,,a/ronomical ,,curiosities    ,,facts  
,,& ,,fallacies       ,,a/ronomical     
,,curiosities    ,,facts ,,& ,,fallacies
     ,,by ,j4 ,,ell>d ,,gore    ,,memb] 
,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,iri% ,,academy ,,fell[
 ,,( ,,!   ,,royal ,,a/ronomical        
,,society ,,correspond+ ,,memb]   ,,(   
,,! ,,royal ,,a/ronomical ,,society ,,( 
,,canada ,,etc4   ,,au?or ,,(           
,,a/ronomical ,,essays1 ,,/udies ,,9    
,,a/ronomy1 ,,! ,,visible ,,univ]se1    
,,etc4     ,,london   ,,*atto  ,,w9dus  
#aiji       ,,pr9t$ ,,by   ,,william    
,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$   ,,london 
,,& ,,beccles    ,all rights res]v$     
,,preface   ,! curi\s facts1 fallacies1 
& p>adoxes conta9$ 9 ! foll[+ pages h   
be5 collect$ f v>i\s s\rces4 ,mo/ ( !   
in=mation giv5 w n1 ,i ?9k1 be f\nd 9   
popul> works on a/ronomy1 & w1 x is     
hop$1 prove ( int]e/ to ! g5]al read]4  
,j4 ,e4 ,g4  ,septemb]1 #aiji4          
,,cont5ts                               
,,page    ,,*apt]        ,i4 ,,! ,,sun  
#a       ,,ii4 ,,m]cury                 

#aj      ,,iii4 ,,v5us                  
#ag       ,,iv4 ,,! ,,e>?               
#cb        ,v4 ,,! ,,moon               
#dh       ,,vi4 ,,m>s                   
#ei      ,,vii4 ,,! ,,m9or ,,planets    
#fh     ,,viii4 ,,jupit]                
#gd       ,,ix4 ,,saturn                
#hd        ,x4 ,,uranus ,,& ,,neptune   
#ia       ,,xi4 ,,comets                
#ig      ,,xii4 ,,meteors               
#aag     ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,zodiacal ,,light 
,,& ,,geg5s*e9      #abg      ,,xiv4 ,,!
 ,,/>s                                  
#ace       ,,xv4 ,,d\ble ,,& ,,b9>y     
,,/>s                 #afj      ,,xvi4  
,,v>iable ,,/>s                         
#agj     ,,xvii4 ,,nebul ,,& ,,clu/]s   
#aia    ,,xviii4 ,,hi/orical            
#bag      ,,xix4 ,,! ,,con/ellations    
#bci       ,,xx4 ,,! ,,visible ,,univ]se
                    #cac      ,,xxi4    
,,g5]al                                 
#cbi           ,,index                  
#cei     ,,illu/rations                 
,,page    ,,al-,,sufi',s ,,e>!n ,,j>    

#bdg    ,,al-,,sufi',s ,,fi%es ,,9      
,,&rom$a                #bdi            
,,a/ronomical ,,curiosities     ,,*apt] 
,i  ,! ,sun   ,"s obs]vations rec5tly   
made by ,pr(4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ 9         
,jamaica1 make ! value ( sunlight       
#edj1jjj times t ( moonlight4 ,?is makes
 ! sun's /ell> magnitude m9us #bfhc1 & t
 ( moonlight m9us #abe4 ,pr(4 ,pick]+   
f9ds t ! light ( ! full moon is equal to
 #ajj1jjj />s ( z]o magnitude4 ,he f9ds 
t ! moon's alb$o is ab\t #jjiji2 or 9   
o!r words1 ! moon reflects ab\t "o-t5? (
 ! light :i* falls on x f ! sun4 ,he    
also f9ds t ! light ( ! full moon is    
ab\t twelve times ! light ( ! half moon3
 a curi\s & r unexpect$ result4  ,m4 ,c4
 ,fabry f\nd t dur+ ! total eclipse ( ! 
sun on ,augu/ #cj1 #aije1 ! light ( !   
corona at a di/ance ( five m9utes ( arc 
f ! sun's limit1 & 9 ! vic9ity ( ! sun's
 equator1 0 ab\t #gbj c&le-p[]4 ,comp>+ 
?is ) ! intr9sic light ( ! full moon    
7#bfjj c&le-p[]7 we h ! ratio ( #jbh to 
#a4 ,he f9ds t ! light ( ! sun 9 ! z5i?1

 & at its mean di/ance f ! e>?1 is      
#ajj1jjj times great] ?an ! light ( a   
decimal c&le plac$ at a di/ance ( "o    
metre f ! eye4#a ,he also f9ds t        
sunlight is equal to #fj1jjj million    
times ! light ( ,vega4 ,?is w\ld make ! 
sun's /ell> magnitude m9us #bfg1 :i*    
does n diff] mu* f ,pr(4 ,pick]+'s      
result1 giv5 above1 & is probably n f> f
 ! tru?4  ,f exp]im5ts made 9 #aijf at  
,mosc[1 ,pr(4 ,c]aski f\nd t ! light ( !
 sun's limb is only #cad to #chd times  
bright] ?an ! illum9ation ( ! e>?'s     
atmosph]e v ne> ! limb4 ,?is is a v     
unexpect$ result2 & consid]+ !          
comp>ative fa9tness ( ! sun's corona    
dur+ a total eclipse1 x is n surpris+ t 
all attempts to photograph x )\t an     
eclipse h hi!rto fail$4#b  ,f ,pas*5's  
inve/igations on ! heat ( ! sun's       
surface1 he f9ds a result ( #eifa       
7absolute71 assum+ t ! sun is a p]fectly
 black body4#c ,s*u/] f9ds t ,!re is a  
/ratum ne> ! sun's surface hav+ an      
av]age temp]ature ( approximately #eejj 

,c41 to :i* ab\t #jc ( ! sun's radiation
 is due4 ,! rema9+ portion ( ! radiation
 has an int5sity equal to t due to a    
black body hav+ a temp]ature ( ab\t     
#fgjj ,c4 ,! above results agree fairly 
well ) ^? f\nd by ! late ,dr4 ,w4 ,e4   
,wilson4#d ,! assumption ( ! sun be+ a  
black body seems a curi\s p>adox2 b !   
simple mean+ ( ! /atem5t is t ! sun is  
assum$ to act z a radiator z if x 7 a   
p]fectly black body heat$ to ! high     
temp]ature giv5 above4  ,accord+ to     
,pr(4 ,langley1 ! sun's photosph]e is   
#ejjj times bright] ?an ! molt5 metal 9 
a ,bessem] conv]tor4#e  ,obs]vations ( !
 sun ev5 ) small telescopes & protect$  
by d>k glasses are v dang]\s to !       
eyesight4 ,galileo bl9d$ himself 9 ?is  
way2 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el lo/ "o ( 8   
eyes2 & "s mod]n obs]v]s h also suff]$4 
,! pres5t writ] _h a n>r[ escape f      
p]man5t injury :ile obs]v+ ! transit (  
,v5us1 9 #ahgd1 9 ,india1 ! d>k scre5   
be=e ! eyepiece ( a #c-;in* telescope   
hav+ bli/]$--t is1 p>tially fus$ dur+ ! 

obs]vation4 ,mr4 ,coop]1 ,m>kree ,ca/le1
 ,irel&1 9 obs]v+ ! sun1 us$ a drum (   
alum wat] & d>k spectacles1 & f\nd ?is  
suffici5t protection aga9/ ! gl>e 9 us+ 
8 l>ge refract+ telescope ( #acc-;in*es 
ap]ture4  ,pr(4 ,mit*ell1 ( ,columbia   
,univ]sity 7,u4,s4,a471 f9ds t l9es due 
to ! rec5tly discov]$ atmosph]ical gases
 argon & neon are pres5t 9 ! spectrum ( 
! sun's *romosph]e4 ,! evid5ce = !      
exi/5ce ( krypton & x5on is1 h[ev]1     
inconclusive4 ,pr(4 ,mit*ell sugge/s t  
^! gases may possibly h rea*$ ! e>?'s   
atmosph]e f ! sun4 ,?is w\ld agree ) !  
!ory advanc$ by ,arrh5ius t ionis$      
p>ticles are con/antly be+ repuls$ by ! 
pressure ( light1 & ?us j\rney f "o sun 
to ano!r4#f  ,pr(4 ,"y 9 #ahgj1 & ,dr4  
,kreusl] 9 ,june1 #aijd1 obs]v$ ! helium
 l9e ,d#c z a d>k l9e 9 ! spectrum ( !  
region ab\t a sun-spot4#g ,?is fam\s    
l9e1 f :i* helium 0 orig9ally discov]$ 9
 ! sun1 & by :i* x 0 long aft]w>ds      
detect$ 9 t]re/rial m9]als1 usually     
appe>s z a bright l9e 9 ! spectrum ( !  

sol> *romosph]e & prom95ces4 ,x has also
 be5 se5 d>k by ,mr4 ,buss 9 sun-spot   
regions4#h  ,! discov]y ( sun-spots 0   
claim$ by ,h>iotte1 9 #afaj1 & by       
,galileo1 ,fabricius1 & ,s*e9]1 9 #afaa4
 ,! latt] wrote #hjj pages on !m1 &     
?\ght !y 7 small planets revolv+ r\nd ! 
sun6 ,?is idea 0 also held by ,t>d1 :o  
call$ !m ,a/ra ,borbonia1 & by ,c4      
,malap]t1 :o t]m$ !m ,syd]a ,au/ricea4  
,b !y seem to h be5 notic$ by ! anci5ts4
  ,al?\gh 9 mod]n times !re has be5 no  
extraord9>y developm5t ( sun-spots at ! 
epo* ( maximum1 x is n altoge!r         
impossible t 9 =m] times ^! spots may h 
occasionally increas$ to su* an ext5t1  
bo? 9 numb] & size1 z to h p]ceptibly   
d>k5$ ! sun's light4 ,a m probable      
explanation ( record$ sun-d>k5+s seems1 
h[ev]1 to be ! pass+ ( a meteoric or    
nebul\s cl\d betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?4 ,a   
rem>kable in/ance ( sun-d>k5+ record$ 9 
,europe occurr$ on ,may #bb1 #ahgj1 :5 !
 sun's light 0 obs]v$ to be consid]ably 
r$uc$ 9 a cl\dless sky 9 ! we/ ( ,irel&1

 by ! late ,john ,birm+ham2 at ,gre5wi* 
on ! #bcrd2 & on ! same date1 b at a    
lat] h\r1 9 ,nor?-,ea/]n ,france--a     
progressive manife/ation1 ,mr4 ,birm+ham
 says1 t seems to accord well ) !       
hypo!sis ( mov+ nebul\s matt]4 ,a simil>
 ph5om5on 0 obs]v$ 9 ,new ,engl&        
7,u4,s4,a471 on ,septemb] #f1 #ahha4    
,"o ( ! l>ge/ spots ev] se5 on ! sun 0  
obs]v$ 9 ,june1 #ahdc4 ,x rema9$ visible
 = sev5 or eight days4 ,accord+ to      
,s*wabe--! discov]] ( ! sun-spot        
p]iod--its diamet] 0 #gd1jjj miles1 s t 
its area 0 _m times t ( ! e>?'s surface4
 ,! mo/ curi\s ?+ ab\t ?is spot 0 t x   
appe>$ ne> a m9imum ( ! sun-spot cycle6 
& 0 !re=e r an anomal\s ph5om5on4 ,x 0  
sugge/$ by ! late ,daniel ,kirkwood t   
?is great spot 0 caus$ by ! fall (      
meteoric matt] into ! sun2 & t x _h     
possibly "s connection ) ! great comet (
 #ahdc1 :i* approa*$ ! sun ne>] ?an any 
o!r record$ comet1 its di/ance f ! sun  
at p]ihelion be+ ab\t #fe1jjj miles1 or 
less ?an "o-?ird ( ! moon's di/ance f ! 

e>?4 ,?is ne> approa* ( ! comet to ! sun
 occurr$ ab\t ?ree mon?s be=e !         
appe>ance ( ! great sun-spot2 & x seems 
probable t ! spot 0 caus$ by ! d[nfall (
 a l>ge meteorite travell+ 9 ! wake ( ! 
comet4#i ,! connection betwe5 comets &  
meteors is well kn[n4  ,! s-call$       
blackness ( sun-spots is m]ely relative4
 ,!y are really v bright4 ,! mo/        
brilliant light :i* c be produc$        
artificially looks l a black spot :5    
project$ on ! sun's disc4  ,accord+ to  
,sir ,rob]t ,ball a p\nd ( coal /rik+ a 
body ) a velocity ( five miles a second 
w\ld develop z mu* heat z x w\ld produce
 by its combu/ion4 ,a body fall+ into ! 
sun f inf9ity w\ld h a velocity ( #dej  
miles a second :5 x rea*$ ! sun's       
surface4 ,n[ z ! mom5tum v>ies z ! squ>e
 ( ! velocity we h a p\nd ( coal        
develop+ #ijb 7#dej_/e7b1 or #h1ajj     
times z mu* heat z w\ld be produc$ by   
its combu/ion4 ,if ! sun 7 =m$ ( coal x 
w\ld be consum$ 9 ab\t #cjjj ye>s4 ,h5ce
 x foll[s t ! contraction ( ! sun's     

sub/ance f inf9ity w\ld produce a supply
 ( heat = #cjjj  #hajj1 or #bd1cjj1jjj  
ye>s4  ,! late ,mr4 ,proctor & ,pr(4 ,"y
 believ$ t ! contraction !ory ( ! sun's 
heat is ! true & only available !ory4 ,!
 !ory is1 ( c\rse1 a s\nd "o2 b x may n[
 be supplem5t$ by suppos+ ! sun to      
conta9 a c]ta9 small am\nt ( radium4    
,?is w\ld br+ physics & geology into    
h>mony4 ,proctor ?\ght ! sun's real     
globe is v mu* small] ?an ! globe we    
see4 ,9 o!r words ! process (           
contraction has gone on fur!r ?an1 judg+
 f ! sun's app>5t size1 we %\ld suppose 
x to h done1 & !re=e repres5ts m sun "w 
done 9 pa/ ages4  ,) ref]5ce to !       
sugge/ion1 rec5tly made1 t a portion1 at
 lea/1 ( ! sun's heat may be due to     
radium1 & ! exp]im5ts :i* h be5 made )  
negative results1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,t4 ,/rutt--!
 em95t physici/--has made "s            
calculations on ! subject & says1 ev5 if
 all ! sun's heat 7 due to radium1 !re  
does n appe> to be ! smalle/ possibility
 t ! ,becqu]el radiation f x c\ld ev] be

 detect$ at ! e>?'s surface4#aj  ,!     
em95t ,sw$i% physici/ ,arrh5ius1 :ile   
admitt+ t a l>ge proportion ( ! sun's   
heat is due to contraction1 consid]s t x
 is probably ! *emical processes go+ on 
9 ! sun1 & n ! contraction :i* con/itute
 ! *ief s\rce ( ! sol> heat4#aa  ,z !   
c5tre ( gravity ( ! sun & ,jupit] lies  
at a di/ance ( ab\t #dfj1jjj miles f !  
sun's c5tre1 & ! sun's radius is only   
#dcc1jjj miles1 x foll[s t ! c5tre (    
gravity ( ! sun & planet is ab\t #bg1jjj
 miles outside ! sun's surface4 ,!      
attractions ( ! o!r planets p]petually  
*ange ! position ( ! c5tre ( gravity ( !
 sol> sy/em2 b 9 "s books on a/ronomy x 
is errone\sly /at$ t ! c5tre ( gravity (
 ! sy/em is always )9 ! sun's surface4  
,if all ! planets lay on ! same side ( !
 sun at ! same "t 7z might possibly     
happ571 !n ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! :ole   
sy/em w\ld lie consid]ably m ?an #bg1jjj
 miles outside ! sun's surface4  ,)     
ref]5ce to ! sun's great size1 ,c>l     
,snyd] has well said1 ,x 0 z if 9       

,vulcan's smi?y ! gods _h m\ld$ "o giant
 ball1 & ! planets 7 b bits & small %ot 
:i* _h spatt]$ (f z ! gl[+ +ot 0 ca/ &  
set 9 space4 ,little man on a little "p 
( a little e>?--a m9or planet1 a million
 ( :i* might be tumbl$ into ! %ell ( !  
c5tral sun--0 gr[+ v small2 8 w>s1 !    
convulsions ( a /ate1 7 los+ consequ5ce4
 ,human endeav\r1 human ambitions c\ld  
n[ sc>ce possess ! significance !y _h :5
 m5 c\ld reg>d ! e>? z ! c5tral fact ( !
 univ]se4#ab  ,) ref]5ce to ! late ,pr(4
 ,c4 ,a4 ,"y 7,u4,s4,a47--a great       
au?ority on ! sun--an ,am]ican writ] has
 writt5 ! foll[+ l9es3--    ,! de/9$    
c\rse ( :irl+ worlds to trace1   ,to    
plot ! highways ( ! univ]se1   ,& he> ! 
morn+ />s _! song rehe>se1   ,& f9d !   
w&]+ comet 9 8 place2   ,?is is !       
triumph writt5 9 8 face1   ,& 9 ! gleam+
 eye t read ! sun   ,l op5 book1 & f !  
spectrum won   ,! secrets ( immeasurable
 space4#ac     ,,*apt] ,,ii  ,m]cury    
,z ! elongation ( ,m]cury f ! sun seldom
 exce$s #ah1 x is a difficult object1 at

 lea/ 9 ?is c\ntry1 to see )\t a        
telescope4 ,z ! poet says1 ! planet--   
,c sc>ce be caught by philosophic eye   
,lo/ 9 ! ne> effulg5ce ( its blaze4     
,ty*o ,brah1 h[ev]1 records sev]al      
obs]vations ( ,m]cury ) ! unaid$ vision 
9 ,d5m>k4  ,x c be occasionally caught )
 ! nak$ eye 9 ?is c\ntry aft] sunset1 :5
 x is fav\rably plac$ = obs]vation1 & ,i
 h s se5 x sev]al times 9 ,irel&4 ,on   
,febru>y #ai1 #ahhh1 ,i f\nd x v visible
 9 /rong twilight ne> ! we/]n horizon1 &
 app>5tly bright] ?an an av]age /> ( !  
fir/ magnitude w\ld be 9 ! same         
position4 ,9 ! cle> air ( ! ,punjab sky 
,i obs]v$ ,m]cury on ,novemb] #bd-bi1   
#ahgb1 ne> ! we/]n horizon aft] sunset4 
,its appe>ance 0 t ( a r$di% /> ( ! fir/
 magnitude4 ,on ,novemb] #bi ,i comp>$  
its brilliancy ) t ( ,saturn1 :i* 0 "s  
di/ance above x1 & mak+ all[ance = !    
gl>e ne> ! horizon 9 :i* ,m]cury 0      
imm]s$1 its brightness appe>$ to me to  
be q equal to t ( ,saturn4 ,9 ,june1    
#ahgd1 ,i f\nd x equal to ,aldeb>an1 & (

 v mu* ! same col\r4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,d5n+1
 ! fam\s obs]v] ( meteors1 /ates t he   
obs]v$ ,m]cury ) ! nak$ eye ab\t #aej   
times dur+ ! ye>s #ahfh to #aije4ad  ,he
 f\nd t ! duration ( visibility aft]    
sunset is ab\t #a;h #djm :5 se5 9 ,m>*1 
#a;h #cjm 9 ,april1 & #a;h #bjm 9 ,may4 
,he ?9ks t ! planet is1 at its brighte/1
 c]ta9ly mu* bright] ?an a fir/         
magnitude />4#ae ,9 ,febru>y1 #ahfh1 he 
f\nd t its brightness rivall$ t (       
,jupit]1 !n only #b or #c di/ant4 ,9    
,novemb]1 #ahhb1 x seem$ bright] ?an    
,sirius4 ,9 #ahgf x 0 m /rik+ ?an ,m>s1 
b ! latt] 0 !n fa9t & at a consid]able  
di/ance f ! e>?4  ,9 #ahgh1 :5 ,m]cury &
 ,v5us 7 9 ! same field ( view ( a      
telescope1 ,nasmy? f\nd t ! surface     
brightness 7or intr9sic brightness1 z x 
is call$7 ( ,v5us 0 at lea/ twice z     
great z t ( ,m]cury2 & ,zlln] f\nd t f a
 photometric po9t ( view ! surface (    
,m]cury is comp>able ) t ( ! moon4  ,)  
ref]5ce to ! difficulty ( see+ ,m]cury1 
ow+ to its proximity to ! sun1 ,admiral 

,smy? says1 ,al?\gh ,m]cury is nev] 9   
opposition to ! e>?1 he 01 :5 9 ! h\se (
 ,m>s1 always view$ by a/rolog]s z a mo/
 malignant planet1 & "o full ( evil     
influ5ces4 ,! sages /igmatiz$ him z a   
false deceitful /> 7sidus dolosum71 !   
et]nal torm5t ( a/ronom]s1 elud+ !m z   
mu* z t]re/rial m]cury did ! al*emi/s2 &
 ,goad1 :o 9 #afhf publi%$ a :ole folio 
volume full ( a/ro-meteorological       
aphorisms1 unveil+ ! *oice/ secrets (   
nature1 contemptu\sly calls ,m]cury a   
'squ9t+ lacquey ( ! sun1 :o seldom %[s 8
 head 9 ^! p>ts1 z if he 0 9 debt4' ,8  
extreme mobility is s /rik+ t *emi/s    
adopt$ 8 symbol to d5ote quicksilv]4#af 
,pr(4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ ?9ks t ! %ortness 
( ! cusps 7or horns7 ( ,m]cury's disc   
indicates t ! planet's atmosph]e is (   
small d5sity--ev5 r>] ?an t ( ,m>s4  ,! 
diamet] ( ,m]cury is usually /at$ at    
ab\t #cjjj miles2 b a long s]ies (      
measures made by ,pr(4 ,see 9 ! ye>     
#aija make ! real diamet] ab\t #bgjb    
miles4 ,?is w\ld make ! planet small]   

?an "s ( ! satellites ( ! l>ge planets1 
probably small] ?an satellites ,,iii4 & 
,,iv4 ( ,jupit]1 less ?an ,saturn's     
satellite ,titan1 & possibly inf]ior 9  
size to ! satellite ( ,neptune4 ,pr(4   
,pick]+ ?9ks t ! d5sity ( ,m]cury is    
ab\t #c 7wat]  #a74 ,dr4 ,see's         
obs]vations %[ no noticeable fall+ (f 9 
! brightness ( ,m]cury ne> ! limb4 ,!re 
is !re=e no evid5ce ( any k9d (         
atmosph]ic absorption 9 ,m]cury1 & !    
obs]v] gets ! impression t ! physical   
condition ( ! planet is v simil> to t ( 
our moon4#ag  ,s*rt] 7#aghj-ahae7 obs]v$
 m>k+s on ,m]cury1 f :i* he inf]r$ t !  
planet's surface 0 m\nta9\s1 & "o ( ^!  
m\nta9s he e/imat$ at ab\t #aa miles 9  
height6#ah ,b ?is seems v d\btful4  ,to 
acc\nt = ! obs]v$ irregul>ities 9 !     
motion ( ,m]cury 9 its orbit1 ,pr(4     
,newcomb ?9ks x possible t !re may exi/ 
a r+ or zone ( a/]oids a little outside 
! orbit ( ,m]cury & hav+ a comb9$ mass (
 "o-fiftie? to "o-?ree-hundr$? ( ! mass 
( ,v5us1 accord+ to its di/ance f       

,m]cury4 ,pr(4 ,newcomb1 h[ev]1 consid]s
 t ! exi/5ce ( su* a r+ is extremely    
improbable1 & reg>ds x m z a curiosity  
?an a reality4#ai  ,m4 ,lo ,br5n] ?9ks t
 he has se5 ! d>k side ( ,m]cury1 9 !   
same way t ! d>k side ( ,v5us has be5   
se5 by _m obs]v]s4 ,9 ! case ( ,m]cury !
 d>k side appe>$ d>k] ?an ! backgr\nd ( 
! sky4 ,p]haps ?is may be due to its be+
 project$ on ! zodiacal light1 or out]  
envelope ( ! sun4#bj  ,m]cury is said to
 h be5 occult$ by ,v5us 9 ! ye> #agcg4ba
 ,b :e!r ?is 0 an actual occultation1 or
 m]ely a ne> approa* does n seem to be  
c]ta94  ,! fir/ transit ( ,m]cury across
 ! sun's disc 0 obs]v$ by ,gass5di on   
,novemb] #f1 #afca1 & ,halley obs]v$ "o 
on ,novemb] #g1 #afgg1 :5 9 ! isl& ( ,/4
 ,hel5a4  ,se5 f ,m]cury1 ,v5us w\ld    
appe> bright] ?an ev5 we see x1 & z x   
w\ld be at its brighte/ :5 9 opposition 
to ! sun1 & se5 on a d>k sky ) a full   
face1 x mu/ pres5t a magnific5t         
appe>ance 9 ! midnight sky ( ,m]cury4 ,!
 e>? w also =m a brilliant object1 & !  

moon w\ld be di/9ctly visible4 ,! o!r   
planets w\ld appe> v mu* z !y d to u1 b 
) some:at less brilliancy ow+ to _!     
great] di/ance4  ,z ! exi/5ce ( an      
intra-,m]curial planet 7t is a planet   
revolv+ r\nd ! sun )9 ! orbit ( ,m]cury7
 seems n[ to be v improbable1 ,pr(4     
,p]r9e sugge/s t possibly ! f9ely divid$
 matt] :i* produces ! zodiacal light :5 
consid]$ 9 ! aggregate may be suffici5t 
to cause ! p]turbations 9 ! orbit (     
,m]cury4#bb ,pr(4 ,newcomb1 h[ev]1      
que/ions ! exact accuracy ( ,newton's   
law1 & seems to adopt ,hall's hypo!sis t
 gravity does n act exactly z ! inv]se  
squ>e ( ! di/ance1 & t ! expon5t ( !    
di/ance is n #b1 b #bjjjjjjaegd4bc      
,voltaire said1 ,if ,newton _h be5 9    
,portugal1 & any ,dom9ican _h discov]$ a
 h]esy 9 8 inv]se ratio ( ! squ>es ( !  
di/ances1 he w\ld )\t hesitation h be5  
clo!d 9 a san b5ito1 & burnt z a        
sacrifice to ,god at an auto da f4#bd   
,an occultation ( ,m]cury by ,v5us 0    
obs]v$ ) a telescope on ,may #ag1       

#agcg4be  ,may transits ( ,m]cury across
 ! sun's disc w occur 9 ! ye>s #aibd1   
#aieg1 & #aigj2 & ,novemb] transits 9 ! 
ye>s #aiad1 #aibg1 & #aidj4bf  ,f       
measurem5ts ( ! disc ( ,m]cury dur+ !   
la/ transit1 ,m4 ,r4 ,jonckhe]e         
concludes t ! pol> diamet] ( ! planet is
 great] ?an ! equatorial6 ,8 result1 :i*
 is v curi\s1 if true1 seems to be      
support$ by ! obs]vations ( o!r         
obs]v]s4#bg  ,! rotation p]iod (        
,m]cury1 or ! l5g? ( its day1 seems to  
be /ill 9 d\bt4 ,f a s]ies ( obs]vations
 made 9 ! ye>s #ahif to #aiji1 ,mr4     
,john ,mc,harg f9ds a p]iod ( #ajabaafb 
day1 or #a;d #j;h #agm #bfs#h4 ,he ?9ks 
t ! planet possesses a consid]able      
atmosph]e n s cle> z t ( ,m>s2 t its    
axis is v consid]ably tilt$2 & t x has  
fairly l>ge %eets ( wat]4#bh     ,,*apt]
 ,,iii  ,v5us   ,v5us 0 naturally--ow+  
to its brightness--! fir/ ( ! planets   
kn[n to ! anci5ts4 ,x is m5tion$ by     
,hesiod1 ,hom]1 ,virgil1 ,m>tial1 &     
,pl9y2 & ,isaiah's rem>k ab\t ,lucif]1  

son ( ! morn+ 7,isaiah xiv4 #ab7        
probably ref]s to ,v5us z a morn+ />4   
,an obs]vation ( ,v5us is f\nd on !     
,n9eveh tablets ( date ,b4,c4 #fhd4 ,x 0
 obs]v$ 9 daylight by ,halley 9 ,july1  
#agaf4  ,9 v anci5t times ,v5us1 :5 a   
morn+ />1 0 call$ ,phosphorus or        
,lucif]1 & :5 an ev5+ /> ,hesp]us2 b1   
accord+ to ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 !       
id5tity ( ! two objects 0 kn[n s f> back
 z #edj ,b4,c4  ,:5 ,v5us is at its     
greate/ brilliancy1 & appe>s z a morn+  
/> ab\t ,*ri/mas "t 7:i* occurr$ 9      
#ahhg1 & aga9 9 #ahhi71 x has be5 mi/ak5
 by ! public = a return ( ! ,/> (       
,be?lehem4#bi ,b :atev] ! /> ( ! ,magi 0
 x c]ta9ly 0 n ,v5us4 ,x1 seems1 inde$  
absurd to suppose t ! wise m5 ( ! ,ea/  
%\ld h mi/ak5 a famili> object l ,v5us =
 a /range app>ition4 ,!re seems to be   
no?+ :atev] 9 ! ,bible to lead u to     
expect t ! /> ( ,be?lehem w reappe>4    
,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,/ockwell has sugge/$ t !  
,/> ( ,be?lehem may p]haps be expla9$ by
 a conjunction ( ! planets ,v5us &      

,jupit] :i* occurr$ on ,may #h1 ,b4,c4  
#f1 :i* 0 two ye>s be=e ! dea? ( ,h]od4 
,f ?is x w\ld foll[ t ! ,crucifixion    
took place on ,april #c1 ,a4,d4 #cc4 ,b 
x seems v d\btful t ! ph5om5on record$ 9
 ! ,bible ref]s to any conjunction (    
planets4  ,*acornac f\nd ! intr9sic     
brightness ( ,v5us to be t5 times great]
 ?an ! mo/ lum9\s p>ts ( ! moon4#cj ,b  
?is e/imate is probably too high4  ,:5  
at its brighte/1 ! planet is visible 9  
broad daylight to good eyesight1 if its 
exact position 9 ! sky is kn[n4 ,9 !    
cle> air ( ,cambridge 7,u4,s4,a47 x is  
said to be possible to see x 9 ?is way 9
 all p>ts ( its orbit1 except :5 !      
planet is )9 #aj ( ! sun4#ca ,mr4 ,a4   
,cam]on1 ( ,y>m\?1 ,nova ,scotia1 has1  
h[ev]1 se5 ,v5us ) ! nak$ eye ?ree days 
be=e conjunction :5 ! planet 0 only     
#f-a_/d f ! sun4#cb ,?is seems a        
rem>kable obs]vation1 & %[s t ! obs]v]'s
 eyesight mu/ h be5 v ke54 ,9 a private 
lett] dat$ ,octob] #bb1 #ahhh1 ! late   
,rev4 ,s4 ,j4 ,johnson in=m$ ! pres5t   

writ] t he saw ,v5us ) ! nak$ eye only  
f\r days be=e conjunction ) ! sun 9     
,febru>y1 #ahgh1 & ,febru>y1 #ahhf4  ,! 
cresc5t %ape ( ,v5us is said to h be5   
se5 ) ! nak$ eye by ,!odore ,p>k] 9     
,am]ica :5 he 0 only #ab ye>s old4 ,o!r 
obs]v]s h /at$ ! same ?+2 b !           
possibility ( su* an obs]vation has be5 
mu* disput$ 9 rec5t ye>s4  ,9 ! ,*9ese  
,annals "s records are giv5 ( ,v5us hav+
 be5 se5 9 ! ,pleiades4 ,on ,m>* #af1   
,a4,d4 #hde1 x is said t ,v5us eclips$ !
 ,pleiades4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t !    
clu/] 0 app>5tly effac$ by ! brilliant  
light ( ! planet4 ,comput+ backw>ds = ! 
above date1 ,h9d f\nd t on ! ev5+ ( ,m>*
 #af1 #hde1 ,v5us 0 situat$ ne> ! />    
,electra2 & on ! foll[+ ev5+ ! planet   
pass$ close to ,maia2 ?us %[+ ! accuracy
 ( ! ,*9ese record4 ,ano!r eclipse ( !  
,pleiades by ,v5us is record$ 9 ! same  
annals z hav+ occurr$ on ,m>* #aj1      
,a4,d4 #ajjb4cc  ,:5 ,v5us is 9 !       
cresc5t phase1 t is ne> ,inf]ior        
conjunction ) ! sun1 x w be notic$1 ev5 

by a casual obs]v]1 t ! cresc5t is n ( !
 same %ape z t ( ! cresc5t moon4 ,!     
horns or cusps ( ! planet>y cresc5t are 
m prolong$ ?an 9 ! case ( ! moon1 &     
ext5d beyond ! hemisph]e4 ,?is appe>ance
 is caus$ by refraction ( ! sun's light 
?r\gh ! planet>y atmosph]e1 & is1 9     
fact1 a c]ta9 pro( t ,v5us has an       
atmosph]e simil> to t ( ! e>?4          
,obs]vations fur!r %[ t ?is atmosph]e is
 d5s] ?an ours4  ,se5 f ,v5us1 ! e>? &  
moon1 :5 9 opposition1 mu/ pres5t a     
spl5did spectacle4 ,i f9d t ! e>? w\ld  
%9e z a /> ab\t half z bright aga9 z    
,v5us at h] brighte/ appe>s to u1 & !   
moon ab\t equal 9 brightness to ,sirius6
 ! two =m+ a sup]b nak$ eye d\ble       
/>--p]haps ! f9e/ sight ( its k9d 9 !   
sol> sy/em4#cd  ,"s ( ! e>li] obs]v]s1  
su* z ,la ,hire1 ,fontana1 ,cass9i1 &   
,s*rt]1 ?\ght !y saw evid5ce ( m\nta9s  
on ,v5us4 ,s*rt] e/imat$ "s ( ^! to be  
#bg or #bh miles 9 height6 b ?is seems v
 d\btful4 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el sev]ely 
attack$ ^! suppos$ discov]ies4 ,s*rt]   

def5d$ himself1 & 0 support$ by ,be] &  
,mdl]1 ! fam\s lun> obs]v]s4 ,sev]al    
mod]n obs]v]s seem to confirm ,s*rt]'s  
conclusions2 b v little is really kn[n  
ab\t ! topography ( ,v5us4  ,! well-kn[n
 ,fr5* a/ronom] ,tr\velot--a mo/        
excell5t obs]v]--saw :ite spots on ,v5us
 simil> to ^? on ,m>s4 ,^! 7 well se5 & 
q brilliant 9 ,july & ,augu/1 #ahgf1 & 9
 ,febru>y & ,novemb]1 #ahgg4 ,!         
obs]vations seem to %[ t ^! spots d n   
7unlike ,m>s7 increase & decrease ) !   
planet's seasons4 ,^! :ite spots _h be5 
previ\sly notic$ by =m] obs]v]s1 includ+
 ,bian*9i1 ,d]ham1 ,grui?uis51 & ,la    
,hire2 b ^! e>ly obs]v]s d n seem to h  
consid]$ !m z sn[ caps1 l ^? ( ,m>s4    
,tr\velot 0 l$ by 8 own obs]vations to  
conclude t ! p]iod ( rotation ( ,v5us is
 %ort1 & ! be/ result he obta9$ 0 #bc;h 
#dim #bhs4 ,?is does n diff] mu* f !    
results previ\sly f\nd by ,de ,vico1    
,frits*1 & ,s*rt]4#ce  ,a :ite spot ne> 
! planet's s\? pole 0 se5 on sev]al     
occasions by ,h4 ,c4 ,russell 9 ,may &  

,june1 #ahgf4cf  ,photographs ( ,v5us   
tak5 on ,m>* #ah & ,april #bi1 #aijh1 by
 ,m4 ,qunisset at ! ,obs]vatory (       
,juvissy1 ,france1 %[ a :ite pol> spot4 
,! spot 0 also se5 at ! same obs]vatory 
by ,m4 ,a4 ,b5oit on ,may #bj1 #aijc4   
,! controv]sy on ! p]iod ( rotation (   
,v5us1 or ! l5g? ( its day1 is a v      
curi\s "o & has n yet be5 decid$4 ,_m   
good obs]v]s ass]t confid5tly t x is    
%ort 7ab\t #bd h\rs72 :ile o!rs affirm )
 equal confid5ce t x is long 7ab\t #bbe 
days1 ! p]iod ( ! planet's revolution   
r\nd ! sun74 ,among ! obs]v]s :o fav\r !
 %ort p]iod ( rotation are3 ,d4 ,cass9i 
7#affg71 ,j4 ,cass9i 7#agcj71 ,s*rt]    
7#aghh-ic71 ,mdl] 7#ahcf71 ,de ,vico    
7#ahdj87 ,tr\velot 7#ahga-gi71          
,flamm>ion1 ,lo ,br5n]1 ,/anley         
,williams1 & ,j4 ,mc,harg2 & among ^? :o
 support ! long p]iod are3 ,bian*9i     
7#agbg71 ,s*iap>elli1 ,c]ulli1 ,tac*9i1 
,masc>i1 & ,l[ell4 ,"s rec5t            
spectroscopic obs]vations seem to fav\r 
! %ort p]iod4  ,flamm>ion ?9ks t no?+   

c]ta9 c be descri$ ^u ! surface ( ,v5us1
 & t :atev] has hi!rto be5 writt5 reg>d+
 its p]iod ( rotation mu/ be consid]$   
null & void2 & aga9 he says1 ,no?+ c be 
affirm$ reg>d+ ! rotation ( ,v5us1      
inasmu* z ! absorption ( its imm5se     
atmosph]e c]ta9ly prev5ts any detail on 
its surface f be+ p]ceiv$4#cg  ,! em95t 
,sw$i% physici/ ,arrh5ius ?9ks1 h[ev]1 t
 ! d5se atmosph]e & cl\ds ( ,v5us are 9 
fav\r ( a rapid rotation on its axis4#ch
 ,he ?9ks t ! mean temp]ature ( ,v5us   
may n diff] mu* f ! calculat$ temp]ature
 #ajd ,f4 ,"u ^! circum/ances !         
assumption w\ld appe> plausible t a v   
consid]able portion ( ! surface ( ,v5us1
 & p>ticul>ly ! di/ricts ab\t ! poles1  
w\ld be fav\rable to organic life4#ci   
,! second>y light ( ,v5us1 or !         
visibility ( ! d>k side1 seems to h be5 
fir/ m5tion$ by ,d]ham 9 8 ,a/ro ,!ology
 publi%$ 9 #agae4 ,he speaks ( !        
visibility ( ! d>k "p ( ! planet's disc 
by ! aid ( a light ( a some:at dull &   
ruddy col\r4 ,! date ( ,d]ham's         

obs]vation is n giv51 b x seems to h be5
 previ\s to ! ye> #agad4 ,! light seems 
to h be5 also se5 by a fri5d ( ,d]ham4  
,we next f9d obs]vations by ,*ri/fri$   
,kir*1 assi/ant a/ronom] to ! ,b]l9     
,academy ( ,sci5ces1 on ,june #g1 #agba1
 & ,m>* #h1 #agbf4 ,^! obs]vations are  
f\nd 9 8 orig9al pap]s1 & 7 pr9t$ 9 !   
,a/ronomis*e ,na*ri*t51 ,no4 #aehf4 ,on 
! fir/ date ! telescopic image ( !      
planet 0 r tremul\s1 b 9 #agbf he notic$
 t ! d>k "p ( ! circle seem$ to belong  
to a small] circle ?an ! illum9at$      
portion ( ! disc4#dj ,! same effect 0   
also not$ by ,webb4#da ,a simil>        
illusion is se5 9 ! case ( ! cresc5t    
moon1 & ?is has giv5 rise to ! say+1 !  
old moon 9 ! new moon's arms4  ,we next 
come1 9 ord] ( date1 to an obs]vation   
made by ,&reas ,may]1 ,pr(essor (       
,ma!matics at ,griefswald 9 ,prussia4 ,!
 obs]vation 0 made on ,octob] #bj1      
#agei1 & ! d>k "p ( ,v5us 0 se5 di/9ctly
 by ,may]4 ,z ! planet's altitude at !  
"t 0 n m ?an #ad above ! horizon1 & its 

app>5t di/ance f ! sun only #aj1 !      
ph5om5on--z ,pr(essor ,saf>ik has po9t$ 
out--mu/ h _h a mo/ unusual int5sity4   
,sir ,william ,h]s*el makes no m5tion ( 
hav+ ev] se5 ! second>y light ( ,v5us1  
al?\gh he notic$ ! ext5sion ( ! horns   
beyond a semicircle4  ,9 ! spr+ & summ] 
( ! ye> #agic1 ,von ,hahn ( ,rempl9 9   
,meckl5burg1 us+ excell5t telescopes    
made by ,dollond & ,h]s*el1 saw ! d>k "p
 ( ,v5us on sev]al occasions1 &         
describes ! light z grey v]g+ ^u br[n4  
,s*rt] ( ,lili5?al--! fam\s obs]v] ( !  
moon--saw ! horns ( ! cresc5t ( ,v5us   
ext5d$ _m degrees beyond ! semicircle on
 sev]al occasions 9 #aghd & #agie1 & !  
bord] ( ! d>k "p fa9tly lit up by a     
dusky grey light4 ,on ,febru>y #ad1     
#ahjf1 at #g ,p4,m4 he saw ! :ole ( !   
d>k "p visible ) an a%-col\r$ light1 &  
he 0 satisfi$ t !re 0 no illusion4 ,on  
,janu>y #bd ( ! same ye>1 #ahjf1 ,h>d+  
at ,gtt+51 us+ a reflector ( #i in*es   
ap]ture & p[] #hd1 saw ! d>k side (     
,v5us %9+ ) a pale a%-col\r$ light1 & v 

visible aga9/ ! d>k backgr\nd ( ! sky4  
,! appe>ance 0 se5 ) v>i\s magnify+     
p[]s1 & he ?\ght t !re c\ld be no       
illusion4 ,9 fact ! ph5om5on 0 z evid5t 
z 9 ! case ( ! moon4 ,h>d+ aga9 saw x on
 ,febru>y #bh ( ! same ye>1 !           
illum9ation be+ ( a r$di% grey col\r1 l 
t ( ! moon 9 a total eclipse4  ,!       
second>y light 0 also se5 by ,pa/orff 9 
#ahbb1 & by ,grui?uis5 9 #ahbe4 ,s9ce   
#ahbd obs]vations ( ! light 7 made by   
,b]ry1 ,br[n+1 ,gu?rie1 ,langdon1       
,noble1 ,pr9ce1 ,webb1 & o!rs4 ,webb saw
 x ) p[]s ( #ij & #bab on a #ich-;in*   
mirror1 & f\nd x equally visible :5 !   
bright cresc5t 0 hidd5 by a field b>4#db
  ,capta9 ,noble's obs]vation 0 r       
unique4 ,he f\nd t ! d>k side 0 always  
di/9ctly & positively d>k] ?an !        
backgr\nd ^u :i* x is project$4  ,!     
light 0 also se5 by ,lyman 9 ,am]ica 9  
#ahfg1 & by ,saf>ik at ,prague4 ,9 #ahga
 ! :ole disc ( ,v5us 0 se5 by ,pr(essor 
,w9necke4#dc ,on ! o!r h&1 ,w9necke /at$
 t he only saw x twice 9 #bd ye>s2 & !  

great obs]v]s ,dawes & ,mdl] nev] saw x 
at all6#dd  ,v>i\s attempts h be5 made  
to expla9 ! visibility--at times--( !   
d>k side ( ,v5us4 ,! foll[+ may be      
m5tion$#de3--7a7 ,reflect$ e>?-light1   
analog\s to ! d>k side ( ! cresc5t moon4
 ,?is explanation 0 advocat$ by ,h>d+1  
,s*rt]1 & o!rs4 ,b1 al?\gh ! e>? is     
und\bt$ly a bright object 9 ! sky (     
,v5us1 ! explanation is evid5tly q      
inadequate4 7#b7 ,phosphoresc5ce ( !    
planet's atmosph]e4 ,?is has be5 sugge/$
 by "s obs]v]s4 7#c7 ,visibility by     
contra/1 a !ory advanc$ by ! great ,fr5*
 a/ronom] ,arago4 7#d7 ,illum9ation ( ! 
planet's surface by an aurora borealis4 
,?is also seems r inadequate1 b w\ld    
acc\nt = ! light be+ sometimes visible &
 sometimes n4 7#e7 ,lum9osity ( !       
oceans--if !re be any--on ,v5us4 ,b ?is 
also seems inadequate4 7#f7 ,a planet>y 
surface gl[+ ) int5se heat4 ,b ?is seems
 improbable4 7#g7 ,! ,kun/li*e ,feu]    
7artificial fire7 ( ,grui?uis51 a v     
fanciful !ory4 ,flamm>ion ?9ks t !      

visibility ( ! d>k side may p]haps be   
expla9$ by its projection on a some:at  
light] backgr\nd1 su* z ! zodiacal      
light1 or an ext5d$ sol> envelope4#df   
,x w be se5 t none ( ^! explanations are
 entirely satisfactory1 & ! ph5om5on1 if
 real1 rema9s a sort ( a/ronomical      
enigma4 ,! fact t ! light is visible on 
"s occasions & n on o!rs w\ld r5d] "s ( 
! explanations improbable or ev5        
inadmissible4 ,b ! condition ( ! e>?'s  
atmosph]e at times might acc\nt = its   
invisibility on _m occasions4  ,a curi\s
 sugge/ion 0 made by ,zlln]1 namely1 t  
if ! second>y light ( ,v5us c\ld be     
obs]v$ ) ! spectroscope x w\ld %[ bright
 l9es6 ,b su* an obs]vation w\ld be "o (
 extreme difficulty4  ,m4 ,hansky f9ds t
 ! visibility ( ! light is great] dur+  
p]iods ( maximum sol> activity--t is1 at
 ! maxima ( sun spots4 ,?is he expla9s  
by ! !ory ( ,arrh5ius1 9 :i* electrifi$ 
ions emitt$ by ! sun cause ! ph5om5a (  
t]re/rial magnetic /orms & auroras4 ,9 !
 same way ! d5se atmosph]e ( ,v5us is   

r5d]$ m phosphoresc5t1 & !re=e m easily 
visible by ! increas$ sol> activity4#dg 
,?is seems a v plausible hypo!sis4  ,on 
! :ole ! occasional illum9ation ( !     
night side ( ,v5us by a v brilliant     
aurora 7explanation 7#d7 above7 seems to
 ! pres5t writ] to be ! mo/ probable    
explanation4 ,grui?uis5's hypo!sis 7#g7 
seems utt]ly improbable4  ,!re is a     
curi\s app>5t anomaly ab\t ! motion (   
,v5us 9 ! sky4 ,al?\gh ! planet's p]iod 
( revolution r\nd ! sun is #bbdg days1 x
 rema9s on ! same side ( ! sun1 z se5 f 
! e>?1 = #bij days4 ,! reason ( ?is is t
 ! e>? is go+ at ! same "t r\nd ! sun 9 
! same direction1 ?\gh at a sl[] pace2 &
 ,v5us mu/ cont9ue to appe> on ! same   
side ( ! sun until ! excess ( h] daily  
motion above t ( ! e>? am\nts to #agi1 &
 ?is at ! daily rate ( #cg' w be ab\t   
#bij days4  ,sev]al obs]vations h be5   
record$ ( a suppos$ satellite ( ,v5us4  
,b ! exi/5ce ( su* a body has nev] be5  
v]ifi$4 ,9 ! ye> #ahhg1 ,m4 ,/roobant   
inve/igat$ ! v>i\s acc\nts1 & came to ! 

conclusion t 9 sev]al at lea/ ( !       
record$ obs]vations ! object se5 0      
c]ta9ly a />4 ,?us1 9 ! obs]vation made 
by ,ro$icko] & ,bos]up on ,augu/ #d1    
#agfa1 a satellite & /> are record$ z   
hav+ be5 se5 ne> ! planet4 ,m4 ,/roobant
 f9ds t ! suppos$ satellite 0 ! />      
,greek3 *#d ,orionis1 & ! /> ,greek3 *#c
 ,orionis4 ,a suppos$ obs]vation ( a    
satellite made by ,horreb[ on ,janu>y   
#c1 #agfh1 0 und\bt$ly ,greek3 ? ,libr4 
,m4 ,/roobant f\nd t ! suppos$ motion ( 
! satellite z se5 by ,horreb[ is        
accurately repres5t$ by ! motion ( ,v5us
 itself dur+ ! "t ( obs]vation4 ,9 mo/ (
 ! o!r suppos$ obs]vations ( a satellite
 a satisfactory id5tification has also  
be5 f\nd4 ,m4 ,/roobant f9ds t ) a      
telescope ( #f in*es ap]ture1 a /> ( !  
#h? or ev5 ! #i? magnitude c be well se5
 :5 close to ,v5us4#di  ,on ! night (   
,augu/ #ac1 #ahib1 ,pr(essor ,b>n>d1    
:ile exam9+ ,v5us ) ! great #cf-;in*    
telescope ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 saw a  
/> ( ! #g? magnitude 9 ! same field ) ! 

planet4 ,he c>efully det]m9$ ! exact    
position ( ?is />1 & f\nd t x is n 9    
,argel&]'s great catalogue1 !           
,dur*mu/]ung4 ,pr(4 ,b>n>d f9ds t ow+ to
 elongation ( ,v5us f ! sun at ! "t (   
obs]vation ! /> c\ld n possibly be an   
intra-,m]curial planet 7t is1 a planet  
revolv+ r\nd ! sun inside ! orbit (     
,m]cury72 b t possibly x might be a     
planet revolv+ betwe5 ! orbits ( ,v5us &
 ,m]cury4 ,z ! brighte/ ( ! m9or        
planets--,c]es1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 &       
,ve/a--7 n at ! "t ne> ! position ( !   
obs]v$ object1 ! obs]vation rema9s      
unexpla9$4 ,x might possibly h be5 a    
nova1 or tempor>y />4#ej  ,s*eut5 is    
said to h se5 a suppos$ satellite (     
,v5us foll[+ ! planet across ! sun at ! 
end ( ! transit ( ,june #f1 #agfa4ea    
,humboldt speaks ( ! suppos$ satellite (
 ,v5us z among ! a/ronomical my?s ( an  
uncritical age4#eb  ,an occultation (   
,v5us by ! moon is m5tion$ 9 ! ,*9ese   
,annals z hav+ occurr$ on ,m>* #ai1 #cfa
 ,a4,d41 & ,ty*o ,brah obs]v$ ano!r on  

,may #bc1 #aehg4ec  ,a close conjunction
 ( ,v5us & ,regulus 7,greek3 a ,leonis7 
is record$ by ! ,arabian a/ronom]1 ,ibn 
,yunis1 z hav+ occurr$ on ,septemb] #i1 
#hhe ,a4,d4 ,calculations by ,h9d %[ t !
 planet & /> 7 )9 #b' ( arc on t night1 
& consequ5tly w\ld h appe>$ z a s+le /> 
to ! nak$ eye4 ,! telescope _h n !n be5 
inv5t$4#ed  ,se5 f ,v5us1 ! maximum     
app>5t di/ance betwe5 ! e>? & moon w\ld 
v>y f ab\t #e' to #ca'4ee  ,x is relat$ 
by ,arago t ,buonap>te1 :5 go+ to !     
,luxemb\rg 9 ,p>is1 :]e ! ,directory 7  
giv+ a fte 9 8 hon\r1 0 v mu* surpris$  
to f9d ! cr[d assembl$ 9 ! ,rue de      
,t\rac\r pay m att5tion to a region ( ! 
heav5s situat$ above ! palace ?an to 8  
p]son or ! brilliant /aff t accompani$  
him4 ,he inquir$ ! cause & le>n$ t ^!   
curi\s p]sons 7 obs]v+ ) a/oni%m5t1     
al?\gh x 0 noon1 a />1 :i* !y suppos$ to
 be t ( ! conqu]or ( ,italy--an allusion
 to :i* ! illu/ri\s g5]al did n seem    
indiff]5t1 :5 he himself1 ) 8 pi]c+     
eyes1 rem>k$ ! radiant body4 ,! /> 9 "q 

0 ,v5us4#ef     ,,*apt] ,,iv  ,! ,e>?   
,! e>? be+ our place ( abode is1 (      
c\rse1 to u ! mo/ important planet 9 !  
sol> sy/em4 ,x is a curi\s p>adox t !   
moon's surface 7at lea/ ! visible       
portion7 is bett] kn[n to u ?an !       
surface ( ! e>?4 ,e spot on ! moon's    
visible surface equal 9 size to say     
,liv]pool or ,glasg[ is well kn[n to    
lun> obs]v]s1 :]eas !re are ?\s&s (     
squ>e miles on ! e>?'s surface--=       
example1 ne> ! poles & 9 ! c5tre (      
,au/ralia--:i* are :olly unkn[n to !    
e>?'s inhabitants2 & are p]haps likely  
to rema9 s4  ,_m attempts h be5 made by 
p>adox]s to %[ t ! e>? is a flat plane &
 n a sph]e4 ,b ,m4 ,ricco has f\nd by   
actual exp]im5t t ! reflect$ image ( !  
sett+ sun f a smoo? sea is an elongat$  
ellipse4 ,?is proves ma!matically beyond
 all d\bt t ! surface ( ! sea is        
sph]ical2 = ! reflection f a plane      
surface w\ld be necess>ily circul>4 ,!  
!ory ( a flat e>? is !re=e prov$ to be q
 unt5able1 & all ! argum5ts 787 ( ! e>? 

flatt5]s h n[ be5--l ! ,fr5*            
,revolution--bl[n into space4  ,! pole (
 m9imum temp]ature 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1
 or ! pole ( cold1 z x has be5 t]m$1 is 
suppos$ to lie ne> ,w]*ojansk 9 ,sib]ia1
 :]e a temp]ature ( ne>ly -#gj has be5  
obs]v$4  ,f a s]ies ( obs]vations made  
at ,annapolis 7,u4,s4,a47 on ! gradual  
disappe>ance ( ! blue ( ! sky aft]      
sunset1 ,dr4 ,see f9ds t ! extreme      
height ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e is ab\t #acj 
miles4 ,pr(4 ,newcomb f9ds t meteors    
fir/ appe> at a mean height ( ab\t #gd  
miles4#eg  ,an aurora se5 9 ,canada on  
,july #ae1 #ahic1 0 obs]v$ f /ations    
#aaj miles ap>t1 & f ^! obs]vations !   
aurora 0 f\nd to lie at a height ( #aff 
miles above ! e>?'s surface4 ,x 0       
comput$ t if ! auroral ar* ma9ta9$ an   
equal height above ! e>? its ends 7     
#aaej miles away1 s t ! magnific5t sight
 0 pres5t$ ( an auroral belt 9 ! sky )  
#bcjj miles betwe5 its two              
extremities4#eh  ,lum9\s cl\ds are      
bright cl\ds sometimes se5 at night ne> 

! end ( ,june & beg9n+ ( ,july4 ,!y     
appe> above ! nor!rn horizon ov] ! sun's
 place ab\t midnight1 & evid5tly lie at 
a great height above ! e>?'s surface4   
,obs]vations made 9 ,g]many by ,dr4     
,jesse1 & 9 ,engl& by ,mr4 ,backh\se1 9 
! ye>s #ahhe-ia1 %[ t ! height ( ^!     
cl\ds is ne>ly con/ant at ab\t #ea      
miles4#ei ,! pres5t writ] has se5 ^!    
rem>kable cl\ds on "o or two occasions 9
 ,c\nty ,sligo1 ,irel&1 dur+ ! p]iod    
above m5tion$4  ,m4 ,montigny has %[n t 
! approa* ( viol5t cyclones or o!r /orms
 is h]ald$ by an increase ( sc9tillation
 7or tw9kl+ ( ! />s74 ,! effect is also 
v evid5t :5 su* /orms pass at a         
consid]able di/ance4 ,he has also made  
"s int]e/+ obs]vations 7especially on ! 
/> ,capella71 :i* %[ t1 n only does     
sc9tillation increase 9 ra9y wea!r1 b t 
x is v evid5t1 at su* times1 9 />s      
situat$ at an altitude at :i* on o!r    
occasions x w\ld n be p]ceptible at all2
 ?us confirm+ ! rem>k ( ,humboldt's )   
reg>d to ! adv5t ( ! wet season 9       

tropical c\ntries4#fj  ,9 a pap] on !   
subject ( ,optical ,illusions 9 ,popul> 
,a/ronomy1 ,febru>y1 #aijf1 ,mr4 ,ar?ur 
,k4 ,b>tlett1 ( ,batt] ,creek1 ,mi*igan 
7,u4,s4,a471 makes ! foll[+ int]e/+     
rem>ks3--      ,! lun> halo :i* by _m   
p]sons is reg>d$ z a rem>kable &        
unexpla9$ lum9osity associat$ ) ! moon1 
is to meteorological     /ud5ts nei!r a 
my/]i\s nor an anomal\s occurr5ce4 ,x   
has be5     frequ5tly obs]v$ & = _m ye>s
 ?or\ghly und]/ood1 & at     ! pres5t "t
 admits ( an easy sci5tific explanation4
 ,x is an     atmosph]ic exhibition due 
to ! refraction & disp]sion ( !         
moon's light ?r\gh v m9ute ice cry/als  
float+ at great     elevations above !  
e>?1 & x is expla9$ by ! sci5ce (       
meteorology1 to :i* x prop]ly belongs2 =
 x is n ( cosmical     orig91 & 9 no way
 p]ta9s to a/ronomy1 z mo/ p]sons       
suppose1     except z x dep5ds on !     
moon1 ^: light pass+ ?r\gh !            
atmosph]e1 produces ! lum9\s halo1 :i* z
 w be se51 is     simply an optical     

illusion1 orig9at+1 n 9 ! vic9ity ( !   
moon--two hundr$ & =ty ?\s& miles       
away--b j above !     e>?'s surface1 &  
)9 ! aque\s envelope t surr\nds x on    
all sides4444 ,a halo may =m r\nd ! sun 
z well z ! moon 444     b a halo is m   
frequ5tly notic$ r\nd ! moon = ! reason 
t we are too mu* dazzl$ by ! sun's light
 to di/+ui% fa9t     col\rs surr\nd+ its
 disc1 & to see !m x is necess>y to look
     ?r\gh smok$ glass1 or view ! sun by
 reflection f ! surface     ( /ill wat]1
 by :i* its brilliancy is v mu*         
r$uc$4444  ,a 'corona' is an appe>ance (
 fa9tly col\r$ r+s (t5 se5 ar\nd ! sun &
 moon :5 a light fleecy cl\d passes ov] 
!m1 & %\ld n be mi/ak5 = a halo1 :i* is 
mu* l>g] & m complicat$ 9 its /ructure4 
,^! two ph5om5a are frequ5tly conf\nd$  
by inexp]i5c$ obs]v]s4 ,) ^! rem>ks !   
pres5t writ] fully concurs4  ,mr4       
,b>tlett adds--      ,z a halo is nev]  
se5 except :5 ! sky is hazy1 x indicates
     t moi/ure is accumulat+ 9 !        
atmosph]e :i* w =m     cl\ds1 & usually 

result 9 a /orm4 ,b ! popul> notion t ! 
numb] ( bright />s visible )9 ! circle  
indicates ! numb]     ( days be=e ! /orm
 w occur1 is )\t any f\ndation          
:atev]1 & ! belief is almo/ too absurd  
to be refut$4 ,9     :atev] "p ( ! sky a
 lun> halo is se51 "o or m bright       
/>s are always sure to be notic$ inside 
! lum9\s r+1 & !     numb] visible      
dep5ds entirely ^u ! position ( ! moon4 
,moreov]1 :5 ! sky )9 ! circle is exam9$
 ) ev5 a small     telescope1 hundr$s ( 
/>s are visible :]e only "o1 or p]haps  
two or ?ree1 are p]ceiv$ ) ! nak$ eye4  
,x is possible to h five ,sundays 9     
,febru>y 7! ye> mu/ ( c\rse be a leap   
ye>74 ,?is occurr$ 9 ! ye> #ahhj1       
,sunday fall+ on ,febru>y #a1 #h1 #ae1  
#bb1 & #bi4 ,b ?is w n happ5 aga9 till !
 ye> #aibj4 ,no c5tury ye> 7su* z #aijj1
 #bjjj1 etc47 c\ld possibly h five      
,sundays 9 ,febru>y1 & ! ,rev4 ,ri*>d   
,campbell1 :o inve/igat$ ?is matt]1 f9ds
 ! foll[+ sequ5ce ( ye>s 9 :i* five     
,sundays occur 9 ,febru>y3 #afjd1 #afcb1

 #affj1 #afhh1 #agbh1 #agef1 #aghd1     
#ahbd1 #aheb1 #ahhj1 #aibj1 #aidh1      
#aigf4fa  ,9 an article on ,! ,la/ ,day 
& ,ye> ( ! ,c5tury3 ,rem>ks on ,"t      
,reckon+1 9 ,nature1 ,septemb] #aj1     
#ahif1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,lynn1 ! em95t      
a/ronom]1 says1 ,! late ,a/ronom]       
,royal1 ,sir ,george ,airy1 once receiv$
 a lett] reque/+ him to settle a dispute
 :i* _h aris5 9 "s local debat+ society1
 z to :i* w\ld be ! fir/ day ( ! next   
c5tury4 ,8 reply 01 ',a v little        
consid]ation w suffice to %[ t ! fir/   
day ( ! tw5tie? c5tury w be ,janu>y #a1 
#aija4' ,simple z ! matt] seems1 ! fact 
t x is occasionally br\ght into "q %[s t
 !re is "s little difficulty connect$ ) 
x4 ,probably1 h[ev]1 ?is is 9 a great   
measure due to ! circum/ance t ! actual 
figures are *ang$ on ,janu>y #a1 #aijj1 
! day prec$+ be+ ,decemb] #ca1 #ahii4 ,a
 c5tury is a v def9ite ^w = an int]val  
respect+ :i* !re is no possible room =  
mi/ake or diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,b ! date (
 its end+ dep5ds ^u t ( its beg9n+4 ,our

 d\ble sy/em ( backw>d & =w>d reckon+   
leads to a good deal ( inconv5i5ce4 ,our
 reckon+ supposes 7:at we "k 0 n ! case1
 b z an era ! date does equally well7 t 
,*ri/ 0 born at ! end ( ,b4,c4 #a4 ,at !
 end ( ,a4,d4 #a1 !re=e1 "o ye> _h      
elaps$ f ! ev5t1 at ! end ( ,a4,d4 #ajj1
 "o c5tury1 & at ! end ( #aijj1 n9ete5  
c5turies4444 ,x is cle>1 !n1 t ! ye>1 z 
we call x1 is an ord9al numb]1 & t #aijj
 ye>s f ! bir? ( ,*ri/ 7reckon+ z we d f
 ,b4,c4 #a7 w n be complet$ until ! end 
( ,decemb] #ca 9 t ye>1 ! tw5tie? c5tury
 beg9n+ ) ,janu>y #a1 #aija1 t is 7to be
 exact7 at ! previ\s midnight1 :5 ! day 
comm5ces by civil reckon+4 ,) ^! rem>ks 
( ,mr4 ,lynn ,i fully concur1 &1 s f> z 
,i "k1 all a/ronom]s agree ) him4 ,z !  
discussion w probably aga9 arise at !   
end ( ! tw5tie? c5tury1 ,i w\ld l to put
 on record "h :at ! sci5tific op9ion 0  
at ! close ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4  ,pr(4   
,e4 ,ru!r=d1 ! well-kn[n au?ority on    
radium1 sugge/s t possibly radium is a  
s\rce ( heat f )9 ! e>?4 ,traces (      

radium h be5 detect$ 9 _m rocks & soils1
 & ev5 9 sea wat]4 ,calculation %[s t ! 
total am\nt di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! e>?'s cru/
 is enorm\sly l>ge1 al?\gh relatively   
small comp>$ ) ! annual output ( coal = 
! _w4 ,! am\nt ( radium necess>y to     
comp5sate = ! pres5t loss ( heat f ! e>?
 corresponds to only five p>ts 9 "o     
hundr$ million millions p] unit mass1 & 
! obs]vations ( ,el/] & ,g]tel %[ t !   
radio-activity obs]v$ 9 soils           
corresponds to ! pres5ce ( ab\t ?is     
proportion ( radium4#fb  ,! e>? has #ab 
diff]5t motions4 ,^! are z foll[s3--    
#a4 ,rotation on its axis1 hav+ a p]iod 
( #bd h\rs4  #b4 ,revolution r\nd ! sun2
 p]iod #cfe-a_/d days4  #c4 ,precession2
 p]iod ( ab\t #be1gfe ye>s4  #d4        
,semi-lun> gravitation2 p]iod #bh days4 
#e4 ,nutation2 p]iod #ah-a_/b ye>s4  #f4
 ,v>iation 9 obliquity ( ! ecliptic2    
ab\t #dg 9 #ajj ye>s4  #g4 ,v>iation (  
ecc5tricity ( orbit4  #h4 ,*ange ( l9e (
 apsides2 p]iod ab\t #ba1jjj ye>s4  #i4 
,planet>y p]turbations4  #aj4 ,*ange (  

c5tre ( gravity ( :ole sol> sy/em4  #aa4
 ,g5]al motion ( sol> sy/em 9 space4    
#ab4 ,v>iation ( latitude ) sev]al      
degrees ( p]iodicity4#fc      ,an amus+ 
/ory has be5 told :i* af=ds a good      
illu/ration (     ! ignorance & popul>  
notions reg>d+ ! tides prevail+ ev5     
among p]sons ( av]age intellig5ce4      
',tell me1' said a man to an     em95t  
liv+ ,engli% a/ronom] n long ago1 'is x 
/ill     consid]$ probable t ! tides are
 caus$ by ! moon8' ,! man (     sci5ce  
repli$ t to ! be/ ( 8 belief x 01 & !n  
ask$     9 turn :e!r ! inquir] _h any   
s]i\s reason = que/ion+     !           
relation%ip4 ',well1 ,i don't "k1' 0 !  
answ]2 'sometimes     :5 !re is no moon 
!re seems to be a tide all ! same4'6#fd 
,) ref]5ce to ! =ce ( gravitation1 on ! 
e>? & o!r bodies 9 ! univ]se1 ,mr4      
,william ,b4 ,taylor has well said1 ,)  
ea* revolv+ ye> new demon/rations ( its 
absolute precision & ( its univ]sal     
dom9ation s]ves only to fill ! m9d )    
add$ wond] & ) add$ confid5ce 9 !       

/ability & ! supremacy ( ! p[] 9 :i* has
 be5 f\nd no v>iabl5ess nei!r %ad[ (    
turn+1 b :i*--! same ye/]day1 to-day & =
 ev]--    ,lives ?r\gh all life1 ext5ds 
?r\gh all ext5t1   ,spreads undivid$1   
op]ates unsp5t4#fe  ,) ref]5ce to !     
habitability ( o!r planets1 ,t5nyson has
 beautifully said--    ,v5us ne> h]6    
smil+ d[nw>ds at ?is e>?li] e>? ( ours1 
,clos] on ! sun1 p]haps a _w ( nev] fad+
 fl[]s4   ,hesp]1 :om ! poets call'd !  
,br+] home ( all good ?+s2   ,all good  
?+s may move 9 ,hesp]2 p]fect p1 p]fect 
k+s4   ,hesp]--,v5us--7 we native to t  
spl5d\r1 or 9 ,m>s1   ,we %\ld see !    
globe we groan 9 faire/ ( _! ev5+ />s4  
,c\ld we dream ( w> & c>nage1 craft &   
madness1 lu/ & spite1   ,ro>+ ,london1  
rav+ ,p>is1 9 t spot ( peaceful light8  
,might we n 9 glanc+ heav5w>d on a /> s 
silv] fair1   ,ye>n & clasp ! h&s1 &    
murmur1 ',w\ld to ,god t we 7           
!re6'  ,! anci5t ,greek writ]1 ,diog5es 
,la]tius1 /ates t ,anaxim&] 7#faj-edg   
,b4,c47 believ$ t ! e>? 0 a sph]e4 ,!   

,greek words are3 ,greek3 misn te tn gn 
kei/hai1 k5try tax9 epe*\san ousan      
sphairoeid4#ff  ,) ref]5ce to ! ,aurora 
,borealis1 ! exact nature ( :i* is n    
accurately kn[n1 a good /ory us$ to be  
told "s ye>s ago ( a c&idate :o1 und]go+
 ! torture ( a viv voce exam9ation1 0   
unable to reply satisfactorily to any ( 
! que/ions ask$4 ',come1 sir1' said !   
exam9]1 ) ! air ( a man ask+ ! simple/  
"q1 'expla9 to me ! cause ( ! aurora    
borealis4' ',sir1' said ! unhappy       
aspirant = physical hon\rs1 ',i c\ld h  
expla9$ x p]fectly ye/]day1 b n]v\sness 
has1 ,i ?9k1 made me lose my memory4'   
',?is is v un=tunate1' said ! exam9]2 'y
 are ! only man :o c\ld h expla9$ ?is   
my/]y1 & y h =gott5 x4'#fg ,?is 0 writt5
 9 ! ye> #ahii1 & probably ! ph5om5on ( 
! aurora rema9s ne>ly z great a my/]y   
to-day4 ,9 #ahci1 ,,mm4 ,bravais &      
,lott9 made obs]vations on ! aurora 9   
,norway 9 ab\t ,n4 latitude #gj4        
,bravais f\nd ! height to be betwe5 #fb 
& #ic miles above ! e>?'s surface4  ,!  

cause ( ! s-call$ ,glacial ,epo* 9 !    
e>?'s hi/ory has be5 mu* discuss$4 ,!   
,russian physici/1 ,rogovsky1 has       
advanc$ ! foll[+ !ory--      ,if we     
suppose t ! temp]ature ( ! sun at !     
pres5t "t is     /ill increas+1 or at   
lea/ has be5 increas+ until n[1 !       
glacial epo* c be easily acc\nt$ =4     
,=m]ly ! e>? _h a     high temp]ature ( 
its own1 b receiv$ a less] quantity (   
heat     f ! sun ?an n[2 on cool+       
gradually1 ! e>?'s surface     atta9$   
su* a temp]ature z caus$ a great "p ( ! 
surface (     ! nor!rn & s\!rn          
hemisph]es to be cov]$ ) ice2 b !       
sun's radiation increas+1 ! glaci]s     
melt$1 & ! climatic     conditions      
became z !y are n[4 ,9 a ^w1 !          
temp]ature ( !     e>?'s surface is a   
function ( two quantities3 "o decreas+  
7!     e>?'s own heat71 & ! o!r increas+
 7! sun's radiation71 &     consequ5tly 
!re may be a m9imum1 & ?is m9imum 0 !   
glacial     epo*1 :i*1 z %[n by rec5t   
inve/igations1 ^? ( ,luigi de     ,m>*i 

7,report ( ,g4 ,s*iap>elli1 ,meteorolog4
 ,zeits*r41 #cj1     #acj-acf1 #ahie71  
are n local1 b g5]al = ! :ole e>? 7see  
also ,m4 ,neumahr1 ,erdeges*i*t74#fh    
,pr(4 ,p]cival ,l[ell ?9ks t ! life (   
geological palozoic times 0 support$ by 
! e>?'s int]nal heat1 :i* ma9ta9$ !     
ocean at a comp>atively w>m             
temp]ature4#fi  ,! foll[+ passage 9 !   
,book ( ! ,maccabees may possibly ref]  
to an aurora--      ,n[ ab\t ?is "t     
,antio*us made 8 second inroad into     
,egypt4 ,&     x s befell t ?r\gh\t all 
! city1 = ! space ( almo/     =ty days1 
!re appe>$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! sky horsem5 9   
swift     motion1 we>+ robes inwr\ght ) 
gold & c>ry+ spe>s1     equipp$ 9 troops
 = battle2 & draw+ ( swords2 & on !     
o!r side squadrons ( horse 9 array2 &   
enc\nt]s & pursuits     ( bo? armies2 & 
%ak+ ( %ields1 & multitudes ( lances1 & 
ca/+ ( d>ts1 & fla%+ ( gold5 trapp+s1 & 
gird+ on (     all sorts ( arm\r4 ,:]e=e
 all m5 bes\ght t ! vision might     h  
be5 giv5 = food4#gj  ,accord+ to        

,laplace ! decrease ( ! mean heat ( !   
e>? dur+ a p]iod ( #bjjj ye>s has n1    
tak+ ! extremi/ limits1 dim9i%$ z mu* z 
#a_/cjj? ( a degree ,fahr5heit4#ga  ,f 8
 rese>*es on ! cause ( ! ,precession ( !
 ,equ9oxes1 ,laplace conclud$ t ! motion
 ( ! e>?'s axis is ! same z if ! :ole   
sea =m$ a solid mass adh]+ to its       
surface4#gb  ,laplace f\nd t ! major 7or
 long]7 axis ( ! e>?'s orbit co9cid$ ) !
 l9e ( ,equ9oxes 9 ! ye> #dajg ,b4,c4 ,!
 e>?'s p]igee !n co9cid$ ) ! autumnal   
equ9ox4 ,! epo* at :i* ! major axis 0   
p]p5dicul> to ! l9e ( equ9oxes fell 9 ! 
ye> #abej ,a4,d4#gc  ,lev]ri] has f\nd !
 m9imum ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit r\nd
 ! sun to be #jjjdg2 s t ! orbit w nev] 
become absolutely circul>1 z "s h       
imag9$4  ,laplace says--      ,a/ronomy 
consid]$ 9 its entirety is ! f9e/       
monum5t ( !     human m9d1 ! noble/     
essay ( its intellig5ce4 ,s$uc$ by !    
illusions ( ! s5ses & ( self-pride1 = a 
long "t man     consid]$ himself z !    
c5tre ( ! movem5t ( ! />s2 8            

va9-glory has be5 puni%$ by ! t]rors :i*
 8 own ideas h     inspir$4 ,at la/ !   
ef=ts ( sev]al c5turies bru%$ aside !   
veil :i* conceal$ ! sy/em ( ! _w4 ,we   
discov] ourselves     ^u a planet1      
itself almo/ imp]ceptible 9 ! va/ ext5t 
( !     sol> sy/em1 :i* 9 its turn is   
only an ins5sible po9t 9 !     imm5sity 
( space4 ,! sublime results to :i* ?is  
discov]y has     l$ %\ld suffice to     
console u = our extreme littl5ess1 & !  
rank :i* x assigns to ! e>?4 ,let u     
treasure ) solicitude1     let u add to 
z we may1 ?is /ore ( high] k1 ! mo/     
exquisite treasure ( ?9k+ be+s4#gd  ,)  
ref]5ce to probable future *anges 9     
climate1 ! great physici/1 ,arrh5ius1   
says--      ,we (t5 he> lam5tation t !  
coal /or$ up 9 ! e>? is     wa/$ by !   
pres5t g5]ation )\t any ?\ght ( !       
future1     & we are t]rifi$ by ! awful 
de/ruction ( life & prop]ty     :i* has 
foll[$ ! volcanic eruptions ( our days4 
,we may f9d a     k9d ( consolation 9 ! 
consid]ation t "h1 z 9 e o!r     case1  

!re is good mix$ ) evil4 ,by ! influ5ce 
( !     increas+ p]c5tage ( c>bonic acid
 9 ! atmosph]e1 we may hope     to enjoy
 ages ) m equable & bett] climates1     
especially z     reg>ds ! cold] regions 
( ! e>?1 ages :5 ! e>? w     br+ =? mu* 
m abundant crops ?an at pres5t1 = !     
b5efit     ( rapidly propagat+          
mank9d4#ge  ,! night ( ,july #a1 #aijh1 
0 unusually bright4 ,?is 0 notic$ 9     
v>i\s p>ts ( ,engl& & ,irel&1 & by !    
pres5t writ] 9 ,dubl94 ,humboldt /ates t
 at ! "t ( ! new moon at midnight 9     
#agdc1 ! phosphoresc5ce 0 s int5se t    
objects c\ld be di/9ctly recogniz$ at a 
di/ance ( m ?an #fjj feet4#gf  ,an      
int]e/+ pro( ( ! e>?'s rotation on its  
axis has rec5tly be5 f\nd4      ,9 a    
pap] 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,vi5na ,academy  
7,june1 #aijh7 by     ,h]r ,tumlirz1 x  
is %[n ma!matically t if a liquid is    
fl[+     outw>ds betwe5 two horizontal  
discs1 ! l9es ( fl[ w be     /rictly    
/raight only if ! discs & vessel be at  
re/1 & w     assume c]ta9 curves if t   

vessel & ! discs are 9 rotation1     z1 
= example1 due to ! e>?'s rotation4 ,an 
exp]im5tal     arrangem5t 0 set up ) all
 precautions1 & ! /ream l9es 7     m>k$ 
) col\r$ liquids & photograph$4 ,^! 7 9 
g5]al     accord ) ! pr$ictions ( !ory &
 ! supposition t !     e>? is rotat+    
ab\t an axis4#gg  ,9 a book publi%$ 9   
#aije entitl$ ,! ,rational ,almanac1 by 
,moses ,b4 ,cotswor?1 ( ,york1 ! au?or  
/ates t 7p4 #cig71 ,! explanation is    
app>5t f ! ,great ,pyramid's ,slope1 :i*
 conclusively proves t :5 x 0 built !   
latitude ( t region 0 #ga m ?an at      
pres5t4 ,egyptian ,memphis n[ ne> ,cairo
 0 !n 9 latitude #cga1 :]e ,asia ,m9or  
n[ ranges1 :il/ ,syria w\ld !n be :]e ! 
,caucasus regions n[ exp]i5ce ^? rigor\s
 w9t]s =m]ly exp]i5c$ 9 ,syria4 ,b !    
reality ( ?is comp>atively great *ange (
 latitude 9 ! position ( ! ,great       
,pyramid c be easily disprov$4 ,py!as ( 
,m>seilles--:o liv$ 9 ! "t ( ,alex&] !  
,great1 ab\t #ccj ,b4,c4--measur$ !     
latitude ( ,m>seilles by means ( a      

gnomon1 & f\nd x to be ab\t #db         
#ef'-a_/b4 ,z ! pres5t latitude (       
,m>seilles is #dc #ag' #ej1 no great    
*ange 9 ! latitude c\ld h tak5 place 9  
ov] #bjjj ye>s4#gh ,f ?is we may        
conclude t ! latitude ( ! ,great        
,pyramid has n *ang$ by #ga s9ce its    
con/ruction4 ,!re is1 x is true1 a sl[  
dim9ution go+ on 9 ! obliquity ( !      
ecliptic 7or incl9ation ( ! e>?'s axis71
 b mod]n obs]vations %[ t ?is w\ld n    
am\nt to z mu* z "o degree 9 #fjjj ye>s4
 ,eudemus ( ,rhodes--a disciple (       
,ari/otle 7:o di$ 9 #cbb ,b4,c47--f\nd !
 obliquity ( ! ecliptic to be #bd1 :i*  
diff]s b little f its pres5t value1 #bc 
#bg'4 ,al-,sufi 9 ! t5? c5tury measur$ !
 latitude ( ,s*iraz 9 ,p]sia1 & f\nd x  
#bi #cf'4 ,its pres5t latitude is #bi   
#cf' #cj1gi s t evid5tly !re has be5 no 
*ange 9 ! latitude 9 #ijj ye>s4         
,,*apt] ,v  ,! ,moon   ,! total area ( !
 moon's surface is ab\t equal to t (    
,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! actual surface 
visible at any "o "t is ab\t equal to   

,nor? ,am]ica4  ,! fam\s lun> obs]v]1   
,s*rt]1 ?\ght t ! moon _h an atmosph]e1 
b e/imat$ its height at only a little   
ov] a mile4 ,its d5sity he suppos$ to be
 less ?an t ( ! vacuum 9 an air-pump4   
,rec5t inve/igations1 h[ev]1 seem to %[ 
t ow+ to its small mass & attractive =ce
 ! moon c\ld n reta9 an atmosph]e l t ( 
! e>?4  ,pr(4 ,n4 ,s4 ,%al]1 ( ,h>v>d   
7,u4,s4,a471 f9ds f a /udy ( ! moon 7f a
 geological po9t ( view7 ) ! #ae-;in*   
refractor ( ! ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory1 t our 
satellite has no atmosph]e nor any =m ( 
organic life1 & he believes t its       
surface 0 br\ght to its pres5t condition
 be=e ! e>? _h ev5 a solid cru/4#hj     
,!re is a curi\s illusion ) ref]5ce to !
 moon's app>5t diamet] ref]r$ to by     
,proctor4#ha ,if1 :5 ! moon is abs5t 9 !
 w9t] mon?s1 we ask a p]son :e!r !      
moon's diamet] is great] or less ?an !  
di/ance betwe5 ! />s ,greek3 d & ,greek3
 e1 & ,greek3 e & ,greek3 z ,orionis1 ! 
?ree well-kn[n />s 9 ! belt ( ,orion1 ! 
answ] w probably be t ! moon's app>5t   

diamet] is ab\t equal to ea* ( ^!       
di/ances4 ,b 9 reality ! app>5t di/ance 
betwe5 ,greek3 d & ,greek3 e ,orionis   
7or betwe5 ,greek3 e & ,greek3 z1 :i* is
 ab\t ! same7 is m ?an d\ble ! moon's   
app>5t diamet]4 ,?is seems at fir/ sight
 a />tl+ /atem5t2 b its tru? is1 (      
c\rse1 beyond all d\bt & is n op5 to    
argum5t4 ,proctor po9ts out t if a p]son
 e/imates ! moon z a foot 9 diamet]1 z  
its app>5t diamet] is ab\t half a       
degree1 ?is w\ld imply t ! obs]v]       
e/imates ! circumf]5ce ( ! /> sph]e z   
ab\t #gbj feet 7#cfj  #b71 & h5ce !     
radius 7or ! moon's di/ance f ! e>?7    
ab\t #aae feet4 ,b 9 reality all su*    
e/imates h no sci5tific 7t is1 accurate7
 mean+4 ,"s ( ! anci5ts1 su* z          
,ari/otle1 ,cic]o1 & ,h]aclitus1 seem to
 h e/imat$ ! moon's app>5t diamet] at   
ab\t a foot4#hb ,?is %[s t ev5 great    
m9ds may make s]i\s mi/akes4  ,x has be5
 /at$ by "s writ] t ! moon z se5 ) !    
highe/ p[]s ( ! great ,y]kes telescope  
7#dj in*es ap]ture7 appe>s j z x w\ld be

 se5 ) ! nak$ eye if x 7 susp5d$ #fj    
miles ov] our heads4 ,b ?is /atem5t is q
 errone\s4 ,! moon z se5 ) ! nak$ eye or
 ) a telescope %[s u ne>ly a :ole       
hemisph]e ( its surface4 ,b if ! eye 7  
plac$ only #fj miles f ! moon's surface1
 we %\ld see only a small portion ( its 
surface4 ,9 fact1 x is a curi\s p>adox t
 ! ne>] ! eye is to a sph]e ! less we   
see ( its surface6 ,! tru? ( ?is w be   
evid5t f ! fact t on a level pla9 an eye
 plac$ at a height1 say #e feet1 sees a 
v small portion inde$ ( ! e>?'s surface1
 & ! high] we asc5d ! m ( ! surface we  
see4 ,i f9d t at a di/ance ( #fj miles f
 ! moon's surface we %\ld only see a    
small portion ( its visible hemisph]e   
7ab\t #a_/ij?74 ,! lun> features w\ld   
also appe> "u a diff]5t aspect4 ,! view 
w\ld be m ( a l&scape ?an t se5 9 any   
telescope4 ,?is view ( ! matt] is n new4
 ,x has be5 previ\sly po9t$ out1        
especially by ,m4 ,flamm>ion & ,mr4     
,:itmell1 b its tru? is n1 ,i ?9k1      
g5]ally recogniz$4 ,pr(4 ,newcomb d\bts 

:e!r ) any telescope ! moon has ev] be5 
se5 s well z x w\ld be if br\ght )9 #ejj
 miles ( ! e>?4  ,a relief map ( ! moon 
#ai feet 9 diamet] 0 add$1 9 #ahih1 to !
 ,field ,columbian ,museum 7,u4,s4,a474 
,x 0 prep>$ ) great c>e f ! lun> *>ts ( 
,be] & ,mdl]1 & ,dr4 ,s*midt ( ! ,a!ns  
,obs]vatory1 & x %[s ! lun> features v  
accurately4 ,its con/ruction took five  
ye>s4  ,on a photograph ( a "p ( !      
moon's surface ne> ! crat] ,erato/h5es1 
,pr(4 ,william ,h4 ,pick]+ f9ds m>k+s   
:i* v mu* resemble ! s-call$ canals (   
,m>s4 ,! photograph 0 tak5 9 ,jamaica1 &
 a copy ( x is giv5 9 ,pr(4 ,pick]+'s   
book on ! ,moon1 & 9 ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 
,febru>y1 #aijd4  ,exp]im5ts made 9     
,am]ica by ,messrs4 ,/ebb9s & ,f4 ,c4   
,br[n1 by means ( sel5ium cells1 %[ t ! 
light ( ! full moon is ab\t n9e times t 
( ! half moon2#hc & t ! moon is bright] 
betwe5 ! fir/ qu>t] & full ?an 9 !      
correspond+ phase aft] full moon4 ,!y   
also f9d t ! light ( ! full moon is     
equal to #jbc c&le p[]1#hc t is1 accord+

 to ! me?od ( measurem5t us$ 9 ,am]ica1 
its light is equal to #jbc ( a /&>d c&le
 plac$ at a di/ance ( "o metre 7#cicg   
in*es7 f ! eye4#hd  ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4        
,kimball f9ds t no less ?an #eb p] c5t4 
( ! obs]v$ *anges 9 int5sity ( ! e>?-%9e
 visible on ! moon :5 at or ne> !       
cresc5t phase is due to ! ecc5tricity ( 
! lun> orbit1 & ?is is probably mu*     
great] ?an c\ld be expect$ f any        
increase or dim9ution 9 ! av]age        
cl\d9ess ov] ! hemisph]e ( ! e>?        
reflect+ light to ! moon4#he  ,! moon   
maid5 is a t]m appli$ to a fanci$       
resemblance ( a portion ( ! ,s9us       
,iridum to a female head4 ,x =ms !      
promontory kn[n z ,cape ,h]aclides1 &   
may be look$ = :5 ! moon's age is ab\t  
#aa days4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,j4 ,caswell1 :o     
obs]v$ x on ,septemb] #bi1 #ahie1       
describes x z resembl+ a beautiful silv]
 /atuette ( a graceful female figure )  
fl[+ hair4  ,m4 ,l&]] f9ds t ! angle (  
pol>ization ( ! moon's surface--ab\t    
#cc--;agrees well ) ! pol>iz+ angle = _m

 specim5s ( igne\s rocks 7#cj #ea' to   
#cc #df'74 ,! pol>iz+ angle = ice is m  
?an #cg1 & ?is fact is oppos$ to !      
!ories ( lun> glaciation advanc$ by "s  
obs]v]s4#hf  ,kepl] /ates 9 8 ,somnium t
 he saw ! moon 9 ! cresc5t phase on !   
morn+ & ev5+ ( ! same day 7t is1 be=e & 
aft] conjunction ) ! sun74 ,kepl] c\ld  
see #ad />s 9 ! ,pleiades ) ! nak$ eye1 
s 8 eyesight mu/ h be5 exceptionally    
ke54  ,inve/igations on anci5t eclipses 
( ! moon %[ t ! eclipse m5tion$ by      
,josephus z hav+ occurr$ be=e ! dea? (  
,h]od is probably t :i* took place on   
,septemb] #ae1 ,b4,c4 #e4 ,?is occurr$  
ab\t #i4de p4m42 & probably ab\t six    
mon?s be=e ! dea? ( ,h]od 7,/4 ,mat!w   
ii4 #ae74  ,! total lun> eclipse :i*    
occurr$ on ,octob] #d1 #ahhd1 0         
rem>kable = ! almo/ total disappe>ance (
 ! moon dur+ totality4 ,"o obs]v] says t
 9 ! op5 air1 if "o _h n kn[n exactly   
:]e to look = x1 "o might h se>*$ = "s  
"t )\t discov]+ x4 ,i speak ( c\rse ( ! 
nak$ eye appe>ance4#hg ,on ! o!r h& !   

same obs]v]1 speak+ ( ! total eclipse ( 
! moon on ,augu/ #bc1 #ahgg1 :i* 0 a    
bright "o1 says--      ,! moon ev5 9 !  
middle ( ! total phase 0 a conspicu\s   
object 9 ! sky1 & ! ruddy col\r 0 well  
m>k$4 ,9 ! v     middle ( ! eclipse !   
degree ( illum9ation 0 z ne>ly z        
possible equal all r\nd ! edge ( ! moon1
 ! c5tral p>ts be+     d>k] ?an ^? ne> !
 edge4  ,9 ,rog] de ,hov$9's ,*ronicle  
7,a4,d4 #gef7 an acc\nt is giv5 ( !     
occultation ( a bright />1 by ! moon    
dur+ a total eclipse4 ,?is is confirm$  
by ,simeon ( ,durham1 :o also dates !   
eclipse ,a4,d4 #gef4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 a  
mi/ake1 ! eclipse hav+ occurr$ on ! ev5+
 ( ,novemb] #bc1 ,a4,d4 #gee4 ,calvisius
 suppos$ t ! occult$ /> might h be5     
,aldeb>an4 ,p+r1 h[ev]1 %[$ t ?is 0     
impossible1 & ,/ruyck1 9 #agdj1 %[$ t ! 
planet ,jupit] 0 ! /> ref]r$ to by !    
e>ly obs]v]4 ,fur!r calculations by ,h9d
 7#ahhe7 %[ conclusively t ,/ruyck 0 q  
correct1 & t ! ph5om5on describ$ 9 ! old
 *ronicles 0 ! occultation ( ,jupit] by 

a totally eclips$ moon--a r unique      
ph5om5on4#hh  ,an occultation ( ,m>s by 
! moon is record$ by ! ,*9ese1 on       
,febru>y #ad1 ,b4,c4 #fi1 & "o ( ,v5us1 
on ,m>* #cj1 ,a4,d4 #cfa4 ,^! h also be5
 v]ifi$ by ,h9d1 & 8 calculations %[ !  
accuracy ( ^! old ,*9ese records4  ,x   
has be5 sugge/$ t ! moon may possibly h 
a satellite revolv+ r\nd x1 z ! moon    
itself revolves r\nd ! e>?4 ,?is w\ld1 (
 c\rse1 =m an object ( great int]e/4    
,dur+ ! total lun> eclipses ( ,m>* #aj &
 ,septemb] #c1 #ahie1 a c>eful          
photographic se>* 0 made by ,pr(4 ,b>n>d
 = a possible lun> satellite4 ,! eclipse
 ( ,m>* #aj 0 n v suitable = ! purpose  
ow+ to a hazy sky1 b t ( ,septemb] #c 0 
entirely satisfactory1 z ! sky 0 v cle>1
 & ! duration ( totality 0 v long4 ,on !
 latt] occasion six spl5did photographs 
7 obta9$ ( ! total phase ) a #f-;in*    
,will>d l5s4 ,! result 0 t none ( ^!    
photographs %[ any?+ :i* might be tak5 =
 a lun> satellite1 at lea/ any satellite
 z bright z ! #aj? or #ab? magnitude4 ,x

 is1 ( c\rse1 j possible t ! suppos$    
satellite might h be5 beh9d ! moon dur+ 
! totality4  ,) ref]5ce to ! attraction 
betwe5 ! e>? & moon1 ,sir ,oliv] ,lodge 
says--      ,! =ce ) :i* ! moon is held 
9 its orbit w\ld be great     en\gh to  
te> asund] a /eel rod #djj miles ?ick1 )
 a t5acity (     #cj tons to ! squ>e    
in*1 s t if ! moon & e>? 7     connect$ 
by /eel in/ead ( gravity1 a =e/ ( pill>s
 w\ld be     necess>y to :irl ! sy/em   
once a mon? r\nd _! common c5tre     (  
gravity4 ,su* a =ce necess>ily implies  
enorm\s t5sure or     pressure 9 !      
m$ium4 ,maxwell calculates t !          
gravitational     /ress ne> ! e>?1 :i*  
we mu/ suppose to exi/ 9 ! invisible    
m$ium1 is #cjjj times great] ?an :at !  
/ronge/ /eel c /&1     & ne> ! sun x    
%\ld be #bejj times z great z t4#hi  ,) 
ref]5ce to ! names giv5 to crat]s on !  
moon1 ,pr(4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ says1#ij ,! 
sy/em ( nom5clature is1 ,i ?9k1         
un=tunate4 ,! names ( ! *ief crat]s are 
g5]ally ^? ( m5 :o h done little or no?+

 = sel5ography1 or ev5 = a/ronomy1 :ile 
! m5 :o %\ld be really commemorat$ are  
repres5t$ 9 g5]al by small & unimportant
 crat]s1 & aga9--      ,a s]i\s         
objection to ! :ole sy/em ( nom5clature 
lies 9 !     fact t x has app>5tly be5  
us$ by "s sel5ograph]s1 f !     e>lie/  
times up to ! pres5t1 z a means (       
satisfy+ _! spite     aga9/ "s ( _!     
contempor>ies4 ,"u ! guise ( pret5d+ to 
hon\r !m by plac+ _! names 9 p]petuity  
^u ! moon1 !y     h us$ _! names m]ely  
to designate ! smalle/ objects t     _! 
telescopes 7 capable ( %[+4 ,an int]e/+ 
illu/ration     ( ?is po9t is f\nd 9 !  
crat]s ( ,galileo & ,riccioli1 :i*      
lie close toge!r on ! moon4 ,x w be     
rememb]$ t ,galileo 0     ! discov]] ( !
 crat]s on ! moon4 ,bo? names 7 giv5 by 
,riccioli1 & ! relative size &          
importance ( ! crat]s     ,riccioli     
l>ge1 & ,galileo v small probably       
indicates to u !     relative importance
 t he assign$ to ! two m5 !mselves4 ,o!r
     examples might be quot$ ( crat]s   

nam$ 9 ! same _s aft] m5     /ill       
liv+4444 ,) ! exception ( ,ma$l]1 "o    
might almo/ say1     ! m prom95t !      
sel5ograph] ! m insignificant !         
crat]4  ,! ma!matical treatm5t ( ! lun> 
!ory is a problem ( great difficulty4 ,!
 fam\s ma!matician1 ,eul]1 describ$ x z 
incr$ibile /adium atque indefessus      
labor4#ia  ,) ref]5ce to ! e>?-%9e on ! 
moon :5 9 ! cresc5t phase1 ,humboldt    
says1 ,lamb]t made ! rem>kable          
obs]vation 7#ad? ( ,febru>y1 #aggd7 ( a 
*ange ( ! a%-col\r$ moonlight into an   
olive-gre5 col\r1 bord]+ ^u yell[4 ,!   
moon1 :i* !n /ood v]tically ov] !       
,atlantic ,ocean1 receiv$ ^u its night  
side ! gre5 t]re/rial light1 :i* is     
reflect$ t[>ds h] :5 ! sky is cle> by ! 
=e/ di/ricts ( ,s\? ,am]ica4#ib ,arago  
said1 ,il n'e/ donc pas impossible1     
malgr t\t ce qu'un p>eil rsultat        
excit]ait de surprise au premi] c\p     
d'oeil qu'un j\r les mtorologi/es aill5t
 puis] dans l'aspect de la ,lune des    
notions prcieuses sur l'etat moy5 de    

diaphanit de l'atmosphre t]re/re1 dans  
les hemisphres qui successivem5t        
concurr5t  la production de la lumire   
c5dre4#ic  ,! e>?-%9e on ! new moon 0   
successfully photograph$ 9 ,febru>y1    
#ahie1 by ,pr(4 ,b>n>d at ! ,lick       
,obs]vatory1 ) a #f-;in* ,will>d        
portrait l5s4 ,he says--      ,! e>?-lit
 globe /&s out beautifully r\nd1        
encircl$ by !     sl5d] cresc5t4 ,all ! 
'seas' are conspicu\sly visible1 z are  
also ! o!r prom95t features1 especially 
! region ab\t     ,ty*o4 ,ari/>*us &    
,cop]nicus appe> z bright specks1 &     
! light /reams f ,ty*o are v di/9ct4#id 
,kepl] f\nd t ! moon completely         
disappe>$ dur+ ! total eclipse (        
,decemb] #i1 #afja1 & ,hevelius obs]v$ !
 same ph5om5on dur+ ! eclipse ( ,april  
#be1 #afdb1 :5 n a ve/ige ( ! moon c\ld 
be se54#ie ,9 ! total lun> eclipse (    
,june #aj1 #ahaf1 ! moon dur+ totality 0
 n visible 9 ,london1 ev5 ) a           
telescope6#ie  ,! lun> m\nta9s are      
relatively mu* high] ?an ^? on ! e>?4   

,be] & ,mdl] f\nd ! foll[+ heights3     
,drfel1 #bc1agd feet2 ,newton1 #bb1ada2 
,casatus1 #ba1ajb2 ,curtius1 #bj1fcb2   
,callippus1 #ah1idf2 & ,ty*o1 #ah1gdh   
feet4#if  ,tak+ ! e>?'s diamet] at #giab
 miles1 ! moon's diamet]1 #bafc miles1 &
 ! height ( ,m\nt ,ev]e/ z #bi1jjj feet1
 ,i f9d t        ,ev]e/          #a     
,drfel        #a   ----------------     
----1 & ---------------  ---   ,e>?'s   
diamet]   #addj      moon's diamet]     
#dib  ,f :i* x foll[s t ! lun> m\nta9s  
are proportionately ab\t ?ree times     
high] ?an ^? on ! e>?4  ,accord+ to an  
hypo!sis rec5tly advanc$ by ,dr4 ,see1  
all ! satellites ( ! sol> sy/em1 includ+
 our moon1 7 captur$ by _! prim>ies4 ,he
 ?9ks1 !re=e1 t ! moon came to e>? f    
heav5ly space4#ig     ,,*apt] ,,vi  ,m>s
   ,m>s 0 call$ by ! anci5ts ! vani%+   
/>1 ow+ to ! long p]iods dur+ :i* x is  
practically invisible f ! e>?4#ih ,x 0  
also call$ ,greek3 puroeis & ,h]cules4  
,i h se5 x /at$ 9 a book on ! ,sol>     
,sy/em by a well-kn[n a/ronom] t ! axis 

( ,m>s is incl9$ to ! plane ( ! orbit at
 an angle ( #bd #ej'6 ,b ?is is q       
errone\s4 ,! angle giv5 is ! angle      
betwe5 ! plane ( ! planet's equator & ! 
plane ( its orbit1 :i* is q a diff]5t   
?+4 ,?is angle1 :i* may be call$ !      
obliquity ( ,m>s' ecliptic1 does n diff]
 mu* f t ( ! e>?4 ,l[ell f9ds x #bc #ac'
 f obs]vations 9 #aijg4ii  ,! late ,mr4 
,proctor ?\ght t ,m>s is f> ! r$de/ /> 9
 ! heav5s2 ,aldeb>an & ,ant>es are pale 
beside him4#ajj ,b ?is does n agree ) my
 exp]i5ce4 ,ant>es is to my eye q z r$ z
 ,m>s4 ,its "n is d]iv$ f two ,greek    
words imply+ r$d] ?an ,m>s4 ,! col\r (  
,aldeb>an is1 ,i ?9k1 q comp>able ) t ( 
! ruddy planet4 ,9 ! telescope ! col\r (
 ,m>s is1 ,i believe1 m yell[ ?an r$1 b 
,i h n se5 ! planet v (t5 9 a telescope4
 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el sugge/$ t ! r$di%   
col\r ( ,m>s may possibly be due to r$  
rocks1 l ^? ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 & ! r$
 soil (t5 associat$ ) su* rocks1 z ,i h 
myself notic$ ne> ,torquay & o!r places 
9 ,devon%ire4  ,! ruddy col\r ( ,m>s 0  

=m]ly ?\ght to be due to ! great d5sity 
( its atmosph]e4 ,b mod]n obs]vations   
seem to %[ t ! planet's atmosph]e is1 on
 ! contr>y1 mu* r>] ?an t ( ! e>?4 ,!   
p]si/5t visibility ( ! m>k+s on its     
surface %[s t its atmosph]e _c be       
cl\d-lad5 l ours2 & ! spectroscope %[s t
 ! wat] vap\r pres5t is--al?\gh         
p]ceptible--less ?an t ( our t]re/rial  
envelope4  ,! exi/5ce ( wat] vap\r is   
cle>ly %[n by photographs ( ! planet's  
spectrum tak5 by ,mr4 ,sliph] at !      
,l[ell ,obs]vatory 9 #aijh4 ,^! %[ t !  
wat] vap\r b&s a & ne> ,d are /rong] 9 !
 spectrum ( ,m>s ?an 9 t ( ! moon at !  
same altitude4#aja  ,! d>k m>k+s on ,m>s
 7 =m]ly suppos$ to repres5t wat] & !   
light p>ts l&4 ,b ?is idea has n[ be5   
ab&on$4 ,light reflect$ f a wat] surface
 is pol>iz$ at c]ta9 angles4 ,pr(4 ,w4  
,h4 ,pick]+1 9 8 obs]vations on ,m>s1   
f9ds no trace ( pol>ization 9 ! light   
reflect$ f ! d>k p>ts ( ! planet4 ,b "u 
! same conditions he f9ds t !           
blui%-black r+ surr\nd+ ! :ite pol> cap 

%[s a well-m>k$ pol>ization ( light1 ?us
 indicat+ t ?is d>k r+ is probably      
wat]4#ajb  ,projections on ! limb ( !   
planet h frequ5tly be5 obs]v$ 9 ,am]ica4
 ,^! are kn[n n to be m\nta9s1 z !y d n 
reappe> "u simil> conditions4 ,!y are   
suppos$ to be cl\ds1 & "o se5 9         
,decemb]1 #aijj1 has be5 expla9$ z a    
cl\d ly+ at a height ( "s #ac miles     
above ! planet's surface & drift+ at !  
rate ( ab\t #bg miles an h\r4 ,if !re   
are any m\nta9s on ,m>s !y h n yet be5  
discov]$4  ,! exi/5ce ( ! s-call$ canals
 ( ,m>s is suppos$ to be confirm$ by    
,l[ell's photographs ( ! planet4 ,b :at 
^! canals really repres5t1 t is ! "q4   
,!y h c]ta9ly an artificial look ab\t   
!m1 & !y =m "o ( ! mo/ curi\s & int]e/+ 
problems 9 ! heav5s4 ,pr(4 ,l[ell says--
      ,mo/ sugge/ive ( all ,m>tian      
ph5om5a are ! canals4 ,7 !y     m       
g5]ally obs]vable ! _w w\ld h be5 sp>$  
mu*     scepticism & m !ory4 ,!y may (  
c\rse n be artificial1 b     obs]vations
 "h ,flag/aff indicate t !y are2 z w1 ,i

     ?9k1 appe> f ! draw+s4 ,= x is "o  
?+ to see two or     ?ree canals & q    
ano!r to h ! planet's disc mapp$ )      
!m on a mo/ elaborate sy/em (           
triangulation4 ,9 ! fir/ place     !y   
are ?is season 7,augu/1 #ahid7          
blui%-gre51 ( ! same col\r     z ! seas 
into :i* ! long] ones all ev5tually     
deb\*4 ,9 !     next place !y are almo/ 
)\t exception geodetically /raight1     
sup]naturally s1 & ?is 9 spite ( _!     
lead+ 9 e     possible direction4 ,!n !y
 are ( app>5tly ne>ly uni=m wid?        
?r\gh\t _! l5g?4 ,:at !y are is ano!r   
matt]4 ,_! m]e     aspect1 h[ev]1 is    
en\gh to cause all !ories ab\t          
glaciation     fissures or surface      
cracks to die an in/ant & natural       
dea?4#ajc  ,"s ( ! obs]v$ col\r-*anges  
on ,m>s are v curi\s4 ,9 ,april1 #aije1 
,mr4 ,l[ell obs]v$ t ! m>k+ kn[n z ,m>e 
,ery?rum1 j above ,syrtis1 _h *ang$ f a 
blue-gre5 to a *ocolate-br[n col\r4 ,!  
season on ,m>s correspond$ ) our        
,febru>y4  ,signor ,v4 ,c]ulli says t1  

hav+ obs]v$ ,m>s regul>ly = t5 ye>s1 he 
has come to ! conclusion t ! actual     
exi/5ce ( ! canals is z mu* a subject = 
physiological z = a/ronomical           
inve/igation4 ,he /ates t ! ph5om5a     
obs]v$ are s ne> ! limit ( ! range ( !  
human eye t 9 obs]v+ !m "o really       
exp]i5ces an effect accompany+ ! 'bir? (
 vision4' ,t is to say1 ! eye sees m & m
 z x becomes accu/om$1 or /ra9$1 to !   
delicate m>k+s1 & ?us ! jo9+ up ( spots 
to =m 'canals' & ! gem9ation ( ! latt]  
foll[ z a physiological effect1 & ne$ n 
necess>ily be subjective ph5om5a se5 by 
! unaccu/om$ eye4#ajd  ,! possibility ( 
life on ,m>s has be5 rec5tly mu*        
discuss$2 "s d5y+1 o!rs ass]t+4 ,m4 ,e4 
,rogovsky says--      ,z free oxyg5 &   
c>bonic dioxide may exi/ 9 ! atmosph]e (
     ,m>s1 vegetable & animal life is q 
possible4 ,if !     temp]ature :i*      
prevails ^u ,m>s is ne>] to -#cf ,c4 ?an
 to     -#gc ,c41 ! exi/5ce ( liv+ be+s 
l ourselves is possible4 ,9     fact1 ! 
ice ( "s ,gre5l& & ,alp9e glaci]s is    

cov]$ by r$     alg 7,sphrella nivalis72
 we f9d !re also diff]5t species (      
rotaloria1 v>iegat$ spid]s1 & o!r       
animals on ! sn[ fields     illum9at$ by
 ! sun2 at ! edges ( glaci] sn[s 9 !    
,tyrol we     see violet bells (        
,soldanella pusilla1 ! /alks ( :i* make 
_! way ?r\gh ! sn[ by produc+ heat :i*  
melts x r\nd     ab\t !m4 ,f9ally !     
,sib]ian t[n ,v]khociansk1 ne> ,yakutsk1
     exi/s1 ?\gh ! temp]ature !re falls 
to -#fih ,c4 & ! mean     temp]ature (  
,janu>y to -#eab1 & ! mean pressure ( ! 
vap\r     ( wat] is less ?an #jjemm4 ,x 
is possible1 !re=e1 t liv+     be+s h   
become adapt$ to ! conditions n[        
prevail+ ^u     ,m>s aft] ! lapse ( _m  
ages1 & live at an ev5 l[]              
temp]ature ?an ^u ! e>?1 develop+ !     
necess>y heat     !mselves4  ,m4        
,rogovsky adds1 ,wat] 9 organisms is    
ma9ly a liquid or solv5t1 & _m o!r      
liquids may be ! same4 ,we h no reason  
to believe t life is possible only "u ! 
same conditions & ) ! same *emical      

composition ( organisms z ^u ! e>?1     
al?\gh inde$ we _c affirm t !y actually 
exi/ on ,m>s4#aje ,) ! above views !    
pres5t writ] fully concurs4  ,pr(4      
,l[ell ?9ks t ! pol> regions ( ,m>s1 bo?
 nor? & s\?1 are actually w>m] ?an !    
correspond+ regions ( ! e>?1 al?\gh !   
mean temp]ature ( ! planet is probably  
twelve degrees l[] ?an ! e>?'s mean     
temp]ature4#ajf  ,a writ] 9 ,a/ronomy & 
,a/rophysics 7#ahib1 p4 #gdh7 says--    
,:e!r ! planet ,m>s is inhabit$ or n    
seems to be !     all-absorb+ "q ) !    
ord9>y read]4 ,) ! a/ronom]     ?is qu]y
 is almo/ ! la/ ?+ ab\t ! planet t he   
w\ld     ?9k ( :5 he has an opportunity 
to /udy its surface m>k+s 444     no    
a/ronom] claims to "k :e!r ! planet is  
inhabit$ or n4  ,sev]al sugge/ions h be5
 made ) ref]5ce to ! possibility (      
signall+ to ,m>s4 ,b1 z ,mr4 ,l>k9 (    
,m\nt ,l[e 7,u4,s4,a47 po9ts out1 all   
writ]s on ?is subject seem to =get !    
fact t ! night side ( two planets are   
nev] turn$ t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,:5 ! sun is  

betwe5 !m x is day on ! side ( ,m>s :i* 
is t[>ds u1 & also day on ! side ( ! e>?
 :i* is t[>ds ,m>s4 ,:5 !y are on ! same
 side ( ! sun1 x is day on ,m>s :5 night
 on ! e>?1 & = ?is reason !y c\ld nev]  
see our signals4 ,?is %\ld make x app>5t
 t ! task ( signall+ to ,m>s is a m     
difficult "o ?an ! mo/ hopeful !ori/ has
 probably consid]$4 ,all ?is is "u !    
supposition t ! ,m>tians 7if !re are    
su*7 are be+s l ourselves4 ,if !y are n 
l u1 we _c guess :at !y are l4#ajg ,^!  
views seem to me to be und\bt$ly        
correct1 & %[ ! futility ( visual       
signals4 ,electricity might1 h[ev]1 be  
conceivably us$ = ! purpose2 b ev5 ?is  
seems highly improbable4  ,pr(4         
,newcomb1 9 8 "w ,a/ronomy = ,ev]ybody1 
says ) ref]5ce to ?is "q1 ,! read] w    
excuse me f say+ no?+ 9 ?is *apt] ab\t !
 possible inhabitants ( ,m>s4 ,he kn[s j
 z mu* ab\t ! subject z ,i d1 & t is    
no?+ at all4  ,x is1 h[ev]1 q possible t
 life 9 "s =m may exi/ on ,m>s4 ,z      
,l[ell well says1 ,life b waits 9 ! w+s 

( exi/5ce = its cue to ent] ! sc5e !    
mom5t ! /age is set4#ajh ,) ref]5ce to !
 canals he says--      ,x is c]ta9ly no 
exagg]ation to say t !y are ! mo/       
a/oni%+ objects to be view$ 9 ! heav5s4 
,!re are cele/ial     sights m dazzl+1  
spectacles t inspire m awe1 b to !      
?\ghtful obs]v] :o is privileg$ to see  
!m well1 !re is     no?+ 9 ! sky s      
pr(\ndly impressive z ^! canals (       
,m>s4#aji  ,! em95t ,sw$i% physici/     
,arrh5ius ?9ks t ! mean annual          
temp]ature on ,m>s may possibly be z    
high z #ej ,f4 ,he says1 ,sometimes !   
sn[-caps on ! poles ( ,m>s disappe>     
entirely dur+ ! ,m>s summ]2 ?is nev]    
happ5s on our t]re/rial poles4 ,! mean  
temp]ature ( ,m>s mu/ !re=e be above    
z]o1 probably ab\t #aj ,c5tigrade  #ej  
,fahr5heit4 ,organic life may v probably
 ?rive1 !re=e1 on ,m>s4#aaj ,he ?9ks t  
?is excess ( mean temp]ature above !    
calculat$ temp]ature may be due to an   
increas$ am\nt ( c>bonic acid 9 !       
planet's atmosph]e1 & says any d\bl+ ( !

 p]c5tage ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! air w\ld  
raise ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface by 
#d2 & if ! c>bon dioxide 7 increas$     
f\rfold1 ! temp]ature w\ld rise by      
#h4aaa  ,d5n+ says1--#aab      ,a few   
ye>s ago1 :5 *ri/5+ cele/ial =mations 0 
m 9     fa%ion ?an x is n[1 a man simply
 _h to use a telescope = an     ev5+ or 
two on ,m>s or ! moon1 & spice !        
relation ( 8     see+s ) some?+ 9 ! way 
( novelty1 :5 8 "n w\ld be     pretty   
c]ta9ly atta*$ to an object & hung 9 !  
heav5s = all     "t6 ,a writ] 9 !       
,a/ronomical ,regi/] = ,janu>y1 #ahgi1  
humor\sly sugge/$ t '! matt] %\ld be put
 into ! h&s (     an adv]tis+ ag5t1' &  
'made ! means ( rais+ a rev5ue =        
a/ronomical purposes4' ,"s m5 w\ld n    
object to pay h&somely     = ! di/9ction
 ( hav+ _! names appli$ to ! seas &     
cont95ts ( ,m>s or ! crat]s ( ! moon4   
,an occultation ( ,m>s by ! moon is     
record$ by ,ari/otle z hav+ occurr$ on  
,april #d1 #ceg ,b4,c4#aac  ,se5 f ,m>s 
! maximum app>5t di/ance betwe5 ! e>? & 

moon w\ld v>y f #c-a_/b' to ne>ly       
#ag'4aad     ,,*apt] ,,vii  ,! ,m9or    
,planets   ,up to #aijh ! numb] ( m9or  
planets 7or a/]oids7 c]ta9ly kn[n am\nt$
 to ov] #fej4  ,f an exam9ation ( !     
di/ribution ( ! fir/ #eab ( ^! small    
bodies1 ,dr4 ,p4 ,/roobant f9ds t a     
decid$ maximum 9 numb] occurs betwe5 !  
limits ( di/ance ( #bee & #bhe 7e>?'s   
mean di/ance f sun  #a71 #aii ( !       
a/]oids consid]$ revolv+ 9 ?is annulus4 
,he f9ds t ne>ly all ! a/]oidal matt] is
 conc5trat$ ne> to ! middle ( ! r+ 9 !  
neighb\rhood ( ! mean di/ance ( #bg1 & !
 smalle/ a/]oids are relatively less    
num]\s 9 ! ri*e/ zones4#aae  ,!re are "s
 /rik+ simil>ities 9 ! orbits ( "s ( !  
a/]oids4 ,?us1 9 ! small planets ,sophia
 7,no4 #bea 9 ord] ( discov]y7 &        
,magdal5a 7,no4 #cah7 we h ! mean       
di/ance ( ,sophia #caj1 & t ( ,magdal5a 
#cai 7e>?'s mean di/ance  #a74 ,!       
ecc5tricities ( ! orbits are #jji &     
#jjg2 & ! incl9ations ( ! orbits to !   
plane ( ! ecliptic #aj #bi' & #aj #cc'  

respectively4#aaf ,?is simil>ity may    
be--& probably is--m]ely accid5tal1 b x 
is none ! less curi\s & int]e/+4  ,"s v 
int]e/+ discov]ies h rec5tly be5 made   
among ! m9or planets4 ,! orbit ( ,eros  
int]sects ! orbit ( ,m>s2 & ! foll[+ h  
ne>ly ! same mean di/ance f ! sun z     
,jupit]3--    ,a*illes 7#aijf ,,tg71    
,no4 #ehh1   ,patrocles 7#aijf ,,xy71   
,no4 #fag1   ,hector 7#aijg ,,xm71 ,no4 
#fbd1  & ano!r 7,no4 #fei7 has be5      
rec5tly f\nd4 ,ea* ( ^! small planets   
moves approximately 9 a v]tex ( an      
equilat]al triangle t x =ms ) ,jupit] & 
! sun4#aag ,! m9or planet kn[n          
provisionally z ,,hn is rem>kable = !   
l>ge ecc5tricity ( its orbit 7#jch71 &  
its small p]ihelion di/ance 7#af74 ,:5  
discov]$ x _h a v high ,s\? ,decl9ation 
7#fa-a_/b71 %[+ t ! incl9ation ( ! plane
 ( its orbit to ! plane ( ! ecliptic is 
consid]able4#aah  ,dr4 ,baus*+] has made
 a /udy ( ! m9or planets discov]$ up to 
! end ( #aijj4 ,he f9ds t ! asc5d+ nodes
 ( ! orbits %[ a m>k$ t5d5cy to clu/]   

ne> ! asc5d+ node ( ,jupit]'s orbit1 a  
fact :i* agrees well ) ,pr(4 ,newcomb's 
!oretical results4 ,!re seems to be a   
slight t5d5cy = l>ge incl9ations & great
 ecc5tricities to g toge!r2 b !re appe>s
 to be no connection betwe5 !           
ecc5tricity & ! mean di/ance f ! sun4 ,!
 longitudes ( ! p]ihelia ( ^! small     
planets %[ a well-m>k$ maximum ne> !    
longitude ( ,jupit]'s p]ihelion1 &      
equally well-m>k$ m9imum ne> ! longitude
 ( 8 aphelion1 :i* is aga9 9 good       
agreem5t ) ,newcomb's calculations4#aai 
,dr4 ,baus*+]'s diamet] = ,eros is #bj  
miles4 ,he f9ds t ! :ole gr\p1 includ+  
^? rema9+ to be discov]$1 w\ld probably 
=m a sph]e ( ab\t #hcj miles 9 diamet]4 
,! total mass ( ! m9or planets has be5  
frequ5tly e/imat$1 b g5]ally mu* too    
high4 ,mr4 ,b4 ,m4 ,roszel ( ! ,john    
,hopk9s ,univ]sity 7,u4,s4,a47 has made 
a calculation ( ! probable mass f ! kn[n
 diamet] ( ,ve/a 7#cai miles1 ,pick]+71 
& f9ds ! volume ( ! fir/ #baf a/]oids   
discov]$4 ,f ?is calculation x appe>s t 

x w\ld take #caj a/]oids ( ! #f?        
magnitude1 or #abjj ( ! #g? to equal !  
moon 9 volume4 ,mr4 ,roszel concludes t 
! probable mass ( ! :ole a/]oidal belt  
is betwe5 #a_/ej? & #a_/ajj? ( t ( !    
moon4#abj ,subsequ5tly ,mr4 ,roszel     
ext5d$ 8 /udy to ! mass ( #caa          
a/]oids1#aba & f\nd a comb9$ mass ( ab\t
 #a_/dj? ( ! moon's mass4  ,dr4 ,palisa 
f9ds t ! rec5tly discov]$ m9or planet   
7#aije ,,qy7 v>ies 9 light to a         
consid]able ext5t4#abb ,?is planet 0    
discov]$ by ,dr4 ,max ,wolf on ,augu/   
#bc1 #aije2 b x 0 subsequ5tly f\nd t x  
is id5tical ) "o previ\sly kn[n1 7#afg7 
,urda4#abc ,! light v>iation is said to 
be f ! #aa? to ! #ac? magnitude4#abd    
,v>iation 9 "s ( ! o!r m9or planets has 
also be5 suspect$4 ,pr(4 ,w5dell f\nd a 
v>iation ( ab\t half a magnitude 9 !    
planet ,eunomia 7,no4 #ae74 ,he also    
f\nd t ,iris 7,no4 #g7 v>ies ab\t a     
qu>t] ( a magnitude 9 a p]iod ( ab\t    
#f;h #abm4#abe ,b ^! v>iations are      
small1 & p]haps d\btful4 ,! v>iability (

 ,eros is well kn[n4  ,! planet ,eros is
 a v int]e/+ "o4 ,! p]ihelion portion ( 
its orbit lies betwe5 ! orbits ( ,m>s & 
! e>?1 & ! aphelion "p is outside !     
orbit ( ,m>s4 ,ow+ to ! great v>iation 9
 its di/ance f ! e>? ! brightness (     
,eros v>ies f ! #f? to ! #ab? magnitude4
 ,t is1 :5 brighte/1 x is #bej times    
bright] ?an :5 x is fa9te/4#abf ,?is    
v>iation ( light1 is ( c\rse1 m]ely due 
to ! v>iation ( di/ance2 b "s actual    
v>iation 9 ! brightness ( ! planet has  
be5 obs]v$4  ,x has be5 %[n by ,oeltz5 &
 ,valz t ,cacciatore's suppos$ di/ant   
comet1 m5tion$ by ,admiral ,smy? 9 8    
,b$=d ,catalogue1 mu/ h be5 a m9or      
planet4#abg  ,dr4 ,max ,wolf discov]$   
#cf new m9or planets by photography 9 ! 
ye>s #ahib-ie4 ,up to ! latt] ye> he _h 
nev] se5 "o ( ^! ?r\gh a telescope6 ,8  
words are1 ,i* selsbt habe no* nie e95  
me95 kle95 ,planet5 am ,himmel          
geseh54#abh  ,^! small bodies h n[      
become s num]\s t x is a matt] ( mu*    
difficulty to foll[ !m4 ,at ! meet+ ( ! 

,royal ,a/ronomical ,society on ,janu>y 
#h1 #aiji1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,*amb]s made !  
foll[+ faceti\s rem>ks--      ,i w\ld l 
to make a sugge/ion t has be5 9 my m9d =
     sev]al ye>s pa/--t x %\ld be made  
an (f5ce puni%able by     f9e or        
imprisonm5t to discov] any m m9or       
planets4 ,!y seem to     be an          
intol]able nuisance1 & are a great burd5
 ^u ! lit]>y     g5tlem5 :o h to keep   
pace ) !m & record !m4 ,i h     nev]    
se51 dur+ ! la/ few ye>s at any rate1   
any good come f     !m1 or likely to    
come1 & ,i %\ld l to see ! supply /opp$1
     & ! en]gies ( ! ,g]man g5tlem5 :o  
f9d s _m turn$ into     m promis+       
*annels4  ,among ! m9or planets numb]$  
#a to #ejj1 ab\t #dj h n be5 se5 s9ce ! 
ye> ( _! discov]y1 & mu/ be reg>d$ z    
lo/4#abi     ,,*apt] ,,viii  ,jupit]    
,?is brilliant planet--only inf]ior to  
,v5us 9 brightness--0 (t5 se5 by ,bond  
7,jun47 ) ! nak$ eye 9 high & cle>      
sun%9e2 also by ,d5n+1 :o has v ke5     
eyesight4 ,its brightness on su*        

occasions is s great1 t--l ,v5us--x ca/s
 a di/9ct %ad[ 9 a d>k room4#acj  ,!    
great r$ spot on ,jupit] seems to h be5 
orig9ally discov]$ by ,rob]t ,hooke on  
,may #i1 #affd1 ) a telescope ( #b in*es
 ap]ture & #ab feet focus4 ,x seems to h
 exi/$ ev] s9ce2 at lea/ ! evid5ce is1  
accord+ to ,d5n+1 9 fav\r ( ! id5tity ( 
,hooke's spot ) ! r$ spot visible 9     
rec5t ye>s4 ,! spot 0 also obs]v$ by    
,cass9i 9 ! ye>s #affe-gb1 & is         
sometimes call$ ,cass9i's spot4 ,b !    
real discov]] 0 ,hooke4#aca  ,! orbit ( 
,jupit] is s f> outside ! e>?'s orbit t 
!re c be little visible 9 ! way (       
phase--z 9 ! case ( ,m>s1 :]e ! gibb\s  
phase is sometimes v p]ceptible4 ,"s    
books on a/ronomy /ate t ,jupit] %[s no 
phase4 ,b ?is is incorrect4 ,a di/9ct1  
al?\gh v slight1 gibb\s appe>ance is    
visible :5 ! planet is ne> quadrature4  
,webb ?\ght x m conspicu\s 9 twilight   
?an 9 a d>k sky4 ,) l>ge telescopes1    
,jupit]'s satellites ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 h   
be5 se5--9 consequ5ce ( ,jupit]'s       

phase--to em]ge f occultation at a      
s5sible di/ance f ! limb4#acb  ,accord+ 
to ,m4 ,e4 ,rogovsky1 ! high alb$o (    
,jupit]1 ! appe>ance ( ! cle> 7r$7 & d>k
 spots on its surface & _! cont9ual     
v>iation1 ! diff]5t velocity ( rotation 
( ! equatorial & o!r zones ( its        
surface1 & p>ticul>ly its small d5sity  
7#acc1 wat] z unity71 all ^! facts af=d 
irrefragable pro(s ( ! high temp]ature (
 ?is planet4 ,! d5se & opaque atmosph]e 
hides its gl[+ surface f our view1 & we 
see !re=e only ! ext]nal surface ( its  
cl\ds4 ,! objective exi/5ce ( ?is       
atmosph]e is prov$ by ! b&s & l9es (    
absorption 9 its spectrum4 ,! int]e/+   
photograph obta9$ by ,drap]1 ,septemb]  
#bg1 #ahgi1 9 :i* ! blue & gre5 p>ts are
 m brilliant = ! equatorial zone ?an = !
 adjac5t p>ts ( ! surface1 appe>s to %[ 
t ,jupit] emits its prop] light4 ,x is  
possible t ! con/ant r$ spot notic$ on  
its surface by sev]al obs]v]s1 z        
,gl$hill1 ,"l ,rosse1 & ,copel& 7#ahgc71
 ,russel & ,br$ikh9 7#ahgf71 is ! summit

 ( a high gl[+ m\nta94 ,g4 ,w4 ,h\gh    
consid]s ,jupit] to be gase\s1 & ,a4    
,ritt] inf]r$ f 8 =mul t 9 ?is case !   
temp]ature at ! c5tre w\ld be #fjj1jjj  
,c4#acc  ,! f\r bright] satellites (    
,jupit] are usually kn[n by numb]s ,i41 
,,ii41 ,,iii41 & ,,iv42 ,i4 be+ ! ne>e/ 
to ! planet1 & ,,iv4 ! f>!/4 ,,iii4 is  
usually ! brighte/1 & ,,iv4 ! fa9te/1 b 
exceptions to ?is rule h be5 notic$4  ,)
 ref]5ce to ! rec5tly discov]$ six? &   
sev5? satellites ( ,jupit]1 ,pr(4 ,p]r9e
 has sugge/$ t ! l>ge incl9ation ( _!   
orbits to ! plane ( ! planet's equator  
seems to indicate t nei!r ( ^! bodies 0 
orig9ally a memb] ( ,jupit]'s family1 b 
has be5 captur$ by ! planet4 ,?is seems 
possible z ! orbits ( "s ( ! m9or       
planets lie ne> ! orbit ( ,jupit] 7see  
,m9or ,planets74 ,a simil> sugge/ion has
 be5 made by ,pr(4 del ,m>mol4#acd  ,_m 
curi\s obs]vations h be5 record$ )      
ref]5ce to ,jupit]'s satellites2 "s v   
difficult ( explanation4 ,9 #agaa       
,bian*9i saw satellite ,,iv4 s fa9t = m 

?an an h\r t x 0 h>dly visible6 ,a      
simil> obs]vation 0 made by ,lassell ) a
 m p[]ful telescope on ,june #ac1 #ahdi4
 ,key1 ,t4 ,t4 ,smy?1 & ,d5n+ h also    
record$ unusual fa9tness4#ace ,a v      
rem>kable ph5om5on 0 se5 by ,admiral    
,smy?1 ,macle>1 & ,pe>son on ,june #bf1 
#ahbh4 ,satellite ,,ii41 hav+ fairly    
ent]$ on ,jupit]1 0 f\nd #ab or #ac     
m9utes aft]w>ds outside ! limb1 :]e x   
rema9$ visible = at lea/ #d m9utes1 & !n
 sudd5ly vani%$4 ,z ,webb says1         
,explanation is "h set at defiance2     
demon/rably nei!r 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! e>?1
 nor ,jupit]1 :]e & :at c\ld h be5 !    
cause8 ,at pres5t we c get no answ]4#acf
 ,:5 ,jupit] is 9 opposition to ! sun--t
 is1 on ! m]idian at midnight--satellite
 ,i4 has be5 se5 project$ on its own    
%ad[1 ! %ad[ appe>+ z a d>k r+ r\nd !   
satellite4  ,on ,janu>y #bh1 #ahdh1 at  
,cambridge 7,u4,s4,a47 satellite ,,iii4 
0 se5 9 transit ly+ betwe5 ! %ad[s ( ,i4
 & ,,ii4 & s black t x c\ld n be        
di/+ui%$ f ! %ad[s1 except by ! place x 

occupi$4 ,?is seems to sugge/ inh]5t    
light 9 ! planet's surface1 z !         
satellite 0 at ! "t illum9at$ by full   
sun%9e2 its app>5t blackness be+ due to 
! effect ( contra/4 ,cass9i on "o       
occasion fail$ to f9d ! %ad[ ( satellite
 ,i4 :5 x %\ld h be5 on ! planet's      
disc1#acg an obs]vation :i* aga9 po9ts  
to ! gl[+ light ( ,jupit]'s surface4    
,sadl] & ,tr\velot saw ! %ad[ (         
satellite ,i4 d\ble6 an obs]vation      
difficult to expla9--b ! same ph5om5on 0
 aga9 se5 on ! ev5+ ( ,septemb] #ai1    
#ahia1 by ,mr4 ,h4 ,s4 ,halb]t (        
,detroit1 ,mi*igan 7,u4,s4,a474 ,he says
 t ! satellite 0 9 transit ne>+ egress1 
& x appe>$ z a :ite disc aga9/ ! d>k    
s\!rn equatorial belt2 foll[+ x 0 !     
usual %ad[1 & at an equal di/ance f ?is 
0 a second %ad[1 small] & n s d>k z !   
true "o1 & surr\nd$ by a fa9t           
p5umbra4#ach  ,a d>k transit ( satellite
 ,,iii4 0 aga9 se5 on ! ev5+ ( ,decemb] 
#ai1 #ahia1 by two obs]v]s 9 ,am]ica4   
,"o obs]v] not$ t ! satellite1 :5 on !  

disc ( ! planet1 0 int5sely black4 ,to !
 o!r obs]v] 7,willis ,l4 ,b>nes7 x      
appe>$ z an ill-def9$ d>k image4#aci ,a 
simil> obs]vation 0 made on ,octob] #i (
 ! same ye> by ,messrs4 ,gale &         
,innes4#adj  ,a black transit (         
satellite ,,iv4 0 se5 by sev]al obs]v]s 
9 #ahgc1 & by ,pr(4 ,b>n>d on ,may #d1  
#ahhf4 ,! same ph5om5on 0 obs]v$ on     
,octob] #cj1 #aijc1 9 ,am]ica1 by ,miss 
,anne ,s4 ,"y & ,willis ,s4 ,b>nes4     
,miss ,"y says--      ,! +ress ( !      
satellite took place at #h;h #ejm 7,e4  
/&>d     "t7 :5 x became invisible ^u ! 
backgr\nd ( ! planet4 ,an     h\r lat] x
 0 pla9ly visible z a d>k r\nd spot ^u !
     planet4 ,x 0 decid$ly d>k] ?an !   
equatorial belt4#ada  ,! r r>e ph5om5on 
( an occultation ( "o ( ,jupit]'s       
satellites by ano!r 0 obs]v$ by ,mr4    
,apple1 director ( ! ,daniel ,s*oll     
,obs]vatory1 ,frankl9 & ,m>%all         
,college1 ,lanca/]1 ,pa4 7,u4,s4,a471 on
 ! ev5+ ( ,m>* #af1 #aijh4 ,! satellites
 9 "q 7 ,i4 & ,,ii41 & !y 7 s close t !y

 c\ld n be sep>at$ ) ! #aae-;in*        
telescope ( ! ,obs]vatory4#adb ,"o ( !  
pres5t writ]'s fir/ obs]vations ) a     
telescope is dat$ ,may #ag1 #ahgc1 & is 
z foll[s3 ,obs]v$ "o ( ,jupit]'s        
satellites occult$ 7or v ne>ly s7 by    
ano!r4 ,appe>$ z "o ) p[] #acc 7on      
#c-;in* refractor 9 ! ,punjab74 ,^!     
satellites 7 probably ,i4 & ,,ii4       
,jupit] has be5 se5 on sev]al occasions 
app>5tly )\t 8 satellites2 "s be+ beh9d 
! disc1 "s eclips$ 9 8 %ad[1 & "s 9     
transit across ! disc4 ,?is ph5om5on 0  
se5 by ,galileo1 ,m>* #ae1 #afaa2 by    
,molyneux1 on ,novemb] #ab1 #afha2 by   
,sir ,william ,h]s*el1 ,may #bc1 #ahjb2 
by ,wallis1 ,april #ae1 #ahbf2 by       
,greisba*1 ,septemb] #bg1 #ahdc2 & by   
sev]al obs]v]s on f\r occasions 9 ! ye>s
 #ahfg-ahie4adc ,! ph5om5on aga9 occurr$
 on ,octob] #c1 #aijg1 ,no4 #a be+      
eclips$ & occult$1 ,no4 #b 9 transit1   
,no4 #c eclips$1 & ,no4 #d occult$4#add 
,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 visible 9 ,europe1 b c\ld
 h be5 se5 9 ,asia & ,oceania4#add ,!   

ph5om5on w occur aga9 on ,octob] #bb1   
#aiac4ade  ,on ! night ( ,septemb] #ai1 
#aijc1 a /> ( magnitude #f-a_/b 0       
occult$ by ! disc ( ,jupit]4 ,?is curi\s
 & r>e ph5om5on 0 photograph$ by ,m4    
,luci5 ,rudaux at ! ,obs]vatory (       
,donville1 ,france4#adf ,! /> 0 ,lal&e  
#defih 7 ,,bac #habi74adg  ,pr(4 ,b>n>d1
 us+ telescopes ) ap]tures f #e in*es up
 to #cf in*es 7,lick71 has fail$ to see 
a satellite ?r\gh ! planet's limb 7an   
obs]vation :i* has be5 claim$ by o!r    
a/ronom]s74 ,he says1 ,to my m9d ?is has
 be5 due to ei!r poor see+1 a poor      
telescope1 or an excit$ obs]v]4#adh ,he 
adds--      ,i ?9k x is high "t t !     
a/ronom]s reject ! idea t !             
satellites ( ,jupit] c be se5 ?r\gh 8   
limb at occultation4     ,:5 ! see+ is  
bad !re is a spuri\s limb to ,jupit] t  
well     might give ! appe>ance (       
transp>5cy at ! occultation ( a         
satellite4 ,b "u fir/-class conditions !
 limb ( ,jupit] is     p]fectly opaque4 
,x is quibbl+ & begg+ ! "q altoge!r     

to say ! ph5om5on ( transp>5cy may be a 
r>e "o & s h     escap$ my obs]vations4 
,has any "o said t ! moon 0             
transp>5t :5 a /> has be5 se5 project$  
on x :5 x ought to     h be5 beh9d x8   
,pr(4 ,b>n>d & ,mr4 ,d\glass h se5 :ite 
pol> caps on ! ?ird & f\r? satellites ( 
,jupit]4 ,! =m] says !y are exactly l ^?
 on ,m>s4 ,bo? caps ( ! f\r? satellite h
 be5 cle>ly di/+ui%$1 t at ! nor? be+   
sometimes exceptionally l>ge1 cov]+ a   
surface equal to "o-qu>t] or "o-?ird ( !
 diamet] ( ! satellite4#adi ,?is 0      
confirm$ on ,novemb] #bc1 #aijf1 :5     
,signor ,j4 ,comas ,sola obs]v$ a       
brilliant :ite spot surr\nd$ by a d>k   
m>k+ 9 ! nor? pol> region ( ! ?ird      
satellite4 ,!re 7 o!r d>k m>k+s visible1
 & ! satellite pres5t$ ! appe>ance ( a  
m9iature ( ,m>s4#aej  ,an eigh?         
satellite ( ,jupit] has rec5tly be5     
discov]$ by ,mr4 ,melotte at ! ,gre5wi* 
,obs]vatory by means ( photography4 ,x  
moves 9 a retrograde direction r\nd     
,jupit] 9 an orbit incl9$ ab\t #cj to t 

( ! planet4 ,! p]iod ( revolution is    
ab\t two ye>s4 ,! orbit is v ecc5tric1 !
 ecc5tricity be+ ab\t "o-?ird1 or great]
 ?an t ( any o!r satellite ( ! sol>     
sy/em4 ,:5 ne>e/ to ,jupit] x is ab\t #i
 millions ( miles f ! planet1 & :5 f>!/ 
ab\t #bj millions4#aea ,x has be5       
sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,george ,=bes t ?is     
satellite may possibly be id5tical ) !  
lo/ comet ( ,lexell :i* at its return 9 
! ye> #aggi became entangl$ 9 ,jupit]'s 
sy/em1 & has n be5 se5 s9ce4 ,if ?is be 
! case1 we %\ld h ! curi\s ph5om5on ( a 
comet revolv+ r\nd a planet6  ,accord+  
to ,humboldt ! f\r bright satellites (  
,jupit] 7 se5 almo/ simultane\sly & q   
indep5d5tly by ,simon ,m>ius at ,ausba* 
on ,decemb] #bi1 #afji1 & by ,galileo at
 ,padua on ,janu>y #g1 #afaj4aeb ,!     
actual priority1 !re=e1 seems to re/ )  
,simon ,m>ius1 b ! publication ( !      
discov]y 0 fir/ made by ,galileo 9 8    
,nuncius ,sid]ius 7#afaj74aec ,grant1   
h[ev]1 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,physical          
,a/ronomy1 calls ,simon ,m>ius an       

impud5t pret5d]6 7p4 #gi74  ,m4 ,dupret 
at ,algi]s saw ,jupit] ) ! nak$ eye on  
,septemb] #bf1 #ahij1 tw5ty m9utes be=e 
sunset4#aed  ,humboldt /ates t he saw   
,jupit] ) ! nak$ eye :5 ! sun 0 f #ah to
 #bj above ! horizon4#aee ,?is 0 9 !    
pla9s ( ,s\? ,am]ica ne> ! sea-level4   
,,*apt] ,,ix  ,saturn   ,to %[ !        
advantages ( l>ge telescopes ov] small  
ones1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,rob]ts says t ) !       
#be-;in* refractor ( ! ,cambridge       
,obs]vatory ! view ( ! planet ,saturn is
 indescribably glori\s2 ev]y?+ ,i _h ev]
 se5 be=e 0 visible at a glance1 & an   
enorm\s am\nt ( detail t ,i _h nev] ev5 
glimps$ be=e1 aft] a few m9utes'        
obs]vation4#aef  ,*acornac f\nd t !     
illum9ation ( ,saturn's disc is ! rev]se
 ( t ( ,jupit]1 ! edges ( ,saturn be+   
bright] ?an ! c5tre ( ! disc1 :ile 9 !  
case ( ,jupit]--z 9 t ( ! sun--! edges  
are fa9t] ?an ! c5tre4#aeg ,accord+ to  
,mr4 ,d5n+1 ,saturn be>s satisfactorily 
great] magnify+ p[] ?an ei!r ,m>s or    
,jupit]4#aeh  ,at an occultation (      

,saturn by ! moon1 :i* occurr$ on ,june 
#ac1 #aijj1 ,m4 ,m4 ,honorat notic$ !   
great contra/ betwe5 ! slightly yell[i% 
col\r ( ! moon & ! gre5i% t9t ( !       
planet4#aei  ,9 ! ye> #ahib1 :5 ! r+s ( 
,saturn _h ne>ly disappe>$1 ,pr(4 ,l4   
,w4 ,und]wood1 ( ! ,und]wood            
,obs]vatory1 ,appleton1 ,wiscons9       
7,u4,s4,a471 saw "o ( ,saturn's         
satellites 7,titan7 app>5tly mov+ along 
! ne$lelike app5dage to ! planet pres5t$
 by ! r+s4 ,! app>5t diamet] ( !        
satellite s f> exce$$ ! app>5t ?ickness 
( ! r+ t x gave ! appe>ance ( a         
beautiful gold5 bead mov+ v sl[ly along 
a f9e gold5 ?read4#afj  ,9 #aijg1 :5 !  
r+s ( ,saturn became invisible 9 ord9>y 
telescopes1 ,pr(essor ,campbell1 obs]v+ 
) ! great ,lick telescope1 notic$       
prom95t bright knots1 visible 444 9     
,saturn's r+s4 ,! knots 7 symmetrically 
plac$1 two be+ to ! ea/ & two to ! we/4 
,?is 0 confirm$ by ,mr4 ,l[ell1 :o says1
 ,cond5sations 9 ,saturn's r+s confirm$ 
"h & measur$ repeat$ly4 ,symmetric &    

p]man5t4 ,?is ph5om5on 0 previ\sly se5  
by ,bond 9 ! ye>s #ahdg-ef4 ,measures ( 
^! light spots made by ,pr(4 ,b>n>d ) ! 
#dj-;in* ,y]kes telescope %[ t ! out] "o
 correspond$ 9 position ) ! out] edge ( 
! middle r+ close to ! ,cass9i division1
 & ! inn] cond5sation1 curi\s to say1   
seem$ to co9cide 9 position ) ! crape   
r+4 ,pr(4 ,b>n>d ?9ks t ! ?ickness ( !  
r+s mu/ be greatly "u #ajj miles1 &     
probably less ?an #ej miles1 & he says--
      ,! important fact cle>ly br\ght   
out at ?is app>ition ( ,saturn     is t 
! bright r+s are n opaque to ! light ( !
 sun--&     ?is is really :at we %\ld   
expect f ! nature ( _!     con/itution z
 %[n by ! !ory ( ,cl]k ,maxwell1 & !    
spectroscopic results ( ,keel]4#afa  ,"u
 c]ta9 conditions x w\ld be !oretically 
possible1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,:itmell1 to  
see ! globe ( ,saturn ?r\gh ! ,cass9i   
division 9 ! r+4 ,b ! obs]vation w\ld be
 "o ( great difficulty & delicacy4 ,!   
effect w\ld be t1 ( ! arc ( ! division  
:i* crosses ! planet's disc1 a small    

portion w appe> bright in/ead ( d>k1 &  
may almo/ disappe>4#afb  ,a rem>kable   
:ite spot 0 se5 on ,saturn on ,june #bc1
 #aijc1 by ,pr(4 ,b>n>d1 & aft]w>ds by  
,mr4 ,d5n+4#afc ,ano!r :ite spot 0 se5  
by ,d5n+ on ,july #i ( ! same ye>4#afd  
,f num]\s obs]vations ( ^! spots1 ,d5n+ 
f\nd a rotation p]iod = ! planet ( ab\t 
#aj;h #cim #bas4#afe ,f obs]vations ( ! 
same spots ,signor ,comas ,sola f\nd a  
p]iod #aj;h #chm#d1 a close agreem5t )  
,d5n+'s result4 ,= ,saturn's equator1   
,pr(4 ,hill f\nd a rotation p]iod (     
#aj;h #adm #bcs#h1 s t--z 9 ! case (    
,jupit]--! rotation is fa/] at ! equator
 ?an 9 ! nor!rn latitudes ( ! planet4 ,a
 simil> ph5om5on is obs]v$ 9 ! sun4 ,mr4
 ,d5n+'s results 7 fully confirm$ by    
,h]r ,leo ,br5n]1 & o!r ,g]man          
a/ronom]s4#aff  ,photographs tak5 by    
,pr(4 ,v4 ,m4 ,sliph] 9 ,am]ica %[ t !  
spectrum ( ,saturn is simil> to t (     
,jupit]4 ,none ( ! b&s obs]v$ 9 !       
planet's spectrum are visible 9 !       
spectrum ( ! r+s4 ,?is %[s t if ! r+s   

possess an atmosph]e at all1 x mu/ be   
mu* r>] ?an t surr\nd+ ! ball ( !       
planet4 ,pr(4 ,sliph] says t none ( !   
absorption b&s 9 ! spectrum ( ,saturn c 
be id5tifi$ ) ^? b&s due to absorption 9
 ! e>?'s atmosph]e1 & !re is no trace ( 
aque\s vap\r4#afg  ,9 ,septemb]1 #aijg1 
,m4 ,g4 ,f\rni] suspect$ ! exi/5ce ( a  
fa9t transp>5t & lum9\s r+ outside !    
pr9cipal r+s ( ,saturn4 ,he ?9ks t x may
 possibly be subject to p]iodical       
fluctuations ( brightness1 sometimes be+
 visible & sometimes n4#afh ,?is dusky  
r+ 0 aga9 suspect$ at ! ,g5eva          
,obs]vatory 9 ,octob]1 #aijh4afi ,m4    
,s*a] f\nd x a difficult object ) a     
#af-;in* ,cassegra9 reflector4 ,pr(4    
,/romg5 at ,cop5hag51 & ,pr(4 ,h>twig at
 ,bamb]g1 h[ev]1 fail$ to see any trace 
( ! suppos$ r+4#agj ,x 0 se5 at ,gre5wi*
 9 ,octob]1 #aijh4  ,a d>k transit (    
,saturn's satellite ,titan across ! disc
 ( ! planet has be5 obs]v$ on sev]al    
occasions4 ,x 0 se5 by ,mr4 ,isaac ,w4  
,w>d1 ( ,belfa/1 on ,m>* #bg1 #ahib1 ) a

 #dc-;in* ,wray refractor4 ,! satellite 
appe>$ small] ?an its %ad[4 ,! ph5om5on 
0 also se5 on ,m>* #ab ( ! same ye> by !
 ,rev4 ,a4 ,freeman1 ,mr4 ,mee1 & ,m4   
,f4 ,t]by2 & aga9 on ,novemb] #f1 #aijg1
 by ,mr4 ,paul ,*auleur & ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4  
,cobham4#aga  ,! rec5tly discov]$ t5?   
satellite ( ,saturn1 ,!mis1 0 discov]$  
by photography1 & has nev] be5 se5 by ! 
eye ev5 ) ! l>ge/ telescopes6 ,b its    
exi/5ce is beyond all d\bt1 & its orbit 
r\nd ! planet has be5 calculat$4  ,pr(4 
,hussey ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory f9ds t    
,saturn's satellite ,mimas is probably  
l>g] ?an ,hyp]ion4 ,he also f9ds f      
c>eful measurem5ts t ! diamet] ( ,titan 
is c]ta9ly ov]e/imat$1 & t its probable 
diamet] is ab\t #bejj miles4#agb  ,!    
,fr5* a/ronom]1 ,m4 ,luci5 ,rudaux1 f9ds
 ! foll[+ v>iation 9 ! light ( !        
satellites ( ,saturn3--    ,japetus f   
#i? magnitude to #ab?   ,rhea        #i 
#ajf   ,dione       #ie             #aje
   ,te?ys      #ih             #aje     
,titan       #h                #hf  ,!  

v>iation ( light is1 he ?9ks1 due to !  
fact t ! p]iod ( rotation ( ea*         
satellite is equal to t ( _! revolution 
r\nd ! planet2 z 9 ! case ( our         
moon4#agc  ,! names ( ! satellites (    
,saturn are d]iv$ f ! anci5t hea!n      
my?ology4 ,!y are giv5 9 ord] ( di/ance 
f ! planet1 ! ne>e/ be+ ,mimas & ! f>!/ 
,!mis4  #a4 ,mimas 0 a ,trojan born at !
 same "t z ,p>is4  #b4 ,enceladus 0 son 
( ,t>t>us & ,ge4  #c4 ,te?ys 0 wife (   
,oceanus1 god ( ocean curr5ts4 ,%e      
became "m ( all ! *ief riv]s 9 !        
univ]se1 z also ! ,oceanides or sea     
nymphs4  #d4 ,dione 0 "o ( ! wives (    
,zeus4  #e4 ,rhea 0 a daught] ( ,uranus4
 ,%e m>ri$ ,saturn1 & became ! "m (     
,ve/a1 ,c]es1 ,juno1 & ,pluto4  #f4     
,titan 0 ! elde/ son ( ,uranus4  #g4    
,hyp]ion 0 ! god ( day1 & ! fa!r ( sun &
 moon4  #h4 ,japetus 0 ! fif? son (     
,uranus1 & fa!r ( ,atlas &              
,prome!us4#agd  #i4 ,phoebe 0 daught] ( 
,uranus & ,ge4  #aj4 ,!mis 0 daught] (  
,uranus & ,ge1 &1 !re=e1 si/] ( ,phoebe4

  ,9 a review ( ,pr(4 ,com/ock's ,text  
,book ( ,a/ronomy 9 ,! ,obs]vatory1     
,novemb]1 #aija1 ! rem>k occurs1 ,we are
 a/oni%$ to see t ,mr4 ,com/ock alludes 
) app>5t s]i\sness to ! n9e satellites (
 ,saturn4 ,z reg>ds ! n9? satellite1 we 
?\ght t all a/ronom]s held ) ,mrs4      
,betsy ,prig on ! subject ( ?is         
a/ronomical ,mrs4 ,h>ris4 ,?is reads    
curi\sly n[ 7#aiji7 :5 ! exi/5ce ( ! n9?
 satellite 7,phoebe7 has be5 fully      
confirm$1 & a t5? satellite discov]$4   
,,*apt] ,x  ,uranus & ,neptune   ,f     
obs]vations ( ,uranus made 9 #ahif1 ,m4 
,leo ,br5n] conclud$ t ! planet rotates 
on its axis 9 ab\t #h-a_/b h\rs         
7probably #h;h #bgm74 ,?is is a %ort    
p]iod1 b consid]+ ! %ort p]iods (       
,jupit] & ,saturn !re seems to be no?+  
improbable ab\t x4  ,pr(4 ,b>n>d f9ds t 
! two inn] satellites ( ,uranus are     
difficult objects ev5 ) ! great #cf-;in*
 telescope ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory6 ,!y h1
 h[ev]1 be5 photograph$ at ,cambridge   
7,u4,s4,a47 ) a #ac-;in* l5s1 al?\gh !y 

are among ! mo/ difficult objects       
kn[n4#age  ,sir ,william ,hugg9s 9 #ahga
 f\nd /rong absorption l9es 7six /rong  
l9es7 9 ! spectrum ( ,uranus4 ,"o ( ^!  
l9es indicat$ ! pres5ce ( hydrog51 a gas
 :i* does n exi/ 9 our atmosph]e4 ,?ree 
( ! o!r l9es se5 7 situat$ ne> l9es 9 ! 
spectrum ( atmosph]ic air4 ,nei!r       
c>bonic acid nor sodium %[$ any         
indications ( _! pres5ce 9 ! planet's   
spectrum4 ,a photograph by ,pr(4 ,sliph]
 ( ,neptune's spectrum %[s ! spectrum ( 
?is planet to conta9 _m /rong absorption
 b&s4 ,^! b&s are s pron\nc$ 9 ! "p ( ! 
spectrum betwe5 ! ,fraunh(] l9es ,f &   
,d1 z to leave ! sol> spectrum          
unrecognizable4444 ,neptune's spectrum  
is /rik+ly diff]5t f t ( ,uranus1 ! b&s 
9 ! latt] planet all be+ re9=c$ 9       
,neptune4 ,9 ?is planet !re are also new
 b&s :i* h n be5 obs]v$ 9 any ( ! o!r   
planets4 ,! ,f l9e ( hydrog5 is         
rem>kably d>k 444 ?is b& is ( m ?an sol>
 /r5g? 9 ! spectrum ( ,uranus also4 ,?us
 free hydrog5 seems to be pres5t 9 !    

atmosph]e ( bo? ^! planets4 ,?is & ! o!r
 d>k b&s 9 ^! planets be> evid5ce ( an  
envelop+ atmosph]e ( gases :i* is q     
unlike t :i* surr\nds ! e>?4#agf  ,) !  
#ah-;in* equatorial telescope ( !       
,/rasburgh ,obs]vatory1 ,m4 ,wirtz      
measur$ ! diamet] ( ,neptune1 & f\nd f  
=ty-n9e measures made betwe5 ,decemb]   
#i1 #aijb1 & ,m>* #bh1 #aijc1 a value ( 
#bcjc at a di/ance ( #cjajic 7e>?'s     
di/ance f sun  #a74 ,?is gives a diamet]
 ( #ej1bea kilometres1 or ab\t #ca1bbe  
miles1#agg & a mean d5sity ( #aed 7wat] 
#a2 e>?'s mean d5sity  #eec74 ,pr(4     
,b>n>d's measures gave a diamet] (      
#cb1ijj miles1 a fairly close agreem5t1 
consid]+ ! difficulty ( measur+ s small 
a disc z t %[n by ,neptune4  ,!         
satellite ( ,neptune 0 photograph$ at ! 
,pulk[n ,obs]vatory 9 ! ye> #ahii4 ,! "n
 ,triton has be5 sugge/$ = x4 ,9 ! old  
,greek my?ology ,triton 0 a son (       
,neptune1 s ! "n w\ld be an appropriate 
"o4  ,! exi/5ce ( a second satellite (  
,neptune is suspect$ by ,pr(4 ,s*aeb]le1

 :o ?9ks he once saw x ) ! #cf-;in*     
telescope ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory on an   
exceptionally f9e night 9 #ahie4agh ,b  
?is suppos$ discov]y has n yet be5      
confirm$4 ,lassell also ?\ght he _h     
discov]$ a second satellite1 b ?is      
suppos$ discov]y 0 nev] confirm$4#agh   
,! anci5t ,burmese m5tion eight planets1
 ! sun1 ! moon1 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1   
,jupit]1 ,saturn1 & ano!r nam$ ,rhu1 :i*
 is invisible4 ,x has be5 surmis$ t ,rhu
 is ,uranus1 :i* is j visible to ! nak$ 
eye1 & may possibly h be5 discov]$ by   
ke5 eyesight 9 anci5t times4 ,! pres5t  
writ] has se5 x sev]al times )\t optical
 aid 9 ! ,we/ ( ,irel&1 & ) a b9ocul>   
field-glass ( #b in*es ap]ture he f\nd x
 q a conspicu\s object4  ,:5 ,neptune 0 
visually discov]$ by ,galle1 at ,b]l91  
he 0 assi/$ 9 8 obs]vation by ,pr(4     
d',arre/4 ,! incid5t is ?us describ$ by 
,dr4 ,drey]1 ,on ! night ( ,june #ad1   
#ahgd1 :ile obs]v+ ,coggia's comet      
toge!r1 ,i rem9d$ ,pr(4 d',arre/ h[ he  
_h once said 9 ! c\rse ( a lecture1 t he

 _h be5 pres5t at ! f9d+ ( ,neptune1 & t
 'he might say x w\ld n h be5 f\nd )\t  
him4' ,he !n told me 7& ,i wrote x d[n !
 next day71 h[ he _h sugge/$ ! use (    
,bremik]'s map 7z fir/ m5tion$ by ,dr4  
,galle 9 #ahgg7 & cont9u$1 ',we !n w5t  
back to ! dome1 :]e !re 0 a k9d ( desk1 
at :i* ,i plac$ myself ) ! map1 :ile    
,galle1 look+ ?r\gh ! refractor1        
describ$ ! configurations ( ! />s he    
saw4 ,i foll[$ !m on ! map "o by "o1    
until he said3 ,& !n !re is a /> ( ! #h?
 magnitude1 9 su* & su* a position1     
:]eupon ,i imm$iately exclaim$3 ,t /> is
 n on ! map4'#agi ,?is 0 ! planet4 ,b x 
seems to ! pres5t writ] t if ,galle or  
d',arre/ _h access to ,h>d+'s ,atlas 7z 
!y probably _h7 !y might easily h f\nd !
 planet ) a good b9ocul> field-glass4 ,z
 a matt] ( fact ,neptune is %[n 9       
,h>d+'s ,atlas 7#ahbb7 z a /> ( ! #h?   
magnitude1 hav+ be5 mi/ak5 = a /> by    
,lal&e on ,may #h & #aj1 #agie2 & !     
pres5t writ] has f\nd ,h>d+'s #h?       
magnitude />s q easy objects ) a b9ocul>

 field-glass hav+ object-glasses ( two  
in*es diamet]1 & a p[] ( ab\t six       
diamet]s4  ,,suppos$ ,,planet ,,beyond  
,,neptune4--,! possible exi/5ce ( a     
planet beyond ,neptune has be5 frequ5tly
 sugge/$4 ,f consid]ations on ! aphelia 
( c]ta9 comets1 ,pr(4 ,=bes 9 #ahhj     
comput$ ! probable position ( su* a     
body4 ,he ?\ght ?is hypo!tical planet   
w\ld be consid]ably l>g] ?an ,jupit]1 & 
probably revolve r\nd ! sun at a di/ance
 ( ab\t #ajj times ! e>?'s mean di/ance 
f ! sun4 ,! place indicat$ 0 betwe5     
,r4,a4 #aa;h #bdm & #ab;h #abm1 &       
decl9ation #j #j' to #f #j' nor?4 ,) a  
view to its discov]y1 ! late ,dr4       
,rob]ts took a s]ies ( eighte5          
photographs cov]+ ! region indicat$4 ,! 
result ( an exam9ation ( ^! photographs 
%[$1 ,dr4 ,rob]ts says1 t no planet (   
great] brightness ?an a /> ( ! #ae?     
magnitude exi/s on ! sky area h]e9      
indicat$4 ,pr(4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ has     
rec5tly reviv$ ! "q1 & has arriv$ at !  
foll[+ results3 ,mean di/ance ( ! planet

 f ! sun1 #eai 7e>?'s mean di/ance  #a72
 p]iod ( revolution1 #cgc-a_/b ye>s2    
mass ab\t twice ! e>?'s mass2 probable  
position = #aiji ab\t ,r4,a4 #g;h #dgm1 
nor? decl9ation #ba1 or ab\t #e s\?-ea/ 
( ! /> ,greek3 k ,gem9orum4 ,! suppos$  
planet w\ld be fa9t1 its brightness be+ 
f #aa-a_/b to #ac-a_/b1 accord+ to !    
alb$o 7or reflect+ p[]7 x may h4#ahj    
,pr(4 ,=bes has aga9 attack$ ! "q ( a   
possible ultra-,neptunian planet1 & f a 
consid]ation ( ! comets ( #aeef1 #ahdc  
,i1 #ahhj ,i1 & #ahhb ,,ii1 f9ds a mean 
di/ance ( #ajed1 ) an incl9ation ( !    
orbit ( #eb to ! plane ( ! ecliptic4    
,?is high incl9ation implies t dur+ !   
greate/ "p ( its revolution x is beyond 
! zodiac1 & ?is1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,lynn     
?9ks1 may p>tly acc\nt = its n hav+     
hi!rto be5 f\nd by obs]vation4#aha  ,f a
 consid]ation ( ! approximately circul> 
%ape ( ! orbits ( all ! l>ge planets ( !
 sol> sy/em1 ,dr4 ,see sugge/s ! exi/5ce
 ( ?ree planets outside ,neptune1 )     
approximate di/ances f ! sun ( #db1 #ef1

 & #gb respectively 7e>?'s di/ance  #a71
 & recomm5ds a photographic se>* = !m4  
,he says1 ,to suppose ! planet>y sy/em  
to t]m9ate ) an orbit s r\nd z t (      
,neptune is z absurd z to suppose t     
,jupit]'s sy/em t]m9ates ) ! orbit ( !  
f\r? satellite4#ahb  ,accord+ to ,grant1
 ev5 tw5ty ye>s be=e ! discov]y (       
,neptune ! error ( ,pr(4 ,adams' fir/   
approximation am\nt$ to little m ?an    
#aj4ahc     ,,*apt] ,,xi  ,comets   ,we 
le>n f ,pl9y t comets 7 classifi$ 9     
anci5t times1 accord+ to _! peculi> =ms1
 into twelve classes1 ( :i* ! pr9cipal  
73 ,pogonias1 be>d$2 ,lampadias1 tor*-l2
 ,xiphias1 sword-l2 ,pi!us1 tun-l2      
,acontias1 javel9-l2 ,c]atias1 horn-l2  
,disceus1 quoit-l2 & ,hippias1          
horse-mane-l4#ahd  ,( ! num]\s comets   
m5tion$ 9 a/ronomical records1          
comp>atively few h be5 visible to ! nak$
 eye4 ,be=e ! inv5tion ( ! telescope    
7#afaj7 only ^? :i* 7 s visible c\ld1 ( 
c\rse1 be record$4 ,^! numb] ab\t #djj4 
,( ! #djj obs]v$ s9ce !n1 "s #gj or #hj 

only h be5 visible by unaid$ vision2 &  
mo/ ( ^! n[ record$ c\ld nev] h be5 se5 
)\t a telescope4 ,dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 out
 ( #cjj comets discov]$1 only #ac 7 v   
visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,h5ce1 :5 we read
 9 ! newspap]s t a comet has be5        
discov]$ ! *ances are greatly aga9/ x   
becom+ visible to ! nak$ eye4#ahe       
,al?\gh comp>atively few comets c be se5
 )\t a telescope1 !y are sometimes      
bright en\gh to be visible 9 daylight6  
,su* 7 ^? ( ,b4,c4 #dc1 ,a4,d4 #aajf1   
#adjb1 #aecb1 #aegg1 #agdd1 #ahdc1 & !  
great ,septemb] comet ( #ahhb4  ,if we  
except ! great comet ( #ahfa1 ?r\gh !   
tail ( :i* ! e>? is suppos$ to h pass$1 
! comet :i* came ne>e/ to ! e>? 0 t (   
#aggj1 kn[n z ,lexell's1 :i* approa*$ u 
)9 two millions ( miles1 mov+ ne>ly 9 ! 
plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,x produc$1 h[ev]1  
no effect on ! tides1 nor on ! moon's   
motion1 :i* %[s t its mass mu/ h be5 v  
small4 ,x 0 comput$ by ,laplace t if its
 mass _h equall$ t ( ! e>?1 ! l5g? ( our
 ye> w\ld h be5 %ort5$ by #b h\rs #dg   

m9utes1 & z !re 0 no p]ceptible *ange   
,laplace conclud$ t ! comet's mass did n
 exce$ #a_/ejjj? ( ! e>?'s mass4 ,?is is
 ! comet :i* pass$ s ne> to ,jupit] t   
its p]iod 0 r$uc$ to #e-a_/b ye>s4 ,ow+ 
to ano!r ne> approa* 9 #aggi x became   
invisible f ! e>?1 & is n[ lo/4#ahf ,its
 id5tity ) ! rec5tly discov]$ eigh?     
satellite ( ,jupit] has be5 sugge/$ by  
,mr4 ,george ,=bes 7see "u ,jupit]74 ,at
 ! ne> approa* ( ,lexell's comet to !   
e>? 9 #aggj1 ,messi]1 ! comet f]ret1    
f\nd t its head _h an app>5t diamet] (  
#b-a_/b1 or ne>ly five times t ( ! moon6
  ,ano!r case ( ne> approa* to ! e>? 0 t
 ( ,biela's comet at its appe>ance 9    
#ahje4 ,on ! ev5+ ( ,decemb] #i ( t ye>1
 ! comet approa*$ ! e>? )9 #c1chj1jjj   
miles4#ahg  ,! comet ( ,a4,d4 #aajf is  
/at$ to h be5 se5 9 daylight close to ! 
sun4 ,?is 0 on ,febru>y #d ( t ye>4 ,on 
,febru>y #aj x _h a tail ( #fj 9 l5g?1  
accord+ to ,gaubil4#ahh  ,! comet (     
#aegg seems to h be5 "o ( ! brighte/ on 
record4 ,accord+ to ,ty*o ,brah1 x 0    

visible 9 broad daylight4 ,he describes 
! head z r\nd1 bright1 & ( a yell[i%    
light1 ) a curv$ tail ( a r$di%         
col\r4#ahi  ,! comet ( #afeb 0 obs]v$ = 
ab\t ?ree weeks only1 & ,hevelius &     
,comi]s /ate t x 0 equal to ! moon 9    
app>5t size6 ,?is w\ld indicate a ne>   
approa* to ! e>?4 ,an orbit comput$ by  
,halley %[s t ! lea/ di/ance 0 ab\t #ab 
millions ( miles1 & ! diamet] ( !       
comet's head r less ?an #aaj1jjj miles1 
or ab\t #ad times ! e>?'s diamet]4      
,accord+ to ,mr4 ,d5n+1 mo/ ( !         
p]iodical comets at p]ihelion are       
outside ! e>?'s orbit1 & h5ce x foll[s t
 !y escape obs]vation unless ! e>? is on
 ! same side ( ! sun z ! comet4#aij  ,x 
0 comput$ by ,m4 ,faye t ! volume ( !   
fam\s ,donati's comet 7#aheh7 0 ab\t    
#ejj times t ( ! sun6 ,on ! o!r h&1 he  
calculat$ t its mass 7or quantity (     
matt] x conta9$7 0 only a fraction ( !  
e>?'s mass4 ,?is %[s h[ almo/           
inconceivably t5u\s ! mat]ial =m+ !     
comet mu/ h be5--mu* m r>efi$1 inde$1   

?an ! mo/ p]fect vacuum :i* c be produc$
 9 an air-pump4 ,?is t5uity is %[n by ! 
fact t />s 7 se5 ?r\gh ! tail z if !    
tail did n exi/4 ,a mi/ ( a few hundr$  
y>ds 9 ?ickness is suffici5t to hide !  
/>s f our view1 :ile a ?ickness ( ?\s&s 
( miles ( comet>y matt] does n suffice  
ev5 to dim _! brilliancy6  ,at ! "t ( ! 
appe>ance ( ! great comet ( #ahdc1 x 0  
d\btful :e!r ! comet _h transit$ ! sun's
 disc4 ,b x is n[ kn[n1 f c>eful        
calculations by ,pr(4 ,hubb>d1 t a      
transit really took place betwe5 #aa;h  
#bhm & #ab;h #bim on ,febru>y #bg1      
#ahdc1 & might h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! s\!rn   
hemisph]e4 ,! di/ance ( ?is rem>kable   
comet f ! sun at its p]ihelion passage 0
 less ?an t ( any kn[n comet4 ,a little 
be=e #aj p4m4 on ,febru>y #bg1 ! comet  
pass$ )9 #ha1ejj miles ( ! sun's surface
 ) ! enorm\s velocity ( #cdh miles a    
second6 ,x rema9$ less ?an #b-a_/d h\rs 
nor? ( ! ecliptic1 pass+ f ! asc5d+ to !
 desc5d+ node ( its orbit 9 #b;h        
#acm#d4aia ,! great comet ( #ahhb       

transit$ ! sun's disc on ,sunday1       
,septemb] #ag1 ( t ye>1 ! +ress tak+    
place at #d;h #ejm #ehs1 ,cape mean "t4 
,:5 on ! sun ! comet 0 absolutely       
invisible1 %[+ t !re 0 no?+ solid ab\t  
x4 ,x 0 visible ne> ! sun ) ! nak$ eye a
 little be=e ! transit took place4#aib  
,?is great comet 0 f\nd by sev]al       
computors to h be5 travell+ 9 an        
elliptic orbit ) a p]iod ( ab\t eight   
c5turies4 ,morrison f\nd #gab ye>s2     
,frisby1 #gid2 ,fabritius1 #hbc2 &      
,kreutz1 #hdc ye>s4#aic  ,! great s\!rn 
comet ( #ahhg may be describ$ z a comet 
)\t a head6 ,! popul> idea ( a comet is 
a /> ) a tail4 ,b 9 ?is case !re 0 no   
head visible--to ! nak$ eye at lea/4    
,dr4 ,?ome ( ! ,cordoba ,obs]vatory--its
 discov]]--describes x z a beautiful    
object--a n>r[1 /raight1 %>ply def9$1   
graceful tail1 ov] #dj long1 %9+ ) a s(t
 />ry light aga9/ a d>k sky1 beg9n+     
app>5tly )\t a head1 & gradually wid5+ &
 fad+ z x ext5d$ upw>ds4#aid  ,! great  
s\!rn comet ( #aija _h five tails on    

,may #f ( t ye>4 ,two 7 fairly bright1 &
 ! rema9+ ?ree r fa9t4 ,mr4 ,gale saw a 
numb] ( fa9t />s ?r\gh ! tails4 ,! light
 ( ^! seem to h be5 undimm$4 ,mr4       
,cobham notic$ t ! />s ,rigel & ,greek3 
b ,eridani %one ?r\gh "o ( ! fa9t tails1
 & %[$ no p]ceptible diff]5ce4#aie      
,pr(4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ says t ! head ( a 
comet1 z f> z our pres5t k is conc]n$1  
seems !re=e to be m]ely a meteor sw>m   
conta9+ s mu* gase\s mat]ial t :5       
electrifi$ by its approa* to ! sun x w  
be r5d]$ lum9\s 7,h>v>d ,annual1 vol4   
xxxii4 "p ii4 p4 #bie7 444 if ! meteors 
& _! atmosph]es are suffici5tly widely  
sep>at$ f "o ano!r1 ! comet may be      
brilliant & yet transp>5t at ! same "t4 
,9 ! case ( ,swift's comet ( #ahib "s   
p]iodical diff]5ces ( appe>ance 7 due1  
accord+ to ,pr(4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+1 to a  
rotation ( ! comet r\nd an axis pass+   
longitud9ally ?r\gh ! tail1 & he e/imat$
 ! p]iod ( rotation at ab\t #id to #ig  
h\rs4 ,he comput$ t 9 ?is comet !       
repulsive =ce ex]t$ by ! sun on !       

comet's tail 0 ab\t #cie times !        
gravitational =ce4#aif  ,! comet kn[n z 
#aijb;b approa*$ ! planet ,m]cury )9 two
 millions ( miles on ,novemb] #bi ( t   
ye>4 ,pr(4 ,o4 ,c4 ,w5dell1 ( ,h>v>d    
,obs]vatory1 made "s obs]vations on !   
transp>5cy ( ?is comet4 ,he f\nd ) ! aid
 ( a photomet] & ! #ae-;in* telescope ( 
! obs]vatory t 9 ! case ( two fa9t />s  
ov] :i* ! comet pass$ on ,octob] #ad1   
#aijb1 ! absorption ( light by ! comet 0
 ins5sible1 & possibly did n exce$ "o or
 two hundr$?s ( a magnitude1#aig an     
am\nt q imp]ceptible to ! nak$ eye1 &   
%[s conclusively h[ almo/ inconceivably 
r>efi$ ! sub/ance ( ?is comet mu/ be4   
,! comet kn[n z ,moreh\se 7#aijh;c7 %[$ 
"s curi\s & wond]ful *anges4 ,mr4       
,borelly f\nd t five tails are visible  
on a photographic plate tak5 on ,octob] 
#c1 #aijh1 & ! trail ( an occult$ />    
indicates a slight absorption effect4   
,accord+ to ,m4 ,l4 ,rab\rd91 great     
*anges took place f day to day1 & ev5   
dur+ ! c\rse ( an h\r6 ,simil> *anges 7 

record$ by ,g4 ,m4 ,gau?i]2 & ,pr(4     
,b>n>d1 :o photograph$ ! comet on #cj   
nights f ,septemb] #b to ,octob] #ac1   
/ates t ! photographs ( ,septemb] #cj   
are unique1 :il/ ! trans=mation :i* took
 place betwe5 ! tak+ ( ^! & ! tak+ ( !  
next "o on ,octob] #a 0 v wond]ful4#aih 
,! spectrum %[$ ! l9es ( cyanog5 in/ead 
( ! hydroc>bon spectrum %[n by mo/      
comets4  ,pr(4 ,b>n>d has sugge/$ t all 
! ph5om5a ( comets' tails _c be expla9$ 
by a repulsive =ce f ! sun4 ,%ort tails 
issu+ f ! comet's nucleus at consid]able
 angles ) ! ma9 tail po9t to eruptive   
action 9 ! comet itself4 ,! rapid *anges
 & di/ortions frequ5tly obs]v$ 9 ! tails
 ( "s comets sugge/ motion ?r\gh a      
resi/+ m$ium2 & ! sudd5 increase ( light
 also occasionally obs]v$ po9ts 9 ! same
 direction4#aii  ,x 0 comput$ by ,olb]s 
t if a comet hav+ a mass ( #a_/bjjj? ( !
 e>?'s mass--:i* w\ld =m a globe ( ab\t 
#ebj miles 9 diamet] & ( ! d5sity (     
granite--collid$ ) ! e>?1 ) a velocity (
 #dj miles a second1 our globe w\ld be  

%att]$ into fragm5ts4#bjj ,b t any comet
 has a solid nucleus ( ?is size seems v 
d\btful2 & we may fur!r say t !         
collision ( ! e>? ) any comet is highly 
improbable4  ,x seems to be a common    
idea t h>ve/s are affect$ by comets1 &  
ev5 comet w9es are sometimes spok5 (4 ,b
 we "k t ! e>? receives practically no  
heat f ! brighte/ comet4 ,ev5 9 ! case (
 ! brilliant comet ( #ahaa1 "o ( ! f9e/ 
on record1 x 0 f\nd t all ! ef=ts to    
conc5trate its rays did n produce !     
slighte/ effect on ! black5$ bulb ( !   
mo/ s5sitive !rmomet]4 ,arago f\nd t !  
ye> #ahjh1 9 :i* sev]al comets 7        
visible1 0 a cold ye>1 & #ahca1 9 :i*   
!re 0 no comet1 enjoy$ a mu* high]      
temp]ature ?an #ahai1 :5 !re 7 ?ree     
comets1 "o ( :i* 0 v brilliant4#bja ,we 
may1 !re=e1 safely conclude t ev5 a l>ge
 comet has no effect :atev] on ! wea!r4 
,f calculations on ! orbit ( ,halley's  
comet1 ! next return ( :i* is due 9     
#aiaj1 ,messrs4 ,c[ell & ,crommel9 f9d t
 ! id5tity ( ! comet %[n on ! ,bayeux   

,tape/ry ) ,halley's comet is n[ fully  
e/abli%$4 ,!y f9d t ! date ( p]ihelion  
passage 0 ,m>* #be1 #ajff1 :i* diff]s by
 only #d days f ! date f\nd by ,h9d4 ,! 
impos+ aspect ( ! comet 9 #ajff describ$
 9 ,european *ronicles ( t "t is        
confirm$ by ! ,*9ese ,annals4 ,9 ! latt]
 records ! brightness is comp>$ to t (  
,v5us1 & ev5 ) t ( ! moon6 ,! comp>ison 
) ! moon 0 probably an exagg]ation1 b ! 
comet d\btless made a v brilliant %[4 ,9
 ! ,bayeux ,tape/ry ! inscription on !  
wall beh9d ! spectators reads3 i/i      
mirant /ella4 ,n[1 ?is is bad ,lat91 &  
,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,lynn has made ! int]e/+   
sugge/ion t "s ( ! lett]s are hidd5 by !
 build+s 9 front & t ! real s5t5ce is   
i/i mirantur /ellam4#bjb ,! pres5t writ]
 has exam9$ ! copy ( ! ,bayeux ,tape/ry 
:i* is 9 ! ,dubl9 ,museum1 & ?9ks t ,mr4
 ,lynn's sugge/ion seems v plausible4 ,b
 ! la/ lett] ( /ellam is app>5tly hidd5 
by ! comet's tail1 :i* does n seem v    
probable6  ,! conditions "u :i* ! comet 
w appe> 9 #aiaj are n unlike ^? ( #ajff 

& #aade4 ,9 ea* ye> ! comet 0 discov]$ z
 a morn+ />1 !n lo/ 9 ! sun's rays2 on  
its em]g5ce x 0 ne> ! e>? & mov$ ) great
 rapidity1 f9ally becom+ /ation>y 9 !   
neighb\rhood ( ,hydra1 :]e x 0 lo/ to   
view4#bjc ,9 #aiaj x w probably be an   
ev5+ /> be=e ,m>* #ag1 & aft] ,may #aa1 
mak+ a ne> approa* to ! e>? ab\t ,may   
#ab4 ,ab\t ?is "t its app>5t motion 9 ! 
sky w be v rapid4 ,z1 h[ev]1 p]iodical  
comets--su* z ,halley's--seem to become 
fa9t] at ea* return1 great expectations 
) ref]5ce to its appe>ance 9 #aiaj %\ld 
n be indulg$ 94  ,! appe>ance (         
,halley's comet 9 ,a4,d4 #abbb is ?us   
describ$ by ,p+r--a great au?ority on   
comets--7quot+ f an anci5t writ]7--     
,9 autumn1 t is to say 9 ! mon?s (      
,augu/ & ,septemb]1 a     /> ( ! fir/   
magnitude 0 se51 v r$1 & accompani$ by a
     great tail :i* ext5d$ t[>ds ! top (
 ! sky 9 ! =m ( a     cone extremely    
po9t$4 ,x appe>$ to be v ne> ! e>?4 ,x 0
     obs]v$ 7at fir/87 ne> ! place ( !  
sett+ sun 9 ! mon? (     ,decemb]4  ,)  

ref]5ce to its appe>ance 9 ! ye> #adef1 
:5 x 0 ( vivid brightness1 & _h a tail (
 #fj 9 l5g?1 ,admiral ,smy? says1#bjd   
,to its malign influ5ce 7 imput$ ! rapid
 successes ( ,mahomet ,,ii41 :i* !n     
?reat5$ all ,*ri/5dom4 ,! g5]al al>m 0  
greatly aggravat$ by ! conduct ( ,pope  
,callixtus ,,iii41 :o1 ?\gh o!rwise a   
man ( abilities1 0 a poor a/ronom]2 = t 
pontiff daily ord]$ ! *ur* bells to be  
rung at noon-tide1 extra ,ave-,m>ias to 
be repeat$1 & a special prote/ &        
excommunication 0 compos$1 exorcis+     
equally ! ,devil1 ! ,turks1 & ! comet4  
,) ref]5ce to ?is /ory1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4    
,*amb]s po9ts out#bje t x is probably   
bas$ on a passage 9 ,plat9a's ,vit      
,pontificum4 ,b 9 ?is passage !re is no 
m5tion made ( excommunication or        
exorcism1 s t ! /ory1 :i* has long be5  
curr5t1 is probably my?ical4 ,9         
confirmation ( ?is view1 ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,f4
 ,rigge has %[n conclusively#bjf t no   
bull 0 ev] issu$ by ,pope ,callixtus    
,,iii4 conta9+ a ref]5ce to any comet4  

,! /ory w\ld !re=e seem to be absolutely
 )\t f\ndation1 & %\ld be consign$ to ! 
limbo ( all su* baseless my?s4  ,)      
ref]5ce to ! appe>ance ( ,halley's      
comet1 at 8 la/ return 9 #ahce1 ,sir    
,john ,h]s*el1 :o obs]v$ x at ! ,cape ( 
,good ,hope1 says--      ,among !       
innum]able />s ( all magnitudes1 f ! n9?
     d[nw>ds1 :i* at v>i\s times 7 se5  
?r\gh x1 & "s     extremely ne> to !    
nucleus 7?\gh n exactly on x7 !re nev]  
appe>$ ! lea/ gr\nd = presum+ any       
ext9ction ( _! light     9 trav]s+ x4 ,v
 m9ute />s inde$1 on ent]+ its brighte/ 
portions1 7 oblit]at$1 z !y w\ld h be5  
by an equal     illum9ation ( ! field ( 
view2 b />s :i* be=e _! entry     appe>$
 bright en\gh to be> t degree (         
illum9ation1 7 9 no     case1 s f> z ,i 
c\ld judge1 affect$ to a great] ext5t   
?an !y     w\ld h be5 by s mu*          
lamp-light artificially introduc$4#bjg  
,x is comput$ by ,pr(4 ,j4 ,holets*ak t1
 e>ly 9 ,octob]1 #aiji1 ,halley's comet 
%\ld h ! brightness ( a /> ( ab\t       

#ad-a_/b magnitude4#bjh ,x %\ld !n--if n
 detect$ be=e--be discov]able ) "s ( !  
l>ge telescopes n[ available4  ,accord+ 
to ! computations ( ,messrs4 ,c[ell &   
,crommel91 ! comet %\ld ent] ,pisces f  
,aries 9 ,janu>y1 #aiaj4 ,travell+      
we/w>d t[>ds ! /> ,greek3 g ,piscium    
until ! beg9n+ ( ,may1 & !n turn+ ea/w>d
 aga91 x w travel back ?r\gh !          
con/ellations ,cetus1 ,orion1 ,monoc]os1
 ,hydra1 & ,sextans4 ,f ?is x seems t   
obs]v]s 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e w h a bett] 
view ( ! comet ?an ^? 9 nor!rn          
latitudes4 ,! comput$ brightness v>ies f
 #a on ,janu>y #b1 #aiaj1 to #aaab on   
,may #aj4 ,b ! actual brightness ( a    
comet does n always agree ) !ory4 ,x is 
sometimes bright] ?an calculation w\ld  
indicate4  ,accord+ to ,pr(4 ,o4 ,c4    
,w5dell1 ,halley's comet w1 on ,may #ab1
 #aiaj1 approa* ! e>?'s orbit )9 #df    
millions ( miles2 & he ?9ks t possibly !
 e>? may enc\nt] "s meteors1 :i* are    
presumably connect$ ) ! comet4 ,he has  
comput$ ! radiant po9t ( ^! meteors 7t  

is1 ! po9t f :i* !y appe> to come71 &   
f9ds its position to be ,r4,a4 #bb;h    
#dbm#i1 ,decl4 ,n4 #a #ah'4 ,?is po9t   
lies a little s\?-we/ ( ! /> ,greek3 b  
,piscium4  ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,sm>t1 !    
comet w1 on ,june #b1 cross ! ,equator  
?irte5 degrees s\? ( ,regulus1 & w !n   
move sl[ly 9 ! direction ( ,greek3 ph   
,leonis4 ,! comet w be at its desc5d+   
node on ! ecliptic 9 ! morn+ ( ,may #af1
 & ! e>? w pass ?r\gh ! node on !       
comet's orbit ab\t two & a half days    
lat]4 ,! comet's orbit at ! node is ab\t
 #ac million miles )9 t ( ! e>?4 ,matt] 
repell$ f ! comet's nucleus by ! sun ) a
 velocity ( ab\t #baf1jjj miles p] h\r1 
w\ld j meet ! e>? :5 cross+ ! comet's   
orbit plane4 ,matt] expell$ ) a velocity
 ( #hj1jjj miles p] h\r1 z 9 ! case (   
,comet ,moreh\se1 w\ld require sev5 days
 = ! j\rney4 ,comet>y matt] is said to h
 acquir$ great] velocities ?an ?is1 =   
7accord+ to ,webb1 :o quotes ,*acornac7 
,comet ,,ii41 #ahfb1 %ot lum9\s matt]   
t[>ds ! sun1 ) a velocity ( ne>ly #bbjj 

miles p] second4 ,x is !re=e possible t 
matt] ?r[n (f by ! comet at ! node may  
ent] our atmosph]e1 9 :i* case we mu/   
hope t cyanog51 :i* s (t5 appe>s 9      
comet>y spectra1 may n be inconv5i5tly 9
 evid5ce4#bji  ,cyanog5 is1 ( c\rse1 a  
poison\s gas1 b comet>y matt] is s      
r>efi$ t injuri\s effects on ! e>? ne$ n
 be fe>$4  ,if we c believe ! acc\nts   
:i* h be5 h&$ d[n to u1 "s v wond]ful   
comets 7 visible 9 anci5t times4 ,!     
foll[+ may be m5tion$3--  ,b4,c4 #afe4  
,! sun is said to h be5 se5 = sev]al    
h\rs 9 ! night4 ,if ?is 0 a comet x mu/ 
h be5 "o ( extraord9>y brilliancy4#baj  
,b4,c4 #adf4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,demetrius1 
k+ ( ,syria1 ! fa!r ( ,demetrius &      
,antio*us1 a little be=e ! w> 9 ,a*aia1 
!re appe>$ a comet z l>ge z ! sun4 ,its 
disc 0 fir/ r$1 & l fire1 spread+       
suffici5t light to dissipate ! d>kness (
 night2 aft] a little :ile its size     
dim9i%$1 its brilliancy became weak5$1 &
 at l5g? x entirely disappe>$4#baa      
,b4,c4 #acd4 ,x is record$ t at ! bir? (

 ,mi?ridates a great comet appe>$ :i*   
occupi$ ! f\r? "p ( ! sky1 & its        
brilliancy 0 sup]ior to t ( ! sun4      
787#bab  ,b4,c4 #ge4 ,a comet is        
describ$ z equal 9 size to ! moon1 &    
giv+ z mu* light z ! sun on a cl\dy day4
 767#bac  ,a4,d4 #eca4 ,9 ?is ye> a     
great comet 0 obs]v$ 9 ,europe & ,*9a4  
,x is describ$ z a v l>ge & fe>ful      
comet1 & 0 visible 9 ! we/ = ?ree weeks4
 ,h9d ?9ks t ?is 0 an appe>ance (       
,halley's comet1#bad & ?is has be5      
confirm$ by ,mr4 ,crommel94  ,a4,d4     
#hac1 ,augu/ #d4 ,a comet is said to h  
appe>$ on ?is date1 ( :i* ! foll[+      
curi\s description is giv53 ,x resembl$ 
two moons jo9$ toge!r2 !y sep>at$1 &    
hav+ tak5 diff]5t =ms1 at l5g? appe>$ l 
a man )\t a head4 767#bae  ,a4,d4 #hic4 
,a great comet is said to h appe>$ 9 ?is
 ye> ) a tail #ajj 9 l5g?1 :i* aft]w>ds 
increas$ to #bjj6baf  ,a4,d4 #adjb4 ,a  
comet appe>$ 9 ,febru>y ( ?is ye>1 :i* 0
 visible 9 daylight = eight days4 ,on   
,palm ,sunday1 ,m>* #ai1 its size 0     

prodigi\s4 ,ano!r comet1 visible 9 !    
daytime1 0 se5 f ,june to ,septemb] ( ! 
same ye>4  ,:5 ! orbit ( ! comet kn[n z 
#ahhi ,v 0 comput$1 x 0 f\nd t x _h     
pass$ ?r\gh ,jupit]'s sy/em 9 #ahhf     
7,july #ah-ba74 ,! calculations %[ t x  
mu/ h pass$ )9 a di/ance ( #aab1cjj     
miles ( ! planet itself--or less ?an    
half ! moon's di/ance f ! e>?--& its    
c5tre may possibly h graz$ ! surface (  
,jupit]4#bag  ,sir ,john ,h]s*el ?\ght t
 ! great comet ( #ahfa 0 by f> !        
brighte/ comet he _h ev] se51 ^? ( #ahaa
 & #aheh 7,donati's7 n except$4#bah     
,pr(4 ,kreutz f\nd its p]iod (          
revolution r\nd ! sun to be ab\t #dji   
ye>s1 ) ! plane ( ! orbit ne>ly at "r   
angles to ! plane ( ! ecliptic4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,on ,novemb] #i1 #agie1 ,sir ,william   
,h]s*el saw ! comet ( t ye> pass        
c5trally ov] a small d\ble /> ( ! #aa? &
 #ab? magnitudes1 & ! fa9t] ( ! two     
compon5ts rema9$ di/9ctly visible dur+ !
 comet's transit ov] ! />4 ,?is comet 0 

an appe>ance ( ! comet n[ kn[n z        
,encke's4#bai ,/ruve saw a /> ( ! #aj?  
magnitude ?r\gh ne>ly ! brighte/ "p (   
,encke's comet on ,novemb] #g1 #ahbh1 b 
! />'s light 0 n dimm$ by ! comet4  ,sir
 ,john ,h]s*el saw a clu/] ( />s ( !    
#af? or #ag? magnitude ?r\gh ,biela's   
comet1 al?\gh ! int]pos$ comet>y matt]  
mu/ h be5 at lea/ #ej1jjj miles 9       
?ickness4#bbj  ,bessel f\nd t on        
,septemb] #bi1 #ahce1 a /> ( ! #aj?     
magnitude %one ) undimm$ lu/re ?r\gh !  
tail ( ,halley's comet )9 #h seconds (  
arc ( ! c5tral po9t ( ! head4 ,at       
,dorpat 7,russia7 ,/ruve saw ! same /> 9
 conjunction only #bb f ! brighte/ po9t 
( ! comet4 ,! /> rema9$ cont9u\sly      
visible1 & its light 0 n p]ceptibly     
dim9i%$ :il/ ! nucleus ( ! comet seem$  
to be almo/ ext+ui%$ be=e ! radiance ( !
 small /> ( ! #i? or #aj? magnitude4#bba
  ,webb says--      ,donati saw a #g mg4
 /> enl>g$ s z to %[ a s5sible disc1 :5 
! nucleus ( comet ,,iii41 #ahfj1 pass$ v
 ne> x4 ,/>s are said     to h />t$1 or 

become tremul\s1 dur+ occultations by   
comets4     ,birm+ham obs]v$ ! comet (  
,encke illum9at$ by a /> ov]     :i* x  
pass$1 ,augu/ #bc1 #ahfh2 & ,kle91 9    
#ahfa1 rem>k$ an     exceptional tw9kl+ 
9 #e mg4 />s involv$ 9 ! tail4#bbb  ,!  
comet ( #agbi _h ! greate/ p]ihelion    
di/ance ( any kn[n comet2#bbc t is1 :5  
ne>e/ to ! sun1 x did n approa* ! c5tral
 lum9>y )9 f\r times ! e>?'s di/ance f !
 sun6  ,b>n>d's comet1 #ahhi ,i41 al?\gh
 x nev] became visible to ! nak$ eye1 0 
visible ) a telescope f ,septemb] #b1   
#ahhh1 to ,augu/ #ah1 #ahij1 or #gae    
days--! longe/ p]iod ( visibility ( any 
comet on record4 ,:5 la/ se5 x 0 #f-a_/d
 times ! e>?'s di/ance f ! sun1 or ab\t 
#ehj millions ( miles1#bbd or beyond !  
orbit ( ,jupit]6  ,messi]1 :o 0 call$ ! 
comet f]ret1 discov]$ all 8 comets ) a  
small #b-;foot telescope ( #b-a_/d in*es
 ap]ture1 magnify+ #e times1 & ) a field
 ( #d4bbe  ,x is a v curi\s fact t ,sir 
,william ,h]s*el1 dur+ all 8 />-gaug+s &
 sweeps = nebul1 nev] discov]$ a        

comet2#bbf t is an object :i* 0 aft]w>ds
 prov$ to be a comet4 ,possibly1 h[ev]1 
"s ( 8 nebul :i* are n[ miss+1 may h be5
 really comets4  ,sir ,william ,h]s*el  
f\nd ! diamet] ( ! head ( ! great comet 
( #ahaa to be #abg1jjj miles4 ,!        
surr\nd+ envelope he e/imat$ to be at   
lea/ #fdc1jjj miles1 or ab\t ?ree-f\r?s 
( ! sun's diamet]4  ,on a draw+ ( !     
tails ( ! great comet ( #agdd giv5 9 a  
little book pr9t$ 9 ,b]l9 9 t ye>1 no   
less ?an #ab tails are %[n6 ,^! v>y 9   
l5g? & brightness4 ,a copy ( ?is draw+  
is giv5 9 ,cop]nicus4#bbg ,! obs]vations
 7 made by e95 ges*i*t5 ,frau5zimm]1 :o 
,dr4 ,drey] id5tifies ) ,*ri/ian ,kir*1 
or "o ( h] two si/]s1 daught]s ( ! fam\s
 ,gottfri$ & ,m>ia ,m>g>etta ,kir*      
7,idem1 p4 #ajg74 ,dr4 ,drey] ?9ks t !  
draw+ seems to h be5 c>efully made1 & n 
to be a m]e r\gh sket* z ,i _h at fir/  
suppos$ 7,idem1 p4 #ahe74  ,! tails ( "s
 comets 7 ( imm5se l5g?4 ,t ( ! comet ( 
#agfi _h an absolute l5g? ( #ch millions
 ( miles4 ,t ( #afhj1 #if million (     

miles1 or m ?an ! sun's di/ance f ! e>?4
 ,accord+ to ,sir ,william ,h]s*el1 !   
tail ( ! great comet ( #ahaa 0 ov] #ajj 
millions ( miles 9 l5g?4 ,t ( ! great   
comet ( #ahdc--"o ( ! f9e/ 9 hi/ory--is 
suppos$ to h rea*$ a l5g? ( #aej        
millions ( miles6#bbh  ,9 wid? ! tails (
 comets 7 9 "s cases enorm\s4 ,accord+  
to ,sir ,william ,h]s*el1 ! tail ( !    
comet ( #ahaa _h a diamet] ( #ae        
millions ( miles6 ,its volume 01 !re=e1 
f> great] ?an t ( ! sun6#bbh  ,accord+  
to ,hevelius ! comet ( #afeb 0 ( su* a  
magnitude t x resembl$ ! moon :5 half   
full2 only x %one ) a pale & dismal     
light4#bbi  ,halley's comet at its next 
appe>ance w be exam9$ ) ! spectroscope =
 ! fir/ "t 9 its hi/ory4 ,at its la/    
return 9 #ahce1 ! spectroscope _h n be5 
inv5t$4  ,= ! great comet ( #ahaa1      
,arago comput$ a p]iod ( #cjfe ye>s2 &  
,encke f\nd a p]iod ( #hhjj ye>s = !    
great comet ( #afhj4bcj  ,! v>iation 9 !
 orbital velocity ( "s comets is        
enorm\s4 ,! velocity ( ! comet ( #afhj  

:5 pass+ r\nd ! sun 7p]ihelion7 0 ab\t  
#bab miles a second6 ,:]eas at its      
greate/ di/ance f ! sun 7aphelion7 !    
velocity is r$uc$ to ab\t #aj feet a    
second6     ,,*apt] ,,xii  ,meteors     
,mr4 ,d5n+ ?9ks t ! meteor %[] ( ! mon? 
( ,may1 kn[n z ! ,aqu>ids1 is probably  
connect$ ) ,halley's comet4 ,! meteors  
%\ld be look$ = aft] #a a4m4 dur+ ! fir/
 week 9 ,may1 & may possibly %[ an      
enhanc$ display 9 ,may1 #aiaj1 :5       
,halley's comet w be ne> ! sun &        
e>?4#bca  ,on ,novemb] #bi1 #aije1 ,sir 
,david ,gill obs]v$ a fireball ) an     
app>5t diamet] equal to t ( ! moon1 :i* 
rema9$ visible = #e m9utes & disappe>$ 9
 a hazy sky4 ,obs]v$ f ano!r place1 ,mr4
 ,full] f\nd t ! meteor 0 visible #b    
h\rs lat]6 ,sir ,david ,gill /at$ t he  
does n "k ( any simil> ph5om5on4#bcb    
,mr4 ,d5n+ f9ds t swiftly mov+ meteors  
become visible at a great] height above 
! e>?'s surface ?an ! sl[] ones4 ,?us1 =
 ! ,leonids & ,p]seids1 :i* are bo?     
swift1 x has be5 f\nd t ! ,leonids appe>

 at an av]age height ( #hd miles1 &     
disappe> at a height ( #ef miles2 & !   
,p]seids at #hj & #ed miles             
respectively4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mean      
height ( ! v sl[ meteors av]age ab\t #fe
 miles at ! beg9n+ & #ch miles at ! end 
( _! appe>ance4#bcc  ,dur+ ! night (    
,july #ba-bb1 #ahif1 ,mr4 ,william      
,brooks1 ! well-kn[n a/ronom]1 &        
director ( ! ,smi? ,obs]vatory at ,g5eva
 7,new ,york71 saw a r\nd d>k body pass 
sl[ly across ! moon's bright disc1 !    
moon be+ ne>ly full at ! "t4 ,! app>5t  
diamet] ( ! object 0 ab\t "o m9ute (    
arc1 & ! duration ( ! transit #c or #d  
seconds1 ! direction ( motion be+ f ea/ 
to we/4 ,on ,augu/ #bb ( ! same ye>1    
,mr4 ,ga?man 7an ,am]ican obs]v]7 saw a 
meteor cross+ ! sun's disc1 ! transit   
la/+ ab\t #h seconds4#bcd  ,a meteor :i*
 appe>$ 9 ,italy on ,july #g1 #ahib1 0  
%[n by ,pr(4 von ,niessl to h _h an     
asc5d+ pa? t[>ds ! latt] end ( its      
c\rse6 ,! l5g? ( its pa? 0 comput$ to be
 #fhc miles4 ,:5 fir/ se51 its height   

above ! e>? 0 ab\t #db miles1 & :5 x    
disappe>$ its height _h increas$ to ab\t
 #ih miles1 %[+ t its motion 0 direct$  
upw>ds6#bce  ,9 ! case ( ! fall (       
meteoric /ones1 :i* occasionally occur1 
x has sometimes be5 notic$ t ! s\nd     
caus$ by ! explosion ( ! meteorite1 or  
its passage ?r\gh ! air1 is he>d be=e ! 
meteorite is se5 to fall4 ,?is has be5  
expla9$ by ! fact t ow+ to ! resi/ance (
 ! air to a body mov+ at fir/ ) a high  
velocity its spe$ is s r$uc$ t x /rikes 
! e>? ) a velocity less ?an t ( s\nd4   
,h5ce ! s\nd rea*es ! e>? be=e ! body   
/rikes ! gr\nd4#bcf  ,! l>ge/ meteoric  
/one pres]v$ 9 a museum is t kn[n z !   
,anighita1 :i* weighs #cf-a_/b tons1 & 0
 f\nd at ,cape ,york 9 ,gre5l&4 ,x 0    
br\ght to ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural 
,hi/ory by ,comm&] ,r4 ,e4 ,pe>y1 !     
,arctic explor]4  ,! second l>ge/ kn[n  
is t ( ,bacubirito 9 ,mexico1 ! weight (
 :i* is e/imat$ at #bg-a_/b tons4  ,!   
?ird l>ge/ is t kn[n z ! ,williamette1  
:i* 0 f\nd 9 #aijb ne> ! t[n ( t "n 9   

,we/]n ,oregon 7,u4,s4,a474 ,x is       
compos$ ( metallic nickel-iron1 & weighs
 ab\t #ac-a_/b tons4 ,x is n[ 9 !       
,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4  ,a
 l>ge meteorite 0 actually se51 f ! deck
 ( ! /eam] ,african ,pr9ce1 to fall into
 ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 on ,octob] #g1     
#aijf6 ,! capta9 ( ! vessel1 ,capta9    
,&]son1 describes x z hav+ a tra9 (     
light resembl+ an imm5se broad          
electric-col\r$ b&1 gradually turn+ to  
orange1 & !n to ! col\r ( molt5 metal4  
,:5 ! meteor came into ! d5s] atmosph]e 
close to ! e>?1 x appe>$1 z ne>ly z is  
possible to describe x1 l a molt5 mass (
 metal be+ p\r$ out4 ,x ent]$ ! wat] ) a
 hiss+ noise close to ! %ip4#bcg ,?is 0 
a v curi\s & p]haps unique ph5om5on1 & x
 w\ld seem t ! vessel _h a n>r[ escape f
 de/ruction4  ,9 ,c5tral ,arizona       
7,u4,s4,a47 !re is a hill call$ ,coon   
,butte1 or ,coon ,m\nta94 ,?is s-call$  
m\nta9 rises to a height ( only #acj to 
#afj feet above ! surr\nd+ pla91 & has  
on its top a crat] ( #ecj to #efj feet  

deep2 ! bottom ( ! crat]--:i* is        
dry--be+ ?us #djj feet bel[ ! level ( ! 
surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,?is s-call$ crat] is  
almo/ circul> & ne>ly ?ree-qu>t]s ( a   
mile 9 diamet]4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ?is
 crat] 0 =m$ by ! fall ( an enorm\s iron
 meteorite1 or small a/]oid4 ,! crat]   
has be5 c>efully exam9$ by a geologi/ & 
a physici/4 ,f ! evid5ce & facts f\nd1 !
 geologi/ 7,mr4 ,b>r+]7 /ates t !y d n  
leave1 9 my m9d1 a sc9tilla ( d\bt t ?is
 m\nta9 & its crat] 7 produc$ by !      
impact ( a huge meteorite or small      
a/]oid4 ,! physici/ 7,mr4 ,tilghmann7   
says t he is ju/ifi$1 "u due res]ve z to
 subsequ5tly develop$ facts1 9 ann\nc+ t
 ! =mation at ?is locality is due to !  
impact ( a meteor ( enorm\s & unprec$5t$
 size4 ,!re are num]\s masses ( meteoric
 iron 9 ! vic9ity ( ! crat]4 ,! s-call$ 
,canyon ,diabolo meteorite 0 f\nd 9 a   
canyon ( t "n ab\t #b-a_/b miles f !    
,coon ,m\nta94 ,! inve/igators e/imate t
 ! great meteoric fall took place n m   
?an #ejjj ye>s ago1 p]haps mu* less4    

,c$> trees ab\t #gjj ye>s old are n[    
gr[+ on ! rim ( ! m\nta94 ,f ! results (
 artill]y exp]im5ts1 ,mr4 ,gilb]t f9ds t
 a sph]ical projectile /rik+ solid      
lime/one ) a velocity ( #ahjj feet a    
second w p5etrate to a dep? ( some?+    
less ?an two diamet]s1 & f ?is ,mr4 ,l4 
,flet*] concludes t a meteorite ( l>ge  
size w\ld n be prev5t$ by ! e>?'s       
atmosph]e f hav+ a p5etration effect    
suffici5t = ! production ( su* a        
crat]4#bch  ,! meteoric orig9 ( ?is     
rem>kable crat] is /rongly fav\r$ by    
,mr4 ,g4 ,p4 ,m]rill1 ,head ,curator (  
,geology1 ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4  ,! 
,canyon ,diabolo meteorite above ref]r$ 
to 0 f\nd to conta9 diamonds6 "s black1 
o!rs transp>5t4 ,s "s h said t ! diamond
 is a gift f ,heav51 convey$ to e>? 9   
meteoric %[]s4#bci ,b diamond-be>+      
meteorites w\ld seem to be r a freak (  
nature4 ,x does n foll[ t all diamonds  
_h _! orig9 9 meteoric /ones4 ,! m9]al  
kn[n z p]iodot is frequ5tly f\nd 9      
meteoric /ones1 b x is also a con/itu5t 

( t]re/rial rocks4  ,9 ! ye> #ahhb x 0  
/at$ by ,dr4 ,halm & ,dr4 ,we9h& t !y _h
 f\nd fossil sponges1 corals1 & cr9oids 
9 meteoric /ones6 ,dr4 ,we9h& ?\ght he  
_h actually det]m9$ ?ree g5]a6#bdj ,b   
?is />tl+ result 0 flatly contradict$ by
 ,c>l ,vogt1 :o /at$ t ! suppos$ fossils
 are m]ely cry/all9e con=mations4#bda   
,"s meteorites conta9 a l>ge quantity ( 
occlud$ gases1 hydrog51 helium1 & c>bon 
oxides4 ,x is /at$ t ,dr4 ,odl+ once    
light$ up ! !atre ( ! ,royal ,in/itution
 ) gas br\ght d[n f int]/ell> space by  
meteorites6#bdb  ,on ,febru>y #aj1      
#ahif1 a l>ge meteorite bur/ ov] ,madrid
 ) a l\d report4 ,! concussion 0 s great
 t _m w9d[s 9 ! city 7 brok51 & "s      
p>titions 9 h\ses 7 %ak5 d[n6#bdc  ,a v 
brilliant meteor or fireball 0 se5 9    
daylight on ,june #i1 #aijj1 at #b;h    
#eem p4m4 f v>i\s places 9 ,surrey1     
,sussex1 & ne> ,london4 ,calculations   
%[$ t ! meteor began #ei miles 9 height 
ov] a po9t #aj miles ea/ ( ,valognes1   
ne> ,*]b\rg1 ,france4 ,meteor end$ #bc  

miles 9 height1 ov] ,calais1 ,france4   
,l5g? ( pa? #age miles4 ,radiant po9t1  
#bhj1 #ab4bdd  ,x 0 decid$ "s ye>s ago 9
 ! ,am]ican ,supreme ,c\rt t a          
meteorite1 ?\gh a /one fall5 f heav51   
belongs to ! own] ( ! freehold int]e/ 9 
! l& on :i* x falls1 & n to ! t5ant4#bde
  ,) ref]5ce to ! fall ( meteoric matt] 
on ! e>?1 ,mr4 ,proctor says1 ,x is     
calculat$ by ,dr4 ,kleib] ( ,/4         
,pet]sburgh t #dbej lbs4 ( meteoric du/ 
fall on ! e>? e h\r--t is1 #ei tons a   
day1 & m ?an #aa1dce tons a ye>4 ,i     
believe ?is to be consid]ably %ort ( !  
tru?4 ,x s\nds l a l>ge annual gr[?1 & !
 d[nfall ( su* an enorm\s mass (        
meteoric matt] seems sugge/ive ( "s     
degree ( dang]4 ,b 9 reality1 ,dr4      
,kleib]'s e/imate gives only ab\t #be   
millions ( p\nds annually1 :i* is less  
?an #b ounces annually to ea* squ>e mile
 ( ! e>?'s surface1#bdf a quantity :i*  
is1 ( c\rse1 q insignificant4  ,accord+ 
to ,humboldt1 ,*ladni /ates t a         
,franciscan monk 0 kill$ by ! fall ( an 

arolite at ,milan 9 ! ye> #affj4bdg     
,humboldt also m5tions ! dea? by        
meteoric /ones ( a monk at ,crema on    
,septemb] #d1 #aeaa1 & two ,sw$i%       
sailors on bo>d %ip 9 #afgd4bdh  ,x is a
 curi\s fact t1 accord+ to ,olb]s1 no   
fossil meteoric /ones h ev] be5         
discov]$4#bdi ,consid]+ ! numb] :i* are 
suppos$ to h fall5 to ! e>? 9 ! c\rse ( 
ages1 ?is fact seems a rem>kable "o4    
,on ,may #aj1 #ahgi1 a %[] ( meteorites 
fell at ,ei!rville1 ,i[a 7,u4,s4,a474   
,"s ( ! fragm5ts f\nd weigh$ #dcg1 #agj1
 #ib-a_/b1 #bh1 #aj-a_/b1 #d & #b lbs4 9
 weight4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> 7#ahhj7 :5 !   
prairie grass _h be5 consum$ by a fire1 
ab\t #ejjj pieces 7 f\nd f ! size ( a p9
 to a p\nd 9 weight4#bej  ,accord+ to   
,pr(4 ,silve/ria ( ,catania1 a %[] (    
meteoric du/ mix$ ) ra9 fell on ! night 
( ,m>* #bi1 #ahhj4 ,! du/ conta9$ a l>ge
 proportion ( iron 9 ! metallic /ate4 ,9
 size ! p>ticles v>i$ f a t5? to a      
hundr$? ( a millimetre4#bea  ,x is      
sometimes /at$ t ! av]age mass ( a %oot+

 /> is only a few gra9s4 ,b f comp>isons
 ) an electric arc light1 ,pr(4 ,w4 ,h4 
,pick]+ concludes t a meteor z bright z 
a ?ird magnitude />1 compos$ ( iron or  
/one1 w\ld probably h a diamet] ( #f or 
#g in*es4 ,an av]age bright fireball    
w\ld p]haps measure #e or #f feet 9     
diamet]4#beb  ,9 ! ,book ( ,jo%ua we are
 told t ! ,,"l ca/ d[n great /ones f    
heav5 ^u !m unto ,azekah1 & !y di$      
7,jo%ua x4 #aa74 ,9 ! latt] portion ( ! 
v]se hail/ones are m5tion$1 b z !       
orig9al ,hebrew ^w means /ones 9 g5]al  
7n hail/ones71 x seems v probable t !   
/ones ref]r$ to 7 arolites4#bec  ,! /one
 m5tion$ 9 ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 f :i* 0
 f\nd ! image :i* fell d[n f ,jupit]    
7,acts xix4 #ce71 0 evid5tly a meteoric 
/one4#bec  ,! fam\s /one 9 ! ,caaba at  
,mecca1 is probably a /one ( meteoric   
orig94#bec    ,i    ,/ones f ,heav56 ,c 
y wond]1     ,y :o scrut9ize ! ,e>?1    
,at ! love & v5]ation     ,!y receiv$   
be=e ! bir?   ,( our sci5tific me?ods8  
,,ii    ,/ones f ,heav56 we c h&le      

,fragm5ts fall5 f realms ( ,space2      
,oh6 ! m>vel & ! my/]y1     ,c\ld we    
und]/& _! place   ,9 ! s*eme ( ?+s      
creat$6     ,,iii    ,/ones f ,heav56 ,)
 a mighty     ,comet :irl+ =m$ !y "p8   
,fell !y f _! l(ty /ation     ,l a      
brilliant fi]y d>t1   ,hurl'd f />ry    
fields ( ,night8#bed     ,,*apt] ,,xiii 
,! ,zodiacal ,light & ,geg5s*e9         
,accord+ to ,gruson & ,brugs*1 !        
,zodiacal ,light 0 kn[n 9 anci5t times1 
& 0 ev5 wor%ipp$ by ! ,egyptians4 ,/rabo
 does n m5tion x2 b ,diodorus ,siculus  
seems to ref] to x 7,b4,c4 #cgc71 & he  
probably obta9$ 8 in=mation f "s ,greek 
writ]s be=e 8 "t1 possibly f ,z5ophon1  
:o liv$ 9 ! six? c5tury ,b4,c4#bee ,com+
 to ! ,*ri/ian era1 x 0 notic$ by       
,nicephorus1 ab\t #daj ,b4,c4 ,9 !      
,koran1 x is call$ ! false ,aurora2 & x 
is suppos$ to be ref]r$ to 9 ! ,rubiyt (
 ,om> ,khayyam1 ! ,p]sian a/ronomical   
poet1 9 ! second /anza ( t poem 7,edw>d 
,fitzg]ald's translation7--    ,dream+  
:5 ,dawn's ,left ,h& 0 9 ! ,sky1#bef    

,i he>d a voice )9 ! ,tav]n cry1        
,awake1 my ,little ones1 & fill ! ,cup1 
,be=e ,life's ,liquor 9 its ,cup be dry4
  ,x 0 obs]v$ by ,cass9i 9 #affh1beg &  
by ,hooke 9 #agje4 ,a %ort description (
 its appe>ance w be f\nd 9 ,*ildrey's   
,britannia ,baconica 7#affa71 p4 #ahc4  
,! f9e/ displays ( ?is curi\s light seem
 to occur betwe5 ! middle ( ,janu>y & ! 
middle ( ,febru>y4 ,9 ,febru>y1 #ahef1  
,sec*i f\nd x bright] ?an he _h ev] se5 
x be=e4 ,x 0 yell[i% t[>ds ! axis ( !   
cone1 & x seem$ to be bright] ?an !     
,milky ,way 9 ,cygnus4 ,he describ$ x z 
un gr&e spectacle4 ,9 ! middle (        
,febru>y1 #ahff1 ,mr4 ,lassell1 dur+ 8  
la/ resid5ce 9 ,malta1 saw a rem>kable  
display ( ! ,zodiacal ,light4 ,he f\nd x
 at lea/ twice z bright z ! brighte/ "p 
( ! ,milky ,way1 & mu* bright] ?an he _h
 previ\sly se5 x4 ,he f\nd t ! "* ( its 
light diff]$ consid]ably f t ( ! ,milky 
,way4 ,x 0 ( a mu* r$d] hue ?an !       
,galaxy4 ,9 #ahgd v rem>kable displays 7
 se5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,london 9       

,janu>y & ,febru>y ( t ye>2 & 9 #ahge on
 ,janu>y #bd1 #be1 & #cj4 ,on ,janu>y   
#bd x 0 notic$ t ! light 0 di/9ctly     
r$di% & mu* excell$ 9 brightness any    
portion ( ! ,milky ,way4  ,humboldt1 :o 
obs]v$ x f ,&es 7at a height ( #ac1jjj  
to #ae1jjj feet71 f ,v5ezuela & f       
,cumana1 tells u t he has se5 !         
,zodiacal ,light equal 9 brightness to !
 ,milky ,way 9 ,sagitt>ius4  ,z probably
 _m p h nev] se5 ! light1 a caution may 
be giv5 to ^? :o c>e to look = x4 ,x is 
def9$ by ! ,rev4 ,george ,jones1 ,*apla9
 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates' ,japan ,exp$ition  
7#ahec-ee71 z a brightness t appe>s 9 ! 
we/]n sky aft] sunset1 & 9 ! ea/ be=e   
sunrise2 foll[+ ne>ly or q ! l9e ( !    
ecliptic 9 ! heav5s1 & /ret*+ upw>ds to 
v>i\s elevations accord+ to ! season ( !
 ye>4 ,f ! description "s might suppose 
t ! light is visible imm$iately aft]    
sunset4 ,b ?is is n s2 x nev] appe>s    
until twilight is ov] & ! night has     
fully set 94  ,! light is usually se5   
aft] sunset or be=e sunrise4 ,b attempts

 h rec5tly be5 made by ,pr(4 ,simon     
,newcomb to obs]ve x nor? ( ! sun4 ,to  
avoid ! effects ( twilight ! sun mu/ be 
only slightly m ?an #ah bel[ ! horizon  
7t is1 a little be=e or aft] ! longe/   
day74 ,?is condition limits ! place (   
obs]vation to latitudes n mu* s\? ( #df2
 & to r$uce atmosph]ic absorption !     
obs]v+ /ation %\ld be z high z possible 
above ! level ( ! sea4 ,pr(4 ,newcomb1  
obs]v+ f ! ,bri5z] ,ro?orn 9 ,switz]l&  
7latitude #df #dg' ,n41 longitude #h #c'
 ,e471 succe$$ 9 trac+ ! light to a     
di/ance ( #ce nor? ( ! sun4 ,x w\ld     
seem1 !re=e1 t ! ,zodiacal ,light       
envelops ! sun on all sides1 b has a    
great] ext5sion 9 ! direction ( !       
ecliptic4#beh ,f obs]vations at ! ,lick 
,obs]vatory1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,fa? f\nd an  
ext5sion ( #df nor? ( ! sun4#bei  ,f    
obs]vations ( ! light made by ,pr(4     
,b>n>d at ! ,y]kes ,obs]vatory dur+ !   
summ] ( #aijf1 he f9ds t x ext5ds to at 
lea/ #fe nor? ( ! sun1 a consid]ably    
high] value ?an t f\nd by ,pr(4         

,newcomb4#bfj ,! diff]5ce may p]haps be 
expla9$ by actual v>iation ( ! meteoric 
matt] produc+ ! light4 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,h4    
,poynt+ ?9ks t possibly ! ,zodiacal     
,light is due to ! du/ ( long dead      
comets4#bfa  ,f c>eful obs]vations ( !  
light1 ,mr4 ,gav9 ,j4 ,burns f9ds t its 
lum9osity is "s #dj or #ej p] c5t4      
bright] ?an ! backgr\nd ( ! sky4 ,pr(4  
,newcomb has made a precisely simil>    
rem>k ab\t ! lum9osity ( ! ,milky ,way1 
viz4 t x is surpris+ly small4 ,?is      
agrees ) my own obs]vations dur+ _m     
ye>s4 ,x is only on ! f9e/ & cle>e/     
nights t ! ,milky ,way =ms a conspicu\s 
object 9 ! night sky4 ,& ?is only 9 !   
c\ntry4 ,! lights ( a city almo/        
entirely oblit]ate x4 ,mr4 ,burns f9ds t
 ! ,zodiacal ,light appe>s to be ( a    
yell[i% t9t2 or if we call x :ite1 !n ! 
,milky ,way is comp>atively ( a blui%   
t9t4 ,dur+ my resid5ce 9 ! ,punjab !    
,zodiacal ,light seem$ to me con/antly  
visible 9 ! ev5+ sky 9 ! spr+ mon?s4 ,9 
! we/ ( ,irel& ,i h se5 x ne>ly z bright

 z ! brighte/ portions ( ! ,milky ,way  
visible 9 ?is c\ntry 7,febru>y #bj1     
#ahij74 ,! meteoric !ory ( ! light seems
 to be ! "o n[ g5]ally accept$ by       
a/ronom]s1 & 9 ?is op9ion ,i fully      
concur4  ,f obs]vations made 9 ,jamaica 
9 ! ye>s #ahii & #aija1 ,mr4 ,maxwell   
,hall arriv$ at ! conclusion t !        
,zodiacal ,light is caus$ by reflection 
( sunlight f masses ( meteoric matt]    
/ill conta9$ 9 ! inv>iable plane1 :i*   
may be consid]$ ! orig9al plane ( ! sol>
 sy/em4#bfb ,accord+ to ,humboldt1      
,cass9i believ$ t ! ,zodiacal ,light    
consi/$ ( innum]ably small planet>y     
bodies revolv+ r\nd ! sun4#bfc  ,,!     
,,geg5s*e91 or ,,c\nt]-,,gl[4--,?is is a
 fa9t pat* ( light se5 opposite ! sun's 
place 9 ! sky1 t is on ! m]idian at     
midnight4 ,x is usually elliptical 9    
%ape1 ) its long] axis ly+ ne>ly 9 !    
plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,x seems to h be5   
fir/ detect$ by ,brors5 7! discov]] ( ! 
%ort-p]iod comet ( #ahdf7 ab\t ! middle 
( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,b x is n easy to   

see1 = ! fam\s ,heis ( ,mn/]1 :o _h v   
ke5 eyesight1 did n succe$ 9 see+ x =   
sev]al ye>s aft] ,brors5's              
ann\ncem5t4#bfd ,x 0 aft]w>ds           
indep5d5tly discov]$ by ,backh\se1 &    
,b>n>d4  ,pr(4 ,b>n>d's e>li]           
obs]vations seem$ to %[ t ! ,geg5s*e9   
does n lie exactly opposite to ! sun1 b 
v ne>ly s4 ,he f\nd its longitude is )9 
"o degree ( #ahj1 & its latitude ab\t   
#ac nor? ( ! ecliptic4#bfe ,b f         
subsequ5t obs]vations he came to !      
conclusion t ! diff]5ces 9 longitude &  
app>5t latitude are due to atmosph]ic   
absorption1 & t ! object really lies 9 !
 ecliptic & exactly opposite to !       
sun4#bff  ,b>n>d f9ds t ! ,geg5s*e9 is n
 s fa9t z is g5]ally suppos$4 ,he says x
 is be/ se5 by av]t$ vision1 ! face be+ 
turn$ #fj or #gj to ! "r or left1 & !   
eyes alone turn$ t[>ds x4 ,x is         
invisible 9 ,june & ,decemb]1 :ile 9    
,septemb] x is r\nd1 ) a diamet] ( #bj1 
& v di/9ct4 ,no satisfactory !ory has   
yet be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = ?is curi\s  

ph5om5on4 ,pr(4 ,ar?ur ,se>le ( ,h>v>d  
attributes x to a numb] ( a/]oids too   
small to be se5 individually4 ,:5 9     
opposition to ! sun ^! w\ld be fully    
illum9at$ & ne>e/ to ! e>?4 ,its di/ance
 f ! e>? probably exce$s t ( ! moon4    
,dr4 ,johnson ,/oney ?9ks t ! ,geg5s*e9 
may possibly be due to a tail ( hydrog5 
& helium gases repell$ f ! e>? by sol>  
action2 ?is tail be+ visible to u by    
reflect$ sunlight4  ,x 0 obs]v$ "u      
fav\rable circum/ances 9 ,janu>y &      
,febru>y1 #aijc1 by ! ,fr5* a/ronom]1   
,m4 ,f4 ,qunisset4 ,he f\nd t x 0 bett] 
se5 :5 ! atmosph]e 0 less cle>1 contr>y 
to 8 exp]i5ce ( ! ,zodiacal ,light4     
,pr(4 ,b>n>d's exp]i5ce confirms ?is4   
,m4 ,qunisset notes t--z 9 ! case ( !   
,zodiacal ,light--! s\!rn bord] ( !     
,geg5s*e9 is %>p] ?an ! nor!rn4 ,he f\nd
 t its brightness is less ?an t ( !     
,milky ,way betwe5 ,betelgeuse & ,greek3
 g ,gem9orum2 & ?9ks t x is m]ely a     
/r5g!n+ ( ! ,zodiacal ,light4#bfg  ,a   
meteoritic !ory ( ! ,geg5s*e9 has be5   

advanc$ by ,pr(4 ,f4 ,r4 ,m\lton1 :i*   
expla9s x by light reflect$ f a sw>m (  
meteorites revolv+ r\nd ! sun at a      
di/ance ( #icj1bdj miles outside ! e>?'s
 orbit4  ,bo? ! ,zodiacal ,light &      
,geg5s*e9 7 obs]v$ by ,h]r ,leo ,br5n]  
on ! ev5+ ( ,m>* #d1 #ahif4 ,he f\nd !  
,zodiacal ,light on ?is ev5+ to be      
p]haps eight times bright] ?an ! ,milky 
,way 9 ,p]seus4 ,! ,geg5s*e9 di/9ctly   
visible z a r\nd1 bright1 cl\d-l nebula 
bel[ ,leo 7,virgo71 & ab\t twice !      
brightness ( ! ,milky ,way 9 ,monoc]os  
betwe5 ,canis ,major & ,canis ,m9or4#bfh
  ,humboldt ?\ght t ! fluctuations 9 !  
brilliancy ( ! ,zodiacal ,light 7       
probably due to a real v>iation 9 !     
int5sity ( ! ph5om5on r ?an to ! elevat$
 position ( ! obs]v]4#bfi ,he says t he 
0 a/oni%$ 9 ! tropical climates ( ,s\?  
,am]ica1 to obs]ve ! v>iable int5sity ( 
! light4     ,,*apt] ,,xiv  ,! ,/>s     
,pl9y says t ,hipp>*us v5tur$ to c\nt ! 
/>s1 a "w ardu\s ev5 = ! ,deity4 ,b ?is 
0 q a mi/ak5 idea4 ,^? visible to ! nak$

 eye are comp>atively few 9 numb]1 & !  
enum]ation ( ^? visible 9 an            
op]a-glass--:i* ( c\rse f> exce$ ^? :i* 
c be se5 by unaid$ vision--is a matt] ( 
no great difficulty4 ,^? visible 9 a    
small telescope ( #b-c_/d in*es ap]ture 
h all be5 obs]v$ & catalogu$2 & ev5 ^?  
%[n on photographs tak5 ) l>ge          
telescopes c be easily c\nt$4 ,! pres5t 
writ] has made an attempt 9 ?is         
direction1 & tak+ an av]age ( a l>ge    
numb] ( c\nts 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! sky1 z   
%[n on /ell> photographs1 he f9ds a     
total ( ab\t #fd millions = ! :ole sky 9
 bo? hemisph]es4#bgj ,probably ! total  
numb] w n exce$ #ajj millions4 ,b ?is is
 a comp>atively small numb]1 ev5 :5     
comp>$ ) ! human population ( our little
 globe4  ,) ref]5ce to ! *>ts made by   
photography 9 ! ,int]national s*eme     
comm5c$ "s ye>s ago1 x has n[ be5       
e/imat$ t ! *>ts w probably conta9 a    
total ( ab\t #i1hed1jjj />s d[n to ab\t 
! #ad? magnitude 7#acg74 ,! catalogue   
plates 7tak5 ) a %ort] exposure7 w1 x is

 expect$1 include ab\t #b1fgf1ejj />s   
d[n to #aa-a_/b magnitude4 ,^! numb]s   
may1 h[ev]1 be some:at increas$ :5 ! "w 
has be5 complet$4#bga ,if ?is e/imate   
proves to be correct1 ! numb] ( />s     
visible d[n to ! #ad? magnitude w be    
consid]ably less ?an =m] e/imates h made
 x4  ,pr(4 ,e4 ,c4 ,pick]+ e/imates t ! 
total numb] ( />s visible on photographs
 d[n to ! #af? magnitude 7ab\t ! fa9te/ 
visible 9 ! great ,lick telescope7 w be 
ab\t #ej millions4#bgb ,9 ! pres5t      
writ]'s enum]ation1 above ref]r$ to1 _m 
/>s fa9t] ?an ! #af? magnitude 7        
includ$4  ,admiral ,smy? says1 ) ref]5ce
 to ,sir ,william ,h]s*el--p]haps !     
greate/ obs]v] t ev] liv$--,z to ,sir   
,william himself1 he c\ld unhesitat+ly  
call e /> d[n to ! #f? magnitude1 by its
 "n1 lett]1 or numb]4#bgc ,?is %[s great
 p[]s ( obs]vation1 & a wond]ful memory4
  ,on a photographic plate ( ! ,pleiades
 tak5 ) ! ,bruce telescope & an exposure
 ( #f h\rs1 ,pr(4 ,bailey ( ,h>v>d has  
c\nt$ #cigb />s )9 an area #b squ>e1    

hav+ ,alcyone at its c5tre4#bgd ,?is    
w\ld give a total ( ab\t #da millions = 
! :ole sky1 if ( ! same ri*ness4  ,) an 
exposure ( #af h\rs1 ,pr(4 ,h4 ,c4      
,wilson f9ds on an area ( less t #aaj'  
squ>e a total ( #dfba />s4 ,he ?9ks1 ,t 
all ( ^! />s belong to ! ,pleiades gr\p 
is n at all probable4 ,! great majority 
( !m probably lie at imm5se di/ances    
beyond ! gr\p1 & simply appe> 9 x by    
projection4#bgd ,he adds1 ,x has be5    
f\nd1 h[ev]1 by v c>eful measurem5ts    
made dur+ ! la/ #ge ye>s at ! ,knigsb]gh
 & ,yale ,obs]vatories1 t ( ! sixty-n9e 
bright] />s1 includ+ ^? d[n to ! #i?    
magnitude1 only eight %[ any c]ta9      
movem5t ) ref]5ce to ,alcyone4 ,s9ce    
,alcyone has a prop] motion or drift (  
#f p] c5tury1 ?is means t all ! brighte/
 />s except ! eight m5tion$ are drift+ )
 ,alcyone & s =m a true clu/]1 at       
approximately ! same di/ance f ! e>?4   
,six ( ! eight />s :i* %[ relative drift
 are mov+ 9 ! opposite direction to !   
movem5t ( ,alcyone1 & at ne>ly ! same   

rate1 s t _! motion is only app>5t4 ,!y 
are really /ation>y1 :ile ,alcyone & !  
re/ ( ! clu/] are mov+ pa/ !m4#bge ,?is 
t5ds to %[ t ! fa9t />s are really beh9d
 ! clu/]1 & are unconnect$ ) x4  ,x is a
 popul> idea ) "s p t ! ,pole ,/> is !  
ne>e/ ( all ! />s to ! cele/ial pole4 ,b
 photographs %[ t !re are _m fa9t />s   
ne>] to ! pole ?an ! ,pole ,/>4 ,! ,pole
 ,/> is at pres5t at a di/ance ( #a #ac'
 f ! real pole ( ! heav5s1 b x is sl[ly 
approa*+ x4 ,! m9imum di/ance w be rea*$
 9 ! ye> #bajd4 ,f photographs tak5 by  
,m4 ,flamm>ion at ! ,juvisy ,obs]vatory1
 he f9ds t !re are at lea/ #abh />s ne>]
 to ! pole ?an ! ,pole ,/>6 ,! ne>e/ /> 
to ! pole 01 9 ! ye> #aijb1 a small /> (
 ab\t #ab-a_/b magnitude1 :i* 0 di/ant  
ab\t #d m9utes ( arc f ! pole4#bgf ,!   
e/imat$ magnitude %[s t ! ,pole ,/> is  
ne>ly #aj1jjj times bright] ?an ?is fa9t
 />6  ,x has be5 f\nd t ,sirius is      
bright en\gh to ca/ a %ad[ "u fav\rable 
conditions4 ,on ,m>* #bb1 #aijc1 !      
di/+ui%$ ,fr5* a/ronom] ,t\*et succe$$ 9

 photograph+ ! %ad[ ( a broo* ca/ by ?is
 brilliant />4 ,! exposure 0 #a;h #em4  
,m>t9us ,hort5sius seems to h be5 ! fir/
 to see />s 9 daylight1 p]haps e>ly 9 ! 
sev5te5? c5tury4 ,he m5tions ! fact 9 a 
lett] to ,gass5di dat$ ,octob] #ab1     
#afcf1 b does n give ! date ( 8         
obs]vation4 ,s*ick>d saw ,arcturus 9    
broad daylight e>ly 9 #afcb4 ,mor9 saw !
 same bright /> half an h\r aft] sunset 
9 ,m>*1 #afce4  ,"s int]e/+ obs]vations 
7 made by ,pr(essors ,payne & ,h4 ,c4   
,wilson1 9 ! summ] ( #aijd1 at ,midvale1
 ,montana 7,u4,s4,a471 at a height (    
#dgij feet above sea-level4 ,at ?is     
height !y f\nd ! air v cle> & transp>5t4
 ,_m m />s 7 visible at a glance1 & !   
famili> />s appe>$ m brilliant4444 ,9 ! 
great bright cl\d ( ! ,milky ,way1      
betwe5 ,greek3 b & ,greek3 g ,cygni1 "o 
c\ld c\nt easily sixte5 or sev5te5 />s1 
besides ! bright ones ,greek3  & ,greek3
 *1#bgg :ile at ,nor?field x is         
difficult to di/9ctly see eight or n9e )
 ! nak$ eye4 ,"s nebul & /> fields 7    

photograph$ ) good results by ! aid ( a 
#b-a_/b-;in* ,d>lot l5s & #c h\rs'      
exposure4#bgh  ,pr(4 ,b>n>d has tak5 "s 
good /ell> photographs ) a l5s ( only   
#a-a_/b in*es 9 diamet]1 & #d or #e     
in*es focus belong+ to an ord9>y magic  
lant]n6 ,he says t ^! photographs ) !   
small l5s %[ u 9 ! mo/ /rik+ mann] h[ ! 
mo/ valuable & important in=mation may  
be obta9$ ) ! simple/ means4#bgi  ,)    
ref]5ce to ! ris+ & sett+ ( ! />s due to
 ! e>?'s rotation on its axis1 ! late   
,sir ,george ,b4 ,airy1 ,a/ronom] ,royal
 ( ,engl&1 once said to a s*oolma/]1 ,i 
%\ld l to "k h[ f> y\r pupils g into !  
fir/ practical po9ts = :i* read+ is     
sc>cely necess>y4 ,d !y "k t ! />s rise 
& set8 ,v few p 9 ,engl& "k x4 ,i once  
_h a correspond5ce ) a lit]>y man ( !   
highe/ rank on a po9t ( ,greek a/ronomy1
 & f\nd t he did n "k x6#bhj  ,admiral  
,smy? says1 ,i h be5 /ruck ) ! beautiful
 blue t9t ( ! smalle/ />s visible 9 my  
telescope4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 may be attribut$
 to "s optical peculi>ity4 ,?is blui%   

col\r ( small />s agrees ) ! conclusion 
arriv$ at by ,pr(4 ,pick]+ 9 rec5t ye>s1
 t ! majority ( fa9t />s 9 ! ,milky ,way
 h spectra ( ! ,sirian type &1 l t      
brilliant />1 are ( a blui% :ite col\r4 
,sir ,william ,h]s*el saw _m />s ( a    
r$d] t+e ?an o!r obs]v]s h notic$4      
,admiral ,smy? says1 ,?is may be ow+ to 
! effect ( 8 metallic mirror or to "s   
peculi>ity ( vision1 or p]haps bo?4#bha 
,! anci5t a/ronom]s d n m5tion any      
col\r$ />s except :ite & r$4 ,among !   
latt] !y only speak ( ,arcturus1        
,aldeb>an1 ,pollux1 ,ant>es1 &          
,betelgeuse z ( a /rik+ r$ col\r4 ,to ^!
 ,al-,sufi adds ,alph>d 7,greek3 a      
,hydr74  ,sir ,william ,h]s*el rem>k$ t 
no decid$ly gre5 or blue /> has ev] be5 
notic$ unassociat$ ) a companion bright]
 ?an itself4 ,an exception to ,h]s*el's 
rule seems to be f\nd 9 ! case ( ! />   
,greek3 b ,libr1 :i* ,admiral ,smy?     
call$ pale em]ald4 ,mr4 ,george ,knott  
obs]v$ x on ,may #ai1 #aheb1 z beautiful
 pale gre5 7#cg in*es a*romatic1 p[]    

#hj71 & on ,may #i1 #ahgb1 z f9e pale   
gre5 7#ee in*es a*romatic1 p[] #fe74  ,!
 motion ( />s 9 ! l9e ( sight1 z %[n by 
! spectroscope--%\ld !oretically alt] _!
 brightness 9 ! c\rse ( "t2 ^? approa*+ 
! e>? becom+ gradually bright]1 :ile ^? 
rec$+ %\ld become fa9t]4 ,b ! di/ance ( 
! />s is s enorm\s t ev5 ) v high       
velocities ! *ange w\ld n become        
p]ceptible = ages4 ,pr(4 ,oudemans f\nd 
t to *ange ! brightness ( a /> by only  
"o-t5? ( a magnitude--a quantity b>ely  
p]ceptible to ! eye-a numb] ( ye>s w\ld 
be necess>y1 :i* is repres5t$ by ! =mula
        #eiaf ye>s   -----------------  
p>allax  motion  = a /> approa*+ ! e>?1 
& = a rec$+ />    #faie ye>s            
----------     p  m  ,?is is 9          
geographical miles1 #a geographical mile
 be+ equal to #dfa ,engli% miles4       
,r$uc+ ! above to ,engli% miles1 & tak+ 
an av]age = bo? approa*+ & rec$+ />s1 we
 h    #bg1ffj ye>s   ------------      p
  m  :]e p  p>allax 9 seconds ( arc1 & m
  radial velocity 9 ,engli% miles p]    

second4  ,pr(4 ,oudemans f\nd t ! only  
/> :i* c\ld h *ang$ 9 brightness by     
"o-t5? ( a magnitude s9ce ! "t (        
,hipp>*us is ,aldeb>an4 ,?is is tak+ its
 p>allax z #jeb4 ,b assum+ ! m reliable 
p>allax #jab f\nd by ,dr4 ,elk91 ?is    
p]iod is #d-a_/c times long]4 ,=        
,procyon1 ! p]iod w\ld be #eejj         
ye>s4#bhb ,! above calculation %[s h[   
absurd x is to suppose t any /> c\ld h  
ga9$ or lo/ 9 brightness by motion 9 !  
l9e ( sight dur+ hi/orical times4 ,!    
secul> v>iation ( />s is q ano!r ?+4    
,?is is due to physical *anges 9 ! />s  
!mselves4  ,! fam\s a/ronom] ,halley1 ! 
second ,a/ronom] ,royal at ,gre5wi*1    
says 7,phil4 ,trans41 #agif71 ,suppos+ !
 numb] ( #a/ magnitude />s to be #ac1 at
 twice ! di/ance f ! sun !re may be     
plac$ f\r times z _m1 or #eb2 :i* ) !   
same all[ance w\ld ne>ly repres5t ! />  
we f9d to be ( ! #bnd magnitude4 ,s #i  
#ac1 or #aag1 = ^? at ?ree times !      
di/ance2 & at t5 times ! di/ance #ajj   
#ac1 or #acjj />s2 ( :i* di/ance may    

probably dim9i% ! light ( any ( ! />s ( 
! #a/ magnitude to t ( ! #f?1 x be+ b ! 
hundr$? "p ( :at1 at _! pres5t di/ance1 
!y appe> )4 ,?is agrees ) ! n[ g5]ally  
accept$ light ratio ( #beab = ea*       
magnitude1 :i* makes a fir/ magnitude />
 #ajj times ! light ( a #f? magnitude4  
,on ! #d? ( ,m>*1 #agif1bhc ! fam\s     
,fr5* a/ronom] ,lal&e obs]v$ on !       
m]idian a /> ( small #f? magnitude1 !   
exact position ( :i* he det]m9$4 ,on !  
#ae? ( ! same mon? he aga9 obs]v$ ! />1 
& ! places f\nd = #ahjj ref] to numb]s  
#afbib-c ( ! r$uc$ catalogue4 ,9 !      
obs]vation ( ,m>* #d he atta*$ ! curi\s 
rem>k1 toile s+ulire 7! obs]vation (    
,m>* #ae is )\t note74 ,?is rem>k (     
,lal&e has puzzl$ obs]v]s :o fail$ to   
f9d any peculi>ity ab\t ! />4 ,inde$1 ! 
rem>k is a /range "o = ! obs]v] ( s _m  
?\s&s ( />s to atta* unless !re 0 really
 some?+ s+ul> 9 ! />'s aspect at ! "t4  
,on ! ev5+ ( ,april #ah1 #ahhg1 ! /> 0  
exam9$ by ! pres5t writ]1 & ! foll[+ is 
! record 9 8 obs]v+ book1 ,lal&e's toile

 s+ulire 7#afbib-c7 ab\t half a         
magnitude less ?an ,greek3  ,cancri4 ,) 
! b9ocul> ,i see two /reams ( small />s 
bran*+ out f x1 nor? prec$+ l ! tails ( 
comet4 ,?is may p]haps h some?+ to d )  
,lal&e's curi\s rem>k4  ,! /> numb]$    
#afdg 9 ,baily's ,flam/e$ ,catalogue is 
n[ kn[n to h be5 an obs]vation ( !      
planet ,uranus4#bhd  ,pr(4 ,pick]+ /ates
 t ! fa9t] />s photograph$ ) ! #h-;in*  
telescope at ,cambridge 7,u4,s4,a47 are 
invisible to ! eye 9 ! #ae-;in*         
telescope4#bhe  ,sir ,norman ,locky]    
f9ds t ! l9es ( sulphur are pres5t 9 !  
spectrum ( ! bright /> ,rigel 7,greek3 b
 ,orionis74#bhf  ,ab\t #h-a_/b s\? ( !  
bright /> ,regulus 7,greek3 a ,leonis7  
is a fa9t nebula 7,h ,i1 #d ,sextantis74
 ,on or ne> ?is spot ! ,capu*9 monk ,de 
,rheita fanci$ he saw1 9 ! ye> #afdc1 a 
gr\p ( />s repres5t+ ! napk9 ( ,s4      
,v]onica--sud>ium ,v]onic sive faciem   
,dom9i maxima similitud9a 9 a/ris       
expressum4 ,& he gave a picture ( !     
napk9 & /> gr\p4 ,b all subsequ5t       

obs]v]s h fail$ to f9d any trace ( ! /> 
gr\p ref]r$ to by ,de ,rheita6#bhg  ,!  
,bible /ory ( ! /> ( ! ,magi is also    
told 9 connection ) ! bir? ( ! sun-gods 
,osiris1 ,horus1 ,mi?ra1 ,s]apis1       
etc4#bhh ,! pres5t writ] has also he>d x
 sugge/$ t ! ph5om5on may h be5 an      
app>ition ( ,halley's comet6 ,b z ?is   
fam\s comet is kn[n to h appe>$ 9 ! ye> 
,b4,c4 #aa1 & z ! date ( ! ,nativity 0  
probably n e>li] ?an ,b4,c4 #e1 !       
hypo!sis seems = ?is 7& o!r reasons7 to 
be inadmissible4 ,x has also be5 sugge/$
 t ! ph5om5on might h be5 an appe>ance (
 ,ty*o ,brah's tempor>y /> ( #aegb1 kn[n
 z ! ,pilgrim />2 b !re seems to be no  
real f\ndation = su* an hypo!sis4 ,!re  
is no reason to ?9k t tempor>y or new   
/>s ev] appe> a second "t4  ,admiral    
,smy? has well said1 ,x *ecks "o's pride
 to recollect t if our sun ) ! :ole     
sy/em ( planets1 a/]oids1 & moons1 &    
comets 7 to be remov$ f ! spectator to !
 di/ance ( ! ne>e/ fix$ />1 n "o ( !m   
w\ld be visible1 except ! sun1 :i* w\ld 

!n appe> b z a /> ( p]haps ! #bnd       
magnitude4 ,nay1 m1 7 ! :ole sy/em ( :i*
 our globe =ms an insignificant memb]1 )
 its c5tral lum9>y1 sudd5ly annihilat$1 
no effect w\ld be produc$ on ^?         
unconnect$ & remote bodies2 & ! only    
annunciation ( su* a cata/rophe 9 !     
,sid]eal ,times w\ld be t a small />    
once se5 9 a di/ant qu>t] ( ! sky _h    
ceas$ to %9e4#bhi  ,pr(4 ,george ,c4    
,com/ock f9ds t ! av]age p>allax ( #fg  
select$ />s rang+ 9 brightness betwe5 ! 
#i? & ! #ab? magnitude1 is ( ! value (  
#jjjea4bij ,?is gives a di/ance         
repres5t+ a j\rney = light ( ab\t #fci  
ye>s6  ,mr4 ,h5ry ,norris ,russell ?9ks 
t ne>ly all ! bright />s 9 !            
con/ellation ( ,orion are practically at
 ! same di/ance f ! e>?4 ,8 reasons =   
?is op9ion are3 7#a7 ! />s are simil> 9 
_! spectra & prop] motions1 7#b7 _!     
prop] motions are small1 :i* sugge/s a  
small p>allax1 & !re=e a great di/ance f
 ! e>?4 ,mr4 ,russell ?9ks t ! av]age   
p>allax ( ^! />s may p]haps be #jjje1   

:i* gives a di/ance ( ab\t #fej light   
ye>s4#bia  ,accord+ to ,sir ,norman     
,locky]'s classification ( ! />s1 ! ord]
 ( increas+ temp]ature is repres5t$ by !
 foll[+1 beg9n+ ) ^? 9 ! e>lie/ /age (  
/ell> evolution3--,nebul1 ,ant>es1      
,aldeb>an1 ,pol>is1 ,greek3 a ,cygni1   
,rigel1 ,greek3 e ,tauri1 ,greek3 b     
,crucis4 ,!n we h ! hotte/ />s repres5t$
 by ,greek3 e ,puppis1 ,greek3 g ,argus1
 & ,alnitam 7,greek3 e ,orionis74       
,decreas+ temp]ature is repres5t$ by 79 
ord]71 ,a*]n>1 ,algol1 ,m>kab1 ,sirius1 
,procyon1 ,arcturus1 #ai ,piscium1 & !  
,d>k ,/>s4#bib ,b o!r a/ronom]s d n     
agree ) ?is classification4 ,ant>es &   
,aldeb>an are by "s au?orities consid]$ 
to be cool+ suns4  ,accord+ to ,ritt]'s 
views ( ! ,con/itution ( ! ,cele/ial    
,bodies1 if we divide ! />s into ?ree   
classes accord+ to age correspond+ to ^!
 ?ree /ages ( developm5t1 we %all assign
 to ! fir/ class1 ,a1 ^? />s /ill 9 !   
nebul> phase ( developm5t2 to ! second  
class1 ,b1 ^? 9 ! transi5t /age (       

greate/ brilliancy2 & to ! class ,c1 ^? 
/>s :i* h already ent]$ into ! long     
p]iod ( sl[ ext9ction4 ,x %\ld be not$ 9
 ?is classification t we ref] to        
relative & n absolute age1 s9ce a /> (  
slight mass passes ?r\gh ! successive   
phases ( its developm5t m rapidly ?an ! 
/> ( great] mass4#bic ,ritt] comes to ! 
conclusion t ! duration ( ! p]iod 9 :i* 
! sun z a /> _h a great] brightness ?an 
at pres5t 0 v %ort 9 comp>ison ) ! p]iod
 9 :i* x _h & w cont9ue to h a          
brightness diff]+ only slightly f its   
pres5t value4#bid  ,9 a valuable &      
int]e/+ pap] on ,! ,evolution ( ,sol>   
,/>s1#bie ,pr(4 ,s*u/] says t           
measurem5ts by ,e4 ,f4 ,ni*ols on ! heat
 ( ,vega & ,arcturus indicat$ a l[]     
temp]ature = ,arcturus1 & confirms !    
conclusion arriv$ at on o!r gr\nds1 t ! 
hydrog5 />s h a high] temp]ature ?an !  
sol> />s4 ,an inspection ( ! ultraviolet
 region ( ! spectrum gives ! same       
result4 ,^! diff]5t l9es ( argum5t1 all 
lead+ to ! same result1 ju/ify u 9 say+ 

t ! surface temp]ature ( ! hydrog5 />s  
is high] ?an t ( ! sol> />s4 ,an        
ext5sion ( ! same reason+ leads to !    
belief t ! helium />s h a temp]ature :i*
 is high] /ill4 ,h5ce we h ,s*u/]1      
,hale1 & ,sir ,william ,hugg9s 9        
agreem5t t ! ,sirian />s are hott] ?an !
 sol> />s2 & p]sonally ,i agree ) ^!    
high au?orities4 ,! late ,dr4 ,w4 ,e4   
,wilson1 h[ev]1 held ! op9ion t ! sun is
 hott] t ,sirius6  ,s*u/] ?9ks t ,lane's
 law does n apply to ! temp]ature ( !   
photosph]e & ! absorb+ lay]s ( ! sun &  
/>s1 b only to ! portions betwe5 !      
photosph]e & ! c5tre1 :i* probably act l
 a p]fect gas4 ,on ?is view he says !   
int]ior might become hott] & hott] until
 ! cond5sation _h rea*$ a po9t at :i* ! 
laws ( gase\s cond5sation no long] hold4
  ,) ref]5ce to ! />s hav+ spectra ( !  
#crd & #d? type 7usually orange & r$ 9  
col\r71 ,s*u/] says--      ,! rema9+    
types ( spectra belong to l[] temp]ature
 /ill1 z     9 place ( metallic l9es1 or
 9 addition to !m1 c]ta9 b&s     appe>  

:i* exp]im5ts %[ u inv>iably belong to  
l[]     temp]ature ?an ! l9es ( ! same  
elem5t4      ,if an evolution>y process 
has be5 go+ on1 :i* is simil> =     all 
/>s1 !re is little d\bt t f ! bright-l9e
 />s d[n     to ! sol> />s ! ord] has   
be5 7#a7 helium or ,orion />s1 7#b7     
hydrog5 or ,sirian />s1 7#c7 calcium or 
,procyon />s1 7#d7 sol> or     ,capellan
 />s4  ,my inve/igations on ,! ,secul>  
,v>iation ( ,/>light 7,/udies 9         
,a/ronomy1 *ap4 #ag1 & ,a/ronomical     
,essays1 *ap4 #ab7 bas$ on a comp>ison (
 ,al-,sufi's /> magnitudes 7t5? c5tury7 
) mod]n e/imates & measures1 t5d /rongly
 to confirm ! above views4  ,) reg>d to 
! #crd-type />s1 su* z ,betelgeuse &    
,mira ,ceti1 ,s*u/] says1 ,x has be5    
already m5tion$ t obs]v]s diff] z to    
:e!r _! position is ant]ior to ! hydrog5
 or po/]ior to ! sol> />s1 & !re are    
valid argum5ts on bo? sides4  ,s*e9]1   
h[ev]1 %[s1 f ! behavi\r ( ! l9es (     
magnesium1 t />s ( type ,i4 7,sirian7   
are ! hotte/1 & type ,,iii4 ! coole/1 & 

he says1 we h = ! fir/ "t a direct pro( 
( ! correctness ( ! physical            
int]pretation ( ,vogel's spectral       
classes1 accord+ to :i* class ,,ii4 is  
develop$ by cool+ f ,i41 & ,,iii4 by a  
fur!r process ( cool+ f ,,ii4#bif  ,pr(4
 ,hale says t ! resemblance betwe5 !    
spectra ( sun-spots & ( #crd-type />s is
 s close z to indicate t ! same cause is
 controll+ ! relative int5sities ( _m   
l9es 9 bo? in/ances4 ,?is cause1 z !    
laboratory "w indicates1 is to be reg>d$
 z r$uc$ temp]ature4#big  ,accord+ to   
,pr(4 ,s*u/]1 a spectrum ( bright l9es  
may be giv5 by a mass ( lum9\s gas1 ev5 
if ! gas is ( great ?ickness4 ,!re is1  
!re=e1 no difficulty 9 expla9+ ! exi/5ce
 ( />s giv+ bright l9es4 ,he ?9ks t !   
diff]5ce betwe5 bright l9e />s & ^? %[+ 
d>k l9es dep5ds ^u ! rate ( increase ( !
 temp]ature f ! surface t[>ds ! c5tre4  
,if ?is rate is sl[1 bright l9es w be   
se54 ,if ! rate ( increase is rapid1 !  
d>k-l9e spectrum %[n by ! majority ( !  
/>s w appe>4 ,?is rate1 he ?9ks1 is     

regulat$ by ! gravitational =ce4 ,s t 9 
! e>ly /ages ( cond5sation bright l9es  
are m likely to occur4 ,if ! light is n 
fully absorb$1 bo? bright & d>k l9es ( !
 same elem5t may be visible 9 ! same />4
 ,s*u/] consid]s x q possible t if we   
c\ld remove ! out] lay]s ( ! ,sun's     
atmosph]e1 we %\ld obta9 a spectrum (   
bright l9es4#bih  ,m4 ,/raton(f f9ds t  
/>s hav+ spectra ( ! ,orion & ,sirian   
types--suppos$ to repres5t an e>ly /age 
9 /ell> evolution--t5d to congregate 9  
or ne> ! ,milky ,way4 ,/> clu/]s 9 g5]al
 %[ a simil> t5d5cy1 b to ?is law !     
globul> clu/]s =m an exception4#bii ,we 
may add t ! spiral nebul--:i* seem to be
 scatt]$ indiff]5tly ov] all p>ts ( !   
sky--also seem to =m an exception2 = !  
spectra ( ^! wond]ful objects seem to %[
 t !y are really /> clu/]s1 9 :i* !     
compon5ts are probably relatively small2
 t is1 small 9 comp>ison ) our sun4  ,if
 we accept ! hypo!sis t suns & sy/ems 7 
evolv$ f nebul1 & if we consid] !       
comp>atively small numb] ( nebul hi!rto 

discov]$ 9 ! l>ge/ telescopes--ab\t half
 a million2 & if we fur!r consid] ! v   
small numb] ( r$ />s1 or ^? hav+ spectra
 ( ! ?ird & f\r? types--usually consid]$
 to be dy+-out suns--we seem l$ to !    
conclusion t our sid]eal sy/em is n[ at 
ab\t ! z5i? ( its life-hi/ory2          
comp>atively few nebul be+ left to      
consolidate into />s1 & comp>atively few
 />s hav+ gone f> on ! road to ! f9al   
ext9ction ( _! light4  ,pr(4 ,boss (    
,albany 7,u4,s4,a47 f9ds t ab\t =ty />s 
( magnitudes f #c-a_/b to #g 9 !        
con/ellation ,taurus are app>5tly drift+
 toge!r t[>ds "o po9t4 ,^! />s are      
includ$ betwe5 ab\t ,r4,a4 #c;h #dgm to 
#e;h #dm1 & ,decl9ation  #e to  #bc 7t  
is1 9 ! region surr\nd+ ! ,hyades74 ,^! 
motions app>5tly conv]ge to a po9t ne>  
,r4,a4 #f;h1 ,decl9ation  #g 7ne>       
,betelgeuse74 ,pr(4 ,boss has comput$ ! 
velocity ( ! />s 9 ?is gr\p to be #def  
kilometres 7ab\t #bh miles7 a second    
t[>ds ! vani%+ po9t1 & he e/imat$ !     
av]age p>allax ( ! gr\p to be           

#jjbe--;ab\t #acj ye>s' j\rney = light4 
,al?\gh ! motions are app>5tly conv]g+  
to a po9t1 x does n foll[ t ! />s 9 "q  
w1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 meet at ! vani%+   
po9t4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! obs]v$ motions %[
 t ! />s are mov+ 9 p>allel l9es ?r\gh  
space4 ,ab\t #ae kilometres ( ! obs]v$  
spe$ is due to ! sun's motion ?r\gh     
space 9 ! opposite direction4 ,pr(4     
,campbell f9ds f spectroscopic measures 
t ( ^! =ty />s1 n9e are rec$+ f ! e>? ) 
velocities v>y+ f #ab to #fj kilometres 
a second1 & tw5ty-?ree o!rs ) less      
velocities ?an #ch kilometres4#cjj ,x w 
be obvi\s t1 z !re is a vani%+ po9t1 !  
motion 9 ! l9e ( sight mu/ be "o (      
recession f ! e>?4  ,x has be5 f\nd t on
 an av]age ! p>allax ( a /> is ab\t     
"o-sev5? ( its prop] motion4#cja        
,adopt+ ,pr(4 ,newcomb's p>allax ( #jad 
= ! fam\s /> #ahcj ,groombridge1 !      
velocity p]p5dicul> to ! l9e ( sight is 
ab\t #aej miles a second4 ,! velocity 9 
! l9e ( sight--z %[n by !               
spectroscope--is #ei miles a second     

approa*+ ! e>?4 ,comp\nd+ ^! two        
velocities we f9d a velocity ?r\gh space
 ( ab\t #afa miles a second6  ,an em95t 
,am]ican writ] puts into ! m\? ( "o ( 8 
*>act]s1 a "y a/ronom]1 ! foll[+3--     
,i read ! page   ,:]e e lett] is a      
glitt]+ sun4  ,f an exam9ation ( ! heat 
radiat$ by "s bright />s1 made by ,dr4  
,e4 ,f4 ,ni*olls 9 ,am]ica ) a v        
s5sitive radiomet] ( 8 own con/ruction1 
he f9ds t we d n receive f ,arcturus m  
heat ?an we %\ld f a c&le at a di/ance (
 #e or #f miles4  ,) ref]5ce to !       
progressive motion ( light1 & ! diff]5t 
times tak5 by light to rea* ! e>? f     
diff]5t />s1 ,humboldt says1 ,! aspect (
 ! />ry heav5s pres5ts to u objects (   
unequal date4 ,mu* has long ceas$ to    
exi/ be=e ! k ( its pres5ce rea*es u2   
mu* has be5 o!rwise arrang$4#cjb  ,!    
photographic me?od ( *>t+ ! />s1 al?\gh 
a great improvem5t on ! old sy/em1 seems
 to h its disadvantages4 ,"o ( ^! is t !
 /> images are liable to disappe> f !   
plates 9 ! c\rse ( "t4 ,! r$uction (    

/ell> photograph plates %\ld1 !re=e1 be 
c>ri$ out z soon z possible aft] !y are 
tak54 ,! late ,dr4 ,rob]ts f\nd t on a  
plate orig9ally conta9+ #cfd />s1 no    
less ?an #acj _h completely disappe>$ 9 
#i-a_/d ye>s6  ,x has be5 assum$ by "s  
writ]s on a/ronomy t ! fa9t />s visible 
on photographs ( ! ,pleiades are at     
practically ! same di/ance f ! e>? z !  
bright] />s ( ! clu/]1 & t consequ5tly  
!re mu/ be an enorm\s diff]5ce 9 actual 
size betwe5 ! bright] & fa9t] />s4 ,b   
!re is really no w>rant = any su*       
assumption4 ,photographs ( ! vic9ity %[ 
t ! sky all r\nd ! ,pleiades is equally 
ri* 9 fa9t />s4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 m      
reasonable to suppose t mo/ ( ! fa9t />s
 visible 9 ! ,pleiades are really f>    
beh9d ! clu/] 9 space4 ,= if all ! fa9t 
/>s visible on photographs belong$ to ! 
clu/]1 !n if we imag9e ! clu/] remov$1 a
 hole w\ld be left 9 ! sky1 :i* is (    
c\rse utt]ly improbable1 & inde$ absurd4
 ,an exam9ation ( ! prop] motions t5ds  
to confirm ?is view ( ! matt]1 &        

indicates t ! ,pleiades clu/] is a      
comp>atively small "o & simply project$ 
on a backgr\nd ( fa9t] />s4  ,x has long
 be5 suspect$ t ! fam\s /> #fa ,cygni1  
:i* is a d\ble />1 =ms a b9>y sy/em--t  
is1 t ! two />s compos+ x revolve r\nd  
_! common c5tre ( gravity & move toge!r 
?r\gh space4 ,b measures ( p>allax made 
by ,h]man ,s4 ,davis & ,wils+ seem to %[
 a diff]5ce ( p>allax betwe5 ! two      
compon5ts ( ab\t #jjh ( a second ( arc4 
,?is diff]5ce ( p>allax implies a       
di/ance ( ab\t #b-a_/d light ye>s betwe5
 ! two />s1 & if ?is is correct1 ! />s  
are too remote to =m a b9>y sy/em4 ,!   
prop] motions ( #eba & #eae seem to %[ t
 !y are mov+ 9 ne>ly p>allel directions2
 b are probably sl[ly sep>at+4 ,mr4     
,lewis1 h[ev]1 ?9ks t a physical        
connection probably exi/s4#cjc  ,dante  
speaks ( ! f\r bright />s ( ! ,s\!rn    
,cross z emblematical ( ! f\r c>d9al    
virtues1 ,ju/ice1 ,temp]ance1 ,=titude1 
& ,prud5ce2 & he seems to ref] to ! />s 
,canopus1 ,a*]n>1 & ,foomalhaut "u !    

symbols ( ,fai?1 ,hope1 & ,*>ity4 ,!    
s-call$ ,false ,cross is said to be =m$ 
by ! />s ,greek3 k1 ,greek3 d1 ,greek3  
e1 & ,greek3 i ( ! con/ellation ,argo   
,navis4 ,b x seems to me t a bett]      
7al?\gh l>g]7 cross is =m$ by ! />s     
,greek3 a ,c5tauri & ,greek3 a1 ,greek3 
b1 & ,greek3 g ( ,triangulum ,au/ralis4 
,mr4 ,monck has po9t$ out t ! names ( ! 
brighte/ />s seem to be arrang$         
alphabetically 9 ord] ( col\r1 beg9n+ ) 
r$ & end+ ) blue4 ,?us we h ,aldeb>an1  
,arcturus1 ,betelgeuse1 ,capella1       
,procyon1 ,regulus1 ,rigel1 ,sirius1    
,spica & ,vega4 ,b z ! orig9 ( ^! names 
is diff]5t1 ?is mu/ be m]ely a curi\s   
co9cid5ce4#cjd ,&1 to my eye at lea/1   
,betelgeuse is r$d] ?an ,arcturus4  ,!  
poet ,longfell[ speaks ( !--    ,/>s1 ! 
?\ghts ( ,god 9 ! heav5s1#cje  &        
,drayton says--    ,! />s to me an      
ev]la/+ book   ,9 t et]nal regi/]1 !    
sky4#cjf  ,obs]v+ at a height ( #ab1edj 
feet on ! ,&es1 ! late ,dr4 ,copel& saw 
,sirius ) ! nak$ eye less ?an #aj m9utes

 be=e sunset4#cjg ,he also saw ,jupit]  
#cm #dgs be=e sunset2 & ! foll[+ bright 
/>s--,canopus1 #jm #ebs be=e sunset2    
,rigel 7,greek3 b ,orionis7 #afm #cbs   
aft] sunset2 & ,procyon #aam #bhs aft]  
sunset4 ,f a height ( #ab1jej feet at   
,la ,paz1 ,bolivia1 he saw ) ! nak$ eye 
9 ,febru>y1 #ahhc1 t5 />s 9 ! ,pleiades 
9 full moonlight1 & sev5te5 />s 9 !     
,hyades4 ,he also saw ,greek3 s ,tauri  
d\ble4#cjh  ,humboldt says1 ,9 :atev]   
po9t ! vault ( heav5 has be5 pi]c$ by   
p[]ful & f>-p5etrat+ telescopic         
in/rum5ts1 />s or lum9\s nebul are      
ev]y:]e discov]able1 ! =m] 9 "s cases n 
exce$+ ! #bj? or #bd? degree (          
telescopic magnitude4#cji ,b ?is is a   
mi/ake4 ,no /> ( ev5 ! #bj? magnitude   
has ev] be5 se5 by any telescope4 ,ev5  
on ! be/ photographic plates x is       
d\btful t any />s mu* bel[ ! #ah?       
magnitude are visible4 ,to %[ a /> ( !  
#bj? magnitude--if su* />s exi/--w\ld   
require a telescope ( #add in*es or #ab 
feet 9 ap]ture4 ,to %[ a /> ( ! #bd?    

magnitude--if su* !re be--an ap]ture (  
#cc feet w\ld be necess>y6#caj  ,x is a 
popul> idea t />s may be se5 9 ! daytime
 f ! bottom ( a deep pit or high *imney4
 ,b ?is has (t5 be5 d5i$4 ,humboldt     
says1 ,:ile practically engag$ 9 m9+    
op]ations1 ,i 0 9 ! habit1 dur+ _m ye>s1
 ( pass+ a great portion ( ! day 9 m9es 
:]e ,i c\ld see ! sky ?r\gh deep %afts1 
yet ,i nev] 0 able to obs]ve a />4#caa  
,/>s may1 h[ev]1 be se5 9 ! daytime )   
ev5 small telescopes4 ,x is said t a    
telescope ( #a in* ap]ture w %[ />s ( ! 
#bnd magnitude2 #b in*es1 />s ( ! #crd  
magnitude2 & #d in*es1 />s ( ! #d?      
magnitude4 ,b ,i _c confirm ?is f       
p]sonal obs]vation4 ,x may be s1 b ,i h 
n tri$ ! exp]im5t4  ,sir ,george ,d>w9  
says--      ,human life is too %ort to  
p]mit u to wat* ! leisurely proc$ure    
( cosmical evolution1 b ! cele/ial      
museum conta9s s _m     exhibits t x may
 become possible1 by ! aid ( !ory1 to   
piece     toge!r1 bit by bit1 !         
processes ?r\gh :i* />s pass 9 !        

c\rse ( _! evolutions4#cab  ,! s-call$  
telluric l9es se5 9 ! sol> spectrum1 are
 due to wat] vap\r 9 ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 
,z ! light ( ! />s also passes ?r\gh !  
atmosph]e1 x is evid5t t ^! l9es %\ld   
also be visible 9 ! spectra ( ! />s4    
,?is is f\nd to be ! case by ,pr(4      
,campbell1 ,director ( ! ,lick          
,obs]vatory1 :o has obs]v$ all !        
pr9cipal b&s 9 ! spectrum ( e /> he has 
exam9$4#cac  ,! l>ge/ prop] motion n[   
kn[n is t ( a /> ( ! #h-a_/b magnitude 9
 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 kn[n z ,cordoba     
,zone ,v4 ,no4 #bdc4 ,its prop] motion  
is #hjg seconds ( arc p] annum1 ?us     
exce$+ t ( ! fam\s runaway />1 #ahcj    
,groombridge1 :i* has a prop] motion (  
#gje seconds p] annum4 ,?is great]      
motion is1 h[ev]1 only app>5t4 ,measures
 ( p>allax %[ t ! s\!rn runaway is mu*  
ne>] to u ?an its nor!rn rival1 its     
p>allax be+ #jcb1 :ile t ( ,groombridge 
#ahcj is only #jad4 ,) ^! data ! actual 
velocity across ! l9e ( sight c be      
easily comput$4 ,t ( ! s\!rn /> comes   

out #hj miles a second1 :ile t (        
,groombridge #ahcj is #adh miles a      
second4 ,! actual velocity ( ,arcturus  
is probably /ill great]4  ,! poet ,b>ton
 has well said--    ,! />s6 ! />s6 g =? 
at night1     ,lift up ?9e eyes on high1
   ,& view ! c\ntless orbs ( light1     
,:i* gem ! midnight sky4   ,g =? 9      
sil5ce & alone1     ,?is glori\s sight  
to scan1   ,& bid ! humbl$ _s own     ,!
 littl5ess ( man4     ,,*apt] ,,xv      
,d\ble & ,b9>y ,/>s   ,pr(4 ,r4 ,g4     
,aitk51 ! em95t ,am]ican obs]v] ( d\ble 
/>s1 f9ds t ( all ! />s d[n to ! #i?    
magnitude--ab\t ! fa9te/ visible 9 a    
p[]ful b9ocul> field-glass--#a 9 #ah1 or
 #a 9 #bj1 on ! av]age1 are d\ble1 ) !  
compon5t />s less ?an #e seconds ( arc  
ap>t4 ,?is proportion ( d\ble />s is n1 
h[ev]1 ! same = all p>ts ( ! sky2 :ile 9
 "s regions d\ble />s are v sc>ce1 9 o!r
 places ! proportion rises to #a 9 #h4  
,= ! well-kn[n b9>y /> ,ca/or 7,greek3 a
 ,gem9orum71 sev]al orbits h be5 comput$
 ) p]iods rang+ f #bcb ye>s 7,mdl]7 to  

#ajja ye>s 7,dob]ck74 ,b ,burnham f9ds t
 ! orbit is absolutely indet]m9ate at   
?is "t1 & likely to rema9 s = ano!r     
c5tury or long]4#cad ,bo? compon5ts are 
spectroscopic b9>ies1 & ! sy/em is a mo/
 int]e/+ "o4  ,! well-kn[n companion (  
,sirius became invisible 9 all          
telescopes 9 ! ye> #ahij1 ow+ to its ne>
 approa* to its brilliant prim>y4 ,x    
rema9$ invisible until ,augu/ #bj1      
#ahif1 :5 x 0 aga9 se5 by ,dr4 ,see at !
 ,l[ell ,obs]vatory4#cae ,s9ce !n its   
di/ance has be5 increas+1 & x has be5   
regul>ly measur$4 ,! maximum di/ance w  
be atta9$ ab\t ! ye> #aibb4  ,! />      
,greek3 b ,cephei has rec5tly be5       
discov]$ to be a spectroscopic b9>y ) ! 
wond]fully %ort p]iod ( #d;h #cdm #aas4 
,! orbital velocity is ab\t #aj-a_/b    
miles a second1 & z ?is velocity is n v 
great1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! compon5ts mu/ 
be v small1 & possibly ! two compon5t   
bodies are revolv+ 9 actual contact4 ,! 
spectrum is ( ! ,orion type4#caf        
,accord+ to ,sliph] ! spectroscopic b9>y

 ,greek3 g ,gem9orum has ! comp>atively 
long p]iod 7= a spectroscopic b9>y7 (   
ab\t #c-a_/b ye>s4 ,?is p]iod is        
comp>able ) t ( ! telescopic b9>y sy/em1
 ,greek3 d ,equulei 7p]iod ab\t #eg     
ye>s74 ,! orbit is q ecc5tric4 ,i h %[n 
else:]e#cag t ,greek3 g ,gem9orum has   
probably increas$ 9 brightness s9ce ! "t
 ( ,al-,sufi 7t5? c5tury74 ,possibly its
 spectroscopic duplicity may h some?+ to
 d ) ! v>iation 9 its light4  ,) ref]5ce
 to ! spectra ( d\ble />s1 ,mr4 ,maund] 
sugge/s t ! fact ( ! companion ( a b9>y 
/> %[+ a ,sirian spectrum :ile ! bright]
 /> has a sol> spectrum may be expla9$  
by suppos+ t1 on ! !ory ( fission1 !    
small] body :5 ?r[n (f consi/$ ( !      
light] elem5ts1 ! heavi] rema9+ 9 !     
pr9cipal />4 ,9 o!r words1 9 ^! cases   
spectral type dep5ds ^u orig9al *emical 
con/itution1 & n ^u ! /age ( /ell>      
developm5t atta9$4#cah  ,a curi\s p>adox
 ) ref]5ce to b9>y />s has rec5tly come 
to light4 ,= _m ye>s x 0 almo/ tak5 =   
grant$ t ! bright] /> ( a pair _h a l>g]

 mass ?an ! fa9t] compon5t4 ,?is 0 a    
natural conclusion1 z bo? />s are       
practically at ! same di/ance f ! e>?4  
,b x has be5 rec5tly f\nd t 9 "s b9>y   
/>s ! fa9t] compon5t has actually ! l>g]
 mass6 ,?us1 9 ! b9>y /> ,greek3 e      
,hydr1 ! magnitude ( ! compon5t />s are 
#c & #f1 indicat+ t ! bright] /> is ab\t
 #af times bright] ?an ! fa9t] compon5t4
 ,yet calculations by ,lewis %[ t !     
fa9t] /> has #f times ! mass ( !        
bright]1 t is1 conta9s #f times !       
quantity ( matt]6 ,9 ! well-kn[n b9>y   
#gj ,ophiu*i1 ,prey f9ds t ! fa9t] />   
has ab\t #d times ! mass ( ! bright]6 ,9
 #he ,pegasi1 ! bright] /> is ab\t #dj  
times bright] ?an its companion1 :ile   
,furn] f9ds t ! mass ( ! fa9t] /> is    
ab\t #d times t ( ! bright]6 ,& !re are 
o!r simil> cases4 ,9 fact1 9 ^!         
rem>kable comb9ations ( suns ! fa9t] /> 
is really ! prim>y1 & is1 s f> z mass is
 conc]n$1 ! pr$om9ant p>tn]4 ,?is is a  
curi\s anomaly1 & _c be well expla9$ 9 !
 pres5t /ate ( our k ( /ell> sy/ems4 ,9 

! case ( ,greek3 a ,c5tauri ! masses ( !
 compon5ts are ab\t equal1 :ile ! prim>y
 /> is ab\t #c times bright] ?an ! o!r4 
,b "h ! discrepancy is satisfactorily   
expla9$ by ! diff]5ce 9 "* ( ! spectra1 
! bright] compon5t hav+ a spectrum ( !  
sol> type1 :ile ! fa9t] seems fur!r     
advanc$ on ! d[nw>d road ( evolution1 t 
is1 m consolidat$ & hav+1 p]haps1 less  
intr9sic brightness ( surface4  ,9 !    
case ( ,sirius & its fa9t att5dant1 !   
mass ( ! bright /> is ab\t twice ! mass 
( ! satellite1 :ile its light is ab\t   
#dj1jjj times great]6 ,"h ! satellite is
 ei!r a cool$-d[n sun or p]haps a gase\s
 nebula4 ,!re seems to be no o!r        
explanation ( ?is curi\s p>adox4 ,! same
 rem>k applies to ,procyon1 :]e ! bright
 /> is ab\t #ajj1jjj times bright] ?an  
its fa9t companion1 al?\gh its mass is  
only #e times great]4  ,! bright />     
,capella =ms a curi\s anomaly or p>adox4
 ,spectroscopic obs]vations %[ t x is a 
v close b9>y pair4 ,x has be5 se5       
elongat$ at ! ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory ) !  

great #bh-;in* refractor--! "w ( ,sir   
,h[>d ,grubb--& ! spectroscopic & visual
 measurem5ts agree 9 indicat+ t its mass
 is ab\t #ah times ! mass ( ! sun4 ,b   
its p>allax 7ab\t #jjh7 %[s t x is ab\t 
#abh times bright] ?an ! sun6 ,?is great
 brilliancy is inconsi/5t ) ! />'s      
comput$ mass1 :i* w\ld indicate a mu*   
small] brightness4 ,! sun plac$ at !    
di/ance ( ,capella w\ld1 ,i f9d1 %9e z a
 /> ( ab\t #e-a_/b magnitude1 :ile      
,capella is "o ( ! brighte/ />s 9 ! sky4
 ,z ! spectrum ( ,capella's light       
closely resembles ! sol> spectrum1 we   
seem ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ t ! two bodies h  
pretty mu* ! same physical composition4 
,! discrepancy betwe5 ! comput$ & actual
 brightness ( ! /> _c be expla9$        
satisfactorily1 & ! /> rema9s an        
a/ronomical enigma4  ,?ree rem>kable    
d\ble-/> sy/ems h be5 discov]$ by ,dr4  
,see 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! fir/ ( ^!  
is ! bright /> ,greek3 a ,pho5icis1 (   
:i* ! magnitude is #bd1 or only v       
slightly fa9t] ?an ! ,pole ,/>4 ,x is   

att5d$ by a fa9t /> ( ! #ac? magnitude  
at a di/ance ( less ?an #aj seconds     
7#ahig74 ,! bright /> is ( a deep orange
 or r$di% col\r1 & ! great diff]5ce 9   
brightness betwe5 ! compon5t />s r5d]s !
 sy/em bo? /rik+ & difficult4 ,! second 
is ,greek3 m ,velorum1 a /> ( ! #crd    
magnitude1 :i* has a companion ( ! #aa? 
magnitude1 & only #b-a_/b f its bright  
prim>y 7#ahig74 ,dr4 ,see describes ?is 
pair z "o ( ! mo/ extraord9>y 9 !       
heav5s4 ,! ?ird is ,greek3  ,c5tauri1 ( 
#b-a_/b magnitude1 ) a companion (      
#ac-a_/b magnitude at a di/ance ( #efe  
7#ahig72 col\rs yell[ & purple4 ,?is    
pair is extremely difficult1 requir+ a  
p[]ful telescope to see x4 ,dr4 ,see    
?9ks t ^! ?ree objects may be reg>d$ z  
among/ ! mo/ spl5did 9 ! heav5s4  ,!    
foll[+ notes are f ,burnham's rec5tly   
publi%$ ,g5]al ,catalogue ( ,d\ble ,/>s4
  ,! ,pole ,/> has a well-kn[n companion
 ( ab\t ! #i? magnitude1 :i* is a       
fav\rite object = small telescopes4     
,burnham f9ds t ! bright /> & its fa9t  

companion are relatively fix$1 & are    
probably only an optical pair4 ,"s o!r  
companions h be5 suspect$ by amateur    
obs]v]s1 b ,burnham f9ds t !re is no?+  
ne>] ?an ! kn[n companion )9 ! rea* ( ! 
great #cf-;in* telescope ( ! ,lick      
,obs]vatory 7,cat41 p4 #bii74  ,!       
well-kn[n companion to ! bright />      
,rigel 7,greek3 b ,orionis7 has be5     
suspect$ = _m ye>s to be a close d\ble  
/>4 ,burnham concludes t x is really a  
b9>y />1 & its p]iod may be %ort] ?an t 
( any kn[n pair 7,cat41 p4 #daa74       
,burnham f9ds t ! f\r bright] />s 9 !   
trapezium 9 ! great ,orion nebula 79 !  
sword7 are relatively fix$ 7,cat41 p4   
#dbf74  ,greek3 g ,leonis4 ,?is d\ble />
 0 = _m ye>s consid]$ to be a b9>y1 b   
,burnham has %[n t all ! measures may be
 satisfactorily repres5t$ by a /raight  
l9e1 & t consequ5tly ! pair m]ely =ms an
 optical d\ble4  #db ,com ,b]5ices4 ,?is
 is a b9>y /> ( :i* ! orbit plane passes
 ne>ly ?r\gh ! e>?4 ,! p]iod is ab\t    
#be-a_/b ye>s1 & ,burnham says ! orbit  

is z accurately kn[n z t ( any kn[n     
b9>y4  ,greek3 s ,coron ,borealis4      
,burnham says t ! orbits hi!rto         
comput$--) p]iods rang+ f #aie ye>s     
7,jacob7 to #hdf ye>s 7,dob]ck7 are m]e 
guess "w1 & x w require ! measures ( at 
lea/ ano!r c5tury1 & p]haps a mu* long] 
"t1 to give an approximate p]iod 7,cat41
 p4 #bji74 ,s "h is "s "w left = po/]ity
 to d 9 ?is field4  #gj ,ophiu*i4 ,)    
ref]5ce to ?is well-kn[n b9>y />1       
,burnham says1 ! elem5ts ( ! orbit are v
 accurately kn[n4 ,! p]iods comput$     
range f #hfff ye>s 7,doolittle7 to #ihae
 ye>s 7,p[ell74 ,! pres5t writ] f\nd a  
p]iod ( #hghd ye>s1 :i* _c be f> f !    
tru?4 ,burnham f\nd #hgge ye>s 7,cat41  
p4 #ggd74 ,9 ?is case !re is n mu* left 
= po/]ity to accompli%4  #fa ,cygni4 ,) 
ref]5ce to ?is fam\s /> ,burnham says1  
,s f> ! relative motion is practically  
rectil9e>4 ,if ! companion is mov+ 9 a  
curv$ pa?1 x w require ! measures ( at  
lea/ ano!r half-c5tury to make ?is      
c]ta94 ,! deviation ( ! measur$         

positions dur+ ! la/ #gj ye>s f a "r l9e
 are less ?an ! av]age errors ( !       
obs]vations4  ,burnham once saw a fa9t  
companion to ,sirius ( ! #af? magnitude1
 & measur$ its position ) ref]5ce to !  
bright /> 7#bhjf3 #djbe3 #ahiihf74 ,b he
 aft]w>ds f\nd t x 0 n a real object b a
 reflection f ,sirius 79 ! eye-piece74  
,su* false images are call$ gho/s4  ,)  
ref]5ce to ! well-kn[n d\ble 7or r      
quadruple7 /> ,greek3 e ,lyr1 ne> ,vega1
 & suppos$ fa9t />s ne> x1 ,burnham     
says1 ,f "t to "t v>i\s small />s 9 !   
vic9ity h be5 mapp$1 & mu* "t wa/$ 9    
look+ = & speculat+ ab\t objects :i*    
only exi/ 9 ! imag9ation ( ! obs]v]4 ,he
 believes t _m ( ^! fa9t />s1 suppos$ to
 h be5 se5 by v>i\s obs]v]s1 are m]ely  
gho/s produc$ by reflection4  ,! b9>y />
 ,greek3 z ,botis1 :i* has long be5     
suspect$ ( small & irregul> v>iation (  
light1 %[$ rem>kable spectral *anges 9 !
 ye> #aije1cai some:at simil> to ^? ( a 
nova1 or tempor>y />4 ,x is curi\s t su*
 *anges %\ld occur 9 a /> hav+ an ord9>y

 ,sirian type ( spectrum6  ,a curi\s    
quadruple sy/em has be5 discov]$ by ,mr4
 ,r4 ,t4 ,a4 ,innes 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4
 ,! /> ,greek3 k ,t\cani is a b9>y /> ) 
compon5ts ( magnitudes #e & #gg1 & a    
p]iod ( revolution ( p]haps ab\t #ajjj  
ye>s4 ,)9 #f' ( ?is pair is ano!r />    
7,lacaille #cec71 :i* is also a b9>y1 ) 
a p]iod ( p]haps #gb ye>s4 ,bo? pairs h 
! same prop] motion ?r\gh space1 &      
evid5tly =m a va/ quadruple sy/em2 = :i*
 ,mr4 ,innes f9ds a possible p]iod (    
#cjj1jjj ye>s4#cbj  ,x is a curi\s fact 
t ! p]=mance ( a really good refract+   
telescope actually exce$s :at !ory w\ld 
indicate6 at lea/ s f> z d\ble />s are  
conc]n$4 ,= example1 ! fam\s d\ble-/>   
obs]v] ,dawes f\nd t ! di/ance betwe5 ! 
compon5ts ( a d\ble /> :i* c j be       
divid$1 is f\nd by divid+ #def by !     
ap]ture ( ! object-glass 9 in*es4 ,n[   
!ory gives #eeb divid$ by ! ap]ture4 ,! 
actual telescope--if a really good      
"o--?us exce$s its !oretical            
requirem5ts4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 !ory &  

practice 9 ?is case seems to be due to !
 fact t 9 ! 'spuri\s' /> disc %[n by    
good telescopes1 ! illum9ation at !     
edges ( ! /> disc is v feeble1 s t its  
full size is n se5 except 9 ! case ( a v
 bright />4#cba     ,,*apt] ,,xvi       
,v>iable ,/>s   ,9 t int]e/+ "w ,a      
,cycle ( ,cele/ial ,objects1 ,admiral   
,smy? says 7p4 #bge71 ,gem9iano         
,montan>i1 z f> back z #afgj1 0 s /ruck 
) ! cele/ial *anges1 t he project$ a "w 
to be intitul$ ! ,in/abilities ( !      
,firmam5t1 hop+ to %[ su* alt]ations z  
w\ld be suffici5t to make ev5           
,ari/otle--7 he alive--rev]se 8 op9ion  
on ! incorruptibility ( ! spangl$ sky3  
',!re are n[ want+ 9 ! heav5s1' said he1
 'two />s ( ! #bnd magnitude 9 ! /em &  
y>d ( ! %ip ,argo4 ,i & o!rs obs]v$ !m 9
 ! ye> #affd1 ^u occasion ( ! comet t   
appe>$ 9 t ye>4 ,:5 !y fir/ disappe>$ ,i
 "k n2 only ,i am sure t on ,april #aj1 
#affh1 !re 0 n ! lea/ glimpse ( !m to be
 se54' ,smy? adds1 ,/>tl+ z ?is acc\nt  
is--& ,i am ev5 dispos$ to "q ! fact--x 

mu/ be recollect$ t ,montan>i 0 a man ( 
integrity1 & well v]s$ 9 ! !ory &       
practice ( a/ronomy2 & 8 acc\nt ( !     
wond] w be f\nd--9 good set ,lat9--9    
page #bbjb ( ! ,philosophical           
,transactions = #afga4  ,!re mu/ be1 ,i 
?9k--z ,smy? sugge/s--"s mi/ake 9       
,montan>i's obs]vations1 = x is q c]ta9 
t ( ! />s m5tion$ by ,ptolemy 7second   
c5tury ,a4,d47 !re is no /> ( ! #bnd    
magnitude n[ miss+4 ,x is true t        
,al-,sufi 7t5? c5tury7 m5tions a /> ( ! 
?ird magnitude m5tion$ by ,ptolemy 9 !  
con/ellation ( ! ,c5taur 7ab\t #b ea/ ( 
! /> ,greek3 e ,c5tauri7 :i* he c\ld n  
f9d4 ,b ?is has no?+ to d ) ,montan>i's 
/>s4 ,montan>i's words are v cle>4 ,he  
says1 ,desunt 9 ,coelo du /ell ,secund  
,magnitud9is 9 ,puppi ,navis ejusve     
,tran/ris ,bay]o ,greek3 b et ,greek3 g1
 prope ,canem ,majoris1  me et aliis1   
occasione prs]tim ,comet ,a4 #affd      
obs]vat et recognit4 ,e>um ,disp>itionem
 cui ,anno debeam1 non novi2 hoc        
indubium1 quod  die #aj ,april1 #affh1  

ne ve/igium quidem ill>um adesse amplius
 obs]ve2 ct]is circa eas etium qu>t et  
qu9t magnitud9is1 immotis4 ,s ! puzzle  
rema9s unsolv$4  ,sir ,william ,h]s*el  
?\ght t ( all />s :i* are s+ly visible1 
ab\t "o 9 ?irty are und]go+ an obs]vable
 *ange4#cbb ,n[ tak+ ! numb] ( />s      
visible to ! nak$ eye at #fjjj1 ?is w\ld
 give ab\t #bjj v>iable />s visible at  
maximum to ! unaid$ vision4 ,b ?is      
e/imate seems too high4 ,tak+ all ! />s 
visible 9 ! l>ge/ telescopes--possibly  
ab\t #ajj millions--! proportion (      
v>iable />s w probably be mu* small]    
/ill4  ,! !ory t ! v>iation ( light 9 ! 
v>iable />s ( ! ,algol type is due to a 
p>tial eclipse by a companion /> 7n     
necess>ily a d>k body7 is n[ well       
e/abli%$ by ! spectroscope1 & is accept$
 by all a/ronom]s4 ,! late ,miss ,cl>ke 
has well said to argue ?is po9t w\ld be 
en=c] une porte ouv]te4  ,accord+ to    
,dr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,rob]ts1 ! compon5ts ( !   
foll[+ ,algol v>iables revolve 9        
contact3 ,v ,puppis1 ,x ,c>91 ,greek3 b 

,lyr1 & ,greek3 u ,pegasi4 ,( ^? ,v     
,puppis & ,greek3 b ,lyr are kn[n       
spectroscopic b9>ies4 ,! o!rs are beyond
 ! rea* ( ! spectroscope1 ow+ to _!     
fa9tness4  ,a v curi\s v>iable /> ( !   
,algol type is t kn[n z ,r ,r ,draconis4
 ,its normal magnitude is #aj1 b at     
m9imum x becomes invisible 9 a          
#g-a_/b-;in* refract+ telescope4 ,!     
v>iation mu/1 !re=e1 be ov] #c          
magnitudes1 t is1 at m9imum its light   
mu/ be r$uc$ to ab\t "o-sixte5? ( its   
normal brightness4 ,! p]iod ( v>iation f
 maximum to m9imum is ab\t #bhc days4 ,!
 v>iation ( light ne> m9imum is         
extraord9>ily rapid1 ! light decreas+ by
 ab\t #a magnitude 9 half an h\r4#cbc   
,a v rem>kable v>iable /> has be5       
rec5tly discov]$ 9 ! con/ellation       
,auriga4 ,pr(4 ,h>twig f\nd x ( ! #i?   
magnitude on ,m>* #f1 #aijh1 ! /> hav+  
increas$ f\r magnitudes 9 "o day1 :il/  
)9 eight days x 0 less ?an ! #ad?       
magnitude4#cbd ,9 o!r words its light   
increas$ at lea/ "o-hundr$fold 9 eight  

days6  ,! p]iod ( ! well-kn[n v>iable />
 ,greek3 b ,lyr seems to be sl[ly       
increas+4 ,?is ,dr4 ,rob]ts 7( ,s\?     
,africa7 consid]s to be due to !        
compon5t />s sl[ly rec$+ f ea* o!r4 ,he 
f9ds t a v slight increase ( "o-?\s&? "p
 ( ! radius ( ! orbit w\ld acc\nt = !   
augm5tation 9 "t1 #cjm 9 a c5tury4      
,accord+ to ! !ory ( /ell> evolution !  
l5g!n+ ( ! p]iod ( revolution ( a b9>y  
/> w\ld be due to ! drag caus$ by !     
tides =m$ by ea* compon5t on ! o!r4#cbe 
,m4 ,seba/ian ,albre*t f9ds t 9 !       
%ort-p]iod v>iable /> kn[n z ,t         
,vulpecul 7& o!r v>iables ( ?is class1  
su* z ,y ,ophiu*i71 !re c be no eclipse 
to expla9 ! v>iation ( light 7z 9 ! case
 ( ,algol74 ,! /> is a spectroscopic    
b9>y1 x is true1 b ! maximum ( light    
co9cides ) ! greate/ velocity ( approa* 
9 ! l9e ( sight1 & ! m9imum ) ! greate/ 
velocity ( recession4 ,?us ! light curve
 & ! spectroscopic velocity curve are v 
simil> 9 %ape1 b "o is l ! o!r turn$    
upside d[n4 ,t is1 ! two curves h a v   

close correspond5ce 9 phase 9 addition  
to correspond5ce ( %ape & p]iod4#cbf  ,!
 /> n[ kn[n z ,w ,urs ,majoris 7!       
v>iability ( :i* 0 discov]$ by ,mll] &  
,kempf 9 #aijb71 & :i* lies betwe5 ! />s
 ,greek3 ? & ,greek3 u ( t con/ellation1
 has ! m>vell\sly %ort p]iod ( #d h\rs  
7f maximum to maximum74 ,messrs4 ,jordan
 & ,p>khur/ 7,u4,s4,a471 f9d f          
photographic plates t ! /> v>ies f #gbd 
to #hag magnitude4#cbg ,! light at      
maximum is1 !re=e1 m ?an d\ble ! light  
at m9imum4 ,a sun :i* loses m ?an half  
its light & recov]s x aga9 9 ! %ort     
p]iod ( #d h\rs is c]ta9ly a curi\s &   
wond]ful object4  ,9 contra/ ) ! above1 
! same a/ronom]s h discov]$ a /> 9      
,p]seus :i* seems to v>y f ab\t ! #f? to
 ! #g? magnitude 9 ! v long p]iod (     
#g-a_/b ye>s6 ,x is n[ kn[n z ,x ,p]sei1
 & its position = #aijj is ,r4,a4 #c;h  
#dim #hs1 ,dec4 ,n4 #cj #df'1 or ab\t "o
 degree s\?-ea/ ( ! /> ,greek3 z ,p]sei4
 ,x seems to be a v>iable ( ! ,algol    
type1 z ! /> rema9$ con/ant 9 light at  

ab\t ! #f? magnitude f #ahhg to #ahia4  
,x !n began to fade1 & on ,decemb] #a1  
#ahig1 x 0 r$uc$ to ab\t ! #g?          
magnitude4  ,on ! night ( ,augu/ #bj1   
#ahhf1 ,pr(4 ,colb]t1 ( ,*icago1 notic$ 
t ! /> ,greek3 z ,cassiopei increas$ 9  
brightness by q half a magnitude1 & ab\t
 half an h\r aft]w>ds began to return to
 its normal magnitude4#cbh ,?is curi\s  
outbur/ ( light 9 a /> usually con/ant 9
 brightness is 7if true7 a v unusual    
ph5om5on4 ,b a some:at simil>           
fluctuation ( light is record$ by !     
fam\s ,g]man a/ronom] ,heis4 ,on        
,septemb] #bf1 #ahej1 he not$ t ! />    
,greek3 z ,lyr became1 = a mom5t1 v     
bright1 & !n aga9 fa9t4 7,! words 9 8   
orig9al obs]v+ book are3 ,greek3 z ,lyr 
wurde e95 ,mom5t sehr hell und hi]auf   
wi$] dunkel47 ,z ,heis 0 a rem>kably    
accurate obs]v] ( /> brightness1 ! above
 rem>k des]ves ! highe/ confid5ce4#cbi  
,! v>iable /> kn[n z ! ,v ,delph9i 0    
f\nd to be invisible 9 ! great #dj-;in* 
telescope ( ! ,y]kes ,obs]vatory on     

,july #bj1 #aijj4 ,its magnitude 01     
!re=e1 bel[ ! #ag?4 ,at its maximum     
brightness x is ab\t #g-a_/b1 or easily 
visible 9 an ord9>y op]a-glass1 s t its 
range ( v>iation is ne>ly1 or q1 t5     
magnitudes4 ,t is1 its light at maximum 
is ab\t #aj1jjj times its light at      
m9imum4 ,t a sun %\ld v>y 9 light to ?is
 enorm\s ext5t is c]ta9ly a wond]ful    
fact4 ,a v>iable discov]$ by ,c]aski 7& 
numb]$ #gegi 9 ,*&l]s' ,catalogue7 _h   
pass$ bel[ ! limit ( ! #dj-;in* 9 ,june1
 #aijj1 & 01 !re=e1 n bright] ?an #ag   
mag4#ccj  ,! late ,sir ,c4 ,e4 ,peck & 8
 assi/ant1 ,mr4 ,grov]1 made _m valuable
 obs]vations ( v>iable />s at ! ,r\sd5  
,obs]vatory dur+ _m ye>s pa/4 ,among o!r
 int]e/+ ?+s not$1 ,peck sometimes saw  
fa9t />s 9 ! field ( view ( 8 telescope 
:i* 7 at o!r times invisible = _m mon?s1
 & he sugge/$ t ^! are fa9t v>iable />s 
) a range ( brightness f ! #ac? to !    
#bj? magnitude4 ,he adds1 ,"h !re is a  
practically unemploy$ field = ! l>ge/   
telescopes4 ,consid]+ ! enorm\s numb] ( 

fa9t />s visible on /ell> photographs ! 
numb] ( undiscov]$ v>iable />s mu/ be v 
l>ge4  ,admiral ,smy? describes a small 
/> ne> ,greek3 b ,leonis1 ab\t #e'      
di/ant1 ( ab\t #h? magnitude1 & dull r$4
 ,9 #ahfd ,mr4 ,knott measur$ a fa9t /> 
close to ,smy?'s position1 b e/imat$ x  
only #aaf magnitude4 ,! ,admiral's />   
w\ld !reupon seem to be v>iable4#cca  ,!
 fam\s v>iable /> ,greek3  ,argus1 :i*  
,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 :5 at ! ,cape (     
,good ,hope 9 #ahch1 saw involv$ 9 d5se 
nebulosity1 0 9 ,april1 #ahfi1 se5 on ! 
b>e sky1 ) ! great ,melb\rne telescope1 
! nebula hav+ disappe>$ = "s di/ance    
r\nd x4 ,o!r *anges 7 notic$ 9 ?is      
rem>kable nebula4 ,! ,melb\rne obs]v]s  
saw ?ree times z _m />s z 7 se5 by      
,h]s*el4 ,b ( c\rse _! telescope is mu* 
l>g]--#dh in*es ap]ture1 comp>$ )       
,h]s*el's #bj in*es4  ,pr(4 ,e4 ,c4     
,pick]+ ?9ks t ! fluctuations ( light ( 
! well-kn[n v>iable /> ,r ,coron 79 !   
,nor!rn ,cr[n71 are unlike ^? ( any kn[n
 v>iable4 ,?is v curi\s object--"o ( !  

mo/ curi\s 9 ! heav5s--sometimes rema9s 
= _m mon?s almo/ con/ant 9 brightness 7j
 visible to ! nak$ eye71 & !n rapidly   
fades 9 light by sev]al magnitudes6 ,?us
 its *anges ( light 9 ,april & ,may1    
#aije1 7 z foll[s3--    #aije1 ,april #a
   #fj magnitude             #aa   #gc  
#ab   #hd               ,may  #a  #aad  
#g  #abe       ,?us betwe5 ,april #a &  
,may #a1 its light 0 r$uc$ by ov] #e    
magnitudes4 ,9 o!r words1 ! light ( ! />
 on ,may #a 0 r$uc$ to less ?an         
"o-hundr$? ( its light on ,april #a4 ,if
 our sun 7 to behave 9 ?is way ne>ly all
 life w\ld soon be de/roy$ on ! face ( !
 e>?4  ,m4 ,h4 ,e4 ,lau f9ds t !        
%ort-p]iod v>iable /> ,greek3 d ,cephei 
v>ies slightly 9 col\r z well z 9 light1
 & t ! col\r curve is p>allel to ! light
 curve4 ,ne> ! m9imum ( light ! col\r is
 r$di% yell[1 almo/ z r$ z ,greek3 z    
,cephei2 a day lat] x is pure yell[1 & (
 ab\t ! same col\r z ! neighb\r+ ,greek3
 e ,cephei4#ccb ,b x w\ld n be easy to  
fully e/abli% su* slight v>iations (    

t9t4  ,a rem>kably bright maximum ( !   
fam\s v>iable ,mira ,ceti occurr$ 9     
#aijf4 ,9 ,decemb] ( t ye> x 0 fully    
#bnd magnitude4 ,! pres5t writ] e/imat$ 
x #ah1 or ne>ly equal to ! brighte/ on  
record--#ag obs]v$ by ,sir ,william     
,h]s*el & ,w>g5t9 9 ! ye> #aggi4 ,f     
photographs ( ! spectrum tak5 by ,mr4   
,sliph] at ! ,l[ell ,obs]vatory 9 #aijg1
 he f9ds /rong indications ( ! pres5ce (
 ! r r>e elem5t vanadium 9 ! />'s       
surr\nd+s4 ,pr(4 ,campbell f9ds ) !     
,mills spectrograph atta*$ to ! great   
#cf-;in* telescope ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory
 t ,mira is rec$+ f ! e>? at ! app>5tly 
con/ant velocity ( ab\t #ch miles a     
second4#ccc ,?is1 ( c\rse1 has no?+ to d
 ) ! v>iation 9 ! />'s light4 ,pr(4     
,campbell fail$ to see any trace ( !    
gre5 l9e ( hydrog5 9 ! />'s spectrum1   
:ile two o!r l9es ( ! hydrog5 s]ies gl[$
 ) s+ul> int5sity4  ,mr4 ,newall has    
f\nd evid5ce ( ! elem5t titanium 9 !    
spectrum ( ,betelgeuse 7,greek3 a       
,orionis72 ,mr4 ,goat*] & ,mr4 ,lunt 7( 

! ,cape ,obs]vatory7 f9d t9 9 ,ant>es 7&
 ,scorpii74 ,if ! latt] obs]vation is   
confirm$ x w be ! fir/ "t ?is metal has 
be5 f\nd 9 a />'s atmosph]e4#ccd  ,x is 
a curi\s fact t ,al-,sufi 7t5? c5tury7  
does n m5tion ! /> ,greek3 e ,aquil1 :i*
 lies closely nor?-we/ ( ,greek3 z      
,aquil1 z x is n[ q conspicu\s to ! nak$
 eye4 ,x 0 suspect$ ( v>iation by ,sir  
,william ,h]s*el4 ,x 0 fir/ record$ by  
,ty*o ,brah ab\t #aeij1 & he call$ x    
#crd magnitude4 ,bay] also rat$ x #c1 & 
s9ce 8 "t x has be5 v>i\sly e/imat$ f   
#c-a_/b to #d4 ,if x 0 any?+ l its      
pres5t brightness 7#dba ,h>v>d7 9 ! t5? 
c5tury x seems difficult to expla9 h[ x 
c\ld h escap$ ,al-,sufi's c>eful scrut9y
 ( ! heav5s1 unless x is v>iable4 ,its  
col\r seems r$di% to me4  ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4  
,lynn has %[n--& ,i ?9k conclusively--t 
! s-call$ new /> ( ,a4,d4 #chi 7:i* is  
said to h appe>$ ne> ,altair 9 ! ,eagle7
 0 really a comet4#cce  ,ne> ! place (  
,ty*o ,brah's great new /> ( #aegb 7!   
,pilgrim ,/>71 ,h9d & ,w4 ,e4 ,plumm]   

obs]v$ a small /> 7,no4 #abi (          
d',arre/'s catalogue ( ! region7 :i*    
seem$ to %[ small fluctuations ( light1 
:i* sc>cely include a :ole magnitude4   
,?is may possibly be id5tical ) ,ty*o   
,brah's wond]ful />1 & %\ld be wat*$ by 
obs]v]s4 ,! place ( ?is small /> is 7=  
#ahfe7 ,r4,a4 #j;h #agm #ahs1 ,n4,p4,d4 
#bf #cg'a4 ,! region 0 exam9$ by ,pr(4  
,burnham 9 #ahij ) ! #cf-;in* telescope 
( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory4 ,none ( ! fa9t   
/>s ne> ! place pres5t$ any peculi>ity  
wor?y ( rem>k1 b ?ree d\ble />s 7       
f\nd4#ccf  ,) ref]5ce to ! fam\s ,nova  
7,t7 ,coron--! ,blaze ,/> ( #ahff--,pr(4
 ,b>n>d f9ds f c>eful comp>isons ) small
 />s 9 its vic9ity t ! ,nova is n[      
ess5tially ( ! same brightness x 0 be=e 
! outbur/ ( #ahff 444 !re seems to be no
 indication ( motion 9 ! ,nova4  ,)     
ref]5ce to ! cause ( tempor>y />s1 or   
nov1 z !y are n[ call$ by a/ronom]s--!  
late ,pr(4 ,h4 ,c4 ,vogel said--      ,a
 direct collision ( two cele/ial bodies 
is n reg>d$ by ,hugg9s     z an         

admissible explanation ( ! ,nova2 a     
p>tial collision has     little         
probability1 & ! mo/ t c be admitt$ is  
p]haps !     mutual p5etration &        
admixture ( ! out] gase\s envelopes (   
! two bodies at ! "t ( _! close/        
approa*4 ,a m probable     explanation  
is giv5 by an hypo!sis :i* we owe to    
,kl9k]fues1 &     :i* has m rec5tly be5 
fur!r develop$ by ,wils+1 viz4 t     by 
! v close passage ( two cele/ial bodies 
enorm\s tidal     di/urbances are       
produc$ & !reby *anges 9 ! brightness ( 
!     bodies4 ,9 ! case ( ! two bodies  
:i* =m ! ,nova1 x mu/ be     assum$ t ^!
 ph5om5a are display$ 9 ! highe/ degree 
(     developm5t1 & t *anges ( pressure 
h be5 produc$ :i*     h caus$ enorm\s   
eruptions f ! heat$ int]ior ( ! bodies2 
! eruptions are p]haps accompani$ by    
electrical actions1 & are     comp>able 
) ! outbur/s 9 our own sun1 al?\gh !y   
are on a     mu* l>g] scale4#ccg  ,x w  
be notic$ t ?is hypo!sis agrees ) !     
fundam5tal assumption ( ! ,planetesimal 

,hypo!sis advocat$ by ,pr(essors        
,*amb]l9 & ,m\lton 7see my ,a/ronomical 
,essays1 p4 #cbd74  ,! ru% ( a          
comp>atively small body ?r\gh a mass (  
gase\s matt] seems also a v plausible   
hypo!sis4 ,?is idea 0 orig9ally advanc$ 
by ,pr(4 ,seelig]1 & indep5d5tly by ,mr4
 ,monck4  ,) ref]5ce to ! nebula :i* 0  
obs]v$ r\nd ! great new /> (            
#aija--,nova ,p]sei--,pr(4 ,lewis ,bell 
supports ! !ory ( ,seelig]1 :i* acc\nts 
= ! app>5t movem5ts ( ! brighte/        
portions ( ! nebula by suppos+ t ! v>i\s
 p>ts ( ! highly t5u\s matt] 7          
successively light$ up by ! effects ( a 
travell+ electro-magnetic wavefront1 &  
he %[s t ?is !ory agrees well ) ! obs]v$
 ph5om5on4#cch ,! collision !ory :i*    
expla9$ ! sudd5 outbur/ ( light by !    
meet+ ( two d>k bodies 9 space1 seems to
 be n[ ab&on$ by ! be/ a/ronom]s4 ,!    
rapid cool+ d[n ( ! suppos$ bodies      
indicat$ by ! rapid decrease ( light is 
q inconsi/5t ) ?is hypo!sis4  ,! rapid  
dim9ution 9 ! light ( "s ( ^! new />s is

 v rem>kable4 ,?us ! new /> :i* sudd5ly 
blaz$ out ne> ! nucleus ( ! great nebula
 9 ,&rom$a 9 ,augu/1 #ahhe1 fad$ d[n 9  
#e mon?s f ! limit ( visibility to !    
nak$ eye to t ( a #bf-;in* telescope6 ,a
 l>ge body c\ld n cool 9 ?is way4  ,mr4 
,h>old ,k4 ,palm] ?9ks t ! complete &   
a/oni%+ly rapid *anges ( spectral type  
obs]v$ 9 ! case ( ,nova ,cygni & ,nova  
,aurig1 & likewise ^? obs]v$ 9 ,nova    
,norm1 ,nova ,sagitt>ii & ,nova ,p]sei1 
leave little d\bt t ! masses ( ^!       
objects are small4#cci  ,no less ?an    
#cgdh v>iable />s _h be5 discov]$ up to 
,may1 #aijg4 ,( ^! #biji 7 f\nd at      
,h>v>d ,obs]vatory 7,u4,s4,a47 *iefly by
 means ( photography4#cdj  ,! /> #ad4   
#aijd ,cygni has a p]iod ( only #c h\rs 
#ad m9utes1 :i* is ! %orte/ p]iod kn[n =
 a v>iable />4  ,a v int]e/+ discov]y   
has rec5tly be5 made ) ref]5ce to ! />  
,greek3 m ,h]culis4 ,x has be5 long     
suspect$ ( v>iable light ) a p]iod ( #ce
 or #dj days1 or p]haps irregul>4 ,fro/ 
& ,adams n[ f9d x to be a spectroscopic 

b9>y1 & fur!r obs]vations at ,h>v>d     
,obs]vatory %[ t x is a v>iable ( !     
,algol 7or p]haps ,greek3 b ,lyr7 type4 
,! ,algol v>iation ( light 0 sugge/$ by 
,,mm4 ,bak] & ,s*les+]4 ,! p]iod seems  
to be ab\t #bje days4#cda  ,! nor!rn ( !
 two po9t]s 9 ! ,pl\gh 7s call$ because 
!y ne>ly po9t to ! ,pole ,/>7 is ab\t ! 
#bnd magnitude1 z ,al-,sufi rat$ x4 ,x 0
 ?\ght to be v>iable 9 col\r by ,kle91  
,konkoly1 & ,web]2 & ,m4 ,lau has       
rec5tly f\nd a p]iod ( #ej days ) a     
maximum ( jaune r\getre on ,april #b1   
#aijb4  ,! fam\s v>iable /> ,greek3     
,argus did n exce$ ! #h? magnitude 9    
,febru>y1 #aijg1 accord+ to ,mr4        
,tebbutt4#cdb ,?is is ! fa9te/ ev]      
record$ = ?is wond]ful />4  ,x is /at$ 9
 ,k 7vol4 #e1 p4 #c1 ,janu>y #d1 #ahhd7 
t ! tempor>y /> ( #ahgf 79 !            
con/ellation ( ,cygnus7 _h long be5 kn[n
 & catalogu$ z a telescopic /> ( ! #i?  
magnitude ) no?+ to di/+ui% x f ! common
 h]d4 ,b ?is is q errone\s4 ,! /> 0 q   
unkn[n be=e x 0 discov]$ by ,s*midt at  

,a!ns on ,novemb] #bd ( t ye>4 ,! rem>k 
app>5tly ref]s to ! ,blaze ,/> ( #ahff 9
 ,corona ,borealis1 :i* 0 kn[n previ\sly
 z a /> ( ab\t ! #i? magnitude be=e its 
sudd5 outbur/ on ,may #ab ( t ye>4  ,?is
 new /> ( #ahff--,t ,coron1 z x is n[   
call$--01 ) ! possible exception ( ,nova
 ,p]sei 7#aija71 ! only example ( a nova
 :i* 0 kn[n to a/ronom]s z a small />   
previ\s to ! great outbur/ ( light4 ,x  
is ! brighte/ ( ! nov /ill visible4 ,x 0
 ! fir/ ( ^! int]e/+ objects to be      
exam9$ ) ! spectroscope4 ,x 0 obs]v$ by 
,burnham 9 ! ye>s #aijd-aijf ) ! great  
#dj-;in* telescope ( ! ,y]kes           
,obs]vatory 7,u4,s4,a474 ,he f\nd its   
col\r :ite1 or only slightly t+$ )      
yell[4 ,9 ,augu/ & ,septemb]1 #aijf1 he 
e/imat$ its magnitude at ab\t #ic1 & x  
w\ld seem !re=e t ! ,nova is n[         
ess5tially ( ! same brightness x 0 be=e 
! outbur/ 9 #ahff4 ,x %[s no indication 
( motion4 ,burnham f\nd no peculi>ity   
ab\t its telescopic image4 ,a small & v 
fa9t nebula 0 f\nd by ,burnham a little 

foll[+ 7t is ea/ (7 ! nova4#cdc  ,!     
foll[+ details ( ! great new /> (       
#aegb--! ,pilgrim ,/> ( ,ty*o ,brah--are
 giv5 by ,delambre4#cdd ,9 ,novemb]1    
#aegb1 x 0 bright] ?an ,sirius1 ,vega1 &
 ,jupit]1 & almo/ equal to ,v5us at its 
brighte/4 ,dur+ ,decemb] x resembl$     
,jupit] 9 brightness4 ,9 ,janu>y1 #aegc1
 x 0 fa9t] & only a little bright] ?an  
/>s ( ! #a/ magnitude4 ,9 ,febru>y &    
,m>* x 0 equal to #a/ magnitude />s1 & 9
 ,april & ,may 0 r$uc$ to ! #bnd        
magnitude4 ,9 ,june & ,july x 0 #crd    
magnitude2 9 ,septemb] ( ! #d?1 & at !  
end ( #aegc x 0 r$uc$ to ! #e?          
magnitude4 ,9 ,febru>y1 #aegd1 x 0 #f?  
magnitude1 & 9 ,m>* ( ! same ye> x      
became invisible to ! nak$ eye4  ,f ?is 
acc\nt x w be se5 t ! decrease 9 light (
 ?is curi\s object 0 mu* sl[] ?an t (   
,nova ,p]sei 7#aija7 7! new /> ( ! new  
c5tury74 ,?is w\ld sugge/ t x 0 a mu*   
l>g] body4  ,!re 7 also *anges 9 its    
col\r4 ,:5 x 0 ( ! brightness ( ,v5us or
 ,jupit] x %one ) a :ite light4 ,x !n   

became gold51 & aft]w>ds r$di% l ,m>s1  
,aldeb>an1 or ,betelgeuse4 ,x aft]w>ds  
became ( a livid :ite col\r l ,saturn1 &
 ?is x reta9$ z long z x 0 visible4     
,ty*o ,brah ?\ght t its app>5t diamet]  
might h be5 ab\t #c-a_/b m9utes ( arc1 &
 t x 0 possibly #cfa times small] ?an ! 
e>?767 ,b we n[ "k t ^! e/imates 7      
probably q errone\s4  ,tempor>y />s 7   
call$ by ! anci5t ,*9ese ,ke-s+1 or gue/
 />s4#cde  ,a tempor>y /> record$ by    
,ma-tuan-l9 7,*9ese ,annals7 9 ,febru>y1
 #aegh1 is describ$ z a /> z l>ge z !   
sun4 ,b its position is n giv54#cdf     
,ab\t ! middle ( ,septemb]1 #ahgh1 ,mr4 
,greely1 ( ,bo/on 7,u4,s4,a471 report$  
to ,mr4 ,e4 ,f4 ,sawy] 7! em95t obs]v] (
 v>iable />s7 t1 ab\t ! middle ( ,augu/ 
( t ye>1 he _h se5 ! fam\s v>iable />   
,mira ,ceti ( ab\t ! #bnd magnitude1    
al?\gh ! /> did n atta9 its usual       
maximum until e>ly 9 ,octob]1 #ahgh4    
,mr4 ,greely /at$ t sev]al nights aft]  
he fir/ saw ,mira x _h fad$ to ! #d? or 
#e? magnitude4 ,if !re 0 no mi/ake 9 ?is

 obs]vation 7& ,sawy] c\ld f9d none7 x 0
 q an unique ph5om5on1 z no?+ ( ! sort  
has be5 obs]v$ be=e or s9ce 9 ! hi/ory (
 ?is fam\s />4 ,x looks z if ,mr4       
,greely _h obs]v$ a new or tempor>y />  
ne> ! place ( ,mira ,ceti2 b z ! spot is
 f> f ! ,milky ,way1 :i* is ! usual seat
 ( su* ph5om5a1 ?is hypo!sis seems      
improbable4  ,9 ! s-call$ ,cepheid &    
,gem9id v>iables ( %ort p]iod1 !        
pr9cipal *>act]i/ics ( ! light v>iation 
are z foll[s3--      #a4 ,! light v>ies 
)\t pause4      #b4 ,! am\nt ( _! light 
v>iation is usually ab\t #a magnitude4  
#c4 ,_! p]iods are %ort--a few days     
only4      #d4 ,!y are ( a spectral type
 approximately sol>2 no ,orion1 ,sirian 
or ,arcturian />s hav+ be5 f\nd among   
!m4      #e4 ,!y seem to be f\nd 9      
great] numb]s 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( !     sky1 
notably 9 ! ,milky ,way1 b exhibit no   
t5d5cy to =m     clu/]s4      #f4 ,all  
^? />s ^: radial velocities h be5 /udi$ 
h     be5 f\nd to be b9>ies ^: p]iod (  
orbital revolution co9cides     ) t ( _!

 light *ange4      #g4 ,! orbits1 s f> z
 det]m9$1 are all small1 a s9 i be+     
#b1jjj1jjj kilometres or less4      #h4 
,_! maximum light syn*ronizes ) _!      
maximum velocity (     approa*1 & m9imum
 light ) maximum velocity ( recession4  
#i4 ,no case has be5 f\nd 9 :i* !       
spectrum ( m ?an "o     compon5t has be5
 bright en\gh to be record$ 9 !         
spectrograms4#cdg  ,x is v difficult to 
f9d an hypo!sis :i* w expla9            
satisfactorily all ^! *>act]i/ics1 &    
attempts 9 ?is direction h n prov$ v    
successful4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,duncan sugge/s
 ! action ( an absorb+ atmosph]e        
surr\nd+ ! compon5t />s4  ,on ,m>* #cj1 
#afab1 ,s*e9] saw a /> ne> ,jupit]4 ,x 0
 at fir/ equal 9 brightness to ,jupit]'s
 satellites4 ,x gradually fad$1 & on    
,april #h ( ! same ye> x 0 only se5 )   
mu* difficulty 9 a v cle> sky4 ,aft] t  
date x 0 nev] se5 aga91 al?\gh c>efully 
look$ = "u fav\rable conditions4  ,an   
attempt$ id5tification ( ,s*e9]'s /> 0  
made 9 rec5t ye>s by ,w9necke4 ,he f\nd 

t its position1 z indicat$ by ,s*e9]1   
agrees ) t ( ! ,bonn ,dur*mu/]ung />    
#ae1 #bjhc 7#h-a_/b magnitude74 ,?is /> 
is n a kn[n v>iable4 ,w9necke wat*$ x = 
#ag ye>s1 b f\nd no v>iation ( light4 ,f
 ,s*e9]'s record$ obs]vations 8 /> seems
 to h rea*$ ! #f? magnitude1 :i* is     
consid]ably bright] ?an ! ,dur*mu/]ung  
/> wat*$ by ,w9necke4#cdh  ,) ref]5ce to
 ! col\rs ( ! />s1 ! suppos$ *ange (    
col\r 9 ,sirius f r$ to :ite is well    
kn[n1 & w be consid]$ 9 ! *apt] on !    
,con/ellations4 ,! bright /> ,arcturus  
has also be5 suspect$ ( v>iation 9      
col\r4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury
 ,dr4 ,julius ,s*midt1 ( ,a!ns1 !       
well-kn[n obs]v] ( v>iable />s1 ?\ght x 
"o ( ! r$de/ />s 9 ! sky1 especially 9 !
 ye> #ahda1 :5 he f\nd its col\r        
comp>able ) t ( ! planet ,m>s4#cdi ,9   
#aheb1 h[ev]1 he 0 surpris$ to f9d x    
yell[ & devoid ( any r$di% t+e2 9 col\r 
x 0 light] ?an t ( ,capella4 ,9 #ahfc1  
,mr4 ,jacob ,ennis f\nd x decid$ly      
orange4 ,ptolemy & ,al-,sufi call$ x r$4

  ,mr4 ,ennis speaks ( ,capella z blue  
7class+ x ) ,rigel71 & comp>+ its col\r 
) t ( ,vega6#cej ,b ! pres5t writ] has  
nev] se5 x ( ?is col\r4 ,to 8 eye x     
seems yell[i% or orange4 ,x 0 call$ r$  
by ,ptolemy1 ,el ,f]gani1 & ,riccioli2 b
 ,al-,sufi says no?+ ab\t its col\r4  ,(
 ,greek3 b ,urs ,m9oris1 ,heis1 ! em95t 
,g]man a/ronom] said1 ,i h _h frequ5t   
opportunities ( conv9c+ myself t ! col\r
 ( ?is /> is n always equally r$2 at    
times x is m or less yell[1 at o!rs mo/ 
decid$ly r$4#cea  ,among d\ble />s !re  
are _m cases 9 :i* v>iation ( col\r has 
be5 suspect$4 ,9 "s ( ^! ! diff]5ce 9 ! 
record$ col\r may possibly be due to    
col\r bl9dness 9 "s ( ! obs]v]s2 b 9    
o!rs !re seems to be good evid5ce 9     
fav\r ( a *ange4 ,! foll[+ may be       
m5tion$3--  ,greek3  ,cassiopei4        
,magnitudes ( ! compon5ts ab\t #d &     
#g-a_/b4 ,record$ z r$ & gre5 by ,sir   
,john ,h]s*el & ,s\?2 b yell[ & orange  
by ,se/9i4  ,greek3 i ,trianguli4       
,magnitudes #e-a_/b & #g4 ,sec*i e/imat$

 !m z :ite or yell[ & blue2 b ,webb     
call$ !m yell[ & gre5 7#ahfb74  ,greek3 
g ,leonis1 #b & #c-a_/b4 ,sir ,william  
,h]s*el not$ !m :ite & r$di% :ite2 b    
,webb1 light orange & gre5i% yell[4  #ab
 ,canum ,v5aticorum1 #b-a_/b & #f-a_/b4 
,:ite & r$1 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el2 b    
,sir ,john ,h]s*el says 9 #ahcj1 ,) all 
att5tion ,i c\ld p]ceive no contra/ (   
col\rs 9 ! two />s4 ,/ruve f\nd !m bo?  
:ite 9 #ahcj1 ?us agree+ ) ,sir ,john   
,h]s*el4 ,se/9i saw !m yell[ & blue 9   
#ahdd2 ,smy?1 9 #ahee1 pale r$di% :ite &
 lilac2 ,demb[ski1 9 #ahef1 :ite & pale 
olive blue2 & ,webb1 9 #ahfb1 flu%$ :ite
 & pale lilac4  ,on ,octob] #ac1 #aijg1 
,nova ,p]sei1 ! great new /> ( #aija1 0 
e/imat$ to be only #aadd magnitude1 or  
ab\t #aa-a_/b4 ,:5 at its brighte/ ?is  
fam\s /> 0 ab\t z]o magnitude2 s t x has
 9 ab\t #f ye>s fad$ ab\t #aa-a_/b      
magnitudes 9 brightness2 9 o!r words1 x 
has be5 r$uc$ to #a_/djjjj ( its greate/
 brilliancy6     ,,*apt] ,,xvii  ,nebul 
& ,clu/]s   ,9 8 int]e/+ & valuable "w  

on ,! ,/>s1 ! late ,pr(4 ,newcomb said--
      ,great numb]s ( ! nebul are !re=e 
?\s&s ( times !     dim5sions ( ! e>?'s 
orbit1 & mo/ ( !m are ?\s&s (     times 
! dim5sions ( ! :ole sol> sy/em4 ,t !y  
%\ld be     completely transp>5t ?r\gh  
su* enorm\s dim5sions %[s _!     extreme
 t5uity4 ,7 our sol> sy/em plac$ 9 !    
mid/ ( "o (     !m x is probable t we   
%\ld n be able to f9d any evid5ce (     
its exi/5ce6  ,pr(4 ,p]r9e ?9ks t !     
total numb] ( ! nebul w ultimately be   
f\nd to exce$ a million4#ceb  ,dr4 ,max 
,wolf has discov]$ a numb] ( small nebul
 9 ! regions ne> ,algol & ,nova ,p]sei  
7! great new /> ( #aija74 ,he says1 ,!y 
mo/ly lie 9 two b&s1 & are especially   
num]\s :]e ! two b&s meet1 a region (   
#ab m9utes ( arc squ>e conta9+ no less  
?an #adh ( !m4 ,!y are usually r\nd )   
c5tral cond5sation1 & =m ( ,&rom$a      
nebula4#cec  ,"s small nebul h be5 f\nd 
9 ! vic9ity ( ! globul> clu/]s4 ,!y are 
describ$ by ,pr(4 ,p]r9e z v small & l  
an out ( focus image ( a small />4 ,!y  

appe> to be mo/ num]\s ab\t clu/]s :i*  
are f>!/ f ! galaxy4 ,pr(4 ,p]r9e says1 
,practically all ! small nebul ab\t !   
globul> clu/]s are elliptical or        
circul>4 ,^? l>ge en\gh to %[ /ructure  
are spirals4 ,d\btless ! majority ( ^!  
are spirals4#ced ,?is seems fur!r       
evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! spiral nebul>       
hypo!sis ( ,*amb]l9 & ,m\lton4  ,a great
 photographic nebula 9 ,orion 0 discov]$
 by ,pr(4 ,b>n>d 9 #ahid4 ,9 a draw+ he 
gives ( ! nebula1#cee x =ms a long /reak
 beg9n+ a little s\? ( ,greek3 g        
,orionis 7,bellatrix71 pass+ ?r\gh ! /> 
#ch ,orionis nor? ( #ea & s\? ( #ef &   
#fj ,orionis4 ,!n turn+ s\? x sweeps    
r\nd a little nor? ( ,greek3 k ,orionis2
 !n ov] #bi ,orionis1 & ends a little to
 ! we/ ( ,greek3  ,orionis4 ,!re is an  
outside pat* we/ ( ,rigel4 ,b>n>d ?9ks t
 ! :ole =ms a va/ spiral /ructure2      
probably connect$ ) ! great nebula 9 !  
sword ( ,orion1 :i* x surr\nds4  ,f     
calculations ( ! brightness ( surface   
7intr9sic brightness7 ( sev]al planet>y 

nebul made by ! pres5t writ] 9 ! ye>    
#aije1 he f9ds t ! lum9osity is v small 
comp>$ ) t ( ! moon4 ,! brighte/ ( ^?   
exam9$ 7h #ccfe1 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1   
ne> ! ,s\!rn ,cross7 has a surface      
lum9osity ( only #a_/djj ( t ( !        
moon4#cef ,! great nebul 9 ,orion &     
,&rom$a seem to h /ill small] intr9sic  
brightness4  ,arago says--      ,!      
spaces :i* prec$e or :i* foll[ simple   
nebul1 & a     =tiori gr\ps ( nebul1    
conta9 g5]ally few />s4 ,h]s*el     f\nd
 ?is rule to be inv>iable4 ,?us e "t t1 
dur+ a %ort     int]val1 no /> appe>$1 9
 virtue ( ! diurnal motion1 to place    
itself 9 ! field ( 8 motionless         
telescope1 he 0 accu/om$ to     say to !
 secret>y :o assi/$ him 7,miss ,c>ol9e  
,h]s*el71     ',prep>e to write2 nebul  
are ab\t to arrive4'#ceg  ,comm5t+ on   
?is rem>k ( ,arago1 ! late ,h]b]t ,sp5c]
 says--      ,h[ does ?is fact consi/ ) 
! hypo!sis t nebul are remote           
galaxies8 ,if !re 7 b "o nebula1 x w\ld 
be a curi\s     co9cid5ce 7 ?is "o      

nebula s plac$ 9 ! di/ant regions (     
space z to agree 9 direction ) a />less 
spot 9 our sid]eal     sy/em6 ,if !re 7 
b two nebul1 & bo? 7 s plac$1 !         
co9cid5ce w\ld be excessively /range4   
,:at %all we say on     f9d+ t !y are   
habitually s plac$8 7! la/ five words   
replace "s t are possibly a little too  
/rong74444 ,:5 to !     fact t ! g5]al  
mass ( nebul are anti!tical 9 position  
to     ! g5]al mass ( ! />s1 we add !   
fact t local regions (     nebul are    
regions :]e />s are sc>ce1 & ! fur!r    
fact t     s+le nebul are habitually    
f\nd 9 comp>atively />less spots1       
does n ! pro( ( a physical connection   
become ov]:elm+8#ceh  ,) ref]5ce to !   
small elongat$ nebula discov]$ by ,miss 
,c>ol9e ,h]s*el 9 #aghc ne> ! great     
nebula 9 ,&rom$a1 ,admiral ,smy? says1  
,x lies betwe5 two sets ( />s1 consi/+ (
 f\r ea*1 & ea* dispos$ l ! figure #g1 !
 prec$+ gr\p be+ ! smalle/4#cei  ,speak+
 ( ! nebula ,messi] #c--;a globul> clu/]
 9 ,canes ,v5atici--,admiral ,smy? says1

 ,?is mass is "o ( ^? balls ( compact & 
w$g$ />s ^: laws ( aggregation x is s   
impossible to assign2 b ! rotundity ( ! 
figure gives full indication ( "s g5]al 
attractive bond ( union4#cfj ,! t]ms    
compact & w$g$ are1 h[ev]1 too /rong1 = 
we "k t 9 ! globul> clu/]s ! compon5t   
/>s mu/ be sep>at$ f ea* o!r by millions
 ( miles6  ,pr(4 ,*amb]l9 sugge/s t !   
second>y nebula 7z x is call$7 9 ! great
 spiral 9 ,canes ,v5atici 7,messi] #ea7 
may possibly repres5t ! body :i* collid$
 ) ! o!r 7! *ief nucleus7 9 a graz+     
collision1 & is n[ escap+4 ,he consid]s 
?is second>y body to h be5 a dead sun--t
 is1 a d>k body4#cfa ,?is w\ld be v     
int]e/+ if x c\ld be prov$4 ,b x seems  
to me m probable t ! second>y nucleus is
 simply a l>g] portion ( ! eject$ matt]1
 :i* is n[ be+ gradually deta*$ f ! p>5t
 mass4  ,s*e9] says ! previ\s suspicion 
t ! spiral nebul are /> clu/]s is n[    
rais$ to a c]ta9ty1 & t ! spectrum ( !  
,&rom$a nebula is v simil> to t ( ! sun4
 ,he says !re is a surpris+ agreem5t ( !

 two1 ev5 9 respect to ! relative       
int5sity ( ! sep>ate spectral           
regions4#cfb  ,9 ! dynamical !ory (     
spiral nebul1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,wilczynski  
?9ks t ! age ( a spiral nebula may be   
indicat$ by ! numb] ( its coils2 ^? hav+
 ! l>ge/ numb] ( coils be+ ! olde/1 f ! 
po9t ( view ( evolution4#cfc ,?is seems 
to be v probable4  ,9 ! spectrum ( !    
gase\s nebul1 ! ,f l9e ( hydrog5        
7,h,greek3 b7 is visible1 b n ! ,c l9e  
7,h,greek3 a74 ,! invisibility ( ! ,c   
l9e is expla9$ by ,s*e9] z due to a     
physiological cause1 ! eye be+ less     
s5sitive to t "p ( ! spectrum 9 :i* !   
l9e appe>s ?an to ! "p conta9+ ! ,f     
l9e4#cfd  ,an app>5t p>adox is f\nd 9 ! 
case ( ! gase\s nebul4 ,! undef9$       
outl9es ( ^! objects r5d] any attempt at
 measur+ _! p>allax v difficult1 if n   
impossible4 ,_! di/ance f ! e>? is !re=e
 unkn[n1 & p]haps likely to rema9 s = _m
 ye>s to come4 ,x is possible t !y may n
 be f>!r f u ?an "s ( ! />s visible 9 _!
 vic9ity4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y may lie f>   

beyond !m 9 space4 ,b :atev] _! di/ance 
f ! e>? may be1 x may be easily %[n t _!
 attraction on ! sun is directly        
proportion$ to _! di/ance--t is1 !      
great] _! di/ance1 ! great] !           
attraction6 ,?is is evid5tly a p>adox1 &
 r a />tl+ "o too4 ,b x is nev]!less    
ma!matically true1 & c be easily prov$4 
,=1 _! di/ance be+ unkn[n1 !y may be (  
any dim5sions4 ,!y might be comp>atively
 small bodies relatively ne> ! e>?1 or  
!y may be imm5se masses at a va/ di/ance
 f u4 ,! latt] is1 ( c\rse1 ! m         
probable4 ,9 ei!r case ! app>5t size    
w\ld be ! same4 ,take ! case ( any r\nd 
gase\s nebula4 ,assum+ x to be ( a      
globul> =m1 its real diamet] w dep5d on 
its di/ance f ! e>?--! great] ! di/ance1
 ! great] ! diamet]4 ,n[1 z ! volumes ( 
sph]es v>y z ! cubes ( _! diamet]s1 x   
foll[s t ! volume ( ! nebula w v>y z !  
cube ( its di/ance f ! e>?4 ,z ! mass ( 
an attract+ body dep5ds on its volume & 
d5sity1 its real mass w dep5d on ! cube 
( its di/ance1 ! d5sity 7al?\gh unkn[n7 

be+ a fix$ quantity4 ,if at a c]ta9     
di/ance its mass is m1 at d\ble !       
di/ance 7! app>5t diamet] be+ ! same7 x 
w\ld h a mass ( eight times m 7#h be+ ! 
cube ( #b71 & at treble ! di/ance its   
mass w\ld be #bg m1 & s on1 its app>5t  
size be+ kn[n1 b n its real size4 ,?is  
is obvi\s4 ,n[1 ! attractive p[] ( a    
body v>ies directly z its mass--! great]
 ! mass1 ! great] ! attraction4 ,aga91 !
 attraction v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( !
 di/ance1 accord+ to ! well-kn[n law (  
,newton4 ,h5ce if d be ! unkn[n di/ance 
( ! nebula1 we h its attractive p[] v>y+
 z d#c divid$ by d#b1 or directly z !   
di/ance d4 ,we h !n ! curi\s p>adox t = 
a nebula ^: di/ance f ! e>? is unkn[n1  
its attractive p[] on ! sun 7or e>?7 w  
v>y directly z ! di/ance--! great] !    
di/ance ! great] ! attraction1 &1 (     
c\rse1 conv]sely1 ! small] ! di/ance !  
less ! attractive p[]4 ,?is result seems
 at fir/ sight absurd & incr$ible1 b a  
little consid]ation w %[ t x is q       
correct4 ,consid] a small wisp ( cl\d 9 

our atmosph]e4 ,its mass is almo/       
inf9itesimal & its attractive p[] on !  
e>? practically nil4 ,b a gase\s nebula 
hav+ ! same app>5t size w\ld h an       
enorm\s volume1 &1 al?\gh probably =m$ (
 v t5u\s gas1 its mass w\ld be v great1 
& its attractive p[] consid]able4 ,!    
l>ge app>5t size ( ! ,orion nebula %[s t
 its volume is probably enorm\s1 & z its
 attraction on ! sun is n appreciable1  
its d5sity mu/ be excessively small1    
less ?an ! d5sity ( ! air rema9+ 9 !    
receiv] ( ! be/ air-pump aft] ! air has 
be5 exhau/$4 ,h[ su* a t5u\s gas c %9e z
 x does =ms ano!r p>adox4 ,its light is 
possibly due to "s phosphoresc5t or     
electrical action4  ,! app>5t size ( !  
great nebula 9 ,&rom$a %[s t x mu/ be an
 object ( va/ dim5sions4 ,! ne>e/ /> to 
! e>?1 ,alpha ,c5tauri1 al?\gh probably 
equal to our sun 9 volume1 c]ta9ly does 
n exce$ "o-hundr$? ( a second 9 diamet] 
z se5 f ! e>?4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! ,&rom$a  
nebula we h an object ( consid]able     
app>5t size1 n measur$ by seconds ( arc1

 b %[+ an area ab\t ?ree times great]   
?an t ( ! full moon4 ,! nebula c]ta9ly  
lies 9 ! region ( ! />s--mu* f>!r (f ?an
 ,alpha ,c5tauri--& its great app>5t    
size %[s t x mu/ be ( /up5d\s dim5sions4
 ,a mom5t's consid]ation w %[ t :atev]  
its di/ance may be1 ! f>!r x is f ! e>? 
! l>g] x mu/ be 9 actual size4 ,! sun is
 va/ly l>g] ?an ! moon1 b its app>5t    
size is ab\t ! same ow+ to its great]   
di/ance4 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el ?\ght !  
,&rom$a nebula to be und\bt$ly ! ne>e/ (
 all ! great nebul1 & he e/imat$ its    
di/ance at #bjjj times ! di/ance (      
,sirius4 ,?is w\ld n1 h[ev]1 indicate a 
relatively ne> object1 z x w\ld imply a 
light j\rney ( ov] #ag1jjj ye>s6 7,!    
di/ance ( ,sirius is ab\t #hh light     
ye>s47  ,x has be5 g5]ally suppos$ t ?is
 great nebula lies at a va/ di/ance f ! 
e>?1 possibly f> beyond mo/ ( ! />s se5 
9 ! same region ( ! sky2 b p]haps n q s 
f> z ,h]s*el's e/imate w\ld imply4      
,rec5tly1 h[ev]1 ,pr(4 ,bohl9 (         
,/ockholm has f\nd f ?ree s]ies (       

measures made 9 rec5t ye>s a p>allax (  
#jag4cfe  ,?is indicates a di/ance (    
#a1bac1ccj times ! sun's di/ance f !    
e>?1 & a light j\rney ( ab\t #ai ye>s4  
,?is w\ld make ! di/ance ( ! nebula m   
?an twice ! di/ance ( ,sirius1 ab\t f\r 
times ! di/ance ( ,greek3 a ,c5tauri1 b 
less ?an t ( ,capella4  ,pr(4 ,bohl9's  
result is r unexpect$1 & w require      
confirmation be=e x c be accept$4 ,b x w
 be int]e/+ to inquire :at ?is p>allax  
implies z to ! real dim5sions & probable
 mass ( ?is va/ nebula4 ,! extreme l5g? 
( ! nebula may be tak5 to repres5t its  
diamet] consid]$ z circul>4 ,=1 al?\gh a
 circle se5 obliquely is always =e%ort5$
 into an ellipse1 /ill ! long] axis ( ! 
ellipse w always repres5t ! real diamet]
 ( ! circle4 ,?is may be se5 by hold+ a 
p5ny at v>i\s angles to ! eye4 ,n[1 ,dr4
 ,rob]ts f\nd t ! app>5t l5g? ( !       
,&rom$a nebula is #b-a_/c degrees1 or   
#hdjj seconds ( arc4 ,! diamet] 9       
seconds divid$ by ! p>allax w give !    
real diamet] ( ! nebula 9 t]ms ( ! sun's

 di/ance f ! e>? tak5 z unity4 ,n[1     
#hdjj divid$ by #jag gives ne>ly        
#ej1jjj1 t is1 ! real diamet] ( !       
,&rom$a nebula w\ld be--on ,bohl9's     
p>allax--ne>ly #ej1jjj times ! sun's    
di/ance f ! e>?4 ,z light takes ab\t    
#ejj seconds to come f ! sun to ! e>?1 !
 above figures imply t light w\ld take  
ab\t #bij days1 or ov] #i mon?s to cross
 ! diamet] ( ?is va/ nebula4  ,elem5t>y 
geometrical consid]ations w %[ t if !   
,&rom$a nebula lies at a great] di/ance 
f ! e>? ?an t indicat$ by ,bohl9's      
p>allax1 its real diamet]1 & !re=e its  
volume & mass1 w be great]4 ,if1 !re=e1 
we assume ! p>allax f\nd by ,bohl91 we  
%all probably f9d a m9imum value = !    
size & mass ( ?is m>vell\s object4      
,among ,dr4 ,rob]ts' photographs (      
spiral nebul 7& ! ,&rom$a nebula is     
und\bt$ly a spiral7 !re are "s :i* are  
app>5tly se5 ne>ly edgeways1 & %[ t ^!  
nebul are v ?9 9 proportion to _!       
diamet]4 ,f a consid]ation ( ^!         
photographs we may1 ,i ?9k1 assume a    

?ickness ( ab\t "o-hundr$? ( ! diamet]4 
,?is w\ld give a ?ickness = ! ,&rom$a   
nebul ( ab\t #ejj times ! sun's di/ance 
f ! e>?4 ,?is great ?ickness w give "s  
idea ( ! va/ proportions ( ! object we  
are deal+ )4 ,! size ( ! :ole sol>      
sy/em--l>ge z x is--is small 9          
comp>ison4 ,! diamet] & ?ickness f\nd   
above c easily be conv]t$ into miles1 & 
f ^! dim5sions ! actual volume ( !      
nebula c be comp>$ ) t ( ! sun4 ,x is   
m]ely a "q ( simple m5suration1 & no    
problem ( high ma!matics is involv$4    
,mak+ ! necess>y calculations1 ,i f9d t 
! volume ( ! ,&rom$a nebula w\ld be ab\t
 #bcb trillion times 7#bcb  #ajah7 !    
sun's volume6 ,n[1 assum+ t ! nebul\s   
matt] fills only "o-half ( ! app>5t     
volume ( ! nebula 7all[+ = spaces betwe5
 ! spiral bran*es71 we h ! volume  #aaf 
#ajah4 ,if ! nebula _h ! same d5sity z !
 sun1 ?is w\ld be its mass 9 t]ms ( !   
sun's mass tak5 z unity1 a mass probably
 exce$+ ! comb9$ mass ( all ! />s       
visible 9 ! l>ge/ telescopes6 ,b ?is    

assumption is1 ( c\rse1 inadmissible1 z 
! sun is evid5tly q opaque1 :]eas !     
nebula is1 p>tially at lea/1 m or less  
transp>5t4 ,let u suppose t ! nebula has
 a mean d5sity equal to t ( atmosph]ic  
air4 ,z wat] is ab\t #ggc times heavi]  
?an air1 & ! sun's d5sity is #ad 7wat]  
#a7 we h ! mass ( ! nebula equal to #aaf
  #ajah divid$ by #ggc  #ad1 or ab\t    
#ajae times ! sun's mass1 :i* is /ill   
mu* great] ?an ! probable comb9$ mass ( 
all ! visible />s4 ,z x seems           
unreasonable to suppose t ! mass ( an   
individual memb] ( our sid]eal sy/em    
%\ld exce$ ! comb9$ mass ( ! rema9d] ( !
 sy/em1 we seem compell$ to fur!r r$uce 
! d5sity ( ! ,&rom$a nebula4 ,let u     
assume a mean d5sity (1 say1 a million? 
( hydrog5 gas 7a suffici5tly l[ e/imate7
 :i* is ab\t #addd times light] ?an air1
 & we obta9 a mass ( ab\t #h  #ajg or   
#hj million times ! mass ( ! sun1 :i* is
 /ill an enorm\s mass4  ,z possibly ,i  
may h assum$ too great a ?ickness = !   
nebula1 let u take a ?ickness ( "o-t5? (

 t us$ above1 or "o ?\s&? ( ! l5g? ( !  
nebula4 ,?is gives a mass ( #h million  
times ! sun's mass4 ,?is seems a m      
probable mass if ! nebula is--z ,bohl9's
 p>allax implies--a memb] ( our sid]eal 
sy/em4  ,if we assume a p>allax ( say   
#jja--or "o-hundr$? ( a second (        
arc--:i* w\ld /ill keep ! nebula )9 !   
b\nds ( our sid]eal sy/em--we h !       
dim5sions ( ! nebula increas$ #ag times1
 & h5ce its mass ne>ly #ejjj times      
great] 7#agc7 ?an t f\nd above4 ,! mass 
w\ld !n be #dj1jjj million times ! sun's
 mass6 ,?is result seems highly         
improbable1 = ev5 ?is small p>allax w\ld
 imply a light j\rney ( only #cbf ye>s1 
:]eas ! di/ance ( ! ,milky ,way has be5 
e/imat$ by ,pr(4 ,newcomb at ab\t #cjjj 
ye>s' j\rney = light4  ,9 ,dr4 ,rob]ts' 
photograph _m small />s are se5 scatt]$ 
ov] ! surface ( ! nebula2 b ^! d n seem 
to be q s num]\s z 9 ! surr\nd+ sky4 ,if
 ! nebula lies ne>] to u ?an ! fa9t] />s
 visible on ! photograph1 "s ( !m may be
 obscur$ by ! d5s] portions ( ! nebula2 

"s may be visible ?r\gh ! op5+s betwe5 !
 spiral bran*es2 :ile o!rs may be ne>]  
to u & simply project$ on ! nebula4  ,to
 add to ! difficulty ( solv+ ?is        
cele/ial problem1 ! spectroscope %[s t !
 ,&rom$a nebula is n gase\s4 ,! spectrum
 is1 accord+ to ,s*e9]1 v simil> to t ( 
! sun1 & !re is a surpris+ agreem5t ( ! 
two1 ev5 9 respect to ! relative        
int5sities ( ! sep>ate spectral         
regions4#cff ,he ?9ks t ! great] "p ( ! 
/>s compris+ ! nucleus ( ! nebula belong
 to ! second spectral class 7sol>71 & t 
! nebula is n[ 9 an advanc$ /age (      
developm5t4 ,no trace ( bright nebul>   
l9es are pres5t1 s t ! int]/ell> space 9
 ! ,&rom$a nebula1 j z 9 our /ell>      
sy/em1 is n appreciably occupi$ by      
gase\s matt]4#cff ,he sugge/s t ! inn]  
"p ( ! nebula ! nucleus corresponds to !
 complex ( ^? />s :i* d n belong to !   
,milky ,way1 :ile ! latt] corresponds to
 ! spirals ( ! ,&rom$a nebula4#cff ,on  
?is view ( ! matt] we may suppose t !   
compon5t p>ticles are small bodies      

widely sep>at$1 & 9 ?is way ! mean      
d5sity ( ! ,&rom$a nebula may be v small
 inde$4 ,!y _c be l>ge bodies1 z ! l>ge/
 telescopes h fail$ to resolve ! nebula 
into />s1 & photographs %[ no sign (    
resolution4  ,x has (t5 be5 sugge/$1 &  
sometimes def9itely /at$1 t ! ,&rom$a   
nebula may possibly be an ext]nal       
univ]se1 t is an univ]se entirely       
outside our sid]eal sy/em1 & comp>able )
 x 9 size4 ,let u exam9e ! probability (
 su* hypo!sis4 ,assum+ t ! nebula has ! 
same diamet] z ! ,milky ,way1 or ab\t   
#fjjj light ye>s1 z e/imat$ by ,pr(4    
,newcomb1 ,i f9d t its di/ance f ! e>?  
w\ld be ab\t #aej1jjj light ye>s4 ,z ?is
 is ab\t #hjjj times ! di/ance indicat$ 
by ,bohl9's p>allax1 its dim5sions w\ld 
be #hjjj times z great1 & h5ce its      
volume & mass w\ld be #hjjj cub$1 or    
#eab1jjj1jjj1jjj times great] ?an t f\nd
 above4 ,t is1 ab\t #d trillion 7#d     
#ajah7 times ! sun's mass6 ,z ?is appe>s
 an incr$ibly l>ge mass to be compress$ 
into a volume ev5 s l>ge z t ( our      

sid]eal sy/em1 we seem compell$ to      
reject ! hypo!sis t ! nebula repres5ts  
an ext]nal univ]se4 ,! sun plac$ at !   
di/ance correspond+ to #aej1jjj light   
ye>s w\ld1 ,i f9d1 %9e z a /> ( less ?an
 ! #bcrd magnitude1 a magnitude :i* w\ld
 be invisible 9 ! l>ge/ telescope t man 
c\ld ev] con/ruct4 ,b ! comb9$ light (  
#d trillion ( />s ( ev5 ! #bcrd         
magnitude w\ld be equal to "o ( m9us    
#bce magnitude1 t is1 #bc-a_/b magnitude
 bright] ?an ! z]o magnitude1 or n v mu*
 inf]ior to ! sun 9 brightness4 ,z !    
,&rom$a nebula %9es only z a /> ( ab\t !
 #e? magnitude ! hypo!sis ( an ext]nal  
univ]se seems to be unt5able4  ,x is    
evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ! mass ( ! ,&rom$a     
nebula mu/ be enorm\s2 & if x belongs to
 our sid]eal sy/em1 & if ! o!r great    
nebul h simil> masses1 x seems q        
possible t ! mass ( ! visible univ]se   
may mu* exce$ t ( ! visible />s1 & may  
be equal to #ajjj million times ! sun's 
mass--z suppos$ by ! late ,"l ,kelv9--or
 ev5 mu* m4  ,) ref]5ce to ! small />   

:i* sudd5ly blaz$ out ne> ! nucleus ( ! 
,&rom$a nebula 9 ,augu/1 #ahhe1 ,pr(4   
,seelig] has inve/igat$ ! decrease 9 !  
light ( ! /> on ! hypo!sis t x 0 a cool+
 body :i* _h sudd5ly be5 rais$ to an    
int5se heat by ! %ock ( a collision1 &  
f9ds a fair agreem5t betwe5 !ory &      
obs]vation4 ,pr(4 ,auw]s po9ts out !    
simil>ity betwe5 ?is outbur/ & t ( !    
tempor>y /> ( #ahfj1 :i* appe>$ 9 !     
clu/] #hj ,messi]1 & he ?9ks x v        
probable t bo? ph5om5a 7 due to physical
 *anges 9 ! nebul 9 :i* !y appe>$4  ,!  
appe>ance ( ?is tempor>y /> 9 ! ,&rom$a 
nebula seems to af=d fur!r evid5ce aga9/
 ! hypo!sis ( ! nebula be+ an ext]nal   
univ]se4 ,=1 z ,i h %[n above1 our sun1 
if plac$ at a di/ance ( #aej1jjj light  
ye>s1 w\ld %9e only z a /> ( ! #bcrd    
magnitude1 or ov] #ae magnitudes fa9t]  
?an ! tempor>y />4 ,?is w\ld imply t !  
/> %one ) a brightness ( ov] a million  
times t ( ! sun1 & w\ld !re=e indicate a
 body ( enorm\s size4 ,b ! rapid fad+ ( 
its light w\ld1 on ! contr>y1 imply a   

body ( comp>atively small dim5sions4 ,we
 mu/1 !re=e1 conclude t ! nebula1 :atev]
 x may be1 is n an ext]nal univ]se1 b   
=ms a memb] ( our own sid]eal sy/em4  ,9
 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's catalogue ( ,nebul
 & ,clu/]s ( ,/>s1 publi%$ 9 #ahcc1 9 ! 
,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal 
,society1 !re are _m curi\s objects     
m5tion$4 ,( ^! ,i h select$ ! foll[+3-- 
,no4 #dif is describ$ z a sup]b clu/]   
:i* fills ! :ole field2 />s #i1 #aj 444 
#ac magnitude & none bel[1 b ! :ole     
gr\nd ( ! sky on :i* x /&s is s+ul>ly   
dott$ ov] ) inf9itely m9ute po9ts4 ,?is 
is ,no4 #bb ( ,sir ,william ,h]s*el's   
#f? class1 & w be f\nd ab\t #c degrees  
s\? & a little ea/ ( ! triple /> #bi    
,monoc]otis4  ,no4 #fej4 ,?is object    
lies ab\t #c degrees nor? ( ! /> ,greek3
 m ,leonis1 ! mo/ nor!rn ( ! bright />s 
9 ! well-kn[n ,sickle1 & is ?us describ$
 by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el3 ,a /> #ab?      
magnitude ) an extremely fa9t nebul\s   
atmosph]e ab\t #aj to #ab4 ,x is betwe5 
a /> #h-i magnitude nor? prec$+1 & "o   

#aj? magnitude s\? foll[+1 nei!r ( :i*  
are s affect$4 ,a curi\s object4  ,no4  
#aeeh4 ,messi] #ec4 ,a little nor?-ea/ (
 ! /> ,greek3 a ,com ,b]5ices4 ,describ$
 z a mo/ beautiful highly compress$     
clu/]4 ,/>s v small1 #ab? 444 #bj?      
magnitude1 ) scatt]$ />s to a           
consid]able di/ance2 irregul>ly r\nd1 b 
n globul>4 ,comes up to a blaze 9 !     
c5tre2 indicat+ a r\nd mass ( pretty    
equable d5sity4 ,extremely compress$4 ,a
 mo/ beautiful object4 ,a mass (        
close-w$g$ />s #e' 9 diamet]2 a few #ab?
 magnitude1 ! re/ ( ! smalle/ size &    
innum]able4 ,webb says1 ,n v bright )   
#c-g_/aj in*es2 beautiful ) #i in*es4   
,?is %\ld be a magnific5t object ) a v  
l>ge telescope1 l ! ,lick or ,y]kes4    
,no4 #bjah4 ,a m ?an usually cond5s$    
portion ( ! enorm\s clu/] ( ! ,milky    
,way4 ,! field has #bjj or #cjj />s 9 x 
at once4 ,?is lies ab\t #b s\?-we/ ( !  
/> #f ,aquil1 :i* is ne> ! nor!rn edge (
 ! bright spot ( ,milky ,way light 9    
,sobieski's ,%ield--"o ( ! brighte/     

spots 9 ! sky4  ,no4 #bjic4 ,a mo/      
wond]ful ph5om5on4 ,a v l>ge space #bj' 
or #cj' broad 9 ,pol> ,di/ance1 & #am or
 #bm 9 ,"r ,asc5sion1 full ( nebula &   
/>s mix$4 ,! nebula is decid$ly atta*$  
to ! />s1 & is z decid$ly n /ell>4 ,x   
=ms irregul> lace-"w m>k$ out by />s1 b 
"s p>ts are decid$ly nebul\s1 :]e9 no />
 c be se54 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el gives a   
figure ( ?is curi\s spot1 :i* he says   
repres5ts its g5]al "*1 b n ! m9ute     
details ( ?is object1 :i* w\ld be       
extremely difficult to give ) any degree
 ( fidelity4 ,x lies ab\t #c degrees we/
 ( ! bright /> ,greek3 z ,cygni4  ,among
 ! num]\s curi\s objects obs]v$ by ,sir 
,john ,h]s*el dur+ 8 visit to ! ,cape ( 
,good ,hope1 ! foll[+ may be m5tion$3-- 
h #becd 7,h iv4 #gg74 ,ne> ,greek3 t#d  
,eridani4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el says1      
,atta*$ cometically to a #i? magnitude  
/> :i* =ms its head4 ,x is an exact     
resemblance to ,halley's comet z se5 9 a
 night glass4444 ,a complete telescopic 
comet2 a p]fect m9iature ( ,halley's    

comet1 only ! tail is r broad] 9        
proportion4#cfg  h #cjge4 ,betwe5       
,greek3 g ,monoc]otis & ,greek3 g ,canis
 ,majoris4 ,a v s+ul> nebula1 & mu* l ! 
pr(ile ( a bu/ 7head1 neck1 & %\ld]s7 or
 a silh\ette portrait1 v l>ge1 pretty   
well def9$1 light ne>ly uni=m1 ab\t #ab'
 diamet]4 ,9 a cr[d$ field ( ,milky ,way
 />s1 _m ( :i* are project$ on x4#cfh  h
 #ccae 7,dunlop #cbc74 ,9 ! ,milky ,way2
 ab\t #c ea/ ( ! ,eta ,args nebula4 ,sir
 ,john ,h]s*el says1 ,a glori\s clu/] ( 
imm5se magnitude1 be+ at lea/ #b fields 
9 ext5t e way4 ,! />s are #h1 #i1 #aj1 &
 #aa? magnitudes1 b *iefly #aj?         
magnitude1 ( :i* !re mu/ be at lea/     
#bjj4 ,x is ! mo/ brilliant object ( !  
k9d ,i h ev] se5 444 has sev]al elegant 
d\ble />s1 & _m orange-col\r$ />s4#cfi  
,?is %\ld =m a f9e object 9 ev5 a       
comp>atively small telescope1 & may be  
recomm5d$ to obs]v]s 9 ! s\!rn          
hemisph]e4 ,a telescope ( #c-;in*es     
ap]ture %\ld %[ x well4  ,among         
a/ronomical curiosities may be c\nt$    

clu/]s )9 clu/]s4 ,a clu/] 9 ,gem9i     
7,n4,g4,c4 #bcca7 has a small gr\p ( six
 or sev5 />s close toge!r & well isolat$
 f ! re/4  ,"l ,rosse describes ,no4    
#deaa ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's ,g5]al     
,catalogue ( ,nebul & ,clu/]s 7,phil4   
,trans41 #ahfd7 z a mo/ gorge\s clu/]1  
/>s #ab-ae magnitude1 full ( holes4#cgj 
,8 sket* ( ?is clu/] %[s #c r+s ( />s 9 
a l9e1 ea* r+ t\*+ ! next on ! outside4 
,sir ,john ,h]s*el describ$ x z ,clu/]2 
v l>ge2 v ri*2 />s #aa-ae magnitude     
7,h>d+1 #ahbg71 b says no?+ ab\t ! r+s4 
,?is clu/] lies ab\t #e degrees s\? (   
,greek3 d ,cygni4  ,dr4 ,see1 obs]v+ ) !
 l>ge telescope ( ! ,l[ell ,obs]vatory1 
f\nd t :5 ! sky is cle>1 ! moon abs5t1 &
 ! see+ p]fect1 ! sky appe>$ 9 pat*es to
 be ( a br[ni% col\r1 & sugge/s t ?is   
col\r owes its exi/5ce to imm5se        
cosmical cl\ds1 :i* are %9+ by          
excessively feeble light6 ,dr4 ,see f\nd
 t ^! br[n pat*es seem to clu/] 9 c]ta9 
regions ( ! ,milky ,way4#cga  ,f a      
comp>ison ( ,tr\velot's draw+ ( ! small 

elongat$ nebula ne> ! great nebula 9    
,&rom$a ) rec5t photographs1 ,mr4 ,ea/on
 inf]s t ?is small nebula has probably  
rotat$ ?r\gh an angle ( ab\t #ae 9 #be  
ye>s4 ,an exam9ation ,i h made (        
photographs tak5 9 diff]5t ye>s seems to
 me to confirm ?is suspicion1 :i*1 if   
true1 is evid5tly a mo/ int]e/+         
ph5om5on4  ,dr4 ,max ,wolf ( ,heidelb]g 
f9ds1 by spectrum photography1 t !      
well-kn[n r+ nebula 9 ,lyra consi/s (   
f\r r+s compos$ ( f\r diff]5t gases4    
,call+ ! inn] r+ ,a1 ! next ,b1 ! next  
,c1 & ! out] ,d1 he f9ds t ,a is !      
smalle/ r+1 & is compos$ ( an unkn[n    
gas2 ! next l>ge/1 ,b1 is compos$ (     
hydrog5 gas2 ! next1 ,c1 consi/s (      
helium gas2 & ! out] & l>ge/ r+1 ,d1 is 
compos$--l ,a--( an unkn[n gas4 ,z !    
molecul> weight ( hydrog5 is #bjaf1 & t 
( helium is #cif1 ,pr(4 ,bohuslav       
,braun] sugge/s t ! molecul> weight ( ! 
gas compos+ ! inn] r+ ,a is small] ?an t
 ( hydrog51 & ! molecul> weight ( ! gas 
=m+ ! out] r+ ,d is great] ?an t (      

helium4 ,he also sugge/s t ! gas ( r+ ,a
 may possibly be id5tical ) ! coronium (
 ! sol> corona1 = :i* ,m5delief f\nd a  
hypo!tical atomic & molecul> weight (   
#jd4cgb  ,) ref]5ce to ! nebul> hypo!sis
 ( ,laplace1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace      
argues t if !re exi/s a sun 9 a /ate (  
expansion 9 :i* our sun 0 :5 x ext5d$ to
 ! orbit ( ,neptune1 x w\ld1 ev5 ) a    
p>allax ( #a_/fj? ( a second1 %[ a disc 
( half a second1 :i* c\ld be se5 ) !    
,lick telescope4 ,my reply to ?is       
objection is1 t ) su* an expansion !re  
w\ld probably be v little intr9sic      
brightness1 & if lum9\s en\gh to be     
visible ! spectrum w\ld be t ( a gase\s 
nebula1 & no kn[n /> gives su* a        
spectrum4 ,b "s planet>y nebul look l   
small />s1 & ) high p[]s on l>ge        
telescopes w\ld probably %[ a disc4 ,on 
^! consid]ations1 ,dr4 ,wallace's       
objection does n seem to be valid4  ,x  
is usually /at$ 9 popul> works on       
a/ronomy t ! spectra ( gase\s nebul %[  
only ?ree or f\r bright l9es on a fa9t  

cont9u\s backgr\nd4 ,b ?is is q         
incorrect4 ,no less ?an =ty bright l9es 
h be5 se5 & measur$ 9 ! spectra ( gase\s
 nebul4#cgc ,?is includes #b l9es (     
nebulium1 #aa ( hydrog51 #e ( helium1 #a
 ( oxyg5 7871 #c ( nitrog5 7871 #a (    
silicon 7871 & #ag ( an unkn[n sub/ance4
 ,9 ! great nebul 9 ,orion #cj bright   
l9es h be5 photograph$4#cgd  ,d',arre/  
f\nd t gase\s nebul are r>ely met )     
outside ! ,milky ,way1 & nev] at a      
consid]able di/ance f x4#cge  ,mr4 ,a4  
,e4 ,fa? ?9ks t no spiral nebula        
inve/igat$ has a truly cont9u\s         
spectrum4 ,he f9ds t s feeble is !      
int5sity ( ! light ( ! spiral nebul t1  
:ile a spectrogram ( ,arcturus c be     
secur$ ) ! ,mills spectrograph 9 less   
?an two m9utes1 an exposure ( ab\t #ejj 
h\rs w\ld be requir$ = ! great nebula 9 
,&rom$a1 :i* is ( ! same spectral       
type4#cgf ,mr4 ,fa? ?9ks t 9 ! case ( ! 
,&rom$a nebula1 ! /> clu/] !ory seems to
 be ! only "o t c at all adequately     
expla9 ! spectrum obta9$4#cgg  ,pr(4    

,b>n>d f9ds t ! great clu/] 9 ,h]cules  
7,messi] #ac7 is compos$ ( />s ( diff]5t
 spectral types4 ,?is result 0 confirm$ 
by ,mr4 ,fa?4#cgh  ,f obs]vations ) !   
great #dj-;in* telescope ( ! ,y]kes     
,obs]vatory 7,u4,s4,a471 ,pr(4 ,b>n>d   
f9ds t ! nucleus ( ! planet>y nebula ,h4
 iv4 #ah 9 ,&rom$a is v>iable to ! ext5t
 ( at lea/ #c magnitudes4 ,at its       
brighte/ x is ab\t ! #ab? magnitude2 & !
 p]iod seems to be ab\t #bh days4 ,b>n>d
 says1 ,i ?9k ?is is ! fir/ case 9 :i* !
 nucleus ( a planet>y or o!r nebula has 
be5 %[n to be c]ta9ly v>iable4 ,! normal
 condition seems to be fa9t--! nucleus  
rema9+ bright = a few days only4 ,9 an  
ord9>y telescope x looks l a small r\nd 
disc ( a blui% gre5 col\r4 ,he e/imat$ !
 brightness ( ! nebula z t ( a /> ( #hb 
magnitude4#cgi ,ev5 9 a telescope ( #d  
in*es ap]ture1 ?is w\ld be a fairly     
bright object4 ,x lies ab\t #c-a_/b     
degrees s\?-we/ ( ! /> ,greek3 i ,&rom$4
  ,! s-call$ globul> clu/]s usually     
include />s ( diff]5t brightness2       

comp>atively bright telescopic />s ( !  
#aj? to #ac? magnitude ) fa9t />s ( !   
#ae? to #ag? magnitude4 ,pr(4 ,p]r9e ( !
 ,lick ,obs]vatory f9ds t 7a7 ! division
 ( ! />s 9 globul> clu/]s into gr\ps1   
diff]+ widely 9 brightness1 is          
*>act]i/ic ( ^! objects2 7b7 ! globul>  
clu/]s are devoid ( true nebulosity2 &  
7c7 />s fa9t] ?an #ae? magnitude        
pr$om9ate 9 ! ,milky ,way & globul>     
clu/]s1 b else:]e are relatively sc>ce4 
,he f\nd t exposures ( "o h\r or        
!reab\ts %[$ z _m />s z exposures f\r to
 six times z long2 ! only effect ( !    
long] exposures be+ 9 ! matt] ( d5sity4 
,?is la/ result confirms ! late ,dr4    
,rob]ts' conclusions4 ,p]r9e f9ds t =   
clu/]s 9 ! ,milky ,way1 ! fa9t />s 7#ae?
 to #ag? magnitude7 are ab\t z num]\s 9 
proportion to ! bright />s 7#aj? to #ac?
 magnitude7 z 9 ! globul> clu/]s        
!mselves4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 n ! case )    
globul> clu/]s at a di/ance f ! ,milky  
,way4 ,9 ^! latt] clu/]s he f\nd t 9 !  
regions outside ! limits ( ! clu/] !re  

are usually v few fa9t />s1 h>dly m ?an 
"o-f\r? or "o-t5? z _m z !re are bright 
/>s2 & he ?9ks t ?is paucity ( fa9t />s 
9 ! vic9ity ( ^! clu/]s gives rise to ! 
suspicion t all regions at a di/ance f !
 ,galaxy may be almo/ devoid ( ^! v fa9t
 />s4 ,! late ,pr(4 ,keel]'s s]ies (    
nebul> photographs 9 or ne> ! ,milky    
,way t5d to confirm ! above conclusions4
 ,p]r9e f9ds ! nor!rnmo/ region ( !     
,milky ,way to be almo/1 if n entirely1 
devoid ( globul> clu/]s4#chj  ,accord+  
to ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 ! sublimity ( !  
spectacle af=d$ by ,"l ,rosse's great   
telescope ( #f feet 9 diamet] ( "s ( !  
l>g] globul> & o!r clu/]s is decl>$ by  
all :o h witness$ x1 to be su* t no     
words c express4#cha  ,9 8 address to ! 
,briti% ,association at ,leice/] 9      
#aijg1 ,sir ,david ,gill said--         
,evid5ce ^u evid5ce has accumulat$ to %[
 t nebul consi/ (     ! matt] out ( :i* 
/>s h be5 & are be+ evolv$4444 ,!       
fact ( su* an evolution ) ! evid5ce be=e
 u1 c h>dly be     d\bt$4 ,i mo/ fully  

believe t1 :5 ! modifications (         
t]re/rial spectra "u suffici5tly v>i$   
conditions (     temp]ature1 pressure1 &
 environm5t1 h be5 fur!r /udi$1     ?is 
connection w be greatly /r5g!n$4        
,,*apt] ,,xviii  ,hi/orical   ,! gr\p+ (
 ! />s into con/ellations is ( great    
antiquity4 ,! exact date ( _! =mation is
 n exactly kn[n1 b an approximate result
 may be arriv$ at f ! foll[+            
consid]ations4 ,on ! cele/ial sph]es1 or
 globes1 us$ by ! anci5t a/ronom]s1 a   
portion ( ! s\!rn heav5s ( a r\ghly     
circul> =m surr\nd+ ! ,s\? ,pole 0 left 
blank4 ,?is space presumably conta9$ !  
/>s 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e :i* !y c\ld n   
see f _! nor!rn /ations4 ,n[1 ! c5tre ( 
?is circul> blank space mo/ probably    
co9cid$ ) ! ,s\? ,pole ( ! heav5s at !  
"t :5 ! con/ellations 7 fir/ =m$4 ,ow+  
to ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes ?is c5tre
 has n[ mov$ away f ! ,s\? ,pole to a   
consid]able di/ance4 ,x c be easily     
comput$ at :at p]iod ?is c5tre co9cid$ )
 ! ,s\? ,pole1 & calculations %[ t ?is 0

 ! case ab\t #bgjj ,b4,c4 ,! position ( 
?is circle also indicates t !           
con/ellations 7 =m$ at a place betwe5   
#cf & #dj nor? latitude1 & !re=e        
probably some:]e 9 ,asia ,m9or nor? (   
,mesopotamia4 ,aga91 ! mo/ anci5t       
obs]vations ref] to ,taurus z !         
equ9oxial con/ellation4 ,virgil says--  
,c&idus auratis ap]it cum cornibus annum
 ,taurus4#chb  ,?is w\ld indicate a date
 ab\t #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,!re is no tradition1
 h[ev]1 t ! con/ellation ,gem9i 0 ev]   
se5 to occupy ?is position1 s t #cjjj   
,b4,c4 seems to be ! e>lie/ date        
admissible4#chc  ,pr(4 ,sayce ?9ks t !  
signs ( ! ,zodiac _h _! orig9 9 ! pla9s 
( ,mesopotamia 9 ! tw5tie? or tw5ty-?ird
 c5tury ,b4,c41 & ,br[n gives ! probable
 date z #bjhd ,b4,c4#chd  ,accord+ to   
,s5eca1 ! /udy ( a/ronomy among !       
,greeks dates back to ab\t #adjj ,b4,c42
 & ! anci5t con/ellations 7 already     
classical 9 ! "t ( ,eudoxus 9 ! f\r?    
c5tury ,b4,c4 ,eudoxus 7#djh-cee ,b4,c47
 obs]v$ ! positions ( =ty-sev5 />s      

visible 9 ,greece1 ?us =m+ ! mo/ anci5t 
/> catalogue :i* has be5 pres]v$4 ,he 0 
a son ( ,es*9us1 & a pupil ( ,ar*ytas & 
probably ,plato4  ,! "w ( ,eudoxus 0 put
 into v]se by ! poet ,aratus 7?ird      
c5tury ,b4,c474 ,?is poem describes all 
! old con/ellations n[ kn[n1 except     
,libra1 ! ,balance1 :i* 0 at t "t       
includ$ 9 ! ,claws ( ! ,scorpion4 ,ab\t 
,b4,c4 #ej1 ! ,romans *ang$ ! ,claws1 or
 ,*el1 into ,libra4 ,curi\s to say1     
,aratus /ates t ! con/ellation ,lyra    
conta9$ no bright />6#che ,:]eas its    
pr9cipal />1 ,vega1 is n[ "o ( !        
brighte/ />s 9 ! heav5s6  ,) ref]5ce to 
! orig9 ( ! con/ellations1 ,aratus      
says--                      ,"s m5 (    
yore   ,a nom5clature ?\ght ( & devis$  
,& =ms suffici5t f\nd4  ,?is %[s t ev5 9
 ! "t ( ,aratus ! con/ellations 7 (     
great antiquity4  ,br[n says--          
,writ]s h (t5 told u1 speak+ only f !   
dep?s ( _!     ignorance1 h[ ',*aldean' 
%eph]ds 7 wont to gaze at ! brilliant   
nocturnal sky1 & to imag9e t su* & su*  

/>s resemble ?is     or t figure4 ,b all
 ?is is m]ely ! old ef=t to make capital
     out ( nesci5ce1 & ! />s are be=e   
our eyes to prove !     contr>y4 ,hav+  
already c]ta9 fix$ ideas & figures 9 8  
m9d1     ! con/ellation-=m]1 :5 he came 
to 8 task1 appli$ 8     figures to ! />s
 & ! />s to 8 figures z h>moni\sly z    
possible4#chf ,?us e4g4 he arrang$ ! />s
 ( ,&rom$a into     ! repres5tation ( a 
*a9$ lady1 n because !y naturally       
rem9d$ him 7or anybody else7 ( su* a    
figure1 b because he     desir$ to      
express t idea4  ,a co9 ( ,manius       
,aquillus1 ,b4,c4 #id1 %[s f\r />s 9    
,aquila1 & seems to be ! olde/          
repres5tation extant ( a /> gr\p4 ,on a 
co9 ( ,b4,c4 #dc1 ,dr4 ,v5contre f\nd   
five />s1 "o ( :i* 0 mu* l>g] ?an !     
o!rs1 & concludes t x repres5ts !       
,hyades 79 ,taurus74 ,he attributes !   
co9 to ,p4 ,clodius ,turr9us1 :o        
probably us$ ! con/ellation ,taurus or  
,taur9us z a phonetic ref]5ce to 8      
surname4 ,a co9 /ruck by ,l4 ,lucretius 

,trio 9 #gd ,b4,c41 %[s ! sev5 />s ( !  
,pl\gh1 or z ! anci5ts call$ !m ,septem 
,triones4 ,"h we h an allusion to ! "n (
 ! magi/rate ,trio4#chg  ,9 a "w publi%$
 9 ,b]ne 9 #agfj1 ,s*midt cont5ds t !   
anci5t ,egyptians gave to !             
con/ellations ( ! ,zodiac ! names ( _!  
div9ities1 & express$ !m by ! signs :i* 
7 us$ 9 _! hi]oglyphics4#chh  ,hesiod   
m5tions ,orion1 ! ,pleiades1 ,sirius1   
,aldeb>an1 & ,arcturus2 & ,hom] ref]s to
 ,orion1 ,arcturus1 ! ,pleiades1 !      
,hyades1 ! ,great ,be> 7"u ! "n (       
,amaxa1 ! ,*>iot71 & ! tail ( ! ,little 
,be>1 or ,cynosura4  ,hipp>*us call$ !  
con/ellations ,a/]isms 7,greek3         
a/]ismos71 ,ari/otle & ,hyg9us ,greek3  
,somata 7bodies71 & ,ptolemy ,greek3    
,s*mata 7figures74 ,by "s !y 7 call$    
,greek3 ,morphseis 7configurations71 &  
by o!rs ,greek3 ,metere4 ,proclus call$ 
^? ne> ! ecliptic ,greek3 ,zdia         
7animals74 ,h5ce our mod]n "n ,zodiac4  
,hipp>*us1 ,ptolemy1 & ,al-,sufi ref]r$ 
! positions ( ! />s to ! ecliptic4 ,!y  

are n[ ref]r$ to ! equator4 ,ab\l       
,hassan 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury 7#abhb7 0 !  
fir/ to use ,"r ,asc5sions &            
,decl9ations in/ead ( ,longitudes &     
,latitudes4 ,! anci5t writ]s describ$ ! 
/>s by _! positions 9 ! anci5t figures4 
,?us !y spoke ( ! /> 9 ! head (         
,h]cules1 ! bright /> 9 ! left foot (   
,orion 7,rigel72 b ,bay] 9 #afjc        
introduc$ ! ,greek lett]s to designate !
 bright] />s1 & ^! are n[ univ]sally us$
 by a/ronom]s4 ,^! lett]s be+ sometimes 
insuffici5t1 ,hevelius add$ numb]s1 b ! 
numb]s 9 ,flam/e$'s ,catalogue are n[   
g5]ally us$4  ,ptolemy & all ! anci5t   
writ]s describ$ ! con/ellation figures z
 !y are se5 on globes1 t is f ! outside4
 ,bay] 9 8 ,atlas1 publi%$ 9 #afjc1     
rev]s$ ! figures to %[ !m z !y w\ld be  
se5 f ! int]ior ( a holl[ globe & z1 (  
c\rse1 !y are se5 9 ! sky4 ,hevelius    
aga9 rev]s$ ,bay]'s figures to make !m  
correspond ) ^? ( ,ptolemy4 ,accord+ to 
,bay]'s arrangem5t1 ,betelgeuse 7,greek3
 a ,orionis7 w\ld be on ! left %\ld] (  

,orion1 in/ead ( ! "r %\ld] accord+ to  
,ptolemy & ,al-,sufi1 & ,rigel 7,greek3 
b ,orionis7 on ! "r foot 7,bay]7 in/ead 
( ! left foot 7,ptolemy74 ,?is *ange (  
position has l$ to "s confusion2 b at   
pres5t ! positions ( ! />s are indicat$ 
by _! ,"r ,asc5sions & ,decl9ations1 )\t
 any ref]5ce to _! positions 9 ! anci5t 
figures4  ,! classical con/ellations (  
,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy numb] =ty-eight1 & 
?is is ! numb] describ$ by ,al-,sufi 9 8
 ,description ( ! ,fix$ ,/>s writt5 9 ! 
t5? c5tury ,a4,d4  ,firm9icus gives !   
names ( sev]al con/ellations n m5tion$  
by ,ptolemy4 ,m4 ,frret ?\ght t ^! 7    
d]iv$ f ! ,egyptian sph]e ( ,petosiris4 
,( ^! a ,fox 0 plac$ nor? ( ! ,scorpion2
 a con/ellation call$ ,cynocephalus ne> 
! s\!rn con/ellation ( ! ,alt> 7,ara72 &
 to ! nor? ( ,pisces 0 plac$ a ,/ag4 ,b 
all ^! h long s9ce be5 disc>d$4 ,curi\s 
to say nei!r ! ,dragon nor ,cepheus     
appe>s on ! old ,egyptian sph]e4#chi    
,o!r small con/ellations h also be5 =m$ 
by v>i\s a/ronom]s f "t to "t1 b ^! h   

disappe>$ f our mod]n /> maps4 ,! total 
numb] ( con/ellations n[ recogniz$ 9 bo?
 hemisph]es am\nts to eighty-f\r4  ,!   
fir/ catalogue =m$ 0 nom9ally t (       
,eudoxus 9 ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c4 7ab\t   
#cgj ,b4,c474 ,b ?is c h>dly be dignifi$
 by ! "n ( catalogue1 z x conta9$ only  
=ty-sev5 />s1 & x omits sev]al ( !      
bright] />s1 notably ,sirius6 ,! fir/   
complete 7or ne>ly complete7 catalogue (
 />s visible to ! nak$ eye 0 t (        
,hipp>*us ab\t #abi ,b4,c4 ,ptolemy     
in=ms u t x 0 ! sudd5 appe>ance ( a     
bright new or tempor>y /> 9 ! ye> #acd  
,b4,c4 9 ! con/ellation ,scorpio :i* l$ 
,hipp>*us to =m 8 catalogue1 & !re seems
 to be no reason to d\bt ! accuracy (   
?is /atem5t1 z ! appe>ance ( ?is /> is  
record$ 9 ! ,*9ese ,annals4 ,!          
,catalogue ( ,hipp>*us conta9s only     
#ajhj />s2 b z _m m are visible to !    
nak$ eye1 ,hipp>*us mu/ h omitt$ ^? :i* 
are n imm$iately connect$ ) ! old       
con/ellation figures ( m5 & animals4    
,hipp>*us' ,catalogue 0 revis$ by       

,ptolemy 9 8 fam\s "w ! ,almage/4       
,ptolemy r$uc$ ! positions ( ! />s giv5 
by ,hipp>*us to ! ye> #acg ,a4,d42 b us$
 a wrong value ( ! precession :i* only  
correspond$ to ab\t #ej ,a4,d42 & he    
probably adopt$ ! /> magnitudes (       
,hipp>*us )\t any revision4 ,inde$1 x   
seems some:at d\btful :e!r ,ptolemy made
 any obs]vations ( ! brightness ( ! />s 
himself4 ,ptolemy's catalogue conta9s   
#ajbb />s4  ,pr(4 ,de ,morgan speaks (  
,ptolemy z a spl5did ma!matician & an   
indiff]5t obs]v]2 & f my own exam9ation 
( ,al-,sufi's "w on ! ,fix$ ,/>s1 :i* 0 
bas$ on ,ptolemy's "w1 ,i ?9k t ,de     
,morgan's criticism is q ju/ifi$4       
,al-,sufi's ,description ( ! ,fix$ ,/>s 
0 writt5 9 ! t5? c5tury & conta9s #ajah 
/>s4 ,he seems to h adopt$ ! positions (
 ! />s giv5 by ,ptolemy1 m]ely correct+ 
!m = ! effects ( precession2 b he made a
 v c>eful revision ( ! /> magnitudes (  
,ptolemy 7or ,hipp>*us7 f 8 own         
obs]vations1 & ?is r5d]s 8 "w ! mo/     
valuable1 f ?is po9t ( view1 ( all !    

anci5t catalogues4  ,v little is kn[n   
ab\t ,al-,sufi's life1 & ! few details  
we h are *iefly d]iv$ f ! works ( !     
hi/orians ,abu'-l-f>adji & ,casiri1 & ! 
,ori5tal writ]s ,hyde1 ,causs91         
,s$illot1 etc4 ,al-,sufi's complete "n 0
 ,abd-al-,rahmn ,b9 ,um> ,b9 ,muhammad  
,b9 ,sahl ,abu'l-husan al-,sufi         
al-,razi4 ,! "n ,sufi indicates t he    
belong$ to ! sect ( ,sufis 7,d]vi%es71 &
 ! "n ,razi t he liv$ 9 ! t[n ( ,ra 9   
,p]sia1 to ! ea/ ( ,teh]an4 ,he 0 born  
on ,decemb] #g1 #ijc ,a4,d41 & di$ on   
,may #be1 #ihf1 s t1 l _m o!r a/ronom]s1
 he liv$ to a good old age4 ,accord+ to 
anci5t au?orities1 ,al-,sufi--z he is   
usually call$--0 a v le>n$ man1 :o liv$ 
at ! c\rts ( ,s*iraz & ,baghdad "u      
,adhad-al-,davlat--( ! dyna/y ( !       
,budes--:o 0 !n ! rul] ( ,p]sia4        
,al-,sufi 0 held 9 high e/eem & great   
fav\r by ?is pr9ce1 :o said ( him1      
,abd-al-,rahmn al-,sufi taught me to "k 
! names & positions ( ! fix$ />s1 ,s*>if
 ,ibn al-,aalam ! use ( a/ronomical     

tables1 & ,abu ,ali al-,f>isi in/ruct$  
me 9 ! pr9ciples ( gramm>4 ,pr9ce       
,adhad-al-,davlat di$ on ,m>* #bf1 #ihc4
 ,accord+ to ,causs91 ,al-,sufi also    
wrote a book on a/rology1 & a "w entitl$
 ,al-,ardj\ze1 :i* seems to h be5 writt5
 9 v]se1 b its subject is unkn[n4 ,he   
also seems to h det]m9$ ! exact l5g? ( !
 ye>1 & to h und]tak5 geodetic          
measurem5ts4 ,! al-,aalam m5tion$ above 
0 also an able a/ronom]1 & 9 addition to
 num]\s obs]vations made at ,baghdad1 he
 det]m9$ ) great c>e ! precession ( !   
equ9oxes4 ,he f\nd ! annual con/ant (   
precession to be #ead1 a value :i*      
diff]s b little f mod]n results4  ,9 !  
ye> #ahgd1 ! late ,m4 ,s*jell]up1 !     
em95t ,dani% a/ronom]1 publi%$ a ,fr5*  
translation ( two ,arabic manuscripts   
writt5 by ,al-,sufi & entitl$ ,a        
,description ( ! ,fix$ ,/>s4 ,"o ( ^!   
manuscripts is pres]v$ 9 ! ,royal       
,libr>y at ,cop5hag51 & ! o!r 9 !       
,imp]ial ,libr>y at ,/4 ,pet]sburgh4#cij
  ,al-,sufi seems to h be5 a mo/ c>eful 

& accurate obs]v]1 & al?\gh1 z a rule1 8
 e/imates ( ! relative brightness ( />s 
are 9 fairly good agreem5t ) mod]n      
e/imates & photometric measures1 !re are
 _m rem>kable & int]e/+ diff]5ces4      
,al-,sufi's obs]vations h an important  
be>+ on ! suppos$ secul> v>iation ( !   
/>s2 t is1 ! sl[ v>iation 9 light :i*   
may h occurr$ 9 ! c\rse ( ages 9 c]ta9  
/>s1 ap>t f ! p]iodical v>iation :i* is 
kn[n to occur 9 ! s-call$ v>iable />s4  
,m ?an #ijj ye>s h n[ elaps$ s9ce ! date
 ( ,al-,sufi's obs]vations 7ab\t ,a4,d4 
#ifd7 & ov] #bjjj ye>s 9 ! case (       
,hipp>*us1 & al?\gh ^! p]iods are (     
c\rse v %ort 9 ! life-hi/ory ( any />1  
/ill "s *anges may possibly h tak5 place
 9 ! brightness ( "s ( !m4 ,!re are     
sev]al cases 9 :i* a /> seems to h      
dim9i%$ 9 light s9ce ,al-,sufi's "t4    
,?is *ange seems to h c]ta9ly occurr$ 9 
! case ( ,greek3 ? ,eridani1 ,greek3 b  
,leonis1 ,greek3 z ,piscis ,au/ralis1 & 
"s o!rs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s />s seem to h 
c]ta9ly increas$ 9 brightness1 & ! be>+ 

( ^! *anges on ! "q ( /ell> evolution w 
be obvi\s4  ,9 mo/ cases ,al-,sufi m]ely
 m5tions ! magnitude :i* he e/imat$ a />
 to be2 su* z ?ird magnitude1 f\r?1     
small ?ird magnitude1 l>ge f\r?1 etc4 ,9
 "s cases1 h[ev]1 he directly /ates t a 
c]ta9 /> is a little bright] ?an ano!r  
/> ne> x4 ,su* cases--un=tunately n     
num]\s--are v valuable = comp>ison )    
mod]n e/imates & measures1 :5 v>iation  
is suspect$ 9 ! light ( a />4 ,!        
e/imates ( ,argel&]1 ,heis1 & ,h\zeau   
are bas$ on ! same scale z t us$ by     
,ptolemy & ,al-,sufi4 ,al-,sufi's       
e/imates are giv5 9 ?irds ( a magnitude4
 ,?us1 small ?ird magnitude means       
#c-a_/c1 or #ccc magnitude 9 mod]n      
measures2 l>ge f\r?1 #c-b_/c or #cff    
magnitude4 ,^! correspond ) ! e/imates (
 magnitude giv5 by ,argel&]1 ,heis1 &   
,h\zeau 9 _! catalogues ( />s visible to
 ! nak$ eye1 & s ! e/imates c be        
directly comp>$4  ,i h made an indep5d5t
 id5tification ( all ! />s m5tion$ by   
,al-,sufi4 ,9 ! majority ( cases my     

id5tifications concur ) ^? ( ,s*jell]up2
 b 9 "s cases ,i _c agree ) him4 ,9 a   
few cases ,i h f\nd t ,al-,sufi himself1
 al?\gh accurately describ+ ! position (
 ! />s obs]v$ by him1 has app>5tly      
misid5tifi$ ! /> obs]v$ by ,hipp>*us &  
,ptolemy4 ,?is becomes evid5t :5 we plot
 ,ptolemy's positions 7z giv5 by        
,al-,sufi7 & comp>e !m ) ,al-,sufi's    
descriptions ( ! />s obs]v$ by him4 ,?is
 ,i h done 9 all cases :]e !re seem$ to 
be any d\bt2 & 9 ?is way ,i h arriv$ at 
"s int]e/+ results :i* h escap$ ! notice
 ( ,s*jell]up4 ,?is exam9ation %[s      
cle>ly1 ,i ?9k1 t ,al-,sufi did n       
himself measure ! positions ( ! />s he  
obs]v$1 b m]ely adopt$ ^? ( ,ptolemy1   
correct$ = ! effect ( precession4 ,!    
great value ( 8 "w1 h[ev]1 consi/s 9 8  
e/imates ( /> magnitudes1 :i* seem to h 
be5 mo/ c>efully made1 & f ?is po9t (   
view1 8 "w is invaluable4 ,pr(4 ,pi]ce  
says1 ,! "w :i* ! le>n+ ( ,m4 ,s*jell]up
 has br\ght to light is s important t ! 
smalle/ errors ( detail become          

int]e/+4#cia  ,al?\gh ,al-,sufi's "w is 
m5tion$ by ! writ]s ref]r$ to above1 no 
complete translation ( 8 manuscript 0   
made until ! task 0 und]tak5 by         
,s*jell]up1 & ev5 n[ ,al-,sufi's "n is n
 m5tion$ 9 "s popul> works on a/ronomy6 
,b he 0 c]ta9ly ! be/ ( all ! old       
obs]v]s1 & 8 "w is des]v+ ( ! mo/ c>eful
 consid]ation4  ,al-,sufi's descriptions
 ( ! />s 71 x is true1 bas$ on          
,ptolemy's catalogue1 b 8 "w is n a m]e 
translation ( t ( 8 pr$ecessor4 ,x is1  
on ! contr>y1 a c>eful & indep5d5t      
survey ( ! heav5s1 made f 8 own p]sonal 
obs]vations1 ea* ( ,ptolemy's />s hav+  
be5 c>efully exam9$ z to its position & 
magnitude1 & ,ptolemy's mi/akes         
correct$4 ,9 exam9+ 8 descriptions1     
,s*jell]up says1 ,we soon see ! va/     
ext5t ( 8 lab\rs1 8 p]sev]ance1 & !     
m9ute accuracy & almo/ mod]n criticism )
 :i* he execut$ 8 "w4 ,9 fact1 ,al-,sufi
 has giv5 u a c>eful description ( !    
/>ry sky z x appe>$ 9 8 "t1 & "o :i*    
des]ves ! greate/ confid5ce4 ,x f>      

surpasses ! "w ( ,ptolemy1 :i* _h be5   
)\t a rival = eight c5turies previ\sly1 
& x has only be5 equall$ 9 mod]n times  
by ! surveys ( ,argel&]1 ,g\ld1 ,heis1 &
 ,h\zeau4 ,plato rem>k$ ) ref]5ce to !  
catalogue ( ,hipp>*us1 ,coelam po/]is 9 
h]$itatem relictum1 & ! same may be said
 ( ,al-,sufi's "w4 ,9 addition to 8 own 
e/imates ( /> magnitudes1 ,al-,sufi adds
 ! magnitudes giv5 by ,ptolemy :5ev]    
,ptolemy's e/imate diff]s f 8 own2 & ?is
 makes 8 "w /ill m valuable1 z          
,ptolemy's magnitudes giv5 9 all !      
editions ( ! ,almage/ n[ extant are q   
untru/wor?y4  ,9 ! preface to 8         
translation ( ,al-,sufi's "w1 ,s*jell]up
 m5tions "s rem>kable discrepancies     
betwe5 ! magnitudes assign$ to c]ta9 />s
 by ,ptolemy & ,argel&]4 ,?is comp>ison 
is wor?y ( confid5ce z x is kn[n t bo?  
,al-,sufi & ,argel&] adopt$ ,ptolemy's  
7or ,hipp>*us'7 scale ( magnitudes4 ,=  
example1 all ^! obs]v]s agree t ,greek3 
b ,urs ,m9oris 7,ptolemy's ,no4 #f ( t  
con/ellation7 is ( ! #bnd magnitude1    

:ile 9 ! case ( ,greek3 g ,urs ,m9oris  
7,ptolemy's ,no4 #g71 ,ptolemy call$ x  
#bnd1 & ,argel&] rat$ x #crd2 ,argel&]  
?us mak+ ,greek3 g "o magnitude fa9t]   
?an ,ptolemy's e/imate4 ,n[1 ,al-,sufi1 
obs]v+ ov] #ijj ye>s ago1 rat$ ,greek3 g
 ( ! #crd magnitude1 ?us correct+       
,ptolemy & agree+ ) ,argel&]4 ,mod]n    
photometric measures confirm ! e/imates 
( ,al-,sufi & ,argel&]4 ,b x is1 (      
c\rse1 possible t "o or bo? />s may be  
v>iable 9 light1 & ,greek3 b has        
actually be5 suspect$ ( v>iation4 ,almo/
 all ! con/ellations af=d examples ( ?is
 sort4 ,9 ! majority ( cases1 h[ev]1    
,al-,sufi agrees well ) ,argel&] &      
,heis1 b !re are 9 "s cases diff]5ces   
:i* sugge/ a *ange 9 relative           
brightness4  ,among o!r rem>kable ?+s   
conta9$ 9 ,al-,sufi's mo/ int]e/+ "w may
 be m5tion$ ! great nebula 9 ,&rom$a1   
:i* 0 fir/ notic$ 9 ,europe z visible to
 ! nak$ eye by ,simon ,m>ius 9 #afab4   
,al-,sufi1 h[ev]1 speaks ( x z a famili>
 object 9 8 "t4  ,s*jell]up says--      

,= a long "t _m ( ! />s 9 ,ptolemy's    
catalogue c\ld n be     id5tifi$ 9 !    
sky4 ,mo/ ( ^! discordances 7 c]ta9ly   
due     to mi/akes 9 copy+1 ei!r 9      
longitude or latitude4 ,_m ( ^!         
diff]5ces 71 h[ev]1 correct$ by ! help (
 new manuscripts4     ,= ?is purpose    
,al-,sufi's "w is ( great importance4   
,by a direct     exam9ation ( ! sky he  
succe$$ 9 f9d+ ne>ly all ! />s          
report$ by ,ptolemy 7or ,hipp>*us74 ,&  
ev5 if 8 criticism may     sometimes    
seem inconclusive1 8 descriptions are n 
subject to     simil> defects1 8        
positions n dep5d+ solely on ! places   
giv5 9 ,ptolemy's catalogue4 ,=1 9      
addition to ! longitudes &     latitudes
 quot$ f ,ptolemy1 he has describ$ by   
alignm5t !     positions ( ! />s ref]r$ 
to4 ,9 go+ f ! brighte/ &     be/ kn[n  
/>s ( ea* con/ellation he indicates !   
o!rs ei!r     by describ+ "s peculi>ity 
9 _! position1 or by giv+ _!     mutual 
di/ance z s _m cubits 7dzir71 or a span 
7s*ibr71     units ( l5g? :i* 7 us$ at t

 "t to measure app>5t     cele/ial      
di/ances4 ,! t]m dzir means lit]ally !  
=e-arm     f ! bone ( ! elb[ to ! tip ( 
! middle f+]1 or an ell4     ,we %\ld n1
 h[ev]1 conclude f ?is t ! ,arabians 7 s
     unsci5tific z to measure cele/ial  
di/ances by an ell1 z ?is     w\ld be q 
9 contradiction to _! well-kn[n k (     
,geometry & ,trigonometry4  ,) ref]5ce  
to ! arc or angul> di/ance indicat$ by !
 cubit1 ,al-,sufi /ates 9 8 description 
( ! con/ellation ,auriga t ! dzir 7or   
cubit7 is equal to #b #bj'4 ,?ree       
cubits1 !re=e1 repres5t #g1 & #d cubits 
#i #bj'4  ,9 ,al-,sufi's own preface to 
8 "w1 aft] fir/ giv+ glory to ,god &    
bless+s on 8 elect$ mess5g] ,muhamm$ & 8
 family1 he proce$s to /ate t he _h (t5 
met ) _m p]sons :o wi%$ to "k ! fix$    
/>s1 _! positions on ! cele/ial vault1 &
 ! con/ellations1 & _h f\nd t ^! p]sons 
may be divid$ into two classes4 ,"o     
foll[$ ! me?od ( a/ronom]s & tru/ to    
sph]es design$ by arti/s1 :o n kn[+1 !  
/>s !mselves1 take only ! longitudes &  

latitudes :i* !y f9d 9 ! books1 & ?us   
place ! />s on ! sph]e1 )\t be+ able to 
di/+ui% tru? f error4 ,x !n foll[s t ^? 
:o really "k ! />s 9 ! sky f9d on exam9+
 ^! sph]es t _m />s are o!rwise ?an !y  
are 9 ! sky4 ,among ^! are ,al-,battani1
 ,atrid & o!rs4  ,al-,sufi seems r h>d  
on ,al-,battani 7or ,albategnius z he is
 usually call$7 = he is g5]ally consid]$
 to h be5 ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ( ! ,arabian   
a/ronom]s4 ,8 real "n 0 ,mohamm$ ,ibn   
,jab] ,ibn ,s5an ,abu ,abdallah         
,al-,h>rani4 ,he 0 born ab\t ,a4,d4 #hej
 at ,battan1 ne> ,h>ran 9 ,mesopotamia1 
& di$ ab\t ,a4,d4 #ibi4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to 
make use ( s9es in/ead ( *ords1 & v]s$  
s9es4 ,! ,alphons9e ,tables ( ! moon's  
motions 7 bas$ on 8 obs]vations4  ,aft] 
"s sev]e criticisms on ! "w (           
,al-,battani & ,atrid1 ,al-,sufi goes on
 to say t ! o!r class ( amateurs :o     
desire to "k ! fix$ />s foll[ ! me?od ( 
! ,arabians 9 ! sci5ce ( ,anva#cib & !  
mansions ( ! moon & ! books writt5 on   
?is subject4 ,al-,sufi f\nd _m books on 

! anva1 ! be/ be+ ^? ( ,abu ,hanifa     
al-,dnav>i4 ,?is "w %[s t ! au?or knew !
 ,arabic tradition bett] ?an any ( ! o!r
 writ]s on ! subject4 ,al-,sufi1 h[ev]1 
d\bts t he _h a good k ( ! />s !mselves1
 = if he _h he w\ld n h foll[$ ! errors 
( 8 pr$ecessors4  ,accord+ to ,al-,sufi1
 ^? :o "k "o ( ^! me?ods d n "k ! o!r4  
,among ^! is ,abu-,hanifa1 :o /ates 9 8 
book t ! names ( ! twelve signs 7( !    
,zodiac7 did n orig9ate f ! arrangem5t  
or configuration ( ! />s resembl+ !     
figure f :i* ! "n is d]iv$4 ,! />s1     
,abu-,hanifa said1 *ange _! places1 &   
al?\gh ! names ( ! signs d n *ange1 yet 
! arrangem5t ( ! />s ceases to be !     
same4 ,?is %[s t he 0 n aw>e ( ! fact t 
! arrangem5t ( ! />s does n *ange1 & _! 
mutual di/ances & _! latitudes1 nor? &  
s\? ( ! ecliptic1 are nei!r increas$ nor
 dim9i%$4 ,! />s1 ,al-,sufi says1 d n   
*ange ) reg>d to _! configurations1     
because !y are c>ri$ along toge!r by a  
physical motion & by a motion r\nd !    
poles ( ! ecliptic4 ,?is is :y !y are   

call$ fix$4 ,abu-,hanifa suppos$ t !y   
are t]m$ fix$ because _! motion is v sl[
 9 comp>ison ) t ( ! planets4 ,^! facts1
 he says1 c only be kn[n to ^? :o foll[ 
! me?od ( ! a/ronom]s & are skill$ 9    
ma!matics4  ,al-,sufi says t ! />s ( !  
,zodiac h a c]ta9 movem5t foll[+ ! ord] 
( ! signs1 :i* accord+ to ,ptolemy & 8  
pr$ecessors is a degree 9 #ajj ye>s4 ,b 
accord+ to ! au?ors ( al-mumtahan & ^?  
:o h obs]v$ subsequ5tly to ,ptolemy1 x  
is a degree 9 #ff ye>s4 ,accord+ to     
mod]n measures1 ! precession is ab\t    
#ejce p] annum1 or "o degree 9 #ga-a_/b 
ye>s4  ,al-,sufi says t ! ,arabians did 
n make use ( ! figures ( ! ,zodiac 9 _! 
prop] signification1 because !y divid$ !
 circumf]5ce ( ! sky by ! numb] ( days  
:i* ! moon took to describe x--ab\t #bh 
days--& !y look$ = conspicu\s />s at    
int]vals :i*1 to ! eye1 ! moon appe>$ to
 describe 9 a day & a night4 ,!y began )
 al-s*>atan1 ! two m>ks 7,greek3 a &    
,greek3 b ,arietis7 :i* 7 ! fir/ /rik+  
po9ts foll[+ ! po9t ( ! spr+ equ9ox4 ,!y

 !n s\ght beh9d ^! two m>ks ano!r po9t  
at a di/ance f !m1 equal to ! space     
describ$ by ! moon 9 a day & a night4 ,9
 ?is way !y f\nd al-butan 7,greek3 e1   
,greek3 d1 & ,greek3 r ,arietis72 aft] t
 al-tsuraija1 ! ,pleiades2 !n al-dab>an1
 ! ,hyades1 & ?us all ! mansions ( !    
moon4 ,!y paid no att5tion to ! signs ( 
! ,zodiac1 nor to ! ext5t ( ! figures   
:i* compos$ !m4 ,?is is :y !y reckon$   
among ! mansions al-haka 7,greek3 l     
,orionis7 :i* =ms no "p ( ! signs ( !   
,zodiac1 s9ce x belongs to ! s\!rn      
con/ellation ( ! ,giant 7,orion74 ,&    
simil>ly = o!r />s ne> ! ,zodiac1 ( :i* 
,al-,sufi gives "s details4 ,he says t  
,regulus 7,greek3 a ,leonis7 0 call$ by 
! ,arabians al-maliki1 ! ,royal ,/>1 & t
 al-anva consi/s ( five />s situat$ 9 ! 
two w+s ( ! ,virg94 ,^! />s seem to be  
,greek3 b1 ,greek3 1 ,greek3 g1 ,greek3 
d1 & ,greek3 e ,virg9is1 :i* =m ) ,spica
 7,greek3 a ,virg9is7 a ,y-%ap$ figure4 
,spica 0 call$ simak al-azal1 ! un>m$   
simak2 ! arm$ simak be+ ,arcturus1 simak

 al-ramih4 ,^! old ,arabic names seem v 
fanciful4  ,al-,sufi relates t 9 ! ye>  
#ccg ( ! ,hegira 7ab\t ,a4,d4 #idh7 he  
w5t to ,ispahan ) ,pr9ce ,abul-fadhl1 :o
 introduc$ him to an inhabitant ( t     
city1 nam$ ,v>vadjah1 well kn[n 9 t     
c\ntry1 & fam\s = 8 a/ronomical         
acquirem5ts4 ,al-,sufi ask$ him ! names 
( ! />s on an a/rolabe :i* he _h1 & he  
nam$ ,aldeb>an1 ! two bright />s 9 !    
,tw9s 7,ca/or & ,pollux71 ,regulus1     
,sirius1 & ,procyon1 ! two ,simaks1 etc4
 ,al-,sufi also ask$ him 9 :at "p ( !   
sky ,al-f>d 7,greek3 a ,hydr7 01 b he   
did n "k6 ,aft]w>ds1 9 ! ye> #cdi1 ?is  
same man 0 at ! c\rt ( ,pr9ce           
,adhad-al-,davlat1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( !    
,pr9ce1 ,al-,sufi ask$ him ! "n ( a     
bright />--x 0 al-nasr al-vaki1 ! fall+ 
,vulture 7,vega71 & he repli$1 ,t is    
al-aijuk 7,capella76 ?us %[+ t he only  
knew ! names ( ! />s1 b did n "k !m :5  
he saw !m 9 ! sky4 ,al-,sufi adds t all 
! wom5 :o sp9 9 _! h\ses knew ?is />    
7,vega7 by ! "n ( al-atsafi1 ! ,tripod4 

,b ?is c\ld n be said ev5 ( educat$ wom5
 at ! pres5t day4  ,) ref]5ce to ! numb]
 ( />s :i* c be se5 ) ! nak$ eye1       
,al-,sufi says1 ,_m p believe t ! total 
numb] ( fix$ />s is #ajbe1 b ?is is an  
evid5t error4 ,! anci5ts only obs]v$ ?is
 numb] ( />s1 :i* !y divid$ into six    
classes accord+ to magnitude4 ,!y plac$ 
! brighte/ 9 ! #a/ magnitude2 ^? :i* are
 a little small] 9 ! #bnd2 ^? :i* are a 
little small] aga9 9 ! #crd2 & s on to !
 #f?4 ,z to ^? :i* are bel[ ! #f?       
magnitude1 !y f\nd t _! numb] 0 too     
great to c\nt2 & ?is is :y !y h omitt$  
!m4 ,x is easy to conv9ce "o's self (   
?is4 ,if we att5tively fix our gaze on a
 con/ellation ( :i* ! />s are well kn[n 
& regi/]$1 we f9d 9 ! spaces betwe5 !m  
_m o!r />s :i* h n be5 c\nt$4 ,take1 =  
example1 ! ,h5 ,cygnus2 x is compos$ (  
sev5te5 int]nal />s1 ! fir/ on ! beak1 !
 brighte/ on ! tail1 ! o!rs on ! w+s1 ! 
neck & ! brea/2 & bel[ ! left w+ are two
 />s :i* d n come into ! figure4 ,betwe5
 ^! diff]5t />s1 if y exam9e ) att5tion1

 y w p]ceive a multitude ( />s1 s small 
& s cr[d$ t we _c det]m9e _! numb]4 ,x  
is ! same ) all ! o!r con/ellations4 ,^!
 rem>ks are s correct t !y might h be5  
writt5 by a mod]n a/ronom]4 ,x %\ld be  
add$1 h[ev]1 t all ! fa9t />s ref]r$ to 
by ,al-,sufi--& ?\s&s ( o!rs /ill       
fa9t]--h n[ be5 mapp$ d[n & _! positions
 accurately det]m9$4  ,ab\t ! ye> #adcg1
 ,ulugh ,beigh1 son ( ,%ah ,rokh1 &     
gr&son ( ! ,mogul ,emp]or ,tam]lane1    
publi%$ a catalogue ( />s 9 :i* he      
correct$ ,ptolemy's positions4 ,b he    
seems to h accept$ ,al-,sufi's />       
magnitudes )\t any attempt at revision4 
,?is is un=tunate1 = an indep5d5t       
e/imate ( /> magnitudes made 9 ! fifte5?
 c5tury w\ld n[ be v valuable =         
comp>ison ) ,al-,sufi's "w & ) mod]n    
measures4 ,ulugh ,beigh's catalogue     
conta9s #ajah />s1 ne>ly ! same numb] z 
giv5 by ,ali-,sufi4#cic     ,,*apt]     
,,xix  ,! ,con/ellations#cid   ,curi\s  
to say1 ,al-,sufi rat$ ! ,pole ,/> z    
#crd magnitude2 = x is n[ only slightly 

less ?an ! #bnd4 ,at pres5t x is ab\t ! 
same brightness z ,greek3 b ( ! same    
con/ellation 7,ursa ,m9or7 :i* ,al-,sufi
 rat$ #bnd magnitude4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 also 
rat$ #crd magnitude by ,ptolemy 7or     
,hipp>*us71 & x may possibly h v>i$ 9   
brightness s9ce anci5t times4 ,admiral  
,smy? says t 9 8 "t 7#ahcj7 x 0 n ev5 a 
v bright ?ird size 767#cie              
,spectroscopic measures %[ t x is       
approa*+ ! e>? at ! rate ( #af miles a  
second2 b ?is w\ld h no p]ceptible      
effect on its brightness 9 hi/orical    
times4 ,?is may seem difficult to       
und]/&1 & to "s p]haps incr$ible2 b !   
simple explanation is t its di/ance f ! 
e>? is s great t a j\rney ( ev5 #bjjj   
ye>s ) ! above velocity w\ld make no    
appreciable diff]5ce 9 its di/ance6 ,?is
 is und\bt$ly true1 z a simple          
calculation w %[1 & ! fact w give "s    
idea ( ! va/ di/ance ( ! />s4 ,!        
well-kn[n #i? magnitude companion to !  
,pole ,/> 0 se5 by day 9 ! ,dorpat      
telescope by ,/ruve & ,wrangel2 & on "o 

occasion by ,encke & ,argel&]4#cif  ,!  
/> ,greek3 b ,urs ,m9oris 0 call$ by !  
,arabians ,kaukab al-%amli1 ! ,nor? ,/>1
 z x 0--ow+ to ! precession ( !         
,equ9oxes--ne>] to ! ,pole 9 anci5t     
times ?an our pres5t ,pole ,/> 0 !n4  ,!
 ,pl\gh 7or ,great ,be>7 is suppos$ to  
repres5t a waggon & horses4 ,*>les' ,wa9
 is a corruption ( *url's wa91 or       
peasant's c>t4 ,! ,arabians ?\ght t !   
f\r />s 9 ! quadrilat]al repres5t$ a    
bi]1 & ! ?ree 9 ! tail ! *ildr5 ( !     
deceas$ foll[+ z m\rn]s6 ,9 ! ,greek    
my?ology1 ,ursa ,major repres5t$ ! nymph
 ,calli/o1 a daught] ( ,lycaon1 :o 0    
lov$ by ,jupit]1 & turn$ into a be> by !
 jeal\s ,juno4 ,among ! old ,h9doos !   
sev5 />s repres5t$ ! sev5 ,ri%is4 ,x is 
! ,otawa ( ! great ,f9ni% epic1 !       
,kalevala4 ,x 0 also call$ ,david's     
,*>iot1 & 9 ,am]ica x is kn[n z ,!      
,dipp]4  ,closely nor? ( ! /> ,greek3 ? 
9 ,ursa ,major is a small /> kn[n z     
,flam/e$ #bf4 ,?is is n m5tion$ by      
,al-,sufi1 b is n[1 ,i f9d f p]sonal    

obs]vation1 v visible1 & inde$          
conspicu\s1 to ! nak$ eye4 ,i f9d1      
h[ev]1 t ow+ to ! l>ge prop] motion ( ! 
bright /> 7#aa p] annum7 ! two />s 7 mu*
 clos] toge!r 9 ,al-,sufi's "t ?an !y   
are at pres5t1 & ?is probably acc\nts = 
,al-,sufi's omission4 ,?is is an int]e/+
 & curi\s fact1 & %[s ! small *anges :i*
 occur 9 ! heav5s dur+ ! c\rse ( ages4  
,close to ! /> ,greek3 z1 ! middle /> ( 
! tail ( ,ursa ,major 7or h&le ( !      
,pl\gh71 is a small /> kn[n z ,alcor1   
:i* is easily visible to good eyesight  
)\t optical aid4 ,x is m5tion$ by       
,al-,sufi1 :o says ! ,arabians call$ x  
al-suha1 ! little unnotic$ "o4 ,he says 
t ,ptolemy does n m5tion x1 & x is a /> 
:i* seems to te/ ! p[]s ( ! eyesight4   
,he adds1 h[ev]1 an ,arabian prov]b1 ,i 
%[ him al-suha1 & he %[s me ! moon1 :i* 
seems to sugge/ t to "s eyes1 at lea/1 x
 0 no te/ ( sight at all4 ,x has1 h[ev]1
 be5 suspect$ ( v>iation 9 light4 ,x 0  
rat$ #e? magnitude by ,argel&]1 ,heis1 &
 ,h\zeau1 b 0 measur$ #djb at ,h>v>d    

,obs]vatory4 ,x has rec5tly be5 f\nd to 
be a spectroscopic b9>y4  ,!            
con/ellation ( ! ,dragon 7,draco7 is    
probably ref]r$ to 9 ,job 7*ap4 xxvi4 v4
 #ac71 :]e x is call$ ! crook$ s]p5t4 ,9
 ! ,greek my?ology x is suppos$ to      
repres5t ! dragon :i* gu>d$ ! gold5     
apples 9 ! ,g>d5 ( ! ,hesp]ides4 ,"s h  
sugge/$ t x repres5t$ ! s]p5t :i* tempt$
 ,eve4 ,dryd5 says1 9 8 translation (   
,virgil--    ,ar\nd our ,pole ! spiry   
,dragon glides1   ,& l a w&'r+ /ream !  
,be>s divides4  ,! fact t ! con/ellation
 ,botis rises quickly & sets sl[ly1 ow+ 
to its ly+ horizontally :5 ris+ &       
v]tically :5 sett+1 0 not$ by ,aratus1  
:o says--    ,! ,be>w>d n[1 pa/ se51    
,b m obscur$1 ne> ! horizon lies2   ,= )
 ! f\r ,signs ! ,pl\ghman1 z he s9ks1   
,! deep receives2 & :5 tir$ ( day   ,at 
ev5 l+]s m ?an half ! night1   ,:5 ) !  
s9k+ sun he likewise sets   ,^! nights f
 8 late sett+ be> _! "n4#cig  ,!        
cosmical sett+ ( ,botis--t is1 :5 he    
sets at sunset--is /at$ by ,ovid to     

occur on ,m>* #e ( ea* ye>4  ,) ref]5ce 
to ! con/ellation ,h]cules1 ,admiral    
,smy? says--      ,! kneel+ po/ure has  
giv5 rise to mom5t\s discussion2 &      
:e!r x repres5ts ,lycaon lam5t+ 8       
daught]'s trans=mation1     or ,prome!us
 s5t5c$1 or ,ixion ditto1 or ,?amyrus   
m\rn+ 8     brok5 fiddle1 rema9s /ill   
unc]ta94 ,b 9 process ( "t1 ?is         
figure became a lion1 & ,hyg9us m5tions 
bo? ! lion's sk9 &     ! club2 :ile ! "r
 foot's be+ j ov] ! head ( !            
,dragon1 satisfi$ ! my?ologi/s t he 0   
cru%+ ! ,l]nan     hydra4444 ,"s h      
consid]$ ! emblem z typify+ ! s]p5t     
:i* infe/$ ! vic9ity ( ,cape ,tn>us1    
:5ce a sub-g5us (     ,ophidians /ill   
d]ives its "n4 ,at all ev5ts a poet1    
indignant at     ! hea!n exaltation (   
,hevelius1 has said--          ',to     
,c]b]us1 too1 a place is giv5--         
,8 home ( old 0 f> f heav54'#cih        
,aratus speaks ( ,h]cules z ! ,phantom  
^: "n none c tell4  ,!re 7 sev]al h]oes 
( ! "n ( ,h]cules1 b ! mo/ fam\s 0      

,h]cules ! ,!ban1 son ( ,jupit] &       
,alcm5e wife ( ,amphitryon1 ,k+ ( ,!bes1
 :o is said to h liv$ "s ye>s be=e !    
siege ( ,troy1 & w5t on ! voyage ( !    
,argonauts ab\t #acjj ,b4,c4 ,accord+ to
 "s anci5t writ]s1 ano!r ,h]cules liv$  
ab\t #bdjj ,b4,c41 & 0 a contempor>y (  
,atlas & ,!seus4 ,b accord+ to ,ptau1   
,atlas liv$ ab\t #afch ,b4,c41 & ,lal&e 
?\ght t ?is *ronology is ! m probable4  
,! small con/ellation ,lyra1 :i* conta9s
 ! bright /> ,vega1 is call$ by         
,al-,sufi ! ,lyre1 ! ,goose1 ! ,p]sian  
h>p1 & ! ,tortoise4 ,9 8 translation (  
,al-,sufi's "w1 ,s*jell]up sugge/s t !  
"n ,goose may p]haps mean a pluck$      
goose1 :i* some:at resembles a ,greek   
lyre1 & also a tortoise4 ,! "n ( !      
bright /> ,vega is a corruption ( !     
,arabic vki4 ,ptolemy & ,al-,sufi       
includ$ all ! v brighte/ />s 9 ! fir/   
magnitude1 mak+ no di/9ction betwe5 !m1 
b x is evid5t at a glance t sev]al ( !m1
 su* z ,arcturus & ,vega1 are bright]   
?an an av]age /> ( ! fir/ magnitude1 l  

,aldeb>an4  ,! con/ellation ,p]seus1 :i*
 lies s\?-ea/ ( ,cassiopeia's ,*air1 may
 be recogniz$ by ! fe/oon =m$ by "s (   
its />s1 ! bright /> ,greek3 a ,p]sei   
be+ among !m4 ,x is call$ by ,al-,sufi  
b>s*ns*1 ,greek3 ,p]seus1 ,p]seus1 :o is
 hamil rs al-gul1 ! ,be>] ( ! head (    
al-gul4 ,accord+ to ,kazimirski1 ,gul 0 
a k9d ( demon or ogre :o bewild]s       
travell]s & dev\rs !m1 beg9n+ at ! feet4
 ,9 g5]al any mis*iev\s demon capable ( 
tak+ all sorts ( =ms4 ,9 ! ,greek       
my?ology ,p]seus 0 suppos$ to be ! son (
 ,jupit] & ,dan4 ,he is said to h be5   
ca/ into ! sea ) 8 "m & sav$ by ,k+     
,polydectus4 ,he aft]w>ds cut (f ! head 
( ,m$usa1 "o ( ! ,gorgons1 :ile %e      
slept1 & arm$ ) ?is he deliv]$ ,&rom$a f
 ! sea-mon/]4  ,! con/ellation ,auriga  
lies ea/ ( ,p]seus & conta9s ! bright />
 ,capella1 "o ( ! ?ree brighte/ />s 9 ! 
nor!rn hemisph]e 7! o!rs be+ ,arcturus &
 ,vega74 ,!on1 9 8 comm5t>y on ,aratus1 
says t ,bell]ophon inv5t$ ! *>iot1 & t x
 is repres5t$ 9 ! heav5s by ,auriga1 !  

cele/ial coa*man4 ,accord+ to ,dupuis1  
,auriga repres5ts ,phton1 :o tri$ to    
drive ! *>iot ( ! sun1 & los+ 8 head    
fell into ! riv] ,eridanus4 ,! sett+ (  
,eridanus prec$es by a few m9utes t (   
,auriga1 :i* 0 call$ by "s ( ! anci5t   
writ]s ,amnis ,pha-tontis4#cii ,auriga  
is call$ by ,al-,sufi numsick           
al-a9na--,he :o holds ! re9s1 !         
,coa*man2 also al-9z1 ! ,%e-goat4 ,m4   
,dorn f\nd 9 ,ptolemy's "w1 ! ,greek "n 
,greek3 ,hnio*oi1 ,auriga1 writt5 9     
,arabic *>act]s4 ,al-,sufi says1 ,?is   
con/ellation is repres5t$ by ! figure ( 
a /&+ man beh9d ',he :o holds ! head (  
al-gl' ,p]seus1 & betwe5 ! ,pleiades & !
 ,great ,be>4  ,capella is1 ,al-,sufi   
says1 ! bright & great /> ( ! fir/      
magnitude :i* is on ! left %\ld] ( !    
anci5t figure on ! ea/]n edge ( ! ,milky
 ,way4 ,x is t :i* is m>k$ on ! a/rolabe
 z al-aijk4 ,! real mean+ ( ?is "n is   
unkn[n4 ,s*jell]up ?\ght1 contr>y to :at
 ,idel] says1 t ! "n is id5tical ) !    
,greek ^w ,greek3 ,aix 7a goat74        

,capella 0 obs]v$ at ,babylon ab\t #bjjj
 ,b4,c41 & 0 !n kn[n z ,dilgan4 ,!      
,assyrian "n 0 ,icu1 & ! ,p]sian "n     
colca4 ,x 0 also call$ ,capra ,hircus1  
,cabrilla1 ,amal!a1 & ,ol5ia4 ,9 anci5t 
times ! ris+ ( ,capella 0 suppos$ to    
presage ! approa* ( /orms4 ,ovid says1  
,ol5ia sidus pluviale ,capell4  ,!      
con/ellation ,aquila is call$ by        
,al-,sufi al-ukab1 ! ,eagle1 or al-nasr 
al-tr1 ! fly+ vulture4 ,accord+ to !    
anci5t poets ! eagle c>ri$ nect> to     
,jupit] :5 he 0 hidd5 9 a cave 9 ,crete4
 ,?is eagle also assi/$ ,jupit] 9 8     
victory ov] ! ,giants & contribut$ to 8 
o!r pleasures4 ,= ^! reasons ! eagle 0  
consecrat$ to ,jupit]1 & 0 plac$ 9 !    
sky4 ,al-,sufi says1 ,!re are 9 ?is     
figure ?ree fam\s />s ,greek3 g1 ,greek3
 a1 & ,greek3 b ,aquil1 :i* are call$   
al-nasr al-tr4 ,h5ce is d]iv$ ! mod]n "n
 ,altair = ! bright /> ,greek3 a ,aquil4
 ,al-,sufi says t ! common p call ! ?ree
 fam\s />s al-mzn1 ! ,balance1 on acc\nt
 ( ! equality ( ! />s4 ,?is probably    

ref]s to ! approximately equal di/ances 
betwe5 ,greek3 g & ,greek3 a1 & ,greek3 
a & ,greek3 b1 & n to _! relative       
brightness4 ,he says ,betwe5 ! bright "o
 ( ! tail ,greek3 x ,aquil & ! /> 9 !   
beak ( ! ,h5 ,greek3 b ,cygni 9 ! ?9ne/ 
"p ( ! ,milky ,way1 we see ! figure ( a 
little e>!n j>1 ( :i* ! />s beg9 at !   
bright "o 9 ! tail1 & ext5d t[>ds !     
nor?-we/4 ,?is seems to ref] to ,greek3 
e ,aquil & ! small />s ne> x4 ,!y !n    
turn t[>ds ! ea/ 9 ! base ( ! j>1 & !n  
t[>ds ! s\?-ea/ to a little cl\d #d1 #e1
 etc4 ,vulpecul1 a well-kn[n gr\p (     
small />s :i* is f\nd to ! nor? ( ! two 
/>s 9 ! %aft ( ! ,arr[ ,greek3 a &      
,greek3 b ,sagitt4 ,! cl\d is on ! ea/]n
 edge ( ! j>1 & ! bright "o on ! tail on
 ! we/]n edge2 ! orifice is turn$ t[>ds 
! fly+ ,vulture ,aquila1 & ! base t[>ds 
! nor?4 ,among ^! are di/+ui%$ "s ( !   
f\r?1 fif?1 & six? magnitudes includ+1  
probably1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac        
,h]cules1 & #a ,vulpecul & ,ptolemy says
 no?+ ( ?is figure1 except ! bright /> 9

 ! tail ( ! ,eagle 7see figure74 ,!     
above is a good example ( ! m9ute       
accuracy ( detail 9 ,al-,sufi's         
description4  ,illu/ration3             
,,al-,,sufi',s ,,e>!n ,,j>4  ,! s\!rn   
portion ( ,aquila 0 =m]ly call$ ,ant9\s1
 :o 0 said to h be5 a "y man ( great    
beauty born at ,claudiopolis 9 ,bi?ynia1
 & dr[n$ 9 ! ,nile4 ,o!rs say t he      
sacrific$ 8 life to save t ( ! ,emp]or  
,hadrian1 :o aft]w>ds rais$ alt>s 9 8   
hon\r & plac$ 8 image on co9s4#djj  ,!  
con/ellation ,pegasus1 ,al-,sufi says1  
is repres5t$ by ! figure ( a horse1 :i* 
has ! head1 legs1 & =ep>t ( ! body to ! 
end ( ! back1 b x has nei!r h9d qu>t]s  
nor h9d legs4 ,accord+ to ,br[n1        
,pegasus 0 ! horse ( ,poseidon1 ! sea   
god4 ,half ( x 0 suppos$ to be hidd5 9 !
 sea1 into :i* ! riv] ,eridanus         
fl[$4#dja ,9 ! ,greek my?ology x 0      
suppos$ to repres5t ! w+$ horse produc$ 
by ! blood :i* fell f ! head ( ,m$usa :5
 %e 0 kill$ by ,p]seus6 ,"s ?9k t x     
repres5ts ,bell]ophon's horse1 & o!rs ! 

horse ( ,nimrod4 ,x 0 also call$        
,sagm>ia & ,ephippiatus1 & 0 sometimes  
repres5t$ ) a saddle in/ead ( w+s4  ,9  
describ+ ! con/ellation ,&rom$a1        
,al-,sufi speaks ( two s]ies ( />s :i*  
/>t f ! great nebula 9 ,&rom$a2 "o s]ies
 go+ ?r\gh #cb ,&rom$1 ,greek3 p1 d1 &  
,greek3 e to ,greek3 z & ,greek3 2 & !  
o!r ?r\gh ,greek3 n1 m1 b ,&rom$ into ! 
con/ellation ,pisces4 ,he says !y       
enclose a fi%-%ap$ figure call$ by !    
,arabians al-ht1 ! ,fi%1 p> excell5ce4  
,he speaks ( two o!r s]ies ( />s :i*    
beg9 at ,greek3 t & ,greek3 u1 & div]g+ 
meet aga9 at ,greek3 * ,p]sei1 =m+ ano!r
 fi%-l figure4 ,! ea/]n /ream />ts f    
,greek3 t & passes ?r\gh #ee1 ,greek3 g1
 #fj1 #fb1 #fd1 & #fe ,&rom$2 & ! we/]n 
/ream f ,greek3 u ?r\gh ,greek3 * #ea1  
#ed1 & g ,p]sei up to ,greek3 * ,p]sei4 
,! head ( ! fir/ fi%1 al-ht1 is turn$   
t[>ds ! nor?1 & t ( ! second t[>ds ! s\?
 7see figure74  ,illu/ration3           
,,al-,,sufi',s ,,fi%es ,,9 ,,&rom$a4    
,al-,sufi says t ! />s ,greek3 a ,p]sei1

 ,greek3 g1 b1 d1 & ,greek3 a ,&rom$1 & 
,greek3 b ,pegasi =m a curv$ l9e4 ,?is  
is q correct1 & ?is f9e curve ( bright  
/>s may be se5 at a glance on a cle>    
night 9 ,septemb]1 :5 all ! />s are high
 9 ! sky4  ,! fir/ con/ellation ( !     
,zodiac1 ,aries1 ! ,ram1 0 call$1       
accord+ to ,aratus & ,erato/h5es1       
,greek3 krios4 ,x is m5tion$ by ,ovid "u
 ! "n ( ,hellas4 ,x 0 also call$ by !   
anci5ts ! ,ram ) ! gold5 horns4         
,manilius 7f\r? c5tury ,b4,c47 call$ x  
,! ,pr9ce4 ,x is suppos$ to h repres5t$ 
! god ,bel4 ,among ! ,accadians ! sign  
meant ,he :o dwells on ! alt> (         
uprightness4 ,x fir/ appe>s on !        
,egyptian ,zodiac2 & x 0 sacr$ to       
,jupit] ,ammon4 ,9 ! ,greek my?ology x 0
 suppos$ to repres5t ! ram1 ! loss ( ^: 
fleece l$ to ! voyage ( ! ,argonauts4 ,9
 ! "t ( ,hipp>*us1 ab\t #bjjj ye>s ago1 
x 0 ! fir/ sign ( ! ,zodiac1 or t 9 :i* 
! sun is situat$ at ! ,v]nal ,equ9ox    
7ab\t ,m>* #ba 9 ea* ye>74 ,b ow+ to !  
precession ( ! equ9oxes1 ?is po9t has n[

 mov$ back into ,pisces4  ,! brighte/ />
 ( ,aries 7,greek3 a7 is sometimes call$
 ,hamal1 d]iv$ f ! ,arabic al-hamal1 a  
"n giv5 to ! con/ellation itself by     
,al-,sufi4 ,9 ! ,accadian language x 0  
call$ ,dilkur1 ! dawn proclaim]4        
,ali-,sufi says t close to ,greek3 a1 z 
if x 7 atta*$ to x1 is a small /> ( !   
#f? magnitude1 n m5tion$ by ,ptolemy4   
,?is is cle>ly ,greek3 k ,arietis4 ,!   
fact ( ,al-,sufi hav+ se5 & notic$ ?is  
small />1 :i* mod]n measures %[ to be   
bel[ ! #e? magnitude1 is good evid5ce ( 
8 ke5 eyesight & accuracy ( obs]vation4 
,accord+ to ,al-,sufi1 ! />s ,greek3 b &
 ,greek3 g ,arietis 7 call$ by !        
,arabians al-s*>ata91 ! two m>ks4 ,!y   
m>k$ ! fir/ mansion ( ! moon1 & ,greek3 
e1 d1 & ,greek3 r ! second mansion4 ,)  
ref]5ce to ^! s-call$ mansions ( ! moon1
 ,admiral ,smy? says--      ,! fam\s    
,manazil al-kam>1 i4e4 ,lun> mansions1  
con/itut$ a     suppos$ broad circle 9  
,ori5tal a/ronomy divid$ into           
tw5ty-eight     unequal p>ts1           

correspond+ ) ! moon's c\rse1 & !re=e   
call$ ! abodes ( ! moon4 ,?is 0 n a bad 
arrangem5t = a     c]ta9 class ( gaz]s1 
s9ce ! lum9>y 0 obs]v$ to be 9 or       
ne> "o or o!r ( ^! p>ts1 or             
con/ellations e night4     ,?\gh tamp]$ 
) by a/rolog]s1 ^! ,lun> mansions are   
probably     ! e>lie/ /ep 9 anci5t      
a/ronomy4#djb  ,taurus1 ! second        
con/ellation ( ! ,zodiac1 0 9 anci5t    
times repres5t$ by ! figure ( a bull1 ! 
h9d] "p ( :i* is turn$ t[>ds ! s\?-we/1 
& ! =e "p t[>ds ! ea/4 ,x _h no h9d     
legs1 & ! head 0 turn$ to "o side1 ) !  
horns ext5d$ t[>ds ! ea/4 ,its mo/      
anci5t "n 0 ,te1 possibly a corruption (
 ! ,accadian dimm5a1 a f\ndation-/one4  
,! ,greek "n is ,greek3 a?r 7,greek3 ?r1
 ,eusebius74 ,9 ! old ,egyptian my?ology
 ,taurus repres5t$ ! god ,apis4 ,accord+
 to ,dupuis x also repres5t$ ! #aj?     
lab\r ( ,h]cules1 namely1 8 victory ov] 
! c[s ( ,g]yon1 ,k+ ( ,spa94#djc ,x 0   
also suppos$ to repres5t ! bull "u ! =m 
( :i* ,jupit] c>ri$ (f ,europa1 daught] 

( ,ag5or1 ,k+ ( ! ,pho5icians4 ,x may   
also ref] to ,io or ,isis1 :o is suppos$
 to h taught ! anci5t ,egyptians ! art (
 agriculture4  ,aldeb>an is ! well-kn[n 
bright r$ /> 9 ! ,hyades4 ,x 0 call$ by 
,ptolemy ,fulgur succul>um4 ,ali-,sufi  
says x 0 m>k$ on ! old a/rolabes z      
al-dab>an1 ! ,foll[] 7because x foll[s !
 ,hyades 9 ! diurnal motion71 & also a9 
al-tsaur1 ! eye ( ! bull4 ,x may be     
consid]$ z a /&>d /> ( ! #a/ magnitude4 
,mod]n obs]vations %[ t x has a p>allax 
( #jajg4 ,x is rec$+ f ! e>?1 accord+ to
 ,vogel1 at ! rate ( ab\t #cj miles a   
second2 b ev5 ) ?is high velocity x w   
take ?\s&s ( ye>s be=e its brightness is
 p]ceptibly dim9i%$4 ,x has a fa9t      
companion ( ab\t ! #aj? magnitude at !  
di/ance ( #aah1 :i* =ms a good light te/
 = telescopes ( #c or #d in*es ap]ture4 
,i saw x well ) a #d-;in* ,wray 9 !     
,punjab sky4 ,! ,hyades 7 call$ ,succul 
by ! ,romans1 & 9 ! ,greek my?ology 7   
said to be *ildr5 ( ,atlas4  ,! />      
,greek3 b ,tauri1 sometimes call$ ,na?1 

f ! ,arabic al-ntih1 ! butt+1 is a      
bright /> betwe5 ,capella & ,greek3 g   
,orionis 7,bellatrix74 ,x is on ! tip ( 
! horn 9 ! anci5t figure ( ,taurus1 &   
!re=e 7says ,admiral ,smy?7 at ! greate/
 di/ance f ! ho(2 c ?is h giv5 rise to !
 o!rwise po9tless s>casm ( n kn[+ ,b f a
 bull's foot8#djd ,al-,sufi says t an   
imag9>y l9e drawn f ! /> n[ kn[n z ,a   
,tauri to ,greek3 t ,tauri w\ld pass    
betwe5 ,greek3 u & ,greek3 k ,tauri1 :i*
 is q correct1 ano!r pro( ( ! accuracy (
 8 obs]vations4 ,he also says t ! />    
,greek3  ,tauri is exactly midway betwe5
 ,a & ,greek3 e1 :i* is aga9 correct4   
,he po9ts out t ,ptolemy's position (   
,greek3  is incorrect4 ,?is is (t5 !    
case ) ,ptolemy's positions1 & t5ds to  
%[ t ,ptolemy adopt$ ! position giv5 by 
,hipp>*us )\t attempt+ to v]ify _!      
position 9 ! sky4 ,al-,sufi himself     
adopts ! longitudes & latitudes ( ! />s 
z giv5 by ,ptolemy 9 ! ,almage/1 b      
corrects ! positions 9 8 descriptions1  
:5 he f\nd ,ptolemy's places errone\s4  

,! fam\s gr\p ( ! ,pleiades is well     
kn[n2 b !re is great difficulty 9       
und]/&+ ,al-,sufi's description ( !     
clu/]4 ,he says1 ,! #bi? /> 7( ,taurus7 
is ! m nor!rn ( ! ant]ior side ( !      
,pleiades !mselves1 & ! #cj? is ! s\!rn 
( ! same side2 ! #ca/ is ! foll[+ v]tex 
( ! ,pleiades1 & is 9 ! m n>r[ "p4 ,!   
#cbnd is situat$ outside ! nor!rn side4 
,among ^! />s1 ! #cbnd is ( ! #d?       
magnitude1 ! o!rs ( ! #e?4 ,n[1 x is v  
difficult or impossible to id5tify ^!   
/>s ) ! />s 9 ! ,pleiades z !y are at   
pres5t4 ,! brighte/ ( all1 ,alcyone     
7,greek3  ,tauri71 n[ ab\t #crd         
magnitude1 does n seem to be m5tion$ at 
all by ,al-,sufi6 z he says di/9ctly t !
 brighte/ /> 7,no #cb ( ,taurus7 is     
outside ! ,pleiades on ! nor!rn side4 ,x
 seems impossible to suppose t ,al-,sufi
 c\ld h ov]look$ ,alcyone _h x ! same   
brightness x has n[4 ,! #cbnd /> seems  
to h disappe>$1 or at lea/ dim9i%$      
greatly 9 brightness1 s9ce ! days (     
,al-,sufi4 ,m ?an f\r />s 71 h[ev]1 se5 

by ,al-,sufi1 = he adds1 ,x is true t ! 
/>s ( ! ,pleiades mu/ exce$ ! f\r       
m5tion$ above1 b ,i limit myself to ^!  
f\r because !y are v ne> ea* o!r & !    
l>ge/ t is1 ! brighte/2 ?is is :y ,i h  
m5tion$ !m1 neglect+ ! o!rs4 ,a full    
exam9ation ( ! :ole "q is giv5 by       
,flamm>ion 9 8 int]e/+ "w ,les toiles   
7pp4 #bhi-cjg71 & ,i mu/ ref] my read]s 
to ?is inve/igation = fur!r details4    
,accord+ to ,br[n1 ,simonides ( ,keos   
7,b4,c4 #eef-dfg7 says1 ,atlas 0 ! sire 
( sev5 daught]s ) violet locks1 :o are  
call$ ! heav5ly ,peleiades4#dje ,! "n is
 by "s suppos$ to be d]iv$ f ! ,greek   
,greek3 plein1 full4 ,! ,old ,te/am5t ^w
 ,kimah 7,job ix4 #i & xxviii4 #ca7 &   
,amos 7v4 #h7 is d]iv$ f ! ,assyrian    
,kimta1 a family4 ,aratus describes !   
,pleiades 9 ! foll[+ l9es3--    ,ne>    
8#djf left ?igh toge!r sweep along   ,! 
flock ( ,clu/]]s4 ,n a mighty span      
,holds all1 & !y !mselves are dim to    
see1   ,& sev5 pa?s al(t m5 say !y take1
   ,yet six alone are view$ by mortal   

eye4   ,^! sev5 are call$ by "n ,alkyon 
,kela91 ,m]op & ,/]op   ,tayget1        
,elecktr1 ,maia que54   ,!y ?us toge!r  
small & fa9t roll on   ,yet notable at  
morn & eve ?r\gh ,zeus4#djg  ,!         
,pleiades are m5tion$ by ,ovid4 ,accord+
 to ! anci5t poets !y 7 suppos$ to      
repres5t ! *ildr5 ( ,atlas & ,hesp]us1 &
 on ?is acc\nt !y 7 call$ ,atlantids or 
,hesp]ides4 ,f ! resemblance 9 s\nd to !
 ^w ,greek3 pleias1 a pigeon1 !y 7      
sometimes call$ ! doves1 & = ! same     
reason ! ^w ,greek3 ple91 to navigate1  
l$ to _! be+ call$ ! %ipp+ />s4 ,! ^w   
,greek3 pleias 0 also appli$ to !       
prie/esses ( ! god ,zeus 7,jupit]7 at   
,dordona1 9 ! groves ( :i* temple !re 7 
a numb] ( pigeons4 ,?is is1 p]haps1 :at 
,aratus ref]s to 9 ! la/ l9e ( ! extract
 quot$ above4 ,accord+ to ,neapolitan   
leg5ds1 ! "n ( ,virgil's "m 0 ,maia4 ,! 
"m ( ,buddha1 ! ,h9doo avat>1 0 also    
nam$ ,maia4 ,9 ,italy ! ,pleiades 7     
call$ ,gall9ata1 & 9 ,france p\ss9ire1  
bo? ( :i* mean ! h5 & *ick5s1 a t]m also

 giv5 to !m by ,al-,sufi4 ,! old        
,blackfoot ,indians call$ !m ,! ,sev5   
,p]fect ,ones4 ,! ,crees & ,ojibway     
,indians call$ !m ! ,fi%] ,/>s4 ,!      
,adipones ( ,brazil & "s o!r nations    
claim$ t !y sprang f ! ,pleiades6 ,!    
,wy&ot ,indians call$ !m ,! ,s++        
,maid5s4  ,photographs %[ t ! bright]   
/>s ( ! ,pleiades are involv$ 9         
nebulosity4 ,t surr\nd+ ,maia seems to  
be ( a spiral =m4 ,n[1 !re is a         
,sanscrit my? :i* repres5ts ,maia z     
weav+ ! palpable univ]se1 = :i* reason  
%e 0 typifi$ z a spid]4 ,?is seems v    
appropriate1 consid]+ ! web ( nebul\s   
light :i* surr\nds ! />s ( ! gr\p4 ,maia
 0 also consid]$ z a type ( ! univ]se1  
:i* aga9 seems appropriate1 z probably  
mo/ ( ! />s 7 evolv$ f spiral nebul4  ,!
 "n ,hyades is suppos$ to be d]iv$ f !  
,greek ^w ,greek3 hye91 to ra91 because 
9 anci5t times !y rose at ! ra9y season4
  ,9 anci5t ,egypt1 ,aldeb>an 0 call$   
ary2 & ! ,pleiades *ooa1 a ^w :i* means 
?\s&s4 ,! "n ,aldeb>an seems to h be5   

orig9ally appli$ to ! :ole ( ! ,hyades  
gr\p4 ,aldeb>an 0 also call$ by !       
,arabians al-fanik1 ! great ,camel1 & ! 
,hyades al-kilas1 ! "y ,camels4 ,! two  
close />s ,greek3 u & ,greek3 k ,tauri 7
 call$ al-kalban1 ! dogs ( ,aldeb>an4   
,la ,condam9e /ates t ! ,indians ( !    
,amazon saw 9 ! ,hyades ! head ( a bull4
  ,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s1 is ! ?ird            
con/ellation ( ! ,zodiac4 ,x 0 also     
call$ ,gemelli1 etc4 ,accord+ to ,dupuis
 x repres5ts ! #aa? lab\r ( ,h]cules--8 
triumph ov] ! dog ,c]b]us4#djh ,b "s (  
,dupuis' ideas seem v fanciful4 ,! ,tw9s
 are usually call$ ,ca/or & ,pollux1 b  
!y 7 also call$ by ! anci5t writ]s      
,apollo & ,h]cules2 ,jason &            
,triptolemus2 ,amphion & ,ze?us2 &      
,!seus & ,p]i!us4 ,9 ,egypt !y repres5t$
 ! deities ,horus & ,hippocrates4 ,br[n 
?9ks t ! ,great ,tw9s 7 orig9ally ! sun 
& moon1 :o live alt]nately4 ,z "o is    
born ! o!r dies2 z "o rises ! o!r       
sets4#dji ,?is applies to ! full moon1 b
 does n seem applicable to ! o!r lun>   

phases4  ,gem9i 0 ! con/ellation to :i* 
,dante suppos$ himself transport$ :5 he 
visit$ ! /ell> heav5s4#daj ,he says he 0
 born "u ! influ5ce ( ?is sign4  ,canc]1
 ! ,crab1 is ! next sign ( ! ,zodiac4 ,9
 ! ,greek my?ology x 0 suppos$ to h be5 
plac$ 9 ! sky by ,juno to commemorate ! 
crab :i* p9*$ ! toes ( ,h]cules 9 !     
,l]nan m>%4 ,! ,greek "n 0 ,greek3 tybi4
 ,accord+ to ,dupuis x repres5ts ! #ab? 
lab\r ( ,h]cules--8 capture ( ! gold5   
apples 9 ! ,g>d5 ( ! ,hesp]ides1 :i* 7  
gu>d$ by a ,dragon4 ,?is ,dragon is     
,draco1 :i* 0 also call$ ,cu/os         
,hesp]idum4#daa ,b ! connection betwe5 a
 crab & ! my? ( ! gold5 apples is n     
obvi\s--unless "s ref]5ce to crab apples
 is int5d$6 ,among ! ,romans1 ,canc] 0  
consecrat$ to ,m]cury1 & by ! anci5t    
,egyptians to _! god ,anubis4  ,!       
well-kn[n clu/] 9 ,canc] call$ !        
,prsape1 ,al-,sufi says1 is a little    
spot :i* resembles a cl\d1 & is surr\nd$
 by f\r />s1 two to ! we/ ,greek3  &    
,greek3 ? ,cancri & two to ! ea/ ,greek3

 g & ,greek3 d4 ,?is clu/] is m5tion$ by
 ,aratus1 :o calls x ! ,mang]4 ,! ^w    
,prsape is (t5 translat$ ,beehive1 b !re
 c be no d\bt t x really means ,mang]1  
ref]r+ to ! />s ,greek3 g & ,greek3 d   
,cancri1 :i* ! anci5ts call$ ,aselli1 ! 
ass's colts4 ,^! 7 suppos$ to repres5t !
 asses :i* 9 ! w> ( ,jupit] aga9/ !     
,giants help$ 8 victory by _! bray+6    
,admiral ,smy? says 9 8 ,b$=d ,catalogue
 7p4 #bjb7 t he f\nd ,greek3 g & ,greek3
 d ,cancri bo? ( #d? magnitude2 b !     
photometric measures %[ t ,greek3 d is  
n[ di/9ctly bright] ?an ,greek3 g4 ,an  
occultation ( ,greek3 d ,cancri by !    
moon is record$ z hav+ occurr$ on       
,septemb] #c1 ,b4,c4 #bdj4  ,! f9e      
con/ellation ,leo1 ! ,lion1 is ! next   
sign ( ! ,zodiac1 & is m>k$ by !        
well-kn[n ,sickle4 ,accord+ to ,dupuis1 
x repres5ts ! fir/ lab\r ( ,h]cules--!  
kill+ ( ! ,nemlian lion4 ,manilius call$
 x ,nemu4 ,x 0 also call$ ,janonus      
sidus1 ,bac*i sidus1 etc4 ,! ,greek "n 0
 ,greek3 me*ir1 ,greek3 me*eir1 or      

,greek3 me*os4 ,9 anci5t ,egypt1 ,leo 0 
sacr$ to ,osiris1 & _m ( ! ,egyptian    
monum5ts are ornam5t$ ) lions' heads4 ,x
 is /at$ 9 ! ,horapolla t its appe>ance 
0 suppos$ to ann\nce ! annual ris+ ( !  
,nile4  ,regulus 7,greek3 a ,leonis7 is 
! brighte/ & mo/ s\!rn ( ! />s 9 !      
,sickle4 ,al-,sufi says x is situat$ 9 !
 he>t & is ( ! #a/ magnitude4 ,x is t   
:i* is call$ al-maliki1 ! royal />4 ,x  
is m>k$ on ! a/rolabe z kalb al-asad1 ! 
,he>t ( ! ,lion 7:5ce ! "n ,cor         
,leonis74 ,mod]n photometric measures   
make x ab\t #ac magnitude4 ,x has an    
#h-a_/b magnitude companion at ab\t #agg
 di/ance 7,burnham7 :i* is mov+ ?r\gh   
space ) ! bright />1 & is !re=e at      
probably ! same di/ance f ! e>? z its   
brilliant prim>y4 ,?is companion is     
d\ble 7#he1 #abe3 #cje1 ,burnham74 ,!   
spectroscope %[s t ,regulus is approa*+ 
! e>? at ! rate ( #e-a_/b miles a       
second4 ,its p>allax is v small--ab\t   
#jjbb1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,elk9--:i*       
indicates t x is at a va/ di/ance f !   

e>?2 & its brightness %[s t x mu/ be a  
sun ( enorm\s size4 ,ptolemy call$ x    
,greek3 basiliskos1 :5ce its ,lat9 "n   
,regulus1 fir/ us$ by ,cop]nicus z !    
dim9utive ( rex4#dab  ,! next           
con/ellation ( ! ,zodiac is ,virgo1 !   
,virg94 ,x 0 also call$ by ! anci5ts    
,c]es1 ,isis1 ,erigone1 ,=tuna1         
,concorda1 ,a/ra1 & ,!mis4 ,! ,greek "n 
0 ,greek3 pham5?4 ,c]es 0 ! goddess ( ! 
h>ve/4 ,br[n ?9ks t x probably repres5ts
 ! anci5t goddess ,i/>1 & also ,a%tore?4
 ,accord+ to ,pr(4 ,sayce x is ! same z 
! ,accadian sign ( ! err& ( ,i/>1 a "n  
due to ! belief t x 0 9 ,augu/ t !      
goddess ,a/>te desc5d$ into ,hades 9    
se>* ( h] betro!d1 ! sun god ,tammuz1 or
 ,adonis1 :o _h be5 sla9 by ! bo>'s     
tusk4#dac ,! e> ( corn 7,spica7 is f\nd 
on ! anci5t ,egyptian monum5ts1 & is    
suppos$ to repres5t ! f]tility caus$ by 
! annual ris+ ( ! ,nile4 ,accord+ to    
,aratus1 ! ,virg9 liv$ on e>? dur+ !    
gold5 age "u ! "n ( ,ju/ice1 b t 9 !    
bronze age %e left ! e>? & took up h]   

abode 9 ! heav5s4    ,ju/ice1 loa?+ t   
race ( m51   ,w+$ h] flight to heav54   
,! ,sph9x ne> ! ,great ,pyramid has !   
head ( a virg9 on ! body ( a lion1      
repres5t+ ! goddess ,isis 7,virgo7 & h] 
husb& ,osiris 7,leo74  ,al-,sufi's #e?  
/> ( ,virgo is ,flam/e$ #fc ,virg9is4   
,al-,sufi says x is a d\ble /> ( ! #e?  
magnitude4 ,9 ,al-,sufi's "t x =m$ a    
nak$-eye d\ble ) #fa ,virg9is1 b ow+ to 
l>ge prop] motion1 #fa has n[ mov$ ab\t 
#bf m9utes ( arc t[>ds ! s\?1 & no long]
 =ms a d\ble ) #fc4 ,?is int]e/+ fact 0 
fir/ po9t$ out by ,flamm>ion 9 8 "w ,les
 toiles 7p4 #cgc74  ,libra1 ! ,balance1 
is "o ( ! signs ( ! ,zodiac1 b orig9ally
 =m$ ! claws ( ! ,scorpion4 ,x 0 call$  
,juguna by ,cic]o1 & ,mo*os by          
,ampelius4 ,! ,greek "n 0 ,greek3       
ph>m\!4 ,virgil sugge/s t x repres5t$ ! 
ju/ice ( ! emp]or ,augu/us1 hon\r$ by ! 
"n ( a con/ellation2 b probably ?is     
ref]s to ! bir? ( ,augu/us "u ! sign (  
,libra1 z ,scalig] has po9t$ out4       
,accord+ to ,br[n1 ! daily seiz+ ( ! dy+

 we/]n sun by ! claws ( ! ,scorpion (   
d>kness is r$uplicat$ annually at !     
,autumnal ,equ9ox1 :5 ! feeble wan+ sun 
( %ort5+ days falls ev] e>li] into 8    
enemy's grasp2#dad & he says1 ,!        
,balance or ,scales 7,libra71 :i* x w be
 obs]v$ is 9 itself nei!r diurnal nor   
nocturnal1 is ! only "o ( ! zodiacal    
signs n ,euphratean 9 orig91 hav+ be5   
import$ f ,egypt & repres5t+ orig9ally !
 balance ( ! sun at ! horizon betwe5 !  
upp] & "u worlds2 & second>ily !        
equality ( ! days & nights at !         
equ9ox4#dae  ,accord+ to ,h\zeau1 ,libra
 0 =m$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! second c5tury    
,b4,c41 & x does n appe> 9 any writ+s   
be=e ^? ( ,gem9us & ,v>ron4#daf  ,milton
 says 9 ,p>adise ,lo/3--    ,! ,et]nal  
to prev5t su* horrid fray1   ,hung =? 9 
heav5 8 gold5 scales1 yet se5   ,betwixt
 ,a/ra & ! ,scorpion's sign4  7,"h ,a/ra
 is ,virgo47  ,x is wor? notic+ t bo?   
,ptolemy & ,al-,sufi rat$ ! /> ,greek3 k
 ,libr z two magnitudes bright] ?an     
,greek3 l ,libr4 ,! two />s are n[      

practically ( equal brightness 7#e?     
magnitude71 & x seems impossible to     
believe t ?is c\ld h be5 ! case 9       
,al-,sufi's "t4 ,surely a c>eful obs]v] 
l ,al-,sufi1 :o e/imat$ ! relative      
brightness ( />s to a ?ird ( a          
magnitude1 c\ld n possibly h made an    
error ( two magnitudes 9 ! brightness ( 
two />s ne> ea* o!r6 ,x %\ld be /at$1   
h[ev]1 t ,greek3 k ,libr 0 rat$ #e?     
magnitude by ,argel&] & ,heis1 & ,greek3
 l1 #f? magnitude by ! same excell5t    
obs]v]s4  ,! next sign ( ! ,zodiac1     
,scorpion1 0 consecrat$ by ! ,romans to 
,m>s1 & by ! ,egyptians to ,typhon4#dag 
,x 0 call$ ,nepa by ,cic]o1 ,m>tis sidus
 by ,manilius1 & ,f]a magna by ,aratus4 
,! ,greek "n 0 ,greek3 pa*n4  ,mr4 ,e4  
,b4 ,knobel has call$ att5tion to a     
curi\s rem>k ( ,ptolemy ) ref]5ce to !  
bright /> ,ant>es 7,greek3 a ,scorpii71 
,m$ia e>um qu t5dit ad rap9am qu dicitur
 ,cor ,scorpionis2 & he made a simil>   
rem>k ) ref]5ce to ,betelgeuse 7,greek3 
a ,orionis7 & o!rs4 ,b ,mr4 ,rob]t      

,br[n#dah expla9s ! rem>k by ! fact t 9 
anci5t times ^! />s rose 9 ! morn+ at a 
"t :5 c>avans 7 expos$ to dang]s f      
robb]s4 ,?us ! t]m _h no?+ to d ) !     
aspect or col\r ( ^! />s1 b 0 m]ely a   
ref]5ce to _! suppos$ a/rological       
influ5ce on human affairs4  ,9 !        
,egyptian ,book ( ! ,dead1 ,silkit 0 a  
goddess :o assum$ ! =m ( a scorpion 9 ! 
sky4 ,%e 0 suppos$ to be ! daught] (    
,ra4  ,) ref]5ce to />s outside ! anci5t
 figure ( ,scorpio1 ! fir/1 ,al-,sufi   
says1 is a /> :i* imm$iately foll[s     
al-s*aulat ,greek3 l & ,greek3 k1 x is (
 small #d? magnitude2 ,ptolemy calls x  
,greek3 nepheloeids nebul\s4 ,s*jel]up1 
9 8 translation ( ,al-,sufi's "w1 does n
 id5tify ?is object2 b x is v evid5tly  
,greek3 g ,telescopii1 :i* lies exactly 
9 ! position describ$ by ,al-,sufi4 ,n[1
 x is a v int]e/+ & curi\s fact t       
,ptolemy call$ x nebul\s1 = 9 ! same    
telescopic field ) x is ! nebula h #cgje
 7 ,dunlop #eeg74 ,dunlop describes x z 
a small well-def9$ r bright nebula1 ab\t

 #bj 9 diamet]2 a v small /> prec$es x1 
b is n involv$2 foll[+ ,greek3 g        
,telescopii4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el at !    
,cape f\nd x fairly resolv$ into v fa9t 
/>s1 & adds1 ,! :ole gr\nd ( ! heav5s1 =
 an imm5se ext5t is ?ickly s[n ) su*    
/>s4 ,a beautiful object4#dai ,?is      
p]haps acc\nts = ! nebul\s appe>ance ( !
 /> z se5 by ,ptolemy4  ,sev]al nov or  
tempor>y />s are record$ z hav+ appe>$ 9
 ,scorpio4 ,"o 9 ! ye> ,b4,c4 #acd is   
/at$ by ,pl9y to h induc$ ,hipp>*us to  
=m 8 catalogue ( />s4 ,?is /> 0 also    
obs]v$ 9 ,*9a4 ,its exact position is   
unkn[n1 b ,flamm>ion ?9ks x may possibly
 h appe>$ ab\t #d nor? ( ! /> ,greek3 b 
,scorpii4 ,ano!r new /> is said to h    
appe>$ 9 ,a4,d4 #cic1 some:]e 9 !       
,scorpion's tail4 ,"o 9 ,a4,d4 #abjc &  
ano!r 9 #aehd are also m5tion$1 ! latt] 
ne> ,greek3 p ,scorpii4  ,! con/ellation
 ,scorpio seems to be ref]r$ to by      
,dante 9 8 ,purgatorio 7ix4 #d-f7 9 !   
l9es--    ,de gemma la sua fronte era   
luc5ta   ,po/e 9 figura del fr$da       

animale   ,*e con la coda p]cota la     
g5ta1  p]haps sugge/$ by ,ovid's rem>k--
    ,scorpius exhibit caudaque m5abitur 
unca4#dbj  ,next to ,scorpio comes      
,sagitt>ius1 ! ,ar*]4 ,x is said to h   
be5 plac$ 9 ! sky z a symbol ( ,h]cules1
 a h]o :o 0 held 9 ! greate/ v5]ation by
 ! anci5t ,egyptians4 ,! horse1 usually 
associat$ ) ?is con/ellation1 0 a symbol
 ( w>4 ,x 0 also call$ by ! anci5ts     
,*iron1 ,arcit55s1 ,m9otaurus1 ,croton1 
etc4 ,! ,greek "n 0 ,greek3 pauni1 or   
,greek3 pani4 ,*iron 0 suppos$ to be !  
son ( ,saturn & ,phillyra1 & fir/ taught
 m5 to ride on horses4 ,! "n is d]iv$ f 
! ,greek ,greek3 *eir1 a h&4 ,"s writ]s1
 h[ev]1 ?9k t ,*iron is repres5t$ by !  
con/ellation ( ! ,c5taur1 & o!rs say t  
,sagitt>ius repres5ts ! ,m9otaur lov$ by
 ,p]sephone4 ,accord+ to ,dupuis1       
,sagitt>ius repres5ts ! #e? lab\r (     
,h]cules1 :i* consi/$ 9 hunt+ ! birds ( 
! lake ,/ymphalus1 :i* ravag$ !         
neighb\r+ c\ntries4 ,^! birds are p]haps
 repres5t$ by ,cygnus1 ,altair1 & !     

,vulture 7,lyra74 ,! ,lyre probably     
repres5ts ! musical in/rum5t :i*        
,h]cules us$ to fright5 ! birds4#dba    
,accord+ to ,al-,sufi1 ! ,arabians call$
 ! />s ,greek3 g1 d1 e1 & ,greek3       
,sagitt>ii :i* =m a quadrilat]al figure1
 ! ,o/ri* :i* goes to ! wat]+ place1    
because !y comp>$ ! ,milky ,way to a    
riv]4 ,!y comp>$ ! />s ,greek3 s1 ph1 t1
 & ,greek3 z ,sagitt>ii1 :i* =m ano!r   
quadrilat]al1 to an o/ri* :i* has drunk 
& returns f ! wat]+ place4 ,he says t ! 
/> ,greek3 l ,sagitt>ii =ms ) ^! two    
o/ri*es a t5t1 & c]ta9ly ! figure =m$ by
 ,greek3 l1 ph1 z1 e1 & ,greek3 d is n  
unlike a t5t4 ,al-,sufi says m ab\t ^!  
o/ri*es2 b ! ideas ( ! old ,arabians    
ab\t ! />s seem v fanciful4  ,a tempor>y
 /> is record$ 9 ! ,*9ese ,annals (     
,ma-t\an-l9 z hav+ appe>$ 9 ,may1 ,b4,c4
 #dh1 ab\t #d di/ant f ,greek3 m        
,sagitt>ii4 ,ano!r 9 ! ye> #ajaa ,a4,d4 
appe>$ ne> ! quadrilat]al figure =m$ by 
! />s ,greek3 s1 t1 z1 & ,greek3 ph     
,sagitt>ii4 ,?is may p]haps be id5tifi$ 

) ! object ref]r$ to by ,hepidannus 9 ! 
ye> #ajab1 :i* 0 ( extraord9>y          
brilliancy1 & rema9$ visible 9 ! s\!rn  
"p ( ! heav5s dur+ ?ree mon?s4 ,ano!r is
 m5tion$ ne> ! same place 9 ,a4,d4 #chf 
7,april to ,july74#dbb ,! numb] (       
tempor>y />s record$ 9 ?is "p ( ! heav5s
 is v rem>kable4  ,accord+ to ,br[n1    
,sagitt>ius is depict$ on a /one1 cir4  
,b4,c4 #aajj1 f\nd at ,bbilu1 & n[ 9 !  
,briti% ,museum4#dbc         99       99
       99       99       99  ,! next ( !
 signs ( ! ,zodiac is ,capricornus1 !   
,goat4 ,9 ! ,arabo-,lat9 edition (      
,ptolemy's ,almage/ x is call$          
,alcaucurus4 ,x is suppos$ to repres5t  
,amal!a1 ! goat :i* nurs$ ,jupit]4      
,accord+ to ,dupuis x repres5t$ ! #f?   
lab\r ( ,h]cules1 :i* 0 ! clean+ out ( !
 ,augean /ables4#dbd  ,greek3 a#b       
,capricorni is ! nor!rn ( two />s ( !   
#d? magnitude 7,greek3 a & ,greek3 b    
,capricorni74 ,x really consi/s ( two   
/>s visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,! second (  
^! two />s 7,greek3 a#a7 is n m5tion$ by

 ,al-,sufi1 b ,i f9d t1 ow+ to prop]    
motion1 !y 7 ne>] toge!r 9 8 "t 7t5?    
c5tury71 & 7 evid5tly se5 by him z "o   
/>4 ,greek3 b ,capricorni 7ab\t #crd    
magnitude7 is a v wide d\ble />         
7#c-a_/b1 #f2 #bje71 :i* may be se5 )   
any small telescope4 ,! fa9t] /> 0 f\nd 
to be a close d\ble by ,burnham4 ,at    
pres5t ,greek3 b is bright] ?an ,greek3 
a1 al?\gh rat$ ( ! same brightness by   
,al-,sufi4  ,aqu>ius is ! next sign ( ! 
,zodiac4 ,x is suppos$ to repres5t a man
 p\r+ wat] out ( an urn or bucket4 ,o!r 
names giv5 to ?is con/ellation 7 ,ari/u1
 ,ganym$e1 ,cecrops1 ,amphora1 ,urna1 & 
,aqua tyrannus4 ,accord+ to ,dupuis x   
repres5ts ! #g? lab\r ( ,h]cules1 :i* 0 
8 victory ov] ! fam\s bull :i* ravag$   
,crete4#dbe ,b ! connection betwe5 a    
bull & a bucket is n obvi\s4 ,aqu>ius is
 repres5t$ 9 sev]al places on !         
,egyptian monum5ts4 ,"s ( ! anci5t poets
 suppos$ t x repres5t$ ,deucalion 7!    
,noah ( ! ,greek /ory ( ! ,deluge72 o!rs
 ?\ght t x repres5t$ ,cecrops1 :o came  

to ,greece f ,egypt1 built ,a!ns1 & 0   
also call$ ,bi=nis4 ,o!rs say t he 0    
,ganym$e1 ! cup-be>] ( ! gods4  ,!re is 
"s difficulty ab\t ! id5tification ( "s 
( ,al-,sufi's />s 9 ,aqu>ius4 ,8 six? />
 7,fl4 #g7 is ne>ly #aj s\?-we/ (       
,greek3 b ,aqu>ii1 & is1 ,al-,sufi says1
 ! foll[+ ( ?ree />s 9 ! left h&1 &     
prec$es ! f\r? ,greek3 b 444 x is ( !   
#f? magnitude4 ,ptolemy calls x ?ird1 b 
9 reality x is v fa9t n[ ab\t #f?       
magnitude4 ,! sev5? ,greek3 m is !      
middle "o ( ! ?ree & ab\t #d-a_/b       
magnitude1 al?\gh ,al-,sufi calls x     
small fif? ,ptolemy rat$ x #d4 ,! eigh? 
/>1 ,greek3 e1 is ! prec$+ ( ! ?ree &   
ab\t #ch1 agree+ closely ) ,al-,sufi's  
#dc4 ,ptolemy rat$ x #c4 ,?is /> is     
m5tion$ "u ! "n n\ 9 ! "t ( ,t*e\-,kong 
9 ! twelf? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,al-,sufi says1
 ,^! ?ree />s are foll[$ by a /> ( ! #e?
 magnitude :i* ,ptolemy has n m5tion$4  
,x is bright] ?an ! six? /> ,fl4 #g4    
,?is is evid5tly ,greek3 n ,aqu>ii4 ,if1
 h[ev]1 we plot ,ptolemy's positions z  

giv5 by ,al-,sufi1 x seems probable t   
,ptolemy's six? /> 0 really ,greek3 n1 &
 t ei!r ,greek3 m or ,fl4 #g 0 n se5 by 
him4 ,z ,ptolemy call$ 8 sev5? /> #d?   
magnitude1 & 8 six? & eigh? />s #crd    
magnitude1 "s consid]able *ange (       
brightness seems to h tak5 place 9 ^!   
/>s2 z ,greek3 n is n[ only #d-a_/b &   
,fl4 #g only a bright six?4 ,v>iation 0 
suspect$ 9 ,fl4 #gdbf by ,g\ld4 ,i f\nd 
x v r$di% ) b9ocul> 9 ,octob]1 #ahib4   
,burnham f\nd x to be a close d\ble />1 
! companion be+ ab\t #ab? magnitude at a
 di/ance ( only #b4 ,x is probably a    
b9>y4  ,accord+ to ,al-,sufi1 !         
,arabians call$ ! second & ?ird />s ( ! 
figure 7,greek3 a & ,greek3 o ,aqu>ii7  
sad al-malik 7malk or mulk71 ! ,good    
,=tune ( ! k+4 ,!y call$ ! f\r? & fif?  
/>s 7,greek3 b & ,greek3 x ,aqu>ii7 ) ! 
tw5ty-eigh? /> ( ,capricornus 7c7 sad   
al-sund1 ! ,good ,=tune ( ! ,happy      
,ev5ts4 ,?is is ! #bd? mansion ( ! moon4
 ,^! />s rose at ! "t ( ye> :5 ! cold   
ends1 & !y set at ! "t ! heat ends4     

,h5ce1 ,al-,sufi says1 :5 !y rise ! ra9s
 beg91 & :5 !y set ! unheal?y w9ds      
cease1 f]tility ab\nds1 & ! dew falls4  
,h5ce probably ! ,arabic names4 ,?is1 ( 
c\rse1 applies to ! climate ( ,p]sia &  
,arabia1 & n to ! ,briti% ,isles4       
,al-,sufi says1 ,!y call ! #f?1 #g?1 &  
#h? />s sad bula1 ',! ,good ,=tune :i*  
swall[s up6' ,?is is ! #bcrd mansion ( !
 moon4 ,!y say t x is s call$ because t 
at ! "t ( ! ,deluge x rose at ! mom5t :5
 ,god said1 ',o e>?6 absorb ! wat]s'    
7,koran1 *ap1 xi41 v4 #df74 ,!y call$ ! 
/>s ,greek3 g1 p1 z & ,greek3  ,aqu>ii  
sad al-a*bija1 '! ! ,good ,=tune ( !    
t5ts'2 ?is is ! #be? mansion ( ! moon1 &
 !y give !m ?is "n because ( ^! f\r />s1
 ?ree =m a triangle1 ! f\r? ,greek3 z   
be+ 9 ! middle4 ,! ?ree 7 consid]$ to =m
 a t5t4  ,! ,arabians call$ ! bright /> 
,fomalhaut 9 ! m\? ( ! s\!rn fi%        
al-dhifda al-auval1 '! fir/ ,frog1' z ! 
bright "o on ! s\!rn po9t ( ! tail (    
,ktus ,cetus is call$ al-dhifda al-tsani
 ,greek3 b ,ceti1 '! second ,frog4'     

,fomalhaut 0 also call$ al-zhalim1 !    
male o/ri*4  ,al-,sufi says1 ,"s ( !    
,arabians /ate t a %ip is situat$ to !  
s\? ( ,aqu>ius4 ,! />s 9 ! ,s\!rn ,fi%  
7,piscis ,au/ralis7 seem to be "h ref]r$
 to4  ,! con/ellation ,pisces1 ! ,fi%es1
 is ! la/ ( ! signs ( ! ,zodiac4 ,!     
,fi%es appe> on an anci5t ,greek obelisk
 describ$ by ,pococke4 ,among ! ,greeks 
?is sign 0 consecrat$ to ,v5us2 & 9     
,egypt to ,nep?ys1 wife ( ,typhon &     
goddess ( ! sea4 ,pisces is said to end 
! ,zodiac z ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea t]m9at$ 
,egypt4 ,?is idea 0 sugge/$ by ,s*midt1 
:o also conjectur$ t ! ,ram 7,aries7 0  
plac$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,zodiac because   
,!bes1 a t[n sacr$ to ,jupit] ,ammon1 0 
at ! beg9n+ ( ,egypt 9 anci5t times2 &  
he ?\ght t ! con/ellation ,triangulum1 !
 ,triangle1 repres5t$ ! ,nile ,delta1   
,eridanus be+ ! ,nile4#dbg ,!           
con/ellation 0 repres5t$ 9 anci5t times 
by two fi%es connect$ by a cord ti$ to  
_! tails4 ,! s\!rn ( ^! fi%es lies s\? (
 ! ,squ>e ( ,pegasus1 & ! nor!rn betwe5 

,&rom$a & ,aries4 ,accord+ to ,manilius1
 ! orig9 ( ^! fi%es is z foll[s3 ,v5us1 
see+ ,typhon on ! banks ( ! riv]        
,euphrates1 ca/ h]self ) h] son into !  
riv] & !y 7 trans=m$ into fi%es6  ,"s ( 
! ,arabians sub/itut$ a swall[ = !      
nor!rn ( ! two fi%es--! "o bel[ ,&rom$a4
 ,! swall[ 0 a symbol ( ,spr+4 ,accord+ 
to ,dupuis1 ,pisces repres5ts ! #h?     
lab\r ( ,h]cules1 8 triumph ov] ! m>es (
 ,diom$ :i* emitt$ fire f _!            
no/rils4#dbh ,b ! connection betwe5     
fi%es & m>es is n obvi\s1 & "s (        
,dupuis' ideas seem v fanciful4 ,"h he  
seems to h f\nd a m>e's ne/4  ,!        
con/ellation ,cetus1 ! ,:ale1 repres5ts1
 accord+ to anci5t writ]s1 ! sea mon/]  
s5t by ,neptune to dev\r ,&rom$a :5 %e 0
 *a9$ to ! rock4 ,aratus calls ,cetus ! 
dusky mon/]1 & ,br[n rem>ks t ! ',dusky 
,/>' w\ld be peculi>ly appropriate to   
,mira 7! wondr\s ,greek3 o ,ceti74#dbi  
,cetus 0 also call$ ,canis ,tritonis1 or
 ,dog ( ! ,sea1 ,bay] 9 8 ,atlas 7#afjc7
 %[s a dragon in/ead ( a :ale1 f9d+ x s 

repres5t$ on "s anci5t sph]es4 ,al-,sufi
 calls x ,ktus or ,greek3 ktos1 ! :ale4 
,he says1 x is repres5t$ by ! figure ( a
 m>9e animal1 ( :i* ! =e "p is turn$    
t[>ds ! ea/1 to ! s\? ( ! ,ram1 & ! h9d]
 "p t[>ds ! we/ beh9d ! ?ree 'ext]n' />s
 ( ,aqu>ius4  ,al-,sufi does n m5tion ! 
v>iable /> ,greek3 o ,ceti1 n[ call$    
,mira1 or ! wond]ful1 nor does he ref]  
to any /> 9 its imm$iate vic9ity4 ,we   
may1 !re=e1 conclude t x 0 ne> a m9imum 
( light at ! "t ( 8 obs]vation ( ! />s (
 ,cetus4  ,! con/ellation ( ,orion1 "o (
 ! f9e/ 9 ! heav5s1 0 call$ by ,al-,sufi
 al-djabb>1 ! ,giant1 & also al-djauza1 
! ,sp\se4 ,! poet ,longfell[ says--     
,sirius 0 ris+ 9 ! ea/   ,&1 sl[ asc5d+ 
"o by "o1   ,! k9dl+ con/ellations %one 
,begirt ) _m a blaz+ />   ,/ood ! great 
giant ,al-geb>   ,orion1 hunt] ( ! bea/6
   ,8 sword hung gleam+ at 8 side   ,&  
on 8 arm1 ! lion's hide--   ,scatt]$    
across ! midnight air   ,! gold5        
radiance ( its hair4  ,al-,sufi says x  
is repres5t$ by ! figure ( a /&+ man1 to

 ! s\? ( ! sun's pa?4 ,?is con/ellation 
v mu* resembles a human figure ) a head 
& two %\ld]s4 ,x is call$ al-djabb>1 '! 
,giant1' because x has two ?rones1 holds
 a club 9 8 h&1 & is gird$ ) a sword4   
,orion is suppos$ to h be5 a son (      
,neptune2 b !re are _m /ories ( ! orig9 
( ! "n4 ,x is also said to be d]iv$ f ! 
,greek ^w ,greek3 ra1 because !         
con/ellation 0 us$ to m>k ! diff]5t     
times ( ! ye>4 ,accord+ to ! anci5t     
fable1 ,orion 0 kill$ by a scorpion1 & 0
 plac$ 9 ! sky at ! reque/ ( ,diana4    
,accord+ to ,h\zeau1 ! "n comes f oriri1
 to be born4 ,scorpio rises :5 ,orion   
sets1 & he ?9ks t ! idea ( ! anci5ts 0 t
 ! ,scorpion 9 ?is way kills ! giant    
,orion4  ,9 anci5t ,egypt ,orion 0 call$
 ,sahu4 ,?is "n occurs on ! monum5ts ( !
 ,ptolemies1 & also on ^? ( ! ,ph>aohs4 
,x is also m5tion$ 9 ! ,book ( ! ,dead4 
,x seems to h be5 consid]$ ( great      
importance 9 anci5t ,egypt1 z its       
heliacal ris+ ann\nc$ t ( ,sirius1 :i*  
h]ald$ ! annual ris+ ( ! ,nile4  ,!     

con/ellation ,eridanus lies s\? (       
,taurus1 ea/ ( ,cetus1 & we/ ( ,lepus4  
,9 anci5t times x 0 suppos$ to repres5t 
! ,nile or ! ,po4 ,ptolemy m]ely calls x
 ,greek3 ,potam\ a/]ismos1 or a/]ism ( !
 riv]4 ,x 0 call$ ,eridanus by !        
,greeks1 & ,fluvius by ! ,romans4 ,x    
appe>s to correspond ) ! ,hebrew ,%icor4
 ,al-,sufi calls x al-nahr1 ! ,riv]4    
,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ po9ts 9 ,al-,sufi's 
mo/ int]e/+ "w is ! id5tity ( ! bright  
/> kn[n to ! anci5t a/ronom]s z a*ir    
al-nahr1 ! ,end ( ! ,riv]1 & call$ by   
,ptolemy ,greek3 ,es*atos t\ potam\1 !  
,la/ 9 ! ,riv]4 ,"s a/ronom]s h id5tifi$
 ?is /> ) ,greek3 a ,eridani 7,a*]n>71 a
 bright s\!rn /> ( ! #a/ magnitude1 s\? 
( ,eridanus4 ,b ,al-,sufi's description 
%[s cle>ly t ! /> he ref]s to is really 
,greek3 ? ,eridani2 & ! read] w f9d x   
int]e/+ to foll[ 8 description ) a />   
map be=e him4 ,describ+ ,ptolemy's #cd? 
/> ( ,eridanus 7! /> 9 "q71 he says1 !  
#cd? /> is f\nd be=e t is we/ ( ^! ?ree 
/>s ! #ca/1 #cbnd1 & #ccrd1 :i* are     

,greek3 u#b1 ,du1 & ,greek3 u' 9        
,proctor's ,atlas1 ! di/ance betwe5 x & 
t ( ! ?ree :i* is ne>e/ be+ ab\t #d     
cubits #i #bj'4 ,x is ( ! fir/          
magnitude2 x is t :i* is m>k$ on ! s\!rn
 a/rolabe1 & call$ a*ir al-nahr1 '! ,end
 ( ! ,riv]4' ,!re are be=e ?is bright "o
 two />s1 "o to ! s\?1 ,greek3 s        
,eridani1 n %[n 9 ,proctor's small      
,atlas1 ! o!r to ! nor? ,greek3 i       
,eridani2 ,ptolemy does n m5tion ^!4 ,"o
 ( ^! />s is ( ! #d? magnitude1 ! o!r ( 
! #e?4 ,!re is beh9d ! same t is1 ea/ ( 
x a /> ( ! #d? magnitude di/ant f x two 
cubits ,greek3 e ,eridani4 ,to ! s\? ( !
 ?ree />s :i* foll[ ! bright "o !re are 
"s />s ( ! #d? & #e? magnitudes1 :i* he 
,ptolemy has n m5tion$4  ,n[1 a glance  
at a /> map ( ?is region w %[ cle>ly t !
 bright /> ref]r$ to by ,al-,sufi is    
und\bt$ly ,greek3 ? ,eridani1 :i* is    
!re=e ! /> kn[n to ! anci5ts z ! ,end ( 
! ,riv]1 or ! ,la/ 9 ! ,riv]4  ,!       
position giv5 by ,ptolemy agrees fairly 
well ) ,al-,sufi's description1 al?\gh !

 place is slightly errone\s1 z is also !
 case ) ,fomalhaut & ,greek3 b ,c5tauri4
 ,x is impossible to suppose t ei!r     
,ptolemy or ,al-,sufi c\ld h se5 ,greek3
 a ,eridani1 z x is too f> s\? to be    
visible f _! /ations1 &1 ow+ to !       
precession ( ! equ9oxes1 ! /> 0 /ill    
fur!r s\? 9 anci5t times4 ,al-,sufi says
 di/9ctly t ! di/ance betwe5 ,ptolemy's 
#ccrd /> 7:i* is und\bt$ly h ,eridani1  
or ,proctor's ,greek3 u'7 & ! #cd? /> 0 
#d cubits1 or #i #bj'4 ,! actual di/ance
 is ab\t #i #aa'1 s t ,al-,sufi's       
e/imate 0 practically correct4 ,halley1 
9 8 ,catalogus ,/ell>ium ,au/ralium1    
id5tifies ,ptolemy's /> ) ,greek3 ?     
,eridani1 & ,baily agre$ ) him4#dcj     
,ulugh ,beigh also id5tifies ! ,la/ 9 ! 
,riv] ) ,greek3 ? ,eridani4 ,! ,arabic  
obs]v] ,mohamm$ ,ali ,a*sasi1 :o obs]v$ 
9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 call$ ,greek3 ?    
,eridani ,a*r al-nahr1 & rat$ x fir/    
magnitude4#dca ,to argue1 z ,bode &     
,flamm>ion h done1 t ,ptolemy &         
,al-,sufi may h he>d ( ,greek3 a        

,eridani f travell]s 9 ! s\!rn          
hemisph]e1 is to beg ! :ole "q at issue4
 ,?is is especially true ) ref]5ce to   
,al-,sufi1 :o says1 9 ! preface to 8 "w1
 t he has describ$ ! />s z se5 ) my own 
eyes4 ,greek3 a ,eridani is ov] #aa     
cubits f h ,eridani in/ead ( #d cubits z
 ,al-,sufi says4 ,?is %[s conclusively t
 ! /> se5 by ,al-,sufi 0 c]ta9ly n      
,greek3 a ,eridani4 ,! int]e/ ( !       
id5tification is t ,al-,sufi rat$       
,greek3 ? ,eridani ( ! fir/ magnitude1  
:]eas x is n[ only #crd magnitude6 ,x 0 
measur$ #cjf at ,h>v>d & e/imat$ #cd by 
,/anley ,williams1 s t x has evid5tly   
dim9i%$ greatly 9 brightness s9ce       
,al-,sufi's "t4 ,!re is an int]e/+ pap] 
on ?is subject by ,dr4 ,&]son 7!        
discov]] ( ,nova ,aurig & ,nova ,p]sei7 
9 ,k = ,july1 #ahic1 9 :i* he /ates t ! 
,la/ 9 ! ,riv]1 accord+ to ! /atem5ts ( 
,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy1 did rise above _! 
horizon at a c]ta9 "t ( ! ye>1 :i*      
,greek3 a ,eridani c\ld n possibly h    
done4 ,?is seems suffici5t to settle !  

"q 9 fav\r ( ,greek3 ? ,eridani4 ,dr4   
,&]son says1 ,x is mu* to be regrett$ t 
,pr(essor ,s*jell]up1 ! able & indu/ri\s
 translator ( ,sufi1 has all[$ ?is to   
escape 8 notice1 & help$ 9 ! preface &  
note to 8 "w to propagate ! delusion t  
,greek3 a ,eridani is ,ptolemy's ',la/ 9
 ! ,riv]'2 & 9 ?is op9ion ,i fully      
concur4 ,al-,sufi's cle> acc\nt places x
 beyond a d\bt t ! /> kn[n to ,hipp>*us1
 ,ptolemy1 ,al-,sufi1 & ,ulugh ,beigh z 
! ,la/ 9 ! ,riv] 0 ,greek3 ? ,eridani4  
,greek3 ? mu/ h dim9i%$ greatly 9       
brightness s9ce ,al-,sufi's "t1 = 9     
rank+ x z #a/ magnitude he plac$ x 9 a v
 select li/4 ,he only rat$ ?irte5 />s 9 
! :ole heav5s z be+ ( ! #a/ magnitude4  
,^! are3 ,arcturus1 ,vega1 ,capella1    
,aldeb>an1 ,regulus1 ,greek3 b ,leonis1 
,fomalhaut1 ,rigel1 ,greek3 ? ,eridani1 
,sirius1 ,procyon1 ,canopus1 & ,greek3 a
 ,c5tauri4 ,all ^! />s 7 actually se5 by
 ,al-,sufi1 & describ$ f 8 own          
obs]vations4 ,he does n m5tion ,greek3 a
 ,eridani1 z x 0 n visible f 8 /ation 9 

,p]sia4  ,greek3 ? ,eridani is a spl5did
 d\ble /> 7#cdj1 #ddi3 #hch1 #aijb1     
,tebbutt74 ,i f\nd ! compon5ts :ite &   
light yell[ ) #c-;in* refractor 9 !     
,punjab4 ,dr4 ,g\ld ?9ks t "o ( !       
compon5ts is v>iable to "s ext5t4 ,?is  
is int]e/+1 consid]+ ! brilliancy ( ! />
 9 ,al-,sufi's "t4 ,! bright] compon5t 0
 f\nd to be a spectroscopic b9>y by     
,wright1 s t on ! :ole ! /> is a mo/    
int]e/+ object4  ,! small con/ellation  
,lepus1 ! ,h>e1 lies s\? ( ,orion4 ,pl9y
 calls x ,dasypus1 & ,virgil ,auritus4  
,9 anci5t ,egypt x 0 ! symbol (         
vigilance1 prud5ce1 fe>1 solitude1 &    
spe$4#dcb ,x may p]haps repres5t ! h>e  
hunt$ by ,orion2 b "s say x 0 plac$ 9 ! 
sky to commemorate a t]rible plague (   
h>es :i* occurr$ 9 ,sicily 9 anci5t     
times4  ,a little nor?-we/ ( ! />       
,greek3 m ,leporis is ,h9d's crimson /> 
7,r4,a4 #d;h #ecm1 ,s4 #ad #eg'1 #aijj7 
describ$ by him z ( ! mo/ int5se        
crimson1 resembl+ a blood drop on !     
backgr\nd ( ! sky2 z reg>ds dep? (      

col\r1 no o!r /> visible 9 ^! latitudes 
c\ld be comp>$ ) x4 ,x is v>iable f ab\t
 ! #f? to ! #h? magnitude1 ) a p]iod (  
ab\t #dcf days f maximum to maximum4  ,!
 con/ellation ,canis ,major1 ! ,great   
,dog1 is rem>kable = conta9+ ,sirius1 ! 
brighte/ /> 9 ! heav5s4 ,9 ! ,greek     
my?ology x 0 suppos$ to repres5t a dog  
giv5 by ,aurora to ,cephalus z ! swifte/
 ( all dogs4 ,cephalus wi%$ to mat* x   
aga9/ a fox :i* he ?\ght surpass$ all   
animals = spe$4 ,!y bo? ran = s long a  
"t1 s ! /ory goes1 t ,jupit] rew>d$ !   
dog by plac+ x among ! />s4 ,b probably 
! dog comes f ,anubis1 ! dog-head$ god (
 ! anci5t ,egyptians4 ,accord+ to ,br[n1
 ,!ogirius 7,b4,c4 #edd7 ref]s to !     
con/ellation ( ! ,dog4#dcc ,he ?9ks t   
,canis ,major is probably a r$uplication
 ( ,orion2 ,sirius & ,greek3 b ,canis   
,majoris correspond+ to ,greek3 a &     
,greek3 g ,orionis2 ,greek3 d1 #bb1 &   
,greek3 e ,canis ,majoris to ! />s 9    
,orion's belt 7,greek3 d1 e1 & ,greek3 z
 ,orionis72 & ,greek3 2 & ,greek3 k     

,canis ,majoris ) ,greek3 k & ,greek3 b 
,orionis4#dcd  ,! ,arabic "n ( ,sirius 0
 al-s*ira1 :i* might easily be corrupt$ 
into ,sirius4 ,! ,hebrew "n 0 ,sihor4   
,accord+ to ,plut>*1 ! ,e?iopians paid  
regal hon\rs to ! ,cele/ial ,dog4 ,!    
,romans us$ to sacrifice a dog 9 its    
hon\r at ! fetes call$ ,robigalia1 :i* 7
 held on ! sev5? day be=e ! ,cal5ds (   
,may1 & n9e days aft] ! entry ( ! sun   
into ,taurus4 ,pl9y says1 ,hoc tempus   
,v>ro det]m9at sole decimam p>tem ,tauri
 obt95ti quod canis occidit1 sidus p] se
 vehem5s1 etc4#dce  ,ow+ to "s rem>ks ( 
,cic]o1 ,horace1 & ,s5eca1 x has be5    
suppos$ t 9 anci5t times ,sirius 0 ( r$ 
col\r4 ,s5eca says1 ,nec mirum e/1 si   
t]ra omnis g5]is et v>ia evaporatio e/2 
quam 9 coelo quoque non unus app>eat    
color r]um1 s$ acrior sit ,canicul      
rubor1 ,n>tis remissior1 ,jovis nullus1 
9 lucem puram nitore p]ducto4#dcf ,x is 
n[ brilliantly :ite ) a blui% t+e4 ,b   
?is *ange ( col\r is some:at d\btful4 ,!
 rem>ks ( ! anci5t writ]s may possibly  

ref] to its great brilliancy r ?an its  
col\r4 ,al-,sufi says no?+ ab\t its     
col\r1 & x 0 probably a :ite /> 9 8 "t4 
,if x 7 r$ 9 8 day he w\ld mo/ probably 
h m5tion$ ! fact1 z he does 9 ! case (  
sev]al r$ />s4 ,br[n1 h[ev]1 quotes !   
foll[+ f ,ibn ,alraqqa1 an ,arabian     
obs]v]3--    ,i recognize ,sirius %9+   
r$1 :il/ ! morn+ is becom+ :ite4   ,!   
night fad+ away1 has ris5 & left him1   
,! night is n afraid to lose him1 s9ce  
he foll[s h]4  ,s*jell]up ?9ks t x is v 
d\btful t ,sirius 0 really r$ z se5 by  
,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy4 ,b 9 an exhau/ive 
inquiry made by ,dr4 ,see on ! suppos$  
*ange ( col\r1#dcg he comes to !        
conclusion t ,sirius 0 really r$ 9      
anci5t times4 ,s5eca /ates di/9ctly t x 
0 r$d] ?an ,m>s 7see extract above71 &  
o!r anci5t writ]s ref] to its r$ col\r4 
,x has be5 g5]ally suppos$ t ! ,arabian 
a/ronom] ,alfraganus1 9 8 translation ( 
,ptolemy's ,almage/1 ref]s to only five 
r$ />s obs]v$ by ,ptolemy1 namely1      
,arcturus1 ,aldeb>an1 ,betelgeuse1      

,ant>es1 & ,pollux4 ,b ,dr4 ,see %[s t  
?is idea is due to a mi/ranslation (    
,alfraganus by ,plato ,tib]t9us 9 #aecg1
 & t ,ptolemy did n speak ( five r$ />s1
 b five nebul\s />s1 z /at$ by ,*ri/mann
 & ,golius4 ,ptolemy describ$ ,sirius z 
,greek3 upokirros1 fi]y r$1 ! same ^w   
us$ ) ref]5ce to ! o!r />s m5tion$      
above4 ,! *ange ( col\r1 if any1        
probably took place be=e ,al-,sufi's "t4
  ,dr4 ,see says--      ,pr(4 ,newcomb  
rejects ! =m] well-au!nticat$ r$ness (  
,sirius1 because he _c expla9 ! fact4 ,b
 ! ink 0 sc>cely     dry on 8 new book  
on ! />s1 9 :i* he takes ?is position1  
:5 ,nova ,p]sei blaz$ =? 9 #aija2 &     
obs]v]s saw x *ange     col\r f day to  
day & week to week4 ,c\ld any "o expla9 
!     cause ( ^! num]\s & conspicu\s    
*anges ( col\r8 ,%all we1     !n1 d5y ! 
*anges ( col\r 9 ,nova ,p]sei1 "s ( :i* 
7     notic$ :5 x 0 ne>ly z bright z    
,sirius8#dch  ,on ! ceil+ ( ! ,memnonium
 at ,!bes ! heliacal ris+ ( ,sirius is  
repres5t$ "u ! =m & "n ( ,isis4 ,!      

co9cid5ce ( ?is ris+ ) ! annual ris+ ( !
 ,nile is m5tion$ by ,tibullus &        
,aclian4 ,ab\t #djjj ,b4,c4 ! heliacal  
ris+ ( ,sirius co9cid$ ) ! summ] sol/ice
 7ab\t ,june #ba7 & ! beg9n+ ( ! ris+ ( 
! ,nile4 ,! fe/ival 9 hon\r ( ?is ev5t 0
 held by ! ,egyptians ab\t ,july #bj1 & 
?is m>k$ ! beg9n+ ( ! sacr$ ,egyptian   
ye>4 ,on ! summit ( ,m\nt ,pelion 9     
,!ssaly !re 0 a temple d$icat$ to ,zeus1
 :]e sacrifices 7 (f]$ at ! ris+ (      
,sirius by m5 ( rank :o 7 *os5 = !      
purpose by ! prie/s & wore fre%         
%eepsk9s4  ,sirius seems to h be5       
wor%ipp$ by ! anci5t ,egyptians "u ! "n 
( ,so?is1 & x 0 reg>d$ z ! /> ( ,isis & 
,osiris4 ,! la/ "n )\t ! initial ,o v   
mu* resembles our mod]n "n4  ,accord+ to
 ,al-,sufi1 ! ,arabians call$ ,sirius   
al-s*ira al-abr1 ,sirius :i* has pass$  
across1 also al-s*ira al ,jamnija1 !    
,sirius ( ,ym54 ,he says x is call$     
al-abr1 because x has pass$ across !    
,milky ,way into ! s\!rn region4 ,he    
relates a my?ological /ory :y ,sirius   

fl$ t[>ds ! s\? & pass$ across ! ,milky 
,way t[>ds ,suhail 7,canopus74 ,! same  
/ory is told by ,albuf>agius#dci        
7?irte5? c5tury74 7,! /ory 0 probably   
d]iv$ f ,al-,sufi47 ,n[1 x seems to me a
 curi\s & int]e/+ fact t ! l>ge prop]   
motion ( ,sirius w\ld h c>ri$ x across !
 ,milky ,way f ! ea/]n to ! we/]n bord] 
9 a p]iod ( #fj1jjj ye>s4 ,possibly !   
,arabian /ory may be bas$ on a tradition
 ( ,sirius hav+ be5 se5 on ! opposite1  
or ea/]n1 side ( ! ,milky ,way by ! m5 (
 ! e>ly ,/one ,age4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1  
we "k f ! am\nt & direction ( ! />'s    
prop] motion t x mu/ h pass$ across !   
,milky ,way f ea/ to we/ )9 ! p]iod     
above /at$4 ,! ,arabic "n al-abr is n1  
!re=e1 a m]ely fanciful "o1 b d5otes an 
actual fact4 ,! prop] motion ( ,sirius  
c\ld n possibly h be5 kn[n to ! anci5ts1
 z x 0 only reveal$ by accurate mod]n   
obs]vations4  ,! little con/ellation    
,canis ,m9or1 ! ,little ,dog1 lies s\? (
 ,gem9i & ,canc]4 ,small z x is1 x 0 "o 
( ! orig9al =ty-eight con/ellations (   

,ptolemy4 ,9 ! ,greek my?ology x 0      
suppos$ to repres5t ei!r "o ( ,diana's  
hunt+ dogs1 or "o ( ,orion's h\nds4     
,ovid calls x ! dog ( ,ic>us4 ,o!rs say 
x 0 ! dog ( ,hel51 :o 0 c>ri$ (f by     
,p>is4 ,accord+ to ! old poets1 ,orion's
 dog1 or ! dog ( ,ic>us1 ?rew himself   
into a well aft] see+ 8 ma/] p]i%4 ,! "n
 ,fovea1 giv5 to ! con/ellation by      
,bay]1 signifies a pit :]e corn 0       
deposit$4 ,?is comes f ! fact t ! ris+ (
 ! /> ,procyon 7,greek3 a ,canis        
,m9oris7 indicat$ ! season ( abundance4 
,b ,lal&e ?\ght x m probable t ! idea ( 
a pit came f ! ,greek ,greek3 seiros1   
:i* means a corn /ore1 & t x 0 conf\nd$ 
) ,sirius4  ,! "n ( ! bright /> ,procyon
 7,greek3 a ,canis ,m9oris7 is d]iv$ f !
 ,greek ,greek3 prokun1 ! advanc$ day1  
because x appe>$ 9 ! morn+ sky be=e     
,sirius4 ,procyon 0 call$ by ! ,h9doos  
,han\man aft] _! fam\s monkey god1 f ^: 
tail a bridge is said to h be5 =m$ to   
enable ! army ( ,rama to pass f ,india  
to ,ceylon4 ,al-,sufi says t ! /> 0 m>k$

 on ! old a/rolabes z al-s*ira          
al-s*amia1 ! ,syrian ,sirius4 ,x 0 also 
call$1 he says1 al-s*ira al-gumaisa1 !  
,sirius ) ble> eyes 767 f weep+ because 
,sirius _h pass$ across ! ,milky ,way1  
,procyon rema9+ on ! ea/]n side4 ,"h we 
h ! same leg5d aga94 ,! prop] motion (  
,procyon 7ab\t ! same 9 am\nt &         
direction z t ( ,sirius7 %[s t ! /> has 
be5 on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,milky ,way = _m
 ages pa/4 ,ab\t #fj1jjj ye>s h5ce1     
,procyon w be ne> ! /> ,greek3 ? ,canis 
,majoris1 & w !n--l ,sirius--h pass$    
across ! ,milky ,way4  ,argo1 ! ,%ip1 is
 a l>ge con/ellation s\? ( ,hydra1      
,monoc]os1 & ,canis ,major4 ,x is call$ 
by ,al-,sufi al-safna1 ! ,%ip4 ,x is    
suppos$ to repres5t ! fir/ %ip ev]      
built4 ,! "n is d]iv$ f ! build] ,argo1 
or f ! ,greek ^w ,greek3 ,argos4 ,?is   
%ip is said to h be5 built 9 ,!ssaly by 
ord] ( ,m9]va & ,neptune1 to g on !     
exp$ition = ! conque/ ( ! gold5 fleece4 
,! date ( ?is exp$ition1 comm&$ by      
,jason1 is usually fix$ at #acjj or     

#adjj ,b4,c4 ,) ref]5ce to ! position ( 
?is suppos$ %ip 9 ! sky1 ,proctor says1 
,x is notewor?y t :5 we make due        
correction = ! effects ( precession dur+
 ! pa/ #djjj ye>s1 ! old con/ellation   
,argo is set on an ev5 keel1 in/ead (   
be+ tilt$ "s #de to ! horizon1 z at     
pres5t :5 due s\?4 ,he connects ,argo ) 
,noah's ,ark4  ,! brighte/ /> ( ,argo is
 ,canopus1 call$ ,suhal by ,al-,sufi4 ,x
 is ! second brighte/ /> 9 ! heav5s2 b x
 is n visible 9 nor!rn latitudes4 ,!    
,h>v>d photometric measures make x ne>ly
 "o magnitude bright] ?an ! z]o         
magnitude1 ab\t two magnitudes bright]  
?an ,aldeb>an1 & ab\t half ! brightness 
( ,sirius4 ,?is f9e /> has be5 suspect$ 
( v>iable light4 ,webb says1 ,x 0 ?\ght 
7#ahfa7 9 ,*ili bright] ?an ,sirius4    
,obs]v+ x 9 ! ,punjab1 ! pres5t writ]   
f\nd x on sev]al occasions b little     
inf]ior to ,sirius1 al?\gh v l[ on !    
s\!rn horizon4 ,f rec5t obs]vations by  
,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,mc,kay 9 ,au/ralia1 he    
believes t x is v>iable to ! ext5t ( at 

lea/ half a magnitude4#ddj ,b x is      
difficult to e/abli% v>iations ( light 9
 v bright />s4 ,! p>allax ( ,canopus is 
v small1 s its di/ance f ! e>? is v     
great1 & x mu/ be a sun ( gigantic size4
 ,accord+ to ,al-,f>gani1 ,canopus 0    
call$ ! /> ( ,/4 ,ca!r9e by ! ,*ri/ian  
pilgrims 9 ! t5? c5tury4#dda ,x 0 call$ 
,suhal by ! old ,arabians1 a "n app>5tly
 d]iv$ f ! root sahl1 a pla92 &         
,s*jell]up sugge/s t ! "n 0 probably    
appli$ to ?is & "s o!r s\!rn />s because
 !y seem to move along a pla9 ne> !     
s\!rn horizon4 ,al-,sufi says t he      
measur$ ! latitude ( ,s*iraz 9 ,p]sia1  
:]e he obs]v$1 & f\nd x to be #bi #cf'2 
& h5ce = t place ,canopus1 :5 on !      
m]idian1 _h an altitude ( ab\t #i4      
,canopus 0 ! anci5t "n ( ,ab\kir 9      
,egypt1 & is said to h d]iv$ its "n f ! 
pilot ( ,m5elaus1 ^: "n 0 ,kanobus1 & :o
 di$ !re f ! bite ( a snake4 ,! /> is   
suppos$ to h be5 nam$ aft] him1 & x 0   
wor%ipp$ by ! anci5t ,egyptians4        
,al-,sufi does n m5tion ! fam\s v>iable 

/> ,greek3  ,args1 :i*1 ow+ to !        
precession ( ! equ9oxes1 he might       
possibly h se5 close to ! horizon1 if x 
_h be5 a bright /> 9 8 day4 ,x lies     
betwe5 ,greek3 ph ,velorum & ,greek3 a  
,crucis4 ,bo? ( ^! />s are m5tion$ by   
,al-,sufi1 b he says no?+ ( any bright  
/> 7or inde$ any />7 betwe5 !m4 ,?is    
negative evid5ce t5ds to %[ t ,greek3   
,args 0 n visible to ! nak$ eye 9       
,al-,sufi's "t4 ,?is extraord9>y /> has 
9 mod]n times v>i$ ?r\gh all degrees (  
brightness f ,sirius d[n to ! #h?       
magnitude6 ,s*nfeld ?\ght t a regul>    
p]iod is v improbable4 ,x seems to be a 
sort ( connect+ l9k betwe5 ! long p]iod 
v>iables & ! nov or tempor>y />s4 ,x is 
r$di% 9 col\r1 & ! spectrum ( its light 
is v simil> to t ( ! tempor>y />s4 ,:e!r
 x w ev] become a brilliant object aga91
 "t alone c tell2 b f ! fact t x 0      
presumably fa9t 9 ,al-,sufi's "t1 &     
aft]w>ds increas$ to ! brightness (     
,sirius1 x seems possible t its light   
may aga9 revive4  ,! long con/ellation  

,hydra lies s\? ( ,canc]1 ,leo1 ,crat]1 
,corvus1 ,virgo1 & ,libra4 ,x 0 also    
call$ ,as9a1 ,colub]1 ,anguis1          
,sublimatus1 etc4 ,9 ! ,greek my?ology x
 0 suppos$ to repres5t ! ,l]nan s]p5t   
kill$ by ,h]cules4 ,accord+ to ,ovid1 :o
 fix$ its acronycal ris+ = ,febru>y #ad1
 x _h a common orig9 ) ,corvus & ,crat]4
 ,apollo1 wi%+ to sacrifice to ,jupit]1 
s5t ! ,cr[ ) a cup to fet* wat]4 ,on 8  
way to ! well ! ,cr[ /opp$ at a fig tree
 & wait$ = ! fruit to rip56 ,aft]w>ds1  
to excuse 8 delay1 he said t a s]p5t _h 
prev5t$ him f draw+ ! wat]4 ,b ,apollo1 
to puni% ! ,cr[ = 8 deception1 *ang$ 8  
plumage f :ite to black1 & ord]$ ! s]p5t
 to prev5t ! ,cr[ f dr9k+4#ddb ,hydra 0 
call$ by ,al-,sufi al-s*udja1 ! ,s]p5t1 
or ,hydra4 ,he says t x conta9s         
tw5ty-five />s 9 ! figure & two         
'outside'1 & its head is to ! s\? ( !   
s\!rn scale ( ! ,balance 7,greek3 a     
,libr74 ,b ?is is cle>ly a mi/ake 7"o ( 
! v few errors to be f\nd 9 ,al-,sufi's 
"w71 = he goes on to say t ! head is    

compos$ ( f\r />s =m+ a figure l ! head 
( a horse1 & he adds1 ,?is head is 9 !  
middle betwe5 al-%ira al-gumaisa        
,procyon & ,kalb al-asad ,regulus !     
,he>t1 incl9+ f ^! two />s a little to !
 s\?4 ,?is cle>ly indicates ! />s       
,greek3 d1 e1 1 & ,greek3 s ,hydr :i*1 )
 ,greek3 z ,hydr1 h always be5 consid]$ 
z =m+ ! ,hydra's head4 ,^! />s lie s\? (
 ,greek3 a & ,greek3 b ,cancri1 n s\? ( 
,libra z ,al-,sufi says 7d\btless by a  
slip ( ! p574  ,ptolemy's #ab? /> (     
,hydra 7,greek3 a ,hydr7 is1 ,al-,sufi  
says1 ! bright r$ /> :i* is f\nd at !   
end ( ! neck :]e ! back beg9s2 x is ( ! 
#bnd magnitude4 ,x is t :i* is m>k$ on !
 a/rolabe z unk al-s*udja1 '! neck ( !  
s]p5t1' also al-f>d1 '! solit>y "o4'    
,al-,sufi's e/imate ( its brightness    
agrees well ) mod]n measures2 b x has   
be5 suspect$ ( v>iable light4 ,sir ,john
 ,h]s*el's e/imates at ! ,cape ( ,good  
,hope v>i$ f #age to #beh magnitude4 ,he
 ?\ght t its app>5t v>iation might be   
due to its r$di% col\r1 & comp>es x to !

 case ( ,greek3 a ,cassiopei4 ,b z ?is  
latt] /> is n[ kn[n to be irregul>ly    
v>iable x seems probable t ,greek3 a    
,hydr may be v>iable also4 ,gemmill f\nd
 x rem>kably bright on ,may #i1 #ahhc1  
:5 he ?\ght x ne>ly equal to ,pollux    
7#ab magnitude74 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,franks  
?\ght x ne>] ! #crd ?an ! #bnd magnitude
 on ,m>* #b1 #ahgh4 ,on ,april #i1      
#ahhd1 ! pres5t writ] f\nd x only       
slightly less ?an ,regulus 7#ac         
magnitude74 ,on ,april #f1 #ahhf1       
h[-ev]1 x 0 consid]ably less ?an        
,regulus1 b half a magnitude bright] ?an
 ,greek3 b ,canis ,m9oris1 or ab\t      
#b-a_/b magnitude4 ,9 ! ,*9ese ,annals x
 is call$ ! ,r$ ,bird4 ,9 a li/ ( ?irty 
/>s f\nd on a tablet at ,birs-,nimr\d1 x
 is call$ ,! son ( ! supreme temple4    
,al?\gh to ! nak$ eye des]v+ ! "n (     
,alph>d or ! solit>y "o1 x is by no     
means an isolat$ /> :5 exam9$ ) a       
telescope4 ,x has a fa9t & di/ant       
companion1 obs]v$ by ,admiral ,smy?2 &  
ab\t #be' to ! we/ ( x ,w>d saw a small 

d\ble /> 7#h1 #ac3 #ij3 #ej74 ,) a      
#c-;in* refractor 9 ! ,punjab1 ,i saw a 
small /> ( ab\t #h-a_/b magnitude to !  
s\? & a little ea/ ( ! bright />1       
probably id5tical ) ,smy?'s companion4  
,f>!r (f 9 ! same direction ,i saw a    
fa9t] />1 & o!rs at great] di/ances 9 ! 
field4 ,!re is also a fa9t /> a little  
to ! nor?4 ,i also saw ,w>d's d\ble ) ! 
#c-;in* telescope4  ,!re is "s          
difficulty 9 id5tify+ ! />s numb]$ by   
,ptolemy #ac1 #ad1 & #ae 9 ,hydra4 ,hav+
 plott$ a map f ,ptolemy's positions 7z 
giv5 by ,al-,sufi71 ,i h come to !      
conclusion t ,ptolemy's />s are #ac     
,greek3 k ,hydr2 #ad  ,greek3 u2 & #ae  
,greek3 l ,hydr1 probably4 ,f ! cle>    
description giv5 by ,al-,sufi ( ! />s   
obs]v$ by him1 ,i f9d t 8 />s are #ac   
,greek3 u#a2 #ad  ,greek3 u#b2 & #ae    
,greek3 l ,hydr4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1        
conclude t ,ptolemy & ,al-,sufi saw only
 ?ree />s :]e n[ !re are f\r1#ddc & t   
,greek3 k ,hydr 0 n se51 or at lea/ is n
 m5tion$ by ,al-,sufi4 ,greek3 k is1    

!re=e1 probably v>iable4 ,x 0 rat$ #d by
 ,ty*o ,brah1 ,bay]1 & ,hevelius2 x is  
at pres5t ab\t #e? magnitude4 ,if       
,ptolemy did n see ,greek3 u#b x is     
probably v>iable also1 &1 inde$1 x has  
be5 suspect$ ( v>iable light4#ddd  ,!   
small con/ellation ( ,crat]1 ! ,cup1    
lies nor? ( ,hydra1 & s\? ( ,leo &      
,virgo4 ,al-,sufi calls x al-batija1 !  
,j>1 or ,cup4 ,he says ! ,arabians call$
 x al-malif1 ! ,crib1 or ,mang]4        
,accord+ to ,br[n1 ! />s ( ,crat]       
exactly =m a ,bakhian ,greek3 kan?>os1 )
 its two h&les ris+ above ! two         
extremities ( ! circumf]5ce4#dde ,an    
,asia ,m9or leg5d connect$ ,crat] ) !   
mix+ ( human blood ) w9e 9 a b[l4 ,crat]
 is ref]r$ to by ,ovid 9 ! l9es--       
,dixit et antiqui monum5ta p]5nia facti 
,anguis1 ,avis1 ,crat] sid]a1 juncta    
micunt4  ,! /> ,greek3 a ,crat]is 0 rat$
 #d? magnitude by ,al-,sufi & all o!r   
obs]v]s1 & ! ,h>v>d measures make x     
#dbj1 a satisfactory agreem5t4 ,x has   
?ree companions not$ by ,admiral ,smy?4 

,"o ( ^! he call$ int5se blood col\r4   
,?is is ,r ,crat]is1 n[ kn[n to be      
v>iable f above ! #h? magnitude to bel[ 
! #i?4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el call$ x an    
int5se sc>let />1 a curi\s col\r4 ,)    
#c-;in* refractor 9 ! ,punjab ,i f\nd x 
full sc>let4 ,x is "o ( an op5 pair1 !  
fur!r ( ! two f ,greek3 a4 ,!re is a    
?ird /> ab\t #i? magnitude a little s\? 
( x4 ,w>d saw a #ac? magnitude /> betwe5
 ,greek3 a & ,r ) a #b-g_/h-;in* 7,wray7
 refractor4 ,?is ,i saw readily ) my    
#c-;in*4 ,smy? does n m5tion ?is fa9t   
/>1 al?\gh he us$ a mu* l>g] telescope4 
,corvus1 ! ,cr[1 is a small             
con/ellation1 nor? ( ,hydra4 ,aratus    
says ! ,cr[ =m seems to peck ! fold ( ! 
wat] snake 7,hydra74 ,! victory :i*     
,val]ius ,corv9us is said to h ow$ to a 
cr[ has giv5 x ! "n ( ,pompt9a1 because 
! victory took place ne> ! ,pont9e      
m>%es4#ddf ,a quadrilat]al figure is =m$
 by its f\r brighte/ />s1 ,greek3 g1 d1 
b1 & ,greek3 e ,corvi4 ,?is figure has  
sometimes be5 mi/ak5 = ! ,s\!rn ,cross  

by ^? :o are n famili> ) ! heav5s4 ,b ! 
/>s ( ! ,s\!rn ,cross are mu* bright]4  
,! con/ellation ,c5taurus1 ! ,c5taur1   
lies s\? ( ,hydra & ,libra1 & nor? ( !  
,s\!rn ,cross4 ,accord+ to ,dupuis1     
,c5taurus repres5ts ! #crd lab\r (      
,h]cules1 8 triumph ov] ! ,c5taurs4#ddg 
,! ,c5taurs 7 suppos$ to be a p liv+ 9 !
 vic9ity ( ,m\nt ,ossa1 :o fir/ rode on 
horses4 ,! con/ellation 0 also call$    
,semivir1 ,*iron1 ,phobos1 ,m9otaurus1  
etc4 ,al-,sufi says x is repres5t$ by ! 
figure ( an animal1 ( :i* ! =ep>t is !  
upp] "p ( a man f ! head to end ( !     
back1 & its h9d] "p is ! h9d] "p ( a    
horse1 f ! beg9n+ ( ! back to ! tail4 ,x
 is to ! s\? ( ! ,balance ,libra turn+  
its face t[>ds ! ea/1 & ! h9d] "p ( !   
bea/ t[>ds ! we/4  ,al-,sufi describes v
 cle>ly ! f\r bright />s ( ! fam\s      
,s\!rn ,cross4 ,ow+ to precession ^! />s
 7 "s #g fur!r nor? 9 ! t5? c5tury ?an  
!y are at pres5t1 & !y c\ld h be5 all   
se5 by ,al-,sufi1 :5 on ! m]idian4 ,9 ! 
"t ( ,ptolemy & ,hipp>*us1 !y 7 /ill    

fur!r nor?1 & ab\t #ejjj ye>s ago !y 7  
visible 9 ! latitude ( ,london4 ,dante  
speaks ( ^! f\r />s z emblematical ( !  
f\r c>d9al virtues1 ,ju/ice1 ,temp]ance1
 ,=titude1 & ,prud5ce4  ,closely s\?-ea/
 ( ,greek3 a & ,greek3 b ,crucis is !   
d>k spot 9 ! ,milky ,way kn[n z ! ,coal 
,sack1 :i* =ms su* a conspicu\s object  
ne> ! ,s\!rn ,cross4 ,x 0 fir/ describ$ 
by ,p9zon 9 #adii2 & aft]w>ds by        
,lacaille 9 #agee4 ,al?\gh to ! nak$ eye
 app>5tly black1 photographs %[ t x     
conta9s _m fa9t />s1 b1 ( c\rse1 mu*    
less num]\s ?an 9 ! surr\nd+ regions4 ,!
 d>k effect is *iefly caus$ by contra/ )
 ! brilliancy ( ! ,milky ,way surr\nd+  
x4  ,al-,sufi also m5tions ! bright />s 
,greek3 a & ,greek3 b ,c5tauri :i* foll[
 ! ,s\!rn ,cross4 ,he says t ! di/ance  
betwe5 !m is f\r cubits1 t is ab\t #i   
#bj'1 b x is less ?an ?is n[4 ,greek3 a 
has a l>ge prop] motion ( #cfg p] annum1
 & 0 f>!r f ,greek3 b 9 ,al-,sufi's "t  
?an x is at pres5t4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld n 
:olly acc\nt = ! diff]5ce1 & ,al-,sufi's

 ov]-e/imate is probably due to !       
well-kn[n effect by :i* ! di/ance betwe5
 two />s is app>5tly increas$ :5 !y are 
ne> ! horizon4 ,sev]al ( ,al-,sufi's    
di/ances betwe5 s\!rn />s are           
ov]-e/imat$1 probably = ! same reason4  
,! con/ellation ,lupus1 ! ,wolf1 is s\? 
( ,libra & ,scorpio4 ,x lies along !    
we/]n bord] ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,accord+ to
 anci5t writ]s x repres5ts ,lycaon1 ,k+ 
( ,arcadia1 a contempor>y ( ,cecrops1 :o
 is said to h sacrific$ human victims1 &
 on acc\nt ( 8 cruelty 0 *ang$ into a   
wolf4 ,ano!r fable is t x repres5ts a   
wolf sacrific$ by ! ,c5taur ,*iron4     
,accord+ to ,br[n1 ,lupus appe>s on !   
,euphratian planisph]e discov]$ by      
,george ,smy? 9 ! palace ( ,s5na*]ib4   
,al-,sufi call$ x al-sabu1 ! ,wild      
,bea/4 ,x 0 also call$ al-f&1 ! ,leop>d1
 & al-asada1 ! ,lioness4  ,ara1 ! ,alt>1
 lies s\? ( ,scorpio4 ,accord+ to anci5t
 writ]s x repres5ts an alt> built by    
,vulcan1 :5 ! gods made w> aga9/ !      
,titans4 ,x is call$ by ,al-,sufi       

al-midjman1 ! ,sc5t ,box1 or ! ,alt>4   
,! little con/ellation ,corona          
,au/ralis1 ! ,s\!rn ,cr[n1 lies s\? &   
we/ ( ,sagitt>ius1 ea/ ( ,scorpio1 & we/
 ( ,telescopium4 ,aratus ref]s to ! />s 
9 ,corona ,au/ralis z--                 
,o!r few   ,be=e ! ,ar*] "u 8 =efeet    
,l$ r\nd 9 circle roll )\t a "n4#ddi  ,b
 ! con/ellation 0 kn[n by ! names       
,caduceus1 ,orbiculus1 ,corona          
,sagitt>ii1 etc4 ,! anci5t poets relate 
t ,bac*us plac$ ?is cr[n 9 ! sky 9 hon\r
 ( 8 "m ,semele4#dej ,o!rs say t x      
repres5ts ! cr[n conf]r$ on ,cor9ne (   
,!bes1 fam\s z a poet4  ,! small        
con/ellation ,piscis ,au/ralis1 or !    
,s\!rn ,fi%1 lies s\? ( ,capricornus &  
,aqu>ius4 ,9 ! mo/ anci5t maps x is     
repres5t$ z a fi% dr9k+ ! wat] :i* fl[s 
f ! urn ( ,aqu>ius4         99       99 
99       99       99  ,a good _m        
con/ellations h be5 add$ to ! heav5s    
s9ce ! days ( ,al-,sufi1 & notes on "s (
 ^! may be ( int]e/4                    
,,camelop>dalis4--,?is con/ellation fir/

 appe>s on a cele/ial planisph]e publi%$
 by ,b>ts*ius 9 ! ye> #afbd4 ,x 0 n =m$ 
by ,b>ts*ius himself1 b by ! navigators 
( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,x lies s\? ( ,ursa 
,m9or1 nor? ( ,p]seus & ,auriga1 ea/ (  
,draco1 & we/ ( ,cassiopeia4 ,x conta9s 
no /> bright] ?an ! #d? magnitude4      
,,lynx4--,?is con/ellation is s\? (     
,camelop>dalis & ,ursa ,major1 & nor? ( 
,gem9i & ,canc]4 ,x 0 =m$ by ,hevelius 9
 #affj1 & he call$ x ! ,lynx1 because1  
he said1 x conta9$ only fa9t />s & x 0  
necess>y to h ! eyes ( a lynx to see !m6
 ,"s ( !m 71 h[ev]1 obs]v$ by ,ptolemy &
 ,al-,sufi1 & are m5tion$ by ! latt] "u 
,ursa ,major4  ,,canes ,,v5atici1 or !  
,hunt+ ,dogs4--,?is 0 =m$ by ,hevelius 9
 #affj4 ,x lies s\? ( ! ,great ,be>'s   
tail1 nor? ( ,coma ,b]5ices1 ea/ ( ,ursa
 ,major1 & we/ ( ,botis4 ,its brighte/  
/>s ,greek3 a 7#ab7 & ,greek3 b 7#h7 7  
obs]v$ by ,al-,sufi1 & includ$ by him 9 
! ext]n />s ( ,ursa ,major4  ,,coma     
,,b]5ices4--,?is con/ellation lies      
betwe5 ,canes ,v5atici & ,virgo4 ,al?\gh

 x 0 n includ$ among ! old =ty-eight    
con/ellations ( ,ptolemy1 x is ref]r$ to
 by ,al-,sufi z ! ,plat1 or ,tress (    
,hair1 & he includ$ its />s ,flam/e$    
#ab1 #ae1 & #ba 9 ! ext]n />s ( ,leo4 ,x
 0 orig9ally =m$ by ! poet ,callima*us 9
 ! ?ird c5tury ,b4,c41 b 0 n g5]ally    
accept$ until re=m$ by ,hevelius4       
,callima*us liv$ at ,alex&ria 9 ! reigns
 ( ,ptolemy ,philadelphus & ,ptolemy    
,eu]getes1 & 0 *ief libr>ian ( ! fam\s  
libr>y ( ,alex&ria f ab\t ,b4,c4 #bfj   
until 8 dea? 9 ,b4,c4 #bdj4 ,erato/h5es 
0 "o ( 8 pupils4 ,! hi/ory ( !          
con/ellation is z foll[s3 ,b]5ice1 wife 
( ,ptolemy ,eu]getes1 made a v[1 :5 h]  
husb& 0 leav+ h] on a milit>y exp$ition1
 t if he return$ 9 safety %e w\ld cut (f
 h] hair & consecrate x 9 ! temple (    
,m>s4 ,h] husb& return$1 & %e fulfill$  
h] v[4 ,b on ! next day ! hair _h       
disappe>$--/ol5 f ! temple--& ,conon !  
ma!matician %[$ ,ptolemy sev5 />s ne> ! 
con/ellation ( ! ,lion :i* did n belong 
to any con/ellation4 ,^! 7 =m$ into a   

con/ellation & call$ ,b]5ice's ,hair4   
,conon is ref]r$ to by ,catullus 9 !    
l9es--    ,idem me ille ,conon coele/e  
num9e vidit   ,e4 ,b]5ico v]tice        
,cs>iem4  ,coma ,b]5ices fir/ occurs z a
 di/9ct con/ellation 9 ! catalogue      
conta9$ 9 ! ,rudolph9e ,tables =m$ by   
,kepl] 7epo* #afjj7 f ! obs]vations (   
,ty*o ,brah4#dea ,bay] sub/itut$ a %eaf 
( corn1 an idea d]iv$ f an anci5t       
manuscript4  ,,leo ,,m9or4--,?is small  
con/ellation lies betwe5 ,ursa ,major & 
,leo1 & ea/ ( ! ,lynx4 ,x 0 =m$ by      
,halley ab\t ! ye> #affj2 b is ref]r$ to
 by ,al-,sufi1 :o includes "o ( its />s 
7,fl4 #da7 9 ! ext]n />s ( ,leo4 ,!re   
are1 h[ev]1 sev]al bright] />s 9 ! gr\p4
 ,! brighte/1 ,fl4 #df1 0 measur$ #cib  
at ,h>v>d4 ,! /> ,fl4 #cg 0 call$       
prcipua 7or brighte/7 by ,ty*o ,brah1 & 
rat$ #c1 b z x 0 measur$ only #dgg at   
,h>v>d x may possibly h dim9i%$ 9       
brightness4  ,,sextans4--,?is           
con/ellation lies s\? ( ,leo1 & nor? &  
ea/ ( ,hydra4 ,x 0 =m$ by ,hevelius ab\t

 ! ye> #afhj4 ,accord+ to ! ,h>v>d      
photometric measures its brighte/ /> is 
,fl4 #ae 7#dej74  ,,monoc]os1 or !      
,unicorn1 lies s\? ( ,gem9i & ,canis    
,m9or1 nor? ( ,canis ,major & ,argo1 ea/
 ( ,orion1 & we/ ( ,hydra4 ,x appe>s on 
! planisph]e ( ,b>ts*ius1 publi%$ 9     
#afbd4 ,accord+ to ,scalig] x is %[n on 
an old ,p]sian sph]e4 ,"o ( its />s1    
,fl4 #bb1 is m5tion$ by ,al-,sufi among 
! ext]n />s ( ,canis ,major 7,no4 #a74  
,ano!r1 ,fl4 #cj1 is giv5 "u ,hydra     
7,ext]n ,no4 #a7 & ,fl4 #h1 #ac1 & #ae  
are app>5tly ref]r$ to 9 ,gem9i4 ,! />  
#ae ,monoc]otis is a little s\? (       
,greek3 x ,gem9orum1 & 0 measur$ #dei   
magnitude at ,h>v>d4 ,x 0 at "o "t      
suppos$ to be v>iable ) a %ort p]iod    
7ab\t #c-a_/b days71 b ?is v>iation has 
n be5 confirm$4 ,! spectrum is ( ! fif? 
type--) bright l9es--a v r>e type among 
nak$-eye />s4 ,x is a triple /> 7#e1    
#hh1 #aab3 #bi1 #afc7 & %\ld be se5 ) a 
#d-;in* telescope4 ,x has sev]al o!r    
small companions1 "o ( :i* 7#acib3 #geg7

 has be5 suspect$ ( v>iation 9 light4 ,x
 0 e/imat$ #h-a_/b by ,ma9 9 #ahfc1 b   
only #ab by ,sadl] 9 #ahge4 ,obs]v+ x on
 ,m>* #bh1 #ahhi1 ) #c-;in* refractor1  
,i f\nd x ab\t "o magnitude bright] ?an 
a /> closely prec$+1 & e/imat$ x #h or  
#h-a_/b magnitude4 ,x is probably       
v>iable & %\ld be wat*$4  ,,scutum      
,,sobieski4--,?is is1 or 01 a small     
con/ellation 9 ! s\!rn portion (        
,aquila1 :i* 0 =m$ by ,hevelius 9 #affj 
9 hon\r ( ! ,poli% h]o ,sobieski4 ,its  
pr9cipal />s1 :i* lie s\?-we/ ( ,greek3 
l ,aquil1 7 m5tion$ by ,al-,sufi & are  
ref]r$ to by him "u t con/ellation4 ,x  
conta9s a v bright spot ( ,milky ,way   
light1 :i* may be well se5 9 ! mon? (   
,july j bel[ ! /> ,greek3 l ,aquil4     
,closely s\? ( ! /> #f ,aquil is a      
rem>kable v>iable /> ,r ,scuti 7,r4,a4  
#ah;h #dbm#b1 ,s4 #e #di'74 ,x v>ies f  
#dh to #gh ) an irregul> p]iod4 ,all !  
light *anges c be obs]v$ ) a good       
op]a-glass4  ,,vulpecula1 ! ,fox4--,?is 
mod]n con/ellation lies s\? ( ,cygnus1  

nor? ( ,sagitta & ,delph9us1 ea/ (      
,h]cules1 & we/ ( ,pegasus4 ,x 0 =m$ by 
,hevelius 9 #affj4 ,"o ( its />s1 #f    
,vulpecul1 is m5tion$ by ,al-,sufi 9    
describ+ ! con/ellation ,cygnus4        
,closely nor?-we/ ( #cb ,vulpecul is !  
%ort-p]iod v>iable ,t ,vulpecul4 ,x     
v>ies f #ee to #fb magnitude1 & its     
p]iod is #ddcf days4 ,?is is an int]e/+ 
object1 & all ! *anges ( light c be     
obs]v$ ) an op]a-glass4  ,,lac]ta4--,?is
 little con/ellation lies s\? ( ,cepheus
 & nor? ( ,pegasus4 ,its =mation 0 fir/ 
sugge/$ by ,rog] & ,an!lm 9 #afgi1 & x 0
 call$ by !m ,! ,sceptre & ! ,h& (      
,ju/ice4 ,x 0 nam$ ,lac]ta by ,hevelius 
9 #afij1 & ?is "n x /ill reta9s4        
,al-,sufi seems to ref] to its />s 9 8  
description ( ,&rom$a1 b does n m5tion  
any /> 9 p>ticul>4 ,x brighte/ /> ,fl4  
#g 7,greek3 a ,lac]t7 is ab\t ! #d?     
magnitude4 ,ab\t "o degree s\?-we/ ( #g 
is #e ,lac]t1 a deep orange /> ) a blue 
companion 9 a f9e field4  ,!re are "s   
con/ellations s\? ( ! ,equator :i*1     

al?\gh above ,al-,sufi's horizon :5 on !
 m]idian1 are n describ$ by him1 z !y 7 
=m$ s9ce 8 "t4 ,^! are z foll[s3--      
,,sculptor4--,?is con/ellation lies s\? 
( ,aqu>ius & ,cetus1 & nor? ( ,pho5ix4  
,"s ( its />s are ref]r$ to by ,al-,sufi
 "u ,eridanus z ly+ )9 ! l>ge triangle  
=m$ by ,greek3 b ,ceti1 ,fomalhaut1 &   
,greek3 a ,pho5icis4 ,! brighte/ /> is  
,greek3 a1 ab\t #ab s\? ( ,greek3 b     
,ceti 7#dci magnitude ,h>v>d74 ,ab\t #g 
s\?-ea/ ( ,greek3 a is ! r$ & v>iable />
 ,r ,sculptoris2 v>iable f #fb to #hh   
magnitude1 ) a p]iod ( ab\t #cgf days4  
,g\ld describes x z int5se sc>let4 ,x   
has a spectrum ( ! f\r? type4           
,,pho5ix4--,?is con/ellation lies s\? ( 
,sculptor4 ,"s ( its />s are ref]r$ to  
by ,al-,sufi1 "u ,eridanus1 z =m+ a     
boat-%ap$ figure4 ,^! are evid5tly      
,greek3 a1 k1 m1 b1 n1 & ,greek3 g4     
,greek3 a is at ! s\?-ea/]n angle (     
,al-,sufi's triangle ref]r$ to above 7"u
 ,sculptor74 7,see ,proctor's ,atlas1   
,no4 #c47  ,,=nax1 ! ,furnace1 lies s\? 

( ,cetus1 we/ ( ,eridanus1 & ea/ (      
,sculptor & ,pho5ix4 ,x 0 =m$ by        
,lacaille1 & is suppos$ to repres5t a   
*emical furnace ) an alembic & receiv]6 
,its brighte/ />1 ,greek3 a ,=nacis1 is 
id5tical ) #ab ,eridani4  ,c,,lum1 !    
,sculptor's ,tools1 is a small          
con/ellation ea/ ( ,columba1 & we/ (    
,eridanus4 ,x 0 =m$ by ,lacaille4 ,!    
brighte/ />s are ,greek3 a & ,greek3 g1 
:i* are ab\t #d-a_/b magnitude4 ,greek3 
a has a fa9t companion2 & ,greek3 g is a
 wide d\ble /> to ! nak$ eye4  ,,antlia1
 ! ,air ,pump1 lies s\? ( ,hydra1 ea/ & 
nor? ( ,argo1 & we/ ( ,c5taurus4 ,x 0   
=m$ by ,lacaille4 ,x conta9s no />      
bright] ?an #d? magnitude4 ,! brighte/1 
,greek3 a1 has be5 v>i\sly rat$ f #d to 
#e1 & ,/anley ,williams ?9ks its        
v>iability highly probable4  ,,norma1 ! 
,rule1 lies s\? ( ,scorpio4 ,x conta9s  
no /> bright] ?an ! #d? magnitude4      
,,telescopium4--,?is mod]n con/ellation 
lies s\? ( ,corona ,au/ralis1 & nor? (  
,pavo4 ,its />s ,greek3 a1 d1 & ,greek3 

z1 :i* lie ne> ! nor!rn b\nd>y ( !      
con/ellation1 are ref]r$ to by ,al-,sufi
 9 8 description ( ,ara4                
,,microscopium4--,?is small con/ellation
 is s\? ( ,capricornus1 & we/ ( ,piscis 
,au/ralis4 ,its />s seem to be ref]r$ to
 by ,al-,sufi z hav+ be5 se5 by         
,ptolemy1 b he does n specify _! exact  
positions4 ,x conta9s no /> bright] ?an 
#d-a_/b magnitude4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,s\? ( ,al-,sufi's
 horizon are a numb] ( con/ellations    
surr\nd+ ! s\? pole1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 he   
c\ld n see4 ,mo/ ( ^! h be5 =m$ s9ce 8  
"t1 & ^! w n[ be consid]$2 beg9n+ ) t   
imm$iately surr\nd+ ! ,s\? ,pole        
7,octans71 & !n foll[+ ! o!rs z ne>ly z 
possible 9 ord] ( ,"r ,asc5sion4        
,,octans4--,?is is ! con/ellation       
surr\nd+ ! ,s\? ,pole ( ! heav5s4 ,!re  
is no bright /> ne> ! ,pole1 ! ne>e/    
visible to ! nak$ eye be+ ,greek3 s     
,octantis1 :i* is )9 "o degree ( ! pole4
 ,x 0 e/imat$ #eh at ,cordoba4 ,!       
brighte/ /> 9 ! con/ellation is ,greek3 

n ,octantis 7,greek3 a1 ,proctor71 :i*  
lies ab\t #ab degrees f ! pole 9 !      
direction ( ,indus & ,microscopium4 ,!  
,h>v>d measure is #cgd magnitude4       
,,hydrus1 ! ,wat]-,snake1 is nor? (     
,octans 9 ! direction ( ,a*]n> 7,greek3 
a ,eridani74 ,! brighte/ /> is ,greek3  
b1 :i* lies close to ,greek3 ?          
,octantis4 ,! ,h>v>d measure is #bij4   
,g\ld says its col\r is cle> yell[4 ,x  
has a l>ge prop] motion ( #bbh p] annum4
 ,sir ,david ,gill f\nd a p>allax (     
#jacd1 & ?is comb9$ ) ! prop] motion    
gives a velocity ( #ej miles a second at
 "r angles to ! l9e ( sight4 ,greek3 g  
,hydri is a comp>atively bright /> (    
ab\t ! #crd magnitude1 ab\t #ae-a_/b    
degrees f ! ,s\? ,pole4 ,x is r$di%1 ) a
 spectrum ( ! ?ird type4  ,,horologium1 
! ,clock1 is nor? ( ,hydra1 & s\? (     
,eridanus4 ,?ree ( its />s1 ,greek3 a1  
d1 & ,greek3 ps1 at ! extreme nor!rn end
 ( ! con/ellation1 seem to be ref]r$ to 
by ,al-,sufi 9 8 description (          
,eridanus1 b he does n give _! exact    

positions4 ,mo/ ( ! />s =m+ ?is         
con/ellation 7 bel[ ,al-,sufi's horizon4
  ,,reticulum1 ! ,net1 is a small       
con/ellation to ! ea/ ( ,hydrus &       
,horologium4 ,! brighte/ /> ( !         
con/ellation is ,greek3 a 7#ccf ,h>v>d1 
#cc ,cordoba1 & col\r$74  ,,dorado1 !   
,sword ,fi%1 lies ea/ ( ,reticulum & we/
 ( ,pictor4 ,x conta9s only two />s     
bright] ?an ! #d? magnitude4 ,^! are    
,greek3 a 7#cdg ,h>v>d7 & ,greek3 b     
7#cha ,h>v>d1 b suspect$ ( v>iation74   
,ab\t #c ea/ ( ,greek3 a ,reticuli is ! 
v>iable /> ,r ,doradus4 ,x v>ies f #dh  
to #fh1 & its p]iod is ab\t #cde days4  
,g\ld calls x excessively r$4 ,x may be 
foll[$ ?r\gh all its fluctuations (     
light ) an op]a-glass4  ,,m5sa1 or ,mons
 ,m5sa1 ! ,table ,m\nta91 lies betwe5   
,dorado & ! ,s\? ,pole1 & repres5ts !   
,table ,m\nta9 ( ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 
,x conta9s no /> bright] ?an ! #e?      
magnitude4  ,,pictor1 ! ,pa9t]'s ,easel1
 lies nor? ( ,doradus1 & s\? ( ,columba4
 ,x conta9s no v bright />s1 ! brighte/ 

be+ ,greek3 a 7#ccj ,h>v>d74  ,,volans1 
! ,fly+ ,fi%1 is nor? ( ,m5sa1 & s\? &  
we/ ( ,argo4 ,its bright] />s1 ) !      
exception ( ,greek3 a & ,greek3 b1 =m an
 irregul> six-sid$ figure4 ,its brighte/
 /> is ,greek3 b 7#cfe7 accord+ to !    
,h>v>d measures4 ,! ,cordoba e/imates1  
h[ev]1 range f #cf to #dd1 & ,g\ld says 
its col\r is bright yell[4 ,williams    
rat$ x #ch4  ,,*am,,lion4--,?is small   
con/ellation lies s\? ( ,volans1 & nor? 
( ,m5sa & ,octans4 ,none ( its />s are  
bright] ?an ! #d? magnitude1 its        
brighte/ be+ ,greek3 a 7#djh ,h>v>d7 &  
,greek3 g 7#daj74  ,,argo4--,?is l>ge   
con/ellation ext5ds mu* fur!r s\? ?an   
,al-,sufi c\ld foll[ x4 ,! mo/ s\!rn /> 
he m5tions is ,greek3 e ,c>91 b s\? (   
?is are sev]al bright />s4 ,greek3 b    
,c>9 is #ahj accord+ to ! ,h>v>d        
measures2 ,greek3 u ,c>91 #cjh2 ,greek3 
?1 #cjc2 ,greek3 1 #cef2 & o!rs4 ,a     
little nor?-we/ ( ,greek3 i is !        
long-p]iod v>iable ,r ,c>9 7#i;h #bim#g1
 ,s4 #fb #ba'1 #aijj74 ,x v>ies f #de at

 maximum to #aj at m9imum1 & ! p]iod is 
ab\t #cjig days4 ,a little ea/ ( ,r ,c>9
 is ano!r rem>kable v>iable />1 l ,c>9  
7,r4,a4 #i;h #dbm#e1 ,s4 #fb #c'74 ,x   
v>ies f #cf to #ej magnitude1 ) a p]iod 
( #ce-a_/b days f maximum to maximum4   
,all ! light *anges c be obs]v$ ) an    
op]a-glass1 or ev5 ) ! nak$ eye4 ,x 0   
discov]$ at ,cordoba4 ,! spectrum is ( !
 sol> type 7,g74  ,,musca1 ! ,bee1 is a 
small con/ellation s\? ( ! ,s\!rn ,cross
 & ,c5taurus4 ,its brighte/ />s are     
,greek3 a 7#bhd ,h>v>d7 & ,greek3 b     
7#cbf74 ,^! two />s =m a f9e pair s\? ( 
,greek3 a ,crucis4 ,closely s\?-ea/ (   
,greek3 a is ! %ort-p]iod v>iable ,r    
,musc4 ,x v>ies f #fe to #gf magnitude1 
& its p]iod is ab\t #ai h\rs4 ,all its  
*anges ( light may be obs]v$ ) a good   
op]a-glass4  ,,apus1 ! ,bird ( ,p>adise1
 lies s\?-ea/ ( ,musca1 & nor? (        
,octans4 ,its brighte/ /> is ,greek3 a1 
ab\t ! #d? magnitude4 ,williams calls x 
deep yell[4 ,ab\t #c nor?-we/ ( ,greek3 
a1 9 ! direction ( ! ,s\!rn ,cross1 is  

,greek3 ? ,apodis1 :i* 0 f\nd to be     
v>iable at ,cordoba f #e-a_/b to        
#f-a_/b4 ,! spectrum is ( ! ?ird type1  
:i* includes s _m v>iable />s4          
,,triangulum ,,au/ralis1 ! ,s\!rn       
,triangle1 is a small con/ellation nor? 
( ,apus1 & s\? ( ,norma4 ,a f9e         
triangle1 ne>ly isosceles1 is =m$ by its
 ?ree bright />s1 ,greek3 a1 b1 g1 !    
brighte/ ,greek3 a be+ at ! v]tex4 ,^!  
?ree />s =m ) ,greek3 a ,c5tauri an     
elongat$ cross4 ,! />s ,greek3 b &      
,greek3 g are ab\t #crd magnitude4      
,greek3 b is r$di%4 ,greek3 e 7#daa1    
,h>v>d7 is also r$di%1 & is ne>ly midway
 betwe5 ,greek3 b & ,greek3 g1 & ne> !  
c5tre ( ! cross above ref]r$ to4 ,greek3
 a is a f9e /> 7#ahh ,h>v>d7 & is "o ( !
 brighte/ />s 9 ! sky--,no4 #cc 9 a li/ 
( #aejj highe/ />s giv5 by ,pick]+4     
,ab\t #a #dj' we/ ( ,greek3 e is !      
%ort-p]iod v>iable ,r ,trianguli        
,au/ralis 7,r4,a4 #ae;h #ajm#h1 ,s4 #ff 
#h'7 discov]$ at ,cordoba 9 #ahga4 ,x   
v>ies f #fg to #gd1 & ! p]iod is ab\t   

#c;d #g;h#b4 ,al?\gh n visible to ord9>y
 eyesight x is giv5 "h1 z x is an       
int]e/+ object & all its light *anges   
may be well se5 ) an op]a-glass4 ,a     
little s\?-ea/ ( ,greek3 b is ano!r     
%ort-p]iod v>iable1 ,s ,trianguli       
,au/ralis 7,r4,a4 #ae;h #ebm#b1 ,s4 #fc 
#cj'71 :i* v>ies f #fd to #gd1 ) a p]iod
 ( #fc days2 & all its fluctuations (   
light may also be obs]v$ ) a good       
op]a-glass4  ,,circ9us1 ! ,compass1 is a
 v small con/ellation ly+ betwe5        
,triangulum & ,c5taurus4 ,its brighte/  
/>1 ,greek3 a1 is ab\t #c-a_/b          
magnitude1 ab\t #d s\? ( ,greek3 a      
,c5tauri4  ,,pavo1 ! ,peacock1 lies nor?
 ( ,octans & ,apus1 & s\? (             
,telescopium4 ,its brighte/ /> is       
,greek3 a1 :i* is a f9e bright /> 7#bab 
,h>v>d74 ,greek3 k is a %ort-p]iod      
v>iable4 ,x v>ies f #ch to #eb1 & !     
p]iod is ab\t #i days4 ,?is is an       
int]e/+ object1 z all ! fluctations (   
light c be obs]v$ by ! nak$ eye or an   
op]a-glass4 ,greek3 e ,pavonis 0 measur$

 #daj at ,h>v>d1 b ! ,cordoba e/imates  
v>y f #cf to #db4 ,g\ld says x is ( a   
rem>kably blue col\r4  ,,indus4--,?is   
con/ellation lies nor? ( ,octans1 & s\? 
( ,sagitt>ius1 ,microscopium1 & ,grus4  
,"o ( its />s1 ,greek3 a1 is probably   
ref]r$ to by ,al-,sufi 9 8 description (
 ,sagitt>ius2 x lies ne>ly midway betwe5
 ,greek3 b ,sagitt>ii & ,greek3 a       
,gruis1 & is ! brighte/ /> ( !          
con/ellation4 ,! /> ,greek3 e ,indi     
7#dgd ,h>v>d7 has a rem>kably l>ge prop]
 motion ( #dfh p] annum4 ,its p>allax is
 ab\t #jbh1 & ! prop] motion indicates a
 velocity ( ab\t #di miles a second at  
"r angles to ! l9e ( sight4             
,,t\can4--,?is con/ellation lies nor? ( 
,octans1 & s\? ( ,pho5ix & ,grus1 ea/ ( 
,indus1 & we/ ( ,hydrus4 ,its brighte/  
/> is ,greek3 a1 ( ab\t ! #crd          
magnitude4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,!re are sev5 cele/ial     
riv]s allud$ to by ! anci5t a/ronom]s3--
  #a4 ,! ,fi% ,riv]1 :i* fl[s f ! urn ( 
,aqu>ius4  #b4 ,! ,riv] ( ! ,bird1 or ! 

,milky ,way 9 ,cygnus4  #c4 ,! ,riv] ( !
 ,birds--#b1 includ+ ,aquila4  #d4 ,!   
,riv] ( ,orion--,eridanus4  #e4 ,! ,riv]
 ( ! god ,m>duk--p]haps ! ,milky ,way 9 
,p]seus4  #f4 ,! ,riv] ( ,s]p5ts        
7,s]p5s1 or ,hydra74  #g4 ,! ,riv] (    
,gan-gal 7,! ,high ,cl\d7--probably !   
,milky ,way z a :ole4  ,!re are f\r     
s]p5ts repres5t$ among ! con/ellations4 
,^! are ,hydra1 ,hydrus1 ,s]p5s1 &      
,draco4  ,accord+ to ! late ,mr4        
,proctor ! date ( ! build+ ( ! ,great   
,pyramid 0 ab\t #cdjj ,b4,c4#deb ,at ?is
 "t ! ,spr+ ,equ9ox 0 9 ,taurus1 & ?is  
is ref]r$ to by ,virgil4 ,b ?is 0 n s 9 
,virgil's "t1 :5--on acc\nt ( !         
precession ( ! equ9oxes--! equ9octial   
po9t _h already ent]$ ,pisces1 9 :i*    
con/ellation x /ill rema9s4 ,at ! date  
#cdjj ,b4,c4 ! cele/ial equator ran     
along ! :ole l5g? ( ! con/ellation      
,hydra1 ne>ly ?r\gh ,procyon1 & a little
 nor? ( ! bright r$ /> ,ant>es4  ,! />  
,fomalhaut 7,greek3 a ,piscis ,au/ralis7
 is int]e/+ z be+ ! mo/ s\!rn #a/       

magnitude /> visible 9 ,engl&1 its      
m]idian altitude at ,gre5wi* be+ little 
m ?an eight degrees4#dec  ,) ref]5ce to 
! ,greek lett]s giv5 to ! bright] />s by
 ,bay] 79 8 ,atlas publi%$ 9 #afjc71 &  
n[ g5]ally us$ by a/ronom]s1 ,mr4 ,lynn 
has %[n t al?\gh ,bay] did uni=mly      
designate ! brighte/ />s 9 ea*          
con/ellation by ! lett] ,greek3 a1#ded x
 is a mi/ake to suppose--z has (t5 be5  
/at$ 9 popul> books on a/ronomy--t he   
add$ ! o!r ,greek lett]s 9 ord] (       
brightness4 ,t ?is is an error cle>ly   
appe>s f ,bay]'s own ,explicatio to 8   
,atlas1 & 0 long s9ce po9t$ out by      
,argel&] 7#ahcb71 & by ,dr4 ,g\ld 9 8   
,uranometria ,arg5t9a4 ,g\ld says1 ,= ! 
/>s ( ea* ord]1 ! sequ5ce ( ! lett]s 9  
no mann] repres5ts t ( _! brightness1 b 
dep5d$ ^u ! positions ( ! />s 9 !       
figure1 beg9n+ usually at ! head1 &     
foll[+ its c\rse until all ! />s ( t    
ord] ( magnitude 7 exhau/$4 ,mr4 ,lynn  
says1 ,p]haps "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable      
in/ances 9 :i* ! lett]+ is se5 at a     

glance n to foll[ ! ord] ( ! lett]s is t
 ( ! ?ree brighte/ />s 9 ,aquila        
,al-,sufi's '?ree fam\s />s'1 ,greek3 g 
be+ evid5tly bright] ?an ,greek3 b4 ,b  
!re is no occasion to conjecture f ?is t
 any *ange ( relative brightness has    
tak5 place4 ,bay] reckon$ bo? ( ^! two (
 ! ?ird magnitude1 & appe>s to h arrang$
 ,greek3 b be=e ,greek3 g1 accord+ to 8 
usual cu/om1 simply because ,greek3 b is
 9 ! neck ( ! suppos$ eagle1 & ,greek3 g
 at ! root ( "o ( ! w+s4#dee ,ano!r good
 example is f\nd 9 ! />s ( ! ,pl\gh1 9  
:i* ! />s are evid5tly arrang$ 9 ! ord] 
( ! figure & n 9 ! ord] ( relative      
brightness4 ,9 fact1 ,bay] is no guide  
at all ) ref]5ce to /> magnitudes4 ,h[  
diff]5t ,al-,sufi 0 9 ?is respect6  ,!  
/>s ,aldeb>an1 ,regulus1 ,ant>es1 &     
,fomalhaut 7 call$ royal />s by !       
anci5ts4 ,! reason ( ?is 0 t !y lie     
r\ghly ab\t #ij ap>t1 t is #f h\rs ( ,"r
 ,asc5sion4 ,s1 if ?r\gh ! nor? & s\?   
poles ( ! heav5s & ea* ( ^! />s we draw 
great circles ( ! sph]e1 ^! circles w   

divide ! sph]e into f\r ne>ly equal     
p>ts1 & ! anci5ts suppos$ t ea* ( ^! />s
 rul$ ov] a qu>t] ( ! sph]e1 an idea    
probably connect$ ) a/rology4 ,z !      
position ( ,aldeb>an is ,r4,a4 #d;h     
#cjm1 ,decl9ation ,nor? #af #ai'1 & t ( 
,ant>es is ,r4,a4 #af;h #aem1           
,decl9ation ,s\? #be #b'1 ^! two />s lie
 at ne>ly opposite po9ts ( ! cele/ial   
sph]e4 ,f ?is x foll[s t our sun se5 f  
,aldeb>an w\ld lie n v f> f ,ant>es1 &  
se5 f ,ant>es x w\ld appe> n f> f       
,aldeb>an4  ,! foll[+ may be consid]$ z 
repres5tative />s ( diff]5t magnitudes4 
,= ^? ( fir/ magnitude & fa9t] ,i h only
 giv5 ^? = :i* all ! be/ obs]v]s 9      
anci5t & mod]n times agree1 & :i* h be5 
confirm$ by mod]n photometric measures4 
,! ,h>v>d measures are giv53--          
,bright] ?an z]o magnitude    ,sirius   
7-#aeh72 ,canopus 7-#jhf7    ,z]o       
magnitude                    ,greek3 a  
,c5tauri 7#jjf7    #j to #jd magnitude  
,vega 7#jad72 ,capella 7#jba72          
,arcturus 7#jbd72 ,rigel 7#jcd7    #je  

magnitude                     ,procyon  
7#jdh7    #a/                           
,aldeb>an 7#ajf7    #bnd                
,greek3 a ,p]sei 7#aij72                
,greek3 b ,aurig 7#bjg7    #crd         
,greek3  ,botis 7#cjh72                 
,greek3 z ,capricorni 7#bih7    #d?     
,greek3 r ,leonis 7#che72               
,greek3 l ,scorpii 7#daf72              
,greek3 g ,crat]is7#dad72               
,greek3 r ,h]culis 7#dad7    #e?        
,greek3 o ,pegasi 7#dhe72               
,greek3 m ,capricorni 7#eaj7     ,,*apt]
 ,,xx  ,! ,visible ,univ]se   ,"s       
rese>*es on ! di/ribution ( />s 9 ! sky 
h rec5tly be5 made at ! ,h>v>d          
,obs]vatory 7,u4,s4,a474 ,! pr9cipal    
results are3--7#a7 ,! numb] ( />s on any
 giv5 area ( ! ,milky ,way is ab\t twice
 z great z 9 an equal area ( any o!r    
region4 7#b7 ,?is ratio does n increase 
= fa9t />s d[n to ! #ab? magnitude4 7#c7
 ,! ,milky ,way cov]s ab\t "o-?ird ( !  
sky & conta9s ab\t half ( ! />s4 7#d7   
,!re are ab\t #aj1jjj />s ( magnitude   

#ff or bright]1 #ajj1jjj d[n to         
magnitude #hg1 "o million to magnitude  
#aa1 & two millions to magnitude #aai4  
,x is e/imat$ t !re are ab\t #ah        
millions ( />s d[n to ! #ae? magnitude  
visible 9 a telescope ( #ae in*es       
ap]ture4#def  ,accord+ to ,pr(4         
,kapteyn's rese>*es on /ell>            
di/ribution1 he f9ds t go+ out f ! e>?  
into space1 ! /> d5sity--t is1 ! numb] (
 />s p] unit volume ( space--is fairly  
con/ant until we rea* a di/ance ( ab\t  
#bjj light ye>s4 ,f ?is po9t ! d5sity   
gradually dim9i%es out to a di/ance (   
#bejj light ye>s1 at :i* di/ance x is   
r$uc$ to ab\t "o-fif? ( ! d5sity 9 !    
sun's vic9ity4#deg  ,9 a lett] to ! late
 ,mr4 ,proctor 7,k1 ,novemb]1 #ahhe1 p4 
#ba71 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el sugge/$ t our  
,galaxy 7or /ell> sy/em7 conta9$ )9     
itself m9iatures ( itself4 ,?is         
beautiful idea is probably true4 ,9 8   
acc\nt ( ! great] ,magellanic cl\d1 ,sir
 ,john ,h]s*el describes "o ( ! num]\s  
objects x conta9s z foll[s3--      ,v   

bright1 v l>ge2 oval2 v gradually       
pretty1 mu* bright]     9 ! middle2 a   
beautiful nebula2 x has v mu* !         
resemblance to     ! ,nubecula ,major   
itself z se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 b x is f>    
bright] & m impressive 9 its g5]al      
aspect z if x 7     d\bl$ 9 int5sity4   
,note--,july #bi1 #ahcg4 ,i well rememb]
 ?is     obs]vation1 x 0 ! result (     
repeat$ comp>isons betwe5 !     object  
se5 9 ! telescope & ! actual nubecula z 
se5 high 9     ! sky on ! m]idian1 & no 
vague e/imate c>elessly set d[n4     ,& 
:o c say :e!r 9 ?is object1 magnifi$ &  
analys$ by     telescopes inf9itely     
sup]ior to :at we n[ possess1 !re may n 
exi/ all ! complexity ( detail t !      
nubecula itself pres5ts     to our      
exam9ation8#deh  ,! late ,"l ,kelv91 9 a
 rem>kable address deliv]$ be=e !       
,physical ,sci5ce ,section ( ! ,briti%  
,association at its meet+ at ,glasg[ 9  
#aija1 consid]$ ! probable quantity (   
matt] conta9$ 9 our ,visible ,univ]se4  
,he takes a sph]e ( radius repres5t$ by 

! di/ance ( a /> hav+ a p>allax (       
"o-?\s&? ( a second 7or ab\t #cjjj ye>s'
 j\rney = light71 & he supposes t       
uni=mly di/ribut$ )9 ?is sph]e !re exi/s
 a mass ( matt] equal to #ajjj million  
times ! sun's mass4 ,) ^! data he f9ds t
 a body plac$ orig9ally at ! surface ( !
 sph]e w\ld 9 #e million ye>s acquire by
 gravitational =ce a velocity ( ab\t    
#ab-a_/b miles a second1 & aft] #be     
million ( ye>s a velocity ( ab\t #fg    
miles a second4 ,z ^! velocities are ( !
 same ord] z ! obs]v$ velocities among !
 />s1 ,"l ,kelv9 concludes t !re is     
probably z mu* matt] 9 our univ]se z    
w\ld be repres5t$ by a ?\s& million     
suns4 ,if we assum$ a mass ( t5 ?\s&    
suns ! velocities w\ld be mu* too high4 
,! mo/ probable e/imate ( ! total numb] 
( ! visible />s is ab\t #ajj millions2 s
 t if ,"l ,kelv9's calculations are     
correct we seem b\nd to assume t space  
conta9s a numb] ( d>k bodies4 ,! nebul1 
h[ev]1 probably conta9 va/ masses (     
matt]1 & ?is may p]haps                 

acc\nt--p>tially1 at lea/--= ! l>ge     
am\nt ( matt] e/imat$ by ,"l ,kelv94    
7,see ,*apt] on ,nebul47  ,9 "s notes on
 photographs ( ! ,milky ,way1 ,pr(4     
,b>n>d says ) ref]5ce to ! great nebula 
ne> ,greek3 r ,ophiu*i1 ,! peculi>ity ( 
?is region has sugge/$ to me ! idea t ! 
app>5tly small />s =m+ ! gr\nd "w ( !   
,milky ,way "h1 are really v small      
bodies comp>$ ) our own sun2 & aga91    
ref]r+ to ! region ne> ,greek3 b ,cygni1
 ,"o is specially /ruck ) ! app>5t      
extreme smallness ( ! g5]al mass ( ! />s
 9 ?is region4 ,aga91 ) ref]5ce to      
,greek3 * ,cygni1 he says1 ,! />s "h    
also are rem>kably uni=m 9 size4#dei    
,ea/man's results = p>allax seem to %[ t
 ! fa9t] r ?an ! bright] />s are ne>e/  
to our sy/em4 ,b ?is app>5t p>adox is   
consid]$ by ,mr4 ,monck to be v         
mislead+2#dfj & ! pres5t writ] holds !  
same op9ion4  ,pr(4 ,kapteyn f9ds t />s 
^: prop] motions exce$ #jje are n m     
num]\s 9 ! ,milky ,way ?an 9 o!r p>ts ( 
! sky2 or1 9 o!r words1 if only ! />s   

hav+ prop] motions ( #jje or upw>ds 7   
mapp$1 !re w\ld be no aggregation ( />s 
%[+ ! exi/5ce ( ! ,milky ,way4#dfa  ,)  
ref]5ce to ! numb] ( />s visible on     
photographs1 ! late ,dr4 ,isaac ,rob]ts 
says--      ,s f> z ,i am able at pres5t
 to judge1 "u ! atmosph]ic              
conditions preval5t 9 ?is c\ntry1 !     
limit ( ! photographic     me?od (      
del9eation w be rea*$ at /ell>1 or      
nebul>1 light (     ! feebl5ess ( ab\t  
#ah?-magnitude />s4 ,! reason = ?is     
inf]5ce is t ! g5]al illum9ation ( !    
atmosph]e by     />light conc5trat$ ^u a
 film by ! in/rum5t w mask !     light (
 objects t are fa9t] ?an ab\t           
#ah?-magnitude     />s4#dfb  ,) ref]5ce 
to blank spaces 9 ! sky1 ! late ,mr4    
,norman ,pogson rem>k$--      ,ne> ,s   
,ophiu*i we f9d "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable    
vacuities 9 ?is     hemisph]e--an       
elliptic space ( ab\t #fe' 9 l5g? 9 !   
direction     ( ,r4,a41 & #dj' 9 wid?1 9
 :i* !re exi/s no /> l>g] ?an     ! #ac?
 magnitude 444 x is impossible to turn a

 l>ge telescope 9     t direction &1 if 
,i may s express x1 view su* black      
d>kness1     )\t a feel+ t we are "h    
se>*+ into ! remote regions     ( space1
 f> beyond ! limits ( our own sid]eal   
sy/em4#dfc  ,pr(4 ,b>n>d describes "s   
regions 9 ! con/ellation ,taurus conta9+
 d>k lanes 9 a gr\ndwork ( fa9t         
nebulosity4 ,he gives two beautiful     
photographs ( ! regions ref]r$ to1 &    
says t ! d>k holes & lanes are app>5tly 
d>k] ?an ! sky 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity4 ,he
 says1 ,a v s+ul> feature 9 ?is         
connection is t ! />s also are abs5t 9  
g5]al f ! lanes4 ,a close exam9ation (  
^! photographs has giv5 ! pres5t writ] !
 impression t ! d>k lanes & spots are 9 
! nebulosity1 & t ! nebulosity is mix$  
up ) ! />s4 ,?is w\ld acc\nt = ! fact t 
! />s are 9 g5]al abs5t f ! d>k lanes4  
,= if !re is an intimate relation betwe5
 ! />s & ! nebulosity1 x w\ld foll[ t   
:]e !re is no nebulosity 9 ?is p>ticul> 
region !re w\ld be no />s4 ,pr(4 ,b>n>d 
adds t ! nebulosity is easily visible 9 

a #ab-;in* telescope4#dfd  ,) ref]5ce to
 ! life ( ! univ]se1 ,pr(4 ,f4 ,r4      
,m\lton well says--      ,! lifetime ( a
 man seems fairly long1 & ! epo* :5     
,troy 0     besieg$1 or :5 ! ,ph>aohs   
pil$ up ! pyramids 9 ! valley (     !   
,nile1 or :5 our ance/ors sep>at$ on !  
high plateaux (     ,asia1 seems        
extremely remote1 b ^! int]vals are only
 mom5ts     comp>$ to ! imm5se p]iods   
requir$ = geological evolutions &     ! 
enorm\sly great] ones consum$ 9 !       
developem5t ( worlds     f widely ext5d$
 nebul\s masses4 ,we recognize ! exi/5ce
 (     only ^? =ces ^: imm$iate         
consequ5ces are appreciable1 & x     may
 be t ^? ^: effects are yet unse5 are   
really ( !     highe/ importance4 ,a    
little creature ^: life ext5d$ ov] only 
two or ?ree h\rs ( a summ]'s day might  
be l$1 if he 7     suffici5tly end[$ )  
intellig5ce1 to inf] t pass+ cl\ds     7
 ! *ief influ5ce at "w 9 *ang+ ! climate
 in/ead (     p]ceiv+ t ! sun's sl[     
motion across ! sky w\ld br+ on     !   

night & its s\?w>d motion ! w9t]4#dfe   
,9 a review ( my book ,a/ronomical      
,essays 9 ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,septemb]1    
#aijg1 ! foll[+ words occur4 ,!y seem to
 =m a good & suffici5t answ] to p :o    
ask1 ,:at is !re beyond our visible     
univ]se8 ,if ! /ell> univ]se is conta9$ 
9 a sph]e ( say #ajjj /ell> units       
radius1 :at is !re beyond8 ,to ?is !    
a/ronom] w reply t !ories & hypo!ses are
 put =w>d = ! purpose ( expla9+ obs]v$  
facts2 :5 !re are no facts to be        
expla9$1 no !ory is requir$4 ,z !re are 
no obs]v$ facts z to :at exi/s beyond ! 
f>!/ />s1 ! m9d ( ! a/ronom] is a       
complete blank on ! subject4 ,popul>    
imag9ation c fill up ! blank z x        
pleases4 ,) ^! rem>ks ,i fully concur4  
,9 8 address to ! ,briti% ,association1 
,pr(4 ,g4 ,h4 ,d>w9 7n[ ,sir ,george    
,d>w97 said--      ,man is b a          
microscopic be+ relatively to           
a/ronomical space1 &     he lives on a  
puny planet circl+ r\nd a /> ( inf]ior  
rank4 ,does     x n1 !n1 seem futile to 

imag9e t he c discov] ! orig9     &     
t5d5cy ( ! ,univ]se z to expect a       
h\sefly to in/ruct u z     to ! !ory ( !
 motions ( ! planets8 ,& yet1 s long z  
he     %all la/1 he w pursue 8 se>*1 & w
 no d\bt discov] _m     wond]ful ?+s :i*
 are /ill hidd54 ,we may inde$ be amaz$ 
at     all t man has be5 able to f9d    
out1 b ! immeasurable magnitude     ( ! 
undiscov]$ w ?r\gh\t all "t rema9 to    
humble 8     pride4 ,our *ildr5's *ildr5
 w /ill be gaz+ & m>vell+ at     ! />ry 
heav5s1 b ! riddle w nev] be read4  ,!  
anci5t philosoph] ,lucretius said--     
,glob$ f ! atoms fall+ sl[ or swift   ,i
 see ! suns1 ,i see ! sy/ems lift   ,_! 
=ms2 & ev5 ! sy/em & ! suns   ,%all g   
back sl[ly to ! et]nal drift4#dff  ,b x 
has be5 well said t ! /ructure ( !      
univ]se has a fasc9ation ( its own = mo/
 read]s q ap>t f any real progress :i*  
may be made t[>ds its solution4#dfg  ,! 
,milky ,way itself1 ,mr4 ,/raton(f      
consid]s to be an agglom]ation ( imm5se 
cond5sations1 or /ell> cl\ds1 :i* are   

scatt]$ r\nd ! region ( ! galactic      
equator4 ,^! cl\ds1 or masses ( />s1    
sometimes leave spaces betwe5 !m1 &     
sometimes !y ov]lap1 & 9 ?is way he     
acc\nts = ! great rifts1 l ! ,coal      
,sack1 :i* all[ u to see ?r\gh ?is great
 circle ( light4 ,he f9ds o!r           
cond5sations ( />s2 ! ne>e/ is "o ( :i* 
our sun is a memb]1 *iefly compos$ ( />s
 ( ! high] magnitudes :i* ?9 out rapidly
 z ! ,milky ,way is approa*$4 ,!re are  
o!r cond5sations3 "o 9 />s ( magnitudes 
#fe to #he2 & a ?ird1 f>!r (f1 9 />s (  
magnitudes #gf to #h4 ,^! may be call$  
op]a-glass1 or field-glass />s4         
,/raton(f f9ds t />s ) spectra ( ! fir/ 
type 7class ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & ,d ( ,h>v>d7  
:i* include ! ,sirian & ,orion />s1 are 
pr9cipally situat$ ne> ! ,milky ,way1   
:ile ^? ( type ,,ii4 7:i* includes !    
sol> />s7 are pr9cipally cond5s$ 9 a    
region co9cid+ r\ghly ) ! t]re/rial     
pole1 & only %[ a slight increase1 z    
comp>$ ) o!r />s1 z ! galaxy is         
approa*$4#dfh  ,pr(4 ,kapteyn ?9ks t    

und\bt$ly "o ( ! greate/ difficulties1  
if n ! greate/ ( all1 9 ! way ( obta9+  
an und]/&+ ( ! real di/ribution ( ! />s 
9 space1 lies 9 our unc]ta9ty ab\t !    
am\nt ( loss suff]$ by ! light ( ! />s  
on its way to ! obs]v]4#dfi ,he says1   
,!re c be little d\bt 9 my op9ion1 ab\t 
! exi/5ce ( absorption 9 space1 & ,i ?9k
 t ev5 a good guess z to ! ord] ( its   
am\nt c be made4 ,=1 fir/ we "k t space 
conta9s an enorm\s mass ( meteoric      
matt]4 ,?is matt] mu/ necess>ily        
int]cept "s "p ( ! />-light4  ,?is      
absorption1 h[ev]1 seems to be          
comp>atively small4 ,kapteyn f9ds a     
value ( #jjaf 7ab\t #a_/fj?7 ( a        
magnitude = a /> at a di/ance           
correspond+ to a p>allax ( "o-t5? ( a   
second 7ab\t #cc light ye>s74 ,?is is a 
quantity almo/ imp]ceptible 9 ! mo/     
delicate photomet]4 ,b = v great        
di/ances--su* z #cjjj light ye>s--!     
absorption w\ld evid5tly become v       
consid]able1 & w\ld acc\nt              
satisfactorily = ! gradual ?9n+ out ( ! 

fa9t] />s4 ,if ?is 7 fully prov$1 we    
%\ld h to consid] ! fa9t] />s ( ! ,milky
 ,way to be 9 all probability fairly    
l>ge suns1 ! light ( :i* is r$uc$ by    
absorption4  ,t "s ( ! anci5ts knew t ! 
,milky ,way is compos$ ( />s is %[n by !
 foll[+ l9es translat$ f ,ovid3--    ,a 
way !re is 9 heav5's ext5d$ pla9   ,:i* 
:5 ! skies are cle> is se5 bel[   ,&    
mortals1 by ! "n ( ,milky1 "k2   ,!     
gr\ndwork is ( />s1 ?r\gh :i* ! road    
,lies op5 to great ,jupit]'s abode4#dgj 
,f an exam9ation ( ! di/ribution ( !    
fa9t />s compos+ ! ,milky ,way1 & ^? %[n
 9 ,argel&]'s *>ts ( />s d[n to !       
#i-a_/b magnitude1 ,ea/on f9ds t !re is 
a real connection betwe5 ! di/ribution (
 #i? & #aj? magnitude />s1 & t ( ! fa9t 
/>s ( ! ,milky ,way1 & t consequ5tly !  
fa9t or v fa9t />s ( ! galactic zone are
 at a di/ance :i* does n greatly exce$ t
 ( ! #i? & #aj? magnitude />s4#dga ,a   
simil> conclusion 01 ,i ?9k1 arriv$ at  
by ,proctor _m ye>s ago4 ,n[ let u      
consid] ! mean+ ( ?is result4 ,tak+ />s 

( ! #ae? magnitude1 if _! fa9tness 7    
m]ely due to great] di/ance1 _! actual  
brightness--if ( ! same size--w\ld imply
 t !y are at #aj times ! di/ance ( />s (
 ! #aj? magnitude4 ,b if at ! same      
di/ance f u1 a #aj? magnitude /> w\ld be
 #ajj times bright] ?an a #ae? magnitude
 />1 & if ( ! same d5sity & intr9sic    
brightness 7or lum9osity ( surface7 !   
#aj? magnitude w\ld h #aj times !       
diamet] ( ! fa9t] />1 & h5ce its volume 
w\ld be #ajjj times great] 7#ajc71 & ?is
 great diff]5ce is n p]haps improbable4 
,! con/itution ( ! ,milky ,way is n !   
same 9 all its p>ts4 ,! bright spot     
betwe5 ,greek3 b & ,greek3 g ,cygni is  
due to relatively bright />s4 ,o!rs     
equally d5se b fa9t] regions 9 ,auriga &
 ,monoc]os are only evid5t 9 />s ( ! #h?
 & #i? magnitude1 & ! light ( !         
well-kn[n lum9\s spot 9 ,sobieski's     
,%ield1 closely s\? ( ,greek3 l ,aquil1 
is due to />s bel[ magnitude #i-a_/b4   
,! correspond5ce 9 di/ribution betwe5 ! 
/>s ( ,argel&]'s *>ts & ! fa9t] />s ( ! 

,milky ,way %[s1 z ,ea/on po9ts out1 t  
,h]s*el's hypo!sis ( a uni=m di/ribution
 ( />s ( approximately equal size is q  
unt5able4  ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! ,milky
 ,way may p]haps =m a r+ ( />s ) ! sun  
plac$ ne>ly1 b n exactly1 9 ! c5tre ( ! 
r+4 ,b 7 x really a r+ ( uni=m wid? ) ! 
sun ecc5trically plac$ )9 x1 we %\ld    
expect to f9d ! ,milky ,way wid] at its 
ne>e/ "p1 & gradually n>r[+ t[>ds !     
opposite po9t4 ,n[1 ,h]s*el's gages &   
,celoria's c\nts %[ t ! ,galaxy is wid] 
9 ,aquila ?an 9 ,monoc]os4 ,?is is      
confirm$ by ,ea/on1 :o says1 = ! fa9t   
/>s tak5 z a :ole1 ! ,milky ,way is     
wide/ 9 its brighte/ "p 7! italics are  
,ea/on's74 ,f ?is we %\ld conclude t !  
,milky ,way is ne>] to u 9 ! direction (
 ,aquila ?an 9 t ( ,monoc]os4 ,sir ,john
 ,h]s*el sugge/$ t ! s\!rn p>ts ( !     
galactic zone are ne>] to u on acc\nt ( 
_! great] brightness 9 ^? regions4#dgb  
,b great] wid? is a saf] te/ ( di/ance  
?an relative brightness4 ,= x may be    
easily %[n ?an ! intr9sic brightness (  

an area conta9+ a l>ge numb] ( />s w\ld 
be ! same = all di/ances 7neglect+ !    
suppos$ absorption ( light 9 space74 ,= 
suppose any giv5 area cr[d$ ) />s to be 
remov$ to a great] di/ance4 ,! light (  
ea* /> w\ld be dim9i%$ inv]sely z !     
squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,b ! giv5 area w\ld  
also be dim9i%$ directly z ! squ>e ( !  
di/ance1 s we %\ld h a dim9i%$ am\nt (  
light on an equally dim9i%$ area1 & h5ce
 ! intr9sic brightness1 or lum9osity ( !
 area p] unit ( surface1 w\ld rema9     
unalt]$4 ,! increas$ brightness ( !     
,milky ,way 9 ,aquila is acc\nt$ = by ! 
fact t ,h]s*el's gages %[ an increas$   
numb] ( />s1 & h5ce ! brightness 9      
,aquila & ,sagitt>ius does n necess>ily 
imply t ! ,milky ,way is ne>] to u 9 ^? 
p>ts1 b t x is ri*] 9 small />s ?an 9   
o!r regions4  ,ea/on is ( op9ion t !    
annul> hypo!sis ( ! ,milky ,way is      
inconsi/5t ) our pres5t k ( ! galactic  
ph5om5a1 & he sugge/s t its actual      
con/itution resembles m t ( a spiral    
nebula4#dgc ,on ?is hypo!sis ! increase 

9 ! numb] ( />s 9 ! regions above ref]r$
 to may be due to our see+ "o bran* ( ! 
suppos$ two-bran*$ spiral project$ on   
ano!r bran* ( ! same spiral4 ,?is seems 
support$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's        
obs]vations 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :]e he 
f\nd 9 "s places a tissue z x 7 ( l>ge  
/>s spread ov] ano!r ( v small ones1 !  
imm$iate magnitudes be+ want+4 ,aga91   
portions ( ! spiral bran*es may be ri*] 
?an o!rs1 z photographs ( spiral nebul  
seem to indicate4 ,celoria1 reject+ !   
hypo!sis ( a s+le r+1 sugge/s ! exi/5ce 
( two galactic r+s incl9$ to ea* o!r at 
an angle ( ab\t #bj1 "o ( ^! includ+ !  
bright] />s1 & ! o!r ! fa9t]4 ,b ?is    
seems to be a m artificial arrangem5t !n
 ! hypo!sis ( a spiral4 ,fur!r1 !       
complicat$ /ructure ( ! ,milky ,way _c  
be well expla9$ by ,celoria's hypo!sis (
 two di/9ct r+s "o inside ! o!r4 ,f     
analogy ! spiral hypo!sis seems mu* m   
probable4  ,consid]+ ! ,milky ,way to   
repres5t a colossal spiral nebula view$ 
f a po9t n f> remov$ f ! c5tre ( !      

spiral bran*es1 ,ea/on sugge/s t !      
bright region betwe5 ,greek3 b & ,greek3
 g ,cygni1 :i* is v ri* 9 comp>atively  
bright />s1 may possibly repres5t !     
c5tral accumulations ( ! ,milky ,way1 t 
is1 ! portion correspond+ to ! nucleus (
 a spiral nebula4 ,if ?is be s1 ?is     
portion ( ! ,milky ,way %\ld be ne>] to 
u ?an o!rs4 ,ea/on also ?9ks t ! s-call$
 sol> clu/] ( ,g\ld1 ,kapteyn1 &        
,s*iap>elli may p]haps be ! expression (
 ! c5tral cond5sation ( ! galactic sy/em
 itself1 compos$ ( ! mo/ "p ( suns      
comp>able ) our own1 & :i* w\ld ?us     
embrace mo/ ( ! bright />s to ! #i? or  
#aj? magnitude4 ,! di/ance ( ! galactic 
/reams & convolutions w\ld ?us be       
comp>able ) ! di/ances ( ^! />s4 ,he    
?9ks t ! sun lies )9 a gigantic spiral1 
9 a comp>atively sp>se region betwe5 !  
c5tral nucleus & ,orion4  ,s*e9] ?9ks t 
! irregul>ities ( ! ,milky ,way1        
especially 9 /reams1 c be q well acc\nt$
 =1 z ,ea/on has attempt$ to d1 if !y   
are reg>d$ z a sy/em ( spirals1 & n z a 

r+ sy/em4  ,evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! spiral  
hypo!sis ( ! ,milky ,way1 z advocat$ by 
,ea/on & ,s*e9]1 may be f\nd 9          
,kapteyn's rese>*es on ! prop] motions (
 ! />s4 ,?is em95t a/ronom] f9ds t />s )
 measurable prop] motions--& !re=e 9 all
 probability relatively ne> ! e>?--h    
mo/ly spectra ( ! sol> type1 & seem to  
clu/] r\nd a po9t adjac5t to ! sun1 9   
total disreg>d to ! position ( ! ,milky 
,way1 & t />s ) little or no prop]      
motion collect r\nd ! galactic pla94 ,he
 is also ( op9ion t ! ,milky ,way       
resembles ! ,&rom$a nebula1 ! globul>   
nucleus repres5t+ ! sol> clu/]1 & ! f>  
spread+ w+s or :orls ! compress$ lay] ( 
/>s enclos$ by ! r+s ( ! remote ,galaxy4
  ,) ref]5ce to ! plurality ( inhabit$  
worlds1 x has be5 well said by ! anci5t 
writ] ,metrodorus 7?ird c5tury ,b4,c471 
,! idea t !re is b a s+le _w 9 all      
inf9itude w\ld be z absurd z to suppose 
t a va/ field _h be5 =m$ to produce a   
s+le blade ( :eat4#dgd ,) ?is op9ion !  
pres5t writ] fully concurs4     ,,*apt] 

,,xxi  ,g5]al   ,! a*ievem5ts (         
,hipp>*us 9 a/ronomy 7 v rem>kable1     
consid]+ ! age 9 :i* he liv$4 ,he f\nd !
 am\nt ( ! app>5t motion ( ! />s due to 
! precession ( ! equ9oxes 7( :i* he 0 ! 
discov]]7 to be #ei p] annum4 ,! correct
 am\nt is ab\t #ej4 ,he measur$ ! l5g? (
 ! ye> to )9 #i m9utes ( its true value4
 ,he f\nd ! incl9ation ( ! ecliptic to !
 plane ( ! equator to be #bc #ea'4 ,x 0 
!n #bc #df'--;z we n[ "k by mod]n       
calculations--s t ,hipp>*us' e/imation 0
 a wond]fully close approximation to !  
tru?4 ,he comput$ ! moon's p>allax to be
 #eg'1 :i* is ab\t its correct value4   
,he f\nd ! ecc5tricity ( ! sun's app>5t 
orbit r\nd ! e>? to be "o tw5ty-f\r?1 ! 
real value be+ !n ab\t "o-?irte5?4 ,he  
det]m9$ o!r motions connect$ ) ! e>? &  
moon2 & =m$ a catalogue ( #ajhj />s4    
,all ?is "w has e>n$ = him ! well-m]it$ 
title ( ,! ,fa!r ( ,a/ronomy4#dge  ,!   
foll[+ is a translation ( a ,greek      
passage ascrib$ to ,ptolemy3 ,i "k t ,i 
am mortal & ! creature ( a day1 b :5 ,i 

se>* out ! _m roll+ circles ( ! />s1 my 
feet t\* ! e>? no long]1 b ) ,zeus      
himself ,i take my fill ( ambrosia1 !   
food ( ! gods4#dgf ,?is 0 inscrib$ 79   
,greek7 on a silv] lov+ cup pres5t$ to !
 late ,pr(essor ,c4 ,a4 ,"y1 ! fam\s    
,am]ican a/ronom]4#dgg  ,"s curi\s &    
int]e/+ ph5om5a are record$ 9 ! old     
,*9ese ,annals1 :i* g back to a great   
antiquity4 ,9 #fhg ,b4,c4 a night is    
m5tion$ )\t cl\ds & )\t />s 767 ,?is may
 p]haps ref] to a total eclipse ( ! sun2
 b if s1 ! eclipse is n m5tion$ 9 !     
,*9ese li/ ( eclipses4 ,9 ! ye> #ada    
,b4,c41 x is /at$ t ! sun & moon appe>$ 
( a deep r$ col\r dur+ #e days1 a       
ph5om5on :i* caus$ great t]ror among !  
p4 ,9 #gd ,b4,c41 x is relat$ t a /> z  
l>ge z ! moon appe>$1 & 0 foll[$ 9 its  
motion by sev]al />s ( ord9>y size4 ,?is
 probably ref]s to an unusually l>ge    
bolide or fireball4 ,9 #ch ,b4,c41 a    
fall ( meteoric /ones is record$ ( !    
size ( a walnut4 ,9 ,a4,d4 #hh1 ano!r   
fall ( /ones is m5tion$4 ,9 ,a4,d4 #cba1

 sun-spots 7 visible to ! nak$ eye4     
,hom] speaks ( a curi\s d>kness :i*     
occurr$ dur+ "o ( ! great battles 9 !   
la/ ye> ( ! ,trojan w>4 ,mr4 ,/ockwell  
id5tifies ?is ) an eclipse ( ! sun :i*  
took place on ,augu/ #bh1 #aahd ,b4,c4  
,an eclipse ref]r$ to by ,?ucydides z   
hav+ occurr$ dur+ ! fir/ ye> ( !        
,peloponnesian ,w>1 :5 ! d>kness 0 s    
great t "s />s 7 se51 is id5tifi$ by    
,/ockwell ) a total eclipse ( ! sun1 :i*
 took place on ,augu/ #b1 #dcj ,b4,c4   
,a great eclipse ( ! sun is suppos$ to h
 occurr$ 9 ! ye> #dc or #dd ,b4,c41 soon
 aft] ! dea? ( ,julius ,cs>4 ,b>on de   
,za* & ,arago m5tion x z ! fir/ annul>  
eclipse on record4 ,b calculations %[ t 
no sol> eclipse :atev]1 visible 9       
,italy1 occurr$ 9 ei!r ( ^! ye>s4 ,!    
ph5om5on ref]r$ to mu/ !re=e h be5 (    
atmosph]ical orig91 & inde$ ?is is      
sugge/$ by a passage 9 ,suetonius1 "o ( 
! au?ors quot$ on ! subject4  ,m4       
,guillaume ?9ks t ! n9? ,egyptian       
plague1 ! ?ick d>kness 7,exodus x4      

#ba-bc71 may p]haps be expla9$ by a     
total eclipse ( ! sun :i* occurr$ 9     
#accb ,b4,c4 ,x is true t ! acc\nt /ates
 t ! d>kness la/$ ?ree days1 b ?is1 ,m4 
,guillaume ?9ks1 may be due to an error 
9 ! translation4#dgh ,?is explanation1  
h[ev]1 seems v improbable4  ,accord+ to 
,h9d1 ! moon 0 eclips$ on ! g5]ally     
receiv$ date ( ! ,crucifixion1 ,a4,d4   
#cc1 ,april #c4 ,he says1 ,i f9d %e _h  
em]g$ f ! e>?'s d>k %ad[ a qu>t] ( an   
h\r be=e %e rose at ,j]usalem 7#f;h #cfm
 p4m472 b ! p5umbra cont9u$ ^u h] disc =
 an h\r aft]w>ds4 ,an eclipse c\ld n h  
_h any?+ to d ) ! d>kness ov] all ! l&  
dur+ ! ,crucifixion4 ,= ?is la/$ = ?ree 
h\rs1 & ! totality ( a sol> eclipse c   
only la/ a few m9utes at ! mo/4 ,z a    
matt] ( fact ! eclipse ( ,phlegon1 a    
p>tial "o 7,a4,d4 #bi1 ,novemb] #bd7 0 !
 only sol> eclipse t c\ld h be5 visible 
9 ,j]usalem dur+ ! p]iod usually fix$ = 
! m9i/ry ( ,*ri/4  ,x is m5tion$ 9 !    
,anglo-,saxon ,*ronicle t a total       
eclipse ( ! sun took place 9 ! ye> aft] 

,k+ ,alfr$'s great battle ) ! ,danes4   
,n[1 calculation %[s t ?is eclipse      
occurr$ on ,octob] #bi1 #hgh ,a4,d4 ,k+ 
,alfr$'s victory ov] ! ,danes mu/1      
!re=e1 h tak5 place 9 #hgg ,a4,d41 & 8  
dea? probably occurr$ 9 #hii ,a4,d4 ,?is
 sol> eclipse is also m5tion$ 9 !       
,annals ( ,ul/]4 ,f ?is x w be se5 t 9  
"s cases ! dates ( hi/orical ev5ts c be 
accurately fix$ by a/ronomical ph5om5a4 
,x is /at$ by "s hi/orians t an eclipse 
( ! sun took place on ! morn+ ( ! battle
 ( ,crecy1 ,augu/ #bf1 #acdf4 ,b        
calculation %[s t !re 0 no eclipse ( !  
sun visible 9 ,engl& 9 t ye>4 ,at ! "t (
 ! fam\s battle ! moon _h j ent]$ on h] 
fir/ qu>t]1 & %e 0 p>tially eclips$ six 
days aft]w>ds--t is on ! #a/ (          
,septemb]4 ,! mi/ake seems to h aris5 f 
a mi/ranslation ( ! old ,fr5* ^w        
escli/re1 :i* means lightn+4 ,?is 0     
mi/ak5 = esclipse4 ,! acc\nt seems to   
indicate t !re 0 a heavy ?und]/orm on ! 
morn+ ( ! battle4  ,a d>k %ade 0 se5 on 
! wan+ moon by ,messrs4 ,hir/ & ,j4 ,c4 

,russell on ,octob] #ba1 #ahgh1 z d>k z 
! %ad[ dur+ an eclipse ( ! moon4#dgi ,if
 ?is obs]vation is correct1 x is c]ta9ly
 mo/ difficult to expla94 ,ano!r curi\s 
obs]vation is record$ by ,mr4 ,e4 ,/one 
,wigg9s1 :o says t a p>tial eclipse ( ! 
sun by a d>k body 0 obs]v$ 9 ! ,/ate (  
,mi*igan 7,u4,s4,a47 on ,may #af1 #ahhd1
 at #g p4m4 ,! moon at t mom5t 0 #ab    
degrees s\? ( ! equator & ! sun z _m    
degrees nor? ( x4 ,! exi/5ce ( a d>k    
satellite ( ! e>? has be5 sugge/$1 b ?is
 seems highly improbable4  ,! sun's     
corona seems to h be5 fir/ notic$ 9 !   
total eclipse ( ! sun :i* occurr$ at !  
dea? ( ! ,roman emp]or ,domitian1 ,a4,d4
 #ie4 ,philo/ratus 9 8 ,life (          
,apollonius says1 ) ref]5ce to ?is      
eclipse1 ,9 ! heav5s !re appe>$ a       
prodigy ( ?is nature3 a c]ta9 corona    
resembl+ ! ,iris surr\nd$ ! orb ( ! sun1
 & obscur$ its light4#dhj ,9 m mod]n    
times ! corona seems to h be5 fir/      
notic$ by ,clavius dur+ ! total eclipse 
( ,april #i1 #aefg4dha ,kepl] prov$ t   

?is eclipse 0 total1 n annul>1 s t ! r+ 
se5 by ,clavius mu/ h be5 ! corona4  ,) 
ref]5ce to ! visibility ( planets & />s 
dur+ total eclipses ( ! sun2 9 ! eclipse
 ( ,may #ab1 #agjf1 ,v5us1 ,m]cury1 &   
,aldeb>an1 & sev]al o!r />s 7 se54 ,dur+
 ! totality ( ! eclipse ( ,may #c1      
#agae1 ab\t tw5ty />s 7 se5 ) ! nak$    
eye4#dhb ,at ! eclipse ( ,may #bb1      
#agbd1 ,v5us & ,m]cury1 & a few fix$ />s
 7 se54#dhc ,! corona 0 also notic$4 ,at
 ! eclipse ( ,may #b1 #agcc1 ,jupit]1 ! 
/>s ( ! ,pl\gh1 ,capella1 & o!r />s 7   
visible to ! nak$ eye2 & ! corona 0 aga9
 se54#dhc  ,dur+ ! total eclipses (     
,febru>y #i1 #agff1 ,june #bd1 #aggh1 & 
,june #af1 #ahjf1 ! corona 0 aga9       
notic$4 ,b its true "* 0 !n unkn[n4  ,at
 ! eclipse ( ,july #h1 #ahdb1 x 0 notic$
 by obs]v]s at ,lipesk t ! />s ,aldeb>an
 & ,betelgeuse 7,greek3 a ,orionis71 :i*
 are usually r$1 appe>$ q :ite4#dhd     
,!re w be sev5 eclipses 9 ! ye>s #aiag1 
#aice1 & #aihe4 ,9 ! ye> #aice !re w be 
five eclipses ( ! sun1 a r>e ev5t2 & 9  

#aihe !re w be ?ree total eclipses ( !  
moon1 a mo/ unusual occurr5ce4#dhe      
,among ! anci5t ,h9doos1 ! common p     
believ$ t eclipses 7 caus$ by !         
int]position ( a mon/r\s demon call$    
,raha4 ,?is absurd idea1 & o!rs equally 
ridicul\s1 7 bas$ on decl>ations 9 _!   
sacr$ books1 & no pi\s ,h9doo w\ld ?9k (
 d5y+ x4  ,! foll[+ cases ( d>k5+s ( !  
sun are giv5 by ,humboldt3--  ,accord+  
to ,plut>* ! sun rema9$ pale = a :ole   
ye> at ! dea? ( ,julius ,cs>1 & gave    
less ?an its usual heat4#dhf  ,a        
sun-d>k5+ la/+ = two h\rs is record$ on 
,augu/ #bb1 #ceh ,a4,d41 be=e ! great   
e>?quake ( ,nicom$ia4  ,9 #cfj ,a4,d4   
!re 0 a sun-d>k5+ f e>ly morn till noon4
 ,! description giv5 by ! hi/orians ( ! 
"t corresponds to an eclipse ( ! sun1 b 
! duration ( ! obscurity is             
inexplicable4  ,9 #dji ,a4,d41 :5 ,al>ic
 lay siege to ,rome1 !re 0 s great a    
d>kness t ! />s 7 se5 by day4  ,9 #ecf  
,a4,d4 ! sun is said to h be5 d>k5$ = a 
ye> & two mon?s6  ,9 #fbf ,a4,d41       

accord+ to ,abul ,f>ag1 half ! sun's    
disc 0 d>k5$ = eight mon?s6  ,9 #icd    
,a4,d4 ! sun lo/ its brightness = two   
mon?s 9 ,portugal4  ,9 #ajij ,a4,d4 !   
sun 0 d>k5$ = ?ree h\rs4  ,9 #ajif1     
sun-spots 7 se5 ) ! nak$ eye on ,m>* #c4
  ,9 #abjf ,a4,d4 on ! la/ day (        
,febru>y1 !re 0 complete d>kness = six  
h\rs1 turn+ ! day into night4 ,?is seems
 to h occurr$ 9 ,spa94  ,9 #abda ! sun 0
 s d>k5$ t />s c\ld be se5 at #c p4m4 on
 ,mi*aelmas day4 ,?is happ5$ 9          
,vi5na4#dhg  ,! sun is said to h be5 s  
d>k5$ 9 ! ye> #aedg ,a4,d4 = ?ree days t
 />s 7 visible at midday4 ,?is occurr$  
ab\t ! "t ( ! battle ( ,mhlb]gh4#dhh    
,"s ( ^! d>k5+s may possibly h be5 due  
to an enorm\s developm5t ( sun-spots2 b 
9 "s cases ! d>kness is suppos$ by      
,*ladni & ,s*nurr] to h be5 caus$ by !  
passage ( meteoric masses be=e ! sun's  
disc4  ,! fir/ obs]v] ( a transit (     
,v5us 0 ,j]emiah ,horrocks1 :o obs]v$ ! 
transit ( ,novemb] #bd 7,o4,s471 #afci4 
,he _h previ\sly correct$ ,kepl]'s      

pr$ict$ "t ( ! transit f #h;h #hm a4m4  
at ,man*e/] to #e;h #egm p4m4 ,at ! end 
( #ahge a m>ble scroll 0 plac$ on !     
p$e/al ( ! monum5t ( ,john ,conduitt    
7nephew ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 & :o     
adopt$ ,horrocks' !ory ( lun> motions7  
at ! we/ end ( ! nave ( ,we/m9/] ,abbey1
 be>+ ?is inscription f ! p5 ( ,dean    
,/anley--    ,ad majora avocatus   qu ob
 hc p>]ga negligi non decuit   ,,9      
,,memory ,,(   ,,j]emiah ,,horrocks     
,curate ( ,hoole 9 ,lanca%ire   ,:o di$ 
on ! #c;d ( ,janu>y1 #afda1 9 or ne> 8  
#bb;d ye>   ,hav+ 9 s %ort a life       
,detect$ ! long inequality 9 ! mean     
motion (   ,jupit] & ,saturn   ,discov]$
 ! orbit ( ! ,moon to be an ellipse2    
,det]m9$ ! motion ( ! lun> aspe1        
,sugge/$ ! physical cause ( its         
revolution2   ,& pr$ict$ f 8 own        
obs]vations1 !   ,transit ( ,v5us   ,:i*
 0 se5 by himself & 8 fri5d   ,,william 
,,crabtree   ,on ,sunday1 ! #bd?        
,novemb] 7,o4,s47 #afci2   ,?is ,tablet1
 fac+ ! ,monum5t ( ,newton   ,0 rais$   

aft] ! lapse ( m ?an two c5turies       
,decemb] #i1 #ahgd4dhi  ,! transit (    
,v5us :i* occurr$ 9 #agfa 0 obs]v$ on   
bo>d %ip767 by ! fam\s b un=tunate ,fr5*
 a/ronom] ,le ,g5til4 ,! %ip 0 ! frigate
 ,sylphide1 s5t to ! help ( ,pondi*]ry  
7,india7 :i* 0 !n be+ besieg$ by !      
,engli%4 ,ow+ to unfav\rable w9ds !     
,sylphide 0 toss$ ab\t f ,m>* #be1      
#agfa1 to ,may #bd ( ! same ye>4 ,:51 on
 ! lat] date1 (f ! coa/ ( ,malab>1 !    
capta9 ( ! frigate le>n$ t ,pondi*]ry _h
 be5 captur$ by ! ,engli%1 ! vessel     
return$ to ! ,isle ( ,france1 :]e x     
arriv$ on ,june #bc1 aft] t\*+ at ,po9t 
de ,galle on ,may #cj4 ,x 0 betwe5 ^!   
two places t ,le ,g5til made 8          
obs]vations ( ! transit ( ,v5us "u su*  
unfav\rable conditions4 ,he _h an       
object-glass ( #ae feet 7,fr5*7 focus1 &
 ?is he m\nt$ 9 a tube =m$ ( f\r p9e    
planks4 ,?is r\gh in/rum5t 0 fix$ to a  
small ma/ set up on ! qu>t]-deck & work$
 by ropes4 ,! obs]vations made "u su*   
curi\s conditions1 7 n1 z may be imag9$1

 v satisfactory4 ,z ano!r transit 0 to  
take place on ,june #c1 #agfi1 ,le      
,g5til made ! h]oic resolution ( rema9+ 
9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e to obs]ve x6 ,?is   
det]m9ation 0 duly c>ri$ out1 b 8       
devotion to a/ronomy 0 n rew>d$2 = on ! 
day ( ! long wait$ = transit ! sky at   
,pondi*]ry 7:]e he _h gone to obs]ve x7 
0 cl\d$ ov] dur+ ! :ole ph5om5on1 al?\gh
 = _m days previ\s ! sky _h be5         
cl\dless4 ,to add to 8 feel+ (          
disappo9tm5t he he>d t at ,manilla1 :]e 
he _h be5 /ay+ "s "t previ\sly1 ! sky 0 
q cle>1 & two ( 8 fri5ds !re _h se5 !   
transit )\t any difficulty4#dij ,truly !
 un=tunate ,le ,g5til 0 a m>tyr to      
sci5ce4  ,! fam\s ,g]man a/ronom]       
,bessel once said t a practical a/ronom]
 c\ld make obs]vations ( value if he _h 
only a c>t-:eel & a gun b>rel2 & ,watson
 said t ! mo/ important "p ( ! in/rum5t 
is ! p]son at ! small end4#dia  ,)      
ref]5ce to ,fa!r ,hell's suppos$ =g]y ( 
8 obs]vations ( ! transit ( ,v5us 9     
#agfi1 & ,littr['s criticism ( "s ( !   

entries 9 ,hell's manuscript be+        
correct$ ) a diff]5t col\r$ ink1        
,pr(essor ,newcomb asc]ta9$ f ,weiss t  
,littr[ 0 col\r bl9d1 & c\ld n di/+ui%  
betwe5 ! col\r ( ,aldeb>an & ! :ite/ />4
 ,newcomb adds1 ,= half a c5tury !      
a/ronomical _w _h bas$ an impression on 
! innoc5t b mi/ak5 evid5ce ( a          
col\r-bl9d man respect+ ! t9t ( ink 9 a 
manuscript4  ,x is record$ t on ,febru>y
 #bf1 ,b4,c4 #bjab1 ! moon1 ,m]cury1    
,v5us1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn1 7 9 ! same   
con/ellation1 & )9 #ad degrees ( ea*    
o!r4 ,on ,septemb] #ad1 #aahf ,a4,d41 ! 
sun1 moon1 & all ! planets !n kn[n1 are 
said to h be5 situat$ 9 ,libra4#dib  ,9 
! ,sanscrit epic poem1 ,! ,ramaya1 x is 
/at$ t at ! bir? ( ,rama1 ! moon 0 9    
,canc]1 ! sun 9 ,aries1 ,m]cury 9       
,taurus1 ,v5us 9 ,pisces1 ,m>s 9        
,capricornus1 ,jupit] 9 ,canc]1 &       
,saturn 9 ,libra4 ,f ^! data1 ,mr4      
,walt] ,r4 ,old has comput$ t ,rama 0   
born on ,febru>y #aj1 #agfa ,b4,c4#dic  
,a close conjunction ( ,m>s & ,saturn 0 

obs]v$ by ,d5n+ on ,septemb] #bi1 #ahhi1
 ! bright /> ,regulus 7,greek3 a        
,leonis7 be+ at ! "t only #dg' di/ant f 
! planets4#did  ,an occultation ( !     
,pleiades by ! moon 0 obs]v$ by         
,timo*>is at ,alex&ria on ,janu>y #bi1  
#bhb ,b4,c4 ,calculations by ,s*jell]up 
%[ t ,alcyone 7,greek3  ,tauri7 0       
occult$2 b ! exact "t ( ! day record$ by
 ,timo*>is diff]s v consid]ably f t     
comput$ by ,s*jell]up4#die ,ano!r       
occultation ( ! ,pleiades is record$ by 
,agrippa 9 ! reign ( ,domitian4 ,accord+
 to ,s*jell]up ! ph5om5on occurr$ on    
,novemb] #bi1 ,a4,d4 #ib4  ,kepl] /ates 
t on ! #i? ( ,janu>y1 #aeia1 ,m/l9 &    
himself witness$ an occultation (       
,jupit] by ,m>s4 ,! r$ col\r ( ! latt]  
on t occasion pla9ly indicat$ t x 0 !   
inf]ior planet4#dif ,t is1 t ,m>s 0 ne>]
 to ! sun ?an ,jupit]4 ,b z ! telescope 
_h n !n be5 inv5t$1 ?is may h be5 m]ely 
a ne> approa* ( ! two planets4  ,accord+
 to ,kepl]1 ,m/l9 saw an occultation (  
,m>s by ,v5us on ,octob] #c1 #aeij4 ,b  

?is may also h be5 m]ely a ne>          
approa*4#dif  ,a curi\s p>adox is t "o c
 discov] an object )\t see+ x1 & see an 
object )\t discov]+ x6 ,! planet        
,neptune 0 discov]$ by ,adams & ,lev]ri]
 by calculation be=e x 0 se5 9 !        
telescope by ,galle2 & x 0 actually se5 
by ,lal&e on ,may #h & #aj1 #agie1 b he 
took x = a /> & ?us miss$ ! discov]y4 ,9
 fact1 he saw ! planet1 b did n discov] 
x4 ,x actually appe>s z a /> ( ! #h?    
magnitude 9 ,h>d+'s ,atlas 7#ahbb74 ,!  
great new /> ( ,febru>y1 #aija1 kn[n z  
,nova ,p]sei1 0 probably se5 by "s p    
be=e its discov]y 0 ann\nc$2 & x 0      
actually notic$ by a well-kn[n ,am]ican 
a/ronom]1 :o ?\ght x 0 "s bright /> )   
:i* he 0 n famili>6 ,b ?is did n am\nt  
to a discov]y4 ,any "o absolutely       
ignorant ( a/ronomy might h made ! same 
obs]vation4 ,an object mu/ be id5tifi$ z
 a new object be=e a discov]y c be      
claim$4 ,"s ye>s ago a well-kn[n ,iri%  
naturali/ discov]$ a spid] new to       
sci5ce1 & aft] its discov]y he f\nd t x 

0 common 9 ne>ly e h\se 9 ,dubl96 ,b ?is
 fact did n detract 9 ! lea/ f ! m]it ( 
its sci5tific discov]y4  ,!re is a /ory 
( an em95t a/ronom] :o _h be5 on sev]al 
eclipse exp$itions1 & yet 0 he>d to     
rem>k t he _h nev] se5 a total eclipse (
 ! sun4 ,b y\r obs]vations ( sev]al     
eclipses are on record1 x 0 object$4    
,c]ta9ly1 ,i h on sev]al occasions made 
obs]vations1 b ,i h always be5 too busy 
to look at ! eclipse4 ,he 0 probably 9 a
 d>k t5t tak+ photographs or us+ a      
spectroscope dur+ ! totality4 ,?is 0    
obs]v+ an eclipse )\t see+ x6  ,humboldt
 gives ! cr$it ( ! inv5tion ( !         
telescope to ,hans ,lipp]%ey1 a native (
 ,wesel & a spectacle-mak] at           
,middleburgh2 to ,jacob ,adreaansz1     
surnam$ ,metius1 :o is also said to h   
made burn+-glasses ( ice2 & to ,za*>iah 
,jans54#dig  ,) ref]5ce to ! p>abolic   
figure ( ! l>ge mirrors ( reflect+      
telescopes1 ,dr4 ,rob9son rem>k$ at !   
meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association at ,cork 
9 #ahdc1 betwe5 ! sph]ical & p>abolic   

figures ! extreme diff]5ce is s slight1 
ev5 9 ! telescope ( #f-;feet ap]ture ,"l
 ,rosse's t if ! two surfaces t\*$ at _!
 v]tex1 ! di/ance at ! edge w\ld n am\nt
 to ! #a_/ajjjj? ( an in*1 a space :i*  
few c measure1 & none )\t a             
microscope4#dih  ,9 ! ye> #ageh1 ,rog]  
,long1 ,l[ndean ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy at
 ,cambridge1 con/ruct$ an orr]y on a    
novel pr9ciple4 ,x 0 a holl[ metal sph]e
 ( ab\t #ah feet 9 diamet] ) its fix$   
axis p>allel to ! e>?'s axis4 ,x 0      
rotat$1 by means ( a w9* & rackwork4 ,x 
held ab\t ?irty p]sons 9 its int]ior1   
:]e a/ronomical lectures 7 deliv]$4 ,!  
con/ellations 7 pa9t$ on ! int]ior      
surface2 & holes pi]c$ ?r\gh ! %ell &   
illum9at$ f ! outside repres5t$ ! />s   
accord+ to _! diff]5t magnitudes4 ,?is  
+5i\s ma*9e 0 mu* neglect$ = _m ye>s1 b 
0 /ill 9 exi/5ce 9 ,admiral ,smy?'s "t1 
#ahdd4dii  ,a tempor>y /> is said to h  
be5 se5 by ,hepidanus 9 ! con/ellation  
,aries 9 ei!r #ajjf or #ajab ,a4,d4 ,!  
late ,m4 ,s*nfeld1 a great au?ority on  

v>iable />s1 f\nd f an ,arabic & ,syrian
 *ronicle t #ajab is ! correct ye> 7#cif
 ( ! ,hegira71 b t ! ^w translat$ ,aries
 w\ld by a probable em5dation mean      
,scorpio4 ,! ^w 9 ! ,syrian record is n 
! ^w = ,aries4#ejj  ,mr4 ,heb] ,d4      
,curtis f9ds t ! fa9te/ />s m5tion$ 9   
,ptolemy's ,catalogue are ab\t #ech     
magnitude on ! scale ( ! ,h>v>d         
,photometric ,dur*mu/]+4#eja ,heis &    
,h\zeau saw />s ( #f-g magnitude 7ab\t  
#fd on ,h>v>d scale74 ,! pres5t writ]   
f\nd t he c\ld see mo/ ( ,heis' fa9te/  
/>s 9 ! we/ ( ,irel& 7,co4 ,sligo7 )\t  
optical aid 7except %ort-sight$         
spectacles74  ,) ref]5ce to ! app>5t    
*anges 9 ! /ell> heav5s produc$ by !    
precession ( ! equ9oxes1 ,humboldt      
says--      ,canopus 0 fully #a #bj'    
bel[ ! horizon ( ,tol$o 7#ci #ed' nor?  
latitude7 9 ! "t ( ,columbus2 & n[ !    
same /> is almo/ z     mu* above !      
horizon ( ,cadiz4 ,:ile at ,b]l91 & 9   
nor!rn     latitudes1 ! />s ( ! ,s\!rn  
,cross1 z well z ,greek3 a &     ,greek3

 b ,c5tauri1 are rec$+ m & m f view1 !  
,magellanic ,cl\ds are sl[ly approa*+   
our latitudes4 ,canopus 0 at     its    
greate/ nor!rn approximation dur+ la/   
c5tury eighte5?1     & is n[ mov+ ne>] &
 ne>] to ! s\?1 al?\gh v     sl[ly1 ow+ 
to its vic9ity to ! s\? pole ( !        
ecliptic4 ,!     ,s\!rn ,cross began to 
become invisible 9 #eb #cj' nor?        
latitude     #bijj ye>s be=e our era1   
s9ce1 accord+ to ,galle1 ?is            
con/ellation might previ\sly h rea*$ an 
altitude ( m ?an     #aj4 ,:5 x _h      
disappe>$ f ! horizon ( ! c\ntries ( !  
,baltic1 ! great pyramid ( ,*eops _h    
already be5 erect$ m ?an     five hundr$
 ye>s4 ,! pa/oral tribe ( ! ,hyksos made
 _!     incursion sev5 hundr$ ye>s      
e>li]4 ,! pa/ seems to be visibly       
ne>] to u :5 we connect its measurem5t )
 great & memorable     ev5ts4#ejb  ,)   
ref]5ce to ! great ,grecian philosoph] &
 sci5ti/ ,erato/h5es ( ,cyr5e1 keep] ( !
 ,alex&rian ,libr>y "u ,ptolemy         
,eu]getes1 ,c>l ,snyd] says1 ,above all 

! ,alex&]s1 ,cs>s1 ,tadema-,napoleons1  
,i set ! bra9 :i* fir/ spann$ ! e>?1 ov]
 ^: little pat*es ^! f\ght ?r\gh _!     
empty bootless lives4 ,:y %\ld we h no  
poet to celebrate s great a de$8#ejc ,& 
) ref]5ce to ,ari/>*us he says1 ,if     
gr&eur ( conceptions be a measure ( !   
bra91 or +5uity ( its p[]s1 !n we mu/   
rank ,ari/>*us z "o ( ! ?ree or f\r mo/ 
acute intellects ( ! anci5t _w4#ejd     
,lagrange1 :o (t5 ass]t$ ,newton to be !
 greate/ g5ius t ev] exi/$1 us$ to rem>k
 also--& ! mo/ =tunate2 we d n f9d m ?an
 once a sy/em ( ! _w to e/abli%4#eje    
,grant says--      ,lagrange des]ves to 
be rank$ among ! greate/ ma!matical     
g5iuses ( anci5t or mod]n times4 ,9 ?is 
respect he is wor?y ( a     place )     
,ar*im$es or ,newton1 al?\gh he 0 f> f  
possess+     ! sagacity 9 physical      
enquiries :i* di/+ui%$ ^!     illu/ri\s 
sages4 ,f ! v outset ( 8 c>e] he assum$ 
a     comm&+ position among !           
ma!maticians ( ! age1 & dur+     ! c\rse
 ( ne>ly half a c5tury previ\s to 8     

dea?1 he     cont9u$ to divide )        
,laplace ! homage due to pre-em95ce 9 ! 
exact sci5ces4 ,8 great rival surviv$   
him f\rte5 ye>s1 dur+     :i* he reign$ 
alone z ! pr9ce ( ma!maticians &        
!oretical     a/ronom]s4#ejf  ,a writ] 9
 ,nature 7,may #be1 #ahga7 relates !    
foll[+ anecdote ) ref]5ce to ,sir ,john 
,h]s*el3 ,"s "t aft] ! dea? ( ,laplace1 
! writ] ( ?is notice1 :ile travell+ on !
 cont95t 9 company ) ! celebrat$ ,fr5*  
savant ,biot1 v5tur$ to put to him ! "q1
 n altoge!r a wise "o1 ',& :om ( all !  
philosoph]s ( ,europe d y reg>d z ! mo/ 
wor?y successor ( ,laplace8' ,probably  
no man 0 bett] able ?an ,biot to =m a   
correct conclusion1 & ! reply 0 m       
judici\s ?an ! "q4 ,x 0 ?is1 ',if ,i did
 n love him s mu* ,i %\ld unhesitat+ly  
say1 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el4' ,dr4 ,gill 7n[
 ,sir ,david ,gill71 9 an address at !  
,cape ( ,good ,hope 9 ,june1 #ahih1     
spoke ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el z ! prose    
poet ( sci5ce2 8 popul> sci5tific works 
are models ( cle>ness1 & 8 presid5tial  

addresses teem ) passages ( surpass+    
beauty4 ,8 life 0 a pure & blameless "o 
f fir/ to la/1 full ( ! noble/ ef=t & ! 
noble/ aim f ! "t :5 z a "y ,cambridge  
graduate he regi/]$ a v[ 'to try to     
leave ! _w wis] ?an he f\nd x'--a v[ t 8
 life amply fulfill$4#ejg  ,pr(4        
,newcomb said ( ,adams1 ! co-discov]] ( 
,neptune ) ,lev]ri]1 ,adams' intellect 0
 "o ( ! ke5e/ ,i ev] knew4 ,! mo/       
difficult problem ( ma!matical a/ronomy 
& ! mo/ recondite pr9ciples t und]lie ! 
!ory ( ! cele/ial motions 7 to him b    
*ild's play4 ,airy he reg>d$ z ! mo/    
comm&+ figure 9 ! a/ronomy ( our "t4#ejh
 ,he spoke ( ,delaunay1 ! great ,fr5*   
a/ronom]1 z a mo/ k9dly & attractive    
man1 & says1 ,8 inve/igations ( ! moon's
 motion is "o ( ! mo/ extraord9>y pieces
 ( ma!matical "w ev] turn$ out by a s+le
 p]son4 ,x fills two qu>to volumes1 & ! 
read] :o attempts to g ?r\gh any "p ( ! 
calculations w wond] h[ "o man c\ld d ! 
"w 9 a lifetime4#eji  ,sir ,george ,b4  
,airy & ,pr(4 ,j4 ,c4 ,adams di$ 9 !    

same mon?4 ,! =m] on ,janu>y #b1 #ahib1 
& ! latt] on ,janu>y #bb ( ! same ye>4  
,x is kn[n f ! p>i% regi/] ( ,bur/[ 9   
,surrey t ,flam/e$ 7,rev4 ,john         
,flam/e$71 ! fir/ ,a/ronom] ,royal at   
,gre5wi*1 0 buri$ 9 ! *ur* at t place on
 ,janu>y #ab1 #agbj2 b a se>* = 8 grave 
made by ,mr4 ,j4 ,c>p5t] 9 #ahff & by   
,mr4 ,lynn 9 #ahhj l$ to no result4 ,9  
,mrs4 ,flam/e$'s w a sum ( tw5ty-five   
p\nds 0 left = ! purpose ( erect+ a     
monum5t to ! memory ( ! great a/ronom] 9
 ,bur/[ ,*ur*2 b x does n appe> t any   
monum5t 0 ev] erect$4 ,flam/e$ 0 ,rector
 ( ! ,p>i% ( ,bur/[4#eaj ,he 0 succe$$ 9
 #agbj by ! ,rev4 ,james ,p\nd1 ano!r   
well-kn[n a/ronom]4 ,p\nd di$ 9         
#agbd4eaa  ,evelyn says 9 8 ,di>y1      
#afgf1 ,septemb] #aj1 ,d9$ ) ,mr4       
,flam/e$1 ! le>n$ a/rolog] &            
ma!matician1 :om 8 ,maje/y _h e/abli%$ 9
 ! new ,obs]vatory 9 ,gre5wi* ,p>k      
furni%$ ) ! *oice/ in/rum5ts4 ,an hone/ 
s9c]e man4#eab ,?is %[s t 9 ^? days !   
t]m a/rolog] 0 synonym\s ) a/ronom]4  ,9

 an article on ,our ,debt to ,a/ronomy1 
by ,pr(4 ,russell ,tracy ,craw=d        
7,b]keley ,a/ronomical ,dep>tm5t1       
,cali=nia1 ,u4,s4,a471 ! foll[+ rem>ks  
occur3--      ,beh9d ! artisan is a     
*emi/1 beh9d ! *emi/ is a physici/1     
beh9d ! physici/ is a ma!matician1 &    
beh9d ! ma!matician     is an a/ronom]4 
,7 x n = ! data furni%$ by a/ronom]s1   
comm]ce by sea w\ld practically /op4 ,! 
sail+-ma/] on ! high     seas c\ld n    
det]m9e 8 position1 nor 9 :at direction 
to head     8 %ip 9 ord] to rea* a      
desir$ h>b\r4 ,?9k :at ?is means 9      
doll>s & c5ts1 & e/imate x if y c4 ,=   
?is "o s]vice     alone ! sci5ce (      
a/ronomy is wor? m 9 doll>s & c5ts to   
! _w 9 "o week ?an has be5 exp5d$ ^u x  
s9ce !     beg9n+ ( civilization4 ,d y  
?9k t ,great ,brita91 =     in/ance1    
w\ld take 9 ex*ange an am\nt equal to   
its national debt     = :at a/ronomy    
gives x8 ,i answ] = y mo/ emphatically1 
',no4'  ,9 8 int]e/+ book1 ,rem9isc5ces 
( an ,a/ronom]1 ,pr(4 ,simon ,newcomb   

says ) ref]5ce to ! calculations = !    
,nautical ,almanac 7ref]r$ to 9 ! above 
extract7--      ,a m hopeless problem   
?an ?is c\ld n be pres5t$ to !          
ord9>y human intellect4 ,!re are t5s (  
?\s&s ( m5 :o c\ld     be successful 9  
all ! ord9>y walks ( life1 hundr$s :o   
c\ld     wield empires1 ?\s&s :o c\ld   
ga9 weal?1 = "o :o c\ld take     up ?is 
a/ronomical problem ) any hope (        
success4 ,! m5 :o     h done x are1     
!re=e1 9 intellect ! select few ( !     
human     race--an ari/ocracy rank+     
above all o!rs 9 ! scale ( be+4     ,!  
a/ronomical ephem]is is ! la/ outcome ( 
_! productive     g5ius4  ,9 a pap] on !
 ,aspects ( ,am]ican ,a/ronomy1 ,pr(4   
,newcomb says1 ,a great telescope is (  
no use )\t a man at ! end ( x1 & :at !  
telescope may d dep5ds m ^u ?is app5dage
 ?an ^u ! in/rum5t itself4 ,! place :i* 
telescopes & obs]vatories h tak5 9      
a/ronomical hi/ory are by no means      
proportional to _! dim5sions4 ,_m a     
great in/rum5t has be5 a m]e toy 9 ! h&s

 ( its own]4 ,_m a small "o has become  
fam\s4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago !re 0 "h 9 y\r   
city ,*icago a mode/ little in/rum5t    
:i*1 judg$ by its size1 c\ld n hold up  
its head ) ! great ones ev5 ( t day4 ,x 
0 ! private prop]ty ( a "y man hold+ no 
sci5tific position & sc>cely kn[n to !  
public4 ,& yet t little telescope is    
to-day among ! fam\s ones ( ! _w1 hav+  
made memorable advances 9 ! a/ronomy (  
d\ble />s1 & %[n its own] to be a wor?y 
successor ( ! ,h]s*els & ,/ruves 9 t l9e
 ( "w4#eac ,"h ,pr(4 ,newcomb evid5tly  
ref]s to ,pr(4 ,burnham1 & ! #f-;in*    
telescope ) :i* he made _m ( 8 rem>kable
 discov]ies ( d\ble />s4 ,) ref]5ce to  
,burnham's "w1 ,pr(4 ,b>n>d says--      
,x repres5ts ! lab\r ( a /ruggl+        
amateur1 :o dur+ ! day     l$ ! drudg+  
life ( a /5ograph] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates    
c\rt 9     ,*icago1 & at night work$    
among ! />s = ! pure love ( x4     ,su* 
"w des]ves an ev]la/+ fame1 & surely ?is
 has fall5 to     ,mr4 ,burnham4        
,admiral ,smy? says--      ,a man may   

prove a good a/ronom] )\t possess+ a    
spaci\s     obs]vatory3 ?us ,kepl] 0    
wont to obs]ve on ! bridge at ,prague2  
,s*rt] /udi$ ! moon1 & ,h>d+ f\nd a     
planet f a     gloriette2 :ile ,olb]s   
discov]$ two new planets f an attic (   
8 h\se4#ead  ,x is probably n g5]ally   
kn[n t "s ( ! greate/ a/ronom]s ( mod]n 
times1 su* z ,kepl]1 ,newton1 ,hans51   
,laplace1 & ,lev]ri]1 sc>cely ev] look$ 
?r\gh a telescope4#eae  ,kepl]1 :o      
always sign$ himself ,keppl] 9 ,g]man1  
is usually suppos$ to h be5 born on     
,decemb] #ba1 #aega1 9 ! imp]ial t[n (  
,weil1 b accord+ to ,b>on von           
,breits*w]t1#eaf he 0 really born on    
,decemb] #bg1 #aega1 9 ! village (      
,mag/adt 9 ,wurtemb]g4  ,accord+ to     
,lieut4 ,w9t]halt]1 ,m4 ,p]rot9 ( !     
,nice ,obs]vatory decl>$ t two h\rs' "w 
) a l>ge in/rum5t is z fatigu+ z eight )
 a small "o1 ! lab\r involv$ increas+ 9 
proportion to ! cube ( ! ap]ture1 !     
*ances ( see+ decreas+ 9 ! same ratio1  
:ile x c h>dly be said t ! advantages   

increase 9 l proportion4#eag  ,! late   
,mr4 ,proctor has well said--      ,x is
 well to rememb] t ! hatr$ :i* _m       
ent]ta9 aga9/     ! doctr9e ( developm5t
 z appli$ to sol> sy/ems & /ell>        
galaxies is n 9 reality a sign1 z !y    
imag9e1 ( humility1 b     is an ef=t to 
avoid ! recognition ( ! no?+ness ( man 9
 !     pres5ce ( ! inf9ities ( space &  
"t & vitality pres5t$     )9 ! univ]se (
 ,god4#eah  ,humboldt says--      ,t    
arrogant _s ( incr$ulity1 :i* rejects   
facts )\t     attempt+ to inve/igate !m1
 is 9 "s cases almo/ m injuri\s     ?an 
an unque/ion+ cr$ulity4 ,bo? are alike  
detrim5tal to !     =ce (               
inve/igations4#eai  ,) ref]5ce to !     
precession ( ! equ9oxes & ! *anges x    
produces 9 ! position ( ! ,pole ,/>1 x  
is /at$ 9 a rec5t book on sci5ce t !    
entrance passage ( ! ,great ,pyramid (  
,ghizeh is incl9$ at an angle ( #cj to !
 horizon1 & !re=e po9ts to ! cele/ial   
pole4 ,b ?is is q incorrect4 ,! ,great  
,pyramid1 x is true1 is situat$ close to

 ! latitude ( #cj4 ,b ! entrance passage
 does n po9t exactly to ! pole4 ,!      
incl9ation 0 measur$ by ,col4 ,vyse1 &  
f\nd to be #bf #de'4 ,= six out ( ! n9e 
pyramids ( ,ghizeh1 ,col4 ,vyse f\nd an 
av]age incl9ation ( #bf #dg'1 ^!        
incl9ations rang+ f #be #ee' 7#bnd1 or  
pyramid ( ,myc]9us7 to #bh #j' 7#i?     
pyramid74#ebj ,sir ,john ,h]s*el gives  
#cigj ,b4,c4 z ! probable date ( !      
erection ( ! ,great ,pyramid4#ebj ,at t 
"t ! di/ance ( ,greek3 a ,draconis 7!   
,pole ,/> ( t day7 f ! pole 0 #c #dd'   
#be1 s t :5 on ! m]idian bel[ ! pole    
7its l[] culm9ation z x is t]m$7 its    
altitude 0 #cj - #c #dd' #be  #bf #ae'  
#ce1 :i* agrees fairly well ) !         
incl9ation ( ! entrance passage4        
,letronne f\nd a date ( #cdcj ,b4,c42 b 
! e>li] date agrees bett] ) ! evid5ce   
d]iv$ f ,egyptology4  ,em]son says--    
,i am bro!r to him :o squ>$ ! pyramids  
,by ! same />s ,i wat*4  ,f ,febru>y #f 
to #ae1 #aijh1 all ! bright planets 7   
visible toge!r at ! same "t4 ,m]cury 0  

visible above ! we/]n horizon aft]      
sunset1 ,v5us v brilliant ) ,saturn a   
little above x1 ,m>s high] /ill1 all    
rang$ along ! ecliptic1 & la/ly ,jupit] 
ris+ 9 ! ea/4#eba ,?is simultane\s      
visibility ( all ! bright planets is r a
 r>e occurr5ce4  ,) ref]5ce to ! great  
improbability ( ,laplace's orig9al      
,nebul> ,hypo!sis be+ true1 ,dr4 ,see   
says1 ,we may calculate f ! prepond]ance
 ( small bodies actually f\nd 9 ! sol>  
sy/em--eight pr9cipal planets1          
tw5ty-five satellites 7besides our      
moon71 & #fbe a/]oids--t ! *ances ( a   
nebula devoid ( hydro/atic pressure     
produc+ small bodies is ab\t #bfeh to   
#a1 or a decillion decillion 7#ajff7f to
 ! six? p[]1 to unity4 ,?is figure is s 
v l>ge t we %all cont5t ourselves )     
illu/rat+ a decillion decillion1 & = ?is
 purpose we avail ourselves ( a me?od   
employ$ by ,,ar*im$es to illu/rate 8    
sy/em ( enum]ation4 ,imag9e s& s f9e t  
#aj1jjj gra9s w be conta9$ 9 ! space    
occupi$ by a poppy se$1 itself ab\t !   

size ( a p9's head2 & !n conceive a     
sph]e describ$ ab\t our sun ) a radius (
 #bjj1jjj a/ronomical units#ebb 7,greek3
 a ,c5tauri be+ at a di/ance ( #bge1jjj7
 entirely fill$ ) ?is f9e s&4 ,! numb] (
 gra9s ( s& 9 ?is sph]e ( ! fix$ />s    
w\ld be a decillion decillion#ebc       
7#ajff7f4 ,all ^! gra9s ( s& aga9/ "o is
 ! probability t a nebula devoid (      
hydro/atical pressure1 su* z t :i* =m$ !
 planets & satellites1 w lead to !      
g5esis ( su* small bodies revolv+ ab\t a
 greatly pr$om9ant c5tral mass4#ebd ,9  
o!r words1 x is practically c]ta9 t !   
sol> sy/em 0 n =m$ f a gase\s nebula 9 !
 mann] orig9ally propos$ by ,laplace4   
,on ! o!r h&1 ! evolution ( ! sol> sy/em
 f a rotat+ spiral nebula seems v       
probable4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,"s "o has said t ! _w kn[s
 no?+ ( its greate/ m54 ,! "n ( ,mr4    
,george ,w4 ,hill w probably be unkn[n  
to _m ( my read]s4 ,b ! late ,pr(4      
,simon ,newcomb said ( him t he w easily
 rank z ! greate/ ma/] ( ma!matical     

a/ronomy dur+ ! la/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5?   
c5tury4#ebe ,( ,pr(4 ,newcomb           
himself--also a great ma/] 9 ! same     
subject--,sir ,rob]t ,ball says he 0 !  
mo/ conspicu\s figure among ! brilliant 
b& ( contempor>y ,am]ican a/ronom]s4#ebf
  ,an a/ronom] is suppos$ to say1 )     
ref]5ce to unwelcome visitors to 8      
obs]vatory1 ,:o /eals my purse /eals    
tra%2 b he t fil*es f me my cle> nights1
 robs me ( t :i* n enri*es him1 & makes 
me poor inde$4#ebg  ,cic]o said1 ,9 !   
heav5s !re is no?+ =tuit\s1 unadvis$1   
incon/ant1 or v>iable2 all !re is ord]1 
tru?1 reason1 & con/ancy2 & he adds1 ,! 
creation is z pla9 a signal ( ! be+ ( a 
,god1 z a globe1 a clock1 or o!r        
artificial ma*9e1 is ( a man4#ebh  ,(   
all ! epigrams attribut$ rightly or     
wrongly to ,plato1 ! mo/ fam\s has be5  
exp&$ by ,%elley into ! f\r glori\s     
l9es--    ',?\ w]t ! morn+ /> among !   
liv+     ,ere ?y pure light _h fl$1     
,n[ hav+ di$1 ?\ art z ,hesp]us1 giv+   
,new spl5d\r to ! dead4'#ebi  ,sir      

,david ,brew/] has well said1#ecj       
,isaiah furni%es u ) a /rik+ passage1 9 
:i* ! occupants ( ! e>? & ! heav5s are  
sep>ately describ$1 ',i h made ! e>?1 & 
creat$ man ^u x3 ,i1 ev5 ,my h&s1 h     
/ret*$ out ! heav5s1 & all _! ho/ h ,i  
comm&$' 7,isaiah xlv4 #ab74 ,b 9        
addition to ^! obvi\s ref]5ces to life &
 ?+s p]ta9+ to life1 we f9d 9 ,isaiah ! 
foll[+ rem>kable passage3 ',= ?us sai? !
 ,"l t creat$ ! heav5s2 ,god ,himself t 
=m$ ! e>? & made x2 ,he ha? e/abli%$ x1 
,he creat$ x n ,,9 ,,va91 ,he =m$ x to  
be inhabit$' 7,isaiah xlv4 #ah74 ,"h we 
h a di/9ct decl>ation f ! inspir$       
prophet t ! e>? w\ld h be5 creat$ ,,9   
,,va9 if x _h n be5 =m$ to be inhabit$2 
& h5ce we draw ! conclusion t z !       
,creator _c be suppos$ to h made !      
worlds ( our sy/em & ^? 9 ! sid]eal     
sy/em 9 va91 !y mu/ h be5 =m$ to be     
inhabit$4 ,?is seems to ! pres5t writ]  
to be a good & suffici5t reply to ,dr4  
,wallace's !ory t our e>? is ! only     
inhabit$ _w 9 ! ,univ]se6#eca ,su* a    

!ory seems incr$ible4  ,! rec5t discov]y
 made by ,pr(4 ,kapteyn1 & confirm$ by  
,mr4 ,edd+ton1 ( two drifts ( />s1      
indicat+ ! exi/5ce ( two univ]ses1 seems
 to r5d] unt5able ,dr4 ,wallace's       
hypo!sis ( ! e>?'s c5tral position 9 a  
s+le univ]se4#eca   ,,note ,,add$ ,,9   
,,! ,,press4  ,:ile ^! pages 7 9 !      
,press1 x 0 ann\nc$1 by ,dr4 ,max ,wolf 
( ,heidelb]g1 t he f\nd ,halley's comet 
on a photograph tak5 on ! e>ly morn+ (  
,septemb] #ab1 #aiji4 ,! discov]y has   
be5 confirm$ at ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory4 ,!
 comet 0 close to ! position pr$ict$ by 
! calculations ( ,messrs4 ,c[ell &      
,crommel9 ( ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory        
7,nature1 ,septemb] #af1 #aijh74        
,,index     ,a    ,ab\kir1 #bhg    ,ab\l
 ,hassan1 #bba    ,abu ,ali al ,f>isi1  
#bbe    ,abu-,hanifa1 #bcc1 #bcd        
,abul-fadl1 #bcf    ,accadians1 #bej1   
#beb    ,a*]n>1 #bge    ,aclian1 #bhb   
,adam1 #if1 #cdg    ,adhad-al-,davlat1  
#bbe1 #bcf    ,adonis1 #bfa             
,adreaansz1 #cdb    ,airy1 ,sir ,g4 ,b41

 #hg1 #adj1 #cdg1 #ceg    ,aitk51 #afj  
,al-,battani1 #bcb1 #bcc    ,albre*t1   
#agc    ,albuf>agius1 #bhc    ,alcor1   
#bda    ,alcyone1 #acg    ,aldeb>an1    
#fj1 #aef1 #bcf1 #beb1 #beg1 #caj1 #caa 
,alf>d1 #bcf1 #bhi    ,alf>gani1 #bhf   
,alfraganus1 #bha    ,almage/1 #bha     
,al-,sufi1 #dg1 #adi1 #agi1 #ahi1 #bba1 
#bbd1 #bbe-bch1 #bdd1 #bdf1 #bej1 #bea1 
#bec1       #bed1 #bfa1 #bfc1 #bfd1     
#bff-bgj1 #bgb1 #bgd-bgh1 #bhe1 #bhg1   
#bhi1 #bij1 #bic1       #bih1 #cjj-cjb1 
#cjd1 #cjg    ,altair1 #bdf             
,ampelius1 #bfb    ,amphion1 #beg       
,anci5t eclipses1 #eb1 #ec    ,&]son1   
#abj1 #bgg    ,&rom$a nebula1 #aih-bjf1 
#bca    ,annals ( ,ul/]1 #ccb           
,ant>es1 #fj1 #agi1 #caj1 #caa          
,an!lm1 #cjj    ,ant9\s1 #bdh           
,antlia1 #cjb    ,apollo1 #beg          
,app>5t diamet] ( moon1 #di    ,apple1  
#gi    ,apples1 gold51 #beh    ,apus1   
#cjf    ,aqu>ius1 #bfh    ,aquila1 #bdf 
,aquillus1 #bbj    ,ara #bie    ,arago1 
#bf1 #cj1 #eg1 #aaf1 #aic1 #cca         

,aratus1 #bai1 #bdb1 #bde1 #bej1 #bee1  
#bef1 #bfa1 #bfc1 #bgb    ,ar*im$es1    
#cdf1 #ced    ,arcturus1 #adh1 #ahh1    
#bdd    ,argel&]1 #bi1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bcj1
 #bdj    ,argo1 #bhe-bhh1 #cje    ,argon
 9 sun1 #d    ,argonauts1 #bdc1 #bej    
,aries1 #bej    ,ari/otle1 #di1 #fg     
,arrh5ius1 #d1 #h1 #bb1 #de1 #ff        
,a%tore?1 #bfj    ,a/ra ,borbonia1 #d   
,a/ra1 #bfc    ,a/ronomy1 ,laplace on1  
#dd    ,a/ro ,!ology1 #bc    ,at>id1    
#bcb1 #bcc    ,atmosph]e1 height (1 #cc 
,augean /ables1 #bfi    ,augu/us1 #bfb  
,auriga1 #bde    ,aurora1 #cc1 #da1 #db 
,auw]s1 #bjf    ,axis ( ,m>s1 #ei     ,b
    ,babilu1 #bfg    ,baily1 #acg1 #add 
,bak]1 #ahc    ,ball1 ,sir ,rob]t1 #f1  
#cee    ,b>n>d1 ,pr(41 #bi1 #ed1 #eg1   
#gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #he1 #hf1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajc1
 #ajd1 #aad1       #acj1 #acb1 #aci1    
#aib1 #bac1 #caf1 #cag1 #cej    ,b>nes1 
#gh1 #gi    ,b>tlett1 #ce1 #cf          
,b>ts*ius1 #bif1 #bih    ,baus*+51 #fi1 
#gj    ,bay]1 #agi1 #bba1 #bgb1 #bhd1   
#cji1 #caj    ,bayeux ,tape/ry1 #aje    

,becqu]el1 #h    ,beehive1 #bei    ,be]1
 #bj    ,bel1 #bej    ,bellatrix1 #bec  
,b5oit1 #bb    ,b]5ice1 #big    ,b]ry1  
#be    ,bessel1 #cci    ,betelgeuse1    
#agi1 #bbb1 #bfd    ,bian*9i1 #ba1 #bb1 
#gg    ,biela's comet1 #ii    ,bi=nis1  
#bfh    ,b9>y />s1 #afb    ,birm+ham1   
#e1 #aad    ,black body1 #c             
,blackness ( sun-spots1 #f    ,blaze />1
 #ahj1 #ahd    ,bode1 #bgf    ,bohl91   
#aii1 #bjj    ,bond1 #he    ,bond       
7,jun471 #gd    ,book ( ! ,dead1 #bfd1  
#bgd    ,borelly1 #ajc    ,bos]up1 #bh  
,boss1 #aeb    ,brah1 ,ty*o4 ,see ,ty*o 
,brah    ,braun]1 #baa    ,bravais1 #db 
,br$ikh91 #gf    ,bremik]1 #id          
,br5n]1 ,lo1 #ac1 #bb1 #hg1 #ia1 #acc   
,brew/]1 #cef    ,brightness ( ,m]cury1 
#aj-ab              ( nebul1 #aic       
( sun1 #a1 #b1 #c              ( ,v5us1 
#ad1 #ag1 #ai1 #ca    ,bright cl\ds1    
#cc1 #cd          night1 #de            
/>s1 #bgh    ,brooks1 #aah    ,br[n1    
#bah1 #bai1 #bdh1 #bee1 #bfj1 #bfg1     
#bgb1 #bgi1 #bha1 #bia1 #bie    ,br[n+1 

#be    ,brugs*1 #abg    ,buddha1 #bef   
,bull1 ,pope's1 #ajg    ,bull's foot1   
#bec    ,buonap>te1 #cj    ,burnham1    
#afj1 #afe-afg1 #ahj1 #ahd1 #bfj1 #cej1 
#cea    ,burns1 #acj    ,buss1 #d     ,c
    ,caaba1 #abe    ,cacciatore1 #gb    
,clum1 #cjb    ,callima*us1 #big        
,callixtus ,,iii41 #ajg    ,calvisius1  
#ec    ,camelop>dalis1 #bif    ,cam]on1 
#ah    ,campbell1 #he1 #aec1 #aei1 #agh 
,canals on ,m>s1 #fa-fc    ,canc]1 #beh1
 #bei    ,canes ,v5atici1 #bif          
,canicula1 #bhj    ,canis ,major1 #bgi  
,m9or1 #bhd    ,canopus1 #aeg1 #bhf1    
#cdd    ,capella1 #aef1 #afd1 #ahi1     
#bcf1 #bde1 #bdf    ,capricornus1 #bfg1 
#bfh    ,capture ( satellites1 #eh      
,c>bonic acid1 #ff    ,cass9i1 #bj1 #bb1
 #gd1 #gh1 #ceh    ,cassiopeia's ,*air1 
#bdd    ,ca/or1 #afj1 #beg    ,caswell1 
#eb    ,catullus1 #big    ,causs91 #bbe 
,cecrops1 #bfh    ,cele/ial ,riv]s1 #cjh
    ,celoria1 #cbd1 #cbf    ,c5taurus1  
#bib1 #bic    ,c5tre ( gravity1 #h      
,cephalus1 #bgi    ,cepheid v>iables1   

#ahg    ,c]aski1 #b1 #agf    ,c]b]us1   
#bdc1 #beg    ,c]es1 #bfj    ,c]ulli1   
#bb1 #fb    ,cetus1 #bgb    ,*acornac1  
#ah1 #hd    ,*amlion1 #cje    ,*amb]l91 
#aid    ,*amb]s1 #gb    ,*>les' ,wa91   
#bdj    ,*9ese ,annals1 #ai1 #cj1 #aje1 
#ahf1 #bbc1 #bfg1 #ccj    ,*ildrey1 #abh
    ,*iron1 #bie    ,*ri/mann1 #bha     
,*romosph]e1 sun's1 #d    ,cic]o1 #di1  
#bfb1 #bhj1 #cee    ,circ9us1 #cjg      
,clavius1 #ccd    ,climate1 #de    ,coal
 ,sack1 #bic1 #cbj    ,cobham1 #hh1 #ajb
    ,colb]t1 #age    ,col\rs ( />s1     
#adj1 #ada1 #ahh-aij    ,coma ,b]5ices1 
#big1 #bih    ,comets1 numb] (1 #ih     
tails (1 #aae1 #aaf    ,comet ye>s1 #ajd
    ,comi]s1 #ii    ,com/ock1 #ij1 #adf 
,condam9e1 #beg    ,conon1 #big    ,coon
 ,butte m\nta91 #abj1 #aba    ,coop]1 #c
    ,copel&1 #gf1 #aeg    ,corona1      
sun's1 #a1 #ccd           r\nd moon1    
#ce1 #cf    ,corona ,au/ralis1 #bie     
,corv9us1 #bib    ,corvus1 #bib         
,cotswor?1 #df    ,c[ell1 #aje          
,crabtree1 #ccg    ,crat]1 #bia         

,crat]s on moon1 #ee1 #ef    ,craw=d1   
#cdh    ,crecy1 ,battle (1 #ccc         
,cresc5t ( ,v5us1 #ai1 #bj    ,crommel91
 #aje1 #aaa    ,crucifixion1 #ah        
,curtis1 #cdd    ,cusps ( ,v5us1 #bj    
,cygnus1 7#fa71 #aee    ,cynocephalus1  
#bbb     ,d    ,dante1 #aef1 #beh1 #bfe 
,d>k %ade on moon1 #ccc    ,d',arre/1   
#id    ,d>w91 ,sir ,george1 #aeh1 #cai  
,david's ,*>iot1 #bda    ,davis1 #aee   
,dawes1 #afh    ,dawn proclaim]1 #bea   
,delambre1 #ahe    ,delauney1 #cdg      
,demb[ski1 #aij    ,demetrius1 #aaa     
,d5n+1 #aa1 #gd1 #gg1 #hd1 #hf1 #hg1    
#hi1 #ii1 #aah1 #cdj    ,d]ham1 #ba1 #bc
    ,deucalion1 #bfh    ,de ,vico1 #ba1 
#bb    ,diamonds 9 meteorites1 #abg     
,dilkur1 #bea    ,diodorus ,siculus1    
#abg    ,diog5es ,la]tius1 #da          
,diom$1 #bgb    ,dione1 #hi    ,dipp]1  
#bda    ,dob]ck1 #afj    ,dollond1 #bd  
,domitian1 #ccd    ,donati's comet1 #ajj
    ,dorado1 #cjd    ,dordona1 #bef     
,dorn1 #bde    ,d\glass1 #ha    ,dragon1
 #bdb    ,drap]1 #ge    ,drayton1 #aef  

,drey]1 #aae    ,drift+ />s1 #aeb       
,dryd51 #bdb    ,duncan1 #ahg           
,dunlop1 #bfd    ,dupret1 #hc           
,dupuis1 #bde1 #beb1 #beg1 #beh1 #bei1  
#bff1 #bfg1 #bfh    ,dusky />1 #bgb     
,e    ,e>!n j>1 #bdg    ,e>?'s          
attraction on moon1 #ee    ,e>?'s       
motions1 #ci           rotation1 #df    
surface1 #cb    ,e>?%9e on moon1 #ea1   
#eb1 #ef1 #eg    ,ea/mann1 #caf         
,ea/on1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbe    ,eclipses1  
anci5t1 #eb1 #ec1 #eg1 #eh              
d>k1 ( moon1 #ec1 #eg1 #eh    ,ecliptic1
 obliquity (1 #dg    ,edd+ton1 #ceg     
,electra1 #ai    ,el/]1 #ci    ,em]son1 
#cec    ,enceladus1 #hi    ,encke1 #aac1
 #aaf1 #bdj    ,ennis1 #ahi             
,erato/h5es1 #bej1 #big1 #cde           
,eridanus1 #bgd-bgh    ,eros1 #fi1 #gj1 
#ga    ,eta ,argus1 #agg1 #bhg          
,eudemus1 #dg    ,eudoxus1 #bah1 #bai1  
#bbc    ,eul]1 #ef    ,eunomia1 #ga     
,europa1 #beb     ,f    ,fabritius1 #d1 
#aja    ,fabry1 #a    ,fa9t />s 9       
telescope1 #agf    ,false ,cross1 #aef  

,fam\s />s1 #bdf    ,fa?1 #acj1 #bac    
,faye1 #ajj    ,febru>y1 ,five ,sundays 
91 #cf    ,f]gani1 #ahi    ,fi%] ,/>s1  
#bef    ,fi%es 9 ,&rom$a1 #bdi          
,fitzg]ald1 #abg    ,flamm>ion1 #bb1    
#bf1 #ej1 #ach1 #bee1 #bfe1 #bgf        
,flam/e$1 #cdh    ,flat e>? !ory1 #cb   
,fomalhaut1 #bga1 #cji1 #caj            
,fontana1 #bj    ,font5elle1 #ceg       
,=bes1 #hb1 #ie1 #if    ,=nax1 #cja     
,f\rni]1 #hg    ,fovea1 #bhd            
,freeman1 #hh    ,frret1 #bbb           
,frisby1 #aja    ,frits*1 #ba    ,furn]1
 #afc     ,g    ,gale1 #gh    ,galileo1 
#c1 #d1 #hj1 #hb    ,galle1 #id1 #cda   
,ganym$e1 #bfh    ,gase\s nebula1       
spectra (1 #aie-aih1 #bab    ,gass5di1  
#ad1 #aci    ,ga?man1 #aah    ,gaubil1  
#ii    ,gau?i]1 #ajc    ,geg5s*e91 #aca 
,gem9i1 #beg1 #beh    ,gem9id v>iables1 
#ahg    ,g5til1 ,le1 #cch1 #cci         
,g]tel1 #ci    ,ghizeh1 ,pyramids (1    
#cec    ,gibb\s phase ( ,jupit]1 #ge    
,gill1 ,sir ,david1 #aah1 #bae1 #baf1   
#cdf    ,glacial epo*1 #db    ,gl$hill1 

#gf    ,globul> clu/]s1 #bad1 #bae      
,goad1 #ab    ,goat*]1 #agi    ,gold5   
apples1 #beh    ,golius1 #bha    ,g\ld1 
#bbi1 #bgh1 #cja1 #cjd1 #cji1 #caj1 #cbf
    ,grant1 #hb1 #if1 #cde              
,gravitation1 ,law (1 #ae1 #dj          
,greely1 #ahf    ,greisba*1 #hj         
,groombridge #ahcj1 #aei    ,grubb1 ,sir
 ,h[>d1 #afd    ,grui?uis51 #ba1 #be1   
#bf1 #bh    ,gruson1 #abg    ,guillaume1
 #cca    ,gu?rie1 #be     ,h            
,habitability ( ,m>s1 #fc-ff            
( planets1 #dj    ,hadrian1 #bdh        
,halb]t1 #gh    ,hale1 #adh1 #aej       
,hall1 #ae1 #aca    ,halley1 #ad1 #ag1  
#ii1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaf1 #adc1
 #ade1 #bgf    ,halm1 #abb    ,halo1    
#ce1 #cf    ,han\man1 #bhd    ,hans51   
#cea    ,hansky1 #bg    ,h>d+1 #be1 #bf1
 #id    ,h>ris1 ,mrs41 #ij    ,h>twig1  
#hh1 #agc    ,h>ve/s1 #ajd    ,heat (   
sun1 #b1 #c1 #g    ,height ( atmosph]e1 
#cc    ,heis1 #acb1 #age1 #ahi1 #bbg1   
#bbi1 #cdd    ,helium1 #d    ,hepidanus1
 #bfg1 #cdh    ,h]cules1 #bdc1 #bei1    

#bfh    ,h]od1 #ah1 #ec    ,h]s*el1     
,miss ,c>ol9e1 #aic1 #aid1 #cbd1 #ceg   
,h]s*el1 ,sir ,john1 #aab1 #agg1 #aij1  
#bjg1 #bji1 #baj1 #bae1 #bhi1 #cad1     
#cdf1       #cec    ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,wm41 
#c1 #bd1 #hj1 #aab1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1   
#aga1 #agh1 #agi1 #aij1       #cbd1 #cbe
    ,hesiod1 #ag1 #bbj    ,hesp]us1 #bef
    ,hevelius1 #ii1 #aaf1 #bba1 #bif1   
#bii1 #cjj    ,hill1 #hg1 #cee    ,h9d1 
#ai1 #cj1 #ed1 #aje1 #aaa1 #ahj         
,hipp>*us1 #ace1 #bba-bbc1 #bbf1 #bej1  
#bgh1 #bha1 #bic1 #cbi    ,hippocrates1 
#beh    ,hir/1 #ccc    ,holets*ak1 #ajh 
,hom]1 #ag    ,honorat1 #hd    ,hooke1  
#gd1 #abh    ,horace1 #bhj              
,horologium1 #cjc    ,horus1 #ade1 #beh 
,horreb[1 #bi    ,horrocks1 #ccg        
,hort5sus1 ,m>t9us1 #aci    ,h\gh1 #gf  
,h\zeau1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bfb1 #bgd1 #cdd   
,hov$91 ,rog] de1 #ec    ,hubb>d1 #ajj  
,hugg9s1 ,sir ,wm41 #ia1 #adh1 #ahj     
,humboldt1 #cj1 #hb1 #hc1 #abd1 #abh1   
#acd1 #aed1 #aeg1 #cdb1 #ceb1 #ceg      
,hussey1 #hh    ,hyades1 #aeg1 #beb1    

#bec1 #beg    ,hydra1 #bhh    ,hydrus1  
#cjc    ,hyp]ion1 #hh1 #ij     ,i       
,ibn al-,aalam1 #bbe    ,ibn ,alraqqa1  
#bha    ,ic>us1 #bhd    ,indus1 #cjg    
,inhabit$ worlds1 #cbh1 #ceg    ,innes1 
#gh1 #afh    ,intra-,m]curial planet1   
#ad1 #ae1 #bi    ,inv5tion ( telescope1 
#cdb    ,io1 #beb    ,ions1 #bg         
,iris1 #ga    ,isaiah1 #ag1 #cef        
,isis1 #beb1 #bfa1 #bhb1 #bhc    ,i/>1  
#bfj     ,j    ,jans51 #cdb    ,japetus1
 #hi1 #ij    ,jason1 #beg1 #bhe         
,johnson1 ,rev4 ,s4 ,j41 #ai            
,jonckhe]e1 #ae    ,jones1 #abi         
,jordan1 #agd    ,jupit]1 *ap4 viii4    
gibb\s =m (1 #ge            & sun1 #h   
,k    ,kalevala1 #bdj    ,kapteyn1 #cad1
 #caf1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbf1 #ceg           
,kazem]ski1 #bdd    ,keel]1 #hf1 #bae   
,kelv91 ,"l1 #bjf1 #cae1 #caf    ,kempf1
 #agd    ,kepl]1 #eb1 #eg1 #bih1 #cdj1  
#cda1 #cea    ,khayyam1 ,om>1 #abg      
,kimah1 #bee    ,kimball1 #ea    ,kimta1
 #bee    ,kir*1 #bc1 #aae    ,kirkwood1 
#f    ,kleib]1 #abc    ,kle91 #aad1 #ahc

    ,knobel1 #bch1 #bfc    ,konkoly1    
#ahc    ,koran1 #abg1 #bgj    ,kreusl]1 
#d    ,kreutz1 #aja1 #aab     ,l        
,lacaille1 #bid1 #cja1 #cjb    ,lac]ta1 
#cjj    ,lagrange1 #cde    ,la ,hire1   
#bj1 #ba    ,lal&e1 #adc1 #add1 #bhd    
,l&]]1 #eb    ,langdon1 #be    ,langley1
 ,pr(41 #c    ,laplace1 #dc1 #dd1 #ih1  
#cdf1 #cea1 #ced    ,l>k91 #fe          
,lassell1 #gg1 #abh    ,la/ 9 ! ,riv]1  
#bge-bih    ,la/ ye> ( c5tury1 #cg      
,lau1 #agh1 #ahc    ,leo1 #bei    ,leo  
,m9or1 #bih    ,lepus1 #bgh1 #bgi       
,l]nan m>%1 #beh    ,lev]ri]1 #dd1 #cdg1
 #cea    ,lewis1 #aef1 #afb    ,lewis1  
,sir ,g4 ,c41 #ag    ,lexell's comet1   
#ih    ,libra1 #bfb    ,life1 possible1 
9 ,m>s1 #fc-fe    ,light ( full moon1   
#a1 #ea    ,lipp]%ey1 #cdb    ,littr[1  
#cci    ,locky]1 ,sir ,norman1 #add1    
#adg    ,lodge1 ,sir ,oliv]1 #ee        
,long1 #cdc1 #ceg    ,longfell[1 #aef1  
#bgc    ,lott91 #db    ,l[ell1 #bb1 #dc1
 #ei1 #fa1 #fd1 #hh    ,lucif]1 #ag     
,lucretius1 #cbj    ,lum9\s cl\ds1 #cc1 

#cd    ,lun> crat]s1 #ee1 #ef           
mansions1 #bea         m\nta9s1 #eh     
!ory1 #ef    ,lunt1 #agi    ,lupus1 #bid
    ,lyman1 #be    ,lynn1 #cg1 #ch1 #if1
 #ajf1 #agi1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #caj    ,lynx1 
#bif    ,lyra1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bff     ,m  
,macle>1 #gg    ,mdl]1 #bj1 #bb         
,m/l91 #cda    ,magi1 /> (1 #a1 #ah1    
#ade    ,magnitudes1 />1 #caa    ,maia1 
#ai1 #bef    ,mairan1 #ceg    ,mang]1   
#bei    ,manilius1 #bej1 #bei1 #bgb     
,m>ius1 ,simon1 #hb1 #hc1 #bca          
,m>kree ,ca/le1 #c    ,m>mol1 #gf       
,m>s1 *ap4 vi42     axis ( #ei2     r$  
col\r (1 #fj2     wat] vap\r 91 #fj2    
cl\ds 91 #fa2     canals 91 #fa         
,m>tial1 #ag    ,masc>i1 #bb            
,ma-tuan-l91 #ahf1 #bfg    ,may]1 #bd   
,may transits ( ,m]cury1 #ae            
,maxwell1 ,cl]k1 #hf    ,mc,harg1 #af   
,mc,kay1 #bhf    ,m$usa1 #bdd    ,mee1  
#hh    ,melotte1 #hb    ,m5delief1 #bab 
,m5sa1 #cjd    ,m]cury1 *ap1 ii41 #beh  
,m]rill1 #aba    ,messi]1 #aad          
,meteoric /ones1 #aai    ,meteors1 #cc  

,metius1 #cdb    ,microscopium1 #cjb    
,milky ,way1 #cbj1 #cbc1 #cbe1 #cbf1    
#cbh    ,milton1 #bfc    ,mimas1 #hh1   
#hi    ,m9or planets1 *ap4 vii4    ,mira
 ,ceti1 #agh1 #ahf1 #bgb1 #bgc          
,mit*ell1 #d    ,mi?ridates1 #aaa       
,mitra1 #ade    ,molyneux1 #hj          
,monck1 #aef1 #aha    ,monoc]os1 #bih   
,montan>i1 #agj1 #aga    ,montigny1 #cd 
,moon1 light (1 #a1 #ea         z se5   
?r\gh a telescope1 #ej    ,moon maid51  
#eb    ,moon m\nta9s1 #eh    ,moreh\se1 
#ajc1 #aaj    ,motions ( />s 9 l9e (    
sight1 #ada1 #adb    ,m\lton1 #acc1 #cah
    ,m\nta9s1 lun>1 #eh    ,mll]1 #agd  
,musca1 #cje    ,myc]9us1 ,pyramid (1   
#cec     ,n    ,nasmy?1 #aa    ,na?1    
#bec    ,nautical ,almanac1 #cdi        
,nebula 9 ,&rom$a1 #aih-bjf1 #bca       
,nebul1 gase\s1 #aie-aih1 #bab1 #bac    
,nebul1 spiral1 #bac    ,nebul>         
hypo!sis1 #ced    ,nemlian lion1 #bei   
,nemu1 #bei    ,neon 9 sun1 #d          
,nep?ys1 #bga    ,neptune1 #cda         
,newcomb1 #ac1 #ae1 #cc1 #ej1 #fe1 #gj1 

#abi1 #acj1 #aec1 #aia1 #bjc1 #bhb1     
#cci1 #cdg1       #cdi1 #cej1 #cee      
,newton1 #ae1 #cea    ,nicephorus1 #abg 
,ni*olls1 #adh1 #aed    ,n9eveh tablets1
 #ag    ,noble1 #be    ,norma1 #cjb     
,nov1 #ahj-ahb1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #cdc        
,nova ,p]sei1 #aij    ,novemb] transits 
( ,m]cury1 #ae    ,numb] ( nebul1 #aia  
( />s1 #ace1 #acf1 #bcf1 #bcg          (
 v>iable />s1 #ahb1 #ahc     ,o         
,obliquity ( ecliptic1 #dg              
,occupations1 #ad1 #ae1 #ed1 #fg1 #hj1  
#hd1 #he1 #bei1 #cdj1 #cda    ,octans1  
#cjc    ,odl+1 #abb    ,oeltz51 #gb     
,olb]s1 #ajd1 #abd    ,old1 #cdj        
,orion1 #di1 #adf1 #bgc1 #bgd           
,osiris1 #ade1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bhc         
,o/ri*es1 #bff    ,otawa1 #bdj    ,ovid1
 #bdb1 #bej1 #bee1 #bfe1 #bhh1 #bia1    
#cbb     ,p    ,palisa1 #ga    ,palm]1  
#ahb    ,p>k]1 #ai    ,p>khur/1 #agd    
,pas*51 #b    ,pa/orff1 #be    ,pavo1   
#cjg    ,payne1 #aci    ,pe>son1 #gg    
,pe>y1 #aai    ,peck1 #agf    ,pegasus1 
#bdh    ,pelion1 #bhb    ,p]i!us1 #beh  

,p]r9e1 #ae1 #gf1 #aia1 #aib1 #bad      
,p]rot91 #cea    ,p]seus1 #bdd          
,petosiris1 #bbb    ,philo/ratus1 #ccd  
,phlegon1 #ccb    ,phoebe1 #ij          
,pho5ix1 #cja    ,phosphorus1 #ag       
,photographic nebula1 #aib    ,pick]+1  
,e4 ,c41 #abe1 #adj1 #add1 #agg         
,pick]+1 ,w4 ,h41 #a1 #ab1 #ea1 #fa1    
#ie1 #ajb    ,pictor1 #cjd    ,pi]ce1   
#bbh    ,pilgrim ,/>1 #ahj1 #ahe1 #ahf  
,p+r1 #ed    ,p9zon1 #bid    ,pisces1   
#bga    ,piscis ,au/ralis1 #bie1 #bif   
,planet>y nebul1 #bac    ,plat9a1 #ajg  
,pleiades1 #ai1 #eb1 #acg1 #aed1 #aeg1  
#bce1 #bed-beg    ,pl9y1 #ag1 #bfe1 #bhj
    ,plumm]1 ,w4 ,e41 #ahj    ,plurality
 ( worlds1 #cbh1 #cef1 #ceg    ,pococke1
 #bga    ,pogson1 #cag    ,pol>ization (
 moon's surface1 #eb    ,pol>ization on 
,m>s1 #fa    ,pole ( cold1 #cc          
/>1 #ach1 #bci1 #bdj    ,pollux1 #beg   
,polydectus1 #bdd    ,poor1 #ae         
7footnote7    ,poynt+1 #acj    ,prsape1 
#bei    ,pr9ce1 #be    ,proclus1 #bba   
,proctor1 #g1 #di1 #ei1 #abc1 #bhe1     

#cjh1 #cbc1 #ceb    ,procyon1 #aef1     
#aeg1 #bcf1 #bhd    ,ptolemy1 #ahi1     
#bba-bbc1 #bbd1 #bbg1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcd1 
#bch1 #bdd1 #beb1 #bec1 #bfj1           
#bfc1 #bfd1 #bfg1 #bfi1 #bge1 #bgh1     
#bha1 #bhd1 #bic1 #cjb1 #ccj            
,pyramid1 ,great1 #df1 #dg1 #cjh1 #cec  
,py!as1 #df     ,q    ,quadruple sy/em1 
#afh    ,qunisset1 #ba1 #acc     ,r     
,rab\rd91 #ajc    ,radium1 #g1 #h1 #ch  
,rhu1 #ic    ,rama1 #bhd1 #cdj          
,rational ,almanac1 #df    ,r$ ,bird1   
#bij    ,r$ />1 #bgi1 #bib    ,regulus1 
#cj1 #aef1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bfj1 #caj1 #cdj 
,remote galaxies1 #aic1 #bjd1 #bje      
,reticulum1 #cjd    ,rhea1 #hi          
,rheita1 ,de1 #add    ,riccioli1 #ahi   
,ricco1 #cb    ,rigel1 #aef1 #aeg1 #bbb 
,rigge1 #ajg    ,r+ nebula 9 ,lyra1 #baa
    ,r+s ( ,saturn1 #he    ,ri%is1 #bdj 
,ritt]1 #gf1 #adg    ,riv]s1 cele/ial1  
#cjh    ,rob]ts1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,w41 #agb1    
#agc    ,rob]ts1 ,dr4 ,i41 #ie1 #aed1   
#bjj1 #bja1 #bjc1 #cag    ,rob]ts1 ,c41 
#hd    ,robigalia1 #bhj    ,rob9son1    

#cdb1 #ceg    ,ro$ecko]1 #bh            
,rogovsky1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #ge    ,rosse1
 ,"l1 #gf    ,roszel1 #gj    ,rotation (
 ,m]cury1 #af            ( ,uranus1 #ia 
( ,v5us1 #bb    ,rubiyt1 #abg           
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eigh?1 ( ,jupit]1 #hb                   
possible lun>1 #ed              ( ,v5us1
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#bb1 #bd1 #bf1 #dh    ,s*u/]1 #b1 #adh1 
#adi1 #aej    ,s*wabe1 #e    ,scorpio1  

#bfc-bfe    ,sculptor1 #cja    ,scutum1 
#bii    ,se>le1 #acb    ,second>y light 
( ,v5us1 #bc-bh    ,see1 ,dr41 #ab1 #ac1
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,%al]1 #dh    ,%>pe1 #ceg    ,%elley1   
#cef    ,%icor1 #bgd    ,%ip1 #bhe      
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#ec    ,simonides1 #bee    ,s++ ,maid5s1
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#afj1 #afc1 #bcf1 #bgd1 #bhj1 #bhb1 #bhc
    ,sliph]1 #fj1 #hg1 #afa1 #agh       
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#gb1 #gg1 #ajg1 #acf1 #adj1 #ade1 #agj1 
#agf1 #aij1 #aid1 #bec1       #bei1 #cea
    ,snyd]1 ,c>l1 #h1 #cde    ,sobieski1
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,som]ville1 ,mrs41 #ceg    ,so?is1 #bhf 
,s\!rn ,cross1 #bic1 #cdd    ,spectra ( 
d\ble />s1 #afb    ,spectrum ( gase\s   

nebul1 #aie-aih1 #bab    ,spectrum (    
sun's *romosph]e1 #d    ,sp5c]1 ,h]b]t1 
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#bga    ,!mis1 #hh-ij    ,!ogirus1 #bgi 
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#aja    ,?ucydides1 #cca    ,tib]t9us1  
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#he1 #hh1 #hi    ,titanium1 #agi        
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#ad1 #ae            ( ,v5us1 #ccg1 #cch1
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,au/ralis1 #cjf    ,trio1 #bbj          
,triptolemus1 #beg    ,triton1 #ic      
,tr\velot1 #ba1 #bb1 #gh1 #baa          
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#he    ,uranus1 *ap4 x42     spectrum (1
 #ia1 #ib    ,urda1 #ga     ,v    ,valz 
#gb    ,vani%+ />1 #ei    ,v>vadjah1    
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app>5t motion (1 #bh2     suppos$       
satellite (1 #bh1 #bi2     transit (1   
#ccg-cci    ,v]onica1 ,s1 #ade    ,ve/a1
 #gj    ,virgil1 #ag1 #bah1 #bdb1 #bfb1 
#cji    ,virgo1 #bfj    ,vogel1 #ahj    
,vogt1 #abb    ,volans1 #cjd            

,voltaire1 #ae    ,von ,hahn1 #bd       
,vulpecula1 #cjj     ,w    ,wallace1    
,dr41 #bab1 #ceg    ,wallis1 #hj        
,w>d1 #hh    ,w>g5t91 #agh    ,watson1  
#cci    ,webb1 #bd1 #be1 #gg1 #aij1 #bhf
    ,web]1 #ahc    ,we9h&1 #abb         
,w5dell1 #ga1 #ajc1 #aji    ,w]*ojansk1 
#cc    ,:ite spots on ,jupit]'s         
satellites1 #ha    ,:ite spots on ,v5us1
 #ba    ,:itmell1 #ej1 #hf    ,wigg9s1  
#ccc    ,wilczyniski1 #aie    ,williams1
 ,/anley1 #bb1 #bgg1 #cjb    ,wils+1    
#aee    ,wilson1 ,h4 ,c41 #acg1 #aci    
,wilson1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,e41 #c1 #adh         
,w9necke1 #bf1 #ahh    ,w9t]halt]1 #cea 
,wolf1 ,dr4 ,max1 #ga1 #gb1 #aia1 #baa1 
,note p4 #ecg    ,wrangel1 #bdj     ,y  
,"y1 ,pr(41 #d1 #g1 #i    ,"y1 ,miss    
,anne ,s41 #gi    ,yunis1 ,ibn1 #cj     
,z    ,za*1 #cca    ,z5ophon1 #abg      
,ze?as1 #beg    ,zlln]1 #bg   ,,! ,,end 
,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,&      
,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,london ,,&          
,,beccles4   ,illu/ration               
,,footnotes3  #a ,comptes ,r5dus1 #aijc1

 ,decemb] #g4  #b ,nature1 ,april #aa1  
#aijg4  #c ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4  
#ai 7#aijd71 p4 #ci4  #d ,a/rophysical  
,j\rnal1 vol4 #ba 7#aije71 p4 #bfj4  #e 
,k1 ,july1 #aijb1 p4 #acb4  #f ,nature1 
,april #cj1 #aijc4  #g ,ibid41 ,may #ah1
 #aije4  #h ,ibid41 ,may #ah1 #aije4  #i
 ,nature1 ,june #bi1 #ahga4  #aj        
,nature1 ,octob] #ae1 #aijc4  #aa ,!    
,life ( ! ,univ]se 7#aiji71 vol4 ii4 p4 
#bji4  #ab ,! ,_w ,ma*9e1 p4 #bcd4  #ac 
,quot$ 9 ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,m>* #aijh1 p4 
#abe4  #ad ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,septemb]1   
#aijf4  #ae ,nature1 ,m>* #a1 #aijj4    
#af ,cycle ( ,cele/ial ,objects1 p4 #if4
  #ag ,a/4 ,na*4 ,no4 #cgcg4  #ah       
,obs]vatory1 ,septemb]1 #aijf4  #ai     
,nature1 ,novemb] #bi & ,decemb] #bj1   
#ahid4  #bj ,bullet91 ,a/4 ,soc4 de     
,france1 ,july1 #ahih4  #ba ,obs]vatory1
 vol4 #h 7#ahhe71 pp4 #cjf-g4  #bb      
,nature1 ,octob] #cj1 #aijb4  #bc ,*>les
 ,lane ,poor1 ,! ,sol> ,sy/em1 p4 #agj4 
#bd ,smy?1 ,cele/ial ,cycle1 p4 #fj4    
#be ,d5n+1 ,telescopic ,"w = ,/>light   

,ev5+s1 p4 #bbe4  #bf ,! ,obs]vatory1   
#ahid1 p4 #cie4  #bg ,a/4 ,na*4 #dccc1  
quot$ 9 ,nature1 ,july #a1 #aiji1 p4    
#bj4  #bh ,engli% ,me*anic1 ,july #bc1  
#aiji4  #bi ,nature1 ,decemb] #bb1      
#ahib4  #cj ,cele/ial ,objects1 vol4 i4 
p4 #eb1 footnote4  #ca ,ibid41 p4 #ed4  
#cb ,a/ronomy & ,a/rophysics1 #ahib1 p4 
#fah4  #cc ,nature1 ,augu/ #g1 #ahgi4   
#cd ,! ,_w ( ,space1 p4 #ef4  #ce       
,nature1 ,septemb] #ae1 #ahib4  #cf     
,obs]vatory1 #ahhj1 p4 #egd4  #cg ,k1   
,novemb] #a1 #ahig1 pp4 #bfj1 #bfa4  #ch
 ,worlds 9 ! ,mak+1 p4 #fa4  #ci ,ibid41
 p4 #dh4  #dj ,nature1 ,june #a1 #ahgf4 
#da ,cel4 ,objects1 vol4 i4 p4 #ff 7#e? 
,edition74  #db ,cele/ial ,objects1 vol4
 i4 p4 #fe 7#e? ,edition74  #dc ,a/4    
,na*4 ,no4 #ahfc4  #dd ,nature1 ,june   
#a1 #ahgf4  #de ,ibid41 ,june #h1 #ahgf4
  #df ,nature1 ,octob] #ag1 #ahie4  #dg 
,ibid41 ,july #bg1 #aije4  #dh ,cele/ial
 ,cycle1 p4 #ajg4  #di ,nature1 ,octob] 
#f1 #ahhg4  #ej ,a/4 ,na*41 ,no4 #dajf4 
#ea ,cop]nicus1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afh4  #eb  

,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 p4 #dgf1 footnote4    
#ec ,d5n+1 ,telescopic ,"w = ,/>light   
,ev5+s1 p4 #aec4  #ed ,ibid41 p4 #aed4  
#ee ,nature1 ,july #ac1 #ahgf4  #ef ,p4 
,m4 ,ryves 9 ,k1 ,june #a1 #ahig1 p4    
#add4  #eg ,bullet91 ,a/4 ,soc4 de      
,france1 ,augu/1 #aije4  #eh ,nature1   
,april #e1 #ahid4  #ei ,nature1 ,may    
#ad1 #ahif4 ,"s h attribut$ ^! lum9\s   
cl\ds to light reflect$ f ! du/ ( !     
,krakatoa eruption 7#ahhc74  #fj ,!     
,obs]vatory1 #ahgg1 p4 #ij4  #fa ,popul>
 ,a/ronomy1 vol4 #aa 7#aijc71 p4 #bic4  
#fb ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 vol4 #ac 7#aije71
 p4 #bbf4  #fc ,nature1 ,july #be1 #aija
 7f ,flamm>ion74  #fd ,popul> ,a/ronomy1
 vol4 #aa 7#aijc71 p4 #dif4  #fe ,k9etic
 ,!ories ( ,gravitation1 ,wa%+ton1      
#ahgg4  #ff ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,june1      
#ahid1 p4 #bjh4  #fg ,nature1 ,june #h1 
#ahii4  #fh ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 
#ad 7#aija71 p4 #bch1 footnote4  #fi    
,m>s z ! ,abode ( ,life1 p4 #eb4  #gj   
,second ,book ( ! ,maccabees v4 #a-d    
7,revis$ ,edition74  #ga ,humboldt's    

,cosmos1 vol4 i4 p4 #afi 7,ott's        
translation74  #gb ,quot$ by ,grant 9   
,hi/ory ( ,physical ,a/ronomy1 p4 #ga4  
#gc ,ibid41 pp4 #ajj1 #aja4  #gd        
,exposition du ,sy/me du ,monde1 quot$  
by ,c>l ,snyd] 9 ,! ,_w ,ma*9e1 p4 #bbf4
  #ge ,worlds 9 ! ,mak+1 p4 #fc4  #gf   
,cosmos1 vol4 i4 p4 #aca4  #gg ,!       
,obs]vatory1 ,june1 #aiji1 p4 #bfa4  #gh
 ,a/ronomical ,essays1 pp4 #fa1 #fb4    
#gi ,encyclopdia ,britannica 7,s*iraz74 
#hj ,mon?ly ,notices1 ,r4,a4,s41        
,febru>y1 #aije4  #ha ,nature1 ,m>* #c1 
#ahgj4  #hb ,ibid41 ,m>* #ca1 #ahgj1 p4 
#eeg4  #hc ,pr(4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ f\nd   
#ab times 7see p4 #a74  #hd ,nature1    
,janu>y #cj1 #aijh4  #he ,nature1       
,septemb] #e1 #aija4  #hf ,ibid41 ,july 
#ca1 #ahij4  #hg ,nature1 ,octob] #af1  
#ahhd4  #hh ,nature1 ,febru>y #ai1      
#ahhe4  #hi ,nature1 ,janu>y #ad1 #aiji1
 p4 #cbc4  #ij ,photographic ,atlas ( ! 
,moon1 ,annals ( ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory1    
vol4 li4 pp4 #ad1 #ae4  #ia ,nature1    
,janu>y #ah1 #aijf4  #ib ,humboldt's    

,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 p4 #dha4  #ic ,ibid41 
p4 #dhb4  #id ,mon?ly ,notices1         
,r4,a4,s41 ,june1 #ahie4  #ie           
,humboldt's ,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 p4 #dhc   
7,ott's translation74  #if ,grant1      
,hi/ory ( ,physical ,a/ronomy1 p4 #bbi4 
#ig ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 vol4 xvii4 ,no4  
#f1 p4 #chg 7,june-,july1 #aiji74  #ih  
,nature1 ,octob] #g1 #ahge4  #ii ,m>s z 
an ,abode ( ,life 7#aijh71 p4 #bha4     
#ajj ,k1 ,may #b1 #ahhf4  #aja ,nature1 
,m>* #ab1 #aijh4  #ajb ,bullet91 ,a/4   
,soc4 de ,france1 ,april1 #ahii4  #ajc  
,a/ronomy & ,a/rophysics 7#ahid71 p4    
#fdi4  #ajd ,nature1 ,april #bj1 #aije4 
#aje ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 #ad    
7#aija71 p4 #beh4  #ajf ,nature1 ,augu/ 
#bb1 #aijg4  #ajg ,popul> ,a/ronomy1    
vol4 #ab 7#aijd71 p4 #fgi4  #ajh ,m>s z 
an ,abode ( ,life1 p4 #fi4  #aji ,ibid41
 p4 #adf4  #aaj ,worlds 9 ! ,mak+1 p4   
#di4  #aaa ,worlds 9 ! ,mak+1 p4 #ec4   
#aab ,d5n+1 ,telescopic ,"w = ,/>light  
,ev5+s1 p4 #aeh4  #aac ,ibid41 p4 #aff4 
#aad ,nature1 ,july #ac1 #ahgf4  #aae   

,nature1 ,may #b1 #aijg4  #aaf ,nature1 
,may #cj1 #aijg4  #aag ,publications ( !
 ,a/ronomical ,society ( ! ,pacific1    
,augu/1 #aijh4  #aah ,mon?ly ,notices1  
,r4,a4,s41 #aijb1 p4 #bia4  #aai ,mon?ly
 ,notices1 ,r4,a4,s41 ,febru>y1 #aijb1  
p4 #bia4  #abj ,nature1 ,may #bd1 #ahid4
  #aba ,ibid41 ,febru>y #ad1 #ahie4     
#abb ,ibid41 ,septemb] #ad1 #aije4  #abc
 ,ibid41 ,septemb] #ba1 #aije4  #abd    
,ibid41 ,septemb] #bh1 #aije4  #abe     
,ibid41 ,july #ac1 #aije4  #abf ,nature1
 ,novemb] #c1 #ahih4  #abg ,ibid41 ,july
 #ad1 #ahha1 p4 #bce4  #abh ,quot$ 9 ,! 
,obs]vatory1 ,febru>y1 #ahif1 p4 #ajd1 f
 ,a/4 ,na*41 ,no4 #ccai4  #abi ,mon?ly  
,notices1 ,r4,a4,s41 ,febru>y1 #aiji4   
#acj ,cele/ial ,objects1 vol4 i4 p4     
#afc4  #aca ,nature1 ,decemb] #bi1      
#ahih4  #acb ,cele/ial ,objects1 vol4 i4
 p4 #aff4  #acc ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1  
vol4 #ad 7#aija71 pp4 #bdh-i4  #acd     
,nature1 ,augu/ #bg1 #aijh4  #ace       
,webb's ,cele/ial ,objects1 vol4 i4 p4  
#agg4  #acf ,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #ahg4    

#acg ,cele/ial ,objects1 vol4 i4 p4     
#ahf4  #ach ,a/ronomy & ,a/rophysics1   
#ahib1 p4 #hg4  #aci ,ibid41 #ahib1 pp4 
#id-e4  #adj ,obs]vatory1 ,decemb]1     
#ahia4  #ada ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 vol4 #aa
 7#aijc71 p4 #egd4  #adb ,ibid41        
,octob]1 #aijh4  #adc ,bullet91 ,a/4    
,soc4 de ,france1 ,augu/1 #aijg4  #add  
,nature1 ,augu/1 #bi #aijg4  #ade       
,ibid41 ,m>* #g1 #aijg4  #adf ,bullet91 
,a/4 ,soc4 de ,france1 ,june1 #aijd4    
#adg ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,octob]1 #aijc1 p4 
#cib4  #adh ,a/ronomy & ,a/rophysics1   
#ahid1 p4 #bgg4  #adi ,nature1 ,novemb] 
#ah1 #ahig4  #aej ,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41   
,janu>y1 #aijg4  #aea ,j\rnal1          
,b4,a4,a41 ,febru>y1 #aiji1 p4 #afa4    
#aeb ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gjc4  #aec   
,ibid4  #aed ,d5n+1 ,telescopic ,"w =   
,/>light ,ev5+s1 p4 #cdi4  #aee ,cosmos1
 vol4 iii4 p4 #ge4  #aef ,j\rnal1       
,b4,a4,a41 ,june1 #ahif4  #aeg ,cele/ial
 ,objects1 vol4 i4 p4 #aia4  #aeh       
,nature1 ,may #cj1 #aija4  #aei         
,bullet91 ,a/4 ,soc4 de ,france1 ,augu/1

 #aijj4  #afj ,a/ronomy & ,a/rophysics1 
#ahib4  #afa ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1     
,janu>y1 #aijh1 p4 #ce4  #afb ,nature1  
,may #bb1 #aijb4  #afc ,ibid41 ,july #i1
 #aijc4  #afd ,ibid41 ,july #af1 #aijc4 
#afe ,nature1 ,septemb] #bd1 #aijc4     
#aff ,ibid41 ,octob] #h1 #aijc4  #afg   
,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 #bf 7#aijg71
 p4 #fj4  #afh ,nature1 ,janu>y #cj1    
#aijh4  #afi ,ibid41 ,octob] #ae1 #aijh4
  #agj ,ibid41 ,octob] #bi1 #aijh4  #aga
 ,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41 ,m>*1 #aijh1 &     
,june #bb1 #aijh4  #agb ,nature1 ,june  
#be1 #aijc4  #agc ,bullet91 ,a/4 ,soc4  
de ,france1 ,june1 #aijd4  #agd ,pop4   
,a/41 vol4 #ab1 pp4 #djh-i4  #age       
,nature1 ,augu/ #bi1 #ahhi4  #agf       
,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 #bf 7#aijg71
 p4 #fb4  #agg ,bullet91 ,a/4 ,soc4 de  
,france1 ,janu>y1 #aijd4  #agh          
,humboldt's ,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ecb4  
#agi ,cop]nicus1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fd4  #ahj 
,k1 ,may1 #aiji4  #aha ,j\rnal1 ,briti% 
,a/ronomical ,association1 ,janu>y1     
#aiji1 p4 #acb4  #ahb ,a/4 ,na*41 ,no4  

#dcjh4  #ahc ,hi/ory ( ,physical        
,a/ronomy1 p4 #bjd4  #ahd ,smy?'s       
,cele/ial ,cycle1 pp4 #baj1 #baa4  #ahe 
,poor1 ,! ,sol> ,sy/em1 p4 #bgd4  #ahf  
,cele/ial ,cycle1 p4 #bdf4  #ahg        
,nature1 ,octob] #b1 #ahgi4  #ahh       
,ibid41 ,may #f1 #ahhj4  #ahi ,ibid41   
,febru>y #ai1 #ahhj4  #aij ,nature1     
,septemb] #cj1 #ahig4  #aia ,nature1    
,augu/ #e1 #ahge4  #aib ,ibid41 ,octob] 
#ab1 #ahhb1 & ,cop]nicus1 vol4 iii4 p4  
#he4  #aic ,nature1 ,may #h1 #ahhd4     
#aid ,ibid41 ,june #af1 #ahhg4  #aie    
,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41 ,decemb] #ac1 #aija4
  #aif ,nature1 ,septemb] #bj1 #aijj4   
#aig ,a/4 ,na*41 ,no4 #chfh1 & ,nature1 
,m>* #ab1 #aijc4  #aih ,nature1 ,novemb]
 #ac1 #aijh4  #aii ,nature1 ,decemb] #g1
 #aije4  #bjj ,cele/ial ,cycle1 p4 #bei4
  #bja ,cele/ial ,cycle1 p4 #bfj4  #bjb 
,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41 ,april1 #aijg4  #bjc
 ,mon?ly ,notices1 ,r4,a4,s41 ,m>*1     
#aijh4  #bjd ,cele/ial ,cycle1 p4 #bca4 
#bje ,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41 ,july1 #aijh4  
#bjf ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 ,octob]1 #aijh4 

#bjg ,cape ,obs41 p4 #dja4  #bjh        
,nature1 ,july #b1 #aijh4  #bji ,j\rnal1
 ,b4,a4,a41 ,janu>y #bj1 #aiji1 pp4     
#abc-d4  #baj ,*amb]s' ,h&book (        
,a/ronomy1 ,catalogue ( ,comets4  #baa  
,s5eca1 quot$ by ,*amb]s1 ,h&book1 vol4 
i4 p4 #eed 7,f\r? ,edition74  #bab      
,ibid4  #bac ,ibid4  #bad ,ibid41 p4    
#ecd4  #bae ,ibid4  #baf ,ma-tuoan-l91  
quot$ by ,*amb]s1 ,h&book1 p4 #egj4     
#bag ,a/ronomy & ,a/rophysics1 #ahic1 p4
 #gih4  #bah ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,octob]1   
#ahih4  #bai ,grant's ,hi/ory (         
,physical ,a/ronomy1 p4 #bic4  #bbj     
,ibid41 p4 #bid4  #bba ,humboldt's      
,cosmos1 vol4 i4 pp4 #hi1 #ij 7,ott's   
translation74  #bbb ,cele/ial ,objects1 
vol4 i4 p4 #baa1 footnote4  #bbc ,d5n+1 
,telescopic ,"w = ,/>light ,ev5+s1 p4   
#bdh4  #bbd ,ibid41 p4 #bdh4  #bbe      
,ibid41 p4 #bej4  #bbf ,ibid41 p4 #bca4 
#bbg ,vol4 iii4 p4 #ajf4  #bbh ,grant's 
,hi/ory ( ,physical ,a/ronomy1 p4 #bih4 
#bbi ,ibid41 p4 #cje4  #bcj ,humboldt's 
,cosmos1 vol4 i4 p4 #ie4  #bca ,nature1 

,april #cj1 #aijh4  #bcb ,bullet91 ,a/4 
,soc4 de ,france1 ,may1 #aijf4  #bcc    
,nature1 ,novemb] #bd1 #aijd4  #bcd     
,ibid41 ,septemb] #aj1 #ahif4  #bce     
,ibid41 ,june #bi1 #ahic4  #bcf ,j\rnal1
 ,b4,a4,a41 ,may #bb1 #aijc4  #bcg      
,nature1 ,decemb] #ac1 #aijf1 p4 #aei4  
#bch ,nature1 ,septemb] #ac1 #aijf4     
#bci ,nature1 ,octob] #ab1 #aije1 p4    
#eif4  #bdj ,k1 ,janu>y #ac1 #ahhb4     
#bda ,ibid41 ,janu>y #bj1 #ahhb4  #bdb  
,popul> ,a/ronomy1 ,june-,july1 #aijh1  
p4 #cde4  #bdc ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,m>*1    
#ahif1 p4 #ace4  #bdd ,! ,obs]vatory1   
,febru>y1 #aijj1 pp4 #ajf-g4  #bde ,k1  
,m>*1 #ahic1 p4 #ea4  #bdf ,ibid41 ,july
 #c1 #ahhe1 p4 #aa4  #bdg ,cosmos1 vol4 
i4 p4 #ajh 7,ott's translation74  #bdh  
,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #abd4  #bdi ,ibid41  
vol4 i4 p4 #aai1 footnote4  #bej        
,cop]nicus1 vol4 i4 p4 #gb4  #bea ,ibid4
  #beb ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 ,june1    
#aiji1 pp4 #cgh-i4  #bec ,k1 ,july1     
#aiji1 p4 #bfd4  #bed ,quot$ by ,miss   
,ir5e ,e4 ,t4 ,w>n] 9 ,k1 ,july1 #aiji1 

p4 #bfd4  #bee ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,novemb]1
 #aijj4  #bef ,or1 ,be=e ! phantom (    
false morn+ di$ 7#d? edition72 ,!       
,obs]vatory1 ,septemb]1 #aije1 p4 #cef4 
#beg ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,july1 #ahif1 p4   
#bgd4  #beh ,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41 ,janu>y 
#bd1 #aijf4  #bei ,a/4 ,soc4 ( !        
,pacific1 ,decemb]1 #aijh1 p4 #bhj4     
#bfj ,nature1 ,novemb] #a1 #aijf4  #bfa 
,ibid41 ,novemb] #bb1 #aijf1 p4 #ic4    
#bfb ,nature1 ,augu/ #cj1 #aijf4  #bfc  
,cosmos1 vol4 i4 p4 #aca1 footnote4     
#bfd ,nature1 ,decemb] #af1 #ahge4  #bfe
 ,ibid41 ,july #bc1 #ahia4  #bff        
,bullet91 ,a/4 ,soc4 de ,france1 ,april1
 #aijc4  #bfg ,bullet91 ,a/4 ,soc4 de   
,france1 ,april1 #aijc4  #bfh ,!        
,obs]vatory1 ,may1 #ahif4 ,! italics are
 ,br5n]'s4  #bfi ,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 p4   
#efc4  #bgj ,= details ( ?is enum]ation1
 see ,a/ronomical ,essays1 p4 #bbb4     
#bga ,nature1 ,june #aa1 #aijh4  #bgb   
,popul> ,a/ronomy1 vol4 #ad 7#aijf71 p4 
#eaj4  #bgc ,b$=d ,catalogue1 p4 #ecb4  
#bgd ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 vol4 #ae        

7#aijg71 p4 #aid4  #bge ,popul>         
,a/ronomy1 vol4 #ae 7#aijg71 p4 #aie4   
#bgf ,bullet91 ,a/4 ,soc4 de ,france1   
,febru>y1 #aijc4  #bgg ,"h ,greek3 * is 
probably #ag ,cygni1 ,greek3 * be+ !    
fam\s v>iable ne> x4  #bgh ,popul>      
,a/ronomy1 vol4 #ac 7#aijd71 p4 #eji4   
#bgi ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 ,decemb]1   
#ahie4  #bhj ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,july1     
#ahie1 p4 #bij4  #bha ,cele/ial ,cycle1 
p4 #cjb4  #bhb ,nature1 ,decemb] #ac1   
#ahid4  #bhc ,hi/oire ,cele/e1 p4 #baa4 
#bhd ,nature1 ,octob]1 #ahhg4  #bhe     
,ibid41 ,augu/ #bi1 #ahhi4  #bhf ,sci5ce
 ,ab/racts1 ,febru>y #be1 #aijh1 pp4    
#hb1 #hc4  #bhg ,b$=d ,catalogue1 pp4   
#bbg-h4  #bhh ,k1 ,febru>y #a1 #ahhh4   
#bhi ,cele/ial ,cycle1 p4 #bhj4  #bij   
,popul> ,a/ronomy1 ,febru>y1 #aijd4     
#bia ,ibid41 vol4 #ae 7#aijg71 p4 #ddd4 
#bib ,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41 ,june1 #ahii4  
#bic ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 #h     
7#ahih71 p4 #cad4  #bid ,a/rophysical   
,j\rnal1 vol4 #h1 p4 #bac4  #bie ,ibid41
 vol4 #ag1 ,janu>y to ,june1 #aijb4     

#bif ,a/ronomy & ,a/rophysics1 #ahid1   
pp4 #efi-gj4  #big ,! ,/udy ( ,/ell>    
,evolution 7#aijh71 p4 #aga4  #bih      
,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 ,janu>y1 #aije4  
#bii ,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41 ,june1 #aija4  
#cjj ,a/4 ,soc4 ( ! ,pacific1 ,decemb]1 
#aijh4  #cja ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,novemb]1  
#aijb1 p4 #cia4  #cjb ,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 
p4 #efg 7,ott's translation74  #cjc     
,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41 ,febru>y1 #ahih4    
#cjd ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,april1 #ahhg4     
#cje ,evangel9e1 ,"p ! ,second1 ,,iii4  
#cjf ,leg5d ( ,rob]t1 ,duke ( ,norm&y4  
#cjg ,cop]nicus1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bca4     
#cjh ,ibid41 p4 #fa4  #cji ,cosmos1 vol4
 i4 p4 #adb4  #caj ,^! ap]tures are     
comput$ f ! =mula1 m9imum visible  #i   
#e log4 ap]ture4  #caa ,cosmos1 vol4    
iii4 p4 #gc4  #cab ,d>w9 & ,mod]n       
,sci5ce1 p4 #efc4  #cac ,j\rnal1        
,b4,a4,a41 ,octob]1 #ahie4  #cad        
,burnham's ,g5]al ,catalogue ( ,d\ble   
,/>s1 p4 #did4  #cae ,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41
 ,novemb] #ah1 #ahif4  #caf ,ibid41     
,b4,a4,a41 ,janu>y1 #aijg4  #cag ,/udies

 9 ,a/ronomy1 p4 #ahe4  #cah ,k1 ,june1 
#ahia4  #cai ,se5 by ,drs4 ,lud5dorff & 
,eb]h>d1 ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,april1 #aijf1 
p4 #aff1 quot$ f ,a/4 ,na*41 ,no4 #djfg4
  #cbj ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,janu>y1 #aijg1  
p4 #fa4  #cba ,a/ronomy & ,a/rophysics1 
#ahid4  #cbb ,smy?'s ,cele/ial ,cycle1  
p4 #bbc4  #cbc ,nature1 ,febru>y #g1    
#aijg4  #cbd ,ibid41 ,m>* #ai1 #aijh4   
#cbe ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 vol4 #ae        
7#aijg71 p4 #i4  #cbf ,a/rophysical     
,j\rnal1 ,june1 #aijg1 p4 #ccj4  #cbg   
,ibid41 vol4 #bb1 p4 #agb4  #cbh        
,nature1 ,novemb] #ah1 #ahhf4  #cbi     
,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 #ag 7#aijc71
 p4 #bhb4  #ccj ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1  
vol4 #ab 7#aijj71 p4 #ed4  #cca ,nature1
 ,m>* #ba1 #ahgh4  #ccb ,bullet91 ,a/4  
,soc4 de ,france1 ,june1 #aijd4  #ccc   
,j\rnal1 ,b4,a4,a41 vol4 #ag 7#aijc71 p4
 #bhb4  #ccd ,nature1 ,june #bj1 #aiji4 
#cce ,! ,obs]vatory1 vol4 #g 7#ahhd71 p4
 #ag4  #ccf ,! ,obs]vatory1 vol4 #ad    
7#ahia71 p4 #fi4  #ccg ,a/ronomy &      
,a/rophysics1 #ahif1 p4 #ed  #cch       

,nature1 ,augu/ #bh1 #aijb4  #cci       
,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 ,octob]1 #aijc4  
#cdj ,nature1 ,may #cj1 #aijg4  #cda    
,popul> ,a/ronomy1 ,febru>y1 #aiji1 p4  
#abe4  #cdb ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,may1 #aijg1
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,may1 #aijg4  #cdd ,hi/oire de          
l',a/ronomie ,mod]ne1 vol4 i4 pp4       
#ahe-f4  #cde ,humboldt's ,cosmos1 vol4 
iii4 p4 #baj 7,ott's translation74  #cdf
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,j4 ,c4 ,duncan1 ,lick ,obs]vatory      
,bullet91 ,no4 #aea4  #cdh ,a/rophysical
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,orig9 ( ! ,/>s1 p4 #adc4  #cej ,ibid41 
p4 #ace4  #cea ,quot$ by ,ennis 9 ,!    
,orig9 ( ! ,/>s1 p4 #acc4  #ceb         
,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 #bj 7#aijd71
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is a misquotation4 ,see my ,a/ronomical 
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#cjg4  #cfa ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 
#ad1 p4 #cg4  #cfb ,ibid41 vol4 #i1 p4  
#adi4  #cfc ,nature1 ,july #bj1 #ahii4  
#cfd ,a/4 ,na*41 ,no4 #cdgf4  #cfe      
,a/ronomis*e ,na*ri*t51 ,no4 #dbac4     
#cff ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 #i1 p4 
#adi4  #cfg ,cape ,obs]vations1 p4 #fa4 
#cfh ,ibid41 p4 #he4  #cfi ,cape        
,obs]vations1 p4 #ih4  #cgj             
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vol4 #b4  #cga ,a/4 ,na*41 #cfbh1 quot$ 
9 ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,april1 #aijj4  #cgb  
,nature1 ,april #h1 #aiji4  #cgc        
,problems 9 ,a/rophysics1 p4 #dgg4  #cgd
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,ibid4  #cgi ,mon?ly ,notices1          
,r4,a4,s41 ,april1 #aijh1 pp4 #dfe-dha4 
#chj ,lick ,obs]vatory ,bullet91 ,no4   
#aee 7,febru>y1 #aiji74  #cha ,outl9es (
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#chc ,see pap] by ,mr4 & ,mrs4 ,maund] 9
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,re*]*es sur l',hi/oire de l',a/ronomie 
,anci5ne1 by ,paul ,tann]y 7#ahic71 p4  
#bih4  #chf ,primitive ,con/ellations1  
vol4 ii4 p4 #bbe4  #chg ,nature1 ,octob]
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vol4 i4 pp4 #bdc-d4  #chi ,lal&e's      
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inaccurate4 ,!re is also "o 9 ! ,briti% 
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consid]able portions ( ! orig9al "w be+ 
miss+4  #cia ,h>v>d ,annals1 vol4 ix4 p4
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recomm5d$ to h a ,/> ,atlas beside him =
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quotes ,c>lyle's words1 ,:y did n       
somebody tea* me ! con/ellations & make 
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always ov]head1 & :i* ,i don't half "k  
to ?is day8  #cie ,b$=d ,catalogue1 p4  
#bi4  #cif ,cosmos1 vol4 iii4 p4 #hg4   
#cig ,heav5ly ,display1 #egi-he4  #cih  
,b$=d ,catalogue1 p4 #che4  #cii        
,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ebi4  
#djj ,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1 vol4 i4 pp4   
#bfh-i4  #dja ,primitive ,con/ellations1
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,b$=d ,catalogue1 p4 #abj4  #dje        
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#adc4  #djf ,p]seus4  #djg ,heav5ly     
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iv4 p4 #dic4  #dji ,primitive           
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,p>adiso1 xxii4 #aaa4  #daa ,lal&e's    
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,b$=d ,catalogue1 p4 #bbe4  #dac        
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#fh4  #dae ,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #ga4  #daf
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#dag ,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1 vol4 i4 p4    
#bif4  #dah ,primitive ,con/ellations1  
vol4 i4 p4 #gd4  #dai ,cape             
,obs]vations1 p4 #aaf4  #dbj            
,metamorphoses1 xv4 #cga4  #dba ,lal&e's
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,mon?ly ,notices1 ,r4,a4,s41 ,april #ad1
 #ahdh4  #dbc ,prim4 ,con/41 vol4 ii4 p4
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#dgb-c4  #dbe ,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1 vol4 
iv4 p4 #dhe4  #dbf ,?is /> is n %[n 9   
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m4  #dbg ,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1 vol4 i4 p4
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iv4 p4 #dhi4  #dbi ,primitive           
,con/ellations1 vol4 i4 p4 #ia4  #dcj   
,memoirs1 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xiii4 #fa4    
#dca ,mon?ly ,notices1 ,r4,a4,s41 ,june1
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i4 p4 #bgd4  #dcc ,primitive            
,con/ellations1 vol4 i4 p4 #adc4  #dcd  
,primitive ,con/ellations1 vol4 i4 p4   
#bgh4  #dce ,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1 vol4   
iv4 p4 #dfh4  #dcf ,qu/4 ,nat41 ,lib4   
#a1 ,cap4 ,i4  #f2 quot$ by ,dr4 ,see4  
,canicula is ,sirius1 & ,n>tis1 ,m>s4   
#dcg ,a/ronomy & ,a/rophysics1 vol4 #aa1
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#aijf1 p4 #age4  #dci ,h\zeau1          
,bibliographie ,gnrale de l',a/ronomie1 
vol4 i41 ,introduction1 p4 #abi4  #ddj  
,engli% ,me*anic1 ,m>* #be1 #aijd1 p4   
#ade4  #dda ,humboldt's ,cosmos1 vol4   
iii4 p4 #ahe1 footnote 7,ott's          
translation74  #ddb ,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1
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 by ,flamm>ion 9 8 "w ,les toiles1 page 
#ecb2 b 8 id5tifications d n agree      
exactly ) m9e4  #ddd ,see ,proctor's    

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,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgh4   
#ddg ,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1 vol4 iv4  #ddh
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#aab4  #ddi ,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #aac4    
#dej ,lal&e's ,a/ronomie1 vol4 i4  #dea 
,w4 ,t4 ,lynn 9 ,! ,obs]vatory1 vol4    
#bb1 p4 #bcf4  #deb ,k1 ,may #a1 #ahhi4 
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,b4,c4  #dec ,! ,obs]vatory1 ,novemb]   
#aijg1 p4 #dab4  #ded ,?is is n1 h[ev]1 
inv>iably ! case1 z po9t$ out by ,mr4   
,d5n+ 9 ,! ,obs]vatory1 #ahhe1 p4 #cdj4 
#dee ,! ,obs]vatory1 vol4 #h 7#ahhe71   
pp4 #bdf-g4  #def ,h>v>d ,college       
,obs]vatory ,annals1 vol4 xlviii4 ,no4  
#e4  #deg ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 vol4 #ae   
7#aijg71 p4 #ebi4  #deh ,cape           
,obs]vations1 p4 #gg4  #dei ,mon?ly     
,notices1 ,r4,a4,s41 ,m>*1 #ahii4  #dfj 
,nature1 ,febru>y #ac1 #ahij4  #dfa     
,popul> ,a/ronomy1 vol4 #ae 7#aijg71 p4 
#ecj4  #dfb ,photographs ( ,/>-,clu/]s &
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,notices1 ,r4,a4,s41 ,may #i1 #ahef4    
#dfd ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 #be    
7#aijg71 p4 #bai4  #dfe ,popul>         
,a/ronomy1 vol4 #aa 7#aijc71 p4 #bic4   
#dff ,translat$ by ,w4 ,h4 ,mallock1    
,nature1 ,febru>y #h1 #aijj1 p4 #ceb4   
#dfg ,h[>d ,payn1 ,nature1 ,may #af1    
#aija1 p4 #ef4  #dfh ,h[>d ,payn1       
,nature1 ,may #af1 #aija1 p4 #ef4  #dfi 
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,obs]vatory1 ,no4 #ca4  #dgj ,quot$ by  
,d5n+ 9 ,telescopic ,"w = ,/>light      
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,a/ronomy1 ,t5? ,edition1 p4 #ega4  #dgc
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#acf4  #dgd ,de ,placitis4 ,quot$ by    
,c>l ,snyd] 9 ,! ,_w ,ma*9e p4 #ced4    
#dge ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 vol4 #ad        
7#aijf71 p4 #fch4  #dgf ,article on ,!  
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,april1 #aijg1 quot$ 9 ,! ,obs]vatory1  
,may1 #aijg4  #dgg ,popul> ,a/ronomy1   
vol4 #ac 7#aije71 p4 #cdf4  #dgh        
,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,a/4 de ,france1   

,april1 #aijh4  #dgi ,! ,obs]vatory1    
vol4 #aa1 p4 #cge4  #dhj ,grant1 ,hi/ory
 ( ,physical ,a/ronomy1 p4 #cfd4  #dha  
,ibid41 p4 #cgg4  #dhb ,ibid41 p4 #cff4 
#dhc ,ibid41 p4 #cfg4  #dhd ,grant1     
,hi/ory ( ,physical ,a/ronomy1 p4 #cgj4 
#dhe ,nature1 ,july #be1 #ahhi4  #dhf   
,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cha4  #dhg        
,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #cha-f4  #dhh     
,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #aba4  #dhi ,!       
,obs]vatory1 vol4 #f 7#ahhc71 pp4       
#cbg-h4  #dij ,nature1 ,june #be1 #ahgd4
  #dia ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 ,may1 #ahie1  
,reflectors or ,refractors4  #dib ,d5n+1
 ,telescopic ,"w = ,/>light ,ev5+s1 p4  
#bbe4  #dic ,nature1 ,novemb] #b1 #ahic4
  #did ,telescopic ,"w1 p4 #bbf4  #die  
,cop]nicus1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbi4  #dif      
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p4 #dcc4  #dig ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4     
#fii4  #dih ,grant1 ,hi/ory ( ,physical 
,a/ronomy1 p4 #ecf1 footnote4  #dii     
,b$=d ,catalogue1 p4 #agi4  #ejj ,!     
,obs]vatory1 ,july1 #ahia4  #eja        
,nature1 ,septemb] #c1 #aijc4  #ejb     

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,ma*9e1 p4 #hj4  #ejd ,ibid41 p4 #hi4   
#eje ,grant1 ,hi/ory ( ,physical        
,a/ronomy1 p4 #ajg4  #ejf ,grant1       
,hi/ory ( ,physical ,a/ronomy1 p4 #aac4 
#ejg ,nature1 ,augu/ #aa1 #ahih4  #ejh  
,ibid41 ,augu/ #ah1 #ahih4  #eji ,ibid41
 ,octob] #bj1 #ahih4  #eaj ,!           
,obs]vatory1 vol4 iv4 7#ahha71 p4 #bcd4 
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#eac ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal1 vol4 #f1    
#ahig1 p4 #cjd4  #ead ,cele/ial ,cycle1 
p4 #cfg4  #eae ,! ,obs]vatory1 vol4 #e  
7#ahhb71 p4 #bea4  #eaf ,quot$ by       
,humboldt 9 ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fif1  
footnote4  #eag ,quot$ by ,d5n+ 9       
,telescopic ,"w1 p4 #cdg4  #eah ,k1     
,febru>y #bj1 #ahhe1 p4 #adi4  #eai     
,humboldt's ,cosmos1 vol4 i4 p4 #abc4   
#ebj ,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy1 p>4 #cai2    
edition ( #ahge4  #eba ,bullet9 de la   
,soc4 ,a/4 de ,france1 ,m>*1 #aijh1 p4  
#adf4  #ebb ,an a/ronomical unit is !   

sun's mean di/ance f ! e>?4  #ebc ,?is  
is on ! ,am]ican & ,fr5* sy/em (        
notation1 b on ! ,engli% sy/em1 #ajff   
#ajfj  #ajf w\ld be a million decillion4
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,pacific1 ,april1 #aiji 7,no4 #abe71 &  
,popul> ,a/ronomy1 ,may1 #aiji4  #ebe   
,nature1 ,july #bb1 #aiji4  #ebf ,ibid4 
#ebg ,! ,obs]vatory1 vol4 #i 7,decemb]1 
#ahhf71 p4 #chi4  #ebh ,de ,nat4        
,deorum1 quot$ 9 ,smy?'s ,cycle1 p4 #ai4
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#ecj ,m ,worlds ?an ,ours1 p4 #ag4  #eca
 ,man's ,place 9 ,nature4               
,transcrib]'s ,notes3  ,passages 9      
italics are indicat$ by italics4        
,sup]script$ *>act]s are indicat$ by    
sup]script4  ,subscript$ *>act]s are    
indicat$ by subscript4  ,! orig9al text 
includes ,greek *>act]s4 ,= ?is text    
v]sion ^! lett]s h be5 replac$ )        
translit]ations4  ,foonote #dh appe>s on
 page #bh ( ! text1 b !re is no         
correspond+ m>k] on ! page4  ,foonote   
#ddh appe>s on page #bie ( ! text1 b !re

 is no correspond+ m>k] on ! page4