,note3 ,images of the original pages are
 available through       ,internet      
,archive4 ,see                          
http3_/_/archive4org_/details_/boylabour
apprent#jj;brayuoft   ,transcriber's    
note3        ,text enclosed by          
underscores is in italics 7italics74    
,characters enclosed by curly braces are
 superscripted       7example3 iiid7    
,,boy ,,labour ,,and ,,apprenticeship   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,some ,,press ,,opinions  ,times4--,the
 problem already felt acutely in ,london
 and in large towns has now appeared    
even in the country town and village1   
and to those who still doubt its extent 
or seriousness we commend this most     
instructive work4  ,morning ,post4--,an 
important book on an important subject4 
,daily ,news4--,mr4 ,bray's book is as  
full of counsel as of instruction1 and  
it should be in the hands of every      
student of one of the most serious of   
social problems4         99       99    
99       99       99   ,,boy ,,labour   

,,and ,,apprenticeship  by  ,,reginald  
,a4 ,,bray ,l4,c4,c4  ,author of ,the   
,town ,child        ,second ,impression 
,london ,constable  ,co4 ,ltd4 #aiab    
,,preface   ,we are beginning to realize
 clearly that all is not well with the  
youth of this country4 ,from all sides  
complaints of neglect1 and the evils of 
neglect1 are thronging in4 ,boys as they
 leave school are casting off the       
shackles of parental control1 and1 with 
no intervening period of youth1 are     
assuming the full independence of the   
adult4 ,the old apprenticeship system is
 falling into disuse1 and methods of    
industrial training are at once         
unsatisfactory and1 for the majority1   
difficult to obtain4 ,boys in increasing
 numbers are entering occupations where 
they learn nothing and forget all they  
have previously learned1 and in which   
they can see no prospects of employment 
when manhood is reached4 ,as a          
consequence1 there is a general drift   
into the army of unskilled labour1 and  

later into the ranks of the unemployed4 
,all expert opinion is unanimous in     
voicing these complaints4 ,the ,report  
of the ,poor ,law ,commission1 ,majority
 and ,minority alike1 with its volumes  
of special inquiries and evidence1 is   
one long testimony to the gravity of the
 evils which are the consequence of     
neglected youth4  ,further1 we are      
coming to understand that the period of 
adolescence forms a critical epoch in   
the development of the lad4 ,the forces 
of sin and those of virtue never        
struggle so hotly for possession of the 
youthful soul4 #a ,and the boy too often
 is left to fight out this struggle     
without assistance1 and even without    
advice4 ,the conditions of modern life  
are increasingly hard on youth4 ,never  
has youth1 says ,mr4 ,stanley ,hall1 the
 greatest living authority on           
adolescence1 been exposed to such       
dangers of both perversion and arrest as
 in our land and day4 ,increasing urban 
life1 with its temptations1             

prematurities1 sedentary occupations1   
and passive stimuli1 just when an active
 objective life is most needed2 early   
emancipation and a lessening sense for  
both duty and discipline2 the haste to  
know and do all befitting man's estate  
before its time2 the mad rush for sudden
 wealth1 and the reckless fashions set  
by its gilded youth---- all in          
increasing degree imperil the passage to
 manhood4  ,and1 lastly1 we are         
compelled to confess that an evil which 
is at once a grave and a growing evil is
 one which demands immediate attention4 
,it is not a problem that can be laid on
 the shelf for that convenient season   
which never arrives1 when legislators   
have nothing else to think about4 ,there
 is urgent need for reform in the near  
future1 unless we would see a further   
degeneration of the youth of the        
country4  ,the object of this volume is 
altogether practical--to show what      
reforms are necessary to prevent the    
growth of the evil by laying the        

foundation of a new and true            
apprenticeship system4 ,but to achieve  
this object it is necessary first to    
explain how the problem was dealt with  
in days gone by1 when life was more     
stable and industrial conditions less   
complex2 and1 secondly1 to understand in
 detail the characteristic features of  
the question as it presents itself      
to-day4 ,only with the experience of the
 past and the present to guide us can we
 face the future with any hope of       
controlling its destinies4  ,as she is  
mentioned nowhere else in the volume1 it
 seems desirable to say a word here     
about the girl4 ,this book is1 indeed1  
concerned with boys alone1 but1 with a  
few changes in details1 all that is     
written about conditions1 and all that  
is recommended in the way of reforms1 is
 equally applicable in her case also4   
,i have endeavoured1 even at the risk of
 being termed unduly dogmatic1 to make  
my proposals for reform as definite as  
possible4 ,i have done so in the cause  

of clearness4 ,but if ,i fail to carry  
my readers with me all the way1 ,i shall
 be well content if only ,i have        
succeeded in starting them on a         
pilgrimage in quest of the new          
apprenticeship system4  ,,reginald ,a4  
,,bray4    ,,addington ,,square1        
,,camberwell1 ,s4,e4     ,,contents     
,,page    ,,preface                     
v    ,,chapter ,i    ,,the ,,essentials 
,,of ,,apprenticeship                   
#a     ,,chapter ,,ii    ,,the ,,old    
,,apprenticeship                        
#d        ,i4 ,the ,age of the ,gilds   
#d      ,,ii4 ,the ,statute of          
,apprentices                       #aa  
,,iii4 ,the ,industrial ,revolution     
#bj     ,,chapter ,,iii    ,,the ,,age  
,,of ,,reconstruction                   
#bf     ,,chapter ,,iv    ,,the         
,,guardianship ,,of ,,the ,,state       
#cf        ,i4 ,state ,supervision      
#cf          ,sec4 #a4 ,state           
,regulation                         #cg 
7a7 ,prohibition of ,employment         

#da            7b7 ,limitation of ,hours
                      #dc            7c7
 ,protection of ,health                 
#eb          ,sec4 #b4 ,state           
,enterprise                         #ei 
,,ii4 ,state ,training                  
#fb            7a7 ,the ,elementary     
,school                    #fc          
7b7 ,the ,continuation ,school          
#fe     ,,iii4 ,state ,provision of an  
,opening                    #gj         
,,chapter ,v    ,,apprenticeship ,,of   
,,to-,,day                              
#ge        ,i4 ,the ,contribution of the
 ,state                    #gf          
,sec4 #a4 ,state ,regulation            
#gf          ,sec4 #b4 ,state           
,enterprise                         #hc 
,sec4 #c4 ,summary                      
#hh      ,,ii4 ,the ,contribution of    
,philanthropy                 #hi       
,,iii4 ,the ,contribution of the ,home  
#ib          ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,boy of     
,school ,age                    #if     
,sec4 #b4 ,the ,boy after ,school ,days 

#ajj      ,,iv4 ,the ,contribution of   
the ,workshop                #ajc       
,sec4 #a4 ,london                       
#ajd            7a7 ,the ,employment of 
,school-,children       #aje            
7b7 ,the ,entry to a ,trade             
#aac            7c7 ,the ,passage to    
,manhood                  #adb          
7d7 ,summary                            
#adi          ,sec4 #b4 ,other ,towns   
#aea            7a7 ,the ,employment of 
,school-,children       #aea            
7b7 ,the ,entry to a ,trade             
#aee            7c7 ,the ,passage to    
,manhood                  #afj          
,sec4 #c4 ,rural ,districts             
#afa       ,v4 ,the ,break-up of        
,apprenticeship                  #afe   
,,chapter ,,vi    ,,the ,,new           
,,apprenticeship                        
#agf        ,i4 ,supervision            
#aia            7a7 ,the ,raising of the
 ,school ,age           #aib            
7b7 ,the ,prohibition of ,child ,labour 
#aie            7c7 ,the ,new           

,half-,time ,system                #aig 
7d7 ,the ,parents' ,point of ,view      
#bjb      ,,ii4 ,training               
#bjg     ,,iii4 ,the ,provision of an   
,opening                     #bba       
,,iv4 ,general ,conclusions             
#bca     ,,list ,,of ,,authorities      
#bda     ,,index                        
#bde     ,,boy ,,labour ,,and           
,,apprenticeship     ,,chapter ,i  ,,the
 ,,essentials ,,of ,,apprenticeship     
,originally the term apprenticeship was 
employed to signify not merely the      
practical training in the mysteries of a
 trade1 but also that wider training of 
character and intelligence on which     
depends the real efficiency of the      
craftsman4 ,apprenticeship was regarded 
as a preparation for life1 and not only 
as a preparation for the workshop4 ,it  
is in this sense that the word is used  
throughout the present volume4  ,in a   
volume concerned with any branch of     
social reform1 and consequently likely  
to arouse differences of opinion1 it is 

always desirable to start on good terms 
with the reader4 ,this can best be done 
by beginning with assumptions the truth 
of which no one is likely to call in    
question4 ,in dealing with the problem  
of boy labour and apprenticeship1 it is 
not difficult to venture on certain     
statements which will receive the       
unqualified approval of all4  ,an       
apprenticeship system worthy of the name
 must satisfy three conditions4 ,first1 
it must provide for the adequate        
supervision of boys until they reach at 
least the age of eighteen4 ,before that 
age a lad is not fit to be his own      
master1 and should remain at least to   
some extent under the control of elder  
persons4 ,such supervision must have    
respect both to his conduct and to his  
physical development4 ,secondly1 an     
apprenticeship system must offer full   
opportunities of training1 both general 
and special--the training of the citizen
 and the training of the worker4 ,and1  
lastly1 it must lead forward to some    

opening in the ranks of adult labour1   
for which definite preparation has been 
made1 and in which good character may   
find reasonable prospects of permanent  
employment4 ,supervision1 training1 the 
provision of a suitable opening--these  
must be regarded as the three essentials
 of an apprenticeship system4 ,how they 
may be assured is1 no doubt1 a problem  
which invites controversy2 that they    
ought to be assured will be allowed by  
all4  ,further1 it is perhaps allowable 
to assume that an apprenticeship system 
must not be regarded merely as a means  
of entering a skilled trade4 ,we must   
not think of it as an organization      
reserved for a comparatively small      
section of the community3 all must be   
brought within the sphere of its        
influence4 ,all boys alike need         
supervision2 all boys alike require some
 training2 all boys alike should see    
before them1 as manhood approaches1 the 
prospects of an opening in some form of 
occupation where diligence and aptitude 

may receive its due reward4 ,and all    
alike must one day play their part in   
the complex life of the ,state4 ,we want
 some to be skilled workers2 we want all
 to be intelligent and well-conducted   
citizens4 ,apprenticeship1 then1 using  
the word in its widest sense1 must be   
universal4 ,here again1 it is hoped1 the
 reader may express his agreement4  ,in 
what follows an attempt is made to      
examine the old apprenticeship system1  
to criticize apprenticeship as it exists
 to-day1 and so to lead on to proposals 
which will pave the way for the coming  
of the new and real apprenticeship      
system of to-morrow4 ,throughout1 the   
industrial organization will be judged  
by bringing it to the test of the       
principles just laid down4 ,an          
apprenticeship system must be universal2
 it must make proper provision for three
 essentials--supervision1 training1     
opening4 ,where these are wanting1 in   
whole or in part1 the youth of the      
nation must1 in a more or less degree1  

suffer irreparable loss4     ,,chapter  
,,ii  ,,the ,,old ,,apprenticeship      
,prior to the nineteenth century and the
 beginning of factory legislation the   
conditions of boy labour were determined
 in and through the industrial          
organization of the times4 ,of this     
organization1 so far as the youthful    
worker was concerned1 the indentured    
apprenticeship system formed the most   
characteristic feature4 ,the history of 
the apprenticeship system falls into    
three periods4 ,in the first the gilds  
were the predominant factor2 in the     
second the ,state1 by prescribing a     
seven years' apprenticeship1 insured the
 continuance of the system2 in the third
 the industrial revolution and the      
triumph of laissez-faire ushered in the 
age of decay and dissolution4   ,i4     
,,the ,,age ,,of ,,the ,,gilds4  ,during
 the ,early and ,middle ,ages the gilds 
constituted the central feature of the  
industrial organization4 ,the merchant  
gilds began to come into existence in   

the second half of the eleventh         
century4#b ,they were societies formed  
for the purpose of obtaining the        
exclusive privilege of carrying on      
trades4 ,later they became either       
identified with the municipal body1 or a
 specialized department of that         
authority4 ,the craft gilds appeared    
about a century later1 and were         
associations of artisans engaged in a   
particular industry4 ,it is not         
necessary here to enter on a discussion 
of the complex relations between these  
two kinds of gilds4 ,the subject is     
obscure1 but1 so far as concerns the    
regulation of boy labour1 the general   
facts are unquestioned4  ,either by     
obtaining a royal charter of their own  
or by using the authority of the        
municipality1 the gilds were enabled to 
prescribe1 down to the most minute      
details1 the conditions under which the 
trades of the district were carried on4 
,the control was essentially of a local 
character1 varying from place to place2 

it was1 moreover1 a control with1 for   
all practical purposes1 the full force  
of the law at its back4 ,the towns and  
even the villages had their gilds1 and  
it is certain that these gilds were the 
agencies by which the common interests  
of labour were protected4 #c  ,the gild 
organization included three classes of  
person--the apprentice1 the journeyman1 
and the master4  ,the ,apprentice4--,the
 apprentice paid the master a premium1  
and was indentured to him for a period  
of years1 usually seven4 ,he lived in   
his master's house1 and received from   
him1 in addition to board and clothing1 
wages on a low and rising scale4 ,the   
master engaged to teach him his trade1  
and the boy promised to serve his master
 honestly and obediently4 ,the following
 is a typical example of a              
fifteenth-century indenture3#d  ,this   
indenture made the xviii of ,september  
the year of the reign of ,king ,edward  
the iiiith the xxth between ,john ,gare 
of ,saint ,mary ,cray in the county of  

,kent1 cordwainer on that oon partie and
 ,walter ,byse1 son of ,john ,byse      
sumtyme of ,wimelton1 in the same       
county1 fuller on that other partie1    
,witnesseth that the saide ,walter hath 
covenanted with the saide ,john ,gare   
for the time of vii yeres1 and that the 
saide ,john ,gare shall find the saide  
,walter mete and drink and clothing     
during the saide time as to the saide   
,walter shall be according4 ,also the   
saide ,john ,gare shall teche the saide 
,walter his craft1 as he may and can1   
and also the saide ,john ,gare shall    
give him the first yere of the said vii 
yeres iiid in money and the second yere 
vid and so after the rate of iiid to an 
yere1 and the last yere of the saide vii
 yeres the saide ,john ,gare shall give 
unto the said ,walter x shillings of    
money4 ,and the saide ,walter shall will
 and truly keep his occupacyon and do   
such things as the saide ,john shall bid
 him do1 as unto the saide ,walter shall
 be lawful and lefull1 and the saide    

,walter shall be none ale goer neyther  
to no rebeld nor sporte during the saide
 vii yeres without the licence of the   
saide ,john4 ,in witness whereof the    
parties aforesaide chaungeably have put 
their seales this daye and yere         
abovesaide4  ,the ,journeyman4--,at the 
expiration of the identureship the      
apprentice became a journeyman4 ,the    
change of status1 beyond bringing with  
it a rise in wages1 made no great       
difference to the youth4 ,he usually    
continued to work for his master1 and   
not infrequently remained a lodger in   
his house4 ,to some extent the master   
was still responsible for the good      
conduct of his journeymen4 ,various     
regulations forbade the master to entice
 away the journeymen of others and the  
journeymen to combine against the       
masters4  ,the ,master4--,by a somewhat 
similar process of growth and without   
any sudden break in social status1 the  
journeyman became a master4 ,between    
journeyman and master there were no     

class distinctions4 ,both worked at     
their craft2 and1 in an age preceding   
the era of capitalistic production on a 
large scale1 the need of capital to     
start business on his own account       
presented no difficulties which could   
not easily be overcome by any           
intelligent journeyman4  ,period of     
apprenticeship1 hours and conditions of 
work1 wages and premiums1 were all      
rigidly determined by the rules of the  
gild4 ,through its officers the gild    
visited the workshops1 inspected the    
articles in process of manufacture1     
satisfied themselves as to their        
quality1 prescribed methods of          
production1 were empowered to confiscate
 tools not sanctioned by the            
regulations1 and settled all disputes   
between the three classes of persons    
concerned4 ,masters1 journeymen1 and    
apprentices alike benefited by an       
organization which was created and      
controlled in their common interests2   
while the general public were well      

served in the system of expert          
inspection which guaranteed the quality 
of the goods supplied4 ,the gild1 in    
short1 was the representation of the    
interests1 not of one class alone1 but  
of the three distinct and somewhat      
antagonistic elements of modern         
society--the capitalist entrepreneur1   
the manual worker1 and the consumer at  
large4 #e  ,from the point of view of   
the boy's training the system presented 
unique advantages4 ,to the age of       
twenty-one1 and sometimes twenty-four1  
he was under control4 ,living in the    
same house as his master1 that control  
was paternal in character1 inspired by a
 living and individual interest in his  
welfare4 ,he received a thorough        
training in the trade to which he was   
indentured4 ,finally1 when              
apprenticeship was over1 he found       
ready-made for himself an opening that  
led upwards from the journeyman to the  
small master4 ,under this system there  
was no boy his own master from an early 

age1 no master irresponsible for the    
conduct of his boys outside the         
workshops1 and no blind alley of boy    
employment that closed with boyhood and 
ended in the sink of unskilled labour4  
,it its best days the gilds represented 
something more than a privileged trade  
organization4 ,the close connection     
between the gilds and the municipality  
guarded the interests of the public4    
,the city authorities looked to the     
wardens of each craft to keep the men   
under their charge in order2 and thus   
for every public scandal1 or underhand  
attempt to cheat1 someone was           
responsible1 and the responsibility     
could1 generally speaking1 be brought   
home to the right person4 #f ,further1  
there was no sharp barrier between trade
 and trade4 ,it is true that no one     
could enter a trade without being       
apprenticed1 but the person who had     
served his seven years' apprenticeship  
in any one trade became free to follow  
all trades within the city4#g ,the gild 

system represented therefore something  
very different from the individualist   
methods of modern times4 ,there was in a
 real sense1 at any rate in each town1 a
 trade organization under no            
inconsiderable amount of collective     
control4  ,but the organization of the  
gild was suited only to the conditions  
of a more or less primitive society4    
,for a country rising rapidly to a front
 place in the commercial world it was   
ill adapted4 ,increasing trade brought  
wealth and a desire for wealth2 and with
 wealth came power to those who         
possessed it4 ,the richer members of the
 gild gained the upper hand in the      
administration of its affairs and       
oppressed the poorer4#h ,the gild was no
 longer an association of equals2 and   
the weaker went to the wall4            
,competition turned the methods of      
production in the direction of cheapness
 rather than good quality2 and the      
supervisory functions of the gild       
disappeared4 ,in general the whole      

system1 rigid and inelastic1 became a   
heavy drag on the industrial            
organization4 ,the members had paid for 
their privileges in money and a long    
apprenticeship1 and bitterly resented   
the appearance of intruders not         
hall-marked by the gild4 ,with          
shortsighted policy1 the gilds limited  
admissions by exacting high             
entrance-fees1 and strove to secure the 
maximum of benefits for the smallest    
possible number4  ,no longer an         
association of equals1 united by common 
interests and a common outlook2 no      
longer a guarantee of excellence in     
matters of craftmanship2 no longer the  
guardian of the interests of the general
 public1 but a narrow sect claiming     
exclusive privileges--the gilds1 rent by
 strife and envy within1 and regarded   
with open hostility by those outside1   
drifted slowly towards that inevitable  
end which awaits those who seek to      
sacrifice the needs of all on the altar 
of the selfish desires of the few4 ,in  

the sixteenth century1 says ,dr4        
,cunningham1 the gilds had in many cases
 so entirely lost their original        
character that they had not only ceased 
to serve useful purposes1 but their     
ill-judged interference drove workmen to
 leave the towns and establish          
themselves in villages where the gilds  
had no jurisdiction4 #i ,they received  
their death-blow in the year #aedg1     
through the legislation directed against
 the property of the semi-religious     
bodies4 ,with the decay of the gilds and
 their final dissolution passed the     
ancient system which had for centuries  
regulated the conditions of boy labour4 
,so far as the boy was concerned the    
system was founded on three principles3 
,it recognized his need for prolonged   
control and supervision1 and made       
provision for the need by securing for  
him1 through his master1 an interest at 
once individual and paternal4 ,it       
recognized the need for a thorough      
training in the mysteries of the craft2 

and it recognized the need that1 at the 
close of this training1 the lad should  
find opening out for him a career for   
which he had been specially prepared4   
,and it made provision for these needs  
by its scheme of inspection and control 
carried on by those responsible for the 
common interests of the trade4 ,in      
short1 the gild organization1 in its    
earlier and flourishing days1 may justly
 be regarded as satisfying the          
conditions of a true apprenticeship     
system4   ,,ii4  ,,the ,,statute ,,of   
,,apprentices4  ,if the gild system was 
dead1 the principles for which it stood 
and made provision continued to be as   
important as ever4 ,nor under the       
industrial conditions of the sixteenth  
and seventeenth centuries did there     
appear to be any practical difficulty in
 the way of enforcement4 ,the small     
master remained1 and with him remained  
the possibility of an effective         
apprenticeship system4 ,regulated by    
custom or by the municipal authority1   

apprenticeship lost nothing of its old  
vitality4 ,indeed1 with the increase of 
trade and the increasing profits derived
 from trade1 it became more popular than
 ever4 ,none the less1 signs are not    
wanting that people were conscious of   
faults in the industrial organization4  
,into the statute book of the period    
creep frequent allusions to intruders   
who had entered the trade other than    
through the door of apprenticeship4     
,there was nothing new in these         
complaints2 they existed even in the    
best days of the gilds4 ,we seem at a   
very early time1 says ,mrs4 ,green1 to  
detect behind the gild system a growing 
class of 'uncovenanted labour1' which   
the policy of the employers constantly  
tended to foster1 their aim being on the
 one hand to limit the number of        
privileged serving-men1 and on the other
 to increase the supply of uncovenanted 
labour4 #aj ,but with the decay of the  
supervisory functions of the gild these 
complaints became more frequent4  ,the  

condition of this uncovenanted labour   
has always been the unsolved problem in 
any apprenticeship system4 ,if          
uncovenanted labour is allowed to enter 
a trade on the same terms as those who  
have served an apprenticeship1 the      
latter have clearly a grievance4 ,they  
have paid for their privilege in premium
 and long service at low wages1 and not 
unnaturally demand some assured         
recompense in return4 ,if1 on the other 
hand1 uncovenanted labour is rigidly    
excluded1 there is no method of rapidly 
increasing the supply of workers in     
times of expanding trade4 ,from this    
dilemma there is but one way of escape4 
,all boys1 irrespective of the trades   
they follow1 must pass through a system 
of apprenticeship before they are       
permitted to earn the wages of a man4   
,two conditions are necessary to        
success4 ,first1 all boys without       
exception must serve an apprenticeship2 
secondly1 having served this            
apprenticeship1 they must not in their  

employment be restricted to the trade to
 which they have been indentured4  ,as  
already shown1 the gilds1 at any rate in
 certain districts1 allowed a person who
 had served an apprenticeship in one    
trade to be free of all the trades of   
the town4 ,the gilds satisfied the      
second condition1 and in their earlier  
days1 when they included the majority of
 the population1 they satisfied to a    
large extent the second condition as    
well4 ,to satisfy the first condition   
was clearly1 as will appear later1 the  
intention of the ,statute of            
,apprentices4  ,but apart from the      
problem of uncovenanted labour1 the     
disappearance of the controlling        
influence of the gilds left many        
anomalies4 ,here apprenticeship was     
regulated by custom1 here by charter1   
and there left undetermined4 ,in one    
place a certain period of service was   
exacted1 in another place a different   
period4 ,finally1 in the minds of the   
leaders of the day there was firmly     

fixed the belief that1 as trade was     
becoming the life-blood of the nation1  
there was need of a general and         
consolidating ,act giving the force of  
law to what was often only a floating   
custom applicable in a certain district4
  ,in the reign of ,elizabeth these     
growing feelings of discontent found    
voice in an ,act which marks an epoch in
 industrial legislation4 ,it is usually 
known as the ,statute of ,artificers and
 ,apprentices4 ,after reciting the      
confusion that existed in previous      
legislation1 the preamble continues3    
,so if the substance of as many of the  
said ,laws as are meet to be continued  
shall be digested and reduced into one  
sole law and ,statute1 and in the same  
an uniform ,order prescribed and limited
 concerning the ,wages and other ,orders
 for ,apprentices1 ,servants and        
,labourers1 there is good hope that it  
will come to pass1 that the same law    
7being duly executed7 should banish     
,idleness1 advance ,husbandry1 and yield

 unto the hired person1 both in the time
 of ,scarcity and in the time of        
,plenty1 a conventient ,proportion of   
,wages4 #aa  ,we are here concerned with
 the ,act only so far as it affects the 
conditions of boy labour4 ,the principal
 regulations are the following3  ,no    
person shall retain a servant in their  
services 7i4e41 in employment for which 
apprenticeship was required7 under one  
whole ,year4 #ab ,husbandmen may take   
apprentices from the age of #aj until   
#ba at least1 or till twenty-four by    
agreement4#ac ,householders in towns may
 have and retain the son of any ,freeman
 not occupying ,husbandry nor being a   
,labourer 444 to serve and be bound as  
an ,apprentice1 after the ,custom and   
,order of the ,city of ,london1 for     
seven years at the least so as the ,term
 and years of such ,apprentice do not   
expire or determine after such          
,apprentice shall be of the ,age of     
twenty-four ,years at the least4 #ad    
,none may use any manual occupacyon     

unless he hath been apprenticed to the  
same as above4 #ae ,if a person be      
required by any ,householder to be an   
,apprentice and refuse he may be brought
 before a justice of the peace who is   
empourred to commit him unto ,ward1     
there to remain until he be contented1  
and will be bounden to serve as an      
,apprentice should serve4 #af  ,the     
,elizabethan ,poor ,law gave additional 
powers with regard to the compulsory    
apprenticing of those likely to fall    
into evil ways1 and made it lawful for  
churchwardens and overseers to bind any 
such children as aforesaid to be        
,apprentices1 when they shall see       
convenient1 till such ,man child shall  
come to the age of four-and-twenty      
yeares4 #ag  ,taken together1 these two 
,acts gave to public authorities large  
powers of control over the growing boy4 
,they did not1 indeed1 provide that     
everyone should be apprenticed1 but in  
the majority of occupations no one could
 be employed unless he had served his   

time4 ,nor did they allow a person who  
had been apprenticed to one trade to    
work at another4 ,but they applied the  
system of compulsory apprenticeship to  
all parts of the country1 and they made 
provision for the proper care1 by way of
 apprenticeship1 of neglected children4 
,people of the time were clearly of one 
mind in their desire to supervise1      
through the ,state1 the training of the 
youth4 ,contemporary opinion held that  
it was neither good for society nor     
trade that the young man should enjoy   
any independence4 ',until a man grows   
unto the age of xxiii yeares he for the 
moste parte1 thoughe not alwayes1 is    
wilde1 withoute ,judgment1 and not of   
sufficient experience to govern himself4
 ,nor 7many tymes7 grown unto the full  
or perfect knowledge of the arte or     
occupation that he professed4' #ah  ,as 
to the general effect of the            
far-reaching ,statute of ,apprentices1  
it is not possible to do better than    
quote ,dr4 ,cunningham3 ,a proof of the 

wisdom of the measure seems to lie in   
the fact that we have no complaints as  
to these restrictions in the ,act or    
proposals for amending the clauses1 but 
that1 on the contrary1 there was1 on    
more than one occasion1 a demand that it
 should be rigorously enforced1 so that 
the industrial system of the country    
should be really reduced to order4 #ai  
,for more than two centuries1 without   
amendment1 the ,act remained in force2  
and while it lasted it provided at least
 the possibility for the adequate       
training and supervision of the youth of
 the country4  ,these two centuries     
constitute the second stage in the      
history of boy labour regulation4 ,from 
a superficial point of view there       
appears no essential difference between 
this period and the preceding4 ,in the  
first apprenticeship was enforced       
through the action of the gilds1 in the 
second by special legislative enactment4
 ,in either case apprenticeship was1 for
 all practical purposes1 compulsory2 but

 here the similarity ends4  ,under the  
regime of the gilds apprenticeship was  
enforced1 but in addition its conditions
 were determined by a careful system of 
regulation4 ,the gild1 an association   
representing the three classes          
concerned--masters1 journeymen1         
apprentices--supervised the industrial  
organization in the interests of all    
alike4 ,in the best days of the gilds   
the trade1 as a whole1 inspected the    
workshops2 the trade1 as a whole1       
watched over the training of the youth2 
the trade1 as a whole1 so fixed the     
number of those entering1 that at the   
conclusion of the apprenticeship there  
was room in the ranks of the skilled    
artisan for those who had learned their 
craft4  ,during the disintegration of   
the gilds1 this second factor gradually 
disappeared4 ,the ,statute of           
,apprentices did indeed make            
apprenticeship compulsory1 but provided 
no efficient system of regulation4      
,measures were frequently advocated and 

occasionally embodied in ,acts for      
determining the proportion of           
apprentices to journeymen1 but never    
proved effective4 ,we see gradually     
emerging the struggle between the       
conflicting interests of those engaged  
in production4 ,a seven years'          
apprenticeship1 enforced by law1 gave   
the employers a source of cheap labour1 
and we begin to hear complaints that the
 number of apprentices was unduly       
multiplied and that boys were taking the
 place of men4 ,to what extent this     
practice prevailed it is not easy to    
ascertain2 but there is no question     
that1 at any rate among one class of    
apprentice--the pauper                  
apprentice--abuses were grave and       
frequent4  ,the whole story of the      
pauper apprentice forms an ugly episode 
in the industrial history of the period4
 ,the ,statute ,book is punctuated with 
frequent allusion to his unfortunate    
lot1 coupled with proposals for reform1 
for the most part ineffective4 ,as      

already mentioned1 the overseers had    
large powers of compulsorily            
apprenticing the children of the poor4  
,a sum was paid to the employer1 the lad
 handed over1 and no steps taken to     
guard his well-being or guarantee his   
training4 ,it was inevitable that under 
conditions such as these abuses should  
occur4 ,the employer found himself      
provided with a continual supply of     
lads1 bound to serve him until the age  
of twenty-one1 or sometimes twenty-four2
 he was not troubled by visits of       
inspectors2 he could use them as he     
pleased4 ,the luckless apprentices were 
herded together in overcrowded and      
insanitary dwellings2 they were         
overworked and underfed2 they learned no
 trade1 and were regarded as a cheap    
form of unskilled labour4 ,if they      
misbehaved themselves the justices of   
the peace would punish them2 if they ran
 away the law would see to it that they 
were returned to their masters2 if they 
complained of ill-treatment there was no

 one to substantiate the charge4 ,whole 
trades seemed to have flourished by     
exploiting the parish apprentices2 and  
not infrequently the overseer1 himself  
an employer1 made a comfortable profit  
out of their misfortunes4#bj ,in his    
,history of the ,poor ,law ,sir ,g4     
,nicholls summarizes the legislation on 
the subject4#ba ,with the rapid increase
 in the number of paupers at the close  
of the eighteenth century these evils   
multiplied1 and to an increasing extent 
engaged the public attention4  ,if one  
class of apprentice was thus exploited1 
it is difficult to resist the conclusion
 that1 in a less degree1 others suffered
 in a similar way4 ,compulsory          
apprenticeship1 without effective       
regulation1 brought with it the danger  
of compulsory servitude4 ,the ,state was
 conscious of the danger1 and duties of 
supervision were laid on the justices of
 the peace4 ,the ,state was likewise    
conscious of the value of               
apprenticeship1 and gave much attention 

to the subject4 ,a ,commission of       
,charles ,i4 dealt with the problem1    
while an ,act of ,james ,i4 was         
concerned with the misuse of            
apprenticeship charities1 which led to  
children being brought up in idleness1  
to their utter overthrow and the great  
prejudice of the commonwealth4 #bb ,but 
legislation proved incapable of         
preventing evils which increased rapidly
 as the years went by4 ,from the        
standpoint of the boy the second period1
 whose characteristic was compulsion    
without supervision1 was distinctly     
inferior to the first1 when the gilds   
regulated the affairs of the trade for  
the common good4 ,but if the            
apprenticeship system was weakening and 
abuses on the increase1 an effective    
training was always possible4 ,the small
 master still remained1 there was still 
the call for the all-round craftsman1   
and the huge changes in methods of      
production1 that were destined to appear
 later1 still lay in the mists of the   

future4   ,,iii4  ,,the ,,industrial    
,,revolution4  ,it was the invention of 
the steam-engine and the consequent     
introduction of machinery that ushered  
in the period of the industrial         
revolution4 ,in the trades affected the 
consequences were immediate1 profound1  
and disastrous for boys1 journeymen1 and
 small masters alike4 ,on the whole1    
machinery rendered it possible in many  
departments of industry to substitute   
unskilled for skilled labour4 #bc ,in   
branches of certain trades boys took the
 place of men4 ,under the new conditions
 7of calico-printing7 boys could be     
employed in what had been hitherto the  
work of men2 so that1 in the            
introduction of machinery1 complaints   
began to be made by the journeymen as to
 the undue multiplication of            
apprentices4 ,there was one shop in     
,lancashire where fifty-five apprentices
 had been working at one time and only  
two journeymen2 it was obvious that     
under such circumstances the man who had

 served his time had very little hope of
 obtaining employment4 #bd ,a system of 
compulsory apprenticeship1 under such   
conditions1 was exploited for the       
benefit of the employer1 and led        
inevitably to the injury of the boy4    
,the latter was bound and could not     
escape1 while the former could readily  
find an excuse for discharging an       
apprentice4 ,further1 with the growing  
division of labour and the separation of
 boys' work from men's work1 training   
became less easy4 ,the boy was kept to a
 single operation1 and when his time was
 up found no further call for his       
services4 ,the position of the workmen  
in the trade appeared desperate4 ,owing 
to the competition of boys and the      
decrease in the demand for his skill1   
wages were rapidly falling1 and at the  
same time the price of corn was rising  
by leaps and bounds4 ,the small master1 
unable to compete with the cheapness of 
the machine-made goods1 fared as badly  
as the journeyman4 ,both appealed to    

,parliament for redress1 usually        
demanding the prohibition of the new    
machines1 the enforcement of a seven    
years' apprenticeship1 or the           
maintenance of the old limitation of the
 number of boys to be taught by each    
employer4 #be  ,but appeals of this kind
 fell on deaf ears4 ,the spirit of the  
age was against interference1 and       
opposition to all form of regulation was
 rapidly growing4 ,the ,statute of      
,apprentices was disliked by the large  
employers1 and an eager agitation began 
for its repeal4 ,though obsolescent1 it 
was still sufficiently alive to be      
troublesome4 ,a seven years'            
apprenticeship1 it was argued1 was      
unnecessarily long2 weaving1 for        
example1 could be learnt in two or three
 years4 ,a ,commission was appointed to 
consider the question1 and the large    
employers pointed out that the new      
processes could be learnt in a few      
months instead of seven years2 and that 
the restriction of the old master       

craftsman to two or three apprentices   
apiece was out of the question with the 
new buyers of labour on a large scale4  
#bf ,in the ,house of ,commons ,mr4     
,sergeant ,onslow urged the repeal of   
the ,act1 and remarked that 'the reign  
of ,elizabeth was not one in which sound
 principles of commerce were known4'    
,the true principles of commerce 7said  
another ,m4,p47 appeared at that time to
 be misunderstood1 and the ,act in      
question proved the truth of this       
assertion4 ,the persons most competent  
to form regulations with respect to     
trade were the master manufacturer1     
whose interest it was to have goods of  
the best fabric1 and no legislative     
enactment could ever effect so much in  
producing that result as the merely     
leaving things to their own courses and 
operations4 #bg ,the skilled craftsmen1 
on the other hand1 petitioned in favour 
of compulsory apprenticeship4 ,but in   
the growing enthusiasm for the theory   
whose sole tenet lay in the belief that 

the haven of prosperity lay in the      
mid-ocean of uncontrolled liberty1 all  
pleas in favour of regulation were      
treated with contempt4 ,the famous      
,chalmers1 speaking of the ,statute of  
,apprentices1 declared that this law1 so
 far as it requires apprenticeship1     
ought to be repealed1 because its       
tendency is to abolish and to prevent   
competition among workmen4 #bh  ,in the 
year #ahad the ,statute of ,apprentices 
was repealed2#bi and with its repeal the
 ,state washed its hands of all         
responsibility for the well-being of the
 youth of the land4 ,henceforth things  
were to be left to their own courses and
 operations4 ,it is no doubt true that  
there remained the ,health and ,morals  
of ,apprentices ,act1 passed in #ahjb2  
this ,act prescribed certain conditions 
as to hours of work and sanitation4 ,but
 the ,act in itself was utterly         
ineffective1 #cj and for all practical  
purposes employers were unfettered in   
their use or misuse of children4  ,there

 remained one more blow to be struck    
before the condition of the boy touched 
the lowest level of misery reached in   
the whole history of this country2 and  
it was soon struck with that relentless 
vigour which marked the actions of the  
reformer in those times4  ,after the    
repeal of the ,statute of ,apprentices  
there was for the lad no sort of legal  
guarantee of training1 no kind of ,state
 supervision over his conduct2 he could 
work how and when it pleased him or his 
parents4 ,but the ,poor ,law ,amendment 
,act of #ahcd made it necessary for him 
to work how and when it pleased his     
employer1 and took from him all         
possibility of effective choice4 ,this  
,act abolished the allowance system in  
aid of wages4 ,salutary and even        
necessary as some reform of the kind    
was1 in the particular way in which it  
was carried out it fell with crushing   
force on the unfortunate children4      
,hitherto parents could receive so much 
per child out of the rates2 from        

henceforth this was to be illegal4      
,wages indeed rose1 but rose slowly and 
in patches4 ,the earnings of the child  
were required to make existence even    
possible for the family4 ,a foreign and 
impartial student of ,english affairs   
has made this truth abundantly clear3   
,even granted that the labourer himself 
now needed no allowance1 what had he in 
place of the allowance for his family   
and the out-of-work relief8 ,something  
in place of these he must have1 for even
 labourers' families must live4444 ,what
 was the way out8 ,the labourer must    
sell more labour power2 and since his   
own was already sold1 he must put that  
of his family upon the market4 ,this was
 how the problem of the married man was 
solved4444 ,we have already seen that   
the expansion of the gang system took   
place mainly after #ahcd2 it appears    
that the exploitation of child-labour   
and women's labour is the main          
characteristic of the period between the
 ,poor ,law and the ,education ,acts4   

,when ,dr4 ,kay was examined before the 
,lords' ,committee on the ,poor ,law    
,amendment ,act1 he described the       
astonishment of travellers at the number
 of women and children working in the   
fields1 and traced their increased      
employment to the ,poor ,law4 ,in his   
own words3 ',the extent of employment   
for women and children has most         
wonderfully increased since the ,poor   
,law came into operation4 ,it has had   
that effect by rendering it necessary   
that the children should be so employed 
in order to adjust the wages to the     
wants of the family4444' ,and a country 
clergyman gave expression to similar    
views in #ahdc3 ',by these allowances   
their children were not then obliged1 as
 now1 to work for their subsistence4    
,their time was at their own disposal2  
and then they were sent more regularly  
to the schools4 ,but since the new ,poor
 ,law this has been reversed4' #ca      
,those persons who nowadays talk        
genially of the ease with which the new 

,poor ,law was enforced1 would do well  
to remember that the ease was purchased 
at the high price of the physical and   
moral deterioration of the children4    
,chalmers had got his way1 there was now
 free competition among the workmen2 and
 free competition among the workmen     
meant then1 as it has always meant      
since1 the unregulated slavery of the   
weak4  ,with the repeal of the ,statute 
of ,apprentices and the passing of the  
,poor ,law ,amendment ,act1 the old     
apprenticeship system came to an end4   
,no longer capable of being controlled  
in the common interests of the trade and
 the community1 no longer capable of    
being enforced by statutory enactment1  
the apprenticeship system in its ancient
 form1 though it might linger among     
certain industries1 was destined slowly 
to disappear4 ,we may regret its        
disappearance1 as the vanishing of a    
fragment of an old-world life2 but      
repinings are idle unless directed      
toward the search for some substitute   

adequate to the needs of the present4   
,,chapter ,,iii  ,,the ,,age ,,of       
,,reconstruction   ,the last chapter    
closed on the darkest scene in the long 
history of child labour in this country4
 ,of the three factors essential to a   
true apprenticeship1 not one was found  
or its need even recognized in the wild 
riot of the industrial revolution4 ,of  
public or organized supervision of the  
youth of the land there was not a trace4
 ,the controlling influence of the gild 
system had long since disappeared2 the  
powers of regulation that lay in the    
,statute of ,apprentices and the        
,elizabethan ,poor ,law had been        
withdrawn2 free and unrestricted traffic
 in the use of children was the         
watchword of the age4 ,babies of four   
and five years worked alongside the     
adult and for the same number of hours2 
there were persons of intelligence who  
saw in this gain extracted from infants 
not the least of the triumphs of the    
day4 ,children's lives were often a mere

 alternation of two kinds of            
darkness--the darkness of night giving  
place to the darkness of the mine4 ,boys
 and girls were hired out in troops to a
 taskmaster1 herded in barns regardless 
of the claims of health and decency1 and
 driven in gangs into the fields of the 
farmer4 ,whether in the mine or the     
factory or on the farm1 the present     
profits of the employer1 and not the    
future welfare of the race1 were alone  
considered4 ,industrial training        
throughout the new manufacturing        
districts was treated with open         
contempt4 ,a person1 the masters urged1 
could learn the trade in a few months2  
while as for the provision of an opening
 that would lead from the work of the   
youth to the work of the adult1 it was  
not to be imagined that a subject of    
this complexity should receive attention
 at a time when the narrow circuit of   
the prosperous factory set a limit to   
the horizon of men's thoughts4 ,in      
short1 over the whole field of industry 

the desire for immediate success        
dominated the larger1 but more remote1  
interests of the future4  ,what was most
 significant of the times was not the   
flood of misery that swept over the     
country so much as the spirit of        
complacent satisfaction with which it   
was regarded4 ,that the industrial      
revolution was in the cause of progress1
 the reform of the ,poor ,law essential1
 and the decay of the old apprenticeship
 system inevitable1 men of intelligence 
could not fail to recognize2 but they   
might also have recognized that the     
profound transformation of the whole    
social and industrial structure involved
 could not take place without widespread
 suffering and demoralization4 ,men of  
the day did see these things1 but saw   
them with unconcern4 ,progress involved 
change1 and change demanded its toll of 
pain2 but it was not the duty of the    
,state to ease the passage or to yield  
to the outcry of what they looked on as 
the silly sentimentalist4  ,the general 

view of contemporary opinion finds      
itself reflected in the ,whig and       
,radical journals4 ,in #ahai the        
,edinburgh ,review declared3 ,after all1
 we must own that it was quite right to 
throw out the ,bill for prohibiting the 
sweeping of chimneys by boys--because   
humanity is a modern invention2 and     
there are many chimneys in old houses   
that cannot possibly be swept in any    
other manner2 while the ,radical paper1 
the ,gorgon1 was also inclined to sneer 
at the ,house of ,commons for its       
ostentatious display of humanity in     
dealing with trivialities like the slave
 trade1 climbing-boys1 and the condition
 of children in factories4 #cb ,the     
above represents the orthodox opinion of
 the time4 ,the age was the age of the  
triumph of the individualist4 ,his was  
the gospel that inspired the economist2 
his were the maxims which guided the    
legislator2 his were the principles that
 were realized in the practice of the   
manufacturer4 ,for one brief moment in  

the history of the world's progress the 
individualist was supreme2 and then the 
world reeled back in horror from the    
hell of sin and misery he had created4  
,even in the early days there were not  
wanting voices to protest against the   
theory that in the balance-sheet of the 
trader was to be found the final test of
 national righteousness4 ,as far back as
 the year #ahja ,mr4 ,justice ,grose1 in
 sentencing an employer for overworking 
and maltreating an apprentice1 declared3
 ,should the manufacturers insist that  
without these children they could not   
advantageously follow their trade1 and  
the overseers say that without such     
opportunity they could not get rid of   
these children1 he should say to the    
one1 that trade must not for the thirst 
of lucre be followed1 but at once1 for  
the sake of society1 be abandoned2 and  
to the other1 it is a crime to put out  
these children1 who have no friend to   
see justice done1 to incur deformity and
 promote consumption or other disease4  

,this obviously leads to their          
destruction--not to their support4 #cc  
,and in the year #ahjb was passed the   
,health and ,morals of ,apprentices     
,act1 an ,act important not for its     
results1 which were insignificant1 but  
as a protest against the gospel of      
individualism1 and as the first of the  
long series of ,factory ,acts which     
heralded the dawn of a new age4  ,this  
new age1 which reaches down to the      
present time1 and of which the end is   
not yet1 was an age of reconstruction4  
,it represented an attempt1 unconscious 
for the most part1 to reinstate in a    
changed form the principles which       
underlay the old apprenticeship system4 
,it is true that throughout the whole   
period indentured apprenticeship was in 
process of gradual decay1 and is now    
become almost a negligible factor in the
 industrial world2 but it is no less    
true that from its ruins was slowly     
rising an organization destined to prove
 a fitting and even a superior          

substitute4 ,the final stage of         
development lies still in the future2   
the adjustments required to meet the    
complex needs of modern industry are    
innumerable2 and we are only beginning  
to see the outlines of a new            
apprenticeship system towards which we  
have been drifting for nearly a century4
 ,to tell in detail the history of these
 long years of slow progress would be   
foreign to the purpose of this book2 but
 certain characteristics1 which mark the
 process of change1 are sufficiently    
germane to the discussions of to-day to 
justify consideration4  ,in the first   
place1 the forces which repeatedly faced
 and beat down the resistance of those  
who stood for unregulated industry were 
not the forces of economic analysis2 few
 forces that make for great changes are 
the product of such unimpassioned       
reason4 ,factory and kindred legislation
 were throughout the triumph of         
sentiment1 and not the victory of logic4
 ,during the course of the nineteenth   

century men became slowly more sensitive
 to the fact of suffering1 less tolerant
 of its continued existence4 ,the       
,liberal essayist was historically      
correct when he said contemptuously that
 humanity was a modern invention4 ,in   
earlier days little heed was paid to the
 physical well-being of the individual  
journeyman or apprentice4 ,if the gilds 
forbade the carrying on of a craft by   
night1 it was because the dim gloom of  
ancient illuminants meant bad work1 and 
not because protracted toil made        
unhealthy workmen4 ,when the ,state     
concerned itself with hours of          
employment1 it was to prescribe a       
minimum1 and not to fix a maximum2 to   
keep a man busy1 and therefore out of   
mischief1 was deemed more important than
 to allow him leisure for thought or    
recreation4  ,in this new sentiment of  
humanity lay the motive power which     
drove ,parliament on to spasmodic acts  
of factory legislation4 ,the sentiment  
was at once a source of weakness and a  

source of strength4 ,it was a source of 
weakness because sentiment is           
essentially local in its sphere of      
influence4 ,it does not search out the  
objects on which its favours are        
lavished2 they must be brought by others
 to its very doors and repeatedly thrust
 over the threshold till entrance is    
forced4 ,it lacks the breadth1 the      
insight1 and the calm of that           
imaginative reason which is now slowly  
taking its place4 ,in the case of       
suffering1 for example1 it troubles     
itself not at all about the more remote 
causes of suffering or the more remote  
sufferer1 but surges round some         
particular sufferer or some particular  
grievance1 existing here and now4#cd    
,sentiment1 at any rate the ,british    
type of sentiment1 is not touched by    
abstractions2 visions of humanity in the
 throes of travail leave it unmoved2    
appeals to the ultimate principles of   
justice fail to produce even a throb of 
sympathetic interest2 it is only the    

concrete--the oppressed child or the    
widowed mother--that lets loose the     
flood4 ,for the more profound solution  
of social problems such sentiment is    
useless1 but for the attack of specific 
evils1 especially where the opposition  
is well organized1 it displays amazing  
stubbornness and resource4 ,its strength
 lies in its unreason2 argument is of no
 avail2 here are certain cases of       
suffering it will not tolerate2 a remedy
 must be found and ,parliament must find
 it2 there will be no peace until       
something is done4  ,it was in this way 
that regulation of child labour began1  
and indeed has continued down to the    
present time4 ,the result is patchy1 and
 the removal of evils partial and       
unsystematic4 ,there has been1 for      
example1 no serious attempt made to set 
up a minimum standard of conditions     
under which alone children shall be     
employed2 least of all has the ,state   
endeavoured to formulate a new          
apprenticeship system1 adapted to the   

needs of modern industry4 ,much indeed  
has been done in both directions2 but   
much more remains for the future to     
carry through before we can hope to read
 in the efficiency of the race the      
sign-mark of our success4 ,the first    
characteristic1 then1 of the age of     
reconstruction is to be found in the    
predominating influence of sentiment4   
,the second characteristic is seen in   
the triumph of the idealist over the    
combined forces of the doctrinaire and  
the practical man4 ,every proposal for  
regulating child labour was fought on   
the same lines2 there were the same     
arguments and the same replies4 ,the    
individualist urged that ,state         
interference was in itself an evil1     
that1 though the consequences might be  
delayed and the immediate effect even   
beneficial1 you might rest assured that 
in the long-run your sin would find you 
out4 ,the wealthy citizen declared that 
if boys might not climb his chimneys1   
his chimneys must go unswept2 the       

manufacturer predicted certain ruin to  
his trade if he were forbidden to use   
children as seemed best to him2 while   
all united in urging that if the        
children were not at work they would be 
doing something worse1 and pointed out  
the obvious cruelty of depriving        
half-starved parents of the scanty      
earnings of their half-starved          
offspring4  ,to all these and similar   
objections the idealist1 with his       
clearer vision of the reality of things1
 and firm in his faith that the         
prosperity of a people could never be   
the final outcome of allowing an obvious
 wrong1 made response4 ,he sympathized  
with the individualist for the dreary   
pessimism of a creed which could see the
 future alone coloured with hope if     
heralded by the sobs of suffering       
children4 ,the wealthy citizen he bade  
roughly burn his house and build another
 sooner than sacrifice the lives of boys
 to the needs of his chimneys4 ,while as
 for the manufacturer1 he told him1 as  

,mr4 ,justice ,grose had told him       
earlier1 that1 if his engines needed    
children as fuel1 his was a trade the   
country was best rid of4 ,to those      
employers who pleaded the small wages of
 the parents he suggested the grim and  
crude and obvious remedy of paying those
 parents more4 ,and the idealist1 with  
the sentiment of the ,british public to 
back him1 won the day4  ,but if         
sentiment gave the idealist his victory1
 it was the future that brought him a   
full justification4 ,his sin after many 
years is yet seeking him2 the wealthy   
citizen found other and innocent means  
of cleansing his chimneys2 the          
manufacturer placidly adapted himself to
 the new conditions1 and his trade      
flourished exceedingly2 the wages of    
parents rose rapidly1 and what small    
measure of health and happiness that has
 come to the children of the poor during
 the last century has come to them      
through the defeat and the defiance of  
the individualist4  ,a hundred years    

have rolled by1 and yet to all new      
regulation the same old objections are  
raised by the individualist4 ,but his   
day is gone1 and with his day he also is
 going4 ,a few1 indeed1 are left1       
interesting survivals of the early      
,victorian age4 ,but for the great      
majority of the population regulation   
has no fears2 they welcome and invite   
it4 ,and1 further1 not only are they    
willing to forbid unsatisfactory        
conditions of employment1 they are also 
ready to spend public money to secure a 
proper environment and a suitable       
training for children4 ,what they will  
not tolerate is the continued existence 
of unnecessary suffering2 and they are  
coming more and more to realize that a  
vast mass of the suffering of to-day is 
unnecessary4 ,principles1 even though   
openly professed1 will not look         
suffering in the face and pass on4#ce   
,humanity is no longer a modern         
invention1 it has become the guiding    
spirit of the age4  ,thus we can face   

the morning of the twentieth century in 
a spirit of hope4 ,we may look for more 
consistent support and less strenuous   
opposition than in the past4 ,we may in 
consequence think out and introduce     
schemes of a more far-reaching          
character4 ,empirical patching will give
 place to reconstruction on a large     
scale4 ,in other words1 the sentiment of
 the nineteenth century1 wayward and    
uncertain in its method of action1 and  
at its best troubling itself about a    
remedy for actual suffering1 will be    
superseded by the imaginative reason of 
the twentieth1 which looks rather to    
prevention than to cure4     ,,chapter  
,,iv  ,,the ,,guardianship ,,of ,,the   
,,state   ,the age of reconstruction is 
not complete1 and for the moment we are 
left with the products of sentiment as  
revealed in the tangled and piecemeal   
legislation respecting boy labour4      
,before making new proposals1 it is     
desirable to survey the existing laws on
 the subject1 in order to discover to   

what extent the ,state acts as the      
guardian of the child by making         
provision for the three essential       
factors of a true apprenticeship        
system--supervision1 training1 opening4 
,the present chapter will be concerned  
with a description of the statutory     
machinery2 in the next the value of the 
machinery will be tested by examining   
its results in actual experience4   ,i4 
,,state ,,supervision4  ,supervision is 
the first essential of an apprenticeship
 system4 ,a boy must remain under       
adequate control1 as regards his conduct
 and physical development1 until the age
 of eighteen is reached2 before then he 
is too young to be allowed safely to    
become his own master4 ,what part does  
the ,state1 as guardian1 play in this   
work of supervision8 ,this volume is    
concerned with the answer to the        
question only so far as that answer has 
a direct bearing on the general problem 
of boy labour4 ,a statement1 for        
example1 of the criminal law1 of the law

 relating to public health1 or of the   
poor law1 lies outside its scope4  ,the 
guardianship of the ,state1 in respect  
of supervision1 is of two kinds4 ,on the
 one hand the ,state appears as the     
guardian of the boy by restricting his  
employment1 or by forbidding it under   
certain specified unfavourable          
conditions--,state regulation2 on the   
other hand--as1 for example1 in its     
system of education--it assumes a more  
active role1 and itself provides for the
 boy some of the discipline and training
 he requires--,state enterprise4  ,sec4 
#a4 ,,state ,,regulation4  ,the ,state1 
by regulation1 may protect the boy in   
three ways--  #a4 ,prohibition4--,the   
,state may protect the boy by forbidding
 his employment below a certain age or  
in certain classes of industry4  #b4    
,limitation of ,hours4--,the ,state may 
protect the boy by fixing a limit to the
 number of hours during which he may be 
employed4  #c4 ,health and              
,safety4--,the ,state may protect the   

boy by enforcing certain regulations as 
regards sanitation in the workshop or   
the proper guarding of machinery1 or may
 require a medical certificate to show  
that the boy is physically fit for the  
occupation in which he is engaged4  ,we 
shall best understand the measure of    
protection afforded the boy by the      
,state by classifying the statutory     
regulations under these three headings  
rather than by taking the individual    
,acts and analyzing them separately4    
,the principal ,acts concerned are the  
following3  ,the ,factory and ,workshop 
,act1 #aija4  ,metalliferous ,mines     
,regulation ,act1 #ahgb4  ,coal ,mines  
,regulation ,act1 #ahhg4  ,mines        
7,prohibition of ,child ,labour         
,underground7 ,act1 #aijj4  ,the ,shop  
,hours ,act1 #ahib4  ,the ,employment of
 ,children ,act1 #aijc4  ,the           
,prevention of ,cruelty to ,children    
,act1 #ahid4  ,children ,act1 #aijh4    
,and the various ,acts relating to      
compulsory attendance at school--       

,elementary ,education ,act1 #ahgf4     
,elementary ,education ,act1 #ahhj4     
,elementary ,education 7,school         
,attendance7 ,act1 #ahic4  ,and the ,act
 amending this last ,act1 #ahii4  ,to   
make what follows clearer1 and to avoid 
repetition1 it is desirable to add a few
 remarks about two of these ,acts4  ,the
 ,factory and ,workshop ,act is         
concerned with the conditions of        
employment in premises wherein labour is
 exercised by way of trade or for       
purposes of gain in or incidental to any
 of the following purposes--namely3     
7i47 ,the making of an article or part  
of any article2 or      7ii47 ,the      
altering1 repairing1 ornamenting1 or    
finishing of any     article2 or        
7iii47 ,the adapting for sale of an     
article4 #cf  ,premises in which such   
operations are carried on are divided   
into these four classes3  #a4 ,textile  
factories1 where mechanical power is    
used in connection with the manufacture 
of cotton1 wool1 hair1 silk1 flax1 hemp1

 jute1 or other like material2  #b4     
,non-textile factories1 where mechanical
 power is used in connection with the   
manufacture of articles other than those
 included in 7#a71 and1 in addition1    
certain industries1 such as print works1
 or lucifer-match works1 whether        
mechanical power is or is not           
employed2#cg  #c4 ,workshops where      
articles are manufactured without the   
aid of mechanical power2 and--  #d4     
,domestic workshops or factories1 where 
a private house or room is1 by reason of
 the work carried on there1 a factory or
 a workshop1 where mechanical power is  
not used1 and in which the only persons 
employed are members of the same family 
dwelling there4#cg  ,the ,act also has a
 limited reference to laundries1 docks1 
buildings in course of construction and 
repair1 and railways4#ci  ,certain      
definitions are important in the        
interpretation of the regulations4 ,the 
expression child means a person under   
the age of fourteen1 who is not exempt  

from attendance at school4#dj ,the      
expression young person means a person  
who has ceased to be a child1 and is    
under the age of eighteen4#da ,these    
expressions will be used with this      
significance in the remainder of this   
chapter1 unless the contrary is stated4 
,the authority for the enforcement of   
the ,factory and ,workshop ,act is in   
general the ,home ,office1 acting       
through its inspectors4 ,in certain     
cases1 which will be mentioned later1   
the duty of enforcement is imposed on   
one or other of the locally elected     
bodies4  ,the regulations comprised in  
the ,employment of ,children ,act are in
 part of general application1 in part   
dependent on by-laws made by the local  
authority1 and approved by the ,home    
,secretary4 ,the local authority1 for   
the enforcement of the ,act and for the 
making of by-laws1 is1 in the case of   
,london1 exclusive of the ,city1 for    
which the ,common ,council is the       
authority1 the ,london ,county ,council2

 in the case of a municipal borough with
 a population according to the census of
 #aija of over #aj1jjj1 the ,borough    
,council2 in the case of any other urban
 district with a population of over     
#bj1jjj1 the ,district ,council2 in the 
case of the remainder of ,england and   
,wales1 the ,county ,council4#db  ,these
 are the chief ,acts through which are  
regulated the conditions of boy labour4 
,each in a more or less degree is       
concerned with prohibition1 limitation  
of hours1 and health regulations4 ,it   
now remains to examine the extent of the
 protection provided4  7a7 ,prohibition 
of ,employment4  ,there is no law       
forbidding children below a certain age 
to work for wages4 ,in default of local 
by-laws1 it is still legal to employ    
children of any age1 however young1 in a
 large number of occupations4           
,prohibition takes the form of          
forbidding the employment of children in
 certain trades regarded as specially   
dangerous to health or demoralizing to  

character4  #a4 ,it is illegal to employ
 children or young persons in the part  
of a factory or workshop in which there 
is carried on the process of silvering  
mirrors by the mercurial process or the 
process of making white lead4 #dc ,and  
the ,secretary of ,state has power to   
extend this prohibition to other        
dangerous trades4#dd  #b4 ,it is illegal
 to employ underground in any mine boys 
under the age of thirteen1#de and no boy
 under the age of twelve may be employed
 above-ground in connection with any    
mine4#df  #c4 ,a child may not be       
employed in the part of a factory or    
workshop in which there is carried on   
any grinding in the metal trade1 or the 
dipping of lucifer-matches4 #dg  #d4 ,a 
child under the age of eleven may not be
 employed in street-trading--i4e41 in   
the hawking of newspapers1 matches1     
flowers1 and other articles1 playing1   
singing1 or performing for profit1      
shoe-blacking1 or any like occupation   
carried on in streets or public places4 

#dh  #e4 ,in theatres and shows1        
children under seven may not be employed
 at all1 and children under eleven can  
only be employed on a licence granted by
 a magistrate4#di  ,omitting ways of    
earning money1 as by begging1 which     
cannot properly be regarded as forms of 
employment1 and ancient ,acts1 such as  
the ,chimney ,sweepers ,act of #ahdj1   
which prohibited the apprenticing of    
children under the age of sixteen to the
 trade of the sweep1 or the             
,agricultural ,gangs ,act1 #ahfg1 which 
forbade the employment of children under
 eight in an agricultural gang--,acts   
which have now little practical         
importance--the regulations outlined    
above comprise the whole of the         
regulations which prohibit throughout   
the country the employment of boys in   
certain forms of occupation4 ,for any   
extension of prohibition we must look to
 the by-laws which may1 but need not1 be
 made by local authorities under the    
provisions of the ,employment of        

,children ,act4  ,under this ,act the   
local authority may make by-laws        
prescribing for all children below the  
age which employment is illegal1 and may
 prohibit absolutely1 or may permit1    
subject to conditions1 the employment of
 children under the age of fourteen in  
any specified occupation4#ej ,the       
by-laws may likewise prohibit or allow1 
under conditions1 street trading by     
persons under the age of sixteen4#ea    
,but in either case the by-laws1 before 
becoming operative1 must be confirmed1  
after an inquiry is held1 by the ,home  
,secretary4#eb  ,as an example of       
prohibition through by-laws made under  
this ,act1 the case of ,london outside  
the ,city may be cited4 ,the by-laws of 
the ,london ,county ,council forbid the 
employment of all children under the age
 of eleven1 the employment of children  
under the age of fourteen as lather boys
 in barbers' shops1 and the employment  
of boys under the age of sixteen in     
street trading1 unless they wear on the 

arm a badge provided by the ,council4   
7b7 ,limitation of ,hours4  ,there is no
 law limiting for all children or for   
all young persons the number of hours   
which may be worked4 ,it is still legal 
in the majority of occupations to employ
 young persons1 and in default of       
by-laws school-children on days when the
 schools are closed1 for a number of    
hours restricted only by the length of  
the day4 ,as with prohibition1 so the   
matter stands with the limitation of    
hours4 ,glaring evils1 just because they
 glared1 have from time to time been    
dealt with by legislation2 other evils  
no less serious have been ignored merely
 because they have not chanced to       
attract attention4 ,the result of this  
piecemeal legislation and enactment by  
by-laws is a chaos of intricate         
regulations1 applicable to persons of   
different age and different sex1 varying
 from trade to trade and from place to  
place4 ,i am1 fortunately1 concerned    
here only with the male sex1 and shall  

begin with the boy young person1 and    
then proceed to the boy child4  ,the    
,young ,person4--,far the most          
important1 because the most detailed and
 the most comprehensive1 of the ,acts   
dealing with the limitation of hours is 
the ,factory and ,workshops ,act4 ,under
 this ,act the hours of employment are  
restricted by specifying the hours      
during which alone employment may be    
carried on4 ,no employment is allowed on
 ,sundays except in the case of ,jewish 
factories closed on ,saturday1 or of    
certain industries specially sanctioned 
for the purpose by the ,home ,secretary4
  ,in textile factories1#ec the period  
of employment for young persons is from 
#f a4m4 to #f p4m41 or from #g a4m4 to  
#g p4m41 with two hours for meals1 and  
on ,saturdays from #f a4m4 to #aa4cj    
a4m41 with half an hour for meals4#ed   
,in non-textile factories and workshops 
the chief difference lies in the fact   
that the interval for meals is half an  
hour shorter1 while on ,saturdays       

employment is permitted between #f a4m4 
and #b p4m41 with half an hour for      
meals4#ee ,in domestic factories and    
workshops the hours of employment are   
from #f a4m4 to #i p4m41 with four and a
 half hours for meals1 and on ,saturdays
 from #f a4m4 to #d p4m41 with two and a
 half hours for meals4#ef  ,overtime is 
in general prohibited4#eg ,employment   
inside and outside a factory or workshop
 in the business of the factory or      
workshop is prohibited1 except during   
the recognized period1 on any day on    
which the young person is employed      
inside the factory or workshop both     
before and after the dinner-hour4#eh    
,thus the maximum number of hours in a  
week1 including meal-times1 during which
 a young person may be employed is1 in  
textile factories1 #fe-a_/b2 in         
non-textile factories and workshops1    
#fh2 in domestic factories and          
workshops1 #he2 or1 excluding           
meal-times1 the hours in the three      
classes are #ee1 #fj1 and #fj           

respectively4  ,the ,act applies only to
 those employed in factories and        
workshops4 ,it has limited application  
to certain other trades1 but the        
application is unimportant in connection
 with boy labour4 ,to the regulations   
quoted there are numerous exceptions1   
and the ,home ,secretary has large      
discretionary powers4#ei  ,a young      
person may not be employed in or about a
 shop for a longer period than          
seventy-four hours1 including           
meal-times1 in any one week4 ,further1  
an employer may not knowingly employ a  
young person who has already on the same
 day been employed in a factory or      
workshop1 if such employment makes the  
total number of hours worked more than  
the full time a young person is         
permitted to work in a factory or       
workshop4#fj  ,by-laws may be made      
limiting the hours of employment of     
young persons under the age of sixteen  
engaged in street trading4 #fa ,the     
by-laws of the ,london ,county ,council 

forbid the employment of such persons   
before #g a4m4 or after #i p4m41 or for 
more than eight hours in any day1 when  
employed under the immediate direction  
and supervision of an adult person      
having charge of a street stall or      
barrow2 before #g a4m4 or after #h p4m4 
when employed in any other form of      
street trading4  ,with the exception of 
the regulations outlined above1 there is
 no limit to the number of hours during 
which young persons may legally be      
employed4  ,children4--,the most        
important ,acts regulating the hours of 
employment for children are the ,acts   
which enforce attendance at school4     
,they limit hours1 not by fixing a      
maximum number of hours during which    
children may be employed1 but by        
pursuing the far more effective plan of 
seeing that the children are in school1 
and therefore not in the workshop1      
during part of the day4  ,taken         
together1 these ,acts provide that      
children shall be at school1 and        

consequently not at work1 at all times  
when the schools are opened until the   
age of twelve is reached4 ,there is one 
exception to this regulation3 children  
may1 under a special by-law of the local
 education authority1 be employed in    
agriculture at the age of eleven1       
provided that they attend school #bej   
times a year up to the age of thirteen4 
,this exception is of small importance1 
as the number of children who are exempt
 under this special by-law seems to be  
very small1 not exceeding apparently    
#djj in the whole country4 #fb  ,between
 the ages of twelve and fourteen        
attendance is compulsory1 subject to a  
complex scheme of partial or total      
exemptions1 depending on the by-laws of 
the local education authority4 ,it      
rests1 for instance1 with each local    
education authority to decide whether1  
as regards children between twelve and  
fourteen1 they will grant full-time or  
half-time exemption1 or both1 and upon  
what conditions of attendance or        

attainments1 always subject1 of course1 
to the fact that the by-laws must be    
approved by the ,board of ,education1   
and must not clash with any ,act        
regulating the employment of children4  
#fc ,for all practical purposes1 it is  
possible for the local education        
authority1 if they think fit1 to insist 
on such a standard of attainment to be  
reached before exemption is allowed     
that1 with a few exceptions1 relatively 
insignificant1 children are compelled to
 attend school until the age of         
fourteen4 ,it is important to remember  
that these ,acts limit the employment of
 children only during times when the    
schools are opened4 ,as a general rule1 
the hours of attendance are between #i  
and #ab in the morning1 and between #b  
and #d4cj in the afternoon2 while the   
schools are open on five days a week    
during some forty-four weeks in the     
year4 ,during holidays1 and on          
,saturdays and ,sundays1 so far as these
 ,acts are concerned1 there is no limit 

to the numbers of hours a child may     
work4  ,a further limit is put on the   
hours children may work by the          
,employment of ,children ,act1 #aijc4 ,a
 child under fourteen may not be        
employed between #i p4m4 and #f a4m4    
,this provision is subject to variation 
by local by-laws4#fd ,local by-laws may 
prescribe for children under fourteen3  
7a7 ,the hours between which employment 
is illegal2 7b7 the number of daily and 
weekly hours beyond which employment is 
illegal2 and 7c7 may permit1 subject to 
conditions1 the employment of children  
in any specified occupation4#fe  ,under 
this ,act the by-laws of the ,london    
,county ,council provide that a child   
liable to attend school shall not be    
employed on days when the school is open
 for more than three and a half hours a 
day1 nor--      7a7 ,between #h a4m4 and
 #e p4m42      7b7 ,before #f4cj a4m4 or
 after #i p4m42  and on days when the   
school is not open--      7a7 ,before   
#f4cj a4m4 or after #i p4m42      7b7   

,for more than eight hours in any one   
day4  ,on ,sundays a child shall not be 
employed except between the hours of #g 
a4m4 and #a p4m4 for a period not       
exceeding three hours4 ,a child liable  
to attend school shall not be employed  
for more than twenty hours in any week  
when the school is open on more than two
 days1 or for more than thirty hours in 
any week when the school is open on two 
days only or less4  ,additional         
limitations are imposed on the number of
 hours during which children may be     
employed by the ,factory and ,workshop  
,act4 ,a child between twelve and       
thirteen1 who has reached the standard  
for total or partial exemption under the
 ,elementary ,education ,acts1 and      
consequently may be employed1 must      
still1 if employed in a factory or      
workshop1 attend school in accordance   
with the requirements of the ,factory   
,act4 ,so must a child of thirteen who  
has not obtained a certificate entitling
 him to be employed as a young person4  

#ff ,the famous half-time system is not1
 as sometimes supposed1 a special       
privilege allowed to workshops and      
factories4 ,it is permissible in all    
forms of occupation in a practically    
unrestricted shape4 ,in factories and   
workshops the conditions are subject to 
definite regulations4 ,it is1 however1  
only in factories and workshops1 and1   
indeed1 only in certain trades among    
these1 that the half-time system has    
much practical importance4 ,the general 
regulations1 subject1 however1 to       
certain variations1 are as follows3#fg  
,employment must be either in morning   
and afternoon sets1 or on alternate days
 ,the morning set begins at #f a4m4 or  
#g a4m41 and ends--      7a7 ,at one    
o'clock in the afternoon2 or      7b7   
,if the dinner-hour begins before one   
o'clock1 at the beginning     of        
dinner-time2 or      7c7 ,if the        
dinner-time does not begin before #b    
p4m4 at noon4  ,the afternoon set begins
 either--      7a7 ,at #a p4m4      7b7 

,at any later hour at which the         
dinner-time terminates2 or      7c7 ,if 
the dinner-hour does not begin before #b
 p4m41 and the morning     set ends at  
noon1 at noon--  and ends at #f p4m4 or 
#g p4m4  ,on ,saturdays the period of   
employment is the same as for young     
persons--#f a4m4 to #aa4cj a4m4--but a  
child shall not be employed on two      
successive ,saturdays1 nor on ,saturday 
in any week if on any other days in the 
same week his period of employment has  
exceeded five and a half hours4  ,a     
child must not be employed in two       
successive periods of seven days in the 
morning set1 nor in two successive      
periods of seven days in an afternoon   
set4  ,on the alternate day system1 the 
period of employment is the same as for 
a young person--i4e41 from #f a4m4 or #g
 a4m4 to #f p4m4 or #g p4m41 with two   
hours for meals2 and on ,saturdays from 
#f a4m4 to #aa4cj a4m41 with half an    
hour for meals4 ,under this system a    
child may not be employed on two        

successive days1 nor on the same day in 
two successive weeks4  ,under all the   
systems a child may not be employed     
continuously for more than four and a   
half hours without an interval of half  
an hour for meals4#fh ,nor must a child 
be employed on any one day on the       
business of the factory or workshops    
both inside and outside the factory or  
workshop4#fi  ,this system of regulation
 refers to textile factories1 but these 
include the vast majority of            
half-timers4 ,the regulations with      
regard to non-textile factories and     
workshops are less rigorous2 and in the 
case of domestic workshops and factories
 there is additional relaxation of the  
rules4  ,the parent or guardian of the  
half-timer is responsible for the       
child's attendance at school4 ,as an    
additional precaution against truancy1  
the employer may not employ the child   
unless each ,monday the child has       
obtained from the school a certificate  
of attendance during the past week4#gj  

,if we take into account the hours      
worked in the factory and the hours     
spent in school1 we shall find that the 
half-timer's week of strenuous effort is
 a long and a weary one4 ,taking one    
week with another1 the employment of the
 half-timer is for twenty-eight and a   
quarter hours a week in a textile       
factory1 and thirty in a non-textile    
factory or workshop2 and as he is in    
school for thirteen or fourteen hours1  
his total week in school and factory is 
from forty to forty-four hours4 #ga  ,in
 view of proposals made later1 ,i have  
thought desirable to insert in detail   
the half-time regulations1 in order to  
show how1 in the actual carrying out of 
industrial operations1 a half-time      
system can be put into effect4  7c7     
,protection of ,health4  ,there is no   
law prescribing in all cases the        
conditions as to buildings1 sanitary    
arrangements1 and safety1 under which   
alone children and young persons may be 
employed4 ,there is no law requiring in 

all cases a medical certificate from    
children and young persons to show that 
they are physically suited for the      
employment in which they are engaged4   
,it is no doubt true that the buildings 
in which juveniles are employed come1 in
 respect of sanitation1 drainage1 and   
water-supply1 under the general ,public 
,health ,acts4 ,it is no doubt a fact   
that local building by-laws occasionally
 insist on means of escape in case of   
fire in premises where more than a      
certain number of persons are employed4 
,it is likewise part of the law of the  
land that1 if a lad in the course of his
 work meets with a fatal accident1      
twelve just men and a coroner must sit  
on the dead body and investigate the    
cause4  ,but1 apart from such           
regulations1 which are not confined to  
the employment of juveniles1 or1 indeed1
 to employment generally1 it is only in 
special forms of occupation that there  
are required additional precautions     
designed to protect the health and      

safety of the workers4 ,elaborate rules 
prescribe the conditions which must be  
observed in the management of a railway 
or a mine4 ,the ,shop ,hours ,act       
requires that seats should be provided  
for shop assistants4 ,such ,acts have in
 practice only a limited application in 
the case of children and young persons1 
who do not to any large extent come into
 the classes affected4  ,here1 as in    
regard to the regulation of hours1 the  
chief ,act of importance is the ,factory
 and ,workshop ,act4 ,this ,act makes   
careful provision1 so far as premises   
are concerned1 for the health of the    
workers1 juveniles and adults alike4    
,whether the provisions are in practice 
always enforced is a matter open to some
 doubt4  ,in the case of factories1#gb  
the outside walls1 ceilings1 passages1  
and staircases must be painted every    
seven years1 and washed every fourteen  
months2 and in general the premises must
 be kept clean and free from effluvia1  
and the floors properly drained4        

,ventilation must be adequate1 and all  
gases1 dust1 and other impurities       
generated in the course of work         
rendered1 so far as is practicable1     
innocuous to health4 ,in certain cases  
the inspector may insist on the         
provision of ventilating fans4          
,overcrowding is prevented by requiring 
a minimum space in each room of #bej    
cubic feet for each person1 or during   
overtime of #djj cubic feet4 ,a         
reasonable temperature must be          
maintained in each room in which any    
person is employed4 ,there must be      
sufficient and suitable supply of       
sanitary conveniences4 ,in textile      
factories a limit is set on the amount  
of atmospheric humidity4 ,in certain    
dangerous or poisonous trades additional
 precautions are required4 ,the         
,secretary of ,state has large powers of
 imposing additional regulations on the 
one hand1 and of granting exemptions on 
the other4 ,the authority for enforcing 
the regulations in factories is the     

inspector acting through the ,home      
,office4  ,the regulations applicable to
 workshops do not differ very materially
 from those imposed on factories1 but   
the enforcing authority is different4   
,the authority in the case of workshops 
is the district or the borough          
council--i4e41 the public health        
authority4 ,the medical officer of      
health and the inspector of nuisances   
have for this purpose the power of      
factory inspectors4 ,a breach of the law
 on the subject is declared to be a     
nuisance1 and may be dealt with         
summarily under the ,public ,health     
,acts4 ,the district or borough council 
are compelled to keep a register of the 
workshops within their area2 and the    
medical officer of health is required to
 report annually to the council on the  
administration of the ,factory ,acts in 
the workshops and workplaces in the     
district4 ,a copy of this report must be
 sent to the ,secretary of ,state1 who  
remains the supreme authority1 and in   

certain cases of default may authorize a
 factory inspector to take the necessary
 steps for enforcing these provisions1  
and recover the expenses from the       
defaulting council4  ,an attempt is also
 made to regulate the sanitary          
conditions under which out-workers are  
employed4 ,where provisions are made by 
the ,secretary of ,state1 the employers 
concerned are made responsible for the  
condition of the places in which his    
out-workers carry on work4 ,the employer
 must keep lists of out-workers4 ,the   
district council1 in cases where the    
place is injurious to the health of the 
out-workers1 may take steps to have the 
evil remedied or the employment stopped4
  ,the ,act requires machinery to be    
properly fenced1 and special precautions
 to be taken in cleaning machinery in   
motion4 ,children may not clean any part
 of machinery in motion1 or any place   
under such machinery other than a       
overhead gearing4 ,children and young   
persons may not be allowed to work      

between the fixed and traversing parts  
of a self-acting machine while the      
machine is in motion4  ,when there      
occurs in a factory or workshop any     
accident which either 7a7 causes loss of
 life to a person employed in the       
factory or workshop1 or 7b7 causes to a 
person employed in the factory or       
workshop such bodily injury as to       
prevent him on any one of the three     
working days after the occurrence of the
 accident from being employed for five  
hours on his ordinary work1 written     
notice shall forthwith be sent to the   
inspector for the district4  ,in the    
case of new factories erected since     
,january #a1 #ahib1 and of new workshops
 erected since ,january #a1 #ahif1 in   
which more than forty persons are       
employed1 a certificate must be obtained
 from the local authority for building  
by-laws1 stating that reasonable        
provision for escape has been made in   
case of fire4 ,with regard to older     
factories and workshops1 the local      

authority must satisfy itself that      
reasonable means of escape are provided4
 ,from these regulations it will be seen
 that precautions guarding the health of
 boys are taken in the case of factories
 and workshops4 ,there are rules1 there 
is an enforcing and inspecting          
authority1 and there is required a      
report in all cases of serious accident4
 ,but1 with one exception1 no steps are 
taken to test the adequacy of the       
precautions by a periodic medical       
examination of children and young       
persons1 or to prevent the employment of
 certain individuals who are physically 
unfit for the work4  ,the exception is  
important1 and observes attention1      
because it indicates a possible line of 
reform4 ,in a factory a young person    
under the age of sixteen1 or a child1   
must not be employed 444 unless the     
occupier of the factory has obtained a  
certificate1 in the prescribed form1 of 
the fitness of the young person or child
 for employment in that factory4 ,when a

 child becomes a young person1 a fresh  
certificate of fitness must be obtained4
 #gc ,a certifying surgeon is appointed 
for each district4 ,he must certify that
 the person named in the certificate is 
of the age therein specified1 and has   
been personally examined by him1 and is 
not incapacitated by disease or bodily  
infirmity for working daily for the time
 allowed by law in the factory4 #gd ,the
 certificate may be qualified by        
conditions as to the work on which a    
child or young person is fit to be      
employed1 and the employer must observe 
such conditions4#ge ,the surgeon has    
power to examine any process in which   
the child or young person is            
employed4#gf ,a factory inspector who is
 of opinion that any young person or    
child is unsuited on the ground of      
health for the employment on which he is
 engaged may order his dismissal1 unless
 the certifying surgeon1 after          
examination1 shall again certify him as 
fit4#gg  ,this provision only applies to

 young persons under the age of sixteen1
 and to children4 ,it does not1         
moreover1 apply to workshops4 ,in the   
case of workshops1 the employer may     
obtain1 if he thinks fit1 a certificate 
from the certifying surgeon4#gh ,the    
,secretary of ,state has1 however1 power
 to extend the regulation to certain    
classes of workshops1 if he considers   
the extension desirable4#gi  ,in these  
cases1 and these cases alone1 is it     
necessary to call in the doctor to      
certify the physical fitness of the boy 
for the employment in which he is       
engaged4 ,but under the ,employment of  
,children ,act1 #aijc1 taken in         
conjunction with the ,education         
7,administrative ,provisions7 ,act1     
#aijg1 it is possible to extend         
considerably the system of medical      
tests4 ,under the first of these ,acts1 
which applies to children under the age 
of fourteen--  ,sect4 #c 7#d74 ,a child 
shall not be employed to lift1 carry1 or
 move anything so heavy as to be likely 

to cause injury to the child4  7#e7 ,a  
child shall not be employed in any      
occupation likely to be injurious to his
 life1 limb1 health1 or education1      
regard being had to his physical        
condition4  7#f7 ,if the local authority
 send a certificate to the employer     
saying that certain employment will     
injure the child1 the certificate shall 
be admissible as evidence in any        
subsequent proceedings against the      
employer in respect of the employment of
 the child4  ,if the child has left     
school--and under certain conditions a  
child can leave school at the age of    
twelve--it is not easy to see how the   
local authority can enforce these       
provisions4 ,but with children attending
 school1 whole or part time1            
circumstances are different4 ,medical   
inspection of school-children is now    
compulsory1 and it is within the power  
of the education authority to inspect   
any such children4#hj ,they are         
therefore at liberty to examine any     

children known to be at work1 and any   
certificate of unfitness sent to an     
employer would probably be effective4   
,further1 under the ,employment of      
,children ,act1 ,sects4 #a and #b1 a    
local authority may make by-laws        
permitting1 subject to conditions1 the  
employment of children under the age of 
fourteen in any specified occupation2   
and in the case of street trading the   
age is extended to sixteen4 ,it would be
 possible therefore1 subject to the     
approval of the ,secretary of ,state1 to
 make by-laws requiring a medical       
certificate of fitness in certain forms 
of occupation in which children under   
the age of fourteen are engaged4  ,sec4 
#b4 ,,state ,,enterprise4  ,in the      
preceding sections the ,state has played
 a passive part in the supervision of   
the boy4 ,it has contented itself with  
giving orders to others1 and with taking
 some more or less inadequate steps to  
see that its commands are obeyed1 but   
has directly done nothing itself4 ,we   

are now to see the ,state assuming      
duties of its own1 and appearing as the 
active guardian of the child4           
,individual or voluntary effort having  
failed1 it has been driven1 at first    
reluctantly1 but later with increasing  
readiness1 to fill the gap4  ,the ,state
 has now made itself directly           
responsible for providing schools for   
the children of the nation4 ,the schools
 play an important part in the          
supervision of character4 ,attendance at
 school may be either compulsory or     
voluntary4 ,the law of compulsory       
attendance has already been stated4#ha  
,as a rule children must attend school  
till they reach the age of twelve1 and  
under local by-laws can in general be   
retained till they reach the age of     
fourteen4 ,in certain cases1 important  
from the point of view of discipline1   
the period of compulsory attendance can 
be prolonged4 ,children under fourteen  
found begging1 or wandering without     
home1 or under the care of a criminal or

 drunken guardian1 or in general living 
in surroundings likely to lead to crime1
 may be brought before a magistrate and 
sent to an industrial school4#hb ,here  
they are boarded and lodged1 and may be 
kept there up to the age of sixteen1    
after which time the managers of the    
school have duties of supervision for a 
further period of two years1 with power 
of recall if desirable4 ,children who   
are truants or are convicted of criminal
 offences can be treated in the same    
way4  ,for the majority of boys ,state  
guardianship is confined to the years of
 compulsory attendance4 ,but a          
considerable number continue their      
education in various ways1 and so remain
 under some sort of supervision4        
,children may remain at the elementary  
school till the close of the school year
 in which they attain the age of        
fifteen4 ,the education authority has   
power to provide and aid secondary and  
trade schools1 and to make these        
institutions accessible by means of     

scholarships2 and secondary schools1 if 
in receipt of grants from the ,board of 
,education1 must in general reserve a   
quarter of the places for pupils whose  
parents cannot afford to pay fees4 ,the 
education authority has power to provide
 evening continuation classes for those 
who desire to avail themselves of the   
opportunities thus afforded4 ,those who 
choose to attend these places of higher 
education continue in some degree under 
the supervision of the ,state4  ,but the
 supervision of the ,state through its  
schools is not confined to the          
supervision of conduct4 ,the education  
authority now exercises important duties
 in connection with the health of the   
children in the elementary schools4 ,it 
is now obligatory on every education    
authority to inspect medically all      
children on their admission to school1  
and at such other times as may be       
prescribed by the ,board of             
,education4#hc ,in their original       
memorandum to education authorities the 

,board of ,education required these     
inspections--on admission to school1 and
 at the ages of seven and ten4#hd ,these
 regulations have not at present been   
enforced1 but the ,london ,county       
,council has now adopted a scheme which 
practically embodies them4 ,the local   
education authority is empowered1 with  
the consent of the ,board of ,education1
 to make arrangement for attending to   
the health of the children4#he ,medical 
inspection is compulsory1 medical       
treatment optional4 ,further1 the local 
education authority may draw on the     
rates to feed school-children1 whether  
their parents are destitute or not1     
provided it is satisfied that the       
children1 for lack of food1 are unable  
to profit by the instruction given4#hf  
,finally1 the local education authority 
may receive into its day industrial     
schools children at the request of their
 parents1 who must pay towards the      
expense such sum as may be fixed by the 
,secretary of ,state4#hg  ,it will be   

seen that1 acting through the local     
education authorities1 the ,state has   
now assumed large duties in connection  
with the supervision of children4 ,to   
submit to the discipline of the schools 
the vast majority of the children of the
 county2 to examine medically all       
children in these schools2 to feed the  
necessitous children1 and to treat      
medically the ailing children in the    
elementary schools2 to remove and       
provide for until the age of sixteen    
unfortunate children exposed to an      
unfavourable environment--these are     
powers which constitute no small measure
 of ,state enterprise4   ,,ii4  ,,state 
,,training4  ,training that shall fit a 
boy for a trade is of two kinds1 general
 and special4 ,the first must develop   
those mental qualities of alertness1    
intelligence1 and adaptability required 
in all forms of occupation2 the second  
must give definite instruction in the   
principles and practice of some         
particular industry or branch of        

industries4 ,for the first provision is 
made in the elementary school system1   
with its powers of compelling           
attendance4 ,for the second we must look
 to the various types of continuation   
school4 ,here1 under existing           
conditions1 the ,state can only offer   
facilities2 it cannot enforce           
attendance4#hh  ,since the passing of   
the ,education ,act1 #aijb and #aijc1   
progress has been marked in both        
directions4 ,the old voluntary schools1 
whose rolls contained the names of half 
the scholars in the country1 and whose  
limited funds constituted an impassable 
barrier to all advance1 are now         
maintained out of the rates2 and the gap
 between non-provided and council       
schools is closing up4 ,the breaking up 
of the small ,school ,boards and the    
establishment of larger authorities     
controlling all forms of education have 
made for efficiency1 while the merging  
of educational matters in the general   
municipal work is insuring that         

practical criticism of his schemes which
 the educationalist always resents but  
always requires4  7a7 ,the ,elementary  
,school4  ,it is obvious that1 with the 
variety of children every school        
contains and their tender age1 no       
definite trade training can be given in 
the elementary school4 ,on the other    
hand1 we have advanced far beyond the   
old educational ideal of providing a    
common and uniform type of instruction  
in the common school4 ,types of school  
are being multiplied to meet the needs  
of different kinds of pupils4 ,provision
 has long since been supplied for the   
mentally and physically defective1 and  
serious attempts are now being made to  
break up and classify that huge group   
which includes the so-called normal     
child4 ,in addition to the varying types
 of elementary school which are in      
process of being adapted to the         
differing needs of the locality1 and the
 different classes of child1 we have1   
under the elementary school system1 what

 is known as the higher elementary      
school4 ,originally a school            
specializing in science and of little   
value1 it is tending to become1 under   
the more recent regulations of the      
,board of ,education1 a school where a  
definite bias1 either in the direction  
of commerce or industry1 is given to the
 curriculum4 ,it is true that the number
 of schools called higher elementary    
shows little signs of increase4#hi ,this
 is due to the rigid and inflexible     
rules of the ,board of ,education1 which
 seem expressly designed to kill1 and   
not to encourage1 the experiment4 ,but  
while the name is being dropped1 the    
thing is being preserved and multiplied4
 ,london1 for example1 has recently     
adopted a scheme for the development of 
sixty of these types of school1 to be   
called central schools4 ,the curriculum 
of each school is determined after      
taking into account the industrial needs
 of the neighbourhood in which it is    
placed4 ,the education given is general 

in character1 but the selection of      
subjects has special reference to some  
profession or group of trades4 ,broadly 
speaking1 there are two general types of
 school1 the commercial and the         
industrial4 ,the industrial type is     
already subdivided into the woodwork and
 the engineering type1 and further      
subdivisions will gradually be formed4  
,in these schools no attempt will be    
made to teach a trade1 but such subjects
 are included in the curriculum as will 
be found useful in the trade4 ,in the   
woodwork type1 for example1 in addition 
to a considerable amount of time devoted
 to practical instruction in woodwork1  
special attention is given to the kinds 
of arithmetic and drawing required by   
the intelligent carpenter4 ,an elaborate
 scheme for picking out between the ages
 of eleven and twelve the children      
suitable for these different kinds of   
school has been drawn up4 ,a four years'
 course of instruction is provided for4 
,in order to induce the poorer parents  

to allow their children to remain beyond
 the age of compulsory attendance1 the  
education committee offers bursaries1   
thereby exercising that negative form of
 compulsion technically known as a      
bribe4 ,other education authorities are 
establishing schools with similar aims4 
,the experiments are recent1 and mark an
 important and new development4 ,two    
advantages are anticipated4 ,first1 the 
variety in the types of school and the  
careful selection of scholars will      
promote intelligence by providing that  
particular kind of educational nutriment
 best adapted for encouraging the growth
 of a particular order of mind4         
,secondly1 by guiding the interests of  
boys in the direction of various        
occupations1 it is hoped that on leaving
 school these interests will lead the   
boys to enter those occupations for     
which to some extent they have been     
prepared1 and in which they are most    
likely to succeed4 ,the elementary      
schools1 as a body1 will thus become a  

kind of sorting-house for the different 
trades1 and be freed from that charge1  
to some extent justified1 of catering   
only for the lower ranks of the clerical
 profession4  7b7 ,the ,continuation    
,school4  ,it is becoming year by year  
more generally recognized that a system 
of education which comes to an end      
somewhere about the age of fourteen is  
incomplete and profoundly               
unsatisfactory4 ,without attendance at a
 continuation school of some kind1 a boy
 rapidly loses much of the effect of his
 previous education1 and at the same    
time is deprived of all opportunity of  
enjoying the advantages of a more       
specialized training4 ,to meet this need
 a complex system of continuation school
 has grown up4 ,it lacks1 however1 the  
element of compulsion1 except that      
negative form already alluded to--the   
bribe of a scholarship4 ,looking at the 
machinery as a whole1 it may be admitted
 that the ,state does afford            
considerable opportunity to those       

anxious to continue their general       
education1 or to obtain some specific   
form of technical instruction4 ,whether 
sufficient use is made of this          
opportunity is a question that must be  
answered in the following chapter4 ,but 
taking the machinery as a whole1 and as 
it exists under the best education      
authorities1 the machinery does touch to
 some extent the principal trades and   
professions4#ij  #a4 ,provision is      
gradually being made for those likely to
 succeed in the higher branches of      
industry and commerce4 ,the number of   
secondary schools is being increased1   
their quality improved1 and their types 
varied4 ,technical institutes providing 
day and evening classes of an advanced  
character are being rapidly multiplied4 
,university instruction1 aided out of   
public funds1 is becoming more plentiful
 and efficient1 and1 whether during the 
day or in the evening1 is year by year  
offering larger opportunities to        
students4 ,progress is especially marked

 in the faculties of economics and      
technology4 ,scholarship systems1 more  
or less incomplete1 make access to these
 institutions possible for the poorer   
classes of the community4 ,the trend of 
development seems to suggest that a     
system of organization1 calculated to   
provide training for the highest        
positions in the industrial and         
commercial world1 is developing along   
the following lines3  ,between the ages 
of eleven and twelve the brightest      
children will be transferred from the   
elementary to the secondary school4 ,the
 secondary school will provide a course 
of instruction extending to the age of  
eighteen4 ,broadly speaking1 there will 
be three types of secondary school1 the 
first giving a general and literary     
education1 the second specializing in   
commerce1 and the third in some branch  
of science and technology4 ,at the age  
of eighteen the suitable students will  
be removed to the ,university1 where    
they will receive a three or four years'

 course of instruction suitable to the  
profession they are intending to enter4 
,it is probable that at the age of      
fourteen there will be an additional1   
though smaller1 transfer of children    
from the elementary schools1 in order   
that provision may be made for those who
 have slipped through the meshes of the 
scholarship net at the first casting4   
,scholarships with liberal maintenance  
grants will make readily accessible to  
all who are fit the advantages of a     
prolonged education4 ,evening classes1  
leading even to a degree1 will remain   
for those who1 for one reason or        
another1 have failed to obtain in their 
earlier years the advanced instruction  
they now require4  ,an organization of  
this kind is not at present found       
anywhere in its complete form1 but it is
 sufficiently complete in certain       
directions to be considered here1 where 
we are concerned with attainments1 and  
not reserved for a later chapter1 where 
we shall be examining new paths of      

progress4  #b4 ,for those likely later  
to fill the position of foreman1 or to  
become the best kind of artisan1 the day
 trade school is provided4 ,the boys    
enter the trade school on leaving the   
elementary school about the age of      
fourteen or fifteen1 and go through a   
two and sometimes a three years' course 
of instruction4 ,these schools continue 
the education of the boy1 with special  
reference to the trade concerned1 and at
 the same time devote a large amount of 
time to supplying an all-round training 
in the various skilled operations the   
trade requires4 ,they are essentially   
practical in character1 and this        
practical character is often assured by 
a committee of employers1 who visit the 
school and criticize the methods of     
instruction4  #c4 ,for those already    
apprenticed to1 or engaged in1 the trade
 two forms of instruction are provided4 
,the most satisfactory are the classes  
attended during the day4 ,attendance at 
such times can only be secured by       

inducing the employers to allow their   
lads time off during working hours4 ,in 
some cases the element of compulsion is 
introduced by the employers1 who make   
attendance at such classes a condition  
of employment4 ,the other form of       
instruction is provided during the      
evening at a technical institute4 ,in   
either case the instruction is of a     
practical nature1 and designed to       
supplement the training of the workshop4
  #d4 ,for those who have entered1 or   
desire to enter1 the lower walks of     
commerce1 or the civil or municipal     
service1 there is the evening school of 
a commercial type1 usually held in the  
building of an elementary school4  #e4  
,of the boys who1 engaged in unskilled  
work during the day1 are anxious to     
continue their general education or to  
improve their position1 the evening     
school again supplies the need4 ,some   
practical work is done in the woodwork  
or metal centres1 but the limited       
equipment of the elementary school      

stands in the way of any advanced       
technical instruction4 ,if we omit the  
commercial classes1 already mentioned1  
attendance at an evening school often   
means little more than attendance once a
 week at a class where instruction is   
given in a single subject1 and not      
infrequently the recreative element is  
predominant4 ,recently1 and with        
considerable success1 the course system 
has been introduced4 ,here the students1
 instead of being present at a single   
class once a week1 attend on several    
evenings during the week1 and go through
 a course of instruction in several     
subjects connected together and leading 
up to some definite goal4  ,if to these 
various types of continuation school we 
add the large number of lectures on     
numerous subjects1 we shall see that the
 ,state through its schools supplies a  
considerable amount of technical        
instruction4 ,it would be false to say  
that the boys receive all the training  
that they need1 but it would not be     

beyond the mark to assert that in the   
case of many education authorities they 
are afforded all1 and not infrequently  
more than all1 the opportunities for    
which they ask4 ,it is the demand1 and  
not the supply1 that is deficient4      
,,iii4  ,,state ,,provision ,,of ,,an   
,,opening4  ,until the year #aiaj the   
provision of openings in suitable       
occupations was not considered among the
 duties of the ,state4 ,it is true that 
here and there1 usually in co-operation 
with voluntary associations1 an         
education committee made some attempt to
 place out in trades the boys about to  
leave school4 ,but any expenditure in   
this direction was illegal1 and under no
 circumstances was it possible to do    
anything for those who had already left 
school4 ,but in the year #aiaj the      
,state1 without premeditation1 has found
 itself committed to the duty of finding
 openings for children and juveniles4   
,the revolution was upon us before we   
had seen the signs of its approach4     

,this assumption of a new duty was the  
unforeseen result of the establishment  
of ,labour ,exchanges4 ,the ,act of     
#aiji thought nothing1 said nothing1    
about juveniles4 ,it was passed as a    
measure intended to deal with the       
problem of adult unemployment4 ,now1    
there is no problem of unemployment in  
connection with boys and youths2 the    
demand of employers for this kind of    
labour appears insatiable4              
,nevertheless1 no sooner were ,labour   
,exchanges opened1 than the question of 
juveniles came to the front4 ,employers 
asked for juveniles1 and the managers of
 the local ,labour ,exchange1 eager to  
meet the wishes of the employer1        
searched for and found juveniles4       
,enthusiastic about his work1 and       
prompted by the laudable desire to show 
large returns of vacancies filled1 it   
did not occur to him that the problem of
 the juvenile and the problem of the    
adult had little in common4 ,he was not 
permitted to remain long in this        

condition of primitive ignorance4       
,questions were asked in the ,house1    
letters were written to the papers1     
deputations waited on the ,president of 
the ,board of ,trade1 all complaining   
that the ,labour ,exchange was becoming 
an engine for the exploitation of boy   
labour4 ,in the case of adults1 no      
bargain as to conditions was struck with
 the employer2 the man had to make his  
own terms4 ,but the boy could not make  
his own terms1 and public opinion had   
for some years been uneasy about the    
increasing employment of boys in        
occupations restricted to boys1 and     
leading to no permanent situation when  
the years of manhood were reached4      
,returns showed that it was largely into
 situations of this character that lads 
were being thrust by the ,labour        
,exchange4 ,the ,board of ,trade rapidly
 realized the evil1 and set itself to   
work to repair the unforeseen mistake4  
,it wisely decided to grapple seriously 
with the problem1 and did not1 as it    

might well have done1 restrict the      
,labour ,exchange to adults4  ,it       
determined to appoint ,advisory         
,committees to deal with juveniles4 ,in 
,london the following machinery is in   
process of being established3 ,there is 
a ,central ,advisory ,committee1        
consisting of six members nominated by  
the ,board of ,trade1 six by the ,london
 ,county ,council1 and six by the       
committee of employers and trade        
unionists1 who advise the ,board of     
,trade on questions of adult employment4
 ,the duty of this ,central ,committee  
is to advise the ,board of ,trade as to 
the appointment of the local ,advisory  
,committees1 which will be formed to    
control the juvenile department in      
connection with each of the ,london     
,labour ,exchanges4 ,it will also be the
 duty of the ,central ,advisory         
,committee to advise generally on       
questions affecting the employment of   
juveniles4 ,though the duties of this   
committee are nominally advisory1 its   

work will in practice become            
administrative in character4 ,here then 
is an organization which in course of   
time will probably have to deal with the
 problem of finding suitable occupations
 for the child and juvenile population  
of ,london4 ,similar bodies are being   
formed in other towns4 ,as will appear  
later1 this is one of the most important
 social questions of the day4 ,how these
 committees will do their work only the 
future can show4 ,but if the ,board of  
,trade act liberally in matters of      
expenditure1 there is no cause for      
despondency1 and we may well hope that1 
by the purest of accidents1 we are on   
the threshold of a new era in the       
history of industrial organization4     
,chance is not always blind1 and some of
 its wild castings hit the mark4  ,such1
 in broad outline1 have been the        
achievements of the ,state during the   
age of reconstruction1 so far as        
concerns the problem of boy labour and  
apprenticeship4 ,guided by sentiment1   

partial and limited in the sphere of its
 operations1 the ,state has yet drifted 
far from the moorings of laissez-faire1 
and is destined to drift farther as the 
years go by4  ,how far the intricate    
machinery1 slowly pieced together during
 the last three-quarters of a century1  
is successful when judged by results1   
what are its more serious defects1 and  
what should be the lines of future      
advance1 before the establishment of a  
real apprenticeship system1 it will be  
the object of the following chapters to 
explain4 ,but one truth should now be   
abundantly clear3 of the three essential
 factors of that system1 not one has    
been altogether neglected by the ,state1
 and in certain departments its         
guardianship has been widely extended4  
,in the department of supervision it    
has1 through its schools1 created an    
organization to watch over and to       
control the conduct of all its children2
 it has recently recognized through the 
same agency its duty to provide for them

 at least the elements of physical      
well-being2 and through numerous ,acts  
it has endeavoured to insure for the boy
 worker a minimum standard--low1 indeed1
 but still real--of proper conditions of
 employment4 ,in the department of      
training it has covered the land with a 
network of educational institutions1    
which offer to all the possibilities of 
nearly every kind of instruction4       
,while1 as regards the provision of an  
opening1 it has realized the urgency of 
the problem1 and has taken the first    
steps to supply the deficiency4 ,these  
are all1 in spite of many shortcomings1 
solid achievements1 hopeful in the      
present1 and more hopeful for the       
promise they bring of a larger measure  
of ,state guardianship in the years that
 are to come4     ,,chapter ,v          
,,apprenticeship ,,of ,,to-,,day   ,a   
true apprenticeship system1 as already  
explained1 must satisfy three           
conditions3 ,it must guarantee the      
adequate supervision of the youth of the

 country as regards physical and moral  
development until the age of eighteen at
 least is reached2 it must supply means 
of effective training1 both general and 
specialized2 and1 finally1 it must      
provide to those about to cross the     
threshold of manhood an opening in some 
form of occupation for which definite   
preparation has been given4 ,the        
efficiency of the industrial            
organization of to-day must be judged by
 the extent to which these three        
conditions are satisfied4  ,to what     
extent does the apprenticeship of to-day
 satisfy the conditions of a true       
apprenticeship system8 ,to answer this  
question we must look far beyond the    
narrow limits of indentured             
apprenticeship as it still exists4 ,it  
touches only a fringe1 and a vanishing  
fringe1 of the problem4 ,life for the   
youth has grown more complex since the  
passing of the old organization of the  
gilds2 its success or failure is the    
outcome of the interplay of numerous    

forces4 ,four factors contribute1 in a  
more or less degree1 to the result4     
,there is the contribution of the       
,state--the last chapter was concerned  
with the description of the machinery   
which has slowly been set up during the 
age of reconstruction--we have yet to   
test its influence in the actual        
working2 there is the contribution of   
philanthropic enterprise1 as represented
 in the religious bodies1 the clubs1 the
 apprenticeship associations1 and       
skilled employment committees2 there is 
the contribution of the home1 with its  
discipline and training2 and1 finally1  
there is the contribution of the        
workshop1 using this term to include all
 forms of occupation1 with the methods  
of entry and the organization for       
securing a supply of labour4 ,only when 
we have taken into account the effects  
of these four factors can we pass       
judgment on the apprenticeship of       
to-day4   ,i4  ,,the ,,contribution ,,of
 ,,the ,,state4  ,in estimating the     

contribution of the ,state towards      
apprenticeship of to-day1 it will be    
convenient1 as in the last chapter1 to  
trace the effect of this influence in   
two sections1 the one devoted to a      
survey of the results of ,state         
regulation1 and the other to an         
examination of the achievements of      
,state enterprise4  ,sec4 #a4 ,,state   
,,regulation4  ,in its scheme of        
regulation the ,state has aimed1 broadly
 speaking1 at securing three results4   
,it has endeavoured to prevent boys from
 being overworked or wrongly worked2 it 
has sought to guard them from being     
engaged in demoralizing forms of        
employment2 and it has striven to secure
 satisfactory conditions within the     
walls of the workshop4  ,the third task 
presents the fewest difficulties4       
,medical science is sufficiently        
advanced to prescribe the conditions as 
to ventilation1 heating1 sanitation1 and
 cubic contents essential to the health 
of the boys4 ,the sad catalogue of      

accidents is sufficiently long to show  
where danger1 through inadequately      
guarded machinery1 is probable4 ,to     
enforce the necessary regulations is    
comparatively easy4 ,there must be a    
suitable number of inspectors1 and these
 inspectors must be specially trained   
for their work4 ,neither condition is at
 present fulfilled4 ,the staff of       
inspectors is much too small1 and the   
inspectors themselves frequently lack   
the requisite technical qualifications4 
,in the work of guarding boys from being
 engaged in occupations demoralizing to 
character1 the ,state has only recently 
taken the first steps4 ,the ,employment 
of ,children ,act prohibits street      
trading under certain conditions4 ,as   
will appear later in this chapter1 there
 are a large number of occupations where
 regulation is much required4 ,indeed1  
it is a comparatively new idea that the 
nature of the employment of the boy may 
have a profound influence on the        
well-being of the man4  ,in the         

department of regulation the most       
elaborate machinery has grown up around 
the attempts of the ,state to prevent   
boys from being overworked or wrongly   
worked4 ,the difficulties in the way of 
success have been two4 ,there has been  
the difficulty in getting the necessary 
law passed4 ,in this respect it is      
enough to mention that the half-time    
system1 in spite of practically         
universal condemnation1 is still        
permitted1 to show the almost           
insurmountable obstacles presented by   
vested interests4 ,there is next the    
difficulty of enforcing the law4 ,it is 
often urged that it is idle to place on 
the statute-book laws which can easily  
be evaded4 ,too much weight must not1   
however1 be given to this argument4     
,there is a moral effect in the passing 
of every law4 ,the fact that the ,state 
has condemned certain modes of action is
 an important factor in the formation of
 public opinion4 ,many people realize   
for the first time that the evils which 

are the result of conduct hitherto      
regarded as harmless1 because not       
regarded at all1 are sufficiently       
serious to call for ,state interference4
 ,the law may not have its full effect2 
it will without doubt have some effect4 
,the question of enforcement is1        
however1 of vital importance1 and it is 
well to consider the limits of the power
 of enforcement4  ,the best method of   
restricting the hours of employment is  
to see that the boy is somewhere else   
during part of the working day4 ,the    
half-time system1 which insured that the
 boy should spend half his time in      
school1 was established1 not primarily  
with a view to his education1 but to    
prevent him from being overworked4 ,it  
has1 moreover1 from its point of view1  
been completely successful1 and has in  
practice been enforced without          
difficulty4 ,the various laws relating  
to compulsory attendance at school have 
exercised an influence more potent in   
the work of limiting the hours of       

employment than all the other elaborate 
regulations on the subject4 ,if we see  
to it that a boy is in school1 he cannot
 at the same time be found in the       
factory4 ,the machinery for enforcing   
attendance now runs without difficulty1 
and its action is uniform and           
comprehensive4  ,the next method of     
restricting employment is the method of 
prohibition4 ,here1 again1 enforcement  
presents no serious difficulty4 ,if we  
forbid children under a certain age to  
work for wages or to take part in       
certain forms of occupation1 it is      
enough to find them so engaged at any   
one moment to secure a conviction4  ,the
 third method1 which seeks to prevent   
boys from being overworked by setting a 
limit on the number of hours during     
which they may be employed1 is almost   
impossible to carry out4 ,the ,shop     
,hours ,act is frequently infringed1 and
 only the most rigid system of          
inspection can get evidence of cases of 
infringement4 ,yet even here detection  

is comparatively easy4 ,a watch can be  
kept on the number of hours during which
 a shop is open1 and if this exceed the 
legal limit we have a fair presumption  
that the shop assistants are            
over-employed4 ,but in the case of      
children we cannot draw this conclusion4
 ,we are supposing their hours are more 
limited than in the case of the adults1 
and the mere fact that the shop is open 
during a longer period affords no proof 
that the child is there all the day on  
all days of the week4 ,to enforce       
regulations of this kind we must set a  
watch on the individual child1 and on a 
large scale this is impracticable4  ,in 
judging of the results of ,state        
regulation1 as described in the         
preceding chapter1 we may assume that   
the regulations are enforced--or at any 
rate are enforceable--where employment  
is prohibited1 or where attendance at   
school is required1 but that regulations
 which entail the counting of hours have
 little effect in preventing overwork   

except by the indirect method of forming
 public opinion4 ,further1 when we are  
seeking a path of reform1 we must take  
the road of prohibition or alternative  
attendance at school4  ,leaving general 
considerations1 and coming to details1  
it may be said that1 so far as children 
under the age of fourteen are concerned1
 the system of ,state regulation1 though
 a little cumbersome1 covers a          
considerable part of the field1 provided
 always that local education authorities
 make full use of the powers conferred  
by the ,education ,acts1 the ,school    
,attendance ,acts1 the ,children ,act1  
and the ,employment of ,children ,act1  
and provided also that the ,board of    
,education and the ,home ,office render 
full and cordial support4               
,unfortunately1 these provisos are very 
far from being fulfilled4 ,more than #eh
 per cent4 of the population1 for       
example1 live in districts where the    
attendance by-laws allow of conditional 
exemption at the age of twelve4  ,it is 

true that in nearly half the cases a    
fairly high standard of attainment is   
required from the children1 but with the
 remainder no higher standard is        
required than that reached by the normal
 child at the age of twelve4#ia ,or1    
again1 in connection with the           
,employment of ,children ,act1 out of   
seventy-four county boroughs1 fifty have
 made by-laws in reference to street    
trading1 but large towns1 like ,leeds1  
,nottingham1 or ,salford1 have made     
none4 ,out of #aia smaller boroughs and 
urban districts1 only forty-one have    
made by-laws2 and out of the sixty-two  
administrative counties1 other than     
,london and ,middlesex1 only one4#ib ,it
 may fairly be assumed that1 where no   
by-laws relating to street trading      
exist1 little is done to enforce the    
other provisions of the ,act4  ,as      
regards young persons1 if we exclude the
 ,acts relating to mines1 which affect a
 comparatively small number of lads1 the
 ,shop ,hours ,act1 with its mild       

provisions of seats for assistants and a
 maximum week of seventy-four hours1 the
 only ,act which can be said to exert a 
large measure of supervision is the     
,factory and ,workshop ,act4 ,assuming  
that the system of regulation there     
found is adequate1 and adequately       
enforced--both assumptions far from     
being fulfilled in practice--there      
remain the young persons who do not come
 within its provisions4 ,the number of  
these is very large4 ,in the next       
chapter figures are given relating to   
the occupations of ,london children on  
leaving school and between the ages of  
fifteen and twenty4 ,a study of these   
tables will show that not more than at  
most a third of the young persons are   
brought within the scope of the ,factory
 and ,workshop ,act4 ,a large proportion
 of the lads engaged in the building    
trades1 and practically the whole of    
those employed in shops1 in transport1  
in commerce1 and in general labour1 are 
excluded4 ,in their case there is no    

,state supervision to regulate the      
conditions of their work4  ,coming to   
concrete examples1 the van-boy may in   
all kinds of weather spend a dozen hours
 a day lolling on the tail of a cart1   
idle for much of his time1 and for the  
remainder holding the horses outside a  
public-house1 or lifting weights too    
heavy for his strength4 ,the errand-boy1
 none too well clad or shod1 may1       
delivering parcels and messages1 trudge 
through the cold and rain over long     
leagues of streets during long stretches
 of the week4 ,the office-boy may be    
cooped up in a dark and ill-ventilated  
office during most of the hours of      
daylight4 ,the shop-boy may stand ten1  
twelve1 or on ,saturdays fifteen hours  
of the twenty-four in the street or in  
the shop1 with one eye on the goods and 
the other on a penny novelette4 ,and    
there is no public authority to say     
whether the conditions of his employment
 are satisfactory1 no power to have him 
medically inspected1 no possible        

guarantee to insure that when he passes 
the threshold of early manhood the      
vigour and the brightness of youth shall
 not have given way to the feeble health
 and the torpor of old age4             
,unquestionably1 we owe much to         
sentiment for the evils it has denounced
 and remedied1 but we owe also to the   
regime of sentiment the fact that some  
two-thirds of the young persons in the  
country are engaged in occupations      
carried on without regulation and       
unvisited by any inspector of the       
,state4  ,sec4 #b4 ,,state ,,enterprise4
  ,the most signal example of ,state    
enterprise in the realm of boy labour is
 to be found in that huge organization  
of schools1 elementary and continuation1
 which now cover the country1 and whose 
efficiency is rapidly increasing4 ,the  
organization has already been described2
 it remains to summarize briefly its    
principal effects4 ,first1 the boys     
attend school with astonishing          
regularity4 ,an average percentage of   

attendances during the year of          
ninety-five1 and even more1 is become   
common4 ,truancy is rare1 and growing   
rarer4 ,the truant schools are being    
gradually emptied1 and several have been
 closed4 ,this result is no doubt in    
part due to the increased fine for      
non-attendance1 and the pressure thus   
placed on the parent4 ,but excellent    
attendance implies much more than the   
elimination of the truant2 it means     
that1 after making allowance for        
absences due to illness and other       
sufficient causes1 the boy attends      
school with perfect regularity and      
punctuality at all times when the       
schools are opened4 ,now1 this ideal is 
in the case of the vast majority of boys
 attained4 ,the result must be          
attributed to the influence of the      
teachers over the boy4 ,prosecution of  
the parent may cure gross irregularity1 
but perfect attendance can only be      
secured by enlisting the co-operation of
 the boy4 ,the first effect of the      

school1 then1 is seen in the almost     
unqualified regularity and punctuality  
of the attendance4 ,if we reflect on the
 home conditions of many of the boys1 we
 shall be compelled to pay a high       
tribute of praise to the work of the    
teacher4 ,the second achievement lies in
 the admirable order maintained within  
the walls of the school4 ,ready         
obedience is the rule1 and not the      
exception4 ,this is in general not the  
result of a system of harsh             
discipline--corporal punishment is      
decreasing at once in severity and in   
frequency--it is due to the personal    
influence of the teacher4 ,in the third 
place1 a spirit of industry and active  
attention pervades the work of the      
school4 ,in discussing with the         
authorities of secondary schools the    
career of the children who have won     
scholarships from the elementary        
schools1 ,i have more than once been    
told that the chief characteristic of   
these scholars lies in their patient and

 strenuous diligence4 ,in this respect  
they serve as an admirable example to   
the fee-paying pupils4 ,it is true that 
the scholars are picked children1 but   
ability and diligence are1 as experience
 shows1 by no means inseparable         
companions4 ,here1 again1 we see the    
effect of the school4 ,finally1 the     
schools are institutions which make for 
character in the best sense of the word4
 ,the moral training is gradually       
freeing itself from the do and don't of 
the home1 and is beginning to reach the 
higher level of morality where the      
command is to be this1 not that4 ,a     
standard of school honour is being      
sought for1 and sometimes attained4 ,to 
take a single example4 ,in what is      
perhaps the poorest school in all       
,london1 set in the most squalid and    
vice-haunted region1 it has been made a 
matter of honour with the boys who are  
receiving school dinners to come to the 
headmaster as soon as the home          
circumstances temporarily improve and   

say3 ,i don't want a dinner this        
morning1 because father has got a day's 
work4  ,habits of regularity1 obedience1
 and industry1 and the cultivation of a 
sense of honour--these are the chief    
results of ,state supervision carried   
out by means of the schools4 ,two       
questions require an answer3 ,do these  
qualities1 found within the precincts of
 the school1 overflow and affect the    
conduct of the boys outside the school8 
,do they last when school-days are over1
 and the boys gone out to work8 ,with   
regard to the first1 there is good      
reason to believe that they do overflow4
 ,the school training does influence the
 conduct of the boys outside4 ,no one   
who has watched a zealous headmaster    
replace an ancient and inefficient      
teacher of the old type can fail to have
 observed a striking change in the      
behaviour of the boys as seen in the    
street and in the home4 ,with regard to 
the second question1 we must reply that 
undoubtedly in many cases the qualities 

gradually disappear4 ,when we come1 as  
we shall do shortly1 to the survey of   
the conditions of boy labour1 we shall  
not be surprised at this unfortunate    
truth4 ,it would be difficult to imagine
 any form of training that would be     
permanent when all discipline is relaxed
 or entirely discontinued at the most   
critical period of the development of   
the boy4  ,the elementary school is now 
made responsible for the supervision of 
the health of the children4 ,medical    
inspection of all children is now       
compulsory1 while medical treatment is  
made legal4 ,the education authority may
 also draw on the rates to provide meals
 for necessitous children4 ,it is too   
soon to estimate the effect of these new
 powers1 but if they are used with wise 
generosity they should exercise a       
profound influence on the health of the 
rising generation4  ,but however        
beneficent may be the influence of the  
elementary school1 it comes to an end   
abruptly at the age of fourteen1 and    

often a year or two earlier4 ,up to the 
age of leaving school1 the boy is       
carefully guarded by the ,state1 and    
then1 with no transitional stage1 he    
becomes a man1 and1 so far as the ,state
 is concerned1 all control is withdrawn4
 ,two or three per cent41 with the help 
of scholarships1 may pass annually to   
the secondary school1 where ,state      
supervision is continued4 ,not more than
 #cj per cent4 of those who leave the   
elementary school attend an evening     
school1#ic and even if they do there is 
no medical inspection in such places1   
and little effective discipline is      
possible for boys attending evening     
school on two or three nights a week4   
,the remaining two-thirds disappear from
 the sight of the ,state1 which         
henceforth renounces all responsibility 
for their supervision4  ,we have next to
 regard the schools as training-grounds 
for the workmen of the future4 ,we ought
 not to look to the elementary schools  
to provide any definite preparation for 

a trade4 ,unfortunately1 through no     
fault of their own1 and because of the  
industrial development of the day1 the  
schools are turning out in thousands    
lads completely equipped for a certain  
class of occupation4 ,we have already   
seen that the most signal triumph of the
 schools is to be found in the habits of
 regularity1 intelligence1 and          
obedience1 which they impress on the    
boys4 ,now1 these qualities are         
essential to success in all walks of    
life2 but for one form of employment    
alone are they all that is required4    
,this form of employment includes those 
occupations in which boys and boys only 
are engaged1 and where the boys are     
discharged as soon as they become men4  
,the messenger-boy1 the shop-boy1 the   
van-boy1 and even the boy who attends to
 some machine which monotonously        
performs a single operation--the boy who
 comes into one of these classes need   
take with him nothing but the three     
recommendations of regularity1          

obedience1 and intelligence4 ,we shall  
trace later the disastrous effects of   
these forms of employment4 ,it is not   
without significance that the rapid     
increase in the number of boys so       
engaged has synchronized with the rapid 
improvement in the system of elementary 
education4 ,it is something of a tragedy
 that the most signal triumph of the    
schools should be1 perhaps1 the cause of
 their most signal failure4  ,definite  
training must be looked for in the      
continuation school4 ,it is unnecessary 
to add much to what has been said in the
 last chapter2 the ,state offers        
opportunity1 but with its existing      
powers can do little more4 ,speaking    
generally1 for the child of             
comparatively well-to-do parents1 for   
the clever child1 for the child of      
unusual energy and physical vigour1     
these opportunities can be enjoyed2 but 
for the remainder--and that the great   
majority--they are useless1 because     
beyond the reach of ordinary endeavour4 

,of ,state enterprise in the provision  
of an opening it is too early to speak2 
the juvenile branch of the ,labour      
,exchange is only creeping into         
existence4 ,in the next chapter an      
attempt will be made to explain how best
 can be realized the possibilities which
 lie latent in these institutions4      
,sec4 #c4 ,,summary4  ,we are now in a  
position to summarize the achievements  
and the defects of the contribution of  
the ,state towards the creation of a    
true apprenticeship system4 ,its        
machinery of regulation has removed the 
worst abuses of child labour1 and in    
certain departments of industry         
protects1 with some degree of success1  
the health of the young persons engaged4
 ,its enterprise in the field of        
education is providing supervision over 
the health and conduct of the boy till  
he reaches the age of fourteen1 while   
for the young person it offers          
opportunities of longer supervision and 
technical training4  ,if much has been  

done1 much more remains undone4         
,regulation still leaves rampant many of
 the evils of child labour4 ,some       
two-thirds of the boys as they leave    
school enter occupations where          
regulation hardly exists4 ,state        
enterprise for all practical purposes   
exerts no supervision over lads between 
the ages of fourteen and eighteen--the  
most important epoch of their lives4    
,technical training1 and even the       
continuance of general education1 are   
possible only for a favoured few1 and   
for the present there is no ,state      
provision of an opening4  ,these are    
grave defects1 and apprenticeship of    
to-day stands condemned unless it can be
 shown that one or other of the         
remaining factors supply what the ,state
 has failed to give4   ,,ii4  ,,the     
,,contribution ,,of ,,philanthropy4     
,the second of the general forces1 as   
distinguished from the individual and   
special influences of the home and the  
workshop1 which may make some           

contribution towards the apprenticeship 
of to-day must be sought among the      
varied religious and philanthropic      
associations4 ,while we could not expect
 from these bodies any assistance in the
 work of technical training1 we might   
hope to find in their midst conditions  
which make for the better supervision   
and control of the lads who have left   
school4  ,beginning with the more       
distinctly religious associations1 we   
find among them practical unanimity of  
opinion4 ,one and all confess sadly that
 they are unable to keep in touch with  
the boys after they have gone out to    
work4 ,for the tens of thousands of     
schoolboys who attend ,sunday-school    
there are only hundreds of lads on the  
roll of ,bible-classes4 ,the sudden     
change from the status of schoolboy to  
the status of wage-earner1 which for the
 majority severed all connection with   
the education authority1 has even more  
decisively brought to an end the        
supervision of church and chapel4  ,the 

miscellaneous associations represented  
by clubs1 lads' brigades1 boy scouts1   
and the like1 have all been called into 
existence for the express purpose of    
exerting some measure of control over   
that transition period of life which    
separates the boy from the man4 ,how    
many lads between the ages of fourteen  
and eighteen come within the sphere of  
influence it is not possible to say with
 any exactness4 ,the ,twentieth ,century
 ,league estimated in #aijc that in     
,london about #bg1ghj boys were         
connected with institutions of this     
character1 and we shall see later that  
there are in ,london about #abj1jjj boys
 between the ages of fourteen and       
eighteen4  ,it would be no less         
difficult to weigh the value of the work
 done4 ,existing as they do on a        
voluntary basis1 and free from all      
element of compulsion1 such supervision 
as they exert must take the form of     
tactful guidance4 ,their success or     
failure depends less on the machinery   

and more on the personal qualities of   
the manager4 ,the wide and admirable    
influence of the best clubs is the      
triumph1 not of the system1 but of the  
exceptional individual4 ,exceptional    
individuals are1 it must be remembered1 
exceptional1 and an organization which  
depends on their presence is necessarily
 limited in the extent of its           
operations4 ,we cannot therefore look to
 these associations to meet adequately  
the call for supervision4  ,of recent   
years numerous associations have been   
formed with the object of providing     
suitable openings for boys4 ,there are  
two sides to their work4 ,on the one    
hand1 situations are found1 terms made  
with employers as to wages and training1
 and steps taken to see that these terms
 are carried out4 ,on the other hand1   
periodic visits are paid to the boy in  
his home1 advice given as to attendance 
at evening schools1 and friendly        
relations established between boy and   
visitor4 ,in general1 these bodies are  

concerned with placing out lads in      
skilled trades1 though here and there   
some attempts have been made to attack  
the better parts of the unskilled labour
 market4 ,work of this character entails
 the expenditure of much time and money1
 and requires for the negotiation with  
employers considerable technical        
qualifications4 ,experience has shown   
that a staff of volunteers cannot alone 
perform the necessary duties1 and paid  
officers have been appointed4 ,the cost 
necessarily limits the expansion of the 
organization4 ,out of the #cj1jjj boys  
who annually leave the elementary       
schools of ,london1 it is probable that 
not more than #b per cent4 come under   
the influence of these associations4 ,on
 the other hand1 if the sphere of their 
operations is limited1 within that      
sphere it has achieved very considerable
 success4 ,they have been pioneers in a 
new movement1 have fully justified their
 existence1 and must now look to the    
,state to continue on a larger scale1   

but on the same general lines1 the work 
that they have begun4 ,unlike most      
volunteers1 these employment committees 
welcome this transfer1 and are now      
readily placing their services at the   
disposal of the ,board of ,trade through
 its juvenile ,labour ,exchange4  ,this 
brief survey of the contribution of     
philanthropic enterprise to the         
apprenticeship of to-day reveals one    
obvious conclusion3 the associations    
only touch a fringe of the problem1 and 
in no way exert any comprehensive       
measure of control over the lads between
 the ages of fourteen and eighteen4     
,their number1 their variety1 and their 
enthusiasm1 indicate the urgent need of 
supervision rather than supervision     
successfully achieved4 ,we cannot look  
to them to supplement in any large      
degree the defects in the scheme of     
,state guardianship1 or the more grave  
defects which will appear when the      
conditions of home and workshop have    
been passed in review4   ,,iii4  ,,the  

,,contribution ,,of ,,the ,,home4  ,what
 contribution does the home make to the 
solution of the apprenticeship question8
 ,we cannot1 indeed1 expect to find     
within the walls of the home provision  
made for the general education of the   
boy1 or the specialized training of the 
youth2 but it is not unnatural to look  
to the parent to exercise supervision   
over his children till manhood is       
reached1 and likewise to offer to the   
boy leaving school advice and material  
assistance in the selection of a trade4 
,we are still inclined to regard the    
family as the one relic of the          
patriarchal system that has retained a  
vigorous vitality through all the ages2 
we are still apt to see in the home a   
small world1 edged off from the large   
world outside1 self-centred1 self-ruled1
 and enjoying all the advantages of a   
benevolent despotism4  ,to what extent  
is this general assumption justified by 
the results of actual experience8 ,the  
question is of profound importance1 and 

has not received the attention it       
deserves from those who have written on 
boy labour4 ,if we can take it for      
granted that in the normal home we have 
the means of controlling the boy and the
 growing lad up till the age of         
eighteen1 we have a solid foundation on 
which to rest the new apprenticeship4   
,abnormal homes may need attention2 but 
if the problem of supervision is solved 
for the majority1 if there is an        
authority to which the boy submits      
himself as a matter of course1 to add   
training and to organize openings are   
tasks which should present no serious   
difficulty4  ,can we look to the home to
 provide this fundamental basis of a    
true apprenticeship system8 ,to answer  
this question we must study the homes   
themselves4 ,a few years ago ,i devoted 
a large amount of time to the collection
 of material touching the character of  
family life in towns4 ,the results were 
published in an essay entitled ,the ,boy
 and the ,family4 #id ,i may perhaps be 

allowed to summarize the conclusions    
there established4  ,home varies from   
home2 each may be said to have its own  
individuality1 but each has much in     
common4 ,to give definiteness to the    
problem1 ,i endeavoured to class the    
homes under three types4 ,in the main1  
type number one referred to the         
inhabitants of one and two room         
tenements2 type number two embraced the 
families possessing three rooms2 while  
the third type included those persons   
fortunate enough to rent more than three
 rooms4 ,the size of the home proved a  
rough1 though the best attainable1      
method of classifying the               
characteristics of the inmates4         
,supervision has been interpreted to    
mean two things--supervision of health  
and supervision of conduct4  ,so far as 
the supervision of health is concerned1 
it is probable that very few of the     
parents belonging to the three types    
possess the necessary knowledge to carry
 out this duty4 ,among all classes of   

the community ignorance on matters      
affecting the hygiene of the home is    
almost universal4 ,but even if knowledge
 were present1 the resources at the     
disposal of large numbers would prove   
inadequate to make that knowledge       
effective4 ,with type number one        
overcrowding is the rule2 with type     
number two it is common2 and only in the
 third type do we reach conditions of   
housing favourable to health4  ,the     
experience derived from medical         
inspection of school-children and the   
administration of the ,provision of     
,meals ,act has revealed the deplorable 
condition of large numbers of children  
when left to the unaided care of their  
parents4 ,the returns of necessitous    
children fed1 which are published weekly
 in the minutes of the ,london ,county  
,council1 showed that during the winter 
of #aiji-aj at the time of most acute   
distress1 about #i per cent4 of the     
children in the schools were receiving  
meals4 ,a careful inquiry1 the most     

elaborate of its kind1 made into the    
home circumstances of the necessitous   
children in certain schools showed that 
the number of children actually fed was 
probably below1 and certainly not above1
 the number who required meals4 ,the    
same inquiry1 with its lurid pictures of
 squalor and distress1 proved how small 
was the prospect of health for many of  
those children1 even though they were   
fed at school4 ,it may be regarded as a 
conclusive demonstration of the call for
 more searching regulation on the part  
of the ,state4#ie ,it is probable1      
however1 that the need for food is far  
larger than that represented by the     
number of children actually fed4        
,several inquiries1 such as those       
carried out by ,mr4 ,charles ,booth in  
,london1 and ,mr4 ,rowntree in ,york1   
indicate that the effective income of   
nearly a third of the population is too 
small to supply in adequate quantity    
even the bare necessities of existence4 
,medical inspection is now revealing the

 number of children suffering from      
definite ailments1 and urgently         
requiring medical treatment1 which they 
have hitherto been unable1 in a large   
proportion of cases1 to obtain4 ,it     
would appear that some #aj per cent4    
suffer from defective vision1 about #a  
per cent4 from discharging ears1 about  
the same number from ringworm1 while at 
least a third are suffering in health   
from the result of decaying teeth4#if   
,everywhere we have abundant evidence to
 show that1 from want of supervision1 or
 of the effective means of supervision  
in the home1 large numbers of children  
are growing up ill-clad1 ill-nourished1 
and suffering from definite diseases1   
all alike leading to inefficient        
manhood4  ,the second department of     
supervision is concerned with the       
supervision of character4 ,can we rest  
satisfied that the parents exercise over
 the growing lads that salutary control 
all growing lads require8 ,the question 
is of profound importance1 if1 as all   

agree1 character is the condition of    
success when the first steps are taken  
in the industrial world4 ,it is         
necessary to distinguish between the boy
 attending school and the boy exempt    
from compulsory attendance4 ,in what    
follows ,i shall draw largely on my     
essay in ,studies of ,boy ,life4 ,the   
conclusions are derived from the        
experience of many years' residence in a
 poor part of ,london1 and have been    
tested by a careful inquiry among       
ministers of religion1 school-teachers1 
rent-collectors1 and others with special
 knowledge of the subject4  ,sec4 #a4   
,,the ,,boy ,,of ,,school ,,age4  ,if   
the parents are to control the boys1 the
 boys must come much under the personal 
influence of the parents2 in other      
words1 rulers and ruled must meet       
frequently4 ,now1 in all three types of 
family the father exercises little      
direct control over the children4 ,if of
 good character1 he is either out at    
work or out looking for work during five

 days of the week1 and sees the children
 only in the evening4 ,on ,saturday     
afternoons and on ,sundays he is at     
home2 but a week-end visitor cannot be  
the dominant factor in domestic affairs4
 ,if control is exercised1 it must be   
exercised by the mother4 ,to trace her  
influence1 it is necessary to picture   
the kind of life led by each type4 ,i   
quote from my essay3  ,so far as the    
first type is considered1 it is not easy
 to say when the children and parents   
meet4444 ,the general order of events is
 something as follows3 ,if it is one of 
the days on which he elects to work1 the
 father rises about five o'clock1 finds 
his own breakfast1 and then quits the   
house4 ,some two or three hours later   
the school-children get out of bed1 wash
 their faces1 take a slice of bread and 
dripping1 and go out4 ,sometimes the    
mother rises at that time and gets the  
breakfast1 but in most cases remains in 
bed4 ,at nine the boys go to school4 ,at
 noon school is over1 and the boys1     

after amusing themselves in the         
playground or street for an hour1 go    
home to get some food4 ,the mother      
meanwhile has risen1 dressed the smaller
 children1 performed the irreducible    
minimum of domestic work1 and then left 
the house to gossip with a neighbour1 or
 earn a few pence by charing4 ,on rare  
occasions she may cook the children some
 dinner1 but as a rule they get what    
food they can find1 and eat it in the   
streets4 ,sometimes they receive a      
halfpenny to buy their own meal at a    
fried-fish shop4 ,the boys then return  
to school1 escape at half-past four1    
possibly go home to tea1 and then once  
more turn for amusement to the streets4 
,there they remain until it is dark1 and
 often in summer till dawn begins to    
break1 when at length they seek their   
dwelling and go to bed4 ,in many cases  
the boys do not find their way back to  
their own houses1 but take up their     
quarters for the night in the house of  
some friend4 ,sometimes they do not     

sleep in a house at all4 ,in one case of
 which ,i have heard three boys spent a 
fortnight in a wash-house on the top of 
some blocks4 ,there they lived an       
independent existence1 getting their    
food and attending school regularly all 
the while4 ,later on1 being discovered  
by a policeman1 they were sent to their 
respective families4444 ,week follows   
week with little variation to mark the  
march of time4 ,as brief a fragment of  
the boy's life as is possible is spent  
within the common dwelling1 which offers
 him no occupation1 and is entirely     
devoid of interest or attraction4 ,the  
mother does not demand his presence     
indoors1 while he himself has no wish to
 be there4 ,the street1 and not the     
house1 ought probably to be regarded as 
the home or meeting-place of the family4
 #ig  ,supervision under circumstances  
of this kind must be an almost          
negligible factor in the life of the    
home4 ,let us now come to the second    
type4 ,i quote again3  ,in the second   

type1 as already mentioned1 the family  
usually occupies three rooms4 ,at first 
sight the conditions found in the former
 type seem to prevail here also4        
,indeed1 as a matter of fact1 the boys  
spend hardly more time at home than     
those just considered4 ,out of school   
hours they are either in the street or  
employed in some form of paid work4444  
,school1 street1 meals1 and bed         
alternate with one another here in much 
the same way as they did in the first   
type4 ,but while the facts remain for   
the most part unchanged1 their setting  
and colouring are very different4       
,another atmosphere seems to pervade the
 whole life2 some sense of order and    
regularity begins to manifest itself2   
meals are at fixed hours2 and the boys  
are expected home and sent to bed at    
more or less definite times4 ,they      
return to their own tenements1 and do   
not spend the night with some of their  
neighbours4 ,as will appear later1 home 
interests begin to develop2 and if the  

boys spend their leisure in the streets1
 this is due more to their own choice   
than to the wish of their parents4444   
,the mother does not display the utter  
indifference to the state of the        
dwelling or the habits of the children  
conspicuous in the first type4 ,some    
sort of ideal of home she seems to      
possess1 but to obtain this ideal is    
beyond her power4 ,she has the look of  
one who feels that things are wrong1 and
 yet can see no remedy4 ,she notes1 for 
example1 the evil influence the street  
exerts on the characters of her boys1   
but does not know how to preserve them  
from its overwhelming attractions4 #ih  
,the chief difference1 then1 between the
 first and second type lies not so much 
in a different kind of life as in a     
certain change of atmosphere that       
pervades and transforms the common      
existence4 ,in the third type this      
change of atmosphere becomes more       
conspicuous4 ,a great part of the boy's 
time is1 indeed1 still spent outside the

 dwelling-place1 but the life at home   
begins to assume larger proportions4    
,there is more order and quiet in the   
house--a condition which reacts         
favourably on the boys4 ,they are no    
longer seen hanging about the streets1  
loafing at the corners1 or shouting     
noisily in the gutters4 ,though much out
 of doors1 they go farther afield1 and  
visit parks or museums2 while1 if they  
stay near home1 they will usually be    
discovered in the school playground4 ,in
 the evening many of them are indoors1  
and have various occupations1 of which1 
perhaps1 reading is the chief4 #ii  ,in 
type number one1 then1 there is1 for all
 practical purposes1 a complete absence 
of supervision4 ,in the second type     
there is a desire for supervision1 but  
the narrowness of the house             
accommodation thrusts the boys into the 
streets4 ,in the third type alone are   
the conditions favourable to            
supervision4  ,sec4 #b4 ,,the ,,boy     
,,after ,,school ,,days4  ,if the boy   

while at school is under little parental
 control1 it is not to be expected that 
this control will be tightened when     
school days are over4 ,with the first   
type of family there was no supervision 
before1 and there is no more afterwards4
 ,the boy is self-supporting1 and       
troubles little about the home1 and the 
home troubles little about him4 ,there  
is a partial exception in the case of   
the coster4 ,here the boy may become one
 of the regular working members of the  
establishment1 and remains with his     
father2 but the discipline is of a rude 
and ready sort4  ,with the second type  
of family the boy's earnings are of     
great importance to the family1 and the 
mother does her best to keep him at     
home4 ,any exercise of discipline is    
avoided1 lest the lad should take his   
earnings and go elsewhere4 ,he is rather
 in the position of a favoured lodger1  
whose presence is valuable to the home1 
and who must be treated well for fear he
 should give notice4  ,in the third type

 of family1 the boy1 with growing years1
 passes out of the control of the       
mother1 and is resentful of any         
restraint exerted by a woman4 ,what     
supervision he enjoys comes from the    
father4 ,the two do not meet often2     
father and son are seldom employed      
together1 and the long distance that    
frequently separates home and work      
places the boy beyond the reach of      
parental control during the greater     
portion of the week4  ,such in broad    
outline1 rendered jagged1 no doubt1 by  
numerous exceptions1 is the quantity and
 the quality of the supervision         
exercised by the town parent over the   
town boy4 ,even with the highest type no
 high standard is reached1 while with   
the lower we cannot contemplate the     
picture with any degree of satisfaction4
 ,speaking generally1 the city-bred     
youth is growing up in a state of       
unrestrained liberty2 and what makes the
 problem more serious is the fact that  
all evidence goes to show that this     

disquieting phenomenon is not an        
accident1 but the direct product of the 
social and industrial conditions of the 
times4 ,towns are growing larger1 and   
with the growth of towns the whole      
conditions of family life are being     
transformed4 ,the old patriarchal system
 is gone2 the father is no longer an    
autocratic ruler in his small world4    
,the family1 so to say1 has become      
democratized2 we have in it an          
association of equals in authority4     
,now1 the most ardent advocates of the  
extension of the suffrage have always   
limited their demands to an appeal for  
adult suffrage2 they have never         
clamoured for children to be given a    
vote4 ,yet this1 for all effective      
purposes1 is what happens in the home in
 the case of the boy as soon as he has  
left school4 ,the status of wage-earner 
has brought with it the status of       
manhood1 and his earnings have conferred
 on him immunity from control and the   
right to be consulted in the politics of

 the home4 ,another fact1 not           
sufficiently recognized1 tends to break 
down the patriarchal system4 ,with the  
steady improvement in the ,state        
schools1 the boy is usually better      
educated than the father2 the father    
knows this1 and the boy knows it too4   
,it is idle1 therefore1 to look for any 
large amount of parental control over   
the boy who has left school4 ,we must   
face realities1 however unpleasant these
 realities may happen to be2 and one of 
the realities of the time is the        
independence of the lad4 ,what is       
equally significant is the suddenness   
with which this independence comes4     
,until the age of fourteen he has       
remained under a carefully designed     
system of ,state supervision1 exerted by
 the school authorities2 while in a     
large number of cases the discipline of 
the home has been an important factor in
 his existence4 ,at the age of fourteen1
 as a general rule1 the control of      
school and home end together4 ,the lad  

goes to bed a boy2 he wakes as a man4   
,there should therefore be little cause 
for surprise if the habits of the school
 and home are rapidly sloughed off in   
the new life of irresponsible freedom4  
,whether1 therefore1 we look to the     
,state1 to philanthropic enterprise1 or 
to the home1 we find no satisfactory    
guarantee for the supervision of the    
youth of the country4 ,we have yet to   
search for this supervision in the      
workshop2 but if it is absent there1 we 
shall be faced with the disquieting     
phenomenon of the boy at the age of     
fourteen enjoying the full and complete 
independence of the adult4   ,,iv4      
,,the ,,contribution ,,of ,,the         
,,workshop4  ,having examined three out 
of the four factors which contribute to 
the apprenticeship of to-day1 and found 
them all inadequate1 we must now turn to
 the workshop in the hope that we shall 
discover there conditions more          
favourable to the well-being of the     
youth of the country4 ,if1 however1 this

 last factor prove defective1 the       
apprenticeship of to-day will stand     
condemned1 and the case for drastic     
reform will become unanswerable4 ,it    
will therefore be desirable to devote   
considerable space to this1 the central 
feature of the problem of boy labour4   
,in what follows it is proposed first to
 make a detailed study of conditions in 
,london1 and then to present a general  
picture of the state of boy labour in   
other parts of the country4 ,london has 
been selected for a detailed study      
because in a peculiar degree it         
represents the extreme type of          
urbanization4 ,there is also the        
advantage that in the case of ,london   
the material required for the           
examination has to a large extent been  
collected4 ,the investigations of ,mr4  
,charles ,booth1 the publications and   
inquiries on the subject carried out by 
the ,london ,county ,council1 ,mr4      
,cyril ,jackson's report on boy labour  
presented to the ,poor ,law ,commission1

 and numerous other writings1 have      
provided for the study of ,london a mass
 of information which1 though not in all
 respects exhaustive1 is more complete  
than can be found elsewhere4  ,sec4 #a4 
,,london4  ,a study of the problem of   
boy labour in ,london involves the study
 of three questions4 ,first we have to  
consider the case of the children who1  
while still attending school1 are       
employed for wages4 ,next we must devote
 special attention to the boys as they  
leave school and distribute themselves  
among the different occupations4        
,finally1 we must watch the later career
 of those lads1 and in particular       
endeavour to ascertain in what way and  
with what results is made the difficult 
passage from the status of the youth to 
the status of the man4  7a7 ,the        
,employment of ,school-,children4  ,in  
,london the half-time system is not     
permitted4 ,the standard of attainment  
for total exemption has been made       
sufficiently high to prevent the great  

majority of boys from leaving school    
till the age of fourteen is reached4 ,it
 is1 however1 a fact that improved      
methods of instruction and more rapid   
promotion from class to class are       
tending to lower the age at which it is 
possible to obtain a ,labour            
,certificate4 ,how far this opportunity 
is used it is not easy to say2 but in   
certain schools1 situated in the poorer 
districts1 it is alleged that there is a
 growing tendency for the brighter      
children to claim exemption in this way4
 ,the regularity of attendance is       
admirable1 the average attendance in    
boys' schools exceeding #ij per cent4   
,we may therefore assume that1 if the   
boys work for wages1 they must work at  
times when the schools are not opened4  
,to what extent are boys employed while 
still liable to attend school8 ,in #ahii
 a return was obtained throughout the   
elementary schools of ,england and      
,wales of the number of children so     
employed4 ,in ,london1 in the case of   

boys1 the figures were #ba1gee4ajj ,the 
tables also give the ages of the        
children1 but boys and girls are not    
separated4 ,if1 however1 we assume that 
the number of children of each sex at   
each age is proportionate to the total  
number of children of each sex at all   
ages1 we find that #gh per cent4 of the 
boys were eleven and upwards1 and #bb   
per cent4 under eleven4 ,the number of  
boys of eleven and upwards would be     
about #ag1jjj4 ,there are in the        
elementary schools about #gj1jjj boys   
eleven years of age and upwards1 so that
 about #bd per cent4 of these boys are  
employed4 ,in other words1 nearly a     
quarter of the boys in the elementary   
schools above the age of eleven were    
employed at the time of the return4 ,the
 actual number of boys who are employed 
during the course of their school career
 would be considerably larger1 as they  
would not all be employed at the same   
moment4 ,the return is more than ten    
years old1 but1 with the exception of   

the children under eleven1 it is        
improbable that there has been much     
change4 ,similar figures may be deduced 
from the ,report of the                 
,interdepartmental ,committee on the    
,employment of ,school-,children1       
#aija4aja  ,with regard to the number of
 hours worked1 ,miss ,adler's evidence  
is selected1 and typical schools show   
that #ef per cent4 were employed for    
more than twenty hours a week1 while #ad
 per cent4 were employed thirty-five    
hours or upwards4#ajb ,in individual    
cases the figures were much higher4     
,thus a boy of eleven years of age1 for 
four shillings a week1 was employed for 
forty-three and three-quarter hours in  
carrying parcels from a chemist's shop1 
and1 except on ,sundays1 was practically
 every moment of his life at school or  
at work from seven in the morning till  
nine o'clock at night4 ,another boy1    
aged thirteen1 worked fifty-two hours a 
week1 being employed by a moulding      
company1 and attending a theatre for    

five evenings a week and for half a day 
on ,wednesday for a matinee--for the    
last1 however1 playing truant from      
school4 #ajc ,the following graphic     
account taken from a school composition1
 and obtained under circumstances which 
guarantee its essential accuracy1 shows 
the amount of work which may be         
compressed into a single day4 ,it refers
 to ,saturday3  ,i first got up from bed
 about half-past six1 and put my clothes
 on and had a wash4 ,then ,i went to    
work at ,b4's1 and swept out his shop1  
and then ,i did the window out4 ,but    
after ,i done the window ,i had my      
breakfast and went in the shop again4 ,i
 started taking out orders that came in4
 ,while ,i was taking the orders out1   
,mr4 ,b4 went to the ,borough market for
 some potatoes1 cabbages1 and some      
onions2 but when he came home ,i had to 
unload his van4 ,after ,i unloaded his  
van1 he went for some coal1 which he    
sells at one and sixpence a             
hundredweight1 but he got two tons of   

coal in4 ,then we had dinner about one  
o'clock4 ,when we had our dinner1 ,i had
 a rest till about four o'clock1 when ,i
 had tea4 ,when ,i had my tea ,i had to 
go and chop some wood1 when it was time 
to shut up the shop4 ,i had my supper   
and went home1 and went to bed1 and the 
time was about twelve o'clock4 #ajd ,it 
will be seen that1 with the exception of
 a break in the middle of the day1 the  
boy was on duty for nearly              
three-quarters of the twenty-four hours1
 and for part of the time was engaged in
 heavy manual labour4  ,what effect does
 employment have on the physical        
condition of children under the age of  
fourteen8 ,that excessive employment is 
injurious alike to the education and to 
the health of the children is hardly in 
question4 ,it was testified to by       
witness after witness1 many of them in  
no way likely to be influenced by merely
 theoretical objections to child labour4
 #aje ,on the other hand1 most of the   
witnesses that appeared before the      

,interdepartmental ,committee were of   
opinion that moderate work was in many  
cases not only not injurious1 but       
positively beneficial4 #ajf ,it is not  
easy to understand what is meant by the 
last statement4 ,if some form of        
employment is beneficial1 then the #gf  
per cent4 who are not so employed       
suffer1 and steps should be taken to    
encourage them to work4 ,it is doubtful 
whether the witnesses would have        
accepted this conclusion1 from which1 on
 their own assumptions1 there is really 
no escape4 ,the difficulty lay in       
drawing the line4 ,most of the witnesses
 seemed to suggest that twenty hours    
might be fixed as the maximum weekly    
limit2 but1 on the other hand1 we found 
some cases where less than twenty hours 
a week1 if concentrated in one or two   
days1 or if done at night1 must be      
injurious4 #ajg  ,but the evidence of   
most value on the subject is to be found
 in a ,report of the ,medical ,officer  
of the ,london ,county ,council4#ajh    

,about #djj boys employed outside school
 hours were examined4 ,the following    
table1 with defects in percentages1 was 
obtained as the result3#aji             
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,actual ,fatigue       ,severe          
,severe   ,hours worked       ,number   
,signs4 ,anaemia4,nerve                 
,deformities4,heart      ,weekly4       
of ,boys4              ,signs4          
,signs4                                 
----------------------------------------
------------------------   ,all         
schoolboys of                           
district workers                        
and non-workers   #c1gjj   --     #be   
#bd        #h        #h     ,working #bj
 hours                                  
or less             #afc   #ej     #cd  
#bh       #ae       #aa     ,working #bj
 to #cj                                 
hours                #hf   #ha     #dg  
#dd       #ba       #ae     ,working    
over #cj                                

hours                #ie   #hc     #de  
#ej       #bb       #ba                 
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  ,it will
 be seen that the defects rise rapidly  
with increase in the hours of work2     
while1 even in the case of those working
 less than twenty hours1 there is a     
serious deviation from the average4 ,the
 fact that #ej per cent4 of those       
working less than twenty hours should   
exhibit signs of fatigue1 even where no 
permanent physical evil results1 must   
seriously affect the value of the school
 instruction4 ,in every case the workers
 compare unfavourably with the average  
for the whole of the workers and        
non-workers4 ,we cannot view with       
satisfaction the truth that1 even in    
those employed with moderation1         
deformities and severe heart signs      
should be nearly #ej per cent4 above the
 average4 ,the medical officer adds     
other conclusions no less disquieting4  
,working eight hours on ,saturday is as 

inimical as thirty hours during the     
week1 and working through the           
dinner-hour appears particularly        
productive of anaemia1 #aaj ,retardation
 in school work was noted in #bji out of
 these #ccj boys1 #hf being one         
standard1 #hc two standards1 #cg three  
standards1 and #c four standards behind 
that corresponding to their age4 #aaa   
,as his final conclusion the medical    
officer states3 ,we must set up as an   
ideal the suppression of child labour   
below twelve years of age1 and during   
school life regulate it to twenty hours 
weekly1 and a maximum of five hours on  
any one day4 #aab ,the figures1 however1
 would seem to go far in justifying the 
more drastic remedy of complete         
prohibition4  ,it is1 however1 fair to  
mention that the ,report of the         
,interdepartmental ,committee1 and also 
the ,report of the ,medical ,officer1   
refer to a state of affairs prior to the
 passing of the ,employment of ,children
 ,act4 ,under this ,act1 as explained in

 the last chapter1#aac employment of    
children under the age of eleven is     
forbidden1 while the by-laws of the     
,council place restrictions on the      
number of hours children may work1 and  
the times of day during which such work 
may be carried on4 ,it is too soon to   
judge of the extent to which these      
restrictions can be enforced4 ,during   
the first year of effective operation in
 ,london there were1 in respect of boys 
under the age of sixteen1 #ac1dfa cases 
of infringement4 ,prohibition under a   
certain age or during certain times of  
the day is comparatively easy to        
enforce2 but limitation of hours1 as    
experience of the ,shop ,act shows1 is  
extremely difficult to enforce1 and     
peculiarly difficult where1 as with     
school-children1 persons are not        
employed regularly1 but work irregularly
 at times when the schools are not open4
 ,to get evidence sufficient to justify 
convictions is almost impossible1 except
 in a few outrageous cases4  ,what1 if  

any1 effect does the employment of      
school-children have on the general     
question of the preparation for a trade8
 ,into this general question the        
,interdepartmental ,committee did not   
enter4 ,they did indeed regard certain  
forms of occupation as injurious1 while 
they pronounced as beneficial employment
 in moderation4 ,but this statement has 
apparently reference only to matters of 
health1 and not to the relation of      
employment during school days to        
employment afterwards4 ,the question is 
of great importance1 as habits1 in      
respect of work for wages1 formed by the
 boy cling persistently to the youth4   
,it is necessary1 therefore1 to pay some
 attention to the characteristics of the
 work which schoolboys undertake4 ,in   
,london #ij per cent4 of the work would 
be included in the three following      
classes3 7#a7 ,shops--errand-running and
 delivery of parcels1 milk1 newspapers1 
and watching the goods spread on the    
counters outside the shops2 7#b7        

domestic--knife and boot cleaning1 and  
occasionally baby-minding2 and 7#c7     
street employment--hawking of           
newspapers1 matches1 and flowers1       
organ-grinding1 and the like4 ,now1 none
 of these forms of occupation provide   
any trade-training1 or offer an opening 
with satisfactory prospects1 to the boy 
as he leaves school4 ,on the other hand1
 this class of work has distinctly      
injurious effects4 ,first1 it is        
employment of a casual character4       
,affected as it is1 on the one hand1 by 
attendance at school1 and on the other  
by ,saturdays and holidays1 it is       
essentially irregular as regards hours4 
,secondly1 it is easy to obtain1 and    
consequently lightly undertaken and     
lightly dropped4 ,where another         
situation can be obtained at will1 there
 is no demand on the worker to display  
the qualities that make for permanence  
of employment4 ,thirdly1 it is work in  
which youths as well as boys are        
engaged2 in other words1 it does provide

 an opening to the boy as he leaves     
school--an opening which he is likely to
 accept1 because it is the most obvious1
 but at the same time an opening in one 
of those forms of occupation entrance   
into which we should1 as will appear    
later1 do our utmost to discourage4 ,it 
is singularly unfortunate that a boy's  
first association with any kind of paid 
employment should be of this nature4    
,and1 finally1 it is at least open to   
grave doubt whether that sense of       
independence of home which comes with   
the consciousness of earning wages      
should begin at as early an age as      
twelve or thirteen4  ,it would not be   
easy to imagine a more unsatisfactory   
form of preparation for a trade than    
that provided by the kind of work       
carried out by wage-earning children4   
,if we add to this demoralizing         
influence the injurious effect on health
 and education1 the case for total      
prohibition of boy labour during        
school-days becomes very strong4  7b7   

,the ,entry to a ,trade4  ,the great    
majority of boys remain at the          
elementary school till they attain the  
age of fourteen2 it is no less true that
 the vast majority cease attendance as  
soon as that age is reached4 ,the period
 of the next four years--that is1 from  
fourteen to eighteen--forms the most    
critical time of their career4 ,it is   
during these four years that the boy    
must1 if ever1 have taken the first     
steps towards learning a trade4 ,during 
this interval his physical strength must
 mature1 his character take on itself a 
more or less permanent set1 and the     
question whether his education shall    
represent something more than a faint   
shadow of early impressions be finally  
determined4 ,in short1 it is during     
these four years that the future citizen
 is made or marred4  ,the previous      
survey1 whether of the factors which    
contribute to the apprenticeship of     
to-day1 or of the evils which are found 
among wage-earning school-children1 does

 not guarantee a favourable start in the
 world of whole-time employment4 ,each  
year about #cj1jjj boys leave school at 
the age of fourteen to take up some form
 of work4 ,these figures do not agree   
with the ,census returns1 because the   
latter include all ,london boys in all  
classes of society1 whether at school or
 at work4 ,here we are concerned only   
with the boys of fourteen who leave the 
elementary school with the intention of 
earning their own living4 ,between the  
ages of fourteen and eighteen there will
 therefore be #abj1jjj boys4 ,it is the 
careers of these #abj1jjj boys that we  
must now try to follow4  ,what are the  
first occupations selected by these     
#abj1jjj boys8 ,during the last few     
years the ,london ,county ,council has  
endeavoured to find an answer to this   
question4 ,each head-master of an       
elementary school is required annually  
to fill up a form in respect of each boy
 who has left the school during the     
preceding twelve months4 ,the           

information asked for is occupation of  
parent1 occupation of boy1 whether      
skilled or unskilled1 or whether a place
 of higher education is attended4       
,returns have been received and         
summarized for the years #aijf-jg and   
#aijg-jh4 ,the first return was         
incomplete1 but the second included the 
vast majority of those who left4 ,below 
is given the summary for the two years3 
----------------------------------------
------------------                      
,skilled4 ,unskilled4  ,higher          
,education4                             
----------------------------------------
---------------    ,number              
#h1ffb      #ae1iaj   #a1ebd            
,percentage                #cc4b        
#fa4j     #e4h        ,percentage1      
#aijf-jg       #bh4e        #fg4i       
#c4f                                    
----------------------------------------
------------------  ,it will be seen    
that1 including those who went to some  
higher form of education1 little more   

than a third of the boys left school to 
enter a skilled trade4#aad  ,,table ,i4 
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,number4        ,percentage4            
,class of ,occupation4                  
------------------------------------    
,parent4   ,boy4   ,parent4   ,boy4     
----------------------------------------
--------------------------   ,trades and
 industries              #fae      #cdg 
#dj4hg    #ah4gd    ,domestic offices or
 services        #bc       #df     #a4eb
     #b4dh    ,transport 7including     
messengers1                             
errand-boys1 van-boys1 etc47     #aia   
#hbi    #ab4fi    #dd4gf                
,shopkeepers1 shop-assistants1          
and dealers                      #acg   
#acc     #i4aj     #g4ah    ,commercial 
occupations              #fa      #ada  
#d4je     #g4fa    ,general labour      
#dcf      #bae    #bh4ih    #aa4fa      
,professional occupations and           
their subordinate services        #aa   

#e     #j4gc     #j4bg    ,general or   
local government         #bf        #f  
#a4gc     #j4cb    ,defence of the      
country               #e        #a      
#j4cc     #j4jf    ,higher education    
--       #bg       --     #a4de         
,unemployed                          -- 
#ajb       --     #e4eb                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,total                  #a1eje    #a1heb
   #ajj4jj   #ajj4jj                    
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  ,it is  
unfortunate that no full analysis has   
been made of these returns4 ,the value  
of the information which would have thus
 been obtained was not supposed to      
justify the labour and expenditure      
involved in such an analysis4 ,i have1  
however1 roughly analyzed nearly #d1jjj 
cases1 and endeavoured to classify the  
occupations1 in accordance with the     
table founded on the ,census return     
which will be given later4#aae ,i       

selected for this purpose typical       
districts in ,london4 ,table ,i4        
includes returns from all the schools in
 the electoral areas of ,bermondsey1    
,north ,camberwell1 and ,walworth2 it   
represents a typical miscellaneous      
working-class district4 ,table ,,ii4    
includes the electoral areas of ,dulwich
 and ,lewisham2 it may be regarded as   
typical of suburban villadom so far as  
its inhabitants send their children to  
the elementary schools4 ,table ,,iii4   
includes the electoral areas of         
,whitechapel and ,st4                   
,george's-in-the-,east1 districts       
distinguished by the presence of a large
 number of small trades and sweated     
industries4 ,table ,,iv4 includes the   
collective results of the three         
preceding tables1 and may be taken as   
fairly typical of ,london as a whole4   
,it was necessary to exclude the returns
 of a few schools as incomplete1        
indefinite1 or obviously inaccurate4    
,parent stands for occupation of parent1

 boy for occupation of boy4 ,the two do 
not quite correspond1 as in a certain   
number of instances the occupation of   
the parent was unknown4 ,i have included
 the telegraph-boys under ,transport1 as
 for my purpose this classification was 
the more suitable4  ,,table ,,ii4       
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,number4        ,percentage4            
,class of ,occupation4                  
------------------------------------    
,parent4   ,boy4   ,parent4   ,boy4     
----------------------------------------
--------------------------   ,trades and
 industries               #cdg      #aea
    #ce4eg   #ad4hf    ,domestic offices
 or services         #ad       #bg      
#a4de    #b4fd    ,transport 7including 
messengers1                             
errand-boys1 van-boys1 etc47       #gj  
#cej     #g4bd   #cd4ca    ,shopkeepers1
 shop-assistants1                       
and dealers                       #ajj  
#abf    #aj4cd   #ab4ce    ,commercial  

occupations              #ahj      #aeg 
#ah4fa   #ae4ch    ,general labour      
#add       #ed    #ad4hi    #e4bi       
,professional occupations and           
their subordinate services         #dg  
#b     #d4hf    #j4ai    ,general or    
local government          #ff        #i 
#f4hc    #j4hh    ,defence of the       
country                #b        #e     
#j4ba    #j4dh    ,higher education     
--       #gf       --    #g4de          
,unemployed                           --
       #fc       --    #f4ag            
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,total                    #ifg    #a1jbj
   #ajj4jj  #ajj4jj                     
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  ,,table 
,,iii4                                  
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,number4         ,percentage4           
,class of ,occupation4                  
------------------------------------    

,parent4   ,boy4   ,parent4   ,boy4     
----------------------------------------
--------------------------   ,trades and
 industries              #cdi      #cje 
#ea4ji    #da4hd    ,domestic offices or
 services        #be       #ah     #c4ff
     #b4dg    ,transport 7including     
messengers1                             
errand-boys1 van-boys1 etc47      #gb   
#ahi    #aj4ed    #be4ic                
,shopkeepers1 shop-assistants1          
and dealers                       #ia   
#dh    #ac4cc     #f4eh    ,commercial  
occupations              #aa       #ci  
#a4fa     #e4ce    ,general labour      
#aaf       #fc    #af4ii     #h4fd      
,professional occupations               
and their subordinate services    #aj   
#c     #a4df     #j4da    ,general or   
local government          #h       --   
#a4ag       --    ,defence of the       
country               #a       --       
#j4ae       --    ,higher education     
--        #g       --     #j4if         
,unemployed                          -- 

#eg       --     #g4hb                  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,total                      #fhc        
#gbi   #ajj4jj   #ajj4jj                
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  ,,table 
,,iv4                                   
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,number4        ,percentage4            
,class of ,occupation4                  
------------------------------------    
,parent4   ,boy4   ,parent4   ,boy4     
----------------------------------------
--------------------------   ,trades and
 industries             #a1cjh     #hjc 
#da4df    #bb4ca    ,domestic offices or
 services         #fb      #ia     #a4ig
     #b4ec    ,transport 7including     
messengers1                             
errand-boys1 van-boys1 etc47      #ccc  
#a1cfh    #aj4ee    #ch4jj              
,shopkeepers1 shop-assistants1          
and dealers                       #cbh  

#cjg    #aj4ci     #h4eb    ,commercial 
occupations              #beb     #ccg  
#g4ih     #i4cf    ,general labour      
#fif     #ccb    #bb4jf     #i4bb       
,professional occupations and           
their subordinate services         #fh  
#aj     #b4af     #j4bh    ,general or  
local government         #ajj      #ae  
#c4ag     #j4da    ,defence of the      
country                #h       #f      
#j4bf     #j4af    ,higher education    
--     #aaj       --     #c4je          
,unemployed                           --
     #bbb       --     #f4af            
----------------------------------------
--------------------------   ,total     
#c1aee   #c1fja   #ajj4jj   #ajj4jj     
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  ,in the 
interpretation of these tables certain  
facts must be borne in mind4 ,none of   
the parents are returned as unemployed2 
this is because the trade of the parent 
was asked for1 and no account was taken 
as to whether he was or was not         

employed4 ,secondly1 the occupations are
 somewhat vaguely described2 this in    
particular is true of the term labourer4
 ,more exact information would no doubt 
have removed the parent from the class  
general labour1 and placed him in the   
class transport1 and occasionally in the
 classes domestic servant or            
shop-assistant4 ,thirdly1 the           
messenger-boys are included partly under
 transport and partly under             
shop-assistants1 the boy being termed   
sometimes an errand-boy and sometimes a 
shop-boy4 ,the term office-boy1 which   
appears frequently in the returns1 is   
vague4 ,i have classed the office-boy as
 an errand-boy unless the school return 
places him in the column skilled        
employment1 when ,i have included him   
under the heading commercial occupation4
  ,making allowance for a certain       
inevitable inaccuracy which belongs to  
returns of this kind1 we have a general 
picture1 accurate in all essentials1 of 
the distribution of boys among the      

various forms of occupation immediately 
after leaving the elementary school4    
,the columns which refer to the trade of
 the parents1 and indicate therefore the
 distribution of the parents among the  
various forms of occupation1 are of     
considerable value4 ,if we take ,table  
,,iv41 which may be regarded as typical 
of ,london as a whole1 and compare the  
last two columns1 we shall at once      
notice the striking difference that     
marks the distribution of boys and of   
adults among the several kinds of       
employment4 ,in trades and industries1  
#da per cent4 of parents are engaged1   
and only #bb per cent4 of boys2 #ch per 
cent4 of the boys are engaged in        
transport1 and only #aj per cent4 of    
parents4 ,this fact carries with it a   
conclusion of great importance--son and 
father can seldom work together4 ,if1   
for example1 #aj per cent4 of the       
parents are included under transport1   
and #ch per cent4 of the boys1 it is    
clear that little more than a quarter of

 such boys can be employed in company   
with their parents4 ,the actual facts1  
as revealed by an examination of the    
individual returns1 are much stronger1  
and demonstrate the extreme rareness of 
father and son following the same       
occupation4 ,in the case of trades and  
industries the trade of father and son  
is not infrequently the same2 this is in
 particular true of tailoring trades of 
the ,east ,end1 included in ,table      
,,iii41 where the proportion of adults  
to boys are as fifty-one to forty-two4  
,in suburban villadom1 pictured in      
,table ,,iii41 the clerk is often father
 to the clerk1 while the son of a       
shopkeeper occasionally assists his     
parents in the shop4 ,the coster habit  
likewise runs in families4 ,but with    
these exceptions father and son do not  
work together4 ,in consequence1 in his  
first situation the boy is cut adrift   
from the home and its control1 such as  
it is4 ,he has not his father by his    
side to note and guide his conduct2 and 

if he enters a skilled trade1 he lacks  
the personal interest of the parent to  
guarantee his satisfactory training4 ,we
 have already seen that the school      
supervision is at an end2 in            
consequence1 the only disciplinary      
influence left is the influence of the  
employer4 ,the character of the         
employment and the nature of the        
supervision of the master become1       
therefore1 of supreme importance to the 
well-being of the boy4 ,it is           
consequently necessary to examine in    
some detail the distinguishing features 
of the various kinds of occupation4     
,they are usually roughly classed as    
skilled or unskilled1 according as they 
do or do not lead to a form of          
employment which requires specialized   
skill or specialized intelligence4      
,,the ,,unskilled                       
,,trades4--,practically the whole of the
 unskilled trades are included under the
 terms domestic service1 transport1     
shop1 and general labour1 and the great 

majority of the boys who select these   
occupations may be said to select an    
unskilled trade4 ,in ,table ,i41 a      
typical working-class district1 it will 
be seen that #ff per cent4 of the boys  
who leave the elementary schools come   
within this class4 ,in ,table ,,ii41 a  
suburban area1 the figures are #ee per  
cent42 but a considerable proportion of 
those included under shops appear to be 
employed in the shops of their parents1 
and to be learning the business4 ,in    
,table ,,iii41 representing the small   
,east ,end trades1 the figures are #dd  
per cent42 but1 judged by wages and     
conditions of employment1 the majority  
of the #db per cent4 included under     
trades should be transferred to the     
class of unskilled work4 ,for all the   
districts1 as a whole typical of        
,london1 ,table ,,iv4 shows the figures 
to be #eh4bg per cent4 ,the figures     
quoted above ignore the boys returned as
 unemployed and unknown1 the number of  
these for all ,london being #f per cent4

 ,they are boys waiting for something to
 turn up2 what will turn up it is       
impossible to predict4 ,but it is safe  
to say that a considerable portion will 
drift into unskilled work4  ,the        
unskilled trades fall into three        
classes4 ,the first and smallest is     
included under domestic service4 ,under 
this head are found boys in barbers'    
shops1 page-boys1 club-boys1 boot and   
knife boys4 ,employment in a barber's   
shop is notoriously unhealthy2#aaf a    
barber's shop is also supposed to be not
 infrequently the resort of the betting 
fraternity4 ,the fortunes of the page   
and club boy await the zeal of an       
investigator2 the knife and boot boy    
soon passes to some other occupation4   
,of the three classes1 domestic service 
is the least important and the soonest  
left by the boy4  ,the second class1    
included under transport and            
shopkeepers1 is far the largest and the 
most important4 ,in all ,london some #dg
 per cent4 of the boys are found here2  

or1 if we add a half of the #f per cent4
 returned as unemployed1 we may say that
 half the boys who leave the elementary 
schools belong to this class4 ,it is    
necessary to take transport and         
shopkeepers together1 because it is     
impossible to tell whether a shop-boy is
 merely an errand-boy1 or a boy on the  
road to become a properly trained       
shop-assistant4 ,it is probable1        
however1 that only a small number could 
be regarded as future shop-assistants4  
,ignoring these exceptions1 we have to  
follow the fortunes of #ej per cent4 of 
the boys leaving school--in other words1
 of #ae1jjj persons4 ,their forms of    
employment have much in common4 ,in the 
first place1 they are what is known as  
blind-alley occupations--they lead      
nowhere4 ,boys only are engaged1 and    
when the boys become men they are cast  
adrift4 ,sometimes they are absorbed in 
the adult service1 but more usually1 if 
they have not already left1 are given   
notice1 and must at the age of eighteen 

seek out some new way of earning a      
living4 ,the report of ,mr4 ,cyril      
,jackson makes this fact abundantly     
clear4#aag ,the industrial biographies  
received1 he says1 show clearly that    
there is generally a time of transition 
when boys have to seek new occupations1 
for which they have little aptitude4    
#aah ,or again3 ,there appears to be no 
doubt that the restlessness of many of  
the boys doing more or less unskilled   
work obscures from some employers the   
fact that they are using a greater      
number of boys than can ever be employed
 in connection with their trade as men4 
,the employers who have filled up forms 
often state that they 'never discharge a
 boy who is willing to stay1' or 'that  
boys are only discharged for            
misconduct1' when it is evident from the
 figures appearing in the same form that
 there must be a considerable proportion
 of the boys passing out of the trade   
each year4444 ,that many employers1 on  
the other hand1 do in fact discharge a  

considerable proportion of their boys   
because they have no room for them as   
men--or1 to express the same thing in   
the form in which it presents itself to 
the masters1 because they cannot afford 
to offer men's wages--is shown in the   
short accounts of the trades in the     
,appendix4 #aai ,it is needless to      
labour the point further1 as everyone   
familiar with the conditions of boy work
 give evidence to the same effect4  ,the
 second characteristic of these trades  
is that they are mainly concerned with  
fetching or carrying                    
something--messages1 letters1 parcels4  
,it is characteristic of that stage of  
civilization at which we have arrived   
that we want to save ourselves trouble1 
or to save ourselves time4 ,boys are the
 instruments we use4 ,here we are1 all  
of us1 says a modern writer1 demanding  
an endless number of tiny jobs to be    
done on our behalf4 ,every year         
multiplies these demands1 increasing the
 pace at which the jobs can be done1 and

 the number of them that can be crowded 
into the time4 ,we learn to expect more 
and more conveniences at our elbow by   
which communication can be made1        
business transacted1 messages           
despatched1 parcels transferred1 news   
brought up to date1 transit hastened1   
things of all kinds put under our hand4 
,we touch buttons1 press knobs1 ring    
bells1 whisper down telephones1 keep    
wires throbbing with our desires1 bustle
 and hustle the world along4 ,and all   
this in the end means boys4 ,boys are   
what we set moving4 ,boys are the       
material in which we deal4 ,boys are our
 tools4 ,every wire has a boy at the end
 of it4 #abj  ,this tendency to demand  
the services of boys has spread through 
all classes of society4 ,to take a      
single example of quite recent growth3  
,it is becoming less and less common for
 the housewife to bring the results of  
her marketing home herself2 a boy       
delivers the goods instead4 ,go into any
 shop1 even in the poorest part of the  

town1 and make a few purchases2 the     
shopman will probably offer to send them
 home for you4 ,there is something      
flattering and pleasant in the offer2 it
 is one of the new products of          
competition to multiply conveniences    
instead of cutting prices4 ,the demand  
for boys is rapidly increasing2 and     
while the demand is increasing1 the     
supply of boys has diminished4 ,the     
raising of the school age1 the improved 
attendance1 and the decrease of truancy1
 have all removed from the labour market
 an immense number of boys4 ,the ,census
 figures show that there has been a     
steady diminution of boys employed under
 fifteen during the last quarter of a   
century4 #aba ,the ,labour ,exchanges   
testify to the same effect1 the managers
 frequently saying3 ,there is an        
unsatisfied demand for juvenile labour  
of an unskilled type4 #abb ,this growing
 demand has two effects4 ,first1 as it  
becomes increasingly easier for boys to 
obtain situations1 there is less and    

less inducement for them to show such   
industry and good conduct as are        
necessary to retain their places4       
,dismissal has no terrors2 it means1 if 
they please1 a few days' holiday1 or1 if
 they prefer it1 a new employer can be  
at once discovered4 ,it becomes         
therefore difficult for an employer to  
exercise over the boys the discipline   
they need2 if he attempt to do so1 he   
will soon find himself without boys4    
,lads change situations for the mere    
sake of change1 to see what happens4 ,i 
have known1 says ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,cloete1  
boys who1 within three years of leaving 
school1 have been employed in as many as
 seventeen different occupations4 #abc  
,the second consequence of the increased
 demand for boys in these kinds of      
occupations is a rise in wages4 ,the    
earnings of these boys are considerably 
higher than those obtained by a boy who 
enters a skilled trade4 ,the casual and 
low-skilled employments give higher     
wages in the early years in order to    

attract the boys4 #abd ,with boys       
choosing1 as they do1 their own         
occupations1 high wages at the outset   
are more attractive than low wages with 
the prospect of learning a trade4  ,the 
third characteristic these occupations  
have in common lies in certain general  
conditions of employment4 ,hours are    
long2 at the same time1 the boy is often
 idle for long periods1 waiting for     
messages to come in and parcels to go   
out4 ,shop-boys and telegraph-boys are  
kept hanging about with nothing to do4  
,the office-boy in a small office is    
often the whole staff1 and is left alone
 for hours when his master is out1 and  
spends his time either in vacancy1 in   
mischievous expeditions along the       
corridor1 or in reading trash of a      
bloodthirsty nature4 #abe ,the boy has  
often heavy goods to carry long         
distances1 and overtaxes his strength4  
,either there is too much idleness or   
too much work2 these are the            
alternatives4 ,in neither case is there 

the possibility of much supervision4    
,the fourth characteristic has not      
received the attention it deserves4     
,these forms of occupation1 though      
unskilled in the sense that the boy     
receives no training in his present     
place of business1 nevertheless demand  
qualities of a high standard4 ,the boy  
must be regular1 obedient1 and1 above   
all1 intelligent4 ,a dull boy as a      
messenger is liable to make stupid and  
irritating mistakes4 ,the stories of    
district messengers carrying letters    
unaided over the ,continent show that   
the boys possess no ordinary            
intelligence4 ,now1 we have already seen
 that these are the qualities which are 
in a peculiar degree the product of the 
elementary schools4 ,the schools turn   
out innumerable boys of this kind4 ,it  
is not1 perhaps1 a mere coincidence that
 the increasing use of boys in          
occupations which call for alertness of 
mind has gone on side by side with      
improvements in the educational system4 

,the ,state has spent much money on     
these boys4 ,a boy who starts to attend 
school at the age of three and leaves at
 fourteen has had spent on him a sum of 
money which1 if invested year by year at
 #d per cent41 and left to accumulate   
till the time for leaving school comes1 
would amount to nearly ,l#ajj4 ,each    
year in the #cj1jjj boys who leave      
school ,l#c1jjj1jjj of ,state-created   
value is turned adrift4 ,the ,state has 
therefore a right to demand that this   
capital sum of ,l#ajj invested in the   
boy shall not be squandered by the      
employer4 ,he ought to give back at the 
age of eighteen at least as valuable an 
article as he received four years       
earlier4  ,this consideration leads to  
the last characteristic distinguishing  
these occupations4 ,they lead to        
nothing1 and when the boy reaches the   
end1 he is1 in the majority of cases1   
distinctly inferior in every way to what
 he was three or four years before4     
,evidence in favour of this assertion is

 overwhelming4 ,at the present time1 at 
the age of eighteen1 after a four years'
 course of employment1 whose chief      
characteristics are the long hours1 the 
lack of supervision1 and the total      
absence of any educational influence1   
the lad is a distinctly less valuable   
article in the labour market than he was
 when he left school four years         
previously4 ,his only asset is          
represented by greater physical         
strength1 accompanied probably by a     
marked decrease in general health and   
vigour4 ,he has lost the intelligence   
and aptitude of the boy1 and remains a  
clumsy and unintelligent man1 fitted for
 nothing but unskilled labour1 and      
likely to become sooner or later one of 
the unemployed4 #abf ,there seems little
 doubt that the boy labour is used up   
for industrial purposes1 and that they  
are left less capable members of the    
community1 with little prospect of good 
work when they become adults4 #abg ,the 
most hopeless position is that of the   

errand-boy at a small shop in a poor    
neighbourhood2 his prospects are        
absolutely nil4 #abh ,the chart prepared
 from the forms filled in by boys who   
entered life as errand-boys shows that  
the small proportion who find steady and
 skilled employment afterwards have     
ceased to be errand-boys very early2 the
 vast majority become workers in        
low-skill trades1 or general and casual 
labourers4 #abi ,mr4 ,courtney ,terell1 
who has been making inquiries from the  
,passmore ,edwards ,settlement1 writes3 
',i feel confident 444 that the         
messenger work produced a definite      
effect on the boys1 as will the         
continual performance of any one of a   
definite function which admits of no    
improvement1 and that this has unfitted 
them for other work4' #acj ,the injury  
done to these boys is not that they are 
compelled as men to devote themselves to
 low-skilled labour1 but that from the  
more or less specialized nature of the  
work which has employed this boyhood1   

they are unfitted to become good        
low-skilled labourers4 #aca  ,it is     
impossible to resist the mass of        
evidence of this kind which might easily
 be increased indefinitely4 ,the boy    
gains nothing from this form of         
employment and loses much4 ,he loses the
 results of his training in the         
elementary school2 the habits of        
obedience1 regularity1 and industry are 
dead2 the bright intelligence is dulled1
 and with the coming of dulness goes the
 power of learning4 ,he loses his       
prospects2 his future is the future of  
the unskilled labourer--the unskilled   
labourer1 robbed of that grit and       
alertness which alone secure for        
unskilled labour the adequate reward of 
permanent employment at a steady wage4  
,his loss is the loss of the community1 
which is compelled later to relieve him 
and his family1 and perhaps in the end  
find a home for him in the workhouse4   
,and in thinking of this deterioration1 
and of that hopeless future which that  

deterioration involves1 we must never   
forget that it is not a mere handful of 
lads who suffer in this way1 but that   
half the boys who leave the elementary  
school start on this dreary journey1    
and1 so starting1 bid fare to reach that
 dreary end4  ,reckoned in money1 the   
,state has spent a million and a half on
 these boys1 and but little comes back  
to the ,state or remains with the boy4  
,if it has gone anywhere1 and it        
probably has1 then it has gone into the 
pockets of the employers who have sucked
 out of the boys their value1 and then  
cast them aside as worthless refuse1 a  
sort of slag or waste product of their  
works1 for which neither they nor anyone
 else can find a use4 ,in saying this   
there is no desire to censure unfairly  
the employers4 ,they are undoubtedly to 
blame1 because thoughtlessness and      
ignorance in persons of their position  
are always blameworthy2 but there is    
nothing deliberate in their actions1 and
 they are largely unconscious of the    

harm they are doing4 ,there is no active
 cruelty1 and often much rude and ready 
kindness4 ,the boys to them are merely  
instruments in the machinery of their   
business1 for the moment the cheapest   
instruments that can be found1 to be    
used until a new and better supply takes
 the place of those who are used up4    
,they are ignorant of the consequences  
of their conduct1 and1 as their evidence
 shows1 generally imagine that the boys 
who leave find suitable jobs4 ,it is    
only of late years that numerous        
investigators and managers of boys'     
clubs have revealed the grave results of
 this thoughtlessness4 ,employers who   
generally enjoy a good reputation as    
employers are often the worst offenders4
 ,indeed1 the most flagrant example of  
this exploitation of boy labour is to be
 found in the ,imperial ,government and 
the ,municipal ,service4 ,mr4 ,cyril    
,jackson has in his report devoted much 
space to the telegraph-boys in the      
service of the ,post ,office4 ,the boys 

come from very good homes1 and are often
 the pick of the family4 ,they are      
examined medically1 and bring           
characters4 #acb ,a mere fraction are   
absorbed in the adult service4 ,it      
appears as if the ,post ,office is one  
of the least promising occupations into 
which a boy can enter4 ,the better boys 
go into it1 and it is very depressing to
 see from our returns how very few of   
the very large number discharged at     
sixteen or seventeen get into as good   
employment as their good social standing
 and general standard of education      
should have guaranteed for them4 #acc   
,everyone of experience seems to agree  
that these telegraph-messengers who are 
discharged exemplify in a very striking 
way the evils of a parasitic trade4 #acd
 ,yet these things had been going on for
 years in a service like that of the    
,post ,office1 which is subject to much 
criticism by its employees1 and yet no  
attention had been called to the evil4  
,unfortunately1 boys have no votes1 and 

do not form trade unions4 ,other        
,government departments and the         
,municipal ,service seem no less        
ignorant and no less worthy of blame4 ,a
 short time back the ,education         
,committee called the attention of the  
,london ,county ,council to the misuse  
of its boy labour1 and now the ,council 
allows its boys1 weekly1 six hours off  
during working hours1 and provides      
classes which they are compelled to     
attend4 ,at the same time it has        
nominated one of its officers to look   
after the interests of these boys1 and  
to guide them into useful occupations4  
,if the public service is thus guilty1  
we must not be surprised that private   
employers are not conscious of          
wrongdoing in their use of boys4 ,the   
evil is now revealed2 there can be no   
further excuse for ignorance4 ,how to   
deal adequately with the problem must be
 left to the consideration of the next  
chapter4  ,the third division of the    
unskilled occupations comes under the   

head ,general ,labour4 ,some #i per     
cent4 of the boys as they leave school  
fall into this class4 ,this is a        
nondescript class not clearly defined in
 the returns4 ,probably a considerable  
proportion should be brought into the   
preceding class1 but there are evidently
 a large number who could not be        
disposed of in this way4 ,boys employed 
in warehouses1 in gardens and parks1    
boys in small places assisting the      
master in the lighter forms of labour1  
boys accompanying their fathers and     
joining in his work--these come into    
this division4 ,the returns are not     
sufficiently explicit to yield materials
 for a critical examination2 but one or 
two conclusions can be derived from     
their examination4 ,it will be seen that
 #bb per cent4 of the parents1 as       
compared with #i per cent4 of boys1 are 
recorded as being general labourers4    
,there is here no excess of boys2 there 
should not be the same difficulty in    
boys finding openings in the adult      

service as in those occupations where   
boys can claim a practical monopoly4    
,boys have always taken some part in    
labouring work1 and so passed to the    
better class of unskilled labour4 ,boys 
in warehouses1 for example1 frequently  
find there permanent situations4        
,further1 the proportion of parents to  
sons would indicate the possibility of  
the two being employed together1 and the
 boy thus remaining under the           
supervision of his father4 ,an          
examination of individual returns       
justifies this conclusion4 ,on the other
 hand1 it is to be remembered that the  
hours of employment are frequently very 
long1 and the work arduous and ill      
suited to the strength of a growing lad1
 and in no way regulated by legislation4
 ,taken as a whole1 it is probable that 
the boys who enter this kind of         
occupation1 though without opportunity  
of continuing their education1 are not  
in as forlorn a condition as those in   
the previous class4 ,but the whole      

question is obscure1 and it is          
difficult1 without fuller information1  
to test the nature of their training4   
,,the ,,skilled ,,occupations4--,the    
skilled occupations fall into two       
classes--those where manual skill is    
required1 and those concerned with      
commercial and clerical operations4 ,the
 former are included under ,trades and  
,industries1 and the latter under       
,commercial ,occupations1 ,professional 
,occupations1 and ,local ,government4   
#a4 ,trades and ,industries4--,from the 
tables printed on pp4 #aae-aah1 it will 
be seen that under this heading there   
are in ,table ,i41 the type of a        
working-class district1 #da per cent4 of
 parents and #ai per cent4 of boys2 in  
,table ,,ii41 the type of a suburban    
district1 the figures are #cf and #ae   
respectively2 in ,table ,,iii41 the type
 of the small trader of the ,east ,end1 
#ea and #db2 while in ,table ,,iv41 the 
type of ,london as a whole1 the         
percentage is in the case of fathers    

#da1 and in the case of boys #bb4 ,we   
have now to consider the prospects as   
regards supervision1 training and       
opening which these trades offer to the 
boys who enter4  ,table ,,iii41 with its
 percentage of #ea parents and #db boys 
engaged in trades and industries1       
presents a pleasing appearance1 but the 
bulk of the trades concerned belong to  
the tailoring and other industries where
 sweating is rife1 where the skill      
required is of a low order1 and the     
wages small and often below the level of
 bare subsistence4 ,the boys learn      
something1 are frequently employed with 
their fathers1 and have a more or less  
permanent outlook1 though within the    
horizon of that outlook is seldom       
included the vision of a living wage4   
,they in general do not form part of the
 class which finds its way into the     
ranks of that miscellaneous unskilled   
labour whose chief characteristic is    
casual employment4  ,ignoring this      
table1 and taking the table for all     

,london1 we find again the great        
disproportion of boys and parents4      
,there are two ways in which the boys   
may learn4 ,they may become indentured  
apprentices1 or1 engaged only by the    
week1 though sometimes still termed     
apprentices1 they may enter the         
workshop1 and take what chance is       
afforded them of picking up the         
mysteries of the trade4  7a7 ,indentured
 ,apprenticeship4--,apprenticeship is of
 little importance in ,london2 the      
system is rapidly becoming obsolete4    
,whether this is desirable is a matter  
of opinion2 that it is a fact cannot be 
gainsaid4 ,all evidence is unanimous in 
support of this conclusion4 ,in #aijf a 
special committee was appointed by the  
,london ,county ,council to make        
inquiries into the question1 and1 after 
careful investigation1 reported that in 
,london the old system of indentured    
apprenticeship has for many years been  
falling into decay4 ,in the majority of 
the industries it has almost entirely   

disappeared2 in others it is            
occasionally found existing in a        
haphazard and highly unsatisfactory     
manner2 while in only a few trades can  
it be said to be the commonly recognized
 way of entering the profession4 #ace   
,there are in ,london various charities1
 with an income of about ,l#bd1jjj a    
year1 which1 in accordance with the     
terms of their trusts1 might be used for
 purposes of apprenticeship2 but not    
more than a third of the income has been
 devoted to this purpose4 ,the fact that
 so small a fraction of the income has  
been devoted to apprenticeship indicates
 that the trustees have not found it an 
easy task to find candidates anxious to 
be indentured to one of the skilled     
trades4 #acf ,the recurring note1 says  
,mr4 ,charles ,booth1 throughout the    
whole of the industrial volumes of the  
present inquiry is that the system of   
apprenticeship is either dead or dying4 
#acg ,the numerous letters to the       
,press1 the wealth of speeches on the   

matter1 the sundry public meetings      
presided over by all manner of persons1 
from the ,lord ,mayor downwards1 all    
voice the same opinion4 ,it is needless 
to labour the question2 we may take it  
as an accepted fact that in ,london     
indentured apprenticeship is            
obsolescent1 and the system itself of   
negligible value as a factor in the     
training of youths in the process of    
skilled trades4  7b7 ,picking up a      
,trade4--,here a boy enters a workshop1 
and takes his chance of learning the    
trade from watching and assisting the   
men4 ,the employer is under no agreement
 to give him instruction--least of all1 
to make an all-round craftsman of him4  
,the boy rarely acquires more than a    
certain dexterity in the performance of 
a single operation2 and1 however        
proficient he may become in that        
operation1 his general intelligence and 
skill suffer from a narrow and exclusive
 specialization4 ,the system and        
consequences are dealt with at length in

 the ,report of the ,london ,county     
,council already mentioned4 ,the        
importance of the problem must be the   
justification for a long quotation3     
,the high wages a lad can earn as an    
errand-boy 444 are more attractive than 
the low wages associated with an        
industrial training4 ,earning looms     
larger in his imagination than the      
laborious and less remunerative         
learning4444 ,even if1 on leaving       
school1 he obtains employment in a      
workshop1 his prospects may not be      
materially improved4 ,as an errand-boy  
running in and out of the workshop1 if  
possessed of aptitude and sharpness1 he 
may in a haphazard fashion pick up a    
smattering of the trade4 ,if he is taken
 into the shop as a learner1 he has     
little chance of getting an all-round   
training4 ,he is frequently out of work1
 and even when employed seldom learns   
more than a single operation4 ,the      
,advisory ,committee of the ,london     
,county ,council ,shoreditch ,technical 

,institute#ach recently held an         
exhaustive inquiry on the subject1 and  
some of the conclusions are so germane  
to the present question that they merit 
quotation4 ',it is thus possible1' they 
write1 'for a boy to be at one branch of
 a trade for a few months only1 and when
 bad trade intervenes he is thrown out  
of employment1 and frequently finds     
himself at twenty years of age without a
 definite knowledge of any craft        
whatever1 and he swells the ranks of the
 unemployed4 ,we have it on the         
authority of foremen1 employers1        
apprentices1 and parents1 that very     
little opportunity exists1 even in big  
houses1 for a boy to learn his trade    
thoroughly2 indeed1 we have had students
 who have been in a workshop as         
apprentices for three or four years who 
could not make a small drawer1 and in   
many cases who could not square up true 
or make the usual joints2 and in the    
woodworking trade their knowledge of    
drawing when they come to us is         

practically nil4 ,it is a rare thing to 
find a young workman who can attack any 
branch of his trade successfully4 ,it   
frequently occurs that1 in consequence  
of extensive subdivision of labour and  
excessive competition1 a man or boy is  
set to do one thing--e4g41 music-stools1
 overmantels1 chair-legs1               
sideboards--all the time4 ,it is true   
the man or boy becomes skilled in one   
direction1 but correspondingly narrow in
 a true appreciation of his trade4 ,it  
is also a frequent occurrence that a    
master who has a job on hand which is   
slightly out of the usual run finds it  
impossible to put it in the hands of his
 usual staff4 ,moreover1 when work of   
delicate design and construction has to 
be made from specified drawings1 it is  
extremely difficult to obtain men who   
can proceed with the work on their own  
responsibility4 ,not only do these      
remarks apply to the woodcrafts         
generally1 but they apply with equal    
force to such work as upholstery 7both  

stuffing and drapery71 to metal-work1   
and to carving4 ,in connection with the 
latter subject1 it is a rare thing      
indeed for carvers to design a carcass  
in the rough1 and then to see whether   
the proposed carved portion is in       
harmony with the whole--whether the said
 carving be too much in relief1 too     
flat1 too expansive1 or altogether out  
of character with the general work4 ,it 
is notorious that good polishers and    
furniture decorators are exceedingly    
rare1 and many a high-class manufacturer
 has his goods spoiled on account of bad
 polish and decorative treatment4' #aci 
,it must be remembered that this last   
quoted opinion is not the opinion of the
 amateur1 but the informed opinion of   
representative employers4  ,the woodwork
 and furniture trades are not peculiar  
in the characteristic of inadequate     
training4 ,we have reason to believe1   
continues the ,report1 that if a similar
 inquiry were made into other trades1   
the same unsatisfactory picture would be

 disclosed4 ,either the training is     
one-sided1 or there is no training at   
all4 ,the consequences are sufficiently 
obvious4 ,the skilled trades are1 we    
fear1 recruited in the main by          
immigrants outside ,london4 ,in many    
trades the ,londoner is at a discount4  
,acquainted as he is with but one or two
 operations of his industry1 if he loses
 his situation1 it is only with the     
greatest of difficulty that he can find 
another4 ,mr4 ,charles ,booth states    
that 'with carpenters and joiners1      
brick-layers1 carriage builders1        
engineers1 smiths1 and saddlers1 the    
percentages of heads of families born   
out of ,london range from #ea to #ei1'  
,an inquiry made of the ,technical      
,board of the ,london ,county ,council  
on the ,building ,trades in #aheh showed
 that '#da typical firms in various     
branches of the building trades having  
#ab1jjj employes had only #hj           
apprentices and #adc learners1 instead  
of #a1fjj1 which would have been the    

normal proportion4' ,the same ,report   
mentions that 'among the foremen and    
operatives who have come before us1 not 
one stated that he was born or trained  
in ,london4' ,in these trades the better
 positions go inevitably to the         
country-bred man1 with his all-round    
training4 ,in the docks alone does the  
,londoner hold his own4 ,an inquiry     
there showed that among the             
dock-labourers proper more than #gb per 
cent4 were born in ,london--a result not
 calculated to excite any very solid    
satisfaction4 ,these facts should arouse
 serious apprehension concerning the    
future of the ,london-bred citizen4 ,we 
cannot view with equanimity his         
relegation to lower positions1 while the
 better places are given to             
better-trained immigrants4 ,we are not  
prepared to admit that the ,londoner is1
 on the average1 inherently inferior    
either in intelligence or manual        
dexterity to his country-born neighbour4
 #adj  ,these quotations indicate       

clearly the general aspects of the      
situation4 ,they show the small         
prospects boys enjoy who enter a skilled
 trade in ,london4 ,parents are not     
blind to the condition of affairs1 and  
it is not unnatural on their part to    
allow the boys to go out as errand-boys1
 where at least the immediate earnings  
are larger and the hope of advancement  
not much more discouraging4  #b4        
,clerical and ,commercial               
,occupations4--,including under this    
head commercial and professional        
occupations1 and general or local       
government1 we find in ,table ,i41 the  
type of a working-class district1       
#f-a_/b per cent4 of parents and #h per 
cent4 of boys2 in ,table ,,ii41 the type
 of the suburbs1 #cj per cent4 of       
parents1 and #af-a_/b per cent4 of boys2
 in ,table ,,iii41 typical of the ,east 
,end1 #d per cent4 of parents1 and #f   
per cent4 of boys2 in ,table ,,iv41     
typical of ,london as a whole1 #ac per  
cent4 of parents1 and #aj per cent4 of  

boys4 ,in the school returns no boy was 
placed under these headings unless he   
appeared in the column ,skilled ,work4  
,in judging of these results it must be 
borne in mind that the better positions 
fall to those who have had at least a   
secondary education4 ,nevertheless1     
clever boys1 who attend evening schools1
 have some prospects of advancement4    
,one feature in the returns was the     
large number of boys who were apparently
 employed with their fathers4 ,in many  
instances boys obtain their positions as
 the result of examination4 ,this is    
true of several banks1 assurance        
companies1 railway companies1 and is    
becoming the general practice in the    
,civil and ,municipal ,service4 ,many of
 these examinations are within the      
standard of attainment reached by the   
cleverer boys in the elementary schools4
 ,the boys at their place of employment 
are taught sufficient to enable them to 
do the work allotted them4 ,this is     
often of a specialized character2 and   

without further education they cannot   
expect to escape from the lowest ranks  
of clerks4 ,if well conducted1 they can 
probably obtain a permanent position    
when manhood is reached1 or1 at any     
rate1 are not discharged because they   
have become men4 ,change in the methods 
of business1 or failure of the concern1 
may entail dismissal2 and after         
dismissal a new position is not easily  
obtained4 ,but the lower ranks of the   
clerical profession are ill paid1 and   
the need to present a good appearance   
makes serious inroads on the meagre     
stipend4 ,unless the boy continues his  
education and means to rise1 his outlook
 is not very encouraging4 ,he has1      
however1 the advantage of supervision1  
of relatively short hours1 and enjoys   
the possibilities of attendance at      
evening schools4 ,in spite of what is   
often said to the contrary1 taking      
things as they are1 he has the best     
prospects of those included in the      
returns4 ,the fact that so large a      

proportion of boys coming from the      
suburbs is found in this class would    
seem to indicate that the more          
thoughtful parents share this opinion4  
7c7 ,the ,passage to ,manhood4  ,the    
tables quoted on pp4 #aae-aah1 and      
founded on school returns1 refer only to
 the first occupations of boys as they  
leave school4 ,it is unfortunate that no
 figures exist which trace year by year 
the later careers of the boys4 ,all     
persons1 however1 who have any intimate 
knowledge of the subject agree that the 
boys repeatedly move in an almost       
aimless fashion from one situation to   
another4  ,the census returns indicate  
in a general way the distribution1 among
 the trades and occupations1 of persons 
of various ages4 ,they do not1 however1 
give us a yearly survey2 and after the  
age fourteen to fifteen we are compelled
 to rest content with figures which     
cover periods of five years4 ,the       
following table is taken from a table   
printed in a ,report to the ,education  

,committee of the ,london ,county       
,council1 made by a special committee   
appointed to deal with the              
apprenticeship question2 it is founded  
on the #aija census return3#ada         
,,occupations ,,of ,,boys ,,and ,,men4  
,,percentages4                          
----------------------------------------
----------------------------   ,class of
 ,occupation4           ,age      ,age  
,age      ,age                          
#ad-ae4   #ae-bj4   #bj-de4   #de-fe4   
----------------------------------------
------------------------   ,trades and  
industries          #ad4gd    #ca4ed    
#ce4gf    #ch4he    ,domestic offices or
 services    #a4ge     #c4bi     #c4ee  
#c4ce    ,transport 7including          
messengers1 errand-boys1                
van-boys1 etc47              #bg4fe     
#ai4di    #af4jd    #ad4ai              
,shopkeepers1 shop-assistants1          
and dealers                   #f4jc     
#ab4eb    #ad4ea     #i4bc              
,commercial occupations          #d4fa  

#aa4ej     #i4ee    #ab4dj    ,general  
labour                  #a4df     #e4ec 
#h4df     #g4jb    ,professional        
occupations and                         
their subordinate services    #j4gc     
#b4jj     #d4ee     #e4jh    ,general or
 local government                       
of the country 7including               
telegraph-boys7               #c4ja     
#b4ec     #c4gj     #b4bd    ,defence of
 the country          #j4ae     #a4gg   
#a4dj     #j4fb    ,without specified   
occupation                              
or unoccupied 7including                
boys at school7              #ci4hg     
#i4hc     #b4dh     #g4jb               
----------------------------------------
------------------------   ,total number
 analyzed         #da1hhi  #bjh1iba     
#hfi1dff  #cac1idi                      
----------------------------------------
----------------------------  ,in       
comparing this table with the tables    
founded on the school returns1 it must  
be borne in mind that this table is not 

confined to persons who have passed     
through the elementary schools1 but     
refers to all the inhabitants of        
,london4  ,the most striking feature in 
the table is the marked difference in   
the distribution of occupations at the  
age of fourteen to fifteen1 and at other
 ages4 ,the third column1 which includes
 persons between the ages of twenty and 
forty-five1 covers the period of a man's
 greatest vigour1 and may be regarded as
 the normal or stable distribution4     
,comparing the first and the third      
column1 it becomes obvious that the     
first year1 at least1 after leaving     
school is a year of uncertainty and     
aimless wandering4 ,the boys have not   
definitely chosen any particular        
occupation as their life's work4 ,how   
long is spent in this state of          
unprofitable drifting the census returns
 do not show as the following years are 
not separated4 ,but the fact that the   
distribution in the second column       
differs materially from the normal      

distribution of the third column would  
seem to indicate that this period       
stretches some distance into the years  
that lie between the ages of fifteen and
 twenty4  ,in default of this general   
information1 we must fall back on       
special investigations2 and here the    
facts are drawn from too narrow a circle
 of inquiry to be regarded as altogether
 typical4 ,in his report to the ,poor   
,law ,commission1 ,mr4 ,cyril ,jackson  
gives an instructive table#adb 7see p4  
#ade74 ,it is founded on biographies of 
boys obtained from boys' clubs1         
schoolmasters1 and managers of schools4 
,i have omitted the ages that follow1 as
 the number of boys concerned was too   
few to justify any conclusions4 ,the    
rapid diminution in the number of boys  
when the age of eighteen is reached     
impairs the value of the last two       
columns4 ,in general1 the districts from
 which the boys are drawn are poor2 but 
the fact that the boys come into        
relation with various organizations1 and

 were no doubt assisted by them1 should 
lead us to believe that the picture     
presented errs1 if anything1 by being   
too favourable4 ,the steady increase in 
the trades1 and the equally steady      
decrease in the number of van-boys1     
,post ,office boys1 errand and shop boys
 during the first three years is        
instructive4 ,trades1 skilled and       
low-skilled1 reckoned in percentages1   
have risen from #ci4d to #ej4i1 while   
the messenger class has fallen from     
#dj4a to #bc4h4 ,the changes in the     
earlier years are the most significant1 
and little stability of occupation is   
reached before the age of eighteen4 ,the
 age of fourteen evidently represents   
the year of greatest indecision and     
maximum drift4  ,,percentage ,,of ,,boys
 ,,in ,,various ,,groups ,,of           
,,occupations ,,at ,,each ,,age4        
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,occupations4   ,age #ad4;,age #ae4;,age
 #af4;,age #ag4;,age #ah4;,age #ai4     

----------------------------------------
-------------------   ,skilled trades   
#aa4b   #ad4j   #af4h   #ag4h   #ah4j   
#af4c    ,clerks             #ad4f      
#ae4j   #af4d   #ae4b   #ae4d   #ad4c   
,low-skilled        #bh4b   #cb4h       
#cd4a   #cc4i   #cb4e   #cd4a    ,carmen
              #j4f    #j4b    #j4f      
#b4f    #d4e    #e4a    ,van-boys       
#h4b    #f4f    #e4b    #d4i    #b4h    
#a4b    ,post ,office         #a4d      
#a4d    #j4b    #j4b    #j4c    #a4b    
,errand and shop                        
boys             #cj4e   #bb4j   #ah4d  
#ae4j   #ab4f   #aj4c    ,general and   
casual labour     #e4c    #g4j    #f4g  
#f4i    #f4d    #h4g    ,army           
--    #j4f    #j4f    #a4a    #c4f      
#d4j    ,at sea              #j4b       
#j4d    #j4h    #a4e    #b4h    #c4e    
,emigrants            --     --    #j4b 
#j4d    #j4h    #a4b                    
----------------------------------------
-------------------   ,total ,no4 of    
boys   #dhe    #ejj    #dgd    #ddh     

#cef    #beb    ,unemployed             
#a      #b      #a     #ac     #bb      
#bb                                     
----------------------------------------
-------------------------  ,in other    
parts of his report ,mr4 ,jackson has   
endeavoured to follow the history of    
boys who have begun life as errand-boys 
or as van-boys4 ,from the forms         
returned1 he writes1 it seems clear that
 the theory that boys can become        
errand-boys for a year or two1 and then 
enter skilled trades1 cannot be         
maintained4 ,very few boys can pick up  
skill after a year or two of merely     
errand-boy work4 #adc ,or again3 ,the   
chart prepared from the forms filled in 
by boys who entered life as errand-boys 
shows the small proportion who find any 
steady and skilled employment           
afterwards1 and those have ceased to be 
errand-boys very early4 ,the vast       
majority become workers in low-skilled  
trades or general and casual labourers4 
#add ,of all the blind-alley            

occupations1 that of the van-boy appears
 the most deplorable4 ,the life of the  
van-boy is a rough and somewhat lazy    
one4 ,they have long hours1 spells of   
idleness1 and considerable opportunities
 of pilfering and drinking4 #ade ,the   
chart shows that it is a very low grade 
of occupation1 and that very few boys   
who begin as van-boys get into skilled  
trades--a far lower percentage1 in fact1
 than errand-boys4 #adf  ,the second    
point to be noted in the table founded  
on the census returns is the large      
number--nearly #dj per cent4--of boys of
 the age of fourteen returned as without
 specified occupation or unoccupied     
7including boys at school74 ,there are  
in the elementary schools about #e1jjj  
boys between the age of fourteen and    
fifteen1 and probably about the same    
number in secondary schools4 ,converted 
into percentages1 this #dj per cent4    
would be broken up into #bd per cent4 at
 school and #af per cent4 without       
specified occupation4 ,the last figure  

is high1 and justifies the conclusion1  
not only that the boys of fourteen      
wander from occupation to occupation1   
but that they also are frequently doing 
nothing4 ,the habit of shifting from    
situation to situation necessarily      
involves considerable periods of        
unemployment4 ,thus early in their      
career the boys become accustomed to the
 evils of casual labour4  ,we can arrive
 at the same conclusion by approaching  
the problem from a somewhat different   
point of view4 ,if in some trades we    
discover an excess of boys1 and in      
others an excess of men1 it is clear    
that there must be shocks and shiftings 
in the passage from youth to manhood4   
,in ,london the number of lads between  
the ages of fourteen and twenty is #ag4e
 per cent4 of the number of males       
between the ages of fourteen and        
sixty-five4 ,if1 therefore1 we find the 
proportion of lads to total males       
engaged in any trade1 reckoned in       
percentages1 differs much from #ag4e1   

either lads must at some time pass out  
of the trade or men come in4 ,on the    
other hand1 in a trade where this       
percentage is approximately #ag4e boys  
who enter have1 at any rate1 the chance 
of finding employment as men4 ,in this  
sense we may regard the distribution of 
lads and men in a trade as normal when  
this percentage lies between #ae and    
#bj2 less than normal when it drops     
below #ae2 more than normal when it     
rises above #bj4 ,the following table   
may be taken as an example of trades in 
which considerable numbers of persons   
are engaged3                            
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,number in     ,number in               
,trade4             #a1jjj of           
,males#a1jjj of ,males,percentage4      
,aged #ad-bj4   ,aged #ad-fe4           
----------------------------------------
--------------------------   ,,less     
,,than ,,normal3                        
,building trades               #ac4b    

#add4b        #i4a         ,skin1       
leather1 etc4            #b4f           
#h4e       #ad4a         ,food1 tobacco1
 drink1                                 
and lodging                 #ai4i       
#ace4b       #ad4h         ,general     
labour                #ae4j             
#aaa4a       #ac4e         ,general or  
local                                   
government                   #f4e       
#de4h       #ad4c         ,professional 
#d4h           #fb4b        #g4h        
,,normal3                               
,domestic services              #g4h    
#ea4g       #ae4a         ,commercial   
occupations        #be4i          #aca4a
       #ai4h         ,metals1 machines1 
etc4        #ad4d           #ib4g       
#ae4e         ,precious metals          
#f4f           #cf4e       #ah4b        
,furniture1 etc4                #i4c    
#ei4e       #ae4g         ,textile      
fabrics                #d4a             
#bc4e       #ag4c       ,,more ,,than   
,,normal3                               

,national ,government                   
7messengers1 etc47           #c4i       
#ac4e       #bi4b         ,clerks1      
office-boys1 etc4     #bc4a             
#hc4j       #bg4h         ,transport1   
errand-boys1                            
etc4                        #eb4c       
#bcf4c       #bb4a         ,printers    
#g4a           #cd4a       #bj4g        
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------  ,if we   
could have taken the period fourteen to 
eighteen instead of fourteen to twenty1 
these tables would have been even more  
striking than they are4 ,but1 even as   
they are1 they are sufficient to enforce
 the lesson that between the occupation 
of the boy and the occupation of the man
 there is a gulf fixed4 ,the one does   
not lead naturally to the other4 ,when  
the boy becomes a man he does not find  
provided for him a natural opening2 with
 more or less pains1 he is driven to    
force a way in trades for which he has  
received no definite preparation1 and in

 which diligence and good character do  
not afford any guarantee of success4    
7d7 ,summary4  ,before proceeding to    
examine the conditions of boy labour in 
other parts of the country1 it will be  
desirable to summarize the results for  
,london1 and so to determine how far the
 essentials of a true apprenticeship    
system are found in that city4          
,supervision4--,the boy should be under 
adequate supervision until he reaches   
the age of at least eighteen4 ,in       
,london1 so far as the majority are     
concerned1 all ,state supervision ends  
at fourteen4 ,when the boy goes out to  
work what measure of supervision was    
previously found in the home comes to an
 end2 it is beyond the power of parents 
to exert any real control over the boy4 
,he is his own master1 finds his        
employment for himself1 and leaves it   
when he thinks fit4 ,philanthropic      
enterprise touches a fringe1 and a      
fringe only1 of the boys2 their growing 
sense of independence resents restraint4

 ,the story of the workshop points the  
same moral4 ,personal relations between 
boy and employer are seldom possible2   
and where the demand for the services of
 boys is unlimited and unsatisfied1     
attempts to enforce discipline fail1    
because1 sooner than submit1 the boy    
seeks another situation4                
,training4--,for the unskilled labourer 
of the future ,london provides no       
training4 ,the schools do1 indeed1 turn 
out in the boys ready made and          
completely finished articles for        
boy-work and blind-alley occupations1   
and three or four years of such         
employment destroy the most-marked      
results of elementary education4 ,the   
skilled workman of the future finds in  
the workshop small chance of gaining    
that all-round training which will make 
of him a man1 and not a machine4        
,technical education for the minority is
 successful1 but without power to compel
 attendance and limit the hours of      
boy-labour it is only the few who can   

avail themselves of the opportunities   
offered4  ,opening4--,boys' work is     
separated from man's work1 and there is 
no broad highway leading from the one to
 the other4 ,the lad of eighteen is     
compelled to make a new beginning just  
when new beginnings are most difficult4 
,his power of learning is gone from him1
 and in the unskilled labour market     
alone does he see any prospect of       
earning immediate wages4 ,the ,state    
,labour ,exchange is an infant which has
 yet to justify its creation4  ,in      
,london the provision of supervision1 of
 training1 of an opening1 is alike      
defective1 and beyond the age of        
fourteen for the majority of boys can   
hardly be said to exist at all2 and1    
what is most serious1 we are face to    
face with a state of affairs where there
 is no sign of improvement1 and where   
all tendencies indicate for the future  
an accelerated rate of progressive      
failure4 ,in short1 ,london cannot claim
 even the beginnings of a real          

apprenticeship system4  ,sec4 #b4       
,,other ,,towns4  ,among the cities     
,london does not stand alone in its     
conditions of boy labour4 ,it may indeed
 be regarded as the most extreme example
 of urbanization1 but it is nothing     
more2 it is a normal type1 not an       
exception or monstrous exaggeration4 ,as
 the capital of the ,empire and the seat
 of government1 it has its own          
characteristics1 but so likewise has    
every other town4 ,but dominating all   
these local variations and giving       
uniformity to the conditions of boy     
labour in our cities1 remain the common 
features of the industrial development  
of to-day4 ,this1 at any rate1 is the   
unanimous testimony of all those        
investigators--and they have been       
many--who have studied the problem4  ,i 
shall not1 therefore1 make any attempt  
to apply to other towns the detailed    
method of investigation ,i have         
endeavoured to employ in the case of    
,london4 ,it will be enough to show that

 the general conditions are the same4   
,what differences exist are differences 
of degree1 and not differences of kind4 
7a7 ,the ,employment of                 
,school-,children4  ,the investigations 
of the ,interdepartmental ,committee has
 proved beyond doubt that throughout the
 country it is common for children1     
while still attending school1 to work   
long hours for wages4 ,one or two       
quotations will be sufficient to justify
 this statement4 ,the ,report declares  
that1 as the door has been closed to    
their employment in factories and       
workshops and during school-hours1 there
 has been a tendency1 which many        
witnesses believe to be an increasing   
one1 towards their employment in other  
occupations before morning school1      
between school-hours1 in the evening1   
and on ,saturdays and ,sundays4         
,provided they make eight or ten        
attendances every week1 they may be     
employed 7with a few exceptions1 and    
these little enforced7 in the streets1  

in the fields1 in shops1 or at home1 for
 the longest possible hours1 and on the 
hardest and most irksome work1 without  
any limit or regulation4 #adg ,evidence 
abounded to show that such possibilities
 of overwork were frequently realized4  
,examples have already been quoted in   
the case of ,london1 and it is          
unnecessary here to go over the same    
ground again4  ,that legislation1 as at 
present enforced1 has done little to    
cure the evil of overwork may be seen   
from the reports of school medical      
officers4 ,some of these are quoted in  
the ,annual ,report for #aiji of the    
,chief ,medical ,officer of the ,board  
of ,education4 ,the school medical      
officers were not asked to report       
specially on the problem1 but their     
inspection of school-children revealed  
the magnitude of the evil4  ,several    
school medical officers report on the   
question of child labour during #aiji4  
,dr4 ,thresh 7school medical officer1   
,essex7 places on record the serious    

extent to which children are employed   
out of school-hours in the ,grays and   
,tilbury districts1 and gives many      
individual examples4 ,dr4 ,forbes       
7school medical officer1 ,brighton7     
gives some interesting particulars from 
a statement prepared by the ,inspector  
under the ,employment of and ,cruelty to
 ,children ,acts4 ,in this area the     
head-teachers furnish regularly lists of
 children known by them to be employed  
out of school-hours4 ,among these       
children it was found that #ci1 #be1 and
 #bb per cent4 were illegally employed  
during #aijg1 #aijh1 and #aiji          
respectively4 ,dr4 ,clarke 7school      
medical officer1 ,walthamstow7 found    
that #ai per cent4 of the boys examined 
were employed out of school-hours1 of   
whom #ai per cent4 worked an average of 
eleven hours per week2 #cb per cent4    
worked ten hours and over on ,saturdays2
 #bj per cent4 worked twenty hours or   
over during school-days4 ,a full        
analysis of all children known to be    

employed out of school-hours at ,yeovil 
is made by ,dr4 ,page 7school medical   
officer71 who found that #bb per cent4  
of all children eight years of age and  
upwards were so employed1 and of these  
#dj per cent4 worked for twenty hours   
and upwards per week4 ,dr4 ,hope 7school
 medical officer of ,liverpool7 produces
 evidence to show how usefully medical  
inspection may be linked up with the    
arrangements made to put into force     
by-laws relating to the employment of   
children4 ,thus1 all cases where there  
was reason to suppose that the by-laws  
were being infringed were reported to   
the ,sanitary ,department4 ,these       
children cases numbered #cjh during the 
year1 and a table is given showing in   
what manner they were dealt with4 ,at   
,leamington1 #aai boys and #cj girls    
were reported by ,dr4 ,burnet as        
employed in a wage-earning capacity     
either before or after school-hours1 and
 #ij boys and #aa girls both before and 
after school-hours4 ,of these1 #fc      

children were of subnormal nutrition1   
#bb were suffering from anaemia1 #b from
 phthisis1 #h from heart disease1 and   
#be had enlarged tonsils4 ,several of   
these children were quite unfit for such
 employment1 and the subject is         
deserving of a thorough investigation   
with a view to adopting protective      
measures where necessary4 ,at           
,southport1 #aca leaving boys 7#cb4g per
 cent47 were found to be doing unskilled
 or casual work1 and in ,oldham #agi of 
the children inspected were similarly   
engaged4 #adh  ,as in ,london1 so in    
other parts of the country1             
school-children work for long hours1 and
 no adequate means exist at present to  
prevent the evil4 ,as in ,london1 so in 
other parts of the country1 signs of    
serious physical weakness are the common
 accompaniments of this employment1 and 
the health of the rising generation is  
injured4 ,as in ,london1 so in other    
parts of the country1 the forms of      
employment in which children are engaged

 are uneducational1 and tend to lead    
children1 when school-days are over1    
into the blind-alley occupations4       
,besides these children1 there are about
 #ch1jjj half-timers4 #adi ,it is       
needless here to dilate on the evils of 
the half-time system1 which allows      
children who have reached the age of    
twelve to spend half the day in the     
factory and workshop4 ,it is condemned  
by all qualified to pass on it an       
impartial judgment4 ,its continuance    
reflects little credit on the humanity  
of those employers and those trade      
unions who have repeatedly opposed its  
abolition4  7b7 ,the ,entry to a ,trade4
  ,the survey of conditions of juvenile 
employment in ,london made clear certain
 facts4 ,there was the growing demand   
for boys in what has been called        
blind-alley occupations1 and the        
demoralizing effect of such work4 ,there
 was the difficulty of obtaining        
adequate training for those who had     
entered a skilled trade4 ,there was a   

general lack of supervision in the      
workshop4 ,and1 finally1 there was no   
easy passage from youth to manhood4 ,it 
is impossible to read the ,report of the
 ,poor ,law ,commission and the volumes 
of evidence1 or to study the various    
investigations into the conditions of   
sundry towns1 without being convinced   
that ,london is in no way peculiar4 ,the
 chief difficulty in approaching the    
problem lies in the selection of the all
 too numerous witnesses4  ,the ,report  
of the ,poor ,law ,commission probably  
provides the best summary of the mass of
 evidence on the subject4 ,both         
,reports--,majority and ,minority--alike
 realize the gravity of the problem1 not
 for ,london alone1 but for the whole of
 the country4 ,the problem1 says the    
,majority ,report1 owes its rise in the 
main to the enormous growth of cities as
 distributive centres1 giving           
innumerable openings for errand-boys1   
milk-boys1 office and shop boys1        
bookstall-boys1 van1 lorry1 and trace   

boys1 street-sellers1 etc4 ,in nearly   
all these occupations the training      
received leads to nothing2 and the      
occupations themselves are1 in most     
cases1 destructive to healthy           
development1 owing to long hours1 long  
periods of standing1 walking1 or mere   
waiting1 and1 morally1 are wholly       
demoralizing4 #aej ,or1 again3 ,the     
almost universal experience is that in  
large towns boys1 owing to carelessness 
or selfishness on the part of the       
parents1 or their own want of knowledge 
and thought--for the parents very often 
have little voice in the matter--plunge 
haphazard1 immediately on leaving       
school1 into occupations in which there 
is no future1 where they earn wages     
sufficiently high to make them          
independent of parental control and     
disinclined for the lower wages of      
apprenticeship1 and whence1 if they     
remain1 they are extruded when they grow
 to manhood4 #aea ,or1 to go to the     
,minority ,report3 ,there are the       

rivet-boys in shipyards and boiler      
shops1 the 'oil-cans' in the nut and    
bolt department1 the 'boy-minders' of   
automatic machines1 the 'drawers-off' of
 sawmills1 and the 'layers-on' of       
printing works1 and scores of other     
varieties of boys whose occupations     
presently come to an end4 #aeb ,or1     
again3 ,in towns like ,glasgow1         
,liverpool1 ,bristol1 ,newcastle1 the   
proportions of van-boys1 etc41 are as   
large as in ,london4 #aec ,employers do 
not always conceal the fact3 ,in the    
words of a frank employer1 they 7the    
boys7 are not taught2 they are made to  
work continuously at their own little   
temporary trades4 #aed ,if we desire    
actual figures of those engaged in one  
class of the blind-alley                
occupations--messengers--,mr4 ,jackson  
tells us that under fourteen years of   
age there are no less than #cb1ecf      
7#bc4e per cent4 of those occupied under
 that age71 while there are #da1fei aged
 fourteen1 and #ed1eib from fifteen to  

nineteen years of age inclusive1 of     
which it is probable that the bulk are  
under seventeen years of age4 #aee      
,writing of ,norwich1 the same writer   
says3 ,there seems little doubt that the
 boy labour is used up for industrial   
purposes1 and that they are left less   
capable members of the community1 with  
little prospect of good work when they  
become adults4 #aef  ,apart from the    
,report of the ,poor ,law ,commission1  
individual writers of wide and varied   
experience outside ,london have voiced  
the same view4 ,it has never been so    
easy1 writes ,dr4 ,sadler1 as it is in  
,england to-day1 for a boy of thirteen  
or fourteen to find some kind of        
virtually unskilled work1 involving long
 hours of deteriorating routine1 in     
which there is little mental or moral   
discipline1 but for which are offered   
wages that for the time seem high1 and  
flatter his sense of being independent  
of school discipline and of home        
restraint4 #aeg ,and the same writer    

continues3 ,certain forms of industry1  
which make large use of boys and girls  
who have recently left the elementary   
schools1 are in part 7except where the  
employers make special efforts to meet  
their responsibility7 parasitic in      
character1 and get more than they ought1
 and more than their promoters realize  
that they are getting1 of the physical  
and moral capital of the rising         
generation4 #aeh  ,the ,rev4 ,spencer   
,j4 ,gibb1 who has devoted special      
attention to the problem1 writes3 ,the  
characteristic evils of boy work invade 
office work in a peculiarly subtle and  
dangerous form4 ,in every city small    
offices are to be found in which the    
whole of the business1 such as it is1 is
 carried on by the master himself1 who  
has frequently to be absent from his    
one-roomed office4 ,the office-boy1 who 
constitutes the entire staff1 is        
meanwhile left in charge4 ,he has       
probably nothing to do1 and spends his  
time either in vacancy1 in mischievous  

expeditions along the corridor1 or in   
reading trash of a bloodthirsty nature4 
#aei ,under such conditions supervision 
and control are negligible factors in   
the training of the workshop4 ,it seems 
unnecessary to multiply examples2 all   
persons of experience lament the        
increasing employment of boys in        
blind-alley occupations1 and deplore the
 general lack of supervision4  ,the     
question of the skilled trades has      
received less attention1 and there is   
much need of such a careful inquiry in  
various towns as had been made by ,mr4  
,tawney in the case of ,glasgow4        
,writing of the woodwork trades in that 
town1 he says3 ,there is no regular     
training system2 a boy learns           
incidentally1 and is only shifted from  
one machine to another when the shop    
needs it4444 ,one of its employes was   
the best producer of wooden rings in his
 town1 but could not make a wage at     
turning a table-leg1 and adds that1 with
 the exception of a few old men who were

 trained under the apprenticeship       
system1 the foremen are the only men    
with all-round skill4 #afj ,while of the
 engineering trades he says3 ,on        
entering the works the lad who is going 
to be a fitter goes straight to the     
fitting shop and learns nothing else2 a 
lad who is going to be a turner goes to 
the machine shop and does not learn     
fitting4 #afa ,specialization is pushed 
even farther1 and lads are kept to a    
single machine4 ,drilling1 milling1     
slotting1 punching1 band-sawing1 or     
screwing machines can be used after a   
few days' training1 and this is all the 
experience a boy gets4 ,and1 speaking   
generally of ,glasgow firms1 ,mr4       
,tawney says3 ,boys are kept1 as a rule1
 in their own departments4 ,they are not
 taught2 they are made to work4 ,these  
facts were obtained as the result of a  
careful inquiry among #ajj firms in     
,glasgow4  ,glasgow1 then1 repeats the  
story of ,london2 and there is good     
reason to believe that other towns1 if  

submitted to a similar examination1     
would demonstrate the fact of the       
inadequacy of the workshop training of  
to-day4 ,apprenticeship1 according to   
numerous witnesses1 is everywhere       
decaying1 and there is nothing except   
the technical school rising to take its 
place2 and under existing conditions the
 technical school can touch only a      
fringe of the problem4  7c7 ,the        
,passage to ,manhood4  ,the evidence of 
the last few pages1 relating to the     
increase in the number of blind-alley   
occupations and to the inadequate       
training of the workshop1 would show    
that1 as in ,london1 so likewise in     
other towns1 there is no easy passage   
from the work of the youth to the work  
of the man4 ,there is a break in the    
continuity of the service somewhere     
about the age of eighteen4 ,new openings
 have then to be searched for1 and new  
beginnings made1 when the habits of     
learning have disappeared1 even if the  
opportunities for it presented          

themselves4  ,it would seem superfluous 
to repeat for other towns the           
statistical evidence in support of this 
statement which was given in the case of
 ,london4 ,blind-alley occupations and  
troubled passage to manhood necessarily 
go together4 ,mr4 ,tawney's researches  
in ,glasgow indicate clearly the        
difficulties of this transition period4 
,a single quotation must suffice3 ,a    
district secretary of the ,amalgamated  
,society of ,engineers says of a        
world-famous firm which employs several 
thousand men making a particular kind of
 domestic machine3 ',it is a reception  
home for young bakers and grocers4 ,boys
 go to it from other occupations to do  
one small part of the machine4444 ,when 
they leave they are not competent       
engineers1 and find it difficult to get 
work elsewhere4' #afb ,detailed figures 
for the country as a whole in respect of
 certain trades may be found in ,mr4    
,jackson's ,report on ,boy ,labour4 ,all
 evidence1 from wheresoever collected1  

goes to show the existence of the break 
between the work of the boy and the work
 of the man4         99       99        
99       99       99  ,it is trusted    
that sufficient evidence has been       
produced to prove conclusively that the 
conditions of boy labour in ,london do  
not differ essentially from the         
conditions of boy labour in other towns4
 ,the evidence could have been          
multiplied indefinitely and1 what is    
most striking1 among the mass of        
witnesses forthcoming there is none     
found to venture a contrary opinion4 ,we
 may take it1 then1 as a                
well-established fact that in other     
towns besides ,london1 supervision1     
training1 and the provision of an       
opening are alike gravely and           
progressively defective4 ,in other      
words1 among the urban districts of the 
country no true apprenticeship system   
exists or is in course of creation4     
,sec4 #c4 ,,rural ,,districts4  ,no     
comprehensive inquiry has been made into

 the conditions of boy labour in rural  
districts and small towns4 ,a few       
studies of individual villages          
exist--as1 for example1 ,life in an     
,english ,village1 by ,miss ,maude      
,davies--but these are not sufficiently 
numerous to justify any general         
conclusions4 ,the return on ,children   
,working for ,wages1 made to the ,house 
of ,commons in #ahii1 gives certain     
statistics4 ,from the returns on pages  
#ba and #bc we see that for ,england and
 ,wales some #e4b per cent4 of children 
above ,standard ,i4 were working for    
wages4 ,the percentage for boys alone   
would be #h4e per cent41 or for boys    
eleven years and upwards about #ag per  
cent41 compared with #bd per cent4 for  
,london alone4 ,these figures would seem
 to show that1 while common1 work among 
school-children over the country as a   
whole does not quite reach the ,london  
level4 ,so far as can be gathered from  
the returns1 it is in towns that the    
employment of school-children is most   

frequent1 though in rural districts it  
is frequent enough to constitute a grave
 evil4  ,the same return gives the      
occupation of children as they leave    
school4 ,on page #afc is the summary4   
,the table is incomplete3 ,in ,london   
the proportion of children is no less   
than #id per cent42 in the group of     
large urban districts1 #gb per cent42   
while in the rest of ,england and       
,wales1 including the rural districts   
and small towns1 the percentage sinks to
 #dg4 #afc ,without a careful analysis1 
such as only local knowledge could      
supply1 it would be dangerous to give   
much weight to the return4 ,it does1    
however1 appear from the summary that   
blind-alley occupations bear a close    
relation to urbanization1 and that the  
two increase together4 ,or looking at   
the question from another point of view1
 a boy in rural districts enjoys greater
 opportunities of continuity of         
employment in the passage from youth to 
manhood than he does in the towns4      

,,occupations ,,of ,,boys ,,on ,,leaving
 ,,school ,,in 7#a7 ,,london1 7#b7      
,,large ,,urban ,,and ,,manufacturing   
,,districts1 ,,and 7#c7 ,,rural ,,and   
,,small ,,urban ,,districts ,,of        
,,england ,,and ,,wales4#afd            
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,large ,urban and  ,rural and           
,occupation4           ,london4         
,manufacturing  ,small ,urban           
,districts4     ,districts4             
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,no4          ,no4          ,no4        
,agriculture               #aja    --   
#gcj     #b  #ag1iej    #bf    ,building
                  #ghg     #c   #a1igc  
#d   #c1gdd     #e    ,woodworking      
#ije     #d     #eia     #a     #ffa    
#a    ,metal1 engineering1              
and shipbuilding        #idi     #d     
#d1jij     #h   #c1aai     #d    ,mining
 and quarrying       --    --   #a1ehd  
#c   #f1eaj     #i    ,textile          

#di    --   #f1jdf    #ac   #e1ebb      
#h    ,clothing                  #ffe   
#c   #a1fcd     #c   #a1fab     #b      
,printing and allied                    
trades                #a1aba     #d     
#hfh     #b     #fhj     #a    ,clerical
                #b1jfj     #h   #e1fff  
#ab   #b1gbg     #d    ,in shops        
#c1ehd    #ad   #f1jhd    #ac   #g1jde  
#aj    ,errand1 cart1 boat1             
etc41 boy            #aj1bhc    #dj     
#aj1dif    #bb   #i1iag    #ad          
,newsboy and street                     
vendor                  #ifd     #d     
#a1dgb     #c   #a1bbc     #b           
,teaching                  #abj    --   
#dcj     #a     #eeg     #a    ,domestic
 service          #cja     #a     #agc  
--   #a1jij     #b    ,miscellaneous and
                                        
indefinite            #b1bef     #i     
#d1aei     #i   #d1hag     #g           
----------------------------------------
------------------------      ,total    
occupied      #bd1ade    #id  #de1iif   

#if  #fg1agd    #if    ,no reported     
occupation  #a1fbc     #f   #b1jig      
#d   #b1gfe     #d                      
----------------------------------------
------------------------        ,grand  
total       #be1gfh   #ajj  #dh1jic     
#ajj  #fi1ici   #ajj                    
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  ,there  
is good reason to believe that the      
prospects of an all-round training are  
more favourable in a village than in a  
town4 ,the fact1 already mentioned1 that
 immigrants from rural districts obtain 
the better positions in ,london trades1 
especially in the building trades1 would
 seem to justify this conclusion4 ,there
 is also the general consideration that 
rural districts are always nearly a     
century behind the industrial           
development of the towns1 and represent 
therefore an older condition of affairs4
 ,workshops are smaller1 the gulf       
between man and employer less           
impassable1 and the old paternal        

relation between boy and master more    
possible of attainment4 ,we may         
therefore assume1 without much risk of  
error1 that training is better in rural 
districts than in towns4  ,on the other 
hand1 while it is true that in          
industrial progress the villages lag    
behind the towns1 they still follow     
them1 though at an interval4            
,machine-made goods1 especially in the  
woodwork trades1 are in villages        
replacing the hand-made goods1 and the  
demand for manual dexterity is to this  
extent decreasing4 ,it would also seem  
to be true that the old indentured      
apprenticeship is falling into disuse4  
,in the ,wiltshire village of ,corsley1 
for example1 while apprenticeship       
occupied a prominent position in the    
past1 in the story of to-day it passes  
almost without mention4 ,in ,miss       
,davies's#afe study of the occupations  
of the inhabitants of that village1 only
 one apprentice is mentioned4 ,it is    
also a fact that those who are concerned

 with the administration of local       
charities for apprenticeship are finding
 increasing difficulty in discovering   
masters who are willing to take boys as 
indentured apprentices1 even for a      
premium1 and boys who are desirous of   
being indentured4  ,we may1 perhaps1    
therefore assume that1 while the        
conditions of boy labour are more       
favourable in rural districts than they 
are in towns1 the old machinery of      
training is falling into disuse1 and no 
adequate substitute is taking its place4
   ,v4  ,,the ,,break-,,up ,,of         
,,apprenticeship4  ,the survey of the   
elements that make up the apprenticeship
 of to-day is now complete4 ,each of the
 factors which contribute to the        
result--the ,state1 ,philanthropy1 the  
,home1 the ,workshop--has been examined1
 and their influence appraised4 ,it is  
therefore possible to pass judgment on  
the system1 and1 by realizing the       
present situation in all its relations1 
to understand clearly the nature and the

 extent of the problems which call for  
solution in the immediate future4  ,the 
period of apprenticeship has been shown 
to divide itself naturally into two     
parts4 ,there are the years during which
 the boy is at school1 ending somewhere 
about the age of fourteen4 ,for the     
right use of these years we have seen   
that the ,state is beginning to accept  
full responsibility4 ,whether we have   
been concerned with the conduct1 the    
physical welfare1 or the training of the
 child1 we have found collective        
enterprise assuming new duties1 and     
carrying them out with a growing        
enthusiasm4 ,nor can we have remained   
blind to the large measure of success   
achieved4 ,if defects here and there mar
 the result1 they are clearly the       
defects that belong to all experiments  
in the early stages1 and are obviously  
not the ineradicable faults of a        
worn-out system4 ,in short1 so far as   
regards the earlier years of the        
apprenticeship of to-day1 there is no   

cause for despondency4 ,progress is the 
distinguishing characteristic of this   
first period2 the boy is the centre of  
influences increasing in number1 and    
deliberately planned to promote his     
well-being4 ,one disquieting phenomenon 
that calls for attention is the large   
mass of school-children working long    
hours4 ,health is undermined1 the effect
 of education impaired2 while the       
occupations1 essentially of the         
blind-alley type1 encourage an          
unfortunate taste for this form of      
employment4 ,further1 the various local 
authorities1 especially in rural        
districts1 have been very lax in using  
the powers conferred by the ,employment 
of ,children ,act4  ,the second stage of
 apprenticeship covers the years between
 the ages of fourteen and eighteen4 ,in 
our survey of this period we have been  
unable to find much cause for           
satisfaction4 ,the ,state no longer     
recognizes its responsibility for the   
well-being of all its youth2 it is      

content to offer opportunities of       
training to those who are able and      
willing to avail themselves of these    
advantages1 and these last form only a  
small minority of the whole4 ,the       
success of evening schools1 technical   
institutes1 and other places of higher  
education1 so far as concerns those who 
come within that sphere of influence1   
only adds to our regret that that sphere
 of influence is so narrowly restricted4
 ,the majority1 at least two-thirds1 of 
the boys pass out of the control of the 
,state1 and for the completion of their 
apprenticeship we must look in other    
directions4 ,our search in these other  
directions has met with little reward2  
we have found everywhere failure1 and1  
what is worse1 failure that is rapidly  
progressive4 ,nowhere on a large scale  
can we discover provision made for the  
supervision and training of juveniles2  
from all sides we receive a tumult of   
complaint that things have gone astray4 
,philanthropic enterprise1 whether      

represented by the religious bodies or  
lads' clubs1 laments the lack of control
 over the boys1 and frankly confesses   
its inability to deal satisfactorily    
with more than a small minority4 ,the   
testimony of the home is the same2      
parents complain of the growing         
independence of their children1 and to a
 large extent have ceased to attempt to 
exert any restraint over the conduct of 
their sons4 ,under the stress of modern 
industrial conditions and accentuated   
urbanization1 the old patriarchal system
 of the family has broken down2 the home
 represents an association of equals1 in
 which1 perhaps1 the young can claim a  
predominant influence4  ,when we pass to
 the workshop1 in the hope of reaching  
law and order and constructive thought1 
it is only to be confronted with the    
most signal example of an organization  
which defies every principle of a true  
apprenticeship system4 ,that the boy of 
to-day is the workman of to-morrow is a 
thought that suggests itself to only a  

few of the most enlightened employers4  
,to the many he is merely a cheap       
instrument of production to be used up1 
and then scrapped as waste machinery4   
,he is kept at his own little temporary 
task2 and1 to make things worse1 he is  
in so much demand that discipline cannot
 keep him very steadily even to this1 or
 his services will be withdrawn4 ,with  
the separation of man's work from boy's 
work there is no easy passage from youth
 to manhood4 ,with the minute           
subdivision of operations1 there is     
small chance of a lad in a skilled trade
 becoming a master of his craft4  ,apart
 from the small amount of medical       
inspection required by the ,factory and 
,workshop ,act1 no attempt is made to   
insure that the growing lad is          
physically fit for the work in which he 
is engaged4 ,his health is the concern  
of no one till its breakdown brings him 
under the ,poor ,law or thrusts him into
 the ranks of the unemployable4         
,undisciplined1 with health and training

 neglected1 the lad of eighteen tends to
 find himself more and more left without
 prospects1 and a person for whom no one
 in particular has any particular use4  
,in short1 our survey of the problem of 
the apprenticeship of to-day shows      
conclusively that we have1 in the true  
sense of the word1 no apprenticeship    
system4 ,the old apprenticeship system  
has broken up1 and there is nothing come
 to take its place4  ,it would be       
incredible if serious consequences did  
not accompany this complete break-up of 
the apprenticeship system2 and it needs 
but little search to discover evils of  
far-reaching significance4 ,there is    
first the evil of an uncontrolled youth4
 ,a child at the age of fourteen is not 
fitted to enjoy the independence of an  
adult4 ,this statement is a truism1 but 
there is tragedy in the fact that       
society of to-day confers1 as we have   
seen1 this irresponsible freedom1 in a  
more or less unqualified form1 on the   
majority of boys when they leave the    

elementary schools4 ,in the hooligan of 
the streets or in the youthful criminal 
we have the most striking example of the
 fruits of an undisciplined boy4 ,the   
report of the ,commissioners of ,prisons
 for the year ending ,march #ca1 #aijh1 
makes this clear4 ,writing of the       
,borstal ,association1 they say3 ,in    
this admirable report 7the report1 that 
is1 of the ,borstal ,association71 which
 should be studied by all who are       
interested in the causes of crime1 after
 specifying many circumstances which    
induce the criminal habit1 they refer in
 particular to the absence of any system
 of control or organization for the     
employment of the young1 as one of the  
principal causes of wrong-doing4 ',when 
a boy leaves school the hands of        
organization and compulsion are lifted  
from his shoulders4 ,if he is the son of
 very poor parents1 his father has no   
influence1 nor1 indeed1 a spare hour1 to
 find work for him2 he must find it for 
himself2 generally he does find a job1  

and if it does not land him into a dead 
alley at eighteen he is fortunate1 or he
 drifts1 and the tidy scholar becomes a 
ragged and defiant corner loafer4 ,over 
#hj per cent4 of our charges admit that 
they were not at work when they got into
 trouble1' #aff ,the ,poor ,law         
,commission calls attention to the evil 
effects of certain forms of employment  
which the boys choose because of the    
freedom they give4',street-selling1 for 
example1' says the ,chief ,constable of 
,sheffield1 'makes the boys thieves4'   
',news-boys and street-sellers1' says   
,mr4 ,cyril ,jackson1 'are practically  
all gamblers4' ',of #a1ded youths       
between fourteen and twenty-one charged 
in ,glasgow during #aijf with theft and 
other offences inferring dishonesty1    
#a1bjh1 or #hc4g per cent41 came from   
the class of messengers1 street-traders1
 etc41' says ,mr4 ,tawney4 #afg ,and it 
would be easy to multiply indefinitely  
examples of this kind4 ,it must not1 of 
course1 be assumed that all boys become 

hooligans or criminals1 but all do      
suffer from the want of control and the 
need of a more disciplined life4        
,hooliganism is merely an extreme type  
of a disease which in a milder form     
fastens upon the boys who are allowed   
unrestrained liberty4 ,the disease is   
the disease of restlessness--the        
restlessness of the town1 the dislike of
 regularity1 the joy in change for      
change's sake1 and the habit of roving  
from place to place4  ,this disease1    
with the lack of proper technical       
training1 leads on to unemployment when 
the age of manhood is reached4          
,unemployment is not the fate of the old
 only2 it is becoming common among the  
young4 ,the percentage of men under     
thirty years of age qualified for       
assistance under the ,unemployed        
,workmen ,act1 #aije1 was3#afh          
----------------------------------------
--------------------                    
,up to ,march #ca1 #aijf4,twelve ,months
 ending                                 

,march #ca1 #aijg4                      
----------------------------------------
------------------    ,london           
#bc4i                 #bg4d             
,whole of ,england       #bg4c          
#cj4b                                   
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,it has become    
clear1 says a manager of boys' clubs    
with a very wide experience1 to all     
students of the labour problem that a   
wrong choice of their first work--or1   
rather1 no choice at all1 but a drift   
into it--is responsible for the presence
 of considerable numbers of young men   
amongst the unemployed4 #afi ,the       
,reports of the ,poor ,law ,commission1 
,majority and ,minority alike1          
repeatedly voice the same opinion4 ,the 
great prominence given to boy labour1   
not only in our evidence1 but in the    
various reports of our special          
investigators1 leads us to the opinion  
that this is perhaps the most serious of
 the phenomena which we have encountered

 in our study of unemployment4 ,the     
difficulty of getting boys absorbed1    
through gradual and systematic training1
 in the skilled trades is great enough2 
but when to this are added the          
temptations1 outside the organized      
industries1 to enter at an early age    
into occupations which are not          
themselves skilled and give no          
opportunity for acquiring skill1 it     
seems clear that we are faced by a far  
greater problem than that of finding    
employment for adults who have fallen   
behind in the race for                  
efficiency--namely1 that the growth of  
large cities has brought with it an     
enormous increase in occupations that   
are making directly for unemployment in 
the future4 #agj ,the ,minority ,report 
is equally emphatic4 ,there is no       
subject1 it says1 as to which we have   
received so much and such conclusive    
evidence as upon the extent to which    
thousands of boys1 from lack of any sort
 of training for industrial occupations1

 grow up1 almost inevitably1 so as to   
become chronically unemployed or        
under-employed1 and presently to recruit
 the ranks of the unemployable4 ,in     
,glasgow nearly #bj per cent4 of the    
labourers in distress are under         
twenty-five1 and one-half of them are   
under thirty-five4 #aga ,or again3 ,it  
has been demonstrated beyond dispute    
that one of the features of the manner  
in which we have chosen to let the      
nation's industry be organized is that  
an increasing number of boys are        
employed in occupations which are either
 uneducative 7in the sense of producing 
no increase of efficiency and           
intelligence7 or unpromising 7in the    
sense of leading to no permanent        
occupation during adult life72 secondly1
 that there is a constant tendency for  
certain industrial functions to be      
transferred from men to boys1 especially
 when changes in the processes of       
manufacture or in the organization of   
industry are taking place rapidly4 ,the 

resulting difficulty is the double one  
of the over-employment of boys and the  
under-employment of men4 #agb  ,it is   
hoped that the present chapter may have 
made clear the various steps in this    
unfortunate process of industrial       
development4 ,first1 we have the        
qualities which are the result of the   
school training--qualities of           
regularity1 obedience1 and              
intelligence--qualities required1       
indeed1 in all forms of work1 but       
supplying a complete technical outfit   
alone for the blind-alley occupations4  
,the boys leave school1 having had      
expended on them in each case a capital 
sum of public money of about one hundred
 pounds4 ,they are valuable assets1 and 
employers have discovered the fact1 and 
adjusted their methods of production or 
distribution to make full use of this   
new and valuable supply4 ,high wages    
attract the boy1 who makes his own      
choice1 and earning is regarded as more 
attractive than the laborious and less  

remunerative learning4  ,this leads on  
to the second stage1 the blind-alley    
occupation or the skilled trade where   
there is no real training4 ,four years  
of this kind of work dissipate the      
effects of elementary education4 ,too   
often weakened physically by long hours 
of employment1 demoralized by the life  
of freedom and the fatal facility in    
obtaining a second job when fancy has   
made him throw up the first1 robbed by  
disuse of the power to learn even if the
 inclination were present1 he is1 at the
 age of eighteen1 a distinctly less     
valuable asset in the labour market than
 he was four years before4 ,the hundred 
pounds investment of public money       
intended for life has been squandered in
 youth2 the employer has possessed      
himself of it2 and when the boy asks the
 wages of a man1 he is informed that his
 services are no longer wanted1 and told
 to transfer them elsewhere4  ,then     
comes the final stage of                
degeneration--unemployment or           

under-employment4 ,the habit1 acquired  
through four years of constant practice1
 of throwing up a job on the smallest   
pretext1 remains with the lad of        
eighteen1 but the facility of finding   
another is no longer his4 ,the intensity
 of the demand for men varies almost    
inversely with the intensity of the     
demand for boys2 the two are competitors
 in the same labour market1 and of the  
two the boy is the cheaper and the more 
efficient instrument of production4     
,further1 habits of boyhood have too    
often bred a liking for casual          
employment1 with its frequent holidays4 
,here1 also1 the employers are willing  
to oblige him2 they find it convenient  
to have at their beck and call a reserve
 of labour which can be drawn upon when 
business is brisk1 and discharged in    
times of slackness4 ,finally1 if he     
desires regular employment1 it is none  
too easy to discover a suitable opening4
 ,the sphere of his usefulness is small2
 he has for sale a certain amount of    

animal strength1 none too well          
developed1 but has little else to offer4
 ,he can push and he can pull           
indifferently well1 but in the world of 
industry there is not1 as is supposed   
sometimes1 an unlimited demand for      
pulling and pushing4 ,and all the time  
he is faced with the fact that recruits 
to the army of pushing and pulling are  
coming from all sides4 ,men skilled in  
the performance of a single operation1  
and robbed of their well-paid employment
 by a new invention2 men from decaying  
trades and incapable through lack of    
training of adapting themselves to fresh
 conditions2 men a little past the      
vigour of manhood2 men discharged for   
misconduct2 men who have lost their work
 through the bankruptcy of a company or 
the death of a master--all alike1 when  
everything fails them1 turn in          
desperation to pulling and pushing2 and 
meanwhile machines of novel design      
decrease year by year the demand for    
pulling and pushing4  ,all these        

effects1 with innumerable variations1   
are the result of a wrong start1 and of 
the neglect during the years that lie   
between the ages of fourteen and        
eighteen4 ,want of supervision1 want of 
technical training1 want of an opening  
for which special preparation has been  
given--these are the three great and    
characteristic evils of the present     
industrial situation4 ,taken together1  
they are a negation of all              
apprenticeship in the true sense of the 
word4 ,during the course of the last few
 years we have at least learned to know 
the cause of our suffering1 and to know 
the cause is at least the first step in 
the path of prevention4 ,and1 further1  
we have begun to see rising from the    
ruins of the old stabilities of life and
 the ancient order of industrial        
organization an edifice--small1 indeed1 
at the moment1 but bearing the mark of  
constructive thought1 because reared by 
the growing power of collective         
enterprise2 and1 knowing this1 we can   

turn in a spirit of hope to the task of 
creating a new apprenticeship system4   
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,the ,,new             
,,apprenticeship   ,in the present      
chapter we must endeavour to find some  
remedy for the evils disclosed in the   
preceding pages4 ,the old apprenticeship
 system has broken up1 and there is     
nothing come to take its place4 ,in     
consequence1 the youth of the country is
 to a large and growing extent passing  
through the years of adolescence without
 supervision1 without technical         
training1 without prospects of an       
opening when manhood is reached4 ,these 
are defects in the industrial           
organization so obvious that they are   
now attracting general attention1 so    
grave that there is need of immediate   
and comprehensive measures of reform4   
,in what direction is the remedy to be  
looked for8 ,from what quarter may we   
expect the new apprenticeship to come8  
,the survey of the conditions of boy    
labour1 contained in an earlier portion 

of this volume1 has disclosed two forces
 at work in the training of the youth of
 the country4 ,the one force is         
destructive in its action2 the other    
constructive4 ,reform obviously lies in 
the repression of the former and in the 
encouragement of the latter2 there is no
 other alternative4  ,the force of      
destruction has been found throughout   
associated with the characteristic      
phenomena of the industrial revolution4 
,the accentuated spirit of competition1 
the increasing use of capital and       
machinery1 with the consequential       
development of large undertakings1 and  
the rapid changes in methods of         
production to meet new demands or to    
make use of new inventions1 have all    
alike been hostile to the well-being of 
the boy4 ,the system1 created by what   
may be called the natural growth of     
modern business organization1 has been a
 system which has1 in one form or       
another1 continually attempted to       
exploit child labour4 ,under this system

 children1 in days gone by1 were driven 
to the mine and to the factory1 or      
herded in gangs in the fields and barns 
of the farm1 and even at the present    
time are allowed to perform tasks far   
beyond their strength4 ,under this      
system we have watched the slow and     
continuous decay of indentured          
apprenticeship1 the steady decrease of  
facilities for obtaining an all-round   
training in the workshop1 and the       
ever-broadening gulf separating youth   
from manhood in the sphere of industry4 
,as a result of this system we have seen
 the hand of control lifted from the    
shoulder of youth1 and have noted lads1 
under the wayward guidance of an        
irresponsible freedom1 drifting into the
 path of crime and disorder4 ,we are    
driven to believe that it is the young  
who swell the armies of unemployment1   
and have realized with sudden dismay    
that1 young though they are1 they are   
yet too old to break the set habits of  
an unfortunate past4 ,and we are        

beginning to perceive clearly that these
 phenomena1 of ill omen1 are not a mere 
accident1 but an integral part of the   
industrial organization2 and to         
understand that1 in spite of numerous   
superficial changes1 the system1 born of
 the revolution of a hundred years ago1 
has not altered in essentials1 and now1 
as then1 threatens with destruction the 
youth of the land4  ,that system has    
never enjoyed full freedom of           
development1 but the limits set on its  
power for evil have not come from       
within2 they have come from without1 and
 been imposed on the employers by the   
legislative action of the ,state4 ,it is
 the ,state which has throughout the    
period supplied the second or regulative
 and constructive force in the training 
of the youth of the country4 ,it has    
forbidden the employment of boys in some
 occupations1 and in others limited the 
hours of employment4 ,acting without any
 clearly defined plan1 but striking at  
the evils1 which gusts of popular       

opinion denounced and refused to        
tolerate1 it has yet made impossible the
 worst abuses of child labour4 ,it has1 
however1 long since passed beyond the   
realm of mere veto1 and has these many  
years entered the sphere of constructive
 reform4 ,the scheme of compulsory      
education1 the provision of             
opportunities for technical instruction1
 and the powers1 recently conferred on  
local education authorities1 to attend  
to the physical condition of            
school-children1 are all signal examples
 of the beneficent influence of the     
second force4  ,we are left1 then1 with 
these two forces--the force of          
destruction and the force of            
construction2 and the fate of the youth 
turns on the issue of the struggle      
between the two4 ,they are not1 indeed1 
the only forces concerned in the problem
 of boy labour1 but1 compared with their
 influence1 all others sink into        
insignificance4 ,the ,state and the     
industrial system both possess the      

characteristic of universality1 and no  
other organization can make the same    
claim4 ,philanthropic and religious     
associations have always been found to  
protest against the abuses of child     
labour1 but their protest only became   
generally effective when the ,state gave
 to it the force of law4 ,philanthropic 
and religious associations have been    
pioneers in the field of education1 but 
the advantages were offered to all only 
when the ,state stepped in and assumed  
the responsibility4 ,individual         
employers have always been found to     
offer to their lads humane conditions of
 work and full opportunities of         
training1 but these remained the        
privileges of a few1 and it was only    
through ,state interference that the    
many obtained their share4 ,as pointing 
the way to reform1 these other agencies 
have been1 and are1 of priceless value  
to the community1 but as themselves the 
instrument they have invariably proved a
 failure4 ,we are left1 then1 with two  

forces which alone need to be taken into
 account--the industrial organization   
and the ,state4 ,for the creation of the
 new apprenticeship system either the   
industrial organization must reform     
itself1 or the ,state must reform the   
industrial organization3 there is no    
third alternative4  ,let us begin with  
the first alternative1 and ask ourselves
 whether there is any reasonable hope of
 reform from within the industrial      
organization4 ,the experience of the    
past is uniformly hostile to any such   
expectation4 ,in the history of the last
 hundred years there is no single       
exception to the rule that all general  
improvements in the conditions of boy   
labour have come from without1 and not  
been carried out from within4 ,the      
experience of the present repeats in an 
even more emphatic way the experience of
 the past4 ,it is impossible to point to
 one single example of an industrial    
reform now in course of development1 and
 affecting on a large and beneficent    

scale the prospects or the training of  
the boy4 ,it would be easy to cite a    
hundred instances of the contrary       
process4 ,the whole of the last chapter 
is nothing but a detailed summary of the
 progressive defects of the industrial  
system1 and its attempts to exploit in  
its own interests the value of boy      
labour4 ,we saw how1 by the             
multiplication of blind-alley           
occupations1 the industrial system      
contrived to lay hold on and use up most
 of the products of an improved         
elementary education initiated by the   
,state4 ,past and present experience are
 in accord2 we cannot look for reform   
from within4  ,it is necessary to guard 
against a possible misinterpretation4   
,there is no thought here of blaming the
 employer4 ,the fight lies not between  
boy and employer1 but between the force 
of the ,state and the force of          
competition1 using the last word to     
denote the most marked characteristic of
 the industrial revolution4 ,the        

employer is in general as much a victim 
of the process as the boy4 ,he cannot be
 justly blamed for what he cannot be    
fairly expected to prevent4 ,the        
exigencies of competition drive him to  
select the cheapest methods of          
production at the moment4 ,if these     
methods involve the exploitation of the 
boy1 it is unfortunate for the boy1 but 
the employer has no other alternative4  
,to produce as cheaply as his neighbours
 is the one condition of success2 more  
remote considerations cannot enter into 
a business undertaking4 ,those          
well-intentioned persons1 with a        
smattering of ill-digested science and a
 system of economics far removed from   
all practical realities1 who talk       
amiably of the interests of employers   
and their boys1 as future workmen1 being
 identical1 confuse the good of the     
present generation with the good of the 
generation that comes after4 ,it is     
undoubtedly a fact that any system which
 injures the workers will in the        

long-run injure the trade of the        
country1 but this is true only in the   
long-run1 and the run is often very     
long4 ,now1 survival in business is     
determined in the immediate future4 ,the
 heavy charges on fixed capital1 the    
interest on outstanding loans1 the      
weekly wages bill1 and the long tale of 
daily outgoings1 make it impossible for 
the employer to follow proper methods of
 training in the hope that the new      
generation of workers will1 by their    
added efficiency1 recoup him for his    
expenditure4 ,to last till that time he 
must live through the interval1 must    
obtain that contract to-day1 this order 
to-morrow1 and must get it at a         
profit--in other words1 he must choose  
the cheapest method of production here  
and now2 there and next year will be too
 late4 ,it will be no inducement to him 
to reflect that his methods would in the
 long-run prove the best1 if he knows   
that he cannot stay the course4         
,competition is of to-day2 it takes no  

account of the happenings of to-morrow4 
,those who in the struggle cannot       
survive this year will not live to reap 
the harvest of future years4 ,agreement 
among employers on such questions has   
been found impossible2 the temptation to
 win by evasion an illicit success      
proves too strong for the majority4     
,those who pursue the better methods    
disappear2 those who pursue the worse   
survive to propagate their kind4 ,there 
is valid in the world of business a law 
somewhat analogous to ,gresham's law in 
matters of currency2 the bad pushes out 
and replaces the good4 ,there is a real 
struggle between the interests of one   
generation and the next4 ,the employer  
must concern himself with the things of 
his own day2 it is for the ,state1 whose
 life is ageless1 to guard the welfare  
of those who are to come4 ,by insisting 
on the methods that are good in the     
long-run1 by forbidding those which are 
good only in the immediate present1 it  
places all employers on the same level1 

and enables the best of them to do what 
was before impossible4 ,it does not     
thereby interfere with competition2 it  
merely changes the direction of         
competition by guiding it into less     
injurious channels4 ,but the secret of  
success1 as demonstrated by the         
experience of more than a century1 must 
be sought in the enactment of general   
regulations1 which will apply to all    
employers1 and not be looked for in what
 is sometimes termed the spirit of      
growing enlightenment4 ,unless it can be
 shown that the immediate interest of   
the employer is one with the proposed   
reform1 nothing really effective can be 
done by moral suasion2 while1 if the two
 are in accord1 moral suasion is        
superfluous4 ,it can hardly be supposed 
that the contemplative outsider should  
know the business of the employers      
better than they do themselves4 ,the    
mere fact of calling to our aid the     
power of moral suasion should be enough 
to show that enlightened self-interest  

will not suffice2 we do not appeal to a 
man's conscience when we can appeal to  
his pocket4 ,if1 then1 reform and the   
immediate interest are not in accord1   
consent on the part of one employer     
means risk of failure in a world where  
salvation depends on very small margins 
of profit4  ,it is1 therefore1 for the  
most part labour lost to devote time to 
the consideration of reforms which do   
not rest on the basis of legal          
obligation1 and we might at once turn to
 considerations of ,state control and   
,state enterprise if it were not for the
 fact that in the minds of many there   
still remains a hope of the coming of   
salvation from another direction4 ,they 
advocate the revival of the old         
indentured apprenticeship system1 and   
believe that they have only to explain  
the situation adequately to the employer
 for him to realize that his interests  
lie in its revival4 ,this belief        
assumes1 as already mentioned1 that the 
outsider knows the business of the      

employer better than he does himself--a 
tolerably large assumption4 ,we might   
drop the matter with this criticism1 but
 a re-examination of the old            
apprenticeship system1 in the light of  
the industrial revolution and of the    
proposals for its revival1 will help us 
on our journey towards the goal of the  
new apprenticeship4 ,such examination   
will show1 first1 the conditions which a
 true apprenticeship must fulfil2 and1  
secondly1 that those who hark back upon 
the past for their ideals of reform are 
conscious that the past must change its 
dress before it can hope to commend     
itself to the critical taste of the     
present4  ,now1 in its best form1 as was
 shown in the second chapter of this    
book1 the old apprenticeship system was 
a success4 ,it did afford means of      
adequate supervision over the youth of  
the country2 it did supply them with    
technical training2 and it did provide  
an opening in an occupation for which   
special preparation had been made4 ,but 

a closer examination of the problem     
showed that success depended on the     
satisfaction of three conditions3       
,first1 it was essential for the        
apprentice to live with his master1 or  
at any rate that the relations between  
the two should be of a paternal         
character2 the second essential was the 
universality of the small workshop1 with
 the facilities it gave for an all-round
 training2 and1 thirdly1 an essential   
part of the system was the existence of 
the gild1 which represented masters and 
men alike1 and in the interests of all  
inspected and controlled the methods of 
the workshop4 ,with the dissolution of  
the gilds we saw the first weakening of 
the apprenticeship system4 ,there was   
now no authority guarding the interests 
of the trade as a whole2 compulsory     
apprenticeship was often used as a means
 of supplying the employer with cheap   
and enforced labour1 for whose future he
 had no responsibility4 ,with the advent
 of the industrial revolution we watched

 the steady disappearance of the small  
workshop4 ,training became difficult1   
and often impossible4 ,with both masters
 and men formal apprenticeship lost     
favour1 and the system entered on its   
second stage of decay4 ,with the        
multiplication of blind-alley           
occupations1 with the growing cleavage  
between man's work and boy's work1 and  
with division of labour pushed to its   
utmost extreme1 came1 as has been       
proved1 the break-up of the             
apprenticeship system4  ,now1 there is  
nothing in the signs of the times to    
herald the approach of a new industrial 
revolution and a return to the old order
 of the ,middle ,ages4 ,machines and    
machine methods have come to stay1 and  
must stay if the varied needs of the    
huge populations of to-day are to be    
satisfied4 ,the more serious advocates  
of the revival of indentured            
apprenticeship admit this fact1 and     
fully realize that modifications of the 
system are necessary4 ,they suggest that

 committees of volunteers should assume 
certain of the functions of the gild2   
they should exercise a kindly           
supervision over the boy in his home1   
and take steps to insure that the       
conditions of the indenture are observed
 by the employer4 ,secondly1 they       
propose that the one-sided training of  
the workshop should be supplemented by  
technical classes provided by the       
education authority and supervised by an
 advisory committee of representatives  
of the trade4 ,finally1 they urge that  
these proposals1 so far from being      
visionary1 have actually been realized  
in practice with complete success4 ,why 
may not we look for a general extension 
of these methods8  ,the answer is       
tolerably obvious4 ,the experiments have
 undoubtedly been successful4 ,they have
 shown the steadying influence exerted  
over the boy by an indenture2 they have 
shown the advantages that come from     
friendly visiting at the home or the    
workshop2 they have shown the value of  

technical classes and trade schools     
supervised by representatives of the    
trade4 ,but what they have not shown is 
that the experiment1 while resting on a 
purely voluntary basis1 admits of       
indefinite expansion4 ,indeed1 the fact 
that the co-operation of the education  
authority is invoked1 in order to       
provide technical instruction that shall
 supplement the training of the         
workshop1 is sufficient evidence that we
 cannot dispense altogether with the    
assistance of the ,state4 ,but much more
 remains to be said against the         
possibility of indefinite extension4    
,take the case of indentures4 ,it is    
true that some employers can be found   
willing to receive indentured           
apprentices1 and some boys willing to be
 indentured4 ,but this does not affect  
the general rule that the conditions of 
the modern workshop do not allow of the 
use of apprentices1 whose training is   
enforceable at law1 or discount what is 
a matter of common observation--that    

neither employers nor boys like to bind 
themselves together for a period of     
years4 ,indentures may be an excellent  
plan for curbing the independence of the
 boy1 but it does not1 unfortunately1   
follow that the boys who most want      
curbing will be the boys who will accept
 this fretting restraint4 ,what happens 
in practice is that a select number of  
boys willing to submit to control are   
brought into relations with a select    
number of employers willing to be       
troubled with boys4 ,this is good as far
 as it goes1 but it goes no way in the  
direction of providing supervision for  
the boys who most need it4 ,or take     
again the question of supplementing in  
the technical institute the training of 
the workshop4 ,experience here and in   
other countries shows conclusively that 
technical instruction1 to be really     
effective1 must be given during the     
daytime1 when the lad is fresh1 and not 
during the evening1 when he is wearied  
out by the day's work4 ,but1 ignoring   

the necessarily limited number of cases 
in which boys are able to forgo earning 
altogether1 instruction during the day  
is possible only where employers allow  
their apprentices time off during the   
day to attend classes4 ,it is true that 
some few employers have given this      
permission1 but their number is strictly
 limited4 ,in the hope of extending the 
principle1 the ,london ,county ,council 
recently carried out an elaborate       
inquiry among employers1 but with very  
small results4 ,if we compare1 says the 
report1 the magnitude of the elaborate  
inquiry carried out by the principals of
 polytechnics and technical institutes1 
by the skilled employment committees1   
and by the ,council itself1 with the    
extent of the success attained1 we are  
bound to admit that the results are of  
the most meagre dimensions4 ,there      
appears no prospect of inducing         
employers on any large scale to         
co-operate with us in the establishment 
of a satisfactory system of 'part-time' 

classes4 #agc ,extension on a large     
scale and on a voluntary basis is       
impossible4  ,but1 neglecting the       
question of possibilities1 is the       
revival of an indentured apprenticeship1
 as a method of learning certain trades1
 in itself a thing to be desired8 ,there
 remains one difficulty that has never  
satisfactorily been surmounted4 ,if     
indentured apprenticeship is the door   
leading to a skilled trade1 there will  
be a movement in the trade to close all 
other doors4 ,those who have paid a     
premium1 or at any rate served their    
time for low wages1 cannot be expected  
to allow without complaint vacancies in 
the trade to be filled by men who have  
not passed through a similar period of  
servitude4 ,if the door is closed1 there
 is no way of recruiting the trade in   
times of expanding business4 ,but1 in   
general1 prohibition has not proved     
practical1 and other ways of entry are  
discovered1 and as these ways are       
easier1 it is only natural that people  

should tend to choose the easier path4  
,indentured apprenticeship has never    
escaped from this dilemma2 either the   
trade is closed to strangers when there 
is no means of expansion1 or the trade  
is open when there is no inducement to  
be apprenticed4 ,the change in modern   
industry1 with its tendency to break    
down the barriers between trade and     
trade1 only accentuates the acuteness of
 the dilemma4  ,finally1 assuming       
indentured apprenticeship to be both    
practical and desirable1 would it       
provide a solution for the problem of   
boy labour8 ,it is obvious that it would
 only touch a fringe of the question4   
,we have already seen that some         
two-thirds of the children1 as they     
leave the elementary school1 enter a    
form of occupation which leads only to  
unskilled labour1 and even for that     
provides no adequate training4 ,an      
apprenticeship system would not affect  
these two-thirds4 ,a boy cannot be      
apprenticed as an errand-boy1 or in one 

of those workshops where practically    
only boys are engaged4 ,not only is this
 class the most important in respect of 
numbers2 it is also the class most      
urgently in need of control4 ,it is here
 that degeneration and demoralization   
are most marked1 while it is here that  
indentured apprenticeship offers not    
even a shadow of a remedy4 ,a system    
which ignores the majority1 even if it  
provided for the favoured few1 cannot be
 regarded as affording a possible       
solution of the problem of boy labour4  
,we cannot1 therefore1 look to the      
revival of apprenticeship1 even when    
supplemented by technical training1 to  
carry us far on the road of reform4 ,it 
would1 however1 be a mistake to         
under-rate the lessons of the           
experiments4 ,they have shown the value 
of indentures as a means of controlling 
the boy2 they have shown the value of   
sympathetic supervision2 and they have  
shown the value of the technical school 
in widening the inadequate training of  

the workshop4 ,the defects of the       
experiment lay in the necessary         
limitations of the case4 ,remove the    
limitations1 and you remove the defects4
 ,we want universal indentures1         
universal supervision1 universal        
training4 ,to guard against the dangers 
of creating a privileged class through  
the establishment of an apprenticeship  
system we must see to it that all alike 
serve a period of apprenticeship4       
,obviously1 we cannot apprentice all    
boys to employers2 we must1 therefore1  
apprentice all boys to the ,state4      
,there is nothing new in this proposal4 
,already1 through the law of compulsory 
attendance at school1 all boys are so   
apprenticed between the ages of five and
 fourteen4 ,what is necessary is an     
extension of the period of an already   
existing apprenticeship system4  ,in the
 search of a means of preventing an     
evil1 the most difficult task is always 
to exclude the inadequate and the       
irrelevant4 ,when all paths of advance1 

with one exception1 have been blocked1  
there is no longer any choice or risk of
 losing one's way4 ,we have now seen    
that all ways1 except the way of        
collective control and collective       
enterprise1 fail to reach the desired   
goal1 and1 having exhausted all other   
alternatives1 must fall back upon the   
,state4 ,some do this willingly1 some   
reluctantly1 but all1 with a few        
exceptions that may be disregarded1     
appeal to the ,state when they are      
convinced that help can be looked for   
from no other source4 ,we are now in    
that position1 and must frankly face the
 situation4  ,failing assistance in any 
other direction1 we must call on the    
,state to organize a new apprenticeship 
system4 ,such a system must make due    
provision for supervision1 training1 and
 an opening4 ,it remains to be          
considered how these three essentials   
can be secured4   ,i  ,,supervision4  ,a
 boy must be under some sort of         
supervision until he reaches at least   

the age of eighteen4 ,such supervision  
must have respect to his physical       
well-being as well as to his conduct4   
,neither the home1 nor philanthropy1 nor
 the workshop can be looked for to      
provide this supervision4 ,they have all
 failed1 and that failure is            
progressive4 ,the ,state remains as our 
only hope4 ,the ,state has not failed2  
it has made impossible the worst abuses 
of child labour1 and through its        
educational system has been an influence
 for good in the moral and physical     
development of the children4 ,its       
success has been great1 and that success
 has been progressive4 ,where it has    
failed1 it has failed because its       
supervision has been withdrawn too soon4
 ,the remedy is obvious3 we must extend 
the sphere of ,state supervision4 ,three
 reforms are urgently necessary3 7#a7   
,the raising of the age of compulsory   
attendance to fifteen2 7#b7 the complete
 prohibition of the employment of       
school-children for wages2 and 7#c7 the 

compulsory attendance of lads between   
the ages of fifteen and eighteen at some
 place of education for at least half   
the working day4 ,with regard to these  
proposals1 it may be said that all three
 are supported by the ,minority ,report 
of the ,poor ,law ,commission and by the
 labour organizations which have in     
general expressed their approval of that
 ,report4 7#a7 and 7#c7 are the         
recommendations of the ,report of the   
,education ,committee of the ,london    
,county ,council1 adopted unanimously by
 that body in ,february1 #aiji2 while   
7#a7 and 7#c7 also received a qualified 
approval from the ,majority ,report of  
the ,poor ,law ,commission1 and from the
 ,report of the ,consultative ,committee
 of the ,board of ,education on         
,continuation ,schools4 ,they have1     
therefore1 behind them a strong backing 
of expert opinion4  7a7 ,the ,raising of
 the ,school ,age4  ,more than ten years
 have elapsed since ,parliament last    
raised the age of compulsory attendance4

 ,there is almost universal agreement   
that the time has come for adding       
another year4 ,the discipline of the    
school is successful while it lasts1 but
 fails in permanent effect because it is
 withdrawn too soon4 ,in the last       
chapter we saw from the study of the    
census tables that for at least the     
first year after school the boys have   
settled down to no very fixed           
employment4 ,many of the skilled trades 
do not take learners and apprentices    
before the age of fifteen4 ,it is clear1
 say the ,education ,committee of the   
,london ,county ,council1 that the year 
after leaving school--the year1 that is1
 between the ages of fourteen and       
fifteen--is for the children concerned a
 year of uncertainty4 ,nearly half are  
returned as without specified           
occupation4 ,no doubt a large proportion
 of the number are attending some place 
of education1 but it is no less true    
that a considerable number are not      
classified1 because for the time being  

they are doing nothing4 ,they have      
thrown up one situation and are looking 
out for another4 ,in this respect we    
must remember that it is a common       
practice--at any rate1 so far as the    
poorer section of the community is      
concerned--for the children1 and not    
their parents1 to select for themselves 
the form of occupation and find for     
themselves situations4 ,the children are
 too young to choose wisely1 and1 as a  
natural consequence1 shift from place to
 place until they discover something    
that suits their taste or ability4 ,it  
would be difficult to imagine a more    
unsatisfactory method of training4 ,till
 the age of fourteen they are carefully 
looked after in school2 at the age of   
fourteen they are set free from all     
forms of discipline1 and become         
practically their own masters4 ,we must 
not1 therefore1 be surprised that under 
such conditions the effect of the school
 training is transient1 and the large   
amount of money spent on their education

 to a great extent wasted4 #agd ,and1   
summing up the whole case for the       
raising of the school age1 the          
,education ,committee say3 ,the         
advantages of keeping children at school
 until the age of fifteen are many and  
obvious4 ,they receive an extra year's  
instruction at a time when they are most
 apt to learn2 they are kept for another
 year under discipline just at the      
period when it is easiest to influence  
permanently the development of          
character4 ,with the extension they     
escape the year of aimless drifting from
 occupation to occupation1 and1 when    
called on to choose a profession1 they  
will have a year's extra experience to  
help them in the choice4 ,we may hope   
that under these new conditions the     
tendency to follow the line of greatest 
initial wages will decrease1 and be     
replaced by a tendency to consider as of
 paramount importance prospects of      
training and hope of future advancement4
 #age  ,in raising the school age we    

should take the opportunity of getting  
rid of certain anomalies which now      
exist4 ,while for the vast majority of  
children in ,london and many other      
places attendance is compulsory up to   
the age of fourteen1 exemption is       
possible at the age of twelve and       
thirteen for a small minority4 ,in      
certain parts of the country large      
numbers of children are allowed to leave
 before the age of fourteen4 ,it is     
unfortunate that it is the cleverest    
children who are entitled to this       
earlier exemption4 ,we are here looking 
at the problem of apprenticeship from   
the standpoint of supervision1 and in   
the case of supervision age and not     
mental attainment must be the           
determining principle4 ,the bright      
precocious boy of twelve or thirteen is 
precisely the boy who stands most in    
need of control4 ,morally and physically
 he is likely to suffer from the effects
 of premature freedom4 ,the sleepy      
dullard1 who is kept at school until    

fourteen1 could be freed from discipline
 at an earlier age1 with less risk of   
serious harm4 ,in raising1 then1 the age
 of compulsory attendance to fifteen1 we
 must abolish the privileges of         
exemption and the powers of local       
option1 and enact that all children     
shall attend school full time until they
 reach the age of fifteen4  7b7 ,the    
,prohibition of ,child ,labour4  ,much  
space has in this volume been devoted to
 the task of demonstrating the extent   
and the evils of child labour4 ,it has  
been shown that anything except the very
 lightest employment is physically      
injurious4 ,it has been made clear that 
the work in which children are engaged  
is frequently demoralizing1 while it    
never paves the way to entering a       
skilled trade when school is left4 ,they
 are essentially blind-alley            
occupations4 ,further1 we have seen good
 reason to believe that the habit of    
earning money and the precocious sense  
of independence so encouraged are not in

 the best interests of order and        
discipline4 ,we note the evil in its    
worst form under the half-time system4  
,the half-timers1 we are told1 become   
clever at repartee and in the use of    
'mannish' phrases1 which sound clever   
when they dare use them4 ,they lose     
their childish habits 444 some of the   
boys commence to smoke and to use bad   
language4 #agf ,finally1 it has been    
proved that limitation of the hours of  
employment in the case of               
school-children is in practice          
impossible2 there is no ready way of    
detecting breaches of the law4 ,we are1 
therefore1 driven to the conclusion     
that1 unless the evils are to           
remain--and this is not tolerable--we   
must prohibit altogether the employment 
for wages of children liable to attend  
school full time4  ,various objections  
are made to the proposal4 ,we are told  
by many of the witnesses who appeared   
before the ,interdepartmental ,committee
 on ,wage-earning ,children that a      

little light work was good for boys2 it 
kept them out of mischief4 ,ignoring the
 difficulties of insuring that the work 
shall be little and light1 they do not  
seem to make out their case4 ,in        
,london1 as has been shown1 not more    
than a quarter of the boys during the   
course of their school time are ever    
engaged seriously in paid employment4   
,if1 therefore1 the work was beneficial1
 we should expect to find in the        
after-career of the #be per cent4       
evidence of the advantages they have    
enjoyed1 and in the case of the #ge per 
cent4 signs of failure due to their less
 fortunate training4 ,but all experience
 points in the opposite direction4 ,it  
is the #be per cent4 who drift most     
generally into the blind-alley          
occupations2 it is from this #be per    
cent4 that the majority of hooligans and
 youthful criminals are recruited4  ,it 
is also argued that there are certain   
tasks which only children can perform1  
because they occupy only a small portion

 of the day4 ,papers must be delivered  
and milk left at people's houses4 ,but  
in ,germany much of this work is done by
 old men1#agg and even in this country  
the knocker-up in the morning is not a  
child1 but an old man4 ,employers in the
 textile trades declared that it is only
 by beginning young that children can   
acquire the necessary quickness and     
deftness of touch4 ,but as these trades 
absorb in the adult service only a small
 proportion of the children engaged1 and
 seeing that in many instances the      
half-time system has been dropped as    
uneconomic1 there does not seem much    
force in this objection4 ,moreover1 it  
cannot be beyond the power of manual    
training in the schools to provide a    
fitting and less injurious substitute4  
,the arguments in favour of the         
continued employment of school-children 
are the arguments of the old world1 and 
the new world is becoming a little tired
 of the arguments of these old-world    
people4 ,the time has come to make a    

stand1 and insist that for all children 
there shall be insured the blessings of 
childhood4 ,the first step in this      
direction lies in making it impossible  
for them to enter the ranks of the      
wage-earners as long as their names     
remain on the roll of the elementary    
school4  7c7 ,the ,new ,half-,time      
,system4  ,the proposals for raising the
 school age and for prohibiting child   
labour during that period will do much  
to strengthen the system of supervision4
 ,another year of school discipline2    
another year of medical inspection and  
medical treatment2 protection during    
another year from the evil effects of   
overwork and from the demoralization due
 to blind-alley occupations and         
premature earning--these reforms will   
bring us some way on our journey towards
 the new apprenticeship1 but they will  
not bring us the whole way4 ,there      
remain the three years which lie between
 the ages of fifteen and eighteen1 and  
include the greater part of the period  

of adolescence--in some respects the    
most important period in the development
 of a human being4 ,it is during these  
years that character begins to take its 
permanent set2 it is during these years 
that1 with the coming of puberty1 there 
is most risk of ugly and dangerous      
outbreaks2 it is during these years that
 physical health demands the most       
careful attention2 and it is during     
these years that1 with the exception of 
the failures of civilization--the       
physically1 the mentally1 and the       
morally defective--there is no real     
supervision or1 under existing          
conditions1 any hope of securing it4    
,to allow irresponsible freedom during  
these years is to court disaster2 to    
give it suddenly and in an unqualified  
degree1 as it is given now when the     
school career is brought to an abrupt   
end1 is to follow a course condemned by 
all educationalists4 ,no parent1 even   
the most thoughtless1 among the         
well-to-do classes would think of       

treating his son in this fashion4 ,his  
whole scheme of education is founded on 
the principle of a slow and gradual     
loosening of the bonds of discipline4   
,the close supervision of the private   
school is replaced by the larger liberty
 of the public school1 which in turn    
opens into the greater but still        
restricted freedom of the ,university4  
,freedom must come slowly4 ,we want a   
bridge between the elementary school of 
the boy and the full-time workshop of   
the man4 ,such a bridge would be created
 by the establishment of the proposed   
half-time system4 ,for half the day--or 
at any rate1 for half his time--the lad 
between the ages of fifteen and eighteen
 would be compelled to attend a place of
 education1 and only during the         
remaining half be permitted to undertake
 employment for wages4 ,the advantages  
of this proposal are many4 ,first1 the  
influence of the school would be        
retained for an additional three years1 
and under the half-time system the      

freedom of the youthful wage-earner     
would find a suitable limitation in the 
half-time control of the school4        
,secondly1 we should have the           
opportunity of another three years'     
medical inspection and medical          
treatment4 ,with supervision over the   
health of the community continued until 
the age of eighteen we might fairly     
anticipate a rapid improvement in the   
physical efficiency of the worker4 ,in  
particular1 we should be able to detect1
 in a way now impossible1 the effects of
 various forms of employment on those   
engaged in them4 ,inspection under the  
provisions of the ,factory and          
,workshops ,act1 as has been shown1 is  
too limited in character to do more than
 pick out a few young persons obviously 
unfit for the occupation they have      
selected2 but1 with the education       
authority responsible for the health of 
juveniles1 and using to the full extent 
its powers to provide preventive        
measures or to veto in the case of      

certain individuals certain forms of    
work1 we should have gone far to secure 
that no one should enter on or remain in
 a trade for which he was physically    
unfit4 ,thirdly1 as already shown1 a    
half-time system is the only really     
effective way of limiting the hours of  
juvenile employment4 ,if the lad is     
compelled to be elsewhere than in the   
workshop for half his time1 we have an  
automatic check on excessive work4      
,other advantages of this system will   
appear when we come to deal with        
questions of training and the provision 
of an opening4  ,the half-time system   
should be made compulsory throughout the
 country2 it ought not to be left to    
local option to decide4 ,the local      
rating authority naturally wishes to    
encourage the establishment of workshops
 and factories within its area1 and     
would be unwilling to adopt ,acts which 
might prove a deterrent4 ,it would be a 
most unsatisfactory state of affairs for
 employers to evade the spirit of the   

law by moving into districts where the  
law was not enforced4 ,it is a little   
unfortunate that the ,education         
7,scotland7 ,act1 #aijh1 which allows a 
limited amount of compulsion in         
connection with continuation schools1 is
 founded on the principle of local      
option4 ,the recommendations of the     
,consultative ,committee of the ,board  
of ,education are vitiated in a similar 
way4 ,local option can never be really  
successful4 ,it will elect to act only  
where there is least opposition from    
employers--in other words1 where action 
is least necessary2 and it will do      
nothing where boy labour is most        
exploited and regulation most urgently  
required4 ,in one direction alone can   
local option be allowed with advantage4 
,it may be permitted to decide on the   
precise kind or kinds of half-time to be
 enforced within their area4 ,boys might
 attend school on the half-day system or
 on the alternate day system4 ,or1      
again1 they might spend three days in   

the workshop and three days in the      
school1 or under certain circumstances  
devote six months of the year to the    
workshop and the remaining six months to
 the school4 ,it would be desirable to  
allow the local authority considerable  
liberty in their methods of adapting the
 half-time system to the special needs  
of the trades of the district1 provided 
always that a true half-time system was 
established4  ,there is no serious      
difficulty in the way of compelling     
attendance at the half-time school4 ,it 
would be enforced just as attendance at 
the elementary school is enforced1 and  
by the same officers4 ,further1 no      
employer would be permitted to employ a 
boy between the ages of fifteen and     
eighteen who could not show satisfactory
 evidence of attendance at school4 ,or  
if1 as may be the case1 it is found     
desirable to permit boys to be engaged  
only by means of the ,labour ,exchange1 
the ,labour ,exchange itself would prove
 a most effective way of enforcing      

attendance4  ,there is nothing new or   
impracticable in the principle of the   
proposal4 ,compulsory attendance at     
continuation schools can be required in 
,scotland4 ,such attendance is          
compulsory in parts of ,germany and     
,switzerland4#agh ,it is exacted by     
certain employers in this country from  
their apprentices4 ,further1 the fact   
that for many years the half-time system
 has been in use in the case of many    
important industries1 and tens of       
thousands of children so employed1      
demonstrates clearly enough that there  
is nothing impossible in the application
 of a half-time system to juveniles4 ,it
 would1 no doubt1 cause some            
inconvenience1 and some employers might 
dispense with the services of juveniles2
 but no more difficulty would arise than
 has arisen when any fresh regulations  
have been imposed2 and we should see1 as
 we have always done in the past1 the   
employers who predicted inevitable ruin 
before the event1 as soon as the        

proposal became law adapt themselves1   
with that placid content and admirable  
success which they have always displayed
 after the event1 to the new condition  
of affairs4  7d7 ,the ,parents' ,point  
of ,view4  ,the three proposals just    
made have one characteristic in         
common-they all directly set a limit to 
the employment of children and young    
persons4 ,it is possible that some      
readers may regard them from another    
point of view1 and say that in limiting 
employment they seriously diminish the  
income of the family4 ,will the poor    
parent1 whose lot is pitiable enough as 
things are1 be able to stand the loss8  
,in considering this1 the parents' point
 of view1 we must guard against being   
caught in the noose of a vicious circle4
 ,we must not perpetuate an evil in     
order to mitigate its present effects4  
,many1 probably most1 of those parents  
whose income hovers about the margin of 
possible existence are in this pitiful  
position because their own childhood has

 been neglected4 ,as children1 they have
 been overworked1 and they are now      
physically unfit for regular employment2
 as children1 they have been allowed to 
go uncontrolled and untrained1 and now1 
as men1 they are paying a heavy tax for 
the earnings of their boyhood4 ,they    
receive little because they are worth   
little2 their work is precarious because
 the sphere of their usefulness is      
small4 ,we must not allow their children
 to live as they lived when children1   
and so pass on to the next generation   
the taint of inefficiency and its       
consequent wages of starvation merely   
because to-day wages of starvation need 
to be supplemented4 ,we can never hope  
to overtake and pass an evil if we      
always cast it in front of us4 ,the one 
clear message to the reformer of to-day 
is that he should look to prevention1   
and not merely to cure2 and the one     
clear hope of a nation's future lies in 
insuring to every youth1 as he crosses  
the threshold of manhood1 the fullest   

realization of that development whose   
promise was his at birth4 ,it might be  
well worth while for a country lavishly 
to endow poverty for a generation in    
order to free itself once for all from  
its fatal infection4 ,but there is no   
reason to believe that we must resort to
 this drastic measure because there is  
no reason to believe that the proposed  
restrictions of child labour will in any
 way injure the parents4  ,take first   
the earnings of school-children4 ,there 
is very little reason to believe that   
they often make any effective           
contribution to the income of the home4 
,they are irregular1 they are small1 and
 very frequently the boys retain them as
 pocket-money4 ,where they are large1 as
 in the case of children employed during
 the pantomime season1 they often form a
 convenient excuse for the parent to go 
idle for a time4 ,the only large        
exception to this rule is the case of   
the widow4 ,here1 indeed1 the earnings  
do usually find their way home1         

materially increase the miserable       
pittance allowed by the guardians1 and  
must be regarded as a tax levied on     
children in aid of the ratepayer4       
,humanity and a reformed ,poor ,law may 
be trusted to remove the tax4  ,take    
next the raising of the school age to   
fifteen4 ,the age has not been raised   
for more than ten years1 and when it was
 last raised it was raised without      
friction and without complaint on the   
part of the parent4 ,we might1 perhaps1 
have expected that the percentage of    
attendance would have decreased because 
of the difficulty of enforcing it on the
 children of poverty-stricken parents4  
,this has not been the experience2      
indeed1 the last decade has been        
remarkable for the rapid rise in that   
percentage4 ,there is not a scrap of    
evidence to show that the last raising  
of the school age caused even temporary 
suffering on a large scale4 ,never was a
 large reform carried out with greater  
ease4 ,there is no reason to believe    

that1 if we raised the age again1 that  
favourable experience would not be      
repeated4  ,we come now to the new      
half-time system4 ,the earnings of boys 
between fifteen and eighteen years are  
considerable4 ,to diminish them by      
one-half1 it is urged1 would be to adopt
 a course which would prove intolerable 
to the poor parent4 ,now1 in the first  
place1 though it is true that the lads  
could be employed for only half the time
 they were before1 it by no means       
follows that they would only receive    
half the present money4 ,we have already
 seen that the demand for boys far      
outruns the supply4 ,the half-time      
system would halve the supply1 and1     
though some employers might cease to use
 boys1 the demand would certainly not be
 halved4 ,the demand for boys would then
 considerably exceed the demand of      
to-day4 ,the rate of wages would1 in    
consequence1 rise4 ,the boys would no   
doubt earn less1 but certainly more than
 half of what they now earn4 ,in the    

next place1 it must be remembered that  
the parent rarely receives the whole of 
the boy's earnings even during the first
 year1 and each year the proportion of  
wages that comes to the home grows less4
 ,at the age of seventeen it is seldom  
that more than half finds its way into  
the family exchequer4 ,the boy keeps the
 rest1 and1 as we have already seen1 the
 large amount of money he has to spend  
on himself is by no means an unmixed    
benefit4 ,the parent cannot usually get 
from the boy much more than is required 
to keep him2 indeed1 he is afraid to    
enlarge his demand lest the boy1 who is 
economically independent1 should leave  
home4 ,but under the half-time system1  
though he may earn his keep1 he will    
rarely earn enough to support himself   
outside the family4 ,in addition1 the   
fact of being compelled to attend school
 will be a healthy reminder that he is  
not yet a man1 and so check the growing 
spirit of independence4 ,home influence 
and parental authority will thus be     

strengthened1 and the father will be    
able to exact a much larger share than  
before of the boy's earnings4 ,now1 if  
the earnings are not diminished by so   
much as half1 and if at the same time   
the parent obtain an increased          
proportion1 it is by no means clear that
 the home affairs will suffer4 ,among   
the poorest families1 where home        
discipline ceases altogether when the   
boy leaves school1 it is quite possible 
that the financial position of the      
parent will be improved rather than     
worsened4  ,but we have not yet taken   
into account what is1 perhaps1 the most 
important consideration4 ,the three     
proposals under discussion will         
undoubtedly largely diminish the amount 
of work performed by boys1 but will not 
diminish the amount of work that        
requires to be done4 ,somebody must take
 up the tasks formerly allotted to boys1
 and1 if boys fail1 men must fill their 
place4 ,now1 the work was given to boys 
because1 to give it to men would cost   

more4 ,in future1 the work will be given
 to men1 and more money will be paid for
 it than before4 ,in other words1 the   
increased earnings of men will more than
 make up for the diminished earnings of 
boys1 and much more than compensate for 
the loss1 because1 as we have seen1 only
 a portion of the boys' earnings ever   
reach the home4 ,or we may look at the  
question from another point of view1 and
 say that the decreased use of boys will
 mean an increase in the demand for men1
 and1 consequently1 an increase in the  
wages of men4 ,the ,minority ,report of 
the ,poor ,law ,commission arrives at   
these three proposals by starting from  
the opposite point of view1 and         
advocates their adoption not primarily  
for the good of the boys1 but for the   
good of their parents4 ,in the task of  
decasualizing labour1 they are met with 
the difficulty that a considerable      
number of men will in the process be    
thrown out of employment altogether4    
,work must be found for them1 and the   

easiest and the best way to find it is  
shown to be the withdrawal from the     
labour market of persons1 like children1
 who ought not either to be employed at 
all or to be employed for such long     
hours as at present4 ,hence arises the  
suggestion of a rigid limitation of boy 
labour4 ,it is much in favour of these  
proposals that they are the outcome of  
an elaborate analysis which in the one  
case begins with the man1 and in the    
other with the child4 ,we may take it1  
then1 as clear that1 from the parents'  
point of view1 there is nothing to      
hinder us in raising the school age to  
fifteen1 prohibiting the employment of  
school-children1 and instituting a new  
half-time system4   ,,ii4  ,,training4  
,the second essential in an             
apprenticeship system worthy the name is
 the provision of adequate training4    
,the word training is used in its       
broadest sense to include preparation1  
not only for the life of the workman1   
but for the life of the citizen as well4

 ,in the preceding chapter we have seen 
that the scholarship schemes1 connecting
 the elementary school with the         
,university1 and rapidly increasing     
throughout the country1 are offering    
opportunities of training for those     
likely to rise high in the professional1
 the commercial1 and the industrial     
world4 ,it is probable that sufficient  
attention has not as yet been given to  
the supply of the most advanced kind of 
technological instruction1 but the fault
 is being remedied1 and the defect is   
due rather to lack of knowledge than to 
lack of will2 and it is the instruction1
 and not the facilities of access to it1
 that is wanting4  ,what we are         
concerned with in this chapter is the   
training of those destined to fill the  
posts of foremen and managers of small  
undertakings1 of the skilled workmen of 
the future1 and of those never likely to
 rise above the ranks of unskilled      
labour4 ,we are also concerned with     
those who will occupy corresponding     

positions in the commercial world4 ,it  
has already been shown that the training
 of these persons is one-sided and      
inadequate1 and1 in the case of the     
majority1 can hardly be said to exist at
 all4 ,on the other hand1 we have seen  
good reason to believe that the         
technical school can be1 if not a       
complete substitute for the workshop1 at
 any rate a necessary and fitting       
supplement4 ,the day has gone by when it
 was necessary to argue at length the   
uses of technical instruction4          
,employers in this country1 as they have
 long since done on the ,continent and  
in ,america1 recognize the advantages4  
,yearly1 whether by compelling the lads 
in their service to attend the technical
 school1 or forming themselves into     
committees to advise as to the most     
desirable methods of teaching1 they are 
displaying a keener interest in the     
question1 and a fuller faith in the     
possibilities of practical training     
given outside the walls of the workshop4

  ,the defect of existing arrangements  
has been shown to lie in their          
limitation4 ,for the majority technical 
instruction has been unsatisfactory or  
impossible of access4 ,we must show in  
the present chapter how all may enjoy   
the advantages of training2 but before  
doing so we must consider1 a little more
 closely than has been done before1 the 
kind of training required by the petty  
officers and the rank and file of the   
industrial army4  ,in much of the       
preceding discussion it has been assumed
 that what the man wants is an all-round
 training4 ,this is undoubtedly a fact1 
but by an all-round training is not     
necessarily meant a training that will  
produce a craftsman of the old school1  
equally capable of turning his hand     
successfully to any of the operations   
with which his trade is concerned4      
,except in rural districts1 in a few of 
the artistic crafts1 and in certain     
branches of repairing work1 a man of    
this kind is not generally required4 ,it

 seems probable that the industrial     
tendencies of to-day are making         
decreasing demands for purely manual    
skill4 ,the ,report of the ,poor ,law   
,commission contains a valuable         
discussion of the question1 and sums up 
the conclusions in the following        
passage3 ,the general trend of our      
answers was that the 'skill' of modern  
industry is scarcely comparable with the
 skill of labour in the past4 ,one might
 say that1 within twenty years1 with the
 universal employment of machinery and  
the excessive subdivision and           
specialization of its use1 the character
 of the productive process has quite    
changed4 ,there is a growing demand for 
higher intelligence on the part of the  
few2 a large and probably growing demand
 for specialized machine-minders2 and1  
unhappily1 a relegation of those who    
cannot adapt themselves to a quite      
inferior1 if not worse paid1 position4  
,if1 then1 the 'skill' which we might   
have looked for and desired is what     

might be called 'craftsmanship1' we must
 conclude that the demand for skill is1 
on the whole1 declining4 ,the all-round 
ability which used honourably to mark   
out the mechanic is no longer in demand1
 so much as the work of the highly      
specialized machine-minder4 #agi ,but if
 there seems a less demand for all-round
 skill1 there appears to be an          
increasing demand for trained           
intelligence4 ,in the greater industries
 employing adult male labour1           
'machinery' does not in the least       
resemble the long lines of revolving    
spindles one sees in a cotton mill4 ,in 
the machine tools of an engineering shop
 there is comparatively little of such  
automatism1 and1 even where the machines
 are automatic1 single men are put in   
charge of a number of machines1 and the 
setting and supervising of these is work
 probably demanding a higher level of   
intelligence than ever before4 ',i      
should say the skilled men require even 
more skill than they did1' says ,mr4    

,barnes1 'because of the finer work and 
more intricate machinery4444 ,side by   
side with automatic machines there has  
come about more intricate and highly    
complicated machinery4' ',the           
semi-skilled of to-day1' says ,sir      
,benjamin ,c4 ,brown1 'is in many cases 
as good as the skilled was a quarter of 
a century ago4' #ahj ,or1 as another    
witness puts it3 ,the tendency of       
machinery is always to cause a          
substitution of intelligence for        
dexterity1 the person who was in effect 
a machine by reason of his dexterity    
giving place to one who could understand
 a direct and mechanical process4 #aha  
,there seems also good reason to believe
 that the demand for intelligence       
outruns the supply4  ,in the workmen1   
usually classed as skilled1 the employer
 requires intelligence1 but he wants    
something more2 he wants                
trustworthiness1 and frequently a       
certain highly specialized manual       
dexterity4 ,the training of the workshop

 can supply the third of these          
qualifications2 it cannot1 however1     
supply the other two1 which are in the  
main the products of education4 ,but    
between the second and the third there  
is a certain antagonism4 ,monotony in   
the workshop does not cultivate         
intelligence2 it is actively hostile to 
such growth4 ,unless there is a         
well-trained intelligence to begin with1
 the continual performance of a single  
task will reduce the man to the level of
 a mere machine4 ,now1 the employer does
 not want a mere machine2 if he did1 in 
these days of inventive genius1 he would
 soon discover something more reliable  
in the way of machines than flesh and   
blood4 ,he wants a machine with         
intelligence2 he must therefore have a  
man4 ,but the intelligence must rest on 
a broad basis of education1 or the      
machine element will prove too much for 
it4 ,this is the reason of the          
statement1 found so often in evidence on
 technical training given by enlightened

 employers1 that what is mostly required
 is a good general education4  ,now we  
are coming to see that a general        
education does not imply a certain      
specific syllabus of instruction2 it may
 be the result of the most varied kinds 
of instruction4 ,we have ceased to take 
the narrow view that it consists only in
 book-learning and aptness with the pen4
 ,we have recognized that manual        
training may rightly play a large part  
in any system of education1 and for the 
full development of certain types of    
mind is absolutely indispensable4       
,consequently1 though the employer does 
not need the man of all-round skill1    
there is no reason why the workman      
should not acquire a general use of the 
tools employed in his trade4 ,whatever  
it may be to the employer1 the          
possession of a certain amount of       
all-round skill is not a matter of      
indifference to the workman4 ,if he can 
boast skill in a single operation alone1
 the bridge that lifts him above the    

gulf of unskilled labour is very        
fragile4 ,a change in demand or a new   
invention may any day render his        
specialized skill useless1 and          
precipitate him into that gulf whence is
 no escape4 ,but this is not the case   
with the man who has received an        
all-round training4 ,thrust out of one  
branch of the trade1 he can1 if         
intelligent1 comparatively easily find  
an opening in another4 ,the all-round   
skill1 though not required in the       
workshop1 is necessary to the man if his
 position in the skilled labour market  
is to be secure4 ,in a sense1 the       
measure of his all-round skill is the   
measure of the stability of his         
industrial status4 ,further1 the        
possession of all-round skill is a      
necessary condition of the possession of
 intelligence4 ,it gives a man a clearer
 insight into the significance of his   
trade1 and robs monotony of some part of
 its soul-killing power4 ,pure          
specialization is hostile to            

intelligence2 the man who can only do   
one thing cannot do that one thing well4
 ,finally1 from these skilled workmen   
must be chosen the foremen and small    
managers1 and these people must possess 
the wider knowledge and a more varied   
skill4 ,to a large extent at the present
 time they are not recruited from the   
large workshop2 they come from the      
country district1 where this all-round  
skill can still be acquired4 ,but1 as we
 have seen1 this supply is not          
inexhaustible1 and there are signs that 
the methods of the industrial revolution
 are invading the village4 ,unless1     
therefore1 we are prepared to see a     
scarcity of trained foremen in the      
future1 we must to-day aim at producing 
the skilled workman1 who is at once     
intelligent and possesses a general     
knowledge of the tools of his trade4    
,we do not to-day1 says ,sir            
,christopher ,furness1 want men who are 
all-round at building marine engines2 we
 do need men who are all-round          

mechanical engineers--men who can apply 
the principles of their craft to any    
form of machinery that may be called    
for4 ,that is a class of training which 
cannot be achieved by any system of     
apprenticeship1 and is essentially a    
matter which the governing authority    
must handle if this country is to       
maintain its position in the industrial 
world4 #ahb ,the characteristics1 says  
the ,consultative ,committee1 that      
employers most value and most deplore   
the lack of would appear to be general  
handiness 7which is really to a large   
extent a mental quality71 adaptability  
and alertness1 habits of                
observation--and the power to express   
the thing observed--accuracy1           
resourcefulness1 the ability to grapple 
with new unfamiliar conditions1 the     
habit of applying one's mind and one's  
knowledge to what one has to do4 #ahc   
,it is clear that within the narrow     
sphere of the workshop an all-round     
training of this kind can never be      

secured4  ,we must look1 then1 to the   
elementary schools supplemented by the  
technical institute1 to insure to the   
workmen an all-round intelligence and a 
general knowledge of the use of tools   
employed in his trade4 ,for commerce1   
intelligence and an all-round training  
are no less necessary4 ,you produce a   
better clerk1 it has been said1 if the  
boy takes an industrial rather than a   
commercial course4 ,there is therefore  
no conflict of interest between what the
 employer wants and what the workman    
wants4 ,the employer wants intelligence1
 and cannot get it from a workman who   
does not possess a general knowledge of 
his trade4 ,the workman wants an        
all-round knowledge of his trade because
 without it his position as a skilled   
artisan is precarious and at the mercy  
of every new invention or change in     
fashion4  ,we have hitherto spoken as if
 all were skilled workmen1 and as though
 the unskilled labourer did not exist4  
,now1 there are at the present time huge

 armies of men that can by no stretch of
 imagination be regarded as skilled at  
anything2 but it is by no means clear   
that it is desirable for this huge army 
to continue as such4 ,it is generally   
assumed that the performance of         
so-called unskilled work requires no    
training and makes no demand on skill4  
,this is a grave mistake2 let anyone1   
without previous experience1 try a day's
 digging in his garden1 and he will     
realize the fact4 ,but it is not merely 
a question of manual training and       
practice2 the unskilled labourer1 to be 
efficient1 needs intelligence4 ,skilled 
and unskilled work call for1 in this age
 of machines1 more intelligence than was
 wanted in the past4 ,almost everyone   
nowadays uses a machine of some sort2   
and there can be no question that in    
such use there is a serious lack of     
intelligence4 ,the unskilled labour     
engaged with machinery is almost always 
inadequate and unsatisfactory4 ,the     
agricultural labourer1 for example1 has 

to manage machines whose complex        
mechanism is far beyond his ill-trained 
intelligence to comprehend4 ,the same   
may be said of the general run of       
machine-minders4 ,breakdowns1 stoppages1
 and accidents are the costly           
consequences of their defect4 ,of all   
forms of labour1 the unskilled labour of
 to-day is probably the most expensive  
to the employer4 ,the labourer is worth1
 as a rule1 little more than he         
receives1 and1 not infrequently1 a good 
deal less4 ,the preservation of         
stupidity is among the most foolish and 
most expensive of modern luxuries4 ,what
 the employer wants is the intelligent  
unskilled labourer1 and such a class    
must be the product1 not of the         
workshop1 but of the schools4 ,the      
training to be provided would be very   
similar to that required by the skilled 
workman4  ,from the point of view of the
 employer1 we require more intelligence 
in the unskilled labourer2 from the     
point of view of the community and the  

man himself1 the need is even more      
urgent4 ,we must not forget the man in  
the labourer4 ,he is not for all his    
time an unskilled labourer2 he is the   
autocrat of the home1 the father of a   
family1 and1 as a voter1 one of the     
rulers of the ,empire4 ,these last      
functions belong essentially to the     
highly skilled class of work4           
,uneducated parents are a danger to     
their children1 and so to the future    
prosperity of the nation2 the illiterate
 voters a peril to the safety of the    
,state4 ,finally1 the man himself1 with 
a wider outlook on the world1 and with a
 life richer in interests1 and so with  
more opportunities of healthy enjoyment1
 would be a happier and a better        
citizen4 ,the shame of modern           
civilization and the abiding menace to  
its security lie in the miserable horde 
of stupid1 unintelligent1 and           
uninterested labourers who are good for 
nothing except the exercise of mere     
brute strength and indulgence in mere   

animal pleasures1 and not very much good
 even for this4  ,looking1 then1 at the 
problem of the training of skilled and  
unskilled workmen alike1 whether from   
the point of view of man or master1 we  
see that the great essential is the     
possession of a large measure of        
intelligence4 ,with the continual       
changes in the methods of industry1 men 
must be capable of changing too2 they   
must be capable of readily adapting     
themselves to new conditions1 and not   
become petrified in a rigid and         
inflexible mould4 ,intelligence1        
properly developed1 means adaptability4 
,if we could secure this1 the problem of
 dealing with the unemployed would be   
comparatively easy of solution4 ,the    
inextricable tangle of to-day lies in   
the hopeless task of securing employment
 at a living wage for men who are not   
worth it4 ,let each man be made good for
 something1 and it will not be beyond   
the range of wise statesmanship to find 
that good thing for him to do4  ,how is 

the necessary training to be provided8  
,the answer to this question need not   
detain us long4 ,we have already seen   
that elementary and technical education 
can solve the problem in the case of    
those who have been able to avail       
themselves of the opportunities offered4
 ,the only outstanding difficulty was   
the difficulty of insuring ready access 
to all2 and this has been surmounted in 
the proposals of the last section4 ,the 
raising of the school age to fifteen1   
the prohibition of the employment of    
school-children1 and the new half-time  
system1 give facilities for education   
never before enjoyed4  ,the boy will    
remain at the elementary school till the
 age of fifteen1 and there will be no   
employment outside school hours to      
undermine his health and render him     
unfit to profit by the instruction      
given4 ,we have already noticed the     
transformation of the elementary school 
now going on1 and the multiplication of 
various types of school4 ,the process   

will continue1 and the results following
 the raising of the school age will be  
increased in value4 ,the school will1 in
 the first place1 be regarded as a      
sorting-house1 in which the different   
kinds of ability are discovered and     
classified4 ,it will next be an         
institution where proper provision is   
made to insure that each kind of ability
 shall have the fullest opportunity of  
development4 ,the only meaning of a     
general education is the discovery and  
the cultivation of the special interests
 of the individual4  ,when the boy      
leaves the elementary school his        
interests and ability will guide him to 
search for employment where they will   
have most scope4 ,how this opening is to
 be found is a question that will be    
discussed in the next section4 ,let us  
take the boy who enters a skilled       
trade--say a branch of the woodwork     
industry--and follow his fortunes4 ,he  
can be employed in the workshop for only
 half the day2 during the remainder he  

must attend the half-time school4 ,we   
have hitherto looked at this half-time  
school as a means of exercising         
supervision over conduct and physical   
development2 we must now regard it as a 
place of technical instruction4 ,there  
must1 therefore1 be various types of    
schools corresponding to the different  
groups of trades4 ,the boy who enters a 
woodwork trade will attend a school     
designed to meet the needs of that      
industry4 ,at his place of employment he
 will no doubt be kept to a narrow range
 of operations1 and in their performance
 will acquire that dexterity which only 
workshop experience can give4 ,in the   
half-time school he will receive the    
training necessary to make of him an    
intelligent and all-round workman4 ,here
 his ordinary education will be         
continued2 instruction in drawing1 in   
mensuration1 and in science--all        
specially adapted to the requirements of
 his trade--will be provided2 and1      
lastly1 in the school workshop he will  

acquire skill in the general use of the 
woodwork tools4 ,if it is urged that it 
will be difficult to find room in the   
curriculum for such varied training1 it 
must be remembered that the subjects of 
instruction will all have formed part of
 the curriculum of the elementary       
school1 with a bias in the direction of 
the woodwork industry4 ,the boy will    
remain at the school for three years1   
and at the age of eighteen we shall have
 at least laid the foundation of those  
qualities required by the employer for  
success in the workshop and by the      
workman for success in life4  ,let us   
take now the case of a boy who1 on      
leaving school1 finds employment in some
 occupation which does not lead to a    
skilled trade1 and provides no          
educational training4 ,let us suppose he
 becomes an errand-boy4 ,we cannot      
prevent lads of fifteen and upwards from
 being employed in such occupations1    
however undesirable1 but we can at least
 guard against the more serious evils   

which are now the result4 ,the boy will 
only be employed for half the day2 he   
also must attend a half-time school4 ,at
 this school he will continue his       
ordinary education2 manual training will
 be provided to make him clever with his
 hands1 while special attention will be 
devoted to his physical development4 ,he
 will not1 of course1 be taught a       
definite trade1 but will learn the      
general use of tools4 ,how far1 then1   
schools may be specialized1 into        
different types it must be left for the 
future to decide4 ,we have hitherto     
never seriously considered the training 
of the unskilled labourer1 and much     
pioneer work of an experimental         
character remains to be done4 ,at the   
age of eighteen the lad1 like his       
brother in the skilled trade1 will be a 
valuable asset in the labour market4 ,we
 shall have created what we have not got
 now1 and what we much need--a race of  
intelligent and adaptable unskilled     
labourers4  ,there are certain other    

advantages which the half-time system   
can claim4 ,first1 the training of the  
workshop and the training of the school 
are carried on at the same time2        
instruction and practice go hand in     
hand4 ,secondly1 only those boys will in
 general be taught a skilled trade in   
the schools who have already entered a  
skilled trade4 ,this removes an         
objection often felt by ,trade          
,unionists to what they term a          
multiplication through the schools of   
half-skilled workmen4 ,thirdly1 we have 
in it a system of universal             
apprenticeship4 ,all boys will have been
 learners1 and worked for the same      
period at low wages4 ,there will1       
therefore1 be no obstacle of a          
privileged class to make difficulties in
 the way of those entering a trade who  
have not passed through the normal      
course of preparation for it4 ,fitness  
for the work will be1 as it should be1  
the sole qualification4  ,looked at in a
 general way1 the half-time schools will

 be called on to play a double part4    
,they must train the man in the         
interests of the community and in the   
interests of the trade4 ,from the       
employer's standpoint these schools must
 be essentially places of practical     
instruction in close touch with the     
workshop4 ,already1 under existing      
conditions1 employers and               
representatives of the trade have been  
found willing to form advisory          
committees to visit the schools1        
criticize the teaching1 and make        
suggestions for increasing its value4   
,the principle must be extended2 only in
 this way shall we get the expert       
inspection necessary to secure real     
efficiency4 ,on the other hand1 the     
education authority1 the representative 
of the community1 will manage the       
schools1 and make them training-grounds 
of true citizenship4 ,under this double 
system of control1 wisely administered1 
we shall not lose the man in the worker 
or the worker in the man2 the interests 

of the individual and the interests of  
the employer will alike be safeguarded4 
,in a real sense1 and in fashion adapted
 to modern requirements1 we shall have  
brought back the best traditions of the 
old apprenticeship system in which the  
gild1 standing at once for the community
 and for the trade1 watched over the    
training of the youth of the nation4    
,,iii4  ,,the ,,provision ,,of ,,an     
,,opening4  ,the third and last         
essential of an apprenticeship system is
 the provision of an opening4 ,in the   
last chapter we have seen the aimless   
drift of boys as they leave school into 
blind-alley occupations2 we have watched
 them rapidly slough off the effects of 
the school training2 and we have found  
them a few years later left stranded    
without prospects2 and we have been     
driven to confess that this process of  
waste and demoralization is not a       
passing phase1 but an integral part of  
the industrial development in its       
present unregulated condition4 ,boys1   

parents1 employers are alike impotent to
 cure the evil2 once again we are       
compelled to look to the ,state for     
help4 ,the ,state must guide the choice 
of boys as they leave school4 ,it must  
assist them during the period of        
adolescence to find better forms of     
employment1 or at any rate to retain and
 increase the value of the school       
training1 and it must bridge the gulf   
that now separates the work of the lad  
from the work of the man4  ,already the 
necessary organization is in process of 
formation4 ,we have seen how the        
establishment of ,labour ,exchanges for 
adults has1 quite unexpectedly1 led to  
the creation of special departments for 
juveniles4 ,it is singularly fortunate  
that this accident has led naturally to 
the ,board of ,trade being regarded as  
the proper authority to carry out the   
work4 ,it is1 however1 a fact that      
,parliament has recently passed an ,act 
which gives power to education          
authorities to spend money for this     

purpose4 ,it may do no harm for         
education authorities to be able1       
without fear of surcharge1 to spend     
money in co-operating with the ,board of
 ,trade1 but it would be disastrous if  
they came to think themselves the       
responsible authority for the           
undertaking4 ,one of the chief objects  
of the machinery is the bridging of the 
gulf between youth and manhood4 ,we     
should not enter on this difficult task 
with much hope of success if we         
perpetuated the distinction by making   
the ,board of ,trade responsible for the
 work of adults1 and the education      
authorities responsible for the work of 
juveniles4 ,further1 we are coming to   
see that questions of employment are    
questions which must be dealt with by a 
national1 and not a local1 body4 ,only a
 national authority1 with its knowledge 
of the conditions over the whole        
country1 could be in a position to      
estimate the prospects in any trade1 or 
to decide as to the right proportions of

 boys to men4 ,next1 the unit of area   
for employment bears no relation to the 
unit of area for educational purposes4  
,towns are separated from the adjoining 
districts4 ,the unit of area for ,london
 employment1 for example1 is not the    
administrative county1 but ,greater     
,london1 and in ,greater ,london there  
are more than thirty education          
authorities4 ,if these are not in       
agreement--and when are thirty local    
authorities in agreement8--no system of 
regulation would be effective4 ,if1 let 
us say1 the ,london ,county ,council1 in
 order to discourage the employment of  
van-boys1 declined to supply them       
through their ,exchange1 their action   
would be without result if the adjoining
 districts did not follow suit1 while it
 is impossible to conceive a more       
chaotic organization than one which     
would allow employers in the ,city to be
 canvassed for openings by thirty       
independent bodies4  ,for these and many
 other reasons the ,board of ,trade must

 be regarded as the dominant authority  
for the organization of the ,juvenile   
,labour ,exchange4 ,on the other hand1  
there must be close co-operation between
 the ,labour ,exchange and the education
 authority4 ,the ,board of ,trade has   
recognized the importance of this       
co-operation1 and is making full        
provision for it in the machinery it is 
setting up4 ,it is forming local        
advisory committees in connection with  
each ,labour ,exchange1 and is making   
them practically responsible for the    
control of the juvenile department4 ,on 
this committee are appointed persons    
nominated by the ,board of ,trade on the
 one hand1 and on the other by the      
education authority4 ,the committee thus
 represents the two branches of the     
organization4 ,these committees are only
 just coming into existence1 and it is  
too early to judge of their success4    
,the problem is one of immediate        
practical importance2 it is1 therefore1 
desirable to consider a little in detail

 the principles that should guide them  
in their work4 ,for the same reason it  
is desirable to ignore for the moment   
the proposals made in the preceding     
sections1 to take things as they are1   
and to show what can be achieved under  
existing conditions4  ,the work of the  
,juvenile ,labour ,exchange divides     
itself naturally into a number of       
different parts or stages4 ,the first   
stage is concerned with the boy while   
still at school4 ,some months before he 
is likely to leave he must be seen with 
the view of inducing him to make use of 
the ,labour ,exchange to obtain         
employment4 ,a form will be filled up   
showing his position in the school1 and 
any particular ability he may have      
displayed1 recording the state of his   
health as revealed by medical           
inspection1 and indicating any          
particular desire as to occupation      
expressed by himself or his parents4    
,the interview and the filling up of the
 form will be undertaken by someone     

connected with the school               
organization--a teacher1 or probably a  
volunteer4 ,the institution of care     
committees for each school in connection
 with medical treatment1 and the supply 
of meals to necessitous children1 has   
enlisted the services of a large number 
of volunteers who would probably be     
found willing to make themselves        
responsible for this part of the work4  
,the form1 when filled up1 will be sent 
to the ,labour ,exchange1 where1 if     
thought desirable1 arrangements will be 
made by certain members of the advisory 
committee1 in company with the          
secretary1 to interview the boy and his 
parents4  ,the next part of the work is 
connected with the finding of vacancies4
 ,either the employer will notify the   
,exchange of forthcoming vacancies or   
vacancies be obtained by canvassing     
employers4 ,in either case it will be   
necessary to ascertain exactly the      
nature and the prospects of the         
employment4 ,for this work expert       

knowledge is essential1 and it will     
devolve almost entirely on the secretary
 or other paid officers of the          
,exchange4 ,having found boys wanting   
employers and employers wanting boys1 it
 will be the duty of the advisory       
committee to bring the two parties      
together4  ,the second stage in the work
 begins as soon as the boy has obtained 
employment4 ,it will be desirable1 if   
possible1 to secure periodic reports1   
either by interview or by letter1 from  
the employer1 who in the majority of    
cases would no doubt be willing to give 
the information asked for4 ,we should   
then know how the boy is getting on at  
his work from the employer's point of   
view4 ,we must also know how he is      
getting on from his own point of view4  
,for this and other reasons it is       
absolutely essential to keep in touch   
with the boy in his home4 ,a tactful    
person1 paying periodic visits to the   
home and seeing the boy1 would soon     
learn what prospects the employment     

offered1 what progress he was making1   
and would be able to advise him as to   
what evening classes he should attend1  
and to help him in those many ways in   
which a boy can be helped when first he 
goes out to work4 ,in this way a large  
amount of valuable though unostentatious
 supervision would be kept over the boy4
 ,the persons most capable of doing this
 home-visiting are volunteers4 ,in many 
cases the member of the school case     
committee who originally interviewed the
 boy would undertake the duty of        
supervision2 in other cases we might get
 the assistance of the manager of a     
boys' club or other similar institution 
of which the boy was a member2 but in   
all cases the advisory committee must   
make provision for supervision in the   
home4 ,the reports from the home and the
 reports from the employer would be     
filed at the ,exchange4 ,they will      
enable the advisory committee to follow 
the career of every boy placed out1 and 
at the same time gradually furnish a    

mass of detailed information respecting 
the employers of the district4  ,to what
 kind of employers or to what classes of
 employment shall we send boys8 ,to all 
who ask1 or to only selected number8    
,experience will no doubt show that     
there are certain employers of such a   
kind that under no circumstances ought  
we to trust them with boys4 ,the number 
of such will be very small1 and presents
 no serious difficulty4 ,we should not  
supply boys until we had a guarantee    
that the conditions offered were        
improved4 ,the question of the class of 
employment requires more careful        
consideration4 ,there is a danger into  
which the advisory committee may easily 
fall4 ,recognizing the evils of         
blind-alley occupations1 they may be    
inclined to refuse to send boys to such 
forms of employment1 and only recommend 
boys to places where there is a prospect
 of learning a trade4 ,such a policy    
would be a fatal one4 ,we should not    
thereby discourage blind-alley          

occupations1 employers would get their  
boys as they have got them in the past1 
and the only result would be that we    
should lose all control over the boys1  
be unable to move them later to better  
situations1 and so leave the problem not
 only unsolved1 but1 for want of        
knowledge1 without possibility of       
solution4 ,we ought not in the ,labour  
,exchange to bar out any form of        
employment unless we are prepared to    
make that employment illegal by ,act of 
,parliament4 ,street-selling might      
fairly come within that category1 and no
 doubt other forms of employment will   
later be brought within the same class4 
,but to bring them within that class1   
accurate information as to evil effects 
must be collected in order to stiffen   
public opinion1 and if we wash our hands
 from the outset of all responsibility  
for such trades1 we shall never have    
that accurate information4 ,the first   
step in the way of regulation is that   
accurate knowledge which a detailed     

supervision of the boys placed out alone
 can give4 ,there will1 however1 always 
be a temptation for the ,exchange to    
confine its activities to the skilled   
trades1 and let the others go4 ,in      
,munich1 for example1 we find the       
education authority devoting much       
attention to the apprenticeship section 
of the work1 while unskilled labourers  
appear to be left to the ,labour        
,exchange1 and they receive1 therefore1 
no advice in selecting their work4 #ahd 
,the same tendency is seen in this      
country among the various voluntary     
associations for obtaining employment   
for boys4 ,they have concentrated almost
 exclusively on the skilled trades4 ,the
 results1 expressed in figures or       
percentages1 are pleasing1 but          
altogether misleading4 ,they ignore the 
large residuum which drifts without     
advice and without supervision into the 
less favourable openings1 and in matters
 of social reform it is the large       
residuums that count4 ,it is always nice

 to get a nice place for a nice boy that
 we know2 but if we do no more1 there is
 no reason to believe that our action is
 of any advantage to the community at   
large4 ,the nice places always are      
filled1 and not infrequently the only   
effect of interference is that ,a41 who 
is known1 gets the job instead of the   
unknown ,b4 ,the ,labour ,exchange must 
resist this temptation4 ,it should aim  
at inducing all employers to obtain     
their supply of boy labour from the     
,exchange2 its influence will then be at
 a maximum4  ,the mere establishment of 
a ,juvenile ,labour ,exchange cannot    
create favourable openings2 it cannot in
 itself alter the direction of the      
demand for labour4 ,it might1 therefore1
 be asked what is the use of an exchange
 for boys who can already find          
employment of a sort more easily than is
 good for them8 ,first1 there are the   
advantages of supervision and the       
opportunities for friendly advice and   
sympathy2 secondly1 there is the task of

 collecting accurate information which  
will lead up to legislative action1 and 
the system of regulation which is       
ultimately inevitable2 thirdly1 while   
not closing the door to the blind-alley 
occupations1 there is no need for the   
advisory committees to press them on the
 parent4 ,they would1 on the contrary1  
point out the evils1 and suggest either 
that the opening should be refused or   
accepted only as a temporary expedient4 
,the object should be to induce the     
parent to refuse situations which did   
not afford any prospects of learning or 
allow time off to attend a continuation 
school4 ,the blind-alley occupations    
would disappear to-morrow if parents    
stubbornly refused to permit their boys 
to fill them4 ,for the moment1 moreover1
 the advantage is all on the side of the
 parent1 as the demand for boys outruns 
the supply4 ,but neither individual     
parent nor individual boy can take      
advantage of this fact2 they have not   
the knowledge or the opportunity to make

 their voices effectively heard4 ,there 
is no trade union of parents or trade   
union of boys1 or1 indeed1 can be1 in   
the blind-alley occupations4 ,collective
 bargaining must be done for them1 and  
the advisory committee must be its      
instrument4 ,they must first create the 
opinion among the parents1 and then give
 effect to it through the ,exchange4 ,if
 employers found that1 so long as they  
refused to offer better conditions1 they
 were either unable to get boys or only 
got the least satisfactory boys1 there  
would be a strong inducement for them to
 change their ways4 ,finally1 there is  
the reverse of this system of educating 
the parents--the educating of the       
employers4 ,there is already growing up 
a feeling among employers that if they  
cannot give the boys employment as men  
they might at least offer them          
opportunities of continuing their       
education4 ,at a conference held in     
#aiaj between agencies interested in the
 welfare of boys and employers of       

labour1 under the presidency of the     
,chairman of the ,london ,chamber of    
,commerce1 the following resolutions    
were unanimously adopted3 ,that the     
,london ,chamber of ,commerce be asked  
to consider the advisability of         
establishing a register of its members  
who would be willing to engage or       
apprentice boys with a view to the      
co-operation of the ,chamber with the   
various institutions interested in the  
welfare of boys4 ,that employers of     
labour be recommended1 by reducing the  
present hours of labour or otherwise1 to
 give such facilities as may be possible
 consistently with the requirements of  
their business to enable boys and youths
 to obtain technical instruction4       
,judicious canvassing among a certain   
class of employers may1 therefore1 lead 
to most beneficent results4 ,it should  
also be borne in mind that in ,london   
and other towns into which there is a   
large immigration of adult labour1 there
 is room for new openings leading on to 

skilled trades4  ,while much can        
unquestionably be done under existing   
conditions to improve and supervise the 
conditions of boy labour by means of the
 ,juvenile ,labour ,exchange1 it is     
certain that sooner or later there will 
be need of regulation by ,act of        
,parliament4 ,probably the best course  
would be to give the ,board of ,trade   
power in the case of certain occupations
 to limit at their discretion the       
employment of boys to boys engaged at   
the ,exchange4 ,if in addition the      
proposals made in the previous sections 
were to become law1 we should be in a   
very strong position to launch the youth
 on the ocean of manhood with all the   
prospects of a successful voyage4       
,,iv4  ,,general ,,conclusions4  ,at the
 end of a long and rather complex       
discussion it is desirable to attempt   
some general summary of what has already
 been achieved and of the proposals     
necessary for the creation of a true    
apprenticeship system4 ,it will make for

 clearness if we take a boy and follow  
his career through its various stages4  
,at the age of five or thereabouts he   
will enter the elementary school4 ,it is
 to be hoped that the reorganization of 
the public health services and the more 
careful attention devoted to the period 
of infancy may send him to the school   
free from those physical defects so     
common now1 and healthy within the      
limits of nature4 ,here he will begin   
his education4 ,improved methods of     
teaching will make for increased        
intelligence and the growth of numerous 
interests1 while physical exercises1    
medical inspection and treatment1 added 
to the supply of wholesome food to the  
necessitous1 will promote the healthy   
development of his body4  ,at the age of
 eleven comes an important epoch in his 
career4 ,it is then that1 if found      
suitable1 he will1 with the help of a   
scholarship1 be sent to the secondary   
school1 and thence be led along a broad 
road to the ,university4 ,failing the   

winning of a scholarship1 he will1 if he
 display any special aptitude1 be       
drafted off to a central school with a  
commercial or industrial bias4 ,failing1
 again1 the proof of any exceptional    
ability1 he will remain in the ordinary 
school4 ,in either case he will continue
 at school till the age of fifteen1 will
 be forbidden to work for wages outside 
school hours1 and will throughout be    
periodically examined by the school     
doctor4  ,with the approach to the age  
of fifteen begins the second important  
epoch in his career4 ,some time before  
the day of leaving school arrives he    
will have been interviewed by a friendly
 volunteer1 who1 with the help of the   
school record and medical register1 will
 be able to decide for what form of     
employment he is best suited4 ,in the   
meanwhile the ,labour ,exchange will    
have found for him a suitable opening1  
or1 failing this1 a temporary situation 
pending a more satisfactory and         
permanent position4 ,if he gain a place 

in a skilled trade1 the half-time       
school1 which he must attend for the    
next three years1 will add to the       
training of the workshop that all-round 
training1 whose result is intelligence  
and adaptability1 required to make of   
him an efficient artisan4 ,if he is     
destined to fill the ranks of unskilled 
labour1 he will likewise attend a       
half-time school carefully designed to  
enable him to play a useful part in the 
world of life4 ,in both cases he will   
remain for half-time under the          
supervision of the education authority2 
in both cases periodic medical          
inspection will watch over his physical 
development1 and if it show him         
physically unfit for the work he has    
undertaken1 he will be found employment 
more suitable to his strength2 in both  
cases the advisory committee of the     
,labour ,exchange will receive reports  
from the home1 the school1 and the      
employer1 and these reports will enable 
them to discover whether the occupation 

and the training are well adapted to    
foster his natural abilities4 ,for three
 years1 while at work1 he will also     
remain at school2 for three years his   
training will be guided by employers who
 will see to it that it turns out the   
efficient workman1 and by the education 
authority1 which1 acting in the         
interests of the community1 will see    
that it makes for the efficient citizen4
  ,in process of time1 with the gradual 
accumulation of experience1 and with the
 knowledge of the ,board of ,trade      
behind it1 the advisory committee will  
be able to adjust the supply of boys in 
course of special training to meet the  
demands of special trades1 and even if  
some unforeseen transformation of       
industry upsets the calculations1 there 
should be no insurmountable difficulty  
of disposing of lads at the age of      
eighteen who are at once well conducted1
 physically fit1 and intelligent4  ,we  
come back to the position from which we 
started in the introduction--the need of

 securing for the youth of the country  
adequate supervision up to the age of at
 least eighteen1 appropriate training   
during that period1 and at its          
conclusion the provision of an opening  
in some occupation for which special    
preparation has been given4 ,we have    
seen that for at any rate a large       
section of the people these conditions  
were satisfied during the best days of  
the gilds1 and that they were satisfied 
in direct proportion to the extent to   
which the gilds stood for the common    
interests4 ,with the decay and          
disappearance of the gilds the training 
of the youth became a matter of         
individual bargaining between parent and
 employer4 ,no authority1 standing for  
the common good1 superintended the      
process4 ,apprenticeship might be       
enforced2 its efficiency could not be   
guaranteed4 ,further1 the existence of  
apprenticeship tended to create a       
privileged class who resented the       
intrusion of those who entered a trade  

by other means4 ,with the coming of the 
industrial revolution1 training itself  
became more difficult4 ,the large       
workshop and the division of labour were
 unfavourable to apprenticeship4        
,employers wanted to use boys1 and not  
to train them4 ,rapid progress of       
invention continually discounted the    
value of acquired manual skill1 and     
parents could not see at the conclusion 
of the apprenticeship any prospect of a 
favourable opening in a skilled trade2  
while the gradual break-up of the system
 of supervision bred a spirit of        
independence among boys which rendered  
them disinclined to bind themselves for 
a period of years4 ,finally1            
competition1 with the urgent need of    
surviving the struggle of to-day1 made  
it hard for employers to prepare for the
 future by providing for the training of
 the future workmen4 ,the industrial    
system gave no guarantee for the        
efficiency of the next generation of    
workers4 ,the old apprenticeship system 

had broken down4  ,but in the period of 
general disintegration there was slowly 
developing--at first unconsciously1 and 
later with more clearly directed        
effort--an organization which made for  
constructive reform4 ,it was called into
 being as a last resort1 and to save the
 country from the ruin which was        
threatened by the exploitation of       
children4 ,competition demanded the     
sacrifice of to-morrow to-day2 the      
,state1 whose interests belong to all   
time1 was driven to forbid the          
sacrifice4 ,competition demanded that   
children of tender years should labour  
in the mines and the factories1 and     
under conditions that made all health a 
mockery2 the ,state insisted on a       
minimum standard of health and safety   
for its children4 ,the standard1 low at 
first1 has steadily been raised4 ,thus  
has grown up the regulation of child    
labour and the ,acts relating to        
factories and workshops4 ,competition   
cared nothing for the education of the  

children2 it wanted to use them up and  
cast them on the waste-heap4 ,the       
,state1 recognizing the dangers of an   
uneducated people1 established by slow  
degrees a system of universal education4
 ,so the struggle between the two has   
gone on1 the ,state only interfering as 
a last resort and in despair of other   
means to stop the evil4 ,throughout its 
action has been generally beneficial1   
but the benefits have been limited      
because that action has been partial and
 patchy4 ,much of the expenditure1 for  
example1 on education has been wasted   
just because the education came to an   
end too soon4 ,the time had come for a  
more comprehensive study of the         
situation that should indicate the      
faults of the existing system4  ,such a 
study has been attempted in the present 
volume4 ,the task has been comparatively
 easy1 because the evils are generally  
admitted4 ,what has not hitherto been   
recognized sufficiently is the fact that
 these evils are growing1 and not in    

course of removal4 ,the various factors 
in the process have been examined1 and1 
ignoring the ,state1 they are clearly   
inadequate1 and progressively           
inadequate1 to the task of solving the  
problem4 ,as a last resort the ,state   
remains4 ,if the principles underlying  
the training of youth are admitted1 if  
out of the various possible forces      
concerned all with one exception have   
been proved defective1 then we must put 
our hopes in the one exception4 ,we must
 enlarge the sphere of influence of the 
,state4 ,how this should be done has    
been shown in the present chapter4  ,the
 principles underlying the proposals    
have all been drawn from experience1 and
 are founded on the apprenticeship      
system1 but applied with modifications  
suitable to changed conditions4 ,under  
the gild system there were three        
interests concerned and conjoined--the  
interests of the master1 the interest of
 journeyman and apprentice1 and the     
interest of the community4 ,since the   

gilds have gone these interests have    
become separate and increasingly        
antagonistic4 ,for the successful       
training of the youth of the country the
 claims of these clashing interests must
 again be brought together and          
reconciled4 ,ultimately and in the      
long-run they are identical2 it is only 
competition1 with its dimmed and narrow 
vision1 that made the cleavage4 ,it is  
hoped that the proposals outlined in    
this chapter will point the road towards
 a final peace4 ,let us1 in conclusion1 
bring them to the test of the three     
essentials for which a true             
apprenticeship system must make adequate
 provision4  ,there must be             
supervision--supervision of conduct1    
supervision of health4 ,under the new   
apprenticeship system the ,state will be
 the ultimate authority for the         
supervision of conduct4 ,till the age of
 fifteen the boy will remain subject to 
the control of the schools4 ,long       
experience has demonstrated the         

beneficent influence exercised by the   
teachers over the children even under   
present conditions1 when the school     
career is brought to an end at the age  
of thirteen or fourteen4 ,there is1     
therefore1 nothing wild in the          
expectation that1 with compulsory       
attendance extended to the age of       
fifteen1 we shall receive richer and    
more lasting fruits4 ,for the next three
 years1 the critical period of a boy's  
life1 with its first experience of the  
workshop and the sense of independence  
which comes with earning wages1 the     
supervision of the ,state will only in  
part be withdrawn4 ,during these years  
he will be compelled to attend the      
half-time school1 and so continue under 
the control of the education authority4 
,nor is this all4 ,the advisory         
committee of the ,labour ,exchange will 
advise him in the choice of employment1 
assist him to obtain it1 and generally  
watch over his career4 ,thus1 helped on 
his journey and surrounded with wise and

 friendly influences1 he will approach  
the threshold of manhood with such      
promise of success as good habits and an
 ordered life may bring4  ,the ,state1  
likewise1 will be responsible for the   
supervision of the boy's health4        
,periodic medical inspection will watch 
and aid his physical development4 ,we   
have not yet learned to appreciate the  
full value of this periodic inspection2 
it is1 however1 destined to become the  
most powerful instrument of reform4 ,the
 ill-nourished child1 the delicate      
child1 the child in the early stages of 
phthisis1 the child of negligent        
parents1 the child from the overcrowded 
or insanitary home--all these1 the      
future weaklings of the nation1 we know 
them now only when the evil has too     
often outrun the possibility of a cure  
and it is too late4 ,under the new      
conditions we shall detect the evil in  
its first beginning1 while there is yet 
hope4 ,medical inspection is also the   
key to the situation after the boy goes 

out to work1 and for three years he will
 remain under its control4 ,at the      
present time we only dimly realize the  
disastrous effects that come to a boy   
from the choice of an occupation        
ill-suited to his strength4 ,we forbid a
 few forms of work1 attempt for the most
 part ineffectively to limit the hours  
of employment in a few others1 but in   
our clumsy fashion legislate as a rule  
for the normal child1 and it is the     
abnormal child that suffers most4 ,under
 the new conditions there will be no    
work for children under the age of      
fifteen1 while for the three following  
years medical inspection will enable us 
to legislate for the individual boy1    
taking into account his physical        
characteristics4 ,not only shall we be  
able to help a boy to avoid making a    
wrong choice1 but we shall be able to   
remove him as soon as medical inspection
 shows him unfit for the work4 ,thus1 to
 the age of eighteen the ,state has its 
finger on the pulse of the youth4       

,secondly1 there must be an adequate    
provision of training1 special and      
general1 accessible to all4 ,here1      
again1 we are building on the firm rock 
of solid experience4 ,the elementary    
schools have proved themselves to be    
schools for the cultivation of          
intelligence4 ,with a year or two added 
to the school life2 with the relief from
 that distracting influence which comes 
from wage-earning while at school2 with 
the improved methods of teaching and a  
clearer differentiation of types of     
school to suit varying types of         
mind--reforms already under way--we may 
fairly hope for a general rise in the   
intelligence of the boys4 ,the half-time
 school1 with its three years' course1  
will supply the more specialized        
training required in the different      
trades and occupations1 while committees
 of employers will provide the expert   
criticism essential to success4         
,finally1 there must be the provision of
 an opening in some form of employment  

for which special preparation has been  
given4 ,the ,labour ,exchange1 the      
juvenile branch worked in close         
co-operation with the adult section1    
will supply the opening1 while the      
technical training will give good       
guarantee for the adequacy of the       
preparation4 ,the ,elementary ,school1  
the ,half-time ,school1 the ,education  
,authority1 and the ,advisory           
,committee1 all acting together1 will   
insure a safe passage from youth to     
manhood4  ,the new apprenticeship system
 is more complex than the old--it lacks 
something of the picturesqueness of the 
,middle ,ages--but it finds its         
compensation in an organization at once 
more flexible and more comprehensive1   
and therefore better suited to stand the
 shock of those huge changes in methods 
of production and methods of living     
which have been the ungainly offspring  
of the industrial revolution4     ,,list
 ,,of ,,authorities   ,i                
,,parliamentary ,,and ,,municipal       

,,publications  ,elementary ,schools    
7,children ,working for ,wages71 ,parts 
,i4 and ,,ii41 ,parliamentary ,return4  
#ahii4  ,report of the                  
,interdepartmental ,committee on the    
,employment of ,school-,children4 #aija4
  ,report of the ,departmental          
,committee on the ,employment of        
,children ,act1 #aijc4 #aiaj4  ,report  
of the ,royal ,commission on the ,poor  
,laws and the ,relief of ,distress4     
#aiji4  ,report by ,mr4 ,cyril ,jackson 
on ,boy ,labour4 #aiji4  ,report of the 
,commissioners of ,prisons for the year 
ending ,march #ca1 #aijh4  ,report of   
the ,chief ,medical ,officer of the     
,board of ,education for the year #aiji4
  ,report of the ,consultative          
,committee of the ,board of ,education  
on ,higher ,elementary ,schools4 #aijf4 
,report of the ,consultative ,committee 
of the ,board of ,education on          
,attendance1 ,compulsory or ,otherwise1 
at ,continuation ,schools4 #b vols41    
#aiji4  ,report on the ,by-,laws made by

 the ,london ,county ,council under the 
,employment of ,children ,act1 #aijc1 by
 ,chester ,jones4 #aijf4  ,london       
,county ,council ,report of the ,medical
 ,officer 7,education7 for the year     
#aijf4  ,london ,county ,council ,report
 of the ,medical ,officer 7,education7  
for the year #aiji4  ,london ,county    
,council3 ,medical ,treatment of        
,children attending ,elementary         
,schools--,report of ,education         
,committee4 #aiji4  ,london ,county     
,council3 ,home ,circumstances of       
,necessitous ,children in ,twelve       
,selected ,schools4 #aiji4  ,london     
,county ,council3 ,the ,apprenticeship  
,question4 #aijf4  ,london ,county      
,council3 ,report of the ,higher        
,education ,sub-,committee on           
,apprenticeship3 ,agenda of ,education  
,committee1 ,february #bd1 #aiji1 pp4   
#dab-dbe4  ,london ,county ,council3    
,technical ,education ,board ,report on 
the ,building ,trades4 #ahii4  ,london  
,county ,council3 ,report by ,miss      

,durham1 ,inspector of ,women's         
,technical ,classes on ,juvenile ,labour
 in ,germany4 #aiaj4  ,london ,county   
,council3 ,report by ,mr4 ,r4 ,blair    
7,education ,officer7 on ,organization  
of ,education in ,london4 ,p4 ,s4 ,king 
and ,son1 ,westminster4  ,county        
,council of ,middlesex3 ,report by ,mr4 
,a4 ,j4 ,bird 7,inspector of ,schools7  
on ,employment ,bureaux for ,children of
 ,school-leaving ,age4  ,urban ,district
 ,council of ,finchley3 ,annual ,report 
of the ,medical ,officer of ,health1    
including the ,report to the ,education 
,committee for the year #aijh4          
,gloucestershire ,education ,committee3 
,report of the ,minor ,committee to     
consider ,certain ,proposals for the    
,creation of an ,apprenticeship ,fund   
and a ,labour ,bureau4 #aijg4   ,,ii    
,,authors  ,,abraham ,,and ,,davies3    
,factories and ,workshops4 #aijb4       
,,abram1 ,a43 ,social ,life in the      
,fifteenth ,century4 #aiji4  ,,alden1   
,,margaret3 ,child ,life and ,labour4   

,,ashley1 ,w4 ,j43 ,introduction to     
,english ,economic ,history4 #ahhh4     
,,beveridge1 ,w4 ,h43 ,unemployment4    
#aiji4  ,,black1 ,,clementina3 ,sweated 
,industry4 #aijg4  ,,blair1 ,r43 ,some  
,features of ,american ,education4      
#aijd4  ,,booth1 ,,charles3 ,life and   
,labour of the ,people1 #i vols4 #ahif4 
,,bray1 ,,reginald ,a43 ,the            
,apprenticeship ,question1 in ,economic 
,journal1 ,september1 #aiji4  ,,bray1   
,,reginald ,a43 ,the ,town ,child4      
#aijg4  ,,christian ,,social ,,union3   
,report on the ,employment of ,boys in  
the ,london ,area4 #aiaj4  ,continuation
 ,schools in ,england and ,elsewhere1   
edited by ,m4 ,e4 ,,sadler4 #aijg4      
,,creasey1 ,,clarence ,h43 ,technical   
,education in ,evening ,schools4 #aije4 
,,crowley1 ,,ralph ,h43 ,hygiene of     
,school ,life4 #aiji4  ,,cuningham1 ,w43
 ,growth of ,english ,industry and      
,commerce3 ,early and ,middle ,ages4    
#aije4  ,,cuningham1 ,w43 ,growth of    
,english ,industry and ,commerce3       

,modern ,times1 #b vols4 #aijc4         
,,davies1 ,,maude ,f43 ,life in an      
,english ,village4 #aiji4  ,,frere1     
,,margaret3 ,children's ,care           
,committees4 #aiji4  ,,gibb1 ,,the      
,,rev4 ,,spencer ,j43 ,the ,problem of  
,boy ,work4 #aijf4  ,,gibb1 ,,the ,,rev4
 ,,spencer ,j43 ,boy ,work and          
,unemployment4 ,c4,s4,u4 ,pamphlet4     
,,gordon1 ,,ogilvie3 ,handbook of       
,employments4 #aijh4  ,,green1 ,j4 ,r43 
,history of the ,english ,peoples1 vols4
 i4 and iv4 #ahif4  ,,green1 ,,mrs4 ,j4 
,r43 ,town ,life in the ,fifteenth      
,century1 #b vols4 #ahid4  ,,hall1 ,g4  
,,stanley3 ,adolescence1 #b vols4       
,,hasbach1 ,w43 ,history of the ,english
 ,agricultural ,labourer4 #aijh4        
,,hawkins1 ,c4 ,b43 ,norwich3 ,a ,social
 ,study4 #aiaj4  ,,hayward1 ,f4 ,h43    
,day and ,evening ,schools4 #aiaj4      
,,hogarth1 ,a4 ,h43 ,medical ,inspection
 of ,schools4 #aiji4  ,,hutchins ,,and  
,,harrison3 ,a ,history of ,factory     
,legislation4 #aijg4  ,,jackson1        

,,cyril3 ,unemployment and ,trade       
,unions4 #aiaj4  ,,jebb1 ,,eglantyne3   
,cambridge3 ,a ,brief ,study in ,social 
,questions4 #aijf4  ,,keeling1          
,,frederic3 ,the ,labour ,exchange in   
,relation to ,boy and ,girl ,labour4    
#aiaj4  ,,kirkman1 ,,gray ,b43 ,a       
,history of ,english ,philanthropy4     
#aije4  ,,kirkman1 ,,gray ,b43          
,philanthropy and the ,state4           
,,knowles1 ,g4 ,w43 ,junior ,labour     
,exchanges4 #aiaj4  ,,macmillan1        
,,margaret3 ,labour and ,childhood4     
#aijg4  ,,moseley3 ,educational         
,committee ,report4 #aijd4  ,,nicholls1 
,,sir ,g43 ,history of the ,english     
,poor ,law4 #ahih4  ,,rogers1 ,j4 ,e4   
,t43 ,six ,centuries of ,work and       
,wages4 #ahhd4  ,,rowntree1 ,b4 ,s43    
,poverty3 ,a ,study of ,town ,life4     
#aija4  ,,russell1 ,c4 ,e4 ,b43         
,manchester ,boys4 #aije4  ,,russell    
,,and ,,rigby3 ,the ,making of the      
,criminal4 #aijf4  ,,russell ,,and      
,,rigby3 ,working ,lads' ,clubs4 #aijh4 

,,shadwell1 ,,arthur3 ,industrial       
,efficiency4 #aiji4  ,studies of ,boy   
,life in our ,cities1 edited by ,e4 ,j4 
,,urwick4 #aijd4  ,,tawney1 ,r4 ,h43    
,the ,economics of ,boy ,labour1 in     
,economic ,journal1 ,december1 #aiji4   
,trades for ,london3 ,boys4 ,compiled by
 the ,apprenticeship and ,skilled       
,employment ,committee4 #aijh4  ,trades 
for ,london3 ,girls4 ,compiled by the   
,apprenticeship and ,skilled ,employment
 ,committee4 #aiji4  ,,tuckwell ,,and   
,,smith3 ,the ,workers' ,handbook4      
#aijh4  ,,webb1 ,,sidney ,,and          
,,beatrice3 ,history of ,trade          
,unionism4 #aijg4  ,,webb1 ,,sidney     
,,and ,,beatrice3 ,industrial           
,democracy1 #b vols4 #ahig4     ,,index 
,abraham and ,davies1 #de1 #di1 #ec     
,abram1 ,a41 #i    ,adler1 ,miss1 #ajf  
,adolescence1 vi1 #agf1 #aih            
,agricultural ,gangs ,act1 #db          
,apprentices1 statute of1 #ac-ae2       
effect1 #af1 #ag2     pauper1 #ae1      
#ag-ai2     repeal1 #bb                 

,apprenticeship1 break-up of1 #afe-age  
charities1 #ai2       decay1 #be1 #ace1 
#afd1 #afe-age1 #agg2       difficulties
 of1 #ab1 #ahh2       essentials1 #dc1  
#bcg2       indentured1 #e1 #ace1       
#ahg-ahi2       meaning1 #a2       under
 gilds1 #d-aa1 #bcd1 #bcg2       under  
industrial revolution1 #bf-bi2          
under statute1 #aa-ai2       universal1 
#c1 #ac1 #ahi      of to-day3           
contribution of home1 #ib-ajc2       of 
philanthropy1 #hi-ib2       of ,state1  
#gc-gd1 #gf-hi2       of workshop1      
#ajc-afe      the new3 ,juvenile ,labour
 ,exchange1 #bca-bca2       new         
half-time1 #aia1 #aig-bjb2              
prohibition of employment1 #aia1        
#aie-aig2       raising school age1     
#aia-aie1 #bag2       summary1 #bca-bdj 
,ashby1 ,w4 ,j41 #d    ,attendance at   
school1 ,acts relating to1 #ch1 #df-dh2 
percentage of1 #hc1 #ajf1 #aje          
,blair1 ,r41 #hf    ,blind-alley        
occupations1 #hg1 #aab1 #abc-acj1 #ade1 
#aeg1 #aeh1 #afc1         #afi-agb1     

#ahj1 #bbg    ,board of ,education1 #fa1
 #fd    ,board of ,trade1 #ga1 #gb1     
#bbc1 #bcc    ,booth1 ,c41 #ie1 #ajd1   
#acf1 #aci    ,borstal ,association1    
#afi    ,boy labour3 difficulties of    
regulation1 #gi1 #hj2     effects of    
regulation1 #gg-hb1 #hh1 #hi            
half-time1 #di-eb1 #gh1 #aig-bjb1 #bjd1 
#bje      health and safety1 #eb-eh1    
#gg1 #aig-bjb      limitation of hours1 
#dc-eb1 #aig-bjb      prohibition of1   
#da-dc1 #aie-aig1 #bjc1 #bjd            
regulation under gilds1 #g-aa1 #bcd1    
#bcg2       under industrial revolution1
 #bj-be2       under statute1 #ac1 #ad  
,boys3 clubs1 #ij2     errand1 #hb1     
#aab1 #aai1 #abi1 #ade2     lather1 #dc2
     office1 #aai1 #abf1 #aeh2     shop1
 #abb1 #abf1 #abh1 #ade2     telegraph1 
#abf1 #aca1 #ade2     van1 #hb1 #aai1   
#ade    ,boys3 employment of1 at school1
 #ajc-aac1 #aea-aee2     on leaving     
school1 #aad-aai1 #afc2     entering    
manhood1 #adc      unemployed1 #aai2    
under ,london ,county ,council1 #acb    

,bursaries1 #fe     ,chamber of         
,commerce1 #bcj    ,chapman1 ,professor1
 #baa    ,child1 definition of1 #dj     
,children ,act1 #ch1 #ei1 #fa1 #hj      
,children1 employment of4 ,see ,boys    
,chimney ,sweepers ,act1 #db    ,cloete1
 ,j4 ,g41 #abf1 #abi    ,coal ,mines    
,regulation ,act1 #ch1 #db              
,competition1 #agg1 #bce    ,cuningham1 
,w41 #d1 #f1 #aj1 #af1 #bj1 #bb1 #bh    
,davies1 ,miss ,maude1 #afa1 #afd       
,distribution of trades1 #aae-aah1      
#adb-adi1 #afc2     normal1 #adg-adi    
,durham1 ,miss1 #aif1 #bbh     ,economic
 ,journal1 #aaf1 #aei    ,education     
,acts1 #aijb-jc1 #fb                    
,administrative ,provisions ,act1 #aijg1
 #eh1 #fj1 #fa      ,provision of ,meals
 ,act1 #fa    ,employment of children4  
,see ,boys    ,employment of ,children  
,act1 #ch1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #df1 #dh1
 #eg1 #eh1 #gg1 #hj1         #ha1 #aaa1 
#aff     ,factory legislation1 causes   
of1 #cj    ,factory and ,workshops ,act1
 #ch1 #afh2     authority for           

enforcement1 #dj1 #ea2     definitions1 
#ci-da2     effects of1 #gg1 #ha1 #hb1  
#hh2     half-time1 #di-ea2     health  
and safety1 #eb-ef2     limitation of   
hours1 #dc-eb2     prohibition of       
employment1 #da1 #db    ,furness1 ,sir  
,christopher1 #bac     ,gibb1 ,spencer  
,j41 #abd1 #aeh    ,gilds1 #d-aa1 #bcd1 
#bcg    ,girls1 vii    ,green1 ,mrs4 ,j4
 ,r41 #ab     ,half-time system1 #di-ea1
 #gh1 #aig-bjc1 #bjd-bje    ,hall1 ,g4  
,stanley1 vi    ,hasbach1 ,w41 #be      
,health and ,morals of ,apprentices     
,act1 #ag1 #ah1 #bc1 #bi    ,hutchins   
and ,harrison1 #bc1 #bi     ,idealist1  
triumph of1 #bh    ,indenture1 old1 #f  
,individualist1 triumph of1 #cb-cd      
,industrial revolution1 #bj-bf2         
effects of1 #bf-bi1 #agc-age2           
characteristics1 #agg-ahe      schools1 
#fa     ,jackson1 ,cyril4 ,see ,report  
on ,boy ,labour     ,labour ,exchange1  
#gj1 #abe2     ,juvenile1 #ga1 #gb1 #hc1
 #bja1 #bba-bca1 #bcb-bdj               
,lather-boy4 ,see ,boys    ,london1     

employment of school-children1 #aje-aac2
     entry to a trade1 #aac-adb2        
passage to manhood1 #adb-aea            
,medical certificate1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh     
inspection1 #eh1 #fj1 #fa1 #he1 #hf1    
#id1 #afh1 #aig1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bch1
         #bci    ,messenger-boy4 ,see   
,boys    ,metalliferous ,mines          
,regulation ,act1 #ch    ,mines         
7,prohibition of ,child ,labour         
,underground7 ,act1 #ch1 #da            
,necessitous children1 #id1 #ie         
,nicholls1 ,sir ,g41 #ah                
,occupations1 clerical1 #adj-adb2       
distribution of1 #aae-abj1 #adc1        
#adb-adi1 #afc2     skilled1 #acb-adj2  
unskilled1 #aab1 #aba-acc               
,office-boy4 ,see ,boys    ,opening4    
,see ,provision of     ,poor ,law1      
,elizabethan1 #ae2     ,amendment ,act1 
#bc-bf2     ,report of ,royal           
,commission4 ,see ,reports              
,prevention of ,cruelty to ,children    
,act1 #ch1 #db    ,provision of opening1
 need for1 #b2     ,labour ,exchange1   

#gj-gb1 #bba-bca1 #bdj2     under gilds1
 #h-aa2     under industrial revolution1
 #bj-bf     ,report of ,board of        
,education1 #fd      of ,commissioners  
for ,prisons1 #afi      of ,consultative
 ,committee on ,continuation ,school1   
#dg1 #ha1 #aed1 #aib1         #bja      
of ,consultative ,committee on ,higher  
,elementary ,schools1 #bad      of      
,departmental ,committee on ,employment 
of ,children ,act1 #ha1 #abe      of    
,interdepartmental ,committee on        
,employment of ,children1 #ea1 #aaj1    
#aeb      of ,london ,county ,council on
 ,apprenticeship1 #ff1 #aae1 #abh1 #ace1
 #acf1         #aci1 #adj1 #adc1 #ahg1  
#aib1 #aid      of ,medical ,officer1   
,board of ,education1 #aeb1 #agd      of
 ,medical ,officer 7,education7 of      
,london ,county ,council1 #if1 #aji1    
#aaj    ,report of ,poor ,law           
,commission1 #ca1 #ajd1 #aee1 #aef1     
#agb1 #aia1 #aib1 #bjf1         #bji1   
#baj1 #baa1 #bac    ,report on ,boy     
,labour1 by ,mr4 ,cyril ,jackson1 #ajd1 

#abc1 #abd1 #abe1 #abh1         #abi1   
#aca1 #add1 #ade1 #adf1 #aef1 #aeg      
on ,home ,circumstances of ,necessitous 
,children1 #ie    ,rogers1 ,j4 ,e4      
,thorold1 #e    ,rural ,districts1      
#afa-afe     ,sadler1 ,m4 ,e41 #aeg1    
#aga1 #aie    ,scholarships1 #ff-fh1    
#hf1 #bcb    ,school3 age1 #df-dh1      
#aib-aie2     central1 #fd1 #fe2        
elementary1 #df1 #dg1 #fc-fe1 #hc-hf1   
#bah1 #bbd1 #bca2     evening1 #fj1 #fg1
 #fi1 #hf2     industrial1 #ei1 #fa2    
part-time1 #fh1 #acb1 #ahg1 #bah-bba1   
#bca2     secondary1 #fj1 #fg1 #hf1     
#bcb2     ,sunday1 #hi2     technical   
and trade1 #fj1 #ff1 #fh1 #bjh          
,scott-,holland1 ,canon1 #abd           
,shop-boy4 ,see ,boys    ,shop ,hours   
,act1 #ch1 #df1 #gi1 #ha    ,skilled    
,employment ,committees1 #ia1 #ib1 #ahe 
,supervision1 need for1 #b2     under   
gilds1 #h-aa2     under statute1 #ac-ae2
     under industrial revolution1       
#bj-bf2     by ,state regulation1       
#cg-eh2     by ,state enterprise1       

#ei-gj2     effects of ,state1 #gf-hh2  
by philanthropy1 #hi-ib2     in home1   
#ib-ajc2     in workshop1 #abe2     in  
,london1 summary1 #adi1 #aej2           
general summary1 #afe-afh2     under new
 apprenticeship1 #aia-bjb1 #bba-bca1    
#bcg1 #bch     ,tawney1 ,r4 ,l41 #aei1  
#afj    ,technical instruction4 ,see    
,schools    ,trades1 distribution of1   
#aae-abj1 #adb-adi1 #afc2     picking   
up1 #acf-adj2     skilled1 #acc-adb1    
#bjh-bad1 #bah1 #bci2     unskilled1    
#aab1 #aba-acc1 #aee-afj1 #afe-age1     
#bjh1 #bae1 #baf1 #bai1 #bci            
,training1 need for1 #b2     under      
gilds1 #i-ab2     under statute1 #ac1   
#ad2     under industrial revolution1   
#bj-bg2     in single operation1 #ba1   
#acg-aci2     in elementary schools1    
#fc-fe2     in continuation schools1    
#fe-gj2     in workshops1 #aaa-aac1     
#aba-adb1 #afe-age2     in new          
apprenticeships1 #bjg-bba1 #bcc         
,van-boy4 ,see ,boys     ,webb1 ,sidney 
and ,beatrice1 #h1 #ba1 #bb     ,young  

person1 #dj1 #dd-df1 #ha1 #hc   ,,the   
,,end  ,,billing ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd41  
,,printers1 ,,guildford     ,,footnotes3
   #a ,g4 ,stanley ,hall1 ,adolescence1 
vol4 ii41 p4 #hc4  #b ,see1 for a       
general description of gilds1 ,economic 
,history1 by ,w4 ,j4 ,ashby2 ,growth of 
,english ,history and ,commerce3 ,early 
and ,middle ,ages4 by ,w4 ,cunningham4  
#c ,j4 ,e4 ,thorold ,rogers1 ,six       
,centuries of ,work and ,wages1 p4 #eff4
  #d ,quoted1 ,cunningham1 pp4 #cdi-cej4
  #e ,sidney and ,beatrice ,webb1 ,a    
,history of ,trade ,unionism1 p4 #ag4   
#f ,cunningham1 p4 #dfj4  #g ,ibid41 p4 
#cde4  #h ,a4 ,abiam1 ,social ,england  
in the ,fifteenth ,century1 p4 #aah4  #i
 ,cunningham1 p4 #eji4  #aj ,mrs4 ,j4   
,r4 ,green1 ,town ,life in the          
,fifteenth ,century1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ajb4 
#aa #e ,elizabeth1 ,cap4 iv4  #ab ,sect4
 #c4  #ac ,sect4 #be4  #ad ,sect4 #bf4  
#ae ,sect4 #ca4  #af #e ,elizabeth1     
,cap4 iv41 ,sect4 #ce4  #ag #dc         
,elizabeth1 ,cap4 ii41 ,sect4 #e4       

,similar powers had been given to       
,justices of the ,peace in earlier ,acts
 7see #bg ,henry ,,viii41 ,cap4 xxv42   
,edw4 ,,vi41 ,cap4 iii47  #ah ,w4       
,cunningham1 ,growth of ,english        
,industry and ,commerce in ,modern      
,times1 pp4 #bi-cj4  #ai ,ibid41 p4 #cc4
  #bj ,see #c ,chas4 ,i41 ,cap4 v4  #ba 
,sir ,g4 ,nicholls1 ,history of the     
,poor ,law1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bbc et seq4   
#ahih4  #bb ,james ,i41 ,cap4 iii4  #bc 
,cunningham1 p4 #fae4  #bd ,ibid41 pp4  
#fdj-fda4  #be ,sidney and ,beatrice    
,webb1 ,history of ,trade ,unionism1 p4 
#dg4  #bf ,sidney and ,beatrice ,webb1  
,history of ,trade ,unionism1 p4 #dg4   
#bg ,cunningham1 p4 #ffj4  #bh ,ibid4   
#bi #ed ,george ,,iii41 ,cap4 xcvi4  #cj
 ,hutchins and ,harrison1 ,history of   
,factory ,legislation1 p4 #af4  #ca     
,herr ,w4 ,hasbach1 ,a ,history of the  
,english ,agricultural ,labourer1 pp4   
#bbd1 #bbe4  #cb ,quoted by ,cunningham1
 ,growth of ,industry and ,commerce in  
,modern ,times1 p4 #ggf4  #cc ,quoted by

 ,b4 ,l4 ,hutchins and ,a4 ,harrison1 in
 ,a ,history of ,factory ,legislation1  
p4 #ae4  #cd ,in the ,report of the     
,poor ,law ,commission we have an       
interesting example side by side of the 
two forces that make for reform4 ,the   
,majority ,report is altogether the work
 of sentiment4 ,the proposed variation  
in the terminology applicable to those  
in receipt of relief1 the loosening of  
the deterrent system1 the advocacy of   
the more generous treatment of the young
 and the sick1 the general neglect to   
consider remote causes1 and the total   
absence of any consistent principle1 can
 be explained in no other way4 ,its cold
 reception by the ,british              
,constitutional ,association--that body 
of people who still hold aloft the      
tattered banners of the                 
individualist--is but another proof that
 sentiment1 and not the a priori        
assumptions of the old school1 is the   
guiding spirit4 ,in the ,minority       
,report we see everywhere the mark of   

the imaginative reason--that reason     
which1 starting with facts and not with 
theories1 strives to picture the long   
chain of cause and effect which leads up
 to the sufferer1 and finally1 seeing   
the whole process in its true           
proportions1 strikes at the evil where  
it begins and can be prevented1 and not 
where it ends1 when only a more or less 
modified failure can be looked for4  #ce
 ,a striking instance of this is        
supplied by the ,municipal ,reform      
,party on the ,london ,county ,council4 
,opposed in principle to feeding or     
treating medically children at the cost 
of the rates1 they have yet been        
compelled to do both these things4 ,and 
they have been compelled to take action1
 not by the pressure of public          
opinion--the public opinion of their own
 side generally condemned them for      
forsaking their principles--but by the  
sheer inability of members to learn1    
week after week1 that hungry children   
were unfed and sick children left       

without treatment4  #cf ,see ,part ,x4  
of the ,act4 ,needless to say1 the      
decision as to what kinds of industry   
come within these definitions has       
exercised the ingenuity of the lawyer4  
,in one case 7,law v4 ,graham71 for     
example1 ,lord ,alverstone1 ,chief      
,justice1 expressed the opinion that    
bottling beer is not within paragraph   
7i47 or paragraph 7ii47 above2 that by a
 somewhat strained construction it might
 be said to be within paragraph 7iii471 
as being an adapting of an article for  
sale1 but that the powers used in       
washing the bottles was not in aid of   
the process of bottling4  #cg ,for      
complete list of such industries1 see   
,sch4 ,,vi4 of the ,act4  #ch ,see ,part
 ,,vi4 of the ,act for details and      
exceptions4  #ci ,sects4 #ajc1 #ajd1    
#aje1 #ajf4  #dj ,sects4 #ga and #aef4  
#da ,sect4 #aef4  #db ,sect4 #ac4  #dc  
,factory and ,workshop ,act1 ,sect4 #gg4
  #dd ,sect4 #ii4  #de ,mines ,act1     
#aijj1 ,sect4 #a4  #df ,coal ,mines     

,regulation ,act1 #ahhg1 ,sect4 #g4  #dg
 ,factory and ,workshops ,act1 ,sect4   
#gg4  #dh ,employment of ,children ,act1
 ,sects4 #c and #ac4  #di ,prevention of
 ,cruelty to ,children ,act1 #ahid1     
,sect4 #c4  #ej ,sect4 #a4  #ea ,sect4  
#b4  #eb ,sect4 #d4  #ec ,for           
definitions1 see p4 #ci4  #ed ,sect4    
#bd4  #ee ,sect4 #bf4  #ef ,sect4 #aaa4 
#eg ,sects4 #ea1 #ec4  #eh ,sects4 #ca1 
#df4  #ei ,the best detailed account of 
the ,act is found in ,the ,law ,relating
 to ,factories and ,workshops1 by       
,abraham and ,davies4  #fj ,shop ,hours 
,act1 ,sect4 #c4  #fa ,employment of    
,children ,act1 ,sect4 #b4  #fb ,report 
of the ,consultative ,committee on      
,continuation ,schools1 vol4 i41 p4 #bb4
  #fc ,ibid41 vol4 i41 p4 #ba4  #fd     
,employment of ,children ,act1 ,sect4 #c
 7#a74  #fe ,sect4 #a4  #ff ,abraham and
 ,davies1 ,the ,law ,relating to        
,factories and ,workshops1 fourth       
edition1 p4 #da4  #fg ,factory and      
,workshop ,act1 #aija1 ,sect4 #be4  #fh 

,sect4 #be4  #fi ,sects4 #ca and #df4   
#gj ,sect4 #fi4  #ga ,report of the     
,interdepartmental ,committee on the    
,employment of ,school-,children1 p4    
#ab4  #gb ,the summary of the provisions
 that follow is founded on ,the ,law    
,relating to ,factories and ,workshops1 
by ,abraham and ,davies1 chap4 ii4  #gc 
,factory and ,workshop ,act1 ,sect4 #fc1
 7#a7 and 7#b74  #gd ,sect4 #fd 7#d74   
#ge ,sect4 #fd 7#e74  #gf ,sect4 #fd    
7#f74  #gg ,sect4 #fg4  #gh ,sect4 #fe4 
#gi ,sect4 #ff4  #hj ,education         
7,administrative ,provisions7 ,act1     
#aijg1 ,sect4 #ac4  #ha ,see pp4 #df-dh4
  #hb ,children ,act1 #aijh1 ,sect4 #eh4
  #hc ,education 7,administration       
,provisions7 ,act1 #aijg1 ,sect4 #ac4   
#hd ,board of ,education ,circular #egf1
 ,sect4 #ab4  #he ,education            
7,administrative ,provisions7 ,act1     
#aijg1 ,sect4 #ac4  #hf ,education      
7,provision of ,meals7 ,act1 #aijf1     
,sect4 #c4  #hg ,children ,act1 ,sect4  
#gg4  #hh ,i am here speaking of        

,england2 in ,scotland there are limited
 powers of enforcing attendance4  #hi   
,report of ,board of ,education1        
#aijh-ji1 p4 #aaj4  #ij ,for a more     
detailed account of the machinery       
considered desirable1 see the ,report of
 the ,london ,county ,council on ,the   
,apprenticeship ,question4  #ia ,see    
,report of the ,consultative ,committee 
on ,continuation ,schools1 p4 #bb4  #ib 
,report of the ,departmental ,committee 
on the ,employment of ,children ,act1   
pp4 #f1 #g4  #ic ,the ,organization of  
,education in ,london1 by ,r4 ,blair1   
,education ,officer to the ,london      
,county ,council1 p4 #bi4  #id ,studies 
of ,boy ,life in ,our ,cities1 edited by
 ,e4 ,j4 ,urwick4 ,dent and ,co4  #ie   
,home ,circumstances of ,necessitous    
,children in ,twelve ,selected ,schools4
 ,report of the ,london ,county         
,council4  #if ,see ,medical ,treatment 
of ,children attending ,elementary      
,schools1 in ,report of the ,medical    
,officer 7,education7 of the ,london    

,county ,council for the year #aiji4    
,see also ,report of the ,medical       
,officer of the ,board of ,education for
 #aiji4  #ig ,studies of ,boy ,life1 pp4
 #bb-be passim4  #ih ,studies of ,boy   
,life1 pp4 #bf-bh passim4  #ii ,studies 
of ,boy ,life1 p4 #cb4  #ajj ,elementary
 ,schools 7,children ,working for       
,wages7 ,parliamentary ,return1 #ahii1  
p4 #cb4  #aja ,report on ,employment of 
,school-,children1 p4 #h4  #ajb ,ibid41 
p4 #i4  #ajc ,report on the ,employment 
of ,school-,children1 p4 #i4  #ajd      
,quoted from ,studies of ,boy ,life1 p4 
#bd4  #aje ,report on ,employment of    
,school-,children1 p4 #aj4  #ajf ,ibid41
 p4 #aa4  #ajg ,report on ,employment of
 ,school-,children1 p4 #aa4  #ajh       
,report of the ,education ,committee    
submitting the ,report of the ,medical  
,officer 7,education7 for the year      
#aijf4 ,p4 ,s4 ,king and ,son4  #aji    
,report of ,medical ,officer1 p4 #bb4   
#aaj ,report of the ,medical ,officer   
7,education7 #aijf1 p4 #bc4  #aaa       

,ibid41 p4 #bc4  #aab ,ibid41 p4 #bd4   
#aac ,see p4 #dc4  #aad ,report on the  
,apprenticeship ,question1 ,minutes of  
the ,education ,committee of the ,london
 ,county ,council for ,february #bd1    
#aiji1 p4 #dad4  #aae ,the substance of 
what follows appeared in an article     
published in the ,economic ,journal for 
,september1 #aiji1 and is reproduced by 
the kind permission of the ,editor4     
#aaf ,l4,c4,c4 ,report of ,medical      
,officer 7,education71 #aijf1 p4 #bc1   
showed that this was the most injurious 
form of work in which school-children   
were engaged4  #aag ,report of ,mr4     
,cyril ,jackson on ,boy ,labour1        
prepared for the ,poor ,law ,commission4
  #aah ,report on ,boy ,labour1 p4 #g4  
#aai ,report on ,boy ,labour1 pp4 #g and
 #h4  #abj ,canon ,scott ,holland1      
,introduction to ,the ,problem of ,boy  
,work1 by the ,rev4 ,spencer ,j4 ,gibb4 
#aba ,report on ,boy ,labour1 p4 #d4    
#abb ,report of the ,departmental       
,committee on the ,employment of        

,children ,act1 #aijc1 #aiaj1 p4 #ad4   
#abc ,studies of ,boy ,life1 p4 #aaa4   
#abd ,cyril ,jackson1 ,report on ,boy   
,labour1 p4 #ad4  #abe ,the ,rev4       
,spencer ,j4 ,gibb1 ,the ,problem of    
,boy ,work1 p4 #cc4  #abf ,report on the
 ,apprenticeship ,question1 ,minutes of 
the ,education ,committee of the ,london
 ,county ,council1 ,february #bd1 #aiji1
 p4 #dbd4  #abg ,report on ,boy ,labour1
 p4 #bg4  #abh ,mr4 ,cloete1 in ,studies
 of ,boy ,life1 p4 #abe4  #abi ,report  
on ,boy ,labour1 p4 #bj4  #acj ,ibid41  
p4 #bj4  #aca ,ibid41 p4 #bf4  #acb     
,report on ,boy ,labour1 p4 #ag4  #acc  
,ibid41 p4 #af4  #acd ,ibid41 p4 #ag4   
#ace ,report on the ,apprenticeship     
,question1 p4 #a4 ,london ,county       
,council ,publications4 ,p4 ,s4 ,king   
and ,son4  #acf ,report on the          
,apprenticeship ,question1 p4 #b4  #acg 
,charles ,booth1 ,life and ,labour of   
the ,people1 vol4 ix41 p4 #bbb4  #ach   
,this ,advisory ,committee contains     
representatives of the chief woodwork   

industries of the district4  #aci       
,report on the ,apprenticeship          
,question1 p4 #d4  #adj ,report on the  
,apprenticeship ,question1 p4 #d4  #ada 
,minutes of the ,education ,committee1  
,february #bd1 #aiji1 p4 #dae4  #adb    
,report on ,boy ,labour1 p4 #dg4  #adc  
,report on ,boy ,labour1 p4 #bj4  #add  
,ibid41 p4 #bj4  #ade ,ibid41 p4 #bb4   
#adf ,ibid41 p4 #bc4  #adg ,report on   
,employment of ,school-,children1 p4 #e4
  #adh ,report of ,chief ,medical       
,officer of ,board of ,education for    
#aiji1 pp4 #hj-ha1 note4  #adi ,report  
of ,consultation ,committee on          
,continuation ,schools1 p4 #bjf4  #aej  
,majority ,report of the ,poor ,law     
,commission1 p4 #cbe4  #aea ,ibid41 p4  
#cbe4  #aeb ,minority ,report of the    
,poor ,law ,commission1 p4 #aaff4  #aec 
,ibid41 p4 #aaff4  #aed ,minority       
,report on the ,poor ,law ,commission1  
p4 #aaff4  #aee ,report on ,boy ,labour1
 p4 #e4  #aef ,ibid41 p4 #bg4  #aeg ,m4 
,e4 ,sadler1 ,continuation ,schools1    

,preface1 p4 xii4  #aeh ,m4 ,e4 ,sadler1
 ,continuation ,schools1 ,preface1 p4   
xiii4  #aei ,the ,rev4 ,spencer ,j4     
,gibb1 ,the ,problem of ,boy ,work1 p4  
#cc4  #afj ,economic ,journal1          
,december1 #aiji1 p4 #ebb4  #afa ,ibid41
 p4 #ebb4  #afb ,economic ,journal1     
,december1 #aiji1 p4 #ecb4  #afc        
,elementary ,schools 7,children ,working
 for ,wages7 ,act1 ,part 7#b71 ,return  
for ,england and ,wales1 #ahii1 p4 iv4  
#afd ,elementary ,schools 7,children    
,working for ,wages7 ,act1 ,part 7#b71  
,return for ,england and ,wales1 #ahii41
 p4 vii4  #afe ,m4 ,f4 ,davies1 ,life in
 an ,english ,village1 chap4 x4  #aff   
,report of the ,commissioners of        
,prisons for the year ending ,march #ca1
 #aijh1 p4 #ad4  #afg ,report of the    
,poor ,law ,commission1 p4 #cbe4  #afh  
,morning ,post1 ,january #c1 #aiji1     
letter from ,professor ,m4 ,e4 ,sadler4 
#afi ,russell and ,rigby1 ,working      
,lads' ,club1 p4 #bhf4  #agj ,majority  
,report of the ,poor ,law ,commission1  

p4 #cbf4  #aga ,minority ,report of the 
,poor ,law ,commission1 p4 #aafe4  #agb 
,ibid41 p4 #aaff4  #agc ,minutes of the 
,education ,committee1 ,february #bd1   
#aiji1 p4 #dbb4  #agd ,minutes of the   
,education ,committee1 ,february #bd1   
#aiji1 p4 #daf4  #age ,minutes of the   
,education ,committee1 ,february #bd1   
#aiji1 p4 #daf4  #agf ,m4 ,e4 ,sadler1  
,continuation ,schools1 p4 #ccd4  #agg  
,berlin1 though growing luxurious1 is   
not yet as spendthrift of young life as 
is ,london4 ,the newspaper-boy and the  
street-trader are unknown 7,report to   
the ,london ,county ,council1 by ,miss  
,durham1 p4 #c74  #agh ,see ,report of  
the ,consultative ,committee of the     
,board of ,education on ,continuation   
,schools1 chap4 x4  #agi ,report of the 
,poor ,law ,commission1 p4 #cdf4  #ahj  
,report of the ,poor ,law ,commission1  
pp4 #cdf-cdg4  #aha ,ibid41 ,professor  
,chapman1 footnote1 p4 #cdf4  #ahb      
,report of the ,poor ,law ,commission1  
p4 #cea4  #ahc ,report of the           

,consultative ,committee of the ,board  
of ,education in ,higher ,elementary    
,schools1 p4 #g4  #ahd ,report by ,miss 
,durham to the ,london ,county ,council 
on ,juvenile ,labour in ,germany1 p4 #g4