 bevelled to the front of the bed1 holds these keys when the lay cords are tightened4 ,fig4 #af--,sewing frame4 ,there are no lay cords on the sewing frame for the work of ,hollaendering as in other kinds of sewing1 but two strips of zinc plate about #a to #a-a_/b cm4 in width are fastened so that at the top they are attached to the hooks and at the bottom are held with a pin4 ,the lot to be sewn is placed rather slant-wise on the bed of the frame to the left1 the back turned outwards1 the head to the sewer1 all sheets1 therefore1 facing away from the worker4 ,fig4 #ag--;,arrangement on the sewing frame4 ,the left hand takes the upper sheet with thumb and middle finger1 so that the forefinger at once falls in the middle of the sheet1 turning the sheet so that the head ,a lies to the left and face upwards as shown in the illustration2 zinc strips are stretched at the points x4 ,the left hand is introduced into the opened sheets from behind to take the needle when pushed in and then to draw it out again2 the right hand inserts the needle from outside1 and also draws out the needle inserted from inside by the left hand4 ,all kinds of sewing on the sewing frame are divided between both hands in the same way4 ,the threaded needle is now introduced into the sheets to the right of the right strip at the back fold and again brought out to the right of the left strip1 the sheets being meanwhile held open by the left hand4 ,the thread is drawn out1 except for a short end1 the second sheet taken and laid open1 and the needle is now introduced to the left of the left strip and brought out to the left of the right strip2 and so on1 each time introducing the needle from the right side to the right of the strip and from the left side to the left of the strip1 drawing out accordingly4 ,the thread is only to be seen on the outside of the strips4 ,the so-called ,english darning-needle--a long needle with a long eye--is used by the bookbinder4 ,a special thread is made on purpose1 the highest number being used for hollaendering4 ,when the sewing frame is packed so full that the sheets can no longer be kept properly squared1 a sharp knife is taken and the threads cut off along the metal strips1 and the sheets are then removed from the sewing frame4 ,every sheet is now independent of the other1 and has a thread in the middle1 of which a little may be seen at each needle-hole4 ,these ends are afterwards pasted up in the work to follow4 ,it is clear from this method of sewing that it is not necessary to tie a second thread on to the first when finished1 but simply to begin with a new thread1 letting the ends always project a little4 ,this method is the more recent and practical4 ,it admits of one kind of sheet being sewn immediately after folding3 nay1 more3 whilst one folder is still busy folding1 another may begin to hollaender4 ,it is not till afterwards that the sheets are gathered4 ,gathered sheets are sewn in the same way1 and are more easily knocked up than when sewn on cords and the threads left uncut after the old style instead of on metal bands4 ,in hollaendert sheets the threads lie as shown in ,fig4 #ah4 ,fig4 #ah--;,arrangement of threads in hollaendering4 ,fig4 #ai--,small stapling machine for single sheets4 ,lately1 in brochuring1 the sheets are not hollaendert1 but sewn with wire on the machine4 ,this is a very good method when the finest possible staple closing from the outside is used4 ,for this work a small machine is used1 similar to those used for wiring documents1 copy-books1 and single sheets1 which have an automatic wire-drawing action4 ,the batch of sheets is here arranged face upwards to the right of the worker4 ,the right hand takes the sheet by the head1 opening it at the same time with the forefinger1 and inserts it in the groove of the machine1 which is at the same moment set in motion4 ,with each different sheet the position of the staple must be changed so that all do not stand the same height1 as it would cause the paper to be cut through in pressing4 ,the accompanying sketch shows the arrangement of the collected brochures4 ,fig4 #bj--;,arrangement of staples in brochures4 ,it is barbarous to sew more tightly with wire1 for in the necessary pulling to pieces to bring them to their former state for binding they are sure to be more or less damaged4 ,sewing with a large machine using strips of gauze cannot be recommended4 ,the further treatment of hollaendert or wire-sewn sheets is dealt with towards the end of the chapter4 ,most of the books given to the small binder do not come to him fresh from the printer1 but sewn1 used or unused1 cut open1 or as published4 ,the sheets for binding must1 as far as possible1 be restored to the condition they were in before they were sewn4 ,it is absolutely necessary that they should be made into loose single sheets4 ,this work is called pulling to pieces4 ,the outer cover is torn off1 the thread or wire inside the sheet removed1 and the sheets very carefully separated one by one4 ,when they are all pulled to pieces they are pushed open a little at the back1 first to one side1 then to the other1 and scraped with a knife from top to bottom so as to remove all dirt1 glue1 c41 adhering4 ,where the sheets had been cut open and the inner leaves worked out of place1 they must be well pushed into the back again4 ,the sheet is lightly held half-open in the left hand1 and the leaves are knocked into the back with a long folder or knife4 ,if sheets are found badly folded they must now be properly re-folded4 ,any torn places must be repaired4 ,a special chapter ought really to be devoted to this1 for repairing and restoring is an art in itself4 ,here1 only the most necessary work can be mentioned4 ,there are three different kinds of tears3 tears in the print1 in the margin1 and in the back4 ,the first may be torn with slanting edges2 in such a case1 both edges must be carefully pasted1 fitted to each other1 a piece of paper laid over and under1 and then well rubbed down4 ,if the tear has not slanting edges1 but is clean cut1 it is always best to paste the edges likewise and to join the pieces by overlapping very slightly4 ,it always looks better than the patching with strips of paper--a method adopted even by good workmen4 ,the pasting on of pieces of tissue paper is to be condemned4 ,in cases of repairs like the foregoing1 a piece of unpasted tissue paper may be laid on the repaired place and rubbed down1 so that any paste exuding cannot do harm1 and besides1 it will serve to strengthen a weak place4 ,it may be used1 however1 only on condition that the tint is exactly the same as that of the other paper4 ,tears at the margin are repaired by pasting on strips of the same paper or of a kind as near as possible in texture and tint4 ,to make the mend less noticeable1 the paper should be torn beforehand1 that is to say1 by tearing one side of the paper the edge is less sharply defined and appears more like part of the sheet and is hardly perceptible4 ,tears in the back 7if outside7 leaves are mended by pasting them down on to the following inner leaf2 afterwards the glue makes this place still stronger4 ,if the middle leaf is likewise torn1 a narrow strip is pasted into the back4 ,this may be cut true by the straight-edge if a very narrow strip suffices1 but if the tear is here also sideways a piece of torn paper must be pasted on4 ,if there are backs1 torn off corners1 or the like to be put in1 a suitable paper is selected1 a piece a little larger than the missing piece cut off the edge of the damaged leaf neatly pasted1 the patch laid on slightly overlapping1 and well rubbed down under a piece of waste paper4 ,when thoroughly dry1 the loose edges of the patch should be carefully torn off so as to slope and taper off nicely4 ,when all parts are repaired and the sheets again in proper order1 the book is pressed for a while between boards4 ,it is thus that good books are treated1 and although it would be better to return books of no special value as not worth the labour1 still it does happen that cheap books--mostly school books and periodicals--have to be repaired4 ,a quick way of getting through such work is as follows3-- ,a larger piece of similar paper is well pasted and laid upon a clean cutting-board1 and from this piece strips of the required width are cut1 laid down in their place1 and cut to length with the shears1 and well rubbed down under waste paper4 ,if the pasted piece becomes dry before it is used it must be coated again4 ,all repaired sheets must be laid between mill-boards to dry4 ,worn and damaged periodicals are repaired in the same way4 ,generally the numbers are curled towards the fore-edge4 ,before commencing to pull to pieces they should be rolled towards the back1 especially close to the back1 to straighten them4 ,the leaves must all be well pushed into the back1 turned down corners 7so-called dogs' ears7 must be turned up1 and two-page illustrations must be pasted away from the back4 ,there are generally single or double leaves at the end of each copy or sheet--these must be pasted on4 ,this work is not done singly1 but the whole volume is at once laid open from back to front for pasting4 ,all parts of the sheets to be pasted are placed at the front edge of the table1 the edges fanned out1 the other sheets wherein they are to be placed being meanwhile pushed further back so that they are not touched during pasting4 ,the fanned-out sheets are pasted and each is rubbed down on to the sheet following4 ,it has already been said that in pulling to pieces the wire or thread sewing must be removed2 this is not always easy4 ,to begin with1 the wires must be first bent upwards2 if they are firmly glued to the outside of the back1 the latter has first to be softened by smearing it very thickly with paste1 and after leaving it some little time the glue may be scraped off and the wires loosened4 ,not until then can the wires inside the sheets be removed and the sheets separated4 ,the backs of books that have been bound are softened in the same way4 ,even to-day--,heaven help us6--well-got-up books1 even illustrated works1 are sewn through sideways with coarse wire staples4 ,great care must be used in removing these and in separating the sheets1 so that the bookbinder may at least try to undo the harm caused by barbarous methods practised either in thoughtlessness or ignorance4 ,it sometimes happens that the back of a book is so bad that it is necessary to cut it clean off4 ,the leaves are then made up into sections of #f to #h1 levelled at the back1 and overcast with a fine needle and fine thread4 ,this work can be done quicker with an ordinary sewing-machine1 adjusting it for the longest stitch4 ,new works consisting of thin single sheets are done in the same way4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,sewing4 ,modern books are fastened together by sewing2 as a rule thread is used1 and always in sewing good books4 ,thread sewing is very much better than wire stitching4 ,in the first place1 thread has not the disadvantage of rusting1 to which wire is always subject2 secondly1 thread does not break the paper in the back1 as so frequently happens when cheap paper containing much wood fibre is wire-stitched4 ,the greatest advantage of thread sewing over wire lies in the flexibility of the spun thread2 with sharp pressure it lies flat in the sheet1 whilst wire does not give at all4 ,besides1 it is flexible the whole length1 and this adds greatly to the life of the book4 ,all thread sewing is now done by machinery and is really satisfactory4 ,only the very smallest job shops sew their books by hand4 ,the principle of sewing is to fasten each sheet to several cords or bands by means of a long thread running right along the inside of the sheet4 ,these cords give the book its hold to the cover2 therefore the more cords used1 the more firmly is the book secured to its cover4 ,there are now two methods of fastening the sheets on the cords2 first1 there is the older method of passing the thread along and out of the sheet1 around the cord1 and again into the sheet1 and repeating the same movement at the next band4 ,fig4 #ba--;,arrangement of threads in old style of sewing4 ,nowadays1 this method is almost entirely discarded4 ,when for special reasons1 or on account of its greater strength1 it is desired to imitate the old method1 the sewing is done on double cords2 that is to say1 for every cord two cords are stretched alongside each other and regarded as one4 ,this sewing is more tedious1 as the thread must take up each cord as shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,fig4 #bb--;,arrangement of threads with double cords4 ,these somewhat elaborate modes of sewing have been simplified in recent years by making saw-cuts in the back1 in which the cords are laid4 ,by this means the sewing thread never actually passes out of the sheet1 but is drawn behind the cord lying in the saw-cut and thus holds it4 ,that is why we saw-in our books4 ,the sawing-in is done with a broad saw2 the so-called tenon saw being the one most generally used4 ,the saw-cut must correspond exactly to the thickness of the cord to be used1 should be less deep than wide1 and should not take up too much glue when glueing up1 as this might easily turn brittle4 ,by inclining the saw to right and left alternately during sawing1 the resulting cut will be something like this -----_/-----2 this is the best and most usual form4 ,the common practice of widening the cut by means of a coarse file gives a triangular cut like this -----_/----- which is objectionable1 as the groove gets filled with glue1 thus rendering the thread liable to break4 ,as many cuts must be made in the book as there are cords to be used1 besides the so-called kettle stitch at head and tail by which the thread is passed from one sheet to the other4 ,dividing the back for sawing-in is done by marking off #a cm4 from the head and twice as much from the tail and dividing the rest into equal portions with the dividers4 ,an octavo should never be sewn on less than four cords1 and a folio on six4 ,if obliged to use less through low prices1 then three must be taken as the minimum number1 and that only in exceptional cases4 ,if the books are very small--as1 for instance1 prayer-books and hymn-books less than #g cm4 in height--it may then be permissible to sew on two cords4 ,the division for the different sizes for sawing-in is made as shown in ,fig4 #bc4 ,fig4 #bc--;,divisions for sawing-in4 ,the saw-cuts at the kettle stitch are less deep and quite narrow2 they only mark the place where the thread is to pass in and out4 ,it may be wondered why the distances between the cords1 when using four or six1 are unequal2 the reason for this will be explained when we come to the sewing of such sizes4 ,in sawing-in1 the batch to be sawn is knocked up head and back and put between two boards--if the volumes are thin1 several may be laid together--so that the back projects about #a_/b cm4 beyond the edges of the boards4 ,the first and last sheet of each volume have previously been laid aside1 as these1 with one exception1 are not sawn-in4 ,books and boards are now clamped in a small hand-press1 which is screwed up by hand only4 ,for convenience of working1 the press with the screws is laid flat upon the table1 so that the nuts are against the table edge4 ,the press is propped up at the back by the press-jack4 ,the divisions for the cords are marked on the back with a lead pencil after measuring with the dividers1 and the cuts made according to the markings4 ,if several volumes of the same size are to be sawn-in1 the top sheet of the first batch sawn is used as a guide for marking the others1 thus saving the work of measuring each one with the dividers4 ,where much sawing-in is done1 a sawing-in machine is employed4 ,the sheets are placed1 backs downwards1 in a moveable box1 which is led over a system of circular saws4 ,fig4 #bd--,machine for sawing-in4 ,after the work of sawing-in1 the first and last sheets are replaced1 the volumes again collated1 and the end papers put in place2 the sheets are now ready for sewing4 ,end papers are the blank leaves which the binder places at the beginning and end of a book4 ,they vary according to the style of the book4 ,every end paper consists of a fly leaf 7this lies over the title page in the book71 the paste-down1 and in most cases of a tear-off4 ,for the stronger end papers and in half-leather bindings a cloth joint is used4 ,whilst dealing with these end papers1 we must not forget the narrow guard2 it is worked on the prepared end paper 7as will be shown later7 by folding over1 and serves to enclose the title or end page with which it is sewn4 ,the words joint1 guard1 and swell may here be more clearly explained1 as they are used very frequently in the bindery4 ,in the first place1 we call the part where back and cover are joined by a sort of hinge the joint1 also strips of leather1 cloth1 c41 used for making this part are called joints2 secondly1 the slightly raised part of the back1 caused by pressing or sewing1 is shortly called the swell2 and any strips of linen or paper fastened into the back of the book for hingeing maps1 plates1 c41 are called guards4 ,for use as end papers1 a paper must be selected which suits in quality and tone the printed paper4 ,nothing shows lack of taste more than the use of a blue end paper with a paper of yellow tone4 ,for both back and front a double sheet is necessary and is cut the required size4 ,a paper guard1 about the width of three fingers1 is made from a piece of stout waste paper and pasted on a narrow margin at the back of the double leaf1 in order to protect it in the joint and also for fastening on the cover4 ,if there are single leaves to be used up1 two of these might be pasted to each other narrowly on the back and upon this the guard2 this is the so-called double end paper4 ,if instead of these only a single leaf is taken1 then we have a single end paper2 this is used for cheap school books and generally at the back only4 ,the accompanying sketch shows both these end papers with the small guard already folded4 ,this folding of the guard is not very easy for the beginner4 ,the leaf is placed face upwards1 square in front of the worker1 and a very narrow margin at the back edge bent upwards about #c mm4 in width1 the forefinger and thumb of both hands shaping and bending the guard1 working from the centre to the ends4 ,fig4 #be--,suggestions for single and double end papers4 ,should the sheet from which the end papers are made be a little wider than required for the end papers1 the tear-off may be folded at the same time2 with double end papers1 the leaf which is to be pasted down later is inserted between fly leaf and tear-off1 and therefore is called insertion4 ,fig4 #bf--,suggestion for double end paper with tear-off4 ,if the end papers are to have a cloth joint it must be placed within the two leaves or1 better1 pasted in face inwards4 ,double cloth joints are no longer used in printed books1 as they make the end papers too thick1 and in the subsequent rounding the first sheet is apt to break4 ,the joint is here also folded on as before4 ,formerly1 when linen joints were used1 the end paper was simply made by inserting the strip of cloth and hingeing on the outside leaf about #a cm4 from the fold4 ,this1 however1 has many disadvantages1 therefore the end papers are made as explained1 then carefully tearing off the outside leaf in the back in pasting down and cutting it as required it is pasted on to the board1 as will be more fully explained under pasting down4 ,the ,french paste a double leaf before the first and last sheets after having pasted a covering leaf around these4 ,for extra work1 the following style of end paper is the best2 it is used in ,england for all high-class work1 and in ,germany also it has been adopted by all the first-class firms4 ,the end papers consist merely of single leaves the size of the sheet4 ,these are fanned out at the back to make a small margin and pasted4 ,the first leaf is then pasted down on the end-paper sheet so as to leave a margin of about #b mm42 the second leaf is pasted level with the back4 ,all end papers are proceeded with in the same way4 ,if these are to have a cloth joint it must be pasted on the outside also only #b mm4 wide4 ,when the end papers are dry1 they must be stitched down along the back1 #b mm4 from the edge1 with the sewing-machine adjusted to its longest stitch4 ,it is unnecessary to knot the ends of the thread--they are cut clean off4 ,when there is no sewing-machine1 the volumes must be overcast by hand4 ,this overcasting is done by inserting a fine needle near the back of the knocked-up sheets from above and drawing the thread almost quite through1 the second and following stitches all being made from above4 ,the thread would then appear as in ,fig4 #bg4 ,fig4 #bg--,overcast end paper4 ,these end papers are made up before sawing-in and sawn in with the book1 and when it is not possible to stitch them with the machine they must be sawn in before overcasting1 or the sawing would cut the threads4 ,now for the sewing4 ,we stretch the requisite number of cords1 which are secured to the hooks at the top by a simple loop which is easily undone as soon as it is taken off the hook4 ,at the bottom a double loop is made1 through which a key is passed so as to hold the stretched cord underneath the moveable board4 ,fig4 #bh--,loops for attaching to frame hooks4 ,fig4 #bi--,loops for taking frame keys4 ,the length of the cords is regulated by the thickness of each book1 and as it is possible to sew a number of books at the same time when they are all sewn the same way1 the length of the cords is regulated accordingly2 it also depends upon the kind of books to be sewn4 ,cheap books get #c cm4 for every cord on each side more than the thickness of the book1 that is #f cm4 plus the thickness of the book4 ,school books get still shorter cords4 ,for extra work1 where the ends of the cords are laced through the boards1 one should allow double4 ,it is easy to calculate the length required for a single volume1 but rather difficult for a batch of books varying in thickness2 it is then better to measure4 ,for example1 suppose we have to sew a batch of six books1 all differing in thickness but measuring in all #be cm4 high2 we would allow for cheap work3 #f vols41 each taking #f cm4 extra lengths #cf cm4 total height1 #be cm41 making #fa cm42 for extra work3 #f vols41 each taking #ab cm4 extra lengths #gb cm4 #be total height #ig cm4 length of cord4 ,the collated batch of books is laid on the bed of the sewing frame as in hollaendering 7,fig4 #ag71 the sheets taken hold of in the same way1 and laid open for sewing4 ,of course the cords are adjusted to the saw-cuts1 and it is better to push them more to the right than to the left1 so as to give the left arm full play4 ,here also1 as in hollaendering1 the left hand does the work behind the cords inside the sheet1 whilst the right inserts the needle from the front and again brings it out4 ,fig4 #cj--,suggestion for sewing on four cords4 ,fig4 #ca--,suggestion for sewing on six cords4 ,the first and last sheets--called end sheets--are sewn a little differently from the others1 as the needle is here not inserted and drawn out exactly at the cord but at a little distance from it so as to allow them to be adjusted afterwards4 ,sewing#a with us is invariably begun with the last sheet at the right1 working on to the left1 and reversing the process with the following sheet1 and so to the end1 so that the thread one way passes from and the other to the worker4 ,with all other sheets1 excepting the end sections1 the thread is inserted at the kettle stitch and brought out at the next cord1 round the cord1 and inserted at the same hole1 to be brought out again at the next cord1 and so on till the thread comes out at the other kettle stitch and is inserted in the next sheet to go through the same process4 ,with books sewn on four cords1 it is allowable to skip one of the two middle cords alternately1 so that each time the thread passes on to the right the right middle cord is skipped1 and the left is skipped when the thread passes in the opposite direction4 ,this facilitates and shortens the work without taking away from durability or quality4 ,books on #f cords may be treated in the same way2 the right and left of each pair of cords may be skipped alternately4 ,it was for this reason that we paid attention to the distribution of the cords on the back when sawing-in 7see ,fig4 #bc74 ,footnote #a3 ,in ,england1 ,france1 and part of ,holland1 sewing is begun with the title page4 ,this method of sewing is known as end to end1 in contradistinction to two sheets on4 ,the former is the better method and is essential for valuable books1 unless the sections are exceptionally thin4 ,the latter is good enough 7i4e41 not worth much7 for the trade and cheap work4 ,as far as strength is concerned it would do1 but a book sewn in this way does not swell sufficiently in the back to make a proper backing groove4 ,it is an old rule in bookbinding that each sheet after it has been sewn should be pressed down with the needle so that the backs of the sheets lie close and firm together2 this is called pressing down4 ,should this1 however1 not be sufficient1 the back must be knocked firm from time to time with the dividers or a rule4 ,the first and last sheets must be fastened to the one following and preceding respectively2 but in the course of the sewing this enchaining to the preceding sheets--the so-called kettle stitch--is only necessary in the case of very thick sections4 ,it is done by passing the needle through and bringing it out between the two preceding sheets at each end and thus chaining on the then top sheet to the one lying underneath4 ,the two-sheets-on sewing is done by laying open the second sheet on top of the first after making the first stitch in the first sheet and then passing the needle through the second sheet1 then the third stitch is made in the first sheet and the fourth in the second sheet4 ,one length of thread is used for the two sheets4 ,where the sheets have not been cut open1 the left hand lightly takes the sheets in turn where they have been cut1 a folder is placed in the middle and is shifted from one to the other as required4 ,the process is the same whether there are only three cords or even six4 ,fig4 #cb--,suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on4 ,it has already been said that several volumes of the same kind can be sewn on top of each other on the sewing frame2 in this case the volumes must be separated from each other after the sewing is completed4 ,the free ends of the cords are untwisted so that they may be scraped open more easily afterwards1 and then one volume after another is drawn along the cords to the ends until they are twice the length of the free cords away from each other1 which1 of course1 will vary according to the subsequent style of binding4 ,so then we allow #f and #ab cm4 according to circumstances2 but this length is curtailed to #c cm4 in the cheap school books1 because the shorter the cords the quicker they are scraped open4 ,every cord is cut in the middle between the books with the shears1 thus separating each volume from the other4 ,the strands of the loose ends of the cords are now completely untwisted by inserting the cord in the groove of the scraper and repeatedly rubbing it up or down with the back of a knife4 ,after scraping the cords1 the end-paper guards are always pasted down2 the book is laid with the back to the front edge of the table1 the first sheet with the end paper is turned downwards1 the end-paper guard is bent up a little so that it stands away from the sheet1 paste it neatly and carefully1 close the section and adjust it so that the sheet in the end paper is level with the others1 but not the end paper itself--this must project a little at the back4 ,when only one finger is required for pasting it must be the middle finger1 so that the forefinger is free from paste and ready to take hold of anything4 ,if stitched end papers are used for extra work1 a sheet of paper is laid on the second sheet so as to leave #c mm4 free1 paste this strip and bring down upon it the once-more closed first sheet1 taking care to square it at the outside with the body of the book4 ,the folder should be brought down firmly over the outer sheets after pasting down so as to ensure the paste sticking4 ,if the pasting-on of the joints is not properly carried out1 the result will be that in most cases the book opens badly when finished4 ,in half-cloth or other simple bindings1 the scraped cords may be pasted on at once4 ,bring a little paste 7about the size of a pea7 upon the point of a folder under the slightly raised cord1 pasting the latter evenly and neatly upon the paste-down of the end paper so that the pasted-down strands of the cord lie like a feather4 ,to prevent the pasted cords sticking to each other1 the books are piled up back and front until dry4 ,in extra work1 the cords--which are also longer--must by no means be pasted on2 a piece of waste paper or a cover the size of the sheet is pasted outside the sections under the cords1 level with the backs4 ,this serves partly as a protection for the end papers and partly to make a good joint when covering4 ,the volumes so prepared are now glued up4 ,they must be knocked up at head and back2 they are then placed with the backs outwards on a board specially kept for this work--the glueing board--with the fore-edge of which they must be exactly level4 ,on top must be placed a smaller board or a heavy piece of iron1 likewise level with the book4 ,the book backs are thus held firmly between the glueing boards1 the left hand holding them firmly by pressing on the top1 the right hand glueing the backs with very hot but not thick glue2 rub this well in with the point of a hammer1 and after having firmly squeezed the glue out of the brush1 use it for taking off the surplus glue from the backs4 ,an old trick of the bookbinder is to heat the hammer for this work4 ,it is a bad plan to give the back a thick coating of glue and then allow it to dry1 because it at once becomes brittle4 ,some experienced workers place the books between the glueing boards so as to leave about #a cm4 projecting1 as it is thought that the glue thereby gets better between the sheets2 but this method is out of date and is of no special value4 ,it is1 however1 of great importance that the glued book should be laid so that it is truly square at the head as well as the back1 for if this is neglected no amount of trouble will save the book from being cut out of shape4 ,before passing on to the next chapter we have still to mention the mechanical contrivances for sewing4 ,for small as well as large binderies1 machines have been invented both for wire stitching and thread sewing2 the former are more generally used1 the latter not being sufficiently perfect in construction to meet all demands for speed and accuracy4 ,then also the method of fastening the book in the cover differs so much from the traditional method that we must still hope for improvement4 ,when this comes to pass1 this machine will then supersede the wire-stitching machine1 with all its unavoidable disadvantages4 ,the working of the machines is so simple that they are attended to almost entirely by girls4 ,we refrain from giving descriptions of mechanical appliances within the limits of a short treatise1 as any day may bring forth new inventions which are certain to effect great changes in this department4 ,besides these costly appliances there are also simpler sewing-machines for small shops1 by which books are sewn in very simple fashion over steel needles1 by means of which the cords may afterwards be drawn along4 ,fig4 #cc--,thread-sewing machine4 ,fig4 #cd--,wire-sewing machine4 ,as these machines demand very large saw-cuts1 they can only be used for trade work and any cheap lines4 ,we only mention them to draw attention to their existence4 ,unprinted paper and music are sewn on tapes as well as cords4 ,this method of sewing is described in ,chapter ,,ix4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,cutting1 ,,rounding1 ,,backing4 ,fig4 #ce--,rotary guillotine4 ,in nearly all cases the book is trimmed after glueing1 and it is best to do this before the glue is quite set4 ,even in extra work books are nowadays trimmed on three sides1 that is1 before the book is rounded each side is cut one after the other4 ,this method has the advantage that it is quicker1 that the top and bottom corners of the round fore-edge cannot break1 and that it is easy to treat every side during the process of marbling4 ,of course1 in the best work the book is first cut at the front1 rounded1 pressed1 and then cut top and bottom4 ,under present conditions we might completely abandon the old method of trimming with the plough1 for1 although this is a most valuable tool1 it would not pay to use it now1 and the shops where it is still in use are few and far between2 besides1 our ,german machines now do the work so thoroughly and accurately that we are able to execute the highest class of work by their aid4 ,fig4 #cf--,lever guillotine4 ,the machines worked by a lever are very suitable for small shops and small books4 ,rotary action is for heavier work and is more suitable where both heavy and light work have to be done4 ,the fore-edge is generally trimmed first2 the back of the book is carefully adjusted to the back gauge1 the back gauge is so adjusted by moving backwards and forwards that the knife comes exactly upon the point marked beforehand4 ,the first principle to be observed in trimming is that as little as ever possible should be taken off the book4 ,measuring and marking for trimming are done with the dividers2 the latter is called marking for cutting4 ,when the back gauge has been adjusted so that the points lie directly under the knife1 the clamp which holds the book in position is screwed down and the machine set in motion4 ,the book must be cut smooth and quite free from any jaggedness1 and if this has not been accomplished the knife must be ground or1 at least1 well sharpened4 ,something must be done in trimming top and bottom to prevent the groove at the back from receiving too much pressure4 ,the simplest means is to glue a thick board on the under side of the clamp4 ,if a piece of stout cloth has been pasted to this board1 it will afterwards be easily removed from the clamp if it is lightly glued on at two places only4 ,if cloth is not used1 pieces of the board will adhere to the clamp and cause no little inconvenience4 ,instead of this1 there are metal plates sold which are fastened to the clamp in a simple way1 either by screws or springs1 and they are just as simply removed4 ,the bottom edge has to be cut first1 as one is thus able to adjust the head--which1 of course1 must be rectangular--against the back gauge and then to make the bottom edge parallel4 ,after cutting this edge1 the book is turned round and the bottom edge adjusted on the back gauge so as to get the top edge ready for cutting4 ,whilst doing this1 care must always be taken that the book is placed under the clamp so that the arrangement made for saving the groove from pressure is effective4 ,fig4 #cg--,top edge arranged for trimming when trimming three edges4 ,as our machines are made to cut from left to right1 the book back must be on the left4 ,very often a book contains so many folded plates that it is considerably thinner in some places than at others4 ,these thin places must be properly packed with paper or strips of board1 otherwise the knife is sure to tear or jag1 no matter how sharp it may be4 ,this packing may be left in the book until the book is quite finished and then taken out4 ,if any fibrous matter has stuck to the bottom sheets through cutting on a much-used bed1 it must be removed with a very sharp knife4 ,the trimmed volumes are rounded1 i4e41 they are rounded and the groove made at the back to which the boards have to be fitted4 ,for this reason the grooves must be made to suit the thickness of the boards to be used4 ,fig4 #ch--,rounding the book4 ,to round a book1 slightly damp its glued back1 place it on a firm stone or metal bed1 and knock it round with a hammer4 ,properly speaking the process is as follows3 ,the left hand takes hold of the back of the book lying flat before the worker and works it into a round form1 the right hand helping all the time by beating it along the back from one end to the other4 ,in this way each side is treated alternately until the back is evenly rounded4 ,the rounding of the fore-edge should be equal to one-third of a circle4 ,books that have been hammered so much that they fall straight from the centre towards both sides are called over rounded2 if1 on the contrary1 the book is round at the sides and almost straight in the middle the book is called flat rounded4 ,the latter occurs when the thread used in sewing has been too thin or held down too much 7see page #cg74 ,great care must be taken to avoid what is called springing a section--this is generally caused by a break in the glued back2 but it is almost impossible to round a book perfectly if the sections are very thick or if it contains many pasted-in plates4 ,there are now very useful machines for rounding books1 also hand machines4 ,the work connected with these consists simply in turning the book a few times1 pushing the back up to the rollers each time4 ,fig4 #ci--,rounding machine4 ,when the book is properly rounded1 it is backed1 that is1 it is so placed between backing boards that they are away from the back just as much as is required for the groove1 the width of the latter depending upon the thickness of the boards2 a small thin volume gets thin boards and therefore a small groove2 a thicker volume requires thick boards1 and1 of course1 a deeper groove4 ,the made groove should be a little deeper than the board set in it4 ,the book and backing boards are placed in a wooden press1 screwing up by hand and once more carefully adjusting4 ,to do this1 the press is first placed lengthwise on the table so that one end projects a little over the front edge of the table2 the evenness of the rounding is then perfected--one hand at the back and the other at the front edge pushing and adjusting4 ,the better and truer the book has been rounded before laying in the boards the less there will be to do when placed in the press4 ,if the rounding is correct1 the head and tail must be examined to see that they are exactly rectangular1 for the book may have been knocked untrue1 and the evenness of the grooves--which are easily disturbed--is also examined4 ,backing and rounding is the most important work as far as regards the appearance of the book when finished2 it must be done with the greatest exactitude and requires much practice4 ,although it is hardly perceptible1 yet the great difficulty lies in the book itself being so very easily shifted4 ,when the book is placed in the press without a fault it is screwed up as tightly as possible with the screw key1 and through this the grooves already project over the edges of the backing boards2 but a sharp groove can only be obtained by the help of the hammer4 ,the hammer1 however1 must not be used blindly on the back1 but by lightly knocking1 blow by blow1 the first and last #d-f sheets must be brought over the edges of the boards4 ,this done1 the whole of the back is well pasted1 and after remaining thus a short time it is then rubbed with the point of the hammer along the sheets until all superfluous glue is soaked and scraped off4 ,with a handful of paper cuttings the back is rubbed smooth and clean4 ,the use of a toothed cachir iron is strictly forbidden1 but the round side of this tool may be used instead of the hammer4 ,fig4 #dj--;,backing machine for small shops4 ,for backing1 we have also a useful machine--the backing machine4 ,for small shops it is made for clamping only1 and the making of the groove is done with the ordinary hammer4 ,for large shops this machine has a roller going right across the back which forms the groove down each side4 ,fig4 #da--;,backing machine for large shops4 ,valuable books are either trimmed at the front and at once backed or they may be backed before trimming4 ,this is generally done with bulky books1 as they are liable to throw out a section1 and this danger is lessened by backing first4 ,the work of backing remains the same4 ,if the fore-edge has already been trimmed1 care must be taken that the grooves do not suffer during trimming after backing4 ,one way of effecting this is to lay the book on a special cutting board with the edge up to the groove1 or by making use of the arrangement on the clamp already described1 and adjusting the groove of the book to the blocks fixed on the clamp4 ,should the fore-edge not have been cut1 the book must again be knocked straight after backing2 to do this a strong cord is tied round the book about #a-a_/b cm4 from the back1 the book is then laid upon a firm bed1 and the back again knocked straight2 this work is called tying up4 ,fig4 #db--;,backed book arranged for trimming4 ,it facilitates the work if the book is taken up and lightly held in the left hand whilst the right holds the hammer and knocks the round inwards until the book is once more square4 ,the squared book is now trimmed1 and it is not until the trimming is finished that the cord is loosened4 ,in pressing1 several volumes of the same size can be done in the hand press at one and the same time4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,marbling1 ,,gilding1 ,c41 ,,the ,,edges ,,and ,,headbanding4 ,the edges of a book are nearly always finished off in some way or another1 as the plain white edges would quickly become soiled4 ,as a matter of fact1 the binder always uses a covering of gold or colour for this purpose1 and care should be taken that this way of treating the edges is decorative and not the reverse4 ,in small binderies the edge is most usually sprinkled4 ,a small brush with a handle 7such as is used for blacking shoes7 is dipped into a very thin coloured liquid and rubbed over a fine sieve which is fixed in a frame4 ,the sieve is kept at sufficient distance from the edges of the book to allow the little drops of colour to fall like a fine rain4 ,for this work the book is screwed up in the press 7which is laid flat7 by means of the press-jack4 ,as a sprinkling colour1 nut-wood stain thinned with water is used1 or indigo1 carmine1 ,prussian blue1 mahogany brown1 green cinnabar1 all well diluted with water1 with the addition of a little paste and borax or a few drops of dilute carbolic to prevent the paste turning sour2 aniline dyes have a common appearance4 ,the sprinkle must fall very finely upon the edges1 therefore the first large drops should be taken out of the brush by giving it a few preliminary rubs over the sieve4 ,a few variations are made in sprinkled edges by scattering damp sawdust1 sand1 or bran on the edges before sprinkling1 thus producing a coarser kind of sprinkling4 ,similarly rice1 barley1 even starch or drops of wax are used4 ,all these edges are out of date and in really good workshops are every day falling more and more into disuse1 preference being given to marbling upon a sized ground4 ,for the production of even marbling an edge-marbling roller has recently been brought out4 ,rubber rollers--one or two--together with the automatic colouring rollers bearing aniline dyes mixed with glycerine1 are made up into a handy contrivance by means of which smooth coloured edges can be rolled over4 ,these edges are passable only when carefully and skilfully executed2 as a rule they look coarse and common and are taken up only by badly equipped shops4 ,marbling rollers can be used for comb marbling as well as for small veined marbling4 ,we may say that the coloured edge is the oldest style4 ,earth colours which cover well--cinnabar#b 7red or green71 carmine1 chrome yellow1 graphite1 bismuth1 and also other colours that cover well1 indigo1 carmine1 and ,prussian blue--are ground to a fine powder and thoroughly mixed with water and a little paste or gelatine so that the edges may be evenly covered4 ,footnote #b3 ,cinnabar if not red must be a preparation with other colour4--,trans4 ,only printed books are put in the press1 and in this case they must first be rubbed down with alum water4 ,after about five minutes the colour may be laid on4 ,hog's-hair brushes are used for this4 ,recently1 eosin has been used to colour red and picric acid for yellow1 both well diluted with water4 ,the paste edge is a variety of the coloured edge2 it is produced by loading paste with a very strong colour so that it covers well when laid on4 ,with the blunt point of a stick1 a bluntly pointed cork1 or even the finger-tip1 figures may be traced in the colour when laid on1 and then the figures may be brought out better by going over the lines with a pointed stick4 ,the work demands a skilled draughtsman if a good effect or something more than the very simplest design is desired4 ,the book must be pressed for pasting the edges1 and the paste colour must not be laid on too thickly or it will spring off when dry4 ,coloured as well as paste edges will take gold tooling and afford considerable scope to the skilful and thoughtful workman4 ,the finest way of finishing edges and the one allowing greatest variety of treatment is known as marbling2 this is a special process4 ,formerly regarded as a secret art1 it is now an easily acquired branch of our work1 thanks to the careful experiments and excellent demonstrations of the master bookbinder1 ,herr ,joseph ,halfer1 of ,buda ,pesth4 ,the whole process of marbling depends upon the peculiarity possessed by colours of floating upon a sized surface when they are mixed with oxgall1 and a colour containing more gall forcing off the one first applied4 ,besides1 the colours may be drawn about with a pencil or stick without their mixing4 ,if the smooth edges of a book are brought into contact with such a floating surface-colour they will take up the colours completely4 ,ground and colour must each have certain fixed degrees of consistency1 and the atmosphere both in and out of doors has also a great influence upon the work4 ,the prepared body1 shortly known as the body1 is at present always composed of boiled ,carrageen moss4 ,to every litre#c of water exactly #ab g4 are added and the liquid is put in a saucepan1 which is never used for any other purpose1 and placed on the fire1 great care being taken to catch it just at boiling point or it will all boil over4 ,at the right moment take the saucepan from the fire and strain the contents through a hair sieve1 what remains being thrown away as useless4 ,the body may be used the next day1 but for figured edges it is better after having been kept three days1 and for veined marbling five days4 ,the vessel containing the body must be kept covered so as to exclude all dust4 ,footnote #c3 ,not quite a quart4 ,gum tragacanth 7known as gum dragon7 can also be used as a body1 but ,halfer's colours are not intended to be used with this4 ,a marbling trough to contain the body is used whilst working2 it is made of zinc plate1 is about #ae cm4 in width1 #ej cm4 in length1 and #c cm4 in depth1 and has a sloping partition soldered near one end1 and the colour not taken up is drawn into the division thus made4 ,illustration3 ,marbling ,trough ,a bowl1 about #f cm4 across the top1 is kept for each colour1 and also a hog's-hair brush and a birch-twig brush4 ,a small bundle of birch twigs is tied round with thread1 leaving about #d cm4 of the twigs free1 the thickness of the lowest part tied not exceeding #a cm4 ,the bristles of the brush are tied back so as to form loops and held awhile in boiling water so that they retain their shape after drying and untying4 ,with a brush made up in this way1 drops may be laid on anywhere4 ,for all drawn-out edges only bristle brushes are used1 whilst for all other edges a brush is used only for laying on the first colour4 ,for some edges a wide brush is used1 so that the whole trough can be filled at one blow2 a carpet brush with a short handle is most convenient to use4 ,a little stick for tracing the colours is also necessary--a butcher's skewer is as good as anything4 ,besides this1 the colours are drawn by combs of various widths2 these are easily made by glueing pins with their heads at fixed distances between two strips of mill-board3 the result is a tool resembling a comb4 ,all requisites can be conveniently kept in a little wooden box together with the colours4 ,nowadays only ,halfer's ready-made colours are used4 ,fig4 #dc--,marbling outfit4 ,any one wishing to learn the process of marbling edges would be wise not to attempt all the styles at once1 but should be content to learn one before proceeding to another4 ,we will commence with comb marbling1 also known as feather marbling4 ,when marbling is to be done1 the colours must always be tested first4 ,a little colour is shaken into each bowl and its brush placed with it1 and one or two drops of prepared oxgall added to each colour so as to make the colour float on the surface4 ,one prepares one's own oxgall4 ,an ox gall in the gallbladder is procured from a butcher1 a glass funnel is placed in a bottle which has been weighed beforehand1 and the bottom of the gall bladder is pierced so that the bladder empties its contents into the bottle4 ,after finding the weight of the gall1 add to the weight of the gall alone one-sixth and pour into it spirit of wine until the weight is equalized2 shake thoroughly and strain the mixture1 which will now be quite clear and ready for use4 ,the colours1 with their brushes1 are placed in the order in which they are to be used1 beginning with the darkest and finishing with the lightest4 ,a drop of colour is let fall from the black brush upon the body1 the surface of which had previously been drawn off with a strip of paper2 the surface of this drop must be about the size of a crown piece4 ,if part of the colour sinks to the bottom1 the body is too thin or the colour too thick1 or the drop was too large and could not spread quickly enough2 in the latter case the surplus colour will be seen lying at the bottom and will have no connection whatever with the colour on the surface2 but if a cloudy connection can be traced from the surface to the bottom then the body has already become sour and in most cases unfit for use4 ,if the colour does not retain its smooth outlines and becomes jagged1 it also shows that the body is too old4 ,if1 however1 the drop extends as desired and shows none of the faults above mentioned1 a drop of blue colour is let fall in the centre of the first1 which drives out the first drop in the form of a ring2 when it has not this effect1 but strongly contracts again1 a drop of gall must be added1 the colours wiped off to the sloping partition1 and the whole process repeated4 ,if the action of the colour was too strong1 a little undiluted colour must be added4 ,if the result is satisfactory1 a drop of red is added to the blue4 ,the colour scheme is seen in the accompanying drawing4 ,lastly1 yellow is dropped into red1 and black is thereby reduced to a very thin ring4 ,illustration3 s--black2 b--blue2 r--red2 yellow in centre4 ,before each new sprinkling1 the old layer of colour must be wiped off4 ,to do this1 cut strips of stout waste paper about two fingers in width and a little longer than the trough is wide4 ,the edge of the strip is placed slantingly at the end of the tank in the surface of the body and the surface colour drawn off1 at the same time lightly pressing the ends of the strip against the sides of the trough4 ,when the colours are satisfactory1 the little stick is traced in and out amongst them4 ,if too much colour follows the stick1 the body is too thick2 only a narrow line of colour must follow the stick4 ,if the colours are thus correctly prepared1 the whole trough is sprinkled in the following manner3 ,along the middle of the trough the darkest colour is sprinkled in what we might call links1 that is1 each drop is linked to the one preceding4 ,fig4 #dd--,suggestion for sprinkling colour4 ,the second colour is sprinkled on in the same way2 one circle1 however1 is on the right and the other on the left of the centre colour4 ,into each drop of the second colour let a drop of the third and then of the fourth colour fall4 ,illustration3 ,colour trace form4 ,the colours must then be traced crosswise with the stick in this form and then likewise with the comb4 ,neither stick nor comb should be dipped more than about #b mm4 below the surface1 otherwise the body is set in motion and the colours disarranged4 ,the combs should not be made too fine1 #cj to #ce teeth for every #aj cm4 is the best width and sufficient for most cases4 ,if the comb is drawn back again from the other end it produces drawn-back marbling2 this is rarely applied4 ,the finished comb marbling can be still further varied if figures are traced in it with the stick as shown in ,fig4 #df4 ,fig4 #de--;,comb marbling4 ,fig4 #df--,suggestion for curl marbling4 ,illustration3 ,double comb colour form4 ,if a double comb is made--one that allows two combs to pass each other1 their teeth being #b cm4 apart--bouquet or peacock and eye marbling can be produced4 ,the double comb is drawn over the length of the trough1 at the same time moving the two combs up and down evenly4 ,this motion causes the colours to assume the form shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,bouquet or peacock marbling is produced by drawing the double comb through the finished comb marble design1 and if the double comb is used immediately after the cross tracing with the stick1 eye marbling is the result4 ,with a little thought it would be easy to invent other fancy designs1 but these are better applied to paper1 as trimmed edges are more beautiful and effective when the marbling is of simpler design4 ,fig4 #dg--;,bouquet or peacock marbling4 ,fig4 #dh--;,eye marbling4 ,large marble1 called also ,turkish marble1 is produced as follows1 using the same arrangement of colours4 ,only the first colour is laid on ringwise2 all other colours are scattered in smaller drops from brushes4 ,a darker colour is chosen for the last--brown1 blue1 olive1 grey--to which is added a few more drops of gall and as much spirit of soap 7spiritus saponatus71 as sold by the druggists4 ,this last colour is prepared in a larger and shallow basin4 ,the largest brush is taken with the hand and dipped1 shaken out a little1 and then lightly knocked on the left hand so as to sprinkle the colour4 ,the drops will fall in a dense shower1 and1 owing to their extra impetus1 will drive together the preceding ones1 and yet they will form the principal colour in the design4 ,if it is desired to have veins of white in the design1 a few drops of gall should be added to a little water in a bowl and used as any other colour2 the same applies when using white in comb marbling4 ,in a similar manner the so-called ,kremser style of marbling is produced1 but fewer colours are then used1 generally only black and red1 red and blue1 brown and blue1 green and red1 at the end sprinkling a little of the strong principal colour to which1 besides the spirit of soap1 a drop of pure stone oil--not petroleum--from the chemist has been added4 ,as last colour1 blue grey 7black with a little blue71 brown1 or grey is used4 ,recently1 a sort of paper termed ,trichinal marble has been very prominent on the market4 ,black and light brown or red and light brown or black1 red1 and light brown1 or white1 are all sprinkled on with a brush1 length 7not cross7 wise drawn through1 and then grey with a few drops of turpentine 7but very driving7 is sprinkled on with a small brush4 ,the single drops have ragged edges and produce a peculiar effect4 ,thin-veined or ,french marbling is done upon the same ground1 though it can also be done on a somewhat thinner body4 ,the colours1 however1 are diluted by #ej water1 and1 consequently1 more gall is added4 ,as a rule1 only two colours are used2 blue1 red2 brown1 blue2 brown1 green2 black1 red2 black1 blue4 ,the first colour is laid on in rings with a brush and must be strong enough to spread over two-thirds the width of the trough2 the second colour is sprinkled over with a little birch broom in drops that spread out to the size of a half-crown4 ,lastly1 the so-called sprinkling-water is sprinkled over with one dash from the large brush as already explained4 ,sprinkling-water consists of two parts water and one part spirit of soap4 ,the small veins must be driven quite close together and the eyes made by the sprinkling-water must not be larger than a small pea4 ,it should be observed that for this kind of marbling only the darker shade of red is to be taken1 as the light carmine lake colour sinks and does not give a fine effect4 ,india red is best of all4 ,the sprinkled colours are first tested with strips of paper2 cuttings of clean note-paper are saved for this purpose4 ,the edges of a book can be marbled only when the book is level or straight1 therefore they must be marbled either before rounding or the book already rounded must be levelled by knocking it on a stone or metal slab4 ,in all cases the marbling is done--both with papers and books--by dipping from one corner to the other diagonally opposite1 but never deeper than just sufficient to take off the layer of colour4 ,to prevent the colour from getting between the leaves1 the edges are held between zinc plates1 which must be dried each time after using4 ,to make the paper or edges take the colours more readily and to prevent any subsequent running off1 the edges are lightly washed down with alum water4 ,this wash is made by boiling #ajj g4 of alum in #a_/b litre of water and using it solely for this work4 ,the alum solution is laid on with a sponge1 with which the edges are washed over4 ,the moisture must have thoroughly soaked in1 therefore it is necessary to do it #aj minutes before marbling4 ,if1 however1 the edges have become thoroughly dry they will take the colours badly4 ,this occurs in from #bj to #cj minutes1 according to the temperature4 ,marbling can only be done in a warm room where the temperature is equable and where there is no dust4 ,the marbling bath must be of the same temperature as the room4 ,the body must be skimmed each time before sprinkling the colours1 but the colours must be sprinkled on immediately afterwards4 ,an excellent treatise on the work of marbling edges has appeared under the title3 #d;,fortschritte der ,marmorirkunst4 ,von ,joseph ,halfer4 ,william ,leo1 ,stuttgart4 ,footnote #d3 ,the ,development of the ,art of ,marbling4 ,illustration3 ,pressing ,board ,profile ,gilding edges takes up most time when only occasional books are to be done4 ,the fore-edge can be treated either flat or round4 ,in every case the book must be placed in the press within boards4 ,these boards are narrow strips1 about #a_/b cm4 thick and up to #e cm4 in width2 they must be of equal thickness and bevelled only on long side1 the edge itself must be rounded4 ,many makers send out boards bevelled right from one side to the other4 ,this kind is very unsuitable and has many disadvantages4 ,the boards must not be made from wood of very open grain1 and firs and oaks must not be used4 ,the boards are to be somewhat longer than the edge about to be treated1 so that the edge may be as firm and tight as possible and at the same time easy to work upon2 two outer boards are added to those regularly used1 as shown in ,figs4 #di and #ej4 ,the inner boards are quite flush with the book3 the latter must on no account stand back4 ,the outer boards are about #c mm4 behind the others2 the book is so placed in the press1 and here again the book and boards must be exactly level with the press cheeks4 ,the press is then screwed up as tight as possible4 ,if the inner boards have not perfectly straight edges they must be planed down4 ,figs4 #di and #ej--;,arrangement of flat and rounded edges4 ,the edges are to be scraped down quite smooth with a scraper or1 if necessary1 with a knife2 the scraper must not be sharpened for this purpose as the carpenter sharpens his tools1 that is1 not to a cutting edge but as though it were for carving1 until a bevel 7or turned edge7 of about #c mm4 has been ground4 ,the edge thus gets a turned edge1 with which the book is scraped4 ,if it should cease to take1 the old edge is rubbed down with a steel and a new one made by a few firm strong rubbings4 ,the edge should be wetted a little to prevent its heating4 ,flat edges are scraped with a flat scraper1 rounded edges with one suitably rounded4 ,in this case the round of the blade must be more decided than that of the edges1 as it would otherwise be impossible to get into all parts of the edges4 ,scraping with pieces of glass is an antiquated1 clumsy method4 ,when scraping1 the press should lie flat on the table edge1 the other end being supported by the press-jack4 ,in scraping1 the blade is held in both hands1 scraping away from the worker1 the scraper sloping forwards4 ,the press must be made immovable4 ,scraping is continued until all places have been gone over and the whole is perfectly smooth and even4 ,when this is accomplished1 the edges are thinly coated with paste1 which is well rubbed in along the sheets with a bundle of waste paper until the edges look as if burnished4 ,it is advisable to damp the edges before scraping1 as the blade then takes hold more uniformly4 ,then bolus is mixed with glair as a body colour1 laid on sparingly1 very evenly1 and free from streakiness1 using a thick hair brush for the purpose4 ,bolus is sold to the trade ready prepared under the name ,poliment4 ,some time before using1 it should be scraped into a suitable vessel and mixed with glair4 ,the latter is prepared by adding the white of an egg to #a_/d litre of water and beating to a froth4 ,it is then strained through a piece of linen or1 better1 through a filtering paper4 ,after the bolus ground has dried 7which takes a few minutes7 the gold is laid on4 ,there are various methods of doing this4 ,the surest and quickest way is to lay it on with the gilder's tip4 ,a row of long badger hairs is glued between two pieces of cardboard2 this is drawn a few times over the hair of the head1 which makes it take the gold easily4 ,gilders' tips are to be had at any colour dealer's4 ,gold is taken from the gold book1 laid upon the gold cushion1 and cut into suitable strips with the gold knife4 ,the gold cushion consists of a piece of calf stretched raw side out on a board4 ,between the leather and the board there is placed a pad of cotton wool1 and over the wool a pad of blotting-paper4 ,the gold knife is a thin1 pliant1 two-edged knife without a sharp edge1 in fact it is better to blunt the fore-edge from time to time by rubbing it on a polished steel4 ,if the knife is too sharp it will cut the leather cushion4 ,taking the gold from the book will not be found a very easy task4 ,the top leaf covering the gold is turned back1 the book with the uncovered leaf of gold laid on the cushion1 and the book slowly lifted up4 ,the gold-leaf remains flat upon the cushion and may be cut with the knife as required4 ,if a draught has turned the gold-leaf over or made it lie unevenly1 it may be righted by lightly tapping with the knife on the cushion near the gold2 careful breathing on the centre of the leaf will help in more awkward cases--the rest must be learned by practice4 ,never attempt to take hold of gold-leaf with the fingers2 only the experienced workman knows how to carry gold-leaf with a finger4 ,for gilding the edges the deep red gold is always used1 or else the so-called orange gold1 which is somewhat lighter in tone1 but never the lemon or green gold4 ,for flat gilt edges the gold is cut about #c mm4 wider than the book and into as many strips as would make up the length of the edge if joined together4 ,before laying on the gold1 the bolused edge is brushed down with a hard clothes-brush to remove all hair1 dust1 c4 ,glair is now liberally applied with a thick hair brush1 laying it on separately for each strip4 ,the gold is now lifted from the cushion with the gilder's tip so that it very slightly projects over the end of the brush and is transferred to the wet edges4 ,the tip is brought to within #a cm4 of the surface of the edges and with a quick motion the whole surface of the gold is at once brought into contact with the glaired edges1 which will instantly take it up quite greedily4 ,the gold slightly overlaps on to the inner boards4 ,in this one continues1 preparing the edge for each fresh strip and laying on each strip so that it slightly overlaps the other until the whole length is covered with gold4 ,if the gold should be injured in any way1 the press must be tilted so as to allow a little glair to run under the gold to the spot and then a larger piece is laid over the faulty place4 ,when it is seen that all parts are completely covered1 the press-jack is put aside1 the press is taken by the screws between the beams and raised high overhead so that the gilded part is turned downwards4 ,one end is carefully lowered until the glair has run to one side and dripped off4 ,as soon as the greater part of the moisture has been removed1 the press is either placed upright with the edge to the wall and head downwards or it is laid across the table where it will not be disturbed1 with the head of one screw on the table edge4 ,in this way the moisture runs off quicker1 as the whole length of the edge drains together4 ,when dry1 the edges are burnished1 and it is in seizing the right moment to do this that the clever finisher shows his skill4 ,the first test is made on the boards4 ,if the gold comes off on scratching the portion on the inner board with the finger-nail1 the edge is still too damp2 if the scratching makes it shine1 it will be all right4 ,the experienced worker can trace the progress of drying with more certainty by breathing on the edges2 the slowness or rapidity with which the breath disappears points to the dry or moist state of the edges4 ,when it is believed that the proper degree of dryness has been obtained1 the edge is polished with a burnisher4 ,a piece of tracing paper which has been waxed on the upper side--that is1 the side next the burnisher--is laid on the fresh edge to protect it from injury4 ,the burnisher is then worked crosswise1 stroke by stroke1 over the paper 7through which the edge can be observed7 the length of the edge2 if it is noticed that gold and moisture adhere to the paper near to the boards1 the work must be laid aside to wait a little longer4 ,if1 however1 the whole process has gone on satisfactorily1 the edge is gone over with a linen rag and a little beeswax4 ,it is not at all better to use a silk rag instead of linen1 for it happens too easily that tiny threads stick to the gold unnoticed and are afterwards rubbed into the edge4 ,after going over the edge with the waxed rag1 the bare edges may take a greater pressure in burnishing1 and if no flaws are now perceptible there need be no hesitation in burnishing with very strong pressure4 ,the burnisher must be held quite level1 the long handle fixed against the shoulder and the lower end firmly gripped with both hands just above the metal fastening4 ,the fore-edge of the burnisher is not to be held parallel to the sheets1 but must be at a slight angle2 it thus slips better over the paper and there is less danger of making rills and furrows1 and the polish is obtained more rapidly4 ,flat edges are always burnished crosswise1 but at the end a broad burnisher may be used for going over the edges lengthwise with a few slow1 firm strokes1 so as to ensure a very level surface4 ,quick burnishing must always be avoided2 it heats the gold1 which rubs off under the burnisher1 and causes holes which can never be remedied4 ,as soon as one length has been burnished1 the waxed cloth must be applied before proceeding further4 ,slight flaws in the gold itself1 or due to bubbles in the glair1 may be put right by touching the faulty places with a small brush dipped in rectified spirit and immediately laying on a piece of gold2 if the edges had not yet been gone over with the waxed rag1 it would be sufficient to breathe on the place1 lay on the gold1 and burnish under paper4 ,this need only stand a few minutes1 as it quickly evaporates1 and may then be burnished again at once1 first with1 then without1 the tracing paper4 ,it must be observed that such faulty places must be burnished in the direction of the sheets1 never crosswise4 ,rounded edges are more difficult to work2 the scraping alone being more troublesome4 ,each piece of gold is halved1 laying on each time a little beyond the deepest part of the round4 ,the press is so lowered as to give a decided slope to the half of the edge to be operated upon4 ,the gold is cut to a little more than half width1 and only the under side to a little beyond the middle is glaired1 which in this case must be done very freely4 ,the strips of gold-leaf are laid on as before4 ,when one side has been covered with gold1 the press is turned and the other half of the round similarly treated4 ,care must be taken that there is always a liberal supply of glair in the depth of the round4 ,to drain off the superfluous glair the press is placed so that the glair runs off on the long side2 the gold is in consequence better taken up in the round4 ,burnishing is here also done under a piece of paper1 and it is better to work crosswise1 first one half to the centre of the round and then the other4 ,only thin books are burnished along the edges with a round burnisher4 ,after the round edges have been burnished crosswise they are burnished with the round burnisher4 ,burnishers are made of agate or of bloodstone2 the latter is said to produce a higher polish1 but this may be due to our being more accustomed to its use4 ,in selecting burnishers the flat ones should not be too wide and the strongest of the curved ones should be taken4 ,top and bottom edges undergo the same treatment in gilding as the flat fore-edge1 except for a few slight necessary differences in the method of fixing the book4 ,in the first instance1 long boards are used instead of the outer boards--these protect the book from injury4 ,the boards 7the short sides of cross-boards are often used instead7 are laid exactly in the groove at the back1 but the outer boards are set back so that they are exactly in a line with the depth of the round edge4 ,if this precaution is neglected1 the chances are that little ridges will appear in the fore-edge where pressure has been applied4 ,fig4 #ea shows the arrangement in the press4 ,scraping is done from the back to the fore-edge4 ,as the back is not pressed so solid as the rest of the edge1 it frequently happens that it does not get scraped so smooth4 ,in this case recourse may be had to a fine file and fine sand-paper4 ,the rest undergoes the familiar process4 ,take care that no glair runs on to the fore-edge when applying it or when draining it off4 ,it is convenient to place the press crosswise on the table so that the fore-edge stands at its lower side2 the glair then drains off the whole length of the edge more evenly and drains more towards the fore-edge4 ,many finishers elevate the press1 letting it drain towards the fore-edge2 there is no danger to the latter if the press is tipped forward from the top4 ,on no account must the glair be allowed to drain towards the back1 as this part is very open and all the moisture would gather there4 ,fig4 #ea--,top edge arranged for gilding4 ,besides the method of laying on the gold-leaf with the gilder's tip there is another which is specially used in gilding hymn-books2 a piece of gauze is stretched across a frame1 passed over the hair1 and then the gold for the entire length of the edge is at once picked up and laid on4 ,round edges may be similarly covered by means of a couple of threads or horse-hairs stretched on a frame4 ,the threads can be shifted to the short sides of the frame2 they are adjusted to the width of the edge1 allowing for the rounding1 and are slightly greased by passing over the hair1 and thus pick up the strip of gold at the edges4 ,just before laying on the gold1 the threads are adjusted so that the gold fits the shape of the edge4 ,then plenty of glair is applied and the gold quickly and truly laid on4 ,this method is not exactly difficult1 but it is not quite so safe as laying on with a gilder's tip1 especially for very large edges4 ,the simplest way of laying on for flat edges is by means of strips of paper4 ,this has the advantage of allowing a larger number of gold strips being made ready for laying on at one time4 ,select a piece of stiff and not too thin paper1 cut into strips about the width of the strips of the gold-leaf1 draw one side of the paper across the hair1 and then take up the leaf so as to allow it to project a little over the edge of the paper strip4 ,after glairing1 strip by strip is laid on4 ,for very cheap work it is often necessary to gild edges with alloyed gold4 ,such edges are not so carefully and thoroughly prepared2 in particular1 they are not scraped1 but rubbed down with sand-paper4 ,blood serum is used instead of white of egg2 this is prepared by allowing ox-blood to stand a few days and then filtering off the clear liquid4 ,aluminium is laid on a gelatine solution3 one tablet of gelatine to #a_/d litre of water4 ,gilt edges are also frequently tooled or scraped and painted4 ,this work comes within the sphere of the art binder and cannot be dealt with in this book4 ,all other coloured and marbled edges can be burnished in the same way as gilt edges4 ,in good work this must always be done4 ,in small shops headbands are made to this day of striped calico1 which is cut into strips of #b cm4 wide right across the pattern1 and one edge is pasted round a thin cord4 ,after drying1 pieces the exact size of the back of the book are cut off4 ,the back of the book at the head is glued with a not too thin glue and the headband glued on so that the pad made by the cord lies on top of the edges and thus covers the place where book and cover join4 ,fig4 #eb--;,headband shears4 ,woven headbands are now to be had so cheap that it is no longer necessary for the binder to make his own4 ,the cheaper kinds are woven of cotton1 and of these there are bands made which have two pads1 each edge having a different colour4 ,this band is cut along the middle for use2 for the rest1 it is cut into pieces according to the width of the book and then glued on to the back4 ,better kinds in silk are only woven on one side1 therefore the cutting asunder is not necessary4 ,for work in quantities1 the headbands are cut the size of the back with the adjustable headband shears4 ,for extra work the headband is hand-worked in silk4 ,this work can only be learned by practice1 although its execution is not difficult2 such books are only headbanded after boarding4 ,to make the filling for the headband1 cut into strips pieces of vellum which have been pasted together1 between which a piece of tough1 thin pasteboard may be pasted to further strengthen4 ,these strips are cut a little less than the height of the squares and a little longer than the width of the back4 ,so as to facilitate the work1 the strip is at once curved to the rounding of the back4 ,take two silk threads of the kind sold as ,cordonnet silk1 each thread of a different colour4 ,both threads are threaded in a sewing needle1 the threads taken double1 the ends of both double threads knotted together4 ,the book is clamped in the ends of a press and stands slanting a little outwards4 ,the needle is inserted in the back groove of the first sheet at the left hand underneath the kettle stitch and the thread drawn out to the knots4 ,thus one thread is always above and another below4 ,the strip of vellum is now placed upright on the outside edge of the head1 the thread is brought over from below1 and is stitched from above to below close to the head1 with the hanging needle through the first sheet under the kettle stitch outwards4 ,bring the same thread once more up over the strip1 let the needle hang in the hollow of the fore-edge1 taking in its stead the other thread which takes up the first1 bringing it out underneath the vellum strip4 ,by this1 the first thread is firmly drawn as a chain stitch into the headband now beginning4 ,the second thread is now brought upwards but need not again be taken through the sheet2 it is taken back under the vellum strip once1 and at the second time the needles are changed in the hollow as the first thread one more takes up the second thread and draws it into a chain4 ,thus the work goes on2 after several journeys the thread is once again drawn out through a sheet until both threads are brought out at the other end of the back and pasted down4 ,the first knots must also be undone and the ends pasted so that they do not show on the back4 ,it is essential that the vellum strips should be always firmly and evenly sewn upon the edge1 and also that every winding of the thread and the chain lies quite regular4 ,fig4 #ec--;,headband working4 ,it is possible to make a variation by making a few stitches with a third thread of another colour in the centre of the headband4 ,any vellum projecting at the ends must be cut off flush with the book4 ,some books are given a marker2 this is made of silk ribbon or of a cheaper kind specially woven for the purpose4 ,it is cut long enough to allow of its projecting a little at the head and pasted there1 and at the same time comfortably held by the finger at the corner diagonally opposite4 ,the marker is glued on before headbanding4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,boarding4 ,the boards may be fastened to the covers in various ways1 apart from casing1 i4e41 fixing books in publishers' ready-made cases4 #a4 ,fastening upon bands 7ordinary fastening74 #b4 ,fastening below bands 7fastening on a deep groove74 #c4 ,drawing the bands through the boards 7fastening with laced bands74 ,the boards for the books are nowadays manufactured from pulp1 excepting in a few districts in ,pomerania and ,east ,prussia where wood boards are still occasionally made4 ,of these pulp boards the better kinds are called mill-boards2 the cheaper are called straw-boards4 ,leather boards are not suitable for books as they invariably wrinkle or cockle4 ,the boards may be cut to size before fastening on1 or this may be done even after the fastening on has been completed4 ,the former is generally practised where there is a board-cutting machine1 but even then further attention is usually given to the shaping of the boards in the case of extra work4 ,the board-cutting machine is a very useful ally1 for by the aid of quickly adjusted rectangles and parallels a board may be cut perfectly true4 ,the boards are selected according to the size and thickness of the book1 marked out1 and cut perfectly rectangular4 ,the boards must slightly project at top and bottom as well as fore-edge so as to afford sufficient protection to the book4 ,the margins so projecting are called the squares4 ,small books are allowed a small square1 as a matter of course1 and large books a square correspondingly larger4 ,fig4 #ed--;,board-cutting machine4 ,where there is no board-cutting machine1 the boards must be cut to size with the knife upon a cutting-board1 using a straight edge for the line4 ,the knife used is the well-known bookbinder's knife--,henckel ,bros4' ,solingen make is the best4 ,these knives--both in fixed and removable wooden handles--are made of glass hard steel4 ,if the point is worn away1 a piece about #a_/b cm4 long is knocked off with a hammer on an iron edge1 thus making a fresh edge4 ,the cutting-boards must be of maple1 beech1 or pear tree4 ,if it is intended to shape the edges of the board on the book1 it must be cut about #a cm4 larger each way so as to allow for further trimming4 ,fastening the boards to the book is called boarding4 ,this can generally be done as well with paste as with glue2 the former is preferable but necessitates longer pressing and drying4 ,glueing is quicker1 but the bands cannot then be pressed so evenly into the boards4 ,for ordinary fixing on the bands1 the insides of the boards are pasted to about #c cm4 in width1 the bands also pasted1 and the board laid on1 bringing it well up to the groove4 ,if it is intended to glue up1 the bands are also glued1 provided they have not already been glued on--a method preferred by many experienced hands4 ,the bands must be pasted so that they radiate from the back without any tangle2 a morsel of paste the size of a pea is laid on the band from underneath with the folder or point of a knife1 the band smoothed down1 and the thing is done4 ,after glueing-up1 the book is pressed between boards4 ,if zinc plates are placed under the boards whilst pressing1 the pasted parts will be pressed quite smooth and shiny4 ,fig4 #ee--,spring back4 ,for cloth or half-cloth binding a hollow back is frequently glued on4 ,to make the covering material of the back more lasting1 a back is made up of strong wrappers or some other tough material1 which extends over the back underneath the cover4 ,this backing material must be cut #d to #e cm4 wider than the width of the back and about #a cm4 longer each way than the book4 ,this strip is pared very narrowly along both sides with a sharp knife on the so-called paring stone4 ,a second strip--the backing--of the same material is cut the same length but exactly the width of the back of the book and is glued on to the middle of the wider strip4 ,the overlapping parts at the sides are broken in towards the middle1 close by the inner packing1 and the crease well pressed down with the folder4 ,these overlapping edges are then turned back again and a rule is laid on the packing parallel with the edge but drawn back to the middle about #b to #c mm4 according to the thickness of the cover4 ,if the moveable flaps are now again laid over towards the centre and narrowly creased near the first fold over the rule1 a second parallel fold is obtained which allows the book to open much better4 ,the back in section appears as illustrated in ,fig4 #ee after the middle part of the packing has undergone the necessary rounding4 ,fig4 #ef--;,boarded book4 ,rounding can be done either by rubbing the middle part round with a proper wooden tool in a rounding board having several hollows of various degrees of convexity1 or by drawing the back with a rocking motion under a broad folder4 ,such a made-up back must fit perfectly true to the groove and on the back4 ,this is the hollow back4 ,before fastening it to the book1 the latter must have a piece of stout paper pasted over the back2 good packing-paper is the best4 ,newspapers and loose advertisements out of magazines are not at all satisfactory and must not be used4 ,the book is glued and the paper laid on and glued4 ,in doing a large batch the books may be pasted in the press and the paper pasted on4 ,many experts glue the hollow backs on and use paste for the board4 ,very frequently the glue comes through and spoils the end papers4 ,it is better to raise the flaps of the back1 paste the tear off of the end paper1 paste the bands on to it1 and the loose flaps as well1 and then paste this on the outside and set the board on it4 ,the latter must be set back a little further in this case so that the book moves freely in the joint4 ,the back1 therefore1 is a hollow arch stretching over the book from groove to groove1 the loose flaps of the packing adhering between book and board4 ,the book is pressed until thoroughly dry--best between zinc plates4 ,fig4 #eg--,section of edge rule4 ,for shaping boarded books an edge rule is used4 ,this is a thin iron rule not much longer than the width of the book4 ,on the long edge an iron pin about the width of the edge is soldered4 ,this tool is inserted between book and board so that the iron pin lies close to the edge of the book2 if the board is trimmed along this it will leave the board exactly as much larger than the book as is the width of the rule4 ,knives or points must be well grasped in cutting boards4 ,the edge must be clean and square4 ,if the boarded book has a hollow back1 first one end is shaped and the projecting back is neatly cut clean and straight to the other board with the shears1 and then the other end is shaped4 ,boards are fixed on a deep groove by pasting them on the outside to a width of about #c cm41 placing them direct on the book1 backing them firmly into the groove1 and then pasting the bands very smoothly upon the boards4 ,a folded piece of waste paper is placed on the pasted part1 a piece of zinc plate over it1 and the book then pressed4 ,the double leaf is used to prevent any sticking to the zinc plate1 which bands are particularly liable to do if the plates had not been properly cleaned after previous use4 ,boards to be fastened into a deep groove must be lined with waste paper2 this is done with paste4 ,when packing1 a narrow strip of paper must be brought over the inner edge of the board in the groove to the outside1 so that the cut edge of the board is covered and does not strain or swell4 ,this is also done when boarding1 as follows3-- ,at the present time1 all good half or whole leather bindings have the boards laced through in good shops4 ,at the outset the bands must be left with longer ends for this--#e cm4 at least on each side4 ,a parallel line is marked on the board along the back about #f to #h mm4 from the groove4 ,the board is fitted on the book just as was done when fixing in the groove1 and exactly opposite each band a point is made on the marked lines4 ,the board is then removed and at the points marked is pierced slanting inwards--about half right angle--with a pointed awl4 ,the board is turned1 and sideways1 near every first hole1 a second hole is made which likewise takes a slanting direction to the board4 ,the bands are drawn through these holes1 and to be able to do this the bands must be well pasted and twisted to a point2 cutting off the extreme ends of the bands will facilitate the drawing through4 ,to draw the bands quite firm and tight the boards are stood upright in the groove1 the bands drawn through as tight as possible1 and in this position--that is1 with the boards half open--they are knocked down with a hammer upon a firm bed4 ,the principal thing to be observed is that the bands are pasted fast in the holes1 but where they are seen they are knocked down quite flat4 ,the boards are now slowly closed1 the ends of the bands projecting at the outside are cut off short1 and the book pressed1 using zinc plates inside and out4 ,fig4 #eh--;,english style of lacing boards4 ,the ,french method of lacing is not much practised in other countries2 it is somewhat more roundabout1 and is done before cutting--immediately after glueing up4 ,the boards are each shifted to right or left for cutting and cut together4 ,by so doing1 the edges always correspond exactly to the back groove4 ,illustration3 ,pressing ,board ,profile4 ,for every band there are three holes bored forming a triangle4 ,the awl holes are directed towards the middle of this triangle4 ,the band must describe this course4 ,the end is pushed under the piece of the band seen on the inside of the board1 the bands drawn tight1 with board standing upright as before described1 also well knocked down in the same way1 and the end cut off just beyond the piece under which it is drawn4 ,the book is then pressed between zinc plates4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,cover4 ,formerly only one way of making the cover was known1 and that was the gradual making of it on the book itself4 ,this has been considerably changed of late owing to the production of immense quantities for publishers' requirements4 ,book and cover are now in many cases made separately1 the former being afterwards glued into its cover or cased4 ,the publisher's case is nowadays a necessary evil1 without which we cannot get along and which we have got to take into account4 ,in spite of it1 bindings are still being produced in the old approved way1 particularly in small establishments and in high-class shops4 ,before we proceed with the preparation of the cover after the trimming1 we must know how it is intended to treat the book4 ,in the preceding chapter we have learned the methods of boarding1 and this now leads to the methods of covering4 ,previous to that1 however1 we would like to give a plan showing the various ways of treating the volumes under consideration1 and then the chapter on the covers may be given 7see plan on page #id74 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,general ,,styles ,,of ,,binding1 ,,showing ,,the ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,work4 ,table of ,headings3 ,col4 ,a3 ,folding4 ,pulling to pieces4 ,col4 ,b3 ,sewing4 ,col4 ,c3 ,hollaendering4 ,col4 ,d3 ,gluing4 ,pasting4 ,col4 ,e3 ,pressing4 ,cutting4 ,col4 ,f3 ,marbling and gilding edges4 ,col4 ,g3 ,rounding4 ,backing4 ,col4 ,h3 ,boarding4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,work ,,on ,,the ,,book4 ------------------------ ,forwarding4 ,second ,first stage4 stage4 ---------------- ,style of ,binding4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g,h ----------------------------------- ,brochure -- -- ,paper boards ---- ---- -- ,school books ---- ---- ,half cloth 7bound7 ---- ---------- 7cased7 ---- -------- ,whole cloth 7bound7---- ---------- 7cased7---- -------- ,half leather ---- ---------- ,half calf1 extra ---- ---------- ,whole leather ---- ---------- ,publishers' cases ---- -------- ,table of ,headings3 ,col4 ,i3 ,making the case4 ,col4 ,j3 ,covering4 ,col4 ,k3 ,pressing4 ,col4 ,l3 ,preparing the leather4 ,col4 ,m3 ,covering4 ,col4 ,n3 ,fastening the book in the cover4 ,col4 ,o3 ,pasting down4 ,col4 ,p3 ,jointing4 ,col4 ,q3 ,pasting down end papers4 ,col4 ,r3 ,hand tooling and decorating4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,work ,,on ,,the ,,cover4 ------------------------------- ,casing4 ,covering4 ,finishing4 -------------------- ,style of ,binding4 ,i ,j ,k ,l ,m ,n ,o ,p ,q ,r --------------------------------------- ,brochure -- ,paper boards -- ,school books ---- -- ,half cloth 7bound7 -- -- 7cased7 -- -- ---- ,whole cloth 7bound7 -- -- -- 7cased7------ ---- ,half leather ---- -- -- ,half calf1 extra ---- ------ ,whole leather -- ------ ,publishers' cases ------ -- ---- ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,making ,,the ,,cover4 ,the boards for making the covers are cut the required size exactly as when cutting for glueing2 a packing of thin cardboard or thin wrappers is cut for the back4 ,the width of the back from first to last sheet is carefully measured by laying across it a strip of paper1 the dividers are adjusted to the measure1 and this is transferred to the wrapping paper4 ,the packing is cut to suit the boards in height4 ,when cloth only is used for the cover1 the cloth is cut #b to #b-a_/b cm4 longer and about #d cm4 wider than the packing4 ,the width of the back depends upon the question of cost or other consideration4 ,in whole-cloth bindings the cloth is1 of course1 cut in one piece and #a to #a-a_/b cm4 larger all round than the boards and back taken together4 ,glue is always used for cloth4 ,as piles of pieces of cloth shift about in glueing1 a touch of glue is given to two corners of the pile and left to dry a little4 ,these corners hold the pieces of cloth in position whilst being glued and prevent the edges from being smeared4 ,in glueing cloth it must be seen that the glue is well rubbed into the grain or artificial indentations4 ,for covers which have only the back made1 the packing is laid upon the middle of the glued cloth and the boards hinged on right and left at side of it1 leaving1 however1 as much space between as is required by the joint and the thickness of the boards4 ,as a rule1 the space required will be as much as the thickness of the board4 ,in making leather backs one allows a little more4 ,the cloth back is at once turned in at head and tail after the boards have been laid on1 and the cover rubbed down in the groove with the folder4 ,turning-in is done by pushing the side to be operated on a little over the edge of the table1 and with the thumbs the cover is pressed over the edges of the boards with a sliding motion1 whilst the forefingers hold the cover underneath4 ,whole-cloth bindings are turned in in the same way1 but in this case the corners must be first cut off obliquely as shown in the illustration4 ,fig4 #fj--;,corners cut for turning in4 ,the cloth is cut off at the corners so close that only as much as the thickness of the board remains4 ,thick boards have therefore more cloth left at the corners than thin ones4 ,fig4 #fa--;,corners3 ,right and wrong4 ,the top and bottom edges must be turned in before the fore-edge4 ,at the corners1 the cloth is nipped a little with the folder1 without1 however1 making an oblique fold2 there should rather be a hollow round turn-over remaining which is only drawn on with the fore-edge1 then from the corner slanting to the board4 ,the edges must always be turned in quite sharp2 there must never be a hollow place on the edge of the board4 ,on the other hand1 it looks bad if the edges have been much rubbed down with the folder1 at least with cloth2 it is different with leather4 ,the turned-in cover is turned and the front side well rubbed down under paper with the folder4 ,when cloth has once been glued it must not be allowed to lie long as it rolls up and sticks together1 which renders it practically unworkable4 ,the finished covers are laid between pasteboards to dry2 only when the drying has to be done in a hurry may they be hung on stretched cords4 ,the latest in this work is a case machine which turns out #eej cases per hour4 ,when leather is used1 it must first be pared1 that is to say1 the parts to be turned in where it is too thick in the joint must be gradually thinned4 ,fig4 #fb--,paring with ,offenbach or ,berlin knife4 ,the paring knife1 of which there are various kinds1 is used for this work4 ,the best known and the most generally used are the ,offenbach and the ,berlin1 both very much alike except for a slight difference in the edge4 ,the quickest paring knife is made after the ,french pattern4 ,this knife is called a thrusting knife because of the manner of using it1 in contradistinction to those generally used with a cutting motion2 but even these a skilful worker will be able to use with a thrusting motion4 ,the under side of the paring knife is covered with leather4 ,a lithographic stone or piece of marble will serve as a bed upon which to pare the leather4 ,the stone is set in a frame under which there is a bar to hold it against the edge of the table so that it does not work backwards whilst in use4 ,all edges are rounded off and the surface is ground and polished4 ,ability in paring does not entirely depend upon the skilful use of the knife but also upon the way the left hand manipulates the leather and upon a thorough knowledge of the nature of the leather4 ,it should not be forgotten that the latter has a grain1 though very few bookbinders pay any heed to this4 ,with many leathers it is a very difficult matter to pare against the grain1 especially pig-skin and cow-hide4 ,one may generally take it that a leather pares best in the direction in which it stretches least4 ,the grain runs from the back to the sides4 ,the ,offenbach knife is narrower and ground more to a square point than the ,berlin knife1 the edge of which forms a sort of half right-angle to the blade4 ,see manner of holding the knife in ,fig4 #fb4 ,quick working is an advantage of the ,offenbach knife1 which is due to the fact that less attention need be given to holding the leather on the stone1 and paring proceeds from left to right1 the left hand at the same time helping to push the knife4 ,the ,berlin make pares from right to left2 here the blade is held almost parallel to the edge of the leather1 the point of the knife inclining to the leather2 with the other the edge is cut over slantingly with the point outwards4 ,to use the ,french knife requires more practice2 the cutting edge is almost at right angles to the knife1 and1 besides1 the method of holding it is somewhat unusual4 ,for paring all thick leathers or large surfaces it surpasses all other makes in execution4 ,to make the leather more workable for paring it is previously manipulated1 that is to say1 it is turned flesh side outwards and rolled to and fro1 whilst firm pressure is applied with the second and third fingers of the right hand1 thus making it pliable4 ,fig4 #fc--,paring with ,french knife4 ,in an ordinary bindery thin or split leathers are mostly used2 these do not require very much paring1 which is only necessary for pig-skin and the finest moroccos4 ,the latter leather is narrowly pared about #b to #c mm4 wide along the edge for half as well as for whole bindings4 ,only the back is pared the whole width1 therefore #a to #a-a_/b cm4 has to be nicely gradated4 ,broken places1 inequalities of the edge1 or even holes to be filled in1 greatly add to the difficulty of the work4 ,in the thicker skins also--thick places often occur in the otherwise thin skins--the joint must be thinned down4 ,the packing is laid upon the wrong side of the leather and its position marked out with the folder4 ,the leather is pared about #a cm4 in width along this line1 that is to say1 it is pared so that #a_/b cm4 right and left along the mark the thickness of the leather is reduced4 ,as a rule1 first-class books are not provided with a cover made in advance1 and even those described by publishers as super extra do not rise above morocco goat4 ,we have to do with the following leathers which are mostly used for the publishers' bindings3 ,goat-skin 7of oriental hybrid sheep71 morocco goat1 sheep-skin 7unsplit sheep-skin71 and split sheep-skin or so-called skivers4 ,there is another goat-skin1 not ,levanted1 sold and used under the name bastard leather4 ,levanting means to imitate by pressing the grain natural to the skins from the ,levant4 ,most kinds of our leather receive their grain by such process4 ,for whole-leather bindings a narrow margin is pared down all round the edges1 the turn-in at the back is pared just as much as is necessary1 and also at the corners4 ,the leather corners are cut slant-wise at the outset1 and the paring is done so that the thinning begins exactly at the edge of the board4 ,in leather bindings the board1 as well as the back packing1 is glued on1 rubbed down1 and the edges then pasted and turned in1 the leather is rubbed down sharply in the joint1 the back1 and on the edges2 but a folder must never be used on the leather covering the board itself4 ,it frequently happens that the board is finished off with round corners2 in this case1 the method of turning in cloth as well as leather is slightly different4 ,the two neighbouring edges are turned in4 ,the leather or other material is cut off not quite so close as for square corners1 and the material is drawn very smoothly and neatly over the edges in little folds1 using a pointed folder for the work4 ,illustration3 ,cover corner shapes1 #a ,illustration3 ,cover corner shapes1 #b ,books not wholly covered with cloth or leather get corners of the same material as is used for the back4 ,cloth corners are not cut singly1 but a strip of material long enough for the required number of corners is glued and then cut with the shears into pieces of this shape or1 better1 placing them on the boards in such a way that the material projects a little over the corner of the board4 ,first of all1 the lappets of the top and bottom edges are turned in1 the corners nipped in the manner shown1 and then the lappets of the fore-edge are also turned in4 ,leather corners are treated in the same way1 but these are cut from waste pieces according to the zinc stencil plate kept for the purpose1 and then pared down4 ,illustration3 ,cover corner shapes1 #c ,glue is used for fixing on cloth corners1 but strong paste is always used for leather4 ,all edges and corners are well rubbed down with the folder and left smooth and sharp1 but1 on the other hand1 the grain on the board side must be left uninjured4 ,insufficient paring of the corners or using only the fingers for turning-in causes very thick edges2 such work is out of date and would not be done by any thoughtful workman4 ,illustration3 ,half cloth or half leather corner4 ,books bound in half-cloth or half-leather have the sides covered with paper2 the latter often with cloth4 ,when cloth sides are used1 the material must always harmonize with the back both in regard to colour and texture4 ,on each side to be turned in the paper is cut #a to #a-a_/b cm4 larger than the surface of the board to be covered4 ,the paper is cut along the back with the knife and rule4 ,the corners are turned down in half right-angles according to the size of the cloth or leather corners and somewhat smaller than these1 and cut off with the shears as shown in the illustration1 using the fold as a guide4 ,illustration3 ,small corner diagram ,in ordinary work with very small corners1 especially in large quantities1 the corners may simply be cut off diagonally1 and if there are many covers they are knocked up and the cutting is done with knife and rule or with the machine4 ,as a trade article for the publishers1 the finished cover is lined with paper on the inside1 both for the sake of improved appearance and to prevent the drawing outwards4 ,for every board a sheet of paper is cut about #a_/b cm4 smaller than the board and pasted on4 ,the covers are placed between boards to dry4 ,covers are generally decorated in some way2 as a rule by means of the blocking press4 ,where they get any hand tooling1 it is always done on the book when bound1 for which no case is made in advance4 ,simple gold lines along the back and corners of the cover are excepted2 such work is known as filleting4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,work ,,with ,,the ,,blocking ,,press4 ,we make a distinction between gold tooling and blind tooling4 ,the latter is simply an impression on the leather or other material without the use of gold1 whilst the other is an impression upon a specially prepared leather or other surface1 using gold leaf4 ,skill in blocking depends first of all upon a tasteful and suitable selection and arrangement of the engraved blocks and letters necessary for the decoration and inscription4 ,the blocks1 c41 are to be had ready made from the engravers in properly arranged sets2 but still it is essential that the finisher should possess certain artistic taste and feeling1 especially in making up the lettering4 ,it must be borne in mind that in an inscription or title the principal part 7word or line7 must be distinguished by larger or heavier type2 furthermore1 two lines of equal length must never appear in an inscription4 ,short words 7the1 and1 for1 c47 worked into an inscription as separate lines add considerably to its appearance4 ,see pp4 #adh to #aec for what is said on the arrangement of the title in hand lettering4 ,the same applies to the arrangement of all lettering4 ,the blocks and letters are always fixed to the upper part of the press--the platen4 ,to enable alterations to be made quickly or to secure pieces which may have slipped1 there is a draw-out plate made in all modern blocking presses4 ,the engraved blocks are not affixed to this plate with glue but with cobblers' wax4 ,the following is a practical way of managing the ornamental blocks3 ,on a thin but very strong board about the size of the article to be blocked1 the blocks are arranged with the backs uppermost1 the engraved face being next to the board4 ,this board is fixed with wax exactly in the centre of the lower part of the press--the table4 ,by exactly in the centre it is to be understood that the centre of the various blocks brought together lies on or near the centre of the draw-out plate4 ,if there are more and heavier blocks fixed to the upper than to the lower side of the plate1 the latter must be lowered a little--in a word1 the plate must be so adjusted that all parts receive equal pressure4 ,it is only by making a few trials that one can learn exactly what is right4 ,the press should be warmed by this time1 and it is well to slide in the table with the blocks adjusted upon it1 and to let it remain under light pressure until plate and table are warmed throughout and no trace of moisture may be seen on either4 ,now put a little wax on each block1 lay over them a piece of stout wrapping paper1 cardboard1 or similar stuff1 push in and press gently2 the wrapper also may be waxed4 ,after about five minutes1 open the press to see whether all parts have stuck4 ,until this takes place the press must remain closed4 ,if1 however1 all pieces are sticking fast1 draw out the table and examine the imprint of each particular part to see whether the pressure is equal2 if this is not so1 it remains to be seen whether such inequality is due to a faulty fixing of the plate and1 if necessary1 to rectify it2 otherwise1 pieces of paper must be made up into a suitable packing and laid upon the back of the blocks until all inequalities are removed and an even impression is obtained4 ,this done1 the back of the set-up blocks1 or the wrappers affixed thereto1 is waxed at as many places as required1 or rather as far as the set-up blocks extend1 the plate pushed in1 and the press closed until the set-up blocks adhere to the upper plate4 ,the lighter this first impression is made1 the easier it will be to detect any inequality on the table 7or matrix7 and to set it right by backing up with paper4 ,fig4 #fd--;,blocking press4 ,before proceeding further1 a few words must be said about the construction of our modern blocking presses4 ,for modern blocking we use knee-lever presses1 whilst balances are now no longer used4 ,on the upper part there is a sliding plate--the so-called platen--which draws out on prismatic rails4 ,a second plate works on hinges at the side of the sliding 7or draw-out7 plate and can be pulled out to the left4 ,this plate is used principally for colour blocking--the other plate for gold4 ,blocking can be done in gold and colour immediately after each other1 and if the plate is in duplicate1 four impressions can be made in succession without having to take off and change the plate4 ,in the upper plate there are round borings for the gas burners or hot irons used for heating the press2 the latter are out of date and do not produce a steady temperature4 ,it now remains to insert the article to be blocked in the press so that it will be blocked exactly on the spot required4 ,there are several ways of attaining this object1 which are adopted according to the kind of work in hand4 ,the surest way is to mark the place by pins4 ,two large drawing pins are pasted upon pieces of cardboard1 a second piece of board is placed over each one so that the head is embedded between the two pieces but leaving the points free4 ,the gauges thus made are fixed with wax at convenient places1 best on the middle line above and below the table but in such a way that they themselves are not touched by the plate4 ,to prevent their falling off1 a larger piece of cloth is pasted over them1 always leaving the points visible4 ,the surest preventive against falling off is to have screw-on gauges4 ,a strip of metal having a slit in the middle can be screwed tightly to the table by means of a screw passed through the slit4 ,at the end a steel point about #a_/b cm4 long is riveted on4 ,with this gauge the points can be adjusted to any position on the table as required4 ,all work not turned-in which requires repeat blocking1 and all such as requires blocking in more than one colour1 is pinned on4 ,on the other hand1 covers which are finished after being once blocked on back or side which require no second impression may be adjusted with the angle gauge or blocks4 ,many make use of both at the same time4 ,such covers then have been turned in all round when being worked1 whilst pinning on requires that the covers should not have been turned in4 ,the practical bookbinder who has to deal with turned-in covers frequently gets over the difficulty by making two incisions about #b cm4 apart with the knife upon the turned-in edge at the place where it should be pinned on1 and opening out the material at the incisions1 thus making a loose margin for pinning on4 ,for pinning on covers as well as backs1 a template is cut from wrappers or thin board1 which is adjusted on the cover and the register holes made with an awl4 ,when pinning-on has to be done for blocking which has to be repeated very many times1 the register points are strengthened behind with stiff paper to prevent them from breaking or tearing away and thus becoming inaccurate4 ,fig4 #fe--;,appliances used in blocking backs4 ,to enable the most various widths of backs to be quickly inserted and to supply a substitute for the thick layers of cardboard packing which make a fine impression impossible1 a special contrivance with metal pads has been made4 ,this is shown in the sketch herewith4 ,mention has already been made of the table 7or matrix74 ,this is a bed of stout boards which is intended to serve the double purpose of saving the blocks when blocking thin articles 7backs of covers1 c47 and also for strengthening and equalising the resistance from below when working on heavier articles4 ,faults arising during working1 such as insufficient adhesion of the gold 7and an increased pressure7 may be set right by pasting on pieces of paper to the matrix or table4 ,the matrices consist of strong but thin material2 the best is wrappers or the thinnest board4 ,after use they are kept for subsequent repetitions of the same or for other work4 ,the lettering must always be set up fresh for each job1 whilst the ornamental pieces may be arranged on the tables or matrices at hand after the existing original impression4 ,setting the type is a special art and calls for considerable taste and skill2 the letters very easily slip out of the type-holder1 especially where very small type is used1 unless special precautions are taken to prevent this4 ,here we will pass over the most important point in the arrangement of the types and refer to the paragraph dealing with ,lettering under ,hand-tooling2 what holds good there always holds good here4 ,lettering is always set upon special pieces of board and afterwards encased in a type-holder1 as it demands much more attention and subsequent correction4 ,these boards should likewise be wrappers of the same thickness as those used at the same time for the ornaments4 ,for fixing1 cobblers' wax is likewise used4 ,the favourite method frequently adopted of using glue coated with paste is not to be recommended1 because the letters do not admit of proper setting upon this gelatinous mass4 ,not only do the lines of letters require to be kept right by means of a strip of metal or metal line1 they must be carefully adjusted after taking a light impression1 especially when using a very small type4 ,the first pull must be under so light a pressure that on a soft paper everything is distinctly visible4 ,the lines are arranged from this proof1 whilst each single letter is carefully checked4 ,where letters do not show up properly they must be backed up with paper of suitable thickness on the board until all unevenness disappears4 ,the lighter the pressure applied the easier it will be to make corrections4 ,letters heavily pressed at the outset can seldom be properly rectified afterwards4 ,in large editions it does happen1 in spite of all precautions1 that single letters work loose and fall out2 this may damage parts of the plate as well as valuable covers1 and one therefore tries to guard against it4 ,some take narrow strips of cloth and paste one round each line of type1 others pour liquid glue between the lines which1 when thoroughly dry and hard1 is a very sure means of preventing the falling out of any piece of type4 ,when everything is in order1 the type is likewise inserted2 various parts of the back of the board are well waxed and the table is then pushed in and the press closed tight4 ,it remains closed until all parts are thoroughly dry1 for it is only then that we may feel assured that no parts can fall out4 ,the drying may be hastened by opening the press about a quarter of an hour later and drawing out the plate1 likewise the table1 and now allowing plate and table to dry by exposure4 ,if any parts of the plate should lift1 wax must again be applied and once more pressed4 ,when the plates and press are got into working order1 and the backs or covers have received their register marks by means of the template1 the blocking may be commenced4 ,the table is drawn out1 a piece of work pushed in to the register1 and the press closed4 ,it is necessary that the press should have been previously regulated to the thickness of the article being blocked1 and to begin with a light pressure at first1 as heavier pressure can be applied afterwards if required4 ,cloth requires sharper pressure than leather4 ,large heavy covers are always blocked with the press quite closed1 whilst small things like single titles1 hat linings1 ties1 c41 are finished with only a short pull of the lever4 ,the correct regulation of the pressure rests with the worker4 ,we distinguish between blocking in blind1 gold1 colour1 and relief4 ,blocking in blind1 both on leather and cloth1 should not be attempted upon articles which have become very dry4 ,a good plan is to store them in a cellar the night before and to bring out only as many as can be finished in the next half-hour's work4 ,blocking in blind can only be done on matt or grained material1 as its effect is nil upon a smooth polished surface4 ,the finish can be considerably heightened in special cases by going over the impression with a brush and white of egg after the first blocking and then again pressing under less heat4 ,calf leather1 and undressed calf in particular1 receives its splendid brown colour by being previously damped with boiled or distilled water to which a little spirit has been added4 ,the impression on a damped ground is first made somewhat warmer and afterwards repeated when the press has cooled a little1 occasionally wiping the blocks with a waxed cloth4 ,the impression must in all cases be even in colour and have a high finish2 if this is not so1 the lighter places must be once more damped with a small brush and again impressed4 ,articles to be blocked in gold must be prepared with some substance to which the gold will adhere4 ,the finisher uses a fluid or dry adhesive according to the material he is working upon4 ,of liquid sizes1 diluted white of egg or1 in some cases1 dissolved gelatine or blood serum is used almost exclusively4 ,these liquids1 which are applied with a sponge or1 for fine work1 with a brush1 are called the ground or sizing4 ,of dry adhesives1 we know only the gilding powder1 which consists of resin with now and then an addition of dried white of egg4 ,the other powders used by the finisher are rice flour or potato flour2 these are not used as adhesives but to prevent the gold sticking at places where it is not wanted4 ,leather and cloth are sized with white of egg2 silk and other woven materials are finished without special sizing1 and also surfaced papers and cardboard goods1 as they are treated with finishers' powder1 a wet preparation being unsuitable4 ,size for blocking is thinner than for hand finishing1 and when it has to be washed over the whole of a cloth cover it is still further diluted4 ,glair for brushing over an impression consists of one part white of egg and one part vinegar2 to every #a_/b litre #a g4 of powdered borax is added1 the whole beaten to a froth and filtered4 ,for coating-over1 take one part white of egg1 two parts water1 and to every #a_/b litre add #aj drops of glycerine and #a g4 borax4 ,if a larger quantity of glair is required for coating over1 it may be thinned with water or vinegar2 but size made with vinegar must not be applied to fancy coloured cloths4 ,gilding powder may be yellow or white1 the latter kind is rougher and is suitable for silk stuffs and also where blocking has to be done over colour on cloth4 ,yellow powder is softer and is apt to clog the finer cut tools2 it is more suitable for the preparation of paper de luxe1 for blocking surface and chromo papers1 and for photo cases4 ,gilding powder is sprinkled by means of a box which has a double layer of fine gauze instead of a bottom4 ,by tapping upon the box a fine shower of powder is dusted on to the surface to be gilded4 ,glair is made in the workshop2 the powder is bought ready prepared--to make it would take too much time4 ,for blocking in alloyed metals1 gelatine size is used1 as it is a powerful adhesive4 ,a tablet of gelatine is soaked in #a_/d litre of water overnight and next morning is dissolved in the bath4 ,gelatine is used to cover the whole surfaces and is laid on when lukewarm4 ,blood serum serves the same purpose4 ,ox blood is allowed to coagulate1 and the hardened mass thus produced is placed over a cloth strainer1 or hair sieve1 and the liquid albumen allowed to drain from it2 the process is hastened by cutting the caked blood into small pieces4 ,only the clear liquid which is strained off is to be used--a pinch of borax will make it keep longer4 ,for finishing bindings1 real gold-leaf--orange tint--is used almost exclusively1 the cheaper green gold being used only for sample cases and school books4 ,alloyed metal and aluminium 7this is now commonly used instead of the quickly oxydizing silver7 are used almost solely in the manufacture of papers de luxe and for placards4 ,pure gold-leaf is always laid on the sized cover after the surface to be blocked has been lightly gone over with a ball of oiled cotton wool1 or a slightly greased rag4 ,this must never be done to such a degree as to cause grease spots4 ,calf must not be thus treated with grease1 but if the gold is not likely to stick at certain places1 the first impression may be picked out with a brush slightly oiled so as to make the leaf adhere4 ,dark polished calf will1 however1 stand a little oil4 ,fine leathers are first stamped and the impression is gone over with a brush1 then the gold is laid on and again impressed4 ,the gold is lifted from the cushion with a gilder's tip or a pad of cotton wool and transferred to the cover4 ,the gilder's tips consist of square pieces of cardboard a little smaller than the piece of gold to be used1 to the under side of which is pasted a piece of cloth4 ,a handle of cardboard or a button is pasted on top for convenience of holding4 ,draw this tip lightly over the hair1 press it on the gold1 which will lightly adhere to it1 and then transfer the gold to the surface to be stamped1 where it is pressed down with cotton wool1 which should be surgical wool1 as that kind is free from knots4 ,many prefer a tuft of cotton wool rolled into a handy size1 this is likewise drawn over the hair1 and the rest done as before4 ,when gilding powder is used1 the gold must not be laid on with the pad4 ,the gold must be placed on the powder by hand only1 a task calling for considerable adroitness4 ,the gold is taken up with the gold-knife1 aided by a moistened finger-tip taking a corner1 passed over the surface with the knife1 brought to the required position with the hanging corner1 and now the knife is taken away flat sideways4 ,the gold must lie quite even on the powdered surface4 ,any subsequent shifting of the gold is entirely out of the question1 because the layer of powder would be disturbed and might not hold in places4 ,to know exactly what degree of heat should be applied requires special study1 and the pity is that fixed rules cannot be given--one day a black morocco goat-skin may stand a great heat1 whilst on another day the same heat applied to similar stuff might burn it up4 ,cloth is always the same1 calf leather papers1 skytogen1 c41 are much more difficult4 ,on the whole1 the following rules may be observed3-- ,cloth white of egg 7or glair7 medium heat ,sheep-skin slight heat ,goat-skin medium heat ,morocco medium heat ,silk white gilding powder short hot pressure ,surface papers and cardboards yellow short medium pressure ,calf glair hot 7light leathers somewhat less heat7 ,varnished paper little heat ,the latter contains sufficient adhesive matter in the colour without using any other size1 even for alloyed gold1 but the covers must1 however1 be slightly moist4 ,for this purpose they are left overnight in a damp cellar or placed between slightly damped boards4 ,we have already spoken of the matrix4 ,where silk or other thin woven materials are to be blocked1 a firm hard board must be laid on the table and frequently changed1 otherwise the impression will be defective4 ,for ribbons for wreaths1 c41 a suitable piece of paper which had been damped some time before should be laid underneath4 ,although relief blocking upon bindings seems to be out of favour1 there are numerous styles of imitation relief practised nowadays1 especially in imitation of cut leather or wrought metal4 ,this work necessitates the matrix or table being prepared with great care1 as it must be the counterpart of the plate4 ,for this purpose an impression is first made upon a stout cardboard1 which is fixed firmly enough on the bed to prevent its shifting1 the block being affixed to the platen4 ,upon this first cardboard are laid the raised parts according to the height required1 likewise cut out of stout cardboard1 continuing to place a layer upon the other until a true negative of the block is obtained4 ,small and slightly raised ornamentation is not specially underlaid1 using instead a piece of stout board well smeared with cobblers' wax1 which1 after standing awhile under the plate in the closed press1 will make a very exact and firm base4 ,matrices made up of several layers of cardboard pasted on top of each other are also1 when finished1 covered with a piece of pasted packing paper and then pressed4 ,this leaf prevents single pieces from working loose and sticking to the block4 ,for relief stamping1 leather or cloth is stretched upon thin wrappers4 ,the guide points must be made a little further apart on account of the material shrinking slightly under relief stamping4 ,colour blocking1 which has gained such unexpected popularity1 gives the finisher no little trouble4 ,as blind blocking is done by the press1 so also may colour blocking be done if the blocks are coloured with the brilliant colours specially prepared for printing4 ,a colour roller1 made by moulding ,english roller composition on a wooden pin1 is used for colouring the blocks4 ,the worker himself may cast these rollers in a well-greased mould4 ,the roller composition is dissolved in water1 and after being poured into the mould is allowed to stand a few hours to cool4 ,the colour blocker keeps about three rollers ready1 of which one is used for light colours1 another for middle tones1 and the third solely for black4 ,the rollers are either fixed in a fork with two handles or an axle goes through the wooden pin which is bound in leather at each end wherein the axle revolves in the hollow of the hand4 ,fig4 #ff--;,colour roller4 ,the rollers spread the colour upon a stone of suitable size4 ,the colour should be laid on the rollers--not on the stone--not too thickly1 and then evenly distributed on the stone by bringing the roller over it backwards and forwards4 ,both stone and roller must always be cleaned after use2 perfect cleanliness must be carefully observed throughout4 ,the stone is cleaned with petroleum1 the remaining colour is removed from the roller by passing it several times over a sheet of glass1 rubbing it down with petroleum before again using it so as to remove any particle of dust adhering4 ,in order that the colours may appear as bright as possible1 a little varnish is added to them1 which in every case must be of a kind to suit the particular colour4 ,dammar varnish is suitable for light colours1 and for darker colours amber varnish4 ,where great brilliancy is required1 ,venetian turpentine is added2 but this lengthens the time required for drying if a little too much is added4 ,in every case1 however1 a little siccative must be added to every colour2 a few drops materially quicken the drying4 ,colour blocking can only be done when the blocks have been secured to the plate1 as this must be opened each time it is coloured4 ,the simplest colour-printing is where one colour appears between the impression in gold1 and in this case it is generally done by first making the impression in gold and then in colour4 ,in more complex work several colours are to be used2 at the present time the work is frequently produced requiring colours side by side and superimposed1 together with gold1 bronze1 and aluminium4 ,the process is in each case as follows3 ,from the block supplied by the engraver an impression is made which forms a matrix4 ,it is best to select a piece of board exactly the size of the covers to be printed and at the two places to be taken by the guide points pieces of vellum are firmly pasted1 being already pierced for the guide points1 these vellum additions being further secured by pasting over them a strip of paper or cloth4 ,for every block to be used a similar board with its vellum additions is prepared4 ,upon the ground of this first matrix the other auxiliary matrices are likewise first impressed with the block--all of them black1 of course1 so that it would be possible at any time to fit in the blocks4 ,every new block for colour printing is pressed into the ground of the auxiliary matrix belonging to it2 also for the so-called first-impression block4 ,it must be understood that colour printing can be done well only upon a perfectly even and smooth surface1 therefore it is wise with first-impression blocks1 as well as larger colour plates1 to repeat the impression1 only slightly warm after having given a very hot impression the first time4 ,surface papers are an exception as they generally stand very little heat4 ,it helps here either to let the newly made covers get half dry or1 better1 to let them lie longer in a damp room4 ,when different colours are to be superimposed1 the order in which they are printed is a matter of some importance4 ,as a rule1 the so-called warm tones 7yellow1 brown1 red1 or colours containing much of these7 are printed first2 the cold tones 7blue or others containing much blue7 being afterwards laid on4 ,white is also classed as a cold tone1 but for technical reasons it must nearly always be printed first4 ,if these rules are observed1 serious mistakes will seldom be made4 ,moreover1 proof impressions of the different colours must be taken upon white cardboard1 which should be marked for reference1 in the same way noting the proportion of the colours used in mixed colours4 ,if the outline block is to be printed in colour1 it comes last2 gold stamping being done first4 ,the process of printing in bronze is similar to colour printing1 as the bronze is dusted over a preliminary impression in colour 7gold upon red or yellow ochre1 aluminium upon white1 coloured bronze upon a suitable similar colour74 ,bronze is not printed upon colour1 because the bronze sticks too easily to such surfaces in places where it is not wanted2 it is then much better to use gold-leaf4 ,should it be necessary on the score of economy to make a double working in bronze1 the cover must be previously washed with glair4 ,leaf metals1 pure or alloyed1 are printed upon colours after they have been slightly dusted with gilding powder1 and with moderate heat4 ,the colours1 however1 must previously be allowed to dry thoroughly4 ,larger surfaces are wholly prepared with glair to prevent the gold from adhering where not required4 ,most of the colours must cover well where it is not intended that they should have a translucent effect4 ,a good covering is not secured by laying the colour on thickly but by properly mixing the colours1 and often also by giving a second coat after the first surface has dried4 ,above all1 one must avoid too thick and greasy colours4 ,black must always be printed with a strong good covering colour1 as must also the outline block4 ,for colour printing1 the press must be of the same temperature as the room4 ,in winter it is slightly warmed an hour before use1 and when necessary this must be repeated later4 ,there are quite a number of little dodges not easily communicated but which are quickly picked up in practice4 ,fig4 #fg--,stuck-on gauges4 ,simple work is not adjusted by pins1 but is pushed up to three guides2 moreover1 the gauge of the press is not generally used1 but three little pieces of board are firmly glued to the table instead4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #fg7 will clearly show the arrangement4 ,at the letters ,a the pieces of board are glued1 to which the cover to be blocked is pushed up4 ,to prevent these gauges from being pushed off1 or to facilitate refixing in the event of their becoming loose1 the gauge generally supplied with the press is brought close up behind them4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,sewn ,,books3 ,,fastening ,,in ,,covers ,,and ,,finishing ,,off4 ,for better-class bindings and where hand tooling is to be done the covers are not made in advance as the books are formed and then case and covering made on the book itself4 ,this results in a better appearance and a stronger connection between the book and its cover4 ,it has already been explained 7,chap4 ,v41 pp4 #hg-hh7 how the so-called hollow back is made in boarding4 ,this kind of back1 however1 is only used in ordinary binding in half or whole cloth4 ,for leather or half-leather bindings a strip of wrapping paper or thin cardboard is cut4 ,the exact size is taken with a piece of paper across the back from the first to the last section4 ,this strip must be exactly the same length as the cut boards to be used4 ,the strips--afterwards representing raised bands--are laid upon this packing2 these strips are best cut from waste pieces of cow-hide1 but if this is not to hand1 paste pieces of waste goat-skin three ply thick1 press lightly1 and1 when dry1 cut out of this material strips not exceeding #b mm4 in width4 ,the position of the bands is carefully measured with the dividers and marked with pencil and straight-edge and the strips are then glued on in their places4 ,the bands are left projecting over the edge until quite dry and at #c mm4 from the edge1 and are then pared down to it4 ,illustration3 ,headband4 ,for extra half-leather work the backs are previously glued round on the book itself4 ,a strong--not too thick--packing paper is selected1 the back is thinly coated with rather thick glue1 and the paper1 a little wider than four times the width of the back1 is so laid on the back as to leave1 say1 the first two sheets free4 ,as far as it sticks1 the paper is rubbed down1 then folded back to the other joint exactly at the last section1 brought back tight over the back1 and now firmly rubbed down on the strip left free at the first sheet4 ,exactly at the first sheet the paper is again folded over and pasted over the back1 afterwards repeating the preceding glueing process4 ,in this way the paper is folded from the joint and glued three times4 ,the overlapping parts are cut off4 ,the back now consists of four layers1 the first of which is glued on to the book1 the other three1 of course1 forming an arch over it1 although they themselves are glued together4 ,what is overlapping at top and bottom is cut off with the shears close by the headband1 care being taken that the back is truly squared4 ,the headband should be nearly but not quite as high as the squares4 ,by so doing1 the back will be #a_/b mm4 shorter at each end after cutting than the boards4 ,for this work the book is placed in the press so that the back stands out free4 ,bands that are to be fixed on are likewise placed in position and are then glued on with a round4 ,the backs are covered with cloth or leather4 ,the former is cut the required size1 that is1 allowing #b to #c cm4 in width to overlap at each side1 glued1 the rounded backing strip laid exactly in the middle1 and then placed in the hollow of the left hand4 ,the right hand takes the book and both are brought together so that the backing fits exactly in each joint but corresponding to the height of the boards4 ,when this adjustment has been obtained1 the parts overlapping on the boards are pressed down for a time1 and after again seeing that the position is right1 they are drawn over firmly4 ,it is best to stand the volume on its fore-edge and1 using the palms of both hands together1 rub the covering material firmly down on the boards4 ,when the back is properly drawn on1 the head and tail are turned in4 ,with hollow backs the joints must be well rubbed down4 ,it is necessary to cut off a small piece of the corner of the board at the joints at top and bottom2 this may be done either with a sharp knife or shears1 and1 of course1 before the book is covered4 ,to make the turn-in 7on the book71 the book is placed with its back on the table1 letting both boards fall back so that they lie open on the table4 ,take hold of the book at the edge between index and middle finger of the left hand and lift it out of the boards at the head2 the right hand1 with the help of the folder1 turns the pasted lap inwards and rubs it well down without creases or wrinkles4 ,after both pieces have been thus turned in1 the back is further worked at the head to give it a good shape4 ,fig4 #fh--,turning in the head4 ,the same process is gone through with books bound in whole cloth or half leather4 ,in the latter case the leather must1 of course1 be pared down1 as also in half calf or whole leather1 the work with these being somewhat more elaborate4 ,it is here of the utmost importance that the greatest attention should be given to careful paring of the leather1 especially seeing that the leather is not too thick in the joint2 if so1 it must be reduced to the required thickness4 ,it must be pared at the head so that the turn-over does not appear any thicker than the rest of the back4 ,leather used for covering books must be worked with paste1 and paste only4 ,figs4 #fi and #gj--,the head3 good and bad4 ,it must be drawn tight over the bands1 and these should be well rubbed down with the folder4 ,the turning-in is done in the same way1 but the overlap--as far as the actual width of the book is concerned--is again drawn out so that it projects about #b mm4 over the headband4 ,this projecting leather is pressed quite flat--not slant-wise--over the headband1 so that seen from above it almost covers the latter4 ,all half and full leather bound books have the corners of the boards next to the head pared down4 ,this is done before covering--it not only makes the turning-in easier but the book has a better appearance and opens better4 ,when the turning-in is finished1 the book is opened wide and the boards adjusted so that both turnings-in are uniform and sharp and also that it has already1 to a certain extent1 a deep groove1 and then closed4 ,if no layer of waste paper has previously been sewn in1 it may now be placed in the joint1 so that after drying the boards may open quite freely and nicely4 ,the closed book is now tied up1 that is to say1 a cord is looped and tied right round the back at the joint4 ,the turn-in is thus drawn in at the pared-down parts4 ,behind the cord the head and tail are pressed down with the folder to right and left1 slightly outwards2 whatever may have been drawn in by the cord is put right on the inside edge and the edges are rubbed sharp and square with the folder4 ,the book is lying throughout on the paring stone1 not upon the press-board4 ,the foregoing applies to made cases as well as to those backs which are pasted on the books4 ,with the former it is necessary to round the backs4 ,this is done by drawing the back underneath a folder with a wave-like motion4 ,it can easily be done after being once seen4 ,to give the back a good hold on the book from the very outset1 the inserted part is pasted narrowly at the joint before being laid on the pasted leather so that at this place it firmly adheres to the back4 ,backs that are stuck to the book itself are cut open about #b cm4 long at the joints with a small knife in order to take the turn-in2 for the rest the work is the same4 ,corner making and covering are here exactly the same as already explained for the ready-made cover4 ,books bound in half or full cloth with hollow backs are treated in the following way3 ,the glued cloth is laid flat upon the table1 the back of the book placed in the centre of it1 the book lifted up1 lightly pressing the cloth to the back with the flat hand only1 and then sharply rubbing down the overlapping sides at the joint with the point of the folder1 rubbing the sides as well4 ,for this1 lay the book on the edge of the table so that the back stands clear4 ,if the sides were brought over the boards at once1 neither a sharp groove could be obtained nor would it be possible to draw over the cloth without creases4 ,we now come to the finishing of the books1 but we must first deal with the fastening of the book into the cover4 ,by covers is understood either a cover made to fit a book to hand or a cover to which a book is to be made to fit4 ,the latter is the more difficult4 ,the book1 when pulled to pieces1 without end papers and sewing1 should be about one-sixth thinner than with the paddings of the cover1 thin books1 of course1 a little more4 ,thickness of thread and compressing or allowing to swell in sewing should equalize what difference there may be4 ,if the book is ready trimmed1 edges finished1 pressed--it should always be cloth jointed--it is cased in4 ,a packing is pasted on the back1 that is to say1 similar to glueing the back1 the back is pasted on to the book itself1 a strip of paper the proper width is laid on so that the two first sheets remain free1 rubbed down1 folded back from the other joint1 pasted on the free margin1 and the surplus cut off4 ,in this way1 not only is the back pasted over but it gets another covering of paper4 ,the padding of the cover is now rounded1 either by drawing it under the folder in the way mentioned or by drawing it to and fro over a chock fixed in the press4 ,the book must suit the cover so that it fits tight into the joints4 ,the padding of the back is glued1 the book laid in1 the boards at both sides well drawn over1 a covering of paper laid over the back1 and then well rubbed down with the flat folder4 ,the pressing that finds so much favour is altogether superfluous1 as it takes absolutely no effect upon the glued back4 ,it is only when the covers are somewhat too narrow that the joints are improved by pressing4 ,after the glue has set a little1 the end papers are pasted on1 i4e41 they are pasted over and lie open until thoroughly dry4 ,it is done as follows3-- ,insert a piece of waste paper under the cloth joint1 the joint itself getting a thin coat of rather weak glue4 ,the bands1 which must remain free although cut off to leave only #b cm4 in length1 are laid over the joint and likewise glued4 ,now lay the book square before you1 the open board next the table edge1 and with the point of a knife first lift the bands from the cloth joint1 lay them taut over the smooth board and smooth them down with the knife so that everything lies smooth and even1 taking special care that the bands are not noticeable in the joint through any evenness4 ,the cloth joint is now drawn over and well rubbed down on the board1 the latter being at the same time well pressed on the joint so that it has quite a straight sharp edge4 ,the book lies open in this way to dry1 but it may be turned1 placed on a board1 pushed up to the joint1 and the other side similarly pasted on4 ,fig4 #ga--,the pasted-down book4 ,plainer bindings1 especially school books and publishers' cheap cases1 are often pasted down with only the outer leaf or white end paper and without a cloth joint1 whilst here the coloured end paper has still to be pasted down2 in the former case proceed as follows3-- ,the back--without packing--is simply glued over1 the packing rounded4 ,the book is properly placed in the cover1 and the outside fly leaf--afterwards an end paper--and bands are pasted1 the latter at the same time being smoothed out with a knife or folder2 the boards are then closed1 pressing them over very sharply4 ,the book is turned and the other side done in the same way1 and at once pressed4 ,where a cloth joint has to be pasted on1 a paste-down must be pasted on to the board4 ,the practice of doing the coloured end papers at the same time as the book is not so good as subsequent pasting down1 as they are then less likely to be injured during trimming and colouring the edges1 c4 ,the paste-down is first cut to size a little less than the book itself and fastened in with thin glue so that the paper is close to the joint but not so close as to cause it to swell4 ,the counterpart of the fly leaf is pasted on to it1 both leaves are cut with a knife close along the joint1 for back and front1 about #a_/b cm4 wide1 are pushed up1 thinly pasted1 and pasted into the book up to the pressed joint4 ,the leaves so hinged in are now raised1 the under leaf thinly coated with thin glue1 the leaf closed and rubbed down under paper with a folder4 ,immediate pressing is to be avoided1 as the thin glue is very easily squeezed out4 ,after a while the pressing is done1 of course1 when zinc plates--if necessary1 polished boards--should be inserted between the end papers1 and not too great pressure applied4 ,if the boards have been fastened on with paste and without a back1 zinc plates are also used1 but between the first and last sheets of the book1 so as to press these very smooth and to prevent the plates from sticking to the damp end papers4 ,half or whole cloth1 half leather1 or1 generally speaking1 all bindings which are not pasted down open1 are laid upon a board1 pasting thinly with thin paste first one side1 then turning the book and pasting the other1 and then pressing4 ,in doing quantities1 ten may be done before pressing4 ,cheap work is often pressed by laying the volumes crosswise upon each other and pressing in batches between boards4 ,books with a deep joint where the bands are either laid on the board or laced in are always pasted down open4 ,where cloth or leather jointed1 this is done in a similar way to boarding in covers1 except that the bands need not be considered here1 as they have already been seen to4 ,working the leather well in the joint and firmly pressing back the board after turning in the head lighten this work and improve the appearance of the joint4 ,leather joints are always pasted down open with paste1 but must1 of course1 be left lying longer4 ,the so-called double end papers1 that is1 without cloth or leather joint1 are very effective4 ,only the best and strongest paper can be used for these4 ,the double sheet1 folded in the middle1 is narrowly pasted at the back and fixed in the joint of the book--not in the fold of the joint but in the joint made by pressing4 ,this prevents the bend coming on the place where the paper has already become weakened by sharp creasing1 but near it4 ,the half for the fly leaf is at once pasted down2 that to be pasted on the board must first be cut to size4 ,the end paper is cut off at head and tail of the book1 the book opened1 the end paper laid over the board1 and with the dividers is marked out on the paste-down parallel with the edges1 somewhat less than the book4 ,at the fold marked by the edge of the board at the joint1 nick in with the scissors up to the mark made1 slip under this a zinc plate1 and on this cut the end paper by the mark up to the nicks4 ,it is understood that the end papers should not be cut off right round the book1 otherwise they would become too scant at the fore-edge4 ,a piece of waste paper is now laid under the paste down1 thinly coated with glue1 the leaf drawn tightly over the board and rubbed down2 at the same time a piece of paper is laid over the joint as above4 ,when pasting in the cover1 the book is placed square and the joint strongly and briskly rubbed down with finger and thumb of both hands4 ,fig4 #gb--,treatment of tear-off4 ,a paper having a design must1 of course1 be laid in the same direction as the book4 ,where paste-down and fly leaf are to be pasted on separately1 it must be so arranged that1 after the pasting1 one leaf forms the counterpart of the other1 that is to say1 the design must run through and be broken only by the joint4 ,to effect this it is necessary that the paste-down should be first pasted on2 when pasting on the fly leaf the work can be made right4 ,silk paste-down and fly leaves are frequently used for extra work1 the silk here being stretched over a piece of stout paper and pasted narrowly at the edges4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,hand ,,finishing4 ,when the books have been bound they are generally ornamented in gold or in some other way4 ,although the more elaborate finishing in gold is not done in the ordinary bindery1 but is confined to the art binderies1 sufficient instruction will be given here for the simpler finishing on back and side4 ,gold finishing is only learned at the cost of much patience and long1 painstaking practice4 ,although the technical schools teach finishing in a comparatively short time--usually in a few months--only the ground-work can thus be acquired1 for it takes years of practice to teach all the technicalities and to make an expert finisher1 equal to any calls made upon him4 ,it may also be mentioned here that in most technical schools the work is executed with the very best and most suitable tools and1 furthermore1 the whole interior arrangement of the workshop is as favourable to the work as can be conceived1 and thus all conditions for good work prevail4 ,when young workers come from such an institution to work under strange conditions1 where they have to struggle along with unfamiliar and perhaps unsuitable and antiquated tools1 bad light1 and other drawbacks1 it is not to be wondered at if they--at the outset1 at least--do not answer all expectations4 ,similar inconveniences have less effect upon old and experienced workers1 as they have the steadiness and assurance which come to them as the result of long years of work1 and they1 therefore1 never become nervous and fidgety4 ,a cool head and a steady hand are the first essentials in a finisher1 and after these the feeling for neatness and exactness4 ,gold tooling has evolved from the blind tooling of the #aeth century1 which up to that time had been the only method of decoration for the exterior of books1 excepting where gold or jewels were used4 ,the first application of this method was in drawn lines made by running the heated fillet alongside the rule1 and even to-day the fillet1 although improved in make1 still retains its place as a suitable tool for the decoration of leather backs and sides4 ,speaking generally1 blind tooling is not sufficiently appreciated by finishers1 especially in shops doing much hand tooling2 to many it is almost unknown1 and they would be at a loss if there were any demand for it1 and yet it is eminently suitable for simple finishing with slender resources1 to obtain a result at once chaste and striking without excessive ornament1 and this without a costly assortment of tools and other special appliances4 ,before proceeding to the details in the work of finishing1 a few preliminary observations may be made4 ,blind tooling is the ornamenting of leather with tools without the application of gold4 ,it might also be correctly described as matt tooling4 ,its peculiarity and beauty consist in its rendering the tooling on the leather in a darker tone4 ,blind tooling may be executed upon leathers of any colour1 but its full decorative effect is seen only upon light colours1 especially upon undyed calf and pig-skin and also upon coloured unpolished calf4 ,to produce the deepest and most uniform tone it is necessary to damp the leather previous to tooling4 ,as it is well that the whole surface to be tooled should retain some moisture it is advisable to damp it evenly with a sponge on beginning the work4 ,the simplest tools are1 as already mentioned1 the fillets1 which may be single1 double1 or triple1 with lines of equal or different thickness4 ,the design is carefully traced with dividers1 folder1 and rule1 and the heated tools run along the rule4 ,before applying the tool1 which should be only moderately heated1 the line previously marked out should be damped with a suitable brush4 ,the instant the moisture has been absorbed by the leather1 the tool should be applied4 ,there should be no hissing1 as the tool should be only lukewarm for the first application4 ,the roll must touch the leather at the beginning without any uncertainty and the line made at once and without stopping1 as otherwise a darker shade would appear in places4 ,figs4 #gc and #gd--,simple line designs4 ,each time before using the roll it is passed over a well-greased piece of leather4 ,the impression should appear uniformly brown2 if it is lighter at any part1 it has not been sufficiently damped2 if darker at another place from the beginning1 then that part was too damp4 ,success depends before everything else upon uniform damping of the leather and correct heating of the tool4 ,with ordinary cleanliness and care1 complete success is assured in this method of finishing4 ,after the surface of the leather has again become dry in all places1 the whole design is again gone over1 but this time with the roll a little hotter1 at the same time rubbing the roll well with the greased cloth4 ,if there had been unevenness in the depth of colour before1 it will hardly be possible to remedy it now1 for the light places remain so and the dark ones become even darker4 ,where blind filleting is done it is usual to do die tooling at the same time4 ,it is advisable--especially for novices--to apply the die without heat to the damp leather1 then to damp specially and apply the die lukewarm as in filleting4 ,tooling with dies is essentially different from filleting in the method of execution4 ,the fillet polishes whilst running on1 the die remains on the one place1 and yet every part must receive an equally good impression4 ,in order to secure a good impression from a die it is necessary to apply it promptly1 and press without hesitating as to where to begin4 ,to ensure all parts of the tool being well impressed1 its surface is slightly curved lengthwise1 and according to this curve the die must be rocked to and fro whilst impressing4 ,if too much time is wasted before the die is applied the impression will turn out lighter4 ,by allowing the heated die to remain long on the surface of the leather1 the latter loses its moisture at that place and the die could not produce any further deepening of the colour4 ,such places must be again damped and tooled until a uniform tone is attained4 ,care must be taken that this repetition does not produce doubling1 that is1 a blurred appearance of the design1 and also that it does not lead to indistinctness of outline4 ,blind tooling upon light leathers is to-day called upon to satisfy the needs of the less wealthy just as it was #cjj years ago1 for in such a style of decoration the utmost durability and moderate cost are combined1 and its very simplicity enhances its beauty4 ,fig4 #ge--;,half-calf extra tooled in blind4 ,fig4 #gf--,leather binding with simple design in blind4 ,now for the hand finishing4 ,it is first of all necessary that we should be able to letter straight1 at first upon a board4 ,for the tooling of long straight lines1 dotted lines1 or other style of lines upon the sides1 rolls are required1 upon the circumference of which the design is engraved1 whilst for tooling upon the back the so-called fillets are generally used1 which likewise are used only for lines or patterns4 ,besides1 certain kinds of ornaments are here printed with dies--the rows of letters with the type-holder in which these are set4 ,all these tools are heated over a flame--best over gas--to the temperature suited to the material operated upon4 ,to make the gold adhere1 the material to be tooled is sized or glaired with one part vinegar to three parts white of egg well whisked or beaten and filtered1 as is done in blocking4 ,other materials for sizing will be dealt with later4 ,fig4 #gg--,simple gold tooling on sides4 ,lines are made along the sides and at corners of the boards1 especially on paper-covered boards2 this is called running a line up or filleting4 ,the line to be gilded is clearly marked with a sharp folder1 picked out with glair1 and the gold1 which is taken up on the roll1 is printed in4 ,fig4 #gh--,tooled cover4 ,the gold leaf is cut on the cushion into narrow strips about #a cm4 wide1 and the warm 7each time wiped clean7 and slightly greased roll is lightly passed over it so that the strip of gold adheres to the circumference of the roll1 and then rolled off with a firm and even pressure on to the place intended4 ,this is now gone over with a wool rag 7or gold rag71 and only the printed line is left2 the surplus gold remains in the rag4 ,fig4 #gi--,specimen of tooling done in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 ,near the finishing stove should stand--as also for blind tooling--a shallow saucer containing water and also a common brush similar to those sold with bottles of gum4 ,a drop of water is thrown from this brush on to the hot tool in order to test its heat4 ,cloth is printed with fairly hot tools2 they should hiss a little when tested4 ,goat-skin requires a heat almost sufficient to produce hissing1 whilst hissing would indicate too hot a tool for use on morocco1 and all sheep-skins will bear only moderate heat4 ,if the roll was too hot1 the gold would have no brilliance1 and if too cold1 would appear broken4 ,calf requires the same heat as cloth1 but quick working1 especially on first applying the tool4 ,the roll has a long handle which rests against the shoulder whilst held in the right hand4 ,when getting into position for an impression the thumb-nail of the left hand is used as a guide and support4 ,fig4 #hj--,leather binding by ,oswald ,kob1 ,bozen4 ,a line around a cover is marked out correctly with dividers and folder1 picked out with size1 and printed in gold in the same way4 ,the rolls have a notch1 which is for starting and ending at the corners2 these must always be joined exactly4 ,rolls for two or more lines must print the corners perfectly diagonal1 and for this purpose such rolls are cut so as to print a true diagonal corner2 one corner being made for the beginning and the other for the end4 ,of course it is impossible to print long lines with only one revolution of the roll4 ,the roll is run along the line from starting point until near the end1 lifted off1 and again placed on the spot just quitted1 a little behind the starting point of the roll1 so that this part does not show4 ,this is repeated as often as the length of the line necessitates4 ,in order to secure good corners1 the roll is lifted just before reaching the corner and a corner tool is used for the corner itself4 ,at no point should one be able to see where the roll was set on or taken off1 and the result should be a straight1 even line1 showing no trace of inequality4 ,fig4 #ha--;,cover with laurel motive done in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 ,for single lines1 the gold is generally taken up on the previously heated roll2 but in using wider rolls it is better to lay the gold on with the tip and press it well down with surgical cotton wool4 ,places where the gold did not stick or which look gritty must be sized afresh and once more tooled4 ,the beginner generally finds that the gold does not stick at the point where he begins1 a sure sign that he hesitated too long on commencing4 ,it has already been said that white of egg is used for making the gold adhere1 and there are1 indeed1 very few materials requiring any other treatment1 yet we know of a number of cases where white of egg alone is insufficient to fulfil this purpose--not1 indeed1 because it is unsuitable1 but because the quality of the leather is such that the white of egg would be absorbed too quickly 7calf1 tanned sheep7 or that it would take badly and unequally4 ,just as certain kinds of leather are difficult to treat1 so also are old1 long-stocked skins4 ,if the finisher knows that such a piece of leather lies before him1 he ought to rub it down on the raw side with best olive oil2 it will thus receive a substitute for the lost natural fatty matter and become more supple4 ,this oiling1 of course1 is only practicable with dark leathers1 as light leathers nearly always become darker4 ,a skin so treated should be rolled up and laid aside for a few days4 ,at any rate1 such a defective leather is improved by a previous washing with size1 no matter whether it be made from vellum1 gelatine1 or glue4 ,it must not1 however1 be made from the commonest kinds of glue1 as these make the leather dull4 ,vellum cuttings1 or gelatine1 are soaked overnight in water sufficient to cover1 and next day dissolved in a sort of glue-pot4 ,this sizing must be used very thin and should not be quite cold4 ,in using ordinary glue1 two drops of medium strength to about three table-spoonfuls of warm water will suffice4 ,many finishers prefer thin paste water as a size1 with which they coat the whole surface2 personally1 however1 ,i would only recommend it for unpolished calf--but here there is a real necessity for it4 ,in this case it is liberally laid on in large sweeps with a sponge--not new1 and free from grit--and then well rubbed into the pores of the leather with the ball of the hand4 ,the surplus is quickly washed off with clean water4 ,large surfaces left plain are also washed with gum tragacanth1 because this sizing leaves no lines behind4 ,about #aj grammes of tragacanth to #a_/d litre water are soaked in a vessel1 and after swelling it is well stirred4 ,this solution is also laid on with a sponge1 but is not rubbed in1 neither is it subsequently washed off4 ,these two methods of sizing will be found sufficient to meet all cases4 ,there are certain materials that do not allow the use of a liquid sizing1 particularly silk and velvet4 ,the latter is no longer finished by hand1 and even blocking velvet is now considered bad style4 ,for gold tooling on such materials gilding powder is used2 it is to be had either white or yellow1 but for hand tooling the white only is required4 ,although no exact rules can be given for determining the temperature of the tools used upon the various materials1 yet we must try to give a general rule for each kind4 ,we will use the following terms to distinguish the different degrees of heat3 ,lukewarm1 i4e41 not the slightest hissing when tested2 medium1 i4e41 just on the border of hissing2 hot1 slightly hissing4 ,in the following group the method of sizing is repeated1 and a scheme for the approximately exact temperature of the tools is given4 ,cloth1 goat-skin1 and marbled leather 7without previous sizing1 white of egg73 medium heat4 ,sheep-skin and lamb-skin 7glue size1 white of egg73 medium heat4 ,calf 7white of egg73 hot4 ,morocco goat 7without sizing1 white of egg73 medium heat4 ,morocco1 ,levant morocco1 crushed morocco 7glue size--painted in1 white of egg73 lukewarm4 ,pig-skin1 ,russia1 seal 7without sizing1 white of egg73 lukewarm4 ,mention has already been made of a wash of paste water for matt calf4 ,as a rule1 the whole surface is washed with this preparation1 as it is thereby rendered less liable to finger marks4 ,in the very best shops there is still another method4 ,the leather is washed down with tragacanth and the previously impressed design picked out with white of egg and quickly tooled with tools medium to hot4 ,vellum requires a special treatment4 ,on the day before it is to be finished in gold it is washed with alum solution and1 for gold tooling1 sized with undiluted white of egg and tooled lukewarm4 ,when tooling is done with powder it is dusted on by means of a powder-box1 over which is stretched some thin material1 and tooled lukewarm4 ,the great convenience in the use of powder induces many binders to adopt it for leather and cloth also4 ,this practice is objectionable1 and the conscientious finisher will always avoid it4 ,it may be excused when a name has to be printed on a ,prayer-book or similar article in a hurry1 or when an article is already varnished1 as powder in such a case is very convenient and satisfactory1 but under any other conditions it is a sign of incompetence4 ,tooling upon powder on leather looks very gritty and unsightly after having undergone many changes of temperature1 as the latter greatly affects this material4 ,its brightness vanishes entirely--a thing that never happens when white of egg has been used4 ,it must still be observed that tooling with lukewarm tools must be done slowly1 and with hot tools quickly4 ,nearly all inexperienced finishers use too hot tools4 ,fig4 #hb--,leather binding with fern motive done in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 ,so far1 we have dealt with the preparation for finishing and tooling with a roll4 ,besides this tool there are fillets1 gouges1 and dies1 all nearly the same1 being dies1 and only differing in shape4 ,nearly all beginners are unreasonably afraid to use the gouge4 ,any one able to use the roll properly will have little difficulty with the gouges4 ,a genuine technical difficulty does arise when only a small portion of a curve may be worked 7which frequently happens7 on account of its having to be joined to another4 ,moreover1 the joining of one curve to another must not be seen4 ,every single gouge of the complete set 7it should contain at least #bj pieces7 forms the quarter of a circle4 ,the gouges are chosen according to the design1 so that the tools placed thereon cover the outlined design exactly1 and the tool numbers are noted on the designs so that they may be quickly and surely picked up when required for use4 ,the tyro is apt to select sizes too large and to print the curve sloping instead of perpendicular2 this must be guarded against4 ,double gouges are not easily used in the same way1 as the joinings cannot be concealed2 they may be used for making first outlines1 which must be finished with single curves4 ,fig4 #hc--,simple gold tooling on squares4 ,faulty places must be done over and over again until the whole is perfect and brilliant and all the gold adhering4 ,fillets are nothing more than long narrow dies of either simple or ornamental lines4 ,it is the practice of the old school to widen the impression of narrow fillets by continuous rocking of the hand to right and left1 as they are fond of doing when lettering with a type-holder4 ,this practice is fundamentally wrong4 ,work finished in this way will never show the quiet and uniform brilliance in the gold to be seen in work where the movement was only in the direction of the dies and fillets4 ,besides tooling the front sides1 the inside edges or squares are generally ornamented in extra work4 ,a simple but very effective decoration for the edge consists of a line close to the edge of the board and also one close to the end paper and a connecting line at the corner2 such an edge is previously polished with a burnisher4 ,to do this the leather is slightly damped1 the tool moderately heated--not hissing--and then polished with long even strokes4 ,fig4 #hd--;,design in gold for squares4 ,tools by ,f4 ,clement1 ,leipzig4 ,figs4 #he and #hf--,two designs in gold for squares4 ,with the help of rolls and dies1 even richer decoration may be produced1 and really artistic ornament designed and executed on the inside as well as on the outside cover4 ,such work1 however1 does not come within the limits of this treatise4 ,we must be satisfied with giving a few illustrations of the less elaborate designs4 ,rolls are very often used in finishing the edges1 so as to fill up at once the whole width of the space1 and about this we must say a few words4 ,rolls with a pattern have1 as is known1 no notch1 and therefore may be used for a run on of any length without a break4 ,for smaller margins and cheap work the rolls are frequently run over each other4 ,this saves time but it does not produce a nice effect1 as the design is blurred at the point of crossing4 ,it is better to lay the gold leaf on one side and to remove it exactly at the corner and then tool2 the side next to it is now treated in exactly the same way1 giving special attention to the removal of the leaf at the corner4 ,the design is thus made to join together at the corners without crossing1 because the roll will only leave its impression as far as the gold goes4 ,for extra work1 however1 a die suiting the roll in width and design should be chosen1 and leaving as much of the corners as the die will cover free from gold1 the remainder of the surface is covered with the leaf and tooled4 ,with a little skill1 the roll can be taken up exactly where the gold leaf ceases4 ,the edge is then cleaned with the gold rag and fresh gold laid on for the corner die and then tooled4 ,by this method the design at the corner is correctly finished4 ,figs4 #hg1 #hh1 and #hi--,three simple backs4 ,t1 d1 ,b ,title2 ,n1 ,t ,sub ,title4 ,gold tooling on the back is more difficult on account of its convexity4 ,for this work the volume is placed in a little wooden press which finds a place upon the bench1 or in a special contrivance which can be screwed to the bench4 ,fig4 #ij--,type-holder with centre position4 ,to ensure good results in tooling the back1 it is necessary that the work to be done should be accurately marked out beforehand4 ,the bands are measured out by means of the dividers if they do not already show as raised bands4 ,with a pointed folder draw this traced design accurately upon a strip of cardboard4 ,blind lines are made upon cloth before the latter has become quite dry2 in other cases tool the first impression hot and vigorously1 pick out the impression with white of egg1 and then tool with lukewarm fillets4 ,in making lines1 the fillets may be drawn to and fro1 whereby a great brilliancy will be produced4 ,gold lines or ornamental fillets are picked out with white of egg and then tooled in gold4 ,for simple lines the gold is taken up from the cushion2 for ornamental fillets the gold is carried to the back4 ,lettering the back is an art in itself as regards the arrangement of the lines1 but besides this it requires considerable practical experience4 ,the letters are composed and screwed up in the type-holder for printing4 ,the type-holder1 with the letters1 must never be placed over the heating stove1 for in ,germany letters made of lead are still most generally used1 and these would melt very quickly if placed over the stove4 ,moreover1 the letters should be screwed up just tight enough to prevent their falling out4 ,the heat expands them and they are then locked quite firmly enough in the type-holder4 ,in arranging the letters the following general rules should be observed3-- #a4--;,always use types from the same fount in a title4 #b4--;,for books printed in ,gothic 7black letter7 type use ,gothic letters2 for books printed in ,latin types use the same for lettering4 #c4--;,all lines in a title should be set either in lower case only or in caps4 only4 #d4--;,gothic and ,latin in a title are inconceivable4 #e4--;,except for abbreviations1 points are no longer used in the titles of books1 not even at the end2 neither is a comma placed after the author's name4 #f4--,nowadays1 a short line is always made under the author's name4 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 and #id--;,four backs tooled in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 ,as regards the length of line and choice of types1 the following should be observed3 #a4--,the most important word 7catch-words7 should be made prominent by larger type or spacing4 ,fig4 #ie--;,group of backs tooled in ,carlsruhe ,technical ,school4 ,figs4 #if and #ig--,two richly decorated insides done in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 #b4--,the oftener a short conjunction or article 7for1 the1 and1 or1 c47 is placed between the lines1 the more effective will the title be2 such words must be set in smaller type4 #c4--,two lines of equal length should not come together2 long and short alternating as much as possible4 #d4--,the author's name is set in type a little smaller than the principal catch-word4 ,figs4 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj1 and #aja--;,four richly tooled backs4 #e4--,the lettering is most effective when the type is selected and arranged so that it rises in size towards the middle line and then decreases4 #f4--,unnecessary length tends to indistinctness2 the best title tells what the book is in very few words1 and should be easily read at a little distance4 ,fig4 #ajb--,rich half-calf extra binding4 ,it is impossible to mark out the whole of the title with the dividers unless a specimen copy is at hand from which the spaces can be measured4 ,the best guide is the eye4 ,the distance between the lines should be equal2 a plain line is reckoned as a line of type and must not be placed at half the distance between the lines4 ,if a line with letters having long upstrokes 7literature1 hostile1 latter1 c47 follows one without long downstrokes 7never1 miner1 memoir1 c47 the lines must come a little closer than when a line having long downstrokes 7poppy1 ,ganges1 c47 comes over one having long upstrokes4 ,in this respect the binder is in a more difficult position than the printer1 as the latter need give no attention to this1 his title never being so cramped into little space4 ,the effectiveness of a leather back can be considerably heightened by evenly smoothing and polishing the title panel with a burnisher4 ,such a back with the title panel enclosed within a square with only a fine double line at the head and tail and also a fine line close to the head is perhaps the best that an ordinary bookbindery can produce4 ,it is essential1 however1 that every detail should be faultlessly executed1 especially the title4 ,tooling a square is frequently done4 ,the beginner should always use the roll for this1 although tool makers produce line pieces for the work4 ,it is easier to print straight with the roll than with the line pieces1 which require skill to use4 ,special attention should be given to joinings at corners1 so that neither gaps nor overlapping are seen4 ,for the rest we have given a number of different designs of backs 7pp4 #adi1 #aej1 #aea7 as well as a few richly tooled half-calf bindings1 and also two specimens of highly ornamented insides 7p4 #aej74 ,figs4 #ajc and #ajd--,tooling on heads4 ,the head and tail and edges are often decorated in higher class work4 ,of course the style of finishing is very limited on account of the smallness of the surface4 ,fillets and rolls are generally used for this work1 being worked on the cap as seen in the illustrations1 and always directed towards a central point4 ,the gold for the head and tail and edges is cut to size on the cushion1 the edges slightly greased1 and the gold taken up by the book itself4 ,the accompanying illustrations give suggestions for the gilding of edges4 ,figs4 #aje1 #ajf1 and #ajg--,tooling on the edges of the boards4 ,fig4 #ajh--,motive executed in the ,duesseldorf ,technical ,school4 ,lining is done on almost all books4 ,for this the jigger is used4 ,it is heated so that it hisses slightly1 and with one quick and sure movement is drawn along the straight edge4 ,the line is drawn away from the worker1 that is1 contrary to the way one would draw a line with a lead pencil4 ,lines are drawn along paper1 past back and corners1 often also right round the edge1 over leather or cloth and cover2 the closer to the edge the more effective the line4 ,many of the more costly books take a case to protect them from injury4 ,for trade purposes this is simply cut from plain boards and remains uncovered4 ,fig4 #aji--;,case to protect book4 ,fig4 #aaj--;,cut-out case4 ,the parts ,a overlap and are either pasted together or wired with the machine4 ,fig4 #aaa--;,book cover4 ,fig4 #aab--;,cover in case form4 ,similar cases of thinner boards--but covered--are made for hymn and prayer books4 ,they are always pasted1 covered with a dark pressed paper2 and the edge at the centre is cut with a gouge as seen in the adjoining illustration 7,fig4 #aaj74 ,hymn and prayer books may at times have a cover2 this would be cut from stout paper1 generally calf-leather paper1 the colour of the case covering 7,see ,fig4 #aaa74 ,covers made in case form entail more work 7,fig4 #aab74 ,the centre piece has a joint at each side2 this part is1 therefore1 covered with cloth1 which extends over the parts ,b and ,c1 all the rest being covered with dark pressed paper4 ,,chapter ,x ,,account ,,books4 ,account books are nowadays almost always made by wholesale firms1 but there are still1 now and then1 considerable orders given to medium and small firms for special work2 yet it is just in these small shops that antiquated methods of work are still followed to a certain extent1 to deal fully with which would require a volume in itself4 ,to-day1 the methods generally followed are based upon the principle that the spring back1 reaching a finger's width over the side1 must work strongest on the book itself1 and that such a one opens best4 ,upon this principle is based the untanned leather spring back1 which1 being a patent1 has become a somewhat expensive style4 ,it is cheaper to make up the backs with wrappers1 for which machines are also to be had2 but1 nevertheless1 the principle is the same1 and both answer the same purpose1 although the former is lighter and more durable2 it cannot be denied1 however1 that after long use the cover works loose4 ,for account books1 only the best and strongest paper--ruled or printed--is used1 always according to sample4 ,of course1 the work of ruling can hardly be considered as coming within the scope of this book4 ,the paper is folded together in sections of three to five sheets1 according to the thickness and quality of the paper4 ,for heavy books a strip of jaconet is folded in the middle of the inner sheet of each section before sewing1 and1 in any case1 this should be done with every first and last three sheets4 ,the end paper makes a section in itself1 which1 like all others1 is taken up in the sewing--it has previously been attached to the third section by means of strips of jaconet4 ,in the end paper a coloured fly leaf and linen joint are pasted4 ,figs4 #aac and #aad--;,end papers for account books4 ,the following is a practical way of making the end paper3-- #a4--,take a strip of linen 7not cloth7 three fingers wide1 and glue on narrowly two sheets of plain paper or paper of another colour1 and fold in the middle4 #b4--,one sheet of a double sheet of white paper is coated with thin glue1 and the hinged leaf ,no4 #a is pasted to it4 #c4--,the end section is pasted in behind the first sheet of the first section1 the white sheet is pasted upon the second sheet of the ruled paper2 around the whole section a strip of jaconet is sewn1 or #c;a4--,a piece of jaconet #a cm4 wide is so hinged to the white double sheet of this section that half of it remains free2 in this fold the second section is sewn4 ,better-class work intended to serve for years of office use is again being sewn with thread on tapes2 the cheaper work is machine wire-stitched4 ,in hand sewing1 double bands--a wide1 strong linen tape--are used1 end to end1 of course1 and with strong thread4 ,the bands are also stretched upon the sewing frame2 for folio1 at least six are used1 and for quarto not less than four4 ,it has already been said that the sections are sewn throughout1 and1 further1 that the end section is likewise similarly sewn with them through the linen joint--in high class work with coloured cordonnet silk4 ,all sheets1 without exception1 are kettle-stitched at the end4 ,large books are not usually glued up the whole of the back1 but only at head and tail1 with perhaps a little in the middle2 they are only completely glued up after having been rounded in the press1 as this makes them retain their shape longer4 ,if it is decided to do any marbling1 the fore-edge is marbled immediately after trimming it4 ,rounding is more pronounced in this than in ordinary work1 otherwise the spring back would have no effect with such bulk1 and the book would easily go out of shape4 ,the account book is also pressed1 but not in the same way as printed books1 as the former has its groove pressed quite out4 ,after careful adjustment between boards1 they are squared to the edge of the first and last sheet1 the whole lifted into the press1 and the back glued with very hot glue4 ,the bands are generally left outside the boards1 as they would leave marks too pronounced on the book if pressed inside4 ,after the book has thoroughly dried in the press1 it is cut at top and bottom1 marbled1 or some other suitable treatment given to the edges1 and then pasted up4 ,the clothing up of the account book is done either with soft leather and paste or with mole-skin specially prepared for the purpose2 in the former case the bands are omitted1 that is1 only the parts between the bands are pasted4 ,in pasting up with mole-skin1 only the back may be glued--never the covering material4 ,the covering material has a loose overlap of #d cm4 at each side4 ,account books take a stronger headband than other books2 it must reach on to the board1 which it binds to the book4 ,for this purpose the board must first have been affixed4 ,in the first place1 a thin but very strong board is laid--about #a-a_/b mm4 from the joint--upon the first sheet1 which has been completely coated with glue2 the bands are pasted out upon this board1 as also are the leather or beaver clothing overlaps4 ,it is obvious that this thin board is not stout enough for this heavy book1 therefore a second heavier board--or1 if necessary1 even a third--is pasted to it2 but as the back now goes over on to the board1 the heavier board must be set back sufficiently to prevent it from pushing into the back when opening the book4 ,as the pasting together of these boards makes them very thick1 and such thick boards not being easily cut1 they are generally cut the required size beforehand4 ,before pasting the thicker board upon the first board1 the back is prepared4 ,fig4 #aae--;,boards cut out at head4 ,first of all1 the headband4 ,it is carried on to each board #c cm4 deep1 and the boards must therefore be cut out the same distance up to the edge2 at ,a the board is bevelled off on the inside4 ,now cut a piece of coloured chamois leather--dark red or green--#e cm4 wide and as long as the distance from one notch across the back to the other4 ,the back at ,b is now glued1 the strip of leather laid on so that it projects #a-a_/b cm4 beyond the edge1 and the ends at each side brought equally to the bevelled part ,a4 ,at both sides these are pushed in under the thin board and well pasted down1 whilst the piece projecting over the edge is glued and turned backwards2 but in order to strengthen the piece on the back of the book1 a piece of card as long as the width of the back is laid in4 ,the back is selected either from ready-made undressed leather backs of suitable length and width1 or is made on the machine4 ,the practice of pasting the backs at the edges only does not seem satisfactory1 because on the one hand it does not give sufficient spring1 and on the other the single sections easily work loose4 ,for pasted backs1 stout wrappers are taken1 and the strips are cut so that each one slightly overlaps in width the one preceding4 ,the glued and fitted strips are either pressed hot in the rounding press or put through a rolling machine built for the same purpose4 ,the finished backs should be allowed to dry for a short time4 ,where there is no machine suitable for this work1 the backs must be pasted into each other1 beginning at the outside1 and well rubbed down upon a board made with grooves of various dimensions4 ,the older method of pasting the backing upon the book itself is still followed1 although it does not produce the firm arch nor give such a good shape as the former method4 ,when it must be done1 the following is the way to proceed3 ,the size is taken by laying a piece of paper across the back 7taking in #a_/b cm4 of the board on each side71 and with the dividers this measure is marked out on a strip of wrapping paper1 which must be the exact length of the board1 but wide enough to project about a hand's width over each board4 ,so that this should not have an unsightly appearance in the book1 it is bevelled along each side4 ,fig4 #aaf--,suggestion for account book back4 ,k--,pared edge2 ,t--,part to be pasted4 ,according to the measurement marked by the dividers at top and bottom1 a rule is laid from a to a1 and along this a sharp line is drawn with the folder1 and the lappets projecting underneath the rule are bent upwards4 ,at this line thus marked1 the wrapper is folded over and creased with the folder4 ,a second parallel line is made in the same way1 about #f to #g mm4 farther out1 from b to b4 ,the back thus prepared is rounded in the middle part2 a strip the size a to a might still be pasted in the centre4 ,to fasten this to the book1 both strips are glued with strong glue from b to the edge1 the back brought into position1 glued1 and pressed down4 ,from this it will be seen that the back stretched across the book is not glued on from a to b4 ,a few more pieces of wrapping paper are still glued on to this first back to increase the strength of the arch2 each one is measured separately after the one preceding it has been glued into its place1 always measuring from a to a4 ,fig4 #aag--,suggestion for account book back4 ,such backs do not adhere quite firmly1 and it is advisable to insert another narrower glued strip1 opening the book in the middle1 of course1 to do this4 ,after inserting the back1 the book is closed1 and the back will now lie close and tight to the book4 ,it is trimmed at top and bottom with a sharp knife and finished off with a rasp if necessary4 ,the heavy boards are hinged on to this back4 ,they are cut to fit1 and1 beginning at the fold b1 are placed so that the edge of the board stands a little away from the joint4 ,fig4 #aah--;,boarded account book4 ,where it is possible to glue up hot1 the back should be made in advance4 ,it is1 however1 essential that the spring back should be slightly over-rounded1 that is to say1 that its ends should first be pressed out so that they can be pushed on to the back2 only thus can it be really effective1 and must1 moreover1 be shaped to three-quarters of a circle4 ,an apparatus recently put on the market for glueing without heat1 solely by wrapping up in drilling1 is little better than a toy1 which saves neither time nor material4 ,the inventor can hardly be in the trade--certainly not a practical worker4 ,the prepared backs are fastened to the books as follows3 ,cut a strip of stout linen so that it projects a little at each end and #c to #d cm4 at each side2 glue the inside of the rounded back evenly1 and then fasten in the linen strip so that it projects equally at ends and sides4 ,at head and tail the ends are brought over on the outside1 and the back thus made is forced on the book4 ,before doing so1 a line should be drawn on the thin boards about #a-a_/b to #b cm4 from the joint1 glue up to this line2 the strip with the back would be drawn up at both sides and then pressed down4 ,to make these backs lie closer1 a strip of packing may similarly be inserted4 ,so then the same work is done here with the glued-up backs as in the old style with the packed spring backs2 here the back is just hinged on cloth1 there it is made from a piece of wrapper4 ,the thick board is set on in the same way as in the other style of work1 set off from the glued back about #a to #a-a_/b cm4 ,to fill up this space1 lay in each groove a piece of cord of suitable thickness which has been well pasted1 rubbing in the paste quite smooth1 and1 after drying1 paste over with stout paper4 ,very thick books have a rather clumsy appearance with their many superimposed boards2 this is improved by bevelling on all four sides the upper thick board4 ,to protect the book1 leather bands are pasted on the back1 also something to add strength is generally put on at head and tail1 which is then covered with specially strong leather4 ,for covering1 linen1 mole-skin2 for heavy and extra work1 pig-skin and cow-hide are used4 ,leather is1 of course1 always pared down1 thoroughly coated with paste1 well stretched over1 and well rubbed down in all hollows at the joints1 bands1 c4--side panels are also let in--and turned in4 ,where the back disappears under the thick board1 the turn-in is cut in almost up to the edge at b with sharp scissors2 if it were cut right to the edge it would be visible1 which must be avoided4 ,for turning-in at the head1 it is obvious that the book must lie open as in the illustration4 ,fig4 #aai--,to show where turn-in is to be cut4 ,the corners of account books must always be rounded4 ,metal corners on account books are clumsy1 damage the writing desks and other books coming into contact with them1 and even when using the best mill-boards it is impossible to fix them so firmly that they will not work loose in the course of time4 ,in their stead1 leather corners and guards may be fixed1 which are frequently tastefully finished in blind or gold4 ,fig4 #abj--;,hand numbering machine4 ,all books for office use are either folioed or paged1 i4e41 either each page or each sheet gets a consecutive number in order to facilitate reference from the index4 ,this may be done either by the hand numbering machine or by the larger machine worked with a treadle4 ,in both cases the figures succeed each other automatically whilst printing4 ,it is always advisable to do this work before binding1 as it is then easier and1 besides1 there is less chance of the fresh ink smudging when each single sheet of the sections is pushed up4 ,the manipulation of this apparatus is so simple that further explanation seems superfluous4 ,where bound books have to be paged1 small pieces of blotting-paper must be laid between the sheets to prevent smudging4 ,the manufacture of guard books for bills1 letters1 c41 comes into the same department as the making of account books4 ,guards are cut #d cm4 wide and folded in sixes along the middle1 and sewn with strong thread1 end to end1 upon a strip of linen stretched upon a piece of wrapper to which bands have been pasted to further strengthen4 ,the sections are sewn together at intervals of about #b cm41 so as to allow room for the papers that are to be pasted in4 ,the stiff back with the sewn-on guards is now pasted into a cover1 which is made with a back measurement as seen in the illustration4 ,an insertion for the back is not cut for this purpose1 but the two boards are hinged together with a strip of stiff paper somewhat wider than the back4 ,the book is then provided with a linen or mole-skin back and corners1 covered with paper1 and1 after the guarded back has been pasted in1 is lined with paper4 ,if it is intended to gum the guards1 the gumming should be attended to before the sewing4 ,the guards are fanned up slightly and brushed with gum-dextrine1 to which a little sugar and a few drops of glycerine have been added1 so that when dry the gum should not be too brittle4 ,fig4 #aba--,suggestion for back of guard book4 ,for all such work a thumb index is generally required2 each page takes one or more letters1 or a specification is given1 according to which the binder counts off the number of pages required for each letter--,x and ,y being here excluded4 ,nowadays1 the indices are cut with index shears1 which not only regulates the depth of the index but also avoids the acute angles which are so easily torn in4 ,commence cutting from the back1 that is1 with the ,z2 this1 being the last letter1 is not cut out4 ,then count off ,w1 cut with the shears1 and cut off what remains below to the bottom edge with a sharp knife1 to do which a narrow thin board is slipped underneath4 ,the further you proceed towards ,a1 the longer is the strip which has to be cut out with the knife4 ,when the excisions for the whole alphabet have been made1 the letters are pasted on4 ,these are sold ready printed1 and nowadays are almost always in one piece for back and front4 ,the printed sheet with the alphabet is glued or gummed on the back1 and1 after drying1 the alphabet is creased lengthwise and either cut so or punched out with a suitable tool4 ,the single letters are damped and stuck in position4 ,one might also insert a strip of zinc after the cutting in of the letters and cut the length at once4 ,cheaper kinds of account books for temporary use are often made with fixed backs2 the packing is simply omitted1 but the head and tail are pasted a little to make the turn-over hold better4 ,no matter whether the cover be of leather or cloth1 paste must be used1 as this ensures the back adhering strongly to the book4 ,such a method of binding can be recommended for music4 ,portfolios for drawings1 c41 are often required2 the boards are hinged together with paper as previously described for guard books1 the inside of the back lined with cloth1 and the outside covered with leather or cloth4 ,the turn-in is pasted over the lined back4 ,fig4 #abb--,pattern for dust flaps4 7,leinwand ,linen hinge47 ,if books are to be made so that they can be fastened1 slits must either be made with a chisel1 through which the tape ends are drawn from the outside to the inside and there pasted down1 or else small round eyelet holes are made1 and then proceed as before4 ,dust-proof flaps are hinged on to three sides of a thin board with strips of linen in the following style1 and lined and covered separately4 ,the body itself is likewise made of thin board4 7,see ,fig4 #abb47 ,the whole arrangement is pasted on to the back board of the portfolio4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,school ,,books ,,and ,,mounting4 ,the school book1 perhaps the most despised branch of work in the bindery1 has unjustly come to be treated as a sort of step-child by bookbinder and bookseller4 ,although everything has been cut down as finely as possible as regards paper and printing1 yet the cost of binding must also be cut down1 and a profit on the whole is still looked for4 ,thus it is that school books can only be produced by machinery4 ,folding1 sewing1 board cutting1 trimming1 and lettering are all done exclusively by machinery4 ,all finishing work1 pressing1 headbanding1 decorating the paper covers1 have fallen off4 ,the cover is always made in advance and the book fixed into it4 ,a good goat-skin is seldom used for the back1 almost always split sheep-skin1 thereby also saving paring1 or the so-called split horse-hide4 ,these latter are put on the market in various colours and grains and are well suited for the work4 ,a third-rate marbled paper is used for covering1 as prices are not given for better kinds4 ,a stout smooth paper is strongly recommended for end papers4 ,frequently1 in the smaller towns1 there are still produced ,bible histories1 catechisms1 and the like in half-leather bindings1 tanned sheep-skin1 the sale of which is likely to be large and assured for many years4 ,the whole skin must be damped and well stretched previous to cutting out1 in order that it may be cut into backs to the best advantage4 ,the backs are laid on top of each other and pressed out in the wooden press between two old boards to remove all superfluous moisture4 ,the edges are then pared with a sharp knife1 the backs pasted1 laying every two with pasted sides together to prevent their drying1 and the books fixed in the leather backs4 ,for this purpose the books are set in boards previously cut to size4 ,in this case the books take tight backs2 the joints are well rubbed down with the folder4 ,thinner volumes in cloth have likewise tight backs4 ,the cloth for the backs is cut into strips of handy length as wide as the length of the backs must be1 is glued and cut a suitable width with a knife upon the cutting board1 measuring with the eye4 ,recently1 the so-called taking off1 as practised in fancy goods work1 has been adopted for the sake of its cleaner and neater results in pasting and glueing covers4 ,a large zinc plate is coated with glue1 neither too thick nor too thin1 the cover is laid face downwards and taken up1 so that it is evenly coated all over with the glue or paste4 ,the work requires some practice1 but it is very quick and1 above all1 is neat and clean4 ,the boards are laid upon these strips by a worker 7allowing for the thickness of the back71 turned in at top and bottom by a second worker1 and the books at once fixed in4 ,the backs1 still damp1 fit very well to the books1 the joints are well rubbed in2 covering and pasting on are done afterwards4 ,where hand sewing must be done1 the end papers should be first attached to each first and last section1 double in front1 single at the end4 ,sewing should never be upon two bands only but on three at least1 better upon four1 so that the two middle ones can be changed each time4 ,in order to expedite the scraping of the bands1 the threads are untwisted before pulling out from each other1 the loose end need not exceed #a-a_/b cm41 as a long band holds no better than a short one1 care being taken that it is always firmly pasted down4 ,the drawn-out volumes are placed in batches on top of each other1 all bands lying outwards4 ,the projecting ends are well brushed with a hard brush1 which renders them easy to scrape down4 ,if it is intended to paste down the bands1 the whole of the ends might now be pasted1 the books lifted off one by one1 and the bands pasted over on to the end paper4 ,it is better to leave the ends free and to paste down when glueing up4 ,they then become more thoroughly saturated with the paste and are pressed at once1 and thus join the boards so much better4 ,it may be mentioned that school books with tight backs are more lasting than with hollow backs1 no matter whether leather or cloth be used4 ,mounted articles1 i4e41 placards1 maps1 drawings1 c41 to be mounted on boards or linen1 are frequently sent to the ordinary bindery4 ,things to be mounted on boards must be mounted whole1 those that are to be rolled up or folded are mounted on linen4 ,placards are generally printed on very stout paper1 and these should be well damped upon the back with sponge and water before pasting1 and only when the paper is perfectly limp and stretched should the pasting be done1 otherwise creases are sure to be caused by the stretching of the paper after mounting4 ,a piece of packing paper the size of the placard to be mounted must also be pasted upon the back of the mounting board to prevent the board from drawing4 ,only when the mounting is completed may the mount be cut to size and1 if necessary1 bound4 ,illustration3 ,binding corner4 ,this binding is done by marking with the dividers a border about #a-a_/b cm4 wide along the trimmed edge and laying a pasted strip of coloured paper and1 turning it over1 drawing it on to the back with a piece of clean waste paper1 and well rubbing down4 ,at the corners the strip is cut obliquely1 as in the case of a book1 nipped1 and turned in4 ,this is done at the first two sides lying opposite to each other4 ,at the other side the strip is laid not quite up to the ends and cut with the shears slightly obliquely1 so that the finished corner appears as in the accompanying illustration4 ,of course1 when such work is done in large quantities1 another method is followed4 ,for this the board would be cut to size1 back and front--#a cm4 narrower and shorter--likewise1 and the boards bound beforehand4 ,the strips are not turned in at the corners of the first two sides1 but the whole side is rubbed down and the ends cut flush4 ,the strips for the other two sides are cut to size1 at the same time cutting off the corners obliquely at both sides1 then pasted and drawn over the edges4 ,when mounting on large surfaces1 one person alone is not able to do the work--there must be some one to render assistance4 ,such large pieces are always rubbed down under a piece of stout paper4 ,as the hand cannot pass over the whole surface evenly and easily1 a large piece of waste paper rolled into a ball and held firmly in the hand is used for rubbing down4 ,fig4 #abc--;,eyeleting machine4 ,the finished placard is placed between boards to dry4 ,for hanging them1 either eyelets with rings as sold are used or two holes1 about #e cm4 apart1 are punched with the eyelet pliers in the middle of the top edge and eyelets clamped in with the punch pliers4 ,for doing large quantities it is advisable to procure a machine1 the small ,eyeleting machine1 which pierces and clamps the eyelet at the same time4 ,mounting plates1 plans1 drawings1 or maps on cloth is done in the following way3 ,paper can only be properly mounted upon a very tightly stretched linen or cotton material2 linen being generally used in ,england4 ,where such work is frequently to be done1 so-called drawing boards ought to be at hand4 ,these are wooden boards1 best when made to fit into each other so that they can be enlarged to suit the work in hand4 ,figs4 #abd to #abg--,showing stages of pinning down for stretching4 ,the board must1 of course1 be perfectly clean on the stretching side1 otherwise the back of the mounted article would be soiled4 ,if necessary1 the surface may be covered with waste paper before stretching4 ,the material should be left about #e cm4 larger all round for convenience of stretching and working4 ,the stretching is best done with drawing pins1 which may be used again and again for the same work4 ,the method of stretching is as follows3 ,woven fabrics stretch less in direction of the warp than the woof1 therefore stretching is begun in the former direction4 ,the material is fixed with pins at two corners of one side1 stretching it firmly at the same time4 ,the material will be drawn outwards a little on the stretched side 7,fig4 #abd74 ,to counteract this1 a pin is fixed in the middle of the opposite side1 after having pulled the material over so that the side ,a forms a straight line4 ,the whole side ,a is then pinned down1 the pins not being more than #e cm4 apart 7,fig4 #abe74 ,now draw out the pin on the ,b side and pin down the whole side1 firmly stretching the material all the while1 beginning at the middle and working towards the sides 7,fig4 #abf74 ,the third side is pinned down by first fixing a pin in the centre1 then in the centre of the halves to right and left1 then proceeding with the smaller divisions in the same fashion4 ,the material is pulled far enough to form a straight line 7,fig4 #abg74 ,the last side is well stretched and pinned down as just described4 ,in this way a surface not only entirely free from wrinkles and creases is produced1 but the texture of the material will run straight4 ,in mounting upon cloth1 special care must be taken that the paper is perfectly limp and flexible2 but this must not be due to its having been too thickly coated with paste4 ,large wall maps made up of many pieces must be very carefully damped and must be allowed to lie damp a long time4 ,attention must be given to the colours1 which are apt to run1 and also to the proper fitting of the various pieces1 as these have often been stretched in various ways in the lithographic press1 or through irregular drying have taken unequal sizes4 ,damping and pasting must be repeated to help to remedy this until the whole fits together perfectly4 ,maps to be folded must be cut into sections of suitable size4 ,in order that they may fold together well1 the various pieces are set slightly apart1 the horizontal lines slightly less 7#a-a_/b mm471 the longitudinal somewhat more1 where there are many parts up to #c mm4 ,perfect fitting is here essential1 and to insure this it is advisable to mark out the divisions with the folder and rule4 ,this is not necessary for small maps1 the eye will then be sufficient guide4 ,thorough rubbing down is absolutely necessary to make every part adhere4 ,when perfectly dry1 the material is taken from the stretcher1 the edges accurately trimmed1 and the map folded upon the cross lines into one long strip1 and then this strip is folded over in zigzag fashion to the given size4 ,the appearance of such a map is greatly improved by sharply pressing awhile1 for which a zinc plate should be inserted between each fold4 ,such maps are often placed in a small light case of cardboard covered with cloth1 or a light cover is made1 into which the map is so pasted at the back board that it lies ready for use when opened4 ,paintings1 drawings in colour1 or wash drawings cause exceptional difficulties1 as the moisture of the pasting medium tends to dissolve or make the colours run4 ,in such cases smaller sheets are placed between sheets of damp blotting paper1 and it is stuck upon the pasted underside4 ,when the object permits it1 it is glued on without previous damping4 ,large tracings present the greatest difficulties as the paper stretches very much and1 on account of its delicacy1 is not easily manipulated and is liable to crease4 ,such work requires several hands4 ,it is necessary to have clear paste1 quite free from knots1 which has been thinned to the consistency of thick pea-soup4 ,when at all practicable1 the tracing itself is pasted twice1 the first pasting will make the paper stretch and the second ensures a proper coating of paste4 ,two persons lift the tracing and turn it over 7for very large pieces four persons are required72 the sheet is laid down at one corner1 the other three being held up1 and the whole gently lowered little by little4 ,one person rubs it down slowly1 proceeding from the first corner and carefully avoiding creases and bubbles4 ,with such big jobs it is often impossible to avoid tears near where it is held by the fingers of the workers unless timely precautions against this are taken4 ,the simplest way is to paste strips of paper and to stick these on the four corners of the pasted side of the tracing and to take hold of these4 ,these strips are removed as the rubbing down progresses1 making sure1 however1 that there is still enough paste left on these places4 ,tracings are always mounted upon white paper1 even though it has afterwards to be cut or mounted on cloth4 ,maps that have to be prepared for hanging on walls are always provided with a roller at top and bottom2 these may be stained and varnished or covered with coloured paper4 ,the mounted maps are glued and tacked to the half-round rollers4 ,where all round rollers are used they should be ordered in halves4 ,the edges of the map are glued between and the two halves then nailed together4 ,rings are screwed into the top roller for hanging1 and also a few tapes to tie up the rolled map if required4 ,plates and maps1 as also placards1 are also varnished4 ,varnishing is nowadays always done with spirit varnish1 which is convenient for working4 ,all papers cannot be simply varnished and done with--the nature of the paper must be taken into consideration4 ,all sized and chromo papers may be varnished without preparation4 ,many note-papers1 especially unsized and copperplate papers1 must first be sized1 which prevents the resinous parts from penetrating and thus avoids grease spots4 ,the best of all means is glue or gelatine2 the former turns the paper somewhat yellow4 ,a thin solution is made1 which is laid on warm with a large sponge in long quick strokes4 ,where colour or ink is to be dealt with1 no parts should be touched twice or the colours will be effaced4 ,a second coating1 however1 may be given after the first has dried4 ,the spirit varnish to be used--called map or photo varnish--is still too thick as sold4 ,it is thinned with #ij spirit of wine to the required consistency until it runs easily from the brush4 ,wide varnish brushes with lead fastenings are used4 ,two coats of thin varnish are better than one coat of thick4 ,,conclusion4 ,our work is now finished4 ,the author has endeavoured to deal only with what comes within the sphere of practical bookbinding4 ,at the present time there is a sharp dividing line drawn between what we may call the practical and artistic bookbinding4 ,to whatever height of perfection the latter may still reach1 it only begins where the practical bookbinder has completed his work faultless in every detail4 ,a bad binding does not become a work of art when it has had its exterior artistically decorated1 it rather calls forth condemnation on its bad forwarding and wasted skill in finishing4 ,yet in spite of the separation of the practical from the artistic in binding1 it could hardly be possible--where the two are so closely connected--that the latter should not now and then be touched upon4 ,should the intention of issuing a book on artistic binding in form similar to this be carried out1 it would also be necessary to refer occasionally to the practical side of binding4 ,to-day we look in vain in the ordinary bindery for the many little extra jobs which1 formerly1 were the largest portion of the work in artistic binding4 ,all the little jewel cases1 card cases1 cigar cases1 c41 which made the winter months of the binder--as late as the sixties and seventies--the busiest and most profitable months of the year1 have vanished from our workshops1 as also have the mounting1 c41 of embroideries and women's work4 ,as a result1 the number of those able to execute these minor works of the art binder has grown smaller4 ,this branch of work1 which at one time seemed inseparable from our trade1 has partly become a separate industry in itself and has partly been drawn into other special trades where the work can be done better and cheaper by other means4 ,therefore the lettering of portable articles--spectacle cases1 cigar cases1 purses1 pocket-books--is no longer done2 such things--where they are not made to stock--are made by the leather worker1 this also having passed away from the binder4 ,this continual loss of work originally ours--not marked by decades now but by still shorter intervals--should make all bookbinders reflect4 ,the question no longer is ,how to prevent it8 but the more far-reaching one3 ,how to face the fact8 ,the only possible way is for every master bookbinder--having regard to prevailing conditions--to immediately put all his skill and energy into some special branch of the trade4 ,with this good counsel we would like to send forth this little book4 ,at the present time there are few small towns indeed where one day #ej cloth cases have to be turned out1 to-morrow half a dozen books to be bound in half-calf extra1 next day #ej fancy boxes1 and then1 perhaps1 a few fine velvet-covered cases4 ,should there really be found such conditions still existing1 no workman would be found--owing to our modern system of training--able and willing to work under such conditions4 ,those possessing the essentials in an art craftsman--infinite pains1 neatness and exactness--are sure to make rapid progress4 ,what is still required--an eye for colour and good taste--are easily acquired1 for much of the bookbinder's work is based on experience and example4 ,he who sees much1 especially new things1 will soon be able to reproduce the things seen1 and will1 moreover1 soon learn to distinguish between good and bad4 ,about taste1 so-called1 it is not worth while arguing1 as taste is mostly dictated by fashion and is often fashionable folly4 ,the thoughtful craftsman1 however1 should be quite clear as to the principles determining what is to be permitted and what rejected in his own work2 for the rest he may follow the lead of fashion--he must1 in fact1 if his work lies much in that way4 ,our conclusion may1 therefore1 be summed up in these words3-- ,let the most painstaking neatness and thoroughness be the masters of each one4 ,no man can do everything2 he who can do something well1 does most4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,index4 ,,page4 ,account books1 #aeg ,alum wash for marbling1 #gb ,aluminium1 #g ,armenian bole1 #h1 #ge ,back1 tooling on1 #adg ,backs1 lining up1 #abj ,backs for account books1 #afb ,backing1 #eh ,backing machine1 #aa1 #ei ,bands1 treatment of1 #hg1 #ij ,beating1 #cj ,bindery1 arrangement of1 #i ,blind tooling1 #acj ,blocking1 #ajc ,blocking press1 #aa1 #aje ,blood serum1 preparation of1 #ha ,blood serum for blocking1 #aab ,boards1 #e ,boards for account books1 #afj ,board cutting1 #hf ,board-cutting machine1 #aj ,boarding1 #hg ,boarding account books1 #afc ,bole1 #h ,bole for edges1 #ge ,book-mark1 #h ,bouquet marbling1 #fi ,bronze1 #g ,bronze1 blocking in1 #aag ,brushes for glue1 paste1 c41 #c ,burnishing gilt edges1 #gg ,calf1 #f preparation for blocking1 #aaj treatment in finishing1 #adb ,carrageen moss for marbling1 #fd ,case to protect book1 #aee ,case work1 #ic1 #ie ,celluloid1 #g ,clasps1 #h ,cloth joints1 #de ,cloth1 treatment in finishing1 #adb ,clothing-up account books1 #aei ,collating1 #bh ,colour blocking1 #aae ,coloured edges1 #fc ,comb marbling1 #fh ,cord for sewing1 #d ,cords1 distribution of1 #db ,corner punching machine1 #aa ,corners1 #if1 #ajj ,counting off1 #ah ,covering1 #aai ,cowhide1 #f ,crushed morocco1 #f ,dextrine1 #c ,doublure1 #aec ,drawings1 mounting1 #aga ,dust-proof flaps1 #afh ,edges1 colouring1 #g finishing1 #fb marbling1 #g ,edges of boards1 tooling1 #aec ,end papers1 #e1 #dc1 #abg for account books1 #aeh pasting down1 #abd ,end-to-end sewing1 #di ,eyeleting1 #agb ,eyeleting machine1 #aa ,eye marbling1 #fi ,fillet1 use of1 #add ,finishing1 #abi ,finisher's tools1 #aj ,folding1 #ac ,forwarding1 #ac ,french marbling1 #ga ,gathering1 #bj1 #bh ,gelatine1 #c ,gelatine size for blocking1 #aaa ,gilder's tip1 #ge ,gilding edges1 #gc powder1 #adb powder for blocking1 #aaa ,glair1 #h ,glair for blocking1 #aaa finishing1 #ace gilt edges1 #gf ,glue1 #b ,glue-brush1 #c ,glue-pot1 #c ,glueing-up1 #ea ,glueing-up account books1 #afc ,gold1 #g cushion1 #ge knife1 #ge leaf1 laying on1 #ge1 #hj substitute for1 #ha ,gouge1 use of1 #adc ,grey boards1 #e ,guards1 #dd ,guards for plates and maps1 #bd ,guard-books1 #afe ,guillotine1 #aj ,gum1 #c ,gum tragacanth1 #ada for marbling1 #fe ,head and tail1 #af tooling1 #aec turning in1 #aba ,headband1 #h1 #ha ,headbands for account books1 #afj ,heat applied in blocking1 #aac of tools in finishing1 #acg1 #ada ,hollaendering1 #cb ,hollow backs1 #hg ,imitation raised bands1 #aai ,index cutting1 c41 #aff ,inset1 #ag ,insides1 tooling1 #aec ,isinglass1 #c ,jigger1 use of1 #aed ,joint1 #dd ,kettle stitch1 #di ,knocking-up1 #ah ,kremser marbling1 #ga ,laying on gold leaf1 #aab ,leather used in binding1 #f1 #ajj paring1 #ig preparation for finishing1 #adj boards1 #e1 #he ,lettering1 #adh in blocking1 #ajh ,levant morocco1 #f ,linen joints1 #de ,lining for case work1 #ajb ,machine sewing1 #d ,maps1 mounting1 #aga pasting in1 #bc rollers for1 #agf ,marble papers1 #e ,marbled edges1 #g1 #fc ,metal corners1 #afd fastenings1 #i ,metric system1 vi4 ,middles1 #e ,millboards1 #he ,morocco1 #f treatment for finishing1 #adb ,mounting1 #aga ,numbering machine1 #afe ,overcasting1 #ci ,overcast end papers1 #df ,oxgall for marbling1 #ff ,paring leather1 #ig ,paste1 #a ,paste-edge1 #fc ,pasting1 #bb boards1 #c down1 #abd ,peacock marbling1 #fi ,pig-skin1 treatment for finishing1 #adb ,plates1 folding1 #bf pasting in1 #bc ,plough1 #ee ,portfolios1 #afg ,presses1 #aj ,pressing1 #ai ,pulling to pieces1 #cf ,quires1 books in1 #af ,re-binding1 #cf ,register in folding1 #ad ,relief blocking1 #aad ,repairing1 #cf ,roll1 use of1 #acf1 #ade ,rolling1 #bi machine1 #aa1 #ca ,rounding1 #eg machine1 #aa1 #eh ,russia leather1 treatment for finishing1 #adb ,sawing-in1 #da machine1 #dc ,school books1 #afi ,scraping edges for gilding1 #gd1 #gi ,seal skin1 treatment for finishing1 #adb ,sewing1 #dj1 #df for account books1 #aei cord1 #d frame1 #cc machine1 #eb tapes1 #d thread1 #cd ,sheep skin1 treatment for finishing1 #adb ,sides1 #aja ,signatures1 #ac ,silk end papers1 #f ,size for blocking1 #aaj old leather1 #adj for various materials1 #adb ,spring back1 #hh ,sprinkled edges1 #fb ,squares1 #hf tooling1 #aec ,straw-boards1 #e1 #he ,tape1 sewing1 #d ,thread1 sewing1 #d ,tools1 #i ,tracings1 mounting1 #age ,trichinal marbling1 #ga ,trimming1 #ed ,turkish marbling1 #gj ,turning-in1 #if1 #aba on account books1 #afd ,two-sheets-on sewing1 #di ,tying up1 #abc ,varnish1 #h ,varnishing maps1 c41 #agf ,vellum1 treatment for finishing1 #adb ,velvet1 #f ,white of egg1 see ,glair4 ,wire sewing and stapling1 #d1 #ce ,wire sewing and stapling machines1 #aa1 #ce1 #eb ,wooden boards1 #e ,,engraving ,,for ,,illustration4 ,,historical ,,and ,,practical ,,notes4 ,by ,,joseph ,,kirkbride4 ,crown #hvo4 #gb pp4 #b ,plates4 #f ,illustrations4 #aijc4 ,price #bs4#f;d42 ,abroad #cs4 ,strictly ,net4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,glue ,,and ,,glue-,,testing4 ,by ,,samuel ,,rideal1 ,d4,sc4 ,lond4 #ad ,illustrations4 #add ,pages4 ,demy #hvo4 #aijj4 ,price #ajs4#f;d42 ,india and ,british ,colonies1 #aas42 ,other ,countries1 #abs4 ,strictly ,net4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sealing-,,waxes1 ,,wafers1 ,,and ,,other ,,adhesives ,for the ,household1 ,office1 ,workshop1 and ,factory4 ,by ,h4 ,c4 ,,standage4 ,crown #hvo4 #if ,pages4 #aijb4 ,price #es42 ,india and ,british ,colonies1 #es4#f;d42 ,other ,countries1 #fs4 ,strictly ,net4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,through ,,all ,,booksellers1 ,,or ,,post ,,free ,,of ,,scott1 ,,greenwood ,,co41 #ai ,ludgate ,hill1 ,london1 ,e4,c4