,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 root stands for the root symbol2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 for greek letters4 7#f7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,article ,,hinduism3 ,but1 in this respect1 we also meet in the epics with the first clear evidence of what in after time became the prominent feature of the worship of ,siva and his consort all over ,india 444 'respect' amended from 'repect'4 ,,article ,,hinduism3 ,though the ,lingayats still show a certain animosity towards the ,brahmans1 and in the ,census lists are accordingly classed as an independent group beside the ,hindus 444 'classed' amended from 'classes'4 ,,article ,,hinterland3 ,in the purely physical sense 'interior' or 'back country' is more commonly used1 but the word has gained a distinct political significance4 'or' amended from 'on'4 ,,article ,,hippodrome3 444 so that the width was far greater1 being about #djj ft41 the course being #fjj to #gjj ft4 long4 'course' amended from 'cource'4 ,,article ,,hirsau3 ,c4 ,h4 ,klaiber1 ,das ,kloster ,hirschau 7,tubingen1 #ahhf72 and ,baer1 ,die ,hirsauer ,bauschule 7,freiburg1 #ahig74 ',hirsauer' amended from ',hirsauers'4 ,,article ,,hobbes1 ,,thomas3 ,in politics the revulsion from his particular conclusions did not prevent the more clear-sighted of his opponents from recognizing the force of his supreme demonstration of the practical irresponsibility of the sovereign power 444 'particular' amended from 'particuar'4 ,,article ,,hoffmann1 ,,johann ,,joseph3 ,his ,japanese grammar 7,japanische ,sprachlehre7 was published in ,dutch and ,english in #ahfg1 and in ,english and ,german in #ahgf4 ',sprachlehre' amended from ',sprechlehre'4 ,,article ,,hofmeyr1 ,,jan ,,hendrik3 ,he was editor of the ,zuid ,afrikaan till its incorporation with ,ons ,land1 and of the ,zuid ,afrikaansche ,tijdschrift4 ',tijdschrift' amended from ',tidjschrift'4 ,,article ,,hohenlohe3 444 which was to exercise an important influence on his political activity4 ,as the younger son of a cadet line of his house it was necessary for ,prince ,chlodwig to follow a profession4 'political' amended from 'politcal'4 ,,article ,,holland3 ,the height of the boezem peil ranges between #a7a_/c7 ft4 above to #a7e_/f7 ft4 below the ,amsterdam zero 444 'between' amended from 'beween'4 ,,article ,,holland3 444 ,nieuwe ,wandelingen door ,nederland1 by ,j4 ,craandijk and ,p4 ,a4 ,schipperus 7,haarlem1 #ahhh7 444 ',wandelingen' amended from ',wanderlingen'4 ,,article ,,holland3 444 agreed to accept the sovereignty of the ,netherlands provinces1 except ,holland and ,zeeland4 ',netherlands' amended from ',netherland'4 ,,article ,,holland3 left ,england on the #bbnd of ,august for ,sainte-,mere ,eglise in ,normandy4 ',eglise' amended from ',eglide'4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,xiii1 ,,slice ,v ,hinduism to ,home1 ,earls of ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,hinduism ,,hody1 ,,humphrey ,,hindu ,,kush ,,hoe1 ,,richard ,,march ,,hindur ,,hoe ,,hinganghat ,,hoefnagel1 ,,joris ,,hinge ,,hof ,,hingham ,,hofer1 ,,andreas ,,hinrichs1 ,,hermann ,,wilhelm ,,hoffding1 ,,harald ,,hinschius1 ,,paul ,,hoffmann1 ,,august ,,heinrich ,,hinterland ,,hoffmann1 ,,ernst ,,theodor ,,wilhelm ,,hinton1 ,,james ,,hoffmann1 ,,francois ,,benoit ,,hiogo ,,hoffmann1 ,,friedrich ,,hip ,,hoffmann1 ,,johann ,,joseph ,,hip-,,knob ,,hofmann1 ,,august ,,wilhelm ,,von ,,hipparchus ,,hofmann1 ,,johann ,,christian ,,konrad ,,von ,,hippasus ,,of ,,metapontum ,,hofmann1 ,,melchior ,,hippeastrum ,,hofmeister1 ,,wilhelm ,,friedrich ,,benedict ,,hipped ,,roof ,,hofmeyr1 ,,jan ,,hendrik ,,hippel1 ,,theodor ,,gottlieb ,,von ,,hofstede ,,de ,,groot1 ,,petrus ,,hippias ,,of ,,elis ,,hogarth1 ,,william ,,hippo ,,hogg1 ,,james ,,hippocras ,,hogg1 ,,thomas ,,jefferson ,,hippocrates ,,hogmanay ,,hippocrene ,,hogshead ,,hippodamus ,,hohenasperg ,,hippodrome ,,hohenfriedberg ,,hippolytus 7,greek legend hunter7 ,,hohenheim ,,hippolytus 7,church writer7 ,,hohenlimburg ,,hippolytus1 ,,the ,,canons ,,of ,,hohenlohe ,,hipponax ,,hohenstaufen ,,hippopotamus ,,hohenstein ,,hippuric ,,acid ,,hohenzollern ,,hipurnias ,,hokkaido ,,hira ,,hokusai ,,hirado ,,holbach1 ,,paul ,,heinrich ,,dietrich ,,hire-,,purchase ,,agreement ,,holbeach ,,hiring ,,holbein1 ,,hans 7the elder7 ,,hirosaki ,,holbein1 ,,hans 7the younger7 ,,hiroshige ,,holberg1 ,,ludvig ,,holberg ,,hiroshima ,,holborn ,,hirpini ,,holcroft1 ,,thomas ,,hirsau ,,holden1 ,,hubert ,,ashton ,,hirsch1 ,,maurice ,,de ,,holden1 ,,sir ,,isaac ,,hirsch1 ,,samson ,,raphael ,,holderlin1 ,,johann ,,christian ,,friedrich ,,hirschberg ,,holdernesse1 ,,earl ,,of ,,hirson ,,holdheim1 ,,samuel ,,hirtius1 ,,aulus ,,holguin ,,hisham ,,ibn ,,al-,,kalbi ,,holiday ,,hispellum ,,holinshed1 ,,raphael ,,hissar 7district in ,asia7 ,,holkar ,,hissar 7,indian town district7 ,,holl1 ,,frank ,,histiaeus ,,holland1 ,,charles ,,histology ,,holland1 ,,sir ,,henry ,,history ,,holland1 ,,henry ,,fox ,,hit ,,holland1 ,,henry ,,rich ,,hita1 ,,gines ,,perez ,,de ,,holland1 ,,henry ,,richard ,,vassall ,,fox ,,hitchcock1 ,,edward ,,holland1 ,,josiah ,,gilbert ,,hitchcock1 ,,george ,,holland1 ,,philemon ,,hitchcock1 ,,roswell ,,dwight ,,holland1 ,,richard ,,hitchin ,,holland 7country7 ,,hittites ,,holland1 ,,county ,,and ,,province ,,of ,,hittorff1 ,,jacques ,,ignace ,,holland 7,michigan1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,hitzacker ,,holland 7cloth7 ,,hitzig1 ,,ferdinand ,,hollar1 ,,wenzel or ,,wenceslaus ,,hiung-,,nu ,,holles1 ,,denzil ,,holles ,,hivites ,,holloway1 ,,thomas ,,hjorring ,,holly ,,hkamti ,,long ,,hollyhock ,,hlothhere ,,holly ,,springs ,,hoactzin ,,holman1 ,,james ,,hoadly1 ,,benjamin ,,holmes1 ,,oliver ,,wendell ,,hoar1 ,,samuel ,,holmfirth ,,hoare1 ,,sir ,,richard ,,colt ,,holocaust ,,hobart1 ,,garret ,,augustus ,,holocene ,,hobart1 ,,john ,,henry ,,holroyd1 ,,sir ,,charles ,,hobart ,,pasha ,,holstein1 ,,friedrich ,,von ,,hobart 7capital of ,tasmania7 ,,holstein 7duchy of ,germany7 ,,hobbema1 ,,meyndert ,,holsten1 ,,karl ,,christian ,,johann ,,hobbes1 ,,thomas ,,holstenius1 ,,lucas ,,hobby ,,holster ,,hobhouse1 ,,arthur ,,hobhouse ,,holt1 ,,sir ,,john ,,hoboken 7town of ,belgium7 ,,holtei1 ,,karl ,,eduard ,,von ,,hoboken 7,new ,jersey1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,holty1 ,,ludwig ,,heinrich ,,christoph ,,hobson',s ,,choice ,,holtzendorff1 ,,joachim ,,franz ,,philipp ,,von ,,hoby1 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,holtzmann1 ,,heinrich ,,julius ,,hoche1 ,,lazare ,,holub1 ,,emil ,,hochheim ,,holy ,,hochst ,,holy ,,alliance1 ,,the ,,hochstadt ,,holyhead ,,hochstetter1 ,,ferdinand ,,von ,,holy ,,island ,,hockey ,,holyoake1 ,,george ,,jacob ,,hock-,,tide ,,holyoke ,,hocus ,,holystone ,,hodden ,,holy ,,water ,,hoddesdon ,,holy ,,week ,,hodeda ,,holywell ,,hodening ,,holywood ,,hodge1 ,,charles ,,holzminden ,,hodgkin1 ,,thomas ,,holztrompete ,,hodgkinson1 ,,eaton ,,homage ,,hodgson1 ,,brian ,,houghton ,,homberg1 ,,wilhelm ,,hodmezo-,,vasarhely ,,homburg-,,vor-,,der-,,hohe ,,hodograph ,,home1 ,,earls ,,of ,,hodson1 ,,william ,,stephen ,,raikes ,,hinduism1 a term generally employed to comprehend the social institutions1 past and present1 of the ,hindus who form the great majority of the people of ,india2 as well as the multitudinous crop of their religious beliefs which has grown up1 in the course of many centuries1 on the foundation of the ,brahmanical scriptures4 ,the actual proportion of the total population of ,india 7#bid millions7 included under the name of ,hindus has been computed in the census report for #aija at something like #gj 7#bjf millions72 the remaining #cj being made up partly of the followers of foreign creeds1 such as ,mahommedans1 ,parsees1 ,christians and ,jews1 partly of the votaries of indigenous forms of belief which have at various times separated from the main stock1 and developed into independent systems1 such as ,buddhism1 ,jainism and ,sikhism2 and partly of isolated hill and jungle tribes1 such as the ,santals1 ,bhils 7,bhilla7 and ,kols1 whose crude animistic tendencies have hitherto kept them1 either wholly or for the most part1 outside the pale of the ,brahmanical community4 ,the name ,hindu itself is of foreign origin1 being derived from the ,persians1 by whom the river ,sindhu was called ,hindhu1 a name subsequently applied to the inhabitants of that frontier district1 and gradually extended over the upper and middle reaches of the ,gangetic valley1 whence this whole tract of country between the ,himalaya and the ,vindhya mountains1 west of ,bengal1 came to be called by the foreign conquerors ,hindustan1 or the abode of the ,hindus2 whilst the native writers called it ,aryavarta1 or the abode of the ,aryas4 ,but whilst1 in its more comprehensive acceptation1 the term ,hinduism would thus range over the entire historical development of ,brahmanical ,india1 it is also not infrequently used in a narrower sense1 as denoting more especially the modern phase of ,indian social and religious institutions--from the earlier centuries of the ,christian era down to our own days--as distinguished from the period dominated by the authoritative doctrine of pantheistic belief1 formulated by the speculative theologians during the centuries immediately succeeding the ,vedic period 7see ,,brahmanism74 ,in this its more restricted sense the term may thus practically be taken to apply to the later bewildering variety of popular sectarian forms of belief1 with its social concomitant1 the fully developed caste-system4 ,but1 though one may at times find it convenient to speak of ,brahmanism and ,hinduism1 it must be clearly understood that the distinction implied in the combination of these terms is an extremely vague one1 especially from the chronological point of view4 ,the following considerations will probably make this clear4 ,connexion with ,brahmanism4 ,the characteristic tenet of orthodox ,brahmanism consists in the conception of an absolute1 all-embracing spirit1 the ,brahma 7neutr471 being the one and only reality1 itself unconditioned1 and the original cause and ultimate goal of all individual souls 7jiva1 i4e4 living things74 ,coupled with this abstract conception are two other doctrines1 viz4 first1 the transmigration of souls 7samsara71 regarded by ,indian thinkers as the necessary complement of a belief in the essential sameness of all the various spiritual units1 however contaminated1 to a greater or less degree1 they may be by their material embodiment2 and in their ultimate re-union with the ,paramatman1 or ,supreme ,self2 and second1 the assumption of a triple manifestation of the ceaseless working of that ,absolute ,spirit as a creative1 conservative and destructive principle1 represented respectively by the divine personalities of ,brahma 7masc471 ,vishnu and ,siva1 forming the ,trimurti or ,triad4 ,as regards this latter1 purely exoteric1 doctrine1 there can be little doubt of its owing its origin to considerations of theological expediency1 as being calculated to supply a sufficiently wide formula of belief for general acceptance2 and the very fact of this divine triad including the two principal deities of the later sectarian worship1 ,vishnu and ,siva1 goes far to show that these two gods at all events must have been already in those early days favourite objects of popular adoration to an extent sufficient to preclude their being ignored by a diplomatic priesthood bent upon the formulation of a common creed4 ,thus1 so far from sectarianism being a mere modern development of ,brahmanism1 it actually goes back to beyond the formulation of the ,brahmanical creed4 ,nay1 when1 on analysing the functions and attributes of those two divine figures1 each of them is found to be but a compound of several previously recognized deities1 sectarian worship may well be traced right up to the ,vedic age4 ,that the theory of the triple manifestation of the deity was indeed only a compromise between ,brahmanical aspirations and popular worship1 probably largely influenced by the traditional sanctity of the number three1 is sufficiently clear from the fact that1 whilst ,brahma1 the creator1 and at the same time the very embodiment of ,brahmanical class pride1 has practically remained a mere figurehead in the actual worship of the people1 ,siva1 on the other hand1 so far from being merely the destroyer1 is also the unmistakable representative of generative and reproductive power in nature4 ,in fact1 ,brahma1 having performed his legitimate part in the mundane evolution by his original creation of the universe1 has retired into the background1 being1 as it were1 looked upon as functus officio1 like a venerable figure of a former generation1 whence in epic poetry he is commonly styled pitamaha1 the grandsire4 ,but despite the artificial character of the ,trimurti1 it has retained to this day at least its theoretical validity in orthodox ,hinduism1 whilst it has also undoubtedly exercised considerable influence in shaping sectarian belief1 in promoting feelings of toleration towards the claims of rival deities2 and in a tendency towards identifying divine figures newly sprung into popular favour with one or other of the principal deities1 and thus helping to bring into vogue that notion of avatars1 or periodical descents or incarnations of the deity1 which has become so prominent a feature of the later sectarian belief4 ,under more favourable political conditions1#a the sacerdotal class might perhaps1 in course of time1 have succeeded in imposing something like an effective common creed on the heterogeneous medley of races and tribes scattered over the peninsula1 just as they certainly did succeed in establishing the social prerogative of their own order over the length and breadth of ,india4 ,they were1 however1 fated to fall far short of such a consummation2 and at all times orthodox ,brahmanism has had to wink at1 or ignore1 all manner of gross superstitions and repulsive practices1 along with the popular worship of countless hosts of godlings1 demons1 spirits and ghosts1 and mystic objects and symbols of every description4 ,indeed1 according to a recent account by a close observer of the religious practices prevalent in southern ,india1 fully four-fifths of the people of the ,dravidian race1 whilst nominally acknowledging the spiritual guidance of the ,brahmans1 are to this day practically given over to the worship of their nondescript local village deities 7grama-devata71 usually attended by animal sacrifices frequently involving the slaughter1 under revolting circumstances1 of thousands of victims4 ,curiously enough these local deities are nearly all of the female1 not the male sex4 ,in the estimation of these people ,siva and ,vishnu may be more dignified beings1 but the village deity is regarded as a more present help in trouble1 and more intimately concerned with the happiness and prosperity of the villagers4 ,the origin of this form of ,hinduism is lost in antiquity1 but it is probable that it represents a pre-,aryan religion1 more or less modified in various parts of south ,india by ,brahmanical influence4 ,at the same time1 many of the deities themselves are of quite recent origin1 and it is easy to observe a deity in making even at the present day4#b ,it is a significant fact that1 whilst in the worship of ,siva and ,vishnu1 at which no animal sacrifices are offered1 the officiating priests are almost invariably ,brahmans1 this is practically never the case at the popular performance of those gloomy and weird rites for the propitiation of angry deities1 or the driving away of evil spirits1 when the pujaris 7or ministrants7 are drawn from all other castes1 even from the ,pariahs1 the out-caste section of ,indian society4 ,caste4 ,as from the point of view of religious belief1 so also from that of social organization no clear line of demarcation can be drawn between ,brahmanism and ,hinduism4 ,though it was not till later times that the network of class divisions and subdivisions attained anything like the degree of intricacy which it shows in these latter days1 still in its origin the caste-system is undoubtedly coincident with the rise of ,brahmanism1 and may even be said to be of the very essence of it4#c ,the cardinal principle which underlies the system of caste is the preservation of purity of descent1 and purity of religious belief and ceremonial usage4 ,now1 that same principle had been operative from the very dawn of the history of ,aryanized ,india4 ,the social organism of the ,aryan tribe did not probably differ essentially from that of most communities at that primitive stage of civilization2 whilst the body of the people--the ,vis 7or aggregate of ,vaisyas7--would be mainly occupied with agricultural and pastoral pursuits1 two professional classes--those of the warrior and the priest--had already made good their claim to social distinction4 ,as yet1 however1 the tribal community would still feel one in race and traditional usage4 ,but when the fair-coloured ,aryan immigrants first came in contact with1 and drove back or subdued the dark-skinned race that occupied the northern plains--doubtless the ancestors of the modern ,dravidian people--the preservation of their racial type and traditionary order of things would naturally become to them a matter of serious concern4 ,in the extreme north-western districts--the ,punjab and ,rajputana1 judging from the fairly uniform physical features of the present population of these parts--they seem to have been signally successful in their endeavour to preserve their racial purity1 probably by being able to clear a sufficiently extensive area of the original occupants for themselves with their wives and children to settle upon4 ,the case was1 however1 very different in the adjoining valley of the ,jumna and ,ganges1 the sacred ,madhyadesa or ,middle-land of classical ,india4 ,here the ,aryan immigrants were not allowed to establish themselves without undergoing a considerable admixture of foreign blood4 ,it must remain uncertain whether it was that the thickly-populated character of the land scarcely admitted of complete occupation1 but only of a conquest by an army of fighting men1 starting from the ,aryanized region--who might1 however1 subsequently draw women of their own kin after them--or whether1 as has been suggested1 a second ,aryan invasion of ,india took place at that time through the mountainous tracts of the upper ,indus and northern ,kashmir1 where the nature of the road would render it impracticable for the invading bands to be accompanied by women and children4 ,be this as it may1 the physical appearance of the population of this central region of northern ,india--,hindustan and ,behar--clearly points to an intermixture of the tall1 fair-coloured1 fine-nosed ,aryan with the short-sized1 dark-skinned1 broad-nosed ,dravidian2 the latter type becoming more pronounced towards the lower strata of the social order4#d ,now1 it was precisely in this part of ,india that mainly arose the body of literature which records the gradual rise of the ,brahmanical hierarchy and the early development of the caste-system4 ,the problem that now lay before the successful invaders was how to deal with the indigenous people1 probably vastly outnumbering them1 without losing their own racial identity4 ,they dealt with them in the way the white race usually deals with the coloured race--they kept them socially apart4 ,the land being appropriated by the conquerors1 husbandry1 as the most respectable industrial occupation1 became the legitimate calling of the ,aryan settler1 the ,vaisya2 whilst handicrafts1 gradually multiplying with advancing civilization and menial service1 were assigned to the subject race4 ,the generic name applied to the latter was ,sudra1 originally probably the name of one of the subjected tribes4 ,so far the social development proceeded on lines hardly differing from those with which one is familiar in the history of other nations4 ,the ,indo-,aryans1 however1 went a step farther4 ,what they did was not only to keep the native race apart from social intercourse with themselves1 but to shut them out from all participation in their own higher aims1 and especially in their own religious convictions and ceremonial practices4 ,so far from attempting to raise their standard of spiritual life1 or even leaving it to ordinary intercourse to gradually bring about a certain community of intellectual culture and religious sentiment1 they deliberately set up artificial barriers in order to prevent their own traditional modes of worship from being contaminated with the obnoxious practices of the servile race4 ,the serf1 the ,sudra1 was not to worship the gods of the ,aryan freemen4 ,the result was the system of four castes 7varna1 i4e4 colour2 or jati1 gens74 ,though the ,brahman1 who by this time had firmly secured his supremacy over the kshatriya1 or noble1 in matters spiritual as well as in legislative and administrative functions1 would naturally be the prime mover in this regulation of the social order1 there seems no reason to believe that the other two upper classes were not equally interested in seeing their hereditary privileges thus perpetuated by divine sanction4 ,nothing1 indeed1 is more remarkable in the whole development of the caste-system than the jealous pride which every caste1 from the highest to the lowest1 takes in its own peculiar occupation and sphere of life4 ,the distinctive badge of a member of the three upper castes was the sacred triple cord or thread 7sutra7--made of cotton1 hemp or wool1 according to the respective caste--with which he was invested at the upanayana ceremony1 or initiation into the use of the sacred savitri1 or prayer to the sun 7also called gayatri71 constituting his second birth4 ,whilst the ,arya was thus a dvi-ja1 or twice-born1 the ,sudra remained unregenerate during his lifetime1 his consolation being the hope that1 on the faithful performance of his duties in this life1 he might hereafter be born again into a higher grade of life4 ,in later times1 the strict adherence to caste duties would naturally receive considerable support from the belief in the transmigration of souls1 already prevalent before ,buddha's time1 and from the very general acceptance of the doctrine of karma 7deed71 or retribution1 according to which a man's present station and manner of life are the result of the sum-total of his actions and thoughts in his former existence2 as his actions here will again1 by the same automatic process of retribution1 determine his status and condition in his next existence4 ,though this doctrine is especially insisted upon in ,buddhism1 and its designation as a specific term 7,pali1 ,kamma7 may be due to that creed1 the notion itself was doubtless already prevalent in pre-,buddhist times4 ,it would even seem to be necessarily and naturally implied in ,brahmanical belief in metempsychosis2 whilst in the doctrine of ,buddha1 who admits no soul1 the theory of the net result or fruit of a man's actions serving hereafter to form or condition the existence of some new individual who will have no conscious identity with himself1 seems of a peculiarly artificial and mystic character4 ,but1 be this as it may1 the doctrine of karma is certainly one of the firmest beliefs of all classes of ,hindus1 and the fear that a man shall reap as he has sown is an appreciable element in the average morality 444 the idea of forgiveness is absolutely wanting2 evil done may indeed be outweighed by meritorious deeds so far as to ensure a better existence in the future1 but it is not effaced1 and must be atoned for 7,census ,report1 i4 #cfd74 ,in spite1 however1 of the artificial restrictions placed on the intermarrying of the castes1 the mingling of the two races seems to have proceeded at a tolerably rapid rate4 ,indeed1 the paucity of women of the ,aryan stock would probably render these mixed unions almost a necessity from the very outset2 and the vaunted purity of blood which the caste rules were calculated to perpetuate can scarcely have remained of more than a relative degree even in the case of the ,brahman caste4 ,certain it is that mixed castes are found referred to at a comparatively early period2 and at the time of ,buddha--some five or six centuries before the ,christian era--the social organization would seem to have presented an appearance not so very unlike that of modern times4 ,it must be confessed1 however1 that our information regarding the development of the caste-system is far from complete1 especially in its earlier stages4 ,thus1 we are almost entirely left to conjecture on the important point as to the original social organization of the subject race4 ,though doubtless divided into different tribes scattered over an extensive tract of land1 the subjected aborigines were slumped together under the designation of ,sudras1 whose duty it was to serve the upper classes in all the various departments of manual labour1 save those of a downright sordid and degrading character which it was left to vratyas or outcasts to perform4 ,how1 then1 was the distribution of crafts and habitual occupations of all kinds brought about8 ,was the process one of spontaneous growth adapting an already existing social organization to a new order of things2 or was it originated and perpetuated by regulation from above8 ,or was it rather that the status and duties of existing offices and trades came to be determined and made hereditary by some such artificial system as that by which the ,theodosian ,code succeeded for a time in organizing the ,roman society in the #eth century of our era8 ,it is well known 7says ,professor ,dill7 that the tendency of the later ,empire was to stereotype society1 by compelling men to follow the occupation of their fathers1 and preventing a free circulation among different callings and grades of life4 ,the man who brought the grain from ,africa to the public stores at ,ostia1 the baker who made it into loaves for distribution1 the butchers who brought pigs from ,samnium1 ,lucania or ,bruttium1 the purveyors of wine and oil1 the men who fed the furnaces of the public baths1 were bound to their callings from one generation to another4 ,it was the principle of rural serfdom applied to social functions4 ,every avenue of escape was closed4 ,a man was bound to his calling not only by his father's but also by his mother's condition4 ,men were not permitted to marry out of their gild4 ,if the daughter of one of the baker caste married a man not belonging to it1 her husband was bound to her father's calling4 ,not even a dispensation obtained by some means from the imperial chancery1 not even the power of the ,church could avail to break the chain of servitude4 ,it can hardly be gainsaid that these artificial arrangements bear a very striking analogy to those of the ,indian caste-system2 and if these class restrictions were comparatively short-lived on ,italian ground1 it was not perhaps so much that so strange a plant found there an ethnic soil less congenial to its permanent growth1 but because it was not allowed sufficient time to become firmly rooted2 for already great political events were impending which within a few decades were to lay the mighty empire in ruins4 ,in ,india1 on the other hand1 the institution of caste--even if artificially contrived and imposed by the ,indo-,aryan priest and ruler--had at least ample time allowed it to become firmly established in the social habits1 and even in the affections1 of the people4 ,at the same time1 one could more easily understand how such a system could have found general acceptance all over the ,dravidian region of southern ,india1 with its merest sprinkling of ,aryan blood1 if it were possible to assume that class arrangements of a similar kind must have already been prevalent amongst the aboriginal tribes prior to the advent of the ,aryan4 ,whether a more intimate acquaintance with the manners and customs of those rude tribes that have hitherto kept themselves comparatively free from ,hindu influences may yet throw some light on this question1 remains to be seen4 ,but1 by this as it may1 the institution of caste1 when once established1 certainly appears to have gone on steadily developing2 and not even the long period of ,buddhist ascendancy1 with its uncompromising resistance to the ,brahman's claim to being the sole arbiter in matters of faith1 seems to have had any very appreciable retardant effect upon the progress of the movement4 ,it was not only by the formation of ever new endogamous castes and sub-castes that the system gained in extent and intricacy1 but even more so by the constant subdivision of the castes into numerous exogamous groups or septs1 themselves often involving gradations of social status important enough to seriously affect the possibility of intermarriage1 already hampered by various other restrictions4 ,thus a man wishing to marry his son or daughter had to look for a suitable match outside his sept1 but within his caste4 ,but whilst for his son he might choose a wife from a lower sept than his own1 for his daughter1 on the other hand1 the law of hypergamy compelled him1 if at all possible1 to find a husband in a higher sept4 ,this would naturally lead to an excess of women over men in the higher septs1 and would render it difficult for a man to get his daughter respectably married without paying a high price for a suitable bridegroom and incurring other heavy marriage expenses4 ,it can hardly be doubted that this custom has been largely responsible for the crime of female infanticide1 formerly so prevalent in ,india2 as it also probably is to some extent for infant marriages1 still too common in some parts of ,india1 especially ,bengal2 and even for the all but universal repugnance to the re-marriage of widows1 even when these had been married in early childhood and had never joined their husbands4 ,yet violations of these rules are jealously watched by the other members of the sept1 and are liable--in accordance with the general custom in which communal matters are regulated in ,india--to be brought before a special council 7panchayat71 originally consisting of five 7pancha71 but now no longer limited to that number1 since it is chiefly the greater or less strictness in the observance of caste rules and the orthodox ceremonial generally that determine the status of the sept in the social scale of the caste4 ,whilst community of occupation was an important factor in the original formation of non-tribal castes1 the practical exigencies of life have led to considerable laxity in this respect--not least so in the case of ,brahmans who have often had to take to callings which would seem altogether incompatible with the proper spiritual functions of their caste4 ,thus1 the prejudice against eating cooked food that has been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong that1 although the ,shastras do not prohibit the eating of food cooked by a ,kshatriya or ,vaisya1 yet the ,brahmans1 in most parts of the country1 would not eat such food4 ,for these reasons1 every ,hindu household--whether ,brahman1 ,kshatriya or ,sudra--that can afford to keep a paid cook generally entertains the services of a ,brahman for the performance of its cuisine--the result being that in the larger towns the very name of ,brahman has suffered a strange degradation of late1 so as to mean only a cook 7,jogendra ,nath ,bhattacharya1 ,hindu ,castes and ,sects74 ,in this caste1 however1 as in all others1 there are certain kinds of occupation to which a member could not turn for a livelihood without incurring serious defilement4 ,in fact1 adherence to the traditional ceremonial and respectability of occupation go very much hand-in-hand4 ,thus1 amongst agricultural castes1 those engaged in vegetable-growing or market-gardening are inferior to the genuine peasant or yeoman1 such as the ,jat and ,rajput2 whilst of these the ,jat who practises widow-marriage ranks below the ,rajput who prides himself on his tradition of ceremonial orthodoxy--though racially there seems little1 if any1 difference between the two2 and the ,rajput1 again1 is looked down upon by the ,babhan of ,behar because he does not1 like himself1 scruple to handle the plough1 instead of invariably employing low-caste men for this manual labour4 ,so also when members of the ,baidya1 or physician1 caste of ,bengal1 ranging next to that of the ,brahman1 farm land on tenure1 they will on no account hold the plough1 or engage in any form of manual labour1 and thus necessarily carry on their cultivation by means of hired servants 7,h4 ,h4 ,risley1 ,census ,report74 ,the scale of social precedence as recognized by native public opinion is concisely reviewed 7ib47 as revealing itself in the facts that particular castes are supposed to be modern representatives of one or other of the original castes of the theoretical ,hindu system2 that ,brahmans will take water from certain castes2 that ,brahmans of high standing will serve particular castes2 that certain castes1 though not served by the best ,brahmans1 have nevertheless got ,brahmans of their own whose rank varies according to circumstances2 that certain castes are not served by ,brahmans at all but have priests of their own2 that the status of certain castes has been raised by their taking to infant-marriage or abandoning the re-marriage of widows2 that the status of others has been modified by their pursuing some occupations in a special or peculiar way2 that some can claim the services of the village barber1 the village palanquin-bearer1 the village midwife1 c41 while others cannot2 that some castes may not enter the courtyards of certain temples2 that some castes are subject to special taboos1 such as that they must not use the village well1 or may draw water only with their own vessels1 that they must live outside the village or in a separate quarter1 that they must leave the road on the approach of a high-caste man and must call out to give warning of their approach4 444 ,the first point to observe is the predominance throughout ,india of the influence of the traditional system of four original castes4 ,in every scheme of grouping the ,brahman heads the list4 ,then come the castes whom popular opinion accepts as the modern representatives of the ,kshatriyas2 and these are followed by the mercantile groups supposed to be akin to the ,vaisyas4 ,when we leave the higher circles of the twice-born1 the difficulty of finding a uniform basis of classification becomes apparent4 ,the ancient designation ,sudra finds no great favour in modern times1 and we can point to no group that is generally recognized as representing it4 ,the term is used in ,bombay1 ,madras and ,bengal to denote a considerable number of castes of moderate respectability1 the higher of whom are considered 'clean' ,sudras1 while the precise status of the lower is a question which lends itself to endless controversy4 444 ,in northern and north-western ,india1 on the other hand1 the grade next below the twice-born rank is occupied by a number of castes from whose hands ,brahmans and members of the higher castes will take water and certain kinds of sweetmeats4 ,below these again is rather an indeterminate group from whom water is taken by some of the higher castes1 not by others4 ,further down1 where the test of water no longer applies1 the status of the caste depends on the nature of its occupation and its habits in respect of diet4 ,there are castes whose touch defiles the twice-born1 but who do not commit the crowning enormity of eating beef4444 ,in western and southern ,india the idea that the social state of a caste depends on whether ,brahmans will take water and sweetmeats from its members is unknown1 for the higher castes will as a rule take water only from persons of their own caste and sub-caste4 ,in ,madras especially the idea of ceremonial pollution by the proximity of an unclean caste has been developed with much elaboration4 ,thus the table of social precedence attached to the ,cochin report shows that while a ,nayar can pollute a man of a higher caste only by touching him1 people of the ,kammalan group1 including masons1 blacksmiths1 carpenters and workers in leather1 pollute at a distance of #bd ft41 toddy-drawers at #cf ft41 ,pulayan or ,cheruman cultivators at #dh ft41 while in the case of the ,paraiyan 7,pariahs7 who eat beef the range of pollution is no less than #fd ft4 ,in this bewildering maze of social grades and class distinctions1 the ,brahman1 as will have been seen1 continues to hold the dominant position1 being respected and even worshipped by all the others4 ,the more orthodox ,sudras carry their veneration for the priestly class to such a degree that they will not cross the shadow of a ,brahman1 and it is not unusual for them to be under a vow not to eat any food in the morning1 before drinking ,bipracharanamrita1 i4e4 water in which the toe of a ,brahman has been dipped4 ,on the other hand1 the pride of the ,brahmans is such that they do not bow to even the images of the gods worshipped in a ,sudra's house by ,brahman priests 7,jog4 ,nath ,bh474 ,there are1 however1 not a few classes of ,brahmans who1 for various reasons1 have become degraded from their high station1 and formed separate castes with whom respectable ,brahmans refuse to intermarry and consort4 ,chief amongst these are the ,brahmans who minister for unclean ,sudras and lower castes1 including the makers and dealers in spirituous liquors2 as well as those who officiate at the great public shrines or places of pilgrimage where they might be liable to accept forbidden gifts1 and1 as a matter of fact1 often amass considerable wealth2 and those who officiate as paid priests at cremations and funeral rites1 when the wearing apparel and bedding of the deceased are not unfrequently claimed by them as their perquisites4 ,as regards the other two twice-born castes1 several modern groups do indeed claim to be their direct descendants1 and in vindication of their title make it a point to perform the upanayana ceremony and to wear the sacred thread4 ,but though the ,brahmans1 too1 will often acquiesce in the reasonableness of such claims1 it is probably only as a matter of policy that they do so1 whilst in reality they regard the other two higher castes as having long since disappeared and been merged by miscegenation in the ,sudra mass4 ,hence1 in the later classical ,sanskrit literature1 the term dvija1 or twice-born1 is used simply as a synonym for a ,brahman4 ,as regards the numerous groups included under the term of ,sudras1 the distinction between clean and unclean ,sudras is of especial importance for the upper classes1 inasmuch as only the former--of whom nine distinct castes are usually recognized--are as a rule considered fit for employment in household service4 ,theology4 ,the picture thus presented by ,hindu society--as made up of a confused congeries of social groups of the most varied standing1 each held together and kept separate from others by a traditional body of ceremonial rules and by the notion of social gradations being due to a divinely instituted order of things--finds something like a counterpart in the religious life of the people4 ,as in the social sphere1 so also in the sphere of religious belief1 we find the whole scale of types represented from the lowest to the highest2 and here as there1 we meet with the same failure of welding the confused mass into a well-ordered whole4 ,in their theory of a triple manifestation of an impersonal deity1 the ,brahmanical theologians1 as we have seen1 had indeed elaborated a doctrine which might have seemed to form a reasonable1 authoritative creed for a community already strongly imbued with pantheistic notions2 yet1 at best1 that creed could only appeal to the sympathies of a comparatively limited portion of the people4 ,indeed1 the sacerdotal class themselves had made its universal acceptance an impossibility1 seeing that their laws1 by which the relations of the classes were to be regulated1 aimed at permanently excluding the entire body of aboriginal tribes from the religious life of their ,aryan masters4 ,they were to be left for all time coming to their own traditional idolatrous notions and practices4 ,however1 the two races could not1 in the nature of things1 be permanently kept separate from each other4 ,indeed1 even prior to the definite establishment of the caste-system1 the mingling of the lower race with the upper classes1 especially with the aristocratic landowners and still more so with the yeomanry1 had probably been going on to such an extent as to have resulted in two fairly well-defined intermediate types of colour between the priestly order and the servile race and to have facilitated the ultimate division into four colours 7varna74 ,in course of time the process of intermingling1 as we have seen1 assumed such proportions that the priestly class1 in their pride of blood1 felt naturally tempted to recognize1 as of old1 only two colours1 the ,aryan ,brahman and the non-,aryan ,sudra4 ,under these conditions the religious practices of the lower race could hardly have failed in the long run to tell seriously upon the spiritual life of the lay body of the ,brahmanical community4 ,to what extent this may have been the case1 our limited knowledge of the early phases of the sectarian worship of the people does not enable us to determine4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the same process of racial intermixture also tended to gradually draw the lower race more or less under the influence of the ,brahmanical forms of worship1 and thus contributed towards the shaping of the religious system of modern ,hinduism4 ,the grossly idolatrous practices1 however1 still so largely prevalent in the ,dravidian ,south1 show how superficial1 after all1 that influence has been in those parts of ,india where the admixture of ,aryan blood has been so slight as to have practically had no effect on the racial characteristics of the people4 ,these present-day practices1 and the attitude of the ,brahman towards them1 help at all events to explain the aversion with which the strange rites of the subjected tribes were looked upon by the worshippers of the ,vedic pantheon4 ,at the same time1 in judging the apparently inhuman way in which the ,sudras were treated in the caste rules1 one has always to bear in mind the fact that the belief in metempsychosis was already universal at the time1 and seemed to afford the only rational explanation of the apparent injustice involved in the unequal distribution of the good things in this world2 and that1 if the ,sudra was strictly excluded from the religious rites and beliefs of the superior classes1 this exclusion in no way involved the question of his ultimate emancipation and his union with the ,infinite ,spirit1 which were as certain in his case as in that of any other sentient being4 ,what it did make impossible for him was to attain that union immediately on the cessation of his present life1 as he would first have to pass through higher and purer stages of mundane existence before reaching that goal2 but in this respect he only shared the lot of all but a very few of the saintliest in the higher spheres of life1 since the ordinary twice-born would be liable to sink1 after his present life1 to grades yet lower than that of the ,sudra4 ,to what extent the changes1 which the religious belief of the ,aryan classes underwent in post-,vedic times1 may have been due to aboriginal influences is a question not easily answered1 though the later creeds offer only too many features in which one might feel inclined to suspect influences of that kind4 ,the literary documents1 both in ,sanskrit and ,pali1 dating from about the time of ,buddha onwards--particularly the two epic poems1 the ,mahabharata and ,ramayana--still show us in the main the personnel of the old pantheon2 but the character of the gods has changed2 they have become anthropomorphized and almost purely mythological figures4 ,a number of the chief gods1 sometimes four1 but generally eight of them1 now appear as lokapalas or world-guardians1 having definite quarters or intermediate quarters of the compass assigned to them as their special domains4 ,one of them1 ,kubera1 the god of wealth1 is a new figure2 whilst another1 ,varuna1 the most spiritual and ethical of ,vedic deities--the king of the gods and the universe2 the nightly1 star-spangled firmament--has become the ,indian ,neptune1 the god of waters4 ,indra1 their chief1 is virtually a kind of superior raja1 residing in svarga1 and as such is on visiting terms with earthly kings1 driving about in mid-air with his charioteer ,matali4 ,as might happen to any earth-lord1 ,indra is actually defeated in battle by the son of the demon-king of ,lanka 7,ceylon71 and kept there a prisoner till ransomed by ,brahma and the gods conferring immortality on his conqueror4 ,a quaint figure in the pantheon of the heroic age is ,hanuman1 the deified chief of monkeys--probably meant to represent the aboriginal tribes of southern ,india--whose wonderful exploits as ,rama's ally on the expedition to ,lanka ,indian audiences will never weary of hearing recounted4 ,the ,gandharvas figure already in the ,veda1 either as a single divinity1 or as a class of genii1 conceived of as the body-guard of ,soma and as connected with the moon4 ,in the later ,vedic times they are represented as being fond of1 and dangerous to1 women2 the ,apsaras1 apparently originally water-nymphs1 being closely associated with them4 ,in the heroic age the ,gandharvas have become the heavenly minstrels plying their art at ,indra's court1 with the ,apsaras as their wives or mistresses4 ,these fair damsels play1 however1 yet another part1 and one far from complimentary to the dignity of the gods4 ,in the epics considerable merit is attached to a life of seclusion and ascetic practices by means of which man is considered capable of acquiring supernatural powers equal or even superior to those of the gods--a notion perhaps not unnaturally springing from the pantheistic conception4 ,now1 in cases of danger being threatened to their own ascendancy by such practices1 the gods as a rule proceed to employ the usually successful expedient of despatching some lovely nymph to lure the saintly men back to worldly pleasures4 ,seeing that the epic poems1 as repeated by professional reciters1 either in their original ,sanskrit text1 or in their vernacular versions1 as well as dramatic compositions based on them1 form to this day the chief source of intellectual enjoyment for most ,hindus1 the legendary matter contained in these heroic poems1 however marvellous and incredible it may appear1 still enters largely into the religious convictions of the people4 ,these popular recitals from the ,ramayan are done into ,gujarati in easy1 flowing narrative verse 444 by ,premanand1 the sweetest of our bards4 ,they are read out by an intelligent ,brahman to a mixed audience of all classes and both sexes4 ,it has a perceptible influence on the ,hindu character4 ,i believe the remarkable freedom from infidelity which is to be seen in most ,hindu families1 in spite of their strange gregarious habits1 can be traced to that influence2 and little wonder 7,b4 ,m4 ,malabari1 ,gujarat and the ,gujaratis74 ,hence also the universal reverence paid to serpents 7naga7 since those early days2 though whether it simply arose from the superstitious dread inspired by the insidious reptile so fatal to man in ,india1 or whether the verbal coincidence with the name of the once-powerful non-,aryan tribe of ,nagas had something to do with it must remain doubtful4 ,indian myth represents them as a race of demons sprung from ,kadru1 the wife of the sage ,kasyapa1 with a jewel in their heads which gives them their sparkling look2 and inhabiting one of the seven beautiful worlds below the earth 7and above the hells71 where they are ruled over by three chiefs or kings1 ,sesha1 ,vasuki and ,takshaka2 their fair daughters often entering into matrimonial alliances with men1 like the mermaids of western legend4 ,in addition to such essentially mythological conceptions1 we meet in the religious life of this period with an element of more serious aspect in the two gods1 on one or other of whom the religious fervour of the large majority of ,hindus has ever since concentrated itself1 viz4 ,vishnu and ,siva4 ,both these divine figures have grown out of ,vedic conceptions--the genial ,vishnu mainly out of a not very prominent solar deity of the same name2 whilst the stern ,siva1 i4e4 the kind or gracious one--doubtless a euphemistic name--has his prototype in the old fierce storm-god ,rudra1 the ,roarer1 with certain additional features derived from other deities1 especially ,pushan1 the guardian of flocks and bestower of prosperity1 worked up therewith4 ,the exact process of the evolution of the two deities and their advance in popular favour are still somewhat obscure4 ,in the epic poems which may be assumed to have taken their final shape in the early centuries before and after the ,christian era1 their popular character1 so strikingly illustrated by their inclusion in the ,brahmanical triad1 appears in full force2 whilst their cult is likewise attested by the coins and inscriptions of the early centuries of our era4 ,the co-ordination of the two gods in the ,trimurti does not by any means exclude a certain rivalry between them2 but1 on the contrary1 a supreme position as the true embodiment of the ,divine ,spirit is claimed for each of them by their respective votaries1 without1 however1 an honourable1 if subordinate1 place being refused to the rival deity1 wherever the latter1 as is not infrequently the case1 is not actually represented as merely another form of the favoured god4 ,whilst at times a truly monotheistic fervour manifests itself in the adoration of these two gods1 the polytheistic instincts of the people did not fail to extend the pantheon by groups of new deities in connexion with them4 ,two of such new gods actually pass as the sons of ,siva and his consort ,parvati1 viz4 ,skanda--also called ,kumara 7the youth71 ,karttikeya1 or ,subrahmanya 7in the south7--the six-headed war-lord of the gods2 and ,ganese1 the lord 7or leader7 of ,siva's troupes of attendants1 being at the same time the elephant-headed1 paunch-bellied god of wisdom2 whilst a third1 ,kama 7,kamadeva7 or ,kandarpa1 the god of love1 gets his popular epithet of ,ananga1 the bodiless1 from his having once1 in frolicsome play1 tried the power of his arrows upon ,siva1 whilst engaged in austere practices1 when a single glance from the third 7forehead7 eye of the angry god reduced the mischievous urchin to ashes4 ,for his chief attendant1 the great god 7,mahadeva1 ,mahesvara7 has already with him the holy ,nandi--presumably1 though his shape is not specified1 identical in form as in name with ,siva's sacred bull of later times1 the appropriate symbol of the god's reproductive power4 ,but1 in this respect1 we also meet in the epics with the first clear evidence of what in after time became the prominent feature of the worship of ,siva and his consort all over ,india1 viz4 the feature represented by the linga1 or phallic symbol4 ,as regards ,vishnu1 the epic poems1 including the supplement to the ,mahabharata1 the ,harivamsa1 supply practically the entire framework of legendary matter on which the later ,vaishnava creeds are based4 ,the theory of ,avataras which makes the deity--also variously called ,narayana1 ,purushottama1 or ,vasudeva--periodically assume some material form in order to rescue the world from some great calamity1 is fully developed2 the ten universally recognized descents being enumerated in the larger poem4 ,though ,siva1 too1 assumes various forms1 the incarnation theory is peculiarly characteristic of ,vaishnavism2 and the fact that the principal hero of the ,ramayana 7,rama71 and one of the prominent warriors of the ,mahabharata 7,krishna7 become in this way identified with the supreme god1 and remain to this day the chief objects of the adoration of ,vaishnava sectaries1 naturally imparts to these creeds a human interest and sympathetic aspect which is wholly wanting in the worship of ,siva4 ,it is1 however1 unfortunately but too true that in some of these creeds the devotional ardour has developed features of a highly objectionable character4 ,even granting the reasonableness of the triple manifestation of the ,divine ,spirit1 how is one to reconcile all these idolatrous practices1 this worship of countless gods and godlings1 demons and spirits indwelling in every imaginable object round about us1 with the pantheistic doctrine of the ,ekam ,advitiyam1 the ,one without a ,second8 ,the ,indian theosophist would doubtless have little difficulty in answering that question4 ,for him there is only the ,one ,absolute ,being1 the one reality that is all in all2 whilst all the phenomenal existences and occurrences that crowd upon our senses are nothing more than an illusion of the individual soul estranged for a time from its divine source--an illusion only to be dispelled in the end by the soul's fuller knowledge of its own true nature and its being one with the eternal fountain of blissful being4 ,but to the man of ordinary understanding1 unused to the rarefied atmosphere of abstract thought1 this conception of a transcendental1 impersonal ,spirit and the unreality of the phenomenal world can have no meaning3 what he requires is a deity that stands in intimate relation to things material and to all that affects man's life4 ,hence the exoteric theory of manifestations of the ,supreme ,spirit2 and that not only the manifestations implied in the triad of gods representing the cardinal processes of mundane existence--creation1 preservation1 and destruction or regeneration--but even such as would tend to supply a rational explanation for superstitious imaginings of every kind4 ,for the ,indian philosophy does not ignore or hold aloof from the religion of the masses3 it underlies1 supports and interprets their polytheism4 ,this may be accounted the keystone of the fabric of ,brahmanism1 which accepts and even encourages the rudest forms of idolatry1 explaining everything by giving it a higher meaning4 ,it treats all the worships as outward1 visible signs of some spiritual truth1 and is ready to show how each particular image or rite is the symbol of some aspect of universal divinity4 ,the ,hindus1 like the pagans of antiquity1 adore natural objects and forces--a mountain1 a river or an animal4 ,the ,brahman holds all nature to be the vesture or cloak of indwelling1 divine energy1 which inspires everything that produces awe or passes man's understanding 7,sir ,alfred ,c4 ,lyall1 ,brahminism74 ,sectarianism4 ,during the early centuries of our era1 whilst ,buddhism1 where countenanced by the political rulers1 was still holding its own by the side of ,brahmanism1 sectarian belief in the ,hindu gods seems to have made steady progress4 ,the caste-system1 always calculated to favour unity of religious practice within its social groups1 must naturally have contributed to the advance of sectarianism4 ,even greater was the support it received later on from the ,puranas1 a class of poetical works of a partly legendary1 partly discursive and controversial character1 mainly composed in the interest of special deities1 of which eighteen principal 7maha-purana7 and as many secondary ones 7upa-purana7 are recognized1 the oldest of which may go back to about the #dth century of our era4 ,it was probably also during this period that the female element was first definitely admitted to a prominent place amongst the divine objects of sectarian worship1 in the shape of the wives of the principal gods viewed as their sakti1 or female energy1 theoretically identified with the ,maya1 or cosmic ,illusion1 of the idealistic ,vedanta1 and the ,prakriti1 or plastic matter1 of the materialistic ,sankhya philosophy1 as the primary source of mundane things4 ,the connubial relations of the deities may thus be considered to typify the mystical union of the two eternal principles1 spirit and matter1 for the production and reproduction of the universe4 ,but whilst this privilege of divine worship was claimed for the consorts of all the gods1 it is principally to ,siva's consort1 in one or other of her numerous forms1 that adoration on an extensive scale came to be offered by a special sect of votaries1 the ,saktas4 ,sankara4 ,in the midst of these conflicting tendencies1 an attempt was made1 about the latter part of the #hth century1 by the distinguished ,malabar theologian and philosopher ,sankara ,acharya to restore the ,brahmanical creed to something like its pristine purity1 and thus once more to bring about a uniform system of orthodox ,hindu belief4 ,though himself1 like most ,brahmans1 apparently by predilection a follower of ,siva1 his aim was the revival of the doctrine of the ,brahma as the one self-existent ,being and the sole cause of the universe2 coupled with the recognition of the practical worship of the orthodox pantheon1 especially the gods of the ,trimurti1 as manifestations of the supreme deity4 ,the practical result of his labours was the foundation of a new sect1 the ,smartas1 i4e4 adherents of the smriti or tradition1 which has a numerous following amongst southern ,brahmans1 and1 whilst professing ,sankara's doctrines1 is usually classed as one of the ,saiva sects1 its members adopting the horizontal sectarial mark peculiar to ,saivas1 consisting in their case of a triple line1 the tripundra1 prepared from the ashes of burnt cow-dung and painted on the forehead4 ,sankara also founded four ,maths1 or convents1 for ,brahmans2 the chief one being that of ,sringeri in ,mysore1 the spiritual head 7,guru7 of which wields considerable power1 even that of excommunication1 over the ,saivas of southern ,india4 ,in northern ,india1 the professed followers of ,sankara are mainly limited to certain classes of mendicants and ascetics1 although the tenets of this great ,vedanta teacher may be said virtually to constitute the creed of intelligent ,brahmans generally4 ,whilst ,sankara's chief title to fame rests on his philosophical works1 as the upholder of the strict monistic theory of ,vedanta1 he doubtless played an important part in the partial remodelling of the ,hindu system of belief at a time when ,buddhism was rapidly losing ground in ,india4 ,not that there is any evidence of ,buddhists ever having been actually persecuted by the ,brahmans1 or still less of ,sankara himself ever having done so2 but the traditional belief in some personal god1 as the principal representative of an invisible1 all-pervading deity1 would doubtless appeal more directly to the minds and hearts of the people than the colourless ethical system promulgated by the ,sakya saint4 ,nor do ,buddhist places of worship appear as a rule to have been destroyed by ,hindu sectaries1 but they seem rather to have been taken over by them for their own religious uses2 at any rate there are to this day not a few ,hindu shrines1 especially in ,bengal1 dedicated to ,dharmaraj1 the prince of righteousness1 as the ,buddha is commonly styled4 ,that the tenets and practices of so characteristic a faith as ,buddhism1 so long prevalent in ,india1 cannot but have left their marks on ,hindu life and belief may readily be assumed1 though it is not so easy to lay one's finger on the precise features that might seem to betray such an influence4 ,if the general tenderness towards animals1 based on the principle of ahimsa1 or inflicting no injury on sentient beings1 be due to ,buddhist teaching1 that influence must have made itself felt at a comparatively early period1 seeing that sentiments of a similar nature are repeatedly urged in the ,code of ,manu4 ,thus1 in v4 #df-dh1 ,he who does not willingly cause the pain of confinement and death to living beings1 but desires the good of all1 obtains endless bliss4 ,he who injures no creature obtains without effort what he thinks of1 what he strives for1 and what he fixes his mind on4 ,flesh-meat cannot be procured without injury to animals1 and the slaughter of animals is not conducive to heavenly bliss3 from flesh-meat1 therefore1 let man abstain4 ,moreover1 in view of the fact that ,jainism1 which originated about the same time as ,buddhism1 inculcates the same principle1 even to an extravagant degree1 it seems by no means improbable that the spirit of kindliness towards living beings generally was already widely diffused among the people when these new doctrines were promulgated4 ,to the same tendency doubtless is due the gradual decline and ultimate discontinuance of animal sacrifices by all sects except the extreme branch of ,sakti-worshippers4 ,in this respect1 the veneration shown to serpents and monkeys has1 however1 to be viewed in a somewhat different light1 as having a mythical background2 whilst quite a special significance attaches to the sacred character assigned to the cow by all classes of ,hindus1 even those who are not prepared to admit the claim of the ,brahman to the exalted position of the earthly god usually conceded to him4 ,in the ,veda no tendency shows itself as yet towards rendering divine honour to the cow2 and though the importance assigned her in an agricultural community is easily understood1 still the exact process of her deification and her identification with the mother earth in the time of ,manu and the epics requires further elucidation4 ,an idealized type of the useful quadruped--likewise often identified with the earth--presents itself in the mythical ,cow of ,plenty1 or wish-cow 7,kamadhenu1 or ,kamadugha1 i4e4 wish-milker71 already appearing in the ,atharvaveda1 and in epic times assigned to ,indra1 or identified with ,surabhi1 the fragrant1 the sacred cow of the sage ,vasishtha4 ,possibly the growth of the legend of ,krishna--his being reared at ,gokula 7cow-station72 his tender relations to the gopis1 or cow-herdesses1 of ,vrindavana2 his epithets ,gopala1 the cowherd1 and ,govinda1 cow-finder1 actually explained as recoverer of the earth in the great epic1 and the go-loka1 or cow-world1 assigned to him as his heavenly abode--may have some connexion with the sacred character ascribed to the cow from early times4 ,worship4 ,since the time of ,sankara1 or for more than a thousand years1 the gods ,vishnu and ,siva1 or ,hari and ,hara as they are also commonly called--with their wives1 especially that of the latter god--have shared between them the practical worship of the vast majority of ,hindus4 ,but1 though the people have thus been divided between two different religious camps1 sectarian animosity has upon the whole kept within reasonable limits4 ,in fact1 the respectable ,hindu1 whilst owning special allegiance to one of the two gods as his ishta devata 7favourite deity71 will not withhold his tribute of adoration from the other gods of the pantheon4 ,the high-caste ,brahman will probably keep at his home a salagram stone1 the favourite symbol of ,vishnu1 as well as the characteristic emblems of ,siva and his consort1 to both of which he will do reverence in the morning2 and when he visits some holy place of pilgrimage1 he will not fail to pay his homage at both the ,saiva and the ,vaishnava shrines there4 ,indeed1 sectarian bigotry and exclusiveness are to be found chiefly among the professional leaders of the modern brotherhoods and their low-caste followers1 who are taught to believe that theirs are the only true gods1 and that the rest do not deserve any reverence whatever 7,jog4 ,nath74 ,the same spirit of toleration shows itself in the celebration of the numerous religious festivals4 ,whilst some of these--e4g4 the ,sankranti 7called ,pongal1 i4e4 boiled rice1 in the south71 which marks the entrance of the sun into the sign of ,capricorn and the beginning of its northward course 7uttarayana7 on the #ast day of the month ,magha 7c4 ,jan4 #ab72 the ,ganesa-caturthi1 or #dth day of the light fortnight of ,bhadra 7,august-,september71 considered the birthday of ,ganesa1 the god of wisdom2 and the ,holi1 the ,indian ,saturnalia in the month of ,phalguna 7,february to ,march7--have nothing of a sectarian tendency about them2 others again1 which are of a distinctly sectarian character--such as the ,krishna-janmashtami1 the birthday of ,krishna on the #hth day of the dark half of ,bhadra1 or 7in the south7 of ,sravana 7,july-,august71 the ,durga-puja and the ,dipavali1 or lamp feast1 celebrating ,krishna's victory over the demon ,narakasura1 on the last two days of ,asvina 7,september-,october7--are likewise observed and heartily joined in by the whole community irrespective of sect4 ,widely different1 however1 as is the character of the two leading gods are also the modes of worship practised by their votaries4 ,siva has at all times been the favourite god of the ,brahmans1#e and his worship is accordingly more widely extended than that of his rival1 especially in southern ,india4 ,indeed there is hardly a village in ,india which cannot boast of a shrine dedicated to ,siva1 and containing the emblem of his reproductive power2 for almost the only form in which the ,great ,god is adored is the ,linga1 consisting usually of an upright cylindrical block of marble or other stone1 mostly resting on a circular perforated slab4 ,the mystic nature of these emblems seems1 however1 to be but little understood by the common people2 and1 as ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson remarks1 notwithstanding the acknowledged purport of this worship1 it is but justice to state that it is unattended in ,upper ,india by any indecent or indelicate ceremonies1 and it requires a rather lively imagination to trace any resemblance in its symbols to the objects they are supposed to represent4 ,in spite1 however1 of its wide diffusion1 and the vast number of shrines dedicated to it1 the worship of ,siva has never assumed a really popular character1 especially in northern ,india1 being attended with scarcely any solemnity or display of emotional spirit4 ,the temple1 which usually stands in the middle of a court1 is as a rule a building of very moderate dimensions1 consisting either of a single square chamber1 surmounted by a pyramidal structure1 or of a chamber for the linga and a small vestibule4 ,the worshipper1 having first circumambulated the shrine as often as he pleases1 keeping it at his right-hand side1 steps up to the threshold of the sanctum1 and presents his offering of flowers or fruit1 which the officiating priest receives2 he then prostrates himself1 or merely lifts his hands--joined so as to leave a hollow space between the palms--to his forehead1 muttering a short prayer1 and takes his departure4 ,amongst the many thousands of ,lingas1 twelve are usually regarded as of especial sanctity1 one of which1 that of ,somnath in ,gujarat1 where ,siva is worshipped as the lord of ,soma1 was1 however1 shattered by ,mahmud of ,ghazni2 whilst another1 representing ,siva as ,visvesvara1 or ,lord of the ,universe1 is the chief object of adoration at ,benares1 the great centre of ,siva-worship4 ,the ,saivas of southern ,india1 on the other hand1 single out as peculiarly sacred five of their temples which are supposed to enshrine as many characteristic aspects 7linga7 of the god in the form of the five elements1 the most holy of these being the shrine of ,chidambaram 7i4e4 thought-ether7 in ,s4 ,arcot1 supposed to contain the ether-linga4 ,according to ,pandit ,s4 ,m4 ,natesa 7,hindu ,feasts1 ,fasts and ,ceremonies71 the several forms of the god ,siva in these sacred shrines are considered to be the bodies or casements of the soul whose natural bases are the five elements--earth1 water1 fire1 air and ether4 ,the apprehension of ,god in the last of these five as ether is1 according to the ,saiva school of philosophy1 the highest form of worship1 for it is not the worship of ,god in a tangible form1 but the worship of what1 to ordinary minds1 is vacuum1 which nevertheless leads to the attainment of a knowledge of the all-pervading without physical accessories in the shape of any linga1 which is1 after all1 an emblem4 ,that this is the case at ,chidambaram is known to every ,hindu1 for if he ever asks the priests to show him the ,god in the temple he is pointed to an empty space in the holy of holies1 which has been termed the ,akasa1 or ether-linga4 ,but1 however congenial this refined symbolism may be to the worshipper of a speculative turn of mind1 it is difficult to see how it could ever satisfy the religious wants of the common man little given to abstract conceptions of this kind4 ,mendicant orders4 ,from early times1 detachment from the world and the practice of austerities have been regarded in ,india as peculiarly conducive to a spirit of godliness1 and ultimately to a state of ecstatic communion with the deity4 ,on these grounds it was actually laid down as a rule for a man solicitous for his spiritual welfare to pass the last two of the four stages 7asrama7 of his life in such conditions of renunciation and self-restraint4 ,though there is hardly a sect which has not contributed its share to the element of religious mendicancy and asceticism so prevalent in ,india1 it is in connexion with the ,siva-cult that these tendencies have been most extensively cultivated4 ,indeed1 the personality of the stern ,god himself exhibits this feature in a very marked degree1 whence the term mahayogi or great ascetic is often applied to him4 ,of ,saiva mendicant and ascetic orders1 the members of which are considered more or less followers of ,sankara ,acharya1 the following may be mentioned3 7#a7 ,dandis1 or staff-bearers1 who carry a wand with a piece of red cloth1 containing the sacred cord1 attached to it1 and also wear one or more pieces of cloth of the same colour4 ,they worship ,siva in his form of ,bhairava1 the terrible4 ,a sub-section of this order are the ,dandi ,dasnamis1 or ,dandi of ten names1 so called from their assuming one of the names of ,sankara's four disciples1 and six of their pupils4 7#b7 ,yogis 7or popularly1 ,jogis71 i4e4 adherents of the ,yoga philosophy and the system of ascetic practices enjoined by it with the view of mental abstraction and the supposed attainment of superhuman powers--practices which1 when not merely pretended1 but rigidly carried out1 are only too apt to produce vacuity of mind and wild fits of frenzy4 ,in these degenerate days their supernatural powers consist chiefly in conjuring1 sooth-saying1 and feats of jugglery1 by which they seldom fail in imposing upon a credulous public4 7#c7 ,sannyasis1 devotees who renounce earthly concerns1 an order not confined either to the ,brahmanical caste or to the ,saiva persuasion4 ,those of the latter are in the habit of smearing their bodies with ashes1 and wearing a tiger-skin and a necklace or rosary of rudraksha berries 7,elaeocarpus ,ganitrus1 lit4 ,rudra's eye71 sacred to ,siva1 and allowing their hair to grow till it becomes matted and filthy4 7#d7 ,parama-hamsas1 i4e4 supreme geese 7or swans71 a term applied to the world-soul with which they claim to be identical4 ,this is the highest order of asceticism1 members of which are supposed to be solely engaged in meditating on the ,brahma1 and to be equally indifferent to pleasure or pain1 insensible of heat or cold1 and incapable of satiety or want4 ,some of them go about naked1 but the majority are clad like the ,dandis4 7#e7 ,aghora ,panthis1 a vile and disreputable class of mendicants1 now rarely met with4 ,their filthy habits and disgusting practices of gross promiscuous feeding1 even to the extent of eating offal and dead men's flesh1 look almost like a direct repudiation of the strict ,brahmanical code of ceremonial purity and cleanliness1 and of the rules regulating the matter and manner of eating and drinking2 and they certainly make them objects of loathing and terror wherever they are seen4 ,on the general effect of the manner of life led by ,sadhus or holy men1 a recent observer 7,j4 ,c4 ,oman1 ,mystics1 ,ascetics and ,saints of ,india1 p4 #bgc7 remarks3 ,sadhuism1 whether perpetuating the peculiar idea of the efficiency of austerities for the acquisition of far-reaching powers over natural phenomena1 or bearing its testimony to the belief in the indispensableness of detachment from the world as a preparation for the ineffable joy of ecstatic communion with the ,divine ,being1 has undoubtedly tended to keep before men's eyes1 as the highest ideal1 a life of purity1 self-restraint1 and contempt of the world and human affairs4 ,it has also necessarily maintained amongst the laity a sense of the righteous claims of the poor upon the charity of the more affluent members of the community4 ,moreover1 sadhuism1 by the multiplicity of the independent sects which have arisen in ,india1 has engendered and favoured a spirit of tolerance which cannot escape the notice of the most superficial observer4 ,lingayats4 ,an independent ,saiva sect1 or1 indeed1 the only strictly ,saiva sect1 are the ,vira ,saivas1 more commonly called ,lingayats 7popularly ,lingaits7 or ,lingavats1 from their practice of wearing on their person a phallic emblem of ,siva1 made of copper or silver1 and usually enclosed in a case suspended from the neck by a string4 ,apparently from the movable nature of their badge1 their ,gurus are called ,jangamas 7movable74 ,this sect counts numerous adherents in southern ,india2 the ,census ,report of #aija recording nearly a million and a half1 including some #gj or #hj different1 mostly endogamous1 castes4 ,the reputed founder1 or rather reformer1 of the sect was ,basava 7or ,basaba71 a ,brahman of the ,belgaum district who seems to have lived in the #aath or #abth century4 ,according to the ,basava-purana he early in life renounced his caste and went to reside at ,kalyana1 then the capital of the ,chalukya kingdom1 and later on at ,sangamesvara near ,ratnagiri1 where he was initiated into the ,vira ,saiva faith which he subsequently made it his life's work to propagate4 ,his doctrine1 which may be said to constitute a kind of reaction against the severe sacerdotalism of ,sankara1 has spread over all classes of the southern community1 most of the priests of ,saiva temples there being adherents of it2 whilst in northern ,india its votaries are only occasionally met with1 and then mostly as mendicants1 leading about a neatly caparisoned bull as representing ,siva's sacred bull ,nandi4 ,though the ,lingayats still show a certain animosity towards the ,brahmans1 and in the ,census lists are accordingly classed as an independent group beside the ,hindus1 still they can hardly be excluded from the ,hindu community1 and are sure sooner or later to find their way back to the ,brahmanical fold4 ,avatars4 ,vishnu1 whilst less popular with ,brahmans than his rival1 has from early times proved to the lay mind a more attractive object of adoration on account of the genial and1 so to speak1 romantic character of his mythical personality4 ,it is not1 however1 so much the original figure of the god himself that enlists the sympathies of his adherents as the additional elements it has received through the theory of periodical descents 7avatara7 or incarnations applied to this deity4 ,whilst the ,saiva philosophers do not approve of the notion of incarnations1 as being derogatory to the dignity of the deity1 the ,brahmans have nevertheless thought fit to adopt it as apparently a convenient expedient for bringing certain tendencies of popular worship within the pale of their system1 and probably also for counteracting the ,buddhist doctrines2 and for this purpose ,vishnu would obviously offer himself as the most attractive figure in the ,brahmanical trinity4 ,whether the incarnation theory started from the original solar nature of the god suggestive of regular visits to the world of men1 or in what other way it may have originated1 must remain doubtful4 ,certain1 however1 it is that at least one of his ,avatars is clearly based on the ,vedic conception of the sun-god1 viz4 that of the dwarf who claims as much ground as he can cover by three steps1 and then gains the whole universe by his three mighty strides4 ,of the ten or more ,avatars1 assumed by different authorities1 only two have entered to any considerable extent into the religious worship of the people1 viz4 those of ,rama 7or ,ramachandra7 and ,krishna1 the favourite heroes of epic romance4 ,that these two figures would appeal far more strongly to the hearts and feelings of the people1 especially the warlike ,kshatriyas1#f than the austere ,siva is only what might have been expected2 and1 indeed1 since the time of the epics their cult seems never to have lacked numerous adherents4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the essentially human nature of these two gods would naturally tend to modify the character of the relations between worshipper and worshipped1 and to impart to the modes and forms of adoration features of a more popular and more human kind4 ,and accordingly it is exactly in connexion with these two incarnations of ,vishnu1 especially that of ,krishna1 that a new spirit was infused into the religious life of the people by the sentiment of fervent devotion to the deity1 as it found expression in certain portions of the epic poems1 especially the ,bhagavadgita1 and in the ,bhagavata-purana 7as against the more orthodox ,vaishnava works of this class such as the ,vishnu-purana71 and was formulated into a regular doctrine of faith in the ,sandilya-sutra1 and ultimately translated into practice by the ,vaishnava reformers4 ,ramanujas4 ,the first successful ,vaishnava reaction against ,sankara's reconstructed creed was led by ,ramanuja1 a southern ,brahman of the #abth century4 ,his followers1 the ,ramanujas1 or ,sri-,vaishnavas as they are usually called1 worship ,vishnu 7,narayana7 with his consort ,sri or ,lakshmi 7the goddess of beauty and fortune71 or their incarnations ,rama with ,sita and ,krishna with ,rukmini4 ,ramanuja's doctrine1 which is especially directed against the ,linga-worship1 is essentially based on the tenets of an old ,vaishnava sect1 the ,bhagavatas or ,pancharatras1 who worshipped the ,supreme ,being under the name of ,vasudeva 7subsequently identified with ,krishna1 as the son of ,vasudeva1 who indeed is credited by some scholars with the foundation of that monotheistic creed74 ,the sectarial mark of the ,ramanujas resembles a capital ,u 7or1 in the case of another division1 a ,y71 painted with a white clay called gopi-chandana1 between the hair and the root of the nose1 with a red or yellow vertical stroke 7representing the female element7 between the two white lines4 ,they also usually wear1 like all ,vaishnavas1 a necklace of tulasi1 or basil wood1 and a rosary of seeds of the same shrub or of the lotus4 ,their most important shrines are those of ,srirangam near ,trichinopoly1 ,mailkote in ,mysore1 ,dvaraka 7the city of ,krishna7 on the ,kathiawar coast1 and ,jagannath in ,orissa2 all of them decorated with ,vishnu's emblems1 the tulasi plant and salagram stone4 ,the ,ramanuja ,brahmans are most punctilious in the preparation of their food and in regard to the privacy of their meals1 before taking which they have to bathe and put on woollen or silk garments4 ,whilst ,sankara's mendicant followers were prohibited to touch fire and had to subsist entirely on the charity of ,brahman householders1 ,ramanuja1 on the contrary1 not only allowed his followers to use fire1 but strictly forbade their eating any food cooked1 or even seen1 by a stranger4 ,on the speculative side1 ,ramanuja also met ,sankara's strictly monistic theory by another recognizing ,vishnu as identical with ,brahma as the ,supreme ,spirit animating the material world as well as the individual souls which have become estranged from ,god through unbelief1 and can only attain again conscious union with him through devotion or love 7bhakti74 ,his tenets are expounded in various works1 especially in his commentaries on the ,vedanta-sutras and the ,bhagavadgita4 ,the followers of ,ramanuja have split into two sects1 a northern one1 recognizing the ,vedas as their chief authority1 and a southern one1 basing their tenets on the ,nalayir1 a ,tamil work of the ,upanishad order4 ,in point of doctrine1 they differ in their view of the relation between ,god ,vishnu and the human soul2 whilst the former sect define it by the ape theory1 which makes the soul cling to ,god as the young ape does to its mother1 the latter explain it by the cat theory1 by which ,vishnu himself seizes and rescues the souls as the mother cat does her young ones4 ,madhvas4 ,madhva ,acharya1 another distinguished ,vedanta teacher and founder of a ,vaishnava sect1 born in ,kanara in ,a4,d4 #aaii1 was less intolerant of the ,linga cult than ,ramanuja1 but seems rather to have aimed at a reconciliation of the ,saiva and ,vaishnava forms of worship4 ,the ,madhvas or ,madhvacharis favour ,krishna and his consort as their special objects of adoration1 whilst images of ,siva1 ,parvati1 and their son ,ganesa are1 however1 likewise admitted and worshipped in some of their temples1 the most important of which is at ,udipi in ,south ,kanara1 with eight monasteries connected with it4 ,this shrine contains an image of ,krishna which is said to have been rescued from the wreck of a ship which brought it from ,dvaraka1 where it was supposed to have been set up of old by no other than ,krishna's friend ,arjuna1 one of the five ,pandava princes4 ,followers of the ,madhva creed are but rarely met with in ,upper ,india4 ,their sectarial mark is like the ,u of the ,sri-,vaishnavas1 except that their central line is black instead of red or yellow4 ,madhva--who after his initiation assumed the name ,anandatirtha--composed numerous ,sanskrit works1 including commentaries on the ,brahma sutras 7i4e4 the ,vedanta aphorisms71 the ,gita1 the ,rigveda and many ,upanishads4 ,his philosophical theory was a dualistic one1 postulating distinctness of nature for the divine and the human soul1 and hence independent existence1 instead of absorption1 after the completion of mundane existence4 ,ramats4 ,the ,ramanandis or ,ramavats 7popularly ,ramats7 are a numerous northern sect of similar tenets to those of the ,ramanujas4 ,indeed its founder1 ,ramananda1 who probably flourished in the latter part of the #adth century1 according to the traditional account1 was originally a ,sri-,vaishnava monk1 and1 having come under the suspicion of laxity in observing the strict rules of food during his peregrinations1 and been ordered by his superior 7,mahant7 to take his meals apart from his brethren1 left the monastery in a huff and set up a schismatic math of his own at ,benares4 ,the sectarial mark of his sect differs but slightly from that of the parent stock4 ,the distinctive features of their creed consist in their making ,rama and ,sita1 either singly or conjointly1 the chief objects of their adoration1 instead of ,vishnu and ,lakshmi1 and their attaching little or no importance to the observance of privacy in the cooking and eating of their food4 ,their mendicant members1 usually known as ,vairagis1 are1 like the general body of the sect1 drawn from all castes without distinction4 ,thus1 the founder's twelve chief disciples include1 besides ,brahmans1 a weaver1 a currier1 a ,rajput1 a ,jat and a barber--for1 they argue1 seeing that ,bhagavan1 the ,holy ,one 7,vishnu71 became incarnate even in animal form1 a ,bhakta 7believer7 may be born even in the lowest of castes4 ,ramananda's teaching was thus of a distinctly levelling and popular character2 and1 in accordance therewith1 the ,bhakta-mala and other authoritative writings of the sect are composed1 not in ,sanskrit1 but in the popular dialects4 ,a follower of this creed was the distinguished poet ,tulsidas1 the composer of the beautiful ,hindi version of the ,ramayana and other works which exercise more influence upon the great body of ,hindu population than the whole voluminous series of ,sanskrit composition 7,h4 ,h4 ,wilson74 ,kabir4 ,the traditional list of ,ramananda's immediate disciples includes the name of ,kabir1 the weaver1 a remarkable man who would accordingly have lived in the latter part of the #aeth century1 and who is claimed by both ,hindus and ,moslems as having been born within their fold4 ,the story goes that1 having been deeply impressed by ,ramananda's teaching1 he sought to attach himself to him2 and1 one day at ,benares1 in stepping down the ghat at daybreak to bathe in the ,ganges1 and putting himself in the way of the teacher1 the latter1 having inadvertently struck him with his foot1 uttered his customary exclamation ,ram ,ram1 which1 being also the initiatory formula of the sect1 was claimed by ,kabir as such1 making him ,ramananda's disciple4 ,be this as it may1 ,kabir's own reformatory activity lay in the direction of a compromise between the ,hindu and the ,mahommedan creeds1 the religious practices of both of which he criticized with equal severity4 ,his followers1 the ,kabir ,panthis 7those following ,kabir's path71 though neither worshipping the gods of the pantheon1 nor observing the rites and ceremonial of the ,hindus1 are nevertheless in close touch with the ,vaishnava sects1 especially the ,ramavats1 and generally worship ,rama as the supreme deity1 when they do not rather address their homage1 in hymns and otherwise1 to the founder of their creed himself4 ,whilst very numerous1 particularly amongst the low-caste population1 in western1 central and northern ,india1 resident adherents of ,kabir's doctrine are rare in ,bengal and the south2 although there is hardly a town in ,india where strolling beggars may not be found singing songs of ,kabir in the original or as translated into the local dialects4 ,the mendicants of this creed1 however1 never actually solicit alms2 and1 indeed1 the quaker-like spirit of the sect1 their abhorrence of all violence1 their regard for truth and the inobtrusiveness of their opinions render them very inoffensive members of the state 7,h4 ,h4 ,wilson74 ,the doctrines of ,kabir are taught1 mostly in the form of dialogues1 in numerous ,hindi works1 composed by his disciples and adherents1 who1 however1 usually profess to give the teacher's own words4 ,the peculiar conciliatory tendencies of ,kabir were carried on with even greater zeal from the latter part of the #aeth century by one of his followers1 ,nanak ,shah1 the promulgator of the creed of the ,nanak ,shahis or ,sikhs--i4e4 7,sanskr47 sishya1 disciples1 whose guru1 or teacher1 he called himself--a peaceful sect at first until1 in consequence of ,mahommedan persecution1 a martial spirit was infused into it by the tenth1 and last1 guru1 ,govind ,shah1 changing it into a political organization4 ,whilst originally more akin in its principles to the ,moslem faith1 the sect seems latterly to have shown tendencies towards drifting back to the ,hindu pale4 ,of ,ramananda's disciples and successors several others1 besides ,kabir1 have established schismatic divisions of their own1 which do not1 however1 offer any very marked differences of creed4 ,the most important of these1 the ,dadu ,panthi sect1 founded by ,dadu about the year #afjj1 has a numerous following in ,ajmir and ,marwar1 one section of whom1 the ,nagas1 engage largely in military service1 whilst the others are either householders or mendicants4 ,the followers of this creed wear no distinctive sectarial mark or badge1 except a skull-cap2 nor do they worship any visible image of any deity1 the repetition 7japa7 of the name of ,rama being the only kind of adoration practised by them4 ,eroticism and ,krishna worship4 ,although the ,vaishnava sects hitherto noticed1 in their adoration of ,vishnu and his incarnations1 ,krishna and ,ramachandra1 usually associate with these gods their wives1 as their saktis1 or female energies1 the sexual element is1 as a rule1 only just allowed sufficient scope to enhance the emotional character of the rites of worship4 ,in some of the later ,vaishnava creeds1 on the other hand1 this element is far from being kept within the bounds of moderation and decency4 ,the favourite object of adoration with adherents of these sects is ,krishna with his mate--but not the devoted friend and counsellor of the ,pandavas and deified hero of epic song1 nor the ruler of ,dvaraka and wedded lord of ,rukmini1 but the juvenile ,krishna1 ,govinda or ,bala ,gopala1 the cowherd lad1 the foster son of the cowherd ,nanda of ,gokula1 taken up with his amorous sports with the ,gopis1 or wives of the cowherds of ,vrindavana 7,brindaban1 near ,mathura on the ,yamuna71 especially his favourite mistress ,radha or ,radhika4 ,this episode in the legendary life of ,krishna has every appearance of being a later accretion4 ,after barely a few allusions to it in the epics1 it bursts forth full-blown in the ,harivansa1 the ,vishnu-purana1 the ,narada-,pancharatra and the ,bhagavata-purana1 the tenth canto of which1 dealing with the life of ,krishna1 has become1 through vernacular versions1 especially the ,hindi ,prem-sagar1 or ocean of love1 a favourite romance all over ,india1 and has doubtless helped largely to popularize the cult of ,krishna4 ,strange to say1 however1 no mention is as yet made by any of these works of ,krishna's favourite ,radha2 it is only in another ,purana--though scarcely deserving that designation--that she makes her appearance1 viz4 in the ,brahma-vaivarta1 in which ,krishna's amours in ,nanda's cow-station are dwelt upon in fulsome and wearisome detail2 whilst the poet ,jayadeva1 in the #abth century1 made her love for the gay and inconstant boy the theme of his beautiful1 if highly voluptuous1 lyrical drama1 ,gita-govinda4 ,the earliest of the sects which associate ,radha with ,krishna in their worship is that of the ,nimavats1 founded by ,nimbaditya or ,nimbarka 7i4e4 the sun of the ,nimba tree71 a teacher of uncertain date1 said to have been a ,telugu ,brahman who subsequently established himself at ,mathura 7,muttra7 on the ,yamuna1 where the headquarters of his sect have remained ever since4 ,the ,mahant of their monastery at ,dhruva ,kshetra near ,mathura1 who claims direct descent from ,nimbarka1 is said to place the foundation of that establishment as far back as the #eth century--doubtless an exaggerated claim2 but if ,jayadeva1 as is alleged1 and seems by no means improbable1 was really a follower of ,nimbarka1 this teacher must have flourished1 at latest1 in the early part of the #abth century4 ,he is indeed taken by some authorities to be identical with the mathematician ,bhaskara ,acharya1 who is known to have completed his chief work in ,a4,d4 #aaej4 ,it is worthy of remark1 in this respect1 that--in accordance with ,ramanuja's and ,nimbarka's philosophical theories--,jayadeva's presentation of ,krishna's fickle love for ,radha is usually interpreted in a mystical sense1 as allegorically depicting the human soul's striving1 through love1 for reunion with ,god1 and its ultimate attainment1 after many backslidings1 of the longed-for goal4 ,as the chief authority of their tenets1 the ,nimavats recognize the ,bhagavata-purana2 though several works1 ascribed to ,nimbarka--partly of a devotional character and partly expository of ,vedanta topics--are still extant4 ,adherents of this sect are fairly numerous in northern ,india1 their frontal mark consisting of the usual two perpendicular white lines1 with1 however1 a circular black spot between them4 ,of greater importance than the sect just noticed1 because of their far larger following1 are the two sects founded early in the #afth century by ,vallabha 7,ballabha7 ,acharya and ,chaitanya4 ,in the forms of worship favoured by votaries of these creeds the emotional and erotic elements are allowed yet freer scope than in those that preceded them2 and1 as an effective auxiliary to these tendencies1 the use of the vernacular dialects in prayers and hymns of praise takes an important part in the religious service4 ,the ,vallabhacharis1 or1 as they are usually called1 from the title of their spiritual heads1 the ,gokulastha ,gosains1 i4e4 the cow-lords 7gosvamin7 residing in ,gokula1 are very numerous in western and central ,india4 ,vallabha1 the son of a ,telinga ,brahman1 after extensive journeyings all over ,india1 settled at ,gokula near ,mathura1 and set up a shrine with an image of ,krishna ,gopala4 ,about the year #afgc1 in consequence of the fanatical persecutions of the ,mogul emperor1 this image was transferred to ,nathdvara in ,udaipur 7,mewar71 where the shrine of ,srinatha 7the lord of ,sri1 i4e4 ,vishnu7 continues to be the chief centre of worship for adherents of this creed2 whilst seven other images1 transferred from ,mathura at the same time1 are located at different places in ,rajputana4 ,vallabha himself went subsequently to reside at ,benares1 where he died4 ,in the doctrine of this ,vaishnava prophet1 the adualistic theory of ,sankara is resorted to as justifying a joyful and voluptuous cult of the deity4 ,for1 if the human soul is identical with ,god1 the practice of austerities must be discarded as directed against ,god1 and it is rather by a free indulgence of the natural appetites and the pleasures of life that man's love for ,god will best be shown4 ,the followers of his creed1 amongst whom there are many wealthy merchants and bankers1 direct their worship chiefly to ,gopal ,lal1 the boyish ,krishna of ,vrindavana1 whose image is sedulously attended like a revered living person eight times a day--from its early rising from its couch up to its retiring to repose at night4 ,the sectarial mark of the adherents consists of two red perpendicular lines1 meeting in a semicircle at the root of the nose1 and having a round red spot painted between them4 ,their principal doctrinal authority is the ,bhagavata-purana1 as commented upon by ,vallabha himself1 who was also the author of several other ,sanskrit works highly esteemed by his followers4 ,in this sect1 children are solemnly admitted to full membership at the early age of four1 and even two1 years of age1 when a rosary1 or necklace1 of #ajh beads of basil 7tulsi7 wood is passed round their necks1 and they are taught the use of the octo-syllabic formula ,sri-,krishnah saranam mama1 ,holy ,krishna is my refuge4 ,another special feature of this sect is that their spiritual heads1 the ,gosains1 also called ,maharajas1 so far from submitting themselves to self-discipline and austere practices1 adorn themselves in splendid garments1 and allow themselves to be habitually regaled by their adherents with choice kinds of food2 and being regarded as the living representatives of the lord of the ,gopis himself1 they claim and receive in their own persons all acts of attachment and worship due to the deity1 even1 it is alleged1 to the extent of complete self-surrender4 ,in the final judgment of the famous libel case of the ,bombay ,maharajas1 before the ,supreme ,court of ,bombay1 in ,january #ahfb1 these improprieties were severely commented upon2 and though so unsparing a critic of ,indian sects as ,jogendra ,nath seems not to believe in actual immoral practices on the part of the ,maharajas1 still he admits that the corrupting influence of a religion1 that can make its female votaries address amorous songs to their spiritual guides1 must be very great4 ,a modern offshoot of ,vallabha's creed1 formed with the avowed object of purging it of its objectionable features1 was started1 in the early years of the #aith century1 by ,sahajananda1 a ,brahman of the ,oudh country1 who subsequently assumed the name of ,svami ,narayana4 ,having entered on his missionary labours at ,ahmadabad1 and afterwards removed to ,jetalpur1 where he had a meeting with ,bishop ,heber1 he subsequently settled at the village of ,wartal1 to the north-west of ,baroda1 and erected a temple to ,lakshmi-,narayana1 which1 with another at ,ahmadabad1 forms the two chief centres of the sect1 each being presided over by a ,maharaja4 ,their worship is addressed to ,narayana1 i4e4 ,vishnu1 as the ,supreme ,being1 together with ,lakshmi1 as well as to ,krishna and ,radha4 ,the sect is said to be gaining ground in ,gujarat4 ,chaitanya1 the founder of the great ,vaishnava sect of ,bengal1 was the son of a high-caste ,brahman of ,nadiya1 the famous ,bengal seat of ,sanskrit learning1 where he was born in #adhe1 two years after the birth of ,martin ,luther1 the ,german reformer4 ,having married in due time1 and a second time after the death of his first wife1 he lived as a householder 7grihastha7 till the age of #bd1 when he renounced his family ties and set out as a religious mendicant 7vairagin71 visiting during the next six years the principal places of pilgrimage in northern ,india1 and preaching with remarkable success his doctrine of ,bhakti1 or passionate devotion to ,krishna1 as the ,supreme ,deity4 ,he subsequently made over to his principal disciples the task of consolidating his community1 and passed the last twelve years of his life at ,puri in ,orissa1 the great centre of the worship of ,vishnu as ,jagannatha1 or lord of the world1 which he remodelled in accordance with his doctrine1 causing the mystic songs of ,jayadeva to be recited before the images in the morning and evening as part of the daily service2 and1 in fact1 as in the other ,vaishnava creeds1 seeking to humanize divine adoration by bringing it into accord with the experience of human love4 ,to this end1 music1 dancing1 singing-parties 7sankirtan71 theatricals--in short anything calculated to produce the desired impression--would prove welcome to him4 ,his doctrine of ,bhakti distinguishes five grades of devotional feeling in the ,bhaktas1 or faithful adherents3 viz4 7santi7 calm contemplation of the deity2 7dasya7 active servitude2 7sakhya7 friendship or personal regard2 7vatsalya7 tender affection as between parents and children2 7madhurya7 love or passionate attachment1 like that which the ,gopis felt for ,krishna4 ,chaitanya also seems to have done much to promote the celebration on an imposing scale of the great ,puri festival of the ,ratha-yatra1 or car-procession1 in the month of ,ashadha1 when1 amidst multitudes of pilgrims1 the image of ,krishna1 together with those of his brother ,balarama and his sister ,subhadra1 is drawn along1 in a huge car1 by the devotees4 ,just as this festival was1 and continues to be1 attended by people from all parts of ,india1 without distinction of caste or sex1 so also were all classes1 even ,mahommedans1 admitted by ,chaitanya as members of his sect4 ,whilst numerous observances are recommended as more or less meritorious1 the ordinary form of worship is a very simple one1 consisting as it does mainly of the constant repetition of names of ,krishna1 or ,krishna and ,radha1 which of itself is considered sufficient to ensure future bliss4 ,the partaking of flesh food and spirituous liquor is strictly prohibited4 ,by the followers of this sect1 also1 an extravagant degree of reverence is habitually paid to their gurus or spiritual heads4 ,indeed1 ,chaitanya himself1 as well as his immediate disciples1 have come to be regarded as complete or partial incarnations of the deity to whom adoration is due1 as to ,krishna himself2 and their modern successors1 the ,gosains1 share to the fullest extent in the devout attentions of the worshippers4 ,chaitanya's movement1 being chiefly directed against the vile practices of the ,saktas1 then very prevalent in ,bengal1 was doubtless prompted by the best and purest of intentions2 but his own doctrine of divine1 though all too human1 love was1 like that of ,vallabha1 by no means free from corruptive tendencies1--yet1 how far these tendencies have worked their way1 who would say8 ,on this point1 ,dr ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter--who is of opinion that the death of the reformer marks the beginning of the spiritual decline of ,vishnu-worship1 observes 7,orissa1 i4 #aaa71 ,the most deplorable corruption of ,vishnu-worship at the present day is that which has covered the temple walls with indecent sculptures1 and filled its innermost sanctuaries with licentious rites 444 yet 444 it is difficult for a person not a ,hindu to pronounce upon the real extent of the evil4 ,none but a ,hindu can enter any of the larger temples1 and none but a ,hindu priest really knows the truth about their inner mysteries2 whilst the well-known native scholar ,babu ,rajendralal ,mitra points out 7,antiquities of ,orissa1 i4 #aaa7 that such as they are1 these sculptures date from centuries before the birth of ,chaitanya1 and cannot1 therefore1 be attributed to his doctrines or to his followers4 ,as a ,hindu by birth1 and a ,vaishnava by family religion1 ,i have had the freest access to the innermost sanctuaries and to the most secret of scriptures4 ,i have studied the subject most extensively1 and have had opportunities of judging which no ,european can have1 and ,i have no hesitation in saying that1 'the mystic songs' of ,jayadeva and the 'ocean of love' notwithstanding1 there is nothing in the rituals of ,jagannatha which can be called licentious4 ,whilst in ,chaitanya's creed1 ,krishna1 in his relations to ,radha1 remains at least theoretically the chief partner1 an almost inevitable step was taken by some minor sects in attaching the greater importance to the female element1 and making ,krishna's love for his mistress the guiding sentiment of their faith4 ,of these sects1 it will suffice to mention that of the ,radha-,vallabhis1 started in the latter part of the #afth century1 who worship ,krishna as ,radha-vallabha1 the darling of ,radha4 ,the doctrines and practices of these sects clearly verge upon those obtaining in the third principal division of ,indian sectarians which will now be considered4 ,saktas ,the ,saktas1 as we have seen1 are worshippers of the sakti1 or the female principle as a primary factor in the creation and reproduction of the universe4 ,and as each of the principal gods is supposed to have associated with him his own particular sakti1 as an indispensable complement enabling him to properly perform his cosmic functions1 adherents of this persuasion might be expected to be recruited from all sects4 ,to a certain extent this is indeed the case2 but though ,vaishnavism1 and especially the ,krishna creed1 with its luxuriant growth of erotic legends1 might have seemed peculiarly favourable to a development in this direction1 it is practically only in connexion with the ,saiva system that an independent cult of the female principle has been developed2 whilst in other sects--and1 indeed1 in the ordinary ,saiva cult as well--such worship1 even where it is at all prominent1 is combined with1 and subordinated to1 that of the male principle4 ,what has made this cult attach itself more especially to the ,saiva creed is doubtless the character of ,siva as the type of reproductive power1 in addition to his function as destroyer which1 as we shall see1 is likewise reflected in some of the forms of his ,sakti4 ,the theory of the god and his ,sakti as cosmic principles is perhaps already foreshadowed in the ,vedic couple of ,heaven and ,earth1 whilst in the speculative treatises of the later ,vedic period1 as well as in the post-,vedic ,brahmanical writings1 the assumption of the self-existent being dividing himself into a male and a female half usually forms the starting-point of cosmic evolution4#g ,in the later ,saiva mythology this theory finds its artistic representation in ,siva's androgynous form of ,ardha-narisa1 or half-woman-lord1 typifying the union of the male and female energies2 the male half in this form of the deity occupying the right-hand1 and the female the left-hand side4 ,in accordance with this type of productive energy1 the ,saktas divide themselves into two distinct groups1 according to whether they attach the greater importance to the male or to the female principle2 viz4 the ,dakshinacharis1 or right-hand-observers 7also called ,dak-shina-margis1 or followers of the right-hand path71 and the ,vamacharis1 or left-hand-observers 7or ,vama-margis1 followers of the left path74 ,though some of the ,puranas1 the chief repositories of sectarian doctrines1 enter largely into ,sakta topics1 it is only in the numerous ,tantras that these are fully and systematically developed4 ,in these works1 almost invariably composed in the form of a colloquy1 ,siva1 as a rule1 in answer to questions asked by his consort ,parvati1 unfolds the mysteries of this occult creed4 ,the principal seat of ,sakta worship is the north-eastern part of ,india--,bengal1 ,assam and ,behar4 ,the great majority of its adherents profess to follow the right-hand practice2 and apart from the implied purport and the emblems of the cult1 their mode of adoration does not seem to offer any very objectionable features4 ,and even amongst the adherents of the left-hand mode of worship1 many of these are said to follow it as a matter of family tradition rather than of religious conviction1 and to practise it in a sober and temperate manner2 whilst only an extreme section--the so-called ,kaulas or ,kulinas1 who appeal to a spurious ,upanishad1 the ,kaulopanishad1 as the divine authority of their tenets--persist in carrying on the mystic and licentious rites taught in many of the ,tantras4 ,but strict secrecy being enjoined in the performance of these rites1 it is not easy to check any statements made on this point4 ,the ,sakta cult is1 however1 known to be especially prevalent--though apparently not in a very extreme form--amongst members of the very respectable ,kayastha or writer caste of ,bengal1 and as these are largely employed as clerks and accountants in ,upper ,india1 there is reason to fear that their vicious practices are gradually being disseminated through them4 ,the divine object of the adoration of the ,saktas1 then1 is ,siva's wife--the ,devi 7goddess71 ,mahadevi 7great goddess71 or ,jagan-mata 7mother of the world7--in one or other of her numerous forms1 benign or terrible4 ,the forms in which she is worshipped in ,bengal are of the latter category1 viz4 ,durga1 the unapproachable1 and ,kali1 the black one1 or1 as some take it1 the wife of ,kala1 time1 or death the great dissolver1 viz4 ,siva4 ,in honour of the former1 the ,durga-puja is celebrated during ten days at the time of the autumnal equinox1 in commemoration of her victory over the buffalo-headed demon ,mahishasura2 when the image of the ten-armed goddess1 holding a weapon in each hand1 is worshipped for nine days1 and cast into the water on the tenth day1 called the ,dasahara1 whence the festival itself is commonly called ,dasara in western ,india4 ,kali1 on the other hand1 the most terrible of the goddess's forms1 has a special service performed to her1 at the ,kali-puja1 during the darkest night of the succeeding month2 when she is represented as a naked black woman1 four-armed1 wearing a garland of heads of giants slain by her1 and a string of skulls round her neck1 dancing on the breast of her husband 7,mahakala71 with gaping mouth and protruding tongue2 and when she has to be propitiated by the slaughter of goats1 sheep and buffaloes4 ,on other occasions also ,vamacharis commonly offer animal sacrifices1 usually one or more kids2 the head of the victim1 which has to be severed by a single stroke1 being always placed in front of the image of the goddess as a blood-offering 7bali71 with an earthen lamp fed with ghee burning above it1 whilst the flesh is cooked and served to the guests attending the ceremony1 except that of buffaloes1 which is given to the low-caste musicians who perform during the service4 ,even some adherents of this class have1 however1 discontinued animal sacrifices1 and use certain kinds of fruit1 such as coco-nuts or pumpkins1 instead4 ,the use of wine1 which at one time was very common on these occasions1 seems also to have become much more restricted2 and only members of the extreme section would still seem to adhere to the practice of the so-called five m's prescribed by some of the ,tantras1 viz4 mamsa 7flesh71 matsya 7fish71 madya 7wine71 maithuna 7sexual union71 and mudra 7mystical finger signs7--probably the most degrading cult ever practised under the pretext of religious worship4 ,in connexion with the principal object of this cult1 ,tantric theory has devised an elaborate system of female figures representing either special forms and personifications or attendants of the ,great ,goddess4 ,they are generally arranged in groups1 the most important of which are the ,mahavidyas 7great sciences71 the #h 7or #i7 ,mataras 7mothers7 or ,mahamataras 7great mothers71 consisting of the wives of the principal gods2 the #h ,nayikas or mistresses2 and different classes of sorceresses and ogresses1 called ,yoginis1 ,dakinis and ,sakinis4 ,a special feature of the ,sakti cult is the use of obscure ,vedic mantras1 often changed so as to be quite meaningless and on that very account deemed the more efficacious for the acquisition of superhuman powers2 as well as of mystic letters and syllables called bija 7germ71 of magic circles 7chakra7 and diagrams 7yantra71 and of amulets of various materials inscribed with formulae of fancied mysterious import4 ,general conclusions4 ,this survey of the ,indian sects will have shown how little the character of their divine objects of worship is calculated to exert that elevating and spiritualizing influence1 so characteristic of true religious devotion4 ,in all but a few of the minor groups religious fervour is only too apt to degenerate into that very state of sexual excitation which devotional exercises should surely tend to repress4 ,if the worship of ,siva1 despite the purport of his chief symbol1 seems on the whole less liable to produce these undesirable effects than that of the rival deity1 it is doubtless due partly to the real nature of that emblem being little realized by the common people1 and partly to the somewhat repellent character of the great god1 more favourable to evoking feelings of awe and terror than a spirit of fervid devotion4 ,all the more are1 however1 the gross stimulants1 connected with the adoration of his consort1 calculated to work up the carnal instincts of the devotees to an extreme degree of sensual frenzy4 ,in the ,vaishnava camp1 on the other hand1 the cult of ,krishna1 and more especially that of the youthful ,krishna1 can scarcely fail to exert an influence which1 if of a subtler and more insinuating1 is not on that account of a less demoralizing kind4 ,indeed1 it would be hard to find anything less consonant with godliness and divine perfection than the pranks of this juvenile god2 and if poets and thinkers try to explain them away by dint of allegorical interpretation1 the plain man will not for all their refinements take these amusing adventures any the less au pied de la lettre4 ,no fault1 in this respect1 can assuredly be found with the legendary ,rama1 a very paragon of knightly honour and virtue1 even as his consort ,sita is the very model of a noble and faithful wife2 and yet this cult has perhaps retained even more of the character of mere hero-worship than that of ,krishna4 ,since by the universally accepted doctrine of karman 7deed7 or karmavipaka 7the maturing of deeds7 man himself--either in his present1 or some future1 existence--enjoys the fruit of1 or has to atone for1 his former good and bad actions1 there could hardly be room in ,hindu pantheism for a belief in the remission of sin by divine grace or vicarious substitution4 ,and accordingly the descents or incarnations of the deity have for their object1 not so much the spiritual regeneration of man as the deliverance of the world from some material calamity threatening to overwhelm it4 ,the generally recognized principal ,avatars do not1 however1 by any means constitute the only occasions of a direct intercession of the deity in worldly affairs1 but--in the same way as to this day the eclipses of the sun and moon are ascribed by the ordinary ,hindu to these luminaries being temporarily swallowed by the dragon ,rahu 7or ,graha1 the seizer7--so any uncommon occurrence would be apt to be set down as a special manifestation of divine power2 and any man credited with exceptional merit or achievement1 or even remarkable for some strange incident connected with his life or death1 might ultimately come to be looked upon as a veritable incarnation of the deity1 capable of influencing the destinies of man1 and might become an object of local adoration or superstitious awe and propitiatory rites to multitudes of people4 ,that the transmigration theory1 which makes the spirit of the departed hover about for a time in quest of a new corporeal abode1 would naturally lend itself to superstitious notions of this kind can scarcely be doubted4 ,of peculiar importance in this respect is the worship of the ,pitris 7fathers7 or deceased ancestors1 as entering largely into the everyday life and family relations of the ,hindus4 ,at stated intervals to offer reverential homage and oblations of food to the forefathers up to the third degree is one of the most sacred duties the devout ,hindu has to discharge4 ,the periodical performance of the commemorative rite of obsequies called ,sraddha--i4e4 an oblation made in faith 7sraddha1 ,lat4 credo7--is the duty and privilege of the eldest son of the deceased1 or1 failing him1 of the nearest relative who thereby establishes his right as next of kin in respect of inheritance2 and those other relatives who have the right to take part in the ceremony are called sapinda1 i4e4 sharing in the pindas 7or balls of cooked rice1 constituting along with libations of water the usual offering to the ,manes7--such relationship being held a bar to intermarriage4 ,the first ,sraddha takes place as soon as possible after the antyeshti 7final offering7 or funeral ceremony proper1 usually spread over ten days2 being afterwards repeated once a month for a year1 and subsequently at every anniversary and otherwise voluntarily on special occasions4 ,moreover1 a simple libation of water should be offered to the ,fathers twice daily at the morning and evening devotion called sandhya 7twilight74 ,it is doubtless a sense of filial obligation coupled with sentiments of piety and reverence that gave rise to this practice of offering gifts of food and drink to the deceased ancestors4 ,hence also frequent allusion is made by poets to the anxious care caused to the ,fathers by the possibility of the living head of the family being afflicted with failure of offspring2 this dire prospect compelling them to use but sparingly their little store of provisions1 in case the supply should shortly cease altogether4 ,at the same time one also meets with frank avowals of a superstitious fear lest any irregularity in the performance of the obsequial rites should cause the ,fathers to haunt their old home and trouble the peace of their undutiful descendant1 or even prematurely draw him after them to the ,pitri-loka or world of the ,fathers1 supposed to be located in the southern region4 ,terminating as it usually does with the feeding and feeing of a greater or less number of ,brahmans and the feasting of members of the performers' own caste1 the ,sraddha1 especially its first performance1 is often a matter of very considerable expense2 and more than ordinary benefit to the deceased is supposed to accrue from it when it takes place at a spot of recognized sanctity1 such as one of the great places of pilgrimage like ,prayaga 7,allahabad1 where the three sacred rivers1 ,ganga1 ,yamuna and ,sarasvati1 meet71 ,mathura1 and especially ,gaya and ,kasi 7,benares74 ,but indeed the tirtha-yatra1 or pilgrimage to holy bathing-places1 is in itself considered an act of piety conferring religious merit in proportion to the time and trouble expended upon it4 ,the number of such places is legion and is constantly increasing4 ,the banks of the great rivers such as the ,ganga 7,ganges71 the ,yamuna 7,jumna71 the ,narbada1 the ,krishna 7,kistna71 are studded with them1 and the water of these rivers is supposed to be imbued with the essence of sanctity capable of cleansing the pious bather of all sin and moral taint4 ,to follow the entire course of one of the sacred rivers from the mouth to the source on one side and back again on the other in the sun-wise 7pradakshina7 direction--that is1 always keeping the stream on one's right-hand side--is held to be a highly meritorious undertaking which it requires years to carry through4 ,no wonder that water from these rivers1 especially the ,ganges1 is sent and taken in bottles to all parts of ,india to be used on occasion as healing medicine or for sacramental purposes4 ,in ,vedic times1 at the ,rajasuya1 or inauguration of a king1 some water from the holy river ,sarasvati was mixed with the sprinkling water used for consecrating the king4 ,hence also sick persons are frequently conveyed long distances to a sacred river to heal them of their maladies2 and for a dying man to breathe his last at the side of the ,ganges is devoutly believed to be the surest way of securing for him salvation and eternal bliss4 ,such probably was the belief of the ordinary ,hindu two thousand years ago1 and such it remains to this day4 ,in the light of facts such as these1 who could venture to say what the future of ,hinduism is likely to be8 ,is the regeneration of ,india to be brought about by the modern theistic movements1 such as the ,brahma-samaj and ,arya-samaj1 as so close and sympathetic an observer of ,hindu life and thought as ,sir ,a4 ,lyall seems to think8 ,the ,hindu mind1 he remarks1 is essentially speculative and transcendental2 it will never consent to be shut up in the prison of sensual experience1 for it has grasped and holds firmly the central idea that all things are manifestations of some power outside phenomena4 ,and the tendency of contemporary religious discussion in ,india1 so far as it can be followed from a distance1 is towards an ethical reform on the old foundations1 towards searching for some method of reconciling their ,vedic theology with the practices of religion taken as a rule of conduct and a system of moral government4 ,one can already discern a movement in various quarters towards a recognition of impersonal theism1 and towards fixing the teaching of the philosophical schools upon some definitely authorized system of faith and morals1 which may satisfy a rising ethical standard1 and may thus permanently embody that tendency to substitute spiritual devotion for external forms and caste rules which is the characteristic of the sects that have from time to time dissented from orthodox ,brahminism4 ,,authorities4--,census of ,india 7#aija71 vol4 i4 part i42 ,india1 by ,h4 ,h4 ,risley and ,e4 ,a4 ,gait2 vol4 i4 ,ethnographical ,appendices1 by ,h4 ,h4 ,risley2 ,the ,indian ,empire1 vol4 i4 7new ed41 ,oxford1 #aijg72 ,j4 ,muir1 ,original ,sanskrit ,texts 7#bnd ed41 #e vols41 ,london1 #ahgc72 ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,thought and ,life in ,india 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,modern ,india and the ,indians 7,london1 #ahgh1 #crd ed4 #ahgi72 ,hinduism 7,london1 #ahgg72 ,sir ,alfred ,c4 ,lyall1 ,asiatic ,studies 7#b series1 ,london1 #ahii72 ,hinduism in ,religious ,systems of the ,world 7,london1 #aijd72 ,brahminism in ,great ,religions of the ,world 7,new ,york and ,london1 #aijb72 ,w4 ,j4 ,wilkins1 ,modern ,hinduism 7,london1 #ahhg72 ,j4 ,c4 ,oman1 ,indian ,life1 ,religious and ,social 7,london1 #ahgi72 ,the ,mystics1 ,ascetics and ,saints of ,india 7,london1 #aijc72 ,the ,brahmans1 ,theists and ,muslims of ,india 7,london1 #aijg72 ,s4 ,c4 ,bose1 ,the ,hindus as they are 7#bnd ed41 ,calcutta1 #ahhc72 ,j4 ,robson1 ,hinduism and ,christianity 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #crd ed41 #aije72 ,j4 ,murray ,mitchell1 ,hinduism ,past and ,present 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #ahig72 ,jogendra ,nath ,bhattacharya1 ,hindu ,castes and ,sects 7,calcutta1 #ahif72 ,a4 ,barth1 ,the ,religions of ,india 7,london1 #ahhb72 ,e4 ,w4 ,hopkins1 ,the ,religions of ,india 7,london1 #ahif74 7,j4 ,e47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,it is1 perhaps1 by surveying ,india that we at this day can best represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform worked upon the heathen world by ,christianity1 as it was organized and executed throughout ,europe by the combined authority of the ,holy ,roman ,empire and the ,church ,apostolic4 ,sir ,alfred ,c4 ,lyall1 ,asiatic ,studies1 i4 #b4 #b ,henry ,whitehead1 ,d4 ,d41 bishop of ,madras1 ,the ,village ,deities of ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijg74 #c ,the effect of caste is to give all ,hindu society a religious basis4 ,sir ,a4 ,c4 ,lyall1 ,brahmanism4 #d ,thus1 in ,berar1 there is a strong non-,aryan leaven in the dregs of the agricultural class1 derived from the primitive races which have gradually melted down into settled life1 and thus become fused with the general community1 while these same races are still distinct tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle4 ,sir ,alfred ,c4 ,lyall1 ,as4 ,st41 i4 #f4 #e ,siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the present age as ,sveta1 the ,white1 for the purpose of benefiting the ,brahmans1 and he is invariably painted white2 whilst ,vishnu1 when pictured1 is always of a dark-blue colour4 #f ,as in the case of ,siva's traditional white complexion1 it may not be without significance1 from a racial point of view1 that ,vishnu1 ,rama and ,krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed to them1 viz4 blue1 hyacinthine1 and dark azure or dark brown respectively4 ,the names of the two heroes meaning simply black or dark1 the blue tint may originally have belonged to ,vishnu1 who is also called pitavasas1 dressed in yellow garment1 i4e4 the colours of sky and sun combined4 #g ,this notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic cosmogonic hymn1 ,rigv4 x4 #abi1 where it is said that--that one 7existent1 neutr47 breathed breathless by 7or with7 its svadha 78 inherent power1 or nature71 beyond that there was nothing whatever 444 that one live 7germ7 which was enclosed in the void was generated by the power of heat 7or fervour72 desire then first came upon it1 which was the first seed of the mind 444 fertilizing forces there were1 svadha below1 prayati 78 will7 above4 ,,hindu ,,kush1 a range of mountains in ,central ,asia4 ,throughout #ejj m4 of its length1 from its roots in the ,pamir regions till it fades into the ,koh-i-,baba to the west of ,kabul1 this great range forms the water-divide between the ,kabul and the ,oxus basins1 and1 for the first #bjj m4 reckoning westwards1 the southern boundary of ,afghanistan4 ,it may be said to spring from the head of the ,taghdumbash ,pamir1 where it unites with the great meridional system of ,sarikol stretching northwards1 and the yet more impressive mountain barrier of ,muztagh1 the northern base of which separates ,china from the semi-independent territory of ,kanjut4 ,the ,wakhjir pass1 crossing the head of the ,taghdumbash ,pamir into the sources of the river ,hunza1 almost marks the tri-junction of the three great chains of mountains4 ,as the ,hindu ,kush strikes westwards1 after first rounding the head of an ,oxus tributary 7the ,ab-i-,panja1 which ,curzon considers to be the true source of the ,oxus71 it closely overlooks the trough of that glacier-fed stream under its northern spurs1 its crest at the nearest point being separated from the river by a distance which cannot much exceed #aj m4 ,as the river is here the northern boundary of ,afghanistan1 and the crest of the ,hindu ,kush the southern boundary1 this distance represents the width of the ,afghan kingdom at that point4 ,physiography4--,for the first #ajj m4 of its length the ,hindu ,kush is a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width1 permitting the formation of small lakes on the crest1 and possessing no considerable peaks4 ,it is crossed by many passes1 varying in height from #ab1ejj ft4 to #ag1ejj ft41 the lowest and the easiest being the well-known group about ,baroghil1 which has from time immemorial offered a line of approach from ,high ,asia to ,chitral and ,jalalabad4 ,as the ,hindu ,kush gradually recedes from the ,ab-i-,panja and turns south-westwards it gains in altitude1 and we find prominent peaks on the crest which measure more than #bd1jjj ft4 above sea-level4 ,even here1 however1 the main central water-divide1 or axis of the chain1 is apparently not the line of highest peaks1 which must be looked for to the south1 where the great square-headed giant called ,tirach ,mir dominates ,chitral from a southern spur4 ,for some #dj or #ej m4 of this south-westerly bend1 bearing away from the ,oxus1 where the ,hindu ,kush overlooks the mountain wilderness of ,badakshan to the west1 the crest is intersected by many passes1 of which the most important is the ,dorah group 7including the ,minjan and the ,mandal71 which rise to about #ae1jjj ft41 and which are1 under favourable conditions1 practicable links between the ,oxus and ,chitral basins4 ,kafiristan section4 ,from the ,dorah to the ,khawak pass 7or group of passes1 for it is seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the ,hindu ,kush71 which is between #aa1jjj and #ab1jjj ft4 in altitude1 the water-divide overlooks ,kafiristan and ,badakshan4 ,here its exact position is matter of conjecture4 ,it lies amidst a wild1 inaccessible region of snowbound crests1 and is certainly nowhere less than #ae1jjj ft4 above sea-level4 ,there is a tradition that ,timur attempted the passage of the ,hindu ,kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts1 and that1 having failed1 he left a record of his failure engraved on a rock in the pass4 ,passes4 ,the ,khawak1 at the head of the ,panjshir tributary of the ,kabul river1 leading straight from ,badakshan to ,charikar and the city of ,kabul1 is now an excellent kafila route1 the road having been engineered under the amir ,abdur ,rahman's direction1 and it is said to be available for traffic throughout the year4 ,from the ,khawak to the head of the ,ghorband 7a river of the ,hindu ,kush which1 rising to the north-west of ,kabul1 flows north-east to meet the ,panjshir near ,charikar1 whence they run united into the plains of ,kohistan7 the ,hindu ,kush is intersected by passes at intervals1 all of which were surveyed1 and several utilized1 during the return of the ,russo-,afghan boundary commission from the ,oxus to ,kabul in #ahhf4 ,those utilized were the ,kaoshan 7the ,hindu ,kush pass par excellence71 #ad1cdj ft42 the ,chahardar 7#ac1ijj ft471 which is a link in one of the amir of ,afghanistan's high roads to ,turkestan2 and the ,shibar 7#ihjj ft471 which is merely a diversion into the upper ,ghorband of that group of passes between ,bamian and the ,kabul plains which are represented by the ,irak1 ,hajigak1 ,unai1 c4 ,about this point it is geographically correct to place the southern extremity of the ,hindu ,kush1 for here commences the ,koh-i-,baba system into which the ,hindu ,kush is merged4 ,general conformation4 ,the general conformation of the ,hindu ,kush system south of the ,khawak1 no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock composition as at present exists to the north1 points to its construction under the same conditions of upheaval and subsequent denudation as are common to the western ,himalaya and the whole of the trans-,indus borderland4 ,its upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the north-west of the ,indian peninsula long after the ,himalaya had massed itself as a formidable mountain chain1 belongs to a comparatively recent geologic period1 and the same thrust upwards of vast masses of cretaceous limestone has disturbed the overlying recent beds of shale and clays with very similar results to those which have left so marked an impress on the ,baluch frontier4 ,successive flexures or ridges are ranged in more or less parallel lines1 and from between the bands of hard1 unyielding rock of older formation the soft beds of recent shale have been washed out1 to be carried through the enclosing ridges by rifts which break across their axes4 ,the ,hindu ,kush is1 in fact1 but the face of a great upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it northwards1 just as the ,himalaya forms the southern face of the great central tableland of ,tibet1 and its general physiography1 exhibiting long1 narrow1 lateral valleys and transverse lines of antecedent drainage1 is similar4 ,there are few passes across the southern section of the ,hindu ,kush 7and this section is1 from the politico-geographical point of view1 more important to ,india than the whole ,himalayan system7 which have not to surmount a succession of crests or ridges as they cross from ,afghan ,turkestan to ,afghanistan4 ,the exceptions are1 of course1 notable1 and have played an important part in the military history of ,asia from time immemorial4 ,from a little ice-bound lake called ,gaz ,kul1 or ,karambar1 which lies on the crest of the ,hindu ,kush near its northern origin at the head of the ,taghdumbash ,pamir1 two very important river systems 7those of ,chitral and ,hunza7 are believed to originate4 ,the lake really lies on the watershed between the two1 and is probably a glacial relic4 ,its contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on conditions of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses towards one end4 ,it marks the commencement of the water-divide which primarily separates the ,gilgit basin from that of the ,yashkun1 or ,chitral1 river1 and subsequently divides the drainage of ,swat and ,bajour from that of the ,chitral 7or ,kunar74 ,the ,yashkun-,chitral-,kunar river 7it is called by all three names7 is the longest affluent of the ,kabul1 and it is in many respects a more important river than the ,kabul4 ,throughout its length it is closely flanked on its left bank by this main water-divide1 which is called ,moshabar or ,shandur in its northern sections1 and owns a great variety of names where it divides ,bajour from the ,kunar valley4 ,it is this range1 crowned by peaks of #bb1jjj ft4 altitude and maintaining an average elevation of some #aj1jjj ft4 throughout its length of #bej m41 that is the real barrier of the north--not the ,hindu ,kush itself4 ,across it1 at its head1 are the glacial passes which lead to the foot of the ,baroghil4 ,of these ,darkot1 with a glacial staircase on each side1 is typical4 7,see ,,gilgit47 ,those passes 7the ,kilik and ,mintaka7 from the ,pamir regions1 which lead into the rocky gorges and defiles of the upper affluents of the ,hunza to the east of the ,darkot1 belong rather to the ,muztagh system than to the ,hindu ,kush4 ,other passes across this important water-divide are the ,shandur 7#ab1bej ft471 between ,gilgit and ,mastuj2 the ,lowarai 7#aj1dej ft471 between the ,panjkora and ,chitral valleys2 and farther south certain lower crossings which once formed part of the great highway between ,kabul and ,india4 ,chitral4 ,deep down in the trough of the ,chitral river1 about midway between its source and its junction with the ,kabul at ,jalalabad1 is the village and fort of ,chitral 7q4v474 ,facing ,chitral1 on the right bank of the river1 and extending for some #gj m4 from the ,hindu ,kush1 is the lofty snow-clad spur of the ,hindu ,kush known as ,shawal1 across which one or two difficult passes lead into the ,bashgol valley of ,kafiristan4 ,this spur carries the boundary of ,afghanistan southwards to ,arnawai 7some #ej m4 below ,chitral71 where it crosses the river to the long ,shandur watershed4 ,south of ,arnawai the ,kunar valley becomes a part of ,afghanistan 7see ,,kunar74 ,the value of ,chitral as an outpost of ,british ,india may be best gauged by its geographical position4 ,it is about #ajj m4 7direct map measurement7 from the outpost of ,russia at ,langar ,kisht on the river ,panja1 with the ,dorah pass across the ,hindu ,kush intervening4 ,the ,dorah may be said to be about half-way between the two outposts1 and the mountain tracks leading to it on either side are rough and difficult4 ,the ,dorah1 however1 is not the only pass which leads into the ,chitral valley from the ,oxus4 ,the ,mandal pass1 a few miles south of the ,dorah1 is the connecting link between the ,oxus and the ,bashgol valley of ,kafiristan2 and the ,bashgol valley leads directly to the ,chitral valley at ,arnawai1 about #ej m4 below ,chitral4 ,nor must we overlook the connexion between north and south of the ,hindu ,kush which is afforded by the long narrow valley of the ,chitral 7or ,yashkun7 itself1 leading up to the ,baroghil pass4 ,this route was once made use of by the ,chinese for purposes of pilgrimage1 if not for invasion4 ,access to ,chitral from the north is therefore but a matter of practicable tracks1 or passes1 in two or three directions1 and the measure of practicability under any given conditions can best be reckoned from ,chitral itself4 ,by most authorities the possibility of an advance in force from the north1 even under the most favourable conditions1 is considered to be exceedingly small2 but the tracks and passes of the ,hindu ,kush are only impracticable so long as they are left as nature has made them4 ,historical ,notices4--,hindu ,kush is the ,caucasus of ,alexander's historians4 ,it is also included in the ,paropamisus1 though the latter term embraces more1 ,caucasus being apparently used only when the alpine barrier is in question4 ,whether the name was given in mere vanity to the barrier which ,alexander passed 7as ,arrian and others repeatedly allege71 or was founded also on some verbal confusion1 cannot be stated4 ,it was no doubt regarded 7and perhaps not altogether untruly7 as a part of a great alpine zone believed to traverse ,asia from west to east1 whether called ,taurus1 ,caucasus or ,imaus4 ,arrian himself applies ,caucasus distinctly to the ,himalaya also4 ,the application of the name ,tanais to the ,syr seems to indicate a real confusion with ,colchian ,caucasus4 ,alexander1 after building an ,alexandria at its foot 7probably at ,hupian near ,charikar71 crossed into ,bactria1 first reaching ,drapsaca1 or ,adrapsa4 ,this has been interpreted as ,anderab1 in which case he probably crossed the ,khawak ,pass1 but the identity is uncertain4 ,the ancient ,zend name is1 according to ,rawlinson1 ,paresina1 the essential part of ,paropamisus2 this accounts for the great ,asiastic ,parnassus of ,aristotle1 and the ,pho-lo-sin-a of ,hsuan ,tsang4 ,the name ,hindu ,kush is used by ,ibn ,batuta1 who crossed 7c4 #accb7 from ,anderab1 and he gives the explanation of the name which1 however doubtful1 is still popular1 as 7,pers47 ,hindu-,killer1 because of the number of ,indian slaves who perished in passing its snows4 ,baber always calls the range ,hindu ,kush1 and the way in which he speaks of it shows clearly that it was a range that was meant1 not a solitary pass or peak 7according to modern local use1 as alleged by ,elphinstone and ,burnes74 ,probably1 however1 the title was confined to the section from ,khawak to ,koh-i-,baba4 ,the name has by some later ,oriental writers been modified into ,hindu ,koh 7mountain71 but this is factitious1 and throws no more light on the origin of the title4 ,the name seems to have become known to ,european geographers by the ,oriental translations of the two ,petis de la ,croix1 and was taken up by ,delisle and ,d',anville4 ,rennell and ,elphinstone familiarized it4 ,burnes first crossed the range 7#ahcb74 ,a ,british force was stationed at ,bamian beyond it in #ahdj1 with an outpost at ,saighan4 ,the ,hindu ,kush1 formidable as it seems1 and often as it has been the limit between petty states1 has hardly ever been the boundary of a considerable power4 ,greeks1 ,white ,huns1 ,samanidae of ,bokhara1 ,ghaznevides1 ,mongols1 ,timur and ,timuridae1 down to ,saddozais and ,barakzais1 have ruled both sides of this great alpine chain4 ,,authorities4--,information about the ,hindu ,kush and ,chitral is now comparatively exact4 ,the ,russo-,afghan ,boundary ,commission of #ahhd and the ,chitral expedition of #ahie opened up a vast area for geographical investigation1 and the information collected is to be found in the reports and gazetteers of the ,indian government4 ,the following are the chief recent authorities3--,report of the ,russo-,afghan ,boundary ,commission 7#ahhf72 ,report of ,lockhart's ,mission 7#ahhf72 ,report of ,asmar ,boundary ,commission 7#ahie72 ,report of ,pamir ,boundary ,commission 7#ahif72 ,j4 ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindu ,kush 7,calcutta1 #ahhj72 ,w4 ,m',nair1 ,visit to ,kafiristan1 vol4 vi4 ,r4,g4,s4 ,proc41 #ahhd2 ,f4 ,younghusband1 ,journeys on the ,pamirs1 c41 vol4 xiv4 ,r4,g4,s4 ,proc41 #ahib2 ,colonel ,durand1 ,making a ,frontier 7,london1 #ahii72 ,sir ,g4 ,robertson1 ,chitral 7,london1 #ahii74 7,t4 ,h4 ,h4997 ,,hindur1 or ,,nalagarh1 one of the ,simla hill states1 under the government of the ,punjab1 ,india4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #eb1eea2 area1 #bef sq4 m42 estimated revenue1 ,l#hfjj4 ,the country was overrun by the ,gurkhas for some years before #ahae1 when they were driven out by the ,british1 and the raja was confirmed in possession of the territory4 ,the principal products are grain and opium4 ,,hinganghat1 a town of ,british ,india in ,wardha district1 ,central ,provinces1 #ba m4 ,s4,w4 of ,wardha town4 ,pop 7#aija7 #ab1ffb4 ,it is a main seat of the cotton trade1 the cotton here produced in the rich ,wardha valley having given its name to one of the best indigenous staples of ,india4 ,the principal native traders are ,marwaris1 many of whom have large transactions and export on their own account2 but the greater number act as middle-men4 ,there are two cotton-mills and several ginning and pressing factories4 ,,hinge 7in ,mid4 ,eng4 henge or heeng1 from hengen1 to hang71 a movable joint1 particularly that by which a door or window hangs from its side-post1 or by which a lid or cover is attached to that which it closes2 also any device which allows two parts to be joined together and move upon each other 7see ,,joinery74 ,figuratively the word is used of that on which something depends1 a cardinal or turning point1 a crisis4 ,,hingham1 a township of ,plymouth county1 ,massachusetts1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,massachusetts ,bay4 ,pop 7#ahij7 #defd2 7#aijj7 #ejei 7#ifi being foreign-born72 7#aije1 state census7 #dhai2 7#aiaj7 #dife4 ,area1 about #cj sq4 m4 ,the township is traversed by the ,new ,york1 ,new ,haven ,hartford railway1 and contains the villages of ,hingham1 ,west ,hingham1 ,hingham ,center1 and ,south ,hingham4 ,derby ,academy1 a co-educational school founded and endowed with about ,l#ab1jjj in #aghd by ,sarah ,derby 7#agad-agij71 was opened in #agia4 ,hingham has a public library 7#ahfh71 with #ab1jjj volumes in #aijh4 ,the ,old ,meeting ,house1 erected in #afha1 is one of the oldest church buildings in the country used continuously4 ,manufactures were relatively much more important in the #agth and #ahth centuries than since4 ,there were settlers here as early as #afcc1 some of them--notably ,edmund ,hobart1 ancestor of ,bishop ,john ,henry ,hobart1--being natives of ,hingham1 ,norfolk1 ,england1 whence the name2 and in #afce common land called ,barecove became the township of ,hingham4 ,see ,history of the ,town of ,hingham 7#d vols41 ,hingham1 #ahic74 ,,hinrichs1 ,,hermann ,,friedrich ,,wilhelm 7#agid-ahfa71 ,german philosopher1 studied theology at ,strassburg1 and philosophy at ,heidelberg under ,hegel 7q4v471 who wrote a preface to his ,religion im innern ,verhaltniss zur ,wissenschaft 7,heidelberg1 #agbb74 ,he became a ,privatdozent in #ahai1 and held professorships at ,breslau 7#ahbb7 and ,halle 7#ahbd74 ,,works4--7#a7 ,philosophical3 ,grundlinien der ,philosophie der ,logik 7,halle1 #ahbf72 ,genesis des ,wissens 7,heidelberg1 #ahce74 7#b7 ,on aesthetics3 ,vorlesungen uber ,goethes ,faust 7,halle1 #ahbe72 ,schillers ,dichtungen nach ihrem historischen ,zusammenhang 7,leipzig1 #ahcg-ahci74 ,by these works he became a recognized exponent of orthodox ,hegelianism4 7#c7 ,historical3 ,geschichte der ,rechts- und ,staatsprinzipien seit der ,reformation bis auf die ,gegenwart 7,leipzig1 #ahdh-aheb72 ,die ,konige 7#bnd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahec74 ,,hinschius1 ,,paul 7#ahce-ahih71 ,german jurist1 was the son of ,franz ,sales ,august ,hinschius 7#ahjg-ahgg71 and was born in ,berlin on the #beth of ,december #ahce4 ,his father was not only a scientific jurist1 but also a lawyer in large practice in ,berlin4 ,after working under his father1 ,hinschius in #aheb began to study jurisprudence at ,heidelberg and ,berlin1 the teacher who had most influence upon him being ,aemilius ,ludwig ,richter 7#ahjh-ahfd71 to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of the study of ecclesiastical law in ,germany4 ,in #ahee ,hinschius took the degree of doctor utriusque juris1 and in #ahei was admitted to the juridical faculty of ,berlin4 ,in #ahfc he went as professor extraordinarius to ,halle1 returning in the same capacity to ,berlin in #ahfe2 and in #ahfh became professor ordinarius at the university of ,kiel1 which he represented in the ,prussian ,upper ,house 7#ahgj-ahga74 ,he also assisted his father in editing the ,preussische ,anwaltszeitung from #ahfb to #ahff and the ,zeitschrift fur ,gesetzgebung und ,rechtspflege in ,preussen from #ahfg to #ahga4 ,in #ahgb he was appointed professor ordinarius of ecclesiastical law at ,berlin4 ,in the same year he took part in the conferences of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs1 which issued in the famous ,falk laws4 ,in connexion with the developments of the ,kulturkampf which resulted from the ,falk laws1 he wrote several treatises3 e4g4 on ,the ,attitude of the ,german ,state ,governments towards the ,decrees of the ,vatican ,council 7#ahga71 on ,the ,prussian ,church ,laws of #ahgc 7#ahgc71 ,the ,prussian ,church ,laws of the years #ahgd and #ahge 7#ahge71 and ,the ,prussian ,church ,law of #adth ,july #ahhj 7#ahha74 ,he sat in the ,reichstag as a ,national ,liberal from #ahgb to #ahgh1 and again in #ahha and #ahhb1 and from #ahhi onwards he represented the university of ,berlin in the ,prussian ,upper ,house4 ,he died on the #acth of ,december #ahih4 ,the two great works by which ,hinschius established his fame are the ,decretales ,pseudo-,isidorianae et capitula ,angilramni 7#b parts1 ,leipzig1 #ahfc7 and ,das ,kirchenrecht der ,katholiken und ,protestanten in ,deutschland1 vols1 i4-vi4 7,berlin1 #ahfi-ahgg74 ,the first of these1 for which during #ahfj and #ahfa he had gathered materials in ,italy1 ,spain1 ,france1 ,england1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,holland and ,belgium1 was the first critical edition of the ,false ,decretals4 ,his most monumental work1 however1 is the ,kirchenrecht1 which remains incomplete4 ,the six volumes actually published 7,system des katholischen ,kirchenrechts7 cover only book i4 of the work as planned2 they are devoted to an exhaustive historical and analytical study of the ,roman ,catholic hierarchy and its government of the church4 ,the work is planned with special reference to ,germany2 but in fact its scheme embraces the whole of the ,roman ,catholic organization in its principles and practice4 ,unfortunately even this part of the work remains incomplete2 two chapters of book i4 and the whole of book ii41 which was to have dealt with the rights and duties of the members of the hierarchy1 remain unwritten2 the most notable omission is that of the ecclesiastical law in relation to the regular orders4 ,incomplete as it is1 however1 the ,kirchenrecht remains a work of the highest scientific authority4 ,epoch-making in its application of the modern historical method to the study of ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice1 it has become the model for the younger school of canonists4 ,see the articles s4v4 by ,e4 ,seckel in ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencyklopadie 7#crd ed41 #aijj71 and by ,ulrich ,steitz in the ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie1 vol4 #ej 7,leipzig1 #aije74 ,,hinterland 7,german for the land behind71 the region lying behind a coast or river line1 or a country dependent for trade or commerce on any other region4 ,in the purely physical sense interior or back country is more commonly used1 but the word has gained a distinct political significance4 ,it first came into prominence during #ahhc-ahhe1 when ,germany insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the territory behind those parts of the ,african coast that she had occupied4 ,the doctrine of the hinterland was that the possessor of the littoral was entitled to as much of the back country as geographically1 economically or politically was dependent upon the coast lands1 a doctrine which1 in the space of ten years1 led to the partition of ,africa between various ,european powers4 ,,hinton1 ,,james 7#ahbb-ahge71 ,english surgeon and author1 son of ,john ,howard ,hinton 7#agia-ahgc71 ,baptist minister and author of the ,history and ,topography of the ,united ,states and other works1 was born at ,reading in #ahbb4 ,he was educated at his grandfather's school near ,oxford1 and at the ,nonconformist school at ,harpenden1 and in #ahch1 on his father's removal to ,london1 was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in ,whitechapel4 ,after retaining this situation about a year he became clerk in an insurance office4 ,his evenings were spent in intense study1 and this1 joined to the ardour1 amounting to morbidness1 of his interest in moral problems1 so affected his health that in his nineteenth year he resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts by running away to sea4 ,his intention having1 however1 been discovered1 he was sent1 on the advice of the physician who was consulted regarding his health1 to ,st ,bartholomew's ,hospital to study for the medical profession4 ,after receiving his diploma in #ahdg1 he was for some time assistant surgeon at ,newport1 ,essex1 but the same year he went out to ,sierra ,leone to take medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage thence to ,jamaica1 where he stayed some time4 ,he returned to ,england in #ahej1 and entered into partnership with a surgeon in ,london1 where he soon had his interest awakened specially in aural surgery1 and gave also much of his attention to physiology4 ,he made his first appearance as an author in #ahef by contributing papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the ,christian ,spectator2 and in #ahei he published ,man and his ,dwelling-place4 ,a series of papers entitled ,physiological ,riddles1 in the ,cornhill ,magazine1 afterwards published as ,life in ,nature 7#ahfb71 as well as another series entitled ,thoughts on ,health 7#ahga71 proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition4 ,after being appointed aural surgeon to ,guy's ,hospital in #ahfc1 he speedily acquired a reputation as the most skilful aural surgeon of his day1 which was fully borne out by his works1 ,an ,atlas of ,diseases of the membrana tympani 7#ahgd71 and ,questions of ,aural ,surgery 7#ahgd74 ,but his health broke down1 and in #ahgd he gave up practice2 and he died at the ,azores of acute inflammation of the brain on the #afth of ,december #ahge4 ,in addition to the works already mentioned1 he was the author of ,the ,mystery of ,pain 7#ahff7 and ,the ,place of the ,physician 7#ahgd74 ,on account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of many of the important moral and social problems of the time1 his writings had a wide circulation on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,his ,life and ,letters1 edited by ,ellice ,hopkins1 with an introduction by ,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,gull1 appeared in #ahgh4 ,,hiogo ,,hyogo1 a town of ,japan in the province of ,settsu1 ,nippon1 on the western shore of the bay of ,osaka1 adjoining the foreign settlement of ,kobe1 #ba m4 ,w4 of ,osaka by rail4 ,the growth of its prosperity has been very remarkable4 ,its population1 including that of ,kobe1 was #ace1fci in #ahia1 and #bhe1jjb in #aijc4 ,from #ahhd to the close of the century its trade increased nearly eightfold1 and the increase was not confined to a few staples of commerce1 but was spread over almost the whole trade1 in which silk and cotton fabrics1 floor-mats1 straw-plaits1 matches1 and cotton yarns are specially important4 ,kobe owes much of its prosperity to the fact of serving largely as the shipping port of ,osaka1 the chief manufacturing town in ,japan4 ,the foreign community1 exclusive of ,chinese1 exceeds #ajjj persons4 ,kobe is considered the brightest and healthiest of all the places assigned as foreign settlements in ,japan1 its pure1 dry air and granite subsoil constituting special advantages4 ,it is in railway communication with all parts of the country1 and wharves admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo without the aid of lighters4 ,the area originally appropriated for a foreign settlement soon proved too restricted1 and foreigners received permission to lease lands and houses direct from ,japanese owners beyond the treaty limits1 a privilege which1 together with that of building villas on the hills behind the town1 ultimately involved some diplomatic complications4 ,kobe has a shipbuilding yard1 and docks in its immediate neighbourhood4 ,hiogo has several temples of interest1 one of which has near it a huge bronze statue of ,buddha1 while by the ,minatogawa1 which flows into the sea between ,hiogo and ,kobe1 a temple commemorates the spot where ,kusunoki ,masashige1 the mirror of ,japanese loyalty1 met his death in battle in #accf4 ,the temple of ,ikuta was erected on the site of the ancient fane built by ,jingo on her return from ,korea in the #crd century4 ,hiogo's original name was ,bako4 ,its position near the entrance of the ,inland ,sea gave it some maritime importance from a very early period1 but it did not become really prominent until the #abth century1 when ,kiyomori1 chief of the ,taira clan1 transferred the capital from ,kioto to ,fukuhara1 in ,hiogo's immediate neighbourhood1 and undertook various public works for improving the place4 ,the change of capital was very brief1 but ,hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction4 ,,hip4 7#a7 7,from ,o4 ,eng4 hype1 a word common in various forms to many ,teutonic languages2 cf4 ,dutch heup1 and ,ger4 ,hufte71 the projecting part of the body formed by the top of the thighbone and the side of the pelvis1 in quadrupeds generally known as the haunch 7see ,,joints74 7#b77,o4 ,eng4 heope1 from same root as ,m4,h4 ,ger4 hiefe1 a thorn-bush71 the fruit of the dog-rose 7,rosa canina72 hips are usually joined with haws1 the fruit of the hawthorn4 ,,hip-,,knob1 in architecture1 the finial on the hip of a roof1 between the barge-boards of a gable4 ,,hipparchus 7fl4 #adf-abf ,b4,c471 ,greek astronomer1 was born at ,nicaea in ,bithynia early in the #bnd century ,b4,c4 ,he observed in the island of ,rhodes probably from #afa1 certainly from #adf until about #abf ,b4,c41 and made the capital discovery of the precession of the equinoxes in #acj 7see ,,astronomy3 ,history74 ,the outburst of a new star in #acd ,b4,c4 is stated by ,pliny 7,hist4 nat4 ii4 #bf7 to have prompted the preparation of his catalogue of #ajhj stars1 substantially embodied in ,ptolemy's ,almagest4 ,hipparchus founded trigonometry1 and compiled the first table of chords4 ,scientific geography originated with his invention of the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude and longitude4 ,there can be little doubt that the fundamental part of his astronomical knowledge was derived from ,chaldaea4 ,none of his many works has survived except a ,commentary on the ,phaenomena of ,aratus and ,eudoxus1 published by ,p4 ,victorius at ,florence in #aefg1 and included by ,d4 ,petavius in his ,uranologium 7,paris1 #afcj74 ,a new edition was published by ,carolus ,manitius 7,leipzig1 #ahid74 ,see ,j4 ,b4 ,j4 ,delambre1 ,histoire de l'astronomie ancienne1 i4 #agc2 ,p4 ,tannery1 ,recherches sur l'histoire de l'astr4 ancienne1 p4 #acj2 ,a4 ,berry1 ,hist4 of ,astronomy1 pp4 #dj-fa2 ,m4 ,marie1 ,hist4 des sciences1 i4 #bjg2 ,g4 ,cornewall ,lewis1 ,astronomy of the ,ancients1 p4 #bjg2 ,r4 ,grant1 ,hist4 of ,phys4 ,astronomy1 pp4 #cah1 #dcg2 ,f4 ,boll1 ,sphaera1 p4 #fa 7,leipzig1 #aijc72 ,r4 ,wolf1 ,geschichte der ,astronomie1 p4 #de2 ,j4 ,f4 ,montucla1 ,hist4 des mathematiques1 t4 i4 p4 #beg2 ,j4 ,a4 ,schmidt1 ,variorum philosophicorum decas1 cap4 i4 7,jenae1 #afia74 7,a4 ,m4 ,c47 ,,hippasus ,,of ,,metapontum1 ,pythagorean philosopher1 was one of the earliest of the disciples of ,pythagoras4 ,he is mentioned both by ,diogenes ,laertius and by ,iamblichus1 but nothing is known of his life4 ,diogenes says that he left no writings1 but other authorities make him the author of a ,greek3 mystikos logos directed against the ,pythagoreans4 ,according to ,aristotle 7,metaphysica1 i4 #c71 he was an adherent of the ,heraclitean fire-doctrine1 whereas the ,pythagoreans maintained the theory that number is the principle of everything4 ,he seems to have regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter1 and so approximates the orthodox ,pythagorean doctrine of the central fire1 or ,hestia1 to the more detailed theories of ,heraclitus4 ,in spite of this divergence1 ,hippasus is always regarded as a ,pythagorean4 ,see ,diogenes viii4 #hd2 ,brandis1 ,history of ,greek and ,roman ,philosophy2 also ,,pythagoras4 ,,hippeastrum1 in botany1 a genus of the natural order ,amaryllidaceae1 containing about #ej species of bulbous plants1 natives of tropical and sub-tropical ,south ,america4 ,in cultivation they are generally known as ,amaryllis4 ,the handsome funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster of two to many1 at the end of a short hollow scape4 ,the species and the numerous hybrids which have been obtained artificially1 show a great variety in size and colour of the flower1 including the richest deep crimson and blood-red1 white1 or with striped1 mottled or blended colours4 ,they are of easy culture1 and free-blooming habit4 ,like other bulbs they are increased by offsets1 which should be carefully removed when the plants are at rest1 and should be allowed to attain a fair size before removal4 ,these young bulbs should be potted singly in ,february or ,march1 in mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand1 about two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil1 which should be made quite solid4 ,they should be removed to a temperature of #fj deg4 by night and #gj deg4 by day1 very carefully watered until the roots have begun to grow freely1 after which the soil should be kept moderately moist4 ,as they advance the temperature should be raised to #gj deg4 at night1 and to #hj deg4 or higher with sun heat by day4 ,they do not need shading1 but should have plenty of air1 and be syringed daily in the afternoon4 ,when growing they require a good supply of water4 ,after the decay of the flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist temperature of from #gj deg4 to #hj deg4 by day during summer to perfect their leaves1 and then be ripened off in autumn4 ,through the winter they should have less water1 but must not be kept entirely dry4 ,the minimum temperature should now be about #ee deg41 to be increased #aj deg4 or #ae deg4 in spring4 ,as the bulbs get large they will occasionally need shifting into larger pots4 ,propagation is also readily effected by seeds for raising new varieties4 ,seeds are sown when ripe in well drained pans of sandy loam at a temperature of about #fe deg4 ,the seedlings when large enough to handle are placed either singly in very small pots or several in a pot or shallow pan1 and put in a bottom heat1 in a moist atmosphere with a temperature from #fj deg4 to #gj deg4 ,h4 ,ackermanni1 with large1 handsome1 crimson flowers--itself a hybrid--is the parent of many of the large-flowered forms2 ,h4 equestre 7,barbados lily71 with yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet1 has also given rise to several handsome forms2 ,h4 aulicum 7flowers crimson and green71 ,h4 pardinum 7flowers creamy-white spotted with crimson71 and ,h4 vittatum 7flowers white with red stripes1 a beautiful species and the parent of many varieties71 are stove or warm greenhouse plants4 ,these kinds1 however1 are now only regarded as botanical curiosities1 and are rarely grown in private or commercial establishments4 ,they have been ousted by the more gorgeous looking hybrids1 which have been evolved during the past #ajj years4 ,h4 ,johnsoni is named after a ,lancashire watchmaker who raised it in #agii by crossing ,h4 ,reginae with ,h4 vittatum4 ,since that time other species have been used for hybridizing1 notably ,h4 reticulatum1 ,h4 aulicum1 ,h4 solandriflorum1 and sometimes ,h4 equestre and ,h4 psittacinum4 ,the finest forms since #ahhj have been evolved from ,h4 ,leopoldi and ,h4 pardinum4 7,j4 ,ws47 ,,hipped ,,roof1 the name given in architecture to a roof which slopes down on all four sides instead of terminating on two sides against a vertical gable4 ,sometimes a compromise is made between the two1 half the roof being hipped and half resting on the vertical wall2 this gives much more room inside the roof1 and externally a most picturesque effect1 which is one of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the south of ,england1 and is rarely found in other countries4 ,,hippel1 ,,theodor ,,gottlieb ,,von 7#agda-agif71 ,german satirical and humorous writer1 was born on the #cast of ,january #agda1 at ,gerdauen in ,east ,prussia1 where his father was rector of a school4 ,he enjoyed an excellent education at home1 and in his sixteenth year he entered ,konigsberg university as a student of theology4 ,interrupting his studies1 he went1 on the invitation of a friend1 to ,st ,petersburg1 where he was introduced at the brilliant court of the empress ,catherine ,,ii4 ,returning to ,konigsberg he became a tutor in a private family2 but1 falling in love with a young lady of high position1 his ambition was aroused1 and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with enthusiasm to legal studies4 ,he was successful in his profession1 and in #aghj was appointed chief burgomaster in ,konigsberg1 and in #aghf privy councillor of war and president of the town4 ,as he rose in the world1 however1 his inclination for matrimony vanished1 and the lady who had stimulated his ambition was forgotten4 ,he died at ,konigsberg on the #bcrd of ,april #agif1 leaving a considerable fortune4 ,hippel had extraordinary talents1 rich in wit and fancy2 but his was a character full of contrasts and contradictions4 ,cautiousness and ardent passion1 dry pedantry and piety1 morality and sensuality2 simplicity and ostentation composed his nature2 and1 hence1 his literary productions never attained artistic finish4 ,in his ,lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender ,linie 7#aggh-agha7 he intended to describe the lives of his father and grandfather1 but he eventually confined himself to his own4 ,it is an autobiography1 in which persons well known to him are introduced1 together with a mass of heterogeneous reflections on life and philosophy4 ,kreuz- und ,querzuge des ,ritters ,a bis ,z 7#agic-agid7 is a satire levelled against the follies of the age--ancestral pride and the thirst for orders1 decoration and the like4 ,among others of his better known works are ,uber die ,ehe 7#aggd7 and ,uber die burgerliche ,verbesserung der ,weiber 7#agib74 ,hippel has been called the fore-runner of ,jean ,paul ,richter1 and has some resemblance to this author1 in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of scientific matter in his narrative4 ,like ,richter he was strongly influenced by ,laurence ,sterne4 ,in #ahbg-ahch a collected edition of ,hippel's works in #ad vols41 was issued at ,berlin4 ,uber die ,ehe has been edited by ,e4 ,brenning 7,leipzig1 #ahgb71 and the ,lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender ,linie has in a modernized edition by ,a4 von ,ottingen 7#ahgh71 gone through several editions4 ,see ,j4 ,czerny1 ,sterne1 ,hippel und ,jean ,paul 7,berlin1 #aijd74 ,,hippias ,,of ,,elis1 ,greek sophist1 was born about the middle of the #eth century ,b4,c4 and was thus a younger contemporary of ,protagoras and ,socrates4 ,he was a man of great versatility and won the respect of his fellow-citizens to such an extent that he was sent to various towns on important embassies4 ,at ,athens he made the acquaintance of ,socrates and other leading thinkers4 ,with an assurance characteristic of the later sophists1 he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects1 and lectured1 at all events with financial success1 on poetry1 grammar1 history1 politics1 archaeology1 mathematics and astronomy4 ,he boasted that he was more popular than ,protagoras1 and was prepared at any moment to deliver an extempore address on any subject to the assembly at ,olympia4 ,of his ability there is no question1 but it is equally certain that he was superficial4 ,his aim was not to give knowledge1 but to provide his pupils with the weapons of argument1 to make them fertile in discussion on all subjects alike4 ,it is said that he boasted of wearing nothing which he had not made with his own hands4 ,plato's two dialogues1 the ,hippias major and minor1 contain an expose of his methods1 exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument but written with full knowledge of the man and the class which he represented4 ,ast denies their authenticity1 but they must have been written by a contemporary writer 7as they are mentioned in the literature of the #dth century71 and undoubtedly represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing influence of the professional ,sophists4 ,there is1 however1 no question that ,hippias did a real service to ,greek literature by insisting on the meaning of words1 the value of rhythm and literary style4 ,he is credited with an excellent work on ,homer1 collections of ,greek and foreign literature1 and archaeological treatises1 but nothing remains except the barest notes4 ,he forms the connecting link between the first great sophists1 ,protagoras and ,prodicus1 and the innumerable eristics who brought their name into disrepute4 ,for the general atmosphere in which ,hippias moved see ,,sophists2 also histories of ,philosophy 7e4g4 ,windelband1 ,eng4 trans4 by ,tufts1 pt4 #a1 c4 #b1 ,,ss #g and #h74 ,,hippo1 a ,greek philosopher and natural scientist1 classed with the ,ionian or physical school4 ,he was probably a contemporary of ,archelaus and lived chiefly in ,athens4 ,aristotle declared that he was unworthy of the name of philosopher1 and1 while comparing him with ,thales in his main doctrine1 adds that his intellect was too shallow for serious consideration4 ,he held that the principle of all things is moisture 7,greek3 to hygron72 that fire develops from water1 and from fire the material universe4 ,further he denied all existence save that of material things as known through the senses1 and was1 therefore1 classed among the ,atheists4 ,the gods are merely great men canonized by popular tradition4 ,it is said that he composed his own epitaph1 wherein he claims for himself a place in this company4 ,,hippocras1 an old medicinal drink or cordial1 made of wine mixed with spices--such as cinnamon1 ginger and sugar--and strained through woollen cloths4 ,the early spelling usual in ,english was ipocras1 or ypocras4 ,the word is an adaptation of the ,med4 ,lat4 ,vinum ,hippocraticum1 or wine of ,hippocrates1 so called1 not because it was supposed to be a receipt of the physician1 but from an apothecary's name for a strainer or sieve1 ,hippocrates' sleeve 7see ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 ,chaucer1 note to the ,merchant's ,tale74 ,,hippocrates1 ,greek philosopher and writer1 termed the ,father of ,medicine1 was born1 according to ,soranus1 in ,cos1 in the first year of the #hjth ,olympiad1 i4e4 in #dfj ,b4,c4 ,he was a member of the family of the ,asclepiadae1 and was believed to be either the nineteenth or seventeenth in direct descent from ,aesculapius4 ,it is also claimed for him that he was descended from ,hercules through his mother1 ,phaenarete4 ,he studied medicine under ,heraclides1 his father1 and ,herodicus of ,selymbria2 in philosophy ,gorgias of ,leontini and ,democritus of ,abdera were his masters4 ,his earlier studies were prosecuted in the famous ,asclepion of ,cos1 and probably also at ,cnidos4 ,he travelled extensively1 and taught and practised his profession at ,athens1 probably also in ,thrace1 ,thessaly1 ,delos and his native island4 ,he died at ,larissa in ,thessaly1 his age being variously stated as #he1 #ij1 #ajd and #aji4 ,the incidents of his life are shrouded by uncertain traditions1 which naturally sprang up in the absence of any authentic record2 the earliest biography was by one of the ,sorani1 probably ,soranus the younger of ,ephesus1 in the #bnd century2 ,suidas1 the lexicographer1 wrote of him in the #aath1 and ,tzetzes in the #abth century4 ,in all these biographies there is internal evidence of confusion2 many of the incidents related are elsewhere told of other persons1 and certain of them are quite irreconcilable with his character1 so far as it can be judged of from his writings and from the opinions expressed of him by his contemporaries2 we may safely reject1 for instance1 the legends that he set fire to the library of the ,temple of ,health at ,cnidos1 in order to destroy the evidence of plagiarism1 and that he refused to visit ,persia at the request of ,artaxerxes ,longimanus1 during a pestilential epidemic1 on the ground that he would in so doing be assisting an enemy4 ,he is referred to by ,plato 7,protag4 p4 #bhc2 ,phaedr4 p4 #baa7 as an eminent medical authority1 and his opinion is also quoted by ,aristotle4 ,the veneration in which he was held by the ,athenians serves to dissipate the calumnies which have been thrown on his character by ,andreas1 and the whole tone of his writings bespeaks a man of the highest integrity and purest morality4 ,born of a family of priest-physicians1 and inheriting all its traditions and prejudices1 ,hippocrates was the first to cast superstition aside1 and to base the practice of medicine on the principles of inductive philosophy4 ,it is impossible to trace directly the influence exercised upon him by the great men of his time1 but one cannot fail to connect his emancipation of medicine from superstition with the widespread power exercised over ,greek life and thought by the living work of ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,aeschylus1 ,sophocles1 ,euripides1 ,herodotus and ,thucydides4 ,it was a period of great intellectual development1 and it only needed a powerful mind such as his to bring to bear upon medicine the same influences which were at work in other sciences4 ,it must be remembered that his training was not altogether bad1 although superstition entered so largely into it4 ,he had a great master in ,democritus1 the originator of the doctrine of atoms1 and there is every reason to believe that the various asclepia were very carefully conducted hospitals for the sick1 possessing a curious system of case-books1 in the form of votive tablets1 left by the patients1 on which were recorded the symptoms1 treatment and result of each case4 ,he had these records at his command2 and he had the opportunity of observing the system of training and the treatment of injuries in the gymnasia4 ,one of his great merits is that he was the first to dissociate medicine from priest-craft1 and to direct exclusive attention to the natural history of disease4 ,how strongly his mind revolted against the use of charms1 amulets1 incantations and such devices appears from his writings2 and he has expressly recorded1 as underlying all his practice1 the conviction that1 however diseases may be regarded from the religious point of view1 they must all be scientifically treated as subject to natural laws 7,de aere1 #bi74 ,nor was he anxious to maintain the connexion between philosophy and medicine which had for long existed in a confused and confusing fashion4#a ,his knowledge of anatomy1 physiology and pathology was necessarily defective1 the respect in which the dead body was held by the ,greeks precluding him from practising dissection2 thus we find him writing of the tissues without distinguishing between the various textures of the body1 confusing arteries1 veins and nerves1 and speaking vaguely of the muscles as flesh4 ,but when we come to study his observations on the natural history of disease as presented in the living subject1 we recognize at once the presence of a great clinical physician4 ,hippocrates based his principles and practice on the theory of the existence of a spiritual restoring essence or principle1 ,greek3 physis1 the vis medicatrix naturae1 in the management of which the art of the physician consisted4 ,this art could1 he held1 be only obtained by the application of experience1 not only to disease at large1 but to disease in the individual4 ,he strongly deprecated blind empiricism2 the aphorism ,greek3 he peira sphalere1 he krisis chalepe 7whether it be his or not71 tersely illustrates his position4 ,holding firmly to the principle1 ,greek3 nouson physies ietroi1 he did not allow himself to remain inactive in the presence of disease2 he was not a merely expectant physician2 as ,sydenham puts it1 his practice was the support of enfeebled and the coercion of outrageous nature4 ,he largely employed powerful medicines and blood-letting both ordinary and by cupping4 ,he advises1 however1 great caution in their application4 ,he placed great dependence on diet and regimen1 and here1 quaint as many of his directions may now sound1 not only in themselves1 but in the reasons given1 there is much which is still adhered to at the present day4 ,his treatise ,greek3 ,peri aeron1 hydaton1 kai topon 7,airs1 ,waters1 and ,places7 contains the first enunciation of the principles of public health4 ,although the treatises ,greek3 ,peri krisimon cannot be accepted as authentic1 we find in the ,greek3 ,prognostikon evidence of the acuteness of observation in the manner in which the occurrence of critical days in disease is enunciated4 ,his method of reporting cases is most interesting and instructive2 in them we can read how thoroughly he had separated himself from the priest-physician4 ,laennec1 to whom we are indebted for the practice of auscultation1 freely admits that the idea was suggested to him by study of ,hippocrates1 who1 treating of the presence of morbid fluids in the thorax1 gives very particular directions1 by means of succussion1 for arriving at an opinion regarding their nature4 ,laennec says1 ,hippocrate avait tente l'auscultation immediate4 ,although the treatise ,greek3 ,peri nouson is doubtfully from the pen of ,hippocrates1 it contains strong evidence of having been the work of his grandson1 representing the views of the ,father of ,medicine4 ,although not accurate in the conclusions reached at the time1 the value of the method of diagnosis is shown by the retention in modern medicine of the name and the practice of ,hippocratic succussion4 ,the power of graphic description of phenomena in the ,hippocratic writings is illustrated by the retention of the term facies ,hippocratica1 applied to the appearance of a moribund person1 pictured in the ,prognostics4 ,in surgery his writings are important and interesting1 but they do not bear the same character of caution as the treatises on medicine2 for instance1 in the essay ,on ,injuries of the ,head1 he advocates the operation of trephining more strongly and in wider classes of cases than would be warranted by the experience of later times4 ,the ,hippocratic ,collection consists of eighty-seven treatises1 of which a part only can be accepted as genuine4 ,the collection has been submitted to the closest criticism in ancient and modern times by a large number of commentators 7for full list of the early commentators1 see ,adams's ,genuine ,works of ,hippocrates1 ,sydenham ,society1 i4 #bg1 #bh74 ,the treatises have been classified according to 7#a7 the direct evidence of ancient writers1 7#b7 peculiarities of style and method1 and 7#c7 the presence of anachronisms and of opinions opposed to the general ,hippocratic teaching--greatest weight being attached to the opinions of ,erotian and ,galen4 ,the general estimate of commentators is thus stated by ,adams3 ,the peculiar style and method of ,hippocrates are held to be conciseness of expression1 great condensation of matter1 and disposition to regard all professional subjects in a practical point of view1 to eschew subtle hypotheses and modes of treatment based on vague abstractions4 ,the treatises have been grouped in the four following sections3 7#a7 genuine2 7#b7 those consisting of notes taken by students and collected after the death of ,hippocrates2 7#c7 essays by disciples2 7#d7 those utterly spurious4 ,littre accepts the following thirteen as absolutely genuine3 7#a7 ,on ,ancient ,medicine 7,greek3 ,peri archaies ietrikes72 7#b7 ,the ,prognostics 7,greek3 ,prognostikon72 7#c7 ,the ,aphorisms 7,greek3 ,aphorismoi72 7#d7 ,the ,epidemics1 i4 and iii4 7,greek3 ,epidemion a' kai g'72 7#e7 ,on ,regimen in ,acute ,diseases 7,greek3 ,peri diaites oxeon72 7#f7 ,on ,airs1 ,waters1 and ,places 7,greek3 ,peri aeron1 hydaton1 kai topon72 7#g7 ,on the ,articulations 7,greek3 ,peri arthron72 7#h7 ,on ,fractures 7,greek3 ,peri agmon72 7#i7 ,the ,instruments of ,reduction 7,greek3 ,mochlikos72 7#aj7 ,the ,physician's ,establishment1 or ,surgery 7,greek3 ,kat' ietreion72 7#aa7 ,on ,injuries of the ,head 7,greek3 ,peri ton en kephale tromaton72 7#ab7 ,the ,oath 7,greek3 ,horkos72 7#ac7 ,the ,law 7,greek3 ,nomos74 ,of these ,adams accepts as certainly genuine the #bnd1 #fth1 #eth1 #crd 7#g books71 #dth1 #gth1 #hth1 #ith and #abth1 and as pretty confidently acknowledged as genuine1 although the evidence in their favour is not so strong1 the #ast1 #ajth and #acth1 and1 in addition1 7#ad7 ,on ,ulcers 7,greek3 ,peri helkon72 7#ae7 ,on ,fistulae 7,greek3 ,peri syringon72 7#af7 ,on ,hemorrhoids 7,greek3 ,peri haimorrhoidon72 7#ag7 ,on the ,sacred ,disease 7,greek3 ,peri hieres nousou74 ,according to the sceptical and somewhat subjective criticism of ,ermerins1 the whole collection is to be regarded as spurious except ,epidemics1 books i4 and iii4 7with a few interpolations71 ,on ,airs1 ,waters1 and ,places1 ,on ,injuries of the ,head 7insigne fragmentum libri ,hippocratei71 the former portion of the treatise ,on ,regimen in ,acute ,diseases1 and the obviously ,hippocratic fragments of the ,coan ,prognostics4 ,perhaps also the ,oath may be accepted as genuine2 its comparative antiquity is not denied4 ,the ,aphorisms are certainly later and inferior4 ,in the other non-,hippocratic writings ,ermerins thinks he can distinguish the hands of no fewer than nineteen different authors1 most of them anonymous1 and some of them very late4 ,the earliest ,greek edition of the ,hippocratic writings is that which was published by ,aldus and ,asulanus at ,venice in #aebf 7folio72 it was speedily followed by that of ,frobenius1 which is much more accurate and complete 7fol41 ,basel1 #aech74 ,of the numerous subsequent editions1 probably the best was that of ,foesius 7,frankfort1 #aeie1 #afba1 ,geneva1 #afeg71 until the publication of the great works of ,littre1 ,oeuvres completes d',hippocrate1 traduction nouvelle avec le texte grec en regard1 collationnee sur les manuscrits et toutes les editions1 accompagnee d'une introduction1 de commentaires medicaux1 de variantes1 et de notes philologiques 7#aj vols41 ,paris1 #ahci-ahfa71 and of ,f4 ,z4 ,ermerins1 ,hippocratis et aliorum medicorum veterum reliquiae 7#c vols41 ,utrecht1 #ahei-ahfd74 ,see also ,adams 7as cited above71 and ,reinhold's ,hippocrates 7#b vols41 ,athens1 #ahfd-ahfg74 ,daremberg's edition of the ,oeuvres choisies 7#bnd ed41 ,paris1 #ahee7 includes the ,oath1 the ,law1 the ,prorrhetics1 book i41 the ,prognostics1 ,on ,airs1 ,waters1 and ,places1 ,epidemics1 books i4 and iii41 ,regimen1 and ,aphorisms4 ,of the separate works attributed to ,hippocrates the editions and translations are almost innumerable2 of the ,prognostics1 for example1 seventy editions are known1 while of the ,aphorisms there are said to exist as many as three hundred4 ,for some notice of the ,arabic1 ,syriac and ,hebrew translations of works professedly by ,hippocrates 7,ibukrat or ,bukrat71 the number of which greatly exceeds that of the extant ,greek originals1 reference may be made to ,flugel's contribution to the article ,hippokrates in the ,encyklopadie of ,ersch and ,gruber4 ,they have been partially catalogued by ,fabricius in his ,bibliotheca ,graeca4 7,j4 ,b4 ,t47 ,,footnote3 #a ,hippocrates ,cous1 primus quidem ex omnibus memoria dignus1 ab studio sapientiae disciplinam hanc separavit1 vir et arte et facundia insignis 7,celsus1 ,de medicina74 ,,hippocrene 7the fountain of the horse1 ,greek3 he hippou krene71 the spring on ,mt ,helicon1 in ,boeotia1 which1 like the other spring there1 ,aganippe1 was sacred to the ,muses and ,apollo1 and hence taken as the source of poetic inspiration4 ,the spring1 surrounded by an ancient wall1 is now known as ,kryopegadi or the cold spring4 ,according to the legend1 it was produced by the stamping of the hoof of ,bellerophon's horse ,pegasus4 ,the same story accounts for the ,hippocrene in ,troezen and the spring ,peirene at ,corinth4 ,,hippodamus1 of ,miletus1 a ,greek architect of the #eth century ,b4,c4 ,it was he who introduced order and regularity into the planning of cities1 in place of the previous intricacy and confusion4 ,for ,pericles he planned the arrangement of the harbour-town ,peiraeus at ,athens4 ,when the ,athenians founded ,thurii in ,italy he accompanied the colony as architect1 and afterwards1 in #djh ,b4,c41 he superintended the building of the new city of ,rhodes4 ,his schemes consisted of series of broad1 straight streets1 cutting one another at right angles4 ,,hippodrome 7,gr4 ,greek3 hippodromos1 from ,greek3 hippos1 horse1 and ,greek3 dromos1 racecourse71 the course provided by the ,greeks for horse and chariot racing2 it corresponded to the ,roman circus1 except that in the latter only four chariots ran at a time1 whereas ten or more contended in the ,greek games1 so that the width was far greater1 being about #djj ft41 the course being #fjj to #gjj ft4 long4 ,the ,greek hippodrome was usually set out on the slope of a hill1 and the ground taken from one side served to form the embankment on the other side4 ,one end of the hippodrome was semicircular1 and the other end square with an extensive portico1 in front of which1 at a lower level1 were the stalls for the horses and chariots4 ,the modern hippodrome is more for equestrian and other displays than for horse racing4 ,the ,hippodrome in ,paris somewhat resembles the ,roman amphitheatre1 being open in the centre to the sky1 with seats round on rising levels4 ,,hippolytus1 in ,greek legend1 son of ,theseus and ,hippolyte1 queen of the ,amazons 7or of her sister ,antiope71 a famous hunter and charioteer and favourite of ,artemis4 ,his stepmother ,phaedra became enamoured of him1 but1 finding her advances rejected1 she hanged herself1 leaving a letter in which she accused ,hippolytus of an attempt upon her virtue4 ,theseus thereupon drove his son from his presence with curses and called upon his father ,poseidon to destroy him4 ,while ,hippolytus was driving along the shore at ,troezen 7the scene of the ,hippolytus of ,euripides71 a sea-monster 7a bull or phoca7 sent by ,poseidon emerged from the waves2 the horses were scared1 ,hippolytus was thrown out of the chariot1 and was dragged along1 entangled in the reins1 until he died4 ,according to a tradition of ,epidaurus1 ,asclepius restored him to life at the request of ,artemis1 who removed him to ,italy 7see ,,virbius74 ,at ,troezen1 where he had a special sanctuary and priest1 and was worshipped with divine honours1 the story of his death was denied4 ,he was said to have been rescued by the gods at the critical moment1 and to have been placed amongst the stars as the ,charioteer 7,auriga74 ,it was also the custom of the ,troezenian maidens to cut off a lock of their hair and to dedicate it to ,hippolytus before marriage 7see ,frazer on ,pausanias ii4 #cb4 #a74 ,well-known classical parallels to the main theme are ,bellerophon and ,antea 7or ,stheneboea7 and ,peleus and ,astydamia4 ,the story was the subject of two plays by ,euripides 7the later of which is extant71 of a tragedy by ,seneca and of ,racine's ,phedre4 ,a trace of it has survived in the legendary death of the apocryphal martyr ,hippolytus1 a ,roman officer who was torn to pieces by wild horses as a convert to ,christianity 7see ,j4 ,j4 ,dollinger1 ,hippolytus and ,callistus1 ,eng4 tr4 by ,a4 ,plummer1 #ahgf1 pp4 #bh-ci1 #ea-fj74 ,according to the older explanations1 ,hippolytus represented the sun1 which sets in the sea 7cf4 the scene of his death and the story of ,phaethon71 and ,phaedra the moon1 which travels behind the sun1 but is unable to overtake it4 ,it is more probable1 however1 that he was a local hero famous for his chastity1 perhaps originally a priest of ,artemis1 worshipped as a god at ,troezen1 where he was closely connected and sometimes confounded with ,asclepius4 ,it is noteworthy that1 in a speech put into the mouth of ,theseus by ,euripides1 the father1 who of course believes his wife's story and regards ,hippolytus as a hypocrite1 throws his son's pretended misogyny and asceticism 7,orphism7 in his teeth4 ,this seems to point to a struggle between a new ritual and that of ,poseidon1 the chief deity of ,troezen1 in which the representative of the intruding religion meets his death through the agency of the offended god1 as ,orpheus 7q4v47 was torn to pieces by the votaries of the jealous ,dionysus4 ,according to ,s4 ,reinach 7,archiv fur ,religionswissenschaft1 x41 #aijg1 p4 #dg71 the ,troezenian ,hippolytus was a horse1 the hypostasis of an equestrian divinity periodically torn to pieces by the faithful1 who called themselves1 and believed themselves to be1 horses4 ,death was followed by resuscitation1 as in the similar myths of ,adonis 7the sacred boar71 ,orpheus 7the fox71 ,pentheus 7the fawn71 ,phaethon 7the white sun-horse74 ,see ,wilamowitz-,mollendorff's ,introduction to his ,german translation of ,euripides' ,hippolytus 7#ahia72 ,a4 ,kalkmann1 ,de ,hippolytis ,euripideis 7,bonn1 #ahhb72 and 7for representations in art7 ,uber ,darstellung der ,hippolytussage in ,archaologische ,zeitung 7xli4 #ahhc72 ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,mythology and ,monuments of ,ancient ,athens 7#ahij71 cl4 ,,hippolytus1 a writer of the early ,church4 ,the mystery which enveloped the person and writings of ,hippolytus1#a one of the most prolific ecclesiastical writers of early times1 had some light thrown upon it for the first time about the middle of the #aith century by the discovery of the so-called ,philosophumena 7see below74 ,assuming this writing to be the work of ,hippolytus1 the information given in it as to the author and his times can be combined with other traditional dates to form a tolerably clear picture4 ,hippolytus must have been born in the second half of the #bnd century1 probably in ,rome4 ,photius describes him in his ,bibliotheca 7cod4 #aba7 as a disciple of ,irenaeus1 and from the context of this passage it is supposed that we may conclude that ,hippolytus himself so styled himself4 ,but this is not certain1 and even if it were1 it does not necessarily imply that ,hippolytus enjoyed the personal teaching of the celebrated ,gallic bishop2 it may perhaps merely refer to that relation of his theological system to that of ,irenaeus which can easily be traced in his writings4 ,as a presbyter of the church at ,rome under ,bishop ,zephyrinus 7#aii-bag71 ,hippolytus was distinguished for his learning and eloquence4 ,it was at this time that ,origen1 then a young man1 heard him preach 7,hieron4 ,vir4 ill4 #fa2 cp4 ,euseb4 ,h4,e4 vi4 #ad1 #aj74 ,it was probably not long before questions of theology and church discipline brought him into direct conflict with ,zephyrinus1 or at any rate with his successor ,calixtus ,i4 7q4v474 ,he accused the bishop of favouring the ,christological heresies of the ,monarchians1 and1 further1 of subverting the discipline of the ,church by his lax action in receiving back into the ,church those guilty of gross offences4 ,the result was a schism1 and for perhaps over ten years ,hippolytus stood as bishop at the head of a separate church4 ,then came the persecution under ,maximinus the ,thracian4 ,hippolytus and ,pontius1 who was then bishop1 were transported in #bce to ,sardinia1 where it would seem that both of them died4 ,from the so-called chronograph of the year #ced 7,catalogus ,liberianus7 we learn that on the #acth of ,august1 probably in #bcf1 the bodies of the exiles were interred in ,rome and that of ,hippolytus in the cemetery on the ,via ,tiburtina4 ,so we must suppose that before his death the schismatic was received again into the bosom of the ,church1 and this is confirmed by the fact that his memory was henceforth celebrated in the ,church as that of a holy martyr4 ,pope ,damasus ,i4 dedicated to him one of his famous epigrams1 and ,prudentius 7,peristephanon1 #aa7 drew a highly coloured picture of his gruesome death1 the details of which are certainly purely legendary3 the myth of ,hippolytus the son of ,theseus was transferred to the ,christian martyr4 ,of the historical ,hippolytus little remained in the memory of after ages4 ,neither ,eusebius 7,h4,e4 vi4 #bj1 #b7 nor ,jerome 7,vir4 ill4 #fa7 knew that the author so much read in the ,east and the ,roman saint were one and the same person4 ,the notice in the ,chronicon ,paschale preserves one slight reminiscence of the historical facts1 namely1 that ,hippolytus's episcopal see was situated at ,portus near ,rome4 ,in #aeea a marble statue of a seated man was found in the cemetery of the ,via ,tiburtina3 on the sides of the seat were carved a paschal cycle1 and on the back the titles of numerous writings4 ,it was the statue of ,hippolytus1 a work at any rate of the #crd century2 at the time of ,pius ,,ix4 it was placed in the ,lateran ,museum1 a record in stone of a lost tradition4 ,hippolytus's voluminous writings1 which for variety of subject can be compared with those of ,origen1 embrace the spheres of exegesis1 homiletics1 apologetics and polemic1 chronography and ecclesiastical law4 ,his works have unfortunately come down to us in such a fragmentary condition that it is difficult to obtain from them any very exact notion of his intellectual and literary importance4 ,of his exegetical works the best preserved are the ,commentary on the ,prophet ,daniel and the ,commentary on the ,song of ,songs4 ,in spite of many instances of a want of taste in his typology1 they are distinguished by a certain sobriety and sense of proportion in his exegesis4 ,we are unable to form an opinion of ,hippolytus as a preacher1 for the ,homilies on the ,feast of ,epiphany which go under his name are wrongly attributed to him4 ,he wrote polemical words directed against the pagans1 the ,jews and heretics4 ,the most important of these polemical treatises is the ,refutation of all ,heresies1 which has come to be known by the inappropriate title of the ,philosophumena4 ,of its ten books1 the second and third are lost2 ,book i4 was for a long time printed 7with the title ,philosophumena7 among the works of ,origen2 ,books iv4-x4 were found in #ahdb by the ,greek ,minoides ,mynas1 without the name of the author1 in a ,,ms4 at ,mount ,athos4 ,it is nowadays universally admitted that ,hippolytus was the author1 and that ,books i4 and iv4-x4 belong to the same work4 ,the importance of the work has1 however1 been much overrated2 a close examination of the sources for the exposition of the ,gnostic system which is contained in it has proved that the information it gives is not always trustworthy4 ,of the dogmatic works1 that on ,christ and ,antichrist survives in a complete state4 ,among other things it includes a vivid account of the events preceding the end of the world1 and it was probably written at the time of the persecution under ,septimius ,severus1 i4e4 about #bjb4 ,the influence of ,hippolytus was felt chiefly through his works on chronographic and ecclesiastical law4 ,his chronicle of the world1 a compilation embracing the whole period from the creation of the world up to the year #bcd1 formed a basis for many chronographical works both in the ,east and ,west4 ,in the great compilations of ecclesiastical law which arose in the ,east since the #dth century 7see below3 also ,,apostolic ,,constitutions7 much of the material was taken from the writings of ,hippolytus2 how much of this is genuinely his1 how much of it worked over1 and how much of it wrongly attributed to him1 can no longer be determined beyond dispute even by the most learned investigation4 ,,bibliography4--,the edition of ,j4 ,a4 ,fabricius1 ,hippolyti opera graece et latine 7#b vols41 ,hamburg1 #agaf-agah1 reprinted in ,gallandi1 ,bibliotheca veterum patrum 7vol4 ii41 #agff71 and ,migne1 ,cursus patrol4 ser4 ,graeca1 vol4 x47 is out of date4 ,the preparation of a complete critical edition has been undertaken by the ,prussian ,academy of ,sciences4 ,the task is one of extraordinary difficulty1 for the textual problems of the various writings are complex and confused3 the ,greek original is extant in a few cases only 7the ,commentary on ,daniel1 the ,refutation1 on ,antichrist1 parts of the ,chronicle1 and some fragments72 for the rest we are dependent on fragments of translations1 chiefly ,slavonic1 all of which are not even published4 ,of the ,academy's edition one volume was published at ,berlin in #ahig1 containing the ,commentaries on ,daniel and on the ,song of ,songs1 the treatise on ,antichrist1 and the ,lesser ,exegetical and ,homiletic ,works1 edited by ,nathanael ,bonwetsch and ,hans ,achelis4 ,the ,commentary on the ,song of ,songs has also been published by ,bonwetsch 7,leipzig1 #aijb7 in a ,german translation based on a ,russian translation by ,n4 ,marr of the ,grusian 7,georgian7 text1 and he added to it 7,leipzig1 #aijd7 a translation of various small exegetical pieces1 which are preserved in a ,georgian version only 7,the ,blessing of ,jacob1 ,the ,blessing of ,moses1 ,the ,narrative of ,david and ,goliath74 ,a great part of the original of the ,chronicle has been published by ,adolf ,bauer 7,leipzig1 #aije7 from the ,codex ,matritensis ,graecus1 #bba4 ,for the ,refutation we are still dependent on the editions of ,miller 7,oxford1 #ahea71 ,duncker and ,schneidewin 7,gottingen1 #ahei71 and ,cruice 7,paris1 #ahfj74 ,an ,english translation is to be found in the ,ante-,nicene ,christian ,library 7,edinburgh1 #ahfh-ahfi74 ,see ,bunsen1 ,hippolytus and his ,age 7#aheb1 #bnd ed41 #ahed2 ,ger4 ed41 #ahec72 ,dollinger1 ,hippolytus und ,kallistus 7,regensb4 #ahec2 ,eng4 transl41 ,edinb41 #ahgf72 ,gerhard ,ficker1 ,studien zur ,hippolytfrage 7,leipzig1 #ahic72 ,hans ,achelis1 ,hippolytstudien 7,leipzig1 #ahig72 ,karl ,johannes ,neumann1 ,hippolytus von ,rom in seiner ,stellung zu ,staat und ,welt1 part i4 7,leipzig1 #aijb72 ,adhemar d',ales1 ,la ,theologie de ,saint ,hippolyte 7,paris1 #aijf74 7,g4 ,k47 ,,footnote3 #a ,according to the legend ,st ,hippolytus was a ,roman soldier who was converted by ,st ,lawrence4 ,,hippolytus1 ,,the ,,canons ,,of4 ,this book stands at the head of a series of ,church ,orders1 which contain instructions in regard to the choice and ordination of ,christian ministers1 regulations as to widows and virgins1 conditions of reception of converts from heathenism1 preparation for and administration of baptism1 rules for the celebration of the eucharist1 for fasting1 daily prayers1 charity suppers1 memorial meals1 first-fruits1 c4 ,we shall give 7#a7 a description of the book as we have it at present2 7#b7 a brief statement of its relation to allied documents2 7#c7 some remarks on the evidence for its date and authorship4 #a4 ,we possess the ,canons of ,hippolytus only in an ,arabic version1 itself made from a ,coptic version of the original ,greek4 ,attention was called to the book by ,wansleben and ,ludolf towards the end of the #agth century1 but it was only in #ahgj that it was edited by ,haneberg1 who added a ,latin translation1 and so made it generally accessible4 ,in #ahia ,h4 ,achelis reproduced this translation in a revised form1 embodying it in a synopsis of allied documents4 ,he suspected much interpolation and derangement of order1 and consequently rearranged its contents with a free hand4 ,in #aijj a ,german translation was made by ,h4 ,riedel1 based on fresh ,,mss4 ,these showed that the book1 as hitherto edited1 had been thrown into disorder by the displacement of two pages near the end2 they also removed other difficulties upon which the theory of interpolation had been based4 ,further discoveries1 to be spoken of presently1 have added to our materials for the study of the book4 ,the book is attributed to ,hippolytus1 the chief of the bishops of ,rome1 and is divided into thirty-eight canons1 to which short headings are prefixed4 ,this division is certainly not original1 but it is convenient for purposes of reference4 ,canon #a is prefatory2 it contains a brief confession of faith in the ,trinity1 and especially in the ,word1 the ,son of ,god2 and it speaks of the expulsion of heretics from the ,church4 ,canons #b-e give regulations for the selection and ordination of bishops1 presbyters and deacons4 ,the bishop is chosen by the whole congregation3 one of the bishops and presbyters is to lay hands upon him and say a prayer which follows 7#c73 he is at once to proceed with the offering1 taking up the eucharistic service at the point where the sursum corda comes in4 ,a presbyter 7#d7 is to be ordained with the same prayer as a bishop1 with the exception of the word bishop2 but he is given no power of ordination 7this appears to be inconsistent with c4 #b74 ,the duties of a deacon are described1 and the prayer of his ordination follows 7#e74 ,canons #f-i deal with various classes in the ,church4 ,one who has suffered punishment for the faith 7#f7 is to be counted a presbyter without ordination3 his confession is his ordination4 ,readers and sub-deacons 7#g7 are given the ,gospel1 but are not ordained by laying-on of hands4 ,a claim to ordination on the ground of gifts of healing 7#h7 is to be admitted1 if the facts are clear and the healing is from ,god4 ,widows are not ordained 7#i73 ordination is for men only4 ,canons #aj-ae describe conditions for the admission of converts4 ,certain occupations are incompatible with ,christian life3 only under compulsion may a ,christian be a soldier4 ,canons #af-ah deal chiefly with regulations concerning women4 ,canon #ai is a long one dealing with catechumens1 preparation for baptism1 administration of that sacrament1 and of the eucharist for the newly baptized4 ,the candidate is twice anointed3 first1 with the oil of exorcism1 after he has said1 with his face westward1 ,i renounce thee1 ,o devil1 and all thy following2 and1 again1 immediately after the baptism4 ,as he stands in the water1 he declares his faith in response to an interrogatory creed2 and after each of the three clauses he is immersed4 ,after the second anointing the bishop gives thanks for that ,thou hast made them worthy that they should be born again1 and hast poured out ,thy ,holy ,ghost upon them1 so that they may belong1 each one of them1 to the body of the ,church3 he signs them with the cross on their foreheads1 and kisses them4 ,the eucharist then proceeds3 the bishop gives them of the body of ,christ and says1 ,this is the body of ,christ1 and they answer ,amen2 and similarly for the cup4 ,milk and honey are then given to them as being born a second time as little children4 ,a warning is added against eating anything before communicating4 ,canons #bj-bb deal with fast-days1 daily services in church1 and the fast of the passover-week4 ,canon #bc seems as if it closed the series1 speaking1 as it does1 of our brethren the bishops who in their cities have made regulations according to the commands of our fathers the apostles3 let none of our successors alter them2 because it saith that the teaching is greater than the sea1 and hath no end4 ,we pass on1 however1 to regulations about the sick 7#bd7 who are to be visited by the bishop1 because it is a great thing for the sick that the high-priest should visit them 7for the shadow of ,peter healed the sick74 ,canons #be-bg deal again with prayers and church-services4 ,the seven hours are specified1 with reasons for their observance 7#be73 attendance at sermons is urged 7#bf71 for the ,lord is in the place where his lordship is proclaimed 7comp4 ,didache #d1 part of the ,two ,ways74 ,when there are no prayers in church1 reading at home is enjoined 7#bg73 let the sun each morning see the book upon thy knees 7comp4 ,ath4 ,ad virg41 ,s #ab1 ,let the sun when he ariseth see the book in thy hands74 ,prayer must be preceded by the washing of the hands4 ,no believer must take food before communicating1 especially on fast-days3 only believers may communicate 7#bh74 ,the sacred elements must be guarded1 lest anything fall into the cup1 and it be a sin unto death for the presbyters4 ,no crumb must be dropped1 lest an evil spirit get possession of it4 ,canons #cj-ce contain various rules1 and specially deal with suppers for the poor 7i4e4 agapae7 and memorial feasts4 ,then we have a prayer for the offering of first-fruits 7#cf72 a direction that ministers shall wear fair garments at the mysteries 7#cg72 and a command to watch during the night of the resurrection 7#ch74 ,the last canon hereupon passes into a general exhortation to right living1 which forms a sixth part of the whole book4 ,in ,riedel's translation we read this for the first time as a connected whole4 ,it falls into two parts1 and describes1 first1 the true life of ordinary ,christians1 warning them against an empty profession1 and laying down many precepts of morality2 and then it addresses itself to the ascete who wishes to belong to the rank of the angels1 and who lives a life of solitude and poverty4 ,he is encouraged by an exposition1 on somewhat strange lines1 of the temptations of our ,lord1 and is specially warned against spiritual pride and contempt of other men4 ,the book closes with an appeal for love and mutual service1 based on the parables in ,st ,matthew xxv4 #b4 ,it is impossible to estimate the position of the ,canons of ,hippolytus without some reference to allied documents 7see ,,apostolical ,,constitutions74 7a7 ,the most important of these is what is now commonly called the ,egyptian ,church ,order4 ,this is preserved to us in ,coptic and ,aethiopic versions1 of which ,achelis1 in his synopsis1 gives ,german translations4 ,the subject-matter and arrangement of these canons correspond generally to those of ,hippolytus2 but many of the details are modified to bring them into accord with a later practice4 ,a new light was thrown on the criticism of this work by ,hauler's discovery 7#aijj7 of a ,latin version 7of which1 unfortunately1 about half is missing7 in the ,verona palimpsest1 from which he has also given us large ,latin fragments of the ,didascalia 7which underlies books i4-vi4 of the ,apostolic ,constitutions1 and which hitherto we have only known from the ,syriac74 ,the ,latin of the ,egyptian ,church ,order is somewhat more primitive than the ,coptic1 and approaches more nearly1 at some points1 to the ,canons of ,hippolytus4 ,it has a preface which refers to a treatise ,concerning ,spiritual ,gifts1 as having immediately preceded it2 but neither this nor the ,coptic-,aethiopic form has either the introduction or concluding exhortation which is found in the ,canons of ,hippolytus4 7b7 ,the ,testament of the ,lord is a document in ,syriac1 of which the opening part had been published by ,lagarde1 and of which ,rahmani 7#ahii7 has given us the whole4 ,it professes to contain instructions given by our ,lord to the apostles after the resurrection4 ,after an introduction containing apocalyptical matter1 it passes on to give elaborate directions for the ordering of the ,church1 embodying1 in a much-expanded form1 the ,egyptian ,church ,order1 and showing a knowledge of the preface to that document which appears in the ,latin version4 ,it cannot be placed with probability earlier than the latter part of the #dth century4 7c7 ,the ,apostolic ,constitutions is a composite document1 which probably belongs to the end of the #dth century4 ,its first six books are an expanded edition of a ,didascalia which we have already mentioned3 its seventh book similarly expands and modifies the ,didache its eighth book begins by treating of spiritual gifts1 and then in c4 #c passes on to expand in like manner the ,egyptian ,church ,order4 ,the hand which has wrought up all these documents has been shown to be that of the interpolator of the ,ignatian ,epistles in the longer ,greek recension4 7d7 ,the ,canons of ,basil is the title of an ,arabic work1 of which a ,german translation has been given us by ,riedel1 who thinks that they have come through ,coptic from an original ,greek book4 ,they embody1 in a modified form1 considerable portions of the ,canons of ,hippolytus4 #c4 ,we now approach the difficult questions of date and authorship4 ,much of the material has been quite recently brought to light1 and criticism has not had time to investigate and pronounce upon it4 ,some provisional remarks1 therefore1 are all that can prudently be made4 ,it seems plain that we have two lines of tradition3 7#a7 ,the ,canons of ,hippolytus1 followed by the ,canons of ,basil2 7#b7 the ,egyptian ,church ,order1 itself represented 7a7 by the ,latin version1 the ,testament of the ,lord1 and the ,apostolic ,constitutions1 which are linked together by the same preface 7or portions of it72 7b7 by the ,coptic and ,aethiopic versions4 ,now1 the preface of the ,latin version points to a time when the canons were embodied in a corpus of similar materials1 or1 at the least1 were preceded by a work on ,spiritual ,gifts4 ,the ,canons of ,hippolytus have a wholly different preface1 and also a long exhortation at the close4 ,the question which criticism must endeavour to answer is1 whether the ,canons of ,hippolytus are the original from which the ,egyptian ,church ,order is derived1 or whether an earlier body of canons lies behind them both4 ,at present it is probably wise to assume that the latter is the true explanation4 ,for the ,canons of ,hippolytus appear to contain contradictory regulations 7e4g4 cc4 #b and #d of the presbyters71 and also suggest that they have received a considerable supplement 7after c4 #bc74 ,there is1 however1 no doubt that they present us with a more primitive stage of ,church life than we find in the ,egyptian ,church ,order4 ,the mention of sub-deacons 7which1 after ,riedel's fresh manuscript evidence1 cannot now be dismissed as due to interpolation7 makes it difficult to assign a date much earlier than the middle of the #crd century4 ,the ,puritan severity of the canons well accords with the temper of the writer to whom the ,arabic title attributes them2 and it is to be noted that the exhortation at the close contains a quotation from #b ,peter actually attributed to the apostle1 and ,hippolytus is perhaps the earliest author who can with certainty be said to have used this epistle4 ,but the general style of ,hippolytus1 which is simple1 straight-forward and strong1 is in marked contrast with that of the closing passage of the canons2 moreover1 his mind1 as presented to us in his extant writings1 appears to be a much larger one than that of the writer of these canons2 it is as difficult to think of ,hippolytus as it would be to think of ,origen in such a connexion4 ,how1 then1 are we to account for the attribution8 ,there is evidence to show that ,hippolytus was highly reverenced throughout the ,east3 his writings1 which were in ,greek1 were known1 but his history was entirely unknown4 ,he was supposed to be a pupil 7,greek3 gnorimos7 of apostles 7,palladius1 #dth century71 and the ,arabic title calls him chief of the bishops of ,rome1 i4e4 archbishop of ,rome4 ,it is hard to trust this attribution more than the attribution of a ,coptic discourse on the ,dormitio ,mariae to ,evodius1 archbishop of the great city ,rome1 who was the second after ,peter the apostle 7,texts and ,studies1 iv4 #b-dd7--;,evodius being by tradition first bishop of ,antioch4 ,a whole group of books on ,church ,order bears the name of ,clement of ,rome2 and the attribution of our canons to ,hippolytus may be only an example of the same tendency4 ,the fact that ,hippolytus wrote a treatise ,concerning ,spiritual ,gifts1 and that some such treatise is not only referred to in the ,latin preface to the ,egyptian ,church ,order1 but is actually found at the beginning of book viii4 of the ,apostolic ,constitutions1 introduces an interesting complication2 but we cannot here pursue the matter further4 ,dom ,morin's ingenious attribution of the canons to ,dionysius of ,alexandria 7on the ground of ,eusebius1 ,h4,e4 vi4 #df41 #e7 cannot be accepted in view of the broader church policy which that writer represents4 ,if the ,hippolytean authorship be given up1 it is probable that ,egypt will make the strongest claim to be the locality in which the canons were compiled in their present form4 ,the authorities of chief practical importance are ,h4 ,achelis1 ,texte u4 ,unters4 vi4 #d 7#ahia72 ,rahmani1 ,testamentum ,domini 7#ahii72 ,hauler1 ,didascaliae ,apostolorum 7#aijj72 ,riedel1 ,kirchenrechtsquellen des ,patriarchats ,alexandrien 7#aijj74 7,j4 ,a4 ,r47 ,,hipponax1 of ,ephesus1 ,greek iambic poet4 ,expelled from ,ephesus in #edj ,b4,c4 by the tyrant ,athenagoras1 he took refuge in ,clazomenae1 where he spent the rest of his life in poverty4 ,his deformed figure and malicious disposition exposed him to the caricature of the ,chian sculptors ,bupalus and ,athenis1 upon whom he revenged himself by issuing against them a series of satires4 ,they are said to have hanged themselves like ,lycambes and his daughters when assailed by ,archilochus1 the model and predecessor of ,hipponax4 ,his coarseness of thought and feeling1 his rude vocabulary1 his want of grace and taste1 and his numerous allusions to matters of merely local interest prevented his becoming a favourite in ,attica4 ,he was considered the inventor of parody and of a peculiar metre1 the scazon or choliambus1 which substitutes a spondee for the final iambus of an iambic senarius1 and is an appropriate form for the burlesque character of his poems4 ,fragments in ,bergk1 ,poetae lyrici ,graeci2 see also ,b4 ,j4 ,peltzer1 ,de parodica ,graecorum poesi 7#ahee71 containing an account of ,hipponax and the fragments4 ,,hippopotamus 7river-horse1 ,gr4 ,greek3 hippos1 horse and ,greek3 potamos1 river71 the name of the largest representative of the non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mammals1 and its living and extinct relatives4 ,the common hippopotamus 7,hippopotamus amphibius71 which formerly inhabited all the great rivers of ,africa but whose range has now been much restricted1 is most likely the behemoth of ,scripture1 and may very probably in ,biblical times have been found in the ,jordan valley1 since at a still earlier 7,pleistocene7 epoch it ranged over a large part of ,europe4 ,it typifies not only a genus1 but likewise a family1 ,hippopotamidae1 distinguished from its relatives the pigs and peccaries1 or ,suidae1 by the following assemblage of characters3 ,muzzle very broad and rounded4 ,feet short and broad1 with four subequal toes1 bearing short rounded hoofs1 and all reaching the ground in walking4 ,incisors not rooted but continuously growing2 those of the upper jaw curved and directed downwards2 those of the lower straight and procumbent4 ,canines very large1 curved1 continuously growing2 upper ones directed downwards4 ,premolars #d_/d2 molars #c_/c4 ,stomach complex4 ,no caecum4 ,illustration3 ,the ,hippopotamus 7,hippopotamus amphibius74 ,in form the hippopotamus is a huge1 unwieldy creature1 measuring in the largest specimens fully #ad ft4 from the extremity of the upper lip to the tip of the tail1 while it ordinarily attains a length of #ab ft41 with a height of #e ft4 at the shoulders1 and a girth round the thickest part of the body almost equal to its length4 ,the small ears are exceedingly flexible1 and kept in constant motion when the animal is seeking to catch a distant sound2 the eyes are placed high up on the head1 but little below the level of the ears2 while the gape is wide1 and the upper lip thick and bulging so as to cover over even its large tusks when the mouth is closed4 ,the molars1 which show trefoil-shaped grinding-surfaces are well adapted for masticating vegetable substances1 while the formidable array of long spear-like incisors and curved chisel-edged canines or tusks root up rank grass like an agricultural implement4 ,the legs are short1 so that the body is but little elevated above the ground2 and the feet1 which are small in proportion to the size of the animal1 terminate in four short toes each bearing a small hoof4 ,with the exception of a few tufts of hair on the lips1 on the sides of the head and neck1 and at the extremity of the short robust tail1 the skin of the hippopotamus1 some portions of which are #b in4 in thickness1 is destitute of covering4 ,hippopotamuses are gregarious animals1 living in herds of from #bj to #dj individuals on the banks and in the beds of rivers1 in the neighbourhood of which they most readily find appropriate food4 ,this consists chiefly of grass and of aquatic plants1 of which these animals consume enormous quantities1 the stomach being capable of containing from #e to #f bushels4 ,they feed principally by night1 remaining in the water during the day1 although in districts where they are little disturbed they are less exclusively aquatic4 ,in such remote quarters1 they put their heads boldly out of the water to blow1 but when rendered suspicious they become exceedingly cautious in this respect1 only exposing their nostrils above the water1 and even this they prefer doing amid the shelter of water plants4 ,in spite of their enormous size and uncouth form1 they are expert swimmers and divers1 and can remain easily under the water from five to eight minutes4 ,they walk on the bottoms of rivers1 beneath at least #a ft4 of water4 ,at nightfall they come on land to feed2 and when1 as often happens on the banks of the ,nile1 they reach cultivated ground1 they do immense damage to growing crops1 destroying by their ponderous tread even more than they devour4 ,to scare away these unwelcome visitors the natives in such districts are in the habit of kindling fires at night4 ,although hippopotamuses do not willingly go far from the water on which their existence depends1 they occasionally travel long distances by night in search of food1 and in spite of their clumsy appearance are able to climb steep banks and precipitous ravines with ease4 ,of a wounded hippopotamus which ,sir ,s4 ,baker saw leaving the water and galloping inland1 he writes3 ,i never could have imagined that so unwieldy an animal could have exhibited such speed4 ,no man could have had a chance of escape4 ,the hippopotamus does not confine itself to rivers and lakes1 but has been known to prefer the waters of the ocean as its home during the day4 ,of a mild and inoffensive disposition1 it seeks to avoid collision with man2 when wounded1 however1 or in defence of its young1 it exhibits great ferocity1 and native canoes are capsized and occasionally demolished by its infuriated attacks2 the bellowing grunt then becoming loud enough to be heard a mile away4 ,as among elephants1 so also among hippopotamuses there are rogues--old bulls which have become soured in solitude1 and are at all times dangerous4 ,assuming the offensive on every occasion1 they attack all and sundry without shadow of provocation2 and the natives avoid their haunts1 which are usually well known4 ,the only other living species is the pygmy hippopotamus1 ,h4 7,choeropsis7 liberiensis1 of ,west ,africa1 an animal not larger than a clumsily made pig of full dimensions1 and characterized by having generally one 7in place of two7 pair of incisors4 ,it is much less aquatic than its giant relative1 having1 in fact1 the habits of a pig4 ,a small extinct species 7,h4 lemerlei7 inhabited ,madagascar at a comparatively recent date2 while other dwarf kinds were natives of ,crete 7,h4 minutus7 and ,malta and ,sicily 7,h4 pentlandi7 during the ,pleistocene4 ,a large form of the ordinary species 7,h4 amphibius major7 was distributed over ,europe as far north as ,yorkshire at the same epoch2 while an allied species 7,h4 palaeindicus7 inhabited ,pleistocene ,india4 ,contemporary with the latter was1 however1 a species 7,h4 namadicus7 with three pairs of incisors2 and hexaprotodont hippopotamuses are also characteristic of the ,pliocene of ,india and ,burma 7,h4 sivalensis and ,h4 iravadicus71 and of ,algeria1 ,egypt and southern ,europe 7,h4 hipponensis74 ,for the ancestral genera of the hippopotamus line1 see ,,artiodactyla4 7,r4 ,l4997 ,,hippuric ,,acid 7,gr4 ,greek3 hippos1 horse1 ,greek3 ouron1 urine71 benzoyl glycocoll or benzoyl amidoacetic acid1 ,c#i;,h#i,,no#c or ,c#f;,h#e;,,co4,,nh4,,ch#b4;,,co#b;,h1 an organic acid found in the urine of horses and other herbivorae4 ,it is excreted when many aromatic compounds1 such as benzoic acid and toluene1 are taken internally4 ,j4 v4 ,liebig in #ahbi showed that it differed from benzoic acid1 and in #ahci determined its constitution1 while in #ahec ,v4 ,dessaignes 7,ann4 #hg1 p4 #cbe7 synthesized it by acting with benzoyl chloride on zinc glycocollide4 ,it is also formed by heating benzoic anhydride with glycocoll 7,th4 ,curtius1 ,ber41 #ahhd1 #ag1 p4 #affb71 and by heating benzamide with monochloracetic acid4 ,it crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are readily soluble in hot water1 melt at #ahg deg4 ,c4 and decompose at about #bdj deg4 ,c4 ,it is readily hydrolysed by hot caustic alkalis to benzoic acid and glycocoll4 ,nitrous acid converts it into benzoyl glycollic acid1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,co4,o4,,ch#b4;,,co#b;,h4 ,its ethyl ester reacts with hydrazine to form hippuryl hydrazine1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,co4,,nh4,,ch#b4;,,co4,,nh4,, nh#b1 which was used by ,curtius for the preparation of azoimide 7q4v474 ,,hipurnias1 a tribe of ,south ,american ,indians1 #bjjj or #cjjj in number1 living on the river ,purus1 western ,brazil4 ,their houses are long1 low and narrow3 the side walls and roof are one1 poles being fixed in the ground and then bent together so as to meet and form a pointed arch for the cross-sections4 ,they use small bark canoes4 ,their chief weapons are poisoned arrows4 ,they have a native god called ,guintiniri4 ,,hira1 the capital of an ,arabian kingdom1 founded in the #bnd century ,a4,d41 on the western edge of ,irak1 was situated at #cb deg4 ,n41 #dd deg4 #bj' ,e41 about #d m4 ,s4,e4 of modern ,nejef1 by the ,sa'ade canal1 on the shore of the ,bahr ,nejef or ,assyrium ,stagnum4 ,its kings governed the western shore of the lower ,euphrates and of the ,persian ,gulf1 their kingdom extending inland to the confines of the ,nejd4 ,this ,lakhmid kingdom was more or less dependent1 during the four centuries of its existence1 on the ,sassanian empire1 to which it formed a sort of buffer state towards ,arabia4 ,after the battle of ,kadesiya and the founding of ,kufa by the ,arabs1 ,hira lost its importance and fell into decay4 ,the ruin mounds covering the ancient site1 while extensive1 are insignificant in appearance and give no indications of the existence of important buildings4 ,,hirado1 an island belonging to ,japan1 #ai7a_/b7 m4 long and #f m4 wide1 lying off the west coast of the province of ,hizen1 ,kiushiu1 in #cc deg4 #ae' ,n4 and #abi deg4 #be' ,e4 ,it is celebrated as the site of the original ,dutch factory--often erroneously written ,firando--and as the place where one of the finest blue-and-white porcelains of ,japan 7,hiradoyaki7 was produced in the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,the kilns are still active4 ,,hire-,,purchase ,,agreement1 in the law of contract1 a form of bailment of goods1 on credit1 which has extended very considerably of late years4 ,originally applied to the sale of the more expensive kinds of goods1 such as pianos and articles of furniture1 the hire-purchase agreement has now been extended to almost every description4 ,the agreement is usually in writing1 with a stipulation that the payments to purchase shall be by weekly1 monthly or other instalments4 ,the agreement is virtually one to purchase1 but in order that the vendor may be able to recover the goods at any time on non-payment of an instalment1 it is treated as an agreement to let and hire1 with a provision that when the last instalment has been paid the goods shall become the property of the hirer4 ,a clause provides that in case of default of any instalment1 or breach of any part of the agreement1 all previous payments shall be forfeited to the lender1 who can forcibly recover the goods4 ,such agreements1 therefore1 do not pass the property in the goods1 which remains in the lender until all the instalments have been paid4 ,but the terms of the agreement may sometimes purposely obscure the nature of the transaction between the parties1 where1 for example1 the hire-purchase is merely to create a security for money4 ,in such a case a judge will look to the true nature of the transaction4 ,if it is not a real letting and hiring1 the agreement will require registration under the ,bills of ,sale ,acts4 ,if the agreement contains words to the effect that a person has bought or agreed to buy goods1 the transaction comes under the ,factors ,act #ahhi1 and the person in possession of the goods may dispose of them and give a good title4 ,the doctrine of reputed ownership1 by which a bankrupt is deemed the reputed owner of goods in his apparent possession1 has been somewhat modified by trade customs1 in accordance with which property is frequently let out on the hire-purchase system 7see ,,bankruptcy74 ,,hiring 7from ,o4 ,eng4 hyrian1 a word common to many ,teutonic languages cf4 ,ger4 heuern1 ,dutch huren1 c471 in law1 a contract by which one man grants the use of a thing to another in return for a certain price4 ,it corresponds to the locatio-conductio of ,roman law4 ,that contract was either a letting of a thing 7locatio-conductio rei7 or of labour 7locatio operarum74 ,the distinguishing feature of the contract was the price4 ,thus the contracts of mutuum1 commodatum1 depositum and mandatum1 which are all gratuitous contracts1 become1 if a price is fixed1 cases of locatio-conductio4 ,in modern ,english law the term can scarcely be said to be used in a strictly technical sense4 ,the contracts which the ,roman law grouped together under the head of locatio-conductio--such as those of landlord and tenant1 master and servant1 c4--are not in ,english law treated as cases of hiring but as independent varieties of contract4 ,neither in law books nor in ordinary discourse could a tenant farmer be said to hire his land4 ,hiring would generally be applied to contracts in which the services of a man or the use of a thing are engaged for a short time4 ,hiring ,fairs1 or ,statute ,fairs1 still held in ,wales and some parts of ,england1 were formerly an annual fixture in every important country town4 ,these fairs served to bring together masters and servants4 ,the men and maids seeking work stood in rows1 the males together and the females together1 while masters and mistresses walked down the lines and selected those who suited them4 ,originally these hiring-fairs were always held on ,martinmas ,day 7#aath of ,november74 ,now they are held on different dates in different towns1 usually in ,october or ,november4 ,in ,cumberland the men seeking work stood with straws in their mouths4 ,in ,lincolnshire the bargain between employer and employed was closed by the giving of the fasten-penny1 the earnest money1 usually a shilling1 which fastened the contract for a twelvemonth4 ,some few days after the ,statute ,fair it was customary to hold a second called a ,mop ,fair or ,runaway ,mop4 ,mop 7from ,lat4 mappa1 napkin1 or small cloth7 meant in ,old ,english a tuft or tassel1 and the fair was so called1 it is suggested1 in allusion to tufts or badges worn by those seeking employment4 ,thus the carter wore whipcord on his hat1 the cowherd a tuft of cow's hair1 and so on4 ,another possible explanation would be to take the word mop in its old provincial slang sense of a fool1 mop fair being the fools' fair1 a sort of last chance offered to those who were too dull or slovenly-looking to be hired at the statute fair4 ,perhaps runaway suggests the idea of those absent through drunkenness1 or those who simply feared to face the ordeal of the larger hiring and so ran away4 ,,hirosaki1 a town of ,japan in the province of ,michmoku or ,rikuchiu1 north ,nippon1 #bb m4 ,s4,w4 of ,aomori by rail4 ,pop4 about #cg1jjj4 ,the fine isolated cone of ,iwakisan1 a mountain of pilgrimage1 rises to the west4 ,hirosaki is a very old place1 formerly residence of a great daimio 7or daimyo7 and capital of a vast principality1 and still the seat of a high court with jurisdiction over the surrounding districts of ,aomori and ,akita4 ,like most places in north ,nippon1 it is built with continuous verandas extending from house to house1 and affording a promenade completely sheltered from the snows of winter4 ,apples of fine flavour grow in the district1 which also enjoys some reputation for its peculiar green lacquer-ware4 ,,hiroshige 7#agig-aheh71 ,japanese artist1 was one of the principal members of that branch of the ,ukiyo-ye or ,popular ,school of ,painting in ,japan1 a school which chiefly made colour-prints4 ,his family name was ,ando ,tokitaro2 that under which he is known having been1 in accordance with ,japanese practice1 adopted by him in recognition of the fact that he was a pupil of ,toyohiro4 ,the earliest reference to him is in the account given by an inhabitant of the ,lu-chu islands of a visit to ,japan2 where a sketch of a procession drawn with great skill by ,hiroshige at the age of ten years only is mentioned as one of the remarkable sights seen4 ,at the age of fifteen he applied unsuccessfully to be admitted to the studio of the elder ,toyokuni2 but was eventually received by ,toyohiro4 ,on the death of the latter in #ahbh1 he began to practise on his own account1 but finding small encouragement at ,yedo 7,tokyo7 he removed to ,kioto1 where he published a set of landscapes4 ,he soon returned to ,yedo1 where his work soon became popular1 and was imitated by other artists4 ,he died in that city on the #fth day of the #ith month of the year1 ,ansei #eth1 at the age of sixty-two1 and was buried at ,asakusa4 ,one of his pupils1 ,hironobu1 received from him the name of ,hiroshige ,,ii4 and another1 ,ando ,tokubei1 that of ,hiroshige ,,iii4 ,all three were closely associated with the work signed with the name of the master4 ,hiroshige ,,ii4 some time after the year #ahfc fell into disgrace and was compelled to leave ,yedo for ,nagasaki1 where he died2 ,hiroshige ,,iii4 then called himself ,hiroshige ,,ii4 ,he died in #ahif4 ,the earlier prints by these artists1 whose work can hardly be separated1 are of extraordinary merit4 ,they applied the process of colour block printing to the purposes of depicting landscape1 with a breadth1 skill and suitability of convention that has been equalled only by ,hokusai in ,japan1 and by no ,european4 ,most of their subjects were derived from the neighbourhood of ,yedo1 or were scenes on the old high road--the ,tokaido--that ran from that city to ,kioto4 ,the two elder of the name were competent painters1 and pictures and drawings by them are occasionally to be met with4 ,see ,e4 ,f4 ,strange1 ,japanese ,colour-prints 7,victoria and ,albert ,museum ,handbook1 #aijd74 7,e4 ,f4 ,s47 ,,hiroshima1 a city and seaport of ,japan1 capital of the government of its name in central ,nippon4 ,pop4 7#aijc7 #aac1ede4 ,it is very beautifully situated on a small plain surrounded by hills1 the bay being studded with islands4 ,in its general aspect it resembles ,osaka1 from which it is #aij m4 ,w4 by rail1 and next to that place and ,hiogo it is the most important commercial centre on the ,inland ,sea4 ,the government has an area of about #cjjj sq4 m41 with a population of about #a1ejj1jjj4 ,hiroshima is famous all over ,japan owing to its association with the neighbouring islet of ,itaku-,shima1 ,island of ,light1 which is dedicated to the goddess ,bentin and regarded as one of the three wonders of ,japan4 ,the chief temple dates from the year #ehg1 and the island1 which is inhabited largely by priests and their attendants1 is annually visited by thousands of pilgrims4 ,but the hallowed soil is never tilled1 so that all provisions have to be brought from the surrounding districts4 ,,hirpini 7from an ,oscan or ,sabine stem hirpo-1 wolf71 an inland ,samnite tribe in the south of ,italy1 whose territory was bounded by that of the ,lucani on the ,s41 the ,campani on the ,s4,w41 the ,appuli 7,apuli7 and ,frentani on the ,e4 and ,n4,e4 ,on the ,n4 we find them1 politically speaking1 identified with the ,pentri and ,caraceni1 and with them constituting the ,samnite alliance in the wars of the #dth century ,b4,c4 7see ,,samnites74 ,the ,roman policy of separation cut them off from these allies by the foundation of ,beneventum in #bfh ,b4,c41 and henceforward they are a separate unit2 they joined ,hannibal in #baf ,b4,c41 and retained their independence until1 after joining in the ,social war1 which in their part of ,italy can hardly be said to have ceased till the final defeat of the ,samnites by ,sulla in #hc ,b4,c41 they received the ,roman franchise4 ,of their ,oscan speech1 besides the evidence of their place-names1 only a few fragments survive 7,r4 ,s4 ,conway1 ,the ,italic ,dialects1 pp4 #agj ff42 and for hirpo-1 ib4 p4 #bjj74 ,in the ethnology of ,italy the ,hirpini appear from one point of view as the purest type of ,safine stock1 namely1 that in which the proportion of ethnica formed with the suffix -no- is highest1 thirty-three out of thirty-six tribal or municipal epithets being formed thereby 7e4g4 ,caudini1 ,compsani7 and only one with the suffix -ti- 7,abellinates71 where it is clearly secondary4 ,on the significance of this see ,,sabini4 7,r4 ,s4 ,c47 ,,hirsau 7formerly ,hirschau71 a village of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,wurttemberg1 on the ,nagold and the ,pforzheim-,horb railway1 #b m4 ,n4 of ,calw4 ,pop4 #hjj4 ,hirsau has some small manufactures1 but it owes its origin and historical interest to its former ,benedictine monastery1 ,monasterium ,hirsaugiense1 at one period one of the most famous in ,europe4 ,its picturesque ruins1 of which only the chapel with the library hall are still in good preservation1 testify to the pristine grandeur of the establishment4 ,it was founded about #hcj by ,count ,erlafried of ,calw1 at the instigation of his son1 ,bishop ,notting of ,vercelli1 who enriched it with1 among other treasures1 the body of ,st ,aurelius4 ,its first occupants 7#hch7 were a colony of fifteen monks from ,fulda1 disciples of ,hrabanus ,maurus and ,walafrid ,strabo1 headed by the abbot ,liudebert4 ,during about a century and a half1 under the fostering care of the counts of ,calw1 it enjoyed great prosperity1 and became an important seat of learning2 but towards the end of the #ajth century the ravages of the pestilence combined with the rapacity of its patrons1 and the selfishness and immorality of its inmates1 to bring it to the lowest ebb4 ,after it had been desolate and in ruins for upwards of sixty years it was rebuilt in #ajei1 and under ,abbot ,william--,wilhelm von ,hirsau--abbot from #ajfi to #ajia1 it more than regained its former splendour4 ,by his ,constitutiones ,hirsaugienses1 a new religious order1 the ,ordo ,hirsaugiensis1 was formed1 the rule of which was afterwards adopted by many monastic establishments throughout ,germany1 such as those of ,blaubeuren1 ,erfurt and ,schaffhausen4 ,the friend and correspondent of ,pope ,gregory ,,vii41 and of ,anselm of ,canterbury1 ,abbot ,william took active part in the politico-ecclesiastical controversies of his time2 while a treatise from his pen1 ,de musica et tonis1 as well as the ,philosophicarum et astronomicarum institutionum libri iii41 bears witness to his interest in science and philosophy4 ,about the end of the #abth century the material and moral welfare of ,hirsau was again very perceptibly on the decline2 and it never afterwards again rose into importance4 ,in consequence of the ,reformation it was secularized in #aeeh2 in #afib it was laid in ruins by the ,french4 ,the ,chronicon ,hirsaugiense1 or1 as in the later edition it is called1 ,annales ,hirsaugienses of ,abbot ,trithemius 7,basel1 #aeei2 ,st ,gall1 #afij71 is1 although containing much that is merely legendary1 an important source of information1 not only on the affairs of this monastery1 but also on the early history of ,germany4 ,the ,codex ,hirsaugiensis was edited by ,a4 ,f4 ,gfrorer and printed at ,stuttgart in #ahdc4 ,see ,steck1 ,das ,kloster ,hirschau 7#ahdd72 ,helmsdorfer1 ,forschungen zur ,geschichte des ,abts ,wilhelm von ,hirschau 7,gottingen1 #ahgd72 ,weizsacker1 ,fuhrer durch die ,geschichte des ,klosters ,hirschau 7,stuttgart1 #ahih72 ,sussmann1 ,forschungen zur ,geschichte des ,klosters ,hirschau 7,halle1 #aijc72 ,giseke1 ,die ,hirschauer wahrend des ,investiturstreits 7,gotha1 #ahhc72 ,c4 ,h4 ,klaiber1 ,das ,kloster ,hirschau 7,tubingen1 #ahhf72 and ,baer1 ,die ,hirsauer ,bauschule 7,freiburg1 #ahig74 ,,hirsch1 ,,maurice ,,de1 ,,baron ,,hirsch ,,auf ,,gereuth1 in the baronage of ,bavaria 7#ahca-ahif71 capitalist and philanthropist 7,german by birth1 ,austro-,hungarian by domicile71 was born at ,munich1 #ith ,december #ahca4 ,his grandfather1 the first ,jewish landowner in ,bavaria1 was ennobled with the pradikat auf ,gereuth in #ahah2 his father1 who was banker to the ,bavarian king1 was created a baron in #ahfi4 ,the family for generations has occupied a prominent position in the ,german ,jewish community4 ,at the age of thirteen young ,hirsch was sent to ,brussels to school1 but when seventeen years old he went into business4 ,in #ahee he became associated with the banking house of ,bischoffsheim ,goldschmidt1 of ,brussels1 ,london and ,paris4 ,he amassed a large fortune1 which he increased by purchasing and working railway concessions in ,austria1 ,turkey and the ,balkans1 and by speculations in sugar and copper4 ,while living in great splendour in ,paris and ,london and on his estates in ,hungary1 he devoted much of his time to schemes for the relief of his ,hebrew co-religionists in lands where they were persecuted and oppressed4 ,he took a deep interest in the educational work of the ,alliance ,israelite ,universelle1 and on two occasions presented the society with gifts of a million francs4 ,for some years he regularly paid the deficits in the accounts of the ,alliance1 amounting to several thousand pounds a year4 ,in #ahhi he capitalized his donations and presented the society with securities producing an annual income of ,l#af1jjj4 ,on the occasion of the fortieth anniversary of the emperor ,francis ,joseph's accession to the ,austrian throne he gave ,l#ejj1jjj for the establishment of primary and technical schools in ,galicia and the ,bukowina4 ,the greatest charitable enterprise on which he embarked was in connexion with the persecution of the ,jews in ,russia 7see ,,anti-,,semitism74 ,he gave ,l#aj1jjj to the funds raised for the repatriation of the refugees in #ahhb1 but1 feeling that this was a very lame conclusion to the efforts made in western ,europe for the relief of the ,russian ,jews1 he offered the ,russian ,government ,l#b1jjj1jjj for the endowment of a system of secular education to be established in the ,jewish pale of settlement4 ,the ,russian ,government was willing to accept the money1 but declined to allow any foreigner to be concerned in its control or administration4 ,thereupon ,baron de ,hirsch resolved to devote the money to an emigration and colonization scheme which should afford the persecuted ,jews opportunities of establishing themselves in agricultural colonies outside ,russia4 ,he founded the ,jewish ,colonization ,association as an ,english society1 with a capital of ,l#b1jjj1jjj1 and in #ahib he presented to it a further sum of ,l#g1jjj1jjj4 ,on the death of his wife in #ahii the capital was increased to ,l#aa1jjj1jjj1 of which ,l#a1bej1jjj went to the ,treasury1 after some litigation1 in death duties4 ,this enormous fund1 which is probably the greatest charitable trust in the world1 is now managed by delegates of certain ,jewish societies1 chiefly the ,anglo-,jewish ,association of ,london and the ,alliance ,israelite ,universelle of ,paris1 among whom the shares in the association have been divided4 ,the association1 which is prohibited from working for profit1 possesses large colonies in ,south ,america1 ,canada and ,asia ,minor4 ,in addition to its vast agricultural work it has a gigantic and complex machinery for dealing with the whole problem of ,jewish persecution1 including emigration and distributing agencies1 technical schools1 co-operative factories1 savings and loan banks and model dwellings in the congested ,russian jewries4 ,it also subventions and assists a large number of societies all over the world whose work is connected with the relief and rehabilitation of ,jewish refugees4 ,besides this great organization1 ,baron de ,hirsch founded in #ahia a benevolent trust in the ,united ,states for the benefit of ,jewish immigrants1 which he endowed with ,l#dic1jjj4 ,his minor charities were on a princely scale1 and during his residence in ,london he distributed over ,l#ajj1jjj among the local hospitals4 ,it was in this manner that he disposed of the whole gross proceeds derived from his successes on the ,english turf1 of which he was a lavish patron4 ,he raced1 as he said himself1 for the ,london hospitals1 and in #ahib1 when his filly1 ,la ,fleche1 won the ,oaks1 ,st ,leger and ,one ,thousand ,guineas1 his donations from this source amounted to about ,l#dj1jjj4 ,baron de ,hirsch married on #bhth ,june #ahee ,clara1 daughter of ,senator ,bischoffsheim of ,brussels 7b4 #ahcc71 by whom he had a son and daughter1 both of whom predeceased him4 ,he died at ,ogyalla1 near ,komorn1 in ,hungary1 #bast ,april #ahif4 ,the baroness1 who seconded her husband's charitable work with great munificence--their total benefactions have been estimated at ,l#ah1jjj1jjj1--;died at ,paris on the #ast of ,april #ahii4 ,for details of ,baron de ,hirsch's chief charities see the annual reports of the ,alliance ,israelite ,universelle and of the ,administration ,centrale of the ,jewish ,colonization ,association4 7,l4 ,w47 ,,hirsch1 ,,samson ,,raphael 7#ahjh-ahhh71 ,jewish theologian1 was born in ,hamburg in #ahjh and died at ,frankfort-on-the-,main in #ahhh4 ,he opposed the reform tendency of ,geiger 7q4v471 and presented ,jewish orthodoxy in a new and attractive light4 ,his philosophical conception of tradition1 associated as it was with conservatism in ritual practice1 created what is often known as the ,frankfort ,neo-,orthodoxy4 ,hirsch exercised a profound influence on the ,synagogue and undoubtedly stemmed the tide of liberalism4 ,his famous ,nineteen ,letters 7#ahcf71 with which the ,neo-,orthodoxy began1 were translated into ,english by ,drachmann 7,new ,york1 #ahii74 ,other works by ,hirsch were ,horeb1 and commentaries on the ,pentateuch and ,psalms4 ,these are marked by much originality1 but their exegesis is fanciful4 ,three volumes of his essays have been published 7#aijb-aijh72 these were collected as ,gesammelte ,schriften from his periodical ,jeschurun4 ,for ,hirsch's religious philosophy see ,s4 ,a4 ,hirsch1 ,a ,book of ,essays 7,london1 #aije74 7,i4 ,a47 ,,hirschberg1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,silesia1 beautifully situated at the confluence of the ,bober and ,zacken1 #aabj ft4 above the sea-level1 #dh m4 ,s4,e4 of ,gorlitz1 on the railway to ,glatz1 with branches to ,grunthal and ,schmiedeberg4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ai1cag4 ,it is surrounded by pleasant promenades occupying the site of its former fortifications4 ,it possesses an ,evangelical church1 the church of the ,holy ,cross1 one of the six ,gnaden ,kirchen for the ,silesian ,protestants stipulated for in the agreement at ,altranstadt between ,charles ,,xii4 of ,sweden and the emperor ,joseph ,i4 in #agjg1 four ,roman ,catholic churches1 one of which dates from the #adth century1 a synagogue1 several schools1 an orphanage and an asylum4 ,the town is the principal emporium of commerce in the ,silesian mountains1 and its industries include the carding and spinning of wool1 and the manufacture of linen and cotton fabrics1 yarn1 artificial flowers1 paper1 cement1 porcelain1 sealing-wax1 blacking1 chemicals and cider4 ,there is also a lively trade in corn1 wine and agricultural produce4 ,the town is celebrated for its romantic surroundings1 including the ,cavalierberg1 from which there is a splendid view1 the ,hausberg1 the ,helicon1 crowned by a small ,doric temple1 the ,kreuzberg1 with walks commanding beautiful views1 and the ,sattler ravine1 over which there is a railway viaduct4 ,hirschberg was in existence in the #aath century1 and obtained town rights in #aajh from ,duke ,boleslaus of ,poland4 ,it withstood a siege by the ,hussites in #adbg1 and an attack of the imperial troops in #afdj4 ,the foundation of its prosperity was laid in the #afth century by the introduction of the manufacture of linen and veils4 ,hirschberg is also the name of a town of ,thuringia on the ,saale with manufactures of leather and knives4 ,pop4 #bjjj4 ,,hirson1 a town of northern ,france in the department of ,aisne1 #ce m4 by rail ,n4,e4 of ,laon1 on the ,oise4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #hcce4 ,it occupies an important strategic position close to the point of intersection of several railway lines1 and not far from the ,belgian frontier4 ,for its defence there are a permanent fort and two batteries1 near the railway junction4 ,the town carries on the manufacture of glass bottles1 tiles1 iron and tin goods1 wool-spinning and brewing4 ,,hirtius1 ,,aulus 7c4 #ij-dc ,b4,c471 ,roman historian and statesman4 ,he was with ,julius ,caesar as legate in ,gaul1 but after the civil war broke out in #di he seems to have remained in ,rome to protect ,caesar's interests4 ,he was also a personal friend of ,cicero4 ,he was nominated with ,c4 ,vibius ,pansa by ,caesar for the consulship of #dc2 and after the dictator's assassination in ,march #dd1 he and his colleague supported the senatorial party against ,m4 ,antonius1 with whom ,hirtius had at first sided4 ,the consuls set out for ,mutina1 where ,antonius was besieging ,decimus ,brutus4 ,on the #aeth of ,april1 ,pansa was attacked by ,antonius at ,forum ,gallorum1 about #h m4 from ,mutina1 and lost his life in the engagement4 ,hirtius1 however1 compelled ,antonius to retire on ,mutina1 where another battle took place on the #beth 7or #bgth7 of ,april1 in which ,hirtius was slain4 ,of the continuations of ,caesar's ,commentaries--the eighth book of the ,gallic war1 the history of the ,alexandrian1 ,african and ,spanish wars--the first is generally allowed to be by ,hirtius2 the ,alexandrian war is perhaps by him 7or ,oppius72 the last two are supposed to have been written at his request1 by persons who had taken part in the events described1 with a view to subsequent revision and incorporation in his proposed work on military commanders4 ,the language of ,hirtius is good1 but his style is monotonous and lacks vigour4 ,hirtius and the other continuators of ,caesar are discussed in ,m4 ,schanz1 ,geschichte der romischen ,literatur1 i42 also ,r4 ,schneider1 ,bellum ,africanum 7#aije74 ,for the history of the period see under ,,antonius2 ,cicero's ,letters 7ed4 ,tyrrell and ,purser72 ,g4 ,boissier1 ,cicero and his ,friends 7,eng4 trans41 #ahig74 ,,hisham ,,ibn ,,al-,,kalbi ,abu-l ,mundhir ,hisham ibn ,mahommed ibn us-,sa'b ul-,kalb 7d4 c4 #hai71 ,arabic historian1 was born in ,kufa1 but spent much of his life in ,bagdad4 ,like his father1 on whose authority he relied largely1 he collected information about the genealogies and history of the ancient ,arabs4 ,according to the ,fihrist 7see ,,nadim7 he wrote #adj works4 ,as independent works they have almost entirely ceased to exist1 but his account of the genealogies of the ,arabs is continually quoted in the ,kitab ul-,aghani4 ,large extracts from another of his works1 the ,kitab ul-,asnam1 are contained in the ,khizanat ul-,adab 7iii4 #bdb-bdf7 and in the geography of ,yaqut 7q4v474 ,these latter have been translated with comments by ,j4 ,wellhausen in his ,reste des arabischen ,heidentums 7#bnd ed41 ,berlin1 #ahig74 7,g4 ,w4 ,t47 ,,hispellum 7mod4 ,spello1 q4v471 an ancient town of ,umbria1 ,italy1 #c m4 ,n4 of ,fulginiae1 on the road between it and ,perusia1 #ajcj ft4 above sea-level4 ,it does not appear to be mentioned before the time of ,augustus1 who founded a colony there 7,colonia ,iulia ,hispellum7 and extended its territory to the springs of the ,clitumnus1 which had originally belonged to the territory of ,mevania4 ,it received the name of ,flavia ,constans by a rescript of the emperor ,constantine1 a copy of which on a marble tablet is still preserved at ,spello4 ,the gate by which the town is entered is ancient and has three portrait statues above it2 two other gates and a part of the city wall1 built of rectangular blocks of local limestone1 may still be seen1 as also the ruins of what is possibly a triumphal arch 7attributed to ,augustus7 and an amphitheatre1 and perhaps of a theatre1 close to the modern high-road1 outside the town4 7,t4 ,as47 ,,hissar1 a district in ,central ,asia1 lying between #ff deg4 #cj' and #gj deg4 ,e4 and #ci deg4 #ae' and #cg deg4 ,n4 and dependent on the amir of ,bokhara4 ,it forms that part of the basin of the ,amu-darya or ,oxus which lies on the north side of the river1 opposite the ,afghan province of ,balkh4 ,the western prolongation of the ,tian-shan1 which divides the basin of the ,zarafshan from that of the upper ,amu1 after rising to a height of #ab1cjj ft41 bifurcates in #fg deg4 #de' ,e4 ,the main chain1 the southern arm of this bifurcation1 designated the ,hissar range1 but sometimes called also ,koh-i-tau1 forms the ,n4 and ,n4,w4 boundaries of ,hissar4 ,on the ,w4 it is wholly bounded by the desert2 the ,amu limits it on the ,s4 and ,s4,e42 and ,karateghin and ,darvaz complete the boundary on the ,e4 ,until #ahge it was one of the least known tracts of ,central ,asia4 ,hissar is traversed from north to south by four tributaries of the ,amu1 viz4 the ,surkhab or ,vakhsh1 ,kafirnihan1 ,surkhan and ,shirabad-darya1 which descend from the snowy mountains to the north and form a series of fertile valleys1 disposed in a fan-shape1 within which lie the principal towns4 ,in the ,n4,w4 boundary range between ,khuzar and ,derbent is situated the defile formerly called the ,iron ,gate 7,caspian ,gates1 ,bab-al-,hadid1 ,dar ,ahanin and in ,chinese ,t'ie-men-kuan7 but now styled ,buzghol-khana or the ,goat-house4 ,it was also called ,kohluga1 said to be a ,mongol word meaning barrier4 ,this pass is described as a deep but narrow chasm in a transverse range1 whose rocks overhang and threaten to choke the tortuous and gloomy corridor 7in places but five paces wide7 which affords the only exit from the valley4 ,in ancient times it was a vantage point of much importance and commanded one of the chief routes between ,turkestan and ,india4 ,hsuan ,tsang1 the ,chinese traveller1 who passed through it in the #gth century1 states that there were then two folding doors or gates1 cased with iron and hung with bells1 placed across the pass4 ,clavijo1 the ,spanish ambassador to the court of ,timur1 heard of this when he passed through the defile nearly #hjj years later1 but the gates had then disappeared4 ,the ,surkhan valley is highly cultivated1 especially in its upper portion4 ,it supplies ,bokhara with corn and sheep1 but its chief products are rice and flax4 ,the town of ,hissar 7pop4 #ae1jjj7 commands the entrance into the fertile valleys of the ,surkhan and ,kafirnihan1 just as ,kabadian at the southern end of the latter defends them from the south4 ,hissar was long famous for its damascened swords and its silk goods4 ,kulab produces wheat in abundance1 and gold is brought thither from the surrounding districts4 ,kabadian is a large1 silk-producing town1 and is surrounded with rice-fields4 ,the population consists principally of ,uzbegs and ,tajiks1 the former predominating and gradually pushing the ,tajiks into the hills4 ,on the banks of the ,amu there are ,turkomans who work the ferries1 drive sheep and accompany caravans4 ,lyuli 7gipsies71 ,jews1 ,hindus and ,afghans are other elements of the population4 ,the climate of the valleys of ,hissar and ,kulab is pleasant1 as they are protected by mountains to the north and open towards the south4 ,they produce all the cereals and garden plants indigenous to ,central ,asia4 ,cotton is grown in the district of ,shirabad2 and cotton1 wheat1 flax1 sheep and rock-salt are all exported4 ,history4--,this country was anciently part of the ,persian empire of the ,achaemenidae1 and probably afterwards of the ,graeco-,bactrian kingdom1 and then subject to the invading ,asiatic tribes who broke up that kingdom1 e4g4 the ,yue-chi4 ,it was afterwards conquered by the ,ephthalites or ,white ,huns1 who were subdued by the ,turks in the early part of the #gth century4 ,it then became subject successively to the ,mahommedan invaders from ,persia1 and after to the ,mongol dynasty of ,jenghiz ,khan1 and to ,timur and his successors4 ,it subsequently became a cluster of ,uzbeg states and was annexed by the amir of ,bokhara 7q4v47 in #ahfi-ahgj1 soon after the ,russian occupation of ,samarkand4 7,j4 ,t4 ,be42 ,c4 ,el47 ,,hissar1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the ,delhi division of the ,punjab4 ,the town is situated on the ,rajputana railway and the ,western ,jumna canal1 #ajb m4 ,w4,n4,w4 of ,delhi4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ag1fdg4 ,it was founded in #acef by the emperor ,feroz ,shah1 who constructed the canal to supply it with water2 but this fell into decay during the #ahth century1 owing to the constant inroads of marauders4 ,hissar was almost completely depopulated during the famine of #aghc1 but was afterwards occupied by the famous ,irish adventurer ,george ,thomas1 who built a fort and collected inhabitants4 ,it is now chiefly known for its cattle and horse fairs1 and has a cotton factory4 ,the ,,district comprises an area of #ebag sq4 m4 ,it forms the western border district of the great ,bikanir desert1 and consists for the most part of sandy plains dotted with shrub and brushwood1 and broken by undulations towards the south1 which rise into hills of rock like islands out of a sea of sand4 ,the ,ghaggar is its only river1 whose supply is uncertain1 depending much on the fall of rain in the lower ,himalayas2 its overflow in times of heavy rain is caught by jhils1 which dry up in the hot season4 ,the ,western ,jumna canal crosses the district from east to west1 irrigating many villages4 ,the soil is in places hard and clayey1 and difficult to till2 but when sufficiently irrigated it is highly productive4 ,old mosques and other buildings exist in parts of the district4 ,hissar produces a breed of large milk-white oxen1 which are in great request for the carriages of natives4 ,the district has always been subject to famine4 ,the first calamity of this kind of which there is authentic record was in #aghc2 and ,hissar has suffered severely in more recent famines4 ,its population in #aija was #gha1gag1 showing practically no increase in the decade1 whereas in the previous decade there had been an increase of #ae4 ,the climate is very dry1 hot westerly winds blowing from the middle of ,march till ,july4 ,cotton weaving1 ginning and pressing are carried on4 ,the district is served by the ,rajputana-,malwa1 the ,southern ,punjab and the ,jodhpur-,bikanir railways4 ,the chief trading centres are ,bhiwani1 ,hansi1 ,hissar and ,sirsa4 ,before the ,mahommedan conquest1 the semi-desert tract of which ,hissar district now forms part was the retreat of ,chauhan ,rajputs4 ,towards the end of the #ahth century the ,bhattis of ,bhattiana gained ascendancy after bloody struggles4 ,to complete the ruin brought on by these conflicts1 nature lent her aid in the great famine of #aghc4 ,hissar passed nominally to the ,british in #ahjc1 but they could not enforce order till #ahaj4 ,early in the mutiny of #aheg ,hissar was wholly lost for a time to ,british rule1 and all ,europeans were either murdered or compelled to fly4 ,the ,bhattis rose under their hereditary chiefs1 and the majority of the ,mahommedan population followed their example4 ,before ,delhi had been recovered1 the rebels were utterly routed4 ,,histiaeus 7d4 #did ,b4,c471 tyrant of ,miletus under the ,persian king ,darius ,hystaspis4 ,according to ,herodotus he rendered great service to ,darius while he was campaigning in ,scythia by persuading his fellow-despots not to destroy the bridge over the ,danube by which the ,persians must return4 ,choosing his own reward for this service1 he became possessor of territory near ,myrcinus 7afterwards ,amphipolis71 rich in timber and minerals4 ,the success of his enterprise led to his being invited to ,susa1 where in the midst of every kind of honour he was virtually a prisoner of ,darius1 who had reason to dread his growing power in ,ionia4 ,during this period the ,greek cities were left under native despots supported by ,persia1 ,aristagoras1 son-in-law of ,histiaeus1 being ruler of ,miletus in his stead4 ,this prince1 having failed against ,naxos in a joint expedition with the satrap ,artaphernes1 began to stir up the ,ionians to revolt1 and this result was brought to pass1 according to ,herodotus1 by a secret message from ,histiaeus4 ,the revolt assumed a formidable character and ,histiaeus persuaded ,darius that he alone could quell it4 ,he was allowed to leave ,susa1 but on his arrival at the coast found himself suspected by the satrap1 and was ultimately driven to establish himself 7,herodotus says as a pirate2 more probably in charge of the ,bosporus route7 at ,byzantium4 ,after the total failure of the revolt at the battle of ,lade1 he made various attempts to re-establish himself1 but was captured by the ,persian ,harpagus and crucified by ,artaphernes at ,sardis4 ,his head was embalmed and sent to ,darius1 who gave it honourable burial4 ,the theory of ,herodotus that the ,ionian revolt was caused by the single message of ,histiaeus is incredible2 there is evidence to show that the ,ionians had been meditating since about #eab a patriotic revolt against the ,persian domination and the tyrants on whom it rested 7see ,grote1 ,hist4 of ,greece1 ed4 #aijg1 especially p4 #abb note2 art4 ,,ionia1 and authorities2 also ,s4 ,heinlein in ,klio1 #aiji1 pp4 #cda-cea74 ,,histology 7,gr4 ,greek3 histos1 web1 tissue1 properly the web-beam of the loom1 from ,greek3 histanai1 to make to stand71 the science which deals with the structure of the tissues of plants and animals 7see ,,cytology74 ,,history4 ,the word history is used in two senses4 ,it may mean either the record of events1 or events themselves4 ,originally 7see below7 limited to inquiry and statement1 it was only in comparatively modern times that the meaning of the word was extended to include the phenomena which form or might form their subject4 ,it was perhaps by a somewhat careless transference of ideas that this extension was brought about4 ,now indeed it is the commoner meaning4 ,we speak of the history of ,england without reference to any literary narrative4 ,we term kings and statesmen the makers of history1 and sometimes say that the historian only records the history which they make4 ,history in this connexion is obviously not the record1 but the thing to be recorded4 ,it is unfortunate that such a double meaning of the word should have grown up1 for it is productive of not a little confusion of thought4 ,history in the wider sense is all that has happened1 not merely all the phenomena of human life1 but those of the natural world as well4 ,it includes everything that undergoes change2 and as modern science has shown that there is nothing absolutely static1 therefore the whole universe1 and every part of it1 has its history4 ,the discovery of ether brought with it a reconstruction of our ideas of the physical universe1 transferring the emphasis from the mathematical expression of static relationships to a dynamic conception of a universe in constant transformation2 matter in equipoise became energy in gradual readjustment4 ,solids are solids no longer4 ,the universe is in motion in every particle of every part2 rock and metal merely a transition stage between crystallization and dissolution4 ,this idea of universal activity has in a sense made physics itself a branch of history4 ,it is the same with the other sciences--especially the biological division1 where the doctrine of evolution has induced an attitude of mind which is distinctly historical4 ,but the tendency to look at things historically is not merely the attitude of men of science4 ,our outlook upon life differs in just this particular from that of preceding ages4 ,we recognize the unstable nature of our whole social fabric1 and are therefore more and more capable of transforming it4 ,our institutions are no longer held to be inevitable and immutable creations4 ,we do not attempt to fit them to absolute formulae1 but continually adapt them to a changing environment4 ,even modern architecture1 notably in ,america1 reflects the consciousness of change4 ,the permanent character of ancient or medieval buildings was fitted only to a society dominated by static ideals4 ,now the architect builds1 not for all time1 but for a set of conditions which will inevitably cease in the not distant future4 ,thus our whole society not only bears the marks of its evolution1 but shows its growing consciousness of the fact in the most evident of its arts4 ,in literature1 philosophy and political science1 there is the same historical trend4 ,criticism no longer judges by absolute standards2 it applies the standards of the author's own environment4 ,we no longer condemn ,shakespeare for having violated the ancient dramatic laws1 nor ,voltaire for having objected to the violations4 ,each age has its own expression1 and in judging each we enter the field of history4 ,in ethics1 again1 the revolt against absolute standards limits us to the relative1 and morals are investigated on the basis of history1 as largely conditioned by economic environment and the growth of intellectual freedom4 ,revelation no longer appeals to scientific minds as a source of knowledge4 ,experience on the other hand is history4 ,as for political science1 we do not regard the national state as that ultimate and final product which men once saw in the ,roman ,empire4 ,it has hardly come into being before forces are evident which aim at its destruction4 ,internationalism has gained ground in ,europe in recent years2 and ,socialism itself1 which is based upon a distinct interpretation of history1 is regarded by its followers as merely a stage in human progress1 like those which have gone before it4 ,it is evident that ,freeman's definition of history as past politics is miserably inadequate4 ,political events are mere externals4 ,history enters into every phase of activity1 and the economic forces which urge society along are as much its subject as the political result4 ,in short the historical spirit of the age has invaded every field4 ,the world-picture presented in this encyclopaedia is that of a dynamic universe1 of phenomena in process of ceaseless change4 ,owing to this insistent change all things which happen1 or seem to happen1 are history in the broader sense of the word4 ,the encyclopaedia itself is a history of them in the stricter sense1--the description and record of this universal process4 ,this narrower meaning is the subject of the rest of this article4 ,the word history comes from the ,gr4 ,greek3 historia1 which was used by the ,ionians in the #fth century ,b4,c4 for the search for knowledge in the widest sense4 ,it meant inquiry1 investigation1 not narrative4 ,it was not until two centuries later that the historikos1 the reciter of stories1 superseded the historeon 7,greek3 historeon71 the seeker after knowledge4 ,thus history began as a branch of scientific research1--much the same as what the ,athenians later termed philosophy4 ,herodotus himself was as much a scientific explorer as a reciter of narrative1 and his life-long investigation was historie in his ,ionian speech4 ,yet it was ,herodotus himself who first hinted at the new use of the word1 applied merely to the details accumulated during a long search for knowledge4 ,it is not until ,aristotle1 however1 that we have it definitely applied to the literary product instead of the inquiry which precedes it4 ,from ,aristotle to modern times1 history 7,lat4 historia7 has been a form of literature4 ,it is only in the scientific environment of to-day that we recognize once more1 with those earliest of the forerunners of ,herodotus1 that history involves two distinct operations1 one of which1 investigation1 is in the field of science1 while the other1 the literary presentation1 is in the field of art4 ,the history of history itself is therefore two-fold4 ,history as art flourishes with the arts4 ,it calls upon the imagination and the literary gifts of expression4 ,its history does not run parallel with the scientific side1 but rather varies in inverse ratio with scientific activity4 ,those periods which have been dominated by the great masters of style have been less interested in the criticism of the historian's methods of investigation than in the beauty of his rhetoric4 ,the scientific historian1 deeply interested in the search for truth1 is generally but a poor artist1 and his uncoloured picture of the past will never rank in literature beside the splendid distortions which glow in the pages of a ,michelet or ,macaulay4 ,history the art1 in so far as it is conditioned upon genius1 has no single traceable line of development4 ,here the product of the age of ,pericles remains unsurpassed still2 the works of ,herodotus and ,thucydides standing along with those of ,pheidias as models for all time4 ,on the other hand1 history the science has developed so that it has not only gained recognition among historians as a distinct subject1 but it has raised with it a group of auxiliary sciences which serve either as tools for investigation or as a basis for testing the results4 ,the advance in this branch of history in the #aith century was one of its greatest achievements4 ,the vast gulf which lies between the history of ,egypt by ,herodotus and that by ,flinders ,petrie is the measure of its achievement4 ,by the mechanism now at his disposal the scientific explorer can read more history from the dust-heaps of ,abydos than the greatest traveller of antiquity could gather from the priests of ,sais4 ,in tracing the history of history we must therefore keep in mind the double aspect4 ,history itself1 this double subject1 the science and the art combined1 begins with the dawn of memory and the invention of speech4 ,it is wrong to term those ages pre-historic whose history has not come down to us1 including in one category the pre-literary age and the literary whose traces have been lost4 ,even the pre-literary had its history1 first in myth and then in saga4 ,the saga1 or epos1 was a great advance upon the myth1 for in it the deeds of men replace or tend to replace the deeds of the gods4 ,but we are still largely in the realm of imagination4 ,poetry1 as ,thucydides complained1 is a most imperfect medium for fact4 ,the bard will exaggerate or distort his story4 ,true history1 as a record of what really has happened1 first reached maturity in prose4 ,therefore1 although much of the past has been handed down to us in epic1 in ballad and in the legends of folk-lore1 we must turn from them to what became history in the narrower sense4 ,the earliest prose origins of history are the inscriptions4 ,their inadequacy is evident from two standpoints4 ,their permanence depends not upon their importance1 but upon the durability of the substance on which they are inscribed4 ,a note for a wedding ring baked into the clay of ,babylon has been preserved1 while the history of the greatest events has perished4 ,in the second place they are sealed to all but those who know how to read them1 and so they lie forgotten for centuries while oral tradition flourishes1--being within the reach of every man4 ,it is only recently that archaeology1 turning from the field of art1 has undertaken to interpret for us this first written history4 ,the process by which the modern fits together all the obtainable remains of an antiquity1 and reconstructs even that past which left no written record1 lies outside the field of this article4 ,but such enlargement of the field of history is a modern scientific product1 and is to be distinguished from the imperfect beginnings of history-writing which the archaeologist is able to decipher4 ,next to the inscriptions1--sometimes identical with them1--are the early chronicles4 ,these are of various kinds4 ,family chronicles preserved the memory of heroic ancestors whose deeds in the earliest age would have passed into the keeping of the bards4 ,such family archives were perhaps the main source for ,roman historians4 ,but they are not confined to ,rome or ,greece4 ,genealogies also pass from the bald verse1 which was the vehicle for oral transmission1 to such elaborate tables as those in which ,manetho has preserved the dynasties of ,egyptian ,pharaohs4 ,in this field the priest succeeds the poet4 ,the temple itself became the chief repository of records4 ,there were simple religious annals1 votive tablets recording miracles accomplished at a shrine1 lists of priests and priestesses1 accounts of benefactions1 of prodigies and portents4 ,in some cases1 as in ,rome1 the pontiffs kept a kind of register1 not merely of religious history1 but of important political events as well4 ,down to the time of the ,gracchi 7#aca ,b4,c47 the ,pontifex ,maximus inscribed the year's events upon annual tablets of wood which were preserved in the ,regia1 the official residence of the pontiff in the ,forum4 ,these pontifical annals thus came to be a sort of civic history4 ,chronicles of the ,greek cities were commonly ascribed to mythical authors1 as for instance that of ,miletus1 the oldest1 to ,cadmus the inventor of letters4 ,but they were continued and edited by men in whom the critical spirit was awakening1 as when the chroniclers of ,ionian towns began the criticism of ,homer4 ,the first historians were the logographi of these ,ionian cities2 men who carried their inquiry 7historie7 beyond both written record and oral tradition to a study of the world around them4 ,their saying 7logos7 was gathered mostly from contemporaries2 and upon the basis of a widened experience they became critics of their traditions4 ,the opening lines of ,hecataeus of ,miletus begin the history of the true historic spirit in words which read like a sentence from ,voltaire4 ,hecataeus of ,miletus thus speaks3 ,i write as ,i deem true1 for the traditions of the ,greeks seem to me manifold and laughable4 ,those words mark an epoch in the history of thought4 ,they are the introduction to historical criticism and scientific investigation4 ,whatever the actual achievement of ,hecataeus may have been1 from his time onward the scientific movement was set going4 ,herodotus of ,heraclea struggled to rationalize mythology1 and established chronology on a solid basis4 ,and finally ,herodotus1 a professional story-teller1 rose to the height of genuine scientific investigation4 ,herodotus' inquiry was not simply that of an idle tourist4 ,he was a critical observer1 who tested his evidence4 ,it is easy for the student now to show the inadequacy of his sources1 and his failure here or there to discriminate between fact and fable4 ,but given the imperfect medium for investigation and the absence of an archaeological basis for criticism1 the work of ,herodotus remains a scientific achievement1 as remarkable for its approximation to truth as for the vastness of its scope4 ,yet it was ,herodotus' chief glory to have joined to this scientific spirit an artistic sense which enabled him to cast the material into the truest literary form4 ,he gathered all his knowledge of the ancient world1 not simply for itself1 but to mass it around the story of the war between the east and west1 the ,greeks and the ,persians4 ,he is first and foremost a story-teller2 his theme is like that of the bards1 a heroic event4 ,his story is a vast prose epos1 in which science is to this extent subordinated to art4 ,this is the showing forth of the ,inquiry of ,herodotus of ,halicarnassus1 to the end that neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse of time1 nor the works1 great and marvellous1 which have been produced1 some by ,hellenes1 some by ,barbarians1 may lose their renown1 and especially that the causes may be remembered for which these waged war with one another 7i4e4 the ,persian war74 ,in ,thucydides a higher art than that of ,herodotus was combined with a higher science4 ,he scorned the story-teller who seeks to please the ear rather than to speak the truth1 and yet his rhetoric is the culmination of ,greek historical prose4 ,he withdrew from vulgar applause1 conscious that his narrative would be considered disappointing to the ear1 yet he recast the materials out of which he constructed it in order to lift that narrative into the realm of pure literature4 ,speeches1 letters and documents are reworded to be in tone with the rest of the story4 ,it was his art1 in fact1 which really created the ,peloponnesian war out of its separate parts4 ,and yet this art was merely the language of a scientist4 ,the laborious task of which he speaks is that of consulting all possible evidence1 and weighing conflicting accounts4 ,it is this which makes his rhetoric worth while1 an everlasting possession1 not a prize competition which is heard and forgotten4 ,from the sublimity of ,thucydides1 and ,xenophon's straight-forward story1 history passed with ,theopompus and ,ephorus into the field of rhetoric4 ,a revival of the scientific instinct of investigation is discernable in ,timaeus the ,sicilian1 at the end of the #dth century1 but his attack upon his predecessors was the text of a more crushing attack upon himself by ,polybius1 who declares him lacking in critical insight and biased by passion4 ,polybius' comments upon ,timaeus reach the dignity of a treatise upon history4 ,he protests against its use for controversial pamphlets which distort the truth4 ,directly a man assumes the moral attitude of an historian he ought to forget all considerations1 such as love of one's friends1 hatred of one's enemies4444 ,he must sometimes praise enemies and blame friends4 ,for as a living creature is rendered useless if deprived of its eyes1 so if you take truth from ,history1 what is left but an improfitable tale 7bk4 xii4 #ad74 ,these are the words of a ,ranke4 ,unfortunately ,polybius1 like most modern scientific historians1 was no artist4 ,his style is the very opposite of that of ,isocrates and the rhetoricians4 ,it is often only clear in the light of inscriptions1 so closely does it keep to the sources4 ,the style found no imitator2 history passed from ,greece to ,rome in the guise of rhetoric4 ,in ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus the rhetoric was combined with an extensive study of the sources2 but the influence of the ,greek rhetoricians upon ,roman prose was deplorable from the standpoint of science4 ,cicero1 although he said that the duty of the historian is to conceal nothing true1 to say nothing false1 would in practice have written the kind of history that ,polybius denounced4 ,he finds fault with those who are non exornatores rerum sed tantum narratores4 ,history for him is the mine from which to draw argument in oratory and example in education4 ,it is not the subject of a scientific curiosity4 ,it should be noted before we pass to ,rome that with the expansion of ,hellenism the subject of historians expanded as well4 ,universal history was begun by ,ephorus1 the rhetorician1 and formed the theme of ,polybius and ,deodorus4 ,exiled ,greeks were the first to write histories of ,rome worthy of the name4 ,the ,alexandrian ,eratosthenes placed chronology upon the scientific basis of astronomy1 and ,apollodorus drew up the most important chronica of antiquity4 ,history-writing in ,rome1--except for the ,greek writers resident there1--was until the first half of the #ast century ,b4,c4 in the form of annals4 ,then came rhetorical ornamentation1--and the ,ciceronian era4 ,the first ,roman historian who rose to the conception of a science and art combined was ,sallust1 the student of ,thucydides4 ,the ,augustan age produced in ,livy a great popular historian and natural artist and a trained rhetorician 7in the speeches71--but as uncritical and inaccurate as he was brilliant4 ,from ,livy to ,tacitus the gulf is greater than from ,herodotus to ,thucydides4 ,tacitus is at least a consummate artist4 ,his style ranges from the brilliancy of his youth to the sternness and sombre gravity of age1 passing almost to poetic expression in its epigrammatic terseness4 ,yet in spite of his searching study of authorities1 his keen judgment of men1 and his perception of underlying principles of moral law1 his view was warped by the heat of faction1 which glows beneath his external objectivity4 ,after him ,roman history-writing speedily degenerated4 ,suetonius' ,lives of the ,caesars is but a superior kind of journalism4 ,but his gossip of the court became the model for historians1 whose works1 now lost1 furnish the main source for the ,historia ,augusta4 ,the importance to us of this uncritical collection of biographies is sufficient comment on the decline of history-writing in the latter empire4 ,finally1 from the #dth century the epitomes of ,eutropius and ,festus served to satisfy the lessening curiosity in the past and became the handbooks for the middle ages4 ,the single figure of ,ammianus ,marcellinus stands out of this age like a belated disciple of ,tacitus4 ,but the world was changing from antique to ,christian ideals just as he was writing1 and with him we leave this outline of ancient history4 ,the #dth and #eth centuries saw a great revolution in the history of history4 ,the story of the pagan past slipped out of mind1 and in its place was set1 by the genius of ,eusebius1 the story of the world force which had superseded it1 ,christianity1 and of that small fraction of antiquity from which it sprang1--the ,jews4 ,christianity from the first had forced thinking men to reconstruct their philosophy of history1 but it was only after the ,church's triumph that its point of view became dominant in historiography4 ,three centuries more passed before the pagan models were quite lost to sight4 ,but from the #gth century to the #agth--from ,isidore of ,seville and the ,english ,bede for a thousand years1--mankind was to look back along the line of ,jewish priests and kings to the ,creation4 ,egypt was of interest only as it came into ,israelite history1 ,babylon and ,nineveh were to illustrate the judgments of ,yahweh1 ,tyre and ,sidon to reflect the glory of ,solomon4 ,the process by which the gentiles have been robbed of their legitimate history was the inevitable result of a religion whose sacred books make them lay figures for the history of the ,jews4 ,rejected by the ,yahweh who became the ,christian ,god1 they have remained to the present day1 in ,sunday schools and in common opinion1 not nations of living men1 with the culture of arts and sciences1 but outcasts who do not enter into the divine scheme of the world's history4 ,when a line was drawn between pagan and ,christian back to the creation of the world1 it left outside the pale of inquiry nearly all antiquity4 ,but it must be remembered that that antiquity was one in which the ,german nations had no personal interest4 ,scipio and the ,gracchi were essentially unreal to them4 ,the one living organization with which they came into touch was the ,church4 ,so ,cicero and ,pompey paled before ,joshua and ,paul4 ,diocletian1 the organizing genius1 became a bloodthirsty monster1 and ,constantine1 the murderer1 a saint4 ,christian history begins with the triumph of the ,church4 ,with ,eusebius of ,caesarea the apologetic pamphlets of the age of persecutions gave way to a calm review of three centuries of ,christian progress4 ,eusebius' biography of ,constantine shows what distortion of fact the father of ,church history permitted himself1 but the ,ecclesiastical ,history was fortunately written for those who wanted to know what really happened1 and remains to-day an invaluable repository of ,christian antiquities4 ,with the continuations of ,socrates1 ,sozomen and ,theodoret1 and the ,latin manual which ,cassiodorus had woven from them 7the ,historia tripartita71 it formed the body of ,church history during all the middle ages4 ,an even greater influence1 however1 was exercised by ,eusebius' ,chronica4 ,through ,jerome's translation and additions1 this scheme of this world's chronology became the basis for all medieval world chronicles4 ,it settled until our own day the succession of years from the ,creation to the birth of ,christ1--fitting the ,old ,testament story into that of ancient history4 ,henceforth the ,jewish past1--that one path back to the beginning of the world1--was marked out by the absolute laws of mathematics and revelation4 ,jerome had marked it out2 ,sulpicius ,severus1 the biographer of ,st ,martin1 in his ,historia sacra1 adorned it with the attractions of romance4 ,sulpicius was admirably fitted to interpret the miraculous ,bible story to the middle ages4 ,but there were few who could write like him1 and ,jerome's ,chronicle itself1 or rather portions of it1 became1 in the age which followed1 a sort of universal preface for the monastic chronicler4 ,for a time there were even attempts to continue imperial chronicles1 but they were insignificant compared with the influence of ,eusebius and ,jerome4 ,from the first1 ,christianity had a philosophy of history4 ,its earliest apologists sought to show how the world had followed a divine plan in its long preparation for the life of ,christ4 ,from this central fact of all history1 mankind should continue through war and suffering until the divine plan was completed at the judgment day4 ,the fate of nations is in ,god's hands2 history is the revelation of ,his wisdom and power4 ,whether ,he intervenes directly by miracle1 or merely sets ,his laws in operation1 ,he is master of men's fate4 ,this idea1 which has underlain all ,christian philosophy of history1 from the first apologists who prophesied the fall of the ,empire and the coming of the millennium1 down to our own day1 received its classic statement in ,st ,augustine's ,city of ,god4 ,the terrestrial city1 whose eternity had been the theme of pagan history1 had just fallen before ,alaric's ,goths4 ,augustine's explanation of its fall passes in review not only the calamities of ,roman history--combined with a pathetic perception of its greatness1--but carries the survey back to the origin of evil at the creation4 ,then over against this civitas terrena he sets the divine city which is to be realized in ,christendom4 ,the ,roman ,empire1--the last general form of the earthly city1--gives way slowly to the heavenly4 ,this is the main thread of ,augustine's philosophy of history4 ,the mathematical demonstration of its truth was left by ,augustine for his disciple1 ,paulus ,orosius4 ,orosius' ,seven ,books of ,histories against the ,pagans1 written as a supplement to the ,city of ,god1 is the first attempt at a ,christian ,world ,history4 ,this manual for the middle ages arranged the rise and fall of empires with convincing exactness4 ,the history of antiquity1 according to it1 begins with ,ninus4 ,his realm was overthrown by the ,medes in the same year in which the history of ,rome began4 ,from the first year of ,ninus' reign until the rebuilding of ,babylon by ,semiramis there were sixty-four years2 the same between the first of ,procas and the building of ,rome4 ,eleven hundred and sixty-four years after each city was built1 it was taken1--,babylon by ,cyrus1 ,rome by ,alaric1 and ,cyrus' conquest took place just when ,rome began the ,republic4 ,but before ,rome becomes a world empire1 ,macedon and ,carthage intervene1 guardians of ,rome's youth 7tutor curatorque74 ,this scheme of the four world-monarchies1 which was to prevail through all the middle ages1 was developed through seven books filled with the story of war and suffering4 ,as it was ,orosius' aim to show that the world had improved since the coming of ,christ1 he used ,trogus ,pompeius' war history1 written to exalt ,roman triumphs1 to show the reverse of victory1--disaster and ruin4 ,livy1 ,caesar1 ,tacitus and ,suetonius were plundered for the story of horrors2 until finally even the ,goths in ,spain shine by contrast with the pagan heroes2 and through the confusion of the ,german invasions one may look forward to ,christendom1--and its peace4 ,the commonest form of medieval historical writing was the chronicle1 which reaches all the way from monastic annals1 mere notes on ,easter tables1 to the dignity of national monuments4 ,utterly lacking in perspective1 and dominated by the idea of the miraculous1 they are for the most part a record of the trivial or the marvellous4 ,individual historians sometimes recount the story of their own times with sober judgment1 but seldom know how to test their sources when dealing with the past4 ,contradictions are often copied down without the writer noticing them2 and since the middle ages forged and falsified so many documents1--monasteries1 towns and corporations gaining privileges or titles of possession by the bold use of them1--the narrative of medieval writers cannot be relied upon unless we can verify it by collateral evidence4 ,some historians1 like ,otto of ,freising1 ,guibert of ,nogent or ,bernard ,gui1 would have been scientific if they had had our appliances for comparison4 ,but even men like ,roger ,bacon1 who deplored the inaccuracy of texts1 had worked out no general method to apply in their restoration4 ,toward the close of the middle ages the vernacular literatures were adorned with ,villani's and ,froissart's chronicles4 ,but the merit of both lies in their journalistic qualities of contemporary narrative4 ,neither was a history in the truest sense4 ,the ,renaissance marked the first great gain in the historic sense1 in the efforts of the humanists to realize the spirit of the antique world4 ,they did not altogether succeed2 antiquity to them meant largely ,plato and ,cicero4 ,their interests were literary1 and the un-,ciceronian centuries were generally ignored4 ,those in which the foundations of modern ,europe were laid1 which produced parliaments1 cathedrals1 cities1 ,dante and ,chaucer1 were grouped alike on one dismal level and christened the middle ages4 ,the perspective of the humanists was only one degree better than that of the middle ages4 ,history became the servant to literature1 an adjunct to the classics4 ,thus it passed into the schools1 where text-books still in use devote #bjj pages to the ,peloponnesian war and two to the ,athens of ,pericles4 ,but if the literary side of humanism has been a barrier to the progress of scientific history1 the discovery and elucidation of texts first made that progress possible4 ,historical criticism soon awoke4 ,laurentius ,valla's brilliant attack on the ,donation of ,constantine 7#addj71 and ,ulrich von ,hutten's rehabilitation of ,henry ,,iv4 from monkish tales mark the rise of the new science4 ,one sees at a glance what an engine of controversy it was to be2 yet for a while it remained but a phase of humanism4 ,it was north of the ,alps that it parted company with the grammarians4 ,classical antiquity was an ,italian past1 the ,german scholars turned back to the sources of their national history4 ,aeneas ,sylvius ,piccolomini 7,pius ,,ii47 had discovered ,otto of ,freising and ,jordanes4 ,maximilian ,i4 encouraged the search for manuscripts1 and ,vienna became a great humanistic centre4 ,conrad ,celtes left his ,germania illustrata unfinished1 but he had found the works of ,hroswitha4 ,conrad ,peutinger gathered all sorts of ,chronicles in his room in ,vienna1 and published several1--among them ,gregory of ,tours4 ,this national movement of the #aeth century was not paralleled in ,france or ,england1 where the classical humanities reigned4 ,the ,reformation meanwhile gave another turn to the work of ,german scholars4 ,the ,reformation1 with its heated controversies1 seems a strange starting-point for science1 yet it1 even more than the ,renaissance1 brought out scientific methods of historical investigation4 ,it not only sobered the humanist tendency to sacrifice truth for aesthetic effect1 it called for the documents of the ,church and subjected them to the most hostile criticism4 ,luther himself challenged them4 ,then in the ,magdeburg ,centuries 7#aeei-aegd7 ,protestantism tried to make good its attack on the medieval ,church by a great collection of sources accompanied with much destructive criticism4 ,this gigantic work is the first monument of modern historical research4 ,the reply of ,cardinal ,baronius 7,annales ecclesiastici1 #aehh-afig7 was a still greater collection1 drawn from archives which till then had not been used for scientific history4 ,baronius' criticism and texts are faulty1 though far surpassing anything before his day1 and his collection is the basis for most subsequent ones1--in spite of ,j4 ,j4 ,scaliger's refutation1 which was to contain an equal number of volumes of the errors in ,baronius4 ,the movement back to the sources in ,germany until the ,thirty ,years' ,war was a notable one4 ,collections were made by ,simon ,schard 7#aece-aegc71 ,johannes ,pistorius 7#aegf-afjh71 ,marquard ,freher 7#aefe-afad71 ,melchior ,goldast 7#aegf-afce7 and others4 ,after the war ,leibnitz began a new epoch1 both by his philosophy with its law of continuity in phenomena1 and by his systematic attempt to collect sources through an association 7#afgj74 ,his plan to have documents printed as they were1 instead of correcting them1 was a notable advance4 ,but from ,leibnitz until the #aith century ,german national historiography made little progress1--although church historians like ,mosheim and ,neander stand out among the greatest historians of all time4 ,france had not paralleled the activity of ,maximilian's ,renaissance historians4 ,the father of modern ,french history1 or at least of historical research1 was ,andre ,duchesne 7#aehd-afdj71 whose splendid collections of sources are still in use4 ,jean ,bodin wrote the first treatise on scientific history 7,methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem1 #aeff71 but he did not apply his own principles of criticism2 and it was left for the ,benedictine monks of the ,congregation of ,st ,maur to establish definitely the new science4 ,the place of this school in the history of history is absolutely without a parallel4 ,few of those in the audiences of ,moliere1 returning home under the grey walls of ,st ,germain-des-,pres1 knew that within that monastery the men whose midnight they disturbed were laying the basis for all scientific history2 and few of the later historians of that age have been any wiser4 ,but when ,luc d',achery turned from exegetics to patristics and the lives of the saints1 as a sort of ,christian humanist1 he led the way to that vast work of collection and comparison of texts which developed through ,mabillon1 ,montfaucon1 ,ruinart1 ,martene1 ,bouquet and their associates1 into the indispensable implements of modern historians4 ,here1 as in the ,reformation1 controversy called out the richest product4 ,jean ,mabillon's treatise1 ,de re diplomatica 7#afha71 was due to the criticisms of that group of ,belgian ,jesuits whose ,acta ,sanctorum quotquot toto orbe coluntur 7#afdc1 c41 see ,,bollandists7 was destined to grow into the greatest repository of legend and biography the world has seen4 ,in reply to ,d4 ,papebroch's criticisms of the chronicle of ,st ,denis1 ,mabillon prepared this manual for the testing of medieval documents4 ,its canons are the basis1 indeed1 almost the whole1 of the science of diplomatic 7q4v471 the touchstone of truth for medieval research4 ,henceforth even the mediocre scholar had a body of technical rules by which to sort out the vast mass of apocrypha in medieval documentary sources4 ,scientific history depends upon implements4 ,without manuals1 dictionaries1 and easy access to texts1 we should go as far astray as any medieval chronicler4 ,the ,france of the ,maurists supplied the most essential of these instruments4 ,the great glossary of ,ducange is still in enlarged editions the indispensable encyclopaedia of the middle ages4 ,chronology and palaeography were placed on a new footing by ,dom ,bernard de ,montfaucon's ,palaeographia graeca 7#agjh71 the monumental ,art de verifier les dates 7#crd ed41 #ahah-ahca1 in #ch vols471 and the ,nouveau ,traite de diplomatique 7#agej-agfe7 of ,dom ,tassin and ,dom ,toustain4 ,the collections of texts which the ,maurists published are too many and too vast to be enumerated here 7see ,c4 ,langlois1 ,manuel de bibliographie historique1 pp4 #bic ff474 ,dom ,bouquet's ,historiens de la ,gaule et de la ,france--the national repertory for ,french historians--is but one of a dozen tasks of similar magnitude4 ,during the #ahth century this deep under-work of scientific history continued to advance1 though for the most part unseen by the brilliant writers whose untrustworthy generalities passed for history in the salons of the old regime4 ,interrupted by the ,revolution1 it revived in the #aith century1 and the roll of honour of the ,french ,ecole des ,chartes has almost rivalled that of ,st ,germain-des-,pres4 ,the father of critical history in ,italy was ,l4 ,a4 ,muratori 7#afgb-agej71 the ,italian counterpart of ,leibnitz4 ,his vast collection of sources 7,rerum ,italicarum scriptores71 prepared amid every discouragement1 remains to-day the national monument of ,italian history2 and it is but one of his collections4 ,his output is perhaps the greatest of any isolated worker in the whole history of historiography4 ,the same haste1 but much less care1 marked the work of ,j4 ,d4 ,mansi 7d4 #agfi71 the compiler of the fullest collection of the ,councils4 ,spain1 stifled by the ,inquisition1 produced no national collection of sources during the #agth and #ahth centuries1 although ,nicolas ,antonio 7d4 #afhd7 produced a national literary history of the first rank4 ,england in the #afth century kept pace with ,continental historiography4 ,henry ,,viii4's chaplain1 ,john ,leland1 is the father of ,english antiquaries4 ,three of the most precious collections of medieval manuscripts still in existence were then begun by ,thomas ,bodley 7the ,bodleian at ,oxford71 ,archbishop ,matthew ,parker 7,corpus ,christi at ,cambridge71 and ,robert ,cotton 7the ,cottonian collection of the ,british ,museum74 ,in ,elizabeth's reign a serious effort was made to arrange the national records1 but until the end of the #ahth century they were scattered in not less than fifteen repositories4 ,in the #agth and #ahth centuries ,english scholarship was enriched by such monuments of research as ,william ,dugdale's ,monasticon1 ,thomas ,madox's ,history of the ,exchequer1 ,wilkins's ,concilia1 and ,thomas ,rymer's ,foedera4 ,but these works1 important as they were1 gave but little idea of the wealth of historical sources which the #aith century was to reveal in ,england4 ,in the #aith century the science of history underwent a sort of industrial revolution4 ,the machinery of research1 invented by the genius of men like ,mabillon1 was perfected and set going in all the archives of ,europe4 ,isolated workers or groups of workers grew into national or international associations1 producing from archives vast collections of material to be worked up into the artistic form of history4 ,the result of this movement has been to revolutionize the whole subject4 ,these men of the factory--devoting their lives to the cataloguing of archives and libraries1 to the publication of material1 and then to the gigantic task of indexing what they have produced--have made it possible for the student in an ,american or ,australian college to master in a few hours in his library sources of history which baffled the long years of research of a ,martene or ,rymer4 ,the texts themselves have mostly become as correct as they can ever be1 and manuals and bibliographies guide one to and through them1 so that no one need go astray who takes the trouble to make use of the mechanism which is at his hand4 ,for example1 since the papal archives were opened1 so many regesta have appeared that soon it will be possible to follow the letter-writing of the medieval popes day by day for century after century4 ,the apparatus for this research is too vast to be described here4 ,archives have been reformed1 their contents catalogued or calendared2 government commissions have rescued numberless documents from oblivion or destruction1 and learned societies have supplemented and criticized this work and co-ordinated the results4 ,every state in ,europe now has published the main sources for its history4 ,the ,rolls series1 the ,monumenta ,germaniae historica1 and the ,documents inedits are but the more notable of such national products4 ,a series of periodicals keeps watch over this enormous output4 ,the files and indices of the ,english ,historical ,review1 ,historische ,zeitschrift1 ,revue historique1 or ,american ,historical ,review will alone reveal the strength and character of historical research in the later #aith century4 ,every science which deals with human phenomena is in a way an implement in this great factory system1 in which the past is welded together again4 ,psychology has been drawn upon to interpret the movements of revolutions or religions1 anthropology and ethnology furnish a clue to problems to which the key of documents has been lost4 ,genealogy1 heraldry and chronology run parallel with the wider subject4 ,but the real auxiliary sciences to history are those which deal with those traces of the past that still exist1 the science of language 7philology71 of writing 7palaeography71 of documents 7diplomatic71 of seals 7sphragistics71 of coins 7numismatics71 of weights and measures1 and archaeology in the widest sense of the word4 ,these sciences underlie the whole development of scientific history4 ,dictionaries and manuals are the instruments of this industrial revolution4 ,without them the literary remains of the race would still be as useless as ,egyptian inscriptions to the fellaheen4 ,archaeology itself remained but a minor branch of art until the machinery was perfected which enabled it to classify and interpret the remains of the pre-historic age4 ,this is the most remarkable chapter in the whole history of history--the recovery of that past which had already been lost when our literary history began4 ,the perspective stretches out as far the other side of ,homer as we are this4 ,the old providential scheme of history disintegrates before a new interest in the gentile nations to whose high culture ,hebrew sources bore unwilling testimony4 ,biblical criticism is a part of the historic process4 ,the ,jewish texts1 once the infallible basis of history1 are now tested by the libraries of ,babylon1 from which they were partly drawn1 and ,hebrew history sinks into its proper place in the wide horizon of antiquity4 ,the finding of the ,rosetta stone left us no longer dependent upon ,greek1 ,latin or ,hebrew sources1 and now fifty centuries of ,egyptian history lie before us4 ,the scientific historian of antiquity works on the hills of ,crete1 rather than in the quiet of a library with the classics spread out before him4 ,there he can reconstruct the splendour of that ,minoan age to which ,homeric poems look back1 as the ,germanic epics looked back to ,rome or ,verona4 ,his discoveries1 co-ordinated and arranged in vast corpora inscriptionum1 stand now alongside ,herodotus or ,livy1 furnishing a basis for their criticism4 ,medieval archaeology has1 since ,quicherat1 revealed how men were living while the monks wrote chronicles1 and now cathedrals and castles are studied as genuine historic documents4 ,the immense increase in available sources1 archaeological and literary1 has remade historical criticism4 ,ranke's application of the principles of higher criticism to works written since the invention of printing 7,kritik neuerer ,geschichtsschreiber7 was an epoch-making challenge of narrative sources4 ,now they are everywhere checked by contemporary evidence1 and a clearer sense of what constitutes a primary source has discredited much of what had been currently accepted as true4 ,this is true not only of ancient history1 where last year's book may be a thousand years out of date1 but of the whole field4 ,hardly an old master remains an authoritative book of reference4 ,gibbon1 ,grote1 ,giesebrecht1 ,guizot stand to-day by reason of other virtues than their truth4 ,old landmarks drop out of sight--e4g4 the fall of the ,western ,empire in #dgf1 the coming of the ,greeks to ,italy in #adej1 dates which once enclosed the middle ages4 ,the perspective changes--the ,renaissance grows less and the middle ages more2 the ,protestant ,revolution becomes a complex of economics and politics and religion2 the ,french ,revolution a vast social reform in which the ,terror was an incident1 c41 c4 ,the result has been a complete transformation of history since the middle of the #aith century4 ,in the #agth century the ,augustinian scheme of world history received its last classic statement in ,bossuet's ,histoire universelle4 ,voltaire's reply to it in the #ahth 7,essai sur les moeurs7 attacked its limitations on the basis of deism1 and its miraculous procedure on that of science4 ,but while there are foreshadowings of the evolutionary theory in this work1 neither the philosophe historians nor ,hume nor ,gibbon arrived at a constructive principle in history which could take the place of the ,providence they rejected4 ,religion1 though false1 might be a real historic force4 ,history became the tragic spectacle of a game of dupes--the real movers being priests1 kings or warriors4 ,the pawns slowly acquired reason1 and then would be able to regulate the moves themselves4 ,but all this failed to give a satisfactory explanation of the laws which determine the direction of this evolution4 ,giovanni ,battista ,vico 7#affh-agdd7 was the first to ask why there is no science of human history4 ,but his lonely life and unrecognized labours leave him apart from the main movement1 until his works were discovered again in the #aith century4 ,it was ,a4 ,l4 ,h4 ,heeren who1 at the opening of the #aith century1 first laid that emphasis upon the economic factors in history which is to-day slowly replacing the ,augustinian explanation of its evolution4 ,heeren's own influence1 however1 was slight4 ,the first half of the century 7apart from the scientific activity of ,pertz1 ,guizot1 c47 was largely dominated by the romanticists1 with their exaggeration of the individual4 ,carlyle's great man theory of history is logically connected with the age of ,scott4 ,it was a philosophy of history which lent itself to magnificent dramatic creations2 but it explained nothing4 ,it substituted the work of the genius for the miraculous intervention of ,providence1 but1 apart from certain abstract formulae such as ,truth and ,right1 knew nothing of why or how4 ,it is but dealing in words to say that the meaning of it all is ,god's revelation of ,himself4 ,granting that1 what is the process8 ,why does it so slowly reveal the ,right of the middle ages 7as in slavery for instance7 to be the ,wrong to-day8 ,carlyle stands to ,bossuet as the sage to the myth4 ,hegel got no closer to realities4 ,his idealistic scheme of history1 which makes religion the keynote of progress1 and describes the function of each--,judaism to typify duty1 ,confucianism order1 ,mahommedanism justice1 ,buddhism patience1 and ,christianity love--does not account for the facts of the history enacted by the devotees4 ,it characterizes1 not the real process of evolution1 but an ideal which history has not realized4 ,besides1 it does not face the question how far religion itself is a product or a cause1 or both combined4 ,in the middle of the century two men sought to incorporate in their philosophy the physical basis which ,hegel had ignored in his spiritism--recognizing that life is conditioned by an environment and not an abstraction for metaphysics4 ,h4 ,t4 ,buckle1 in his ,history of ,civilization in ,england 7#aheg71 was the first to work out the influences of the material world upon history1 developing through a wealth of illustration the importance of food1 soil and the general aspect of nature upon the formation of society4 ,buckle did not1 as is generally believed1 make these three factors dominate all history4 ,he distinctly stated that the advance of ,european civilization is characterized by a diminishing influence of physical laws and an increasing influence of mental laws1 and the measure of civilization is the triumph of mind over external agents4 ,yet his challenge1 not only to the theologian1 but also to those historians whose indolence of thought or natural incapacity prevented them from attempting more than the annalistic record of events1 called out a storm of protest from almost every side4 ,now that the controversy has cleared away1 we see that in spite of ,buckle's too confident formulation of his laws1 his pioneer work in a great field marks him out as the ,augustine of the scientific age4 ,among historians1 however1 ,buckle's theory received but little favour for another generation4 ,meanwhile the economists had themselves taken up the problem1 and it was from them that the historians of to-day have learned it4 ,ten years before ,buckle published his history1 ,karl ,marx had already formulated the economic theory of history4 ,accepting with reservation ,feuerbach's attack on the ,hegelian absolute idea1 based on materialistic grounds 7,der ,mensch ist1 was er isst71 ,marx was led to the conclusion that the causes of that process of growth which constitutes the history of society are to be found in the economic conditions of existence4 ,from this he went on to socialism1 which bases its militant philosophy upon this interpretation of history4 ,but the truth or falseness of socialism does not affect the theory of history4 ,in #ahde ,marx wrote of the ,young-,hegelians that to separate history from natural science and industry was like separating the soul from the body1 and finding the birthplace of history1 not in the gross material production on earth1 but in the misty cloud formation of heaven 7,die heilige ,familie1 p4 #bch74 ,in his ,misere de la philosophie 7#ahdg7 he lays down the principle that social relationships largely depend upon modes of production1 and therefore the principles1 ideas and categories which are thus evolved are no more eternal than the relations they express1 but are historical and transitory products4 ,in the famous ,manifesto of the ,communist ,party 7#ahdh7 the theory was applied to show how the industrial revolution had replaced feudal with modern conditions4 ,but it had little vogue1 except among ,socialists1 until the third volume of ,das ,kapital was published in #ahid1 when its importance was borne in upon continental scholars4 ,since then the controversy has been almost as heated as in the days of the ,reformation4 ,it is an exaggeration of the theory which makes it an explanation of all human life1 but the whole science of dynamic sociology rests upon the postulate of ,marx4 ,the content of history always reflects the interests of the age in which it is written4 ,it was so in ,herodotus and in medieval chronicles4 ,modern historians began with politics4 ,but as the complex nature of society became more evident in the age of democracy1 the economic or sociological history gained ground4 ,histories of commerce and cities now rank beside those on war and kings1 although there are readers still who prefer to follow the pennants of robber barons rather than to watch the slow evolution of modern conditions4 ,the drum-and-trumpet history has its place like that of art1 jurisprudence1 science or philosophy4 ,only now we know that no one of these is more than a single glimpse at a vast complex of phenomena1 most of which lie for ever beyond our ken4 ,this expansion of interest has intensified specialization4 ,historians no longer attempt to write world histories2 they form associations of specialists for the purpose4 ,each historian chooses his own epoch or century and his own subject1 and spends his life mastering such traces of it as he can find4 ,his work there enables him to judge of the methods of his fellows1 but his own remains restricted by the very wealth of material which has been accumulated on the single subject before him4 ,thus the great enterprises of to-day are co-operative--the ,cambridge ,modern ,history1 ,lavisse and ,rambaud's ,histoire generale1 or ,lavisse's ,histoire de ,france1 like ,hunt and ,poole's ,political ,history of ,england1 and ,oncken's ,allgemeine ,geschichte in ,einzeldarstellungen4 ,but even these vast sets cover but the merest fraction of their subjects4 ,the ,cambridge history passes for the most part along the political crust of society1 and seldom glances at the social forces within4 ,this limitation of the professed historian is made up for by the growingly historical treatment of all the sciences and arts--a tendency noted before1 to which this edition of the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica is itself a notable witness4 ,indeed1 for a definition of that limitless subject which includes all the phenomena that stand the warp and stress of change1 one might adapt a famous epitaph--si historiam requiris1 circumspice4 ,,bibliography4--,see ,ch4 ,v4 ,langlois1 ,manuel de bibliographie historique 7#b vols41 #aijd74 ,this forms the logical bibliography of this article4 ,it is a general survey of the whole apparatus of historical research1 and is the indispensable guide to the subject4 ,similar bibliographies covering sections of history are noted with the articles where they properly belong1 e4g4 in ,english medieval history the manual of ,chas4 ,gross1 ,sources and ,literature of ,english ,history2 in ,german history the ,quellenkunde of ,dahlmann-,waitz 7#gth ed472 for ,france the ,bibliographie de l'histoire de ,france of ,g4 ,monod 7antiquated1 #ahhh71 or the ,sources de l'histoire de ,france so ably begun by ,a4 ,molinier's volumes on the medieval period4 ,perhaps the sanest survey of the present scientific movement in history is the clear summary of ,ch4 ,v4 ,langlois and ,ch4 ,seignobos1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,history 7trans4 with preface by ,f4 ,york ,powell1 ,london1 #ahih74 ,much more ambitious is ,e4 ,bernheim's ,lehrbuch der historischen ,methode und der ,geschichtsphilosophie mit ,nachweis der wichtigsten ,quellen und ,hilfsmittel zum ,studium der ,geschichte 7#crd and #dth ed41 ,leipzig1 #aijc74 7,j4 ,t4 ,s4997 ,,hit1 a town of ,asiatic ,turkey1 in the vilayet of ,bagdad1 on the west bank of the ,euphrates1 #gj m4 ,w4,n4,w4 of ,bagdad1 in #cc deg4 #ch' #h ,n41 #db deg4 #eb' #ae ,e4 ,it is picturesquely situated on a line of hills1 partly natural1 but in large part certainly artificial1 the accumulation of centuries of former habitation1 from #cj to #ajj ft4 in height1 bordering the river4 ,the houses are built of field stones and mud4 ,a striking feature of the town is a lofty and well-proportioned minaret1 which leans quite perceptibly4 ,behind and around ,hit is an extensive but utterly barren plain1 through which flow several streams of bitter water1 coming from mineral springs4 ,directly behind the town are two bitumen springs1 one cold and one hot1 within #cj ft4 of one another4 ,the gypsum cliffs on the edge of the plain1 and the rocks which crop out here and there in the plain1 are full of seams of bitumen1 and the whole place is redolent of sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,across the river there are naphtha springs4 ,indeed1 the entire region is one possessing great potential wealth in mineral oils and the like4 ,hit1 with its fringe of palms1 is like an oasis in the desert occasioned by the outcrop of these deposits4 ,from time immemorial it has been the chief source of supply of bitumen for ,babylonia1 the prosperity of the town depending always upon its bitumen fountains1 which are still the property of the government1 but are rented out to any one who wishes to use them4 ,there is also a shipyard at ,hit1 where the characteristic ,babylonian boats are still made1 smeared within and without with bitumen4 ,hit is the head of navigation on the ,euphrates4 ,it is also the point from which the camel-post starts across the desert to ,damascus4 ,about #h m4 inland from ,hit1 on a bitter stream1 lies the small town of ,kubeitha4 ,hit is mentioned1 under the name of ,ist1 in the ,karnak inscription as paying tribute to ,tethmosis 7,thothmes7 ,,iii4 ,in the ,bible 7,ezra viii4 #ae7 it is called ,ahava2 the original ,babylonian name seems to have been ,ihi1 which becomes in the ,talmud ,ihidakira1 in ,ptolemy ,greek3 ,idikara1 and in ,zosimus and ,ammianus ,greek3 ,dakira and ,diacira4 ,see ,geo4 ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 i4 #agi1 and note by ,h4 ,c4 ,rawlinson2 ,j4 ,p4 ,peters1 ,nippur 7#ahig72 ,h4 ,v4 ,geere1 ,by ,nile and ,euphrates 7#aijd74 7,j4 ,p4 ,pe47 ,,hita1 ,,gines ,,perez ,,de 7#aedd8-afje871 ,spanish novelist and poet1 was born at ,mula 7,murcia7 about the middle of the #afth century4 ,he served in the campaign of #aefi-aega against the ,moriscos1 and in #aegb wrote a rhymed history of the city of ,lorca which remained unpublished till #ahhi4 ,he owes his wide celebrity to the ,historia de los bandos de ,zegries y ,abencerrajes 7#aeie-afjd71 better known as the ,guerras civiles de ,granada1 which purports to be a chronicle based on an ,arabic original ascribed to a certain ,aben-,hamin4 ,aben-,hamin is a fictitious personage1 and the ,guerras de ,granada is in reality a historical novel1 perhaps the earliest example of its kind1 and certainly the first historical novel that attained popularity4 ,in the first part the events which led to the downfall of ,granada are related with uncommon brilliancy1 and ,hita's sympathetic transcription of life at the ,emir's court has clearly suggested the conventional presentation of the picturesque1 chivalrous ,moor in the pages of ,mlle de ,scudery1 ,mme de ,lafayette1 ,chateaubriand and ,washington ,irving4 ,the second part is concerned with the author's personal experiences1 and the treatment is effective2 yet1 though ,calderon's play1 ,amar despues de la muerte1 is derived from it1 the second part has never enjoyed the vogue or influence of the first4 ,the exact date of ,hita's death is unknown4 ,his blank verse rendering of the ,cronica ,troyana1 written in #aeif1 exists in manuscript4 ,,hitchcock1 ,,edward 7#agic-ahfd71 ,american geologist1 was born of poor parents at ,deerfield1 ,massachusetts1 on the #bdth of ,may #agic4 ,he owed his education chiefly to his own exertions1 and was preparing himself to enter ,harvard ,college when he was compelled to interrupt his studies from a weakness in his eyesight4 ,in #ahae he became principal of the academy of his native town2 but he resigned this office in #ahah in order to study for the ministry4 ,having been ordained in #ahba pastor of the ,congregational church of ,conway1 ,mass41 he employed his leisure in making a scientific survey of the western counties of the state4 ,from #ahbe to #ahde he was professor of chemistry and natural history1 from #ahde to #ahfd was professor of natural theology and geology at ,amherst ,college1 and from #ahde to #ahed was president2 the college owed its early success largely to his energetic efforts1 especially during the period of his presidency4 ,in #ahcj he was appointed state geologist of ,massachusetts1 and in #ahcf was made geologist of the first district of the state of ,new ,york4 ,in #ahdj he received the degree of ,,ll4,d4 from ,harvard1 and in #ahdf that of ,d4,d4 from ,middlebury ,college1 ,vermont4 ,besides his constant labours in geology1 zoology and botany1 ,hitchcock took an active interest in agriculture1 and in #ahej he was sent by the ,massachusetts legislature to examine into the methods of the agricultural schools of ,europe4 ,in geology he made a detailed examination and exposition of the fossil footprints from the ,triassic sandstones of the ,connecticut valley4 ,his collection is preserved in the ,hitchcock ,ichnological ,museum of ,amherst ,college1 and a description of it was published in #aheh in his report to the ,massachusetts legislature on the ichnology of ,new ,england4 ,the footprints were regarded as those of reptiles1 amphibia and birds 7874 ,in #aheg he undertook1 with the aid of his two sons1 the geological survey of ,vermont1 which was completed in #ahfa4 ,as a writer on geological science1 ,hitchcock was largely concerned in determining the connexion between it and religion1 and employing its results to explain and support what he regarded as the truths of revelation4 ,he died at ,amherst1 on the #bgth of ,february #ahfd4 ,his son1 ,,charles ,,henry ,,hitchcock 7#ahcf- 71 did good service in geology1 in ,vermont1 ,new ,hampshire 7#ahfh-ahgh71 and other parts of ,america1 and became professor of geology at ,dartmouth in #ahfh4 ,the following are ,edward ,hitchcock's principal works3 ,geology of the ,connecticut ,valley 7#ahbc72 ,catalogue of ,plants growing without cultivation in the vicinity of ,amherst 7#ahbi72 ,reports on the ,geology of ,massachusetts 7#ahcc-ahda72 ,elementary ,geology 7#ahdj2 ed4 #b1 #ahda2 and later ed4 with ,c4 ,h4 ,hitchcock1 #ahfb72 ,fossil ,footmarks in the ,united ,states 7#ahdh72 ,outline of the ,geology of the ,globe and of the ,united ,states in particular 7#ahec72 ,illustrations of ,surface ,geology 7#ahef72 ,ichnology of ,new ,england 7#aheh72 ,the ,religion of ,geology and its ,connected ,sciences 7#ahea2 new ed41 #ahfi72 ,reminiscences of ,amherst ,college 7#ahfc72 and various papers in the ,american ,journal of ,science1 and other periodicals4 ,,hitchcock1 ,,george 7#ahej- 71 ,american artist1 was born at ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 in #ahej4 ,he graduated from ,brown ,university in #ahgb and from the law school of ,harvard ,university in #ahgd2 then turned his attention to art and became a pupil of ,boulanger and ,lefebvre in ,paris4 ,he attracted notice in the ,salon of #ahhe with his ,tulip ,growing1 a ,dutch garden which he painted in ,holland4 ,he had for years a studio at ,egmond1 in the ,netherlands4 ,he became a ,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honour1 ,france2 a member of the ,vienna ,academy of ,arts1 the ,munich ,secession ,society1 and other art bodies2 and is represented in the ,dresden gallery2 the imperial collection1 ,vienna2 the ,chicago ,art ,institute1 and the ,detroit ,museum of ,fine ,arts4 ,,hitchcock1 ,,roswell ,,dwight 7#ahag-ahhg71 ,american divine1 was born at ,east ,machias1 ,maine1 on the #aeth of ,august #ahag1 graduated at ,amherst ,college in #ahcf1 and later studied at ,andover ,theological ,seminary1 ,mass4 ,after a visit to ,germany he was a tutor at ,amherst in #ahci-ahdb1 and was minister of the ,first 7,congregational7 ,church1 ,exeter1 ,new ,hampshire1 in #ahde-aheb4 ,he became professor of natural and revealed religion in ,bowdoin ,college1 ,brunswick1 ,maine1 in #aheb1 and in #ahee professor of church history in the ,union ,theological ,seminary in ,new ,york1 of which he was president in #ahhj-ahhg4 ,he died at ,somerset1 ,mass41 on the #afth of ,june #ahhg4 ,among his works are3 ,life of ,edward ,robinson 7#ahfc72 ,socialism 7#ahgi72 ,carmina ,sanctorum 7with ,z4 ,eddy and ,l4 ,w4 ,mudge1 #ahhe72 and ,eternal ,atonement 7#ahhh74 ,,hitchin1 a market town in the ,hitchin parliamentary division of ,hertfordshire1 ,england1 on the small river ,hiz1 #cb m4 ,n4 from ,london by the ,great ,northern railway4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija7 #aj1jgb4 ,it is the junction of the main line with the ,cambridge branch1 and with a branch of the ,midland railway to ,bedford4 ,the church of ,st ,mary is ,perpendicular1 with a fine porch1 a painting of the ,adoration of the ,magi1 attributed to ,rubens1 a small crypt said to have been used by ,cromwell as a prison for the ,royalists1 and many interesting monuments4 ,hitchin ,priory is a mansion on the site of a ,carmelite foundation of the early #adth century4 ,a ,gilbertine nunnery1 founded later in the same century1 stood adjacent to the church1 and portions of the buildings appear in an existing block of almshouses4 ,the grammar school 7#afcb7 was reconstituted in #ahhi for boys and girls4 ,straw-plaiting1 malting1 brewing1 and the cultivation and distillation of lavender and peppermint are carried on4 ,,hittites1 an ancient people1 alluded to frequently in the earlier records of ,israel1 and also1 under slightly variant names1 in ,egyptian records of the ,x,v,i,i,ith1 ,x,i,xth and ,x,xth ,dynasties1 and in ,assyrian from about #aajj to #gjj ,b4,c4 ,they appear also in the ,vannic cuneiform texts1 and are believed to be the authors of a class of monuments bearing inscriptions in a peculiar pictographic character1 and widely distributed over ,asia ,minor and ,n4 ,syria1 around which much controversy has raged during the past thirty years4 #a4 ,the ,bible4--,in the ,old ,testament the name of the race is written ,heth 7with initial aspirate71 members of it being ,hitti1 ,hittim1 which the ,septuagint renders ,greek3 chet1 ,greek3 chettaios1 ,greek3 chettein or ,greek3 chetteim1 keeping1 it will be noted1 epsilon in the stem throughout4 ,the race appears in two connexions1 7a7 ,in pre-,israelite ,palestine1 it is resident about ,hebron 7,gen4 xxiii4 #c71 and in the central uplands 7,num4 xiii4 #bi74 ,to ,joshua 7i4 #d7 is promised from the wilderness and this ,lebanon even unto the great river1 the river ,euphrates1 all the land of the ,hittites4 ,the term wilderness here is of geographical ambiguity2 but the promise is usually taken to mean that ,palestine itself was part of the ,hittite land before the coming of ,israel2 and an apostrophe of ,ezekiel 7xvi4 #c7 to ,jerusalem1 thy mother 7was7 an ,hittite1 is quoted in confirmation4 ,under the monarchy we hear frequently of ,hittites within the borders of ,israel1 but either as a small subject people1 coupled with other petty tribes1 or as individuals in the ,jewish service 7e4g4 ,uriah1 in the time of ,david74 ,it appears1 therefore1 that there survived in ,palestine to late times a detached ,hittite population1 with which ,hebrews sometimes intermarried 7,judges iii4 #e-f2 ,gen4 xxvi4 #cd7 and lived in relations now amicable1 now tyrannical 7e4g4 ,hittites were made tributary bondsmen by ,solomon1 #a ,kings ix4 #bj1 #ba2 #b ,chron4 viii4 #g1 #h74 7b7 ,an independent and powerful ,hittite people was domiciled ,n4 of ,palestine proper1 organized rather as a confederacy of tribes than a single monarchy 7#a ,kings x4 #bh2 #b ,kings vii4 #f74 ,presumably it was a daughter of these ,hittites that ,solomon took to wife4 ,if the emendation of #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #fd1 ,tahtim-hodshi1 based on the ,septuagint version ,greek3 gen chetteim kades be accepted1 we hear of them at ,kadesh on ,orontes2 and some minor ,hittite cities are mentioned1 e4g4 ,luz2 but no one capital city of the race is clearly indicated4 ,carchemish1 on the ,euphrates1 though mentioned three times 7#b ,chron4 xxxv4 #bj2 ,isa4 x4 #i2 ,jer4 xlvi4 #b71 is not connected explicitly with ,hittites1 a fact which is not surprising1 since that city was no longer under a ,hatti dynasty at the epoch of the ,old ,testament references4 ,so far as the ,old ,testament goes1 therefore1 we gather that the ,hittites were a considerable people1 widely spread in ,syria1 in part subdued and to some extent assimilated by ,israel1 but in part out of reach4 ,the latter portion was not much known to the ,hebrews1 but was vaguely feared as a power in the early days of the monarchy1 though not in the later pre-,captivity period4 ,the identification of the northern and southern ,hittites1 however1 presents certain difficulties not yet fully explained2 and it seems that we must assume ,heth to have been the name both of a country in the north and of a tribal population not confined to that country4 #b4 ,egyptian ,records4--,the decipherment of the inscriptions of the ,x,v,i,i,ith ,theban ,dynasty led1 before the middle of the #aith century1 to the discovery of the important part played in the ,syrian campaigns of ,tethmosis 7,thothmes7 ,,iii4 by the ,h-t#h 7vulgarly transliterated ,kheta1 though the vocalization is uncertain74 ,the coincidence of this name1 beginning with an aspirate1 led ,h4 ,k4 ,brugsch to identify the ,kheta with ,heth4 ,that identification stands1 and no earlier ,egyptian mention of the race has been found4 ,tethmosis ,,iii4 found the ,kheta 7,great and ,little7 in ,n4 ,syria1 not apparently at ,kadesh1 but at ,carchemish1 though they had not been in possession of the latter place long 7not in the epoch of ,tethmosis ,i4's ,syrian campaign74 ,they were a power strong enough to give the ,pharaoh cause to vaunt his success 7see also ,,egypt3 ,ancient ,history1 ,s ,the ,new ,empire74 ,though he says he levied tribute upon them1 his successors in the dynasty nearly all record fresh wars with the ,kheta who appear as the northernmost of ,pharaoh's enemies1 and ,amenophis or ,amenhotep ,,iii4 saw fit to take to wife ,gilukhipa1 a ,syrian princess1 who may or may not have been a ,hittite4 ,this queen is by some supposed to have introduced into ,egypt certain exotic ideas which blossomed in the reign of ,amenophis ,,iv4 ,the first ,pharaoh of the succeeding dynasty1 ,rameses ,i41 came to terms with a ,kheta king called ,saplel or ,saparura2 but ,seti ,i4 again attacked the ,kheta 7#acff ,b4,c471 who had apparently pushed southwards4 ,forced back by ,seti1 the ,kheta returned and were found holding ,kadesh by ,rameses ,,ii41 who1 in his fifth year1 there fought against them and a large body of allies1 drawn probably in part from beyond ,taurus1 the battle which occasioned the monumental poem of ,pentaur4 ,after long struggles1 a treaty was concluded in ,rameses's twenty-first year1 between ,pharaoh and ,khetasar 7i4e4 ,kheta-king71 of which we possess an ,egyptian copy4 ,the discovery of a cuneiform tablet containing a copy of this same treaty1 in the ,babylonian language1 was reported from ,boghaz ,keui in ,cappadocia by ,h4 ,winckler in #aijg4 ,it argues the ,kheta a people of considerable civilization4 ,the ,kheta king subsequently visited ,pharaoh and gave him his daughter to wife4 ,rameses' successor1 ,mineptah1 remained on terms with the ,kheta folk2 but in the reign of ,rameses ,,iii4 7,dyn4 ,,xx47 the latter seem to have joined in the great raid of northern tribes on ,egypt which was checked by the battle of ,pelusium4 ,from this point 7c4 #aaej ,b4,c47--the point at which 7roughly7 the monarchic history of ,israel in ,palestine opens--,egyptian records cease to mention ,kheta2 and as we know from other sources that the latter continued powerful in ,carchemish for some centuries to come1 we must presume that the rise of the ,israelite state interposed an effective political barrier4 #c4 ,assyrian ,records4--,in an inscription of ,tiglath ,pileser ,i4 7about #aajj ,b4,c471 first deciphered in #aheg1 a people called ,khatti is mentioned as powerful in ,girgamish on ,euphrates 7i4e4 ,carchemish72 and in other records of the same monarch1 subsequently read1 much mention is made of this and of other ,n4 ,syrian names4 ,these ,khatti appear again in the inscriptions of ,assur-nazir-pal 7early #ith century ,b4,c471 in whose time ,carchemish was very wealthy1 and the ,khatti power extended far over ,n4 ,syria and even into ,mesopotamia4 ,shalmaneser ,,ii4 7d4 #hbe ,b4,c47 raided the ,khatti and their allies year after year2 and at last ,sargon ,,iii41 in #gag ,b4,c41 relates that he captured ,carchemish and its king1 ,pisiris1 and put an end to its independence4 ,we hear no more of it thenceforward4 ,these ,khatti1 there is no reasonable doubt1 are identical with ,kheta4 7,for the chronology see further under ,,babylonia ,,and ,,assyria47 #d4 ,other ,cuneiform ,records4--,the name of the race appears in certain of the ,tel-el-,amarna letters1 tablets written in ,babylonian script to ,amenophis 7,amenhotep7 ,,iv4 and found in #ahib on the site of his capital4 ,some of his governors in ,syrian districts 7e4g4 one ,aziru of ,phoenicia7 report movements of the ,hittites1 who were then pursuing an aggressive policy 7about #adjj ,b4,c474 ,there are also other letters from rulers of principalities in ,n4 ,syria 7,mitanni7 and ,e4 ,asia ,minor 7,arzawa71 who write in non-,semitic tongues and are supposed to have been ,hittites4 ,certain ,khate or ,khati are mentioned in the ,vannic inscriptions 7deciphered partially by ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce and others7 as attacked by kings of ,bianas 7,van71 and apparently domiciled on the middle ,euphrates ,n4 of ,taurus in the #ith century ,b4,c4 ,this name again may safely be identified with ,khatti-,kheta4 ,the ,khatti also appear on a prophecy-tablet1 referring ostensibly to the time of ,sargon of ,agade 7middle of #dth millennium ,b4,c472 but the document is probably of very much later date4 ,lastly1 a fragmentary chronicle of the #ast ,babylonian ,dynasty mentions an invasion of ,akkad by them about #ahjj ,b4,c4 ,from all these various sources we should gather that the ,hittites were among the more important racial elements in ,n4 ,syria and ,s4,e4 ,asia ,minor for at least a thousand years4 ,the limits at each end1 however1 are very ill defined1 the superior falling not later than #bjjj ,b4,c4 and the inferior not earlier than #fjj ,b4,c4 ,this people was militant1 aggressive and unsettled in the earlier part of that time2 commercial1 wealthy and enervated in the latter4 ,a memorial of its trading long remained in ,asia in the shape of the weight-measure called in cuneiform records the maneh of ,carchemish4 ,these ,hittites had close relations with other ,asia ,minor peoples1 and at times headed a confederacy4 ,during the later part of their history they were in continual contact with ,assyria1 and1 as a ,syrian power1 and perhaps also as a ,cappadocian one1 they finally succumbed to ,assyrian pressure4 ,the ,hittite ,monuments4--,it remains to consider in the light of the foregoing evidence a class of monuments to which attention began to be called about #ahgj4 ,in that year two ,americans1 ,consul ,j4 ,a4 ,johnson and the ,rev4 ,s4 ,jessup1 rediscovered1 at ,hamah 7,hamath7 on ,orontes1 five basaltic blocks bearing pictographic inscriptions in relief1 one of which had been reported by ,j4 ,l4 ,burckhardt in #ahab4 ,in spite of their efforts and subsequent attempts made by ,tyrwhitt ,drake and ,richard ,burton1 when consul at ,damascus1 proper copies could not be obtained2 and it was not till the end of #ahgb that1 thanks to ,w4 ,wright of ,beirut1 casts were taken and the stones themselves sent to ,constantinople by ,subhi ,pasha of ,damascus4 ,as usually happens when a new class of antiquities is announced1 it was soon found that the ,hamathite inscriptions did not stand alone4 ,a monument in the same script had been seen in ,aleppo by ,tyrwhitt ,drake and ,george ,smith in #ahgb4 ,it still exists1 built into a mosque on the western wall of the city4 ,certain clay sealings1 eight of which bore pictographic signs1 found by ,a4 ,h4 ,layard in the palace of ,assur-bani-pal at ,kuyunjik 7,nineveh71 as long ago as #ahea and noticed then as in a doubtful character1 were compared by ,hayes ,ward and found to be of the ,hamathite class4 ,a new copy of the long known rock-sculpture at ,ivriz#a in ,s4,w4 ,cappadocia was published by ,e4 ,j4 ,davis in #ahgf1 and clearly showed ,hamathite characters accompanying the figures4 ,davis also reported1 but did not see1 a similar inscription at ,bulgar ,maden1 not far away4 ,sculptures seen by ,w4 ,skene and ,george ,smith at ,jerablus1 on the middle ,euphrates1 led to excavations being undertaken there1 in #ahgh1 by the ,british ,museum1 and to the discovery of certain ,hamathite inscriptions accompanying sculptures1 a few of which were brought to ,london4 ,the conduct of these excavations1 owing to the death of ,george ,smith1 devolved on ,consul ,henderson of ,aleppo1 and was not satisfactorily carried out4 ,meanwhile ,wright1 ,ward and ,sayce had all suggested ,hittite as a substitute for ,hamathite1 because no other ,n4 ,syrian people loomed so large in ancient records as did the ,hittites1 and the suggestion began to find acceptance4 ,jerablus was confidently identified with ,carchemish 7but without positive proof to this day71 and the occurrence of ,hamathite monuments there was held to confirm the ,hittite theory4 ,in #ahgf ,sayce pointed out the resemblance between certain ,hittite signs and characters in the lately deciphered ,cypriote syllabary1 and suggested that the comparison might lead to a beginning of decipherment2 but the hope has proved vain4 ,to this scholar1 however1 is owed the next great step ahead4 ,in #ahgi it first occurred to him to compare the rock-monuments at ,boghaz ,keui 7see ,,pteria7 and ,euyuk in ,n4 ,cappadocia1 discovered by ,texier and ,hamilton in #ahce and subsequently explored by ,g4 ,perrot and ,e4 ,guillaume4 ,these1 he now saw1 bore ,hittite pictographs4 ,other rock-sculptures at ,giaur ,kalessi1 in ,galatia1 and in the ,karabel pass near ,smyrna1 he suspected of belonging to the same class#b2 and visiting the last-named locality in the autumn1 he found ,hittite pictographs accompanying one of the two figures4#c ,he announced his discoveries in #ahhj1 and proclaimed the fact that a great ,hittite empire1 extending from ,kadesh to ,smyrna1 had risen from the dead4 ,a month later he had the good fortune to recover copies of a silver boss1 or hilt-top1 offered to various museums about #ahfj1 but rejected by them as a meaningless forgery and for a long time lost again to sight4 ,round the rim was a cuneiform legend1 and in the field a ,hittite figure with six ,hittite symbols engraved twice over on either hand of it4 ,reading the cuneiform as ,tarqu-dimme sar mat ,erme 7i4e4 ,t4 king of the country ,e471 ,sayce distributed phonetic values1 corresponding to the syllables of the two proper names1 among four of the ,hittite characters1 reserving two as ideograms of king and country1 and launched into the field of decipherment4 ,but he subsequently recognized that this was a false start1 and began afresh from another basis4 ,since then a number of other monuments have been found1 some on new sites1 others on sites already known to be ,hittite1 the distribution of which can be seen by reference to the accompanying map4 ,it will be observed that1 so far as at present known1 they cluster most closely in ,commagene1 ,cappadocia and ,s4 ,phrygia4 ,the following notes supplement the map3-- ,a4 ,,west ,,asia ,,minor4--,niobe 7,suratlu ,tash7 and ,karabel 7two72 rock-cut figures with much defaced hieroglyphs in relief4 ,remains of buildings1 not yet explored1 lie near the ,niobe figure4 ,nothing purely ,hittite has been found at ,sardis or in any ,w4 ,asian excavation2 but small ,hittite objects have been sold in ,smyrna and ,aidin4 ,b4 ,,phrygia4--,giaur-,kalessi2 rock-cut figures and remains of a stronghold1 but no inscriptions4 ,doghanludere and ,beikeui in the ,phrygian rock-monument country2 at the first is a sculptured rock-panel with a few pictographs in relief2 at the latter a fragment of an inscription in relief was disinterred from a mound4 ,kolitolu ,yaila1 near ,ilghin2 block inscribed in relief1 disinterred from mounds apparently marking a camp or palace-enclosure4 ,eflatun ,bunar 7 ,plato's ,spring71 ,w4 of ,konia2 megalithic building with rude and greatly defaced reliefs1 not certainly ,hittite3 no inscription4 ,fassiler1 ,w4 of ,konia2 gigantic stela1 or composite statue 7figure on animals71 not certainly ,hittite2 no inscription4 ,konia2 relief of warrior1 drawn by ,texier in #ahce and since lost2 of very doubtful ,hittite character4 ,a gold inscribed ,hittite ring1 now at ,oxford1 was bought there in #aijc4 ,emirghazi 7anc4 ,ardistama872 three inscriptions in relief 7two on altars7 and large mounds4 ,evidently an important ,hittite site4 ,kara-,dagh2 hill-sanctuary with incised carving of seated figure and inscriptions1 found by ,miss ,g4 ,l4 ,bell and ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay in #aijg 7see their ,thousand and ,one ,churches1 #aiji74 ,c4 ,,north ,,cappadocia4--,boghaz ,keui 7see ,,pteria72 large city with remains of palace1 citadel1 walls1 c4 ,long rock-cut inscription of ten lines in relief1 two short relief inscriptions cut on blocks1 and also cuneiform tablets in ,babylonian and also in a native language1 first found in situ in #ahic1 and showing the site to be the capital of ,arzawa1 whence came two of the ,tell el-,amarna letters4 ,near the site are the rock reliefs of ,yasili ,kaya in two hypaethral galleries1 showing1 in the one1 two processions composed of over sixty figures meeting at the head of the gallery2 in the other1 isolated groups of figures1 fifteen in number 7see for detailed description ,murray's ,guide to ,asia ,minor1 #ahie1 pp4 #bc ff474 ,pictographs accompany many of the figures4 ,the whole makes the most extensive group of ,hittite remains yet known4 ,boghaz ,keui was never thoroughly explored until #aijg1 the survey of ,perrot and ,guillaume having been superficial only and the excavations of ,e4 ,chantre 7#ahid7 very slight4 ,in #aijf a ,german expedition under ,professor ,h4 ,winckler undertook the work1 and great numbers of cuneiform tablets were found4 ,these refer to the reigns of at least four kings from ,subbiluliuma 7 ,saplel1 see above7 to ,hattusil ,,ii4 or ,khartusil 7 ,khetasar1 see above74 ,the latter was an ally of ,katashmanturgu of ,babylon1 and powerful enough to write to the ,babylonian court as a sovereign of equal standing4 ,his letter shows that he considered the rise of ,assyria a menace to himself4 ,winckler claims to read ,hatti as the name of the possessors of ,boghaz ,keui1 and to find in this name the proof of the ,hittite character of ,syro-,cappadocian power and of the imperial predominance of the city4 ,but it remains to be proved whether these tablets were written there1 and not rather1 being in a foreign script1 abroad1 like most of the ,tell el-,amarna archives4 ,o4 ,puchstein has cleared and studied important architectural remains4 ,euyuk2 large mound with remains of palace entered between sphinxes4 ,sculptured wall-dados1 but no ,hittite inscriptions4 ,cuneiform tablets2 some ,babylonian1 others in a native language4 ,also inscriptions in early ,phrygian character and language1 found in #ahid4 ,the most famous of ,hittite reliefs is here--a double-headed eagle displayed on the flank of one of the gateway sphinxes4 ,this is supposed to have suggested to the ,seljuks of ,konia their heraldic device adopted in the #acth century1 which1 brought to ,europe by the ,crusaders1 became the emblem of ,teutonic empire in #acde4 ,this derivation must be taken1 however1 cum grano1 proof of its successive steps being wanting4 ,kara-,euyuk2 a mound near ,dedik1 partially excavated by ,e4 ,chantre in #ahid4 ,cuneiform tablets and small objects possibly1 but not certainly1 ,hittite4 ,a colossal eagle was found on a deserted site near ,yamuli on the middle ,halys1 in #aijg by ,w4 ,attmore ,robinson4 ,illustration3 ,map of ,hittite remains4 ,d4 ,,south ,,cappadocia4--,karaburna2 long1 incised rock-inscription4 ,bogja1 eight hours west of ,kaisariye2 four-sided stela with incised inscription4 ,assarjik1 on the side of ,mt4 ,argaeus2 incised rock-inscription4 ,ekrek2 a fragmentary inscription in relief and an incised inscription on a stela of very late appearance4 ,fraktin or ,farakdin 7probably anc4 ,das-tarkon72 sculptured rock-panel showing two groups of figures in act of cult1 with hieroglyphs in relief4 ,arslan ,tash1 near ,comana 7,cappadocia71 on the ,soghan ,dagh2 two colossal lions1 one with incised inscription4 ,tashji in the ,zamanti valley2 rock-relief with rudely incised inscription4 ,andaval and ,bor2 inscriptions incised on sculptured stelae of kings 7871 probably from ,tyana 7,ekuzli ,hissar74 ,all are now in ,constantinople4 ,a silver seal with hieroglyphs1 now at ,oxford1 came also from ,bor4 ,nigdeh2 basalt drum or altar with incised inscription4 ,ivriz2 rock-sculpture of king adoring god1 with three inscriptions in relief4 ,a second sculpture1 similar in subject but smaller and much defaced1 was found hard by in #aijf4 ,bulgar ,maden2 long incised rock inscription1 near silver-mines4 ,gorun 7,gurun72 two rock-inscriptions in relief1 much damaged4 ,arslan-,tepe1 near ,ordasu 7two hours from ,malatia72 large mound whence two sculptured stelae or wall-blocks with inscriptions in relief have been unearthed 7now in ,constantinople and the ,louvre74 ,four other reliefs1 reported found near ,malatia and published by ,j4 ,garstang in ,annals ,arch4 and ,anthrop41 #aijh1 probably came also from ,arslan ,tepe4 ,palanga2 lower aniconic half of draped statue with incised inscription1 now in ,constantinople4 ,also a small basalt lion4 ,arslan ,tash1 near ,palanga2 two rude gateway lions1 uninscribed4 ,yapalak2 defaced inscription1 reported by ,j4 ,s4 ,sterrett but never copied4 ,izgin2 obelisk with long inscription in relief on all four faces1 now in ,constantinople4 ,these last four places seem to lie on a main road leading from ,cappadocia to ,marash and the ,syrian sites4 ,the expedition sent out by ,cornell ,university in #aijg found several ,hittite inscriptions on rocks near ,darende in the valley of the ,tokhma ,su4 ,e4 ,,north ,,syria4--,marash2 several monuments 7stelae1 wall-blocks and two lions7 with inscriptions1 both in relief and incised 7part are now at ,constantinople1 part in ,berlin and ,america72 evidently one of the most important of ,hittite sites4 ,karaburshlu1 ,arbistan1 ,gerchin1 ,sinjerli2 mounds about the head-waters of the ,kara ,su4 ,the last-named mound1 brought to ,o4 ,puchstein's notice in #ahhb by the chance discovery of sculptured wall-dados1 now in ,constantinople1 was the scene of extensive ,german excavations in #ahic-ahid1 directed by ,f4 v4 ,luschan and ,k4 ,koldewey1 and was found to cover a walled town with central fortified palace4 ,hittite1 cuneiform and old ,aramaean monuments were found with many small objects1 most of which have been taken to ,berlin2 but no ,hittite inscriptions came to light4 ,sakchegeuzu 7,sakchegozu71 a site with several mounds between ,sinjerli and ,aintab2 series of reliefs1 once wall-dados1 now in ,berlin and ,constantinople4 ,this site is in process of excavation by ,professor ,j4 ,garstang of the ,university of ,liverpool4 ,a sculptured portico has come to light in the smallest of the five mounds1 and much pottery1 with incised and painted decoration1 has been recovered4 ,aintab2 fragment of relief inscription4 ,samsat 7,samosata72 sculptured stela with incised inscription much defaced4 ,jerablus2 see above4 ,several ,hittite objects sent from ,birejik and ,aintab to ,europe probably came from ,jerablus1 others from ,tell ,bashar on the ,sajur4 ,kellekli1 near ,jerablus2 two stelae1 one with relief inscription4 ,iskanderun 7,alexandretta72 source of a long inscription cut on both sides of a spheroidal object of unknown origin4 ,kirchoglu1 a site on the ,afrin1 whence a fragmentary draped statue with incised inscription was sent to ,berlin4 ,aleppo2 inscription in relief 7see above74 ,tell ,ahmar 7on left bank of ,euphrates72 large stela with sculpture and long relief inscription1 found in #aijh with several sculptured slabs and two gateway lions1 inscribed in cuneiform4 ,two hours south1 a lion and a fragment of a relief inscription were found in #aiji by ,miss ,g4 ,l4 ,bell4 ,tell ,halaf in ,mid-,mesopotamia1 near ,ras el-,ain2 sculptures on portico of a temple or palace2 cuneiform inscriptions and large mounds1 explored in #aijb by ,oppenheim4 ,hamah2 five blocks inscribed in relief 7see above74 ,f4 ,,outlying ,,sites4--,erzerum2 source of an incised inscription1 perhaps not originally found there4 ,kedabeg2 metal boss or hilt-top with pictographs1 found in a tomb and stated by ,f4 ,hommel to be ,hittite1 but doubtful4 ,toprak ,kaleh2 bronze fragments with two pictographs2 doubtful if ,hittite4 ,nineveh2 sealings1 see above4 ,babylon2 a bowl and a stela of storm-god1 both with incised inscriptions2 doubtless spoil of war or tribute brought from ,syria4 ,the bowl is inscribed round the outside1 the stela on the back4 7,for a detailed description of the subjects of the reliefs1 c41 with the necessary illustrations1 see the works indicated in the bibliography47 ,structures4--,the structural remains found as yet on ,hittite sites are few1 scanty and far between4 ,they consist of3 7a7 ,ground plans of a palatial building and three temples and fortifications with sculptured gate at ,boghaz ,keui4 ,the palace was built round a central court1 flanked by passages and entered by a doorway of three battants hung on two columns4 ,the whole plan bears more than a superficial resemblance to those of ,cretan palaces in the later ,minoan period4 ,only the rough core of the walls is standing to a height of about #c ft4 ,the fortifications of the citadel have an elaborate double gate with flanking towers1 7b7 ,fortifications1 palace1 c41 at ,sinjerli4 ,the gates here are more elaborate than at ,boghaz ,keui1 but planned with the same idea--that of entrapping in an enclosed space1 barred by a second door1 an enemy who may have forced the first door1 while flanking towers would add to his discomfiture4 ,the palace plan is again rectangular1 with a central pillared hall1 and very similar in plan to that of ,boghaz ,keui4 ,the massive walls are also of similar construction4 ,dados of relief-sculpture run round the inner walls2 this feature seems to have been common to ,hittite buildings of a sumptuous kind1 and accounts for most of the sculptured blocks that have been found1 e4g4 at ,jerablus1 ,sakhchegeuzu1 ,euyuk1 ,arslan ,tepe1 c4 ,columns1 probably of wood1 rested on bases carved as winged lions1 7c7 ,gate with sculptured approach at ,euyuk4 ,the ground plan of the gate is practically the same in idea as that at ,sinjerli4 ,structures were found at ,jerablus1 but never properly uncovered or planned1 7d7 ,sculptured porticoes of temples or palaces uncovered at ,sakchegeuzu and ,tell ,halaf 7see above74 ,on other sites1 e4g4 ,arslan ,tepe 7,ordasu71 ,arbistan1 ,marash 7above the modern town and near the springs71 ,beikeui1 mounds1 doubtless covering structures1 may be seen1 and sculptured slabs have been recovered4 ,the mounds1 probably ,hittite1 in ,n4 ,syria alone are to be counted by hundreds4 ,no tombs certainly ,hittite have been found1#d though it is possible that some of the reliefs 7e4g4 at ,fraktin7 are of funerary character4 ,sculptures and other ,objects of ,art4--,the sculptures hitherto found consist of reliefs on rocks and on stelae1 either honorific or funerary2 reliefs on blocks forming parts of wall-dados2 and a few figures more or less in the round1 though most of these 7e4g4 the sphinxes of ,euyuk and the lions of ,arslan ,tash and ,marash7 are not completely disengaged from the block4 ,the most considerable sculptured rock-panels are at ,boghaz ,keui 7see ,pteria72 the others 7,ivriz1 ,fraktin1 ,karabel1 ,giaur ,kalessi1 ,doghanludere71 it should be observed1 all lie ,n4 of ,taurus--a fact of some bearing on the problem of the origin and local domicile of the art1 since rock-reliefs1 at any rate1 cannot be otherwise than in situ4 ,sculptured stelae1 honorific or funerary1 all with pyramidal or slightly rounded upper ends1 and showing a single regal or divine figure or two figures1 have come to light at ,bor1 ,marash1 ,sinjerli1 ,jerablus1 ,babylon1 c4 ,these1 like most of the rock-panels1 are all marked as ,hittite by accompanying pictographic inscriptions4 ,the wall-blocks are seldom inscribed1 the exceptions 7e4g4 the ,arslan ,tepe lion-hunt and certain blocks from ,marash and ,jerablus7 being not more certainly wall-dados than stelae4 ,the only fairly complete anthropoid statue known is the much-defaced ,niobe at ,suratlu ,tash1 engaged in the rock behind4 ,the aniconic lower part of an inscribed statue wholly in the round was found at ,palanga1 and parts of others at ,kirchoglu and ,marash4 ,despite considerable differences in execution and details1 all these sculptures show one general type of art1 a type which recalls now ,babylonian1 now ,assyrian1 now ,egyptian1 now archaic ,ionian1 style1 but is always individual and easily distinguishable from the actual products of those peoples4 ,the figures1 whether of men or beasts1 are of a squat1 heavy order1 with internal features 7e4g4 bones1 muscles1 c47 shown as if external1 as in some ,mesopotamian sculptures4 ,the human type is always very brachycephalic1 with brow receding sharply and long nose making almost one line with the sloping forehead4 ,in the sculptures of the ,commagene and the ,tyana districts1 the nose has a long curving tip1 of very ,jewish appearance1 but not unlike the outline given to ,kheta warriors in ,egyptian scenes4 ,the lips are full and the chin short and shaven4 ,the whole physiognomy is fleshy and markedly distinct from that of other ,syrians4 ,at ,boghaz ,keui1 ,euyuk and ,jerablus1 the facial type is very markedly non-,semitic4 ,but not much stress can be laid on these differences owing to 7#a7 great variety of execution in different sculptures1 which argues artists of very unequal capacity2 7#b7 doubt whether individual portraits are intended in some cases and not in others4 ,the hair of males is sometimes1 but not always1 worn in pigtail4 ,the fashions of head-covering and clothes are very various1 but several of them--e4g4 the horned cap of the ,ivriz god2 the conical hat at ,boghaz ,keui1 ,fraktin1 c2 the jockey-cap on the ,tarkudimme boss2 the broad-bordered over-robe1 and the upturned shoes--are not found on other ,asiatic monuments1 except where ,hittites are portrayed4 ,animals in profile are represented more naturalistically than human beings1 e4g4 at ,yasili ,kaya1 and especially in some pictographic symbols in relief 7e4g4 at ,hamah74 ,this1 however1 is a feature common to ,mesopotamian and ,egyptian1 and perhaps to all primitive art4 ,the subjects depicted are processions of figures1 human and divine 7,yasili ,kaya1 ,euyuk1 ,giaur ,kalessi72 scenes of sacrifice or adoration1 or other cult-practice 7,yasili ,kaya1 ,euyuk1 ,fraktin1 ,ivriz1 and perhaps the figures seated beside tables at ,marash ,sakchegeuzu1 ,sinjerli1 c472 of the chase 7,arslan ,tepe1 ,sakchegeuzu72 but not1 as known at present1 of battle4 ,both at ,euyuk and ,yasili ,kaya reliefs in one and the same series are widely separated in artistic conception and execution1 some showing the utmost naivete1 others expressing both outline and motion with fair success4 ,the fact warns us against drawing hasty inductions as to relative dates from style and execution4 ,besides sculptures1 well assured1 ,hittite art-products include a few small objects in metal 7e4g4 heavy1 inscribed gold ring bought by ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay at ,konia2 base silver seal1 supported on three lions' claws1 bought by ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth at ,bor2 inscribed silver boss of ,tarkudimme1 mentioned above1 c4 c472 many intaglios in various stones 7chiefly in steatite71 mostly either spheroidal or gable-shaped1 but a few scarabaeoid1 conical or cylindrical1 bearing sometimes pictographic symbols1 sometimes divine1 human or animal figures4 ,the best collection is at ,oxford4 ,the majority are of very rude workmanship1 bodies and limbs being represented by mere skeleton lines or unfilled outlines2 a few vessels 7e4g4 inscribed basalt bowl found at ,babylon7 and fragments of ware painted with dark ornament on light body-clay1 or in polychrome on a cream-white slip1 or black burnished1 found on ,n4 ,cappadocian sites1 c4 ,the bronzes hitherto claimed as ,hittite have been bought on the ,syrian coast or come from not certainly ,hittite sites in ,cappadocia 7see ,e4 ,chantre1 ,mission en ,cappadocie74 ,a great many small objects were found in the excavations at ,sinjerli1 including carved ivories1 seals1 toilet-instruments1 implements1 c41 but these have not been published4 ,nor1 except provisionally1 has the pottery1 found at ,sakchegeuzu4 ,inscriptions4--,these1 now almost sixty in number 7excluding seals71 are all in a pictographic character which employed symbols somewhat elaborately depicted in relief1 but reduced to conventional and shorthand representations in the incised texts4 ,so far1 the majority of our ,hittite inscriptions1 like those first found at ,hamah1 are in relief 7cameo72 but the incised characters1 first observed in the ,tyana district1 have since been shown1 by discoveries at ,marash1 ,babylon1 c41 to have had a wider range4 ,it has usually been assumed that the incised inscriptions1 being the more conventionalized1 are all of later date than those in relief2 but comparison of ,egyptian inscriptions1 wherein both incised and cameo characters coexisted back to very early times1 suggests that this assumption is not necessarily correct4 ,the ,hittite symbols at present known show about two hundred varieties2 but new inscriptions continually add to the list1 and great uncertainty remains as to the distinction of many symbols 7i4e4 whether mere variants or not71 and as to many others which are defaced or broken in our texts4 ,the objects represented by these symbols have been certainly identified in only a few instances4 ,a certain number are heads 7human and animal7 detached from bodies1 in a manner not known in the ,egyptian hieroglyphic system1 with which some of the other symbols show obvious analogies4 ,articles of dress1 weapons1 tools1 c41 also appear4 ,the longer inscriptions are disposed in horizontal zones or panels1 divided by lines1 and1 it seems1 they were to be read boustrophedon1 not only as regards the lines 7which begin right to left7 but also the words1 which are written in columnar fashion1 syllable below syllable1 and read downwards and upwards alternately4 ,the direction of reading is towards any faces which may be shown among the pictographs4 ,the words are perhaps distinguished in some texts by punctuation marks4 ,long and patient efforts have been made to decipher this script1 ever since it was first restored to our knowledge2 and among the would-be decipherers honourable mention must be made1 for persistence and courage1 of ,professor ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce and of ,professor ,p4 ,jensen4 ,other interpretations have been put forward by ,f4 ,e4 ,peiser 7based on conjectures as to the names on the ,nineveh sealings71 ,c4 ,r4 ,conder 7based largely on ,cypriote comparisons and phonetic values transferred from these7 and ,c4 ,j4 ,ball 7based on ,hittite names recorded on ,egyptian and ,assyrian monuments1 and applied to word-groups on the ,hittite monuments74 ,these1 however1 as having arbitrary and inadequate foundations1 and for other reasons1 have not been accepted4 ,f4 ,hommel1 ,j4 ,halevy and ,j4 ,menant have done useful work in distinguishing word-groups1 and have essayed partial interpretations4 ,no other decipherers call for mention4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce and ,p4 ,jensen alone have enlisted any large body of adherents2 and the former1 who has worked upon his system for thirty years and published in the ,proceedings of the ,society for ,biblical ,archaeology for #aijg a summary of his method and results1 has proceeded on the more scientific plan4 ,his system1 however1 like all others1 is built in the main upon hypotheses incapable at present of quite satisfactory verification1 such1 for example1 as the conjectural reading ,gargamish for a group of symbols which recurs in inscriptions from ,jerablus and elsewhere4 ,in this case1 to add to the other obvious elements of uncertainty1 it must be borne in mind that the location of ,carchemish at ,jerablus is not proved1 though it is very probable4 ,other conjectural identifications of groups of symbols with the place-names ,hamath1 ,marash1 ,tyana are bases of ,sayce's system4 ,jensen's system may be said to have been effectually demolished by ,l4 ,messerschmidt in his ,bemerkungen 7#ahih72 but ,sayce's system1 which has been approved by ,hommel and others1 is probably in its main lines correct4 ,its frequent explanation1 however1 of incompatible symbols by the doctrines of phonetic variation and interchange1 or by alternative values of the same symbol used as ideograph1 determinative or phonetic complement1 and the occasional use of circular argument in the process of verification1 do not inspire confidence in other than its broader results4 ,sayce's phonetic values and interpretations of determinatives are his best assured achievements4 ,but the words thus arrived at represent a language on which other known tongues throw little or no light1 and their meaning is usually to be guessed only4 ,in some significant cases1 however1 the ,boghaz ,keui tablets appear to give striking confirmation of ,sayce's conjectures4 ,writing in #aijc ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 editor of the best collection of ,hittite texts up to date1 made a tabula rasa of all systems of decipherment1 asserting that only one sign out of two hundred--the bisected oval1 determinative of divinity--had been interpreted with any certainty2 and in view of this opinion1 coupled with the steady refusal of historians to apply the results of any ,hittite decipherment1 and the obvious lack of satisfactory verification1 without which the piling of hypothesis on hypothesis may only lead further from probability1 there is no choice but to suspend judgment for some time longer as to the inscriptions and all deductions drawn from them4 ,are the ,monuments ,hittite8--,it is time to ask this question1 although a perfectly satisfactory answer can only be expected when the inscriptions themselves have been deciphered4 ,almost all ,hittitologues assume a connexion between the monuments and the ,kheta-,khatti-,hittites1 but in various degrees2 e4g4 while ,sayce has said roundly that common sense demands the acceptance of all as the work of the ,hittites1 who were the dominant caste throughout a loosely-knit empire extending at one time from the ,orontes to the ,aegean1 ,messerschmidt has stated with equal dogmatism that the ,hittites proper were only one people out of many#e in ,n4 ,syria and ,asia ,minor who shared a common civilization1 and that therefore they were authors of a part of the monuments only--presumably the ,n4 ,syrian1 ,commagenian and ,cataonian groups4 ,o4 ,puchstein#f has denied to the ,hittites some of the ,n4 ,syrian monuments1 holding these of too late a date 7judged by their ,assyrian analogies7 for the flourishing period of the ,kheta-,khatti1 as known from ,egyptian and ,assyrian records4 ,he would ascribe them to the ,kummukh 7,commagenians71 who seem to have succeeded the ,khatti as the strongest opponents of ,assyria in these parts4 ,he was possibly right as regards the ,sinjerli and ,sakchegeuzu sculptures1 which are of provincial appearance4 ,the following considerations1 however1 may be stated in favour of the ascription of the monuments to the ,hittites3-- 7#a7 ,the monuments in question are found frequently whereever1 from other records1 we know the ,hittites to have been domiciled at some period1 i4e4 throughout ,n4 ,syria and in ,cataonia4 7#b7 ,it was under the ,khatti that ,carchemish was a flourishing commercial city2 and if ,jerablus be really ,carchemish1 it is significant that apparently the most numerous and most artistic of the monuments occur there4 7#c7 ,among all the early peoples of ,n4 ,syria and ,asia ,minor known to us from ,egyptian and ,assyrian records1 the ,kheta-,khatti alone appear frequently as leading to war peoples from far beyond ,taurus4 7#d7 ,the ,kheta certainly had a system of writing and a glyptic art in the time of ,rameses ,,ii41 or else the ,egyptian account of their copy of the treaty would be baseless4 7#e7 ,the physiognomy given to ,kheta warriors by ,egyptian artists is fairly representative of the prevailing type shown in the ,hittite sculptures4 ,furthermore1 the ,boghaz ,keui tablets1 though only partially deciphered as yet1 go far to settle the question4 ,they show that whether ,boghaz ,keui was actually the capital of the ,hatti or not1 it was a great city of the ,hatti1 and that the latter were an important element in ,cappadocia from very early times4 ,before the middle of the #afth century ,b4,c4 the ,cappadocian ,hatti were already in relations1 generally more or less hostile1 with a rival power in ,syria1 that of ,mitanni2 and ,subbiluliuma 7 ,saplel or ,saparura71 king of these ,hatti1 a contemporary of ,amenophis ,,iv4 and ,rameses ,i41 seems to have obtained lasting dominion in ,syria by subduing ,dushratta of ,mitanni4 ,carchemish thenceforward became a ,hatti city and the southern capital of ,cappadocian power4 ,since all the ,syrian monuments of the ,hittite class1 so far known1 seem comparatively late 7most show such strong ,assyrian1 influence that they must fall after #aajj ,b4,c4 and probably even considerably later71 while the ,north ,cappadocian monuments 7as ,sayce1 ,ramsay1 ,perrot and others saw long ago7 are the earlier in style1 we are bound to ascribe the origin of the civilization which they represent to the ,cappadocian ,hatti4 ,whether the ,mitanni had shared in that civilization while independent1 and whether they were racially kin to the ,hatti1 cannot be determined at present4 ,winckler has adduced evidence from names of local gods to show that there was an ,indo-,european racial element in ,mitanni2 but none for a similar element in the ,hatti1 whose chief god was ,teshub4 ,the majority of scholars has always regarded the ,hittites proper as1 at any rate1 non-,semitic1 and some leading authorities have called them proto-,armenian1 and believed that they have modern descendants in the ,caucasus4 ,this racial question can hardly be determined till those ,hatti records1 whether in cuneiform or pictographic script1 which are couched in a native tongue1 not in ,babylonian1 are read4 ,in the meantime we have proper names to argue from2 and these give us at least the significant indication that the ,hittite nominative ended in s and the accusative in m4 ,in any case the connexion of the ,hatti with the peculiar class of monuments which we have been describing1 can hardly be further questioned2 and it has become more than probable that the ,hatti of ,cappadocia were responsible in the beginning for the art and script of those monuments and for the civilization of which they are memorials4 ,other peoples of north ,syria and ,asia ,minor 7e4g4 the ,kummukh or ,commagenians and the ,muski or ,phrygians7 came no doubt under the influence of this civilization and imitated its monuments1 while subject to or federated with the ,hatti4 ,through ,phrygia and ,lydia 7q4v47 influences of this same ,cappadocian civilization passed towards the west2 and indeed1 before the ,greek colonization of ,asia ,minor1 a loosely knit ,hatti empire may have stretched even to the ,aegean4 ,the ,nymphi 7,kara ,bel7 and ,niobe sculptures near ,smyrna are probably memorials of that extension4 ,certainly some inland ,anatolian power seems to have kept ,aegean settlers and culture away from the ,ionian coast during the ,bronze ,age1 and that power was in all likelihood the ,hatti kingdom of ,cappadocia4 ,owing perhaps to ,assyrian aggression1 this power seems to have begun to suffer decay about #ajjj ,b4,c4 and thereafter to have shrunk inwards1 leaving the coasts open4 ,the powers of ,phrygia and ,lydia rose successively out of its ruins1 and continued to offer westward passage to influences of ,mesopotamian culture till well into historic times4 ,the ,greeks came too late to ,asia to have had any contact with ,hatti power obscured from their view by the intermediate and secondary state of ,phrygia4 ,their earliest writers regarded the latter as the seat of the oldest and most godlike of mankind4 ,only one ,greek author1 ,herodotus1 alludes to the pre-historic ,cappadocian power and only at the latest moment of its long decline4 ,at the same time1 some of the ,greek legends seem to show that peoples1 with whom the ,greeks came into early contact1 had vivid memories of the ,hatti4 ,such are the ,amazon stories1 whose local range was very extensive1 and the myths of ,memnon and ,pelops4 ,the real reference of these stories1 however1 was forgotten1 and it has been reserved to our own generation to rediscover the records of a power and a civilization which once dominated ,asia ,minor and north ,syria and occupied all the continental roads of communication between the ,east and the ,west of the ancient world4 ,the credit of having been the first to divine this importance of the ,hittites should always be ascribed to ,sayce4 ,the history of the ,hatti and their civilization1 then1 would appear to have been1 very briefly1 this4 ,they belonged to an ethnic scattered widely over ,eastern ,asia ,minor and ,syria at an early period 7,khatti invaded ,akkad about #ahjj ,b4,c4 in the reign of ,samsuditana72 but they first formed a strong state in ,cappadocia late in the #afth century ,b4,c4 ,subbiluliuma became their first great king1 though he had at least one dynastic predecessor of the name of ,hattusil4 ,the ,hatti now pushed southwards in force1 overcame the kingdom of ,mitanni and proceeded partly to occupy and partly to make tributary both north ,syria and western ,mesopotamia where some of their congeners were already settled4 ,they came early into collision with ,egypt1 and at the height of their power under ,hattusil ,,ii4 fought the battle of ,kadesh with ,rameses ,,ii41 on at least equal terms4 ,both now and previously the diplomatic correspondence of the ,hatti monarchs shows that they treated on terms of practical equality with both the ,babylonian and the ,egyptian courts2 and that they waged constant wars in ,syria1 mainly with the ,amorite tribes4 ,at this time the ,hatti empire or confederacy probably included1 on the west1 both ,phrygia and ,lydia4 ,the ,boghaz ,keui correspondence ceases to be important with the generation following ,hattusil ,,ii41 and in the ,assyrian records1 which begin about a couple of centuries later1 we find ,carchemish the chief ,hatti city and ,n4 ,syria called the ,hatti-land4 ,it is possible therefore that a change of imperial centre took place after the ,hatti had ceased to fear ,egypt in north ,syria4 ,if so1 the continuation of ,hittite history will have to be sought among the remains at ,jerablus and other middle ,euphratean sites1 rather than in those at ,boghaz ,keui4 ,the establishment of the ,hatti at ,carchemish not only made them a commercial people and probably sapped their highland vigour1 but also brought them into closer proximity to the rising ,north ,semitic power of ,assyria1 whose advent had been regarded with apprehension by ,hattusil ,,ii4 7see above74 ,one of his successors1 ,arnaunta 7late #acth century871 was already feeling the effect of ,assyrian pressure1 and with the accession of ,tiglath ,pileser ,i41 about a century later1 a long but often interrupted series of ,assyrian efforts to break up the ,hatti power began4 ,a succession of ,ninevite armies raided north ,syria and even south-east ,asia ,minor1 and gradually reduced the ,hatti4 ,but the resistance of the latter was sturdy and prolonged4 ,they remained the strongest power in ,syria and eastern ,asia ,minor till well into the first millennium ,b4,c41 and their ,syrian seat was not lost finally till after the great extension of ,assyrian power which took place in the latter part of the #ith century4 ,what had been happening to their ,cappadocian province meanwhile we do not yet know2 but the presence of ,phrygian inscriptions at ,euyuk and ,tyana1 ancient seats of their power1 suggests that the client monarchy in the ,sangarius valley shook itself free during the early part of the ,hittite struggle with ,assyria1 and in the day of ,hatti weakness extended its dominion over the home territory of its former suzerain4 ,white ,syrians1 however1 were still in ,cappadocia even after the ,cimmerians had destroyed the ,phrygian monarchy1 allowing ,lydia to become independent under the ,mermnad dynasty4 ,croesus found them centred at ,pteria in the #fth century and dealt them a final blow4 ,but much of their secular or religious custom lived on to be recorded by ,greek writers1 and regarded by modern scholars as typically ,anatolian4 ,,bibliography4--,general summaries3 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,the ,hittites 7,ancient ,east series1 vi41 #aijc72 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,the ,hittites 7,bypaths of ,biblical ,knowledge series1 xii41 #bnd ed4 #ahib72 ,g4 ,perrot and ,c4 ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,sardinia1 ,judaea1 ,syria and ,asia ,minor 7,eng4 trans41 vol4 ii41 #ahij72 ,l4 ,lantsheere1 ,de la race et de la langue des ,heteens 7#ahia72 ,p4 ,jensen1 ,hittiter und ,armenier 7#ahih72 ,m4 ,jastrow1 final chapter in ,h4 ,v4 ,hilprecht1 ,exploration in ,bible ,lands 7#aijc72 ,w4 ,wright1 ,empire of the ,hittites 7#ahhd72 ,f4 ,hommel1 ,hettiter und ,skythen 7#ahih72 ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,ionia and the ,east 7#aiji72 ,w4 ,max ,muller1 ,asien und ,europa1 chap4 xxv4 7#ahic74 ,see also authorities for ,egyptian and ,assyrian history4 ,inscriptions3 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,corpus inscr4 ,hettiticarum1 ,zeitsch4 d4 d4 morgenland4 ,gesellschaft 7#aijj1 #aijb1 #aijf1 c471 and ,bemerkungen zu d4 ,heth4 ,inschriften1 ,mitteil4 d4 vorderasiat4 ,gesellschaft 7#ahih72 ,p4 ,jensen1 ,grundlagen fur eine ,entzifferung der 7,hat4 oder7 ,cilicischen ,inschriften1 ,zeitschr4 d4 d4 morgenland4 ,gesellschaft 7#ahid72 ,f4 ,e4 ,peiser1 ,die ,hettitischen ,inschriften 7#ahib72 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,decipherment of the ,hittite ,inscriptions1 ,proc4 ,soc4 of ,bibl4 ,archaeology 7#aijc71 and ,hittite ,inscriptions1 translated and annotated1 ibid4 7#aije1 #aijg72 ,j4 ,menant1 ,etudes ,heteennes1 ,recueil de travaux rel4 a la philologie1 c41 and ,mem4 de l',acad4 ,inscr41 vol4 xxxiv4 7#ahij72 ,j4 ,halevy in ,revue semitique1 vol4 i4 ,also divers articles by ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,f4 ,hommel and others in ,proc4 and ,trans4 ,soc4 ,bibl4 ,arch4 since #ahgf1 and in ,recueil de travaux1 c41 since its beginning4 ,exploration3 ,g4 ,perrot and ,e4 ,guillaume1 ,exploration arch4 de la ,galatie1 c4 7#ahfb-ahgb72 ,e4 ,chantre1 ,mission en ,cappadocie 7#ahih72 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,syro-,cappadocian ,monuments1 in ,athen4 ,mitteilungen 7#ahhi71 with ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,pre-,hellenic ,monuments of ,cappadocia1 in ,recueil de travaux1 c4 7#ahib-ahie72 and with ,miss ,gertrude ,bell1 ,the ,thousand and ,one ,churches 7#aiji72 ,c4 ,humann and ,o4 ,puchstein1 ,reisen in ,nord-,syrien1 c4 7#ahij74 ,j4 ,garstang in ,annals of ,archaeology and ,anthropology1 i4 7#aijh7 and following numbers4 ,reports on excavations at ,sinjerli in ,berl4 ,philol4 ,wochenschrift 7#ahia71 pp4 #hjc1 #iea2 and ,f4 von ,luschan1 and others1 ,ausgrabungen in ,sendschirli in ,mitteil4 ,orient-,sammlungen 7,berlin ,museum1 #ahic ff472 and on excavations at ,boghaz-,keui1 ,h4 ,winckler in ,orient4 ,literaturzeitung 7,berlin1 #aijg72 ,mitteil4 ,orient-,gesellschaft 7,dec4 #aijg74 ,see also s4v4 ,,pteria4 7,d4 ,g4 ,h47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,first described by the ,turk1 ,hajji ,khalifa1 in the #agth century2 first seen by the ,swedish traveller ,otter in #agcf1 and first published in #ahdj in ,ritter's ,erdkunde1 iii41 after a drawing by ,major ,fischer1 made in #ahcg4 #b ,the ,niobe statue near ,manisa was not definitely known for ,hittite till #ahhb1 when ,g4 ,dennis detected pictographs near it4 #c ,the pseudo-,sesostres of ,herodotus1 already demonstrated non-,egyptian by ,rosellini4 ,the second figure was unknown1 till found by ,dr ,beddoe in #ahef4 #d ,five intramural graves were explored at ,sinjerli1 but whether of the ,hittite or of the ,assyrian occupation is doubtful4 #e ,the ,assyrian records1 as well as the ,egyptian1 distinguish many peoples in both areas from the ,kheta-,khatti2 and the most we can infer from these records is that there was an occasional league formed under the ,hittites1 not any imperial subjection or even a continuous federation4 #f ,pseudo-,hethitische ,kunst 7,berlin1 #ahij74 ,,hittorff1 ,,jacques ,,ignace 7#agib-ahfg71 ,french architect1 was born at ,cologne on the #bjth of ,august #agib4 ,after serving an apprenticeship to a mason in his native town1 he went in #ahaj to ,paris1 and studied for some years at the ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 where he was a favourite pupil of ,belanger1 the government architect1 who in #ahad appointed him his principal inspector4 ,succeeding ,belanger as government architect in #ahah1 he designed many important public and private buildings in ,paris and also in the south of ,france4 ,from #ahai to #ahcj in collaboration with le ,cointe he directed the royal fetes and ceremonials4 ,after making architectural tours in ,germany1 ,england1 ,italy and ,sicily1 he published the result of his observations in the latter country in the work ,architecture antique de la ,sicile 7#c vols41 #ahbf-ahcj2 new edition1 #ahff-ahfg71 and also in ,architecture moderne de la ,sicile 7#ahbf-ahce74 ,one of his important discoveries was that colour had been made use of in ancient ,greek architecture1 a subject which he especially discussed in ,architecture polychrome chez les ,grecs 7#ahcj7 and in ,restitution du temple d',empedocle a ,selinunte 7#ahea72 and in accordance with the doctrines enunciated in these works he was in the habit of making colour an important feature in most of his architectural designs4 ,his principal building is the church of ,st ,vincent de ,paul in the basilica style1 which was constructed between #ahcj and #ahdd4 ,he also designed the two fountains in the ,place de la ,concorde1 the ,circus of the ,empress1 the ,rotunda of the panoramas1 many cafes and restaurants of the ,champs ,elysees1 the houses forming the circle round the ,arc de ,triomphe de l',etoile1 besides many embellishments of the ,bois de ,boulogne and other places4 ,in #ahcc he was elected a member of the ,academy of ,fine ,arts4 ,he died in ,paris on the #beth of ,march #ahfg4 ,,hitzacker1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hanover at the influx of the ,jeetze into the ,elbe1 #cc m4 ,n4,e4 of ,luneburg by the railway to ,wittenberge4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #aajf4 ,it has an ,evangelical church and an old castle and numerous medieval remains4 ,there are chalybeate springs and a hydropathic establishment in the town4 ,the famous library now in ,wolfenbuttel was originally founded here by ,augustus1 duke of ,brunswick 7d4 #afff7 and was removed to its present habitation in #afdc4 ,,hitzig1 ,,ferdinand 7#ahjg-ahge71 ,german biblical critic1 was born at ,hauingen1 ,baden1 where his father was a pastor1 on the #bcrd of ,june #ahjg4 ,he studied theology at ,heidelberg under ,h4 ,e4 ,g4 ,paulus1 at ,halle under ,wilhelm ,gesenius and at ,gottingen under ,ewald4 ,returning to ,heidelberg he became ,privatdozent in theology in #ahbi1 and in #ahca published his ,begriff der ,kritik am ,alten ,testamente praktisch erortert1 a study of ,old ,testament criticism in which he explained the critical principles of the grammatico-historical school1 and his ,des ,propheten ,jonas ,orakel uber ,moab1 an exposition of the #aeth and #afth chapters of the book of ,isaiah attributed by him to the prophet ,jonah mentioned in #b ,kings xiv4 #be4 ,in #ahcc he was called to the university of ,zurich as professor ordinarius of theology4 ,his next work was a commentary on ,isaiah with a translation 7,ubersetzung u4 ,auslegung des ,propheten ,jesajas71 which he dedicated to ,heinrich ,ewald1 and which ,hermann ,hupfeld 7#agif-ahff71 well known as a commentator on the ,psalms 7#ahee-ahfa71 pronounced to be his best exegetical work4 ,at ,zurich he laboured for a period of twenty-eight years1 during which1 besides commentaries on ,the ,psalms 7#ahce-ahcf2 #bnd ed41 #ahfc-ahfe71 ,the ,minor ,prophets 7#ahch2 #crd ed41 #ahfc71 ,jeremiah 7#ahda2 #bnd ed41 #ahff71 ,ezekiel 7#ahdg71 ,daniel 7#ahej71 ,ecclesiastes 7#ahdg71 ,canticles 7#ahee71 and ,proverbs 7#aheh71 he published a monograph1 ,uber ,johannes ,markus u4 seine ,schriften 7#ahdc71 in which he maintained the chronological priority of the second gospel1 and sought to prove that the ,apocalypse was written by the same author4 ,he also published various treatises of archaeological interest1 of which the most important are ,die ,erfindung des ,alphabets 7#ahdj71 ,urgeschichte u4 ,mythologie der ,philistaer 7#ahde71 and ,die ,grabschrift des ,eschmunezar7#ahee74 ,after the death of ,friedrich ,umbreit 7#agie-ahfj71 one of the founders of the well-known ,studien und ,kritiken1 he was called in #ahfa to succeed him as professor of theology at ,heidelberg4 ,here he wrote his ,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel 7#ahfi-ahgj71 in two parts1 extending respectively to the end of the ,persian domination and to the fall of ,masada1 ,a4,d4 #gb1 as well as a work on the ,pauline epistles1 ,zur ,kritik ,paulinischer ,briefe 7#ahgj71 on the ,moabite ,stone1 ,die ,inschrift des ,mescha 7#ahgj71 and on ,assyrian1 ,sprache u4 ,sprachen ,assyriens 7#ahga71 besides revising the commentary on ,job by ,ludwig ,hirzel 7#ahja-ahda71 which was first published in #ahci4 ,he was also a contributor to the ,monatsschrift des wissenschaftlichen ,vereins in ,zurich1 the ,zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen ,gesellschaft1 the ,theologische ,studien u4 ,kritiken1 ,eduard ,zeller's ,theologische ,jahrbucher1 and ,adolf ,hilgenfeld's ,zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche ,theologie4 ,hitzig died at ,heidelberg on the #bbnd of ,january #ahge4 ,as a ,hebrew philologist he holds high rank2 and as a constructive critic he is remarkable for acuteness and sagacity4 ,as a historian1 however1 some of his speculations have been considered fanciful4 ,he places the cradle of the ,israelites in the south of ,arabia1 and1 like many other critics1 makes the historical times begin only with ,moses 7,f4 ,lichtenberger1 ,history of ,german ,theology1 p4 #efi74 ,his lectures on biblical theology 7,vorlesungen uber biblische ,theologie u4 messianische ,weissagungen7 were published in #ahhj after his death1 along with a portrait and biographical sketch by his pupil1 ,j4 ,j4 ,kneucker 7b4 #ahdj71 professor of theology at ,heidelberg4 ,see ,heinrich ,steiner1 ,ferdinand ,hitzig 7#ahhb72 and ,adolf ,kamphausen's article in ,herzog-,hauck's ,realencyklopadie4 ,,hiung-,,nu1 ,,hiong-,,nu1 ,,heung-,,nu1 a people who about the end of the #crd century ,b4,c4 formed1 according to ,chinese records1 a powerful empire from the ,great ,wall of ,china to the ,caspian4 ,their ethnical affinities have been much discussed2 but it is most probable that they were of the ,turki stock1 as were the ,huns1 their later western representatives4 ,they are the first ,turkish people mentioned by the ,chinese4 ,a theory which seems plausible is that which assumes them to have been a heterogenous collection of ,mongol1 ,tungus1 ,turki and perhaps even ,finnish hordes under a ,mongol military caste1 though the ,mongolo-,tungus element probably predominated4 ,towards the close of the #ast century of the ,christian era the ,hiung-nu empire broke up4 ,their subsequent history is obscure4 ,some of them seem to have gone westward and settled on the ,ural river4 ,these1 de ,guiques suggests1 were the ancestors of the ,huns1 and many ethnologists hold that the ,hiung-nu were the ancestors of the modern ,turks4 ,see ,journal ,anthropological ,institute for #ahgd2 ,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,howorth1 ,history of the ,mongols 7#ahgf-ahhj72 #fth ,congress of ,orientalists1 ,leiden1 #ahhc 7,actes1 part iv4 pp4 #agg-aie72 de ,guiques1 ,histoire generale des ,huns1 des ,turcs1 des ,mongoles1 et des autres ,tartares occidentaux 7#agef-ageh74 ,,hivites1 an ancient tribe of ,palestine driven out by the invading ,israelites4 ,in ,josh4 ix4 #g1 xi4 #ai they are connected with ,gibeon4 ,the meaning of the name is uncertain2 ,wellhausen derives it from ,hebrew3 ,hava ,eve1 or serpent1 in which case the ,hivites were originally the snake clan2 others explain it from the ,arabic hayy1 family1 as meaning dwellers in 7,bedouin7 encampments4 7,see ,,palestine2 ,,jews47 ,,hjorring1 an ancient town of ,denmark1 capital of the amt 7county7 of its name1 in the northern insular part of the peninsula of ,jutland4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #gija4 ,it lies #g m4 inland from the shore of ,jammer ,bay1 a stretch of coast notoriously dangerous to shipping4 ,on the coast is ,lonstrup1 a favoured seaside resort4 ,in this neighbourhood as well as to the south-east of ,hjorring1 slight elevations are seen1 deserving the name of hills in this low-lying district4 ,hjorring is on the northern railway of ,jutland1 which here turns eastward to the ,cattegat part of ,frederikshavn 7#bc m471 a harbour of refuge4 ,,hkamti ,,long 7called ,kantigyi by the ,burmese1 and ,bor ,hkampti by the peoples on the ,assam side71 a collection of seven ,shan states subordinate to ,burma1 but at present beyond the administrative border4 ,estimated area1 #ijj sq4 m42 estimated pop4 #aa1jjj4 ,it lies between #bg deg4 and #bh deg4 ,n4 and #ig deg4 and #ih deg4 ,e41 and is bordered by the ,mishmi country on the ,n41 by the ,patkai range on the ,w41 by the ,hukawng valley on the ,s4 and ,e41 and indeed all round by various ,chingpaw or ,kachin communities4 ,the country is little known4 ,it was visited by ,t4 ,t4 ,cooper1 the ,chinese traveller and political agent at ,bhamo1 where he was murdered2 by ,general ,woodthorpe and ,colonel ,macgregor in #ahhd1 by ,mr ,errol ,grey in the following year1 and by ,prince ,henry of ,orleans in #ahie4 ,all of these1 however1 limited their explorations to the valley of the ,mali-hka1 the western branch of the ,irrawaddy river4 ,hkamti has shrunk very much from its old size4 ,it was no doubt the northernmost province of the ,shan kingdom1 founded at ,mogaung by ,sam ,long-hpa1 the brother of the ruler of ,kambawsa1 when that empire had reached its greatest extension4 ,the irruption of ,kachins or ,chingpaw from the north has now completely hemmed the state in4 ,prince ,henry of ,orleans described it as a splendid territory1 fertile in soil and abundant in water1 where tropical and temperate culture flourish side by side1 and the inhabitants are protected on three fronts by mountains4 ,according to him the ,kiutze1 the people of the hills between the ,irrawaddy and the ,salween1 call it the kingdom of ,moam4 ,,hlothhere1 king of ,kent1 succeeded his brother ,ecgberht in #fgc1 and appears for a time to have reigned jointly with his nephew ,eadric1 son of ,ecgberht1 as a code of laws still extant was issued under both names4 ,neither is mentioned in the account of the invasion of ,aethelred in #fgf4 ,in #fhe ,eadric1 who seems to have quarrelled with ,hlothhere1 went into exile and led the ,south ,saxons against him4 ,hlothhere was defeated and died of his wounds4 ,see ,bede1 ,hist4 eccl4 7,plummer71 iv4 #e1 #ag1 #bf1 v4 #bd2 ,saxon ,chronicle 7,earle and ,plummer71 s4a4 #fhe2 ,schmid1 ,gesetze1 pp4 #aj sqq42 ,thorpe1 ,ancient ,laws1 i4 #bf sqq4 ,,hoactzin1 or ,,hoatzin1 a bird of tropical ,south ,america1 thought by ,buffon to be that indicated by ,hernandez or ,fernandez under these names1 the ,opisthocomus hoazin or ,o4 cristatus of modern ornithologists--a very curious and remarkable form1 which has long exercised the ingenuity of classifiers4 ,placed by ,buffon among his ,hoccos 7,curassows71 and then by ,p4 ,l4 ,s4 ,muller and ,j4 ,f4 ,gmelin in the ,linnaean genus ,phasianus1 some of its many peculiarities were recognized by ,j4 ,k4 ,w4 ,illiger in #ahaa as sufficient to establish it as a distinct genus1 ,opisthocomus2 but various positions were assigned to it by subsequent systematic authors4 ,l',herminier was the first to give any account of its anatomy 7,comptes rendus1 #ahcg1 v4 #dcc71 and from his time our knowledge of it has been successively increased by ,johannes ,muller 7,ber4 ,akad4 ,wissensch4 ,berlin1 #ahda1 p4 #agg71 ,deville 7,rev4 et mag4 de zoologie1 #aheb1 p4 #bag71 ,gervais 7,castelnau1 ,exped4 ,amerique du ,sud1 zoologie1 anatomie1 p4 #ff71 ,huxley 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,society1 #ahfh1 p4 #cjd71 ,perrin 7,trans4 ,zool4 ,society1 ix4 p4 #cec71 and ,a4 ,h4 ,garrod 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,society1 #ahgi1 p4 #aji74 ,after a minute description of the skeleton of ,opisthocomus1 with the especial object of determining its affinities1 ,huxley declared that it resembles the ordinary gallinaceous birds and pigeons more than it does any others1 and that when it diverges from them it is either sui generis or approaches the ,musophagidae4 ,he accordingly regarded it as the type and sole member of a group1 named by him ,heteromorphae1 which sprang from the great ,carinate stem later than the ,tinamomorphae1 ,turnicomorphae1 or ,charadriomorphae1 but before the ,peristeromorphae1 ,pteroclomorphae or ,alectoromorphae4 ,this conclusion is substantially the same as that at which ,a4 ,h4 ,garrod subsequently arrived after closely examining and dissecting specimens preserved in spirit2 but the latter has gone further and endeavoured to trace more particularly the descent of this peculiar form and some others1 remarking that the ancestor of ,opisthocomus must have left the parent stem very shortly before the true ,gallinae first appeared1 and at about the same time as the independent pedigree of the ,cuculidae and ,musophagidae commenced--these two groups being1 he believed1 very closely related1 and ,opisthocomus serving to fill the gap between them4 ,the first thing that strikes the observer of its skeleton is the extraordinary structure of the sternal apparatus1 which is wholly unlike that of any other bird known4 ,the keel is only developed on the posterior part of the sternum--the fore part being1 as it were1 cut away1 while the short furcula at its symphysis meets the manubrium1 with which it is firmly consolidated by means of a prolonged and straight hypocleidium1 and anteriorly ossifies with the coracoids4 ,this unique arrangement seems to be correlated with the enormously capacious crop1 which rests upon the furcula and fore part of the sternum1 and is also received in a cavity formed on the surface of each of the great pectoral muscles4 ,furthermore this crop is extremely muscular1 so as more to resemble a gizzard1 and consists of two portions divided by a partial constriction1 after a fashion of which no other example is known among birds4 ,the true gizzard is greatly reduced4 ,illustration3 ,hoactzin4 ,the hoactzin appears to be about the size of a small pheasant1 but is really a much smaller bird4 ,the beak is strong1 curiously denticulated along the margin of the maxilla near the base1 and is beset by diverging bristles4 ,the eyes1 placed in the middle of a patch of bare skin1 are furnished with bristly lashes1 resembling those of horn-bills and some few other birds4 ,the head bears a long pendant crest of loose yellowish feathers4 ,the body is olive-coloured1 varied with white above1 and beneath is of a dull bay4 ,the wings are short and rounded4 ,the tail is long and tipped with yellow4 ,the legs are rather short1 the feet stout1 the tarsi reticulated1 and the toes scutellated2 the claws long and slightly curved4 ,according to all who have observed the habits of this bird1 it lives in bands on the lower trees and bushes bordering the streams and lagoons1 feeding on leaves and various wild fruits1 especially1 says ,h4 ,w4 ,bates 7,naturalist on the ,river ,amazons1 i4 #abj71 those of a species of ,psidium1 and it is also credited with eating those of an arum 7,caladium arborescens71 which grows plentifully in its haunts4 ,its voice is a harsh1 grating hiss1 continues the same traveller1 and it makes the noise when alarmed1 all the individuals sibilating as they fly heavily away from tree to tree1 when disturbed by passing canoes4 ,it exhales a very strong odour--wherefore it is known in ,british ,guiana as the stink-bird--compared by ,bates to musk combined with wet hides1 and by ,deville to that of a cow-house4 ,the species is said to be polygamous2 the nest is built on trees1 of sticks placed above one another1 and softer materials atop4 ,therein the hen lays her eggs to the number of three or four1 of a dull-yellowish white1 somewhat profusely marked with reddish blotches and spots1 so as to resemble those of some of the ,rallidae 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,society1 #ahfg1 pl4 xv4 fig4 #g4 p4 #afd74 ,the young are covered only with very scanty hair1 like down1 and have well-developed claws on the first and second fingers of the wing1 which they use in clambering about the twigs in a quadrupedal manner2 if placed in the water they swim and dive well1 although the adults seem to be not at all aquatic4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,hoadly1 ,,benjamin 7#afgf-agfa71 ,english divine1 was born at ,westerham1 ,kent1 on the #adth of ,november #afgf4 ,in #afia he entered ,catharine ,hall1 ,cambridge1 where he graduated ,m4,a4 and was for two years tutor1 after which he held from #agja to #agaa the lectureship of ,st ,mildred in the ,poultry1 and along with it from #agjd the rectory of ,st ,peter-le-,poer1 ,london4 ,his first important appearance as a controversialist was against ,edmund ,calamy the younger in reference to conformity 7#agjc-agjg71 and after this he came into conflict with ,francis ,atterbury1 first on the interpretation of certain texts and then on the whole ,anglican doctrine of non-resistance4 ,his principal treatises on this subject were the ,measures of ,submission to the ,civil ,magistrate and ,the ,origin and ,institution of ,civil ,government discussed2 and his part in the discussion was so much appreciated by the ,commons that in #agji they presented an address to the queen praying her to bestow some dignity in the church on ,mr ,hoadly for his eminent services both to church and state4 ,the queen returned a favourable answer1 but the dignity was not conferred4 ,in #agaj he was presented by a private patron to the rectory of ,streatham in ,surrey4 ,in #agae he was appointed chaplain to the king1 and the same year he obtained the bishopric of ,bangor4 ,he held the see for six years1 but never visited the diocese4 ,in #agaf1 in reply to ,george ,hickes 7q4v471 he published a ,preservative against the ,principles and ,practices of ,nonjurors in ,church and ,state1 and in the following year preached before the king his famous sermon on the ,kingdom of ,christ1 which was immediately published by royal command4 ,these works were attacks on the divine authority of kings and of the clergy1 but as the sermon dealt more specifically and distinctly with the power of the church1 its publication caused an ecclesiastical ferment which in certain aspects has no parallel in religious history4 ,it was at once resolved to proceed against him in convocation1 but this was prevented by the king proroguing the assembly1 a step which had consequences of vital bearing on the history of the ,church of ,england1 since from that period the great ,anglican council ceased to transact business of a more than formal nature4 ,the restrained sentiments of the council in regard to ,hoadly found expression in a war of pamphlets known as the ,bangorian ,controversy1 which1 partly from a want of clearness in the statements of ,hoadly1 partly from the disingenuousness of his opponents and the confusion resulting from exasperated feelings1 developed into an intricate and bewildering maze of side discussions in which the main issues of the dispute were concealed almost beyond the possibility of discovery4 ,but however vague and uncertain might be the meaning of ,hoadly in regard to several of the important bearings of the questions around which he aroused discussion1 he was explicit in denying the power of the ,church over the conscience1 and its right to determine the condition of men in relation to the favour of ,god4 ,the most able of his opponents was ,william ,law2 others were ,andrew ,snape1 provost of ,eton1 and ,thomas ,sherlock1 dean of ,chichester4 ,so exercised was the mind of the religious world over the dispute that in ,july #agag as many as seventy-four pamphlets made their appearance2 and at one period the crisis became so serious that the business of ,london was for some days virtually at a stand-still4 ,hoadly1 being not unskilled in the art of flattery1 was translated in #agba to the see of ,hereford1 in #agbc to ,salisbury and in #agcd to ,winchester4 ,he died at his palace at ,chelsea on the #agth of ,april #agfa4 ,his controversial writings are vigorous if prolix and his theological essays have little merit4 ,he must have been a much hated man1 for his latitudinarianism offended the high church party and his rationalism the other sections4 ,he was an intimate friend of ,dr ,samuel ,clarke1 of whom he wrote a life4 ,hoadly's brother1 ,,john ,,hoadly 7#afgh-agdf71 was archbishop of ,dublin from #agcj to #agdb and archbishop of ,armagh from the latter date until his death on the #aith of ,july #agdf4 ,in early life the archbishop was very intimate with ,gilbert ,burnet1 then bishop of ,salisbury1 and in later life he was a prominent figure in ,irish politics4 ,the works of ,benjamin ,hoadly were collected and published by his son ,john in #c vols4 7#aggc74 ,to the first volume was prefixed the article ,hoadly from the supplement to the ,biographia ,britannica4 ,see also ,l4 ,stephen1 ,english ,thought in the #ahth ,century4 ,,hoar1 ,,samuel 7#aggh--ahef71 ,american lawyer1 was born in ,lincoln1 ,massachusetts1 on the #ahth of ,may #aggh4 ,he was the son of ,samuel ,hoar1 an officer in the ,american army during the ,war of ,independence1 for many years a member of the ,massachusetts ,general ,court1 and a member in #ahbj-ahba of the state ,constitutional ,convention4 ,the son graduated at ,harvard in #ahjb1 was admitted to the ,massachusetts bar in #ahje and began practice at ,concord4 ,his success in his profession was immediate1 and for a half-century he was one of the leading lawyers of ,massachusetts4 ,he was in early life a ,federalist and was later an ardent ,whig in politics4 ,he was a member of the state senate in #ahbe1 #ahcb and #ahcc1 and of the national house of representatives in #ahce-ahcg1 during which time he made a notable speech in favour of the constitutional right of congress to abolish slavery in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,in ,november #ahdd1 having retired from active legal practice some years before1 he went to ,charleston1 ,s4,c41 at the request of ,governor ,george ,nixon ,briggs 7#agif-ahfa71 to test in the courts of ,south ,carolina the constitutionality of the state law which provided that it shall not be lawful for any free negro1 or person of color1 to come into this state on board any vessel1 as a cook1 steward or mariner1 or in any other employment1 and that such free negroes should be seized and locked up until the vessels on which they had come were ready for sea1 when they should be returned to such vessels4 ,his visit aroused great excitment1 he was threatened with personal injury1 the state legislature passed resolutions calling for his expulsion1 and he was compelled to leave early in ,december4 ,in #ahdh he was prominent in the ,free ,soil movement in ,massachusetts1 and subsequently assisted in the organization of the ,republican ,party4 ,in #ahej he served in the ,massachusetts house of representatives4 ,he married a daughter of ,roger ,sherman of ,connecticut4 ,he died at ,concord1 ,massachusetts1 on the #bnd of ,november #ahef4 ,see a memoir by his son ,g4 ,f4 ,hoar in ,memorial ,biographies of the ,new ,england ,historic ,genealogical ,society1 vol4 iii4 7,boston1 #ahhc72 the estimate by ,r4 ,w4 ,emerson in ,lectures and ,biographical ,sketches 7,boston1 #aijc72 and ,samuel ,hoar's ,expulsion from ,charleston1 ,old ,south ,leaflets1 vol4 vi4 ,no4 #adj4 ,his son1 ,,ebenezer ,,rockwood ,,hoar 7#ahaf-ahie71 was born at ,concord1 ,massachusetts1 on the #bast of ,february #ahaf4 ,he graduated at ,harvard in #ahce and at the ,harvard ,law ,school in #ahci1 and was admitted to the ,massachusetts bar in #ahdj4 ,from #ahdi to #ahee he was a judge of the ,massachusetts court of common pleas1 from #ahei to #ahfi a judge of the state supreme court1 and in #ahfi-ahgj attorney-general of the ,united ,states in the cabinet of ,president ,grant1 and in that position fought unmerited machine appointments to offices in the civil service until at the pressure of the machine ,grant asked for his resignation from the cabinet4 ,the ,senate had already shown its disapproval of ,hoar's policy of civil service reform by its failure in #ahgj to confirm the ,president's nomination of ,hoar as associate-justice of the supreme court4 ,in #ahga he was a member of the ,joint ,high ,commission which drew up the ,treaty of ,washington4 ,in #ahgb he was a presidential elector on the ,republican ticket1 and in #ahgc-ahge was a representative in ,congress4 ,he was a member of the ,board of ,overseers of ,harvard ,university from #ahfh to #ahhj and from #ahha to #ahhg1 and was president of the ,board in #ahgh-ahhj and in #ahha-ahhg4 ,he was also prominent in the affairs of the ,unitarian church4 ,he was a man of high character and brilliant wit4 ,he died at ,concord on the #cast of ,january #ahie4 ,another son1 ,,george ,,frisbie ,,hoar 7#ahbf-aijd71 was born in ,concord1 ,massachusetts1 on the #bith of ,august #ahbf4 ,he graduated at ,harvard in #ahdf and at the ,harvard ,law ,school in #ahdi4 ,he settled in the practice of law in ,worcester1 ,massachusetts1 where in #aheb he became a partner of ,emory ,washburn 7#ahjj-ahgg74 ,in #aheb he was elected as a ,free-,soiler to the ,massachusetts ,house of ,representatives1 and during his single term of service became the leader of his party in that body4 ,he was active in the organization of the ,republican party in ,massachusetts1 and in #aheg was elected to the ,state senate1 but declined a re-election4 ,during #ahef-aheg he was active in behalf of the ,free-,state cause in ,kansas4 ,he was a member of the ,national ,house of ,representatives from #ahfi until #ahgg1 and in this body took high rank as a ready debater and a conscientious committee worker4 ,he was prominent as a defender and supporter of the ,freedman's ,bureau1 took a leading part in the later reconstruction legislation and in the investigation of the ,credit ,mobilier scandal1 and in #ahgf was one of the ,house managers of the impeachment of ,general ,w4 ,w4 ,belknap1 ,grant's secretary of war4 ,in #ahgg he was a member of the ,electoral ,commission which settled the disputed ,hayes-,tilden election4 ,from #ahgg until his death he was a member of the ,united ,states senate4 ,in the senate almost from the start he took rank as one of the most influential leaders of the ,republican party2 he was a member from #ahhb until his death of the important ,judiciary ,committee1 of which he was chairman in #ahia-ahic and in #ahie-aijd4 ,his most important piece of legislation was the ,presidential ,succession ,act of #ahhf4 ,he was a delegate to every ,republican ,national ,convention from #ahgf to #aijd1 and presided over that at ,chicago in #ahhj4 ,he was a conservative by birth and training1 and although he did not leave his party he disagreed with its policy in regard to the ,philippines1 and spoke and voted against the ratification of the ,spanish ,treaty4 ,he was regent of the ,smithsonian ,institution in #ahhj-ahha1 and long served as an overseer of ,harvard ,university 7#ahif-aijd7 and as president of its alumni association4 ,he was also president of the ,american ,historical ,association 7#ahid-ahie7 and of the ,american ,antiquarian ,society 7#ahhd-ahhg74 ,like his brother1 he was a leading ,unitarian1 and was president of its ,national ,conference from #ahid to #aijb4 ,he died at ,worcester1 ,massachusetts1 on the #cjth of ,september #aijd4 ,a memorial statue has been erected there4 ,see his ,recollections of ,seventy ,years 7,new ,york1 #aijc74 ,,hoare1 ,,sir ,,richard ,,colt1 ,,bart4 7#ageh-ahch71 ,english antiquary1 was the eldest son of ,richard ,hoare1 who was created a baronet in #aghf1 and was born on the #ith of ,december #ageh4 ,he was descended from ,sir ,richard ,hoare 7#afdh-agah71 lord mayor of ,london1 the founder of the family banking business4 ,an ample allowance from his grandfather1 ,henry ,hoare1 enabled him to pursue the archaeological studies for which he had already shown an inclination4 ,in #aghc he married ,hester1 daughter of ,william ,henry1 ,lord ,lyttelton1 and after her death in #aghe he paid a prolonged visit to ,france1 ,italy and ,switzerland4 ,he succeeded to the baronetcy in #aghg1 and in #aghh made a second continental tour1 the record of his travels appearing in #ahai under the title ,a ,classical ,tour through ,italy and ,sicily4 ,a journey through ,wales was followed by a translation of the ,itinerarium ,cambriae and of the ,descriptio ,cambriae of ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 ,hoare adding notes and a life of ,giraldus to the translation4 ,this was first published in #ahjd1 and has been revised by ,t4 ,wright 7,london1 #ahfc74 ,sir ,richard died at ,stourhead1 ,wiltshire1 on the #aith of ,may #ahch1 being succeeded in the baronetcy by his half-brother1 ,henry ,hugh ,hoare4 ,hoare's most important work was his ,ancient ,history of ,north and ,south ,wiltshire 7#ahab-ahai72 he also did some work on the large ,history of ,modern ,wiltshire 7#ahbb-ahdd74 ,for notices of him and a list of his works1 many of which were printed privately1 see the ,gentleman's ,magazine for ,july #ahch1 and the ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 vol4 xxvii4 7#ahia74 ,see also ,e4 ,hoare1 ,history of the ,hoare ,family 7#ahhc74 ,,hobart1 ,,garret ,,augustus 7#ahdd-ahii71 ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states #ahig-ahii1 was born at ,long ,branch1 ,n4,j41 on the #crd of ,june #ahdd4 ,he graduated at ,rutgers ,college in #ahfc1 was admitted to the bar in #ahfi1 practised law at ,paterson1 ,n4,j41 and rose to prominence in the ,state4 ,he was long conspicuous in the ,state ,republican organization1 was chairman of the ,new ,jersey ,state ,republican ,committee from #ahhj to #ahij1 became a member in #ahhd of the ,republican ,national ,committee1 and was the delegate-at-large from ,new ,jersey to five successive ,republican national nominating conventions4 ,he served in the ,new ,jersey ,assembly in #ahgc-ahgd1 and in the ,new ,jersey ,senate in #ahgg-ahhb1 and was speaker of the ,assembly in #ahgd and president of the ,senate in #ahha and #ahhb4 ,he was also prominent and successful in business and accumulated a large fortune4 ,he accepted the nomination as ,vice-,president in #ahif1 on the ticket with ,president ,mc,kinley1 and was elected2 but while still in office he died at ,paterson1 ,n4,j41 on the #bast of ,november #ahii4 ,see the ,life 7,new ,york1 #aiaj7 by ,david ,magie4 ,,hobart1 ,,john ,,henry 7#agge-ahcj71 ,american ,protestant ,episcopal bishop1 was born in ,philadelphia1 ,pennsylvania1 on the #adth of ,september #agge1 being fifth in direct descent from ,edmund ,hobart1 a founder of ,hingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,he was educated at the ,philadelphia ,latin ,school1 the ,college of ,philadelphia 7now the ,university of ,pennsylvania71 and ,princeton1 where he graduated in #agic4 ,after studying theology under ,bishop ,william ,white at ,philadelphia1 he was ordained deacon in #agih1 and priest two years later4 ,he was elected assistant bishop of ,new ,york1 with the right of succession1 in #ahaa1 and was acting diocesan from that date because of the ill-health of ,bishop ,benjamin ,moore1 whom he formally succeeded on the latter's death in ,february #ahaf4 ,he was one of the founders of the ,general ,theological ,seminary1 became its professor of pastoral theology in #ahba1 and as bishop was its governor4 ,in his zeal for the historic episcopacy he published in #ahjg ,an ,apology for ,apostolic ,order and its ,advocates1 a series of letters to ,rev4 ,john ,m4 ,mason1 who1 in ,the ,christian's ,magazine1 of which he was editor1 had attacked the ,episcopacy in general and in particular ,hobart's ,collection of ,essays on the ,subject of ,episcopacy 7#ahjf74 ,hobart's zeal for the ,general ,seminary and the ,general ,convention led him to oppose the plan of ,philander ,chase1 bishop of ,ohio1 for an ,episcopal seminary in that diocese2 but the ,ohio seminary was made directly responsible to the ,house of ,bishops1 and ,hobart approved the plan4 ,his strong opposition to dissenting churches was nowhere so clearly shown as in a pamphlet published in #ahaf to dissuade all ,episcopalians from joining the ,american ,bible ,society1 which he thought the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church had not the numerical or the financial strength to control4 ,in #ahah1 to counterbalance the influence of the ,bible ,society and especially of ,scott's ,commentaries1 he began to edit with selected notes the ,family ,bible of the ,society for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge4 ,he delivered episcopal charges to the clergy of ,connecticut and ,new ,york entitled ,the ,churchman 7#ahai7 and ,the ,high ,churchman ,vindicated 7#ahbf71 in which he accepted the name high churchman1 and stated and explained his principles in distinction from the corruptions of the ,church of ,rome and from the ,errors of ,certain ,protestant ,sects4 ,he exerted himself greatly in building up his diocese1 attempting to make an annual visit to every parish4 ,his failing health led him to visit ,europe in #ahbc-ahbe4 ,upon his return he preached a characteristic sermon entitled ,the ,united ,states of ,america compared with some ,european ,countries1 particularly ,england 7published #ahbf71 in which1 although there was some praise for the ,english church1 he so boldly criticized the establishment1 state patronage1 cabinet appointment of bishops1 lax discipline1 and the low requirements of theological education1 as to rouse much hostility in ,england1 where he had been highly praised for two volumes of ,sermons on the ,principal ,events and ,truths of ,redemption 7#ahbd74 ,he died at ,auburn1 ,new ,york1 on the #abth of ,september #ahcj4 ,he was able1 impetuous1 frank1 perfectly fearless in controversy1 a speaker and preacher of much eloquence1 a supporter of missions to the ,oneida ,indians in his diocese1 and the compiler of the following devotional works3 ,a ,companion for the ,altar 7#ahjd71 ,festivals and ,fasts 7#ahjd71 ,a ,companion to the ,book of ,common ,prayer 7#ahje71 and ,a ,clergyman's ,companion 7#ahje74 ,see ,memorial of ,bishop ,hobart1 containing a ,memoir 7,new ,york1 #ahca72 ,john ,mc,vickar1 ,the ,early ,life and ,professional ,years of ,bishop ,hobart 7,new ,york1 #ahcd71 and ,the ,closing ,years of ,bishop ,hobart 7,new ,york1 #ahcf74 ,,hobart ,,pasha1 ,,augustus ,,charles ,,hobart-,,hampden 7#ahbb-ahhf71 ,english naval captain and ,turkish admiral1 was born in ,leicestershire on the #ast of ,april #ahbb1 being the third son of the #fth ,earl of ,buckinghamshire4 ,in #ahce he entered the ,royal ,navy and served as a midshipman on the coast of ,brazil in the suppression of the slave trade1 displaying much gallantry in the operations4 ,in #ahee he took part1 as captain of the ,driver1 in the ,baltic ,expedition1 and was actively engaged at ,bomarsund and ,abo4 ,in #ahfb he retired from the navy with the rank of post-captain2 but his love of adventure led him1 during the ,american ,civil ,war1 to take the command of a blockade-runner4 ,he had the good fortune to run the blockade eighteen times1 conveying war material to ,charleston and returning with a cargo of cotton4 ,in #ahfg ,hobart entered the ,turkish service1 and was immediately nominated to the command of that fleet1 with the rank of ,bahrie ,limassi 7rear-admiral74 ,in this capacity he performed splendid service in helping to suppress the insurrection in ,crete1 and was rewarded by the ,sultan with the title of ,pasha 7#ahfi74 ,in #ahgd ,hobart1 whose name had1 on representations made by ,greece1 been removed from the ,british ,navy ,list1 was reinstated2 his restoration did not1 however1 last long1 for on the outbreak of the ,russo-,turkish war he again entered ,turkish service4 ,in command of the ,turkish squadron he completely dominated the ,black ,sea1 blockading the ports of ,south ,russia and the mouths of the ,danube1 and paralysing the action of the ,russian fleet4 ,on the conclusion of peace ,hobart still remained in the ,turkish service1 and in #ahha was appointed ,mushir1 or marshal1 being the first ,christian to hold that high office4 ,his achievements as a blockade-runner1 his blockade of ,crete1 and his handling of the ,turkish fleet against the torpedo-lined coasts of ,russia1 showed him to be a daring1 resourceful1 and skilful commander1 worthy to be ranked among the illustrious names of ,british naval heroes4 ,he died at ,milan on the #aith of ,june #ahhf4 ,see his ,sketches of ,my ,life 7#ahhf71 which must1 however1 be used with caution1 since it contains many proved inaccuracies4 ,,hobart1 the capital of ,tasmania1 in the county of ,buckingham1 on the southern coast of the island4 ,it occupies a site of great beauty1 standing on a series of low hills at the foot of ,mount ,wellington1 a lofty peak 7#daff ft47 which is snow-clad for many months in the year4 ,the town fronts ,sullivan's ,cove1 a picturesque bay opening into the estuary of the river ,derwent1 and is nearly square in form1 laid out with wide streets intersecting at right angles1 the chief of which are served by electric tramways4 ,it is the seat of the ,anglican bishop of ,tasmania1 and of the ,roman ,catholic archbishop of ,hobart4 ,the ,anglican cathedral of ,st ,david dates from #ahgc1 though its foundations were laid as early as #ahag4 ,st ,mary's ,roman ,catholic cathedral is a beautiful building2 but perhaps the most notable ecclesiastical building in ,hobart is the great ,baptist tabernacle in ,upper ,elizabeth ,street4 ,the most prominent public buildings are the ,houses of ,parliament1 to which an excellent library is attached2 the town hall1 a beautiful building of brown and white ,tasmanian freestone in ,italian style2 the museum and national art gallery1 and the general post office 7#aijd7 with its lofty clock-tower4 ,government ,house1 the residence of the governor of ,tasmania1 a handsome castellated building1 stands in its domain on the banks of the ,derwent1 to the north of the town4 ,the botanical gardens adjoin4 ,of the parks and public gardens1 the most extensive is the ,queen's ,domain1 covering an area of about #gjj acres1 while the most central is ,franklin ,square1 adorned with a statue of ,sir ,john ,franklin1 the famous ,arctic explorer1 who was governor of ,tasmania from #ahcg to #ahdc4 ,the university of ,tasmania1 established in #ahij1 and opened in #ahic1 has its headquarters at ,hobart4 ,the town is celebrated for its invigorating climate1 and its annual regatta on the ,derwent attracts numerous visitors4 ,the harbour is easy of access1 well sheltered and deep1 with wharf accommodation for vessels of the largest tonnage4 ,it is a regular port of call for several intercolonial lines from ,sydney and ,melbourne1 and for lines from ,london to ,new ,zealand4 ,the exports1 of an average value of ,l#hej1jjj annually1 consist mainly of fruit1 hops1 grain1 timber and wool4 ,the industries comprise brewing1 saw-milling1 iron-founding1 flour-milling1 tanning1 and the manufacture of pottery and woollen goods4 ,hobart is the centre of a large fruit-growing district1 the produce of which1 for the most part1 is exported to ,london and ,sydney4 ,the city was founded in #ahjd and takes its name from ,lord ,hobart 7see ,,buckinghamshire1 ,,earls ,,of71 then secretary of state for the colonies4 ,it was created a municipality in #ahec1 and a city in #aheg2 and in #ahha its name was changed from ,hobart ,town to the present form4 ,the chief suburbs are ,newton1 ,sandy ,bay1 ,wellington1 ,risdon1 ,glenorchy1 ,bellerive and ,beltana4 ,the population of the city proper in #aija was #bd1feb1 or including suburbs1 #cd1ahb4 ,,hobbema1 ,,meyndert 7c4 #afch-agji71 the greatest landscape painter of the ,dutch school after ,ruysdael1 lived at ,amsterdam in the second half of the #agth century4 ,the facts of his life are somewhat obscure4 ,nothing is more disappointing than to find that in ,hobbema's case chronology and signed pictures substantially contradict each other4 ,according to the latter his practice lasted from #afej to #afhi2 according to the former his birth occurred in #afch1 his death as late as #agji4 ,if the masterpiece formerly in the ,bredel collection1 called ,a ,wooded ,stream1 honestly bears the date of #afej1 or ,the ,cottages under ,trees of the ,ford collection the date of #afeb1 the painter of these canvases cannot be ,hobbema1 whose birth took place in #afch1 unless indeed we admit that ,hobbema painted some of his finest works at the age of twelve or fourteen4 ,for a considerable period it was profitable to pass ,hobbemas as ,ruysdaels1 and the name of the lesser master was probably erased from several of his productions4 ,when ,hobbema's talent was recognized1 the contrary process was followed1 and in this way the name1 and perhaps fictitious dates1 reappeared by fraud4 ,an experienced eye will note the differences which occur in ,hobbema's signatures in such well-known examples as adorn the galleries of ,london and ,rotterdam1 or the ,grosvenor and van der ,hoop collections4 ,meanwhile1 we must be content to know that1 if the question of dates could be brought into accordance with records and chronology1 the facts of ,hobbema's life would be as follows4 ,meyndert ,hobbema was married at the age of thirty to ,eeltije ,vinck of ,gorcum1 in the ,oudekerk or old church at ,amsterdam1 on the #bnd of ,november #affh4 ,witnesses to the marriage were the bride's brother ,cornelius ,vinck and ,jacob ,ruysdael4 ,we might suppose from this that ,hobbema and ,ruysdael1 the two great masters of landscape1 were united at this time by ties of friendship1 and accept the belief that the former was the pupil of the latter4 ,yet even this is denied to us1 since records tell us that there were two ,jacob ,ruysdaels1 cousins and contemporaries1 at ,amsterdam in the middle of the #agth century--one a framemaker1 the son of ,solomon1 the other a painter1 the son of ,isaac ,ruysdael4 ,of ,hobbema's marriage there came between #affh and #afgc four children4 ,in #agjd ,eeltije died1 and was buried in the pauper section of the ,leiden cemetery at ,amsterdam4 ,hobbema himself survived till ,december #agji1 receiving burial on the #adth of that month in the pauper section of the ,westerkerk cemetery at ,amsterdam4 ,husband and wife had lived during their lifetime in the ,rozengracht1 at no great distance from ,rembrandt1 who also dwelt there in his later and impoverished days4 ,rembrandt1 ,hals1 ,jacob ,ruysdael1 and ,hobbema were in one respect alike4 ,they all died in misery1 insufficiently rewarded perhaps for their toil1 imprudent perhaps in the use of the means derived from their labours4 ,posterity has recognized that ,hobbema and ,ruysdael together represent the final development of landscape art in ,holland4 ,their style is so related that we cannot suppose the first to have been unconnected with the second4 ,still their works differ in certain ways1 and their character is generally so marked that we shall find little difficulty in distinguishing them1 nor indeed shall we hesitate in separating those of ,hobbema from the feebler productions of his imitators and predecessors--,isaac ,ruysdael1 ,rontbouts1 de ,vries1 ,dekker1 ,looten1 ,verboom1 du ,bois1 van ,kessel1 van der ,hagen1 even ,philip de ,koningk4 ,in the exercise of his craft ,hobbema was patient beyond all conception4 ,it is doubtful whether any one ever so completely mastered as he did the still life of woods and hedges1 or mills and pools4 ,nor can we believe that he obtained this mastery otherwise than by constantly dwelling in the same neighbourhood1 say in ,guelders or on the ,dutch ,westphalian border1 where day after day he might study the branching and foliage of trees and underwood embowering cottages and mills1 under every variety of light1 in every shade of transparency1 in all changes produced by the seasons4 ,though his landscapes are severely and moderately toned1 generally in an olive key1 and often attuned to a puritanical grey or russet1 they surprise us1 not only by the variety of their leafage1 but by the finish of their detail as well as the boldness of their touch4 ,with astonishing subtlety light is shown penetrating cloud1 and illuminating1 sometimes transiently1 sometimes steadily1 different portions of the ground1 shining through leaves upon other leaves1 and multiplying in an endless way the transparency of the picture4 ,if the chance be given him he mirrors all these things in the still pool near a cottage1 the reaches of a sluggish river1 or the swirl of the stream that feeds a busy mill4 ,the same spot will furnish him with several pictures4 ,one mill gives him repeated opportunities of charming our eye2 and this wonderful artist1 who is only second to ,ruysdael because he had not ,ruysdael's versatility and did not extend his study equally to downs and rocky eminences1 or torrents and estuaries--this is the man who lived penuriously1 died poor1 and left no trace in the artistic annals of his country6 ,it has been said that ,hobbema did not paint his own figures1 but transferred that duty to ,adrian van de ,velde1 ,lingelbach1 ,barendt ,gael1 and ,abraham ,storck4 ,as to this much is conjecture4 ,the best of ,hobbema's dated pictures are those of the years #affc to #affg4 ,of the former1 several in the galleries of ,brussels and ,st ,petersburg1 and one in the ,holford collection1 are celebrated4 ,of #affe fine specimens are at ,grosvenor ,house and the ,wallace collection4 ,of seven pieces in the ,national ,gallery1 including the ,avenue at ,middelharnis1 which some assign to #afhi1 and the ,ruins of ,breberode ,castle1 two are dated #affg4 ,a sample of the last of these years is also in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum at ,cambridge4 ,amongst the masterpieces in private hands in ,england may be noticed two landscapes in ,buckingham ,palace1 two at ,bridgewater ,house1 and one belonging to ,mr ,walter of ,bearwood4 ,on the continent are a ,wooded ,landscape in the ,berlin gallery1 a ,forest belonging to the duchess of ,sagan in ,paris1 and a ,glade in the ,louvre4 ,there are other fine ,hobbemas in the ,antwerp ,museum1 the ,arenberg gallery at ,brussels1 and the ,belvedere at ,vienna4 7,j4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,hobbes1 ,,thomas 7#aehh-afgi71 ,english philosopher1 second son of ,thomas ,hobbes1 was born at ,westport 7now part of ,malmesbury1 ,wiltshire7 on the #eth of ,april #aehh4 ,his father1 vicar of ,charlton and ,westport1 an illiterate and choleric man1 quarrelled1 it is said1 with a brother clergyman at the church door1 and was forced to decamp1 leaving his three children to the care of an elder brother ,francis1 a flourishing glover at ,malmesbury4 ,thomas ,hobbes was put to school at ,westport church at the age of four1 passed to the ,malmesbury school at eight1 and was taught again in ,westport later at a private school kept by a young man named ,robert ,latimer1 fresh from ,oxford and a good ,grecian4 ,he had begun ,latin and ,greek early1 and under ,latimer made such progress as to be able to translate the ,medea of ,euripides into ,latin iambic verse before he was fourteen4 ,about the age of fifteen he was sent to ,oxford and entered at ,magdalen ,hall4 ,during his residence1 the first principal of ,magdalen ,hall1 ,john ,hussee1 was succeeded by ,john ,wilkinson1 who ruled in the interest of the ,calvinistic party in the university4 ,thus early was he brought into contact with the aggressive ,puritan spirit4 ,apart from this1 ,hobbes owed little to his university training1 which was based on the scholastic logic then prevalent4 ,we have from himself a lively record of his student life 7,vit4 carm4 exp4 p4 lxxxv471 which1 though penned in extreme old age1 may be taken as trustworthy4 ,he tells how1 when he had slowly taken in the doctrine of logical figures and moods1 he put it aside and would prove things only in his own way2 how he then heard about bodies as consisting of matter and form1 as throwing off species of themselves for perception1 and as moved by sympathies and antipathies1 with much else of a like sort1 all beyond his comprehension2 and how he therefore turned to his old books again1 fed his mind on maps and charts of earth and sky1 traced the sun in his path1 followed ,drake and ,cavendish girdling the main1 and gazed with delight upon pictured haunts of men and wonders of unknown lands4 ,very characteristic is the interest in men and things1 and the disposition to cut through questions in the schools after a trenchant fashion of his own4 ,he was little attracted by the scholastic learning1 though it would be wrong to take his words as evidence of a precocious insight into its weakness4 ,the truth probably is that he took no interest in studies which there was no risk in neglecting1 and thought as little of rejecting as of accepting the traditional doctrines4 ,he adds that he took his degree at the proper time2 but in fact1 upon any computation and from whatever cause1 he remained at ,magdalen ,hall five1 instead of the required four1 years1 not being admitted as bachelor till the #eth of ,february #afjh4 ,translation of ,thucydides4 ,in the same year ,hobbes was recommended by ,wilkinson as tutor to the son of ,william ,cavendish1 baron of ,hardwick 7afterwards #bnd earl of ,devonshire71 and thus began a lifelong connexion with a great and powerful family4 ,twice it was loosened--once1 for a short time1 after twenty years1 and again1 for a longer period1 during the ,civil ,war--but it never was broken4 ,hobbes spoke of the first years of his tutorship as the happiest of his life4 ,young ,cavendish was hardly younger than ,hobbes1 and had been married1 a few months before1 at the instance of the king1 to ,christiana1 the only daughter of ,edward1 ,lord ,bruce of ,kinloss1 though by reason of the bride's age1 which was only twelve years1 the pair had no establishment for some time4 ,hobbes was his companion rather than tutor 7before becoming secretary72 and1 growing greatly attached to each other1 they were sent abroad together on the grand tour in #afaj4 ,during this journey1 the duration of which cannot be precisely stated1 ,hobbes acquired some knowledge of ,french and ,italian1 and also made the important discovery that the scholastic philosophy which he had learned in ,oxford was almost universally neglected in favour of the scientific and critical methods of ,galileo1 ,kepler and ,montaigne4 ,unable at first to cope with their unfamiliar ideas1 he determined to become a scholar1 and until #afbh was engaged in a careful study of ,greek and ,latin authors1 the outcome of which was his great translation of ,thucydides4 ,but when he had finished his work he kept it lying by him for years1 being no longer so sure of finding appreciative readers2 and when he did send it forth1 in #afbh1 he was fain to be content with the few and better sort4#a ,that he was finally determined to publication by the political troubles of the year #afbh may be regarded as certain1 not only from his own express declaration at a later time 7,vit4 carm4 exp471 but also from unmistakable hints in the account of the life and work of his author prefixed to the translation on its appearance4 ,this was the year of the ,petition of ,right1 extorted from the king in the third parliament he had tried within three years of his accession2 and1 in view of ,hobbes's later activity1 it is significant that he came forward just then1 at the mature age of forty1 with his version of the story of the ,athenian democracy as the first production of his pen4 ,nothing else is known of his doings before #afbh1 except that through his connexion with young ,cavendish he had relations with literary men of note like ,ben ,jonson1 and also with ,bacon and ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury4 ,if he never had any sympathy with ,herbert's intuitionalist principles in philosophy1 he was no less eager1 as he afterwards showed1 than ,herbert to rationalize in matters of religious doctrine1 so that he may be called the second of the ,english deists1 as ,herbert has been called the first4 ,with ,bacon he was so intimate 7,aubrey's ,lives1 pp4 #bbb1 #fjb7 that some writers have described him as a disciple4 ,the facts that he used to walk with ,bacon at ,gorhambury1 and would jot down with exceptional intelligence the eager thinker's sudden notions1 and that he was employed to make the ,latin version of some of the ,essays1 prove nothing when weighed against his own disregard of all ,bacon's principles1 and the other evidence that the impulse to independent thinking came to him not from ,bacon1 and not till some time after ,bacon's death in #afbf4b ,philosophic ,inquiry4 ,so far as we have any positive evidence1 it was not before the year #afbi that ,hobbes entered on philosophical inquiry4 ,meanwhile a great change had been wrought in his circumstances4 ,his friend and master1 after about two years' tenure of the earldom of ,devonshire1 died of the plague in ,june #afbh1 and the affairs of the family were so disordered financially that the widowed countess was left with the task of righting them in the boyhood of the third earl4 ,hobbes went on for a time living in the household2 but his services were no longer in demand1 and1 remaining inconsolable under his personal bereavement1 he sought distraction1 in #afbi1 in another engagement which took him abroad as tutor to the son of ,sir ,gervase ,clifton1 of an old ,nottinghamshire family4 ,this1 his second1 sojourn abroad appears to have been spent chiefly in ,paris1 and the one important fact recorded of it is that he then first began to look into ,euclid4 ,the engagement came to an end in #afca1 when he was recalled to train the young earl of ,devonshire1 now thirteen years old1 son of his previous pupil4 ,in the course of the next seven years in ,derbyshire and abroad1 ,hobbes took his pupil over rhetoric1#c logic1 astronomy1 and the principles of law1 with other subjects4 ,his mind was now full of the thought of motion in nature1 and on the continent he sought out the philosophical speculators or scientific workers4 ,in ,florence in #afcf he saw ,galileo1 for whom he ever retained the warmest admiration1 and spent eight months in daily converse with the members of a scientific circle in ,paris1 held together by ,marin ,mersenne 7q4v474 ,from that time 7the winter of #afcf-afcg7 he too1 as he tells us1 was numbered among philosophers4 ,his introduction to ,euclid took place accidentally in #afbi 7,aubrey's ,lives1 p4 #fjd74 ,euclid's manner of proof became the model for his own way of thinking upon all subjects4 ,it is less easy to determine when he awoke to an interest in the physical doctrine of motion4 ,the story told by himself 7,vit4 p4 xx47 is that1 hearing the question asked ,what is sense8 he fell to thinking often on the subject1 till it suddenly occurred to him that if bodies and their internal parts were at rest1 or were always in the same state of motion1 there could be no distinction of anything1 and consequently no sense2 the cause of all things must therefore be sought in diversity of movements4 ,starting from this principle he was driven to geometry for insight into the ground and modes of motion4 ,the biographies we possess do not tell us where or when this great change of interest occurred4 ,nothing is said1 however1 which contradicts a statement that on his third journey in ,europe he began to study the doctrine of motion more seriously1 being interested in it before2 and as he claims more than once 7,l4,w4 v4 #cjc2 ,e4,w4 vii4 #dfh7 to have explained light and sound by a mechanical hypothesis as far back as #afcj1 the inspiration may be assigned to the time of the second journey4 ,but it was not till the third journey that the new interest became an overpowering passion1 and the philosopher was on his way home before he had advanced so far as to conceive the scheme of a system of thought to the elaboration of which his life should henceforth be devoted4 ,hobbes was able to carry out his plan in some twenty years or more from the time of its conception1 but the execution was so broken in upon by political events1 and so complicated with other labours1 that its stages can hardly be followed without some previous understanding of the relations of the parts of the scheme1 as there is reason to believe they were sketched out from the beginning4 ,his scheme was first to work out1 in a separate treatise ,de corpore1 a systematic doctrine of ,body1 showing how physical phenomena were universally explicable in terms of motion1 as motion or mechanical action was then 7through ,galileo and others7 understood--the theory of motion being applied in the light of mathematical science1 after quantity1 the subject-matter of mathematics1 had been duly considered in its place among the fundamental conceptions of philosophy1 and a clear indication had been given1 at first starting1 of the logical ground and method of all philosophical inquiry4 ,he would then single out ,man from the realm of nature1 and1 in a treatise ,de homine1 show what specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation and knowledge1 as also of the affections and passions thence resulting1 whereby man came into relation with man4 ,finally he would consider1 in a crowning treatise ,de cive1 how men1 being naturally rivals or foes1 were moved to enter into the better relation of ,society1 and demonstrate how this grand product of human wit must be regulated if men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery4 ,thus he proposed to unite in one coherent whole the separate phenomena of ,body1 ,man and the ,state4 ,hobbes came home1 in #afcg1 to a country seething with discontent4 ,the reign of ,thorough was collapsing1 and the forces pent up since #afbi were soon to rend the fabric of the state4 ,by these events ,hobbes was distracted from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan4 ,the ,short ,parliament1 as he tells us at a later time 7,e4,w4 iv4 #dad71 was not dissolved before he had ready a little treatise in ,english1 in which he sought to prove that the points of the royal prerogative which the members were determined to dispute before granting supplies were inseparably annexed to the sovereignty which they did not then deny to be in the king4 ,now it can be proved that at this time he had written not only his ,human ,nature but also his ,de corpore politico1 the two treatises 7though published separately ten years later7 having been composed as parts of one work2#d and there cannot be the least question that together they make the little treatise just mentioned4 ,we are therefore to understand1 first1 that he wrote the earliest draft of his political theory some years before the outbreak of the ,civil ,war1 and1 secondly1 that this earliest draft was not written till1 in accordance with his philosophical conception1 he had established the grounds of polity in human nature4 ,the first point is to be noted1 because it has often been supposed that ,hobbes's political doctrine took its peculiar complexion from his revulsion against the state of anarchy before his eyes1 as he wrote during the progress of the ,civil ,war4 ,the second point must be maintained against his own implied1 if not express1 statement some years later1 when publishing his ,de cive 7,l4,w4 ii4 #aea71 that he wrote this third part of his system before he had been able to set down any finished representation of the fundamental doctrines which it presupposed4 ,in the beginning of #afdj1 therefore1 he had written out his doctrine of ,man at least1 with almost as much elaboration as it ever received from him4 ,in ,paris4 ,in ,november #afdj the ,long ,parliament succeeded to the ,short1 and sent ,laud and ,strafford to the ,tower1 and ,hobbes1 who had become1 or thought he had become1 a marked man by the circulation of his treatise 7of which1 though not printed1 many gentlemen had copies71 hastened to ,paris1 the first of all that fled4 ,he was now for the fourth and last time abroad1 and did not return for eleven years4 ,apparently he remained the greater part of the time in or about ,paris4 ,he was welcomed back into the scientific coterie about ,mersenne1 and forthwith had the task assigned him of criticizing the ,meditations of ,descartes1 which had been sent from ,holland1 before publication1 to ,mersenne with the author's request for criticism from the most different points of view4 ,hobbes was soon ready with the remarks that were printed as ,third among the six 7later seven7 sets of ,objections appended1 with ,replies from ,descartes1 to the ,meditations1 when published shortly afterwards in #afda 7reprinted in ,l4,w4 v4 #bdi-bgd74 ,about the same time also ,mersenne sent to ,descartes1 as if they came from a friend in ,england1 another set of objections which ,hobbes had to offer on various points in the scientific treatises1 especially the ,dioptrics1 appended by ,descartes to his ,discourse on ,method in #afcg2 to which ,descartes replied without suspecting the common authorship of the two sets4 ,the result was to keep the two thinkers apart rather than bring them together4 ,hobbes was more eager to bring forward his own philosophical and physical ideas than careful to enter into the full meaning of another's thought2 and ,descartes was too jealous1 and too confident in his conclusions to bear with this kind of criticism4 ,he was very curt in his replies to ,hobbes's philosophical objections1 and broke off all correspondence on the physical questions1 writing privately to ,mersenne that he had grave doubts of the ,englishman's good faith in drawing him into controversy 7,l4,w4 v4 #bgg-cjg74 ,meanwhile ,hobbes had his thoughts too full of the political theory which the events of the last years had ripened within him to settle1 even in ,paris1 to the orderly composition of his works4 ,though connected in his own mind with his view of human nature and of nature generally1 the political theory1 as he always declared1 could stand by itself4 ,also1 while he may have hoped at this time to be able to add much 7though he never did7 to the sketch of his doctrine of ,man contained in the unpublished little treatise1 he might extend1 but could hardly otherwise modify1 the sketch he had there given of his carefully articulated theory of ,body ,politic4 ,possibly1 indeed1 before that sketch was written early in #afdj1 he may1 under pressure of the political excitement1 have advanced no small way in the actual composition of the treatise ,de ,cive1 the third section of his projected system4 ,in any case1 it was upon this section1 before the others1 that he set to work in ,paris2 and before the end of #afda the book1 as we know from the date of the dedication 7,november #a71 was finished4 ,though it was forthwith printed in the course of the year #afdb1 he was content to circulate a limited number of copies privately#e2 and when he found his work received with applause 7it was praised even by ,descartes71 he seems to have taken this recognition of his philosophical achievement as an additional reason for deferring publication till the earlier works of the system were completed4 ,accordingly1 for the next three or four years1 he remained steadily at work1 and nothing appeared from him in public except a short treatise on optics 7,tractatus opticus1 ,l4,w4 v4 #bag-bdh7 included in the collection of scientific tracts published by ,mersenne under the title ,cogitata physico-mathematica in #afdd1 and a highly compressed statement of his psychological application of the doctrine of motion 7,l4,w4 v4 #cji-cah71 incorporated with ,mersenne's ,ballistica1 published in the same year4 ,thus or otherwise he had become sufficiently known by #afde to be chosen as a referee1 with ,descartes1 ,roberval and others1 in the famous controversy between ,john ,pell 7q4v47 and the ,dane ,longomontanus 7q4v47 over that problem of the squaring of the circle which was seen later on to have such a fatal charm for himself4 ,but though about this time he had got ready all or most of the materials for his fundamental work on ,body1 not even now was he able to make way with its composition1 and when he returned to it after a number of years1 he returned a different man4 ,leviathan4 ,the ,civil ,war had broken out in #afdb1 and the royalist cause began to decline from the time of the defeat at ,marston ,moor1 in the middle of #afdd4 ,then commenced an exodus of the king's friends4 ,newcastle himself1 who was a cousin of ,hobbes's late patron and to whom he dedicated the little treatise of #afdj1 found his way to ,paris1 and was followed by a stream of fugitives1 many of whom were known to ,hobbes4 ,the sight of these exiles made the political interest once more predominant in ,hobbes1 and before long the revived feeling issued in the formation of a new and important design4 ,it first showed itself in the publication of the ,de cive1 of which the fame1 but only the fame1 had extended beyond the inner circle of friends and critics who had copies of the original impression4 ,hobbes now entrusted it1 early in #afdf1 to his admirer1 the ,frenchman ,samuel de ,sorbiere1 by whom it was seen through the ,elzevir press at ,amsterdam in #afdg--;having previously inserted a number of notes in reply to objections1 and also a striking preface1 in the course of which he explained its relation to the other parts of the system not yet forthcoming1 and the 7political7 occasion of its having been composed and being now published before them4#f ,so hopeless1 meanwhile1 was he growing of being able to return home that1 later on in the year1 he was on the point of leaving ,paris to take up his abode in the south with a ,french friend1#g when he was engaged by the month as mathematical instructor to the young prince of ,wales1 who had come over from ,jersey about the month of ,july4 ,this engagement lasted nominally from #afdf to #afdh when ,charles went to ,holland4 ,thus thrown more than ever into the company of the exiled royalists1 it was then1 if not earlier1 that he conceived his new design of bringing all his powers of thought and expression to bear upon the production of an ,english book that should set forth his whole theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis resulting from the war4 ,the ,de cive1 presently to be published1 was written in ,latin for the learned1 and gave the political theory without its foundation in human nature4 ,the unpublished treatise of #afdj contained all or nearly all that he had to tell concerning human nature1 but was written before the terrible events of the last years had disclosed how men might still be urged by their anti-social passions back into the abyss of anarchy4 ,there was need of an exposition at once comprehensive1 incisive and popular4 ,the ,state1 it now seemed to ,hobbes1 might be regarded as a great artificial man or monster 7,leviathan71 composed of men1 with a life that might be traced from its generation through human reason under pressure of human needs to its dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions4 ,this1 we may suppose1 was the presiding conception from the first1 but the design may have been variously modified in the three or four years of its execution4 ,before the end1 in #afej-afea1 it is plain that he wrote in direct reference to the greatly changed aspect of affairs in ,england4 ,the king being dead1 and the royalist cause appearing to be hopelessly lost1 he did not scruple1 in closing the work with a general ,review and ,conclusion1 to raise the question of the subject's right to change allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect was irrecoverably gone4 ,also he took advantage of the rule of the ,commonwealth to indulge much more freely than he might have otherwise dared in rationalistic criticism of religious doctrines2 while1 amid the turmoil of sects1 he could the more forcibly urge that the preservation of social order1 when again firmly restored1 must depend on the assumption by the civil power of the right to wield all sanctions1 supernatural as well as natural1 against the pretensions of any clergy1 ,catholic1 ,anglican or ,presbyterian1 to the exercise of an imperium in imperio4 ,we know the ,leviathan only as it finally emerged from ,hobbes's pen4 ,during the years of its composition he remained in or near ,paris1 at first in attendance on his royal pupil1 with whom he became a great favourite4 ,in #afdg ,hobbes was overtaken by a serious illness which disabled him for six months4 ,mersenne begged him not to die outside the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 but ,hobbes said that he had already considered the matter sufficiently and afterwards took the sacrament according to the rites of the ,church of ,england4 ,on recovering from this illness1 which nearly proved fatal1 he resumed his literary task1 and carried it steadily forward to completion by the year #afej1 having also within the same time translated into ,english1 with characteristic force of expression1 his ,latin treatise4 ,otherwise the only thing known 7from one or two letters7 of his life in those years is that from the year #afdh he had begun to think of returning home2 he was then sixty and might well be weary of exile4 ,when #afej came1 as if to prepare the way for the reception of his magnum opus1 he allowed the publication of his earliest treatise1 divided into two separate small volumes 7,human ,nature1 or the ,fundamental ,elements of ,policy1 ,e4,w4 iv4 #a-gf1 and ,de ,corpore ,politico1 or the ,elements of ,law1 ,moral and ,politic1 pp4 #gg-bbh74h ,in #afeai he published his translation of the ,de ,cive under the title of ,philosophical ,rudiments concerning ,government and ,society 7,e4,w4 ii474 ,meanwhile the printing of the greater work was proceeding1 and finally it appeared about the middle of the same year1 #afea1 under the title of ,leviathan1 or the ,matter1 ,form and ,power of a ,commonwealth1 ,ecclesiastical and ,civil 7,e4,w4 iii471 with a quaint frontispiece in which1 from behind hills overlooking a fair landscape of town and country1 there towered the body 7above the waist7 of a crowned giant1 made up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and crozier in the two hands4 ,it appeared1 and soon its author was more lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time2 but the first effect of its publication was to sever his connexion with the exiled royalist party1 and to throw him for protection on the revolutionary ,government4 ,no sooner did copies of the book reach ,paris than he found himself shunned by his former associates1 and though he was himself so little conscious of disloyalty that he was forward to present a manuscript copy engrossed in vellum in a marvellous fair hand#aj to the young king of the ,scots 7who1 after the defeat at ,worcester1 escaped to ,paris about the end of ,october71 he was denied the royal presence when he sought it shortly afterwards4 ,straightway1 then1 he saw himself exposed to a double peril4 ,the exiles had among them desperadoes who could slay2 and1 besides exciting the enmity of the ,anglican clergy about the king1 who bitterly resented the secularist spirit of his book1 he had compromised himself with the ,french authorities by his elaborate attack on the papal system4 ,in the circumstances1 no resource was left him but secret flight4 ,travelling with what speed he could in the depths of a severe winter and under the effects of a recent 7second7 illness1 he managed to reach ,london1 where1 sending in his submission to the council of state1 he was allowed to subside into private life4 ,return to ,london4 ,controversy with ,bramhall4 ,though ,hobbes came back1 after his eleven years' absence1 without having as yet publicly proved his title to rank with the natural philosophers of the age1 he was sufficiently conscious of what he had been able to achieve in ,leviathan2 and it was in no humble mood that he now1 at the age of sixty-four1 turned to complete the fundamental treatise of his philosophical system4 ,neither those whom his masterpiece soon roused to enthusiasm1 nor those whom it moved to indignation1 were likely to be indifferent to anything he should now write1 whether it lay near to or far from the region of practice4 ,taking up his abode in ,fetter ,lane1 ,london1 on his return1 and continuing to reside there for the sake of intellectual society1 even after renewing his old ties with the earl of ,devonshire1 who lived in the country till the ,restoration1#aa he worked so steadily as to be printing the ,de corpore in the year #afed4 ,circumstances 7of which more presently71 however1 kept the book back till the following year1 and meanwhile the readers of ,leviathan had a different excitement4 ,in #afed a small treatise1 ,of ,liberty and ,necessity 7,e4,w4 iv4 #bbi-bgh71 issued from the press1 claiming to be an answer to a discourse on the same subject by ,bishop ,bramhall of ,londonderry 7afterwards archbishop of ,armagh1 d4 #affc71 addressed by ,hobbes to the marquis of ,newcastle4#ab ,it had grown out of an oral discussion between ,hobbes and ,bramhall in the marquis's presence at ,paris in #afdf4 ,bramhall1 a strong ,arminian1 had afterwards written down his views and sent them to ,newcastle to be answered in this form by ,hobbes4 ,hobbes duly replied1 but not for publication1 because he thought the subject a delicate one4 ,but it happened that ,hobbes had allowed a ,french acquaintance to have a private translation of his reply made by a young ,englishman1 who secretly took a copy of the original for himself2 and now it was this unnamed purloiner who1 in #afed1 when ,hobbes had become famous and feared1 gave it to the world of his own motion1 with an extravagantly laudatory epistle to the reader in its front4 ,upon ,hobbes himself the publication came as a surprise1 but1 after his plain speaking in ,leviathan1 there was nothing in the piece that he need scruple to have made known1 and he seems to have condoned the act4 ,on the other hand1 ,bramhall1 supposing ,hobbes privy to the publication1 resented the manner of it1 especially as no mention was made of his rejoinder4 ,accordingly1 in #afee1 he printed everything that had passed between them 7under the title of ,a ,defence of the ,true ,liberty of ,human ,actions from ,antecedent or ,extrinsic ,necessity71 with loud complaint against the treatment he had received1 and the promise added that1 in default of others1 he himself would stand forward to expose the deadly principles of ,leviathan4 ,about this time ,hobbes had begun to be hard pressed by other foes1 and1 being never more sure of himself than upon the question of the will1 he appears to have welcomed the opportunity thus given him of showing his strength4 ,by #afef he was ready with his ,questions concerning ,liberty1 ,necessity and ,chance 7,e4,w4 v471 in which he replied with astonishing force to the bishop's rejoinder point by point1 besides explaining the occasion and circumstances of the whole debate1 and reproducing 7as ,bramhall had done7 all the pieces from the beginning4 ,as perhaps the first clear exposition and defence of the psychological doctrine of determinism1 ,hobbes's own two pieces must ever retain a classical importance in the history of the free-will controversy2 while ,bramhall's are still worth study as specimens of scholastic fence4 ,the bishop1 it should be added1 returned to the charge in #afeh with ponderous ,castigations of ,mr ,hobbes's ,animadversions1 and also made good his previous threat in a bulky appendix entitled ,the ,catching of ,leviathan the ,great ,whale4 ,hobbes never took any notice of the ,castigations1 but ten years later replied to the charges of atheism1 c41 made in the non-political part of the appendix1 of which he says he then heard for the first time 7,e4,w4 iv4 #bgi-chd74 ,this ,answer was first published after ,hobbes's death4#ac ,controversy with ,wallis and ,ward4 ,we may now follow out the more troublesome conflict1 or rather series of conflicts1 in which ,hobbes became entangled from the time of publishing his ,de corpore in #afee1 and which checkered all his remaining years4 ,in ,leviathan he had vehemently assailed the system of the universities1 as originally founded for the support of the papal against the civil authority1 and as still working social mischief by adherence to the old learning4 ,the attack was duly noted at ,oxford1 where under the ,commonwealth a new spirit of scientific activity had begun to stir4 ,in #afed ,seth ,ward 7#afag-afhi71 the ,savilian professor of astronomy1 replying in his ,vindiciae academiarum to some other assaults 7especially against ,john ,webster's ,examen of ,academies7 on the academic system1 retorted upon ,hobbes that1 so far from the universities being now what he had known them in his youth1 he would find his geometrical pieces1 when they appeared1 better understood there than he should like4 ,this was said in reference to the boasts in which ,hobbes seems to have been freely indulging of having squared the circle and accomplished other such feats2 and1 when a year later the ,de corpore 7,l4,w4 i47 finally appeared1 it was seen how the thrust had gone home4 ,in the chapter 7xx47 of that work where ,hobbes dealt with the famous problem whose solution he thought he had found1 there were left expressions against ,vindex 7,ward7 at a time when the solutions still seemed to him good2 but the solutions themselves1 as printed1 were allowed to be all in different ways halting1 as he naively confessed he had discovered only when he had been driven by the insults of malevolent men to examine them more closely with the help of his friends4 ,a strange conclusion this1 and reached by a path not less strange1 as was now to be disclosed by a relentless hand4 ,ward's colleague1 the more famous ,john ,wallis 7q4v471 ,savilian professor of geometry from #afdi1 had been privy to the challenge thrown out in #afed1 and it was arranged that they should critically dispose of the ,de corpore between them4 ,ward was to occupy himself with the philosophical and physical sections1 which he did in leisurely fashion1 bringing out his criticism in the course of next year 7,in ,th4 ,hobbii philosophiam exercitatio epistolica74 ,wallis was to confine himself to the mathematical chapters1 and set to work at once with characteristic energy4 ,obtaining an unbound copy of the ,de corpore1 he saw by the mutilated appearance of the sheets that ,hobbes had repeatedly altered his demonstrations before he issued them at last in their actual form1 grotesque as it was1 rather than delay the book longer4 ,obtaining also a copy of the work as it had been printed before ,hobbes had any doubt of the validity of his solutions1 ,wallis was able to track his whole course from the time of ,ward's provocation--his passage from exultation to doubt1 from doubt to confessed impotence1 yet still without abandoning the old assumption of confident strength2 and all his turnings and windings were now laid bare in one of the most trenchant pieces of controversial writing ever penned4 ,wallis's ,elenchus geometriae ,hobbianae1 published in #afee about three months after the ,de corpore1 contained also an elaborate criticism of ,hobbes's whole attempt to relay the foundations of mathematical science in its place within the general body of reasoned knowledge--a criticism which1 if it failed to allow for the merit of the conception1 exposed only too effectually the utter inadequacy of the result4 ,taking up mathematics when not only his mind was already formed but his thoughts were crystallizing into a philosophical system1 ,hobbes had1 in fact1 never put himself to school and sought to work up gradually to the best knowledge of the time1 but had been more anxious from the first to become himself an innovator with whatever insufficient means4 ,the consequence was that1 when not spending himself in vain attempts to solve the impossible problems that have always waylaid the fancy of self-sufficient beginners1 he took an interest only in the elements of geometry1 and never had any notion of the full scope of mathematical science1 undergoing as it then was 7and not least at the hands of ,wallis7 the extraordinary development which made it before the end of the century the potent instrument of physical discovery which it became in the hands of ,newton4 ,he was even unable1 in dealing with the elementary conceptions of geometry1 to work out with any consistency the few original thoughts he had1 and thus became the easy sport of ,wallis4 ,at his advanced age1 however1 and with the sense he had of his powers1 he was not likely to be brought to a better mind by so insulting an opponent4 ,he did indeed1 before allowing an ,english translation of the ,de corpore 7,e4,w4 i47 to appear in #afef1 take care to remove some of the worst mistakes exposed by ,wallis1 and1 while leaving out all the references to ,vindex1 now profess to make1 in altered form1 a series of mere attempts at quadrature2 but he was far from yielding the ground to the enemy4 ,with the translation1#ad in the spring of #afef1 he had ready ,six ,lessons to the ,professors of ,mathematics1 one of ,geometry1 the other of ,astronomy1 in the ,university of ,oxford 7,e4,w4 vii4 #aha-cef71 in which1 after reasserting his view of the principles of geometry in opposition to ,euclid's1 he proceeded to repel ,wallis's objections with no lack of dialectical skill1 and with an unreserve equal to ,wallis's own4 ,he did not scruple1 in the ardour of conflict1 even to maintain positions that he had resigned in the translation1 and he was not afraid to assume the offensive by a counter criticism of three of ,wallis's works then published4 ,when he had thus disposed of the ,paralogisms of his more formidable antagonist in the first five lessons1 he ended with a lesson on ,manners to the two professors together1 and set himself gravely at the close to show that he too could be abusive4 ,in this particular part of his task1 it must be allowed1 he succeeded very well2 his criticism of ,wallis's works1 especially the great treatise ,arithmetica infinitorum 7#afee71 only showed how little able he was to enter into the meaning of the modern analysis4 ,wallis1 on his side1 was not less ready to keep up the game in ,english than he had been to begin it in ,latin4 ,swift as before to strike1 in three months' time he had deftly turned his own word against the would-be master by administering ,due ,correction for ,mr ,hobbes1 or ,school ,discipline for not saying his ,lessons right1 in a piece that differed from the ,elenchus only in being more biting and unrestrained4 ,having an easy task in defending himself against ,hobbes's trivial criticism1 he seized the opportunity given him by the ,english translation of the ,de corpore to track ,hobbes again step by step over the whole course1 and now to confront him with his incredible inconsistencies multiplied by every new utterance4 ,but it was no longer a fight over mathematical questions only4 ,wallis having been betrayed originally by his fatal cleverness into the pettiest carping at words1 ,hobbes had retorted in kind1 and then it became a high duty in the other to defend his ,latin with great parade of learning and give fresh provocation4 ,one of ,wallis's rough sallies in this kind suggested to ,hobbes the title of the next rejoinder with which1 in #afeg1 he sought to close the unseemly wrangle4 ,arguing in the ,lessons that a mathematical point must have quantity1 though this were not reckoned1 he had explained the ,greek word ,greek3 stigme1 used for a point1 to mean a visible mark made with a hot iron2 whereupon he was charged by ,wallis with gross ignorance for confounding ,greek3 stigme and ,greek3 stigma4 ,hence the title of his new piece3 ,greek3 ,stigmai ageometrias1 agroikias1 antipoliteias1 amatheias1 or ,marks of the ,absurd ,geometry1 ,rural ,language1 ,scottish ,church ,politics1 and ,barbarisms of ,john ,wallis1 ,professor of ,geometry and ,doctor of ,divinity 7,e4,w4 vii4 #ceg-djj74 ,he now attacked more in detail but not more happily than before ,wallis's great work1 while hardly attempting any further defence of his own positions2 also he repelled with some force and dignity the insults that had been heaped upon him1 and fought the verbal points1 but could not leave the field without making political insinuations against his adversary1 quite irrelevant in themselves and only noteworthy as evidence of his own resignation to ,cromwell's rule4 ,the thrusts were easily and nimbly parried by ,wallis in a reply 7,hobbiani puncti dispunctio1 #afeg7 occupied mainly with the verbal questions4 ,irritating as it was1 it did not avail to shake ,hobbes's determination to remain silent2 and thus at last there was peace for a time4 ,before the strife flamed up again1 ,hobbes had published1 in #afeh1 the outstanding section of his philosophical system1 and thus completed1 after a fashion1 the scheme he had planned more than twenty years before4 ,so far as the treatise ,de homine 7,l4,w4 ii4 #aa-cb7 was concerned1 the completion was more in name than in fact4 ,it consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision which1 though very creditable to ,hobbes's scientific insight1 was out of place1 or at least out of proportion1 in a philosophical consideration of human nature generally4 ,the remainder of the treatise1 dealing cursorily with some of the topics more fully treated in the ,human ,nature and the ,leviathan1 has all the appearance of having been tagged in haste to the optical chapters 7composed years before7#ae as a makeshift for the proper transition required in the system from questions of ,body ,natural to questions of ,body ,politic4 ,hobbes had in fact spent himself in his earlier constructive efforts1 and at the age of seventy1 having nothing to add to his doctrine of ,man as it was already in one form or another before the world1 was content with anything that might stand for the fulfilment of his philosophical purpose4 ,but he had still in him more than twenty years of vigorous vitality1 and1 not conscious to himself of any shortcoming1 looked forward1 now his hands were free1 to doing battle for his doctrines4 ,rather than remain quiet1 on finding no notice taken of his latest production1 he would himself force on a new conflict with the enemy4 ,wallis having meanwhile published other works and especially a comprehensive treatise on the general principles of calculus 7,mathesis universalis1 #afeg71 he might take this occasion of exposing afresh the new-fangled methods of mathematical analysis and reasserting his own earlier positions4 ,accordingly1 by the spring of #affj1 he had managed to put his criticism and assertions into five dialogues under the title ,examinatio et emendatio mathematicae hodiernae qualis explicatur in libris ,johannis ,wallisii1 with a sixth dialogue so called1 consisting almost entirely of seventy or more propositions on the circle and cycloid4#af ,wallis1 however1 would not take the bait4 ,hobbes then tried another tack4 ,next year1 having solved1 as he thought1 another ancient crux1 the duplication of the cube1 he had his solution brought out anonymously at ,paris in ,french1 so as to put ,wallis and other critics off the scent and extort a judgment that might be withheld from a work of his4 ,the artifice was successful1 and no sooner had ,wallis publicly refuted the solution than ,hobbes claimed the credit of it1 and went more wonderfully than ever astray in its defence4 ,he presently republished it 7in modified form71 with his remarks1 at the end of a new ,latin dialogue which he had meanwhile written in defence of another part of his philosophical doctrine4 ,this was the ,dialogus physicus1 sive ,de natura aeris 7,l4,w4 iv4 #bcc-bif71 fulminated in #affa against ,boyle and other friends of ,wallis who1 as he fancied1 under the influence of that malevolent spirit1 were now in ,london1 after the ,restoration1 forming themselves into a society 7incorporated as the ,royal ,society in #affb7 for experimental research1 to the exclusion of himself personally1 and in direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry enjoined in the ,de corpore4#ag ,all the laborious manipulation recorded in ,boyle's ,new ,experiments touching the ,spring of the ,air 7#affj71 which ,hobbes chose1 without the least warrant1 to take as the manifesto of the new academicians1 seemed to him only to confirm the conclusions he had reasoned out years before from speculative principles1 and he warned them that if they were not content to begin where he had left off their work would come to nought4 ,to as much of this diatribe as concerned himself ,boyle quickly replied with force and dignity1 but it was from ,hobbes's old enemy that retribution came1 in the scathing satire ,hobbius heauton-timorumenos 7#affb74 ,wallis1 who had deftly steered his course amid all the political changes of the previous years1 managing ever to be on the side of the ruling power1 was now apparently stung to fury by a wanton allusion in ,hobbes's latest dialogue to a passage of his former life 7his deciphering for the parliament the king's papers taken at ,naseby71 whereof he had once boasted but after the ,restoration could not speak or hear too little4 ,the revenge he took was crushing4 ,professing to be roused by the attack on his friend ,boyle1 when he had scorned to lift a finger in defence of himself against the earlier dialogues1 he tore them all to shreds with an art of which no general description can give an idea4 ,he got1 however1 upon more dangerous ground when1 passing wholly by the political insinuation against himself1 he roundly charged ,hobbes with having written ,leviathan in support of ,oliver's title1 and deserted his royal master in distress4 ,hobbes seems to have been fairly bewildered by the rush and whirl of sarcasm with which ,wallis drove him anew from every mathematical position he had ever taken up1 and did not venture forth into the field of scientific controversy again for some years1 when he had once followed up the physical dialogue of #affa by seven shorter ones1 with the inevitable appendix1 entitled ,problemata physica1 una cum magnitudine circuli 7,l4,w4 iv4 #big-chd71 in #affb4ah ,but all the more eagerly did he take advantage of ,wallis's loose calumny to strike where he felt himself safe4 ,his answer to the personal charges took the form of a letter about himself in the third person addressed to ,wallis in #affb1 under the title of ,considerations upon the ,reputation1 ,loyalty1 ,manners and ,religion of ,thomas ,hobbes 7,e4,w4 iv4 #dji-ddj74 ,in this piece1 which is of great biographical value1 he told his own and ,wallis's little stories during the time of the late rebellion with such effect that ,wallis1 like a wise man1 attempted no further reply4 ,thus ended the second bout4 ,after a time ,hobbes took heart again and began a third period of controversial activity1 which did not end1 on his side1 till his ninetieth year4 ,little need be added to the simple catalogue of the untiring old man's labours in this last stage of his life4 ,the first piece1 published in #afff1 ,de principiis et ratiocinatione geometrarum 7,l4,w4 iv4 #che-dhd71 was designed1 as the sub-title declared1 to lower the pride of geometrical professors by showing that there was no less uncertainty and error in their works than in those of physical or ethical writers4 ,wallis replied shortly in the ,philosophical ,transactions 7,august #afff74 ,three years later he brought his three great achievements together in compendious form1 ,quadratura circuli1 ,cubatio sphaerae1 ,duplicatio cubi1 and as soon as they were once more refuted by ,wallis1 reprinted them with an answer to the objections1 in compliment to the grand-duke of ,tuscany1 who paid him attentions on a visit to ,england in #affi 7,l4,w4 iv4 #dhe-ebb74 ,wallis1 who had promised to leave him alone henceforward1 refuted him again before the year was out4 ,in #afga he worked up his propositions over again in ,rosetum geometricum 7,l4,w4 v4 #a-ej71 as a fragrant offering to the geometrical reader1 appending a criticism 7,censura brevis1 pp4 #ej-hh7 on the first part of ,wallis's treatise ,de motu1 published in #affi2 also he sent ,three ,papers to the ,royal ,society on selected points treated very briefly1 and when ,wallis1 still not weary of confuting1 shortly replied1 published them separately with triumphant ,considerations on ,dr ,wallis's ,answer to them 7,e4,w4 vii4 #dbi-ddh74 ,next year 7#afgb71 having now1 as he believed1 established himself with the ,royal ,society1 he proceeded to complete the discomfiture of ,wallis by a public address to the ,society on all the points at issue between them from the beginning1 ,lux ,mathematica excussa collisionibus ,johannis ,wallisii et ,thomae ,hobbesii 7,l4,w4 v4 #hi-aej71 the light1 as the author ,r4 ,r4 7,roseti ,repertor7 added1 being here increased by many very brilliant rays4 ,wallis replied in the ,transactions1 and then finally held his hand4 ,hobbes's energy was not yet exhausted4 ,in #afgd1 at the age of eighty-six1 he published his ,principia et problemata aliquot geometrica1 ante desperata nunc breviter explicata et demonstrata 7,l4,w4 v4 #aej-bad71 containing in the chapters dealing with questions of principle not a few striking observations1 which ought not to be overlooked in the study of his philosophy4 ,his last piece of all1 ,decameron physiologicum 7,e4,w4 vii4 #fi-ahj71 in #afgh1 was a new set of dialogues on physical questions1 most of which he had treated in a similar fashion before2 but now1 in dealing with gravitation1 he was able to fire a parting shot at ,wallis2 and one more demonstration of the equality of a straight line to the arc of a circle1 thrown in at the end1 appropriately closed the strangest warfare in which perverse thinker ever engaged4#ai ,later ,years4 ,we must now turn back to trace the fortunes of ,hobbes and his other doings in the last twenty years of his life4 ,all these controversial writings on mathematics and physics represent but one half of his activity after the age of seventy2 though1 as regards the other half1 it is not possible1 for a reason that will be seen1 to say as definitely in what order the works belonging to the period were produced4 ,from the time of the ,restoration he acquired a new prominence in the public eye4 ,no year had passed since the appearance of ,leviathan without some indignant protest against the influence which its trenchant doctrine was calculated to produce upon minds longing above everything for civil repose2 but after the ,restoration ,hobbism became a fashionable creed1 which it was the duty of every lover of true morality and religion to denounce4 ,two or three days after ,charles's arrival in ,london1 ,hobbes drew in the street the notice of his former pupil1 and was at once received into favour4 ,the young king1 if he had ever himself resented the apparent disloyalty of the ,conclusion of ,leviathan1 had not retained the feeling long1 and could appreciate the principles of the great book when the application of them happened1 as now1 to be turned in his own favour4 ,he had1 besides1 a relish for ,hobbes's wit 7as he used to say1 ,here comes the bear to be baited71 and did not like the old man the less because his presence at court scandalized the bishops or the prim virtue of ,chancellor ,hyde4 ,he even went the length of bestowing on ,hobbes 7but not always paying7 a pension of ,l#ajj1 and had his portrait hung up in the royal closet4 ,these marks of favour1 naturally1 did not lessen ,hobbes's self-esteem1 and perhaps they explain1 in his later writings1 a certain slavishness toward the regal authority1 which is wholly absent from his rational demonstration of absolutism in the earlier works4 ,at all events ,hobbes was satisfied with the rule of a king who had appreciated the author of ,leviathan1 and protected him when1 after a time1 protection in a very real sense became necessary4 ,his eagerness to defend himself against ,wallis's imputation of disloyalty1 and his apologetic dedication of the ,problemata physica to the king1 are evidence of the hostility with which he was being pressed as early as #affb2 but it was not till #afff that he felt himself seriously in danger4 ,in that year the ,great ,fire of ,london1 following on the ,great ,plague1 roused the superstitious fears of the people1 and the ,house of ,commons embodied the general feeling in a bill against atheism and profaneness4 ,on the #agth of ,october it was ordered that the committee to which the bill was referred should be empowered to receive information touching such books as tend to atheism1 blasphemy and profaneness1 or against the essence and attributes of ,god1 and in particular the book published in the name of one ,white1#bj and the book of ,mr ,hobbes called the ,leviathan1 and to report the matter with their opinion to the ,house4 ,hobbes1 then verging upon eighty1 was terrified at the prospect of being treated as a heretic1 and proceeded to burn such of his papers as he thought might compromise him4 ,at the same time he set himself1 with a very characteristic determination1 to inquire into the actual state of the law of heresy4 ,the results of his investigation were first announced in three short ,dialogues added 7in place of the old ,review and ,conclusion1 for which the day had passed7 as an ,appendix to his ,latin translation of ,leviathan 7,l4,w4 iii471 included with the general collection of his works published at ,amsterdam in #affh4 ,in this appendix1 as also in the posthumous tract1 published in #afhj1 ,an ,historical ,narration concerning ,heresy and the ,punishment thereof 7,e4,w4 iv4 #che-djh71 he aimed at showing that1 since the ,high ,court of ,commission had been put down1 there remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable1 and that even when it stood nothing was to be declared heresy but what was at variance with the ,nicene ,creed1 as he maintained the doctrine of ,leviathan was not4 ,the only consequence that came of the parliamentary scare was that ,hobbes could never afterwards get permission to print anything on subjects relating to human conduct4 ,the collected edition of his ,latin works 7in two quarto volumes7 appeared at ,amsterdam in #affh1 because he could not obtain the censor's licence for its publication at ,london1 ,oxford or ,cambridge4 ,other writings which he had finished1 or on which he must have been engaged about this time1 were not made public till after his death--the king apparently having made it the price of his protection that no fresh provocation should be offered to the popular sentiment4 ,the most important of the works composed towards #afgj1 and thus kept back1 is the extremely spirited dialogue to which he gave the title ,behemoth3 the ,history of the ,causes of the ,civil ,wars of ,england and of the ,counsels and ,artifices by which they were carried on from the year #afdj to the year #affj4ba ,to the same period probably belongs the unfinished ,dialogue between a ,philosopher and a ,student of the ,common ,laws of ,england 7,e4,w4 vi4 #a-afj71 a trenchant criticism of the constitutional theory of ,english government as upheld by ,coke4 ,aubrey takes credit for having tried to induce ,hobbes to write upon the subject in #affd by presenting him with a copy of ,bacon's ,elements of the ,laws of ,england1 and though the attempt was then unsuccessful1 ,hobbes later on took to studying the statute-book1 with ,coke upon ,littleton4 ,one other posthumous production also 7besides the tract on ,heresy before mentioned7 may be referred to this1 if not1 as ,aubrey suggests1 an earlier time--the two thousand and odd elegiac verses in which he gave his view of ecclesiastical encroachment on the civil power2 the quaint verses1 disposed in his now favourite dialogue-form1 were first published1 nine years after his death1 under the title ,historia ecclesiastica 7,l4,w4 v4 #cda-djh71 with a preface by ,thomas ,rymer4 ,for some time ,hobbes was not even allowed to utter a word of protest1 whatever might be the occasion that his enemies took to triumph over him4 ,in #affi an unworthy follower--,daniel ,scargil by name1 a fellow of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge--had to recant publicly and confess that his evil life had been the result of ,hobbist doctrines4 ,in #afgd ,john ,fell1 the dean of ,christ ,church1 who bore the charges of the ,latin translation of ,anthony ,wood's ,history and ,antiquities of the ,university of ,oxford 7#afgj71 struck out all the complimentary epithets in the account of his life1 and substituted very different ones2 but this time the king did suffer him to defend himself by publishing a dignified letter 7,vit4 ,auct4 pp4 xlvii4-l471 to which ,fell replied by adding to the translation when it appeared a note full of the grossest insults4 ,and1 amid all his troubles1 ,hobbes was not without his consolations4 ,no ,englishman of that day stood in the same repute abroad1 and foreigners1 noble or learned1 who came to ,england1 never forgot to pay their respects to the old man1 whose vigour and freshness of intellect no progress of the years seemed able to quench4 ,among these was the grand-duke of ,tuscany 7,ferdinand ,,ii471 who took away some works and a portrait to adorn the ,medicean library4 ,his pastimes in the latest years were as singular as his labours4 ,the autobiography in ,latin verse1 with its playful humour1 occasional pathos and sublime self-complacency1 was thrown off at the age of eighty-four4 ,at eighty-five1 in the year #afgc1 he sent forth a translation of four books of the ,odyssey 7ix4-xii47 in rugged but not seldom happily turned ,english rhymes2 and1 when he found this ,voyage of ,ulysses eagerly received1 he had ready by #afge a complete translation of both ,iliad and ,odyssey 7,e4,w4 x471 prefaced by a lively dissertation ,concerning the ,virtues of an ,heroic ,poem1 showing his unabated interest in questions of literary style4 ,after #afge1 he passed his time at his patron's seats in ,derbyshire1 occupied to the last with intellectual work in the early morning and in the afternoon hours1 which it had long been his habit to devote to thinking and to writing4 ,even as late as ,august #afgi he was promising his publisher somewhat to print in ,english4 ,the end came very soon afterwards4 ,a suppression of urine in ,october1 in spite of which he insisted upon being conveyed with the family from ,chatsworth to ,hardwick ,hall towards the end of ,november1 was followed by a paralytic stroke1 under which he sank on the #dth of ,december1 in his ninety-second year4 ,he lies buried in the neighbouring church of ,ault ,hucknall4 ,personal characteristics4 ,he was tall and erect in figure1 and lived on the whole a temperate life1 though he used to say that he had been drunk about a hundred times4 ,his favourite exercise was tennis1 which he played regularly even after the age of seventy4 ,socially he was genial and courteous1 though in argument he occasionally lost his temper4 ,as a friend he was generous and loyal4 ,intellectually bold in the extreme1 he was curiously timid in ordinary life1 and is said to have had a horror of ghosts4 ,he read little1 and often boasted that he would have known as little as other men if he had read as much4 ,he appears to have had an illegitimate daughter for whom he made generous provision4 ,in the ,national ,portrait ,gallery there is a portrait of him by ,j4 ,m4 ,wright1 and two others are in the possession of the ,royal ,society4 ,place in ,english thought4 ,as already suggested1 it cannot be allowed that ,hobbes falls into any regular succession from ,bacon2 neither can it be said that he handed on the torch to ,locke4 ,he was the one ,english thinker of the first rank in the long period of two generations separating ,locke from ,bacon1 but1 save in the chronological sense1 there is no true relation of succession among the three4 ,it would be difficult even to prove any ground of affinity among them beyond a desposition to take sense as a prime factor in the account of subjective experience3 their common interest in physical science was shared equally by rationalist thinkers of the ,cartesian school1 and was indeed begotten of the time4 ,backwards1 ,hobbes's relations are rather with ,galileo and the other inquirers who1 from the beginning of the #agth century1 occupied themselves with the physical world in the manner that has come later to be distinguished by the name of science in opposition to philosophy4 ,but even more than in external nature1 ,hobbes was interested in the phenomena of social life1 presenting themselves so impressively in an age of political revolution4 ,so it came to pass that1 while he was unable1 by reason of imperfect training and too tardy development1 with all his pains1 to make any contribution to physical science or to mathematics as instrumental in physical research1 he attempted a task which no other adherent of the new mechanical philosophy conceived--nothing less than such a universal construction of human knowledge as would bring ,society and ,man 7at once the matter and maker of ,society7 within the same principles of scientific explanation as were found applicable to the world of ,nature4 ,the construction was1 of course1 utterly premature1 even supposing it were inherently possible2 but it is ,hobbes's distinction1 in his century1 to have conceived it1 and he is thereby lifted from among the scientific workers with whom he associated to the rank of those philosophical thinkers who have sought to order the whole domain of human knowledge4 ,the effects of his philosophical endeavour may be traced on a variety of lines4 ,upon every subject that came within the sweep of his system1 except mathematics and physics1 his thoughts have been productive of thought4 ,when the first storm of opposition from smaller men had begun to die down1 thinkers of real weight1 beginning with ,cumberland and ,cudworth1 were moved by their aversion to his analysis of the moral nature of man to probe anew the question of the natural springs and the rational grounds of human action2 and thus it may be said that ,hobbes gave the first impulse to the whole of that movement of ethical speculation that1 in modern times1 has been carried on with such remarkable continuity in ,england4 ,in politics the revulsion from his particular conclusions did not prevent the more clear-sighted of his opponents from recognizing the force of his supreme demonstration of the practical irresponsibility of the sovereign power1 wherever seated1 in the state2 and1 when in a later age the foundations of a positive theory of legislation were laid in ,england1 the school of ,bentham--,james ,mill1 ,grote1 ,molesworth--brought again into general notice the writings of the great publicist of the #agth century1 who1 however he might1 by the force of temperament1 himself prefer the rule of one1 based his whole political system upon a rational regard to the common weal4 ,finally1 the psychology of ,hobbes1 though too undeveloped to guide the thoughts or even perhaps arrest the attention of ,locke1 when essaying the scientific analysis of knowledge1 came in course of time 7chiefly through ,james ,mill7 to be connected with the theory of associationism developed from within the school of ,locke1 in different ways1 by ,hartley and ,hume2 nor is it surprising that the later associationists1 finding their principle more distinctly formulated in the earlier thinker1 should sometimes have been betrayed into affiliating themselves to ,hobbes rather than to ,locke4 ,for his ethical theories see ,ethics4 ,sufficient information is given in the ,vitae ,hobbianae auctarium 7,l4,w4 i4 p4 lxv4 ff47 concerning the frequent early editions of ,hobbes's separate works1 and also concerning the works of those who wrote against him1 to the end of the #agth century4 ,in the #ahth century1 after ,clarke's ,boyle ,lectures of #agjd-agje1 the opposition was less express4 ,in #agej ,the ,moral and ,political ,works were collected1 with life1 c41 by ,dr ,campbell1 in a folio edition1 including in order1 ,human ,nature1 ,de corpore politico1 ,leviathan1 ,answer to ,bramhall's ,catching of the ,leviathan1 ,narration concerning ,heresy1 ,of ,liberty and ,necessity1 ,behemoth1 ,dialogue of the ,common ,laws1 the ,introduction to the ,thucydides1 ,letter to ,davenant and two others1 the ,preface to the ,homer1 ,de mirabilibus ,pecci 7with ,english translation71 ,considerations on the ,reputation1 41 of ,t4 ,h4 ,in #ahab the ,human ,nature and the ,liberty and ,necessity 7with supplementary extracts from the ,questions of #afef7 were reprinted in a small edition of #bej copies1 with a meritorious memoir 7based on ,campbell7 and dedication to ,horne ,tooke1 by ,philip ,mallet4 ,molesworth's edition 7#ahci-ahde71 dedicated to ,grote1 has been referred to in a former note4 ,of translations may be mentioned ,les ,elemens philosophiques du citoyen 7#afdi7 and ,le ,corps politique 7#afeb71 both by ,s4 de ,sorbiere1 conjoined with ,le ,traite de la nature humaine1 by d',holbach1 in #aghg1 under the general title ,les ,oeuvres philosophiques et politiques de ,thomas ,hobbes2 a translation of the first section1 ,computatio sive logica1 of the ,de corpore1 included by ,destutt de ,tracy with his ,elemens d'ideologie 7#ahjd72 a translation of ,leviathan into ,dutch in #afgh1 and another 7anonymous7 into ,german--,des ,englanders ,thomas ,hobbes ,leviathan oder der kirchliche und burgerliche ,staat 7,halle1 #agid1 #b vols472 a translation of the ,de cive by ,j4 ,h4 v4 ,kirchmann--,t4 ,hobbes3 ,abhandlung uber den ,burger1 c4 7,leipzig1 #ahgc74 ,important later editions are those of ,ferdinand ,tonnies1 ,behemoth 7#ahhi71 on which see ,croom ,robertson's ,philosophical ,remains 7#ahid71 p4 #dea2 ,elements of ,law 7#ahhi74 ,biographical and ,critical ,works4--,there are three accounts of ,hobbes's life1 first published together in #afha1 two years after his death1 by ,r4 ,b4 7,richard ,blackbourne1 a friend of ,hobbes's admirer1 ,john ,aubrey71 and reprinted1 with complimentary verses by ,cowley and others1 at the beginning of ,sir ,w4 ,molesworth's collection of the ,latin ,works3 7#a7 ,t4 ,h4 ,malmesb4 vita 7pp4 xiii4-xxi471 written by ,hobbes himself1 or 7as also reported7 by ,t4 ,rymer1 at his dictation2 7#b7 ,vitae ,hobbianae auctarium 7pp4 xxii4-lxxx471 turned into ,latin from ,aubrey's ,english2 7#c7 ,t4 ,h4 ,malmesb4 vita carmine expressa 7pp4 lxxxi4-xcix471 written by ,hobbes at the age of eighty-four 7first published by itself in #afhj74 ,the ,life of ,mr ,t4 ,h4 of ,malmesburie1 printed among the ,lives of ,eminent ,men1 in #ahac1 from ,aubrey's papers in the ,bodleian1 c4 7vol4 ii4 pt4 ii4 pp4 #eic-fcg71 contains some interesting particulars not found in the ,auctarium4 ,all that is of any importance for ,hobbes's life is contained in ,g4 ,croom ,robertson's ,hobbes 7#ahhf7 in ,blackwood's ,philosophical ,classics1 and ,sir ,leslie ,stephen's ,hobbes 7#aijd7 in the ,english ,men of ,letters series1 both of which deal fully with his philosophy also4 ,see also ,f4 ,tonnies1 ,hobbes ,leben und ,lehre 7#ahif71 ,hobbes-,analekten 7#aijd foll472 ,g4 ,zart1 ,einfluss der englischen ,philosophie seit ,bacon auf die deutsche ,philosophie des #ahten ,jahrh4 7,berlin1 #ahha72 ,g4 ,brandt1 ,thomas ,hobbes3 ,grundlinien seiner ,philosophie 7#ahie72 ,g4 ,lyon1 ,la ,philos4 de ,hobbes 7#ahic72 ,j4 ,m4 ,robertson1 ,pioneer ,humanists 7#aijg72 ,j4 ,rickaby1 ,free ,will and ,four ,english ,philosophers 7#aijf71 pp4 #a-gb2 ,j4 ,watson1 ,hedonistic ,theories 7#ahie72 ,w4 ,graham1 ,english ,political ,philosophy from ,hobbes to ,maine 7#ahii72 ,w4 ,j4 ,h4 ,campion1 ,outlines of ,lectures on ,political ,science 7#ahie74 7,g4 ,c4 ,r42 ,x47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the translation1 under the title ,eight ,books of the ,peloponnesian ,war1 written by ,thucydides the son of ,olorus1 interpreted with faith and diligence immediately out of the ,greek by ,thomas ,hobbes1 secretary to the late ,earl of ,devonshire1 appeared in #afbh 7or #afbi71 after the death of the earl1 to whom touching reference is made in the dedication4 ,it reappeared in #afcd1 with the date of the dedication altered1 as if then newly written4 ,though ,hobbes claims to have performed his work with much more diligence than elegance1 his version is remarkable as a piece of ,english writing1 but is by no means accurate4 ,it fills vols4 viii4 and ix4 in ,molesworth's collection 7#aa vols41 including index vol47 of ,hobbes's ,english ,works 7,london1 ,bohn1 #ahci-ahde74 ,the volumes of this collection will here be cited as ,e4 ,w4 ,molesworth's collection of the ,latin ,opera philosophica 7#e vols41 #ahci-ahde7 will be cited as ,l4,w4 ,the five hundred and odd ,latin hexameters under the title ,de mirabilibus ,pecci 7,l4,w4 v4 #cbc-cdj71 giving an account of a short excursion from ,chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the ,derbyshire ,peak1 were written before #afbh 7in #afbf or #afbg71 though not published till #afcf4 ,it was a ,new ,year's present to his patron1 who gave him ,l#e in return4 ,a later edition1 in #afgh1 included an ,english version by another hand4 #b ,hobbes1 in minor works dealing with physical questions 7,l4,w4 iv4 #caf2 ,e4,w4 vii4 #aab71 makes two incidental references to ,bacon's writings1 but never mentions ,bacon as he mentions ,galileo1 ,kepler1 ,harvey1 and others 7,de corpore1 ep4 ded471 among the lights of the century4 ,the word ,induction1 which occurs in only three or four passages throughout all his works 7and these again minor ones71 is never used by him with the faintest reminiscence of the import assigned to it by ,bacon2 and1 as will be seen1 he had nothing but scorn for experimental work in physics4 #c ,the free ,english abstract of ,aristotle's ,rhetoric1 published in #afha1 after ,hobbes's death1 as ,the ,whole ,art of ,rhetoric 7,e4,w4 vi4 #dbc-eaj71 corresponds with a ,latin version dictated to his young pupil4 ,among ,hobbes's papers preserved at ,hardwick1 where he died1 there remains the boy's dictation-book1 interspersed with headings1 examples1 c4 in ,hobbes's hand4 #d ,among the ,hardwick papers there is preserved a ,,ms4 copy of the work1 under the title ,elementes of ,law ,naturall and ,politique1 with the dedication to the earl of ,newcastle1 written in ,hobbes's own hand1 and dated ,may #i1 #afdj4 ,this dedication was prefixed to the first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves1 under the title ,human ,nature in #afej4 #e ,the book1 of which the copies are rare 7one in ,dr ,williams's library in ,london and one in the ,bodleian71 was printed in quarto size 7,paris1 #afdb71 with a pictorial title-page 7not afterwards reproduced7 of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions1 ,libertas1 ,imperium1 ,religio4 ,the title ,elementorum philosophiae sectio tertia1 ,de ,cive1 expresses its relation to the unwritten sections1 which also comes out in one or two back-references in the text4 #f ,l4,w4 ii4 #acc-acd4 ,in this first public edition 7#abmo71 the title was changed to ,elementa philosophica de cive1 the references in the text to the previous sections being omitted4 ,the date of the dedication to the young earl of ,devonshire was altered from #afda to #afdf4 #g ,described as nobilis ,languedocianus in ,vit42 doubtless the same with the ,dominus ,verdusius1 nobilis ,aquitanus1 to whom was dedicated the ,exam4 et emend4 math4 hod4 7,l4,w4 iv47 in #affj4 ,du ,verdus was one of ,hobbes's profoundest admirers and most frequent correspondents in later years2 there are many of his letters among ,hobbes's papers at ,hardwick4 #h ,the ,human ,nature corresponds with cc4 i4-xiii4 of the first part of the original treatise4 ,the remaining six chapters of the part stand now as ,part ,i4 of the ,de ,corpore ,politico4 ,part ,,ii4 of the ,d4,c4,p4 corresponds with the original second part of the whole work4 #i ,at the beginning of this year he wrote and published in ,paris a letter on the nature and conditions of poetry1 chiefly epic1 in answer to an appeal to his judgment made in the preface to ,sir ,w4 ,davenant's heroic poem1 ,gondibert 7,e4,w4 iv4 #dda-deh74 ,the letter is dated ,jan4 #aj1 #afej 7#afej_/a74 #aj ,this presentation copy1 so described by ,clarendon 7,survey of the ,leviathan1 #afgf1 p4 #h71 is doubtless the beautifully written and finely bound ,,ms4 now to be found in the ,british ,museum 7,egerton ,,mss4 #aiaj74 #aa ,during all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive from his patron a yearly pension of ,l#hj1 and they remained in steady1 correspondence4 ,the earl1 having sided with the king in #afdb1 was declared unfit to sit in the ,house of ,peers1 and though1 by submission to ,parliament1 he recovered his estates when they were sequestered later on1 he did not sit again till #affj4 ,among ,hobbes's friends at this time are specially mentioned ,john ,selden and ,william ,harvey1 who left him a legacy of ,l#aj4 ,according to ,aubrey1 ,selden left him an equal bequest1 but this seems to be a mistake4 ,harvey 7not ,bacon7 is the only ,englishman he mentions in the dedicatory epistle prefixed to the ,de corpore1 among the founders1 before himself1 of the new natural philosophy4 #ab ,the treatise bore the date1 ,rouen1 ,aug4 #bj1 #afeb1 but it should have been #afdf1 as afterwards explained by ,hobbes himself 7,e4,w4 v4 #be74 #ac ,the ,vit4 auct4 refers to #afgf1 a ',letter to ,william duke of ,newcastle on the ,controversy about ,liberty and ,necessity1 held with ,benjamin ,laney1 bishop of ,ely4' ,in that year there did appear a 7confused7 little tract written by ,laney against ,hobbes's concluding statement of his own ',opinion' in the ',liberty and ,necessity' of #afed 7#afdf71 but ,i can find no trace of any further writing by ,hobbes on the subject 7,g4 ,croom ,robertson1 ,hobbes1 p4 #bjb74 #ad ,this translation1 ,concerning ,body1 though not made by ,hobbes1 was revised by him2 but it is far from accurate1 and not seldom1 at critical places 7e4g4 c4 vi4 ,s #b71 quite misleading4 ,philosophical citations from the ,de corpore should always be made in the original ,latin4 ,molesworth reprints the ,latin1 not from the first edition of #afee1 but from the modified edition of #affh--modified1 in the mathematical chapters1 in general 7not exact7 keeping with the ,english edition of #afef4 ,the ,vindex episode1 referred to in the ,six ,lessons1 becomes intelligible only by going beyond ,molesworth to the original ,latin edition of #afee4 #ae ,they were composed originally1 in a somewhat different and rather more extended form1 as the second part of an ,english treatise on ,optics1 completed by the year #afdf4 ,of this treatise1 preserved in ,harleian ,,mss4 #ccfj1 ,molesworth otherwise prints the dedication to the marquis of ,newcastle1 and the concluding paragraphs 7,e4,w4 vii4 #dfg-dga74 #af ,l4,w4 iv4 #a-bcb4 ,the propositions on the circle1 forty-six in number 7shattered by ,wallis in #affb71 were omitted by ,hobbes when he republished the ,dialogues in #affh1 in the collected edition of his ,latin works from which ,molesworth reprints4 ,in the part omitted1 at p4 #aed of the original edition1 ,hobbes refers to his first introduction to ,euclid1 in a way that confirms the story in ,aubrey quoted in an earlier paragraph4 #ag ,remaining at ,oxford1 ,wallis1 in fact1 took no active part in the constitution of the new society1 but he had been1 from #afde1 one of the originators of an earlier association in ,london1 thus continued or revived4 ,this earlier society had been continued also at ,oxford after the year #afdi1 when ,wallis and others of its members received appointments there4 #ah ,the ,problemata physica was at the same time put into ,english 7with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical appendix71 and presented to the king1 to whom the work was dedicated in a remarkable letter apologizing for ,leviathan4 ,in its ,english form1 as ,seven ,philosophical ,problems and ,two ,propositions of ,geometry 7,e4,w4 vii4 #a-fh71 the work was first published in #afhb1 after ,hobbes's death4 #ai ,wallis's pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his works 7#afic-afig71 and have become extremely rare4 #bj ,the ,de medio animarum statu of ,thomas ,white1 a heterodox ,catholic priest1 who contested the natural immortality of the soul4 ,white 7who died #afgf7 and ,hobbes were friends4 #ba ,e4,w4 vi4 #afa-dah4 ,though ,behemoth was kept back at the king's express desire1 it saw the light1 without ,hobbes's leave1 in #afgi1 before his death4 ,,hobby1 a small horse1 probably from early quotations1 of ,irish breed1 trained to an easy gait so that riding was not fatiguing4 ,the common use of the word is for a favourite pursuit or occupation1 with the idea either of excessive devotion or of absence of ulterior motive or of profit1 c41 outside the occupation itself4 ,this use is probably not derived from the easy ambling gait of the ,irish hobby1 but from the hobby-horse1 the mock horse of the old morris-dances1 made of a painted wooden horse's head and tail1 with a framework casing for an actor's body1 his legs being covered by a cloth made to represent the housings of the medieval tilting-horse4 ,a hobby or hobby-horse is thus a toy1 a diversion4 ,the ,o4 ,fr4 hobin1 or hobi1 ,mod4 aubin1 and ,ital4 ubina are probably adaptations of the ,english1 according to the ,new ,english ,dictionary4 ,the ,o4 ,fr4 hober1 to move1 which is often taken to be the origin of all these words1 is the source of a use of hobby for a small kind of falcon1 falco subbuteo1 used in hawking4 ,,hobhouse1 ,,arthur ,,hobhouse1 #a,,st ,,baron 7#ahai-aijd71 ,english judge1 fourth son of ,henry ,hobhouse1 permanent under-secretary of state in the ,home ,office1 was born at ,hadspen1 ,somerset1 on the #ajth of ,november #ahai4 ,educated at ,eton and ,balliol1 he was called to the bar at ,lincoln's ,inn in #ahde1 and rapidly acquired a large practice as a conveyancer and equity draftsman2 he became ,q4,c4 in #ahfb1 and practised in the ,rolls ,court1 retiring in #ahff4 ,he was an active member of the charity commission and urged the appropriation of pious bequests to educational and other purposes4 ,in #ahgb he began a five years' term of service as legal member of the council of the governor-general of ,india1 his services being acknowledged by a ,k4,c4,s4,i42 and in #ahha he was appointed a member of the judicial committee of the privy council1 on which he served for twenty years4 ,he was made a peer in #ahhe1 and consistently supported the ,liberal party in the ,house of ,lords4 ,he died on the #fth of ,december #aijd1 leaving no heir to the barony4 ,his papers read before the ,social ,science ,association on the subject of property were collected in #ahhj under the title of ,the ,dead ,hand4 ,,hoboken1 a small town of ,belgium on the right bank of the ,scheldt about #d m4 above ,antwerp4 ,it is only important on account of the shipbuilding yard which the ,cockerill firm of ,seraing has established at ,hoboken4 ,many wealthy ,antwerp merchants have villas here1 and it is the headquarters of several of the leading rowing clubs on the ,scheldt4 ,pop4 7#aijd7 #ab1haf4 ,,hoboken1 a city of ,hudson county1 ,new ,jersey1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,hudson river1 adjoining ,jersey ,city on the ,s4 and ,w4 and opposite ,new ,york city1 with which it is connected by ferries and by two subway lines through tunnels under the river4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #dc1fdh2 7#aijj7 #ei1cfd1 of whom #ba1chj were foreign-born1 #aj1hdc being natives of ,germany2 7#aiaj census7 #gj1cbd4 ,of the total population in #aijj1 #dh1cdi had either one or both parents foreign-born1 ,german being the principal racial element4 ,the city is served by the ,west ,shore1 and the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna ,western railways1 being the eastern terminus of the latter1 and is connected by electric railway with the neighbouring cities of north-eastern ,new ,jersey4 ,in ,hoboken are the piers of the ,north ,german ,lloyd1 the ,hamburg ,american1 the ,netherlands ,american1 the ,scandinavian and the ,phoenix steamship lines4 ,hoboken occupies a little more than #a sq4 m4 and lies near the foot of the ,new ,jersey ,palisades1 which rise both on the ,w4 and ,n4 to a height of nearly #bjj ft4 ,much of its surface has had to be filled in to raise it above high tide1 but ,castle ,point1 in the ,n4,e41 rises from the generally low level about #ajj ft4 ,on this ,point are the residence and private estate of the founder of the city1 ,john ,stevens 7#agdi-ahch71 ,hudson ,park1 and facing it the ,stevens ,institute of ,technology1 an excellent school of mechanical engineering endowed by ,edwin ,a4 ,stevens 7#agie-ahfh71 son of ,john ,stevens1 opened in #ahga1 and having in #aiji-aiaj #cd instructors and #cij students4 ,the institute owes much to its first president1 ,henry ,morton 7#ahcf-aijb71 a distinguished scientist1 whose aim was to offer a course of instruction in which theory and practice were carefully balanced and thoroughly combined1 and who gave to the institute sums aggregating #age1jjj 7see ,morton ,memorial1 ,history of ,stevens ,institute1 ed4 by ,furman1 #aije74 ,in connexion with the institute there is a preparatory department1 the ,stevens ,school 7#ahgj74 ,the city maintains a teachers' training school4 ,among the city's prominent buildings are the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna ,western station1 the ,hoboken ,academy 7#ahfj71 founded by ,german ,americans1 and the public library4 ,the city has an extensive coal trade and numerous manufactures1 among which are lead pencils1 leather goods1 silk goods1 wall-paper and caskets4 ,the value of the manufactured product increased from #g1aea1cia in #ahij to #ab1jib1hgb in #aijj1 or #fi4a4 ,the factory product in #aije was valued at #ad1jgg1cje1 an increase of #cd4c over that for #aijj4 ,the site of ,hoboken 7originally ,hobocanhackingh1 the place of the tobacco pipe7 was occupied about #afdj as a ,dutch farm1 but in #afdc the stock and all the buildings except a brew-house were destroyed by the ,indians4 ,in #agaa title to the place was acquired by ,samuel ,bayard1 a ,new ,york merchant1 who built on ,castle ,point his summer residence4 ,during the ,war of ,independence his descendant1 ,william ,bayard1 was a loyalist1 and his home was burned and his estate confiscated4 ,in #aghd the property was purchased by ,john ,stevens1 the inventor1 who in #ahjd laid it out as a town4 ,for the next thirty-five years its ,elysian ,fields were a famous pleasure resort of ,new ,york ,city4 ,hoboken was incorporated as a town in #ahdi and as a city in #ahee4 ,on the #cjth of ,june #aijj the wharves of the ,north ,german ,lloyd ,steamship ,company and three of its ocean liners were almost completely destroyed by a fire1 which caused a loss of more than #bjj lives and over #e1jjj1jjj4 ,,hobson',s ,,choice1 i4e4 this or nothing1 an expression that arose from the fact that the ,cambridge-,london carrier1 ,thomas ,hobson 7#aedd-afcj71 refused1 when letting his horses on hire1 to allow any animal to leave the stable out of its turn4 ,among other bequests made by ,hobson1 and commemorated by ,milton1 was a conduit for the ,cambridge market-place1 for which he provided the perpetual maintenance4 ,see ,spectator1 ,no4 #eji 7#adth of ,october #agab74 ,,hoby1 ,,sir ,,thomas 7#aecj-aeff71 ,english diplomatist and translator1 son of ,william ,hoby of ,leominster1 was born in #aecj4 ,he entered ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 in #aede1 but in #aedg he went to ,strassburg1 where he was the guest of ,martin ,bucer1 whose ,gratulation 444 unto the ,church of ,englande for the restitution of ,christes ,religion he translated into ,english4 ,he then proceeded to ,italy1 visiting ,padua and ,venice1 ,florence and ,siena1 and in ,may #aeej he had settled at ,rome1 when he was summoned by his half-brother1 ,sir ,philip ,hoby 7#aeje-aeeh71 then ambassador at the emperor's court1 to ,augsburg4 ,the brothers returned to ,england at the end of the year1 and ,thomas attached himself to the service of the marquis of ,northampton1 whom he accompanied to ,france on an embassy to arrange a marriage between ,edward ,,vi4 and the princess ,elizabeth4 ,shortly after he returned to ,england he started once more for ,paris1 and in #aeeb he was engaged on his translation of ,the ,courtyer of ,count ,baldessar ,castilio4 ,his work was probably completed in #aeed1 and the freedom of the allusions to the ,roman church probably accounts for the fact that it was withheld from publication until #aefa4 ,the ,cortegiano of ,baldassare ,castiglione1 which ,dr ,johnson called the best book that ever was written upon good breeding1 is a book as entirely typical of the ,italian ,renaissance as ,machiavelli's ,prince in another direction4 ,it exercised an immense influence on the standards of chivalry throughout ,europe1 and was long the recognized authority for the education of a nobleman4 ,the accession of ,mary made it desirable for the ,hobys to remain abroad1 and they were in ,italy until the end of #aeee4 ,thomas ,hoby married in #aeeh ,elizabeth1 the learned daughter of ,sir ,anthony ,cook1 who wrote a ,latin epitaph on her husband4 ,he was knighted in #aeff by ,elizabeth1 and was sent to ,france as ,english ambassador4 ,he died on the #acth of ,july in the same year in ,paris1 and was buried in ,bisham ,church4 ,his son1 ,,sir ,,edward ,,hoby 7#aefj-afag71 enjoyed ,elizabeth's favour1 and he was employed on various confidential missions4 ,he was constable of ,queenborough ,castle1 ,kent1 where he died on the #ast of ,march #afag4 ,he took part in the religious controversies of the time1 publishing many pamphlets against ,theophilus ,higgons and ,john ,fludd or ,floyd4 ,he translated1 from the ,french of ,mathieu ,coignet1 ,politique ,discourses on ,trueth and ,lying 7#aehf74 ,the authority for ,thomas ,hoby's biography is a ,,ms4 ,booke of the ,travaile and lief of me ,thomas ,hoby1 with diverse things worth the noting4 ,this was edited for the ,royal ,historical ,society by ,edgar ,powell in #aijb4 ,hoby's translation of ,the ,courtyer was edited 7#aijj7 by ,professor ,walter ,raleigh for the ,tudor ,translations series4 ,,hoche1 ,,lazare 7#agfh-agig71 ,french general1 was born of poor parents near ,versailles on the #bdth of ,june #agfh4 ,at sixteen years of age he enlisted as a private soldier in the ,gardes francaises4 ,he spent his entire leisure in earning extra pay by civil work1 his object being to provide himself with books1 and this love of study1 which was combined with a strong sense of duty and personal courage1 soon led to his promotion4 ,when the ,gardes francaises were broken up in #aghi he was a corporal1 and thereafter he served in various line regiments up to the time of his receiving a commission in #agib4 ,in the defence of ,thionville in that year ,hoche earned further promotion1 and he served with credit in the operations of #agib-agic on the northern frontier of ,france4 ,at the battle of ,neerwinden he was aide-de-camp to ,general le ,veneur1 and when ,dumouriez deserted to the ,austrians1 ,hoche1 along with le ,veneur and others1 fell under suspicion of treason2 but after being kept under arrest and unemployed for some months he took part in the defence of ,dunkirk1 and in the same year 7#agic7 he was promoted successively chef de brigade1 general of brigade1 and general of division4 ,in ,october #agic he was provisionally appointed to command the ,army of the ,moselle1 and within a few weeks he was in the field at the head of his army in ,lorraine4 ,his first battle was that of ,kaiserslautern 7#bhth-#cjth of ,november7 against ,prussians4 ,the ,french were defeated1 but even in the midst of the ,terror the ,committee of ,public ,safety continued ,hoche in his command4 ,pertinacity and fiery energy in their eyes outweighed everything else1 and ,hoche soon showed that he possessed these qualities4 ,on the #bbnd of ,december he stormed the lines of ,froschweiler1 and the representatives of the ,convention with his army at once added the ,army of the ,rhine to his sphere of command4 ,on the #bfth of ,december the ,french carried by assault the famous lines of ,weissenburg1 and ,hoche pursued his success1 sweeping the enemy before him to the middle ,rhine in four days4 ,he then put his troops into winter quarters4 ,before the following campaign opened1 he married ,anne ,adelaide ,dechaux at ,thionville 7,march #aath1 #agid74 ,but ten days later he was suddenly arrested1 charges of treason having been preferred by ,pichegru1 the displaced commander of the ,army of the ,rhine1 and by his friends4 ,hoche escaped execution1 however1 though imprisoned in ,paris until the fall of ,robespierre4 ,shortly after his release he was appointed to command against the ,vendeans 7#bast of ,august #agid74 ,he completed the work of his predecessors in a few months by the peace of ,jaunaye 7#aeth of ,february #agie71 but soon afterwards the war was renewed by the ,royalists4 ,hoche showed himself equal to the crisis and inflicted a crushing blow on the ,royalist cause by defeating and capturing de ,sombreuil's expedition at ,quiberon and ,penthievre 7#afth-#bast of ,july #agie74 ,thereafter1 by means of mobile columns 7which he kept under good discipline7 he succeeded before the summer of #agif in pacifying the whole of the west1 which had for more than three years been the scene of a pitiless civil war4 ,after this he was appointed to organize and command the troops destined for the invasion of ,ireland1 and he started on this enterprise in ,december #agif4 ,a tempest1 however1 separated ,hoche from the expedition1 and after various adventures the whole fleet returned to ,brest without having effected its purpose4 ,hoche was at once transferred to the ,rhine frontier1 where he defeated the ,austrians at ,neuwied 7,april71 though operations were soon afterwards brought to an end by the ,preliminaries of ,leoben4 ,later in #agig he was minister of war for a short period1 but in this position he was surrounded by obscure political intrigues1 and1 finding himself the dupe of ,barras and technically guilty of violating the constitution1 he quickly laid down his office1 returning to his command on the ,rhine frontier4 ,but his health grew rapidly worse1 and he died at ,wetzlar on the #aith of ,september #agig of consumption4 ,the belief was widely spread that he had been poisoned1 but the suspicion seems to have been without foundation4 ,he was buried by the side of his friend ,marceau in a fort on the ,rhine1 amidst the mourning not only of his army but of all ,france4 ,see ,privat1 ,notions historiques sur la vie morale1 politique et militaire du general ,hoche 7,strassburg1 #agih72 ,daunou1 ,eloge du general ,hoche 7#agih71 delivered on behalf of the ,institut at ,hoche's funeral2 ,rousselin1 ,vie de ,lazare ,hoche1 general des armees de la republique francaise 7,paris1 #agih2 this work was printed at the public expense and distributed to the schools72 ,dubroca1 ,eloge funebre du general ,hoche 7,paris1 #ahjj72 ,vie et pensees du general ,hoche 7,bern72 ,champrobert1 ,notice historique sur ,lazare ,hoche1 le pacificateur de la ,vendee 7,paris1 #ahdj72 ,dourille1 ,histoire de ,lazare ,hoche 7,paris1 #ahdd72 ,desprez1 ,lazare ,hoche d'apres sa correspondance 7,paris1 #aheh2 new ed41 #ahhj72 ,bergounioux1 ,essai sur la vie de ,lazare ,hoche 7#aheb72 ,e4 de ,bonnechose1 ,lazare ,hoche 7#ahfg72 ,h4 ,martin1 ,hoche et ,bonaparte 7#ahge72 ,dutemple1 ,vie politique et militaire du general ,hoche 7#ahgi72 ,escaude1 ,hoche en ,irlande 7#ahhh72 ,cuneo d',ornano1 ,hoche 7#ahib72 ,a4 ,chuquet1 ,hoche et la lutte pour l',alsace 7a volume of this author's series on the campaigns of the ,revolution1 #ahic72 ,e4 ,charavaray1 ,le ,general ,hoche 7#ahic72 ,a4 ,duruy1 ,hoche et ,marceau 7#ahhe74 ,,hochheim1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau1 situated on an elevation not far from the right bank of the ,main1 #c m4 above its influx into the ,rhine and #c m4 ,e4 of ,mainz by the railway from ,cassel to ,frankfort-on-,main4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #cggi4 ,it has an ,evangelical and a ,roman ,catholic church1 and carries on an extensive trade in wine1 the ,english word ,hock1 the generic term for ,rhine wine1 being derived from its name4 ,hochheim is mentioned in the chronicles as early as the #gth century4 ,it is also memorable as the scene of a victory gained here1 on the #gth of ,november #ahac by the ,austrians over the ,french4 ,see ,schuler1 ,geschichte der ,stadt ,hochheim am ,main 7,hochheim1 #ahhh74 ,,hochst1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau on the ,main1 #f m4 by rail ,w4 of ,frankfort-on-,main4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ad1aba4 ,it is a busy industrial town with large dye-works and manufactures of machinery1 snuff1 tobacco1 waxcloth1 gelatine1 furniture and biscuits4 ,brewing is carried on and there is a considerable river trade4 ,the ,roman ,catholic church of ,st ,justinus is a fine basilica originally built in the #ith century2 it has been restored several times1 and a ,gothic choir was added in the #aeth century4 ,the town has also an ,evangelical church and a synagogue1 and a statue of ,bismarck by ,alois ,mayer4 ,hochst belonged formerly to the electors of ,mainz who had a palace here2 this was destroyed in #afcd with the exception of one fine tower which still remains4 ,in #afbb ,christian1 duke of ,brunswick1 was defeated here by ,count ,tilly1 and in #agie the ,austrians gained a victory here over the ,french4 ,hochst is also the name of a small town in ,hesse4 ,this has some manufactures1 and was formerly the seat of a ,benedictine monastery4 ,,hochstadt1 a town of ,bavaria1 ,germany1 in the district of ,swabia1 on the left bank of the ,danube1 #cd m4 ,n4,e4 of ,ulm by rail4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bcje4 ,it has three ,roman ,catholic churches1 a castle flanked by walls and towers and some small industries1 including malting and brewing4 ,hochstadt1 which came into the possession of ,bavaria in #abff1 has been a place of battles4 ,here ,frederick of ,hohenstaufen1 vicegerent of the ,empire for ,henry ,,iv41 was defeated by ,henry's rival1 ,hermann of ,luxemburg1 in #ajha2 in #agjc the ,imperialists were routed here by ,marshal ,villars in command of the ,french2 in ,august #agjd ,marlborough and ,prince ,eugene defeated the ,french and ,bavarians commanded by ,max ,emanuel1 the elector of ,bavaria and ,marshal ,tallard1 this battle being usually known as that of ,blenheim2 and in ,june #ahjj an engagement took place here between the ,austrians and the ,french4 ,there is another small town in ,bavaria named ,hochstadt4 ,pop4 #bjjj4 ,this is on the river ,aisch1 not far from ,bamberg1 to which bishopric it belonged from #aaeg to #ahjb1 when it was ceded to ,bavaria4 ,,hochstetter1 ,,ferdinand ,,christian ,,von1 ,,baron 7#ahbi-ahhd71 ,austrian geologist1 was born at ,esslingen1 ,wurtemberg1 on the #cjth of ,april #ahbi4 ,he was the son of ,christian ,ferdinand ,hochstetter 7#aghg-ahfj71 a clergyman and professor at ,brunn1 who was also a botanist and mineralogist4 ,having received his early education at the evangelical seminary at ,maulbronn1 he proceeded to the university of ,tubingen2 there under ,f4 ,a4 ,quenstedt the interest he already felt in geology became permanently fixed1 and there he obtained his doctor's degree and a travelling scholarship4 ,in #aheb he joined the staff of the ,imperial ,geological ,survey of ,austria and was engaged until #ahef in parts of ,bohemia1 especially in the ,bohmerwald1 and in the ,fichtel and ,karlsbad mountains4 ,his excellent reports established his reputation4 ,thus he came to be chosen as geologist to the ,novara expedition 7#aheg-ahei71 and made numerous valuable observations in the voyage round the world4 ,in #ahei he was engaged by the government of ,new ,zealand to make a rapid geological survey of the islands4 ,on his return he was appointed in #ahfj professor of mineralogy and geology at the ,imperial ,polytechnic ,institute in ,vienna1 and in #ahgf he was made superintendent of the ,imperial ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,in these later years he explored portions of ,turkey and eastern ,russia1 and he published papers on a variety of geological1 palaeontological and mineralogical subjects4 ,he died at ,vienna on the #ahth of ,july #ahhd4 ,,publications4--,karlsbad1 seine geognostischen ,verhaltnisse und seine ,quellen 7#aheh72 ,neu-,seeland 7#ahfc72 ,geological and ,topographical ,atlas of ,new ,zealand 7#ahfd72 ,leitfaden der ,mineralogie und ,geologie 7with ,a4 ,bisching7 7#ahgf1 ed4 #h1 #ahij74 ,,hockey 7possibly derived from the hooked stick with which it is played2 cf4 ,o4 ,fr4 hoquet1 shepherd's crook71 a game played with a ball or some similar object by two opposing sides1 using hooked or bent sticks1 with which each side attempts to drive it into the other's goal4 ,in one or more of its variations ,hockey was known to most northern peoples in both ,europe and ,asia1 and the ,romans possessed a game of similar nature4 ,it was played indiscriminately on the frozen ground or the ice in winter4 ,in ,scotland it was called shinty1 and in ,ireland hurley1 and was usually played on the hard1 sandy sea-shore with numerous players on each side4 ,the rules were simple and the play very rough4 ,modern ,hockey1 properly so called1 is played during the cold season on the hard turf1 and owes its recent vogue to the formation of ,the ,men's ,hockey ,association in ,england in #ahge4 ,the rules drawn up by the ,wimbledon ,club in #ahhc still obtain in all essentials4 ,since #ahie international matches at hockey have been played annually between ,england1 ,scotland1 ,ireland and ,wales2 and in #aijg a match was played between ,england and ,france1 won by ,england by #ad goals to nil4 ,in #ahij ,divisional ,association matches 7,north1 ,south1 ,west1 ,midlands7 and inter-university matches 7,oxford and ,cambridge7 were inaugurated1 and have since been played annually4 ,county matches are also now regularly played in ,england1 twenty-six counties competing in #aijg4 ,of other hockey clubs playing regular matches in #aijg1 there were eighty-one in the ,london district1 and fifty-nine in the provinces4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of ,hockey ,field4 ,g1 ,goal4 ,,rw1 ,right ,wing4 ,,rb1 ,right ,back4 ,,ri1 ,inside ,right4 ,,lb1 ,left ,back4 ,,cf1 ,centre ,forward4 ,,rh1 ,right ,half4 ,,li1 ,inside ,left4 ,,ch1 ,centre ,half4 ,,lw1 ,left ,wing4 ,,lh1 ,left ,half4 ,the game is played by teams of eleven players on a ground #ajj yds4 long and #ej to #fj yds4 wide4 ,the goals are in the centre of each end-line1 and consist of two uprights #g ft4 high surmounted by a horizontal bar1 enclosing a space #ab ft4 wide4 ,in front of each goal is a space enclosed by a curved line1 its greatest diameter from the goal-line being #ae ft41 called the striking-circle4 ,the positions of the players on each side may be seen on the accompanying diagram4 ,two umpires1 one on each side of the centre-line1 officiate4 ,the ball is an ordinary cricket-ball painted white4 ,the stick has a hard-wood curved head1 and a handle of cork or wrapped cane4 ,it must not exceed #b in4 in diameter nor #bh oz4 in weight4 ,at the start of the game1 which consists of two thirty or thirty-five minute periods1 the two centre-forwards bully off the ball in the middle of the field4 ,in bullying off each centre must strike the ground on his own side of the ball three times with his stick and strike his opponent's stick three times alternately2 after which either may strike the ball4 ,each side then endeavours1 by means of striking1 passing and dribbling1 to drive the ball into its opponents' goal4 ,a player is off side if he is nearer the enemy's goal than one of his own side who strikes the ball1 and he may not strike the ball himself until it has been touched by one of the opposing side4 ,the ball may be caught 7but not held7 or stopped by any part of the body1 but may not be picked up1 carried1 kicked1 thrown or knocked except with the stick4 ,an opponent's stick may be hooked1 but not an opponent's person1 which may not be obstructed in any way4 ,no left-handed play is allowed4 ,penalties for infringing rules are of two classes2 free hits and penalty bullies1 to be taken where the foul occurred4 ,for flagrant fouls penalty goals may also be awarded4 ,a corner occurs when the ball goes behind the goal-line1 but not into goal4 ,if it is hit by the attacking side1 or unintentionally by the defenders1 it must be brought out #be yds41 in a direction at right angles to the goal-line from the point where it crossed the line1 and there bullied4 ,but if the ball is driven from within the #be-yd4 line unintentionally behind the goal-line by the defenders1 a member of the attacking side is given a free hit from a point within #c yds4 of a corner flag1 the members of the defending side remaining behind their goal-line4 ,if the ball is hit intentionally behind the goal-line by the attacking side1 the free hit is taken from the point where the ball went over4 ,no goal can be scored from a free hit directly4 ,ice ,hockey 7or ,bandy1 to give it its original name7 is far more popular than ordinary ,hockey in countries where there is much ice2 in fact in ,america ,hockey means ,ice ,hockey1 while the land game is called ,field ,hockey4 ,ice ,hockey in its simplest form of driving a ball across a given limit with a stick or club has been played for centuries in northern ,europe1 attaining its greatest popularity in the ,low ,countries1 and there are many #afth- and #agth-century paintings extant which represent games of ,bandy1 the players using an implement formed much like a golf club4 ,in ,england ,bandy is controlled by the ,national ,bandy ,association4 ,a team consists of eleven players1 wearing skates1 and the proper space for play is #bjj yds4 by #ajj yds4 in extent4 ,the ball is of solid india-rubber1 between #b7a_/d7 and #b7c_/d7 in4 in diameter4 ,the bandies are #b in4 in diameter and about #d ft4 long4 ,the goals1 placed in the centre of each goal-line1 consist of two upright posts #g ft4 high and #ab ft4 apart1 connected by a lath4 ,a match is begun by the referee throwing up the ball in the centre of the field1 after which it must not be touched other than with the bandy until a goal is scored or the ball passes the boundaries of the course1 in which case it is hit into the field in any direction excepting forward from the point where it went out by the player who touched it last4 ,if the ball is hit across the goal-line but not into a goal1 it is hit out by one of the defenders from the point where it went over1 the opponents not being allowed to approach nearer than #be yds4 from the goal-line while the hit is made4 ,illustration3 ,hockey ,stick4 ,in ,america the development of the modern game is due to the ,victoria ,hockey ,club and ,mc,gill ,university 7,montreal74 ,about #ahha the secretary of the former club made the first efforts towards drawing up a recognized code of laws1 and for some time afterwards playing rules were agreed upon from time to time whenever an important match was played1 the chief teams being1 besides those already mentioned1 the ,ottawa1 ,quebec1 ,crystal and ,montreal ,hockey ,clubs1 the first general tournament taking place in #ahhd4 ,three years later the ,amateur ,hockey ,association of ,canada was formed1 and a definite code of rules drawn up4 ,soon afterwards1 in consequence of exhibitions given by the best ,canadian teams in some of the larger cities of the ,united ,states1 the new game was taken up by ,american schools1 colleges and athletic clubs1 and became nearly as popular in the northern states as in the ,dominion4 ,the rules differ widely from those of ,english ,bandy4 ,the rink must be at least #aab ft4 long by #eh ft4 wide1 and seven players form a side4 ,the goals are #f ft4 wide and #d ft4 high and are provided with goal-nets4 ,instead of the ,english painted cricket-ball a puck is used1 made of vulcanized rubber in the form of a draught-stone1 #a in4 thick1 and #c in4 in diameter4 ,the sticks are made of one piece of hard wood1 and may not be more than #c in4 wide at any part4 ,the game is played for two half-hour or twenty-minute periods with an intermission of ten minutes4 ,at the beginning of a match1 and also when a goal has been made1 the puck is faced1 i4e4 it is placed in the middle of the rink between the sticks of the two left-centres1 and the referee calls play4 ,whichever side then secures the ball endeavours by means of passing and dribbling to get the puck into a position from which a goal may be shot4 ,the puck may be stopped by any part of the person but not carried or knocked except with the stick4 ,no stick may be raised above the shoulder except when actually striking the puck4 ,when the puck is driven off the rink or behind the goal1 or a foul has been made behind the goal1 it is faced #e yds4 inside the rink4 ,the goal-keeper must maintain a standing position4 ,there are a number of ,hockey organizations in ,america1 all under the jurisdiction of the ,american ,amateur ,hockey ,league in the ,united ,states and the ,canadian ,amateur ,athletic ,league in ,canada4 ,ice ,polo1 a winter sport similar to ,ice ,hockey1 is almost exclusively played in the ,new ,england states4 ,a rubber-covered ball is used and the stick is heavier than that used in ,ice ,hockey4 ,the radical difference between the two games is that1 in ,ice ,polo1 there is no strict off-side rule1 so that passes and shots at goal may come from any and often the most unexpected direction4 ,five men constitute a team3 a goal-tend1 a half-back1 a centre and two rushers4 ,the rushers must be rapid skaters1 adepts in dribbling and passing and good goal shots4 ,the centre supports the rushers1 passing the ball to them or trying for goal himself4 ,the half-back is the first defence and the goal-tend the last4 ,the rink is #aej ft4 long4 ,ring ,hockey may be played on the floor of any gymnasium or large room by teams of six1 comprising a goal-keeper1 a quarter1 three forwards and a centre4 ,the goals consist of two uprights #c ft4 high and #d ft4 apart4 ,the ring1 which takes the place of the ball or puck1 is made of flexible rubber1 and is #e in4 in diameter with a #c-;in4 opening through the centre4 ,it weighs between #ab and #af oz4 ,the stick is a wand of light but tough wood1 between #cf and #dj in4 long1 about #c_/d in4 in diameter1 provided with a #e-;in4 guard #bj in4 from the lower end4 ,the method of shooting is to insert the end of the stick in the hole of the ring and drive it towards the goal4 ,a goal shot from the field counts one point1 a goal from a foul #a_/b point4 ,when a foul is called by the referee a player of the opposing side is allowed a free shot for goal from any point on the quarter line4 ,roller ,polo1 played extensively during the winter months in the ,united ,states1 is practically ,ice ,polo adapted to the floors of gymnasiums and halls1 the players1 five on a side1 wearing roller-skates4 ,the first professional league was organized in #ahhc4 ,,hock-,,tide1 an ancient general holiday in ,england1 celebrated on the second ,monday and ,tuesday after ,easter ,sunday4 ,hock-,tuesday was an important term day1 rents being then payable1 for with ,michaelmas it divided the rural year into its winter and summer halves4 ,the derivation of the word is disputed3 any analogy with ,ger4 hoch1 high1 being generally denied4 ,no trace of the word is found in ,old ,english1 and hock-day1 its earliest use in composition1 appears first in the #abth century4 ,the characteristic pastime of hock-tide was called binding4 ,on ,monday the women1 on ,tuesday the men1 stopped all passers of the opposite sex and bound them with ropes till they bought their release with a small payment1 or a rope was stretched across the highroads1 and the passers were obliged to pay toll4 ,the money thus collected seems to have gone towards parish expenses4 ,many entries are found in parish registers under ,hocktyde money4 ,the hock-tide celebration became obsolete in the beginning of the #ahth century4 ,at ,coventry there was a play called ,the ,old ,coventry ,play of ,hock ,tuesday4 ,this1 suppressed at the ,reformation owing to the incidental disorder1 and revived as part of the festivities on ,queen ,elizabeth's visit to ,kenilworth in ,july #aege1 depicted the struggle between ,saxons and ,danes1 and has given colour to the suggestion that hock-tide was originally a commemoration of the massacre of the ,danes on ,st ,brice's ,day1 the #acth of ,november ,a4,d4 #ajjb1 or of the rejoicings at the death of ,hardicanute on the #hth of ,june #ajdb and the expulsion of the ,danes4 ,but the dates of these anniversaries do not bear this out4 ,,hocus1 a shortened form of hocus pocus1 used in the #agth century in the sense of to play a trick on any one1 to hoax1 which is generally taken to be a derivative4 ,hocus pocus appears to have been a mock ,latin expression first used as the name of a juggler or conjurer4 ,thus in ,ady's ,candle in the ,dark 7#afee71 quoted in the ,new ,english ,dictionary1 ,i will speak of one man 444 that went about in ,king ,james his time 444 who called himself1 ,the ,kings ,majesties most excellent ,hocus ,pocus1 and so was called1 because that at the playing of every ,trick1 he used to say1 ,hocus pocus1 tontus talontus1 vade celeriter jubeo1 a dark composure of words1 to blinde the eyes of the beholders1 to make his ,trick pass the more currantly without discovery4 ,tillotson's guess 7,sermons1 xxvi47 that the phrase was a corruption of hoc est corpus and alluded to the words of the ,eucharist1 in ridiculous imitation of the priests of the ,church of ,rome in their trick of ,transubstantiation1 has frequently been accepted as a serious derivation1 but has no foundation4 ,a connexion with a supposed demon of ,scandinavian mythology1 called ,ochus ,bochus1 is equally unwarranted4 ,hocus is used as a verb1 meaning to drug1 stupefy with opium1 c41 for a criminal purpose4 ,this use dates from the beginning of the #aith century4 ,,hodden 7a word of unknown origin71 a coarse kind of cloth made of undyed wool1 formerly much worn by the peasantry of ,scotland4 ,it was usually made on small hand-looms by the peasants themselves4 ,grey hodden was made by mixing black and white fleeces together in the proportion of one to twelve when weaving4 ,,hoddesdon1 an urban district in the ,hertford parliamentary division of ,hertfordshire1 ,england1 near the river ,lea1 #ag m4 ,n4 from ,london by the ,great ,eastern railway 7,broxbourne and ,hoddesdon station on the ,cambridge line74 ,pop4 7#aija71 #dgaa4 ,this is the northernmost of a series of populous townships extending from the suburbs of ,london along the ,lea valley as far as its junction with the ,stort1 which is close to ,hoddesdon4 ,they are in the main residential4 ,hoddesdon was a famous coaching station on the ,old ,north ,road2 and the ,bull posting-house is mentioned in ,matthew ,prior's ,down ,hall4 ,the ,lea has been a favourite resort of anglers 7mainly for coarse fish in this part7 from the time of ,izaak ,walton1 in whose book ,hoddesdon is specifically named4 ,the church of ,st ,augustine1 ,broxbourne1 is a fine example of ,perpendicular work1 and contains interesting monuments1 including an altar tomb with enamelled brasses of #adgc4 ,hoddesdon probably covers the site of a ,romano-,british village4 ,,hodeda 7,hodeida1 ,hadeda71 a town in ,arabia situated on the ,red ,sea coast #ad deg4 #dh' ,n4 and #db deg4 #eg' ,e4 ,it lies on a beach of muddy sand exposed to the southerly and westerly winds4 ,steamers anchor more than a mile from shore1 and merchandize has to be transhipped by means of sambuks or native boats4 ,but ,hodeda has become the chief centre of the maritime trade of ,turkish ,yemen1 and has superseded ,mokha as the great port of export of ,south ,arabian coffee4 ,the town is composed of stone-built houses of several storeys1 and is surrounded1 except on the sea face1 by a fortified enceinte4 ,the population is estimated at #cc1jjj1 and contains1 besides the ,arab inhabitants and the ,turkish officials and garrison1 a considerable foreign element1 ,greeks1 ,indians and ,african traders from the opposite coast4 ,there are consulates of ,great ,britain1 ,united ,states1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy and ,greece4 ,the steam tonnage entering and clearing the port in #aijd amounted to #gh1gjj tons1 the highest hitherto recorded4 ,regular services are maintained with ,aden1 and with ,suez1 ,massowa and the other ,red ,sea ports4 ,large dhows bring dates from the ,persian ,gulf1 and occasional steamers from ,bombay call on their way to ,jidda with cargoes of grain4 ,the imports for #aijd amounted in value to ,l#dfg1jjj1 the chief items being piece goods1 food grains and sugar2 the exports amounted to ,l#dea1jjj1 including coffee valued at ,l#bbi1jjj4 ,,hodening1 an ancient ,christmas custom still surviving in ,wales1 ,kent1 ,lancashire and elsewhere4 ,a horse's skull or a wooden imitation on a pole is carried round by a party of youths1 one of whom conceals himself under a white cloth to simulate the horse's body1 holding a lighted candle in the skull4 ,they make a house-to-house visitation1 begging gratuities4 ,the ,penitential of ,archbishop ,theodore 7d4 #fij7 speaks of any who1 on the kalands of ,january1 clothe themselves with the skins of cattle and carry heads of animals4 ,this1 coupled with the fact that among the primitive ,scandinavians the horse was often the sacrifice made at the winter solstice to ,odin for success in battle1 has been thought to justify the theory that hodening is a corruption of ,odining4 ,,hodge1 ,,charles 7#agig-ahgh71 ,american theologian1 was born in ,philadelphia1 ,pennsylvania1 on the #bhth of ,december #agig4 ,he graduated at the ,college of ,new ,jersey 7now ,princeton7 in #ahae1 and in #ahai at the ,princeton ,theological seminary1 where he became an instructor in #ahbj1 and the first professor of ,oriental and ,biblical literature in #ahbb4 ,meanwhile1 in #ahba1 he had been ordained as a ,presbyterian minister4 ,from #ahbf to #ahbh he studied under de ,sacy in ,paris1 under ,gesenius and ,tholuck in ,halle1 and under ,hengstenberg1 ,neander and ,humboldt in ,berlin4 ,in #ahdj he was transferred to the chair of exegetical and didactic theology1 to which subjects that of polemic theology was added in #ahed1 and this office he held until his death4 ,in #ahbe he established the quarterly ,biblical ,repertory1 the title of which was changed to ,biblical ,repertory and ,theological ,review in #ahcj and to ,biblical ,repertory and ,princeton ,review in #ahcg4 ,with it1 in #ahdj1 was merged the ,literary and ,theological ,review of ,new ,york1 and in #ahgb the ,american ,presbyterian ,review of ,new ,york1 the title becoming ,presbyterian ,quarterly and ,princeton ,review in #ahgb and ,princeton ,review in #ahgg4 ,he secured for it the position of theological organ of the ,old ,school division of the ,presbyterian church1 and continued its principal editor and contributor until #ahfh1 when the ,rev4 ,lyman ,h4 ,atwater became his colleague4 ,his more important essays were republished under the titles ,essays and ,reviews 7#aheg71 ,princeton ,theological ,essays1 and ,discussions in ,church ,polity 7#ahgh74 ,he was moderator of the ,general ,assembly 7,o4,s47 in #ahdf1 a member of the committee to revise the ,book of ,discipline of the ,presbyterian church in #aheh1 and president of the ,presbyterian ,board of ,foreign ,missions in #ahfh-ahgj4 ,the #bdth of ,april #ahgb1 the fiftieth anniversary of his election to his professorship1 was observed in ,princeton as his jubilee by between #djj and #ejj representatives of his #bgjj pupils1 and #ej1jjj was raised for the endowment of his chair4 ,he died at ,princeton on the #aith of ,june #ahgh4 ,hodge was one of the greatest of ,american theologians4 ,besides his articles in the ,princeton ,review1 he published a ,commentary on the ,epistle to the ,romans 7#ahce1 abridged #ahcf1 rewritten and enlarged #ahfd1 new ed4 #ahhf71 ,constitutional ,history of the ,presbyterian ,church in the ,united ,states 7#b vols41 #ahci-ahdj72 ,the ,way of ,life 7#ahda72 ,commentaries on ,ephesians 7#ahef72 #a ,corinthians 7#aheg72 #b ,corinthians 7#ahei72 ,systematic ,theology 7#c vols41 #bbjj pp41 #ahga-ahgc71 probably the best of all modern expositions of ,calvinistic dogmatic2 and ,what is ,darwinism8 7#ahgd71 in which he opposed ,atheistic ,evolutionism4 ,after his death a volume of ,conference ,papers 7#ahgi7 was published4 ,his life1 by his son1 was published in #ahhj4 ,his son1 ,,archibald ,,alexander ,,hodge 7#ahbc-ahhf71 also famous as a ,presbyterian theologian1 was born at ,princeton on the #ahth of ,july #ahbc4 ,he graduated at the ,college of ,new ,jersey in #ahda1 and at the ,princeton ,theological seminary in #ahdf1 and was ordained in #ahdg4 ,from #ahdg to #ahej he was a missionary at ,allahabad1 ,india1 and was then pastor of churches successively at ,lower ,west ,nottingham1 ,maryland 7#ahea-ahee72 at ,fredericksburg1 ,virginia 7#ahee-ahfa71 and at ,wilkes-,barre1 ,pennsylvania 7#ahfa-ahfd74 ,from #ahfd to #ahgg he was professor of didactic and polemical theology in the ,allegheny ,theological seminary at ,allegheny1 ,pennsylvania1 where he was also from #ahff to #ahgg pastor of the ,north ,church 7,presbyterian74 ,in #ahgh he succeeded his father as professor of didactic theology at the ,princeton seminary4 ,he died on the #aath of ,november #ahhf4 ,besides writing the biography of his father1 he was the author of ,outlines of ,theology 7#ahfj1 new ed4 #ahge2 enlarged1 #ahgi72 ,the ,atonement 7#ahfg72 ,exposition of the ,confession of ,faith 7#ahfi72 and ,popular ,lectures on ,theological ,themes 7#ahhg74 ,see ,c4 ,a4 ,salmond's ,charles and ,a4 ,a4 ,hodge 7,new ,york1 #ahhh74 ,,hodgkin1 ,,thomas 7#ahca- 71 ,british historian1 son of ,john ,hodgkin 7#ahjj-ahge71 barrister1 was born in ,london on the #bith of ,july #ahca4 ,having been educated as a member of the ,society of ,friends and taken the degree of ,b4,a4 at ,london ,university1 he became a partner in the banking house of ,hodgkin1 ,barnett ,co41 ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 a firm afterwards amalgamated with ,lloyds' ,bank4 ,while continuing in business as a banker1 ,hodgkin devoted a good deal of time to historical study1 and soon became a leading authority on the history of the early middle ages1 his books being indispensable to all students of this period4 ,his chief works are1 ,italy and her ,invaders 7#h vols41 ,oxford1 #ahhj-ahii72 ,the ,dynasty of ,theodosius 7,oxford1 #ahhi72 ,theodoric the ,goth 7,london1 #ahia72 and an introduction to the ,letters of ,cassiodorus 7,london1 #ahhf74 ,he also wrote a ,life of ,charles the ,great 7,london1 #ahig72 ,life of ,george ,fox 7,boston1 #ahif72 and the opening volume of ,longman's ,political ,history of ,england 7,london1 #aijf74 ,,hodgkinson1 ,,eaton 7#aghi-ahfa71 ,english engineer1 the son of a farmer1 was born at ,anderton near ,northwich1 ,cheshire1 on the #bfth of ,february #aghi4 ,after attending school at ,northwich1 he began to help his widowed mother on the farm1 but to escape from that uncongenial occupation he persuaded her in #ahaa to remove to ,manchester and start a pawnbroking business4 ,there he made the acquaintance of ,john ,dalton1 and began those inquiries into the strength of materials which formed the work of his life4 ,he was associated with ,sir ,william ,fairbairn in an important series of experiments on cast iron1 and his help was sought by ,robert ,stephenson in regard to the forms and dimensions of the tubes for the ,britannia bridge4 ,a paper which he communicated to the ,royal ,society on ,experimental ,researches on the ,strength of ,pillars of ,cast ,iron and other ,materials1 in #ahdj gained him a ,royal medal in #ahda1 and he was also elected a fellow4 ,in #ahdg he was appointed professor of the mechanical principles of engineering in ,university ,college1 ,london1 and at the same time he was employed as a member of the ,royal ,commission appointed to inquire into the application of iron to railway structures4 ,in #ahdh he was chosen president of the ,manchester ,philosophical ,society1 of which he had been a member since #ahbf1 and to which1 both previously and subsequently1 he contributed many of the more important results of his discoveries4 ,for several years he took an active part in the discussions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 of which he was elected an honorary member in #ahea4 ,he died at ,eaglesfield ,house1 near ,manchester1 on the #ahth of ,june #ahfa4 ,,hodgson1 ,,brian ,,houghton 7#ahjj-ahid71 ,english administrator1 ethnologist and naturalist1 was born at ,lower ,beech1 ,prestbury1 ,cheshire1 on the #ast of ,february #ahjj4 ,his father1 ,brian ,hodgson1 came of a family of country gentlemen1 and his mother was a daughter of ,william ,houghton of ,manchester4 ,in #ahaf he obtained an ,east ,indian writership4 ,after passing through the usual course at ,haileybury1 he went out to ,india in #ahah1 and after a brief service at ,kumaon as assistant-commissioner was in #ahbj appointed assistant to the ,resident at ,katmandu1 the capital of ,nepal4 ,in #ahbc he obtained an under-secretaryship in the foreign department at ,calcutta1 but his health failed1 and in #ahbd he returned to ,nepal1 to which the whole of his life1 whether in or out of ,india1 may be said to have been thenceforth given4 ,he devoted himself particularly to the collection of ,sanskrit ,,mss4 relating to ,buddhism1 and hardly less so to the natural history and antiquities of the country1 and by #ahci had contributed eighty-nine papers to the ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal4 ,his investigations of the ethnology of the aboriginal tribes were especially important4 ,in #ahcc he became ,resident in ,nepal1 and passed many stormy years in conflict with the cruel and faithless court to which he was accredited4 ,he succeeded1 nevertheless1 in concluding a satisfactory treaty in #ahci2 but in #ahdb his policy1 which involved an imperious attitude towards the native government1 was upset by the interference of ,lord ,ellenborough1 but just arrived in ,india and not unnaturally anxious to avoid trouble in ,nepal during the conflict in ,afghanistan4 ,hodgson took upon himself to disobey his instructions1 a breach of discipline justified to his own mind by his superior knowledge of the situation1 but which the governor-general could hardly be expected to overlook4 ,he was1 nevertheless1 continued in office for a time1 but was recalled in #ahdc1 and resigned the service4 ,in #ahde he returned to ,india and settled at ,darjeeling1 where he devoted himself entirely to his favourite pursuits1 becoming the greatest authority on the ,buddhist religion and on the flora of the ,himalayas4 ,it was he who early suggested the recruiting of ,gurkhas for the ,indian army1 and who influenced ,sir ,jung ,bahadur to lend his assistance to the ,british during the mutiny in #aheg4 ,in #aheh he returned to ,england1 and lived successively in ,cheshire and ,gloucestershire1 occupied with his studies to the last4 ,he died at his seat at ,alderley ,grange in the ,cotswold ,hills on the #bcrd of ,may #ahid4 ,no man has done so much to throw light on ,buddhism as it exists in ,nepal1 and his collections of ,sanskrit manuscripts1 presented to the ,east ,india ,office1 and of natural history1 presented to the ,british ,museum1 are unique as gatherings from a single country4 ,he wrote altogether #ahd philological and ethnological and #abg scientific papers1 as well as some valuable pamphlets on native education1 in which he took great interest4 ,his principal work1 ,illustrations of the ,literature and ,religion of ,buddhists 7#ahda71 was republished with the most important of his other writings in #ahgb-ahhj4 ,his life was written by ,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter in #ahif4 ,,hodmezo-,,vasarhely1 a town of ,hungary1 in the county of ,csongrad1 #ace m4 ,s4,e4 of ,budapest by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #fj1hbd of which about two-thirds are ,protestants4 ,the town1 situated on ,lake ,hod1 not far from the right bank of the ,tisza1 has a modern aspect4 ,the soil of the surrounding country1 of which #chc sq4 m4 belong to the municipality1 is exceedingly fertile1 the chief products being wheat1 mangcorn1 barley1 oats1 millet1 maize and various descriptions of fruit1 especially melons4 ,extensive vineyards1 yielding large quantities of both white and red grapes1 skirt the town1 and the horned cattle and horses of ,hodmezo-,vasarhely have a good reputation2 sheep and pigs are also extensively reared4 ,the commune is protected from inundations of the ,tisza by an enormous dike1 but the town1 nevertheless1 sometimes suffers considerable damage during the spring floods4 ,,hodograph 7,gr4 ,greek3 hodos1 a way1 and ,greek3 graphein1 to write71 a curve of which the radius vector is proportional to the velocity of a moving particle4 ,it appears to have been used by ,james ,bradley1 but for its practical development we are mainly indebted to ,sir ,william ,rowan ,hamilton1 who published an account of it in the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,irish ,academy1 #ahdf4 ,if a point be in motion in any orbit and with any velocity1 and if1 at each instant1 a line be drawn from a fixed point parallel and equal to the velocity of the moving point at that instant1 the extremities of these lines will lie on a curve called the hodograph4 ,let ,,pp#a,p#b be the path of the moving point1 and let ,,ot1 ,,ot#a1 ,,ot#b1 be drawn from the fixed point ,o parallel and equal to the velocities at ,p1 ,p#a1 ,p#b respectively1 then the locus of ,t is the hodograph of the orbits described by ,p 7see figure74 ,from this definition we have the following important fundamental property which belongs to all hodographs1 viz4 that at any point the tangent to the hodograph is parallel to the direction1 and the velocity in the hodograph equal to the magnitude of the resultant acceleration at the corresponding point of the orbit4 ,this will be evident if we consider that1 since radii vectores of the hodograph represent velocities in the orbit1 the elementary arc between two consecutive radii vectores of the hodograph represents the velocity which must be compounded with the velocity of the moving point at the beginning of any short interval of time to get the velocity at the end of that interval1 that is to say1 represents the change of velocity for that interval4 ,hence the elementary arc divided by the element of time is the rate of change of velocity of the moving-point1 or in other words1 the velocity in the hodograph is the acceleration in the orbit4 ,illustration ,analytically thus 7,thomson and ,tait1 ,nat4 ,phil473--,let x1 y1 z be the coordinates of ,p in the orbit1 xi1 eta1 zeta those of the corresponding point ,t in the hodograph1 then xi dx_/dt1 eta dy_/dt1 zeta dz_/dt2 therefore dxi deta dzeta ---------- ----------- ----------- 7#a74 7d#bx_/dt#b7 7d#by_/dt#b7 7d#bz_/dt#b7 ,also1 if s be the arc of the hodograph1 ds _/ _/dxi#b _/deta#b _/dzeta#b -- v _/ 7 ----- 7 7 ------ 7 7 ------- 7 dt _/ dt _/ dt _/ dt _/ _/ _/d#bx#b _/d#by#b _/d#bz#b _/ 7 --- 7 7 --- 7 7 --- 7 7#b74 _/ dt#b_/ dt#b_/ dt#b_/ ,equation 7#a7 shows that the tangent to the hodograph is parallel to the line of resultant acceleration1 and 7#b7 that the velocity in the hodograph is equal to the acceleration4 ,every orbit must clearly have a hodograph1 and1 conversely1 every hodograph a corresponding orbit2 and1 theoretically speaking1 it is possible to deduce the one from the other1 having given the other circumstances of the motion4 ,for applications of the hodograph to the solution of kinematical problems see ,,mechanics4 ,,hodson1 ,,william ,,stephen ,,raikes 7#ahba-aheh71 known as ,hodson of ,hodson's ,horse1 ,british leader of light cavalry during the ,indian ,mutiny1 third son of the ,rev4 ,george ,hodson1 afterwards archdeacon of ,stafford and canon of ,lichfield1 was born on the #aith of ,march #ahba at ,maisemore ,court1 near ,gloucester4 ,he was educated at ,rugby and ,cambridge1 and accepted a cadetship in the ,indian army at the advanced age for those days of twenty-three4 ,joining the #bnd ,bengal ,grenadiers he went through the first ,sikh ,war1 and was present at the battles of ,moodkee1 ,ferozeshah and ,sobraon4 ,in one of his letters home at this period he calls the campaign a tissue of mismanagement1 blunders1 errors1 ignorance and arrogance1 and outspoken criticism such as this brought him many bitter enemies throughout his career1 who made the most of undeniable faults of character4 ,in #ahdg1 through the influence of ,sir ,henry ,lawrence1 he was appointed adjutant of the corps of ,guides1 and in #aheb was promoted to the command of the ,guides with the civil charge of ,yusafzai4 ,but his brusque and haughty demeanour to his equals made him many enemies4 ,in #ahee two separate charges were brought against him4 ,the first was that he had arbitrarily imprisoned a ,pathan chief named ,khadar ,khan1 on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of ,colonel ,mackeson4 ,the man was acquitted1 and ,lord ,dalhousie removed ,hodson from his civil functions and remanded him to his regiment on account of his lack of judgment4 ,the second charge was more serious1 amounting to an accusation of malversation in the funds of his regiment4 ,he was tried by a court of inquiry1 who found that his conduct to natives had been unjustifiable and oppressive1 that he had used abusive language to his native officers and personal violence to his men1 and that his system of accounts was calculated to screen peculation and fraud4 ,subsequently another inquiry was carried out by ,major ,reynell ,taylor1 which dealt simply with ,hodson's accounts and found them to be an honest and correct record 444 irregularly kept4 ,at this time the ,guides were split up into numerous detachments1 and there was a system of advances which made the accounts very complicated4 ,the verdicts of the two inquiries may be set against each other1 and this particular charge declared not proven4 ,it is possible that ,hodson was careless and extravagant in money matters rather than actually dishonest2 but there were several similar charges against him4 ,during a tour through ,kashmir with ,sir ,henry ,lawrence he kept the purse and ,sir ,henry could never obtain an account from him2 subsequently ,sir ,george ,lawrence accused him of embezzling the funds of the ,lawrence ,asylum at ,kasauli2 while ,sir ,neville ,chamberlain in a published letter says of the third brother1 ,lord ,lawrence1 ,i am bound to say that ,lord ,lawrence had no opinion of ,hodson's integrity in money matters4 ,he has often discussed ,hodson's character in talking to me1 and it was to him a regret that a man possessing so many fine gifts should have been wanting in a moral quality which made him untrustworthy4 ,finally1 on one occasion ,hodson spent ,l#ejj of the pay due to ,lieutenant ,godby1 and under threat of exposure was obliged to borrow the money from a native banker through one of his officers named ,bisharat ,ali4 ,it was just at the time when ,hodson's career seemed ruined that the ,indian ,mutiny broke out1 and he obtained the opportunity of rehabilitating himself4 ,at the very outset of the campaign he made his name by riding with despatches from ,general ,anson at ,karnal to ,meerut and back again1 a distance of #aeb m4 in all1 in seventy-two hours1 through a country swarming with the rebel cavalry4 ,this feat so pleased the commander-in-chief that he empowered him to raise a regiment of #bjjj irregular horse1 which became known to fame as ,hodson's ,horse1 and placed him at the head of the ,intelligence ,department4 ,in his double role of cavalry leader and intelligence officer1 ,hodson played a large part in the reduction of ,delhi and consequently in saving ,india for the ,british empire4 ,he was the finest swordsman in the army1 and possessed that daring recklessness which is the most useful quality of leadership against ,asiatics4 ,in explanation of the fact that he never received the ,victoria ,cross it was said of him that it was because he earned it every day of his life4 ,but he also had the defects of his qualities1 and could display on occasion a certain cruelty and callousness of disposition4 ,reference has already been made to ,bisharat ,ali1 who had lent ,hodson money4 ,during the siege of ,delhi another native1 said to be an enemy of ,bisharat ,ali's1 informed ,hodson that he had turned rebel and had just reached ,khurkhouda1 a village near ,delhi4 ,hodson thereupon took out a body of his sowars1 attacked the village1 and shot ,bisharat ,ali and several of his relatives4 ,general ,crawford ,chamberlain states that this was ,hodson's way of wiping out the debt4 ,again1 after the fall of ,delhi1 ,hodson obtained from ,general ,wilson permission to ride out with fifty horsemen to ,humayun's tomb1 #f m4 out of ,delhi1 and bring in ,bahadur ,shah1 the last of the ,moguls4 ,this he did with safety in the face of a large and threatening crowd1 and thus dealt the mutineers a heavy blow4 ,on the following day with #ajj horsemen he went out to the same tomb and obtained the unconditional surrender of the three princes1 who had been left behind on the previous occasion4 ,a crowd of #fjjj persons gathered1 and ,hodson with marvellous coolness ordered them to disarm1 which they proceeded to do4 ,he sent the princes on with an escort of ten men1 while with the remaining ninety he collected the arms of the crowd4 ,on galloping after the princes he found the crowd once more pressing on the escort and threatening an attack2 and fearing that he would be unable to bring his prisoners into ,delhi he shot them with his own hand4 ,this is the most bitterly criticized action in his career1 but no one but the man on the spot can judge how it is necessary to handle a crowd2 and in addition one of the princes1 ,abu ,bukt1 heir-apparent to the throne1 had made himself notorious for cutting off the arms and legs of ,english children and pouring the blood into their mothers' mouths4 ,considering the circumstances of the moment1 ,hodson's act at the worst was one of irregular justice4 ,a more unpleasant side to the question is that he gave the king a safe conduct1 which was afterwards seen by ,sir ,donald ,stewart1 before he left the palace1 and presumably for a bribe2 and he took an armlet and rings from the bodies of the princes4 ,he was freely accused of looting at the time1 and though this charge1 like that of peculation1 is matter for controversy1 it is very strongly supported4 ,general ,pelham ,burn said that he saw loot in ,hodson's boxes when he accompanied him from ,fatehgarh to take part in the siege of ,lucknow1 and ,sir ,henry ,daly said that he found loads of loot in ,hodson's boxes after his death1 and also a file of documents relating to the ,guides case1 which had been stolen from him and of which ,hodson denied all knowledge4 ,on the other hand the ,rev4 ,g4 ,hodson states in his book that he obtained the inventory of his brother's possessions made by the ,committee of ,adjustment and it contained no articles of loot1 and ,sir ,charles ,gough1 president of the committee1 confirmed this evidence4 ,this statement is totally incompatible with ,sir ,henry ,daly's and is only one of many contradictions in the case4 ,sir ,henry ,norman stated that to his personal knowledge ,hodson remitted several thousand pounds to ,calcutta which could only have been obtained by looting4 ,on the other hand1 again1 ,hodson died a poor man1 his effects were sold for ,l#agj1 his widow was dependent on charity for her passage home1 was given apartments by the queen at ,hampton ,court1 and left only ,l#djj at her death4 ,hodson was killed on the #aath of ,march #aheh in the attack on the ,begum ,kotee at ,lucknow4 ,he had just arrived on the spot and met a man going to fetch powder to blow in a door2 instead ,hodson1 with his usual recklessness1 rushed into the doorway and was shot4 ,on the whole1 it can hardly be doubted that he was somewhat unscrupulous in his private character1 but he was a splendid soldier1 and rendered inestimable services to the empire4 ,the controversy relating to ,hodson's moral character is very complicated and unpleasant4 ,upon ,hodson's side see ,rev4 ,g4 ,hodson1 ,hodson of ,hodson's ,horse 7#ahhc71 and ,l4 ,j4 ,trotter1 ,a ,leader of ,light ,horse 7#aija72 against him1 ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith1 ,life of ,lord ,lawrence1 appendix to the #fth edition of #ahhe2 ,t4 ,r4 ,e4 ,holmes1 ,history of the ,indian ,mutiny1 appendix ,n to the #eth edition of #ahih1 and ,four ,famous ,soldiers by the same author1 #ahhi2 and ,general ,sir ,crawford ,chamberlain1 ,remarks on ,captain ,trotter's ,biography of ,major ,w4 ,s4 ,r4 ,hodson 7#aija74 ,,hody1 ,,humphrey 7#afei-agjg71 ,english divine1 was born at ,odcombe in ,somersetshire in #afei4 ,in #afgf he entered ,wadham ,college1 ,oxford1 of which he became fellow in #afhe4 ,in #afhd he published ,contra historiam ,aristeae de ,,lxx4 interpretibus dissertatio1 in which he showed that the so-called letter of ,aristeas1 containing an account of the production of the ,septuagint1 was the late forgery of a ,hellenist ,jew originally circulated to lend authority to that version4 ,the dissertation was generally regarded as conclusive1 although ,isaac ,vossius published an angry and scurrilous reply to it in the appendix to his edition of ,pomponius ,mela4 ,in #afhi ,hody wrote the ,prolegomena to the ,greek chronicle of ,john ,malalas1 published at ,oxford in #afia4 ,the following year he became chaplain to ,edward ,stillingfleet1 bishop of ,worcester1 and for his support of the ruling party in a controversy with ,henry ,dodwell regarding the non-juring bishops he was appointed chaplain to ,archbishop ,tillotson1 an office which he continued to hold under ,tenison4 ,in #afih he was appointed regius professor of ,greek at ,oxford1 and in #agjd was made archdeacon of ,oxford4 ,in #agja he published ,a ,history of ,english ,councils and ,convocations1 and in #agjc in four volumes ,de ,bibliorum textis originalibus1 in which he included a revision of his work on the ,septuagint1 and published a reply to ,vossius4 ,he died on the #bjth of ,january #agjg4 ,a work1 ,de ,graecis ,illustribus1 which he left in manuscript1 was published in #agdb by ,samuel ,jebb1 who prefixed to it a ,latin life of the author4 ,,hoe1 ,,richard ,,march 7#ahab-ahhf71 ,american inventor1 was born in ,new ,york ,city on the #abth of ,september #ahab4 ,he was the son of ,robert ,hoe 7#aghd-ahcc71 an ,english-born ,american mechanic1 who with his brothers-in-law1 ,peter and ,matthew ,smith1 established in ,new ,york ,city a manufactory of printing presses1 and used steam to run his machinery4 ,richard entered his father's manufactory at the age of fifteen and became head of the firm 7,robert ,hoe ,company7 on his father's death4 ,he had considerable inventive genius and set himself to secure greater speed for printing presses4 ,he discarded the old flat-bed model and placed the type on a revolving cylinder1 a model later developed into the well-known ,hoe rotary or lightning press1 patented in #ahdf1 and further improved under the name of the ,hoe web perfecting press 7see ,,printing74 ,he died in ,florence1 ,italy1 on the #gth of ,june #ahhf4 ,see ,a ,short ,history of the ,printing ,press 7,new ,york1 #aijb7 by his nephew ,robert ,hoe 7#ahci-aiji71 who was responsible for further improvements in printing1 and was an indefatigable worker in support of the ,new ,york ,metropolitan ,museum4 ,,hoe 7through ,fr4 houe from ,o4,h4,g4 houwa1 mod4 ,ger4 ,haue2 the root is seen in hew1 to cut1 cleave2 the word must be distinguished from hoe1 promontory1 tongue of land1 seen in place names1 e4g4 ,morthoe1 ,luton ,hoo1 the ,hoe at ,plymouth1 c42 this is the same as ,northern ,english heugh and is connected with hang71 an agricultural and gardening implement used for extirpating weeds1 for stirring the surface-soil in order to break the capillary channels and so prevent the evaporation of moisture1 for singling out turnips and other root-crops and similar purposes4 ,among common forms of hoe are the ordinary garden-hoe 7numbered #a in fig4 #a71 which consists of a flat blade set transversely in a long wooden handle2 the ,dutch or thrust-hoe 7#b71 which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion of a spade2 and the swan-neck hoe 7#c71 the best manual hoe for agricultural purposes1 which has a long curved neck to attach the blade to the handle2 the soil falls back over this1 blocking is thus avoided and a longer stroke obtained4 ,several types of horse-drawn hoe capable of working one or more rows at a time are used among root and grain crops4 ,the illustrations show two forms of the implement1 the blades of which differ in shape from those of the garden-hoe4 ,fig4 #b is in ordinary use for hoeing between two lines of beans or turnips or other roots4 ,fig4 #c is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also convertible into a root-hoe4 ,in the lever-hoe1 which is largely used in grain crops1 the blades may be raised and lowered by means of a lever4 ,the horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles in the rear1 but its successful working depends on accurate drilling of the seed1 because unless the rows are parallel the roots of the plants are liable to be cut and the foliage injured4 ,thus ,jethro ,tull 7#agth century71 with whose name the beginning of the practice of horse-hoeing is principally connected1 used the drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in the so-called ,horse-hoeing ,husbandry 7see ,,agriculture74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,three ,forms of ,manual ,hoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,martin's ,one-,row ,horse ,hoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,martin's ,general ,purpose ,steerage ,horse ,hoe4 ,,hoefnagel1 ,,joris 7#aede-afja71 ,dutch painter and engraver1 the son of a diamond merchant1 was born at ,antwerp4 ,he travelled abroad1 making drawings from archaeological subjects1 and was a pupil of ,jan ,bol at ,mechlin4 ,he was afterwards patronized by the elector of ,bavaria at ,munich1 where he stayed eight years1 and by the ,emperor ,rudolph at ,prague4 ,he died at ,vienna in #afja4 ,he is famous for his miniature work1 especially on a missal in the imperial library at ,vienna2 he painted animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history2 and his engravings 7especially for ,braun's ,civitates orbis terrarum1 #aegb1 and ,ortelius's ,theatrum orbis terrarum1 #aegj7 give him an interesting place among early topographical draughtsmen4 ,,hof1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,bavarian province of ,upper ,franconia1 beautifully situated on the ,saale1 on the north-eastern spurs of the ,fichtelgebirge1 #ajc m4 ,s4,w4 of ,leipzig on the main line of railway to ,regensburg and ,munich4 ,pop4 7#ahhe7 #bb1beg2 7#aije7 #cf1cdh4 ,it has one ,roman ,catholic and three ,protestant churches 7among the latter that of ,st ,michael1 which was restored in #ahhd71 a town hall of #aefc1 a gymnasium with an extensive library1 a commercial school and a hospital founded in #abfb4 ,it is the seat of various flourishing industries1 notably woollen1 cotton and jute spinning1 jute weaving1 and the manufacture of cotton and half-woollen fabrics4 ,it has also dye-works1 flour-mills1 saw-mills1 breweries1 iron-works1 and manufactures of machinery1 iron and tin wares1 chemicals and sugar4 ,in the neighbourhood there are large marble quarries and extensive iron mines4 ,hof1 originally called ,regnitzhof1 was built about #ajhj4 ,it was held for some time by the dukes of ,meran1 and was sold in #acgc to the burgraves of ,nuremberg4 ,the cloth manufacture introduced into it in the #aeth century1 and the manufacture of veils begun in the #afth century1 greatly promoted its prosperity1 but it suffered severely in the ,albertine and ,hussite wars as well as in the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,in #agib it came into the possession of ,prussia2 in #ahjf it fell to ,france2 and in #ahaj it was incorporated with ,bavaria4 ,in #ahbc the greater part of the town was destroyed by fire4 ,see ,ernst1 ,geschichte und ,beschreibung des ,bezirks und der ,stadt ,hof 7#ahff72 ,tillmann1 ,die ,stadt ,hof und ihre ,umgebung 7,hof1 #ahii71 and ,c4 ,meyer1 ,quellen zur ,geschichte der ,stadt ,hof 7#ahid-ahif74 ,,hofer1 ,,andreas 7#agfg-ahaj71 ,tirolese patriot1 was born on the #bbnd of ,november #agfg at ,st ,leonhard1 in the ,passeier valley4 ,there his father kept an inn known as am ,sand1 which ,hofer inherited1 and on that account he was popularly known as the ,sandwirth4 ,in addition to this he carried on a trade in wine and horses with the north of ,italy1 acquiring a high reputation for intelligence and honesty4 ,in the wars against the ,french from #agif to #ahje he took part1 first as a sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia4 ,by the treaty of ,pressburg 7#ahje7 ,tirol was transferred from ,austria to ,bavaria1 and ,hofer1 who was almost fanatically devoted to the ,austrian house1 became conspicuous as a leader of the agitation against ,bavarian rule4 ,in #ahjh he formed one of a deputation who went to ,vienna1 at the invitation of the archduke ,john1 to concert a rising2 and when in ,april #ahji the ,tirolese rose in arms1 ,hofer was chosen commander of the contingent from his native valley1 and inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the ,bavarians at ,sterzing 7,april #aa74 ,this victory1 which resulted in the temporary reoccupation of ,innsbruck by the ,austrians1 made ,hofer the most conspicuous of the insurgent leaders4 ,the rapid advance of ,napoleon1 indeed1 and the defeat of the main ,austrian army under the archduke ,charles1 once more exposed ,tirol to the ,french and ,bavarians1 who reoccupied ,innsbruck4 ,the withdrawal of the bulk of the troops1 however1 gave the ,tirolese their chance again2 after two battles fought on the ,iselberg 7,may #be and #bi7 the ,bavarians were again forced to evacuate the country1 and ,hofer entered ,innsbruck in triumph4 ,an autograph letter of the emperor ,francis 7,may #bi7 assured him that no peace would be concluded by which ,tirol would again be separated from the ,austrian monarchy1 and ,hofer1 believing his work accomplished1 returned to his home4 ,then came the news of the armistice of ,znaim 7,july #ab71 by which ,tirol and ,vorarlberg were surrendered by ,austria unconditionally and given up to the vengeance of the ,french4 ,the country was now again invaded by #dj1jjj ,french and ,bavarian troops1 and ,innsbruck fell2 but the ,tirolese once more organized resistance to the ,french atheists and freemasons1 and1 after a temporary hesitation1 ,hofer--on whose head a price had been placed--threw himself into the movement4 ,on the #acth of ,august1 in another battle on the ,iselberg1 the ,french under ,marshal ,lefebvre were routed by the ,tirolese peasants1 and ,hofer once more entered ,innsbruck1 which he had some difficulty in saving from sack4 ,hofer was now elected ,oberkommandant of ,tirol1 took up his quarters in the ,hofburg at ,innsbruck1 and for two months ruled the country in the emperor's name4 ,he preserved the habits of a simple peasant1 and his administration was characterized in part by the peasant's shrewd common sense1 but yet more by a pious solicitude for the minutest details of faith and morals4 ,on the #bith of ,september ,hofer received from the emperor a chain and medal of honour1 which encouraged him in the belief that ,austria did not intend again to desert him2 the news of the conclusion of the treaty of ,schonbrunn 7,october #ad71 by which ,tirol was again ceded to ,bavaria1 came upon him as an overwhelming surprise4 ,the ,french in overpowering force at once pushed into the country1 and1 an amnesty having been stipulated in the treaty1 ,hofer and his companions1 after some hesitation1 gave in their submission4 ,on the #abth of ,november1 however1 urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant leaders and deceived by false reports of ,austrian victories1 ,hofer again issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms4 ,the summons met with little response2 the enemy advanced in irresistible force1 and ,hofer1 a price once more set on his head1 had to take refuge in the mountains4 ,his hiding-place was betrayed by one of his neighbours1 named ,josef ,raffl1 and on the #bgth of ,january #ahaj he was captured by ,italian troops and sent in chains to ,mantua4 ,there he was tried by court-martial1 and on the #bjth of ,february was shot1 twenty-four hours after his condemnation4 ,this crime1 which was believed to be due to ,napoleon's direct orders1 caused an immense sensation throughout ,germany and did much to inflame popular sentiment against the ,french4 ,at the court of ,austria1 too1 which was accused of having cynically sacrificed the hero1 it produced a painful impression1 and ,metternich1 when he visited ,paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess ,marie ,louise to ,napoleon1 was charged to remonstrate with the emperor4 ,napoleon expressed his regret1 stating that the execution had been carried out against his wishes1 having been hurried on by the zeal of his generals4 ,in #ahbc ,hofer's remains were removed from ,mantua to ,innsbruck1 where they were interred in the ,franciscan church1 and in #ahcd a marble statue was erected over his tomb4 ,in #ahic a bronze statue of him was also set up on the ,iselberg4 ,at ,meran his patriotic deeds of heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually in the open air4 ,in #ahah the patent of nobility bestowed upon him by the ,austrian emperor in #ahji was conferred upon his family4 ,see ,leben und ,thaten des ehemaligen ,tyroler ,insurgenten-,chefs ,andr4 ,hofer 7,berlin1 #ahaj72 ,andr4 ,hofer und die ,tyroler ,insurrection im ,jahre #ahji 7,munich1 #ahaa72 ,hormayr1 ,geschichte ,andr4 ,hofer's ,sandwirths auf ,passeyr 7,leipzig1 #ahde72 ,b4 ,weber1 ,das ,thal ,passeyr und seine ,bewohner mit besonderer ,rucksicht auf ,andreas ,hofer und das ,jahr #ahji 7,innsbruck1 #ahea72 ,rapp1 ,tirol im ,jahr #ahji 7,innsbruck1 #aheb72 ,weidinger1 ,andreas ,hofer und seine ,kampfgenossen 7#crd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahfa72 ,heigel1 ,andreas ,hofer 7,munich1 #ahgd72 ,stampfer1 ,sandwirt ,andreas ,hofer 7,freiburg1 #ahgd72 ,schmolze1 ,andreas ,hofer und seine ,kampfgenossen 7,innsbruck1 #aijj74 ,his history has supplied the materials for tragedies to ,b4 ,auerbach and ,immermann1 and for numerous ballads1 of which some remain very popular in ,germany 7see ,franke1 ,andreas ,hofer im ,liede1 ,innsbruck1 #ahhd74 ,,hoffding1 ,,harald 7#ahdc- 71 ,danish philosopher1 was born and educated in ,copenhagen4 ,he became a schoolmaster1 and ultimately in #ahhc professor in the university of ,copenhagen4 ,he was much influenced by ,soren ,kierkegaard in the early development of his thought1 but later became a positivist1 retaining1 however1 and combining with it the spirit and method of practical psychology and the critical school4 ,his best-known work is perhaps his ,den nyere ,filosofis ,historie 7#ahid71 translated into ,english from the ,german edition 7#ahie7 by ,b4 ,e4 ,meyer as ,history of ,modern ,philosophy 7#b vols41 #aijj71 a work intended by him to supplement and correct that of ,hans ,brochner1 to whom it is dedicated4 ,his ,psychology1 the ,problems of ,philosophy 7#aije7 and ,philosophy of ,religion 7#aijf7 also have appeared in ,english4 ,among ,hoffding's other writings1 practically all of which have been translated into ,german1 are3 ,den engelske ,filosofi i vor ,tid 7#ahgd72 ,etik 7#ahgf2 ed4 #ahgi72 ,psychologi i ,omrids paa ,grundlag of ,erfaring 7ed4 #ahib72 ,psykologiske ,undersogelser 7#ahhi72 ,charles ,darwin 7#ahhi72 ,kontinuiteten i ,kants filosofiske ,udviklingsgang 7#ahic72 ,det psykologiske ,grundlag for logiske ,domme 7#ahii72 ,rousseau und seine ,philosophie 7#aija72 ,mindre ,arbejder 7#ahii74 ,,hoffmann1 ,,august ,,heinrich 7#agih-ahgd71 known as ,,hoffmann ,,von ,,fallersleben1 ,german poet1 philologist and historian of literature1 was born at ,fallersleben in the duchy of ,luneburg1 ,hanover1 on the #bnd of ,april #agih1 the son of the mayor of the town4 ,he was educated at the classical schools of ,helmstedt and ,brunswick1 and afterwards at the universities of ,gottingen and ,bonn4 ,his original intention was to study theology1 but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature4 ,in #ahbc he was appointed custodian of the university library at ,breslau1 a post which he held till #ahch4 ,he was also made extraordinary professor of the ,german language and literature at that university in #ahcj1 and ordinary professor in #ahce2 but he was deprived of his chair in #ahdb in consequence of his ,unpolitische ,lieder 7#ahdj-ahda71 which gave much offence to the authorities in ,prussia4 ,he then travelled in ,germany1 ,switzerland and ,italy1 and lived for two or three years in ,mecklenburg1 of which he became a naturalized citizen4 ,after the revolution of #ahdh he was enabled to return to ,prussia1 where he was restored to his rights1 and received the ,wartegeld--the salary attached to a promised office not yet vacant4 ,he married in #ahdi1 and during the next ten years lived first in ,bingerbruck1 afterwards in ,neuwied1 and then in ,weimar1 where together with ,oskar ,schade 7#ahbf-aijf7 he edited the ,weimarische ,jahrbuch 7#ahed-aheg74 ,in #ahfj he was appointed librarian to the ,duke of ,ratibor at the monasterial castle of ,corvey near ,hoxter on the ,weser1 where he died on the #aith of ,january #ahgd4 ,fallersleben was one of the best popular poets of modern ,germany4 ,in politics he ardently sympathized with the progressive tendencies of his time1 and he was among the earliest and most effective of the political poets who prepared the way for the outbreak of #ahdh4 ,as a poet1 however1 he acquired distinction chiefly by the ease1 simplicity and grace with which he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life4 ,although he had not been scientifically trained in music1 he composed melodies for many of his songs1 and a considerable number of them are sung by all classes in every part of ,germany4 ,among the best known is the patriotic ,deutschland1 ,deutschland uber ,alles1 composed in #ahda on the island of ,heligoland1 where a monument was erected in #ahia to his memory 7subsequently destroyed74 ,the best of his poetical writings is his ,gedichte 7#ahbg2 #ith ed41 ,berlin1 #ahhg72 but there is great merit also in his ,alemannische ,lieder 7#ahbf2 #eth ed41 #ahdc71 ,soldatenlieder 7#ahea71 ,soldatenleben 7#aheb71 ,rheinleben 7#ahfe71 and in his ,funfzig ,kinderlieder1 ,funfzig neue ,kinderlieder1 and ,alte und neue ,kinderlieder4 ,his ,unpolitische ,lieder1 ,deutsche ,lieder aus der ,schweiz and ,streiflichter are not without poetical value1 but they are mainly interesting in relation to the movements of the age in which they were written4 ,as a student of ancient ,teutonic literature ,hoffmann von ,fallersleben ranks among the most persevering and cultivated of ,german scholars1 some of the chief results of his labours being embodied in his ,horae ,belgicae1 ,fundgruben fur ,geschichte deutscher ,sprache und ,literatur1 ,altdeutsche ,blatter1 ,spenden zur deutschen ,literaturgeschichte and ,findlinge4 ,among his editions of particular works may be named ,reineke ,vos1 ,monumenta ,elnonensia and ,theophilus4 ,die deutsche ,philologie im ,grundriss 7#ahcf7 was at the time of its publication a valuable contribution to philological research1 and historians of ,german literature still attach importance to his ,geschichte des deutschen ,kirchenliedes bis auf ,luther 7#ahcb2 #crd ed41 #ahfa71 ,unsere volkstumlichen ,lieder 7#crd ed41 #ahfi7 and ,die deutschen ,gesellschaftslieder des #af4 und #ag4 ,jahrh4 7#bnd ed41 #ahfj74 ,in #ahfh-ahgj ,hoffmann published in #f vols4 an autobiography1 ,mein ,leben3 ,aufzeichnungen und ,erinnerungen 7an abbreviated ed4 in #b vols41 #ahid74 ,his ,gesammelte ,werke were edited by ,h4 ,gerstenberg in #h vols4 7#ahia-ahid72 his ,ausgewahlte ,werke by ,h4 ,benzmann 7#aije1 #d vols474 ,see also ,briefe von ,hoffmann von ,fallersleben und ,moritz ,haupt an ,ferdinand ,wolf 7#ahgd72 ,j4 ,m4 ,wagner1 ,hoffmann von ,fallersleben1 #ahah-ahfh 7#ahfi-ahgj71 and ,r4 von ,gottschall1 ,portrats und ,studien 7vol4 v41 #ahgf74 ,,hoffmann1 ,,ernst ,,theodor ,,wilhelm 7#aggf-ahbb71 ,german romance-writer1 was born at ,konigsberg on the #bdth of ,january #aggf4 ,for the name ,wilhelm he himself substituted ,amadeus in homage to ,mozart4 ,his parents lived unhappily together1 and when the child was only three they separated4 ,his bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understanding nor sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament4 ,hoffmann showed more talent for music and drawing than for books4 ,in #agib1 when little over sixteen years old1 he entered the university of ,konigsberg1 with a view to preparing himself for a legal career4 ,the chief features of interest in his student years were an intimate friendship for ,theodor ,gottlieb von ,hippel 7#agge-ahdc71 a nephew of the novelist ,hippel1 and an unhappy passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons2 the latter found its outlet1 not merely in music1 but also in two novels1 neither of which he was able to have published4 ,in the summer of #agie he began his practical career as a jurist in ,konigsberg1 but his mother's death and the complications in which his love-affair threatened to involve him made him decide to leave his native town and continue his legal apprenticeship in ,glogau4 ,in the autumn of #agih he was transferred to ,berlin1 where the beginnings of the new ,romantic movement were in the air4 ,music1 however1 had still the first place in his heart1 and the ,berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests4 ,in #ahjj further promotion brought him to ,posen1 where he gave himself up entirely to the pleasures of the hour4 ,unfortunately1 however1 his brilliant powers of caricature brought him into ill odour1 and instead of receiving the hoped-for preferment in ,posen itself1 he found himself virtually banished to the little town of ,plozk on the ,vistula4 ,before leaving ,posen he married1 and his domestic happiness alleviated to some extent the monotony of the two years' exile4 ,his leisure was spent in literary studies and musical composition4 ,in #ahjd he was transferred to ,warsaw1 where1 through ,j4 ,e4 ,hitzig 7#aghj-ahdi71 he was introduced to ,zacharias ,werner1 and began to take an interest in the later ,romantic literature2 now1 for the first time1 he discovered how writers like ,novalis1 ,tieck1 and especially ,wackenroder1 had spoken out of his own heart4 ,but in spite of this literary stimulus1 his leisure in ,warsaw was mainly occupied by composition2 he wrote music to ,brentano's ,lustige ,musikanten and ,werner's ,kreuz an der ,ostsee1 and also an opera ,liebe und ,eifersucht1 based on ,calderon's drama ,la ,banda y la ,flor4 ,the arrival of the ,french in ,warsaw and the consequent political changes put an end to ,hoffmann's congenial life there1 and a time of tribulation followed4 ,a position which he obtained in #ahjh as musical director of a new theatre in ,bamberg availed him little1 as within a very short time the theatre was bankrupt and ,hoffmann again reduced to destitution4 ,but these misfortunes induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving music lessons4 ,the editor of the ,allgemeine musikalische ,zeitung expressed his willingness to accept contributions from ,hoffmann1 and here appeared for the first time some of the musical sketches which ultimately passed over into the ,phantasiestucke in ,callots ,manier4 ,this work appeared in four volumes in #ahad and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer4 ,meanwhile1 ,hoffmann had again been for some time attached1 in the capacity of musical director1 to a theatrical company1 whose headquarters were at ,dresden4 ,in #ahad he gladly embraced the opportunity that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in ,berlin1 and two years later he was appointed councillor of the ,court of ,appeal 7,kammergericht74 ,hoffmann had the reputation of being an excellent jurist and a conscientious official2 he had leisure for literary pursuits and was on the best of terms with the circle of ,romantic poets and novelists who gathered round ,fouque1 ,chamisso and his old friend ,hitzig4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the habits of intemperance which1 in earlier years1 had thrown a shadow over his life1 grew upon him1 and his health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the wine-house1 in company unworthy of him4 ,he was struck down by locomotor ataxy1 and died on the #bdth of ,july #ahbb4 ,the ,phantasiestucke1 which had been published with a commendatory preface by ,jean ,paul1 were followed in #ahaf by the gruesome novel--to some extent inspired by ,lewis's ,monk--,die ,elixiere des ,teufels1 and the even more gruesome and grotesque stories which make up the ,nachtstucke 7#ahag1 #b vols474 ,the full range of ,hoffmann's powers is first clearly displayed in the collection of stories 7#d vols41 #ahai-ahba7 ,die ,serapionsbruder1 this being the name of a small club of ,hoffmann's more intimate literary friends4 ,die ,serapionsbruder includes not merely stories in which ,hoffmann's love for the mysterious and the supernatural is to be seen1 but novels in which he draws on his own early reminiscences 7,rat ,krespel1 ,fermate71 finely outlined pictures of old ,german life 7,der ,artushof1 ,meister ,martin der ,kufner und seine ,gesellen71 and vivid and picturesque incidents from ,italian and ,french history 7,doge und ,dogaressa1 the story of ,marino ,faliero1 and ,das ,fraulein von ,scuderi74 ,the last-mentioned story is usually regarded as ,hoffmann's masterpiece4 ,two longer works also belong to ,hoffmann's later years and display to advantage his powers as a humorist2 these are ,klein ,zaches1 genannt ,zinnober 7#ahai71 and ,lebensansichten des ,katers ,murr1 nebst fragmentarischer ,biographie des ,kapellmeisters ,johannes ,kreisler 7#ahba-ahbb74 ,hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the ,romantic movement in ,germany4 ,he combined with a humour that reminds us of ,jean ,paul the warm sympathy for the artist's standpoint towards life1 which was enunciated by early ,romantic leaders like ,tieck and ,wackenroder2 but he was superior to all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination4 ,his works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes--in this respect they mark a descent from the high ideals of the ,romantic school2 but the gruesome was only one outlet for ,hoffmann's genius1 and even here the secret of his power lay not in his choice of subjects1 but in the wonderfully vivid and realistic presentation of them4 ,every line he wrote leaves the impression behind it that it expresses something felt or experienced2 every scene1 vision or character he described seems to have been real and living to him4 ,it is this realism1 in the best sense of the word1 that made him the great artist he was1 and gave him so extraordinary a power over his contemporaries4 ,the first collected edition of ,hoffmann's works appeared in ten volumes 7,ausgewahlte ,schriften1 #ahbg-ahbh72 to these his widow added five volumes in #ahci 7including the #crd edition of ,j4 ,e4 ,hitzig's ,aus ,hoffmanns ,leben und ,nachlass1 #ahbc74 ,other editions of his works appeared in #ahdd-ahde1 #ahga-ahgc1 #ahgi-ahhc1 and1 most complete of all1 ,samtliche ,werke1 edited by ,e4 ,grisebach1 in #ae vols4 7#aijj74 ,there are many editions of selections1 as well as cheap reprints of the more popular stories4 ,all ,hoffmann's important works--except ,klein ,zaches and ,kater ,murr--have been translated into ,english3 ,the ,devil's ,elixir 7#ahbd71 ,the ,golden ,pot by ,carlyle 7in ,german ,romance1 #ahbg71 ,the ,serapion ,brethren by ,a4 ,ewing 7#ahhf-ahib71 c4 ,in ,france ,hoffmann was even more popular than in ,england4 ,cp4 ,g4 ,thurau1 ,hoffmanns ,erzahlungen in ,frankreich 7#ahif74 ,an edition of his ,oeuvres completes appeared in #ab vols4 in ,paris in #ahcj4 ,the best monograph on ,hoffmann is by ,g4 ,ellinger1 ,e4 ,t4 ,a4 ,hoffmann 7#ahid72 see also ,o4 ,klinke1 ,hoffmanns ,leben und ,werke vom ,standpunkte eines ,irrenarztes 7#aijc72 and the exhaustive bibliography in ,goedeke's ,grundriss zur ,geschichte der deutschen ,dichtung1 #bnd ed41 vol4 viii4 pp4 #dfh ff4 7#aije74 7,j4 ,g4 ,r47 ,,hoffmann1 ,,francois ,,benoit 7#agfj-ahbh71 ,french dramatist and critic1 was born at ,nancy on the #aath of ,july #agfj4 ,he studied law at the university of ,strassburg1 but a slight hesitation in his speech precluded success at the bar1 and he entered a regiment on service in ,corsica4 ,he served1 however1 for a very short time1 and1 returning to ,nancy1 he wrote some poems which brought him into notice at the little court of ,luneville over which the marquise de ,boufflers then presided4 ,in #aghd he went to ,paris1 and two years later produced the opera ,phedre4 ,his opera ,adrien 7#agib7 was objected to by the government on political grounds1 and ,hoffmann1 who refused to make the changes proposed to him1 ran considerable risk under the revolutionary government4 ,his later operas1 which were numerous1 were produced at the ,opera ,comique4 ,in #ahjg he was invited by ,etienne to contribute to the ,journal de l',empire 7afterwards the ,journal des debats74 ,hoffmann's wide reading qualified him to write on all sorts of subjects1 and he turned1 apparently with no difficulty1 from reviewing books on medicine to violent attacks on the ,jesuits4 ,his severe criticism of ,chateaubriand's ,martyrs led the author to make some changes in a later edition4 ,he had the reputation of being an absolutely conscientious and incorruptible critic and thus exercised wide influence4 ,hoffmann died in ,paris on the #beth of ,april #ahbh4 ,among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent one-act comedy1 ,le ,roman d'une heure 7#ahjc71 and an amusing one-act opera ,les ,rendez-vous bourgeois4 ,see ,sainte-,beuve1 ,m4 de ,feletz et la critique litteraire sous l',empire in ,causeries du lundi1 vol4 i4 ,,hoffmann1 ,,friedrich 7#affj-agdb71 ,german physician1 a member of a family that had been connected with medicine for #bjj years before him1 was born at ,halle on the #aith of ,february #affj4 ,at the gymnasium of his native town he acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he attributed much of his after success4 ,at the age of eighteen he went to study medicine at ,jena1 whence in #afhj he passed to ,erfurt1 in order to attend ,kasper ,cramer's lectures on chemistry4 ,next year1 returning to ,jena1 he received his doctor's diploma1 and1 after publishing a thesis1 was permitted to teach4 ,constant study then began to tell on his health1 and in #afhb1 leaving his already numerous pupils1 he proceeded to ,minden in ,westphalia to recruit himself1 at the request of a relative who held a high position in that town4 ,after practising at ,minden for two years1 ,hoffmann made a journey to ,holland and ,england1 where he formed the acquaintance of many illustrious chemists and physicians4 ,towards the end of #afhd he returned to ,minden1 and during the next three years he received many flattering appointments4 ,in #afhh he removed to the more promising sphere of ,halberstadt1 with the title of physician to the principality of ,halberstadt2 and on the founding of ,halle university in #afic1 his reputation1 which had been steadily increasing1 procured for him the primarius chair of medicine1 while at the same time he was charged with the responsible duty of framing the statutes for the new medical faculty4 ,he filled also the chair of natural philosophy4 ,with the exception of four years 7#agjh-agab71 which he passed at ,berlin in the capacity of royal physician1 ,hoffmann spent the rest of his life at ,halle in instruction1 practice and study1 interrupted now and again by visits to different courts of ,germany1 where his services procured him honours and rewards4 ,his fame became ,european4 ,he was enrolled a member of many learned societies in different foreign countries1 while in his own he became privy councillor4 ,he died at ,halle on the #abth of ,november #agdb4 ,of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in ,haller's ,bibliotheca medicinae practicae4 ,the chief is ,medicina rationalis systematica1 undertaken at the age of sixty1 and published in #agcj4 ,it was translated into ,french in #agci1 under the title of ,medecine raisonnee d',hoffmann4 ,a complete edition of ,hoffmann's works1 with a life of the author1 was published at ,geneva in #agdj1 to which supplements were added in #agec and #agfj4 ,editions appeared also at ,venice in #agde and at ,naples in #agec and #agic4 7,see also ,,medicine47 ,,hoffmann1 ,,johann ,,joseph 7#ahje-ahgh71 ,german scholar1 was born at ,wurzburg on the #afth of ,february #ahje4 ,after studying at ,wurzburg he went on the stage in #ahbe2 but owing to an accidental meeting with the ,german traveller1 ,dr ,philipp ,franz von ,siebold 7#agif-ahff71 in ,july #ahcj1 his interest was diverted to ,oriental philology4 ,from ,siebold he acquired the rudiments of ,japanese1 and in order to take advantage of the instructions of ,ko-ching-chang1 a ,chinese teacher whom ,siebold had brought home with him1 he made himself acquainted with ,malay1 the only language except ,chinese which the ,chinaman could understand4 ,in a few years he was able to supply the translations for ,siebold's ,nippon2 and the high character of his work soon attracted the attention of older scholars4 ,stanislas ,julien invited him to ,paris2 and he would probably have accepted the invitation1 as a disagreement had broken out between him and ,siebold1 had not ,m4 ,baud1 the ,dutch colonial minister1 appointed him ,japanese translator with a salary of #ahjj florins 7,l#aej74 ,the ,dutch authorities were slow in giving him further recognition2 and he was too modest a man successfully to urge his claims4 ,it was not till after he had received the offer of the professorship of ,chinese in ,king's ,college1 ,london1 that the authorities made him professor at ,leiden and the king allowed him a yearly pension4 ,in #ahge he was decorated with the order of the ,netherlands ,lion1 and in #ahgg he was elected corresponding member of the ,berlin ,academy4 ,he died at the ,hague on the #bcrd of ,january #ahgh4 ,hoffmann's chief work was his unfinished ,japanese ,dictionary1 begun in #ahci and afterwards continued by ,l4 ,serrurier4 ,unable at first to procure the necessary type1 he set himself to the cutting of punches1 and even when the proper founts were obtained he had to act as his own compositor as far as ,chinese and ,japanese were concerned4 ,his ,japanese grammar 7,japanische ,sprachlehre7 was published in ,dutch and ,english in #ahfg1 and in ,english and ,german in #ahgf4 ,of his miscellaneous productions it is enough to mention ,japans ,bezuge mit der koraischen ,halbinsel und mit ,schina in ,nippon1 vii42 ,yo-,san-fi-,rok1 ,l',art d'elever les vers a soie au ,japon1 par ,ouckaki ,mourikouni 7,paris1 #ahdh72 ,die ,heilkunde in ,japan in ,mittheil4 d4 deutsch4 ,gesellsch4 fur ,natur- und ,volkerk4 ,ost-,asiens 7#ahgc-ahgd72 and ,japanische ,studien 7#ahgh74 ,,hofmann1 ,,august ,,wilhelm ,,von 7#ahah-ahib71 ,german chemist1 was born at ,giessen on the #hth of ,april #ahah4 ,not intending originally to devote himself to physical science1 he first took up the study of law and philology at ,gottingen1 and the general culture he thus gained stood him in good stead when he turned to chemistry1 the study of which he began under ,liebig4 ,when1 in #ahde1 a school of practical chemistry was started in ,london1 under the style of the ,royal ,college of ,chemistry1 ,hofmann1 largely through the influence of the ,prince ,consort1 was appointed its first director4 ,it was with some natural hesitation that he1 then a ,privatdozent at ,bonn1 accepted the position1 which may well have seemed rather a precarious one2 but the difficulty was removed by his appointment as extraordinary professor at ,bonn1 with leave of absence for two years1 so that he could resume his career in ,germany if his ,english one proved unsatisfactory4 ,fortunately the college was more or less successful1 owing largely to his enthusiasm and energy1 and many of the men who were trained there subsequently made their mark in chemical history4 ,but in #ahfd he returned to ,bonn1 and in the succeeding year he was selected to succeed ,e4 ,mitscherlich as professor of chemistry and director of the laboratory in ,berlin ,university4 ,in leaving ,england1 of which he used to speak as his adopted country1 ,hofmann was probably influenced by a combination of causes4 ,the public support extended to the college of chemistry had been dwindling for some years1 and before he left it had ceased to have an independent existence and had been absorbed into the ,school of ,mines4 ,this event he must have looked upon as a curtailment of its possibilities of usefulness4 ,but1 in addition1 there is only too much reason to suppose that he was disappointed at the general apathy with which his science was regarded in ,england4 ,no man ever realized more fully than he how entirely dependent on the advance of scientific knowledge is the continuation of a country's material prosperity1 and no single chemist ever exercised a greater or more direct influence upon industrial development4 ,in ,england1 however1 people cared for none of these things1 and were blind to the commercial potentialities of scientific research4 ,the college to which ,hofmann devoted nearly twenty of the best years of his life was starved2 the coal-tar industry1 which was really brought into existence by his work and that of his pupils under his direction at that college1 and which with a little intelligent forethought might have been retained in ,england1 was allowed to slip into the hands of ,germany1 where it is now worth millions of pounds annually2 and ,hofmann himself was compelled to return to his native land to find due appreciation as one of the foremost chemists of his time4 ,the rest of his life was spent in ,berlin1 and there he died on the #eth of ,may #ahib4 ,that city possesses a permanent memorial to his name in ,hofmann ,house1 the home of the ,german ,chemical ,society 7of which he was the founder71 which was formally opened in #aijj1 appropriately enough with an account of that great triumph of ,german chemical enterprise1 the industrial manufacture of synthetical indigo4 ,hofmann's work covered a wide range of organic chemistry1 though with inorganic bodies he did but little4 ,his first research1 carried out in ,liebig's laboratory at ,giessen1 was on coal-tar1 and his investigation of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha established the nature of aniline4 ,this substance he used to refer to as his first love1 and it was a love to which he remained faithful throughout his life4 ,his perception of the analogy between it and ammonia led to his famous work on the amines and ammonium bases and the allied organic phosphorus compounds1 while his researches on rosaniline1 which he first prepared in #aheh1 formed the first of a series of investigations on colouring matters which only ended with quinoline red in #ahhg4 ,but in addition to these and numberless other investigations for which he was responsible the influence he exercised through his pupils must also be taken into account4 ,as a teacher1 besides the power of accurately gauging the character and capabilities of those who studied under him1 he had the faculty of infecting them with his own enthusiasm1 and thus of stimulating them to put forward their best efforts4 ,in the lecture-room he laid great stress on the importance of experimental demonstrations1 paying particular attention to their selection and arrangement1 though1 since he himself was a somewhat clumsy manipulator1 their actual exhibition was generally entrusted to his assistants4 ,he was the possessor of a clear and graceful1 if somewhat florid1 style1 which showed to special advantage in his numerous obituary notices or encomiums 7collected and published in three volumes ,zur ,erinnerung an vorangegangene ,freunde1 #ahhh74 ,he also excelled as a speaker1 particularly at gatherings of an international character1 for in addition to his native ,german he could speak ,english1 ,french and ,italian with fluency4 ,see ,memorial ,lectures delivered before the ,chemical ,society1 #ahic-aijj 7,london1 #aija74 ,,hofmann1 ,,johann ,,christian ,,konrad ,,von 7#ahaj-ahgg71 ,lutheran theologian and historian1 was born on the #bast of ,december #ahaj at ,nuremberg1 and studied theology and history at the university of ,erlangen4 ,in #ahbi he went to ,berlin1 where ,schleiermacher1 ,hengstenberg1 ,neander1 ,ranke and ,raumer were among his teachers4 ,in #ahcc he received an appointment to teach ,hebrew and history in the gymnasium of ,erlangen4 ,in #ahce he became ,repetent1 in #ahch ,privatdozent and in #ahda professor extraordinarius in the theological faculty at ,erlangen4 ,in #ahdb he became professor ordinarius at ,rostock1 but in #ahde returned once more to ,erlangen as the successor of ,gottlieb ,christoph ,adolf von ,harless 7#ahjf-ahgi71 founder of the ,zeitschrift fur ,protestantismus und ,kirche1 of which ,hofmann became one of the editors in #ahdf1 ,j4 ,f4 ,hofling 7#ahjb-ahec7 and ,gottfried ,thomasius 7#ahjb-ahge7 being his collaborators4 ,he was a conservative in theology1 but an enthusiastic adherent of the progressive party in politics1 and sat as member for ,erlangen and ,furth in the ,bavarian second chamber from #ahfc to #ahfh4 ,he died on the #bjth of ,december #ahgg4 ,he wrote ,die siebzig ,jahre des ,jeremias u4 die siebzig ,jahrwochen des ,daniel 7#ahcf72 ,geschichte des ,aufruhrs in den ,cevennen 7#ahcg72 ,lehrbuch der ,weltgeschichte fur ,gymnasien 7#ahci71 which became a text-book in the ,protestant gymnasia of ,bavaria2 ,weissagung u4 ,erfullung im alten u4 neuen ,testamente 7#ahda-ahdd2 #bnd ed41 #aheg-ahfj72 ,der ,schriftbeweis 7#aheb-ahef2 #bnd ed41 #aheg-ahfj72 ,die heilige ,schrift des neuen ,testaments zusammenhangend untersucht 7#ahfb-ahge72 ,schutzschriften 7#ahef-ahei71 in which he defends himself against the charge of denying the ,atonement2 and ,theologische ,ethik 7#ahgh74 ,his most important works are the five last named4 ,in theology1 as in ecclesiastical polity1 ,hofmann was a ,lutheran of an extreme type1 although the strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid him open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy4 ,he was the head of what has been called the ,erlangen ,school1 and in his day he was unquestionably the chief glory of the ,university of ,erlangen 7,lichtenberger74 ,see the articles in ,herzog-,hauck's ,realencyklopadie and the ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie2 and cf4 ,f4 ,lichtenberger1 ,history of ,german ,theology in the ,nineteenth ,century 7#ahhi7 pp4 #ddf-deh4 ,,hofmann1 ,,melchior 7c4 #adih-aedc-d71 anabaptist1 was born at ,hall1 in ,swabia1 before #aejj 7,zur ,linden suggests #adih74 ,his biographers usually give his surname as above2 in his printed works it is ,hoffman1 in his manuscripts ,hoffmann4 ,he was without scholarly training1 and first appears as a furrier at ,livland4 ,attracted by ,luther's doctrine1 he came forward as a lay preacher1 combining business travels with a religious mission4 ,accompanied by ,melchior ,rinck1 also a skinner or furrier1 and a religious enthusiast1 he made his way to ,sweden4 ,joined by ,bernard ,knipperdolling1 the party reached ,stockholm in the autumn of #aebd4 ,their fervid attacks on image worship led to their expulsion4 ,by way of ,livonia1 ,hofmann arrived at ,dorpat in ,november #aebd1 but was driven thence in the following ,january4 ,making his way to ,riga1 and thence to ,wittenberg1 he found favour with ,luther2 his letter of the #bbnd of ,june #aebe appears in a tract by ,luther of that year4 ,he was again at ,dorpat in ,may #aebf2 later at ,magdeburg4 ,returning to ,wittenberg1 he was coldly received2 he wrote there his exposition of ,daniel xii4 7#aebg74 ,repairing to ,holstein1 he got into the good graces of ,frederick ,i4 of ,denmark1 and was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the ,gospel at ,kiel4 ,he was extravagant in denunciation1 and developed a ,zwinglian view of the ,eucharist4 ,luther was alarmed4 ,at a colloquy of preachers in ,flensburg 7#hth ,april #aebi7 ,hofmann1 ,john ,campanus and others were put on their defence4 ,hofmann maintained 7against the magic of the ,lutherans7 that the function of the ,eucharist1 like that of preaching1 is an appeal for spiritual union with ,christ4 ,refusing to retract1 he was banished4 ,at ,strassburg to which he now turned1 he was well received 7#aebi7 till his anabaptist development became apparent4 ,he was in relations with ,schwenkfeld and with ,carlstadt1 but assumed a prophetic role of his own4 ,journeying to ,east ,friesland1 7#aecj7 he founded a community at ,emden 7#aecb71 securing a large following of artisans4 ,despite the warning of ,john ,trypmaker1 who prophesied for him six months in prison1 he returned in the spring of #aecc to ,strassburg1 where we hear of his wife and child4 ,he gathered from the ,apocalypse a vision of resurrections of apostolic ,christianity1 first under ,john ,hus1 and now under himself4 ,the year #aecc was to inaugurate the new era2 ,strassburg was to be the seat of the ,new ,jerusalem4 ,in ,may #aecc he and others were arrested4 ,under examination1 he denied that he had made common cause with the anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet1 a mere witness of the ,most ,high1 but refused the articles of faith proposed to him by the provincial synod4 ,hofmann and ,claus ,frey1 an anabaptist1 were detained in prison1 a measure due to the terror excited by the ,munster episode of #aecc-aecd4 ,the synod1 in #aeci1 made further effort to reclaim him4 ,the last notice of his imprisonment is on the #aith of ,november #aedc2 he probably died soon after4 ,two of his publications1 with similar titles1 in #aecj1 are noteworthy as having influenced ,menno ,simons and ,david ,joris 7,weissagung vsz heiliger gotlicher geschrifft1 and ,prophecey oder ,weissagung vsz warer heiliger gotlicher schrifft74 ,bock treats him as an antitrinitarian1 on grounds which ,wallace rightly deems inconclusive4 ,with better reason ,trechsel includes him among pioneers of some of the positions of ,servetus4 ,his ,christology was ,valentinian4 ,while all are elected to salvation1 only the regenerate may receive baptism1 and those who sin after regeneration sin against the ,holy ,ghost1 and cannot be saved4 ,his followers were known as ,hofmannites or ,melchiorites4 ,see ,g4 ,herrmann1 ,essai sur la vie et les ecrits de ,m4 ,hofmann 7#aheb72 ,f4 ,o4 zur ,linden1 ,m4 ,hofmann1 ein ,prophet der ,wiedertaufer 7#ahhe72 ,h4 ,holtzmann1 in ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie 7#ahhj72 ,hegler in ,hauck's ,realencyklopadie 7#aijj72 ,bock1 ,hist4 ,antitrin4 7#aggf71 ii42 ,wallace1 ,antitrin4 ,biography 7#ahej7 iii41 app4 iii42 ,trechsel1 ,prot4 ,antitrin4 vor ,f4 ,socin 7#ahci7 i42 ,barclay1 ,inner ,life of ,rel4 ,societies 7#ahgf74 ,an alleged portrait1 from an engraving of #afjh1 is reproduced in the appendix to ,a4 ,ross1 ,pansebeia 7#afee74 7,a4 ,go4997 ,,hofmeister1 ,,wilhelm ,,friedrich ,,benedict 7#ahbd-ahgg71 ,german botanist1 was born at ,leipzig on the #ahth of ,may #ahbd4 ,he came of a family engaged in trade1 and after being educated at the ,realschule of ,leipzig he entered business as a music-dealer4 ,much of his botanical work was done while he was so employed1 till in #ahfc he was nominated1 without intermediate academic steps1 to the chair in ,heidelberg2 thence he was transferred in #ahgb to ,tubingen1 in succession to ,h4 von ,mohl4 ,his first work was on the distribution of the ,coniferae in the ,himalaya1 but his attention was very soon devoted to studying the sexuality and origin of the embryo of ,phanerogams4 ,his contributions on this subject extended from #ahdg till #ahfj1 and they finally settled the question of the origin of the embryo from an ovum1 as against the prevalent pollen-tube theory of ,m4 ,j4 ,schleiden1 for he showed that the pollen-tube does not itself produce the embryo1 but only stimulates the ovum already present in the ovule4 ,he soon turned his attention to the embryology of ,bryophytes and ,pteridophytes1 and gave continuous accounts of the germination of the spores and fertilization in ,pilularia1 ,salvinia1 ,selaginella4 ,some of the main facts of the life of ferns and mosses were already known2 these1 together with his own wider observations1 were worked into that great general pronouncement published in #ahea under the title1 ,vergleichende ,untersuchungen der ,keimung1 ,entfaltung und ,fruchtbildung koherer ,kryptogamen und der ,samenbildung der ,coniferen4 ,this work will always stand in the first rank of botanical books4 ,it antedated the ,origin of ,species by eight years1 but contained facts and comparisons which could only become intelligible on some theory of descent4 ,the plan of life-story common to them all1 involving two alternating generations1 was demonstrated for ,liverworts1 ,mosses1 ,ferns1 ,equiseta1 ,rhizocarps1 ,lycopodiaceae1 and even ,gymnosperms1 with a completeness and certainty which must still surprise those who know the botanical literature of the author's time4 ,the conclusions of ,hofmeister remain in their broad outlines unshaken1 but rather strengthened by later-acquired details4 ,in the light of the theory of descent the common plan of life-history in plants apparently so diverse as those named acquires a special significance2 but it is one of the remarkable features of this great work that the writer himself does not theorize--with an unerring insight he points out his comparisons and states his homologies1 but does not indulge in explanatory surmises4 ,it is the typical work of an heroic age of plant-morphology4 ,from #aheg till #ahfb ,hofmeister wrote occasionally on physiological subjects1 such as the ascent of sap1 and curvatures of growing parts1 but it was in morphology that he found his natural sphere4 ,in #ahfa1 in conjunction with other botanists1 a plan was drawn up of a handbook of physiological botany1 of which ,hofmeister was to be editor4 ,though the original scheme was never completed1 the editor himself contributed two notable parts1 ,die ,lehre von der ,pflanzenzelle 7#ahfg7 and ,allgemeine ,morphologie der ,gewachse 7#ahfh74 ,the former gives an excellent summary of the structure and relations of the vegetable cell as then known1 but it did not greatly modify current views4 ,the latter was notable for its refutation of the spiral theory of leaf arrangement in plants1 founded by ,c4 ,f4 ,schimper and ,a4 ,braun4 ,hofmeister transferred the discussion from the mere study of mature form to the observation of the development of the parts1 and substituted for the spiral tendency a mechanical theory based upon the observed fact that new branchings appear over the widest gaps which exist between next older branchings of like nature4 ,with this important work ,hofmeister's period of active production closed2 he fell into ill-health1 and retired from his academic duties some time before his death at ,lindenau1 near ,leipzig1 on the #abth of ,january #ahgg4 7,f4 ,o4 ,b47 ,,hofmeyr1 ,,jan ,,hendrik 7#ahde-aiji71 ,south ,african politician1 was born at ,cape ,town on the #dth of ,july #ahde4 ,he was educated at the ,south ,african ,college1 and at an early age turned his attention to politics1 first as a journalist4 ,he was editor of the ,zuid ,afrikaan till its incorporation with ,ons ,land1 and of the ,zuid ,afrikaansche ,tijdschrift4 ,by birth1 education and sympathies a typical ,dutch ,afrikander1 he set himself to organize the political power of his fellow-countrymen4 ,this he did very effectively1 and when in #ahgi he entered the ,cape parliament as member for ,stellenbosch1 he became the real leader of the ,dutch party4 ,yet he only held office for six months--as minister without portfolio in the ,scanlen ministry from ,may to ,november #ahha4 ,he held no subsequent official post in the colony1 though he shared with ,sir ,thomas ,upington and ,sir ,charles ,mills the honour of representing the ,cape at the intercolonial conference of #ahhg4 ,here he supported the proposal for entrusting the defence of ,simon's ,town to ,cape ,colony1 leaving only the armament to be provided by the imperial government1 opposed trans-oceanic penny postage1 and moved a resolution in favour of an imperial customs union4 ,at the colonial conference of #ahid at ,ottawa he was again one of the ,cape representatives4 ,in #ahhh and in #ahhi he was a member of the ,south ,african customs conference4 ,his chief importance as a public man was1 however1 derived from his power over the ,dutch in ,cape ,colony1 and his control of the ,afrikander ,bond4 ,in #ahgh he had himself founded the ,farmers' ,association1 and as the ,cape farmers were almost entirely ,dutch the ,association became a centre of ,dutch influence4 ,when the ,bond was formed in #ahhb1 with purely political aims1 ,hofmeyr made haste to obtain control of it1 and in #ahhc amalgamated the ,farmers' ,association with it4 ,under his direction the constitution of the ,bond was modified by the elimination of the provisions inconsistent with loyalty to the ,british crown4 ,but it remained an organization for obtaining the political supremacy of the ,cape ,dutch4 7,see ,,cape ,,colony3 ,history47 ,his control over the ,bond enabled him for many years1 while free from the responsibilities of office1 to make and unmake ministers at his will1 and earned for him the name of ,cabinet-maker of ,south ,africa4 ,although officially the term ,afrikander was explained by ,hofmeyr to include white men of whatever race1 yet in practice the influence of the ,bond was always exerted in favour of the ,dutch1 and its power was drawn from the ,dutch districts of ,cape ,colony4 ,the sympathies of the ,bond were thus always strongly with the ,transvaal1 as the chief centre of ,dutch influence in ,south ,africa2 and ,hofmeyr's position might in many respects be compared with that of ,parnell at the head of the ,irish ,nationalist party in ,great ,britain4 ,in the ,bechuanaland difficulty of #ahhd ,hofmeyr threw all the influence of the ,bond into the scale in favour of the ,transvaal4 ,but in the course of the next few years he began to drift away from ,president ,kruger4 ,he resented the reckless disregard of ,cape interests involved in ,kruger's fiscal policy2 he feared that the ,transvaal1 after its sudden leap into prosperity upon the gold discoveries of #ahhf1 might overshadow all other ,dutch influences in ,south ,africa2 above all he was convinced1 as he showed by his action at the ,london conference1 that the protection of the ,british navy was indispensable to ,south ,africa1 and he set his face against ,kruger's intrigues with ,germany1 and his avowed intention of acquiring an outlet to the sea in order to get into touch with foreign powers4 ,in #ahij ,hofmeyr joined forces with ,cecil ,rhodes1 who became premier of ,cape ,colony with the support of the ,bond4 ,hofmeyr's influence was a powerful factor in the conclusion of the ,swaziland convention of #ahij1 as well as in stopping the trek to ,banyailand 7,rhodesia7 in #ahia--;a notable reversal of the policy he had pursued seven years before4 ,but the reactionary elements in the ,bond grew alarmed at ,rhodes's imperialism1 and in #ahie ,hofmeyr resigned his seat in parliament and the presidency of the ,bond4 ,then came the ,jameson ,raid1 and in its wake there rolled over ,south ,africa a wave of ,dutch and anti-,british feeling such as had not been known since the days of ,majuba4 7,the proclamation issued by ,sir ,hercules ,robinson disavowing ,jameson was suggested by ,hofmeyr1 who helped to draw up its terms47 ,once more ,hofmeyr became president of the ,bond4 ,by an alteration of the provincial constitution1 all power in the ,cape branch of the ,bond was vested in the hands of a vigilance committee of three1 of whom ,hofmeyr and his brother were two4 ,as the recognized leader of the ,cape ,dutch1 he protested against such abuses as the dynamite monopoly in the ,transvaal1 and urged ,kruger even at the eleventh hour to grant reasonable concessions rather than plunge into a war that might involve ,cape ,afrikanderdom and the ,transvaal in a common ruin4 ,in ,july #ahii he journeyed to ,pretoria1 and vainly supported the proposal of a satisfactory franchise law1 combined with a limited representation of the ,uitlanders in the ,volksraad1 and in ,september urged the ,transvaal to accede to the proposed joint inquiry4 ,during the negotiations of #ahii1 and after the outbreak of war1 the official organ of the ,bond1 ,ons ,land1 was conspicuous for its anti-,british attitude1 and its violence forced ,lord ,roberts to suppress it in the ,cape ,colony district under martial law4 ,hofmeyr never associated himself publicly with the opinions expressed by ,ons ,land1 but neither did he repudiate them4 ,the tide of race sympathy among his ,dutch supporters made his position one of great difficulty1 and shortly after the outbreak of war he withdrew to ,europe1 and refused to act as a member of the ,conciliation ,committee which came to ,england in #aija in the interests of the ,boer republics4 ,towards the close of the war ,hofmeyr returned to ,south ,africa and organized the ,bond forces for the general election held in ,cape ,colony at the beginning of #aijd1 which resulted in the defeat of the ,bond party4 ,hofmeyr retained his ascendancy over the ,cape ,dutch1 but now began to find himself somewhat out of sympathy with the larger outlook on ,south ,african affairs taken by the younger leaders of the ,boers in the ,transvaal4 ,during #aijf he gave offence to the extreme section of the ,bond by some criticisms of the taal and his use of ,english in public speeches4 ,at the general election in #aijh the ,bond1 still largely under his direction1 gained a victory at the polls1 but ,hofmeyr himself was not a candidate4 ,in the renewed movement for the closer union of the ,south ,african colonies he advocated federation as opposed to unification4 ,when1 however1 the unification proposals were ratified by the ,cape parliament1 ,hofmeyr procured his nomination as one of the ,cape delegates to ,england in the summer of #aiji to submit the draft act of union to the imperial government4 ,he attended the conferences with the officials of the ,colonial ,office for the preparation of the draft act1 and after the bill had become law went to ,germany for a cure4 ,he returned to ,london in ,october #aiji1 where he died on the #afth of that month4 ,his body was taken to ,cape ,town for burial4 ,,hofstede ,,de ,,groot1 ,,petrus 7#ahjb-ahhf71 ,dutch theologian1 was born at ,leer in ,east ,friesland1 ,prussia1 on the #hth of ,october #ahjb1 and was educated at the ,gymnasium and university of ,groningen4 ,for three years 7#ahbf-ahbi7 he was pastor of the ,reformed ,church at ,ulrum1 and then entered upon his lifelong duties as professor of theology at ,groningen4 ,with his colleagues ,l4 ,g4 ,pareau1 ,j4 ,f4 van ,vordt1 and ,w4 ,muurling he edited from #ahcg to #ahgb the ,waarheid in ,liefde4 ,in this review and in his numerous books he vigorously upheld the orthodox faith against the ,dutch modern theology movement4 ,many of his works were written in ,latin1 including ,disputatio1 qua ep4 ad ,hebraeos cum ,paulin4 epistolis comparatur 7#ahbf71 ,institutiones historiae ecclesiae 7#ahce71 ,institutio theologiae naturalis 7#ahdb71 ,encyclopaedia theologi christiani 7#ahdd74 ,others1 in ,dutch1 were3 ,the ,divine ,education of ,humanity up to the ,coming of ,jesus ,christ 7#c vols41 #ahdf71 ,the ,nature of the ,gospel ,ministry 7#aheh71 ,the ,modern ,theology of the ,netherlands 7#ahfi71 ,the ,old ,catholic ,movement 7#ahgg74 ,he became professor emeritus in #ahgb1 and died at ,groningen on the #eth of ,december #ahhf4 ,,hogarth1 ,,william 7#afig-agfd71 the great ,english painter and pictorial satirist1 was born at ,bartholomew ,close in ,london on the #ajth of ,november #afig1 and baptized on the #bhth in the church of ,st ,bartholomew the ,great4 ,he had two younger sisters1 ,mary1 born in #afii1 and ,ann1 born in #agja4 ,his father1 ,richard ,hogarth1 who died in #agah1 was a schoolmaster and literary hack1 who had come to the metropolis to seek that fortune which had been denied to him in his native ,westmorland4 ,the son seems to have been early distinguished by a talent for drawing and an active perceptive faculty rather than by any close attention to the learning which he was soon shrewd enough to see had not made his parent prosper4 ,shows of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when an infant1 he says1 and mimicry1 common to all children1 was remarkable in me4444 ,my exercises when at school were more remarkable for the ornaments which adorned them than for the exercise itself4 ,this being the case1 it is no wonder that1 by his own desire1 he was apprenticed to a silver-plate engraver1 ,mr ,ellis ,gamble1 at the sign of the ,golden ,angel in ,cranbourne ,street or ,alley1 ,leicester ,fields4 ,for this master he engraved a shop-card which is still extant4 ,when his apprenticeship began is not recorded2 but it must have been concluded before the beginning of #agbj1 for in ,april of that year he appears to have set up as engraver on his own account4 ,his desires1 however1 were not limited to silver-plate engraving4 ,engraving on copper was1 at twenty years of age1 my utmost ambition4 ,for this he lacked the needful skill as a draughtsman2 and his account of the means which he took to supply this want1 without too much interfering with his pleasure1 is thoroughly characteristic1 though it can scarcely be recommended as an example4 ,laying it down1 he says1 first as an axiom1 that he who could by any means acquire and retain in his memory1 perfect ideas of the subjects he meant to draw1 would have as clear a knowledge of the figure as a man who can write freely hath of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet and their infinite combinations 7each of these being composed of lines71 and would consequently be an accurate designer1 444 ,i therefore endeavoured to habituate myself to the exercise of a sort of technical memory1 and by repeating in my own mind1 the parts of which objects were composed1 ,i could by degrees combine and put them down with my pencil4 ,this account1 it is possible1 has something of the complacency of the old age in which it was written2 but there is little doubt that his marvellous power of seizing expression owed less to patient academical study than to his unexampled eye-memory and tenacity of minor detail4 ,but he was not entirely without technical training1 since1 by his own showing1 he occasionally took the life to correct his memories1 and is known to have studied at ,sir ,james ,thornhill's then recently opened art school4 ,his first employment 7i4e4 after he set up for himself7 seems1 says ,john ,nichols1 in his ,anecdotes1 to have been the engraving of arms and shop bills4 ,after this he was employed in designing plates for booksellers4 ,of these early and mostly insignificant works we may pass over ,the ,lottery1 an ,emblematic ,print on the ,south ,sea ,scheme1 and some book illustrations1 to pause at ,masquerades and ,operas 7#agbd71 the first plate he published on his own account4 ,this is a clever little satire on contemporary follies1 such as the masquerades of the ,swiss adventurer ,heidegger1 the popular ,italian opera-singers1 ,rich's pantomimes at ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields1 and last1 but by no means least1 the exaggerated popularity of ,lord ,burlington's protege1 the architect painter ,william ,kent1 who is here represented on the summit of ,burlington ,gate1 with ,raphael and ,michelangelo for supporters4 ,this worthy1 ,hogarth had doubtless not learned to despise less in the school of his rival ,sir ,james ,thornhill4 ,indeed almost the next of ,hogarth's important prints was aimed at ,kent alone1 being that memorable burlesque of the unfortunate altarpiece designed by the latter for ,st ,clement ,danes1 which1 in deference to the ridicule of the parishioners1 ,bishop ,gibson took down in #agbe4 ,hogarth's squib1 which appeared subsequently1 exhibits it as a very masterpiece of confusion and bad drawing4 ,in #agbf he prepared twelve large engravings for ,butler's ,hudibras4 ,these he himself valued highly1 and they are the best of his book illustrations4 ,but he was far too individual to be the patient interpreter of other men's thoughts1 and it is not in this direction that his successes are to be sought4 ,to #agbg-agbh belongs one of those rare occurrences which have survived as contributions to his biography4 ,he was engaged by ,joshua ,morris1 a tapestry worker1 to prepare a design for the ,element of ,earth4 ,morris1 however1 having heard that he was an engraver1 and no painter1 declined the work when completed1 and ,hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the ,westminster ,court1 where1 on the #bhth of ,may #agbh1 the case was decided in his 7,hogarth's7 favour4 ,it may have been the aspersion thus early cast on his skill as a painter 7coupled perhaps with the unsatisfactory state of print-selling1 owing to the uncontrolled circulation of piratical copies7 that induced him about this time to turn his attention to the production of small conversation pieces 7i4e4 groups in oil of full-length portraits from #ab to #ae in4 high71 many of which are still preserved in different collections4 ,this1 he says1 having novelty1 succeeded for a few years4 ,among his other efforts in oil between #agbh and #agcb were ,the ,wanstead ,conversation1 ,the ,house of ,commons examining ,bambridge1 an infamous warden of the ,fleet1 and several pictures of the chief actors in ,gay's popular ,beggar's ,opera4 ,on the #bcrd of ,march #agbi he was married at old ,paddington church to ,jane ,thornhill1 the only daughter of ,kent's rival above mentioned4 ,the match was a clandestine one1 although ,lady ,thornhill appears to have favoured it4 ,we next hear of him in lodgings at ,south ,lambeth1 where he rendered some assistance to the then well-known ,jonathan ,tyers1 who opened ,vauxhall in #agcb with an entertainment styled a ridotto al fresco4 ,for these gardens ,hogarth painted a poor picture of ,henry ,,viii4 and ,anne ,boleyn1 and he also permitted ,hayman to make copies of the later series of the ,four ,times of the ,day4 ,in return1 the grateful ,tyers presented him with a gold pass ticket ,in perpetuam ,beneficii ,memoriam4 ,it was long thought that ,hogarth designed this himself4 ,mr ,warwick ,wroth 7,numismatic ,chronicle1 vol4 xviii47 doubts this1 although he thinks it probable that ,hogarth designed some of the silver ,vauxhall passes which are figured in ,wilkinson's ,londina illustrata4 ,the only engravings between #agbf and #agcb which need be referred to are the ,large ,masquerade ,ticket 7#agbg71 another satire on masquerades1 and the print of ,burlington ,gate 7#agca71 evoked by ,pope's ,epistle to ,lord ,burlington1 and defending ,lord ,chandos1 who is therein satirized4 ,this print gave great offence1 and was1 it is said1 suppressed4 ,by #agca ,hogarth must have completed the earliest of the series of moral works which first gave him his position as a great and original genius4 ,this was ,a ,harlot's ,progress1 the paintings for which1 if we may trust the date in the last of the pictures1 were finished in that year4 ,almost immediately afterwards he must have begun to engrave them--a task he had at first intended to leave to others4 ,from an advertisement in the ,country ,journal2 or1 the ,craftsman1 #bith of ,january #agcb1 the pictures were then being engraved1 and from later announcements it seems clear that they were delivered to the subscribers early in the following ,april1 on the #bast of which month an unauthorized prose description of them was published4 ,we have no record of the particular train of thought which prompted these story-pictures2 but it may perhaps be fairly assumed that the necessity for creating some link of interest between the personages of the little conversation pieces above referred to1 led to the further idea of connecting several groups or scenes so as to form a sequent narrative4 ,i wished1 says ,hogarth1 to compose pictures on canvas1 similar to representations on the stage4 ,i have endeavoured1 he says again1 to treat my subject as a dramatic writer2 my picture is my stage1 and men and women my players1 who by means of certain actions and gestures are to exhibit a dumb show4 ,there was never a more eloquent dumb show than this of the ,harlot's ,progress4 ,in six scenes the miserable career of a woman of the town is traced out remorselessly from its first facile beginning to its shameful and degraded end4 ,nothing of the detail is softened or abated2 the whole is acted out coram populo1 with the hard1 uncompassionate morality of the age the painter lived in1 while the introduction here and there of one or two well-known characters such as ,colonel ,charteris and ,justice ,gonson give a vivid reality to the satire4 ,it had an immediate success4 ,to say nothing of the fact that the talent of the paintings completely reconciled ,sir ,james ,thornhill to the son-in-law he had hitherto refused to acknowledge1 more than twelve hundred names of subscribers to the engravings were entered in the artist's book4 ,on the appearance of plate iii4 the lords of the treasury trooped to the print shop for ,sir ,john ,gonson's portrait which it contained4 ,the story was made into a pantomime by ,theophilus ,cibber1 and by some one else into a ballad opera2 and it gave rise to numerous pamphlets and poems4 ,it was painted on fan-mounts and transferred to cups and saucers4 ,lastly1 it was freely pirated4 ,there could be no surer testimony to its popularity4 ,from the ,,mss4 of ,george ,vertue in the ,british ,museum 7,add4 ,,mss4 #bcjfi-ih7 it seems that during the progress of the plates1 ,hogarth was domiciled with his father-in-law1 ,sir ,james ,thornhill1 in the ,middle ,piazza1 ,covent ,garden 7the second house eastward from ,james ,street71 and it must have been thence that set out the historical expedition from ,london to ,sheerness of which the original record still exists at the ,british ,museum4 ,this is an oblong ,,ms4 volume entitled ,an ,account of what seem'd most ,remarkable in the ,five ,days' ,peregrination of the ,five ,following ,persons1 vizt41 ,messieurs ,tothall1 ,scott1 ,hogarth1 ,thornhill and ,forrest4 ,begun on ,saturday ,may #bgth #agcb and ,finish'd ,on the #cast of the ,same ,month4 ,abi tu et fac similiter4 ,inscription on ,dulwich ,college ,porch4 ,the journal1 which is written by ,ebenezer1 the father of ,garrick's friend ,theodosius ,forrest1 gives a good idea of what a frisk--as ,johnson called it--was in those days1 while the illustrations were by ,hogarth and ,samuel ,scott the landscape painter4 ,john ,thornhill1 ,sir ,james's son1 made the map4 ,this version 7in prose7 was subsequently run into rhyme by one of ,hogarth's friends1 the ,rev4 ,wm4 ,gostling of ,canterbury1 and after the artist's death both versions were published4 ,in the absence of other biographical detail1 they are of considerable interest to the student of ,hogarth4 ,in #agcc ,hogarth moved into the ,golden ,head in ,leicester ,fields1 which1 with occasional absences at ,chiswick1 he continued to occupy until his death4 ,by ,december of this year he was already engaged upon the engravings of a second ,progress1 that of a ,rake4 ,it was not as successful as its predecessor4 ,it was in eight plates in lieu of six4 ,the story is unequal2 but there is nothing finer than the figure of the desperate hero in the ,covent ,garden gaming-house1 or the admirable scenes in the ,fleet prison and ,bedlam1 where at last his headlong career comes to its tragic termination4 ,the plates abound with allusive suggestion and covert humour2 but it is impossible to attempt any detailed description of them here4 ,a ,rake's ,progress was dated ,june #be1 #agce1 and the engravings bear the words according to ,act of ,parliament4 ,this was an act 7#h ,geo4 ,,ii4 cap4 #ac7 which ,hogarth had been instrumental in obtaining from the legislature1 being stirred thereto by the shameless piracies of rival printsellers4 ,although loosely drawn1 it served its purpose2 and the painter commemorated his success by a long inscription on the plate entitled ,crowns1 ,mitres1 c41 afterwards used as a subscription ticket to the ,election series4 ,these subscription tickets to his engravings1 let us add1 are among the brightest and most vivacious of the artist's productions4 ,that to the ,harlot's ,progress was entitled ,boys peeping at ,nature1 while the ,rake's ,progress was heralded by the delightful etching known as ,a ,pleased ,audience at a ,play1 or ,the ,laughing ,audience4 ,we must pass more briefly over the prints which followed the two ,progresses1 noting first ,a ,modern ,midnight ,conversation1 an admirable drinking scene which comes between them in #agcc1 and the bright little plate of ,southwark ,fair1 which1 although dated #agcc1 was published with ,a ,rake's ,progress in #agce4 ,between these and ,marriage a la mode1 upon the pictures of which the painter must have been not long after at work1 come the small prints of the ,consultation of ,physicians and ,sleeping ,congregation 7#agcf71 the ,scholars at a ,lecture 7#agcg72 the ,four ,times of the ,day 7#agch71 a series of pictures of #ahth century life1 the earlier designs for which have been already referred to2 the ,strolling ,actresses dressing in a ,barn 7#agch71 which ,walpole held to be1 for wit and imagination1 without any other end1 the best of all the painter's works2 and finally the admirable plates of the ,distrest ,poet painfully composing a poem on ,riches in a garret1 and the ,enraged ,musician fulminating from his parlour window upon a discordant orchestra of knife-grinders1 milk-girls1 ballad-singers and the rest upon the pavement outside4 ,these are dated respectively #agcf and #agda4 ,to this period also 7i4e4 the period preceding the production of the plates of ,marriage a la mode7 belong two of those history pictures to which1 in emulation of the ,haymans and ,thornhills1 the artist was continually attracted4 ,the ,pool of ,bethesda and the ,good ,samaritan1 with figures seven feet high1 were painted circa #agcf1 and presented by the artist to ,st ,bartholomew's ,hospital1 where they remain4 ,they were not masterpieces2 and it is pleasanter to think of his connexion with ,captain ,coram's recently established ,foundling ,hospital 7#agci71 which he aided with his money1 his graver and his brush1 and for which he painted that admirable portrait of the good old philanthropist which is still1 and deservedly1 one of its chief ornaments4 ,in ,a ,harlot's ,progress ,hogarth had not strayed much beyond the lower walks of society1 and although1 in ,a ,rake's ,progress1 his hero was taken from the middle classes1 he can scarcely be said to have quitted those fields of observation which are common to every spectator4 ,it is therefore more remarkable1 looking to his education and antecedents1 that his masterpiece1 ,marriage a la mode1 should successfully depict1 as the advertisement has it1 a variety of modern occurrences in high life4 ,yet1 as an accurate delineation of upper class #ahth century society1 his ,marriage a la mode has never1 we believe1 been seriously assailed4 ,the countess's bedroom1 the earl's apartment with its lavish coronets and old masters1 the grand saloon with its marble pillars and grotesque ornaments1 are fully as true to nature as the frowsy chamber in the ,turk's ,head ,bagnio1 the quack-doctor's museum in ,st ,martin's ,lane1 or the mean opulence of the merchant's house in the city4 ,and what story could be more vividly1 more perspicuously1 more powerfully told than this godless alliance of sacs et parchemins--this miserable tragedy of an ill-assorted marriage8 ,there is no defect of invention1 no superfluity of detail1 no purposeless stroke4 ,it has the merit of a work by a great master of fiction1 with the additional advantages which result from the pictorial fashion of the narrative2 and it is matter for congratulation that it is still to be seen by all the world in the ,national ,gallery in ,london1 where it can tell its own tale better than pages of commentary4 ,the engravings of ,marriage a la mode were dated ,april #agde4 ,although by this time the painter found a ready market for his engravings1 he does not appear to have been equally successful in selling his pictures4 ,the people bought his prints2 but the richer and not numerous connoisseurs who purchased pictures were wholly in the hands of the importers and manufacturers of old masters4 ,in ,february #agde the original oil paintings of the two ,progresses1 the ,four ,times of the ,day and the ,strolling ,actresses were still unsold4 ,on the last day of that month ,hogarth disposed of them by an ill-devised kind of auction1 the details of which may be read in ,nichols's ,anecdotes1 for the paltry sum of ,l#dbg1 #gs4 ,no better fate attended ,marriage a la mode1 which six years later became the property of ,mr ,lane of ,hillingdon for #abj guineas1 being then in ,carlo ,maratti frames which had cost the artist four guineas a piece4 ,something of this was no doubt due to ,hogarth's impracticable arrangements1 but the fact shows conclusively how completely blind his contemporaries were to his merits as a painter1 and how hopelessly in bondage to the all-powerful picture-dealers4 ,of these latter the painter himself gave a graphic picture in a letter addressed by him under the pseudonym of ,britophil to the ,st ,james's ,evening ,post1 in ,june #agcg4 ,but if ,hogarth was not successful with his dramas on canvas1 he occasionally shared with his contemporaries in the popularity of portrait painting4 ,for a picture1 executed in #agdf1 of ,garrick as ,richard ,,iii4 he was paid ,l#bjj1 which was more1 says he1 than any ,english artist ever received for a single portrait4 ,in the same year a sketch of ,simon ,fraser1 ,lord ,lovat1 afterwards beheaded on ,tower ,hill1 had an exceptional success4 ,we must content ourselves with a brief enumeration of the most important of his remaining works4 ,these are ,the ,stage ,coach or ,country ,inn ,yard 7#agdg72 the series of twelve plates entitled ,industry and ,idleness 7#agdg71 depicting the career of two ,london apprentices2 the ,gate of ,calais 7#agdi71 which had its origin in a rather unfortunate visit paid to ,france by the painter after the peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle2 the ,march to ,finchley 7#agej72 ,beer ,street1 ,gin ,lane and the ,four ,stages of ,cruelty 7#agea72 the admirable representations of election humours in the days of ,sir ,robert ,walpole1 entitled ,four ,prints of an ,election 7#agee-ageh72 and the plate of ,credulity1 ,superstition and ,fanaticism1 a ,medley 7#agfb71 adapted from an earlier unpublished design called ,enthusiasm ,delineated4 ,besides these must be chronicled three more essays in the great style of history painting1 viz4 ,paul before ,felix1 ,moses brought to ,pharaoh's ,daughter and the ,altarpiece for ,st ,mary ,redcliffe at ,bristol4 ,the first two were engraved in #agea-ageb1 the last in #agid4 ,a subscription ticket to the earlier pictures1 entitled ,paul before ,felix ,burlesqued1 had a popularity far greater than that of the prints themselves4 ,in #agde ,hogarth painted that admirable portrait of himself with his dog ,trump1 which is now in the ,national ,gallery4 ,in a corner of this he had drawn on a palette a serpentine curve with the words ,the ,line of ,beauty4 ,much inquiry ensued as to the meaning of this hieroglyphic2 and in an unpropitious hour the painter resolved to explain himself in writing4 ,the result was the well-known ,analysis of ,beauty 7#agec71 a treatise to fix the fluctuating ideas of ,taste1 otherwise a desultory essay having for pretext the precept attributed to ,michelangelo that a figure should be always ,pyramidall1 ,serpent like and multiplied by one two and three4 ,the fate of the book was what might have been expected4 ,by the painter's adherents it was praised as a final deliverance upon aesthetics2 by his enemies and professional rivals1 its obscurities1 and the minor errors which1 notwithstanding the benevolent efforts of literary friends1 the work had not escaped1 were made the subject of endless ridicule and caricature4 ,it added little to its author's fame1 and it is perhaps to be regretted that he ever undertook it4 ,moreover1 there were further humiliations in store for him4 ,in #agei the success of a little picture called ,the ,lady's ,last ,stake1 painted for ,lord ,charlemont1 procured him a commission from ,sir ,richard ,grosvenor to paint another picture upon the same terms4 ,unhappily on this occasion he deserted his own field of genre and social satire1 to select the story from ,boccaccio 7or rather ,dryden7 of ,sigismunda weeping over the heart of her murdered lover ,guiscardo1 being the subject of a picture in ,sir ,luke ,schaub's collection by ,furini which had recently been sold for ,l#djj4 ,the picture1 over which he spent much time and patience1 was not regarded as a success2 and ,sir ,richard rather meanly shuffled out of his bargain upon the plea that the constantly having it before one's eyes1 would be too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one's mind4 ,sigismunda1 therefore1 much to the artist's mortification1 and the delight of the malicious1 remained upon his hands4 ,as1 by her husband's desire1 his widow valued it at ,l#ejj1 it found no purchaser until after her death1 when the ,boydells bought it for #ef guineas4 ,it was exhibited1 with others of ,hogarth's pictures1 at the ,spring ,gardens exhibition of #agfa1 for the catalogue of which ,hogarth engraved a ,head-piece and a ,tail-piece which are still the delight of collectors2 and finally1 by the bequest of ,mr ,j4 ,h4 ,anderdon1 it passed in #ahgi to the ,national ,gallery1 where1 in spite of theatrical treatment and a repulsive theme1 it still commands admiration for its colour1 drawing and expression4 ,in #agfa ,hogarth was sixty-five years of age1 and he had but three years more to live4 ,these three years were embittered by an unhappy quarrel with his quondam friends1 ,john ,wilkes and ,churchill the poet1 over which most of his biographers are contented to pass rapidly4 ,having succeeded ,john ,thornhill in #ageg as serjeant painter 7to which post he was reappointed at the accession of ,george ,,iii471 an evil genius prompted him in #agfb to do some timed thing in the ministerial interest1 and he accordingly published the indifferent satire of ,the ,times1 plate i4 ,this at once brought him into collision with ,wilkes and ,churchill1 and the immediate result was a violent attack upon him1 both as a man and an artist1 in the opposition ,north ,briton1 ,no4 #ag4 ,the alleged decay of his powers1 the miscarriage of ,sigismunda1 the cobbled composition of the ,analysis1 were all discussed with scurrilous malignity by those who had known his domestic life and learned his weaknesses4 ,the old artist was deeply wounded1 and his health was failing4 ,early in the next year1 however1 he replied by that portrait of ,wilkes which will for ever carry his squinting features to posterity4 ,churchill retaliated in ,july by a savage ,epistle to ,william ,hogarth1 to which the artist rejoined by a print of ,churchill as a bear1 in torn bands and ruffles1 not the most successful of his works4 ,the pleasure1 and pecuniary advantage1 writes ,hogarth manfully1 which ,i derived from these two engravings 7of ,wilkes and ,churchill71 together with occasionally riding on horseback1 restored me to as much health as can be expected at my time of life4 ,he produced but one more print1 that of ,finis1 or ,the ,bathos1 ,march #agfd1 a strange jumble of fag ends1 intended as a tail-piece to his collected prints2 and on the #bfth ,october of the same year he died of an aneurism at his house in ,leicester ,square4 ,his wife1 to whom he left his plates as a chief source of income1 survived him until #aghi4 ,he was buried in ,chiswick churchyard1 where a tomb was erected to him by his friends in #agga1 with an epitaph by ,garrick4 ,not far off1 on the road to ,chiswick ,gardens1 still stands the little red-brick ,georgian villa in which from ,september #agdi until his death he spent the summer seasons4 ,after many vicissitudes and changes of ownership it was purchased in #aijb by ,lieut4-,colonel ,shipway of ,chiswick1 who turned it into a ,hogarth museum and preserved it to the nation4 ,from such records of him as survive1 ,hogarth appears to have been much what from his portrait one might suppose him to have been--a blue-eyed1 honest1 combative little man1 thoroughly insular in his prejudices and antipathies1 fond of flattery1 sensitive like most satirists1 a good friend1 an intractable enemy1 ambitious1 as he somewhere says1 in all things to be singular1 and not always accurately estimating the extent of his powers4 ,with the art connoisseurship of his day he was wholly at war1 because1 as he believed1 it favoured foreign mediocrity at the expense of native talent2 and in the heat of argument he would probably1 as he admits1 often come to utter blasphemous expressions against the divinity even of ,raphael ,urbino1 ,correggio and ,michelangelo4 ,but it was rather against the third-rate copies of third-rate artists--the ship-loads of dead ,christs1 ,holy ,families and ,madonnas--that his indignation was directed2 and in speaking of his attitude with regard to the great masters of art1 it is well to remember his words to ,mrs ,piozzi3--,the connoisseurs and ,i are at war1 you know2 and because ,i hate them1 they think ,i hate ,titian--and let them6 ,but no doubt it was in a measure owing to this hostile attitude of his towards the all-powerful picture-brokers that his contemporaries failed to recognize adequately his merits as a painter1 and persisted in regarding him as an ingenious humorist alone4 ,time has reversed that unjust sentence4 ,he is now held to have been a splendid painter1 pure and harmonious in his colouring1 wonderfully dexterous and direct in his handling1 and in his composition leaving little or nothing to be desired4 ,as an engraver his work is more conspicuous for its vigour1 spirit and intelligibility than for finish and beauty of line4 ,he desired that it should tell its own tale plainly1 and bear the distinct impress of his individuality1 and in this he thoroughly succeeded4 ,as a draughtsman his skill has sometimes been debated1 and his work at times undoubtedly bears marks of haste1 and even carelessness4 ,if1 however1 he is judged by his best instead of his worst1 he will not be found wanting in this respect4 ,but it is not after all as a draughtsman1 an engraver or a painter that he claims his unique position among ,english artists--it is as a humorist and a satirist upon canvas4 ,regarded in this light he has never been equalled1 whether for his vigour of realism and dramatic power1 his fancy and invention in the decoration of his story1 or his merciless anatomy and exposure of folly and wickedness4 ,if we regard him--as he loved to regard himself--as author rather than artist1 his place is with the great masters of literature--with the ,thackerays and ,fieldings1 the ,cervantes and ,molieres4 ,,authorities4--,the main body of ,hogarth literature is to be found in the autobiographical ,memoranda published by ,john ,ireland in #agih1 and in the successive ,anecdotes of the antiquary ,john ,nichols4 ,much minute information has also been collected in ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens's ,catalogue of the ,satirical ,prints and ,drawings in the ,british ,museum4 ,but a copious bibliography of books1 pamphlets1 c41 relating to ,hogarth1 together with detailed catalogues of his paintings and prints1 will be found in the ,memoir of ,hogarth by ,austin ,dobson4 ,first issued in #ahgi1 this was reprinted and expanded in #ahia1 #ahig1 #aijb and finally in #aijg4 ,pictures by ,hogarth from private collections are constantly to be found at the annual exhibitions of the ,old ,masters at ,burlington ,house2 but most of the best-known works have permanent homes in public galleries4 ,marriage a la mode4 ,sigismunda1 ,lavinia ,fenton1 the ,shrimp ,girl1 the ,gate of ,calais1 the portraits of himself1 his sister and his servants1 are all in the ,national ,gallery2 the ,rake's ,progress and the ,election ,series1 in the ,soane ,museum2 and the ,march to ,finchley and ,captain ,coram in the ,foundling4 ,there are also notable pictures in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum at ,cambridge and the ,national ,portrait ,gallery4 ,at the ,print ,room in the ,british ,museum there is also a very interesting set of sixteen designs for the series called ,industry and ,idleness1 the majority of which formerly belonged to ,horace ,walpole4 7,a4 ,d47 ,,hogg1 ,,james 7#aggj-ahce71 ,scottish poet1 known as the ,ettrick ,shepherd1 was baptized at ,ettrick in ,selkirkshire on the #ith of ,december #aggj4 ,his ancestors had been shepherds for centuries4 ,he received hardly any school training1 and seems to have had difficulty in getting books to read4 ,after spending his early years herding sheep for different masters1 he was engaged as shepherd by ,mr ,laidlaw1 tenant of ,blackhouse1 in the parish of ,yarrow1 from #agij till #agii4 ,he was treated with great kindness1 and had access to a large collection of books4 ,when this was exhausted he subscribed to a circulating library in ,peebles4 ,while attending to his flock1 he spent a great deal of time in reading4 ,he profited by the company of his master's sons1 of whom ,william ,laidlaw is known as the friend of ,scott and the author of ,lucy's ,flittin'4 ,hogg's first printed piece was ,the ,mistakes of a ,night in the ,scots ,magazine for ,october #agid1 and in #ahja he published his ,scottish ,pastorals4 ,in #ahjb ,hogg became acquainted with ,sir ,walter ,scott1 who was then collecting materials for his ,border ,minstrelsy4 ,on ,scott's recommendation ,constable published ,hogg's miscellaneous poems 7,the ,mountain ,bard7 in #ahjg4 ,by this work1 and by ,the ,shepherd's ,guide1 being a ,practical ,treatise on the ,diseases of ,sheep1 ,hogg realized about ,l#cjj4 ,with this money he unfortunately embarked in farming in ,dumfriesshire1 and in three years was utterly ruined1 having to abandon all his effects to his creditors4 ,he returned to ,ettrick1 only to find that he could not even obtain employment as a shepherd2 so he set off in ,february #ahaj to push his fortune in ,edinburgh as a literary adventurer4 ,in the same year he published a collection of songs1 ,the ,forest ,minstrel1 to which he was the largest contributor4 ,this book1 being dedicated to the countess of ,dalkeith 7afterwards duchess of ,buccleuch71 and recommended to her notice by ,scott1 was rewarded with a present of #ajj guineas4 ,he then began a weekly periodical1 ,the ,spy1 which he continued from ,september #ahaj till ,august #ahaa4 ,the appearance of ,the ,queen's ,wake in #ahac established ,hogg's reputation as a poet2 ,byron recommended it to ,john ,murray1 who brought out an ,english edition4 ,the scene of the poem is laid in #aefa2 the queen is ,mary ,stuart2 and the wake provides a simple framework for seventeen poems sung by rival bards4 ,it was followed by the ,pilgrims of the ,sun 7#ahae71 and ,mador of the ,moor 7#ahaf74 ,the duchess of ,buccleuch1 on her death-bed 7#ahad71 had asked her husband to do something for the ,ettrick bard2 and the duke gave him a lease for life of the farm of ,altrive in ,yarrow1 consisting of about #gj acres of moorland1 on which the poet built a house and spent the last years of his life4 ,in order to obtain money to stock his farm ,hogg asked various poets to contribute to a volume of verse which should be a kind of poetic benefit for himself4 ,failing in his applications he wrote a volume of parodies1 published in #ahaf1 as ,the ,poetic ,mirror1 or the ,living ,bards of ,great ,britain4 ,he took possession of his farm in #ahag2 but his literary exertions were never relaxed4 ,before #ahbj he had written the prose tales of ,the ,brownie of ,bodsbeck 7#ahah7 and two volumes of ,winter ,evening ,tales 7#ahbj71 besides collecting1 editing and writing part of two volumes of ,the ,jacobite ,relics of ,scotland 7#ahai-ahba71 and contributing largely to ,blackwood's ,magazine4 ,the ,chaldee ,,ms41 which appeared in ,blackwood's ,magazine 7,october #ahag71 and gave such offence that it was immediately withdrawn1 was largely ,hogg's work4 ,in #ahbj he married ,margaret ,phillips1 a lady of a good ,annandale family1 and found himself possessed of about ,l#ajjj1 a good house and a well-stocked farm4 ,hogg's connexion with ,blackwood's ,magazine kept him continually before the public2 his contributions1 which include the best of his prose works1 were collected in the ,shepherd's ,calendar 7#ahbi74 ,the wit and mischief of some of his literary friends made free with his name as the ,shepherd of the ,noctes ,ambrosianae1 and represented him in ludicrous and grotesque aspects2 but the effect of the whole was favourable to his popularity4 ,whatever may be the merits of the picture of the ,shepherd in the ,noctes ,ambrosianae--and no one will deny its power and genius1 writes ,professor ,veitch--it is true1 all the same1 that this ,shepherd was not the ,shepherd of ,ettrick or the man ,james ,hogg4 ,he was neither a ,socrates nor a ,falstaff1 neither to be credited with the wisdom and lofty idealizings of the one1 nor with the characteristic humour and coarseness of the other4 ,the ,three ,perils of ,woman 7#ahbj71 and ,the ,three ,perils of ,man 7#ahbb71 were followed in #ahbe by an epic poem1 ,queen ,hynde1 which was unfavourably received4 ,he visited ,london in #ahcb1 and was much lionized4 ,on his return a public dinner was given to him in ,peebles1--,professor ,wilson in the chair1--and he acknowledged that he had at last found fame4 ,his health1 however1 was seriously impaired4 ,with his pen in his hand to the last1 ,hogg in #ahcd published a volume of ,lay ,sermons1 and ,the ,domestic ,manners and ,private ,life of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 a book which ,lockhart regarded as an infringement on his rights4 ,in #ahce appeared three volumes of ,tales of the ,wars of ,montrose4 ,hogg died on the #bast of ,november #ahce1 and was buried in the churchyard of his native parish ,ettrick4 ,his fame had seemed to fill the whole district1 and was brightest at its close2 his presence was associated with all the border sports and festivities2 and as a man ,james ,hogg was ever frank1 joyous and charitable4 ,it is mainly as a great peasant poet that he lives in literature4 ,some of his lyrics and minor poems--his ,skylark1 ,when the ,kye comes ,hame1 his verses on the ,comet and ,evening ,star1 and his ,address to ,lady ,ann ,scott--are exquisite4 ,the ,queen's ,wake unites his characteristic excellences--his command of the old romantic ballad style1 his graceful fairy mythology and his aerial flights of imagination4 ,in the fairy story of ,kilmeny in this work ,hogg seems completely transformed2 he is absorbed in the ideal and supernatural1 and writes under direct and immediate inspiration4 ,see ,hogg's ,memoir of the ,author's ,life1 written by himself1 prefixed to the #crd edition 7#ahba7 of ,the ,mountain ,bard1 also ,memorials of ,james ,hogg1 the ,ettrick ,shepherd1 edited by his daughter1 ,mrs ,m4 ,g4 ,garden 7enlarged edition with preface by ,professor ,veitch1 #aijc71 and ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,s4 ,douglas1 ,james ,hogg 7#ahii7 in the ,famous ,scots series2 also ,the ,poems of ,james ,hogg1 selected by ,william ,wallace 7#aijc74 ,john ,wilson 7,christopher ,north7 had a real affection for ,hogg1 but for some reason or other made no use of the materials placed in his hands for a biography of the poet4 ,the memoir mentioned on the title-page of the ,works 7#ahch-ahdj7 never appeared1 and the memoir prefixed to the edition of ,hogg's works published by ,blackie ,co4 7#ahfe7 was written by the ,rev4 ,thomas ,thompson4 ,see also ,wilson's ,noctes ,ambrosianae2 ,mrs ,oliphant's ,annals of a ,publishing ,house1 vol4 i4 chap4 vii42 ,gilfillan's ,first ,gallery of ,literary ,portraits2 ,cunningham's ,biog4 and ,crit4 ,hist4 of ,lit42 and the general index to ,blackwood's ,magazine4 ,a collected edition of ,hogg's ,tales appeared in #ahcg in #f vols41 and a second in #ahea2 his ,poetical ,works were published in #ahbb1 #ahch-ahdj and #ahfe-ahff4 ,for an admirable account of the social entertainments ,hogg used to give in ,edinburgh1 see ,memoir of ,robert ,chambers 7#ahgd71 by ,dr ,william ,chambers1 pp4 #bfc-bgj4 ,,hogg1 ,,thomas ,,jefferson 7#agib-ahfb71 ,english man of letters1 was born at ,norton1 ,durham1 on the #bdth of ,may #agib4 ,he was educated at ,durham grammar school and at ,university ,college1 ,oxford4 ,here he became the intimate friend of the poet ,shelley1 with whom in #ahaa he was expelled from the university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the authorship of the pamphlet ,the ,necessity for ,atheism4 ,he was then sent to study law at ,york1 where he remained for six months4 ,hogg's behaviour to ,harriet ,shelley interrupted his relations with her husband for some time1 but in #ahac the friendship was renewed in ,london4 ,in #ahag ,hogg was called to the bar1 and became later a revising barrister4 ,in #ahdd he inherited ,l#bjjj under ,shelley's will1 and in #ahee1 in accordance with the wishes of the poet's family1 began to write ,shelley's biography4 ,the first two volumes of it were published in #aheh1 but they proved to be far more an autobiography than a biography1 and ,shelley's representatives refused ,hogg further access to the materials necessary for its completion4 ,hogg died on the #bgth of ,august #ahfb4 ,,hogmanay1 the name in ,scotland and some parts of the north of ,england for ,new ,year's ,eve1 as also for the cake then given to the children4 ,on the morning of the #cast of ,december the children in small bands go from door to door singing3 ,hogmanay ,trollolay ,gie's o' your white bread and nane o' your grey2 and begging for small gifts or alms4 ,these usually take the form of an oaten cake4 ,the derivation of the term has been much disputed4 ,cotgrave 7#afaa7 says3 ,it is the voice of the country folks begging small presents or ,new ,year's gifts 444 an ancient term of rejoicing derived from the ,druids1 who were wont the first of each ,january to go into the woods1 where1 having sacrificed and banquetted together1 they gathered mistletoe1 esteeming it excellent to make beasts fruitful and most soverayne against all poyson4 ,and he connects the word1 through such ,norman ,french forms as hoguinane1 with the old ,french aguilanneuf1 which he explains as au gui-l'an-neuf1 to the mistletoe6 the ,new ,year6--this being 7on his interpretation7 the ,druidical salutation to the coming year as the revellers issued from the woods armed with boughs of mistletoe4 ,but though this explanation may be accepted as containing the truth in referring the word to a ,french original1 ,cotgrave's detailed etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists1 and the identical ,french aguilanneuf remains1 like it1 in obscurity4 ,,hogshead1 a cask for holding liquor or other commodities1 such as tobacco1 sugar1 molasses1 c42 also a liquid measure of capacity1 varying with the contents4 ,as a measure for beer1 cider1 c41 it equals #ed gallons4 ,a statute of ,richard ,,iii4 7#adhc7 fixed the hogshead of wine at #fc wine-gallons1 i4e4 #eb7a_/b7 imperial gallons4 ,the etymology of the word has been much discussed4 ,according to ,skeat1 the origin is to be found in the name for a cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in several ,teutonic languages1 in ,dutch oxhooft 7modern okshoofd71 ,dan4 oxehoved1 ,o4 ,swed4 oxhufvod1 c4 ,the word should therefore be oxhead1 and hogshead is a mere corruption4 ,it has been suggested that the name arose from the branding of such a measure with the head of an ox 7see ,notes and ,queries1 series iv4 #b1 #df1 note by ,h4 ,tiedeman74 ,the ,new ,english ,dictionary does not attempt any explanation of the term1 and takes hogshead as the original form1 from which the forms in other languages have been corrupted4 ,the earlier ,dutch forms hukeshovet and hoekshoot are nearer to the ,english form1 and1 further1 the ,dutch for ox is os4 ,,hohenasperg1 an ancient fortress of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,wurttemberg1 #aj m4 ,n4 of ,stuttgart1 is situated on a conical hill1 #aajj ft4 high1 overlooking the town of ,asperg4 ,it was formerly strongly fortified and was long the state prison of the kingdom of ,wurttemberg4 ,among the many who have been interned here may be mentioned the notorious ,jew financier1 ,joseph ,suss-,oppenheimer 7#afib-agch7 and the poet ,c4 ,f4 ,d4 ,schubart 7#agci-agia74 ,it is now a reformatory4 ,hohenasperg originally belonged to the counts of ,calw2 it next passed to the counts palatine of ,tubingen and from them was acquired in #acjh by ,wurttemberg4 ,in #aece the fortifications were extended and strengthened1 and in #afce the town was taken by the ,imperialists1 who occupied it until #afdi4 ,see ,schon1 ,die ,staatsgefangenen von ,hohenasperg 7,stuttgart1 #ahii72 and ,biffart1 ,geschichte der ,wurttembergischen ,feste ,hohenasperg 7,stuttgart1 #aheh74 ,,hohenfriedberg1 or ,,hohenfriedeberg1 a village of ,silesia1 about #f m4 from the small town of ,striegau4 ,it gives its name to a battle 7also called the battle of ,striegau7 in the ,war of the ,austrian ,succession1 fought on the #crd of ,june #agde between the ,prussians under ,frederick the ,great and the ,austrians and ,saxons commanded by ,prince ,charles of ,lorraine4 ,in ,may the king1 whose army had occupied extended winter quarters in ,silesia1 had drawn it together into a position about ,neisse whence he could manoeuvre against the ,austrians1 whether they invaded ,silesia by ,troppau or ,glatz1 or joined their allies 7who1 under the duke of ,weissenfels1 were on the upper ,elbe71 and made their advance on ,schweidnitz1 ,breslau or ,liegnitz4 ,on the ,austrians concentrating towards the ,elbe1 ,frederick gradually drew his army north-westward along the edge of the mountain country until on the #ast of ,june it was near ,schweidnitz4 ,at that date the ,austro-,saxons were advancing 7very slowly owing to the poorness of the roads and the dilatoriness of the ,saxon artillery train7 from ,waldenburg and ,landshut through the mountains1 heading for ,striegau4 ,after a few minor skirmishes at the end of ,may1 ,frederick had made up his mind to offer no opposition to the passage of the ,allies1 but to fall upon them as they emerged1 and the ,prussian army was therefore kept concentrated out of sight1 while only selected officers and patrols watched the debouches of the mountains4 ,on the other hand the ,allies had no intention of delivering battle1 but meant only1 on emerging from the mountains1 to take up a suitable camping position and thence to interpose between ,breslau and the king1 believing that the king was at his wits' end1 and1 once the army really began its retreat on ,breslau1 there would be frightful consternation in its ranks4 ,but in fact1 as even the coolest observers noticed1 the ,prussian army was in excellent spirits and eager for the decisive affair promised by the king4 ,on the #crd of ,june1 watched by the invisible patrols1 the ,austrians and ,saxons emerged from the hills at ,hohenfriedberg with bands playing and colours flying4 ,their advanced guard of infantry and cavalry spread out into the plain1 making for a line of hills spreading north-west from ,striegau1 where the army was to encamp4 ,but the main body moved slowly1 and at last ,prince ,charles and ,weissenfels decided to put off the occupation of the line of hills till the morrow4 ,the army bivouacked therefore in two separate wings1 the ,saxons 7with a few ,austrian regiments7 between ,gunthersdorf and ,pilgramshain1 the ,austrians near ,hausdorf4 ,they were about #gj1jjj strong1 ,frederick #fe1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,hohenfriedberg1 ,june #d1 #agde4 ,the king had made his arrangements in good time1 aided by the enemy's slowness1 and in the evening he issued simple orders to move4 ,about #i ,p4,m4 the ,prussians marched off from ,alt-,jauernigk towards ,striegau1 the guns on the road1 the infantry and cavalry1 in long open columns of companies and squadrons1 over the fields on either side--a night march well remembered by contrast with others as having been executed in perfect order4 ,meanwhile ,general ,dumoulin1 who commanded an advanced detachment between ,striegau and ,stanowitz1 broke camp silently and moved into position below the hill north-west of ,striegau1 which was found to be occupied by ,saxon light infantry outposts4 ,the king's orders were for ,dumoulin and the right wing of the main army to deploy and advance towards ,haslicht against the ,saxons1 and for the left wing infantry to prolong the line from the marsh to ,gunthersdorf1 covered by the left-wing cavalry on the plain near ,thomaswaldau4 ,on the side of the ,austrians1 the outlying hussars are said to have noticed and reported the king's movement1 for the night was clear and starlit1 but their report1 if made1 was ignored4 ,at #d ,a4,m4 ,dumoulin advanced on ,pilgramshain1 neglecting the fire of the ,saxon outpost on the ,spitzberg1 whereupon this promptly retired in order to avoid being surrounded4 ,dumoulin then posted artillery on the slope of the hill and deployed his six grenadier battalions facing the village4 ,the leading cavalry of the main army came up and deployed on ,dumoulin's left front in open rolling ground4 ,meantime the duke of ,weissenfels had improvised a line of defence1 posting his infantry in the marshy ground and about ,pilgramshain1 and his cavalry1 partly in front of ,pilgramshain and partly on the intervening space1 opposite that of the ,prussians4 ,but before the marshy ground was effectively occupied by the duke's infantry1 his cavalry had been first shaken by the fire of ,dumoulin's guns on the ,spitzberg and a heavy battery that was brought up on to the ,grabener ,fuchsberg1 and then charged by the ,prussian right-wing cavalry1 and in the melee the ,allies were gradually driven in confusion off the battlefield4 ,the cavalry battle was ended by #f4cj ,a4,m41 by which time ,dumoulin's grenadiers1 stiffened by the line regiment ,anhalt 7the ,old ,dessauer's own71 were vigorously attacking the garden hedges and walls of ,pilgramshain1 and the ,saxon and ,austrian infantry in the marsh was being attacked by ,prince ,dietrich of ,dessau with the right wing of the king's infantry4 ,the line infantry of those days1 however1 did not work easily in bad ground1 and the ,saxons were steady and well drilled4 ,after an hour's fight1 well supported by the guns and continually reinforced as the rest of the army closed up1 the prince expelled the enemy from the marsh1 while ,dumoulin drove the light troops out of ,pilgramshain4 ,by #g ,a4,m4 the ,saxons1 forming the left wing of the allied army1 were in full retreat4 ,while his allies were being defeated1 ,prince ,charles of ,lorraine had done nothing1 believing that the cannonade was merely an outpost affair for the possession of the ,spitzberg4 ,his generals indeed had drawn out their respective commands in order of battle1 the infantry south of ,gunthersdorf1 the cavalry near ,thomaswaldau1 but they had no authority to advance without orders1 and stood inactive1 while1 #a m4 away1 the ,prussian columns were defiling over the ,striegau ,water4 ,this phase of the king's advance was the most delicate of all1 and the moment that he heard from ,prince ,dietrich that the marsh was captured he stopped the northward flow of his battalions and swung them westward1 the left wing cavalry having to cover their deployment4 ,but when one-third of this cavalry only had crossed at ,teichau the bridge broke4 ,for a time the advanced squadrons were in great danger4 ,but they charged boldly1 and a disjointed cavalry battle began1 during which 7,ziethen's hussars having discovered a ford7 the rest of the left-wing cavalry was able to cross4 ,at last #be intact squadrons under ,lieut4-,general von ,nassau charged and drove the ,austrians in disorder towards ,hohenfriedberg4 ,this action was the more creditable to the victors in that #de squadrons in #c separate fractions defeated a mass of #fj squadrons that stood already deployed to meet them4 ,meanwhile the ,prussian infantry columns of the centre and left had crossed ,striegau ,water and deployed to their left1 and by #h4cj they were advancing on ,gunthersdorf and the ,austrian infantry south of that place4 ,frederick's purpose was to roll up the enemy from their inner flank1 and while ,prince ,dietrich1 with most of the troops that had forced the ,saxons out of the marsh1 pursued ,weissenfels1 two regiments of his and one of ,dumoulin's were brought over to the left wing and sent against the north side of ,gunthersdorf4 ,in the course of the general forward movement1 which was made in what was for those days a very irregular line1 a wide gap opened up between the centre and left1 behind which #aj squadrons of the ,bayreuth dragoon regiment1 with ,lieut4-,general von ,gessler1 took up their position4 ,thus the line advanced4 ,the grenadiers on the extreme left cleared ,thomaswaldau1 and their fire galled the ,austrian squadrons engaged in the cavalry battle to the south4 ,then ,gunthersdorf1 attacked on three sides1 was also evacuated by the enemy4 ,but although ,frederick rode back from the front saying the battle is won1 the ,prussian infantry1 in spite of its superior fire discipline1 failed for some time to master the defence1 and suffered heavily from the eight close-range volleys they received1 one or two regiments losing #dj and #ej of their strength4 ,the ,austrians1 however1 suffered still more2 feeling themselves isolated in the midst of the victorious enemy1 they began to waver1 and at the psychological moment ,gessler and the ,bayreuth dragoons charged into their ranks and broke the equilibrium4 ,these #aejj sabres scattered twenty battalions of the enemy and brought in #bejj prisoners and #ff ,austrian colours1 and in this astounding charge they themselves lost no more than #id men4 ,by nine o'clock the battle was over1 and the wrecks of the ,austro-,saxon army were retreating to the mountains4 ,the ,prussians1 who had been marching all night1 were too far spent to pursue4 ,the loss of the allies was in all #ae1bbd1 #gihe killed and wounded1 and #gbci prisoners1 as well as #gb guns and #hc standards and colours4 ,the ,prussians lost #dfff killed and wounded1 #ga missing4 ,,hohenheim1 a village of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,wurttemberg1 #g m4 ,s4 of ,stuttgart by rail4 ,pop4 #cjj4 ,it came in #agfh from the counts of ,hohenheim to the dukes of ,wurttemberg1 and in #aghe ,duke ,karl ,eugen built a country house here4 ,this house with grounds is now the seat of the most important agricultural college in ,germany2 it was founded in #ahag1 was raised to the position of a high school in #ahfe1 and now ranks as a technical high school with university status4 ,see ,frohlich1 ,das ,schloss und die ,akademie ,hohenheim 7,stuttgart1 #ahgj74 ,,hohenlimburg1 a town of ,germany1 on the ,lenne1 in the ,prussian prov4 of ,westphalia1 #cj m4 by rail ,s4,e4 of ,dortmund4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ab1gij4 ,it has two ,evangelical churches1 a ,roman ,catholic church and a synagogue4 ,the town is the seat of various iron and metal industries1 while dyeing1 cloth-making and linen-weaving are also carried on here4 ,it is the chief town of the county of ,limburg1 and formerly belonged to the counts of ,limburg1 a family which became extinct in #aejh4 ,later it passed to the counts of ,bentheim-,tecklenburg4 ,the castle of ,hohenlimburg1 which overlooks the town1 is now the residence of ,prince ,adolf of ,bentheim-,tecklenburg4 ,,hohenlohe1 a ,german princely family which took its name from the district of ,hohenlohe in ,franconia4 ,at first a countship1 its two branches were raised to the rank of principalities of the ,empire in #agdd and #agfd respectively2 in #ahjf they lost their independence and their lands now form part of the kingdoms of ,bavaria and of ,wurttemberg4 ,at the time of the mediatization the area of ,hohenlohe was #fhj sq4 m4 and its estimated population was #ajh1jjj4 ,the family is first mentioned in the #abth century as possessing the castle of ,hohenloch1 or ,hohenlohe1 near ,uffenheim1 and its influence was soon perceptible in several of the ,franconian valleys1 including those of the ,kocher1 the ,jagst and the ,tauber4 ,henry ,i4 7d4 #aahc7 was the first to take the title of count of ,hohenlohe1 and in #abcj his grandsons1 ,gottfried and ,conrad1 supporters of the emperor ,frederick ,,ii41 founded the lines of ,hohenlohe-,hohenlohe and ,hohenlohe-,brauneck1 names taken from their respective castles4 ,the latter became extinct in #acij1 its lands passing later to ,brandenburg1 while the former was divided into several branches1 only two of which1 however1 ,hohenlohe-,weikersheim and ,hohenlohe-,uffenheim-,speckfeld1 need be mentioned here4 ,hohenlohe-,weikersheim1 descended from ,count ,kraft ,i4 7d4 #acac71 also underwent several divisions1 that which took place after the deaths of ,counts ,albert and ,george in #aeea being specially important4 ,at this time the lines of ,hohenlohe-,neuenstein and ,hohenlohe-,waldenburg were founded by the sons of ,count ,george4 ,meanwhile1 in #adab1 the family of ,hohenlohe-,uffenheim-,speckfeld had become extinct1 and its lands had passed through the marriages of its heiresses into other families4 ,the existing branches of the ,hohenlohe family are descended from the lines of ,hohenlohe-,neuenstein and ,hohenlohe-,waldenburg1 established in #aeea4 ,the former of these became ,protestant1 while the latter remained ,catholic4 ,of the family of ,hohenlohe-,neuenstein1 which underwent several partitions and inherited ,gleichen in #afca1 the senior line became extinct in #ahje1 while in #agja the junior line divided itself into three branches1 those of ,langenburg1 ,ingelfingen and ,kirchberg4 ,kirchberg died out in #ahfa1 but members of the families of ,hohenlohe-,langenburg and ,hohenlohe-,ingelfingen are still alive1 the latter being represented by the branches of ,hohenlohe-,ingelfingen and ,hohenlohe-,ohringen4 ,the ,roman ,catholic family of ,hohenlohe-,waldenburg was soon divided into three branches1 but two of these had died out by #agbi4 ,the surviving branch1 that of ,schillingsfurst1 was divided into the lines of ,hohenlohe-,schillingsfurst and ,hohenlohe-,bartenstein2 other divisions followed1 and the four existing lines of this branch of the family are those of ,waldenburg1 ,schillingsfurst1 ,jagstberg and ,bartenstein4 ,the family of ,hohenlohe-,schillingsfurst possesses the duchies of ,ratibor and of ,corbie inherited in #ahbd4 ,the principal members of the family are dealt with below4 ,i4 ,,friedrich ,,ludwig1 prince of ,hohenlohe-,ingelfingen 7#agdf-ahah71 ,prussian general1 was the eldest son of ,prince ,johann ,friedrich 7d4 #agif7 of ,hohenlohe-,ingelfingen1 and began his military career as a boy1 serving against the ,prussians in the last years of the ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,entering the ,prussian army after the peace 7#agfh71 he was on account of his rank at once made major1 and in #agge he became lieutenant-colonel2 in #aggh he took part in the ,war of the ,bavarian ,succession and about the same time was made a colonel4 ,shortly before the death of ,frederick the ,great he was promoted to the rank of major-general and appointed chief of a regiment4 ,for some years the prince did garrison duty at ,breslau1 until in #agia he was made governor of ,berlin4 ,in #agid he commanded a corps in the ,prussian army on the ,rhine and distinguished himself greatly in many engagements1 particularly in the battle of ,kaiserslautern on the #bjth of ,september4 ,he was at this time the most popular soldier in the ,prussian army4 ,blucher wrote of him that he was a leader of whom the ,prussian army might well be proud4 ,he succeeded his father in the principality1 and acquired additional lands by his marriage with a daughter of ,count von ,hoym4 ,in #ahjf ,hohenlohe1 now a general of infantry1 was appointed to command the left-wing army of the ,prussian forces opposing ,napoleon1 having under him ,prince ,louis ,ferdinand of ,prussia2 but1 feeling that his career had been that of a prince and not that of a scientific soldier1 he allowed his quartermaster-general ,massenbach to influence him unduly4 ,disputes soon broke out between ,hohenlohe and the commander-in-chief1 the duke of ,brunswick1 the armies marched hither and thither without effective results1 and finally ,hohenlohe's army was almost destroyed by ,napoleon at ,jena 7see ,,napoleonic ,,campaigns74 ,the prince displayed his usual personal bravery in the battle1 and managed to rally a portion of his corps near ,erfurt1 whence he retired into ,prussia4 ,but the pursuers followed him up closely1 and1 still acting under ,massenbach's advice1 he surrendered the remnant of his army at ,prenzlau on the #bhth of ,october1 a fortnight after ,jena and three weeks after the beginning of hostilities4 ,hohenlohe's former popularity and influence in the army had now the worst possible effect1 for the commandants of garrisons everywhere lost heart and followed his example4 ,after two years spent as a prisoner of war in ,france ,hohenlohe retired to his estates1 living in self-imposed obscurity until his death on the #aeth of ,february #ahah4 ,he had1 in ,august #ahjf1 just before the outbreak of the ,french ,war1 resigned the principality to his eldest son1 not being willing to become a mediatized ruler under ,wurttemberg suzerainty4 ,,ii4 ,,ludwig ,,aloysius1 prince of ,hohenlohe-,waldenburg-,bartenstein 7#agfe-ahbi71 marshal and peer of ,france1 was born on the #ahth of ,august #agfe4 ,in #aghd he entered the service of the ,palatinate1 which he quitted in #agib in order to take the command of a regiment raised by his father for the service of the emigrant princes of ,france4 ,he greatly distinguished himself under ,conde in the campaigns of #agib-agic1 especially at the storming of the lines of ,weissenburg4 ,subsequently he entered the service of ,holland1 and1 when almost surrounded by the army of ,general ,pichegru1 conducted a masterly retreat from the island of ,bommel4 ,from #agid to #agii he served as colonel in the ,austrian campaigns2 in #agii he was named major-general by the archduke ,charles2 and after obtaining the rank of lieutenant-general he was appointed by the emperor governor of the two ,galicias4 ,napoleon offered to restore to him his principality on condition that he adhered to the confederation of the ,rhine1 but as he refused1 it was united to ,wurttemberg4 ,after ,napoleon's fall in #ahad he entered the ,french service1 and in #ahae he held the command of a regiment raised by himself1 with which he took part in the ,spanish campaign of #ahbc4 ,in #ahbg he was created marshal and peer of ,france4 ,he died at ,luneville on the #cjth of ,may #ahbi4 ,,iii4 ,,alexander ,,leopold ,,franz ,,emmerich1 prince of ,hohenlohe-,waldenburg-,schillingsfurst 7#agid-ahdi71 priest and reputed miracle-worker1 was born at ,kupferzell1 near ,waldenburg1 on the #agth of ,august #agid4 ,by his mother1 the daughter of an ,hungarian nobleman1 he was from infancy destined for the church2 and she entrusted his early education to the ex-,jesuit ,riel4 ,in #ahjd he entered the ,theresianum at ,vienna1 in #ahjh the academy at ,bern1 in #ahaj the archiepiscopal seminary at ,vienna1 and afterwards he studied at ,tyrnau and ,ellwangen4 ,he was ordained priest in #ahae1 and in the following year he went to ,rome1 where he entered the society of the ,fathers of the ,sacred ,heart4 ,subsequently1 at ,munich and ,bamberg1 he was blamed for ,jesuit and obscurantist tendencies1 but obtained considerable reputation as a preacher4 ,his first co-called miraculous cure was effected1 in conjunction with a peasant1 ,martin ,michel1 on a princess of ,schwarzenberg who had been for some years paralytic4 ,immediately he acquired such fame as a performer of miraculous cures that multitudes from various countries flocked to partake of the beneficial influence of his supposed supernatural gifts4 ,ultimately1 on account of the interference of the authorities with his operations1 he went in #ahba to ,vienna and then to ,hungary1 where he became canon at ,grosswardein and in #ahdd titular bishop of ,sardica4 ,he died at ,voslau near ,vienna on the #agth of ,november #ahdi4 ,he was the author of a number of ascetic and controversial writings1 which were collected and published in one edition by ,s4 ,brunner in #ahea4 ,,iv4 ,,kraft1 prince of ,hohenlohe-,ingelfingen 7#ahbg-ahib71 soldier and military writer1 son of ,prince ,adolf of ,hohenlohe-,ingelfingen 7#agig-ahgc71 was born at ,koschentin in ,upper ,silesia4 ,he was a nephew of the ,prince ,hohenlohe noticed above1 who commanded the ,prussians at ,jena4 ,educated with great rigour1 owing to the impoverishment of the family estates during the ,napoleonic wars1 he was sent into the ,prussian army1 and commissioned to the artillery at the least expensive arm of the service4 ,he joined the ,prussian ,guard artillery in #ahde1 and it was soon discovered that he had unusual aptitudes as an artillery officer4 ,for a time his brother officers resented the presence of a prince1 until it was found that he made no attempt to use his social position to secure advancement4 ,after serving as a military attache in ,vienna and on the ,transylvanian frontier during the ,crimean ,war1 he was made a captain on the general staff1 and in #ahef personal aide-de-camp to the king1 remaining1 however1 in close touch with the artillery4 ,in #ahfd1 having become in the meanwhile successively major and lieut4-colonel1 he resigned the staff appointments to become commander of the new ,guard ,field ,artillery regiment and in the following year he became colonel4 ,in #ahff he saw his first real active service4 ,in the bold advance of the ,guard corps on the ,austrian right wing at ,koniggratz 7see ,,seven ,,weeks' ,,war71 he led the ,guard reserve artillery with the greatest dash and success1 and after the short war ended he turned his energies1 now fortified by experience1 to the better tactical training of the ,prussian artillery4 ,in #ahfh he was made a major-general and assigned to command the ,guard artillery brigade4 ,in this capacity he gained great distinction during the ,franco-,german war and especially at ,gravelotte and ,sedan2 he was in control of the artillery attack on the fortifications of ,paris4 ,in #ahgc he was placed in command of an infantry division1 and three years later was promoted lieutenant-general4 ,he retired in #ahgi1 was made general of infantry in #ahhc and general of artillery in #ahhi4 ,his military writings were numerous1 and amongst them several have become classics4 ,these are ,briefe uber ,artillerie 7,eng4 trans4 ,letters on ,artillery1 #ahhg72 ,briefe uber ,strategie 7#ahgg2 ,eng4 trans4 ,letters on ,strategy1 #ahih72 and ,gesprache uber ,reiterei 7#ahhg2 ,eng4 trans4 ,conversations on ,cavalry74 ,the ,briefe uber ,infanterie and ,briefe uber ,kavallerie 7translated into ,english1 ,letters on ,infantry1 ,letters on ,cavalry1 #ahhi7 are of less importance1 though interesting as a reflection of prevailing ,german ideas4 ,his memoirs 7,aus meinem ,leben7 were prepared in retirement near ,dresden1 and the first volume 7#ahig7 created such a sensation that eight years were allowed to elapse before the publication was continued4 ,prince ,kraft died near ,dresden on the #afth of ,january #ahib4 7,c4 ,f4 ,a47 ,v4 ,,chlodwig ,,karl ,,victor1 prince of ,hohenlohe-,schillingsfurst 7#ahai-aija71 statesman1 was born on the #cast of ,march #ahai at ,schillingsfurst in ,bavaria4 ,his father1 ,prince ,franz ,joseph 7#aghg-ahda71 was a ,catholic1 his mother1 ,princess ,konstanze of ,hohenlohe-,langenburg1 a ,protestant4 ,in accordance with the compromise customary at the time1 ,prince ,chlodwig and his brothers were brought up in the religion of their father1 while his sisters followed that of their mother4 ,in spite of the difference of creed the family was very united1 and it was to the spirit that rendered this possible that the prince owed his liberal and tolerant point of view1 which was to exercise an important influence on his political activity4 ,as the younger son of a cadet line of his house it was necessary for ,prince ,chlodwig to follow a profession4 ,for a while he thought of obtaining a commission in the ,british army through the influence of his aunt1 ,princess ,feodora of ,hohenlohe-,langenburg 7nee princess of ,leiningen71 ,queen ,victoria's half-sister4 ,he decided1 however1 to enter the ,prussian diplomatic service4 ,his application to be excused the preliminary steps1 which involved several years' work in subordinate positions in the ,prussian civil service1 was refused by ,frederick ,william ,,iv41 and the prince1 with great good sense1 decided to sacrifice his pride of rank and to accept the king's conditions4 ,as auscultator in the courts at ,coblenz he acquired a taste for jurisprudence1 became a ,referendar in ,september #ahdc1 and after some months of travel in ,france1 ,switzerland and ,italy went to ,potsdam as a civil servant 7,may #ac1 #ahdd74 ,these early years were invaluable1 not only as giving him experience of practical affairs but as affording him an insight into the strength and weakness of the ,prussian system4 ,the immediate result was to confirm his ,liberalism4 ,the ,prussian principle of propagating enlightenment with a stick did not appeal to him2 he recognized the confusion and want of clear ideas in the highest circles1 the tendency to make agreement with the views of the government the test of loyalty to the state2 and he noted in his journal 7,june #be1 #ahdd7 four years before the revolution of '#dh1 a slight cause and we shall have a rising4 ,the free press1 he notes on another occasion1 is a necessity1 progress the condition of the existence of a state4 ,if he was an ardent advocate of ,german unity1 and saw in ,prussia the instrument for its attainment1 he was throughout opposed to the ,prussification of ,germany1 and ultimately it was he who made the unification of ,germany possible by insisting at once on the principle of union with the ,north ,german states and at the same time on the preservation of the individuality of the states of the ,south4 ,on the #abth of ,november #ahcd the landgrave ,viktor ,amadeus of ,hesse-,rotenburg died1 leaving to his nephews1 the princes ,viktor and ,chlodwig ,hohenlohe1 his allodial estates3 the duchy of ,ratibor in ,silesia1 the principality of ,corvey in ,westphalia1 and the lordship of ,treffurt in the ,prussian governmental district of ,erfurt4 ,on the death of ,prince ,franz ,joseph on the #adth of ,january #ahda it was decided that the principality of ,schillingsfurst should pass to the third brother1 ,philipp ,ernst1 as the two elder sons1 ,viktor and ,chlodwig1 were provided for already under their uncle's will1 the one with the duchy of ,ratibor1 the other with ,corvey and ,treffurt4 ,the youngest son1 ,gustav 7b4 ,february #bh1 #ahbc71 the future cardinal1 was destined for the ,church4 ,on the death of ,prince ,philipp ,ernst 7,may #c1 #ahde7 a new arrangement was made3 ,prince ,chlodwig became prince of ,schillingsfurst1 while ,corvey was assigned to the duke of ,ratibor2 ,treffurt was subsequently sold by ,prince ,chlodwig1 who purchased with the price large estates in ,posen4 ,this involved a complete change in ,prince ,chlodwig's career4 ,his new position as a reigning prince and hereditary member of the ,bavarian ,upper ,house was incompatible with that of a ,prussian official4 ,on the #ahth of ,april #ahdf he took his seat as a member of the ,bavarian ,reichsrath1 and on the #bfth of ,june received his formal discharge from the ,prussian service4 ,save for the interlude of #ahdh the political life of ,prince ,hohenlohe was for the next eighteen years not eventful4 ,during the revolutionary years his sympathies were with the ,liberal idea of a united ,germany1 and he compromised his chances of favour from the king of ,bavaria by accepting the task 7,november #a1 #ahdh7 of announcing to the courts of ,rome1 ,florence and ,athens the accession to office of the ,archduke ,john of ,austria as regent of ,germany4 ,but he was too shrewd an observer to hope much from a national parliament which wasted time in idle babble1 or from a democratic victory which had stunned but not destroyed the ,german military powers4 ,on the #afth of ,february #ahdg he had married the ,princess ,marie of ,sayn-,wittgenstein-,berleburg1 the heiress to vast estates in ,russia4#a ,this led to a prolonged visit to ,werki in ,lithuania 7#ahea-ahec7 in connexion with the management of the property1 a visit repeated in #ahfj4 ,in general this period of ,hohenlohe's life was occupied in the management of his estates1 in the sessions of the ,bavarian ,reichsrath and in travels4 ,in #ahef he visited ,rome1 during which he noted the baneful influence of the ,jesuits4 ,in #ahei he was studying the political situation at ,berlin1 and in the same year he paid a visit to ,england4 ,the marriage of his brother ,konstantin in #ahei to another princess of ,sayn-,wittgenstein-,berleburg led also to frequent visits to ,vienna4 ,thus ,prince ,hohenlohe was brought into close touch with all the most notable people in ,europe4 ,at the same time1 during this period 7#ahej-ahff7 he was endeavouring to get into relations with the ,bavarian government1 with a view to taking a more active part in affairs4 ,towards the ,german question his attitude at this time was tentative4 ,he had little hope of a practical realization of a united ,germany1 and inclined towards the tripartite divisions under ,austria1 ,prussia and ,bavaria--the so-called ,trias4 ,he attended the ,furstentag at ,frankfort in #ahfc1 and in the ,schleswig-,holstein question was a supporter of the prince of ,augustenburg4 ,it was at this time that1 at the request of ,queen ,victoria1 he began to send her regular reports on the political condition of ,germany4 ,prince ,hohenlohe's importance in history1 however1 begins with the year #ahff4 ,in his opinion the war was a blessing4 ,it had demonstrated the insignificance of the small and middle states1 a misfortune for the dynasties--with whose feelings a mediatized prince could scarcely be expected to be over-sympathetic--but the best possible good fortune for the ,german nation4 ,in the ,bavarian ,reichsrath ,hohenlohe now began to make his voice heard in favour of a closer union with ,prussia2 clearly1 if such a union were desirable1 he was the man in every way best fitted to prepare the way for it4 ,one of the main obstacles in the way was the temperament of ,louis ,,ii4 of ,bavaria1 whose ideas of kingship were very remote from those of the ,hohenzollerns1 whose pride revolted from any concession to ,prussian superiority1 and who--even during the crisis of #ahff--was more absorbed in operas than in affairs of state4 ,fortunately ,richard ,wagner was a politician as well as a composer1 and equally fortunately ,hohenlohe was a man of culture capable of appreciating the master's genius4 ,it was ,wagner1 apparently1 who persuaded the king to place ,hohenlohe at the head of his government 7,denkwurdigkeiten1 i4 #agh1 #baa71 and on the #cast of ,december #ahff the prince was duly appointed minister of the royal house and of foreign affairs and president of the council of ministers4 ,as head of the ,bavarian government ,hohenlohe's principal task was to discover some basis for an effective union of the ,south ,german states with the ,north ,german ,confederation1 and during the three critical years of his tenure of office he was1 next to ,bismarck1 the most important statesman in ,germany4 ,he carried out the reorganization of the ,bavarian army on the ,prussian model1 brought about the military union of the southern states1 and took a leading share in the creation of the customs parliament 7,zollparlament71 of which on the #bhth of ,april #ahfh he was elected a vice-president4 ,during the agitation that arose in connexion with the summoning of the ,vatican council ,hohenlohe took up an attitude of strong opposition to the ultramontane position4 ,in common with his brothers1 the duke of ,ratibor and the cardinal1 he believed that the policy of ,pius ,,ix4--inspired by the ,jesuits 7that devil's society1 as he once called it7--of setting the ,church in opposition to the modern ,state would prove ruinous to both1 and that the definition of the dogma of papal infallibility1 by raising the pronouncements of the ,syllabus of #ahfd into articles of faith1 would commit the ,church to this policy irrevocably4 ,this view he embodied into a circular note to the ,catholic powers 7,april #i1 #ahfi71 drawn up by ,dollinger1 inviting them to exercise the right of sending ambassadors to the council and to combine to prevent the definition of the dogma4 ,the greater powers1 however1 were for one reason or another unwilling to intervene1 and the only practical outcome of ,hohenlohe's action was that in ,bavaria the powerful ultramontane party combined against him with the ,bavarian patriots who accused him of bartering away ,bavarian independence to ,prussia4 ,the combination was too strong for him2 a bill which he brought in for curbing the influence of the ,church over education was defeated1 the elections of #ahfi went against him1 and in spite of the continued support of the king he was forced to resign 7,march #g1 #ahgj74 ,though out of office1 his personal influence continued very great both at ,munich and ,berlin and had not a little to do with favourable terms of the treaty of the ,north ,german ,confederation with ,bavaria1 which embodied his views1 and with its acceptance by the ,bavarian parliament4#b ,elected a member of the ,german ,reichstag1 he was on the #bcrd of ,march #ahga chosen one of its vice-presidents1 and was instrumental in founding the new groups which took the name of the ,liberal ,imperial party 7,liberale ,reichspartei71 the objects of which were to support the new empire1 to secure its internal development on ,liberal lines1 and to oppose clerical aggression as represented by the ,catholic ,centre4 ,like the duke of ,ratibor1 ,hohenlohe was from the first a strenuous supporter of ,bismarck's anti-papal policy1 the main lines of which 7prohibition of the ,society of ,jesus1 c47 he himself suggested4 ,though sympathizing with the motives of the ,old ,catholics1 however1 he realized that they were doomed to sink into a powerless sect1 and did not join them1 believing that the only hope for a reform of the ,church lay in those who desired it remaining in her communion4#c ,in #ahgb ,bismarck proposed to appoint ,cardinal ,hohenlohe ,prussian envoy at the ,vatican1 but his views were too much in harmony with those of his family1 and the pope refused to receive him in this capacity4#d ,in #ahgc ,bismarck chose ,prince ,hohenlohe to succeed ,count ,harry ,arnim as ambassador in ,paris1 where he remained for seven years4 ,in #ahgh he attended the congress of ,berlin as third ,german representative1 and in #ahhj1 on the death of ,bernhardt ,ernst von ,bulow 7,october #bj71 secretary of state for foreign affairs1 he was called to ,berlin as temporary head of the ,foreign ,office and representative of ,bismarck during his absence through illness4 ,in #ahhe he was chosen to succeed ,manteuffel as governor of ,alsace-,lorraine4 ,in this capacity he had to carry out the coercive measures introduced by the chancellor in #ahhg-ahhh1 though he largely disapproved of them2#e his conciliatory disposition1 however1 did much to reconcile the ,alsace-,lorrainers to ,german rule4 ,he remained at ,strassburg till ,october #ahid1 when1 at the urgent request of the emperor1 he consented1 in spite of his advanced years1 to accept the chancellorship in succession to ,caprivi4 ,the events of his chancellorship belong to the general history of ,germany 7q4v472 as regards the inner history of this time the editor of his memoirs has very properly suppressed the greater part of the detailed comments which the prince left behind him4 ,in general1 during his term of office1 the personality of the chancellor was less conspicuous in public affairs than in the ease of either of his predecessors4 ,his appearances in the ,prussian and ,german parliaments were rare1 and great independence was left to the secretaries of state4 ,what influence the tact and experience of ,hohenlohe exercised behind the scenes on the masterful will and impulsive character of the emperor cannot as yet be generally known4 ,prince ,hohenlohe resigned the chancellorship on the #agth of ,october #aijj1 and died at ,ragaz on the #fth of ,july #aija4 ,on the #afth of ,february #ahig he had celebrated his golden wedding2 on the #bast of ,december of the same year the princess died4 ,there were six children of the marriage3 ,elizabeth 7b4 #ahdg72 ,stephanie 7b4 #ahea72 ,philipp ,ernst1 reigning prince of ,hohenlohe-,schillingsfurst 7b4 #ahec71 who married ,princess ,charielee ,ypsilanti2 ,albert 7#aheg-ahff72 ,moritz and ,alexander1 twins 7b4 #ahfb74 ,all other authorities for the life of ,prince ,hohenlohe have been superseded by the ,denkwurdigkeiten 7#b vols41 ,stuttgart and ,leipzig1 #aijf74 ,with the exception noted above these are singularly full and outspoken1 the latter quality causing no little scandal in ,germany and bringing down on ,prince ,alexander1 who was responsible for their publication1 the disfavour of the emperor4 ,they form not only the record of a singularly full and varied life1 but are invaluable to the historian for the wealth of material they contain and for appreciations of men and events by an observer who had the best opportunities for forming a judgment4 ,the prince himself they reveal not only as a capable man of affairs1 though falling short of greatness1 but as a personality of singular charm1 tenacious of his principles1 tolerant1 broad-minded1 and possessed of a large measure of the saving grace of humour4 ,see generally ,a4 ,f4 ,fischer1 ,geschichte des ,hauses ,hohenlohe 7#ahff-ahga72 ,k4 ,weller1 ,hohenlohisches ,urkundenbuch1 #aaec-acej 7,stuttgart1 #ahii-aija71 and ,geschichte des ,hauses ,hohenlohe 7,stuttgart1 #aijd74 7,w4 ,a4 ,p42 ,c4 ,f4 ,a47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,through her mother1 nee ,princess ,stephanie ,radziwill 7d4 #ahcb74 ,before ,prince ,wittgenstein's death 7#ahhg7 a new law had forbidden foreigners to hold land in ,russia4 ,prince ,hohenlohe appears1 however1 to have sold one of his wife's estates and to have secured certain privileges from the ,russian court for the rest4 #b ,speech of ,december #cj1 #ahgj1 in the ,reichsrath4 ,denkwurdigkeiten1 ii4 #cf4 #c ,if ,i wished to leave the ,church because of all the scandalous occurrences in the ,catholic ,church1 ,i should have had to secede while studying ,church history1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ib4 #d ,dr ,johann ,friedrich 7q4v471 afterwards one of the ,old ,catholic leaders1 was his secretary at the time of the ,vatican council1 and supplied historical and theological material to the opposition bishops4 #e ,he protested against the passport system as likely to lead to a war with ,france1 for which he preferred not to be responsible 7,letter to ,wilmowski1 ,denkw4 ii4 #dcc71 but on the chancellor taking full responsibility consented to retain office4 ,,hohenstaufen1 the name of a village and ruined castle near ,lorsch in ,swabia1 now in the kingdom of ,wurttemberg1 which gave its name to a celebrated ,swabian family1 members of which were emperors or ,german kings from #aach to #abjh1 and again from #abad to #abed4 ,the earliest known ancestor was ,frederick1 count of ,buren 7d4 #ajid71 whose son ,frederick built a castle at ,staufen1 or ,hohenstaufen1 and called himself by this name4 ,he was a firm supporter of the emperor ,henry ,,iv41 who rewarded his fidelity by granting him the dukedom of ,swabia in #ajgi1 and giving him his daughter ,agnes in marriage4 ,in #ajha he remained in ,germany as ,henry's representative1 but only secured possession of ,swabia after a struggle lasting twenty years4 ,in #aaje ,frederick was succeeded by his son ,frederick ,,ii41 called the ,one-eyed1 who1 together with his brother ,conrad1 afterwards the ,german king ,conrad ,,iii41 held south-west ,germany for their uncle the emperor ,henry ,v4 ,frederick inherited the estates of ,henry ,v4 in #aabe1 but failed to secure the throne1 and took up an attitude of hostility towards the new emperor1 ,lothair the ,saxon1 who claimed some of the estates of the late emperor as crown property4 ,a war broke out and ended in the complete submission of ,frederick at ,bamberg4 ,he retained1 however1 his dukedom and estates4 ,in #aach ,conrad of ,hohenstaufen was elected ,german king1 and was succeeded in #aaeb1 not by his son but by his nephew ,frederick ,barbarossa1 son of his brother ,frederick 7d4 #aadg74 ,conrad's son ,frederick inherited the duchy of ,franconia which his father had received in #aaae1 and this was retained by the ,hohenstaufen until the death of ,duke ,conrad ,,ii4 in #aaif4 ,in #aaeb ,frederick received the duchy of ,swabia from his cousin the ,german king ,frederick ,i41 and on his death in #aafg it passed successively to ,frederick's three sons ,frederick1 ,conrad and ,philip4 ,the second ,hohenstaufen emperor was ,frederick ,barbarossa's son1 ,henry ,,vi41 after whose death a struggle for the throne took place between ,henry's brother ,philip1 duke of ,swabia1 and ,otto of ,brunswick1 afterwards the emperor ,otto ,,iv4 ,regained for the ,hohenstaufen by ,henry's son1 ,frederick ,,ii41 in #abad1 the ,german kingdom passed to his son1 ,conrad ,,iv41 and when ,conrad's son ,conradin was beheaded in ,italy in #abfh1 the male line of the ,hohenstaufen became extinct4 ,daughters of ,philip of ,swabia married ,ferdinand ,,iii41 king of ,castile and ,leon1 and ,henry ,,ii41 duke of ,brabant1 and a daughter of ,conrad1 brother of the emperor ,frederick ,i41 married into the family of ,guelph4 ,the castle of ,hohenstaufen was destroyed in the #afth century during the ,peasants' ,war1 and only a few fragments now remain4 ,see ,f4 von ,raumer1 ,geschichte der ,hohenstaufen und ihrer ,zeit 7,leipzig1 #ahgh72 ,b4 ,f4 ,w4 ,zimmermann1 ,geschichte der ,hohenstaufen 7,stuttgart1 #ast ed41 #ahch2 #bnd ed41 #ahfe72 ,f4 ,w4 ,schirrmacher1 ,die letzten ,hohenstaufen 7,gottingen1 #ahga74 ,,hohenstein 7,hohenstein-,ernstthal71 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,saxony1 on the slopes of the ,erzgebirge1 and on the railway ,reichenbach-,chemnitz1 #ab m4 ,n4,e4 of ,zwickau4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ac1ijc4 ,hohenstein possesses two fine ,evangelical churches1 a town hall1 restored in #ahgf1 and several monuments to famous men4 ,the principal industries are the spinning and weaving of cotton1 the manufacture of machines1 stockings1 gloves and woollen and silk fabrics1 cotton printing and dyeing4 ,many of the inhabitants are also employed in the neighbouring copper and arsenic mines4 ,not far from ,hohenstein there is a mineral spring1 connected with which there are various kinds of baths4 ,hohenstein is the birthplace of the physicist ,g4 ,h4 von ,schubert and of ,c4 ,g4 ,schroter 7#afii-aghb71 one of the inventors of the pianoforte4 ,hohenstein consists of two towns1 ,hohenstein and ,ernstthal1 which were united in #ahih4 ,another place of the same name is a town in ,east ,prussia4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bdfg4 ,this ,hohenstein1 which was founded by the ,teutonic ,order in #acei1 has a ,roman ,catholic and an ,evangelical church1 a synagogue and several educational establishments4 ,,hohenzollern1 the name of a castle which stood on the hill of ,zollern about #a7a_/b7 m4 south of ,hechingen1 and gave its name to the family to which the present ,german emperor belongs4 ,a vague tradition connects the house with the ,colonna family of ,rome1 or the ,colalto family of ,lombardy2 but one more definite unites the ,hohenzollerns with the ,burkhardingers1 who were counts in ,raetia during the early part of the #ajth century1 and two of whom became dukes of ,swabia4 ,tassilo1 a member of this family1 is said to have built a castle at ,zollern early in the #ith century2 but the first historical mention of the name is in the ,chronicon of a certain ,berthold 7d4 #ajhh71 who refers to ,burkhard and ,wezil1 or ,werner1 of ,zollern1 or ,zolorin4 ,these men appear to have been counts of ,zollern1 and to have met their death in #ajfa4 ,the family of ,wezil died out in #aaid1 and the existing branches of the ,hohenzollerns are descended from ,burkhard and his son ,frederick1 whose eldest son1 ,frederick ,,ii41 was in great favour with the ,german kings1 ,lothair the ,saxon and ,conrad ,,iii4 ,frederick ,,ii4 died about #aade1 and his son and successor1 ,frederick ,,iii41 was a constant supporter of the ,hohenstaufen4 ,this count married ,sophia1 daughter and heiress of ,conrad1 burgrave of ,nuremberg1 and about #aaib he succeeded his father-in-law as burgrave1 obtaining also some lands in ,austria and ,franconia4 ,he died about #abjj1 and his sons1 ,conrad and ,frederick1 ruled their lands in common until #abbg1 when an important division took place4 ,conrad became burgrave of ,nuremberg1 and1 receiving the lands which had come into the family through his mother1 founded the ,franconian branch of the family1 which became the more important of the two2 while ,frederick1 receiving the county of ,zollern and the older possessions of the family1 was the ancestor of the ,swabian branch4 ,early in the #abth century ,burkhard1 a younger son of ,frederick ,i41 secured the county of ,hohenberg1 and this district remained in the possession of the ,hohenzollerns until the death of ,count ,sigismund in #adhf4 ,its rulers1 however1 with the exception of ,count ,albert ,,ii4 7d4 #abih71 played an unimportant part in ,german history4 ,albert1 who was a ,minnesinger1 was loyal to the declining fortunes of the ,hohenstaufen1 and afterwards supported his brother-in-law1 ,rudolph of ,habsburg1 in his efforts to obtain the ,german throne4 ,he shared in the campaigns of ,rudolph and fell in battle in #abih1 during the struggle between ,adolph of ,nassau and ,albert of ,habsburg 7afterwards ,king ,albert ,i474 ,when this family became extinct in #adhf ,hohenberg passed to the ,habsburgs4 ,the ,franconian branch of the ,hohenzollerns was represented in #abbg by ,conrad1 burgrave of ,nuremberg1 whom the emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 appointed guardian of his son ,henry1 and administrator of ,austria4 ,after a short apostasy1 during which he supported ,henry ,raspe1 landgrave of ,thuringia1 ,conrad returned to the side of the ,hohenstaufen and aided ,conrad ,,iv4 ,he died in #abfa1 when his son and successor1 the burgrave ,frederick ,,iii41 had already obtained ,bayreuth through his marriage with ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,otto of ,meran 7d4 #abcd74 ,frederick took a leading part in ,german affairs1 and it is interesting to note that he had a considerable share in securing the election of his uncle1 ,rudolph of ,habsburg1 as ,german king in #abgc4 ,he died in #abig and was succeeded by his son1 ,frederick ,,iv4 ,this burgrave fought for ,king ,albert ,i4 in ,thuringia1 and supported ,henry ,,vii4 in his efforts to secure ,bohemia for his son ,john2 but in #acad1 forsaking his father's policy1 he favoured ,louis1 afterwards the emperor ,louis ,,iv41 in his struggle with ,frederick1 duke of ,austria1 and by his conduct at the battle of ,muhldorf in #acbb and elsewhere earned the designation of saviour of the empire4 ,frederick1 however1 did not neglect his hereditary lands4 ,he did something for the maintenance of peace and the security of traders1 gave corporate privileges to villages1 and took the ,jews under his protection4 ,his services to ,louis were rewarded in various ways1 and1 using part of his wealth to increase the area of his possessions1 he bought the town and district of ,ansbach in #acca4 ,dying in #accb1 ,frederick was succeeded by his son1 ,john ,,ii41 who1 after one of his brothers had died and two others had entered the church1 ruled his lands in common with his brother ,albert4 ,about #acch ,john bought ,culmbach and ,plassenburg1 and on the strength of a privilege granted to him in #acdg he seized many robber-fortresses and held the surrounding lands as imperial fiefs4 ,in general he continued his father's policy1 and when he died in #aceg was succeeded by his son1 ,frederick ,v41 who1 after the death of his uncle ,albert in #acfa1 became sole ruler of ,nuremberg1 ,ansbach and ,bayreuth4 ,frederick lived in close friendship with the emperor ,charles ,,iv41 who formally invested him with ,ansbach and ,bayreuth and made him a prince of the empire in #acfc4 ,in spite of the troubled times in which he lived1 ,frederick was a successful ruler1 and introduced a regular system of public finance into his lands4 ,in #acig he divided his territories between his sons ,john and ,frederick1 and died in the following year4 ,his elder son1 ,john ,,iii41 who had married ,margaret1 a daughter of the emperor ,charles ,,iv41 was frequently in the company of his brothers-in-law1 the ,german kings ,wenceslaus and ,sigismund4 ,he died without sons in #adbj4 ,since #acig the office of burgrave of ,nuremberg had been held by ,john's brother1 ,frederick1 who in #adae received ,brandenburg from ,king ,sigismund1 and became margrave of ,brandenburg as ,frederick ,i4 7q4v474 ,on his brother's death in #adbj he reunited the lands of his branch of the family1 but in #adbg he sold his rights as burgrave to the town of ,nuremberg4 ,the subsequent history of this branch of the ,hohenzollerns is identified with that of ,brandenburg from #adae to #agja1 and with that of ,prussia since the latter date1 as in this year the elector ,frederick ,,iii4 became king of ,prussia4 ,in #ahga ,william1 the seventh king1 took the title of ,german emperor4 ,while the electorate of ,brandenburg passed according to the rule of primogeniture1 the ,franconian possessions of the ,hohenzollerns1 ,ansbach and ,bayreuth1 were given as appanages to younger sons1 an arrangement which was confirmed by the dispositio ,achillea of #adgc4 ,these principalities were ruled by the sons and descendants of the elector ,albert ,achilles from #adhf to #afjc2 and1 after reverting to the elector of ,brandenburg1 by the descendants of the elector ,john ,george from #afjc to #agia4 ,in #agia ,prince ,charles ,alexander 7d4 #ahjf71 who had inherited both districts1 sold his lands to ,prussia4 ,the influence of the ,swabian branch of the ,hohenzollerns was weakened by several partitions of its lands2 but early in the #afth century it rose to some eminence through ,count ,eitel ,frederick ,,ii4 7d4 #aeab71 a friend and adviser of the emperor ,maximilian ,i4 ,eitel received from this emperor the district of ,haigerloch1 and in #aecd his grandson ,charles 7d4 #aegf7 was granted the counties of ,sigmaringen and ,vohringen by the emperor ,charles ,v4 ,in #aegf the sons of ,charles divided their lands1 and founded three branches of the family1 one of which is still flourishing4 ,eitel ,frederick ,,iv4 took ,hohenzollern with the title of ,hohenzollern-,hechingen2 ,charles ,,ii4 ,sigmaringen and ,vohringen and the title of ,hohenzollern-,sigmaringen2 and ,christopher took ,haigerloch4 ,christopher's family died out in #afcd1 but the remaining lines are of some importance4 ,count ,john ,george of ,hohenzollern-,hechingen was made a prince in #afbc1 and ,john of ,hohenzollern-,sigmaringen soon received the same honour4 ,in #afie these two branches of the family entered conjointly into an agreement with ,brandenburg1 which provided that1 in case of the extinction of either of the ,swabian branches1 the remaining branch should inherit its lands2 and if both branches became extinct the principalities should revert to ,brandenburg4 ,during the #agth and #ahth centuries and during the period of the ,napoleonic wars the history of these lands was very similar to that of the other small estates of ,germany4 ,in consequence of the political troubles of #ahdh ,princes ,frederick ,william of ,hohenzollern-,hechingen and ,charles ,anton of ,hohenzollern-,sigmaringen resigned their principalities1 and accordingly these fell to the king of ,prussia1 who took possession on the #abth of ,march #ahej4 ,by a royal decree of the #bjth of ,may following the title of highness1 with the prerogatives of younger sons of the royal house1 was conferred on the two princes4 ,the proposal to raise ,prince ,leopold of ,hohenzollern-,sigmaringen 7#ahce-aije7 to the ,spanish throne in #ahgj was the immediate cause of the war between ,france and ,germany4 ,in #aijh the head of this branch of the ,hohenzollerns1 the only one existing besides the imperial house1 was ,leopold's son ,william 7b4 #ahfd71 who1 owing to the extinction of the family of ,hohenzollern-,hechingen in #ahfi1 was called simply prince of ,hohenzollern4 ,in #ahff ,prince ,charles of ,hohenzollern-,sigmaringen was chosen prince of ,rumania1 becoming king in #ahha4 ,the modern ,prussian province of ,hohenzollern is a long1 narrow strip of territory bounded on the ,s4,w4 by ,baden and in other directions by ,wurttemberg4 ,it was divided into two principalities1 ,hohenzollern-,sigmaringen and ,hohenzollern-,hechingen1 until #ahej1 when these were united4 ,they now form the government of ,sigmaringen 7q4v474 ,the castle of ,hohenzollern was destroyed in #adbc1 but it has been restored several times4 ,some remains of the old building may still be seen adjoining the present castle1 which was built by ,king ,frederick ,william ,,iv4 ,see ,monumenta ,zollerana1 edited by ,r4 von ,stillfried and ,t4 ,marker 7,berlin1 #aheb-ahij72 ,quellen und ,untersuchungen zur ,geschichte des ,hauses ,hohenzollern1 edited by ,e4 ,berner 7,berlin1 #aija fol472 ,r4 von ,stillfried1 ,altertumer und ,kunstdenkmale des erlauchten ,hauses von ,hohenzollern 7,berlin1 #aheb-ahfg7 and ,stammtafeln des ,gesamthauses ,hohenzollern 7,berlin1 #ahfi72 ,l4 ,schmid1 ,die alteste ,geschichte des erlauchten ,gesamthauses der koniglichen und furstlichen ,hohenzollern 7,tubingen1 #ahhd-ahhh72 ,e4 ,schwartz1 ,stammtafel des preussischen ,konigshauses 7,breslau #ahih72 ,hohenzollernsche ,forschungen1 ,jahrbuch fur die ,geschichte der ,hohenzollern1 edited by ,c4 ,meyer 7,berlin1 #ahia-aijb72 ,hohenzollern ,jahrbuch1 ,forschungen und ,abbildungen zur ,geschichte der ,hohenzollern in ,brandenburg-,freussen1 edited by ,seidel 7,leipzig1 #ahig-aijc71 and ,t4 ,carlyle1 ,history of ,frederick the ,great 7,london1 #ahgb-ahgc74 7,a4 ,w4 ,h4997 ,,hokkaido1 the ,japanese name for the northern division of the empire 7,hoku north1 kai sea1 and do road71 including ,yezo1 the ,kuriles and their adjacent islets4 ,,hokusai 7#agfj-ahdi71 the greatest of all the ,japanese painters of the ,popular ,school 7,ukiyo-ye71 was born at ,yedo 7,tokyo7 in the #ith month of the #ajth year of the period ,horeki1 i4e4 ,october-,november #agfj4 ,he came of an artisan family1 his father having been a mirror-maker1 ,nakajima ,issai4 ,after some practice as a wood-engraver he1 at the age of eighteen1 entered the studio of ,katsugawa ,shunsho1 a painter and designer of colour-prints of considerable importance4 ,his disregard for the artistic principles of his master caused his expulsion in #aghe2 and thereafter--although from time to time ,hokusai studied various styles1 including especially that of ,shiba ,gokan1 from whom he gained some fragmentary knowledge of ,european methods--he kept his personal independence4 ,for a time he lived in extreme poverty1 and1 although he must have gained sums for his work which might have secured him comfort1 he remained poor1 and to the end of his life proudly described himself as a peasant4 ,he illustrated large numbers of books1 of which the world-famous ,mangwa1 a pictorial encyclopaedia of ,japanese life1 appeared in fifteen volumes from #ahab to #ahge4 ,of his colour-prints the ,thirty-six ,views of ,mount ,fuji 7the whole set consisting of forty-six prints7 were made between #ahbc and #ahbi2 ,views of ,famous ,bridges 7#aa71 ,waterfalls 7#h71 and ,views of the ,lu-chu ,islands 7#h71 are the best known of those issued in series2 but ,hokusai also designed some superb broadsheets published separately1 and his surimono 7small prints made for special occasions and ceremonies7 are unequalled for delicacy and beauty4 ,the ,hundred ,views of ,mount ,fuji 7#ahcd-ahce71 #c vols41 in monochrome1 are of extraordinary originality and variety4 ,as a painter and draughtsman ,hokusai is not held by ,japanese critics to be of the first rank1 but this verdict has never been accepted by ,europeans1 who place him among the greatest artists of the world4 ,he possessed great powers of observation and characterization1 a singular technical skill1 an unfailing gift of good humour1 and untiring industry4 ,he was an eager student to the end of his long life1 and on his death-bed said1 ,if ,heaven had lent me but five years more1 ,i should have become a great painter4 ,he died on the #ajth of ,may #ahdi4 ,see ,e4 de ,goncourt1 ,hokousai 7#ahif72 ,m4 ,revon1 ,etude sur ,hokusai 7#ahif72 ,e4 ,f4 ,fenollosa1 ,catalogue of the ,exhibition of ,paintings by ,hokusai at ,tokyo 7#aija72 ,e4 ,f4 ,strange1 ,hokusai 7#aijf74 7,e4 ,f4 ,s47 ,,holbach1 ,,paul ,,heinrich ,,dietrich1 ,,baron ,d' 7#agbc-aghi71 ,french philosopher and man of letters1 of ,german origin1 was born at ,heidelsheim in the palatinate in #agbc4 ,of his family little is known2 according to ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau his father was a rich parvenu1 who brought his son at an early age to ,paris1 where the latter spent most of his life4 ,much of ,holbach's fame is due to his intimate connexion with the brilliant coterie of bold thinkers and polished wits whose creed1 the new philosophy1 is concentrated in the famous ,encyclopedie4 ,possessed of easy means and being of hospitable disposition1 he kept open house for ,helvetius1 ,d',alembert1 ,diderot1 ,condillac1 ,turgot1 ,buffon1 ,grimm1 ,hume1 ,garrick1 ,wilkes1 ,sterne1 and for a time ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau1 guests who1 while enjoying the intellectual pleasure of their host's conversation1 were not insensible to his excellent cuisine and costly wines4 ,for the ,encyclopedie he compiled and translated a large number of articles on chemistry and mineralogy1 chiefly from ,german sources4 ,he attracted more attention1 however1 in the department of philosophy4 ,in #agfg ,christianisme devoile appeared1 in which he attacked ,christianity and religion as the source of all human evils4 ,this was followed up by other works1 and in #aggj by a still more open attack in his most famous book1 ,le ,systeme de la nature1 in which it is probable he was assisted by ,diderot4 ,denying the existence of a deity1 and refusing to admit as evidence all a priori arguments1 ,holbach saw in the universe nothing save matter in spontaneous movement4 ,what men call their souls become extinct when the body dies4 ,happiness is the end of mankind4 ,it would be useless and almost unjust to insist upon a man's being virtuous if he cannot be so without being unhappy4 ,so long as vice renders him happy1 he should love vice4 ,the restraints of religion were to be replaced by an education developing an enlightened self-interest4 ,the study of science was to bring human desires into line with their natural surroundings4 ,not less direct and trenchant are his attacks on political government1 which1 interpreted by the light of after events1 sound like the first distant mutterings of revolution4 ,holbach exposed the logical consequences of the theories of the ,encyclopaedists4 ,voltaire hastily seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the ,systeme in the article ,dieu in his ,dictionnaire philosophique1 while ,frederick the ,great also drew up an answer to it4 ,though vigorous in thought and in some passages clear and eloquent1 the style of the ,systeme is diffuse and declamatory1 and asserts rather than proves its statements4 ,its principles are summed up in a more popular form in ,bon ,sens1 ou idees naturelles opposees aux idees surnaturelles 7,amsterdam1 #aggb74 ,in the ,systeme social 7#aggc71 the ,politique naturelle 7#aggc-aggd7 and the ,morale universelle 7#aggf7 ,holbach attempts to rear a system of morality in place of the one he had so fiercely attacked1 but these later writings had not a tithe of the popularity and influence of his earlier work4 ,he published his books either anonymously or under borrowed names1 and was forced to have them printed out of ,france4 ,the uprightness and sincerity of his character won the friendship of many to whom his philosophy was repugnant4 ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau is supposed to have drawn his portrait in the virtuous atheist ,wolmar of the ,nouvelle ,heloise4 ,he died on the #bast of ,january #aghi4 ,holbach is also the author of the following and other works3 ,esprit du clerge 7#agfg72 ,de l'imposture sacerdotale 7#agfg72 ,pretres demasques 7#agfh72 ,examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de ,st ,paul 7#aggj72 ,histoire critique de ,jesus-,christ 7#aggj71 and ,ethocratie 7#aggf74 ,for further particulars as to his life and doctrines see ,grimm's ,correspondance litteraire1 c4 7#ahac72 ,rousseau's ,confessions2 ,morellet's ,memoires 7#ahba72 ,madame de ,genlis1 ,les ,diners du ,baron ,holbach2 ,madame d',epinay's ,memoires2 ,avezac-,lavigne1 ,diderot et la societe du ,baron d',holbach 7#ahge71 and ,morley's ,diderot 7#ahgh74 ,,holbeach1 a market town in the ,holland or ,spalding parliamentary division of ,lincolnshire1 ,england1 on the ,midland and ,great ,northern joint railway1 #bc7a_/b7 m4 ,n4,e4 of ,peterborough4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija71 #dgee4 ,all ,saints' ,church1 with a lofty spire1 is a fine specimen of late ,decorated work4 ,the grammar school1 founded in #affi1 occupies a building erected in #ahgg4 ,other public buildings are the assembly rooms and a market house4 ,roman and ,saxon remains have been found1 and the market dates from the #acth century4 ,,holbein1 ,,hans1 the elder 7c4 #adfj-aebd71 belonged to a celebrated family of painters in practice at ,augsburg and ,basel from the close of the #aeth to the middle of the #afth century4 ,though closely connected with ,venice by her commercial relations1 and geographically nearer to ,italy than to ,flanders1 ,augsburg at the time of ,maximilian cultivated art after the fashion of the ,flemings1 and felt the influence of the schools of ,bruges and ,brussels1 which had branches at ,cologne and in many cities about the headwaters of the ,rhine4 ,it was not till after the opening of the #afth century1 and between that and the era of the ,reformation1 that ,italian example mitigated to some extent the asperity of ,south ,german painting4 ,flemish and ,german art was first tempered with ,italian elements at ,augsburg by ,hans ,holbein the elder4 ,hans first appears at ,augsburg as partner to his brother ,sigismund1 who survived him and died in #aedj at ,berne4 ,sigismund is described as a painter1 but his works have not come down to us4 ,hans had the lead of the partnership at ,augsburg1 and signed all the pictures which it produced4 ,in common with ,herlen1 ,schongauer1 and other masters of ,south ,germany1 he first cultivated a style akin to that of ,memlinc and other followers of the schools of ,brussels and ,bruges1 but he probably modified the systems of those schools by studying the works of the masters of ,cologne4 ,as these early impressions waned1 they were replaced by others less favourable to the expansion of the master's fame2 and as his custom increased between #adii and #aejf1 we find him relying less upon the teaching of the schools than upon a mere observation and reproduction of the quaintnesses of local passion plays4 ,most of his early works indeed are taken from the ,passion1 and in these he obviously marshalled his figures with the shallow stage effect of the plays1 copying their artificial system of grouping1 careless to some extent of proportion in the human shape1 heedless of any but the coarser forms of expression1 and technically satisfied with the simplest methods of execution4 ,if in any branch of his art he can be said to have had a conscience at this period1 we should say that he showed it in his portrait drawings4 ,it is seldom that we find a painted likeness worthy of the name4 ,the drawings of which numbers are still preserved in the galleries of ,basel1 ,berlin and ,copenhagen show extraordinary quickness and delicacy of hand1 and a wonderful facility for seizing character2 and this happily is one of the features which ,holbein bequeathed to his more famous son1 ,hans the younger4 ,it is between #aeab and #aebb that ,holbein tempered the ,german quality of his style with some ,north ,italian elements4 ,a purer taste and more pleasing realism mark his work1 which in drapery1 dress and tone is as much more agreeable to the eye as in respect of modelling and finish it is smoother and more carefully rounded4 ,costume1 architecture1 ornament and colour are applied with some knowledge of the higher canons of art4 ,here1 too1 advantage accrued to ,hans the younger1 whose independent career about this time began4 ,the date of the elder ,holbein's birth is unknown4 ,but his name appears in the books of the tax-gatherers of ,augsburg in #adid1 superseding that of ,michael ,holbein1 who is supposed to have been his father4 ,previous to that date1 and as early as #adic1 he was a painter of name1 and he executed in that year1 it is said1 for the abbey at ,weingarten1 the wings of an altarpiece representing ,joachim's ,offering1 the ,nativity of the ,virgin1 ,mary's ,presentation in the ,temple1 and the ,presentation of ,christ1 which now hang in separate panels in the cathedral of ,augsburg4 ,in these pieces and others of the same period1 for instance in two ,madonnas in the ,moritz chapel and castle of ,nuremberg1 we mark the clear impress of the schools of ,van der ,weyden and ,memlinc2 whilst in later works1 such as the ,basilica of ,st ,paul 7#aejd7 in the gallery of ,augsburg1 the wane of ,flemish influence is apparent4 ,but this altarpiece1 with its quaint illustrations of ,st ,paul's life and martyrdom1 is not alone of interest because its execution is characteristic of old ,holbein4 ,it is equally so because it contains portraits of the master himself1 accompanied by his two sons1 the painters ,ambrose 7c4 #adid-;c4 #aeai7 and ,hans the younger4 ,later pictures1 such as the ,passion series in the ,furstenberg gallery at ,donaueschingen1 or the ,martyrdom of ,st ,sebastian in the ,munich ,pinakothek1 contain similar portraits1 the original drawings of which are found in old ,holbein's sketch-book at ,berlin1 or in stray leaves like those possessed by the duke of ,aumale in ,paris4 ,not one of these fails to give us an insight into the character1 or a reflex of the features1 of the members of this celebrated family4 ,old ,holbein seems to ape ,leonardo1 allowing his hair and beard to grow wildly1 except on the upper lip4 ,hans the younger is a plain-looking boy4 ,but his father points to him with his finger1 and hints that though but a child he is clearly a prodigy4 ,after #aeaf ,hans ,holbein the elder appears as a defaulter in the registers of the tax-gatherers at ,augsburg2 but he willingly accepts commissions abroad4 ,at ,issenheim in ,alsace1 where ,grunewald was employed in #aeaf1 old ,holbein also finds patrons1 and contracts to complete an altarpiece4 ,but misfortune or a bailiff pursues him1 and he leaves ,issenheim1 abandoning his work and tools4 ,according to ,sandrart1 he wanders to ,basel and takes the freedom of its gild4 ,his brother ,sigismund and others are found suing him for debt before the courts of ,augsburg4 ,where he lived when he executed the altarpiece1 of which two wings with the date of #aebb are in the gallery of ,carlsruhe1 is uncertain2 where he died two years later is unknown4 ,he slinks from ken at the close of a long life1 and disappears at last heeded by none but his own son1 who claims his brushes and paints from the monks of ,issenheim without much chance of obtaining them4 ,his name is struck off the books of the ,augsburg gild in #aebd4 ,the elder ,holbein was a prolific artist1 who left many pictures behind him4 ,earlier than the ,basilica of ,st ,paul1 already mentioned1 is the ,basilica of ,st ,mary ,maggiore1 and a ,passion in eleven pieces1 in the ,augsburg gallery1 both executed in #adii4 ,another ,passion1 with the root of ,jesse and a tree of the ,dominicans1 is that preserved in the ,staedel1 ,saalhof1 and church of ,st ,leonard at ,frankfort4 ,it was executed in #aeja4 ,the ,passion of ,donaueschingen was finished after #aejb1 in which year was completed the ,passion of ,kaisheim1 a conglomerate of twenty-seven panels1 now divided amongst the galleries of ,munich1 ,nuremberg1 ,augsburg and ,schleissheim4 ,an altarpiece of the same class1 commissioned for the monastery of ,st ,moritz at ,augsburg in #aejd-aejh1 has been dispersed and lost4 #aeab is the date of a ,conception in the ,augsburg gallery1 long assigned1 in consequence of a forged inscription1 to ,hans ,holbein the younger4 ,a diptych1 with a ,virgin and ,child1 and a portrait of an old man1 dated #aeac1 came in separate parts into the collections of ,mr ,posonyi and ,count ,lanckoronski at ,vienna4 ,the sketch-books of ,berlin1 ,copenhagen and ,augsburg give a lively picture of the forms and dress of ,augsburg residents at the beginning of the #afth century4 ,they comprise portraits of the emperor ,maximilian1 the future ,charles ,v41 ,kunz von der ,rosen1 the fool of ,maximilian1 the ,fuggers1 friars1 merchants1 and at rare intervals ladies4 ,see also the biography by ,stodtner 7,berlin1 #ahif74 ,,holbein1 ,,hans1 the younger 7#adig-aedc71 ,german painter1 favourite son of ,hans ,holbein the elder1 was probably born at ,augsburg about the year #adig4 ,though ,sandrart and ,van ,mander declare that they do not know who gave him the first lessons1 he doubtless received an artist's education from his father4 ,about #aeae he left ,augsburg with ,ambrose1 his elder brother1 to seek employment as an illustrator of books at ,basel4 ,his first patron is said to have been ,erasmus1 for whom1 shortly after his arrival1 he illustrated with pen-and-ink sketches an edition of the ,encomium ,moriae1 now in the museum of ,basel4 ,but his chief occupation was that of drawing titlepage-blocks and initials for new editions of the ,bible and classics issued from the presses of ,froben and other publishers4 ,his leisure hours1 it is supposed1 were devoted to the production of rough painter's work1 a schoolmaster's sign in the ,basel collection1 a table with pictures of ,st ,nobody in the library of the university at ,zurich4 ,in contrast with these coarse productions1 the portraits of ,jacob ,meyer and his wife in the ,basel museum1 one of which purports to have been finished in #aeaf1 are miracles of workmanship4 ,it has always seemed difficult indeed to ascribe such excellent creations to ,holbein's nineteenth year2 and it is hardly credible that he should have been asked to do things of this kind so early1 especially when it is remembered that neither he nor his brother ,ambrose were then allowed to matriculate in the guild of ,basel4 ,not till #aeag did ,ambrose1 whose life otherwise remains obscure1 join that corporation2 ,hans1 not overburdened with practice1 wandered into ,switzerland1 where 7#aeag7 he was employed to paint in the house of ,jacob ,hertenstein at ,lucerne4 ,in #aeai ,holbein reappeared at ,basel1 where he matriculated and1 there is every reason to think1 married4 ,whether1 previous to this time1 he took advantage of his vicinity to the ,italian border to cross the ,alps is uncertain4 ,van ,mander says that he never was in ,italy2 yet the large wall-paintings which he executed after #aeai at ,basel1 and the series of his sketches and pictures which is still extant1 might lead to the belief that ,van ,mander was misinformed4 ,the spirit of ,holbein's compositions for the ,basel town hall1 the scenery and architecture of his numerous drawings1 and the cast of form in some of his imaginative portraits1 make it more likely that he should have felt the direct influence of ,north ,italian painting than that he should have taken ,italian elements from imported works or prints4 ,the ,swiss at this period wandered in thousands to swell the ranks of the ,french or imperial armies fighting on ,italian soil1 and the road they took may have been followed by ,hans on a more peaceful mission4 ,he shows himself at all events familiar with ,italian examples at various periods of his career2 and if we accept as early works the ,flagellation1 and the ,last ,supper at ,basel1 coarse as they are1 they show some acquaintance with ,lombard methods of painting1 whilst in other pieces1 such as the series of the ,passion in oil in the same collection1 the modes of ,hans ,holbein the elder are agreeably commingled with a more modern1 it may be said ,italian1 polish4 ,again1 looking at the ,virgin and ,man of ,sorrows in the ,basel museum1 we shall be struck by a searching metallic style akin to that of the ,ferrarese2 and the ,lais or the ,venus and ,amor of the same collection reminds us of the ,leonardesques of the school of ,milan4 ,when ,holbein settled down to an extensive practice at ,basel in #aeai1 he decorated the walls of the house ,zum ,tanz with simulated architectural features of a florid character after the fashion of the ,veronese2 and his wall paintings in the town-hall1 if we can truly judge of them by copies1 reveal an artist not unfamiliar with ,north ,italian composition1 distribution1 action1 gesture and expression4 ,in his drawings too1 particularly in a set representing the ,passion at ,basel1 the arrangement1 and also the perspective1 form and decorative ornament1 are in the spirit of the school of ,mantegna4 ,contemporary with these1 however1 and almost inexplicably in contrast with them as regards handling1 are portrait-drawings such as the likenesses of ,jacob ,meyer1 and his wife1 which are finished with ,german delicacy1 and with a power and subtlety of hand seldom rivalled in any school4 ,curiously enough1 the same contrast may be observed between painted compositions and painted portraits4 ,the ,bonifacius ,amerbach of #aeai at ,basel is acknowledged to be one of the most complete examples of smooth and transparent handling that ,holbein ever executed4 ,his versatility at this period is shown by a dead ,christ 7#aeba71 a corpse in profile on a dissecting table1 and a set of figures in couples2 the ,madonna and ,st ,pantalus1 and ,kaiser ,henry with the ,empress ,kunigunde 7#aebb71 originally composed for the organ loft of the ,basel cathedral1 now in the ,basel museum4 ,equally remarkable1 but more attractive1 though injured1 is the ,virgin and ,child between ,st ,ursus and ,st ,nicholas 7not ,st ,martin7 giving alms to a beggar1 in the gallery of ,solothurn4 ,this remarkable picture is dated #aebb1 and seems to have been ordered for an altar in the minster of ,st ,ursus of ,solothurn by ,nicholas ,conrad1 a captain and statesman of the #afth century1 whose family allowed the precious heirloom to fall into decay in a chapel of the neighbouring village of ,grenchen4 ,numerous drawings in the spirit of this picture1 and probably of the same period in his career1 might have led ,holbein's contemporaries to believe that he would make his mark in the annals of ,basel as a model for painters of altarpieces as well as a model for pictorial composition and portrait4 ,the promise which he gave at this time was immense4 ,he was gaining a freedom in draughtsmanship that gave him facility to deal with any subject4 ,though a realist1 he was sensible of the dignity and severity of religious painting4 ,his colour had almost all the richness and sweetness of the ,venetians4 ,but he had fallen on evil times1 as the next few years undoubtedly showed4 ,amongst the portraits which he executed in these years are those of ,froben1 the publisher1 known only by copies at ,basel and ,hampton ,court1 and ,erasmus1 who sat in #aebc1 as he likewise did in #aecj1 in various positions1 showing his face threequarters as at ,longford1 ,basel1 ,turin1 ,parma1 the ,hague and ,vienna1 and in profile as in the ,louvre or at ,hampton ,court4 ,besides these1 ,holbein made designs for glass windows1 and for woodcuts1 including subjects of every sort1 from the ,virgin and ,child with saints of the old time to the ,dance of ,death1 from gospel incidents extracted from ,luther's ,bible to satirical pieces illustrating the sale of indulgences and other abuses denounced by ,reformers4 ,holbein1 in this way1 was carried irresistibly with the stream of the ,reformation1 in which1 it must now be admitted1 the old traditions of religious painting were wrecked1 leaving nothing behind but unpictorial elements which ,cranach and his school vainly used for pictorial purposes4 ,once only1 after #aebf1 and after he had produced the ,lais and ,venus and ,amor1 did ,holbein with impartial spirit give his services and pencil to the ,roman ,catholic cause4 ,the burgomaster ,meyer1 whose patronage he had already enjoyed1 now asked him to represent himself and his wives and children in prayer before the ,virgin2 and ,holbein produced the celebrated altarpiece now in the palace of ,prince ,william of ,hesse at ,darmstadt1 the shape and composition of which are known to all the world by its copy in the ,dresden museum4 ,the drawings for this masterpiece are amongst the most precious relics in the museum of ,basel4 ,the time now came when art began to suffer from unavoidable depression in all countries north of the ,alps4 ,holbein1 at ,basel1 was reduced to accept the smallest commissions--even for scutcheons4 ,then he saw that his chances were dwindling to nothing1 and taking a bold resolution1 armed with letters of introduction from ,erasmus to ,more1 he crossed the ,channel to ,england1 where in the one-sided branch of portrait painting he found an endless circle of clients4 ,eighty-seven drawings by ,holbein in ,windsor ,castle1 containing an equal number of portraits1 of persons chiefly of high quality1 testify to his industry in the years which divide #aebh from #aedc4 ,they are all originals of pictures that are still extant1 or sketches for pictures that were lost or never carried out4 ,sir ,thomas ,more1 with whom he seems to have had a very friendly connexion1 sat to him for likenesses of various kinds4 ,the drawing of his head is at ,windsor4 ,a pen-and-ink sketch1 in which we see ,more surrounded by all the members of his family1 is now in the gallery of ,basel1 and numerous copies of a picture from it prove how popular the lost original must once have been4 ,at the same period were executed the portraits of ,warham 7,lambeth and ,louvre71 ,wyatt 7,louvre71 ,sir ,henry ,guildford and his wife 7,windsor71 all finished in #aebg1 the astronomer ,nicholas ,kratzer 7,louvre71 ,thomas ,godsalve 7,dresden71 and ,sir ,bryan ,tuke 7,munich7 in #aebh4 ,in this year1 #aebh1 ,holbein returned to ,basel1 taking to ,erasmus the sketch of ,more's family4 ,with money which he brought from ,london he purchased a house at ,basel wherein to lodge his wife and children1 whose portraits he now painted with all the care of a husband and father 7#aebh74 ,he then witnessed the flight of ,erasmus and the fury of the iconoclasts1 who destroyed in one day almost all the religious pictures at ,basel4 ,the municipality1 unwilling that he should suffer again from the depression caused by evil times1 asked him to finish the frescoes of the town-hall1 and the sketches from these lost pictures are still before us to show that he had not lost the spirit of his earlier days1 and was still capable as a composer4 ,his ,rehoboam receiving the ,israelite ,envoys1 and ,saul at the ,head of his ,array meeting ,samuel1 testify to ,holbein's power and his will1 also proved at a later period by the ,triumphs of ,riches and ,poverty1 executed for the ,steelyard in ,london 7but now lost71 to prefer the fame of a painter of history to that of a painter of portraits4 ,but the reforming times still remained unfavourable to art4 ,with the exception of a portrait of ,melanchthon 7,hanover7 which he now completed1 ,holbein found little to do at ,basel4 ,the year #aecj1 therefore1 saw him again on the move1 and he landed in ,england for the second time with the prospect of bettering his fortunes4 ,here indeed political changes had robbed him of his earlier patrons4 ,the circle of ,more and ,warham was gone4 ,but that of the merchants of the ,steelyard took its place1 for whom ,holbein executed the long and important series of portraits that lie scattered throughout the galleries and collections of ,england and the ,continent1 and bear date after #aecb4 ,then came again the chance of practice in more fashionable circles4 ,in #aecc the ,ambassadors 7,national ,gallery71 and the ,triumphs of ,wealth and ,poverty were executed1 then the portraits of ,leland and ,wyatt 7,longford71 and 7#aecd7 the portrait of ,thomas ,cromwell4 ,through ,cromwell ,holbein probably became attached to the court1 in the pay of which he appears permanently after #aecg4 ,from that time onwards he was connected with all that was highest in the society of ,london4 ,henry ,,viii4 invited him to make a family picture of himself1 his father and family1 which obtained a post of honour at ,whitehall4 ,the beautiful cartoon of a part of this fine piece at ,hardwicke ,hall enables us to gauge its beauty before the fire which destroyed it in the #agth century4 ,then ,holbein painted ,jane ,seymour in state 7,vienna71 employing some ,english hand perhaps to make the replicas at the ,hague1 ,sion ,house and ,woburn2 he finished the ,southwell of the ,uffizi 7copy at the ,louvre71 the jeweller ,morett at ,dresden1 and last1 not least1 ,christine of ,denmark1 who gave sittings at ,brussels in #aech4 ,during the journey which this work involved ,holbein took the opportunity of revisiting ,basel1 where he made his appearance in silk and satin1 and pro forma only accepted the office of town painter4 ,he had been living long and continuously away from home1 not indeed observing due fidelity to his wife1 who still resided at ,basel1 but fairly performing the duties of keeping her in comfort4 ,his return to ,london in autumn enabled him to do homage to the king in the way familiar to artists4 ,he presented to ,henry at ,christmas a portrait of ,prince ,edward4 ,again abroad in the summer of #aeci1 he painted with great fidelity the princess ,anne of ,cleves1 at ,duren near ,cologne1 whose form we still see depicted in the great picture of the ,louvre4 ,that he could render the features of his sitter without flattery is plain from this one example4 ,indeed1 habitual flattery was contrary to his habits4 ,his portraits up to this time all display that uncommon facility for seizing character which his father enjoyed before him1 and which he had inherited in an expanded form4 ,no amount of labour1 no laboriousness of finish--and of both he was ever prodigal--betrayed him into loss of resemblance or expression4 ,no painter was ever quicker at noting peculiarities of physiognomy1 and it may be observed that in none of his faces1 as indeed in none of the faces one sees in nature1 are the two sides alike4 ,yet he was not a child of the #afth century1 as the ,venetians were1 in substituting touch for line4 ,we must not look in his works for modulations of surface or subtle contrasts of colour in juxtaposition4 ,his method was to the very last delicate1 finished and smooth1 as became a painter of the old school4 ,amongst the more important creations of ,holbein's later time we should note his ,duke of ,norfolk at ,windsor1 the hands of which are so perfectly preserved as to compensate for the shrivel that now disfigures the head4 ,two other portraits of #aeda 7,berlin and ,vienna71 the ,falconer at the ,hague1 and ,john ,chambers at ,vienna 7#aedb71 are noble specimens of portrait art2 most interesting and of the same year are the likenesses of ,holbein himself1 of which several examples are extant--one particularly good at ,fahna1 the seat of the ,stackelberg family near ,riga1 and another at the ,uffizi in ,florence4 ,here ,holbein appears to us as a man of regular features1 with hair just turning grey1 but healthy in colour and shape1 and evidently well to do in the world4 ,yet a few months only separated him then from his death-bed4 ,he was busy painting a picture of ,henry the ,,viii4 confirming the ,privileges of the ,barber ,surgeons 7,lincoln's ,inn ,fields71 when he sickened of the plague and died after making a will about ,november #aedc4 ,his loss must have been seriously felt in ,england4 ,had he lived his last years in ,germany1 he would not have changed the current which decided the fate of painting in that country2 he would but have shared the fate of ,durer and others who merely prolonged the agony of art amidst the troubles of the ,reformation4 7,j4 ,a4 ,c47 ,the early authorities are ,karel ,van ,mander's ,het ,schilder ,boek 7#afjd71 and ,j4 von ,sandrart1 ,accademia ,todesca 7#afge74 ,see also ,r4 ,n4 ,wornum1 ,life and ,work of ,holbein 7#ahfg72 ,h4 ,knackfuss1 ,holbein 7#ahii72 ,g4 ,s4 ,davies1 ,holbein 7#aijc72 ,a4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,woltmann1 ,holbein und seine ,zeit 7#ahgf74 ,,holberg1 ,,ludvig ,,holberg1 ,,baron 7#afhd-aged71 the great ,scandinavian writer1 was born at ,bergen1 in ,norway1 on the #crd of ,december #afhd4 ,both ,holberg's parents died in his childhood1 his father first1 leaving a considerable property2 and in his eleventh year he lost his mother also4 ,before the latter event1 however1 the family had been seriously impoverished by a great fire1 which destroyed several valuable buildings1 but notwithstanding this1 the mother left to each of her six children some little fortune4 ,in #afie the boy ,holberg was taken into the house of his uncle1 ,peder ,lem1 who sent him to the ,latin school1 and prepared him for the profession of a soldier2 but soon after this he was adopted by his cousin ,otto ,munthe1 and went to him up in the mountains4 ,his great desire for instruction1 however1 at last induced his family to send him back to ,bergen1 to his uncle1 and there he remained1 eagerly studying1 until the destruction of that city by fire in #agjb1 when he was sent to the university of ,copenhagen4 ,but he soon exhausted his resources1 and1 having nothing to live upon1 was glad to hurry back to ,norway1 where he accepted the position of tutor in the house of a rural dean at ,voss4 ,he soon returned to ,copenhagen1 where in #agjd he took his degree1 and worked hard at ,french1 ,english and ,italian4 ,but he had to gain his living1 and accordingly he accepted the post of tutor once more1 this time in the house of ,dr ,smith1 vice-bishop of ,bergen4 ,the good doctor had travelled much1 and the reading of his itineraries and note-books awakened such a longing for travel in the young ,holberg that at last1 at the close of #agjd1 having scraped together #fj dollars1 he went on board a ship bound for ,holland4 ,he proceeded as far as ,aix-la-,chapelle1 where he fell sick of a fever1 and suffered so much from weakness and poverty1 that he made his way on foot to ,amsterdam1 and came back to ,norway4 ,ashamed to be seen so soon in ,bergen1 he stopped at ,christianssand1 where he lived through the winter1 supporting himself by giving lessons in ,french4 ,in the spring of #agjf he travelled1 in company with a student named ,brix1 through ,london to ,oxford1 where he studied for two years1 gaining his livelihood by giving lessons on the violin and the flute4 ,he mentions1 with gratitude1 the valuable libraries of ,oxford1 and it is pleasant to record that it was while he was there that it first occurred to him1 as he says1 how splendid and glorious a thing it would be to take a place among the authors4 ,through ,london and ,elsinore he reached ,copenhagen a third time1 and began to lecture at the university2 his lectures were attended1 but he got no money4 ,he was asked in #agji to conduct a rich young gentleman to ,dresden1 and on his return journey he lectured at ,leipzig1 ,halle and ,hamburg4 ,once more in ,copenhagen1 he undertook to teach the children of ,admiral ,gedde4 ,weary with this work1 he took a post at ,borch ,college in #agaj1 where he wrote1 and printed in #agaa1 his first work1 ,an ,introduction to the ,history of the ,nations of ,europe1 and was permitted to present to ,king ,frederick ,,iv4 two manuscript essays on ,christian ,,iv4 and ,frederick ,,iii4 ,the king soon after presented him with the title of ,professor1 and with the ,rosenkrantz grant of #ajj dollars for four years1 the holder of which was expected to travel4 ,holberg accordingly started in #agad1 and visited1 chiefly on foot1 a great portion of ,europe4 ,from ,amsterdam he walked through ,rotterdam to ,antwerp1 took a boat to ,brussels1 and on foot again reached ,paris4 ,walking and skating1 he proceeded in the depth of winter to ,marseilles1 and on by sea to ,genoa4 ,on the last-mentioned voyage he caught a fever1 and nearly died in that city4 ,on his recovery he pushed on to ,civita ,vecchia and ,rome4 ,when the spring had come1 being still very poor and in feeble health1 he started homewards on foot by ,florence1 across the ,apennines1 through ,bologna1 ,parma1 ,piacenza1 ,turin1 over the ,alps1 through ,savoy and ,dauphine to ,lyons1 and finally to ,paris1 where he arrived in excellent health4 ,after spending a month in ,paris1 he walked on to ,amsterdam1 took sail to ,hamburg1 and so went back to ,denmark in #agaf4 ,he spent the next two years in extreme poverty1 and published his ,introduction to ,natural and ,popular ,law4 ,but at last1 in #agah1 his talents were recognized by his appointment as professor of metaphysics at the university of ,copenhagen2 and in #agbj he was promoted to the lucrative chair of public eloquence1 which gave him a seat in the consistory4 ,his pecuniary troubles were now at an end4 ,hitherto he had written only on law1 history and philology1 although in a ,latin controversy with the jurist ,andreas ,hojer of ,flensborg his satirical genius had flashed out4 ,but now1 and until #agbh1 he created an entirely new class of humorous literature under the pseudonym of ,hans ,mikkelsen4 ,the serio-comic epic of ,peder ,paars1 the earliest of the great classics of the ,danish language1 appeared ,in #agai4 ,this poem was a brilliant satire on contemporary manners1 and enjoyed an extraordinary success4 ,but the author had offended in it several powerful persons who threatened his life1 and if ,count ,danneskjold had not personally interested the king in him1 ,holberg's career might have had an untimely close4 ,during the next two years he published five shorter satires1 all of which were well received by the public4 ,the great event of #agba was the erection of the first ,danish theatre in ,gronnegade1 ,copenhagen2 ,holberg took the direction of this house1 in which was played1 in ,september #agbb1 a ,danish translation of ,l',avare4 ,until this time no plays had been acted in ,denmark except in ,french and ,german1 but ,holberg now determined to use his talent in the construction of ,danish comedy4 ,the first of his original pieces performed was ,den politiske ,kandestober 7,the ,pewterer turned ,politician72 he wrote other comedies with miraculous rapidity1 and before #agbb was closed1 there had been performed in succession1 and with immense success1 ,den ,vaegelsindede 7,the ,waverer71 ,jean de ,france1 ,jeppe paa ,bjerget1 and ,gert the ,westphalian4 ,of these five plays1 four at least are masterpieces2 and they were almost immediately followed by others4 ,holberg took no rest1 and before the end of #agbc the comedies of ,barselstuen 7,the ,lying-in ,room71 ,the ,eleventh of ,july1 ,jakob von ,thyboe1 ,den ,bundeslose 7,the ,fidget71 ,erasmus ,montanus1 ,don ,ranudo1 ,ulysses of ,ithaca1 ,without ,head or ,tail1 ,witchcraft and ,melampe had all been written1 and some of them acted4 ,in #agbd the most famous comedy that ,holberg produced was ,henrik and ,pernille4 ,but in spite of this unprecedented blaze of dramatic genius the theatre fell into pecuniary difficulties1 and had to be closed1 ,holberg composing for the last night's performance1 in ,february #agbg1 a ,funeral of ,danish ,comedy4 ,all this excessive labour for the stage had undermined the great poet's health1 and in #agbe he had determined to take the baths at ,aix-la-,chapelle2 but instead of going thither he wandered through ,belgium to ,paris1 and spent the winter there4 ,in the spring he returned to ,copenhagen with recovered health and spirits1 and worked quietly at his protean literary labours until the great fire of #agbh4 ,in the period of national poverty and depression that followed this event1 a puritanical spirit came into vogue which was little in sympathy with ,holberg's dramatic or satiric genius4 ,he therefore closed his career as a dramatic poet by publishing in #agca his acted comedies1 with the addition of five which he had no opportunity of putting on the stage4 ,with characteristic versatility1 he adopted the serious tone of the new age1 and busied himself for the next twenty years with historical1 philosophical and statistical writings4 ,during this period he published his poetical satire called ,metamorphosis 7#agbf71 his ,epistolae ad virum perillustrem 7#agbg71 his ,description of ,denmark and ,norway 7#agbi71 ,history of ,denmark1 ,universal ,church ,history1 ,biographies of ,famous ,men1 ,moral ,reflections1 ,description of ,bergen 7#agcg71 ,a ,history of the ,jews1 and other learned and laborious compilations4 ,the only poem he published at this time was the famous ,nicolai ,klimii iter subterraneum 7#agda71 afterwards translated into ,danish by ,baggesen4 ,when ,christian ,,vi4 died in #agdg1 pietism lost its sway2 the theatre was reopened and ,holberg was appointed director1 but he soon resigned this arduous post4 ,the six comedies he wrote in his old age did not add to his reputation4 ,his last published work was his ,epistles1 in #e vols4 the last of them posthumous 7#aged74 ,in #agdg he was created by the new king ,baron of ,holberg4 ,in ,august #agec he took to his bed1 and he died at ,copenhagen on the #bhth of ,january #aged1 in the seventieth year of his age4 ,he was buried at ,soro1 in ,zealand4 ,he had never married1 and he bequeathed all his property1 which was considerable1 to ,soro ,college4 ,holberg was not only the founder of ,danish literature and the greatest of ,danish authors1 but he was1 with the exception of ,voltaire1 the first writer in ,europe during his own generation4 ,neither ,pope nor ,swift1 who perhaps excelled him in particular branches of literary production1 approached him in range of genius1 or in encyclopaedic versatility4 ,holberg found ,denmark provided with no books1 and he wrote a library for her4 ,when he arrived in the country1 the ,danish language was never heard in a gentleman's house4 ,polite ,danes were wont to say that a man wrote ,latin to his friends1 talked ,french to the ladies1 called his dogs in ,german1 and only used ,danish to swear at his servants4 ,the single genius of ,holberg revolutionized this system4 ,he wrote poems of all kinds in a language hitherto employed only for ballads and hymns2 he instituted a theatre1 and composed a rich collection of comedies for it2 he filled the shelves of the citizens with works in their own tongue on history1 law1 politics1 science1 philology and philosophy1 all written in a true and manly style1 and representing the extreme attainment of ,european culture at the moment4 ,perhaps no author who ever lived has had so vast an influence over his countrymen1 an influence that is still at work after #bjj years4 ,the editions of ,holberg's works are legion4 ,complete editions of the ,comedies are too numerous to be quoted2 the best is that brought out in #c vols4 by ,f4 ,i4 ,lichtenberg1 in #ahgj4 ,of ,peder ,paars there exist at least twenty-three editions1 besides translations in ,dutch1 ,german and ,swedish4 ,the ,iter subterraneum has been three several times translated into ,danish1 ten times into ,german1 thrice into ,swedish1 thrice into ,dutch1 thrice into ,english1 twice into ,french1 twice into ,russian and once into ,hungarian4 ,the life of ,holberg was written by ,welhaven in #aheh and by ,georg ,brandes in #ahhd4 ,among works on his genius by foreigners may be mentioned an exhaustive study by ,robert ,prutz 7#aheg71 and ,holberg considere comme imitateur de ,moliere1 by ,a4 ,legrelle 7,paris1 #ahfd74 7,e4 ,g47 ,,holborn1 a central metropolitan borough of ,london1 ,england1 bounded ,n4,w4 by ,st ,pancras1 ,n4,e4 by ,finsbury1 ,s4,e4 by the ,city of ,london1 ,s4 and ,w4 by the ,city of ,westminster and ,st ,marylebone4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #ei1dje4 ,area #dje4a acres4 ,its main thoroughfare is that running ,e4 and ,w4 under the names of ,holborn ,viaduct1 ,high ,holborn and ,new ,oxford ,street4 ,the name of ,holborn was formerly derived from ,old ,bourne1 a tributary of the ,fleet1 the valley of which is clearly seen where ,holborn ,viaduct crosses ,farringdon ,street4 ,of the existence of this tributary1 however1 there is no evidence1 and the origin of the name is found in ,hole-bourne1 the stream in the hollow1 in allusion to the ,fleet itself4 ,the fall and rise of the road across the valley before the construction of the viaduct 7#ahfi7 was abrupt and inconvenient4 ,in earlier times a bridge here crossed the ,fleet1 leading from ,newgate1 while a quarter of a mile west of the viaduct is the site of ,holborn ,bars1 at the entrance to the ,city1 where tolls were levied4 ,the better residential district of ,holborn1 which extends northward to ,euston ,road in the borough of ,st ,pancras1 is mainly within the parish of ,st ,george1 ,bloomsbury4 ,the name of ,bloomsbury is commonly derived from ,william ,blemund1 a lord of the manor in the #aeth century4 ,a dyke called ,blemund's ,ditch1 of unknown origin1 bounded it on the south1 where the land was marshy4 ,during the #ahth century ,bloomsbury was a fashionable and wealthy residential quarter4 ,the reputation of the district immediately to the south1 embraced in the parish of ,st ,giles in the ,fields1 was far different4 ,from the #agth century until modern times this was notorious as a home of crime and poverty4 ,here occurred some of the earliest cases of the plague which spread over ,london in #affd-affe4 ,the opening of the thoroughfares of ,new ,oxford ,street 7#ahdj7 and ,shaftesbury ,avenue 7#ahee7 by no means wholly destroyed the character of the district4 ,the circus of ,seven ,dials1 east of ,shaftesbury ,avenue1 affords a typical name in connexion with the lowest aspect of life in ,london4 ,a similar notoriety attached to ,saffron ,hill on the eastern confines of the borough4 ,by a singular contrast1 the neighbouring thoroughfare of ,hatton ,garden1 leading north from ,holborn ,circus1 is a centre of the diamond trade4 ,of the ecclesiastical buildings of ,holborn that of first interest is the chapel of ,st ,etheldreda in ,ely ,place1 opening from ,holborn ,circus4 ,ely ,place takes its name from a palace of the bishops of ,ely1 who held land here as early as the #acth century4 ,here died ,john of ,gaunt in #acii4 ,the property was acquired by ,sir ,christopher ,hatton1 ,lord ,chancellor under ,queen ,elizabeth1 after whom ,hatton ,garden is named2 though the bishopric kept some hold upon it until the #ahth century4 ,the chapel1 the only remnant of the palace1 is a beautiful ,decorated structure with a vaulted crypt1 itself above ground-level4 ,both are used for worship by ,roman ,catholics1 by whom the chapel was acquired in #ahgd and opened five years later after careful restoration4 ,the present parish church of ,st ,giles in the ,fields1 between ,shaftesbury ,avenue and ,new ,oxford ,street1 dates from #agcd1 but here was situated a leper's hospital founded by ,matilda1 wife of ,henry ,i41 in #aaja4 ,its chapel became the parish church on the suppression of the monasteries4 ,the church of ,st ,andrew1 the parish of which extends into the ,city1 stands near ,holborn ,viaduct4 ,it is by ,wren1 but there are traces of the previous ,gothic edifice in the tower4 ,sacheverell was among its rectors 7#agac-agbd71 and ,thomas ,chatterton 7#aggj7 was interred in the adjacent burial ground1 no longer extant1 of ,shoe ,lane ,workhouse2 the register recording his ,christian name as ,william4 ,close to this church ,is the ,city ,temple 7,congregational74 ,two of the four ,inns of ,court1 ,lincoln's ,inn and ,gray's ,inn1 lie within the borough4 ,of the first the ,tudor gateway opens upon ,chancery ,lane4 ,the chapel1 hall and residential buildings surrounding the squares within1 are picturesque1 but of later date4 ,to the west lie the fine square1 with public gardens1 still called1 from its original character1 ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields4 ,gray's ,inn1 between ,high ,holborn and ,theobald's ,road1 and west of ,gray's ,inn ,road1 is of similar arrangement4 ,the fabric of the small chapel is apparently of the #adth century1 and may have been attached to the manor house of ,portpool1 held at that period by the ,lords ,grey of ,wilton4 ,of the former ,inns of ,chancery attached to these ,inns of ,court the most noteworthy buildings remaining are those of ,staple ,inn1 of which the timbered and gabled ,elizabethan front upon ,high ,holborn is a unique survival of its character in a ,london thoroughfare2 and of ,barnard's ,inn1 occupied by the ,mercer's ,school4 ,both these were attached to ,gray's ,inn4 ,of ,furnival's and ,thavies ,inns1 attached to ,lincoln's ,inn1 only the names remain4 ,the site of the first is covered by the fine red brick buildings of the ,prudential ,assurance ,company1 ,holborn ,viaduct4 ,among other institutions in ,holborn1 the ,british ,museum1 north of ,new ,oxford ,street1 is pre-eminent4 ,the varied collections of ,sir ,john ,soane1 accumulated at his house in ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields1 are open to view as the ,soane ,museum4 ,there may also be mentioned the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields1 with museum2 the ,royal ,colleges of ,organists1 and of ,veterinary ,surgeons1 the ,college of ,preceptors1 the ,jews' ,college1 and the ,metropolitan ,school of ,shorthand4 ,among hospitals are the ,italian1 the ,homoeopathic1 the ,national for the paralysed and epileptic1 the ,alexandra for children with hip disease1 and the ,hospital for sick children4 ,the ,foundling ,hospital1 ,guilford ,street1 was founded by ,thomas ,coram in #agci4 ,,holcroft1 ,,thomas 7#agde-ahji71 ,english dramatist and miscellaneous writer1 was born on the #ajth of ,december #agde 7old style7 in ,orange ,court1 ,leicester ,fields1 ,london4 ,his father1 besides having a shoemaker's shop1 kept riding horses for hire2 but having fallen into difficulties was reduced ultimately to the necessity of hawking pedlary4 ,the son accompanied his parents in their tramps1 and succeeded in procuring the situation of stable boy at ,newmarket1 where he spent his evenings chiefly in miscellaneous reading and the study of music4 ,gradually he obtained a knowledge of ,french1 ,german and ,italian4 ,at the end of his term of engagement as stable boy he returned to assist his father1 who had again resumed his trade of shoemaker in ,london2 but after marrying in #agfe1 he became a teacher in a small school in ,liverpool4 ,he failed in an attempt to set up a private school1 and became prompter in a ,dublin theatre4 ,he acted in various strolling companies until #aggh1 when he produced ,the ,crisis2 or1 ,love and ,famine1 at ,drury ,lane4 ,duplicity followed in #agha4 ,two years later he went to ,paris as correspondent of the ,morning ,herald4 ,here he attended the performances of ,beaumarchais's ,mariage de ,figaro until he had memorized the whole4 ,the translation of it1 with the title ,the ,follies of the ,day1 was produced at ,drury ,lane in #aghd4 ,the ,road to ,ruin1 his most successful melodrama1 was produced in #agib4 ,a revival in #ahgc ran for #aah nights4 ,holcroft died on the #bcrd of ,march #ahji4 ,he was a member of the ,society for ,constitutional ,information1 and on that account was1 in #agid1 indicted of high treason1 but was discharged without a trial4 ,among his novels may be mentioned ,alwyn 7#aghj71 an account1 largely autobiographical1 of a strolling comedian1 and ,hugh ,trevor 7#agid-agig74 ,he also was the author of ,travels from ,hamburg through ,westphalia1 ,holland and the ,netherlands to ,paris1 of some volumes of verse and of translations from the ,french and ,german4 ,his ,memoirs written by ,himself and continued down to the ,time of his ,death1 from his ,diary1 ,notes and other ,papers1 by ,william ,hazlitt1 appeared in #ahaf1 and was reprinted1 in a slightly abridged form1 in #aheb4 ,,holden1 ,,hubert ,,ashton 7#ahbb-ahif71 ,english classical scholar1 came of an old ,staffordshire family4 ,he was educated at ,king ,edward's school1 ,birmingham1 and ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge 7senior classic1 #ahde2 fellow1 #ahdg74 ,he was vice-principal of ,cheltenham ,college 7#ahec-aheh71 and headmaster of ,queen ,elizabeth's school1 ,ipswich 7#aheh-ahhc74 ,he died in ,london on the #ast of ,december #ahif4 ,in addition to several school editions of portions of ,cicero1 ,thucydides1 ,xenophon and ,plutarch1 he published an expurgated text of ,aristophanes with a useful onomasticon 7re-issued separately1 #aijb7 and larger editions of ,cicero's ,de officiis 7revised ed41 #ahih7 and of the ,octavius of ,minucius ,felix 7#ahec74 ,his chief works1 however1 were his ,foliorum silvula 7#aheb71 a collection of ,english extracts for translation into ,greek and ,latin verse2 ,folia silvulae 7translations of the same72 and ,foliorum centuriae1 a companion volume of extracts for ,latin prose translation4 ,in ,english schools these books have been widely used for the teaching of ,latin and ,greek composition4 ,,holden1 ,,sir ,,isaac1 ,,bart4 7#ahjg-ahig71 ,english inventor and manufacturer1 was the son of ,isaac ,holden1 a native of ,cumberland1 and was born at ,hurlet1 a village between ,paisley and ,glasgow1 on the #gth of ,may #ahjg4 ,his early life was passed in very straitened circumstances1 but his father spared no pains to give him as much elementary education as possible4 ,at the age of ten he began to work as weaver's draw-boy1 and afterwards was employed in a cotton mill4 ,meanwhile his education was continued at the night schools1 and from time to time1 as funds allowed1 he was taken from work and sent to the grammar-school1 to which he at last went regularly for a year or two until he was fifteen1 when his father removed to ,paisley and apprenticed him to an uncle1 a shawl-weaver there4 ,this proving too much for his strength1 in #ahbc he became assistant teacher in a school at ,paisley1 and in #ahbh he was appointed mathematical teacher in the ,queen's ,square ,academy1 ,leeds4 ,at the end of six months he was transferred to ,lingard's grammar school1 near ,huddersfield1 and shortly afterwards became classical master at ,castle ,street ,academy1 ,reading4 ,it was here that in #ahbi he invented a lucifer match by adopting sulphur as the medium between the explosive material and the wood1 but he refused to patent the invention4 ,in #ahcj his health again failed1 and he returned to ,scotland1 where a ,glasgow friend set up a school for him4 ,after six months1 however1 he was recommended for the post of bookkeeper to ,messrs4 ,townend ,brothers1 worsted manufacturers1 of ,cullingworth1 where his interest in machinery soon led to his transfer from the counting-house to the mill4 ,there his experiments led him to the invention of his square motion wool-comber and of a process for making genappe yarns1 a patent for which was taken out by him in conjunction with ,s4 ,c4 ,lister 7,lord ,masham7 in #ahdg4 ,the firm of ,lister ,holden1 which established a factory near ,paris in #ahdh1 carried on a successful business1 and in #ahei1 when ,lister retired1 was succeeded by ,isaac ,holden and ,sons1 which became the largest wool-combing business in the world1 employing upwards of #djjj workpeople4 ,in #ahfe ,holden's medical advisers insisted on complete change of occupation1 and he entered parliament as ,liberal member for ,knaresborough4 ,from #ahfh to #ahhb he was without a seat1 but in the latter year he was elected for the northern division of the ,west ,riding1 and in #ahhe for ,keighley4 ,he was created a baronet in #ahic1 and died suddenly at ,oakworth ,house1 near ,keighley1 on the #acth of ,august #ahig4 ,his son and heir1 ,sir ,angus ,holden1 was in #aijh created a peer with the title of ,baron ,holden of ,alston4 ,,holderlin1 ,,johann ,,christian ,,friedrich 7#aggj-ahdc71 ,german poet1 was born on the #bjth of ,march #aggj1 at ,lauffen on the ,neckar4 ,his mother removing1 after a second marriage1 to ,nurtingen1 he began his education at the classical school there4 ,he was destined by his relations for the church1 and with this view was later admitted to the seminaries at ,denkendorf and ,maulbronn4 ,at the age of eighteen he entered as a student of theology the university of ,tubingen1 where he remained till #agic4 ,he was already the writer of occasional verses1 and had begun to sketch his novel ,hyperion1 when he was introduced in this year to ,schiller1 and obtained through him the post of tutor to the young son of ,charlotte von ,kalb4 ,a year later he left this situation to attend ,fichte's lectures1 and to be near ,schiller in ,jena4 ,the latter recognized in the young poet something of his own genius1 and encouraged him by publishing some of his early writings in his periodicals ,die neue ,thalia and ,die ,horen4 ,in #agif ,holderlin obtained the post of tutor in the family of the banker ,j4 ,f4 ,gontard in ,frankfort-on-,main4 ,for ,gontard's beautiful and gifted wife1 ,susette1 the ,diotima of his ,hyperion1 he conceived a violent passion2 and she became at once his inspiration and his ruin4 ,at the end of two years1 during which time the first volume of ,hyperion was published 7#agig71 a crisis appears to have occurred in their relations1 for the young poet suddenly left ,frankfort4 ,in spite of ill-health1 he now completed ,hyperion1 the second volume of which appeared in #agii1 and began a tragedy1 ,der ,tod des ,empedokles1 a fragment of which is published among his works4 ,his friends became alarmed at the alternate depression and nervous irritability from which he suffered1 and he was induced to go to ,switzerland1 as tutor in a family at ,hauptwill4 ,there his health improved2 and several of his poems1 among which are ,der blinde ,sanger1 ,an die ,hoffnung and ,dichtermut1 were written at this time4 ,in #ahja he returned home to arrange for the publication of a volume of his poems2 but1 on the failure of this enterprise1 he was obliged to accept a tutorship at ,bordeaux4 ,diotima died a year later1 in ,june #ahjb1 and the news is supposed to have reached ,holderlin shortly afterwards1 for in the following month he suddenly left ,bordeaux1 and travelled homewards on foot through ,france1 arriving at ,nurtingen destitute and insane4 ,kind treatment gradually alleviated his condition1 and in lucid intervals he occupied himself by writing verses and translating ,greek plays4 ,two of these translations--the ,antigone and ,oedipus rex of ,sophocles--appeared in #ahjd1 and several of his short poems were published by ,franz ,k4 ,l4 von ,seckendorff in his ,musenalmanach1 #ahjg and #ahjh4 ,in #ahjd ,holderlin obtained the sinecure post of librarian to the landgrave ,frederick ,v4 of ,hesse-,homburg1 and went to live in ,homburg under the supervision of friends2 but two years later becoming irremediably but harmlessly insane1 he was taken in the summer of #ahjg to ,tubingen1 where he remained till his death on the #gth of ,june #ahdc4 ,holderlin's writings are the production of a beautiful and sensitive mind2 but they are intensely1 almost morbidly1 subjective1 and they lack real human strength4 ,perhaps his strongest characteristic was his passion for ,greece1 the result of which was that he almost entirely discarded rhyme in favour of the ancient verse measures4 ,his poems are all short pieces2 of his tragedy only a fragment was written4 ,hyperion1 oder der ,eremit in ,griechenland 7#agig-agii71 is a romance in letters1 in which the stormy fervour of the ,sturm und ,drang is combined with a romantic enthusiasm for ,greek antiquity4 ,the interest centres not in the story1 for the novel has little or none--,hyperion is a young ,greek who takes part in the rising of his people against the ,turks in #aggj--;but in its lyric subjectivity and the dithyrambic beauty of its language4 ,holderlin's lyrics1 ,lyrische ,gedichte1 were edited by ,l4 ,uhland and ,g4 ,schwab in #ahbf4 ,a complete edition of his works1 ,samtliche ,werke1 with a biography by ,c4 ,t4 ,schwab1 appeared in #ahdf2 also ,dichtungen by ,k4 ,kostlin 7,tubingen1 #ahhd71 and 7the best edition7 ,gesammelte ,dichtungen by ,b4 ,litzmann 7#b vols41 ,stuttgart1 #ahig74 ,for biography and criticism1 see ,c4 ,c4 ,t4 ,litzmann1 ,f4 ,holderlins ,leben 7,berlin1 #ahij71 ,a4 ,wilbrandt1 ,holderlin 7#bnd ed41 ,berlin1 #ahia71 and ,c4 ,muller1 ,friedrich ,holderlin1 sein ,leben und sein ,dichten 7,bremen1 #ahid74 ,,holdernesse1 ,,earl ,,of1 an ,english title borne by ,sir ,john ,ramsay and later by the family of ,darcy4 ,john ,ramsay 7c4 #aehj-afbf71 a member of the ,scottish family of ,ramsay of ,dalhousie1 was knighted for his share in rescuing ,james ,,vi4 from the hands of ,john ,ruthven1 earl of ,gowrie1 in ,august #afjj4 ,in #afjf the king created him ,viscount ,haddington and ,lord ,ramsay of ,barns1 and in #afba made him an ,english peer as earl of ,holdernesse4 ,ramsay died without surviving issue in ,february #afbf1 when his titles became extinct4 ,in #afdd ,charles ,i4 created his nephew1 ,prince ,rupert1 earl of ,holdernesse1 but when the prince died unmarried in ,november #afhb the earldom again became extinct4 ,conyers ,darcy 7#aeii-afhi71 who was made earl of ,holdernesse in #afhb only a few days after the death of ,rupert1 was the son and heir of ,conyers ,darcy1 ,lord ,darcy and ,conyers 7c4 #aega-afed71 and succeeded his father in these baronies in ,march #afed4 ,he was succeeded as #bnd earl by his only son ,conyers 7c4 #afbj-afib71 who was member of parliament for ,yorkshire during the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,in his turn he was succeeded by his grandson ,robert 7#afha-agbb74 ,robert's only son1 ,robert ,darcy1 #dth earl of ,holdernesse 7#agah-aggh71 was a diplomatist and a politician4 ,from #agdd to #agdf he was ambassador at ,venice and from #agdi to #agea he represented his country at the ,hague4 ,in #agea he became one of the secretaries of state1 and he remained in office until ,march #agfa1 when he was dismissed by ,george ,,iii4 ,from #agga to #aggf he acted as governor to two of the king's sons1 a solemn phantom as ,horace ,walpole calls him4 ,he left no sons1 and all his titles became extinct except the barony of ,conyers1 which had been created by writ in #aeji in favour of his ancestor ,sir ,william ,conyers 7d4 #aebe74 ,this descended to his only daughter ,amelia 7#aged-aghd71 the wife of ,francis ,osborne1 afterwards #eth duke of ,leeds1 and when the #gth duke of ,leeds died in #ahei it passed to his nephew1 ,sackville ,george ,lane-,fox 7#ahbg-ahhh71 falling into abeyance on his death4 ,hornby castle in ,yorkshire1 now the principal seat of the dukes of ,leeds1 came to them through marriage of the #eth duke with the heiress of the families of ,conyers and of ,darcy4 ,,holdheim1 ,,samuel 7#ahjf-ahfj71 ,jewish rabbi1 a leader of reform in the ,german ,synagogue1 was born in ,posen in #ahjf and died in ,berlin in #ahfj4 ,in #ahcf he was appointed rabbi at ,frankfort-on-the-,oder1 in #ahdj he was transferred to the rabbinate of ,mecklenburg-,schwerin4 ,he then became prominent as an advocate on the one hand of religious freedom 7much trammelled at the time by ,prussian state laws7 and on the other of reform within the ,jewish community4 ,various rabbinical conferences were held1 at ,brunswick 7#ahdd71 ,frankfort-on-the-,main 7#ahde7 and ,breslau 7#ahdf74 ,at all of these ,holdheim was a strong supporter of the policy of modifying ritual 7especially with regard to ,sabbath observance1 marriage laws and liturgical customs74 ,in #ahdf he was chosen ,rabbi of the new ,berlin congregation and there exercised considerable influence on the course of ,jewish reform4 ,see ,i4 ,h4 ,ritter in the ,jewish ,quarterly ,review1 i4 #bjb4 ,the same authority has written the life of ,holdheim in vol4 iii4 of his ,geschichte der judischen ,reformation 7,berlin1 #ahfe74 ,graetz in his ,history passes an unfavourable judgment on ,holdheim1 and there were admittedly grounds for opposition to ,holdheim's attitude4 ,a moderate criticism is contained in ,dr ,d4 ,philipson's ,history of the ,reform ,movement in ,judaism 7,london1 #aijf74 ,,holguin1 a town of the high plateau country in the interior of ,oriente province1 ,cuba1 about #fe m4 ,n4,w4 of ,santiago de ,cuba4 ,pop4 7#aijg7 #geib4 ,the town is near the ,maranon and ,jigue rivers1 on a plain from which hills rise on all sides except the ,e41 on which side it is open to the winds of the plateau4 ,holguin was long the principal acclimatization station for ,spanish troops4 ,the oldest public buildings are two churches built in #ahjj and #ahji respectively4 ,holguin has trade in cabinet woods1 tobacco1 ,indian corn and cattle products1 which it exports through its port ,gibara1 about #be m4 ,n4,n4,e41 with which it is connected by railway4 ,holguin was settled about #agbj and became a ciudad 7city7 in #agea4 ,in the ,ten ,years' ,war of #ahfh-gh and in the revolution of #ahie-ih ,holguin was an insurgent centre4 ,,holiday1 originally the holy day1 a festival set apart for religious observances as a memorial of some sacred event or sacred person2 hence a day on which the ordinary work or business ceases4 ,for the religious sense see ,,feasts ,,and ,,festivals1 and ,,sunday4 ,apart from the use of the term for a single day of rest or enjoyment1 it is commonly used in the plural for a recognized and regular period 7as at schools1 c47 of absence from work4 ,it is unnecessary here to deal with what may be regarded as private holidays1 which are matters of agreement between employer and employed or between the authorities of this or that institution and those who attend it4 ,in recent years there has been a notable tendency in most occupations to shorten the hours of labour1 and make holidays more regular4 ,it will suffice to deal here with public holidays1 the observance of which is prescribed by the state4 ,in one respect these have been diminished1 in so far as saints' days are no longer regarded as entailing non-attendance at the government offices in ,england1 as was the case at the beginning of the #aith century4 ,but while the influence of religion in determining such holidays has waned1 the importance of making some compulsory provision for social recreation has made itself felt4 ,in ,england four days1 known as ,bank ,holidays 7q4v471 are set apart by statute to be observed as general holidays1 while the sovereign may by proclamation appoint any day to be similarly observed4 ,endeavours have been made from time to time to get additional days recognized as general holidays1 such as ,empire ,day 7,may #bdth71 ,arbor ,day1 c4 ,in the ,british colonies there is no uniform practice4 ,in ,canada eight days are generally observed as public holidays3 ,new ,year's ,day1 ,good ,friday1 ,easter ,monday1 ,christmas ,day1 the birthday of the sovereign1 ,victoria ,day1 ,dominion ,day and ,labour ,day4 ,some of the provinces have followed the ,american example by adding an ,arbor ,day4 ,alberta and ,saskatchewan observe ,ash ,wednesday4 ,in ,quebec1 where the majority of the population is ,roman ,catholic1 the holy days are also holidays1 namely1 the ,festival of the ,epiphany1 ,ash ,wednesday1 ,good ,friday1 ,easter ,monday1 the ,ascension1 ,all ,saint's ,day1 ,conception ,day1 ,christmas ,day4 ,in #ahig ,labour ,day was added4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales1 the #ast of ,january1 ,good ,friday1 ,easter ,eve1 ,easter ,monday1 the birthday of the sovereign1 the #ast of ,august1 the birthday of the prince of ,wales1 ,christmas ,day and the #bfth of ,december1 are observed as holidays4 ,in ,victoria there are thirteen public holidays during the year1 and in ,queensland fourteen4 ,in ,new ,zealand the public holidays are confined to four1 ,christmas ,day1 ,new ,year's ,day1 ,good ,friday and ,labour ,day4 ,in most of the other ,british colonies the usual number of public holidays is from six to eight4 ,in the ,united ,states there is no legal holiday in the sense of the ,english bank holidays4 ,a legal holiday is dependent upon state and territorial legislation4 ,it is usual for the president to proclaim the last ,thursday in ,november as a day of thanksgiving2 this makes it only a legal holiday in the ,district of ,columbia1 and in the territories1 but most states make it a general holiday4 ,independence ,day 7,july #dth7 and ,labour ,day 7first ,monday in ,september7 are legal holidays in most states4 ,there are other days which1 in connexion with particular events or in remembrance of particular persons1 have been made legal holidays by particular states4 ,for example1 ,lincoln's birthday1 ,washington's birthday1 ,memorial ,day 7,may #cjth71 ,patriots' ,day 7,april #aith1 ,maine and ,mass471 ,r4 ,e4 ,lee's birthday 7,jan4 #aith1 ,ala41 ,fla41 ,ga41 ,va471 ,pioneers' ,day 7,july #bdth1 ,utah71 ,colorado ,day 7,aug4 #ast71 ,battle of ,new ,orleans 7,jan4 #hth1 ,la471 ,bennington ,battle ,day 7,aug4 #afth1 ,vt471 ,defender's ,day 7,sept1 #abth1 ,md471 ,arbor ,day 7,april #bbnd1 ,nebraska2 second ,friday in ,may ,r4,i41 c471 ,admission ,day 7,september #ith1 ,cal42 ,oct4 #cast1 ,nev471 ,confederate ,memorial ,day 7,april #bfth1 ,ala41 ,fla41 ,ga41 ,miss41 ,may #ajth1 ,n4 ,s4 ,car41 ,june #crd1 ,la41 ,miss41 ,texas71 c4 ,see ,m',curdy1 ,bibliography of ,articles relating to ,holidays 7,boston1 #aije74 7,t4 ,a4 ,i47 ,,holinshed 7or ,,hollingshead71 ,,raphael 7d4 c4 #aehj71 ,english chronicler1 belonged probably to a ,cheshire family1 and according to ,anthony ,wood was educated at one of the ,english universities1 afterwards becoming a minister of ,god's ,word4 ,the authenticity of these facts is doubtful1 although it is possible that ,raphael was the ,holinshed who matriculated from ,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge1 in #aedd4 ,about #aefj he came to ,london and was employed as a translator by ,reginald or ,reyner ,wolfe1 to whom he says he was singularly beholden4 ,wolfe was already engaged in the preparation of a universal history1 and ,holinshed worked for some years on this undertaking2 but after ,wolfe's death in #aegc the scope of the work was abridged1 and it appeared in #aegh as the ,chronicles of ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland4 ,the work was in two volumes1 which were illustrated1 and although ,holinshed did a great deal of the work he received valuable assistance from ,william ,harrison 7#aecd-aeic7 and others1 while the part dealing with the history of ,scotland is mainly a translation of ,hector ,boece's ,scotorum historiae4 ,afterwards1 as is shown by his will1 ,holinshed served as steward to ,thomas ,burdet of ,bramcott1 ,warwickshire1 and died about #aehj4 ,a second edition of the ,chronicles1 enlarged and improved but without illustrations1 which appeared in #aehg1 contained statements which were offensive to ,queen ,elizabeth and her advisers1 and immediately after publication some of the pages were excised by order of the privy council4 ,these excisions were published separately in #agbc4 ,an edition of the ,chronicles1 in accordance with the original text1 was published in six volumes in #ahjh4 ,the work contains a large amount of information1 and shows that its compilers were men of great industry2 but its chief interest lies in the fact that it was largely used by ,shakespeare and other ,elizabethan dramatists2 ,shakespeare1 who probably used the edition of #aehg1 obtaining from the ,chronicles material for most of his historical plays1 and also for ,macbeth1 ,king ,lear and part of ,cymbeline4 ,a single manuscript by ,holinshed is known to be extant4 ,this is a translation of ,florence of ,worcester1 and is in the ,british ,museum4 ,see ,w4 ,g4 ,boswell-,stone1 ,shakspere's ,holinshed4 ,the ,chronicle and the historical plays compared 7,london1 #ahif74 ,,holkar1 the family name of the ,mahratta ruler of ,indore 7q4v471 which has been adopted as a dynastic title4 ,the termination -kar implies that the founder of the family came from the village of ,hol near ,poona4 ,,holl1 ,,frank 7#ahde-ahhh71 ,english painter1 was born in ,london on the #dth of ,july #ahde1 and was educated chiefly at ,university ,college ,school4 ,he was a grandson of ,william ,holl1 an engraver of note1 and the son of ,francis ,holl1 ,a4,r4,a41 another engraver1 whose profession he originally intended to follow4 ,entering the ,royal ,academy schools as a probationer in painting in #ahfj1 he rapidly progressed1 winning silver and gold medals1 and making his debut as an exhibitor in #ahfd with ,a ,portrait1 and ,turned out of ,church1 a subject picture4 ,a ,fern ,gatherer 7#ahfe72 ,the ,ordeal 7#ahff72 ,convalescent 7the somewhat grim pathos of which attracted much attention71 and ,faces in the ,fire 7#ahfg71 succeeded4 ,holl gained the travelling studentship in #ahfh2 the successful work was characteristic of the young painter's mood1 being ,the ,lord gave1 and the ,lord hath taken away4 ,his insatiable zeal for work of all kinds began early to undermine the artist's health1 but his position was assured by the studentship picture1 which created a sort of furore1 although1 as with most of his works1 the blackness of its coloration1 probably due to his training as an engraver1 was even more decidedly against it than the sadness of its theme4 ,otherwise1 this painting exhibited nearly all the best technical qualities to which he ever attained1 except high finish and clearness1 and a very sincere vein of pathos4 ,holl was much below ,millais ,in portraiture1 and far inferior ,in all the higher ways of design2 in technical resources1 relatively speaking1 he was but scantily provided4 ,the range of his studies and the manner of his painting were narrower than those of ,josef ,israels1 with whom1 except as a portrait-painter1 he may better be compared than with ,millais4 ,in #ahgj he painted ,better is a ,dinner of ,herbs where ,love is1 than a ,stalled ,ox and ,hatred therewith2 ,no ,tidings from the ,sea1 a scene in a fisherman's cottage1 in #ahga--;a story told with breath-catching pathos and power2 ,i am the ,resurrection and the ,life 7#ahgb72 ,leaving ,home 7#ahgc71 ,deserted 7#ahgd71 both of which had great success2 ,her ,first-born1 girls carrying a baby to the grave 7#ahgf72 and ,going ,home 7#ahgg74 ,in #ahgg he painted the two pictures ,hush and ,hushed4 ,newgate1 ,committed for ,trial1 a very sad and telling piece1 first attested the breaking down of the painter's health in #ahgh4 ,in this year he was elected ,a4,r4,a41 and exhibited ,the ,gifts of the ,fairies1 ,the ,daughter of the ,house1 ,absconded1 and a very fine portrait of ,samuel ,cousins1 the mezzotint engraver4 ,this last canvas is a masterpiece1 and deserved the success which attended the print engraved from it4 ,holl was overwhelmed with commissions1 which he would not decline4 ,the consequences of this strain upon a constitution which was never strong were more or less1 though unequally1 manifest in ,ordered to the ,front1 a soldier's departure 7#ahhj72 ,home ,again1 its sequel1 in #ahhc 7after which he was made ,r4,a474 ,in #ahhf he produced a portrait of ,millais as his diploma work1 but his health rapidly declined and he died at ,hampstead1 on the #cast of ,july #ahhh4 ,holl's better portraits1 being of men of rare importance1 attest the commanding position he occupied in the branch of art he so unflinchingly followed4 ,they include likenesses of ,lord ,roberts1 painted for queen ,victoria 7#ahhb72 the prince of ,wales1 ,lord ,dufferin1 the duke of ,cleveland 7#ahhe72 ,lord ,overstone1 ,mr ,bright1 ,mr ,gladstone1 ,mr ,chamberlain1 ,sir ,j4 ,tenniel1 ,earl ,spencer1 ,viscount ,cranbrook1 and a score of other important subjects4 7,f4 ,g4 ,s47 ,,holland1 ,,charles 7#agcc-agfi71 ,english actor1 was born in ,chiswick1 the son of a baker4 ,he made his first appearance on the stage in the title role of ,oroonoko at ,drury ,lane in #agee1 ,john ,palmer1 ,richard ,yates and ,mrs ,cibber being in the cast4 ,he played under ,garrick1 and was the original ,florizel in the latter's adaptation of ,shakespeare's ,winter's ,tale4 ,garrick thought highly of him1 and wrote a eulogistic epitaph for his monument in ,chiswick church4 ,his nephew1 ,charles ,holland 7#agfh-ahdi7 was also an actor1 who played with ,mrs ,siddons and ,kean4 ,,holland1 ,,sir ,,henry1 ,,bart4 7#aghh-ahgc71 ,english physician and author1 was born at ,knutsford1 ,cheshire1 on the #bgth of ,october #aghh4 ,his maternal grandmother was the sister of ,josiah ,wedgwood1 whose grandson was ,charles ,darwin2 and his paternal aunt was the mother of ,mrs ,gaskell4 ,after spending some years at a private school at ,knutsford1 he was sent to a school at ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 whence after four years he was transferred to ,dr ,j4 ,p4 ,estlin's school near ,bristol4 ,there he at once took the position of head boy1 in succession to ,john ,cam ,hobhouse1 afterwards ,lord ,broughton1 an honour which required to be maintained by physical prowess4 ,on leaving school he became articled clerk to a mercantile firm in ,liverpool1 but1 as the privilege was reserved to him of passing two sessions at ,glasgow university1 he at the close of his second session sought relief from his articles1 and in #ahjf began the study of medicine in the university of ,edinburgh1 where he graduated in #ahaa4 ,after several years spent in foreign travel1 he began practice in #ahaf as a physician in ,london--according to his own statement1 with a fair augury of success speedily and completely fulfilled4 ,this success1 he adds1 was materially aided by visits for four successive years to ,spa1 at the close of that which is called the ,london season4 ,it must also1 however1 be in a great degree attributed to his happy temperament and his gifts as a conversationalist--qualities the influence of which1 in the majority of cases belonging to his class of practice1 is often of more importance than direct medical treatment4 ,in #ahaf he was elected ,f4,r4,s41 and in #ahbh ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,he became physician in ordinary to ,prince ,albert in #ahdj1 and was appointed in #aheb physician in ordinary to the queen4 ,in ,april #ahec he was created a baronet4 ,he was also a ,d4,c4,l4 of ,oxford and a member of the principal learned societies of ,europe4 ,he was twice married1 his second wife being a daughter of ,sydney ,smith1 a lady of considerable literary talent1 who published a biography of her father4 ,sir ,henry ,holland at an early period of his practice resolved to devote to his professional duties no more of his time than was necessary to secure an income of ,l#ejjj a year1 and also to spend two months of every year solely in foreign travel4 ,by the former resolution he secured leisure for a wide acquaintance with general literature1 and for a more than superficial cultivation of several branches of science2 and the latter enabled him1 besides visiting1 and most of them repeatedly1 every country of ,europe1 to make extensive tours in the other three continents1 journeying often to places little frequented by ,european travellers4 ,as1 moreover1 he procured an introduction to nearly all the eminent personages in his line of travel1 and knew many of them in his capacity of physician1 his acquaintance with men and cities was of a species without a parallel4 ,the ,london ,medical ,record1 in noticing his death1 which took place on his eighty-fifth birthday1 ,october #bg1 #ahgc1 remarked that it had occurred under circumstances highly characteristic of his remarkable career4 ,on his return from a journey in ,russia he was present1 on ,friday1 ,october #bdth1 at the trial of ,marshal ,bazaine in ,paris1 dining with some of the judges in the evening4 ,he reached ,london on the ,saturday1 took ill the following day1 and died quietly on the ,monday afternoon4 ,sir ,henry ,holland was the author of ,general ,view of the ,agriculture of ,cheshire 7#ahjg72 ,travels in the ,ionian ,isles1 ,albania1 ,thessaly and ,greece 7#ahab-ahac1 #bnd ed41 #ahai72 ,medical ,notes and ,reflections 7#ahci72 ,chapters on ,mental ,physiology 7#aheb72 ,essays on ,scientific and other ,subjects contributed to the ,edinburgh and ,quarterly ,reviews 7#ahfb72 and ,recollections of ,past ,life 7#ahgb74 ,,holland1 ,,henry ,,fox1 #a,,st ,,baron 7#agje-aggd71 ,english statesman1 second son of ,sir ,stephen ,fox1 was born on the #bhth of ,september #agje4 ,inheriting a large share of the riches which his father had accumulated1 he squandered it soon after attaining his majority1 and went to the ,continent to escape from his creditors4 ,there he made the acquaintance of a countrywoman of fortune1 who became his patroness and was so lavish with her purse that1 after several years' absence1 he was in a position to return home and1 in #agce1 to enter parliament as member for ,hindon in ,wiltshire4 ,he became the favourite pupil and devoted supporter of ,sir ,robert ,walpole1 achieving unequalled and unenviable proficiency in the worst political arts of his master and model4 ,as a speaker he was fluent and self-possessed1 imperturbable under attack1 audacious in exposition or retort1 and able to hold his own against ,pitt himself4 ,thus he made himself a power in the ,house of ,commons and an indispensable member of several administrations4 ,he was surveyor-general of works from #agcg to #agdb1 was member for ,windsor from #agda to #agfa2 lord of the treasury in #agdc1 secretary at war and member of the privy council in #agdf1 and in #agee became leader of the ,house of ,commons1 secretary of state and a member of the cabinet under the duke of ,newcastle4 ,in #ageg1 in the rearrangements of the government1 ,fox was ultimately excluded from the cabinet1 and given the post of paymaster of the forces4 ,during the war1 which ,pitt conducted with extraordinary vigour1 and in which the nation was intoxicated with glory1 ,fox devoted himself mainly to accumulating a vast fortune4 ,in #agfb he again accepted the leadership of the ,house1 with a seat in the cabinet1 under the earl of ,bute1 and exercised his skill in cajolery and corruption to induce the ,house of ,commons to approve of the treaty of ,paris of #agfc2 as a recompense1 he was raised to the ,house of ,lords with the title of ,baron ,holland of ,foxley1 ,wiltshire1 on the #afth of ,april #agfc4 ,in #agfe he was forced to resign the paymaster generalship1 and four years later a petition of the livery of the city of ,london against the ministers referred to him as the public defaulter of unaccounted millions4 ,the proceedings brought against him in the court of exchequer were stayed by a royal warrant2 and in a statement published by him he proved that in the delays in making up the accounts of his office he had transgressed neither the law nor the custom of the time4 ,from the interest on the outstanding balances he had1 none the less1 amassed a princely fortune4 ,he strove1 but in vain1 to obtain promotion to the dignity of an earl1 a dignity upon which he had set his heart1 and he died at ,holland ,house1 ,kensington1 on the #ast of ,july #aggd1 a sorely disappointed man1 with a reputation for cunning and unscrupulousness which cannot easily be matched1 and with an unpopularity which justifies the conclusion that he was the most thoroughly hated statesman of his day4 ,lord ,holland married in #agdd ,lady ,georgina ,caroline ,lennox1 daughter of the duke of ,richmond1 who was created ,baroness ,holland1 of ,holland1 ,lincolnshire1 in #agfb4 ,there were four sons of the marriage3 ,stephen1 #bnd ,lord ,holland 7d4 #aggd72 ,henry 7d4 an infant72 ,charles ,james 7the celebrated statesman72 and ,henry ,edward 7#agee-ahaa71 soldier and diplomatist4 ,see ,walpole's and other memoirs of the time1 also the article ,,fox1 ,,charles ,,james4 ,,holland1 ,,henry ,,rich1 #a,,st ,,earl ,,of 7#aeij-afdi71 #bnd son of ,robert1 #ast earl of ,warwick1 and of ,penelope1 ,sir ,philip ,sidney's ,stella1 daughter of ,walter ,devereux1 #ast earl of ,essex1 was baptized on the #aith of ,august #aeij1 educated at ,emmanuel ,college1 ,cambridge1 knighted on the #crd of ,june #afaj1 and returned to parliament for ,leicester in #afaj and #afad4 ,in #afaj he was present at the siege of ,juliers4 ,favours were showered upon him by ,james ,i4 ,he was made gentleman of the bedchamber to ,charles1 prince of ,wales1 and captain of the yeomen of the guard2 and on the #hth of ,march #afbc he was raised to the peerage as ,baron ,kensington4 ,in #afbd he was sent to ,paris to negotiate the marriage treaty between ,charles and ,henrietta ,maria4 ,on the #aeth of ,september he was created earl of ,holland1 and in #afbe was sent on two further missions1 first to ,paris to arrange a treaty between ,louis ,,xiii4 and the ,huguenots1 and later to the ,netherlands in company with ,buckingham4 ,in ,october #afbg he was given command of the troops sent to reinforce ,buckingham at ,rhe1 but through delay in starting only met the defeated troops on their return4 ,he succeeded ,buckingham as chancellor of ,cambridge ,university2 was master of the horse in #afbh1 and was appointed constable of ,windsor and high steward to the queen in #afbi4 ,he interested himself1 like his elder brother1 ,lord ,warwick1 in the plantations2 and was the first governor of the ,providence company in #afcj1 and one of the proprietors of ,newfoundland in #afcg4 ,in #afca he was made chief-justice-in-eyre south of the ,trent1 and in this capacity was responsible for the unpopular revival of the obsolete forest laws4 ,he intrigued at court against ,portland and against ,strafford1 who expressed for him the greatest contempt4 ,in #afcf he was disappointed at not obtaining the great office of lord high admiral1 but was made instead groom of the stole4 ,in #afci he was appointed general of the horse1 and drew ridicule upon himself by the fiasco at ,kelso4 ,in the second war against the ,scots he was superseded in favour of ,conway4 ,he opposed the dissolution of the ,short ,parliament1 joined the peers who supported the parliamentary cause1 and gave evidence against ,strafford4 ,he was1 however1 won back to the king's side by the queen1 and on the #afth of ,april #afda made captain general north of the ,trent4 ,dissatisfied1 however1 with ,charles's refusal to grant him the nomination of a new baron1 he again abandoned him1 refused the summons to ,york1 and was deprived of his office as groom of the stole at the instance of the queen1 who greatly resented his ingratitude4 ,he was chosen by the parliament in ,march and ,july #afdb to communicate its votes to ,charles1 who received him1 much to his indignation1 with studied coldness4 ,he was appointed one of the committee of safety in ,july2 made zealous speeches on behalf of the parliamentary cause to the ,london citizens2 and joined ,essex's army at ,twickenham1 where1 it is said1 he persuaded him to avoid a battle4 ,in #afdc he appeared as a peacemaker1 and after failing to bring over ,essex1 he returned to the king4 ,his reception1 however1 was not a cordial one1 and he was not reinstated in his office of groom of the stole4 ,after1 therefore1 accompanying the king to ,gloucester and taking part in the first battle of ,newbury1 he once more returned to the parliament1 declaring that the court was too much bent on continuing hostilities1 and the influence of the papists too strong for his patriotism4 ,he was restored to his estates1 but the ,commons obliged the ,lords to exclude him from the upper house1 and his petition in #afde for compensation for his losses and for a pension was refused4 ,his hopes being in this quarter also disappointed1 he once again renewed his allegiance to the king's cause2 and after endeavouring to promote the negotiations for peace in #afde and #afdg he took up arms in the second ,civil ,war1 received a commission as general1 and put himself at the head of #fjj men at ,kingston4 ,he was defeated on the #gth of ,july #afdg1 captured at ,st ,neots shortly afterwards1 and imprisoned at ,warwick ,castle4 ,he was tried before a high court of justice on the #crd of ,february #afdi1 and in spite of his plea that he had received quarter was sentenced to death4 ,he was executed together with ,hamilton and ,capel on the #ith of ,march4 ,clarendon styles him a very well-bred man and a fine gentleman in good times4#a ,he was evidently a man of shallow character1 devoid of ability1 raised far above his merits and hopelessly unfit for the great times in which he lived4 ,lord ,holland married ,elizabeth1 daughter and heiress of ,sir ,walter ,cope of ,kensington1 and1 besides several daughters1 had four sons1 of whom the eldest1 ,robert1 succeeded him as #bnd earl of ,holland1 and inherited the earldom of ,warwick in #afgc4 ,,footnote3 #a ,hist4 of the ,rebellion1 xi4 #bfc4 ,,holland1 ,,henry ,,richard ,,vassall ,,fox1 #c,,rd ,,baron 7#aggc-ahdj71 was the son of ,stephen ,fox1 #bnd ,baron ,holland1 his mother1 ,lady ,mary ,fitzpatrick1 being the daughter of the earl of ,upper ,ossory4 ,he was born at ,winterslow ,house in ,wiltshire1 on the #bast of ,november #aggc1 and his father died in the following year4 ,he was educated at ,eton and at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 where he became the friend of ,canning1 of ,hookham ,frere1 and of other wits of the time4 ,lord ,holland did not take the same political side as his friends in the conflicts of the revolutionary epoch4 ,he was from his boyhood deeply attached to his uncle1 ,c4 ,j4 ,fox1 and remained steadily loyal to the ,whig party4 ,in #agia he visited ,paris and became acquainted with ,lafayette and ,talleyrand1 and in #agic he again went abroad to travel in ,france and ,italy4 ,at ,florence he met with ,lady ,webster1 wife of ,sir ,godfrey ,webster1 ,bart41 who left her husband for him4 ,she was by birth ,elizabeth ,vassall 7#aggj-ahde71 daughter of ,richard ,vassall1 a planter in ,jamaica4 ,a son was born of their irregular union1 a ,charles ,richard ,fox 7#agif-ahgc71 who after some service in the navy entered the ,grenadiers1 and was known in later life as a collector of ,greek coins4 ,his collection was bought for the royal museum of ,berlin when he died in #ahgc4 ,he married ,lady ,mary ,fitzclarence1 a daughter of ,william ,,iv4 by ,mrs ,jordan4 ,sir ,godfrey ,webster having obtained a divorce1 ,lord ,holland was enabled to marry on the #fth of ,july #agig4 ,he had taken his seat in the ,house of ,lords on the #eth of ,october #agif4 ,during several years he may be said almost to have constituted the ,whig party in the ,upper ,house4 ,his protests against the measures of the ,tory ministers were collected and published1 as the ,opinions of ,lord ,holland 7#ahda71 by ,dr ,moylan of ,lincoln's ,inn4 ,in #ahjj he was authorized to take the name of ,vassall1 and after #ahjg he signed himself ,vassall ,holland1 though the name was no part of his title4 ,in #ahjj ,lord and ,lady ,holland went abroad and remained in ,france and ,spain till #ahje1 visiting ,paris during the ,peace of ,amiens1 and being well received by ,napoleon4 ,lady ,holland always professed a profound admiration of ,napoleon1 of which she made a theatrical display after his fall1 and he left her a gold snuff-box by his will4 ,in public life ,lord ,holland took a share proportionate to his birth and opportunities4 ,he was appointed to negotiate with the ,american envoys1 ,monroe and ,w4 ,pinkney1 was admitted to the privy council on the #bgth of ,august #ahjf1 and on the #aeth of ,october entered the cabinet of all the talents as lord privy seal1 retiring with the rest of his colleagues in ,march #ahjg4 ,he led the opposition to the ,regency bill in #ahaa1 and he attacked the orders in council and other strong measures of the government taken to counteract ,napoleon's ,berlin decrees4 ,he was in fact in politics a consistent ,whig1 and in that character he denounced the treaty of #ahac with ,sweden which bound ,england to consent to the forcible union of ,norway1 and he resisted the bill of #ahaf for confining ,napoleon in ,st ,helena4 ,his loyalty as a ,whig secured recognition when his party triumphed in the struggle for parliamentary reform1 by his appointment as chancellor of the duchy of ,lancaster in the cabinet of ,lord ,grey and ,lord ,melbourne1 and he was still in office when he died on the #bbnd of ,october #ahdj4 ,lord ,holland is notable1 not for his somewhat insignificant political career1 but as a patron of literature1 as a writer on his own account1 and because his house was the centre and the headquarters of the ,whig political and literary world of the time2 and ,lady ,holland 7who died on the #afth of ,november #ahde7 succeeded in taking the sort of place in ,london which had been filled in ,paris during the #ahth century by the society ladies who kept salons4 ,lord ,holland's ,foreign ,reminiscences 7#ahej7 contain much amusing gossip from the ,revolutionary and ,napoleonic era4 ,his ,memoirs of the ,whig ,party 7#aheb7 is an important contemporary authority4 ,his small work on ,lope de ,vega 7#ahjf7 is still of some value4 ,holland had two legitimate sons1 ,stephen1 who died in #ahjj1 and ,henry ,edward1 who became #dth ,lord ,holland4 ,when this peer died in ,december #ahei the title became extinct4 ,see ,the ,journal of ,elizabeth1 ,lady ,holland1 edited by the earl of ,ilchester 7#aijh72 and ,lloyd ,sanders1 ,the ,holland ,house ,circle 7#aijh74 ,,holland1 ,,josiah ,,gilbert 7#ahai-ahha71 ,american author and editor1 was born in ,belchertown1 ,massachusetts1 on the #bdth of ,july #ahai4 ,he graduated in #ahdc at the ,berkshire ,medical ,college 7no longer in existence7 at ,pittsfield1 ,mass41 and after practising medicine in #ahdd-ahdg1 and making an unsuccessful attempt1 with ,charles ,robinson 7#ahah-ahid71 later first governor of the state of ,kansas1 to establish a hospital for women1 he taught for a brief period in ,richmond1 ,virginia1 and in #ahdh was superintendent of schools in ,vicksburg1 ,mississippi4 ,in #ahdi he became assistant editor under ,samuel ,bowles1 and three years later one of the owners1 of the ,springfield 7,massachusetts7 ,republican1 with which he retained his connexion until #ahfg4 ,he then travelled for some time in ,europe1 and in #ahgj removed to ,new ,york1 where he helped to establish and became editor and one-third owner of ,scribner's ,monthly 7the title of which was changed in #ahha to ,the ,century71 which absorbed the periodicals ,hours at ,home1 ,putnam's ,magazine and the ,riverside ,magazine4 ,he remained editor of this magazine until his death4 ,dr ,holland's books long enjoyed a wide popularity4 ,the earlier ones were published over the pseudonym ,timothy ,titcomb4 ,his writings fall into four classes3 history and biography1 represented by a ,history of ,western ,massachusetts 7#ahee71 and a ,life of ,abraham ,lincoln 7#ahfe72 fiction1 of which ,miss ,gilbert's ,career 7#ahfj7 and ,the ,story of ,sevenoaks 7#ahge7 remain faithful pictures of village life in eastern ,united ,states2 poetry1 of which ,bitter-,sweet 7#aheh7 and ,kathrina1 ,her ,life and ,mine 7#ahfg7 were widely read2 and a series of homely essays on the art of living1 of which the most characteristic were ,letters to ,young ,people1 ,single and ,married 7#aheh71 ,gold ,foil1 hammered from ,popular ,proverbs 7#ahei71 ,letters to the ,jonses 7#ahfc71 and ,every-,day ,topics 7#b series1 #ahgf and #ahhb74 ,while a resident of ,new ,york1 where he died on the #abth of ,october #ahha1 he identified himself with measures for good government and school reform1 and in #ahgb became a member and for a short time in #ahgc was president of the ,board of ,education4 ,see ,mrs ,h4 ,m4 ,plunkett's ,josiah ,gilbert ,holland 7,new ,york1 #ahid74 ,,holland1 ,,philemon 7#aeeb-afcg71 ,english scholar1 the translator-general in his age1 was born at ,chelmsford in ,essex4 ,he was the son of a clergyman1 ,john ,holland1 who had been obliged to take refuge in ,germany and ,denmark with ,miles ,coverdale during the ,marian persecution4 ,having become a fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 and taken the degree of ,m4,a41 he was incorporated at ,oxford 7,july #aath1 #aehe74 ,having subsequently studied medicine1 about #aeie he settled as a doctor in ,coventry1 but chiefly occupied himself with translations4 ,in #afbh he was appointed headmaster of the free school1 but1 owing probably to advancing age1 he held office for only eleven months4 ,his latter days were oppressed by poverty1 partly relieved by the generosity of the common council of ,coventry1 which in #afcb assigned him ,l#c1 #fs4 #h;d4 for three years1 if he should live so long4 ,he died on the #ith of ,february1 #afcf-afcg4 ,his fame is due solely to his translations1 which included ,livy1 ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 ,plutarch's ,morals1 ,suetonius1 ,ammianus ,marcellinus and ,xenophon's ,cyropaedia4 ,he published also an ,english version1 with additions1 of ,camden's ,britannia4 ,his ,latin translation of ,brice ,bauderon's ,pharmacopaea and his ,regimen sanitatis ,salerni were published after his death by his son1 ,,henry ,,holland 7#aehc-8afej71 who became a ,london bookseller1 and is known to bibliographers for his ,baziliomegalogia2 a ,booke of ,kings1 beeing the true and liuely ,effigies of all our ,english ,kings from the ,conquest 7#afah71 and his ,heromegaologia ,anglica 7#afbj74 ,,holland1 ,,richard1 or ,,richard ,,de ,,holande 7fl4 #adej71 ,scottish writer1 author of the ,buke of the ,howlat1 was secretary or chaplain to the earl of ,moray 7#adej7 and rector of ,halkirk1 near ,thurso4 ,he was afterwards rector of ,abbreochy1 ,loch ,ness1 and later held a chantry in the cathedral of ,norway4 ,he was an ardent partisan of the ,douglases1 and on their overthrow retired to ,orkney and later to ,shetland4 ,he was employed by ,edward ,,iv4 in his attempt to rouse the ,western ,isles through ,douglas agency1 and in #adhb was excluded from the general pardon granted by ,james ,,iii4 to those who would renounce their fealty to the ,douglases4 ,the poem1 entitled the ,buke of the ,howlat1 written about #adej1 shows his devotion to the house of ,douglas3-- ,on ilk beugh till embrace ,writtin in a bill was ,o ,dowglass1 ,o ,dowglass ,tender and trewe6 7ii4 #djj-djc74 and is dedicated to the wife of a ,douglas-- ,thus for ane ,dow of ,dunbar drew ,i this ,dyte1 ,dowit with ane ,dowglass1 and boith war thei dowis4 but all theories of its being a political allegory in favour of that house may be discarded4 ,sir ,walter ,scott's judgment that the ,buke is a poetical apologue 444 without any view whatever to local or natural politics is certainly the most reasonable4 ,the poem1 which extends to #ajja lines written in the irregular alliterative rhymed stanza1 is a bird-allegory1 of the type familiar in the ,parlement of ,foules4 ,it has the incidental interest of showing 7especially in stanzas #fb and #fc7 the antipathy of the ,inglis-speaking ,scot to the ,scots-speaking ,gael of the west1 as is also shown in ,dunbar's ,flyting with ,kennedy4 ,the text of the poem is preserved in the ,asloan and ,bannatyne ,,mss4 ,fragments of an early #afth century black-letter edition1 discovered by ,d4 ,laing1 are reproduced in the ,adversaria of the ,bannatyne ,club4 ,the poem has been frequently reprinted1 by ,pinkerton1 in his ,scottish ,poems 7#agib72 by ,d4 ,laing 7,bannatyne ,club #ahbc2 reprinted in ,new ,club series1 ,paisley1 #ahhb72 by the ,hunterian ,club in their edition of the ,bannatyne ,,ms41 and by ,a4 ,diebler 7,chemnitz1 #ahic74 ,the latest edition is that by ,f4 ,j4 ,amours in ,scottish ,alliterative ,poems 7,scottish ,text ,society1 #ahig71 pp4 #dg-ha4 7,see also ,introduction pp4 xx4-xxxiv47 ,,holland1 officially the kingdom of the ,netherlands 7,koningrijk der ,nederlanden71 a maritime country in the north-west of ,europe4 ,the name ,holland is that of the former countship1 which forms part of the political1 as well as the geographical centre of the kingdom 7see the next article74 ,topography4--,holland is bounded on the ,e4 by ,germany1 on the ,s4 by ,belgium1 on the ,w4 and ,n4 by the ,north ,sea1 and at the ,n4,e4 corner by the ,dollart4 ,from ,stevensweert southward to the extreme corner of ,limburg the boundary line is formed by the river ,maas or ,meuse4#a ,on the east a natural geographical boundary was formed by the long line of marshy fens extending along the borders of ,overysel1 ,drente and ,groningen4 ,the kingdom extends from #ec deg4 #cb' #ba 7,groningen ,cape on ,rottum ,island7 to #ej deg4 #de' #di ,n4 7,mesch in the province of ,limburg71 and from #c deg4 #bc' #bg 7,sluis in the province of ,zeeland7 to #g deg4 #ab' #bj ,e4 7,langakkerschans in the province of ,groningen74 ,the greatest length from north to south1 viz4 that from ,rottum ,island to ,eisden near ,maastricht is #afd m41 and the greatest breadth from south-west to north-east1 or from ,zwin near ,sluis to ,losser in ,overysel1 #add m4 ,the area is subject to perpetual variation owing1 on the one hand1 to the erosion of the coasts1 and1 on the other1 to reclamation of land by means of endiking and drainage operations4 ,in #ahhi the total area was calculated at #ab1eeh sq4 m41 and1 including the ,zuider ,zee and the ,wadden 7#bjej sq4 m47 and the ,dutch portion of the ,dollart 7#bc sq4 m471 #ad1fac sq4 m4 ,in no country in ,europe has the character of the territory exercised so great an influence on the inhabitants as in the ,netherlands2 and1 on the other hand1 no people has so extensively modified the condition of its territory as the ,dutch4 ,the greatest importance attaches therefore to the physical conformation of the country4 ,coast4 ,the coast-line extends in a double curve from south-west to north-east1 and is formed by a row of sand dunes1 #aga m4 in length1 fringed by a broad sandy beach descending very gradually into the sea4 ,in the north and south1 however1 this line is broken by the inlets of the sea which form the ,frisian and the ,south ,holland and ,zeeland islands respectively2 but the dunes themselves are found continued along the seaward side of these islands1 thus indicating the original continuity of the coast-line4 ,the breadth of the dunes naturally varies greatly1 the maximum width of about #dcge yds4 being found at ,schoorl1 north-west of ,alkmaar4 ,the average height of the individual dune-tops is not above #cc ft41 but attains a maximum of #aig ft4 at the ,high ,blinkert1 near ,haarlem4 ,the steepness of the dunes on the side towards the sea is caused by the continual erosion1 probably traceable1 in part at least1 to the channel current 7which at mean tide has a velocity of #ad or #ae in4 per second71 and to the strong west or north-west winds which carry off large quantities of material4 ,this alteration of coast-line appears at ,loosduinen1 where the moor or fenland formerly developed behind the dunes now crops out on the shore amid the sand1 being pressed to the compactness of lignite by the weight of the sand drifted over it4 ,again1 the remains of the ,roman camp ,brittenburg or ,huis te ,britten1 which originally lay within the dunes and1 after being covered by them1 emerged again in #aebj1 were1 in #afid1 #afjj paces out to sea1 opposite ,katwijk2 while1 besides ,katwijk itself1 several other villages of the west coast1 as ,domburg1 ,scheveningen1 ,egmond1 have been removed further inland4 ,the tendency of the dunes to drift off on the landward side is prevented by the planting of bent-grass 7,arundo arenaria71 whose long roots serve to bind the sand together4 ,it must be further remarked that both the dune-pans1 or depressions1 which are naturally marshy through their defective drainage1 and the geest grounds--that is1 the grounds along the foot of the downs--have been in various places either planted with wood or turned into arable and pasture land2 while the numerous springs at the base of the dunes are of the utmost value to the great cities situated on the marshy soil inland1 the example set by ,amsterdam in #ahec in supplying itself with this water having been readily followed by ,leiden1 the ,hague1 ,flushing1 c4 ,as already remarked1 the coast-line of ,holland breaks up into a series of islands at its northern and southern extremities4 ,the principal sea-inlets in the north are the ,texel ,gat or ,marsdiep and the ,vlie1 which lead past the chain of the ,frisian ,islands into the large inland sea or gulf called the ,zuider ,zee1 and the ,wadden or shallows1 which extend along the shores of ,friesland and ,groningen as far as the ,dollart and the mouth of the ,ems4 ,the inland sea-board thus formed consists of low coasts of sea-clay protected by dikes1 and of some high diluvial strata which rise far enough above the level of the sea to make dikes unnecessary1 as in the case of the ,gooi hills between ,naarden and the ,eem1 the ,veluwe hills between ,nykerk and ,elburg1 and the steep cliffs of the ,gaasterland between ,oude ,mirdum and ,stavoren4 ,the ,dollart was formed in #abgg by the inundation of the ,ems basin1 more than thirty villages being destroyed at once4 ,the ,zuider ,zee and the bay in the ,frisian coast known as the ,lauwers ,zee also gradually came into existence in the #acth century4 ,the extensive sea-arms forming the ,south ,holland and ,zeeland archipelago are the ,hont or ,west ,scheldt1 the ,east ,scheldt1 the ,grevelingen 7communicating with ,krammer and the ,volkerak7 and the ,haringvliet1 which after being joined by the ,volkerak is known as the ,hollandsch ,diep4 ,these inlets were formerly of much greater extent than now1 but are gradually closing up owing to the accumulation of mud deposits1 and no longer have the same freedom of communication with one another4 ,at the head of the ,hollandsch ,diep is the celebrated railway bridge of the ,moerdyk 7#ahfh-ahga7 #afjg yds4 in length2 and above this bridge lies the ,biesbosch 7reed forest71 a group of marshy islands formed by a disastrous inundation in #adba1 when seventy-two villages and upwards of #ajj1jjj lives were destroyed4 ,relief and levels4 ,besides the dunes the only hilly regions of ,holland are the southern half of the province of ,limburg1 the neighbourhood of ,nijmwegen1 the hills of ,utrecht1 including the ,gooi hills1 the ,veluwe region in ,gelderland1 the isolated hills in the middle and east of ,overysel and the ,hondsrug range in ,drente4 ,the remainder of the country is flat1 and shows a regular downward slope from south-east to north-west1 in which direction the rivers mainly flow4 ,the elevation of the surface of the country ranges between the extreme height of #ajeg ft4 near ,vaals in the farthest corner of ,limburg1 and #af-bj ft4 below the ,amsterdam zero#b in some of the drained lands in the western half of the country4 ,in fact1 one quarter of the whole kingdom1 consisting of the provinces of ,north and ,south ,holland1 the western portion of ,utrecht as far as the ,vaart ,rhine1 ,zeeland1 except the southern part of ,zeeland-,flanders1 and the north-west part of ,north ,brabant1 lies below the ,amsterdam zero2 and altogether #ch of the country1 or all that part lying west of a line drawn through ,groningen1 ,utrecht and ,antwerp1 lies within one metre above the ,amsterdam zero and would be submerged if the sea broke down the barrier of dunes and dikes4 ,this difference between the eastern and western divisions of ,holland has its counterpart in the landscape and the nature of the soil4 ,the western division consists of low fen or clay soil and presents a monotonous expanse of rich meadow-land1 carefully drained in regular lines of canals bordered by stunted willows1 and dotted over with windmills1 the sails of canal craft and the clumps of elm and poplar which surround each isolated farm-house4 ,the landscape of the eastern division is considered less typical4 ,here the soil consists mainly of sand and gravel1 and the prevailing scenery is formed of waste heaths and patches of wood1 while here and there fertile meadows extend along the banks of the streams1 and the land is laid out in the highly regular manner characteristic of fen reclamation 7see ,,drente74 ,rivers4 ,the entire drainage of ,holland is into the ,north ,sea4 ,the three principal rivers are the ,rhine1 the ,maas 7,meuse7 and the ,scheldt 7,schelde71 and all three have their origin outside the country1 whilst the ,scheldt has its mouth only in ,holland1 giving its name to the two broad inlets of the sea which bound the ,zeeland islands4 ,the ,rhine in its course through ,holland is merely the parent stream of several important branches1 splitting up into ,rhine and ,waal1 ,rhine and ,ysel1 ,crooked ,rhine and ,lek 7which takes two-thirds of the waters71 and at ,utrecht into ,old ,rhine and ,vecht1 finally reaching the sea through the sluices at ,katwijk as little more than a drainage canal4 ,the ,ysel and the ,vecht flow to the ,zuider ,zee2 the other branches to the ,north ,sea4 ,the ,maas1 whose course is almost parallel to that of the ,rhine1 follows in a wide curve the general slope of the country1 receiving the ,roer1 the ,mark and the ,aa4 ,towards its mouth its waters find their way into all the channels intersecting the ,south ,holland archipelago4 ,the main stream joining the ,waal at ,gorinchem flows on to ,dordrecht as the ,merwede1 and is continued thence to the sea by the ,old ,maas1 the ,north1 and the ,new ,maas1 the ,new ,maas being formed by the junction of the ,lek and the ,north4 ,from ,gorinchem the ,new ,merwede 7constructed in the second half of the #aith century7 extends between dykes through the marshes of the ,biesbosch to the ,hollandsch ,diep4 ,these great rivers render very important service as waterways4 ,the mean velocity of their flow seldom exceeds #d4i ft41 but rises to #f4d ft4 when the river is high4 ,in the lower reaches of the streams the velocity and slope are of course affected by the tides4 ,in the ,waal ordinary high water is perceptible as far up as ,zalt ,bommel in ,gelderland1 in the ,lek the maximum limits or ordinary and spring tides are at ,vianen and ,kuilenburg respectively1 in the ,ysel above the ,katerveer at the junction of the ,willemsvaart and past ,wyhe midway between ,zwolle and ,deventer2 and in the ,maas near ,heusden and at ,well in ,limburg4 ,into the ,zuider ,zee there also flow the ,kuinder1 the ,zwarte ,water1 with its tributary the ,vecht1 and the ,eem4 ,the total length of navigable channels is about #aaej m41 but sand banks and shallows not infrequently impede the shipping traffic at low water during the summer4 ,the smaller streams are often of great importance4 ,except where they rise in the fens they call into life a strip of fertile grassland in the midst of the barren sand1 and are responsible for the existence of many villages along their banks4 ,following the example of the great ,kampen irrigation canal in ,belgium1 artificial irrigation is also practised by means of some of the smaller streams1 especially in ,north ,brabant1 ,drente and ,overysel1 and in the absence of streams1 canals and sluices are sometimes specially constructed to perform the same service4 ,the low-lying spaces at the confluences of the rivers1 being readily laid under water1 have been not infrequently chosen as sites for fortresses4 ,as a matter of course1 the streams are also turned to account in connexion with the canal system--the ,dommel1 ,berkel1 ,vecht1 ,regge1 ,holland ,ysel1 ,gouwe1 ,rotte1 ,schie1 ,spaarne1 ,zaan1 ,amstel1 ,dieze1 ,amer1 ,mark1 ,zwarte ,water1 ,kuinder and the numerous ,aas in ,drente and ,groningen being the most important in this respect4 ,lakes4 ,it is unnecessary to mention the names of the numerous marshy lakes which exist1 especially in ,friesland and ,groningen1 and are connected with rivers or streamlets4 ,those of ,friesland are of note for the abundance of their fish and their beauty of situation1 on which last account the ,uddelermeer in ,gelderland is also celebrated4 ,the ,rockanje ,lake near ,brielle is remarkable for the strong salty solution which covers even the growing reeds with a hard crust4 ,many of the lakes are nothing more than deep pits or marshes from which the peat has been extracted4 ,illustration3 ,holland ,map4 ,dikes4--,the circumstance that so much of ,holland is below the sea-level necessarily exercises a very important influence on the drainage1 the climate and the sanitary conditions of the country1 as well as on its defence by means of inundation4 ,the endiking of low lands against the sea which had been quietly proceeding during the first eleven centuries of the ,christian era1 received a fresh impetus in the #abth and #acth centuries from the fact that the level of the sea then became higher in relation to that of the land4 ,this fact is illustrated by the broadening of river mouths and estuaries at this time1 and the beginning of the formation of the ,zuider ,zee4 ,a new feature in diking was the construction of dams or sluices across the mouths of rivers1 sometimes with important consequences for the villages situated on the spot4 ,thus the dam on the ,amstel 7#abeg7 was the origin of ,amsterdam1 and the dam on the ,ye gave rise to ,edam4 ,but ,holland's chief protection against inundation is its long line of sand dunes1 in which only two real breaches have been effected during the centuries of erosion4 ,these are represented by the famous sea dikes called the ,westkapelle dike and the ,hondsbossche ,zeewering1 or sea-defence1 which were begun respectively in the first and second halves of the #aeth century4 ,the first extends for a distance of over #djjj yds4 between the villages of ,westkapelle and ,domburg in the island of ,walcheren2 the second is about #dijj yds4 long1 and extends from ,kamperduin to near ,petten1 whence it is continued for another #aajj yds4 by the ,pettemer dike4 ,these two sea dikes were reconstructed by the state at great expense between the year #ahfj and #ahhd1 having consisted before that time of little more than a protected sand dike4 ,the earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and by piles1 and at the more dangerous points also by zinkstukken 7sinking pieces71 artificial structures of brushwood laden with stones1 and measuring some #djj yds4 in circuit1 by means of which the current is to some extent turned aside4 ,the ,westkapelle dike1 #ab1dfh ft4 long1 has a seaward slope of #cjj ft41 and is protected by rows of piles and basalt blocks4 ,on its ridge1 #ci ft4 broad1 there is not only a roadway but a service railway4 ,the cost of its upkeep is more than ,l#fjjj a year1 and of the ,hondsbossche ,zeewering ,l#bjjj a year4 ,when it is remembered that the woodwork is infested by the pile worm 7,teredo navalis71 the ravages of which were discovered in #agca1 the labour and expense incurred in the construction and maintenance of the sea dikes now existing may be imagined4 ,in other parts of the coast the dunes1 though not pierced through1 have become so wasted by erosion as to require artificial strengthening4 ,this is afforded1 either by means of a so-called sleeping dike 7slaperdyk7 behind the weak spot1 as1 for instance1 between ,kadzand and ,breskens in ,zeeland-,flanders1 and again between 's ,gravenzande and ,loosduinen2 or by means of piers or breakwaters 7hoofden1 heads7 projecting at intervals into the sea and composed of piles1 or brushwood and stones4 ,the first of such breakwaters was that constructed in #aheg at the north end of the island of ,goeree1 and extends over #ajj yds4 into the sea at low water4 ,similar constructions are to be found on the seaward side of the islands of ,walcheren1 ,schouwen and ,voorne1 and between 's ,gravenzande and ,scheveningen1 and ,katwijk and ,noordwijk4 ,owing to the obstruction which they offer to drifting sands1 artificial dunes are in course of time formed about them1 and in this way they become at once more effective and less costly to maintain4 ,the firm and regular dunes which now run from ,petten to ,kallantsoog 7formerly an island71 and thence northwards to ,huisduinen1 were thus formed about the ,zyper 7#afag7 and ,koegras 7#afaj7 dikes respectively4 ,from ,huisduinen to ,nieuwediep the dunes are replaced by the famous ,helder sea-wall4 ,the shores of the ,zuider ,zee and the ,wadden1 and the ,frisian and ,zuider ,zee islands1 are also partially protected by dikes4 ,in more than one quarter the dikes have been repeatedly extended so as to enclose land conquered from the sea1 the work of reclamation being aided by a natural process4 ,layer upon layer of clay is deposited by the sea in front of the dikes1 until a new fringe has been added to the coast-line on which sea-grasses grasses begin to grow4 ,upon these clay-lands 7kwelders7 horses1 cattle and sheep are at last able to pasture at low tide1 and in course of time they are in turn endiked4 ,river dikes are as necessary as sea dikes1 elevated banks being found only in a few places1 as on the ,lower ,rhine4 ,owing to the unsuitability of the foundations1 ,dutch dikes are usually marked by a great width1 which at the crown varies between #ac and #bf ft4 ,the height of the dike ranges to #dj in4 above high water-level4 ,between the dikes and the stream lie forelands 7interwaarden71 which are usually submerged in winter1 and frequently lie #a or #b yds1 higher than the country within the dikes4 ,these forelands also offer in course of time an opportunity for endiking and reclamation4 ,in this way the towns of ,rotterdam1 ,schiedam1 ,vlaardingen and ,maasluis have all gradually extended over the ,maas dike in order to keep in touch with the river1 and the small town of ,delftshaven is built altogether on the outer side of the same dike4 ,impoldering4--,the first step in the reclamation of land is to impolder it1 or convert it into a polder 7i4e4 a section of artificially drained land71 by surrounding it with dikes or quays for the two-fold purpose of protecting it from all further inundation from outside and of controlling the amount of water inside4 ,impoldering for its own sake or on a large scale was impossible as long as the means of drainage were restricted4 ,but in the beginning of the #aeth century new possibilities were revealed by the adaptation of the windmill to the purpose of pumping water4 ,it was gradually recognized that the masses of water which collected wherever peat-digging had been carried on were an unnecessary menace to the neighbouring lands1 and also that a more enduring source of profit lay in the bed of the fertile sea-clay under the peat4 ,it became usual1 therefore1 to make the subsequent drainage of the land a condition of the extraction of peat from it1 this condition being established by proclamation in #aeie4 ,drainage4--,it has been shown that the western provinces of ,holland may be broadly defined as lying below sea-level4 ,in fact the surface of the sea-clay in these provinces is from #aa7a_/b7 to #af7a_/b7 ft4 below the ,amsterdam zero4 ,the ground-water is1 therefore1 relatively very high and the capacity of the soil for further absorption proportionately low4 ,to increase the reservoir capacity of the polder1 as well as to conduct the water to the windmills or engines1 it is intersected by a network of ditches cut at right angles to each other1 the amount of ditching required being usually one-twelfth of the area to be drained4 ,in modern times pumping engines have replaced windmills1 and the typical old ,dutch landscape with its countless hooded heads and swinging arms has been greatly transformed by the advent of the chimney stacks of the pumping-stations4 ,the power of the pumping-engines is taken on the basis of #ab h4p4 per #ajjj hectares for every metre that the water has to be raised1 or stated in another form1 the engines must be capable of raising nearly #i lb4 of water through #a yd4 per acre per minute4 ,the main ditches1 or canals1 afterwards also serve as a means of navigation4 ,the level at which it is desired to keep the water in these ditches constitutes the unit of water measurement for the polder1 and is called the polder's zomer peil 7,z4,p47 or summer water-level4 ,in pasture-polders 7koepolders7 ,z4,p4 is #a to #a7a_/b7 ft4 below the level of the polder1 and in agricultural polders #b7a_/b7 to #c7a_/b7 ft4 below4 ,owing to the shrinkage of the soil in reclaimed lands1 however1 that is1 lands which have been drained after fen or other reclamation1 the sides of the polder are often higher than the middle1 and it is necessary by means of small dams or sluices to make separate water-tight compartments 7afpolderingen71 each having its own unit of measurement4 ,some polders also have a winter peil as a precaution against the increased fall of water in that season4 ,the summer water-level of the pasture polders south of the former ,y is about #d to #h ft4 below the ,amsterdam zero1 but in the ,noorderkwartier to the north1 it reaches #aj7a_/b7 ft4 below ,a4 ,p4 in the ,beschotel polder1 and in reclaimed lands 7droogmakerijen7 may be still lower1 thus in the ,reeuwyk polder north of ,gouda it is #ba7a_/d7 ft4 below4 ,the drainage of the country is effected by natural or artificial means1 according to the slope of the ground4 ,nearly all the polders of ,zeeland and ,south ,holland are able to discharge naturally into the sea at average low water1 self-regulating sluices being used4 ,but in ,north ,holland and ,utrecht on the contrary the polder water has generally to be raised4 ,in some deep polders and drained lands where the water cannot be brought to the required height at once1 windmills are found at two or even three different levels4 ,the final removal of polder water1 however1 is only truly effected upon its discharge into the outer waters of the country1 that is1 the sea itself or the large rivers freely communicating with it2 and this happens with but a small proportion of ,dutch polders1 such as those of ,zeeland1 the ,holland ,ysel and the ,noorderkwartier4 ,as the system of impoldering extended1 the small sluggish rivers were gradually cut off by dikes from the marshy lands through which they flowed1 and by sluices from the waters with which they communicated4 ,their level ranges from about #a7a_/b7 to #d ft4 above that of the pasture polders4 ,in addition1 various kinds of canals and endiked or embanked lakes had come into existence1 forming altogether a vast network of more or less stagnant waters4 ,these waters are utilized as the temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder water1 each system of reservoirs being termed a boezem 7bosom or basin71 and all lands watering into the same boezem being considered as belonging to it4 ,the largest boezem is that of ,friesland1 which embraces nearly the whole province4 ,it sometimes happens that a polder is not in direct contact with the boezem to which it belongs1 but first drains into an adjacent polder1 from which the water is afterwards removed4 ,in the same way1 some boezems discharge first into others1 which then discharge into the sea or rivers4 ,this is usually the case where there is a great difference in height between the surface of the boezem and the outer waters1 and may be illustrated by the ,alblasserwaard and the ,rotte boezems in the provinces of ,south and ,north ,holland respectively4 ,in time of drought the water in the canals and boezems is allowed to run back into the polders1 and so serve a double purpose as water-reservoirs4 ,boezems1 like polders1 have a standard water-level which may hot be exceeded1 and as in the polder this level may vary in the different parts of an extended boezem4 ,the height of the boezem peil ranges between #a7a_/c7 ft4 above to #a7e_/f7 ft4 below the ,amsterdam zero1 though the average is about #a to #a7b_/c7 ft4 below4 ,some boezems1 again1 which are less easily controlled1 have a danger water-level at which they refuse to receive any more water from the surrounding polders4 ,the ,schie or ,delflands boezem of ,south ,holland is of this kind1 and such a boezem is termed besloten or sequestered1 in contradistinction to a free boezem4 ,a third kind of boezem is the reserve or berg-boezem1 which in summer may be made dry and used for agriculture1 while in winter it serves as a special reserve4 ,the centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclamation are better imagined than described1 and even at the present day the evidences of the struggle are far less apparent than real4 ,geology4--,except in ,limburg1 where1 in the neighbourhood of ,maastricht1 the upper layers of the chalk are exposed and followed by ,oligocene and ,miocene beds1 the whole of ,holland is covered by recent deposits of considerable thickness1 beneath which deep borings have revealed the existence of ,pliocene beds similar to the ,crags of ,east ,anglia4 ,they are divided into the ,diestien1 corresponding in part with the ,english ,coralline ,crag1 the ,scaldisien and ,poederlien corresponding with the ,walton ,crag1 and the ,amstelien corresponding with the ,red ,crag of ,suffolk4 ,in the south of ,holland the total thickness of the ,pliocene series is only about #bjj ft41 and they are covered by about #ajj ft4 of ,quaternary deposits2 but towards the north the beds sink down and at the same time increase considerably in thickness1 so that at ,utrecht a deep boring reached the top of the ,pliocene at a depth of #eac ft4 and at #aaih ft4 it had not touched the bottom4 ,at ,amsterdam the top of the ,pliocene lay #fbe ft4 below the surface1 but the boring1 #ajih ft4 deep1 did not reach the base of the uppermost division of the ,pliocene1 viz4 the ,amstelien4 ,eastward and westward of ,amsterdam1 as well as southward1 the ,pliocene beds rise slowly to the surface1 and gradually decrease in thickness4 ,they were laid down in a broad bay which covered the east of ,england and nearly the whole of the ,netherlands1 and was open to the ,north ,sea4 ,there is evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the deposition of these beds1 until at length the ,rhine flowed over to ,england and entered the sea north of ,cromer4 ,the appearance of northern shells in the upper divisions of the ,pliocene series indicates the approach of the ,glacial period1 and glacial drift containing ,scandinavian boulders now covers much of the country east of the ,zuider ,zee4 ,the more modern deposits of ,holland consist of alluvium1 wind-blown sands and peat4#c ,climate4--,situated in the temperate zone between #ej deg4 and #ec deg4 ,n4 the climate of ,holland shows a difference in the lengths of day and night extending in the north to nine hours1 and there is a correspondingly wide range of temperature2 it also belongs to the region of variable winds4 ,on an average of fifty years the mean annual temperature was #di4h deg4 ,fahr42 the maximum1 #ic4i deg4 ,fahr42 the minimum1 -#e4h deg4 ,fahr4 ,the mean annual barometric height is #bi4ic in42 the mean annual moisture1 #ha2 the mean annual rainfall1 #bg4ii in4 ,the mean annual number of days with rain is #bjd1 with snow #ai1 and with thunder-storms #ah4 ,the increased rainfall from ,july to ,december 7the summer and autumn rains71 and the increased evaporation in spring and summer 7#e4b in4 more than the rainfall71 are of importance as regards poldering and draining operations4 ,the prevalence of south-west winds during nine months of the year and of north-west during three 7,april-,june7 has a strong influence on the temperature and rainfall1 tides1 river mouths and outlets1 and also1 geologically1 on dunes and sand drifts1 and on fens and the accumulation of clay on the coast4 ,the west winds of course increase the moisture1 and moderate both the winter cold and the summer heat1 while the east winds blowing over the continent have an opposite influence4 ,it cannot be said that the climate is particularly good1 owing to the changeableness of the weather1 which may alter completely within a single day4 ,the heavy atmosphere likewise1 and the necessity of living within doors or in confined localities1 cannot but exercise an influence on the character and temperament of the inhabitants4 ,only of certain districts1 however1 can it be said that they are positively unhealthy2 to this category belong some parts of the ,holland provinces1 ,zeeland1 and ,friesland1 where the inhabitants are exposed to the exhalations from the marshy ground1 and the atmosphere is often burdened with sea-fogs4 ,fauna4--,in the densely populated ,netherlands1 with no extensive forests1 the fauna does not present any unusual varieties4 ,the otter1 martin and badger may be mentioned among the rarer wild animals1 and the weasel1 ermine and pole-cat among the more common4 ,in the #ahth century wolves still roamed the country in such large numbers that hunting parties were organized against them2 now they are unknown4 ,roebuck and deer are found in a wild state in ,gelderland and ,overysel1 foxes are plentiful in the dry wooded regions on the borders of the country1 and hares and rabbits in the dunes and other sandy stretches4 ,among birds may be reckoned about two hundred and forty different kinds which are regular inhabitants1 although nearly two hundred of these are migratory4 ,the woodcock1 partridge1 hawk1 water-ousel1 magpie1 jay1 raven1 various kinds of owls1 wood-pigeon1 golden-crested wren1 tufted lark and titmouse are among the birds which breed here4 ,birds of passage include the buzzard1 kite1 quail1 wild fowl of various kinds1 golden thrush1 wagtail1 linnet1 finch and nightingale4 ,storks are plentiful in summer and might almost be considered the most characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape4 ,flora4--,the flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four physiographical divisions to which it belongs4 ,these are1 namely1 the heath-lands1 pasture-lands1 dunes and coasts4 ,heath 7,erica tetralix7 and ling 7,calluna vulgaris7 cover all the waste sandy regions in the eastern division of the country4 ,the vegetation of the meadow-lands is monotonous4 ,in the more damp and marshy places the bottom is covered with marsh trefoil1 carex1 smooth equisetum1 and rush4 ,in the ditches and pools common yellow and white water-lilies are seen1 as well as water-soldier 7,stratiotes aloides71 great and lesser reed-mace1 sweet flag and bur-reed4 ,the plant forms of the dunes are stunted and meagre as compared with the same forms elsewhere4 ,the most common plant here is the stiff sand-reed 7,arundo arenaria71 called sand-oats in ,drente and ,overysel1 where it is much used for making mats4 ,like the sand-reed1 the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the buckthorn 7,hippophae rhamnoides7 perform a useful service in helping to bind the sand together4 ,furze and the common juniper are regular dune plants1 and may also be found on the heaths of ,drente1 ,overysel and ,gelderland4 ,thyme and the small white dune-rose 7,rosa pimpinellifolia7 also grow in the dunes1 and wall-pepper 7,sedum acre71 field fever-wort1 reindeer moss1 common asparagus1 sheep's fescue grass1 the pretty ,solomon-seal 7,polygonatum officinale71 and the broad-leaved or marsh orchis 7,orchis latifolia74 ,the sea-plants which flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly assist the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated in places4 ,sea-aster flourishes in the ,wadden of ,friesland and ,groningen1 the ,dollart and the ,zeeland estuaries1 giving place nearer the shore to sandspurry 7,spergularia71 or sea-poa or floating meadow grass 7,glyceria maritima71 which grows up to the dikes1 and affords pasture for cattle and sheep4 ,along the coast of ,overysel and in the ,biesbosch lake club-rush1 or scirpus1 is planted in considerable quantities for the hat-making industry1 and common sea-wrack 7,zostera marina7 is found in large patches in the northern half of the ,zuider ,zee1 where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of ,june1 ,july and ,august4 ,except for the willow-plots found along the rivers on the clay lands1 nearly all the wood is confined to the sand and gravel soils1 where copses of birch and alder are common4 ,population4--,the following table shows the area and population in the eleven provinces of the ,netherlands3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,area in,population ,population ,density per ,province sq4 m4 #ahij4 #aijj4 sq4 m4 in #aijj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,north ,brabant #a1ihj #eji1fbh #eec1hdb #bhj ,gelderland #a1ife #eab1bjb #eff1edi #bhh ,south ,holland #a1aff #idi1fda #a1add1ddh #iha ,north ,holland #a1jgj #hbi1dhi #ifh1aca #ije ,zeeland #fij #aii1bcd #baf1bie #cac ,utrecht #ecd #bba1jjg #bea1jcd #dgj ,friesland #a1bhb #cce1eeh #cdj1bfb #bfe ,overysel #a1bia #bie1dde #ccc1cch #beh ,groningen #gij #bgb1ghf #bii1fjb #cgi ,drente #a1jcj #acj1gjd #adh1edd #add ,limburg #hej #bee1gba #bha1icd #ccb ---------------------------------------- ,total #ab1fdh #d1eaa1dae #e1ajd1acg99 #djd ---------------------------------------- -------------- 99 ,this total includes #aeh persons assigned to no province4 ,the extremes of density of population are found in the provinces of ,north ,holland and ,south ,holland on the one hand1 and ,drente on the other4 ,this divergence is partly explained by the difference of soil--which in ,drente comprises the maximum of waste lands1 and in ,south ,holland the minimum--and partly also by the greater facilities which the seaward provinces enjoy of earning a subsistence1 and the greater variety of their industries4 ,the largest towns are ,amsterdam1 ,rotterdam1 the ,hague1 ,utrecht1 ,groningen1 ,haarlem1 ,arnhem1 ,leiden1 ,nijmwegen1 ,tilburg4 ,other considerable towns are ,dordrecht1 ,maastricht1 ,leeuwarden1 ,zwolle1 ,delft1 's ,hertogenbosch1 ,schiedam1 ,deventer1 ,breda1 ,apeldoorn1 ,helder1 ,enschede1 ,gouda1 ,zaandam1 ,kampen1 ,hilversum1 ,flushing1 ,amersfoort1 ,middelburg1 ,zutphen and ,alkmaar4 ,many of the smaller towns1 such as ,assen1 ,enschede1 ,helmond1 ,hengelo1 ,tiel1 ,venlo1 ,vlaardingen1 ,zaandam1 ,yerseke1 show a great development1 and it is a noteworthy fact that the rural districts1 taken as a whole1 have borne an equal share in the general increase of population4 ,this1 taken in conjunction with the advance in trade and shipping1 the diminution in emigration1 and the prosperity of the savings banks1 points to a favourable state in the condition of the people4 ,roads4 ,communications4--,the roads are divided into national or royal roads1 placed directly under the control of the water-staat and supported by the state2 provincial roads1 under the direct control of the states of the provinces1 and almost all supported by the provincial treasuries2 communal and polder roads1 maintained by the communal authorities and the polder boards2 and finally1 private roads4 ,the system of national roads1 mainly constructed between #ahba and #ahbg1 but still in process of extension1 brings into connexion nearly all the towns4 ,canals4 ,the canal system of ,holland is peculiarly complete and extends into every part of the country1 giving to many inland towns almost a maritime appearance4 ,the united length of the canals exceeds #aejj m4 ,as a matter of course the smaller streams have been largely utilized in their formation1 while the necessity for a comprehensive drainage system has also contributed in no small degree4 ,during the years #ahae-ahcj a large part of the extensive scheme of construction inaugurated by ,king ,william ,i4 was carried out1 the following canals1 among others1 coming into existence in that period3 the ,north ,holland ship canal 7depth1 #af7a_/b7 ft47 from ,amsterdam to den ,helder1 the ,grift canal between ,apeldoorn and ,hattem1 the ,willemsvaart connecting ,zwolle with the ,ysel1 the ,zuid ,willemsvaart1 or ,south ,william's canal 7#f7a_/b7 ft471 from 's ,hertogenbosch to ,maastricht1 and the ,ternuzen-,ghent ship canal4 ,after #ahdi the canal programme was again taken up by the state1 which alone or in conjunction with the provincial authorities constructed the ,apeldoorn-,dieren canal 7#ahei-ahfi71 the drainage canals of the ,peel marsh in ,north ,brabant1 and of the eastern provinces1 namely1 the ,deurne canal 7#ahgf-ahib7 from the ,maas to ,helenaveen1 the ,almelo 7#ahea-aheh7 and ,overysel 7#ahhd-ahhh7 canals from ,zwolle1 ,deventer and ,almelo to ,koevorden1 and the ,stieltjes 7#ahhj-ahhd71 and ,orange 7#ahec-aheh and #ahha-ahhi7 canals in ,drente1 the ,north ,williams canal 7#ahef-ahfb7 between ,assen and ,groningen1 the ,ems 7#ahff-ahgf7 ship canal from ,groningen to ,delfzyl1 and the ,new ,merwede1 and enlarged the canal from ,harlingen by way of ,leeuwarden to the ,lauwars ,zee4 ,the large ship canals to ,rotterdam and ,amsterdam1 called the ,new ,waterway and the ,north ,sea canal respectively1 were constructed in #ahff-ahgb and #ahfe-ahgf at a cost of #b7a_/b7 and #c million pounds sterling1 the former by widening the channel of the ,scheur north of ,rozenburg1 and cutting across the ,hook of ,holland1 the latter by utilizing the bed of the ,y and cutting through the dunes at ,ymuiden4 ,in #ahgf an agreement was arrived at with ,germany for connecting the important drainage canals in ,overysel1 ,drente and ,groningen with the ,ems canal system1 as a result of which the ,almelo-,noordhorn 7#ahhd-ahhh7 and other canals came into existence4 ,the canals differ in character in the different provinces4 ,in ,zeeland they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the river mouths2 for example1 the one from ,middelburg to ,veere and ,flushing 7#ahff-ahgh71 from ,goes to the ,east ,scheldt1 and from ,zierikzee also to the ,east ,scheldt4 ,the ,south ,beveland 7#ahfb-ahff7 canal connects the ,east and ,west ,scheldt2 similarly in ,south ,holland the ,voorne canal unites the ,haringvliet with the ,new ,maas1 which does not allow the passage of large vessels above ,brielle2 whilst owing lo the banks and shallows in front of ,hellevoetsluis the ,new ,waterway was cut to ,rotterdam4 ,of another character is the ,zederik canal1 which unites the principal river of central ,holland1 the ,lek1 at ,vianen by means of the ,linge with the ,merwede at ,gorkum4 ,amsterdam is connected with the ,lek and the ,zederik canal via ,utrecht by the ,vecht and the ,vaart ,rhine 7#ahha-ahic2 depth #aj4b ft474 ,again1 a totally different character belongs to the canals in ,north ,brabant1 and the east and north-east of ,holland where1 in the absence of great rivers1 they form the only waterways which render possible the drainage of the fens and the export of peat2 and unite the lesser streams with each other4 ,thus in ,overysel1 in addition to the canals already mentioned1 the ,dedemsvaart connects the ,vecht with the ,zwarte ,water near ,hasselt2 in ,drente the ,smildervaart and ,drentsche ,hoofdvaart unites ,assen with ,meppel1 and receives on the eastern side the drainage canals of the ,drente fens1 namely1 the ,orange canal and the ,hoogeveen ,vaart 7#ahej-ahfj2 #ahhj-ahic74 ,groningen communicates with the ,lauwers ,zee by the ,reitdiep 7#ahgc-ahgf71 while the canal to ,winschoten and the ,stadskanaal1 or ,state canal 7#ahgg-ahhj71 bring it into connexion with the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the province and in ,drente4 ,in ,friesland1 finally1 besides the ship canal from ,harlingen to the ,lauwers ,zee there are canals from ,leeuwarden to the ,lemmer1 whence there is a busy traffic with ,amsterdam2 and the ,caspar ,robles or ,kolonels ,diep1 and the ,hoendiep connect it with ,groningen4 ,railways4 ,the construction of railways was long deferred and slowly accomplished4 ,the first line was that between ,amsterdam and ,haarlem1 opened in #ahci by the ,holland railway company 7,hollandsch ,yzeren ,spoorweg ,maatschappij74 ,in #ahde the state undertook to develop the railway system1 and a company of private individuals was formed to administer it under the title of the ,maatschappij tot ,exploitatie van ,staatspoorwegen4 ,in #ahfj1 however1 the total length of railways was only #bjh m41 and in that year a parliamentary bill embodying a comprehensive scheme of construction was adopted4 ,by #ahgb this programme was nearly completed1 and #edb m4 of new railway had been added4 ,in #ahgc and #ahge a second and a third bill provided for the extension of the railway system at the cost of the state1 and1 in #ahgf1 #ahhb and #ahij laws were introduced readjusting the control of the various lines1 some of which were transferred to the ,holland railway4 ,the state railway system was completed in #ahib1 and since that time the utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new undertakings4 ,these include various local lines such as the line ,alkmaar-,hoorn 7#ahih71 ,ede-,barneveld-,nykerk1 ,enschede-,ahaus in ,germany 7#aijb71 ,leeuwarden to ,franeker1 ,harlingen and ,dokkum1 and the line ,zwolle-,almelo 7junction at ,marienberg7 ,koevorden-,stadskanal-,veendam-,delfzyl 1 connecting all the fen countries on the eastern borders4 ,the electric railway ,amsterdam-,zandvoort was opened in #aijd4 ,the frame upon which the whole network of the ,dutch railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from north and south and four transverse lines from west to east4 ,the two longitudinal lines are the railway den ,helder via ,haarlem 7#ahfb-ahfg71d ,rotterdam 7#ahci-ahdg71 and ,zwaluwe 7#ahfi-ahgg7 to ,antwerp 7#aheb-ahee71 belonging to the ,holland railway company1 and the ,state railway from ,leeuwarden and ,groningen 7#ahgj7 7junction at ,meppel1 #ahfg7 ,zwolle 7#ahff7--;,arnhem 7#ahfe7--,nijmwegen 7#ahgi7--,venlo 7#ahhc7--,maastricht 7#ahfe74 ,the four transverse lines belong to the ,state and ,holland railways alternately and are1 beginning with the ,state railway3 7#a7 the line ,flushing 7#ahgb7--,rozendaal 7#ahfj7--,tilburg 7#ahfc7--;,bokstel 7whence there is a branch line belonging to the ,north ,brabant and ,germany railway company via ,vechel to ,goch in ,germany1 opened in #ahgc7--;,eindhoven--,venlo and across ,prussian border 7#ahff72 7#b7 the line ,hook of ,holland--,rotterdam 7#ahic7--;,dordrecht 7#ahgb-ahgg7--;,elst 7#ahhb-ahhe7--,nijmwegen 7#ahgi7--;,cleves1 ,germany 7#ahfe72 7#c7 the line ,rotterdam--,utrecht 7#ahff-ahfi7 and ,amsterdam--,utrecht--,arnhem 7#ahdc-ahde7 to ,emmerich in ,germany 7#ahef73 this line formerly belonged to the ,netherlands-,rhine railway company1 but was bought by the state in #ahij2 and finally 7#d7 the line ,amsterdam--,hilversum--,amersfoort--,ap eldoorn 7#ahge71 whence it is continued 7a7 via ,deventer1 ,almelo and ,hengelo to ,salzbergen1 ,germany 7#ahfe72 7b7 via ,zutphen1 ,hengelo 7#ahfe71 ,enschede 7#ahff7 to ,gronau1 ,germany2 7c7 via ,zutphen 7#ahgf7 and ,ruurlo to ,winterswyk 7#ahgh74 ,of these 7#a7 and 7#b7 form the main transcontinental routes in connexion with the steamboat service to ,england 7ports of ,queenborough and ,harwich respectively74 ,two other lines of railway1 both belonging to the state1 also traverse the country west to east1 namely1 the line ,rozendaal--'s ,hertogenbosch 7#ahij7--,nijmwegen1 and in the extreme north1 the line from ,harlingen through ,leeuwarden 7#ahfc7 and ,groningen 7#ahff7 to the border at ,nieuwe ,schans 7#ahfi71 whence it was connected with the ,german railways in #ahgf4 ,the northern and southern provinces are further connected by the lines ,amsterdam--,zaandam 7#ahgh7--;,enkhuizen 7#ahhe71 whence there is a steam ferry across the ,zuider ,zee to ,stavoren1 from where the railway is continued to ,leeuwarden 7#ahhc-ahhe72 the ,netherlands ,central railway1 ,utrecht--,amersfoort--,zwoole--,kampen 7#ahfc72 and the line ,utrecht--'s ,hertogenbosch 7#ahfh-ahfi7 which is continued southward into ,belgium by the lines bought in #ahih from the ,grand ,central ,beige railway1 namely1 via ,tilburg to ,turnhout 7#ahfg71 and via ,eindhoven 7#ahff7 to ,hasselt4 ,in #ahib ,greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in the post-offices1 making a difference of twenty minutes with mean ,amsterdam time4 ,tramways4 ,since #ahgg railway communication has been largely supplemented by steam-tramways1 which either run along the main roads or across the country on special embankments1 while one of them is carried across the river ,ysel at ,doesburg on a pontoon bridge4 ,the state first began to encourage the construction of these local light railways by means of subsidies in #ahic1 since when some of the most prominent lines have come into existence1 such as ,purmerend--,alkmaar 7#ahih71 ,zutphen--,emmerich 7#aijb71 along the ,dedemsvaart in ,overysel 7#aijb71 from 's ,hertogenbosch via ,utrecht and ,eindhoven to ,turnhout in ,belgium 7#ahih71 and especially those connecting the ,south ,holland and ,zeeland islands with the railway1 namely1 between ,rotterdam and ,numansdorp on the ,hollandsch ,diep 7#ahih71 and from ,breda or ,bergen-op-,zoom1 via ,steenbergen to ,st ,philipsland1 ,zierikzee and ,brouwershaven 7#aijj74 ,an electric tramway connects ,haarlem and ,zandvoort4 ,the number of passengers carried by the steam-tramways is relatively higher than that of the railways4 ,the value of the goods traffic is not so high1 owing1 principally1 to the want of intercommunication between the various lines on account of differences in the width of the gauge4 ,agriculture4--,waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren stretches of heaths found in ,drente1 ,overysel1 ,gelderland and ,north ,brabant4 ,they formerly served to support large flocks of sheep and some cattle1 but are gradually transformed by the planting of woods1 as well as by strenuous efforts at cultivation4 ,zeeland and ,groningen are the two principal agricultural provinces1 and after them follow ,limburg1 ,north ,brabant1 ,gelderland and ,south ,holland4 ,the chief products of cultivation on the heavy clay soil are oats1 barley and wheat1 and on the sand-grounds rye1 buckwheat and potatoes4 ,flax and beetroot are also cultivated on the clay lands4 ,tobacco1 hemp1 hops1 colza and chicory form special cultures4 ,with the possible exception of oats1 the cereals do not suffice for home consumption1 and maize is imported in large quantities for cattle-feeding1 and barley for the distilleries and breweries4 ,horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order1 and flourish especially on the low fen soil and geest grounds along the foot of the dunes in the provinces of ,north and ,south ,holland4 ,the principal market products are cauliflower1 cabbage1 onions1 asparagus1 gherkins1 cucumbers1 beans1 peas1 c4 ,the principal flowers are hyacinths1 tulips1 crocuses1 narcissus and other bulbous plants1 the total export of which is estimated at over ,l#bjj1jjj4 ,fruit is everywhere grown1 and there is a special cultivation of grapes and figs in the ,westland of ,south ,holland4 ,the woods1 or rather the plantations1 covering #f1 consist of 7#a7 the so-called forest timber 7opgaandhout2 ,fr4 arbres de haute futaie71 including the beech1 oak1 elm1 poplar1 birch1 ash1 willow and coniferous trees2 and 7#b7 the copse wood 7akkermaal or hakhout71 embracing the elder1 willow1 beech1 oak1 c4 ,this forms no unimportant branch of the national wealth4 ,livestock4 ,with nearly #ce of the total surface of the country under permanent pasture1 cattle-breeding forms one of the most characteristic industries of the country4 ,the provinces of ,friesland1 ,north and ,south ,holland1 and ,utrecht take the lead as regards both quality and numbers4 ,a smaller1 hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep are kept upon the heath-lands in the eastern provinces1 which also favour the rearing of pigs and bee-culture4 ,horse-breeding is most important in ,friesland1 which produces the well-known black breed of horse commonly used in funeral processions4 ,goats are most numerous in ,gelderland and ,north ,brabant4 ,poultry1 especially fowls1 are generally kept4 ,stock-breeding1 like agriculture1 has considerably improved under the care of the government 7state and provincial71 which grants subsidies for breeding1 irrigation of pasture-lands1 the importation of finer breeds of cattle and horses1 the erection of factories for dairy produce1 schools1 c4 ,fisheries4--,the fishing industry of the ,netherlands may be said to have been in existence already in the #acth century1 and in the following century received a considerable impetus from the discovery how to cure herring by ,william ,beukelszoon1 a ,zeeland fisherman4 ,it steadily declined during the #agth and #ahth centuries1 however1 but again began to revive in the last half of the #aith century4 ,the fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas1 namely1 the deep-sea fishery of the ,north ,sea1 and the inner 7binnengaatsch7 fisheries of the ,wadden1 the ,zuider ,zee1 and the ,south ,holland and ,zeeland waters4 ,the deep-sea fishery may be farther divided into the so-called great or salt-herring fishery1 mainly carried on from ,vlaardingen and ,maasluis during the summer and autumn1 and the fresh-herring fishery1 chiefly pursued at ,scheveningen1 ,katwijk and ,noordwijk4 ,the value of the herring fisheries is enhanced by the careful methods of smoking and salting1 the export of salted fish being considerable4 ,in the winter the largest boats are laid up and the remainder take to line-fishing4 ,middelharnis1 ,pernis and ,zwartewaal are the centres of this branch of fishery1 which yields halibut1 cod1 ling and haddock4 ,the trawl fisheries of the coast yield sole1 plaice1 turbot1 brill1 skate1 c41 of which a large part is brought alive to the market4 ,in the ,zuider ,zee small herring1 flat fish1 anchovies and shrimps are caught1 the chief fishing centres being the islands of ,texel1 ,urk and ,wieringen1 and the coast towns of ,helder1 ,bunschoten1 ,huizen1 ,enkhuizen1 ,vollendam1 ,kampen1 ,harderwyk1 ,vollenhove4 ,the anchovy fishing which takes place in ,may1 ,june and ,july sometimes yields very productive results4 ,oysters and mussels are obtained on the ,east ,scheldt1 and anchovies at ,bergen-op-,zoom2 while salmon1 perch and pike are caught in the ,maas1 the ,lek and the ,new ,merwede4 ,the oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in the hands of the state1 which lets them to the highest bidder4 ,large quantities of eels are caught in the ,frisian lakes4 ,the fisheries not only supply the great local demand1 but allow of large exports4 ,manufacturing ,industries4--,the mineral resources of ,holland give no encouragement to industrial activity1 with the exception of the coal-mining in ,limburg1 the smelting of iron ore in a few furnaces in ,overysel and ,gelderland1 the use of stone and gravel in the making of dikes and roads1 and of clay in brickworks and potteries1 the quarrying of stone at ,st ,pietersberg1 c4 ,nevertheless the industry of the country has developed in a remarkable manner since the separation from ,belgium4 ,the greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry1 which flourishes especially in the ,twente district of ,overysel1 where jute is also worked into sacks4 ,in the manufacture of woollen and linen goods ,tilburg ranks first1 followed by ,leiden1 ,utrecht and ,eindhoven2 that of half-woollens is best developed at ,roermond and ,helmond4 ,other branches of industry include carpet-weaving at ,deventer1 the distillation of brandy1 gin and liqueurs at ,schiedam1 ,rotterdam and ,amsterdam1 and beer-brewing in most of the principal towns2 shoe-making and leather-tanning in the ,langstraat district of ,north ,brabant2 paper-making at ,apeldoorn1 on the ,zaan1 and in ,limburg2 the manufacture of earthenware and faience at ,maastricht1 the ,hague and ,delft1 as well as at ,utrecht1 ,purmerend and ,makkum2 clay pipes and stearine candles at ,gouda2 margarine at ,osch2 chocolate at ,weesp and on the ,zaan2 mat-plaiting and broom-making at ,genemuiden and ,blokzyl2 diamond-cutting and the manufacture of quinine at ,amsterdam2 and the making of cigars and snuff at ,eindhoven1 ,amsterdam1 ,utrecht1 ,kampen1 c4 ,shipbuilding is of no small importance in ,holland1 not only in the greater1 but also in the smaller towns along the rivers and canals4 ,the principal shipbuilding yards are at ,amsterdam1 ,kinderdijk1 ,rotterdam and at ,flushing1 where there is a government dockyard for building warships4 ,trade and ,shipping4--,to obtain a correct idea of the trade of ,holland1 greater attention than would be requisite in the case of other countries must be paid to the inland traffic4 ,it is impossible to state the value of this in definite figures1 but an estimate may be formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in the rivers and canals1 and from the quantity of produce brought to the public market4 ,in connexion with this traffic there is a large fleet of tug boats2 but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are becoming more common4 ,some of the lighters used in the ,rhine transport trade have a capacity of #cjjj tons4 ,a great part of the commercial business at ,rotterdam belongs to the commission and transit trade4 ,the other principal ports are ,flushing1 ,terneuzen 7for ,belgium71 ,harlingen1 ,delfzyl1 ,dordrecht1 ,zaandam1 ,schiedam1 ,groningen1 den ,helder1 ,middelburg1 ,vlaardingen4 ,among the national mail steamship services are the lines to the ,east and ,west ,indies1 ,africa and the ,united ,states4 ,an examination of its lists of exports and imports will show that ,holland receives from its colonies its spiceries1 coffee1 sugar1 tobacco1 indigo1 cinnamon2 from ,england and ,belgium its manufactured goods and coals2 petroleum1 raw cotton and cereals from the ,united ,states2 grain from the ,baltic provinces1 ,archangel1 and the ports of the ,black ,sea2 timber from ,norway and the basin of the ,rhine1 yarn from ,england1 wine from ,france1 hops from ,bavaria and ,alsace2 iron-ore from ,spain2 while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to ,germany1 its agricultural produce to the ,london market1 its fish to ,belgium and ,germany1 and its cheese to ,france1 ,belgium and ,hamburg1 as well as ,england4 ,the bulk of trade is carried on with ,germany and ,england2 then follow ,java1 ,belgium1 ,russia1 the ,united ,states1 c4 ,in the last half of the #aith century the total value of the foreign commerce was more than trebled4 ,constitution and ,government4--,the government of the ,netherlands is regulated by the constitution of #ahae1 revised in #ahdh and #ahhg1 under which the sovereign's person is inviolable and the ministers are responsible4 ,the age of majority of the sovereign is eighteen4 ,the crown is hereditary in both the male and the female line according to primogeniture2 but it is only in default of male heirs that females can come to the throne4 ,the crown prince or heir apparent is the first subject of the sovereign1 and bears the title of the prince of ,orange4 ,the sovereign alone has executive authority4 ,to him belong the ultimate direction of foreign affairs1 the power to declare war and peace1 to make treaties and alliances1 and to dissolve one or both chambers of parliament1 the supreme command of the army and navy1 the supreme administration of the state finances and of the colonies and other possessions of the kingdom1 and the prerogative of mercy4 ,by the provisions of the same constitution he establishes the ministerial departments1 and shares the legislative power with the first and second chambers of parliament1 which constitute the states-general and sit at the ,hague4 ,the heads of the departments to whom the especial executive functions are entrusted are eight in number--ministers respectively of the interior1 of water-staat1 trade and industry 7that is1 of public works1 including railways1 post-office1 c471 of justice1 of finance1 of war1 of marine1 of the colonies and of foreign affairs4 ,there is a department of agriculture1 but without a minister at its head4 ,the heads of departments are appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the sovereign1 usually determined1 however1 as in all constitutional states1 by the will of the nation as indicated by its representatives4 ,the number of members in the first chamber is #ej1 ,south ,holland sending #aj1 ,north ,holland #i1 ,north ,brabant and ,gelderland each #f1 ,friesland #d1 ,overysel1 ,limburg and ,groningen each #c1 ,zeeland1 ,utrecht and ,drente each #b4 ,according to the fundamental law 7,grondwet7 of #ahhg1 they are chosen by the provincial states1 not only from amongst those who bear the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province1 but also from amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank4 ,those deputies who are not resident in the ,hague are entitled to receive #afs4 #h;d4 a day during the session4 ,the duration of parliament is nine years1 a third of the members retiring every three years4 ,the retiring members are eligible for re-election4 ,the members of the second chamber are chosen in the electoral districts by all capable male citizens not under #bc years of age1 who pay one or more direct taxes1 ranging from a minimum of one guilder 7#as4 #h;d47 towards the income tax4 ,the number of members is #ajj1 ,amsterdam returning #i1 ,rotterdam #e1 the ,hague #c1 ,groningen and ,utrecht #b members each4 ,members must be at least thirty years old1 and receive an annual allowance of ,l#aff1 besides travelling expenses4 ,they only1 and the government1 have the right of initiating business1 and of proposing amendments4 ,their term is four years1 but they are re-eligible4 ,all communications from the sovereign to the states-general and from the states to the sovereign1 as well as all measures relating to internal administration or to foreign possessions1 are first submitted to the consideration of the council of state1 which consists of #ad members appointed by the sovereign1 who is the president4 ,the state council also has the right of making suggestions to the sovereign in regard to subjects of legislation and administration4 ,the provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial states1 which are returned by direct election by the same electors as vote for the second chamber4 ,the term is for six years1 but one-half of the members retire every three years subject to re-election or renewal4 ,the president of the assembly is the royal commissioner for the province4 ,as the provincial states only meet a few times in the year1 they name a committee of deputy-states which manages current general business1 and at the same time exercises the right of control over the affairs of the communes4 ,at the head of every commune stands a communal council1 whose members must be not under #bc years of age4 ,they are elected for six years 7one-third of the council retiring every two years7 by the same voters as for the provincial states4 ,communal franchise is further restricted1 however1 to those electors who pay a certain sum to the communal rates4 ,the number of councillors varies according to the population between #g and #de4 ,one of the special duties of the council is the supervision of education4 ,the president of the communal council is the burgomaster1 who is named by the sovereign in every instance for six years1 and receives a salary varying from ,l#dj to over ,l#fjj4 ,provision is made for paying the councillors a certain fee--called presence-money--when required4 ,the burgomaster has the power to suspend any of the council's decrees for #cj days4 ,the executive power is vested in a college formed by the burgomaster and two1 three or four magistrates 7wethouders7 to be chosen by and from the members of the council4 ,the provinces are eleven in number4 ,national ,defence4--,the home defence system of ,holland is a militia with strong cadres based on universal service4 ,service in the militia or #ast line force is for #h years1 in the #bnd line for #g4 ,every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called up for long or short periods of training1 and the maximum peace strength under arms in the summer is about #ce1jjj1 of whom half are permanent cadres and half militiamen4 ,in #aijh #ab1cjj of the year's contingent were trained for eight months and more1 and #ebjj for four months4 ,the war strength of the militia is #aje1jjj1 that of the second line or reserve #gj1jjj4 ,the defence of the country is based on the historic principle of concentrating the people and their resources in the heart of the country1 covered by a wide belt of inundations4 ,the chosen line of defence is marked by a series of forts which control the sluices1 extending from ,amsterdam1 through ,muiden1 thence along the ,vecht and through ,utrecht to ,gorinchem 7,gorkum7 on the ,waal4 ,the line continues thence by the ,hollandsche ,diep and ,volkerak to the sea1 and the coast also is fortified4 ,the army in the colonies numbers in all about #bf1jjj1 all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily enlisted ,european regulars4 ,the military expenditure in #aijh was ,l#b1cca1bee4 ,the ,dutch navy at home and in ,indian waters consists 7#aiji7 of #i small battleships1 #f small cruisers and #hj other vessels1 manned by #hfjj officers and men of the navy and about #bbej marines4 ,recruiting is by voluntary enlistment1 with contingent powers of conscription amongst the maritime population4 ,justice4--,the administration of justice is entrusted 7#a7 to the high council 7hooge raad7 at the ,hague1 the supreme court of the whole kingdom1 and the tribunal for all high government officials and for the members of the states-general2 7#b7 to the five courts of justice established at ,amsterdam1 the ,hague1 ,arnhem1 ,leeuwarden and 's ,hertogenbosch2 7#c7 to tribunals established in each arrondissement2 7#d7 to cantonal judges appointed over a group of communes1 whose jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount 7under #bjj guilders71 and to breaches of police regulations1 and who at the same time look after the interest of minors4 ,the high council is composed of #ab to #ad councillors1 a procureur-general and three advocates-general4 ,criminal and correctional procedure were formerly divided between the courts of justice and the arrondissement tribunals2 but this distinction was suppressed by the penal code of #ahhf1 thereby increasing the importance of the arrondissement courts1 which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal courts4 ,besides the prisons1 which include one built on the cellular principle at ,breda1 the state supports three penal workhouses for drunkards and beggars4 ,there are also the penal colonies at ,veenhuizen in ,drente1 which were brought from the ,society of ,charity 7,maatschappij van ,weldadigkeid7 in #ahei4 ,the inmates practise agriculture1 as well as various industries for supplying all the requirements of the colony4 ,the objection raised against these establishments is that the prisoners do not represent the real vagabondage of the country1 but a class of more or less voluntary inmates4 ,children under #af years of age are placed in the three state reformatories1 and there is an institution for vagabond women at ,rotterdam4 ,charitable and other ,institutions4--,private charities have always occupied a distinguished position in the ,netherlands1 and the principle of the law of #ahed concerning the relief of the poor is1 that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails4 ,all private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they can collect public funds4 ,in some cases these institutions are organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities4 ,at the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural colonies belonging to the ,society of ,charity 7see ,,drente74 ,of the numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and the fine arts1 the following are strictly national--the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences 7#ahee71 the ,royal ,netherlands ,meteorological ,institute 7#ahed71 the ,national ,academy of the ,plastic ,arts1 the ,royal ,school of ,music1 the ,national ,archives1 besides various other national collections and museums4 ,provincial scientific societies exist at ,middelburg1 ,utrecht1 's ,hertogenbosch and ,leeuwarden1 and there are private and municipal associations1 institutions and collections in a large number of the smaller towns4 ,among societies of general utility are the ,society for ,public ,welfare 7,maatschappij tot nut van't algemeen1 #aghe71 whose efforts have been mainly in the direction of educational reform2 the ,geographical ,society at ,amsterdam 7#ahgc72 ,teyler's ,stichting or foundation at ,haarlem 7#aggh71 and the societies for the promotion of industry 7#aggg71 and of sciences 7#ageb7 in the same town2 the ,institute of ,languages1 ,geography and ,ethnology of the ,dutch ,indies 7#ahea71 and the ,indian ,society at the ,hague1 the ,royal ,institute of ,engineers at ,delft 7#ahdh71 the ,association for the ,encouragement of ,music at ,amsterdam1 c4 ,religion4--,religious conviction is one of the most characteristic traits of the ,dutch people1 and finds expression in a large number of independent religious congregations4 ,the bond between church and state which had been established by the synod of ,dort 7#afah7 and the organization of the ,low-,dutch ,reformed ,church 7,nederlandsche ,hervormde ,kerk7 as the national ,protestant church1 practically came to an end in the revolution of #agie1 and in the revision of the ,constitution in #ahdh the complete religious liberty and equality of all persons and congregations was guaranteed4 ,the present organization of the ,reformed ,church dates from #aheb4 ,it is governed by a general assembly or synod of deputies from the principal judicatures1 sitting once a year4 ,the provinces are subdivided into classes1 and the classes again into circles 7ringen71 each circle comprising from #e to #be congregations1 and each congregation being governed by a church council or session4 ,the provincial synods are composed of ministers and elders deputed by the classes2 and these are composed of the ministers belonging to the particular class and an equal number of elders appointed by the local sessions4 ,the meetings of the circles have no administrative character1 but are mere brotherly conferences4 ,the financial management in each congregation is entrusted to a special court 7kerk-voogdij7 composed of notables and church wardens4 ,in every province there is besides1 in the case of the ,reformed ,church1 a provincial committee of supervision for the ecclesiastical administration4 ,for the whole kingdom this supervision is entrusted to a common collegium or committee of supervision1 which meets at the ,hague1 and consists of #aa members named by the provincial committee and #c named by the synod4 ,some congregations have withdrawn from provincial supervision1 and have thus free control of their own financial affairs4 ,the oldest secession from the ,orthodox ,church is that of the ,remonstrants1 who still represent the most liberal thought in the country1 and have their own training college at ,leiden4 ,towards #ahdj a new congregation calling itself the ,christian ,reformed ,church 7,christelijke ,gereformeerde ,kerk7 arose as a protest against the government and the modern tendencies of the ,reformed ,church2 and for the same reason those who had founded the ,free ,university of ,amsterdam 7#ahhj7 formed themselves in #ahhf into an independent body called the ,nederlandsche ,gereformeerde ,kerk4 ,in #ahib these two churches united under the name of the ,reformed ,churches 7,gereformeerde ,kerken7 with the doctrine and discipline of ,dort4 ,they have a theological seminary at ,kampen4 ,other ,protestant bodies are the ,walloons1 who1 though possessing an independent church government1 are attached to the ,low-,dutch ,reformed ,church2 the ,lutherans1 divided into the main body of ,evangelical ,lutherans and a smaller division calling themselves the ,re-established or ,old ,lutherans 7,herstelde ,lutherschen7 who separated in #agia in order to keep more strictly to the ,augsburg confession2 the ,mennonites founded by ,menno ,simons of ,friesland1 about the beginning of the #afth century2 the ,baptists1 whose only central authority is the ,general ,baptist ,society founded at ,amsterdam in #ahaa2 the ,evangelical ,brotherhood of ,hernhutters or ,moravians1 who have churches and schools at ,zeist and ,haarlem2 and a ,catholic ,apostolic ,church 7#ahfg7 at the ,hague4 ,there are congregations of ,english ,episcopalians at the ,hague1 ,amsterdam and ,rotterdam1 and ,german ,evangelicals at the ,hague 7#aheg7 and ,rotterdam 7#ahfa74 ,in #ahec the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 which before had been a mission in the hands of papal legates and vicars1 was raised into an independent ecclesiastical province with five dioceses1 namely1 the archbishopric of ,utrecht1 and the suffragan bishoprics of ,haarlem1 ,breda1 's ,hertogenbosch and ,roermond1 each with its own seminary4 ,side by side with the ,roman ,catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the ,old ,catholics or ,old ,episcopalian ,church 7,oud ,bisschoppelijke ,clerezie71 and the ,jansenists 7see ,,jansenism74 ,the ,old ,catholics1 with whom the ,jansenists are frequently confused1 date from the #agth century4 ,besides an archbishop at ,utrecht1 the ,old ,catholics have bishops at ,deventer and ,haarlem1 and a training college at ,amersfoort4 ,they numbered in #aije about #ijjj 7see ,,utrecht74 ,the large ,jewish population in ,holland had its origin in the wholesale influx of ,portuguese ,jews at the end of the #afth1 and of ,german ,jews in the beginning of the #agth century4 ,in #ahgj they were reorganized under the central authority of the ,netherlands ,israelite ,church1 and divided into head and ring synagogues and associated churches4 ,the ,roman ,catholic element preponderates in the southern provinces of ,limburg1 and ,north ,brabant1 but in ,friesland1 ,groningen and ,drente the ,baptists and ,christian ,reformed are most numerous4 ,education4--,every grade of education in the ,netherlands is under the control and supervision of the state1 being administered by a special department under the ministry for the interior4 ,in #ahhi the state recognized private denominational schools1 and in #aijj passed a law of compulsory attendance4 ,infant schools1 which are generally in the hands of private societies or the municipal authorities1 are not interfered with by the state4 ,according to the law of #ahhi primary education is carried on in the ordinary and in continuation schools for boys and girls 7co-education having been long in vogue74 ,these schools are established in every commune1 the state contributing aid at the rate of #be of the total expenditure4 ,the age of admission is six2 and the course is for six years1 #g-ac being the legal age limits2 the fee1 from which poverty exempts1 is almost nominal4 ,nature-study1 continued in the secondary schools1 is an essential part in the curriculum of these schools1 and elementary general history1 ,english1 ,french and ,german are among the optional subjects4 ,while the boys are instructed in woodwork1 needlework is taught to the girls1 its introduction in #ahhi having been the first recognition of practical instruction in any form4 ,continuation schools 7herhalingsscholen7 must be organized wherever required1 and are generally open for six months in winter1 pupils of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending4 ,secondary schools were established by the law of #ahfc and must be provided by every commune of #aj1jjj inhabitants2 they comprise the ,burgher-,day-and-,evening schools and the ,higher-,burgher schools4 ,the first named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in industrial or agricultural pursuits1 the day classes gradually fell into disuse4 ,the length of the course as prescribed by law is two years1 but it is usually extended to three or four years1 and the instruction1 though mainly theoretical1 has regard to the special local industries2 the fees1 if any1 may not exceed one pound sterling per annum4 ,special mention must be made in this connexion of the school of engineering in ,amsterdam 7#ahgh7 and the ,academy of ,plastic ,arts at ,rotterdam4 ,the higher-burgher schools have either a three or a five years' course1 and the fees vary from ,l#b1 #ajs4 to ,l#e a year4 ,the instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific4 ,in both schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course1 that of the higher-burgher schools admitting to the natural science and medical branches of university education1 a supplementary examination in ,greek and ,latin being required for other branches4 ,the gymnasia1 or classical schools1 fall legally speaking under the head of higher education4 ,by the law of #ahgf1 every town of #bj1jjj inhabitants1 unless specially exempted1 must provide a gymnasium4 ,a large proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to the extent of half their net cost4 ,the curriculum is classical and philological1 but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in favour of scientific subjects for those who wish4 ,the fees vary from ,l#e to ,l#h a year1 but1 owing to the absence of scholarships and bursaries1 are sometimes remitted1 as in the case of the higher-burgher schools4 ,among the schools which give specialized instruction1 mention must be made of the admirable trade schools 7ambachtsscholen7 established in #ahfa1 and the corresponding industrial schools for girls2 the fishery schools and schools of navigation2 the many private schools of domestic science1 and of commerce and industry1 among which the municipal school at ,enschede 7#ahhf7 deserves special mention2 and the school of social work1 ,das ,huis1 at ,amsterdam 7#aijj74 ,for the education of medical practitioners1 civil and military1 the more important institutions are the ,national ,obstetrical ,college at ,amsterdam1 the ,national ,veterinary ,school at ,utrecht1 the ,national ,college for ,military ,physicians at ,amsterdam and the establishment at ,utrecht for the training of military apothecaries for the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,the organization of agricultural education under the state is very complete1 and includes a state professor of agriculture for every province 7as well as professors of horticulture in several cases71 winter schools of agriculture and horticulture1 and a state agricultural college at ,wageningen 7#ahgf7 with courses in home and colonial agriculture4 ,the total fees at this college1 including board and lodging1 are about ,l#ej a year4 ,according to the law of #ahih1 the state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or testing-stations4 ,other schools of the same class are the ,gerard ,adriaan van ,swieten schools of agriculture1 gardening and forestry in ,drente1 the school of instruction in butter and cheese making 7zuivelbereiding7 at ,bolsward and the state veterinary college at ,utrecht4 ,there are three state universities in ,holland1 namely1 ,leiden 7#aege71 ,groningen 7#aehe7 and ,utrecht 7#afcd74 ,the ancient athenaeums of ,franeker 7#aehe7 and ,harderwyk 7#afjc7 were closed in #ahaa1 but that of ,amsterdam was converted into a municipal university in #ahgg4 ,in each of these universities there are five faculties1 namely1 law1 theology1 medicine1 science and mathematics1 and literature and philosophy1 the courses for which are respectively four1 five1 eight1 and six or seven years for the two last named4 ,the fees amount to #bjj florins 7,l#af1 #acs4 #d;d47 per annum and are payable for four years4 ,two kinds of degrees are conferred1 namely1 the ordinary 7candidaats7 and the doctor's degrees4 ,pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only eligible for the first4 ,there is also a free 7,calvinistic7 university at ,amsterdam founded in #ahhj and enjoying1 since #aije1 the right of conferring degrees4 ,it has1 however1 no faculties of law or science4 ,the state polytechnic school at ,delft 7#ahfd7 for the study of engineering in all its branches1 architecture and naval construction1 has a nominal course of four years1 and confers the degree of engineer4 ,the fees are the same as those of the universities1 and as at the universities there are bursaries4 ,a national institution at ,leiden for the study of languages1 geography and ethnology of the ,dutch ,indies has given place to communal institutions of the same nature at ,delft and at ,leiden1 founded in #ahfd and #ahgg4 ,the centre of ,dutch university life1 which is non-residential1 is the students' corps1 at the head of which is a senate1 elected annually from among the students of four years' standing4 ,membership of the corps is gained after a somewhat trying novitiate1 but is the only passport to the various social and sports societies4 ,all teachers in the ,netherlands must qualify for their profession by examination4 ,under the act of #ahih they are trained either in the state training-colleges1 or in state-aided municipal1 and private denominational colleges2 or else by means of state or private state-aided courses of instruction4 ,the age of admission to this class of training is from #ad to #ah1 and the course is for four years4 ,in the last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary practice school attached to each college1 and students are also taught to make models explanatory of the various subjects of instruction after the manner of the ,swedish ,sloyd 7,slojd7 system4 ,assistant-teachers wishing to qualify as head-teachers must have had two years' practical experience4 ,pupil-teachers can only give instruction under the supervision of a certificated teacher4 ,the minimum salary of teachers is determined by law4 ,the teaching1 which follows the so-called ,heuristic method1 and the equipment of schools of every description1 are admirable4 ,finance4--,the following statement shows the revenue and expenditure of the kingdom for the years #ahhi1 #aijj-aija and #aije3-- ,revenue4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,source4 #ahhi4 #aija4 #aije4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,l ,l ,l ,excise #c1fgh1jge #d1jdb1ejj #d1ead1iih ,direct taxation #b1cjj1hfe #b1ijj1age #c1ace1ffe ,indirect taxation #b1jjd1gde #a1hje1ehc #a1idf1fff ,post ,office #eci1dje #hfe1gej #a1ajc1ccc ,government telegraphs #ajf1igj #ahg1cge #baa1ccc ,export and ,import duties #ddj1bdg #hja1ejj #icj1iab ,state domains #bac1ahf #adg1jjj #aci1jjj ,pilot dues #ajf1jgi #aia1ffg #bjj1jjj ,state lotteries #ed1fji #ed1bej #eb1fff ,game and ,fisheries #aa1ffj #aa1jjj #aa1gej ,railways 44 #cfa1eab #cdi1jaa ,part paid by ,east ,indies on account of interest and redemption of public debt 44 44 #cba1iaf ,netherland ,bank contribution 44 44 #afj1ejj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,total99 #i1dge1ccg #aa1cid1bbj #ad1jag1jgi ---------------------------------------- ------------------ 99 ,including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail4 ,expenditure4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,object4 #ahhi4 #aija4 #aije4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,l ,l ,l ,national ,debt #b1gbg1eia #b1ijf1bad #b1hii1ggj ,department of ,war #a1gjh1fih #a1hic1jcf #b1dgd1jaa ,waterstaat #a1gij1bia #b1ddh1cci #b1hfi1iea ,finance #a1ecg1djd #b1jib1cdc #b1big1ahj ,marine #a1jch1ecf #a1chh1ada #a1cif1acg ,interior #hae1ahh #a1ccj1efc #a1fac1acd ,justice #dbf1cdc #ebi1aei #eib1jgc ,colonies #ic1hbi #aji1gfh #bea1aej ,dept4 of ,foreign ,affairs #eg1cab #ga1aja #hb1djc ,royal ,household #ed1aff #ff1ffg #ff1fff ,superior ,authorities of the ,state #eb1dgf #ef1gib #eh1bea ,unforeseen ,expenditure #a1gde #d1aff #d1aff ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,total99 #aj1cic1egi #ab1hif1bhi #ad1ijg1gha ---------------------------------------- ------------------ 99 ,including1 besides the ordinary budget1 the outlays in payment of annuities1 in funding and discharging debt1 in railway extension1 c4 ,the total debt in #aije amounted to ,l#if1gfd1bff1 the annual interest amounted to ,l#c1cif1eij4 ,during the years #ahej-aije1 ,l#bg1daf1fea has been devoted to the redemption of the public debt4 ,the total wealth of the kingdom is estimated at #ijj millions sterling4 ,the various provinces and communes have separate budgets4 ,the following table gives a statement of the provincial and communal finances3-- ,revenue4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- #ahhi4 #aijj4 #aije4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,l ,l ,l ,provincial #gbb1ehc #dde1ccc #gah1aii ,communal #f1acb1jjj #i1caa1fff #ab1gej1jhc ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,expenditure4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- #ahhi4 #aijj4 #aije4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,l ,l ,l ,provincial #gdj1ccc #dde1ccc #gjb1gah ,communal #e1fhc1hjj #h1ejc1bej #ab1jhe1bej ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,colonies4--,the ,dutch colonies in the ,malay ,archipelago have an area of #fjj1jjj sq4 m41 with a population of #bc1jjj1jjj1 among which are #ce1jjj ,europeans1 #cai1jjj ,chinese1 #ae1jjj ,arabs1 and #aj1jjj other immigrant ,asiatics4 ,the ,west ,indian possessions of ,holland include ,dutch ,guiana or the government of ,surinam1 and the ,dutch ,antilles or the government of ,curacoa and its dependencies 7,st ,eustatius1 ,saba1 the southern half of ,st ,martin1 ,curacoa1 ,bonaire and ,aruba71 a total area of #fj1jjj sq4 m41 with #ij1jjj inhabitants1 of whom a small portion are ,europeans1 and the rest negroes and other people of colour1 and ,chinese4 ,,bibliography4--,the chief place is due to the following geographical publications3--,dr ,h4 ,blink1 ,nederland en zijne ,bewoners 7,amsterdam1 #ahhh-ahib71 containing a copious bibliography2 ,tegenwoordige ,staat van ,nederland 7,amsterdam1 #ahig72 ,r4 ,schuiling1 ,aardrijkskunde van ,nederland 7,zwolle1 #ahhd72 ,a4 ,a4 ,beekman1 ,de ,strijd om het ,bestaan 7,zutphen1 #ahhg71 a manual on the characteristic hydrography of the ,netherlands2 and ,e4 ,reclus' ,nouvelle geographie universelle 7#ahgi2 vol4 iv474 ,the ,gedenboek uitgeven ter gelegenheid van het fijftig-jarig bestaan van het ,koninklijk ,instituut van ,ingenieurs1 #ahdg-ahig 7's ,gravenhage1 #ahih71 is an excellent aid in studying technically the remarkable works on ,dutch rivers1 canals1 sluices1 railways and harbours1 and drainage and irrigation works4 ,the ,aardrijkskundig ,woordenboek van ,nederland1 by ,p4 ,h4 ,witkamp 7,arnhem1 #ahie71 is a complete gazetteer with historical notes1 and ,nomina ,geographica ,neerlandica1 published by the ,netherlands ,geographical ,society 7,amsterdam1 #ahhe1 c471 contains a history of geographical names4 ,geschiedenis van den ,boereastand en den landbouw in ,nederland1 ,h4 ,blink 7,groningen1 #aijb71 and the report on agriculture1 published at the ,hague by the ,royal ,commission appointed in #ahif1 furnish special information in connexion with this subject4 ,of more general interest are3 ,eene halve ,eeuw1 #ahdh-ahih1 edited by ,dr ,p4 ,h4 ,ritter 7,amsterdam1 #ahih71 containing a series of articles on all subjects connected with the kingdom during the second half of the #aith century1 written by specialists2 and ,les ,pays ,bas 7,leiden1 #ahii71 and ,la ,hollande geographique1 ethnologique1 politique1 c4 7,paris1 #aijj71 both works of the same class as the preceding4 ,books of travel include some of considerable topographical as well as literary interest1 from ,lodovico ,guicciardini 7#aefg7 down to ,edmondo de ,amicis 7,holland1 translated from the ,italian1 ,london1 #ahhc72 ,h4 ,havard1 ,dead ,cities of the ,zuider ,zee1 c4 7translated from the ,french1 ,london #ahgf71 and ,d4 ,s4 ,meldrum1 ,holland and the ,hollanders 7,london1 #ahii7 in the #aith century4 ,mention may also be made of ,old ,dutch ,towns and ,villages of the ,zuider ,zee1 by ,w4 ,j4 ,tuyn 7translated from the ,dutch1 ,london1 #aija71 ,nieuwe ,wandelingen door ,nederland1 by ,j4 ,craandijk and ,p4 ,a4 ,schipperus 7,haarlem1 #ahhh72 ,friesland ,meres and through the ,netherlands1 by ,h4 ,m4 ,doughty 7,london1 #ahhg72 ,on ,dutch ,waterways1 by ,g4 ,c4 ,davis 7,london1 #ahhg72 ,hollande et hollandais1 by ,h4 ,durand 7,paris1 #ahic72 and ,holland and ,belgium by ,professor ,n4 ,g4 van ,kampen 7translated from the ,dutch1 ,london1 #ahfj71 the last three being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations4 ,works of historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are ,merkwaardige ,kasteelen in ,nederland1 by ,j4 van ,lennep and ,w4 ,j4 ,hofdyk 7,leiden1 #ahha-ahhd72 ,noord-,hollandsche ,oudheden1 by ,g4 van ,arkel and ,a4 ,w4 ,weisman1 published by the ,royal ,antiquarian ,society 7,amsterdam1 #ahia72 and ,oud ,holland1 edited by ,a4 ,d4 de ,vries and ,n4 de ,roever 7,amsterdam1 #ahhc-ahhf71 containing miscellaneous contributions to the history of ancient ,dutch art1 crafts and letters4 ,natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the ,royal ,zoological ,society ,natura ,artis ,magistra at ,amsterdam1 and the ,natuurlijke ,historie van ,nederland 7,haarlem1 #ahef-ahfc7 written by specialists1 and including ethnology and flora4 ,military and naval defence may be studied in ,de vesting ,holland1 by ,a4 ,l4 ,w4 ,seijffardt 7,utrecht1 #ahhg71 and the ,handbook of the ,dutch ,army1 by ,major ,w4 ,l4 ,white1 ,r4,a4 7,london1 #ahif72 ecclesiastical history in ,the ,church in the ,netherlands1 by ,p4 ,h4 ,ditchfield 7,london1 #ahic72 and education in vol4 viii4 of the ,special ,reports on ,educational ,subjects issued by the ,board of ,education1 ,london4 ,statistics are furnished by the annual publication of the ,society for ,statistics in the ,netherlands1 ,amsterdam4 ,,history ,,from #aegi ,,to ,,modern ,,times#e ,consequences of the ,union of ,utrecht4 ,sovereignty offered to the ,duke of ,anjou4 ,the ,ban against ,william of ,orange4 ,the ,act of ,abjuration4 ,the ,apology4 ,the political compact known as the ,union of ,utrecht differed from its immediate predecessors1 the ,pacification of ,ghent1 the ,union of ,brussels and the ,perpetual ,edict1 in its permanence4 ,the confederacy of the northern provinces of the ,netherlands which was effected 7#bith of ,january #aegi7 by the exertions of ,john of ,nassau1 was destined to be the beginning of a new national life4 ,the foundation was laid on which the ,republic of the ,united ,netherlands was to be raised4 ,its immediate results were far from promising4 ,the falling away of the ,walloon provinces and the ,catholic nobles from the patriot cause threatened it with ruin4 ,nothing but the strong personal influence and indefatigable labours of the prince of ,orange stood in the way of a more general defection4 ,everywhere1 save in staunch and steadfast ,holland and ,zeeland1 a feeling of wavering and hesitation was spreading through the land4 ,in ,holland and ,zeeland ,william was supreme1 but elsewhere his aims and his principles were misrepresented and misunderstood4 ,he saw that unaided the patriotic party could not hope to resist the power of ,philip ,,ii41 and he had therefore resolved to gain the support of ,france by the offer of the sovereignty of the ,netherlands to the duke of ,anjou4 ,but ,anjou was a ,catholic1 and this fact aroused among the ,protestants a feeling that they were being betrayed4 ,but the prince persisted in the policy he felt to be a necessity1 and 7#bcrd of ,jan4 #aeha7 a treaty was concluded with the duke1 by which he1 under certain conditions1 agreed to accept the sovereignty of the ,netherlands provinces1 except ,holland and ,zeeland4 ,these two provinces were unwilling to have any sovereign but ,william himself1 and after considerable hesitation he agreed to become their ,count 7#bdth of ,july #aeha74 ,he felt that he was justified in taking this step because of the ,ban which ,philip had published on the #aeth of ,march #aeha1 in which ,orange had been proclaimed a traitor and miscreant1 and a reward offered to any one who would take his life4 ,his practical answer to the king was the act of ,abjuration1 by which at his persuasion the representatives of the provinces of ,brabant1 ,flanders1 ,holland1 ,zeeland1 ,gelderland and ,utrecht1 assembled at the ,hague1 declared that ,philip had forfeited his sovereignty over them1 and that they held themselves henceforth absolved from their allegiance to him4 ,in a written defence1 the famous ,apology1 published later in the year1 ,william replied at great length to the charges that had been brought against him1 and carrying the war into the enemy's camp1 endeavoured to prove that the course he had pursued was justified by the crimes and tyranny of the king4 ,attempt on the ,life of ,orange by ,jean ,jaureguy4 ,the ,french ,fury4 ,assassination of ,william the ,silent4 ,the duke of ,anjou was solemnly inaugurated as duke of ,brabant 7,february #aehb71 and shortly afterwards as duke of ,gelderland1 count of ,flanders and lord of ,friesland4 ,william had taken up his residence at ,antwerp in order to give the ,french prince his strongest personal support1 and while there a serious attempt was made upon his life 7,march #ahth7 by a youth named ,jean ,jaureguy4 ,he fired a pistol at the prince close to his head1 and the ball passed under the right ear and out at the left jaw4 ,it was a terrible wound1 but fortunately not fatal4 ,meanwhile ,anjou soon grew tired of his dependent position and of the limitations placed upon his sovereignty4 ,he resolved by a secret and sudden attack 7#agth of ,january #aehc7 to make himself master of ,antwerp and of the person of ,orange4 ,the assault was made1 but it proved an utter failure4 ,the citizens resisted stoutly behind barricades1 and the ,french were routed with heavy loss4 ,the ,french ,fury as it was called1 rendered the position of ,anjou in the ,netherlands impossible1 and made ,william himself unpopular in ,brabant4 ,he accordingly withdrew to ,delft4 ,in the midst of his faithful ,hollanders he felt that he could still organize resistance1 and stem the progress made by ,spanish arms and ,spanish influence under the able leadership of ,alexander of ,parma4 ,antwerp1 with ,st ,aldegonde as its burgomaster1 was still in the hands of the patriots and barred the way to the sea1 and covered ,zeeland from invasion4 ,never for one moment did ,william lose heart or relax his efforts and vigilance2 he felt that with the two maritime provinces secure the national cause need not be despaired of4 ,but his own days had now drawn to their end4 ,the failure of ,jaureguy did not deter a young ,catholic zealot1 by name ,balthazar ,gerard1 from attempting to assassinate the man whom he looked upon as the arch-enemy of ,god and the king4 ,under the pretext of seeking a passport1 ,gerard penetrated into the ,prinsenhof at ,delft1 and firing point blank at ,william as he left the dining hall1 mortally wounded him 7#ajth of ,july #aehd74 ,amidst general lamentations the ,father of his ,country1 as he was called1 was buried with great state in the ,nieuwe ,kerk at ,delft at the public charge4 ,maurice of ,nassau4 ,the ,sovereignty offered to ,henry ,,iii4 and declined4 ,leicester ,governor-general4 ,but though the great leader was dead1 he had not striven or worked in vain4 ,the situation was critical1 but there was no panic4 ,throughout the revolted provinces there was a general determination to continue the struggle to the bitter end4 ,to make head1 however1 against the victorious advance of ,parma1 before whose arms all the chief towns of ,brabant and ,flanders1 ,bruges1 ,ghent1 ,brussels and lastly--after a valiant defence--,antwerp itself had fallen1 it was necessary to look for the protection of a foreign ruler4 ,the government1 now that the commanding personal influence of ,william was no more1 was without any central authority which could claim obedience4 ,the ,states-,general were but the delegates of a number of sovereign provinces1 and amongst these ,holland by its size and wealth 7after the occupation by the ,spaniards of ,brabant and ,flanders7 was predominant4 ,maurice of ,nassau1 ,william's second son1 had indeed on his father's death been appointed captain and admiral-general of the ,union1 president of the ,council of ,state1 and stadholder of ,holland and ,zeeland1 but he was as yet too young1 only seventeen1 to take a leading part in affairs4 ,count ,hohenloo took the command of the troops with the title of lieutenant-general4 ,two devoted adherents of ,william of ,orange1 ,paul ,buys1 advocate of ,holland1 and ,johan van ,oldenbarneveldt1 pensionary of ,rotterdam1 were the statesmen who at this difficult juncture took the foremost part in directing the policy of the confederacy4 ,they turned first to ,france4 ,the sovereignty of the provinces was offered to ,henry ,,iii41 but the king1 harassed by civil discords in his own country1 declined the dangerous honour 7#aehe74 ,repelled in this direction1 the ,states-,general next turned themselves to ,england4 ,elizabeth was alarmed by the successes of the ,spanish arms1 and especially by the fall of ,antwerp2 and1 though refusing the sovereignty1 she agreed to send a force of #ejjj foot and #ajjj horse to the aid of the ,provinces under the command of the earl of ,leicester1 her expenses being guaranteed by the handing over to her the towns of ,flushing1 ,brill and ,rammekens as pledges 7#ajth of ,august #aehe74 ,leicester1 on landing in ,holland1 was in the presence of the ,states-,general and of ,maurice of ,nassau invested with the title of governor-general and practically sovereign powers 7,february #aehf74 ,failure and withdrawal of ,leicester4 ,the new governor had great difficulties to contend with4 ,he knew nothing of the language or the character of the people he was called upon to govern2 his own abilities both as general and statesman were mediocre2 and he was hampered constantly in his efforts by the niggardliness and changing whims of his royal mistress4 ,in trying to consolidate the forces of the ,provinces for united action and to centralize its government1 he undoubtedly did his best1 according to his lights1 for the national cause4 ,but he was too hasty and overbearing4 ,his edict prohibiting all commercial intercourse with the enemy at once aroused against him the bitter hostility of the merchants of ,holland and ,zeeland1 who thrived by such traffic4 ,his attempts to pack the council of ,state1 on which already two ,englishmen had seats1 with personal adherents and to override the opposition of the provincial states of ,holland to his arbitrary acts1 at last made his position impossible4 ,the traitorous surrender of ,deventer and ,zutphen by their ,english governors1 ,stanley and ,york1 both ,catholics1 rendered all ,englishmen suspect4 ,the ,states of ,holland under the leadership of ,johan van ,oldenbarneveldt1 took up an attitude of resolute hostility to him1 and the ,states of ,holland dominated the ,states-,general4 ,in the midst of these divided councils the important seaport of ,sluis was taken by ,parma4 ,utterly discredited1 ,leicester 7#fth of ,august #aehg7 abandoned the task1 in which he had met with nothing but failure1 and returned to ,england4 ,johan van ,oldenbarneveldt4 ,maurice of ,nassau4 ,nothing could have been worse than the position of the ,states at the beginning of #aehh4 ,had ,parma had a free hand1 in all probability he would have crushed out the revolt and reconquered the northern ,netherlands4 ,but the attention of the ,spanish king was at this time concentrated upon the success of the ,invincible ,armada4 ,the army of ,parma was held in readiness for the invasion of ,england1 and the ,united ,provinces had a respite4 ,they were fortunately able to avail themselves of it4 ,the commanding abilities of ,oldenbarneveldt1 now advocate of ,holland1 gradually gathered into his hands the entire administration of the ,republic4 ,he became indispensable and1 as his influence grew1 more and more did the policy of the provinces acquire unity and consistency of purpose4 ,at the same time ,maurice of ,nassau1 now grown to man's estate1 began to display those military talents which were to gain for him the fame of being the first general of his time4 ,but ,maurice was no politician4 ,he had implicit trust in the advocate1 his father's faithful friend and counsellor1 and for many years to come the statesman and the soldier worked in harmony together for the best interests of their country 7see ,,oldenbarneveldt1 and ,,maurice1 prince of ,orange74 ,at the side of ,maurice1 as a wise adviser1 stood his cousin ,william ,louis1 stadholder of ,friesland1 a trained soldier and good commander in the field4 ,campaign of #aeia4 ,death of ,parma4 ,new province of ,stadt en ,landen4 ,after the destruction of the ,armada1 ,parma had been occupied with campaigns on the southern frontier against the ,french1 and the ,netherlanders had been content to stand on guard against attack4 ,the surprise of ,breda by a stratagem 7#hth of ,march #aeij7 was the only military event of importance up to #aeia4 ,but the two stadholders had not wasted the time4 ,the ,states' forces had been reorganized and brought to a high state of military discipline and training4 ,in #aeia the ,states-,general1 after considerable hesitation1 were persuaded by ,maurice to sanction an offensive campaign4 ,it was attended by marvellous success4 ,zutphen was captured on the #bjth of ,may1 ,deventer on the #bjth of ,june4 ,parma1 who was besieging the fort of ,knodsenburg1 was forced to retire with loss4 ,hulst fell after a three days' investment1 and finally ,nymegen was taken on the #bast of ,october4 ,the fame of ,maurice1 a consummate general at the early age of twenty-four1 was on all men's lips4 ,the following campaign was signalized by the capture of ,steenwyk and ,koevorden4 ,on the #hth of ,december #aeib ,parma died1 and the ,states were delivered from their most redoubtable adversary4 ,in #aeic the leaguer of ,geertruidenburg put the seal on ,maurice's reputation as an invincible besieger4 ,the town fell after an investment of three months4 ,groningen was the chief fruit of the campaign of #aeid4 ,with its dependent district it was formed into a new province under the name of ,stadt en ,landen4 ,william ,louis became the stadholder 7see ,,groningen74 ,the soil of the northern ,netherlands was at last practically free from the presence of ,spanish garrisons4 ,triple ,alliance of ,france1 ,england and the ,united ,provinces4 ,the growing importance of the new state was signalized by the conclusion1 in #aeif1 of a triple alliance between ,england1 ,france and the ,united ,provinces4 ,it was of short duration and purchased by hard conditions1 but it implied the recognition by ,henry ,,iv4 and ,elizabeth of the ,states-,general1 as a sovereign power1 with whom treaties could be concluded4 ,such a recognition was justified by the brilliant successes of the campaign of #aeig4 ,it began with the complete rout of a ,spanish force of #dejj men at ,turnhout in ,january1 with scarcely any loss to the victors4 ,then in a succession of sieges ,rheinberg1 ,meurs1 ,groenlo1 ,bredevoort1 ,enschede1 ,ootmarsum1 ,oldenzaal and ,lingen fell into the hands of ,maurice4 ,albert and ,isabel1 ,sovereigns of the ,netherlands4 ,the relations of the ,netherlands to ,spain were in #aeih completely changed4 ,philip ,,ii4 feeling death approaching1 resolved to marry his elder daughter1 the ,infanta ,isabel ,clara ,eugenia1 to her cousin1 the ,cardinal ,archduke ,albert of ,austria1 who had been governor-general of the ,netherlands since #aeif1 and to erect the ,provinces into an independent sovereignty under their joint rule4 ,the instrument was executed in ,may2 ,philip died in ,september2 the marriage took place in ,november4 ,in case the marriage should have no issue1 the sovereignty of the ,netherlands was to revert to the king of ,spain4 ,the archdukes 7such was their official title7 did not make their joyeuse entree into ,brussels until the close of #aeii4 ,the step was taken too late to effect a reconciliation with the rebel provinces4 ,peace overtures were made1 but the conditions were unacceptable4 ,the ,states-,general never seriously considered the question of giving in their submission to the new sovereigns4 ,the traders of ,holland and ,zeeland had thriven mightily by the war4 ,their ships had penetrated to the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and were to be found in every sea4 ,the year #afjj saw the foundation of the ,chartered ,east ,india ,company 7see ,,dutch ,,east ,,india ,,company74 ,the question of freedom of trade with the ,indies had become no less vital to the ,dutch people than freedom of religious worship4 ,to both these concessions ,spanish policy was irreconcilably opposed4 ,the ,battle of ,nieuport4 ,siege of ,ostend4 ,dunkirk1 as a nest of freebooters who preyed upon ,dutch commerce1 was made the objective of a daring offensive campaign in #afjj by the orders of the ,states-,general under the influence of ,oldenbarneveldt in the teeth of the opposition of the stadholders ,maurice and ,william ,louis4 ,by a bold march across ,flanders1 ,maurice reached ,nieuport on the #ast of ,july1 and proceeded to invest it4 ,the archduke ,albert1 however1 followed hard on his steps with an army of seasoned troops1 and ,maurice1 with his communications cut1 was forced to fight for his existence4 ,a desperate combat took place on the dunes between forces of equal strength and valour4 ,only by calling up his last reserves did victory declare for ,maurice4 ,the archduke had to fly for his life4 ,five thousand ,spaniards were killed2 seven hundred taken1 and one hundred and five standards4 ,to have thus worsted the dreaded ,spanish infantry in open fight was a great triumph for the ,states troops and their general1 but it was barren of results4 ,maurice refused to run further risks and led back his army to ,holland4 ,for the following three years all the energies alike of the archdukes and the ,states-,general were concentrated on the siege of ,ostend 7#aeth of ,july #afja-bjth of ,sept4 #afjd71 the solitary possession of the ,dutch in ,flanders4 ,the heroic obstinacy of the defence was equalled by the perseverance of the attack1 and there was a vast expenditure1 especially on the side of the ,spaniards1 of blood and treasure4 ,at last when reduced to a heap of ruins1 ,ostend fell before the resolution of ,ambrosio de ,spinola1 a ,genoese banker1 to whom the command of the besiegers had been entrusted 7see ,,spinola74 ,a month before the surrender1 however1 another and more commodious seaport1 ,sluis1 had fallen into the possession of the ,states army under ,maurice1 and thus the loss of ,ostend was discounted4 ,negotiations for ,peace4 ,the ,twelve ,years' ,truce4 ,spinola proved himself to be a general of a high order1 and the campaigns of #afjf and #afjg resolved themselves into a duel of skill between him and ,maurice without much advantage accruing to either side4 ,but the archdukes' treasury was now empty1 and their credit exhausted2 both sides were weary of fighting1 and serious negotiations for peace were set on foot4 ,the disposition of the ,spaniards to make concessions was further quickened by the destruction of their fleet at ,gibraltar by the ,dutch admiral ,heemskerk1 7,april #afjg74 ,but there were many difficulties in the way4 ,the peace party in the ,united ,provinces headed by ,oldenbarneveldt was opposed by the stadholders ,maurice and ,william ,louis1 the great majority of the military and naval officers1 the ,calvinist preachers and many leading merchants4 ,the ,spaniards on their side were obdurate on the subjects of freedom of trade in the ,indies and of freedom of religious worship4 ,at last1 after the negotiations had been repeatedly on the point of breaking off1 a compromise was effected by the mediation of the envoys of ,france and ,england4 ,on the #ith of ,april #afji a truce for twelve years was agreed upon4 ,on all points the ,dutch demands were granted4 ,the treaty was concluded with the ,provinces1 in the quality of free ,states over whom the archdukes made no pretentions4 ,the uti possidetis as regards territorial possession was recognized4 ,neither the granting of freedom of worship to ,roman ,catholics nor the word ,indies was mentioned1 but in a secret treaty ,king ,philip undertook to place no hindrance in the way of ,dutch trade1 wherever carried on4 ,theological strife in ,holland4 ,arminius and ,gomarus4 ,remonstrants and ,contra-,remonstrants4 ,waard-gelders4 ,oldenbarneveldt executed4 ,one of the immediate results of this triumph of his policy was the increase of ,oldenbarneveldt's influence and authority in the government of the ,republic4 ,but though ,maurice and his other opponents had reluctantly yielded to the advocate's skilful diplomacy and persuasive arguments1 a soreness remained between the statesman and the stadholder which was destined never to be healed4 ,the country was no sooner relieved from the pressure of external war than it was torn by internal discords4 ,after a brief interference in the affairs of ,germany1 where the intricate question of the ,cleves-,julich succession was already preparing the way for the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 the ,united ,provinces became immersed in a hot and absorbing theological struggle with which were mixed up important political issues4 ,the province of ,holland was the arena in which it was fought out4 ,two professors of theology at ,leiden1 ,jacobus ,arminius 7see ,,arminius7 and ,franciscus ,gomarus1 became the leaders of two parties1 who differed from one another upon certain tenets of the abstruse doctrine of predestination4 ,gomarus supported the orthodox ,calvinist view2 ,arminius assailed it4 ,the ,arminians appealed to the ,states of ,holland 7#afaj7 in a ,remonstrance in which their theological position was defined4 ,they were henceforth known as ,remonstrants2 their opponents were styled ,contra-,remonstrants4 ,the advocate and the ,states of ,holland took sides with the ,remonstrants1 ,maurice and the majority of the ,states-,general 7four provinces out of seven7 supported the ,contra-,remonstrants4 ,it became a question of the extent of the rights of sovereign princes under the ,union4 ,the ,states-,general wished to summon a national synod1 the ,states of ,holland refused their assent1 and made levies of local militia 7waard-gelders7 for the maintenance of order4 ,the ,states-,general 7#ith of ,july #afah7 took up the challenge1 and the prince of ,orange1 as captain-general1 was placed at the head of a commission to go in the first place to ,utrecht1 which supported ,oldenbarneveldt1 and then to the various cities of ,holland to insist on the disbanding of the waard-gelders4 ,on the side of ,maurice1 whom the army obeyed1 was the power of the sword4 ,the opposition collapsed2 the recalcitrant provincial states were purged2 and the leaders of the party of state rights--the advocate himself1 ,hugo de ,groot 7see ,,grotius71 pensionary of ,rotterdam1 and ,hoogerbeets1 pensionary of ,leiden1 were arrested and thrown into prison4 ,the whole proceedings were illegal1 and the illegality was consummated by the prisoners being brought before a special tribunal of #bd judges1 nearly all of whom were personal enemies of the accused4 ,the trial was merely a preliminary to condemnation4 ,the advocate was sentenced to death1 and executed 7#acth of ,may #afai7 in the ,binnenhof at the ,hague4 ,the sentences of ,grotius and ,hoogerbeets were commuted to perpetual imprisonment4 ,synod of ,dort4 ,meanwhile the ,national ,synod had been summoned and had met at ,dort on the #acth of ,november #afah4 ,one hundred members1 many of them foreign divines1 composed this great assembly1 who after #aed sittings gave their seal to the doctrines of the ,netherlands ,confession and the ,heidelberg ,catechism4 ,the ,arminians were condemned1 their preachers deprived1 and the ,remonstrant party placed under a ban 7#fth of ,may #afai74 ,renewal of the war4 ,death of ,maurice4 ,the period of ,frederick ,henry4 ,the ,east and ,west ,india ,companies4 ,in #afba the ,twelve ,years' ,truce came to an end1 and war broke out once more with ,spain4 ,maurice1 after the death of ,oldenbarneveldt1 was supreme in the land1 but he missed sorely the wise counsels of the old statesman whose tragic end he had been so largely instrumental in bringing about4 ,he and ,spinola found themselves once more at the head of the armies in the field1 but the health of the stadholder was undermined1 and his military genius was under a cloud4 ,deeply mortified by his failure to relieve ,breda1 which was blockaded by ,spinola1 ,maurice fell seriously ill1 and died on the #bcrd of ,april #afbe4 ,he was succeeded in his dignities by his younger brother ,frederick ,henry 7see ,,frederick ,,henry1 prince of ,orange71 who was appointed stadholder of ,holland1 ,zeeland1 ,utrecht1 ,overyssel and ,gelderland1 captain and adjutant-general of the ,union and head of the ,council of ,state4 ,frederick ,henry was as a general scarcely inferior to ,maurice1 and a far more able statesman4 ,the moderation of his views and his conciliatory temper did much to heal the wounds left by civil and religious strife1 and during his time the power and influence of the stadholderate attained their highest point4 ,such was his popularity and the confidence he inspired that in #afca his great offices of state were declared hereditary1 in favour of his five-year-old son1 by the ,acte de ,survivance4 ,he did much to justify the trust placed in him1 for the period of ,frederick ,henry is the most brilliant in the history of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,during his time the ,east ,india ,company1 which had founded the town of ,batavia in ,java as their administrative capital1 under a succession of able governor-generals almost monopolized the trade of the entire ,orient1 made many conquests and established a network of factories and trade posts stretching from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,japan 7see ,,dutch ,,east ,,india ,,company74 ,the ,west ,india ,company1 erected in #afba1 though framed on the same model1 aimed rather at waging war on the enemies' commerce than in developing their own4 ,their fleets for some years brought vast booty into the company's coffers4 ,the ,mexican treasure ships fell into the hands of ,piet ,heyn1 the boldest of their admirals1 in #afbh2 and they were able to send armies across the ocean1 conquer a large part of ,brazil1 and set up a flourishing ,dutch dominion in ,south ,america 7see ,dutch ,west ,india ,company74 ,the operations of these two great chartered companies occupy a place among memorable events of ,frederick ,henry's stadholderate2 they are therefore mentioned here1 but for further details the special articles must be consulted4 ,policy of ,frederick ,henry4 ,when ,frederick ,henry stepped into his brother's place1 he found the ,united ,provinces in a position of great danger and of critical importance4 ,the ,protestants of ,germany were on the point of being crushed by the forces of the ,austrian ,habsburgs and the ,catholic ,league4 ,it lay with the ,netherlands to create a diversion in the favour of their co-religionists by keeping the forces of the ,spanish ,habsburgs fully occupied4 ,but to do so with their flank exposed to imperialist attack from the east1 was a task involving grave risks and possible disaster4 ,in these circumstances1 ,frederick ,henry saw the necessity of securing ,french aid4 ,it was secured by the skilful diplomacy of ,francis van ,aarssens 7q4v47 but on hard conditions4 ,richelieu required the assistance of the ,dutch fleet to enable him to overcome the resistance of the ,huguenot stronghold of ,la ,rochelle4 ,the far-sighted stadholder1 despite popular opposition1 by his powerful personal influence induced the ,states-,general to grant the naval aid1 and thus obtain the ,french alliance on which the safety of the republic depended4 ,sieges of ,hertogenbosch and ,maestricht4 ,death of the ,infanta ,isabel4 ,the first great military success of ,frederick ,henry was in #afbi4 ,his capture of ,hertogenbosch 7,bois-le-duc71 hitherto supposed to be impregnable1 after a siege of five months was a triumph of engineering skill4 ,wesel also was taken by surprise this same year4 ,in #afca a large ,spanish fleet carrying a picked force of #fjjj soldiers1 for the invasion of ,zeeland1 was completely destroyed by the ,dutch in the ,slaak and the troops made prisoners4 ,the campaign of the following year was made memorable by the siege of ,maestricht4 ,this important frontier town lying on both sides of the river ,meuse was taken by the prince of ,orange in the teeth of two relieving armies1 ,spanish and ,imperialist1 whose united forces were far larger than his own4 ,this brilliant feat of arms was the prelude to peace negotiations1 which led to a lengthy exchange of diplomatic notes4 ,no agreement1 however1 was reached4 ,the death of the ,infanta ,isabel in ,november #afcc1 and the reversion of the ,netherlands to the sovereignty of the king of ,spain1 rendered all efforts to end the war1 for the time being1 fruitless4 ,alliance with ,france4 ,capture of ,breda4 ,battle of the ,downs4 ,at this juncture a strengthening of the ,french alliance seemed to the prince not merely expedient1 but necessary4 ,he had to contend against a strong peace party in ,holland headed by the pensionary ,pauw1 but with the aid of the diplomatic skill of ,aarssens all opposition was overcome4 ,pauw was replaced as pensionary by ,jacob ,cats1 and the objections of ,richelieu were met and satisfied4 ,a defensive and offensive alliance with ,france was concluded early in #afce against the king of ,spain1 and each party bound itself not to make a peace or truce without the assent of the other4 ,a large ,french force was sent into the ,netherlands and placed under the command of the prince of ,orange4 ,the military results of the alliance were during the first two campaigns inconsiderable4 ,the ,cardinal ,infant ,ferdinand had been appointed governor of the ,netherlands1 and he proved himself an excellent general1 and there were dissensions in the councils of the allies4 ,in #afcg the stadholder was able to add to his fame as an invincible besieger of cities4 ,his failure to relieve ,breda had hastened the death of ,maurice4 ,it fell in #afbe into the hands of ,spinola after a blockade of eleven months2 it was now retaken by ,frederick ,henry after a siege of eleven weeks1 in the face of immense difficulties4 ,the reluctance of the ,states of ,holland1 and of ,amsterdam in particular1 to grant adequate supplies caused the campaigns of #afch and #afci to be in the main defensive and dilatory4 ,an attempted attack on ,antwerp was foiled by the vigilance of the ,cardinal ,infant4 ,a body of #fjjj men under ,count ,william of ,nassau were surprised and utterly cut to pieces4 ,the year #afci1 which had begun with abortive negotiations1 and in which the activity of the stadholder had been much hampered by ill-health1 was not to end1 however1 without a signal triumph of the ,dutch arms1 but it was to be on sea and not on land4 ,a magnificent ,spanish armada consisting of #gg vessels1 manned by #bd1jjj soldiers and sailors under the command of ,admiral ,oquendo1 were sent to the ,channel in ,september with orders to drive the ,dutch from the narrow seas and land a large body of troops at ,dunkirk4 ,attacked by a small ,dutch fleet under ,admiral ,marten ,tromp1 the ,spaniards sheltered themselves under the ,english ,downs by the side of an ,english squadron4 ,tromp kept watch over them until he had received large reinforcements1 and then 7#bast of ,october7 boldly attacked them as they lay in ,english waters4 ,oquendo himself with seven vessels escaped under cover of a fog2 all the rest of the fleet was destroyed4 ,this crushing victory assured to the ,dutch the command of the sea during the rest of the war4 ,the naval power of ,spain never in fact recovered from the blow4 ,english and ,dutch ,commercial ,rivalry4 ,marriage of ,william and ,mary4 ,the triumph of ,tromp had1 however1 a bad effect on public feeling in ,england4 ,the circumstances under which the battle of the ,downs was won were galling to the pride of the ,english people1 and intensified the growing unfriendliness between two nations1 one of whom possessed and the other claimed supremacy upon the seas4 ,the prosperity of the world-wide ,dutch commerce was looked upon with eyes of jealousy across the ,channel4 ,disputes had been constantly recurring between ,dutch and ,english traders in the ,east ,indies and elsewhere1 and the seeds were already sown of that stern rivalry which was to issue in a series of fiercely contested wars4 ,but in #afci-afdj civil discords in ,england stood in the way of a strong foreign policy1 and the adroit ,aarssens was able so to sweeten the bitterness of the pill as to bring ,king ,charles not merely to overlook the scandal of the ,downs1 but to consent to the marriage of the princess royal with ,william1 the only son of the stadholder4 ,the wedding of the youthful couple 7aged respectively #ad and #aj years7 took place on the #abth of ,may #afda 7see ,,william ,,ii41 ,,prince ,,of ,,orange74 ,this royal alliance gave added influence and position to the house of ,orange-,nassau4 ,changed relations of the ,united ,provinces with ,france and ,spain4 ,about this time various causes brought about a change in the feelings which had hitherto prevented any possibility of peace between ,spain and the ,united ,netherlands4 ,the revolt of ,portugal 7,december #afdj7 weakened the ,spanish power1 and involved the loss to ,spain of the ,portuguese colonies4 ,but it was in the ,portuguese colonies that the conquests of the ,dutch ,east and ,west ,india ,companies had been made1 and the question of the ,indies as between ,netherlander and ,spaniard assumed henceforth quite a different complexion4 ,aarssens1 the strongest advocate of the ,french alliance1 passed away in #afda1 and his death was quickly followed by those of ,richelieu and ,louis ,,xiii4 ,the victory of ,conde at ,rocroy opened the eyes of ,frederick ,henry to the danger of a ,french conquest of the ,belgian provinces2 and1 feeling his health growing enfeebled1 the prince became anxious before his death to obtain peace and security for his country by means of an accommodation with ,spain4 ,in #afdc negotiations were opened which1 after many delays and in the face of countless difficulties1 were at length1 four years later1 to terminate successfully4 ,death of ,frederick ,henry--his last campaigns4 ,the course of the pourparlers would doubtless have run more smoothly but for the infirm health and finally the death of the prince of ,orange himself4 ,frederick ,henry expired on the #adth of ,march #afdg1 and was buried by the side of his father and brother in ,delft4 ,in his last campaigns he had completed with signal success the task which1 as a military commander1 he had set himself1--of giving to the ,united ,provinces a thoroughly defensible frontier of barrier fortresses4 ,in #afdd he captured ,sas de ,ghent2 in #afde ,hulst4 ,that portion of ,flanders which skirts the south bank of the ,scheldt thus passed into the possession of the ,states1 and with it the complete control of all the waterways to the sea4 ,the ,peace of ,munster4 ,complete triumph of the ,dutch4 ,the death of the great stadholder did not1 however1 long delay the carrying out of the policy on which he had set his heart1 of concluding a separate peace with ,spain behind the back of ,france1 notwithstanding the compact of #afce with that power4 ,a provisional draft of a treaty had already been drawn up before the demise of ,frederick ,henry1 and afterwards1 despite the strenuous opposition of the new prince of ,orange 7who1 under the ,acte de ,survivance1 had inherited all his father's offices and dignities7 and of two of the provinces1 ,zeeland and ,utrecht1 the negotiations were by the powerful support of the ,states of ,holland and of the majority of the ,states-,general1 quickly brought to a successful issue4 ,the treaty was signed at ,munster on the #cjth of ,january #afdh4 ,it was a peace practically dictated by the ,dutch1 and involved a complete surrender of everything for which ,spain had so long fought4 ,the ,united ,provinces were recognized as free and independent1 and ,spain dropped all her claims2 the uti possidetis basis was adopted in respect to all conquests2 the ,scheldt was declared entirely closed--a clause which meant the ruin of ,antwerp for the profit of ,amsterdam2 the right to trade in the ,east and ,west ,indies was granted1 and all the conquests made by the ,dutch from the ,portuguese were ceded to them2 the two contracting parties agreed to respect and keep clear of each other's trading grounds2 each was to pay in the ports of the other only such tolls as natives paid4 ,thus1 triumphantly for the revolted provinces1 the eighty years' war came to an end4 ,at this moment the republic of the ,united ,netherlands touched1 perhaps1 the topmost point of its prosperity and greatness4 ,the form of ,government in the ,united ,provinces4 ,the position of ,holland and ,amsterdam4 ,no sooner was peace concluded than bitter disputes arose between the provincial ,states of ,holland and the prince of ,orange1 supported by the other six provinces1 upon the question of the disbanding of the military forces4 ,william was a young man 7he was twenty-one at the time of his father's death7 of the highest abilities and of soaring ambition4 ,he was totally opposed to the peace with ,spain1 and wished to bring about a speedy resumption of the war4 ,with this view he entered into secret negotiations for a ,french alliance which1 as far as can be gathered from extant records1 had for its objects the conquest and partition by the allies of the ,belgic provinces1 and joint action in ,england on behalf of ,charles ,,ii4 ,as a preliminary step ,william aimed at a centralization of the powers of government in the ,united ,provinces in his own person4 ,he saw clearly the inherent defects of the existing federation1 and he wished to remedy a system which was so complicated as to be at times almost unworkable4 ,the ,states-,general were but the delegates1 the stadholders the servants1 of a number of sovereign provinces1 each of which had different historical traditions and a different form of government1 and one of which--,holland--in wealth and importance outweighed the other six taken together4 ,between the ,states of ,holland and the ,states-,general there was constant jealousy and friction4 ,and yet strangely enough the ,states of ,holland themselves were not really representative of the people of that province1 but only of the limited1 self-coopting burgher aristocracies of certain towns1 each of which with its rights and liberties had a quasi-independence of its own4 ,foremost among these was the great commercial capital1 ,amsterdam1 whose rich burgher patriciate did not scruple on occasion to defy the authority of the ,states-,general1 the stadholder and even of the ,states of ,holland themselves4 ,the position in #afej4 ,the question of disbanding the forces4 ,the ,prisoners of ,loevenstein4 ,sudden ,death of ,william ,,ii4 ,the ,states of ,holland had1 in the years that followed the truce of #afji1 measured their strength with that of the ,states-,general1 but the issue had been decided conclusively in favour of the federal authority by the sword of ,maurice4 ,the party and the principles of ,oldenbarneveldt1 however1 though crushed1 were not extinguished1 and though ,frederick ,henry by his personal influence and prudent statesmanship had been able to surmount the difficulties placed in his way1 he had had to encounter at times strong opposition1 and had been much hampered in the conduct both of his campaigns and of his policy4 ,with the conclusion of the peace of ,munster and the death of the veteran stadholder the struggle for predominance in the ,union between the ,orange-federalist and the ,hollander ,states-rights parties was certain to be renewed4 ,the moment seemed to be favourable for the assertion of provincial sovereignty because of the youth and inexperience of the new prince of ,orange4 ,but ,william ,,ii41 though little more than a boy1 was endowed with singular capacity and great strength of will1 and he was intent upon ambitious projects1 the scope of which has been already indicated4 ,the collision came1 which was perhaps inevitable4 ,the ,states-,general in the disbanding of the forces wished to retain the cadres of the regiments complete in case of a renewal of the war4 ,the ,states of ,holland objected1 and1 although the army was a federal force1 gave orders for the general disbanding of the troops in the pay of the province4 ,the officers refused to obey any orders but those of the council of ,state of the ,union4 ,the provincial states1 on their part1 threatened them with loss of pay4 ,at this juncture the ,states-,general1 as in #afah1 appointed a commission headed by the prince of ,orange to visit the towns of ,holland1 and provide for the maintenance of order and the upholding of the ,union4 ,both parties put themselves in the wrong1 the province by refusing its quota to the federal war-sheet1 the generality by dealing with individual towns instead of with the states of the province4 ,the visitation was a failure4 ,the town councils1 though most of them willing to receive ,william in his capacity as stadholder1 declined to give a hearing to the commission4 ,amsterdam refused absolutely to admit either stadholder or commission4 ,in these circumstances ,william resolved upon strong measures4 ,six leading members of the ,states of ,holland were seized 7#cjth of ,july #afej7 and imprisoned in ,loevenstein ,castle1 and troops under the command of ,william ,frederick1 stadholder of ,friesland1 were sent to surprise ,amsterdam4 ,but the town council had been warned1 and the gates were shut and guarded4 ,the coup d'etat nevertheless was completely successful4 ,the anti-,orange party1 remembering the fate of ,oldenbarneveldt1 were stricken with panic at the imprisonment of their leaders4 ,the ,states of ,holland and the town council of ,amsterdam gave in their submission4 ,the prisoners were released1 and public thanks were rendered to the prince by the various provincial states for his great trouble1 care and prudence4 ,william appeared to be master of the situation but his plans for future action were never to be carried into effect4 ,busily engaged in secret negotiations with ,france1 he had retired to his hunting seat at ,dieren1 when he fell ill with smallpox on the #bgth of ,october4 ,a few days later he expired at the ,hague 7#fth of ,november71 aged but twenty-four years4 ,a week after his death1 his widow1 the princess ,mary of ,england1 gave birth to a son who1 as ,william ,,iii41 was to give added lustre to the house of ,orange4 ,the ,grand ,assembly4 ,the anti-,orange particularist party1 which had just suffered decisive defeat1 now lifted up its head again4 ,at the instance of ,holland a ,grand ,assembly was summoned1 consisting of delegates from all the provinces1 to consider the state of the ,union1 the army and religion4 ,it met at the ,hague on the #ahth of ,january #afea4 ,the conclusions arrived at were that all sovereign powers resided in the provinces1 and that to them severally1 each within its own borders1 belonged the control of the military forces and of religion4 ,there was to be no captain-general of the ,union4 ,all the provinces1 except ,friesland and ,groningen1 which remained true to ,william ,frederick of ,nassau-,dietz1 agreed to leave the office of stadholder vacant4 ,the practical result was the establishment of the hegemony of ,holland in the ,union1 and the handing over of the control of its policy to the patrician oligarchies who formed the town councils of that province4 ,the office of ,grand ,pensionary4 ,john de ,witt4 ,such a system would have been unworkable but for the fact that with the revival of the political principles of ,oldenbarneveldt1 there was found a statesman of commanding ability to fill the office in which the famous advocate of ,holland had for so many years been minister of all affairs in the forming state4 ,the title of advocate had indeed been replaced by that of grand pensionary 7,raad ,pensionaris71 but the duties assigned to the office remained the same1 the only change of importance being that the advocate was appointed for life1 the grand pensionary for a term of five years4 ,the grand pensionary was nominally the paid servant of the ,states of ,holland1 but his functions were such as to permit a man of talent and industry in the stadholderless republic to exercise control in all departments of policy and of government4 ,all correspondence passed through his hands1 he wrote all despatches1 conducted the debates over which he presided1 kept the minutes1 drafted the resolutions1 and was ex officio the leader and spokesman of the delegates who represented the ,province of ,holland in the ,states-,general4 ,such was the position to which ,john de ,witt1 a young man of twenty-eight years of age1 belonging to one of the most influential patrician families of ,dordrecht 7his father1 ,jacob de ,witt1 was one of the prisoners of ,loevenstein7 was appointed in #afec4 ,from that date until #afgb it was his brain and his will that guided the affairs of the ,united ,netherlands4 ,he was supreme in the ,states of ,holland1 and ,holland was dominant in the ,states-,general 7see ,,john ,,de ,,witt74 ,disputes between ,english and ,dutch ,traders4 ,naval struggle with ,england4 ,peace of ,westminster4 ,act of ,seclusion4 ,the death of ,william ,,ii4 had left the ,dutch republic at the very highest point of commercial prosperity1 based upon an almost universal carrying trade1 and the strictest system of monopoly4 ,friction and disputes had frequently arisen between the ,dutch and the ,english traders in different parts of the world1 and especially in the ,east ,indies1 culminating in the so-called ,massacre of ,amboyna2 and the strained relations between the two nations would1 but for the civil discords in ,england1 have probably led to active hostilities during the reign of ,charles ,i4 ,with the accession of ,cromwell to power the breach was widened4 ,a strong party in the ,provinces were unfriendly to the ,commonwealth1 and insults were offered in the ,hague to the ,english envoys4 ,the parliament replied by passing the memorable ,navigation ,act 7,oct4 #afea71 which struck a deadly blow at the ,dutch carrying trade4 ,it was the beginning of that struggle for supremacy upon the seas which was to end1 after three great wars1 in the defeat of the weaker country4 ,the first ,english war lasted from ,may #afeb to ,april #afed1 and within fifteen months twelve sea-fights took place1 which were desperately contested and with varying success4 ,the leaders on both sides--the ,netherlanders ,tromp 7killed in action on the #ajth of ,august #afec7 and de ,ruyter1 the ,englishmen ,blake and ,monk--covered themselves with equal glory4 ,but the losses to ,dutch trade were so serious that negotiations for peace were set on foot by the burgher party of ,holland1 and ,cromwell being not unwilling1 an agreement was reached in the ,treaty of ,westminster1 signed on the #eth of ,april #afed4 ,the ,dutch conceded the striking of the flag and compensation for ,english claims against the ,dutch in the ,east ,indies and elsewhere4 ,the act of ,seclusion1 which barred the young prince of ,orange from holding the office of stadholder and of captain-general1 had been one of the conditions on which ,cromwell had insisted4 ,the consent of the ,states-,general was refused1 but by a secret treaty ,holland1 under the influence of de ,witt1 accepted it in their own name as a sovereign province4 ,the popular feeling throughout the ,united ,provinces was strongly antagonistic to the act of ,seclusion1 by which at the dictation of a foreign power a ban of exclusion was pronounced against the house of ,orange-,nassau1 to which the republic owed its independence4 ,war with ,sweden4 ,in #afeh1 the ,states-,general interfered to save the ,danes from ,charles ,gustavus of ,sweden4 ,in #afei a treaty of peace was concluded between ,france1 ,england and the ,united ,provinces with a view to the settlement of the ,dano-,swedish question1 which ended in securing a northern peace in #affj1 and in keeping the ,baltic open for ,dutch trade4 ,the foreign affairs of the republic were throughout these years ably conducted by de ,witt1 and the position of ,dutch colonial expansion in the ,eastern seas made secure and firm4 ,an advantageous peace with ,portugal was made in #affb4 ,second ,english war4 ,peace of ,breda4 ,the ,triple ,alliance4 ,meanwhile the ,commonwealth in ,england had been followed in #affj by the restoration of the monarchy4 ,to conciliate the new king the act of ,seclusion was repealed1 and the education of the young prince of ,orange was undertaken by the ,states of ,holland under the superintendence of de ,witt4 ,but ,charles owed a grudge against ,holland1 and he was determined to gratify it4 ,the ,navigation ,act was re-enacted1 old grievances revived1 and finally the ,dutch colony of ,new ,netherland was seized in time of peace 7#affd7 and its capital1 ,new ,amsterdam1 renamed ,new ,york4 ,war broke out in #affe1 and was marked by a series of terrific battles4 ,on the #acth of ,june #affe the ,dutch admiral ,obdam was completely defeated by the ,english under the duke of ,york4 ,the four days' fight 7#aath-#adth of ,june #afff7 ended in a hard-won victory by de ,ruyter over ,monk1 but later in this year 7,august #crd7 de ,ruyter was beaten by ,ayscue and forced to take refuge in the ,dutch harbours4 ,he had his revenge1 for on the #bbnd of ,june #affg the ,dutch fleet under de ,ruyter and ,cornelius de ,witt made their way up the ,medway as far as ,chatham and burnt the ,english fleet as it lay at anchor4 ,negotiations between the two countries were already in progress and this event hastened a settlement4 ,the peace of ,breda was signed 7#cast of ,july #affg7 on terms on the whole favourable to the ,dutch4 ,new ,netherland was retained by ,england in exchange for ,suriname4 ,in the following year by the efforts of ,sir ,william ,temple the much vaunted ,triple ,alliance was concluded between ,great ,britain1 the ,united ,provinces and ,sweden to check the ambitious designs of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the instability of ,charles ,,ii41 who sold himself to ,louis by the treaty of ,dover 7#afgj71 speedily rendered it of no effect1 and left the ,united ,provinces to face unaided the vengeance of the ,french king4 ,the ,french invasion4 ,william ,,iii4 ,stadholder and ,captain-general4 ,the third ,english war4 ,murder of the ,brothers de ,witt4 ,from #affh to #afgb ,louis made ready to destroy the ,dutch1 and so well had his diplomacy served him that they were left without a friend in ,europe4 ,in #afgb the storm broke3 the ,english without a declaration of war tried1 unsuccessfully1 to intercept the ,dutch ,mediterranean fleet2 and the ,french at the same time set forth in apparently irresistible strength to overcome the despised traders of ,holland4 ,the ,states were ill-prepared on land though their fleet was strong and ready2 party spirit had become intensely bitter as the prince of ,orange 7see ,,william ,,iii47 grew to man's estate1 and the ruling burgher party1 knowing how great was the popularity of ,william1 especially in the army1 had purposely neglected their land forces4 ,town after town fell before the ,french armies1 and to de ,witt and his supporters there seemed to be nothing left but to make submission and accept the best terms that ,louis ,,xiv4 would grant4 ,the young prince alone rose to the height of the occasion1 and set his face against such cowardly counsels1 and he had the enthusiastic support of the great majority of the people4 ,amidst general acclamation ,william was elected stadholder1 first of ,zeeland1 then of ,holland1 and was appointed captain-general of the ,union 7,june #afgb74 ,meanwhile the fleet under de ,ruyter had encountered a combined ,english and ,french force in ,solebay 7#gth of ,june71 and after a desperate fight1 in which the ,french had but slackly supported their allies1 had more then held its own4 ,william1 in his turn1 with an army wholly insufficient to meet the ,french in the open field1 was able to persuade his countrymen to open the dikes and by flooding the land to prevent its occupation by the enemy4 ,the courage and resourcefulness of their youthful leader inspired the people to make heroic sacrifices for their independence1 but unfortunately such was the revulsion of feeling against the grand pensionary1 that he himself and his brother ,cornelius were torn in pieces by an infuriated mob at the ,hague 7#bjth of ,august74 ,peace of ,westminster4 ,the war with ,france4 ,death of de ,ruyter4 ,peace of ,nymwegen4 ,william1 now supreme in the ,states1 while on land struggling with chequered success against the superior forces of the ,french1 strove by his diplomacy1 and not in vain1 to gain allies for the republic4 ,the growing power of ,france caused alarm to her neighbours1 and ,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,spain and the emperor lent a willing ear to the persuasions of the stadholder and were ready to aid his efforts to curb the ambition of ,louis4 ,on sea in #afgc de ,ruyter1 in a series of fiercely contested battles1 successfully maintained his strenuous and dogged conflict against the united ,english and ,french fleets4 ,in ,england the war was exceedingly unpopular1 and public opinion forced ,charles ,,ii4 to conclude peace4 ,the treaty of ,westminster1 which provided that all conquests should be restored1 was signed on the #adth of ,february #afgd4 ,the ,french now found themselves threatened on many sides1 and were reduced to the defensive4 ,the prince1 however1 suffered a defeat at ,seneff1 and was in #afgd prevented from invading ,france4 ,the war1 nevertheless1 during the following years was on the whole advantageous to the ,dutch4 ,in #afgf a ,dutch squadron fought two hard but indecisive battles with a superior ,french force1 off ,stromboli 7#hth of ,january7 and off ,messina 7#bbnd of ,april74 ,in the last-named fight ,admiral de ,ruyter was badly wounded and died 7#bith of ,april74 ,in #afgg negotiations for peace went on1 and were forwarded by the marriage1 at the close of the year1 of ,william of ,orange with his cousin the princess ,mary1 daughter of the duke of ,york4 ,at last 7,august #afgh7 a peace was concluded at ,nymwegen by which the ,dutch secured the integrity and independence of their country4 ,all the conquests made by the ,french were given up4 ,league of ,augsburg4 ,revolution of #afhh4 ,the ,grand ,alliance4 ,william and ,heinsius4 ,the aggressive policy of ,louis ,,xiv4 in the years that followed the peace of ,nymwegen enabled ,william to lay the foundations of the famous confederacy which changed the whole aspect of ,european politics4 ,the league of ,augsburg 7#afhf71 which followed the revocation of the edict of ,nantes1 placed ,orange at the head of the resistance to ,french domination4 ,the league was formed by the emperor1 ,spain1 ,sweden1 the ,united ,provinces and by several ,german states4 ,in ,england ,william and ,mary were looked upon as the natural successors to the throne on the death of ,james ,,ii41 and ,william kept up close relations with the malcontents in ,church and ,state1 who disliked the arbitrary and papistical policy of his father-in-law4 ,but with the birth of a prince of ,wales the situation was changed1 and ,william determined to intervene actively in ,english affairs4 ,his opportunity came when ,louis ,,xiv41 having declared war against the ,empire1 had invaded the ,palatinate4 ,the opposition of ,amsterdam to an ,english expedition1 in the absence of danger from the side of ,france1 was overcome4 ,the ,revolution of #afhh ensued1 and ,england became1 under ,william's strong rule1 the chief member of the ,great ,coalition against ,french aggression4 ,in the ,grand ,alliance of #afhi-afij he was accused of sacrificing ,dutch to ,english interests1 but there can be no doubt that ,william loved his native country better than his adopted one1 and was a true patriot4 ,if the ,united ,provinces suffered in prosperity through their close relations with and subordination to ,great ,britain during a long series of years1 it was due not to the policy of ,william1 but to the fact that the territory of the republic was small1 open to attack by great military powers1 and devoid of natural resources4 ,the stadholder's authority and popularity continued unimpaired1 despite of his frequent absences in ,england4 ,he had to contend1 like his predecessors1 with the perennial hostility of the burgher aristocracy of ,amsterdam1 and at times with other refractory town councils1 but his power in the ,states during his life was almost autocratic4 ,his task was rendered lighter by the influence and ability of ,heinsius1 the grand pensionary of ,holland1 a wise and prudent statesman1 whose tact and moderation in dealing with the details and difficulties of internal administration were conspicuous4 ,the stadholder gave to ,heinsius his fullest confidence1 and the pensionary on his part loyally supported ,william's policy and placed his services ungrudgingly at his disposal 7see ,,heinsius74 ,war with ,france4 ,peace of ,ryswick4 ,death of ,william ,,iii4 ,the conduct of the war by the allies was far from successful4 ,in #afij 7,july #ast7 ,waldeck was defeated by ,luxemburg at ,fleurus2 and the ,anglo-,dutch fleet was so severely handled by ,tourville 7#ajth ,july7 off ,beachy ,head that for two years the command of the sea remained in the possession of the ,french4 ,a striking victory off ,cape la ,hogue 7#bith of ,may #afib7 restored1 however1 supremacy to the allies4 ,on land the combined armies fared ill4 ,in #afia the ,french took ,mons1 and in #afib ,namur1 in which year after a hard-fought battle ,william was defeated at ,steenkirk and in #afic at ,neerwinden4 ,but ,william's military genius never shone so brightly as in the hour of defeat2 he never knew what it was to be beaten1 and in #afie his recapture of ,namur was a real triumph of skill and resolution4 ,at last1 after long negotiations1 exhaustion compelled the ,french king to sign the peace of ,ryswick in #afig1 in which ,william was recognized by ,france as king of ,england1 the ,dutch obtaining a favourable commercial treaty1 and the right to garrison the ,netherland barrier towns4 ,this peace1 however1 did no more than afford a breathing space during which ,louis ,,xiv4 prepared for a renewal of the struggle4 ,the great question of the ,spanish succession was looming in all men's eyes1 and though partition treaties between the interested powers were concluded in #afih and #agjj1 it is practically certain that the ,french king held himself little bound by them4 ,in #agja he elbowed the ,dutch troops out of the barrier towns2 he defied ,england by recognizing ,james ,,iii4 on the death of his father2 and it was clear that another war was imminent when ,william ,,iii4 died in #agjb4 ,stadholderless ,government4 ,in #afgb the stadholdership in five provinces had been made hereditary in the family of the prince of ,orange1 but ,william died childless1 and the republican burgher party was strong enough to prevent the posts being filled up4 ,william had wished that his cousin1 ,count ,john ,william ,friso of ,nassau1 stadholder of ,friesland and ,groningen1 should succeed him1 but his extreme youth and the jealousy of ,holland against a ,frisian stood in the way of his election4 ,the result was a want of unity in counsel and action among the provinces1 ,friesland and ,groningen standing aloof from the other five1 while ,holland and ,zeeland had to pay for their predominance in the ,union by being left to bear the bulk of the charges4 ,fortunately there was no break of continuity in the policy of the ,states1 the chief conduct of affairs remaining1 until his death in #agbj1 in the capable and tried hands of the grand pensionary ,heinsius1 who had at his side a number of exceptionally experienced and wise counsellors--among these ,simon van ,slingeland1 for forty-five years 7#afhj-agbe7 secretary of the council of state1 and afterwards grand pensionary of ,holland 7#agbg-agcf71 and ,francis ,fagel1 who succeeded his father in #afii as recorder 7,griffier7 of the ,states-,general1 and held that important office for fifty years4 ,the tradition of ,william ,,iii4 was thus preserved1 but with the loss of the firm hand and strong personality of that great ruler the ,united ,provinces were relegated to a subordinate place in the councils of the nations1 and with the gradual decadence of its navy the ,dutch republic ceased to rank as a power to be reckoned with4 ,war of the ,spanish ,succession4 ,treaty of ,utrecht4 ,in the ,war of the ,spanish ,succession1 which broke out in #agjb1 ,dutch troops took part in the campaigns of ,marlborough and ,eugene1 and had their share in winning the great victories of ,blenheim 7#agjd71 ,ramillies 7#agjf71 ,oudenarde 7#agjh7 and ,malplaquet 7#agji74 ,at the peace of ,utrecht1 concluded in #agac1 the interests of the ,netherlands were but half-heartedly supported by the ,english plenipotentiaries1 and the ,french were able to obtain far more favourable terms than they had the power to exact4 ,but they were compelled to abandon all claim to the ,spanish ,netherlands1 which were formally handed over to the ,united ,provinces1 as trustees1 to be by them1 after the conclusion of a satisfactory barrier treaty1 given up to the emperor1 and be known henceforth as the ,austrian ,netherlands4 ,the peace of ,utrecht taught the ,dutch that the great powers around them1 while ready to use their resources for war1 would not scruple to abandon them when they wanted peace2 they1 therefore1 determined henceforth to stand clear of all foreign complications4 ,with #agac the influence of the ,united ,netherlands upon ,european politics comes almost to an end4 ,peace policy4 ,ostend ,east ,india ,company4 ,war of the ,austrian ,succession4 ,revolution of #agdg4 ,william ,,iv4 ,the ruling party in the ,states took an active part in securing ,george ,i4 on the throne of ,england2 and they succeeded in coming to an agreement both with ,france and with ,austria over the difficulties connected with the barrier towns1 and were thus able in tranquillity to concentrate their energies upon furthering the interests of their trade4 ,under the close oligarchical rule of the patrician families1 who filled all offices in the town councils1 the ,states of ,holland1 in which the influence of ,amsterdam was dominant1 and which in their turn exercised predominance in the ,states-,general1 became more and more an assembly of shopkeepers whose policy was to maintain peace for the sake of the commerce on which they thrived4 ,for thirty years after the peace of ,utrecht the ,provinces kept themselves free from entanglement in the quarrels of their neighbours4 ,the foundation of the ,ostend ,east ,india ,company 7see ,,ostend ,,company71 however1 by the emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 in #agbc1 at once aroused the strong opposition of the ,amsterdam merchants who looked upon this invasion of their monopoly with alarm1 and declared that the ,ostend ,company had been set up in contravention to the terms of ,article ,v4 of the treaty of ,munster4 ,in maintaining this position the ,states had the support of ,england1 but it was not until #agca that they succeeded in obtaining the suppression of the company by consenting to guarantee the ,pragmatic ,sanction of ,charles ,,vi4 ,this step led in #agdc to their being involved in the ,war of the ,austrian ,succession1 and thus being drawn into hostilities with ,france1 which invaded the barrier country4 ,in #agdd they formed with ,great ,britain1 ,austria and ,saxony1 a ,quadruple ,alliance1 and put a contingent of troops in the field4 ,the ,dutch took an active part in the campaign of #agde and suffered heavily at ,fontenoy1 after which battle ,marshal ,saxe overran the ,austrian ,netherlands4 ,the ,french captured all the barrier towns1 and in #agdg entered ,dutch ,flanders and made an easy conquest4 ,the ,united ,provinces1 as in #afgb1 seemed to lie at the mercy of their enemies1 and as in that eventful year1 popular feeling broke down the opposition of the burgher oligarchies1 and turned to ,william ,,iv41 prince of ,orange1 as the saviour of the state4 ,john ,william ,friso had died young in #agaa1 leaving a posthumous son1 ,william ,charles ,henry ,friso1 who was duly elected stadholder by the two provinces1 ,friesland and ,groningen1 which were always faithful to his family1 and in #agbb he became also1 though with very limited powers1 stadholder of ,gelderland4 ,the other provinces1 however1 under pressure from ,holland1 bound themselves not to elect stadholders1 and they refused to revive the office of captain-general of the ,union4 ,by the conquest of ,dutch ,flanders ,zeeland was threatened1 and the states of that province1 in which there were always many ,orange partisans1 elected 7,april #agdg7 ,william stadholder1 captain-general and admiral of ,zeeland4 ,the example once given was infectious1 and was followed in rapid succession by ,holland1 ,utrecht and ,overysel4 ,finally the ,states-,general 7,may #d7 appointed the prince1 who was the first member of his family to be stadholder of all the seven provinces1 captain and admiral-general of the ,union1 and a little later these offices were declared hereditary in both the male and female lines4 ,peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,death of ,william ,,iv4 ,anne of ,england ,regent4 ,william ,,iv41 though not a man of great ability1 was sincerely anxious to do his utmost for securing the maintenance of peace1 and the development of the resources and commercial prosperity of the country1 and his powerful dynastic connexions 7he had married ,anne1 eldest daughter of ,george ,,ii47 gave him weight in the councils of ,europe4 ,the peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 in #agdh1 in which the influence of ,great ,britain was exerted on behalf of the ,states1 though it nominally restored the old condition of things1 left the ,provinces crippled by debt1 and fallen low from their old position among the nations4 ,at first the stadholder's efforts to promote the trade and welfare of the country were hampered by the distrust and opposition of ,amsterdam1 and other strongholds of anti-,orange feeling1 and just as his good intentions were becoming more generally recognized1 ,william unfortunately died1 on the #bbnd of ,october #agea1 aged forty years1 leaving his three-year-old son1 ,william ,v41 heir to his dignities4 ,the princess ,anne of ,england became regent1 but she had a difficult part to play1 and on the outbreak of the ,seven ,years' ,war in which the ,provinces were determined to maintain neutrality1 her ,english leanings brought much unpopularity upon her4 ,she died in #agei1 and for the next seven years the regency passed into the hands of the ,states1 and the government was practically stadholderless4 ,william ,v4 ,the ,armed ,neutrality4 ,war with ,england4 ,peace of ,paris4 ,in #agff ,william ,v4 was declared to be of age2 and his accession to power was generally welcomed4 ,he was1 however1 a weak man1 without energy or resolution1 and he allowed himself to be entirely led by his old guardian the duke of ,brunswick1 and by his wife ,frederica ,wilhelmina of ,prussia1 a woman of marked ability1 to whom he entirely deferred4 ,in the ,american ,war of ,independence ,william's sympathies were strongly on the ,english side1 while those of the majority of the ,dutch people were with the revolted colonies4 ,it is1 however1 certain that nothing would have driven the ,provinces to take part in the war but for the overbearing attitude of the ,british government with regard to the right of neutral shipping upon the seas1 and the heavy losses sustained by ,dutch commerce at the hands of ,british privateers4 ,the famous agreement1 known as the ,armed ,neutrality1 with which in #aghj the ,states of the continent at the instigation of ,catherine ,,ii4 of ,russia replied to the maritime claims put forward by ,great ,britain drew the ,provinces once more into the arena of ,european politics4 ,every effort was made by the ,english to prevent the ,dutch from joining the league1 and in this they were assisted by the stadholder1 but at last the ,states-,general1 though only by the bare majority of four provinces against three1 determined to throw in their lot with the opponents of ,england4 ,nothing could have been more unfortunate1 for the country was not ready for war1 and party spirit was too strong for united action to be taken or vigorous preparations to be made4 ,when war broke out ,dutch commerce was destroyed1 and the ,dutch colonies were at the mercy of the ,english fleet without the possibility of a blow being struck in their defence4 ,an indecisive1 but bravely fought action with ,admiral ,parker at the ,dogger ,bank showed1 however1 that the ,dutch seamen had lost none of their old dogged courage1 and did much to soothe the national sense of humiliation4 ,in the negotiations of the ,treaty of ,paris 7#aghc7 the ,dutch found themselves abandoned by their allies1 and compelled to accept the disadvantageous but not ungenerous terms accorded to them by ,great ,britain4 ,they had to sacrifice some of their ,east ,indian possessions and to concede to the ,english freedom of trade in the ,eastern seas4 ,the ,patriot ,party4 ,intervention of the ,king of ,prussia4 ,difficulty with the ,emperor4 ,prussian ,invasion4 ,restoration to power of ,william ,v4 ,one result of this humiliating and disastrous war was the strengthening of the hands of the anti-,orange burgher-regents1 who had now arrogated to themselves the name of patriots4 ,it was they1 and not the stadholder1 who had been mainly responsible for the ,provinces joining the ,armed ,neutrality1 but the consequences of the war1 in which this act had involved them1 was largely visited upon the prince of ,orange4 ,the patriot party did their utmost to curtail his prerogatives1 and harass him with petty insults1 and at last the ,prussian king was obliged to interfere to save his niece1 who was even more unpopular than her weak husband1 from being driven from the country4 ,in #aghd the emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 took advantage of the dissensions in the ,provinces to raise the question of the opening of the ,scheldt4 ,he himself was1 however1 no more prepared for attack than the ,republic for defence1 but the ,dutch had already sunk so low1 that they agreed to pay a heavy indemnity to induce the ,austrians to drop a demand they were unable to enforce4 ,to hold the mouth of the ,scheldt and prevent at all costs a revival of ,antwerp as a commercial port had been for two centuries a cardinal point of ,dutch policy4 ,this difficulty removed1 the agitation of the patriots against the stadholderate form of government increased in violence1 and ,william speedily found his position untenable4 ,an insult offered to the prince of ,orange in #aghg led to an invasion of the country by a ,prussian army4 ,amsterdam capitulated1 the country was occupied1 and the patriot leaders declared incapable of holding any office4 ,the ,orange party was completely triumphant1 and ,william ,v41 under the protection of ,prussia and ,england1 with which states the ,united ,provinces were compelled to ally themselves1 was restored to power4 ,it was1 however1 impossible to make the complicated and creaking machinery of the constitution of the worn-out republic of the ,united ,netherlands work smoothly1 and in all probability it would have been within a very short time replaced by an hereditary monarchy1 had not the cataclysm of the ,french ,revolution swept it away from its path1 never to be revived4 ,the ,french invade the ,netherlands4 ,overthrow of the ,stadholderate4 ,flight of ,william ,v4 ,the ,batavian ,republic4 ,changes of ,government4 ,when war broke out between the ,french revolutionary government and the coalition of kings1 the ,provinces remained neutral as long as they could4 ,it was not till ,dumouriez had overrun all the ,austrian ,netherlands in #agib1 and had thrown open the passage of the ,scheldt1 that they were drawn into the war4 ,the patriot party sided with the ,french1 but for various reasons the conquest of the country was delayed until #agie4 ,in the closing months of #agid ,pichegru1 at the head of a large and victorious army1 invaded the ,provinces4 ,the very severe frost of that winter gave his troops an easy passage over all the rivers and low-lying lands2 town after town fell before him2 he occupied ,amsterdam1 and crossing the ice with his cavalry took the ,dutch fleet1 as it lay frost-bound at the ,texel4 ,the stadholder and his family fled to ,england1 and the disorganized remnants of the allied forces under the duke of ,york retreated into ,germany4 ,the patriots1 as the anti-,orange republicans still styled themselves1 received the ,french with open arms and public rejoicings1 and the government was reorganized so as to bring it into close harmony with that of ,paris4 ,the stadholderate1 the offices of captain and admiral-general1 and all the ancient organization of the ,united ,netherlands were abolished1 and were transformed into the ,batavian ,republic1 in close alliance with ,france4 ,but the ,dutch had soon cause to regret their revolutionary ardour4 ,french alliance meant ,french domination1 and participation in the wars of the ,revolution4 ,its consequences were the total ruin of ,dutch commerce1 and the seizure of all the ,dutch colonies by the ,english4 ,internally one change of government succeeded another2 after the ,states-,general came a national convention2 then in #agih a constituent assembly with an executive directory2 then chambers of representatives2 then a return to the earlier systems under the names of the eight provincial and one central ,commissions 7#ahja74 ,these changes were the outcome of a gradual reaction in a conservative direction4 ,constitution of #ahje4 ,louis ,bonaparte ,king of ,holland4 ,the ,sovereign ,prince4 ,creation of the ,kingdom of the ,netherlands4 ,the ,hundred ,days4 ,william ,i4 crowned at ,brussels4 ,constitution of the ,netherlands4 ,the peace of ,amiens gave the country a little rest1 and the ,dutch got back the ,cape of ,good ,hope and their ,west ,indian colonies2 it was1 however1 but the brief and deceptive interlude between two storms2 when war began again ,england once more took possession of all she had restored4 ,in #ahje the autocratic will of ,napoleon ,bonaparte imposed upon them a new constitution1 and ,rutger ,jan ,schimmelpenninck 7#agfe-ahbe7 was made1 under the ancient title of grand pensionary1 head of the government4 ,in the next year the ,french emperor added ,holland1 as the ,united ,provinces were now named1 to the ring of dependent sovereignties1 by means of which he sought to build up a universal empire1 and he forced his brother ,louis to be the unwilling king of an unwilling people4 ,the new king was a man of excellent intentions and did his best to promote the interest of his subjects1 but finding himself unable to protect them from the despotic overlordship of his brother1 after a four years' reign1 ,louis abdicated4 ,in #ahaj the ,northern ,netherlands by decree of ,napoleon were incorporated in the ,french empire1 and had to bear the burdens of conscription and of a crushing weight of taxation4 ,the defeat of ,leipzig in #ahac was the signal for a general revolt in the ,netherlands2 the prince of ,orange 7son of ,william ,v47 was recalled1 and amidst general rejoicing accepted at ,amsterdam the offer of the sovereignty under a free constitution 7,dec4 #a1 #ahac71 with the title of sovereign prince4 ,on the downfall of ,napoleon the great powers determined to create in the ,low ,countries a powerful state1 and by the treaty of ,london 7,june #ad1 #ahad7 the ,belgians were united with the ,dutch provinces to form the kingdom of the ,netherlands1 which was also to include the bishopric of ,liege and the duchy of ,bouillon1 and the prince of ,orange was placed upon the throne on the #aeth of ,march #ahae as ,william ,i41 king of the ,netherlands 7see ,,william ,i41 king of the ,netherlands74 ,the ancestral possessions of the ,house of ,nassau were exchanged for ,luxemburg1 of which territory ,king ,william in his personal capacity became grand duke4 ,the carrying out of the treaty was delayed by the ,hundred ,days' campaign1 which for a short time threatened its very existence4 ,the daring invasion of ,napoleon1 however1 afforded the ,dutch and ,belgian contingents of the allied army the opportunity to fight side by side under the command of ,william1 prince of ,orange1 eldest son of the new king1 who highly distinguished himself by his gallantry at ,quatre ,bras1 and afterwards at ,waterloo where he was wounded 7see ,,william ,,ii41 king of the ,netherlands74 ,the ,congress of ,vienna confirmed the arrangements made by the treaty of ,london1 and ,william ,i4 was crowned king of the ,netherlands at ,brussels on the #bgth of ,september #ahae4 ,under the constitution the king1 as hereditary sovereign1 possessed full executive powers1 and the initiative in proposing laws4 ,he had the power of appointing his own council of state4 ,the legislative body bore the time-honoured title of ,states-,general1 and was divided into an ,upper ,chamber nominated by the king1 and a ,lower ,chamber elected by the people4 ,freedom of worship1 freedom of the press1 and political equality were principles of the constitution1 guaranteed to all4 ,difference between the ,dutch and ,belgic provinces4 ,the ,belgian ,revolution4 ,reign of ,william ,,ii4 ,accession of ,william ,,iii4 ,the ,constitution of #ahdh4 ,political parties in the ,netherlands4 ,the union of the ,dutch and ,belgian provinces1 like so many of the territorial arrangements of the ,congress of ,vienna1 was an attempt to create a strong state out of diverse and jarring elements4 ,it was an artificial union1 which nothing but consummate tact and statesmanship could have rendered permanent and solid4 ,north and south were divided from one another by religious belief1 by laws and usages1 by material interests1 and by two centuries and a half of widely severed national life4 ,the ,belgians were strict ,catholics1 the ,dutch ,calvinistic ,protestants4 ,the ,dutch were chiefly a commercial and seafaring people1 with interests in distant lands and colonial possessions2 the ,belgians were agriculturists1 except where their abundance of minerals made them manufacturers4 ,the national traits of the ,dutch were a blend of ,german and ,english1 the national leaning of the ,belgians was towards ,france and ,french ideals4 ,nevertheless the materials were there out of which a really broad-minded and conciliatory handling of religion and racial difficulties might have gradually built up a ,netherland nation able to hold from its population and resources a considerable place among ,european powers4 ,for it must not be forgotten that some two-thirds of the ,belgian people are by origin and language of the same race as the ,dutch4 ,but when difficulties and differences arose between ,north and ,south1 as they were sure to arise1 they were not dealt with wisely4 ,the king had good intentions1 but his mind was warped by ,dutch prejudices1 and he was ill-advised and acted unadvisedly4 ,the consequences were the ,belgian ,revolution of #ahcj1 which ended in the intervention of the great powers1 and the setting up1 in #ahca1 of ,belgium as an independent kingdom4 ,the final settlement of outstanding questions between the two countries was not reached till #ahci 7for an account of the ,belgian ,revolution1 see ,,belgium74 ,king ,william ,i4 in the following year1 having become unpopular through his resistance to reform1 resigned his crown to his son ,william ,,ii41 who reigned in peace till his death in #ahdi1 when he was succeeded by his eldest son ,william ,,iii4 7see ,,william ,,iii41 king of the ,netherlands74 ,his accession marked the beginning of constitutional government in the ,netherlands4 ,william ,i4 had been to a large extent a personal ruler1 but ,william ,,ii41 though for a time following in his father's steps1 had been moved by the revolutionary outbreaks of #ahdh to concede a revision of the constitution4 ,the fundamental law of #ahdh enacted that the first chamber of the ,states-,general should be elected by the ,provincial ,estates instead of being appointed by the king1 and that the second chamber should be elected directly by all persons paying a certain amount in taxation4 ,ministers were declared responsible to the ,states-,general1 and a liberal measure of self-government was also granted4 ,during the long reign of ,william ,,iii4 7#ahdi-ahij7 the chief struggles of parties in the ,netherlands centred round religious education4 ,on the one side are the liberals1 divided into moderates and progressives1 the representatives to a large extent of the commercial towns4 ,opposed to them is the coalition of the orthodox ,protestant conservatives1 styled anti-revolutionaries1 supported by the ,calvinistic peasantry1 and the ,catholics1 who represent about one-third of the population and have their headquarters in ,dutch ,brabant1 ,dutch ,flanders and ,limburg4 ,there is also in the ,netherlands a small1 but very strenuous socialist party1 which was founded by the active propaganda of an ex-pastor ,domela-,nieuwenhuis4 ,it draws its chief strength from ,amsterdam and certain country districts of ,friesland4 ,religious education4 ,the liberals were in power from #ahga to #ahhh continuously1 but a ,catholic-anti-revolutionary ministry under ,baron ,mackay held office from #ahhh to #ahia1 and again a coalition ministry was formed in #aija with ,dr ,kuyper at its head4 ,from #ahid to #ahig a ministry of moderate liberals supported by a large part of the ,catholic and anti-revolutionary parties were in power4 ,the constitution of #ahdh made it the duty of the state to provide free primary secular education1 but it allowed to members of all creeds the liberty of establishing private schools1 and this was carried into effect by a law passed in #aheg by the joint efforts of the liberals and ,catholics against the opposition of the orthodox ,calvinists4 ,but the long liberal ascendancy closed the ranks of the ,catholic-,calvinist coalition1 and united them against the neutral schools1 and in #ahhi they were able to pass a law enabling not only the unsectarian public schools1 but all private schools organized by societies and bodies recognized by the law to receive subventions from the state4 ,in #ahij there were #cjjj public schools with #dej1jjj scholars and #acjj private schools with #aie1jjj scholars4 ,extension of the suffrage4 ,military service4 ,the subject of the extension of the franchise has also been the cause of violent party strife and controversy4 ,it was taken in hand as early as #ahgb1 but as a revision of the constitution was necessary1 no change was actually carried out till #ahhg4 ,the law of that year lowered the qualification of the payer of a direct tax to #aj fl4 ,votes were given to all householders paying a certain minimum house duty1 and to all lodgers who had for a given time paid a minimum of rent1 also to all who possessed certain educational and social qualifications1 whose definition was left to be specified by a later law4 ,the passing of such a law was deferred by the coalition 7,catholic-,orthodox7 ministry of #ahhh-ahia4 ,the liberal ministry of #ahia attempted to deal with the question1 and a proposal was made by the minister ,tak van ,poortvliet1 which almost amounted to universal suffrage4 ,the educational qualification was to be able to write1 the social that of not receiving charitable relief4 ,this proposal caused a cleavage right through all parties4 ,it was supported by the radical left1 by a large portion of the ,orthodox-,calvinists under ,dr ,kuyper1 and by some ,catholics2 it had against it the moderate liberals1 the aristocratic section of the ,orthodox-,calvinists1 the bulk of the ,catholics1 and a few radicals under an influential leader van ,houten4 ,after a fierce electoral fight the ,takkians were victors at the first polls1 but were beaten at the second ballots4 ,of the #df ,takkians1 #ce were liberals2 of the #ed anti-,takkians1 #bd were ,catholics4 ,a moderate liberal ministry was formed 7#ahid7 and in #ahif carried into law what was known as the van ,houten project4 ,it gave the right of voting to all ,dutchmen over twenty-five years of age1 who paid #a fl4 in direct taxation2 were householders or lodgers as defined in #ahhg1 or tenants of a vessel of1 at least1 #bd tons2 were the recipients of certain salaries or had certain deposits in the public funds or savings banks4 ,by this reform the number of electors1 which had been raised in #ahhg from #adj1jjj to #cjj1jjj1 was augmented to #gjj1jjj4 ,the question of universal military service has also divided parties4 ,the principle of personal service has been strongly opposed by the ,catholics and conservatives1 but became the law of the land in #ahih1 though exemptions were conceded in favour of ecclesiastics and certain classes of students4 ,the ,achin war4 ,the long-continued and costly wars with the sultan of ,achin have during a series of years been a source of trouble to ,dutch ministries4 ,in #ahga-ahgb ,great ,britain1 in exchange for certain possessions of ,holland on the coast of ,guinea1 agreed to recognize the right of the ,dutch to occupy the north of ,sumatra4 ,the sultan of ,achin opposed by force of arms the efforts of the ,dutch to make their occupation effective1 and has succeeded in maintaining a vigorous resistance1 the ,dutch colonial troops suffering severely from the effects of the insalubrious climate4 ,until #ahga the surplus derived from the colonial budget had been turned into a deficit1 and the necessity of imposing fresh taxes to meet the war expenses has led to the downfall both of individual ministries and of cabinets4 ,queen ,wilhelmina4 ,william ,,iii4 dying in #ahij was succeeded by his only surviving child1 ,wilhelmina4 ,the new queen being a minor1 her mother1 the queen-dowager ,emma1 became regent4 ,one effect of the accession of ,queen ,wilhelmina was the severance of the bond between the ,netherlands and ,luxemburg4 ,the grand duchy1 being hereditary only in the male line1 passed to the nearest agnate1 the duke of ,nassau4 ,in #ahih the queen1 having reached the age of eighteen1 assumed the government4 ,she married in #aija ,prince ,henry of ,mecklenburg4 ,the outbreak of the ,boer ,war in #ahii led to a strong outburst of sympathy among the ,dutch on behalf of their kinsmen in ,south ,africa1 and there were times during the war1 especially after ,president ,kruger had fled from the ,transvaal in a ,dutch war vessel and had settled in ,holland1 when it was a task of some difficulty for the ,dutch government to prevent the relations between ,great ,britain and the ,netherlands from becoming strained4 ,the ministry1 however1 under ,dr ,kuyper were able to keep the popular feeling in favour of the ,boers in restraint1 and to maintain towards ,great ,britain a correct attitude of strict neutrality4 ,in #aijc the government took strong measures to prevent a threatened general strike of railway employees1 the military were called out1 and occupied the stations4 ,a bill was passed by the ,states-,general declaring railway strikes illegal4 ,the elections of #aije for the ,second ,chamber gave the liberals a narrow majority of four4 ,dr ,kuyper accordingly resigned1 and a moderate liberal cabinet was formed by ,th4 ,h4 de ,meester4 ,the fact that up to #aijh the queen had not become a mother gradually caused some public concern as to the succession2 but in #aiji ,queen ,wilhelmina1 amid national rejoicings1 gave birth to a princess4 ,,bibliography4--,see 7for the general history7 ,j4 ,wagenaar1 ,vaderlandsche historie1 to #agea 7#ba vols41 #agdi-agei72 continuation by ,az4 ,p4 ,loosjes1 from #agea-ahaj 7#dh vols41 #aghf-ahaa72 ,w4 ,bilderdijk1 ,geschiedenis der ,vaderlands 7#ac vols41 #ahcb-ahec72 ,groen ,g4 van ,prinsterer1 ,handboek der ,geschiedenis van het ,vaderland 7#fth ed41 #ahie72 7for particular periods73 ,l4 ab ,aitzema1 ,saken van spaet en oorlogh in ende om trent de ,vereenigde ,nederlanden 7#afba-affh7 7#ae vols41 #afeg-afga72 continuation by ,lambert van den ,bos 7,lambertus ,sylvius7 7#d vols41 #afhe-afii74 ,the work of ,aitzema contains a large number of important diplomatic and other documents2 ,a4 de ,wicquefort1 ,histoire des provinces des ,pays-,bas depuis la paix de ,munster 7#afdh-afeh7 7#b vols41 #agai-agdc72 in these volumes will be also found a rich collection of original documents2 ,r4 ,fruin1 ,tien jaren uit den tactig jarigen oorlog 7#aehh-aeih71 7#fth ed41 #aije71 a standard work2 ,j4 ,l4 ,motley1 ,history of the ,united ,netherlands 7#aehd-afji71 7#d vols41 #ahfj-ahfh72 ,p4 ,j4 ,blok1 ,history of the ,people of the ,netherlands1 vol4 iii4 7#aefh-afba7 7trans4 by ,ruth ,putnam1 #aijj72 ,cambridge ,modern ,history1 vol4 iii4 ch4 xix4 and vol4 iv4 ch4 xxv4 7see the bibliographies72 ,ant4 ,l4 ,pontales1 ,vingt annees de republique parlementaire au #agme siecle4 ,jean de ,witt1 grand pensionnaire de ,hollande 7#ahhd72 ,e4 ,c4 de ,gerlache1 ,histoire du royaume des ,pays-,bas #ahad-ahcj 7#c vols41 #ahei72 ,bosch ,j4 de ,kemper1 ,geschiedenis van ,nederland na #ahcj 7#e vols41 #ahgc-ahhb72 also the following important works3 ,groen ,g4 van ,prinsterer1 ,archives ou correspondance inedite de la maison d',orange-,nassau1 #b;e serie 7#aehd-afhh7 7#e vols41 #aheg-ahfj72 ,j4 de ,witt1 ,brieven 7#afeb-affi7 7#f vols41 #agbc-agbe72 ,a4 ,kluit1 ,historie der ,hollandsche ,staatsregering tot #agie 7#e vols41 #ahjb-ahje72 ,g4 ,w4 ,vreede1 ,inleiding tot eene geschiedenis der ,nederlandsche diplomatic 7#f vols41 #ahej-ahfe72 ,j4 ,c4 de ,jonge1 ,geschiedenis van het ,nederlandsche ,zeewesen1 7#f vols41 #ahcc-ahdh72 ,e4 ,luzac1 ,holland's ,rijkdom 7#d vols41 #agha72 ,r4 ,fruin1 ,geschiedenis der ,staatsinstellingen in ,nederland tot den val der ,republick1 edn4 ,colenbrander 7#aija72 ,n4 ,g4 van ,kampen1 ,geschiedenis der ,nederlanders buiten ,europa 7#d vols41 #ahcc72 ,w4 ,j4 ,a4 ,jonckbloet1 ,geschiedenis der ,nederlandsche ,letterkunde 7#b vols4 #ahha72 ,c4 ,busken ,huet1 ,het ,land van ,rembrandt-studien over de ,nordnederlandsche beschaving in de #ag;e eeuw 7#b vols41 #ahhf72 ,l4 ,d4 ,petit1 ,repertorium der verhandelingen en bijdragen betreffende de geschiedenis des ,vaterlands in tijdschriften en mengel werken tot op #aijj verschenen1 #b parts 7#aije72 other parts of this valuable repertorium are in course of publication4 7,g4 ,e47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,at ,maastricht1 however1 a portion lies on the left bank of the river1 measured1 according to the treaty with ,belgium1 #aith of ,april #ahci1 art4 #d1 by an average radius of #abjj ,dutch fathoms 7#ghgd ft47 from the outer glacis of the fortress4 #b ,the datum plane1 or basis of the measurement of heights1 is throughout ,holland1 and also in some of the border districts of ,germany1 the ,amsterdamsch ,peil 7,a4,p471 or ,amsterdam water-level1 and represents the average high water-level of the ,y at ,amsterdam at the time when it was still open to the ,zuider ,zee4 ,local and provincial peils are1 however1 also in use on some waterways4 #c ,see ,j4 ,lorie1 ,contributions a la geologie des ,pays-bas 7#ahhe-ahie71 ,archives du ,mus4 ,teyler 7,haarlem71 ser4 #b1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aji-bdj1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #a-afj1 #cge-dfa1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #afe-cji and ,bull4 soc4 belge geol4 vol4 iii4 7#ahhi72 ,mem4 pp4 #dji-ddi2 ,f4 ,w4 ,harmer1 ,on the ,pliocene ,deposits of ,holland1 c41 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,london1 vol4 lii4 7#ahif7 pp4 #gdh-gha1 pls4 xxxiv41 xxxv4 #d ,the dates indicate the period of construction of the different sections4 #e ,for the history of the ,netherlands previous to the confederacy of the northern provinces in #aegi see ,,netherlands4 ,,holland1 ,,county ,,and ,,province ,,of4--,the first mention of ,holland in any document is found in an imperial gift brief dated ,may #bnd1 #ajfd4 ,in this the phrase omnis comitatus in ,hollandt occurs1 but without any further description of the locality indicated4 ,a comparison with other documentary evidence1 however1 leads to the identification of ,holland with the forestum ,merweda1 or the bush-grown fenland lying between the ,waal1 the old ,meuse and the ,merwe4 ,it is the district surrounding the town of ,dordrecht4 ,a portion of the original ,holland was submerged by a great inundation in #adba1 and its modern appellation of ,biesbosch 7reed-forest7 is descriptive of what must have been the condition of the entire district in early times4 ,the word ,holland is indeed by many authorities thought to be a corruption of ,holt-land 7it was sometimes so spelt by #acth-century writers7 and to signify wood-land4 ,the earliest spelling is1 however1 ,holland1 and it is more probable that it means lowlying-land 7hol hollow71 a derivation which is equally applicable to the district in ,lincolnshire which bears the same name4 ,the first ,count of ,holland4 ,the title count of ,holland appears to have been first borne by the ,frisian count ,dirk ,,iii41 who founded ,dordrecht 7about #ajae7 and made it his residence 7see below74 ,it was not1 however1 till late in the #aath century that his successors adopted the style ,hollandensis comes as their territorial designation 7it is found for the first time on a seal of ,dirk ,v4 #ajhc71 and that the name ,holland became gradually extended northwards to connote all the land subject to the rule of the counts between ,texel and the ,maas4 ,dirk ,i4 ,dirk ,,ii4 ,extent of his dominions4 ,arnulf4 ,dirk ,,iii4 ,foundation of ,dordrecht4 ,defeat of ,godfrey of ,lorraine4 ,beginning of the ,county of ,holland4 ,the beginnings of the history of this feudal state 7the later ,holland7 centre round the abbey of ,egmont in whose archives its records have been preserved4 ,in #ibb ,charles the ,simple gave in full possession to a count in ,frisia1 ,dirk by name 7a shortened form of ,diederic1 ,latin ,theodoricus71 the church of ,egmont with all that belonged to it from ,swithardeshage to ,kinhem4 ,this man1 usually known as ,dirk ,i41 died about #ici and was succeeded by his son of the same name4 ,among the records of the abbey of ,egmont is a document by which the emperor ,arnulf gave to a certain count ,gerolf the same land between ,swithardeshage and ,kinhem1 afterwards held by ,dirk ,i4 ,it is generally assumed that this ,gerolf was his father1 otherwise their deed of gift would not have been preserved among the family papers4 ,dirk ,,ii4 was the founder of the abbey of ,egmont4 ,his younger son ,egbert became archbishop of ,treves4 ,his elder son ,arnulf married ,liutgardis1 daughter of ,siegfried of ,luxemburg and sister-in-law of the emperor ,henry ,,ii4 ,he obtained from the emperor ,otto ,,iii41 with whom he was in great favour in #ihc1 a considerable extension of territory1 that now covered by the ,zuider ,zee and southward down to ,nijmwegen4 ,in the deed of gift he is spoken of as holding the three countships of ,maasland1 ,kinhem or ,kennemerland and ,texla or ,texel2 in other words his rule extended over the whole country from the right bank of the ,maas or ,meuse to the ,vlie4 ,he appears also to have exercised authority at ,ghent4 ,he died in #ihh4 ,arnulf was count till #iic1 when he was slain in battle against the west ,frisians1 and was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son ,dirk ,,iii4 ,during the guardianship of his mother1 ,liutgardis1 the boy was despoiled of almost all his possessions1 except ,kennemerland and ,maasland4 ,but no sooner was he arrived at man's estate than ,dirk turned upon his enemies with courage and vigour4 ,he waged war1 successfully with ,adelbold1 the powerful bishop of ,utrecht1 and made himself master not only of his ancestral possessions1 but of the district on the ,meuse known as the ,bushland of ,merweda 7forestum ,merweda71 hitherto subject to the see of ,utrecht4 ,in the midst of this marshy tract1 at a point commanding the courses of the ,meuse and the ,waal1 he built a castle 7about #ajae7 and began to levy tolls4 ,around this castle sprang up the town of ,thuredrecht or ,dordrecht4 ,the possession of this stronghold was so injurious to the commerce of ,tiel1 ,cologne and the ,rhenish towns with ,england that complaints were made by the bishop of ,utrecht and the archbishop of ,cologne to the emperor4 ,henry ,,ii4 took the part of the complainants and commissioned ,duke ,godfrey of ,lorraine to chastise the young ,frisian count4 ,duke ,godfrey invaded ,dirk's lands with a large army1 but they were impeded by the swampy nature of the country and totally defeated with heavy loss 7,july #bi1 #ajah74 ,the duke was himself taken prisoner4 ,the result was that ,dirk was not merely confirmed in his possession of ,dordrecht and the ,merweda ,bushland 7the later ,holland7 but also of the territory of a vassal of the ,utrecht see1 ,dirk ,bavo by name1 which he conquered4 ,this victory of #ajah is often regarded as the true starting-point of the history of the county of ,holland4 ,having thus established his rule in the south1 ,dirk next proceeded to bring into subjection the ,frisians in the north4 ,he appointed his brother ,siegfrid or ,sikka as governor over them4 ,in his later years ,dirk went upon a pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land from which he returned in #ajcd2 and ruled in peace until his death in #ajci4 ,dirk ,,iv4 ,quarrel with ,flanders about ,zeeland4 ,his son1 ,dirk ,,iv41 was one of the most enterprising of his warlike and strenuous race4 ,he began the long strife with the counts of ,flanders1 as to the lordship over ,walcheren and other islands of ,zeeland2 the quarrel was important1 as dealing with the borderland between ,french and ,german overlordship4 ,this strife1 which lasted #djj years1 did not at first break out into actual warfare1 because both ,dirk and ,baldwin ,v4 of ,flanders had a common danger in the emperor ,henry ,,iii41 who in #ajdf occupied the lands in dispute4 ,dirk allied himself with ,godfrey the ,bearded of ,lorraine1 who was at war with the emperor1 and his territory was invaded by a powerful imperial fleet and army 7#ajdg74 ,but ,dirk entrenched himself in his stronghold at ,vlaardingen1 and when winter came on he surrounded and cut off with his light boats a number of the enemy's ships1 and destroyed a large part of their army as they made their way amidst the marches1 which impeded their retreat4 ,he was able to recover what he had lost and to make peace on his own terms4 ,two years later he was again assailed by a coalition headed by the archbishop of ,cologne and the bishop of ,utrecht4 ,they availed themselves of a very hard winter to penetrate into the land over the frozen water4 ,dirk offered a stout resistance1 but1 according to the most trustworthy account1 was enticed into an ambuscade and was killed in the fight 7#ajdi74 ,he died unmarried and was succeeded by his brother ,floris ,i4 ,floris ,i4 ,dirk ,v4 ,robert the ,frisian guardian to his stepson ,godfrey the ,hunchback of ,lorraine conquers ,holland4 ,the ,bishop of ,utrecht surrenders it to ,dirk ,v4 ,floris ,,ii4 ,dirk ,,vi4 ,floris1 like his predecessors1 was hard-fighting and tenacious4 ,he gradually recovered possession of his ancestral lands4 ,he found a formidable adversary in the able and warlike ,william1 who1 becoming bishop of ,utrecht in #ajed1 was determined to recover the lost possessions of his see2 and in #ajeh1 in alliance with ,hanno1 archbishop of ,cologne1 ,egbert1 margrave of ,brandenburg1 the bishop of ,liege and others1 invaded the ,frisian territory4 ,at first success attended the invaders and many places fell into their hands1 but finally they were surprised and defeated near ,dordrecht4 ,the counts of ,guelders and ,louvain were among the prisoners that fell into the hands of ,floris4 ,the attack was renewed in #ajfa4 ,in a battle at ,nederhemert ,floris met with his death in the hour of victory4 ,he is said to have been killed as1 wearied with pursuing1 he lay asleep under a tree4 ,he was succeeded by his son1 ,dirk ,v41 a child1 under the guardianship of his mother1 ,gertrude of ,saxony4 ,bishop ,william seems now to have seized his opportunity and occupied all the territory that he claimed4 ,in this he was confirmed by two charters of the emperor ,henry ,,iv4 7,april #cj and ,may #b1 #ajfd74 ,among the possessions thus assigned to him is found comitatus omnis in ,hollandt cum omnibus ad bannum regalem pertinentibus4 ,an examination of these documents shows the possessions of ,dirk as in ,westflinge et circa oras ,rheni1 i4e4 west of the ,vlie and around the mouths of the ,rhine4 ,gertrude and her son appear to have withdrawn to the islands of ,frisia 7,zeeland71 leaving ,william in undisturbed occupation of the disputed lands4 ,in #ajfc ,gertrude contracted a marriage with ,robert1 the second son of ,baldwin ,v4 of ,flanders1 a man famous for his adventurous career 7see ,,flanders74 ,on his marriage his father invested him with ,imperial ,flanders1 as an apanage including the islands of ,frisia 7,zeeland7 west of the ,scheldt4 ,he now became guardian to his stepson1 in whose inheritance lay the islands east of the ,scheldt4 ,robert thus1 in his own right and that of ,dirk1 was ruler of all ,frisia 7,zeeland71 and thus became known among his ,flemish countrymen as ,robert the ,frisian4 ,the death of his brother ,baldwin ,,vi4 in #ajgj led to civil war in ,flanders1 the claim of ,robert to the guardianship of his nephew ,arnulf being disputed by ,richilde1 the widow of ,baldwin4 ,the issue was decided by the decisive victory of ,robert at ,cassel 7,february #ajga7 when ,arnulf was killed and ,richilde taken prisoner 7see ,flanders74 ,while ,robert was thus engaged in ,flanders1 an effort was made to recover the ,county of ,holland and other lands now held by ,william of ,utrecht4 ,the people rose in revolt1 but by command of the emperor ,henry ,,iv4 were speedily brought back under episcopal rule by an army under the command of ,godfrey the ,hunchback1 duke of ,lower ,lorraine4 ,again in #ajgf1 at the request of the bishop1 ,duke ,godfrey visited his domains in the ,frisian borderland4 ,at ,delft1 of which town tradition makes ,godfrey the founder1 the duke was treacherously murdered 7,february #bf1 #ajgf74 ,william of ,utrecht died on the #agth of the following ,april4 ,dirk ,v41 now grown to man's estate1 was not slow to take advantage of the favourable juncture4 ,with the help of ,robert 7his stepfather7 he raised an army1 besieged ,conrad1 the successor of ,william1 in the castle of ,ysselmonde and took him prisoner4 ,the bishop purchased his liberty by surrendering all claim to the disputed lands4 ,henceforth the ,frisian counts became definitively known as counts of ,holland4 ,dirk ,v4 died in #ajia and was succeeded by his son ,floris ,,ii4 the ,fat4 ,this count had a peaceful and prosperous reign of thirty-one years4 ,after his death 7#aabb7 his widow1 ,petronilla of ,saxony1 governed in the name of ,dirk ,,vi41 who was a minor4 ,the accession of her half-brother1 ,lothaire of ,saxony1 to the imperial throne on the death of ,henry ,v4 greatly strengthened her position4 ,the ,east ,frisian districts1 ,oostergoo and ,westergoo1 were by ,lothaire transferred from the rule of the bishops of ,utrecht to that of the counts of ,holland 7#aabe74 ,these ,frisians proved very troublesome subjects to ,dirk ,,vi4 ,in #aacb they rose in insurrection under the leadership of ,dirk's own brother1 ,floris the ,black4 ,the emperor ,conrad ,,iii4 7#aach71 who was of the rival house of ,hohenstaufen1 gave back these ,frisian districts to the bishop2 it was in truth somewhat of an empty gift4 ,the ,frisian peasants and fisher folk loved their independence1 and were equally refractory to the rule of any distant overlord1 whether count or bishop4 ,dirk ,,vi4 was succeeded in #aaeg by ,floris ,,iii4 ,floris ,,iii4 ,dirk ,,vii4 ,william ,i4 ,floris ,,iv4 ,floris ,,iii4 reversed the traditional policy of his house by allying himself with the ,hohenstaufens4 ,he became a devoted adherent and friend of ,frederick ,barbarossa4 ,he had troubles with ,west ,friesland and ,groningen1 and a war with the count of ,flanders concerning their respective rights in ,west ,zeeland1 in which he was beaten4 ,in #aagj a great flood caused immense devastation in the north and helped to form the ,zuider ,zee4 ,in #aahi ,floris accompanied ,frederick ,barbarossa upon the third ,crusade1 of which he was a distinguished leader4 ,he died in #aaij at ,antioch of pestilence4 ,his son1 ,dirk ,,vii41 had a stormy1 but on the whole successful reign4 ,contests with the ,flemings in ,west ,zeeland and with the ,west ,frisians1 stirred up to revolt by his brother ,william1 ended in his favour4 ,the brothers were reconciled and ,william was made count of ,east ,friesland4 ,in #abjb1 however1 ,dirk was defeated and taken prisoner by the duke of ,brabant1 and had to purchase peace on humiliating terms4 ,he only survived his defeat a short time and died early in #abjd1 leaving as his only issue a daughter1 ,ada1 #ag years of age4 ,the question of female succession thus raised was not likely to be accepted without a challenge by ,william4 ,it had been the intention of ,dirk ,,vii4 to secure the recognition of his daughter's rights by appointing his brother her guardian4 ,his widow ,alida1 however1 an ambitious woman of strong character1 as soon as her husband was dead1 hurried on a marriage between ,ada and ,count ,louis of ,loon2 and attempted with the nobles of ,holland1 who now for the first time make their appearance as a power in the country1 to oppose the claim which ,william had made to the countship as heir in the male line4 ,a struggle ensued4 ,william was supported by the ,zeelanders and ,ada was forced to fly to ,england4 ,william1 by a treaty concluded with ,louis of ,loon in #abjf1 became undisputed count4 ,he took an active part in the events of his time4 ,he fought by the side of the emperor ,otto ,,iv4 in the great battle of ,bouvines in #abad 7see ,,philip ,,augustus71 and was taken prisoner4 ,two years later he accompanied ,louis1 the eldest son of ,philip ,augustus1 in his expedition against ,king ,john of ,england4 ,william is perhaps best known in history by his taking part in the fourth ,crusade4 ,he distinguished himself greatly at the capture of ,damietta 7#abai74 ,he did not long survive his return home1 dying in #abbb4 ,the earliest charters conveying civic privileges in the county of ,holland date from his reign--those of ,geertruidenberg 7#abac7 and of ,dordrecht 7#abbj74 ,his son ,floris ,,iv41 being a minor1 succeeded him under the guardianship of his maternal uncle1 ,gerard ,,iii4 of ,gelderland4 ,he maintained in later life close relations of friendship with ,gerard1 and supported him in his quarrel with the bishop of ,utrecht 7#abbd-abbf74 ,floris was murdered in #abce at a tournament at ,corbie in ,picardy by the count of ,clermont4 ,another long minority followed his death1 during which his brother ,otto1 bishop of ,utrecht1 acted as guardian to his nephew ,william ,,ii4 ,william ,,ii4 ,elected ,king of the ,romans4 ,floris ,v4 ,alliance with ,edward ,i4 of ,england4 ,first ,charter to ,amsterdam4 ,murder of ,floris ,v4 ,william ,,ii4 became a man of mark4 ,pope ,innocent ,,iv41 having deposed the emperor ,frederick ,,ii41 after several princes had refused to allow themselves to be nominated in the place of the ,hohenstaufen1 caused the young count of ,holland to be elected king of the ,romans 7#abdg7 by an assembly composed chiefly of ,german ecclesiastics4 ,william took ,aachen in #abdh and was there crowned king2 and after ,frederick's death in #abej1 he had a considerable party in ,germany4 ,he brought a war with ,margaret of ,flanders 7,black ,margaret7 to a successful conclusion 7#abec74 ,he was on the point of proceeding to ,rome to be crowned emperor1 when in an expedition against the ,west ,frisians he perished1 going down1 horse and armour1 through the ice 7#abef74 ,like so many of his predecessors he left his inheritance to a child4 ,floris ,v4 was but two years old on his father's death2 and he was destined during a reign of forty years to leave a deeper impress upon the history of ,holland than any other of its counts4 ,floris was a man of chivalrous character and high capacity1 and throughout his reign he proved himself an able and beneficent ruler4 ,alike in his troubles with his turbulent subjects and in the perennial disputes with his neighbours he pursued a strong1 far-sighted and successful policy4 ,but his active interest in affairs was not limited to the ,netherlands4 ,he allied himself closely with ,edward ,i4 of ,england in his strife with ,france1 and secured from the ,english king great trading advantages for his people2 the staple of wool was placed at ,dort 7,dordrecht7 and the ,hollanders and ,zeelanders got fishing rights on the ,english coast4 ,so intimate did their relations become that ,floris sent his son ,john to be educated at the court of ,edward with a view to his marriage with an ,english princess4 ,to balance the power of the nobles he granted charters to many of the towns4 ,floris made himself master of ,amstelland and ,gooiland2 and ,amsterdam1 destined to become the chief commercial town of ,holland1 counts him the founder of its greatness4 ,its earliest extant charter dates from #abge4 ,in #abif ,floris forsook the alliance of ,edward ,i4 for that of ,philip ,,iv4 of ,france1 probably because ,edward had given support to ,guy1 count of ,flanders1 in his dynastic dispute with ,john of ,avesnes1 count of ,hainaut1 ,floris's nephew 7see ,,flanders74 ,the real motives of his policy will1 however1 never be known1 for shortly afterwards a conspiracy of disaffected nobles1 headed by ,gijsbrecht van ,amstel1 ,gerard van ,velzen and ,wolfert van ,borselen1 was formed against him4 ,he was by them basely murdered in the castle of ,muiden 7,june #bg1 #abif74 ,the tragic event has been immortalized in dramas from the pens of ,holland's most famous writers 7see ,,vondel1 ,,hooft74 ,the burghers and people1 who knew him to be their best friend1 took such vengeance on his slayers as permanently to reduce the power of the nobles4 ,john ,i4 ,extinction of the first line of ,counts4 ,their high character4 ,john ,i41 his son1 was in ,england when his father was murdered2 he was but #ae years of age1 feeble in body and mind4 ,he was married to ,eleanor1 daughter of ,edward ,i4 ,his reign was a struggle between ,john of ,avesnes1 the young count's guardian and next heir1 and ,wolfert van ,borselen1 who had a strong following in ,zeeland4 ,in #abii van ,borselen was killed1 and a few months later ,john ,i4 died4 ,john of ,avesnes was at once recognized as his successor by the ,hollanders4 ,thus with ,john ,i4 ended the first line of counts1 after a rule of nearly #djj years4 ,europe has perhaps never seen an abler series of princes than these fourteen lineal descendants of ,dirk ,i4 ,excepting the last there is not a weak man among them4 ,physically handsome and strong1 model knights of the days of chivalry1 hard fighters1 wise statesmen1 they were born leaders of men2 always ready to advance the commerce of the country1 they were the supporters of the growing towns1 and likewise the pioneers in the task of converting a land of marshes and swamps into a fertile agricultural territory rich in flocks and herds4 ,as individuals they had their failings1 but one and all were worthy members of a high-souled race4 ,john ,,ii4 of the ,house of ,avesnes4 ,william ,,iii4 ,william ,,iv4 ,the ,empress ,margaret4 ,william ,v4 of the ,house of ,bavaria4 ,albert of ,bavaria4 ,william ,,vi4 ,jacqueline of ,bavaria4 ,accession of the ,burgundian ,dynasty4 ,philip the ,good4 ,flourishing state of ,holland4 ,charles the ,bold4 ,mary of ,burgundy4 ,john of ,avesnes1 who took the title of ,john ,,ii41 was the son of ,john of ,avesnes1 count of ,hainaut1 and ,alida1 sister of ,william ,,ii4 of ,holland4 ,on his succession to the countship the ,hollanders were willing to receive him1 but the ,zeelanders were hostile2 and a long struggle ensued before his authority was generally recognized4 ,in #acja ,bishop ,william of ,utrecht invaded ,amstelland1 but was killed in battle4 ,john made use of his victory to secure the election of his brother ,guy as bishop in his place4 ,a war with the ,flemings followed1 in which the ,flemings were at first victorious1 but after a struggle of many vicissitudes they were at length driven out of ,holland and ,zeeland ,in #acjd4 ,john ,,ii4 died in that year and was succeeded by his son ,william ,,iii41 surnamed the ,good 7#acjd-accg74 ,in his reign the long-standing quarrel with ,flanders1 which had during a century and a half caused so many wars1 was finally settled by the treaty of #acbc1 by which the full possession of ,west ,zeeland was granted to ,william1 who on his part renounced all claim in ,imperial ,flanders4 ,the ,amstelland with its capital1 ,amsterdam1 which had hitherto been held as a fief of ,utrecht1 was by ,william1 on the death of his uncle ,bishop ,guy1 finally annexed to ,holland4 ,this count did much to encourage civic life and to develop the resources of the country4 ,he had close relations through marriage with the three principal ,european dynasties of his time4 ,his wife was ,jeanne of ,valois1 niece of the ,french king2 in #acbc the emperor ,louis the ,bavarian wedded his daughter ,margaret2 and in #acbh his third daughter1 ,philippa of ,hainaut1 was married to ,edward ,,iii4 of ,england4 ,by their alliance ,william ,,iii4 occupied a position of much dignity and influence1 which he used to further the interests and increase the welfare of his hereditary lands4 ,he was in all respects a great prince and a wise and prudent statesman4 ,he was succeeded by his son1 ,william ,,iv41 who was the ally of his brother-in-law1 ,edward ,,iii41 in his ,french wars4 ,he was fond of adventure1 and in #acdc made a journey to the ,holy ,land in disguise1 and on his way took part in an expedition of the knights of the ,teutonic ,order against the infidel ,wends and ,lithuanians4 ,he was killed in battle against the ,frisians in #acde4 ,he left no children1 and the question as to the succession now brought on ,holland a period of violent civil commotions4 ,his inheritance was claimed by his eldest sister1 the empress ,margaret1 as well as by ,philippa of ,hainaut1 or in other words1 by ,edward ,,iii4 of ,england4 ,margaret came in person and was duly recognized as countess in ,holland1 ,zeeland and ,hainaut2 but returned to her husband after appointing her second son 7the eldest1 ,louis1 renounced his rights7 ,duke ,william of ,bavaria1 as stadholder in her place4 ,william was but sixteen1 and disorder and confusion soon reigned in the land4 ,the sudden death of the emperor in #acdg added to the difficulties of his position4 ,in #acdi ,margaret was induced to resign her sovereignty1 and the stadholder became count under the title of ,william ,v4 ,this was the time of the formation of the famous parties in ,holland1 known as ,kabbeljauws 7,cods7 and ,hoeks 7,hooks72 the former1 the burgher party1 were the supporters of ,william 7possibly the name was derived from the light blue1 scaly looking ,bavarian coat of arms71 the latter the party of the disaffected nobles1 who wanted to catch and devour the fat burgher fish4 ,in #acej such was the disorder in the land that ,margaret1 at the request of the nobles1 came to ,holland to take into her own hands the reins of government4 ,the struggle between the nobles and the cities broke out into civil war4 ,edward ,,iii4 came to ,margaret's aid1 winning a sea-fight off ,veere in #acea2 a few weeks later the ,hooks and their ,english allies were defeated by ,william and the ,cods at ,vlaardingen--an overthrow which ruined ,margaret's cause4 ,edward ,,iii4 shortly afterwards changed sides1 and the empress saw herself compelled 7#aced7 to come to an understanding with her son1 he being recognized as count of ,holland and ,zeeland1 she of ,hainaut4 ,margaret died two years later1 leaving ,william1 who had married ,matilda of ,lancaster1 in possession of the entire ,holland-,hainaut inheritance 7,july #acef74 ,his tenure of power was1 however1 very brief4 ,before the close of #aceg he showed such marked signs of insanity that his wife1 with his own consent and the support of both parties1 invited ,duke ,albert of ,bavaria1 younger brother of ,william ,v41 to be regent1 with the title of ,ruward 7#aceh74 ,william lived in confinement for #ca years4 ,albert died in #adjd1 having ruled the land well and wisely for #df years1 first as ,ruward1 then as count4 ,despite outbreaks from time to time of the ,hook and ,cod troubles1 he was able to make his authority respected1 and to help forward in many ways the social progress of the country4 ,the influence of the towns was steadily on the increase1 and their government began to fall into the hands of the burgher patrician class1 who formed the ,cod party4 ,opposed to them were the nobility and the lower classes1 forming the ,hook party4 ,in ,albert's latter years a fresh outbreak of civil war 7#acib-acie7 was caused by the count's espousing the side of the ,cods1 while the ,hooks had the support of his eldest son1 ,william4 ,albert was afterwards reconciled to his son1 who succeeded him as ,william ,,vi4 in #adjd4 ,on his accession to power ,william upheld the ,hooks1 and secured their ascendancy4 ,his reign was much troubled with civil discords1 but he was a brave soldier1 and was generally successful in his enterprises4 ,he died in #adag1 leaving an only child1 a daughter1 ,jacqueline 7or ,jacoba71 who had in her early youth been married to ,john1 heir to the throne of ,france4 ,at a gathering held at the ,hague 7,august #ae1 #adaf7 the nobles and representatives of the cities of ,holland and ,zeeland had promised at ,william's request to support his daughter's claims to the succession4 ,but ,john of ,france died 7,april #adag71 and ,william ,,vi4 about a month later1 leaving the widowed ,jacqueline at #ag years of age face to face with a difficult situation4 ,she was at first welcomed in ,holland and ,zeeland1 but found her claims opposed by her uncle1 ,john of ,bavaria1 supported by the ,cod party4 ,every one from whom she might have expected help betrayed her in turn1 her second husband ,john ,,iv4 of ,brabant1 her third husband ,humphrey of ,gloucester1 her cousin ,philip the ,good of ,burgundy1 all behaved shamefully to her4 ,her romantic and sad life has rendered the courageous and accomplished ,jacqueline the most picturesque figure in the whole history of ,holland4 ,she struggled long against her powerful kinsfolk1 nor did she know happiness till near the end of her life1 when she abandoned the unequal strife1 and found repose with ,francis of ,borselen1 ,ruward of ,holland1 her fourth husband4 ,him ,philip the ,good1 duke of ,burgundy1 craftily seized2 and thereby in #adcc the ,duchess ,jacqueline was compelled to cede her rights over the counties of ,holland and ,hainaut4 ,consequently at her death in #adcf1 as she left no children1 ,philip succeeded to the full and undisputed possession of her lands4 ,he had already acquired by inheritance1 purchase or force almost all the other ,netherland states2 and now1 with the extinction of the ,bavarian line of counts1 ,holland ceased to have an independent existence and became an outlying province of the growing ,burgundian power 7see ,,burgundy74 ,during the years that followed the accession to the sovereignty of ,duke ,philip1 ,holland plays but an insignificant part4 ,it was governed by a stadholder1 and but small respect was shown for its chartered rights and privileges4 ,the quarrels between the ,hook and ,cod factions still continued1 but the outbreaks of civil strife were quickly repressed by the strong hand of ,philip4 ,holland during this time contented herself with growing material prosperity4 ,her herring fishery1 rendered more valuable by the curing process discovered or introduced by ,benkelszoon1 brought her increasing wealth1 and her fishermen were already laying the foundations of her future maritime greatness4 ,it was in the days of ,duke ,philip that ,lorenz ,koster of ,haarlem contributed his share to the discovery of printing4 ,during the reign of ,charles the ,bold 7#adfg-adgg7 the ,hollanders1 like the other subjects of that warlike prince1 suffered much from the burden of taxation ,an outbreak at ,hoorn was by ,charles sternly repressed4 ,the ,hollanders were much aggrieved by the establishment of a high court of justice for the entire ,netherlands at ,mechlin4 7#adgd74 ,this was regarded as a serious breach of their privileges4 ,the succession of ,mary of ,burgundy led to the granting to ,holland as to the other provinces of the ,netherlands1 of the ,great ,privilege of ,march #adgg1 which restored the most important of their ancient rights and liberties 7see ,,netherlands74 ,a high court of justice was established for ,holland1 ,zeeland and ,friesland1 and the use of the native language was made official4 ,the ,hook and ,cod troubles again disturbed the country4 ,hook uprisings took place at ,leiden and ,dordrecht and had to be repressed by armed force4 ,maximilian of ,austria4 ,philip ,,ii4 the ,fair4 ,the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 7,charles ,,iii474 ,philip ,,iii4 ,william of ,orange ,stadholder4 ,the revolt of the ,netherlands4 ,union of ,utrecht4 ,abjuration of ,philip's ,sovereignty4 ,by the sudden death of the ,duchess ,mary in #adhb her possessions1 including the county of ,holland1 passed to her infant son ,philip1 under the guardianship of his father the ,archduke ,maximilian of ,austria4 ,thus the ,burgundian dynasty was succeeded by that of the ,habsburgs4 ,during the regency of ,maximilian the turbulence of the ,hooks caused much strife and unrest in ,holland4 ,their leaders4 ,francis of ,brederode and ,john of ,naaldwijk1 seized ,rotterdam and other places4 ,their overthrow finally ended the strife between ,hooks and ,cods4 ,the ,bread and ,cheese ,war1 an uprising of the peasants in ,north ,holland caused by famine1 is a proof of the misery caused by civil discords and oppressive taxation4 ,in #adid1 ,maximilian having been elected emperor1 ,philip was declared of age4 ,his assumption of the government was greeted with joy in ,holland1 and in his reign the province enjoyed rest and its fisheries benefited from the commercial treaty concluded with ,england4 ,the story of ,holland during the long reign of his son and successor ,charles ,,iii4 7#aejf-aeee71 better known as the emperor ,charles ,v41 belongs to the general history of the ,netherlands 7see ,,netherlands74 ,on the abdication of ,charles1 his son ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain became ,philip ,,iii41 count of ,holland1 the ruler whose arbitrary rule in church and state brought about the revolt of the ,netherlands4 ,his appointment of ,william1 prince of ,orange1 as stadholder of ,holland and ,zeeland was destined to have momentous results to the future of those provinces 7see ,,william ,,the ,,silent74 ,the capture of ,brill and of ,flushing in #aegb by the ,sea-,beggars led to the submission of the greater part of ,holland and ,zeeland to the authority of the prince of ,orange1 who1 as stadholder1 summoned the states of ,holland to meet at ,dordrecht4 ,this act was the beginning of ,dutch independence4 ,from this time forward ,william made ,holland his home4 ,it became the bulwark of the ,protestant faith in the ,netherlands1 the focus of the resistance to ,spanish tyranny4 ,the sieges of ,haarlem1 ,alkmaar and ,leiden saved ,holland from being overwhelmed by the armies of ,alva and ,requesens and stemmed the tide of ,spanish victory4 ,the act of federation between ,holland and ,zeeland brought about by the influence of ,william was the germ of the larger union of ,utrecht between the seven northern provinces in #aegi4 ,but within the larger union the inner and closer union between ,holland and ,zeeland continued to subsist4 ,in #aehj1 when the sovereignty of the ,netherlands was offered to the duke of ,anjou1 the two maritime provinces refused to acquiesce1 and forced ,william to accept the title of count of ,holland and ,zeeland4 ,in the following year ,william in the name of the two provinces solemnly abjured the sovereignty of the ,spanish king 7,july #bd74 ,after the assassination of ,william 7#aehd7 the title of count of ,holland was never revived4 ,government of ,holland4 ,johan van ,oldenbarneveldt4 ,contest between the ,principles of ,national and ,provincial ,sovereignty4 ,in the long struggle of the united provinces with ,spain1 which followed the death of ,orange1 the brunt of the conflict fell upon ,holland4 ,more than half the burden of the charges of the war fell upon this one province2 and with ,zeeland it furnished the fleets which formed the chief defence of the country4 ,hence the importance attached to the vote of ,holland in the assembly of the ,states-,general4 ,that vote was given by deputies at the head of whom was the advocate 7in later times called the grand pensionary7 of ,holland1 and who were responsible to1 and the spokesmen of1 the provincial states4 ,these states1 which met at the ,hague in the same building as the ,states-,general1 consisted of representatives of the burgher oligarchies 7regents7 of the principal towns1 together with representatives of the nobles1 who possessed one vote only4 ,the advocate was the paid minister of the states4 ,he presided over their meetings1 kept their minutes and conducted all correspondence1 and1 as stated above1 was their spokesman in the ,states-,general4 ,the advocate 7or grand pensionary7 of ,holland therefore1 if an able man1 had opportunities for exercising a very considerable influence1 becoming in fact a kind of minister of all affairs4 ,it was this influence as exerted by the successive advocates of ,holland1 ,paul ,buys and ,johan van ,oldenbarneveldt1 which rendered abortive the well-meant efforts of the earl of ,leicester to centralize the government of the ,united ,provinces4 ,after his departure 7#aehg7 the advocate of ,holland1 ,oldenbarneveldt1 became the indispensable statesman of the struggling republic4 ,the multiplicity of his functions gave to the advocate an almost unlimited authority in the details of administration1 and for thirty years the conduct of affairs remained in his hands 7see ,,oldenbarneveldt74 ,this meant the undisputed hegemony of ,holland in the federation1 in other words of the burgher oligarchies who controlled the town corporations of the province1 and especially of ,amsterdam4 ,this authority of ,holland was1 however1 more than counterbalanced by the extensive powers with which the stadholder princes of ,orange were invested2 and the chief crises in the internal history of the ,dutch republic are to be found in the struggles for supremacy between two1 in reality1 different principles of government4 ,on the one side the principle of provincial sovereignty which gave to the voice of ,holland a preponderating weight that was decisive2 on the other side the principle of national sovereignty personified in the princes of ,orange1 to whom the ,states-,general and the provincial states delegated executive powers that were little less than monarchical4 ,maurice ,prince of ,orange and ,john of ,oldenbarneveldt4 ,frederick ,henry ,prince of ,orange4 ,william ,,ii4 ,prince of ,orange4 ,john de ,witt4 ,william ,,iii4 ,prince of ,orange4 ,william ,,iv4 ,prince of ,orange4 ,the conclusion of the twelve years' truce in #afji was a triumph for ,oldenbarneveldt and the province of ,holland over the opposition of ,maurice1 prince of ,orange4 ,in #afag the outbreak of the religious dispute between the ,remonstrant and ,contra-remonstrant parties brought on a life and death struggle between the sovereign province of ,holland and the ,states-,general of the union4 ,the sword of ,maurice decided the issue in favour of the ,states-,general4 ,the claims of ,holland were overthrown and the head of ,oldenbarneveldt fell upon the scaffold 7#afai74 ,the stadholder1 ,frederick ,henry of ,orange1 ruled with well-nigh monarchical authority 7#afbe-afdg71 but even he at the height of his power and popularity had always to reckon with the opposition of the states of ,holland and of ,amsterdam1 and many of his plans of campaign were thwarted by the refusal of the ,hollanders to furnish supplies4 ,his son ,william ,,ii4 was but #ba years of age on succeeding to the stadholdership1 and the states of ,holland were sufficiently powerful to carry through the negotiations for the peace of ,munster 7#afdh7 in spite of his opposition4 ,a life and death conflict again ensued1 and once more in #afej the prince of ,orange by armed force crushed the opposition of the ,hollanders4 ,the sudden death of ,william in the hour of his triumph caused a complete revolution in the government of the republic4 ,he left no heir but a posthumous infant1 and the party of the burgher regents of ,holland was once more in the ascendant4 ,the office of stadholder was abolished1 and ,john de ,witt1 the grand pensionary 7,raad-,pensionaris7 of ,holland1 for two decades held in his hands all the threads of administration1 and occupied the same position of undisputed authority in the councils of the land as ,oldenbarneveldt had done at the beginning of the century4 ,amsterdam during this period was the centre and head of the ,united ,provinces4 ,the principle of provincial sovereignty was carried to its extreme point in the separate treaty concluded with ,cromwell in #afed1 in which the province of ,holland agreed to exclude for ever the prince of ,orange from the office of stadholder of ,holland or captain-general of the union4 ,in #afgb another revolution took place4 ,john de ,witt was murdered1 and ,william ,,iii4 was called to fill the office of dignity and authority which had been held by his ancestors of the house of ,orange1 and the stadholdership was declared to be hereditary in his family4 ,but ,william died without issue 7see ,,william ,,iii47 and a stadholderless period1 during which the province of ,holland was supreme in the union1 followed till #agcg4 ,this change was effected smoothly1 for though ,william had many differences with ,amsterdam1 he had in ,anthony ,heinsius 7van der ,heim71 who was grand pensionary of ,holland from #afij to his death in #agbj1 a statesman whom he thoroughly trusted1 who worked with him in the furtherance of his policy during life and who continued to carry out that policy after his death4 ,in #agcg there was once more a reversion to the stadholdership in the person of ,william ,,iv41 whose powers were strengthened and declared hereditary both in the male and female line in #agdg4 ,but until the final destruction of the federal republic by the ,french armies1 the perennial struggle went on between the ,holland or federal party 7,staatsgesinden7 centred at ,amsterdam--out of which grew the patriot party under ,william ,v4--and the ,orange or unionist party 7,oranjegesinden71 which was strong in the smaller provinces and had much popular support among the lower classes4 ,the ,french conquest swept away the old condition of things never to reappear2 but allegiance to the ,orange dynasty survived1 and in #ahac became the rallying point of a united ,dutch people4 ,at the same time the leading part played by the province of ,holland in the history of the republic has not been unrecognized1 for the country ruled over by the sovereigns of the house of ,orange is always popularly1 and often officially1 known as ,holland4 ,constitution of the ,states of ,holland4 ,the ,grand ,pensionary4 ,college of ,deputed ,councillors4 ,the full title of the states of ,holland in the #agth and #ahth centuries was3 de ,edele ,groot ,mogende ,heeren ,staaten van ,holland en ,westfriesland4 ,after #afjh this assembly consisted of nineteen members1 one representing the nobility 7ridderschap71 and eighteen1 the towns4 ,the member for the nobles had precedence and voted first4 ,the interests of the country districts 7het platte land7 were the peculiar charges of the member for the nobles4 ,the nobles also retained the right of appointing representatives to sit in the ,college of ,deputed ,councillors1 in certain colleges of the admiralty1 and upon the board of directors of the ,east ,india ,company1 and to various public offices4 ,the following eighteen towns sent representatives3 ,south ,quarter--7#a7 ,dordrecht1 7#b7 ,haarlem1 7#c7 ,delft1 7#d7 ,leiden1 7#e7 ,amsterdam1 7#f7 ,gouda1 7#g7 ,rotterdam1 7#h7 ,gorinchem1 7#i7 ,schiedam1 7#aj7 ,schoonhoven1 7#aa7 ,brill2 ,north ,quarter3--7#ab7 ,alkmaar1 7#ac7 ,hoorn1 7#ad7 ,enkhuizen1 7#ae7 ,edam1 7#af7 ,monnikendam1 7#ag7 ,medemblik1 7#ah7 ,purmerend4 ,each town 7as did also the nobles7 sent as many representatives as they pleased1 but the nineteen members had only one vote each4 ,each town's deputation was headed by its pensionary1 who was the spokesman on behalf of the representatives4 ,certain questions such as peace and war1 voting of subsidies1 imposition of taxation1 changes in the mode of government1 c41 required unanimity of votes4 ,the grand pensionary 7,raad-,pensionaris7 was at once the president and chief administrative officer of the states4 ,he presided over all meetings1 conducted the business1 kept the minutes1 and was charged with the maintenance of the rights of the states1 with the execution of their resolutions and with the entire correspondence4 ,nor were his functions only provincial4 ,he was the head and the spokesman of the deputation of the states to the ,states-,general of the union2 and in the stadholderless period the influence of such grand pensionaries of ,holland as ,john de ,witt and ,anthony ,heinsius enabled the complicated and intricate machinery of government in a confederacy of many sovereign and semi-sovereign authorities without any recognized head of the state1 to work with comparative smoothness and a remarkable unity of policy4 ,this was secured by the indisputable predominance in the union of the province of ,holland4 ,the policy of the states of ,holland swayed the policy of the generality1 and historical circumstances decreed that the policy of the states of ,holland during long and critical periods should be controlled by a succession of remarkable men filling the office of grand pensionary4 ,the states of ,holland sat at the ,hague in the months of ,march1 ,july1 ,september and ,november4 ,during the periods of prorogation the continuous oversight of the business and interests of the province was1 however1 never neglected4 ,this duty was confided to a body called the ,college of ,deputed ,councillors 7het ,kollegie der ,gekommitteerde ,raden71 which was itself divided into two sections1 one for the south quarter1 another for the north quarter4 ,the more important--that for the south quarter--consisted of ten members1 7#a7 the senior member of the nobility1 who sat for life1 7#b7 representatives 7for periods of three years7 of the eight towns3 ,dordrecht1 ,haarlem1 ,delft1 ,leiden1 ,amsterdam1 ,gouda1 ,rotterdam and ,gorinchem1 with a tenth member 7usually elected biennially7 for the towns of ,schiedam1 ,schoonhoven and ,brill conjointly4 ,the grand pensionary presided over the meetings of the college1 which had the general charge of the whole provincial administration1 especially of finance1 the carrying out of the resolutions of the states1 the maintenance of defences1 and the upholding of the privileges and liberties of the land4 ,with particular regard to this last-named duty the college deputed two of its members to attend all meetings of the states-general1 to watch the proceedings and report at once any proposals which they held to be contrary to the interests or to infringe upon the rights of the province of ,holland4 ,the institution of the ,college of ,deputed ,councillors might thus be described as a vigilance committee of the states in perpetual session4 ,the existence of the college1 with its many weighty and important functions1 must never be lost sight of by students who desire to have a clear understanding of the remarkable part played by the province of ,holland in the history of the ,united ,netherlands4 7,g4 ,e47 ,,holland1 a city of ,ottawa county1 ,michigan1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,macatawa ,bay 7formerly called ,black ,lake71 near ,lake ,michigan1 and #be m4 ,w4,s4,w4 of ,grand ,rapids4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #cide2 7#aijj7 #ggij1 of whom a large portion were of ,dutch descent2 7#aijd7 #hiff2 7#aiaj7 #aj1dij4 ,it is served by the ,pere ,marquette ,railroad1 by steamboat lines to ,chicago and other lake ports1 and by electric lines connecting with ,grand ,rapids1 ,saugatuck1 and the neighbouring summer resorts4 ,on ,macatawa ,bay are ,ottawa ,beach1 ,macatawa ,park1 ,jenison ,park1 ,central ,park1 ,castle ,park and ,waukezoo4 ,in the city itself are ,hope ,college 7co-educational2 founded in #ahea and incorporated as a college in #ahff71 an institution of the 7,dutch7 ,reformed ,church in ,america2 and the ,western ,theological ,seminary 7#ahfi2 suspended #ahgg-ahhd7 of the same denomination4 ,holland is a grain and fruit shipping centre1 and among its manufactures are furniture1 leather1 grist mill products1 iron1 beer1 pickles1 shoes1 beet sugar1 gelatine1 biscuit 7,holland rusk71 electric and steam launches1 and pianos4 ,in #aijh seven weekly1 one daily1 and two monthly papers 7four denominational7 were published at ,holland1 five of them in ,dutch4 ,the municipality owns its water-works and electric-lighting plant4 ,holland was founded in #ahdg by ,dutch settlers1 under the leadership of the ,rev4 ,a4 ,c4 ,van ,raalte1 and was chartered as a city in #ahfg4 ,in #ahga much of it was destroyed by a forest fire4 ,,holland1 a cloth so called from the country where it was first made4 ,it was originally a fine plain linen fabric of a brownish colour--unbleached flax4 ,several varieties are now made3 hollands1 pale hollands and fine hollands4 ,they are used for aprons1 blinds1 shirts1 blouses and dresses4 ,,hollar1 ,,wenzel or ,,wenceslaus ,,vaclaf ,,holar 7#afjg-afgg71 ,bohemian etcher1 was born at ,prague on the #acth of ,july #afjg1 and died in ,london1 being buried at ,st ,margaret's church1 ,westminster1 on the #bhth of ,march #afgg4 ,his family was ruined by the capture of ,prague in the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and young ,hollar1 who had been destined for the law1 determined to become an artist4 ,the earliest of his works that have come down to us are dated #afbe and #afbf2 they are small plates1 and one of them is a copy of a ,virgin and ,child by ,durer1 whose influence upon ,hollar's work was always great4 ,in #afbg he was at ,frankfort1 working under ,matthew ,merian1 an etcher and engraver2 thence he passed to ,strassburg1 and thence1 in #afcc1 to ,cologne4 ,it was there that he attracted the notice of the famous amateur ,thomas1 earl of ,arundel1 then on an embassy to the imperial court2 and with him ,hollar travelled to ,vienna and ,prague1 and finally came in #afcg to ,england1 destined to be his home for many years4 ,though he lived in the household of ,lord ,arundel1 he seems to have worked not exclusively for him1 but to have begun that slavery to the publishers which was afterwards the normal condition of his life4 ,in his first year in ,england he made for ,stent1 the printseller1 the magnificent ,view of ,greenwich1 nearly a yard long1 and received thirty shillings for the plate1--perhaps a twentieth part of what would now be paid for a single good impression4 ,afterwards we hear of his fixing the price of his work at fourpence an hour1 and measuring his time by a sandglass4 ,the ,civil ,war had its effect on his fortunes1 but none on his industry4 ,lord ,arundel left ,england in #afdb1 and ,hollar passed into the service of the duke of ,york1 taking with him a wife and two children4 ,with other royalist artists1 notably ,inigo ,jones and ,faithorne1 he stood the long and eventful siege of ,basing ,house2 and as we have some hundred plates from his hand dated during the years #afdc and #afdd he must have turned his enforced leisure to good purpose4 ,taken prisoner1 he escaped or was released1 and joined ,lord ,arundel at ,antwerp1 and there he remained eight years1 the prime of his working life1 when he produced his finest plates of every kind1 his noblest views1 his miraculous muffs and shells1 and the superb portrait of the duke of ,york4 ,in #afeb he returned to ,london1 and lived for a time with ,faithorne the engraver near ,temple ,bar4 ,during the following years were published many books which he illustrated3--,ogilby's ,virgil and ,homer1 ,stapylton's ,juvenal1 and ,dugdale's ,warwickshire1 ,st ,paul's and ,monasticon 7part i474 ,the booksellers continued to impose on the simple-minded foreigner1 pretending to decline his work that he might still further reduce the wretched price he charged them4 ,nor did the ,restoration improve his position4 ,the court did nothing for him1 and in the great plague he lost his young son1 who1 we are told1 might have rivalled his father as an artist4 ,after the great fire he produced some of his famous ,views of ,london2 and it may have been the success of these plates which induced the king to send him1 in #affh1 to ,tangier1 to draw the town and forts4 ,during his return to ,england occurred the desperate and successful engagement fought by his ship the ,mary ,rose1 under ,captain ,kempthorne1 against seven ,algerine men-of-war1--a brilliant affair which ,hollar etched for ,ogilby's ,africa4 ,he lived eight years after his return1 still working for the booksellers1 and retaining to the end his wonderful powers2 witness the large plate of ,edinburgh 7dated #afgj71 one of the greatest of his works4 ,he died in extreme poverty1 his last recorded words being a request to the bailiffs that they would not carry away the bed on which he was dying4 ,hollar's variety was boundless2 his plates number some #bgdj1 and include views1 portraits1 ships1 religious subjects1 heraldic subjects1 landscapes1 and still life in a hundred different forms4 ,no one that ever lived has been able to represent fur1 or shells1 or a butterfly's wing as he has done4 ,his architectural drawings1 such as those of ,antwerp and ,strassburg cathedrals1 and his views of towns1 are mathematically exact1 but they are pictures as well4 ,he could reproduce the decorative works of other artists quite faultlessly1 as in the famous chalice after ,mantegna's drawing4 ,his ,theatrum mulierum and similar collections reproduce for us with literal truth the outward aspects of the people of his day2 and his portraits1 a branch of art in which he has been unfairly disparaged1 are of extraordinary refinement and power4 ,almost complete collections of ,hollar's works exist in the ,british ,museum and in the library at ,windsor ,castle4 ,two admirable catalogues of his plates have been made1 one in #agde 7#bnd ed4 #agei7 by ,george ,vertue1 and one in #ahec by ,parthey4 ,the latter1 published at ,berlin1 is a model of ,german thoroughness and accuracy4 ,,holles1 ,,denzil ,,holles1 ,,baron 7#aeii-afhj71 ,english statesman and writer1 second son of ,john ,holles1 #ast earl of ,clare 7c4 #aefd-afcg71 by ,anne1 daughter of ,sir ,thomas ,stanhope1 was born on the #cast of ,october #aeii4 ,the favourite son of his father and endowed with great natural abilities1 ,denzil ,holles grew up under advantageous circumstances4 ,destined to become later one of the most formidable antagonists of ,king ,charles's arbitrary government1 he was in early youth that prince's playmate and intimate companion4 ,the earl of ,clare was1 however1 no friend to the ,stuart administration1 being especially hostile to the duke of ,buckingham2 and on the accession of ,charles to the throne the king's offers of favour were rejected4 ,in #afbd ,holles was returned to parliament for ,mitchell in ,cornwall1 and in #afbh for ,dorchester4 ,he had from the first a keen sense of the humiliations which attended the foreign policy of the ,stuart kings4 ,writing to ,strafford1 his brother-in-law1 on the #bith of ,november #afbg1 he severely censures ,buckingham's conduct of the expedition to the ,isle of ,rhe2 since ,england was ,england1 the declared1 it received not so dishonourable a blow2 and he joined in the demand for ,buckingham's impeachment in #afbh4 ,to these discontents were now added the abuses arising from the king's arbitrary administration4 ,on the #bnd of ,march #afbi1 when ,sir ,john ,finch1 the speaker1 refused to put ,sir ,john ,eliot's ,protestations and was about to adjourn the ,house by the king's command1 ,holles with another member thrust him back into the chair and swore he should sit still till it pleased them to rise4 ,meanwhile ,eliot1 on the refusal of the speaker to read the ,protestations1 had himself thrown them into the fire2 the usher of the black rod was knocking at the door for admittance1 and the king had sent for the guard4 ,but ,holles1 declaring that he could not render the king or his country better service1 put the ,protestations to the ,house from memory1 all the members rising to their feet and applauding4 ,in consequence a warrant was issued for his arrest with others on the following day4 ,they were prosecuted first in the ,star ,chamber and subsequently in the ,king's ,bench4 ,when brought upon his habeas corpus before the latter court ,holles offered with the rest to give bail1 but refused sureties for good behaviour1 and argued that the court had no jurisdiction over offences supposed to have been committed in parliament4 ,on his refusal to plead he was sentenced to a fine of #ajjj marks and to imprisonment during the king's pleasure4 ,holles had at first been committed and remained for some time a close prisoner in the ,tower of ,london4 ,the close confinement1 however1 was soon changed to a safe one1 the prisoner then having leave to take the air and exercise1 but being obliged to maintain himself at his own expense4 ,on the #bith of ,october ,holles1 with ,eliot and ,valentine1 was transferred to the ,marshalsea4 ,his resistance to the king's tyranny did not prove so stout as that of some of his comrades in misfortune4 ,among the papers of the secretary ,sir ,john ,coke is a petition of ,holles1 couched in humble and submissive terms1 to be restored to the king's favour2#a having given the security demanded for his good behaviour1 he was liberated early in #afcj1 and on the #cjth of ,october was allowed bail4 ,being still banished from ,london he retired to the country1 paying his fine in #afcg or #afch4 ,the fine was repaid by the parliament in ,july #afdd1 and the judgment was revised on a writ of error in #affh4 ,in #afch we find him1 notwithstanding his recent experiences1 one of the chief leaders in his county of the resistance to ship money1 though it would appear that he subsequently made submission4 ,holles was a member of the ,short and ,long ,parliaments assembled in #afdj4 ,according to ,laud he was now one of the great leading men in the ,house of ,commons1 and in ,clarendon's opinion he was a man of more accomplished parts than any of his party and of most authority4 ,he was not1 however1 in the confidence of the republican party4 ,though he was at first named one of the managers for the impeachment of ,strafford1 ,holles had little share in his prosecution4 ,according to ,laud he held out to ,strafford hopes of saving his life if he would use his influence with the king to abolish episcopacy1 but the earl refused1 and ,holles advised ,charles that ,strafford should demand a short respite1 of which he would take advantage to procure a commutation of the death sentence4 ,in the debate on the attainder he spoke on behalf of ,strafford's family1 and later obtained some favours from the parliament for his eldest son4 ,in all other matters in parliament ,holles took a principal part4 ,he was one of the chief movers of the ,protestation of the #crd of ,may #afda1 which he carried up to the ,lords1 urging them to give it their approval4 ,although1 according to ,clarendon1 he did not wish to change the government of the church1 he showed himself at this time decidedly hostile to the bishops4 ,he took up the impeachment of ,laud to the ,house of ,peers1 supported the ,londoners' petition for the abolition of episcopacy and the ,root and ,branch ,bill1 and afterwards urged that the bishops impeached for their conduct in the affair of the late canons should be accused of treason4 ,he showed equal energy in the affairs of ,ireland at the outbreak of the rebellion1 supported strongly the independence and purity of the judicial bench1 and opposed toleration of the ,roman ,catholics4 ,on the #ith of ,july #afda he addressed the ,lords on behalf of the queen of ,bohemia1 expressing great loyalty to the king and royal family and urging the necessity of supporting the ,protestant religion everywhere4 ,together with ,pym1 ,holles drew up the ,grand ,remonstrance1 and made a vigorous speech in its support on the #bbnd of ,november #afda1 in which he argued for the right of one ,house to make a declaration1 and asserted3 ,if kings are misled by their counsellors we may1 we must tell them of it4 ,on the #aeth of ,december he was a teller in the division in favour of printing it4 ,on the great subject of the militia he also showed activity4 ,he supported ,hesilriges' ,militia ,bill of the #gth of ,december #afda1 and on the #cast of ,december he took up to the king the ,commons' demand for a guard under the command of ,essex4 ,holles's force and reputation1 said ,sir ,ralph ,verney1 are the two things that give the success to all actions4 ,after the failure of the attempt by the court to gain over ,holles and others by offering them posts in the administration1 he was one of the five members impeached by the king4#b ,holles at once grasped the full significance of the king's action1 and after the triumphant return to the ,house of the five members1 on the #aath of ,january1 threw himself into still more pronounced opposition to the arbitrary policy of the crown4 ,he demanded that before anything further was done the members should be cleared of their impeachment2 was himself leader in the impeachment of the duke of ,richmond2 and on the #cast of ,january1 when taking up the militia petition to the ,house of ,lords1 he adopted a very menacing tone1 at the same time presenting a petition of some thousands of supposed starving artificers of ,london1 congregated round the ,house4 ,on the #aeth of ,june he carried up the impeachment of the nine ,lords who had deserted the parliament2 and he was one of the committee of safety appointed on the #dth of ,july4 ,on the outbreak of the ,civil ,war 7see ,,great ,,rebellion7 ,holles1 who had been made lieutenant of ,bristol1 was sent with ,bedford to the west against the marquess of ,hertford1 and took part in the unsuccessful siege of the latter at ,sherborne ,castle4 ,he was present at ,edgehill1 where his regiment of ,puritans recruited in ,london was one of the few which stood firm and saved the day for the parliament4 ,on the #acth of ,november his men were surprised at ,brentford during his absence1 and routed after a stout resistance4 ,in ,december he was proposed for the command of the forces in the west1 an appointment which he appears to have refused4 ,notwithstanding his activity in the field for the cause of the parliament1 the appeal to arms had been distasteful to ,holles from the first4 ,as early as ,september he surprised the ,house by the marked abatement of his former violent and fiery spirit1 and his changed attitude did not escape the taunts of his enemies1 who attributed it scornfully to his disaster at ,brentford or to his new wife4 ,he probably foresaw that1 to whichever side victory fell1 the struggle could only terminate in the suppression of the constitution and of the moderate party on which all his hopes were based4 ,his feelings and political opinions1 too1 were essentially aristocratic1 and he regarded with horror the transference of the government of the state from the king and the ruling families to the parliamentary leaders4 ,he now advocated peace and a settlement of the disputes by concessions on both sides2 a proposal full of danger because impracticable1 and one therefore which could only weaken the parliamentary resistance and prolong the struggle4 ,he warmly supported the peace negotiations on the #bast of ,november and the #bbnd of ,december1 and his attitude led to a breach with ,pym and the more determined party4 ,in ,june #afdc he was accused of complicity in ,waller's plot1 but swore to his innocency2 and his arrest with others of the peace party was even proposed in ,august1 when ,holles applied for a pass to leave the country4 ,the king's successes1 however1 for the moment put a stop to all hopes of peace2 and in ,april #afdd ,holles addressed the citizens of ,london at the ,guildhall1 calling upon them to join with their purses1 their persons1 and their prayers together to support the army of ,essex4 ,in ,november ,holles and ,whitelocke headed the commission appointed to treat with the king at ,oxford4 ,he endeavoured to convince the royalists of the necessity of yielding in time1 before the new party of hot men should gain the upper hand4 ,holles and ,whitelocke had a private meeting with the king1 when at ,charles's request they drew up the answer which they advised him to return to the parliament4 ,this interview was not communicated to the other commissioners or to parliament1 and though doubtless their motives were thoroughly patriotic1 their action was scarcely compatible with their position as trustees of the parliamentary cause4 ,holles was also appointed a commissioner at ,uxbridge in ,january #afde and endeavoured to overcome the crucial difficulty of the militia by postponing its discussion altogether4 ,as leader of the moderate 7or ,presbyterian7 party ,holles now came into violent antagonism with ,cromwell and the army faction4 ,they hated one another equally2 and ,holles would not allow any merit in ,cromwell1 accusing him of cowardice and attributing his successes to chance and good fortune4 ,with the support of ,essex and the ,scottish commissioners ,holles endeavoured in ,december #afdd to procure ,cromwell's impeachment as an incendiary between the two nations1 and passionately opposed the self-denying ordinance4 ,in return ,holles was charged with having held secret communications with the king at ,oxford and with a correspondence with ,lord ,digby2 but after a long examination by the ,house he was pronounced innocent on the #aith of ,july #afde4 ,determined on ,cromwell's destruction1 he refused to listen to the prudent counsels of ,sir ,anthony ,ashley ,cooper1 who urged that ,cromwell was too strong to be resisted or provoked1 and on the #bith of ,march #afdg drew up in parliament a hasty proclamation declaring the promoters of the army petition enemies to the state2 in ,april challenging ,ireton to a duel4 ,the army party was now thoroughly exasperated against ,holles4 ,they were resolved one way or other to be rid of him1 says ,clarendon4 ,on the #afth of ,june #afdg eleven members including ,holles were charged by the army with various offences against the state1 followed on the #bcrd by fresh demands for their impeachment and for their suspension1 which was refused4 ,on the #bfth1 however1 the eleven members1 to avoid violence1 asked leave to withdraw4 ,their reply to the charges against them was handed into the ,house on the #aith of ,july1 and on the #bjth ,holles took leave of the ,house in ,a grave and learned speech4444 ,after the riot of the apprentices on the #bfth1 for which ,holles disclaimed any responsibility1 the eleven members were again 7#cjth of ,july7 recalled to their seats1 and ,holles was one of the committee of safety appointed4 ,on the flight of the speaker1 however1 and part of the parliament to the army1 and the advance of the latter to ,london1 ,holles1 whose party and policy were now entirely defeated1 left ,england on the #bbnd of ,august for ,sainte-,mere ,eglise in ,normandy4 ,on the #bfth of ,january #afdh the eleven members1 who had not appeared when summoned to answer the charges against them1 were expelled4 ,not long afterwards1 however1 on the #crd of ,june1 these proceedings were annulled2 and ,holles1 who had then returned and was a prisoner in the ,tower with the rest of the eleven members1 was discharged4 ,he returned to his seat on the #adth of ,august4 ,holles was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king at ,newport on the #ahth of ,september #afdh4 ,aware of the plans of the extreme party1 ,holles threw himself at the king's feet and implored him not to waste time in useless negotiations1 and he was one of those who stayed behind the rest in order to urge ,charles to compliance4 ,on the #ast of ,december he received the thanks of the ,house4 ,on the occasion of ,pride's ,purge on the #fth of ,december ,holles absented himself and escaped again to ,france4 ,from his retirement there he wrote to ,charles ,,ii4 in #afea1 advising him to come to terms with the ,scots as the only means of effecting a restoration2 but after the alliance he refused ,charles's offer of the secretaryship of state4 ,in ,march #afed ,cromwell1 who in alarm at the plots being formed against him was attempting to reconcile some of his opponents to his government1 sent ,holles a pass with notable circumstances of kindness and esteem4 ,his subsequent movements and the date of his return to ,england are uncertain1 but in #afef ,cromwell's resentment was again excited against him as the supposed author of a tract1 really written by ,clarendon4 ,he appears to have been imprisoned1 for his release was ordered by the council on the #bnd of ,september #afei4 ,holles took part in the conference with ,monk at ,northumberland ,house1 when the ,restoration was directly proposed1 and with the secluded members took his seat again in parliament on the #bast of ,february #affj4 ,on the #bcrd of ,february he was chosen one of the council to carry on the government during the interregnum2 on the #bnd of ,march the votes passed against him and the sequestration of his estates were repealed1 and on the #gth he was made custos rotulorum for ,dorsetshire4 ,he took a leading part in bringing about the ,restoration1 was chairman of the committee of seven appointed to prepare an answer to the king's letter1 and as one of the deputed ,lords and ,commons he delivered at the ,hague the invitation to ,charles to return4 ,he preceded ,charles to ,england to prepare for his reception1 and was sworn of the privy council on the #eth of ,june4 ,he was one of the thirty-four commissioners appointed to try the regicides in ,september and ,october4 ,on the #bjth of ,april #affa he was created ,baron ,holles of ,ifield in ,sussex1 and became henceforth one of the leading members of the ,upper ,house4 ,holles1 who was a good ,french scholar1 was sent as ambassador to ,france on the #gth of ,july #affc4 ,he was ostentatiously ,english1 and a zealous upholder of the national honour and interests2 but his position was rendered difficult by the absence of home support4 ,on the #bgth of ,january #afff war was declared1 but ,holles was not recalled till ,may4 ,pepys remarks on the #adth of ,november3 ,sir ,g4 ,cartaret tells me that just now my ,lord ,holles had been with him and wept to think in what a condition we are fallen4 ,soon afterwards he was employed on another disagreeable mission in which the national honour was again at stake1 being sent to ,breda to make a peace with ,holland in ,may #affg4 ,he accomplished his task successfully1 the articles being signed on the #bast of ,june4 ,on the #abth of ,december he protested against ,lord ,clarendon's banishment and was nearly put out of the council in consequence4 ,in #affh he was manager for the ,lords in the celebrated ,skinner's case1 in which his knowledge of precedents was of great service1 and on which occasion he published the tract ,the ,grand ,question concerning the ,judicature of the ,house of ,peeres 7#affi74 ,holles1 who was honourably distinguished by ,charles as a stiff and sullen man1 and as one who would not yield to solicitation1 now became with ,halifax and ,shaftesbury a leader in the resistance to the domestic and foreign policy of the court4 ,together with ,halifax he opposed both the arbitrary ,conventicle ,act of #afgj and the ,test ,oath of #afge1 his objection to the latter being chiefly founded on the invasion of the privileges of the peers which it involved2 and he defended with vigour the right of the ,peers to record their protests4 ,on the #gth of ,january #afgf ,holles with ,halifax was summarily dismissed from the council4 ,on the occasion of the ,commons petitioning the king in favour of an alliance with the ,dutch1 ,holles addressed a ,letter to ,van ,beuninghen at ,amsterdam on ,love to our ,country and ,hatred of a ,common ,enemy1 enlarging upon the necessity of uniting in a common defence against ,french aggression and in support of the ,protestant religion4 ,the ,people are strong but the ,government is weak1 he declares2 and he attributes the cause of weakness to the transference of power from the nobility to the people1 and to a succession of three weak princes4 ,save what 7the ,parliament7 did1 we have not taken one true step nor struck one true stroke since ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,he endeavoured to embarrass the government this year in his tract on ,some ,considerations upon the ,question whether the parliament is dissolved by its prorogation for #ae months4 ,it was held by the ,lords to be seditious and scandalous2 while for publishing another pamphlet written by ,holles entitled ,the ,grand ,question concerning the ,prorogation of this ,parliament 7otherwise ,the ,long ,parliament dissolved7 the corrector of the proof sheets was committed to the ,tower and fined ,l#ajjj4 ,in order to bring about the downfall of ,danby 7afterwards duke of ,leeds7 and the disbanding of the army1 which he believed to be intended for the suppression of the national liberties1 ,holles at this time 7#afgg-afgi7 engaged1 as did many others1 in a dangerous intrigue with ,courtin and ,barillon1 the ,french envoys1 and ,louis ,,xiv42 he refused1 however1 the latter's presents on the ground that he was a member of the council1 having been appointed to ,sir ,william ,temple's new modelled cabinet in #afgi4 ,barillon described him as at this period in his old age the man of all ,england for whom the different cabals have the most consideration1 and as firmly opposed to the arbitrary designs of the court4 ,he showed moderation in the ,popish ,plot1 and on the question of the exclusion followed ,halifax rather than ,shaftesbury4 ,his long and eventful career closed by his death on the #agth of ,february #afhj4 ,the character of ,holles has been drawn by ,burnet1 with whom he was on terms of friendship4 ,hollis was a man of great courage and of as great pride4444 ,he was faithful and firm to his side and never changed through the whole course of his life4444 ,he argued well but too vehemently2 for he could not bear contradiction4 ,he had the soul of an old stubborn ,roman in him4 ,he was a faithful but a rough friend1 and a severe but fair enemy4 ,he had a true sense of religion2 and was a man of an unblameable course of life and of a sound judgment when it was not biased by passion4#c ,holles was essentially an aristocrat and a ,whig in feeling1 making ,cromwell's supposed hatred of ,lords a special charge against him2 regarding the civil wars rather as a social than as a political revolution1 and attributing all the evils of his time to the transference of political power from the governing families to the meanest of men4 ,he was an authority on the history and practice of parliament and the constitution1 and besides the pamphlets already mentioned was the author of ,the ,case ,stated concerning the ,judicature of the ,house of ,peers in the ,point of ,appeals 7#afge72 ,the ,case ,stated of the ,jurisdiction of the ,house of ,lords in the point of ,impositions 7#afgf72 ,letter of a ,gentleman to his ,friend showing that the ,bishops are not to be judges in ,parliament in ,cases ,capital 7#afgi72 ,lord ,holles his ,remains1 being a #bnd letter to a ,friend concerning the judicature of the ,bishops in ,parliament4444#d ,he also published ,a ,true ,relation of the unjust accusation of certain ,french gentlemen 7#afga71 an account of ,holles's intercession on their behalf and of his dispute with ,lord ,chief ,justice ,keeling2 and he left ,memoirs1 written in exile in #afdi1 and dedicated to the unparalleled ,couple1 ,mr ,oliver ,st ,john 444 and ,mr ,oliver ,cromwell4444 published in #afii and reprinted in ,baron ,maseres's ,select ,tracts relating to the ,civil ,wars1 i4 #ahi4 ,several speeches of ,holles were printed and are extant1 and his ,letter to ,van ,beuninghen has been already quoted4 ,holles married 7#a7 in #afbh ,dorothy1 daughter and heiress of ,sir ,francis ,ashley2 7#b7 in #afdb ,jane1 daughter and co-heiress of ,sir ,john ,shirley of ,ifield in ,sussex and widow of ,sir ,walter ,covert of ,slougham1 ,sussex2 and 7#c7 in #afff ,esther1 daughter and co-heiress of ,gideon ,le ,lou of ,columbiers in ,normandy1 widow of ,james ,richer4 ,by his first wife he left one son1 ,francis1 who succeeded him as #bnd baron4 ,he had no children by his other wives1 and the peerage became extinct in the person of his grandson ,denzil1 #crd ,baron ,holles1 in #afid1 the estates devolving on ,john ,holles 7#affb-agaa71 #dth earl of ,clare and duke of ,newcastle4 ,holles's brother1 ,,john ,,holles1 #bnd earl of ,clare 7#aeie-afff71 was member of parliament for ,east ,retford in three parliaments before succeeding to the peerage in #afcg4 ,he took some part in the ,civil ,war1 but he was very often of both parties1 and never advantaged either4 ,the earldom of ,clare1 which had been granted in #afbd by ,james ,i4 to his father1 ,john ,holles1 in return for the payment of ,l#ejjj1 became merged in the dukedom of ,newcastle in #afid1 when ,john ,holles1 the #dth earl1 was created duke of ,newcastle4 ,holles's ,life has been written by ,c4 ,h4 ,firth in the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography2 by ,horace ,walpole in ,royal and ,noble ,authors1 ii4 #bh2 by ,guizot in ,monk's ,contemporaries 7,eng4 trans41 #ahea72 and by ,a4 ,collins in ,historical ,collections of ,noble ,families 7#ageb71 and in the ,biographia ,britannica4 ,see also ,s4 ,r4 ,gardiner1 ,history of ,england 7#ahhc-ahhd71 and ,history of the ,great ,civil ,war 7#ahic72 ,lord ,clarendon1 ,history of the ,rebellion1 edited by ,w4 ,d4 ,macray2 ,g4 ,burnet1 ,history of ,his ,own ,time 7#ahcc72 and ,b4 ,whitelock1 ,memorials 7#agcb74 7,p4 ,c4 ,y47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,hist4 ,,mss4 ,comm41 ,,mss4 of ,earl ,cowper1 i4 #dbb4 #b ,the speech of ,january #e attributed to him and printed in ,thomason ,tracts1 ,e #aii 7#ee71 is a forgery4 #c ,burnet's ,history of ,his ,own ,times1 vi4 #beg1 #bfh4 #d ,the rough draft1 apparently in ,holles's handwriting1 is in ,egerton ,,mss4 ff4 #acf-adi4 ,,holloway1 ,,thomas 7#ahjj-ahhc71 ,english patent-medicine vendor and philanthropist1 was born at ,devonport1 on the #bbnd of ,september #ahjj1 of humble parents4 ,until his twenty-eighth year he lived at ,penzance1 where he assisted his mother and brother in the baker's shop which his father1 once a warrant officer in a militia regiment1 had left them at his death4 ,on coming to ,london he made the acquaintance of ,felix ,albinolo1 an ,italian1 from whom he obtained the idea for the ointment which was to carry his name all over the world4 ,the secret of his enormous success in business was due almost entirely to advertisement1 in the efficacy of which he had great faith4 ,he soon added the sale of pills to that of the ointment1 and began to devote the larger part of his profits to advertising4 ,holloway's first newspaper announcement appeared on the #aeth of ,october #ahcg1 and in #ahdb his yearly expenses for publicity had reached the sum of ,l#ejjj2 this expenditure went on steadily increasing as his sales increased1 until it had reached the figure of ,l#ej1jjj per annum at the time of his death4 ,it is1 however1 chiefly by the two princely foundations--the ,sanatorium and the ,college for ,women at ,egham 7q4v471 endowed by ,holloway towards the close of his life--that his name will be perpetuated1 more than a million sterling having been set apart by him for the erection and permanent endowment of these institutions4 ,in the deed of gift of the college the founder credited his wife1 who died in #ahge1 with the advice and counsel that led him to provide what he hoped might ultimately become the nucleus of a university for women4 ,the philanthropic and somewhat eccentric donor 7he had an unconcealed prejudice against doctors1 lawyers and parsons7 died of congestion of the lungs at ,sunninghill on the #bfth of ,december #ahhc4 ,,holly 7,ilex ,aquifolium71 the ,european representative of a large genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order ,ilicineae1 containing about #agj species4 ,the genus finds its chief development in ,central and ,south ,america2 is well developed in ,asia1 especially the ,chinese-,japanese area1 and has but few species in ,europe1 ,africa and ,australia4 ,in ,europe1 where ,i4 ,aquifolium is the sole surviving species1 the genus was richly represented during the ,miocene period by forms at first ,south ,american and ,asiatic1 and later ,north ,american in type 7,schimper1 ,paleont4 veget4 iii4 #bjd1 #ahgd74 ,the leaves are generally leathery and evergreen1 and are alternate and stalked2 the flowers are commonly dioecious1 are in axillary cymes1 fascicles or umbellules1 and have a persistent four- to five-lobed calyx1 a white1 rotate four- or rarely five- or six-cleft corolla1 with the four or five stamens adherent to its base in the male1 sometimes hypogynous in the female flowers1 and a two- to twelve-celled ovary2 the fruit is a globose1 very seldom ovoid1 and usually red drupe1 containing two to sixteen one-seeded stones4 ,illustration3 ,ilex ,aquifolium4 ,shoot bearing leaves and fruit about #a_/b nat4 size4 #a4 ,flower with abortive stamens4 #b4 ,flower with abortive pistil4 #c4 ,floral diagram showing arrangement of parts in horizontal section4 #d4 ,fruit4 #e4 ,fruit cut transversely showing the four one-seeded stones4 ,the common holly1 or ,hulver 7apparently the ,greek3 kelastros of ,theophrastus2#a ,ang4-,sax4 holen or holegn2 ,mid4 ,eng4 holyn or holin1 whence holm and holmtree2#b ,welsh1 celyn2 ,ger4 ,stechpalme1 ,hulse1 ,hulst2 ,o4 ,fr4 houx2 and ,fr4 houlx71#c ,i4 ,aquifolium1 is an evergreen shrub or low tree1 having smooth1 ash-coloured bark1 and wavy1 pointed1 smooth and glossy leaves1 #b to #c in4 long1 with a spinous margin1 raised and cartilaginous below1 or1 as commonly on the upper branches of the older trees1 entire--a peculiarity alluded to by ,southey in his poem ,the ,holly ,tree4 ,the flowers1 which appear in ,may1 are ordinarily dioecious1 as in all the best of the cultivated varieties in nurseries 7,gard4 ,chron41 #ahgg1 i4 #adi74 ,darwin 7,diff4 ,forms of ,flow41 #ahgg1 p4 #big7 says of the holly3 ,during several years ,i have examined many plants1 but have never found one that was really hermaphrodite4 ,shirley ,hibberd1 however 7,gard4 ,chron41 #ahgg1 ii4 #ggg71 mentions the occurrence of flowers bearing globose anthers well furnished with pollen1 and also perfect ovaries4 ,in his opinion1 ,i4 ,aquifolium changes its sex from male to female with age4 ,in the female flowers the stamens are destitute of pollen1 though but slightly or not at all shorter than in the male flowers2 the latter are more numerous than the female1 and have a smaller ovary and a larger corolla1 to which the filaments adhere for a greater length4 ,the corolla in male plants falls off entire1 whereas in fruit-bearers it is broken into separate segments by the swelling of the young ovary4 ,the holly occurs in ,britain1 north-east ,scotland excepted1 and in western and southern ,europe1 from as high as #fb deg4 ,n4 lat4 in ,norway to ,turkey and the ,caucasus and in western ,asia4 ,it is found generally in forest glades or in hedges1 and does not flourish under the shade of other trees4 ,in ,england it is usually small1 probably on account of its destruction for timber1 but it may attain to #fj or #gj ft4 in height1 and ,loudon mentions one tree at ,claremont1 in ,surrey1 of #hj ft4 ,some of the trees on ,bleak ,hill1 ,shropshire1 are asserted to be #ad ft4 in girth at some distance from the ground 7,n4 and ,q41 #eth ser41 xii4 #ejh74 ,the holly is abundant in ,france1 especially in ,brittany4 ,it will grow in almost any soil not absolutely wet1 but flourishes best in rather dry than moist sandy loam4 ,beckmann 7,hist4 of ,invent41 #ahdf1 i4 #aic7 says that the plant which first induced ,j4 di ,castro to search for alum in ,italy was the holly1 which is there still considered to indicate that its habitat is aluminiferous4 ,the holly is propagated by means of the seeds1 which do not normally germinate until their second year1 by whip-grafting and budding1 and by cuttings of the matured summer shoots1 which1 placed in sandy soil and kept under cover of a hand-glass in sheltered situations1 generally strike root in spring4 ,transplantation should be performed in damp weather in ,september and ,october1 or1 according to some writers1 in spring or on mild days in winter1 and care should be taken that the roots are not dried by exposure to the air4 ,it is rarely injured by frosts in ,britain1 where its foliage and bright red berries in winter render it a valuable ornamental tree4 ,the yield of berries has been noticed to be less when a warm spring1 following on a wet winter season1 has promoted excess of growth4 ,there are numerous varieties of the holly4 ,some trees have yellow1 and others white or even black fruit4 ,in the fruitless variety laurifolia1 the most floriferous of all hollies 7,hibberd71 the flowers are highly fragrant2 the form known as femina is1 on the other hand1 remarkable for the number of its berries4 ,the leaves in the unarmed varieties aureo-marginata and albo-marginata are of great beauty1 and in ferox they are studded with sharp prickles4 ,the holly is of importance as a hedge-plant1 and is patient of clipping1 which is best performed by the knife4 ,evelyn's holly hedge at ,say's ,court1 ,deptford1 was #djj ft4 long1 #i ft4 high and #e ft4 in breadth4 ,to form fences1 for which ,evelyn recommends the employment of seedlings from woods1 the plants should be #i to #ab in4 in height1 with plenty of small fibrous roots1 and require to be set #a to #a7a_/b7 ft4 apart1 in well-manured and weeded ground and thoroughly watered4 ,the wood of the holly is even-grained and hard1 especially when from the heartwood of large trees1 and almost as white as ivory1 except near the centre of old trunks1 where it is brownish4 ,it is employed in inlaying and turning1 and1 since it stains well1 in the place of ebony1 as for teapot handles4 ,for engraving it is inferior to box4 ,when dry it weighs about #dg7a_/b7 lb4 per cub4 ft4 ,from the bark of the holly bird-lime is manufactured4 ,from the leaves are obtainable a colouring matter named ilixanthin1 ilicic acid1 and a bitter principle1 ilicin1 which has been variously described by different analytical chemists4 ,they are eaten by sheep and deer1 and in parts of ,france serve as a winter fodder for cattle4 ,the berries provoke in man violent vomiting and purging1 but are eaten with immunity by thrushes and other birds4 ,the larvae of the moths ,sphinx ligustri and ,phoxopteryx naevana have been met with on holly4 ,the leaves are mined by the larva of a fly1 ,phytomyza ilicis1 and both on them and the tops of the young twigs occurs the plant-louse ,aphis ilicis 7,kaltenbach1 ,pflanzenfeinde1 #ahgd1 p4 #dbg74 ,the custom of employing holly and other plants for decorative purposes at ,christmas is one of considerable antiquity1 and has been regarded as a survival of the usages of the ,roman ,saturnalia1 or of an old ,teutonic practice of hanging the interior of dwellings with evergreens as a refuge for sylvan spirits from the inclemency of winter4 ,a ,border proverb defines an habitual story-teller as one that lees never but when the hollen is green4 ,several popular superstitions exist with respect to holly4 ,in the county of ,rutland it is deemed unlucky to introduce it into a house before ,christmas ,eve4 ,in some ,english rural districts the prickly and non-prickly kinds are distinguished as he and she holly2 and in ,derbyshire the tradition obtains that according as the holly brought at ,christmas into a house is smooth or rough1 the wife or the husband will be master4 ,holly that has adorned churches at that season is in ,worcestershire and ,herefordshire much esteemed and cherished1 the possession of a small branch with berries being supposed to bring a lucky year2 and ,lonicerus mentions a notion in his time vulgarly prevalent in ,germany that consecrated twigs of the plant hung over a door are a protection against thunder4 ,among the ,north ,american species of ,ilex are ,i4 opaca1 which resembles the ,european tree1 the ,inkberry1 ,i4 7,prinos7 glabra1 and the ,american ,black ,alder1 or ,winterberry1 ,i4 7,prinos7 verticillata4 ,hooker 7,fl4 of ,brit4 ,india1 i4 #eih1 #fjf7 enumerates twenty-four ,indian species of ,ilex4 ,the ,japanese ,i4 crenata1 and ,i4 latifolia1 a remarkably hardy plant1 and the ,north ,american ,i4 ,cassine1 are among the species cultivated in ,britain4 ,the leaves of several species of ,ilex are used by dyers4 ,the member of the genus most important economically is ,i4 paraguariensis1 the prepared leaves of which constitute ,paraguay tea1 or ,,mate 7q4v474 ,knee holly is ,ruscus aculeatus1 or butcher's broom 7see ,,broom72 sea holly1 ,eryngium maritimum1 an umbelliferous plant2 and the mountain holly of ,america1 ,nemopanthes canadensis1 also a member of the order ,ilicineae4 ,besides the works above mentioned1 see ,louden1 ,arboretum1 ii4 #ejf 7#ahdd74 ,,footnotes3 #a ,hist4 ,plant4 i4 #i4 #c1 iii4 #c4 #a1 and #d4 #f1 et passim4 ,on the aquifolium or aquifolia of ,latin authors1 commonly regarded as the holly1 see ,a4 de ,grandsagne1 ,hist4 ,nat4 de ,pline1 bk4 xvi41 ,notes1 pp4 #aii1 #bjf4 #b ,the term holm1 as indicative of a prevalence of holly1 is stated to have entered into the names of several places in ,britain4 ,from its superficial resemblance to the holly1 the tree ,quercus ,ilex1 the evergreen oak1 received the appellation of holm-oak4 #c ,skeat 7,etymolog4 ,dict41 #ahgi7 with reference to the word holly remarks3 ,the form of the base ,,kul 7 ,teutonic ,,hul7 is probably connected with ,lat4 culmen1 a peak1 culmus1 a stalk2 perhaps because the leaves are 'pointed4' ,grimm 7,deut4 ,worterb4 ,bd4 iv47 suggests that the term ,hulst1 as the ,o4,h4,g4 ,hulis1 applied to the butcher's broom1 or knee-holly1 in the earliest times used for hedges1 may have reference to the holly as a protecting 7hullender7 plant4 ,,hollyhock 7from ,m4,e4 holi--doubtless because brought from the ,holy ,land1 where it is indigenous 7,wedg47--and ,a4-,s4 hoc1 a mallow71 ,althaea rosea1 a perennial plant of the natural order ,malvaceae1 a native of the ,east1 which has been cultivated in ,great ,britain for about three centuries4 ,the ordinary hollyhock is single-blossomed1 but the florists' varieties have all double flowers1 of white1 yellow1 rose1 purple1 violet and other tints1 some being almost black4 ,the plant is in its prime about ,august1 but by careful management examples may be obtained in blossom from ,july to as late as ,november4 ,hollyhocks are propagated from seed1 or by division of the root1 or by planting out in rich sandy soil1 in a close frame1 with a gentle bottom heat1 single eyes from woodshoots1 or cuttings from outgrowths of the old stock or of the lateral offsets of the spike4 ,the seed may be sown in ,october under cover1 the plants obtained being potted in ,november1 and kept under glass till the following ,april1 or1 if it be late-gathered1 in ,may or ,june1 in the open ground1 whence1 if required1 the plants are best removed in ,october or ,april4 ,in many gardens1 when the plants are not disturbed1 self-sown seedlings come up in abundance about ,april and ,may4 ,seedlings may also be raised in ,february or ,march1 by the aid of a gentle heat1 in a light and rich moist soil2 they should not be watered till they have made their second leaves1 and when large enough for handling should be pricked off in a cold frame2 they are subsequently transferred to the flower-bed4 ,hollyhocks thrive best in a well-trenched and manured sandy loam4 ,the spikes as they grow must be staked2 and water and1 for the finest blossoms1 liquid manure should be liberally supplied to the roots4 ,plants for exhibition require the side growths to be pinched out2 and it is recommended1 in cold1 bleak or northerly localities1 when the flowering is over1 and the stalks have been cut off #d to #f in4 above the soil1 to earth up the crowns with sand4 ,some of the finest double-flowered kinds of hollyhock do not bloom well in ,scotland4 ,the plant is susceptible of great modification under cultivation4 ,the forms now grown are due to the careful selection and crossing of varieties4 ,it is found that the most diverse varieties may be raised with certainty from plants growing near together4 ,the young shoots of the hollyhock are very liable to the attacks of slugs1 and to a disease occasioned by a fungus1 ,puccinia malvacearum1 which is a native of ,chile1 attained notoriety in the ,australian colonies1 and finally1 reaching ,europe in #ahfi1 threatened the extermination of the hollyhock1 the soft parts of the leaves of which it destroys1 leaving the venation only remaining4 ,it has been found especially hurtful to the plant in dry seasons4 ,it is also parasitic on the wild mallows4 ,the disease appears on the leaves as minute hard pale-brown pustules1 filled with spores which germinate without a resting-period1 but when produced late in the season may last as resting-spores until next spring4 ,spraying early in the season with ,bordeaux mixture is an effective preventive1 but the best means of treatment is to destroy all leaves as soon as they show signs of being attacked1 and to prevent the growth of other host-plants such as mallows1 in the neighbourhood4 ,in hot dry seasons1 red-spider injures the foliage very much1 but may be kept at bay by syringing the plants frequently with plenty of clean water4 ,,holly ,,springs1 a city and the county-seat of ,marshall county1 ,mississippi1 ,u4,s4,a41 in the ,n4 part of the state1 #de m4 ,s4,e4 of ,memphis4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #bbdf2 7#aijj7 #bhae 7#aeei negroes72 7#aiaj7 #baib4 ,holly ,springs is served by the ,illinois ,central and the ,kansas ,city1 ,memphis ,birmingham 7,frisco ,system7 railways4 ,the city has broad and well-shaded streets1 and a fine court-house and court-house square4 ,it is the seat of ,rust ,university 7opened in #ahfg71 a ,methodist ,episcopal institution for negroes2 of the ,mississippi ,synodical ,college 7#aije2 ,presbyterian71 for white girls2 and of the ,north ,mississippi ,agricultural ,experiment ,station4 ,the principal industries are the ginning1 compressing and shipping of cotton1 and the manufacture of cotton-seed oil1 but the city also manufactures pottery and brick from clay obtained in the vicinity1 and has an ice factory1 bottling works and marble works4 ,the municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant4 ,holly ,springs was founded in #ahcg and was chartered as a city in #ahif4 ,early in ,december #ahfb ,general ,grant established here a large depot of supplies designed for the use of the ,federal army while on its march toward ,vicksburg1 but ,general ,earl ,van ,dorn1 with a brigade of cavalry1 surprised the post at daylight on the #bjth of this month1 burned the supplies and took #aejj prisoners4 ,holly ,springs was the home and is the burial-place of ,edward ,cary ,walthall 7#ahca-ahih71 a ,democratic member of the ,united ,states ,senate in #ahhe-ahid and in #ahie-ahih4 ,,holman1 ,,james 7#aghf-aheg71 known as the ,blind ,traveller1 was born at ,exeter on the #aeth of ,october #aghf4 ,he entered the ,british navy in #agih as first-class volunteer1 and was appointed lieutenant in ,april #ahjg4 ,in #ahaj he was invalided by an illness which resulted in total loss of sight4 ,in consideration of his helpless circumstances he was in #ahab appointed one of the royal knights of ,windsor1 but the quietness of such a life harmonized so ill with his active habits and keen interests that he requested leave of absence to go abroad1 and in #ahai1 #ahbj and #ahba journeyed through ,france1 ,italy1 ,switzerland1 the parts of ,germany bordering on the ,rhine1 ,belgium and the ,netherlands4 ,on his return he published ,the ,narrative of a ,journey through ,france1 c4 7,london1 #ahbb74 ,he again set out in #ahbb with the design of making the circuit of the world1 but after travelling through ,russia into ,siberia1 he was suspected of being a spy1 was arrested when he had managed to penetrate #ajjj m4 beyond ,smolensk1 and after being conducted to the frontiers of ,poland1 returned home by ,austria1 ,saxony1 ,prussia and ,hanover4 ,he now issued ,travels through ,russia1 ,siberia1 c4 7,london1 #ahbe74 ,shortly afterwards he again set out to accomplish by a somewhat different method the design which had been frustrated by the ,russian authorities2 and an account of his remarkable achievement was published in four volumes in #ahcd-ahce1 under the title of ,a ,voyage round the ,world1 including ,travels in ,africa1 ,asia1 ,australasia1 ,america1 c41 from #ahbg to #ahcb4 ,his last journeys were through ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,moldavia1 ,montenegro1 ,syria and ,turkey2 and he was engaged in preparing an account of this tour when he died in ,london on the #bith of ,july #aheg4 ,,holmes1 ,,oliver ,,wendell 7#ahji-ahid71 ,american writer and physician1 was born on the #bith of ,august #ahji at ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,his father1 ,abiel ,holmes 7#agfc-ahcg71 was a ,calvinist clergyman1 the writer of a useful history1 ,annals of ,america1 and of much very dull poetry4 ,his mother 7the second wife of ,abiel7 was ,sarah ,wendell1 of a distinguished ,new ,york family4 ,through her ,dr ,holmes was descended from ,governors ,thomas ,dudley and ,simon ,bradstreet of ,massachusetts1 and from her he derived his cheerfulness and vivacity1 his sympathetic humour and wit4 ,from ,phillips 7,andover7 ,academy he entered ,harvard in the famous class of '#bi1 made further illustrious by the charming lyrics which he wrote for the anniversary dinners from #ahea to #ahhi1 closing with the touching ,after the ,curfew4 ,after graduation he studied law perfunctorily for a year and dabbled in literature1 winning the public ear by a spirited lyric called forth by the order to destroy the old frigate ,constitution4 ,these verses were sung all over the land1 and induced the ,navy ,department to revoke its order and save the old ship4 ,turning next to medicine1 and convinced by a brief experience in ,boston that he liked it1 he went to ,paris in ,march #ahcc4 ,he studied industriously under ,louis and other famous physicians and surgeons in ,france1 and in his vacations visited the ,low ,countries1 ,england1 ,scotland and ,italy4 ,returning to ,boston at the close of #ahce1 filled with a high professional ambition1 he sought practice1 but achieved only moderate success4 ,social1 brilliant in conversation1 and a writer of gay little poems1 he seemed to the grave ,bostonians not sufficiently serious4 ,he won prizes1 however1 for professional papers1 and lectured on anatomy at ,dartmouth ,college4 ,he wrote two papers on homoeopathy1 which he attacked with trenchant wit2 also a valuable paper on the malarial fevers of ,new ,england4 ,in #ahdc he published his essay on the ,contagiousness of ,puerperal ,fever1 which stirred up a fierce controversy and brought upon him bitter personal abuse2 but he maintained his position with dignity1 temper and judgment2 and in time he was honoured as the discoverer of a beneficent truth4 ,the volume of his medical essays holds some of his most sparkling wit1 his shrewdest observation1 his kindliest humanity4 ,in #ahdj he married ,amelia ,lee ,jackson1 daughter of the ,hon4 ,charles ,jackson 7#agge-ahee71 formerly associate justice of the ,state supreme judicial court1 a lady of rare charm alike of mind and character4 ,she died in the winter of #ahhg-ahhh4 ,their first-born child1 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes1 afterwards became chief justice of that same bench on which his grandfather sat4 ,in #ahdg ,dr ,holmes was appointed professor of anatomy and physiology ,in the ,medical ,school of ,harvard ,university1 the duties involving the giving of instruction also in kindred departments1 so that1 as he said1 he occupied not a chair1 but a settee in the school4 ,he delivered the anatomical lectures until ,november #ahhb1 and in later years these were his only link with the medical profession4 ,they were fresh1 witty and lively2 and the students were sent to him at the end of the day1 when they were fagged1 because he alone could keep them awake4 ,in later years he made few finished contributions to medical knowledge2 his eager and impetuous temperament caused him to leave more patient investigators to push to ultimate results the suggestions thrown out by his fertile and imaginative mind4 ,in #ahcf1 being in that year the ,phi ,beta ,kappa poet at ,harvard ,university1 he published his first volume of ,poems1 which afterwards reached a second edition4 ,among these earlier lyrics was ,the ,last ,leaf1 one of the most delicate combinations of pathos and humour in literature4 ,his collected poetry fills three volumes4 ,in #ahef-aheg a ,boston publishing house 7,phillips1 ,sampson1 and ,co47 invited ,james ,russell ,lowell to edit a new magazine1 which he agreed to do on condition that he could secure the assistance of ,dr ,holmes4 ,by this urgent invitation the ,doctor was equally surprised and flattered1 for heretofore he had stood rather outside the literary coterie of ,cambridge and ,boston4 ,he accepted with pleasure1 and at once threw himself into the enterprise with zeal4 ,he christened it ,the ,atlantic ,monthly2 and1 as ,mr ,howells afterwards said1 he not only named but made it1 for in each number of its first volume there appeared one of the papers of the ,autocrat of the ,breakfast ,table4 ,the opening of the ,autocrat--,i was just going to say when ,i was interrupted--is explained by the fact that in the old ,new ,england ,magazine 7#ahca to #ahcc7 the ,doctor had published two ,autocrat papers1 which1 by his wish1 have never been reprinted4 ,in the commercial panic of #aheg the new magazine would inevitably have failed had it not been for these fascinating essays4 ,their originality of conception1 their wit and humour1 their suggestions of what then seemed bold ideas1 and their expression of ,new ,englandism1 all combined to make them so popular that the most harassed merchant in that gloomy winter purchased them as a dose of cheering medicine4 ,thus ,dr ,holmes made ,the ,atlantic ,monthly1 which in return made him4 ,a success so immediate and so splendid settled the rest of his career2 he ceased to be a physician and became an author4 ,these twelve papers were immediately 7#aheh7 published as a volume4 ,no sooner was the ,autocrat silent than the ,professor 7#ahei7 succeeded him at the breakfast table4 ,the ,professor was preferred by more thoughtful readers1 though it has hardly been so widely popular as the ,autocrat4 ,its theology1 which seemed in those days audacious1 frightened many of the strict and old-fashioned religionists of ,new ,england1 though to-day it seems mild enough4 ,twelve years later1 in #ahga1 the ,landlady had another boarder1 who took the vacant chair--the ,poet 7published #ahgb74 ,but here ,holmes fell a little short4 ,in these three books1 especially in the ,autocrat and the ,professor1 the ,doctor wrote as he talked at many a dinner table in ,boston1 but less well4 ,the animation and clash of talk roused him4 ,the dinners of the ,saturday ,club are among ,boston's proudest traditions1 as they were the chief pleasure of ,dr ,holmes's life4 ,there he met ,emerson1 ,longfellow1 ,whittier1 ,lowell1 ,sumner1 ,agassiz1 ,motley1 and many other charming talkers1 and among them all he was admitted to be the best4 ,there were characters and incidents1 but hardly a story1 in the ,autocrat and the ,professor4 ,holmes had an ambition for more sustained work1 and in #ahfa his novel1 ,elsie ,venner1 at first called ,the ,professor's ,story1 was published4 ,the book was illuminated throughout by admirable pictures of character and society in the typical ,new ,england town4 ,but the rattlesnake element was unduly extravagant1 and in other respects the book was open to criticism as a work of art4 ,it was written with the same purpose which informed the greatest part of the ,doctor's literary work1 and which had already been scented and nervously condemned by the religious world4 ,by heredity the ,doctor was a theologian2 no other topic enchained him more than did the stern and merciless dogmas of his ,calvinist forefathers4 ,his humanity revolted against them1 his reason condemned them1 and he set himself to their destruction as his task in literature4 ,the religious world of his time was still so largely under the control of old ideas that he was assailed as a freethinker and a subverter of ,christianity2 though before his death opinions had so changed that the bitterness of the attacks upon him seemed incredible1 even to some of those who had most vehemently made them4 ,none the less1 undaunted and profoundly earnest1 he returned1 six years later1 to the same line of thought in his second novel1 ,the ,guardian ,angel 7published #ahfg74 ,this1 though less well known than ,elsie ,venner1 is in many respects better4 ,no more lifelike and charming picture of the society of the ,new ,england country-town of the middle third of the #aith century has ever been drawn1 and every page sparkles with wit and humour4 ,in #ahhd and #ahhe it was followed1 still in the same line1 by ,a ,mortal ,antipathy1 a production inferior to its predecessors4 ,holmes generally held himself aloof from politics1 and from those causes of temperance1 abolition and woman's rights which enthralled most of his contemporaries in ,new ,england4 ,the ,civil ,war1 however1 aroused him for the time2 finding him first a strenuous ,unionist1 it quickly converted him into an ardent advocate of emancipation4 ,his interest was enhanced by the career of his elder son ,oliver 7see below71 who was three times severely wounded1 and finally rose to the rank of lieut4-colonel in the ,northern army4 ,he wrote some ringing war lyrics1 and in #ahfc delivered the ,fourth of ,july oration in ,boston1 which showed a masterly appreciation of the stirring public questions of the day4 ,in #ahgh ,dr ,holmes wrote a memoir of the historian ,john ,lothrop ,motley1 an affectionate tribute to one who had been his dear friend4 ,in #ahhd he contributed the life of ,emerson to the ,american ,men of ,letters series4 ,he admired the ,sage of ,concord1 but was not quite in intellectual sympathy with him4 ,both were ,liberals in thought1 but in widely different ways4 ,but in spite of this handicap the volume proved very popular4 ,in #ahhh he began the papers which he happily christened ,over the ,tea ,cups4 ,as a tour de force on the part of a man of nearly fourscore years they are very remarkable4 ,after his return from ,paris in #ahce ,dr ,holmes lived in ,boston1 with summer sojournings at ,pittsfield and ,beverly ,farms1 and occasional trips to neighbouring cities1 until #ahhf4 ,he then undertook a four months' journey in ,europe1 and in ,england had a sort of triumphal progress4 ,on his return he wrote ,our ,hundred ,days in ,europe 7#ahhg71 a courteous recognition of the hospitality and praise which had been accorded to him4 ,during this visit ,cambridge ,university made him ,doctor of ,letters1 ,edinburgh ,university made him ,doctor of ,laws1 and ,oxford ,university made him ,doctor of ,civil ,law4 ,already1 in #ahhj1 ,harvard ,university had made him ,doctor of ,laws4 ,he died on the #gth of ,october #ahid1 and was buried from ,king's ,chapel1 ,boston1 in the cemetery of ,mount ,auburn4 ,his eldest son ,oliver ,wendell 7b4 #ahda71 who graduated from ,harvard in #ahfa and fought in the ,civil ,war1 retiring from the army as brevet lieut4-colonel in #ahfd1 took up the study of law and was admitted to the bar in ,boston in #ahff4 ,he was for some years editor of the ,american ,law ,review1 and after being professor in the ,harvard ,law ,school in #ahhb was appointed in the same year a judge of the ,massachusetts supreme court1 rising to be chief justice in #ahii4 ,in #aijb he was made a judge of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court4 ,his work on ,the ,common ,law 7#ahha7 and his edition 7#ahgc7 of ,kent's ,commentaries are his principal publications2 and he became widely recognized as one of the great jurists of his day4 ,,bibliography4--,holmes's ,complete ,works1 in #ac volumes1 were published at ,boston in #ahia4 ,see ,j4 ,t4 ,morse1 ,life and ,letters of ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes 7,london1 #ahif72 ,g4 ,b4 ,ives1 ,bibliography 7,boston1 #aijg72 and the bibliography in ,p4 ,k4 ,foley's ,american ,authors 7,boston1 #ahig74 ,an essay by ,sir ,leslie ,stephen is prefixed to the ,golden ,treasury edition 7#aijc7 of ,the ,autocrat of the ,breakfast ,table4 ,see also monographs by ,william ,sloane ,kennedy 7,boston1 #ahhb72 ,emma ,e4 ,brown 7,boston1 #ahhd74 7,j4 ,t4 ,mo47 ,,holmfirth1 an urban district in the ,holmfirth parliamentary division of the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 ,england1 on and ,holme and the ,ribble1 #f m4 ,s4 of ,huddersfield1 and on the ,lancashire and ,yorkshire railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #higg4 ,the valley1 walled by bold hills1 is very picturesque4 ,in #aheb great destruction was wrought in the town by the bursting of a reservoir in the vicinity4 ,the large industrial population is employed in woollen manufactories1 and in the neighbouring stone quarries4 ,,holocaust 7,gr4 ,greek3 holokauston1 or ,greek3 holokauton1 wholly burnt71 strictly a sacrifice wholly destroyed by fire1 such as the sacrifices of the ,jews1 described in the ,pentateuch as whole burnt offerings 7see ,,sacrifice74 ,the term is now often applied to a catastrophe on a large scale1 whether by fire or not1 or to a massacre or slaughter4 ,,holocene 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 holos1 whole1 ,greek3 kainos1 recent71 in geology1 the time division which embraces the youngest of all the formations2 it is equivalent to the ,recent of some authors4 ,the name was proposed in #ahfj by ,p4 ,gervais4 ,the oldest deposits that may be included are those containing neolithic implements2 deposits of historic times should also be grouped here2 presumably the youngest are those to be chronicled by the last man4 ,the ,holocene formations obviously include all the varieties of deposits which are accumulating at the present day3 the gravels and alluvia of rivers2 boulder clays1 moraines and fluvio-glacial deposits2 estuarine1 coastal and abyssal deposits of the seas1 and their equivalents in lakes2 screes1 taluses1 wind-borne dust and sand and desert formations2 chemical deposits from saline waters2 peat1 diatomite1 marls1 foraminiferal and other oozes2 coral1 algal and shell banks1 and other organic deposits2 mud1 lava and dust deposits of volcanic origin and extrusions of asphalt and pitch2 to all these must be added the works of man4 ,,holroyd1 ,,sir ,,charles 7#ahfa- 71 ,british artist1 was born in ,leeds on the #ith of ,april #ahfa4 ,he received his art education under ,professor ,legros at the ,slade ,school1 ,university ,college1 ,london1 where he had a distinguished career4 ,after passing six months at ,newlyn1 where he painted his first picture exhibited in the ,royal ,academy1 ,fishermen ,mending a ,sail 7#ahhe71 he obtained a travelling scholarship and studied for two years in ,italy1 a sojourn which greatly influenced his art4 ,at his return1 on the invitation of ,legros1 he became for two years assistant-master at the ,slade ,school1 and there devoted himself to painting and etching4 ,among his pictures may be mentioned ,the ,death of ,torrigiano 7#ahhf71 ,the ,satyr ,king 7#ahhi71 ,the ,supper at ,emmaus1 and1 perhaps his best picture1 ,pan and ,peasants 7#ahic74 ,for the church of ,aveley1 ,essex1 he painted a triptych altarpiece1 ,the ,adoration of the ,shepherds1 with wings representing ,st ,michael and ,st ,gabriel1 and designed as well the window1 ,the ,resurrection4 ,his portraits1 such as that of ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 ,r4,a41 in the ,legros manner1 show much dignity and distinction4 ,sir ,charles ,holroyd has made his chief reputation as an etcher of exceptional ability1 combining strength with delicacy1 and a profound technical knowledge of the art4 ,among the best known are the ,monte ,oliveto series1 the ,icarus series1 the ,monte ,subasio series1 and the ,eve series1 together with the plates1 ,the ,flight into ,egypt1 ,the ,prodigal ,son1 ,a ,barn on ,tadworth ,common 7etched in the open air71 and ,the ,storm4 ,his etched heads of ,professor ,legros1 ,lord ,courtney and ,night1 are admirable alike in knowledge and in likeness4 ,his principal dry-point is ,the ,bather4 ,in all his work ,holroyd displays an impressive sincerity1 with a fine sense of composition1 and of style1 allied to independent and modern feeling4 ,he was appointed the first keeper of the ,national ,gallery of ,british ,art 7,tate ,gallery71 and on the retirement of ,sir ,edward ,poynter in #aijf he received the directorship of the ,national ,gallery4 ,he was knighted in #aijc4 ,his ,michael ,angelo ,buonarotti 7,london1 ,duckworth1 #aijc7 is a scholarly work of real value4 ,,holstein1 ,,friedrich ,,von 7#ahcg-aiji71 ,german statesman1 for more than thirty years head of the political department of the ,german ,foreign ,office4 ,holstein's importance began with the dismissal of ,bismarck in #ahij4 ,the new chancellor1 ,caprivi1 was ignorant of foreign affairs2 and ,holstein1 as the repository of the ,bismarckian tradition1 became indispensable4 ,this reluctance to emerge into publicity has been ascribed to the part he had played under ,bismarck in the ,arnim affair1 which had made him powerful enemies2 it was1 however1 possibly due to a shrinking from the responsibility of office4 ,yet the weakness of his position lay just in the fact that he was not ultimately responsible4 ,he protested against the despatch of the ,kruger telegram1 but protested in vain4 ,on the other hand1 where his ideas were acceptable1 he was generally able to realize them4 ,thus it was almost entirely due to him that ,germany acquired ,kiao-chau and asserted her interests in ,china1 and the acquisition of ,samoa was also largely his work4 ,if the skill and pertinacity with which ,holstein carried through his plans in these matters was learned in the school of ,bismarck1 he had not acquired ,bismarck's faculty for foreseeing their ulterior consequences4 ,this is true of his ,chinese policy1 and true also of his part in the ,morocco crisis4 ,the emperor ,william ,,ii4's journey to ,tangier was undertaken on his advice1 as a protest against the supposed attempt at the isolation of ,germany2 but of the later developments of ,german policy in the ,morocco question he did not approve1 on the ground that the result would merely be to strengthen the ,anglo-,french entente2 and from the #abth of ,march #aijf onwards he took no active part in the matter4 ,to the last he believed that the position of ,germany would remain unsafe until an understanding had been arrived at with ,great ,britain1 and it was this belief that determined his attitude towards the question of the fleet1 beside which1 he wrote in ,february #aiji1 all other questions are of lesser account4 ,his views on this question were summarized in a memorandum of ,december #aijg1 of which ,herr von ,rath gives a resume4 ,he objected to the programme of the ,german ,navy ,league on three main grounds3 7#a7 the ill-feeling likely to be aroused in ,south ,germany1 7#b7 the inevitable dislocation of the finances through the huge additional charges involved1 7#c7 the suspicion of ,germany's motives in foreign countries1 which would bind ,great ,britain still closer to ,france4 ,as for the idea that ,germany's power would be increased1 this--he wrote in reply to a letter from ,admiral ,galster--was a simple question of arithmetic2 for how would the sea-power of ,germany be relatively increased if for every new ,german ship ,great ,britain built two8 ,herr von ,holstein retired on the resignation of ,prince ,bulow1 and died on the #hth of ,may #aiji4 ,see ,hermann von ,rath1 ,erinnerungen an ,herrn von ,holstein in the ,deutsche ,revue for ,october #aiji4 ,he is also frequently mentioned passim in ,prince ,chlodwig ,hohenlohe's ,memoirs4 ,,holstein1 formerly a duchy of ,germany4 ,until about #aaaj the county of ,holstein formed part of the duchy of ,saxony1 and it was made a duchy in #adgb4 ,from #adfj to #ahfd it was ruled by members of the house of ,oldenburg1 some of whom were also kings of ,denmark4 ,it is now the southern part of the ,prussian province of ,schleswig-,holstein4 7,see ,,schleswig-,,holstein1 and for history ,,schleswig-,,holstein ,,question47 ,,holsten1 ,,karl ,,christian ,,johann 7#ahbe-ahig71 ,german theologian1 was born at ,gustrow1 ,mecklenburg1 on the #cast of ,march #ahbe1 and educated at ,leipzig1 ,berlin and ,rostock1 where in #aheb he became a teacher of religion in the ,gymnasium4 ,in #ahgj he went to ,bern as professor of ,new ,testament studies1 passing thence in #ahgf to ,heidelberg1 where he remained until his death on the #bfth of ,january #ahig4 ,holsten was an adherent of the ,tubingen school1 and held to ,baur's views on the alleged antagonism between ,petrinism and ,paulinism4 ,among his writings are ,zum ,evangelium d4 ,paulus und d4 ,petrus 7#ahfg72 ,das ,evangelium des ,paulus dargestellt 7#ahhj72 ,die synoptischen ,evangelien nach der ,form ihres ,inhalts 7#ahhf74 ,,holstenius1 ,,lucas1 the ,latinized name of ,luc ,holste 7#aeif-affa71 ,german humanist1 geographer and theological writer1 was born at ,hamburg4 ,he studied at ,leiden university1 where he became intimate with the most famous scholars of the age--,j4 ,meursius1 ,d4 ,heinsius and ,p4 ,cluverius1 whom he accompanied on his travels in ,italy and ,sicily4 ,disappointed at his failure to obtain a post in the gymnasium of his native town1 he left ,germany for good4 ,having spent two years in ,oxford and ,london1 he went to ,paris4 ,here he obtained the patronage of ,n4 de ,peiresc1 who recommended him to ,cardinal ,francesco ,barberini1 papal nuncio and the possessor of the most important private library in ,rome4 ,on the cardinal's return in #afbg he took ,holstenius to live with him in his palace and made him his librarian4 ,although converted to ,roman ,catholicism in #afbe1 ,holstenius showed his liberal-mindedness by strenuously opposing the strict censorship exercised by the ,congregation of the ,index4 ,he was appointed librarian of the ,vatican by ,innocent ,x41 and was sent to ,innsbruck by ,alexander ,,vii4 to receive ,queen ,christina's abjuration of ,protestantism4 ,he died in ,rome on the #bnd of ,february #affa4 ,holstenius was a man of unwearied industry and immense learning1 but he lacked the persistency to carry out the vast literary schemes he had planned4 ,he was the author of notes on ,cluvier's ,italia antiqua 7#afbd72 an edition of portions of ,porphyrius 7#afcj71 with a dissertation on his life and writings1 described as a model of its kind2 notes on ,eusebius ,against ,hierocles 7#afbh71 on the ,sayings of the later ,pythagoreans 7#afch71 and the ,de diis et mundo of the neo-,platonist ,sallustius 7#afch72 ,notae et castigationes in ,stephani ,bysantini ethnica 7first published in #afhd72 and ,codex regularum1 ,collection of the ,early ,rules of the ,monastic ,orders 7#affa74 ,his correspondence 7,epistolae ad diversos1 ed4 ,j4 ,f4 ,boissonade1 #ahag7 is a valuable source of information on the literary history of his time4 ,see ,n4 ,wilckens1 ,leben des gelehrten ,lucae ,holstenii 7,hamburg1 #agbc72 ,johann ,moller1 ,cimbria literata1 iii4 7#agdd74 ,,holster1 a leather case to hold a pistol1 used by a horseman and properly fastened to the saddle-bow1 but sometimes worn in the belt4 ,the same word appears in ,dutch1 from which the ,english word probably directly derives4 ,the root is hel- or hul- to cover1 and is seen in the ,o4 ,eng4 heolster1 a place of shelter or concealment1 and in hull a sheath or covering4 ,the ,german word for the same object1 holfter1 is1 according to the ,new ,english ,dictionary1 from a different root4 ,,holt1 ,,sir ,,john 7#afdb-agaj71 lord chief justice of ,england1 was born at ,thame1 ,oxfordshire1 on the #cjth of ,december #afdb4 ,his father1 ,sir ,thomas ,holt1 possessed a small patrimonial estate1 but in order to supplement his income had adopted the profession of law1 in which he was not very successful1 although he became sergeant in #afgg1 and afterwards for his political services to the ,tories was rewarded with knighthood4 ,after attending for some years the free school of the town of ,abingdon1 of which his father was recorder1 young ,holt in his sixteenth year entered ,oriel ,college1 ,oxford4 ,he is said to have spent a very dissipated youth1 and even to have been in the habit of taking purses on the highway1 but after entering ,gray's ,inn about #affj he applied himself with exemplary diligence to the study of law4 ,he was called to the bar in #affc4 ,an ardent supporter of civil and religious liberty1 he distinguished himself in the state trials which were then so common by the able and courageous manner in which he supported the pleas of the defendants4 ,in #afhe-afhf he was appointed recorder of ,london1 and about the same time he was made king's sergeant and received the honour of knighthood4 ,his giving a decision adverse to the pretensions of the king to exercise martial law in time of peace led to his dismissal from the office of recorder1 but he was continued in the office of king's sergeant in order to prevent him from becoming counsel for accused persons4 ,having been one of the judges who acted as assessors to the peers in the ,convention parliament1 he took a leading part in arranging the constitutional change by which ,william ,,iii4 was called to the throne1 and after his accession he was appointed lord chief justice of the ,king's ,bench4 ,his merits as a judge are the more apparent and the more remarkable when contrasted with the qualities displayed by his predecessors in office4 ,in judicial fairness1 legal knowledge and ability1 clearness of statement and unbending integrity he has had few if any superiors on the ,english bench4 ,over the civil rights of his countrymen he exercised a jealous watchfulness1 more especially when presiding at the trial of state prosecutions1 and he was especially careful that all accused persons should be treated with fairness and respect4 ,he is1 however1 best known for the firmness with which he upheld his own prerogatives in opposition to the authority of the ,houses of ,parliament4 ,on several occasions his physical as well as his moral courage was tried by extreme tests4 ,having been requested to supply a number of police to help the soldiery in quelling a riot1 he assured the messenger that if any of the people were shot he would have the soldiers hanged1 and proceeding himself to the scene of riot he was successful in preventing bloodshed4 ,while steadfast in his sympathies with the ,whig party1 ,holt maintained on the bench entire political impartiality1 and always held himself aloof from political intrigue4 ,on the retirement of ,somers from the chancellorship in #agjj he was offered the great seal1 but declined it4 ,his death took place in ,london on the #eth of ,march #agaj4 ,he was buried in the chancel of ,redgrave church4 ,reports of ,cases determined by ,sir ,john ,holt 7#afha-agaj7 appeared at ,london in #agch2 and ,the ,judgments delivered in the case of ,ashby v4 ,white and others1 and in the case of ,john ,paty and others1 printed from original ,,mss41 at ,london 7#ahcg74 ,see ,burnet's ,own ,times2 ,tatler1 ,no4 xiv42 a ,life1 published in #agfd2 ,welsby1 ,lives of ,eminent ,english ,judges of the #agth and #ahth ,centuries 7#ahdf72 ,campbell's ,lives of the ,lord ,chief ,justices2 and ,foss1 ,lives of the ,judges4 ,,holtei1 ,,karl ,,eduard ,,von 7#agih-ahhj71 ,german poet and actor1 was born at ,breslau on the #bdth of ,january #agih1 the son of an officer of ,hussars4 ,having served in the ,prussian army as a volunteer in #ahae1 he shortly afterwards entered the university of ,breslau as a student of law2 but1 attracted by the stage1 he soon forsook academic life and made his debut in the ,breslau theatre as ,mortimer in ,schiller's ,maria ,stuart4 ,he led a wandering life for the next two years1 appearing less on the stage as an actor than as a reciter of his own poems4 ,in #ahba he married the actress ,luise ,rogee 7#ahjj-ahbe71 and was appointed theatre-poet to the ,breslau stage4 ,he next removed to ,berlin1 where his wife fulfilled an engagement at the ,court theatre4 ,during his sojourn here he produced the vaudevilles ,die ,wiener in ,berlin 7#ahbd71 and ,die ,berliner in ,wien 7#ahbe71 pieces which enjoyed at the time great popular favour4 ,in #ahbe his wife died2 but soon after her death he accepted an engagement at the ,konigsstadter theatre in ,berlin1 when he wrote a number of plays1 notably ,lenore 7#ahbi7 and ,der alte ,feldherr 7#ahbi74 ,in #ahcj he married ,julie ,holzbecher 7#ahji-ahci71 an actress engaged at the same theatre1 and with her played in ,darmstadt4 ,returning to ,berlin in #ahca he wrote for the composer ,franz ,glaser 7#agih-ahfa7 the text of the opera ,des ,adlers ,horst 7#ahce71 and for ,ludwig ,devrient the drama1 ,der dumme ,peter 7#ahcg74 ,in #ahcc ,holtei again went on the stage and toured with his wife to various important cities1 ,hamburg1 ,leipzig1 ,dresden1 ,munich and ,vienna4 ,in the last his declamatory powers as a reciter1 particularly of ,shakespeare's plays1 made a furore1 and the poet-actor was given the appointment of manager of the ,josefstadter theatre in the last-named city4 ,though proud of his successes both as actor and reciter1 ,holtei left ,vienna in #ahcf1 and from #ahcg to #ahci conducted the theatre in ,riga4 ,here his second wife died1 and after wandering through ,germany reciting and accepting a short engagement at ,breslau1 he settled in #ahdg at ,graz1 where he devoted himself to a literary life and produced the novels ,die ,vagabunden 7#ahea71 ,christian ,lammfell 7#ahec7 and ,der letzte ,komodiant 7#ahfc74 ,the last years of his life were spent at ,breslau1 where being in poor circumstances he found a home in the ,kloster der barmherzigen ,bruder1 and here he died on the #abth of ,february #ahhj4 ,as a dramatist ,holtei may be said to have introduced the vaudeville into ,germany2 as an actor1 although remaining behind the greater artists of his time1 he contrived to fascinate his audience by the dramatic force of his exposition of character2 as a reciter1 especially of ,shakespeare1 he knew no rival4 ,august ,lewald said of ,holtei that by the energy of his poetic conception and plastic force he brought his audience round to his own ideas2 and he added1 an eloquence such as his ,i have never met with in any other ,german4 ,holtei was not only a stage-poet but a lyric-writer of great charm4 ,notable among such productions are ,schlesische ,gedichte 7#ahcj2 #bjth ed41 #ahic71 ,gedichte 7#eth ed41 #ahfa71 ,stimmen des ,waldes 7#bnd ed41 #ahed74 ,mention ought also to be made of ,holtei's interesting autobiography1 ,vierzig ,jahre 7#h vols41 #ahdc-ahej2 #crd ed41 #ahfb7 with the supplementary volume ,noch ein ,jahr in ,schlesien 7#ahfd74 ,holtei's ,theater appeared in #f vols4 7#ahfg72 his ,erzahlende ,schriften1 #ci vols4 7#ahfa-ahff74 ,see ,m4 ,kurnick1 ,karl von ,holtei1 ein ,lebensbild 7#ahhj72 ,f4 ,wehl1 ,zeit und ,menschen 7#ahhi72 ,o4 ,storch1 ,k4 von ,holtei 7#ahih74 ,,holty1 ,,ludwig ,,heinrich ,,christoph 7#agdh-aggf71 ,german poet1 was born on the #bast of ,december #agdh at the village of ,mariensee in ,hanover1 where his father was pastor4 ,in #agfi he went to study theology at ,gottingen4 ,here he formed a close friendship with ,j4 ,m4 ,miller1 ,j4 ,h4 ,voss1 ,h4 ,boie1 the brothers ,stolberg and others1 and became one of the founders of the famous society of young poets known as the ,gottinger ,dichterbund or ,hain4 ,when in #aggd he left the university he had abandoned all intention of becoming a clergyman2 but he was not destined to enter any other profession4 ,he died of consumption on the #ast of ,september #aggf at ,hanover4 ,holty was the most gifted lyric poet of the ,gottingen circle4 ,he was influenced both by ,uz and ,klopstock1 but his love for the ,volkslied and his delight in nature preserved him from the artificiality of the one poet and the unworldliness of the other4 ,a strain of melancholy runs through all his lyrics4 ,his ballads are the pioneers of the rich ballad literature on ,english models1 which sprang up in ,germany during the next few years4 ,among his most familiar poems may be mentioned ,ub' immer ,treu' und ,redlichkeit1 ,tanzt dem schonen ,mai entgegen1 ,rosen auf dem ,weg gestreut1 and ,wer wollte sich mit ,grillen plagen8 ,holty's ,gedichte were published by his friends ,count ,friedrich ,leopold zu ,stolberg and ,j4 ,h4 ,voss 7,hamburg1 #aghc72 a new edition1 enlarged by ,voss1 with a biography 7#ahjd72 a more complete but still imperfect edition by ,f4 ,voigts 7,hanover1 #aheg74 ,the first complete edition was that of ,karl ,halm 7,leipzig1 #ahgj71 who had access to ,,mss4 not hitherto known4 ,see ,h4 ,ruete1 ,holty1 sein ,leben und ,dichten 7,guben1 #ahhc71 and ,a4 ,sauer1 ,der ,gottinger ,dichterbund1 vol4 ii4 7,stuttgart1 #ahid71 where an excellent selection of ,holty's poetry will be found4 ,,holtzendorff1 ,,joachim ,,wilhelm ,,franz ,,philipp ,,von 7#ahbi-ahhi71 ,german jurist1 born at ,vietmannsdorf1 in the ,mark of ,brandenburg1 on the #adth of ,october #ahbi1 was descended from a family of the old nobility4 ,he was educated at ,berlin and at ,pforta1 afterwards studying law at the universities of ,bonn1 ,heidelberg and ,berlin4 ,the struggles of #ahdh inspired him with youthful enthusiasm1 and he remained for the rest of his life a strong advocate of political liberty4 ,in #aheb he graduated ,,ll4,d4 at ,berlin2 in #aheg he became a ,privatdocent1 and in #ahfj he was nominated a professor extraordinary4 ,the predominant party in ,prussia regarded his political opinions with mistrust1 and he was not offered an ordinary professorship until ,february #ahgc1 after he had decided to accept a chair at the university of ,munich4 ,at ,munich he passed the last nineteen years of his life4 ,during the thirty years that he was professor he successively taught several branches of jurisprudence1 but he was chiefly distinguished as an authority on criminal and international law4 ,he was especially well fitted for organizing collective work1 and he has associated his name with a series of publications of the first value4 ,while acting as editor he often reserved for himself1 among the independent monographs of which the work was composed1 only those on subjects distasteful to his collaborators on account of their obscurity or lack of importance4 ,among the compilations which he superintended may be mentioned his ,encyclopadie der ,rechtswissenschaft 7,leipzig1 #ahgj-ahga1 #b vols472 his ,handbuch des deutschen ,strafrechts 7,berlin1 #ahga-ahgg1 #d vols471 and his ,handbuch des ,volkerrechts auf ,grundlage europaischer ,staatspraxis 7,berlin1 #ahhe-ahij1 #d vols474 ,among his many independent works may be mentioned3 ,das irische ,gefangnissystem 7,leipzig1 #ahei71 ,franzosische ,rechtszustande 7,leipzig1 #ahei71 ,die ,deportation als ,strafmittel 7,leipzig1 #ahei71 ,die ,kurzungsfahigkeit der ,freiheitsstrafen 7,leipzig1 #ahfa71 ,die ,reform der ,staatsanwaltschaft in ,deutschland 7,berlin1 #ahfd71 ,die ,umgestaltung der ,staatsanwaltschaft 7,berlin1 #ahfe71 ,die ,principien der ,politik 7,berlin1 #ahfi71 ,das ,verbrechen des ,mordes und die ,todesstrafe 7,berlin1 #ahge71 ,rumaniens ,uferrechte an der ,donau 7,leipzig1 #ahhc2 ,french edition1 #ahhd74 ,he also edited or assisted in editing a number of periodical publications on legal subjects4 ,from #ahff to the time of his death he was associated with ,rudolf ,ludwig ,carl ,virchow in editing ,sammlung gemeinverstandlicher wissenschaftlicher ,vortrage 7,berlin74 ,von ,holtzendorff died at ,munich on the #dth of ,february #ahhi4 ,,holtzmann1 ,,heinrich ,,julius 7#ahcb- 71 ,german ,protestant theologian1 son of ,karl ,julius ,holtzmann 7#ahjd-ahgg71 was born on the #agth of ,may #ahcb at ,karlsruhe1 where his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor to the supreme consistory4 ,he studied at ,berlin1 and eventually 7#ahgd7 was appointed professor ordinarius at ,strassburg4 ,a moderately liberal theologian1 he became best known as a ,new ,testament critic and exegete1 being the author of the ,commentary on the ,synoptics 7#ahhi2 #crd ed41 #aija71 the ,johannine books 7#ahij2 #bnd ed41 #ahic71 and the ,acts of the ,apostles 7#aija71 in the series ,handkommentar zum ,neuen ,testament4 ,on the question of the relationship of the ,synoptic ,gospels1 ,holtzmann in his early work1 ,die synoptischen ,evangelien1 ihr ,ursprung und geschichtlicher ,charakter 7#ahfc71 presents a view which has been widely accepted1 maintaining the priority of ,mark1 deriving ,matthew in its present form from ,mark and from ,matthew's earlier collection of ,sayings1 the ,logia of ,papias1 and ,luke from ,matthew and ,mark in the form in which we have them4 ,other noteworthy works are the ,lehrbuch der histor4-kritischen ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament 7#ahhe1 #crd ed41 #ahib71 and the ,lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen ,theologie 7#b vols41 #ahif-ahig74 ,he also collaborated with ,r4 ,zopffel in the preparation of a small ,lexikon fur ,theologie und ,kirchenwesen 7#ahhb2 #crd ed41 #ahie71 and in #ahic became editor of the ,theol4 ,jahresbericht4 ,,holub1 ,,emil 7#ahdg-aijb71 ,bohemian traveller in south-central ,africa1 was born at ,holitz1 eastern ,bohemia1 on the #gth of ,october #ahdg4 ,he was educated at ,prague ,university1 where he graduated ,m4,d4 ,in #ahgb he went to the ,kimberley diamond-fields1 and with the money earned by his practice as a surgeon undertook expeditions into the northern ,transvaal1 ,mashonaland and through ,bechuanaland to the ,victoria ,falls1 making extensive natural history collections1 which he brought to ,europe in #ahgi and distributed among over a hundred museums and schools4 ,in #ahhc he went back to ,south ,africa with his wife1 intending to cross the continent to ,egypt4 ,in ,june #ahhf the party crossed the ,zambezi west of the ,victoria ,falls1 and explored the then almost unknown region between that river and its tributary the ,kafue4 ,when beyond the ,kafue the camp was attacked by the ,mashukulumbwe1 and ,holub was obliged to retrace his steps4 ,he returned to ,austria in #ahhg with a collection of great scientific interest1 of over #ac1jjj objects1 now in various museums4 ,holub died at ,vienna on the #bast of ,february #aijb4 ,his principal works are3 ,eine ,culturskizze des ,marutse-,mambunda-reichs 7,vienna1 #ahgi72 ,sieben ,jahre in ,sudafrika1 c4 7#b vols41 ,vienna1 #ahhj-ahha71 of which an ,english translation appeared2 ,die ,colonisation ,afrikas 7,vienna1 #ahhb72 and ,von der ,kapstadt ins ,land der ,maschukulumbe 7#b vols41 ,vienna1 #ahah-ahij74 ,,holy1 sacred1 devoted or set apart for religious worship or observance2 a term characteristic of the attributes of perfection and sinlessness of the ,persons of the ,trinity1 as the objects of human worship and reverence1 and hence transferred to those human persons who1 either by their devotion to a spiritual ascetic life or by their approximation to moral perfection1 are considered worthy of reverence4 ,the word in ,old ,english was halig1 and is common to other ,teutonic languages2 cf4 ,ger4 and ,dutch heilig1 ,swed4 helig1 ,dan4 hellig4 ,it is derived from hal1 hale1 whole1 and cognate with health4 ,the ,new ,english ,dictionary suggests that the sense-development may be from whole1 i4e4 inviolate1 from health1 well-being1 or from good-omen1 augury4 ,it is impossible to get behind the ,christian uses1 in which from the earliest times it was employed as the equivalent of the ,latin sacer and sanctus4 ,,holy ,,alliance1 ,,the4 ,the famous treaty1 or declaration1 known by this name was signed in the first instance by ,alexander ,i41 emperor of ,russia1 ,francis ,i41 emperor of ,austria1 and ,frederick ,william ,,iii41 king of ,prussia1 on the #bfth of ,september #ahae1 and was proclaimed by the emperor ,alexander the same day at a great review of the allied troops held on the ,champ des ,vertus near ,paris4 ,the ,english version of the text is as follows3-- ,in the name of the ,most ,holy and ,indivisible ,trinity4 ,holy ,alliance of ,sovereigns of ,austria1 ,prussia and ,russia4 ,their ,majesties the ,emperor of ,austria1 the ,king of ,prussia1 and the ,emperor of ,russia1 having1 in consequence of the great events which have marked the course of the three last years in ,europe1 and especially of the blessings which it has pleased ,divine ,providence to shower down upon those ,states which place their confidence and their hope on it alone1 acquired the intimate conviction of the necessity of settling the steps to be observed by the ,powers1 in their reciprocal relations1 upon the sublime truths which the ,holy ,religion of our ,saviour teaches2 ,government and ,political ,relations4 ,they solemnly declare that the present ,act has no other object than to publish1 in the face of the whole world1 their fixed resolution1 both in the administration of their respective ,states1 and in their political relations with every other ,government1 to take for their sole guide the precepts of that ,holy ,religion1 namely1 the precepts of ,justice1 ,christian ,charity and ,peace1 which1 far from being applicable only to private concerns1 must have an immediate influence on the councils of ,princes1 and guide all their steps1 as being the only means of consolidating human institutions and remedying their imperfections4 ,in consequence1 their ,majesties have agreed on the following ,articles3-- ,principles of the ,christian ,religion4 ,art4 ,i4 ,conformably to the words of the ,holy ,scriptures which command all men to consider each other as brethren1 the ,three contracting ,monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and indissoluble fraternity1 and1 considering each other as fellow countrymen1 they will1 on all occasions and in all places1 lend each other aid and assistance2 and1 regarding themselves towards their subjects and armies as fathers of families1 they will lead them1 in the same spirit of fraternity with which they are animated1 to protect ,religion1 ,peace and ,justice4 ,fraternity and ,affection4 ,art4 ,,ii4 ,in consequence1 the sole principle of force1 whether between the said ,governments or between their ,subjects1 shall be that of doing each other reciprocal service1 and of testifying by unalterable good will the mutual affection with which they ought to be animated1 to consider themselves all as members of one and the same ,christian nation2 the three allied ,princes looking on themselves as merely delegated by ,providence to govern three branches of the ,one family1 namely1 ,austria1 ,prussia and ,russia1 thus confessing that the ,christian world1 of which they and their people form a part1 has in reality no other ,sovereign than ,him to whom alone power really belongs1 because in ,him alone are found all the treasures of love1 science and infinite wisdom1 that is to say1 ,god1 our ,divine ,saviour1 the ,word of the ,most ,high1 the ,word of ,life4 ,their ,majesties consequently recommend to their people1 with the most tender solicitude1 as the sole means of enjoying that ,peace which arises from a good conscience1 and which alone is durable1 to strengthen themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise of the duties which the ,divine ,saviour has taught to mankind4 ,accession of ,foreign ,powers4 ,art4 ,,iii4 ,all the ,powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the sacred principles which have dictated the present ,act1 and shall acknowledge how important it is for the happiness of nations1 too long agitated1 that these truths should henceforth exercise over the destinies of mankind all the influence which belongs to them1 will be received with equal ardour and affection into this ,holy ,alliance4 ,the credit for inspiring this singular document was claimed by the ,baroness von ,krudener 7q4v472 in any case it was the outcome of the tsar's mood of evangelical exaltation1 and was in its inception perfectly sincere4 ,neither ,frederick ,william nor ,francis signed willingly1 the latter remarking that if it was a question of politics1 he must refer it to his chancellor1 if of religion1 to his confessor4 ,metternich called it a loud-sounding nothing1 ,castlereagh1 a piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense4 ,none the less1 in accordance with its last article1 the signatures of all the ,european sovereigns were invited to the instrument1 the pope and the ,ottoman sultan alone being excepted4 ,the prince regent courteously declined to sign1 on the constitutional ground that all acts of the ,british crown required the counter-signature of a minister1 but he sent a letter expressing his entire concurrence with the principles laid down by the 'august sovereigns' and stating that it would always be his endeavour to regulate his conduct by their 'sacred maxims4' ,with these exceptions1 all the ,european sovereigns sooner or later appended their names4 ,in popular parlance1 which has found its way into the language of serious historians1 the ,holy ,alliance soon became synonymous with the combination of the great powers by whom ,europe was ruled in concert during the period of the congresses1 and associated with the policy of reaction which gradually dominated their counsels4 ,for the understanding of the inner history of the diplomacy of this period1 however1 a clear distinction must be drawn between the ,holy ,alliance and the ,grand1 or ,quadruple 7,quintuple7 ,alliance4 ,the ,grand ,alliance was established on definite treaties concluded for definite purposes1 of which the chief was the preservation of peace on the basis of the territorial settlement of #ahae4 ,the ,holy ,alliance was a general treaty--hardly indeed a treaty at all--which bound its signatories to act on certain vague principles for no well-defined end2 and in its essence it was so far from necessarily reactionary that the emperor ,alexander at one time declared that it involved the grant of liberal constitutions by princes to their subjects4 ,its main significance was due to the persistent efforts of the tsar to make it the basis of the universal union1 or general confederation of ,europe1 which he wished to substitute for the actual committee of the great powers1 efforts which were frustrated by the vigorous diplomacy of ,castlereagh1 acting as the mouthpiece of the ,british government 7see ,,europe3 ,history2 ,,alexander ,i4 of ,russia2 ,,londonderry1 ,,robert ,,stewart1 #b,,nd ,,marquis ,,of74 ,as a diplomatic instrument the ,holy ,alliance never1 as a matter of fact1 became effective4 ,none the less1 its principles and the fact of its signature powerfully affected the course of ,european diplomacy during the #aith century4 ,it strongly influenced the emperor ,nicholas ,i4 of ,russia1 to whom the brotherhood of sovereigns by divine right was an article of faith1 inspiring the principles of the convention of ,berlin 7between ,russia1 ,austria and ,prussia7 in #ahcc1 and the tsar's intervention in #ahdi to crush the ,hungarian insurrection on behalf of his brother of ,austria4 ,that it had become synonymous with a conspiracy against popular liberties was1 however1 a mere accident of the point of view of those who interpreted its principles4 ,it was capable of other and more noble interpretations1 and it was avowedly the inspiration of the famous rescript of the emperor ,nicholas ,,ii41 embodied in the circular of ,count ,muraviev to the ,european courts 7,august #dth1 #ahih71 which issued in the first international peace conference at the ,hague in #ahii4 7,w4 ,a4 ,p47 ,,holyhead 7,caergybi1 the fort of ,cybi1 the saint mentioned by ,matthew ,arnold as meeting ,st ,seiriol of ,penmon1 ,anglesey71 a seaport and market-town of ,anglesey1 ,n4 ,wales1 situated on the small ,holy ,island1 at the western end of the county4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija7 #aj1jgi4 ,here the ,london and ,north-,western railway has a terminus1 #bfc7a_/b7 m4 from ,london by rail4 ,holy ,island is connected with ,anglesey by an embankment1 #c_/d m4 long1 over which pass the railway and main road1 the tide flowing fast under the central piers4 ,once a small fishing village1 the town has since ,william ,,iv4's reign acquired importance as the ,dublin mail steam station4 ,its magnificent harbour of refuge was begun in #ahdg and opened in ,september #ahgc4 ,the east breakwater scheme1 which would have covered the ,platter's rocks--still very troublesome--and the ,skinner's1 was abandoned for buoys which mark the spots4 ,the north breakwater is #ghfj ft4 long 7instead of #ecfj1 as originally planned74 ,the roadstead 7#djj acres7 and enclosed area 7#bfg acres7 together make a magnificent shelter for shipping4 ,the rubble mound of the breakwater was very costly to the railway company1 as time after time it was swept away by storms4 ,on it is a central wall of some #ch ft4 above low water1 and on the wall a promenade sheltered by a parapet4 ,the lighthouse is at the end of the breakwater1 of which the whole cost was nearly #a7a_/b7 million sterling4 ,additional works1 begun in #ahgc by the company1 to extend the old harbour and lengthen the quay by #djjj ft41 were opened by ,king ,edward ,,vii4 7as prince of ,wales7 in #ahhj4 ,these cost another half million4 ,george ,,iv4 passed through ,holyhead in #ahba on his way to ,ireland1 and there is a commemorative tablet on the old harbour pier4 ,the church is said to occupy the site of the old monastery 7#fth or early #gth century7 of ,st ,cybi1 of whom there is a rude figure in the porch4 ,the churchyard wall1 #f ft4 thick1 is possibly partly ,roman4 ,on the south of the harbour is an obelisk in memory of ,captain ,skinner1 of the steam packets1 washed overboard in #ahcc4 ,pen ,caergybi rises perpendicularly from the sea to the height of #gai ft41 at some #b m4 from the town2 it is a mass of serpentine rocks1 off which lie the ,north and ,south ,stacks1 each with a lighthouse with a revolving light1 visible for #bj m41 and #aig ft4 above high water on the ,south ,stack4 ,on the hill are traces of ,british fortification1 including a circular building1 probably a ,roman watch-tower4 ,coasting trade and fishing1 with some shipbuilding and the ,irish traffic1 occupy most of the inhabitants4 ,see ,hon4 ,w4 ,stanley's ,holy ,island and ,holyhead4 ,,holy ,,island1 or ,,lindisfarne1 an irregularly shaped island in the ,north ,sea1 #b m4 from the coast of ,northumberland1 in which county it is included4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #dje4 ,it is joined to the mainland at low water by flat sands1 over which a track1 marked by wooden posts and practicable for vehicles1 leads to the island4 ,there is a station on the ,north-,eastern railway at ,beak #i m4 ,s4,e4 of ,berwick1 opposite the island1 but #a7a_/d7 m4 inland4 ,the island measures #c m4 from ,e4 to ,w4 and #a7a_/b7 ,n4 to ,s41 extreme distances4 ,its total area is #ajea acres4 ,on the ,n4 it is sandy and barren1 but on the ,s4 very fertile and under cultivation4 ,large numbers of rabbits have their warrens among the sands1 and1 with fish1 oysters and agricultural produce1 are exported4 ,there are several fresh springs on the island1 and in the north-east is a lake of #f acres4 ,at the south-west angle is the little fishing village 7formerly much larger7 which is now a favourite summer watering-place4 ,here is the harbour1 offering good shelter to small vessels4 ,holy ,island derives its name from a monastery founded on it by ,st ,aidan1 and restored in #ajhb as a cell of the ,benedictine monastery at ,durham4 ,its ruins1 still extensive and carefully preserved1 justify ,scott's description of it as a solemn1 huge and dark-red pile4 ,an islet1 lying off the ,s4,w4 angle1 has traces of a chapel upon it1 and is believed to have offered a retreat to ,st ,cuthbert and his successors4 ,the castle1 situated east of the village1 on a basaltic rock about #ij ft4 high1 dates from c4 #aejj4 ,when ,st ,aidan came at the request of ,king ,oswald to preach to the ,northumbrians he chose the island of ,lindisfarne as the site of his church and monastery1 and made it the head of the diocese which he founded in #fce4 ,for some years the see continued in peace1 numbering among its bishops ,st ,cuthbert1 but in #gic the ,danes landed on the island and burnt the settlement1 killing many of the monks4 ,the survivors1 however1 rebuilt the church and continued to live there until #hhc1 when1 through fear of a second invasion of the ,danes1 they fled inland1 taking with them the body of ,st ,cuthbert and other holy relics4 ,the church and monastery were again destroyed and the bishop and monks1 on account of the exposed situation of the island1 determined not to return to it1 and settled first at ,chester-le-,street and finally at ,durham4 ,with the fall of the monastery the island appears to have become again untenanted1 and probably continued so until the prior and convent of ,durham established there a cell of monks from their own house4 ,the inhabitants of ,holy ,island were governed by two bailiffs at least as early as the #adth century1 and1 according to ,j4 ,raine in his ,history of ,north ,durham 7#aheb71 are called burgesses or freemen in a private paper dated #agbh4 ,in #acbc the bailiffs and community of ,holy ,island were commanded to cause all ships of the burthen of thirty tons or over to go to ,ereswell with their ships provisioned for a month at least and under double manning to be ready to set out on the kings service4 ,towards the end of the #afth century the fort on ,holy ,island was garrisoned for fear of foreign invasion by ,sir ,william ,read1 who found it very much in need of repair1 the guns being so decayed that the gunners dare not give fire but by trayne1 and the master gunner had been miserably slain in discharging one of them4 ,during the ,civil ,wars the castle was held for the king until #afdf1 when it was taken and garrisoned by the parliamentarians4 ,the only other historical event connected with the island is the attempt made by two ,jacobites in #agae to hold it for the ,pretender4 ,,holyoake1 ,,george ,,jacob 7#ahag-aijf71 ,english secularist and co-operator1 was born at ,birmingham1 on the #acth of ,april #ahag4 ,at an early age he became an ,owenite lecturer1 and in #ahda was the last person convicted for blasphemy in a public lecture1 though this had no theological character and the incriminating words were merely a reply to a question addressed to him from the body of the meeting4 ,he nevertheless underwent six months' imprisonment1 and upon his release invented the inoffensive term secularism as descriptive of his opinions1 and established the ,reasoner in their support4 ,he was also the last person indicted for publishing an unstamped newspaper1 but the prosecution dropped upon the repeal of the tax4 ,his later years were chiefly devoted to the promotion of the co-operative movement among the working classes4 ,he wrote the history of the ,rochdale ,pioneers 7#aheg71 ,the ,history of ,co-operation in ,england 7#ahge2 revised ed41 #aijf71 and ,the ,co-operative ,movement of ,to-day 7#ahia74 ,he also published 7#ahib7 his autobiography1 under the title of ,sixty ,years of an ,agitator's ,life1 and in #aije two volumes of reminiscences1 ,bygones worth ,remembering4 ,he died at ,brighton on the #bbnd of ,january #aijf4 ,see ,j4 ,mc,cabe1 ,life and ,letters of ,g4 ,j4 ,holyoake 7#b vols41 #aijh72 ,c4 ,w4 ,f4 ,goss1 ,descriptive ,bibliography of the ,writings of ,g4 ,j4 ,holyoake 7#aijh74 ,,holyoke1 a city of ,hampden county1 ,massachusetts1 ,u4,s4,a41 in a bend of the ,connecticut river1 about #h m4 ,n4 of ,springfield4 ,pop4 7#ahhj7 #ba1iae2 7#ahij7 #ce1fcg2 7#aijj7 #de1gab2 7#aiaj census7 #eg1gcj4 ,of the total population in #aijj1 #ah1iba were foreign-born1 including #fiia ,french-,canadians1 #efej ,irish1 #afjb ,germans and #aaah ,english2 and #cc1fbf were of foreign parentage 7both parents foreign-born71 including #ab1cgj of ,irish and #aa1jej of ,french-,canadian parentage4 ,the city's area is about #ag sq4 m4 ,the city is served by the ,boston ,maine1 and the ,new ,york1 ,new ,haven ,hartford railways1 and by an interurban line4 ,holyoke is characteristically an industrial and mercantile city2 it has some handsome public buildings 7the city hall and the public library1 founded in #ahgj1 being especially noteworthy7 and attractive environs4 ,holyoke is the railway station for ,mt ,holyoke ,college1 in ,south ,hadley1 about #d m4 ,n4 by ,e4 of ,holyoke2 the city is connected with ,south ,hadley by an electric line4 ,just above ,holyoke the ,connecticut leaves the rugged highlands through a rift between ,mt ,tom 7#abad ft42 ascended by a mountain-railway from ,holyoke7 and ,mt ,holyoke 7#ied ft471 and begins a meandering valley course1 falling 7in the ,hadley halls7 in great volume some #fj ft4 in about #a7a_/b7 m4 ,the water-power was unutilized until #ahdi1 when a great dam 7#ajag ft4 long7 was completed1 which enabled vast power to be developed along a series of canals laid out from the river4 ,this was1 in its day1 a colossal undertaking2 and its success transformed ,holyoke from a farming village into a great manufacturing centre--in #aijj and #aije the ninth largest of the commonwealth4 ,in #aijj a stone dam 7#ajbj ft471 said to be the second largest in ,new ,england1 was completed at a cost of about #gej1jjj4 ,cotton manufactures first1 and later paper products were chief in importance1 and ,holyoke now leads all the cities in the ,united ,states in the manufacture of fine paper4 ,in #aije the total value of all factory products was #cj1gca1ccb1 of which #aj1fbj1bee 7or #cd4f of the total7 represented paper and wood pulp2 #e1jai1hag1 cotton goods2 #a1cah1dji1 woollen goods2 #a1gef1dgc1 book binding and blank books1 and #b1jbb1gei1 foundry and machine-shop products4 ,silk and worsted goods are other important manufactures4 ,opposite ,holyoke1 in ,hampshire county1 is ,south ,hadley ,falls4 ,the municipality owns and operates the gas and electric-lighting plants and the water works 7the water-supply being derived from natural ponds1 some of which are outside the city limits71 and owns and leases 7to the ,new ,york1 ,new ,haven ,hartford railroad7 a railway extending 7#aj4c m47 to ,westfield1 ,mass4 ,holyoke was originally a part of ,springfield1 and after #aggd of ,west ,springfield4 ,in #ahej it was incorporated as a township1 and in #ahgc was chartered as a city4 ,,holystone1 a soft kind of sandstone used by sailors for scrubbing and cleaning the decks of ships4 ,the origin of the word is doubtful4 ,some authorities hold that it arose from the general practice of scrubbing the decks for ,sunday service2 while others think the name arises from the fact that the stone so employed is naturally porous and full of holes4 ,a small flint or stone having a natural hole in it1 and worn as a charm1 is also called a holystone4 ,,holy ,,water1 technically the water with which ,christian believers sign the cross on their foreheads on entering or leaving church4 ,the edict of ,gratian lays down that it should be exorcized and blessed by the priest and sprinkled with exorcized salt4 ,this rite is found in the ,gelasian1 ,gregorian and other sacramentaries4 ,in the ,east the water was blessed once a month1 in the ,latin ,church it is now blessed every ,sunday4 ,in the #dth century in the ,east it was usual to wash the hands on entering the church 7see ,,ablution74 ,in the early church water was not expressly consecrated for baptisms and other lustrations4 ,water1 says ,tertullian in his tract on baptism1 was the abode at the first of the divine ,spirit1 being more acceptable then 7to ,god7 than the other elements4 ,he pictures the world in the beginning3 total darkness1 formless as yet1 without tending of stars1 the melancholy abyss1 the earth unprepared1 the heaven undevelopt4 ,the liquid alone an ever perfect material1 smiling1 simple1 pure in its own right1 as a worthy vehicle underlay the ,god4 ,water was similarly pure in itself in the old ,persian religion4 ,the ,canons of ,hippolytus1 or ,egyptian church order1 of about ,a4,d4 #bej1 give no prayer for consecration of fonts1 but enact that at cock crow the baptismal party shall take their stand near waving water1 pure1 prepared1 sacred1 of the sea4 ,the ,teaching of the ,apostles1 c4 #ajj1 merely insists on living1 that is1 clear and running water4 ,the ancient feeling1 especially ,jewish1 was that in lustrations the same water must not pass twice over the body4 ,a stagnant pool was useless4 ,bubbling waters too seemed to have a spirit in them4 ,either because running water was not always at hand1 or as part of the growing tendency of the church to multiply ceremonies1 rituals arose late in the #crd century for consecrating water4 ,the sacramentary of ,serapion1 c4 #cej1 provides a prayer asking that the divine ,word may descend into the water and hallow it1 as of old it hallowed the ,jordan4 ,in the ,roman order of baptism the priest prays that the font may receive the grace of the only begotten ,son from the holy ,spirit1 and that the latter may impregnate with hidden admixture of ,his light this water prepared for the regeneration of mankind1 to the end that man through a sanctification conceived from the immaculate womb of the divine font1 may emerge a heavenly offspring reborn as a new creature4 ,the water is then exorcized and evil spirits warned off1 and lastly blessed4 ,during the prayer the priest twice signs the water with the cross1 and once blows upon it4 ,the first mention of a special consecration of water for other ends than baptism is in the ,acts of ,thomas 78 ,a4,d4 #bjj72 it is for the purgation of a youth already baptized who had killed his mistress because she would not live chastely with him4 ,the apostle prays3 ,fountain sent unto us from ,rest1 ,power of ,salvation from that ,power proceeding which overcomes and subjects all to its own will1 come and dwell within these waters1 that the ,charisma 7gift7 of the holy ,spirit may be fully perfected through them4 ,the youth then washes his hands1 which on touching the sacrament had withered up1 and is healed4 ,the church shared the universal belief that holiness or the holy ,spirit is quasi-material and capable of being held in suspense in water1 just as sin is a half material infection1 absorbed and carried away by it4 ,so ,tertullian writes3 ,the water which carried the ,spirit of ,god 7probably regarded as a shadow or reflection-soul7 borrowed holiness from that which was carried upon it2 for every underlying matter must needs absorb and take up the quality of that matter which overhangs it2 especially does a corporeal so absorb a spiritual1 as this can easily penetrate and settle into it owing to the subtlety of its substance4 ,water1 he continues1 was generically hallowed by the ,spirit of ,god brooding over it at creation1 and therefore all special waters are holy1 and at once obtain the sacrament of sanctification when ,god is invoked 7over them47 ,for the ,spirit from heaven instantly supervenes and is upon the waters1 hallowing them out of itself1 and being so hallowed they drink up a power of hallowing4 ,what is done in material semblance1 he then argues1 is repeated in the unseen medium of the ,spirit4 ,the stains of idolatry1 vice and fraud are not visible on the flesh1 yet they resemble real dirt4 ,the waters are medicated in a manner through the intervention of the angel1 and the ,spirit is corporeally washed in the water and the flesh is spiritually purified in the same4 ,tertullian believed that an angel was sent down1 when ,god was invoked1 like that which stirred the pool of ,bethesda4 ,as regards rival ,isiac and ,mithraic baptisms1 he asserts that their waters are destitute of divine power2 nay1 are rather tenanted by the devil who in this matter sets himself to rival ,god4 ,without any religious rite at all1 he urges1 unclean spirits brood upon waters1 aspiring to repeat that primordial gestation of the divine ,spirit4 ,and he instances the darkling springs and lonely rivers which are said to snatch1 to wit by force of a harmful spirit4 ,in the sequel he defines the role of the angel of baptism who does not infuse himself in waters1 already holy from the first2 but merely presides over the washing of the faithful1 and ensures their being made pure for the reception of the holy ,spirit in the rite of confirmation which immediately follows4 ,the devil who till now ruled over us1 we leave behind overwhelmed in the water4 ,from all this we conclude that what is poetry to us--akin to the folk-lore of water-sprites1 naiads1 kelpies1 river-gods and water-worship in general--was to ,tertullian and to the generations of believers who fashioned the baptismal rites1 ablutions and beliefs of the church1 nothing less than grim reality and unquestionable fact4 ,see ,john1 marquess of ,bute1 and ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,the ,blessing of the ,waters 7,london1 #aija72 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture 7,london1 #aijc74 7,f4 ,c4 ,c47 ,,holy ,,week 7,greek3 hebdomas megale1 hagia or ,greek3 ton hagion1 xerophagias1 apraktos1 also ,greek3 hemerai pathematon1 hemerai staurosimai3 hebdomas or septimana major1 sancta1 authentica i4e4 canonizata1 du ,cange1 ultima1 poenosa1 luctuosa1 nigra1 inofficiosa1 muta1 crucis1 lamentationum1 indulgentiae71 in the ,christian ecclesiastical year the week immediately preceding ,easter4 ,the earliest allusion to the custom of marking this week as a whole with special observances is to be found in the ,apostolical ,constitutions 7v4 #ah1 #ai71 dating from the latter half of the #crd century ,a4,d4 ,abstinence from wine and flesh is there commanded for all the days1 while for the ,friday and ,saturday an absolute fast is enjoined4 ,dionysius ,alexandrinus also1 in his canonical epistle 7#bfj ,a4,d471 refers to the six fasting days 7,greek3 hex ton nesteion hemerai7 in a manner which implies that the observance of them had already become an established usage in his time4 ,there is some doubt about the genuineness of an ordinance attributed to ,constantine1 in which abstinence from public business was enforced for the seven days immediately preceding ,easter ,sunday1 and also for the seven which followed it2 the ,codex ,theodosianus1 however1 is explicit in ordering that all actions at law should cease1 and the doors of all courts of law be closed during those fifteen days 7l4 ii4 tit4 viii474 ,of the particular days of the great week the earliest to emerge into special prominence was naturally ,good ,friday4 ,next came the ,sabbatum ,magnum 7,holy ,saturday or ,easter ,eve7 with its vigil1 which in the early church was associated with an expectation that the second advent would occur on an ,easter ,sunday4 ,for details of the ceremonial observed in the ,roman ,catholic ,church during this week1 reference must be made to the ,missal and ,breviary4 ,in the ,eastern ,church the week is marked by similar practices1 but with less elaboration and differentiation of rite4 ,see also ,,easter1 ,,good ,,friday1 ,,maundy ,,thursday1 ,,palm ,,sunday and ,,passion ,,week4 ,,holywell 7,tre'ffynnon1 well-town71 a market town and contributory parliamentary borough of ,flintshire1 ,n4 ,wales1 situated on a height near the left bank of the ,dee estuary1 #aif m4 from ,london by the ,london ,north-,western railway 7the station being #b m4 distant74 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija7 #bfeb4 ,the parish church 7#agfi7 has some columns of an earlier building1 interesting brasses and strong embattled tower4 ,the remains of ,basingwerk ,abbey 7,maes glas1 green field71 partly ,saxon and partly ,early ,english1 are near the station4 ,it is of uncertain origin but was used as a monastery before #aaai4 ,in #aaca ,ranulph1 #bnd earl of ,chester1 introduced the ,cistercians4 ,in #aece1 when ,its revenues were ,l#aej1 #gs4 #c;d41 it was dissolved1 but revived under ,mary ,i4 and used as a ,roman ,catholic burial place in #afdg4 ,scarcely any traces remain of ,basingwerk castle1 an old fort4 ,small up to the beginning of the #aith century1 ,holywell has increasingly prospered1 thanks to lime quarries1 lead1 copper and zinc mines1 smelting works1 a shot manufactory1 copper1 brass1 iron and zinc works2 brewing1 tanning and mineral water1 flannel and cement works4 ,st ,winifred's holy well1 one of the wonders of ,wales1 sends up water at the rate of #ba tons a minute1 of an almost unvarying temperature1 higher than that of ordinary spring water4 ,to its curative powers many crutches and ex voto objects1 hung round the well1 as in the ,lourdes ,grot1 bear ample witness4 ,the stones at the bottom are slightly reddish1 owing to vegetable substances4 ,the well itself is covered by a fine ,gothic building1 said to have been erected by ,margaret1 countess of ,richmond and mother of ,henry ,,vii41 with some portions of earlier date4 ,the chapel 7restored7 is used for public service4 ,catholics and others visit it in great numbers4 ,there are swimming baths for general use4 ,in #ahgj a hospice for poorer pilgrims was erected4 ,other public buildings are ,st ,winifred's 7,catholic7 church and a convent1 a town hall and a market-hall4 ,the export trade is expedited by quays on the ,dee4 ,,holywood1 a seaport of county ,down1 ,ireland1 on the east shore of ,belfast ,lough1 #d7a_/b7 m4 ,n4,e4 from ,belfast by the ,belfast ,county ,down railway4 ,its pleasant situation renders it a favourite residential locality of the wealthier classes in ,belfast4 ,there was a religious settlement here from the #gth century1 which subsequently became a ,franciscan monastery4 ,the old church dating from the late #abth or early #acth century marks its site4 ,a ,solemn ,league and ,covenant was signed here in #afdd for the defence of the kingdom1 and the document is preserved at ,belfast4 ,,holzminden1 a town of ,germany1 in the duchy of ,brunswick1 on the right bank of the ,weser1 at the foot of the ,sollinger ,mountains1 at the junction of the railways ,scherfede-,holzminden and ,soest-,borssum1 #ef m4 ,s4,w4 of ,brunswick4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #iich4 ,it has an ,evangelical and a ,roman ,catholic church1 a gymnasium1 an architectural school and a school of engineering4 ,the prosperity of the town depends chiefly on agriculture and the manufacture of iron and steel wares1 and of chemicals1 but weaving and the making of pottery are also carried on1 and there are baryta mills and polishing-mills for sandstone4 ,by means of the ,weser it carries on a lively trade4 ,holzminden obtained municipal rights from ,count ,otto of ,eberstein in #abde1 and in #adaj it came into the possession of ,brunswick4 ,,holztrompete 7,wooden ,trumpet71 an instrument somewhat resembling the ,alpenhorn 7q4v47 in tone-quality1 designed by ,richard ,wagner for representing the natural pipe of the peasant in ,tristan and ,isolde4 ,this instrument is not unlike the cor anglais in rough outline1 being a conical tube of approximately the same length1 terminating in a small globular bell1 but having neither holes nor keys2 it is blown through a cup-shaped mouthpiece made of horn4 ,the ,holztrompete is in the key of ,c2 the scale is produced by overblowing1 whereby the upper partials from the #bnd to the #fth are produced4 ,a single piston placed at a third of the distance from the mouthpiece to the bell gives the notes ,d and ,f4 ,wagner inserted a note in the score concerning the cor anglais for which the part was originally scored1 and advised the use of oboe or clarinet to reinforce the latter1 the effect intended being that of a powerful natural instrument1 unless a wooden instrument with a natural scale be specially made for the part1 which would be preferable4 ,the ,holztrompete was used at ,munich for the first performance of ,tristan and ,isolde1 and was still in use there in #ahig4 ,at ,bayreuth it was also used for the ,tristan performances at the festivals of #ahhf and #ahhi1 but in #ahia ,w4 ,heckel's clarina1 an instrument partaking of the nature of both oboe and clarinet1 was substituted for the ,holztrompete and has been retained ever since1 having been found more effective4#a 7,k4 ,s47 ,illustration3 ,harmonic ,series4 ,,footnote3 #a ,communicated by ,madame ,wagner1 ,december #bhth1 #ahig4 ,,homage 7from homo1 through the ,low ,lat4 hominaticum1 which occurs in a document of #ajce71 one of the ceremonies used in the granting of a fief1 and indicating the submission of a vassal to his lord4 ,it could be received only by the suzerain in person4 ,with head uncovered the vassal humbly requested to be allowed to enter into the feudal relation2 he then laid aside his sword and spurs1 ungirt his belt1 and kneeling before his lord1 and holding his hands extended and joined between the hands of his lord1 uttered words to this effect3 ,i become your man from this day forth1 of life and limb1 and will hold faith to you for the lands ,i claim to hold of you4 ,the oath of fealty1 which could be received by proxy1 followed the act of homage2 then came the ceremony of investiture1 either directly on the ground or by the delivery of a turf1 a handful of earth1 a stone1 or some other symbolical object4 ,homage was done not only by the vassal to whom feudal lands were first granted but by every one in turn by whom they were inherited1 since they were not granted absolutely but only on condition of military and other service4 ,an infant might do homage1 but he did not thus enter into full possession of his lands4 ,the ceremony was of a preliminary nature1 securing that the fief would not be alienated2 but the vassal had to take the oath of fealty1 and to be formally invested1 when he reached his majority4 ,the obligations involved in the act of homage were more general than those associated with the oath of fealty1 but they provided a strong moral sanction for more specific engagements4 ,they essentially resembled the obligations undertaken towards a ,teutonic chief by the members of his comitatus or gefolge1 one of the institutions from which feudalism directly sprang4 ,besides homagium ligeum1 there was a kind of homage which imposed no feudal duty2 this was homagium per paragium1 such as the dukes of ,normandy rendered to the kings of ,france1 and as the dukes of ,normandy received from the dukes of ,brittany4 ,the act of liege homage to a particular lord did not interfere with the vassal's allegiance as a subject to his sovereign1 or with his duty to any other suzerain of whom he might hold lands4 ,the word is also used of the body of tenants attending a manorial court1 or of the court in a court baron 7consisting of the tenants that do homage and make inquiries and presentments1 termed a homage jury74 ,,homberg1 ,,wilhelm 7#afeb-agae71 ,dutch natural philosopher1 was the son of an officer of the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company1 and was born at ,batavia 7,java7 on the #hth of ,january #afeb4 ,coming to ,europe with his family in #afgj1 he studied law at ,jena and ,leipzig1 and in #afgd became an advocate at ,magdeburg4 ,in that town he made the acquaintance of ,otto von ,guericke1 and under his influence determined to devote himself to natural science4 ,he1 therefore1 travelled in various parts of ,europe for study1 and after graduating in medicine at ,wittenberg1 settled in ,paris in #afhb4 ,from #afhe to #afij he practised as a physician at ,rome2 then returning to ,paris in #afia1 he was elected a member of the ,academy of ,sciences and appointed director of its chemical laboratory4 ,subsequently he became teacher of physics and chemistry 7#agjb71 and private physician 7#agje7 to the duke of ,orleans4 ,his death occurred at ,paris on the #bdth of ,september #agae4 ,homberg was not free from alchemistical tendencies1 but he made many solid contributions to chemical and physical knowledge1 recording observations on the preparation of ,kunkel's phosphorus1 on the green colour produced in flames by copper1 on the crystallization of common salt1 on the salts of plants1 on the saturation of bases by acids1 on the freezing of water and its evaporation in vacuo1 c4 ,much of his work was published in the ,recueil de l',academie des ,sciences from #afib to #agad4 ,the ,sal ,sedativum ,hombergi is boracic acid1 which he discovered in #agjb1 and ,homberg's phosphorus is prepared by fusing sal-ammoniac with quick lime4 ,,homburg-,,vor-,,der-,,hohe1 a town and watering-place of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau1 prettily situated at the south-east foot of the ,taunus ,mountains1 #ab m4 ,n4 of ,frankfort-on-,main1 with which it is connected by rail4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ac1gdj4 ,homburg consists of an old and a new town1 the latter1 founded by the landgrave of ,hesse-,homburg ,frederick ,,ii4 7d4 #agjh71 being regular and well-built4 ,besides the palatial edifices erected in connexion with the mineral water-cure1 there are churches of various denominations1 ,lutheran1 ,roman ,catholic1 ,russian-,greek and ,anglican1 schools and benevolent institutions4 ,on a neighbouring hill stands the palace of the former landgraves1 built in #afhj and subsequently enlarged and improved4 ,the ,white ,tower1 #ahc ft4 in height1 is said to date from ,roman times1 and certainly existed under the lords of ,eppstein1 who held the district in the #abth century4 ,the palace is surrounded by extensive grounds1 laid out in the manner of an ,english park4 ,the eight mineral springs which form the attraction of the town to strangers belong to the class of saline acidulous chalybeates and contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime4 ,their use is beneficial for diseases of the stomach and intestines1 and externally1 for diseases of the skin and rheumatism4 ,the establishments connected with the springs are arranged on a scale of great magnificence1 and include the ,kurhaus 7built #ahda-ahdc71 with a theatre1 the ,kaiser ,wilhelmsbad and the ,kurhausbad4 ,they lie grouped round a pretty park which also furnishes the visitors with facilities for various recreations1 such as lawn tennis1 croquet1 polo and other games4 ,the industries of ,homburg embrace iron founding and the manufacture of leather and hats1 but they are comparatively unimportant1 the prosperity of the town being almost entirely due to the annual influx of visitors1 which during the season from ,may to ,october inclusive averages #ab1jjj4 ,in the beautiful neighbourhood lies the ancient ,roman castle of ,saalburg1 which can be reached by an electric tramway4 ,homburg first came into repute as a watering-place in #ahcd1 and owing to its gaming-tables1 which were set up soon after1 it rapidly became one of the favourite and most fashionable health-resorts of ,europe4 ,in #ahdi the town was occupied by ,austrian troops for the purpose of enforcing the imperial decree against gambling establishments1 but immediately on their withdrawal the bank was again opened1 and play continued unchecked until #ahgb1 when the ,prussian government refused to renew the lease for gambling purposes1 which then expired4 ,as the capital of the former landgraviate of ,hesse-,homburg1 the town shared the vicissitudes of that state4 ,homburg is also the name of a town in ,bavaria4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #dghe4 ,it has a ,roman ,catholic and an ,evangelical church1 and manufactures of iron goods4 ,in the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castles of ,karlsberg and of ,hohenburg4 ,the family of the counts of ,homburg became extinct in the #aeth century4 ,the town came into the possession of ,zweibrucken in #agee and later into that of ,bavaria4 ,see ,supp1 ,bad ,homburg 7#gth ed41 ,homburg1 #aijc72 ,baumstark1 ,bad ,homburg und seine ,heilquellen 7,wiesbaden1 #aija72 ,schiek1 ,homburg und ,umgebung 7,homburg1 #ahif72 ,will1 ,der ,kurort ,homburg1 seine ,mineralquellen 7,homburg1 #ahhj72 ,hoeben1 ,bad ,homburg und sein ,heilapparat 7,homburg1 #aija72 and ,n4 ,e4 ,yorke-,davies1 ,homburg and its ,waters 7,london1 #ahig74 ,,home1 ,,earls ,,of4 ,alexander ,home or ,hume1 #ast earl of ,home 7c4 #aeff-afai71 was the son of ,alexander1 #eth ,lord ,home 7d4 #aege71 who fought against ,mary1 queen of ,scots1 at ,carberry ,hill and at ,langside1 but was afterwards one of her most stalwart supporters1 being taken prisoner when defending ,edinburgh castle in her interests in #aegc and probably dying in captivity4 ,he belonged to an old and famous border family1 an early member of which1 ,sir ,alexander ,home1 was killed at the battle of ,verneuil in #adbd4 ,this ,sir ,alexander was the father of ,sir ,alexander ,home 7d4 #adef71 warden of the marches and the founder of the family fortunes1 whose son1 another ,sir ,alexander 7d4 #adia71 was created a lord of parliament as ,lord ,home in #adgc1 being one of the band of nobles who defeated the forces of ,king ,james ,,iii4 at the battle of ,sauchieburn in #adhh4 ,other distinguished members of the family were3 the first lord's grandson and successor1 ,alexander1 #bnd ,lord ,home 7d4 #aejf71 chamberlain of ,scotland2 and the latter's son1 ,alexander1 #crd ,lord ,home 7d4 #aeaf71 a person of great importance during the reign of ,james ,,iv41 whom he served as chamberlain4 ,he fought at ,flodden1 but before the death of the king he had led his men away to plunder4 ,during the minority of the new king1 ,james ,v41 he was engaged in quarrelling with the regent1 ,john ,stewart1 duke of ,albany1 and in intriguing with ,england4 ,in ,september #aeaf he was seized1 was charged with treachery and beheaded1 his title and estates being restored to his brother ,george in #aebb4 ,george1 who was killed in ,september #aedg during a skirmish just before the battle of ,pinkie1 was the father of ,alexander1 the #eth lord4 ,alexander ,home became #fth ,lord ,home on his father's death in ,august #aege1 and took part in many of the turbulent incidents which marked the reign of ,james ,,vi4 ,he was warden of the east marches1 and was often at variance with the ,hepburns1 a rival border family whose head was the earl of ,bothwell2 the feud between the ,homes and the ,hepburns was an old one1 and it was probably the main reason why ,home's father1 the #eth lord1 sided with the enemies of ,mary during the period of her intimacy with ,bothwell4 ,home accompanied ,james to ,england in #afjc and was created earl of ,home in #afje2 he died in ,april #afai4 ,his son ,james1 the #bnd earl1 died childless in #afcc when his titles passed to a distant kinsman1 ,sir ,james ,home of ,coldingknows 7d4 #afff71 a descendant of the #ast ,lord ,home4 ,this earl was in the ,scottish ranks at the battle of ,preston and lost his estates under the ,commonwealth1 but these were restored to him in #affa4 ,his descendant1 ,william1 the #hth earl 7d4 #agfa7 fought on the ,english side at ,prestonpans1 and from his brother ,alexander1 the #ith earl 7d4 #aghf71 the present earl of ,home is descended4 ,in #ahge ,cospatrick ,alexander1 the #aath earl 7#agii-ahha71 was created a peer of the ,united ,kingdom as ,baron ,douglas1 and his son ,charles ,alexander1 the #abth earl 7b4 #ahcd71 took the additional name of ,douglas4 ,the principal strongholds of the ,homes were ,douglas castle in ,haddington and ,home castle in ,berwickshire4 ,see ,h4 ,drummond1 ,histories of ,noble ,british ,families 7#ahdf74