99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,inconsistent hyphenation in the original document has been preserved4 ,obvious typographical errors have been corrected4 ,for a complete list1 please see the end of this document4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 99 99 99 99 99 #be ,,cents ,,socialism ,,utopian ,,and ,,scientific ,by ,frederick ,engels ,illustration3 ,labor ,,charles ,h4 ,,kerr ,,company ,publishers ,,chicago ,,printed ,,in ,u4,s4,a4 ,,socialism ,,utopian ,,and ,,scientific ,,by ,,frederick ,,engels ,,translated ,,by ,,edward ,,aveling ,d4,sc41 ,fellow of ,university ,college1 ,london ,,with ,a ,,special ,,introduction ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,chicago ,,charles ,h4 ,,kerr ,,company ,,publisher',s ,,note ,socialism1 ,utopian and ,scientific needs no preface4 ,it ranks with the ,communist ,manifesto as one of the indispensable books for any one desiring to understand the modern socialist movement4 ,it has been translated into every language where capitalism prevails1 and its circulation is more rapid than ever before4 ,in #aijj1 when our publishing house had just begun the circulation of socialist books1 we brought out the first ,american reprint of the authorized translation of this work4 ,the many editions required by the growing demand have worn out the plates1 and we are now reprinting it in more attractive form4 ,it will be observed that the author in his introduction says that from #ahhc to #ahib1 #bj1jjj copies of the book were sold in ,germany4 ,our own sales of the book in ,america from #aijj to #aijh were not less than #cj1jjj4 ,last year we published the first ,english version of the larger work to which the author refers in the opening page of his introduction4 ,the translation is by ,austin ,lewis1 and bears the title ,landmarks of ,scientific ,socialism 7cloth1 #a4jj74 ,it includes the greater portion of the original work1 omitting what is presented here1 and also some of the personalities due to the heat of controversy4 ,frederick ,engels is second only to ,karl ,marx among socialist writers1 and his influence in the ,united ,states is only beginning4 ,c4,h4,k4 ,june1 #aijh4 ,,introduction ,the present little book is1 originally1 a part of a larger whole4 ,about #ahge1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,duehring1 privatdocent at ,berlin ,university1 suddenly and rather clamorously announced his conversion to ,socialism1 and presented the ,german public not only with an elaborate ,socialist theory1 but also with a complete practical plan for the reorganization of society4 ,as a matter of course1 he fell foul of his predecessors2 above all1 he honored ,marx by pouring out upon him the full vials of his wrath4 ,this took place about the time when the two sections of the ,socialist party in ,germany--,eisenachers and ,lassallians--had just effected their fusion1 and thus obtained not only an immense increase of strength1 but1 what was more1 the faculty of employing the whole of this strength against the common enemy4 ,the ,socialist party in ,germany was fast becoming a power4 ,but to make it a power1 the first condition was that the newly-conquered unity should not be imperiled4 ,and ,dr4 ,duehring openly proceeded to form around himself a sect1 the nucleus of a future separate party4 ,it thus became necessary to take up the gauntlet thrown down to us1 and to fight out the struggle whether we liked it or not4 ,this1 however1 though it might not be an over difficult1 was evidently a long-winded1 business4 ,as is well known1 we ,germans are of a terribly ponderous ,gruendlichkeit1 radical profundity or profound radicality1 whatever you may like to call it4 ,whenever anyone of us expounds what he considers a new doctrine1 he has first to elaborate it into an all-comprising system4 ,he has to prove that both the first principles of logic and the fundamental laws of the universe had existed from all eternity for no other purpose than to ultimately lead to this newly-discovered1 crowning theory4 ,and ,dr4 ,duehring1 in this respect1 was quite up to the national mark4 ,nothing less than a complete ,system of ,philosophy1 mental1 moral1 natural1 and historical2 a complete ,system of ,political ,economy and ,socialism2 and1 finally1 a ,critical ,history of ,political ,economy--three big volumes in octavo1 heavy extrinsically and intrinsically1 three army-corps of arguments mobilized against all previous philosophers and economists in general1 and against ,marx in particular--in fact1 an attempt at a complete revolution in science--these were what ,i should have to tackle4 ,i had to treat of all and every possible subject1 from the concepts of time and space to ,bimetallism2 from the eternity of matter and motion to the perishable nature of moral ideas2 from ,darwin's natural selection to the education of youth in a future society4 ,anyhow1 the systematic comprehensiveness of my opponent gave me the opportunity of developing1 in opposition to him1 and in a more connected form than had previously been done1 the views held by ,marx and myself on this great variety of subjects4 ,and that was the principal reason which made me undertake this otherwise ungrateful task4 ,my reply was first published in a series of articles in the ,leipzig ,vorwaerts1 the chief organ of the ,socialist party1 and later on as a book3 ,herrn ,eugen ,duehring's ,umwaelzung der ,wissenschaft 7,mr4 ,e4 ,duehring's ,revolution in ,science71 a second edition of which appeared in ,zuerich1 #ahhf4 ,at the request of my friend1 ,paul ,lafargue1 now representative of ,lille in the ,french ,chamber of ,deputies1 ,i arranged three chapters of this book as a pamphlet1 which he translated and published in #ahhj1 under the title3 ,socialisme utopique et ,socialisme scientifique4 ,from this ,french text a ,polish and a ,spanish edition were prepared4 ,in #ahhc1 our ,german friends brought out the pamphlet in the original language4 ,italian1 ,russian1 ,danish1 ,dutch1 and ,roumanian translations1 based upon the ,german text1 have since been published4 ,thus1 with the present ,english edition1 this little book circulates in ten languages4 ,i am not aware that any other ,socialist work1 not even our ,communist ,manifesto of #ahdh or ,marx's ,capital1 has been so often translated4 ,in ,germany it has had four editions of about #bj1jjj copies in all4 ,the economic terms used in this work1 as far as they are new1 agree with those used in the ,english edition of ,marx's ,capital4 ,we call production of commodities that economic phase where articles are produced not only for the use of the producers1 but also for purposes of exchange2 that is1 as commodities1 not as use-values4 ,this phase extends from the first beginnings of production for exchange down to our present time2 it attains its full development under capitalist production only1 that is1 under conditions where the capitalist1 the owner of the means of production1 employs1 for wages1 laborers1 people deprived of all means of production except their own labor-power1 and pockets the excess of the selling price of the products over his outlay4 ,we divide the history of industrial production since the ,middle ,ages into three periods3 7#a7 handicraft1 small master craftsmen with a few journeymen and apprentices1 where each laborer produces the complete article2 7#b7 manufacture1 where greater numbers of workmen1 grouped in one large establishment1 produce the complete article on the principle of division of labor1 each workman performing only one partial operation1 so that the product is complete only after having passed successively through the hands of all2 7#c7 modern industry1 where the product is produced by machinery driven by power1 and where the work of the laborer is limited to superintending and correcting the performances of the mechanical agent4 ,i am perfectly aware that the contents of this work will meet with objection from a considerable portion of the ,british public4 ,but if we ,continentals had taken the slightest notice of the prejudices of ,british respectability1 we should be even worse off than we are4 ,this book defends what we call historical materialism1 and the word materialism grates upon the ears of the immense majority of ,british readers4 ,agnosticism might be tolerated1 but materialism is utterly inadmissible4 ,and yet the original home of all modern materialism1 from the seventeenth century onwards1 is ,england4 ,materialism is the natural-born son of ,great ,britain4 ,already the ,british schoolman1 ,duns ,scotus1 asked1 'whether it was impossible for matter to think8' ,in order to effect this miracle1 he took refuge in ,god's omnipotence1 i4e41 he made theology preach materialism4 ,moreover1 he was a nominalist4 ,nominalism1 the first form of materialism1 is chiefly found among the ,english schoolmen4 ,the real progenitor of ,english materialism is ,bacon4 ,to him natural philosophy is the only true philosophy1 and physics based upon the experience of the senses is the chiefest part of natural philosophy4 ,anaxagoras and his homoiomeriae1 ,democritus and his atoms1 he often quotes as his authorities4 ,according to him the senses are infallible and the source of all knowledge4 ,all science is based on experience1 and consists in subjecting the data furnished by the senses to a rational method of investigation4 ,induction1 analysis1 comparison1 observation1 experiment1 are the principal forms of such a rational method4 ,among the qualities inherent in matter1 motion is the first and foremost1 not only in the form of mechanical and mathematical motion1 but chiefly in the form of an impulse1 a vital spirit1 a tension--or a 'qual1' to use a term of ,jacob ,boehme's,a--of matter4 ,in ,bacon1 its first creator1 materialism still occludes within itself the germs of a many-sided development4 ,on the one hand1 matter1 surrounded by a sensuous1 poetic glamour1 seems to attract man's whole entity by winning smiles4 ,on the other1 the aphoristically formulated doctrine pullulates with inconsistencies imported from theology4 ,in its further evolution1 materialism becomes one-sided4 ,hobbes is the man who systematizes ,baconian materialism4 ,knowledge based upon the senses loses its poetic blossom1 it passes into the abstract experience of the mathematician2 geometry is proclaimed as the queen of sciences4 ,materialism takes to misanthropy4 ,if it is to overcome its opponent1 misanthropic1 fleshless spiritualism1 and that on the latter's own ground1 materialism has to chastise its own flesh and turn ascetic4 ,thus1 from a sensual1 it passes into an intellectual1 entity2 but thus1 too1 it evolves all the consistency1 regardless of consequences1 characteristic of the intellect4 ,hobbes1 as ,bacon's continuator1 argues thus3 if all human knowledge is furnished by the senses1 then our concepts and ideas are but the phantoms1 divested of their sensual forms1 of the real world4 ,philosophy can but give names to these phantoms4 ,one name may be applied to more than one of them4 ,there may even be names of names4 ,it would imply a contradiction if1 on the one hand1 we maintained that all ideas had their origin in the world of sensation1 and1 on the other1 that a word was more than a word2 that besides the beings known to us by our senses1 beings which are one and all individuals1 there existed also beings of a general1 not individual1 nature4 ,an unbodily substance is the same absurdity as an unbodily body4 ,body1 being1 substance1 are but different terms for the same reality4 ,it is impossible to separate thought from matter that thinks4 ,this matter is the substratum of all changes going on in the world4 ,the word infinite is meaningless1 unless it states that our mind is capable of performing an endless process of addition4 ,only material things being perceptible to us1 we cannot know anything about the existence of ,god4 ,my own existence alone is certain4 ,every human passion is a mechanical movement which has a beginning and an end4 ,the objects of impulse are what we call good4 ,man is subject to the same laws as nature4 ,power and freedom are identical4 ,hobbes had systematized ,bacon1 without1 however1 furnishing a proof for ,bacon's fundamental principle1 the origin of all human knowledge from the world of sensation4 ,it was ,locke who1 in his ,essay on the ,human ,understanding1 supplied this proof4 ,hobbes had shattered the theistic prejudices of ,baconian materialism2 ,collins1 ,dodwall1 ,coward1 ,hartley1 ,priestley similarly shattered the last theological bars that still hemmed-in ,locke's sensationalism4 ,at all events1 for practical materialists1 ,theism is but an easy-going way of getting rid of religion4,b ,thus ,karl ,marx wrote about the ,british origin of modern materialism4 ,if ,englishmen nowadays do not exactly relish the compliment he paid their ancestors1 more's the pity4 ,it is none the less undeniable that ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 and ,locke are the fathers of that brilliant school of ,french materialists which made the eighteenth century1 in spite of all battles on land and sea won over ,frenchmen by ,germans and ,englishmen1 a pre-eminently ,french century1 even before that crowning ,french ,revolution1 the results of which we outsiders1 in ,england as well as in ,germany1 are still trying to acclimatize4 ,there is no denying it4 ,about the middle of this century1 what struck every cultivated foreigner who set up his residence in ,england1 was1 what he was then bound to consider the religious bigotry and stupidity of the ,english respectable middle-class4 ,we1 at that time1 were all materialists1 or1 at least1 very advanced freethinkers1 and to us it appeared inconceivable that almost all educated people in ,england should believe in all sorts of impossible miracles1 and that even geologists like ,buckland and ,mantell should contort the facts of their science so as not to clash too much with the myths of the book of ,genesis2 while1 in order to find people who dared to use their own intellectual faculties with regard to religious matters1 you had to go amongst the uneducated1 the great unwashed1 as they were then called1 the working people1 especially the ,owenite ,socialists4 ,but ,england has been civilized since then4 ,the exhibition of #ahea sounded the knell of ,english insular exclusiveness4 ,england became gradually internationalized1 in diet1 in manners1 in ideas2 so much so that ,i begin to wish that some ,english manners and customs had made as much headway on the ,continent as other continental habits have made here4 ,anyhow1 the introduction and spread of salad-oil 7before #ahea known only to the aristocracy7 has been accompanied by a fatal spread of continental scepticism in matters religious1 and it has come to this1 that agnosticism1 though not yet considered the thing quite as much as the ,church of ,england1 is yet very nearly on a par1 as far as respectability goes1 with ,baptism1 and decidedly ranks above the ,salvation ,army4 ,and ,i cannot help believing that under these circumstances it will be consoling to many who sincerely regret and condemn this progress of infidelity1 to learn that these new-fangled notions are not of foreign origin1 are not made in ,germany1 like so many other articles of daily use1 but are undoubtedly ,old ,english1 and that their ,british originators two hundred years ago went a good deal further than their descendants now dare to venture4 ,what1 indeed1 is agnosticism1 but1 to use an expressive ,lancashire term1 shamefaced materialism8 ,the agnostic's conception of ,nature is materialistic throughout4 ,the entire natural world is governed by law1 and absolutely excludes the intervention of action from without4 ,but1 he adds1 we have no means either of ascertaining or of disproving the existence of some ,supreme ,being beyond the known universe4 ,now1 this might hold good at the time when ,laplace1 to ,napoleon's question1 why in the great astronomer's ,mecanique celeste the ,creator was not even mentioned1 proudly replied3 ,je n'avais pas besoin de cette hypothese4 ,but nowadays1 in our evolutionary conception of the universe1 there is absolutely no room for either a ,creator or a ,ruler2 and to talk of a ,supreme ,being shut out from the whole existing world1 implies a contradiction in terms1 and1 as it seems to me1 a gratuitous insult to the feelings of religious people4 ,again1 our agnostic admits that all our knowledge is based upon the information imparted to us by our senses4 ,but1 he adds1 how do we know that our senses give us correct representations of the objects we perceive through them8 ,and he proceeds to inform us that1 whenever he speaks of objects or their qualities1 he does in reality not mean these objects and qualities1 of which he cannot know anything for certain1 but merely the impressions which they have produced on his senses4 ,now1 this line of reasoning seems undoubtedly hard to beat by mere argumentation4 ,but before there was argumentation1 there was action4 ,im ,anfang war die ,that4 ,and human action had solved the difficulty long before human ingenuity invented it4 ,the proof of the pudding is in the eating4 ,from the moment we turn to our own use these objects1 according to the qualities we perceive in them1 we put to an infallible test the correctness or otherwise of our sense-perceptions4 ,if these perceptions have been wrong1 then our estimate of the use to which an object can be turned must also be wrong1 and our attempt must fail4 ,but if we succeed in accomplishing our aim1 if we find that the object does agree with our idea of it1 and does answer the purpose we intended it for1 then that is positive proof that our perceptions of it and of its qualities1 so far1 agree with reality outside ourselves4 ,and whenever we find ourselves face to face with a failure1 then we generally are not long in making out the cause that made us fail2 we find that the perception upon which we acted was either incomplete and superficial1 or combined with the results of other perceptions in a way not warranted by them--what we call defective reasoning4 ,so long as we take care to train and to use our senses properly1 and to keep our action within the limits prescribed by perceptions properly made and properly used1 so long we shall find that the result of our action proves the conformity of our perceptions with the objective nature of the things perceived4 ,not in one single instance1 so far1 have we been led to the conclusion that our sense-perceptions1 scientifically controlled1 induce in our minds ideas respecting the outer world that are1 by their very nature1 at variance with reality1 or that there is an inherent incompatibility between the outer world and our sense-perceptions of it4 ,but then come the ,neo-,kantian agnostics and say3 ,we may correctly perceive the qualities of a thing1 but we cannot by any sensible or mental process grasp the thing in itself4 ,this thing in itself is beyond our ken4 ,to this ,hegel1 long since1 has replied3 ,if you know all the qualities of a thing1 you know the thing itself2 nothing remains but the fact that the said thing exists without us2 and when your senses have taught you that fact1 you have grasped the last remnant of the thing in itself1 ,kant's celebrated unknowable ,ding an sich4 ,to which it may be added1 that in ,kant's time our knowledge of natural objects was indeed so fragmentary that he might well suspect1 behind the little we knew about each of them1 a mysterious thing in itself4 ,but one after another these ungraspable things have been grasped1 analyzed1 and1 what is more1 reproduced by the giant progress of science2 and what we can produce1 we certainly cannot consider as unknowable4 ,to the chemistry of the first half of this century organic substances were such mysterious objects2 now1 we learn to build them up one after another from their chemical elements without the aid of organic processes4 ,modern chemists declare that as soon as the chemical constitution of no matter what body is known1 it can be built up from its elements4 ,we are still far from knowing the constitution of the highest organic substances1 the albuminous bodies2 but there is no reason why we should not1 if only after centuries1 arrive at that knowledge and1 armed with it1 produce artificial albumen4 ,but if we arrive at that1 we shall at the same time have produced organic life1 for life1 from its lowest to its highest forms1 is but the normal mode of existence of albuminous bodies4 ,as soon1 however1 as our agnostic has made these formal mental reservations1 he talks and acts as the rank materialist he at bottom is4 ,he may say that1 as far as we know1 matter and motion1 or as it is now called1 energy1 can neither be created nor destroyed1 but that we have no proof of their not having been created at some time or other4 ,but if you try to use this admission against him in any particular case1 he will quickly put you out of court4 ,if he admits the possibility of spiritualism in abstracto1 he will have none of it in concreto4 ,as far as we know and can know1 he will tell you there is no ,creator and no ,ruler of the universe2 as far as we are concerned1 matter and energy can neither be created nor annihilated2 for us1 mind is a mode of energy1 a function of the brain2 all we know is that the material world is governed by immutable laws1 and so forth4 ,thus1 as far as he is a scientific man1 as far as he knows anything1 he is a materialist2 outside his science1 in spheres about which he knows nothing1 he translates his ignorance into ,greek and calls it agnosticism4 ,at all events1 one thing seems clear3 even if ,i was an agnostic1 it is evident that ,i could not describe the conception of history sketched out in this little book1 as historical agnosticism4 ,religious people would laugh at me1 agnostics would indignantly ask1 was ,i going to make fun of them8 ,and thus ,i hope even ,british respectability will not be overshocked if ,i use1 in ,english as well as in so many other languages1 the term1 historical materialism1 to designate that view of the course of history1 which seeks the ultimate cause and the great moving power of all important historic events in the economic development of society1 in the changes in the modes of production and exchange1 in the consequent division of society into distinct classes1 and in the struggles of these classes against one another4 ,this indulgence will perhaps be accorded to me all the sooner if ,i show that historical materialism may be of advantage even to ,british respectability4 ,i have mentioned the fact1 that about forty or fifty years ago1 any cultivated foreigner settling in ,england was struck by what he was then bound to consider the religious bigotry and stupidity of the ,english respectable middle-class4 ,i am now going to prove that the respectable ,english middle-class of that time was not quite as stupid as it looked to the intelligent foreigner4 ,its religious leanings can be explained4 ,when ,europe emerged from the ,middle ,ages1 the rising middle-class of the towns constituted its revolutionary element4 ,it had conquered a recognized position within mediaeval feudal organization1 but this position1 also1 had become too narrow for its expansive power4 ,the development of the middle-class1 the bourgeoisie1 became incompatible with the maintenance of the feudal system2 the feudal system1 therefore1 had to fall4 ,but the great international center of feudalism was the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,it united the whole of feudalized ,western ,europe1 in spite of all internal wars1 into one grand political system1 opposed as much to the schismatic ,greeks as to the ,mohammedian countries4 ,it surrounded feudal institutions with the halo of divine consecration4 ,it had organized its own hierarchy on the feudal model1 and1 lastly1 it was itself by far the most powerful feudal lord1 holding1 as it did1 fully one-third of the soil of the ,catholic world4 ,before profane feudalism could be successively attacked in each country and in detail1 this1 its sacred central organization1 had to be destroyed4 ,moreover1 parallel with the rise of the middle-class went on the great revival of science2 astronomy1 mechanics1 physics1 anatomy1 physiology1 were again cultivated4 ,and the bourgeoisie1 for the development of its industrial production1 required a science which ascertained the physical properties of natural objects and the modes of action of the forces of ,nature4 ,now up to then science had but been the humble handmaid of the ,church1 had not been allowed to overstep the limits set by faith1 and for that reason had been no science at all4 ,science rebelled against the ,church2 the bourgeoisie could not do without science1 and1 therefore1 had to join in the rebellion4 ,the above1 though touching but two of the points where the rising middle-class was bound to come into collision with the established religion1 will be sufficient to show1 first1 that the class most directly interested in the struggle against the pretensions of the ,roman ,church was the bourgeoisie2 and second1 that every struggle against feudalism1 at that time1 had to take on a religious disguise1 had to be directed against the ,church in the first instance4 ,but if the universities and the traders of the cities started the cry1 it was sure to find1 and did find1 a strong echo in the masses of the country people1 the peasants1 who everywhere had to struggle for their very existence with their feudal lords1 spiritual and temporal4 ,the long fight of the bourgeoisie against feudalism culminated in three great1 decisive battles4 ,the first was what is called the ,protestant ,reformation in ,germany4 ,the war-cry raised against the ,church by ,luther was responded to by two insurrections of a political nature3 first1 that of the lower nobility under ,franz von ,sickingen 7#aebc71 then the great ,peasants' ,war1 #aebe4 ,both were defeated1 chiefly in consequence of the indecision of the parties most interested1 the burghers of the towns--an indecision into the causes of which we cannot here enter4 ,from that moment the struggle degenerated into a fight between the local princes and the central power1 and ended by blotting out ,germany1 for two hundred years1 from the politically active nations of ,europe4 ,the ,lutheran reformation produced a new creed indeed1 a religion adapted to absolute monarchy4 ,no sooner were the peasants of ,north-east ,germany converted to ,lutheranism than they were from freemen reduced to serfs4 ,but where ,luther failed1 ,calvin won the day4 ,calvin's creed was one fit for the boldest of the bourgeoisie of his time4 ,his predestination doctrine was the religious expression of the fact that in the commercial world of competition success or failure does not depend upon a man's activity or cleverness1 but upon circumstances uncontrollable by him4 ,it is not of him that willeth or of him that runneth1 but of the mercy of unknown superior economic powers3 and this was especially true at a period of economic revolution1 when all old commercial routes and centers were replaced by new ones1 when ,india and ,america were opened to the world1 and when even the most sacred economic articles of faith--the value of gold and silver--began to totter and to break down4 ,calvin's church constitution was thoroughly democratic and republican2 and where the kingdom of ,god was republicanized1 could the kingdoms of this world remain subject to monarchs1 bishops1 and lords8 ,while ,german ,lutheranism became a willing tool in the hands of princes1 ,calvinism founded a republic in ,holland1 and active republican parties in ,england1 and1 above all1 ,scotland4 ,in ,calvinism1 the second great bourgeois upheaval found its doctrine ready cut and dried4 ,this upheaval took place in ,england4 ,the middle-class of the towns brought it on1 and the yeomanry of the country districts fought it out4 ,curiously enough1 in all the three great bourgeois risings1 the peasantry furnishes the army that has to do the fighting2 and the peasantry is just the class that1 the victory once gained1 is most surely ruined by the economic consequences of that victory4 ,a hundred years after ,cromwell1 the yeomanry of ,england had almost disappeared4 ,anyhow1 had it not been for that yeomanry and for the plebeian element in the towns1 the bourgeoisie alone would never have fought the matter out to the bitter end1 and would never have brought ,charles ,i4 to the scaffold4 ,in order to secure even those conquests of the bourgeoisie that were ripe for gathering at the time1 the revolution had to be carried considerably further--exactly as in #agic in ,france and #ahdh in ,germany4 ,this seems1 in fact1 to be one of the laws of evolution of bourgeois society4 ,well1 upon this excess of revolutionary activity there necessarily followed the inevitable reaction which in its turn went beyond the point where it might have maintained itself4 ,after a series of oscillations1 the new center of gravity was at last attained and became a new starting-point4 ,the grand period of ,english history1 known to respectability under the name of the ,great ,rebellion1 and the struggles succeeding it1 were brought to a close by the comparatively puny event entitled by ,liberal historians1 the ,glorious ,revolution4 ,the new starting-point was a compromise between the rising middle-class and the ex-feudal landowners4 ,the latter1 though called1 as now1 the aristocracy1 had been long since on the way which led them to become what ,louis ,philippe in ,france became at a much later period1 the first bourgeois of the kingdom4 ,fortunately for ,england1 the old feudal barons had killed one another during the ,wars of the ,roses4 ,their successors1 though mostly scions of the old families1 had been so much out of the direct line of descent that they constituted quite a new body1 with habits and tendencies far more bourgeois than feudal4 ,they fully understood the value of money1 and at once began to increase their rents by turning hundreds of small farmers out and replacing them by sheep4 ,henry ,,viii41 while squandering the ,church lands1 created fresh bourgeois landlords by wholesale2 the innumerable confiscations of estates1 regranted to absolute or relative upstarts1 and continued during the whole of the seventeenth century1 had the same result4 ,consequently1 ever since ,henry ,,vii41 the ,english aristocracy1 far from counteracting the development of industrial production1 had1 on the contrary1 sought to indirectly profit thereby2 and there had always been a section of the great landowners willing1 from economical or political reasons1 to co-operate with the leading men of the financial and industrial bourgeoisie4 ,the compromise of #afhi was1 therefore1 easily accomplished4 ,the political spoils of pelf and place were left to the great land-owning families1 provided the economic interests of the financial1 manufacturing1 and commercial middle-class were sufficiently attended to4 ,and these economic interests were at that time powerful enough to determine the general policy of the nation4 ,there might be squabbles about matters of detail1 but1 on the whole1 the aristocratic oligarchy knew too well that its own economic prosperity was irretrievably bound up with that of the industrial and commercial middle-class4 ,from that time1 the bourgeoisie was a humble1 but still a recognized component of the ruling classes of ,england4 ,with the rest of them1 it had a common interest in keeping in subjection the great working mass of the nation4 ,the merchant or manufacturer himself stood in the position of master1 or1 as it was until lately called1 of natural superior to his clerks1 his workpeople1 his domestic servants4 ,his interest was to get as much and as good work out of them as he could2 for this end they had to be trained to proper submission4 ,he was himself religious2 his religion had supplied the standard under which he had fought the king and the lords2 he was not long in discovering the opportunities this same religion offered him for working upon the minds of his natural inferiors1 and making them submissive to the behests of the masters it had pleased ,god to place over them4 ,in short1 the ,english bourgeoisie now had to take a part in keeping down the lower orders1 the great producing mass of the nation1 and one of the means employed for that purpose was the influence of religion4 ,there was another fact that contributed to strengthen the religious leanings of the bourgeoisie4 ,that was the rise of materialism in ,england4 ,this new doctrine not only shocked the pious feelings of the middle-class2 it announced itself as a philosophy only fit for scholars and cultivated men of the world1 in contrast to religion which was good enough for the uneducated masses1 including the bourgeoisie4 ,with ,hobbes it stepped on the stage as a defender of royal prerogative and omnipotence2 it called upon absolute monarchy to keep down that puer robustus sed malitiosus1 to wit1 the people4 ,similarly1 with the successors of ,hobbes1 with ,bolingbroke1 ,shaftesbury1 etc41 the new deistic form of materialism remained an aristocratic1 esoteric doctrine1 and1 therefore1 hateful to the middle-class both for its religious heresy and for its anti-bourgeois political connections4 ,accordingly1 in opposition to the materialism and deism of the aristocracy1 those ,protestant sects which had furnished the flag and the fighting contingent against the ,stuarts1 continued to furnish the main strength of the progressive middle-class1 and form even to-day the backbone of the ,great ,liberal ,party4 ,in the meantime materialism passed from ,england to ,france1 where it met and coalesced with another materialistic school of philosophers1 a branch of ,cartesianism4 ,in ,france1 too1 it remained at first an exclusively aristocratic doctrine4 ,but soon its revolutionary character asserted itself4 ,the ,french materialists did not limit their criticism to matters of religious belief2 they extended it to whatever scientific tradition or political institution they met with2 and to prove the claim of their doctrine to universal application1 they took the shortest cut1 and boldly applied it to all subjects of knowledge in the giant work after which they were named--the ,encyclopedie4 ,thus1 in one or the other of its two forms--avowed materialism or deism--it became the creed of the whole cultured youth of ,france2 so much so that1 when the great ,revolution broke out1 the doctrine hatched by ,english ,royalists gave a theoretical flag to ,french ,republicans and ,terrorists1 and furnished the text for the ,declaration of the ,rights of ,man4 ,the great ,french ,revolution was the third uprising of the bourgeoisie1 but the first that had entirely cast off the religious cloak1 and was fought out on undisguised political lines2 it was the first1 too1 that was really fought out to the destruction of one of the combatants1 the aristocracy1 and the complete triumph of the other1 the bourgeoisie4 ,in ,england the continuity of pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary institutions1 and the compromise between landlords and capitalists1 found its expression in the continuity of judicial precedents and in the religious preservation of the feudal forms of the law4 ,in ,france the ,revolution constituted a complete breach with the traditions of the past2 it cleared out the very last vestiges of feudalism1 and created in the ,code ,civil a masterly adaptation of the old ,roman law--that almost perfect expression of the juridical relations corresponding to the economic stage called by ,marx the production of commodities--to modern capitalistic conditions2 so masterly that this ,french revolutionary code still serves as a model for reforms of the law of property in all other countries1 not excepting ,england4 ,let us1 however1 not forget that if ,english law continues to express the economic relations of capitalistic society in that barbarous feudal language which corresponds to the thing expressed1 just as ,english spelling corresponds to ,english pronunciation--vous ecrivez ,londres et vous prononcez ,constantinople1 said a ,frenchman--that same ,english law is the only one which has preserved through ages1 and transmitted to ,america and the ,colonies the best part of that old ,germanic personal freedom1 local self-government1 and independence from all interference but that of the law courts1 which on the ,continent has been lost during the period of absolute monarchy1 and has nowhere been as yet fully recovered4 ,to return to our ,british bourgeois4 ,the ,french ,revolution gave him a splendid opportunity1 with the help of the ,continental monarchies1 to destroy ,french maritime commerce1 to annex ,french colonies1 and to crush the last ,french pretensions to maritime rivalry4 ,that was one reason why he fought it4 ,another was that the ways of this revolution went very much against his grain4 ,not only its execrable terrorism1 but the very attempt to carry bourgeois rule to extremes4 ,what should the ,british bourgeois do without his aristocracy1 that taught him manners1 such as they were1 and invented fashions for him--that furnished officers for the army1 which kept order at home1 and the navy1 which conquered colonial possessions and new markets abroad8 ,there was indeed a progressive minority of the bourgeoisie1 that minority whose interests were not so well attended to under the compromise2 this section1 composed chiefly of the less wealthy middle-class1 did sympathize with the ,revolution1 but it was powerless in ,parliament4 ,thus1 if materialism became the creed of the ,french ,revolution1 the ,god-fearing ,english bourgeois held all the faster to his religion4 ,had not the reign of terror in ,paris proved what was the upshot1 if the religious instincts of the masses were lost8 ,the more materialism spread from ,france to neighboring countries1 and was reinforced by similar doctrinal currents1 notably by ,german philosophy1 the more1 in fact1 materialism and freethought generally became1 on the ,continent1 the necessary qualifications of a cultivated man1 the more stubbornly the ,english middle-class stuck to its manifold religious creeds4 ,these creeds might differ from one another1 but they were1 all of them1 distinctly religious1 ,christian creeds4 ,while the ,revolution ensured the political triumph of the bourgeoisie in ,france1 in ,england ,watt1 ,arkwright1 ,cartwright1 and others1 initiated an industrial revolution1 which completely shifted the center of gravity of economic power4 ,the wealth of the bourgeoisie increased considerably faster than that of the landed aristocracy4 ,within the bourgeoisie itself1 the financial aristocracy1 the bankers1 etc41 were more and more pushed into the background by the manufacturers4 ,the compromise of #afhi1 even after the gradual changes it had undergone in favor of the bourgeoisie1 no longer corresponded to the relative position of the parties to it4 ,the character of these parties1 too1 had changed2 the bourgeoisie of #ahcj was very different from that of the preceding century4 ,the political power still left to the aristocracy1 and used by them to resist the pretensions of the new industrial bourgeoisie1 became incompatible with the new economic interests4 ,a fresh struggle with the aristocracy was necessary2 it could end only in a victory of the new economic power4 ,first1 the ,reform ,act was pushed through1 in spite of all resistance1 under the impulse of the ,french ,revolution of #ahcj4 ,it gave to the bourgeoisie a recognized and powerful place in ,parliament4 ,then the ,repeal of the ,corn ,laws1 which settled1 once for all1 the supremacy of the bourgeoisie1 and especially of its most active portion1 the manufacturers1 over the landed aristocracy4 ,this was the greatest victory of the bourgeoisie2 it was1 however1 also the last it gained in its own1 exclusive interest4 ,whatever triumphs it obtained later on1 it had to share with a new social power1 first its ally1 but soon its rival4 ,the industrial revolution had created a class of large manufacturing capitalists1 but also a class--and a far more numerous one--of manufacturing work-people4 ,this class gradually increased in numbers1 in proportion as the industrial revolution seized upon one branch of manufacture after another1 and in the same proportion it increased in power4 ,this power it proved as early as #ahbd1 by forcing a reluctant ,parliament to repeal the acts forbidding combinations of workmen4 ,during the ,reform agitation1 the working-men constituted the ,radical wing of the ,reform party2 the ,act of #ahcb having excluded them from the suffrage1 they formulated their demands in the ,people's ,charter1 and constituted themselves1 in opposition to the great bourgeois ,anti-,corn ,law party1 into an independent party1 the ,chartists1 the first working-men's party of modern times4 ,then came the ,continental revolutions of ,february and ,march1 #ahdh1 in which the working people played such a prominent part1 and1 at least in ,paris1 put forward demands which were certainly inadmissible from the point of view of capitalistic society4 ,and then came the general reaction4 ,first the defeat of the ,chartists on the #ajth ,april1 #ahdh1 then the crushing of the ,paris working-men's insurrection in ,june of the same year1 then the disasters of #ahdi in ,italy1 ,hungary1 ,south ,germany1 and at last the victory of ,louis ,bonaparte over ,paris1 #bnd ,december1 #ahea4 ,for a time1 at least1 the bugbear of working-class pretensions was put down1 but at what cost6 ,if the ,british bourgeois had been convinced before of the necessity of maintaining the common people in a religious mood1 how much more must he feel that necessity after all these experiences8 ,regardless of the sneers of his ,continental compeers1 he continued to spend thousands and tens of thousands1 year after year1 upon the evangelization of the lower orders2 not content with his own native religious machinery1 he appealed to ,brother ,jonathan1 the greatest organizer in existence of religion as a trade1 and imported from ,america revivalism1 ,moody and ,sankey1 and the like2 and1 finally1 he accepted the dangerous aid of the ,salvation ,army1 which revives the propaganda of early ,christianity1 appeals to the poor as the elect1 fights capitalism in a religious way1 and thus fosters an element of early ,christian class antagonism1 which one day may become troublesome to the well-to-do people who now find the ready money for it4 ,it seems a law of historical development that the bourgeoisie can in no ,european country get hold of political power--at least for any length of time--in the same exclusive way in which the feudal aristocracy kept hold of it during the ,middle ,ages4 ,even in ,france1 where feudalism was completely extinguished1 the bourgeoisie1 as a whole1 has held full possession of the ,government for very short periods only4 ,during ,louis ,philippe's reign1 #ahcj-dh1 a very small portion of the bourgeoisie ruled the kingdom2 by far the larger part were excluded from the suffrage by the high qualification4 ,under the second ,republic1 #ahdh-ea1 the whole bourgeoisie ruled1 but for three years only2 their incapacity brought on the second ,empire4 ,it is only now1 in the third ,republic1 that the bourgeoisie as a whole have kept possession of the helm for more than twenty years2 and they are already showing lively signs of decadence4 ,a durable reign of the bourgeoisie has been possible only in countries like ,america1 where feudalism was unknown1 and society at the very beginning started from a bourgeois basis4 ,and even in ,france and ,america1 the successors of the bourgeoisie1 the working people1 are already knocking at the door4 ,in ,england1 the bourgeoisie never held undivided sway4 ,even the victory of #ahcb left the landed aristocracy in almost exclusive possession of all the leading ,government offices4 ,the meekness with which the wealthy middle-class submitted to this1 remained inconceivable to me until the great ,liberal manufacturer1 ,mr4 ,w4,a4 ,forster1 in a public speech implored the young men of ,bradford to learn ,french1 as a means to get on in the world1 and quoted from his own experience how sheepish he looked when1 as a ,cabinet ,minister1 he had to move in society where ,french was1 at least1 as necessary as ,english6 ,the fact was1 the ,english middle-class of that time were1 as a rule1 quite uneducated upstarts1 and could not help leaving to the aristocracy those superior ,government places where other qualifications were required than mere insular narrowness and insular conceit1 seasoned by business sharpness4,c ,even now the endless newspaper debates about middle-class education show that the ,english middle-class does not yet consider itself good enough for the best education1 and looks to something more modest4 ,thus1 even after the ,repeal of the ,corn ,laws1 it appeared a matter of course1 that the men who had carried the day1 the ,cobdens1 ,brights1 ,forsters1 etc41 should remain excluded from a share in the official government of the country1 until twenty years afterwards1 a new ,reform ,act opened to them the door of the ,cabinet4 ,the ,english bourgeoisie are1 up to the present day1 so deeply penetrated by a sense of their social inferiority that they keep up1 at their own expense and that of the nation1 an ornamental caste of drones to represent the nation worthily at all ,state functions2 and they consider themselves highly honored whenever one of themselves is found worthy of admission into this select and privileged body1 manufactured1 after all1 by themselves4 ,the industrial and commercial middle-class had1 therefore1 not yet succeeded in driving the landed aristocracy completely from political power when another competitor1 the working-class1 appeared on the stage4 ,the reaction after the ,chartist movement and the ,continental revolutions1 as well as the unparalleled extension of ,english trade from #ahdh-ahff1 7ascribed vulgarly to ,free ,trade alone1 but due far more to the colossal development of railways1 ocean steamers1 and means of intercourse generally71 had again driven the working-class into the dependency of the ,liberal party1 of which they formed1 as in pre-,chartist times1 the ,radical wing4 ,their claims to the franchise1 however1 gradually became irresistible2 while the ,whig leaders of the ,liberals funked1 ,disraeli showed his superiority by making the ,tories seize the favorable moment and introduce household suffrage in the boroughs1 along with a redistribution of seats4 ,then followed the ballot2 then in #ahhd the extension of household suffrage to the counties and a fresh redistribution of seats1 by which electoral districts were to some extent equalized4 ,all these measures considerably increased the electoral power of the working-class1 so much so that in at least #aej to #bjj constituencies that class now furnishes the majority of voters4 ,but parliamentary government is a capital school for teaching respect for tradition2 if the middle-class look with awe and veneration upon what ,lord ,john ,manners playfully called our old nobility1 the mass of the working-people then looked up with respect and deference to what used to be designated as their betters1 the middle-class4 ,indeed1 the ,british workman1 some fifteen years ago1 was the model workman1 whose respectful regard for the position of his master1 and whose self-restraining modesty in claiming rights for himself1 consoled our ,german economists of the ,katheder-,socialist school for the incurable communistic and revolutionary tendencies of their own working-men at home4 ,but the ,english middle-class--the good men of business as they are--saw farther than the ,german professors4 ,they had shared their power but reluctantly with the working-class4 ,they had learnt1 during the ,chartist years1 what that puer robustus sed malitiosus1 the people1 is capable of4 ,and since that time1 they had been compelled to incorporate the better part of the ,people's ,charter in the ,statutes of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,now1 if ever1 the people must be kept in order by moral means1 and the first and foremost of all moral means of action upon the masses is and remains--religion4 ,hence the parsons' majorities on the ,school ,boards1 hence the increasing self-taxation of the bourgeoisie for the support of all sorts of revivalism1 from ritualism to the ,salvation ,army4 ,and now came the triumph of ,british respectability over the freethought and religious laxity of the ,continental bourgeois4 ,the workmen of ,france and ,germany had become rebellious4 ,they were thoroughly infected with socialism1 and1 for very good reasons1 were not at all particular as to the legality of the means by which to secure their own ascendency4 ,the puer robustus1 here1 turned from day to day more malitiosus4 ,nothing remained to the ,french and ,german bourgeoisie as a last resource but to silently drop their freethought1 as a youngster1 when sea-sickness creeps upon him1 quietly drops the burning cigar he brought swaggeringly on board2 one by one1 the scoffers turned pious in outward behavior1 spoke with respect of the ,church1 its dogmas and rites1 and even conformed with the latter as far as could not be helped4 ,french bourgeoisie dined maigre on ,fridays1 and ,german ones sat out long ,protestant sermons in their pews on ,sundays4 ,they had come to grief with materialism4 ,die ,religion muss dem ,volk erhalten werden1--religion must be kept alive for the people--that was the only and the last means to save society from utter ruin4 ,unfortunately for themselves1 they did not find this out until they had done their level best to break up religion for ever4 ,and now it was the turn of the ,british bourgeois to sneer and to say3 ,why1 you fools1 ,i could have told you that two hundred years ago6 ,however1 ,i am afraid neither the religious stolidity of the ,british1 nor the post festum conversion of the ,continental bourgeois will stem the rising ,proletarian tide4 ,tradition is a great retarding force1 is the vis inertiae of history1 but1 being merely passive1 is sure to be broken down2 and thus religion will be no lasting safeguard to capitalist society4 ,if our juridical1 philosophical1 and religious ideas are the more or less remote offshoots of the economical relations prevailing in a given society1 such ideas cannot1 in the long run1 withstand the effects of a complete change in these relations4 ,and1 unless we believe in supernatural revelation1 we must admit that no religious tenets will ever suffice to prop up a tottering society4 ,in fact1 in ,england1 too1 the working-people have begun to move again4 ,they are1 no doubt1 shackled by traditions of various kinds4 ,bourgeois traditions1 such as the widespread belief that there can be but two parties1 ,conservatives and ,liberals1 and that the working-class must work out its salvation by and through the great ,liberal party4 ,working-men's traditions1 inherited from their first tentative efforts at independent action1 such as the exclusion1 from ever so many old ,trade ,unions1 of all applicants who have not gone through a regular apprenticeship2 which means the breeding1 by every such union1 of its own blacklegs4 ,but for all that the ,english working-class is moving1 as even ,professor ,brentano has sorrowfully had to report to his brother ,katheder-,socialists4 ,it moves1 like all things in ,england1 with a slow and measured step1 with hesitation here1 with more or less unfruitful1 tentative attempts there2 it moves now and then with an over-cautious mistrust of the name of ,socialism1 while it gradually absorbs the substance2 and the movement spreads and seizes one layer of the workers after another4 ,it has now shaken out of their torpor the unskilled laborers of the ,east ,end of ,london1 and we all know what a splendid impulse these fresh forces have given it in return4 ,and if the pace of the movement is not up to the impatience of some people1 let them not forget that it is the working-class which keeps alive the finest qualities of the ,english character1 and that1 if a step in advance is once gained in ,england1 it is1 as a rule1 never lost afterwards4 ,if the sons of the old ,chartists1 for reasons explained above1 were not quite up to the mark1 the grandsons bid fair to be worthy of their forefathers4 ,but the triumph of the ,european working-class does not depend upon ,england alone4 ,it can only be secured by the co-operation of1 at least1 ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany4 ,in both the latter countries the working-class movement is well ahead of ,england4 ,in ,germany it is even within measurable distance of success4 ,the progress it has there made during the last twenty-five years is unparalleled4 ,it advances with ever-increasing velocity4 ,if the ,german middle-class have shown themselves lamentably deficient in political capacity1 discipline1 courage1 energy1 and perseverance1 the ,german working-class have given ample proof of all these qualities4 ,four hundred years ago1 ,germany was the starting-point of the first upheaval of the ,european middle-class2 as things are now1 is it outside the limits of possibility that ,germany will be the scene1 too1 of the first great victory of the ,european proletariat8 ,f4 ,,engels4 ,april #bjth1 #ahib4 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,qual is a philosophical play upon words4 ,qual literally means torture1 a pain which drives to action of some kind2 at the same time the mystic ,boehme puts into the ,german word something of the meaning of the ,latin qualitas2 his qual was the activating principle arising from1 and promoting in its turn1 the spontaneous development of the thing1 relation1 or person subject to it1 in contradistinction to a pain inflicted from without4 ,b ,marx and ,engels1 ,die ,heilige ,familie1 ,frankfurt a4 ,m4 #ahde1 pp4 #bja-bjd4 ,c ,and even in business matters1 the conceit of national ,chauvinism is but a sorry adviser4 ,up to quite recently1 the average ,english manufacturer considered it derogatory from an ,englishman to speak any language but his own1 and felt rather proud than otherwise of the fact that poor devils of foreigners settled in ,england and took off his hands the trouble of disposing of his products abroad4 ,he never noticed that these foreigners1 mostly ,germans1 thus got command of a very large part of ,british foreign trade1 imports and exports1 and that the direct foreign trade of ,englishmen became limited1 almost entirely1 to the colonies1 ,china1 the ,united ,states1 and ,south ,america4 ,nor did he notice that these ,germans traded with other ,germans abroad1 who gradually organized a complete network of commercial colonies all over the world4 ,but when ,germany1 about forty years ago1 seriously began manufacturing for export1 this network served her admirably in her transformation1 in so short a time1 from a corn-exporting into a first-rate manufacturing country4 ,then1 about ten years ago1 the ,british manufacturer got frightened1 and asked his ambassadors and consuls how it was that he could no longer keep his customers together4 ,the unanimous answer was3 7#a7 ,you don't learn your customer's language but expect him to speak your own2 7#b7 ,you don't even try to suit your customer's wants1 habits1 and tastes1 but expect him to conform to your ,english ones4 ,,socialism ,,utopian ,,and ,,scientific ,i ,modern ,socialism is1 in its essence1 the direct product of the recognition1 on the one hand1 of the class antagonisms1 existing in the society of to-day1 between proprietors and non-proprietors1 between capitalists and wage-workers2 on the other hand1 of the anarchy existing in production4 ,but1 in its theoretical form1 modern ,socialism originally appears ostensibly as a more logical extension of the principles laid down by the great ,french philosophers of the eighteenth century4 ,like every new theory1 modern ,socialism had1 at first1 to connect itself with the intellectual stock-in-trade ready to its hand1 however deeply its roots lay in material economic facts4 ,the great men1 who in ,france prepared men's minds for the coming revolution1 were themselves extreme revolutionists4 ,they recognized no external authority of any kind whatever4 ,religion1 natural science1 society1 political institutions1 everything1 was subjected to the most unsparing criticism2 everything must justify its existence before the judgment-seat of reason1 or give up existence4 ,reason became the sole measure of everything4 ,it was the time when1 as ,hegel says1 the world stood upon its head2#a first1 in the sense that the human head1 and the principles arrived at by its thought1 claimed to be the basis of all human action and association2 but by and by1 also1 in the wider sense that the reality which was in contradiction to these principles had1 in fact1 to be turned upside down4 ,every form of society and government then existing1 every old traditional notion was flung into the lumber-room as irrational3 the world had hitherto allowed itself to be led solely by prejudices2 everything in the past deserved only pity and contempt4 ,now1 for the first time1 appeared the light of day1 the kingdom of reason2 henceforth superstition1 injustice1 privilege1 oppression1 were to be superseded by eternal truth1 eternal ,right1 equality based on ,nature and the inalienable rights of man4 ,we know to-day that this kingdom of reason was nothing more than the idealized kingdom of the bourgeoisie2 that this eternal ,right found its realization in bourgeois justice2 that this equality reduced itself to bourgeois equality before the law2 that bourgeois property was proclaimed as one of the essential rights of man2 and that the government of reason1 the ,contrat ,social of ,rousseau1 came into being1 and only could come into being1 as a democratic bourgeois republic4 ,the great thinkers of the eighteenth century could1 no more than their predecessors1 go beyond the limits imposed upon them by their epoch4 ,but1 side by side with the antagonism of the feudal nobility and the burghers1 who claimed to represent all the rest of society1 was the general antagonism of exploiters and exploited1 of rich idlers and poor workers4 ,it was this very circumstance that made it possible for the representatives of the bourgeoisie to put themselves forward as representing1 not one special class1 but the whole of suffering humanity4 ,still further4 ,from its origin1 the bourgeoisie was saddled with its antithesis3 capitalists cannot exist without wage-workers1 and1 in the same proportion as the mediaeval burgher of the guild developed into the modern bourgeois1 the guild journeyman and the day-laborer1 outside the guilds1 developed into the proletarian4 ,and although1 upon the whole1 the bourgeoisie1 in their struggle with the nobility1 could claim to represent at the same time the interests of the different working-classes of that period1 yet in every great bourgeois movement there were independent outbursts of that class which was the forerunner1 more or less developed1 of the modern proletariat4 ,for example1 at the time of the ,german reformation and the peasants' war1 the ,anabaptists and ,thomas ,muenzer2 in the great ,english revolution1 the ,levellers2 in the great ,french revolution1 ,baboeuf4 ,there were theoretical enunciations corresponding with these revolutionary uprisings of a class not yet developed2 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 ,utopian pictures of ideal social conditions2 in the eighteenth1 actual communistic theories 7,morelly and ,mably74 ,the demand for equality was no longer limited to political rights2 it was extended also to the social conditions of individuals4 ,it was not simply class privileges that were to be abolished1 but class distinctions themselves4 ,a ,communism1 ascetic1 denouncing all the pleasures of life1 ,spartan1 was the first form of the new teaching4 ,then came the three great ,utopians2 ,saint ,simon1 to whom the middle-class movement1 side by side with the proletarian1 still had a certain significance2 ,fourier2 and ,owen1 who in the country where capitalist production was most developed1 and under the influence of the antagonisms begotten of this1 worked out his proposals for the removal of class distinction systematically and in direct relation to ,french materialism4 ,one thing is common to all three4 ,not one of them appears as a representative of the interests of that proletariat1 which historical development had1 in the meantime1 produced4 ,like the ,french philosophers1 they do not claim to emancipate a particular class to begin with1 but all humanity at once4 ,like them1 they wish to bring in the kingdom of reason and eternal justice1 but this kingdom1 as they see it1 is as far as heaven from earth1 from that of the ,french philosophers4 ,for1 to our three social reformers1 the bourgeois world1 based upon the principles of these philosophers1 is quite as irrational and unjust1 and1 therefore1 finds its way in the dust-hole quite as readily as feudalism and all the earlier stages of society4 ,if pure reason and justice have not1 hitherto1 ruled the world1 this has been the case only because men have not rightly understood them4 ,what was wanted was the individual man of genius1 who has now arisen and who understands the truth4 ,that he has now arisen1 that the truth has now been clearly understood1 is not an inevitable event1 following of necessity in the chain of historical development1 but a mere happy accident4 ,he might just as well have been born #ejj years earlier1 and might then have spared humanity #ejj years of error1 strife1 and suffering4 ,we saw how the ,french philosophers of the eighteenth century1 the forerunners of the ,revolution1 appealed to reason as the sole judge of all that is4 ,a rational government1 rational society1 were to be founded2 everything that ran counter to eternal reason was to be remorselessly done away with4 ,we saw also that this eternal reason was in reality nothing but the idealized understanding of the eighteenth century citizen1 just then evolving into the bourgeois4 ,the ,french ,revolution had realized this rational society and government4 ,but the new order of things1 rational enough as compared with earlier conditions1 turned out to be by no means absolutely rational4 ,the ,state based upon reason completely collapsed4 ,rousseau's ,contrat ,social had found its realization in the ,reign of ,terror1 from which the bourgeoisie1 who had lost confidence in their own political capacity1 had taken refuge first in the corruption of the ,directorate1 and1 finally1 under the wing of the ,napoleonic despotism4 ,the promised eternal peace was turned into an endless war of conquest4 ,the society based upon reason had fared no better4 ,the antagonism between rich and poor1 instead of dissolving into general prosperity1 had become intensified by the removal of the guild and other privileges1 which had to some extent bridged it over1 and by the removal of the charitable institutions of the ,church4 ,the freedom of property from feudal fetters1 now veritably accomplished1 turned out to be1 for the small capitalists and small proprietors1 the freedom to sell their small property1 crushed under the overmastering competition of the large capitalists and landlords1 to these great lords1 and thus1 as far as the small capitalists and peasant proprietors were concerned1 became freedom from property4 ,the development of industry upon a capitalistic basis made poverty and misery of the working masses conditions of existence of society4 ,cash payment became more and more1 in ,carlyle's phrase1 the sole nexus between man and man4 ,the number of crimes increased from year to year4 ,formerly1 the feudal vices had openly stalked about in broad daylight2 though not eradicated1 they were now at any rate thrust into the background4 ,in their stead1 the bourgeois vices1 hitherto practiced in secret1 began to blossom all the more luxuriantly4 ,trade became to a greater and greater extent cheating4 ,the fraternity of the revolutionary motto was realized in the chicanery and rivalries of the battle of competition4 ,oppression by force was replaced by corruption2 the sword1 as the first social lever1 by gold4 ,the right of the first night was transferred from the feudal lords to the bourgeois manufacturers4 ,prostitution increased to an extent never heard of4 ,marriage itself remained1 as before1 the legally recognized form1 the official cloak of prostitution1 and1 moreover1 was supplemented by rich crops of adultery4 ,in a word1 compared with the splendid promises of the philosophers1 the social and political institutions born of the triumph of reason were bitterly disappointing caricatures4 ,all that was wanting was the men to formulate this disappointment1 and they came with the turn of the century4 ,in #ahjb ,saint ,simon's ,geneva letters appeared2 in #ahjh appeared ,fourier's first work1 although the groundwork of his theory dated from #agii2 on ,january #a1 #ahjj1 ,robert ,owen undertook the direction of ,new ,lanark4 ,at this time1 however1 the capitalist mode of production1 and with it the antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat1 was still very incompletely developed4 ,modern ,industry1 which had just arisen in ,england1 was still unknown in ,france4 ,but ,modern ,industry develops1 on the one hand1 the conflicts which make absolutely necessary a revolution in the mode of production1 and the doing away with its capitalistic character--conflicts not only between the classes begotten of it1 but also between the very productive forces and the forms of exchange created by it4 ,and1 on the other hand1 it develops1 in these very gigantic productive forces1 the means of ending these conflicts4 ,if1 therefore1 about the year #ahjj1 the conflicts arising from the new social order were only just beginning to take shape1 this holds still more fully as to the means of ending them4 ,the have-nothing masses of ,paris1 during the ,reign of ,terror1 were able for a moment to gain the mastery1 and thus to lead the bourgeois revolution to victory in spite of the bourgeoisie themselves4 ,but1 in doing so1 they only proved how impossible it was for their domination to last under the conditions then obtaining4 ,the proletariat1 which then for the first time evolved itself from these have-nothing masses as the nucleus of a new class1 as yet quite incapable of independent political action1 appeared as an oppressed1 suffering order1 to whom1 in its incapacity to help itself1 help could1 at best1 be brought in from without1 or down from above4 ,this historical situation also dominated the founders of ,socialism4 ,to the crude conditions of capitalistic production and the crude class conditions corresponded crude theories4 ,the solution of the social problems1 which as yet lay hidden in undeveloped economic conditions1 the ,utopians attempted to evolve out of the human brain4 ,society presented nothing but wrongs2 to remove these was the task of reason4 ,it was necessary1 then1 to discover a new and more perfect system of social order and to impose this upon society from without by propaganda1 and1 wherever it was possible1 by the example of model experiments4 ,these new social systems were foredoomed as ,utopian2 the more completely they were worked out in detail1 the more they could not avoid drifting off into pure phantasies4 ,these facts once established1 we need not dwell a moment longer upon this side of the question1 now wholly belonging to the past4 ,we can leave it to the literary small fry to solemnly quibble over these phantasies1 which to-day only make us smile1 and to crow over the superiority of their own bald reasoning1 as compared with such insanity4 ,for ourselves1 we delight in the stupendously grand thoughts and germs of thought that everywhere break out through their phantastic covering1 and to which these ,philistines are blind4 ,saint ,simon was a son of the great ,french ,revolution1 at the outbreak of which he was not yet thirty4 ,the ,revolution was the victory of the third estate1 i4e41 of the great masses of the nation1 working in production and in trade1 over the privileged idle classes1 the nobles and the priests4 ,but the victory of the third estate soon revealed itself as exclusively the victory of a small part of this estate1 as the conquest of political power by the socially privileged section of it1 i4e41 the propertied bourgeoisie4 ,and the bourgeoisie had certainly developed rapidly during the ,revolution1 partly by speculation in the lands of the nobility and of the ,church1 confiscated and afterwards put up for sale1 and partly by frauds upon the nation by means of army contracts4 ,it was the domination of these swindlers that1 under the ,directorate1 brought ,france to the verge of ruin1 and thus gave ,napoleon the pretext for his coup-d'etat4 ,hence1 to ,saint ,simon the antagonism between the third estate and the privileged classes took the form of an antagonism between workers and idlers4 ,the idlers were not merely the old privileged classes1 but also all who1 without taking any part in production or distribution1 lived on their incomes4 ,and the workers were not only the wage-workers1 but also the manufacturers1 the merchants1 the bankers4 ,that the idlers had lost the capacity for intellectual leadership and political supremacy had been proved1 and was by the ,revolution finally settled4 ,that the non-possessing classes had not this capacity seemed to ,saint ,simon proved by the experiences of the ,reign of ,terror4 ,then1 who was to lead and command8 ,according to ,saint ,simon1 science and industry1 both united by a new religious bond1 destined to restore that unity of religious ideas which had been lost since the time of the ,reformation--a necessarily mystic and rigidly hierarchic new ,christianity4 ,but science1 that was the scholars2 and industry1 that was in the first place1 the working bourgeois1 manufacturers1 merchants1 bankers4 ,these bourgeoisie were certainly1 intended by ,saint ,simon to transform themselves into a kind of public officials1 of social trustees2 but they were still to hold1 vis-a-vis of the workers1 a commanding and economically privileged position4 ,the bankers especially were to be called upon to direct the whole of social production by the regulation of credit4 ,this conception was in exact keeping with a time in which ,modern ,industry in ,france and1 with it1 the chasm between bourgeoisie and proletariat was only just coming into existence4 ,but what ,saint ,simon especially lays stress upon is this3 what interests him first1 and above all other things1 is the lot of the class that is the most numerous and the most poor 7la classe la plus nombreuse et la plus pauvre74 ,already1 in his ,geneva letters1 ,saint ,simon lays down the proposition that all men ought to work4 ,in the same work he recognizes also that the ,reign of ,terror was the reign of the non-possessing masses4 ,see1 says he to them1 what happened in ,france at the time when your comrades held sway there2 they brought about a famine4 ,but to recognize the ,french ,revolution as a class war1 and not simply one between nobility and bourgeoisie1 but between nobility1 bourgeoisie1 and the non-possessers1 was1 in the year #ahjb1 a most pregnant discovery4 ,in #ahaf1 he declares that politics is the science of production1 and foretells the complete absorption of politics by economics4 ,the knowledge that economic conditions are the basis of political institutions appears here only in embryo4 ,yet what is here already very plainly expressed is the idea of the future conversion of political rule over men into an administration of things and a direction of processes of production--that is to say1 the abolition of the ,state1 about which recently there has been so much noise4 ,saint ,simon shows the same superiority over his contemporaries1 when in #ahad1 immediately after the entry of the allies into ,paris1 and again in #ahae1 during the ,hundred ,days' ,war1 he proclaims the alliance of ,france with ,england1 and then of both these countries with ,germany1 as the only guarantee for the prosperous development and peace of ,europe4 ,to preach to the ,french in #ahae an alliance with the victors of ,waterloo required as much courage as historical foresight4 ,if in ,saint ,simon we find a comprehensive breadth of view1 by virtue of which almost all the ideas of later ,socialists1 that are not strictly economic1 are found in him in embryo1 we find in ,fourier a criticism of the existing conditions of society genuinely ,french and witty1 but not upon that account any the less thorough4 ,fourier takes the bourgeoisie1 their inspired prophets before the ,revolution1 and their interested eulogists after it1 at their own word4 ,he lays bare remorsely the material and moral misery of the bourgeois world4 ,he confronts it with the earlier philosophers' dazzling promises of a society in which reason alone should reign1 of a civilization in which happiness should be universal1 of an illimitable human perfectibility1 and with the rose-colored phraseology of the bourgeois ideologists of his time4 ,he points out how everywhere the most pitiful reality corresponds with the most high-sounding phrases1 and he overwhelms this hopeless fiasco of phrases with his mordant sarcasm4 ,fourier is not only a critic2 his imperturbably serene nature makes him a satirist1 and assuredly one of the greatest satirists of all time4 ,he depicts1 with equal power and charm1 the swindling speculations that blossomed out upon the downfall of the ,revolution1 and the shopkeeping spirit prevalent in1 and characteristic of1 ,french commerce at that time4 ,still more masterly is his criticism of the bourgeois form of the relations between the sexes1 and the position of woman in bourgeois society4 ,he was the first to declare that in any given society the degree of woman's emancipation is the natural measure of the general emancipation4 ,but ,fourier is at his greatest in his conception of the history of society4 ,he divides its whole course1 thus far1 into four stages of evolution--savagery1 barbarism1 the patriarchate1 civilization4 ,this last is identical with the so-called civil1 or bourgeois1 society of to-day--i4e41 with the social order that came in with the sixteenth century4 ,he proves that the civilized stage raises every vice practiced by barbarism in a simple fashion1 into a form of existence1 complex1 ambiguous1 equivocal1 hypocritical--that civilization moves in a vicious circle1 in contradictions which it constantly reproduces without being able to solve them2 hence it constantly arrives at the very opposite to that which it wants to attain1 or pretends to want to attain1 so that1 e4g41 under civilization poverty is born of superabundance itself4 ,fourier1 as we see1 uses the dialectic method in the same masterly way as his contemporary ,hegel4 ,using these same dialectics1 he argues1 against the talk about illimitable human perfectibility that every historical phase has its period of ascent and also its period of descent1 and he applies this observation to the future of the whole human race4 ,as ,kant introduced into natural science the idea of the ultimate destruction of the earth1 ,fourier introduced into historical science that of the ultimate destruction of the human race4 ,whilst in ,france the hurricane of the ,revolution swept over the land1 in ,england a quieter1 but not on that account less tremendous1 revolution was going on4 ,steam and the new tool-making machinery were transforming manufacture into modern industry1 and thus revolutionizing the whole foundation of bourgeois society4 ,the sluggish march of development of the manufacturing period changed into a veritable storm and stress period of production4 ,with constantly increasing swiftness the splitting-up of society into large capitalists and non-possessing proletarians went on4 ,between these1 instead of the former stable middle-class1 an unstable mass of artisans and small shopkeepers1 the most fluctuating portion of the population1 now led a precarious existence4 ,the new mode of production was1 as yet1 only at the beginning of its period of ascent2 as yet it was the normal1 regular method of production--the only one possible under existing conditions4 ,nevertheless1 even then it was producing crying social abuses--the herding together of a homeless population in the worst quarters of the large towns2 the loosening of all traditional moral bonds1 of patriarchal subordination1 of family relations2 overwork1 especially of women and children1 to a frightful extent2 complete demoralization of the working-class1 suddenly flung into altogether new conditions1 from the country into the town1 from agriculture into modern industry1 from stable conditions of existence into insecure ones that changed from day to day4 ,at this juncture there came forward as a reformer a manufacturer #bi years old--a man of almost sublime1 childlike simplicity of character1 and at the same time one of the few born leaders of men4 ,robert ,owen had adopted the teaching of the materialistic philosophers3 that man's character is the product1 on the one hand1 of heredity1 on the other1 of the environment of the individual during his lifetime1 and especially during his period of development4 ,in the industrial revolution most of his class saw only chaos and confusion1 and the opportunity of fishing in these troubled waters and making large fortunes quickly4 ,he saw in it the opportunity of putting into practice his favorite theory1 and so of bringing order out of chaos4 ,he had already tried it with success1 as superintendent of more than five hundred men in a ,manchester factory4 ,from #ahjj to #ahbi1 he directed the great cotton mill at ,new ,lanark1 in ,scotland1 as managing partner1 along the same lines1 but with greater freedom of action and with a success that made him a ,european reputation4 ,a population1 originally consisting of the most diverse and1 for the most part1 very demoralized elements1 a population that gradually grew to #b1ejj1 he turned into a model colony1 in which drunkenness1 police1 magistrates1 lawsuits1 poor laws1 charity1 were unknown4 ,and all this simply by placing the people in conditions worthy of human beings1 and especially by carefully bringing up the rising generation4 ,he was the founder of infant schools1 and introduced them first at ,new ,lanark4 ,at the age of two the children came to school1 where they enjoyed themselves so much that they could scarcely be got home again4 ,whilst his competitors worked their people thirteen or fourteen hours a day1 in ,new ,lanark the working-day was only ten and a half hours4 ,when a crisis in cotton stopped work for four months1 his workers received their full wages all the time4 ,and with all this the business more than doubled in value1 and to the last yielded large profits to its proprietors4 ,in spite of all this1 ,owen was not content4 ,the existence which he secured for his workers was1 in his eyes1 still far from being worthy of human beings4 ,the people were slaves at my mercy4 ,the relatively favorable conditions in which he had placed them were still far from allowing a rational development of the character and of the intellect in all directions1 much less of the free exercise of all their faculties4 ,and yet1 the working part of this population of #b1ejj persons was daily producing as much real wealth for society as1 less than half a century before1 it would have required the working part of a population of #fjj1jjj to create4 ,i asked myself1 what became of the difference between the wealth consumed by #b1ejj persons and that which would have been consumed by #fjj1jjj8b ,the answer was clear4 ,it had been used to pay the proprietors of the establishment #e per cent4 on the capital they had laid out1 in addition to over ,l#cjj1jjj clear profit4 ,and that which held for ,new ,lanark held to a still greater extent for all the factories in ,england4 ,if this new wealth had not been created by machinery1 imperfectly as it has been applied1 the wars of ,europe1 in opposition to ,napoleon1 and to support the aristocratic principles of society1 could not have been maintained4 ,and yet this new power was the creation of the working-classes4#c ,to them1 therefore1 the fruits of this new power belonged4 ,the newly-created gigantic productive forces1 hitherto used only to enrich individuals and to enslave the masses1 offered to ,owen the foundations for a reconstruction of society2 they were destined1 as the common property of all1 to be worked for the common good of all4 ,owen's ,communism was based upon this purely business foundation1 the outcome1 so to say1 of commercial calculation4 ,throughout1 it maintained this practical character4 ,thus1 in #ahbc1 ,owen proposed the relief of the distress in ,ireland by ,communist colonies1 and drew up complete estimates of costs of founding them1 yearly expenditure1 and probable revenue4 ,and in his definite plan for the future1 the technical working out of details is managed with such practical knowledge--ground plan1 front and side and bird's-eye views all included--that the ,owen method of social reform once accepted1 there is from the practical point of view little to be said against the actual arrangement of details4 ,his advance in the direction of ,communism was the turning-point in ,owen's life4 ,as long as he was simply a philanthropist1 he was rewarded with nothing but wealth1 applause1 honor1 and glory4 ,he was the most popular man in ,europe4 ,not only men of his own class1 but statesmen and princes listened to him approvingly4 ,but when he came out with his ,communist theories1 that was quite another thing4 ,three great obstacles seemed to him especially to block the path to social reform3 private property1 religion1 the present form of marriage4 ,he knew what confronted him if he attacked these--outlawry1 excommunication from official society1 the loss of his whole social position4 ,but nothing of this prevented him from attacking them without fear of consequences1 and what he had foreseen happened4 ,banished from official society1 with a conspiracy of silence against him in the press1 ruined by his unsuccessful ,communist experiments in ,america1 in which he sacrificed all his fortune1 he turned directly to the working-class and continued working in their midst for thirty years4 ,every social movement1 every real advance in ,england on behalf of the workers links itself on to the name of ,robert ,owen4 ,he forced through in #ahai1 after five years' fighting1 the first law limiting the hours of labor of women and children in factories4 ,he was president of the first ,congress at which all the ,trade ,unions of ,england united in a single great trade association4 ,he introduced as transition measures to the complete communistic organization of society1 on the one hand1 cooperative societies for retail trade and production4 ,these have since that time1 at least1 given practical proof that the merchant and the manufacturer are socially quite unnecessary4 ,on the other hand1 he introduced labor bazaars for the exchange of the products of labor through the medium of labor-notes1 whose unit was a single hour of work2 institutions necessarily doomed to failure1 but completely anticipating ,proudhon's bank of exchange of a much later period1 and differing entirely from this in that it did not claim to be the panacea for all social ills1 but only a first step towards a much more radical revolution of society4 ,the ,utopians' mode of thought has for a long time governed the socialist ideas of the nineteenth century1 and still governs some of them4 ,until very recently all ,french and ,english ,socialists did homage to it4 ,the earlier ,german ,communism1 including that of ,weitling1 was of the same school4 ,to all these ,socialism is the expression of absolute truth1 reason1 and justice1 and has only to be discovered to conquer all the world by virtue of its own power4 ,and as absolute truth is independent of time1 space1 and of the historical development of man1 it is a mere accident when and where it is discovered4 ,with all this1 absolute truth1 reason1 and justice are different with the founder of each different school4 ,and as each one's special kind of absolute truth1 reason1 and justice is again conditioned by his subjective understanding1 his conditions of existence1 the measure of his knowledge and his intellectual training1 there is no other ending possible in this conflict of absolute truths than that they shall be mutually exclusive one of the other4 ,hence1 from this nothing could come but a kind of eclectic1 average ,socialism1 which1 as a matter of fact1 has up to the present time dominated the minds of most of the socialist workers in ,france and ,england4 ,hence1 a mish-mash allowing of the most manifold shades of opinion2 a mish-mash of such critical statements1 economic theories1 pictures of future society by the founders of different sects1 as excite a minimum of opposition2 a mish-mash which is the more easily brewed the more the definite sharp edges of the individual constituents are rubbed down in the stream of debate1 like rounded pebbles in a brook4 ,to make a science of ,socialism1 it had first to be placed upon a real basis4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this is the passage on the ,french ,revolution3 ,thought1 the concept of law1 all at once made itself felt1 and against this the old scaffolding of wrong could make no stand4 ,in this conception of law1 therefore1 a constitution has now been established1 and henceforth everything must be based upon this4 ,since the sun had been in the firmament1 and the planets circled round him1 the sight had never been seen of man standing upon his head--i4e41 on the ,idea--and building reality after this image4 ,anaxagoras first said that the ,nous1 reason1 rules the world2 but now1 for the first time1 had man come to recognize that the ,idea must rule the mental reality4 ,and this was a magnificent sunrise4 ,all thinking ,beings have participated in celebrating this holy day4 ,a sublime emotion swayed men at that time1 an enthusiasm of reason pervaded the world1 as if now had come the reconciliation of the ,divine ,principle with the world4 ,hegel3 ,philosophy of ,history1 #ahdj1 p4 #ece4 ,is it not high time to set the anti-,socialist law in action against such teachings1 subversive and to the common danger1 by the late ,professor ,hegel8 #b ,from ,the ,revolution in ,mind and ,practice1 p4 #ba1 a memorial addressed to all the red ,republicans1 ,communists and ,socialists of ,europe1 and sent to the provisional government of ,france1 #ahdh1 and also to ,queen ,victoria and her responsible advisers4 #c ,note1 l4 c41 p4 #gj4 ,,ii ,in the meantime1 along with and after the ,french philosophy of the eighteenth century had arisen the new ,german philosophy1 culminating in ,hegel4 ,its greatest merit was the taking up again of dialectics as the highest form of reasoning4 ,the old ,greek philosophers were all born natural dialecticians1 and ,aristotle1 the most encyclopaedic intellect of them1 had already analyzed the most essential forms of dialectic thought4 ,the newer philosophy1 on the other hand1 although in it also dialectics had brilliant exponents 7e4g4 ,descartes and ,spinoza71 had1 especially through ,english influence1 become more and more rigidly fixed in the so-called metaphysical mode of reasoning1 by which also the ,french of the eighteenth century were almost wholly dominated1 at all events in their special philosophical work4 ,outside philosophy in the restricted sense1 the ,french nevertheless produced masterpieces of dialectic4 ,we need only call to mind ,diderot's ,le ,neveu de ,rameau1 and ,rousseau's ,discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inegalite parmi les hommes4 ,we give here1 in brief1 the essential character of these two modes of thought4 ,when we consider and reflect upon nature at large1 or the history of mankind1 or our own intellectual activity1 at first we see the picture of an endless entanglement of relations and reactions1 permutations and combinations1 in which nothing remains what1 where1 and as it was1 but everything moves1 changes1 comes into being and passes away4 ,we see1 therefore1 at first the picture as a whole1 with its individual parts still more or less kept in the background2 we observe the movements1 transitions1 connections1 rather than the things that move1 combine1 and are connected4 ,this primitive1 naive1 but intrinsically correct conception of the world is that of ancient ,greek philosophy1 and was first clearly formulated by ,heraclitus3 everything is and is not1 for everything is fluid1 is constantly changing1 constantly coming into being and passing away4 ,but this conception1 correctly as it expresses the general character of the picture of appearances as a whole1 does not suffice to explain the details of which this picture is made up1 and so long as we do not understand these1 we have not a clear idea of the whole picture4 ,in order to understand these details we must detach them from their natural or historical connection and examine each one separately1 its nature1 special causes1 effects1 etc4 ,this is1 primarily1 the task of natural science and historical research2 branches of science which the ,greeks of classical times1 on very good grounds1 relegated to a subordinate position1 because they had first of all to collect materials for these sciences to work upon4 ,a certain amount of natural and historical material must be collected before there can be any critical analysis1 comparison1 and arrangement in classes1 orders1 and species4 ,the foundations of the exact natural sciences were1 therefore1 first worked out by the ,greeks of the ,alexandrian period1 and later on1 in the ,middle ,ages1 by the ,arabs4 ,real natural science dates from the second half of the fifteenth century1 and thence onward it has advanced with constantly increasing rapidity4 ,the analysis of ,nature into its individual parts1 the grouping of the different natural processes and objects in definite classes1 the study of the internal anatomy of organized bodies in their manifold forms--these were the fundamental conditions of the gigantic strides in our knowledge of ,nature that have been made during the last four hundred years4 ,but this method of work has also left us as legacy the habit of observing natural objects and processes in isolation1 apart from their connection with the vast whole2 of observing them in repose1 not in motion2 as constants1 not as essentially variables2 in their death1 not in their life4 ,and when this way of looking at things was transferred by ,bacon and ,locke from natural science to philosophy1 it begot the narrow1 metaphysical mode of thought peculiar to the last century4 ,to the metaphysician1 things and their mental reflexes1 ideas1 are isolated1 are to be considered one after the other and apart from each other1 are objects of investigation fixed1 rigid1 given once for all4 ,he thinks in absolutely irreconcilable antitheses4 ,his communication is 'yea1 yea2 nay1 nay2' for whatsoever is more than these cometh of evil4 ,for him a thing either exists or does not exist2 a thing cannot at the same time be itself and something else4 ,positive and negative absolutely exclude one another2 cause and effect stand in a rigid antithesis one to the other4 ,at first sight this mode of thinking seems to us very luminous1 because it is that of so-called sound commonsense4 ,only sound commonsense1 respectable fellow that he is1 in the homely realm of his own four walls1 has very wonderful adventures directly he ventures out into the wide world of research4 ,and the metaphysical mode of thought1 justifiable and necessary as it is in a number of domains whose extent varies according to the nature of the particular object of investigation1 sooner or later reaches a limit1 beyond which it becomes one-sided1 restricted1 abstract1 lost in insoluble contradictions4 ,in the contemplation of individual things1 it forgets the connection between them2 in the contemplation of their existence1 it forgets the beginning and end of that existence2 of their repose1 it forgets their motion4 ,it cannot see the wood for the trees4 ,for everyday purposes we know and can say e4g41 whether an animal is alive or not4 ,but1 upon closer inquiry1 we find that this is1 in many cases1 a very complex question1 as the jurists know very well4 ,they have cudgelled their brains in vain to discover a rational limit beyond which the killing of the child in its mother's womb is murder4 ,it is just as impossible to determine absolutely the moment of death1 for physiology proves that death is not an instantaneous1 momentary phenomenon1 but a very protracted process4 ,in like manner1 every organized being is every moment the same and not the same2 every moment it assimilates matter supplied from without1 and gets rid of other matter2 every moment some cells of its body die and others build themselves anew2 in a longer or shorter time the matter of its body is completely renewed1 and is replaced by other molecules of matter1 so that every organized being is always itself1 and yet something other than itself4 ,further1 we find upon closer investigation that the two poles of an antithesis1 positive and negative1 e4g41 are as inseparable as they are opposed1 and that despite all their opposition1 they mutually interpenetrate4 ,and we find1 in like manner1 that cause and effect are conceptions which only hold good in their application to individual cases2 but as soon as we consider the individual cases in their general connection with the universe as a whole1 they run into each other1 and they become confounded when we contemplate that universal action and reaction in which causes and effects are eternally changing places1 so that what is effect here and now will be cause there and then1 and vice versa4 ,none of these processes and modes of thought enters into the framework of metaphysical reasoning4 ,dialectics1 on the other hand1 comprehends things and their representations1 ideas1 in their essential connection1 concatenation1 motion1 origin1 and ending4 ,such processes as those mentioned above are1 therefore1 so many corroborations of its own method of procedure4 ,nature is the proof of dialectics1 and it must be said for modern science that it has furnished this proof with very rich materials increasing daily1 and thus has shown that1 in the last resort1 ,nature works dialectically and not metaphysically2 that she does not move in the eternal oneness of a perpetually recurring circle1 but goes through a real historical evolution4 ,in this connection ,darwin must be named before all others4 ,he dealt the metaphysical conception of ,nature the heaviest blow by his proof that all organic beings1 plants1 animals1 and man himself1 are the products of a process of evolution going on through millions of years4 ,but the naturalists who have learned to think dialectically are few and far between1 and this conflict of the results of discovery with preconceived modes of thinking explains the endless confusion now reigning in theoretical natural science1 the despair of teachers as well as learners1 of authors and readers alike4 ,an exact representation of the universe1 of its evolution1 of the development of mankind1 and of the reflection of this evolution in the minds of men1 can therefore only be obtained by the methods of dialectics with its constant regard to the innumerable actions and reactions of life and death1 of progressive or retrogressive changes4 ,and in this spirit the new ,german philosophy has worked4 ,kant began his career by resolving the stable solar system of ,newton and its eternal duration1 after the famous initial impulse had once been given1 into the result of a historic process1 the formation of the sun and all the planets out of a rotating nebulous mass4 ,from this he at the same time drew the conclusion that1 given this origin of the solar system1 its future death followed of necessity4 ,his theory half a century later was established mathematically by ,laplace1 and half a century after that the spectroscope proved the existence in space of such incandescent masses of gas in various stages of condensation4 ,this new ,german philosophy culminated in the ,hegelian system4 ,in this system--and herein is its great merit--for the first time the whole world1 natural1 historical1 intellectual1 is represented as a process1 i4e41 as in constant motion1 change1 transformation1 development2 and the attempt is made to trace out the internal connection that makes a continuous whole of all this movement and development4 ,from this point of view the history of mankind no longer appeared as a wild whirl of senseless deeds of violence1 all equally condemnable at the judgment seat of mature philosophic reason1 and which are best forgotten as quickly as possible2 but as the process of evolution of man himself4 ,it was now the task of the intellect to follow the gradual march of this process through all its devious ways1 and to trace out the inner law running through all its apparently accidental phenomena4 ,that the ,hegelian system did not solve the problem it propounded is here immaterial4 ,its epoch-making merit was that it propounded the problem4 ,this problem is one that no single individual will ever be able to solve4 ,although ,hegel was--with ,saint ,simon--the most encyclopaedic mind of his time1 yet he was limited1 first1 by the necessarily limited extent of his own knowledge1 and1 second1 by the limited extent and depth of the knowledge and conceptions of his age4 ,to these limits a third must be added4 ,hegel was an idealist4 ,to him the thoughts within his brain were not the more or less abstract pictures of actual things and processes1 but1 conversely1 things and their evolution were only the realized pictures of the ,idea1 existing somewhere from eternity before the world was4 ,this way of thinking turned everything upside down1 and completely reversed the actual connection of things in the world4 ,correctly and ingeniously as many individual groups of facts were grasped by ,hegel1 yet1 for the reasons just given1 there is much that is botched1 artificial1 labored1 in a word1 wrong in point of detail4 ,the ,hegelian system1 in itself1 was a colossal miscarriage--but it was also the last of its kind4 ,it was suffering1 in fact1 from an internal and incurable contradiction4 ,upon the one hand1 its essential proposition was the conception that human history is a process of evolution1 which1 by its very nature1 cannot find its intellectual final term in the discovery of any so-called absolute truth4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it laid claim to being the very essence of this absolute truth4 ,a system of natural and historical knowledge1 embracing everything1 and final for all time1 is a contradiction to the fundamental law of dialectic reasoning4 ,this law1 indeed1 by no means excludes1 but1 on the contrary1 includes the idea that the systematic knowledge of the external universe can make giant strides from age to age4 ,the perception of the fundamental contradiction in ,german idealism led necessarily back to materialism1 but nota bene1 not to the simply metaphysical1 exclusively mechanical materialism of the eighteenth century4 ,old materialism looked upon all previous history as a crude heap of irrationality and violence2 modern materialism sees in it the process of evolution of humanity1 and aims at discovering the laws thereof4 ,with the ,french of the eighteenth century1 and even with ,hegel1 the conception obtained of ,nature as a whole1 moving in narrow circles1 and forever immutable1 with its eternal celestial bodies1 as ,newton1 and unalterable organic species1 as ,linnaeus1 taught4 ,modern materialism embraces the more recent discoveries of natural science1 according to which ,nature also has its history in time1 the celestial bodies1 like the organic species that1 under favorable conditions1 people them1 being born and perishing4 ,and even if ,nature1 as a whole1 must still be said to move in recurrent cycles1 these cycles assume infinitely larger dimensions4 ,in both aspects1 modern materialism is essentially dialectic1 and no longer requires the assistance of that sort of philosophy which1 queen-like1 pretended to rule the remaining mob of sciences4 ,as soon as each special science is bound to make clear its position in the great totality of things and of our knowledge of things1 a special science dealing with this totality is superfluous or unnecessary4 ,that which still survives of all earlier philosophy is the science of thought and its laws--formal logic and dialectics4 ,everything else is subsumed in the positive science of ,nature and history4 ,whilst1 however1 the revolution in the conception of ,nature could only be made in proportion to the corresponding positive materials furnished by research1 already much earlier certain historical facts had occurred which led to a decisive change in the conception of history4 ,in #ahca1 the first working-class rising took place in ,lyons2 between #ahch and #ahdb1 the first national working-class movement1 that of the ,english ,chartists1 reached its height4 ,the class struggle between proletariat and bourgeoisie came to the front in the history of the most advanced countries in ,europe1 in proportion to the development1 upon the one hand1 of modern industry1 upon the other1 of the newly-acquired political supremacy of the bourgeoisie4 ,facts more and more strenuously gave the lie to the teachings of bourgeois economy as to the identity of the interests of capital and labor1 as to the universal harmony and universal prosperity that would be the consequence of unbridled competition4 ,all these things could no longer be ignored1 any more than the ,french and ,english ,socialism1 which was their theoretical1 though very imperfect1 expression4 ,but the old idealist conception of history1 which was not yet dislodged1 knew nothing of class struggles based upon economic interests1 knew nothing of economic interests2 production and all economic relations appeared in it only as incidental1 subordinate elements in the history of civilization4 ,the new facts made imperative a new examination of all past history4 ,then it was seen that all past history1 with the exception of its primitive stages1 was the history of class struggles2 that these warring classes of society are always the products of the modes of production and of exchange--in a word1 of the economic conditions of their time2 that the economic structure of society always furnishes the real basis1 starting from which we can alone work out the ultimate explanation of the whole superstructure of juridical and political institutions as well as of the religious1 philosophical1 and other ideas of a given historical period4 ,hegel had freed history from metaphysics--he had made it dialectic2 but his conception of history was essentially idealistic4 ,but now idealism was driven from its last refuge1 the philosophy of history2 now a materialistic treatment of history was propounded1 and a method found of explaining man's knowing by his being1 instead of1 as heretofore1 his being by his knowing4 ,from that time forward ,socialism was no longer an accidental discovery of this or that ingenious brain1 but the necessary outcome of the struggle between two historically developed classes--the proletariat and the bourgeoisie4 ,its task was no longer to manufacture a system of society as perfect as possible1 but to examine the historico-economic succession of events from which these classes and their antagonism had of necessity sprung1 and to discover in the economic conditions thus created the means of ending the conflict4 ,but the ,socialism of earlier days was as incompatible with this materialistic conception as the conception of ,nature of the ,french materialists was with dialectics and modern natural science4 ,the ,socialism of earlier days certainly criticised the existing capitalistic mode of production and its consequences4 ,but it could not explain them1 and1 therefore1 could not get the mastery of them4 ,it could only simply reject them as bad4 ,the more strongly this earlier ,socialism denounced the exploitation of the working-class1 inevitable under ,capitalism1 the less able was it clearly to show in what this exploitation consisted and how it arose4 ,but for this it was necessary--7#a7 to present the capitalistic method of production in its historical connection and its inevitableness during a particular historical period1 and therefore1 also1 to present its inevitable downfall2 and 7#b7 to lay bare its essential character1 which was still a secret4 ,this was done by the discovery of surplus-value4 ,it was shown that the appropriation of unpaid labor is the basis of the capitalist mode of production and of the exploitation of the worker that occurs under it2 that even if the capitalist buys the labor-power of his laborer at its full value as a commodity on the market1 he yet extracts more value from it than he paid for2 and that in the ultimate analysis this surplus-value forms those sums of value from which are heaped up the constantly increasing masses of capital in the hands of the possessing classes4 ,the genesis of capitalist production and the production of capital were both explained4 ,these two great discoveries1 the materialistic conception of history and the revelation of the secret of capitalistic production through surplus-value1 we owe to ,marx4 ,with these discoveries ,socialism became a science4 ,the next thing was to work out all its details and relations4 ,,iii ,the materialist conception of history starts from the proposition that the production of the means to support human life and1 next to production1 the exchange of things produced1 is the basis of all social structure2 that in every society that has appeared in history1 the manner in which wealth is distributed and society divided into classes or orders1 is dependent upon what is produced1 how it is produced1 and how the products are exchanged4 ,from this point of view the final causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought1 not in men's brains1 not in man's better insight into eternal truth and justice1 but in changes in the modes of production and exchange4 ,they are to be sought1 not in the philosophy1 but in the economics of each particular epoch4 ,the growing perception that existing social institutions are unreasonable and unjust1 that reason has become unreason1 and right wrong1 is only proof that in the modes of production and exchange changes have silently taken place1 with which the social order1 adapted to earlier economic conditions1 is no longer in keeping4 ,from this it also follows that the means of getting rid of the incongruities that have been brought to light1 must also be present1 in a more or less developed condition1 within the changed modes of production themselves4 ,these means are not to be invented by deduction from fundamental principles1 but are to be discovered in the stubborn facts of the existing system of production4 ,what is1 then1 the position of modern ,socialism in this connection8 ,the present structure of society--this is now pretty generally conceded--is the creation of the ruling class of to-day1 of the bourgeoisie4 ,the mode of production peculiar to the bourgeoisie1 known1 since ,marx1 as the capitalist mode of production1 was incompatible with the feudal system1 with the privileges it conferred upon individuals1 entire social ranks and local corporations1 as well as with the hereditary ties of subordination which constituted the framework of its social organization4 ,the bourgeoisie broke up the feudal system and built upon its ruins the capitalist order of society1 the kingdom of free competition1 of personal liberty1 of the equality1 before the law1 of all commodity owners1 of all the rest of the capitalist blessings4 ,thenceforward the capitalist mode of production could develop in freedom4 ,since steam1 machinery1 and the making of machines by machinery transformed the older manufacture into modern industry1 the productive forces evolved under the guidance of the bourgeoisie developed with a rapidity and in a degree unheard of before4 ,but just as the older manufacture1 in its time1 and handicraft1 becoming more developed under its influence1 had come into collision with the feudal trammels of the guilds1 so now modern industry1 in its more complete development1 comes into collision with the bounds within which the capitalistic mode of production holds it confined4 ,the new productive forces have already outgrown the capitalistic mode of using them4 ,and this conflict between productive forces and modes of production is not a conflict engendered in the mind of man1 like that between original sin and divine justice4 ,it exists1 in fact1 objectively1 outside us1 independently of the will and actions even of the men that have brought it on4 ,modern ,socialism is nothing but the reflex1 in thought1 of this conflict in fact2 its ideal reflection in the minds1 first1 of the class directly suffering under it1 the working-class4 ,now1 in what does this conflict consist8 ,before capitalistic production1 i4e41 in the ,middle ,ages1 the system of petty industry obtained generally1 based upon the private property of the laborers in their means of production2 in the country1 the agriculture of the small peasant1 freeman or serf2 in the towns1 the handicrafts organized in guilds4 ,the instruments of labor--land1 agricultural implements1 the workshop1 the tool--were the instruments of labor of single individuals1 adapted for the use of one worker1 and1 therefore1 of necessity1 small1 dwarfish1 circumscribed4 ,but1 for this very reason they belonged1 as a rule1 to the producer himself4 ,to concentrate these scattered1 limited means of production1 to enlarge them1 to turn them into the powerful levers of production of the present day--this was precisely the historic role of capitalist production and of its upholder1 the bourgeoisie4 ,in the fourth section of ,capital ,marx has explained in detail1 how since the fifteenth century this has been historically worked out through the three phases of simple co-operation1 manufacture1 and modern industry4 ,but the bourgeoisie1 as is also shown there1 could not transform these puny means of production into mighty productive forces1 without transforming them1 at the same time1 from means of production of the individual into social means of production only workable by a collectivity of men4 ,the spinning-wheel1 the handloom1 the blacksmith's hammer1 were replaced by the spinning-machine1 the power-loom1 the steam-hammer2 the individual workshop1 by the factory implying the co-operation of hundreds and thousands of workmen4 ,in like manner1 production itself changed from a series of individual into a series of social acts1 and the products from individual to social products4 ,the yarn1 the cloth1 the metal articles that now came out of the factory were the joint product of many workers through whose hands they had successively to pass before they were ready4 ,no one person could say of them3 ,i made that2 this is my product4 ,but where1 in a given society1 the fundamental form of production is that spontaneous division of labor which creeps in gradually and not upon any preconceived plan1 there the products take on the form of commodities1 whose mutual exchange1 buying and selling1 enable the individual producers to satisfy their manifold wants4 ,and this was the case in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the peasant1 e4g41 sold to the artisan agricultural products and bought from him the products of handicraft4 ,into this society of individual producers1 of commodity-producers1 the new mode of production thrust itself4 ,in the midst of the old division of labor1 grown up spontaneously and upon no definite plan1 which had governed the whole of society1 now arose division of labor upon a definite plan1 as organized in the factory2 side by side with individual production appeared social production4 ,the products of both were sold in the same market1 and1 therefore1 at prices at least approximately equal4 ,but organization upon a definite plan was stronger than spontaneous division of labor4 ,the factories working with the combined social forces of a collectivity of individuals produced their commodities far more cheaply than the individual small producers4 ,individual production succumbed in one department after another4 ,socialized production revolutionized all the old methods of production4 ,but its revolutionary character was1 at the same time1 so little recognized1 that it was1 on the contrary1 introduced as a means of increasing and developing the production of commodities4 ,when it arose1 it found ready-made1 and made liberal use of1 certain machinery for the production and exchange of commodities2 merchants' capital1 handicraft1 wage-labor4 ,socialized production thus introducing itself as a new form of the production of commodities1 it was a matter of course that under it the old forms of appropriation remained in full swing1 and were applied to its products as well4 ,in the mediaeval stage of evolution of the production of commodities1 the question as to the owner of the product of labor could not arise4 ,the individual producer1 as a rule1 had1 from raw material belonging to himself1 and generally his own handiwork1 produced it with his own tools1 by the labor of his own hands or of his family4 ,there was no need for him to appropriate the new product4 ,it belonged wholly to him1 as a matter of course4 ,his property in the product was1 therefore1 based upon his own labor4 ,even where external help was used1 this was1 as a rule1 of little importance1 and very generally was compensated by something other than wages4 ,the apprentices and journeymen of the guilds worked less for board and wages than for education1 in order that they might become master craftsmen themselves4 ,then came the concentration of the means of production and of the producers in large workshops and manufactories1 their transformation into actual socialized means of production and socialized producers4 ,but the socialized producers and means of production and their products were still treated1 after this change1 just as they had been before1 i4e41 as the means of production and the products of individuals4 ,hitherto1 the owner of the instruments of labor had himself appropriated the product1 because1 as a rule1 it was his own product and the assistance of others was the exception4 ,now the owner of the instruments of labor always appropriated to himself the product1 although it was no longer his product but exclusively the product of the labor of others4 ,thus1 the products now produced socially were not appropriated by those who had actually set in motion the means of production and actually produced the commodities1 but by the capitalists4 ,the means of production1 and production itself1 had become in essence socialized4 ,but they were subjected to a form of appropriation which presupposes the private production of individuals1 under which1 therefore1 every one owns his own product and brings it to market4 ,the mode of production is subjected to this form of appropriation1 although it abolishes the conditions upon which the latter rests4#d ,this contradiction1 which gives to the new mode of production its capitalistic character1 contains the germ of the whole of the social antagonisms of to-day4 ,the greater the mastery obtained by the new mode of production over all important fields of production and in all manufacturing countries1 the more it reduced individual production to an insignificant residuum1 the more clearly was brought out the incompatibility of socialized production with capitalistic appropriation4 ,the first capitalists found1 as we have said1 alongside of other forms of labor1 wage-labor ready-made for them on the market4 ,but it was exceptional1 complementary1 accessory1 transitory wage-labor4 ,the agricultural laborer1 though1 upon occasion1 he hired himself out by the day1 had a few acres of his own land on which he could at all events live at a pinch4 ,the guilds were so organized that the journeyman of to-day became the master of to-morrow4 ,but all this changed1 as soon as the means of production became socialized and concentrated in the hands of capitalists4 ,the means of production1 as well as the product of the individual producer became more and more worthless2 there was nothing left for him but to turn wage-worker under the capitalist4 ,wage-labor1 aforetime the exception and accessory1 now became the rule and basis of all production2 aforetime complementary1 it now became the sole remaining function of the worker4 ,the wage-worker for a time became a wage-worker for life4 ,the number of these permanent wage-workers was further enormously increased by the breaking-up of the feudal system that occurred at the same time1 by the disbanding of the retainers of the feudal lords1 the eviction of the peasants from their homesteads1 etc4 ,the separation was made complete between the means of production concentrated in the hands of the capitalists on the one side1 and the producers1 possessing nothing but their labor-power1 on the other4 ,the contradiction between socialized production and capitalistic appropriation manifested itself as the antagonism of proletariat and bourgeoisie4 ,we have seen that the capitalistic mode of production thrust its way into a society of commodity-producers1 of individual producers1 whose social bond was the exchange of their products4 ,but every society1 based upon the production of commodities1 has this peculiarity3 that the producers have lost control over their own social inter-relations4 ,each man produces for himself with such means of production as he may happen to have1 and for such exchange as he may require to satisfy his remaining wants4 ,no one knows how much of his particular article is coming on the market1 nor how much of it will be wanted4 ,no one knows whether his individual product will meet an actual demand1 whether he will be able to make good his cost of production or even to sell his commodity at all4 ,anarchy reigns in socialized production4 ,but the production of commodities1 like every other form of production1 has its peculiar inherent laws inseparable from it2 and these laws work1 despite anarchy1 in and through anarchy4 ,they reveal themselves in the only persistent form of social inter-relations1 i4e41 in exchange1 and here they affect the individual producers as compulsory laws of competition4 ,they are1 at first1 unknown to these producers themselves1 and have to be discovered by them gradually and as the result of experience4 ,they work themselves out1 therefore1 independently of the producers1 and in antagonism to them1 as inexorable natural laws of their particular form of production4 ,the product governs the producers4 ,in mediaeval society especially in the earlier centuries1 production was essentially directed towards satisfying the wants of the individual4 ,it satisfied1 in the main1 only the wants of the producer and his family4 ,where relations of personal dependence existed1 as in the country1 it also helped to satisfy the wants of the feudal lord4 ,in all this there was1 therefore1 no exchange2 the products1 consequently1 did not assume the character of commodities4 ,the family of the peasant produced almost everything they wanted3 clothes and furniture1 as well as means of subsistence4 ,only when it began to produce more than was sufficient to supply its own wants and the payments in kind to the feudal lord1 only then did it also produce commodities4 ,this surplus1 thrown into socialized exchange and offered for sale1 became commodities4 ,the artisans of the towns1 it is true1 had from the first to produce for exchange4 ,but they1 also1 themselves supplied the greatest part of their own individual wants4 ,they had gardens and plots of land4 ,they turned their cattle out into the communal forest1 which1 also1 yielded them timber and firing4 ,the women spun flax1 wool1 and so forth4 ,production for the purpose of exchange1 production of commodities1 was only in its infancy4 ,hence1 exchange was restricted1 the market narrow1 the methods of production stable2 there was local exclusiveness without1 local unity within2 the mark#e in the country1 in the town1 the guild4 ,but with the extension of the production of commodities1 and especially with the introduction of the capitalist mode of production1 the laws of commodity-production1 hitherto latent1 came into action more openly and with greater force4 ,the old bonds were loosened1 the old exclusive limits broken through1 the producers were more and more turned into independent1 isolated producers of commodities4 ,it became apparent that the production of society at large was ruled by absence of plan1 by accident1 by anarchy2 and this anarchy grew to greater and greater height4 ,but the chief means by aid of which the capitalist mode of production intensified this anarchy of socialized production1 was the exact opposite of anarchy4 ,it was the increasing organization of production1 upon a social basis1 in every individual productive establishment4 ,by this1 the old1 peaceful1 stable condition of things was ended4 ,wherever this organization of production was introduced into a branch of industry1 it brooked no other method of production by its side4 ,the field of labor became a battle-ground4 ,the great geographical discoveries1 and the colonization following upon them1 multiplied markets and quickened the transformation of handicraft into manufacture4 ,the war did not simply break out between the individual producers of particular localities4 ,the local struggles begat in their turn national conflicts1 the commercial wars of the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries4 ,finally1 modern industry and the opening of the world-market made the struggle universal1 and at the same time gave it an unheard-of virulence4 ,advantages in natural or artificial conditions of production now decide the existence or non-existence of individual capitalists1 as well as of whole industries and countries4 ,he that falls is remorselessly cast aside4 ,it is the ,darwinian struggle of the individual for existence transferred from ,nature to society with intensified violence4 ,the conditions of existence natural to the animal appear as the final term of human development4 ,the contradiction between socialized production and capitalistic appropriation now presents itself as an antagonism between the organization of production in the individual workshop and the anarchy of production in society generally4 ,the capitalistic mode of production moves in these two forms of the antagonism immanent to it from its very origin4 ,it is never able to get out of that vicious circle1 which ,fourier had already discovered4 ,what ,fourier could not1 indeed1 see in his time is1 that this circle is gradually narrowing2 that the movement becomes more and more a spiral1 and must come to an end1 like the movement of the planets1 by collision with the center4 ,it is the compelling force of anarchy in the production of society at large that more and more completely turns the great majority of men into proletarians2 and it is the masses of the proletariat again who will finally put an end to anarchy in production4 ,it is the compelling force of anarchy in social production that turns the limitless perfectibility of machinery under modern industry into a compulsory law by which every individual industrial capitalist must perfect his machinery more and more1 under penalty of ruin4 ,but the perfecting of machinery is making human labor superfluous4 ,if the introduction and increase of machinery means the displacement of millions of manual1 by a few machine-workers1 improvement in machinery means the displacement of more and more of the machine-workers themselves4 ,it means1 in the last instance1 the production of a number of available wage-workers in excess of the average needs of capital1 the formation of a complete industrial reserve army1 as ,i called it in #ahde1f available at the times when industry is working at high pressure1 to be cast out upon the street when the inevitable crash comes1 a constant dead weight upon the limbs of the working-class in its struggle for existence with capital1 a regulator for the keeping of wages down to the low level that suits the interests of capital4 ,thus it comes about1 to quote ,marx1 that machinery becomes the most powerful weapon in the war of capital against the working-class2 that the instruments of labor constantly tear the means of subsistence out of the hands of the laborer2 that the very product of the worker is turned into an instrument for his subjugation4 ,thus it comes about that the economizing of the instruments of labor becomes at the same time1 from the outset1 the most reckless waste of labor-power1 and robbery based upon the normal conditions under which labor functions2 that machinery1 the most powerful instrument for shortening labor-time1 becomes the most unfailing means for placing every moment of the laborer's time and that of his family at the disposal of the capitalist for the purpose of expanding the value of his capital 7,capital1 ,american edition1 p4 #dde74 ,thus it comes about that over-work of some becomes the preliminary condition for the idleness of others1 and that modern industry1 which hunts after new consumers over the whole world1 forces the consumption of the masses at home down to a starvation minimum1 and in doing thus destroys its own home market4 ,the law that always equilibrates the relative surplus population1 or industrial reserve army1 to the extent and energy of accumulation1 this law rivets the laborer to capital more firmly than the wedges of ,vulcan did ,prometheus to the rock4 ,it establishes an accumulation of misery1 corresponding with accumulation of capital4 ,accumulation of wealth at one pole is1 therefore1 at the same time1 accumulation of misery1 agony of toil1 slavery1 ignorance1 brutality1 mental degradation1 at the opposite pole1 i4e41 on the side of the class that produces its own product in the form of capital4 7,marx' ,capital ,vol4 ,i ,kerr ,co44 p4 #gji47 ,and to expect any other division of the products from the capitalistic mode of production is the same as expecting the electrodes of a battery not to decompose acidulated water1 not to liberate oxygen at the positive1 hydrogen at the negative pole1 so long as they are connected with the battery4 ,we have seen that the ever-increasing perfectibility of modern machinery is1 by the anarchy of social production1 turned into a compulsory law that forces the individual industrial capitalist always to improve his machinery always to increase its productive force4 ,the bare possibility of extending the field of production is transformed for him into a similar compulsory law4 ,the enormous expansive force of modern industry1 compared with which that of gases is mere child's play1 appears to us now as a necessity for expansion1 both qualitative and quantitative1 that laughs at all resistance4 ,such resistance is offered by consumption1 by sales1 by the markets for the products of modern industry4 ,but the capacity for extension1 extensive and intensive1 of the markets is primarily governed by quite different laws1 that work much less energetically4 ,the extension of the markets can not keep pace with the extension of production4 ,the collision becomes inevitable1 and as this cannot produce any real solution so long as it does not break in pieces the capitalist mode of production1 the collisions become periodic4 ,capitalist production has begotten another vicious circle4 ,as a matter of fact1 since #ahbe1 when the first general crisis broke out1 the whole industrial and commercial world1 production and exchange among all civilized peoples and their more or less barbaric hangers-on1 are thrown out of joint about once every ten years4 ,commerce is at a stand-still1 the markets are glutted1 products accumulate1 as multitudinous as they are unsaleable1 hard cash disappears1 credit vanishes1 factories are closed1 the mass of the workers are in want of the means of subsistence1 because they have produced too much of the means of subsistence2 bankruptcy follows upon bankruptcy1 execution upon execution4 ,the stagnation lasts for years2 productive forces and products are wasted and destroyed wholesale1 until the accumulated mass of commodities finally filter off1 more or less depreciated in value1 until production and exchange gradually begin to move again4 ,little by little the pace quickens4 ,it becomes a trot4 ,the industrial trot breaks into a canter1 the canter in turn grows into the headlong gallop of a perfect steeplechase of industry1 commercial credit1 and speculation1 which finally1 after breakneck leaps1 ends where it began--in the ditch of a crisis4 ,and so over and over again4 ,we have now1 since the year #ahbe1 gone through this five times1 and at the present moment 7#ahgg7 we are going through it for the sixth time4 ,and the character of these crises is so clearly defined that ,fourier hit all of them off1 when he described the first as crise plethorique1 a crisis from plethora4 ,in these crises1 the contradiction between socialized production and capitalist appropriation ends in a violent explosion4 ,the circulation of commodities is1 for the time being1 stopped4 ,money1 the means of circulation1 becomes a hindrance to circulation4 ,all the laws of production and circulation of commodities are turned upside down4 ,the economic collision has reached its apogee4 ,the mode of production is in rebellion against the mode of exchange4 ,the fact that the socialized organization of production within the factory has developed so far that it has become incompatible with the anarchy of production in society1 which exists side by side with and dominates it1 is brought home to the capitalists themselves by the violent concentration of capital that occurs during crises1 through the ruin of many large1 and a still greater number of small1 capitalists4 ,the whole mechanism of the capitalist mode of production breaks down under the pressure of the productive forces1 its own creations4 ,it is no longer able to turn all this mass of means of production into capital4 ,they lie fallow1 and for that very reason the industrial reserve army must also lie fallow4 ,means of production1 means of subsistence1 available laborers1 all the elements of production and of general wealth1 are present in abundance4 ,but abundance becomes the source of distress and want 7,fourier71 because it is the very thing that prevents the transformation of the means of production and subsistence into capital4 ,for in capitalistic society the means of production can only function when they have undergone a preliminary transformation into capital1 into the means of exploiting human labor-power4 ,the necessity of this transformation into capital of the means of production and subsistence stands like a ghost between these and the workers4 ,it alone prevents the coming together of the material and personal levers of production2 it alone forbids the means of production to function1 the workers to work and live4 ,on the one hand1 therefore1 the capitalistic mode of production stands convicted of its own incapacity to further direct these productive forces4 ,on the other1 these productive forces themselves1 with increasing energy1 press forward to the removal of the existing contradiction1 to the abolition of their quality as capital1 to the practical recognition of their character as social productive forces4 ,this rebellion of the productive forces1 as they grow more and more powerful1 against their quality as capital1 this stronger and stronger command that their social character shall be recognized1 forces the capitalist class itself to treat them more and more as social productive forces1 so far as this is possible under capitalist conditions4 ,the period of industrial high pressure1 with its unbounded inflation of credit1 not less than the crash itself1 by the collapse of great capitalist establishments1 tends to bring about that form of the socialization of great masses of means of production1 which we meet with in the different kinds of joint-stock companies4 ,many of these means of production and of distribution are1 from the outset1 so colossal1 that1 like the railroads1 they exclude all other forms of capitalistic exploitation4 ,at a further stage of evolution this form also becomes insufficient4 ,the producers on a large scale in a particular branch of industry in a particular country unite in a ,trust1 a union for the purpose of regulating production4 ,they determine the total amount to be produced1 parcel it out among themselves1 and thus enforce the selling price fixed beforehand4 ,but trusts of this kind1 as soon as business becomes bad1 are generally liable to break up1 and1 on this very account1 compel a yet greater concentration of association4 ,the whole of the particular industry is turned into one gigantic joint-stock company2 internal competition gives place to the internal monopoly of this one company4 ,this has happened in #ahij with the ,english alkali production1 which is now1 after the fusion of #dh large works1 in the hands of one company1 conducted upon a single plan1 and with a capital of ,l#f1jjj1jjj4 ,in the trusts1 freedom of competition changes into its very opposite--into monopoly2 and the production without any definite plan of capitalistic society capitulates to the production upon a definite plan of the invading socialistic society4 ,certainly this is so far still to the benefit and advantage of the capitalists4 ,but in this case the exploitation is so palpable that it must break down4 ,no nation will put up with production conducted by trusts1 with so barefaced an exploitation of the community by a small band of dividend-mongers4 ,in any case1 with trusts or without1 the official representative of capitalist society--the ,state--will ultimately have to undertake the direction of production4#g ,this necessity for conversion into ,state-property is felt first in the great institutions for intercourse and communication--the postoffice1 the telegraphs1 the railways4 ,if the crisis demonstrate the incapacity of the bourgeoisie for managing any longer modern productive forces1 the transformation of the great establishments for production and distribution into joint-stock companies1 trusts1 and ,state property1 show how unnecessary the bourgeoisie are for that purpose4 ,all the social functions of the capitalist are now performed by salaried employees4 ,the capitalist has no further social function than that of pocketing dividends1 tearing off coupons1 and gambling on the ,stock ,exchange1 where the different capitalists despoil one another of their capital4 ,at first the capitalistic mode of production forces out the workers4 ,now it forces out the capitalists1 and reduces them1 just as it reduced the workers1 to the ranks of the surplus population1 although not immediately into those of the industrial reserve army4 ,but the transformation1 either into joint-stock companies and trusts1 or into ,state-ownership does not do away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces4 ,in the joint-stock companies and trusts this is obvious4 ,and the modern ,state1 again1 is only the organization that bourgeois society takes on in order to support the external conditions of the capitalist mode of production against the encroachments1 as well of the workers as of individual capitalists4 ,the modern ,state1 no matter what its form1 is essentially a capitalist machine1 the state of the capitalists1 the ideal personification of the total national capital4 ,the more it proceeds to the taking over of productive forces1 the more does it actually become the national capitalist1 the more citizens does it exploit4 ,the workers remain wage-workers--proletarians4 ,the capitalist relation is not done away with4 ,it is rather brought to a head4 ,but1 brought to a head1 it topples over4 ,state-ownership of the productive forces is not the solution of the conflict1 but concealed within it are the technical conditions that form the elements of that solution4 ,this solution can only consist in the practical recognition of the social nature of the modern forces of production1 and therefore in the harmonizing the modes of production1 appropriation1 and exchange with the socialized character of the means of production4 ,and this can only come about by society openly and directly taking possession of the productive forces which have outgrown all control except that of society as a whole4 ,the social character of the means of production and of the products to-day reacts against the producers1 periodically disrupts all production and exchange1 acts only like a law of ,nature working blindly1 forcibly1 destructively4 ,but with the taking over by society of the productive forces1 the social character of the means of production and of the products will be utilized by the producers with a perfect understanding of its nature1 and instead of being a source of disturbance and periodical collapse1 will become the most powerful lever of production itself4 ,active social forces work exactly like natural forces3 blindly1 forcibly1 destructively1 so long as we do not understand1 and reckon with1 them4 ,but when once we understand them1 when once we grasp their action1 their direction1 their effects1 it depends only upon ourselves to subject them more and more to our own will1 and by means of them to reach our own ends4 ,and this holds quite especially of the mighty productive forces of to-day4 ,as long as we obstinately refuse to understand the nature and the character of these social means of action--and this understanding goes against the grain of the capitalist mode of production and its defenders--so long these forces are at work in spite of us1 in opposition to us1 so long they master us1 as we have shown above in detail4 ,but when once their nature is understood1 they can1 in the hands of the producers working together1 be transformed from master demons into willing servants4 ,the difference is as that between the destructive force of electricity in the lightning of the storm1 and electricity under command in the telegraph and the voltaic arc2 the difference between a conflagration1 and fire working in the service of man4 ,with this recognition at last of the real nature of the productive forces of to-day1 the social anarchy of production gives place to a social regulation of production upon a definite plan1 according to the needs of the community and of each individual4 ,then the capitalist mode of appropriation1 in which the product enslaves first the producer and then the appropriator1 is replaced by the mode of appropriation of the products that is based upon the nature of the modern means of production2 upon the one hand1 direct social appropriation1 as means to the maintenance and extension of production--on the other1 direct individual appropriation1 as means of subsistence and of enjoyment4 ,whilst the capitalist mode of production more and more completely transforms the great majority of the population into proletarians1 it creates the power which1 under penalty of its own destruction1 is forced to accomplish this revolution4 ,whilst it forces on more and more the transformation of the vast means of production1 already socialized1 into ,state property1 it shows itself the way to accomplishing this revolution4 ,the proletariat seizes political power and turns the means of production into ,state property4 ,but in doing this1 it abolishes itself as proletariat1 abolishes all class distinctions and class antagonisms1 abolishes also the ,state as ,state4 ,society thus far1 based upon class antagonisms1 had need of the ,state4 ,that is1 of an organization of the particular class which was pro tempore the exploiting class1 an organization for the purpose of preventing any interference from without with the existing conditions of production1 and therefore1 especially1 for the purpose of forcibly keeping the exploited classes in the condition of oppression corresponding with the given mode of production 7slavery1 serfdom1 wage-labor74 ,the ,state was the official representative of society as a whole2 the gathering of it together into a visible embodiment4 ,but it was this only in so far as it was the ,state of that class which itself represented1 for the time being1 society as a whole2 in ancient times1 the ,state of slave-owning citizens2 in the middle ages1 the feudal lords2 in our own time1 the bourgeoisie4 ,when at last it becomes the real representative of the whole of society1 it renders itself unnecessary4 ,as soon as there is no longer any social class to be held in subjection2 as soon as class rule1 and the individual struggle for existence based upon our present anarchy in production1 with the collisions and excesses arising from these1 are removed1 nothing more remains to be repressed1 and a special repressive force1 a ,state1 is no longer necessary4 ,the first act by virtue of which the ,state really constitutes itself the representative of the whole of society--the taking possession of the means of production in the name of society--this is1 at the same time1 its last independent act as a ,state4 ,state interference in social relations becomes1 in one domain after another1 superfluous1 and then dies out of itself2 the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things1 and by the conduct of processes of production4 ,the ,state is not abolished4 ,it dies out4 ,this gives the measure of the value of the phrase a free ,state1 both as to its justifiable use at times by agitators1 and as to its ultimate scientific insufficiency2 and also of the demands of the so-called anarchists for the abolition of the ,state out of hand4 ,since the historical appearance of the capitalist mode of production1 the appropriation by society of all the means of production has often been dreamed of1 more or less vaguely1 by individuals1 as well as by sects1 as the ideal of the future4 ,but it could become possible1 could become a historical necessity1 only when the actual conditions for its realization were there4 ,like every other social advance1 it becomes practicable1 not by men understanding that the existence of classes is in contradiction to justice1 equality1 etc41 not by the mere willingness to abolish these classes1 but by virtue of certain new economic conditions4 ,the separation of society into an exploiting and an exploited class1 a ruling and an oppressed class1 was the necessary consequence of the deficient and restricted development of production in former times4 ,so long as the total social labor only yields a produce which but slightly exceeds that barely necessary for the existence of all2 so long1 therefore1 as labor engages all or almost all the time of the great majority of the members of society--so long1 of necessity1 this society is divided into classes4 ,side by side with the great majority1 exclusively bond slaves to labor1 arises a class freed from directly productive labor1 which looks after the general affairs of society2 the direction of labor1 ,state business1 law1 science1 art1 etc4 ,it is1 therefore1 the law of division of labor that lies at the basis of the division into classes4 ,but this does not prevent this division into classes from being carried out by means of violence and robbery1 trickery and fraud4 ,it does not prevent the ruling class1 once having the upper hand1 from consolidating its power at the expense of the working-class1 from turning their social leadership into an intensified exploitation of the masses4 ,but if1 upon this showing1 division into classes has a certain historical justification1 it has this only for a given period1 only under given social conditions4 ,it was based upon the insufficiency of production4 ,it will be swept away by the complete development of modern productive forces4 ,and1 in fact1 the abolition of classes in society presupposes a degree of historical evolution1 at which the existence1 not simply of this or that particular ruling class1 but of any ruling class at all1 and1 therefore1 the existence of class distinction itself has become an obsolete anachronism4 ,it presupposes1 therefore1 the development of production carried out to a degree at which appropriation of the means of production and of the products1 and1 with this1 of political domination1 of the monopoly of culture1 and of intellectual leadership by a particular class of society1 has become not only superfluous1 but economically1 politically1 intellectually a hindrance to development4 ,this point is now reached4 ,their political and intellectual bankruptcy is scarcely any longer a secret to the bourgeoisie themselves4 ,their economic bankruptcy recurs regularly every ten years4 ,in every crisis1 society is suffocated beneath the weight of its own productive forces and products1 which it cannot use1 and stands helpless1 face to face with the absurd contradiction that the producers have nothing to consume1 because consumers are wanting4 ,the expansive force of the means of production bursts the bonds that the capitalist mode of production had imposed upon them4 ,their deliverance from these bonds is the one precondition for an unbroken1 constantly-accelerated development of the productive forces1 and therewith for a practically unlimited increase of production itself4 ,nor is this all4 ,the socialized appropriation of the means of production does away1 not only with the present artificial restrictions upon production1 but also with the positive waste and devastation of productive forces and products that are at the present time the inevitable concomitants of production1 and that reach their height in the crises4 ,further1 it sets free for the community at large a mass of means of production and of products1 by doing away with the senseless extravagance of the ruling classes of to-day1 and their political representatives4 ,the possibility of securing for every member of society1 by means of socialized production1 an existence not only fully sufficient materially1 and becoming day by day more full1 but an existence guaranteeing to all the free development and exercise of their physical and mental faculties--this possibility is now for the first time here1 but it is here4#h ,with the seizing of the means of production by society1 production of commodities is done away with1 and1 simultaneously1 the mastery of the product over the producer4 ,anarchy in social production is replaced by systematic1 definite organization4 ,the struggle for individual existence disappears4 ,then for the first time1 man1 in a certain sense1 is finally marked off from the rest of the animal kingdom1 and emerges from mere animal conditions of existence into really human ones4 ,the whole sphere of the conditions of life which environ man1 and which have hitherto ruled man1 now comes under the dominion and control of man1 who for the first time becomes the real1 conscious lord of ,nature1 because he has now become master of his own social organization4 ,the laws of his own social action1 hitherto standing face to face with man as laws of ,nature foreign to1 and dominating1 him1 will then be used with full understanding1 and so mastered by him4 ,man's own social organization1 hitherto confronting him as a necessity imposed by ,nature and history1 now becomes the result of his own free action4 ,the extraneous objective forces that have hitherto governed history1 pass under the control of man himself4 ,only from that time will man himself1 more and more consciously1 make his own history--only from that time will the social causes set in movement by him have1 in the main and in a constantly growing measure1 the results intended by him4 ,it is the ascent of man from the kingdom of necessity to the kingdom of freedom4 ,let us briefly sum up our sketch of historical evolution4 ,i4 ,mediaeval ,society4--,individual production on a small scale4 ,means of production adapted for individual use2 hence primitive1 ungainly1 petty1 dwarfed in action4 ,production for immediate consumption1 either of the producer himself or of his feudal lord4 ,only where an excess of production over this consumption occurs is such excess offered for sale1 enters into exchange4 ,production of commodities1 therefore1 only in its infancy4 ,but already it contains within itself1 in embryo1 anarchy in the production of society at large4 ,,ii4 ,capitalist ,revolution4--,transformation of industry1 at first by means of simple co-operation and manufacture4 ,concentration of the means of production1 hitherto scattered1 into great workshops4 ,as a consequence1 their transformation from individual to social means of production--a transformation which does not1 on the whole1 affect the form of exchange4 ,the old forms of appropriation remain in force4 ,the capitalist appears4 ,in his capacity as owner of the means of production1 he also appropriates the products and turns them into commodities4 ,production has become a social act4 ,exchange and appropriation continue to be individual acts1 the acts of individuals4 ,the social product is appropriated by the individual capitalist4 ,fundamental contradiction1 whence arise all the contradictions in which our present day society moves1 and which modern industry brings to light4 ,a4 ,severance of the producer from the means of production4 ,condemnation of the worker to wage-labor for life4 ,antagonism between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie4 ,b4 ,growing predominance and increasing effectiveness of the laws governing the production of commodities4 ,unbridled competition4 ,contradiction between socialized organization in the individual factory and social anarchy in production as a whole4 ,c4 ,on the one hand1 perfecting of machinery1 made by competition compulsory for each individual manufacturer1 and complemented by a constantly growing displacement of laborers4 ,industrial reserve-army4 ,on the other hand1 unlimited extension of production1 also compulsory under competition1 for every manufacturer4 ,on both sides1 unheard of development of productive forces1 excess of supply over demand1 over-production1 glutting of the markets1 crises every ten years1 the vicious circle3 excess here1 of means of production and products--excess there1 of laborers1 without employment and without means of existence4 ,but these two levers of production and of social well-being are unable to work together1 because the capitalist form of production prevents the productive forces from working and the products from circulating1 unless they are first turned into capital--which their very superabundance prevents4 ,the contradiction has grown into an absurdity4 ,the mode of production rises in rebellion against the form of exchange4 ,the bourgeoisie are convicted of incapacity further to manage their own social productive forces4 ,d4 ,partial recognition of the social character of the productive forces forced upon the capitalists themselves4 ,taking over of the great institutions for production and communication1 first by joint-stock companies1 later on by trusts1 then by the ,state4 ,the bourgeoisie demonstrated to be a superfluous class4 ,all its social functions are now performed by salaried employees4 ,,iii4 ,proletarian ,revolution4--,solution of the contradictions4 ,the proletariat seizes the public power1 and by means of this transforms the socialized means of production1 slipping from the hands of the bourgeoisie1 into public property4 ,by this act the proletariat frees the means of production from the character of capital they have thus far borne1 and gives their socialized character complete freedom to work itself out4 ,socialized production upon a predetermined plan becomes henceforth possible4 ,the development of production makes the existence of different classes of society thenceforth an anachronism4 ,in proportion as anarchy in social production vanishes1 the political authority of the ,state dies out4 ,man1 at last the master of his own form of social organization1 becomes at the same time the lord over ,nature1 his own master--free4 ,to accomplish this act of universal emancipation is the historical mission of the modern proletariat4 ,to thoroughly comprehend the historical conditions and thus the very nature of this act1 to impart to the now oppressed proletarian class a full knowledge of the conditions and of the meaning of the momentous act it is called upon to accomplish1 this is the task of the theoretical expression of the proletarian movement1 scientific ,socialism4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,it is hardly necessary in this connection to point out1 that1 even if the form of appropriation remains the same1 the character of the appropriation is just as much revolutionized as production is by the changes described above4 ,it is1 of course1 a very different matter whether ,i appropriate to myself my own product or that of another4 ,note in passing that wage-labor1 which contains the whole capitalistic mode of production in embryo1 is very ancient2 in a sporadic1 scattered form it existed for centuries alongside of slave-labor4 ,but the embryo could duly develop into the capitalistic mode of production only when the necessary historical preconditions had been furnished4 #e ,see ,appendix4 #f ,the ,condition of the ,working-,class in ,england 7,sonnenschein ,co471 p4 #hd4 #g ,i say have to4 ,for only when the means of production and distribution have actually outgrown the form of management by joint-stock companies1 and when1 therefore1 the taking them over by the ,state has become economically inevitable1 only then--even if it is the ,state of to-day that effects this--is there an economic advance1 the attainment of another step preliminary to the taking over of all productive forces by society itself4 ,but of late1 since ,bismarck went in for ,state-ownership of industrial establishments1 a kind of spurious ,socialism has arisen1 degenerating1 now and again1 into something of flunkeyism1 that without more ado declares all ,state-ownership1 even of the ,bismarckian sort1 to be socialistic4 ,certainly1 if the taking over by the ,state of the tobacco industry is socialistic1 then ,napoleon and ,metternich must be numbered among the founders of ,socialism4 ,if the ,belgian ,state1 for quite ordinary political and financial reasons1 itself constructed its chief railway lines2 if ,bismarck1 not under any economic compulsion1 took over for the ,state the chief ,prussian lines1 simply to be the better able to have them in hand in case of war1 to bring up the railway employees as voting cattle for the ,government1 and especially to create for himself a new source of income independent of parliamentary votes--this was1 in no sense1 a socialistic measure1 directly or indirectly1 consciously or unconsciously4 ,otherwise1 the ,royal ,maritime ,company1 the ,royal porcelain manufacture1 and even the regimental tailor of the army would also be socialistic institutions1 or even1 as was seriously proposed by a sly dog in ,frederick ,william ,,iii4's reign1 the taking over by the ,state of the brothels4 #h ,a few figures may serve to give an approximate idea of the enormous expansive force of the modern means of production1 even under capitalist pressure4 ,according to ,mr4 ,giffen1 the total wealth of ,great ,britain and ,ireland amounted1 in round numbers1 in #ahad to ,l#b1bjj1jjj1jjj4 #ahfe to ,l#f1ajj1jjj1jjj4 #ahge to ,l#h1ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,as an instance of the squandering of means of production and of products during a crisis1 the total loss in the ,german iron industry alone1 in the crisis of #ahgc-gh1 was given at the second ,german ,industrial ,congress 7,berlin1 ,february #ba1 #ahgh7 as ,l#bb1gej1jjj4 99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,typographical errors corrected in text3 ,page #bi3 conteracting replaced with counteracting ,page #fj3 non-possesing replaced with non-possessing ,page #aaa3 ,but the perfecting of machinery is the making human labor superfluous4 replaced with ,but the perfecting of machinery is making human labor superfluous4 ,page #acj3 preletariat replaced with proletariat ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 99 99 99 99 99