,,the ,,grotesque ,,in ,,church ,,art4  
,only #djj copies of this ,book         
published   for ,sale1 and this is ,no4 
#cae     ,illustration3 ,,the ,,story   
,,of ,,jonah1 ,,ripon4       ,the       
,grotesque   in ,church ,art     ,by ,t4
 ,tindall ,wildridge     ,illustration  
,,london3   ,,william ,,andrews  ,,co41 
#e1 ,,farringdon ,,avenue1 ,e4,c4       
#ahii4     ,preface4   ,the designs of  
which this book treats have vast fields 
outside the ,english church works to    
which it has been thought good to limit 
it4 ,books and buildings undoubtedly    
mutually interchanged some forms of     
their ornaments1 yet the temple was the 
earlier repository of man's ideas       
expressed in art1 and the proper home of
 the religious symbolism which forms so 
large a proportion of my subject4 ,in   
view also of the ground ,i have ventured
 to hint may be taken up as to the      
derivation1 of a larger number than is  
generally supposed1 of church designs   
from heathen prototypes by the hands of 

apprenticed masons1 it is fitting that  
the evidences should be from their      
chisels4 ,the only exceptions are a few 
wall-paintings1 which serve to point a  
difference in style and origin4  ,in    
every case the examples are from        
churches in our own land4 ,the          
conclusions do not nearly approach a    
complete study of the questions1 the    
research to the present1 great as it is1
 chiefly shewing how much has yet to be 
learned in order to accurately compare  
the extant with the long-forgotten4 ,the
 endeavour has been to present          
sufficient to enable general inferences 
to be drawn in the right direction4  ,of
 the numerous works consulted in the    
course of this essay1 the most useful   
has been ,choir ,stalls and their       
,carvings1 sketched by ,miss ,emma      
,phipson4 ,while tendering my           
acknowledgments for much assistance     
obtained from that lady's book1 ,i would
 add that the 'second series' suggested 
cannot but equal the first as a service 

to the cause of comparative mythology   
and folk-lore4  ,this place may be taken
 to dispose of two kinds of grotesques  
in church art which belong to my title1 
though not to my intention4  ,the       
memorial erections put into so many     
churches after the middle of the        
sixteenth century are to be placed in   
the same category as the less often     
ludicrous effigies of earlier times1 and
 may be dismissed as ugly monumental    
vanities1 miscalled sculpture4 ,the     
grotesqueness of some of these          
sepulchral excrescences may in future   
centuries be still more apparent1 though
 to many even time cannot supply        
interest4 ,not all are like the imposing
 monument to a doctor in ,southwark     
,cathedral1 on which1 by the way1 the   
epitaph is mainly devoted to laudation  
of his pills4 ,yet1 though the grotesque
 is not entirely wanting in even these  
monuments1 it is chiefly through errors 
of taste4 ,the worst of them are more   
pathetic than anything else4 ,the       

grotesque proper implies a proportion of
 levity1 whereas the earnestness evinced
 by these effigies are more in keeping  
with the solemnity of the church's      
purpose than the infinitely more        
artistic and unobtrusive ornament of the
 fabric4 ,the other class of grotesque  
is the modern imitation of mediaeval    
carving1 with original design4 ,luckily1
 it is somewhat rare to find the spirit 
of the old sculptors animating a modern 
chisel4 ,one of the best series of      
modern antiques of this kind is a set of
 gargoyles at ,st4 ,nicholas's1         
,abingdon1 executed about #ahha1 of     
which ,i think it worth while to append 
a warning sample4  ,these two classes   
are left out of account in the following
 pages4  ,illustration3 ,,modern        
,,gargoyle1 ,,abingdon1 #ahha4          
,contents4                              
,,page    ,,preface                     
v    ,,introduction                     
#a    ,,definitions ,,of ,,the          
,,grotesque                           #e

    ,,the ,,carvers                     
#i    ,,the ,,artistic ,,qualities ,,of 
,,church ,,grotesques           #ai     
,,gothic ,,ornament ,,not ,,didactic    
#bd    ,,ingrained ,,paganism           
#bg    ,,mythic ,,origin                
#cd    ,,hell',s ,,mouth                
#fj    ,,satanic ,,representations      
#fd    ,,the ,,devil ,,and ,,the ,,vices
                               #gh      
,,ale ,,and ,,the ,,alewife             
#ii    ,,satires ,,without ,,satan      
#ajf    ,,scriptural ,,illustrations    
#aab    ,,masks ,,and ,,faces           
#aba    ,,the ,,domestic ,,and ,,popular
                             #acd       
,,the ,,pig ,,and ,,other ,,animal      
,,musicians                   #aeb      
,,compound ,,forms                      
#aeg    ,,nondescripts                  
#afi    ,,rebuses                       
#agc    ,,trinities                     
#age    ,,the ,,fox ,,in ,,church ,,art 
#ahd    ,,situations ,,of ,,grotesque   
,,ornament ,,in ,,church ,,art          

#bac    ,,index                         
#bai  ,illustration3 ,a ,,roof          
,,supporter1 ,,ewelme1 ,,oxon4     ,the 
,grotesque in ,church ,art4             
,introduction4   ,illustration3         
,,gorgonic ,,mask1 ,,ewelme4  ,the more 
lofty the earlier manifestations of     
man's intellect1 the more complete and  
immediate seems to have been their      
advancement4 ,that is to say1 where the 
products of genius depend mainly upon   
the recognition of great principles and 
deliberate adherence to them1 they are  
more satisfying than when success       
depends upon dexterous manipulation of  
material4 ,what ,i have in view in this 
respect in connection with architecture 
has its co-relative in language4 ,the   
subtlety and poetic force of ,ayran     
roots shew a refined application of     
principle--that of imagery--in far      
advance of the languages rising from    
them4 ,the successive growths of the    
detail of language1 for use or          
ornament1--and the useful of one age    

would seem to become the ornamental of  
another--necessarily often forsake the  
high purity of the primeval standard1   
and give rise1 not only to the          
commonplace1 but1 by misconception or   
wantonness1 to perversion of taste4 ,so 
in architecture4 ,temples were noble    
before their ornaments4 ,the grotesque  
is the slang of architecture4 ,nowhere  
so much as in ,gothic architecture has  
the grotesque been fostered and         
developed1 for1 except for a blind      
adherence to ancient designs1 due to    
something like gild continuity1 the     
whole detail was introduced apropos of  
nothing4 ,the assisting circumstance    
would appear to have been the           
indifference of the architects to the   
precise significance of the detail      
ornaments of their buildings4 ,gothic1  
or in fact any architecture admitting   
ornament1 calls for crisp sub-regular   
projections1 which shall1 by their      
prominence and broken surface1 attract  
the eye1 but by the vagueness of their  

general form attract it so slightly as  
to lose individuality in a general view4
 ,these encrusting ornaments1 by their  
opposition to the light of what the     
carvers call a busy surface1 increase   
and accentuate rather than detract from 
the effect of the sweep of arches or    
dying vistas of recurring pillars4 ,they
 afford a sort of punctuation1 or       
measurers of the rhythm of the          
composition4 ,led from point to point1  
the eye gathers an impression of rich   
elaboration that does not interfere with
 its appreciation of the orderliness of 
the main design4  ,these objects gained1
 the architects did not1 apparently1    
enquire what the lesser minds1 who      
carved the boss or dripstone1 considered
 appropriate ornament4 ,hence we have a 
thousand fancies1 often beautifully     
worked out1 but often utterly           
incongruous with the intent of the      
edifice they are intended to adorn1 and 
unworthy of the architecture of which   
they are a part4  ,as in language the   

grotesque is sometimes produced by      
inadvertency and misconception1 so in   
ornament not all the grotesque is of set
 purpose1 and here the consideration of 
the less development of the less idea   
has its chief example4 ,as original     
meaning became lost1 the real merit of  
earnestness decreased1 and the grotesque
 became an art4  ,moreover1 the         
execution of ,gothic ornament is        
excellent in proportion to its artistic 
easiness4 ,thus the foliate and florate 
designs are better carved than the      
animal forms1 and both better than the  
human4 ,with the exception of little    
else besides the ,angel ,choir at       
,lincoln1 and portions of the ,percy    
,shrine at ,beverley1 there is nothing  
in ,gothic representation of sentient   
form really worthy of the perfect       
conceptions of architecture afforded by 
scores of ,english churches4 ,it may1 of
 course1 be considered that anything but
 conventional form is out of place as   
architectural ornament2 on the other    

hand1 it must not be ignored that       
conventionality is a growth4 ,it is only
 to be expected1 therefore1 that where  
the artist found character beyond his   
reach he fell readily into caricature1  
though it is a matter for surprise to   
find such a high standard of ability in 
that1 and in the carved work generally4 
,we find no instances of carving so low 
in absolute merit as are the best of the
 wall-paintings of the same periods4    
,the sources from which the artists     
obtained their material are as wide as  
the air4 ,a chief aim of this volume is 
to indicate those sources1 and this is  
done in some cases rather minutely1     
though not in any exhaustively4 ,the    
point of view from which the subject is 
surveyed is that the original detail of 
the temples entirely consisted of       
symbols of worship and attributes1      
founded chiefly upon astronomical       
phenomena3 that owing to the gild       
organization of the masons1 the same    
forms were mechanically perpetuated long

 after the worship of the heavenly      
bodies had given way to ,christianity1  
often with the thinnest veil of         
,christian symbolism thrown over them4  
,to this material1 descended from remote
 antiquity1 came gradually to be added a
 multitude of designs from nature and   
from fancy4  ,illustration3 ,,harpy1    
,,exeter4     ,illustration3 ,,rage     
,,and ,,terror1 ,,ripon4   ,definitions 
of the ,grotesque4   ,the term          
,grotesque1 which conveys to us an idea 
of humourous distortion or exaggeration1
 is simply grotto-esque1 being literally
 the style of art found in the grottos  
or baths of the ancients4 ,the term rose
 towards the end of the fifteenth       
century1 when exhumation brought to     
light the fantastic decorations of the  
more private apartments of the          
licentious ,romans4 ,the use at that    
period of a similar style for not       
unsimilar purposes gave the word common 
currency1 and it has spread to          
everything which1 combined with wit or  

not1 provokes a smile by a real or      
pretended violation of the laws of      
,nature and ,beauty4 ,in its later1 and 
not in its original1 meaning is the word
 applied to the extraordinary           
productions of church art4 ,we may      
usefully inquire as to the causes of    
those remarkable characteristics of     
,gothic art which have caused the word  
,grotesque to fittingly describe so much
 of its detail4  ,the joke has a        
different meaning for every age4 ,the   
capacity for simultaneously recognizing 
likeness and contrast between things the
 most incongruous and wide-sundered1    
which is at the root of our appreciation
 of wit1 humour1 or the grotesque1 is a 
quality of slow growth among nations4   
,no doubt early man enjoyed his laugh1  
but it was a different thing from the   
laughter of our day4 ,many races have   
left no suspicion of their ever having  
smiled2 even where there are ample      
pictorial remains1 humour is generally  
unrepresented4 ,the ,assyrians have left

 us the smallest possible grounds for   
crediting them with its possession4     
,instances have been adduced of         
,egyptian humour1 but some are doubtful1
 and in any case the proportion of fun  
per acre of picture is infinitesimally  
small4 ,the ,greeks1 perhaps1 came the  
nearest to what we consider the comic1  
but with both ,greek and ,roman the     
humour has something of bitterness and  
sterility2 even in what was professedly 
comic we cannot always see any real fun4
 ,where it strikes out unexpectedly in  
brief flashes it is with a cold light   
that leaves no impression of warmth     
behind4 ,the mechanical character of    
their languages1 with a multitude of    
fixed formulae1 is perhaps an index to  
their mental development4 ,the          
subtleties of wit ran in the direction  
of gratifying established tastes and    
prejudices by satirical references1 but 
rarely condescending to amuse for mere  
humour's sake4 ,where is found the      
nearest approach to merriness is in what

 now-a-days we regard as the least      
interesting and meritorious grade of    
humour1 the formal parody4 ,the ,greeks 
had1 outside their fun1 let it be noted1
 something better than jococity1 and    
that was joyousness4 ,the later ,romans 
became humourous in a low way which has 
had a permanent influence upon          
literature and art4  ,sense of humour   
grew with the centuries1 and by the time
 that the ,gothic style of architecture 
arose1 appreciation of the              
ludicrous-in-general 7i4e4 that which is
 without special reference to an        
established phase of thought7 is        
traceable as a characteristic of1 at    
least1 the ,teuton nations4 ,it must be 
admitted that the popular verbal fun of 
the middle ages is not always easy to   
grasp1 but it cannot be denied that     
where understood1 or where its outlet is
 found in the graphic or glyphic arts1  
there is allied to the innocent         
coarseness and unscrupulousness1 a      
richness of conceit1 a wealth of humour1

 and a delicate and accurate sense of   
the laughable far beyond ,greek wit or  
,roman jocularity4  ,it is to the       
embodiments of the spirit of humour as  
found in our mediaeval churches that our
 present study is directed4  ,it may be 
as well to first say a little upon those
 comicalities which may be styled       
'grotesques by misadventure4' ,this is a
 branch of the subject to be approached 
with some diffidence1 for it is in many 
cases difficult to discriminate between 
that which was intended to be grotesque1
 and that which was executed with       
serious or often devout feelings1 but   
for one of several causes often         
presenting to us an irresistibly comic  
effect4  ,the causes may be five4       
,first1 the varying mechanical and      
constructive incompetency of the artists
 to embody their ideas4 ,second1 the    
copying of an earlier work with         
executive ability1 with strong          
perception of its unintentional and     
latent humour1 but without respect to1  

or without knowledge of1 its serious    
meaning4 ,third1 the use of symbolic    
representation1 in which the greater the
 skill1 often the greater the ludicrous 
effect4 ,fourth1 the change of fashion1 
manners1 and customs4 ,fifth1 a bias of 
mind which impelled to whimsical        
treatment4  ,consideration of the causes
 thus roughly analysed will explain away
 a large proportion of the irreverence  
of the irreverent paintings and carvings
 which excite such surprise1 and        
sometimes disgust1 in the minds of many 
modern observers of ecclesiological     
detail4  ,it will be seen that the      
placing of carvings in any one of these 
five classes1 or in the category of     
intentional grotesques1 must1 in many   
cases1 be a mere matter of opinion4 ,for
 the present purpose it will not be     
necessary to separate them1 except so   
far as the plan of the work does it     
automatically4 ,many ecclesiastical and 
other seals afford familiar instances of
 the 'comic without intention1' parallel

 to what is said above as to carvings4  
,the ,carvers4   ,illustration3         
,,lincoln1 #adth cent4  ,seemingly      
probability and evidence go hand in hand
 to shew that a great bulk of the church
 mason work of this country was the work
 of foreigners4 ,saxon churches were    
probably first built by ,roman workmen1 
whose erections would teach sufficient  
to enable ,saxons to afterward build for
 themselves4 ,imported talent1 however1 
is likely to have been constantly       
employed4 ,edward the ,confessor brought
 back with him from ,france new ,french 
designs for the rebuilding of           
,westminster ,abbey1 and doubtless he   
brought ,french masons also4            
,anglo-,norman is strongly ,byzantine in
 character1 and though the channels     
through which it passed may be various1 
there is little doubt that its origin   
was the great ,empire of the ,east4     
,again1 the great workshop of ,europe1  
where ,eastern ideas were gathered      
together and digested1 and which        

supplied cathedrals and cathedral       
builders at command1 was ,flanders2 and 
there is little doubt that during some  
five centuries after the ,norman        
,conquest1 ,flemings were employed1 in a
 greater or less degree1 on ,english    
work4 ,italians were largely employed4  
,the ,angel ,choir of ,lincoln is one   
distinct witness to that4 ,the workmen  
who executed the finely-carved woodwork 
of ,st4 ,george's ,chapel1 ,windsor1    
,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1 and       
,westminster ,abbey1 in the sixteenth   
century1 were chiefly ,italians1 under  
the superintendence of ,torregiano1 a   
,florentine artist4 ,he was a           
fellow-pupil of ,michael ,angelo1 and is
 best known by the dastardly blow he    
dealt him with a mallet1 disfiguring him
 for life4 ,the resentment of ,lorenzo  
de ,medici at this caused ,torregiano to
 leave ,florence4 ,he came to ,england  
in #aejc4  ,the architect1 however1 of  
,king ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel was       
,bishop ,alcock1 an ,englishman1 born at

 ,hull1 the already existing ,grammar   
,school of which place he endowed1 and1 
perhaps1 rebuilt4 ,many other architects
 of ,english buildings were ,englishmen1
 probably the majority1 and doubtless a 
large proportion of the workmen also1#a 
but it would be idle to deny that       
imported art speaks loudly from work of 
all the styles4  ,the carved detail may 
be relied upon to tell us something1 and
 it speaks of an original reliance upon 
the ,east1 which was never outgrown4    
,the carvings found in ,england are not 
marked by anything at all approaching a 
national spirit1 even in the limited    
degree that was possible4 ,except for a 
few carvings of armorial designs1 and   
still fewer with slight local reference1
 there are none in wood or stone which  
would not be equally in place in any    
,romance country in ,europe4 ,the       
carvings1 also1 in the ,continental     
churches present familiar aspects to the
 student of ,english ornament4  ,but if 
we have yet to wait some fortunate      

discovery of rolls of workmen's names1  
with their rate of wages1 we are not    
without such interesting information    
concerning the old carvers as is        
contained in portraits they have left of
 themselves4 ,just as authors sometimes 
recognize how satisfactory it is to have
 their effigies done at the fronts of   
their books1 so have the carvers of old 
sometimes attached to their works       
portraits of themselves or their        
fellows1 in their habits as they lived1 
in their attitudes as they laboured4    
,illustration3 ,,an ,,industrious       
,,carver1 ,,lynn4  ,our first carver    
hails from ,lincolnshire4 ,in #aheb1    
when the ,church of ,st4 ,nicholas1     
,lynn1 was restored1 the misericordes   
were taken out and not replaced1 but    
passed as articles of commerce          
eventually to the ,architectural        
,museum1 ,tufton ,street1 ,london4      
,among these is a view of a carver's    
studio1 shewing the industrious master  
seated1 tapping carefully away at a     

design upon the bench before him4 ,there
 are three apprentices in the background
 working at benches2 there are at the   
back some incised panels1 and a piece of
 open screen-work4 ,perhaps we may      
suppose the weather to be cold1 for the 
carver has on an exceedingly comfortable
 cloak or surcoat4 ,at his feet reposes 
his dog4  ,illustration3 ,,carver',s    
,,initials1 ,,st4 ,,nicholas',s1 ,,lynn4
  ,there is an interesting peculiarity  
about these ,lynn carvings2 the sides of
 the misericordes are designs in the    
fashion of monograms1 or rebuses4 ,the  
sides supporting the carver are his     
initials1 pierced with his carving      
tools1 a saw and a chisel4 ,the         
difficulty is the same in all of the    
set2 the meaning of the monograms is not
 to be lightly determined4 ,in this case
 it may be ,u4,v41 or perhaps ,u is     
twice repeated4  ,illustration3         
,,communicating ,a ,,striking ,,idea1   
,,beverley ,,minster4  ,the next carvers
 belong to the following century4 ,here 

also we see the principal figures in the
 midst of work4 ,in this case1 however1 
there has arrived an interruption4      
,either one of the workers is about to  
commit mock assault and battery upon    
another with a mallet1 or a brilliant   
idea for a grotesque has just struck    
him1 and he hastens to impart it4 ,from 
the expression of the faces1 and the    
attitudes for which two other workmen   
have stood as models1 at the sides1 the 
latter may be the more likely4 ,it is   
not impossible that the carver of the   
fine set of sixty-eight misericordes in 
,beverley ,minster had in mind the      
incident of the blow given to ,michael  
,angelo1 and it would be interesting to 
know if any of ,torregiano's ,italians  
worked at ,beverley4 ,this aproned1     
noisy1 jocular crew are very different  
from the dignified artist we have just  
left1 but doubtless they turned out good
 work of the humorous class4  ,the two  
sidesmen are occupied in the two ways of
 shewing intelligence and contempt known

 as taking a sight1 etc4  ,illustration3
 ,,mutual ,,contempt1 ,,beverley        
,,minster4  ,the next carver is a figure
 at ,wellingborough1 ,northamptonshire4 
,this is locally known as the           
,wellingborough shoemaker1 but nearly   
all local designations of such things   
are wrong1 and this is no exception4    
,elsewhere in speaking of this sedate   
figure1 ,i have conjectured he may be   
cutting something out of leather1 and   
not making shoes4 ,however1 ,i have     
since arrived at ,miss ,phipson's       
conclusion3 the figure can only be that 
of a carver4 ,he is fashioning not a    
leather rosette1 but a ,tudor rose in   
oak1 to be afterwards pinned with an oak
 pin in some spandrel4 ,he is rather a  
reserved-looking individual1 but a      
master of his craft1 if we may suppose  
he has turned out the two eagles at his 
right and left4  ,illustration3 ,a      
,,piece ,,of ,,fine ,,work1             
,,wellingborough4  ,no doubt there were 
several ways of building churches1 or   

supplying them with their art           
decorations4 ,some masons would be      
attached to a cathedral1 and be lent or 
sent here and there by arrangement4     
,others would be ever wandering1 seeking
 church work4 ,others might come from   
abroad for particular work1 and return  
with the harvest of ,english money when 
the work was done4 ,for special objects 
there were depots4 ,it is an            
acknowledged fact that the black basalt 
fonts of ,norman times were imported    
from ,flanders4 ,there are occasionally 
met other things of this material with  
the same class of design1 evidently from
 the same source1 such as the sculptured
 coffin-lid at ,bridlington ,priory1    
given on a following page4 ,i have not  
seen it noted1 but ,i think it will be  
established that brasses1 so much alike 
all over the country1 were mostly       
ready-made articles also from ,flanders4
 ,from the stereotyped conventionality  
of the altar-tomb effigies1 they also   
may be judged to be the productions of  

workshops doing little but this work1   
and probably foreign4  ,what is required
 to determine the general facts on these
 points is a return from various fabric 
accounts4 ,we shall probably find both  
,english and foreign carvers4 ,there is 
little or no doubt that the carvers of  
our grotesques were members of the      
mysterious society which has developed  
into the modern body of ,freemasons4 ,it
 would be interesting--if it were not so
 apparently impossible--to trace in the 
records of early ,freemasonry1 not only 
the names and nationalities of the      
masons and carvers1 but the details of  
that fine organization which enabled    
them to develope ideas and improvements 
simultaneously throughout ,europe2 and  
which would tell us1 moreover1 something
 of the master minds which conceived and
 directed the changes of style4 ,but the
 masonic history of our carvers is much 
enveloped in error to the outside world4
 ,thus we are told that in the minority 
of ,henry ,,vi4 the masons were         

suppressed by statute1 but that on his  
assuming the control of affairs he      
repealed the ,act1 and himself became a 
mason2 moreover1 we are told he wrote   
out ,certayne ,questyons with ,awnsweres
 to the same concerning the ,mystery of 
,maconrye which was afterwards copyed by
 me ,johan ,leylande ,antiquarius1 at   
the command of ,henry ,,viii42 the ,,ms4
 being gravely stated to be in the      
,bodleian ,library4 ,no such ,,ms4      
exists at the ,bodleian ,library4 ,if it
 did1 its diction and spelling 7which is
 all on pretended record in certain     
books probably repudiated by the masonic
 body proper7 would instantly condemn it
 as a forgery4 ,certainly an ,act was   
passed1 #c ,henry ,,vi41 which is in    
itself a historical monument to the     
importance of ,freemasonry4 ,it is a    
brief enactment that the yearly meetings
 of the masons1 being contrary to the   
,statute of ,labourers 7of #be ,edward  
,,iii41 #acea7 fixing the rates of      
labour1 which the masons varied and     

apparently increased1 were no longer to 
be held2 offenders to be judged guilty  
of felony4 ,the ,commons did not quite  
know what to style the meetings1 using  
in this short ,act the following terms  
for them3 ,chapters1 ,assemblies1       
,congregations1 and ,confederacies4     
,but important though this proves the   
masons to have been1 there is no account
 of the statute being repealed until the
 #e ,elizabeth1 when another took its   
place equally intolerant to the spirit  
of ,freemasonry1 and ,freemasonry really
 only became legal by the ,act of #f    
,george ,,iv4  ,but the prohibition of  
#adbd was not abolition4 ,if the masons 
were debarred from being allowed to     
exercise their advanced notions of      
remuneration1 or to have any legal      
recognition whatever1 it scarcely seems 
to have affected their action4 ,for if  
they had refrained from exercising their
 freedom1 and submitted to being put    
down by statute1 it is probable we      
should have met them in the form of more

 ordinary gilds as instituted by other  
craftsmen4 ,but we do not meet them     
thus1 and the inference is that they    
went on in their own way1 at their own  
time1 and at their own price4 ,it may be
 presumed that the more or less         
migratory habits of the masons made the 
,act impossible to be rigidly enforced4 
,coming down towards the end of ,gothic 
times1 we find1 at any rate1 there was  
one place where images might be ordered4
 ,in the ,stanford churchwardens'       
accounts for #aeef there occur the      
following entries3--    ,it4 ,in        
expences to ,abyndon to speke for ymages
         vijd4    ,it4 for iij ymages1  
the ,rode1 ,mare1 and ,john   xxijs4    
iiijd4  ,it will have been noticed that 
the portraits of the carvers are ,late4 
,it is a great merit1 on antiquarian    
grounds1 that ,gothic work1 prior to the
 revival in art1 was too much           
unconscious to admit anything so        
self-personal as a thought of the       
workers themselves1 though frequently   

their 'marks' are unobtrusively set upon
 their works4 ,by the sixteenth century1
 the sculptor's art developed with the  
rest of mental effort1 and the artists  
drank fresh draughts from the springs   
coming by way of ,rome1 springs whose   
waters had been concerned in the        
existence of nearly all the art that had
 been in ,europe for ten centuries4     
,illustration3 ,,dog ,,and ,,bone1      
,,brechin4   ,the ,artistic ,quality of 
,church ,grotesques4   ,the grotesque   
has been pronounced a false taste1 and  
not desirable to be perpetuated4        
,reflection upon the causes and meanings
 of ,gothic grotesque will shew that    
perpetuation is to be regretted for     
other than artistic reasons4 ,if the    
taste be false yet the work is valuable 
on historic grounds1 for what it teaches
 of its own time and much more for what 
it hints of earlier periods of which    
there is meagre record anywhere4        
,therefore it would be well not to      
confuse the student of the future with  

our clever variations of imperfectly    
understood ideas4 ,practically the      
grotesque and emblematic period ended at
 the ,reformation2 and it was well4     
,but while leaving the falseness of the 
taste for grotesques an open question1  
there is something to be said for them  
without straining fact4 ,for it is      
certain that there is underlying ,gothic
 grotesque ornament a unique and1 if not
 understood1 an uncopiable beauty1 be   
the subject never so ugly4 ,the         
fascinating element appear to be1 first1
 the completeness of the genius which   
was exercised upon it4 ,it not only     
conveys the travestying idea1 but also  
sufficiently conveys the original       
thought travestied4  ,what is it at     
which we laugh8 ,it shall be a figure   
which is of a kind generally dignified1 
now with no dignity2 generally to be    
respected1 but now commanding no        
respect2 capable of being feared1 but   
now inspiring no fear2 usually lovable1 
but now provoking no love4 ,it shall be 

a figure of which the preconceived idea 
was either worthy or dreadful--which    
suddenly we have presented to us shorn  
of its superior attributes4 ,ideals are 
unconsciously enshrined in the mind1 and
 when images proclaiming themselves the 
same ideals appear in sharp degraded    
contrast--we laugh4 ,thus we affirm the 
correctness of the original judgments   
both as to the great and the            
contemptible imitating it1 for laughter 
is the effect of appreciation of        
incongruity4 ,custom overrides nearly   
all1 and blunts contrast of ideas1 yet  
wit1 darting here and there among men1  
ever finds fresh contrasts and fresh    
laughter4  ,illustration3 ,,dog ,,and   
,,bone1 ,,christchurch1 ,,hampshire4    
,further counts for something the       
excellence of the artistic management1  
which in the treatment of the most      
unpromising subjects filled the         
composition with beautiful lines4 ,it   
was left to ,hogarth's genius to insist 
on the reality of the line of beauty as 

governing all loveliness1 and he        
suggests that a perceptive recognition  
of this existed on the part of the      
classic sculptors4 ,this applies to     
their work in general1 but he also      
mentions their frequent addition of some
 curved object connected with the       
subject1 as though it were a kind of key
 to the artistic composition4 ,whether  
consciously or not1 the ancients used   
many such adjunctive curved lines1 and  
,hogarth's conclusions cannot be styled 
fanciful4 ,the helmet1 plume1 and       
serpent-edged aegis of ,minerva1 the    
double-bowed bolt and serpents of       
,jupiter1 the ornaments of the trident1 
the aplustre and the twisted rope of    
,neptune1 the bow and serpent of        
,apollo1 the plume of ,mars1 the        
caduceus of ,mercury1 the ship-prow of  
,saturn1 the gubernum or rudder of      
,venus1 the drinking horn of ,pan1      
together with many another form to be   
observed in particular works of the     
ancients1 is each a definite and perfect

 example of the faultless line4 ,now1 to
 repeat1 many--an infinite number--of   
the ornaments of ,gothic architecture1  
and not less the grotesque than any     
other description1 are likewise composed
 of the most beautiful lines            
conceivable1 either entirely1 or        
combined with lines of abrupt and       
ungraceful turn that seem to            
deliberately provoke one's artistic     
protest2 and yet the whole composition  
shall1 by its curious mixture of beauty 
and bizarre1 its contrast of elegance   
with awkwardness1 leave a real and      
unique sense of pleasure in the mind4   
,doubtless the root of this pleasure is 
the gratification of the mind at having 
secretly detected itself responding to  
the call of art to exercise itself in   
appreciative discrimination4 ,this may  
be unconsciously done2 and in a great   
measure the qualities which give the    
pleasure would be bestowed upon the work
 in similar happy unconsciousness of the
 exact why and wherefore4 ,often1 as in 

the ancient statues1 a small curved form
 is introduced as an appendage to a     
mediaeval grotesque4  ,illustration3    
,,hawks ,,or ,,eagles8 ,,wellingborough1
 ,,northamptonshire4  ,thus we see that 
there are combinations of two kinds of  
contrast which make ,gothic grotesques  
agreeable1 the artistic contrasts among 
the mere lines of the carvings1 and the 
significatory contrasts evolved by the  
meanings of the carvings4  ,as far back 
as the twelfth century1 a critic of     
church grotesques recognized their      
combination of contrasts4 ,this was ,st4
 ,bernard of ,clairvaux1 who1 speaking  
of the ecclesiastical decoration of his 
time1 paid the grotesques of church art 
the exact tribute they so often merit2  
probably the greater portion of what he 
saw has given place to succeeding       
carvings1 though of precisely the same  
characteristics4 ,he calls them a       
wonderful sort of hideous beauty and    
beautiful deformity4 ,he1 moreover1 put 
a question1 many times since repeated by

 hundreds who never heard of him1 asking
 the use of placing ridiculous          
monstrosities in the cloisters before   
the eyes of the brethren when occupied  
with their studies4  ,it is not possible
 to explain the use of perpetuating the 
barbarous symbols of a long-forgotten   
past2 but it will be interesting to shew
 that there were actual causes          
accounting for their continued existence
 and their continued production1 unknown
 ages after their own epoch4     ,gothic
 ,ornaments not ,didactic4   ,reflection
 will not lead us to believe carvings to
 have been placed in churches with      
direct intent to teach or preach4 ,many 
writers have coincided in producing a   
general opinion that the churches1 as   
containing these carvings1 were         
practically the picture 7or sculpture7  
galleries and illustrated papers for the
 illiterate of the past4 ,this          
supposition will not bear examination4  
,it would mean that in the days when    
humble men rarely travelled from home1  

and then mostly by compulsion1 to fight 
for lord or king1 or against him1 the   
inhabitant of a village or town had for 
the 7say7 forty years sojourn in his    
spot of ,merrie ,england1 a small       
collection of composite animals1        
monsters1 mermaids1 impossible flowers1 
etc4--with perhaps one doubtful domestic
 scene of a lady breaking a vessel over 
the head of a gentleman who is          
inquisitive as to boots--with which to  
improve his mind4 ,sometimes his church 
would contain not half-a-dozen forms1   
and mostly not one he could understand  
or cared to interpret4  ,misericordes1  
the secondary seats or shelves allowed  
as a relaxation during the ancient long 
standing services1 are invariably       
carved1 and episode is more likely to be
 found there than anywhere else in the  
church4 ,hence1 misericordes have been  
specially selected for this erroneous   
consideration of ornament to be the     
story-book of the ,middle ,ages4 ,this  
is unfortunate for the theory1 for they 

were placed only in churches having     
connection with a monastic or collegiate
 establishment4 ,they are in the        
chancels1 where the feet of laymen      
rarely trod1 and1 moreover1 there would 
be few hours out of the twenty-four when
 the stalls would not be occupied by the
 performers of the daily offices or     
celebrations4  ,the fact appears to be  
that the carvings were the outcome of   
causes far different from an intention  
to produce genre pictures4 ,it is patent
 that anything which kept within its    
proper mechanical and architectural     
outline1 was admitted4 ,what was offered
 depended upon a multitude of           
considerations1 but chiefly upon the    
traditions of mason-craft4 ,the ,rev4   
,charles ,boutell has an apt description
 touching upon the origin of the        
carvings3 calling them chronicles1 he   
says they were written by men who were  
altogether unconscious of being         
chroniclers at all4444 ,they worked     
under the impulse of motives altogether 

devoid of the historical element4 ,they 
were influenced by the traditions of    
their art1 by their own feelings1 and   
were directed by their own knowledge1   
experience1 and observation1 and also by
 the associations of their every-day    
lives4 ,this appears to explain in      
general terms the sources of            
iconography4 ,in brief1 the sculptor had
 a stock-in-trade of designs1 which he  
varied or supplemented1 according to his
 ability and originality4  ,that the    
stock-in-trade1 or traditions of the    
art1 handed down from master to         
apprentice1 generation after generation1
 persistently retained an immense amount
 of intellectualia thus derived from a  
remote antiquity1 is but an item of this
 subject1 but the most important of     
which this work has cognizance4         
,illustration3 ,,sea-,,horse            
,,dragonzed1 ,,lincoln1 #adth cent4     
,ingrained ,paganism4   ,we at this day 
may be excused for not participating in 
the good ,st4 ,bernard's dislike to the 

hideous beauties of the grotesque1 and  
for not deploring1 as he does1 the money
 expended on their production4 ,for many
 of them are the embodiments of ideas   
which the masons had perpetuated from a 
period centuries before his time1 and   
which could in no other way have been   
handed down to us4 ,there are many      
reasons why books were unlikely media   
for early times2 for later1 the serious 
import of the origin of the designs     
would be likely to be doubted2 and for  
the most part the special function of   
the designs has been the adornment of   
edifices of religion4 ,they were1 in    
fact1 religious symbols which in various
 ages of the world have been used with  
varying degrees of purity4 ,one of the  
,rabbis1 ,maimonides1 has an instructive
 passage on the rise of symbolic images4
 ,speaking of men's first falling away  
from a presumed early pure religion he  
says3--,they began to build temples to  
the stars1 444 and this was the root of 
idolatry 444 and the false prophet      

showed them the image that he had       
feigned out of his own heart1 and said  
it was the image of that star which was 
made known to him by prophecy2 and they 
began after this manner to make images  
in temples and under trees 444 and this 
thing was spread throughout the         
world--to serve images with services    
different one from another and to       
sacrifice unto1 and worship them4 ,so in
 process of time the glorious and       
fearful name was forgotten out of the   
mouth of all living 444 and there was   
found on earth no people that knew aught
 save images of wood and stone1 and     
temples of stone which they built4 ,the 
ancient ,hindoo fables also indicate how
 imagery arose2 they speak of the god   
,ram1 who1 having no shape1 is described
 by a similitude4 ,the worship of the   
,host of ,heaven was star-worship1 or   
,baalim4  ,the ,sabean idolatry was the 
worship of the stars1 to which belongs  
much of the earlier image carving1 for  
the household gods of the ancient       

,hebrews1 the ,teraphim 7as the images  
of ,laban stolen by ,rachel71 were      
probably in the human form as           
representing planets1 even in varying   
astronomical aspects of the same planet4
 ,they are said to have been of metal4  
,the ancient ,germans had similar       
household gods of wood1 carved out of   
the root of the mandragora plant1 or    
alraun as they called it1 from the      
superstition kindred to that of the     
,east1 that the images would answer     
questions 7from raunen to whisper in the
 ear74 ,examination of many ancient     
,attic figurines appears to shew that   
they had a not unsimilar origin1        
reminding us that both ,herodotus and   
,plato state the original religion of   
the ,greeks to have been star-worship1  
and hence is derived the ,greek3 ,theos 
god1 from ,greek3 ,thein to run4 ,thus  
in other than the poet's sense are the  
stars elder scripture4  ,a large number 
of the forms met in architectural       
ornament1 it may be fittingly           

reiterated1 have a more or less close   
connection with the worships which      
existed in times long prior to          
,christianity4 ,a portion of them was   
continuously used simply because the    
masons were accustomed to them1 or in   
later ,gothic on account of the         
universal practice of copying existing  
works2 unless we can take it for granted
 in place of that practice1 that there  
existed down to ,reformation days       
portfolios of carver's designs which    
were to the last handed down from master
 to apprentice1 as must have undoubtedly
 been the case in earlier times4 ,other 
portions of the ancient worship designs 
are found in ,christian art because they
 were received and grafted upon the     
symbolic system of the ,church's        
teaching4 ,the retention of these       
fragments of superseded paganism does   
not always appear to have been of       
deliberate or willing intention4 ,the   
early days of the ,church even after its
 firm establishment1 were much occupied 

in combating every form of paganism4    
,the converts were constantly lapsing   
into their old beliefs1 and the thunders
 of the early ecclesiastical councils   
were as constantly being directed       
against the ancient superstitions4      
,sufficient remains on record to shew   
how hard the gods died4  ,to near the   
end of the fourth century the chief     
intelligence of ,rome publicly professed
 the ,olympic faith4 ,with the next     
century1 however1 commenced a more or   
less determined programme of persecutory
 repression4 ,thus1 councils held at    
,arles about #deb ruled that a bishop   
was guilty of sacrilege who neglected to
 extirpate the custom of adoring        
fountains1 trees1 and stones4 ,at that  
of ,orleans in #ecc ,catholics were to  
be excommunicated who returned to the   
worship of idols or ate flesh offered to
 idols4 ,at ,tours in #efg several pagan
 superstitions were forbidden1 and at   
,narborne in #eij2 freemen who          
transgressed were to have penance1 but  

slaves to be beaten4 ,at ,nicea in #fha 
image worship was allowed of ,christ4#b 
,at ,augsburgh 787 in #gdb the ,count   
,gravio was associated with the ,bishop 
to watch against popular lapses into    
paganism4 ,in #gdc ,pepin held a council
 in which he ruled1 as his father had   
done before1 that he who practised any  
pagan rites be fined #ae sous 7#ae_/bb  
of a livre74 ,to the orders was attached
 the renunciation1 in ,german1 of the   
worship of ,odin by the ,saxons1 and a  
list of the pagan superstitions of the  
,germans4 ,the ,council of ,frankfort in
 #gid ordered the sacred woods to be    
destroyed4 ,constantinople had          
apparently already not only become a    
channel for the conveyance of oriental  
paganism in astro-symbolic images1 but  
was also evidently nearer to the lower  
idolatry of heathenism than the ,church 
of the ,west4 ,thus we find the bishops 
of ,gaul1 ,germany1 and ,italy in       
council at ,frankfort1 rejecting with   
anathema1 and as idolatrous1 the        

doctrines of the ,council of            
,constantinople upon the worship of     
images4  ,while all this repression was 
going on1 the ,church was making itself 
acceptable1 just as the ,mosaic system  
had done in its day1 by assimilating the
 symbols of the forbidden faiths4       
,itself instituted without formularies  
or ceremonial1 both were needed when it 
became a step-ladder of ambition and the
 expedient displacer of the corrupt     
idolatries into which sun-worship had   
disintegrated4 ,hence among the means of
 organization1 observance and symbol    
took the place of original simplicity1  
and it is small wonder that ideas were  
adopted which were already in men's     
minds4 ,elements of heathenism which1   
after the lapse of centuries1 still     
clung to the ,church's robes1 became an 
interwoven part of her dearest          
symbolism4 ,if men did not burn what    
they had adored1 they in effect adored  
that which they had burned4  ,in spite1 
however1 of edicts and adoptions1       

paganism has never been entirely rooted 
out2 what ,sismondi calls the rights of 
long possession1 the sacredness of      
time-hallowed opinion1 and the potency  
of habit1 are not yet entirely overcome 
in the midst of the most enlightened    
peoples4 ,the carvings which point back 
to forgotten myths have their parallels 
in curious superstitions and odd customs
 which are not less venerable4  ,there  
were many compromises made on account of
 the ineradicable attachment of the     
people to religious customs into which  
they were born4 ,christian festivals    
were erected on the dates of heathen    
observances4 ,in the sixth century1     
,pope ,gregory sent word to ,augustine1 
then in ,england1 that the idolatrous   
temples of the ,english need not be     
destroyed1 though the idols should1 and 
that the cattle sacrificed to the       
heathen deities should be killed on the 
anniversary of dedication or on the     
nativities of the saints whose relics   
were within the church4  ,it is said    

that it was1 later1 usual to bring a fat
 buck into ,st4 ,paul's1 ,london1 with  
the hunters' horns blowing1 in the midst
 of divine service1 for the cathedral   
was built on or near the site of a      
former temple of ,diana4 ,this custom   
was made the condition of a feudal      
tenure4 ,the story of ,prosperine1      
another form of ,diana1 was the subject 
of heathen plays1 and down to the       
sixteenth century the character appears 
in religious mystery plays as the       
recipient of much abuse4  ,ancient      
mythology points in one chief direction4
 ,omnes ,deos referri ad solem1 says    
,macrobius1 ,all ,gods refer to the sun1
 and in the light of that saying a      
thousand complicated fables of antiquity
 melt into simplicity4 ,the ancient     
poets called the sun 7at one time       
symbolically of a ,first ,great ,cause1 
at another absolutely7 the ,leader1 the 
,moderator1 the ,depository of ,light1  
the ,ordainer of human things2 each of  
his virtues was styled a different god1 

and given its distinct name4 ,the moon  
also1 and the stars were made the       
symbols of deities4 ,these symbols put  
before the people as vehicles for       
abstract ideas1 were quickly adopted as 
gods1 the symbolism being disregarded1  
and the end was practically the same as 
that narrated by the ancient rabbi just 
quoted4 ,but it may be doubted whether  
the pantheism of the classic nations was
 ever entirely gross4 ,the great        
festivals of the gods were accompanied  
by the initiation of carefully selected 
persons into certain mysteries of which 
no description is extant4 ,thirlwall    
hazards the conjecture that they were   
the remains of a worship which preceded 
the rise of the ,hellenic mythology 444 
grounded on a view of nature less       
fanciful1 more earnest and better fitted
 to awaken both philosophical thought   
and religious feeling4 ,whether a purer 
system was unfolded to the initiated on 
these occasions or not1 there is little 
doubt that it had existed and was at the

 root of the symbol rites4              
,illustration3 ,,an ,,imp ,,on          
,,cushions1 ,,christchurch1 ,,hants41   
early #afth cent4     ,mythic ,origin of
 ,church ,carvings4   ,illustration3    
,,tau ,,cross1 ,,wellingborough4  ,the  
discoveries in ,egypt in recent years   
undoubtedly press upon us the fact that 
there was in ,europe an early indigenous
 civilization1 and that the exchange of 
ideas between ,east and ,west was at    
least equal4 ,for the purpose of this   
study1 however1 the theory of           
independence is not accepted absolutely2
 it is premised that though there were  
in numerous parts of the old world early
 native systems of worship of much      
similarity1 yet that such relics of them
 as are met in architecture came from   
the ,east4  ,the mythic ideas at the    
root of ,gothic decoration were probably
 early disseminated through ,europe in  
vague and varying ways1 whose chief     
impress is in folk-lore2 but the        
concrete forms themselves appear to have

 been introduced later1 after being     
brought1 as it were1 to a focus1 being  
selected and assimilated at some great  
mental centre4 ,alexandria was the place
 where ,eastern and ,western culture    
impinged on each other1 and resulted in 
a conglomerate of ideas4 ,these ideas1  
however1 were not essentially different 
in their nature1 though each school1    
,assyrian1 ,babylonian1 ,egyptian1      
,greek1 and ,hebrew1 had diverged widely
 if they came from an unknown common    
source4 ,but if ,alexandria was the     
furnace in which the material was fused1
 ,byzantium appears to have been the    
great workshop where the results were   
utilized1 and from whence they were     
issued to ,europe4  ,sculptured ornament
 is not alone in the fact of its being a
 direct legacy from remotely ancient    
forms1 though1 on comparing that with   
any of the other arts hitherto          
recognized as of ,eastern origin1 it    
will be found that none bears such      
distinct marks of its parentage1 or     

shews such continuity of form4 ,thus    
examination of ,european glazed pottery1
 which comes perhaps the nearest to our 
subject1 shews that the ornamenting     
devices occasionally betray an          
acquaintance with the old symbolic      
patterns1 but there is less recognition 
of meaning1 scarcely any intention to   
perpetuate idea1 and no continuity of   
design4 ,it was not in the nature of the
 potter's purpose that there should be  
any of these1 the difference being that 
for the mason's and the sculptor's art  
there was a very close association with 
the gild system4 ,the first ,christian  
sculptors would be masons brought up in 
pagan gilds1 and the gild instincts and 
traditions had undoubtedly as strong an 
effect upon their work1 on the whole1 as
 any religious beliefs they might       
possess4  ,the symbolism of the animals 
of the church in the late points of view
 of the ,bestiaries and of the          
expository writers of the ,middle ,ages1
 is not here to be made the subject of  

special attention4 ,that is a department
 well treated in other works1           
particularly in the volume1 ,animal     
,symbolism in ,ecclesiastical           
,architecture1 by ,mr4 ,e4 ,p4 ,evans1  
which yet remains to be equalled4 ,it is
 to be noted1 however1 that the early   
,christians1 seeing the animals and     
their compounds so integral a portion of
 pagan imagery1 endeavoured to twist    
every meaning to one sufficiently       
,christian3 but what is chiefly worthy  
of note is the unconscious resistance of
 the sculptors to the treatment4        
,although a multitude of figures can be 
traced as used symbolically in          
accordance with the ,christian dicta1   
there are at least as many which shew   
stronger affinity to pagan myth4 ,there 
is evidence that this was early         
recognized by the propogandists4 ,the   
,council of ,nice in #ghg1 in enjoining 
upon the faithful the due regard of     
images1 ordered that the works of art   
were not to be drawn from the           

imagination of the painters1 but to be  
only such as were approved by the rules 
and traditions of the ,catholic ,church4
 ,so also ordained the ,council of      
,milan in #aefe4  ,the ,artists1        
however1 did not invent the images so   
much as use old material1 and1 the      
injunctions of the ,council             
notwithstanding1 the ancient symbols    
apparently held their ground4 ,the      
protests of ,st4 ,nilus1 in the fifth   
century1 against animal figures in the  
sanctuary1 were echoed by the           
repudiations of ,st4 ,bernard in the    
twelfth and ,gautier de ,coinsi in the  
thirteenth1 a final condemnation being  
made at the ,council of ,milan in #aefe1
 all equally in vain4 ,though the force 
of the myth symbols has passed away1    
they have left another legacy than the  
grotesques of church art4 ,the art works
 of the ,greeks arose from the same     
materials1 the glorious statues and     
epics being the highest embodiment of   
the symbolic1 so loftily overtopping all

 other forms by the force of supreme    
physical beauty as to almost justify and
 certainly purify the religion of which 
they were the outcome2 so1 later1 the   
same ideas clothed with the moral beauty
 of supreme unselfishness enabled       
,christianity to take hold of the       
nations4  ,by the diatribes of ,bernard 
we can see what materials were extant in
 the twelfth century for a study of     
worship-symbols and of the grotesque1   
though he ignores any possible meaning  
they may have4 ,he says1 ,sometimes you 
may see many bodies under one head2 at  
other times1 many heads to one body2    
here is seen the tail of a serpent      
attached to the body of a quadruped2    
there the head of a quadruped on the    
body of a fish4 ,in another place       
appears an animal1 the fore half of     
which represents a horse1 and the hinder
 portion a goat4 ,elsewhere you have a  
horned animal with the hinder parts of a
 horse2 indeed there appears everywhere 
so multifarious and so wonderful a      

variety of diverse forms that one is    
more apt to con over the sculptures than
 to study the scriptures1 to occupy the 
whole day in wondering at these than in 
meditating upon ,god's law4  ,it has now
 to be observed how far the symbolic    
fancies of ancient beliefs have left    
their impress on the grotesque art of   
our churches4  ,a common representation 
of the great sun-myth was that of two   
eagles1 or dragons1 watching one at each
 side of an altar4 ,these were the      
powers of darkness1 one at each limit of
 the day1 waiting to destroy the light4 
,this poetic idea has come down to us in
 many forms4 ,greek art was             
unconsciously frequent in its use of the
 form1 and mediaeval sculptors1 being   
often quite ignorant of the significance
 of the design1 use it in a variety of  
ways1 in many of which the likeness to  
the original is entirely lost1 the      
composition ending in but a semi-natural
 representation of birds pecking at     
fruit4 ,in the above block from ,lincoln

 ,minster1 the altar is well preserved4 
,in the next block1 which is from a     
carving connected with the preceding    
one1 the idea is more distantly hinted  
at4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,altar ,,of  
,,light ,,and ,,the ,,birds ,,of        
,,darkness1 ,,lincoln4  ,illustration3  
,,symbols ,,of ,,darkness1 ,,lincoln4   
,at ,exeter1 an ingenious grotesque     
composition of two duck-footed harpies1 
one on either side of a fleur-de-lis1 is
 evidently from the same source4        
,examples of this could be multiplied   
very readily4  ,illustration3 ,,the     
,,altar ,,of ,,light ,,and ,,the ,,birds
 ,,of ,,darkness1 ,,exeter4  ,the ,cat  
and the ,fiddle are subjects of carvings
 at ,beverley and at ,wells4  ,man has  
an almost universal passion for the oral
 transmission of the fruits of his      
mental activity4 ,in the particular     
instances of many lingual compositions  
this passion has become an inveterate   
race habit1 and the rhymes or reasons   
have been transmitted verbally to       

posterity long after their original     
meaning has been lost or obscured4 ,it  
is no new thing that a nursery rhyme has
 been found to be the relic of an       
archaic poem long misunderstood or      
perverted4 ,the lines as to the cat and 
the fiddle are an excellent instance of 
the aptitude to continue the use of     
metrical composition the sense of which 
has departed4 ,the full verse is1 as it 
stands1 a curious jumble of disconnected
 sentences4    ,hey1 diddle1 diddle1 the
 cat and the fiddle1     ,the cow jumped
 over the moon1   ,the little dog       
laughed to see such sport1     ,while   
the dish run away with the spoon4       
,illustration3 ,,the ,,weeks ,,dancing  
,,to ,,the ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,month1  
,,beverley ,,minster4  ,illustration3   
,,hey1 ,,diddle1 ,,diddle1 ,,the ,,cat  
,,and ,,the ,,fiddle1 ,,wells4  ,i am   
not aware that any attempt has yet been 
made to explain this extraordinary      
verse4 ,examination seemingly shews that
 it was originally a satire in derision 

of the worship of ,diana4 ,the          
moon-goddess had a three-fold existence4
 ,on the earth she was ,diana4 ,among   
the ,egyptians we find her as ,isis1 and
 her chief symbol was the cat4 ,apuleius
 calls her the mother of the gods4 ,in  
the worship of ,isis was used a musical 
instrument1 the sistrum1 which had four 
metal bars loosely inserted in a frame  
so as to be shaken2 on the apex of this 
frame1 which was shaped not unlike a    
horse-shoe1 was carved the figure of a  
cat1 as emblematic of the moon4 ,the    
four bars are said by ,plutarch to      
represent the elements1 but it is more  
likely they were certain notes of the   
diapason4 ,the worship of ,isis passed  
to ,italy1 though the ,greeks had       
previously connected the cat with the   
moon4 ,the fiddle1 as an instrument     
played with a bow1 was not known to     
classic times1 but the word for         
fiddle--fides--was applied to a lyre4   
,it is equivalent to a ,greek word for  
gut-string4 ,in the light of what       

follows1 ,i suggest that the ,cat and   
the ,fiddle is a mocking allusion to the
 worship of ,diana upon earth4  ,in the 
heavens the moon-goddess had the name of
 ,luna1 and her chief symbol was the    
crescent1 which is sometimes met figured
 as a pair of cow's horns4 ,images of   
,isis were crowned with crescent horns2 
she was believed to be personified in   
the cow1 as ,osiris was in the bull1 and
 her symbol1 a crescent moon1 is met in 
sculpture over the back of the animal4  
,this apparently suggested the second   
line4  ,the third personality of the    
goddess was ,hecate1 which was the name 
by which she was known in the infernal  
regions1--which means of course1 in     
nature1 when she was below the horizon4 
,now another name by which she was known
 was ,prosperine 7,roman71 and          
,persephone 7,greek71 and her carrying  
down into ,hades by ,pluto 7,roman71 or 
,dis 7,greek71 was the fable wrought out
 of the simple phenomenon of moon-set4  
,i suggest that the last line of the    

verse is a grotesque rendering of the   
statement that--    ,dis ran away with  
,persephone4  ,dis is equivalent to     
,serapis the ,bull1 otherwise ,ammon1   
,a,esculapius1 ,nilus1 etc41 that is1   
the ,sun4 ,why the little dog laughed to
 see such sport is not easy to explain4 
,it may be an allusion to one of the    
heads of ,hecate1 that of a dog1 to     
indicate the watchfulness of the moon4  
,there is another ,hecate 7a bad1 as the
 above-mentioned was considered a       
beneficient deity71 but which was       
originally no doubt the same1 whose     
attributes were two black dogs1 i4e41   
the darkness preceding and following the
 moonlight in short lunar appearances4  
,or it may be an allusion to the fact   
that the dog was associated with ,dis1  
being considered the impersonation of   
,sirius the ,dog-star4 ,in various      
representations of the rape of          
,prosperine1 ,dis is accompanied by a   
dog1 e4g41 the grinning hound in        
,titian's picture4  ,prosperine's symbol

 of a crescent moon was adopted as one  
of those of the ,virgin ,mary1 and      
,candlemas ,day1 #bnd ,february1 takes  
the place of the ,roman festival1 the   
candles used to illustrate the text1 a  
light to lighten the ,gentiles1 being   
the representatives of the torches      
carried in the processions which        
affected to search for the lost         
,prosperine4  ,hindoo mythology has also
 a three-fold ,isis1 or moon-goddess2   
namely1 ,bhu on earth1 ,swar in heaven1 
,patala1 below the earth4  ,the         
moon-deity has not come down to us as in
 every case a female personation4 ,this 
is1 however1 explained by an early fable
 in the ,puranas of the ,hindoos1 in    
which it is narrated that ,chandra1 or  
,lunus1 lost his sex in the forest of   
,gauri1 and became ,chandri1 or ,luna4  
,the origin of this has yet to be       
discovered2 it may be nothing more than 
the account of an etymological change1  
produced by a transcript of dialect4    
,whether the ,beverley artist knew that 

the cat was a moon-symbol may be        
doubted4 ,the fiddle has four strings1  
as the sistrum had four bars4 ,as well  
as the elements and the four seasons of 
the year1 the four may mean the four    
weeks4 ,it will be observed that as the 
,hours are said to dance by the side of 
the chariot of the sun1 so here four    
weeks dance to the music of the         
moon-sphere2 the word moon means the    
measurer1 and the cat is playing a dance
 measure6  ,the cat is not a very       
frequent subject4 ,at ,sherborne she is 
shewn hanged by mice1 one of the        
retributive pieces which point to a     
confidence in the existence of something
 called justice1 not always self-evident
 in the olden-time4 ,rats and mice are  
the emblem of ,st4 ,gertrude4 ,the dog  
had a higher place in ancient estimation
 than his mention in literature would   
warrant2 the fact that among the ,romans
 he was the emblem of the ,lares1 the   
household gods1 is a weighty testimonial
 to that effect1 while the ,egyptians   

had a city named after and devoted to   
the dog4  ,among the pre-existing       
symbols seized by the ,christians1 the  
,egyptian ,cross and ,druidical ,tau    
must not be overlooked4 ,it is found on 
the capitals of pillars at ,canterbury  
and other places2 the example given in  
the initial on page #cd is perhaps the  
latest example in ,english ,gothic4 ,its
 admission as a grotesque is due to its1
 perhaps merely accidental1 use as a    
mask as noted in the chapter on ,masks  
and ,faces4  ,the sinuous course of the 
sun among the constellations is         
mentioned in literature as far back as  
,euripides as an explanation of the     
presence of the dragon in archaic       
systems of mythology4 ,this may have    
been the origin of the figure4 ,yet in  
addition to that there always seems to  
have been the recognition of an evil    
principle1 of which by a change of      
meaning1 the dragonic or serpentine     
star-path of the sun was made the       
personification or symbol4 ,according to

 ,pausanius the dragon of the ,greeks   
was only a large snake4  ,it might not  
be impossible to collect several        
hundreds of names by which the deistic  
character of the sun has been expressed 
by various peoples2 and the same        
applies1 though in a less degree1 to the
 ,darkness1 ,storm1 ,cold1 and ,wet1    
which are taken as his antithesis4 ,one 
of the oldest of these ,dragon-names is 
,typhon1 which is met in ,egyptian      
mythology4 ,typhon is said to be the    
,chinese ,tai-fun1 the hot wind1 and1 if
 this be so1 doubtless the adverse      
principle was taken to be the spirit of 
the desert which ever seeks to embrace  
,egypt in its arid arms4 ,the symbol of 
,typhon was the crocodile1 and doubtless
 the dragon form thus largely rose4     
,rahu1 an evil deity in ,hindoo         
mythology1 though generally called a    
dragon1 is sometimes met represented as 
a crocodile1 and his numerous progeny   
are styled crocodiles4 ,the             
constellation called by the ,japanese   

the crocodile is that known to us as the
 dragon4 ,can it be that in the         
universal dragon we have a chronicle of 
our race's dim recollection of some     
survival of the terrible ,jurassic      
reptiles1 and hence of their period8    
,but the myth has ever one ending2 the  
power of the evil one is destroyed for a
 time by the coming of the sun-god1     
though eventually the evil triumphs1    
that is dearth recurs4  ,in the         
,scandinavian myth1 ,odin the son of    
,bur1 broke for a season the strength of
 the great serpent ,joermungard1 who1   
however1 eventually swallowed the hero4 
,thus was ,odin the sun2 and his        
companions1 the other ,asir1 were more  
or less sun attributes4 ,in the case of 
,egypt the god is ,horus 7the           
sun-light71 the youthful son of ,osiris 
and ,isis1 who drives back ,typhon to   
the deserts2 for that country the rising
 of the ,nile is the happy crisis4      
,horus is sometimes called ,nilus4      
,whether the above derivation of the    

word ,typhon be correct or not1 which   
may be doubtful1#c that of ,horus from  
the root ,hur light1 connected with the 
,sanscrit ,ush to burn 7whence also     
,aurora1 etc417 is certain4 ,when the   
great myth became translated to         
different climates1 the evil principle  
took on different forms of dread4       
,water1 the rainy season in some        
countries1 the darkness and cold of     
winter in others1 were the ,dragon which
 the ,hero-god1 the ,sun1 had to        
overcome--out of which conflict arose   
myths innumerable1 yet one and the same 
in essence4 ,apollo slew the ,python1   
the sunbeams drying up the waters being 
his arrows2 ,perseus slew the ,dragon1  
by turning him to stone1 which perhaps  
means that the spring sun dried up the  
mud of the particular locality where the
 fable rose4 ,later1 ,sigurd slew the   
,dragon ,fafnir4 ,when the ,christians  
found themselves by expediency committed
 to adopt the form1 and to a certain    
degree the spirit1 of heathen beliefs1  

the ,sun versus ,darkness1 or the       
,spring versus ,winter myth was a       
difficulty in very many places4 ,at     
first the idea was kept up of a material
 victory over the adverse forces of     
nature1 and we find honourable mention  
of various bishops and saints1 who--by  
means of which there is little detail1  
but which may be supposed to be that    
great monastic beneficence1 intelligent 
drainage--conquered the dragons of flood
 and fen4 ,it is somewhat odd that the  
,psalmist attributes to the ,deity the  
victory of breaking the heads of the    
dragons in the waters4  ,thus ,st4      
,romain of ,rouen slew there the ,dragon
 ,gargouille1 which is but the name of a
 draining-gutter after all1 and hence   
the grotesque waterspouts of our        
churches are mostly dragons4  ,st4      
,martha slew the ,dragon ,tarasque at   
,aix-la-chapelle1 but that name is      
derived from tarir1 to drain4 ,st4      
,keyne slew the ,cornish ,dragon1 and1  
to be brief1 at least twelve other      

worthies slew dragons1 and doubtless for
 their respective districts supplied the
 place of the older myth4 ,among these1 
,st4 ,george is noteworthy4 ,he is said 
to have been born at ,lydda1 in ,syria1 
where his legend awaited the ,crusaders1
 who took him as their patron1 bringing 
him to the west1 as the last ,christian 
adoption of a sun-myth idea1 to become  
the patron saint of ,england4 ,a figure 
of ,st4 ,george was a private badge of  
,english kings till the time of the     
,stuarts4 ,on the old ,english angel the
 combat is between ,st4 ,michael and the
 ,dragon1 and though ,st4 ,george is    
generally shewn mounted1 as was also    
sometimes ,horus1 the ,egyptian deity1  
he is sometimes represented on foot1    
like ,st4 ,michael4 ,the ,dragon is     
generally the same in the two cases1    
being the ,wyvern or two-legged variety4
  ,another form of dragon is drake4     
,certain forms of cannon were called    
both dragons and drakes4 ,sometimes the 
dragon is found termed the ,linden-worm1

 or ,lind-drake1 in places as widely    
sundered as ,scotland and ,germany4 ,it 
is said this is on account of the dragon
 dwelling under the linden1 a sacred    
tree1 but this is probably only1 as yet1
 half explained4  ,perhaps through all  
time the sun-myth was accompanied by a  
constant feeling that good and evil were
 symbolised by the alternation of       
season4 ,it is to be expected that the  
feeling would increase and solidify upon
 the advent of ,christianity1 for the   
periodic dragon of heathendom was become
 the permanent enemy of man1 the ,devil4
 ,the frequent combats between men 7and 
other animals7 and the dragons1 met     
among church grotesques1 though their   
models1 far remote in antiquity1 were   
representations of sun-myths1 would be  
carved and read as the ever-continuing  
fight between good and evil4 ,that1     
however1 it is reasonable to see in     
these ,dragon sculptures direct         
representatives of the ancient cult1 we 
know from a fact of date4 ,the festival 

of ,horus1 the ,egyptian deity1 was the 
#bcrd of ,april4 ,that is the date of   
,st4 ,george's ,day4  ,less than the    
foregoing would scarcely be sufficient  
to explain the frequency and            
significance of the ,dragon forms which 
crowd our subject4  ,during the three   
,rogation days1 which took the place of 
the ,roman processional festivals of the
 ,ambarvalia and ,cerealia1 the ,dragon 
was carried as a symbol both in ,england
 and on the continent4 ,when the        
,mystery pageantry of ,norwich was swept
 away1 an exception was made in favour  
of the ,dragon1 who1 it was ordained1   
should come forth and shew himself as of
 old4  ,the ,rogation ,dragon in ,france
 was borne1 during the first two days of
 the three1 before the cross1 with a    
great tail stuffed with chaff1 but on   
the third day it was carried behind the 
cross1 with the tail emptied of its     
contents4 ,this signified1 it is said1  
the undisturbed dominion of ,satan over 
the world during the two days that      

,christ was in ,hell1 and his complete  
humiliation on the third day4  ,in some 
countries the figure of the ,dragon1 or 
another of the ,devil1 after the        
procession1 was placed on the altar1    
then drawn up to the roof1 and being    
allowed to fall was broken into pieces4 
,early ,keltic and other pastoral staves
 end in two ,dragons' heads1 recalling  
the caduceus of ,mercury and rod of     
,moses2 the ,dragon was a ,keltic       
military or tribal ensign4 ,henry ,,vii4
 assumed a red dragon as one of the     
supporters of the royal arms1 on account
 of his ,welsh descent2 ,edward ,,iv4   
had as one of his numerous badges a     
black dragon4 ,a dragon issuing from a  
chalice is the symbol of ,st4 ,john the 
,evangelist1 an allusion to the dragon  
of the ,apocalypse4  ,illustration3     
,,the ,,slayer ,,of ,,the ,,dragon1     
,,iffley4  ,the ,dragon combat here     
presented is from the south doorway of  
,iffley ,church1 near ,oxford4 ,in this 
example of ,norman sculpture1 the humour

 intent is more marked than usual4 ,the 
hero is seated astride the dragon's     
back1 and1 grasping its upper and lower 
jaws1 is tearing them asunder4 ,the     
dragon is rudely enough executed1 but   
the man's face and extremities have good
 drawing4 ,the cloak flying behind him  
shew that he has leaped into the quoin  
of vantage1 and recalls the classic4    
,the calm exultation with which the hero
 seizes his enemy is only equalled by   
the good-natured amusement which the    
creature evinces at its own undoing4    
,we now arrive at a form of the sun-myth
 which appears to have come down without
 much interference4 ,the god ,horus is  
alluded to as a child1 and in a curious 
series of carvings the being attacked by
 a ,dragon is a child4 ,it is attempted1
 and with considerable success1 to be   
represented as of great beauty4 ,the    
point to explain is the position of the 
child1 rising as it does from a shell4  
,this leads us further into the various 
contingent mythologies dealing with the 

,typhon story4 ,horus 7also called      
,averis1 or ,orus71 was in ,egyptian    
lore also styled ,caimis1 and is        
equivalent to ,cama1 the ,cupid of the  
,hindoos4 ,typhon 7also known as ,smu1  
and as ,sambar7 is stated to have killed
 him1 and left him in the waters1 where 
,isis restored him to life4 ,that is the
 account of ,herodotus1 but ,a,elian    
says that ,osiris threw ,cupid into the 
ocean1 and gave him a shell for his     
abode4 ,after which he at length killed 
,typhon4  ,hence the shell in the       
myth-carvings to be found to-day in     
mediaeval ,christian churches4  ,the    
,greeks represented ,cupid1 and also    
,nerites1 as living in shells1 and1     
strangely enough1 located them on the   
,red ,sea coast1 adjacent to the home of
 the ,typhon myth4 ,it is probable that 
the word sancha1 a sea-shell1 used in   
this connection1 is from suca1 a cave1 a
 tent2 and we may conjecture that there 
is an allusion to certain dwellers in   
tents1 who1 coming westward1 worked1    

after a struggle1 a political and       
dynastic revolution1 carrying with it   
great changes in agriculture4 ,this is a
 conjecture we may1 however1 readily    
withdraw in favour of another1 that the 
shell itself is merely a symbol of the  
ocean1 and that ,cupid emerging is a    
figure of the sun rising from the sea at
 some particular zodiacal period4       
,illustration3 ,,the ,,child ,,and      
,,dragon1 ,,lincoln4  ,another story    
kindred to that of ,typhon and ,horus is
 that of ,sani and ,aurva1 met in       
,hindoo literature4 ,they were the sons 
of ,surya1 regent of the ,sun 7,vishnu72
 ,sani was appointed ruler1 but becoming
 a tyrant was deposed1 and ,aurva       
reigned in his place4 ,this recalls that
 one of the names given to ,typhon in   
,india was ,swarbhanu1 light of heaven1 
from which it is evident that he is     
,lucifer1 the fallen angel2 so that     
accepting the figurative meaning of all 
the narratives1 we can see even a       
propriety in the ,gothic transmission of

 these symbolic representations4  ,it   
may be added to this that the early     
conception of ,cupid was as the god of  
,love in a far wider and higher sense   
than indicated in the later poetical and
 popular idea4 ,he was not originally   
considered the son of ,venus1 whom he   
preceded in birth4 ,it is scarcely too  
much to say that he personified the love
 of a ,supreme ,unknown for creation2   
and hence the assumption by ,love of the
 character of a deliverer4  ,there are  
other shell deities in mythology4 ,venus
 had her shell1 and her ,northern       
co-type1 ,frigga1 the wife of the       
,northern sun-god1 ,odin1 rode in a     
shell chariot4  ,the earliest of our    
examples is the most serious and        
precise4 ,the ,dragon is a very bilious 
and repulsive reptile1 while the child  
form1 thrice repeated in the same       
carving1 has grace and originality4     
,this is from ,lincoln ,minster4  ,the  
next is also on a misericorde1 and is in
 ,manchester ,cathedral4 ,here the shell

 is different in position1 being        
upright4 ,the ,child in this has long   
hair4  ,illustration3 ,,dragon ,,and    
,,child1 ,,beverley ,,minster4  ,the    
third example is from a misericorde at  
,beverley ,minster1 the series at which 
place shews strong evidence of having   
been executed from the same set of      
designs as those of ,manchester         
,cathedral1 and were carved some twelve 
years later4 ,many of the subjects are  
identically the same1 but in this case  
it will be seen how a meaning may be    
lost by a carver's misapprehension4 ,the
 shell would not be recognizable without
 comparison with the other instances1   
and the ,dragon has become two4 ,the    
head of the ,child in this carving      
appears to be in a close hood1 or       
,puritan infantile cap1 which1 as the   
foundling cap1 survived into this       
century4 ,in all the three carvings1 the
 ,dragons are of the two-legged kind1   
which ,st4 ,george is usually shewn     
slaying4 ,it is a little remarkable that

 the ,child's weapon in all three cases 
is broken away4 ,the object borne       
sceptre-wise by the left hand child in  
the ,lincoln carving1 is apparently     
similar to the ,egyptian hieroglyphic   
symbol1 the ,greek ,greek3 z1 ,european 
s4 ,it may be worth while to suggest    
that the greatly-discussed collar of ss1
 worn by the lords chief justices1 and  
others in authority1 may have its origin
 in this hieroglyphic as a symbol of    
sovereignty1 rather than in any of the  
arbitrary ascriptions of a mediaeval    
initial4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,child  
,,and ,,dragon1 ,,manchester4           
,illustration3 ,,the ,,slaying ,,of     
,,the ,,snail1 ,,beverley ,,minster4    
,the weapon is evidently a form of the  
falx1 or falcula1 for it was with such a
 one 7and here we see further           
distribution of the myth7 that ,jupiter 
wounded ,typhon1 and such was the       
instrument with which ,perseus slew the 
sea-dragon3 the falx1 the pruning-hook1 
sickle or scythe1 is an emblem of       

,saturn1 and the oldest representation  
of it in that connection shew it in     
simple curved form4 ,saturn's sickle    
became a scythe1 and the planet deity   
thus armed became1 on account of the    
length of his periodical revolution1 our
 familiar figure of ,father ,time4      
,osiris1 the father of ,horus1 is styled
 the cause of ,time4 ,an ,egyptian regal
 coin bears a man cutting corn with a   
sickle of semi-circular blade4 ,in many 
parts of ,england1 the sickle is spoken 
of simply as a hook4  ,illustration3    
,,grotesque ,,of ,,horus ,,in ,,the     
,,shell4 ,,the ,,palmer ,,fox           
,,exhibiting ,,holy ,,water4 ,,new      
,,college1 ,,oxford4  ,apparently the   
carver of the ,beverley misericorde was 
conscious he had rendered the shell very
 badly1 for in the side supporter of the
 carving he had placed1 by way of       
reminder as to an attack upon the       
occupant of a shell1 a man in a         
fashionable dress1 piercing a snail as  
it approaches him4 ,in mediaeval        

carvings1 as in many of their           
explanations1 it is scarcely a step from
 the sublime to the ridiculous4  ,one   
other carving which seems to point to   
the foregoing is at ,new ,college1      
,oxford4 ,it is a genuine grotesque1 and
 may be a satire upon the more serious  
works4 ,it represents1 seated in the    
same univalve kind of shell as the      
others1 a fox or ape in a religious     
habit1 displaying a bottle containing1  
perhaps1 water from the ,holy ,land1 the
 ,virgin's ,milk1 or other wondrous     
liquid4 ,one of the side carvings is an 
ape in a hood bringing a bottle4        
,hell's ,mouth4   ,illustration3        
,,hell',s ,,mouth1 ,,holy ,,cross1      
,,stratford-,,on-,,avon4  ,hell's ,mouth
 was one of the most popular conceptions
 of mediaeval times4 ,except so far as  
concerns the dragon form of the head    
whose mouth was supposed to be the gates
 of ,hell1 the idea appears to be       
entirely ,christian4 ,christ's descent  
into ,hell was a favourite subject of   

,mystery plays4 ,in the ,coventry       
pageant the book of words contained but 
six verses1 in which ,hell is styled the
 cindery cell4 ,the ,chester play is    
much longer1 and is drawn from the      
,apocryphal ,gospel of ,nicodemus4 ,this
 gospel1 which has a version in         
,anglo-,saxon of ,a4,d4 #iej1 is no     
doubt the source from which is derived a
 prevalent form of ,hell's ,mouth in    
which ,christ is represented holding the
 hand of one of the persons engulped in 
the infernal jaws4 ,this is seen in a   
carving on the east window of           
,dorchester ,abbey4  ,the ,mouth is here
 scarcely that of a dragon1 but that of 
an exceedingly well-studied serpent2 for
 intent and powerful malignity the      
expression of this fine stone carving   
would be difficult to surpass4 ,the     
,descent into ,hell is one of a series1 
on the same window1 of incidents in the 
life of ,christ2 all are exceedingly    
quaint1 but their distance from the     
ground improves them in a more than     

ordinary degree1 and their earnest      
intention prevails over their accidental
 grotesqueness4 ,the beautiful curves in
 this viperous head are well worthy of  
notice in connection with the remarks   
upon the artistic qualities of ,gothic  
grotesques4  ,illustration3 ,,hell',s   
,,mouth1 ,,dorchester1 ,,oxon4  ,the    
verse of the ,gospel 7xix41 #ab71       
explains who the person is4 ,and the    
,lord taking hold of ,adam by his right 
hand he ascended from hell and all the  
saints of ,god followed him4 ,the female
 figure is of course ,eve1 who is shewn 
with ,adam in engravings of the subject 
by ,albert ,durer 7#aeab1 etc417 and    
others4 ,the vision of ,piers ,ploughman
 7circa #acfb71 has particular mention  
of ,adam and ,eve among ,satan's captive
 colony4 ,satan1 on hearing the order of
 a voice to open the gates of ,hell1    
exclaims3--    ,yf he reve me of my     
ryght he robbeth me by mastrie1   ,for  
by ryght and reson the reukes rooks that
 be on here   ,body and soul beth myne  

both good and ille   ,for he hyms-self  
hit seide that ,syre is of ,helle1      
,that ,adam and ,eve and al hus issue   
,sholden deye with deol should die with 
grief and here dwell evere   ,yf thei   
touchede a tree othr toke ther of an    
appel4  ,a ,,ms4 volume in the ,british 
,museum1 of poems written in the        
thirty-fourth year of the reign of      
,henry ,,vi41 has ,our ,lady's ,song of 
the ,chyld that soked hyr brest1 in     
which other persons than ,adam and ,eve 
are stated to have been taken out of    
hell on the same occasion3--    ,adam   
and ,eve wyth hym he take1   ,kyng      
,david1 ,moyses and ,salamon   ,and     
haryed hell every noke1   ,wythyn hyt   
left he soulys non4  ,the belief in the 
descent in ,hell can be traced back to  
the second century4 ,the form of ,hell  
as a mouth is much later4  ,there is    
mention of a certain ,mouth of ,hell1   
which in #adcg was used in a ,passion   
play in the plain of ,veximiel2 this    
,mouth was reported as very well done1  

for it opened and shut when the devils  
required to pass in or out1 and it had  
two large eyes of steel4  ,the great    
east window of ,york ,cathedral1 the    
west front and south doorway of         
,lincoln1 and the east side of the      
altar-screen1 ,beverley ,minster1 have  
representations of the ,mouth of ,hell4 
,the chancel arch of ,southleigh has a  
large early fresco of the subject1 in   
which two angels1 a good and a bad      
7white and black71 are gathering the    
people out of their graves2 the black   
spirit is plucking up certain bodies 7or
 souls7 with a flesh-hook1 and his      
companions are conveying them to the    
adjacent ,mouth4 ,in a ,flemish ,book of
 ,hours of the fifteenth century 7in the
 ,bodleian ,library7 there is a         
representation with very minute details 
of all the usual adjuncts of the ,mouth1
 and1 in addition1 several basketsful of
 children 7presumably the unbaptized7   
brought in on the backs of wolf-like    
fiends1 and on sledges1 a common        

mediaeval method of conveyance4         
,sackvil mentions ,hell as an hideous   
hole that--    ,with ougly mouth and    
griesly jawes doth gape4  ,further      
instances of ,hell's ,mouth are in the  
block of the ,ludlow ale-wife on a      
following page4     ,satanic            
,representations4   ,illustration3      
,,winchester ,,college1 #adth century4  
,quaint as are the grotesques derived   
from the great symbolic ,dragon1 there  
is another series of delineations of    
,evil1 which are still more curious4    
,these are the representations of ,evil 
which are to be regarded not so much    
symbolic as personal4 ,the constant     
presence of ,satan and his satellites on
 capital and corbel1 arcade and         
misericorde1 is to be explained by the  
exceedingly strong belief in their      
active participation in mundane affairs 
in robust physical shapes4              
,illustration3 ,,satan ,,and ,a ,,soul1 
,,dorchester1 ,,oxon4  ,it would1       
perhaps1 not seem improper to refer the 

class of carving instanced by the three 
cuts1 next following1 to the ,typhon    
myth4 ,i think1 however1 a distinction  
may be drawn between such carvings as   
represent combat1 and such as represent 
victimization2 the former ,i would      
attribute to the myth1 the latter to the
 ,christian idea of the torments        
consequent on sin4 ,at the same time1   
the victim-carving1 generally easily    
disposed of by styling it ,satan and a  
,soul1 is undoubtedly largely influenced
 by the myth-idea of ,typhon 7by        
whatever name known7 as a seizer1 as    
indicated definitely in one of his      
general names1 ,graha4 ,the figure was  
naturally one according well with the   
mediaeval understanding of spiritual    
punishment1 and its varieties in carving
 are numerous enough to furnish an      
adequate inferno4 ,the ,dorchester      
example is a small boss in the groined  
ceiling of the sedilia of celebrants2   
that at ,ewelme is a weather-worn       
parapet-ornament on the south of the    

choir2 the carving at ,farnsham is on a 
misericorde4  ,illustration3 ,,satan    
,,and ,a ,,soul1 ,,ewelme1 ,,oxon4  ,not
 entirely1 though in some degree1 the   
two next illustrations support the      
theory1 of punishment rather than       
conflict1 for the others4               
,illustration3 ,,remorse1 ,,york4  ,the 
carving in ,york ,cathedral is of a     
graceful type2 there is one closely     
resembling it at ,wells4 ,the ,glasgow  
sketch is from the drawing of a fragment
 of the cathedral2 it is more vivid and 
ludicrous than the other4 ,a comparison 
of these two affords a good idea of the 
excellent in ,gothic ornament4 ,the     
,glasgow carving lacks everything but   
vigor2 the ,york production1 though no  
exceptional example1 has vigor1 poetry1 
and grace4  ,we will now revert to the  
more personal and human aspect of       
,satan4  ,illustration3 ,,remorse1      
,,glasgow4  ,a writer#d in the ,art     
,journal some years ago offered         
excellent general observations upon the 

ideas of the ,evil ,one found at various
 periods4 ,he pointed out that the      
frolicsome character of the mediaeval   
demon was imparted by ,christianity1    
with its forbidden ,satan coming into   
contact with the popular belief in      
hobgoblins and fairies which were common
 in the old heathen belief of this      
island1 and so the sterner teaching was 
tinged by more popular fancies4  ,there 
is much truth in this1 except that for  
the hobgoblins and fairies we may very  
well read ancient deities1 for the      
ultimate effect of ,christianity upon   
,pagan reverence was to turn it into    
contempt and abhorrence for good and bad
 deities alike4 ,we can read this in the
 slender records of ancient worships    
whose traces are left in language4 ,thus
 ,bo is apparently one of the ancient   
root-words implying divinity2 ,bod1 the 
goddess of fecundity2 ,boivani1 goddess 
of destruction2 ,bolay1 the giant who   
overcame heaven1 earth and hell2        
,bouders1 or ,boudons1 the genii        

guarding ,shiva1 and ,boroon1 a sea-god1
 are in ,indian mythology4 ,bossum is a 
good deity of ,africa4 ,borvo and       
,bormania were guardians of hot springs1
 and with ,bouljanus were gods of old   
,gaul4 ,borr was the father of ,odin1   
and ,bure was ,borr's sister4 ,the      
,bo-tree of ,india is the sacred tree of
 wisdom4 ,in ,sumatra boo is a root-word
 meaning good 7as in booroo74 ,bog is   
the ,slavonic for god4 ,these are given 
to shew a probable connection among     
wide-spread worships4  ,illustration3   
,,satan ,,and ,a ,,soul1 ,,dorchester4  
,we are now chiefly concerned with the  
last instance4 ,the ,slavonic ,bog1 a   
god1 is met in ,saxon as a goblin1 for  
the boy who came into the court of ,king
 ,arthur and laid his wand upon a boar's
 head was clearly a bog 7the ,saxon g   
being exchanged erroneously for y1 as in
 dag's aeg1 day's eye1 etc74 ,in ,welsh1
 similarly1 ,brog is a goblin1 and we   
have the evil idea in bug4    ,warwick  
was a bug that feared us all4           

--,shakespeare4 ,henry ,,iv41 v41 #b4   
,that is ,warwick was a goblin that made
 us all afraid4 ,the ,boggart is a fairy
 still believed in by ,staffordshire    
peasants4 ,we have yet bugbear1 as the  
,russians have ,buka1 and the ,italians 
,buggaboo1 of similar meaning4  ,as with
 the barbaric gods1 so with the classic 
deities1 who equally supplied material  
of which to make foul fiends4 ,bacchus1 
with the legs and sprouting horns of a  
goat1 that haunter of vine-yards1 then  
his fauns constructed on the same       
symbolic principle1 gave rise to the    
satyrs4 ,these1 offering in their form  
disreputable points for reprobation1    
were found to be a sufficiently         
appropriate symbol of the ,devil4 ,the  
reasons of variety in the satyr figure  
are not far to seek1 beyond the constant
 tendency of the mediaeval artist to    
vary form while preserving essence4     
,every artist had his idea of the devil1
 either drawn from the rich depths of a 
,gothic imagination1 from the           

descriptions accumulated by popular     
credulity1 and most of all from that    
result of both--the ,devil of the       
,mystery or ,miracle ,plays4  ,the plays
 were performed by trade gilds4 ,every  
town had many of these gilds1 though    
several would sometimes join at the     
plays2 and even very small villages had 
both gild and plays4 ,there are yet     
existing some slight traces of the      
reputation which obscure villages had in
 their own vicinity for their plays1 of 
which ,christmas mumming contains the   
last tattered relic4 ,so that1 the      
,devil being a favourite character in   
the pieces so widely performed1 it is   
not surprising to find him equally at   
home among the works of the carvers1    
who1 according to the nature of artists 
of all time1 would doubtless holiday it 
with the best1 and look with more or    
less appreciation upon such drama as was
 set before them4  ,where we see ,satan 
as the satyr1 he is the rollicking fiend
 of the ,mystery stage1 tempting with   

sly good-humour1 tormenting with a grim 
and ferocious joy1 or often merely      
posturing and capering in a much to be  
envied height of the wildest animal     
spirits4 ,there is in popular art no    
trace1 so far as the writer's           
observation extends1 of that lofty      
sorrow at man's unworthiness1 which has 
occasionally been attributed to ,satan4 
,the general feeling is that indicated  
by the semi-contemptuous epithets       
applied to the satyr-idea of ,auld      
,clootie 7cloven-footed71 and ,auld     
,hornie1 of our ,northern brethren4     
,illustration3 ,a ,,man-,,goat1 ,,all   
,,souls1 ,,oxford4  ,horns were among   
all ancient nations symbolic of power   
and dignity4 ,ancient coinages shew the 
heads of kings and deities thus adorned4
 ,the ,goths wore horns4 ,alexander     
frequently wore an actual horn to       
indicate his presumption of divine      
descent4 ,the head dress of priests was 
horned on this account4 ,this may point 
to a pre-historic period when the horned

 animals were not so much of a prey as  
we find them in later days2 thus the    
aurochs of ,western ,europe appears to  
have been more dreaded by the wild men  
of its time1 than has been1 say1 the now
 fast-disappearing bison by the ,north  
,american ,indians4 ,on the other hand1 
the marvellous continuity of nature's   
designs lead us to recognize that the   
carnivorous animals must always have had
 the right to be the symbols of physical
 power4 ,therefore1 the idea of power1  
originally conveyed by the horns1 is    
that carried by the possession of riches
 in the shape of flocks and herds4 ,the 
pecunia were the means of power1 and    
their horns the symbol of it4 ,with the 
,egyptians1 the ox signified agriculture
 and subsistence4 ,pharaoh saw the kine 
coming out of the ,nile because the     
fertility of ,egypt depends upon that   
river4 ,so that it is easy to see how   
the ox became the figure of the sun1 and
 of life4 ,similar significance attached
 to the sheep1 the goat1 and the ram4   

,horus is met as ,orus1 the ,shepherd4  
,ammon wore the horns of a ram4 ,mendes 
was worshipped as a goat4               
,illustration3 ,a ,,cherished ,,beard1  
,,chichester4  ,the goat characteristics
 are well carved on a seat in ,all      
,souls4 ,a goat figure of the thirteenth
 century at ,chichester has the head of 
a man with a curious twisted or tied    
beard1 clutched by one of the hands in  
which the fore feet terminate4 ,the     
clutching of the beard is not uncommon  
among ,gothic figures1 and has doubtless
 some original on a coin1 or other      
ancient standard design4 ,at ,st4       
,helen's1 ,abingdon1 ,berkshire1 in     
different parts of the church1 three    
heads1 one being a king1 another a      
bishop1 are shewn grasping or stroking  
each his own beard4 ,it is to be        
remembered that the stroking of the     
beard is a well-known ,eastern habit4   
,of close kindred to the goat form is   
the bull form4 ,just as ,ceres          
symbolized the fecundity of the earth in

 the matter of cereals1 so ,pan was the 
emblem by which was figured its         
productiveness of animal life4 ,thus    
,priapus was rendered in goat form1 as  
the ready type of animal sexual vigor2  
but not less familiar in this connection
 was the bull1 and that animal also     
symbolizes ,pan1 who became1 when       
superstition grew out of imagery1 the   
protector of cattle in general4 ,an old 
,english superstition was that a piece  
of horn1 hung to the stable or cowhouse 
key1 would protect the animals from     
night-fright and other ills4 ,when the  
pagan ,gods were skilfully turned into  
,christian devils1 we find the bull     
equally with the goat as a ,satanic     
form1 and several examples will be seen 
in the drawings4  ,the ox1 as the symbol
 of ,st4 ,luke1 is stated to refer1 on  
account of its cud-chewing1 to the      
eclectic character of this evangelist's 
gospel4 ,irenaeus1 speaking of the      
second cherubim of the ,revelation1     
which is the same animal1 says the calf 

signifies the sacerdotal office of      
,christ2 but the fanciful symbolisms of 
the fathers and of the ,bestiaries are  
often indifferent guides to original    
meaning4 ,it may be that in the ox forms
 we have astronomical allusions to      
,taurus1 ,bacchus1 to ,diana1 or to     
,pan4 ,a note on the emblems of the     
,evangelists follows in the remarks on  
the combinatory forms met in grotesque  
art4  ,before passing on to consider    
particular examples of satyr or         
bull-form fiends1 a few words may be    
said as to another form which1 though   
allied to the dragon-shape embodiments1 
has the personal character4 ,this is the
 ,serpent4 ,the origin of this appears  
to be the translation of the word       
,nachasch for serpent in the ,biblical  
account of the momentous ,eden episode1 
a rendering which1 without philological 
certainty1 is countenanced by the       
general presence of the serpent in one  
form or another in every system of      
theology in the world4 ,jewish tradition

 states that the serpent1 with beauty of
 form and power of flight1 had no       
speech1 until in the presence of ,eve he
 ate of the fruit of the ,tree1 and so  
acquired speech1 immediately using the  
gift to tempt ,eve4 ,other traditions   
say that ,nachasch was a camel1 and     
became a serpent by the curse4 ,adam    
,clarke maintained that ,nachasch was a 
monkey4 ,the traditional and mystic form
 of the angels was that of a serpent4   
,seraph means a fiery serpent4 ,in      
,isaiah's vision1 the seraphim are      
human-headed serpents4 ,one of the most 
remarkable items in the history of      
worship is the account of the symbolic  
serpent erected by ,moses1 and the      
subsequent use of it as an idol until   
the time of ,hezekiah4 ,in the first    
satire of ,perseus1 he says1 paint two  
snakes1 the place is sacred6            
,illustration3 ,,the ,,serpent1 ,,ely4  
,the use of the serpent as the ,church  
symbol of regeneration and revival of   
health or life is not common in         

carvings4 ,in these senses it was used  
by the ,greeks1 though chiefly as the   
symbol of the ,supreme ,intellect1 being
 the special attribute and co-type of   
,minerva4 ,the personal apparition which
 confronted ,eve is not so infrequent1  
though without much variety4  ,in a     
representation of the temptation of     
,adam and ,eve among the misericordes of
 ,ely1 the tree of the knowledge of good
 and evil is shewn of a very peculiar   
shape4 ,the serpent1 whose coils are    
difficult to distinguish from the       
foliage of the tree1 has the head of a  
saturnine ,asiatic1 who is taking the   
least possible notice of our first      
parents1 as they stand eating apples and
 being ashamed1 one on each side of the 
composition4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,old
 ,,serpent1 ,,chichester4 #acth century4
  ,a carving in the choir of ,chichester
 ,cathedral shews in a double           
repetition1 one half of which is here   
shewn1 the evil head with an attempt at 
the legendary comeliness1 mingled with  

debased traits1 that is artistically    
very creditable to the sculptor4 ,as    
though dissatisfied with the amount of  
beauty he had succeeded in imparting to 
the heads on the serpents1 he adds1 on  
the side-pieces of the carving1 two     
other heads of females in eastern       
head-dresses1 to which he has imparted a
 demure ,dutch beauty1 due perhaps to   
his own nationality4 ,human-headed      
serpents are in carvings at ,norwich and
 at ,bridge1 ,kent4  ,illustration3     
,,demureness ,,meditating ,,mischief4   
,,deutcho-,,egyptian ,,mask1            
,,chichester4  ,with regard to ,satan's 
status as an angel1 a considerable      
number of representations of him are to 
be found1 in which he conforms to a     
prevalent mediaeval idea as to the      
plumage of the spirit race4 ,angels are 
found clothed entirely with feathers1 as
 repeated some scores of times in the   
memorial chapel1 at ,ewelme1 of ,alice1 
,duchess of ,suffolk1 grand-daughter of 
,chaucer1 who died in #adge4 ,the       

annexed block shews a small archangel   
which surmounts the font canopy1 and is 
of the same character as the chapel     
angels4 ,at ,all ,souls1 ,oxford1 is a  
carving of a warrior-visaged person     
wearing a morion1 and armed with a      
falchion and buckler4 ,he is clad in    
feathers only1 appearing to be flying   
downward1 and is either a representation
 of ,st4 ,michael or ,lucifer4          
,illustration3 ,,angel1 ,,ewelme4       
,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,michael1 ,,all   
,,souls1 ,,oxford4  ,satan is often     
similarly treated4 ,loki1 the tempter of
 the ,scandinavian ,eden1 who was       
ordered to seek the lost ,idun he had   
deceived1 had to go forth clad in       
borrowed garments of falcon's feathers  
with wings4 ,when the pageant at the    
,setting of the ,midsummer ,watch at    
,chester was forbidden by the ,mayor1 in
 #aeii1 one of the prohibited figures   
was the ,devil and his ,feathers4       
,there may be a connection between the  
final punishment of ,loki and the idea  

embodied in the carvings mentioned above
 as being at1 among other places1       
,wells1 ,york1 and ,glasgow1 and which  
have been considered as conceptions of  
,remorse4 ,loki was condemned to be     
fastened to a rock to helplessly endure 
the eternal dropping upon his brow of   
poison from the jaws of a serpent2 only 
that there is neither in these carvings1
 nor any others noted to the present1   
any indication of the presence of the   
ministering woman-spirit who for even   
the fiend ,loki stood by to catch the   
death-drops in a cup of mercy4     ,the 
,devil and the ,vices4   ,illustration3 
,,recording ,,imp4 ,,st4 ,,katherine',s1
 ,,regent',s ,,park4 7,initial added74  
,having examined the various lower forms
 given by man to his great enemy1 and   
now noting that to such forms may be    
added the human figure in whole or part1
 we will next take in review a few of   
the sins which bring erring humanity    
into the clutches of ,satan2 for we find
 some of the most grotesque of antique  

carvings devoted to representation of   
what may be called the finale of the    
,sinner's ,progress4 ,these are probably
 largely derived from the ,mystery      
,plays2 for the moral teaching has the  
same direct soundness4 ,the ideas are   
often jocosely put1 but the principle is
 one of mere retribution4 ,the ,devil   
cannot hurt the ,saint and he pays out  
to the ,wicked the exact price of his   
wrong-doing4 ,thus in nearly all of what
 may be termed the ,sin series there is 
a ,recording ,imp who bears a tablet or 
scroll1 on which we are to suppose the  
evil commissions and omissions of the   
sinner are duly entered1 entitling the  
fiend to take possession4 ,this reminds 
of the ,egyptian ,mercury1 ,thoth1 who  
recorded upon his tablets the actions of
 men1 in order that at the ,judgment    
there might be proper evidence4         
,illustration3 ,,the ,,unseen ,,witness1
 ,,ely4  ,the ,account ,presented4      
,satan ,satisfied4 ,the ,record of ,sin4
  ,there is a series of carvings1       

examplified at ,ely1 ,new ,college1     
,oxford1 ,st4 ,katherine's 7removed from
 near the ,tower to the ,regent's ,park7
 and ,gayton1 which have ,satan         
encouraging or embracing two figures    
apparently engaged in conversation4 ,i  
have placed these among the ,sins1 for  
though no very particular explanation is
 forthcoming as to the meaning of the   
group1 it is clear that the two human   
beings are engaged in some occupation   
highly agreeable to the fiend4 ,this    
evidently has a connection with the     
monkish story told of ,st4 ,britius4    
,one day1 while ,st4 ,martin was saying 
mass1 ,britius1 who was officiating as  
deacon1 saw the devil behind the altar1 
writing on a slip of parchment as long  
as a proctor's bill the sins which the  
congregation were then and there        
committing4 ,the people1 both men and   
women1 appear to have been doing many   
other things besides listening to ,st4  
,martin1 for the devil soon filled his  
scroll on both sides4 ,thus far our     

carvings4  ,the story goes further1 and 
states that the devil1 having further   
sins to record1 but no further space on 
which to write them1 attempted to       
stretch the parchment with teeth and    
claws1 which1 however1 broke the record1
 the devil falling back against a wall4 
,the story then betrays itself4 ,britius
 laughed loudly1 whereat ,st4 ,martin1  
highly displeased1 demanded the reason1 
when ,britius told him what he had seen1
 which relation the other saint accepted
 as being true4  ,this story is one of a
 class common among mediaeval pulpit    
anecdotes4 ,it cannot well be considered
 that the carvings arose from the story1
 nor the story from the carvings4       
,probably both arose from something     
else1 accounting for the number of      
sinners being uniformly two1 and for the
 attitude of the fiend in each case     
being so similar4 ,with regard to the   
latter ,i must leave the matter as it   
is4  ,i venture1 as to the signification
 of the two figures1 to make a          

suggestion to stand good until a better 
be found4 ,in the ,mystery ,play        
entitled the ,trial of ,mary and ,joseph
 7,cotton ,,ms41 ,pageant xiv41         
amplified out of the ,apocryphal ,new   
,testament1 ,protevan1 xi471 the story  
runs that ,mary and ,joseph1            
particularly the former1 are defamed by 
two ,slanderers4 ,the ,bishop sends his 
,summoner for the two accused persons1  
and orders that they drink the water of 
vengeance which is for trial1 a kind of 
miraculous ordeal by poison4 ,joseph    
drinks and is unhurt2 ,mary likewise and
 is declared a pure maid in spite of    
facts4 ,one of the ,slanderers declares 
that the drink has been changed because 
the ,virgin was of the ,high ,priest's  
kindred1 upon which the ,slanderer is   
himself ordered to drink what is left in
 the cup4 ,doing so he instantly becomes
 frantic4 ,all ask pardon of ,mary for  
their suspicions1 and1 that being       
granted1 the play is ended4  ,now the   
play commences with the meeting of the  

,two ,slanderers4 ,a brief extract or   
two will shew their method4    #a,,st   
,,detractor4--,to reyse blawthyr is al  
my lay1                     ,bakbyter is
 my brother of blood                    
,dede he ought come hethyr in al this   
day                     ,now wolde ,god 
that he were here1                      
,and1 by my trewth1 ,i dare well say    
,that if we tweyn to gethyr apere       
,mor slawndyr we two schal a rere       
,with in an howre thorwe outh this town1
                   ,than evyr ther was  
this thouwsand yer1                     
,now1 be my trewth1 ,i have a sight     
,evyn of my brother 444 ,welcome 444    
#b,,nd ,,detractor4--,i am ful glad we  
met this day4    #a,,st                 
,,detractor4--,telle all these pepyl the
 audience what is yor name--    #b,,nd  
,,detractor4--,i am ,bakbyter1 that     
spyllyth all game1                      
,both hyd and known in many a place4    
,then they fall to1 and in terms of some
 wit and much freedom describe the      

physical condition of she who was calde 
mayd ,mary4  ,the ,two ,slanderers in   
this play are undoubtedly men1 for each 
styles the other brother4 ,yet there are
 words in their dialogue1 not suited to 
these pages1 which could properly only  
be used by women4 ,as in at least one of
 the carvings the sinners are women1 if 
my hypothesis has any correctness there 
must be some other form of the story in 
which the detractors are female4 ,it is 
to be noted1 also1 that the play from   
which ,i have quoted has no mention of  
the devil4  ,illustration3 ,a           
,,backbiter1 ,,st4 ,,katherine',s4      
,years before ,i met with the play of   
the trial of ,joseph and ,mary1 ,i      
considered that the sin of the ,two     
might be scandal1 and put down a curious
 carving adjoining the ,st4 ,katherine  
group as a reference to it1 and         
suggested it might be a humorous        
rendering of a ,backbiter4 ,this is     
shewn in the accompanying block4 ,it was
 therefore agreeable to find one of the 

,mystery detractors actually named      
,backbiter4 ,against that it may be     
mentioned that the composite figure with
 a head at the rear is not unique4 ,at  
,rothwell1 ,northamptonshire1 is a      
dragon attempt1 rude though probably of 
late fifteenth century work1 with a     
similar head in the same anatomical     
direction2 this is not connected with   
anything that can be considered bearing 
upon the subject of the ,mystery1 unless
 the heads on the same misericorde are  
meant to be those of ,jews4  ,the       
example at ,ely shews the fiend closely 
embracing the two sinners who are       
evidently in the height of an impressive
 conversation4 ,one figure has a book on
 its knee1 the other is telling the     
beads of a rosary4 ,at the sides are two
 imps of a somewhat ,robin              
,goodfellow-like character1 each bearing
 a scroll with the account of the       
misdeeds of the sinners1 and which we   
may presume are the warrants by which   
,satan is entitled to seize his prey4   

,he is the picture of jovial            
good-nature4  ,illustration3 ,a         
,,backbiter1 ,,rothwell1 ,,northants4   
,new ,college1 ,oxford1 has a           
misericorde of the subject in which the 
figures1 female in appearance1 are      
seated in a sort of box4 ,this reminds  
us of ,baldini and ,boticelli's picture 
of ,hell1 which is divided into various 
ovens for different vices4 ,that may be 
the idea here1 or perhaps the object is 
a coffin and is used to emphasize what  
the wages of sin are4 ,they1 like the   
two sinners of ,ely1 are in animated    
conversation4 ,satan here is of a       
bull-headed form with wings rather like 
those of a butterfly4 ,these are of the 
end of the fifteenth century4           
,illustration3 ,,the ,,unseen ,,witness1
 ,,new ,,college1 ,,oxford4  ,there are 
foreign carvings described by ,mr4      
,evans as being of the devil taking     
notes of the idle words of two women    
during mass4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the     
simple meaning of all this series1 and  

an evidence of the resentment of        
ecclesiastics against the irreverent4   
,there is considerable evidence that    
religious service was scarcely a solemn 
thing in mediaeval times4 ,if this is   
the signification the box arrangement   
described above may be some sort of     
early pew4  ,the next example1 from ,st4
 ,katherine's 7lately7 by the ,tower1   
has the fiend in a fashionable slashed  
suit4 ,the ladies here are only in bust1
 and though of demurely interested      
expression they have not that rapport   
and animation which distinguish the two 
previously noticed4 ,satan does not     
embrace them1 but stands behind with    
legs outstretched and hands1 or rather  
claws1 on knees1 ready to clutch them at
 the proper moment4  ,illustration3     
,,the ,,unseen ,,witness1 ,,st4         
,,katherine',s4  ,at ,gayton1           
,northants1 is a further curious        
instance of this group4 ,the two        
,sinners are in this case unquestionably
 males1 and1 but for the coincidence    

with the preceding examples1 the men    
might have been supposed to have been   
engaged in some game of chance4 ,it will
 be observed that the one to the right  
has a rosary as in the first-named      
carving4 ,satan here is well clothed in 
feathers1 and in his left wing is the   
head of what is probably one of the     
instruments of torture awaiting the very
 much overshadowed victims4 ,it is a    
kind of rake or flesh-hook1 with three  
sharp1 hooked teeth2 perhaps a figure of
 the tongue of a slanderer1 materialized
 for his own subsequent scarification2  
it may be added as a kind of satanic    
badge4 ,satan bears on his right arm a  
leaf-shaped shield4  ,illustration3     
,,the ,,unseen ,,witness1 ,,gayton1     
,,northants4  ,the vice next to be      
regarded is ,avarice4 ,in a misericorde 
at ,beverley ,minster we have three     
scenes from the history of the ,devil4  
,one gives us the avaricious man bending
 before his coffers4 ,he has taken out a
 coin2 if we read aright his            

contemplative and affectionate look1 it 
is gold4 ,hidden behind the chest behold
 ,satan1 one of whose bullock horns is  
visible as he lurks out of the miser's  
sight1 grinning to think how surely the 
victim is his4  ,at the opposite end of 
the carving is the other extreme1       
,gluttony4 ,a man is drinking out of a  
huge flask1 which he holds in his right 
hand1 while in the other he grasps a ham
 7or is it not impossible that this is a
 second bottle74 ,in this the devil is  
likewise present2 he is apparently      
desperately anxious the victim should   
have enough4  ,illustration3 ,,the      
,,devil ,,and ,,the ,,miser1 ,,beverley 
,,minster4  ,illustration3 ,,satan ,,and
 ,a ,,soul1 ,,beverley ,,minster4       
,between these two reliefs appears      
,satan seizing a naked soul4 ,in the    
original all that remains of the        
,devil's head is the outline and one    
horn2 of the soul's head there remains  
only the outline2 the two faces ,i have 
ventured to supply1 also the fore-arm of

 the ,devil4 ,the fiend is here again   
presented with the attributes of a      
bullock1 rather than a goat4 ,satan has 
had placed on his abdomen a mask or     
face1 a somewhat common method of adding
 to the startling effect of his         
boisterous personality4 ,the fine rush  
which the fiend is making upon the soul1
 and the shrinking horror of the latter1
 are exceedingly well rendered4 ,the    
moral is1 we may suppose1 that the      
sinners on either side will come to the 
same bad end4  ,illustration3 ,,the     
,,devil ,,and ,,the ,,glutton1          
,,beverley ,,minster4  ,among the       
seat-carvings of ,henry ,,vii's4        
,chapel1 ,westminster ,abbey1 we have   
the vice of ,avarice more fully treated1
 there being two carvings devoted to the
 subject4 ,in the first we see a monk   
suddenly seized by a quaint and curious 
devil 7to whom ,i have supplied his     
right fore-arm74 ,the monk1             
horror-stricken1 yet angry1 has dropped 
his bag of sovereigns1 or nobles1 and   

the coins fall out4 ,he would escape if 
he could1 but the claws of the fiend    
have him fast4  ,illustration3 ,,dismay1
 ,,westminster4  ,in the companion      
carving we have the incident--and the   
monk--carried a little further4 ,the    
devil has picked him up1 thrown him down
 along his conveniently horizontal back1
 and strides on with him through a wild 
place of rocks and trees1 holding what  
appears to be a flaming torch1 which he 
also uses as a staff4 ,the monk has     
managed to gather up his dearly-loved   
bag of money1 and is frantically        
clutching at the rocks as he is swiftly 
borne along4 ,satan in the first carving
 has rather a benevolent human face1 in 
the second a debased beast face1 unknown
 to natural history4 ,there is no       
explanation of how ,sathanus has        
disposed in the second scene of the     
graceful dragon wings he wears in the   
first4 ,it is probable that two of the  
,italians who carved this set each took 
the same subject1 and we have here their

 respective renderings4 ,i mention with 
diffidence that if the mild and timorous
 face of ,bishop ,alcock 7which may be  
seen at ,jesus ,college1 ,cambridge71   
the architect of this part of the abbey1
 could be supposed to have unfortunately
 borne at any time the expressions upon 
either of these two representations of  
the monk1 the likeness would1 in my     
opinion1 be rather striking4            
,illustration3 ,,the ,,overtaking ,,of  
,,avarice1 ,,westminster4               
,illustration3 ,,the ,,taking ,,of ,,the
 ,,avaricious1 ,,westminster4           
,illustration3 ,,demoniacal ,,drummer1  
,,westminster4  ,on the side carving of 
the carrying-away scene is shewn a      
woman1 dismayed at the sight4 ,on the   
opposite side a fiend is welcoming the  
monk with beat of drum1 just as we shall
 see the ale-wife saluted with the drone
 of the bagpipes4  ,illustration3       
,,vanity1 ,,st4 ,,mary',s ,,minster4  ,a
 carving at ,st4 ,mary's ,minster1 ,isle
 of ,thanet1 has the devil looking out  

with a vexed frown from between the     
horns of a lofty head-dress1 which is on
 a lady's head4 ,whether this be a      
rendering of the dishonest ale-wife1 or 
a separate warning against the vice of  
,vanity1 cannot well be decided4  ,there
 was a popular opinion at one time that 
the bulk of church carvings were jokes  
at the expense of clergy1 probably      
largely because every hood was thought  
to be a cowl4 ,there is1 however1 no    
doubt as to the carving here presented4 
,it may represent the consecration of a 
bishop4 ,the presence of ,satan         
dominating both the individuals1 and    
pulling forward the cowl of the seated  
figure1 appears to declare that this is 
to illustrate the vice of ,hypocrisy4   
,it is at ,new ,college1 ,oxford4       
,illustration3 ,,hypocrisy1 ,,new       
,,college1 ,,oxford4     ,ale and the   
,ale-wife4   ,illustration3 ,,the       
,,jolly ,,tapster1 ,,ludlow4  ,ale1 good
 old ale1 has formed the burden of more 
songs and satires ancient and modern1   

than will ever be brought together4 ,ale
 was the staple beverage for morning1   
noon1 and evening meals4 ,it is probable
 that swollen as is the beer portion of 
the ,budget1 the consumption of ale1 man
 for man1 is much less than that of any 
mediaeval time4 ,the records of all the 
authoritative bodies who dealt with the 
liquor traffic of the olden time are    
crowded with rules and regulations that 
plainly demonstrate not only the        
universal prevalence of beer drinking in
 a proper and domestic degree1 but also 
the constant growing abuse of the sale  
of the liquor4 ,in the reign of         
,elizabeth the evils of the tavern had  
become so notorious1 that in some places
 women were forbidden to keep           
ale-houses4  ,as far back as ,a4,d4     
#gid1 ale-houses had become an          
institution1 for we find the orders     
passed at the ,council of ,frankfort in 
that year included one by which         
ecclesiastics and monks were forbidden  
to drink in an ale-house4 ,st4 ,adrian  

was the patron of brewers4  ,in some    
boroughs 7,hull may be given as an      
instance7 in the fifteenth century1 the 
,mayor was not allowed to keep a tavern 
in his year of office4 ,brewers and     
tavern keepers1 with many nice          
distinctions of grade among them1 were  
duly licensed and supervised1 various   
penalties meeting attempts at illicit   
trade4 ,the quality of ale was also an  
object of solicitude1 and an official1  
called the ale-taster1 was in nearly    
every centre of population made         
responsible for the due strength and    
purity of the national beverage4 ,it was
 customary in some places in the        
fifteenth century for the ale-taster to 
be remunerated by a payment of #d;d4 a  
year from each brewer4  ,it has to be   
remembered ale was drunk at the meals at
 which we now use tea1 coffee1 and      
cocoa2 it will be interesting to glance 
at an instance of the rate at which it  
was consumed4 ,at the ,hospital of ,st4 
,cross1 founded in #aacb1 at            

,winchester1 thirteen impotent men had  
each a daily allowance of a gallon and a
 half of good small beer1 with more on  
holidays2 this was afterwards reduced to
 three quarts with some two quarts extra
 for holidays4 ,the porter at the gate  
had only three quarts to give away to   
beggars4 ,there was great idea of       
continuity at this establishment2 even  
in #ahcf there was spent ,l#acc #es4 for
 malt and hops for the year's brewing4  
,the happy thirteen had each yet three  
quarts every day as well as a jack 7say 
four gallons7 extra among them on       
holidays1 with #ds4 for beer money4 ,two
 gallons of beer were also daily        
dispensed at the gate at the rate of a  
horn of not quite half a pint to each   
applicant4  ,illustration3 ,,lettice    
,,littletrust ,,and ,a ,,simple ,,simon4
 ,,wellingborough1 #adth century4  ,ale1
 no more than other things1 could be    
kept out of church4 ,a carving at       
,wellingborough1 ,northamptonshire1     
shews us an interview between a would-be

 customer on the one part and an        
ale-wife on the other part4 ,there is1  
in a list of imaginary names in an      
epilogue or gagging summons to a miracle
 play1 mention of one ,letyce           
,lytyltrust1 whom surely we see above4  
,evidently the man is better known than 
trusted1 and while a generous supply of 
the desired refreshment is on reserve in
 a dear old jug1 some intimation has    
been made that cash is required2 he1    
like one ,simon on a similar occasion1  
has not a penny1 and with one hand      
dipped into his empty pocket1 he        
scratches his head with the other4 ,his 
good-natured perplexity contrasts well  
with the indifferent tradeswoman-like   
air of the ale-wife1 who while she rests
 the jug upon a bench1 does not         
relinquish the handle4 ,he is saying to 
himself1 ,nay1 marry1 an ,i wanted a cup
 o' ale aforetime ,i was ever served4 ,a
 thirsty morn is this4 ,i know not what 
to say to t' jade2 while she is         
muttering1 ,an he wipe off the chalk    

ahint the door even1 he might drink and 
welcome1 sorry rogue tho' he be4 ,but no
 use to cry pay when t' barrel be empty4
  ,at ,edgeware in #aeeh1 an innkeeper1 
was fined for selling a pint and a half 
of ale at an exorbitant price1 namely1  
one penny4 ,a quart was everywhere the  
proper quantity1 and that of the        
strongest2 small ale sold at one penny  
for two quarts4 ,with regard to the then
 higher value of money1 however1 the    
prices may be considered to be about the
 same as at present1 and the same may be
 said of many commodities which appear  
in records at low figures4  ,of an      
earlier date is the tapster of the      
initial block1 from ,ludlow1 who        
furnishes a comfortable idea of a       
congenial1 and to judge from his pouch1 
a profitable occupation4 ,it is to be   
presumed the smallness of the barrel as 
compared with that of the jug--probably 
of copper1 and dazzlingly bright--was   
the artist's means of getting its full  
outline within the picture1 and not an  

indication of the relations of supply   
and demand4  ,alas for the final fate of
 the dishonest woman who could cheat men
 in the important matter of ale6 ,at    
,ludlow we are shewn such a one1        
stripped of all but the head dress and  
necklace of her vanity1 and carried     
ignominiously and indecorously to       
,hell's ,mouth on the shoulders of a    
stalwart demon 7whose head is supplied  
in the block74 ,in her hand1 and        
partaking of her own reverse1 she bears 
the hooped tankard with which she       
defrauded her customers4 ,it is the     
measure of her woe4 ,the demon thus     
loaded with mischief is met by another1 
armed with the bagpipes4 ,with hilarious
 air and fiendish grin he welcomes the  
latest addition to the collection of    
evil-doers within4 ,to the right are the
 usual gaping jaws of ,hell's ,mouth1   
into which are disappearing two nude    
females1 who1 we may suppose1 are other 
ale-wifes not more meritorious than the 
lady of the horned head dress4 ,to the  

left is the ,recording ,imp4            
,illustration3 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the   
,,ale-,,wife1 ,,ludlow4  ,illustration3 
,,the ,,female ,,drawer1 ,,all ,,souls1 
,,oxford4  ,there is allusion in a copy 
of the ,chester ,mystery of ,christ's   
,descent into ,hell1 among the ,harleian
 ,,mss41 to an ale-wife of ,chester1    
which doubtless suggested this carving4 
,this lady1 a little-trust and a cheater
 in her day1 laments having to dwell    
among the fiends2 she endeavours to     
propitiate one of them by addressing him
 as ,my ,sweet ,master ,sir ,sattanas1  
who returns the compliment by calling   
her his dear darling4 ,she announces    
that3--    ,some tyme ,i was a          
tavernere1   ,a gentill gossipe and a   
tapstere1   ,of wyne and ale a trustie  
brewer1       ,which wo hath me         
wroughte4   ,of cannes ,i kepte no trewe
 measuer   ,my cuppes ,i soulde at my   
pleasuer1   ,deceaving manye a creature1
       ,tho' my ale were naughte4  ,the 
,devil then delivers a short speech1    

which is one of the earliest temperance 
addresses on record4 ,he says3--        
,welckome1 dere ladye1 ,i shall thee    
wedd1   ,for many a heavye and droncken 
head   ,cause of thy ale were broughte  
to bed   ,farre worse than anye beaste4 
,there is an old saying pull ,devil1    
pull ,baker connected with the          
representation of a baker who sold his  
bread short of weight1 and was carried  
to the lower regions in his own basket2 
the ale-wife1 of our carving1 however1  
does not appear to have retained any    
power of resistance1 however slight or  
ineffectual4  ,illustration3 ,a ,,horn  
,,of ,,ale1 ,,ely4  ,at ,all ,souls1    
,oxford1 there is a good carving of a   
woman drawing ale4 ,it is not1          
apparently1 the ale-wife herself1 but   
the maid sent down into the cellar4 ,the
 maid1 perhaps after a good draught of  
the brew1 seems to be blowing a whistle 
to convey1 to the probably listening    
ears of her mistress upstairs1 the      
impression that the jug has not received

 any improper attention from her4 ,the  
artful expression of the ale-loving maid
 lends countenance to the conjecture    
that the precaution has not been        
entirely efficacious4 ,it is to this day
 a jocular expression in ,oxfordshire1  
and perhaps elsewhere1 ,you had better  
whistle while you are drawing that beer4
  ,a carving at ,ely represents ,pan as 
an appreciative imbiber from a veritable
 horn of ale4     ,satires without      
,satan4   ,illustration3 ,,the          
,,slumbering ,,priest1 ,,new ,,college1 
,,oxford4  ,there are numbers of        
grotesques which are satires evidently  
aimed at sins1 but which have not the   
visible attendance of the evil one      
himself4  ,among these must be included 
a curious carving from ,swine1 in       
,holderness4 ,the priory of ,swine was a
 ,cistercian nunnery of fifteen sisters 
and a prioress4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,blashill  
states1 ,there were1 however1 two canons
 at least1 to assist in the offices of  
religion1 who did not refrain from      

meddling in secular affairs4#e ,there   
was also a small community of           
lay-brethren4  ,the female in the centre
 of the carving is a nun2 her hood is   
drawn partly over her face1 so that only
 one eye is fully visible1 but with the 
other eye she is executing a well-known 
movement of but momentary duration4 ,the
 two ugly animals between which she     
peers are intended for hares1 a symbol  
of libidinousness1 as well as of        
timidity4  ,another carving in the same 
chancel may be in derision of some      
official of the papal court1 which1 in  
the thirteenth century1 on an occasion  
of the contumacy of the nuns in refusing
 to pay certain tithes1 caused the      
church1 with that adjoining1 of the lay 
brethren1 to be closed4 ,the nuns defied
 all authority1 broke open the chapels1 
and in general during the long contest  
acted in a curiously ungovernable1      
irresponsible manner4  ,illustration3 ,a
 ,,papal ,,monster1 ,,swine1            
,,yorkshire4  ,at ,bishop's ,stortford1 

,hertfordshire1 are some misericordes1  
which1 says ,miss ,phipson1 are stated  
to have originally belonged to ,old ,st4
 ,paul's4 ,among them is the annexed    
subject4 ,the wicked expression of the  
face1 and the general incorrectness of  
the composition1 are a historical       
evidence of indecorum akin to the       
gestures of the ,beverley carvers4      
,illustration3 ,,impudence1 ,,bishop',s 
,,stortford1 ,,hertfordshire4  ,from the
 fine choir carvings of ,westminster    
,abbey yet another example is given4 ,it
 is one in which the spirit of the old  
,comptes a ,plaisance is well           
illustrated4 ,a well-clad man1          
suggesting ,falstaff in his prime1 is   
seated with a lady among luxurious      
foliage4 ,his arm is right round his    
companion's waist1 while his left hand  
dips into his capacious and apparently  
well-lined pouch1 or gipciere4 ,he has  
been styled a merchant4 ,he is          
manifestly making a bargain4 ,the lady  
is evidently a daughter of the hireling 

7hirudo671 and is crying1 ,give1 give4  
,in spite of this being the work of an  
,italian artist1 the artistic feeling   
about it would seem to recall slightly  
the lines of ,holbein4  ,illustration3  
,,the ,,winking ,,nun1 ,,swine1         
,,yorkshire4  ,illustration3 ,a         
,,question ,,of ,,price1 ,,westminster  
,,abbey4  ,the small carving to the     
right of the above is a highly-elate    
pig1 playing the pipe4 ,this is shewn in
 a short chapter hereafter given on     
,animal ,musicians4 ,the initial at the 
head of this chapter is illustrated with
 the slumbering priest1 the carving of  
whom is at the right of that of the     
',unseen ,witness1' drawn on page #he4  
,this doubtless implies that some       
portion of the sin of the people was to 
be attributed to the indifference of the
 clergy4 ,balancing this1 there is in   
the original carving an aged person     
kneeling1 and1 supported by a crutch1   
counting her beads4  ,in a subsequent   
chapter 7on ,compound ,forms in ,gothic7

 the harpy is mentioned1 and shewn to be
 a not uncommon subject of church art1  
either as from the malignant classic    
form which symbolized fierce bad        
weather1 or as the more beneficient     
though not unsimilar figure which was   
the symbol of ,athor1 the ,egyptian     
,venus4 ,a ,winchester example which    
might seem in place among the remarks on
 the ,compounds1 is included here1 as it
 is evidently intended to embody a sin4 
,it serves to show that a modern use of 
the word harpy was well understood in   
mediaeval times4 ,the design is simple1 
the vulture wings being made to take the
 position of the hair of the woman head4
 ,she lies in wait spider-wise1 her     
great claws in readiness for the prey2  
and is evidently a character-sketch of a
 coarse1 insatiable daughter of the     
horse-leech4  ,illustration3 ,,the      
,,harpy ,,in ,,wait1 ,,winchester4      
,scriptural ,illustrations4             
,illustration3 ,,adam ,,and ,,eve1      
,,beverley ,,minster4  ,mystery ,plays1 

we have seen1 drew upon the ,apocryphal 
,new ,testament for subjects1 but it has
 simply happened that the examples of   
vice carvings illustrate those writings1
 for ,mystery ,plays were in general    
founded upon the canonical scriptures4  
,there are many carvings which have     
,biblical incidents for their subject1  
but it is often impossible to say       
whether the text were the sole material 
of the designer1 or whether his ideas   
were formed by representations he had   
seen on the ,mystery stage4 ,it may be  
presumed that the effect would not be   
greatly different in one case from the  
other4  ,the story of ,jonah furnishes a
 subject for two misericordes in ,ripon 
,cathedral4 ,one is in the frontispiece 
of this volume4 ,in the first the       
prophet is being pushed by three men    
unceremoniously over the side of the    
vessel which has the usual mediaeval    
characteristics1 and1 in which1 plainly1
 there is no room for a fourth person4  
,the ship is riding easily on by no     

means tumultuous waves1 out of which    
protrudes the head of the great fish4   
,the fish and ,jonah appear to regard   
the situation with equal complacency4   
,in the sequel carving ,jonah is shewn  
being cast out by the fish1 of which1 as
 in the other1 the head only is visible4
 ,the monster of the deep has altered   
its appearance slightly during the      
period of ,jonah's incarceration1 its   
square upper teeth having become        
pointed4 ,the prophet is represented    
kneeling among the teeth1 apparently    
offering up thanks for his deliverance4 
,the sea is bounded by a rocky shore on 
which stand trees of the well-known     
grotesque type in which they are        
excellent fir-cones4  ,illustration3    
,,the ,,story ,,of ,,jonah4 ,,the       
,,casting ,,out4  ,these two carvings   
are of somewhat special interest1 as    
their precise origin is known4 ,they are
 both exceedingly close copies of       
engravings in the ,biblia ,pauperum1 or 
,poor ,man's ,bible1 otherwise called   

,speculum ,humanae ,salvationis1 or the 
,mirror of ,human ,salvation4 ,other    
,biblical subjects in the ,ripon ,series
 of ,misericordes are from the same     
source4 ,did the ,sculptor or ,sculptors
 of the series fall short of subjects1  
or were their eyes caught by the        
definite outlines of the prints in the  
,picture ,bible as it lay chained in the
 ,minster8  ,the ,adoration1 in a       
carving in the choir of ,worcester1     
comes under the head of unintentional   
grotesques4 ,it is a proof that though  
the manipulative skill of the artist may
 be great1 that may only accentuate his 
failure to grasp the true spirit of a   
subject2 and render what might have been
 only a piece of simplicity1 into an    
elaborate grotesque4 ,the common-place1 
ugly features--where not broken         
away--the repeated attitudes and the    
symmetric arrangement join to defeat the
 artist's aim4 ,add to those the        
anachronisms1 the ancient ,eastern      
rulers in ,edward ,,iii4 crowns and     

gowns1 seated beneath late ,gothic      
,decorated ,arches offering gifts1 and  
the absurdity is nearly complete4 ,it is
 difficult to quite understand the      
presence of the lady with gnarled       
features1 on the left1 bearing the      
swathed infant 7headless7 which seems to
 demonstrate that this was carved by a  
foreigner1 or was from a foreign source2
 for though swathing was practised to   
some extent in ,england1 ,i can only    
find that in ,holland1 ,germany1 etc41  
and more especially in ,italy1 the      
children were swathed to this extent1 in
 the complete mummy fashion styled      
bambino4  ,perhaps the reason of the two
 figures right and left was that the    
artist went with the artistic tide in   
representing the recently-born infant as
 a strapping boy of four or five2 yet   
his common-sense telling him that was a 
violation of fact he put the other      
figure in with the strapped infant to   
show what--in his own private           
opinion--the child would really be like 

at the time4  ,we might have supposed it
 to be ,st4 ,john1 but he was older and 
not younger than the ,divine ,child4 ,in
 the ,scandinavian mythology1 ,vali1 the
 ,new ,year1 is represented as a child  
in swaddling clothes4  ,illustration3   
,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,magi1          
,,worchester4  ,the ,scriptural subjects
 in carved work may be compared with the
 wall paintings which in a few instances
 have survived the reforming zeal of    
bygone white-washing churchwardens4 ,the
 comparison is infinitely to the        
advantage of the carvings4 ,these       
paintings are in distemper and were the 
humble inartistic precursors of noble   
frescoes in the continental fanes1 but  
which had in ,england no development4   
,to what extent there was merit in the  
mural decoration of the ,english        
cathedrals cannot well be stated4 ,such 
examples1 as in a few churches are left 
to us1 are simply curiosities4 ,though  
changing with the styles they are more  
crude than the sculptures1 and the      

modern eye in search of the grotesque1  
finds here compositions infinitely more 
excruciatingly imbecile than in any     
other department of art-work of         
pretension4  ,illustration3 ,,baptismal 
,,scene1 ,,guildford4  ,at the same time
 when they are considered in conjunction
 with the most perfect of the paintings 
of their period they are by no means so 
low in the scale of merit as at the     
first thought might be supposed4        
,outside the present purpose of looking 
at them as unintentional grotesques they
 are very valuable specimens of the     
,english art of painting of dates which 
have1 except in illuminations1 no other 
examples4  ,those of ,st4 ,mary's1      
,guildford1 are very quaint4 ,the first 
selected from the series is a           
representation of ,christ attending the 
ministration of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist4
 ,st4 ,john has apparently taken down to
 the river bank a classic font1 in which
 is seated a convert4 ,the ,baptist     
himself1 wearing a ,phrygian cap        

7probably ,saxon71 is turning away from 
the figures of ,christ and the man in   
the font1 and is apparently addressing a
 company which does not appear in the   
picture4 ,just as the font was put in to
 make the idea of baptism easily        
understood1 so1 we may suppose1 the     
curious buttons on thongs1 or whatever  
they are1 were shewn attached to ,st4   
,john's wrist1 to indicate that he is   
speaking of the shoe-latchets4 ,the     
waters and bank of the ,jordan are      
indicated in a few lines4               
,illustration3 ,,casting ,,out ,,of     
,,devils1 ,,guildford4  ,the other      
selection is still more bizarre4 ,it    
evidently portrays ,christ casting out  
devils4 ,the chief point of interest in 
this painting is the original conception
 of the devils4 ,anything more vicious1 
degraded1 and abhorrent1 it would be    
difficult to produce in so few lines4   
,roughly speaking1 they are a compound  
of the hawk1 the hog1 and the monkey2   
this curious illustration is an         

excellent pendant to the marks made upon
 early ,satanic depictions on a previous
 page4 ,the faces are ,saxon1 except in 
the case of the man with the sword1 who 
is a distinct attempt at a ,roman4 ,the 
artist had evidently in his mind one who
 was set in authority4  ,the churches of
 the ,midlands are rich in              
wall-paintings4  ,a fine example is in  
,north ,stoke ,church1 ,oxfordshire1    
which has two ,scriptural subjects1 a   
series of angelic figures1 and several  
other figures1 etc41 only fragmentally  
visible4 ,they were all found           
accidentally under thick coats of       
whitewash4 ,it may be doubted whether   
they were ever finished4 ,the two       
,biblical subjects are ,christ betrayed 
in the ,garden1 and ,christ before      
,pilate4 ,christ is a small apparently  
blind-folded figure1 of which only the  
head and one shoulder remains4 ,pilot is
 the ,saxon lord1 posing as the seated  
figure of legal authority1 poising a    
hiltless sword in his right hand4 ,the  

figure addressing ,pilate is apparently 
a ,roman 7,saxon7 official2 his hand is 
very large1 but there is a simple force 
about his drawing4 ,the fourth figure in
 a mitre is doubtless meant for a       
,jewish priest1 and he has a nasty1     
clamorous look4 ,pilate1 unfortunately1 
has no pupils to his eyes1 but his      
general appearance is as though he was  
expostulating with the priest4  ,there  
is a carol1 printed in #ahbj1 which has 
a woodcut of the subject not less rude  
and not less of an anachronism than     
this3 but what is curious1 as           
illustrating the main theory of the     
present volume--the tenacity with which 
form is adhered to in unconscious       
art--is that the disposition of the     
figures is exactly the same in both     
pictures4 ,where the ,saxon lord is     
seated1 imagine a bearded magistrate1 at
 a sort of ,georgian quarter-sessions   
bench1 with panelled front4 ,for the    
simple ,saxon1 with vandyked shirt1     
suppose a ,roman half-soldier1          

half-village-policeman4 ,then comes the 
figure of ,christ1 with the head much   
lower than those of the others because  
he is nearer4 ,lastly1 there is an      
incomplete figure behind4  ,in this case
 the perfect correspondence may be mere 
coincidence2 it is difficult to explain 
otherwise4 ,the design1 however1 is the 
same1 only the ,anglo-,norman filled in 
his detail from his observation of a    
manorial court1 the ,moorfield engraver 
from his knowledge of ,bow ,street      
police-court4  ,to conclude1 although   
these paintings are ludicrous in the    
extreme1 the artists1 who had no easy   
task1 were absolutely serious1 and their
 works1 divested of the comic aspect    
conferred by haste and manipulative     
incompetence1 are marked by bold        
impressiveness4  ,the initial to this   
chapter is from one of a series of      
similar ornaments on the parapet of the 
south side of the nave of ,beverley     
,minster2 it illustrates the toilsome   
nature of the later portion of ,adam's  

life4     ,masks and ,faces4            
,illustration3 ,,foliate ,,mask1 ,,the  
,,choir1 ,,beverley ,,minster4  ,the    
merriest1 oddest1 most ill-assorted     
company in the world meet together in   
the masks and faces of ,gothic ornament4
 ,space could always be found for a     
head1 and skill to execute it4 ,yet     
though the variety is immense1 the faces
 of ,gothic art will be found to        
classify themselves very definitely4    
,illustration3 ,,foliate ,,mask1        
,,dorchester1 ,,oxon4  ,perhaps the most
 prevalent type is the classic mask with
 leaves issuing from the mouth4 ,this   
may be an idea of the mask which every  
player in the ancient drama wore1       
displayed as an ornament with laurel1   
bay1 oak1 ivy1 or what not1 inserted in 
the mouth1 because it was pierced for   
speaking through1 and the only aperture 
in which the decorative branches could  
be inserted4 ,or seeds might germinate  
in sculptured masks and so have         
suggested the idea4 ,masks were hung in 

vineyards1 etc4  ,illustration3         
,,foliate ,,mask1 ,,st4 ,,mary',s       
,,minster1 ,,isle ,,of ,,thanet4        
,illustration3 ,,foliate ,,mask1        
,,beverley ,,minster4  ,a mask above the
 internal tower-doorway in the ,lady    
,chapel of ,dorchester ,abbey has a     
close resemblance to the classic mask in
 the protruding lips1 which1 for the    
conveying of the voice for the great    
distance necessary in the arrangement of
 the ancient theatres1 were often shaped
 like a shallow speaking-trumpet4 ,the  
leaves appear to be the vine1 and so the
 head1 perhaps1 that of ,bacchus4       
,between the eyebrows will be noticed an
 angular projection4 ,this is probably  
explained by a mask in a misericorde in 
,st4 ,mary's ,minster1 in which some    
object1 perhaps the nasal of a helmet1  
comes down the middle of the forehead4  
,the leaves in this case appear to be   
oak1 which is1 indeed1 the prevailing   
tree used for the purpose4              
,illustration3 ,,indian ,,mask1 ,,st4   

,,mary',s1 ,,beverley4  ,illustration3  
,,late ,,italian ,,foliate ,,mask1      
,,westminster4  ,occasionally a mask    
with leaves has the tongue protruding4  
,perhaps one of the most remarkable     
masks in ,gothic is on another          
misericorde in the same town1 but in    
,st4 ,mary's ,church2 in which the      
features1 the head-dress1 the treatment 
of the ears1 are all ,indian1 while the 
leaves are those of the palm4 ,this is1 
perhaps1 unique as an instance of       
,gothic work so nearly purely ,indian in
 its form4  ,illustration3 ,,ripon1 late
 ,fifteenth ,century4  ,sometimes the   
leaves are much elaborated as in one of 
the late misericordes of ,westminster   
,abbey2 in a few cases the original     
simplicity is quite lost1 and we have1  
as at ,ripon1 the mask idea run mad1    
inverted1 and the leaves become a       
graceful composition of foliage1 flower1
 and fruit4  ,a rosette from the tomb of
 ,bishop de ,la ,wich1 ,chichester1 has 
four animal faces in an excellent       

design4  ,illustration3 ,,rosette ,,on  
,,tomb ,,of ,,bishop ,,de ,,la ,,wich1  
,,chichester4  ,often masks are of the  
simple description known as the         
,notch-head2 these are of the thirteenth
 and fourteenth centuries4 ,they are    
generally found in exposed situations at
 some elevation1 as among the series of 
corbels 7corbula a small basket7 or     
brackets called the corbel-table1       
supporting a stone course or cornice4   
,the likeness to the human face caused  
by the shadows of the ,t varies in      
different examples4 ,that below1 by     
curving back at the base1 suggests the  
idea of a mouth4 ,occasionally1 as at   
,finedon1 ,northamptonshire1 the        
notch-head has its likeness to a face   
increased by the addition of ears4      
,illustration3 ,,mask1 ,,buckle1 ,,or   
,,notch ,,head1 ,,culham1 ,,yorkshire4  
,norman masks are interesting1 as they  
explain some odd appearances in later   
work4 ,in many churches are faces scored
 with lines across the cheeks1          

regardless of the ordinary lines of     
expression1 in a manner closely         
resembling the tattoo incisions of the  
,new ,zealand warrior4 ,this appearance1
 however1 is simply the too faithful    
copying of crude ,norman masks1 in which
 the lines are meant to be the          
semi-circles round eyes and mouth4      
,moreover1 the ,norman heads are most   
often the heads of animals grinning to  
shew the teeth1 although their general  
effect is that of grotesque human heads4
 ,iffley west doorway furnishes the best
 example4 ,here we have the well-known  
beak head ornament4 ,the semicircle and 
upper portion of the jambs have single  
heads1 not two of which are exactly     
alike1 though all closely resemble each 
other4 ,they are heads of the eagle or  
gryphon order1 with a forehead ornament 
very ,assyrian in character4 ,the heads 
of the jambs are compound1 being the    
head of a grinning beast1 probably a    
lion1 from the mouth of which emerges a 
gryphon head of small size4 ,these are  

sometimes called ,cat-heads1 and the    
gryphon head is sometimes considered    
7and perhaps occasionally shewn as such7
 a tongue4 ,a fine doorway of beak-heads
 is at ,st4 ,peter's-in-the-,east1      
,oxford1 which church was probably      
executed by the workmen who were        
responsible for ,iffley4  ,illustration3
 ,,beak ,,heads1 ,,iffley4  ,it is      
probable that the symbolism of this is  
the swallowing up of night by day or    
vice versa4 ,the outer arch of the      
,iffley doorway consists of zodiacal    
signs1 and at the south doorway are     
other designs elsewhere mentioned in    
this volume1 far removed from ,christian
 intent4  ,illustration3 ,,norman       
,,mask1 ,,rochester4  ,the grotesqueness
 of ,norman work is almost entirely     
unconscious4 ,the workers were full of  
,byzantine ideas1 and the severe and    
awful was their object rather than the  
comic4 ,they frequently attempted pretty
 detail in their symbolic designs1 but  
in all the forms which have come from   

their chisels it is easy to see how     
incomplete an embodiment they gave to   
their conceptions1 or rather to the     
conceptions of their traditional school4
 ,norman work1 beyond the ,gothic1      
irrespective of the architectural       
peculiarities1 has traces of its eastern
 origin in the classic connection of its
 designs4 ,adel ,church1 near ,leeds1 is
 peculiar in having co-mingled with its 
eastern designs more than ordinarily    
tangible references to ancient ,keltic  
worship1 but nearly all ,norman         
ideographic detail concerns itself with 
old-world myths4  ,illustration3        
,,gorgonic ,,mask1 ,,ewelme4  ,an       
excellent conception1 well carried out1 
is in a mask which is one of a series of
 late carvings alternating with the     
gargoyles of ,ewelme4 ,in this1 instead 
of leaves issuing from the mouth of the 
mask1 there are two dragons4 ,if those  
with leaves are deities1 this surely    
must be one of the ,furies4 ,it is on   
the north side of the nave2 on the      

exterior of the aisle1 at the same side1
 other sculptures form a kind of        
irregular corbel-table1 and special     
attention may be drawn to them as       
affording an indication of the          
derivation of such ornaments from the   
antefixes or decorated tiles occupying a
 nearly corresponding position in       
classic architecture4  ,illustration3   
,,foliate ,,mask1 ,,ewelme4  ,one of    
those on the aisle offers a further     
explanation of the mark before mentioned
 as being on the foreheads of some      
masks4 ,in this case the prominences of 
the eyebrows branch off into foliage4   
,this appears also to be the intention  
in a capital carving in ,lincoln        
,chapter ,house4  ,roslyn ,chapel has   
some very realistic heads1 notably of   
apes or gorillas near the south doorway1
 of which one is drawn 7opposite74      
,illustration3 ,,foliate ,,mask1        
,,lincoln4  ,norman work has frequently 
some very grotesque heads in corbel     
tables and tower corners1 to the odd    

appearance of which the decay by weather
 has no doubt much contributed4 ,two    
examples from ,sutton ,courtney1        
,oxfordshire1 illustrate this           
weather-worn whimsicality4              
,illustration3 ,,gorilla1 ,,roslyn      
,,chapel4  ,then comes a crowd of faces 
which have no particular significance1  
being simply the outcome of the         
unrestrainable fun of the carver4 ,some 
are merely oddities1 while others are   
full of life-like character4            
,illustration3 ,,gargoyle1 ,,sutton     
,,courtney4  ,illustration3             
,,weather-,,worn ,,norman1 ,,sutton     
,,courtney1 ,,berkshire4  ,illustration3
 ,,humour1 ,,york4  ,illustration3      
,,mask ,,with ,,sausage1                
,,stratford-,,upon-,,avon4              
,illustration3 ,a ,,jealous ,,eye1      
,,york4  ,the knight with the twisted   
beard1 from ,swine1 may be a portrait1  
and the ,gargantuan-faced dominus from  
,st4 ,mary's ,minster certainly is4 ,an 
old barbarian head from a croche or     

elbow-rest at ,bakewell is rude and     
worn1 but yet bold and fine4            
,illustration3 ,a ,,beard ,,with ,a     
,,twist1 ,,swine1 ,,yorkshire4          
,illustration3 ,a ,,quizzical ,,visage1 
,,bakewell4  ,illustration3 ,,grimace   
,,maker1 ,,beverley ,,minster4          
,illustration3 ,,fool',s ,,heads1       
,,beverley ,,minster4  ,some of these   
are better than the joculators and      
mimes' faces in which the artist        
seriously set himself a humorous task1  
as in the three heads 7page #acj7 from  
,beverley ,minster1 though the latter   
are in some respects more grotesque4    
,illustration3 ,a ,,portrait1 ,,st4     
,,mary',s ,,minster4 ,,isle ,,of        
,,thanet4  ,illustration3 ,a ,,rough    
,,character1 ,,bakewell4  ,another      
curious instance of a grimace and       
posture maker1 assisting his            
countenance's contortions by the use of 
his fingers1 is at ,dorchester ,abbey4  
,in this the artist has not been master 
of the facial anatomy1 and shows a      

double pair of lips1 one pair in repose1
 the other pulled back at the corners4  
,illustration3 ,,grimace ,,maker1       
,,dorchester1 ,,oxon4  ,often a         
grotesque face will be found added to a 
beautiful design of foliage1 either as  
the conventional mask1 as in the design 
in ,lincoln ,chapter ,house1 or a       
realistic head1 as the following grim1  
dour visage between graceful curves on a
 misericord at ,king's ,college1        
,cambridge4  ,illustration3 ,,grace     
,,and ,,the ,,graceless1 ,,king',s      
,,college1 ,,cambridge4     ,the        
,domestic and ,popular4   ,illustration3
 ,,the ,,weaker ,,vessel1 ,,sherborne4  
,domestic and popular incidents are     
plentiful among the carvings1 of which  
they form1 indeed1 a distinct class2 and
 they afford a considerable amount of   
material with which might be built up1  
in a truly ,hogarthian and exaggerated  
spirit1 an elaborate account of         
mediaeval manners in general4 ,in the   
majority of cases the incidents have a  

familiar1 if not an endearing           
suggestiveness4  ,illustration3         
,,domestic ,,discipline1 ,,beverley     
,,minster4  ,the records of mankind are 
not wanting in stormy incidents in which
 the gentle female spirit has chafed    
under some presumed foolishness or      
wickedness of the head of the house1 and
 at length breaking bounds1 inflicted on
 him personal reminders that patience   
endureth but for a season4 ,an example  
of this is given above1 which shews the 
possibility of such a thing as far back 
as #aebj1 the date of the ,beverley     
,minster misericordes4 ,while the lady  
is devoting her attention to the        
flagellation of her unfortunate and     
perhaps entirely blameless spouse1 a dog
 avails himself of the opportunity to   
rifle the caldron4  ,illustration3 ,,an 
,,unkind ,,fare1 ,,beverley ,,minster4  
,the picture in the initial1 taken from 
a carving in the choir of ,sherborne    
,minster1 shews another domestic        
incident in which the lady administers  

castigation4 ,though in itself no more  
than a vulgar satire1 it is probable    
that this carving was copied from some  
representation of ,st4 ,lucy1 who is    
sometimes shewn with a staff in her     
hand1 and behind her the devil          
prostrate4  ,it is not easy to say what 
is the meaning of another carving in    
,beverley ,minster1 or whether it has   
any connection with that just noted4    
,the probability is that it has not4    
,this may be a shrewish wife being      
wheeled in the tumbril to the waterside1
 there to undergo for the better ruling 
of her tongue1 a punishment the         
authority for which was custom older    
than law4 ,but ,i am inclined to think  
that another reading will be nearer the 
truth4 ,the vehicle is not the tumbril  
but a wheelbarrow1 and the man          
propelling it is younger than the lady1 
who is pulling his hair4 ,i imagine the 
man is apprentice or husband1 and is not
 very cheerfully trundling his companion
 home4 ,a similar1 but more definite    

misericorde is in ,ripon ,cathedral4    
,in this barrow1 the old woman1 wearing 
a cap with hat on the top1 as yet       
occasionally seen in country places1 is 
seated in a mistress-like way4 ,she is  
not committing any violence1 but        
apparently is offering the man 7call him
 the bridegroom7 his choice of either a 
bag of money with dutiful obedience1 or 
a huge cudgel1 which she wields with    
muscular power1 with dereliction4 ,the  
gem of the carving is the man's face4   
,he smiles a quiet1 amused1 satirical   
smile1 as of one who would say1 ',tis no
 harm to humour these foolish old       
bodies1 and must be done1 ,i trow4      
,illustration3 ,,the ,,chariot1 ,,ripon4
  ,but the object called a bag of money 
is as likely to be a bottle1 and the    
whole subject may be something quite    
different4 ,she may be going to the     
doctor1 or offering the man a drink2 or 
it may be ,noah wheeling his wife into  
the ,ark1 which1 it was one of the jokes
 in a ,mystery play to suppose she was  

very unwilling to enter4  ,illustration3
 ,,pilgrimage ,,in ,,comfort1           
,,canterbury4  ,illustration3           
,,martinmas4 ,,christmas4 ,,holy        
,,trinity1 ,,hull4  ,the block from the 
capital of a column in the crypt of     
,canterbury ,cathedral1 tells us little 
of its history4 ,it is given as an      
example of a cheerful grace and ease not
 common in early work4  ,the hunting of 
the boar is a frequent subject of the   
,gothic carver1 being generally         
considered the sport of ,september1     
though ,sir ,edward ,coke says the      
season for the boar was from ,christmas 
to ,candlemas4 ,it is uncommon to find  
the boar's head shewn treated as in the 
accompanying block1 struck off1 and with
 the lemon in his mouth1 ready for the  
table4 ,these quatrefoils are the only  
two with a special design upon them1 out
 of twelve on the font of ,holy ,trinity
 ,church1 ,hull1 the others having      
rosettes4 ,there is no rule in this1 but
 there are other examples in which small

 portions of fonts are picked out for   
significant decoration1 and possibly on 
the side originally intended to be      
turned towards the door of the church1  
or the altar4  ,illustration3 ,,huntsman
 ,,and ,,deer1 ,,york4  ,hunting scenes 
frequently occur4 ,a boss in ,york      
,minster shews a huntsman breaking a    
deer as it hangs from a tree4  ,the wild
 sweetness of one stringed and one wind 
instrument--not uncommonly met as harp  
and piccolo near ,london saloon         
bars--was a usual duet of the middle    
ages4 ,in ,stoeffler's ,calendarum      
,romanorum ,magnum 7of #aeah7 in a      
series of woodcuts illustrating the     
months1 and which are otherwise         
reasonable1 he gives one of these duets 
performed in a field as a proper        
occupation of the month of ,april with  
the following highly appropriate        
distich--    ,aprilis patule nucis sub  
umbra   post convivia dormio libenter4  
,illustration3 ,a ,,curious ,,duet1     
,,chichester4  ,in this carving1        

however1 the musicians appear to be     
within doors and to be giving a set     
duet4 ,to the interest of the ear they  
add a curious spectacle for the eye1 for
 they are seated in chairs which have no
 fore-legs1 and their balance is kept by
 the flageoletist taking hold of the    
harp as the players sit facing1 so that 
while leaning back they form a          
counter-poise to each other4 ,the chairs
 are a curious study in mediaeval       
furniture4  ,it is not unlikely that the
 sculptor in the case of the annexed    
block had in his mind something similar 
to the saying--    ,when a man's single 
he lives at his ease4  ,illustration3   
,,bachelor ,,quarters1 ,,worcester4  ,a 
man come in from1 we may presume1 frost 
and snow1 has taken off his boots1 and  
warms his feet as1 seated on his        
fald-stool by the fire1 he stirs the pot
 with lively anticipation of the meal   
preparing inside4 ,he is probably a     
shepherd or swine-herd2 on one side is  
seated his dog1 at the other are hung   

two fat gammons of bacon4  ,illustration
  ,shepherds and shepherding furnish    
frequent subjects to the carver4  ,in a 
,coventry ,corpus ,christi play of #aecd
 one of the three shepherds presents his
 gloves to the infant ,saviour in these 
words--    ,have here my myttens1 to    
pytt en thi hondis1   ,other treysure   
have ,i none to present thee with4      
,this carving has been called the ,good 
,shepherd4 ,if the artist really meant  
,christ by this shepherd with a hood    
over his head and hat over that1 with   
great gloves and shoes1 with a round    
beardless face1 with his arms round the 
necks of two sheep1 holding their feet  
in his hands1 it is the finest piece of 
religious burlesque extant4 ,but it is  
not to be supposed that the idea even   
occurred to the sculptor4  ,the ,feast  
of ,fools was a kind of religious farce1
 a mystery run riot4 ,cedranus1 a       
,byzantine historian1 who wrote in the  
eleventh century1 records that it was   
introduced into the ,greek ,church      

,a4,d4 #iij1 by ,theophylact1 patriarch 
of ,constantinople4 ,we can partly      
understand that the popular craving for 
the wild liberties of the ,saturnalia   
might be met1 and perhaps modified1 by a
 brief removal of the solemn constraint 
of the ,christian priest-rule4 ,but     
licentiousness in church worship was no 
new thing1 and1 long before the time of 
,theophylact1 the ,church of the ,west1 
and probably the ,greek ,church also1   
had been rendered scandalous by the     
laxity with which the church services   
were conducted4 ,at the ,council of     
,orleans1 in ,a4,d4 #ecc1 it was found  
necessary to rule that no person in a   
church shall sing1 drink1 or do anything
 unbecoming2 at another in ,chalons1 in 
,a4,d4 #fej1 women were forbidden to    
sing indecent songs in church4 ,there is
 in fact every evidence1 including the  
sculptures of our subject1 that religion
 was not1 popularly1 a thing solemn in  
itself4 ,cedranus mentions the diabolic 
dances among the enormities practised at

 the ,feast of ,fools1 which was        
generally held about ,christmas1 though 
not confined to that festival4  ,in the 
twelfth century1 the abuse increased2   
songs of the most indecent and offensive
 character were sung in the midst of the
 mock services2 puddings were eaten1 and
 dice rattled on the altar1 and old     
shoes burnt as incense4  ,illustration3 
,,dancing ,,fools1 ,,beverley ,,minster4
  ,this observance1 so evidently an     
expedient parody of the old-time        
festivals1 is traceable in ,england1 and
 said to have been abolished about the  
end of the fourteenth century4 ,the     
carvings in ,beverley ,minster1 here    
presented1 are supposed to refer to the 
,feast1 and at any rate give us a good  
idea of the mediaeval fool4 ,there were 
innumerable classic dances4 ,the ,greeks
 send down the names of two hundred     
kinds4 ,a dance with arms was the       
,pyrrhic dance1 which was similar in    
some of its varieties to the military   
dance known as the ,morris4 ,the ,morris

 was introduced into ,spain by the      
,moors1 and brought into ,england by    
,john of ,gaunt in #accb4 ,it was1      
however1 little used until the reign of 
,henry ,,vii4 ,there were other         
vivacious dances1 called ,bayle1 of     
,moorish origin1 which1 as well as      
various kinds of the stately ,court     
dance1 were used by the ,spaniards4 ,it 
is difficult1 from general sources1 to  
ascertain the dances in vogue in old    
,england4 ,a drawing in the ,cotton     
,,mss4 shews a ,saxon dancing a reel4   
,the general inference is1 however1 that
 the ,morris 7of the ,moors or          
,moriscoes7 was the chief dance of the  
,english1 and perhaps it is that in     
which the saltatory fools of the carving
 are engaged4  ,illustration3 ,,an      
,,abject ,,object4 ,,winchester         
,,college ,,chapel4  ,probably the      
extraordinary monstrosity shewn in the  
annexed block had an actual existence4  
,there are fairly numerous accounts of  
such malformities in mediaeval times1   

and it was a function of mediaeval      
humour to make capital out of           
unfortunate deformity4 ,this poor man   
has distorted hands instead of feet1 and
 he moves about on pattens or wooden    
clogs strapped to his hands and legs4   
,there is little meaning in the side    
carvings4 ,the fool-ape1 making an      
uncouth gesture1 is perhaps to shew the 
character of those who mock misfortune4 
,the man with the scimitar may represent
 the alarm of one who might suddenly    
come upon the sight of the abortion1 and
 fearing some mystery or trap1 draw his 
blade4 ,in a sense this is a humourous  
carving--yet there is a quality for     
which it is much more remarkable1 and   
that is its element of forcible and     
realistic pathos4  ,illustration3 ,a    
,,mythological ,,episode1 ,,york4  ,two 
reliefs from ,york ,minster are         
presumably scenes from classic          
mythology1 from1 in regard to the       
costumes1 a ,saxon point of view4 ,one  
may be supposed to be the rape of       

,ganymede4 ,oak leaves are an attribute 
of ,jupiter1 as is also the eagle which 
bore ,ganymede to ,olympus4  ,the other 
may be ,vulcan giving ,venus a piece of 
his mind4  ,illustration3 ,,marital     
,,violence1 ,,york4  ,if these readings 
are correct these two carvings are among
 the very few instances of              
representations of circumstantial detail
 of the ,olympian mythology4 ,most of   
the church references to mythology have 
more connection with the earlier        
symbolic meanings than with the later   
narrative histories into which the cults
 degenerated4 ,other examples are in the
 references to ,hercules in the         
sixteenth century stalls of ,henry      
,,vii4's ,chapel1 ,westminster4  ,there 
is in mediaeval art several examples    
remaining of what may be called         
topsy-turveyism1 in which two figures   
mutually lent their parts to each other 
in such a way that four figures may be  
found4  ,an excellent example of this is
 at ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 in which1   

though the four figures are so apparent 
when once seen1 the two 7taken as upper 
and lower71 are in a natural and        
ingenious acrobatic position4 ,the      
grotesque head at the base is put in to 
balance the composition1 and perhaps to 
prevent the trick being discerned at    
once4  ,illustration3 ,a ,,continuous   
,,group ,,of ,,four ,,figures1 ,,oxford4
  ,the grace of the free if somewhat    
meagre ,corinthian acanthus as used in  
,early ,english work is often rendered  
more marked by the introduction of an   
extraneous subject4 ,thus at ,wells the 
foliate design is relieved by the       
ungainly figure of a melancholy         
individual1 who1 before retiring to     
rest1 pursues an examination into his   
pedal callosities1 or extracts the      
poignant thorn4 ,or can it be that we   
have here a reminder of the ,egyptian   
monarch1 ,somaraja1 mentioned in the    
,hindoo accounts of the ,egyptian       
mythology1 who was dissolute and        
outcast1 and who1 to shew his repentance

 and patience1 stood twelve days upon   
one leg8  ,illustration3 ,a ,,pilgrim',s
 ,,pains1 ,,wells4  ,this discursive    
chapter would not be complete without a 
reference to the alleged impropriety of 
church grotesques4 ,though it is not to 
be denied that in the wide range of     
subjects a considerable number of       
indecent subjects have crept in1 yet    
their proportion is small4 ,examination 
would lead to the belief that upon the  
whole the art of the churches is much   
purer than the literature or the popular
 taste of the respective periods4       
,though there may be sometimes met      
examples of grossness of humour and a   
frank want of reserve1 such as in the   
annexed drawing from the chapel of ,all 
,souls1 ,oxford1 yet these are rarely of
 the most gross or least reserved       
character4  ,illustration3 ,a           
,,posturist1 ,,all ,,souls1 ,,oxford4   
,it may be well to note1 in this        
connection that the literature from     
which we draw the bulk of our ideas as  

to mediaeval life1 are foreign1 and     
that1 although ,english manners would   
not be remotely different in essentials1
 yet there would be as many absolute    
differences as there are yet remaining  
to our eyes in architecture and in art  
generally4     ,the ,pig and other      
,animal ,musicians4   ,illustration3    
,,ape ,,as ,,piper1 ,,beverley4  ,one   
might count in the churches animal      
musicians1 perhaps1 by thousands1 and   
the reason of their presence is         
doubtless the same as that which        
explains the frequency of the serious   
carvings of musicians which adorn the   
arches of nave and choir throughout the 
country--namely the prevalent use of    
various kinds of instrumental music in  
the service of the church4 ,the animal  
musicians are the burlesques of the     
human1 and the fact that the pig is the 
most frequent performer may perhaps     
suggest that the ability of the musician
 had overwhelmed the consideration of   
other qualities which might be expected1

 but were not found1 in the             
harmony-producing choristers4 ,clever as
 musicians1 they may have become merely 
functionaries as regards interest in the
 church1 as we see to-day in the case of
 our bell-ringers1 who for the most part
 issue from the churches as worshippers 
enter them4  ,it may also be that the   
frequency of suilline musicians may have
 derisive reference to the ancient      
veneration in which the pig was held in 
the mythologies4 ,it was a symbol of the
 sun1 and1 derivatively1 of fecundity4  
,perhaps the strongest trace of this is 
in ,scandinavian mythology4 ,the        
northern races sacrificed a boar to     
,freyr1 the patron deity of ,sweden and 
of ,iceland1 the god of fertility2 he   
was fabled to ride upon a boar named    
,gullinbrusti1 or ,golden ,bristle4     
,freyr's festival was at ,yule-tide4    
,yule is jul or heol1 the sun1 and      
,gehul is the ,saxon ,sunfeast4 ,the    
gods of ,scandinavia were said to       
nightly feast upon the great boar       

,saehrimnir1 which eaten up1 was every  
morning found whole again4 ,this seems  
somewhat akin to the ,hindoo story of   
,crorasura1 a demon with the face of a  
boar1 who continually read the ,vedas   
and was so devout that ,vishnu 7the sun 
god7 gave him a boon4 ,he asked that no 
creature existing in the three worlds   
might have power to slay him1 which was 
granted4  ,illustration3 ,,sow ,,and    
,,fiddle1 ,,winchester4  ,the special   
sacrifice of the pig was not peculiar to
 ,scandinavia1 for the ,druids and the  
,greeks also offered up a boar at the   
winter solstice4 ,the sacrifice of a pig
 was a constant preliminary of the      
,athenian assemblies4 ,as a corn        
destroyer the same animal was sacrificed
 to ,ceres4  ,the above explains the    
recurrence of the pig rather than the   
pig musician4 ,a pregnant sow was1      
however1 yearly sacrificed to ,mercury1 
the inventor of the harp1 and a sow     
playing the harp is among the rich set  
of choir carvings in ,beverley ,minster4

  ,the chase of the boar was the sport  
of ,september1 the ordinary killing     
season1 the swine being then in         
condition after their autumn feed of    
bucon1 or beechmast 7hence bacon71 ,his 
,martinmas has come passed into a       
proverb4 ,the prevalence of the pig as a
 food animal had undoubtedly its share  
in the frequency of art reference4      
,illustration3 ,,sow ,,as ,,harpist1    
,,beverley ,,minster4  ,in the          
,christian adoption of pagan attributes1
 the pig was apportioned to ,st4        
,anthony1 it is said1 variously1 because
 he had been a swine-herd1 or lived in  
woods4 ,the smallest or weakling pig in 
a litter1 called in the north           
piggy-widdy 7small white pig71 and in   
the south midlands the dillin 7perhaps  
equivalent to delayed71 and is elsewhere
 styled the ,anthony pig1 as specially  
needing the protection of his patron4   
,illustration3 ,,music ,,at ,,dinner1   
,,winchester4  ,a common representation 
of the pig musician is a sow who plays  

to her brood4 ,at ,winchester1 the feast
 of the little ones is enlivened by the 
strains of the double flute4 ,at ,durham
 ,castle1 in a carving formerly in      
,aucland ,castle ,chapel1 the sow plays 
the bagpipes while the young pigs dance4
 ,at ,ripon1 a vigorous carving has the 
same subject1 and another at ,beverley1 
in which a realistic trough forms the   
foreground4  ,illustration3 ,,sow ,,and 
,,bagpipes1 ,,durham ,,castle4          
,illustration3 ,,pigs ,,and ,,pipes1    
,,ripon4  ,the ,pig and ,whistle forms  
an old tavern sign4 ,dr4 ,brewer        
explains this as the pot1 bowl1 or cup  
7the pig71 and the wassail it contained4
 ,the earthenware vessel used to warm   
the feet in bed is in ,scotland yet     
called the pig1 and to southern         
strangers the use of the word has caused
 a temporary embarrassment4 ,if this    
explanation is not coincident with some 
other not at present to hand1 the       
carving of the pig and whistle in the   
sixteenth century carving in ,henry     

,,vii4's chapel shows that the          
corruption of the pig and wassail was   
accepted in ignorance as far back as    
that period4  ,illustration3 ,,pig ,,and
 ,,whistle1 ,,westminster4  ,but too    
much stress is not to be laid upon the  
pig as a musician1 for at ,westminster  
the bear plays the bagpipes1 just as at 
,winchester the ape performs on the     
harp4 ,in the ,beverley ,minster choir  
an ape converts a cat into an almost    
automatic instrument by biting its tail4
  ,illustration3 ,,ape ,,as ,,harpist1  
,,westminster4     ,compound ,forms4    
,illustration3 ,,athor1 ,,chichester4   
,in nearly every church compound forms  
are met which in a high degree merit the
 designation of grotesque4 ,few         
religions have been without these       
symbolic representations of complex     
characters4 ,if the ,egyptian had its   
cat-headed and hawk-headed men1 the     
,assyrian its human-headed bull1 the    
,mexican its serpent-armed tiger-men1 so
 also the ,scandinavian mythology had   

its horse-headed and vulture-headed     
giants1 and its human-headed eagle4     
,horace1 who doubtless knew the         
figurative meaning of what he satirizes1
 viewed the representations of such     
compounds in his days1 and asks--    ,if
 in a picture you should see   ,a       
handsome woman with a fishes tail1   ,or
 a man's head upon a horse's neck1   ,or
 limbs of beasts of the most diff'rent  
kind1   ,cover'd with feathers of all   
sorts of birds   ,would you not laugh8#f
  ,it is1 perhaps1 a little remote from 
our subject to inquire whether the poet 
or the priest came the first in bringing
 about these archaic combinations2 yet a
 word or two may be devoted to          
suggesting the inquiry4 ,it is probable 
that the religious ideas and artistic   
forms met in ancient worships first     
solely existed in poetic expressions of 
the qualities of the sun--of the other  
members of the solar system--of the     
gods4 ,thus the swiftness of the sun in 
his course and in his light induced the 

mention of wings4 ,hence the wings of an
 eagle added to a circular form arose as
 the symbol in one place2 in another    
arose the ,god ,mercury2 while ,jove the
 great sun-god is shewn accompanied by  
an eagle4 ,the fertility of the earth   
became as to corn ,ceres1 as to vines   
,bacchus1 as to flowers ,flora1 and so  
forth4 ,the human personification1 in   
cases where a combination of qualities  
or functions was sought to be indicated1
 resulted in more or less abstruse      
literary fables2 on the other hand the  
artist or symbol seeker found it easier 
to select a lower plane of thought for  
his embodiments4 ,thus1 while swiftness 
suggested the eagle1 strength was       
figured by the lion3 so when a symbol of
 swiftness and strength was required    
arose the compound eagle-lion1 the      
gryphon4  ,the gryphon1 however1 though 
constantly met in ,gothic1 is rarely    
grotesque in itself4 ,another form which
 also1 to a certain extent1 is          
incorruptible1 is that of the sphinx4   

,this is a figure symbolic of the sun   
from the ,egyptian point of view1 in    
which the ,nile was all-important4      
,nilus1 or ,ammon1 the ,egyptian ,jove1 
was the sun-god1 an equivalent to       
,osiris1 and the sphinx was similar in  
estimation1 being1 it is reasonably     
conjectured1 a compound of ,leo and     
,virgo1 at whose conjunction the ,nile  
has yearly risen4 ,according to ,dr4    
,birch1 the sphinx is to be read as     
being the symbol of ,harmachis or the   
sun on the horizon4 ,it may be that the 
,child rising from the ,shell is sunrise
 over the sea1 and the ,sphinx sunrise  
over the land4 ,it has been conjectured 
that the cherubim of the tabernacle were
 sphinx-form4 ,the cherubim on the      
,mosaic ,ark are among the subjects of  
the earliest mention of composite       
symbols4 ,ezekiel says they were        
composed of parts of the figures of a   
man 7wisdom1 intellect71 a lion         
7dominion71 a bull 7strength71 and an   
eagle 7sharp-sightedness1 swiftness47   

,the ,persians and ,hindoos had similar 
figures4 ,a man with buffalo horns is   
painted in the ,synhedria of the        
,american ,indians in conjunction with  
that of a panther or puma-like beast1   
and these are supposed to be a          
contraction of the cherubimical figures 
of the man1 the bull1 and the lion2     
these1 renewed yearly1 are near the     
carved figures of eagles common in the  
,indian sun-worship4  ,illustration3    
,,sphinx ,,and ,,buckler1 ,,beverley    
,,minster4  ,illustration3 ,,sphinx     
,,figure1 ,,dorchester1 ,,oxon4  ,a     
carving in the arm-rest of one of the   
stalls of ,beverley ,minster1 suggested 
in the block on page #aei1 shews a      
sphinx with a shield2 there are in the  
same church several fine examples seated
 in the orthodox manner4  ,on a capital 
in the sedilia of ,dorchester ,abbey is 
a curious compound which may be classed 
as a sphinx4 ,one of the hands 7or paws7
 is held over the eyes of a dog1 which  
suggests the manner in which animals    

were anciently sacrificed4 ,another     
sphinx in the same sedilia is of the    
winged variety4 ,it has the head cowled2
 many of the mediaeval combinatory forms
 are mantled4  ,in ,worcester ,cathedral
 is a compound of man1 ox1 and lion1    
very different from the sphinx or       
cherubim shapes1 being a grotesque      
deprived of all the original poetry of  
the conception4  ,illustration3 ,,cowled
 ,,sphinx1 ,,dorchester1 ,,oxon4        
,virgil describes ,scylla 7the ,punic   
,scol1 destruction7 as a beautiful      
figure upwards1 half her body being a   
beautiful virgin2 downwards1 a horrible 
fish with a wolf's belly 7utero74 ,homer
 similarly4  ,the mermaid is a frequent 
subject1 but more monotonous in its form
 and action than any other creature1 and
 is generally found executed with a     
respectful simplicity that scarcely ever
 savours of grotesqueness4 ,the mermaid1
 the sea wolf of the abyss1 and the     
mighty sea-woman of ,boewulf1 has an    
early origin as a deity of fascinating  

but malignant tendencies4  ,the centaur1
 perhaps1 ranks next to the sphinx in   
artistic merit4 ,to the early           
,christians the centaur was merely a    
symbol of unbridled passions1 and all   
mediaeval reference classes it as evil4 
,virgil mentions it as being met in     
numbers near the gates of ,hades1 and   
the ,parthenon sculptures shew it as the
 enemy of men4  ,illustration3          
,,grotesque ,,cherubim1 ,,worcester4    
,the story of the encyclopedias         
regarding centaurs is that they were    
,thessalonian horsemen1 whom the        
,greeks1 ignorant of horsemanship1 took 
to be half-men1 half-animals4 ,they were
 called1 it is said1 centaurs1 from     
their skill in killing the wild bulls of
 the ,pelion mountains1 and1 later1     
hippo-centaurs4 ,this explanation may1  
in the presence of other combinatory    
forms1 be considered doubtful1 as it is 
more probable that this1 like those1    
arose out of a poetic appreciation of   
the qualities underlying beauty of form1

 that is1 out of an intelligent         
symbolism4 ,the horse1 where known1 was 
always a favourite animal among men4    
,innumerable coinages attest this fact4 
,early ,corinthian coins have the figure
 of ,pegasus4 ,in most the horse is     
shewn alone4 ,in the next proportion he 
is attached to a chariot4 ,in few is he 
shewn being ridden1 as it is his        
qualities that were intended to be      
expressed1 and not those of the being   
who has subjected him4 ,one of the old  
,greek gold staters has a man driving a 
chariot in which the horse has a human  
head2 while the man is urging the horse 
with the sacred three-branched rod1 each
 branch of which terminates in a        
trefoil4 ,the centaur has a yet         
unallotted place in the symbolism of the
 sun-myth4 ,classic mythology says      
,chiron the centaur was the teacher of  
,apollo in music1 medicine1 and hunting1
 and centaurs are mostly sagittarii or  
archers1 whose arrows1 like those of    
,apollo1 are the sunbeams4 ,the centaur 

met in ,gothic ornament is the ,zodiacal
 ,sagittarius1 and true to this original
 derivation1 the centaur is generally   
found with his bow and arrow4  ,it is   
said that the ,irish saints1 ,ciaran and
 ,nessan1 are the same with the centaurs
 ,chiron and ,nessus4  ,illustration3   
,,maternal ,,cares ,,of ,,the ,,centaur1
 ,,iffley4  ,a capital of the south     
doorway1 ,iffley1 has a unique          
composition of centaurs4 ,a female      
centaur1 armed with bow 7broken7 and    
arrow1 is suckling a child centaur after
 the human manner4 ,the equine portions 
of the figures are in exceptionally good
 drawing1 though the tremendous         
elongation of the human trunks1 and the 
ill-rendered position1 render the group 
very grotesque4 ,both the mother and    
child wear the classic cestus or girdle4
 ,the bow carried by the mother is held 
apparently in readiness in the left     
hand1 while it is probable that the     
right breast was meant to be shown      
removed1 as was stated of the ,amazons4 

,the mother looks off1 and there is an  
air of alertness about the two1 which is
 explained by the sculpture on the      
return of the capital1 where the        
father-centaur is seen slaying a wolf1  
lion1 or other beast4  ,illustration3   
,,centaur ,,as ,,dragon ,,slayer1       
,,exeter4  ,on a centaur at ,exeter of  
the thirteenth century1 the mythical    
idea is somewhat retained2 the centaur  
has shot an arrow into the throat of a  
dragon1 which is part of the ornament4  
,this is a very rude but suggestive     
carving4 ,is the centaur but a symbol of
 ,apollo himself8  ,the next block 7at  
,ely7 is also of the centaur order1     
though not suggestive of aggression4    
,the figure is female1 and she is       
playing the zither4 ,this is of the     
fourteenth century4  ,illustration3     
,,musical ,,centaur1 ,,ely4             
,illustration3 ,,harpy1 ,,winchester4   
,another classic conception which has   
been perpetuated in ,gothic is the      
harpy1 though in most cases without any 

apparent recognition of the harpy       
character4 ,exceptions are such         
instances as that of the harpy drawn in 
the chapter ,satires without ,satan4 ,in
 one at ,winchester a fine mediaeval    
effect is produced by putting a hood on 
the human head4  ,illustration3         
,,ibis-,,headed ,,figure ,,from ,,an    
,,unknown ,,church4  ,another curious   
bird combination is in a carving in the 
,architectural ,museum1 ,tufton ,street1
 ,london1 from an unknown church4 ,this 
is a semi-human figure1 whose upper part
 is skilfully draped4 ,the head1 bent   
towards the ground1 is that of a bird of
 the ibis species1 and it is probable   
that we have here a relic of the        
,egyptian ,mercury ,thoth1 who was      
incarnated as an ibis4 ,thoth is called 
the ,god of the ,heart 7the conscience71
 and the ibis was said to be sacred to  
him because when sleeping it assumes the
 shape of a heart4  ,illustration3 ,,the
 ,,swan ,,sister1 ,,st4 ,,george',s     
,,chapel1 ,,windsor4  ,an unusual       

compound is that of a swan with the     
agreeable head of a young woman1 in ,st4
 ,george's ,chapel1 ,windsor4 ,this may 
be one of the swan-sisters in the old   
story of the ,knight of the ,swan4  ,the
 initial letter of this section is a    
fine grotesque rendering of the         
,egyptian goddess ,athor1 ,athyr1 or    
,het-her 7meaning the dwelling of ,god47
 ,she was the daughter of the sun1 and  
bore in images the sun's disc4 ,probably
 through a lapse into ignorance on the  
part of the priest-painters1 she became 
of less consideration1 and the          
signification even of her image was     
forgotten4 ,she had always had as one of
 her representations1 a bird with a     
human head horned and bearing the disc2 
but the disc began to be shewn as a     
tambourine1 and she herself was styled  
the mistress of dance and jest4 ,as in  
the cosmogony of one of the ,egyptian   
,trinities she was the ,third ,person1  
as ,supreme ,love1 the ,greeks held her 
to be the same as ,aphrodite4 ,the name 

of the sun-disc was ,aten1 and its      
worship was kindred to that of ,ra1 the 
mid-day sun4 ,the ,hebrew ,adonai and   
the ,syriac ,adonis have been considered
 to be derived from this word ,aten4    
,several examples of bird-compounds are 
in the ,exeter series of misericordes of
 the thirteenth century4 ,they are      
renderings in wood of the older         
,anglo-,saxon style of design1 and are  
ludicrously grotesque4  ,it is scarcely 
to be considered that the compound      
figures were influenced by the          
prevalence of mumming in the periods of 
the various carvings4 ,in this1 as in   
many other respects1 the traditions of  
the carvers' art protected it from being
 coloured by the aspect of the times1   
except in a limited degree1 shewn in    
distinctly isolated examples4           
,illustration3 ,,bird-,,compound1       
,,exeter4     ,non-descripts4           
,illustration3 ,a ,,bearded ,,biped1    
,,st4 ,,katherine',s4  ,there is a large
 number of bizarre works which defy     

natural classification1 and though in   
many cases they are a branch of the     
compound order of figures1 yet they are 
frequently well defined as              
non-descripts4 ,these1 though in one    
respect the most grotesque of the       
grotesques1 do not claim lengthy        
description4 ,where they are not        
traceable compounds1 they are often     
apparently the creatures of fancy1      
without meaning and without history4 ,it
 may be1 however1 that could we trace   
it1 we should find for each a pedigree  
as interesting1 if not as old1 as that  
of any of the sun-myths4 ,among the     
absurd figures which scarcely call for  
explanation are such as that shown in   
the initial1 from the ,hospital and     
,collegiate ,church of ,st4 ,katherine  
by the ,tower 7now removed to a         
substituted hospital in ,regent's       
,park74  ,illustration3 ,a ,,cloaked    
,,sin1 ,,tufton ,,street4  ,in the      
,architectural ,museum1 ,tufton ,street1
 ,london1 is a carving from an unknown  

church1 in which appear two figures     
which were not an uncommon subject for  
artists of the odd4 ,these are human    
heads1 to which are attached legs       
without intermediary bodies1 and with   
tails depending from the back of the    
heads4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,worm ,,of
 ,,conscience4 7,from an unknown        
,church47  ,in the ,pilgremage of the   
,sowle1 printed by ,caxton in #adhc1    
translated from a ,french manuscript of 
#adce or earlier1 is a description of a 
man's conscience1 which1 there is little
 doubt1 furnished the idealic material  
for these carvings4 ,a sowle being      
snarlyed in the trappe of ,satan1 is    
being1 by a travesty on the forms of a  
court of law1 claimed by both the       
horrible ,sathanas and its own ,warden  
or ,guardian ,angel4 ,the ,devil calls  
for his chief witness by the name of    
,synderesys1 but the witness calls      
himself the ,worm of ,conscience4 ,the  
following is the soul's                 
description3--,then came forth by me an 

old one1 that long time had hid himself 
nigh me1 which before that time ,i had  
not perceived4 ,he was wonderfully      
hideous and of cruel countenance2 and he
 began to grin1 and shewed me his jaws  
and gums1 for teeth he had none1 they   
all being broken and worn away4 ,he had 
no body1 but under his head he had only 
a tail1 which seemed the tail of a worm 
of exceeding length and greatness4 ,this
 strange accuser tells the ,soul that he
 had often warned it1 and so often      
bitten it that all his teeth were wasted
 and broken1 his function being to bite 
and wounde them that wrong themselves4#g
  ,the above examples are scarcely      
unique4 ,in ,ripon ,cathedral1 on a     
misericorde of #adhi1 representing the  
bearing of the grapes of ,eschol on a   
staff1 are two somewhat similar figures1
 likewise mere nobodies1 though without 
tails4 ,these are a covert allusion to  
the wonderful stories of the spies1     
which1 it is thus hinted1 are akin to   
the travellers' tales of mediaeval      

times1 as well as a pun on the report   
that they had seen nobody4              
,illustration3 ,,nobodies1 ,,ripon4  ,it
 is evident that the idea of men without
 bodies came from the ,east1 and also   
that it had credence as an actual fact4 
,in the ,cosmographiae ,universalis1    
printed in #aeej1 they are alluded to in
 the following terms3--,sunt qui        
cervicibus carent et in humeris habet   
oculos2 ,de ,india ultra ,gangem fluvium
 sita4  ,illustration3 ,,non-,,descript1
 ,,christ ,,church1 ,,hants4  ,there are
 many carvings which are more or less of
 the same character1 and probably       
intended to embody the idea of          
conscience or sins4  ,the two rather    
indecorous figures shewn in the         
following block from ,great ,malvern are
 varieties doubtless typifying sins4    
,illustration3 ,,sins ,,in ,,symbol1    
,,great ,,malvern4     ,rebuses4        
,illustration3 ,,bolt-,,ton4            
,illustration3 ,,william ,,white1       
,,beverley ,,minster4  ,rebuses are     

often met among ,gothic sculptures1 but 
not in such frequency1 or with an amount
 of humour to claim any great attention 
here4 ,they are almost entirely1 as in  
the case of the canting heraldry of     
seals1 of late date1 being mostly of the
 #aeth and #afth centuries4 ,they are   
often met as the punning memorial of the
 name of a founder1 builder1 or         
architect1 as the bolt-ton of ,bishop   
,bolton in ,st4 ,bartholomew's1         
,smithfield1 the many-times-repeated    
cock of ,bishop ,alcock in ,henry       
,,vii's4 ,chapel1 the eye and the slip  
of a tree1 and the man slipping from a  
tree1 for ,bishop ,islip1 ,westminster2 
and others well known4 ,in the series of
 misericordes in ,beverley ,minster1    
there are arma palantes of the          
dignitaries of the ,church in #aebj4    
,william ,white1 the ,chancellor1 has no
 less than seven different renderings of
 the pun upon his name1 all being       
representations of weights1 apparently  
of four-stone ponderosity4 ,thomas      

,donnington1 the ,precentor1 whose name 
would doubtless often be written        
,do'ington1 has a doe upon a ton or     
barrel4 ,john ,sperke1 the ,clerk of the
 ,fabric1 has a dog with a bone1 and a  
vigilant cock2 this1 however1 is not a  
name-rebus so much as an allusion to the
 exigencies of his office4 ,the ,church 
of ,st4 ,nicholas1 ,lynn1 had           
misericordes 7some of which are now in  
the ,architectural ,museum7 which have  
several monograms and rebuses4          
,unfortunately1 they are somewhat       
involved1 and there is at present no key
 by which to read them4 ,the least      
doubtful is that given below4           
,illustration3 ,,weight1 ,,rebus ,,for  
,,white1 ,,beverley ,,minster4  ,it has 
a ton rebus which will admit1 however1  
of perhaps three different renderings4  
,it is most likely ,thorn-ton1 less so  
,bar-ton1 and still less ,hop-ton1 all  
,lincolnshire names4  ,illustration3    
,,merchant ,,mark1 ,,cognizance ,,and   
,,rebus1 ,,st4 ,,nicholas',s1 ,,lynn4   

,trinities4   ,illustration3            
,,larva-,,like ,,dragon1 ,,st4          
,,paul',s1 ,,bedford4  ,repeatedly has  
the statement been made that the various
 mythologies are only so many           
corruptions of the ,mosaic system4      
,manifestly if this could be admitted   
there would be little interest in       
enquiring further into their details4   
,but there are three arguments against  
the statement1 any one of which is      
effective4 ,although it is perhaps      
totally unnecessary to contradict that  
which can be accepted by the            
unreflective only1 it is sufficiently   
near the purpose of this volume to      
slightly touch upon the matter1 as      
pointing strong distinctions among      
ancient worships4  ,first1 there is the 
simple fact recorded in the ,mosaic     
account itself1 that there existed at   
that time1 and had done previously1     
various religious systems1 the rooting  
out of which was an important function  
of the liberated ,hebrews4 ,the only    

reply to this is that1 by a slight shift
 of ground1 the mythologies were        
corruptions of the patriarchal religion1
 not the ,mosaic system4 ,yet paganism  
surrounded the patriarchs4  ,the second 
point is that most of the mythologies   
had crystallized into taking the sun as 
the main symbol of worship1 and into    
taking the equinoxes and other points of
 the constellation path as other symbols
 and reminders of periodic worship2     
whereas in the ,mosaic system the whole 
structure of the solar year is ignored1 
all the calculations being lunar4 ,if it
 be objected that ,numbers ix4 #f-ac1   
and ,,ii4 ,chronicles xxx4 #b1 refer    
indirectly to an intercalary month1     
that1 if admitted1 could only for       
expediency's sake1 and has no bearing   
upon the general silence as to the solar
 periods4 ,this second point is an      
important testimony to what may be      
termed ,mosaic originality4  ,the third 
point is that in most of the mythologies
 there is the distinct mention of a     

,trinity2 in the ,mosaic system1 the    
system of the ,old ,testament1 none4    
,with the question as to whether the    
,new ,testament supports the notion of a
 ,trinity1 we need not concern ourselves
 here2 it is enough that it has been    
adopted as an item of the ,christian    
belief4  ,the mythological ,trinities   
are vague and1 of course1 difficult or  
impossible to understand4 ,most of them 
appear to be attempts of great minds of 
archaic times to reconcile the manifest 
contradictions ever observable in the   
universe4 ,this is done in various ways4
 ,some omit one consideration1 some     
another2 but they generally agree that  
to have a three-fold character in one   
deity is necessary in explaining the    
phenomenon of existence4 ,some of the   
,trinities may be recited4  ,,persian4  
,,oromasdes1 ,goodness1 the deviser of  
,creation4      ,,mithras1 ,eternal     
,intellect1 the architect and ruler of  
the world1     literally the ,friend4   
,,arimanes1 the mundane soul 7,psyche74 

,,grecian4      ,,zeus4      ,,pallas4  
,,hera4  ,,roman4      ,,jupiter1       
,power4      ,,minerva1 ,wisdom1        
,eternal ,intellect4      ,,juno1 ,love4
  ,,scandinavian4      ,,odin1 ,giver of
 ,life4      ,,haenir1 ,giver of motion 
and sense4      ,,lodur1 ,giver of      
speech and the senses4  ,,american      
,,indian4      ,,otkon4      ,,messou4  
,,atahuata4  ,,egyptian4      ,,cneph1  
the ,creator1 ,goodness4      ,,pta     
7,opas71 the active principle of        
,creation 7 ,vulcan74      ,,eicton4    
,the ,egyptians had other ,trinities    
than the above1 each chief city having  
its own form2 in these1 however1 the    
third personality appears to be supposed
 to proceed from the other two1 which   
scarcely seems to have been intended in 
the instances already given4 ,some of   
the city ,trinities were as follow3--   
,,thebes4      ,,amun-,,ra 7 ,jupiter71 
7,,ra  the ,mid-day ,sun47      ,,mant  
or ,,mentu 7 the mother1 ,juno47        
,,chonso 7 ,hercules47  ,,philae        

,,abydos4      ,,osiris 7 ,pluto74      
,,isis 7 ,prosperine74      ,,horus1 the
 ,saviour1 the ,shepherd 7the ,rising   
,sun74  ,,aboo-,,simbel4      ,,pta or  
,,phthah4      ,,amum-,,ra4             
,,athor1 ,love 7the wife of ,,horus74   
,so that it is no coincidence that both 
,hercules and ,horus are met in ,gothic 
carvings as deliverers from dragons4    
,,elephantine4      ,,khum or           
,,chnoumis4      ,,anuka4      ,,hak4   
,,memphis4      ,,ptah4                 
,,merenphtah4      ,,nefer-,,atum4      
,,heliopolis4      ,,tum 7,setting      
,sun47      ,,nebhetp4      ,,horus4    
,another ,egyptian triad1 styled        
,trimorphous ,god6 was3--      ,,bait4  
,,athor4      ,,akori4  ,another3--     
,,telephorus4      ,,esculapius4        
,,salus4  ,,vedic ,,hindoo4      ,,agni1
 ,fire1 governing the ,earth4           
,,indra1 ,the ,firmament1 governing     
,space or ,mid ,air4      ,,surya1 ,the 
,sun1 governing the ,heavens4           
,,brahminic ,,hindoo4      ,,brahma1 the

 ,creator4      ,,vishnu1 the           
,preserver4      ,,siva1 the ,destroyer 
7the ,transformer7 7 ,fire74  ,the      
,platonic and other philosophic         
,trinities need not detain us2 it has   
been asserted that by their means the   
doctrine of the pagan ,trinity was      
grafted on to ,christianity4  ,right    
down through the ages the number three  
has always been regarded as of mystic   
force4 ,wherever perfection or          
efficiency was sought its means were    
tripled2 thus ,jove's thunderbolt had   
three forks of lightning1 ,neptune's    
lance was a trident1 and ,pluto's dog   
had three heads4 ,the ,graces1 the      
,fates1 and the ,furies were each three4
 ,the trefoil was held sacred by the    
,greeks as well as other triad forms4   
,in the ,east three was almost equally  
regarded4 ,three stars are frequently   
met upon ,asiatic seals4 ,the           
,scarabaeus was esteemed as having      
thirty joints4  ,mediaeval thought1 in  
accepting the idea of the ,christian    

,trinity1 lavishly threw its symbolism  
everywhere2 writers and symbolists1     
architects and heralds1 multiplied ideas
 of three-fold qualities4  ,heraldry is 
permeated with three-fold repetitions1 a
 proportion of at least one-third of the
 generality of heraldic coats having a  
trinity of one sort or another4 ,in all 
probability the stars and bars of       
,america rose from the coat-armour of an
 ,english family in which the stars were
 three1 the bars three4  ,st4 ,nicholas 
had as his attributes three purses1     
three bulls of gold1 three children4    
,sacred marks were three dots1 sometimes
 alone1 sometimes in a triangle1        
sometimes in a double triangle2 three   
balls attached1 making a trefoil2 three 
bones in a triangle crossing at the     
corners2 a fleur-de-lys in various      
designs of three conjoined2 three lines 
crossed by three lines2 and many other  
forms4  ,god1 the symbolists said1 was  
symbolized by a hexagon1 whose sides    
were ,glory1 ,power1 ,majesty1 ,wisdom1 

,blessing1 and ,honor4 ,the three steps 
to heaven were ,oratio1 ,amor1          
,imitatio4 ,the three steps to the      
altar1 the three spires of the          
cathedral1 the three lancets of an      
,early ,english window1 were all        
supposed to refer to the ,trinity4      
,having seen that the idea of the       
,trinity is a part of most of the       
ancient religious systems1 it remains to
 point to one or two instances where1 in
 common with other ideas from that      
source1 the ,trinity has a place among  
church grotesques4  ,there is a triune  
head in ,st4 ,mary's ,church1           
,faversham1 ,kent1 which was doubtless  
executed as indicative of the ,trinity4 
,the ,beehive of the ,romishe ,church1  
in #aegi1 says3 ,they in their churches 
and ,masse ,bookes doe paint the        
,trinitie with three faces2 for our     
mother the holie ,church did learn that 
at ,rome1 where they were wont to paint 
or carve ,janus with two faces4 ,in the 
,salisbury ,missal of #aecd is a woodcut

 of the ,trinity triangle surmounted by 
a three-faced head similar to the above4
 ,hone reproduces it in his ,ancient    
,mysteries ,described1 and asks1 ,may   
not the triune head have been originally
 suggested by the three-headed ,saxon   
deity named ,trigla8 ,the ,faversham    
tria1 it will be noticed1 has the curled
 and formal beards of the ,greek mask4  
,illustration3 ,a ,,trinity1 ,,st4      
,,mary',s1 ,,faversham4  ,another       
instance of a three-fold head similar to
 the ,faversham carving is at ,cartmel4 
,a still more remarkable form of the    
same thing occurs as a rosette on the   
tomb of ,bishop de la ,wich1 in         
,chichester ,cathedral1 in which the    
trinity of faces is doubled and placed  
in a circle in an exceedingly ingenious 
and symmetrical manner4 ,this has oak   
leaves issuing from the mouths1 which we
 have seen as a frequent adjunct of the 
classic mask as indicating ,jupiter4    
,illustration3 ,,double ,,trinity ,,of  
,,foliate ,,masks1 ,,chichester4  ,in   

carvings three will often be found to be
 a favourite number without a direct    
reference to the ,trinity4 ,the form of 
the misericorde is almost invariably a  
three-part design1 and1 being purely    
arbitrary1 its universal adoption is one
 of the evidences of the organization of
 the craft gild4  ,as with the          
misericorde1 so with its subjects4 ,at  
,exeter we have seen 7page #d7 the tail 
of the harpy made into a trefoil        
ornament1 while she grasps a            
trefoil-headed rod 7just as among       
,assyrian carvings we should have met a 
figure bearing the sacred three-headed  
poppy74 ,at ,gayton 7page #hg7 we have  
the three-toothed flesh-hook2 at        
,maidstone is another4 ,chichester      
,cathedral and ,chichester ,hospital    
have each three groups4 ,beverley       
,minster has three fish interlaced1 and 
three hares running round inside a      
circle4 ,in ,worcester ,cathedral there 
are three misericordes1 in each of which
 there are three figures1 in which      

groups the number is evidently          
intentional4 ,three till the ground1    
three reap corn with sickles1 three mow 
with scythes4  ,illustration3 ,,trinity 
,,of ,,mowers1 ,,worcester4  ,from them 
as being unusual in treatment1 even in  
this stiff ,flemish set1 is selected the
 trinity of mowers4 ,groups of three in 
mowing scenes is a frequent number4     
,doubtless this carving is indicative of
 ,july1 that being the ,hey-,monath of  
early times4 ,one of the side supporters
 or pendant carvings of this is a hare  
riding upon the back of a leoparded     
lion1 perhaps some reference to ,leo1   
the sign governing ,july4  ,the three   
mowers do not make a pleasing carving1  
owing to the repetition and want of     
curve4  ,other instances of triplication
 in ,gothic design might be given1      
particularly in the choice of floral    
forms in which nature has set the       
pattern4 ,this section1 however1 is     
chiefly important as a convenient means 
of incorporating a record of something  

further of the fundamental beliefs of   
the world's youth1 connected with and   
extending the question of the remote    
origin of the ideas at the root of so   
many grotesques in church art4     ,the 
,fox in ,church ,art4   ,illustration3  
,,preaching ,,fox1 ,,christchurch1      
,,hampshire4  ,the ,fox1 apostrophized  
as follows3    ,o gentle one among the  
beasts of prey   ,o eloquent and        
comely-faced animal6  as an important   
subject in mediaeval art1 has two       
distinct places4  ,there is a general   
impression that there was a great       
popular literary composition1 running   
through many editions and through many  
centuries1 having its own direct        
artistic illustration1 and a wide       
indirect illustration which1 later1 by  
its ability to stand alone1 had broken  
away from close connection with the     
epic1 yet possessed a derivative        
identity with it4  ,closer examination1 
however1 proves that there is indeed the
 ,fox in its particular literature with 

its avowed illustrations1 but also that 
there is the ,fox in mediaeval art1     
illustrative of ideas partly found in   
literature1 but illustrative of no      
particular work1 and yet awaiting a key4
 ,each is a separate and distinct thing4
  ,among the grotesques of our churches 
there are some references to the        
literary ,reynard the ,fox1 but they are
 few and far between2 while numerous    
most likely and prominent incidents of  
,reynard's career1 as narrated in the   
poem1 have no place among the carvings4 
,the subjects of the carvings are mostly
 so many variations of the idea of the  
,fox turned ecclesiastic and preying    
upon his care and congregation2 and in  
this he is assisted by the ape1 who also
 takes sides with him in carvings of    
other proceedings2 but in none of these 
scenes is there evidence of reference to
 the epic4 ,a great point of difference1
 too1 lies in the conclusion of the     
epic1 and the conclusion of ,reynard's  
life as shewn in the carvings4 ,in the  

epic1 the ,king makes ,reynard the ,lord
 ,chancellor and favourite4  ,the end of
 the ,fox of church art1 however1 is far
 different2 several sculptures agree in 
shewing him hanged by a body of geese4  
,in the epic1 ,reynard's victims are    
many4 ,the deaths of the ,hare and the  
,ram afford good circumstantial         
pictures1 yet in the carvings there is  
neither of these2 and it is scarcely    
,reynard who plots1 and sins1 and       
conceals1 but a more vulgar fox who     
concerns himself1 chiefly about geese1  
in an open1 verminous way1 while many of
 the sculptures are little more than    
natural history illustrations1 in which 
we see vulpes1 but not the ,fox4  ,to   
enable1 however1 a fair comparison to be
 made between literature and art in this
 byway1 it will be as well to glance at 
the history of the poem1 and lay down a 
brief analysis of its episodes2 and1    
next1 to present sketches of some       
typical examples from the carvings4     
,much of ancient satire owes its origin 

to that description of fable which      
bestows the attributes and capacities of
 the human race upon the lower animals1 
which are made to reason and to speak4  
,their mental processes and their       
actions are entirely human1 although    
their respective animal characteristics 
are often used to accentuate their human
 character4 ,in every animal ,edward    
,carpenter sees varying sparks of the   
actual mental life we call human1 in1 it
 may be added1 arrested or perverted    
development1 in which1 in each instance1
 one characteristic has immeasurably    
prevailed4 ,for the animal qualities1   
whether human or not in kind1 man has   
ever had a sympathetic recognition1     
which has made both symbol and fable    
easily acceptable4 ,perhaps symbolism1  
which for so many ages has taken the    
various animals as figures to           
intelligibly express abstract qualities1
 gave rise to fable4 ,if so1 fable may  
be considered the grotesque of          
symbolism4 ,the same ideas--of certain  

qualities--are taken from their original
 serious import1 and used to amuse1 and1
 while amusing1 to strike4  ,on the     
other hand1 ,grimm asserts that         
animal-fable arose in the ,netherlands1 
,north ,france1 and ,west ,germany1     
extending neither to the ,romance       
countries1 nor to the ,keltic2 whereas  
we find animal symbolism everywhere4    
,grimm's statement may be taken to      
speak1 perhaps1 of a certain class of   
fable1 and the countries he names are   
certainly where we should expect to find
 the free-est handling of superstitions4
 ,his arguments are based on the        
,germanic form of the names given to the
 beasts1 but his localities seem to     
follow the course of the editions4      
,perhaps special causes1 and not the    
influence of race1 decided the          
localities4 ,the earliest trace of a    
connected animal-fable is of that which 
is also the most wide-spread and        
popular--the history of the ,fox4  ,this
 early production is a poem1 called     

,isengrinus1 in ,latin hexameters1 by a 
cleric of ,south ,flanders1 whose name  
has not survived4 ,it was written in the
 first half of the twelfth century1 and 
first printed1 it is said1 so late as   
#ahcd4  ,in this1 the narrative is      
briefly as follows3--,the ,lion is sick1
 and calls a court to choose his        
successor4 ,reynard is the only animal  
that does not appear4 ,the ,wolf1       
,isengrinus1 to ruin ,reynard's         
adherents1 the ,goat and the ,ram1      
prescribes as a remedy for the ,lion's  
disorder a medicine of ,goat and ,ram   
livers4 ,they defend the absent         
,reynard1 and pronounce him a great     
doctor1 and1 to save their livers1 drive
 the ,wolf by force from before the     
throne4 ,reynard is summoned4 ,he comes 
with herbs1 which1 he says1 will only be
 efficacious if the patient is wrapped  
in the skin of a wolf four years old4   
,the ,wolf is skinned1 the ,lion is     
cured1 and ,fox made ,chancellor4  ,in  
this story is neatly dovetailed another1

 narrating how the ,wolf had been       
prevented from devouring a party of weak
 pilgrim animals by the judicious       
display of a wolf's head4 ,this head was
 cut off a wolf found hanging in a tree1
 and1 at ,reynard's instigation1 the    
party1 on the strength of possessing it1
 led the ,wolf to believe them to be a  
company of professional wolf-slayers4   
,after this poem followed another at the
 end of the same century with numerous  
additions and alterations1 by a monk of 
,ghent4 ,next came a high ,german poem1 
also of the twelfth century1 expanded1  
but without great addition4 ,after this 
came the ,french version1 ,roman de     
,renart1 which1 with supplementary      
compositions1 enlarged the matter to no 
less than #da1gdh verses4 ,there is     
another ,french version1 called ,renart 
le ,contrefet1 of nearly the same       
horrible length4  ,a ,flemish version1  
written in the middle of the thirteenth 
century1 and continued in the           
fourteenth1 became the great father of  

editions4  ,all these were in verse1 but
 on the invention of printing the       
,flemish form was re-cast into prose1   
and printed at ,gouda in #adgi1 and at  
,delft in #adhe2 abridged and mutilated 
it was often re-printed in ,holland4    
,caxton printed a translation in #adha1 
and another a few years later4 ,the     
,english quarto1 like the ,dutch1 also  
gave rise in time to a call for a cheap 
abridgment1 and it appeared in #afci1 as
 ,the ,most delectable history of       
,reynard the ,fox4  ,meanwhile a ,low   
,saxon form had appeared1 ,reinche ,bos1
 first printed at ,lubeck in #adih1 and 
next at ,rostock in #aeag1 a            
translation1 with alterations1 from the 
,flemish publication4 ,various other    
editions in ,german followed1 with cuts 
by ,amman4  ,in all these and their     
successors the incidents were varied4   
,having seen that1 within at least      
certain limits1 the story must have been
 exceedingly well-known and popular1 we 
will run through the incidents narrated 

in the most popular of the ,german      
,reynard poems1 chiefly taken from      
,goethe's rendering4  ,nouvel1 the      
,lion1 calls a parliament1 and the ,fox 
does not appear1 and is accused of      
various crimes4 ,the ,wolf accuses him  
of sullying the honour of his wife1 and 
blinding his three children4 ,a little  
,dog accuses him of stealing a pudding  
end 7this the ,cat denies1 stating that 
the pudding was one of her own          
stealing74 ,the ,leopard accuses him of 
murder1 having only the day before      
rescued the ,hare from his clutch as he 
was throttling him1 under pretence of   
severity in teaching the ,creed4  ,the  
,badger1 ,grimbart1 now comes forward in
 defence4    ,an ancient proverb says1  
quoth he1   ,justice in an enemy   ,is  
seldom to be found4  ,he accuses the    
,wolf in his turn of violating the bonds
 of partnership4 ,the ,fox and the ,wolf
 had arranged to rob a fish-cart4 ,the  
,fox lay for dead on the road1 and the  
carter1 taking him up1 threw him on the 

top of the load of fish1 turning to his 
horse again4 ,reynard then threw the    
fish on to the road1 and jumping down to
 join in the feast found left for him   
but fin and scales4 ,the ,badger        
explains away also the story of         
,reynard's guilt as to ,dame ,isengrin1 
and1 with regard to the ,hare1 asks if a
 teacher shall not chastise his         
scholars4 ,in short1 since the ,king    
proclaimed a peace1 ,reynard was        
thoroughly reformed1 and but for being  
absorbed in penance would no doubt have 
been present to defend himself from any 
false reports4  ,unfortunately for this 
justification1 at the very moment of its
 conclusion a funeral procession passes2
    ,on sable bier   ,the relics of a   
,hen appear1  while ,henning1 the ,cock1
 makes a piteous complaint of ,reynard's
 misdeeds4 ,he said how the ,fox had    
,assured him he'd become a friar1   ,and
 brought a letter from his prior2       
,show'd him his hood and shirt of hair1 
,his rosary and scapulaire2   ,took     

leave of him with pious grace1   ,that  
he might hasten to his place   ,to read 
the nona and the sept1   ,and vesper too
 before he slept2   ,and as he slowly   
took his way1   ,read in his pocket     
breviary4  all of which ended in the    
devout penitent eating nineteen of      
,henning's brood4  ,the ,lion invites   
his council's advice4 ,it is decided to 
send an envoy to ,reynard1 and ,bruno1  
the ,bear1 is selected to summon him to 
court4  ,bruno finds him at his castle  
of ,malepart1 and thunders a summons4   
,reynard1 by plausible speech and a     
story of honey1 disarms some of his     
hostility1 and entices him off to a     
carpenter's yard1 where an oak trunk1   
half split1 yet has the wedge in4       
,reynard declaring the honey is in the  
cleft1 ,bruno puts his head and paws in4
 ,reynard draws out the wedge4 ,the     
,bear howls till the whole village is   
aroused1 and ,bruno1 to save his life1  
draws himself out minus skin from head  
and paws4 ,in the confusion the parson's

 cook falls into the stream1 and the    
parson offers two butts of beer to the  
man who saves her4 ,while this is being 
done1 the ,bear escapes1 and the ,fox   
taunts him4  ,the ,bear displaying his  
condition at court1 the ,king swears to 
hang ,reynard1 this time sending ,hinge1
 the ,cat1 to summon ,reynard to trial4 
,hinge is lured to the parson's house in
 hopes of mice1 and caught in a noose   
fixed for ,reynard4 ,the household wake1
 and beat the ,cat1 who dashes          
underneath the priest's robe1 revenging 
himself in a cruel and unseemly way4    
,the ,cat is finally left apparently    
dead1 but reviving1 gnaws the cord1 and 
crawls back to court4    ,the ,king was 
wroth1 as wroth could be4  ,the ,badger 
now offers to go1 three times being the 
necessary number for summoning a peer of
 the realm4 ,he puts the case plainly   
before ,reynard1 who agrees to come1 and
 they set out together4 ,on the way     
,reynard has a fit of remorse1 and      
confesses his sins4 ,grimbart plucks a  

twig1 makes the ,fox beat himself1 leap 
over it three times1 kiss it2 and then  
declares him free from his sins4 ,all   
the time ,reynard casts a greedy eye on 
some chickens1 and makes a dash at one  
shortly after4 ,accused by ,grimbart1 he
 declares he had only looked aside to   
murmur a prayer for those who die in    
yonder cloister4    ,and also ,i would  
say   ,a prayer for the endless peace   
,of many long-departed geese1   ,which1 
when in a state of sin1   ,i stole from 
the nuns who dwell therein4  ,the ,fox  
arrives at court with a proud step and a
 bold eye4 ,he is accused1 but    ,tried
 every shift and vain pretence   ,to    
baffle truth and common sense1   ,and   
shield his crimes with eloquence4  ,in  
vain4 ,he is condemned to die4 ,his     
friend ,martin the ,ape1 ,grimbart the  
,badger1 and others withdraw in         
resentment1 and the ,king is troubled4  
,at the gallows ,reynard professes to   
deliver a dying confession1 and         
introduces a story of seven waggon-loads

 of gold and jewels which had been a    
secret hoard of his father1 stolen for  
the purpose of bribing chiefs to depose 
the ,lion and place the ,bear on the    
throne4  ,reynard is pardoned on        
condition of pointing out the treasure4 
,he declares it to be in ,husterlo1 but 
excuses himself from accompanying the   
,king on his way there1 as he1 ,reynard1
 is excommunicated for once assisting   
the ,wolf to escape from a monastery1   
and must1 therefore1 go to ,rome to get 
absolution4  ,the ,king announces his   
pardon to the court4 ,the ,bear and     
,wolf are thrown into prison1 and       
,reynard has a scrip made of a piece of 
the ,bear's hide1 and shoes of the skin 
of the feet of the ,wolf and his wife4  
,blessed by ,bellin the ,ram1 who is the
 ,king's chaplain1 and accompanied a    
short distance by the whole court1 he   
sets out for ,rome4 ,the chaplain ,ram  
and ,lampe the ,hare1 accompany him home
 to bid his wife farewell4 ,he inveigles
 the ,hare inside1 and the family eat   

him4 ,he puts the ,hare's head in the   
bear-skin wallet1 and taking it to the  
impatient ,bellin outside1 asks him to  
take it to the ,king1 as it contains    
letters of state policy4  ,the satchel  
is opened in full court1 and ,reynard   
once more proclaimed a traitor1 accursed
 and banned1 the ,bear and ,wolf        
restored1 and the ,ram and all his race 
given to them for atonement4 ,a         
twelve-day tourney is held4 ,on the     
eighth day the ,coney and the ,crow     
present complaint against ,reynard2 he  
had wounded the ,coney1 and eaten the   
,crow's wife4 ,it is resolved1 in spite 
of the ,lioness's second intercession1  
to besiege ,malepart and hang ,reynard4 
,grimbart secretly runs off to warn     
,reynard1 who decides to return to court
 once more and plead his cause4 ,they   
set out together1 and ,reynard again    
confesses his sins4 ,this introduces a  
story of how he once fooled the ,wolf4  
,isengrin coveted to eat a foal1 and    
sent the ,fox to inquire the price from 

the mare4 ,she replied the price was    
written on her hinder hoof4 ,the ,fox1  
seeing the trick1 returned to the ,wolf 
saying he could not understand the      
inscription4 ,the ,wolf boasts of his   
learning1 having long ago taken his     
degrees as ,doctor of ,both ,faculties4 
,the ,wolf bends down to examine the    
newly-shod hoof1 and the rest may be    
supposed4  ,on their way to court1      
,reynard and ,grimbart meet ,martin the 
,ape1 who is bound for ,rome1 and       
promises his gold shall buy ,reynard's  
absolution4 ,arrived at court1 ,reynard 
boldly explains away the stories of the 
,coney and the ,crow1 and demands the   
trial by battle4 ,the ,coney and ,crow1 
having no witnesses1 and being averse to
 battle1 withdraw4 ,reynard accuses the 
dead ,bellin of killing the ,hare ,lampe
 and secreting rare jewels he sent to   
the ,king4 ,his story is half believed  
in the hope that the jewels1 which he   
described at great length1 may be found4
 ,reynard's former services to the state

 are remembered1 and he is about to     
depart triumphant1 when the ,wolf1      
unable to restrain his rage1 accuses him
 afresh4 ,in the end1 as each accusation
 is smoothly foiled1 he accepts the     
wager of battle4 ,they withdraw to      
prepare for the lists4 ,reynard is shorn
 and shaven1 all but his tail1 by his   
relatives the ,apes4 ,he is well oiled4 
,he is also enjoined to drink           
plentifully overnight4  ,they meet in   
the lists4 ,reynard kicks up the dust to
 blind the ,wolf1 draws his wet tail    
across his eyes1 and at length tears an 
eye out4 ,he is1 however1 seized by the 
,wolf's strong jaw1 and is about to be  
finished off when he takes advantage of 
a word of parley to seize the wolf in a 
tender part with his hand1 and the fight
 recommences1 ending in the total       
overthrow of ,isengrin4 ,the ,king      
orders the fray to be stayed and the    
,wolf's life spared4 ,the ,wolf is      
carried off4 ,all fly to congratulate   
the victor1    ,all gazed in his face   

with fawning eyes1   ,and loaded him    
with flatteries4  ,the ,king makes him  
the ,lord ,chancellor and takes him to  
his close esteem4  ,the tale winds up3  
,to wisdom now let each one turn1       
,avoid the base and virtue learn2       
,this is the end of ,reynard's story1   
,may ,god assist us to ,his glory4      
,illustration3 ,,the ,,fox ,,returning  
,,from ,,hunting1 ,,manchester4  ,the   
above is the gist of the matter dealing 
with the ,fox in letters2 from these    
lively images we will turn to the more  
wooden achievements of the carvers4 ,the
 general fact that the ,fox is a        
marauder specially fond of the flesh of 
that bird of long descent1 the goose1   
but also partial to that of other birds1
 is frequently illustrated by church    
carvings4 ,in the churches at the       
following places he is carved as having 
seized his prey3--,beverley 7,minster71 
,boston1 ,fairford1 ,faversham1         
,gloucester1 ,hereford1 ,norwich1       
,oxford 7,magdalen71 ,peterborough1     

,ripon1 ,wellingborough1 ,winchester1   
and ,windsor 7,st4 ,george's ,chapel74  
,at the last-named he is also shewn as  
preying upon a hen4 ,at ,beverley       
7,minster7 ,ely1 ,manchester1 and       
,thanet 7,st4 ,mary's ,minster7 the     
picture of the abduction of the goose is
 heightened in interest by his pursuit  
by a woman armed with a distaff4        
,doubtless there are others2 the object 
throughout is to give examples1 not an  
exhaustive list4  ,a somewhat unusual   
subject is one in ,manchester           
,cathedral1 in which the ,fox is        
returning from hunting4 ,a carving where
 the ,fox is used to point a moral is   
another1 in ,st4 ,george's ,chapel1     
,windsor1 in which three monks1 conveyed
 in a wheel-barrow into ,hell's ,mouth1 
are accompanied by a ,fox with a goose  
in his mouth4 ,probably the idea here   
broadly expressed is intended to be     
quietly suggested by some of the above4 
,next in frequency is the more definite 
satire of the ,fox preaching to ,geese4 

,we find it at ,beverley 7both the      
,minster and ,st4 ,mary's71 ,boston1    
,bristol1 ,cartmel1 ,ely1 ,etchingham1  
,nantwich1 ,ripon1 ,stowlangcroft1 and  
,windsor 7,st4 ,george's ,chapel74 ,in  
the last he has a goose in his cowl4    
,all those need for their completion the
 supposition that the text of the ,fox's
 sermon is the same as was given at     
length in a representation of a         
preaching scene on an ancient           
stained-glass window in the church of   
,st4 ,martin1 ,leicester1 which was     
unhappily destroyed in the last century4
 ,in this1 from the ,fox's mouth        
proceeded the words ,testis est mihi    
,deus1 quam cupiam vos omnes visceribus 
meus 7,god is my witness how ,i desire  
you all in my bowels4--,philippians1 i41
 #h74 ,in ,wolfius1 ,a4,d4 #acjj1 is a  
description of another such             
representation1 in a ,,ms4 of ,a,esop's 
,fables4 ,it may accord quite well with 
the theory of the transmission of       
designs by the continuity of the        

artificers' gild system to suppose that 
some proportion of the material found   
its way into their repertoire through   
the medium of manuscripts 7not          
necessarily original in them71          
especially for such subjects as were    
essentially mediaeval4 ,we have seen how
 the carvings of ,jonah and of ,samson1 
at ,ripon1 were taken from the ,poor    
,man's ,bible2 here we have the         
,preaching ,fox mentioned in a book of  
#acjj as being in an earlier work4 ,a   
,fox bearing two ,cocks by the neck on a
 staff is the initial ,t in a ,,ms4     
considered by ,montflaucon to be of the 
ninth century4 ,fredegarius1 the        
,frankish historian1 in the middle of   
the seventh century1 has a fable of a   
,fox at the court of the ,lion1 repeated
 by others in the tenth and eleventh4   
,paulin ,paris and ,thomas ,wright      
agreed in thinking the whole fable of   
,french origin1 and first in the ,latin 
tongue4 ,so that we may reasonably      
suppose that the countless tons of books

 and ,,mss4 7though it is useless to    
grope now among the mere memories of    
ashes71 burnt at the ,reformation1 would
 contain much that would have made      
clearer our understanding of this       
subject of ,gothic grotesques4 ,it is   
clear1 however1 that the ,fox was used  
as a means of satirical comment before  
the writing of the ,isengrine ,fable1   
and that most of the church carvings    
refer to what we may call pre-,fable or 
co-,fable conceptions4  ,there may be   
other material lying hidden in our great
 libraries1 but search for early        
,reynard drawings produces almost       
nothing4  ,at ,ripon the ,fox is shewn  
without vestments1 in a neat ,gothic    
pulpit adorned with carvings of the     
trefoil4#h ,his hands1 and what they may
 have held1 are gone4 ,his congregation 
is to his right a goose1 to his left a  
cock1 who appear to be uttering         
responses1 while his face is significant
 of conscious slyness4  ,illustration3  
,,the ,,preaching ,,fox1 ,,ripon4  ,in  

,beverley ,minster the ,preaching ,fox  
is in a square panelled pulpit on four  
legs2 before him are seven geese1 one of
 whom slumbers peacefully4 ,he wears a  
gown and cowl1 has a rosary in his right
 hand1 and appears to be performing his 
part with some animation4 ,behind the   
pulpit stands an ape with a goose hung  
on a stick1 while another fox--to give  
point to the lesson--is slinking off    
with a goose slung over his back4 ,at   
,st4 ,mary's1 ,beverley1 the various    
carvings have a decidedly manuscript    
appearance4 ,the one of the ,preaching  
,fox has labels1 upon which1 in some    
unknown original1 may have been         
inscribed texts or other matter4 ,here  
the ,fox wears only his scapulaire1 and 
has his right hand raised in correct    
exhortative manner2 his pulpit is of    
stone1 and is early4 ,behind stand two  
persons1 perhaps male and female1 whose 
religious dress would lead us to suppose
 them to represent the class to whose   
teaching a fox-like character is to be  

attributed4 ,at the front are seated two
 apes1 also in scapularies1 or hoods1   
who1 as well as the ,fox1 may be here to
 shew the real character of the supposed
 sanctified4  ,illustration3 ,,the      
,,rule ,,and ,,the ,,roast ,,contrasted1
 ,,st4 ,,mary',s1 ,,beverley4  ,it will 
have been noticed how frequently the    
carvings evade explanation2 all these   
satires on the clergy may mean either   
that the system was bad1 or that there  
was much abuse of it4 ,a remarkable     
instance of this is in another          
misericorde in ,st4 ,mary's1 ,beverley4 
,here we have the ,benedictine with mild
 and serene countenance1 without a sign 
of sin1 and bearing the scroll of truth 
and simplicity of life--call it the rule
 of his order4 ,yet how do many of his  
followers act8 ,with greed for the      
temporalities1 they aspire to the       
pastoral crook1 and devour their flocks 
with such rapacity as to threaten the   
up-rooting of the whole order4          
,illustration3 ,,the ,,preaching ,,fox1 

,,st4 ,,mary',s1 ,,beverley4  ,such     
might be one rendering2 yet the placid  
cleric may be simply introduced to shew 
the outward appearance of the ravening  
ones4  ,it has been a favourite         
explanation of these anti-cleric        
carvings to say that they were due to   
the jealousy which existed between the  
regular orders and the preaching friars4
 ,but carvings such as this last are    
sufficient to prove the explanation     
erroneous2 preaching friars carried no  
croziers4  ,yet another instance from   
,st4 ,mary's shews us two foxes in      
scapularies reading from a book placed  
on an eagle-lectern4  ,illustration3    
,,foxes ,,at ,,the ,,lectern1 ,,st4     
,,mary',s1 ,,beverley4  ,the            
bird--lectern or not--has round its head
 a kind of aureola or glory2 it is      
probably an eagle1 but who shall say it 
is not a dove8 ,the religiously-garbed  
foxes are alone unmistakable4  ,at      
,boston we have a mitred ,fox1 enthroned
 in the episcopal seat in full          

canonicals1 clutching at a cock which   
stands near1 while another bird is at   
the side4 ,close by the throne1 another 
fox1 in a cowl only1 is reading from a  
book4  ,at ,christchurch1 ,hampshire1 we
 see the ,fox on a seat-elbow1 in a     
pulpit of good design1 and near him1 on 
a stool1 the ,cock2 it appears in the   
initial of this article4  ,at           
,worcester1 a scapularied ,fox is       
kneeling before a small table or altar1 
laying his hand with an affectation of  
reverence upon--a sheep's head4 ,this is
 one of the side carvings to the        
misericorde of the three mowers1        
considered under the head of ,trinities4
  ,illustration3 ,,episcopal            
,,hypocrisy1 ,,boston4  ,the ,fox       
seizing the ,hen1 at ,windsor1 reminds  
of the ,fable1 yet in so many other     
instances it is the ,cock who is the    
prey4 ,still further removing the       
carvings out of the sphere of the ,fable
 is a carving at ,chicester of the ,fox 
playing the harp to a goose1 while an   

ape dances2 and another at ,st4         
,george's1 ,windsor1 in which it is an  
ape who wears the stole1 and is engaged 
in the laying on of hands4 ,in the      
,fable the ,fox teaches the ,hare the   
,creed1 yet in a carving at ,manchester 
it is his two young cubs whom he is     
teaching from a book4  ,the ,fox in the 
,shell of ,salvation1 artfully          
discoursing on the merits of a bottle of
 holy water1 as drawn on page #eh1 may  
be considered a ,preaching ,fox4  ,there
 is at ,nantwich a carving which1 unlike
 any of those already noticed1 is       
closely illustrative of an incident of  
the epic4 ,it represents the story told 
to ,nouvel's court by the widower ,crow4
 ,he and his wife1 in travelling through
 the country1 came across what they     
thought was the dead body of ,reynard on
 the heath4 ,he was stiff1 his tongue   
protruded1 his eyes were inverted4 ,they
 lamented his unhappy fate1 and course  
so early run4 ,the lady approached his  
chin1 not1 indeed1 with any idea of     

commencing a meal2 far from that1 it was
 to ascertain if perchance any signs of 
life remained1 when--snap6 ,her head was
 off6 ,the ,crow himself had the        
melancholy luck to fly to a tree1 there 
to sit and watch his wife eaten up4 ,in 
the carving we have the crows first     
coming upon the sight of the counterfeit
 carrion as it lies near a rabbit       
warren4 ,to shew how perfect is         
,reynard's semblance of death1 the rear 
portions of two rabbits are to be seen  
as they hurry into their holes on the   
approach of the crows1 the proximity of 
the ,fox not having previously alarmed  
them4  ,the side figures have no        
simultaneous connection with the central
 composition1 being merely              
representations of ,reynard1 once more  
as a larder regarder4 ,the pilgrim's    
hat1 borne by one of the figures1 is a  
further reminder of the ,fable1 and the 
monkish garb is of course in keeping4   
,these two are somewhat singular in     
being fox-headed men4 ,at ,chester1     

also1 is a ,fox feigning death4         
,illustration3 ,,the ,,fox ,,feigning   
,,death1 ,,nantwich4  ,illustration3    
,,the ,,temptation4 ,,the ,,punishment4 
,,the ,,wake ,,knot4 ,,beverley         
,,minster4  ,thus far the examples have 
been of ,reynard's crimes2 we will now  
survey his punishment4 ,in the fable he 
was to be hanged1 but was not1 the ,wolf
 and the ,bear1 whom he always          
outwitted1 being the disappointed       
executioners4 ,in the carvings he is    
really hanged1 and the hangsmen are the 
geese of his despoliation4 ,beverley    
,minster has among its fine carvings an 
admirable rendering of this subject4    
,reynard is hanged on a square gallows1 
a number of birds1 geese1 taking a beak 
at the rope4 ,to the left of the gallows
 stand two official geese1 with mace and
 battle-axe4 ,the left supplementary    
carving gives a note of the crime2      
,reynard is creeping upon two sleeping  
geese4 ,the right hand supporting       
carving gives us the ,fox after being   

cut down4 ,his friend1 the ,ape1 is     
untying the rope from his neck4 ,observe
 the twist of the rope at the end2 it   
declares that ,reynard is dead1 for it  
is a ,wake ,knot6  ,also at ,boston1    
,bristol1 ,nantwich1 and ,sherborne are 
carvings of the hanging by geese4 ,the  
gallows of the ,sherborne execution is  
square1 and made of rough trees4 ,the   
general action is less logical than in  
the ,beverley scene1 but the geese are  
full of vivacity1 evidently enjoying the
 thoroughness with which they are       
carrying out their intentions4          
,illustration3 ,,execution ,,of         
,,reynard1 ,,sherborne4  ,in the hanging
 scenes there is no suggestion of the   
religious dress4 ,reynard has lost his  
,benefit of ,clergy4 ,besides the       
carving of the ,ape laying out the dead 
,fox1 at ,beverley there are also others
 where the ,ape is riding on the ,fox's 
back1 and again where he is tending him 
in bed4 ,the ,ape succouring the ,fox is
 also instanced at ,windsor4  ,however1 

after the two broad classes of carvings 
are exhausted--the ,fox deluding or     
eating birds1 and the ,fox hanged by    
birds1 there is little left to tell of  
him4  ,it may be added that his hanging 
by his one-time victims has suggested to
 the carver another subject of the same 
kind--the hanging of the cat by mice1   
or1 more probably1 rats1 mentioned on   
page #dc4 ,it is there stated to be at  
,sherborne1 in error1 the place being   
,great ,malvern4  ,illustration3        
,,execution ,,of ,,the ,,cat1 ,,great   
,,malvern4  ,the following curious scene
 from the ,fox-fruitful church of ,st4  
,mary's1 ,beverley1 is perplexing1 and  
gives the ,fox receiving his quietus    
under unique circumstances4 ,he is1 with
 anxiety1 awaiting the diagnosis of an  
ape-doctor1 who is critically examining 
urinary deposits2 his health has been   
evidently not all he could wish4 ,when1 
lo1 an arrow1 from the bow of an archer 
in quilted leather1 pierces him through 
the heart6 ,what more this carving means

 is a mystery4  ,illustration3 ,,reynard
 ,,in ,,danger1 ,,st4 ,,mary',s1        
,,beverley4  ,carvings of the ordinary  
fables in which the ,fox is concerned   
are not unknown4 ,at ,faversham1 ,kent1 
is one of the ,fox and the ,grapes2 at  
,chester is the ,fox and the ,stork4    
,the latter is1 again1 on a remarkable  
slab1 probably a coffin lid1 in the     
,priory ,church of ,bridlington1 ,east  
,yorkshire1 the strange combination of  
designs on which may be described4 ,at  
the head appear two curious dragon forms
 opposed over an elaborate embattled    
temple1 suggestive of ,saxon and        
,byzantine derivation1 with a central   
pointed arch4 ,this may be a rendering  
of the sun-myth1 noted on page #cg4 ,at 
the foot is a reversed lion1 the curls  
and twists of whose mane and tail       
closely resembles those of the white    
porcelain lions used by the ,chinese as 
incense-burners4 ,between the temple and
 the lion is incised an illustration of 
the fable of the ,fox and the ,stork4   

,the slab1 of which a rough sketch is   
annexed1 is of black basaltic marble1   
similar to that of the font of the      
church1 which is of the type generally  
considered to be ,norman1 and to have   
been imported ready made from ,flanders1
 and on which dragons are sometimes the 
ornament4 ,the ,fox on this slab is the 
earliest sculptured figure of the animal
 known in ,england4  ,illustration3     
,,coffin ,,lid1 ,,bridlington1          
,,yorkshire4  ,there are also hunting   
scenes in which the fox is shot with bow
 and arrow1 as in ,beverley ,minster2 or
 chased with hounds in a way more       
commending itself to modern sporting    
ideas1 as at ,ripon4  ,in conclusion1   
the satirical intent of the fox         
inventions1 as we find them in the      
library or in the church1 may be summed 
up1 for here indeed lies the whole      
secret of their prevalence and          
popularity4 ,the section of society     
satirized by the epic is large1 but is  
principally covered by the feudal       

institution4 ,the notes struck are its  
greed of wealth and its greed of the    
table1 its injustice under the pretext  
of laws1 its expedient lying1 the       
immunity from punishment afforded by    
riches1 the absolute yet                
revolution-fearing power of the         
sovereign1 the helplessness of nobles   
single-handed1 and the general influence
 of religion thrown over everything1    
while for its own sake being allowed to 
really influence nothing4  ,the chief   
point of the epic is generally          
considered to be that power in the hands
 of the feudal barons was accompanied by
 a trivial amount of intelligence1 which
 was easily deceived by the more astute 
element of society4 ,the carvings give  
no note of this4 ,a further object1     
however1 may be seen4 ,the whole story  
of the ,fox is meant not only to shew   
that    ,it is not strength that always 
wins1   ,for wit doth strength excel1   
by playing on the passions and          
weaknesses of mankind1 but in particular

 to hold up to scorn the immunity       
procured by professional religion1      
though it is fair to note that the ,fox 
does not adopt a religious life because 
suited to his treacherous and deceitful 
character1 but to conceal it4 ,thus so  
far as they elucidate the general       
foxiness of religious hypocrisy1 the    
carvings and the epic illustrate the    
same theme1 but it is evident that they 
embodied and developed already-existing 
popular recognition of the evil1 each in
 its own way1 and without special       
reference one to the other4             
,situations of the ,grotesque ,ornament 
in ,church ,art4   ,the places chosen   
for the execution of the work which1 by 
reason of its intention or its want of  
conformity with what we now consider a  
true taste in art1 may be styled        
,grotesque1 do not seem to be in any    
marked degree different from the        
situations selected for other ornamental
 work4 ,it may1 however1 be permitted to
 glance at those situations1 and enquire

 as to such comparisons as they afford1 
though the conclusions to be arrived at 
must necessarily be loose and general4  
,in ,norman work the chief              
iconographical interest is to be found  
in the capitals of pilasters and        
pillars1 for here is often told a story 
of some completeness4 ,other places are 
the arches1 chiefly of doorways2 bosses 
of groining1 and the horizontal corners 
of pillar plinths2 exteriorly1 the      
gargoyles are most full of meaning1     
seconded by the corbels of the          
corbel-table4 ,we may expect in ,norman 
grotesque some reference to ancient     
mystics2 the forms are bold and rugged1 
such appearance of delicacy as exists   
being attained by interlacing lines in  
conventional patterns1 with1 also1 the  
effect of distance upon repeating       
ornament4  ,transitional ,norman        
retained all the characteristic ornament
 of the purer style1 but with the       
development of ,early ,english the      
grotesque for a time somewhat passed out

 of vogue1 slight but eminently graceful
 modifications of the ,corinthian       
acanthus supplying most of the places   
where strange beasts had formerly       
presented their bewildering shapes4 ,it 
might not be impossible to connect this 
partial purification of ornament with a 
phase of church history4  ,illustration3
 ,,ape ,,corbel1 ,,carrying ,,roof      
,,timber1 ,,ewelme4  ,but in some       
portions of structure1 as the gargoyles1
 and in the woodwork of the choirs1 the 
grotesque still held its own4 ,as ,early
 ,english grew distinctly into the      
,decorated1 every available spot was    
enriched with carving4 ,the collections 
7called portfolios elsewhere7 of the old
 carvers would seem to have been        
ransacked and exhausted1 all that had   
gone before receiving fresh rendering in
 wood and stone1 while life and nature  
were now often called upon to furnish   
new material4 ,the pointed arch         
remained1 however1 an undecorated sweep 
of mouldings1 and the plinth corners    

were rarely touched2 in fact there was  
here scarcely now the same squareness of
 space which before had asked for       
ornament4 ,all the other places         
ornamented in ,norman work were filled  
up in ,decorated with the new designs of
 old subjects4 ,the resting-places of   
ornament were multiplied2 the dripstones
 of every kind of arch1 and the capitals
 of every kind of pillar1 whether in the
 arcading of the walls1 the heaped-up   
richness of the reredos1 or the single  
subject of the piscina1 became nests of 
the grotesque4 ,in a single group of    
sedilia all the architecture of a great 
cathedral may be seen in miniature1 in  
arch1 column1 groined roof1 boss1       
window-tracery1 pinnacle1 and finial1   
each part with its share of ornament1 of
 grotesque4 ,in the choirs the carvers  
had busied themselves with summoning odd
 forms from out the hard oak1 till the  
croches or elbow-rests1 the bench ends1 
the stall canopies1 and below all1 and  
above all1 the misericordes1 swarmed    

with all the ideas of ,asia and ,europe 
past and present4 ,musicians are        
everywhere1 but most persistently on the
 intersections of the choir arches1 and 
somewhat less so on those of the nave4  
,illustration3 ,,misericorde--,,lion    
,,composition1 ,,wellingborough4  ,a    
favourite place for humourous figures   
was on the stone brackets or corbels    
which bear up timber roofs2 examples are
 in the ape corbel in this article1 and 
the responsible yet happy-looking saint 
at the end of the list of ,contents4    
,when the ,perpendicular style came with
 other arts from ,italy1 and the lavish 
spread of the ,decorated was chastened  
and over-chastened into regularity1     
there came for the second or third time 
the same ideas from the never-dying     
mythologies1 their concrete embodiments 
sometimes with eloquence rendered1      
nearly always with vigour4 ,they came to
 the old places1 but in most fulness to 
that most full place1 the dark recess   
where lurks the misericorde4  ,upon the 

whole it would appear that the          
grotesque1 be it in the relics of a     
long-forgotten symbolism1 in crude      
attempts at realism1 or in the fantastic
 whimseys of irresponsibility1 is       
chiefly met in the portions of the      
church where would occur1 in the        
development of architecture1 the        
problems and difficulties4 ,they occur1 
so to speak1 at the joints of           
construction4 ,it may be that the       
pluteresques 7grotesque and other       
ornaments made of metal7 employed in    
many ,spanish churches are to be        
accounted for in this way on the score  
of the facility of attachment4 ,where it
 may be questioned that the ornament was
 to conceal juncture1 it is often to be 
acknowledged that it was to give        
external apparent lightness to masses   
which are in themselves joints or       
centres of weight4 ,to conclude--to     
whatever extent we may carry our        
inquiries into the meaning of the       
grotesques in church art1 we have in    

them undoubtedly objects whose          
associations are among the most ancient 
of the human race2 whatever our opinion 
of their fitness for a place in the     
temple1 it is plain that practically    
they could be nowhere else4             
,illustration3 ,,musician ,,on ,,the    
,,intersection ,,of ,,nave ,,arches1    
,,st4 ,,helen',s1 ,,abingdon1           
,,berkshire4     ,,index4     ,index4   
,abdominal ,mask1 #ia    ,abingdon1 #ah1
 #gb1 #bah1 and ,preface                
,aboo-,simbel ,trinity1 #agg    ,abydos 
,trinity1 #agg    ,acanthus1 #adi-ej1   
#bad    ,adam1 #fa1 #fb1 #gd2     and   
,eve1 #aab1 #abj    ,adam ,clarke1 #gd  
,adel1 ,yorkshire1 #abg    ,adonai1 #afh
    ,adonis1 #afh    ,adoration1 the1   
#aac-e    ,a,elian1 #ej                 
,a,esculapius1 #db    ,a,esop's ,fables1
 #aif    ,africa1 #ff    ,agni1 #agh    
,aix-la-,chapelle1 #df    ,akori1 #agh  
,alcock1 ,bishop1 #aj1 #ib1 #agc    ,ale
 and the ,alewife1 #ii-aje    ,alewife1 
#ig    ,alehouses1 #ii    ,ale-taster1  

#ajj    ,alexander1 #ga    ,alexandria1 
#cd    ,all ,souls1 ,oxford1 #ga1 #gf1  
#ajd-e1 #aej-a    ,alraun images1 #bh   
,altar of the ,sun1 #cg-ci              
,ambarvalia1 #dh    ,american ,arms1    
#agi    ,american-,indian mythology1    
#aei    ,american-,indian ,trinity1 #agg
    ,amman1 ,justus1 #ahh    ,ammon1    
#db1 #gb1 #aeh    ,amun-,ra1 #agg       
,ancient ,mysteries described1 #ahj     
,ancient ,worships1 #bg-ei1 #fd-gg1     
#aeb-c1 #aeg-afh1 #age-ahc    ,angel    
,choir1 ,lincoln1 #c1 #i    ,angel      
7coin71 #dg    ,angels1 #fc    ,animal  
,musicians1 #aeb-f    ,animal symbolism1
 #ce    ,anthony pig1 the1 #aed         
,anuka1 #agh    ,archers1 #bje1 #bji-aj 
,ape1 the1 #ei1 #bh-i1 #ade1 #aeb1 #aef1
 #aib-d1 #aih1 #bja1 #bjc1 #bjg-aj1 #bad
    ,aphrodite1 #afh    ,apocryphal ,new
 ,testament1 the1 #fj1 #aab    ,apollo1 
#ba1 #df1 #afb1 #afe    ,april1 #ada    
,apuleius1 #da    ,architectural        
,museum1 ,tufton ,street1 the1 #ab1     
#afg1 #afi1 #agd    ,arimanes1 #agf     

,arles1 the ,council of1 #bi    ,arma   
palantes1 #agc    ,arthur1 ,king1 #fi   
,artistic quality of ,church grotesques1
 #ai-bc1 #fa    ,art ,journal1 the1 #ff 
,asir1 #de    ,assyrian myth1 #cd1 #aeg1
 #aha    ,assyrians1 no record of their 
humour1 #f    ,astronomical symbols a   
source of ,gothic design1 #d1 #bg-h1    
#cg-ei1 #gc1       #aeg-fh1 #agg        
,atahuata1 #agg    ,aten1 #afh          
,athor1 #aaa1 #aeg1 #afg1 #agg-h        
,athyr1 #afg    ,attic figurines1 #bh   
,auckland ,castle1 #aee    ,augsburgh1  
787 ,council of1 #cj    ,auld ,clootie1 
#gj    ,auld ,hornie1 #gj    ,aurva1 #ec
    ,avarice1 #hg1 #ia-ie    ,averus    
7,horus71 #ej     ,baalim1 #bh          
,babylonian myth1 #cd    ,bacon1 #adb1  
#aed    ,bacchus1 #fi1 #gc1 #aeh        
,backbiter1 #hb-hd    ,badger ,grimbart1
 #ahi1 #aia-c    ,bagpipes1 #ajc1 #aeb1 
#aee    ,ba-it1 #agh    ,baker1 #aje    
,bakewell1 ,derbyshire1 #acj-a          
,baldini and ,boticelli1 #hd    ,baptism
 of ,john1 the1 #aag-h    ,barton1      

,lincs41 #agd    ,basketsful of         
,children1 #fc    ,bayle1 a kind of     
dance1 #adg    ,beakheads1 #abe-f       
,bear ,bruno1 #aij-c    ,bear1 the1     
#aeb-aef    ,beard1 the1 #gb            
,bedford1 #age    ,beehive of the       
,romishe ,church1 #ahj    ,bellin the   
,ram1 #aib    ,berkshire1 #ah1 #gb1     
#abe1 #abi1 #bah    ,bestiaries1 the1   
#gc    ,beverley1 ,percy ,shrine at1 #c2
     ,carvings at1 #ac1 #ci1 #dj1 #ed1  
#eg1 #fc1 #hg1 #aab1 #abj-c1 #acj1      
#acc-f1 #add1         #aeb1 #aed-e1     
#aei1 #agc1 #ahb1 #aie-f1 #aih-i1       
#bja-b1 #bjh-aa    ,bhu1 #db    ,bible  
7as ,old and ,new ,testaments71 #agf    
,biblia ,pauperum1 #aac    ,birch1 ,dr41
 #aeh    ,birds1 #d1 #i1 #bb1 #ch1 #ci  
,bishop ,foxes1 #aii1 #bjc    ,bishops  
,stortford1 #aji    ,blashill1 ,mr4     
,thomas1 #ajf    ,bo1 ,bo-tree4 ,bod1   
,bog1 ,boggart1 ,boivani1 ,bolay1 ,boo1 
,bouders1 ,boudons1       ,boroon1      
,bormania1 ,borr1 ,borvo1 ,bouljanus1   
,brog1 ,bug1 ,bugbear1       ,buggaboo1 

,buka1 #ff1 #fi    ,boar1 #aci-dj1 #aeb 
,boar's ,head1 #fi1 #aci    ,bodleian   
,library1 #af1 #fc    ,bolton1 ,bishop1 
#agc    ,boston1 ,lincolnshire1 #aie1   
#aif1 #bjb1 #bjh    ,boutell1 ,rev4 ,c41
 #be    ,bow and arrow1 #afb-e    ,boy  
7,bog71 #fi    ,brahma1 #agh            
,brahminic ,trinity1 #agh    ,breast1   
removal of1 #afe    ,bridge1 ,kent1 #ge 
,bridlington ,priory ,church1 ,yorks1   
#ae1 #baj-a    ,bristol1 #aif1 #bjh     
,british ,museum1 #fb    ,bruno the     
,bear1 #aij-c    ,buckle ,mask1 #abe    
,bull1 the1 #da-b1 #gb-c1 #he1 #hh-i1   
#ia1 #aei    ,bur1 #de    ,byzantine    
ideas1 #abg    ,byzantium1 #ce          
,caimis1 #ej    ,calendarum ,romanorum  
,magnum1 #ada    ,calf1 #gc    ,cama1   
#ej    ,cambridge1 #aj1 #ib1 #acc       
,cambridgeshire1 #gd    ,candlemas1 #db1
 #adj    ,canterbury1 #aci    ,canting  
heraldry1 #agc    ,caricature in part   
explained1 #c    ,carpenter1 ,mr4       
,edward1 #ahf    ,cartmel1 #ahj1 #aif   
,carvers1 #i-ah    ,cat1 the1 #aef1     

#ahi1 #aia1 #bji    ,cat and ,fiddle1   
the1 #ci-dc    ,cat-heads1 #abf         
,caxton1 #agj1 #ahh    ,cedranus1 #adc-d
    ,centaur1 #afa-f    ,cerealia1 #dh  
,ceres1 #gb1 #aec1 #aeh    ,cestus1 #afe
    ,chairs1 #ada    ,chalons1 ,council 
of1 #adc    ,chandra1 ,chandri1 #dc     
,cherubim1 #gc1 #aei1 #afa    ,chester1 
#fj1 #gg1 #ajc1 #bjg1 #baj              
,chichester1 #gb1 #ge1 #abd1 #ada1 #aeg1
 #aha1 #ahb1 #bjc    ,chiron the        
,centaur1 #afb    ,chnoumis1 #agh       
,chonso1 #agg    ,christ1 #cj1 #dh1     
#fj-fb1 #ajd1 #aad-bj    ,christchurch  
7,hants71 #ba1 #cc1 #agb1 #ahd1 #bjb    
,christmas1 #aci-dj1 #add               
,chronicles1 the ,book of1 #agf         
,church symbolism1 expediency1 etc41 #ca
    ,ciaran 7,st471 #afb    ,clergy1    
the1 #ig1 #aaa    ,cneph1 #agg    ,cock1
 the1 #ahd1 #aig-h1 #bjb-c    ,compound 
,forms1 #cg1 #aaa1 #aeg-afh    ,coney1  
the1 #aic1 #bjd-e    ,conscience1 #agj-a
    ,constantinople1 ,council of1 #cj2  
,byzantium1 #ce    ,continuous group1   

#adi    ,conventional form a matter of  
development1 #c    ,corinthian          
,acanthus1 #adi-ej1 #bad    ,corpus     
,christi ,play1 #adb-c    ,cosmographiae
 ,universalis1 #agb    ,cotton ,,mss41  
#hb1 #adg    ,councils1 ,arles1 #bi2    
,augsburgh 7871 #cj2                    
,constantinople1 #cj2     ,frankfurt1   
#cj1 #ii2     ,narbonne1 #cj2           
,nicea1 #cj2     ,orleans1 #bi2         
,tours1 #cj2     ,nice1 #cf2     ,milan1
 #cf    ,coventry1 #fj1 #adb    ,cow1   
the1 #da    ,creators1 ,mythological1   
#agf-h    ,crescent1 the1 #da1 #db      
,cripple1 #ade1 #adg    ,crocodile1     
#dd-e    ,crorasura1 #aec    ,cross1    
the1 #dc    ,crow and his wife1 the1    
#aic1 #bjd-e    ,croziers1 #aih1 #bjb   
,crusaders1 #dg    ,culham1 ,berkshire1 
#abe    ,cupid1 #ej1 #ea1 #ec-ee        
,dance1 #dj1 #dc1 #add1 #adg    ,david1 
,king1 #fb    ,decorated ,carvings1     
#bad-bag    ,deer1 #adj    ,definitions 
of the ,grotesque1 #e-h    ,de la ,wich1
 ,bishop1 #aha    ,delft1 #ahh          

,derbyshire1 #acj-a    ,design1         
,continuity of ,gothic1 #d              
,detractors1 #hb-c    ,devil and the    
,vices1 the1 #gh-ih    ,devil1 the1 #dg1
 #fi1 #gj1 #gg1 #ajc-e    ,devils1 #fc1 
#aai    ,diana1 #cb1 #dj-dc1 #gc        
,diapason1 the1 #da    ,dillin pig1 the1
 #aed    ,disc of the ,sun1 #afg-h      
,distaff1 #aie    ,dog1 #e1 #ai1 #ba1   
#dj1 #db1 #adb1 #aei-fj1 #ahi           
,domestic and ,popular1 the1 #acd-aea   
,donnington1 ,thomas 7#aebj71 #agd      
,dorchester ,abbey1 ,oxon41 #fj1 #fd-e1 
#aba-b1 #acc1 #aei-fj    ,dragons1 #bf1 
#cg1 #dd-eg1 #fj1 #fd-ff1 #hd1 #abg1    
#afe1 #agg1 #baa    ,drake 7dragon71 #dg
    ,druidical ,tau1 #dc-d    ,drum     
7,tabor71 #ig    ,durer1 ,albert1 #fa   
,durham1 #aee     ,eagle1 the1 #bb1 #cg1
 #adh1 #aeh-i1 #bjb    ,early ,english  
,carvings1 #bad    ,eastern ideas1      
#i-aj1 #cd-e    ,eden1 #gc1 #gf         
,edgeware1 #ajb    ,edward the          
,confessor1 #i    ,edward ,,iii41 #ag   
,edward ,,iv41 #di    ,egypt1 #cd1      

#dc-de    ,egyptians1 little record of  
their humour1 #f    ,egyptian myth1     
etc41 #cd1 #da-e1 #dg-h1 #ej-f1 #aeg-h1 
#agg-h    ,egyptian ,trinities1 #agg-h  
,eicton1 #agg    ,elephantine ,trinity1 
#agh    ,ely1 #gd1 #hj-a1 #hd1 #aje1    
#aff1 #aie-f    ,equinoxes1 the1 #age   
,eschol1 #aga    ,esculapius1 #agh      
,etchingham1 #aif    ,evans1 ,mr4 ,e4   
,p41 #ce1 #he    ,evil1 ,images of1 #a1 
#bf1 #cc    ,eve1 #fb1 #gd    ,ewelme1  
,oxon41 ,carvings at1 #a1 #fe1 #fg      
7not ,dorchester71 #gf1 #abg-h1 #bad    
,exeter1 #d1 #ci1 #afe1 #afh1 #aha      
,ezekiel1 #aei     ,fable1 #ahf         
,fafnir the ,dragon1 #df    ,fairford1  
#aie    ,fairies1 #ff    ,falx1 the1 #eg
    ,farnsham1 #fe    ,fates1 the1 #agh 
,fauns1 #fi    ,faversham1 ,kent1 #ahj1 
#aie1 #baj    ,feast of ,fools1 the1    
#adc-g    ,feathered ,angels1 #ge-g     
,fecundity1 ,goddess of1 #ff1 #gb       
,fiddle1 #dj1 #da1 #aec    ,figurines as
 lares1 #bh    ,finedon1                
,northamptonshire1 #abe    ,fire1 #agh  

,fish1 #ahb    ,flagellation1 #acd      
,flanders1 a church workshop1 #i1 #ae   
,flesh hook1 #fc1 #hg1 #ahb             
,fleur-de-lys1 #ci1 #agi    ,flora1 #aeh
    ,fools1 #acj    ,fools1 the ,feast  
of1 #adc-g    ,foreign carvers1 #i-ah   
,fox1 the1 #eh-i1 #ahd-bab    ,fox and  
,grapes1 the1 #baj    ,fox and ,stork1  
the1 #baj-a    ,france1 #dh             
,frankfort1 ,council of1 #cj1 #ii       
,fredegarius1 #aig    ,freemasonry1 #af1
 #ag    ,french work for ,saxons1 #i    
,frigga1 #ec    ,freyr1 #aec    ,furies1
 the1 #agh     ,gallows1 the1 #bjg-i    
,ganges1 the1 #agb    ,gargonilles1 #df1
 #abi    ,gaul1 #ff    ,gaul1 ,bishops  
of1 #cj    ,gauri1 #dc    ,gautier de   
,coinsi1 #cf    ,gayton1 ,northants1    
#ha1 #hf1 #hg    ,geese1 ,reynard's     
theft of1 etc41 #aia1 #aie1 #aih1 #bjc  
,gehul1 #aec    ,george ,,iv41 #ag      
,german teraphim1 #bh2     paganism1 #cj
    ,germany1 ,bishops of1 #cj          
,ghent1 #ahh    ,gild1 continuity the   
explanation of continuity of design1 #d1

 #ce1 #aif       7see ,freemasonry7     
,gilds1 #gj    ,glasgow1 #fe1 #ff1 #gg  
,gloucester1 #aie    ,gluttony1 #hh     
,goat1 the1 #fi1 #ga-c1 #ahg    ,goethe1
 #ahi    ,golden ,bristle1 #aec         
,gorgon1 #abg    ,gothic ornament1 uses 
of1 etc41 #b1 #c2     some              
characteristics of1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #f1 #g1 
#h1 #aj1 #ai-bc1 #bd-bf1 #ce-ci1        
#di1 #ed2     not didactic1 #bd-bf2     
situations of1 #bac1 #bah    ,gouda1    
#ahh    ,graces1 the1 #agh    ,gravio1  
,count1 #cj    ,great ,malvern1 #agb1   
#bji    ,grecian ,trinity1 #agg         
,greek wit1 #f2     star-worship1 #bh2  
myth1 #cd1 #da1 #agg-h2     art1 #cf-cg2
     symbolism #gd2     dances1 #adg    
,grimace-makers1 #acj1 #acc             
,grimbart1 the ,badger1 #ahi1 #aia-c    
,grimm1 #ahf    ,gryphon1 #abe1 #aeh    
,guildford1 ,surrey1 #aag-h             
,gullinbrusti1 #aec     ,hades1 #db1    
#afa    ,haenir1 #agg    ,hak1 #agh     
,hampshire1 #ba1 #cc1 #agb    ,hanging  
of the ,cat1 #bji    ,hanging of the    

,fox1 #bjg-h    ,hare1 the1 #ajf-g1     
#ahb1 #ahi1 #aib1 #aid1 #bjc            
,harleian ,,mss41 #ajd    ,harmachis1   
#aeh    ,harp1 the1 #adj-a1 #aec1 #aed1 
#aee    ,harpy1 the1 #d1 #aaa1 #aff1    
#aha    ,hebrew ,teraphim1 #bh          
,hecate1 #da1 #db    ,heliopolis1       
,trinity of1 #agh    ,hell1 #dh1 #hd1   
#ajd    ,hell's ,mouth1 #fj-fc1 #ajc1   
#aif    ,hen1 the1 #aie1 #bjc           
,henning the ,cock1 #aij    ,henry      
,,vi41 #af1 #fb    ,henry ,,vii4's      
,chapel1 #aj1 #ia1 #ie1 #adh1 #aef1 #agc
    ,henry ,,viii41 #af1 #di    ,hera1  
#agg    ,heraldry1 canting1 #agc        
,heraldry and three-fold repetitions1   
#agi    ,hercules1 #adh1 #agg           
,hereford1 #aie    ,herodotus1 #bh1 #ej 
,hertfordshire1 #aji    ,het-her1 #afg  
,hexagon1 symbolic1 #agi    ,hezekiah1  
#gd    ,hindoo myth1 #bh1 #db-de1 #ej1  
#ec1 #aec1 #agh    ,hinge the ,cat1 #aia
    ,hippocampus1 ,lincoln1 #bf         
,hippo-centaurs1 #afa    ,hobgoblins1   
#ff    ,hogarth1 #bj1 #ba    ,holy      

,cross1 ,stratford-on-,avon1 #fj        
,holy ,trinity1 ,hull1 #aci-dj          
,holderness1 #ajf    ,homer1 #afj       
,hone1 #ahj    ,hopton1 #agd    ,horace1
 #aeg    ,horns1 #gj2     ,horn1 #gc    
,horse1 the1 #afb1 #aci    ,horse-leech1
 #aaj-a    ,horus1 #de1 #dh1 #ej-ef1    
#eg1 #gb1 #agg1 #agh    ,hull1 #aj1     
#ajj1 #aci-dj    ,humour1 of nations1   
#f1 #g2     defined1 #bj    ,hunting1   
#adj    ,huntsman1 #aci    ,husterlo1   
#aib    ,hypocrisy1 #ih     ,ibis1 #afg 
,iceland1 #aec    ,idun1 #gf    ,iffley1
 #di1 #abf1 #afb1 #afc    ,imagery in   
,architecture and ,language compared1   
#a-c    ,impudence1 #aji    ,indecency  
in church1 #adc-g1 #aej-a    ,india1    
#agb    ,indian mask1 #abc-d    ,indian 
mythology1 ,east1 #ff1 #fi1 #agh        
,indian ,trinity1 ,american1 #agg       
,indra1 #agh    ,irenaeus1 #gc          
,irreverence in art explained in part1  
#h    ,isaiah1 #gd    ,isengrinus1 #ahg 
,isis1 #da1 #db1 #de1 #ej1 #agg         
,islip1 ,bishop1 #agc    ,italian       

workers in ,england1 #i1 #aj1 #ac       
,italy1 #da    ,italy1 ,bishops of1 #cj 
,janus1 #ahj    ,japanese 7crocodile71  
#de    ,jesus ,college1 ,cambridge1 #ib 
,joke1 the1 #f    ,jonah1 #aab-c1 #aig  
,joermungard1 #de    ,jove 7,jupiter71  
#aa    ,july1 #ahc    ,juno1 #agg       
,jupiter1 #ba1 #eg1 #adh1 #aeh1 #agg1   
#agh1 #aha    ,jurassic reptiles1 #ade  
,keltic dragons1 #di    ,kent1 #ge1     
#ahj1 #ahb    ,khum1 #agh    ,king      
,arthur1 #fi    ,king ,edward the       
,confessor1 #i    ,king ,edward ,,iii41 
#ag    ,king ,edward ,,iv41 #di    ,king
 ,george ,,iv41 #ag    ,king ,henry     
,,vi41 #af1 #fb    ,king ,henry ,,vii41 
#adg    ,king ,henry ,,vii4 ,chapel1    
#aj1 #agc    ,king ,henry ,,viii41 #af1 
#di    ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1    
#aj1 #acc     ,lampe the ,hare1 #aib1   
#aid    ,lares1 #dc    ,laughter of     
nations1 #f-g2     defined1 #bj         
,lectern1 #bjb    ,leicester1 #aif      
,leland1 ,john1 #af    ,lemon1 #aci-dj  
,leo1 #aeh    ,leopard1 ,the1 #ahi      

,lincoln ,cathedral1 #c1 #i1 #ch1 #ea1  
#ed1 #fc1 #abh1 #acc    ,lincolnshire1  
#aa1 #agd    ,lind-drake1 #dg    ,linden
 worm1 #dg    ,linden tree1 #dg    ,line
 of ,beauty1 #bj    ,lion1 #e1 #aeh1    
#ahc1 #ahg1 #ahi-ij1 #baj-a1 #bae       
,lioness1 ,the1 #aic    ,little-trust1  
,lettice1 #aja    ,lodur1 #agg    ,loki1
 #gf1 #gg    ,love1 #ec    ,lubeck1 #ahh
    ,lucifer1 #ec1 #gf    ,ludlow1 #ii1 
#ajb1 #ajc    ,luna1 #da1 #dc    ,lunar 
calculations of ,mosaic system1 #agf    
,lunus1 #dc    ,lydda1 #dg    ,lynn1    
#aa1 #agd     ,macrobius1 #cb           
,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 #aie       
,magi1 ,adoration of the1 #aac-e        
,maidstone1 #ahb    ,maimonides1 the    
,rabbi1 #bg    ,malepart1 #aij1 #aic    
,malvern1 ,great1 #agb1 #bji            
,manchester1 #ed1 #ee1 #bjc-d1 #aie1    
#aif    ,mandragora images1 #bh         
,mann1 ,mr4 ,robert1 #ff    ,mant1 #agg 
,mare and foal1 the story of1 #aic      
,mars1 #ba    ,marks1 sculptors'1       
ignored2 an example is on p4 #ajc       

,martinmas1 #aci1 #aed    ,martin the   
,ape1 #aib-c    ,mary1 the ,virgin1 #cd1
 #db1 #hb1 #hc    ,masks and ,faces1    
#aba-acc    ,meaux ,abbey1 ,yorkshire1  
#aj    ,memphis1 ,trinity of1 #agh      
,mendes1 #gb    ,mentu1 #agg            
,merchant mark1 #agd    ,mercury1 #ba1  
#di1 #gh1 #aec1 #aeh1 #afg              
,merenphtah1 #agh    ,mermaid1 #afj     
,messon1 #agg    ,mexican myth1 #aeg    
,mice1 #dj1 #dc1 #bji    ,michael       
,angelo1 #aj1 #ac    ,midsummer ,watch1 
#gg    ,milan1 ,council of1 #cf         
,minerva1 #ba1 #gd1 #agg    ,miracle    
,plays1 #gj    ,mirror of ,human        
,salvation1 the1 #aac    ,misericordes1 
#bd-e1 #aha1 #bae1 #bag    ,mithras1    
#agf    ,monstrosity1 #adg              
,montflaucon1 #aig    ,moon worship1    
#cb1 #dj1 #dc    ,morris ,dance1 #add1  
#adg    ,mosaic system1 #ca2     ,ark1  
#aei1 #age2     not the original of     
pagan myth1 #age-f    ,moses1 #fb1 #gd1 
#age    ,mouth of ,hell1 #fj1 #fc       
,mowers1 #ahb    ,mumming1 #gj1 #afh    

,music1 #adj1 #aeb    ,monograms1 #ab   
,mystery ,plays1 #cb1 #dh1 #gj1 #hb1    
#ajc1 #aab1 #adb-c    ,mythic origin of 
,church carvings1 #cd-ei     ,nachasch1 
#gc    ,nantwich1 ,cheshire1 #aif1      
#bjd-e1 #bjh    ,narbonne1 the ,council 
of1 #cj    ,nebhetp1 #agh               
,nefer-,atum1 #agh    ,neptune1 #ba1    
#agh    ,nerites1 #ej    ,nessus the    
,centaur1 #afb    ,new ,college1        
,oxford1 #eh-i1 #ha1 #hd-e1 #ih1 #ajf1  
#adi    ,nice1 #cf    ,nicea1 the       
,council of1 #cj    ,nicodemus1 the     
,gospel of1 #fj    ,nile1 the ,river1   
#de1 #ga1 #aeh    ,nilus1 #de1 #aeh2    
,st4 ,nilus1 see ,saints    ,nobodies1  
#aga    ,non-descripts1 #afi-agb        
,norfolk1 #dh1 #ge1 #aie    ,norman     
carvings1 #di1 #abe1 #abg1 #abi1 #afc1  
#baa1 #bac2     fonts #ae    ,north     
,stoke1 #aai    ,northamptonshire1 #ad1 
#bb1 #ha1 #hd1 #hf-g1 #aja1 #abe        
,norwich1 #dh1 #ge1 #aie                
,notch-heads1 #abd-e    ,nouvel the     
,lion1 #ahi    ,numbers1 the ,book of1  

#agf    ,nuns1 #ajf-g    ,nursery       
,rhymes1 #ci     ,oak1 the1 #adh1 #aha  
,odin1 #de1 #ec1 #fi1 #agg    ,opas1    
#agg    ,orleans1 the ,council of1 #adc 
,ornament1 the use of ,gothic1 #b       
,oromasdes1 #agf    ,orus 7see ,horus71 
#ej1 #gb    ,osiris1 #da1 #de1 #ej1 #eg1
 #aeh1 #agg    ,otkon1 #agg    ,ox1 #ga1
 #gc1 #afj    ,oxford1 #eh1 #ei1 #ga1   
#gf1 #ha1 #hd1 #he1 #ig1 #ajd-f1 #adi1  
#aea1 #aie    ,oxfordshire1 #di1 #fj1   
#fd-e1 #fg1 #aje1 #aba-b1 #acc1 #aei    
,paganism1 ingrained among nations1 #bg 
,pallas1 #agg    ,palmer ,fox1 #eh      
,pan1 #ba1 #gb-c1 #aje    ,pantheism1   
#cb    ,panther1 the1 #aei    ,paris1   
,paulin1 #aig    ,parody1 a             
characteristic of ,greek wit1 #g        
,patala1 #db    ,pastoral staves1 #di   
,pausanius1 #dd    ,pegasus1 #afb       
,pepin1 #cj    ,percy ,shrine1 #c       
,perpendicular ,ornament1 #bag          
,persephone1 #da    ,perseus1 #df1 #eg  
,persian ,trinity1 #agf                 
,peterborough1 #aie    ,philaean        

,trinity1 #agf    ,philippians1 the     
,epistle to the1 #aif    ,phipson1      
,miss1 #ad1 #aji1 and preface           
,phyrric ,dance1 the1 #adg    ,picture  
,bible1 the1 #aac1 #aig    ,pig and     
,whistle1 #aee1 #aef    ,pig1 and other 
,animal ,musicians1 the1 #aaj1 #aeb-f   
,piggy-widdy1 #aed    ,pilgremage of the
 ,sowle1 the1 #agj    ,pipes1 ,double1  
#aee    ,planet symbols1 #bh    ,plato1 
#bh    ,plutarch1 #da    ,pluteresques1 
#bah    ,pluto1 #db1 #agg-h    ,poor    
,man's ,bible1 the1 #aac1 #aig          
,poppy1 ,assyrian1 #ahb    ,pottery1 #ce
    ,preaching ,fox1 the1 #ahd1 #aif-bjd
    ,priapus1 #gc    ,prideaux1 ,bishop1
 #cj    ,priest sleeping1 #ajf1 #aaj-a  
,prosperine1 #cb1 #da-b1 #agg           
,protevan1 #hb    ,psyche1 #agf    ,pta1
 #agg-h    ,pulpits1 #ahd1 #aig-h1 #bja 
,puranas1 #dc    ,python1 the1 #df      
,ra1 #afh1 #agg    ,rabbi ,maimonides1  
#bg    ,rahu1 #dd    ,ram1 the1 #gb1    
#ahg1 #aib    ,ram ,bellin1 #aib-c      
,ram's ,head1 #ai    ,ram1 the ,hindoo  

deity1 #bh    ,rebuses1 #ab1 #agc-d     
,recording ,imps1 #gh-i1 #ha1 #hd-e1    
#ajc    ,red ,sea1 the1 #ej    ,reinche 
,bos1 #ahh    ,renart le ,contrefet1    
#ahh    ,reynard the ,fox1 #ahd         
,reynard the ,fox1 the most delectable  
history of1 #ahh    ,ripon1 #e1 #aab-c1 
#abd1 #acf-g1 #aee1 #aga1 #aie-h1 #baa  
,rochester1 #abg    ,rogation1 #dh      
,roman de ,renart1 #ahh    ,roman       
,trinity1 #agg    ,roman1 ,wit bitter   
and low1 #f-g2     myth1 #db-c    ,roman
 work for ,saxons1 #i    ,roscommon1 the
 ,poet1 #aeg    ,roslyn ,chapel1 #abh-i 
,rostock1 #ahh    ,rothwell1 ,northants1
 #hd     ,sabean ,idolatry1 #bh         
,sackville the ,poet1 #fc    ,sacred    
,marks1 #ajc 7block71 #agi              
,saehrimnir1 #aec    ,sagittarius1      
#afb-e    ,saints--,adrian1 #ii         
,anthony1 #aed     ,augustine1 #ca      
,bartholomew's1 ,smithfield1 #agc       
,bernard of ,clairvaux1 #bc1 #bg1 #cf-g 
,britius1 #ha     ,ciaran1 #afb         
,cross1 ,hospital of1 ,winchester1 #ajj 

,george1 #dg-h1 #eg     ,george's       
,chapel1 ,windsor1 #aj1 #afg1 #aie-f1   
#bjc     ,gertrude1 #dc     ,helen's1   
,abingdon1 #bah     ,john1 #di1 #aah    
,katherine's1 ,regent's ,park1 #gh1 #ha1
 #hc1 #hf1 #afi     ,keyne1 #df         
,lucy1 #acd-e     ,luke1 #gc            
,martha1 #df     ,michael1 #dg1 #gf     
,martin's1 ,leicester1 #aif     ,martin1
 #ha     ,mary's1 ,beverley1 #abc 7see  
,beverley7     ,mary's1 ,faversham1 #ahj
     ,mary's ,minster1 ,thanet1 #ig1    
#abb-c1 #acj-a1 #aie     ,nessan1 #afb  
,nicholas's1 ,lynn1 #aa-b1 #agd         
,nicholas1 #agi     ,nilus1 #cf         
,paul's1 ,bedford1 #age     ,paul's1    
,london1 #cb1 #aji                      
,peter's-in-the-,east1 ,oxford1 #abf    
,romain1 #df     ,salus1 #agh           
,sambar1 #ej    ,samson1 #aih    ,sani1 
#ec    ,satan1 #dh1 #fb1 #gj1 #ajd-f1   
#agj    ,satanic ,representations1      
#fd-gg1 #gh-aje    ,sathanus1 #agj      
,satire1 #ahe    ,satires without       
,satan1 #ajf-aa    ,satyrs1 #fi         

,saturn1 #ba1 #eg    ,saturnalia1 #adc  
,saxon work1 #i    ,scandinavian        
mythology1 #de1 #gf1 #aec1 #aeg2        
,trinity1 #agg    ,scarabaeus1 #agh     
,scriptural ,illustrations1 #aab-abj    
,scylla1 #afj    ,scythes1 #ahb         
,sea-horse 7hippocampus71 #bf    ,seals1
 #h1 and end of ,index    ,september1   
#adj1 #aed    ,seraphim1 #gd            
,serapis1 #db    ,serpent1 the1 #dd-e1  
#fj-a1 #gc-e1 #gg    ,sex of the ,moon1 
#dc    ,sheep1 #gb1 #adb    ,shell1     
#ej-a1 #ed-e1 #eg-i1 #aei    ,shell     
,child1 the1 #ej-i1 #aei    ,shepherd1  
#gb1 #adb    ,sherborne1 #acd-e1 #bjh   
,shiva1 #ff    ,sigurd1 #df    ,sin     
series of carvings1 #gh-aaa    ,sirius1 
#db    ,sismondi1 #ca    ,sistrum1 #da1 
#dc    ,situations of ,church           
,grotesques1 #bac-h    ,siva1 #agh      
,slanderers1 #hb    ,sledges1 #fc       
,smu1 #ej    ,snail1 #eg-h    ,solomon1 
,king1 #fb    ,sources of material for  
,gothic grotesques1 ,general1 #d        
,southleigh1 #fc    ,speculum ,humanae  

,salvationis1 #aac    ,sperke1 ,john    
7#aebj71 #agd    ,spinx1 the1 #aeh-i    
,springs1 #ff    ,,ss41 the letter1 and 
,collar of1 #eg    ,stanford1           
,berkshire1 #ah    ,star ,worship1 #bg-h
    ,stars and ,stripes1 #agi           
,statute of ,labourers1 #ag             
,stoeffler1 #ada    ,stowlangcroft1 #aif
    ,stratford-on-,avon1 #fj1 #abi      
,suffolk1 ,duchess of 7ob4 #adge71 #gf  
,sun1 #afg    ,sun ,feast1 #aec    ,sun 
,worship1 #cb1 #cg1 #db1 #dd-ei1 #ga1   
#aec1 #aeh1 #afb1 #age1 #baj-a          
,superstition1 ,horn1 #gc    ,supreme   
,intellect1 the1 #gd    ,surya1 #ec1    
#agh    ,sutton ,courtney1 #abh-i       
,sutton-in-,holderness1 #ajf    ,swan1  
#afg    ,swar1 #db    ,swathing of      
,infants1 #aad    ,swarhanu1 #ec        
,sweden1 #aec    ,swine1 ,yorkshire1    
#ajf-g1 #aji1 #abi-cj    ,symbolism and 
,fable1 #ahf    ,symbols of worship a   
general source of ,gothic ornament1 #d1 
#bg    ,syderesys1 #agj    ,syria1 #dg  
,tabor 7drum71 #ig    ,tarasque1 #df    

,tau ,cross1 the1 #cd1 #dc-d    ,taurus1
 #gc    ,telephorus1 #agh    ,teraphim1 
#bh    ,teutonic appreciation of humour1
 #g    ,thanet1 ,isle of1 #ig1 #abb1    
#acj-a1 #aie    ,theban ,trinity1 #agg  
,theophylact1 #adc    ,thirlwall1 #cc   
,thoth1 #gh1 #afg    ,three1 the number1
 #afb 7see ,trinities7    ,three        
branched rod1 #ajc 7block71 #afb1 #aha-b
    ,time1 ,father1 #eg    ,titian1 #db 
,topsey-turveyism1 #adi    ,torregiano1 
#aj    ,tree of ,knowledge1 the1 #gd    
,trefoil1 the1 #afb1 #agh-i    ,trial of
 ,mary and ,joseph1 #hb    ,trigla1 #ahj
    ,trinities1 #afh1 #age-ahc          
,tufton ,street ,architectural ,museum1 
#ab    ,tum1 the ,setting ,sun1 #agh    
,typhon1 #dd-eg1 #fd-e     ,unseen      
,witness1 the1 #gi1 #he1 #hf1 #hg       
,vali1 #aad    ,vanity1 #ig    ,vedie   
,trinity1 #agh    ,venus1 #ba1 #ec1     
#aaa1 #adh    ,veximiel1 #fb    ,virgil1
 the1 #afj-a    ,virgin ,mary1 the1 #cj1
 #db1 #hb-c    ,virgo1 #aeh    ,vishnu1 
#ec1 #aec1 #agh    ,vulcan1 #adh1 #agg  

,wall paintings compared with carvings1 
#aad-aag1 #aai-bj    ,wake ,knot1 #bjg-h
    ,wellingborough1 #ad1 #ae1 #bb1 #cd1
 #aja1 #aie1 #bae    ,wells1 #fe1 #gg1  
#aej    ,westminster ,abbey1 #i1 #aj1   
#ia-ie1 #ig1 #aji-aaj1 #abc-d1 #aef1    
#agc    ,wheelbarrows1 #ace-g1 #aif     
,whistling ,maid1 the1 #ajd-e           
,whistling while drawing ale1 #aje      
,white1 ,wm4 7#aebj71 #agc-d    ,wich1  
,bishop de la1 #abd1 #aha               
,winchester1 #fd1 #ajj1 #aaa1 #ade1     
#aed1 #aff1 #aie    ,windsor1 #aj1 #afg1
 #aie1 #bjc1 #bjh    ,winking ,nun1 the1
 #ajf-g    ,wolf1 the1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aib2
     story of the wolf's head1 #ahg     
,wolfius1 #aif    ,worcester1 #aac-e1   
#adb1 #afj1 #afa1 #ahb-c1 #bjc    ,worm 
of conscience1 the1 #agj    ,wright1    
,thomas1 #aig    ,wyvern1 the1 #dg      
,york1 #fc1 #fe1 #gg1 #abi-cj1 #adj1    
#adh    ,yorkshire1 #aj1 #fc1 #fe1 #gg1 
#ajf-g1 #aji1 #abg 7see ,beverley7      
,yule1 #aec     ,zeus1 #agg    ,zither1 
#aff    ,zodiac1 #de1 #ec               

,,footnotes3  #a ,early in the          
thirteenth century unruly converts of   
the ,abbey of ,meaux1 ,yorkshire1 were1 
to humble their pride1 made stonemasons1
 etc4  #b ,of ,christ1 the ,virgin1 and 
saints only4 ,it is here quoted as      
evidence of a tendency4 ,it is plain    
that the council protected itself1 for  
the following distich is attributed to  
it1 which sums up the original intent of
 all images--    ,id ,deus est1 quod    
,imago docet1 sed non deus ipse2   ,hanc
 ,videas1 sed mente colas2 quod cemis in
 ipse4  which ,prideaux1 ,bishop of     
,worcester1 translates 7#afha73    ,a   
,god the ,image represents1     ,but is 
no ,god in kind2   ,that's the eye's    
object1 what it shews     ,the object of
 the mind4  #c ,yet the ,hindoo         
signification of ,typhon is the power of
 destruction by heat4 ,in this we have  
another piece of evidence that both the 
good and the bad of the fable are       
referrable to the sun as his varying    
attributes1 and probably describe his   

particular effects at various portions  
of the zodiacal year4 ,the true1 or     
rather the close1 meaning of the various
 accounts is obscured and confused2     
firstly1 by imperfect knowledge as to   
the geographical situations where the   
idea of the zodiac was conceived and    
developed2 secondly1 by the gradual     
precession of the ,equinoxes during the 
ages which have elapsed since such      
conception4  #d ,mr4 ,robert ,mann4  #e 
,sutton-in-,holderness4  #f ,roscommon4 
#g ,hone4  #h ,the ,church ,treasury1 by
 ,william ,andrews1 #ahih1 p4 #aic4     
,transcriber's ,notes3  ,passages in    
italics are indicated by italics4  ,the 
original text includes ,greek           
characters4 ,for this text version these
 letters have been replaced with        
transliterations4  ,the original text   
contains a hieroglyph4 ,this is noted in
 this text as symbol4