file was produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,,oe and oe represent the oe ligature4 ,text printed in italics and boldface in the original are represented here between under- scores 7as in italics7 and equal signs 7as in boldface71 res- pectively4 ,text printed in small capitals in the original have been transcribed as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes will be found at the end of this text4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,sheep1 ,,swine1 ,,and ,,poultry2 ,,embracing ,,the ,,history ,,and ,,varieties ,,of ,,each2 ,,the ,,best ,,modes ,,of ,,breeding2 ,,their ,,feeding ,,and ,,management2 ,,together ,,with ,,the ,,diseases ,,to ,,which ,,they ,,are ,,respectively ,,subject1 ,,and ,,the ,,appropriate ,,remedies ,,for ,,each4 ,,by ,,robert ,,jennings1 ,v4 ,s41 ,,professor ,,of ,,pathology ,,and ,,operative ,,surgery ,,in ,,the ,,veterinary ,,college ,,of ,,philadelphia2 ,,late ,,professor ,,of ,,veterinary ,,medicine ,,in ,,the ,,agricultural ,,college ,,of ,,ohio2 ,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,veterinary ,,association ,,of ,,philadelphia2 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,and ,,his ,,diseases1 ,,cattle ,,and ,,their ,,diseases1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,illustration ,with ,numerous ,illustrations4 ,,philadelphia3 ,,john ,e4 ,,potter ,,and ,,company4 #fag ,,sansom ,,street ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahfd1 by ,,john ,e4 ,,potter1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states1 in and for the ,eastern ,district of ,pennsylvania4 ,,preface4 ,encouraged by the favorable reception of his former works1 the author presents in the following pages what is intended by him as a popular compendium relative to ,sheep1 ,swine1 and ,poultry4 ,it would not have been a difficult matter to collect material bearing upon each distinct class sufficient for an entire volume of the present size4 ,indeed1 the main trouble experienced has been the selecting of such facts and suggestions only as seemed to him of paramount practical importance4 ,he has not deemed it advisable to cumber his work with items of information which could be of service to particular sections and localities only2 but has rather endeavored to present1 in a concise1 yet comprehensible shape1 whatever is essential to be understood concerning the animals in question4 ,the amateur stock-raiser and the wealthy farmer will1 of course1 call to their aid all the works1 no matter how expensive or voluminous1 which are to be found bearing upon the subject in which they are for the time interested4 ,the present volume can scarcely be expected to fill the niche which such might desire to see occupied4 ,the author's experience as a veterinary surgeon among the great body of our farmers convinces him that what is needed by them in the premises is a treatise1 of convenient size1 containing the essential features of the treatment and management of each1 couched in language free from technicality or rarely scientific expressions1 and fortified by the results of actual experience upon the farm4 ,such a place the author trusts this work may occupy4 ,he hopes that1 while it shall not be entirely destitute of interest for any1 it will prove acceptable1 in a peculiar degree1 to that numerous and thrifty class of citizens to which allusion has already been made4 ,the importance of such a work cannot be overrated4 ,take the subject of sheep for example3 the steadily growing demand for woollen goods of every description is producing a great and lucrative development of the wool trade4 ,even light fabrics of wool are now extensively preferred throughout the country to those of cotton4 ,our imports of wool from ,england during the past six years have increased at an almost incredible rate1 while our productions of the article during the past few years greatly exceed that of the same period in any portion of our history4 ,relative to swine1 moreover1 it may be said that they form so considerable an item of our commerce that a thorough information as to the best mode of raising and caring for them is highly desirable2 while our domestic poultry contribute so much1 directly and indirectly1 to the comfort and partial subsistence of hundreds of thousands1 that sensible views touching that division will be of service in almost every household4 ,to those who are familiar with the author's previous works upon the ,horse and ,cattle1 it is needless to say any thing as to the method adopted by him in discussing the subject of ,diseases4 ,to others he would say1 that only such diseases are described as are likely to be actually encountered1 and such curatives recommended as his own personal experience1 or that of others upon whose judgment he relies1 has satisfied him are rational and valuable4 ,the following works1 among others1 have been consulted3 ,randall's ,sheep ,husbandry2 ,youatt on ,sheep2 ,goodale's ,breeding of ,domestic ,animals2 ,allen's ,domestic ,animals2 ,stephens's ,book of the ,farm2 ,youatt on the ,hog2 ,richardson on the ,hog2 ,dixon and ,kerr's ,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry2 ,bennett's ,poultry ,book2 and ,browne's ,american ,poultry ,yard4 ,to those professional brethren who have so courteously furnished him with valuable information1 growing out of their own observation and practice1 he acknowledges himself especially indebted2 and were he certain that they would not take offence1 he would be pleased to mention them here by name4 ,should the work prove of service to our intelligent ,american farmers and stock-breeders as a body1 the author's end will have been attained4 ,,contents4 ,,sheep ,,and ,,their ,,diseases4 ,,page ,,history ,,and ,,varieties #ae ,,american ,,sheep #ba ,native ,sheep #bb ,the ,spanish ,merino #be ,the ,saxon ,merino #cf ,the ,new ,leicester #da ,the ,south-,down #dg ,the ,cotswold #eb ,the ,cheviot #ed ,the ,lincoln #ef ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,sheep #eg ,formation of the ,teeth #ei ,structure of the ,skin #fc ,anatomy of the ,wool #fd ,long ,wool #gf ,middle ,wool #gh ,short ,wool #hj ,,crossing ,,and ,,breeding #ha ,,breeding #ha ,points of the ,merino #ic ,breeding ,merinos #ig ,general ,principles of ,breeding #ajf ,use of ,rams #aab ,lambing #aag ,management of ,lambs #aba ,castration and ,docking #abg ,,feeding ,,and ,,management #abi ,,feeding #abi ,shade #acc ,fences #acc ,hoppling #acc ,dangerous ,rams #acd ,prairie ,feeding #ace ,fall ,feeding #acg ,winter ,feeding #acg ,feeding with other ,stock #adb ,division of ,flocks #adb ,regularity in ,feeding #adc ,effect of ,food #add ,yards #adf ,feeding-,racks #adg ,troughs #aej ,barns and ,sheds #aea ,sheds #aee ,hay-,holder #aef ,tagging #aeg ,washing #afj ,cutting the ,hoofs #afe ,shearing #aff ,cold ,storms #aga ,sun-,scald #aga ,ticks #aga ,marking or ,branding #agb ,maggots #agc ,shortening the ,horns #agd ,selection and ,division #agd ,the ,crook #agf ,driving and ,slaughtering #agg ,driving #agg ,points of ,fat ,sheep #aha ,slaughtering #ahd ,cutting ,up #ahf ,relative qualities #ahg ,contributions to ,manufactures #aia ,,diseases ,,and ,,their ,,remedies #aie ,,administering ,,medicine #aig ,,bleeding #aig ,,feeling ,,the ,,pulse #aii ,apoplexy #bjj ,braxy #bja ,bronchitis #bja ,catarrh #bjb ,malignant ,epizooetic ,catarrh #bjc ,colic #bje ,costiveness #bjf ,diarrhoea #bjf ,disease of the ,biflex ,canal #bjg ,dysentery #bjh ,flies #bji ,fouls #bji ,fractures #baj ,garget #baa ,goitre #baa ,grub in the ,head #bab ,hoof-,ail #bad ,hoove #bbe ,hydatid on the ,brain #bbf ,obstruction of the ,gullet #bbh ,ophthalmia #bbi ,palsy #bbi ,pelt-,rot #bcj ,pneumonia #bcj ,poison #bcc ,rot #bcc ,scab #bcf ,small-,pox #bci ,sore ,face #bdb ,sore ,mouth #bdc ,ticks #bdc ,,illustrations4 ,a ,,leicester ,,ram #ae ,,rocky ,,mountain ,,sheep #ai ,a ,,merino ,,ram #be ,a ,,spanish ,,sheep-,,dog #bh ,,out ,,at ,,pasture #ce ,a ,,country ,,scene #da ,a ,,south-,,down ,,ram #dg ,,the ,,cotswold #eb ,a ,,cheviot ,,ewe #ed ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,sheep ,,as ,,covered ,,by ,,the ,,muscles #eg ,,the ,,wallachian ,,sheep #fd ,,the ,,happy ,,trio #ha ,,the ,,scotch ,,sheep-,,dog ,,or ,,colley #ajj ,,ewe ,,and ,,lambs #aag ,,feeding ,,and ,,management #abi ,a ,,covered ,,salting-,,box #acj ,a ,,convenient ,,box-,,rack #adg ,a ,,hole-,,rack #adh ,,the ,,hopper-,,rack #aej ,,an ,,economical ,,sheep-,,trough #aea ,,sheep-,,barn ,,with ,,sheds #aeb ,a ,,shed ,,of ,,rails #aee ,,washing ,,apparatus #afb ,,toe-,,nippers #aff ,,fleece #afg ,,shepherd',s ,,crook #agf ,,the ,,shepherd ,,and ,,his ,,flock #agi ,,drover',s ,,or ,,butcher',s ,,dog #ahe ,,quiet ,,enjoyment #aie ,,an ,,english ,,rack ,,for ,,feeding ,,sheep #bjc ,a ,,barrack ,,for ,,storing ,,sheep ,,fodder #bbh ,,the ,,broad-,,tailed ,,sheep #bcf ,,swine ,,and ,,their ,,diseases4 ,,contents4 ,,history ,,and ,,breeds #bde 7#g7 ,,american ,,swine #bed 7#af7 ,the ,byefield #bef 7#ah7 ,the ,bedford #bef 7#ah7 ,the ,leicester #beg 7#ai7 ,the ,yorkshire #beg 7#ai7 ,the ,chinese #beh 7#bj7 ,the ,suffolk #bfj 7#bb7 ,the ,berkshire #bfa 7#bc7 ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,hog #bfc 7#be7 ,formation of the ,teeth #bfe 7#bg7 ,,breeding ,,and ,,management #bfg 7#bi7 ,,breeding #bfg 7#bi7 ,points of a ,good ,hog #bgd 7#cf7 ,treatment during ,pregnancy #bgf 7#ch7 ,abortion #bgg 7#ci7 ,parturition #bgi 7#da7 ,treatment while ,suckling #bhb 7#dd7 ,treatment of ,young ,pigs #bhc 7#de7 ,castration #bhd 7#df7 ,spaying #bhf 7#dh7 ,weaning #bhg 7#di7 ,ringing #bhi 7#ea7 ,feeding and ,fattening #bij 7#eb7 ,piggeries #bie 7#eg7 ,slaughtering #bih 7#fj7 ,pickling and ,curing #cjj 7#fb7 ,value of the ,carcass #cjd 7#ff7 ,,diseases ,,and ,,their ,,remedies #cjg 7#fi7 ,catching the ,pig #cjh 7#gj7 ,bleeding #cji 7#ga7 ,drenching #caj 7#gb7 ,catarrh #caj 7#gb7 ,cholera #caa 7#gc7 ,crackings #cad 7#gf7 ,diarrhoea #cad 7#gf7 ,fever #cae 7#gg7 ,foul ,skin #cag 7#gi7 ,inflammation of the ,lungs #cag 7#gi7 ,jaundice #cah 7#hj7 ,leprosy #cai 7#ha7 ,lethargy #cai 7#ha7 ,mange #cbj 7#hb7 ,measles #cbb 7#hd7 ,murrain #cbc 7#he7 ,quinsy #cbc 7#he7 ,staggers #cbc 7#he7 ,swelling of the ,spleen #cbc 7#he7 ,surfeit #cbe 7#hg7 ,tumors #cbe 7#hg7 ,,illustrations4 ,,the ,,wild ,,boar #bde 7#g7 ,,the ,,wild ,,boar ,,at ,,bay #beb 7#ad7 ,,the ,,chinese ,,hog #bei 7#ba7 ,,the ,,suffolk #bfj 7#bb7 ,a ,,berkshire ,,boar #bfa 7#bc7 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,hog ,,as ,,covered ,,by ,,the ,,muscles #bfc 7#be7 ,,the ,,old ,,country ,,well #bfg 7#bi7 ,,wild ,,hogs #bgi 7#da7 ,,the ,,old ,,english ,,hog #bii 7#fa7 ,a ,,wicked-,,looking ,,specimen #cjg 7#fi7 ,,hunting ,,the ,,wild ,,boar #cae 7#gg7 ,,poultry ,,and ,,their ,,diseases4 ,,contents4 ,,history ,,and ,,varieties #cbg 7#g7 ,,the ,,domestic ,,fowl #cbg 7#g7 ,the ,bantam #ccj 7#aj7 ,the ,african ,bantam #cca 7#aa7 ,the ,bolton ,gray #ccc 7#ac7 ,the ,blue ,dun #ccd 7#ad7 ,the ,chittagong #cce 7#ae7 ,the ,cochin ,china #ccf 7#af7 ,the ,cuckoo #cci 7#ai7 ,the ,dominique #cdj 7#bj7 ,the ,dorking #cdj 7#bj7 ,the ,fawn-colored ,dorking #cdc 7#bc7 ,the ,black ,dorking #cdc 7#bc7 ,the ,dunghill ,fowl #cdd 7#bd7 ,the ,frizzled ,fowl #cdd 7#bd7 ,the ,game ,fowl #cde 7#be7 ,the ,mexican ,hen-,cock #cdg 7#bg7 ,the ,wild ,indian ,game #cdh 7#bh7 ,the ,spanish ,game #cdh 7#bh7 ,the ,guelderland #cdi 7#bi7 ,the ,spangled ,hamburgh #cej 7#cj7 ,the ,golden ,spangled #cej 7#cj7 ,the ,silver ,spangled #cea 7#ca7 ,the ,java #ceb 7#cb7 ,the ,jersey-,blue #ceb 7#cb7 ,the ,lark-,crested ,fowl #ceb 7#cb7 ,the ,malay #ced 7#cd7 ,the ,pheasant-,malay #cef 7#cf7 ,the ,plymouth ,rock #ceg 7#cg7 ,the ,poland #ceh 7#ch7 ,the ,black ,polish #cfj 7#dj7 ,the ,golden ,polands #cfa 7#da7 ,the ,silver ,polands #cfc 7#dc7 ,the ,black-topped ,white #cfd 7#dd7 ,the ,shanghae #cfd 7#dd7 ,the ,white ,shanghae #cfg 7#dg7 ,the ,silver ,pheasant #cfh 7#dh7 ,the ,spanish #cfi 7#di7 ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,domestic ,,fowls #cgb 7#eb7 ,the ,guinea ,fowl #cgh 7#eh7 ,the ,pea ,fowl #cha 7#fa7 ,the ,turkey #chf 7#ff7 ,the ,wild ,turkey #chf 7#ff7 ,the ,domestic ,turkey #cia 7#ga7 ,the ,duck #cid 7#gd7 ,the ,wild ,duck #cif 7#gf7 ,the ,domestic ,duck #cih 7#gh7 ,the ,goose #djb 7#hb7 ,the ,wild ,goose #djb 7#hb7 ,the ,domestic ,goose #djd 7#hd7 ,the ,bernacle ,goose #djg 7#hg7 ,the ,bremen ,goose #dji 7#hi7 ,the ,brent ,goose #daj 7#ij7 ,the ,china ,goose #daa 7#ia7 ,the ,white ,china #dac 7#ic7 ,the ,egyptian ,goose #dad 7#id7 ,the ,java ,goose #dae 7#ie7 ,the ,toulouse ,goose #dae 7#ie7 ,the ,white-fronted ,goose #daf 7#if7 ,the ,anatomy of the ,egg #dag 7#ig7 ,,breeding ,,and ,,management #dba 7#aja7 ,,breeding #dba 7#aja7 ,high ,breeding #dbb 7#ajb7 ,selection of ,stock #dbi 7#aji7 ,feeding #dcb 7#aab7 ,bran #dce 7#aae7 ,millet #dcf 7#aaf7 ,rice #dcf 7#aaf7 ,potatoes #dcf 7#aaf7 ,green ,food #dcg 7#aag7 ,earth-,worms #dcg 7#aag7 ,animal ,food #dch 7#aah7 ,insects #dci 7#aai7 ,laying #dci 7#aai7 ,preservation of ,eggs #ddc 7#abc7 ,choice of ,eggs for ,setting #ddf 7#abf7 ,incubation #ddi 7#abi7 ,incubation of ,turkeys #dec 7#acc7 ,incubation of ,geese #ded 7#acd7 ,rearing of the ,young #dee 7#ace7 ,rearing of ,guinea ,fowls #deh 7#ach7 ,rearing of ,turkeys #dei 7#aci7 ,rearing of ,ducklings #dfa 7#ada7 ,rearing of ,goslings #dfc 7#adc7 ,caponizing #dfd 7#add7 ,fattening and ,slaughtering #dfh 7#adh7 ,slaughtering and ,dressing #dgb 7#aeb7 ,poultry-,houses #dgd 7#aed7 ,,diseases ,,and ,,their ,,remedies #dgh 7#aeh7 ,asthma #dgi 7#aei7 ,costiveness #dhj 7#afj7 ,diarrhoea #dha 7#afa7 ,fever #dhb 7#afb7 ,indigestion #dhb 7#afb7 ,lice #dhc 7#afc7 ,loss of ,feathers #dhe 7#afe7 ,pip #dhe 7#afe7 ,roup #dhh 7#afh7 ,wounds and ,sores #dij 7#agj7 ,,illustrations4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,fowl #cbg 7#g7 ,,the ,,bantam #cca 7#aa7 ,,bantam #ccb 7#ab7 ,,bolton ,,grays ,,or ,,creole ,,fowl #ccc 7#ac7 ,,cochin ,,chinas #ccg 7#ag7 ,,white ,,dorkings #cda 7#ba7 ,,gray ,,game ,,fowls #cdf 7#bf7 ,,guelderlands #cdi 7#bi7 ,,hamburgh ,,fowls #cej 7#cj7 ,,malays #ced 7#cd7 ,,poland ,,fowls #cei 7#ci7 ,,shanghaes #cfe 7#de7 ,,white ,,shanghaes #cfg 7#dg7 ,,spanish ,,fowls #cfi 7#di7 ,,the ,,guinea ,,fowl #cgi 7#ei7 ,,the ,,pea ,,fowl #chb 7#fb7 ,,the ,,wild ,,turkey #chf 7#ff7 ,,the ,,domestic ,,turkey #cib 7#gb7 ,,the ,,eider ,,duck #cie 7#ge7 ,,wild ,,duck #cig 7#gg7 ,,rouen ,,duck #cii 7#gi7 ,,wild ,,or ,,canada ,,goose #djc 7#hc7 ,a ,,bremen ,,goose #dji 7#hi7 ,,china ,,or ,,hong ,,kong ,,goose #daa 7#ia7 ,,barnyard ,,scene #dba 7#aja7 ,,fighting ,,cocks #dbi 7#aji7 ,,on ,,the ,,watch #ddj 7#abj7 ,,marquee ,,or ,,tent-,,shaped ,,coops #def 7#acf7 ,,duck-,,pond ,,and ,,houses #dfa 7#ada7 ,a ,,bad ,,style ,,of ,,slaughtering #dfh 7#adh7 ,,rustic ,,poultry-,,house #dge 7#aee7 ,a ,,fancy ,,coop ,,in ,,chinese ,,or ,,gothic ,,style #dgf 7#aef7 ,,among ,,the ,,straw #dgh 7#aeh7 ,,prairie ,,hens #dhc 7#afc7 ,,swans #dhh 7#afh7 ,illustration3 ,a ,,leicester ,,ram4 ,,history ,,and ,,varieties ,with a single exception--that of the dog--there is no member of the beast family which presents so great a diversity of size1 color1 form1 covering1 and general appearance1 as characterizes the sheep2 and none occupy a wider range of climate1 or subsist on a greater variety of food4 ,this animal is found in every latitude between the ,equator and the ,arctic circle1 ranging over barren mountains and through fertile valleys1 feeding upon almost every species of edible forage--the cultivated grasses1 clovers1 cereals1 and roots--browsing on aromatic and bitter herbs alike1 cropping the leaves and barks from stunted forest shrubs and the pungent1 resinous evergreens4 ,in some parts of ,norway and ,sweden1 when other resources fail1 he subsists on fish or flesh during the long1 rigorous winter1 and1 if reduced to necessity1 even devours his own wool4 ,in size1 he is diminutive or massive2 he has many horns1 or but two large or small spiral horns1 or is polled or hornless4 ,his tail may be broad1 or long1 or a mere button1 discoverable only by the touch4 ,his covering is long and coarse1 or short and hairy1 or soft and furry1 or fine and spiral4 ,his color varies from white or black to every shade of brown1 dun1 buff1 blue1 and gray4 ,this wide diversity results from long domestication under almost every conceivable variety of condition4 ,among the antediluvians1 sheep were used for sacrificial offerings1 and their fleeces1 in all probability1 furnished them with clothing4 ,since the deluge their flesh has been a favorite food among many nations4 ,many of the rude1 wandering tribes of the ,east employ them as beasts of burden4 ,the uncivilized--and1 to some extent1 the refined--inhabitants of ,europe use their milk1 not only as a beverage1 but for making into cheese1 butter1 and curds--an appropriation of it which is also noticed by ,job1 ,isaiah1 and other ,old ,testament writers1 as well as most of the ,greek and ,roman authors4 ,the ewe's milk scarcely differs in appearance from that of the cow1 though it is generally thicker1 and yields a pale1 yellowish butter1 which is always soft and soon becomes rancid4 ,in dairy regions the animal is likewise frequently employed at the tread-mill or horizontal wheel1 to pump water1 churn milk1 or perform other light domestic work4 ,the calling of the shepherd has1 from time immemorial1 been conspicuous1 and not wanting in dignity and importance4 ,abel was a keeper of sheep2 as were ,abraham and his descendants1 as well as most of the ancient patriarchs4 ,job possessed fourteen thousand sheep4 ,rachel1 the favored mother of the ,jewish race1 came with her father's sheep1 for she kept them4 ,the seven daughters of the priest of ,midian came and drew water for their father's flocks4 ,moses1 the statesman and lawgiver1 learned in all the wisdom of the ,egyptians1 busied himself in tending the flocks of ,jethro1 his father-in-law4 ,david1 too1 that sweet singer of ,israel and its destined monarch--the ,jewish hero1 poet1 and divine--was a keeper of sheep4 ,to shepherds1 abiding in the field1 keeping watch over their flocks by night1 came the glad tidings of a ,saviour's birth4 ,the ,hebrew term for sheep signifies1 in its etymology1 fruitfulness1 abundance1 plenty--indicative of the blessings which they were destined to confer upon the human family4 ,in the ,holy ,scriptures1 this animal is the chosen symbol of purity and the gentler virtues1 the victim of propitiatory sacrifices1 and the type of redemption to fallen man4 ,among profane writers1 ,homer and ,hesiod1 ,virgil and ,theocritus1 introduce them in their pastoral themes2 while their heroes and demi-gods--,hercules and ,ulysses1 ,eneas and ,numa--carefully perpetuate them in their domains4 ,in modern times1 they have engaged the attention of the most enlightened nations1 whose prosperity has been intimately linked with them1 wherever wool and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples4 ,spain and ,portugal1 during the two centuries in which they figured as the most enterprising ,european countries1 excelled in the production and manufacture of wool4 ,flanders1 for a time1 took precedence of ,england in the perfection of the arts and the enjoyments of life2 and the latter country then sent what little wool she raised to the former to be manufactured4 ,this being soon found highly impolitic1 large bounties were offered by ,england for the importation of artists and machinery2 and by a systematic and thorough course of legislation1 which looked to the utmost protection and increase of wool and woollens1 she gradually carried their production beyond any thing the world had ever seen4 ,of the original breed of this invaluable animal1 nothing certain is known2 four varieties having been deemed by naturalists entitled to that distinction4 ,these are1 #a4 ,the ,musimon1 inhabiting ,corsica1 ,sardinia1 and other islands of the ,mediterranean1 the mountainous parts of ,spain and ,greece1 and some other regions bordering upon that inland sea4 ,these have been frequently domesticated and mixed with the long-cultivated breeds4 #b4 ,the ,argali ranges over the steppes1 or inland plains of ,central ,asia1 northward and eastward to the ocean4 ,they are larger and hardier than the ,musimon and not so easily tamed4 #c4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain ,sheep--frequently called the ,bighorn by our western hunters--is found on the prairies west of the ,mississippi1 and throughout the wild1 mountainous regions extending through ,california and ,oregon to the ,pacific4 ,they are larger than the ,argali--which in other respects they resemble--and are probably descended from them1 since they could easily cross upon the ice at ,behring's ,straits1 from the north-eastern coast of ,asia4 ,like the ,argali1 when caught young they are readily tamed2 but it is not known that they have ever been bred with the domestic sheep4 ,before the country was overrun by the white ram1 they probably inhabited the region bordering on the ,mississippi4 ,father ,hennepin--a ,french ,jesuit1 who wrote some two hundred years ago--often speaks of meeting with goats in his travels through the territory which is now embraced by ,illinois1 ,wisconsin1 and a portion of ,minnesota4 ,the wild1 clambering propensities of these animals--occupying1 as they do1 the giddy heights far beyond the reach of the traveller--and their outer coating of hair--supplied underneath1 however1 with a thick coating of soft wool--give them much the appearance of goats4 ,in summer they are generally found single2 but when they descend from their isolated1 rocky heights in winter1 they are gregarious1 marching in flocks under the guidance of leaders4 ,illustration3 ,,rocky ,,mountain ,,sheep4 #d4 ,the ,bearded ,sheep of ,africa inhabit the mountains of ,barbary and ,egypt4 ,they are covered with a soft1 reddish hair1 and have a mane hanging below the neck1 and large1 locks of hair at the ankle4 ,many varieties of the domesticated sheep--that is1 all the subjugated species--apparently differ less from their wild namesakes than from each other4 ,the fat-rumped and the broad-tailed sheep are much more extensively diffused than any other1 and occupy nearly all the south-eastern part of ,europe1 ,western and ,central ,asia1 and ,northern ,africa4 ,they are supposed1 from various passages in the ,pentateuch in which the fat and the rump are spoken of in connection with offerings1 to be the varieties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descendants1 the ,jewish race4 ,they certainly give indisputable evidence of remote and continued subjugation4 ,their long1 pendent1 drowsy ears1 and the highly artificial posterior developments1 are characteristic of no wild or recently domesticated race4 ,this breed consists of numerous sub-varieties1 differing in all their characteristics of size1 fleece1 color1 etc41 with quite as many and marked shades of distinction as the modern ,european varieties4 ,in ,madagascar1 they are covered with hair2 in the south of ,africa1 with coarse wool2 in the ,levant1 and along the ,mediterranean1 the wool is comparatively fine2 and from that of the fat-rumped sheep of ,thibet the exquisite ,cashmere shawls of commerce are manufactured4 ,both rams and ewes are sometimes bred with horns1 and sometimes without1 and they exhibit a great diversity of color4 ,some yield a carcass of scarcely thirty pounds1 while others have weighed two hundred pounds dressed4 ,the tail or rump varies greatly1 according to the purity and style of breeding2 some are less than one-eighth1 while others exceed one-third of the entire dressed weight4 ,the fat of the rump or tail is esteemed a great delicacy2 in hot climates resembling oil1 and in colder1 suet4 ,it is doubtful whether sheep are indigenous to ,great ,britain2 but they are mentioned as existing there at very early periods4 ,,american ,,sheep4 ,in ,north ,america1 there are none1 strictly speaking1 except the ,rocky ,mountain breed1 already mentioned4 ,the broad-tailed sheep of ,asia and ,africa were brought into the ,united ,states about seventy years ago1 under the name of the ,tunisian ,mountain sheep1 and bred with the native flocks4 ,some of them were subsequently distributed among the farmers of ,pennsylvania1 and their mixed descendants were highly prized as prolific1 and good nurses1 coming early to maturity1 attaining large weight1 of a superior quality of carcass1 and yielding a heavy fleece of excellent wool4 ,the principal objection made to them was the difficulty of propagation1 which always required the assistance of the shepherd4 ,the lambs were dropped white1 red1 tawny1 bluish1 or black2 but all1 excepting the black1 grew white as they approached maturity1 retaining some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs1 and sometimes having the entire head tawny or black4 ,the few which descended from the original importations have become blended with ,american flocks1 and have long ceased to be distinguishable from them4 ,the common sheep of ,holland were early imported by the ,dutch emigrants1 who originally colonized ,new ,york2 but they1 in like manner1 have long since ceased to exist as a distinct variety4 ,improved ,european breeds have been so largely introduced during the present century1 that the ,united ,states at present possesses every known breed which could be of particular benefit to its husbandry4 ,by the census of #ahfj1 there were nearly twenty-three and a half millions of sheep in this country1 yielding upwards of sixty and a half million pounds of wool4 ,an almost infinite variety of crosses have taken place between the ,spanish1 ,english1 and native families2 carried1 indeed1 to such an extent that there are1 comparatively speaking1 few flocks in the ,united ,states that preserve entire the distinctive characteristics of any one breed1 or that can lay claim to unmixed purity of blood4 ,the principal breeds in the ,united ,states are the so-called ,natives2 the ,spanish and ,saxon ,merinos1 introduced from the countries whose names they bear3 the ,new ,leicester1 or ,bakewell2 the ,south-,down2 the ,cotswold2 the ,cheviot2 and the ,lincoln--all from ,england4 ,,native ,,sheep4 ,this name is popularly applied to the common coarse-woolled sheep of the country1 which existed here previously to the importation of the improved breeds4 ,these were of foreign and mostly of ,english origin1 and could probably claim a common descent from no one stock4 ,the early settlers1 emigrating from different sections of the ,british ,empire1 and a portion of them from other parts of ,europe1 brought with them1 in all probability1 each the favorite breed of his own immediate neighborhood1 and the admixture of these formed the mongrel family now under consideration4 ,amid the perils of war and the incursions of beasts of prey1 they were carefully preserved4 ,as early as #afgf1 ,new ,england was spoken of as abounding with sheep4 ,these common sheep yielded a wool suitable only for the coarsest fabrics1 averaging1 in the hands of good farmers1 from three to three and a half pounds of wool to the fleece4 ,they were slow in arriving at maturity1 compared with the improved ,english breeds1 and yielded1 when fully grown1 from ten to fourteen pounds of a middling quality of mutton to the quarter4 ,they were usually long-legged1 light in the fore-quarter1 and narrow on the breast and back2 although some rare instances might be found of flocks with the short legs1 and some approximation to the general form of the improved breeds4 ,they were excellent breeders1 often rearing1 almost entirely destitute of care1 and without shelter1 one hundred per cent4 of lambs2 and in small flocks1 a still larger proportion4 ,these1 too1 were usually dropped in ,march1 or the earlier part of ,april4 ,restless in their disposition1 their impatience of restraint almost equalled that of the untamed ,argali1 from which they were descended2 and in many sections of the country it was common to see from twenty to fifty of them roving1 with little regard to enclosures1 over the possessions of their owner and his neighbors1 leaving a large portion of their wool adhering to bushes and thorns1 and the remainder placed nearly beyond the possibility of carding1 by the tory-weed and burdock1 so common on new lands4 ,to this general character of the native flocks1 there was but one exception--a considerably numerous and probably accidental variety1 known as the ,otter breed1 or ,creepers4 ,these were excessively duck-legged1 with well-formed bodies1 full chests1 broad backs1 yielding a close1 heavy fleece1 of medium quality of wool4 ,they were deserved favorites where indifferent stone or wood fences existed1 since their power of locomotion was absolutely limited to their enclosures1 if protected by a fence not less than two feet high4 ,the quality of their mutton equalled1 while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior to1 their longer-legged contemporaries4 ,the race is now quite extinct4 ,an excellent variety1 called the ,arlington sheep1 was produced by ,general ,washington1 from a cross of a ,persian ram upon the ,bakewell1 which bore wool fourteen inches in length1 soft1 silky1 and admirably suited to combing4 ,these1 likewise1 have long since become incorporated with the other flocks of the country4 ,the old common stock of sheep1 as a distinct family1 have nearly or quite disappeared1 owing to universal crossing1 to a greater or less extent1 with the foreign breeds of later introduction4 ,the first and second cross with the ,merino resulted in a decided improvement1 and produced a variety exceedingly valuable for the farmer who rears wool solely for domestic purposes4 ,the fleeces are of uneven fineness1 being hairy on the thighs1 dew-lap1 etc42 but the general quality is much improved1 the quantity is considerably augmented1 the carcass is more compact and nearer the ground1 and they have lost their unquiet and roving propensities4 ,the cross with the ,saxon1 for reasons hereafter to be given1 has not generally been so successful4 ,with the ,leicester and ,downs1 the improvement1 so far as form size1 and a propensity to take on fat are concerned1 is manifest4 ,,the ,,spanish ,,merino4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,merino ,,ram4 ,the ,spanish sheep1 in different countries1 has1 either directly or indirectly1 effected a complete revolution in the character of the fleece4 ,the race is unquestionably one of the most ancient extant4 ,the early writers on agriculture and the veterinary art describe various breeds of sheep as existing in ,spain1 of different colors--black1 red1 and tawny4 ,the black sheep yielded a fine fleece1 the finest of that color which was then known2 but the red fleece of ,baetica--a considerable part of the ,spanish coast on the ,mediterranean1 comprising the modern ,spanish provinces of ,gaen1 ,cordova1 ,seville1 ,andalusia1 and ,granada1 which was early colonized by the enterprising ,greeks--was1 according to ,pliny1 of still superior quality1 and had no fellow4 ,these sheep were probably imported from ,italy1 and of the ,tarentine breed1 which had gradually spread from the coast of ,syria1 and of the ,black ,sea1 and had then reached the western extremity of ,europe4 ,many of them mingled with and improved the native breeds of ,spain1 while others continued to exist as a distinct race1 and1 meeting with a climate and an herbage suited to them1 retained their original character and value1 and were the progenitors of the ,merinos of the present day4 ,columella1 a colonist from ,italy1 and uncle of the writer of an excellent work on agriculture1 introduced more of the ,tarentine sheep into ,baetica1 where he resided in the reign of the ,emperor ,claudius1 in the year #da1 and otherwise improved on the native breed2 for1 struck with the beauty of some ,african rams which had been brought to ,rome to be exhibited at the public games1 he purchased them1 and conveyed them to his farm in ,spain1 whence1 probably1 originated the better varieties of the long-woolled breeds of that country4 ,before his time1 however1 ,spain possessed a valuable breed2 since ,strabo1 who flourished under ,tiberius1 speaking of the beautiful woollen cloths that were worn by the ,romans1 says that the wool was brought from ,truditania1 in ,spain4 ,the limited region of ,italy--overrun1 as it repeatedly was1 by hordes of barbarians during and after the times of the latest emperors--soon lost her pampered flocks2 while the extended regions of ,spain--intersected in every direction by almost impassable mountains--could maintain their more hardy race1 in defiance of revolution or change4 ,to what extent the improvements which have been noticed were carried is unknown2 but as ,spain was at that time highly civilized1 and as agriculture was the favorite pursuit of the greater part of the colonists that spread over the vast territory1 which then acknowledged the ,roman power1 it is highly probable that ,columella's experiments laid the foundation for a general improvement in the ,spanish sheep--an improvement1 moreover1 which was not lost1 nor even materially impaired1 during the darker ages that succeeded4 ,the ,merino race possess inbred qualities to an extent surpassed by no others4 ,they have been improved in the general weight and evenness of their fleece1 as in the celebrated flock of ,rambouillet2 in the uniformity and excessive fineness of the fibre1 as in the ,saxons2 and in their form and feeding qualities1 in various countries2 but there has never yet been deterioration1 either in quantity or quality of fleece or carcass1 wherever they have been transported1 if supplied with suitable food and attention4 ,most sheep annually shed their wool if unclipped2 while the ,merino retains its fleece1 sometimes for five years1 when allowed to remain unshorn4 ,conclusive evidence is thus afforded of continued breeding among themselves1 by which the very constitution of the wool-producing organs beneath the skin have become permanently established2 and this property is transmitted to a great extent1 even among the crosses1 thus marking the ,merino as an ancient and peculiar race4 ,the remains of the ancient varieties of color1 also1 as noticed by ,pliny1 ,solinus1 and ,columella1 may still be discovered in the modern ,merino4 ,the plain and indeed the only reason that can be assigned for the union of black and gray faces with white bodies1 in the same breed1 is the frequent intermixture of black and white sheep1 until the white prevails in the fleece1 and the black is confined to the face and legs4 ,it is still apt to break out occasionally in the individual1 unless it is fixed and concentrated in the face and legs1 by repeated crosses and a careful selection2 and1 on the contrary1 in the ,merino ,south-,down the black may be reduced by a few crosses to small spots about the legs1 while the ,merino hue overspreads the countenance4 ,this hue--variously described as a velvet1 a buff1 a fawn1 or a satin-colored countenance1 but in which a red tinge not infrequently predominates1 still indicates the original colors of the indigenous breeds of ,spain2 and the black wool1 for which ,spain was formerly so much distinguished1 is still inclined to break out occasionally in the legs and ears of the ,merino4 ,in some flocks half the ear is invariably brown1 and a coarse black hair is often discernible in the finest pile4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,spanish ,,sheep ,,dog4 ,the conquest1 in the eighth century1 by the ,moors of those fine provinces in the south of ,spain1 so far from checking1 served rather to encourage the production of fine wool4 ,the conquerors were not only enterprising1 but highly skilled in the useful arts1 and carried on extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods1 which they exported to different countries4 ,the luxury of the ,moorish sovereigns has been the theme of many writers2 and in the thirteenth century1 when the woollen manufacture flourished in but few places1 there were found in ,seville no less than sixteen thousand looms4 ,a century later1 ,barcelona1 ,perpignan1 and ,tortosa were celebrated for the fineness of their cloths1 which became staple articles of trade throughout the greater part of ,europe1 as well as on the coast of ,africa4 ,after the expulsion of the ,moors1 in the fifteenth century1 by ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 the woollen manufacture languished1 and was1 in a great degree1 lost to ,spain1 owing to the rigorous banishment of nearly one million industrious ,moors1 most of whom were weavers4 ,as a consequence1 the sixteen thousand looms of ,seville dwindled down to sixty4 ,the ,spanish government perceived its fatal mistake too late1 and subsequent efforts to gain its lost vantage-ground in respect to this manufacture proved fruitless4 ,during all that time1 however1 the ,spanish sheep appear to have withstood the baneful influence of almost total neglect2 and although the ,merino flocks and ,merino wool have improved under the more careful management of other countries1 the world is originally indebted to ,spain for the most valuable material in the manufacture of cloth4 ,the perpetuation of the ,merino sheep in all its purity1 amid the convulsions which changed the entire political framework of ,spain and destroyed every other national improvement1 strikingly illustrates the primary determining power of blood or breeding1 as well as the agency of soil and climate--possibly too much underrated in modern times4 ,these ,spanish sheep are divided into two classes3 the stationary1 or those that remain during the whole of the year on a certain farm1 or in a certain district1 there being a sufficient provision for them in winter and in summer2 and the migratory1 or those which wander some hundreds of miles twice in the year1 in quest of pasturage4 ,the principal breed of stationary sheep consists of true ,merinos2 but the breeds most sought for1 and with which so many countries have been enriched1 are the ,merinos of the migratory description1 which pass the summer in the mountains of the north1 and the winter on the plains toward the south of ,spain4 ,the first impression made by the ,merino sheep on one unacquainted with its value would be unfavorable4 ,the wool lying closer and thicker over the body than in most other breeds1 and being abundant in yolk--or a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin1 which nourishes the wool and causes it to mat closely together--is covered with a dirty crust1 often full of cracks4 ,the legs are long1 yet small in the bone2 the breast and the back are narrow1 and the sides somewhat flat2 the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy1 and too much of their weight is carried on the coarser parts4 ,the horns of the male are comparatively large1 curved1 and with more or less of a spiral form2 the head is large1 but the forehead rather low4 ,a few of the females are horned2 but1 generally speaking1 they are without horns4 ,both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and cheeks1 which the careful shepherd cuts away before the shearing-time2 the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet appearance4 ,under the throat there is a singular looseness of skin1 which gives them a remarkable appearance of throatiness1 or hollowness in the neck4 ,the pile or hair1 when pressed upon1 is hard and unyielding1 owing to the thickness into which it grows on the pelf1 and the abundance of the yolk1 retaining all the dirt and gravel which falls upon it2 but1 upon examination1 the fibre exceeds1 in fineness and in the number of serrations and curves1 that which any other sheep in the world produces4 ,the average weight of the fleece in ,spain is eight pounds from the ram1 and five from the ewe4 ,the staple differs in length in different provinces4 ,when fatted1 these sheep will weigh from twelve to sixteen pounds per quarter4 ,the excellence of the ,merinos consist in the unexampled fineness and felting property of their wool1 and in the weight of it yielded by each individual sheep2 the closeness of that wool1 and the luxuriance of the yolk1 which enable them to support extremes of cold and wet quite as well as any other breed2 the readiness with which they adapt themselves to every change of climate1 retaining1 with common care1 all their fineness of wool1 and thriving under a burning tropical sun1 and in the frozen regions of the north2 an appetite which renders them apparently satisfied with the coarsest food2 a quietness and patience into whatever pasture they are turned2 and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled in any other breed4 ,their defects--partly attributable to the breed1 but more to the improper mode of treatment to which they are occasionally subjected--are1 their unthrifty and unprofitable form2 a tendency to abortion1 or barrenness2 a difficulty of yeaning1 or giving birth to their young2 a paucity of milk2 and a too frequent neglect of their lambs4 ,they are likewise said1 notwithstanding the fineness of their wool1 and the beautiful red color of the skin when the fleece is parted1 to be more subject to cutaneous affections than most other breeds4 ,man1 however1 is far more responsible for this than ,nature4 ,every thing was sacrificed in ,spain to fineness and quantity of wool4 ,these were supposed to be connected with equality of temperature1 or1 at least1 with freedom from exposure to cold2 and1 therefore1 twice in the year1 a journey of four hundred miles was undertaken1 at the rate of eighty or a hundred miles per week--the spring journey commencing when the lambs were scarcely four months old4 ,it is difficult to say in what way the wool of the migratory sheep was1 or could be1 benefited by these periodical journeys4 ,although among them is found the finest and most valuable wool in ,spain1 yet the stationary sheep1 in certain provinces--,segovia1 ,leon1 and ,estremadura--are more valuable than the migratory flocks of others4 ,moreover1 the fleece of some of the ,german ,merinos--which do not travel at all1 and are housed all the winter--greatly exceeds that obtained from the best migratory breed--the ,leonese--in fineness and felting property2 and the wool of the migratory sheep has been1 comparatively speaking1 driven out of the market by that from sheep which never travel4 ,with respect to the carcass1 these harassing journeys1 occupying one-quarter of the year1 tend to destroy all possibility of fattening1 or any tendency toward it1 and the form and the constitution of the flock are deteriorated1 and the lives of many sacrificed4 ,the first importation of ,merinos into the ,united ,states took place in #ahja2 a banker of ,paris1 ,mr4 ,delessert1 having shipped four1 of which but one arrived in safety at his farm near ,kingston1 in ,new ,york2 the others perished on the passage4 ,the same year1 ,mr4 ,seth ,adams1 of ,massachusetts1 imported a pair from ,france4 ,in #ahjb1 ,chancellor ,livingston1 then ,american ,minister at the court of ,versailles1 sent two choice pairs from the ,rambouillet flock--which was started1 in #aghf1 by placing four hundred ewes and rams1 selected from the choicest ,spanish flocks1 on the royal farm of that name1 in ,france--to ,claremont1 his country-seat1 on the ,hudson river4 ,in the latter part of the same year1 ,colonel ,humphreys1 ,american ,minister to ,spain1 shipped two hundred1 on his departure from that country4 ,the largest importations1 however1 were made through ,hon4 ,william ,jarvis1 of ,vermont1 then ,american ,consul at ,lisbon1 ,portugal1 in #ahji1 #ahaj1 and #ahaa1 who succeeded in obtaining the choicest sheep of that country4 ,various subsequent importations took place1 which need not be particularized4 ,the cessation of all commercial intercourse with ,england1 in #ahjh and #ahji1 growing out of difficulties with that country1 directed attention1 in an especial manner1 toward manufacturing and wool-growing4 ,the ,merino1 consequently1 rose into importance1 and so great was the interest aroused1 that from a thousand to fourteen hundred dollars a head was paid for them4 ,some of the later importations1 unfortunately1 arrived in the worst condition1 bringing with them those scourges of the sheep family1 the scab and the foot-rot2 which evils1 together with increased supply1 soon brought them down to less than a twentieth part of their former price4 ,when1 however1 it was established1 by actual experiment1 that their wool did not deteriorate in this country1 as had been feared by many1 and that they became readily acclimated1 they again rose into favor4 ,the prostration of the manufacturing interests of the country1 which ensued soon afterwards1 rendered the ,merino of comparatively little value1 and ruined many who had purchased them at their previous high prices4 ,since that period1 the valuation of the sheep which bear the particular wool has1 as a matter of course1 kept pace with the fluctuations in the price of the wool4 ,the term ,merino1 it must be remembered1 is but the general appellation of a breed1 comprising several varieties1 presenting essential points of difference in size1 form1 quality and quantity of wool4 ,these families have generally been merged1 by interbreeding1 in the ,united ,states and other countries which have received the race from ,spain4 ,purity of ,merino blood1 and actual excellence in the individual and its ancestors1 form the only standard in selecting sheep of this breed4 ,families have1 indeed1 sprung up in this country1 exhibiting wider points of difference than did those of ,spain4 ,this is owing1 in some cases1 doubtless1 to particular causes of breeding2 but more often1 probably1 to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood4 ,the question1 which has been at times raised1 whether there are any ,merinos in the ,united ,states1 descendants of the early importations1 of unquestionable purity of blood1 has been conclusively settled in the affirmative4 ,the minor distinctions among the various families into which1 as has already been intimated1 the ,american ,merino has diverged1 are numerous1 but may all1 perhaps1 be classed under three general heads4 ,the first is a large1 short-legged1 strong1 exceedingly hardy sheep1 carrying a heavy fleece1 ranging from medium to fine1 free from hair in properly bred flocks2 somewhat inclined to throatiness1 but not so much so as the ,rambouillets2 bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some flocks1 but not commonly so2 their wool rather long on back and belly1 and exceedingly dense2 wool whiter within than the ,rambouillets2 skin the same rich rose-color4 ,sheep of this class are larger and stronger than those originally imported1 carry much heavier fleeces1 and in well-selected flocks1 or individuals1 the fleece is of a decidedly better quality4 ,the second class embraces smaller animals than the preceding2 less hardy2 wool1 as a general thing1 finer1 and covered with a black1 pitchy gum on its extremities2 fleece about one-fourth lighter than in the former class4 ,the third class1 bred at the ,south1 mostly1 includes animals still smaller and less hardy1 and carrying still finer and lighter fleeces4 ,the fleece is destitute of external gum4 ,the sheep and wool have a close resemblance to the ,saxon2 and1 if not actually mixed with that blood1 they have been formed into a similar variety1 by a similar course of breeding4 ,illustration3 ,,out ,,at ,,pasture4 ,the mutton of the ,merino1 notwithstanding the prejudices existing on the subject1 is short-grained1 and of good flavor1 when killed at a proper age1 and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to the quarter4 ,it is remarkable for its longevity1 retaining its teeth1 and continuing to breed two or three years longer than the common sheep1 and at least half a dozen years longer than the improved ,english breeds4 ,it should1 however1 be remarked1 in this connection1 that it is correspondingly slow in arriving at maturity1 as it does not attain its full growth before three years of age2 and the ewes1 in the best managed flocks1 are rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age4 ,the ,merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-woolled sheep1 and its lambs1 when newly dropped1 are claimed to be hardier than the ,bakewell1 and equally so with the high-bred ,south-,down4 ,the ewe1 as has been intimated1 is not so good a nurse1 and will not usually do full justice to more than one lamb4 ,eighty or ninety per cent4 is about the ordinary number of lambs reared1 though it often reaches one hundred per cent41 in carefully managed or small flocks4 ,allusion has heretofore been made to the cross between the ,merino and the native sheep4 ,on the introduction of the ,saxon family of the ,merinos1 they were universally engrafted on the parent stock1 and the cross was continued until the ,spanish blood was nearly bred out4 ,when the admixture took place with judiciously selected ,saxons1 the results were not unfavorable for certain purposes4 ,these instances of judicious crossing were1 unfortunately1 rare4 ,fineness of wool was made the only tests of excellence1 no matter how scanty its quantity1 or how diminutive or miserable the carcass4 ,the consequence was1 as might be supposed1 the ruin of most of the ,merino flocks4 ,,the ,,saxon ,,merino4 ,the indigenous breed of sheep in ,saxony resembled that of the neighboring states1 and consisted of two distinct ,varieties--one bearing a wool of some value1 and the other yielding a fleece applicable only to the coarsest manufactures4 ,at the close of the seven years war1 ,augustus ,frederic1 the ,elector of ,saxony1 imported one hundred rams and two hundred ewes from the most improved ,spanish flocks1 and placed a part of them on one of his own farms1 in the neighborhood of ,dresden1 which he kept unmixed1 as he desired to ascertain how far the pure ,spanish breed could be naturalized in that country ,the other part of the flock was distributed on other farms1 and devoted to the improvement of the ,saxon sheep4 ,it was soon sufficiently apparent that the ,merinos did not degenerate in ,saxony4 ,many parcels of their wool were not inferior to the choicest ,leonese fleeces4 ,the best breed of the native ,saxons was also materially improved3 ,the majority of the shepherds were1 however1 obstinately prejudiced against the innovation2 but the elector1 resolutely bent upon accomplishing his object1 imported an additional number1 and compelled the crown-tenants1 then occupying lands under him1 to purchase a certain number of the sheep4 ,compulsion was not long necessary2 the true interest of the shepherds was discovered2 pure ,merinos rapidly increased in ,saxony1 and became perfectly naturalized4 ,indeed1 after a considerable lapse of years1 the fleece of the ,saxon sheep began1 not only to equal the ,spanish1 but to exceed it in fineness and manufacturing value4 ,to this result the government very materially contributed1 by the establishment of an agricultural school1 and other minor schools for shepherds1 and by distributing various publications1 which plainly and intelligibly showed the value and proper management of the ,merino4 ,the breeders were selected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the fleece4 ,great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout the year1 and they were housed on every slight emergency4 ,by this course of breeding and treatment the size and weight of the fleece were reduced1 and that hardiness and vigor of constitution1 which had universally characterized the migratory ,spanish breed1 were partially impaired4 ,in numerous instances1 this management resulted in permanent injury to the character of the flocks4 ,the first importation of ,saxons into this country was made in #ahbc1 by ,samuel ,heustan1 a merchant of ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 and consisted of four good rams1 of which two went to ,boston1 and the others to ,philadelphia4 ,the following year1 seventy-seven--about two-thirds of which number only were pure-blooded--were brought to ,boston1 sold at public auction at ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y41 as pure-blooded electoral ,saxons1 and thus scattered over the country4 ,another lot1 composed of grade sheep and pure-bloods1 was disposed of1 not long afterwards1 by public sale1 at ,brighton1 near ,boston1 and brought increased prices1 some of them realizing from four hundred to five hundred and fifty dollars4 ,these prices gave rise to speculation1 and many animals1 of a decidedly inferior grade1 were imported1 which were thrown upon the market for the most they could command4 ,the sales in many instances not half covering the cost of importation1 the speculation was soon abandoned4 ,in #ahbg1 ,henry ,d4 ,grove1 of ,hoosic1 ,n4,y41 a native of ,germany1 and a highly intelligent and thoroughly bred shepherd1 who had accompanied some of the early importations1 imported one hundred and fifteen choice animals for his own breeding1 and1 in the following year1 eighty more4 ,these formed the flock from which ,mr4 ,grove bred1 to the time of his decease1 in #ahdd4 ,the average weight of fleece from his entire flock1 nearly all of which were ewes and lambs1 was ten pounds and fourteen ounces1 thoroughly washed on the sheep's back4 ,this was realized after a short summer and winter's keep1 when the quantity of hay or its equivalent fed to the sheep did not exceed one and a half pounds1 by actual weight1 per day1 except to the ewes1 which received an additional quantity just before and after lambing4 ,this treatment was attended with no disease or loss by death1 and with an increase of lambs1 equalling one for every ewe4 ,the ,saxon ,merino differs materially in frame from the ,spanish2 there is more roundness of carcass and fineness of bone1 together with a general form and appearance indicative of a disposition to fatten4 ,two distinct breeds are noticed4 ,one variety has stouter legs1 stouter bodies1 head and neck comparatively short and broad1 and body round2 the wool grows most on the face and legs2 the grease in the wool is almost pitchy4 ,the other breed1 called ,escurial1 has longer legs1 with a long1 spare neck and head2 very little wool on the latter2 and a finer1 shorter1 and softer character in its fleece1 but less in quantity4 ,from what has just been stated it will be seen that there are few ,saxon flocks in the ,united ,states that have not been reduced to the quality of grade sheep1 by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure which were imported together2 all of them being sold to our breeders as pure stock4 ,besides1 there are very few flocks which have not been again crossed with the ,native or the ,merino sheep of our country1 or with both4 ,those who early purchased the ,merino crossed them with the ,native2 and when the ,saxons arrived those mongrels were bred to ,saxon rams4 ,this is the history of three-quarters1 probably1 of the ,saxon flocks of the ,united ,states4 ,as these sheep have now so long been bred toward the ,saxon that their wool equals that of the pure-bloods1 it may well be questioned whether they are any worse for the admixture2 when crossed only with the ,merino1 it is1 undoubtedly1 to their advantage4 ,the ,american ,saxon1 with these early crosses in its pedigree1 is1 by general admission1 a hardier and more easily kept animal than the pure ,escurial or ,electoral ,saxon4 ,climate1 feed1 and other causes have1 doubtless1 conspired1 as in the case of the ,merino1 to add to their size and vigor2 but1 after every necessary allowance has been made1 they generally owe these qualities to those early crosses4 ,the fleeces of the ,american ,saxons weigh1 on the average1 from two or two and a quarter to three pounds4 ,they are1 comparatively speaking1 a tender sheep1 requiring regular supplies of good food1 good shelter in winter1 and protection in cool weather from storms of all kinds2 but they are evidently hardier than the parent ,german stock4 ,in docility and patience under confinement1 in late maturity and longevity1 they resemble the ,merinos1 from which they are descended2 though they do not mature so early as the ,merino1 nor do they ordinarily live so long4 ,they are poorer nurses2 their lambs are smaller1 fatter1 and far more likely to perish1 unless sheltered and carefully watched2 they do not fatten so well1 and1 being considerably lighter1 they consume an amount of food considerably less4 ,taken together1 the ,american ,saxons bear a much finer wool than the ,american ,merinos2 though this is not always the case1 and many breeders of ,saxons cross with the ,merino1 for the purpose of increasing the weight of their fleeces without deteriorating its quality4 ,our ,saxon wool1 as a whole1 falls considerably below that of ,germany2 though individual specimens from ,saxons in ,connecticut and ,ohio compare well with the highest ,german grades4 ,this inferiority is not attributable to climate or other natural causes1 or to a want of skill on the part of our breeders2 but to the fact that but a very few of our manufacturers have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which produce this exquisite quality of wool4 ,,the ,,new ,,leicester4 ,the unimproved ,leicester was a large1 heavy1 coarse-woolled breed of sheep1 inhabiting the midland counties of ,england4 ,it was a slow feeder1 its flesh coarse-grained1 and with little flavor4 ,the breeders of that period regarded only size and weight of fleece4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,country ,,scene4 ,about the middle of the last century1 ,robert ,bakewell1 of ,dishley1 in ,leicestershire1 first applied himself to the improvement of the sheep in that country4 ,before his improvements1 aptitude to fatten and symmetry of shape--that is1 such shape as should increase as much as possible the most valuable parts of the animal1 and diminish the offal in the same proportion--were entirely disregarded4 ,perceiving that smaller animals increased in weight more rapidly than the very large ones1 that they consumed less food1 that the same quantity of herbage1 applied to feeding a large number of small sheep1 would produce more meat than when applied to feeding the smaller number of large sheep1 which alone it would support1 and that sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool possessed less propensity to fatten than those which carried one of a more moderate weight1 he selected from the different flocks in his neighborhood1 without regard to size1 the sheep which appeared to him to have the greatest propensity to fatten1 and whose shape possessed the peculiarities which1 in his judgment1 would produce the largest proportion of valuable meat1 and the smallest quantity of bone and offal4 ,he was also of opinion that the first object to be attended to in breeding sheep is the value of the carcass1 and that the fleece ought always to be a secondary consideration2 and this for the obvious reason that1 while the addition of two or three pounds of wool to the weight of a sheep's fleece is a difference of great amount1 yet if this increase is obtained at the expense of the animal's propensity to fatten1 the farmer may lose by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton4 ,the sort of sheep1 therefore1 which he selected were those possessed of the most perfect symmetry1 with the greatest aptitude to fatten1 and rather smaller in size than the sheep generally bred at that time4 ,having formed his stock from sheep so selected1 he carefully attended to the peculiarities of the individuals from which he bred1 and1 so far as can be ascertained--for all of ,mr4 ,bakewell's measures were kept secret1 even from his most intimate friends1 and he died without throwing1 voluntarily1 the least light on the subject--did not object to breeding from near relations1 when1 by so doing1 he brought together animals likely to produce a progeny possessing the characteristics which he wished to obtain4 ,having thus established his flock1 he adopted the practice--which has since been constantly followed by the most eminent breeders of sheep--of letting rams for the season1 instead of selling them to those who wished for their use4 ,by this means the ram-breeder is enabled to keep a much larger number of rams in his possession2 and1 consequently1 his power of selecting those most suitable to his flock1 or which may be required to correct any faults in shape or quality which may occur in it1 is greatly increased4 ,by cautiously using a ram for one season1 or by observing the produce of a ram let to some other breeder1 he can ascertain the probable qualities of the lambs which such ram will get1 and thus avoid the danger of making mistakes which would deteriorate the value of his stock4 ,the farmers1 likewise1 who hire the rams1 have an opportunity of varying the rams from which they breed much more than they otherwise could do2 and they are also enabled to select from sheep of the best quality1 and from those best calculated to effect the greatest improvement in their flocks4 ,the idea1 when first introduced by him1 was so novel that he had great difficulty in inducing the farmers to act upon it2 and his first ram was let for sixteen shillings4 ,so eminent1 however1 was his success1 that1 in #aghg1 he let three rams1 for a single season1 for twelve hundred and fifty pounds 7about six thousand two hundred dollars71 and was offered ten hundred and fifty pounds 7about five thousand two hundred dollars7 for twenty ewes4 ,soon afterwards he received the enormous price of eight hundred guineas 7or four thousand dollars7 for two-thirds of the services of a ram for a single season1 reserving the other third for himself4 ,the improved ,leicester is of large size1 but somewhat smaller than the original stock1 and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser varieties of ,cotswold1 ,lincoln1 etc4 ,where there is a sufficiency of feed1 the ,new ,leicester is unrivalled for its fattening propensities2 but it will not bear hard stocking1 nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its food4 ,it is1 in fact1 properly and exclusively a lowland sheep4 ,in its appropriate situation--on the luxuriant herbage of the highly cultivated lands of ,england--it possesses unequalled earliness of maturity2 and its mutton1 when not too fat1 is of a good quality1 but is usually coarse1 and comparatively deficient in flavor1 owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so readily assumes1 and which the breeder1 to gain weight1 so generally feeds for4 ,the wethers1 having reached their second year1 are turned off in the succeeding ,february or ,march1 and weigh at that age from thirty to thirty-five pounds to the quarter4 ,the wool of the ,new ,leicester is long1 averaging1 after the first shearing1 about six inches2 and the fleece of the ,american animal weighs about six pounds4 ,it is of coarse quality1 and little used in the manufacture of cloth1 on account of its length1 and that deficiency of felting properties common1 in a greater or less extent1 to all ,english breeds4 ,as a combing wool1 however1 it stands first1 and is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds1 and the like textures4 ,the high-bred ,leicesters of ,mr4 ,bakewell's stock became shy breeders and poor nurses2 but crosses subsequently adopted have1 to some extent1 obviated these defects4 ,the lambs are not1 however1 generally regarded as very hardy1 and they require considerable attention at the time of yeaning1 particularly if the weather is even moderately cold or stormy4 ,the grown sheep1 too1 are much affected by sudden changes in the weather2 an abrupt change to cold being pretty certain to be registered on their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or snuffles4 ,in ,england1 where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes1 the meat of this variety is in very great demand2 and the consequent return which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to make renders it a general favorite with the breeder4 ,instances are recorded of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these animals4 ,they have spread into all parts of the ,british dominions1 and been imported into the other countries of ,europe and into the ,united ,states4 ,they were first introduced into our own country1 some forty years since1 by ,christopher ,dunn1 of ,albany1 ,n4,y4 ,subsequent importations have been made by ,mr4 ,powel1 of ,philadelphia1 and various other gentlemen4 ,the breed1 however1 has never proved a favorite with any large class of ,american farmers4 ,our long1 cold winters--but1 more especially1 our dry1 scorching summers1 when it is often difficult to obtain the rich1 green1 tender feed in which the ,leicester delights--together with the general deprivation of green feed in the winter1 rob it of its early maturity1 and even of the ultimate size which it attains in ,england4 ,its mutton is too fat1 and the fat and lean are too little intermixed to suit ,american taste4 ,its wool is not very salable1 owing to the dearth of worsted manufactures in our country4 ,its early decay and loss of wool constitute an objection to it1 in a country where it is often so difficult to advantageously turn off sheep1 particularly ewes4 ,but1 notwithstanding all these disadvantages1 on rich lowland farms1 in the vicinity of considerable markets1 it will always in all probability make a profitable return4 ,the head of the ,new ,leicester should be hornless1 long1 small1 tapering towards the muzzle1 and projecting horizontally forward2 the eyes prominent1 but with a quiet expression2 the ears thin1 rather long1 and directed backward2 the neck full and broad at its base1 where it proceeds from the chest1 so that there is1 with the slightest possible deviation1 one continued horizontal line from the rump to the poll2 the breast broad and full2 the shoulders also broad and round1 and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the back--particularly no rising of the withers1 or hollow behind the situation of these bones2 the arm fleshy throughout its whole extent1 and even down to the knee2 the bones of the leg small1 standing wide apart2 no looseness of skin about them1 and comparatively void of wool2 the chest and barrel at once deep and round2 the ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine1 so as1 in some cases--and especially when the animal is in good condition--to make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth2 the barrel ribbed well home2 no irregularity of line on the back or belly1 but on the sides2 the carcass very gradually diminishing in width towards the rump2 the quarters long and full1 and1 as with the fore-legs1 the muscles extending down to the hock2 the thighs also wide and full2 the legs of a moderate length2 and the pelt also moderately thin1 but soft and elastic1 and covered with a good quantity of white wool1 not so long as in some breeds1 but considerably finer4 ,,the ,,south-,,down4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,south-,,down ,,ram4 ,a long range of chalky hills1 diverging from the chalky stratum which intersects ,england from ,norfolk to ,dorchester1 is termed the ,south-,downs4 ,they enter the county of ,sussex on the west side1 and are continued almost in a direct line1 as far as ,east ,bourne1 where they reach the sea4 ,they may be regarded as occupying a space of more than sixty miles in length1 and about five or six in breadth1 consisting of a succession of open downs1 with few enclosures1 and distinguished by their situation and name from a more northern tract of similar elevation and soil1 passing through ,surrey and ,kent1 and terminating in the cliffs of ,dover1 and of the ,forelands4 ,on these downs a certain breed of sheep has been produced for many centuries1 in greater perfection than elsewhere2 and hence have sprung those successive colonies which have found their way abroad and materially benefited the breed of short-woolled sheep wherever they have gone4 ,it is only1 however1 within a comparatively recent period that they have been brought to their present perfection4 ,as recently as #aggf they were small in size1 and of a form not superior to the common woolled sheep of the ,united ,states2 they were far from possessing a good shape1 being long and thin in the neck1 high on the shoulders1 low behind1 high on the loins1 down on the rump1 the tail set on very low1 perpendicular from the hip-bones1 sharp on the back2 the ribs flat1 not bowing1 narrow in the fore-quarters1 but good in the leg1 although having big bones4 ,since that period a course of judicious breeding1 pursued by ,mr4 ,john ,ellman1 of ,glynde1 in ,sussex1 has mainly contributed to raise this variety to its present value2 and that1 too1 without the admixture of the slightest degree of foreign blood4 ,this pure1 improved family1 it will be borne in mind1 is spoken of in the present connection2 inasmuch as the original stock1 presenting1 with trifling modifications1 the same characteristics which they exhibited seventy-five years ago1 are yet to be found in ,england2 and the intermediate space between these two classes is occupied by a variety of grades1 rising or falling in value1 as they approximate to or recede from the improved blood4 ,the ,south-,down sheep are polled1 but it is probable that the original breed was horned1 as it is not unusual to find among the male ,south-,down lambs some with small horns4 ,the dusky1 or at times1 black hue of the head and legs fully establishes the original color of the sheep1 and1 perhaps of all sheep2 while the later period at which it was seriously attempted to get rid of this dingy hue proving unsuccessful1 only confirms this view4 ,many of the lambs have been dropped entirely black4 ,it is an upland sheep1 of medium size1 and its wool--which in point of length belongs to the middle class1 and differs essentially from ,merino wool of any grade1 though the fibre in some of the finest fleeces maybe of the same apparent fineness with half or one-quarter blood ,merino--is deficient in felting properties1 making a fuzzy1 hairy cloth1 and is no longer used in ,england1 unless largely mixed with foreign wool1 even for the lowest class of cloths4 ,as it has deteriorated1 however1 it has increased in length of staple1 in that country1 to such an extent that improved machinery enables it to be used as a combing-wool1 for the manufacture of worsteds4 ,where this has taken place it is quite as profitable as when it was finer and shorter4 ,in the ,united ,states1 where the demand for combing-wool is so small that it is easily met by a better article1 the same result would not probably follow4 ,indeed1 it may well be doubted whether the proper combing length will be easily reached1 or at least maintained in this country1 in the absence of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the wool its increased length in ,england4 ,the average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is three pounds2 on rich lowlands1 a little more4 ,the ,south-,down1 however1 is cultivated more particularly for its mutton1 which for quality takes precedence of all other--from sheep of good size--in the ,english markets4 ,its early maturity and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh1 render it peculiarly valuable for this purpose4 ,it is turned off at the age of two years1 and its weight at that age is1 in ,england1 from eighty to one hundred pounds4 ,high-fed wethers have reached from thirty-two to even forty pounds a quarter4 ,notwithstanding its weight1 it has a patience of occasional short keep1 and an endurance of hard stocking1 equal to any other sheep4 ,this gives it a decided advantage over the bulkier ,leicesters and ,lincolns1 as a mutton sheep1 in hilly districts and those producing short and scanty herbage4 ,it is hardy and healthy1 though1 in common with the other ,english varieties1 much subject to catarrh1 and no sheep better withstands our ,american winters4 ,the ewes are prolific breeders and good nurses4 ,the ,down is quiet and docile in its habits1 and1 though an industrious feeder1 exhibits but little disposition to rove4 ,like the ,leicester1 it is comparatively a short-lived animal1 and the fleece continues to decrease in weight after it reaches maturity4 ,it crosses better with short and middle-woolled breeds than the ,leicester4 ,a sheep possessing such qualities1 must1 of necessity1 be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of markets4 ,the ,emperor of ,russia paid ,mr4 ,ellman three hundred guineas 7fifteen hundred dollars7 for two rams2 and1 in #ahjj1 a ram belonging to the ,duke of ,bedford was let for one season at eighty guineas 7four hundred dollars71 two others at forty guineas 7two hundred dollars7 each1 and four more at twenty-eight guineas 7one hundred and forty dollars7 each4 ,the first importation into the ,united ,states was made by ,col4 ,j4 ,h4 ,powell1 of ,philadelphia4 ,a subsequent importation1 in #ahcd1 cost sixty dollars a head4 ,the desirable characteristics of the ,south-,down may be thus summed up3 ,the head small and hornless2 the face speckled or gray1 and neither too long nor too short2 the lips thin1 and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow2 the under-jaw or chap fine and thin2 the ears tolerably wide and well-covered with wool1 and the forehead also1 and the whole space between the ears well protected by it1 as a defence against the fly2 the eye full and bright1 but not prominent2 the orbits of the eye1 the eye-cap or bone not too projecting1 that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing2 the neck of a medium length1 thin toward the head1 but enlarging toward the shoulders1 where it should be broad and high and straight in its whole course above and below4 ,the breast should be wide1 deep1 and projecting forward between the fore-legs1 indicating a good constitution and a disposition to thrive2 corresponding with this1 the shoulders should be on a level with the back1 and not too wide above2 they should bow outward from the top to the breast1 indicating a springing rib beneath1 and leaving room for it2 the ribs coming out horizontally from the spine1 and extending far backward1 and the last rib projecting more than others2 the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail2 the loin broad and flat2 the rump broad1 and the tail set on high1 and nearly on a level with the spine4 ,the hips should be wide2 the space between them and the last rib on each side as narrow as possible1 and the ribs generally presenting a circular form like a barrel2 the belly as straight as the back2 the legs neither too long nor too short2 the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot1 not bending inward at the knee1 and standing far apart1 both before and behind2 the hock having a direction rather outward1 and they twist1 or the meeting of the thighs behind1 being particularly full2 the bones fine1 yet having no appearance of weakness1 and of a speckled or dark color2 the belly well defended with wool1 and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee and to the hock2 the wool short1 close1 curled and fine1 and free from spiny projecting fibres4 ,,the ,,cotswold4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cotswold4 ,the ,cotswolds1 until improved by modern crosses1 were a very large1 coarse1 long-legged1 flat-ribbed variety1 light in the fore-quarter1 and shearing a long1 heavy1 coarse fleece of wool4 ,they were formerly bred only on the hills1 and fatted in the valleys1 of the ,severn and the ,thames2 but with the enclosures of the ,cotswold hills1 and the improvement of their cultivation1 they have been reared and fatted in the same district4 ,they were hardy1 prolific breeders1 and capital nurses2 deficient in early maturity1 and not possessing feeding properties equalling those of the ,south-,down or ,new ,leicester4 ,they have been extensively crossed with the ,leicester sheep--producing thus the modern or improved ,cotswold--by which their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished1 but their carcasses have been materially improved1 and their maturity rendered earlier4 ,the wethers are sometimes fattened at fourteen months old1 when they weigh from fifteen to twenty-four pounds to a quarter2 and at two years old1 increase to twenty or thirty pounds4 ,the wool is strong1 mellow1 and of good color1 though rather coarse1 six to eight inches in length1 and from seven to eight pounds per fleece4 ,the superior hardihood of the improved ,cotswold over the ,leicester1 and their adaptation to common treatment1 together with the prolific nature of the ewes1 and their abundance of milk1 have rendered them in many places rivals of the ,new ,leicester1 and have obtained for them1 of late years1 more attention to their selection and general treatment1 under which management still farther improvement has been made4 ,they have also been used in crossing other breeds1 and have been mixed with the ,hampshire ,downs4 ,indeed1 the improved ,cotswold1 under the name of new1 or improved ,oxfordshire sheep1 have frequently been the successful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-woolled sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in ,england4 ,the quality of their mutton is considered superior to that of the ,leicester2 the tallow being less abundant1 with a larger development of muscle or flesh4 ,the degree to which the cross between the ,cotswold and ,leicester may be carried1 must depend upon the nature of the old stock1 and on the situation and character of the farm4 ,in exposed situations1 and somewhat scanty pasture1 the old blood should decidedly prevail4 ,on a more sheltered soil1 and on land that will bear closer stocking1 a greater use may be made of the ,leicester4 ,another circumstance that should guide the farmer is the object which he has principally in view4 ,if he expects to derive his chief profits from the wool1 he will look to the primitive ,cotswolds2 if he expects to gain more as a grazier1 he will use the ,leicester ram more freely4 ,sheep of this breed1 now of established reputation1 have been imported into the ,united ,states by ,messrs4 ,corning and ,gotham1 of ,albany1 and bred by the latter4 ,,the ,,cheviot4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cheviot ,,ewe4 ,on the steep1 storm-lashed ,cheviot hills1 in the extreme north of ,england1 this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in resisting cold1 and for feeding on coarse1 heathery herbage4 ,a cross with the ,leicester1 pretty generally resorted to1 constitutes the improved variety4 ,the ,cheviot readily amalgamates with the ,leicester--the rams employed in the system of breeding1 which has been extensively introduced for producing the first cross of this descent1 being of the pure ,leicester breed--and the progeny is superior in size1 weight of wool1 and tendency to fatten1 to the native ,cheviot4 ,the benefit1 however1 may be said to end with the first cross2 and the progeny of this mixed descent is greatly inferior to the pure ,leicester in form and fattening properties1 and to the pure ,cheviot in hardiness of constitution4 ,the improved ,cheviot has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains of ,scotland1 and in many instances supplanted the black-faced breed2 but the change1 though often advantageous1 has in some cases been otherwise--the latter being somewhat hardier1 and more capable of subsisting on heathy pasturage4 ,they are a hardy race1 however1 well suited for their native pastures1 bearing1 with comparative impunity1 the storms of winter1 and thriving well on poor keep4 ,the purest specimens are to be found on the ,scotch side of the ,cheviot hills1 and on the high and stony mountain farms which lie between that range and the sources of the ,teviot4 ,these sheep are a capital mountain stock1 provided the pasture resembles those hills1 in containing a good proportion of rich herbage4 ,though less hardy than the black-faced sheep of ,scotland1 they are more profitable as respects their feeding1 making more flesh on an equal quantity of food1 and making it more quickly4 ,they have white faces and legs1 open countenances1 lively eyes1 and are without horns2 the ears are large1 and somewhat singular1 and there is much space between the ears and eyes2 the carcass is long2 the back straight2 the shoulders rather light2 the ribs circular2 and the quarters good4 ,the legs are small in the bone1 and covered with wool1 as well as the body1 with the exception of the face4 ,the wether is fit for the butcher at three years old1 and averages from twelve to eighteen pounds a quarter2 the mutton being of a good quality1 though inferior to the ,south-,down1 and of less flavor than the black-faced4 ,the ,cheviot1 though a mountain breed1 is quiet and docile1 and easily managed4 ,the wool is about the quality of ,leicester1 coarse and long1 suitable only for the manufacture of low coatings and flushings4 ,it closely covers the body1 assisting much in preserving it from the effects of wet and cold4 ,the fleece averages about three and a half pounds4 ,formerly1 the wool was extensively employed in making cloths2 but having given place to the finer ,saxony wools1 it has sunk in price1 and been confined to combing purposes4 ,it has thus become altogether a secondary consideration4 ,the ,cheviots have become an ,american sheep by their repeated importations into this country4 ,the wool on several choice sheep1 imported by ,mr4 ,carmichael1 of ,new ,york1 was from five to seven inches long1 coarse1 but well suited to combing4 ,,the ,,lincoln4 ,the old breed of ,lincolnshire sheep was hornless1 had white faces1 and long1 thin1 and weak carcasses2 the ewes weighed from fourteen to twenty pounds a quarter2 the three-year old wethers from twenty to thirty pounds2 legs thick1 rough and white2 pelts thick2 wool long--from ten to eighteen inches--and covering a slow-feeding1 coarse-grained carcass of mutton4 ,a judicious system of breeding1 which avoided ,bakewell's errors1 has wrought a decided improvement in this breed4 ,the improved ,lincolns possess a rather more desirable robustness1 approaching1 in some few specimens1 almost to coarseness1 as compared with the finest ,leicesters2 but they are more hardy1 and less liable to disease4 ,they attain as large a size1 and yield as great an amount of wool1 of about the same value4 ,this breed1 indeed1 scarcely differs more from the ,cotswold than do flocks of a similar variety1 which have been separately bred for several generations1 from each other4 ,they are prolific1 and when well-fed1 the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth1 for which they provide liberally from their udders till the time for weaning4 ,the weight of the fleece varies from four to eight pounds per head4 ,having alluded to the principal points of interest connected with the various breeds of sheep in the ,united ,states1 our next business is with ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,sheep4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,sheep ,,as ,,covered ,,by ,,the ,,muscles4 #a4 ,the intermaxillary bone4 #b4 ,the nasal bones4 #c4 ,the upper jaw4 #d4 ,the union of the nasal and upper jaw-bones4 #e4 ,the union of the molar and lachrymal bones4 #f4 ,the orbits of the eye4 #g4 ,the frontal bone4 #h4 ,the lower jaw4 #i4 ,the incisor teeth1 or nippers4 #aj4 ,the molars or grinders4 #aa4 ,the ligament of the neck supporting the head4 #ab4 ,the seven vertebrae1 or the bones of the neck4 #ac4 ,the thirteen vertebrae1 or bones of the back4 #ad4 ,the six vertebrae of the loins4 #ae4 ,the sacral bone4 #af4 ,the bones of the tail1 varying in different breeds from twelve to twenty-one4 #ag4 ,the haunch and pelvis4 #ah4 ,the eight true ribs1 with their cartilages4 #ai4 ,the five false ribs1 or those that are not attached to the breast-bone4 #bj4 ,the breast-bone4 #ba4 ,the scapula1 or shoulder-blade4 #bb4 ,the humerus1 bone of the arm1 or lower part of the shoulder4 #bc4 ,the radius1 or bone of the fore-arm4 #bd4 ,the ulna or elbow4 #be4 ,the knee with its different bones4 #bf4 ,the metacarpal or shank-bones--the larger bones of the leg4 #bg4 ,a rudiment of the smaller metacarpal4 #bh4 ,one of the sessamoid bones4 #bi4 ,the first two bones of the foot--the pasterns4 #cj4 ,the proper bones of the foot4 #ca4 ,the thigh-bone4 #cb4 ,the stifle-joint and its bone--the patella4 #cc4 ,the tibia1 or bone of the upper part of the leg4 #cd4 ,the point of the hock4 #ce4 ,the other bones of the hock4 #cf4 ,the metatarsal bones1 or bone of the hind-leg4 #cg4 ,rudiment of the small metatarsal4 #ch4 ,a sessamoid bone4 #ci4 ,the first two bones of the foot--the pasterns4 #dj4 ,the proper bones of the foot4 ,,division4 ,vertebrata--possessing a back-bone4 ,,class4 ,mammalia--such as give suck4 ,,order4 ,ruminantia--chewing the cud4 ,,family4 ,capridae--the goat kind4 ,,genus4 ,oris--the sheep family4 ,of this ,genus there are three varieties3 ,,oris1 ,,ammon1 or ,,argali4 ,oris ,musmon4 ,oris ,aries1 or ,domestic ,sheep4 ,of the latter--with which alone this treatise is concerned--there are about forty well known varieties4 ,between the oris1 or sheep1 and the capra1 or goat1 another genus of the same family1 the distinctions are well marked1 although considerable resemblance exists between them4 ,the horns of the sheep have a spiral direction1 while those of the goat have a direction upward and backward2 the sheep1 except in a single wild variety1 has no beard1 while the goat is bearded2 the goat1 in his highest state of improvement1 when he is made to produce wool of a fineness unequalled by the sheep--as in the ,cashmere breed--is mainly1 and always1 externally covered with hair1 while the hair on the sheep may1 by domestication1 be reduced to a few coarse hairs1 or got rid of altogether2 and1 finally1 the pelt or skin of the goat has thickness very far exceeding that of the sheep4 ,the age of sheep is usually reckoned1 not from the time that they are dropped1 but from the first shearing2 although the first year may thus include fifteen or sixteen months1 and sometimes more4 ,when doubt exists relative to the age1 recourse is had to the teeth1 since there is more uncertainty about the horn in this animal than in cattle2 ewes that have been early bred1 appearing always1 according to the rings on the horn1 a year older than others that have been longer kept from the ram4 ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,teeth4 ,sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw1 but the bars or ridges of the palate thicken as they approach the forepart of the mouth2 there also the dense1 fibrous1 elastic matter1 of which they are constituted1 becomes condensed1 and forms a cushion or bed1 which covers the converse extremity of the upper jaw1 and occupies the place of the upper incisor1 or cutting teeth1 and partially discharge their functions4 ,the herbage is firmly held between the front teeth in the lower jaw and this pad1 and thus partly bitten and partly torn asunder4 ,of this1 the rolling motion of the head is sufficient proof4 ,the teeth are the same in number as in the mouth of the ox4 ,there are eight incisors or cutting-teeth in the forepart of the lower jaw1 and six molars in each jaw above and below1 and on either side4 ,the incisors are more admirably formed for grazing than in the ox4 ,the sheep lives closer1 and is destined to follow the ox1 and gather nourishment where that animal would be unable to crop a single blade4 ,this close life not only loosens the roots of the grass1 and disposes them to spread1 but by cutting off the short suckers and sproutings--a wise provision of nature--causes the plants to throw out fresh1 and more numerous1 and stronger ones1 and thus is instrumental in improving and increasing the value of the crop4 ,nothing will more expeditiously and more effectually make a thick1 permanent pasture than its being occasionally and closely eaten down by sheep4 ,in order to enable the sheep to bite this close1 the upper lip is deeply divided1 and free from hair about the centre of it4 ,the part of the tooth above the gum is not only1 as in other animals1 covered with enamel1 to enable it to bear and to preserve a sharpened edge1 but the enamel on the upper part rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a quarter of an inch1 and presenting a convex surface outward1 and a concave within1 forms a little scoop or gorge of wonderful execution4 ,the mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either without incisor teeth or it has two4 ,the teeth rapidly succeed to each other1 and before the animal is a month old he has the whole of the eight4 ,they continue to grow with his growth until he is about fourteen or sixteen months old4 ,then1 with the same previous process of diminution as in cattle1 or carried to a still greater degree1 the two central teeth are shed1 and attain their full growth when the sheep is two years old4 ,in examining a flock of sheep1 however1 there will often be very considerable difference in the teeth of those that have not been sheared1 or those that have been once sheared2 in some measure to be accounted for by a difference in the time of lambing1 and likewise by the general health and vigor of the animal4 ,there will also be a material difference in different animals1 attributable to the good or bad keep which they have had4 ,those fed on good land1 or otherwise well kept1 will generally take the start of others that have been half starved1 and renew their teeth some months sooner than these4 ,there are also irregularities in the times of renewing the teeth1 not to be accounted for by either of these circumstances2 in fact1 not to be explained by any known circumstance relating to the breed or the keep of the sheep4 ,the want of improvement in sheep1 which is occasionally observed1 and which cannot be accounted for by any deficiency or change of food1 may sometimes be justly attributed to the tenderness of the mouth when the permanent teeth are protruding through the gums4 ,between two and three years old the next two incisors are shed2 and when the sheep is actually three years old1 the four central teeth are fully grown2 at four years old1 he has six teeth fully grown2 and at five years old--one year before the horse or the ox can be said to be full-mouthed--all the teeth are perfectly developed4 ,the sheep is a much shorter-lived animal than the horse1 and does not often attain the usual age of the ox4 ,their natural age is about ten years1 to which age they will breed and thrive well2 though there are recorded instances of their breeding at the age of fifteen1 and of living twenty years4 ,the careless examiner may be sometimes deceived with regard to the four-year-old mouth4 ,he will see the teeth perfectly developed1 no diminutive ones at the sides1 and the mouth apparently full2 and then1 without giving himself the trouble of counting the teeth1 he will conclude that the animal is five years old4 ,a process of displacement1 as well as of diminution1 has taken place here2 the remaining outside milk-teeth have not only shrunk to less than a fourth part of their original size1 but the four-year-old teeth have grown before them and perfectly conceal them1 unless the mouth is completely opened4 ,after the permanent teeth have all appeared and are fully grown1 there is no criterion as to the age of the sheep4 ,in most cases1 the teeth remain sound for one or two years1 and then1 at uncertain intervals--either on account of the hard work in which they have been employed1 or from the natural effect of age--they begin to loosen and fall out2 or1 by reason of their natural slenderness1 they are broken off4 ,when favorite ewes1 that have been kept for breeding1 begin to lose condition1 at six or seven years old1 their mouths should be carefully examined4 ,if any of the teeth are loose1 they should be extracted1 and a chance given to the animal to show how far1 by browsing early and late1 she may be able to make up for the diminished number of her incisors4 ,it frequently happens that ewes with broken teeth1 and some with all the incisors gone1 will keep pace in condition with the best in the flock2 but they must be well taken care of in the winter1 and1 indeed1 nursed to an extent that would scarcely answer the farmer's purpose to adopt as a general rule1 in order to prevent them from declining to such a degree as would make it very difficult afterward to fatten them for the butcher4 ,it may certainly be taken as a general rule1 that when sheep become broken-mouthed they begin to decline4 ,causes of which the farmer is utterly ignorant1 or over which he has no control1 will sometimes hasten the loss of the teeth4 ,one thing1 however1 is certain--that close feeding1 causing additional exercise1 does wear them down2 and that the sheep of farmers who stock unusually and unseasonably hard1 lose their teeth much sooner than others do4 ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 ,the skin of the sheep1 in common with that of most animals1 is composed of three textures4 ,externally is the cuticle1 or scarf-skin1 which is thin1 tough1 devoid of feeling1 and pierced by innumerable minute holes1 through which pass the fibres of the wool and the insensible perspiration4 ,it seems to be of a scaly texture2 although is not so evident as in many other animals1 on account of a peculiar substance--the yolk--which is placed on it1 to protect and nourish the roots of the wool4 ,it is1 however1 sufficiently evident in the scab and other cutaneous eruptions to which this animal is liable4 ,below this cuticle is the rete mucosum1 a soft structure2 its fibres having scarcely more consistence than mucilage1 and being with great difficulty separated from the skin beneath4 ,this appears to be placed as a defence to the terminations of the blood-vessels and nerves of the skin1 which latter are1 in a manner1 enveloped and covered by it4 ,the color of the skin1 and probably that of the hair or wool also1 is determined by the rete mucosum2 or1 at least1 the hair and wool are of the same color as this substance4 ,beneath the rete mucosum is the cutis1 or true skin1 composed of numberless minute fibres crossing each other in every direction2 highly elastic1 in order to fit closely to the parts beneath1 and to yield to the various motions of the body2 and dense and firm in its structure1 that it may resist external injury4 ,blood-vessels and nerves innumerable pierce it1 and appear on its surface in the form of papillae1 or minute eminences2 while1 through thousands of little orifices1 the exhalent absorbents pour out the superfluous or redundant fluid4 ,the true skin is composed1 principally or almost entirely1 of gelatine2 so that1 although it may be dissolved by long-continued boiling1 it is insoluble in water at the common temperature4 ,this organization seems to have been given to it1 not only for the sake of its preservation while on the living animal1 but that it may afterwards become useful to man4 ,the substance of the hide readily combining with the tanning principle1 is converted into leather4 ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,wool4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wallachian ,,sheep4 ,on the skin of most animals is placed a covering of feathers1 fur1 hair1 or wool4 ,these are all essentially the same in composition1 being composed of an animal substance resembling coagulated albumen1 together with sulphur1 silica1 carbonate and phosphate of lime1 and oxides of iron and manganese4 ,wool is not confined to the sheep4 ,the under-hair of some goats is not only finer than the fleece of any sheep1 but it occasionally has the crisped appearance of wool2 being1 in fact1 wool of different qualities in different breeds--in some1 rivalling or excelling that of the sheep1 but in others very coarse4 ,a portion of wool is also found on many other animals2 as the deer1 elk1 the oxen of ,tartary and ,hudson's ,bay1 the gnu1 the camel1 many of the fur-clad animals1 the sable1 the polecat1 and several species of the dog4 ,judging from the mixture of wool and hair in the coat of most animals1 and the relative situation of these materials1 it is not improbable that such was the character of the fleece of the primitive sheep4 ,it has1 indeed1 been asserted that the primitive sheep was entirely covered with hair2 but this is1 doubtless1 incorrect4 ,there exists1 at the present day1 varieties of the sheep occupying extensive districts1 that are clothed outwardly with hair of different degrees of fineness and sleekness2 and underneath the external coat is a softer1 shorter1 and closer one1 that answers to the description of fur--according to most travellers--but which really possesses all the characteristics of wool4 ,it is1 therefore1 highly improbable that the sheep--which has now become1 by cultivation1 the wool-bearing animal in a pre-eminent degree--should1 in any country1 at any time1 have ever been entirely destitute of wool4 ,sheep of almost every variety have at times been in the gardens of the ,london 7,eng47 ,zooelogical ,society2 but there has not been one on which a portion of crisped wool1 although exceedingly small1 has not been discovered beneath the hair4 ,in all the regions over which the patriarchs wandered1 and extending northward through the greater part of ,europe and ,asia1 the sheep is externally covered with hair2 but underneath is a fine1 short1 downy wool1 from which the hair is easily separated4 ,this is the case with the sheep at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and also in ,south ,america4 ,the change from hair to wool1 though much influenced by temperature1 has been chiefly effected by cultivation4 ,wherever hairy sheep are now found the management of the animal is in a most disgraceful state2 and among the cultivated sheep the remains of this ancient hairy covering only exists1 to any great extent1 among those that are comparatively neglected or abandoned4 ,the filament of the wool has scarcely pushed itself through the pore of the skin1 when it has to penetrate through another and singular substance1 which1 from its adhesiveness and color1 is called the yolk4 ,this is found in greatest quantity about the breast and shoulders--the very parts that produce the best1 and healthiest1 and most abundant wool--and in proportion as it extends1 in any considerable degree1 over other parts1 the wool is then improved4 ,it differs in quantity in different breeds4 ,it is very abundant on the ,merinos2 it is sufficiently plentiful on most of the southern breeds1 either to assist in the production of the wool1 or to defend the sheep from the inclemency of the weather2 but in the northern districts1 where the cold is more intense and the yolk of wool is deficient1 a substitute for it is sometimes sought by smearing the sheep with a mixture of tar1 oil1 or butter4 ,where there is a deficiency of yolk1 the fibre of the wool is dry1 harsh1 and weak1 and the whole fleece becomes thin and hairy2 where the natural quantity of it is found1 the wool is soft1 oily1 plentiful and strong4 ,this yolk is not the inspissated or thickened perspiration of the animal2 it is not composed of matter which has been accidentally picked up1 and which has lodged in the wool2 but it is a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin1 destined to be one of the agents in the nourishment of the wool1 and at the same time1 by its adhesiveness1 to mat the wool together1 and form a secure defence from the wet and cold4 ,chemical experiments have established its composition1 as follows3 first1 of a soapy matter with a basis of potash1 which forms the greater part of it2 second1 a small quantity of carbonate of potash2 third1 a perceptible quantity of acetate of potash2 fourth1 lime1 in a peculiar and unknown state of combination2 fifth1 an atom of muriate of potash2 sixth1 an animal oil1 to which its peculiar odor is attributable4 ,all these materials are believed to be essential to the yolk1 and not found in it by mere accident1 since the yolk of a great number of samples--,spanish1 ,french1 ,english1 and ,american--has been subjected to repeated analyses1 with the same result4 ,the yolk being a true soap1 soluble in water1 it is not difficult to account for the comparative ease with which sheep that have the natural proportion of it are washed in a running stream4 ,there is1 however1 a small quantity of fatty matter in the fleece1 which is not in combination with the alkali1 and which1 remaining attached to the wool1 keeps it a little glutinous1 notwithstanding the most careful washing4 ,the fibre of the wool having penetrated the skin and escaped from the yolk1 is of a circular form1 generally larger toward the extremity1 and also toward the root1 and in some instances very considerably so4 ,the filaments of white wool1 when cleansed from grease1 are semi-transparent2 their surface in some places is beautifully polished1 in others curiously incrusted1 and they reflect the rays of light in a very pleasing manner4 ,when viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic microscope1 the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering appearance4 ,minute filaments1 placed very regularly1 are sometimes seen branching from the main trunk1 like boughs from the principal stem4 ,this exterior polish varies much in different wools1 and in wools from the same breed of sheep at different times4 ,when the animal is in good condition1 and the fleece healthy1 the appearance of the fibre is really brilliant2 but when the state of the constitution is bad1 the fibre has a dull appearance1 and either a wan1 pale light1 or sometimes scarcely any1 is reflected4 ,as a general rule1 the filament is most transparent in the best and most useful wools1 whether long or short4 ,it increases with the improvement of the breed1 and the fineness and healthiness of the fleece2 yet it must be admitted that some wools have different degrees of the transparency and opacity1 which do not appear to affect their value and utility4 ,it is1 however1 the difference of transparency in the same fleece1 or in the same filament1 that is chiefly to be noticed as improving the value of the wool4 ,as to the size of the fibre1 the terms fine and coarse1 as commonly used1 are but vague and general descriptions of wool4 ,all fine fleeces have some coarse wool1 and all coarse fleeces some fine4 ,the most accurate classification is to distinguish the various qualities of wool in the order in which they are esteemed and preferred by the manufacturer--as the following3 first1 fineness with close ground1 that is1 thick-matted ground2 second1 pureness2 third1 straight-haired1 when broken by drawing2 fourth1 elasticity1 rising after compression in the hand2 fifth1 staple not too long2 sixth1 color2 seventh1 what coarse exists to be very coarse2 eighth1 tenacity2 and ninth1 not much pitch-mark1 though this is no disadvantage1 except the loss of weight in scouring4 ,the bad or disagreeable properties are--thin1 grounded1 tossy1 curly-haired1 and1 if in a sorted state1 little in it that is very fine2 a tender staple1 as elasticity1 many dead white hairs1 very yolky4 ,those who buy wool for combing and other light goods that do not need milling1 wish to find length of staple1 fineness of hair1 whiteness1 tenacity1 pureness1 elasticity1 and not too many pitch-marks4 ,the property first attracting attention1 and being of greater importance than any other1 is the fineness of the pile--the quantity of fine wool which a fleece yields1 and the degree of that fineness4 ,of the absolute fineness1 little can be said1 varying1 as it does1 in different parts of the same fleece to a very considerable degree1 and the diameter of the same fibre often being exceedingly different at the extremity and the centre4 ,the micrometer has sometimes indicated that the diameter of the former is five times as much as that of the latter2 and1 consequently1 that a given length of yield taken from the extremity would weigh twenty-five times as much as the same length taken from the centre and cleansed from all yolk and grease4 ,that fibre may be considered as coarse whose diameter is more than the five-hundredth part of an inch2 in some of the most valuable samples of ,saxony wool it has not exceeded the nine-hundredth part2 yet in some animals1 whose wool has not been used for manufacturing purposes1 it is less than one twelve-hundredth part4 ,the extremities of the wool1 and frequently those portions which are near to the root1 are larger than the intermediate parts4 ,the extremity of the fibre has1 generally1 the greatest bulk of all4 ,it is the product of summer1 soon after shearing-time1 when the secretion of the matter of the wool is increased1 and when the pores of the skin are relaxed and open1 and permit a larger fibre to protrude4 ,the portion near the root is the growth of spring1 when the weather is getting warm2 and the intermediate part is the offspring of winter1 when under the influence of the cold the pores of the skin contract1 and permit only a finer hair to escape4 ,if1 however1 the animal is well fed1 the diminution of the bulk of the fibre will not be followed by weakness or decay1 but1 in proportion as the pile becomes fine1 the value of the fleece will be increased2 whereas1 if cold and starvation should go hand-in-hand1 the woolly fibre will not only diminish in bulk1 but in health1 strength1 and worth4 ,the variations in the diameter of the wool in different parts of the fibre will also curiously correspond with the degree of heat at the time the respective portions were produced4 ,the fibre of the wool and the record of the meteorologist will singularly agree1 if the variations in temperature are sufficiently distinct from each other for any appreciable part of the fibre to form4 ,it follows from this1 that--the natural tendency to produce wool of a certain fibre being the same--sheep in a hot climate will yield a comparatively coarse wool1 and those in a cold climate will carry a finer1 but at the same time a closer and a warmer fleece4 ,in proportion to the coarseness of a fleece will generally be its openness1 and its inability to resist either cold or wet2 while the coat of softer1 smaller1 more pliable wool will admit of no interstices between its fibres1 and will bid defiance to frost and storms4 ,the natural instinct of the sheep would seem to teach the wool-grower the advantage of attending to the influence of temperature upon the animal4 ,he is evidently impatient of heat4 ,in the open districts1 and where no shelter is near1 he climbs to the highest parts of his walk1 that1 if the rays of the sun must still fall on him1 he may nevertheless be cooled by the breeze2 but1 if shelter is near1 of whatever kind1 every shaded spot is crowded with sheep4 ,the wool of the ,merinos after shearing-time is hard and coarse to such a degree as to render it very difficult to suppose that the same animal could bear wool so opposite in quality1 compared with that which had been clipped from it in the course of the same season4 ,as the cold weather advances1 the fleeces recover their soft quality4 ,pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the fleece4 ,the staple of the wool1 like every other part of the sheep1 must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nutriment2 and1 on the other hand1 the secretion which forms the wool must decrease like every other1 when sufficient nourishment is not afforded4 ,when little cold has been experienced in the winter1 and vegetation has scarcely been checked1 the sheep yields an abundant crop of wool1 but the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as heavier4 ,when the frost has been severe1 and the ground long covered with snow1 if the flock has been fairly supplied with nutriment1 although the fleece may have lost a little in weight1 it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness1 and a proportional increase of value4 ,should1 however1 the sheep have been neglected and starved during this continued cold weather1 the fleece as well as the carcass is thinner1 and although it may have preserved its smallness of filament1 it has lost in weight1 and strength1 and usefulness4 ,connected with fineness is trueness of staple--as equal in growth as possible over the animals--a freedom from those shaggy portions1 here and there1 which are occasionally observed on poor and neglected sheep4 ,these portions are always coarse and comparatively worthless1 and they indicate an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion of wool1 which will also probably weaken or render the fibre diseased in other parts4 ,included in trueness of fibre is another circumstance to which allusion has already been made--a freedom from coarse hairs which project above the general level of the wool in various parts1 or1 if they are not externally seen1 mingle with the wool and debase its qualities4 ,soundness is closely associated with trueness4 ,it means1 generally speaking1 strength of the fibre1 and also a freedom from those breaches or withered portions of which something has previously been said4 ,the eye will readily detect the breaches2 but the hair generally may not possess a degree of strength proportioned to its bulk4 ,this is ascertained by drawing a few hairs out of the staple1 and grasping each of them singly by both ends1 and pulling them until they break4 ,the wool often becomes injured by felting while it is on the sheep's back4 ,this is principally seen in the heavy breeds1 especially those that are neglected and half-starved1 and generally begins in the winter season1 when the coat has been completely saturated with water1 and it increases until shearing-time1 unless the cob separates from the wool beneath1 and drops off4 ,wool is generally injured by keeping4 ,it will probably increase a little in weight for a few months1 especially if kept in a damp place2 but after that it will somewhat rapidly become lighter1 until a very considerable loss will often be sustained4 ,this1 however1 is not the moral of the case2 for1 except very great care is taken1 the moth will get into the bundles and injure and destroy the staple2 and that which remains untouched by them will become considerably harsh and less pliable4 ,if to this the loss of the interest of money is added1 it will be seen that he seldom acts wisely who hoards his wool1 when he can obtain what approaches to a fair remunerating price for it4 ,softness of the wool is evidently connected with the presence and quality of the yolk4 ,this substance is undoubtedly designed not only to nourish the hair1 but to give it richness and pliability4 ,the growth of the yolk ought to be promoted1 and agriculturists ought to pay more attention to the quantity and quality of yolk possessed by the animals selected for the purpose of breeding4 ,bad management impairs the pliability of the wool1 by arresting the secretion of the yolk4 ,the softness of the wool is also much influenced by the chemical elements of the soil4 ,a chalky soil notoriously deteriorates it2 minute particles of the chalk being necessarily brought into contact with the fleece and mixing with it1 have a corrosive effect on the fibre1 and harden it and render it less pliable4 ,the particles of chalk come in contact with the yolk--there being a chemical affinity between the alkali and the oily matter of the yolk--immediately unite1 and a true soap is formed4 ,the first storm washes a portion of it2 and the wool1 deprived of its natural pabulum and unguent1 loses some of its vital properties--its pliability among the rest4 ,the slight degree of harshness which has been attributed to the ,english ,south-,down has been explained in this way4 ,the felting property of wool is a tendency of the fibres to entangle themselves together1 and to form a mass more or less difficult to unravel4 ,by moisture and pressure1 the fibres of the wool may become matted or felted together into a species of cloth4 ,the manufacture of felt was the first mode in which wool was applied to clothing1 and felt has long been in universal use for hats4 ,the fulling of flannels and broadcloths is effected by the felting principle4 ,by the joint influence of the moisture and the pressure1 certain of the fibres are brought into more intimate contact with each other2 they adhere--not only the fibres1 but2 in a manner1 the threads--and the cloth is taken from the mill shortened in all its dimensions2 it has become a kind of felt1 for the threads have disappeared1 and it can be cut in every direction with very little or no unravelling2 it is altogether a thicker1 warmer1 softer fibre4 ,this felting property is one of the most valuable qualities possessed by wool1 and on this property are the finer kinds of wool especially valued by the manufacturer for the finest broadcloths4 ,this naturally suggests a consideration of the various forms in the structure on which it depends4 ,the most evident distinction between the qualities of hair and wool is the comparative straightness of the former1 and the crisped or spirally-curling form which the latter assumes4 ,if a little lock of wool is held up to the light1 every fibre of it is twisted into numerous minute corkscrew-like ringlets4 ,this is especially seen in the fleece of the short-woolled sheeps2 but1 although less striking1 it is obvious even in wool of the largest staple4 ,the spirally-curving form of wool used1 erroneously1 to be considered as the chief distinction between the covering of the goat and the sheep2 but the under-coat of some of the former is finer than that of any sheep1 and it is now acknowledged frequently to have the crisped and curled appearance of wool4 ,in some breeds of cattle1 particularly in one variety of the ,devons1 the hair assumes a curled and wavy appearance1 and a few of the minute spiral ringlets have been occasionally seen4 ,it is the same with many of the ,highlands2 but there is no determination to take on the true crisped character1 and throughout its whole extent1 and it is still nothing but hair4 ,on some foreign breeds1 however1 as the yak of ,tartary1 and the ox of ,hudson's ,bay1 some fine and valuable wool is produced4 ,there is an intimate connection between the fineness of the wool and the number of the curves1 at least in sheep yielding wool of nearly the same length2 so that1 whether the wool of different sheep is examined1 or that from different parts of the same sheep1 it is enough for the observer to take advice of the number of curves in a given space1 in order to ascertain with sufficient accuracy the fineness of the fibre4 ,to this curled form of the wool not enough attention is1 as a general thing1 paid by the breeder4 ,it is1 however1 that on which its most valuable uses depend4 ,it is that which is essential to it in the manufactory of cloths4 ,the object of the carder is to break the wool in pieces at the curves--the principle of the thread is the adhesion of the particles together by their curves2 and the fineness of the thread1 and consequent fineness of the cloth1 will depend on the minuteness of these curves1 or the number of them found in a given length of fibre4 ,it will readily be seen that this curling form has much to do with the felting property of wool2 it materially contributes to that disposition in the fibres which enables them to attach and intwine themselves together2 it multiplies the opportunities for this interlacing1 and it increases the difficulty of unravelling the felt4 ,the felting property of wool is the most important1 as well as the distinguishing one2 but it varies essentially in different breeds1 and the usefulness and the consequent value of the fleece1 for clothing purposes1 at least1 depend on the degree to which it is pursued4 ,the serrated--notched1 like the teeth of a saw--edge of wool1 which has been discovered by means of the microscope1 is also1 as well as the spiral curl1 deemed an important quality in the felting property4 ,repeated microscopic observations have removed all doubts as to the general outline of the woolly fibre4 ,it consists of a central stem or stalk1 probably hollow1 or1 at least1 porous1 possessing a semi-transparency1 not found in the fibre of hair4 ,from this central stalk there springs1 at different distances1 on different breeds of sheep1 a circlet of leaf-shaped projections4 ,,long ,,wool4 ,the most valuable of the long-woolled fleeces are of ,british origin4 ,a considerable quantity is produced in ,france and ,belgium2 but the manufacturers in those countries acknowledge the superiority of the ,british wool4 ,long wool is distinguished1 as its name would import1 by the length of its staple1 the average of which is about eight inches4 ,it was much improved1 of late years1 both in ,england and in other countries4 ,its staple has1 without detriment to its manufacturing qualities1 become shorter2 but it has also become finer1 truer1 and sounder4 ,the long-woolled sheep has been improved more than any other breed2 and the principal error which ,bakewell committed having been repaired since his death1 the long wool has progressively risen in value1 at least for curling purposes4 ,some of the breeds have staples of double the length that has been mentioned as the average one4 ,pasture and breeding are the powerful agents here4 ,probably because the ,leicester blood prevails in1 or1 at least1 mingles with1 every other long-woolled breed1 a great similarity in the appearance and quality of this fleece has become apparent1 of late years1 in every district of ,england4 ,the short-woolled fleeces are1 to a very considerable degree1 unlike in fineness1 elasticity1 and felting property2 the sheep themselves are still more unlike2 but the long-wools have1 in a great degree1 lost their distinctive points--the ,lincoln1 for example1 has not all of his former gaunt carcass1 and coarse1 entangled wool--the ,cotswold has become a variety of the ,leicester--in fact1 all the long-woolled sheep1 both in appearance and fleece1 have almost become of one variety2 and rarely1 except from culpable neglect in the breeder1 has the fleece been injuriously weakened1 or too much shortened1 for the most valuable purposes to which it is devoted4 ,in addition to its length1 this wool is characterized by its strength1 its transparency1 its comparative stoutness1 and the slight degree in which it possesses the felting property4 ,since the extension of the process of combing to wools of a shorter staple1 the application of this wool to manufacturing purposes has undergone considerable change4 ,in some respects1 the range of its use has been limited2 but its demand has1 on the whole1 increased1 and its value is more highly appreciated4 ,indeed1 there are certain important branches of the woollen manufacture1 such as worsted stuffs1 bombazines1 muslin-delaines1 etc41 in which it can never be superseded2 and its rapid extension in the ,united ,states1 within the past few years1 clearly shows that a large and increasing demand for this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices4 ,this long wool is classed under two divisions1 distinguished both by length and the fineness of the fibre4 ,the first--the long-combing wool--is used for the manufacture of hard yarn1 and the worsted goods for which that thread is adapted1 and requires the staple to be long1 firm1 and little disposed to felt4 ,the short-combing wool has1 as its name implies1 a shorter staple1 and is finer and more felty2 the felt is also closer and softer1 and is chiefly used for hosiery goods4 ,,middle ,,wool4 ,this article is of more recent origin than the former1 but has rapidly increased in quantity and value4 ,it can never supersede1 but will only stand next in estimation to1 the native ,english long fleece4 ,it is yielded by the half-bred sheep--a race that becomes more numerous every year--being a cross of the ,leicester ram with the ,south-,down1 or some other short-woolled ewe2 retaining the fattening property and the early maturity of the ,leicester1 or of both2 and the wool deriving length and straightness of fibre from the one1 and fineness and feltiness from the other4 ,the average length of staple is about five inches4 ,there is no description of the finer stuff-goods in which this wool is not most extensively and advantageously employed2 and the nails1 or portions which are broken off by the comb1 and left in1 whether belonging to this description of wool or to the long wool1 are used in the manufacture of several species of cloth of no inferior quality or value4 ,under the breed of middle wools must be classed those which1 when there were but two divisions1 were known by the name of short wools2 and if ,english productions were alone treated of1 would still retain the same distinctive appellation4 ,to this class belong the ,south-,down and ,cheviot2 together with the fleece of several other breeds1 not so numerous1 nor occupying so great an extent of country4 ,from the change1 however1 which insensibly took place in them all--the lengthening1 and the increased thickness of the fibre1 and1 more especially1 from the gradual introduction of other wools possessing delicacy of fibre1 pliability1 and felting qualities beyond what these could claim1 and at the same time1 being cheaper in the market--they lost ground in the manufacture of the finer cloths1 and have for some time ceased to be used in the production of them4 ,on the other hand1 the changes which have taken place in the construction of machinery have multiplied the purposes to which they may be devoted1 and very considerably enhanced their value4 ,these wools1 of late1 rank among the combing wools2 they are prepared as much by the comb as by the card1 and in some places more4 ,on this account they meet with a readier sale1 at fair1 remunerating prices1 considering the increased weight of each individual fleece1 and the increased weight and earlier maturity of the carcass4 ,the ,south-,downs yield about seven-tenths of the pure short wools grown in the ,british kingdoms2 but the half-bred sheep has1 as has been remarked1 encroached on the pure short-woolled one4 ,the average staple of middle-woolled sheep is three and a half inches4 ,these wools are employed in the manufacture of flannels1 army and navy cloths1 coatings1 heavy cloths for calico printers and paper manufacturers1 woollen cords1 coarse woollens1 and blankets2 besides being partially used in cassinettes1 baizes1 bockings1 carpets1 druggets1 etc4 ,,short ,,wool4 ,from this division every wool of ,english production is excluded4 ,these wools1 yielded by the ,merinos1 are employed1 unmixed1 in the manufacture of the finer cloths1 and1 combined with a small proportion of wool from the ,english breeds1 in others of an inferior value4 ,the average length of staple is about two and a half inches4 ,these wools even may be submitted to the action of the comb4 ,there may be fibres only one inch in length2 but if there are others from two and a half to three inches1 so that the average of the staple shall be two inches1 a thread sufficiently tenacious may1 from the improved state of machinery1 be spun1 and many delicate and beautiful fabrics readily woven1 which were unknown not many years ago4 ,illustration ,,crossing ,,and ,,breeding ,no one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all those points which give value to this race of animals4 ,one is remarkable for the weight1 or early maturity1 or excellent quality of its carcass1 while it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool2 and another1 which is valuable for wool1 is comparatively deficient in carcass4 ,some varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of food and climate2 while others are much less affected by those conditions1 and will subsist under the greatest variations of temperature1 and on the most opposite qualities of verdure4 ,in selecting a breed for any given locality1 reference should be had1 first1 to the feed and climate1 or the surrounding natural circumstances2 and1 second1 to the market facilities and demand4 ,choice should then be made of that breed which1 with the advantages possessed1 and under all the circumstances1 will yield the greatest net value of the marketable product4 ,rich lowland herbage1 in a climate which allows it to remain green during a large portion of the year1 is favorable to the production of large carcasses4 ,if convenient to a market where mutton finds a prompt sale and good prices1 then all the conditions are realized which calls for a mutton-producing1 as contradistinguished from a wool-yielding1 sheep4 ,under such circumstances1 the choice should undoubtedly be made from the improved ,english varieties--the ,south-,down1 the ,new ,leicester1 and the improved ,cotswolds or ,new ,oxfordshire sheep4 ,in deciding between these1 minor and more specific circumstances must be taken into account4 ,if large numbers are to be kept1 the ,downs will herd--remain thriving and healthy when kept together in large numbers--much better than the two larger breeds2 if the feed1 though generally plentiful1 is liable to be somewhat short during the droughts of summer1 and there is not a certain supply of the most nutritious winter feed1 the ,downs will better endure occasional short keep2 if the market demands a choice and high-flavored mutton1 the ,downs possess a decided superiority4 ,if1 on the other hand1 but few are to be kept in the same enclosure1 the large breeds will be as healthy as the ,downs2 if the pastures are somewhat wet or marshy1 the former will better subsist on the rank herbage which usually grows in such situations2 if they do not afford so fine a quality of mutton1 they--particularly the ,leicester--possess an earlier maturity1 and give more meat for the amount of food consumed1 as well as yield more tallow4 ,the next point of comparison between the long and the middle woolled families1 is the value of their wool4 ,though not the first or principal object aimed at in the cultivation of any of these breeds1 it is1 in this country1 an important item of incident in determining their relative profitableness4 ,the ,american ,leicester yields about six pounds of long1 coarse1 combing wool2 the ,cotswold1 somewhat more2 but this perhaps counterbalanced by these considerations2 the ,downs grow three to four pounds of a low quality of carding wool4 ,none of these wools are very salable1 at remunerating prices1 in the ,american markets4 ,both1 however1 will appreciate in proportion to the increase of manufactures of worsted1 flannels1 baizes1 and the like4 ,the difference in the weight of the fleeces between the breeds is1 of itself1 a less important consideration than it would at first appear1 for reasons which will be given when the connection between the amount of wool produced and the food consumed by the sheep is noticed4 ,the ,cheviots are unquestionably inferior to the breeds above named1 except in a capacity to endure a vigorous winter and to subsist on healthy herbage4 ,used in the natural and artificial circumstances which surround sheep-husbandry in many parts of ,england--where the fattest and finest quality of mutton is consumed1 as almost the only animal food of the laboring classes--the heavy1 early-maturing ,new ,leicester1 and the still heavier ,new ,oxfordshire sheep seem exactly adapted to the wants of producers and consumers1 and are of unrivalled value4 ,to depasture poorer soils1 sustain a folding system1 and furnish the mutton which supplies the tables of the wealthy1 the ,south-,down meets an equal requirement4 ,sufficient attention is by no means paid in many portions of the country to the profit which could be made to result from the cultivation of the sheep4 ,one of the most serious defects in the prevalent husbandry of ,new ,england1 for example1 is the neglect of sheep4 ,ten times the present number might be easily fed1 and they would give in meat1 wool1 and progeny1 more direct profit than any other domestic animal1 while the food which they consume would do more towards fertilizing the farms than an equal amount consumed by any other animal4 ,it is notorious that the pastures of that section of the country have seriously deteriorated in fertility and become overrun with worthless weeds and bushes to the exclusion of nutritious grasses4 ,with sheep--as well as with all other animals--much or prolonged exercise in pursuit of food1 or otherwise1 is unfavorable to taking on fat4 ,some seem to forget1 in their earnest advocacy of the merits of the different breeds1 that the general physical laws which control the development of all the animal tissues as well as functions1 are uniform4 ,better organs will1 doubtless1 make a better appropriation of animal food2 and they may be taught1 so to speak1 to appropriate it in particular directions3 in one breed1 more especially to the production of fat2 in another1 of muck1 or lean meat2 in yet another1 of wool4 ,but1 these things being equal1 large animals will always require more food than small ones4 ,animals which are to be carried to a high state of fatness must have plentiful and nutritious food1 and they must exercise but little1 in order to prevent the unnecessary combustion in the lungs of that carbon which forms nearly four-fifths of their fat4 ,no art of breeding can counteract these established laws of ,nature4 ,in instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for wool-growing purposes1 it is undeniable that the question is not1 what variety will shear the heaviest or even the most valuable fleece1 irrespective of the cost of production4 ,cost of feed and care1 and every other expense1 must be deducted1 in order to fairly test the profits of an animal4 ,if a large sheep consume twice as much food as a small one1 and give but once and a-half as much wool1 it is obviously more profitable--other things being equal--to keep two of the smaller sheep4 ,the next question1 then1 is1--from what breed--with the same expense in other particulars--will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest value of wool8 ,and1 first1 as to the comparative amount of food consumed by the several breeds4 ,there are no satisfactory experiments which show that breed1 in itself considered1 has any particular influence on the quantity of food consumed4 ,it is found1 with all varieties1 that the consumption is in proportion to the live weight of the grown animal4 ,of course1 this rule is not invariable in its individual application2 but its general soundness has been satisfactorily established4 ,grown sheep take up between two and a half and three and a third per cent4 of their weight1 in what is equivalent to dry hay1 to keep themselves in store condition4 ,the consumption of food1 then1 being proportioned to the weight1 it follows that1 if one acre is capable of sustaining three ,merinos1 weighing one hundred pounds each1 it will sustain two ,leicesters1 weighing one hundred and fifty each1 and two and two-fifth ,south-,downs1 weighing one hundred and twenty-five each4 ,merinos of this weight often shear five pounds per fleece1 taking flocks through4 ,the herbage of an acre1 then1 would give fifteen pounds of ,merino wool1 twelve of ,leicester1 and but nine and three-fifths of ,south-,down--estimating the latter as high as four pounds to the fleece4 ,even the finest and lightest-fleeced sheep known as ,merinos average about four pounds to the fleece2 so that the feed of an acre would produce as much of the highest quality of wool sold under the name of ,merino as it would of ,new ,leicester1 and more than it would of ,south-,down1 while the former would be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent4 more per pound than either of the latter4 ,nor does this indicate all the actual difference1 as in the foregoing estimate the live weight of the ,english breeds is placed low1 and that of the ,merinos high4 ,the live weight of the five-pound fine-fleeced ,merino does not exceed ninety pounds2 it ranges1 in fact1 from eighty to ninety2 so that three hundred pounds of live weight--it being understood that all of these live weights refer to ewes in fair ordinary1 or what is called store1 condition--would give a still greater product of wool to the acre4 ,it is perfectly safe1 therefore1 to say that the herbage of an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of ,merino that it will of any of the ,english long or middle wools4 ,what are the other relative expenses of these breeds8 ,the full-blooded ,leicester is in no respect a hardier sheep than the ,merino1 though some of its crosses are much hardier than the pure-bred sheep3 indeed1 it is less hardy1 under the most favorable circumstances4 ,it is more subject to colds2 its constitution more readily gives way under disease2 the lambs are more liable to perish from exposure to cold1 when newly dropped4 ,under unfavorable circumstances--herded in large flocks1 famished for feed1 or subjected to long journeys--its capacity to endure1 and its ability to rally from sad drawbacks1 do not compare1 with those of the ,merino4 ,the high-bred ,south-,down1 though considerably less hardy than the unimproved parent stock1 is still fairly entitled to the appellation of a hardy animal2 it is1 in fact1 about on a pace with the ,merino1 though it will not bear as hard stocking1 without a rapid diminution in size and quality4 ,if the peculiar merits of the animal are to be considered in determining the expenses1 as they surely should be1 the superior fecundity of the ,south-,down is a point in its favor1 as well for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep4 ,the ewe not only frequently produces twin lambs--as do both the ,merino and ,leicester--but1 unlike the latter1 she possesses nursing properties to do justice to them4 ,this advantage1 however1 is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity of the ,merino4 ,all the ,english mutton breeds begin to rapidly deteriorate in amount of wool1 capacity to fatten1 and general vigor1 at about five years old2 and their early maturity is no offset to this1 in an animal kept for wool-growing purposes4 ,this early decay requires earlier and more rapid slaughter than is always economically convenient1 or even possible4 ,it is well1 on properly stocked farms1 to slaughter or turn off the ,merino wether at four or five years old1 to make room for the breeding stock2 but he will not particularly deteriorate1 and he will richly pay the way with his fleece for several years longer4 ,breeding ewes are rarely turned off before eight1 and are frequently kept until ten years old1 at which period they exhibit no greater marks of age than do the ,downs and ,leicester at five or six4 ,instances are known of ,merino ewes breeding uniformly until fifteen years old4 ,the improved ,cotswold is said to be hardier than the ,leicester2 but this variety1 from their great size1 and the consequent amount of food consumed by them1 together with the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of such large animals1 is incapacitated from being generally introduced as a wool-growing sheep4 ,all the coarse races have one advantage over the ,merino3 they are less subject to the visitation of the hoof-ail1 and when untreated1 this disease spreads with less violence and malignity among them4 ,this has been explained by the fact that their hoofs do not grow long and turn under from the sides1 as do those of the ,merino1 and thus retain dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot4 ,taking into account all the circumstances connected with the peculiar management of each race1 together with all the incidents1 exigencies1 and risks of the husbandry of each1 it may be confidently asserted that the expenses1 other than those of feed1 are not smaller per head1 or even in the number required to stock an acre1 in either of the ,english breeds above referred to1 than in the ,merino4 ,indeed1 it may well be doubted whether any of those ,english breeds1 except the ,south-,down1 is on an equality1 even1 with the ,merino1 in these respects4 ,for wool-growing purposes1 the ,merino1 then1 possesses a marked and decided superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-woolled sheep4 ,as a mutton sheep1 it is inferior to some of those breeds2 although not so much as is popularly supposed4 ,many persons1 who have never tasted ,merino mutton1 and who have1 consequently1 an unfavorable impression of it1 would1 if required to consume the fat and lean together1 find it more palatable than the luscious and over-fat ,new ,leicester4 ,the mutton of the cross between the ,merino and the ,native would certainly be preferred to the ,leicester1 by anybody but an ,english laborer1 accustomed to the latter1 since it is short-grained1 tender1 and of good flavor4 ,the same is true of the crosses with the ,english varieties1 which will hereafter be treated of more particularly4 ,grade ,merino wethers1 half-bloods1 for example1 are favorites with the drover and butcher1 being of good size1 extraordinarily heavy for their apparent bulk1 by reason of the shortness of their wool1 compared with the coarse breeds1 making good mutton1 tallowing well1 and their pelts1 from the greater weight of wool on them1 commanding an extra price4 ,in speaking of the ,merino in this connection1 no reference is made to the ,saxons1 though they are1 as is well known1 pure-blooded descendants of the former4 ,assuming it1 then1 as settled1 that it is to the ,merino race that the wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep1 a few considerations are subjoined as to the adaptability of the widely diverse sub-varieties of the race to the wants and circumstances of different portions of the country4 ,upon the first introduction of the ,saxons1 they were sought with avidity by the holders of the fine-woolled flocks of the country1 consisting at that time of pure or grade ,merinos4 ,under the decisive encouragement offered both to the wool-grower and the manufacturer by the tariff of #ahbh1 a great impetus was given to the production of the finest wools1 and the ,saxon everywhere superseded1 or bred out by crossing1 the ,spanish ,merinos4 ,in ,new ,york and ,new ,england1 the latter almost entirely disappeared4 ,in the fine-wool mania which ensued1 weight of fleece1 constitution1 and every thing else1 were sacrificed to the quality of the wool4 ,then came the tariff of #ahcb1 which1 as well as that of #ahbh1 gave too much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer1 into whose pursuits agricultural and mercantile speculators madly rushed4 ,skill without capital1 capital without skill1 and in some cases1 probably1 thirst for gain without either1 laid hold of these favored avocations4 ,the natural and inevitable result followed4 ,in the financial crisis of #ahcg1 manufacturing1 and all other monetary enterprises which had not been conducted with skill and providence1 and which were not based on an adequate and vast capital1 were involved in a common destruction2 and even the most solid and best conducted institutions of the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion4 ,wool suddenly fell almost fifty per cent4 ,the grower began to be discouraged4 ,the breeder of the delicate ,saxons--and they comprised the flocks of nearly all the large wool-growers in the country1 at that time--could not obtain for his wool its actual first cost per pound4 ,when the ,saxon growers found that the tariff of #ahdb brought them no relief1 they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks4 ,the example once set1 it became contagious2 and then was a period when it seemed as if all the ,saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed to this reaction4 ,many abandoned wool-growing altogether1 at a heavy sacrifice of their fixtures for rearing sheep2 others crossed with coarse-woolled breeds2 and1 rushing from one extreme to the other1 some even crossed with the ,english mutton breeds2 or some1 with more judgment1 went back to the parent ,merino stock1 but usually selected the heaviest and coarsest-woolled ,merinos1 and thus materially deteriorated the character of their wool4 ,this period became distinguished by a mania for heavy fleeces4 ,the ,english crosses were1 however1 speedily abandoned4 ,the ,merino regained his supremacy1 lost for nearly a quarter of a century1 and again became the popular favorite4 ,it was generally adopted by those who were commencing flocks in the new ,western ,states1 and gives its type to the sheep of those regions4 ,the supply of fine wool1 then1 proportionably decreased1 and that of medium and coarse increased4 ,wools1 for convenience1 may be classified as follows3 superfine1 the choicest quality grown in the ,united ,states1 and never grown here excepting in comparatively small quantities2 fine1 good ordinary ,saxon2 good medium1 the highest quality of wool usually known in the market as ,merino2 medium1 ordinary ,merino2 ordinary1 grade ,merino and selected ,south-,down fleeces2 and1 coarse1 the ,english long-wools1 etc4 ,this subdivision is1 perhaps1 minute enough for all practical purposes here4 ,it soon became apparent that1 to sustain our manufacturing interest--that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths--the diminution of fine wools should not only be at once arrested1 but that the growth of them should be immediately and largely increased4 ,an increased attention was accordingly bestowed upon this branch of industry1 and sections of the country which had previously held aloof from wool-growing1 embarked in that calling with commendable enterprise4 ,the climate north of forty-one degrees1 or1 beyond all dispute1 north of forty-two degrees1 is too severe for any variety of sheep commonly known1 which bear either superfine or fine wools4 ,in fact1 the only such variety in any thing like general use is the ,saxon2 and this1 as has been remarked1 is a delicate sheep1 entirely incapable of safely withstanding our northern winters1 without good shelter1 good and regularly-administered food1 and careful and skilful management in all other particulars4 ,when the season is a little more than usually back-hand1 so that grass does not start prior to the lambing season1 it is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes2 the young ewes will1 in many instances1 disown their lambs1 or1 if they own them1 not have a drop of milk for them2 and if1 under such circumstances1 as often happens1 a northeast or a northwest storm comes driving down1 bearing snow or sleet in its wings1 or there is a sudden depression of the temperature from any cause1 no care will save multitudes of lambs from perishing4 ,if the time of having the lambs dropped is deferred1 for the purpose of escaping these evils1 they will not attain size and strength sufficient to enable them to pass safely through their first winter4 ,north of the latitude last named1 it is necessary1 as a general rule1 that they be dropped in the first half of ,may1 to give them this requisite size and strength2 and occasional cold storms come1 nearly every season1 up to that period1 and1 not unfrequently1 up to the first of ,june4 ,these considerations have had their weight even with the few large sheep-holders in that section1 whose farms and buildings have been arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing of these sheep2 many of whom have adopted a ,merino cross4 ,with the ordinary farmers--the small sheep-owners1 who1 in the aggregate1 grow by far the largest portion of the northern wools--the ,saxon sheep is1 for these reasons1 in marked disrepute4 ,they have not the necessary fixtures for their winter protection1 and are unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on them4 ,besides1 mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with this class1 they want larger and earlier maturing breeds4 ,above all1 they want a strong1 hardy sheep1 which demands no more care than their cattle4 ,the strong1 compact1 medium-woolled ,merino1 or1 more generally1 its crosses with coarse varieties1 producing the wool classed as ordinary1 is the common favorite4 ,in the ,northwest1 this is especially the case1 where the climate is still worse for delicate sheep4 ,at the ,south1 on the contrary--where these disadvantages do not exist to so great an extent1 certainly--wool varying from good medium upward are more profitable staples for cultivation than the lower classes2 and in that section a high degree of fineness in fleece has been sought in breeding the ,merino--the four-pound fine-fleeced ,merino having received marked attention4 ,this is a far more profitable animal than the ,saxon1 other things being equal--which is not the case1 since the former is every way a hardier animal and a better nurse2 and1 although about twenty pounds heavier1 and therefore consuming more feed1 this additional expense is more than counterbalanced by the additional care and risk attending the husbandry of the ,saxon4 ,,points ,,of ,,the ,,merino4 ,for breeding purposes1 the shape and general appearance of the ,merino should be as follows3--,the head should be well carried up1 and in the ewe hornless4 ,it would be better1 on many accounts1 to have the ram also hornless1 but1 as horns are usually characteristic of the ,merino ram1 many prefer to see them4 ,the face should be rather short1 broad between the eyes1 the nose pointed1 and1 in the ewe1 fine and free from wrinkles4 ,the eye should be bright1 moderately prominent1 and gentle in its expression4 ,the neck should be straight--not curving downward--short1 round1 and stout--particularly so at its junction with the shoulder1 forward of the upper point of which it should not sink below the level of the back4 ,the points of the shoulder should not rise to any perceptible extent above the level of the back4 ,the back1 to the hips1 should be straight2 the crops--that portion of the body immediately back of the shoulder-blades--full2 the ribs well arched2 the body large and capacious2 the flank well let down2 the hind-quarters full and round--the flesh meeting well down between the thighs1 or in the twists4 ,the bosom should be broad and full2 the legs short1 well apart1 and perpendicular--that is1 not drawn under the body toward each other when the sheep is standing4 ,viewed as a whole1 the ,merino should present the appearance of a low1 stout1 plump1 and--though differing essentially from the ,english mutton-sheep model--a highly symmetrical sheep4 ,the skin is an important point4 ,it should be loose1 singularly mellow1 and of a rich1 delicate pink color4 ,a colorless skin1 or one of a tawny1 approaching to a butternut1 hue1 indicates bad breeding4 ,on the subject of wrinkles1 there is a difference of opinion4 ,as they are rather characteristic of the ,merino--like the black color in a ,berkshire hog1 or the absence of all color in ,durham cattle--these wrinkles have been more regarded1 by novices1 than those points which give actual value to the animal2 and shrewd breeders have not been slow to act upon this hint4 ,many have contended that more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled skin2 and this view of the case has led both the ,spanish and ,french breeders to cultivate them largely--the latter1 to a monstrosity4 ,an exceedingly wrinkled neck1 however1 adds but little to the weight of the fleece--not enough1 in fact1 to compensate for the deformity1 and the great impediment thus placed in the way of the shearer4 ,a smoothly drawn skin1 and the absence of all dead lap1 would not1 on the other hand1 perhaps be desirable4 ,the wool should densely cover the whole body1 where it can possibly grow--from a point between and a little below the eyes1 and well up on the cheeks1 to the knees and hocks4 ,short wool may show1 particularly in young animals1 on the legs1 even below the knees and hocks2 but long wool covering the legs1 and on the nose1 below the eyes1 is unsightly1 without value2 while on the face it frequently impedes the sight of the animal1 causing it to be in a state of perpetual alarm1 and disqualifying it to escape real danger4 ,neither is this useless wool the slightest indication of a heavy fleece--contrary to what seems to be thought by some4 ,it is very often seen in ,saxons shearing scarcely two pounds of wool1 and on the very lightest fleeced ,merinos4 ,the amount of gum which the wool should exhibit is another mooted point4 ,merino wool should be yolky1 or oily1 prior to washing--though not to the extreme extent1 occasionally witnessed1 of giving it the appearance of being saturated with grease4 ,the extreme tips may exhibit a sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast1 particularly in the ram2 but a black1 pitchy gum1 resembling half-hardened tar1 extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch into the fleece1 and which cannot be removed by ordinary washing1 is decidedly objectionable4 ,there is a white or yellowish concrete gum1 not removable by common washing1 which appears in the interior of some fleeces1 and is equally objectionable4 ,the weight of fleece remaining the same1 medium length of staple1 with compactness1 is preferable to long1 open wool1 since it constitutes a better safeguard from inclemencies of weather1 and better protects the animal from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and fall4 ,the wool should be1 as nearly as possible1 of even length and thickness over the entire body4 ,shortness on the flank1 and shortness or thickness on the belly1 are serious defects4 ,evenness of fleece is a point of the first importance4 ,many sheep exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side1 while it is far coarser and even hairy on the thighs1 dew-lap1 etc4 ,rams of this stamp should not be bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-woolled flock2 and all such ewes should gradually be excluded from those selected for breeding4 ,the style of the wool is a point of as much importance as mere fineness4 ,some very fine wool is stiff1 and the fibres almost straight1 like hair4 ,it has a dry1 cottony look2 and is a poor1 unsalable article1 however fine the fibre4 ,softness of wool--a delicate1 silky1 highly elastic feel between the fingers or on the lips1 is the first thing to be regarded4 ,this is usually an index1 or inseparable attendant1 of the other good qualities2 so much so1 indeed1 that an experienced judge can decide1 with little difficulty1 between the quality of two fleeces1 in the dark4 ,wool should be finely serrated1 or crimped from one extremity to the other3 that is1 it should present a regular series of minute curves2 and1 generally1 the greater the number of these curves in a given length1 the higher the quality of the wool in all other particulars4 ,the wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected masses1 instead of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a pipe-stem1 which indicate thinness of fleece2 and when the wool is pressed open each way with the hands1 it should be close enough to conceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin4 ,the interior of the wool should be a pure1 glittering white1 with a lustre and liveliness of appearance not surpassed in the best silk4 ,the points in the form of the ,merino which the breeder is called upon particularly to avoid are1 a long1 thin head1 narrow between the eyes2 a thin1 long neck1 arching downward before the shoulders2 narrow loins2 flat ribs2 steep1 narrow hind-quarters2 long legs2 thighs scarcely meeting at all2 and legs drawn far under the body at the least approach of cold4 ,all these points were1 separately or conjointly1 illustrated in many of the ,saxon flocks which have been swept from the country4 ,sufficient attention has already been paid to the points to be avoided in the fleece4 ,,breeding ,,merinos4 ,the first great starting-point1 among pure-blood animals1 is1 that like will beget like4 ,if the sire and ewe are perfect in any given points1 the offspring will generally be2 if either is defective1 the offspring--subject to a law which will possibly be noticed--will be half-way between the two2 if both are defective in the same points1 the progeny will be more so than either of its parents--it will inherit the amount of defect in both parents added together4 ,there are exceedingly few perfect animals4 ,breeding1 therefore1 is a system of counterbalancing--breeding out--in the offspring1 the defects of one parent1 by the marked excellence of the other parent1 in the same points4 ,the highest blood confers on the parent possessing it the greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny2 but1 blood being the same1 the male sheep possesses this power in a greater degree than the female4 ,we may1 therefore1 in the beginning1 breed from ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones1 without impropriety1 provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose2 but1 where a high standard of quality is aimed at1 all ewes possessing even considerable defects should gradually be thrown out from breeding4 ,every year should add to the vigor of the selection4 ,but1 from the beginning--and at the beginning1 more than at any other time--the greatest care should be evinced in the selection of the ram4 ,if he has a defect1 that defect is to be inherited by the whole future flock2 if it is a material one--as1 for example1 a hollow back1 bad cross1 or thin fleece1 or a highly uneven fleece--the flock will be one of low quality and little value4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he is perfect1 the defects in the female will be lessened1 and gradually bred out4 ,it being1 however1 difficult to find perfect rams1 those should be taken which have the fewest and lightest defects1 and none of these material1 like those just enumerated4 ,these defects are to be met and counterbalanced by the decided excellence--sometimes1 indeed1 running into a fault--of the ewe1 in the same points4 ,if the ram1 then1 is a little too long-legged1 the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for him2 if gummy1 the dryest-woolled2 if his fleece is a trifle below the proper standard of fineness--but he has been retained1 as often happens1 for weight of fleece and general excellence--he is to be put to the finest and lightest-fleeced ewes1 and so on4 ,with a selection of rams1 this system of counterbalancing would require but little skill1 if each parent possessed only a single fault4 ,if the ewe be a trifle too thin-fleeced1 and good in all other particulars1 it would require no nice judgment to decide that she should be bred to an uncommonly thick-fleeced ram4 ,but most animals possess1 to a greater or less degree1 several defects4 ,to select so that every one of these in the dam shall meet its opposite in the male1 and the contrary1 requires not only plentiful materials from which to select1 but the keenest discrimination4 ,after the breeder has successfully established his flock1 and given them an excellent character1 he soon encounters a serious evil4 ,he must breed in-and-in1 as it is called--that is1 interbreed between animals more or less nearly related in blood--or he must seek rams from other flocks1 at the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of his flock1 hitherto so carefully sought1 and built up with so much painstaking4 ,the opponents of in-and-in breeding contend that it renders diseases and all other defects hereditary1 and that it tends to decrease of size1 debility1 and a general breaking up of the constitution4 ,its defenders1 on the other hand1 insist that1 if the parents are perfectly healthy1 this mode does not1 of itself1 tend to any diminution of healthfulness in the offspring2 and they likewise claim--which must be conceded--that it enables the skilful breeder much more rapidly to bring his flock to a particular standard or model1 and to keep it there much more easily--unless it be true that1 in course of time1 they will dwindle and grow feeble4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,scotch ,,sheep-,,dog1 ,,or ,,colley4 ,so far as the effect on the constitution is concerned1 both positions may be1 to a certain extent1 true4 ,but it is1 perhaps1 difficult always to decide with certainty when an animal is not only free from disease1 but from all tendency or predisposition towards it4 ,a brother or sister may be apparently healthy--may be actually so--but may still possess a peculiarity of individual conformation which1 under certain circumstances1 will manifest itself4 ,if these circumstances do not chance to occur1 they may live until old age1 apparently possessing a robust constitution4 ,if tried together1 their offspring--by a rule already laid down--will possess this individual tendency in a double degree4 ,if the ram be interbred with sisters1 half-sisters1 daughters1 granddaughters1 etc41 for several generations1 the predisposition toward a particular disease--in the first place slight1 now strong1 and constantly growing stronger--will pervade1 and become radically incorporated into1 the constitution of the whole flock4 ,the first time the requisite exciting causes are brought to bear1 the disease breaks out1 and1 under such circumstances1 with peculiar severity and malignancy4 ,if it be of a fatal character1 the flock is rapidly swept away2 if not1 it becomes chronic1 or periodical at frequently recurring intervals4 ,the same remarks apply1 in part1 to those defects of the outward form which do not at first1 from their slightness1 attract the notice of the ordinary breeder4 ,they are rapidly increased until1 almost before thought of by the owner1 they destroy the value of the sheep4 ,that such are the common effects of in-and-in breeding1 with such skill as it is commonly conducted1 all know who have given attention to the subject2 and for these reasons the system is regarded with decided disapprobation and repugnance by nine out of ten of the best practical farmers4 ,the sheep-breeder can1 however1 avoid the effects of in-and-in breeding1 and at the same time preserve the character of his flock1 by seeking rams of the same breed1 possessing1 as nearly as possible1 the characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his own flock4 ,if this rule is neglected--if he draws indiscriminately from all the different varieties or families of a breed--some large1 and some small--some long-woolled1 and some short-woolled--some medium1 and some superfine in quality--some tall1 and some squatty--some crusted over with black gum1 and some entirely free from it--breeding will become a mere matter of hap-hazard1 and no certain or uniform results can be expected4 ,so many varieties cannot be fused into one for a number of generations--as is evidenced by the want of uniformity in the ,rambouillet flock1 which was commenced by a promiscuous admixture of all the ,spanish families2 and it not merely happens1 as between certain classes of ,saxons1 that particular families can never be successfully amalgamated4 ,if1 however1 the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard--if his sheep are deficient in the requisites which he desires--he is still to adhere to the breed--provided the desired requisites are characteristic of the breed he possesses--and select better animals to improve his own inferior ones4 ,if he has1 for instance1 an inferior flock of ,south-,downs1 and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best ,down dams1 he should seek for the best rams of that breed4 ,but if he wishes to obtain qualities not characteristic of the breed he possesses1 he must cross with a breed which does possess them4 ,if the possessor of ,south-,downs wishes to convert them into a fine-woolled sheep similar to the ,merino1 he should cross his flock steadily with ,merino rams--constantly increasing the amount of ,merino1 and diminishing the amount of ,south-,down blood4 ,to effect the same result1 he would take the same course with the common sheep of the country1 or with any other coarse race4 ,there are those1 who1 forgetting that some of the finest varieties now in existence1 of several kinds of domestic animals1 are the result of crosses--bitterly inveigh against the practice of crossing1 under any and all circumstances4 ,it is1 it must be admitted1 an unqualified absurdity1 as frequently conducted--as1 for example1 an attempt to unite the fleece of a ,merino and the carcass of a ,leicester1 by crosses between those breeds2 but1 under the limitations already laid down1 and with the objects specified as legitimate ones1 this objection to crossing savors of the most profound prejudice1 or the most unblushing quackery4 ,it is neither convenient1 nor within the means of every man wishing to start a flock of sheep1 to commence exclusively with full-bloods4 ,with a few to breed rams from1 and to begin a full-blood stock1 the breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best common sheep of his country1 and gradually grade them up with ,merino rams4 ,in selecting the ewes1 good shape1 fair size1 and a robust constitution1 are the main points--the little difference in the quality of the common sheep's wool being of no consequence4 ,for their wool1 they are to look to the ,merino2 but good form and constitution they can and ought to possess1 so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely unnecessary evils on their progeny4 ,satisfactory results have followed crossing a ,down ram--small1 compact1 exceedingly beautiful1 fine and even fleeced--with large-sized ,merino ewes4 ,the half-blood ewes were then bred to a ,merino ram1 and also their female progeny1 and so on4 ,the ,south-,downs1 from a disposition to take on fat1 manifested themselves1 to a perceptible extent1 in every generation1 and the wool of many of the sheep in the third generation--seven-eighths blood ,merino1 and one-eighth blood ,down--was very even1 and equal to medium1 and some of them to good medium ,merino4 ,their fleeces were lighter than the full-blood ,merinos1 but increased in weight with each succeeding cross back toward the latter4 ,the mutton of the first1 and even of the second cross was of a beautiful flavor1 and retained1 to the last1 some of the superiority of ,south-,down mutton4 ,results are also noted of breeding ,leicester ewes--taking one cross of the blood1 as in the preceding case--toward the ,merino4 ,the mongrels1 to the second generation--beyond which they were not bred--were about midway between the parent stock in size--with wool shorter1 but far more fine and compact than the ,leicester--their fleeces about the same weight1 five pounds--and1 altogether1 they were a showy and profitable sheep1 and well calculated to please the mass of farmers4 ,their fleeces1 however1 lacked evenness1 their thighs remaining disproportionately coarser and heavy4 ,a difference of opinion exists in relation to the number of crosses necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel ram4 ,some high authorities assert that it does not admit of the slightest doubt that a ,merino1 in the fourth generation1 from even the worst-woolled ones1 is in every respect equal to the stock of the sire--that no difference need to be made in the choice of a ram1 whether he is a full-blood1 or a fifteen-sixteenths--and that1 however coarse the fleece of the parent ewe may have been1 the progeny in the fourth generation will not show it4 ,others1 however--while admitting that the only value of blood or pedigree1 in breeding1 is to insure the hereditary transmission of the properties of the parent to the offspring1 and that1 as soon as a mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on the progeny1 with the same certainty that a full-blood does1 he is equally valuable1 provided he is1 individually1 as perfect an animal--contend that this cannot be depended upon1 with any certainty1 in rams of the fourth ,merino cross4 ,they assert that the offspring of such crosses invariably lack the style and perfection of thorough-bred flocks4 ,the sixth1 seventh1 or eighth cross might be generally1 and the last1 perhaps1 almost invariably1 as good as pure-blood rams2 yet pure blood is a fixed standard1 and were every breeder to think himself at liberty to depart from it in his rams1 each one more or less1 according to his judgment or caprice1 the whole blood of the country would become adulterated4 ,no man1 assuredly1 can be authorized to sell a ram of any cross1 whether the tenth1 or even the twentieth1 as a full-blood4 ,it is of the utmost importance for those commencing flocks1 either of full-bloods1 or by crossing1 to select the choicest rams4 ,a grown ram may1 by methods which will hereafter be described1 be made to serve from one hundred to one hundred and fifty ewes in a season4 ,a good ,merino ram will1 moderately speaking1 add more than a pound of wool to the fleece of the dam1 or every lamb got by it1 from a common-woolled ewe--that is1 if the ewe at three years old sheared three pounds of wool1 the lamb at the same age will shear four4 ,this would give one hundred or one hundred and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a ram for a single season2 and every lamb subsequently got by him adds a pound to this amount4 ,many a ram gets1 during his life1 eight hundred or one thousand lambs4 ,nor is the extra amount of wool all4 ,he gets from eight hundred to one thousand half-blooded sheep1 worth double their dams1 and ready to be made the basis of another and higher stride in improvement4 ,a good ram1 then1 is as important and1 it may be1 quite as valuable an animal as a good farm-horse stallion4 ,when the number of a ram's progeny are taken into consideration1 and when it is seen over what an immense extent1 even in his own direct offspring1 his good or bad qualities are to be perpetuated1 the folly of that economy which would select an inferior animal is sufficiently obvious4 ,it will be found the best economy in starting a flock1 where the proper flocks from which to draw rams are not convenient1 to purchase several of the same breed1 of course1 but of different strains of blood4 ,thus ram ,no4 #b can be put on the offspring of ,no4 #a1 and the reverse2 ,no4 #c can be put on the offspring of both1 and both upon the offspring of ,no4 #c4 ,the changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood1 without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any considerable danger1 are innumerable4 ,the brother and sister1 it will be born in mind1 are of the same blood2 the father and daughter1 half2 the father and granddaughter1 one-fourth2 the father and great-granddaughter1 one-eighth2 and so on4 ,breeding between animals possessing one-eighth of the same blood1 would not be considered very close breeding2 and it is not unusual1 in rugged1 well-formed families1 to breed between those possessing one-fourth of the same blood4 ,if1 however1 these rams of different strains are brought promiscuously1 without reference to similarity of characteristics1 there may1 and probably will1 be difference between them2 and it might require time and skill to give a flock descended from them a proper uniformity of character4 ,those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish different strains of blood1 with the necessary individual and family uniformity4 ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,breeding4 ,some few suggestions upon the general principles to be observed in breeding may not be superfluous here1 referring the reader1 who is disposed to investigate this subject in detail1 to its full discussion in the author's treatise upon ,cattle and their ,diseases4 ,as illustrative of the importance of breeding only from the best1 taking care to avoid structural defects1 and especially to secure freedom from hereditary diseases1 since both defects and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities1 it may be remarked that scrofula is not uncommon among sheep1 and presents itself in various forms4 ,sometimes it is connected with consumption2 sometimes it affects the viscera of the abdomen1 and particularly the mesenteric glands1 in a manner similar to consumption in the lungs4 ,the scrofulous taint has been known to be so strong as to affect the foetus1 and lambs have occasionally been dropped with it2 but much oftener they show it at an early age1 and any affected in this way are liable to fall an easy prey to any ordinary or prevalent disease1 which develops in such with unusual severity4 ,sheep are also liable to several diseases of the brain1 and of the respiratory and digestive organs4 ,epilepsy1 or fits1 and rheumatism sometimes occur4 ,the breeder's aim should be to grasp and render permanent1 and increase so far as practicable1 every variation for the better1 and to reject for breeding purposes such as show a downward tendency4 ,a remarkable instance of the success which has often attended the well-directed efforts of intelligent breeders1 is furnished in the new ,mauchamp-,merino sheep1 which originated in a single animal--a product of the law of variation--and which1 by skilful breeding and selection1 has become an established breed of a peculiar type1 and possessing valuable properties4 ,samples of the wool of these sheep were shown at the great exhibition in ,london1 in #ahea1 as well as at the subsequent great agricultural exhibition at ,paris1 and attracted much attention4 ,this breed was originated by ,mons4 ,j4 ,l4 ,graux4 ,in #ahbh1 a ,merino ewe produced a peculiar ram lamb1 having a different shape from the ordinary ,merino1 and possessing wool singularly long1 straight1 and silky4 ,two years afterward1 ,mr4 ,graux obtained by this ram one ram and one ewe1 having the silky character of wool4 ,among the produce of the ensuing year were four rams and one ewe with similar fleeces2 and in #ahcc1 there were rams enough of the new sort to serve the whole flock of ewes4 ,in each subsequent year1 the lambs were of two kinds2 one possessing the curled1 elastic wool of the old ,merinos1 only a little longer and finer1 and the other like the new breed4 ,at last1 the skilful breeder obtained a flock containing the fine1 silky fleece with a smaller breed1 broader flanks1 and more capacious chest2 and several flocks being crossed with the ,mauchamp variety1 the ,mauchamp-,merino breed is the result4 ,the pure ,mauchamp wool is remarkable for its qualities as a combing-wool1 owing to the strength1 as well as the length and fineness of the fibre4 ,it is found of great value by the manufacturers of ,cashmere shawls1 and similar goods1 being second only to the true ,cashmere fleece1 in the fine1 flexible delicacy of the fibre2 and when in combination with ,cashmere wool1 imparting strength and consistency4 ,the quantity of this wool has since become as great as that from ordinary ,merinos1 or greater1 while its quality commands twenty-five per cent4 higher price in the ,french market4 ,breeders1 certainly1 cannot watch too closely any accidental peculiarity of conformation or characteristic in their flocks4 ,the apparent influence of the male first having fruitful intercourse with a female1 upon her subsequent offspring by other males1 has been noticed by various writers4 ,the following well-authenticated instances are in point3 ,a small flock of ewes1 belonging to ,dr4 ,w4 ,wells1 in the island of ,granada1 was served by a ram procured for the purpose4 ,the ewes were all white and woolly2 the ram was quite different1 being of a chocolate color1 and hairy like a goat4 ,the progeny were1 of course1 crosses1 but bore a strong resemblance to the male parent4 ,the next season1 ,dr4 ,wells obtained a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes2 but the progeny showed distinct marks of resemblance to the former ram1 in color and covering4 ,the same thing occurred on neighboring estates1 under like circumstances4 ,six very superior pure-bred black-faced horned ewes1 belonging to ,mr4 ,h4 ,shaw1 of ,leochel1 ,cushnie1 were served by a white-faced hornless ,leicester ram4 ,the lambs were crosses4 ,the next year they were served by a ram of exactly the same breed as the ewes themselves1 and their lambs were1 without an exception1 hornless and brownish in the face1 instead of being black and horned4 ,the third year they were again served by a superior ram of their own breed2 and again the lambs were mongrels1 but showed less of the ,leicester characteristics than before2 and ,mr4 ,shaw at last parted from these fine ewes without obtaining a single pure-bred lamb4 ,to account for this result--seemingly regarded by most physiologists as inexplicable--,mr4 ,james ,mc,gillivray1 ,v4 ,s41 of ,huntley1 has offered an explanation1 which has received the sanction of a number of competent writers4 ,his theory is1 that when a pure animal of any breed has been pregnant by an animal of a different breed1 such pregnant animal is a cross ever after1 the purity of her blood being lost1 in consequence of her connection with the foreign animal1 and herself becoming a cross forever1 incapable of producing a pure calf of any breed4 ,to cross1 merely for the sake of crossing1 to do so without that care and vigilance which are highly essential1 is a practice which cannot be too much condemned1 being1 in fact1 a national evil1 if pushed to such an extent as to do away with a useful breed of animals1 and establish a generation of mongrels in their place--a result which has followed in numerous instances amongst every breed of animals4 ,the principal use of crossing is to raise animals for the butcher4 ,the male1 being generally an animal of a superior breed1 and of a vigorous nature1 almost invariably stamps his external form1 size1 and muscular development on the offspring1 which thus bear a strong resemblance to him2 while their internal nature1 derived from the dam1 well adapts them to the locality1 as well as to the treatment to which their dams have been accustomed4 ,with sheep1 where the peculiarities of the soil1 as regards the goodness of feed1 and exposure to the severities of the weather1 often prevent the introduction of an improved breed1 the value of using a new and superior ram is often very considerable2 and the weight of mutton is thereby materially increased1 without its quality being impaired1 while earlier maturity is at the same time obtained4 ,it involves1 however1 more systematic attention than most farmers usually like to bestow1 for it is necessary to employ a different ram for each purpose2 that is1 a native ram1 for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the breed1 and a foreign ram1 to raise the improved cross-bred animals for felting1 either as lambs or sheep4 ,this plan is adopted by many breeders of ,leicester sheep1 who thus employ ,south-,down rams to improve the quality of the mutton4 ,one inconvenience attending this plan is the necessity of fattening the maiden ewes as well as the wethers4 ,they may1 however1 be disposed of as fat lambs1 or the practice of spaying 7fully explained in ,cattle and their ,diseases7 might be adopted1 so as to increase the felting disposition of the animal4 ,crossing1 therefore1 should be adopted with the greatest caution and skill1 where the object is to improve the breed of animals4 ,it should never be practised carelessly or capriciously1 but it may be advantageously pursued1 with a view to raising superior and profitable animals for the butcher4 ,for the latter purpose1 it is generally advisable to use males of a larger breed1 provided they possess a disposition to fatten2 yet1 in such cases1 it is of importance that the pelvis of the female should be wide and capacious1 so that no injury may arise in lambing1 in consequence of the increased size of the heads of the lambs4 ,the shape of the ram's head should be studied for the same reason4 ,in crossing1 however1 for the purpose of establishing a new breed1 the size of the male must give way to other more important considerations2 although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed which is sought to be improved4 ,thus1 the ,south-,downs have vastly improved the larger ,hampshires1 and the ,leicester1 the huge ,lincolns and the ,cotswolds4 ,,use ,,of ,,rams4 ,merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth year1 and even longer4 ,the lambs of very old rams are commonly supposed not to be as those of middle-aged ones2 though where rams have not been overtasked1 and have been properly fed1 little if any difference is discoverable in their progeny by reason of their sire's age4 ,a ram lamb should not be used1 as it retards his growth1 injures his form1 and1 in many instances1 permanently impairs his vigor and courage4 ,a yearling may run with thirty ewes1 a two-year-old with from forty to fifty1 and a three-year-old with from fifty to sixty2 while some very powerful1 mature rams will serve seventy or eighty4 ,fifty1 however1 is enough1 where they run with the ewes4 ,it is well settled that an impoverished and overtasked animal does not transmit his individual properties so decidedly to his offspring as does one in full vigor4 ,rams1 of course1 are not to be selected for ewes by mere chance1 but according as their qualities may improve those of the ewes4 ,it may not be superfluous1 though seemingly a repetition1 to state that a good ewe flock should exhibit these characteristics3 strong bone1 supporting a roomy frame1 affording space for a large development of flesh2 abundance of wool of a good quality1 keeping the ewes warm in inclement weather1 and insuring profit to the breeder2 a disposition to fatten early1 enabling the breeder readily to get rid of his sheep selected for the butcher2 and a prolific tendency1 increasing the flock rapidly1 and being also a source of profit4 ,every one of these properties is advantageous in itself2 but when all are combined in the same individuals of a flock1 that flock is in a high state of perfection4 ,in selecting rams1 it should be observed whether or not they possess one or more of those qualities in which the ewes may be deficient1 in which case their union with the ewes will produce in the progeny a higher degree of perfection than is to be found in the ewes themselves1 and such a result will improve the state of the future ewe-flock2 but1 on the contrary1 if the ewes are superior in all points to the rams1 then1 of course1 the use of such will only serve to deteriorate the future ewe-flock4 ,several rams running in the same flock excite each other to an unnatural and unnecessary activity1 besides injuring each other by constant blows4 ,it is1 in every point of view1 bad husbandry1 where it can be avoided1 and1 as customarily managed1 is destructive to every thing like careful and judicious breeding4 ,the nice adaptation which the male should possess to the female is out of the question where half a dozen or more rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes4 ,before the rams are let out1 the breeding ewes should all be brought together in one yard2 the form of each noted1 together with the length1 thickness1 quality and style of her wool--ascertained by opening the wool on the shoulder1 thigh1 and belly4 ,when every point is thus determined1 that ram should be selected which1 on the whole1 is best calculated to perpetuate the excellencies of each1 both of fleece and carcass1 and to best counterbalance defects in the mutual offspring4 ,every ewe1 when turned in with the ram1 should be given a distinct mark1 which will continue visible until the next shearing4 ,for this purpose1 nothing is better than ,venetian red and hog's lard1 well incorporated1 and marked on with a cob4 ,the ewes for each ram require a differently shaped mark1 and the mark should also be made on the ram1 as noted in the sheep-book4 ,thus it can be determined at a glance by what ram the ewe was tapped1 any time before the next shearing4 ,the ewes selected for each ram are placed in different enclosures1 and the chosen ram placed with them4 ,rams require but little preparation on being put among ewes4 ,if their skin is red in the flanks when the sheep are turned up1 they are ready for the ewes1 for the natural desire is then upon them4 ,most of the ewes will be served during the second week the ram is among them1 and in the third1 all4 ,it is better1 however1 not to withdraw the rams until the expiration of four weeks1 when the flocks can be doubled1 or otherwise re-arranged for winter1 as may be necessary4 ,the trouble thus taken is1 in reality1 slight--nothing1 indeed1 when the beneficial results are considered4 ,with two assistants1 several hundred ewes may be properly classified and divided in a single day4 ,where choice rams are scarce1 so that it is desirable to make the services of one go a great way1 or where it is impossible to have separate enclosures--as on farms where there are a great number of breeding ewes1 or where the shepherd system is adopted1 to the exclusion of fences--resort may be had to another method4 ,a hut should be built1 containing as many apartments as the ram is desired to be used1 with an alley between them1 each apartment to be furnished with a feeding-box and trough in one corner1 and gates or bars opening from each into the alley1 and at each end of the alley4 ,adjoining these apartments1 a yard should be inclosed1 of size just sufficient to hold the flock of breeding ewes4 ,a couple of strong rams1 of any quality1 for about every hundred ewes1 are then aproned1 their briskets rubbed with ,venetian red and hog's lard1 and let loose among the ewes4 ,aproning is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking1 broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind legs1 loosely but strongly around the body4 ,to prevent its slipping forward or back1 straps are carried round the breast and back of the breech4 ,it should be made perfectly secure1 or all the labor of this method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away4 ,the pigment on the brisket should be renewed every two or three days2 and it will be necessary to change the teasers--as these aproned rams are called--about once a week1 as they do not long retain their courage under such unnatural circumstances4 ,twice a day the ewes are brought into the yard in front of the hut4 ,those marked on their rumps by the teasers are taken into the alley4 ,each is admitted once to the ram for which she is marked1 and then goes out at the opposite end of the alley from which they entered1 into a field separate from that containing the flock from which she was taken4 ,a powerful and vigorous ram1 from three to seven years old1 and properly fed1 can thus be made to serve from one hundred and fifty to even two hundred ewes1 with no greater injury than from running loose with fifty or sixty4 ,the labor here required is likewise more apparent than real1 when the operation is conducted in a systematic manner4 ,rams will do better1 accomplish more1 and last two or three years longer1 if daily fed with grain1 when on service1 and it is better to continue it4 ,in all cases1 they should1 after serving1 be put on good pasture1 as they will have lost a good deal of condition1 being indisposed to settle during the tapping season4 ,a ram should receive the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of oats daily1 when worked hard4 ,they are much more conveniently fed when kept in huts4 ,if suffered to run at large1 they should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat from a measure held by the shepherd4 ,careful breeders thus train their stock-rams1 from the time they are lambs4 ,it is very convenient1 also1 to have them halter-broke1 so that they can be led about without dragging or lifting them4 ,an iron ring attached to one of the horns1 near the point1 to which a cord can be fastened for leading1 confining1 etc41 is very useful and convenient4 ,if rams are wild1 it is a matter of considerable difficulty to feed them separately1 and it can only be effected by yarding the flock and catching them out4 ,some breeders1 in addition to extra feeding1 take the rams out of the flocks each night1 shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves4 ,to this practice there is no objection1 and it greatly saves their strength4 ,rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month1 at least in the ,northern ,states4 ,it is much better that a ewe go dry than that she have a lamb later than the first of ,june4 ,besides1 after the rutting season is over1 the rams grow cross1 frequently striking the pregnant ewes dangerous blows with their heavy horns1 at the racks and troughs4 ,it is reasonably enough conjectured1 that if procreation and the first period of gestation take place in cold weather1 the foetus will be fitted for the climate which rules during the early stages of its existence4 ,if this be so--and it is certainly in accordance with the laws of ,nature--fine-woolled sheep are most likely to maintain their excellence by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement of cold weather2 and1 in the ,northern ,states1 this is done about the first of ,december1 thus bringing the yeaning time in the last of ,april1 or the first of ,may1 when the early grass affords a large supply and good quality of food4 ,,lambing4 ,illustration3 ,,ewe ,,and ,,lambs4 ,the ewe goes with young about five months1 varying from one hundred and forty-five to one hundred and sixty-two days4 ,pregnant ewes require the same food as at all other times4 ,until two or three weeks preceding lambing1 it is only necessary that they1 like other store-sheep1 be kept in good1 plump1 ordinary condition2 nor are any separate arrangements necessary for them after that period1 in a climate where they obtain sufficient succulent food to provide for a proper secretion of milk4 ,in backward seasons in the ,north1 where the grass does not start prior to the lambing-time1 careful farmers feed their ewes on chopped roots1 or roots mixed with oat and pea-meal1 which is excellent economy4 ,caution is1 however1 necessary to prevent injury or abortion1 which is often the result of excessive fat1 feebleness1 or disease4 ,the first may be remedied by blood-letting and spare diet2 and both the last by restored health and generous food4 ,sudden frights1 as from dogs or strange objects2 long or severe journeys1 great exertions1 unwholesome food1 blows in the region of the foetus1 and some other causes1 produce abortion4 ,lambs are usually dropped1 in the ,north1 from the first to the fifteenth of ,may2 in the ,south1 they can safely come earlier4 ,it is not expedient to have them dropped when the weather is cold or boisterous1 as they require too much care2 but the sooner the better1 after the weather has become mild1 and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion of milk4 ,it is customary1 in the ,north1 to have fields of clover1 or the earliest grasses1 reserved for the early spring-feed of the breeding-ewes2 and1 if these can be contiguous to their stables1 it is a great convenience--for the ewes should be confined in the latter1 on cold and stormy nights1 during the lambing season4 ,if the weather be warm and pleasant1 and the nights moderately warm1 it is better to have the lambing take place in the pasture2 since sheep are then more disposed to own their lambs1 and take kindly to them1 than in the confusion of a small inclosure4 ,in the latter1 sheep1 unless particularly docile1 crowd from one side to another when any one enters1 running over young lambs1 pressing them severely1 etc42 ewes become separated from their lambs1 and then run violently round from one to another1 jostling and knocking them about2 young and timid ewes1 when so separated1 will frequently neglect their lambs for an hour or more before they will again approach them1 while1 if the weather is severely cold1 the lamb1 if it has never sucked1 is in danger of perishing4 ,lambs1 too1 when first dropped in a dirty inclosure1 tumble about1 in their first efforts to rise1 and the membrane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt and dung2 and the ewe's refusing to lick them dry much increases the hazard of freezing4 ,in cold storms1 however1 and in sudden and severe weather1 all this must be encountered2 and1 therefore1 every shepherd should teach his sheep docility4 ,it requires but a very moderately cold night to destroy the new-born ,saxon lamb1 which--the pure blood--is dropped nearly as naked as a child4 ,during a severely cold period1 of several days continuance1 it is almost impossible to rear them1 even in the best shelter4 ,the ,merino1 ,south-,down1 and some other breeds1 will endure a greater degree of cold with impunity4 ,where inclosures are used for yeaning1 they should be kept clean by frequent litterings of straw--not enough1 however1 to be thrown on at any one time1 to embarrass the lamb about rising4 ,the predisposing symptoms of lambing are1 enlargement and reddening of the parts under the tail1 and drooping of the flanks4 ,the more immediate are1 when the ewe stretches herself frequently2 separating herself from her companions2 exhibiting restlessness by not remaining in one place for any length of time2 lying down and rising up again1 as if dissatisfied with the place2 pawing the ground with a forefoot2 bleating1 as if in quest of a lamb2 and appearing fond of the lambs of other ewes4 ,in a very few hours1 or even shorter time after the exhibition of these symptoms1 the immediate symptom of lambing is the expulsion of the bag of water from the vagina4 ,when this is observed1 the ewe should be narrowly watched1 for the pains of labor may be expected to come on immediately4 ,when these are felt by her1 the ewe presses or forces with earnestness1 changing one place or position for another1 as if desirous of relief4 ,the ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition4 ,her labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours1 and her loud moanings will evince the extent of her pain4 ,sometimes she will go about several hours1 and even resume her grazing1 with the fore-feet and nose of the lamb protruding at the mouth of the vagina4 ,if let alone1 however1 ,nature will generally relieve her4 ,in case of a false parturition of the foetus--which is comparatively rare--the shepherd may apply his thumb and finger1 after oiling1 to push back the lamb1 and assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet appear4 ,where feebleness in expelling the foetus exists1 only the slightest aid should be rendered1 and that to help the throes of the dam4 ,the objection to interfering--except as a last resort--is1 that the ewe is frightened when caught1 and her efforts to expel the lamb cease4 ,when aided1 in any case1 the gentlest force should be applied1 and only in conjunction with the efforts of the ewe4 ,the clearing1 or placenta1 generally drops from the ewe in the course of a very short time--in many cases1 within a few minutes--after lambing4 ,it should be carried away1 and not allowed to lie upon the lambing-pound4 ,common kale1 or curly-greens1 is excellent food for ewes that have lambed1 as its nutritive matter1 being mucilaginous1 is wholly soluble in water1 and beneficial in encouraging the necessary discharges of the ewe at the time of lambing4 ,in these respects1 it is a better food than ,swedish turnips--upon which sheep are sometimes fed--which become rather too fibrous and astringent1 in spring1 for the secretion of milk4 ,in the absence of kale or cabbage1 a little oil-cake will aid the discharges and purify the body4 ,new grass also operates medicinally upon the system4 ,,management ,,of ,,lambs4 ,while the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise--the ewe1 meanwhile1 licking it dry--it is well to be in no haste to interfere4 ,a lamb that gets at the teat without help1 and procures even a small quantity of milk1 knows how to help itself afterward1 and rarely perishes4 ,if helped1 it sometimes continues to expect it1 and will do little for itself for two or three days4 ,the same is true where lambs are fed from a spoon or bottle4 ,but if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise--especially if the ewe has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly--it is time to render assistance4 ,it is not advisable to throw the ewe down--as is frequently practised--in order to suckle the lamb2 because instinct teaches the latter to point its nose upward in search of the teats4 ,it is1 therefore1 doubly difficult to teach it to suck from the bag of the prostrate ewe2 and when it is taught to do this1 by being so suckled several times1 it is awkward about finding the teat in the natural position1 when it begins to stand and help itself4 ,carefully disengaging the ewe from her companions1 with his crook--which useful article will be hereafter described--the assistant should place one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks of the ewe1 and then1 pressing her against his knees1 he should hold her firmly and still1 so that she will not be constantly crowding away from the shepherd1 who should set the lamb on its feet1 inducing it to stand1 if possible2 if not1 supporting it on its feet by placing one hand under its body2 put its mouth to the teat1 and encourage it to suck by tickling it about the roots of the tail1 flanks1 etc41 with a finger4 ,the lamb1 mistaking this last for the caresses of its dam1 will redouble its efforts to suck4 ,sometimes it will manifest great dullness1 and even apparent obstinacy1 in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist itself1 crowding backward1 etc42 but the kind and gentle shepherd1 who will not sink himself to the level of brute1 by resenting the stupidity of a brute1 will generally carry the point by perseverance4 ,sometimes milking a little into the lamb's mouth1 holding the latter close to the teat1 will induce it to take hold4 ,if the ewe has no milk1 the lamb should be fed1 until the natural supply commences1 with small quantities of the milk of a new-milch cow4 ,this should be mixed1 say half and half1 with water1 with enough molasses to give it the purgative effect of the first milk1 gently warmed to the natural heat--not scalded and suffered to cool--and then fed through a bottle with a sponge in the opening of it1 which the lamb should suck1 if it can be induced so to do4 ,if the milk is poured in its mouth from a spoon or bottle1 it is frequently difficult1 as before stated1 to induce it to suck4 ,moreover1 unless milk is poured into the mouth slowly and with care--no faster than the lamb can swallow--a speedy wheezing1 the infallible precursor of death1 will show that a portion of the fluid has been forced into the lungs4 ,lambs have been frequently killed in this way4 ,if a lamb becomes chilled1 it should be wrapped in a woollen blanket1 placed in a warm room1 and given a little milk as soon as it will swallow4 ,a trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk1 and with good effect1 for the purpose of rousing the cold and torpid stomach into action4 ,in ,new ,england1 under such circumstances1 the lamb is sometimes baked1 as it is called--that is1 put in a blanket in a moderately-heated oven1 until warmth and animation are restored2 others immerse it in tepid water1 and subsequently rub it dry1 which is said to be an excellent method where the lamb is nearly frozen4 ,a good blanket however1 a warm room1 and sometimes1 perhaps1 a little gentle friction will generally suffice4 ,if a strong ewe1 with a good bag of milk1 chance to lose her lamb1 she should be required to bring up one of some other ewe's twins1 or the lamb of some feeble or young ewe1 having an inadequate supply of milk4 ,her own lamb should be skinned as soon as possible after death1 and the skin sewed over the lamb which she is to foster4 ,she will sometimes be a little suspicious for a day or two2 and if so1 she should be kept in a small pen with the lamb1 and occasionally looked to4 ,after she has taken well to it1 the false skin may be removed in three or four days4 ,if no lamb is placed on a ewe which lost her lamb1 and which has a full bag of milk1 the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice1 or garget may ensue2 even if this is not the result1 permanent indurations1 or other results of inflammatory action1 will take place1 injuring the subsequent nursing properties of the animal4 ,when milked1 it is well to wash the bag for some time in cold water1 since it checks the subsequent secretions of milk1 as well as allays inflammation4 ,sometimes a young ewe1 though exhibiting sufficient fondness for her lamb1 will not stand for it to suck2 and in this case1 if the lamb is not very strong and persevering1 and particularly if the weather is cold1 it soon grows weak1 and perishes4 ,the conduct of the dam1 in such instances1 is occasioned by inflammatory action about the bag or teats1 and perhaps somewhat by the novelty of her position4 ,in this case1 the sheep should be caught and held until the lamb has exhausted her bag1 and there will not often be any trouble afterward2 though it may be well enough to keep them in a pen together until the fact is determined4 ,such pens--necessary in a variety of cases other than those mentioned--need not exceed eight or ten feet square1 and should be built of light materials1 and fastened together at the corners1 so that they can be readily moved by one man1 or1 at the most1 two1 from place to place1 where they are wanted4 ,their position should be daily shifted1 when sheep are in them1 for cleanliness and fresh feed4 ,light pine poles laid up like a fence1 and each nailed and pegged to the lower ones at the corners1 or laid on1 are quite serviceable4 ,two or three sides of a few of them should be wattled with twigs1 and the tops partly covered1 in order to shield feeble lambs from cold rains1 piercing winds1 and the like4 ,young lambs are subject to what is commonly known as pinning--that is1 their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of the anus is closed1 and subsequent evacuations prevented4 ,the adhering matter1 in such cases1 should be entirely removed1 and the part rubbed with a little dry clay1 to prevent subsequent adhesion4 ,lambs will frequently perish from this cause1 if not looked to for the first few days4 ,the ewes and their young ought to be divided into small flocks1 and have a frequent change of pasture4 ,some careful shepherds adopt the plan of confining their lambs1 allowing them to suck two or three times a day4 ,by this method they suffer no fatigue1 and thrive much faster4 ,it is1 however1 troublesome as well as injurious1 since the exercise is essential to the health and constitution of the lamb intended for rearing4 ,it is admissible only when they are wanted for an early market2 and with those who rear them for this purpose it is a common practice4 ,where there are orphans or supernumeraries in the flock1 the deserted lambs must be brought up by hand4 ,such animals1 called pet lambs1 are supported on cow's milk1 which they receive warm from the cows each time they are milked1 and as much as they can drink4 ,in the intervals of meals1 in bad weather1 they are kept under cover2 in good weather they are put into a grass enclosure during the day1 and sheltered at night until the nights become warm4 ,they are fed by hand out of a small vessel1 which should contain as much milk as it is known each can drink4 ,they are first taught to drink out of the vessel with the fingers1 like a calf1 and as soon as they can hold a finger steady in the mouth1 a small tin tube1 about three inches in length1 and of the thickness of a goose-quill1 should be covered with several folds of linen1 sewed tightly on1 to use as a substitute for a teat1 by means of which they will drink their allowance of milk with great ease and quickness4 ,a goose-quill would answer the same purpose1 were it not easily squeezed together by the mouth4 ,when the same person feeds the lambs--and this should be the dairy-maid--they soon become attached to her1 and desire to follow her everywhere2 but to prevent their bleating1 and to make them contented1 an apron or a piece of cloth1 hung on a stake or bush in the inclosure1 will keep them together4 ,it is much better for the lambs and for their dams that they be weaned from three and a half to four months old4 ,when taken away1 they should be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes1 that they may not hear each other's bleatings1 as the lambs1 when in hearing of their dams1 continue restless much longer1 and make constant and1 frequently1 successful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them4 ,one or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them1 to teach them to come at the call1 find salt when thrown to them1 and eat out of troughs when winter approaches4 ,when weaned1 the lambs should be put on the freshest and tenderest grass--rich1 sweet food1 but not too luxuriant4 ,the grass and clover1 sown the preceding spring1 on grain-fields seeded down1 is often reserved for them4 ,the dams1 on the contrary1 should be put for a fortnight on short1 dry feed1 to stop the flow of milk4 ,they should be looked to after a day or two1 and if the bags of any are found much distended1 the milk should be drawn away1 and the bags washed for a little time in cold water4 ,on short feed1 they rarely give much trouble in this respect4 ,when thoroughly dried off1 they should have the best fare1 to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding and wintering4 ,the fall is a critical period in which to lose flesh1 either for sheep or lambs2 and if any are found deficient1 they should at once be provided with extra feed and attention4 ,if cold weather overtake them1 poor or in ill health1 they will scarcely outlive it2 or if by chance they survive1 their emaciated carcass1 impaired constitution1 and scant fleece will ill repay the food and attention they will have cost4 ,,castration ,,and ,,docking4 ,some breeders advocate castration in a day or two after birth1 while others will not allow the operation to be performed until the lamb is a month old4 ,the weight of authority1 however1 is in favor of any time between two and six weeks after birth1 when the creature has attained some strength1 and the parts have not become too rigid4 ,in such circumstances1 the best ,english breeders recommend from ten to fifteen days old as the proper time4 ,a lamb of a day old cannot be confirmed in all the functions of its body1 and1 indeed1 in many instances1 the testicles can then scarcely be found4 ,at a month old1 on the other hand1 the lamb may be so fat1 and the weather so warm1 that the operation may be attended with febrile action4 ,dry1 pleasant weather should be selected for this3 a cool day1 if possible2 if warm1 it should be done early in the morning4 ,castration is a simple and safe process4 ,let a man hold a lamb with its back pressed firmly against his breast and stomach1 and all four legs gathered in front in his hands4 ,cut off the bottom of the pouch1 free the testicle from the inclosing membrane1 and then draw it steadily out1 or clip the cord with a knife if it does not snap off at a proper distance from the testicle4 ,some shepherds draw both testicles at once with their teeth4 ,it is usual to drop a little salt into the pouch4 ,where the weather is very warm1 some touch the end of the pouch with an ointment1 consisting of tar1 lard1 and turpentine4 ,as a general thing1 however1 the animal will do as well without any application4 ,the object of docking is to keep the sheep behind clean from filth and vermin2 since the tail1 if left on1 is apt to collect filth1 and1 if the animal purges1 becomes an intolerable nuisance4 ,the tail1 however1 should not be docked too short1 since it is a protection against cold in winter4 ,this operation is by many deferred till a late period1 from apprehension of too much loss of blood2 but1 if the weather be favorable and the lamb in good condition1 it may be performed at the same time as castration with the least trouble and without injury4 ,the tail should be laid upon a plank1 the animal being held in the same position as before4 ,with one hand the skin is drawn toward the body1 while another person1 with a two-inch chisel and mallet1 strikes it off at a blow1 between the bone-joints1 leaving it from one and a half to two inches long4 ,the skin immediately slips back over the wound1 which is soon healed4 ,should bleeding continue--as1 however1 rarely happens--so long as to sicken the lamb1 a small cord should be tied firmly round the end of the tail2 but this must not be allowed to remain on above twenty-four hours1 as the points of the tail would slough off4 ,ewe lambs should be docked closer than rams4 ,to prevent flies and maggots1 and assist in healing1 it is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and tar1 in the proportion of four pounds of the former to one quart of the latter4 ,the lambs should be carefully protected from cold and wet till they are perfectly well4 ,illustration ,,feeding ,,and ,,management ,,feeding4 ,as soon as the warm weather approaches and the grass appears1 sheep become restive and impatient for the pasture4 ,this instinct should be repressed till the ground has become thoroughly dry1 and the grass has acquired substance4 ,they ought1 moreover1 to be provided for the change of food by the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out4 ,the tendency to excessive purging which is induced by the first spring-feed1 may be checked by housing them at night and feeding them for the first few days with a little sound1 sweet hay4 ,they must be provided with pure water and salt2 for1 though they may do tolerably well without either1 yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply secured by this slight attention4 ,as to water1 it may be said that it is not indispensable in the summer pastures1 since the dews and the succulence of the feed answer as a substitute2 but a wide experience having demonstrated that free access to it is advantageous1 particularly to those having lambs1 it should be considered a matter of importance on a sheep-farm so to arrange the pastures1 if possible1 as to bring water into each of them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,covered ,,salting ,,box4 ,,salt is indispensable to the health1 especially in the summer4 ,it is common to give it once a week1 while they are at grass4 ,it is still better to give them free access to it1 at all times1 by keeping it in a covered box1 open on one side1 as in the engraving annexed4 ,a large hollow log1 with holes cut along the side for the insertion of the heads of the animals1 answers very well4 ,a sheep having free access to salt at all times will never eat too much of it2 and it will take its supply at such times and in such quantities as ,nature demands1 instead of eating of it voraciously at stated periods1 as intermediate abstinence will stimulate it to do4 ,when salt is fed but once a week1 it is better to have a stated day1 so that it will not be forgotten2 and it is well to lay the salt on flat stones--though if laid in little handfuls on the grass1 very little of it will be lost4 ,,tar4 ,this is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for sheep1 and they smear the nose with it1 which is licked and swallowed as the natural heat of the flesh1 or that of the weather1 causes it to trickle down over the nostrils and lips4 ,others1 suffering the flock to get unusually salt-hungry1 place tar upon flat stones1 or in troughs1 and then scatter salt upon it so that both may be consumed together4 ,applied to the nose1 in the nature of a cataplasm1 it may be advantageous in catarrhs2 and in the same place1 at the proper periods1 its odor may1 perhaps1 repel the fly1 the eggs of which produce the gout in the head1 as it is termed4 ,however valuable it may be as a medicine1 and even as a debergent in the case specified1 there is but slight ground for confidence in it merely as a condiment4 ,dry1 sweet pastures1 and such as abound in aromatic and bitter plants1 are best suited for sheep-walks4 ,no animal1 with the exception of the goat1 crops so great a variety of plants4 ,they eat many which are rejected by the horse and the ox1 which are even essential to their own wants4 ,in this respect they are valuable assistants to the husbandman1 as they feed greedily on wild mustard1 burdock1 thistles1 marsh-mallows1 milk-weed1 and various other offending plants2 and the ,merino exceeds the more recent breeds in the range of his selections4 ,in pastures1 however1 where the dry stalks of the burdock1 or the hound's-tongue1 or tory-weed have remained standing over the winter1 the burs are caught in the now long wool1 and1 if they are numerous1 the wool is rendered entirely unmarketable and almost valueless4 ,even the dry prickles of the common and ,canada thistles1 where they are very numerous1 get into the neck-wool of sheep1 as they thrust their heads under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of the northern spring2 and1 independently of injuring the wool1 they make it difficult to wash and otherwise handle the sheep4 ,indeed1 it is a matter of the soundest policy to keep sheep on the cleanest pastures1 those free from these and similar plants2 and in a region where they are pastured the year round1 they should be kept from contact with them for some months prior to shearing4 ,many prepare artificial pastures for their flocks1 which may be done with a number of plants4 ,winter rye1 or wheat sown early in the season1 may be fed off in the fall1 without injury to the crop2 and1 in the following spring1 the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form a head4 ,this affords an early and nutritious food4 ,corn may be sown broadcast1 or thickly in drills1 and either fed off in the fields or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds4 ,white mustard is also a valuable crop for this purpose4 ,to give sheep sufficient variety1 it is better to divide their range into several smaller ones1 and change them as often1 at least1 as once a week4 ,they seek a favorite resting-place1 on a dry1 elevated part of the field1 which soon becomes soiled4 ,by removing them from this for a few days1 rain will cleanse or the sun dry it1 so as to make it again suitable for them4 ,more sheep may be kept1 and in better condition1 where this practice is adopted1 than where they are confined to the same pasture4 ,,shade4 ,no one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek shade in hot weather1 and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot sun is pouring down upon their nearly naked bodies1 will doubt that1 both as a matter of humanity and utility1 they should be provided1 during the hot summer-months1 with a better shelter than that afforded by a common rail-fence4 ,forest trees are the most natural and the best shades1 and it is as contrary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them entirely from the sheep-walks4 ,a strip of stone-wall or close board fence on the south and west sides of the pasture1 forms a tolerable substitute for trees4 ,but in the absence of all these and of buildings of any kind1 a shade can be cheaply constructed of poles and brush1 in the same manner as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter1 which will be hereafter described4 ,,fences4 ,poor fences will teach ewes and wethers1 as well as rams1 to jump2 and for a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high fences1 or extirpation4 ,one jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole flock2 and if one by chance is brought in1 it should be immediately hoppled or killed4 ,the last is by far the surest and safest remedy4 ,,hoppling is done by sewing the ends of a leather strap1 broad at the extremities1 so that it will not cut into the flesh1 to a fore and hind leg1 just above the pastern joints1 leaving the legs at about the natural distance apart4 ,clogging is fastening a billet of wood to the fore leg by a leather strap4 ,yoking is fastening two rams two or three feet apart1 by bows around their necks1 inserted in a light piece of timber1 some two or three inches in size4 ,poking is done by inserting a bow in a short bit of light timber1 into which bit--worn on the under side of the neck--a rod is inserted1 which projects a couple of feet in front of the sheep4 ,these and similar devices1 to prevent rams from scaling fences1 may be employed as a last resort by those improvident farmers who prefer1 by such troublesome1 injurious1 and1 at best1 insecure means1 to guard against that viciousness which they might so much more easily have prevented from being acquired4 ,,dangerous ,,rams4 ,from being teased and annoyed by boys1 or petted and played with when young1 and sometimes without any other stimulant than a naturally vicious temper1 rams occasionally become very troublesome by their propensity to attack men or cattle4 ,some will allow no man to enter the field where they are without making an immediate onset upon him2 while others will knock down the ox or horse which presumes to dispute a lock of hay with them4 ,a ram which is known to have acquired this propensity should at once be hooded1 and1 if not valuable1 at the proper season converted into a wether4 ,but the courage thus manifested is usually the concomitant of great strength and vigor of constitution1 and of a powerfully developed frame4 ,if good in other particulars1 it is a pity to lose the services of so valuable an animal4 ,in such cases1 they may be hooded1 by covering their faces with leather in such a manner that they can only see a little backward and forward4 ,they must then1 however1 be kept apart from the flock of rams1 or they will soon be killed or injured by blows1 which they cannot see to escape4 ,it sometimes happens that a usually quiet-tempered ram will suddenly exhibit some pugnacity when one is salting or feeding the flock4 ,if such a person turns to run1 he is immediately knocked down1 and the ram learns1 from that single lesson1 the secret of his mastery1 and the propensity to exercise it4 ,as the ram gives his blow from the summit of the parietal and the posterior portion of the frontal bones on the top of his head1 and not from the forehead1 he is obliged to crouch his head so low when he makes his onset that he does not see forward well enough to swerve suddenly from his right line1 and a few quick motions to the right and left enable one to escape him4 ,run in upon him1 as he dashes by1 with pitch-fork1 club1 or boot-heel1 and punish him severely by blows about the head1 if the club is used1 giving him no time to rally until he is thoroughly cowed4 ,this may be deemed harsh treatment1 and likely to increase the viciousness of the animal4 ,repeated instances have1 however1 proved the contrary2 and if the animal once is forced to acknowledge that he is overcome1 he never forgets the lesson4 ,,prairie ,,feeding4 ,sheep1 when destined for the prairies1 ought to commence their journey as early after the shearing as possible1 since they are then disencumbered of their fleece1 and do not catch and retain as much dust as when driven later2 feed is also generally better1 and the roads are dry and hard4 ,young and healthy sheep should be selected1 with early lambs2 or1 if the latter are too young1 and the distance great1 they should be left1 and the ewes dried off4 ,a large wagon ought to accompany the flock1 to carry such as occasionally give out2 or they may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled4 ,with good care1 a hardy flock may be driven at the rate of twelve or fourteen miles a day4 ,constant watchfulness is requisite1 in order to keep them healthy and in good plight4 ,one-half the expense of driving may be saved by the use of well-trained shepherd-dogs4 ,when arrived at their destination1 they must be thoroughly washed1 to free them from all dirt1 and closely examined as to any diseases which they may have contracted1 that these may be promptly removed4 ,a variety of suitable food and good shelter must be provided for the autumn1 winter1 and spring ensuing1 and every necessary attention given to them4 ,this would be necessary if they were indigenous to the country2 but it is much more so when they have just undergone a campaign to which neither they nor their race have been accustomed4 ,sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care1 artificial food1 and proper attention2 and losses have often occurred1 by reason of a false system of economy attempted by many1 from disease and mortality in the flocks1 amply sufficient to have made a generous provision for the comfort and security of twice the number lost4 ,more especially do they require proper food and attention after the first severe frosts set in1 which wither and kill the natural grasses4 ,by nibbling at the bog--the frostbitten1 dead grass--they are inevitably subject to constipation1 which a bountiful supply of roots1 sulphur1 etc41 is alone sufficient to remove4 ,roots1 grain1 good hay1 straw1 corn-stalks1 and pea or bean-vines are essential to the preservation of their health and thrift during the winter1 everywhere north of thirty-nine degrees4 ,in summer1 the natural herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition1 till they shall have acquired a denser population of animals1 when it will be found necessary to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial grasses4 ,the prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep introduced into the ,united ,states2 and of such are the flocks made up1 according to the taste or judgment of the owners4 ,shepherd dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks1 in these unfenced1 illimitable ranges1 both as a defence against the small prairie wolves1 which prowl around the sheep1 but have been rapidly thinned off by the settlers1 and also as assistants to the shepherds in driving and herding their flocks on the open ground4 ,,fall ,,feeding4 ,in the ,north1 the grass often gets very short by the tenth or fifteenth of ,november1 and it has lost most of its nutritiousness from repeated freezing and thawing4 ,at this time1 although no snow may have fallen1 it is best to give the sheep a light1 daily foddering of bright hay1 and a few oats in the bundle4 ,given thus for the ten or twelve days which precede the covering of the ground by snow1 fodder pays for itself as well as at any other time during the year4 ,it is well to feed oats in the bundle1 or threshed oats1 about a gill to the head1 in the feeding-troughs1 carried to the field for that purpose4 ,,winter ,,feeding4 ,the time for taking sheep from the pastures must depend on the state of the weather and food4 ,severe frosts destroy much of the nutriment in the grasses1 and they soon after cease to afford adequate nourishment4 ,long exposure to cold storms1 with such food to sustain them1 will rapidly reduce the condition of these animals4 ,the only safe rule is to transfer them to their winter-quarters the first day they cease to thrive abroad4 ,there is no better food for sheep than well-ripened1 sound ,timothy hay2 though the clovers and nearly all the cultivated grasses may be advantageously fed4 ,hundreds and thousands of northern flocks receive1 during the entire winter1 nothing but ordinary hay1 consisting mainly of ,timothy1 some red and white clover1 and frequently a sprinkling of gum1 or spear grass4 ,bean and pea straw are valuable1 especially the former1 which1 if properly cured1 they prefer to the best hay2 and it is well adapted to the production of wool4 ,where hay is the principal feed1 it may be well1 where it is convenient1 to give corn-stalks every fifth or sixth feed1 or even once a day2 or the daily feed1 not of hay1 might alternate between stalks1 pea-straw1 straws of the cereal grains1 etc4 ,it is mainly a question of convenience with the farmer1 provided a proper supply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass is given4 ,it would not1 however1 be entirely safe to confine any kind of sheep to the straw of the cereal grains1 unless it were some of those little hardy varieties of animals which would be of no use in this country4 ,the expediency of feeding grain to store-sheep in winter depends much on circumstances4 ,if in a climate where they can obtain a proper supply of grass or other green esculents1 it would1 of course1 be unnecessary2 nor is it a matter of necessity where the ground is frozen or covered with snow for weeks or months1 provided the sheep be plentifully supplied with good dry fodder4 ,near markets where the coarser grains find a quick sale at fair prices1 it is not usual1 in the ,north1 to feed grain4 ,remote from markets it is generally fed by the holders of large flocks4 ,oats are commonly preferred1 and they are fed at the rate of a gill a head per day4 ,some feed half the same amount of yellow corn4 ,fewer sheep1 particularly lambs and yearlings1 get thin and perish where they receive a daily feed of grain2 they consume less hay1 and their fleeces are increased in weight4 ,on the whole1 therefore1 it is considered good economy4 ,where no grain is fed1 three daily feeds of hay are given4 ,the smaller sizes of the ,saxon may be well sustained on two pounds of hay2 but larger sheep will consume from three and a half to four or even five pounds per day4 ,sheep1 in common with all other animals1 when exposed to cold1 will consume much more than if well protected1 or during a warmer season4 ,it is a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut oats in the bundle1 at noon1 and give but two feeds of hay1 one at morning and one at night4 ,some feed greenish cut peas in the same way4 ,in warm1 thawing weather1 when sheep get to the ground and refuse dry hay1 a little grain assists materially in keeping up their strength and condition4 ,when the feed is shortest in winter1 in the ,south1 there are many localities where sheep can get enough grass to take off their appetite for dry hay1 but not quite enough to keep them in prime order4 ,a moderate daily feed of oats or pease1 placed in the depository racks1 would keep them strong and in good plight for the lambing season1 and increase their weight of wool4 ,few ,northern farmers feed ,indian corn to store-sheep1 as it is considered too hot and stimulating1 and sheep are thought to become more liable to become cloyed on it than on oats1 pease1 etc4 ,yellow corn is not generally judged a very safe feed for lambs and yearlings4 ,store-sheep should be kept in good1 fair1 plump condition4 ,lambs and yearlings may be as fat as they will become on proper feeding4 ,it is stated that sheep will eat cotton-seed1 and thrive on it4 ,it must be remembered that sheep are not to be allowed to get thin during the winter1 with the idea that their condition can at any time be readily raised by better feed1 as with the horse or ox4 ,it is always difficult1 and1 unless properly managed1 expensive and hazardous1 to attempt to raise the condition of a poor flock in the winter1 especially if they have reached that point where they manifest weakness4 ,if the feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly commenced1 fatal diarrhoea will often supervene4 ,all extra feeding1 therefore1 must be begun very gradually2 and it does not appear1 in any case1 to produce proportionable results4 ,roots1 such as ruta-bagas1 ,irish potatoes1 and the like1 make a good substitute for grain1 or as extra feed for grown sheep4 ,the ruta-baga is preferable to the potato in its equivalents of nutriment4 ,no root1 however1 is as good for lambs and yearlings as an equivalent of grain4 ,sheep may be taught to eat nearly all the cultivated roots4 ,this is done by withholding salt from them1 and then feeding the chopped roots a few times1 rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce them to eat the root to obtain it2 but not enough to satisfy their appetite for salt before they have acquired a taste for the roots4 ,it is customary with some farmers to cut down1 from time to time in the winter1 and draw into the sheep-yards1 young trees of the hemlock1 whose foliage is greedily eaten by the sheep1 after being confined for some time to dry feed4 ,this browse is commonly used1 like tar1 for some supposed medicinal virtues4 ,it is pronounced healthy for sheep4 ,much the same remarks might be made about this as have been already made concerning tar4 ,no tonics and stimulants are needed for a healthy animal4 ,if the foliage of the hemlock were constantly accessible to them1 there would be no possible objection to their eating it1 since their instincts1 in that case1 would teach them whether1 and in what quantities1 to devour it2 but when entirely confined to dry feed for a protracted period1 sheep will consume injurious and even poisonous succulents1 and of the most wholesome ones1 hurtful quantities4 ,as a mere laxative1 an occasional feed of hemlock may be beneficial2 though1 in this point of view1 a day's run at grass1 in a thaw1 or a feed of roots1 would produce the same result4 ,in a climate where grass is procurable most of the time1 browse for medicinal purposes is entirely unnecessary4 ,sheep undoubtedly require salt in winter4 ,some salt their hay when it is stored in the barn or stack4 ,this is objectionable1 since the appetite of the sheep is much the safest guide in the premises4 ,it may be left accessible to them in the salt-box1 as in summer2 or an occasional feed of grined hay or straw may be given them in warm1 thawing weather1 when their appetite is poor4 ,this last is an excellent plan1 and serves a double purpose4 ,with a wisp of straw1 sprinkle a thin layer of straw with brine1 then another layer of straw1 and another sprinkling1 and so on4 ,let this lie until the next day1 for the brine to be absorbed by the straw1 and then feed it to all the grazing animals on the farm which need salting4 ,water is indispensable1 unless sheep have access to succulent food1 or clean snow4 ,constant access to a brook or spring is best2 but1 in default of this1 they should be watered at least once a day in some other way4 ,,feeding ,,with ,,other ,,stock4 ,sheep should not run1 or be fed1 in yards1 with any other stock4 ,cattle hook them1 often mortally2 and colts tease and frequently injure them4 ,it is often said that colts will pick up what sheep leave4 ,but well-managed sheep rarely leave any thing2 and1 if they chance so to do1 it is better to rake it up and throw it into the colts' yard1 than to feed them together4 ,if sheep are not required to eat their food pretty clean1 they will soon learn to waste large quantities4 ,if1 however1 they are over-fed with either hay or grain1 it is not proper to compel them1 by starvation1 to come back and eat it4 ,this they will not do1 unless sorely pinched4 ,clean out the troughs1 or rake up the hay1 and the next time feed less4 ,,division ,,of ,,flocks4 ,if flocks are shut up in small inclosures during winter1 according to the northern custom1 it is necessary to divide them into flocks of about one hundred each1 consisting of sheep of about the same size and strength2 otherwise1 the stronger rob the weaker1 and the latter rapidly decline4 ,this is not so important where the sheep roam at large2 but1 even in that case1 some division and classification are best4 ,it is best1 indeed1 even in summer4 ,the poorer and feebler can by this means receive better pasture1 or a little more grain and better shelter in winter4 ,by those who grow wool to any extent1 breeding ewes1 lambs1 and wethers1 are invariably kept in separate flocks in winter2 and it is best to keep yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds1 and any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders1 but which cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding ewes4 ,old and feeble or wounded sheep1 late-born lambs1 etc41 should be placed by themselves1 even if the number be small1 as they require better feed1 warmer shelter1 and more attention4 ,unless the sheep are of a peculiarly valuable variety1 however1 it is better to sell them off in the fall at any price1 or to give them to some poor neighbor who has time to nurse them1 and who may thus commence a flock4 ,,regularity ,,in ,,feeding4 ,if any one principle in sheep husbandry deserves careful attention more than others1 it is1 that the utmost regularity must be preserved in feeding4 ,first1 there should be regularity as to the times of feeding4 ,however abundantly provided for1 when a flock are foddered sometimes at one hour and sometimes at another--sometimes three times a day1 and sometimes twice--some days grain1 and some days none--they cannot be made to thrive4 ,they will do far better on inferior keep1 if fed with strict regularity4 ,in a climate where they require hay three times a day1 the best times for feeding are about sunrise in the morning1 at noon1 and an hour before dark at night4 ,unlike cattle and horses1 sheep do not feed well in the dark2 and1 therefore1 they should have time to consume their food before night sets in4 ,noon is the common time for feeding grain or roots1 and is the best time1 if but two fodderings of hay are given4 ,if the sheep receive hay three times1 it is not a matter of much consequence with which feeding grain is given1 only that the practice be uniform4 ,secondly1 it is highly essential that there should be regularity in the amount fed4 ,the consumption of hay will1 it is true1 depend much upon the weather2 the keener the cold1 the more the sheep will eat4 ,in the ,south1 much depends upon the amount of grass obtained4 ,in many places1 a light1 daily foddering supplies2 in others1 a light foddering placed in the depository racks once in two days1 answers the purpose4 ,in the steady cold weather of the ,north1 the shepherd readily learns to determine about how much hay will be consumed before the next foddering time4 ,and this amount should1 as near as may be1 be regularly fed4 ,in feeding grain or roots1 there is no difficulty in preserving entire regularity2 and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay4 ,of the latter1 a sheep will not over-eat and surfeit itself2 of the former1 it will4 ,even if it be not fed grain to the point of surfeiting1 it will expect a like amount1 however over-plenteous1 at the next feeding2 failing to receive which1 it will pine for it1 and manifest uneasiness4 ,the effect of such irregularity on the stomach and system of any animal is bad2 and the sheep suffers more from it than any other animal4 ,it is much better that the flock receive no grain at all1 than that they receive it without regard to regularity in the amount4 ,the shepherd should measure out the grain to the sheep in all instances1 instead of guessing it out1 and measure it to each separate flock4 ,,effect ,,of ,,food4 ,well-fed sheep1 as has been previously remarked1 produce more wool than poorly fed ones4 ,no doctrine is more clearly recognized in agricultural chemistry than that animal tissues derive their chemical components from the same components existing in their food4 ,various analyses show that the chemical composition of wool1 hair1 hoofs1 nails1 horns1 feathers1 lean meat1 blood1 cellular tissue1 nerves1 etc41 are nearly identical4 ,the organic part of wool1 according to standard authorities1 consists of carbon1 #ej4fe2 hydrogen1 #g4jc2 nitrogen1 #ag4ga2 oxygen and sulphur1 #bd4fa4 ,the inorganic constituents are small4 ,when burned1 it leaves but a trifling per cent4 of ash4 ,the large quantity of nitrogen contained in wool shows that its production is increased by highly azotized food2 and from various experiments made1 a striking correspondence has been found to exist between the amount of wool and the amount of nitrogen in food4 ,pease rank first in increasing the wool1 and very high in the average comparative increase which they produce in all the tissues4 ,the increase of fat and muscle1 as of wool1 depends upon the nature of the food4 ,it is not very common1 in the ,north1 for wool-growers to fatten their wethers for market by extra winter feeding4 ,some give them a little more generous keep the winter before they are to be turned off1 and then salt them when they have obtained their maximum fatness the succeeding fall4 ,stall-feeding is lost on an ill-shaped1 unthrifty animal4 ,the perfection of form and health1 and the uniform good condition which characterizes the thrifty one1 indicate1 too plainly to be misunderstood1 those which will best repay the care of their owner4 ,the selection of any indifferent animal for stall-fattening will inevitably be attended with loss4 ,such ought to be got rid of1 when first brought from the pasture1 for the wool they will bring4 ,when winter fattening is attempted1 sheep require warm1 dry shelters1 and should receive1 in addition to all the hay they will eat1 meal twice a day in troughs--or meal once and chopped roots once4 ,the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of yellow corn meal per head each day is about as much as ordinary stocks of ,merino wethers will profitably consume2 though in selected flocks1 consisting of large animals1 this amount is frequently exceeded4 ,,yards4 ,experience has amply demonstrated that--in the climate of the ,northern and ,eastern ,states1 where no grass grows from four to four and a half months in the winter1 and where1 therefore1 all that can be obtained from the ground is the repeatedly frozen1 unnutritious herbage left in the fall--it is better to keep sheep confined in yards1 excepting where the ground is covered with snow4 ,if suffered to roam over the fields at other times1 they get enough grass to take away their appetite for dry hay1 but not enough to sustain them2 they fall away1 and toward spring they become weak1 and a large proportion of them frequently perish4 ,flocks of some size are here1 of course1 alluded to1 and on properly stocked farms4 ,a few sheep would do better with a boundless range4 ,some let out their sheep occasionally for a single day1 during a thaw2 others keep them entirely from the ground until let out to grass in the spring4 ,the former course is preferable where the sheep ordinarily get nothing but dry fodder4 ,it affords a healthy laxative1 and a single day's grazing will not take off their appetite from more than one succeeding dry feed4 ,it is necessary1 in the ,north1 to keep sheep in the yards until the feed has got a good start in the spring1 or they will get off from their feed--particularly the breeding ewes--and get weak at the most critical time for them in the year4 ,yards should be firm-bottomed1 dry1 and1 in the northern climate1 kept well littered with straw4 ,the yarding system is not practised to any great extent in the ,south2 nor should it be1 where sheep can get their living from the fields4 ,,feeding-,,racks4 ,when the ground is frozen1 and especially when covered with snow1 the sheep eats hay well on the ground2 but when the land is soft1 muddy1 or foul with manure1 they will scarcely touch hay placed on it--or1 if they do1 will tread much of it into the mud1 in their restlessness while feeding4 ,it should then be fed in racks1 which are more economical1 even in the first-named case2 since1 when the hay is fed on the ground1 the leaves and seeds1 the most valuable part of the fodder1 are almost wholly lost4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,convenient ,,box-,,rack4 ,to make an economical box-rack--the one in most general use in the ,north--take six light pieces of scantling1 say three inches square1 one for each corner1 and one for the centre of each side4 ,boards of pine or hemlock1 twelve or fifteen feet long1 and twelve or fourteen inches wide1 may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for the sides1 which are separated by similar boards at the ends1 two and a half feet long4 ,boards twelve inches wide1 raised above the lower ones by a space of from nine to twelve inches1 are nailed on the sides and ends1 which completes the rack4 ,the edges of the opening should be made perfectly smooth1 to prevent chafing or tearing out the wool4 ,the largest dimensions given are suitable for the large breeds1 and the smallest for the ,saxon2 and still smaller are proper for the lambs4 ,these should be set on dry ground1 or under the sheds2 and they can be easily removed wherever necessary4 ,unless over-fed1 sheep waste very little hay in them4 ,some prefer the racks made with slats1 or smooth1 upright sticks1 in the form of the common horse-rack4 ,this kind should always be accompanied by a broad trough affixed to the bottom1 to catch the fine hay which falls in feeding4 ,these racks may be attached to the side of a building1 or used double4 ,a small lamb requires fifteen inches of space1 and a large sheep two feet1 for quiet1 comfortable feeding2 and this amount of room1 at least1 should be provided around the racks for every sheep4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,hole-,,rack4 ,with what is termed a hole-rack1 sheep do not crowd and take advantage of each other so much as with log-racks2 but they are too heavy and unnecessarily expensive for a common out-door rack4 ,this rack is box-shaped1 with the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally1 or1 more commonly1 by nailing the boards perpendicularly1 the bottoms on the sill of a barn1 and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber4 ,the holes should be at least eight inches wide1 nine inches high1 and eighteen inches from centre to centre4 ,in the ,south1 racks are not so necessary for that constant use to which they are put in colder sections1 as they are for depositories of dry food1 for the occasional visitation of the sheep4 ,in soft1 warm weather1 when the ground is unfrozen1 and any kind of green herbage is to be obtained1 sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder2 though the little they will then eat will be highly serviceable to them4 ,but in a sudden freeze1 or on the occurrence of cold storms1 they will resort to the racks1 and fill themselves with dry food4 ,they anticipate the coming storm by instinct1 and eat an extra quantity of food to sustain the animal heat during the succeeding depression of temperature4 ,they should always have racks of dry fodder for resort in such emergencies4 ,these racks should have covers or roofs to protect their contents from rain1 as otherwise the feed would often be spoiled before but a small portion of it would be consumed4 ,hay or straw1 saturated with water1 or soaked and dried1 is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of absolute necessity4 ,the common box-rack would answer the purpose very well by placing on the top a triangular cover or roof1 formed of a couple of boards1 one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hinges1 so that it could be lifted up like a lid2 making the ends tight2 drawing in the lower edges of the sides1 so that it should not be more than a foot wide on the bottom2 inserting a flow2 and then mounting it on1 and making it fast to1 two cross-sills1 four or five inches square1 to keep the floor off from the ground1 and long enough to prevent it from being easily overturned4 ,the lower side-board should be narrow1 on account of the increased height given its upper edge by the sills4 ,a rack of the same construction1 with the sides like those described for the hole-rack1 would be still better1 though somewhat more expensive2 or the sides might consist of rundles1 the top being nailed down in either case1 and the fodder inserted by little doors in the ends4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hopper-,,rack4 ,what is termed the hopper-rack1 serving both for a rack and a feeding-trough1 is a favorite with many sheep-owners4 ,the accompanying cut represents a section of such a rack4 ,a piece of durable wood1 about four and a half feet long1 six or eight inches deep1 and four inches thick1 having two notches1 a a1 cut into it1 and two troughs1 made of inch boards1 b b b b1 placed in these notches1 and nailed fast1 constitute the formation4 ,if the rack is to be fourteen feet long1 three sills are required4 ,the ends of the rack are made by nailing against the side of the sill-boards that reach up as high as it is desired to have the rack2 and nails driven through these end-boards into the ends of the side-boards1 f f1 secure them4 ,the sides may be further strengthened by pieces of board on the outside of them1 fitted into the trough4 ,a roof may be put over all1 if desired1 by means of which the fodder is kept entirely from the weather1 and no seeds or chaff can get into the wool4 ,,troughs4 ,threshed grain1 chopped roots1 etc41 when fed to sheep1 should be placed in troughs4 ,with either of the racks which have been described1 except the last1 a separate trough would be required4 ,the most economical are made of two boards of any convenient length1 ten to twelve inches wide4 ,nail the lower side of one upon the edge of the other1 fastening both into a two or three-inch plank1 fifteen inches long1 and a foot wide1 notched in its upper edge in the form required4 ,in snowy sections they are turned over after feeding1 and when falls of snow are anticipated one end is laid on the yard-fence4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,economical ,,sheep-,,trough4 ,various contrivances have been brought to notice for keeping grain where sheep can feed on it at will1 a description of which is omitted1 since it is not thought best1 by the most successful stock-raisers1 in feeding or fattening any quadrupeds1 to allow them grain at will1 stated feeds being preferred by them2 and the same is true of fodder4 ,if this system is departed from in using depository racks1 as recommended1 it is because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case4 ,a ,merino store-sheep1 allowed as much grain as it chose to consume1 would be likely to inflict injury on itself2 and grain so fed would1 generally speaking1 be productive of more damage than benefit4 ,,barns ,,and ,,sheds4 ,shelters1 in northern climates1 are indispensable to profitable sheep-raising2 and in every latitude north of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 they would probably be found advantageous4 ,an animal eats much less when thus protected2 he is more thrifty1 less liable to disease1 and his manure is richer and more abundant4 ,the feeding may be done in the open yard in clear weather1 and under cover in severe storms3 for1 even in the vigorous climate of the ,north1 none but the breeders of ,saxons make a regular practice of feeding under cover4 ,illustration3 ,,sheep-,,barn ,,with ,,sheds4 ,humanity and economy alike dictate that1 in the ,north1 sheep should be provided with shelters under which to lie nights1 and to which they can resort at will4 ,it is not an uncommon circumstance in ,new ,york and ,new ,england for snow to fall to the depth of from twenty to thirty inches within twenty-four or forty-eight hours1 and then to be succeeded by a strong and intensely cold west or northwest wind of several days continuance1 which lifts the snow1 blocking up the roads1 and piling huge drifts to the leeward of fences1 barns1 etc4 ,a flock without shelter will huddle closely together1 turning their backs to the storm1 constantly stepping1 and thus treading down the snow as it rises about them4 ,strong1 close-coated sheep do not seem to suffer as much from the cold1 for a period1 as would be expected4 ,it is1 however1 almost impossible to feed them enough1 or half enough1 under such circumstances1 without an immense waste of hay--entirely impossible1 indeed1 without racks4 ,the hay is whirled away in an instant by the wind2 and1 even if racks are used1 the sheep1 leaving their huddle1 where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting snow in their wool1 soon get chilled1 and are disposed to return to their huddle4 ,imperfectly filled with food1 the supply of animal heat is lowered1 and1 at the end of the second or third day1 the feeble ones sink down hopelessly1 the yearlings1 and those somewhat old1 receive a shock from which nothing but the most careful nursing will enable them to rally1 and even the strongest suffer an injurious loss in condition4 ,few persons1 therefore1 who own as many as forty or fifty sheep1 attempt to get along without some kind of shelters1 which are variously constructed1 to suit their tastes or circumstances4 ,a sheep-barn1 built upon a side-hill1 will afford two floors3 one underneath1 surrounded by three sides of wall1 should open to the south1 with sliding or swinging doors to guard against storms2 and another may be provided above1 if the floors are perfectly tight1 with proper gutters to carry off the urine2 and sufficient storage for the fodder can be furnished by scaffolds overhead4 ,they may also be constructed with twelve or fifteen-feet posts on level ground1 allowing the sheep to occupy the lower part1 with the fodder stored above4 ,in all cases1 however1 thorough ventilation should be provided2 for of the two evils1 of exposure to cold or of too great privation of air1 the former is to be preferred4 ,sheep cannot long endure close confinement without injury4 ,in all ordinary weather1 a shed1 closely boarded on three sides1 with a light roof1 is sufficient protection2 especially if the open side is shielded from bleak winds1 or leads into a well-inclosed yard4 ,if the floors above are used for storage1 they should be made tight1 that no hay1 chaff1 or dust can fall upon the fleece4 ,the sheds attached to the barn are not usually framed or silled1 but are supported by some posts of durable timber set in the ground4 ,the roofs are formed of boards battened with slats4 ,the barn has generally no partitions within1 and is entirely filled with hay4 ,there are many situations in which open sheds are very liable to have snow drifted under them by certain winds1 and they are subject in all severe gales to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large drifts in front1 which gradually encroach on the sheltered space1 and are very inconvenient1 particularly when they thaw4 ,for these reasons1 many prefer sheep-houses covered on all sides1 with the exception of a wide doorway for ingress and egress1 and one or two windows for the necessary ventilation4 ,they are convenient for yarding sheep1 and the various processes for which this is required2 as for shearing1 marking1 sorting1 etc41 and especially so for lambing-places1 or the confinement of newly-shorn sheep in cold storms4 ,they should have so much space that1 in addition to the outside racks1 others can be placed temporarily through the middle when required4 ,the facts must not be overlooked--as bearing upon the question of shelter1 even in the warmer regions of the country--that cold rains1 or rains of any temperature1 when immediately succeeded by cold or freezing weather1 or cold1 piercing winds1 are more hurtful to sheep than even snow-storms2 and that1 consequently1 sheep must be adequately guarded against them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,shed ,,of ,,rails4 ,,sheds4 ,the simplest and cheapest kind of shed is formed by poles or rails1 the upper end resting on a strong horizontal pole supported by crotched posts set in the ground4 ,it may be rendered rain-proof by pea-vines1 straw1 or pine boughs4 ,in a region where timber is very cheap1 planks or boards1 of a sufficient thickness not to spring downward1 and thus open the roof1 battened with slats1 may take the place of the poles and boughs2 and they would make a tighter and more durable roof4 ,if the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a couple of feet from the ground1 by placing a log under them1 the shed will shelter more sheep4 ,these movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns--hay-barracks--or they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle4 ,in the latter case1 the yard should be square1 on account of the divergence in the lower ends of the boards or poles1 which a round form would render necessary4 ,sheds of this description are frequently made between two stacks4 ,the end of the horizontal supporting-pole is placed on the stack-pens when the stacks are built1 and the middle is propped by crotched posts4 ,the supporting-pole may rest1 in the same way1 on the upper girts of two hay-barracks2 or two such sheds1 at angles with each other1 might form wings to this structure4 ,on all large sheep-farms1 convenience requires that there be one barn of considerable size1 to contain the shearing-floor1 and the necessary conveniences about it for yarding the sheep1 etc4 ,this should also1 for the sake of economy1 be a hay-barn1 where hay is used4 ,it may be constructed in the corner of four fields1 so that four hundred sheep can be fed from it1 without racking flocks of improper size4 ,at this barn it would be expedient to make the best shelters1 and to bring together all the breeding-ewes on the farm1 if their number does not exceed four hundred4 ,the shepherd would thus be saved much travel at all times1 and particularly at the lambing-time1 and each flock would be under his almost constant supervision4 ,the size of this barn is a question to be determined entirely by the climate4 ,for large flocks of sheep1 the storage of some hay or other fodder for winter is an indispensable precautionary measure1 at least in any part of the ,united ,states2 and1 other things being equal1 the farther north1 or the more elevated the land1 the greater would be the amount necessary to be stored4 ,,hay-,,holder4 ,where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper door of a barn into the sheep-yard--as it always must necessarily be in any mere hay-barn--or where it is thrown from a barrack or stack1 the sheep immediately rush on it1 trampling it and soiling it1 and the succeeding forkfuls fall on their backs1 filling their wool with dust1 seed1 and chaff4 ,this is obviated by hay-holders--yards ten feet square--either portable1 by being made of posts and boards1 or simply a pen of rails1 placed under the doors of the barns1 and by the sides of each stack or barrack4 ,the hay is pitched into this holder in fair weather1 enough for a day's foddering at a time1 and is taken from it by the fork and placed in the racks4 ,the poles or rails for stack-pens or hay-holders should be so small as to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads in them after hay4 ,a sheep will often insert his head where the opening is wide enough for that purpose1 shove it along1 or get crowded1 to where the opening is not wide enough to withdraw the head1 and it will hang there until observed and extricated by the shepherd4 ,if1 as often happens1 it is thus caught when its foreparts are elevated by climbing up the side of the pen1 it will continue to lose its footing in its struggles1 and will soon choke to death4 ,,tagging4 ,tagging1 or clatting1 is the removal from the sheep of such wool as is liable to get fouled when the animal is turned on to the fresh pastures4 ,if sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter1 they will usually purge1 more or less1 when let out to green feed in the spring4 ,the wool around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung1 which forms into hard pellets1 if the purging ceases4 ,whether this take place or not1 the adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the ordinary process of washing2 and it forms a great impediment in shearing1 dulling and straining the shears to cut through it1 when in a dry state1 and it is often impracticable so to do4 ,besides1 it is difficult to force the shears between it and the skin1 without frequently and severely wounding the latter4 ,occasionally1 too1 flies deposit their eggs under this mass of filth prior to shearing2 and the ensuing swarm of maggots1 unless speedily discovered and removed1 will lead the sheep to a miserable death4 ,before the animals are let out to grass1 each one should have the wool sheared from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs2 it should likewise be sheared from off the entire bag of the ewe1 that the newly-dropped lamb may more readily find the teat1 and from the scrotum1 and so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram as is usually kept wet4 ,if the latter place is neglected1 soreness and ulceration sometimes ensue from the constant maceration of the urine4 ,an assistant should catch the sheep and hold them while they are tagged4 ,the latter process requires a good shearer1 as the wool must be cut off closely and smoothly1 or the object is but half accomplished1 and the sheep will have an unsightly and ridiculous appearance when the remainder of their fleeces is taken off2 while1 on the other hand1 it is not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep at any time1 but it is peculiarly so to cut that or the bag of a ewe when near lambing4 ,the wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the expenses of the operation4 ,it answers well for stockings and other domestic purposes1 or it will sell for nearly half the price of fleece-wool4 ,care should be exercised at all times in handling sheep1 especially ewes heavy with lamb4 ,it is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about and handle them roughly2 for1 even if abortion1 the worst consequence of such treatment1 is avoided1 they become timid and shy of being touched1 rendering it difficult to catch them or render them assistance at the lambing period1 and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes1 in which it is sometimes necessary to confine them at that time1 without having them driving about pell-mell1 running over their lambs1 etc4 ,if a sheep is suddenly caught by the wool on her running1 or is lifted by the wool1 the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body at the points where it is thus seized2 and1 if killed a day or two afterward1 blood will be found settled about those parts4 ,when sheep are to be handled1 they should be inclosed in a yard just large enough to hold them without their being crowded1 so that they shall have no chance to run and dash about4 ,the catcher should stop them by seizing them by the hind-leg just above the hock1 or by clapping one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks4 ,then1 not waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle1 he should throw its right arm over and about immediately back of the shoulders1 place his hand on the brisket1 and lift the animal on his hip4 ,if the sheep is very heavy1 he can throw both arms around it1 clasp his fingers under the brisket1 and lift it up against the front part of his body4 ,he should then set it carefully on its rump upon the tagging-table1 which should be eighteen or twenty inches high1 support its back with his legs1 and hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed his duty4 ,two men should not be allowed to lift the same sheep together1 as it will be pretty sure to receive some strain between them4 ,a good shearer and assistant will tag two hundred sheep per day4 ,when sheep receive green feed all the year round--as they do in many parts of the ,south--and no purging ensues from eating the newly-starting grasses in the spring1 tagging is unnecessary4 ,,washing4 ,many judicious farmers object to washing sheep1 on account of its tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections1 to which this animal is particularly subject2 but it cannot well be dispensed with1 as the wool is always rendered more salable2 and if the operation is carefully done1 it need not be attended with injury4 ,mr4 ,randall1 the extensive sheep-breeder of ,texas1 states that he does not wash his sheep at all1 for what he deems good reasons4 ,about the middle of ,april1 or at the time when one-half of the ewes have young lambs at their sides1 and the balance about to drop1 would be the only time in that region when he could wash them4 ,at this period he would not race or worry his ewes at all1 on any account2 as they should be troubled as little as possible1 and no advantage to the fleece from washing could compensate for the injury to the animal4 ,in his high mountain-region1 lambing-time could not prudently come before the latter part of ,march or ,april--the very period when washing and shearing must be commenced--since in ,february1 and even up to the fifteenth or twentieth of ,march1 there is much bad weather1 and a single cold1 rainy or sleety norther would carry off one-half of the lambs dropped during its continuance4 ,in most of that portion of the ,united ,states lying north of forty degrees1 the washing is performed from the middle of ,may till the first of ,june1 according to the season and climate4 ,when the streams are hard1 which is frequently the case in limestone regions1 it is better to attend to it immediately after an abundant rain1 which proportionately lessens the lime derived from the springs4 ,the climate of the ,southern ,states would admit of an earlier time4 ,the rule should be to wait until the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing1 and until cold rains and storms and cold nights are no longer to be expected4 ,the practice of a large majority of farmers is to drive their sheep to the watering-ground early in the morning1 on a warm day1 leaving the lambs behind4 ,the sheep are confined on the bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure1 from which they are taken1 and1 if not too heavy1 carried into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom4 ,they are then washed1 by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands1 after which they are led ashore1 and as much of the water pressed out as possible before letting them go1 as the great weight retained in the wool frequently staggers and throws them down4 ,by the best flock-masters1 sheep are usually washed in vats4 ,a small stream is dammed up1 and the water taken from it in an aqueduct1 formed by nailing boards together1 and carried till a sufficient fall is obtained to have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat4 ,the body of water1 to do the work fast and well1 should be some twenty-four inches wide1 and five or six deep2 and the swifter the current the better4 ,the vat should be some three and a half feet deep1 and large enough for four sheep to swim in it4 ,a yard is built near the vat1 from the gate of which a platform extends to and incloses the vat on three sides4 ,this keeps the washer from standing in the water1 and makes it much easier to lift the sheep in and out4 ,the yard is built opposite the corners of two fields--to take advantage of the angle of one of them to drive the sheep more readily into the yard1 which should be large enough to contain the entire flock1 if it does not exceed two hundred2 and the bottom of it1 as well as the smaller yard1 unless well sodded over1 should be covered with coarse gravel1 to avoid becoming muddy4 ,if the same establishment is used by a number of flock-masters1 gravelling will always be necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,washing ,,apparatus4 ,as soon as the flocks are confined in the middle yard1 the lambs are all immediately caught out from among them1 and set over the fence into the yard to the left1 to prevent their being trampled down1 as often happens1 by the old sheep1 or straying off1 if let loose4 ,as many sheep are then driven out of the middle yard into the smaller yard to the right1 as it will conveniently hold4 ,a boy stands by the gate next to the vat1 to open and shut it1 or the gate is drawn together with a chain and weight1 and two men1 catching the sheep as directed under the head of tagging1 commence placing them in the water for the preparatory process of wetting4 ,as soon as the water strikes through the wool1 which occupies but an instant1 the sheep is lifted out and let loose4 ,where there are conveniences for so doing1 this process may be more readily performed by driving them through a stream deep enough to compel the sheep to swim2 but swimming the compact-fleeced1 fine-woolled sheep for any length of time--as is practised with the long-wools in ,england--will not properly cleanse the wool for steaming4 ,the vat should1 of course1 be in an inclosed field1 to prevent their escape4 ,the whole flock should thus be passed over1 and again driven round through the field into the middle yard1 where they should stand for about an hour before washing commences4 ,there is a large per centage of potash in the wool oil1 which acts upon the dirt independent of the favorable effect which would result from thus soaking it with water alone for some time4 ,if washed soon after a good shower1 previous wetting might be dispensed with2 and it is not1 perhaps1 absolutely necessary in any case4 ,if the water is warm enough to allow the sheep to remain in it for the requisite period1 they may be got clean by washing without any previous wetting2 though the snowy whiteness of fleece1 which has such an influence on the purchaser1 is not so often nor so perfectly attained in the latter way4 ,but little time is saved by dispensing with wetting1 as it takes proportionably longer to wash1 and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept so long in the water at once4 ,when the washing commences1 two and sometimes four sheep are plunged in the vat4 ,when four are put in1 two soak while two are washed4 ,this should not1 however1 be done1 unless the water is very warm1 and the washers are uncommonly quick and expert2 and it is1 upon the whole1 rather an objectionable practice1 since few animals suffer so much from the effects of a chill as the sheep2 and1 if they have been previously wetted1 it is wholly unnecessary4 ,when the sheep are in the water1 the two washers commence kneading the wool with their hands about the dirtier parts--the breech1 belly1 etc4--and they continue to turn the sheep so that the descending current of water can strike into all parts of the fleece4 ,as soon as the sheep are clean1 which may be known by the water running entirely clear1 each washer seizes his own animal by the foreparts1 plunges it deep in the vats1 and1 taking advantage of the rebound1 lifts it out1 setting it gently down on its breech upon the platform4 ,he then--if the sheep is old and weak1 and it is well in all cases--presses out some of the water from the wool1 and after submitting the sheep to a process presently to be mentioned1 lets it go4 ,there should be no mud about the vat1 the earth not covered with sod1 being gravelled4 ,sheep should be kept on clean pastures1 from washing to shearing--not where they can come in contact with the ground1 burnt logs1 and the like--and they should not be driven over dusty roads4 ,the washers should be strong and capable men1 and1 protected as they are from any thing but the water running over the sides of the vat1 they can labor several hours without inconvenience4 ,two hundred sheep will employ two experienced men not over half a day1 and this rate is at times much exceeded4 ,it is a great object1 not only as a matter of propriety and honesty1 but even as an item of profit1 to get the wool clean1 and of a snowy whiteness1 in which condition it will always sell for more than enough extra to offset the increased labor and the diminution in weight4 ,the average loss in ,american ,saxon wool in scouring1 after being washed on the back1 is estimated at thirty-six per cent42 and in ,american ,merino forty-two and a half per cent4 ,,cutting ,,the ,,hoofs4 ,as the hoofs of fine-woolled sheep grow rapidly1 turning up in front and under at the sides1 they must be clipped as often as once a year1 or they become unsightly1 give an awkward1 hobbling gait to the animal1 and the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds dirt or dung in constant contact with the soles1 and even prevents it from being readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural movement of the sheep about the pastures1 as would take place were the hoof in its proper place4 ,this greatly aggravates the hoof-ail1 and renders the curing of it more difficult2 and it is thought by many to be the exciting cause of the disease4 ,it is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging1 or at or soon after the time of shearing4 ,some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs2 but the animal must afterward be turned upon its back1 to pare off the crust which projects and turns under4 ,if the weather be dry1 or the sheep have stood for some time on dry straw1 as at shearing1 the hoofs are as tough as horn1 and are cut with great difficulty2 and this is increased by the grit and dirt adhering to the sole1 which immediately takes the edge off from the knife4 ,these periods are ill-chosen1 and the method slow and bungling4 ,it is particularly improper to submit heavily-pregnant ewes to all this unnecessary handling at the time of tagging4 ,when the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat1 and placed on its rump upon the platform1 the gate-keeper should advance with a pair of toe-nippers1 and the washer present each foot separately1 pressing the toes together so that they can be severed at a single clip4 ,the nippers--which can be made by any blacksmith who can temper an axe or a chisel--must be made strong1 with handles a little more than a foot long1 the rivet being of half-inch iron1 and confined with a nut1 so that they may be taken apart for sharpening4 ,the cutting-edge should descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron1 to prevent it from being dulled4 ,with this powerful instrument1 the largest hoofs are severed by a moderate compression of the hand4 ,two well-sharpened knives1 which should be kept in a stand or box within reach1 are then grasped by the washer and assistant1 and with two dexterous strokes to each foot1 the side-crust1 being free from dirt1 and soaked almost as soft as a cucumber1 is reduced to the level of the sole4 ,two expert men will go through these processes in a very short space of time4 ,the closer the paring and clipping the better1 if blood be not drawn4 ,an occasional sheep may require clipping again in the fall4 ,illustration3 ,,toe-,,nippers4 ,,shearing4 ,the time which should elapse between washing and shearing depends altogether on circumstances4 ,from four to six days of bright1 warm weather is sufficient2 if cold1 or rainy1 or cloudy1 more time must intervene4 ,sometimes the wool remains in a condition unfit for shearing for a fortnight after washing4 ,the rule to be observed is1 that the water should be thoroughly dried out1 and the natural oil of the wool should so far exude as to give the wool an unctious feeling1 and a lively1 glittering look4 ,if it is sheared when dry1 like cotton1 and before the oil has exuded1 it is very difficult to thrust the shears through1 the umer is checked1 and the wool will not keep so well for long periods4 ,if it is left until it gets too oily1 either the manufacturer is cheated1 or1 what more frequently happens1 the owner loses on the price4 ,illustration3 ,,fleece4 ,shearing1 in this country1 is always done on the threshing-floors of the barns--sometimes upon low platforms1 some eighteen or twenty inches high1 but more commonly on the floor itself4 ,the place where the sheep remain should be well littered down with straw1 and fresh straw thrown on occasionally1 to keep the sheep clean while shearing4 ,no chaff or other substance which will stick in the wool should be used for this purpose4 ,the shearing should not commence until the dew1 if any1 has dried off from the sheep4 ,all loose straws sticking to the wool should be picked off1 and whatever dung may adhere to any of the feet brushed off4 ,the floor or tables used should be planed or worn perfectly smooth1 so that they will not hold dirt1 or catch the wool4 ,they should all be thoroughly cleaned1 and1 if necessary1 washed1 preparatory to the process4 ,if there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging1 or other causes1 they should first be caught out1 to prevent them from contaminating others4 ,the manner of shearing varies with almost every district2 and it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to give intelligible practical instructions1 which would guide an entire novice in skilfully shearing a sheep4 ,practice is requisite4 ,the following directions are as plain1 perhaps1 as can be made3 ,the shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him1 resting on its rump1 and himself in a posture with his right knee on a cushion1 and the back of the animal resting against his left thigh4 ,he grasps the shears about half-way from the point to the bow1 resting his thumb along the blades1 which gives him better command of the points4 ,he may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket1 and1 proceeding downward1 all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of the ribs1 the external sides of both sides to the edges of the flanks2 then back to the brisket1 and thence upward1 shearing the wool from the breast1 front1 and both sides of the neck1 but not yet the back of it1 and also the poll1 or forepart1 and top of the head4 ,then the jacket is opened of the sheep1 and its position1 as well as that of the shearer1 is changed by the animal's being turned flat upon its side1 one knee of the shearer resting on the cushion1 and the other gently pressing the fore-quarter of the animal1 to prevent any struggling4 ,he then resumes cutting upon the flank and rump1 and thence onward to the head4 ,thus one side is complete4 ,the sheep is then turned on the other side--in doing which great care is requisite to prevent the fleeces being torn--and the shearer proceeds as upon the other1 which finishes4 ,he must then take the sheep near to the door through which it is to pass out1 and neatly trim the legs1 leaving not a solitary lock anywhere as a lodging-place for ticks4 ,it is absolutely necessary for him to remove from his stand to trim1 otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled with the fleece-wool4 ,in the use of the shears1 the blades should be laid as flat to the skin as possible1 the points not lowered too much1 nor should more than from one to two inches be cut at a clip1 and frequently not so much1 depending on the part1 and the compactness of the wool4 ,the wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable1 and even4 ,it may1 indeed1 be cut too close1 so that the sheep can scarcely avoid sun-scald2 but this is very unusual4 ,if the wool is left in ridges1 and uneven1 it betrays a want of workmanship very distasteful to the really good farmer4 ,great care should be taken not to cut the wool twice in two1 as inexperienced shearers are apt to do1 since it is a great damage to the wool4 ,this results from cutting too far from the points of the shears1 and suffering them to get too elevated4 ,in such cases1 every time the shears are pushed forward1 the wool before1 cut off by the points1 say a quarter or three-eighths of an inch from the hide1 is again severed4 ,to keep the fleece entire1 which is of great importance to its good appearance when done up1 and1 therefore1 to its salableness1 it is very essential that the sheep be held easily for itself1 so that it will not struggle violently4 ,no man can hold it still by main strength1 and shear it well4 ,the posture of the shearer should be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position1 so that it is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece2 but it should not be confined there by severe pressure or force1 or it will be continually kicking and struggling4 ,clumsy1 careless men1 therefore1 always complain of getting the most troublesome sheep4 ,the neck1 for example1 may be confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the leg on which the shearer kneels2 but the lazy or brutal shearer who suffers his leg to rest directly on the neck1 soon provokes that struggle which the animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain1 and even1 perhaps1 to draw its breath4 ,good shearers will shear1 on the average1 twenty-five ,merinos per day2 but a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to one-half of that number4 ,it is the last process in the world which should be hurried1 as the shearer will1 in that case1 soon leave more than enough wool on his sheep to pay for his day's wages4 ,wool ought not to be sheared1 and must not be done up with any water in it4 ,if wounds are made1 as sometimes happens with unskilful operators1 a mixture of tar and grease ought to be applied4 ,shearing lambs is1 in the ,northern climate1 at least1 an unprofitable practice2 since the lamb1 at a year old1 will give the same amount of wool1 and it is thus stripped of its natural protection from cold when it is young and tender1 for the mere pittance of the interest on a pound1 or a pound and a half of wool for six months1 not more than two or three cents1 and this all consumed by the expense of shearing4 ,much the same may be said of the custom1 which obtains in some places1 of shearing from sheep twice a year4 ,there may be a reason for it1 where they receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear every half year1 and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder by bushes1 thorns1 etc41 if left for a long period2 but when sheep are inclosed1 and treated as domestic animals1 although there may be less barbarity in shearing them in the fall also1 than in the case of the tender lambs1 there is no ground for it on the score of utility2 since any gain accruing from it cannot pay the additional expense which it occasions4 ,,cold ,,storms occurring soon after shearing sometimes destroy sheep1 in the northern portions of the country1 especially the delicate ,saxons2 forty or fifty of which have1 at times1 perished out of a single flock1 from one night's exposure4 ,sheep1 in such cases1 should be housed2 or1 where this is impracticable1 driven into dense forests4 ,,sun-,,scald4 ,when they are sheared close in very hot weather1 have no shade in their pastures1 and especially where they are driven immediately considerable distances1 or rapidly1 over burning and dusty roads1 their backs are sometimes so scorched by the sun that their wool comes off4 ,if let alone1 the matter is not a serious one2 but the application of refuse lard to the back will hasten the cure1 and the starting of the wool4 ,,ticks4 ,these vermin1 when very numerous1 greatly annoy and enfeeble the sheep in winter1 and should be kept entirely out of the flock4 ,after shearing1 the heat and cold1 the rubbing and biting of the sheep1 soon drive off the tick1 and it takes refuge in the wool of the lamb4 ,let a fortnight elapse after shearing1 to allow all to make this change of residence4 ,then boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure1 which may be ascertained by experiment4 ,five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco1 or an equivalent in stems1 and the like1 may be made to answer for a hundred lambs4 ,this decoction is poured into a deep1 narrow box1 kept for the purpose1 which has an inclined shelf on one side1 covered with a wooden grate4 ,one man holds the lamb by its hind legs1 while another clasps the fore legs in one hand1 and shuts the other about the nostrils1 to prevent the liquid from entering them1 and then the animal is entirely immersed4 ,it is then immediately lifted out1 laid on one side upon the grate1 and the water squeezed out of its wool1 when it is turned over and squeezed on the other side4 ,the grate conducts the fluid back into the box4 ,if the lambs are regularly dipped every year1 ticks will never trouble a flock4 ,,marking ,,or ,,branding4 ,the sheep should be marked soon after shearing1 or mistakes may occur4 ,every sheep-owner should be provided with a marking instrument1 which will stamp his initials1 or some other distinctive mark1 such as a small circle1 an oval1 a triangle1 or a square1 at a single stroke1 and with uniformity1 on the sheep4 ,it is customary to have the mark cut out of a plate of thin iron1 with an iron handle terminating in wood2 but one made by cutting a type1 or raised letter1 or character1 on the end of a stick of light wood1 such as pine or basswood1 is found to be better4 ,if the pigment used be thin1 and the marker be thrust into it a little too deeply1 as often happens1 the surplus will not run off from the wood1 as it does from a thin sheet of iron1 to daub the sides of the sheep1 and spoil the appearance of the mark2 and1 if the pigment be applied hot1 the former will not get heated1 like the latter1 and increase the danger of burning the hide4 ,various pigments are used for marking4 ,many boil tar until it assumes a glazed1 hard consistency when cold1 and give it a brilliant1 black color by stirring in a little lampblack during the boiling4 ,this is applied when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide1 and it forms a bright1 conspicuous mark all the year round4 ,the manufacturer1 however1 prefers the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar1 as the latter is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty4 ,it should be boiled in an iron vessel1 with high sides1 to prevent it from taking fire1 on a small furnace or chafing-dish near which it is to be used4 ,when cool enough1 forty or fifty sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff4 ,it is then warmed from time to time1 as necessary1 on the chafing-dish4 ,paint1 made of lampblack1 to which a little spirits of turpentine is first added1 and then diluted with linseed or lard oil1 is also used4 ,the rump is a better place to mark than the side1 since it is there about as conspicuous under any circumstances1 and more so when the sheep are huddled in a pen1 or running away from one4 ,besides1 should any wool be injured by the mark1 that on the rump is less valuable than that on the side4 ,ewes are commonly distinguished from wethers by marking them on different sides of the rump4 ,many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by the shearer2 but it consumes much less time to do it at a single job1 after the shearing is completed2 and it is necessary to take the latter course if a hot pigment is used4 ,,maggots4 ,rams with horns growing closely to their heads are very liable to have maggots generated under them1 particularly if the skin on the surrounding parts becomes broken by fighting2 and these1 unless removed1 soon destroy the animal4 ,boiled tar1 or the marking substance first described1 is both remedy and preventive4 ,if it is put under the horns at the time of marking1 no trouble will ever arise from this cause4 ,sometimes when a sheep scours in warm weather1 and clotted dung adheres about the anus1 maggots are generated under it1 and the sheep perishes miserably4 ,as a preventive1 the dung should be removed2 as a remedy1 the dung and maggots should be removed--the latter by touching them with a little turpentine--and sulphur and grease afterward applied to the excoriated surface4 ,maggot-flies sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs of the long1 open-woolled ,english sheep1 and the maggots1 during the few days before they assume the pupa state1 so tease and irritate the animal1 that fever and death ensue4 ,tar and turpentine1 or butter and sulphur1 smeared over the parts1 are admirable preventives4 ,the ,merino and ,saxon are exempt from these attacks4 ,,shortening ,,the ,,horns4 ,a convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes so presses in upon the side of the head or neck that it is necessary to shave or rasp it away on the under side1 to prevent ultimately fatal effects4 ,the point of the horn of both ram and ewe both frequently turn in so that they will grow into the flesh1 and sometimes into the eye1 unless shortened4 ,the toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin extremity of a horn2 if not1 a fine saw must be used4 ,the marking-time affords the best opportunity for attending to this operation4 ,,selection ,,and ,,division4 ,the necessity of annually weeding the flock1 by excluding all its members falling below a certain standard of quality1 and the points which should be regarded in fixing that standard1 have already been brought to notice in connection with the principles of breeding4 ,the time of shearing is by far the most favorable period for the flock-master to make his selection4 ,he should be present on the shearing-floor1 and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually taken off2 since1 if there are faults about it1 he will then discover it better than at any other time4 ,a glance will likewise reveal to him every defect in form1 previously concealed1 wholly1 or in part1 by the wool1 as soon as the newly-shorn sheep is permitted to stand up on its feet4 ,a remarkably choice ewe is frequently retained until she dies of old age2 a rather poor nurse or breeder is excluded for the slightest fault1 and so on4 ,whatever animals are to be excluded1 may be marked on the shoulder with ,venetian red and hog's lard1 conveniently applied with a brush or cob4 ,such of the wethers as have attained their prime1 and those ewes that have passed it1 should be provided with the best feed1 and fitted for the butcher4 ,if they have been properly pushed on grass1 they will be in good flesh by the time they are taken from it2 and1 if not intended for stall-feeding1 the sooner they are then disposed of the better4 ,those divisions1 also1 in large flocks1 which utility demands1 are generally made at or soon after shearing4 ,not more than two hundred sheep should be allowed to run together in the pastures2 although the number might1 perhaps1 be safely increased to three hundred1 if the range is extensive4 ,wethers and dry ewes to be turned off should be kept separate from the nursing-ewes2 and if the flock is large enough to require a third division1 it is customary to put the yearling and two-year-old ewes and wethers1 and the old1 feeble sheep together4 ,it is better1 in all cases1 to separate the rams from all the other sheep at the time of shearing1 and to inclose them in a field which is particularly well-fenced4 ,if they are put even with wethers1 they are more quarrelsome2 and when cool nights arrive1 will worry themselves and waste their flesh in constant efforts to ride the wethers4 ,the ,merino ram1 although a quiet animal compared with the common-woolled one1 will be tempted to jump1 by poor fences1 or fences half the time down2 and if he is once taught this trick1 he becomes very troublesome as the rutting period approaches1 unless hoppling1 yoking1 clogging1 or poking is resorted to1 either of which causes him to waste his strength1 besides being the occasion of frequent accidents4 ,,the ,,crook4 ,this convenient implement for catching sheep is of the form represented in the cut accompanying1 of three-eighths inch round iron1 drawn smaller toward the point1 which is made safe by a knot4 ,the other end is furnished with a socket1 which receives a handle six or eight feet long4 ,illustration3 ,,shepherd',s ,,crook4 ,in using it1 the hind leg is hooked in from behind the sheep1 and it fills up the narrow part beyond that point1 while passing along it until it reaches the loop1 when the animal is caught by the hook1 and when secured1 its foot easily slips through the loop4 ,some caution is required in its use2 for1 should the animal give a sudden start forward to get away1 the moment it feels the crook1 the leg will be drawn forcibly through the narrow part1 and strike the bone with such violence against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal considerable pain1 and even occasion lameness for some days4 ,on first embracing the leg1 the crook should be drawn quickly toward the shepherd1 so as to bring the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as the hock1 before the sheep has time even to break off2 and being secure1 its struggles will cease the moment the hand seizes the leg4 ,no shepherd should be without this implement1 as it saves much yarding and running1 and leads to a prompt examination of every improper or suspicious appearance1 and a seasonable application of remedy or preventive1 which would often be deferred if the whole flock had to be driven to a distant yard to effect the catching of a single sheep4 ,dexterity in its use is speedily acquired by any one2 and if a flock are properly tame1 any one of its number can be readily caught by it at salting-time1 or1 generally1 at other times1 by a person with whom the flock are familiar4 ,it is1 however1 at the lambing-time1 when sheep and lambs require to be so repeatedly caught1 that the crook is more particularly serviceable4 ,for this purpose1 at that time alone1 it will pay for itself ten times over in a single season1 in saving time1 to say nothing of the advantage of the sheep4 ,,driving ,,and ,,slaughtering4 ,,driving4 ,mutton can be grown cheaper than any other kind of meat4 ,it is fast becoming better appreciated2 and1 strange as it may seem1 good mutton brings a higher price in our best markets than the same quality does in ,england4 ,its substitution in a large measure for pork would contribute materially to the health of the community4 ,winter fattening of sheep may often be made very profitable and deserves greater attention1 especially where manure is an object2 and the instances are few1 indeed1 where it is not4 ,in ,england1 it is considered good policy to fatten sheep1 if the increase of weight will pay for the oil-cake or grain consumed2 the manure being deemed a fair equivalent for the other food--that is1 as much straw and turnips as they will eat4 ,lean sheep there usually command as high a price per pound in the fall as fatted ones in the spring2 while1 in this country1 the latter usually bear a much higher price1 which gives the feeder a great advantage4 ,the difference may be best illustrated by a simple calculation4 ,suppose a wether of a good mutton breed1 weighing eighty pounds in the fall1 to cost six cents per pound1 amounting to four dollars and eighty cents1 and to require twenty pounds of hay per week1 or its equivalent in other food1 and to gain a pound and a half each week2 the gain in weight in four months would be about twenty-five pounds1 which1 at six cents per pound1 would be one dollar and fifty cents1 or less than ten dollars per ton for the hay consumed2 but if the same sheep could be bought in the fall for three cents per pound1 and sold in the spring for six cents1 the gain would amount to three dollars and ninety cents1 or upwards of twenty dollars per ton for the hay--the manure being the same in either case4 ,for fattening1 it is well to purchase animals as large and thrifty1 and in as good condition as can be had at fair prices2 and to feed liberally1 so as to secure the most rapid increase that can be had without waste of food4 ,the fattening of sheep by the aid of oil-cake1 or grain purchased for the purpose1 may often be made a cheaper mode of obtaining manure than by the purchase of artificial fertilizers1 as guano1 super-phosphate of lime1 and the like2 and it is altogether preferable4 ,it is practised extensively and advantageously abroad1 and deserves at least a fair trial among us4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,shepherd ,,and ,,his ,,flock4 ,sheep which are to be driven to market should not begin their journey either when too full or too hungry2 in the former state1 they are apt to purge while on the road1 and in the latter1 they will lose strength at once4 ,the sheep selected for market should be those in the best condition at the time2 and to ascertain this1 it is necessary to examine the whole lot1 and separate the fattest from the rest1 which is best done at about mid-day1 before the sheep feed again in the afternoon4 ,the selected ones are placed in a field by themselves1 where they remain until the time for starting4 ,if there be rough pasture to give them1 they should be allowed to use it1 in order to rid themselves of some of the food which might be productive of inconvenience on the journey4 ,if there is no such pasture1 a few cut turnips will answer4 ,all their hoofs should be carefully examined1 and every unnecessary appendage removed1 though the firm portion of the horn should not be touched4 ,every clotted piece of wool should also be removed with the shears1 and the animals properly marked4 ,being thus prepared1 they should have feed early in the morning1 and be started1 in the cold season1 about mid-day4 ,let them walk quietly away2 and as the road is new to them1 they will go too fast at first1 to prevent which1 the drover should go before them1 and let his dog bring up the rear4 ,in a short time they will assume the proper speed--about one mile an hour4 ,should the road they travel be a green one1 they will proceed nibbling their way onward at the grass along both sides2 but if it is a narrow turnpike1 the drover will require all his attention in meeting and being passed by various vehicles1 to avoid injury to his charge4 ,in this part of their business1 drovers generally make too much ado2 and the consequence is1 that the sheep are driven more from side to side of the road than is requisite4 ,upon meeting a carriage1 it would be much better for the sheep1 were the drover to go forward1 instead of sending his dog1 and point off with his stick the leading sheep to the nearest side of the road2 and the rest will follow1 as a matter of course1 while the dog walks behind the flock and brings up the stragglers4 ,open gates to fields are sources of great annoyance to drovers1 the stock invariably making an endeavor to go through them4 ,on observing an open gate ahead1 the drover should send his dog behind him over the fence1 to be ready to meet the sheep at the gate4 ,when the sheep incline to rest1 they should be allowed to lie down4 ,when the animals are lodged for the night1 a few turnips or a little hay should be furnished to them1 if the road-sides are bare4 ,if these are placed near the gate of the field which they occupy1 they will be ready to take the road again in the morning4 ,as a precaution against worrying dogs1 the drover should go frequently through the flock with a light1 retire to rest late1 and rise up early in the morning4 ,these precautions are necessary2 since1 when sheep have once been disturbed by dogs1 they will not settle again upon the road4 ,the first day's journey should be a short one1 not exceeding four or five miles4 ,the whole journey should be so marked out as that1 allowance being made for unforeseen delays1 the animals may have one day's rest near the market4 ,,points ,,of ,,fat ,,sheep4 ,the formation of fat1 in a sheep destined to be fattened1 commences in the inside1 the web of fat which envelopes the intestines being first formed1 and a little deposited around the kidneys4 ,after that1 fat is seen on the outside2 and first upon the end of the rump at the tail-head1 continuing to move on along the back1 on both sides of the spine1 or back-bone1 to the bend of the ribs to the neck4 ,then it is deposited between the muscles1 parallel with the cellular tissue4 ,meanwhile1 it is covering the lower round of the ribs descending to the flanks1 until the two sides meet under the belly1 whence it proceeds to the brisket1 or breast1 in front1 and the sham or cod behind1 filling up the inside of the arm-pits and thighs4 ,while all these depositions are proceeding on the outside1 the progress in the inside is not checked1 but rather increased1 by the fattening disposition encouraged by the acquired condition2 and1 hence1 simultaneously1 the kidneys become entirely covered1 and the space between the intestines and the lumbar region1 or loin1 gradually filled up by the web and kidney fat4 ,by this time the cellular spaces around each fibre of muscle are receiving their share2 and when fat is deposited there in quantity1 it gives to the meat the term marbled4 ,these inter-fibrous spaces are the last to receive a deposition of fat2 but after this has begun1 every other part at the same time receives its due share1 the back and kidneys securing the most1 so much so that the former literally becomes nicked1 as it is termed--that is1 the fat is felt through the skin to be divided into two portions1 from the tail-head along the back to the top of the shoulder2 and the tail becoming thick and stiff1 the top of the neck broad1 the lower part of each side of the neck toward the breasts full1 and the hollows between the breast-bone and the inside of the fore legs1 and between the cod and the inside of the hind thighs1 filled up4 ,when all this has been accomplished1 the sheep is said to be fat1 or ripe4 ,when the body of a fat sheep is entirely overlaid with fat1 it is in the most valuable state as mutton4 ,few sheep1 however1 lay on fat entirely over their body2 one laying the largest proportion on the rump1 another on the back2 one on the parts adjoining the fore-quarter1 another on those of the hind-quarter2 and one more on the inside1 and another more on the outside4 ,taking so many parts1 and combining any two or more of them together1 a considerable variety of condition will be found in any lot of fat sheep1 while any one is as ripe in its way as any other4 ,with these data for guides1 the state of a sheep in its progress toward ripeness may be readily detected by handling4 ,a fat sheep1 however1 is easily known by the eye1 from the fullness exhibited by all the external parts of the particular animal4 ,it may exhibit want in some parts when compared with others2 but those parts1 it may easily be seen1 would never become so ripe as the others2 and this arises from some constitutional defect in the animal itself2 since1 if this were so1 there is no reason why all the parts should not be alike ripe4 ,the state of a sheep that is obviously not ripe cannot altogether be ascertained by the eye4 ,it must be handled1 or subjected to the scrutiny of the hand4 ,even in so palpable an act as handling1 discretion is requisite4 ,a full-looking sheep needs hardly to be handled on the rump2 for he would not seem so full1 unless fat had first been deposited there4 ,a thin-looking sheep1 on the other hand1 should be handled on the rump2 and if there be no fat there1 it is useless to handle the rest of the body1 for certainly there will not be so much as to deserve the name of fat4 ,between these two extremes of condition1 every variety exists2 and on that account examination by the hand is the rule1 and by the eye alone the exception4 ,the hand is1 however1 much assisted by the eye1 whose acuteness detects deficiencies and redundancies at once4 ,in handling sheep1 the points of the fingers are chiefly employed2 and the accurate knowledge conveyed by them1 through practice1 of the exact state of the condition1 is truly surprising1 and establishes a conviction in the mind that some intimate relation exists between the external and internal state of an animal4 ,hence originates this practical maxim in judging stock of all kinds--that no animal will appear ripe to the eye1 unless as much fat had previously been acquired in the inside as constitutional habit will allow4 ,the application of this rule is easy4 ,when the rump is found nicked1 on handling1 fat is to be found on the back2 when the back is found nicked1 fat is to be expected on the top of the shoulder and over the ribs2 and when the top of the shoulder proves to be nicked1 fat may be anticipated on the under side of the belly1 ,to ascertain its existence below1 the animal must be turned up1 as it is termed2 that is1 the sheep is set upon his rump1 with his back down1 and his hind feet pointing upward and outward4 ,in this position1 it can be seen whether the breast and thighs are filled up4 ,still1 all these alone would not disclose the state of the inside of the sheep1 which should1 moreover1 be looked for in the thickness of the flank2 in the fullness of the breast1 that is1 the space in front from shoulder to shoulder toward the neck2 in the stiffness and thickness of the root of the tail2 and in the breadth of the back of the neck4 ,all these latter parts1 especially with the fullness of the inside of the thighs1 indicate a fullness of fat in the inside2 that is1 largeness of the mass of fat on the kidneys1 thickness of net1 and thickness of layers between the abdominal muscles4 ,hence1 the whole object of feeding sheep on turnips and the like seems to be to lay fat upon all the bundles of fleshy fibres1 called muscles1 that are capable of acquiring that substance2 for1 as to bone and muscle1 these increase in weight and extent independently of fat1 and fat only increases in their magnitude4 ,,slaughtering4 ,sheep are easily slaughtered1 and the operation is unattended with cruelty4 ,they require some preparation before being deprived of life1 which consists in food being withheld from them for not less than twenty-four hours1 according to the season4 ,the reason for fasting sheep before slaughtering is to give time for the paunch and intestines to empty themselves entirely of food1 as it is found that1 when an animal is killed with a full stomach1 the meat is more liable to putrefy1 and it not so well flavored2 and1 as ruminating animals always retain a large quantity of food in their intestines1 it is reasonable that they should fast somewhat longer to get rid of it1 than animals with single stomachs4 ,sheep are placed on their side--sometimes upon a stool1 called a killing-stool--to be slaughtered1 and1 requiring no fastening with cords1 are deprived of life by the use of a straight knife through the neck1 between its bone and the windpipe1 severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein of both sides1 from which the blood flows freely out1 and the animal soon dies4 ,illustration3 ,,drover',s ,,or ,,butcher',s ,,dog4 ,the skin1 as far as it is covered with wool1 is taken off1 leaving that on the legs and head1 which are covered with hair1 the legs being disjointed by the knee4 ,the entrails are removed by an incision along the belly1 after the carcass has been hung up by the tendons of the boughs4 ,the net is carefully separated from the viscera1 and rolled up by itself2 but the kidney fat is not then extracted4 ,the intestines are placed on the inner side of the skin until divided into the pluck1 containing the heart1 lungs1 and liver2 the bag1 containing the stomach2 and the puddings1 consisting of the viscera1 or guts4 ,the latter are usually thrown away2 though the ,scotch1 however1 clean them and work them up into their favorite haggis4 ,the skin is hung over a rope or pole under cover1 with the skin-side uppermost1 to dry in an airy place4 ,the carcass should hang twenty-four hours in a clean1 cool1 airy1 dry apartment before it is cut down4 ,it should be cool and dry2 for1 if warm1 the meat will not become firm2 and1 if damp1 a clamminess will cover it1 and it will never feel dry1 and present a fresh1 clean appearance4 ,the carcass is divided in two1 by being sawed right down the back-bone4 ,the kidney-fat is then taken out1 being only attached to the peritoneum by the cellular membrane1 and the kidney is extracted from the suet1 the name given to sheep-tallow in an independent state4 ,,cutting ,,up4 ,of the two modes of cutting up a carcass of mutton1 the ,english and the ,scotch--of the former1 the practice in ,london being taken as the standard1 and of the latter1 that of ,edinburgh1 since more care is exercised in this respect in these two cities--the ,english is1 perhaps1 preferable2 although the ,scotch accomplish the task in a cleanly and workmanlike manner4 ,the jigot is the most handsome and valuable part of the carcass1 bringing the highest price1 and is either a roasting or a boiling piece4 ,a jigot of ,leicester1 ,cheviot1 or ,south-,down mutton makes a beautiful boiled leg of mutton1 which is prized the more the fatter it is--this part of the carcass being never overloaded with fat4 ,the loin is almost always roasted1 the flap of the flank being skewered up1 and it is a juicy piece4 ,many consider this piece of ,leicester mutton1 roasted1 as too rich2 and when warm this is1 probably1 the case2 but a cold roast loin is an excellent summer dish4 ,the back-rib is divided into two1 and used for very different purposes4 ,the forepart--the neck--is boiled1 and makes sweet barley-broth2 and the meat1 when boiled1 or rather the whole simmered for a considerable time beside the fire1 eats tenderly4 ,the back-ribs make an excellent roast2 indeed1 there is not a sweeter or more varied one in the whole carcass1 having both ribs and shoulder4 ,the shoulder-blade eats best cold1 and the ribs1 warm4 ,the ribs make excellent chops1 the ,leicester and ,south-,down affording the best4 ,the breast is mostly a roasting-piece1 consisting of rib and shoulder1 and is particularly good when cold4 ,when the piece is large1 as of the ,south-,down or ,cheviot1 the gristly parts of the ribs may be divided from the true ribs1 and helped separately4 ,this piece also boils well2 or1 when corned for eight days1 and served with onion sauce1 with mashed turnips in it1 there are few more savory dishes at a farmer's table4 ,the shoulder is separated before being dressed1 and makes an excellent roast for family use1 being eaten warm or cold1 or carved and dressed as the breast mentioned above4 ,the shoulder is best from a large carcass of ,south-,down1 ,cheviot1 or ,leicester4 ,the neck-piece is partly laid bare by the removal of the shoulder1 the forepart being fitted for boiling and making into broth1 and the best part for roasting or broiling into chops4 ,on this account1 it is a good family piece1 and generally preferred to any part of the hind-quarter4 ,heavy sheep1 such as the ,leicester1 ,south-,down1 and ,cheviot1 supply the most thrifty neck-piece4 ,,relative ,,qualities4 ,the different sorts of mutton in common use differ as well in quality as in quantity4 ,the flesh of the ,leicester is large1 though not coarse-grained1 of a lively red color1 and the cellular tissue between the fibres contains a considerable quantity of fat4 ,when cooked1 it is tender and juicy1 yielding a red gravy1 and having a sweet1 rich taste2 but the fat is rather too much and too rich for some people's tastes1 and can be put aside4 ,it must be allowed that the lean of fat meat is far better than lean meat that has never been fat4 ,cheviot mutton is smaller in the grain1 not so bright of color1 with less fat1 less juice1 not so tender and sweet2 but the flavor is higher1 and the fat not so luscious4 ,the mutton of ,south-,downs is of medium fineness in grain1 color pleasant red1 fat well intermixed with the meat1 juicy1 and tenderer than ,cheviot4 ,the mutton of rams of any breed is always hard1 of disagreeable flavor1 and1 in autumn1 not eatable2 that of old ewes is dry1 hard1 and tasteless2 of young ones1 well enough flavored1 but still rather dry2 while wether-mutton is the meat in perfection1 according to its kind4 ,the want of relish1 perhaps the distaste1 for mutton has served as an obstacle to the extension of sheep husbandry in the ,united ,states4 ,the common mistake in the management of mutton among us is1 that it is eaten1 as a general thing1 at exactly the wrong time after it is killed4 ,it should be eaten immediately after being killed1 and1 if possible1 before the meat has time to get cold2 or1 if not1 then it should be kept a week or more--in the ice-house1 if the weather require--until the time is just at hand when the fibre passes the state of toughness which it takes on at first1 and reaches that incipient or preliminary point in its process toward putrefaction when the fibres begin to give way1 and the meat becomes tender4 ,an opinion likewise generally prevails that mutton does not attain perfection in juiciness and flavor much under five years4 ,if this be so1 that breed of sheep must be very unprofitable which takes five years to attain its full state2 and there is no breed of sheep in this country which requires five years to bring it to perfection4 ,this being the case1 it must be folly to restrain sheep from coming to perfection until they have reached that age4 ,lovers of five-year-old mutton do not pretend that this course bestows profit on the farmer1 but only insist on its being best at that age4 ,were this the fact1 one of two absurd conditions must exist in this department of agriculture3 namely1 the keeping a breed of sheep that cannot1 or that should not be allowed to1 attain to perfection before it is five years old2 either of which conditions makes it obvious that mutton cannot be in its best state at five years4 ,the truth is1 the idea of mutton of this age being especially excellent1 is founded on a prejudice1 arising1 probably1 from this circumstance3 before winter food was discovered1 which could maintain the condition of stock which had been acquired in summer1 sheep lost much of their summer condition in winter1 and1 of course1 an oscillation of condition occurred1 year after year1 until they attained the age of five years2 when their teeth beginning to fail1 would cause them to lose their condition the more rapidly4 ,hence1 it was expedient to slaughter them at not exceeding five years of age2 and1 no doubt1 mutton would be high-flavored at that age1 that had been exclusively fed on natural pasture and natural hay4 ,such treatment of sheep cannot1 however1 be justified on the principles of modern practice2 because both reason and taste concur in mutton being at its best whenever sheep attain their perfect state of growth and condition1 not their largest and heaviest2 and as one breed attains its perfect state at an earlier age than another1 its mutton attains its best before another breed attains what is its best state1 although its sheep may be older2 but taste alone prefers one kind of mutton to another1 even when both are in their best state1 from some peculiar property4 ,the cry for five-year-old mutton is thus based on very untenable grounds2 the truth being that well-fed and fatted mutton is never better than when it gets its full growth in its second year2 and the farmer cannot afford to keep it longer1 unless the wool would pay for the keep1 since we have not the epicures and men of wealth who would pay the butcher the extra price1 which he must have1 to enable him to pay a remunerating price to the grazier for keeping his sheep two or three years over4 ,all writers on diet agree in describing mutton as the most valuable of the articles of human food4 ,pork may be more stimulating1 beef perhaps more nutritious1 when the digestive powers are strong2 but1 while there is in mutton sufficient nutriment1 there is also that degree of consistency and readiness of assimilation which renders it most congenial to the human stomach1 most easy of digestion1 and most promotive of human health4 ,of it1 almost alone1 can it be said that it is our food in sickness1 as well as in health2 its broth is the first thing1 generally1 that an invalid is permitted to taste1 the first thing that he relishes1 and is a natural preparation for his return to his natural aliment4 ,in the same circumstances1 it appears that fresh mutton1 broiled or boiled1 requires three hours for digestion2 fresh mutton1 roasted1 three and one-fourth hours2 and mutton-suet1 boiled1 four and one-half hours4 ,good ham may be made of any part of a carcass of mutton1 though the leg is preferable2 and for this purpose it is cut in the ,english fashion4 ,it should be rubbed all over with good salt1 and a little saltpetre1 for ten minutes1 and then laid in a dish and covered with a cloth for eight or ten days4 ,after that1 it should be slightly rubbed again1 for about five minutes1 and then hung up in a dry place1 say the roof of the kitchen1 until used4 ,wether mutton is used for hams1 because it is fat1 and it may be cured any time from ,november to ,may2 but ram-mutton makes the largest and highest-flavored ham1 provided it be cured in spring1 because it is out of season in autumn4 ,there is an infallible rule for ascertaining the age of mutton by certain marks on the carcass4 ,observe the color of the breast-bone1 when a sheep is dressed--that is1 where the breast-bone is separated--which1 in a lamb1 or before it is one year old1 will be quite red2 from one to two years old1 the upper and lower bone will be changing to white1 and a small circle of white will appear round the edges of the other bones1 and the middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue red2 at three years old1 a very small streak of red will be seen in the middle of the four middle bones1 and the others will be white2 and at four years1 all the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly color4 ,,contributions ,,to ,,manufactures4 ,the products of sheep are not merely useful to man2 they provide his luxuries as well4 ,the skin of sheep is made into leather1 and1 when so manufactured with the fleece on1 makes comfortable mats for the doors of rooms1 and rugs for carriages4 ,for this purpose1 the best skins are selected1 and such as are covered with the longest and most beautiful fleece4 ,tanned sheep-skin is used in coarse book-binding4 ,white sheep-skin1 which is not tanned1 but so manufactured by a peculiar process1 is used as aprons by many classes of workmen1 and1 in agriculture1 as gloves in the harvest2 and1 when cut into strips1 as twine for sewing together the leather coverings and stuffings of horse-collars4 ,morocco leather is made of sheep-skins1 as well as of goat-skins1 and the bright red color is given to it by cochineal4 ,russia leather is also made of sheep-skins1 the peculiar odor of which repels insects from its vicinity1 and resists the mould arising from damp1 the odor being imparted to it in currying1 by the empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch-tree4 ,besides soft leather1 sheep-skins are made into a fine1 flexible1 thin substance1 known by the name of parchment2 and1 though the skins of all animals might be converted into writing materials1 only those of the sheep and the she-goat are used for parchment4 ,the finer quality of the substance1 called vellum1 is made of the skins of kids and dead-born lambs2 and for its manufacture the town of ,strasburgh has long been celebrated4 ,mutton-suet is used in the manufacture of common candles1 with a proportion of ox-tallow4 ,minced suet1 subjected to the action of high-pressure steam in a digester1 at two hundred and fifty or two hundred and sixty degrees of ,fahrenheit1 becomes so hard as to be sonorous when struck1 whiter1 and capable1 when made into candles1 of giving very superior light4 ,stearic candles1 the invention of the celebrated ,guy ,lussac1 are manufactured solely from mutton-suet4 ,besides the fat1 the intestines of sheep are manufactured into various articles of luxury and utility1 which pass under the absurd name of catgut4 ,all the intestines of sheep are composed of four layers1 as in the horse and cattle4 ,the outer1 or peritoneal one1 is formed of that membrane1 by which every portion of the belly and its contents is invested1 and confined in its natural and proper situation4 ,it is highly smooth and polished1 and secretes a watery fluid which contributes to preserve that smoothness1 and to prevent all friction and concussion during the different motions of the animal4 ,the second is the muscular coat1 by means of which the contents of the intestines are gradually propelled from the stomach to the rectum1 thence to be expelled when all the useful nutriment is extracted4 ,the muscles1 as in all the other intestines1 are disposed in two layers1 the fibres of the outer coat taking a longitudinal direction1 and the inner layer being circular--an arrangement different from that of the muscles of the oesophagus1 and in both beautifully adapted to the respective functions of the tube4 ,the submucous coat comes next4 ,it is composed of numerous glands1 surrounded by cellular tissue1 and by which the inner coat is lubricated1 so that there may be no obstruction to the passage of the food4 ,the mucous coat is the soft villous one lining the intestinal cavity4 ,in its healthy state1 it is always covered with mucus2 and when the glands beneath are stimulated1 as under the action of physic1 the quantity of mucus is increased2 it becomes of a more watery character2 the contents of the intestines are softened and dissolved by it2 and by means of the increased action of the muscular coat1 which1 as well as the mucous one1 feels the stimulus of the physic1 the faeces are hurried on more rapidly and discharged4 ,in the manufacture of some sorts of cords from the intestines of sheep1 the outer peritoneal coat is taken off and manufactured into a thread to sew intestines1 and make the cords of rackets and battledores4 ,future washings cleanse the guts1 which are then twisted into different-sized cords for various purposes2 some of the best known of which are whip-cords1 hatter's cords for bow-strings1 clock-maker's cords1 bands for spinning-wheels1 now almost obsolete1 and fiddle and harp-strings4 ,of the last class1 the cords manufactured in ,italy are superior in goodness and strength2 and the reason assigned is1 that the sheep of that country are both smaller and leaner than the breeds most in vogue in ,england and in this country4 ,the difficulty in manufacturing from other breeds of sheep lies1 it seems1 in making the treble strings from the fine peritoneal coat1 their chief fault being weakness2 by reason of which the smaller ones are hardly able to bear the stretch required for the higher notes in concert-pitch1 maintaining1 at the same time1 in their form and construction1 that tenuity or smallness of diameter which is required in order to produce a brilliant and clear tone4 ,illustration ,,diseases ,,and ,,their ,,remedies4 ,the dry and healthful climate1 the rolling surface1 and the sweet and varied herbage1 which generally prevail in the ,united ,states1 insure perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock1 unless they are peculiarly exposed to disease4 ,no country is better suited to sheep than most of the ,northern and some of the ,southern portions of our own4 ,in ,europe1 and especially in ,england1 where the system of management is1 necessarily1 in the highest degree artificial1 consisting1 frequently1 in an early and continued forcing of the system1 folding on wet1 ploughed ground1 and the excessive use of that watery food1 the ,swedish turnip1 there are numerous and fatal diseases1 a long list of which invariably cumbers the pages of foreign writers on this animal4 ,the diseases incident to our flocks1 on the contrary1 may generally be considered as casualties1 rather than as inbred1 or necessarily arising from the quality of food1 or from local causes4 ,it may be safely asserted that1 with a dry pasture1 well stocked with varied and nutritious grasses2 a clear1 running stream2 sufficient shade and protection against severe storms2 a constant supply of salt1 tar1 and sulphur in summer2 good hay1 and sometimes roots1 with ample shelters in winter--young sheep1 originally sound and healthy1 will seldom or never become diseased on ,american soil4 ,the comparatively few diseases1 which it may be necessary here to mention1 are arranged in alphabetical order--as in the author's ,cattle and their ,diseases--for convenience of reference1 and treated in the simplest manner4 ,remedies of general application1 to be administered often by the unskilful and ignorant1 must neither be elaborate nor complicated2 and1 if expensive1 the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased by their application4 ,a sheep1 which has been reared or purchased at the ordinary price1 is the only domestic animal which can die without material loss to its owner4 ,the wool and felt will1 in most instances1 repay its cost1 while the carcass of other animals will be worthless1 except for manure4 ,the loss of sheep1 from occasional disease1 will leave the farmer's pocket in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses or cattle4 ,humanity1 however1 alike with interest1 dictates the use of such simple remedies1 for the removal of suffering and disease1 as may be within reach4 ,,administering ,,medicine4 ,the stomach into which medicines are to be administered is the fourth1 or digesting stomach4 ,the comparatively insensible walls of the rumen1 or paunch1 are but slightly acted upon1 except by doses of very improper magnitude4 ,medicine1 to reach the fourth stomach1 should be given in a state as nearly approaching fluidity as may be4 ,even then it may be given in such a manner as to defeat the object in view4 ,if the animal forcibly gulps fluids down1 or if they are given hastily and bodily1 they will follow the caul at the base of the gullet with considerable momentum1 force asunder the pillars1 and enter the rumen2 if they are drunk more slowly1 or administered gently1 they will trickle down the throat1 glide over these pillars1 and pass on through the maniplus to the true stomach4 ,,bleeding4 ,bleeding from the ears or tail1 as is commonly practised1 rarely extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good where bleeding is indicated4 ,to bleed from the eye-vein1 the point of a knife is usually inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the eye1 pressed down1 and then a cut made inward toward the middle of the face4 ,bleeding from the angular or cheek-vein is recommended1 in the lower part of the cheek1 at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is placed1 which is the thickest part of the cheek1 and is marked on the external surface of the bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle1 sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin of the cheek is touched4 ,this tubercle is a certain index to the angular vein1 which is placed below4 ,the shepherd takes the sheep between his legs2 his left hand more advanced than his right1 which he places under the head1 and grasps the under jaw near to the hinder extremity1 in order to press the angular vein1 which passes in that place1 for the purpose of making it swell2 he touches the right cheek at the spot nearly equidistant from the eye and mouth1 and there finds the tubercle which is to guide him1 and also feels the angular vein swelled below this tubercle2 he then makes the incision from below upward1 half a finger's breadth below the middle of the tubercle4 ,when the vein is no longer pressed upon1 the bleeding will commonly cease2 if not1 a pin may be passed through the lips of the orifice1 and a lock of wool tied round them4 ,for thorough bleeding1 the jugular vein is generally to be preferred4 ,the sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant1 and the body confined between his knees1 with its rump against a wall4 ,some of the wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular vein1 and a ligature1 brought in contact with the neck by opening the wool1 is tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder4 ,the vein will soon rise4 ,the orifice may be secured1 after bleeding1 as before described4 ,the good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on the rapidity with which the blood is abstracted1 as the amount taken4 ,this is especially true in acute diseases4 ,either bleed rapidly or do not bleed at all4 ,the orifice in the vein1 therefore1 should be of some length1 and made lengthwise with the vein4 ,a lancet is by far the best implement2 and even a short-pointed penknife is preferable to the bungling gleam4 ,bleeding1 moreover1 should always be resorted to1 when it is indicated at all1 as nearly as possible to the commencement of the malady4 ,the amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasurement1 but by constitutional effect--the lowering of the pulse1 and indications of weakness4 ,in urgent cases--apoplexy1 or cerebral inflammation1 for example--it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or falls4 ,the quantity of blood in the sheep is less1 in comparison1 than that in the horse or ox4 ,the blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth part of his weight2 and that of the ox at least one-twentieth2 while that of the sheep1 in ordinary condition1 is one-twenty-second4 ,for this reason1 more caution should be exercised in bleeding the latter1 especially in frequently resorting to it2 otherwise1 the vital powers will be rapidly and fatally prostrated4 ,many a sheep has been destroyed by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring it1 and in disorders which did require it at the commencement1 but of which the inflammatory stage had passed4 ,,feeling ,,the ,,pulse4 ,the number of pulsations can be determined by feeling the heart beat on the left side4 ,the femoral artery passes in an oblique direction across the inside of the thigh1 and about the middle of the thigh its pulsations and the character of the pulse can be most readily noted4 ,the pulsations per minute1 in a healthy adult sheep1 are sixty-five in number2 though they have been stated at seventy1 and even seventy-five4 ,,apoplexy4 ,soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring1 one of the best-conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead4 ,the symptoms which precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted4 ,the sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times1 dashes itself on the ground1 and suddenly rises1 and dies in a few minutes4 ,where animals in somewhat poor condition are rather forced forward for the purpose of raising their condition1 it sometimes happens that they become suddenly blind and motionless2 they will not follow their companions2 when approached1 they run about1 knocking their heads against fences1 etc42 the head is drawn round toward one side2 they fall1 grind their teeth1 and their mouths are covered with a frothy mucus4 ,such cases are1 unquestionably1 referable to a determination of blood to the brain4 ,treatment4 ,if the eyes are prominent and fixed1 the membranes of the mouth and nose highly florid1 the nostrils highly dilated1 and the respiration labored and stertorous1 the veins of the head turgid1 the pulse strong and rather slow1 and these symptoms attended by a partial or entire loss of sight and hearing1 it is one of those decided cases of apoplexy which require immediate and energetic treatment4 ,recourse should at once be had to the jugular vein1 and the animal bled until an obvious constitutional effect is produced--the pulse lowered1 and the rigidity of the muscles relaxed4 ,an aperient should at once follow bleeding2 and if the animal is strong and plathoric1 a sheep of the size of the ,merino would require at least two ounces of ,epsom salts1 and one of the large mutton sheep1 more4 ,if this should fail to open the bowels1 half an ounce of the salts should be given1 say twice a day4 ,,braxy4 ,this is manifested by uneasiness2 loathing of food2 frequent drinking2 carrying the head down2 drawing the back up2 swollen belly2 feverish symptoms2 and avoidance of the flock4 ,it appears mostly in late autumn and spring1 and may be induced by exposure to severe storms1 plunging in water when hot1 and especially by constipation1 brought on by feeding on frostbitten1 putrid1 or indigestible herbage4 ,many sheep die on the prairies from this disease1 induced by exposure and miserable forage4 ,entire prevention is secured by warm1 dry shelters1 and nutritious1 dry food4 ,treatment4 ,remedies1 to be successful1 must be promptly applied4 ,bleed freely2 and to effect this1 immersion in a tub of hot water may be necessary1 in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood4 ,then give two ounces of ,epsom salts1 dissolved in warm water1 with a handful of common salt4 ,if this is unsuccessful1 give a clyster1 made with a pipeful of tobacco1 boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water4 ,administer half2 and if this is not effectual1 follow with the remainder4 ,then bed the animal in dry straw1 and cover with blankets2 assisting the purgatives with warm gruels1 followed by laxative provender till well4 ,,bronchitis4 ,where sheep are subject to pneumonia1 they are liable to bronchitis as well1 which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane1 which lines the bronchial tubes1 or the air-passages of the lungs4 ,the symptoms are those of an ordinary cold1 but attended with more fever1 and a tenderness of the throat and belly when pressed upon4 ,treatment4 ,administer salt in doses of from one and a half to two ounces1 with six or eight ounces of lime-water1 given in some other part of the day4 ,,catarrh4 ,this is an inflammation of the mucous membrane1 which lines the nasal passages1 and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pharynx4 ,in the first instance--where the lining of the nasal passages is alone and not very violently affected--it is merely accompanied by an increased discharge of mucus1 and is rarely attended with much danger4 ,in this form1 it is usually termed snuffles2 and high-bred ,english mutton-sheep1 in this country1 are apt to manifest more or less of it1 after every sudden change of weather4 ,when the inflammation extends to the mucous lining of the larynx and the pharynx1 some degree of fever usually supervenes1 accompanied by cough1 and some loss of appetite4 ,at this point1 bleeding and purging are serviceable4 ,catarrh rarely attacks the ,american fine-woolled sheep with sufficient violence in summer to require the application of remedies4 ,depletion1 in catarrh1 in our severe winter months1 however1 rapidly produces that fatal prostration1 from which it is almost impossible to bring the sheep back1 without bestowing an amount of time and care upon it1 costing far more than the worth of an ordinary animal4 ,the best course is to prevent the disease by judicious precaution4 ,with that amount of attention which every prudent farmer should bestow on his sheep1 the ,american ,merino is but little subject to it4 ,good1 comfortable1 and well-ventilated shelters1 constantly accessible to the sheep in winter1 with a sufficiency of food regularly administered1 are usually a sufficient safeguard4 ,,malignant ,e,p,i,z,o,oe,t,i,c ,,catarrh4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,english ,,rack ,,for ,,feeding ,,sheep4 ,essentially differing1 in type and virulence1 from the preceding1 is an epidemic1 or1 more properly speaking1 an epizooetic malady1 which1 as often as once in every eight or ten years1 sweeps over extended sections of the ,northern ,states1 destroying more sheep than all other diseases combined4 ,it commonly makes its appearance in winters characterized by rapid and violent changes of temperature1 which are spoken of by the farmers as bad winters for sheep4 ,the disease is sometimes termed the distemper1 and also1 but erroneously1 grub in the head4 ,the winter of #ahdf-g proved peculiarly destructive to sheep in ,new ,york1 and some of the adjoining ,states2 some owners losing one-half1 others three-quarters1 and a few seven-eighths1 of their flocks4 ,one person lost five hundred out of eight hundred2 another1 nine hundred out of a thousand4 ,these severe losses1 however1 mainly fell on the holders of the delicate ,saxons1 and perhaps1 generally1 on those possessing not the best accommodations1 or the greatest degree of energy and skill4 ,symptoms4 ,the primary and main disease1 in such instances1 is a species of catarrh2 differing1 however1 from ordinary catarrh in its diagnosis1 and in the extent of the lesions accompanying both the primary and the symptomatic diseases4 ,the animals affected do not1 necessarily1 at first show any signs of violent colds1 as coughing1 sneezing1 or labored respiration2 the only indications of catarrh noticed1 oftentimes1 being a nasal discharge4 ,animals having this discharge appear dull and drooping2 their eyes run a little1 and are partially closed2 the caruncle and lids look pale2 their movements are languid1 and there is an indisposition to eat2 the pulse is nearly natural1 though at times somewhat too languid4 ,in a few days these symptoms are evidently aggravated2 there is rapid emaciation1 accompanied with debility2 the countenance is exceedingly dull and drooping2 the eye is kept more than half closed2 the caruncle1 lids1 etc41 are almost bloodless2 a gummy1 yellow secretion about the eye2 thick1 glutinous mucus adhering in and about the nostrils2 appetite feeble2 pulse languid2 and muscular energy greatly prostrated4 ,they rapidly grow weaker1 stumble1 and fall as they walk1 and soon become unable to rise2 the appetite grows feebler2 the mucus at the nose is1 in some instances1 tinged with dark1 grumous blood2 the respiration becomes oppressed2 and the animals die within a day or two after they become unable to rise4 ,upon a post-mortem examination1 the mucous membrane lining the whole nasal cavity is found highly congested and thickened throughout its entire extent1 accompanied with the most intense inflammation2 slight ulcers are found on the membranous lining1 at the junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribriform plate1 in the ethmoidal cells2 and the inflammation extends to the mucous membrane of the pharynx1 and some inches1 from two to four1 of the upper portion of the oesophagus4 ,no sheep1 affected with this disease1 recovers after emaciation and debility have proceeded to any great extent4 ,in the generality of instances1 the time1 from the first observed symptoms until death1 varies from ten to fifteen days2 although death1 in some cases1 results more speedily4 ,treatment4 ,nothing has been found so serviceable as mercury1 which1 from its action on the entire secretory system1 powerfully tends to relieve the congested membranes of the head4 ,dissolve one grain of bi-chloride of mercury--corrosive sublimate--in two ounces of water2 and give one-half ounce of the water1 or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive sublimate1 daily1 in two doses4 ,to stimulate and open the bowels1 give1 also1 rhubarb in a decoction1 the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at a dose1 accompanied with the ordinary carminative and stomachic adjuvants1 ginger and gentian in infusion4 ,,colic4 ,sheep are occasionally seen1 particularly in the winter1 lying down and rising every moment or two1 and constantly stretching their fore and hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground4 ,they appear to be in much pain1 refuse all food1 and not unfrequently die1 unless relieved4 ,this disease1 popularly known as the stretches1 is erroneously attributed to an involution of the part of the intestine within another2 it being1 in reality1 a species of flatulent colic1 induced by costiveness4 ,treatment4 ,half an ounce of ,epsom salts1 a drachm of ,jamaica ginger1 and sixty drops of essence of peppermint4 ,the salts alone1 however1 will effect the cure2 as will1 also1 an equivalent dose of linseed oil1 or even hog's lard4 ,,costiveness4 ,this difficulty is removed by giving two table-spoonfuls of castor oil every twelve hours1 till the trouble ceases2 or give one ounce of ,epsom salts4 ,this may be assisted by an injection of warm weak suds and molasses4 ,,diarrh,,oe,a4 ,common diarrhoea--purging1 or scours--manifests itself simply by the copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations4 ,it is generally owing to improper food1 as bad hay1 or noxious weeds2 to a sudden change1 as from dry food to fresh grass2 to an excess1 as from overloading the stomach2 and sometimes to cold and wet4 ,it is important to clearly distinguish this disease from dysentery4 ,in diarrhoea1 there is no apparent general fever2 the appetite remains good2 the stools are thin and watery1 but unaccompanied with slime1 or mucus1 and blood2 odor of the faeces is far less offensive than in dysentery2 and the general condition of the animal is but little changed4 ,when it is light1 and not of long continuance1 no remedy is called for1 since it is a healthful provision of ,nature for the more rapid expulsion of some offending matter in the system1 which1 if retained1 might lead to disease4 ,treatment4 ,confinement to dry food for a day or two1 and a gradual return to it1 often suffices1 in the case of grown sheep4 ,with lambs1 especially if attacked in the fall1 the disease is more serious4 ,if the purging is severe1 and especially if any mucus is observed with the faeces1 the feculent matter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle cathartic2 half a drachm of rhubarb1 or an ounce of linseed oil1 or half an ounce of ,epsom salts to a lamb4 ,this should be followed by an astringent2 and1 in nine cases out of ten1 the latter will serve in the first instance4 ,give one quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk1 once a day for two or three days2 at the end of which1 and frequently after the first dose1 the purging will have ordinarily abated1 or entirely ceased4 ,sheep's cordial is also a safe and excellent remedy--in severe cases1 better than simple chalk and milk4 ,take of prepared chalk1 one ounce2 powdered catechu1 half an ounce2 powdered ,jamaica ginger1 two drachms2 and powdered opium1 half a drachm2 mix with half a pint of peppermint water2 give two or three table-spoonfuls morning and night to a grown sheep1 and half that quantity to a lamb4 ,,disease ,,of ,,the ,,biflex ,,canal4 ,from the introduction of foreign bodies into the biflex canal1 or from other causes1 it occasionally becomes the seat of inflammation4 ,this canal is a small orifice1 opening externally on the point of each pastern1 immediately above the cleft between the toes4 ,it bifurcates within1 a tube passing down on each side of the inner face of the pastern1 winding round and ending in a cul de sac4 ,inflammation of this canal causes an enlargement and redness of the pastern1 particularly about the external orifice of the canal4 ,the toes are thrown wide apart by the tumor4 ,it rarely attacks more than one foot1 and should not be allowed to proceed to the point of ulceration which it will do1 if neglected4 ,there is none of that soreness and disorganization between the back part of the toes1 and none of that peculiar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail1 with which disease it is sometimes confounded4 ,treatment4 ,scarify the coronet1 making one or two deeper incisions in the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal2 and cover the foot with tar4 ,,dysentery4 ,this is occasioned by an inflammation of the mucous or inner coat of the larger intestines1 causing a preternatural increase in their secretions1 and a morbid alteration in their character4 ,it is frequently consequent on that form of diarrhoea1 which is caused by an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller intestines4 ,the inflammation extends throughout the whole alimentary canal1 increases in virulence1 and becomes dysentery1 a disease frequently dangerous and obstinate in its character1 but1 fortunately1 not common among sheep1 generally1 in the ,united ,states4 ,its diagnosis differs from that of diarrhoea1 in several readily observed particulars4 ,there is evident fever2 the appetite is capricious1 commonly very feeble2 the stools are as thin as in diarrhoea1 or even thinner1 but much more adhesive1 in consequence of the presence of large quantities of mucus4 ,as the erosion of the intestines advances1 the faeces are tinged with blood2 their odor is intolerably offensive2 and the animal rapidly wastes away1 the course of the disease extending from a few days to several weeks4 ,treatment4 ,moderate bleeding should be resorted to1 in the first or inflammatory shape1 or whenever decided febrile symptoms are found to be present4 ,two doses of physic having been administered1 astringents are serviceable4 ,the sheep's cordial1 already described1 is as good as any2 and to this1 tonics may soon begin to be added2 an additional quantity of ginger may enter into the composition of the cordial1 and gentian powder will be an useful auxiliary4 ,with this1 as an excellent stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract1 and also the mouths of the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels opening on the inner surface of the intestines1 a half grain of strychnine may be combined4 ,smaller doses should be given for three or four days4 ,,flies4 ,the proper treatment1 upon the appearance of flies or maggots1 has already been detailed under the head of ,,feeding ,,and ,,management1 to which the reader is referred4 ,,fouls4 ,sheep are much less subject to this disease than cattle are2 but encounter it1 if kept in wet1 filthy yards1 or on moist1 poachy ground4 ,it is an irritation of the integument in the cleft of the foot1 slightly resembling incipient hoof-ail1 and producing lameness4 ,it occasions1 however1 no serious structural disorganization1 disappears without treatment1 is not contagious1 and appears in the wet weather of spring and fall1 instead of in the dry1 hot period of summer1 when the hoof-ail rages most4 ,a little solution of blue vitriol1 or a little spirits of turpentine--either followed by a coating of warm tar--promptly cures it4 ,for foul noses1 dip a small swab in tar1 then roll it in salt2 put some on the nose1 and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity4 ,,fractures4 ,if there be no wound of the soft parts1 the bone simply being broken1 the treatment is extremely easy4 ,apply a piece of wet leather1 taking care to ease the limb when swelling supervenes4 ,when the swelling is considerable1 and fever present1 the best course is to open a vein of the head or neck1 allowing a quantity of blood to escape1 proportioned to the size and condition of the animal1 and the urgency of the symptoms4 ,purgatives in such cases should never be neglected4 ,epsom salts1 in ounce doses1 given either as a gruel or a drench1 will be found to answer the purpose well4 ,if the broken bones are kept steady1 the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks1 the process of reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep4 ,should the soft parts be injured to any extent1 or the ends of the bone protrude1 recovery is very uncertain2 and it will become a question whether it would not be better to convert the animal at once into mutton4 ,,garget4 ,this is an inflammation of the udder1 sometimes known as caked bag1 with or without general inflammation4 ,where it is simply an inflammation of the udder1 it is usually caused by too great an accumulation of milk in the latter prior to lambing1 or in consequence of the death of the lamb4 ,treatment4 ,drawing the milk partly from the bag1 so that the hungry lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food1 and bathing it a few times in cold water1 usually suffices4 ,if the lamb is dead1 the milk should be drawn a few times1 at increasing intervals1 washing the udder for some time in cold water at each milking4 ,in cases of obdurate induration1 the udder should be anointed with iodine ointment4 ,if there is general fever in the system1 an ounce of ,epsom salts may be given4 ,if suppuration forms1 the part affected should be opened with the lancet4 ,,goitre4 ,the swelled neck in lambs is1 like the goitre1 or bronchocele1 an enlargement of the thyroid glands1 and is strikingly analogous to that disease1 if not identical with it4 ,it is congenital4 ,the glands at birth are from the size of a pigeon's egg to that of a hen's egg1 though more elongated and flattened than an egg in their form4 ,the lamb is exceedingly feeble1 and often perishes almost without an effort to suck4 ,many even make no effort to rise1 and die as soon as they are dropped4 ,it is rare1 indeed1 that one lives4 ,a considerable number of lambs annually perish from this disease1 which does not appear to be an epizooetic1 though it is more prevalent in some seasons than in others4 ,it does not seem to depend upon the water1 or any other natural circumstances of a region1 as goitre is generally supposed to1 since it may not prevail in the same flock1 or on the same farm1 once in ten years2 nor can it be readily traced to any particular kind of food4 ,when it does appear1 however1 its attacks are rarely isolated2 from which circumstance some have inferred that it is induced by some local or elimentary cause4 ,losses from this disease have ranged from ten per cent4 to twenty1 thirty1 and even fifty per cent4 of the whole number of lambs4 ,possibly1 high condition in the ewes may be one of the inducing causes4 ,treatment4 ,none is known which will reach the case4 ,should one having the disease chance to live1 it would scarcely be worth while to attempt reducing the entanglement of the glands4 ,perhaps keeping the breeding-ewes uniformly in fair1 plump1 but not high condition1 would be as effectual a preventive as any4 ,,grub ,,in ,,the ,,head4 ,what is popularly known as the grub is the larva of the oestrus oris1 or gad-fly of the sheep4 ,it is composed of five rings2 is tiger-colored on the back and belly1 sprinkled with spots and patches of brown2 its wings are striped4 ,the sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the nostrils of the sheep4 ,its attempts to do this--most common in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september--are always indicated by the sheep1 which collect in close clumps1 with their heads inward1 and their noses thrust close to the ground1 and into it1 if any loose dirt or sand is within reach4 ,if the fly succeeds in depositing its egg1 the latter is immediately hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part1 and the young grubs1 or larvae1 crawl up the nose1 finding their devious way to the sinuses1 where1 by means of their tentaculae1 or feelers1 they attach themselves to the mucous membrane lining those cavities4 ,during the ascent of the larvae1 the sheep stamps1 tosses its head violently1 and often dashes away from its companions wildly over the field4 ,the larvae remain on the sinuses1 feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane1 and apparently creating no further annoyance1 until ready to assume their pupa form in the succeeding spring4 ,having remained in the sinuses during the fall and winter1 they abandon them as the warm weather approaches in the latter part of spring4 ,they crawl down the nose1 creating even greater irritation and excitement than when they originally ascended1 drop on the ground1 and rapidly burrow into it4 ,in a few hours1 the skin of the larvae has contracted1 become of a dark-brown color1 and it has assumed the form of chrysalis4 ,this fly never eats2 the male1 after impregnating two or three females1 dies2 and the latter1 having deposited their ova in the nostrils of the sheep1 also soon perish4 ,the larvae in the heads of sheep may1 and probably do1 add to the irritation of those inflammatory diseases1 such as catarrh1 which attack the membranous lining of the nasal cavities2 and they are a powerful source of momentary irritation in the first instance1 when ascending to1 and descending from1 their lodging-place in the head4 ,but in the interval between these events1 extending over a period of several months1 not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoyance at their presence4 ,they are1 moreover1 found in the heads of nearly all sheep1 the healthy as well as the diseased1 at the proper season4 ,treatment4 ,though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease1 some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means4 ,one simple way of effecting this is1 by turning up with a plough a furrow of earth in the sheep-pasture1 into which the sheep will thrust their noses on the approach of the oestrus1 and thus many of them escape its attacks4 ,some farmers smear the noses of their sheep occasionally ,with tar1 the odor of which is believed to repel the fly4 ,another plan1 deemed efficacious in dislodging the larvae from the sinuses1 is as follows3 ,take half a pound of good ,scotch snuff1 and two quarts of boiling water2 stir1 and let it stand till cold4 ,inject about a table-spoonful of this liquid and sediment up each nostril1 with a syringe2 repeat this three or four times1 at intervals1 from the middle of ,october till ,january4 ,the efficacy of the snuff will be increased by adding half an ounce of asafoetida1 pounded in a little water4 ,the effects on the sheep are immediate prostration and apparent death2 but they will soon recover4 ,a decoction of tobacco affords a substitute for snuff2 and some recommend blowing tobacco smoke through the tail of a pipe into each nostril4 ,,hoof-,,ail4 ,the first symptom of this troublesome malady1 known1 likewise1 as foot-ail1 which is ordinarily noticed1 is a lameness of one or both of the fore-feet4 ,on daily examining1 however1 the feet of a flock which have the disease among them1 it will readily be seen that the lesions manifest themselves for several days before they are followed with lameness4 ,the horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up1 gradually thinning out1 some way between the toes and divisions of the hoof1 and above these horny walls the cleft is lined with skin4 ,when the points of the toes are spread apart1 this skin is shown in front1 covered with short1 soft hair4 ,the back part of the toes1 or the heels1 can be separated only to a little distance1 and the skin in the cleft above them is naked4 ,in a healthy foot1 the skin throughout the whole cleft is as firm1 dry1 and uneroded as on any other part of the animal4 ,the first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion1 accompanied with inflammation and heat of the naked skin in the back parts of the clefts1 immediately above the heels4 ,the skin assumes a macerated appearance1 and is kept moist by the presence of a sanious discharge from the ulcerated surface4 ,as the inflammation extends1 the friction of the parts causes pain1 and the sheep limps4 ,at this stage1 the foot1 externally1 in a great majority of cases1 exhibits not the least trace of disease1 with the exception of a slight redness1 and sometimes the appearance of a small sore at the upper edge of the cleft1 when viewed from behind4 ,the ulceration of the surface rapidly extends4 ,the thin upper edges of the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized1 and an ulceration is established between the hoof and the fleshy sole4 ,a purulent fetid matter is discharged from the cavity4 ,the extent of the separation increases daily1 and the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy sole4 ,the bottom of the hoof disappears1 eaten away by the acrid matter1 and the outer walls1 entirely separated from the flesh1 hang only by their attachments at the coronet4 ,the whole fleshy sole is now entirely disorganized1 and the entire foot is a mass of black1 putrid ulceration2 or1 as more commonly happens1 the fly has struck it1 and a dense mass of writhing maggots cover the surface1 and burrow in every cavity4 ,the fore-feet are generally first attacked2 and1 most usually but one of them4 ,the animal at first manifests but little constitutional disturbance1 and eats as usual4 ,by the time that any considerable disorganization of the structures has taken place in the first foot1 and sometimes sooner1 the other forefoot is attacked4 ,that becoming as lame as the first1 the miserable animal seeks its food on its knees2 and1 if forced to rise1 its strange1 hobbling gait betrays the intense agony occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground4 ,there is a bare spot under the brisket1 of the size of a man's hand1 which looks red and inflamed4 ,there is a degree of general fever1 and the appetite is dull4 ,the animal rapidly loses condition4 ,the appearance of the maggot soon closes the scene4 ,where the rotten foot is brought in contact with the side1 in lying down1 the filthy1 ulcerous matter adheres to1 and saturates the short wool--it being but a month and a half1 or two months1 after shearing--and maggots are either carried there by the foot1 or they are soon generated there4 ,a black crust is speedily formed round the spot1 which is the decomposition of the surrounding structures2 and innumerable maggots are at work below1 burrowing into the integuments and muscles1 and eating up the wretched animal alive4 ,the black1 festering mass rapidly spreads1 and the poor sufferer perishes1 apparently in tortures the most excruciating4 ,sometimes but one forefoot is attacked1 and subsequently one or both hind ones4 ,there is no uniformity in this particular2 and it is a singular fact that1 when two or even three of the feet are dreadfully diseased1 the fourth may be entirely sound4 ,so1 also1 one foot may be cured1 while every other one is laboring under the malady4 ,the highly offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly characteristic of the disease1 and would reveal its character1 to one familiar with it1 in the darkest night4 ,hoof-ail is probably propagated in this country exclusively by inoculation--the contact of the matter of a diseased foot with the integuments lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot4 ,that it is propagated in some of the ways classed under the ordinary designation of contagion1 is certain4 ,that it may be propagated by inoculation1 has been established by experiment4 ,the matter of diseased feet has been placed on the skin lining the cleft of a healthy foot under a variety of circumstances--sometimes when that skin is in its ordinary and natural state1 sometimes after a very slight scorification1 sometimes when macerated by moisture2 and under each of these circumstances the disease has been communicated4 ,the same inference may be drawn1 also1 from the manner in which the disease attacks flocks4 ,the whole1 or any considerable number1 though sometimes rapidly1 are never simultaneously attacked1 as would be expected1 among animals so gregarious1 if the disease could be transmitted by simple contact1 inhaling the breath1 or other effluvium4 ,the matter of diseased feet is left on grass1 straw1 and other substances1 and thus is brought in contact with the inner surfaces of healthy feet4 ,sheep1 therefore1 contract the disease from being driven over the pastures1 yarded on the straw1 etc41 where diseased sheep have been1 perhaps even days1 before4 ,the matter would probably continue to inoculate1 until dried up by the air and heat1 or washed away by the rains4 ,the stiff1 upright stems of closely mown grass1 as on meadows1 are almost as well calculated to receive the matter of diseased feet1 and deposit it in the clefts of healthy ones1 as any means which could be artificially devised4 ,it is not entirely safe to drive healthy sheep over roads1 and especially into washing-yards1 or sheep houses1 where diseased sheep have been1 until rain has fallen1 or sufficient time has elapsed for the matter to dry up4 ,on the moist bottom of a washing-yard1 and particularly in houses or sheds1 kept from sun and wind and rain1 this matter might be preserved for some time in a condition to inoculate4 ,when the disease has been well kept under during the first season of its attack1 but not entirely eradicated1 it will almost or entirely disappear as cold weather approaches1 and it does not manifest itself until the warm weather of the succeeding summer4 ,it then assumes a mitigated form2 the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked2 there seems to be less inflammatory action constitutionally1 and in the diseased parts2 the course of the disease is less malignant and more tardy1 and it more readily yields to treatment4 ,if well kept under the second summer1 it is still milder the third4 ,a sheep will occasionally be seen to limp2 but its condition will scarcely be affected1 and dangerous symptoms will rarely supervene4 ,one or two applications made during the summer1 in a manner presently to be described1 will suffice to keep the disease under4 ,at this point1 a little vigor in the treatment will rapidly extinguish the disease4 ,treatment4 ,the preparation of the foot1 where any separate individual treatment is resolved upon1 is always necessary1 at least in bad cases4 ,sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain1 if practicable1 as the hoofs can then be readily cut4 ,in a dry time1 and after a night which left no dew upon the grass1 their hoofs are almost as tough as horn4 ,they must be driven through no mud1 or soft dung1 on their way to the yard1 which would double the labor of cleaning their feet4 ,the yard should be small1 so that they can be easily caught1 and it must be kept well littered down1 to prevent their filling their feet with their own excrement4 ,if the straw is wetted1 their hoofs will not1 of course1 dry and harden as rapidly as in dry straw4 ,if the yard could be built over a shallow1 gravelly-bottomed brook1 it would be an admirable arrangement2 for this purpose1 a portion of any little brook might be prepared1 by planking the bottom1 and widening it1 if desirable4 ,by such means the hoofs would be kept so soft that the greatest and most unpleasant part of the labor1 as ordinarily performed1 would be in a great measure saved1 and they would be kept free from that dung which1 by any other arrangement1 will1 more or less1 get into their clefts4 ,the principal operator seats himself on a chair1 having within his reach a couple of good knives1 a whetstone1 the powerful toe-nippers already described1 a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it1 together with such medicines as may be deemed necessary4 ,the assistant catches a sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump1 between the legs of the foreman1 the head coming up about to his middle4 ,the assistant then kneels on some straw1 or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep4 ,if the hoofs are long1 and especially if they are dry and tough1 the assistant presents each foot to the operator who shortens the hoof with the toe-nippers4 ,if there is any filth between the toes1 each man takes his rag from the bucket of water1 and draws it between the toes1 and rinses it1 until the filth is removed4 ,each then takes a knife1 and the process of paring away the horn commences1 upon the effectual performance of which all else depends4 ,a glance at the foot will show whether it is the seat of the diseased action4 ,the least experience cannot fail in properly settling this question4 ,an experienced finger1 even1 placed upon the back of the pastern close above the heel1 will at once detect the local inflammation1 in the dark1 by its heat4 ,if the disease is in the first stage--that is1 if there are merely erosion and ulceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft above the walls of the hoof--no paring is necessary4 ,but if ulceration has established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole1 the ulcerated parts1 however extensive1 must be entirely stripped of their horny covering1 no matter what amount of time and care it may require4 ,it is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely1 as the running blood will wash off the subsequent application2 but no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the rule laid down above4 ,at the worst1 the blood will stop flowing after a little while1 during which time no application needs to be made to the foot4 ,if the foot is in the third stage--a mass of rottenness1 and filled with maggots--pour1 in the first place1 a little spirits of turpentine--a bottle of which1 with a quill through the cork1 should be always ready--on the maggots1 and most of them will immediately decamp1 and the others can be removed with a probe or small stick4 ,then remove every particle of loose horn1 though it should take the entire hoof1 as it generally will in such cases4 ,the foot should next be cleansed with a solution of chloride of lime1 in the proportion of one pound of chloride to one gallon of water4 ,if this is not at hand1 plunging the foot repeatedly in hot water1 just short of scalding hot1 will answer every purpose4 ,the great object is to clean the foot thoroughly4 ,if there is any considerable proud flesh1 it should be removed with a pair of scissors1 or by the actual cautery--hot iron4 ,the following are some of the most popular remedies3 ,take two ounces of blue vitriol and two ounces of verdigris1 to a junk-bottle of wine2 or spirits of turpentine1 tar1 and verdigris in equal parts2 or three quarts of alcohol1 one pint of spirits of turpentine1 one pint of strong vinegar1 one pound of blue vitriol1 one pound of copperas1 one and a half pounds of verdigris1 one pound of alum1 and one pound of saltpetre1 pounded fine2 mix in a close bottle1 shake every day1 and let it stand six or eight days before using2 also mix two pounds of honey and two quarts of tar1 which must be applied after the preceding compound4 ,or apply diluted aquafortis--nitric acid--with a feather to the ulcerated surface2 or diluted oil of vitriol--sulphuric acid--in the same way2 or the same of muriatic acid2 or dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling point4 ,in the first and second stages of the disease1 before the ulcers have formed sinuses into the sole1 and wholly or partly destroyed its structure1 the best application is a saturated solution of blue vitriol--sulphate of copper4 ,in the third stage1 when the foot is a festering mass of corruption1 after it has been cleansed as already directed1 it requires some strong caustic to remove the unhealthy granulations--the dead muscular structures--and to restore healthy action4 ,lunar caustic1 which is preferable to any other application1 is too expensive2 chloride of antimony is excellent1 but frequently unattainable in the country drug-stores2 and muriatic acid1 or even nitric or sulphuric acids1 may be used instead4 ,the diseased surface is touched with the caustic1 applied with a swab1 formed by fastening a little tow on the end of a stick1 until the objects above pointed out are attained4 ,the foot is then treated with the solution of blue vitriol1 and subsequently coated over with tar which has been boiled1 and is properly cooled1 for the purpose of protecting the raw wound from dirt1 flies1 etc4 ,sheep in this stage of the disease should certainly be separated from the main flock1 and looked to as often as once in three days4 ,with this degree of attention1 their cure will be rapid1 and the obliterated structures of the foot will be restored with astonishing rapidity4 ,the common method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it from a bottle with a quill in the cork1 into the foot1 when the animal lies on its back between the operators1 as already described4 ,in this way a few cents' worth of vitriol will answer for a large number of sheep4 ,the method is1 however1 imperfect2 since1 without extraordinary care1 there will almost always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered by the knife1 which the solution will not reach1 the passages to them being devious1 and perhaps nearly or quite closed4 ,the disease will thus be only temporarily suppressed1 not cured4 ,a flock of sheep which were in the second season of the disease1 had been but little looked to during the summer1 and as cold weather set in1 many of them became considerably lame1 and some of them quite so4 ,their feet were thoroughly pared2 and into a large washing-tub1 in which two sheep could conveniently stand1 a saturated solution of blue vitriol and water1 as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a moment1 was poured4 ,the liquid was about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub1 and was kept at that depth by frequent additions of hot solution4 ,as soon as a sheep's feet were pared1 it was placed in the tub1 and held there by the neck4 ,a second one was then prepared1 and placed beside it2 when the third was ready1 the first was taken out2 and so on4 ,two sheep were thus constantly in the tub1 each remaining some five minutes4 ,the cure was perfect2 there was not a lame sheep in the flock during the winter or the next summer4 ,the hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of the foot2 and doubtless had a far more decisive effect1 even on the uncovered ulcers1 than would have been produced by merely wetting them4 ,the expense attending the operation was about four cents per sheep4 ,three such applications1 at intervals of a week1 would effectually cure the disease1 since every new case would thus be arrested and cured before it would have time to inoculate others4 ,it would1 undoubtedly1 accomplish this at any time of year1 and even during the first and most malignant prevalence of the contagion1 provided the paring was sufficiently thorough4 ,the second and third parings would be a mere trifle2 and the liquid left at the first and second applications could again be used4 ,thus sheep could be cured at about twelve cents per head1 which is much cheaper1 in the long run1 than any ordinary temporizing method1 where the cost of a few pounds of blue vitriol is counted1 but not the time consumed2 and the disease is thus kept lingering in the flock for years4 ,some ,northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads as a remedy for this disease2 and in cases of ordinary virulence1 especially where the disease is chronic1 it seems to dry up the ulcers1 and keep the malady under4 ,sheep are also sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry surface1 and driving them over a barn-floor daily1 which is well covered with quick-lime4 ,it may sometimes1 and under peculiar circumstances1 be cured by dryness1 and repeated washing with soap-suds4 ,many farmers select rainy weather as the time for doctoring their sheep4 ,their feet are then soft1 and it is therefore on all accounts good economy1 when the feet are to be pared1 and each separately treated1 provided they can be kept in sheep-houses1 or under shelters of any kind1 until the rain is over1 and the grass again dry4 ,if immediately let out in wet grass of any length1 the vitriol or other application is measurably washed away4 ,this is avoided by many1 by dipping the feet in more tar--an admirable plan under such circumstances4 ,a flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail1 is considered more valuable than one which has never had it4 ,they are far less liable to contract the disease from any casual exposure2 and its ravages are far less violent and general among them4 ,this ailment should not be confounded with a temporary soreness1 or inflammation of the hoof1 occasioned by the irritation from the long1 rough grasses which abound in low situations1 which is removed with the cause2 or1 if it continues1 white paint or tar may be applied1 after a thorough washing4 ,,hoove4 ,this is not common1 to any dangerous degree1 among sheep2 but1 if turned upon clover when their stomachs are empty1 it will sometimes ensue4 ,hoove is a distension of the paunch by gas extricated from the fermentation of its vegetable contents1 and evolved more rapidly1 or in larger quantities1 than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline secretions of the stomach4 ,when the distention is great1 the blood is prevented from circulating in the vessels of the rumen1 and is determined to the head4 ,the diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from making its ordinary contractions1 and respiration1 therefore1 becomes difficult and imperfect4 ,death1 in such cases1 soon supervenes4 ,treatment4 ,in ordinary cases1 gentle but prolonged driving will effect a cure4 ,when the animal appears swelled almost to bursting1 and is disinclined to move1 it is better to open the paunch at once4 ,at the most protruberant point of the swelling1 on the left side1 a little below the hip bone1 plunge a trochar or knife1 sharp at the point and dull on the edge1 into the stomach4 ,the gas will rapidly escape1 carrying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach4 ,if no measures are taken to prevent it1 the peristaltic motion1 as well as the collapse of the stomach1 will soon cause the orifices through the abdomen and paunch not to coincide1 and thus portions of the contents of the former will escape into the cavity of the latter4 ,however perfect the cure of hoove1 these substances in the belly will ultimately produce fatal irritation4 ,to prevent this1 a canula1 or little tube1 should be inserted through both orifices as soon as the puncture is made4 ,where the case is not imminent1 alkalies have sometimes been successfully administered1 which combine with the carbonic acid gas1 and thus at once reduce its volume4 ,a flexible probang1 or in default of it1 a rattan1 or grape-vine1 with a knot on the end1 may be gently forced down the gullet1 and the gas thus permitted to escape4 ,,hydatid ,,on ,,the ,,brain4 ,the symptoms of this disease1 known as turnsick1 sturdy1 staggers1 water in the head1 etc41 are a dull1 moping appearance1 the sheep separating from the flock1 a wandering and blue appearance of the eye1 and sometimes partial or total blindness2 the sheep appears unsteady in its walk1 will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down1 at others gallop across the field1 and1 after the disease has existed for some time1 will almost constantly move round in a circle--there seems1 indeed1 to be an aberration of the intellect of the animal4 ,these symptoms1 though rarely all present in the same subject1 are yet sufficiently marked to prevent any mistake as to the nature of the disease4 ,on examining the brain of sheep thus affected1 what appears to be a watery bladder1 called a hydatid1 is found1 which may be either small or of the size of a hen's egg4 ,this hydatid1 one of the class of entozooens1 has been termed by naturalists the hydatis polycephalus cerebralis1 or many-headed hydatid of the brain2 these heads being irregularly distributed on the surface of the bladder1 and on the front part of each head there is a mouth surrounded by minute sharp hooks within a ring of sucking disks4 ,these disks serve as the means of attachment1 by forming a vacuum1 and bring the mouth in contact with the surface1 and thus1 by the aid of the hooks1 the parasite is nourished4 ,the coats of the hydatid are disposed in several layers1 one of which appears to possess a muscular power4 ,these facts are developed by the microscope1 which also discloses numerous little bodies adhering to the internal membrane4 ,the fluid in the bladder is usually clear but occasionally turbid1 and then it has been found to contain a number of minute worms4 ,treatment4 ,this is deemed an almost incurable disorder4 ,where the hydatid is not imbedded in the brain1 its constant pressure1 singularly enough1 causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed1 and finally the part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft enough to yield under the pressure of the finger4 ,when such a spot is discovered1 the ,english veterinarians usually dissect back the muscular integuments1 remove a portion of the bone1 carefully divide the investing membranes of the brain1 and then1 if possible1 remove the hydatid whole2 or1 failing to do this1 remove its fluid contents4 ,the membranes and integuments are then restored to their position1 and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole4 ,the ,french veterinarians usually simply puncture the cranium and the cyst with a trochar1 and laying the sheep on its back1 allow the fluid to run out through the orifice thus made4 ,a common awl would answer every purpose for such a puncture2 and the puncture is the preferable method for the unskilled practitioner4 ,an instance is1 indeed1 recorded of a cure having been effected1 where the animal had been given up1 by boring with a gimlet into the soft place on the head1 when the water rushed out1 and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture4 ,when1 however1 the hazard and cruelty attending the operation1 under the most favorable circumstances1 are considered1 as well as the conceded liability of a return of the malady--the growth of new hydatids--it is evident that in this country1 it would not be worth while1 except in the case of uncommonly valuable sheep1 to adopt any other remedy than depriving the miserable animal of life4 ,,obstruction ,,of ,,the ,,gullet4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,barrack ,,for ,,storing ,,sheep-,,fodder4 ,after pouring a little oil in the throat1 the obstructing substance which occasions the choking1 can frequently be removed up or down by external manipulation4 ,if not1 it may usually be forced down with the flexible probang1 described in ,cattle and their ,diseases1 or a flexible rod1 the head of which is guarded by a knot1 or a little bag of flax-seed4 ,the latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or two1 is partly converted into mucilage1 which constantly exudes through the cloth1 and protects the oesophagus1 or gullet1 from laceration4 ,but little force must be used1 and the whole operation conducted with the utmost care and gentleness2 or the oesophagus will be so far lacerated as to produce death1 although the obstruction is removed4 ,,ophthalmia4 ,ophthalmia1 or inflammation of the eyes1 is not uncommon in this country2 but it is little noticed1 as1 in most cases1 it disappears in a few days1 or1 at worst1 is only followed by cataract1 which1 being usually confined to one eye1 does not appreciably effect the value of the animal1 and therefore has no influence on its market price4 ,treatment4 ,some recommend blowing pulverized red chalk in the inflamed eye2 others squirt into it tobacco juice4 ,as a matter of humanity1 blood may be drawn from under the eye1 and the eye bathed in tepid water1 and occasionally with a weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined with tincture of opium4 ,these latter applications diminish the pain1 and hasten the cure4 ,,palsy4 ,paralysis1 or palsy1 is a diminution or entire loss of the powers of motion in some parts of the body4 ,in the winter1 poor lambs1 or poor pregnant ewes1 or poor feeble ewes immediately after yeaning in the spring1 occasionally lose the power of walking or standing rather too suddenly to have it referable to increasing debility4 ,the animal seems to have lost all strength in its loins1 and the hind-quarters are powerless2 it makes ineffectual attempts to rise1 and cannot stand if placed upon its feet4 ,treatment4 ,warmth1 gentle stimulants1 and good nursing may raise the patient2 but1 in the vast majority of cases1 it is more economical and equally humane1 to deprive it of life at once4 ,,pelt-,,rot4 ,this is often mistaken for the scab1 but it is1 in fact1 a different and less dangerous disease4 ,the wool falls off1 and leaves the sheep nearly naked2 but it is attended with no soreness1 though a reddish crust will cover the skin1 from the wool which has dropped4 ,it generally arises from hard keeping and much exposure to cold and wet2 and1 in fact1 the animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers on account of the loss of its coat4 ,the remedy is full feeding1 a warm stall1 and anointing the hard part of the skin with tar1 oil1 and butter4 ,some1 however1 do nothing for it1 scarcely considering it a disease4 ,such say that if the condition of a poor sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable1 by generous keep in the winter1 the wool is very apt to drop off2 and1 if yet cold1 the sheep will require warm shelter4 ,,pneumonia4 ,pneumonia--or inflammation of the lungs--is not a common disease in the ,northern ,states2 but undoubted cases of it sometimes occur1 after sheep have been exposed to sudden cold1 particularly when recently shorn4 ,the adhesions occasionally witnessed between the lungs and pleura of slaughtered sheep1 betray the former existence of this disease in the animal--though1 in many instances1 it was so slight as to be mistaken1 at the time1 for a hard cold4 ,symptoms4 ,the animal is dull1 ceases to ruminate1 neglects its food1 drinks frequently and largely1 and its breathing is rapid and laborious2 the eye is clouded2 the nose discharges a tenacious1 fetid matter2 the teeth are ground frequently1 so that the sound is audible at some distance2 the pulse is at first hard and rapid1 sometimes intermits1 but before death it becomes weak4 ,during the height of the fever1 the flanks heave violently2 there is a hard1 painful cough during the first stages1 which becomes weaker1 and seems to be accompanied with more pain as death approaches4 ,after death1 the lungs are found more or less hepatized--that is1 permanently condensed and engorged with blood1 so that their structure resembles that of the hepar1 or liver--and they have so far lost their integrity that they are torn asunder by the slightest force4 ,it may here be remarked that when sheep die from any cause1 with their blood in them1 the lungs have a dark1 hepatized appearance4 ,whether they are actually hepatized or not1 can readily be decided by compressing the windpipe1 so that air cannot escape through it1 and then between such compression and the body of the lungs1 in a closely fitting orifice1 inserting a goose-quill1 or other tube1 and continuing to blow until the lungs are inflated as far as they can be4 ,as they inflate1 they will become of a lighter color1 and plainly manifest their cellular structure4 ,if any portions of them cannot be inflated1 and retain their dark1 liver-like consistence1 and color1 they exhibit hepatization--the result of high inflammatory action--and a state utterly incompatible1 in the living animal1 with the discharge of the natural functions of the viscus4 ,treatment4 ,in the first1 or inflammatory stages1 bleeding and aperients are clearly called for4 ,some recommend early and copious bleeding1 repeated1 if necessary1 in a few hours2 this followed by aperient medicines1 such as two ounces of ,epsom salts1 which may be repeated in smaller doses1 if the bowels are not sufficiently relaxed4 ,the following sedative may also be given with gruel1 twice a day3 nitrate of potash1 one drachm2 powdered digitalis1 one scruple2 and tartarized antimony1 one scruple4 ,while depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance--the short continuance--of the febrile state1 yet excitation like this will soon be followed by corresponding exhaustion1 when the bleeding and purging would be murderous expedients2 and gentian1 ginger1 and the spirits of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure4 ,,poison4 ,sheep will often1 in the winter or spring1 eat greedily of the low laurel4 ,the animal appears afterward to be dull and stupid1 swells a little1 and is constantly gulping up a feverish fluid1 which it swallows again2 a part of it will trickle out of its mouth1 and discolor its lips4 ,the plant probably brings on a fermentation in the stomach1 and nature endeavors to throw off the poisonous herb by retching or vomiting4 ,treatment4 ,in the early stages1 if the greenish fluid be allowed to escape from the stomach1 the animal generally recovers4 ,to effect this1 gag the sheep1 which may be done in this manner3 ,take a stick of the size of the wrist1 six inches long--place it in the animal's mouth--tie a string to one end of it1 pass it over the head and down to the other end1 and there make it fast4 ,the fluid will then run from the mouth as fast as thrown up from the stomach4 ,in addition to this1 give roasted onions and sweetened milk freely4 ,a better plan1 however1 is to force a gill of melted lard down the throat2 or1 boil for an hour the twigs of the white ash1 and give one-half to one gill of the strong liquor immediately2 to be repeated1 if not successful4 ,drenchers of milk and castor-oil are also recommended4 ,,rot4 ,this disease1 which sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep1 in ,england1 in a single year1 is comparatively unknown in this country4 ,it prevails somewhat in the ,western ,states1 from allowing sheep to pasture on land that is overflowed with water4 ,even a crop of green oats1 early in the fall1 before a frost comes2 has been known to rot young sheep4 ,symptoms4 ,the first are by no means strongly marked2 there is no loss of condition1 but rather the contrary1 to all appearance4 ,a paleness and want of liveliness of the membranes1 generally1 may be considered as the first symptoms1 to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at the corner of the eye4 ,when in warm1 sultry1 or rainy weather1 sheep that are grazing on low and moist lands1 feed rapidly1 and some of them die suddenly1 there is ground for fearing that they have contracted the rot4 ,this suspicion will be farther increased if1 a few days afterward1 the sheep begin to shrink and grow flaccid about the loins4 ,by pressure about the hips at this time1 a crackling is perceptible now or soon afterward1 the countenance looks pale1 and upon parting the fleece1 the skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red1 and the wool is easily separated from the felt2 and as the disorder advances1 the skin becomes dappled with yellow or black spots4 ,to these symptoms succeed increased dullness1 loss of condition1 and greater paleness of the mucous membranes1 the eye-lids becoming almost white1 and afterward yellow4 ,this yellowness extends to other parts of the body1 and a watery fluid appears under the skin1 the latter becoming loose and flabby1 and the wool coming off readily4 ,the symptoms of dropsy often extend over the body1 and sometimes the sheep becomes chockered1 as it is termed2 a large swelling forms under the jaw1 which1 from the appearance of the fluid which it contains1 is sometimes called the watery poke4 ,the duration of the disease is uncertain2 the animal occasionally dies shortly after becoming affected1 but more frequently it extends to from three to six months1 the sheep gradually losing flesh and pining away1 particularly if1 as is frequently the case1 an obstinate purging supervenes4 ,post-mortem4 ,the whole cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated1 and a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife4 ,the muscles are soft and flabby1 having the appearance of being macerated4 ,the kidneys are pale1 flaccid1 and infiltrated4 ,the mesenteric glands are enlarged1 and engorged with yellow serous fluid4 ,the belly is frequently filled with water1 or purulent matter2 the peritoneum is everywhere thickened1 and the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth4 ,the heart is enlarged and softened1 and the lungs are filled with tubercles4 ,the principal alterations of structure are in the liver1 which is pale1 livid1 and broken down with the slightest pressure2 and on being boiled1 it will almost dissolve away4 ,when the liver is not pale1 it is often curiously spotted2 in some cases it is speckled1 like the back of a toad2 some parts of it1 however1 are hard and schirrous2 others are ulcerated1 and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes4 ,the malady is1 unquestionably1 inflammation of the liver4 ,this fluke is from three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length1 and from one-third to one-half an inch in its greatest breadth4 ,these fluke-worms undoubtedly aggravate the disease1 and perpetuate a state of irritability and disorganization1 which must necessarily undermine the strength of any animal4 ,treatment4 ,this must1 to a considerable extent1 be very unsatisfactory4 ,after the use of dry food and dry bedding1 one of the best preventives is the abundant use of pure salt4 ,in violent attacks1 take eight1 ten1 or twelve ounces of blood1 according to the circumstances of the case2 to this1 let a dose of physic succeed--two or three ounces of ,epsom salts2 and to these means add a change of diet1 good hay in the field1 and hay1 straw1 or chaff in the yard4 ,after the operation of the physic--an additional dose having been administered1 oftentimes1 in order to quicken the action of the first--two or three grains of calomel may be given daily1 mixed with half the quantity of opium1 in order to secure its beneficial1 and ward off its injurious effects on the ruminant4 ,to this should be added common salt1 which acts as a purgative and a tonic4 ,a mild tonic1 as well as an aperient1 is plainly indicated soon after the commencement of rot4 ,the doses should be from two to three drachms1 repeated morning and night4 ,when the inflammatory stage is clearly passed1 stronger tonics may be added to the salt1 and there are none superior to the gentian and ginger roots2 from one to two drachms of each1 finely pounded1 may be added to each dose of the salt4 ,the sheep having a little recovered from the disease1 should still continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm1 and should always have salt within their reach4 ,the rot is not infectious4 ,,scab4 ,this is a cutaneous disease1 analogous to the mange in horses and the itch in man1 and is caused and propagated by a minute insect1 the acarus4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,broad-,,tailed ,,sheep4 ,if one or more female acari are placed on the wool of a sound sheep1 they quickly travel to the root of it1 and bury themselves in the skin1 the place at which they penetrate being scarcely visible1 or only distinguishable by a minute red point4 ,on the tenth or twelfth day1 a little swelling may be detected with the finger1 and the skin changes its color1 and has a greenish blue tint4 ,the pustule is now rapidly formed1 and about the sixteenth day breaks1 when the mothers again appear1 with their little ones attached to their feet1 and covered by a portion of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped4 ,these little ones immediately set to work1 penetrate the neighboring skin1 bury themselves beneath it1 find their proper nourishment1 and grow and propagate1 until the poor creature has myriads of them preying upon him4 ,it is not wonderful that1 under such circumstances1 he should speedily sink4 ,the male acari1 when placed on the sound skin of a sheep1 will likewise burrow their way and disappear for a while1 the pustule rising in due time2 but the itching and the scab soon disappear without the employment of any remedy4 ,the female brings forth from eight to fifteen young at a time4 ,in the ,united ,states1 this disease is comparatively little known1 and never originates spontaneously4 ,the fact1 that short-woolled sheep--like the ,merino--are much less subject to its attacks1 is probably one reason for this slight comparative prevalence4 ,the disease spreads from individual to individual1 and from flock to flock1 not only by means of direct contact1 but by the acari left on posts1 stones1 and other substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves4 ,healthy sheep are1 therefore1 liable to contract the malady1 if turned on pastures previously occupied by scabby sheep1 although some considerable time may have elapsed since the departure of the latter4 ,the sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless4 ,it rubs itself with violence against trees1 stones1 fences1 etc42 scratches itself with its feet1 bites its sores1 and tears off its wool with its teeth2 as the pustules are broken1 their matter escapes1 and forms scabs1 causing red1 inflamed sores1 which constantly extend1 increasing the misery of the tortured animal2 if unrelieved1 he pines away1 and soon perishes4 ,the post-mortem appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive4 ,there is generally chronic inflammation of the intestines1 with the presence of a great number of worms4 ,the liver is occasionally schirrous1 and the spleen enlarged2 and there are frequently serous effusions in the belly1 and sometimes in the chest4 ,there has been evident sympathy between the digestive and the cutaneous systems4 ,treatment4 ,first1 separate the sheep2 then cut off the wool as far as the skin feels hard to the finger2 the scab is then washed with soap-suds1 and rubbed hard ,with a shoe-brush1 so that it may be cleansed and broken4 ,for this use take a decoction of tobacco1 to which add one-third1 by measure1 of the lye of wood-ashes1 as much hog's lard as will be dissolved by the lye1 a small quantity of tar from a tar-bucket1 which contains grease1 and about one-eighth of the whole1 by measure1 of spirits of turpentine4 ,this liquor is rubbed upon the part infected1 and spread to a little distance around it1 in three washings1 with an interval of three days each4 ,this will invariably effect a cure1 when the disorder is only partial4 ,or1 the following3 ,dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic1 in the proportion of half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water4 ,the sheep should be previously washed in soap and water4 ,the infusion must not be permitted to enter the mouth or nostrils4 ,or1 take common mercurial ointment2 for bad cases1 rub it down with three times its weight of lard--for ordinary cases1 five times its weight4 ,rub a little of this ointment into the head of the sheep4 ,part the wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail1 and then apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way4 ,make a similar furrow and application on each side1 four inches from the first2 and so on1 over the whole body4 ,the quantity of ointment after composition with the lard1 should not exceed two ounces2 and1 generally1 less will suffice4 ,a lamb requires but one-third as much as a grown sheep4 ,this will generally cure2 but1 if the animal should continue to rub itself1 a lighter application of the same should be made in ten days4 ,or1 take two pounds of lard or palm oil2 half a pound of oil of tar2 and one pound of sulphur2 gradually mix the last two1 then rub down the compound with the first4 ,apply as before4 ,or1 take of corrosive sublimate1 one half a pound2 white hellabore1 powdered1 three-fourths of a pound2 whale or other oil1 six gallons2 rosin1 two pounds2 and tallow1 two pounds4 ,the first two to be mixed with a little of the oil1 and the rest being melted together1 the whole to be gradually mixed4 ,this is a powerful preparation1 and must not be applied too freely4 ,an erysipelatous scab1 or erysipelas1 attended with considerable itching1 sometimes troubles sheep4 ,this is a febrile disease1 and is treated with a cooling purgative1 bleeding1 and oil or lard applied to the sores4 ,,small-,,pox4 ,the author acknowledges himself indebted for what follows under this head to ,r4 ,mc,clure1 ,v4 ,s41 of ,philadelphia1 author of a ,prize ,essay on ,diseases of ,sheep1 read before the ,u4 ,s4 ,agricultural ,society1 in #ahfj1 for which a medal and diploma were awarded4 ,although the small-pox in domestic animals has1 fortunately1 been as yet confined to the ,european ,continent--where it has been chiefly limited to ,england--no good reason can ever be assigned why it should not at some future time make its appearance among us1 especially when we remember how long a period elapsed1 during which we escaped the cattle plague1 although the ,continent had long been suffering from it4 ,the small-pox in sheep--variola overia--is1 at times1 epizooetic in the flocks of ,france and ,italy1 but was unknown in ,england until #ahdg1 when it was communicated to a flock at ,datchett and another at ,pinnier by some ,merinos from ,spain4 ,it soon found its way into ,hampshire and ,norfolk1 but was shortly afterward supposed to be eradicated4 ,in #ahfb1 however1 it suddenly reappeared in a severe form among the flocks of ,wiltshire2 for which reappearance neither any traceable infection nor contagion could be assigned4 ,with the present light upon the subject1 it would seem to be an instance of the origination anew of a malignant type of varioloid disease4 ,such an origin is1 in fact1 assigned to this disease in ,africa1 it being well established that certain devitalizing atmospheric influences produce skin diseases1 and facilitate the appearance of pustular eruptions4 ,the disease once rooted soon becomes epizooetic1 and causes a greater mortality than any other malady affecting this animal4 ,out of a flock numbering #agbj1 #ibj were attacked in a natural way1 of which #ej per cent4 died4 ,of #hjj inoculated cases1 but #cf per cent4 died4 ,numerous experiments have proved beyond all doubt that this disease in sheep is both infectious and contagious2 its period of incubation varies from seven to fourteen days4 ,the mortality is never less than #be per cent41 and not unfrequently whole flocks have been swept away1 death taking place in the early stages of the eruption1 or in the stages of suppuration and ulceration4 ,the symptoms may be mapped out as follows3 ,the animal is seized with a shivering fit1 succeeded by a dull stupidity1 which remains until death or recovery results2 on the second or third day1 pimples are seen on the thighs and arm-pits1 accompanied with extreme redness of the eyes1 complete loss of appetite1 etc41 etc4 ,it is needless to enumerate other symptoms which exist in common with those of other disorders4 ,prevention4 ,at present1 but two modes are resorted to1 for the purpose of preventing the spread of the disease1 which promise any degree of certainty of success4 ,the first is by inoculation1 which was recommended by ,professor ,simonds1 of ,london4 ,this distinguished pathologist appears to have overlooked the fact that he was thereby only enlarging the sphere of mischief1 by imparting the disease to animals that1 in all probability1 would otherwise have escaped it4 ,by inoculation1 moreover1 a form of the disease is given1 not of a modified character1 but with all the virulence of the original affection which is to be arrested1 and equally as potent for further destruction of others4 ,by such teaching1 inoculation and vaccination would be made one and the same thing1 notwithstanding their dissimilarity4 ,even vaccination will not protect the animal1 as has been already shown by the experiments of ,hurbrel ,d',arboval4 ,the second and best plan of prevention is isolation and destruction1 as recommended by ,professor ,gamgee1 of the ,edinburgh ,veterinary ,college4 ,this proved a great protection to the sheep-farmers of ,wiltshire1 in #ahfb4 ,in all epizooetic diseases1 individual cases occur1 which1 when pointed out and recognized as soon as the fever sets in and the early eruptions appear1 should be slaughtered at once and buried1 and the rest of the flock isolated4 ,by this means the disease has been confined to but two or three in a large flock4 ,treatment4 ,in treating this disease1 resort has of late been had to a plant1 known as ,sarracenia purpura--,indian cup1 or pitcher plant--used for this purpose by the ,micmacs1 a tribe of ,indians in ,british ,north ,america4 ,this plant is indigenous1 perennial1 and is found from the coast of ,labrador to the shores of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 growing in great abundance on wet1 marshy ground4 ,the use of this plant is becoming quite general1 and good results have almost uniformly attended it4 ,take from one to two ounces of the dried root1 and slice in thin pieces2 place in an earthen pot2 add a quart of cold water1 and allow the liquid to simmer gently over a steady fire for two or three hours1 so as to lose one-fourth of the quantity4 ,give of this decoction three wine-glassfuls at once1 and the same quantity from four to six hours afterwards1 when a cure will generally be affected4 ,weaker and smaller doses are certain preventives of the disease4 ,the public are indebted to ,dr4 ,morris1 physician to the ,halifax 7,nova ,scotia7 ,dispensary1 for the manner of preparing this eminently useful article4 ,,sore ,,face4 ,sheep feeding on pastures infested with ,john's wort1 frequently exhibit an irritation of skin about the nose and face1 which causes the hair to drop off from the parts4 ,the irritation sometimes extends over the entire body4 ,if this plant is eaten in too large quantities1 it produces violent inflammation of the bowels1 and is frequently fatal to lambs1 and sometimes to adults4 ,treatment4 ,rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface4 ,if there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels1 this should be put into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick4 ,abundance of salt is deemed a preventive4 ,,sore ,,mouth4 ,the lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in the winter1 and swell to the thickness of a man's hand4 ,the malady occasionally attacks whole flocks1 and becomes quite fatal4 ,it is usually attributed to noxious weeds cut with the hay4 ,treatment4 ,daub the lips and mouth plentifully with tar4 ,,ticks4 ,the treatment necessary as a preventive against these insects1 and a remedy for them1 has already been indicated under the head of ,,feeding ,,and ,,management1 to which the reader is referred4 ,,swine ,,and ,,their ,,diseases4 ,illustration ,,history ,,and ,,breeds4 ,the hog is a cosmopolite1 adapting itself to almost every climate2 though its natural haunts--like those of the hippopotamus1 the elephant1 the rhinoceros1 and most of the thick-skinned animals--are in warm countries4 ,they are most abundant in ,china1 the ,east ,indies1 and the immense range of islands extending throughout the whole ,southern and ,pacific oceans2 but they are also numerous throughout ,europe1 from its ,southern coast to the ,russian dominions within the ,arctic4 ,as far back as the records of history extend1 this animal appears to have been known1 and his flesh made use of as food4 ,nearly fifteen hundred years before ,christ1 ,moses gave those laws to the ,israelites which have given rise to so much discussion2 and it is evident that1 had not pork been the prevailing food of that nation at the time1 such stringent commandments and prohibitions would not have been necessary4 ,the various allusions to this kind of meat1 which repeatedly occur in the writings of the old ,greek authors1 show the esteem in which it was held among that nation2 and it appears that the ,romans made the art of breeding1 rearing1 and fattening pigs a study4 ,in fact1 the hog was very highly prized among the early nations of ,europe2 and some of the ancients even paid it divine honors4 ,the ,jews1 the ,egyptians1 and the ,mohammedans alone appear to have abstained from the flesh of swine4 ,the former were expressly denied its use by the laws of ,moses4 ,and the swine1 though he divide the hoof1 and be cloven-footed1 yet he cheweth not the cud2 he is unclean unto you4 ,lev4 xi4 #g4 ,upon this prohibition1 ,mohammed1 probably1 founded his own4 ,for the ,mosaic prohibition1 various reasons have been assigned3 the alleged extreme filthiness of the animal2 it being afflicted with a leprosy2 the great indigestibility of its flesh in hot climates2 the intent to make the ,jews a peculiar people2 a preventive of gluttony2 and an admonition of abstinence from sensual and disgusting habits4 ,at what period the animal was reclaimed from his wild ,state1 and by what nation1 cannot be stated4 ,from the earliest times1 in ,england1 the hog has been regarded as a very important animal1 and vast herds were tended by swineherds1 who watched over their safety in the woods1 and collected them under shelter at night4 ,its flesh was the staple article of consumption in every household1 and much of the wealth of the rich and free portion of the community consisted in these animals4 ,hence bequests of swine1 with land for their support1 were often made2 rights and privileges connected with their feeding1 and the extent of woodland to be occupied by a given number1 were granted according to established rules4 ,long after the end of the ,saxon dynasty1 the practice of feeding swine upon the mast and acorns of the forest was continued till the forests were cut down1 and the land laid open for the plough4 ,nature designed the hog to fulfil many important functions in a forest country4 ,by his burrowing after roots and the like1 he turns up and destroys the larvae of innumerable insects1 which would otherwise injure the trees as well as their fruit4 ,he destroys the slug-snail and adder1 and thus not only rids the forests of these injurious and unpleasant inhabitants1 but also makes them subservient to his own nourishment1 and therefore to the benefit of mankind4 ,the fruits which he eats are such as would otherwise rot on the ground and be wasted1 or yield nutriment to vermin2 and his diggings for earth-nuts and the like1 loosens the soil1 and benefits the roots of the trees4 ,hogs in forest land may1 therefore1 be regarded as eminently beneficial2 and it is only the abuse which is to be feared4 ,the hog is popularly regarded as a stupid1 brutal1 rapacious1 and filthy animal1 grovelling and disgusting in all his habits1 intractable and obstinate in temper4 ,the most offensive epithets among men are borrowed from him1 or his peculiarities4 ,in their native state1 however1 swine seem by no means destitute of natural affections2 they are gregarious1 assemble together in defence of each other1 herd together for warmth1 and appear to have feelings in common2 no mother is more tender to her young than the sow1 or more resolute in their defence4 ,neglected as this animal has ever been by authors1 recorded instances are not wanting of their sagacity1 tractability1 and susceptibility of affection4 ,among the ,european peasantry1 where the hog is1 so to speak1 one of the family1 he may often be seen following his master from place to place1 and grunting his recognition of his protectors4 ,the hog1 in point of actual fact1 is also a much more cleanly animal than he has the credit of being4 ,he is fond of a good1 cleanly bed2 and when this is not provided for him1 it is oftentimes interesting to note the degree of sagacity with which he will forage for himself4 ,it is1 however1 so much the vogue to believe that he may be kept in any state of neglect1 that the terms pig1 and pig-sty are usually regarded as synonymous with all that is dirty and disgusting4 ,his rolling in the mud is cited as a proof of his filthy habits4 ,this practice1 which he shares in common with all the pachydermatous animals1 is undoubtedly the teaching of instinct1 and for the purpose of cooling himself and keeping off flies4 ,pigs are exceedingly fond of comfort and warmth1 and will nestle together in order to obtain the latter1 and often struggle vehemently to secure the warmest berth4 ,they are likewise peculiarly sensitive of approaching changes in the weather1 and may often be observed suddenly leaving the places in which they had been quietly feeding1 and running off to their styes at full speed1 making loud outcries4 ,when storms are overhanging1 they collect straw in their mouths1 and run about as if inviting their companions to do the same2 and if there is a shed or shelter near at hand1 they will carry it there and deposit it1 as if for the purpose of preparing a bed4 ,in their domesticated state1 they are1 undeniably1 very greedy animals2 eating is the business of their lives2 nor do they appear to be very delicate as to the kind or quality of food which is placed before them4 ,although naturally herbivorous animals1 they have been known to devour carrion with all the voracity of beasts of prey1 to eat and mangle infants1 and even gorge their appetites with their own young4 ,it is not1 however1 unreasonable to believe that the last revolting act--rarely if ever happening in a state of nature--arises more from the pain and irritation produced by the state of confinement1 and often filth1 in which the animal is kept1 and the disturbances to which it is subjected1 than from any actual ferocity2 for it is well known that a sow is always unusually irritable at this period1 snapping at all animals that approach her4 ,if she is gently treated1 properly supplied with sustenance1 and sequestered from all annoyance1 there is little danger of this practice ever happening4 ,all the offences which swine commit are attributed to a disposition innately bad2 whereas they too often arise from bad management1 or total neglect4 ,they are legitimate objects for the sport of idle boys1 hunted with curs1 pelted with stones1 often neglected and obliged to find a meal for themselves1 or wander about half-starved4 ,made thus the ,ishmaelites of our domestic animals1 is it a matter of wonder that they should1 under such circumstances1 incline to display ,ishmaelitish traits8 ,in any well-regulated farm-yard1 the swine are as tractable and as little disposed to wander or trespass as any of the animals that it contains4 ,the ,,wild ,,boar is generally admitted to be the parent of the stock from which all our domesticated breeds and varieties have sprung4 ,this animal is generally of a dusky brown or iron-gray color1 inclining to black1 and diversified with black spots or streaks4 ,the body is covered with coarse hairs1 intermixed with a downy wool2 these hairs become bristles as they approach the neck and shoulders1 and are in those places so long as to form a mane1 which the animal erects when irritated4 ,the head is short1 the forehead broad and flat1 the ears short1 rounded at the tips1 and inclined toward the neck1 the jaw armed with sharp1 crooked tusks1 which curve slightly upward1 and are capable of inflicting fearful wounds1 the eye full1 neck thick and muscular1 the shoulders high1 the loins broad1 the tail stiff1 and finished off with a tuft of bristles at the tip1 the haunch well turned1 and the leg strong4 ,a full-grown wild boar in ,india averages from thirty to forty inches in height at the shoulder2 the ,african wild boar is about twenty-eight or thirty inches high4 ,the wild boar is a very active and powerful animal1 and becomes fiercer as he grows older4 ,when existing in a state of nature1 he is generally found in moist1 shady1 and well-wooded situations1 not far remote from streams or water4 ,in ,india1 they are found in the thick jungles1 in plantations of sugar-cane or rice1 or in the thick patches of high1 long grass4 ,in ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,spain1 their resorts have been in the woods and forests4 ,this animal is naturally herbivorous1 and appears to feed by choice upon plants1 fruits1 and roots4 ,he will1 however1 eat the worms and larvae which he finds in the ground1 also snakes and other such reptiles1 and the eggs of birds4 ,they seldom quit their coverts during the day1 but prowl about in search of food during twilight and the night4 ,their acute sense of smell enables them to detect the presence of roots or fruits deeply imbedded in the soil1 and they often do considerable mischief by ploughing up the ground in search of them1 particularly as they do not1 like the common hog1 root up a little spot here and there1 but plough long1 continuous1 furrows4 ,the wild boar1 properly so called1 is neither a solitary nor a gregarious animal4 ,for the first two or three years1 the whole herd follows the sow1 and all unite in defence against any enemies1 calling upon each other with loud cries in case of emergency1 and forming in regular line of battle1 the weakest occupying the rear4 ,when arrived at maturity1 the animals wander alone1 as if in perfect consciousness of their strength1 and appear as if they neither sought nor avoided any living creature4 ,they are reputed to live about thirty years2 as they grow old1 the hair becomes gray1 and the tusks begin to show symptoms of decay4 ,old boars rarely associate with a herd1 but seem to keep apart from the rest1 and from each other4 ,the female produces but one litter in the year1 much smaller in number than those of the domestic pig2 she carries her young sixteen or twenty weeks1 and generally is only seen with the male during the rutting season4 ,she suckles her young for several months1 and continues to protect them for some time afterward2 if attacked at that time1 she will defend herself and them with exceeding courage and fierceness4 ,many sows will often be found herding together1 each followed by her litter of young2 and in such parties they are exceedingly formidable to man and beast4 ,neither they nor the boar1 however1 seem desirous of attacking any thing2 and only when roused by aggression1 or disturbed in their retreat1 do they turn upon their enemies and manifest the mighty strength with which ,nature has endowed them4 ,when attacked by dogs1 the wild boar at first sullenly retreats1 turning upon them from time to time and menacing them with his tusks2 but gradually his anger rises1 and at length he stands at bay1 fights furiously for his life1 and tears and rends his persecutors4 ,he has even been observed to single out the most tormenting of them1 and rush savagely upon him4 ,hunting this animal has been a favorite sport1 in almost all countries in which it has been found1 from the earliest ages4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wild ,,boar ,,at ,,bay4 ,wild boars lingered in the forests of ,england and ,scotland for several centuries after the ,norman conquest1 and many tracts of land in those countries derived their name from this circumstance2 while instances of valor in their destruction are recorded in the heraldic devices of many of their noble families4 ,the precise period at which the animal became exterminated there cannot be precisely ascertained4 ,they had1 however1 evidently been long extinct in the time of ,charles ,i41 since he endeavored to re-introduce them1 and was at considerable expense to procure a wild boar and his mate from ,germany4 ,they still exist in ,upper ,austria1 on the ,syrian ,alps1 in many parts of ,hungary1 and in the forests of ,poland1 ,spain1 ,russia1 and ,sweden2 and the inhabitants of those countries hunt them with hounds1 or attack them with fire-arms1 or with the proper boar-spear4 ,all the varieties of the domestic hog will breed with the wild boar2 the period of gestation is the same in the wild and the tame sow2 their anatomical structure is identical2 their general form bears the same characters2 and their habits1 so far as they are not changed by domestication1 remain the same4 ,where individuals of the pure wild race have been caught young and subjected to the same treatment as a domestic pig1 their fierceness has disappeared1 they have become more social and less nocturnal in their habits1 lost their activity1 and lived more to eat4 ,in the course of one or two generations1 even the form undergoes certain modifications2 the body becomes larger and heavier2 the legs shorter1 and less adapted for exercise2 the formidable tusks of the boar1 being no longer needed as weapons of defence1 disappear2 the shape of the head and neck alters2 and in character as well as in form1 the animal adapts itself to its situation4 ,nor does it appear that a return to their native wilds restores to them their original appearance2 for1 in whatever country pigs have escaped from the control of man1 and bred in the wilderness and woods1 not a single instance is on record in which they have resumed the habits and form of the wild boar4 ,they1 indeed1 become fierce1 wild1 gaunt1 and grisly1 and live upon roots and fruits2 but they are1 notwithstanding1 merely degenerated swine1 and they still associate together in herds1 and do not walk solitary and alone1 like their grim ancestors4 ,,american ,,swine4 ,in the ,united ,states1 swine have been an object of attention since its earliest settlement1 and whenever a profitable market has been found for pork abroad1 it has been exported to the full extent of the demand4 ,swine are not1 however1 indigenous to this country1 but were doubtless originally brought hither by the early ,english settlers2 and the breed thus introduced may still be distinguished by the traces they retain of their parent stock4 ,france1 also1 as well as ,spain1 and1 during the existence of the slave-trade1 ,africa1 have also combined to furnish varieties of this animal1 so much esteemed throughout the whole of the country1 as furnishing a valuable article of food4 ,for nearly twenty years following the commencement of the general ,european wars1 soon after the organization of our national government1 pork was a comparatively large article of commerce2 but exports for a time diminished1 and it was not until within a more recent period that this staple has been brought up to its former standard as an article of exportation to that country4 ,the recent use which has been made of its carcass in converting it into lard oil1 has tended to still further increase its consumption4 ,by the census of #ahfj1 there were upward of thirty-two and a half millions of these animals in the ,united ,states4 ,they are reared in every part of the ,union1 and1 when properly managed1 always at a fair profit4 ,at the extreme ,north1 in the neighborhood of large markets1 and on such of the ,southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar or rice1 they should not be raised beyond the number required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced4 ,swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or orchard2 since1 with little additional food besides what is thus afforded1 they can be put in good condition for the butcher4 ,on the rich bottoms and other lands of the ,west1 however1 where ,indian corn is raised in profusion and at small expense1 they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit4 ,the ,scioto1 ,miami1 ,wabash1 ,illinois1 and other valleys1 and extensive tracts in ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,missouri1 and some adjoining ,states1 have for many years taken the lead in the production of ,swine2 and it is probable that the climate and soil1 which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth1 as well as that of their appropriate food1 will enable them to hold their position as the leading pork-producers of the ,north ,american ,continent4 ,the breeds cultivated in this country are numerous2 and1 like our native cattle1 they embrace many of the best1 and a few of the worst1 to be found among the species4 ,great attention has been paid1 for many years1 to their improvement in the ,eastern ,states2 and nowhere are there better specimens than in many of their yards4 ,this spirit has rapidly extended ,west and ,south2 and among most of the intelligent farmers1 who make them a leading object of attention1 on their rich corn-grounds1 swine have attained a high degree of excellence4 ,this does not consist in the introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races1 so much as in the breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening1 from such meritorious individuals of any breed1 or their crosses1 as come within their reach4 ,,the ,,byefield4 ,this breed was formerly in high repute in the ,eastern ,states1 and did much good among the species generally4 ,they are white1 with fine curly hair1 well made and compact1 moderate in size and length1 with broad backs1 and at fifteen months attaining some three hundred to three hundred and fifty pounds net4 ,,the ,,bedford4 ,the ,bedford or ,woburn is a breed originating with the ,duke of ,bedford1 on his estate at ,woburn1 and brought to their perfection1 probably1 by judicious crosses of the ,chinese hog on some of the best ,english swine4 ,a pair was sent by the duke to this country1 as a present to ,general ,washington2 but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger1 in ,maryland1 in which ,state1 and in ,pennsylvania1 they were productive of much good at an early day1 by their extensive distribution through different ,states4 ,several other importations of this breed have been made at various times1 and especially by the enterprising masters of the ,liverpool packets1 in the neighborhood of ,new ,york4 ,they are a large1 spotted animal1 well made1 and inclining to early maturity and fattening4 ,this is an exceedingly valuable hog1 but nearly extinct1 both in ,england and in this country1 as a breed4 ,,the ,,leicester4 ,the old ,leicestershire breed1 in ,england1 was a perfect type of the original hogs of the midland counties2 large1 ungainly1 slab-sided animals1 of a light color1 and spotted with brown or black4 ,the only good parts about them were their heads and ears1 which showed greater traces of breeding than any other portions4 ,these have been materially improved by various crosses1 and the original breed has nearly lost all its peculiarities and defects4 ,they may now be characterized as a large1 white hog1 generally coarse in the bone and hair1 great eaters1 and slow in maturing4 ,some varieties differ essentially in these particulars1 and mature early on a moderate amount of food4 ,the crosses with small compact breeds are generally thrifty1 desirable animals4 ,,the ,,yorkshire4 ,the old ,yorkshire breed was one of the very large varieties1 and one of the most unprofitable for a farmer1 being greedy feeders1 difficult to fatten1 and unsound in constitution4 ,they were of a dirty white or yellow color1 spotted with black1 had long legs1 flat sides1 narrow backs1 weak loins1 and large bones4 ,their hair was short and wirey1 and intermingled with numerous bristles about the head and neck1 and their ears long4 ,when full grown and fat1 they seldom weighed more than from three hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds4 ,these have been crossed with pigs of the improved ,leicester breed2 and where the crossings have been judiciously managed1 and not carried too far1 a fine race of deep-sided1 short-legged1 thin-haired animals has been obtained1 fattening kindly1 and rising to a weight of from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds1 when killed between one and two years old2 and when kept over two years1 reaching even from five hundred to seven hundred pounds4 ,they have also been crossed with the ,chinese1 ,neapolitan1 and ,berkshire breeds1 and hardy1 profitable1 well-proportioned animals thereby obtained4 ,the original breed1 in its purity1 size1 and defectiveness1 is now hardly to be met with1 having shared the fate of the other large old breeds1 and given place to smaller and more symmetrical animals4 ,the ,yorkshire white is among the large breeds deserving commendation among us4 ,to the same class belong also the large ,miami white1 and the ,kenilworth2 each frequently attaining1 when dressed1 a weight of from six hundred to eight hundred pounds4 ,,the ,,chinese4 ,this hog is to be found in the south-eastern countries of ,asia1 as ,siam1 ,cochin ,china1 the ,burman ,empire1 ,cambodia1 ,malacca1 ,sumatra1 and in ,batavia1 and other ,eastern islands2 and is1 without doubt1 the parent stock of the best ,european and ,american swine4 ,there are two distinct varieties1 the white and the black2 both fatten readily1 but from their diminutive size attain no great weight4 ,they are small in limb1 round in body1 short in the head1 wide in the cheek1 and high in the chime2 covered with very fine bristles growing from an exceedingly thin skin2 and not peculiarly symmetrical1 since1 when fat1 the head is so buried in the neck that little more than the tip of the snout is visible4 ,the pure ,chinese is too delicate and susceptible to cold ever to become a really profitable animal in this country2 it is difficult to rear1 and the sows are not good nurses2 but one or two judicious crosses have1 in a manner1 naturalized it4 ,this breed will fatten readily1 and on a comparatively small quantity of food2 the flesh is exceedingly delicate1 but does not make good bacon1 and is often too fat and oily to be generally esteemed as pork4 ,they are chiefly kept by those who rear sucking-pigs for the market1 as they make excellent roasters at three weeks or a month old4 ,five1 and even seven1 varieties of this breed are distinguished1 but these are doubtless the results of different crosses with our native kinds2 among these are black1 white1 black and white1 spotted1 blue and white1 and sandy4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,chinese ,,hog4 ,many valuable crosses have been made with these animals2 for the prevalent fault of the old ,english breeds having been coarseness of flesh1 unwieldiness of form1 and want of aptitude to fatten1 an admixture of the ,chinese breed has materially corrected these defects4 ,most of our smaller breeds are more or less indebted to the ,asiatic swine for their present compactness of form1 the readiness with which they fatten on a small quantity of food1 and their early maturity2 but these advantages are not considered1 in the judgment of some1 as sufficiently great to compensate for the diminution in size1 the increased delicacy of the animals1 and the decrease of number in the litters4 ,the best cross is between the ,berkshire and ,chinese4 ,,the ,,suffolk4 ,the old ,suffolks are white in color1 long-legged1 long-bodied1 with narrow backs1 broad foreheads1 short hams1 and an abundance of bristles4 ,they are by no means profitable animals4 ,a cross between the ,suffolk and ,lincoln has produced a hardy animal1 which fattens kindly1 and attains the weight of from four hundred to five hundred and fifty1 and even seven hundred pounds4 ,another cross1 much approved by farmers1 is that of the ,suffolk and ,berkshire4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,suffolk ,,pig4 ,there are few better breeds1 perhaps1 than the improved ,suffolk--that is1 the ,suffolk crossed with the ,chinese4 ,the greater part of the pigs on the late ,prince ,albert's farm1 near ,windsor1 were of this breed4 ,they are well-formed1 compact1 of medium size1 with round1 bulky bodies1 short legs1 small heads1 and fat cheeks4 ,many1 at a year or fifteen months old1 weigh from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds2 at which age they make fine bacon hogs4 ,the sucking-pigs are also very delicate and delicious4 ,those arising from ,berkshire and ,suffolk are not so well shaped as the latter1 being coarser1 longer-legged1 and more prominent about the hips4 ,they are mostly white1 with thin1 fine hair2 some few are spotted1 and are easily kept in fine condition2 they have a decided aptitude to fatten early1 and are likewise valuable as store-pigs4 ,,the ,,berkshire4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,berkshire ,,boar4 ,the ,berkshire pigs belong to the large class1 and are distinguished by their color1 which is a sandy or whitish brown1 spotted regularly with dark brown or black spots1 and by their having no bristles4 ,the hair is long1 thin1 somewhat curly1 and looks rough2 the ears are fringed with long hair round the outer edge1 which gives them a ragged or feathery appearance2 the body is thick1 compact1 and well formed2 the legs short1 the sides broad1 the head well set on1 the snout short1 the jowl thick1 the ears erect1 skin exceedingly thin in texture1 the flesh firm and well flavored1 and the bacon very superior4 ,this breed has generally been considered one of the best in ,england1 on account of its smallness of bone1 early maturity1 aptitude to fatten on little food1 hardihood1 and the females being good breeders4 ,hogs of the pure original breed have been known to weigh from eight hundred to nine hundred and fifty pounds4 ,numerous crosses have been made from this breed2 the principal foreign ones are those with the ,chinese and ,neapolitan swine1 made with the view of decreasing the size of the animal1 improving the flavor of the flesh1 and rendering it more delicate2 and the animals thus attained are superior to almost any others in their aptitude to fatten2 but are very susceptible to cold1 from being almost entirely without hair4 ,a cross with the ,suffolk and ,norfolk also is much improved1 which produces a hardy kind1 yielding well when sent to the butcher2 although1 under most circumstances1 the pure ,berkshire is the best4 ,no other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the ,united ,states1 within comparatively so brief a period1 as the ,berkshires1 and they have produced a marked improvement in many of our former races4 ,they weigh variously1 from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds net1 at sixteen months1 according to their food and style of breeding2 and some full-grown have dressed to more than eight hundred pounds4 ,they particularly excel in their hams1 which are round1 full1 and heavy1 and contain a large proportion of lean1 tender1 and juicy meat1 of the best flavor4 ,none of our improved breeds afford long1 coarse hair or bristles2 and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided improvement in this department of domestic animals1 that our brush-makers are obliged to import most of what they use from ,russia and northern ,europe4 ,this improvement is manifest not only in the hair1 but in the skin1 which is soft and mellow to the touch2 in the finer bones1 shorter head1 upright ears1 dishing face1 delicate muzzle1 and wild eye2 and in the short legs1 low flanks1 deep and wide chest1 broad back1 and early maturity4 ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,hog4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,hog ,,as ,,covered ,,by ,,the ,,muscles4 #a4 ,the lower jaw4 #b4 ,the teeth4 #c4 ,the nasal bones4 #d4 ,the upper jaw4 #e4 ,the frontal bone4 #f4 ,the orbit or socket of the eye4 #g4 ,the occipital bone4 #h4 ,the first vertebrae of the neck4 #i4 ,the vertebrae of the neck4 #aj4 ,the vertebrae of the back4 #aa4 ,the vertebrae of the loins4 #ab4 ,the bones of the tail4 #ac1 #ad4 ,the true and false ribs4 #ae4 ,the shoulder-blade4 #af4 ,the round shoulder-bone #ag4 ,the breast-bone4 #ah4 ,the elbow4 #ai4 ,the bone of the fore-arm4 #bj4 ,the navicular bone4 #ba4 ,the first and second bones of the foot4 #bb4 ,the bones of the hoof4 #bc4 ,the haunch bones4 #bd4 ,the thigh bone4 #be4 ,the stifle bone4 #bf4 ,the upper bone of the leg4 #bg4 ,the hock bones4 #bh4 ,the navicular bone4 #bi4 ,the first digits of the foot4 #cj4 ,the second digits of the foot4 ,,division4 ,vertebrata--possessing a back-bone4 ,,class4 ,mammalia--such as give suck4 ,,order4 ,pachydermata--thick-skinned4 ,,family4 ,suidae--the swine kind4 ,,genus4 ,sus--the hog4 ,of this genus there are five varieties4 ,sus ,scropa1 or ,domestic ,hog4 ,sus ,papuensis1 or ,bene4 ,sus ,guineensis1 or ,guinea ,hog4 ,sus ,africanus1 or ,masked ,boar4 ,sus ,babirussa1 or ,babirussa4 ,a very slight comparison of the face of this animal with that of any other will prove that strength is the object in view--strength toward the inferior part of the bone4 ,in point of fact1 the snout of the hog is his spade1 with which1 in his natural state1 he digs and ruts in the ground for roots1 earth-nuts1 worms1 etc4 ,to render this implement more nearly perfect1 an extra bone is added to the nasal bone1 being connected with it by strong ligaments1 cartilages1 and muscles1 and termed the snout-bone1 or spade-bone1 or ploughshare4 ,by it and its cartilaginous attachment1 the snout is rendered strong as well as flexible1 and far more efficient than it otherwise could be2 and the hog often continues to give both farmers and gardeners very unpleasant proofs of its efficiency1 by ploughing up deep furrows in newly-sown fields1 and grubbing up the soil in all directions in quest of living and dead food4 ,as roots and fruits buried in the earth form the natural food of the hog1 his face terminates in this strong1 muscular snout1 insensible at the extremity1 and perfectly adapted for turning up the soil4 ,there is a large plexus or fold of nerves proceeding down each side of the nose2 and in these1 doubtless1 resides that peculiar power which enables the hog to select his food1 though buried some inches below the surface of the ground4 ,the olfactory nerve is likewise large1 and occupies a middle rank between that of the herbivorous and carnivorous animals2 it is comparatively larger than that of the ox2 indeed1 few animals--with the exception of the dog1 none--are gifted with a more acute sense of smell than the hog4 ,to it epicures are indebted for the truffles which form such a delicious sauce1 for they are the actual finders4 ,a pig is turned into a field1 allowed to pursue his own course1 and watched4 ,he stops1 and begins to grub up the earth2 the man hurries up1 drives him away1 and secures the truffle1 which is invariably growing under that spot2 and the poor pig goes off to sniff out another1 and another1 only now and then being permitted1 by way of encouragement1 to reap the fruits of his research4 ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,teeth4 ,the hog has fourteen molar teeth in each jaw1 six incisors1 and two canines2 these latter are curved upward1 and commonly denominated tushes4 ,the molar teeth are all slightly different in structure1 and increase in size from first to last2 they bear no slight resemblance to those of the human being4 ,the incisors are so fantastic in form that they cannot well be described1 and their destined functions are by no means clear4 ,those in the lower jaw are long1 round1 and nearly straight2 of those in the upper jaw1 four closely resemble the corresponding teeth in the horse2 while the two corner incisors bear something of the shape of those of the dog4 ,these latter are placed so near the tushes as often to obstruct their growth1 and it is sometimes necessary to draw them1 in order to relieve the animal and enable him to feed4 ,the hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw2 by the time he is three or four months old1 he is provided with his incisive milk-teeth and the tushes2 the supernumerary molars protrude between the fifth and seventh month1 as does the first back molar2 the second back molar is cut at about the age of ten months2 and the third1 generally1 not until the animal is three years old4 ,the upper corner teeth are shed at about the age of six or eight months2 and the lower ones at about seven1 nine1 or ten months old1 and replaced by the permanent ones4 ,the milk tushes are also shed and replaced between six and ten months old4 ,the age of twenty months1 and from that to two years1 is denoted by the shedding and replacement of the middle incisors1 or pincers1 in both jaws1 and the formation of a black circle at the base of each of the tushes4 ,at about two years and a half or three years of age1 the adult middle teeth in both jaws protrude1 and the pincers are becoming black and rounded at the ends4 ,after three years1 the age may be computed by the growth of the tushes2 at about four years1 or rather before1 the upper tushes begin to raise the lip2 at five1 they protrude through the lips2 and at six years1 the tushes of the lower jaw begin to show themselves out of the mouth1 and assume a spiral form4 ,these acquire a prodigious length in old animals1 and particularly in uncastrated boars2 and as they increase in size1 they become curved backward and outward1 and at length are so crooked as to interfere with the motion of the jaws to such a degree that it is necessary to cut off those projecting teeth1 which is done with the file1 or with nippers4 ,illustration ,,breeding ,,and ,,management ,,breeding ,in the selection of a boar and sow for breeding1 much more attention and consideration are requisite than is generally imagined4 ,it is as easy1 with a very little judgment and management1 to procure a good as an inferior breed2 and the former is much more remunerative1 in proportion to the outlay1 than the latter can possibly ever be4 ,the object of the farmer or breeder is to produce and retain such an animal as will be best adapted to the purpose he has in view1 whether that is the consumption of certain things which could not otherwise be so well disposed of1 the converting into hams1 bacon1 and pork1 or the raising of sucking-pigs and porkers for the market4 ,almost all farmers keep one or more pigs to devour the offal and refuse1 which would otherwise be wasted4 ,this is1 however1 a matter totally distinct from breeding swine4 ,in the former case1 the animal or animals are purchased young for a small price1 each person buying as many as he considers he shall have food enough for1 and then sold to the butcher1 or killed1 when in proper condition2 and thus a certain degree of profit is realized4 ,in the latter1 many contingencies must be taken into account3 the available means of feeding them2 whether or not the food may be more profitably disposed of2 the facilities afforded by railroads1 the vicinity of towns1 or large markets1 etc41 for disposing of them4 ,in the breeding of swine1 as much as that of any other livestock1 it is important to pay great attention1 not only to the breed1 but also to the choice of individuals4 ,the sow should produce a great number of young ones1 and she must be well fed to enable her to support them4 ,some sows bring forth ten1 twelve1 or even fifteen pigs at a birth2 but eight or nine is the usual number2 and sows which produce fewer than this must be rejected4 ,it is1 however1 probable that fecundity depends also on the boar2 he should1 therefore1 be chosen from a race which multiplies quickly4 ,if a bacon and a late market be objects1 the large and heavy varieties should be selected1 care being taken that the breed has the character of possessing those qualities most likely to insure a heavy return--growth1 and facility of taking fat4 ,good one-year bacon-hogs being in great demand1 they may be known by their long bodies1 low bellies1 and short legs4 ,with these qualities are usually coupled long1 pendulous ears1 which attract purchasers4 ,if1 however1 hogs are to be sold at all seasons to the butchers1 the animals must attain their full growth and be ready for killing before they are a year old4 ,this quality is particularly prominent in the ,chinese breed2 but among our ordinary varieties1 hogs are often met with better adapted for this purpose than for producing large quantities of bacon and lard4 ,the ,berkshire crossed with ,chinese is an excellent porker4 ,the sow should be chosen from a breed of proper size and shape1 sound and free from blemishes and defects4 ,in every case--whether the object be pork or bacon--the points to be looked for in the sow are a small1 lively head2 a broad and deep chest2 round ribs2 capacious barrel2 a haunch falling almost to the hough2 deep and broad loin2 ample hips2 and considerable length of body1 in proportion to its height4 ,one qualification should ever be kept in view1 and1 perhaps1 should be the first point to which the attention should be directed--that is1 smallness of bone4 ,she should have at least twelve teats2 for it is observed that each pig selects a teat for himself and keeps to it1 so that a pig not having one belonging to him would be starved4 ,a good sow should produce a great number of pigs1 all of equal vigor4 ,she must be very careful of them1 and not crush them by her weight2 above all1 she must not be addicted to eating the after-birth1 and1 what may often follow1 her own young4 ,if a sow is tainted with those bad habits1 or if she has difficult labors1 or brings forth dead pigs1 she must be spayed forthwith4 ,it is1 therefore1 well to bring up several young sows at once1 so as to keep those only which are free from defects4 ,breeding sows and boars should never be raised from defective animals4 ,sows that have very low bellies1 almost touching the ground1 seldom produce large or fine litters4 ,a good-sized sow is generally considered more likely to prove a good breeder and nurse1 and to farrow more easily and safely than a small1 delicate animal4 ,the ancients considered the distinguishing marks of a good boar to be a small head1 short legs1 a long body1 large thighs and neck1 and this latter part thickly covered with strong1 erect bristles4 ,the most experienced modern breeders prefer an animal with a long1 cylindrical body2 small bones2 well-developed muscles2 a wide chest1 which denotes strength of constitution2 a broad1 straight back2 short head and fine snout2 brilliant eyes2 a short1 thick neck2 broad1 well-developed shoulders2 a loose1 mellow skin2 fine1 bright1 long hair1 and few bristles2 and small legs and hips4 ,some give the preference to long1 flapping ears2 but experience seems to demonstrate that those animals are best which have short1 erect1 fine ears4 ,the boar should always be vigorous and masculine in appearance4 ,few domesticated animals suffer so much from in-and-in breeding as swine4 ,where this system is pursued1 the number of young ones is decreased at every litter1 until the sows become1 in a manner1 barren4 ,this practice also undoubtedly contributes to their liability to hereditary diseases1 such as scrofula1 epilepsy1 and rheumatism2 and when those possessing any such diseases are coupled1 the ruin of the flock is easily and speedily effected1 since they are propagated by either parent1 and always most certainly and in most aggravated form1 when occurring in both4 ,as soon as the slightest degeneracy is observed1 the breed should be crossed from time to time1 keeping sight1 however1 while so doing1 of the end in view4 ,the ,chinese will generally be found the best which can be used for this purpose2 since a single cross1 and even two1 with one of these animals1 will seldom do harm1 but often effect considerable improvements4 ,the best formed of the progeny resulting from this cross must be selected as breeders1 and with them the old original stock crossed back again4 ,selection1 with judicious and cautious admixture1 is the true secret of forming and improving the breed4 ,repeated and indiscriminate crosses are as injurious as an obstinate adherence to one particular breed1 and as much to be avoided4 ,the following rules for the selection of the best stock of hogs will apply to all breeds3 ,fertility4 ,in a breeding sow1 this quality is essential1 and it is one which is inherited4 ,besides this1 she should be a careful mother4 ,a young1 untried sow will generally display in her tendencies those which have predominated in the race from which she has descended4 ,both boar and sow should be sound1 healthy1 and in fair1 but not over fat1 condition4 ,form4 ,where a farmer has an excellent breed1 but with certain defects1 or too long in the limb1 or too heavy in the bone1 the sire to be chosen1 whether of a pure or of a cross breed1 should exhibit the opposite qualities1 even to an extreme2 and be1 moreover1 one of a strain noted for early and rapid fattening4 ,if in perfect health1 young stock selected for breeding will be lively1 animated1 hold up the head1 and move freely and nimbly4 ,bristles4 ,these should be fine and scanty1 so as to show the skin smooth and glossy2 coarse1 wirey1 rough bristles usually accompany heavy bones1 large1 spreading hoofs1 and flapping ears1 and thus become one of the indications of a thick-skinned and low breed4 ,color4 ,different breeds of high excellence have their own colors2 white1 black1 parti-colored1 black and white1 sandy1 mottled with large marks of black1 are the most prevalent4 ,a black skin1 with short1 scanty bristles1 and small stature1 demonstrate the prevalence of the ,neapolitan strain1 or the black ,chinese1 or1 perhaps1 an admixture of both4 ,many prefer white2 and in sucking-pigs1 destined for the table1 and for porkers1 this color has its advantages1 and the skin looks more attractive2 it is1 however1 generally thought that the skin of black hogs is thinner than that of white1 and less subject to eruptive diseases4 ,the influence of a first impregnation upon subsequent progeny by other males is at times curiously illustrated4 ,this has been noticed in respect of the sow4 ,a sow of the black and white breed1 in one instance1 became pregnant by a boar of the wild breed of a deep chestnut color4 ,the pigs produced were duly mixed1 the color of the boar being very predominant in some4 ,the sow being afterwards put to a boar of the same breed as herself1 some of the produce were still stained or marked with the chestnut color which prevailed in the first litter2 and the same occurred after a third impregnation1 the boar being then of the same kind as herself4 ,what adds to the force of this case is1 that in the course of many years' observation1 the breed in question was never known to produce progeny having the slightest tinge of chestnut color4 ,a sow is capable of conceiving at the age of six or seven months2 but it is always better not to let her commence breeding too early1 as it tends to weaken her4 ,from ten to twelve months--and the latter is preferable--is about the best age4 ,the boar should be1 at least1 a twelvemonth old--some even recommend eighteen months1 at least--before he is employed for the purpose of propagating his species4 ,if1 however1 the sow has attained her second year1 and the boar his third1 a vigorous and numerous offspring is more likely to result4 ,the boar and sow retain their ability to breed for almost five years2 that is1 until the former is upward of eight years old1 and the latter seven4 ,it is not advisable1 however1 to use a boar after he has passed his fifth year1 nor a sow after her fourth1 unless she has proved a peculiarly valuable breeder--in which case she might produce two or three more litters4 ,a boar left on the pasture1 at liberty with the sows1 might suffice for thirty or forty of them2 but as he is commonly shut up1 and allowed access at stated times only1 so that the young ones may be born at nearly the same time1 it is usual to allow him to serve from six to ten--on no account should he serve more4 ,the best plan is1 to shut up the boar and sow in a sty together2 for1 when turned in among several females1 he is apt to ride them so often that he exhausts himself without effect4 ,the breeding boar should be fed well and kept in high condition1 but not fat4 ,full grown boars being often savage and difficult to tame1 and prone to attack men and animals1 should be deprived of their tusks4 ,whenever it is practicable1 it should always be so arranged that the animals shall farrow early in the spring1 and at the latter end of summer1 or quite the beginning of autumn4 ,in the former case1 the young pigs will have the run of the early pastures1 which will be a benefit to them1 and a saving to their owners2 and there will also be more whey1 milk1 and other dairy produce which can be spared for them by the time they are ready to be weaned4 ,in the second case1 there will be sufficient time for the young to have grown and acquired strength before the cold weather comes on1 which is always very injurious to sucking-pigs4 ,,points ,,of ,a ,,good ,,hog4 ,it may be not amiss to group together what is deemed desirable under this head4 ,no one should be led away by mere name in his selection of a hog4 ,it may be called a ,berkshire1 or a ,suffolk1 or any other breed most in estimation1 and yet1 in reality1 may possess none of this valuable blood4 ,the only sure way to avoid imposition is1 to make name always secondary to points4 ,if a hog is found possessing such points of form as are calculated to insure early maturity and faculty of taking on flesh1 one needs to care but little by what name he is called2 since no mere name can bestow value upon an animal deficient in the qualities already indicated4 ,the true ,berkshire--that possessing a dash of the ,chinese and ,neapolitan varieties--comes1 perhaps1 nearer to the desired standard than any other4 ,the chief points which characterize such a hog are the following3--,in the first place1 sufficient depth of carcass1 and such an elongation of body as will insure a sufficient lateral expansion4 ,the loin and breast should be broad4 ,the breadth of the former denotes good room for the play of the lungs1 and1 as a consequence1 a free and healthy circulation1 essential to the thriving or fattening of any animal4 ,the bone should be small1 and the joints fine--nothing is more indicative of high breeding than this2 and the legs should be no longer than1 when fully fat1 would just prevent the animal's belly from trailing upon the ground4 ,the leg is the least profitable portion of the hog1 and no more of it is required than is absolutely necessary for the support of the rest4 ,the feet should be firm and sound2 the toes should lie well together1 and press straightly upon the ground2 the claws1 also1 should be even1 upright and healthy4 ,the form of the head is sometimes deemed of little or no consequence1 it being generally1 perhaps1 supposed that a good hog may have an ugly head2 but the head of all animals is one of the very principal points in which pure or impure breeding will be most obviously indicated4 ,a high-bred animal will invariably be found to arrive more speedily at maturity1 to take flesh more easily1 and at an earlier period1 and1 altogether1 to turn out more profitably than one of questionable or impure stock4 ,such being the case1 the head of the hog is a point by no means to be overlooked4 ,the description of head most likely to promise--or1 rather to be the accompaniment of--high breeding1 is one not carrying heavy bones1 not too flat on the forehead1 or possessing a snout too elongated2 the snout should be short1 and the forehead rather convex1 curving upward2 and the ear1 while pendulous1 should incline somewhat forward1 and at the same time be light and thin4 ,the carriage of the pig should also be noticed4 ,if this be dull1 heavy1 and dejected1 one may reasonably suspect ill health1 if not some concealed disorder actually existing1 or just about to break forth2 and there cannot be a more unfavorable symptom than a hung-down1 slouching head4 ,of course1 a fat hog for slaughter and a sow heavy with young1 have not much sprightliness of deportment4 ,color is1 likewise1 not to be disregarded4 ,those colors are preferable which are characteristic of the most esteemed breeds4 ,if the hair is scant1 black is desirable1 as denoting connection with the ,neapolitan2 if too bare of hair1 a too intimate alliance with that variety may be apprehended1 and a consequent want of hardihood1 which--however unimportant1 if pork be the object--renders such animals a hazardous speculation for store purposes1 on account of their extreme susceptibility of cold1 and consequent liability to disease4 ,if white1 and not too small1 they are valuable as exhibiting connection with the ,chinese4 ,if light1 or sandy1 or red with black marks1 the favorite ,berkshire is detected2 and so on1 with reference to every possible variety of hue4 ,,treatment ,,during ,,pregnancy4 ,sows with pigs should be well and judiciously fed2 that is to say1 they should have a sufficiency of wholesome1 nutritious food to maintain their strength and keep them in good condition1 but should by no means be allowed to get fat2 as when they are in high condition1 the dangers of parturition are enhanced1 the animal is more awkward and liable to smother and crush her young1 and1 moreover1 never has as much or as good milk as a leaner sow4 ,she should also have a separate sty2 for swine are prone to lie so close together that1 if she is even among others1 her young would be in great danger2 and this sty should be perfectly clean and comfortably littered1 but not so thickly as to admit of the young being able to bury themselves in the straw4 ,as the time of her farrowing approaches1 she should be well supplied with food1 especially if she be a young sow1 and this her first litter1 and also carefully watched1 in order to prevent her devouring the after-birth1 and thus engendering a morbid appetite which will next induce her to fall upon her own young4 ,a sow that has once done this can never afterward be depended upon4 ,hunger1 thirst1 or irritation of any kind1 will often induce this unnatural conduct1 which is another reason why a sow about to farrow should have a sty to herself1 and be carefully attended to1 and have all her wants supplied4 ,,abortion4 ,this is by no means of so common occurrence in the case of the sow as in many other of the domesticated animals4 ,various causes tend to produce it3 insufficiency of food1 eating too much succulent vegetable food1 or unwholesome1 unsubstantial diet2 blows and falls2 and the animal's habit of rubbing itself against hard bodies1 for the purpose of allaying the irritation produced by the vermin or cutaneous eruptions to which it is subject4 ,reiterated copulation does not appear to produce abortion in the sow2 at least to the extent it does in other animals4 ,the symptoms indicative of approaching abortion are similar to those of parturition1 but more intense4 ,there are1 generally1 restlessness1 irritation1 and shivering2 and the cries of the animal evince the presence of severe labor-pains4 ,sometimes the rectum1 vagina1 or uterus1 becomes relaxed1 and one or the other protrudes1 and often becomes inverted at the moment of the expulsion of the foetus1 preceded by the placenta1 which presents itself foremost4 ,nothing can be done1 at the last hour1 to prevent abortion2 but1 from the first1 every predisposing cause should be removed4 ,the treatment will depend upon circumstances4 ,where the animal is young1 vigorous1 and in high condition1 bleeding will be beneficial--not a copious blood-letting1 but small quantities taken at different times2 purgatives may also be administered4 ,if1 when abortion has taken place1 the whole of the litter was not born1 emollient injections may be resorted to with considerable benefit2 otherwise1 the after treatment should be made the same as in parturition1 and the animal should be kept warm1 quiet1 and clean1 and allowed a certain degree of liberty4 ,whenever one sow has aborted1 the causes likely to have produced this accident should be sought1 and an endeavor made1 by removing them1 to secure the rest of the inmates of the piggery from a similar mishap4 ,in cases of abortion1 the foetus is seldom born alive1 and often has been dead for some days2 where this is the case--which may be readily detected by a peculiarly unpleasant putrid exhalation1 and the discharge of a fetid liquid from the vagina--the parts should be washed with a diluted solution of chloride of lime1 in the proportion of one part of chloride to three parts of water1 and a portion of this lotion gently injected into the uterus1 if the animal will submit to it4 ,mild doses of ,epsom salts1 tincture of gentian1 and ,jamaica ginger1 will also act beneficially in such cases1 and1 with attention to diet1 soon restores the animal4 ,,parturition4 ,the period of gestation varies according to age1 constitution1 food1 and the peculiarities of the individual breed4 ,the most usual period during which the sow carries her young is1 according to some1 three months1 three weeks1 and three days1 or one hundred and eight days2 according to others1 four lunar months1 or sixteen weeks1 or about one hundred and thirteen days4 ,it may safely be said to range from one hundred and nine to one hundred and forty-three days4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,hogs4 ,the sow produces from eight to thirteen young at a litter1 and sometimes even more4 ,young and weakly sows not only produce fewer pigs1 but farrow earlier than those of maturer age and sounder condition2 and besides1 as might be expected1 their offspring are deficient in vigor1 oftentimes1 indeed1 puny and feeble4 ,extraordinary fecundity is not however1 desirable1 for nourishment cannot be afforded to more than twelve1 the sow's number of teats4 ,the supernumerary pigs must therefore suffer2 if but one1 it is1 of course1 the smallest and weakest2 a too numerous litter are all1 indeed1 generally undersized and weakly1 and seldom or never prove profitable2 a litter not exceeding ten will usually be found to turn out most advantageously4 ,on account of the discrepancy between the number farrowed by different sows1 it is a good plan1 if it can be managed1 to have more than one breeding at the same time1 in order that the number to be suckled by each may be equalized4 ,the sow seldom recognizes the presence of a strange little one1 if it has been introduced among the others during her absence1 and has lain for half an hour or so among her own offspring in their sty4 ,the approach of the period of farrowing is marked by the immense size of the belly1 by a depression of the back1 and by the distention of the teats4 ,the animal manifests symptoms of acute suffering1 and wanders restlessly about1 collecting straw1 and carrying it to her sty1 grunting piteously meanwhile4 ,as soon as this is observed1 she should be persuaded into a separate sty1 and carefully watched4 ,on no account should several sows be permitted to farrow in the same place at the same time1 as they will inevitably irritate each other1 or devour their own or one another's young4 ,the young ones should be taken away as soon as they are born1 and deposited in a warm spot2 for the sow being a clumsy animal1 is not unlikely in her struggles to overlie them2 nor should they be returned to her1 until all is over1 and the after-birth has been removed1 which should always be done the moment it passes from her2 for young sows1 especially1 will invariably devour it1 if permitted1 and then1 as the young are wet with a similar fluid1 and smell the same they will eat them also1 one after another4 ,some advise washing the backs of young pigs with a decoction of aloes1 colocynth1 or some other nauseous substance1 as a remedy for this2 but the simplest and easiest one is to remove the little ones until all is over1 and the mother begins to recover herself and seek about for them1 when they should be put near her4 ,some also recommend strapping up the sow's mouth for the first three or four days1 only releasing it to admit of her taking her meals4 ,some sows are apt to lie upon and crush their young4 ,this may best be avoided by not keeping her too fat or heavy1 and by not leaving too many young upon her4 ,the straw forming the bed should likewise be short1 and not in too great quantity1 lest the pigs get huddled up under it1 and the sow unconsciously overlie them in that condition4 ,it does not always happen that the parturition is effected with ease4 ,cases of false presentation1 of enlarged foetus1 and of debility in the mother1 often render it difficult and dangerous4 ,the womb will occasionally become protruded and inverted1 in consequence of the forcing pains of difficult parturition1 and even the bladder has been known to come away4 ,these parts must be returned as soon as may be2 and if the womb has come in contact with the dung or litter1 and acquired any dirt1 it must first be washed in lukewarm water1 and then returned1 and confined in its place by means of a suture passed through the lips of the orifice4 ,the easiest and perhaps the best way1 however1 is not to return the protruded parts at all1 but merely tie a ligature round them and leave them to slough off1 which they will do in the course of a few days1 without effusion of blood1 or farther injury to the animal4 ,no sow that has once suffered from protrusion of the womb should be allowed to breed again4 ,,treatment ,,while ,,suckling4 ,much depends upon this2 as many a fine sow and promising litter have been ruined for want of proper and judicious care at this period4 ,immediately after farrowing1 many sows incline to be feverish2 where this is the case1 a light and sparing diet only should be given them for the first day or two1 as gruel1 oatmeal porridge1 whey1 and the like4 ,others1 again1 are very much debilitated1 and require strengthening2 for them1 strong soup1 bread steeped in wine1 or in a mixture of brandy and sweet spirits of nitre1 administered in small quantities1 will often prove highly beneficial4 ,the rations must gradually be increased and given more frequently2 and they must be composed of wholesome1 nutritious1 and succulent substances4 ,all kinds of roots--carrots1 turnips1 potatoes1 and beet-roots--well steamed or boiled1 but never raw1 may be given2 bran1 barley1 and oatmeal1 bran-flour1 ,indian corn1 whey1 sour1 skim1 and butter-milk1 are all well adapted for this period2 and1 should the animal appear to require it1 grain well bruised and macerated may be added4 ,whenever it is possible1 the sow should be turned out for an hour each day1 to graze in a meadow or clover-field1 as the fresh air1 exercise1 and herbage1 will do her immense good4 ,the young pigs must be shut up for the first ten days or fortnight1 after which they will be able to follow her1 and take their share of the benefit4 ,the food should be given regularly at certain hours2 small and often-repeated meals are far preferable to large ones1 since indigestion1 or any disarrangement of the functions of the stomach vitiates the milk1 and produces diarrhoea and other similar affections in the young4 ,the mother should always be well fed1 but not over-fed2 the better and more carefully she is fed1 the more abundant and nutritious will her milk be1 the better will the sucking-pigs thrive1 and the less will she be reduced by suckling them4 ,when a sow is weakly1 and has not a sufficiency of milk1 the young pigs must be taught to feed as early as possible4 ,a kind of gruel1 made of skim-milk and bran1 or oatmeal1 is a good thing for this purpose1 or potatoes1 boiled and then mashed in milk or whey1 with or without the addition of a little bran or oatmeal4 ,toward the period when the pigs are to be weaned1 the sow must be less plentifully fed1 otherwise the secretion of milk will be as great as ever2 it will1 besides1 accumulate1 and there will be hardness1 and perhaps inflammation of the teats4 ,if necessary1 a dose of physic may be given to assist in carrying off the milk2 but1 in general1 a little judicious management in the feeding and weaning will be all that is required4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,young ,,pigs4 ,for the first ten days1 or a fortnight1 the mother will generally be able to support her litter without assistance1 unless1 as has been already observed1 she is weakly1 or her young are too numerous2 in either of which cases they must be fed from the first4 ,when the young pigs are about a fortnight old1 warm milk should be given to them4 ,in another week1 this may be thickened with some species of farina2 and afterward1 as they gain strength and increase in size1 boiled roots and vegetables may be added4 ,as soon as they begin to eat1 an open frame or railing should be placed in the sty under which the little pigs can run1 and on the other side of this should be the small troughs containing their food2 for it never answers to let them eat out of the same trough with their mother1 because the food set before her is generally too strong and stimulating for them1 even if they should secure any of it1 which is1 to say the least1 extremely doubtful4 ,those intended to be killed for sucking-pigs should not be above four weeks old2 most kill them for this purpose on the twenty-first or twenty-second day4 ,the others1 excepting those kept for breeding1 should be castrated at the same time4 ,,castration ,,and ,,spaying4 ,pigs are chiefly castrated with a view to fattening them2 and1 doubtless1 this operation has the desired effect--for at the same time that it increases the quiescent qualities of the animal1 it diminishes also his courage1 spirits1 and nobler attributes1 and even affects his form4 ,the tusks of a castrated boar never grow like those of the natural animal1 but always have a dwarfed1 stunted appearance4 ,the operation1 if possible1 should be performed in the spring or autumn1 as the temperature is the more uniform1 and care should be taken that the animal is in perfect health4 ,those which are fat and plethoric should be prepared by bleeding1 cooling diet and quiet4 ,pigs are castrated at all ages1 from a fortnight to three1 six and eight weeks1 and even four months old4 ,there are various modes of performing this operation4 ,if the pig is not more than six weeks old1 an incision is made at the bottom of the scrotum1 the testicle pushed out1 and the cord cut1 without any precautionary means whatever4 ,when the animal is older1 there is reason to fear that hemorrhage1 to a greater or less extent1 will supervene2 consequently1 it will be advisable to pass a ligature round the cord a little above the spot where the division is to take place4 ,by another mode--to be practised only on very young animals--a portion of the base of the scrotum is cut off1 the testicles forced out1 and the cord sawn through with a somewhat serrated but blunt instrument4 ,if there is any hemorrhage1 it is arrested by putting ashes in the wound4 ,the animal is then dismissed and nothing further done with him4 ,on animals two and three years old1 the operation is some times performed in the following manner3 ,an assistant holds the pig1 pressing the back of the animal against his chest and belly1 keeping the head elevated1 and grasping all the four legs together2 or1 which is the preferable way1 one assistant holds the animal against his chest1 while another kneels down and secures the four legs4 ,the operator then grasps the scrotum with his left hand1 makes one horizontal incision across its base1 opening both divisions of the bag at the same time4 ,the testicles are then pressed out with his finger and thumb1 and removed with a blunt knife1 which lacerates the part without bruising it and rendering it painful4 ,laceration only is requisite in order to prevent the subsequent hemorrhage which would occur1 if the cord were simply severed by a sharp instrument4 ,the wound is then closed by pushing the edges gently together with the fingers1 and it speedily heals4 ,some break the spermatic cord without tearing it2 they twist it1 and then pull it gently and finally until it gives way4 ,in other cases1 a waxed cord is passed as tightly as possible round the scrotum1 above the epididymus1 which completely stops the circulation1 and in a few days the scrotum and testicles will drop off4 ,this operation should never be performed on pigs of more than six weeks of age1 and the spermatic should always1 first of all1 be measured4 ,it1 moreover requires great nicety and skill2 otherwise1 accidents will occur1 and considerable pain and inflammation be caused4 ,too thick a cord1 a knot not tied sufficiently tight1 or a portion of the testicle included in the ligature1 will prevent its success4 ,the most fatal consequence of castration is tetanus1 or lockjaw1 induced by the shock communicated to the nervous system by the torture of the operation4 ,,spaying4 ,this operation consists in removing the ovaries1 and sometimes a portion of the uterus1 more or less considerable1 of the female4 ,the animal is laid upon its left side1 and firmly held by one or two assistants2 an incision is then made into the flank1 the forefinger of the right hand introduced into it1 and gently moved about until it encounters and hooks hold of the right ovary1 which it draws through the opening2 a ligature is then passed round this one1 and the left ovary felt for in like manner4 ,the operator then severs these two ovaries1 either by cutting or tearing1 and returns the womb and its appurtenances to their proper position4 ,this being done1 he closes the wound with two or three stitches1 sometimes rubs a little oil over it1 and releases the animal4 ,all goes on well1 for the healing power of the pig is very great4 ,the after-treatment is very simple4 ,the animals should be well littered with clean straw1 in styes weather-tight and thoroughly ventilated2 their diet should be cared for2 some milk or whey1 with barley-meal is an excellent article2 it is well to confine them for a few days1 as they should be prevented from getting into cold water or mud until the wound is perfectly healed1 and also from creeping through fences4 ,the best age for spaying a sow is about six weeks2 indeed1 as a general rule1 the younger the animal is when either operation is performed the quicker it recovers4 ,some persons1 however1 have two or three litters from their sows before they operate upon them2 where this is the case1 the result is more to be feared1 as the parts have become more susceptible1 and are1 consequently1 more liable to take on inflammation4 ,,weaning4 ,some farmers wean the pigs a few hours after birth1 and turn the sow at once to the boar4 ,the best mode1 however1 is to turn the boar into the hog-yard about a week after parturition1 at which time the sow should be removed a few hours daily from her young4 ,it does not injure either the sow or her pigs if she takes the boar while suckling2 but some sows will not do so until the drying of their milk4 ,the age at which pigs may be weaned to the greatest advantage is when they are about eight or ten weeks old2 many1 however1 wean them as early as six weeks1 but they seldom turn out as well4 ,they should not be taken from the sow at once1 but gradually weaned4 ,at first they should be removed from her for a certain number of hours each day1 and accustomed to be impelled by hunger to eat from the trough2 then they may be turned out for an hour without her1 and afterwards shut up while she also is turned out by herself4 ,subsequently1 they must only be allowed to suck a certain number of times in twenty-four hours2 perhaps six times at first1 then four1 then three1 and1 at last1 only once2 and meanwhile they must be proportionably better and more plentifully fed1 and the mother's diet in a like manner diminished4 ,some advise that the whole litter should be weaned at once2 this is not best1 unless one or two of the pigs are much weaker and smaller than the others2 in such case1 if the sow remain in tolerable condition1 they might be suffered to suck for a week longer2 but this should be the exception1 and not a general rule4 ,pigs are more easily weaned than almost any other animals1 because they learn to feed sooner2 but attention must1 nevertheless1 be paid to them1 if they are to grow up strong1 healthy animals4 ,their styes must be warm1 dry1 clean1 well-ventilated1 and weather-tight4 ,they should have the run of a grass meadow or enclosure for an hour or two every fine day1 in spring and summer1 or be turned into the farm-yard among the cattle in the winter1 as fresh air and exercise tend to prevent them from becoming rickety or crooked in the legs4 ,the most nutritious and succulent food that circumstances will permit should be furnished them4 ,newly-weaned pigs require five or six meals in the twenty-four hours4 ,in about ten days1 one may be omitted2 in another week1 a second2 and then they should do with three regular meals each day4 ,a little sulphur mingled with the food1 or a small quantity of ,epsom or ,glauber salts dissolved in the water1 will frequently prove beneficial4 ,a plentiful supply of clear1 cold water should always be within their reach2 the food left in the trough after the animals have finished eating should be removed1 and the trough thoroughly rinsed out before any more is put into it4 ,strict attention should also be paid to cleanliness4 ,the boars and sows should be kept apart from the period of weaning4 ,the question1 which is more profitable1 to breed swine1 or to buy young pigs and fatten them1 can best be determined by those interested2 since they know best what resources they can command1 and what chance of profits each of these separate branches offers4 ,,ringing4 ,this operation is performed to counteract the propensity which swine have of digging and furrowing up the earth4 ,the ring is passed through what appears to be a prolongation of the septum1 between the supplemental1 or snout-bone1 and the nasal4 ,the animal is thus unable to obtain sufficient purchase to use his snout with any effect1 without causing the ring to press so painfully upon the part that he is forced to desist4 ,the ring1 however1 is apt to break1 or it wears out in process of time1 and has to be replaced4 ,the snout should be perforated at weaning-time1 after the animal has recovered from castration or spaying2 and it will be necessary to renew the operation as it becomes of large growth4 ,it is too generally neglected at first2 but no pigs1 young or old1 should be suffered to run at large without this precaution4 ,the sow's ring should be ascertained to be of sufficient strength previously to her taking the boar1 on account of the risk of abortion1 if the operation is renewed while she is with pig4 ,care must be taken by the operator not to go too close to the bone1 and that the ring turn easily4 ,a far better mode of proceeding is1 when the pig is young1 to cut through the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolongations1 by which the supplementary bone is united to the proper nasals4 ,the divided edges of the cartilage will never re-unite1 and the snout always remains powerless4 ,,feeding ,,and ,,fattening4 ,roots and fruits are the natural food of the hog1 in a wild as well as in a domesticated state2 and it is evident that1 however omnivorous it may occasionally appear1 its palate is by no means insensible to the difference in eatables1 since1 whenever it finds variety1 it will select the best with as much cleverness as other quadrupeds4 ,indeed1 the hog is more nice in the selection of his vegetable diet than any of the other domesticated herbivorous animals4 ,to a certain extent he is omnivorous1 and may be reared on the refuse of slaughter-houses2 but such food is not wholesome1 nor is it natural2 for1 though he is omnivorous1 he is not essentially carnivorous4 ,the refuse of the dairy-farm is more congenial to his health1 to say nothing of the quality of its flesh4 ,swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to nine months old2 and for bacon1 at from a year to two years4 ,eighteen months is generally considered the proper age for a good bacon hog4 ,the feeding will always1 in a great measure1 depend upon the circumstances of the owner--upon the kind of food which he has at his disposal1 and can best spare--and the purpose for which the animal is intended4 ,it will also1 in some degree1 be regulated by the season2 it being possible to feed pigs very differently in the summer from what they are fed in the winter4 ,the refuse wash and grains1 and other residue of breweries and distilleries1 may be given to swine with advantage1 and seem to induce a tendency to lay on flesh4 ,they should not1 however1 be given in too large quantities1 nor unmixed with other and more substantial food2 since1 although they give flesh rapidly when fed on it1 the meat is not firm1 and never makes good bacon4 ,hogs eat acorns and beech-mast greedily1 and so far thrive on this food that it is an easy matter to fatten them afterwards4 ,apples and pumpkins are likewise valuable for this purpose4 ,there is nothing so nutritious1 so eminently and in every way adapted for the purpose of fattening1 as are the various kinds of grain--nothing that tends more to create firmness as well as delicacy in the flesh4 ,indian corn is equal1 if not superior1 to any kind of grain for fattening purposes1 and can be given in its natural state1 as pigs are so fond of it that they will eat up every kernel4 ,the pork and bacon of animals that have been thus fed are peculiarly firm and solid4 ,animal food tends to make swine savage and feverish1 and often lays the foundation of serious inflammation of the intestines4 ,weekly washing with soap and a brush adds wonderfully to the thriving condition of a hog4 ,in the rich corn regions of our ,states1 upon that grain beginning to ripen1 as it does in ,august1 the fields are fenced off into suitable lots1 and large herds are successively turned into them1 to consume the grain at their leisure4 ,they waste nothing except the stalks1 which in that land of plenty are considered of little value1 and they are still useful as manure for succeeding crops2 and whatever grain is left by them1 leaner droves which follow will readily glean4 ,peas1 early buckwheat1 and apples1 may be fed on the ground in the same way4 ,there is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months' keeping1 which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and the cost of storage4 ,if fattened early in the season1 hogs will consume less food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather2 they will require less attention2 and1 generally1 early pork will command the highest price in market4 ,it is most economical to provide swine with a fine clover pasture1 to run in during the spring and summer2 and they ought also to have access to the orchard1 to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that falls4 ,they should also have the wash of the house and the dairy1 to which add meal1 and let it sour in large tubs or barrels4 ,not less than one-third1 and perhaps more1 of the whole grain fed to hogs1 is saved by grinding and cooking1 or souring4 ,care must1 however1 be taken that the souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction4 ,a mixture of meal and water1 with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former fermentation as adhere to the sides or bottom of the vessel1 and exposure to a temperature between sixty-eight and seventy-seven degrees ,fahrenheit1 will produce immediate fermentation4 ,in this process there are five stages3 the saccharine1 by which the starch and gum of the vegetables1 in their natural condition1 are converted into sugar2 the vinous1 which changes the sugar into alcohol2 the mucilaginous1 sometimes taking the place of the vinous1 and occurring where the sugar solution1 or fermenting principle1 is weak1 producing a slimy1 glutinous product2 the acetic1 forming vinegar1 from the vinous or alcoholic stage2 and the putrefactive1 which destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a poison4 ,the precise points in fermentation1 when the food becomes most profitable for feeding1 has not as yet been satisfactorily determined2 but that it should stop short of the putrefactive1 and probably the full maturity of the acetic1 is certain4 ,the roots for fattening ought to be washed1 and steamed or boiled2 and when not intended to be fermented1 the meal may be scalded with the roots4 ,a small quantity of salt should be added4 ,potatoes are the best roots for swine2 then parsnips2 orange or red carrots1 white or ,belgian2 sugar-beets2 mangel-wurtzels2 ruta-bagas2 and then white turnips1 in the order mentioned4 ,the nutritive properties of turnips are diffused through so large a bulk that it is doubtful if they can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage2 and they will barely sustain life when fed to them uncooked4 ,there is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine1 without cooking4 ,when unprepared grain is fed1 it should be on a full stomach1 to prevent imperfect mastication1 and consequent loss of the food4 ,it is better1 indeed1 to have it always before them4 ,the animal machine is an expensive one to keep in motion2 and it should be the object of the farmer to put his food in the most available condition for its immediate conversion into fat and muscle4 ,the following injunctions should be rigidly observed1 if one would secure the greatest results3 #a4 ,avoid foul feeding4 #b4 ,do not omit adding salt in moderate quantities to the mess given4 #c4 ,feed at regular intervals4 #d4 ,cleanse the troughs previous to feeding4 #e4 ,do not over-feed2 give only as much as will be consumed at the meal4 #f4 ,vary the food4 ,variety will create1 or1 at all events1 increase appetite1 and it is most conducive to health4 ,let the variations be governed by the condition of the dung cast1 which should be of a medium consistence1 and of a grayish-brown color2 if hard1 increase the quantity of bran and succulent roots2 if too liquid1 diminish1 or dispense with bran1 and make the mess firmer2 add a portion of corn4 #g4 ,feed the stock separately1 in classes1 according to their relative conditions4 ,keep sows with young by themselves2 store-hogs by themselves2 and bacon-hogs and porkers by themselves4 ,it is not advisable to keep the store-hogs too high in flesh1 since high feeding is calculated to retard development of form and bulk4 ,it is better to feed pigs intended to be put up for bacon loosely and not too abundantly1 until they have attained their full stature2 they can then be brought into the highest possible condition in a surprisingly short space of time4 #h4 ,keep the swine clean1 dry1 and warm4 ,cleanliness1 dryness1 and warmth are essential1 and as imperative as feeding2 for an inferior description of food will1 by their aid1 succeed far better than the highest feeding will without them4 ,,piggeries4 ,few items conduce more to the thriving and well-being of swine than airy1 spacious1 well-constructed styes1 and above all1 cleanliness4 ,they were formerly too often housed in damp1 dirty1 close1 and imperfectly-built sheds1 which was a fruitful source of disease and of unthrifty animals4 ,any place was once thought good enough to keep a pig in4 ,in large establishments1 where numerous pigs are kept1 there should be divisions appropriated to all the different kinds2 the boars1 the breeding sows1 the newly weaned1 and the fattening pigs should all be kept separate2 and in the divisions assigned to the second and last of these classes1 it is best to have a distinct apartment for each animal1 all opening into a yard or inclosure of limited extent4 ,as pigs require warmth1 these buildings should face the south1 and be kept weather-tight and well drained4 ,good ventilation is also important2 for it is idle to expect animals to make good flesh and retain their health1 unless they have a sufficiency of pure air4 ,the blood requires this to give it vitality and free it from impurities1 as much as the stomach requires wholesome and strengthening food2 and when it does not have it1 it becomes vitiated1 and impairs all the animal functions4 ,bad smells and exhalations1 moreover1 injure the flavor of the meat4 ,damp and cold floors should be guarded against1 as they tend to induce cramp and diarrhoea2 and the roof should be so contrived as to carry off the wet from the pigs4 ,the walls of a well-constructed sty should be of solid masonry2 the roof sloping1 and furnished with spouts to carry off the rain2 the floors either slightly inclined toward a gutter made to carry off the rain1 or else raised from the ground on beams or joists1 and perforated so that all urine and moisture shall drain off4 ,bricks and tiles1 sometimes used for flooring1 are objectionable1 because1 however well covered with straw1 they still strike cold4 ,wood is far superior in this respect1 as well as because it admits of those clefts or perforations being made1 which serve not only to drain off all moisture1 but also to admit fresh air4 ,the manure proceeding from the pig-sty has often been much undervalued1 and for this reason1 that the litter is supposed to form the principal portion of it2 whereas it constitutes the least valuable part1 and1 indeed1 it can scarcely be regarded as manure at all--at least by itself--where the requisite attention is paid to the cleanliness of the animals and of their dwellings4 ,the urine and the dung are valuable1 being1 from the very nature of the food of the animals1 exceedingly rich and oleaginous1 and materially beneficial to cold soils and grass-lands4 ,the manure from the sty should always be collected as carefully as that from the stable or cow-house1 and husbanded in the same way4 ,the door of each sty ought to be so hung that it will open inward or outward1 so as to give the animals free ingress and egress4 ,for this purpose1 it should be hung across from side to side1 and the animal can push it up to effect its entry or exit2 for1 if it were hung in the ordinary way1 it would derange the litter every time it opened inward1 and be very liable to hitch4 ,if it is not intended that the pigs shall leave their sty1 there should be an upper and lower door2 the former of which should always be left open when the weather is warm and dry1 while the latter will serve to confine the animal4 ,there should likewise be windows or slides1 which can be opened or closed at will1 to give admission to the fresh air1 or exclude rain or cold4 ,wherever it can be managed1 the troughs--which should be of stone or cast metal1 since wooden ones will soon be gnawed to pieces--should be so situated that they can be filled and cleaned from the outside1 without interfering with or disturbing the animals at all2 and for this purpose it is well to have a flap1 or door1 with swinging hinges1 made to hang horizontally on the trough1 so that it can be moved to and fro1 and alternately be fastened by a bolt to the inside or outside of the manger4 ,when the hogs have fed sufficiently1 the door is swung inward and fastened1 and so remains until feeding-time1 when the trough is cleansed and refilled without any trouble1 and then the flap drawn back1 and the animals admitted to their food4 ,some cover the trough with a lid having as many holes in it as there are pigs to eat from it1 which gives each pig an opportunity of selecting his own hole1 and eating away without interfering with or incommoding his neighbor4 ,a hog ought to have three apartments1 one each for sleeping1 eating1 and evacuations2 of which the last may occupy the lowest1 and the first the highest level1 so that nothing shall be drained1 and as little carried into the first two as possible4 ,the piggery should always be built as near as possible to that portion of the establishment from which the chief part of the provision is to come1 since much labor will thus be saved4 ,washings1 and combings1 and brushings1 as has been previously suggested1 are valuable adjuncts in the treatment of swine2 the energies of the skin are thus roused1 the pores opened1 the healthful functions aided1 and that inertness1 so likely to be engendered by the lazy life of a fattening pig1 counteracted4 ,a supply of fresh water is essential to the well-being of swine1 and should be freely furnished4 ,if a stream can be brought through the piggery1 it answers better than any thing else4 ,swine are dirty feeders and dirty drinkers1 usually plunging their fore-feet into the trough or pail1 and thus polluting with mud or dirt whatever may be given to them4 ,one of the advantages1 therefore1 to be derived from the stream of running water is1 its being kept constantly clean and wholesome by its running4 ,if this advantage cannot be procured1 it is desirable to present water in vessels of a size to receive but one head at a time1 and of such height as to render it impossible1 or difficult1 for the drinker to get his feet into it4 ,the water should be renewed twice daily4 ,if swine are closely confined in pens1 they should have as much charcoal twice a week as they will eat1 for the purpose of correcting any tendency to disorders of the stomach4 ,rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal4 ,,slaughtering4 ,a pig that is to be killed should be kept without food for from twelve to sixteen hours previous to slaughtering2 a little water must1 however1 be within his reach4 ,he should1 in the first place1 be stunned by a blow on the head4 ,some advise that the knife should be thrust into the neck so as to sever the artery leading from the heart2 while others prefer that the animal should be stuck through the brisket in the direction of the heart--care being exercised not to touch the first rib4 ,the blood should then be allowed to drain from the carcass into vessels placed for the purpose2 and the more completely it does so1 the better will be the meat4 ,a large tub1 or other vessel1 has been previously got ready1 which is now filled with boiling water4 ,the carcass of the hog is plunged into this1 and the hair is then removed with the edge of a knife4 ,the hair is more easily removed if the hog is scalded before he stiffens1 or becomes quite cold4 ,it is not1 however1 necessary1 but simply brutal and barbarous1 to scald him while there is yet some life in him4 ,bacon-hogs may be singed1 by enveloping the body in straw1 and setting the straw on fire1 and then scraping it all over4 ,when this is done1 care must be observed not to burn or parch the cuticle4 ,the entrails should then be removed1 and the interior of the body well washed with lukewarm water1 so as to remove all blood and impurities1 and afterward wiped dry with a clean cloth2 the carcass should then be hung up in a cool place for eighteen or twenty hours1 to become set and firm4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,old ,,english ,,hog4 ,for cutting up1 the carcass should be laid on the back1 upon a strong table4 ,the head should then be cut off close by the ears1 and the hinder feet so far below the houghs as not to disfigure the hams1 and leave room sufficient for hanging them up2 after which the carcass is divided into equal halves1 up the middle of the back bone1 with a cleaving-knife1 and1 if necessary1 a hand-mallet4 ,then cut the ham from the side by the second joint of the back-bone1 which will appear on dividing the carcass1 and dress the ham by paring a little off the flank1 or skinny part1 so as to shape it with a half round point1 clearing off any top fat which may appear4 ,next cut off the sharp edge along the back bone with a knife and mallet1 and slice off the first rib next the shoulder1 where there is a bloody vein1 which must be taken out1 since1 if it is left in1 that part is apt to spoil4 ,the corners should be squared off when the ham is cut4 ,the ordinary practice is to cut out the spine1 or back bone4 ,some take out the chine and upper parts of the ribs in the first place2 indeed1 almost every locality has its peculiar mode of proceeding4 ,,pickling ,,and ,,curing4 ,the usual method of curing is to pack the pork in clean salt1 adding brine to the barrel when filled4 ,but it may be dry-salted1 by rubbing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece1 with a strong leather rubber firmly secured to the palm of the right hand4 ,the pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with salt1 and occasionally turned till cured2 or it may at once be packed in dry casks1 which are rolled at times to bring the salt into contact with every part4 ,hams and shoulders may be cured in the same manner either dry or in pickle1 but with differently arranged materials4 ,the following is a good pickle for two hundred pounds3 ,take fourteen pounds of ,turk's ,island salt2 one-half pound of saltpetre2 two quarts of molasses1 or four pounds of brown sugar2 with water enough to dissolve them4 ,bring the liquor to the scalding-point1 and skim off all the impurities which rise to the top4 ,when cold1 pour it upon the ham1 which should be perfectly cool1 but not frozen1 and closely packed2 if not sufficient to cover it1 add pure water for this purpose4 ,some extensive packers of choice hams add pepper1 allspice1 cinnamon1 nutmegs1 or mace and cloves4 ,the hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle1 then should be hung up in the smoke-house1 with the small end down1 and smoked from ten to twenty days1 according to the quantity of smoke4 ,the fire should not be near enough to heat the hams4 ,in ,holland and ,westphalia1 the fire is made in the cellar1 and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool1 dry chamber4 ,this is1 undoubtedly1 the best mode of smoking4 ,the hams should at all times be dry and cool1 or their flavor will suffer4 ,green sugar-maple chips are best for smoke2 next to them are hickory1 sweet birch1 corn-cobs1 white ash1 or beech4 ,the smoke-house is the best place in which to keep hams until they are wanted4 ,if removed1 they should be kept cool1 dry1 and free from flies4 ,a canvas cover for each1 saturated with lime1 which may be put on with a whitewash brush1 is a perfect protection against flies4 ,when not to be kept long1 they may be packed in dry salt1 or even in sweet brine1 without injury4 ,a common method is to pack in dry oats1 baked saw-dust1 etc4 ,the following is the method in most general use in several of the ,western ,states4 ,the chine is taken out1 as also the spare-ribs from the shoulders1 and the mouse-pieces and short-ribs1 or griskins1 from the middlings4 ,no acute angles should be left to shoulders or hams4 ,in salting up1 all the meat1 except the heads1 joints1 and chines1 and smaller pieces1 is put into powdering-tubs--water-tight half-hogsheads--or into large troughs1 ten feet long and three or four feet wide at the top1 made of the poplar tree4 ,the latter are much more convenient for packing the meat in1 and are easily caulked1 if they should crack so as to leak4 ,the salting-tray--or box in which the meat is to be salted1 piece by piece1 and from which each piece1 as it is salted1 is to be transferred to the powdering-tub1 or trough--must be placed just so near the trough that the man standing between can transfer the pieces from one to the other easily1 and without wasting the salt as they are lifted from the salting-box into the trough4 ,the salter stands on the off-side of the salting-box4 ,the hams should be salted first1 the shoulders next1 and the middlings last1 which may be piled up two feet above the top of the trough or tub4 ,the joints will thus in a short time be immersed in brine4 ,measure into the salting-tray four measures of salt--a peck measure will be found most convenient--and one measure of clean1 dry1 sifted ashes2 mix1 and incorporate them well4 ,the salter takes a ham into the tray1 rubs the skin1 and the raw end with his composition1 turns it over1 and packs the composition of salt and ashes on the fleshy side till it is at least three-quarters of an inch deep all over it2 and on the interior lower part of the ham1 which is covered with the skin1 as much as will lie on it4 ,the man standing ready to transfer the pieces1 deposits it carefully1 without disturbing the composition1 with the skin-side down1 in the bottom of the trough4 ,each succeeding ham is then deposited1 side by side1 so as to leave the least possible space unoccupied4 ,when the bottom is wholly covered1 see that every visible part of this layer of meat is covered with the composition of salt and ashes4 ,then begin another layer1 every piece being covered on the upper or fleshy side three-quarters of an inch thick with the composition4 ,when the trough is filled1 even full1 in this way1 with the joints1 salt the middlings with salt only1 without the ashes1 and pile them up on the joints so that the liquified salt may pass from them into the trough4 ,heads1 joints1 back bones1 etc41 receive salt only1 and should not be put in the trough with the large pieces4 ,much slighter salting will preserve them1 if they are salted upon loose boards1 so that the bloody brine from them can pass off4 ,the joints and middlings are to remain in and above the trough without being re-handled1 re-salted1 or disturbed in any way1 till they are to be hung up to be smoked4 ,if the hogs do not weigh more than one hundred and fifty pounds1 the joints need not remain longer than five weeks in the pickle2 if they weigh two hundred1 or upward1 six or seven weeks are not too long4 ,it is better that they should stay in too long1 rather than too short a time4 ,in three weeks1 the joints1 etc41 may be hung up4 ,taking out of pickle1 and preparing for hanging up to smoke1 are thus performed3 ,scrape off the undissolved salt2 if the directions have been followed1 there will be a considerable quantity on all the pieces not immersed in the brine2 this salt and the brine are all saved2 the brine is boiled down1 and the dry composition given to stock1 especially to hogs4 ,wash every piece in lukewarm water1 and with a rough towel clean off the salt and ashes4 ,next1 put the strings in to hang up4 ,set the pieces up edgewise1 that they may drain and dry4 ,every piece is then to be dipped into the meat-paint1 as it is termed1 composed of warm--not hot--water and very fine ashes1 stirred together until they are of the consistence of thick paint1 and hang up to smoke4 ,by being thus dipped1 they receive a coating which protects them from the fly1 prevents dripping1 and tends to lessen all external injurious influences4 ,hang up the pieces while yet moist with the paint1 and smoke them well4 ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,carcass4 ,no part of the hog is valueless1 excepting1 perhaps1 the bristles of the fine-bred races4 ,the very intestines are cleansed1 and knotted into chittarlings1 very much relished by some2 the blood1 mixed with fat and rice1 is made into black puddings2 and the tender muscle under the lumbar vertebrae is worked up into sausages1 sweet1 high-flavored1 and delicious2 the skin1 roasted1 is a rare and toothsome morsel2 and a roast sucking-pig is a general delight2 salt pork and bacon are in incessant demand1 and form important articles of commerce4 ,one great value arises from the peculiarity of its fat1 which1 in contradistinction to that of the ox or of the sheep1 is termed lard1 and differs from either in the proportion of its constituent principles1 which are essentially oleine and stearine4 ,it is rendered1 or fried out1 in the same manner as mutton-suet4 ,it melts completely at ninety-nine degrees ,fahrenheit1 and then has the appearance of a transparent and nearly colorless fixed oil4 ,eighty degrees is the melting-point4 ,it consists of sixty-two parts oleine1 and thirty-eight of stearine1 out of one hundred4 ,when subjected to pressure between folds of blotting-paper1 the oleine is absorbed1 while the stearine remains4 ,for domestic purposes1 lard is much used3 it is much better than butter for frying fish2 and is much used in pastry1 on the score of economy4 ,the stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids1 which1 when separated1 are solid1 and used as inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles4 ,the other1 oleine1 is fluid at a low temperature1 and in ,american commerce is known as lard-oil1 which is very pure1 and extensively used for machinery1 lamps1 and most of the purposes for which olive or spermaceti oils are valued4 ,it has given to pork a new and profitable use1 by which the value of the carcass is greatly increased4 ,a large amount of pork has thus been withdrawn from the market1 and the depression1 which must otherwise have occurred1 has been thereby prevented4 ,where the oil is required1 the whole carcass1 after taking out the hams and shoulders1 is placed in a tub having two bottoms1 the upper one perforated with holes4 ,the pork is laid on the latter1 and then tightly covered4 ,steam1 at a high temperature1 is then admitted into the tub1 and in a short time all the fat is extracted1 and falls upon the lower bottom4 ,the remaining mass is bones and scraps4 ,the last is fed to pigs1 poultry1 or dogs1 or affords the best kind of manure4 ,the bones are either used for manure1 or are converted into animal charcoal1 valuable for various purposes in the arts4 ,when the object is to obtain lard of a fine quality1 the animal is first skinned1 and the adhering fat then carefully scraped off2 thus avoiding the oily1 viscid matter of the skin4 ,the bristles of the coarse breeds are long1 strong1 firm1 and elastic4 ,these are formed into brushes for painters and artists1 as well as for numerous domestic uses4 ,the skin1 when tanned1 is of a peculiar texture1 and very tough4 ,it is used for making pocket-books1 and for some ornamental purposes2 but chiefly for the seats of riding-saddles4 ,the numerous little variegations on it1 which constitute its beauty1 are the orifices whence the bristles have been removed4 ,illustration ,,diseases ,,and ,,their ,,remedies ,by reason of being generally considered a subordinate species of stock1 swine do not1 in many cases1 share in the benefits which an improved system of agriculture and the present advanced state of veterinary science1 have conferred upon other domesticated animals4 ,since they are by no means the most tractable of patients1 it is any thing but an easy matter to compel them to swallow any thing to which their appetite does not incite them2 and1 hence1 prevention will be found better than cure4 ,cleanliness is the great point to be insisted upon in the management of these animals4 ,if this1 and warmth1 be only attended to1 ailments among them are comparatively rare4 ,as1 however1 disappointment may occasionally occur1 even under the best system of management1 a brief view of the principal complaints with which they are liable to be attacked is presented1 together with the best mode of treatment to be adopted in such cases4 ,,catching ,,the ,,pig4 ,swine are very difficult animals to obtain any mastery over1 or to operate on1 or examine4 ,seldom tame1 or easily handled1 they are at such periods most unmanageable--kicking1 screaming1 and even biting fiercely4 ,the following method of getting hold of them has been recommended3 ,fasten a double cord to the end of a stick1 and beneath the stick let there be a running noose in the cord2 tie a piece of bread to the cord1 and present it to the animal2 and when he opens his mouth to seize the bait1 catch the upper jaw in the noose1 run it tight1 and the animal is fast4 ,another method is1 to catch one foot in a running noose suspended from some place1 so as to draw the imprisoned foot off the ground2 or1 to envelop the head of the animal in a cloth or sack4 ,all coercive measures1 however1 should1 as far as possible1 be avoided2 for the pig is naturally so averse to being handled that in his struggles he will often do himself far more mischief than the disease which is to be investigated or remedied would effect4 ,,bleeding4 ,the common mode of drawing blood from the pig is by cutting off portions of the ears or tail2 this should only be resorted to when local and instant blood-letting is requisite4 ,the jugular veins of swine lie too deep1 and are too much imbedded in fat to admit of their being raised by any ligature about the neck2 it is1 therefore1 useless to attempt to puncture them1 as it would only be striking at random4 ,those veins1 however1 which run over the interior surface of the ear1 and especially toward its outer edge1 may be opened without much difficulty2 if the ear is turned back on the poll1 one or more of them may easily be made sufficiently prominent to admit of its being punctured by pressing the fingers on the base of the ear1 near to the conch4 ,when the necessary quantity of blood has been obtained1 the finger may be raised1 and it will cease to flow4 ,the palate veins1 running on either side of the roof of the mouth1 are also easily opened by making two incisions1 one on each side of the palate1 about half way between the centre of the roof of the mouth and the teeth4 ,the flow of blood may be readily stopped by means of a pledget of tow and a string1 as in bleeding the horse4 ,the brachial vein of the fore-leg--commonly called the plate-vein--running along the inner side under the skin affords a good opportunity4 ,the best place for puncturing it is about an inch above the knee1 and scarcely half an inch backward from the radius1 or the bone of the fore-arm4 ,no danger need to be apprehended from cutting two or three times1 if sufficient blood cannot be obtained at once4 ,this vein will become easily discernible if a ligature is tied firmly around the leg1 just below the shoulder4 ,this operation should always be performed with the lancet1 if possible4 ,in cases of urgent haste1 where no lancet is at hand1 a small penknife may be used2 but the fleam is a dangerous and objectionable instrument4 ,,drenching4 ,whenever it is possible1 the medicine to be administered should be mingled with a portion of food1 and the animal thus cheated or coaxed into taking it2 since many instances are on record1 in which the pig has ruptured some vessel in his struggles1 and died on the spot1 or so injured himself as to bring on inflammation and subsequent death4 ,where this cannot be done1 the following is the best method3 ,let a man get the head of the animal firmly between his knees--without1 however1 pinching it--while another secures the hinder parts4 ,then let the first take hold of the head from below1 raise it a little1 and incline it slightly toward the right1 at the same time separating the lips on the left side so as to form a hole into which the fluid may be gradually poured--no more being introduced into the mouth at a time than can be swallowed at once4 ,should the animal snort or choke1 the head must be released for a few moments1 or he will be in danger of being strangled4 ,,catarrh4 ,this ailment--an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose1 etc4--is1 if taken in time1 easily cured by opening medicines1 followed up by warm bran-wash--a warm1 dry sty--and abstinence from rich grains1 or stimulating1 farinaceous diet4 ,the cause1 in most cases1 is exposure to drafts of air1 which should be guarded against4 ,,cholera4 ,for what is presented concerning this disease1 the author is indebted to his friend1 ,g4 ,w4 ,bowler1 ,v4 ,s41 of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 whose familiarity with the various diseases of our domestic animals and the best modes of treating them1 entitles his opinions to great weight4 ,the term cholera is employed to designate a disease which has been very fatal among swine in different parts of the ,united ,states2 and for the reason1 that its symptoms1 as well as the indications accompanying its termination1 are very nearly allied to what is manifested in the disease of that name which visits man4 ,epidemic cholera has1 for several years past1 committed fearful ravages among the swine of1 particularly1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,kentucky4 ,indeed1 many farmers who1 until recently1 have been accustomed to raise large numbers of these animals1 are1 in a great measure1 disinclined to invest again in such stock1 on account of the severe losses--in some instances to the extent of the entire drove upon particular places4 ,various remedies have1 of course1 been prescribed2 but the most have failed in nearly every case where the disease has secured a firm foothold4 ,preventives are1 therefore1 the most that can at present be expected2 and in this direction something may be done4 ,although some peculiar change in the atmosphere is1 probably1 an impelling cause of cholera1 its ravages may be somewhat stayed by removing other predisposing associate causes4 ,granting that the hog is a filthy animal and fond of rooting among filth1 it is by no means necessary to persist1 for that reason1 in surrounding him with all the nastiness possible2 for even a hog1 when penned up in a filthy place1 in company with a large number of other hogs--particularly when that place is improperly ventilated--is not as healthy as when the animals are kept together in smaller numbers in a clean and well ventilated barn or pen4 ,look1 for a moment1 at a drove of hogs coming along the street1 the animals all fat and ready for the knife4 ,they have been driven several miles1 and are scarcely able to crawl along1 many of them having to be carried on drays1 while others have died on the road4 ,at last they are driven into a pen1 perhaps1 several inches deep with the manure and filth deposited there by hundreds of predecessors2 every hole in the ground has become a puddle2 and in such a place some one hundred or two hundred animals are piled together1 exhausted from the drive which they have had4 ,they lie down in the mud2 and in a short time one can see the steam beginning to rise from their bodies in volumes1 increasing their already prostrate condition by the consequent inhalation of the noxious gas thus thrown off from the system2 the blood becomes impregnated with poison2 the various functions of the body are thereby impaired2 and disease will inevitably be developed in one form or another4 ,should the disease1 known as the hog cholera1 prevail in the neighborhood1 the chances are very greatly in favor of their being attacked by it1 and consequently perishing4 ,the symptoms of cholera are as follows3 ,the animal appears to be instantaneously deprived of energy2 loss of appetite2 lying down by himself2 occasionally moving about slowly1 as though experiencing some slight uneasiness internally2 the eyes have a very dull and sunken appearance1 which increases with the disease2 the evacuations are almost continuous1 of a dark color1 having a fetid odor1 and containing a large quantity of bile2 the extremities are cold1 and soreness is evinced when the abdomen is pressed2 the pulse is quickened1 and sometimes hardly perceptible1 while the buccal membrane--that belonging to the cheek--presents a slight purple hue2 the tongue has a furred appearance4 ,the evacuations continue fluid until the animal expires1 which may be in twelve hours from the first attack1 or the disease may run on for several days4 ,in a very short time after death1 the abdomen becomes of a dark purple color1 and upon examination1 the stomach is found to contain but a little fluid2 the intestines are almost entirely empty1 retaining a slight quantity of the dark colored matter before mentioned2 the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal exhibits considerable inflammation1 which sometimes appears only in patches1 while the other parts are filled with dark venous blood--indicating a breaking up of the capillary vessels in such places4 ,treatment4 ,as a preventive1 the following will be found valuable3 ,flour of sulphur1 six pounds2 animal charcoal1 one pound2 sulphate of iron1 six ounces2 cinchona pulverized1 one pound4 ,mix well together in a large mortar2 afterwards give a table-spoonful to each animal1 mixed with a few potato-peelings and corn meal1 three times a day4 ,continue this for one week1 keeping the animal at the same time in a clean1 dry place1 and not allowing too many together4 ,,crackings4 ,these will sometimes appear on the skin of a hog1 especially about the root of the ears and of the tail1 and at the flanks4 ,they are not at all to be confounded with mange1 as they never result from any thing but exposure to extremes of temperature1 while the animal is unable to avail himself of such protection as1 in a state of nature1 instinct would have induced him to adopt4 ,they are peculiarly troublesome in the heat of summer1 if he does not have access to water1 in which to lave his parched limbs and half-scorched carcass4 ,anoint the cracked parts twice or three times a day with tar and lard1 well melted up together4 ,,diarrh,,oe,a4 ,before attempting to stop the discharge in this disease--which1 if permitted to continue unchecked1 will rapidly prostrate the animal1 and probably terminate fatally--ascertain the quality of food which the animal has recently had4 ,in a majority of instances1 this will be found to be the cause4 ,if taken in its incipient stage1 a mere change to a more binding diet1 as corn1 flour1 etc41 will suffice for a cure4 ,if acidity is present--produced1 probably1 by the hog's having fed upon coarse1 rank grasses in swampy places--give some chalk in the food1 or powdered egg-shells1 with about half a drachm of powdered rhubarb2 the dose1 of course1 should vary with the size of the animal4 ,in the acorn season1 they alone will be found sufficiently curative1 where facilities for obtaining them exist4 ,dry lodging is indispensable2 and diligence is requisite to keep it dry and clean4 ,,fever4 ,the symptoms of this disease are1 redness of the eyes1 dryness and heat of the nostrils1 the lips1 and the skin generally2 appetite gone1 or very defective2 and1 generally1 a very violent thirst4 ,illustration3 ,,hunting ,,the ,,wild ,,boar4 ,bleed as soon as possible2 after which house the animal well1 taking care1 at the same time1 to have the sty well and thoroughly ventilated4 ,the bleeding will usually be followed1 in an hour or two1 by such a return of appetite as to induce the animal to eat a sufficient quantity of food to be made the vehicle for administering external remedies4 ,the best is bread1 steeped in broth4 ,the hog1 however1 sinks so rapidly when his appetite is near gone1 that no depletive medicines are1 in general1 necessary or proper2 the fever will ordinarily yield to the bleeding1 and the only object needs to be the support of his strength1 small portions of nourishing food1 administered frequently4 ,do not let the animal eat as much as his inclination might prompt2 when he appears to be no longer ravenous1 remove the mess1 and do not offer it again until after a lapse of three or four hours4 ,if the bowels are confined1 castor and linseed oil1 in equal quantities1 should be added to the bread and broth1 in the proportion of two to six ounces4 ,a species of fever frequently occurs as an epizooetic1 oftentimes attacking the male pigs1 and generally the most vigorous and best looking1 without any distinction of age1 and with a force and rapidity absolutely astonishing4 ,at other times1 its progress is much slower2 the symptoms are less intense and alarming2 and the veterinary surgeon1 employed at the outset1 may meet with some success4 ,the causes are1 in the majority of instances1 the bad styes in which the pigs are lodged1 and the noisome food which they often contain4 ,in addition to these is the constant lying on the dung-heap1 whence is exhaled a vast quantity of deleterious gas2 also1 the remaining far too long on the muddy or parched ground1 or too protracted exposure to the rigor of the season4 ,when an animal is attacked with this disease1 he should be separated from the others1 placed in a warm situation1 some stimulating ointment applied to the chest1 and a decoction of sorrel administered4 ,frictions of vinegar should also be applied to the dorsal and lumbar region4 ,the drinks should be emolient1 slightly imbued with nitre and vinegar1 and with aromatic fumigation about the belly4 ,if the fever then appears to be losing ground1 which may be ascertained by the regularity of the pulse1 by the absence of the plaintive cries before heard1 by a less laborious respiration1 by the absence of convulsions1 and by the non-appearance of blotches on the skin1 there is a fair chance of recovery4 ,then administer1 every second hour1 as before directed1 and give a proper allowance of white water1 with ground barley and rye4 ,when the symptoms redouble in intensity1 it is best to destroy the animal2 for it is rare that1 after a certain period1 much chance of recovery exists4 ,bleeding is seldom of much avail1 but produces1 occasionally1 considerable loss of vital power1 and augments the putrid diathesis4 ,,foul ,,skin4 ,a simple irritability or foulness of skin will usually yield to cleanliness1 and a washing with a solution of chloride of lime2 but1 if it is neglected for any length of time1 it assumes a malignant character--scabs and blotches1 or red and fiery eruptions appear--and the disease rapidly passes into mange1 which will be hereafter noticed4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,lungs4 ,this disease1 popularly known as heavings1 is scarcely to be regarded as curable4 ,were it observed in its first stage1 when indicated by loss of appetite and a short1 hard cough1 it might1 possibly1 be got under by copious bleeding1 and friction with stimulating ointment on the region of the lungs2 minute and frequent doses of tartar emetic should also be given in butter--all food of a stimulating nature carefully avoided--and the animal kept dry and warm4 ,if once the heavings set in1 it may be calculated with confidence that the formation of tubercles in the substance of the lungs has begun2 and when these are formed1 they are very rarely absorbed4 ,the causes of the disease are damp lodging1 foul air1 want of ventilation1 and unwholesome food4 ,when tubercular formation becomes established1 the disease may be communicated through the medium of the atmosphere1 the infectious influence depending upon the noxious particles respired from the lungs of the diseased animal4 ,the following may be tried1 though the knife is probably the best resort1 if for no other reason1 at least to provide against the danger of infection3 ,shave the hair away from the chest1 and beneath each fore-leg2 wet the part with spirits of turpentine1 and set fire to it1 having previously had the animal well secured1 with his head well raised1 and a flannel cloth at hand with which to extinguish the flame after it has1 burned a sufficient time to produce slight blisters2 if carried too far1 a sore is formed1 productive of no good effects1 and causing unnecessary suffering4 ,calomel may also be used1 with a view to promote the absorption of the tubercles2 but the success is questionable4 ,,jaundice4 ,the symptoms of this disease are1 yellowness of the white of the eye2 a similar hue extending to the lips2 and sometimes1 but not invariably1 swelling of the under part of the jaw4 ,treatment4 ,bleed freely2 diminish the quantity of food2 and give an active aperient every second day4 ,aloes are1 perhaps1 the best1 combined with colocynth2 the dose will vary with the size of the animal4 ,,leprosy4 ,this complaint commonly commences with the formation of a small tumor in the eye1 followed by a general prostration of spirits2 the head is held down2 the whole frame inclines toward the ground2 universal languor succeeds2 the animal refuses food1 languishes1 and rapidly falls away in flesh2 blisters soon make their appearance beneath the tongue1 then upon the throat1 the jaws1 the head1 and the entire body4 ,the ,causes of this disease are want of cleanliness1 absence of fresh air1 want of due attention to ventilation1 and foul feeding4 ,the obvious treatment1 therefore1 is1 first1 bleed2 clean out the sty daily2 wash the affected animal thoroughly with soap and water1 to which soda or potash has been added2 supply him with a clean bed2 keep him dry and comfortable2 let him have gentle exercise1 and plenty of fresh air2 limit the quantity of his food1 and diminish its rankness2 give bran with wash1 in which add1 for an average-sized hog--say one of one hundred and sixty pounds weight--a table-spoonful of the flour of sulphur1 with as much nitre as will cover a dime1 daily4 ,a few grains of powdered antimony may also be given with effect4 ,,lethargy4 ,symptoms3 torpor2 desire to sleep2 hanging of the head2 and1 frequently1 redness of the eyes4 ,the origin of this disease is1 apparently1 the same as that of indigestion1 or surfeit1 except that1 in this instance1 it acts upon a hog having a natural tendency to a redundancy of blood4 ,treatment4 ,bleed copiously2 then administer an emetic4 ,a decoction of camomile flowers will be safest2 though a sufficient dose of tartar emetic will be far more certain4 ,after this1 reduce for a few days the amount of the animal's food1 and administer a small portion of nitre and sulphur in each morning's meal4 ,,mange4 ,this cutaneous affection owes its existence to the presence of a minute insect1 called acarus scabiei1 or mange-fly1 which burrows beneath the cuticle1 and occasions much irritation and annoyance in its progress through the skin4 ,its symptoms are sufficiently well known1 consisting of scabs1 blotches1 and sometimes multitudes of minute pustules on different parts of the body4 ,if neglected1 these symptoms become aggravated2 the disease spreads rapidly over the entire surface of the skin1 and if allowed to proceed on its course unchecked1 will before long produce deep-seated ulcers and malignant sores1 until the whole carcass of the affected animal becomes a mass of corruption4 ,the cause is to be looked for in dirt1 accompanied by hot-feeding4 ,hogs1 however well and properly kept1 will occasionally become affected with this disease from contagion4 ,few diseases are more easily propagated by contact than mange4 ,the introduction of a single affected pig into an establishment may1 in one night1 cause the seizure of scores of others4 ,no foul-skinned pigs1 therefore1 should be introduced into the piggery2 indeed1 it would be an excellent precaution to wash every animal newly purchased with a strong solution of chloride of lime4 ,treatment4 ,if the mange is but of moderate violence1 and not of very long standing1 the best mode is to wash the animal1 from snout to tail1 leaving no portion of the body uncleansed1 with soft soap and water4 ,place him in a dry and clean sty1 which is so situated as to command a constant supply of fresh air1 without1 at the same time1 an exposure to cold or draught2 furnish a bed of clean1 fresh straw4 ,reduce his food1 both in quality and quantity2 let boiled or steamed roots1 with butter-milk1 or dairy-wash take the place of any food of a heating or inflammatory character4 ,keep him without food for five or six hours1 and then give to a hog of average size two ounces of ,epsom salts in a warm bran mash--to be increased or diminished1 of course1 as the animal's size may require4 ,this should be previously mixed with a pint of warm water1 and added to about half a gallon of warm bran mash1 and it will act as a gentle purgative4 ,give in every meal afterward one table-spoonful of flour of sulphur1 and as much nitre as will cover a dime1 for from three days to a week1 according to the state of the disease4 ,when the scabs begin to heal1 the pustules to retreat1 and the fiery sores to fade1 a cure may be anticipated4 ,when the above treatment has been practised for fourteen days1 without effecting a cure1 prepare the following3 train oil1 one pint2 oil of tar1 two drachms2 spirits of turpentine1 two drachms2 naphtha1 one drachm2 with as much flour of sulphur as will form the foregoing into a thick paste4 ,rub the animal previously washed with this mixture2 let no portion of the hide escape4 ,keep the hog dry and warm after this application1 and allow it to remain on his skin for three days4 ,on the fourth day wash him again with soft soap1 adding a small quantity of soda to the water4 ,dry him well afterward1 and let him remain as he is1 having again changed his bedding1 for a day or so2 continue the sulphur and nitre as before4 ,almost all cases of mange1 however obstinate1 will1 sooner or later1 yield to this treatment4 ,after he is convalescent1 whitewash the sty1 and fumigate it by placing a little chloride of lime in a cup1 or other vessel1 and pouring a little vitriol upon it4 ,in the absence of vitriol1 boiling water will answer nearly as well4 ,,measles4 ,this is one of the most common diseases to which hogs are liable4 ,the symptoms are1 redness of the eyes1 foulness of the skin1 and depression of spirits2 decline1 or total departure of the appetite2 small pustules about the throat1 and red and purple eruptions on the skin4 ,the last are more plainly visible after death1 when they impart a peculiar appearance to the grain of the meat1 with fading of its color1 and distention of the fibre1 giving an appearance similar to that which might be produced by puncturing the flesh4 ,treatment4 ,allow the animal to fast1 in the first instance1 for twenty-four hours1 and then administer a warm drink1 containing a drachm of carbonate of soda1 and an ounce of bole armenian2 wash the animal1 cleanse the sty1 and change the bedding2 give at every feeding1 or thrice a day1 thirty grains of flour of sulphur1 and ten of nitre4 ,this malady is attributable to dirt1 combined with the giving of steamed food or wash to hogs at too high a temperature4 ,it is troublesome to eradicate1 but usually yields to treatment1 and is rarely fatal4 ,,murrain4 ,this resembles leprosy in its symptoms1 with the addition of staggering1 shortness of breath1 and discharge of viscid matter from the eyes and mouth4 ,the treatment should consist of cleanliness1 coolness1 bleeding1 purging1 and limitation of food4 ,cloves of garlic are recommended2 and as in all febrile diseases there exists a greater or less disposition to putrefaction1 it is probable that garlic1 from its antiseptic properties1 may be useful4 ,,quinsy4 ,this is an inflammatory affection of the glands of the throat4 ,treatment4 ,shave away the hair1 and rub with tartar-emetic ointment4 ,fomenting with very warm water is also useful4 ,when external suppuration takes place1 it is to be regarded as a favorable symptom4 ,in this case1 wait until the swellings are thoroughly ripe2 then with a sharp knife make an incision through the entire length1 press out the matter1 wash with warm water1 and afterward dress the wound with any resinous ointment1 or yellow soap with coarse brown sugar4 ,,staggers4 ,this disease is caused by an excessive determination of blood to the head4 ,treatment4 ,bleed freely and purge4 ,,swelling ,,of ,,the ,,spleen4 ,the symptom most positively indicative of this disease is the circumstance of the affected animal leaning toward one side1 cringing1 as it were1 from internal pain1 and bending toward the ground4 ,the cause of the obstruction on which the disease depends1 is over-feeding--permitting the animal to indulge its appetite to the utmost extent that gluttony may prompt1 and the capacity of its stomach admits4 ,a very short perseverance in this mode of management--or1 rather1 mismanagement--will produce this1 as well as other maladies1 deriving their origin from a depraved condition of the secretions and the obstruction of the excretory ducts4 ,treatment4 ,clean out the alimentary canal by means of a powerful aperient4 ,allow the animal to fast for four or five hours1 when he will take a little sweet wash or broth1 in which may be mingled a dose of ,epsom salts proportioned to his size4 ,this will generally effect the desired end--a copious evacuation--and the action of the medicine on the watery secretions will also relieve the existing diseased condition of the spleen4 ,if the affection has continued for any length1 the animal should be bled4 ,a decoction of the leaves and tops of wormwood and liverwort1 produced by boiling them in soft water for six hours1 may be given in doses of from half a pint to a pint and a half1 according to the size1 age1 etc41 of the animal4 ,scammony and rhubarb1 mixed in a bran wash1 or with ,indian meal1 may be given with advantage on the following day2 or1 equal portions of blue-pill mass and compound colocynth pill1 formed into a bolus with butter4 ,the animal having been kept fasting the previous night1 will probably swallow it2 if not1 let his fast continue a couple of hours longer4 ,lower his diet1 and keep him on reduced fare1 with exercise1 and1 if it can be managed1 grazing1 until the malady has passed away4 ,if he is then to be fattened1 it should be done gradually2 be cautious of at once restoring him to full diet4 ,,surfeit4 ,this is another name for indigestion4 ,the symptoms are1 panting2 loss of appetite2 swelling of the region about the stomach1 etc42 and frequently throwing up the contents of the stomach4 ,treatment4 ,in general1 this affection will pass away1 provided only it is allowed to cure itself1 and all food carefully kept from the animal for a few hours2 a small quantity of sweet grains1 with a little bran mash1 may then be given1 but not nearly as much as the animal would wish to take4 ,for a few days1 the food should be limited in quantity1 and of a washy1 liquid nature4 ,the ordinary food may then be resumed1 only observing to feed regularly1 and remove the fragments remaining after each meal4 ,,tumors4 ,these are hard swellings1 which make their appearance on different parts of the body4 ,they are not formidable1 and require only to be suffered to progress until they soften2 then make a free incision1 and press out the matter4 ,sulphur and nitre should be given in the food1 as the appearance of these swellings1 whatever be their cause1 indicates the necessity of alterative medicines4 ,,poultry ,,and ,,their ,,diseases4 ,illustration ,,history ,,and ,,varieties ,,the ,,domestic ,,fowl4 ,the cock tribe is used as a generic term1 to include the whole family of domestic fowls2 the name of the male1 in this instance1 furnishing an appellation sufficiently comprehensive and well recognized4 ,the domestic cock appears to have been known to man from a very early period4 ,of his real origin there is little definitely known2 and even the time and manner of his introduction into ,greece1 or ,southern ,europe1 are enveloped in obscurity4 ,in the palmiest days of ,greece and ,rome1 however1 he occupied a conspicuous place in those public shows which amused the masses of the people4 ,he was dedicated to the service of the pagan deities1 and was connected with the worship of ,apollo1 ,mercury1 ,mars1 and particularly ,esculapius4 ,the flesh of this bird was highly esteemed as a delicacy1 and occupied a prominent place at the ,roman banquets4 ,great pains were taken in the rearing and fattening of poultry for this purpose4 ,the practice of cock-fighting1 barbarous as it is1 originated in classic times1 and among the most polished and civilized people of antiquity4 ,to its introduction into ,britain by the ,caesars we owe our acquaintance with the domestic fowl4 ,it is impossible to state positively to what species of the wild cock1 known at present1 we are to look for the primitive type1 so remote is the date of the original domestication of the fowl4 ,many writers have endeavored to show that all the varieties of the domestic fowl1 of which we now have knowledge1 are derived from a single primitive stock4 ,it has1 also1 been confidently asserted that the domestic cock owes his origin to the jungle fowl of ,india4 ,the most probable supposition1 however1 is1 that the varieties known to us may be referred to a few of the more remarkable fowls1 as the progenitors of the several species4 ,the great fowl of ,st4 ,jago and ,sumatra may1 perhaps1 safely be recognized as the type of some of the larger varieties1 such as the ,spanish and the ,padua fowls1 and those resembling them2 while to the ,bankiva cock1 probably1 the smaller varieties belong1 such as ,bantams1 the ,turkish fowl1 and the like4 ,the reasons assigned for supposing these kinds to be the true originals of our domestic poultry1 are1 first1 the close resemblance subsisting between their females and our domestic hens2 second1 the size of our domestic cock being intermediate between the two1 and alternating in degree1 sometimes inclining toward the one1 and sometimes toward the other2 third1 from the nature of their feathers and their general aspect--the form and distribution of their tails being the same as our domestic fowls2 and1 fourth1 in these two birds alone are the females provided with a crest and small wattles1 characteristics not to be met with in any other wild species4 ,the wild cock1 or the ,st4 ,jago fowl1 is frequently so tall as to be able to peck crumbs without difficulty from an ordinary dinner-table4 ,the weight is usually from ten to thirteen or fourteen pounds4 ,the comb of both cock and hen is large1 crown-shaped1 often double1 and sometimes1 but not invariably1 with a tufted crest of feathers1 which occurs with the greatest frequency1 and grows to the largest size1 in the hen4 ,the voice is strong and very harsh2 and the young do not arrive to full plumage until more than half grown4 ,the ,bankiva fowl is a native of ,java1 and is characterized by a red indented comb1 red wattles1 and ashy-gray legs and feet4 ,the comb of the cock is scolloped1 and the tail elevated a little above the rump1 the feathers being disposed in the form of tiles or slates2 the neck-feathers are of a gold color1 long1 dependent1 and rounded at the tips2 the head and neck are of a fawn color2 the wing coverts a dusky brown and black2 the tail and belly1 black4 ,the color of the hen is a dusky ash-gray and yellow2 her comb and wattles much smaller than those of the cock1 and--with the exception of the long hackles--she has no feathers on her neck4 ,these fowl are exceedingly wild1 and inhabit the skirts of woods1 forests1 and other savage and unfrequented places4 ,these ,bankivas resemble our ,bantams very much2 and1 like them1 are also occasionally to be seen feathered to the feet and toes4 ,independent of all considerations of profitableness1 domestic fowls are gifted with two qualifications1 which--whether in man1 beast1 or bird--are sure to be popular3 a courageous temper and an affectionate disposition4 ,when we add to these beauty of appearance and hardiness of constitution1 it is no wonder that they are held in such universal esteem4 ,the courage of the cock is emblematic1 his gallantry admirable1 and his sense of discipline and subordination most exemplary4 ,the hen is deservedly the acknowledged pattern of maternal love4 ,when her passion of philoprogenitiveness is disappointed by the failure or subtraction of her own brood1 she will either continue incubating till her natural powers fail1 or will violently kidnap the young of other fowls1 and insist upon adopting them4 ,it would be idle to attempt an enumeration here of the numerous breeds and varieties of the domestic fowl4 ,those only1 therefore1 will be described which are generally accepted as the best varieties2 and these arranged1 not in the order of their merits necessarily1 but alphabetically1 for convenience of reference4 ,,the ,,bantam4 ,the original of the ,bantam is1 as has been already remarked1 the ,bankiva fowl4 ,the small white1 and also the colored ,bantams1 whose legs are heavily feathered1 are sufficiently well-known to render a particular description unnecessary4 ,bantam-fanciers generally prefer those which have clean1 bright legs1 without any vestige of feathers4 ,a thorough-bred cock1 in their judgment1 should have a rose comb2 a well-feathered tail1 but without the sickle feathers2 full hackles2 a proud1 lively carriage2 and ought not to exceed a pound in weight4 ,the nankeen-colored1 and the black are the general favorites4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bantam4 ,these little creatures exhibit some peculiar habits and traits of disposition4 ,amongst others1 the cocks are so fond of sucking the eggs laid by the hen that they will often drive her from the nest in order to obtain them2 they have even been known to attack her1 tear open the ovarium1 and devour its shell-less contents4 ,to prevent this1 first a hard-boiled1 and then a marble egg may be given them to fight with1 taking care1 at the same time1 to prevent their access either to the hen or to any real eggs4 ,another strange propensity is a passion for sucking each other's blood1 which is chiefly exhibited when they are moulting1 when they have been known to peck each other naked1 by pulling out the new feathers as they appear1 and squeezing with their beaks the blood from the bulbs at the base4 ,these fowls being subject to a great heat of the skin1 its surface occasionally becomes hard and tightened2 in which cases the hard roots of the feathers are drawn into a position more nearly at right angles with the body than at ordinary times1 and the skin and superficial muscles are thus subjected to an unusual degree of painful irritation4 ,the disagreeable habit is1 therefore1 simply a provision of ,nature for their relief1 which may be successfully accomplished by washing with warm water1 and the subsequent application of pomatum to the skin4 ,illustration3 ,,bantam4 ,bantams1 in general1 are greedy devourers of some of the most destructive of our insects2 the grub of the cock-chafer and the crane-fly being especial favorites with them4 ,their chickens can hardly be raised so well1 as by allowing them free access to minute insect dainties2 hence1 the suitableness of a worn-out hotbed for them during the first month or six weeks4 ,they are thus positively serviceable creatures to the farmer1 as far as their limited range extends2 and still more so to the gardener and the nurseryman1 as they will save various garden crops from injuries to which they would otherwise be exposed4 ,the fowl commonly known as the ,bantam is a small1 elegantly-formed1 and handsomely tinted variety1 evidently but remotely allied to the game breed1 and furnished with feathers to the toes4 ,,the ,,african ,,bantam4 ,the cock of this variety is red upon the neck1 back1 and hackles2 tail1 black and erect1 studded with glossy green feathers upon the sides2 breast1 black ground spotted with yellow1 like the ,golden ,pheasant2 comb1 single2 cheeks1 white or silvery2 the pullet is entirely black1 except the inside of the wing-tips1 which is perfectly white4 ,in size1 they compare with the common pigeon1 being very small2 their wings are about two inches longer than their bodies2 and their legs dark and destitute of feathers4 ,they are very quiet1 and of decided benefit in gardens1 in destroying bugs4 ,these symmetrically-formed birds are highly prized1 both by the fancier and the practical man1 and the pure-bloods are very rare4 ,they weigh from eight to twelve ounces each for the hens2 and the cocks1 from sixteen to twenty ounces4 ,,the ,,bolton ,,gray4 ,illustration3 ,,bolton ,,grays ,,or ,,creole ,,fowl4 ,these fowls--called1 also1 ,dutch ,every-day ,layers1 ,pencilled ,dutch ,fowl1 ,chittaprats1 and1 in ,pennsylvania1 ,creole ,fowl--were originally imported from ,holland to ,bolton1 a town in ,lancashire1 ,england1 whence they were named4 ,they are small sized1 short in the leg1 and plump in the make2 color of the genuine kind1 invariably pure white in the whole cappel of the neck2 the body white1 thickly spotted with black1 sometimes running into a grizzle1 with one or more black bars at the extremity of the tail4 ,a good cock of this breed may weigh from four to four and a half pounds2 and a hen from three to three and a half pounds4 ,the superiority of a hen of this breed does not consist so much in rapid as in continued laying4 ,she may not produce as many eggs in a month as some other kinds1 but she will1 it is claimed1 lay more months in the year than probably any other variety4 ,they are said to be very hardy2 but their eggs1 in the judgment of some1 are rather watery and innutritious4 ,,the ,,blue ,,dun4 ,the variety known under this name originated in ,dorsetshire1 ,england4 ,they are under the average size1 rather slenderly made1 of a soft and pleasing bluish-dun color1 the neck being darker1 with high1 single combs1 deeply serrated4 ,the cock is of the same color as the hen1 but has1 in addition1 some handsome dark stripes in the long feathers of the tail1 and sometimes a few golden1 or even scarlet marks1 on the wings4 ,they are exceedingly impudent1 familiar1 and pugnacious4 ,the hens are good layers1 wanting to sit after laying a moderate number of eggs1 and proving attentive and careful rearers of their own chickens1 but rather savage to those of other hens4 ,the eggs are small and short1 tapering slightly at one end1 and perfectly white4 ,the chickens1 on first coming from the egg1 sometimes bear a resemblance to the gray and yellow catkin of the willow1 being of a soft bluish gray1 mixed with a little yellow here and there4 ,some class these birds among the game fowls1 not recognizing them as a distinct race1 upon the ground that1 as there are ,blue ,dun families belonging to several breeds--the ,spanish1 the ,polish1 the ,game1 and the ,hamburghs1 for example--it is more correct to refer each ,blue ,dun to its own proper ancestry4 ,,the ,,chittagong4 ,the ,chittagong is a very superior bird1 showy in plumage1 exceedingly hardy1 and of various colors4 ,in some1 the gray predominates1 interspersed with lightish yellow and white feathers upon the pullets4 ,the legs are of a reddish flesh-color2 the meat is delicately white1 the comb large and single1 wattles very full1 wings good size4 ,the legs are more or less feathered2 the model is graceful1 carriage proud and easy1 and action prompt and determined4 ,this breed is the largest in the world2 the pullets usually weighing from eight to nine pounds when they begin to lay1 and the cocks from nine to ten pounds at the same age4 ,they do not lay as many eggs in a year as smaller hens2 but they lay as many pounds of eggs as the best breeds4 ,this breed has been1 by some1 confounded with the great ,malay2 but the points of difference are very noticeable4 ,there is less offal2 the flesh is finer1 although the size is greatly increased2 their fecundity is greater2 and the offspring arrive earlier at maturity than in the common ,malay variety4 ,there is also a red variety of the ,chittagong1 which is rather smaller than the gray4 ,these have legs sometimes yellow and sometimes blue2 the latter color1 perhaps1 from some mixture with the dark variety2 the wings and tail are short4 ,sometimes there is a rose-colored comb1 and a top-knot1 through crossing4 ,this variety may weigh sixteen or eighteen pounds a pair1 as ordinarily bred4 ,the eggs are large and rich1 but not very abundant1 and they do not hatch remarkably well4 ,there is1 besides1 a dark-red variety2 the hens yellow or brown1 with single serrated comb1 and no top-knot2 legs heavily feathered1 the feathers black and the legs yellow4 ,the cock is black on the breast and thighs4 ,the ,chittagongs are generally quite leggy1 standing some twenty-six inches high2 and the hens twenty-two inches4 ,a first cross with the ,shanghae makes a very large and valuable bird for the table1 but not for breeding purposes4 ,,the ,,cochin ,,china4 ,the ,cochin ,china fowl are said to have been presented to ,queen ,victoria from the ,east ,indies4 ,in order to promote their propagation1 her majesty made presents of them occasionally to such persons as she supposed likely to appreciate them4 ,they differ very little in their qualities1 habits1 and general appearance from the ,shanghaes1 to which they are undoubtedly nearly related4 ,the egg is nearly the same size1 shape1 and color2 both have an equal development of comb and wattles--the ,cochins slightly differing from the ,shanghaes1 chiefly in being somewhat fuller and deeper in the breast1 not quite so deep in the quarter1 and being usually smooth-legged1 while the ,shanghaes1 generally1 are more or less heavily feathered4 ,the plumage is much the same in both cases2 and the crow in both is equally sonorous and prolonged1 differing considerably from that of the ,great ,malay4 ,illustration3 ,,cochin ,,chinas4 ,the cock has a large1 upright1 single1 deeply-indented comb1 very much resembling that of the ,black ,spanish1 and1 when in high condition1 of quite as brilliant a scarlet2 like him1 also1 he has sometimes a very large white ear-hole on each cheek1 which1 if not an indispensable or even a required qualification1 is1 however1 to be preferred1 for beauty at least4 ,the wattles are large1 wide1 and pendent4 ,the legs are of a pale flesh-color2 some specimens have them yellow1 which is objectionable4 ,the feathers on the breast and sides are of a bright chestnut-brown1 large and well-defined1 giving a scaly or imbricated appearance to those parts4 ,the hackle of the neck is of a light yellowish brown2 the lower feathers being tipped with dark brown1 so as to give a spotted appearance to the neck4 ,the tail-feathers are black1 and darkly iridescent2 back1 scarlet-orange2 back-hackle1 yellow-orange4 ,it is1 in short1 altogether a flame-colored bird4 ,both sexes are lower in the leg than either the ,black ,spanish or the ,malay4 ,the hen approaches in her build more nearly to the ,dorking than to any other breed1 except that the tail is very small and proportionately depressed2 it is smaller and more horizontal than in any other fowl4 ,her comb is of moderate size1 almost small2 she has1 also1 a small1 white ear-hole4 ,her coloring is flat1 being composed of various shades of very light brown1 with light yellow on the neck4 ,her appearance is quiet1 and only attracts attention by its extreme neatness1 cleanliness1 and compactness4 ,the eggs average about two ounces each4 ,they are smooth1 of an oval shape1 equally rounded at each end1 and of a rich buff color1 nearly resembling those of the ,silver ,pheasant4 ,the newly-hatched chickens appear very large in proportion to the size of the egg4 ,they have light1 flesh-colored bills1 feet1 and legs1 and are thickly covered with down1 of the hue commonly called carroty4 ,they are not less thrifty than any other chickens1 and feather somewhat more uniformly than either the ,black ,spanish or the ,malay4 ,it is1 however1 most desirable to hatch these--as well as other large-growing varieties--as early in the spring as possible2 even so soon as the end of ,february4 ,a peculiarity in the cockerels is1 that they do not show even the rudiments of their tail-feathers till they are nearly full-grown4 ,they increase so rapidly in other directions1 that there is no material to spare for the production of these decorative appendages4 ,the merits of this breed are such that it may safely be recommended to people residing in the country4 ,for the inhabitants of towns it is less desirable1 as the light tone of its plumage would show every mark of dirt and defilement2 and the readiness with which they sit would be an inconvenience1 rather than otherwise1 in families with whom perpetual layers are most in requisition4 ,expense apart1 they are equal or superior to any other fowl for the table2 their flesh is delicate1 white1 tender1 and well flavored4 ,,the ,,cuckoo4 ,the fowl so termed in ,norfolk1 ,england1 is1 very probably1 an old and distinct variety2 although they are generally regarded as mere ,barn-door fowls--that is1 the merely accidental result of promiscuous crossing4 ,the name probably originated from its barred1 plumage1 which resembles that on the breast of the ,cuckoo4 ,the prevailing color is a slaty blue1 undulated1 and softly shaded with white all over the body1 forming bands of various widths4 ,the comb is very small2 irides1 bright orange2 feet and legs1 light flesh-color4 ,the hens are of a good size2 the cocks are large1 approaching the heaviest breeds in weight4 ,the chickens1 at two or three months old1 exhibits the barred plumage even more perfectly than the full-grown birds4 ,the eggs average about two ounces each1 are white1 and of porcelain smoothness4 ,the newly-hatched chickens are gray1 much resembling those of the ,silver ,polands1 except in the color of the feet and legs4 ,this breed supplies an unfailing troop of good layers1 good sitters1 good mothers and good feeders2 and is well worth promotion in the poultry-yard4 ,,the ,,dominique4 ,this seems to be a tolerably distinct and permanent variety1 about the size of the common ,dunghill ,fowl4 ,their combs are generally double--or rose1 as it is sometimes called--and the wattles small4 ,their plumage presents1 all over1 a sort of greenish appearance1 from a peculiar arrangement of blue and white feathers1 which is the chief characteristic of the variety2 although1 in some specimens1 the plumage is inevitably gray in both cock and hen4 ,they are very hardy1 healthy1 excellent layers1 and capital incubators4 ,no fowl have better stood the tests of mixing without deteriorating than the pure ,dominique4 ,their name is taken from the island of ,dominica1 from which they are reported to have been imported4 ,take all in all1 they are one of the very best breeds of fowl which we have2 and although they do not come in to laying so young as the ,spanish1 they are far better sitters and nursers4 ,,the ,,dorking4 ,this has been termed the ,capon ,fowl of ,england4 ,it forms the chief supply for the ,london market1 and is distinguished by a white or flesh-colored smooth leg1 armed with five1 instead of four toes1 on each foot4 ,its flesh is extremely delicate1 especially after caponization2 and it has the advantage over some other fowls of feeding rapidly1 and growing to a very respectable size when properly managed4 ,illustration3 ,,white ,,dorkings4 ,for those who wish to stock their poultry yards with fowls of the most desirable shape and size1 clothed in rich and varigated plumage1 and1 not expecting perfection1 are willing to overlook one or two other points1 the ,speckled ,dorkings--so called from the town of ,surrey1 ,england1 which brought them into modern repute--should be selected4 ,the hens1 in addition to their gay colors1 have a large1 vertically flat comb1 which1 when they are in high health1 adds very much to their brilliant appearance1 particularly if seen in bright sunshine4 ,the cocks are magnificent4 ,the most gorgeous hues are lavished upon them1 which their great size and peculiarly square-built form display to the greatest advantage4 ,their legs are short2 their breast broad2 there is but a small proportion of offal2 and the good1 profitable flesh is abundant4 ,the cocks may be brought to considerable weight1 and the flavor and appearance of their meat are inferior to none4 ,the eggs are produced in reasonable abundance2 and1 though not equal in size to those of ,spanish hens1 may fairly be called large4 ,they are not everlasting layers1 but at due or convenient intervals manifest the desire of sitting4 ,in this respect1 they are steady and good mothers when the little ones appear4 ,they are better adapted than any other fowl1 except the ,malay1 to hatch superabundant turkeys' eggs2 as their size and bulk enable them to afford warmth and shelter to the young for a long period4 ,for the same reason1 spare goose eggs may be entrusted to them4 ,with all these merits1 however1 they are not found to be a profitable breed1 if kept thorough-bred and unmixed4 ,their powers seem to fail at an early age4 ,they are also apt to pine away and die just at the point of reaching maturity4 ,they appear at a certain epoch to be seized with consumption--in the ,speckled ,dorkings1 the lungs seeming to be the seat of the disease4 ,the ,white ,dorkings are1 however1 hardy and active birds1 and are not subject to consumption or any other disease4 ,as mothers1 an objection to the ,dorkings is1 that they are too heavy and clumsy to rear the chickens of any smaller and more delicate bird than themselves4 ,pheasants1 partridges1 bantams1 and ,guinea fowl are trampled under foot and crushed1 if in the least weakly4 ,the hen1 in her affectionate industry in scratching for grub1 kicks her smallest nurslings right and left1 and leaves them sprawling on their backs2 and before they are a month old1 half of them will be muddled to death with this rough kindness4 ,in spite of these drawbacks1 the ,dorkings are still in high favor2 but a cross is found to be more profitable than the true breed4 ,a glossy1 energetic game-cock1 with ,dorking hens1 produces chickens in size and beauty little inferior to their maternal parentage1 and much more robust4 ,the supernumerary toe on each foot almost always disappears with the first cross2 but it is a point which can very well be spared without much disadvantage4 ,in other respects1 the appearance of the newly-hatched chickens is scarcely altered4 ,the eggs of the ,dorkings are large1 pure white1 very much rounded1 and nearly equal in size at each end4 ,the chickens are brownish-yellow1 with a broad brown stripe down the middle of the back1 and a narrower one on each side2 feet and legs yellow4 ,,the ,,fawn-,,colored ,,dorking4 ,the fowl bearing this name is a cross between the white ,dorking and the fawn-colored ,turkish fowl4 ,they are1 of lofty carriage1 handsome1 and healthy4 ,the males of this breed weigh from eight to nine pounds1 and the females from six to seven2 and they come to maturity early for so large a fowl4 ,their tails are shorter and their eggs darker than those of other ,dorkings2 their flesh is fine and their eggs rich4 ,it is one of the best varieties of fowl known1 as the size is readily increased without diminishing the fineness of the flesh4 ,,the ,,black ,,dorking4 ,the bodies of this variety are of a large size1 with the usual proportions of the race1 and of a jet-black color4 ,the neck-feathers of some of the cocks are tinged with a bright gold color1 and those of some of the hens bear a silvery complexion4 ,their combs are usually double1 and very short1 though sometimes cupped1 rose1 or single1 with wattles small2 and they are usually very red about the head4 ,their tails are rather shorter and broader than most of the race1 and they feather rather slowly4 ,their legs are short and black1 with five toes on each foot1 the bottom of which is sometimes yellow4 ,the two back toes are very distinct1 starting from the foot separately2 and there is frequently a part of an extra toe between the two4 ,this breed commence laying when very young1 and are very thrifty layers during winter4 ,their eggs are of a large size1 and hatch well2 they are perfectly hardy1 as their color indicates1 and for the product are considered among the most valuable of the ,dorking breed4 ,,the ,,dunghill ,,fowl4 ,this is sometimes called the ,barn-door fowl1 and is characterized by a thin1 serrated1 upright comb1 and wattles hanging from each side of the lower mandible2 the tail rises in an arch1 above the level of the rump2 the feathers of the rump are long and line-like2 and the color is finely variegated4 ,the female's comb and wattles are smaller than those of the cock2 she is less in size1 and her colors are more dull and sombre4 ,in the best specimens of this variety1 the legs should be white and smooth1 like those of the ,dorking1 and their bodies round and plump4 ,being mongrels1 they breed all colors1 and are usually from five to seven or eight pounds per pair4 ,,the ,,frizzled ,,fowl4 ,this fowl is erroneously supposed to be a native of ,japan1 and1 by an equally common error1 is frequently called the ,friesland1 under the apprehension that it is derived from that place4 ,its name1 however1 originates from its peculiar appearance4 ,it is difficult to say whether this is an aboriginal variety1 or merely a peculiar instance of the morphology of feathers2 the circumstance that there are also frizzled ,bantams1 would seem to make in favor of the latter position4 ,the feathers are ruffled or frizzled1 and the reversion makes them peculiarly susceptible of cold and wet1 since their plumage is of little use as clothing4 ,they have thus the demerit of being tender as well as ugly4 ,in good specimens1 every feather looks as if it had been curled the wrong way with a pair of hot curling-irons4 ,the plumage is variegated in its colors2 and there are two varieties1 called the ,black and ,white ,frizzled4 ,the stock1 which is rather curious than valuable1 is retained in this country more by importation than by rearing4 ,some writers say that this variety is a native of ,asia1 and that it exists in a domestic state throughout ,java1 ,sumatra1 and all the ,philippine islands1 where it succeeds well4 ,it is1 according to such1 uncertain in what country it is still found wild4 ,,the ,,game ,,fowl4 ,it is probable that these fowl1 like other choice varieties1 are natives of ,india4 ,it is certain that in that country an original race of some fowl exists1 at the present day1 bearing in full perfection all the peculiar characteristics of the species4 ,in ,india1 as is well known1 the natives are infected with a passion for cock-fighting4 ,these fowls are carefully bred for this barbarous amusement1 and the finest birds become articles of great value4 ,in ,sumatra1 the inhabitants are so much addicted to the cruel sports to which these fowls are devoted1 that instances are recorded of men staking not only their property upon the issue of a fight1 but even their wives and children4 ,the ,chinese are likewise passionately fond of this pastime2 as1 indeed1 are all the inhabitants of the ,indian countries professing the ,mussulman creed4 ,the ,romans introduced the practice into ,britain1 in which country the earliest recorded cock-fight dates back to about the year #aajj4 ,in ,mexico and the ,south ,american countries it is still a national amusement4 ,illustration3 ,,gray ,,game ,,fowls4 ,the game fowl is one of the most gracefully formed and beautifully colored of our domestic breeds of poultry2 and in its form1 aspect1 and that extraordinary courage which characterizes its natural disposition1 exhibits all that either the naturalist or the sportsman would at once recognize as the purest type of high blood1 embodying1 in short1 all the most indubitable characteristics of gallinaceous aristocracy4 ,it is somewhat inferior in size to other breeds1 and in its shape approximates more closely to the elegance and lightness of form usually characteristic of a pure and uncontaminated race4 ,amongst poultry1 he is what the ,arabian is amongst horses1 the high-bred ,short-horn amongst cattle1 and the fleet greyhound amongst the canine race4 ,the flesh is beautifully white1 as well as tender and delicate4 ,the hens are excellent layers1 and although the eggs are under the average size1 they are not to be surpassed in excellence of flavor4 ,such being the character of this variety of fowl1 it would doubtless be much more extensively cultivated than it is1 were it not for the difficulty attending the rearing of the young2 their pugnacity being such1 that a brood is scarcely feathered before at least one-half are killed or blinded by fighting4 ,with proper care1 however1 most of the difficulties to be apprehended may be avoided4 ,it is exceedingly desirable to perpetuate the race1 for uses the most important and valuable4 ,as a cross with other breeds1 they are invaluable in improving the flavor of the flesh1 which is an invariable consequence4 ,the plumage of all fowl related to them is increased in brilliancy2 and they are1 moreover1 very prolific1 and the eggs are always enriched4 ,,the ,,mexican ,,hen-,,cock4 ,this unique breed is a favorite variety with the ,mexicans1 who term them ,hen-cocks from the fact that the male birds have short1 broad tails1 and1 in color and plumage1 the appearance of the hens of the same variety1 differing only in the comb1 which is very large and erect in the cock1 and small in the hen4 ,they are generally pheasant-colored1 with occasional changes in plumage from a light yellow to a dark gray2 and1 in some instances1 there is a tendency to black tail-feathers and breast1 as well as an inclination to gray and light yellow1 and with a slight approximation to red hackles in some rare instances4 ,this variety has a strong frame1 and very large and muscular thighs4 ,the cocks are distinguished by large1 upright combs1 strong bills1 and very large1 lustrous eyes4 ,the legs vary from a dirty to a dark-green color4 ,the hen does not materially differ in appearance from the cock4 ,they are as good layers and sitters as any other game breed1 and are good nurses4 ,,the ,,wild ,,indian ,,game4 ,this variety was originally imported into this country from ,calcutta4 ,the hen has a long neck1 like a wild goose2 neither comb nor wattles2 of a dark1 glossy green color2 very short fan tail2 lofty in carriage1 trim built1 and wild in general appearance2 legs very large and long1 spotted with blue2 ordinary weight from four and a half to six pounds4 ,as a layer1 she is equal to other fowls of the game variety4 ,the cock stands as high as a large turkey1 and weighs nine pounds and upward2 the plumage is of a reddish cast1 interspersed with spots of glossy green2 comb very small2 no wattles2 and bill unlike every other fowl1 except the hen4 ,,the ,,spanish ,,game4 ,this variety is called the ,english fowl by some writers4 ,it is more slender in the body1 the neck1 the bill1 and the legs1 than the other varieties1 and the colors1 particularly of the cock1 are very bright and showy4 ,the flesh is white1 tender1 and delicate1 and on this account marketable2 the eggs are small1 and extremely delicate4 ,the plumage is very beautiful--a clear1 dark red1 very bright1 extending from the back to the extremities1 while the breast is beautifully black4 ,the upper convex side of the wing is equally red and black1 and the whole of the tail-feathers white4 ,the beak and legs are black2 the eyes resemble jet beads1 very full and brilliant2 and the whole contour of the head gives a most ferocious expression4 ,,the ,,guelderland4 ,the ,guelderland fowl were originally imported into this country from the north of ,holland1 where they are supposed to have originated4 ,they are very symmetrical in form1 and graceful in their motions4 ,they have one noticeable peculiarity1 which consists in the absence of a comb in either sex4 ,this is replaced by an indentation on the top of the head2 and from the extreme end of this1 at the back1 a small spike of feathers rises4 ,this adds greatly to the beauty of the fowl4 ,the presence of the male is especially dignified1 and the female is little inferior in carriage4 ,illustration3 ,,guelderlands4 ,the plumage is of a beautiful black1 tinged with blue1 of very rich appearance1 and bearing a brilliant gloss4 ,the legs are black1 and1 in some few instances1 slightly feathered4 ,crosses with the ,shanghae have heavily feathered legs4 ,the wattles are of good size in the cock1 while those of the hen are slightly less4 ,the flesh is fine1 of white color1 and of excellent flavor4 ,the eggs are large and delicate--the shell being thicker than in those of most other fowls--and are much prized for their good qualities4 ,the hens are great layers1 seldom inclining to sit4 ,their weight is from five pounds for the pullets1 to seven pounds for the cocks4 ,the ,guelderlands1 in short1 possess all the characteristics of a perfect breed2 and in breeding them1 this is demonstrated by the uniform aspect which is observable in their descendants4 ,they are light and active birds1 and are not surpassed1 in point of beauty and utility1 by any breed known in this country4 ,the only objection1 indeed1 which has been raised against them is the tenderness of the chickens4 ,with a degree of care1 however1 equal to their value1 this difficulty can be surmounted1 and the breed must be highly appreciated by all who have a taste for beauty1 and who desire fine flesh and luscious eggs4 ,,the ,,spangled ,,hamburgh4 ,the ,spangled ,hamburgh fowl are divided into two varieties1 the distinctive characteristics being slight1 and almost dependent upon color2 these varieties are termed the ,golden and ,silver ,spangled4 ,illustration3 ,,hamburgh ,,fowls4 ,the ,golden ,spangled is one of no ordinary beauty2 it is well and very neatly made1 has a good body1 and no very great offal4 ,on the crest1 immediately above the beak1 are two small1 fleshy horns1 resembling1 to some extent1 an abortive comb4 ,above this crest1 and occupying the place of a comb1 is a very large brown or yellow tuft1 the feathers composing it darkening toward their extremities4 ,under the insertion of the lower mandible--or that portion of the neck corresponding to the chin in man--is a full1 dark-colored tuft1 somewhat resembling a beard4 ,the wattles are very small2 the comb1 as in other high-crested fowls1 is very diminutive2 and the skin and flesh white4 ,the hackles on the neck are of a brilliant orange1 or golden yellow2 and the general ground-color of the body is of the same hue1 but somewhat darker4 ,the thighs are of a dark-brown or blackish shade1 and the legs and feet are of a bluish gray4 ,in the ,silver ,spangled variety1 the only perceptible difference is1 that the ground color is a silvery white4 ,the extremity and a portion of the extreme margin of each feather are black1 presenting1 when in a state of rest1 the appearance of regular semicircular marks1 or spangles--and hence the name1 ,spangled ,hamburgh2 the varieties being termed gold or silver1 according to the prevailing color being bright yellow1 or silvery white4 ,the eggs are of moderate size1 but abundant2 chickens easily reared4 ,in mere excellence of flesh and as layers1 they are inferior to the ,dorking or the ,spanish4 ,they weigh from four and a half to five and a half pounds for the male1 and three and a half for the female4 ,the former stands some twenty inches in height1 and the latter about eighteen inches4 ,,the ,,java4 ,the ,great ,java fowl is seldom seen in this country in its purity4 ,they are of a black or dark auburn color1 with very large1 thick legs1 single comb and wattles4 ,they are good layers1 and their eggs are very large and well-flavored2 their gait is slow and majestic4 ,they are1 in fact1 amongst the most valuable fowls in the country1 and are frequently described as ,spanish fowls1 than which nothing is more erroneous4 ,they are as distinctly an original breed as the pure-blooded ,great ,malay1 and possess about the same qualities as to excellence1 but fall rather short of them in beauty4 ,some1 however1 consider the pure ,java superior to all other large fowls1 so far as beauty is concerned4 ,their plumage is decidedly rich4 ,,the ,,jersey-,,blue4 ,the color of this variety is light-blue1 sometimes approaching to dun2 the tail and wings rather shorter than those of the common fowl2 its legs are of various colors1 generally black1 sometimes lightly feathered4 ,of superior specimens1 the cocks weigh from seven to nine pounds1 and the hens from six to eight4 ,they are evidently mongrels2 and though once much esteemed1 they have been quite neglected1 so far as breeding from them is concerned1 since the introduction of the purer breeds1 as the ,shanghaes and the ,cochin-,chinas4 ,,the ,,lark-,,crested ,,fowl4 ,this breed is sometimes confounded with the ,polish fowl2 but the shape of the crest1 as well as the proportions of the bird1 is different4 ,this variety1 of whatever color it may be1 is of a peculiar taper-form1 inclining forward1 with a moderately depressed1 backward-directed crest1 and deficient in the neatness of the legs and feet so conspicuous in the ,polands2 the latter are of more upright carriage and of a more squarely-built frame4 ,perhaps a good distinction between the two varieties is1 that the ,lark-crested have an occipital crest1 and the ,poland more of a frontal one4 ,they are of various colors3 pure snow white1 brown with yellow hackles1 and black4 ,the white is1 perhaps1 more brilliant than is seen in any other domesticated gallinaceous bird1 being much more dazzling than that of the ,white ,guinea ,fowl1 or the ,white ,pea ,fowl4 ,this white variety is in great esteem1 having a remarkably neat and lively appearance when rambling about a homestead4 ,they look very clean and attractive when dressed for market2 an old bird1 cleverly trussed1 will be1 apparently1 as delicate and transparent in skin and flesh as an ordinary chicken4 ,their feathers are also more salable than those from darker colored fowls4 ,they are but little1 if1 indeed1 any1 more tender than other kinds raised near the barn-door2 they are in every way preferable to the ,white ,dorkings4 ,in the cocks1 a single1 upright comb sometimes almost entirely takes the place of the crest2 the hens1 too1 vary in this respect1 some having not more than half a dozen feathers in their head-dress4 ,if they were not of average merit1 as to their laying and sitting qualifications1 they would not retain the favor they do with the thrifty house-wives by whom they are chiefly cultivated4 ,,the ,,malay4 ,illustration3 ,,malays4 ,this majestic bird is found on the peninsula from which it derives its name1 and1 in the opinion of many1 forms a connecting link between the wild and domesticated races of fowls4 ,something very like them is1 indeed1 still to be found in the ,east4 ,this native ,indian bird--the ,gigantic ,cock1 the ,kulm ,cock of ,europeans--often stands considerably more than two feet from the crown of the head to the ground4 ,the comb extends backward in a line with the eyes2 it is thick1 a little elevated1 rounded upon the top1 and has almost the appearance of having been cut off4 ,the wattles of the under mandibles are comparatively small1 and the throat is bare4 ,pale1 golden-reddish hackles ornament the head1 neck1 and upper part of the back1 and some of these spring before the bare part of the throat4 ,the middle of the back and smaller wing-coverts are deep chestnut1 the webs of the feathers disunited2 pale reddish-yellow1 long1 drooping hackles cover the rump and base of the tail1 which last is very ample1 and entirely of a glossy green1 of which color are the wing-coverts2 the secondaries and quills are pale reddish-yellow on their outer webs4 ,all the under parts are deep glossy blackish-green1 with high reflections2 the deep chestnut of the base of the feathers appears occasionally1 and gives a mottled and interrupted appearance to those parts4 ,the weight of the ,malay1 in general1 exceeds that of the ,cochin-,china2 the male weighing1 when full-grown1 from eleven to twelve1 and even thirteen pounds1 and the female from eight to ten pounds2 height1 from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches4 ,they present no striking uniformity of plumage1 being of all shades1 from black to white2 the more common color of the female is a light reddish-yellow1 with sometimes a faint tinge of dunnish-blue1 especially in the tail4 ,the cock is frequently of a yellowish-red color1 with black intermingled in the breast1 thighs1 and tail4 ,he has a small1 but thick comb1 generally inclined to one side2 he should be snake-headed1 and free from the slightest trace of top-knot2 the wattles should be extremely small1 even in an old bird2 the legs are not feathered1 as in the case of the ,shanghaes1 but1 like them and the ,cochin-,chinas1 his tail is small1 compared with his size4 ,in the female1 there is scarcely any show of comb or wattles4 ,their legs are long and stout2 their flesh is very well flavored1 when they have been properly fattened2 and their eggs are so large and rich that two of them are equal to three of those of our ordinary fowls4 ,the ,malay cock1 in his perfection1 is a remarkably courageous and strong bird4 ,his beak is very thick1 and he is a formidable antagonist when offended4 ,his crow is loud1 harsh1 and prolonged1 as in the case of the ,cochin-,china1 but broken off abruptly at the termination2 this is quite characteristic of the bird4 ,the chickens are at first very strong1 with yellow legs1 and are thickly covered with light brown down2 but1 by the time they are one-third grown1 the increase of their bodies has so far outstripped that of their feathers1 that they are half naked about the back and shoulders1 and extremely susceptible of cold and wet4 ,the great secret of rearing them is1 to have them hatched very early indeed1 so that they may have safely passed through this period of unclothed adolescence during the dry1 sunny part of ,may and ,june1 and reached nearly their full stature before the midsummer rains descend4 ,malay hens are much used by some for hatching the eggs of turkeys--a task for which they are well adapted in every respect but one1 which is1 that they will follow their natural instinct in turning off their chickens at the usual time1 instead of retaining charge of them as long as the mother turkey would have done4 ,goslings would suffer less from such untimely desertion4 ,,the ,,pheasant ,,malay4 ,this variety is highly valued by many1 not on account of its intrinsic merits1 which are considerable1 but because it is believed to be a cross between the pheasant and the common fowl4 ,this is1 however1 an erroneous opinion4 ,hybrids between the pheasant and the fowl are1 for the most part1 absolutely sterile2 when they do breed1 it is not with each other1 but with the stock of one of their progenitors2 and the offspring of these either fail or assimilate to one or the other original type4 ,no half-bred family is perpetuated1 no new breed created1 by human or volucrine agency4 ,the ,pheasant ,malays are large1 well-flavored1 good sitters1 good layers1 good mothers1 and1 in many points1 an ornamental and desirable stock4 ,some object to them as being a trifle too long in their make2 but they have a healthy look of not being over-bred1 which is a recommendation to those who rear for profit as well as pleasure4 ,the eggs vary in size2 some are very large in summer1 smooth1 but not polished1 sometimes tinged with light buff1 balloon-shaped1 and without the zone of irregularity4 ,the chickens1 when first hatched1 are all very much alike2 yellow1 with a black mark all down the back4 ,the cock has a black tail1 with black on the neck and wings4 ,,the ,,plymouth ,,rock4 ,this name has been given to a very good breed of fowls1 produced by crossing a ,china cock with a hen1 a cross between the ,fawn-colored ,dorking1 the ,great ,malay1 and the ,wild ,indian4 ,at a little over a year old1 the cocks stand from thirty-two to thirty-five inches high1 and weigh about ten pounds2 and the pullets from six and a half to seven pounds each4 ,the latter commence laying when five months old1 and prove themselves very superior layers4 ,their eggs are of a medium size1 rich1 and reddish-yellow in color4 ,their plumage is rich and variegated2 the cocks usually red or speckled1 and the pullets darkish brown4 ,they have very fine flesh1 and are fit for the table at an early age4 ,the legs are very large1 and usually blue or green1 but occasionally yellow or white1 generally having five toes upon each foot4 ,some have their legs feathered1 but this is not usual4 ,they have large and single combs and wattles1 large cheeks1 rather short tails1 and small wings in proportion to their bodies4 ,they are domestic1 and not so destructive to gardens as smaller fowls4 ,there is the same uniformity in size and general appearance1 at the same age of the chickens1 as in those of the pure bloods of primary races4 ,,the ,,poland4 ,the ,poland1 or ,polish fowl1 is quite unknown in the country which would seem to have suggested the name1 which originated from some fancied resemblance between its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of the feathered caps worn by the ,polish soldiers4 ,the breed of crested fowls is much esteemed by the curious1 and is bred with great care4 ,those desirous of propagating any singular varieties1 separate and confine the individuals1 and do not suffer them to mingle with such as have the colors different4 ,the varieties are more esteemed in proportion to the variety of the colors1 or the contrast of the tuft with the rest of the plumage4 ,although the differences of plumage are thus preserved pretty constant1 they seem to owe their origin to the same breed1 and cannot be reproduced pure without careful superintendence4 ,the cocks are much esteemed in ,egypt1 in consequence of the excellence of their flesh1 and are so common that they are sold at a remarkably cheap rate4 ,they are equally abundant at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 where their legs are feathered4 ,illustration3 ,,poland ,,fowls4 ,the ,polish are chiefly suited for keeping in a small way1 and in a clean and grassy place4 ,they are certainly not so fit for the farm-yard1 as they become blinded and miserable with dirt4 ,care should be exercised to procure them genuine1 since there is no breed of fowls more disfigured by mongrelism than this4 ,they will1 without any cross-breeding1 occasionally produce white stock that are very pretty1 and equally good for laying4 ,if1 however1 an attempt is made to establish a separate breed of them1 they become puny and weak4 ,it is1 therefore1 better for those who wish for them to depend upon chance2 every brood almost of the black produces one white chicken1 as strong and lively as the rest4 ,these fowls are excellent for the table1 the flesh being white1 tender1 and juicy2 but they are quite unsuitable for being reared in any numbers1 or for general purposes1 since they are so capricious in their growth1 frequently remaining stationary in this respect for a whole month1 getting no larger2 and this1 too1 when they are about a quarter or half grown--the time of their life when they are most liable to disease4 ,as aviary birds1 they are unrivalled among fowls4 ,their plumage often requires a close inspection to appreciate its elaborate beauty2 the confinement and fretting seem not uncongenial to their health2 and their plumage improves in attractiveness with almost every month4 ,the great merit1 however1 of all the ,polish fowls is1 that for three or four years they continue to grow and gain in size1 hardiness1 and beauty--the male birds especially4 ,this fact certainly points out a very wide deviation in constitution from those fowls which attain their full stature and perfect plumage in twelve or fifteen months4 ,the similarity of coloring in the two sexes--almost a specific distinction of ,polish and perhaps ,spanish fowls--also separates them from those breeds1 like the ,game1 in which the cocks and hens are remarkably dissimilar4 ,their edible qualities are as superior1 compared with other fowls1 as their outward apparel surpasses in elegance4 ,they have also the reputation of being everlasting layers1 which further fits them for keeping in small enclosures2 but1 in this respect1 individual exceptions are often encountered--as in the case of the ,hamburghs--however truly the habit may be ascribed to the race4 ,there are four known varieties of the ,polish fowl1 one of which appears to be lost to this country4 ,,the ,,black ,,polish4 ,this variety is of a uniform black--both cock and hen--glossed with metallic green4 ,the head is ornamented with a handsome crest of white feathers1 springing from a fleshy protuberance1 and fronted more or less deeply with black4 ,the comb is merely two or three spikes1 and the wattles are rather small4 ,both male and female are the same in color1 except that the former has frequently narrow stripes of white in the waving feathers of the tail1 a sign1 it is said1 of true breeding4 ,the hens1 also1 have two or three feathers on each side of the tail1 tinged in the tip with white4 ,they do not lay quite so early in the spring as some varieties1 especially after a hard winter2 but they are exceedingly good layers1 continuing a long time without wanting to sit1 and laying rather large1 very white1 sub-ovate eggs4 ,they will1 however1 sit at length1 and prove of very diverse dispositions2 some being excellent sitters and nurses1 others heedless and spiteful4 ,the chickens1 when first hatched1 are dull black1 with white breasts1 and white down on the front of the head4 ,they do not always grow and get out of harm's way so quickly as some other sorts1 but are not particularly tender4 ,in rearing a brood of these fowls1 some of the hens may be observed with crests round and symmetrical as a ball1 and others in which the feathers turn all ways1 and fall loosely over the eyes2 and in the cocks1 also1 some have the crest falling gracefully over the back of the head1 and others have the feathers turning about and standing on end4 ,these should be rejected1 the chief beauty of the kind depending upon such little particulars4 ,one hen of this variety laid just a hundred eggs1 many of them on consecutive days1 before wanting to incubate2 and after rearing a brood successfully1 she laid twenty-five eggs before moulting in autumn4 ,,the ,,golden ,,polands4 ,these are sometimes called ,gold ,spangled1 as their plumage approaches to that of the ,gold ,spangled ,hamburghs2 but many of the finest specimens have the feathers merely fringed with a darker color1 and the cocks1 more frequently than the hens1 exhibit a spotted or spangled appearance4 ,many of them are disfigured by a muff or beard2 as to which the question has been raised whether it is an original appendage to these birds or not4 ,a distinct race1 of which the muff is one permanent characteristic1 is not at present known4 ,this appendage1 whenever introduced into the poultry-yard1 is not easily got rid of2 which has caused some to suspect either that the original ,polish were beardless1 or that there were two ancient races4 ,the ,golden ,polands1 when well-bred1 are exceedingly handsome2 the cock has golden hackles1 and gold and brown feathers on the back2 breast and wings richly spotted with ochre and dark brown2 tail darker2 large golden and brown crest1 falling back over the neck2 but little comb and wattles4 ,the hen is richly laced with dark-brown or black on an ochre ground2 dark-spotted crest2 legs light-blue1 very cleanly made1 and displaying a small web between the toes1 almost as proportionately large as that in some of the waders4 ,they are good layers1 and produce fair-sized eggs4 ,many of them make excellent mothers1 although they cannot be induced to sit early in the season4 ,the chickens are rather clumsy-looking little creatures1 of a dingy-brown1 with some dashes of ochre about the head1 breast and wings4 ,they are sometimes inclined to disease in the first week of their existence2 but1 if they pass this successfully1 they become tolerably hardy1 though liable to come to a pause when about half-grown4 ,it may be noted as a peculiarity in the temper of this breed1 that1 if one is caught1 or attacked by any animal1 the rest1 whether cocks or hens1 will instantly make a furious attack upon the aggressor1 and endeavor to effect the rescue of their companion4 ,,the ,,silver ,,polands4 ,these are similar to the preceding in shape and markings1 except that white1 black1 and gray are exchanged for ochre or yellow1 and various shades of brown4 ,they are even more delicate in their constitution1 more liable to remain stationary at a certain point of their adolescence1 and1 still more than the other varieties1 require and will repay extra care and accommodation4 ,their top-knots are1 perhaps1 not so large1 as a general thing2 but they retain the same neat bluish legs and slightly-webbed feet4 ,the hens are much more ornamental than the cocks2 though the latter are sure to attract notice4 ,they may1 unquestionably1 be ranked among the choicest of fowls1 whether their beauty or their rarity is considered4 ,they lay1 in tolerable abundance1 eggs of moderate size1 ,french-white1 much pointed at one end2 and when they sit1 acquit themselves respectably4 ,the newly-hatched chickens are very pretty2 gray1 with black eyes1 light lead-colored legs1 and a swelling of down on the crown of the head1 indicative of the future top-knot1 which is exactly the color of a powdered wig1 and1 indeed1 gives the chicken the appearance of wearing one4 ,there is no difficulty in rearing them for the first six weeks or two months2 the critical time being the interval between that age and their reaching the fifth or sixth month4 ,they acquire their peculiar distinctive features at a very early age1 and are then the most elegant little miniature fowls which can possibly be imagined4 ,the distinction of sex is not very manifest till they are nearly full-grown2 the first observable indication being in the tail4 ,that of the pullet is carried uprightly1 as it ought to be2 but in the cockerel1 it remains depressed1 awaiting the growth of the sickle-feathers4 ,the top-knot of the cockerel inclines to hang more backward than that of the pullets4 ,it is remarkable that the ,golden ,polish cock produces as true ,silver chickens1 and those stronger1 with the ,silver ,polish hen1 as the ,silver ,polish cock would bring4 ,the ,silver ,polands have all the habits of their golden companions1 the main difference being the silvery ground instead of the golden4 ,this variety will sometimes make its appearance even if merely its ,golden kind is bred1 precisely as the ,black ,polish now and then produce some pure ,white chickens that make very elegant birds4 ,,the ,,black-,,topped ,,white4 ,this variety does not at present exist among us2 and some have even questioned whether it ever did4 ,buffon mentions them as if extant in ,france in his time4 ,an attempt has been made to obtain them from the preceding1 by acting on the imagination of the parents4 ,the experiment failed1 though similar schemes are said to have succeeded with animals2 it proved1 however1 that it will not do to breed from the ,white ,polish as a separate breed4 ,being ,albinos1 the chickens come very weakly1 and few survive4 ,this breed is now recoverable1 probably1 only by importation from ,asia4 ,,the ,,shanghae4 ,for all the purposes of a really good fowl--for beauty of model1 good size1 and laying qualities--the thorough-bred ,shanghae is among the best1 and generally the most profitable of domestic birds4 ,the cock1 when full-grown1 stands about twenty-eight inches high1 if he is a good specimen2 the female1 about twenty-two or twenty-three inches4 ,a large comb or heavy wattles are rarely seen on the hen at any age2 but the comb of the male is high1 deeply indented1 and his wattles double and large4 ,the comb and wattles are not1 however1 to be regarded as the chief characteristics of this variety1 nor even its reddish-yellow feathered leg2 but the abundant1 soft1 and downy covering of the thighs1 hips1 and region of the vent1 together with the remarkably short tail1 and large mound of feathers piled over the upper part of its root1 giving rise to a considerable elevation on that part of the rump4 ,it should be remarked1 also1 that the wings are quite short and small in proportion to the size of the fowl1 and carried very high up the body1 thus exposing the whole of the thighs1 and a considerable portion of the side4 ,illustration3 ,,shanghaes4 ,these characteristics are not found1 in the same degree1 in any other fowl4 ,the peculiar arrangement of feathers gives the ,shanghae in appearance1 what it has in reality--a greater depth of quarter1 in proportion to the brisket1 than any other fowl4 ,as to the legs1 they are not very peculiar4 ,the color is usually reddish-white1 or flesh-color1 or reddish-yellow1 mostly covered down the outside1 even to the end of the toes1 with feathers4 ,this last1 however1 is not always the case4 ,the plumage of the thorough-bred is remarkably soft and silky1 or rather downy2 and is1 in the opinion of many1 equally as good for domestic purposes as that of the goose4 ,the feathers are certainly quite as fine and soft1 if not as abundant4 ,in laying qualities1 the pure ,shanghae equals1 if it does not excel1 any other fowl4 ,the ,black ,poland1 or the ,bolton ,gray1 may1 perhaps1 lay a few more eggs in the course of a year1 in consequence of not so frequently inclining to sit2 but their eggs are not so rich and nutritious4 ,a pullet of this breed laid one hundred and twenty eggs in one hundred and twenty-five days1 then stopped six days1 then laid sixteen eggs more1 stopped four days1 and again continued her laying4 ,the eggs are generally of a pale yellow1 or nankeen color1 not remarkably large1 compared with the size of the fowl1 and generally blunt at the ends4 ,the comb is commonly single1 though1 in some specimens1 there is a slight tendency to rose4 ,the flesh of this fowl is tender1 juicy1 and unexceptionable in every respect4 ,taking into consideration the goodly size of the ,shanghae--weighing1 as the males do1 at maturity1 from ten to twelve pounds1 and the females from seven and a half to eight and a half1 and the males and females of six months1 eight and six pounds respectively--the economical uses to which its soft1 downy feathers may be applied1 its productiveness1 hardiness1 and its quiet and docile temper1 this variety must occupy1 and deservedly so1 a high rank among our domestic fowls2 and the more it is known1 the better will it be appreciated4 ,,the ,,white ,,shanghae4 ,this variety is entirely white1 with the legs usually feathered1 and differ in no material respect from the red1 yellow1 and ,dominique1 except in color4 ,the legs are yellowish1 or reddish-yellow1 and sometimes of flesh-color4 ,many prefer them to all others4 ,the eggs are of a nankeen1 or dull yellow color1 and blunt at both ends4 ,illustration3 ,,white ,,shanghaes4 ,it is claimed by the friends of this variety that they are larger and more quiet than other varieties1 that their flesh is much superior1 their eggs larger1 and the hens more profitable4 ,being more quiet in their habits1 and less inclined to ramble1 the hens are invaluable as incubators and nurses2 and the mildness of their disposition makes them excellent foster-mothers1 as they never injure the chickens belonging to other hens4 ,these fowls will rank among the largest coming from ,china1 and are very thrifty in our climate4 ,a cock of this variety attained a weight of eight pounds1 at about the age of eight months1 and the pullets of the same brood were proportionably large4 ,they are broad on the back and breast1 with a body well rounded up2 the plumage white1 with a downy softness--in the latter respect much like the feathering of the ,bremen goose2 the tail-feathers short and full2 the head small1 surmounted by a small1 single1 serrated comb2 wattles long and wide1 overlaying the cheek-piece1 which is also large1 and extends back on the neck2 and the legs of a yellow hue1 approaching a flesh-color1 and feathered to the ends of the toes4 ,,the ,,silver ,,pheasant4 ,this variety of fowls is remarkable for great brilliancy of plumage and diversity of colors4 ,on a white ground1 which is usually termed silvery1 there is an abundance of black spots4 ,the feathers on the upper part of the head are much longer than the rest1 and unite together in a tuft4 ,they have a small1 double comb1 and their wattles are also comparatively small4 ,a remarkable peculiarity of the cock is1 that there is a spot of a blue color on the cheeks1 and a range of feathers under the throat1 which has the appearance of a collar4 ,the hen is a smaller bird1 with plumage similar to that of the cock1 and at a little distance seems to be covered with scales4 ,on the head is a top-knot of very large size1 which droops over it on every side4 ,the ,silver ,pheasants are beautiful and showy birds1 and chiefly valuable as ornamental appendages to the poultry-yard4 ,,the ,,spanish4 ,illustration3 ,,spanish ,,fowls4 ,this name is said to be a misnomer1 as the breed in question was originally brought by the ,spaniards from the ,west ,indies2 and1 although subsequently propagated in ,spain1 it has for some time been very difficult to procure good specimens from that country4 ,from ,spain1 they were taken in considerable numbers into ,holland1 where they have been carefully bred1 for many years2 and it is from that quarter that our best fowls of this variety come4 ,the ,spanish is a noble race of fowls1 possessing many merits2 of spirited and animated appearance2 of considerable size2 excellent for the table1 both in whiteness of flesh and skin1 and also in flavor2 and laying exceedingly large eggs in considerable numbers4 ,among birds of its own breed it is not deficient in courage2 though it yields1 without showing much fight1 to those which have a dash of game blood in their veins4 ,it is a general favorite in all large cities1 for the additional advantage that no soil of smoke or dirt is apparent on its plumage4 ,the thorough-bred birds should be entirely black1 as far as feathers are concerned2 and when in high condition1 display a greenish1 metallic lustre4 ,the combs of both cock and hen are exceedingly large1 of a vivid and most brilliant scarlet2 that of the hen droops over upon one side4 ,their most singular feature is a large1 white patch1 or ear-hole1 on the cheek--in some specimens extending over a great part of the face--of a fleshy substance1 similar to the wattle2 it is small in the female1 but large and very conspicuous in the male4 ,this marked contrast of black1 bright red1 and white1 makes the breed of the ,spanish cock as handsome as that of any variety which we have2 in the genuine breed1 the whole form is equally good4 ,spanish hens are celebrated as good layers1 and produce very large1 quite white eggs1 of a peculiar shape1 being very thick at both ends1 and yet tapering off a little at each4 ,they are1 by no means1 good mothers of families1 even when they do sit--which they will not often condescend to do--proving very careless1 and frequently trampling half their brood under foot4 ,the inconveniences of this habit are1 however1 easily obviated by causing the eggs to be hatched by some more motherly hen4 ,this variety of fowl has frequently been known to lose nearly all the feathers in its body1 besides the usual quantity on the neck1 wings1 and tail2 and1 if they moult late1 and the weather is severe1 they feel it much4 ,this must often happen in the case of an everlasting layer2 for if the system of a bird is exhausted by the unremitting production of eggs1 it cannot contain within itself the material for supplying the growth of feathers4 ,they have not1 even yet1 become acclimated in this country1 since continued frost at any time is productive of much injury to their combs2 frequently causing mortification in the end1 which at times terminates in death4 ,a warm poultry-house1 high feeding1 and care that they do not remain too long exposed to severe weather1 are the best means of preventing this disfigurement4 ,some birds are occasionally produced1 handsomely streaked with red on the hackle and back4 ,this is no proof of bad breeding1 if other points are right4 ,the chickens are large1 as would be expected from such eggs1 entirely shining black1 except a pinafore of white on the breast--in which respect they are precisely like the ,black ,polish chickens--and a slight sprinkling under the chin1 with sometimes also a little white round the back and eyes2 their legs and feet are black4 ,many of them do not get perfectly feathered till they are three-fourths grown2 and1 therefore1 to have this variety come to perfection in a country where the summers are much shorter than in their native climate1 they must be hatched early in spring1 so that they may be well covered with plumage before the cold rains of autumn4 ,there is1 however1 a great lack of uniformity in the time when they get their plumage2 the pullets are always earlier and better feathered than the cockerels--the latter being generally half naked for a considerable time after being hatched1 though some feather tolerably well at an early age4 ,the ,black is not the only valuable race of ,spanish fowl2 there is1 also1 the ,gray1 or ,speckled1 of a slaty gray color1 with white legs4 ,their growth is so rapid1 and their size1 eventually1 so large1 that they are remarkably slow in obtaining their feathers4 ,although well covered with down when first hatched1 they look almost naked when half-grown1 and should1 therefore1 be hatched as early in spring as possible4 ,the cross between the ,pheasant-,malay and the ,spanish produces a particularly handsome fowl4 ,as early pullets1 for laying purposes in the autumn and winter after they are hatched1 no fowls can surpass the ,spanish4 ,they are believed1 also1 to be more precocious in their constitution2 and consequently to lay at an earlier age than the pullets of other breeds4 ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,domestic ,,fowls4 ,fowls are classed by modern naturalists as follows3 ,,division4 ,vertebrata--possessing a back bone4 ,,class4 ,aves--birds4 ,,order4 ,rasores--scrapers4 ,,family4 ,phasianidae--,pheasants4 ,,genus4 ,gallus--the cock4 ,birds1 as well as quadrupeds1 may be divided into two great classes1 according to their food3 the ,carnivorous and the ,graminivorous4 ,fowls belong1 strictly speaking1 to the latter4 ,in the structure of the digestive organs1 birds exhibit a great uniformity4 ,the oesophagus1 which is often very muscular1 is dilated into a large sac--called the crop--at its entrance into the breast2 this is abundantly supplied with glands1 and serves as a species of first stomach1 in which the food receives a certain amount of preparation before being submitted to the action of the proper digestive organs4 ,a little below the crop1 the narrow oesophagus is again slightly dilated1 forming what is called the ventriculus succenturiatus1 the walls of which are very thick1 and contain a great number of glands1 which secrete the gastric juice4 ,below this1 the intestinal canal is enlarged into a third stomach1 the gizzard1 in which the process of digestion is carried still farther4 ,in the graminivorous birds1 the walls of this cavity are very thick and muscular1 and clothed internally with a strong1 horny epithelium1 serving for the trituration of the food4 ,the intestine is rather short1 but usually exhibits several convolutions2 the large intestine is always furnished with two corea4 ,it opens by a semicircular orifice into the cloaca1 which also receives the orifices of the urinary and generative organs4 ,the liver is of large size1 and usually furnished with a gall-bladder4 ,the pancreas is lodged in a kind of loop1 formed by the small intestine immediately after quitting the gizzard4 ,there are also large salivary glands in the neighborhood of the mouth1 which pour their secretion into that cavity4 ,the organs of circulation and respiration in birds are adapted to their peculiar mode of life2 but are not separated from the abdominal cavity by a diaphragm1 as in the mammalia4 ,the heart consists of four cavities distinctly separated--two auricles and two ventricles--so that the venous and arterial blood can never mix in that organ2 and the whole of the blood returned from the different parts of the body passes through the lungs before being again driven into the systemic arteries4 ,the blood is received from the veins of the body in the right auricle1 from which it passes through a tabular opening into the right ventricle1 and is thence driven into the lungs4 ,from these organs it returns through the pulmonary veins into the left auricle1 and passes thence into the ventricles of the same side1 by the contraction of which it is driven into the aorta4 ,this soon divides into two branches1 which1 by their subdivision1 give rise to the arteries of the body4 ,the jaws1 or mandibles1 are sheathed in a horny case1 usually of a conical form1 on the sides of which are the nostrils4 ,in most birds1 the sides of this sheath or bill are smooth and sharp2 but in some they are denticulated along the margins4 ,the two anterior members of the body are extended into wings4 ,the beak is used instead of hands2 and such is the flexibility of the vertebral column1 that the bird is able to touch with its beak every part of its body4 ,this curious and important result is obtained chiefly by the lengthened vertebrae of the neck1 which1 in the swan1 consists of twenty-three bones1 and in the domestic cock1 thirteen4 ,the vertebrae of the back are seven to eleven2 the ribs never exceed ten on each side4 ,the clothing of the skin consists of feathers1 which in their nature and development resemble hair1 but are of a more complicated structure4 ,a perfect feather consists of the shaft1 a central stem1 which is tubular at the base1 where it is inserted into the skin1 and the barbs1 or fibres1 which form the webs on each side of the shaft4 ,the two principal modifications of feathers are quills and plumes2 the former confined to the wings and tail1 the latter constituting the general clothing of the body4 ,besides the common feathers1 the skin of many birds is covered with a thick coating of down1 which consists of a multitude of small feathers of peculiar construction2 each of these down feathers is composed of a very small1 soft tube imbedded in the skin1 from the interior of which there rises a small tuft of soft filaments1 without any central shaft4 ,these filaments are very slender1 and bear on each side a series of still more delicate filaments1 which may be regarded as analogous to the barbules of the ordinary feathers4 ,this downy coat fulfils the same office as the soft1 woolly fur of many quadrupeds2 the ordinary feathers being analogous to the long1 smooth hair by which the fur of these animals is concealed4 ,the skin also bears many hair-like appendages1 which are usually scattered sparingly over its surface2 they rise from a bulb which is imbedded in the skin1 and usually indicate their relation to the ordinary feathers by the presence of a few minute barbs toward the apex4 ,once or twice in the course of a year the whole plumage of the bird is renewed1 the casting of the old feathers being called moulting4 ,the base of the quills is covered by a series of large feathers1 called the wing coverts2 and the feathers of the tail are furnished with numerous muscles1 by which they can be spread out and folded up like a fan4 ,in the aquatic birds--like the goose1 the duck1 and the swan--the feathers are constantly lubricated by an oily secretion1 which completely excludes the water4 ,in their reproduction1 birds are strictly oviparous4 ,the eggs are always enclosed in a hard shell1 consisting of calcareous matter1 and birds almost invariably devote their whole attention1 during the breeding season1 to the hatching of their eggs and the development of their offspring2 sitting constantly upon the eggs to communicate to them the degree of warmth necessary for the evolution of the embryo1 and attending to the wants of their newly-hatched young1 until the latter are in a condition to shift for themselves4 ,in the structure and development of the egg there is a great uniformity2 but there is a remarkable difference in the condition of the young bird at the moment of hatching4 ,in the class under consideration1 the young are able to run about from the moment of their breaking the egg-shell2 and the only care of the parents is devoted to protecting their offspring from danger1 and leading them into those places where they are likely to meet with food4 ,the longevity of birds is various1 and1 unlike the case of men and quadrupeds1 seems to bear little proportion to the age at which they acquire maturity4 ,a few months1 or even a few weeks1 suffice to bring them to their perfection of stature1 instincts1 and powers4 ,domestic fowls live to the age of twenty years2 geese1 fifty2 while swans exceed a century4 ,the order ,rasores includes the numerous species of gallinaceous birds1 and the term is applied to them from their habit of scratching in the ground in search of food4 ,they are generally marked by a small head1 stout legs1 plumage fine1 the males usually adorned with magnificent colors1 and the tails often developed in a manner to render the appearance extremely elegant4 ,the wings are usually short and weak1 and the flight of the birds is neither powerful nor prolonged4 ,the corla of this order are larger than in any other birds4 ,the species are found in almost all parts of the world1 from the tropics to the frozen regions of the north2 but the finest and most typical kinds are inhabitants of the temperate and warmer parts of ,asia4 ,they feed principally on seeds1 fruit1 and herbage1 but also1 to a considerable extent1 on insects1 worms1 and other small animals4 ,their general habitation is on the ground1 where they run with great celerity1 but many of them roost on trees4 ,they are mostly polygamous in their habits1 the males being usually surrounded by a considerable troop of females2 and to these1 with a few exceptions1 the whole business of incubation is generally left4 ,the nest is always placed on the ground in some sheltered situation1 and very little art is exhibited in its construction2 indeed1 an elaborate nest is the less necessary1 as the young are able to run about and feed almost as soon as they have left the egg2 and at night or on the approach of danger1 they collect beneath the wings of their mother4 ,most of these species are esteemed for the table1 and many of them are among the most celebrated of game birds4 ,the pheasant family1 of this order1 includes the most beautiful of the rasorial birds2 indeed1 some of them may1 perhaps1 be justly regarded as pre-eminent in this respect over all the rest of their class4 ,in these1 the bill is of moderate size and compressed1 with the upper mandible arched to the tip1 where it overhangs the lower one2 the tarsi are of moderate length and thickness1 usually armed with one or two spurs2 the toes are moderate1 and the hinder one short and elevated2 the wings are rather short and rounded1 and the tail more or less elongated and broad1 but frequently wedge-shaped and pointed4 ,the head is rarely feathered all over2 the naked skin is sometimes confined to a space about the eye1 but generally occupies a greater portion of the surface1 occasionally covering the whole head1 and even a part of the neck1 and frequently forming combs and wattles of very remarkable forms4 ,in some species1 the crown is furnished with a crest of feathers4 ,the birds of this family are1 for the most part1 indigenous to the ,asiatic continent and islands1 from which1 however1 several species have been introduced into other parts of the globe4 ,the ,guinea ,fowl of ,africa1 and the ,turkeys of ,america1 are almost the only instances of wild ,phasianidous birds out of ,asia4 ,some species1 such as the ,domestic ,fowl1 the ,peacock1 the ,turkey1 and the ,guinea ,fowl1 have been reduced to a state of complete domestication1 and are distributed pretty generally over the world4 ,,the ,,guinea ,,fowl4 ,this bird belongs to the same division1 class1 order1 and family as the ,domestic ,fowl2 but is assigned by naturalists to the genus ,numida1 or ,numidian4 ,it is indigenous to the tropical parts of ,africa1 and in a wild state1 ,guinea ,fowls live in flocks1 in woods1 preferring marshy places1 and feed on insects1 worms1 and seeds2 they roost on trees2 the nest is made on the ground1 and usually contains as many as twenty eggs4 ,they have been propagated in the ,island of ,jamaica to such an extent as to have become wild1 and are shot like other game4 ,they do much damage to the crops1 and are therefore destroyed by various means2 one of which is1 to get them tipsy by strewing corn steeped in rum1 and mixed with the intoxicating juice of the cassava1 upon the ground2 the birds devour this1 and are soon found in a helpless state of inebriety4 ,the ,guinea ,fowl1 to a certain degree1 unites the characteristics of the pheasant and the turkey2 having the delicate shape of the one1 and the bare head of the other4 ,there are several varieties3 the ,white1 the ,spotted1 the ,madagascar1 and the ,crested4 ,the latter is not so large as the common species2 the head and neck are bare1 of a dull blue1 shaded with red1 and1 instead of the casque1 it has an ample crest of hair-like1 disunited feathers1 of a bluish black1 reaching as far forward as the nostrils1 but1 in general1 turned backward4 ,the whole plumage1 except the quills1 is of a bluish black1 covered with small grayish spots1 sometimes four1 sometimes six on each feather4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,guinea ,,fowl4 ,this fowl is not a great favorite among many keepers of poultry1 being so unfortunate as to have gained a much worse reputation than it really deserves1 from having been occasionally guilty of a few trifling faults4 ,it is1 however1 useful1 ornamental1 and interesting during its life2 and1 when dead1 a desirable addition to the table1 at a time when all other poultry is scarce4 ,the best way to commence keeping ,guineas is to procure a sitting of eggs which can be depended upon for freshness1 and if possible1 from a place where but a single pair is kept4 ,a ,bantam hen is the best mother2 she is lighter1 and less likely to injure them by treading on them than a full-sized fowl4 ,she will cover nine eggs1 and incubation will last a month4 ,the young are excessively pretty4 ,when first hatched1 they are so strong and active as to appear not to require the attention which is really necessary to rear them4 ,almost as soon as they are dry from the moisture of the egg1 they will peck each other's toes1 as if supposing them to be worms1 scramble with each other for a crumb of bread1 and domineer over any little ,bantam or chicken that may chance to have been hatched at the same time with themselves4 ,no one1 ignorant of the fact1 would guess1 from their appearance1 to what species of bird they belonged2 their orange-red bills and legs1 and the dark1 zebra-like stripes with which they are regularly marked from head to tail1 bear no traces of the speckled plumage of their parents4 ,of all known birds1 the ,guinea fowl is1 perhaps1 the most prolific of eggs4 ,week after week1 and month after month1 there are very few intermissions1 if any1 of the daily deposit4 ,even the process of moulting is sometimes insufficient to draw off the nutriment which it takes to make feathers instead of eggs2 and the poor thing will sometimes go about half-naked in the chilly autumn months1 unable to refrain from its diurnal visit to the nest1 and consequently unable to furnish itself with a new outer garment4 ,the body of the ,guinea hen may be regarded1 in fact1 as a most admirable machine for producing eggs out of insects1 grain1 and vegetables1 garbage1 or whatever material an omnivorous creature can appropriate4 ,its normal plumage is singularly beautiful1 being spangled over with an infinity of white spots on a black ground1 shaded with gray and brown4 ,the spots vary from the size of a pea to extreme minuteness4 ,the black and white occasionally change places1 causing the bird to appear covered with a net of lace4 ,the white variety is not uncommon1 and is said to be equally hardy and profitable with the usual kind2 but the peculiar beauty of the original plumage is1 certainly1 all exchanged for a dress of not the purest white4 ,it is doubtful how long either this or the former variety would remain permanent2 though1 probably1 but for a few generations4 ,pied birds blotched with patches of white1 are frequent1 but are not comparable1 in point of beauty1 with those of the original wild color4 ,,the ,,pea ,,fowl4 ,this bird is assigned to the genus paro1 or peacock--the division1 class1 or sex1 and family1 being the same as the preceding4 ,the male of this species is noted for its long1 lustrous tail1 which it occasionally spreads1 glittering with hundreds of jewel-like eye-spots1 producing an unrivalled effect of grace and beauty4 ,the form of the bird is also exceedingly elegant1 and the general plumage of the body exhibits rich metallic tints2 that of the neck1 particularly1 being of a fine deep blue1 tinged with golden green4 ,the female1 however1 is of a much more sober hue1 her whole plumage being usually of a brownish color4 ,the voice of the peacock is by no means suitable to the beauty of its external appearance1 consisting of a harsh1 disagreeable cry1 not unlike the word paon1 which is the ,french name of the bird4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pea ,,fowl4 ,although naturalized as a domestic bird in ,europe and ,america1 the pea fowl is a native of ,india1 where it is still found abundantly in a wild state2 and the wild specimens are said to be more brilliant than those bred in captivity4 ,the date of its introduction into ,england is not known2 but the first peacocks appear to have been brought into ,europe by ,alexander the ,great1 although these birds were among the articles imported into ,judea by the fleets of ,solomon4 ,they reached ,rome toward the end of the republic1 and their costliness soon caused them to be regarded as one of the greatest luxuries of the table1 though the moderns find them dry and leathery4 ,this1 perhaps1 as much as the desire of ostentation1 may have induced the extravagance of ,vitellius and ,heliogabulus1 who introduced dishes composed only of the brains and tongues of peacocks at their feasts4 ,in ,europe1 during the middle ages1 the peacock was still a favorite article in the bill of fare of grand entertainments1 at which it was served with the greatest pomp and magnificence4 ,and during the period of chivalry1 it was usual for knights to make vows of enterprise on these occasions1 before the peacock and the ladies4 ,at present1 however1 the bird is kept entirely on account of the beauty of its appearance4 ,in a state of nature1 pea fowl frequent jungles and wooded localities1 feeding upon grain1 fruits1 and insects4 ,they are polygamous1 and the females make their nests upon the ground among bushes2 the nest is composed of grass1 and the number of eggs laid is said to be five or six4 ,they roost in high trees1 and1 even in captivity1 their inclination to get into an elevated position frequently manifests itself2 and they may often be seen perched upon high walls1 or upon the ridges of buildings4 ,the latter characteristic is1 indirectly1 one reason why many are disinclined to keep pea fowl in a domestic state4 ,their decided determination so to roost prevents such a control being exercised over them as would restrain them from mischief1 until an eye could be kept on their movements2 and1 consequently1 they commit many depredations upon gardens1 stealing off to their work of plunder at the first dawn1 or at the most unexpected moments4 ,their cunning indeed is such that1 if frequently driven away from the garden at any particular hour of the day or evening1 they will never be found there1 after a certain time1 at that special hour1 but will invariably make their inroads at day-break4 ,many have tried1 as a last resort1 to eject them with every mark of scorn and insult1 such as harsh words1 the cracking of whips1 and the throwing of harmless brooms2 but they remain incorrigible marauders1 indifferent to this disrespectful usage1 and careless of severe rebuke4 ,a mansion1 therefore1 where the fruit and vegetable garden is at a distance1 is almost the only place where they can be kept without daily vexation4 ,the injury they do to flowers is comparatively trifling2 though1 like the ,guinea-fowl1 they are great eaters of buds1 cutting them out cleanly from the axillae of leaves4 ,they must likewise have a dusting-hole1 which is large and unsightly2 but this can be provided for them in some nook out of the way2 and by feeding and encouragement1 they will soon be taught to dispose themselves into a pleasing spectacle1 at whatever point of view may be deemed desirable4 ,no one with a very limited range should attempt to keep them at all1 unless confined in an aviary4 ,where they can be kept at large1 they should be collected in considerable numbers1 that their dazzling effects may be as impressive as possible4 ,a wanton destructiveness toward the young of other poultry is also charged upon them4 ,relative to this1 however1 statements differ2 some contending that such instances of cruelty constitute the exceptions1 and not the rule4 ,the hen does not lay till her third summer2 but she then seems to have an instinctive fear of her mate1 manifested by the secrecy with which she selects the place for her nest2 nor1 if the eggs are disturbed1 will she go there again4 ,she lays from four or five to seven4 ,if these are taken1 she will frequently lay a second time during the summer2 and the plan is recommended to those who are anxious to increase their stock4 ,she sits from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days4 ,a common hen will hatch and rear the young2 but the same objection lies against her performing that office1 except in very fine1 long summers1 for the pea fowl as for turkeys--that the young require to be brooded longer than the hen is conveniently able to do4 ,a turkey will prove a much better foster-mother in every respect4 ,the peahen should1 of course1 be permitted to take charge of one set of eggs4 ,even without such assistance1 she will be tolerably successful4 ,the same wise provision of ,nature noticed in the case of the ,guinea fowl is evinced in a still greater degree in the little pea chickens4 ,their native jungle--tall1 dense1 sometimes impervious1 swarming with reptile1 quadruped1 and even insect1 enemies--would be a most dangerous habitation for a little tender thing that could merely run and squall4 ,accordingly1 they escape from the egg with their quill-feathers very highly developed4 ,in three days1 they will fly up1 and perch upon any thing three feet high2 in a fortnight1 they will roost on trees1 or the tops of sheds2 and in a month or six weeks1 they will reach the ridge of a barn1 if there are any intermediate low stables or other buildings to help them to mount from one to the other4 ,there are two varieties of the common pea fowl3 the pied and the white4 ,the first has irregular patches of white about it1 like the pied ,guinea fowl1 and the remainder of the plumage resembling the original sorts2 the white have the ocellated spots on the tail faintly visible in certain lights4 ,these last are tender1 and much prized by those who prefer variety to real beauty4 ,they are occasionally produced by birds of the common kind1 in cases where no intercourse with other white birds can have taken place4 ,in one instance1 in the same brood1 whose parents were both of the usual colors1 there were two of the common sort1 and one white cock1 and one white hen4 ,,the ,,turkey4 ,,the ,,wild ,,turkey4 ,the turkey belongs to the genus meleagris1 and1 though now known as a domestic fowl in most civilized countries1 was confined to ,america until after the discovery of that country by ,columbus4 ,it was probably introduced into ,europe by the ,spaniards about the year #aecj4 ,it was found in the forests of ,north ,america1 when the country was first settled1 from the ,isthmus of ,darien to ,canada1 being then abundant even in ,new ,england2 at present1 a few are found in the mountains of ,massachusetts1 ,new ,york1 and ,new ,jersey2 in the ,western and the ,southwestern ,states they are still numerous1 though constantly diminishing before the extending and increasing settlements4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wild ,,turkey4 ,the wild male bird measures about three feet and a half1 or nearly four feet1 in length1 and almost six in expanse of the wings1 and weighs from fifteen to forty pounds4 ,the skin of the head is of a bluish color1 as is also the upper part of the neck1 and is marked with numerous reddish1 warty elevations1 with a few black hairs scattered here and there4 ,on the under part of the neck1 the skin hangs down loosely1 and forms a sort of wattle2 and from the point where the bill commences1 and the forehead terminates1 arises a fleshy protuberance1 with a small tuft of hair at the extremity1 which becomes greatly elongated when the bird is excited2 and at the lower part of the neck is a tuft of black hair1 eight or nine inches in length4 ,the feathers are1 at the base1 of a bright dusky tinge1 succeeded by a brilliant metallic band1 which changes1 according to the point whence the light falls upon it1 to bronze1 copper1 violet1 or purple2 and the tip is formed by a narrow1 black1 velvety band4 ,this last marking is absent from the neck and breast4 ,the color of the tail is brown1 mottled with black1 and crossed with numerous lines of the latter color2 near the tip is a broad1 black band1 then a short mottled portion1 and then a broad band of dingy yellow4 ,the wings are white1 banded closely with black1 and shaded with brownish yellow1 which deepens in tint toward the back4 ,the head is very small1 in proportion to the size of the body2 the legs and feet are strongly made1 and furnished with blunt spurs1 about an inch long1 and of a dusky reddish color2 the bill is reddish1 and brown-colored at the tip4 ,the female is less in size2 her legs are destitute of spurs2 her neck and head are less naked1 being furnished with short1 dirty1 gray feathers2 the feathers on the back of the neck have brownish tips1 producing on that part a brown1 longitudinal band4 ,she also1 frequently1 but not invariably1 wants the tuft of feathers on the breast4 ,her prevailing color is a dusky gray1 each feather having a metallic band1 less brilliant than that of the cock1 then a blackish band1 and a grayish fringe4 ,her whole color is1 as usual among birds1 duller than that of the cock2 the wing-feathers display the white1 and have no bands2 the tail is similarly colored to that of the cock4 ,when young1 the sexes are so much alike that it is not easy to discern the difference between them2 and the cock acquires his beauty only by degrees1 his plumage not arriving at perfection until the fourth or fifth year4 ,the habits of these birds in their native wilds are exceedingly curious4 ,the males1 called ,gobblers1 associate in parties of from ten to a hundred1 and seek their food apart from the females1 which either go about singly with their young1 at that time about two-thirds grown1 or form troops with other females and their families1 sometimes to the number of seventy or eighty4 ,these all avoid the old males1 who attack and destroy the young1 whenever they can1 by reiterated blows upon the skull4 ,but all parties travel in the same direction1 and on foot1 unless the dog or the hunter or a river on their line of march compels them to take wing4 ,when about to cross a river1 they select the highest eminences1 that their flight may be more sure1 and in such positions they sometimes stay for a day or more1 as if in consultation4 ,the males upon such occasions gobble obstreperously1 strutting with extraordinary importance1 as if to animate their companions2 and the females and the young assume much of the same pompous manner1 and spread their tails as they move silently around4 ,having mounted1 at length1 to the tops of the highest trees1 the assembled multitude1 at the signal note of their leader1 wing their way to the opposite shore4 ,the old and fat birds1 contrary to what might be expected1 cross without difficulty1 even when the river is a mile in width2 but the wings of the young and the meagre1 and1 of course1 those of the weak1 frequently fail them before they have completed their passage1 when they drop in1 and are forced to swim for their lives1 which they do cleverly enough1 spreading their tails for a support1 closing their wings1 stretching out their necks1 and striking out quickly and strongly with their feet4 ,all1 however1 do not succeed in such attempts1 and the weaker often perish4 ,the wild turkeys feed on maize1 all sorts of berries1 fruits1 grasses1 and beetles2 tadpoles1 young frogs1 and lizards1 are occasionally found in their crops4 ,the pecan nut is a favorite food1 and so is the acorn1 on which last they fatten rapidly4 ,about the beginning of ,october1 while the mast still hangs on the trees1 they gather together in flocks1 directing their course to the rich bottom-lands1 and are then seen in great numbers on the ,ohio and ,mississippi4 ,this is the turkey-month of the ,indians4 ,when they have arrived at the land of abundance1 they disperse in small1 promiscuous flocks of both sexes and every age1 devouring all the mast as they advance4 ,thus they pass the autumn and winter1 becoming comparatively familiar after their journeys1 when they venture near plantations and farm-houses4 ,they have even been known1 on such occasions1 to enter stables and corn-cribs in quest of food4 ,numbers are killed in the winter1 and preserved in a frozen state for distant markets4 ,the beginning of ,march is the pairing season1 for a short time previous to which the females separate from their mates1 and shun them1 though the latter pertinaciously follow them1 gobbling loudly4 ,the sexes roost apart1 but at no great distance1 so that when the female utters a call1 every male within hearing responds1 rolling note after note in the most rapid succession2 not as when spreading the tail and strutting near the hen1 but in a voice resembling that of the tame turkey when he hears any unusual or frequently-repeated noise4 ,where the turkeys are numerous1 the woods1 from one end to the other1 sometimes for hundreds of miles1 resound with this remarkable voice of their wooing1 uttered responsively from their roosting-places4 ,this is continued for about an hour2 and1 on the rising of the sun1 they silently descend from their perches1 and the males begin to strut for the purpose of winning the admiration of their mates4 ,if the call of a female be given from the ground1 the males in the vicinity fly toward the individual1 and1 whether they perceive her or not1 erect and spread their tails1 throw the head backward1 and distend the comb and wattles1 shout pompously1 and rustle their wings and body-feathers1 at the same moment ejecting a puff of air from the lungs4 ,while thus occupied1 they occasionally halt to look out for the female1 and then resume their strutting and puffing1 moving with as much rapidity as the nature of their gait will admit4 ,during this ceremonious approach1 the males often encounter each other1 and desperate battles ensue1 when the conflict is only terminated by the flight or death of the vanquished4 ,the usual fruits of such victories are reaped by the conqueror1 who is followed by one or more females1 that roost near him1 if not upon the same tree1 until they begin to lay1 when their habits are altered1 with the view of saving their eggs1 which the male breaks1 if he can get at them4 ,these are usually from nine to fifteen in number1 sometimes twenty1 whitish and spotted with brown1 like those of the domestic bird4 ,the nest consists of a few dried leaves placed on the ground1 sometimes on a dry ridge1 sometimes on the fallen top of a dead leafy tree1 under a thicket of sumach or briers1 or by the side of a log4 ,whenever the female leaves the nest1 she covers it with leaves1 so as to screen it from observation4 ,she is a very close sitter1 and when she has chosen a spot will seldom leave it1 on account of its being discovered by a human intruder4 ,should she find one of her eggs1 however1 sucked by a snake1 or other enemy1 she abandons the nest forever4 ,when the eggs are near hatching1 she will not forsake her nest while life remains4 ,the females are particularly attentive to their young1 which are very sensitive to the effects of damp2 and consequently wild turkeys are always scarce after a rainy season4 ,the flesh of the wild turkey is much superior to that of the domestic bird2 yet the flesh of such of the latter as have been suffered to roam at large in the woods and in the plains is1 in no respect1 improved by this partially wild mode of life4 ,,the ,,domestic ,,turkey4 ,the origin of the popular name1 turkey1 appears to be the confusion at first unaccountably subsisting relative to the identity of the bird with the ,guinea fowl1 which was still scarce at the time of the introduction of the turkey4 ,some1 however1 say that the name arose from the proud and ,turkish strut of the cock4 ,there is a question whether the domestic turkey is actually a second and distinct species1 or merely a variety of the wild bird1 owing its diversity of aspect to circumstances dependent on locality1 and consequent change of habit1 combined with difference of climate and other important causes1 which are known in the case of other animals to produce such remarkable effects4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,domestic ,,turkey4 ,the varieties of the domesticated turkey are not very distinct2 and as to their relative value1 it is1 perhaps1 difficult to give any decisive opinion4 ,some suppose that the white turkey is the most robust1 and most easily fattened4 ,experience has1 however1 shown to the contrary4 ,the pure white are very elegant creatures2 and though very tender to rear1 are not so much so as the white pea fowl4 ,most birds1 wild as well as tame1 occasionally produce perfectly white individuals1 of more delicate constitution than their parents4 ,the selection and pairing of such have probably been the means of establishing and keeping up this breed4 ,with all care1 they will now and then produce speckled birds and so show a tendency to return to the normal plumage4 ,it is remarkable that in specimens which are1 in other respects1 snow-white1 the tuft on the breast remains coal-black1 appearing1 in the hens1 like a tail of ermine1 and so showing us a great ornament4 ,the head and caruncles on the neck of the male are1 when excited1 of the same blue and scarlet hues4 ,the bird is truly beautiful1 with its snowy and trembling flakes of plumage thus relieved with small portions of black1 blue1 and scarlet4 ,they have one merit--they dress most temptingly white for market2 but they are unsuited for mirey1 smokey1 or clayey situations1 and show and thrive best where they have a range of clean1 short pasture1 on a light or chalky subsoil4 ,the bronze and copper-colored varieties are generally undersized1 and are among the most difficult of all to rear2 but their flesh is1 certainly1 very delicate1 and1 perhaps1 more so than that of other kinds--a circumstance1 however1 that may partly result from their far greater delicacy of constitution1 and the consequent extra trouble devoted to their management4 ,the brown and ashy-gray are not particularly remarkable2 but the black are decidedly superior1 in every respect1 not only as regards greater hardiness1 and a consequent greater facility of rearing1 but as acquiring flesh more readily1 and that1 too1 of the very best and primest quality4 ,those of this color appear also to be far less removed than the others from the original wild stock4 ,fortunately1 the black seems to be the favorite color of ,nature2 and black turkeys are produced far more abundantly than those of any other hue4 ,the turkey is a most profitable bird1 since it can almost wholly provide for itself about the roads2 snails1 slugs1 and worms are among the number of its dainties1 and the nearest stream serves to slake its thirst4 ,to the farmer1 however1 it is often a perfect nuisance1 from its love of grain2 and should1 therefore1 be kept in the yard until all corn is too strong in the root to present any temptation4 ,notwithstanding the separation which1 with the exception of certain seasons1 subsists between the cock and hen turkey in a wild state1 they have been taught to feed and live amiably together in a state of domesticity4 ,the former1 however1 retains sufficient of his hereditary propensities to give an occasional sly blow to a froward chicken1 but that very seldom of a serious or malicious character4 ,one reason why the turkeys seen in poultry-yards do not vie in splendor of plumage with their untamed brethren is1 that they are not allowed to live long enough4 ,for the same cause1 the thorough development of their temper and disposition is seldom witnessed4 ,it does not attain its full growth till its fifth or sixth year1 yet it is killed at latest in the second1 to the evident deterioration of the stock4 ,if some of the best breeds were retained to their really adult state1 and well fed meanwhile1 they would quite recompense their keeper by their beauty in full plumage1 their glancing hues of gilded green and purple1 their lovely shades of bronze1 brown1 and black1 and the pearly lustre that radiates from their polished feathers4 ,,the ,,duck4 ,this bird is of the order of natatores1 or swimmers2 family1 anatidae1 of the duck kind2 genus1 anas1 or duck4 ,the most striking character of the swimming bird is derived from the structure of the feet1 which are always palmate--that is1 furnished with webs between the toes4 ,there are always three toes directed forward1 and these are usually united by a membrane to their extremities2 but1 in some cases1 the membrane is deeply cleft1 and the toes are occasionally quite free1 and furnished with a distinct web on each side4 ,the fourth toe is generally but little developed1 and often entirely wanting2 when present1 it is usually directed backward1 and the membrane is sometimes continued to it along the side of the feet4 ,these webbed feet are the principal agents by which the birds propel themselves through the water1 upon the surface of which most of them pass a great portion of their time4 ,the feet are generally placed very far back1 a position which is exceedingly favorable to their action in swimming1 but which renders their progression on the land somewhat awkward4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eider ,,duck4 ,the body is generally stout and heavy1 and covered with a very thick1 close1 downy plumage1 which the bird keeps constantly anointed with the greasy secretions of the caudal gland1 so that it is completely water-proof4 ,the wings exhibit a great variety in their development2 in some species being merely rudimentary1 destitute of quills1 and covered with a scaly skin--in others1 being of vast size and power1 and the birds passing a great part of their lives in the air4 ,the form of the bill is also very remarkable2 in some1 broad and flat2 in others1 deep and compressed2 and in others1 long and slender4 ,most of these birds live in societies1 which are often exceedingly numerous1 inhabiting high northern and southern latitudes4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of the family of the anatidae is the bill1 which is usually of a flattened form1 covered with a soft skin1 and furnished at the edges with a series of lamellae1 which serve to sift or strain the mud in which they generally seek their food4 ,the feet are furnished with four toes1 three of which are directed forward1 and united by a web2 the fourth is directed backward1 usually of small size1 and quite free4 ,they are admirable swimmers1 and live and move on the water with the utmost security1 ease1 and grace4 ,such is their adaptation to this element that the young1 immediately after being hatched1 will run to it1 and fearlessly launch themselves upon its bosom1 rowing themselves along with their webbed feet1 without a single lesson1 and yet as dexterously as the most experienced boatman4 ,they are generally inhabitants of the fresh waters1 and for the most part1 prefer ponds and shallow lakes1 in which they can investigate the bottom with their peculiar bills1 without actually diving beneath the surface2 yet at some seasons they are found along the borders of the sea4 ,their food generally consists of worms1 mollusca1 and aquatic insects1 which they separate from the mud by the agency of the lamellae at the margin of the bill2 but most of them also feed upon seeds1 fruits1 and other vegetable substances4 ,,the ,,wild ,,duck4 ,this bird1 known also by the name of mallard1 is the original of all the domestic varieties4 ,it is twenty-four inches long1 and marked with green1 chestnut and white4 ,wild ducks are gregarious in their habits1 and generally migrate in large flocks4 ,the males are larger than the females1 and the latter are also usually of a more uniform and sober tint4 ,it is an inhabitant of all the countries of ,europe1 especially toward the north1 and is also abundant in ,north ,america1 where it is migratory1 passing to the ,north in ,spring1 and returning to the ,south in autumn4 ,it frequents the lakes of the interior1 as well as the sea-coasts4 ,it is plentiful in ,great ,britain at all seasons1 merely quitting the more exposed situations at the approach of winter1 and taking shelter in the valleys2 or1 in case of a severe winter1 visiting the estuaries4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,duck4 ,they moult twice in the year1 in ,june and ,november2 in ,june1 the males acquire the female plumage to a certain extent1 but regain their proper dress at the second moult1 and retain it during the breeding season4 ,in a wild state1 the mallard always pairs1 and1 during the period of incubation1 the male1 although taking no part in the process1 always keeps in the neighborhood of the female2 and it is singular that half-bred birds between the wild and tame varieties always exhibit the same habits1 although the ordinary domestic drakes are polygamous1 always endeavoring to get as many wives as they can4 ,the nest is usually placed upon the ground among reeds and ledges near the water2 sometimes in holes or hollow trees1 but rarely among the branches4 ,the eggs vary from about eight to fourteen in number1 and the young are active from the moment of their exclusion1 and soon take to the water1 where they are as much at home as the old birds4 ,as the flesh of wild ducks is greatly valued1 immense numbers are shot1 or taken in other ways4 ,in ,england1 large numbers are captured by decoys1 consisting of a piece of water situated in the midst of a quiet plantation1 from which six semicircular canals are cut1 which are roofed over with hoops1 and covered in with netting4 ,into this vast trap the ducks are enticed by young ducks trained for the purpose4 ,,the ,,domestic ,,duck4 ,the duck should always find a place in the poultry-yard1 provided that it can have access to water1 even a small supply of which will suffice4 ,they have been kept with success1 and the ordinary duck fattened to the weight of eight pounds1 with no further supply of water than that afforded by a large pool sunk in the ground4 ,in a garden1 ducks will do good service1 voraciously consuming slops1 frogs1 and insects--nothing1 indeed1 coming amiss to them2 not being scratchers1 they do not1 like other poultry1 commit such a degree of mischief1 in return1 as to partially counterbalance their usefulness4 ,a drake and two or three ducks cost little to maintain2 and the only trouble they will give is1 that if there is much extent of water or shrubbery about their home1 they will lay and sit abroad1 unless they are brought up every night1 which should be done4 ,they will otherwise drop their eggs carelessly here and there1 or incubate in places where their eggs will be sucked by crows1 and half their progeny destroyed by rats4 ,illustration3 ,,rouen ,,duck4 ,the duck is very prolific1 and its egg is very much relished by some1 having a rich piquancy of flavor1 which gives it a decided superiority over the egg of the domestic fowl2 and these qualities render it much in request with the pastry-cook and confectioner--three duck's eggs being equal in culinary value to six hen's eggs4 ,the duck does not lay during the day1 but generally in the night2 exceptions1 regulated by circumstances1 will1 of course1 occasionally occur4 ,while laying1 it requires1 as has been intimated1 more attention than does the hen1 until it is accustomed to resort to a regular nest for depositing its eggs2 when1 however1 this is once effected1 little care is needed beyond what has been indicated4 ,the duck is a bad hatcher1 being too fond of the water1 and1 consequently1 too apt to allow her eggs to get cold2 she will also1 no matter what kind of weather it may be1 bring the ducklings to the water the moment they break the shell--a practice always injurious1 and frequently fatal2 hence the very common practice of setting duck's eggs under hens4 ,there are several varieties of tame ducks2 but their merits are more diverse in an ornamental than in a profitable point of view4 ,of white ducks1 the best is the ,aylesbury1 with its unspotted1 snowy plumage1 and yellow legs and feet4 ,it is large and excellent for the table1 but not larger or better than several others4 ,they are assiduous mothers and nurses1 especially after the experience of two or three seasons4 ,a much smaller race of white ducks is imported from ,holland1 useful only to the proprietors of extensive or secluded waters1 as enticers of passing wild birds to alight and join their society4 ,this variety has a yellow-orange bill2 that of the ,aylesbury should be flesh-colored4 ,there is1 also1 the white hook-billed duck1 with a bill monstrously curved downward--a ,roman-nosed duck1 in fact--with ,jewish features1 of a most grotesque and ludicrous appearance2 the bill has some resemblance in its curvature to that of the ,flamingo4 ,white ducks1 of course1 make but a sorry figure in towns or dirty suburbs1 or in any place where the means of washing themselves are scanty4 ,there are one or two pretty varieties1 not very common2 one of a slate-gray1 or bluish dun1 another of a sandy-yellow2 there are also some with top-knots as compact and spherical as those of any ,polish fowl1 which rival the hook-billed in oddity4 ,what are termed the white ,poland and the black ,poland are crested2 they breed early1 and are excellent layers2 the former are deemed the most desirable though the black are the larger4 ,of mottled and pied sorts1 there exists a great variety2 black and white1 bronze and white1 lightly speckled1 and many other mixtures4 ,to this class belongs the ,rouen--or ,rhone1 or ,rohan1 since each designation has been used--duck1 which has been needlessly overpraised by interested dealers4 ,this variety is highly esteemed by epicures2 it is a prolific bird1 and lays large eggs2 its size is the criterion of its value4 ,there is also a pied variety of the ,poland ducks1 a hybrid between the white and the black1 the ,beaver4 ,another variety1 known as the ,labrador1 the ,buenos ,ayres1 or the black ,east ,indian duck1 is somewhat rare and highly esteemed by dealers4 ,they are very beautiful birds4 ,the feet1 legs1 and entire plumage should be black2 a few white feathers will occasionally appear4 ,the bill also is black1 with a slight under-tinge of green4 ,not only the neck and back1 but the larger feathers of the tail and wings are gilt with metallic green2 the female also exhibits slight traces of the same decoration4 ,on a sunshiny spring day1 the effect of these glittering black ducks sporting in the blue water is very pleasing4 ,a peculiarity of this variety is1 that they occasionally--that is1 at the commencement of the season--lay black eggs2 the color of those subsequently laid gradually fades to that of the common kinds4 ,this singular appearance is not caused by any internal strain penetrating the whole thickness of the shell1 but by an oily pigment1 which may be scraped off with the nail4 ,they lay1 perhaps1 a little later than other ducks1 but are not more difficult to rear4 ,their voice1 likewise1 is said to differ slightly from that of other varieties2 but they are far superior in having a high1 wild-duck flavor and1 if well kept1 are in deserved repute as being excellent food when killed immediately from the pond1 without any fattening4 ,still another breed1 known as the ,muscovy duck1 is a distinct species from the common duck2 and the hybrid race will not1 therefore1 breed again between themselves1 although they are capable of doing so with either of the species from the commixture of which they spring4 ,this duck does not derive its name from having been brought from the country indicated1 but from the flavor of its flesh1 and should more properly be termed the musk duck1 of which this name is but a corruption4 ,it is easily distinguished by a red membrane surrounding the eyes1 and covering the cheeks4 ,not being in esteem1 on account of their peculiar odor1 and the unpleasant flavor of their flesh1 they are not worth breeding1 unless to cross with the common varieties2 in which case1 the musk drake must be put to the common duck4 ,this will produce a very large cross1 while the opposite course will beget a very inferior one4 ,,the ,,goose4 ,,the ,,wild ,,goose4 ,the goose belongs to the same family as the duck1 but is classed with the genus anser4 ,the gray-leg goose--a common wild goose of ,england--is by some regarded as the original of the domestic bird4 ,it is thirty-five inches long2 upper parts ash-brown and ash-gray2 under parts white4 ,this variety is migratory1 proceeding to the ,northern parts of ,europe and ,asia in summer1 and to the ,south in winter4 ,the ,canada1 or ,cravat goose1 the wild goose of this country1 is a fine species1 forty inches long1 often seen in spring and autumn in large1 triangular flocks1 high in air1 and led by an old1 experienced gander1 who frequently utters a loud honk1 equivalent1 doubtless1 to ,all's well6 ,this sound often comes upon the ear at night1 when the flock are invisible2 and it is frequently heard even in the daytime1 seeming to come from the sky1 the birds being beyond the reach of vision4 ,immense numbers of these noble birds are killed in ,canada1 as well as along our coasts1 where they assemble in the autumn in large flocks1 and remain till driven to more ,southern climates by the season4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,or ,,canada ,,goose4 ,the ,canada goose is capable of domestication1 and1 in spite of its original migratory habits--which it appears1 in almost every instance1 to forget in ,england--shows much more disposition for a truly domestic life than the swan2 and it may be maintained in perfect health with very limited opportunities for bathing4 ,they eat worms and soft insects1 as well as grass and aquatic plants2 with us1 they do not breed until they are at least two years old1 and so far approach the swan2 like which bird1 also1 the male appears to be fit for reproduction at an earlier period than the female4 ,many writers speak highly of the half-bred ,canada4 ,they are1 certainly1 very large1 and may merit approbation on the table2 but with whatever other species the cross is made1 they are hideously disgusting4 ,,the ,,domestic ,,goose4 ,the goose is not mentioned in the ,bible1 but it was known to the ancient ,egyptians1 and is represented in numerous instances on their monuments1 showing that it was anciently used for food1 as in our own times4 ,it was held sacred by the ,romans1 because it was said to have alarmed1 by its cackling at night1 the sentinels of the capitol1 at the invasion of the ,gauls1 and thus to have saved the city4 ,this was attributed by one of the ,roman writers to its fine sense of smell1 which enables them to perceive at a great distance the odor of the human race4 ,the liver of this bird seems to have been a favorite morsel with epicures in all ages2 and invention appears to have been active in exercising the means of increasing the volume of that organ4 ,it is generally esteemed a foolish bird2 yet it displays courage in defending its young1 and instances of attachment and gratitude have shown that it is not deficient in sentiment4 ,the value and usefulness of geese are scarcely calculable4 ,the only damage which they do lies in the quantity of food which they consume2 the only care they require is to be saved from starvation4 ,all the fears and anxieties requisite to educate the turkey and prepare it for making a proper appearance at the table are with them unnecessary2 grass by day1 a dry bed at night1 and a tolerably attentive mother1 are all that is required4 ,roast goose1 fatted to the point of repletion1 is almost the only luxury that is not deemed an extravagance in an economical farm-house2 for there are the feathers1 to swell the stock of beds2 there is the dripping1 to enrich the dumpling or pudding2 there are the giblets1 for market or a pie2 and there is the wholesome1 solid1 savory flesh for all parties interested4 ,they are accused by some of rendering the spots where they feed offensive to other stock2 but the explanation is simple4 ,a horse bites closer than an ox2 a sheep goes nearer to the ground than a horse2 but1 after the sharpest shearing by sheep1 the goose will polish up the tuft1 and grow fat upon the remnants of others4 ,consequently1 where geese are kept in great numbers on a small area1 little will be left to maintain any other grass-eating creature4 ,if1 however1 the pastures are not short1 it will not be found that other grazing animals object to feeding either together with1 or immediately after1 a flock of geese4 ,the goose has the merit of being the earliest of poultry4 ,in three months1 or1 about four1 from leaving the egg1 the birds ought to be fit for the feather-bed1 the spit1 and the fire4 ,it is not only very early in its laying1 but also very late4 ,it often anticipates the spring in ,november1 and1 afterward1 when spring really comes in ,march1 it cannot resist its general influence4 ,the autumnal eggs afford useful employment to turkeys and hens that choose to sit at unseasonable times2 and the period of incubation is less tedious than that required for the eggs of some other birds4 ,the flight of the domestic goose is quite powerful enough1 especially in young birds1 to allow them to escape in that way1 where they are so inclined4 ,in the autumn1 whole broods may be seen by early risers taking their morning flight1 and circling in the air for matutinal exercise1 just like pigeons1 when first let out of their locker4 ,the bird lives to a very great age1 sometimes seventy years or more4 ,as to the origin of our domestic species1 opinions differ4 ,by some1 as already remarked1 the gray-leg is regarded as the parent stock2 others consider it a mongrel1 like the dunghill fowl1 made up of several varieties1 to each of which it occasionally shows more or less affinity2 and yet others contend that it is not to be referred to any existing species4 ,the latter assert that there is really but one variety of the domestic goose1 individuals of which are found from entirely white plumage1 through different degrees of patchedness with gray1 to entirely gray coloring1 except on the abdomen4 ,the domestic gander is polygamous1 but he is not an indiscriminate libertine2 he will rarely couple with females of any other species4 ,hybrid common geese are almost always produced by the union of a wild gander with a domestic goose1 and not by the opposite4 ,the ganders are generally1 though not invariably1 white1 and are sometimes called ,embden geese1 from a town of ,hanover4 ,high feeding1 care1 and moderate warmth will induce a prolific habit1 which becomes1 in some measure1 hereditary4 ,the season of the year at which the young are hatched--and they may be reared at any season--influences their future size and development4 ,after allowing for these causes of diversity1 it is claimed that the domestic goose constitutes only one species or permanent variety4 ,,the ,,bernacle ,,goose4 ,this bird is sometimes called the ,barnacle goose2 its name originates from the fact that it was formerly supposed to be bred from the shells so termed1 which cling to wood in the sea4 ,it is about twenty-five inches long1 and is found wild in ,europe1 abundantly in the ,baltic2 and1 occasionally1 as it is said1 in ,hudson's ,bay1 on this continent4 ,this bird is one of those species in which the impulse of reproduction has at length overcome the sullenness of captivity1 and instances of their breeding when in confinement have increased in frequency to such an extent that hopes are entertained of the continuance of that increase4 ,the young so reared should be pinioned at the wrist as a precaution4 ,they would probably stay at home contentedly1 if unpinioned1 until the approach of inclement weather1 when they would be tempted to leave their usual haunts in search of marshes1 unfrozen springs1 mud-banks left by the tide1 and the open sea2 or they might be induced to join a flock of wild birds1 instead of returning to their former quarters4 ,broods of five1 six1 and seven have been reared2 but they are generally valued as embellishments to ponds merely1 their small size rendering them suitable even for a very limited pleasure-ground1 and the variety being perhaps the prettiest geese that are thus employed4 ,the lively combination of black1 white1 gray1 and lavender1 gives them the appearance of being in agreeable half-mourning4 ,the female differs little from the male1 being distinguished by voice and deportment more than by plumage4 ,their short bill1 the moderate-sized webs of their feet1 and their rounded proportions1 indicate an affinity with the curious ,cereopsis goose1 which is found in considerable numbers on the seashore of ,sucky ,bay and ,goose ,island1 at the south-eastern point of ,australia4 ,the number of eggs laid is six or seven1 and the time of incubation is about a month2 it being difficult to name the exact period1 from the uncertainty respecting the precise hour when the process commences4 ,they are steady sitters4 ,the young are lively and active little creatures1 running hither and thither1 and tugging at the blades of grass4 ,their ground color is of a dirty white2 their legs1 feet1 eyes1 and short stump of a bill1 are black2 they have a gray spot on the crown of the head1 gray patches on the back and wings1 and a yellowish tinge about the forepart of the head4 ,the old birds are very gentle in their disposition and habits1 and are less noisy than most geese4 ,the service they may render as weed-eaters is important1 though their size alone precludes any comparison of them1 in this respect1 with the swan4 ,their favorite feeding-grounds are extensive flats1 partially inundated by the higher tides2 and their breeding may perhaps best be promoted by their being furnished with a little sea-weed during winter and early spring2 a few shrimps1 or small mussels1 would probably not be unacceptable4 ,a single pair is more likely to breed than if they are congregated in larger numbers4 ,,the ,,bremen ,,goose4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,bremen ,,goose4 ,the ,bremen geese--so called from the place whence they were originally imported1 though some term them ,embden geese--have been bred in this country1 pure1 and to a feather1 since #ahba2 no single instance having occurred in which the slightest deterioration of character could be observed4 ,the produce has invariably been of the purest white2 the bill1 legs1 and feet being of a beautiful yellow4 ,the flesh of this goose does not partake of that dry character which belongs to other and more common kinds1 but is as tender and juicy as the flesh of a wild fowl2 it shrinks less in cooking than that of any other fowl4 ,some pronounce its flesh equal if not superior to that of the canvas-back duck4 ,they likewise sit and hatch with more certainty than common barn-yard geese2 will weigh nearly1 and in some instances quite1 twice the weight--the full-blood weighing twenty pounds and upward2 they have double the quantity of feathers2 and never fly4 ,,the ,,brent ,,goose4 ,this is a small species1 twenty-one inches long1 common in a wild state1 in both ,europe and ,america4 ,on our coast1 it is a favorite game-bird1 and known by the name of ,brant4 ,it is easily tamed1 and is said to have produced young in captivity1 though no details have been furnished4 ,this and the ,sandwich ,island goose are the smallest of their tribe yet introduced to our aquatic aviaries4 ,their almost uniform color of leaden black1 and their compactness of form1 make them a striking feature in the scene1 though they cannot be compared in beauty with many other waterfowl4 ,there is so little difference in the sexes that it is not easy to distinguish them4 ,their chief merit rests in their fondness for water-weeds1 in which respect they appear to be second only to the swan4 ,they are quiet1 gentle and harmless in captivity4 ,some praise their flesh1 while others pronounce it fishy1 strong1 and oily2 they may1 however1 be converted into tolerable meat by being skinned and baked in a pie4 ,,the ,,china ,,goose4 ,illustration3 ,,china ,,or ,,hong ,,kong ,,goose4 ,this bird figures under a variety of aliases3 ,knob goose1 ,hong ,kong goose1 ,asiatic goose1 ,swan goose1 ,chinese ,swan ,guinea goose1 ,polish goose1 ,muscovy goose1 and1 probably1 others4 ,there is something in the aspect of this creature--in the dark-brown stripe down its neck1 its small1 bright eye1 its harsh voice1 its ceremonious strut1 and its affectation of seldom being in a hurry--which seems to say that it came from ,china4 ,if so1 it has no doubt been domesticated for many hundred years1 perhaps as long as the pea fowl or the common fowl4 ,they may be made to lay a large number of eggs by an increased supply of nourishing food4 ,if liberally furnished with oats1 boiled rice1 etc41 the ,china goose will1 in the spring1 lay from twenty to thirty eggs before she begins to sit1 and again in the autumn1 after her moult1 from ten to fifteen more4 ,another peculiarity is their deficient power of flight1 compared with other geese1 owing to the larger proportionate size of their bodies4 ,indeed1 of all geese1 this is the worst flyer2 there is no occasion to pinion them2 the common domestic goose flies much more strongly4 ,the prevailing color of their plumage is brown1 comparable to the color of wheat4 ,the different shades are very harmoniously blended1 and are well relieved by the black tuberculated bill1 and the pure white of the abdomen4 ,their movements on the water are graceful and swan-like4 ,slight variations occur in the color of the feet and legs1 some having them of a dull orange1 others black2 a delicate fringe of minute white feathers is occasionally seen at the base of the bill4 ,these peculiarities are hereditarily transmitted4 ,the male is almost as much disproportionately larger than the female as the ,musk drake is in comparison with his mate4 ,he is much inclined to libertine wanderings1 without1 however1 neglecting proper attention at home4 ,if there is any other gander on the premises1 a disagreement is sure to result4 ,both male and female are1 perhaps1 the noisiest of all geese2 at night1 the least footfall or motion in their neighborhood is sufficient to call forth their clangor and resonant trumpetings4 ,the eggs are somewhat less than those of the domestic kind1 of a short oval1 with a smooth1 thick shell1 white1 but slightly tinged with yellow at the smaller end4 ,the goslings1 when first hatched1 are usually very strong4 ,they are of a dirty green1 like the color produced by mixing ,india-ink and yellow ochre1 with darker patches here and there4 ,the legs and feet are lead-color1 but afterward change to a dull red4 ,with good pasturage1 they require no farther attention than that bestowed by their parents4 ,after a time1 a little grain will strengthen and forward them4 ,if well fed1 they come to maturity very rapidly2 in between three and four months from the time of leaving the shell1 they will be full-grown and ready for food4 ,they do not bear being shut up to fatten so well as common geese1 and1 therefore1 those destined for the table are the better for profuse hand-feeding4 ,their flesh is well-flavored1 short1 and tender2 their eggs1 excellent for cooking purposes4 ,they are said to be a short-lived species2 the ganders1 at least1 not lasting more than ten or a dozen years4 ,hybrids between them and the common goose are prolific with the latter2 the second and third cross is much prized by some farmers1 particularly for their ganders2 and in many flocks the blood of the ,china goose may be traced oftentimes by the more erect gait of the birds1 accompanied by a faint stripe down the back of the neck4 ,with the ,white-grented goose they also breed freely4 ,the ,white-,china4 ,these are larger than the preceding1 and apparently more terrestrial in their habits2 the knob on the head is not only of greater proportion1 but of a different shape4 ,it is of a spotless1 pure white--though a very few gray feathers occasionally appear--more swan-like than the brown1 with a bright orange-colored bill1 and a large knot of the same color at its base4 ,it is particularly beautiful1 either in or out of the water1 its neck being long1 slender1 and gracefully arched when swimming4 ,it breeds three or four times in the season2 the egg is quite small for the size of the bird1 being not more than half the size of that of the common goose4 ,in many instances1 efforts to obtain young from their eggs have been unsuccessful2 but if the female is supplied with the eggs of the common goose1 she invariably hatches and rears the goslings4 ,they sit remarkably well1 never showing themselves out of the nest by day2 but1 possibly1 they may leave the nest too long in the cold of the night4 ,some think that a quiet lake is more to their taste than a rapid running stream1 and more conducive to the fecundity of their eggs4 ,it is also believed by many that1 under favorable circumstances1 they would be very prolific4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,goose4 ,this species is bred to a certain extent in this country4 ,it is a most stately and rich bird1 reminding one of the solemn antiquity of the ,nile1 with its gorgeous mantle of golden hues and its long history4 ,it is dark red round the eyes2 red ring round the neck2 white bill2 neck and breast light fawn-gray2 a maroon star on the breast2 belly red and gray2 half of the wing-feathers rich black1 the other part of them pure white2 black bar running across the centre1 back light-red1 growing dark-red toward the tail2 the tail a deep black4 ,they are very prolific1 bringing off three broods a year1 from eight to twelve each time2 their weight is about eight pounds each4 ,,the ,,java ,,goose4 ,the gander of this species is white1 with head and half the neck light-fawn2 red tubercle at the root of the bill2 larger than the common goose1 and longer in the body2 walks erect1 standing as high as the ,china goose1 the female appearing to carry two pouches1 or egg-bags1 under the belly4 ,it is very prolific2 and the meat is of fine flavor4 ,,the ,,toulouse ,,goose4 ,this bird is said to have been originally imported from the ,mediterranean2 and is known also by the names ,mediterranean goose1 and ,pyrenean goose4 ,it is chiefly remarkable for its vast size1 in which respect it surpasses all others4 ,its prevailing color is a slaty blue1 marked with brown bars1 and occasionally relieved with black2 the head1 neck1 as far as the beginning of the breast1 and the back of the neck1 as far as the shoulders1 of a dark-brown2 the breast slaty-blue2 the belly is white1 in common with the under surface of the tail2 the bill is orange-red1 and the feet flesh-color4 ,in habit1 the ,toulouse goose resembles his congeners1 but seems to possess a milder and more tractable disposition1 which greatly conduces to the chance of his early fattening1 and that1 too1 at a little cost4 ,the curl of the plumage on the neck comes closer to the head than that on common geese1 and the abdominal pouch1 which1 in other varieties1 is an accompaniment of age1 exists from the shell4 ,the flesh is said to be tender and well-flavored4 ,some pronounce this bird the unmixed and immediate descendant of the ,gray-leg2 while others assert that it is only the common domestic1 enlarged by early hatching1 very liberal feeding during youth1 fine climate1 and1 perhaps1 by age1 and style them grenadier individuals of the domestic goose--nothing more4 ,,the ,,white-,,fronted ,,goose4 ,in its wild state1 the ,white-fronted or ,laughing goose is twenty-seven inches long1 and found in great numbers in ,europe and in the ,north ,american ,fur countries1 but rare along our coasts4 ,when domesticated1 it belongs to the class of birds which are restrained from resuming their original wild habits more by the influence of local and personal attachment than from any love which they seem to have for the comforts of domestication2 which may be trusted with their entire liberty1 or nearly so1 but require an eye to be kept on them from time to time1 lest they stray away and assume an independent condition4 ,the white-fronted goose well deserves the patronage of those who have even a small piece of grass4 ,the first impression of every one1 upon seeing this species in confinement1 would be that it could not be trusted with liberty2 and the sight of it exercising its wings at its first escape would make its owner despair of recovering it4 ,this is not1 however1 the case4 ,by no great amount of care and attention1 they will manifest such a degree of confidence and attachment as to remove all hesitation as to the future2 and they may be regarded as patterns of all that is valuable in anserine nature--gentle1 affectionate1 cheerful1 hardy1 useful1 and self-dependent4 ,the gander is an attentive parent1 but not a faithful spouse4 ,the eggs are smaller than those of the common goose1 pure white1 and of a very long oval2 the shell is also thinner than in1 most others2 the flesh is excellent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having completed the enumeration and description of the varieties of poultry1 it will1 perhaps1 be appropriate to give some account1 before proceeding to the next general division of the subject1 of the structure1 or anatomy1 so to speak1 of ,,the ,,egg4 ,in a laying hen may be found1 upon opening the body1 what is called the ovarium--a cluster of rudimental eggs1 of different sizes1 from very minute points up to shapes of easily-distinguished forms4 ,these rudimental eggs have as yet no shell or white1 these being exhibited in a different stage of development2 but consist wholly of yolk1 on the surface of which the germ of the future chicken lies4 ,the yolk and the germ are enveloped by a very thin membrane4 ,when the rudimental egg1 still attached to the ovarium1 becomes longer and larger1 and arrives at a certain size1 either its own weight1 or some other efficient cause1 detaches it from the cluster1 and makes it fall into a sort of funnel1 leading to a pipe1 which is termed the oviduct4 ,here the yolk of the rudimental egg1 hitherto imperfectly formed1 puts on its mature appearance of a thick yellow fluid2 while the rudimental chick or embryo1 lying on the surface opposite to that by which it had been attached to the ovarium1 is white1 and somewhat like paste4 ,the white1 or albumen1 of the egg now becomes diffused around the yolk1 being secreted from the blood vessels of the egg-pipe1 or oviduct1 in the form of a thin1 glassy fluid2 and it is prevented from mixing with the yolk and the embryo chicken by the thin membrane which surrounded them before they were detached from the egg-cluster1 while it is strengthened by a second and stronger membrane1 formed around the first1 immediately after falling into the oviduct4 ,this second membrane1 enveloping the yolk of the germ of the chicken1 is thickest at the two ends1 having what may be termed bulgings1 termed chalazes by anatomists2 these bulgings of the second membrane pass quite through the white at the ends1 and being thus1 as it were1 embedded in the white1 they keep the inclosed yolk and germ somewhat in a fixed position1 preventing them from rolling about within the egg when it is moved4 ,the white of the egg being thus formed1 a third membrane1 or1 rather1 a double membrane1 much stronger than either of the first two1 is formed around it1 becoming attached to the chalazes of the second membrane1 and tending still more to keep all the parts in their relative positions4 ,during the progress of these several formations1 the egg gradually advances about half way along the oviduct4 ,it is still1 however1 destitute of the shell1 which begins to be formed by a process similar to the formation of the shell of a snail1 as soon as the outer layer of the third membrane has been completed4 ,when the shell is fully formed1 the egg continues to advance along the oviduct1 till the hen goes to her nest and lays it4 ,from ill health1 or accidents1 eggs are sometimes excluded from the oviducts before the shell has begun to be formed1 and in this state they are popularly called wind-eggs4 ,reckoning1 then1 from the shell inward1 there are six different envelopes1 of which one only could be detected before the descent of the egg into the oviduct3 the shell2 the external layer of the membrane lining the shell2 the internal layer of same lining2 the white1 composed of a thinner liquid on the outside1 and a thicker and more yellowish liquid on the inside2 the bulgings1 or chalaziferous membrane2 and the proper membrane4 ,one important part of the egg is the air-bag1 placed at the larger end1 between the shell and its lining membrane4 ,this is about the size of the eye of a small bird in new-laid eggs1 but is increased as much as ten times in the process of hatching4 ,the air bag is of such great importance to the development of the chicken--probably by supplying it with a limited atmosphere of oxygen--that1 if the blunt end of an egg be pierced with the point of the smallest needle1 the egg cannot be hatched4 ,instead of one rudimental egg falling from the ovarium1 two may be detected1 and will1 of course1 be inclosed in the same shell1 when the egg will be double-yolked4 ,the eggs of a goose have1 in some instances1 contained even three yolks4 ,if the double-yolked eggs be hatched1 they will rarely produce two separate chickens1 but1 more commonly1 monstrosities--chickens with two heads1 and the like4 ,the shell of an egg1 chemically speaking1 consists chiefly of carbonate of lime1 similar to chalk1 with a small quantity of phosphate of lime1 and animal mucus4 ,when burnt1 the animal matter and the carbonic acid gas of the carbonate of lime are separated2 the first being reduced to ashes1 or animal charcoal1 while the second is dissipated1 leaving the decarbonized lime mixed with a little phosphate of lime4 ,the white of the egg is without taste or smell1 of a viscid1 glairy consistence1 readily dissolving in water1 coagulable by acids1 by spirits of wine1 and by a temperature of one hundred and sixty-five degrees1 ,fahrenheit4 ,if it has once been coagulated1 it is no longer soluble in either cold or hot water1 and acquires a slight insipid taste4 ,it is composed of eighty parts of water1 fifteen and a half parts of albumen1 and four and a half parts of mucus2 besides giving traces of soda1 benzoic acid1 and sulphuretted hydrogen gas4 ,the latter1 on an egg being eaten on a silver spoon1 stains the spoon of a blackish purple1 by combining with the silver1 and forming sulphuret of silver4 ,the white of the egg is a very feeble conductor of heat1 retarding its escape2 and preventing its entrance to the yolk2 a providential contrivance1 not merely to prevent speedy fermentation and corruption1 but to arrest the fatal chills1 which might occur in hatching1 when the mother hen leaves her eggs1 from time to time1 in search of food4 ,eels and other fish which can live long out of water1 secrete a similar viscid substance on the surface of their bodies1 furnished to them1 doubtless1 for a similar purpose4 ,the yolk has an insipid1 bland1 oily taste2 and1 when agitated with water1 forms a milky emulsion4 ,if it is long boiled it becomes a granular1 friable solid1 yielding upon expression1 a yellow1 insipid1 fixed oil4 ,it consists1 chemically1 of water1 oil1 albumen1 and gelatine4 ,in proportion to the quantity of albumen1 the egg boils hard4 ,the weight of the eggs of the domestic fowl varies materially2 in some breeds1 averaging thirty-three ounces per dozen1 in others1 but fourteen and a half ounces4 ,a fair average weight for a dozen is twenty-two and a half ounces4 ,yellow1 mahogany1 and salmon-colored eggs are generally richer than white ones1 containing1 as they do1 a larger quantity of yolk4 ,these are generally preferred for culinary purposes2 while the latter1 containing an excess of albumen1 are preferred for boiling1 etc41 for the table4 ,illustration ,,breeding ,,and ,,management ,,breeding4 ,good fowls are very profitable in the keeping of intelligent breeders4 ,it is stated1 by those most competent to express the opinion1 that four acres of land1 devoted to the rearing of the best varieties of poultry1 will1 at ordinary prices1 be quite as productive as a farm of one hundred and fifty acres cultivated in the usual way4 ,the eggs of the common and cheaper kinds which might be used for incubators and nurses1 would pay--or could be made to pay1 if properly preserved1 and sold at the right time--all expenses of feed1 etc42 while good capons of the larger breeds will bring1 in any of our larger markets1 from three to five dollars per pair1 and early spring chickens from twenty to twenty-five cents per pound4 ,to make poultry profitable1 then1 it is only necessary that the better kinds be bred from1 that suitable places be provided for them1 that they be properly fed1 and carefully and intelligently managed4 ,these requirements are too rarely complied with1 in every respect1 to enable a correct opinion to be formed as to what may be made out of poultry under the most favorable circumstances4 ,a few general principles1 well-understood and faithfully applied1 will prove of great value4 ,by in-and-in breeding is meant commerce between individuals of the same brood1 or brother and sister1 so to speak2 by close breeding1 commerce between the parent and his offspring1 in whatever degree4 ,crossing the breed4 ,to insure successful and beneficial crossing of distinct breeds1 in order to produce a new and valuable variety1 the breeder must have an accurate knowledge of the laws of procreation1 and the varied influences of parents upon their offspring4 ,all the breeds in this country are crosses1 produced either by accident or design4 ,crossing does not necessarily produce a breed2 but it always produces a variety1 and that variety becomes a breed only where there is a sufficiency of stamina to make a distinctive race1 and continue a progeny with the uniform or leading characteristics of its progenitors4 ,high breeding4 ,when uniformity of plumage can be effected in mixed breeds or varieties without a resort to in-and-in1 or close breeding1 and without sacrificing the health and vigor of the race1 it is desirable2 and1 in many instances1 it can be accomplished in a satisfactory manner4 ,what are called highly-bred fowls are1 however1 too often the deteriorated offspring of progenitors far below the original stock4 ,genuine high breeding consists in the selection of parent stock of the same race1 perfect in all the general characteristics1 and of remote consanguinity4 ,this should be resorted to periodically1 in order to secure the best results4 ,if a race is pure--that is1 if the species or variety is absolutely distinct and unsophisticated--the progeny resembles the progenitors in almost every respect4 ,the mixture of races1 where the consanguinity is remote1 is productive of decided benefits4 ,to illustrate1 in the case of fowls3 when the blood is unmixed--as with the ,guelderlands1 and some others--the offspring1 in all respects1 resemble their parents2 in plumage1 general habits1 form1 outline1 etc4 ,in this case1 they look almost identically the same4 ,but when the blood is mixed--as with the ,cochin ,chinas1 and many others--the plumage will vary widely1 or slightly1 according to circumstances1 though many or most of the general characteristics may remain the same4 ,the close breeding1 to which many resort for the purpose of procuring uniformity1 generally results in an absolute deterioration of the race in important respects4 ,in some cases1 close breeding--and1 occasionally1 in-and-in--seems to be in accordance with the laws of ,nature2 as with the wild turkey1 which1 in its natural state1 resorts to these modes of breeding2 and yet the race does not change in appearance or degenerate4 ,the reason is that the breed is pure4 ,in comparing any number of these birds1 not the least dissimilarity is discoverable2 they all look alike1 as they always have1 and always will4 ,they are changed1 or deteriorated1 only by crossing or confinement4 ,most breeds of the hen kind degenerate rapidly from close1 or in-and-in breeding1 because they are not perfect of their kind2 that is1 the breed is not pure1 but of mixed blood2 and in such objectionable breeding1 the race degenerates just in proportion as the breed is imperfect1 or impure4 ,the perfect ,guelderland will admit of these modes of breeding1 for a great length of time1 without deterioration2 but the impure or mixed will rapidly degenerate4 ,this is also true of all breeds1 wherein the characteristic marks are uniform and confirmed1 showing perfection in the race4 ,as a general rule1 however1 close and in-and-in breeding should be carefully avoided where the race is not absolutely perfect1 if it is desired to improve the breed2 and as all the breeds of this kind of fowls are of mixed blood1 the danger of such breeding is greater or less1 in exact proportion as the distinctive characteristics are variant or fixed2 and the danger still increases if the breed is composed of strains of blood greatly dissimilar1 or of races widely differing in the conformation or general habits4 ,preserving the distinctive breeds4 ,as to the time when the different breeds of hens should be separated in the spring1 in order to preserve the breed pure1 the most ample experience indicates that if the eggs be preserved and set after a separation of two days1 the breed will be perfect1 the offspring having all the characteristics or distinctive marks4 ,when a valuable breed is produced1 either by accident or design1 it should be preserved1 and the subsequent breeding should continue from that stock2 otherwise1 there is no certainty of the purity of the blood of the new breed1 for it does not follow that a different parentage1 though of the same name or original breed precisely1 will produce the same new breed1 or any thing resembling it4 ,the ,dorking fowl1 for instance1 was originally produced by crossing the ,great ,malay with the ,english ,game1 as an accident2 but it by no means follows that ,dorkings are the uniform1 or even the common result of such a cross1 for hundreds of similar experiments have proved unsuccessful4 ,the breeding1 therefore1 to be pure-blooded1 must continue from the stock originally produced by accident2 and as such breeding produces the leading characteristics of the race with great uniformity1 the genuineness of the breed cannot be doubted4 ,in order to produce a good cross1 the parentage should be healthy1 and from healthy races1 not materially dissimilar in their general habits4 ,the size of the leg should always be looked to1 in order to judge accurately as to purity of blood4 ,if the leg is large for the breed--that is1 if larger than the generality of the same breed--the purity of the blood1 the fineness of the flesh1 and most of the other valuable qualities1 can be relied on2 but1 if the legs are smaller than most others of the same breed1 the fowl is spurious1 and of deteriorated blood4 ,the fifth toe and feathered legs of some breeds were originally the result of accident2 but by long and careful breeding1 they have become incorporated into the nature of certain races of general1 though not universal or essential1 requisites4 ,when a fowl exhibits any special marks indicative of all the races or breeds from which the cross originated1 it is a sure evidence of extraordinary purity of blood1 and of the superior excellence of the race4 ,the best fowls of the race should always be selected for crossing or general breeding2 otherwise the breeds will degenerate4 ,the quality--that is1 the fineness1 juiciness1 and richness of flavor--of the flesh of domestic fowls is of much more importance than their size4 ,all coarse-meated fowls should1 therefore1 be rejected1 no matter how large they may be4 ,there is no difficulty in discriminating between coarse and fine fowls at any time4 ,in the case of chickens1 if the down is straight and stands out1 and the body and limbs are loosely joined1 the meat is coarse2 but if the down is glossy1 and lies close to the body1 and the body and limbs are compactly formed1 the meat is fine2 and when grown1 if the fowl is light in weight1 in proportion to its size1 the flesh is coarse2 but if heavy1 the flesh is fine4 ,there is also a fitness in the quality of the flesh2 for1 if the meat is fine1 the bones are fine1 and the feathers are fine2 and the converse holds true4 ,if the flesh is fine1 it is juicy and richly flavored2 if coarse1 it is dry1 fibrous1 and insipid4 ,the color of the legs1 too1 is quite material in judging of the quality of fowls4 ,all other things being equal1 dark-legged fowls have the finest flesh1 and are most hardy4 ,turkeys1 which have the finest flesh of any fowl of their size1 have black legs2 the game-cock1 likewise1 which is universally acknowledged to be the finest-fleshed of any of the domestic fowls1 except the ,wild ,indian fowl of ,calcutta1 has dark legs4 ,it does not1 however1 of necessity follow that all dark-legged fowls are fine1 or that all yellow or white-legged ones are coarse1 since much depends upon the breed2 but it is true that the darkest leg which pertains to the breed indicates the finest fowl4 ,the color of the feathers1 also1 has more or less to do with the quality of the fowl4 ,some breeds have a much more brilliant plumage than others2 but when brilliancy of plumage is here spoken of1 it is to be understood in comparison with others of the same breed4 ,if1 therefore1 a fowl is selected of rich and glossy plumage1 when compared with others of the same breed1 the legs will be dark of the kind1 and the quality of the bird will excel4 ,the best breeding is to cross or mix the races2 this process improves the breeds1 in all respects4 ,when the object in view is to perpetuate distinct varieties of uncontaminated blood1 the first requisite is to procure fowls known to be of pure blood1 and possessing all the necessary characteristics of their kind4 ,labor is lost1 unless the fowl selected is a perfect specimen of the variety2 for whatever imperfection exists is likely to be perpetuated in the progeny4 ,regard should be had to plumage1 size1 and form1 in making a selection either of a cock or a pullet2 and those are preferable which are hatched earliest in the year4 ,the age of the fowls is a matter of considerable importance2 and1 though it is true that a pullet will lay the greatest number of eggs in her first year1 yet it is believed that the chickens which are hatched from the second year's eggs are more vigorous and hardy4 ,old hens are generally preferred to pullets as sitters1 on account of their more sedate and matronly character4 ,a young cock1 though more active in his earliest days1 and likely to bestow his attention on the hens with less reserve1 is not1 however1 best for use in keeping up a breed4 ,the eggs impregnated by him after his first season are likely to produce the strongest chickens4 ,it is an error to suppose--as is often represented--that his procreative power is decayed or vitiated after three or four years4 ,on the contrary1 a healthy1 vigorous cock1 if not allowed to walk with too many hens1 may be valuable and useful in the poultry-yard for a longer time4 ,an error is often committed by assigning too many hens to one cock2 and the result is a weakly and otherwise deteriorated progeny4 ,not more than five hens should be allowed to associate with a single cock1 when the quality of the breed is a matter of interest4 ,three1 indeed1 would be the better number for restriction2 but five is the farthest limit which can be safely assigned4 ,most persons1 in obtaining a single vigorous cock and hen of a desirable variety1 find their anticipations more than realized in the production of a fine progeny4 ,the plumage is brilliant1 and the chickens are of increased size1 and remarkably strong and healthy4 ,this desirable state of things continues so long as the cock is restricted to a small number of hens2 but as soon as his harem is enlarged1 different effects are manifested1 and a deterioration in the stock is clearly observable--attributable1 not to close-breeding1 but to the increased disproportion of the females to the male1 and the consequent overtasking of his powers4 ,in breeding-time1 great cleanliness should be preserved in the lodgings of the fowls1 and the quantity and quality of food should be attended to4 ,they should not be suffered to feed to repletion1 and such kinds of food as are most nutritious should be carefully provided4 ,variety of food is essential2 and a proper proportion of animal and green food should be given with their usual fare4 ,suitable arrangements should1 of course1 be made to prevent any intermixture of breeds4 ,a constant vigilance in this respect is the price of success2 and when all proper precautions are taken1 the breeder may be perfectly secure that his anticipations will be realized4 ,,selection ,,of ,,stock4 ,the habits of the domestic fowl1 in a wild state1 are too little known to ascertain whether the cocks always associate with the hens1 or only occasionally4 ,though hens will lay some eggs without pairing1 as this is not natural1 the number will1 for the most part1 be less1 and the laying uncertain2 it is1 therefore1 indispensable to attend to the laws of ,nature in this respect4 ,the number of hens to be allowed to one cock should vary with the object in view4 ,the limit for valuable breeding purposes has already been indicated4 ,if profit is sought for1 in the production of eggs alone1 one cock--if a stout1 young1 and lively bird--may have as many as twenty-four hens4 ,illustration3 ,,fighting ,,cocks4 ,the choice of a cock is a very important thing4 ,he is considered to have every requisite quality when he is of a good middling size2 carries his head high2 has a quick1 animated look2 a strong and shrill voice2 a fine red comb1 shining as if varnished2 wattles of a large size1 and of the same color as the comb2 the breast broad2 the wings strong2 the plumage black or of an obscure red2 the thighs very muscular2 the legs thick1 and furnished with strong spurs2 and the claws rather bent and sharply pointed4 ,he ought1 also1 to be free in his motions1 to crow frequently1 and to scratch the ground often in search of worms1 not so much for himself as to treat his hens4 ,he ought1 withal1 to be brisk1 spirited1 ardent1 and ready in caressing the hens2 quick in defending them1 attentive in soliciting them to eat1 in keeping them together1 and in assembling them at night4 ,in breeding game cocks1 the qualities required are every mark of perfect health1 such as a ruddy complexion2 the feathers close1 short1 and not feeling cold or dry2 the flesh firm and compact2 and a full breast1 betokening good lungs2 a tapering and thinness behind4 ,he should be full in the girth1 well coupled1 lofty and aspiring1 with a good thigh1 the beam of his leg very strong1 the eye large and vivid1 and the beak strong1 crooked1 and thick at the base4 ,a cock is in his prime at two years old2 though cocks are sometimes so precocious as to show every mark of full vigor at four months1 while others of the same brood do not appear in that state for several months afterward4 ,when marks of declining vigor are perceived1 the cock must be displaced1 to make way for a successor1 which should be chosen from among the finest and bravest of the supernumerary young cocks1 that ought to be reared for this special purpose4 ,the change of cocks is of much importance1 and is frequently very troublesome to manage2 for peace does not long subsist between them when they hold a divided dominion in the poultry-yard1 since they are all actuated by a restless1 jealous1 hasty1 fiery1 ardent disposition2 and hence their quarrels become no less frequent than sanguinary4 ,a battle soon succeeds to provocation or affront4 ,the two opponents face each other1 their feathers bristling up1 their necks stretched out1 their heads low1 and their beaks ready for the onslaught4 ,they observe each other in silence1 with fixed and sparkling eyes4 ,on the least motion of either1 they stand stiffly up1 and rush furiously forward1 dashing at each other with beak and spur in repeated sallies1 till the more powerful or the more adroit has grievously torn the comb and wattles of his adversary1 has thrown him down by the heavy stroke of his wings1 or has stabbed him with his spurs4 ,in the choice of a hen for sitting1 a large bird should be selected1 with large1 wide-spreading wings4 ,though large1 she must not1 however1 be heavy nor leggy4 ,no one of judgment would sit a ,malay2 as1 in such case1 not only would many eggs remain uncovered1 but many1 also1 would be trampled upon and broken4 ,elderly hens will be more willing to sit than young and giddy pullets4 ,after the common hen1 which1 on account of her fecundity1 is deservedly esteemed1 the tufted hens may be justly ranked2 particularly from being more delicate eating1 because she fattens more readily1 on account of laying less4 ,the large breed1 though less prolific1 is preferable in rearing chickens for the market1 or for making capons4 ,with regard to these three kinds1 the general opinion of breeders is1 that the first is more prolific in the number of eggs1 while the others produce larger chickens1 which bring good prices4 ,the ,spanish fowl are not generally good sitters1 but are excellent layers2 the ,dorkings reverse the order1 being better sitters than layers4 ,these qualities will be found to extend pretty generally to hens partaking of the prevailing colors of these two varieties2 the black being usually the best layers1 and but careless or indifferent sitters1 while gray or checkered hens are the best that can be produced4 ,,feeding4 ,experiments have demonstrated that what may be called the gastric juice in fowls has not sufficient power to dissolve their food1 without the aid of the grinding action of the gizzard4 ,before the food is prepared for digestion1 therefore1 the grains must be subjected to a triturating process2 and such as are not sufficiently bruised in this manner1 before passing into the gizzard1 are there reduced to the proper state1 by its natural action4 ,the action of the gizzard is1 in this respect1 mechanical2 this organ serving as a mill to grind the food to pieces1 and then1 by means of its powerful muscles1 pressing it gradually into the intestines1 in the form of pulp4 ,the power of this organ is said to be sufficient to pulverize hollow globules of glass in a very short time1 and solid masses of the same substance in a few weeks4 ,the rapidity of this process seems to be proportionate1 generally1 to the size of the bird4 ,a chicken1 for example1 breaks up such substances as are received into its stomach less readily than the capon2 while a goose performs the same operation sooner than either4 ,needles1 and even lancets1 given to turkeys1 have been broken in pieces and voided1 without any apparent injury to the stomach4 ,the reason1 undoubtedly1 is1 that the larger species of birds have thicker and more powerful organs of digestion4 ,it has long been the general opinion that1 from some deficiency in the digestive apparatus1 fowls are obliged to resort to the use of stones and gravel1 in order to enable them to dispose of the food which they consume4 ,some have supposed that the use of these stones is to sheath the gizzard1 in order to fit it to break into smaller fragments the hard1 angular substances which might be swallowed2 they have also been considered to have a medicinal effect2 others have imagined that they acted as absorbents for undue quantities of acids in the stomach1 or as stimulants to digestion2 while it has even been gravely asserted that they contribute directly to nutrition4 ,repeated experiments1 however1 have established that pebbles are not at all necessary to the trituration of the hardest kinds of substances which can be introduced into their stomachs2 and1 of course1 the usual food of fowls can be bruised without their aid4 ,they do1 however1 serve a useful auxiliary purpose4 ,when put in motion by the muscles1 they are capable of producing some effects upon the contents of the stomach2 thus assisting to grind down the grain1 and separating its parts1 the digestive fluid1 or gastric juice1 comes more readily in contact with it4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,food4 ,fowls about a poultry-yard can usually pick up a portion of their subsistence1 and1 under favorable circumstances1 the largest portion4 ,when so situated1 the keeping of poultry pays decidedly the best4 ,the support even of poultry not designed for fattening should not1 however1 be made to depend entirely upon such precarious resources4 ,fowls should be fed with punctuality1 faithfulness1 and discretion4 ,they are fond of all sorts of grain--such as ,indian corn1 wheat1 oats1 rye1 buckwheat1 barley1 millet1 etc42 but their particular preferences are not so likely to guide in the selection of their food1 as the consideration of what is most economical1 and easiest to be procured on the part of their owner4 ,they will readily eat most kinds of vegetables in their green state1 both cooked and raw4 ,they likewise manifest an inclination for animal food--such as blood1 fish1 and flesh--whether raw or otherwise2 and seem by no means averse to feeding on their own species4 ,insects1 worms1 and snails they will take with avidity4 ,it is usual to give to domestic fowls a quantity of grain once1 at least1 daily2 but1 commonly1 in less quantity than they would consume1 if unrestricted4 ,they feed with great voracity2 but their apparent greediness is not the criterion by which the possibility of satisfying them is to be judged4 ,moderate quantities of food will suffice2 and the amount consumed will usually be proportioned to the size of the individuals4 ,whatever is cheapest1 at any given time1 may be given1 without regard to any other considerations4 ,different circumstances and different seasons may occasion a variation in their appetite2 but a gill of grain is1 generally speaking1 about the usual daily portion4 ,some very voracious fowls1 of the largest size1 will need the allowance of a third of a pint each day4 ,wheat is the most nutritive of cereal grains--with1 perhaps1 the exception of rice--as an article of human food4 ,it is1 therefore1 natural to suppose that it is the best for fowls2 and the avidity with which they eat it would induce the conclusion that they would eat more of this than of any other grain4 ,yet it appears that when fowls have as much wheat as they can consume1 they will eat about a fourth part less than of oats1 barley1 or buckwheat2 the largest quantity of wheat eaten by a fowl in one day being1 according to several experiments1 about three-sixteenths of a pint4 ,the difference in bulk is1 however1 compensated by the difference in weight1 these three-sixteenths of wheat weighing more than one-fourth of a pint of oats4 ,the difference in weight is not1 in every instance1 the reason why a fowl is satisfied with a larger or smaller measure of one sort than another4 ,rye weighs less than wheat2 but still a fowl will be satisfied with half the quantity of this grain4 ,indian corn ranks intermediately between wheat and rye2 five-fourths of a pint of ,indian corn with fowls being found1 by experiment1 equal to six-fourths of wheat1 and three-fourths of rye4 ,in estimating the quantity of grain daily consumed by the common fowl1 it is wise to use data a little above than below the average4 ,it may1 therefore1 safely be said that a fowl of the common size1 having free access to as much as can be eaten through the day1 will consume1 day by day1 of oats1 buckwheat1 or barley1 one-fourth of a pint2 of wheat1 three-sixteenths2 of ,indian corn1 five thirty-seconds2 and of rye1 three thirty-seconds4 ,it has been conclusively settled1 by experiments instituted to that end1 that there is the best economy in feeding poultry with boiled grain rather than with dry1 in every case where ,indian corn1 barley1 and wheat can be procured4 ,the expense of fuel1 and the additional trouble incident to the process of cooking1 are inconsiderable in comparison with the advantages derived4 ,where oats1 buckwheat1 or rye are used1 boiling is useless1 when profit is concerned4 ,,bran4 ,it is an erroneous notion that money can be saved by feeding bran to fowls2 since1 then1 so little of the farina of the grain remains in it1 that the nourishment derived from its use is hardly worth mentioning4 ,when boiled1 as it always must be1 its bulk is but slightly increased4 ,two measures of dry bran1 mixed with water1 are equal to but three-fifths of a measure of dry barley4 ,,millet4 ,this is recommended as excellent food for young chickens4 ,fowls always prefer it raw2 though1 as its bulk is increased one-half by boiling1 it is doubtless more economical to feed it cooked4 ,,rice4 ,fowls are especially fond of this food1 although they soon lose their relish for it when allowed to have it at their discretion4 ,it should always be boiled2 but its expense puts it out of the question as a daily diet4 ,when used continuously1 it should always be mixed with some substance containing less nutritive matter1 in order that the appetite may not be cloyed by it4 ,,potatoes4 ,these are very nutritious1 and are usually acceptable to fowls1 when properly prepared4 ,when raw1 or in a cold state1 they appear to dislike them2 they should1 therefore1 be boiled and given when moderately hot2 when very hot1 it is said that fowls will injure themselves by eating them1 and burning their mouths4 ,they should also be broken into pieces of convenient size2 otherwise1 they will be avoided4 ,occasionally raw pieces of potato will be devoured2 but fowls cannot be said to be fond of the root in this state4 ,the same remark applies to most other roots1 especially to carrots and parsnips2 these should always be prepared1 in order to be wholesome and palatable4 ,fowls should never be confined to a root diet1 in any case2 but such food should be mingled or alternated with a sufficient quantity of grain4 ,,green ,,food4 ,indulgence in this kind of diet is absolutely necessary to the health of fowls1 and is also advantageous in an economical point of view4 ,the more delicate kinds of green vegetables are eaten with the utmost avidity2 all succulent weeds1 grass1 and the leaves of trees and shrubs will also be consumed4 ,if hens have green plots to graze in during the day1 the expense of their keeping will be reduced one-half4 ,all the refuse of the kitchen1 of a vegetable nature1 should be freely thrown into the poultry-yard4 ,green food1 however1 will not answer for an exclusive diet4 ,experiment has shown that fowls fed with this food alone for a few days together exhibit severe symptoms of relaxation of the bowels2 and1 after the lapse of eight or nine days1 their combs become pale and livid1 which is the same indication of disease in them that paleness of the lips is in the human species4 ,,earth-,,worms4 ,these are regarded as delicacies by the inhabitants of the poultry-yard2 and the individual who is fortunate enough to capture one is often forced to undergo a severe ordeal in order to retain his captive4 ,earth-worms are more plentiful in moist land1 such as pastures1 etc41 than in that which is cultivated2 in gardens1 also1 they exist in vast numbers4 ,when it is desirable to take worms in quantities1 it is only necessary to thrust a stake or three-pronged fork into the ground1 to the depth of about a foot1 and to move it suddenly backward and forward1 in order to shake the soil all around2 the worms are instinctively terrified by any motion in the ground1 and1 when disturbed1 hasten to the surface4 ,it is advisable to store worms1 on account of the trouble and difficulty of making frequent collections4 ,they may be placed in casks1 filled one-third full with earth1 in quantities at least equal in bulk to the earth4 ,the earth should be sprinkled occasionally1 to prevent it from becoming too dry4 ,care should1 however1 be exercised that the earth does not become too moist2 since1 in such an event1 the worms will perish4 ,in rainy weather1 the casks should be protected with a covering4 ,,animal ,,food4 ,fowls readily eat both fish and flesh meat1 and have no reluctance to feeding even on their own kind1 picking much more faithfully than quadrupeds4 ,blood of any kind is esteemed by them a delicacy2 and fish1 even when salted1 is devoured with a relish4 ,they seem to be indifferent whether animal food is given to them in a cooked or raw state2 though1 if any preference can be detected1 it is for the latter4 ,they are sometimes so greedy that they will attack each other in order to taste the blood which flows from the wounds so inflicted2 and it is quite common for them1 in the moulting season1 to gratify themselves by picking at the sprouting feathers on their own bodies and those of their companions4 ,they appear to be partial to suet and fat2 but they should not be allowed to devour these substances in large quantities1 on account of their tendency to render them inconveniently fat4 ,it is highly advantageous to fowls to allow them a reasonable quantity of animal food for their diet1 which should be fed to them in small pieces1 both for safety and convenience4 ,bones and meat may be boiled2 and the liquor1 when mixed with bran or meal1 is healthy1 and not expensive4 ,,insects4 ,fowls have a decided liking to flies1 beetles1 grasshoppers1 and crickets2 and grubs1 caterpillars1 and maggots are held by them in equal esteem4 ,it is difficult1 however1 to supply the poultry-yard with this species of food in sufficient quantity2 but enough may be provided1 probably1 to serve as luxuries4 ,some recommend that pailfuls of blood should be thrown on dunghills1 where fowls are allowed to run1 for the purpose of enticing flies to deposit their eggs2 which1 when hatched1 produce swarms of maggots for the fowls4 ,with the same view1 any sort of garbage or offal may be thrown out1 if the dunghill is so situated--as it always should be--that its exhalations will not prove an annoyance4 ,,laying4 ,the ordinary productiveness of a single individual of the family of domestic fowls is astonishing4 ,while few hens are capable of hatching more than fifteen eggs1 and are incapable usually of sitting more than twice in the year1 frequent instances have occurred of hens laying three hundred eggs annually1 while two hundred is the average number4 ,some hens are accustomed to lay at longer intervals than others4 ,the habit of one variety is to lay once in three days only2 others will lay every other day2 and some produce an egg daily4 ,the productiveness of hens depends1 undoubtedly1 upon circumstances1 to a great degree4 ,climate has a great influence in this respect2 and their lodging and food1 as well as the care bestowed upon them1 have more or less effect in promoting or obstructing their fecundity4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,watch4 ,there seems to be1 naturally1 two periods of the year in which fowls lay--early in the spring1 and in the summer2 and this fact would seem to indicate that1 if they were left to themselves1 like wild birds1 they would bring forth two broods in a year4 ,the laying continues1 with few interruptions1 till the close of summer1 when the natural process of moulting causes them to cease4 ,this annual process commences about ,august1 and continues through the three following months4 ,the constitutional effect attending the beginning1 continuance1 and consequences of this period--a very critical one in the case of all feathered animals--prevents them from laying1 until its very close1 when the entire coat of new feathers replaces the old1 the washing of the nutritive juices1 yielded by the blood for the express purpose of promoting this growth1 is a great drain upon the system2 and the constitutional forces1 which would otherwise assist in forming the egg1 are rendered inoperative4 ,the approach of cold weather1 also1 at the close of the moulting period1 contributes to the same result4 ,as the season of moulting is every year later1 the older the hen is1 the later in the spring she will begin to lay4 ,as pullets1 on the contrary1 do not moult the first year1 they commence laying sooner than the elder hens2 and it is possible1 by judicious and careful management1 so to arrange1 in a collection of poultry tolerably numerous1 as to have eggs throughout the year4 ,it is a singular fact that pullets hatched very late in autumn1 and therefore of stunted growth1 will lay nearly as early as those hatched in spring4 ,the checking of their growth seems to have a tendency to produce eggs2 of course1 very tiny ones at first4 ,when a hen is near to the time of laying1 her comb and wattles change from their previous dull hue to a bright red1 while the eye becomes more bright1 the gait more spirited1 and she occasionally cackles for three or four days4 ,these signs rarely prove false2 and when the time comes that she desires to lay1 she appears very restless1 going backward and forward1 visiting every nook and corner1 cackling meanwhile1 as if displeased because she cannot suit herself with a convenient nest4 ,not having looked out for one previously1 she rarely succeeds in pleasing herself till the moment comes when she can no longer tarry1 when she is compelled to choose one of the boxes or baskets provided for this purpose in the poultry-house1 where she settles herself in silence and lays4 ,in some instances1 a hen will make choice of a particular nest in which to lay1 and when she finds1 upon desiring to lay1 that this is pre-occupied by another hen1 she will wait till it is vacated2 but1 in other cases1 hens will go into any nest which they find1 preferring1 for the most part1 those having the greatest number of eggs4 ,the process of laying is1 most probably1 rather painful1 though the hen does not indicate this by her cries2 but the instant she has done she leaves the nest1 and utters her joy by peculiarly loud notes1 which are re-echoed by the cock1 as well as by some of the other hens4 ,some hens1 however1 leave the nest in silence1 after laying4 ,it seems ever to have been an object of great importance1 in an economical point of view1 to secure the laying of hens during those parts of the year when1 if left to themselves1 they are indisposed to deposit their eggs4 ,for this purpose many methods have been devised1 the most of which embrace an increase of rich and stimulating food4 ,some recommend shutting hens up in a warm place during winter1 and giving them boiled potatoes1 turnips1 carrots1 and parsnips4 ,others assign as the reason for their not laying in winter1 in some climates1 that the earth is covered with snow1 so that they can find no ground1 or other calcareous matter1 to form the shells2 and advise1 therefore1 that bones of meat or poultry should be pounded and given to them1 either mixed with their food1 or by itself1 which they will greedily eat4 ,upon the whole1 it would seem that the most feasible means of obtaining fresh eggs during the winter is to have young hens--pullets hatched only the previous spring being the best--to use extreme liberality in feeding1 and to cautiously abstain from over-stocking the poultry-yard4 ,as serviceable food to increase laying1 scraps of animal food1 given two or three times a week1 answer admirably2 the best mode of doing so is throwing down a bullock's liver1 leaving it with them1 and permitting them to pick it at will2 this is better raw than boiled4 ,lights1 or guts1 or any other animal refuse1 will be found to answer the same purpose2 but these substances require1 or1 at all events1 are better for1 boiling4 ,cayenne pepper--in fact all descriptions of pepper1 but especially cayenne pepper in pods--is a favorite food with fowls2 and1 being a powerful stimulant1 it promotes laying4 ,an abundant supply of lime1 in some form1 should not be omitted2 either chopped bones1 old mortar1 or a lump of chalky marl4 ,the shell of every egg used in the house should be roughly crushed and thrown down to the hens1 which will greedily eat them4 ,a green1 living turf will be of service1 both for its grass and the insects it may contain4 ,a dusting-place1 wherein to get rid of vermin1 is indispensable4 ,a daily hot meal of potatoes1 boiled as carefully as for the family table1 then chopped1 and sprinkled or mixed with bran1 will be comfortable and stimulating4 ,after every meal of the household1 the bones and other scraps should be collected and thrown out4 ,as to the number of eggs1 the varieties which possess the greatest fecundity are the ,shanghaes1 ,guelderlands1 ,dorkings1 ,polish1 and ,spanish4 ,the ,poland and ,spanish lay the largest eggs2 the ,dorkings1 eggs of good size2 while the ,game and the smaller kinds produce only small eggs4 ,those eggs which have the brightest yolks are the finest flavored2 and this is usually the case with the smaller kinds4 ,the large eggs of the larger varieties often have yolks of a pale color1 and are inferior in flavor4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,eggs4 ,eggs1 after being laid1 lose daily1 by transpiration1 a portion of the matter which they contain1 notwithstanding the compact texture of their shell1 and of the close tissue of the flexible membranes lining the shell1 and enveloping the white4 ,when an egg is fresh1 it is full1 without any vacancy2 and this is a matter of common observation1 whether it be broken raw1 or when it is either soft or hard-boiled4 ,in all stale eggs1 on the contrary1 there is uniformly more or less vacancy1 proportioned to the loss they have sustained by transpiration2 hence1 in order to judge of the freshness of an egg1 it is usual to hold it up to the light1 when the transparency of the shell makes it appear whether or not there is any vacancy in the upper portion1 as well as whether the yolk and white are mingled and muddy1 by the rotting and bursting of their enveloping membranes4 ,the transpiration of eggs1 besides1 is proportional to the temperature in which they are placed1 cold retarding and heat promoting the process2 hence1 by keeping fresh-lain eggs in a cool cellar1 or1 better still1 in an ice-house1 they will transpire less1 and be preserved for a longer period sound1 than if they are kept in a warm place1 or exposed to the sun's light1 which has also a good effect in promoting the exhalation of moisture4 ,as1 therefore1 fermentation and putridity can only take place by communication with the air at a moderate temperature1 such connection must be excluded by closing the pores of the shell4 ,it is an indispensable condition of the material used for this purpose1 that it shall be incapable of being dissolved by the moisture transpired from the interior4 ,spirits of wine varnish1 made with lac1 answers the requirement2 this is not very expensive1 but is rather an uncommon article in country places1 where eggs are most abundantly produced4 ,a better material is a mixture of mutton and beef suet1 which should be melted together over a slow fire1 and strained through a linen cloth into an earthen pan4 ,the chief advantage in the use of this is1 that the eggs rubbed over with it will boil as quickly as if nothing had been done to them1 the fat melting off as soon as they touch the water4 ,the transpiration is as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat as by a thick coating1 provided that no sensible vestige be left on the surface of the shell4 ,all sorts of fat1 grease1 or oil are well adapted to this purpose2 by means of butter1 hog's lard1 olive oil1 and similar substances1 eggs maybe preserved for nine months as fresh as the day upon which they were laid4 ,another method is1 to dip each egg into melted pork-lard1 rubbing it into the shell with the finger1 and pack them in old fig-drums1 or butter firkins1 setting every egg upright1 with the small end downward4 ,or1 the eggs may be packed in the same way in an upright earthen pan2 then cut some rough sheep's tallow1 procured the same day that the animal is killed1 into small pieces1 and melt it down2 strain it from the scraps1 and pour it while warm1 not hot1 over the eggs in the jar till they are completely covered4 ,when all is cold and firm1 set the vessel in a cool1 dry place till the contents are wanted4 ,eggs will also keep well when preserved in salt1 by arranging them in a barrel1 first a layer of salt1 then a layer of eggs1 alternately4 ,this can1 however1 also act mechanically1 like bran or saw-dust1 so long as the salt continues dry2 for1 in that case1 the chlorine1 which is the antiseptic principle of the salt1 is not evolved4 ,when the salt1 however1 becomes damp1 its preservative principle will be brought into action1 and may penetrate through the pores of the shell4 ,immersing eggs in vitriol1 or sulphuric acid1 is likewise a very effectual means of preserving them2 the sulphuric acid acts chemically upon the carbonate of lime in the shell1 by setting free the carbonic acid gas1 while it unites with the lime1 and forms sulphate of lime1 or plaster of ,paris4 ,another method is1 to mix together a bushel of quick-lime1 two pounds of salt1 and eight ounces of cream of tartar1 adding a sufficient quantity of water1 so that eggs may be plunged into the paint4 ,when a paste is made of this consistence1 the eggs are put into it1 and may be kept fresh1 it is said1 for two years4 ,another method of preserving eggs a long while fresh1 depends upon a very different principle4 ,eggs that have not been rendered reproductive by the cock have been found to continue very uncorrupted4 ,in order1 therefore1 to have eggs keep fresh from spring to the middle or even to the end of ,winter1 it is only necessary to deprive the hens of all communication with the cocks1 for at least a month before the eggs are put away4 ,it ought not to be overlooked1 in this connection1 that eggs not only spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the putrid fermentation of their contents1 in consequence of air penetrating through the pores of the shell1 but also by being moved about and jostled1 when carried to a distance by sea or land4 ,any kind of rough motion1 indeed1 ruptures the membranes which keep the white1 the yolk1 and the germ of the chicken in their appropriate places2 and1 upon these being mixed1 putrefaction is promoted4 ,,choice ,,of ,,eggs ,,for ,,setting4 ,eggs for hatching should be as fresh as possible2 if laid the very same day1 so much the better4 ,this is not always possible when a particular stock is required2 but1 if a numerous and healthy brood is all that is wanted1 the most recent eggs should be selected4 ,eggs may be kept for this purpose in either of the ways first mentioned2 or they may be placed on their points in a box1 in a cool1 dry place2 the temperature about sixty or sixty-five1 ,fahrenheit2 the bottom of the box should be covered with a layer of wheat bran1 then a layer of eggs put in1 and covered with bran2 and so on1 alternating4 ,in this mode1 evaporation is prevented1 and the eggs are almost as certain to hatch out1 at the end of six weeks1 or even two months1 as when they were laid4 ,it is difficult to fix the exact term during which the vitality of an egg remains unextinguished2 as it1 unquestionably1 varies from the very first1 according to the vigor of the parents of the inclosed germ1 and fades away gradually till the final moment of non-existence4 ,the chickens in stale eggs have not sufficient strength to extricate themselves from the shell2 if assisted1 the yolk is found to be partially absorbed into the abdomen1 or not at all2 they are too faint to stand2 the muscles of the neck are unable to lift their heads1 much less to peck2 and although they may sometimes be saved by extreme care1 their usual fate is to be trampled to death by the mother1 if they do not expire almost as soon as they begin to draw their breath4 ,thick-shelled eggs1 like those of geese1 ,guinea fowls1 etc41 will retain life longer than thin-shelled ones1 as those of hens and ducks4 ,when choice eggs are expected to be laid1 it is more prudent to have the hen which is to sit upon them wait for them1 than to keep other eggs waiting for her4 ,a good sitter may be amused for two or three weeks with a few addle-eggs1 and so be ready to take charge of those of value immediately upon their arrival4 ,as to the choice of eggs for hatching1 such should be taken1 of course1 as are believed to have been rendered productive4 ,those of medium size--the average size that the hen lays--are most apt to fulfil this requirement4 ,a very fair judgment may be formed of eggs from their specific gravity2 such as do not sink to the bottom in a bowl of tepid water should be rejected4 ,the old-time notion1 that small1 round eggs produce females1 and long1 pointed ones males--originally applied1 by the ancients1 to eating rather than hatching purposes--may be considered exploded4 ,the hen that lays one round egg1 continues to lay all her eggs round2 and the hen that lays one oblong1 lays all oblong4 ,according to this theory1 then1 one hen would be the perpetual mother of cocks1 and another the perpetual producer of pullets2 which is absurd1 as daily experience proves4 ,the same fate has been meted out to that other venerable test of sex1 the position of the air-bag at the blunt end of the shell4 ,if the vacancy is a little on one side1 it will produce a hen2 if it is exactly in the centre1 a cock4 ,upon this assumption1 the cock should be a very rare bird2 since there are very few eggs indeed in which the air bottle is exactly concentric with the axis of the egg4 ,in many breeds1 on the contrary1 the cockerels bear a proportion of at least one-third1 and sometimes two-thirds1 especially in those hatched during winter1 or in unfavorable seasons2 the immediate cause1 doubtless1 being that the eggs producing a more robust sex possess a stronger vitality4 ,nor are these two alleged tests--the shape of the egg1 and the position of the air-tube--consistent with each other2 for1 if the round egg produces a pullet1 and an egg with the air-bag a little on one side does the same1 then all round eggs should have the air bag in that position1 or one test contradicts the other2 and the same argument applies to the long or oval egg4 ,the examination of a few eggs by the light of a candle will satisfy any one that the position of the air-bag differs as much in a long egg as it does in a round4 ,there are1 indeed1 no known means of determining beforehand the sex of fowl2 except1 perhaps1 that cocks may be more likely to issue from large eggs1 and hens from small ones4 ,as1 however1 the egg of each hen may be recognized1 the means are accessible of propagating from those parents whose race it is judged most desirable to continue4 ,,incubation4 ,the hen manifests the desire of incubation in a manner different from that of any other known bird4 ,nature having been sufficiently tasked in one direction1 she becomes feverish1 and loses flesh2 her comb is livid2 her eyes are dull2 she bristles her feathers to intimidate an imaginary enemy2 and1 as if her chickens were already around her1 utters the maternal cluck4 ,when the determination to sit becomes fixed--it is not necessary to immediately gratify the first faint inclinations--the nest which she has selected should be well cleaned1 and filled with fresh straw4 ,the number of eggs to be allowed will depend upon the season1 and upon the size of egg and hen4 ,the wisest plan is not to be too greedy2 the number of chickens hatched is often in inverse proportion to the number of eggs set--five have only been obtained from sixteen4 ,an odd number is1 however1 to be preferred1 as being better adapted to covering in the nest4 ,hens will1 in general1 well cover from eleven to thirteen eggs laid by themselves4 ,a bantam may be trusted with about half a dozen eggs of a large breed1 such as the ,spanish4 ,a hen of the largest size as a ,dorking1 will successfully hatch1 at the most1 five goose-eggs4 ,when hens are determined to sit at seasons of the year at which there is little chance of bringing up chickens1 the eggs of ducks or geese may be furnished her2 the young may be reared1 with a little painstaking1 at any time of the year4 ,the autumnal laying of the ,china and of the common goose is very valuable for this purpose4 ,turkey-hens frequently have this fit of unseasonable incubation4 ,where1 however1 it is inconvenient to gratify the desire1 one or two doses of jalap will often entirely remove it2 and fowls often lay in three weeks afterward4 ,some place the would-be sitter in an aviary1 for four or five days at most1 and feed her but sparingly2 from the commencement of her confinement1 she will gradually leave off clucking1 and when this has ceased1 she may be again set free1 without manifesting the least desire to take to the nest again1 and in a short time the hen will commence laying with renewed vigor4 ,the barbarous measures sometimes resorted to should be frowned upon by every person with humane feelings4 ,three weeks is the period of incubation2 though chickens are sometimes excluded on the eighteenth day4 ,when the hen does not sit close for the first day or two1 or in early spring1 it will occasionally be some hours longer2 when the hen is assiduous1 and the weather hot1 the time will be a trifle shorter4 ,chickens have been known to come out as late as the twenty-seventh day4 ,it may not be uninteresting to note the changes which the egg passes through in hatching4 ,in twelve hours1 traces of the head and body of the chicken may be discerned2 at the end of the second day1 it assumes the form of a horse-shoe1 but no red blood as yet is seen2 at the fiftieth hour1 two vesicles of blood1 the rudiments of the heart1 may be distinguished1 one resembling a noose folded down on itself1 and pulsating distinctly2 at the end of seventy hours1 the wings may be seen1 and1 in the head1 the brain and the bill1 in the form of bubbles2 toward the end of the fourth day1 the heart is more completely formed2 and on the fifth day1 the liver is discernible2 at the end of one hundred and thirty hours1 the first voluntary motions may be observed2 in seven hours more1 the lungs and stomach appear2 and1 in four hours after this1 the intestines1 the loins1 and the upper jaw4 ,at the end of the one hundred and forty-fourth hour1 two drops of blood are observable in the heart1 which is also further developed2 and1 on the seventh day1 the brain exhibits some consistence4 ,at the one hundred and ninetieth hour1 the bill opens1 and the muscular flesh appears on the breast2 in four hours more1 the breast bone is seen2 and1 in six hours afterward1 the ribs may be observed forming from the back4 ,at the expiration of two hundred and thirty-six hours1 the bill assumes a green color1 and1 if the chicken be taken out of the egg1 it will visibly move4 ,at two hundred and sixty-four hours1 the eyes appear2 at two hundred and eighty-eight hours1 the ribs are perfect2 and at three hundred and thirty-one hours1 the spleen approaches near to the stomach1 and the lungs to the chest2 at the end of three hundred and fifty-five hours1 the bill frequently opens and shuts4 ,at the end of the eighteenth day1 the first cry of the chicken is heard2 and it gradually acquires more strength1 till it is enabled to release itself from confinement4 ,after the hen has set a week1 the fertility of the eggs may be satisfactorily ascertained by taking a thin board with a small orifice in it1 placing a candle at the back1 and holding up each egg to the points of light4 ,the barren eggs may then be removed1 and used1 hard-boiled1 for young chickens4 ,some reserve this for the eleventh or twelfth day4 ,about the twenty-first day1 the chicken is excluded from the egg2 for the purpose of breaking the shell of which it is furnished with a horny-pointed scale1 greatly harder than the bill itself1 at the upper tip of the bill--a scale which falls off1 or becomes absorbed1 after the chicken is two or three days old4 ,the chicken is rolled up in the egg in the form of a ball1 with its forepart toward the highest end1 and its beak uppermost1 the hard scale nearly touching the shell4 ,the first few strokes of the chicken's beak produce a small crack1 rather nearer the larger than the smaller end of the egg1 and the egg is said to be chipped4 ,from the first crack1 the chicken turns gradually round1 from left to right1 chipping the shell as it turns1 in a circular manner1 never obliquely4 ,all do not succeed in producing the result in the same time2 some being able to complete the work within an hour1 and others taking two or three hours1 while half a day is most usually employed1 and some require twenty-four hours or more1 but rarely two days4 ,some have greater obstacles to overcome than others1 all shells not being alike in thickness and hardness4 ,when chickens do not effect their escape easily1 some little assistance is needed2 but the difficulty is to know when to give it1 as a rash attempt to help them1 by breaking the shell1 particularly in a downward direction toward the smaller end1 is often followed by a loss of blood1 which can ill be spared4 ,it is better not to interfere1 until it is apparent that a part of the brood have been hatched for some time1 say twelve hours1 and that the rest cannot succeed in making their appearance4 ,it will then generally be found that the whole fluid contents of the egg1 yolk and all1 are taken up into the body of the chicken1 and that weakness alone has prevented its forcing itself out4 ,the causes of such weakness are various2 sometimes1 insufficient warmth1 from the hen having set on too many eggs2 sometimes the original feebleness of the vital spark2 but1 most frequently1 the staleness of the eggs employed for incubation4 ,the chances of rearing such chickens are small2 but1 if they survive the first twenty-four hours1 they may be considered as safe4 ,the only thing to be done is to take them from the hen till she is settled at night1 keeping them in the meanwhile as snug and warm as possible4 ,if a gentle hand can persuade a crust of bread down their throats1 it will do no harm2 but all rough and clumsy manipulation will utterly defeat the end in view4 ,animal heat will be their greatest restorative4 ,at night1 they should be quietly slipped under their mother2 the next morning will disclose the sequel4 ,the period of incubation in the ,guinea fowl is twenty-eight days1 or one month2 in the pea fowl1 from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days2 in turkeys1 a month2 in ducks1 thirty or thirty-one days2 and in geese1 from twenty-seven to thirty days4 ,,incubation ,,of ,,turkeys4 ,when the turkey hen has once selected a spot for her nest1 she will continue to lay there till the time for incubation2 so that the egg may be brought home from day to day1 there being no need of a nest-egg1 as with the domestic fowl4 ,she will lay from fifteen to twenty eggs1 more or less4 ,if there are any dead leaves or dry grass at hand1 she will cover her eggs with these2 but if not1 she will take no trouble to collect them from a distance4 ,her determination to sit will be known by her constantly remaining on the nest1 though it is empty2 and1 as it is seldom in a position sufficiently secure against the weather or pilferers1 a nest should be prepared for her1 by placing some straw1 with her eggs1 on the floor of a convenient out-building4 ,she should then be brought home1 and gently and kindly placed upon it4 ,with the smallest varieties1 thirteen eggs will suffice2 a large hen might cover more4 ,at the end of a week1 it is usual to add some fowls' eggs2 the activity of the chickens excites some emulation in the larger brethren1 and the eggs take up but little room in the nest4 ,some believe it necessary to turn the eggs once a day2 but the hen herself does that many times daily4 ,if the eggs are marked1 and their position noticed when she leaves the nest1 they will never be found in the same order4 ,in about four weeks1 the young will be hatched4 ,,incubation ,,of ,,geese4 ,geese breed in general only once a year2 but1 if well kept1 they sometimes hatch twice a season4 ,during the sitting1 in sections where the most attention is paid to breeding them1 each bird has a space allotted to it1 in rows of wicker-pens1 placed one above another1 and the person in charge of them drives the whole flock to water three times a day1 and1 bringing them back to their habitations1 places each bird in its own nest4 ,the most successful breeders of ,bremen geese adopt the following method3 ,the birds are1 in the first place1 carefully and properly fed2 the eggs are removed every day in the gentlest manner from the nest1 and placed in a basket of cotton kept in a moderate temperature1 and free from damp4 ,when all the geese begin to sit steadily1 each is furnished with a nest composed of chopped straw2 and care is taken that it is sufficiently capacious4 ,not more than one of the geese is allowed to leave the eggs at a time4 ,as soon as one leaves1 she makes a cackling noise1 which is the signal for the attendant to shut up the boxes in which the others are sitting4 ,these are made somewhat like a dog-kennel1 with a roof pitched both ways2 and are thirty inches long1 by twenty-four wide1 and twenty-four high2 the door is in the end1 and is covered by a sliding panel1 which moves upward1 when egress or ingress is sought1 and may be shut down at pleasure4 ,the goose1 upon returning1 finds only her own box open4 ,when she re-enters her box1 the whole of the doors are again opened1 and the same rule observed throughout the period of hatching4 ,in this way1 each goose is kept to its own nest4 ,,rearing ,,of ,,the ,,young4 ,for about twenty-four hours after birth1 the chickens can not only do well enough without any extraneous nourishment1 but will be far more likely to thrive subsequently1 if let alone1 than if crammed or incited to eat prematurely4 ,more chickens are destroyed by over-feeding than are lost by the want of it4 ,it is1 however1 well to turn them in among other chickens that already feed themselves2 they will1 in such cases1 generally follow the example of the rest1 and pick away at whatever is around4 ,illustration3 ,,marquee ,,or ,,tent-,,shaded ,,coops4 ,a roomy1 boarded coop1 in a dry1 sunny spot1 is the best position for them during the first month2 after which it may be left open during the day1 for the hen to retire to when she pleases4 ,in quiet grassy places1 it is scarcely necessary to coop the hen at all4 ,as to food1 they may have every thing which is not absolutely poisonous2 though if wet food is given1 the chicken is thus obliged to take water1 whether it requires it or not1 in order to get a sufficient supply of solid food1 and diseased bowels will be likely to follow2 whereas1 if the food is dry1 they can supply themselves with food and water according to their pleasure4 ,if ,indian meal is well boiled1 and fed not too moist1 it will answer a very good purpose1 particularly after they are eight or ten days old4 ,pure water must be placed near them in such a manner as to enable them to drink without getting into the water1 which1 by wetting their feathers1 benumbs and injures them4 ,meat and insect diet are almost necessary2 but1 whatever the food1 the meals must be given at short intervals2 as much as they can swallow1 and as often as they can eat4 ,with all their industry1 they are only half-clad till flesh and bone stop growing for a while1 and allow down and feathers to overtake them4 ,chickens should not be let out of their coops too early in the morning1 or whilst the dew is on the ground2 still less should they be suffered to range over the wet grass1 which is a common cause of disease and death4 ,they should also be guarded against sudden unfavorable changes of the weather1 more particularly if attended with rain4 ,nearly all the diseases of gallinaceous fowls arise from cold moisture4 ,the period at which they are left to shift for themselves depends upon the disposition of the hen4 ,some will continue their attentions to their chickens till they are nearly full-grown1 while others will cast them off much earlier4 ,in the latter case1 an eye should be kept upon them for a few days2 for chickens in this half-grown state are much more liable to disease than when they were apparently tender little weaklings1 crowded under their mother's wings4 ,they should be kept in a dry1 warm1 place2 dryness is especially necessary4 ,if the chickens feather rapidly when very young--as is the case with the ,golden ,pheasant1 ,black ,poland1 ,guelderland1 and some others--they are always weakly1 however healthy in other respects1 from the fact that their food goes to sustain their feathers rather than their bodies2 and they frequently languish and die1 from this circumstance alone4 ,if1 on the other hand1 they feather slowly1 as do the ,cochin ,chinas1 ,shanghaes1 and others1 the food in early life goes to nourish and sustain their bodies until they become more vigorous1 and old enough to sustain the shock of feathering without detriment4 ,pure tan-colored ,dorkings are more easily raised than others of the race1 because they feather more slowly4 ,chickens which feather rapidly must be kept perfectly dry and warm1 or they will die2 while naked chickens1 as they are termed1 or those which feather at a more advanced age1 and very slowly1 seldom suffer from the cold1 from the fact that their down is very warm1 and their blood is hotter1 and circulates more rapidly2 since their food principally goes to blood1 and flesh1 and bones1 and not to feathers4 ,,rearing ,,of ,,guinea ,,fowls4 ,for the young of these1 ants' eggs1 so called1 hard-boiled eggs chopped fine1 small worms1 maggots1 bread-crumbs1 chopped meat1 or suet--whatever1 in short1 is most nutritious1 is the most appropriate food4 ,this need not be offered to them in large quantities1 as it would only be devoured by the mother ,bantam as soon as she saw that they had for the time satisfied their appetites1 or it would be stolen by other birds2 but it should frequently be administered to them in small supplies4 ,feeding them three1 four1 or five times a day1 is not often enough2 every half hour during daylight they should be tempted to fill their craws1 which are soon emptied again by an extraordinary power and quickness of digestion4 ,the newly-hatched ,guinea fowl is a tiny creature1 and its growth is1 consequently1 very rapid1 requiring incessant supplies4 ,a check once received can never be recovered4 ,they do not1 in such cases1 mope and pine for a day or two2 like young turkeys under similar circumstances1 and then die2 but1 in half an hour after being in apparent health1 they fall on their backs1 give a convulsive kick or two1 and fall victims1 in fact1 to starvation4 ,the demands of ,nature for the growth of bone1 muscle1 and particularly of feathers1 are so great1 that no subsequent abundant supply of food can compensate for a fast of a couple of hours4 ,the feathers still go on growing in geometrical progression1 and drawing the sources of vitality still faster than they can be supplied1 till the bird faints and expires from inanition4 ,a dry1 sunny corner in the garden will be the best place to coop them with their bantam hen4 ,as they increase in strength1 they will do no harm1 but much good1 by devouring worms1 grubs1 caterpillars1 maggots1 and all sorts of insects4 ,by the time their bodies are little longer than those of sparrows1 they will be able to fly with some degree of strength2 other additions to their complete stature are successively and less immediately developed1 the spurs1 comb1 and ornamental plumage not appearing till a subsequent period4 ,when they are about the size of thrushes1 or a little larger1 unless the summer be very fine1 the bantam may be allowed to range loose in the orchard and shrubbery1 and no longer permitted to enter the garden4 ,the young must1 however1 still receive a bountiful and frequent supply of food2 they are not to be considered safe till the horn on their head is fairly grown4 ,oatmeal is a great treat2 cooked potatoes1 boiled rice1 or any thing1 in short1 that is eatable1 may be thrown to them2 they will pick the bones left after dinner with evident satisfaction4 ,the tamer they can be made1 the less troublesome will they be when grown2 the more kindly they are treated1 the fatter will they be for food1 and the better price will they bring in market4 ,for rearing the young of the pea fowl1 the same directions will be found useful1 and should be carried out in practice4 ,,rearing ,,of ,,turkeys4 ,much quackery has been recommended in the treatment of young turkeys4 ,nothing1 however1 should be given to them1 nothing done for them2 they should remain in the nest1 under the shelter of their mother's wings1 for at least eight or ten hours2 if hatched in the afternoon1 till the following morning4 ,the hen should then be placed on the grass1 in the sun1 under a roomy coop4 ,if the weather is fine1 she may be stationed at any point desired1 by a long piece of flannel-list tied round one leg1 and fastened to a stump or stone4 ,at first1 a few crumbs of bread should be offered2 for some hours1 the little ones will be in no hurry to eat2 but1 when they do commence1 they should be supplied constantly and abundantly with chopped egg1 shreds of meat and fat1 curd1 boiled rice mixed with cress1 lettuce1 and the green of onions2 melted mutton-suet poured over barley-meal1 and cut up when cold1 as also bullock's liver boiled and minced1 are excellent things4 ,young turkeys do not like to have their food minced much smaller than they can swallow it1 preferring to make a meal at three or four mouthfuls1 rather than to trouble themselves with the incessant pecking and scratching in which chickens so much delight4 ,pepper will be found particularly useful in feeding them2 as1 indeed1 all stimulating vegetables1 such as horse-radish1 and the like4 ,young turkeys are sometimes attacked by fasciolae1 or worms in the trachea2 but not so often as chickens4 ,cramp is the most fatal to them1 particularly in bad weather4 ,a few pieces of board laid under and about the coop are useful2 sometimes rubbing the leg with spirit will bring back the circulation4 ,the time when the hen may be allowed full liberty with her brood depends most upon the season1 the situation1 etc4 ,some think that if the young are thriving1 the sooner the old ones are out with them the better1 after the first ten days or so4 ,a safer rule may be fixed at the season1 called shooting the red1 when young turkeys approach the size of a partridge1 or before the granular1 fleshy excrescences on the head and neck begin to appear2 soon after1 the whole plumage1 particularly the tail-feathers1 shoot into rapid growth1 and liberal nourishment is imperatively required4 ,if let loose at this time1 they will obtain much foraging1 and still be thankful for all that is given to them4 ,caraway-seeds1 as a tonic1 are beneficial1 if added to plenty of barley1 boiled potatoes1 chopped vegetables1 and refuse meat4 ,at this time the turkeys1 naturally enough1 begin to be troublesome and voracious2 they have to grow from the size of a lark to twelve or fourteen pounds1 in eight or nine months4 ,one great merit in old birds is1 that in situations where nuts1 acorns1 and mast are to be had1 they will lead off their brood to these1 and all of them will abstain1 comparatively1 from ravaging other crops4 ,illustration3 ,,duck-,,pond ,,and ,,houses4 ,,rearing ,,of ,,ducklings4 ,the best mode of rearing the young of ducks depends very much upon the situation in which they are hatched4 ,it is customary to dip their feet in water as soon as they are hatched1 and then to clip the down on their tails close with a pair of scissors1 to prevent their becoming drabbled and water-logged2 and before their introduction to the pond1 which should not be until a day or two after hatching1 it is thought advisable by many to let them have a private swim or two in a small pan of water1 that they may try their strength and practice their webbed feet before venturing upon a larger space4 ,for the first month1 the confinement of the mother under a coop is better than too much liberty4 ,their first food may be boiled eggs1 nettles1 and a little barley2 all kinds of sapped food1 cornmeal and water mixed thin1 worms1 etc41 suit them2 they will also greedily eat cabbages or other greens1 mixed with boiled bran2 and this mess1 with the addition of pepper1 forms a valuable dietetic4 ,in a few days1 they require no care1 being perfectly able to shift for themselves2 but at any age they are the most helpless of the inhabitants of the poultry-yard1 having no weapons with which to defend themselves from vermin1 or animals of prey1 and their awkward1 waddling gait precluding their seeking safety in flight4 ,the old duck is not so brave in defence of her brood as the hen2 but she will1 nevertheless1 display at times much spirit4 ,the young seldom die of any disease1 and with proper precaution there will be no trouble in raising almost as many ducklings as are hatched4 ,they come early to maturity1 being nearly full-grown and in fine eating order at three months old2 far excelling1 in this respect1 all other poultry1 except geese4 ,none are more successful in rearing ducklings than those who keep them1 for the first period of their existence1 in pens two or three yards square1 and cram them night and morning with long1 dried pellets of flour and water1 or egg and flour1 until they are judged old enough to be turned out with their mother to forage for themselves4 ,they are cheerful1 harmless1 good-natured1 cleanly creatures1 carefully washing themselves1 and arranging their dress1 before commencing their meals2 and the healthy heartiness of their appetite is amusing1 rather than disgusting4 ,,rearing ,,of ,,goslings4 ,for the first three or four days1 goslings must be kept warm and dry1 and fed on barley-meal1 or oatmeal1 mixed with milk1 if easily procurable2 if not1 with water4 ,they will begin to grow in about a week4 ,for a week or two1 they should not be turned out until late in the morning1 and should always be taken in early in the evening4 ,their great enemy is the cramp1 which can be kept off by making them sleep on dry straw4 ,a little boiled rice1 daily1 assists their growth2 with corn1 of course1 as soon as they can eat it4 ,when goslings are first allowed to go at large with their mother1 every plant of hemlock which grows within their range should be pulled up1 as they are very apt to eat it1 and it generally proves fatal4 ,nightshade is equally pernicious to them2 and they have been known to be poisoned by eating sprigs of yew-tree4 ,the young of ,bremen geese1 when first hatched1 are of a very delicate and tender constitution4 ,it is best to let them remain in the breeding-box in which they are hatched for twenty-four hours after they leave the shell4 ,this should1 however1 be regulated by the weather2 since1 if it is fair and warm1 they may be let out an hour or two in the middle of the day1 when they will wet their little bills and nibble at the grass4 ,they ought not to be out in the rain at any time during the first month2 and both geese and goslings should be shut up in the boxes at night1 during the same period1 as a protection against rats and vermin4 ,a very shallow pool1 dug in the yard1 with a bucket or two of water thrown into it1 to suit the temporary purpose of bathing1 is sufficient during that period4 ,if well fed on grain from the time they are hatched1 twenty-five pounds weight can be secured1 at seven or eight months old4 ,by feeding them till four days old1 and then literally turning them out to grass1 an average weight of from seventeen to eighteen pounds each has been attained1 at that age after the feathers are cleanly picked off4 ,,caponizing4 ,capons have ever been esteemed among the greatest delicacies of the table2 and are made by the extirpation of the reproductive organs in male fowls4 ,if a cock1 when young1 is emasculated1 a remarkable change takes place in him4 ,his natural fierceness is calmed2 he becomes placid and peaceful2 his pugnacity has deserted him2 he no longer seeks the company of the hens2 he loses his previous strong1 shrill voice2 he grows to a far larger size than he would otherwise have done1 having nothing to interfere with the main business of his life--to eat1 drink1 sleep1 and get fat as speedily as possible2 his flesh is peculiarly white1 firm and succulent2 and even the fat is perfectly destitute of rankness4 ,the capon may1 also1 by a little management be converted into an admirable nurse4 ,some assert that caponized cocks are never afterward subject to the natural process of moulting2 but this is denied by others4 ,the art has been practised from the earliest antiquity1 in ,greece1 ,india1 and ,china1 for the purpose of improving the flesh of birds for the table1 in tenderness1 juiciness1 and flavor4 ,it is extensively performed in the great poultry-breeding districts of ,england2 but in this country it is by no means so generally practised as would naturally be expected4 ,the instruments most approved by skilful operators consist of two five or seven-pound weights for confining the fowl2 a scalpel1 for cutting open the thin skin enveloping the testicles2 a silver retractor1 for stretching open the wound sufficiently wide for operating within2 a pair of spring forceps--with a sharp1 cutting edge1 resembling that of a chisel1 having a level half an inch in its greatest width--for making the incision1 and securing the thin membrane2 a spoon-shaped instrument1 with a sharp hook at one end1 for pushing and removing the testicles1 adjusting the loop1 and assisting in tearing open the tender covering2 and a double silver canula1 for containing the two ends of horse-hair1 or fibre1 constituting the loop4 ,the expense of these instruments is in the neighborhood of six dollars4 ,a cheap penknife may be used instead of the scalpel2 and the other instruments may be obtained of a cheaper construction--the whole not costing more than half the above-named amount4 ,the cockerel intended for capons should be of the largest breeds1 as the ,dorking1 ,cochin ,china1 or the ,great ,malay4 ,they may be operated upon at any time after they are a month old2 the age of from two to three months is considered preferable4 ,if possible1 it should be done before ,july2 as capons made later never prove so fine4 ,the fowl should be confined to a table or board1 by laying him with the left side downward1 the wings drawn behind the rump1 the legs extended backward1 with the upper one farthest drawn out1 and the head and neck left perfectly free4 ,the feathers are next to be plucked from the right side1 near the hip-joint1 on a line with1 and between the joint of the shoulder4 ,the space uncovered may be from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter1 according to the size of the bird4 ,after drawing off the skin from the part1 backward--so that1 when left to itself after the operation is completed1 it will cover the wound in the flesh--make an incision with the bevel-edged knife1 at the end of the forceps1 between the last two ribs1 commencing about an inch from the back-bone1 and extending it obliquely downward1 from an inch to an inch and a half1 cutting just deep enough to separate the ribs1 taking due care not to wound the intestines4 ,next1 adjust and apply the retractor by means of the small thumb-screw1 and stretch the wound sufficiently wide apart to afford room for an examination of the organs to be removed4 ,then1 with the scalpel1 or a sharp penknife1 carefully cut open the skin1 or membrane1 covering the intestines1 which1 if not sufficiently drawn up1 in consequence of the previous confinement1 may be pushed forward toward the breast-bone1 by means of the bowl of the spoon-shaped instrument1 or--what would answer equally well--with the handle of a tea-spoon4 ,as the testicles are exposed to view1 they will be found connected with the back and sides by a thin membrane1 or skin1 passing over them4 ,this covering must then be seized with the forceps1 and torn open with the sharp-pointed hook at the small end of the spoon-shaped instrument2 after which the bowl of the spoon must be introduced1 with the left hand1 under the lower or left testicle1 which is1 generally1 a little nearer to the rump than the right one4 ,then take the double canula1 adjust the hair-loop1 and1 with the right hand1 pass the loop over the small hooked end of the spoon1 running it down under the bowl of the spoon containing the testicle1 so as to bring the loop to act upon the parts which connect the testicle to the back4 ,by drawing the ends of the hair-loop backward and forward1 and at the same time pushing the lower end of the tube1 or canula1 toward the rump of the fowl1 the cord or fastening of the testicle is severed4 ,a similar process is then to be repeated with the uppermost or right testicle2 after which1 any remains of the testicles1 together with the blood at or around the bottom of the wound1 must be scooped out with the bowl of the spoon4 ,the left testicle is first cut out1 in order to prevent the blood which may issue from covering the one remaining1 and so rendering it more difficult to be seen4 ,the operation1 if skilfully done1 occupies but a few moments2 when the skin of the fowl should be drawn over the wound with the retractor1 and the wound covered with the feathers that were plucked off at the commencement4 ,in some fowls1 the fore part of the thigh covers the two hindmost ribs2 in which case1 care must be taken to draw the fleshy part of the thigh well back1 to prevent it from being cut2 since1 otherwise1 the operation might lame the fowl1 or even cause its death4 ,for loops1 nothing answers better than the fibre of a cocoa-nut husk1 which is rough1 and readily separates the testicles by sawing4 ,the next best substance is the hair of a horse's mane or tail4 ,after the operation1 the bird may be placed in a warm house1 where there are no perches2 since if such appliances are present1 the newly-made capon will very probably injure himself in his attempts to perch4 ,for about a week1 the food should be soft1 meal porridge1 and that in small quantities1 alternated with bread steeped in milk2 he may be given as much pure water as he will drink1 it being best to use it in a tepid state1 or at least with the chill taken off4 ,at the end of a week1 or ten days1 at most1 the fowl1 if previously of a sound1 vigorous constitution1 will be all right1 and may be turned out with the others4 ,the usual method1 in ,france1 of making poulardes1 or hen-capons1 as they are sometimes improperly designated1 is to extirpate the egg-cluster1 or ovarium1 in the same manner as the testicles are extracted from the cockerel2 but it is quite sufficient merely to cut across the oviduct1 or egg-tube1 with a sharp knife4 ,otherwise1 they may be treated in the same manner as the capons4 ,capons are fattened in precisely the same manner as other fowls4 ,,fattening ,,and ,,slaughtering4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,bad ,,style ,,of ,,slaughtering4 ,fat is not a necessary part of any animal body1 being the form which superabundant nourishment assumes1 which would1 if needed1 be converted into muscles and other solids4 ,it is contained in certain membranous receptacles provided for it1 distributed over the body1 and it is turned to use whenever the supply of nourishment is defective1 which should be provided by the stomach1 and other great organs4 ,in such emergencies it is taken up1 in the animal economy1 by the absorbents2 if the latter1 from any cause1 act feebly1 the health suffers4 ,when1 however1 nourishment is taken into the system in greater quantities than is necessary for ordinary purposes1 the absorbent vessels take it up2 and the fat thus made is generally healthy1 provided there is a good digestion4 ,a common method of fattening fowl is to give them the run of a farm-yard1 where they thrive upon the offal of the stable and other refuse1 with perhaps some small regular daily feeds2 but at threshing-time1 they become fat1 and are styled barn-door fowls1 probably the most delicate and high-flavored of all1 both from their full allowance of the finest grain1 and the constant health in which they are kept1 by living in the natural state1 and having the full enjoyment of air and exercise2 or1 they are confined in coops during a certain number of weeks1 those fowls which are soonest ready being taken as wanted4 ,fowls may also be fattened to the highest pitch1 and yet preserved in a healthy state--their flesh being equal in quality to that of the barn-door fowl--when confined in feeding-houses4 ,these should be at once warm and airy1 with earth floors1 well-raised1 and sufficiently capacious to accommodate well the number desired4 ,the floor may be slightly littered down1 the litter being often changed2 and the greatest cleanliness should be observed4 ,sandy gravel should be placed in several different layers1 and often changed4 ,a sufficient number of troughs1 for both water and food1 should be placed around1 that the fowls may feed with as little interruption as possible from each other2 and perches in the same proportion should be furnished for those which are inclined to avail themselves of them2 though the number will be few1 after they have begun to fatten4 ,this arrangement1 however1 assists in keeping them quiet and contented until that period4 ,insects and animal food forming a part of the natural diet of poultry1 they are medicinal to them in a weakly state1 and the want of such food may sometimes impede their thriving4 ,the least nutritious articles of food1 so far as it can be done conveniently1 should be fed out first2 afterward1 those that are more nutritive4 ,fattening fowls should be kept quiet1 and suffered to take no more exercise than is necessary for their health2 since more exercise than this calls for an expenditure of food which does not avail any thing in the process of fattening4 ,they should be fed regularly with suitable food1 and that properly prepared2 and as much should be given them as they are able to convert into flesh and fat1 without waste4 ,the larger the quantity of food which a fattening animal can be made to consume daily1 with a good appetite1 or which it can digest thoroughly1 the greater will be the amount of flesh and fat gained1 in proportion to the whole quantity of food consumed4 ,substances in which the nutriment is much concentrated should be fed with care4 ,there is danger1 especially when the bird is first put to feed1 that more may be eaten at once than the digestive organs can manage4 ,meal of ,indian corn is highly nutritive2 and1 when properly fed1 causes fowls to fatten faster than almost any other food4 ,they will not1 however1 bear to be kept exclusively on this article for a great length of time4 ,meal made from the heaviest varieties of corn1 especially that made from the hard1 flinty kinds grown in the ,northern and ,eastern ,states1 is quite too strong for fowls to be full-fed upon4 ,attention should also be paid to the bulk of the food given2 since sufficient bulk is necessary to effect a proper distending of the stomach1 as a necessary condition of healthy digestion4 ,one simple mode of fattening1 which is adopted by many1 is the following3 ,shut the fowls up where they can get no gravel2 keep corn by them all the time1 and also give them dough enough once a day2 for drink1 give them skimmed milk2 with this feed1 they will fatten in ten days2 if kept longer1 they should have some gravel1 or they will fall away4 ,oats ground into meal1 and mixed with a little molasses and water1 barley-meal with sweet milk1 and boiled oats1 mixed with meat1 are all excellent for fattening poultry--reference being had to time1 expense1 and quality of flesh4 ,in fattening ducks1 it must be remembered that their flesh will be found to partake1 to a great extent1 of the flavor of the food on which they have been fattened2 and as they are naturally quite indiscriminate feeders1 care should be taken1 for at least a week or so before killing1 to confine them to select food4 ,boiled potatoes are very good feeding1 and are still better if a little grain is mixed with them2 ,indian meal is both economical and nutritive1 but should be used sparingly at first4 ,some recommend butcher's offal2 but1 although ducks may be fattened on such food to an unusual weight1 and thus be profitable for the market1 their flesh will be rendered rank and gross1 and not at all fit for the table4 ,to fatten geese1 it is necessary to give them a little corn daily1 with the addition of some raw ,swedish turnips1 carrots1 mangel-wurtzel leaves1 lucerne1 tares1 cabbage leaves1 and lettuces4 ,barley-meal and water is recommended by some2 but full-grown geese that have never been habituated to the mixture when young1 will occasionally refuse to eat it4 ,cooked potatoes1 in small quantities1 do no harm2 and1 apart from the consideration of expense1 steeped wheat would produce a first-rate delicacy4 ,those who can only afford to bring up one or two1 should confine them in a crib or some such place1 about the beginning of ,july1 and feed them as directed1 giving them a daily supply of clean water for drink4 ,if from a dozen to twenty are kept1 a large pen of from fifteen to twenty feet square should be made1 well covered with straw on the bottom1 and a covered house in a corner for protection against the sun and rain1 when required2 since exposure to either of these is not good4 ,it will be observed that1 about noon1 if geese are at liberty1 they will seek some shady spot1 to avoid the influence of the sun2 and when confined in small places1 they have not sufficient space for flapping their wings1 and drying themselves after being wet1 nor have they room for moving about so as to keep themselves warm4 ,there should be three troughs in the crib3 one for dry oats2 another for vegetables1 which ought always to be cut down2 and a third for clean water1 of which they must always have a plentiful supply4 ,the riper the cabbages and lettuces are with which they are supplied the better4 ,,slaughtering ,,and ,,dressing4 ,both ducks and geese should be led out to the pond a few hours before being slaughtered1 where they will neatly purify and arrange their feathers4 ,the common mode of slaughtering the latter--bleeding them from the internal parts of the throat--is needlessly slow and cruel4 ,fowls for cooking1 that are to be sent to a distance1 or to be kept any time before being served1 should be plucked1 drawn1 and dressed immediately after being killed4 ,the feathers strip off much more easily and cleanly while the bird is yet warm4 ,when large numbers are to be slaughtered and prepared in a short time1 the process is expedited by scalding the bird in boiling water1 when the feathers drop off almost at once4 ,fowls thus treated are1 however1 generally thought inferior in flavor1 and are more likely to acquire a taint in close1 warm weather1 than such as are plucked and dressed dry4 ,in dressing1 all bruises or rupturing of the skin should be avoided4 ,a coarse1 half-worn cloth1 that is pervious to the air1 like a wire sieve1 and perfectly dry and clean1 forms the best wrapper4 ,the color of yellow-skinned turkeys--equally well-flavored1 by the way--is improved for appearance at market by wrapping them for twelve or twenty-four hours in cloths soaked in cold salt and water1 frequently changed4 ,for the same purpose1 the loose fat is first laid in warm salt and water1 and afterward in milk and water for two or three hours4 ,some dust with flour1 inside and out1 any fowls that are to be carried far or to hang many days before being cooked4 ,the oldest and toughest fowls1 which are often pronounced unfit for eating1 thrown away1 and wasted1 may be made into a savory and nutritious dish by jointing1 after the bird is plucked and drawn1 as for a pie2 it should not be skinned4 ,stew it five hours in a close saucepan1 with salt1 mace1 onions1 or any other flavoring ingredients desired4 ,when tender1 turn it out into a deep dish1 so that the meat may be entirely covered with the liquor4 ,let it stand thus in its own jelly for a day or two2 it may then be served in the shape of a curry1 a hash1 or a pie1 and will be found to furnish an agreeable repast4 ,old geese1 killed in the autumn1 after they have recovered from moulting1 and before they have begun to think about the breeding time1 make excellent meat1 if cut into small portions1 stewed slowly five or six hours with savory condiments1 and made into pie the next day4 ,by roasting and broiling1 the large quantity of nutriment contained in the bones and cartilages is lost1 and what might easily be made tender has to be swallowed tough4 ,young geese1 as well as the old1 are1 also1 often salted and boiled4 ,,poultry-,,houses4 ,the three grand requisites in a poultry house are cleanliness1 dryness1 and warmth4 ,a simple arrangement for this purpose is a shed built against the gable of the house1 opposite to the part warmed by the kitchen fire1 in which are placed cross-bars for roosting1 with boxes for laying in1 or quantities of fresh straw4 ,this should always have an opening1 to allow the poultry-house to be cleansed out1 at least once a week4 ,fowls will never thrive long amidst uncleanliness2 and even with the utmost care a place where they have been long kept becomes tainted1 as it is called2 the surface of the ground becomes saturated with their exuriae1 and is therefore no longer conducive to health4 ,to avoid this effect1 some persons in the country frequently change the sites of their poultry-houses1 to obtain fresh ground2 while others1 who cannot thus change1 purify the houses by fumigations of blazing pitch1 by washing with hot lime water1 and by strewing large quantities of pure sand both within and without4 ,washing the floor every week is a necessity2 for which purpose it is advantageous to have the house paved either with stones1 bricks1 or tiles4 ,a good flooring1 however1 and cheaper than either of these1 may be formed by using a composition of lime and smithy ashes1 together with the riddlings of common kitchen ashes2 these1 having been all finely broken1 must be mixed together with water1 put on the floor with a mason's trowel1 and nicely smoothed on the surface4 ,if this is put on a floor which is in a tolerably dry situation1 and allowed to harden before being used1 it will become nearly as solid and compact as stone1 and is almost as durable4 ,illustration3 ,,rustic ,,poultry-,,house4 ,the inside of the laying-boxes should be frequently washed with hot lime water1 to free them from vermin1 which greatly torment the sitting hens4 ,for the same purpose1 poultry should always have a heap of dry sand1 or fine ashes1 laid under some covered place or thick tree near their yard1 in which they may dust themselves2 this being their means of ridding themselves of the vermin with which they are annoyed4 ,in every establishment for poultry-rearing1 there ought to be some separate crib or cribs1 into which to remove fowl when laboring under disease2 for1 not only are many of the diseases to which poultry are liable highly contagious1 but the sick birds are also regarded with dislike by such as are in health2 and the latter will1 generally1 attack and maltreat them1 aggravating1 at least1 their sufferings1 if not actually depriving them of life4 ,the moment1 therefore1 that a bird is perceived to droop1 or appears pining1 it should be removed to one of these infirmaries4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fancy ,,coop ,,in ,,chinese ,,or ,,gothic ,,style4 ,separate pens are also necessary1 to avoid quarrelling among some of the highly-blooded birds1 more particularly the game fowl4 ,they are also necessary when different varieties are kept1 in order to avoid improper or undesirable commixture from accidental crossing4 ,these lodgings may be most readily constructed in rows1 parallel to each other2 the partitions may be formed of lattice-work1 being thus rather ornamental1 and the cost of erection but trifling4 ,each of these lodgings should be divided into two compartments1 one somewhat larger than the other2 one to be close and warm1 for the sleeping-room2 and the other1 a large one1 airy and open1 that the birds may enjoy themselves in the daytime4 ,both must be kept particularly dry and clean1 and be well protected from the weather4 ,a hen-ladder is an indispensable piece of furniture1 though frequently absent4 ,this is a sort of ascending scale of perches1 one a little higher than the other2 not exactly above its predecessor1 but somewhat in advance4 ,by neglecting the use of this very simple contrivance1 many valuable fowls may be lost or severely injured1 by attempting to fly down from their roost--an attempt from succeeding in which the birds are incapacitated1 in consequence of the bulk of their body preponderating over the power of their wings4 ,some people allow their fowl to roost abroad all night1 in all weathers1 in trees1 or upon fences near the poultry-house4 ,this is a slovenly mode of keeping even the humblest live stock2 it offers a temptation to thieves1 and the health of the fowls cannot be improved by their being soaked all night long in drenching rain1 or having their feet frozen to the branches or rails4 ,there is no difficulty in accustoming any sort of poultry1 except the pea fowl1 to regular housing at night4 ,it is better that turkeys should not roost in the same house with the domestic fowl1 as they are apt to be cross to sitting and laying hens4 ,no poultry-house is what it ought to be1 it may be suggested1 in conclusion1 unless it is in such a state as to afford a lady1 without offending her sense of decent propriety1 a respectable shelter on a showery day4 ,illustration ,,diseases ,,and ,,their ,,remedies4 ,in our climate1 the disorders to which poultry are liable are1 comparatively1 few in number1 and they usually yield to judicious treatment4 ,the little attention that has too generally been bestowed upon this subject may be accounted for from the circumstance that1 in an economical point of view1 the value of an individual fowl is relatively insignificant2 and while the ailments of other domesticated animals generally claim a prompt and efficient care1 the unhappy inhabitants of the poultry-yard are too often relieved of their sufferings in the most summary manner4 ,there are reasons1 however1 which will justify a more careful regard in this matter1 besides the humanity of adding to the comfort of these useful creatures2 and the attempt to cure1 in cases of disease1 will often be rewarded by their flesh being rendered more palatable1 and their eggs more wholesome4 ,most of the diseases to which fowls are subject are the result of errors in diet or management1 and should have been prevented1 or may be removed by a change1 and the adoption of a suitable regimen4 ,when an individual is attacked1 it should be forthwith removed1 to prevent the contamination of the rest of the flock4 ,nature1 who proves a guardian to fowls in health1 will nurse them in their weakness1 and act as a most efficient physician to the sick2 and the aim of all medical treatment should be to follow the indications which ,nature holds out1 and assist in the effort which she constantly makes for the restoration of health4 ,the more common diseases which afflict poultry will be so described that they need not be misapprehended1 and such remedies suggested as experience has proved to be salutary2 and1 taken alphabetically1 the first on the list is ,,asthma4 ,this common disease seems to differ sufficiently in its characteristics to warrant a distinction into two species4 ,in one it appears to be caused by an obstruction of the air-cells1 by an accumulation of phlegm1 which interferes with the exercise of their functions4 ,the fowl labors for breath1 in consequence of not being able to take in the usual quantity of air at an inspiration4 ,the capacity of the lungs is thereby diminished1 the lining membrane of the windpipe becomes thickened1 and its minute branches are more or less affected4 ,these effects may1 perhaps1 be attributed to the fact that1 as our poultry are originally natives of tropical climates1 they require a more equal temperature than is afforded1 except by artificial means1 however well they may appear acclimated4 ,another variety of asthma is induced by fright1 or undue excitement4 ,it is sometimes produced by chasing fowls to catch them1 by seizing them suddenly1 or by their fighting with each other4 ,in these cases1 a blood-vessel is often ruptured1 and sometimes one or more of the air-cells4 ,the symptoms are1 short breathing2 opening of the beak often1 and for quite a time2 heaving and panting of the chest2 and1 in case of a rupture of a blood-vessel1 a drop of blood appearing on the beak4 ,treatment4 ,confirmed asthma is difficult to cure4 ,for the disease in its incipient state1 the fowl should be kept warm1 and treated with repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur1 mixed with butter1 with the addition of a small quantity of ,cayenne pepper4 ,,costiveness4 ,the existence of this disorder will become apparent by observing the unsuccessful attempts of the fowl to relieve itself4 ,it frequently results from continued feeding on dry diet1 without access to green vegetables4 ,indeed1 without the use of these1 or some substitute--such as mashed potatoes--costiveness is certain to ensue4 ,the want of a sufficient supply of good water will also occasion the disease1 on account of that peculiar structure of the fowl1 which renders them unable to void their urine1 except in connection with the faeces of solid food1 and through the same channel4 ,treatment4 ,soaked bread1 with warm skimmed-milk1 is a mild remedial agent1 and will usually suffice4 ,boiled carrots or cabbage are more efficient4 ,a meal of earth-worms is sometimes advisable2 and hot potatoes1 mixed with bacon-fat1 are said to be excellent4 ,castor-oil and burned butter will remove the most obstinate cases2 though a clyster of oil1 in addition1 may sometimes be required1 in order to effect a cure4 ,,diarrh,,oe,a4 ,there are times when fowls dung more loosely than at others1 especially when they have been fed on green or soft food2 but this1 may occur without the presence of disease4 ,should this state1 however1 deteriorate into a confirmed and continued laxity1 immediate attention is required to guard against fatal effects4 ,the causes of diarrhoea are dampness1 undue acidity in the bowels1 or the presence of irritating matter there4 ,the symptoms are lassitude and emaciation2 and1 in very severe cases1 the voiding of calcareous matter1 white1 streaked with yellow4 ,this resembles the yolk of a stale egg1 and clings to the feathers near the vent4 ,it becomes acrid1 from the presence of ammonia1 and causes inflammation1 which speedily extends throughout the intestines4 ,treatment4 ,this1 of course1 depends upon the cause4 ,if the disease is brought on by a diet of green or soft food1 the food must be changed1 and water sparingly given2 if it arises from undue acidity1 chalk mixed with meal is advantageous1 but rice-flour boluses are most reliable4 ,alum-water1 of moderate strength1 is also beneficial4 ,in cases of bloody flux1 boiled rice and milk1 given warm1 with a little magnesia1 or chalk1 may be successfully used4 ,,fever4 ,the most decided species of fever to which fowls are subject occurs at the period of hatching1 when the animal heat is often so increased as to be perceptible to the touch4 ,a state of fever may also be observed when they are about to lay4 ,this is1 generally1 of small consequence1 when the birds are otherwise healthy2 but it is of moment1 if any other disorder is present1 since1 in such case1 the original malady will be aggravated4 ,fighting also frequently occasions fever1 which sometimes proves fatal4 ,the symptoms are an increased circulation of the blood2 excessive heat2 and restlessness4 ,treatment4 ,light food and change of air2 and1 if necessary1 aperient medicine1 such as castor oil1 with a little burned butter4 ,,indigestion4 ,cases of indigestion among fowls are common1 and deserve attention according to the causes from which they proceed4 ,a change of food will often produce crop-sickness1 as it is called1 when the fowl takes but little food1 and suddenly loses flesh4 ,such disease is of little consequence1 and shortly disappears4 ,when it requires attention at all1 all the symptoms will be removed by giving their diet in a warm state4 ,sometimes1 however1 a fit of indigestion threatens severe consequences1 especially if long continued4 ,every effort should be made to ascertain the cause1 and the remedy must be governed by the circumstances of the case4 ,the symptoms are heaviness1 moping1 keeping away from the nest1 and want of appetite4 ,illustration3 ,,prairie ,,hens4 ,treatment4 ,lessen the quantity of food1 and oblige the fowl to exercise in an open walk4 ,give some powdered cayenne and gentian1 mixed with the usual food4 ,iron-rust1 mixed with soft food1 or diffused in water1 is an excellent tonic1 and is indicated when there is atrophy1 or diminution of the flesh4 ,it may be combined with oats or grain4 ,milk-warm ale has also a good effect1 when added to the diet of diseased fowls4 ,,lice4 ,the whole feathered tribe seem to be peculiarly liable to be infested with lice2 and there have been instances when fowls have been so covered in this loathsome manner that the natural color of the feathers has been undistinguishable4 ,the presence of vermin is not only annoying to poultry1 but materially interferes with their growth1 and prevents their fattening4 ,they are1 indeed1 the greatest drawback to the success and pleasure of the poultry fanciers2 and nothing but unremitting vigilance will exterminate them1 and keep them exterminated4 ,treatment4 ,to attain this1 whitewash frequently all the parts adjacent to the roosting-pole1 take the poles down and run them slowly through a fire made of wood shavings1 dry weeds1 or other light waste combustibles4 ,flour of sulphur1 placed in a vessel1 and set on fire in a close poultry-house1 will penetrate every crevice1 and effectually exterminate the vermin4 ,when a hen comes off with her brood1 the old nest should be cleaned out1 and a new one placed2 and dry tobacco-leaves1 rubbed to a powder between the hands1 and mixed with the hay of the nest1 will add much to the health of the poultry4 ,flour of sulphur may also be mixed with ,indian-meal and water1 and fed in the proportion of one pound of sulphur to two dozen fowls1 in two parcels1 two days apart4 ,almost any kind of grease1 or unctuous matter1 is also certain death to the vermin of domestic poultry4 ,in the case of very young chickens1 it should only be used in a warm1 sunny day1 ,when they should be put into a coop with their mother1 the coop darkened for an hour or two1 and every thing made quiet1 that they may secure a good rest and nap after the fatigue occasioned by greasing them4 ,they should be handled with great care1 and greased thoroughly2 the hen1 also4 ,after resting1 they may be permitted to come out and bask in the sun2 and in a few days they will look sprightly enough4 ,to guard against vermin1 however1 it should not be forgotten that cleanliness is of vital importance2 and there must always be plenty of slacked lime1 dry ashes1 and sand1 easy of access to the fowls1 in which they can roll and dust themselves4 ,,loss ,,of ,,feathers4 ,this disease1 common to confined fowls1 should not be confounded with the natural process of moulting4 ,in this diseased state1 no new feathers come to replace the old1 but the fowl is left bald and naked2 a sort of roughness also appears on the skin2 there is a falling off in appetite1 as well as moping and inactivity4 ,treatment4 ,as this affection is1 in all probability1 constitutional rather than local1 external remedies may not always prove sufficient4 ,stimulants1 however1 applied externally1 will serve to assist the operation of whatever medicine may be given4 ,sulphur may be thus applied1 mixed with lard4 ,sulphur and cayenne1 in the proportion of one quarter each1 mixed with fresh butter1 is good to be given internally1 and will act as a powerful alterative4 ,the diet should be changed2 and cleanliness and fresh air are indispensable4 ,in diseased moulting1 where the feathers stare and fall off1 till the naked skin appears1 sugar should be added to the water which the fowls drink1 and corn and hemp-seed be given4 ,they should be kept warm1 and occasionally be treated to doses of cayenne pepper4 ,,pip4 ,this disorder1 known also as the gapes1 is the most common ailment of poultry and all domestic birds4 ,it is especially the disease of young fowls1 and is most prevalent in the hottest months1 being not only troublesome but frequently fatal4 ,as to its cause and nature1 there has been some diversity of opinion4 ,some consider it a catarrhal inflammation1 which produces a thickening of the membrane lining the nostrils and mouth1 and particularly the tongue2 others assert that it is caused by want of water1 or by bad water2 while others describe it as commencing in the form of a vesicle on the tip of the tongue1 which occasions a thickened state of the skin1 by the absorption of its contents4 ,the better opinion1 however1 is1 that the disease is occasioned by the presence of worms1 or fasciolae1 in the windpipe4 ,on the dissection of chickens dying with this disorder1 the windpipe will be found to contain numerous small1 red worms1 about the size of a cambric needle1 which1 at the first glance1 might be mistaken for blood-vessels4 ,it is supposed by some that these worms continue to grow1 until1 by their enlargement1 the windpipe is so filled up that the chicken is suffocated4 ,the common symptoms of this malady are the thickened state of the membrane of the tongue1 particularly toward the tip2 the breathing is impeded1 and the beak is frequently held open1 as if the creature were gasping for breath2 the beak becomes yellow at its base2 and the feathers on the head appear ruffled and disordered2 the tongue is very dry2 the appetite is not always impaired2 but yet the fowl cannot eat1 probably on account of the difficulty which the act involves1 and sits in a corner1 pining in solitude4 ,treatment4 ,most recommend the immediate removal of the thickened membrane1 which can be effected by anointing the part with butter or fresh cream4 ,if necessary1 the scab may be pricked with a needle4 ,it will also be found beneficial to use a pill1 composed of equal parts of scraped garlic and horse-radish1 with as much cayenne pepper as will outweigh a grain of wheat2 to be mixed with fresh butter1 and given every morning2 the fowl to be kept warm4 ,if the disease is in an advanced state1 shown by the chicken's holding up its head and gaping for want of breath1 the fowl should be thrown on its back1 and while the neck is held straight1 the bill should be opened1 and a quill inserted into the windpipe1 with a little turpentine4 ,this being round1 will loosen and destroy a number of small1 red worms1 some of which will be drawn up by the feather1 and others will be coughed up by the chicken4 ,the operation should be repeated the following day1 if the gaping continues4 ,if it ceases1 the cure is effected4 ,it is stated1 also1 that the disease has been entirely prevented by mixing a small quantity of spirits of turpentine with the food of fowls2 from five to ten drops1 to a pint of meal1 to be made into a dough4 ,another specific recommended is to keep iron standing in vinegar1 and put a little of the liquid in the food every few days4 ,some assert that it is promoted by simply scanting fowls in their food2 and this upon the ground that chickens which are not confined with the hen1 but both suffered to run at large and collect their own food1 are not troubled with this disease4 ,there can be little doubt that it is caused by inattention to cleanliness in the habits and lodgings of fowls2 and some1 therefore1 think that if the chicken-houses and coops are kept clean1 and frequently washed with thin whitewash1 having plenty of salt and brine mixed with it1 that it would be eradicated4 ,,roup4 ,this disease is caused mainly by cold and moisture2 but it is often ascribed to improper feeding and want of cleanliness and exercise4 ,it affects fowls of all ages1 and is either acute or chronic2 sometimes commencing suddenly1 on exposure2 at others gradually1 as the consequence of neglected colds1 or damp weather or lodging4 ,chronic roup has been known to extend through two years4 ,illustration3 ,,swans4 ,the most prominent symptoms are difficult and noisy breathing and gaping1 terminating in a rattling in the throat2 the head swells1 and is feverish2 the eyes are swollen1 and the eye-lidsappear livid2 the sight decays1 and sometimes total blindness ensues2 there are discharges from the nostrils and mouth1 at first thin and limpid1 afterward thick1 purulent1 and fetid4 ,in this stage1 which resembles the glanders in horses1 the disease becomes infectious4 ,as secondary symptoms1 it may be noticed that the appetite fails1 except for drink2 the crop feels hard2 the feathers are staring1 ruffled1 and without the gloss that appears in health2 the fowl mopes by itself and seems to suffer much pain4 ,treatment4 ,the fowls should be kept warm1 and have plenty of water and scalded bran1 or other light food4 ,when chronic1 change of food and air is advisable4 ,the ordinary remedies--such as salt dissolved in water--are inefficacious4 ,a solution of sulphate of zinc1 as an eye-water1 is a valuable cleansing application4 ,rue-pills1 and a decoction of rue1 as a tonic1 have been administered with apparent benefit4 ,the following is recommended3 of powdered gentian and ,jamaica ginger1 each one part2 ,epsom salts1 one and a half parts2 and flour of sulphur1 one part2 to be made up with butter1 and given every morning4 ,the following method of treatment is practised by some of the most successful poulterers in the country4 ,as soon as discovered1 if in warm weather1 remove the infected fowls to some well-ventilated apartment1 or yard2 if in winter1 to some warm place2 then give a dessert-spoonful of castor-oil2 wash their heads with warm ,castile-soap suds1 and let them remain till next morning fasting4 ,scald for them ,indian-meal1 adding two and a half ounces of ,epsom salts for ten hens1 or in proportion for a less or larger number2 give it warm1 and repeat the dose in a day or two1 if they do not recover4 ,perhaps1 however1 the best mode of dealing with roup and all putrid affections is as follows3 ,take of finely pulverized1 fresh-burnt charcoal1 and of new yeast1 each three parts2 of pulverized sulphur1 two parts2 of flour1 one part2 of water1 a sufficient quantity2 mix well1 and make into two doses1 of the size of a hazel-nut1 and give one three times a day4 ,cleanliness is no less necessary than warmth2 and it will sometimes be desirable to bathe the eyes and nostrils with warm milk and water1 or suds1 as convenient4 ,,wounds ,,and ,,sores4 ,fowls are exposed to wounds from many sources4 ,in their frequent encounters with each other1 they often result2 the poultry-house is besieged by enemies at night1 and1 in spite of all precaution1 rats1 weasels1 and other animals will assault the occupants of the roost1 or nest1 to their damage4 ,these wounds1 if neglected1 often degenerate into painful and dangerous ulcers4 ,when such injuries occur1 cleanliness is the first step toward a cure4 ,the wound should be cleared from all foreign matter1 washed with tepid milk and water1 and excluded as far as possible from the air4 ,the fowl should be removed from its companions1 which1 in such cases1 seldom or never show any sympathy1 but1 on the contrary1 are always ready to assault the invalid1 and aggravate the injury4 ,should the wound not readily heal1 but ulcerate1 it may be bathed with alum-water4 ,the ointment of creosote is said to be effectual1 even when the ulcer exhibits a fungous character1 or proud flesh is present4 ,ulcers may also be kept clean1 if dressed with a little lard1 or washed with a weak solution of sugar of lead2 if they are indolent1 they may be touched with blue-stone4 ,when severe fractures occur to the limbs of fowls1 the best course1 undoubtedly1 to pursue--unless they are very valuable--is to kill them at once1 as an act of humanity4 ,when1 however1 it is deemed worth while to preserve them1 splints may be used1 when practicable4 ,great cleanliness must be observed2 the diet should be reduced2 and every precaution taken against the inflammation1 which is sure to supervene4 ,when it is established1 cooling lotions--such as warm milk and water--may be applied4 ,,list ,,of ,,new ,,publications4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mailing ,,notice4--,single copies of any of these ,books will be sent to any address1 post-paid1 on receipt of price4 ,this very convenient mode may be adopted where your neighboring bookseller is not supplied with the work4 ,address1 ,,john ,e4 ,,potter ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,no4 #fag ,sansom ,street1 ,philadelphia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,life ,,and ,,public ,,services ,,of ,,abraham ,,lincoln4 ,containing his early ,history and ,political ,career4 ,by ,frank ,crosby1 of the ,philadelphia ,bar4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,same ,,translated ,,into ,,the ,,german ,,language4 ,by ,professor ,carl ,theodor ,eben4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,public ,,services ,,of ,,stephen ,a4 ,,douglas4 ,to which are added his ,speeches and ,reports4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,flint4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,daniel ,,boone1 the ,great ,western ,hunter and ,pioneer4 ,by ,cecil ,b4 ,hartley4 ,with illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,kit ,,carson1 the ,great ,western ,hunter and ,guide4 ,by ,charles ,burdett4 ,with illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,david ,,crockett1 the ,original ,humorist and ,irrepressible ,backwoodsman4 ,with illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,adventures ,,of ,,miss ,,major ,,pauline ,,cushman1 the ,celebrated ,union ,spy and ,scout4 ,by ,f4 ,l4 ,sarmiento1 ,esq41 of the ,philadelphia ,bar4 ,with ,portrait and illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,thrilling ,,stories ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,rebellion4 ,including an ,account of the ,death of ,president ,lincoln1 and ,capture of the ,assassins4 ,by ,lieutenant-,colonel ,charles ,s4 ,greene1 late of the ,united ,states ,army4 ,with illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,thrilling ,,adventures ,,among ,,the ,,early ,,settlers4 ,embracing ,desperate ,encounters with ,indians1 ,refugees1 ,gamblers1 ,desperadoes1 etc4 etc4 ,by ,warren ,wildwood1 ,esq4 ,illustrated by #bjj engravings4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,thrilling ,,incidents ,,in ,,the ,,wars ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,embracing all the ,wars previous to the ,rebellion4 ,with #cjj engravings4 #ab mo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,our ,,boys4 ,the rich and racy scenes of ,army and ,camp ,life1 as seen and participated in by one of the ,rank and ,file4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,hill1 of the ,eighth ,pa4 ,reserves4 ,with illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,our ,,campaigns2 or1 a ,three ,years' ,term of ,service in the ,war4 ,by ,e4 ,m4 ,woodward1 ,adjutant ,second ,pennsylvania ,reserves4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,beautiful ,,spy4 ,an exciting story of ,army and ,high ,life in ,new ,york in #aggf4 ,by ,charles ,burdett4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,royalist',s ,,daughter ,,and ,,the ,,rebels4 ,a tale of the ,revolution of unusual power and interest4 ,by ,rev4 ,david ,murdoch1 ,d4 ,d4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,hero ,,girl1 and how she became a ,captain in the ,army4 ,by ,thrace ,talmon4 ,with illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,hunting ,,adventures ,,in ,,the ,,northern ,,wilds4 ,by ,s4 ,h4 ,hammond4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,wild ,,northern ,,scenes4 ,by ,s4 ,h4 ,hammond1 author of ,hunting ,adventures in the ,northern ,wilds4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,fanny ,,hunter',s ,,western ,,adventures4 ,illustrated4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,wonderful ,,adventures ,,by ,,land ,,and ,,sea of the ,seven ,queer ,travellers who met at an ,inn4 ,by ,josiah ,barnes4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,early ,,days ,,of ,,california4 ,by ,col4 ,j4 ,t4 ,farnham4 #abmo41 illustrated1 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,nicaragua1 ,,past1 ,,present1 ,,and ,,future4 ,by ,peter ,f4 ,stout1 ,esq41 late ,united ,states ,vice-,consul4 ,with a ,map4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,female ,,life ,,among ,,the ,,mormons4 ,by ,maria ,ward1 the ,wife of a ,mormon ,elder4 ,illustrated4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,male ,,life ,,among ,,the ,,mormons4 ,by ,austin ,n4 ,ward4 ,illustrated4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,white ,,rocks2 or1 the ,robber's ,den4 ,a ,tragedy of the ,mountains of thrilling interest4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,hill1 author of ,our ,boys1 etc4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,tupper',s ,,complete ,,poetical ,,works4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,young ,,lady',s ,,own ,,book4 ,an offering of ,love and ,sympathy4 ,by ,emily ,thornwell4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,sunlight ,,and ,,shadow2 or1 the ,poetry of ,home4 ,by ,harry ,penciller4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,great ,,expectations4 ,by ,charles ,dickens4 ,with steel engravings4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,soldier ,,and ,,the ,,sorceress2 or1 the ,adventures of ,jane ,seton4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,orphan ,,boy2 or1 ,lights and ,shadows of ,humble ,life4 ,by ,jeremy ,loud4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,orphan ,,girls4 ,a ,tale of ,southern ,life4 ,by ,james ,s4 ,peacocke1 ,m4 ,d41 of ,mississippi4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,book ,,of ,,anecdotes ,,and ,,joker',s ,,knapsack4 ,including ,witticisms of the late ,president ,lincoln1 and ,humors1 ,incidents1 and ,absurdities of the ,war4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,way ,,down ,,east2 or1 ,portraitures of ,yankee ,life4 ,by ,seba ,smith1 the original ,major ,jack ,downing4 ,illustrated4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,ladies' ,,medical ,,guide ,,and ,,marriage ,,friend4 ,by ,s4 ,pancoast1 ,m4 ,d41 ,professor of ,physiology in ,penn ,medical ,university1 ,philadelphia4 ,with upwards of #ajj illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,boyhood',s ,,perils ,,and ,,manhood',s ,,curse4 ,an earnest appeal to the young men of ,america4 ,by ,s4 ,pancoast1 ,m4 ,d4 ,with numerous illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,curability ,,of ,,consumption by ,medicated ,inhalation and ,adjunct ,remedies4 ,by ,s4 ,pancoast1 ,m4 ,d4 ,with illustrations4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ej4 ,,the ,,american ,,text-,,book4 ,containing the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 the ,declaration of ,independence1 and ,washington's ,farewell ,address4 #bdmo41 cloth4 ,price #be cents4 ,,horse ,,training ,,made ,,easy4 ,a ,new and ,practical ,system of ,teaching and ,educating the ,horse4 ,by ,robert ,jennings1 ,v4 ,s4 of the ,veterinary ,college of ,philadelphia1 author of ,the ,horse and his ,diseases1 etc4 etc4 ,with illustrations4 #afmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #be4 ,,the ,,horse ,,and ,,his ,,diseases4 ,by ,robert ,jennings1 ,v4 ,s41 author of ,horse ,training ,made ,easy1 etc4 etc4 ,with numerous illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,cattle ,,and ,,their ,,diseases4 ,by ,robert ,jennings1 ,v4 ,s4 ,with numerous illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 7,uniform with the above47 ,,sheep1 ,,swine1 ,,and ,,poultry4 ,by ,robert ,jennings1 ,v4 ,s4 ,with numerous illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 7,uniform with the above47 ,,everybody',s ,,lawyer ,,and ,,counsellor ,,in ,,business4 ,by ,frank ,crosby1 ,esq41 of the ,philadelphia ,bar4 #abmo4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,family ,,doctor2 containing1 in ,plain ,language1 free from ,medical ,terms1 the ,causes1 ,symptoms1 and ,cure of ,disease in all forms4 ,by ,henry ,s4 ,taylor1 ,m4 ,d4 ,with illustrations4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ej4 ,,modern ,,cookery in all its ,branches4 ,by ,miss ,eliza ,acton4 ,carefully revised by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,j4 ,hale4 ,with numerous illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,the ,,early ,,morn4 ,an ,address to the ,young on the ,importance of ,religion4 ,by ,john ,foster4 #bdmo41 cloth4 ,price #be cts4 ,,family ,,prayers4 ,adapted to every day in the week4 ,by the late ,rev4 ,william ,wilberforce4 ,cloth4 ,price #cg cents4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,palestine from the ,patriarchal ,ages to the ,present ,time4 ,by ,john ,kitto4 ,with illustrations4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ej4 ,,the ,,wreath ,,of ,,gems4 ,a gift book for the young of both sexes4 ,by ,emily ,percival4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ej4 ,,the ,,rainbow ,,around ,,the ,,tomb2 or1 ,rays of ,hope for those who ,mourn4 ,by ,emily ,thornwell4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ej4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,our ,,lord ,,and ,,saviour ,,jesus ,,christ1 from his ,incarnation to his ,ascension into ,heaven4 ,by ,rev4 ,john ,fleetwood1 ,d4 ,d4 ,with steel and colored plates4 ,crown #hvo41 library style4 ,price #d4 ,,the ,,religious ,,denominations ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,their ,history1 ,doctrine1 ,government1 and ,statistics4 ,by ,rev4 ,joseph ,belcher1 ,d4 ,d41 author of ,william ,carey1 a ,biography1 and editor of the ,complete ,works of ,andrew ,fuller1 ,works of ,robert ,hall1 etc4 ,with nearly #bjj engravings4 ,crown #hvo41 library style4 ,price #d #ej4 ,,the ,,good ,,child',s ,,illustrated ,,instruction ,,book4 ,with more than sixty illustrations4 ,quarto1 bound in cloth4 ,plain pictures1 #a4 ,illuminated1 #a #be4 ,,the ,,little ,,folks' ,,own ,,book4 ,with sixty illustrations4 ,quarto1 cloth4 ,plain pictures1 #a4 ,illuminated1 #a #be4 ,,uncle ,,john',s ,,own ,,book ,,of ,,moral ,,and ,,instructive ,,stories4 ,with more than fifty illustrations4 ,crown quarto1 cloth4 ,plain pictures1 #a #ej4 ,illuminated1 #b4 ,,grandfather',s ,,stories4 ,with sixty illustrations4 ,crown quarto4 ,plain pictures1 #a #ej4 ,illuminated1 #b4 ,,national ,,nursery ,,tales4 ,with sixty illustrations4 ,folio1 bound in cloth4 ,plain pictures1 #a #ej4 ,illuminated1 #b4 ,,national ,,fairy ,,tales4 ,with more than seventy illustrations4 ,folio1 cloth4 ,plain pictures1 #a #ej4 ,illuminated1 #b4 ,,the ,,little ,,kitten ,,stories4 ,with fifty beautiful illustrations4 ,folio1 cloth4 ,plain pictures1 #a #ej4 ,illuminated1 #b4 ,,the ,,funny ,,animals4 ,with more than sixty illustrations4 ,folio1 cloth4 ,plain pictures1 #a #ej4 ,illuminated1 #b4 ,,our ,,nina',s ,,pet ,,stories4 ,with fifty beautiful illustrations4 ,folio1 cloth4 ,plain pictures1 #a #ej4 ,illuminated1 #b4 ,,family ,,and ,,pulpit ,,bibles4 ,nearly sixty different styles2 with ,family ,record and with and without ,photograph ,record4 ,with clasps or otherwise1 and ranging in price from #e to #cj4 ,,juvenile ,,and ,,toy ,,books4 ,embracing #aej varieties1 beautifully illustrated and adapted to the tastes of the little ones everywhere2 at prices ranging from #aj cents to #b4 ,,photograph ,,albums in every size and variety1 holding from twelve to two hundred pictures1 and ranging in price from #ge cents to #bj4 ,persons wishing a full catalogue of all our ,books1 ,albums1 and ,bibles1 will please send two red stamps to pay return postage4 ,the trade everywhere supplied on favorable terms4 ,address1 ,,john ,e4 ,,potter ,,co41 ,publishers1 #fag ,sansom ,street1 ,philadelphia4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,transcriber's notes3 ,several minor typographical and punctuation errors have been fixed4 ,inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the original book4 ,more important changes made3 'inter-fibrous' changed to 'inter-fibrous spaces' 7page #ahb72 illegible text in original taken as reading 'the other side of' 7page #bhd7 and 'omnivorous' 7page #bij72 part of sentence missing in original1 completed as 'meet with some success' 7page #caf72 'muscles' changed to 'mussels' 7page #djh72 'white-grented' changed to 'white-fronted' 7page #dac74 ,the parts on swine and poultry have two page numbers in the original work3 one for that particular part1 one for the complete three-part book4 ,the latter has been used in the ,table of ,contents1 with the former being given between brackets4 ,the chapter headers in the original book consist of illustrations with the chapter title included in the illustration4 ,for the sake of clarity1 these chapter titles have been separated from the illustrations and are used as text-only chapter titles4 ,the original book does not contain separator pages between the three parts3 the illustrations make it clear where one animal ends and the next begins4 ,in this text headers have been included to mark these transitions4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------