,illu/ration     ,a ,,review ,,( ,,!    
,,sy/ems ,,( ,,e?ics ,,f\nd$ ,,on ,,!   
,,!ory ,,( ,,evolution  ,,by  ,c4 ,m4   
,,williams  ,new ,york ,,macmillan      
,,co4 ,,& ,,london #ahic  ,all rights   
res]v$  ,,copyright1 #ahib1 ,,by        
,,macmillan  ,,co4  ,,typography ,,by   
,j4 ,s4 ,,cu%+  ,,co41 ,,bo/on1         
,u4,s4,a4  ,,presswork ,,by ,,b]wick    
,,smi?1 ,,bo/on1 ,u4,s4,a4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,,to ,,my
 ,,fir/ ,,tea*] ,,( ,,morals  ,,my ,,"m 
,,?is ,,book ,,is ,,gratefully ,,&      
,,affectionately ,,d$icat$     ,,preface
   ,( ! ,e?ics f\nd$ on ! !ory (        
,evolution1 ,i h consid]$ only !        
indep5d5t !ories :i* h be5 elaborat$ to 
sy/ems4 ,i h omitt$ consid]ation ( _m   
works :i* be> on ,evolutional ,e?ics z  
practical or exhortative treatises1 or  
compilations ( facts1 b :i* involve no  
di/9ctly work$-out !ory ( morals4 ,on ! 
o!r h&1 ,i h v5tur$ to include ,pr(essor
 von ,gizycki's ,moralphilosophie among 
! !oretical sy/ems f\nd$ ^u ! !ory (    

,evolution1 s9ce1 al?\gh ! popul> =m ( !
 "w r5d]s ! prom95ce ( ! latt] !ory     
impracticable1 ! w>p ( ,evolution is    
cle>ly p]ceptible ?r\gh\t x4 ,9 analyz+ 
,hoeffd+'s "w1 ,i h made use n ( !      
,dani% b ! ,g]man edition ( 8 ,e?ics1   
:i* 0 translat$ ) 8 cooep]ation4  ,x is 
g5]ally cu/om>y = an au?or to ackn[l$ge1
 9 ! preface ( 8 book1 8 especial       
indebt$ness to ^? :o h mo/ influ5c$ !   
gr[? ( 8 ?\ght 9 ! l9e ( rese>* treat$ 9
 ! book4 ,b ,i f9d ?is duty a difficult 
"o to p]=m4 ,_m ( ! au?ors ^: "w has    
aid$ me are cit$ 9 ! text4 ,b x is      
impossible1 ) reg>d to _m po9ts1 to say 
to :om "o is indebt$1 or mo/ indebt$1   
s9ce mu* t "o reads is s assimilat$ into
 "o's organiz$ ?\ght1 & *ang$ 9 !       
process ( assimilation1 t its s\rce &   
orig9al =m are no long] rememb]$4       
,besides ?is1 mu* is always ow$ to      
p]sonal influ5ce & argum5t1 & also to   
indef9ite & m9ute =ces ^: work+s x is   
impossible to trace4 ,! gr[? ( ?\ght is1
 l any o!r gr[?1 by imp]ceptible degrees

 & inf9itesimal increm5ts1 & we brea! 9 
ideas f our m5tal atmosph]e z we brea! 9
 p]fumes or infections f our physical   
atmosph]e4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 unnecess>y to
 m5tion ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s "n 9 ?is          
connection1 s9ce x goes )\t say+1 t e "o
 :o writes on ,e?ics 9 _! relation to ! 
,!ory ( ,evolution mu/ owe mu* to him1  
ev5 :]e he diff]s f him4 ,b !re is      
p]haps "o "n :i* x is fitt+ t ,i %\ld   
m5tion "h1 s9ce ! influ5ce ( its be>] on
 my "w1 al?\gh "o = :i* ,i h reason to  
feel peculi>ly indebt$1 is n ( a nature 
to det]m9e its m5tion 9 connection ) any
 p>ticul> !ory4 ,i ref] to my fir/ tea*]
 ( ,philosophy1 ,pr(essor ,m4 ,/u>t     
,phelps1 n[ deceas$1 ^: life & labor all
 ^? :o _h ! privilege ( %>+ 8 in/ruction
 & b5efit+ by 8 k9dness mu/ ev] hold 9  
grateful remembrance4     ,,cont5ts     
,,"p ,i                                 
,,pages  ,,introductory ,,rem>ks        
#a-b  ,,d>w9                            
#b-ab  ,,wallace                        
#ab-bc  ,,haeckel                       

#bc-bh  ,,sp5c]                         
#bh-gf  ,,fiske                         
#gg-hb  ,,rolph                         
#hb-ajg  ,,b>ratt                       
#ajg-abj  ,,/eph5                       
#abj-adc  ,,c>n]i                       
#adc-age  ,h,oe,f,f,d,i,n,g             
#age-bjj  ,,gizycki                     
#bjj-bbd  ,,alex&]                      
#bbe-bfc  7,,ree7                       
#bfd-bfh  ,,"p ,,ii  ,,introduction     
,refutation ( a priori objections to    
,evolutional ,e?ics1 & a     /atem5t (  
reasons = suppos+ t an application ( !  
!ory ( ,evolution to ,e?ics mu/ be ( use
                    #bfi-bgf   ,,*apt]  
,i  ,,! ,,concepts ,,( ,,evolution      
,ext5sion ( ! mean+ ( ,d>w9ian concepts 
s9ce     ,d>w9--,lewes on ! ,/ruggle =  
,exi/5ce z int]nal--,!     my/]y (      
,v>iation accord+ to ,d>w9 n a          
metaphysical     my/]y1 b "o ( !        
incomplet5ess ( sci5tific               
k--,rolph's criticism ( ! ,d>w9ian      
conception ( !     ,/ruggle = ,exi/5ce  

criticis$--,g5]al classification ( !    
!ories ( ,evolution--,fe*n]'s !ory ( !  
,t5d5cy to     ,/ability--,petzoldt on  
,fe*n]--,petzoldt's concepts ( ,t5d5cy  
& ,competition--,zoelln] & ,du          
,prel--,exam9ation ( ! concept     (    
,absolute ,/ability1 & ( a full /ability
 ( ! univ]se1     9 ! light ( ! "q z to 
! f9ite or inf9ite     "* ( ! mat]ial   
univ]se--,p]iodicity 9                  
,organisms--,criticism ( ! concepts (   
,cause &     ,effect--,criticism (      
,sp5c]'s def9ition ( ,life--,! concepts 
( ,h]$ity & ,adaptation--,! po9t (      
dispute ) reg>d to     ,v>iation--,d>w91
 ,haeckel1 & ,eim] ) reg>d to !         
inh]itance ( individual                 
acquirem5ts--,criticisms (              
,weismann--,habit 9 ! life ( !          
individual--,advantage ( !     me?od    
pursu$ by ,av5>ius 9 ! ,kritik d] re95  
,erfahrung--,lam>ck on ! relation ( ,use
 & ,function--,d>w9     on ,habit &     
,in/9ct--,function & ,t5d5cy to         
,function--,relation ( organism &       

environm5t--,!ory ( a     special vital 
=ce--,! relation ( ex]cise to /r5g? (   
,t5d5cy--,! concepts ( ,cause & ,effect 
z appli$ to     organism &              
environm5t--,relation ( prim>y t5d5cy to
     lat]-evolv$ function--,=m &        
,function--,! mixture ( types     9     
sexual propagation--,summ>y (           
conclusions                   #bgg-cjf  
,,*apt] ,,ii  ,,intellig5ce ,,& ,,end   
,! "q z to ! ext5t to :i* ,reason is    
diffus$ 9 !     univ]se--,d>w9 &        
,haeckel on ,reason & ,in/9ct--,du ,prel
 on     ,reason z a fundam5tal prop]ty (
 all matt]--,c>n]i on !     automatism (
 animals--,! dep5d5ce ( !ories on ?is   
"q on ! />t+-po9t assum$ 9 !            
argum5t--,difficulties ( assign+ a      
limit-l9e to     ,reason--,s*neid]'s    
crit]ia--,insectivor\s plants--,knight1 
,d>w91 etc41 on ! movem5ts (            
plants--,race-habits--,s-call$          
reflex-action 9 man--,f non-analogy no  
inf]5ce     possible--,arbitr>y nature (
 ! assumptions involv$ 9 !     two      

/>t+-po9ts ( qu]y--,reason  ,cause or   
,effect8--,fur!r     criticism ( !      
concepts ( ,cause & ,effect--,! bias ( !
     speciali/--,attempt$ def9ition ( ! 
prov9ce (     reason--,def9ition (      
,end--,unreliability ( inf]5ce z to     
! nature ( ends 9 o!r individuals2 9 o!r
     species--,possible inf]5ces f !    
analogy ( ! n]v\s     sy/em--,c]ta9     
possible limit+ assumptions z to !      
prov9ce     ( k 9 animal species--,!    
,law ( ! ,v>iation (     ,pa9 &         
,pleasure 9 function--,! ultimate       
dilemma--,exam9ations ( ,teleological   
conceptions ) respect     to ! ,t5d5cy  
to ,/ability--,criticism ( ,wallace on !
 ,orig9     ( ,life1 or (               
,consci\sness--,summ>y ( conclusions    
#cjg-cdj   ,,*apt] ,,iii  ,,! ,,w       
,difficulties ( def9ition--,! ,w &      
,consci\sness--,involunt>y action--,w 9 
passivity--,!     concept (             
,*oice--,ends & ! ,w--,! ,future &      
,w--,!     ,ext]nal & ,w--,criticism (  
,b>ratt's axioms &                      

propositions--,discussion ( ! relation (
 ,?\ght & ,feel+     to ,w--,! argum5t (
 ! ,physiologi/--,! argum5t ( !         
,evolutioni/--,! argum5t f social       
/ati/ics--,! argum5t     f ,psy*iatry1  
,crim9ology1 etc4--,! argum5t f !       
psy*ological pr9ciples on :i*           
,evolutional ,e?ics is                  
f\nd$--,def9ition ( ,natural ,law &     
,necessity--,! positive     factors (   
,evolution--,! positive & active "* ( ! 
organism z ! result ( evolution--,!     
equival5ce (     ,conditions &          
,results--,! positive "* ( ! organism   
z a "p ( ,nature--,! s5se ( ,fre$om z ! 
s5se (     ,activity--,! !ory ( ! ,w z  
det]m9$ by ,motives--,z     det]m9$ by  
,feel+--,z det]m9$ by ! desirability ( !
     end or object--,! argum5t (        
,concomitance & t ( ,sequ5ce     z us$  
by bo? ,mat]iali/ & ,spirituali/--,!    
endeavor to     prove 7#a7 ! causal "* (
 physiological process2 7#b7 !          
causal "* (                             
,consci\sness--,inconsi/5cies ( ^!      

attempts                                
#cda-cei   ,,*apt] ,,iv  ,,! ,,mutual   
,,relations ,,( ,,?\ght1 ,,feel+1 ,,&   
,,w ,,9 ,,evolution      ,hume on       
,reason & ,passion--,! con/ant          
connection ( ,?\ght     ) ,feel+1 & )   
,feel+ z pleasure or pa9--,! "q     z to
 :e!r ,?\ght or ,feel+ is               
prim>y--,application (     answ] to     
previ\s consid]ations on ! diffusion (  
,consci\sness 9 ,nature--,! relation ( !
 concepts ( !     ,pleasurable & ,pa9ful
 to ! concept ( ,end--,w z a     con/ant
 accompanim5t (                         
,consci\sness--,absurdities to :i*     !
 division ( ,consci\sness into di/9ct   
faculties leads--,law     ( ! gr[? (    
functional t5d5cy & ( pleasure 9        
function--,! ,new z a di/urb] (         
equilibrium--,! pleasure     involv$ 9 !
 ov]com+ ( ob/acles--,! equilibrium (   
function z ,heal?--,connection ( !      
pleasure ( food-tak+     )              
,heal?--,criticism ( ,rolph's pr9ciple (
 ! ,insatiability     ( ,life--,fur!r   

criticism ( ,rolph on ! ,d>w9ian !ory ( 
,gr[?--,! coo]d9ate progress (          
physiological adaptation )     !        
advancem5t ( k1 & ) ! v>iation ( ,feel+ 
& ,w--,! pleasure ( ! /ronge/ motive z  
relative1 n     absolute--,! "* ( ! ,end
 9 view--,! pleasure (     anticipation 
& ! pleasure ( ! ev5t--,criticism (     
,sidgwick on ,h$onism--,criticism (     
,rolph's !ory ( ,want z     univ]sal    
motive--,suicide--,re/--,! dim9ution (  
pa9 )     lapse ( "t z                  
adaptation--,pleasure 9 pa9 z pleasure 9
     function--,! relation ( ,heal? to  
,happ9ess--,! !ory ( !     absolute     
,fre$om ( ,feel+--,! concepts ( ,cause &
 ,effect z     appli$ to ! evolution (  
,?\ght1 ,feel+1 &     ,w--,application (
 conclusions to ! ,teleological ,argum5t
   #cfj-chb   ,,*apt] ,v  ,,egoism ,,&  
,,altruism ,,9 ,,evolution              
,prototypes 9 o!r animal species ( :at  
we t]m ,egoism &     ,altruism 9 man2   
c>e = ! "y on ! "p ( !     p>5t-animal2 
mutual aid betwe5 ! sexes2 animal       

societies--,exp]im5ts ( ,lubbock %[+ !  
irregul>ity &     caprice ( action      
altrui/ic 9 =m1 among ! ants--,b5no     
,s*eitz on mat]nal c>e among l[]        
species--,answ]s to !     argum5t (     
automatism--,dep5d5ce ( a !ory ( moral  
,evolution on ! def9ition ( ,egoism &   
,altruism--,!     significance ( ! t]ms 
progressive--,! possibility (           
diff]5ces 9 ! =m ( ! evolution (        
,altruism1 9     diff]5t species--,!    
possibility ( ! comb9ation (     diff]5t
 =ms 9 ! evolution ( a s+le             
species--,discussion     ( ! "q ( ! fir/
 beg9n+ ( action prompt$ by             
altrui/ic motive--,! argum5t ( !        
illogical nature ( a     suppos$        
developm5t ( ,altruism f ,egoism--,! "q 
z to     :e!r ,heal?1 ! ,pres]vation (  
,species1 or ,pleasure1 is !     actual 
f9al end ( action--,! "q ( ,h]$ity 9    
relation     to t ( ! moral             
evolution--,/eph5's views--,argum5ts f  
,ribot1 ,dugdale's ,jukes1 etc4         
#chc-dbb   ,,*apt] ,,vi  ,,consci5ce    

,! gradual "* ( ! evolution (           
,altruism--,paul     ,fri$mann on !     
g5esis ( b5evol5ce--,! obs]vable gr[?   
( ,altruism f ,egoism 9 !               
individual--,human society z            
necessitat$ by increase ( !             
species--,criticism ( ,d>w9's     =m (  
/atem5t on ?is po9t--,! mix$ "* ( !     
motives :i* lead to advancem5t--,!      
necessity ( evolution1     primal       
organisms once hav+ come into           
exi/5ce--,g5]al     features ( ! moral  
evolution 9 ! human race--,p]sonal &    
,social ,virtues--,racial evolution z   
subord9ate to ! evolution     ( !       
species--,criticism ( ,/eph5--,! !ory ( 
!     connection ( ,intellig5ce &       
,morality--,te/imony ( ,maudsley1       
,lombroso1 ,dugdale--,! advantages (    
con=mity to social     /&>ds--,def9ition
 ( advantage--,argum5ts f ! g5]al       
direction ( social advancem5t--,!       
direction ( evolution 9     ! race z a  
:ole & 9 ! individual n always !        
same--,conclusion3 ! connection (       

,intellig5ce ) ,morality     n          
inv>iable--,def9ition (                 
,morality--,id5tification (             
,morality ) ,ju/ice--,special rules (   
morality--,morality z     inw>d--,!     
virtue ( ,tru?fulness--,necessity (     
individual     sacrifice--,dep5d5ce (   
,ju/ice on c]ta9 g5]al features (       
p>ticul> circum/ances---,def9ition (    
,consci5ce--,! mix$     "* ( remorse--,!
 !ory ( ,consci5ce z a special          
s5se--,criticism (                      
,utilit>ianism--,criticism ( "s =ms (   
reaction aga9/ ,utilit>ianism--,! t]ms  
high] & l[]     z appli$ to pleasures & 
ends--,! idea ( a return to             
,nature--,! objection to ,evolutional   
,e?ics on ! gr\nd (                     
degradation--,/ruggle z an elem5t (     
virtue--,! evolution (     social rew>ds
 & puni%m5ts--,criticism ( ! objection  
to     /ate-puni%m5t on ! gr\nd (       
,det]m9ism--,morality & !     "q ( !    
,transc5d5tal--,consci5ce 9 o!r         
species--,!     contempt = m]e habit--,!

 concepts ( ,cause & ,effect z          
appli$ to ! moral evolution             
#dbc-dfe   ,,*apt] ,,vii  ,,! ,,moral   
,,progress ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,species ,,z
 ,,%[n ,,by ,,hi/ory      ,!            
assimilative "* ( human progress--,! "* 
(     our savage ance/ors--,greek       
civilization--,! ,greek treatm5t (      
*ildr5--,( old m5--,human sacrifices    
among !     ,greeks--,slaught] (        
prison]s--,slav]y--,! ,greek attitude   
t[>ds ! fundam5tal virtues (            
tru/wor?9ess--,a!nian                   
,democracy--,roman                      
civilization--,treatm5t ( *ildr5--,human
     sacrifices--,gladiatorial          
%[s--,slav]y--,moral "* ( !     ,middle 
,ages--,human sacrifice 9 ,engl& be=e ! 
,roman     conque/--,slave laws--,/ate  
puni%m5t 9 ,engl&3 burn+1     hang+1 &  
boil+1 qu>t]+ & disemb[ell+--,wom5 "u   
! crim9al law--,blood-money--,!         
classification (     crimes--,ca/e-favor
 9 ,engli% crim9al                      
law--,mutilation--,flay+--,ordeals--,pun

i%m5t by />vation--,!     press--,!     
rack--,skev+ton's ,daught]--,b5efit (   
,cl]gy--,!     position ( ! ,engli%     
*url--,! wor%ip ( rank--,hang+ =        
petty !ft--,! pillory--,brutality (     
public feel+--,condition     ( !        
prisons--,jail-break+1 brib]y1 etc4--,m 
conc]n+     wom5 "u ! law--,favor to    
rank--,! logical consi/5cy (     human  
"* 9 its v>i\s directions (             
action--,g5]al     comp>ison ( ! pa/ ) !
 pres5t--,! evid5ce (                   
lit]ature--,mod]n philan?ropy--,decrease
 ( national     prejudices--,gr[? ( !   
democratic _s--,lack ( imag9ation     a 
reason = ! failure to realize ! evils ( 
! pa/--,!     ,gold5 ,age ( ,man        
#dff-dii   ,,*apt] ,,viii  ,,! ,,results
 ,,( ,,e?ical ,,inquiry ,,on ,,an       
,,evolutional ,,basis      ,criticism ( 
,alex&]'s !ory ( ! "r z always absolute 
"r & z ! expression1 on all planes (    
developm5t1 ( an     equal              
equilibrium--,! ,moral ,evolution z "o  
involv+ !     :ole ( humanity & ! :ole  

e>?--,gradual relaxation ( !            
,/ruggle = ,exi/5ce--,! f9al limitation 
( ! increase 9     d5sity (             
population--,! increase ( vitality--,!  
habituation     to progress--,! gradual 
coo]d9ation ( individual ) social       
welf>e ?r\gh 7#a7 ,spread & increase (  
sympa?y ) !     individual on ! "p (    
society z a :ole2 7#b7 ,gr[? (          
individual pr$ilections 9 ! direction ( 
h>mony ) social                         
requirem5ts--,decrease ( puni%m5t ?r\gh 
7#a7 ,increase 9     g5]al sympa?y2 7#b7
 ,increase ( am5ability ( ! individual  
to influ5ce--,increase ( pleasure 9     
pleasure--,! possible     egoi/ic elem5t
 9 sympa?y ) pa9--,criticism ( ,rolph on
     ,want z necess>y to induce         
action--,! moral evolution &            
emotion--,criticism ( ,sp5c] on         
,altruism--,criticism ( ,wundt on       
,evolutional ,e?ics--,! !ory t          
,evolution adds no?+ to                 
,e?ics--,criticism ( ,/eph5 on !        
impossibility ( pr$ict+     ! c\rse (   

,evolution--,! ,moral ,evolution z      
will$--,!     motives furni%$ by        
,evolutional ,e?ics--,! !ological       
doctr9e ( a *ange ( he>t--,! doctr9e ( !
     ,atonem5t--,div9e =giv5ess--,!ology
 & social evils--,!     prom95ce ( !    
idea ( self-salvation 9 ,*ri/ian        
doctr9e--,human sacrifice among !       
,jews--,biblical au?ority =     ! kill+ 
( wit*es & h]etics--,! infliction ( dea?
 =     c]emonial (f5ces among !         
,jews--,! visit+ ( ! s9s (     ! fa!rs  
^u ! *ildr5--,slave-hold+1 adult]y1     
murd]1     etc41 by ,god's *os51 blood%$
 & cruelty ( all sorts by     ,god's    
express comm&--,animal sacrifice among !
 ,jews--,!     orig9al idea ( ,jehovah &
 ( ,heav5--,! autocracy ( !     ,jewi%  
prie/hood confirm$ by ,*ri/--,=c$       
exegesis--,!     asceticism (           
,*ri/ianity--,slav]y & ! ,new           
,te/am5t--,pr$e/9ation1 ,hell1 & !      
,ju/ification ( !     ,elect--,! def5ce 
( ,*ri/ianity z be+ a com=t+     belief 
#ejj-ebh   ,,*apt] ,,ix  ,,! ,,ideal ,,&

 ,,! ,,way ,,( ,,its ,,atta9m5t         
,criticism ( ,/eph5's ass]tion t ! ideal
 _c be     det]m9$--,! necessity ( !    
*oice betwe5 evils1 "u     pres5t social
 conditions--,! argum5t = individual    
gratification ( natural desire--,dang]s 
(     ,utilit>ianism--,moral "r ( !     
m9ority & ! e?ical     dem& =           
comp5sation to ! m9ority--,! conte/     
betwe5     ,individuali/ &              
,sociali/--,criticism ( ,sp5c] on       
p]sonal     vice--,individuali/ic       
errors--,sociali/ic pessimism--,! idea (
     a return to ,nature--,! ,sociali/ic
 glorification ( !     labor]--,!       
agitation aga9/ ma*9]y--,! agitation    
aga9/     luxury--,! abolition ( luxury 
& ! population "q--,!     propos$ *ange 
( social environm5t--,socialism at !    
pres5t date--,arbitr>y "* ( _m          
,sociali/ic     ideas--,criticisms (    
,bellamy--,! idea ( a                   
,revolution--,conclusions--,! education 
( ! *ild--,! "r     ( ! *ild to /ate    
protection--,! advantages ( p>5tal      

control--,! education ( wom5--,! "q (   
pro/itution--,monogamy or               
polygamy8--,tempor>y                    
contracts--,divorce--,! argum5t t !     
fre$om ( wom5 mu/     involve ! =feiture
 ( *ivalric feel+ 9 m5--,! respect     =
 age--,desirable *anges 9 crim9al       
law--,criticism ( ,bellamy     on       
,crime--,! "q ( ,capital                
,puni%m5t--,argum5ts     =--,argum5ts   
aga9/--,conclusions--,! conflict betwe5 
ju/ice & m]cy--,! supreme arbit]--,!    
c\rage ( ,moral     ,s9c]ity--,h]oic    
*>act]s--,! f9al de/ruction ( ! human   
species--,! loss ( belief 9 p]sonal     
immortality--,! human     & e>?ly ideal 
#ebi-eha     ,a ,,review ,,(            
,,evolutional ,,e?ics  ,,"p ,i          
,,introductory ,,rem>ks  ,9 ! preface to
 ! late/ edition ( 8 ,natu]li*e         
,s*oepfungsges*i*te1 ,haeckel1 writ+ (  
rec5t developm5ts ( ?\ght on ! subject (
 evolution1 & ! *ange ( attitude        
obs]vable 9 our lat] lit]ature1 says3 ,!
 va/ mass ( lit]ature1 ye>ly increas+ 9 

a/oni%+ measure1 on ! !ory ( evolution 9
 its v>i\s bran*es1 be/ illu/rates !    
rem>kable *ange :i* public op9ion has   
und]gone4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago1 ! great] "p (
 ?is lit]ature 0 9 opposition to ,d>w92 
to-day su* opposition is n to be fe>$ f 
well-in=m$ /ud5ts ( sci5ce4 ,on ! o!r   
h&1 almo/ ! :ole lit]ature ( biology n[ 
gives te/imony 9 ,d>w9's favor1 = almo/ 
all zooelogical1 & botanical1 anatomic1 
& ontog5etic works are f\nd$ ^u !       
pr9ciples ( ! developm5t ( species1 &   
d]ive f ,d>w9 _! be/ & mo/ fruitful     
ideas4  ,no sci5ce is a bett] expon5t ( 
?is radical & important *ange ?an t :i* 
has to d ) ! pr9ciples ( morals2 = by no
 sci5ce 0 ! !ory ( evolution assail$1 9 
! beg9n+1 ) m vehem5ce &                
indefatigability4 ,n only did ! zeal\s  
adh]5ts ( ,*ri/ian dogma fe> to f9d1 9 !
 de/ruction ( all di/9ct b>ri]s betwe5 !
 diff]5t =ms ( animal life1 a gr\nd = ! 
d5ial ( ,god's especial favor to man1 & 
! wor%ipp]s ( emotional morals become   
indignant at ! unveil+ ( ! div9e ,my/ic 

7z if only ignorance 7 rev]5ce1 & only !
 ,unkn[n wor?y ( homage71 b ev5 ! less  
cons]vative s*ools ( philosophy (t5 %[$ 
!mselves unfavorable or hesitant t[>ds !
 new ideas1 dread+ _! implications4 ,all
 ?is is *ang$4 ,if ,engl&'s mo/ popul>  
liv+ philosoph] 0 among ! fir/ to decl>e
 himself = ,d>w91 & to revise 8 :ole    
sy/em 9 accordance ) ! !ory ( evolution1
 s t ?is !ory e>ly began to f9d adh]5ts 
among /ud5ts ( philosophy 9 all l&s :]e 
,engli% is spok51 x 0 n long be=e ! new]
 s*ools ( ,france & ,g]many began to    
foll[ 9 _! wake4 ,n[ e ye>1 & almo/ e   
mon?1 br+s ) x a fre% supply ( books1   
pamphlets1 & magaz9e articles on ,!     
,evolution ( ,morality1 ,l',evolution de
 la ,morale1 ,die ,evolution d]         
,sittli*keit1 ,sittli*keit und          
,d>w9ismus1 etc4 ,s _m are ! wat]s :i*  
n[ p\r !mselves into ?is common /ream t 
! curr5t ?reat5s soon to become too deep
 & swift = any b ! mo/ exp]t swimm]s4   
,9 a %ort review ( ,evolutional ,e?ics1 
x w be impossible to consid] all !      

lit]ature t has add$ to our k on ?is    
subject2 we mu/ conf9e ourselves to !   
few books t are mo/ prom95t4 ,! fir/    
labor] 9 ?is l9e1 n only indirectly     
?r\gh g5]al !ory1 b also directly ?r\gh 
p>ticul> !ory1 is1 z usual1 ,*>les      
,d>w92 & ?\gh ,d>w9 0 himself no        
psy*ologi/1 & moreov] advances 8 ideas  
on ! orig9 & developm5t ( morals only 9 
! t5tative mann] t necess>ily atta*es to
 a fir/ attempt :5 made by s consci5ti\s
 a ?9k]1 he d\btless sugge/$ to all o!r 
writ]s 9 ?is field a v l>ge "p ( t :i* 0
 be/ 9 _! "w4 ,a ,review ( ,evolutional 
,e?ics mu/1 !re=e1 9 ord] to />t ) !    
prop] orig9 ( ! sci5ce1 beg9 )          
,,*>les ,,d>w9   ,9 ! essay on ,in/9ct  
app5d$ to ,g4 ,j4 ,romanes' ,m5tal      
,evolution 9 ,animals1#a ,d>w9 says3 ,! 
social in/9ct is indisp5sable to "s     
animals1 useful to /ill m1 & app>5tly   
only pleasant to "s few animals4 ,!     
social t5d5cy be+ ?us class$ z an       
in/9ct1 x belongs to our "w to exam9e   
:at are ,d>w9's !ories z to ! orig9 &   

nature ( in/9ct4  ,9 ! *apt] on ,in/9ct1
 9 ,! ,orig9 ( ,species1 ,d>w9 premises3
 ,i h no?+ to d ) ! orig9 ( ! m5tal     
p[]s1 any m ?an ,i h ) t ( life         
itself4#b ,aga93 ,fr$]ick ,cuvi] &      
sev]al ( ! old] metaphysicians h comp>$ 
in/9ct ) habit4 ,?is comp>ison gives1 ,i
 ?9k1 an accurate notion ( ! frame ( m9d
 "u :i* an in/9ctive action is p]=m$1 b 
n necess>ily ( its orig94444 ,if we     
suppose any habitual action to become   
inh]it$--& x c be %[n t ?is does        
sometimes happ5--!n ! resemblance betwe5
 :at orig9ally 0 a habit & an in/9ct    
becomes s close z n to be di/+ui%$4444  
,b x w\ld be a s]i\s error to suppose t 
! great] numb] ( in/9cts h be5 acquir$  
by habit 9 "o g5]ation1 & !n transmitt$ 
by inh]itance to succe$+ g5]ations4 ,x c
 be cle>ly %[n t ! mo/ wond]ful in/9cts 
) :i* we are acqua9t$1 namely1 ^? ( !   
hive-bee & ( _m ants1 c\ld n possibly h 
be5 acquir$ by habit4#c ,( "o ( ! habits
 ( ^! la/-nam$ insects ,d>w91 h[ev]1    
writes3 ,i h n r>ely felt t small &     

trifl+ in/9cts 7 a great] difficulty on 
our !ory ?an ^? :i* h s ju/ly excit$ !  
wond] ( mank9d2 = an in/9ct1 if really (
 no consid]able importance 9 ! /ruggle =
 life1 c\ld n be modifi$ or =m$ ?r\gh   
natural selection4 ,p]haps z /rik+ an   
in/ance z c be giv5 is t ( ! work]s ( ! 
hive-bee arrang$ 9 files & v5tilat+1 by 
a peculi> movem5t ( _! w+s1 ! well-clos$
 hive3 ?is v5tilation has be5           
artificially imitat$1 & z x is c>ri$ on 
ev5 dur+ w9t]1 !re c be no d\bt t x is  
to br+ 9 free air & displace ! c>bonic  
acid gas2 !re=e x is 9 tru?             
indisp5sable1 & we may imag9e ! /ages--a
 few bees fir/ go+ to ! orifice to fan  
!mselves--by :i* ! in/9ct might h be5   
arriv$ at4#d ,aga93 ,glanc+ at in/9cts1 
m>vell\s z "s are1 !y (f] no great]     
difficulty ?an d corporeal /ructures on 
! !ory ( ! natural selection (          
successive slight1 b pr(itable          
modifications4 ,we c ?us und]/& :y      
nature moves by graduat$ /eps 9 end[+   
diff]5t animals ( ! same class ) _!     

sev]al in/9cts4#e ,& aga93 ,z ,i        
believe1 ! mo/ wond]ful ( all kn[n      
in/9cts1 t ( ! hive-bee1 c be expla9$ by
 natural selection hav+ tak5 advantage (
 num]\s successive1 slight modifications
 ( simpl] in/9cts1 natural selection    
hav+1 by sl[ degrees1 m & m p]fectly l$ 
! bees to sweep equal sph]es at a giv5  
di/ance f ea* o!r 9 a d\ble lay]1 & to  
build up & excavate ! wax along ! planes
 ( int]section2 ! bees1 ( c\rse1 no m   
kn[+ t !y swept _! sph]es at "o p>ticul>
 di/ance f ea* o!r1 ?an !y "k :at are ! 
sev]al angles ( ! hexagonal prisms & ( !
 basal rhombic plates2 ! motive p[] ( ! 
process ( natural selection hav+ be5 !  
con/ruction ( cells ( due /r5g? & ( !   
prop] size & %ape = ! l>vae1 ?is be+    
effect$ ) ! greate/ possible economy (  
labor & wax2 t individual sw>m :i* ?us  
made ! be/ cells ) lea/ labor1 & lea/   
wa/e ( honey 9 ! secretion ( wax1 hav+  
succe$$ be/1 & hav+ transmitt$ _! newly 
acquir$ economical in/9cts to new sw>ms1
 :i* 9 _! turn w h _h ! be/ *ance (     

succe$+ 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4#f ,&     
fur!r1 ( in/9ct 9 g5]al3 ,x w be        
univ]sally admitt$ t in/9cts are z      
important z corporeal /ructures = !     
welf>e ( ea* species1 "u its pres5t     
conditions ( life4 ,"u *ang$ conditions 
( life1 x is at lea/ possible t slight  
modifications ( in/9ct might be         
pr(itable to a species2 & if x c be %[n 
t in/9cts d v>y ev] s little1 !n ,i c   
see no difficulty 9 natural selection   
pres]v+ & cont9ually accumulat+         
v>iations ( in/9ct to any ext5t t 0     
pr(itable4 ,x is ?us1 z ,i believe1 t   
all ! mo/ complex & wond]ful in/9cts h  
orig9at$4 ,z modifications ( corporeal  
/ructure arise f1 & are increas$ by1 use
 or habit1 & are dim9i%$ or lo/ by      
disuse1 s ,i d n d\bt x has be5 )       
in/9cts2 ?\gh ,d>w9 adds3 ,b ,i believe 
t ! effects ( habit are 9 _m cases (    
subord9ate importance to ! effects ( !  
natural selection ( :at may be call$    
spontane\s v>iations ( in/9cts2 t is1 ( 
v>iations produc$ by ! same unkn[n      

causes :i* produce slight deviations (  
bodily /ructure4 ,h[ev]1 ,no complex    
in/9ct c possibly be produc$ ?r\gh      
natural selection1 except by ! sl[ &    
gradual accumulation ( num]\s slight1   
yet pr(itable1 v>iations4#g ,& ( habit z
 connect$ ) h]$ity1 ,d>w9 writes3 ,*ang$
 habits produce an inh]it$ effect1 z 9 !
 p]iod ( ! fl[]+ ( plants :5 transport$ 
f "o climate to ano!r4 ,) animals !     
increas$ use or disuse ( p>ts has _h a m
 m>k$ influ5ce4444 ,no bre$] d\bts h[   
/rong is ! t5d5cy to inh]itance2 t l    
produces l is 8 fundam5tal belief2 d\bts
 h be5 ?r[n on ?is pr9ciple only by     
!oretical writ]s4444 ,if /range & r>e   
deviations ( /ructure are really        
inh]it$1 less /range & common]          
deviations may be freely admitt$ to be  
inh]itable4 ,p]haps ! correct way (     
view+ ! :ole subject w\ld be to look at 
! inh]itance ( e "* :atev] z ! rule1 &  
non-inh]itance z ! anomaly4444 ,if x    
c\ld be %[n t our dome/ic v>ieties      
manife/$ a /rong t5d5cy to rev]sion--t  

is1 to lose _! acquir$ *>act]s :il/ kept
 "u ! same conditions1 & :il/ kept 9 a  
consid]able body1 s t free int]cross+   
might *eck1 by bl5d+ toge!r1 any slight 
deviations 9 _! /ructure1 9 su* case ,i 
grant t we c\ld d$uce no?+ f dome/ic    
v>ieties 9 reg>d to species4 ,b !re is n
 a %ad[ ( evid5ce 9 favor ( ?is view2 to
 ass]t t we c\ld n bre$ our c>t & race  
horses1 long & %ort horn$ cattle1 &     
p\ltry ( v>i\s bre$s1 & escul5t         
vegetables1 = an unlimit$ numb] (       
g5]ations1 w\ld be oppos$ to all        
exp]i5ce4#h ,d>w9 recognizes1 9 in/9ct1 
! possibility = ! play ( a c]ta9 am\nt (
 imitation1 z also ( intellig5ce &      
exp]i5ce1#i ?\gh d5y+ to ^! ! range     
attribut$ to !m by ,wallace4 ,& summ+ up
 8 !ory 9 ! essay giv5 by ,romanes1 he  
writes3 ,x may n be logical1 b to my    
imag9ation x is f> m satisfactory1 to   
look at ! "y cuckoo eject+ 8 fo/]       
bro!rs1 ants mak+ slaves1 ! l>vae ( !   
i*neumidae fe$+ )9 ! live bodies ( _!   
prey1 cats play+ ) mice1 ott]s &        

cormorants ) liv+ fi%1 n z in/9cts      
specially giv5 by ! ,creator1 b z v     
small p>ts ( "o g5]al law lead+ to !    
advancem5t ( all organic                
bodies--,multiply1 ,v>y1 let ! /ronge/  
,live & ! weake/ ,die4  ,x w ?us be se5 
t ,d>w91 :ile confess+ a disability to  
acc\nt = ! orig9 ( ,in/9ct1--beg9n+ ) "s
 =m ( in/9ct z already exi/5t1 j z he   
beg9s ) life z already exi/5t1--does    
advance "s p]fectly def9ite views z to !
 probable orig9s ( in/9cts1--namely1    
pres]vation1 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 (   
num]\s slight b pr(itable v>iations4 ,! 
ass]tion ( ! inadequacy ( habit to      
acc\nt = ! orig9 ( m complex in/9cts1 z 
9 ! case ( ! hive-bees1 :5 comp>$ ) !   
subsequ5t explanation1 9 ! same         
connection1 ( ! rise ( ^! v in/9cts     
p>tly by habit acquir$ f exp]i5ce &     
imitation1 p>tly by accid5tal           
modifications ( simpl] in/9cts1 bo? tak5
 advantage ( by natural selection1--w\ld
 seem to limit ! t]m habit1 z "h us$1 to
 modes ( action acquir$ dur+ ! life ( ! 

individual2 ?is int]pretation ( ! ^w be+
 confirm$ by ! additional phrase 9 "o   
g5]ation4 ,b "h1 z ev]y:]e 9 ,d>w9's "w1
 an unkn[n quantity appe>s--namely1 !   
cause ( v>iation2 i4e4 ( ! diff]5ces1 or
 t5d5cy to diff]1 ( (fspr+1 f ! p>5tal  
type4  ,9 ,! ,desc5t ( ,man1 publi%$    
twelve ye>s lat] ?an ,! ,orig9 (        
,species1 & ,! ,v>iation ( ,plants &    
,animals "u ,dome/ication1 :i* appe>$   
yet ?ree ye>s lat]1 ,d>w9's views on    
in/9ct & habit are /ill fur!r elaborat$1
 & a def9ition ( ! relation ( ^! to     
reason1 pleasure1 pa91 & ! moral s5se1  
attempt$4 ,9 ,vol4 ,i4 ( ! =m] "w1 ,d>w9
 devotes two *apt]s to ^! subjects4     
,in/9ct he calls1 pages #aaf-abb1       
inh]it$ habit2 & on page #afh he says3  
,b z love1 sympa?y1 & self-comm& became 
/r5g!n$ by habit1 & z ! p[] ( reason+   
becomes cle>]1 s t man c value ju/ly !  
judgm5ts ( 8 fell[s1 he w feel himself  
impell$1 ap>t f any transitory pleasure 
or pa91 to c]ta9 l9es ( conduct4 ,"h1 ,i
 take x1 ! ^w habit _c be int]pret$ z   

ref]r+ to "o g5]ation ( m51 b to ! race 
z a :ole1 a g5]al cont9uity be+ ?us     
ascrib$ to ! inh]itance ( m5tal         
*>act]i/ics1 & ! important concept (    
progress z adaptation acquir$4 ,9       
contra/+ reason ) in/9ct1 ,d>w9 ?9ks t  
in/9ct & intellig5ce d n1 z ,cuvi]      
ma9ta9$1 /& 9 inv]se ratio to ea* o!r1 b
 t a high degree ( intellig5ce is       
compatible ) complex in/9cts--z 9 ! case
 ( ! beav]2 yet x is n improbable t !re 
is a c]ta9 am\nt ( int]f]5ce betwe5 !   
developm5t ( free intellig5ce & (       
in/9ct1--:i* latt] implies "s inh]it$   
modification ( ! bra94 ,little is kn[n  
ab\t ! functions ( ! bra91 b we c       
p]ceive t1 z ! intellectual p[]s become 
highly develop$1 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! bra9  
mu/ be connect$ by v intricate *annels (
 ! free/ int]communication2 & z a       
consequ5ce1 ea* sep>ate "p w\ld p]haps  
t5d to be less well fitt$ to answ] to   
p>ticul> s5sations or associations 9 a  
def9ite & inh]it$--t is1                
in/9ctive--mann]4 ,!re seems ev5 to exi/

 "s relation betwe5 a l[ degree (       
intellig5ce & a /rong t5d5cy to !       
=mation ( fix$1 ?\gh n inh]it$ habits2  
=1 z a sagaci\s physician rem>k$ to me1 
p]sons :o are slightly imbecile t5d to  
act 9 ev]y?+ by r\t9e or habit2 & !y are
 r5d]$ mu* happi] if ?is is enc\rag$4#aj
 ,d>w9 ?9ks in/9ctive action & action f 
habit may n be connect$ ) ei!r pleasure 
or pa91 ?\gh he w\ld seem to contradict 
?is view 9 ! latt] "p ( ! passage j     
quot$1 & aga9 :]e he says3 ,al?\gh a    
habit may be bl9dly & implicitly foll[$1
 indep5d5tly ( any pleasure or pa9 felt 
at ! mom5t1 yet if x be =cibly &        
abruptly *eck$1 a vague s5se (          
dissatisfaction is g5]ally exp]i5c$4#aa 
,9 writ+ ( ! social in/9ct1 ,d>w9 beg9s 
) x z already exi/5t1 & seems1 moreov]1 
to ma9ta9 conc]n+ x a !ory ( purpose    
else:]e d5i$ 9 8 works &1 inde$1        
antagoni/ic to ! :ole pr9ciple ( !      
/ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,he says3 ,x has (t5 
be5 assum$ t animals 7 9 ! fir/ place   
r5d]$ social1 & t !y feel1 z a          

consequ5ce1 uncom=table :5 sep>at$ f ea*
 o!r1 & com=table :il/ toge!r2 b x is a 
m probable view t ^! s5sations 7 fir/   
develop$1 9 ord] t ^? animals :i* w\ld  
pr(it by liv+ 9 society1 %\ld be induc$ 
to live toge!r1 9 ! same mann] z ! s5se 
( hung] & ! pleasure ( eat+ 71 no d\bt1 
fir/ acquir$1 9 ord] to induce animals  
to eat4#ab ,if x 7 n = ! expressions    
%\ld be induc$ & to induce1 ! words 9   
ord] t1 tak5 9 connection ) :at foll[s1 
might be int]pret$ z ref]r+ to m]e      
sequ5ce ( "t1 z1 on page #aii1 :]e ,d>w9
 ref]s to ! social faculties simply z   
antec$5t to society1 !y evid5tly d4 ,=  
he says3 ,9 ord] t primeval man1 or !   
ape-l prog5itors ( man1 %\ld become     
social1 !y mu/ h acquir$ ! same         
in/9ctive feel+s :i* induce o!r animals 
to live 9 a body4 ,! s5t5ces ref]r$ to  
:i* foll[ ! fir/ quotation are z foll[s3
 ,! feel+ ( pleasure f society is       
probably an ext5sion ( ! p>5tal or      
filial affections1 s9ce ! social in/9ct 
seems to be develop$ by ! "y rema9+ = a 

long "t ) _! p>5ts2 & ?is ext5sion may  
be attribut$ 9 "p to habit1 b *iefly to 
natural selection4 ,) ^? animals :i* 7  
b5efit$ by liv+ 9 close association1 !  
individuals :i* took ! greate/ pleasure 
9 society w\ld be/ escape v>i\s dang]s1 
:il/ ^? t c>$ lea/ = _! comrades1 & liv$
 solit>y1 w\ld p]i% 9 great] numb]s4 ,) 
respect to ! orig9 ( ! p>5tal & filial  
affections1 :i* app>5tly lie at ! base (
 ! social in/9cts1 we "k n ! /eps by :i*
 !y h be5 ga9$2 b we may inf] t x has   
be5 to a l>ge ext5t ?r\gh natural       
selection4 ,! passage may possibly be   
consi/5tly expla9$ by ! idea ( !        
,survival ( ! ,fitte/1 b x is at lea/ v 
uncle> 9 its word+4 ,at ! beg9n+ (      
,*apt] ,,iv4 ( ! same book1 ,d>w9 also  
gives a synopsis ( ! developm5t ( !     
moral s5se f ! social in/9cts1 ?r\gh !  
pleasure ( association & s]vice1 remorse
 be+ a result ( ! p[] ( repres5tation1  
reg>d = ! approbation & disapprobation (
 fell[s aris+ f sympa?y ) !m until      
result+ habit plays a v important "p 9  

guid+ ! conduct ( ! individual4 ,ano!r  
passage1 h[ev]1 aga9 introduces an      
antagonism betwe5 habit1 in/9ct1 &      
reason1 & natural selection3 ,x is      
impossible to decide 9 _m cases :e!r    
c]ta9 social in/9cts h be5 acquir$ ?r\gh
 natural selection1 or are ! indirect   
result ( o!r in/9cts & faculties1 su* z 
sympa?y1 reason1 exp]i5ce1 & a t5d5cy to
 imitation2 or aga91 :e!r !y are simply 
! result ( long-cont9u$ habit4 ,d>w9    
di/+ui%es betwe5 ! all-important emotion
 ( sympa?y1 & t ( love4 ,a "m may       
passionately love h] sleep+ & passive   
infant1 b %e c h>dly at su* times be    
said to feel sympa?y = x2 b he includes 
bo? love & sympa?y "u ! head ( sympa!tic
 emotions2 & on page #afc he says3 ,)   
mank9d1 selfi%ness1 exp]i5ce1 &         
imitation probably add1 z ,mr4 ,ba9 has 
%[n1 to ! p[] ( sympa?y2 = we are l$ by 
! hope ( receiv+ good 9 return to p]=m  
acts ( sympa!tic k9dness to o!rs2 &     
sympa?y is mu* /r5g!n$ by habit4 ,aga91 
on page #aff1 in/9ctive love & sympa?y  

w\ld seem to be contra/$ ) love &       
sympa?y z habit1 ! increase ( su* feel+s
 9 ! race ?r\gh habit1 else:]e m or less
 di/9ctly ass]t$1 be+ "h ignor$3 ,al?\gh
 man1 z he n[ exi/s1 has few special    
in/9cts1 hav+ lo/ any :i* 8 e>ly        
prog5itors may h possess$1 ?is is no    
reason :y he %\ld n h reta9$1 f an      
extremely remote p]iod1 "s degree (     
in/9ctive love & sympa?y = 8 fell[s4 ,we
 are1 inde$1 all consci\s t we d possess
 su* sympa!tic feel+s2 b our            
consci\sness does n tell u :e!r !y are  
in/9ctive1 hav+ orig9at$ long ago 9 !   
same mann] z ) ! l[] animals1 or :e!r !y
 h be5 acquir$ by ea* ( u dur+ our e>ly 
ye>s4 ,b aga91 on page #bbj1 sympa?y is 
ref]r$ to z an elem5t ( ! social        
in/9cts3#ac ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be borne 9  
m9d t ! en=cem5t ( public op9ion dep5ds 
on our appreciation ( ! approbation &   
disapprobation ( o!rs2 & ?is            
appreciation is f\nd$ on our sympa?y1   
:i* x c h>dly be d\bt$ 0 orig9ally      
develop$ ?r\gh natural selection z "o ( 

! mo/ important elem5ts ( ! social      
in/9cts2 ?\gh1 on pages #afg1 #afh1 !   
social in/9ct is aga9 contra/$ )        
sympa?y1 s9ce accord+ to ,d>w9 ! desire 
= ! approbation ( o!rs & ! consequ5t    
yield+ to _! wi%es is ! result (        
sympa?y3 ,?us ! social in/9cts1 :i* mu/ 
h be5 acquir$ by man 9 a v rude /ate1 & 
probably ev5 by 8 e>ly ape-l prog5itors1
 /ill give ! impulse to "s ( 8 be/      
actions2 b 8 actions are 9 a high]      
degree det]m9$ by ! express$ wi%es &    
judgm5ts ( 8 fell[-m54 ,aga9 ! social & 
! mat]nal in/9cts & sympa?y are id5tifi$
 & class$ z "u ! dom9ion ( ! moral s5se1
 pages #afh-agj3 ,x is evid5t1 9 ! fir/ 
place1 t ) mank9d ! in/9ctive impulses h
 diff]5t degrees ( /r5g?2 a savage1 w   
risk 8 own life to save t ( a memb] ( ! 
same community1 b w be :olly indiff]5t  
ab\t a /rang]2 a "y & timid "m urg$ by !
 mat]nal in/9ct w1 )\t a mom5t's        
hesitation1 run ! greate/ dang] = h] own
 infant1 b n = a m]e fell[-creature4    
,nev]!less1 _m a civiliz$ man1 or ev5   

boy1 :o nev] be=e risk$ 8 life = ano!r1 
b full ( c\rage & sympa?y1 has disreg>d$
 ! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation1 & plung$  
at once into a torr5t to save a dr[n+   
man1 ?\gh a /rang]4444 ,su* actions z ! 
above appe> to be ! simple result ( !   
great] /r5g? ( ! social or mat]nal      
in/9cts ?an t ( any o!r in/9ct or       
motive2 = !y are p]=m$ too in/antane\sly
 = reflection1 or = pleasure or pa9 to  
be felt at ! "t2 ?\gh1 if prev5t$ by any
 cause1 di/ress or ev5 mis]y might be   
felt4444 ,i am aw>e t "s p]sons ma9ta9 t
 actions p]=m$ impulsively1 z 9 ! above 
cases1 d n come "u ! dom9ion ( ! moral  
s5se1 & _c be call$ moral4444 ,on !     
contr>y1 we all feel t an act _c be     
consid]$ z p]fect or z p]=m$ 9 ! mo/    
noble mann]1 unless x be done           
impulsively1 )\t delib]ation or ef=t1 9 
! same mann] z by a man 9 :om !         
requisite qualities are innate4 ,d>w9   
def9es ! (fice ( ! moral s5se z tell+ u 
:at to d1#ad t ( consci5ce1--:i*        
includes remorse1 rep5tance1 regret or  

%ame1 fe> ( ! gods & ( ! disapprobation 
( m51--z reprov+ u if we disobey x2#ae  
consci5ce seems else:]e to be def9$ z   
conc]n$ ) resolve to bett] future       
action2 & 9 /ill ano!r passage1 ! moral 
s5se & consci5ce are id5tifi$4 ,b aga91 
9 ano!r p>agraph1 ,d>w9 seems to ascribe
 remorse or regret1 n to ! baulk+ ( an  
in/9ct1 b to a judgm5t ( hav+ be5       
baulk$3 ,a man _c prev5t pa/ impressions
 (t5 repass+ ?r\gh 8 m9d2 he w ?us be   
driv5 to make a comp>ison betwe5 !      
impressions ( pa/ hung]1 v5geance       
satisfi$1 or dang] %unn$ at o!r m5's    
co/1 ) ! almo/ ev]-pres5t in/9ct (      
sympa?y1 & ) 8 e>ly k ( :at o!rs consid]
 z praisewor?y or blamable4 ,?is k _c be
 bani%$ f 8 m9d1 & f in/9ctive sympa?y  
is e/eem$ ( great mom5t4 ,he w !n feel z
 if he _h be5 baulk$ 9 foll[+ a pres5t  
in/9ct or habit1 & ?is ) all animals    
causes dissatisfaction1 or ev5 mis]y4#af
 ,b1 9 spite ( all indef9it5ess 9 ! use 
( t]ms & unc]ta9ty z to ! int]relations 
( ! social in/9cts1 sympa?y1 reason1    

pleasure1 & ! moral s5se1 x is1 aft]    
all1 comp>atively easy to ga!r1 aft] a  
little deep] /udy1 ! g5]al & m important
 features ( ,d>w9's !ory z to ! orig9 ( 
morality4 ,we may /ate ^! z foll[s3 ,!  
social in/9ct l$ m5 or _! ape-l         
prog5itors to society1#ag ?is in/9ct    
gr[+ out ( ! p>5tal or filial affections
 ?r\gh habit & natural selection4       
,virtue is1 at fir/1 only tribal4#ah ,! 
social qualities ( sympa?y1 fidelity1 & 
c\rage impli$ 9 mutual aid & def5ce1 7  
no d\bt acquir$ by man ?r\gh ! same     
means4 ,:5 two tribes ( primeval man1   
liv+ 9 ! same c\ntry1 came into         
competition1 if 7o!r circum/ances be+   
equal7 ! "o tribe includ$ a great numb] 
( c\rage\s1 sympa!tic1 & fai?ful memb]s1
 :o 7 always ready to w>n ea* o!r (     
dang]1 to aid & def5d ea* o!r1 ?is tribe
 w\ld succe$ bett] & conqu] ! o!r4444   
,selfi% & cont5ti\s p w n coh]e1 & )\t  
coh]5ce no?+ c be effect$4 ,a tribe ri* 
9 ! above qualities w\ld spread & be    
victori\s ov] o!r tribes2 b 9 ! c\rse ( 

"t x w\ld1 judg+ f all pa/ hi/ory1 be 9 
its turn ov]come by "s o!r tribe /ill m 
highly end[$4 ,?us ! social & moral     
qualities w\ld t5d sl[ly to advance & be
 diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,?\gh 9 a w>like 
/ate1 :]e c\rage is especially necess>y 
to tribal exi/5ce1 ! brave/ m5 w\ld p]i%
 9 l>g] numb]s ?an o!r m51 & ! survival 
( ! unfitte/ w\ld seem ?us to be secur$1
 ! influ5ce ( _! brav]y on o!rs might   
excite ! latt] to imitation & d f> m    
good ?an ! begett+ ( (fspr+ :o w\ld     
inh]it _! brav]y4 ,s1 also1 pity1 ?\gh  
incit+ mod]n society to ! pres]vation ( 
! weak1 yet is useful 9 t x cultivates  
sympa?y2 & s1 too1 weal?1 af=d+ leisure 
= intellectual pursuits & a wid] *oice 9
 m>riage1 t5ds1 9 ! end1 to !           
pres]vation ( ! fitte/ morally1 by      
direct or indirect means4#ai ,altrui/ic 
action1 foll[$ f selfi% motives1 may    
become habit2 habits ( b5evol5ce c]ta9ly
 /r5g!n ! feel+ ( sympa?y2 & habits     
foll[$ dur+ _m g5]ations probably t5d to
 be inh]it$4 ,fur!rmore1 melan*oly t5ds 

(t5 to suicide1 z viol5ce1 &            
qu>relsom5ess to a bloody end1          
intemp]ance to ! de/ruction ( individual
 life1 & pr(ligacy to disease & /]ility2
 s t "s elim9ation ( ! wor/ dispositions
 takes place4 ,^! are "s ( ! probable   
/eps ( advancem5t1 ?\gh ! process is too
 complex to be cle>ly foll[$ out4 ,!    
approbation ( o!rs--! /r5g!n+ (         
sympa?ies by habit--example &           
imitation--reason--exp]i5ce & ev5       
self-int]e/--in/ruction dur+ y\?1 &     
religi\s feel+s--are ! causes :i* lead  
to ! advancem5t ( morality4#bj ,9 !     
p>agraph j quot$1 ,d>w9 says3 ,)        
civiliz$ nations1 z f> z an advanc$ /&>d
 ( morality & an increas$ numb] ( fairly
 good m5 are conc]n$1 natural selection 
app>5tly effects b little1 ?\gh !       
fundam5tal social in/9cts 7 orig9ally   
?us ga9$2 b he lat] writes3 ,judg+ f all
 t we "k ( man & ! l[] animals1 !re has 
always be5 suffici5t v>iability 9 _!    
intellectual & moral faculties = a /eady
 advance ?r\gh natural selection2 & he  

fur!r says3 ,no d\bt su* advance dem&s  
_m favorable concurr5t circum/ances2 b x
 may well be d\bt$ :e!r ! mo/ favorable 
w\ld h suffic$1 _h n ! rate ( increase  
be5 rapid1 & ! consequ5t /ruggle =      
exi/5ce extremely sev]e4#ba ,! end or   
aim ( morality is ! g5]al good1 r ?an ! 
g5]al happ9ess1 ?\gh no d\bt ! welf>e & 
! happ9ess ( ! individual usually       
co9cide2 & a cont5t$1 happy tribe w     
fl\ri% bett] ?an "o t is discont5t$ &   
unhappy4444 ,z all wi% = happ9ess1 !    
'greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple' w h become a
 mo/ important second>y guide & object2 
! social in/9ct1 h[ev]1 toge!r ) sympa?y
 7:i* leads to our reg>d+ ! approbation 
& disapprobation ( o!rs71 hav+ s]v$ z ! 
prim>y impulse & guide4#bb ,& ) reg>d to
 ! future1 ,d>w9 says3 ,look+ to future 
g5]ations1 !re is no cause to fe> t !   
social in/9cts w gr[ weak]1 & we may    
expect t virtu\s habits w gr[ /rong]1   
becom+ p]haps fix$ by inh]itance4 ,9 ?is
 case ! /ruggle betwe5 our high] & l[]  
impulses w be less sev]e1 & virtue w be 

triumphant4#bc  ,,footnotes3  #a ,p4    
#cha4 ,?is essay orig9ally =m$ "p ( !   
*apt] on ,in/9ct 9 ,! ,orig9 ( ,species1
 b 0 omitt$ = ! sake ( cond5sation4  #b 
,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cai4  #c ,pp4 #cbj1 #cba4 
#d ,app5dix to ,m5tal ,evolution 9      
,animals1 pp4 #cgh1 #cgi4 ,! italics are
 my own4  #e ,! ,orig9 ( ,species1 ,,ii4
 p4 #bhf4  #f ,ibid4 ,i4 pp4 #cec1 #ced4
  #g ,! ,orig9 ( ,species1 ,i4 pp4 #cba1
 #cbb4  #h ,ibid4 ,i4 pp4 #ab-ag4  #i   
,app5dix to ,m5tal ,evolution 9         
,animals1 pp4 #cgj1 #chc2 see also ,!   
,desc5t ( ,man1 ,i4 p4 #ajb et seq42 &  
,nature = ,feb4 #ac1 #ahgc1 introduction
 to a lett] to ! editor f ,william      
,higg9son4  #aj ,p4 #ajc4  #aa ,pp4     
#afj1 #afa4  #ab ,p4 #afa4  #ac ,see    
also p4 #aga4 ,&1 p4 #agb1 sympa?y is   
designat$ z a fundam5tal elem5t ( !     
social in/9cts4  #ad ,p4 #agh4  #ae ,pp4
 #agd1 #agh4  #af ,p4 #agc4  #ag ,desc5t
 ( ,man1 ,i4 p4 #aii1 etc4  #ah ,ibid4  
p4 #agi4  #ai ,ibid4 pp4 #aii-bji4  #bj 
,ibid4 p4 #bab4  #ba ,ibid4 pp4 #bai1   

#bbj4  #bb ,ibid4 p4 #ahe4  #bc ,ibid4  
p4 #aib4     ,,alfr$ ,,russel ,,wallace 
,:atev] we may def9e in/9ct to be1 x is 
evid5tly "s =m ( m5tal manife/ation1    
says ,wallace 9 8 ,contributions to     
,natural ,selection 7#ahga74 ,we "k     
little ( ! s5ses ( animals2 "s animals  
may ev5 possess s5ses :i* we h n1 & by  
:i* /ores ( k ( ! outside _w may be op5$
 t are clos$ to u4 ,we d n "k c]ta9ly1 =
 in/ance1 :at is ! (fice ( ! little     
/alk$ balls t are ! sole remnants ( h9d 
w+s 9 flies1 or :at is ! (fice ( ! ?ird 
jo9ts ( ! ant5nae 9 ! same insects1 ?\gh
 bo? ^! evid5tly correspond to "s s5se4 
,h[ c we pret5d to fa?om ! pr(\nd my/]y 
( ! m5tal nature ( animals1 & decide :at
 or h[ mu* !y c p]ceive or rememb]1     
reason or reflect8 ,def9+ in/9ct1 !n1 z 
! p]=mance by an animal ( complex acts1 
absolutely )\t in/ruction1 ,wallace     
refuses to accept ! !ory ( su* action1 9
 any case :]e all o!r modes (           
explanation h n be5 exhau/$2 = a po9t   
:i* c be prov$ %\ld n be assum$1 & a    

totally unkn[n p[] %\ld n be br\ght 9 to
 expla9 facts1 :5 kn[n p[]s may be      
suffici5t4 ,he ma9ta9s t !re is a       
possibility1 = in/ance1 ( ! in/ruction (
 "y birds by old 9 ! art ( ne/-build+4  
,x is q likely t birds rememb] ! =m1    
size1 position1 & mat]ials ( ! ne/ 9 :i*
 !y 7 hat*$1 z x is also probable t "y  
birds (t5 pair ) old ones :o h exp]i5ce 
9 ne/-build+4 ,man's ar*itecture is also
 *iefly imitative4 ,birds br\ght up f ! 
egg 9 cages d n make ! *>act]i/ic ne/ ( 
_! species1 ev5 ?\gh ! prop] mat]ials   
are suppli$ !m1 & (t5 make no ne/ at    
all1 b rudely heap toge!r a quantity (  
mat]ials4 ,no "o has ev] yet obta9$ !   
eggs ( "s bird :i* builds an elaborate  
ne/1 hat*$ ^? eggs by /eam or "u q a    
di/9ct p>5t1 plac$ !m aft]w>ds 9 an     
ext5sive avi>y or cov]$ g>d51 :]e !     
situation & ! mat]ials ( a ne/ simil> to
 t ( ! p>5t-birds may be f\nd1 & !n se5 
:at k9d ( ne/ ^! birds w\ld build4 ,if  
"u ^! rigor\s conditions !y *oose ! same
 mat]ials1 ! same situation1 & con/ruct 

! ne/ 9 ! same way & z p]fectly z _!    
p>5ts did1 in/9ct w\ld be prov$ 9 _!    
case2 n[ x is only assum$4444 ,s no "o  
has ev] c>efully tak5 ! pupae ( a hive (
 bees out ( ! comb1 remov$ !m f !       
pres5ce ( o!r bees1 & loos$ !m 9 a l>ge 
cons]vatory ) pl5ty ( fl[]s & food1 &   
obs]v$ :at k9d ( cells !y w\ld con/ruct4
 ,b till ?is is done no "o c say t1 ) e 
new sw>m !re are no bees old] ?an ^? ( !
 same ye>1 :o may be ! tea*]s 9 =m+ !   
new comb4#bd ,"y birds nev] h ! song    
peculi> to _! species if !y h n he>d x1 
:]eas !y acquire v easily ! song ( almo/
 any o!r bird ) :i* !y are associat$4   
,moreov]1 !re are failures &            
imp]fections 9 ! ne/+ ( birds t are n   
compatible ) ! !ory ( in/9ct1 :i* is    
suppos$ to be infallible1 b are q s ) ! 
!ory ( intellig5ce & imitation4         
,fur!rmore1 9 _! mann] ( build+1 birds  
adapt !mselves to circum/ances &        
frequ5tly alt] & improve4 ,! !ory (     
in/9cts 9 man is likewise 9 ! wrong4 ,! 
suck+ ( ! *ild1 :i* is said to be       

in/9ctive1 is m]ely "o ( ^? simple acts 
dep5d5t on organization1 l brea?+ or    
muscul> motion4 ,s walk+ is evid5tly    
dep5d5t on ! arrangem5t ( ! bones &     
jo9ts1 & ! pleasurable ex]tion ( !      
muscles1 :i* lead to ! v]tical po/ure   
becom+ gradually ! mo/ agreeable "o2 &  
!re c be little d\bt t an infant w\ld   
le>n ( itself to walk1 ev5 if suckl$ by 
a wild bea/4  ,! !ory ( in/9ct implies  
innate ideas#be ( a v def9ite k9d1 & if 
e/abli%$1 w\ld ov]?r[ ,mr4 ,mill's      
,s5sationalism & all ! mod]n philosophy 
( exp]i5ce4  ,! reason :y natural       
selection acts s p[]fully ^u animals1 is
 to be f\nd ma9ly 9 _! individual       
isolation4 ,a slight injury1 a tempor>y 
illness1 w (t5 end 9 dea?1 because x    
leaves ! individual p[]less aga9/ its   
enemies4444 ,!re is1 z a rule1 no mutual
 assi/ance betwe5 adults1 :i* enables !m
 to tide ov] a p]iod ( sickness4 ,nei!r 
is !re any division ( labor2 ea* mu/    
fulfil all ! conditions ( its exi/5ce1 &
 !re=e natural selection keeps all up to

 a pretty uni=m /&>d4 ,b 9 man z we n[  
behold him1 ?is is diff]5t4 ,he is      
social & sympa!tic2 & 9 society1 a      
division ( labor takes place t leaves ! 
physically defective /ill some?+ to d by
 :i* he may su/a9 life1 & saves him f ! 
extreme p5alty :i* falls ^u animals s   
defective4 ,by 8 skill 9 con/ruct+ =    
himself tools & clo?+ & 9 plant+ 8 own  
food1 man has an imm5se advantage ov] ! 
animals1 9 :om a *ange ( /ructure mu/   
take place 9 adaptation to *ang$        
conditions4 ,moreov]1 he n only escapes 
natural selection himself1 b is actually
 able to take away "s ( t p[] f nature1 
:i*1 be=e 8 appe>ance1 %e univ]sally    
ex]cis$1 e/abli%+ s 8 supremacy by means
 ( t subtle =ce we t]m m9d4 ,we c       
anticipate ! "t :5 ! e>? w produce only 
cultivat$ plants & dome/ic animals1 :5  
man's selection %all h supplant$ natural
 selection4  ,we mu/1 9 future          
geological /udy1 trace back ! gradually 
decreas+ bra9 ( =m] races to a "t :5 !  
body z well beg9s mat]ially to diff]1 if

 we w\ld wi% to rea* ! />t+-po9t ( !    
human family4 ,be=e t "t man _h n m9d   
en\gh to pres]ve 8 body f *ange4 ,f ?is 
po9t1 h[ev]1 we %all probably see t1    
:ile all o!r =ms ( animal life *ang$    
aga9 & aga91 man's physical "* became   
fix$ & almo/ immutable1 advance tak+    
place only 9 8 m5tal & moral            
*>act]i/ics1 ) :i* are unit$            
modifications ( ! bra91 z well z ( !    
head & face1 p>ts t are imm$iately      
connect$ ) ! bra9 & ! m$ium ( ! mo/     
ref9$ emotions4 ,by man's sup]ior       
sympa!tic & moral feel+s1 he becomes    
fitt$ = ! social /ate4 ,!re is "o       
feature1 h[ev]1 9 :i* natural selection 
w /ill act ^u him--namely1 ! color ( !  
sk91 :i*1 z ,mr4 ,d>w9 has %[n1 is      
correlat$ ) con/itutional peculi>ities1 
liability to c]ta9 diseases be+ (t5     
accompani$ by m>k$ ext]nal *>act]i/ics2 
s t1 9 c]ta9 c\ntries1 c]ta9 t9ts w\ld  
be likely to be we$$ out1 & c]ta9 o!r   
t9ts1 ) :i*1 aga91 color & texture ( !  
hair seem to be associat$1 w\ld be      

e/abli%$ by natural selection4  ,natural
 selection has no p[] to produce        
modifications :i* are 9 any degree      
injuri\s to _! possessor1 & ,mr4 ,d>w9  
uses ! /rong expression t a s+le case ( 
?is k9d w\ld be fatal to 8 !ory4 ,if1   
!re=e1 we f9d 9 man any *>act]s :i* all 
! evid5ce we c obta9 goes to %[ w\ld h  
be5 actually injuri\s to him on _! fir/ 
appe>ance1 !y c\ld n possibly h be5     
produc$ by natural selection4 ,nei!r    
c\ld any specially develop$ organ h be5 
s produc$ if x _h be5 m]ely useless to  
its possessor1 or if its use 7 n        
proportionate to its degree (           
developm5t4 ,su* cases z ^! w\ld prove t
 "s o!r law1 or "s o!r p[]1 ?an natural 
selection1 _h be5 at "w4 ,b if1 fur!r1  
we c\ld see t ^! v modifications1 ?\gh  
hurtful or useless at ! "t :5 !y fir/   
appe>$1 became 9 ! highe/ degree useful 
at a mu* lat] p]iod1 & are ess5tial to !
 full moral & intellectual developm5t ( 
human nature1 we %\ld !n inf] ! action (
 m9d1 =esee+ ! future & prep>+ = x1 j z 

surely z we d :5 we see ! bre$] set     
himself to "w ) ! det]m9ation to produce
 a def9ite improvem5t 9 "s cultivat$    
plant or dome/ic animal2 we %\ld inf] a 
creation by law4 ,skull-measurem5t %[s t
 ! bra9 ( ! savage 01 & is1 l>g] ?an x  
ne$s to be1 & capable1 if cultivat$ &   
develop$1 ( p]=m+ "w ( a degree & k9d f>
 beyond :at he ev] requires x to d4 ,9  
evid5ce ( ?is1 ,wallace cites !         
measurem5ts ( ,esquimaux skulls & !     
te/imony ( ,paul ,broca to ! f9e =m &   
capacity ( ! skulls ( ,les ,eyzies1 a   
race ( cave-dwell]s und\bt$ly           
contempor>y ) ! re9de] 9 ,s\!rn         
,france4#bf ,he also argues t ! loss1 by
 man1 ( ! hairy cov]+ s long p]si/5t 9 !
 mammalia1 _c h tak5 place on acc\nt (  
its lack ( usefulness1 s9ce ev5 ! mo/   
savage tribes %[ a ne$ ( x1 endeavor+ to
 replace x by artificial cov]+s1        
especially on ! back4 ,?is nak$ sk9 is1 
h[ev]1 ( importance to civilization1    
s9ce x leads to ! adoption ( bo? clo?+ &
 h\ses1 & develops1 ?r\gh ! =m]1 ! s5se 

( mode/y4 ,! loss ( ! preh5sile "* ( !  
:ole foot1 & especially ( ! p$al ?umb1  
is a prep>ation = civilization4 ,s1 too1
 ! capacity ( ! human voice = music1 (  
little use to savages1 s9ce _! s++      
consi/s only 9 a sort ( monoton\s h[l+1 
mu/ be reg>d$ z a prep>ation = !        
civiliz$ man's delight 9 music1 &       
probably also = a high] /ate ?an t to   
:i* we h yet atta9$4  ,nor c ! sanctity 
:i* atta*es to virtue1 ev5 among        
savages1 be expla9$ by utility or       
natural selection4 ,! my/ic s5se (      
wrong1 :i*1 al?\gh few laws en=ce tru?1 
yet atta*es to untru?1 ev5 among :ole   
tribes ( utt] savages1 is an example (  
su* sanctity4 ,wallace adds1 h[ev]1 9 ! 
same brea?3 ,no v sev]e reprobation     
foll[s untru?4 ,9 all ages1 falsehood   
has be5 ?\ght v5ial or ev5 laudable "u  
c]ta9 conditions4 ,he ass]ts t !        
utilit>ian doctr9e is n suffici5t to    
acc\nt = ! developm5t ( ! moral s5se1 b 
seems1 nev]!less1 to adopt a utilit>ian 
pr9ciple z ! basis ( ! moral s5se :5 he 

says3 ,:]e free play is all[$ to !      
relations betwe5 man & man1 ?is feel+   
i4e4 ( sanctity atta*es itself to ^?    
acts ( univ]sal utility or              
self-sacrifice :i* are ! products ( our 
affections & sympa?ies :i* we t]m moral2
 & he adds3 :ile x may be1 & (t5 is1    
p]v]t$ to give ! same sanction to acts (
 n>r[ & conv5tional utility :i* are     
really immoral1--z :5 ! ,h9doo w tell a 
lie1 b w soon] />ve ?an eat unclean     
food2 & looks ^u ! m>riage ( adult      
females z gross immorality4 ,!          
explanation ( ?is inconsi/5cy is1       
accord+ to ,wallace1 t ! /r5g? ( ! moral
 feel+1 9 any case1 w dep5d on !        
individual or racial con/itution1 & on  
education & habit2 & ! acts to :i* its  
sanctions are appli$ w dep5d on ! ext5t 
( modification ( ! simple feel+s &      
affections by cu/om1 law1 & religion4   
,if a moral s5se is an ess5tial "p ( our
 nature1 x is easy to see t its sanction
 may (t5 be giv5 to acts :i* are useless
 or immoral1 j z ! natural appetite =   

dr9k is p]v]t$ by ! drunk>d into ! means
 ( 8 de/ruction4  ,^! ph5om5a ( !       
prep>ation ( ! human be+ = civilization 
& morality c be expla9$ only on !       
supposition ( a sup]ior intellig5ce :i* 
has guid$ man's developm5t 9 a def9ite  
direction1 j z man guides ! developm5t (
 _m animal =ms4 ,by a sup]ior           
intellig5ce is n necess>ily meant !     
supreme intellig5ce4 ,! mod]n cultivat$ 
m9d seems incapable ( realiz+ betwe5 x &
 ! ,deity o!r grades ( intellig5ce1 :i* 
! law ( ,cont9uity w\ld1 h[ev]1 =ce u to
 inf]3 & reject+ fir/ causes = any & e  
especial effect 9 ! univ]se1 except 9 ! 
s5se t ! action ( any intellig5t be+ is 
a fir/ cause1 we c /ill conceive t !    
developm5t ( ! ess5tially human portions
 ( man's /ructure may h be51 9 ?is s5se1
 det]m9$ by ! direct+ influ5ce ( "s     
high] intellig5t be+s act+ ?r\gh natural
 & univ]sal laws4#bg ,x is probable t ! 
true law ( ?is developm5t lies too deep 
= our discov]y4 ,wallace quotes1 9      
support ( 8 !ory1 "s ( ,pr(essor        

,tyndall's mu*-disput$ /atem5ts1--to !  
effect t ! *asm betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( m9d &
 ^? ( bra9 is impassable4 ,to say t m9d 
is a product or function ( protoplasm1  
or ( its molecul> *anges1 is to use     
words to :i* we c atta* no cle>         
conception4 ,y _c h 9 ! :ole :at does n 
exi/ 9 any ( ! p>ts2#bh & ^? :o argue   
?us %\ld put =? a precise def9ition (   
matt] ) cle>ly enum]at$ prop]ties1 & %[ 
t ! necess>y result ( a c]ta9 complex   
arrangem5t ( ! elem5ts or atoms ( t     
matt] w be ! production (               
self-consci\sness4 ,!re is no escape f !
 dilemma1--ei!r all matt] is consci\s1  
or consci\sness is#bi some?+ di/9ct f   
matt]1 & 9 ! latt] case its pres5ce 9   
mat]ial =ms is a pro( ( ! exi/5ce (     
consci\s be+s outside (1 & indep5d5t (1 
:at we t]m matt]4  ,! m]e/ rudim5t (    
s5sation or self-consci\sness is        
inf9itely remov$ f absolutely non-s5ti5t
 or unconsci\s matt]4 ,we c conceive (  
no physical addition to1 or modification
 (1 an unconsci\s mass :i* %\ld create  

consci\sness1 no /ep 9 ! s]ies ( *anges 
organiz$ matt] may und]go1 :i* %\ld br+ 
s5sation :]e !re 0 no s5sation or p[] ( 
s5sation at ! prec$+ /ep4 ,x is because 
! ?+s are utt]ly incomp>able &          
incomm5surable t we c only conceive (   
s5sation com+ to matt] f )\t1 :ile life 
may be conceiv$ z m]ely a specific      
modification & coo]d9ation ( ! matt] & !
 =ces t compose ! univ]se1 & ) :i* we   
are sep>ately acqua9t$4 ,we may admit ) 
,pr(essor ,huxley1 t protoplasm is !    
'matt] ( life' & ! cause ( organization2
 b we _c admit or conceive t protoplasm 
is ! prim>y s\rce ( s5sation &          
consci\sness1 or t x c ev] ( itself     
become consci\s 9 ! same way z we may   
p]haps conceive t x may become alive4   
,wallace !n rea*es1 )\t fur!r prelim9>y 
discussion1 ! conclusion t matt] is     
ess5tially =ce 7argu+ t we may draw ?is 
conclusion f ! prec$+ consid]ations72 t 
matt]1 z popul>ly und]/ood1 does n exi/1
 & is1 9 fact1 philosophically          
inconceivable4 ,:5 we t\* matt]1 we only

 really exp]i5ce s5sations ( resi/ance1 
imply+ repulsive =ce2 & no o!r s5se c   
give u su* app>5tly solid pro(s ( !     
reality ( matt] z t\* does4 ,wallace    
consid]s x a great /ep 9 advance ?us to 
get rid ( ! notion t matt] is a ?+ 9    
itself :i* c exi/ p] se1 & mu/ h be5    
et]nal1 s9ce x is suppos$ to be         
inde/ructible & uncreat$1--t =ce1 or !  
=ces ( nature1 are ano!r ?+ giv5 or add$
 to matt]1 or else its necess>y         
prop]ties1--& t m9d is yet ano!r ?+1    
ei!r a product ( ?is matt] & its suppos$
 inh]5t =ces1 or di/9ct f & co-exi/5t ) 
x2 & to be able to sub/itute = ?is !ory 
! f> simpl] & m consi/5t belief1 t      
matt]1 z an entity di/9ct f =ce1 does n 
exi/2 & t ,,=ce is a product ( ,,m9d4   
,if we are satisfi$ t =ce or =ces are   
all t exi/ 9 ! mat]ial univ]se1 we are  
next l$ to inquire :at is =ce4 ,we are  
acqua9t$ ) two k9ds ( =ce--our own      
w-=ce1 & ! =ces ( nature4 ,fre$om ( ! w 
_c be disprov$1 = x _c be %[n t !re is n
 "o-?\s&? ( a gra9's diff]5ce betwe5 !  

=ce ex]t$ by ! body & ! =ce d]iv$ f )\t4
 ,if1 !re=e1 we h trac$ "o =ce1 h[ev]   
m9ute1 to an orig9 9 our w1 :ile we h no
 k ( any o!r prim>y cause ( =ce1 x does 
n seem an improbable conclusion t all   
=ce may be w-=ce2 & ?us1 t ! :ole       
univ]se is n m]ely dep5d5t on1 b        
actually is ! w ( high] intellig5ces1 or
 ( "o ,supreme ,intellig5ce4  ,b ?\gh   
,wallace decl>es natural selection1 z ! 
law ( ! /ronge/1 inadequate to acc\nt = 
man's m5tal & moral developm5t1 s9ce !  
f9] feel+s & capacities c\ld h be5 ( no 
use to human be+s 9 ! e>ly /ages (      
b>b>ism1 & fur!r ma9ta9s t x is also    
difficult to und]/& h[ feel+s develop$  
by "o set ( actions c\ld be transf]r$ to
 acts ( :i* ! utility 0 p>tial1 imag9>y1
 or altoge!r abs5t1 he nev]!less has o!r
 passages l ! foll[+3 ,9 proportion z   
physical *>act]i/ics become ( less      
importance1 m5tal & moral qualities w h 
increas+ influ5ce on ! well-be+ ( !     
race4 ,capacity = act+ 9 conc]t =       
protection & = ! acquisition ( food &   

%elt]2 sympa?y1 :i* leads all 9 turn to 
assi/ ea* o!r2 ! s5se ( "r1 :i* *ecks   
depr$ations ^u our fell[s2 ! small]     
developm5t ( ! combative & de/ructive   
prop5sities1 self-re/ra9t 9 pres5t      
appetites2 & t intellig5t =esight :i*   
prep>es = ! future1 are all qualities t1
 f _! e>lie/ appe>ance1 mu/ h be5 = !   
b5efit ( ea* community1 & w\ld1 !re=e1 h
 become ! subjects ( natural selection4 
,= x is evid5t t su* qualities w\ld be =
 ! well-be+ ( man2 w\ld gu>d him aga9/  
ext]nal enemies1 aga9/ int]nal          
diss5sions1 & aga9/ ! effects ( inclem5t
 seasons & imp5d+ fam9e1 m surely ?an   
c\ld any m]ely physical modification4   
,tribes 9 :i* su* m5tal & moral         
qualities 7 pr$om9ant w\ld !re=e h an   
advantage ov] o!r tribes 9 :i* !y 7 less
 develop$1 w\ld live & ma9ta9 _! numb]s1
 :ile ! o!rs w\ld decrease & f9ally     
succumb4 ,f ! "t1 !re=e1 :5 ! social &  
sympa!tic feel+s came into active       
op]ation1 & ! intellectual & moral      
faculties became fairly develop$1 man   

w\ld cease to be influ5c$ by natural    
selection 9 8 physical =m & /ructure4 ,z
 an animal1 he w\ld rema9 almo/         
/ation>y1 ! *anges ( ! surr\nd+ univ]se 
ceas+ to produce 9 him t p[]ful modify+ 
effect :i* !y ex]cise ov] o!r p>ts ( !  
organic _w4 ,b f ! mom5t t ! =m ( 8 body
 became /ation>y1 8 m9d w\ld become     
subject to ^? v influ5ces f :i* 8 body  
_h escap$2 e slight v>iation 9 8 m5tal &
 moral nature :i* %\ld enable him bett] 
to gu>d aga9/ adv]se circum/ances1 &    
comb9e = mutual com=t & protection w\ld 
be pres]v$ & accumulat$2 ! bett] & high]
 specim5s ( our race w\ld !re=e increase
 & spread1 ! l[] & m brutal w\ld give   
way & successively die out1 & t rapid   
advancem5t ( m5tal organization w\ld    
occur :i* has rais$ ! v l[e/ races ( man
 s f> above ! brutes 7al?\gh diff]+ s   
little f "s ( !m 9 physical /ructure7 &1
 9 conjunction ) sc>cely p]ceptible     
modifications ( =m1 has develop$ !      
wond]ful intellect ( ! ,european races4 
,:5 ! p[] t _h hi!rto modifi$ ! body _h 

its action transf]r$ to ! m9d1 !n races 
w\ld advance & become improv$1 m]ely by 
! h>% discipl9e ( a /]ile soil &        
inclem5t seasons2 "u _! influ5ce a      
h>di]1 a m provid5t1 & a m social race  
w\ld be develop$4 ,& especially3 ,if my 
conclusions are j1 x mu/ inevitably     
foll[ t ! high]--! m intellectual &     
moral--mu/ displace ! l[] & m degrad$   
races2 & ! p[] ( natural selection1 /ill
 act+ on 8 m5tal organization1 mu/ ev]  
lead to a m p]fect adaptation ( man's   
high] faculties to ! conditions (       
surr\nd+ nature & to ! exig5cies ( !    
social /ate4 ,:ile 8 ext]nal =m w       
probably ev] rema9 un*ang$1 except 9 !  
developm5t ( t p]fect beauty :i* results
 f a heal?y & well-organiz$ body1 ref9$ 
& ennobl$ by ! highe/ intellectual      
faculties & sympa!tic emotions1 8 m5tal 
con/itution may advance & improve1 till 
! _w is aga9 inhabit$ by a s+le ne>ly   
homog5e\s race1 no individual ( :i* w be
 inf]ior to ! noble/ specim5s ( exi/+   
humanity4  ,our progress t[>ds su* a    

result is v sl[1 b x /ill seems to be a 
progress4  ,9 ,d>w9ism 7#ahhi71 ,wallace
 advocates ,weismann's !ory ( h]$ity4 ,)
 reg>d to in/9ct1 he uses argum5ts      
simil> to ^? ( 8 e>li] "w4 ,he says ( ! 
hunt+ in/9cts ( dogs3 ,at fir/ sight x  
appe>s z if ! acquir$ habits ( our tra9$
 dogs--po9t]s1 retriev]s1 etc4--are     
c]ta9ly inh]it$2 b ?is ne$ n be ! case1 
because !re mu/ be "s /ructural or      
physical peculi>ities1 su* z            
modifications 9 ! atta*m5ts ( muscles1  
increas$ delicacy ( smell or sight1 or  
peculi> likes & dislikes1 :i* are       
inh]it$2 & f ^!1 peculi> habits foll[ z 
a natural consequ5ce1 or are easily     
acquir$4 ,s t he ?us def9es in/9ct1 by  
implication1 z he does also 9 8 =m]     
book1 z inh]it$ habit :i* has no        
correlative 9 physical organization1 &  
is unconnect$ ) feel+s ( lik+ or        
dislik+4 ,he fur!r says3 ,aga91 mu* ( ! 
p]fection ( in/9ct is due to ! extreme  
sev]ity ( ! selection1 any failure      
involv+ de/ruction2 & adds t1 ev5 if we 

admit ! inh]itance ( ! effects ( !      
direct action ( ! environm5t on !       
individual1 ! effects are s small 9     
comp>ison ) ! am\nt ( spontane\s        
v>iation ( e "p ( ! organism1 t !y mu/  
be q ov]%ad[$ by ! latt]4#cj ,9 8 !ory (
 a high] intellig5ce guid+ human        
developm5t1 ,wallace seems1 9 ?is book1 
to h ab&on$ all 8 =m] argum5ts except ^?
 f ! m5tal & moral faculties1 & x is    
p]haps due to a p]ception ( !           
inconsi/5cies ( 8 =m] utt]ances on !    
subject ( ! moral s5se t he b>ely t\*es 
^u x 9 ?is book4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he has   
elaborat$ 8 argum5ts f ! ma!matical &   
arti/ic faculties1 & add$ an argum5t f  
wit & humor1 none ( :i* are f\nd1 he    
urges1 among savages1 except 9 _! v     
rudim5ts1 & none ( :i* c\ld h be5       
develop$ by natural selection1 s9ce none
 c\ld h be5 a cause ( man's conque/ 9 8 
/ruggles ) wild bea/s or ) o!r tribes or
 nations4 ,9 answ] to ! objection t !   
law ( ,cont9uity1 :i* he has quot$ z    
favor+ ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( grades (  

sup]natural be+s betwe5 man & ! ,deity1 
tells aga9/ ! introduction ( new causes 
9 man's developm5t1 ,wallace ma9ta9s t  
!re are c]ta9ly two o!r po9ts 9         
evolution :]e su* new causes come into  
play1--namely1 at ! beg9n+ ( life & at !
 beg9n+ ( consci\sness4 ,increase (     
complexity 9 *emical comp\nds1 )        
consequ5t in/ability1 ev5 if we admit t 
x may h produc$ protoplasm z a *emical  
comp\nd1 c\ld c]ta9ly n h produc$ liv+  
protoplasm1--protoplasm :i* has ! p[] ( 
gr[? & reproduction1 & ( t cont9u\s     
process ( developm5t :i* has result$ 9 !
 m>vell\s v>iety & complex organization 
( ! :ole vegetable k+dom1 or1 t is1     
vitality4#ca ,all idea ( m]e            
complication ( /ructure produc+         
consci\sness is out ( ! "q4 ,because    
man's physical /ructure has be5 develop$
 f an animal =m by natural selection1 x 
does n foll[ t 8 m5tal nature1 ev5 ?\gh 
develop$ p>i passu ) x1 has be5 develop$
 by ! same causes only4#cb ,yet1 9      
assum+ ,weismann's !ory1 ,wallace       

ass]ts3 ,:atev] o!r causes h be5 at "w1 
,natural ,selection is supreme1 to an   
ext5t :i* ev5 ,d>w9 himself hesitat$ to 
claim = x4 ,:ile admitt+1 z ,d>w9 always
 admitt$1 ! cooep]ation ( ! fundam5tal  
laws ( gr[? & v>iation1 ( correlation & 
h]$ity1 9 det]m9+ ! direction ( l9es (  
v>iation1 or 9 ! initiation ( peculi>   
organs1 we f9d t v>iation & natural     
selection are ev]-pres5t ag5cies :i*    
take possession1 z x 71 ( e m9ute *ange 
orig9at$ by ^! fundam5tal causes1 *eck  
or favor _! fur!r developm5t1 or modify 
!m 9 c\ntless ways accord+ to ! v>y+    
ne$s ( ! organism4#cc  ,9 ! op5+        
portions ( ?is book ,wallace introduces 
a teleological argum5t to ! effect t !  
pa9 :i* we ord9>ily conceive z connect$ 
) ! /ruggle = exi/5ce among l[] species 
is mo/ly a figm5t ( our imag9ation4     
,p]iods ( suff]+ are comp>atively %ort1 
s9ce dea? spe$ily & )\t anticipation    
puts an end to ^? animals 9 any way     
incapacitat$4 ,liv+/one describes h[1 :5
 seiz$ by a lion1 a sort ( /upor succe$$

 ! fir/ %ock1 s t he felt nei!r fe> nor 
pa92 x is probable t t]ror induces ?is  
same condition 9 animals seiz$ by bea/s 
( prey1 & t _! end is !re=e pa9less aft]
 ! fir/ %ock4 ,cold is g5]ally sev]e/ at
 night & t5ds to produce sleep & pa9less
 ext9ction4 ,hung] is sc>cely felt dur+ 
p]iods ( excitem5t1 & :5 food is sc>ce1 
! excitem5t ( seek+ x is at its greate/4
 ,nor is ! gradual exhau/ion & weakness 
( sl[ />vation necess>ily pa9ful4       
,,footnotes3  #bd ,= criticism ( ^!     
argum5ts1 see ,romanes1 ,m5tal          
,evolution 9 ,animals1 p4 #bbe1 etc42   
also ,animal ,intellig5ce4 ,9 8 second  
edition ( ?is book 7#ahia71 ,wallace    
notices a few ( ! in/ances cit$ by      
,romanes 9 objection to 8 !ory3 su* z ! 
recognition ( ! h5's call by a *ick5    
hat*$ 9 an incubator1 ! fe> %[n1 on !   
o!r h&1 at ! note ( a hawk1 & ! fe>     
exhibit$ by mo/ "y animals at ! voice or
 pres5ce ( _! natural enemies4 ,( ^! he 
says1 h[ev]3 ,b 9 all ^! cases we h     
comp>atively simple motions or acts     

induc$ by feel+s ( lik+ or dislik+1 & we
 c see t !y may be due to def9ite n]v\s 
& muscul> coo]d9ations :i* are ess5tial 
to ! exi/5ce ( ! species4 ,t a *ick5    
%\ld feel pleasure at ! s\nd ( a h5's   
voice1 & pa9 or fe> at t ( a hawk1 &    
%\ld move t[>ds ! "o & away f ! o!r1 is 
a fact ( ! same nature z ! lik+ ( an    
infant = milk & its dislike ( be]1 ) !  
motion ( ! head t[>ds ! "o & away f !   
o!r :5 (f]$ to x4 ,( two au!ntic cases (
 ! build+ ( a ne/ by "y birds1 )\t      
in/ruction1 he says t1 9 "o case 7t (   
r+-doves71 ! ne/ is a v simple "o1 & t !
 birds also receiv$ "s assi/ance2 & 9 ! 
o!r case ! ne/ 0 n built ) ! neatness   
ord9>ily *>act]i/ic ( ! species4 7,see  
,natural ,selection & ,tropical ,nature1
 pp4 #ajh-aab47 ,! mo/ ( ,romanes'      
in/ances & argum5ts he does n notice or 
answ]4  #be ,9 8 second edition1        
,wallace writes n only innate ideas1 b  
innate k4  #bf ,9 ! second edition ( ?is
 book1 ,wallace ma9ta9s ! same position 
) reg>d to skull-measurem5t z a crit]ion

 ( m5tal capacity4 ,nor does he notice  
di/9ctions 9 skull-=m or ! proportions (
 diff]5t p>ts ( ! bra9 to ea* o!r1      
except 9 ! "o case ( ! ,eyzies4  #bg    
,see ,wallace on ,miracles & ,mod]n     
,spiritualism1 ,! ,psy*o-physiological  
,sci5ces & _! ,assailants1 & ,!         
,sci5tific ,aspect ( ! ,sup]natural4    
#bh ,wallace omits ?is p>ticul> clause 9
 8 second edition4  #bi ,! second       
edition reads is1 or p]ta9s to4  #cj    
,pp4 #ddb1 #ddc4  #ca ,?is is           
contradictory ( ! passages on ! subject 
( life above notic$ z occurr+ 9 !       
,contributions to ,natural ,selection1 &
 reta9$ 9 ! second edition ( t book4    
#cb ,p4 #dfc4  #cc ,p4 #ddd4     ,,ern/ 
,,haeckel   ,9 8 ,an?ropog5ie 7#ahgd71  
,haeckel says3 ,! s\l1 or 'psy*e' ( man 
has evolv$1 z function ( ! c]ebro-sp9al 
n]ve-*ord simultane\sly ) ! latt]1 & j  
z1 ev5 yet1 bra9 & sp9al column develop 
f ! simple n]ve-*ord1 s ! human m9d1 or 
! s\l-activity ( ! :ole human race1 has 
evolv$1 gradually & /ep by /ep1 f ! l[] 

v]tebrate s\l4 ',_s' & 's\l' are only   
high] & comb9$ or diff]5tiat$ p[]s ( !  
same function :i* we designate ) ! g5]al
 expression '=ce4'#cd ,9 8 essay on     
,cell-s\ls & ,s\l-cells 7#ahgh71        
,haeckel attributes to all animals !    
possession ( s\l1 & adds t we _c :olly  
d5y a s\l to ! plants also4 ,!          
possession ( s\l he def9es z ! capacity 
( s5sibility 9 ! organism to excitations
 ( v>i\s sorts1 & ( reaction ^u ^!      
excitations ) c]ta9 movem5ts4 ,?is uni=m
 "* ( protoplasm gift$ ) s\l p]mits u ! 
hypo!sis t ! ultimate factors ( !       
s\l-life are ! pla/idules1 ! invisible1 
homog5e\s1 elem5tal p>ticles1 or        
molecules1 ( protoplasm1 :i*1 9         
limitless multiplicity1 compose !       
unnumb]$ cells4 ,! s\l connect$ ) !     
high] developm5ts ( bra9 & sp9al column 
is likewise a high] developm5t1 & diff]s
 f ! s\l connect$ ) ! unc5traliz$       
organization ( l[] species4 ,9 ! late/  
edition ( 8 ,natu]li*e                  
,s*oepfungsges*i*te 7#ahhi71 he fur!r   

ass]ts t all matt] is possess$ ( s\l1 & 
t ! anti!sis :i* we h assum$ betwe5 liv+
 & dead nature does n exi/4 ,:5 a /one1 
?r[n into ! air1 falls to ! e>? accord+ 
to fix$ laws1 or :5 a cry/al is =m$ 9 a 
solution ( salts1 or :5 sulphur &       
quicksilv] comb9e to =m c9nab>1 ^!      
ph5om5a are n m & n less me*anical      
ph5om5a ( life ?an ! gr[? & bloom ( !   
plants1 ?an ! propagation &             
s5se-activity ( animals1 ?an ! p]ception
 & ?\ght-processes ( human be+s4#ce ,&  
bo? 9 ?is "w & 9 8 ,an?ropog5ie he      
quotes ! words ( ,goe!1 t matt] c nev]  
exi/ & act )\t s\l1 ! s\l c nev] exi/ & 
act )\t matt]4 ,?is la/ /atem5t is1     
h[ev]1 r a metaphysical "o1 9 di/9ction 
f ,haeckel's o!r /atem5ts on ?is        
subject1 :i* are prop]ly naturali/ic4   
,9 8 lecture on ,cell-s\ls & ,s\l-cells1
 ,haeckel says ( in/9ct3 ,unbiass$      
obs]vation1 apply+ its te/s )\t         
prejudice1 %[s conclusively t ! s-call$ 
'in/9ct' ( ! animals is no?+ else ?an a 
sum ( psy*ical functions orig9ally      

acquir$ by adaptation1 fix$ by habit1 & 
desc5d+ f g5]ation to g5]ation by       
inh]itance4 ,orig9ally c>ri$ out )      
consci\sness & reflection1 _m in/9ctive 
actions ( ! animals h become unconsci\s1
 z h1 9 l mann]1 ! ord9>y acts (        
intellig5ce 9 man4 ,^! too1 may1 ) !    
same ju/ice1 be reg>d$ z ! expression ( 
innate in/9ct1 z (t5 is ! impulse to    
self-pres]vation1 mat]nal love1 & !     
social impulse4 ,in/9ct is n an         
exclusive attribute ( ! animal-bra91 nor
 is reason an especial end[m5t ( man2   
!re is1 on ! contr>y1 = ! unbiass$      
obs]v]1 a long1 long scale ( gradual    
improvem5t & evolution 9 psy*ic life1   
:i* may be trac$ /ep by /ep1 f ! high]  
to l[] human be+s1 f ! p]fect to !      
imp]fect animals1 until we rea* ^?      
simple worms1 ^: n]ve-ganglia are !     
beg9n+ ( all ! numb]less bra9-=ms ( !   
scale4  ,9 8 ,an?ropog5ie1 ,haeckel     
d5ies ,free ,w1 ma9ta9+ t all ph5om5a   
are ! result ( me*anical causes--causae 
effici5tes1 n causae f9ales4 ,9 an essay

 on ! ,relation ( ! ,!ory ( ,evolution 9
 its pres5t =m to ,sci5ce 9 ,g5]al      
7#ahgg71 he says ( ,e?ics3 ,by f> ! mo/ 
important & ! mo/ difficult dem& :i*    
,practical ,philosophy makes ^u ! !ory (
 ,evolution seems to be t ( a new !ory (
 ,morals4 ,c]ta9ly 9 ! future1 z 9 !    
pa/1 ! c>eful developm5t ( moral "* & ( 
religi\s conviction mu/ be ! *ief       
problem ( education4 ,b until n[ !      
great] numb] ( p h clung to ! conviction
 t ?is mo/ important problem c\ld be    
solv$ only 9 connection ) c]ta9         
ecclesia/ical articles ( fai?4 ,& s9ce  
^! dogmas1 especially z connect$ )      
anci5t my?s ( ! ,creation1 are 9 direct 
opposition to ! facts ( evolution1 !    
latt] h be5 believ$ to be1 9 ! highe/   
degree1 inimical to religion & morality4
  ,?is fe> we believe to be errone\s4 ,x
 has its orig9 9 ! cont9ual confusion ( 
! true1 reasonable1 nature-religion & ! 
dogmatic1 my?ological1 *ur*-religion4 ,!
 ,comp>ative ,hi/ory ( ,religions1 an   
important bran* ( ,an?ropology1 tea*es u

 ! manifold nature ( outw>d =m 9 :i*    
diff]5t peoples & epo*s h1 9 accordance 
) _! individual "*1 envelop$ religi\s   
?\ght4 ,x %[s u t ! dogmatic tea*+s ( ! 
*ur*-religion itself are subject to a   
sl[1 cont9u\s evolution4 ,new *ur*es &  
sects arise1 old ones disappe>2 at !    
be/1 a p>ticul> t5et ( fai? la/s b a few
 ?\s& ye>s1 an inconsid]ably %ort space 
( "t comp>$ ) ! aeons ( ! geological    
p]iods4 ,f9ally1 ! ,hi/ory (            
,civilization %[s u to h[ small an ext5t
 true morality has be5 associat$ ) any  
p>ticul> ecclesia/ical =m4 ,! greate/   
rud5ess & b>b>ity ( cu/om (t5 goes h& 9 
h& ) ! absolute dom9ion ( an all-p[]ful 
*ur*2 9 confirmation ( :i* ass]tion "o  
ne$ only rememb] ! ,middle ,ages4 ,on ! 
o!r h&1 we behold ! highe/ /&>d (       
p]fection atta9$ by m5 :o h sev]$       
connection ) e cre$4  ,indep5d5t ( e    
confession ( fai?1 !re lives 9 ! brea/ (
 e human be+ ! g]m ( a pure             
nature-religion2 ?is is indissolubly    
b\nd up ) ! noble/ sides ( human life4  

,its highe/ comm&m5t is love1 ! re/ra9t 
( our natural egoism = ! b5efit ( our   
fell[-m51 & = ! good ( human society ^: 
memb]s we are4 ,?is natural law (       
morality is mu* old] ?an all            
*ur*-religion4 ,x has develop$ out ( !  
social in/9cts ( ! animals4 ,we meet )  
its rudim5ts among all animals1         
especially among all mammals4 ,foll[+ ! 
laws ( association & ( division ( labor1
 _m individuals ( su* species unite to  
=m ! high] community ( ! sw>m1 h]d1 or  
tribe4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! latt] is          
necess>ily dep5d5t ^u ! mutual relations
 ( ! memb]s ( ! community & ! sacrifices
 :i* ^! make to ! :ole society at ! co/ 
( _! own egoism4 ,! consci\sness ( ?is  
necessity ( self-sacrifice1 ! s5se (    
duty1 is no?+ else ?an a social in/9ct4 
,b ?is in/9ct is always a psy*ical      
habit1 :i* 0 orig9ally acquir$1 b :i*1  
becom+ 9 ! c\rse ( "t h]$it>y1 appe>s at
 la/ z innate4  ,9 ord] to conv9ce      
ourselves ( ! wond]ful p[] ( ! s5se (   
duty among animals1 we ne$ only to      

de/roy an ant-hill4 ,imm$iately we see1 
9 ! mid/ ( ! de/ruction1 ?\s&s ( zeal\s 
citiz5s employ$1 n 9 ! rescue ( _! own  
preci\s lives1 b 9 ! protection ( !     
belov$ community to :i* !y belong4      
,brave soldi]s ( ! ant-/ate prep>e to   
(f] /rong resi/ance to our intrud+ f+]2 
in/ructors ( y\? rescue ! s-call$       
ant-eggs1 ! preci\s l>vae1 on :i* !     
future ( ! /ate dep5ds2 busy work]s     
imm$iately beg9 ) undim9i%$ c\rage to   
cle> away ! ru9s & to prep>e new        
dwell+s4 ,b ! admirable /ate (          
civilization among ^! ants1 among bees &
 o!r social animals1 has be5 develop$1 j
 z has be5 our own1 f ! rude/ beg9n+s4  
,ev5 ^? f9e/ & mo/ beautiful =ms ( human
 emotion :i* we especially celebrate 9  
poetry are to be f\nd prefigur$ among ! 
animals4 ,h n ! t5d] "m-love ( !        
lioness1 ! t\*+ affection betwe5 male & 
female p>rots1 ! self-sacrific+ fidelity
 ( ! dog1 be5 long prov]bial8 ,! noble/ 
emotions ( sympa?y & love1 :i* direct   
action1 are "h1 z ) human be+s1 no?+    

else ?an ennobl$ in/9ct4 ,beg9n+ ) ?is  
conception1 ! ,e?ics ( ,evolution has to
 seek = no new pr9ciple1 b1 on !        
contr>y1 to trace back ! old rules (    
duty to _! sci5tific basis4 ,long be=e !
 rise ( all *ur*-religion1 ^! natural   
comm&m5ts regulat$ ! lawful relations ( 
human be+s1 z ( greg>i\s animals4 ,?is  
significant fact ! *ur*-religions %\ld  
utilize1 in/ead ( disput+4 ,= ! future  
does n belong to t ,!ology :i* decl>es  
w> aga9/ ! triumphant ,!ory (           
,evolution1 b to t :i* makes x its own1 
ackn[l$ges x1 & turns x to advantage4   
,f>1 !re=e1 f fe>+1 f ! influ5ce ( !    
,!ory ( ,evolution1 a subv]sion ( all   
accept$ moral law & a de/ructive        
emancipation ( ,egoism1 we1 on !        
contr>y1 look =w>d to a sy/em ( ,e?ics  
erect$ ^u ! inde/ructible f\ndation (   
un*ang+ natural law1 s9ce at ! same "t )
 ! cle> recognition ( our true place 9  
nature1 ! /udy ( ,an?ropog5y op5s to u !
 compreh5sion ( ! necess>y "* ( our old 
rules ( duty4 ,l !oretical sci5ce1      

,practical ,philosophy & ,p$agogy w no  
long] d]ive _! mo/ important pr9ciples f
 s-call$ revelations1 b f ! sci5tific   
tru?s ( ,evolution4 ,?is victory (      
,monism ov] ,dualism op5s to u a mo/    
hopeful prospect ( an un5d+ cont9uation 
( our moral1 z ( our intellectual       
evolution4 ,9 ?is s5se1 we welcome !    
,!ory ( ,evolution 9 its pres5t =m newly
 /at$ by ,d>w91 z a *all5ge--! mo/      
important *all5ge ( pure & appli$       
sci5ce4  ,z t\*+ on ! idea ( a          
nature-religion z conceiv$ by ,haeckel1 
may be notic$1 h[ev]1 a passage :i*     
occurs at ! end ( *apt] ,,xii4 ( !      
,natu]li*e ,s*oepfungsges*i*te1 z well z
 ! passage be=e ref]r$ to 9 :i* x is    
ass]t$ t we "k only causae effici5tes1  
nev] causae f9ales4 ,! passage is z     
foll[s3 ,! g5]al significance ( !       
deg5]at$ or rudim5t>y organs 9 ! mo/    
important que/ions ( natural philosophy 
_c be ov]-e/imat$4 ,on ^! may be f\nd$ a
 !ory ( ,di/eleology z oppos$ to !      
anci5t1 usual ,teleology4  ,) especial  

!ories ( ,h]$ity advocat$ by ,haeckel we
 are n conc]n$1 except 9 "o respect4    
,ev5 9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 ,natu]li*e    
,s*oepfungsges*i*te1 ,haeckel makes a   
di/9ction betwe5 cons]vative &          
progressive inh]itance1 & 9 ! edition ( 
#ahhi he /ill ma9ta9s ?is division aga9/
 ,weismann & o!rs1 claim+ ! h]$ity (    
acquir$ habit1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 & 
%[+ conclusively t ev5 w\nds & blemi%es 
receiv$ dur+ ! life ( an individual may 
be1 9 "s in/ances1 inh]it$ by           
desc5dants4#cf ,! laws ( progressive    
h]$ity he gives z f\r3 7#a7 ! law ( !   
inh]itance ( adaptation2 7#b7 ! law ( ! 
sur] inh]itance ( qualities fix$ by     
cont9ual op]ation ( its causes on       
individual g5]ations2 7#c7 ! law (      
homo*ron\s inh]itance or inh]itance at a
 correspond+ age2 7#d7 ! law ( homotyp\s
 inh]itance1 :i* may be o!rwise call$ ! 
law ( inh]itance 9 correspond+ p>ts ( ! 
body4#cg  ,hav+ ?us glanc$ at ! special 
!ories by :i* ! great orig9al au?orities
 pav$ ! way = a sy/em ( ,evolutional    

,e?ics1 we may direct our att5tion to ! 
m purely philosophical writ]s :o h turn$
 ^! !ories to advantage & elaborat$ !m4 
,! fir/ on ! li/ is  ,,footnotes3  #cd  
,p4 #gjc et seq4  #ce ,er/] ,vortrag4   
#cf ,p4 #aid et seq4  #cg ,=            
illu/rations & pro(s ( ^! laws1 see !   
,natu]li*e ,s*oepfungsges*i*te1 pp4     
#aic-aig4     ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c]   ,9      
treat+ ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s "w1 x is necess>y
 to beg9 ) a book :i* made its appe>ance
 be=e ! publication ( ,! ,orig9 (       
,species1 namely1 ,social ,/atics       
7#ahea71 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s fir/ notewor?y   
publication4 ,9 ?is are conta9$ "s      
rem>kable /atem5ts1 :i* are ( especial  
wor? z %[+ 9 :at measure ! ?\ght ( ! "t 
0 already t5d+ 9 ! direction ( !        
revelations ( its greate/ prophet1 &    
sci5ce1 9 ,engl& z 9 ,g]many1 0 sl[ly   
com+ to recognize ! unity ( nature 9    
life & human progress4 ,an analysis ( ! 
fir/ & !oretical "p ( ?is "w w be1      
!re=e1 ( use1 & ) ?is we w beg94  ,mr4  
,sp5c] op5s 8 book ) "s criticisms (    

,utilit>ianism or ! ,exp$i5cy           
,philosophy4 ,e rule1 9 ord] to be (    
value1 mu/ h a def9ite mean+4 ,! rule ( 
! greate/ happ9ess to ! greate/ numb]   
supposes mank9d to be unanim\s 9 !      
def9ition ( ! greate/ happ9ess2 ! /&>d (
 happ9ess is1 h[ev]1 inf9itely v>iable1 
9 nations & 9 individuals4 ,= happ9ess  
signifies a gratifi$ /ate ( all !       
faculties2 & no two individuals are     
alike 9 faculties4 ,9 endeavor+ to fix a
 /&>d1 we are met by su* insolvable     
problems z3 ,:at is ! ratio betwe5 m5tal
 & bodily enjoym5ts con/itut+ ! greate/ 
happ9ess8 ,:i* is mo/ truly an elem5t 9 
! desir$ felicity1 cont5t or aspiration8
 ,! conclusion we inevitably rea* is t a
 true conception ( :at human life %\ld  
be is possible only to ! ideal man1--9  
:om ! compon5t feel+s exi/ 9 _! normal  
proportions4 ,! _w z yet conta9s no su* 
m51 & we are left ) an insolvable riddle
 on our h&s4  ,!re is ! same unc]ta9ty z
 to ! mode ( obta9+ ! greate/ happ9ess4 
,! ,exp$i5cy ,philosophy believes t     

man's intellect is compet5t to obs]ve   
accurately & to grasp at once !         
multipli$ ph5om5a ( life & d]ive !refrom
 ! k :i* %all enable him to say :e!r su*
 or su* measures w conduce to ! greate/ 
happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]4  ,if )\t k (
 t]re/rial ph5om5a & _! laws1 ,newton _h
 attempt$ a !ory ( planet>y & /ell>     
equilibrium1 he might h cogitat$ to all 
et]nity )\t result4 ,su* an attempt1    
h[ev]1 w\ld h be5 f> less absurd ?an !  
attempt to f9d out ! pr9ciples ( public 
polity by a direct exam9ation ( t       
wond]fully intricate comb9ation1        
,society4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ,society x  
is necess>y to compreh5d ,man4  ,ano!r  
mi/ake ( ! ,exp$i5cy ,philosophy is t x 
assumes ! et]nity ( gov]nm5t1 :i* m>ks a
 c]ta9 /age ( civilization1 b :i* w by  
no means necess>ily la/ =ev]4 ,"t 0 :5 !
 hi/ory ( a p 0 ! hi/ory ( its gov]nm5t4
 ,feudalism1 s]fdom1 slav]y1--all 7 =ms 
( gov]nm5t4 ,progress means less        
gov]nm5t2 con/itutional =ms1 political  
fre$om1 democracy1 all mean ?is4        

,gov]nm5t is a sign ( imp]fection1 an   
evil necess>y aga9/ knav]y2 x mu/ exi/  
only s long z ?is exi/s4 ,! ,exp$i5cy   
,philosophy is1 h[ev]1 f\nd$ on         
gov]nm5t2 takes x into p>tn]%ip3 b a    
sy/em ( moral philosophy pr(esses to be 
a code ( correct rules = ! be/1 z well z
 ! wor/1 memb]s ( society1 & applicable 
to humanity 9 its highe/ conceivable    
p]fection4 ,( ! ,exp$i5cy ,philosophy x 
mu/1 !re=e1 be said t x c claim no      
sci5tific "*1 s9ce3  ,its fundam5tal    
proposition is n an axiom b a problem to
 be solv$2  ,x is express$ 9 t]ms       
possess+ no fix$ acceptation2  ,x w\ld  
require omnisci5ce to c>ry x into       
practice2  ,&1 moreov]1 x takes         
imp]fection = its basis4  ,! exi/5ce (  
society argues a c]ta9 fitness & desire 
( mank9d = x2 )\t ?is1 x w\ld n exi/1 z 
eat+ & dr9k+1 & ! n\ri%m5t & protection 
( (fspr+ w\ld n take place if !re 7 no  
correspond+ desires1 b m]ely an ab/ract 
op9ion 9 favor ( ! wor? ( ! two4 ,9 !   
me?od ( nature1 !re is always "s        

prompt]1 call$ a desire1 answ]+ to ea* (
 ! actions :i* x is requisite = u to    
p]=m4 ,x is probable1 !re=e1 t we %all  
f9d an in/rum5tality ( ?is sort prompt+ 
u to morality4 ,9 objection to ! !ory ( 
a moral s5se1 ! want ( uni=mity 9       
judgm5t z to :at is "r is (t5 advanc$4  
,b none d5y ! importance ( appetite1    
?\gh all "k t x is by no means an       
infallible guide 9 ! *oice ( k9d or     
quantity ( food4 ,! same may be said (  
p>5tal affection4 ,! f\ndation ( ! claim
 ( any man t he has z great a "r to     
happ9ess z any o!r c be f\nd 9 ! la/    
analysis 9 feel+ only2 he feels t x is  
s4  ,none b ^? committ$ to a preconceiv$
 !ory c fail to recognize ! work+s ( su*
 a faculty z ! moral s5se4 ,x is cle> t 
! p]ceptions ( propriety or impropriety 
( conduct d n orig9ate ) ! intellect b )
 ! emotional faculties4 ,! intellect1   
un9flu5c$ by desire1 w\ld %[ bo? mis] & 
sp5d?rift t _! habits 7 unwise2 :]eas ! 
intellect1 influ5c$ by desire1 makes ea*
 ?9k ! o!r a fool1 b does n enable him  

to see 8 own fooli%ness4  ,?is is a     
univ]sal law3 ,e feel+ is accompani$ by 
a s5se ( ! rightness ( ^? actions :i*   
give x gratification4 ,f an impulse to  
behave 9 a way we call equitable arises 
a p]ception t x is prop]1 & a conviction
 t x is good4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a p]petual
 conflict among/ feel+s1 f :i* results  
an incongruity ( beliefs4  ,x has be5   
said t codes d]iv$ f ! moral s5se h no  
/ability s9ce ?is s5se ratifies "o      
pr9ciple at "o "t & place1 ano!r at     
ano!r4 ,! same objection applies1 h[ev]1
 to e o!r sy/em ( morals1 & happily !re 
is an answ] to ! objection4 ,! error    
criticis$ is "o ( application1 n (      
doctr9e4 ,! decisions ( ! ,geometric    
,s5se are conflict+2 yet !re are c]ta9  
axioms ^u :i* all agree2 & 9 ! same     
mann] !re are moral axioms to be f\nd1  
^u :i* all mu/ agree4 ,disagreem5t is to
 be look$ = among imp]fect *>act]s4 ,b  
nature's laws "k no exception3 ,obey or 
suff] are ! alt]natives4 ,a progress f  
entire unconsci\sness ( ^! laws to !    

conviction t law is univ]sal &          
inevitable1 con/ancy an ess5tial        
attribute ( div9e rule1 is ! sub/ance ( 
! progress ( man4 ,! end ( ^! unb5d+    
utt]ances is univ]sal good2 we h no     
alt]native b to assume ! law ( con/ancy 
to be ! be/ possible "o4 ,z ) !         
physical1 s ) ! e?ical2 all religions   
tea* ! inevitabl5ess ( puni%m5t & rew>d1
 ) :i* de$s are necess>ily &            
indissolubly connect$4 ,x is ( inf9ite  
importance to recognize & foll[ ! laws (
 society4 ,to ! objection t "o _c always
 be guid$ by ab/ract pr9ciples1 t !re   
are exceptions :]e prud5ce mu/ act1 x   
may be repli$ t !re are no exceptions to
 ! laws ( nature2 t ev5 if1 9 a p>ticul>
 in/ance1 p>tial good may result1 a f>  
great] g5]al evil is entail$ by ! op5+ (
 ! way to future disob$i5ces1 & t we _c1
 moreov]1 be sure t an exceptional      
disob$i5ce w br+ ! anticipat$ b5efits4  
,moral z well z physical evil is !      
result ( a want ( congruity betwe5 !    
faculties & _! sph]e ( action4 ,) reg>d 

to ! results ( v>y+ conditions ^u man1  
we h ?ree alt]native !ories f :i* to    
*oose3 ei!r man rema9s entirely unalt]$ 
by 8 surr\nd+s1 or he gr[s m unfitt$ =  
!m1 or else he gr[s m fitt$ = !m4 ,!    
fir/ two suppositions be+ absurd1 we are
 oblig$ to admit ! rema9+ "o4 ,& s9ce   
all evil results f non-adaptation1 &    
non-adaptation is be+ cont9ually        
dim9i%$1 x foll[s t evil mu/ be         
cont9ually dim9i%+4 ,! evil 9 society   
%[s t man is n yet completely adapt$ to 
a /ate :i* requires t ea* individual    
%all h su* desires only z may be fully  
satisfi$ )\t tr5*+ ^u ! ability ( o!r   
individuals to obta9 a l satisfaction4  
,! primitive condition ( man requir$ t  
he %\ld sacrifice ! welf>e ( o!r be+s to
 8 own2 ! old attribute /ill cl+s to him
 9 "s measure2 ! belief 9 human         
p]fectibility am\nts to ! belief t man w
 ev5tually become completely suit$ to 8 
mode ( life4 ,progress is n an accid5t b
 a necessity2 & if1 in/ead ( propos+ x z
 a rule ( human conduct1 ,b5?am _h      

simply assum$ ! greate/ happ9ess to be !
 creative purpose1 8 position w\ld h be5
 t5able en\gh4 ,x is "o ?+1 h[ev]1 to   
hold t greate/ happ9ess is ! creative   
purpose1 & q a diff]5t ?+ to hold t     
greate/ happ9ess %\ld be ! imm$iate aim 
( mank9d4 ,tru? has two sides1 a div9e &
 a human2 or1 x is = man to asc]ta9 !   
conditions :i* lead to ! greate/        
happ9ess1 & to live 9 con=mity ) ^!4  ,!
 m5 :o are to realize ?is greate/ sum ( 
happ9ess mu/ be su* z c obta9 complete  
happ9ess )\t dim9i%+ ! activity &       
happ9ess ( o!rs4 ,! fir/ great condition
 ( ! atta9m5t ( ! end is1 !re=e1 ju/ice1
 &1 z a supplem5t to ?is1 negative &    
positive b5efic5ce1--ab/95ce f dim9i%+ !
 sph]es ( activity ( o!rs1 & fur!r1 a   
positive increase ( _! pleasure4 ,= man 
is sympa!tic1 & ! sympa!tic pleasures   
increase ! sum total ( happ9ess4  ,!    
ex]cise#ch ( all ! faculties 9 :i*      
happ9ess consi/s is n only man's "r b   
also 8 duty4 ,= ! fact ( pa91 (         
puni%m5t1 proves t ,god int5ds & wills  

su* ex]cise4 ,b ! ex]cise ( all !       
faculties is fre$om2 all m5 h1 !re=e1 a 
"r to fre$om ( action4 ,?is pr9ciple1   
h[ev]1 implies a limitation ( man by m51
 :]eby we arrive at ! g5]al proposition 
t e man may claim ! fulle/ lib]ty to    
ex]cise 8 feel+s compatible ) !         
possession ( a l lib]ty 9 e o!r man4 ,9 
! progress ( mank9d1 or adaptation1 !   
conduct :i* hurts necess>y feel+s 9 o!rs
 mu/ inevitably und]go re/ra9t &        
consequ5t limitation2 conduct :i* hurts 
only _! incid5tal feel+s1 z ^? ( ca/e or
 prejudice1 w n inevitably be re/ra9$1 b
 if x spr+s f necess>y feel+s1 w1 on !  
contr>y1 be cont9u$ at ! exp5se ( ^!    
incid5tal feel+s & to _! f9al           
suppression4 ,morality is n1 !re=e1 to  
be int]pret$ z a refra9+ f ! infliction 
( any pa9 :atev]1 = "s s5tim5t mu/ be   
w\nd$2 & by mu* w\nd+ x is gradually    
weak5$4 ,:5 m5 mutually behave 9 a way t
 (f5ds "s ess5tial elem5t 9 ! nature (  
ea*1 & all 9 turn h to be> ! consequ5t  
suff]+1 !re w arise a t5d5cy to curb !  

desire t makes !m s behave4  ,que/ions (
 individual morality seem to pres5t a   
difficulty to ?is !ory ( fre$om4 ,?us1 =
 in/ance1 on ! pr9ciple above adopt$1 ! 
lib]ty ( drunk5ness _c be condemn$ z    
long z ! drunk>d respects a l lib]ty 9  
o!rs2 & "h we fall into ! inconsi/5cy ( 
affirm+ t a man is at lib]ty to d some?+
 ess5tially de/ructive ( happ9ess4      
,h[ev]1 if we admit1 z we mu/1 t lib]ty 
is ! prim>y law1 no desire to get a     
second>y law fulfill$ c w>rant u 9      
break+ ?is prim>y "o2 we mu/ deal )     
second>y laws z be/ we c4  ,! fir/      
pr9ciple above /at$ may also be         
second>ily d]iv$4 ,! regulation (       
conduct is n left to ! accid5t ( a      
philosophical inquiry2 ! ag5t ( morality
 is ! ,moral ,s5se4  ,9 all ages1 b m   
especially 9 rec5t ones1 h !re be5      
affirmations ( ! equality ( all m5 & _! 
equal "r to happ9ess4 ,:5 we f9d t a    
belief l ?is is n only p]man5t b daily  
ga9+ gr\nd1 we h good reason to conclude
 t x corresponds to "s ess5tial elem5t (

 our moral con/itution2 m especially    
s9ce we f9d t its exi/5ce is 9 h>mony ) 
t *ief pr]equisite to greate/ happ9ess  
lately dwelt ^u2 & t its gr[? is 9      
h>mony ) ! law ( adaptation1 by :i* !   
greate/ happ9ess is be+ wr\ght out4  ,to
 ass]t1 h[ev]1 t ! s5se ( ju/ice is b ! 
gradually acquir$ conviction t b5efits  
spr+ f "s k9ds ( action1 & evils f o!r  
k9ds1 ! sympa?ies & antipa?ies contract$
 manife/+ !mselves z a love ( ju/ice & a
 hatr$ ( inju/ice1 is z absurd z to     
conclude t hung] spr+s f a conviction ( 
! b5efit ( eat+4  ,! ,moral ,s5se mu/ be
 reg>d$ z a special faculty1 s9ce1      
o!rwise1 !re w\ld be no?+ dur+ !        
dormancy ( ! o!r faculties1 :i* mu/     
sometimes occur1 to prev5t an infr+em5t 
on ! fre$om requisite = _! future       
action4  ,z ,adam ,smi? has %[n 9 8     
,!ory ( ,moral ,s5tim5ts1 ! prop]       
regulation ( our conduct to o!rs is     
secur$ by means ( a faculty ^: function 
x is to excite 9 ea* be+ ! emotions     
display$ by ! be+s ab\t him4 ,! s5tim5t 

( ju/ice is no?+ b a sympa!tic affection
 ( ! in/9ct ( p]sonal rights1 a sort (  
reflex function ( x4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1
 ^? p]sons possess+ ! /ronge/ s5se (    
p]sonal rights h1 also1 ! /ronge/ s5se (
 ! rights ( o!rs4 ,!re is no necess>y   
connection betwe5 ! two2 b 9 ! av]age ( 
cases !y be> a con/ant ratio4  ,x may be
 object$ t if ! tru? t e man has a      
fre$om to d all t he wills1 provid$ he  
infr+e n ^u ! equal fre$om ( o!rs1 be an
 axiom1 x %\ld be recogniz$ by all1 z is
 n ! case4 ,?is difficulty seems 9 "p   
due to ! impossibility ( mak+ ! p]fect  
law recognize an imp]fect /ate4 ,x may  
fur!r be answ]$ t ! ,bu%man kn[s no?+ ( 
! sci5ce ( ma!matics1 yet t ari?metic is
 a fact2 ! diff]5ce 9 m5's moral        
p]ceptions is no difficulty 9 our way1 b
 r illu/rates ! tru? ( our !ory1 s9ce   
man is n yet adapt$ to ! social /ate4   
,9 fur!r confirmation ( ! doctr9e ( !   
free ex]cise ( function1 x may be add$  
t1 s9ce non-fulfilm5t ( desire produces 
mis]y1 if ,god is to be reg>d$ z will+  

su* non-fulfilm5t1 he mu/ be reg>d$ z   
will+ m5's mis]y2 :i* is absurd4 ,if m5 
are n naturally free1 !n a doctr9e ( !  
div9e "r ( k+s is easily rea*$1 & :oev] 
is k+ mu/ be reg>d$ z su* by div9e "r1  
no matt] h[ he rea*$ ! ?rone4  ,sp5c] !n
 proce$s to apply 8 fir/ pr9ciple or    
axiom ( fre$om to prove ! "r to life &  
lib]ty1 to ! use ( ! e>?1 to prop]ty &  
free spee*2 & consid]s fur!r ! rights ( 
wom5 & ( *ildr51 & ! political rights ( 
individuals2 ! con/itution & duty ( !   
/ate2 comm]ce1 education1 & ! poor-laws2
 gov]nm5t colonization1 sanit>y         
sup]vision1 po/al arrangem5ts1 etc4 ,a  
rem>kable feature ( ?is "p ( ,social    
,/atics is t ,sp5c]1 :ile apply+ 8      
pr9ciple ) q an opposite result to all  
o!r prop]ty1 advocates ! nationalization
 ( ! l&1 on ! gr\nd t ! fre$om ( !      
individual is "r only 9 s f> z x does n 
h9d] a l fre$om 9 o!rs2 & t !           
monopolization ( ! privileges (         
l&-own]%ip by individuals does prev5t ! 
enjoym5t ( ! same privilege by o!rs4    

,,g5]al ,,consid]ations  ,! c\rse (     
civilization c\ld n possibly h be5 o!r  
?an x has be54  ,progress %[s u t p]fect
 individuation jo9$ to ! greate/ mutual 
dep5d5ce w be rea*$ 9 ! future ( ! race4
 ,!re w be an ultimate id5tity ( p]sonal
 & social int]e/s1 & a disappe>ance (   
evil4 ,sp5c] gives1 h[ev]1 a numb] (    
argum5ts to prove t ! int]e/ ( society  
is1 at pres5t also1 ! int]e/ ( !        
individual4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,! ,!ory (          
,population 7publi%$ 9 #aheb71 :i* is   
f\nd$ on ! !ory ( an antagonism betwe5 !
 intellectual & ! reproductive p[]s1 &  
on ! anci5t !ory ( a direct relation    
betwe5 skull-capacity or bra9-size &    
intellectual p[]1 conta9s ?is passage3  
,f ! beg9n+1 pressure ( population has  
be5 ! proximate cause ( progress4 ,x    
produc$ ! orig9al diffusion ( ! race4 ,x
 compell$ m5 to ab&on pr$atory habits & 
take to agriculture4 ,x l$ to ! cle>+ ( 
! e>?'s surface4 ,x =c$ m5 into ! social
 /ate2 made social organization         

inevitable2 & has develop$ ! social     
s5tim5ts4 ,x has /imulat$ to progressive
 improvem5ts 9 production1 & to increas$
 skill & intellig5ce4 ,x is daily press+
 u into clos] contact & m mutually      
dep5d5t relation%ips4 ,& aft] hav+      
caus$1 z x ultimately mu/1 ! due peopl+ 
( ! globe1 & ! br++ ( all its habitable 
p>ts into ! highe/ /ate ( culture1--aft]
 hav+ br\ght all processes = !          
satisfaction ( human wants to ! greate/ 
p]fection1--aft] hav+1 at ! same "t1    
develop$ ! intellect into complete      
compet5cy = its "w1 & ! feel+s into     
complete fitness = social life1--aft]   
hav+ done all ?is1 we see ! pressure (  
population1 z x gradually f9i%es its "w1
 mu/ gradually br+ itself to an end4  ,9
 a lett] to ,mr4 ,mill1 publi%$ 9 ,ba9's
 ,m5tal & ,moral ,sci5ce 7p4 #gba1 #c;d 
edition71 ,sp5c] repudiates ! title (   
,anti-,utilit>ian1 :i* ,mr4 ,mill1 9    
view ( ! criticisms ( ,utilit>ianism    
conta9$ 9 ,social ,/atics1 _h appli$ to 
him4 ,he def9es 8 position 9 respect to 

,utilit>ianism z foll[s3 ,i h nev]      
reg>d$ myself z an ,anti-,utilit>ian4   
,my diss5t f ! doctr9e ( ,utility z     
commonly und]/ood1 conc]ns1 n ! object  
to be rea*$ by m51 b ! me?od ( rea*+ x4 
,:ile ,i admit t happ9ess is ! ultimate 
end to be contemplat$1 ,i d n admit t x 
%\ld be ! proximate end4 ,! ,exp$i5cy   
,philosophy1 hav+ conclud$ t happ9ess is
 a ?+ to be a*iev$1 assumes t ,morality 
has no o!r bus9ess ?an empirically to   
g5]alize ! results ( conduct1 & to      
supply = ! guidance ( conduct no?+ m ?an
 its empirical g5]alizations4  ,b ! view
 = :i* ,i cont5d is1 t ,morality prop]ly
 s-call$--! sci5ce ( "r conduct--has =  
its object to det]m9e h[ & :y c]ta9     
modes ( conduct are detrim5tal1 & c]ta9 
o!r modes b5eficial4 ,^! good & bad     
results _c be accid5tal1 b mu/ be       
necess>y consequ5ces ( ! con/itution (  
?+s1 & ,i conceive x to be ! bus9ess (  
,moral ,sci5ce to d$uce f ! laws ( life 
& ! conditions ( exi/5ce :at k9ds (     
action necess>ily t5d to produce        

happ9ess & :at k9ds to produce          
unhapp9ess4 ,hav+ done ?is1 its         
d$uctions are to be recogniz$ z laws (  
conduct2 & are to be con=m$ to          
irrespective ( a direct e/imation (     
happ9ess or mis]y4  ,p]haps an analogy w
 mo/ cle>ly %[ my mean+4 ,dur+ its e>ly 
/ages1 planet>y a/ronomy consi/$ ( no?+ 
m ?an accumulat$ obs]vations respect+ ! 
positions & motions ( ! sun & planets2 f
 :i* accumulat$ obs]vations x came by & 
by to be empirically pr$ict$1 ) an      
approa* to tru?1 t c]ta9 ( ! heav5ly    
bodies w\ld h c]ta9 positions at c]ta9  
times4 ,b ! mod]n sci5ce ( planet>y     
a/ronomy consi/s ( d$uctions f ! law (  
gravitation--d$uctions %[+ :y ! cele/ial
 bodies necess>ily occupy c]ta9 places  
at c]ta9 times4 ,n[ ! k9d ( relation :i*
 ?us exi/s betwe5 anci5t & mod]n        
a/ronomy is analog\s to ! k9d ( relation
 :i*1 ,i conceive1 exi/s betwe5 !       
,exp$i5cy ,morality & ,moral ,sci5ce    
prop]ly s-call$4 ,& ! objection :i* ,i h
 to ! curr5t ,utilit>ianism is1 t x     

recognizes no m develop$ =m (           
morality--does n see t x has rea*$ b !  
initial /age ( ,moral ,sci5ce4  ,to make
 my position fully und]/ood1 x seems    
ne$ful to add t1 correspond+ to !       
fundam5tal propositions ( a develop$    
,moral ,sci5ce1 !re h be51 & /ill are1  
develop+ 9 ! race1 c]ta9 fundam5tal     
moral intuitions2 & t1 ?\gh ^! moral    
intuitions are ! results ( accumulat$   
exp]i5ces ( ,utility1 gradually organiz$
 & inh]it$1 !y h come to be q indep5d5t 
( consci\s exp]i5ce4 ,j 9 ! same way t  
,i believe ! intuition ( space possess$ 
by any liv+ individual1 to h aris5 f !  
organiz$ & consolidat$ exp]i5ces ( all  
antec$5t individuals1 :o bequea!d to him
 _! sl[ly develop$ n]v\s                
organizations--j z ,i believe t ?is     
intuition1 requir+ only to be made      
def9ite & complete by p]sonal exp]i5ces1
 has practically become a =m ( ?\ght1   
app>5tly q indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce2 s d ,i 
believe t ! exp]i5ces ( utility organiz$
 & consolidat$ ?r\gh all pa/ g5]ations (

 ! human race1 h be5 produc+ n]v\s      
modifications1 :i*1 by cont9u$          
transmission & accumulation1 h become 9 
u c]ta9 faculties ( moral intuition1    
c]ta9 emotions respond+ to "r & wrong   
conduct1 :i* h no app>5t basis 9 !      
individual exp]i5ces ( utility4 ,i also 
hold t1 j z ! space-intuition responds  
to ! exact demon/rations ( geometry1 &  
has its r\gh conclusions int]pret$ &    
v]ifi$ by !m1 s w moral intuitions      
respond to ! demon/rations ( ,moral     
,sci5ce2 & w h _! r\gh conclusions      
int]pret$ & v]ifi$ by !m4  ,9 ,rec5t    
,discussions 9 ,sci5ce1 ,philosophy1 &  
,morals#ci 7#ahga71 ,sp5c]1 aft] quot+  
portions ( ! above lett] z def9+ 8      
position1 cont9ues ) a consid]ation ( ! 
cont9ual readju/m5t ( ! compromise      
betwe5 ! ideal & ! practicable1 ! =m] ( 
:i* prescribes a sy/em f> too good = m5 
z !y are1 ! latt] ( :i* does n ( itself 
t5d to e/abli% a sy/em bett] ?an ! exi/+
 "o2 & he reit]ates 8 law ( ! p]fect man
 z foll[s3--  ,grant$ t we are *iefly   

int]e/$ 9 asc]ta9+ :at is relatively "r1
 x /ill foll[s t we mu/ fir/ consid] :at
 is absolutely "r2 s9ce ! "o conception 
presupposes ! o!r4 ,sp5c] fur!r         
expressly repudiates empirical          
,utilit>ianism1 & d5ies ! ass]tion (    
,mr4 ,hutton t he by implication        
recognizes no p>5tage = morals beyond t 
( ! accumulation & organization ( !     
facts ( exp]i5ce4 ,on ?is head he       
says3--  ,9 ! g5esis ( an idea1 !       
successive exp]i5ces1 be !y ( s\nds1    
colors1 t\*es1 ta/es1 or be !y ( !      
special objects t comb9e _m ( ^! into   
gr\ps1 h s mu* 9 common t ea*1 :5 x     
occurs1 c be def9itely ?\ght ( z l ^?   
:i* prec$$ x4 ,b 9 ! g5esis ( an        
emotion1 ! successive exp]i5ces s f>    
diff] t ea* ( !m1 :5 x occurs1 sugge/s  
pa/ exp]i5ces :i* are n specifically    
simil>1 b h only a g5]al simil>ity2 &1  
at ! same "t1 x sugge/s b5efits or evils
 9 pa/ exp]i5ce :i* likewise are v>i\s 9
 _! special natures1 ?\gh !y h a c]ta9  
community ( g5]al nature4 ,h5ce x       

results t ! consci\sness ar\s$ is a     
multitud9\s confus$ consci\sness1 9 :i*1
 along ) a c]ta9 k9d ( comb9ation among 
impressions receiv$ f )\t1 !re is a     
vague cl\d ( ideal comb9ations ak9 to   
!m1 & a vague mass ( ideal feel+s (     
pleasure or pa9 t 7 associat$ ) !m4 ,we 
h abundant pro( t feel+s gr[ up )\t     
ref]5ce to recogniz$ causes &           
consequ5ces1 & )\t ! possessor ( !m be+ 
able to say :y !y h gr[n up1 ?\gh       
analysis1 nev]!less1 %[s t !y h be5 =m$ 
out ( connect$ exp]i5ces4 ,! exp]i5ces (
 utility ,i ref] to are ^? :i* become   
regi/]$1 n z di/9ctly recogniz$         
connections betwe5 c]ta9 k9ds ( acts &  
c]ta9 k9ds ( remote results1 b ^? :i*   
become regi/]$ 9 ! %ape ( associations  
betwe5 gr\ps ( feel+s t h (t5 recurr$   
toge!r1 ?\gh ! relation betwe5 !m has n 
be5 consci\sly g5]aliz$--associations   
:i* ?\gh little p]ceiv$1 nev]!less s]ve 
z inc5tives or det]r5ts4 ,mu* deep] d[n 
?an ! hi/ory ( ! human race mu/ we g to 
f9d ! beg9n+s ( ^! connections4 ,!      

appe>ances & s\nds :i* excite 9 ! infant
 a vague dread indicate dang]2 & d s    
because !y are ! physiological          
accompanim5ts ( de/ructive action4  ,:at
 we call ! natural language ( ang] is   
due to a p>tial contraction ( ^? muscles
 :i* actual combat w\ld call into play2 
& all m>ks ( irritation1 d[n to t pass+ 
%ade ov] ! br[ :i* accompanies slight   
annoyance1 are incipi5t /ages ( ^! same 
contractions4 ,conv]sely ) ! natural    
language ( pleasure1 & ( t /ate ( m9d   
:i* we call amicable feel+2 ?is1 too1   
has a physical int]pretation4  ,( !     
altrui/ic s5tim5ts1 ,sp5c] says3 ,!     
developm5t ( ^! has gone on only z fa/ z
 society has advanc$ to a /ate 9 :i* !  
activities are ma9ly peaceful4 ,! root (
 all ! altrui/ic s5tim5ts is sympa?y1 & 
sympa?y c\ld become dom9ant only :5 !   
mode ( life1 in/ead ( be+ "o t          
habitually inflict$ direct pa91 became  
"o :i* conf]r$ direct & indirect        
b5efits2 ! pa9s inflict$ be+ ma9ly      
incid5tal & indirect4 ,sympa?y is !     

concomitant ( greg>i\sness2 ! two hav+  
all along increas$ by reciprocal aid4   
,if we suppose all ?\ght ( rew>ds or    
puni%m5ts1 imm$iate or remote1 to be    
left out ( consid]ation1 x is cle> t any
 "o :o hesitates to inflict a pa9       
because ( ! vivid repres5tation ( t pa9 
:i* rises 9 8 consci\sness1 is re/ra9$ n
 by any s5se ( obligation or by any     
=mulat$ doctr9e ( utility1 b by ! pa9ful
 associations e/abli%$ 9 him4 ,& x is   
cle> t if1 aft] repeat$ exp]i5ces ( !   
moral discom=t he has felt f witness+ ! 
unhapp9ess indirectly caus$ by "s ( 8   
acts1 he is l$ to *eck himself :5 aga9  
tempt$ to ^? acts1 ! re/ra9t is ( l     
nature4 ,conv]sely ) ! pleasure-giv+    
acts1 repetitions ( k9d de$s & exp]i5ces
 ( ! sympa!tic gratifications t foll[   
t5d cont9ually to make /rong] !         
association betwe5 de$s & feel+s (      
happ9ess4  ,sp5c] cont9ues3 ,ev5tually  
^! exp]i5ces may be consci\sly g5]aliz$1
 & !re may result a delib]ate pursuit ( 
! sympa!tic gratifications4 ,!re may    

also come to be di/9ctly recogniz$ !    
tru?s t ! remot] results are            
respectively detrim5tal & b5eficial--t  
due reg>d = o!rs is conducive to        
ultimate p]sonal welf>e1 & disreg>d (   
o!rs to ultimate p]sonal disa/]2 & !n   
!re may become curr5t su* summations (  
exp]i5ce z 'hone/y is ! be/ policy4' ,b 
s f> f reg>d+ ^! intellectual           
recognitions ( utility z prec$+ & caus+ 
! moral s5tim5t1 ,i reg>d ! moral       
s5tim5t z prec$+ su* recognitions (     
utility & mak+ !m possible4 ,! pleasures
 & pa9s directly result+1 9 exp]i5ce1 f 
sympa!tic & unsympa!tic actions1 _h fir/
 to be sl[ly associat$ ) su* actions1 & 
! result+ inc5tives & det]r5ts frequ5tly
 obey$1 be=e !re c\ld arise ! p]ceptions
 t sympa!tic & unsympa!tic actions are  
remotely b5eficial or detrim5tal to !   
actor2 & !y _h to be obey$ /ill long] & 
m g5]ally be=e !re c\ld arise !         
p]ceptions t !y are socially b5eficial &
 detrim5tal4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! remote       
effects1 p]sonal & social1 h ga9$ g5]al 

recognition1 are express$ 9 curr5t      
maxims1 & lead to injunctions hav+ !    
religi\s sanction1 ! s5tim5ts t prompt  
sympa!tic actions & *eck unsympa!tic    
ones1 are imm5sely /r5g!n$ by _!        
alliances4 ,approbation & reprobation1  
div9e & human1 come to be associat$ 9   
?\ght ) ! sympa!tic & unsympa!tic       
actions respectively4 ,! comm&s ( a     
cre$1 ! legal p5alties1 & ! code (      
social conduct1 mutually en=ce !m2 & e  
*ild1 z x gr[s up1 daily has impress$ on
 x1 by ! words & faces & voices ( ^?    
ar\nd1 ! au?ority ( ^! highe/ pr9ciples4
  ,! altrui/ic s5tim5ts develop1 &      
altrui/ic action becomes habitual1 until
 at l5g? ^! altrui/ic s5tim5ts beg9 to  
call 9 "q ! au?ority ( ^? ego-altrui/ic 
s5tim5ts :i* once rul$ un*all5g$4  ,&   
,sp5c] sums up 8 objections to !        
int]pretation ( 8 !ory ( ! developm5t ( 
! moral s5tim5t z foll[s3 ,:at ,i h said
 w make x cle> t two fundam5tal errors h
 be5 made 9 ! int]pretation put ^u x4   
,bo? ,utility & ,exp]i5ce h be5 con/ru$ 

9 s5ses mu* too n>r[4  ,utility1        
conv5i5t a ^w z x is f its              
compreh5siv5ess1 has v inconv5i5t &     
mislead+ implications4 ,x vividly       
sugge/s uses & means & proximate ends1 b
 v fa9tly sugge/s ! pleasures1 positive 
or negative1 :i* are ! ultimate ends1 & 
:i*1 9 ! e?ical mean+ ( ! ^w1 are alone 
consid]$2 &1 fur!r1 x implies consci\s  
recognition ( means & ends--implies !   
delib]ate tak+ ( "s c\rse to ga9 a      
p]ceiv$ b5efit4 ,exp]i5ce1 too1 9 its   
ord9>y acceptation1 connotes def9ite    
p]ceptions ( causes & consequ5ces1 z /&+
 9 obs]v$ relations1 & is n tak5 to     
include ! connections f\nd 9            
consci\sness betwe5 /ates t occur       
toge!r1 :5 ! relation betwe5 !m1 causal 
or o!r1 is n p]ceiv$4 ,x is 9 _! wide/  
s5ses1 h[ev]1 t ,i habitually use ^!    
words1 z w be manife/ to e "o :o reads !
 ',pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology4'  ,9 8 essay 
on ,prison ,e?ics 7#ahfj71 ,sp5c] says3 
,! antagoni/ic s*ools ( morals1 l _m o!r
 antagoni/ic s*ools1 are bo? "r & bo?   

wrong4 ,! a priori s*ool has its tru?2 !
 a po/]iori s*ool has its tru?2 & = !   
prop] guidance ( conduct !re %\ld be due
 recognition ( bo?4 ,on ! "o h&1 x is   
ass]t$ t !re is an absolute /&>d (      
rectitude2 & respect+ c]ta9 classes (   
actions1 x is rightly ass]t$4 ,f !      
fundam5tal laws ( life & ! conditions ( 
social exi/5ce are d$ucible c]ta9       
imp]ative limitations to individual     
action--limitations :i* are ess5tial to 
a p]fect life1 individual & social2 or1 
9 o!r words1 ess5tial to ! greate/      
possible happ9ess4 ,& ^! limitations1   
foll[+ inevitably z !y d f und5iable    
fir/ pr9ciples1 deep z ! nature ( life  
itself1 con/itute :at we may di/+ui% z  
absolute morality4  ,on ! o!r h&1 x is  
cont5d$1 & 9 a s5se rightly cont5d$1 t )
 m5 z !y are1 & society z x is1 !       
dictates ( absolute morality are        
impracticable4 ,legal control1 :i*      
involves ! infliction ( pa91 alike on ^?
 :o are re/ra9$ & on ^? :o pay ! co/ (  
re/ra9+ !m1 is prov$ by ?is fact to be n

 absolutely moral1 see+ t absolute      
morality is ! regulation ( conduct 9 su*
 way t pa9 %all n be inflict$4 ,:]e=e1  
if x be admitt$ t legal control is at   
pres5t indisp5sable1 x mu/ be admitt$ t 
^! a priori rules _c be imm$iately c>ri$
 out4 ,& h5ce x foll[s t we mu/ adapt   
our laws & actions to ! exi/+ "* (      
mank9d--t we mu/ e/imate ! good or evil 
result+ f ?is or t arrangem5t1 & s rea* 
a po/]iori a code fitt$ = ! "t be+4 ,9  
%ort1 we mu/ fall back on exp$i5cy4     
,sp5c] !n goes on to argue t an advanc$ 
p5al code is z impossible to an e>ly    
/age ( civilization z is an advanc$ =m (
 gov]nm5t2 a bloody p5al code is bo? a  
natural product ( ! "t & a ne$ful       
re/ra9t = ! "t1 & is also ! only "o :i* 
c\ld be c>ri$ out by ! exi/+            
adm9i/ration4  ,! aim ( morality is     
life1 ( absolute morality complete life2
 society is !re=e ju/ifi$ 9 co]c+ !     
crim9al :o breaks ?r\gh ! conditions (  
life or con/ra9s u to d s4 ,co]cion is  
legitimate to ! ext5t ( compell+        

re/itution1 & prev5t+ a repetition (    
aggressions2 no fur!r4 ,less bloody     
sy/ems ( puni%m5t1 :]ev] introduc$1 h   
borne excell5t fruit4 ,x may be         
d$uctively %[n t ! be/ ( all sy/ems mu/ 
be t be/ calculat$ to re=m ! crim9al2   
too sev]e puni%m5t1 in/ead ( awak5+ a   
s5se ( guilt1 prev5ts ! same1 begett+ a 
s5se ( inju/ice t[>ds ! inflict+ p[]1   
:i* causes res5tm5t2 s t1 ev5 if !      
crim9al1 on re5t]+ society1 commits no  
fur!r crime1 he is re/ra9$ by ! l[e/ (  
motives--fe>4 ,! indu/rial sy/em appli$ 
9 prisons mu/ h ! be/ results--c\nt]act+
 habits ( idl5ess1 /r5g!n+ self-control1
 & educat+ ! w4  ,! pr9ciple ( fre$om1  
:i* runs ?r\gh all ,sp5c]'s works1 is   
especially en\nc$ aga91 9 8 essay1 ,!   
,man v]sus ! ,/ate 7#ahhd71 9 :i* he    
combats ! great political sup]/ition (  
s-call$ pat]nal gov]nm5t4 ,he says3     
,r$uc$ to its l[e/ t]ms1 e proposal to  
int]f]e ) citiz5s' activities fur!r ?an 
by en=c+ _! mutual limitations1 is a    
proposal to improve life by break+ ?r\gh

 ! fundam5tal conditions ( life4#dj  ,9 
,! ,data ( ,e?ics 7publi%$ #ahgd71 ,mr4 
,sp5c] assumes a some:at diff]5t /&po9t 
f t ( 8 e>li] works be>+ on morals4 ,!  
c\rse ( reason+ conta9$ 9 ?is book is z 
foll[s3--  ,! doctr9e t correlatives    
imply "o ano!r has1 = "o ( its common   
examples1 ! relation betwe5 !           
conceptions ( :ole & "p4 ,beyond !      
prim>y tru? t no idea ( a :ole c be     
fram$ )\t a nasc5t idea ( p>ts con/itut+
 x1 & t no idea ( a "p c be fram$ )\t a 
nasc5t idea ( "s :ole to :i* x belongs1 
!re is ! second>y tru? t !re c be no    
correct idea ( a "p )\t a correct idea (
 ! correlative :ole4 ,/ill less1 :5 "p &
 :ole are dynamically relat$1 & lea/ (  
all :5 ! :ole is organic1 c ! "p be     
und]/ood except by compreh5sion ( ! :ole
 to :i* x belongs4 ,?is tru? holds n    
only ( mat]ial b also ( immat]ial       
aggregates4  ,conduct is a :ole &1 9 a  
s5se1 an organic :ole1 & ,e?ics1 ( :i* x
 is a "p1 _c be und]/ood except ?r\gh ! 
und]/&+ ( ! :ole ( conduct4  ,a         

def9ition ( conduct mu/ exclude         
purposeless actions1--su*1 = in/ance1 z 
^? ( an epileptic 9 a fit4 ,h5ce !      
def9ition em]ges ei!r3 acts adju/$ to   
ends2 or1 ! adju/m5t ( acts to ends2    
accord+ z we contemplate ! =m$ body (   
acts1 or ?9k ( ! =m alone4 ,& conduct1 9
 its full acceptation1 mu/ be tak5 z    
compreh5d+ all adju/m5ts ( acts to ends1
 f ! simple/ to ! mo/ complex1 :atev] _!
 special natures & :e!r !y are consid]$ 
sep>ately or 9 _! totality4  ,a l>ge "p 
( conduct is non-e?ical1 indiff]5t2 ?is 
passes1 by small degrees & 9 c\ntless   
ways1 into conduct :i* is ei!r moral or 
immoral4  ,! acts ( all liv+ creatures1 
z acts adju/$ to ends1 come )9 !        
def9ition ( conduct2 ! conduct ( ! high]
 animals z comp>$ ) t ( man1 & ( ! l[]  
animals z comp>$ ) ! high]1 diff]s ma9ly
 9 t ! adju/m5ts ( acts to ends is      
relatively simple & relatively          
incomplete4 ,& z 9 o!r cases1 s 9 ?is   
case1 we mu/ int]pret ! m develop$ by ! 
less develop$2 human conduct z a "p ( ! 

:ole ( ! conduct ( animate be+s4 ,&     
fur!r3 z1 9 ord] to und]/& ! "p ( human 
conduct ) :i* ,e?ics is conc]n$1 we mu/ 
/udy x z a "p ( human conduct z a :ole1 
& 9 ord] to und]/& human conduct1 we mu/
 aga9 /udy x z a "p ( ! :ole ( conduct  
exhibit$ 9 animate be+s1 s1 9 ord] to   
compreh5d ?is too1 we mu/ reg>d x z an  
outcome ( =m]1 less develop$ conduct1   
out ( :i* x has aris54 ,our fir/ /ep mu/
 be to /udy ! evolution ( conduct4      
,morphology deals ) physical /ructure1  
physiology ) ! processes c>ri$ on 9 !   
body4 ,b we ent] on ! subject ( conduct 
:5 we beg9 to /udy su* comb9ations among
 ! actions ( s5sory & motor-organs z are
 ext]nally manife/$4  ,we saw t conduct 
is di/+ui%$ f ! totality ( actions by ! 
exclusion ( purposeless actions2 b dur+ 
evolution ?is di/9ction arises by       
degrees4 ,we trace up conduct to !      
v]tebrates & ?r\gh ! v]tebrates to man1 
& f9d t "h ! adju/m5ts ( acts to ends   
are bo? m num]\s & bett] ?an among l[]  
mammals2 & we f9d ! same ?+ on comp>+ ! 

do+s ( high] races ( m5 ) ^? ( l[]4 ,^! 
bett] adju/m5ts favor1 n only           
prolongation1 b also increas$ am\nt (   
life4  ,& among ^! adju/m5ts ( acts to  
ends1 !re are n only su* z fur!r        
individual life b also1 evolv+ ) ^!1 su*
 z favor ! life ( ! species4            
,race-ma9ta9+ conduct1 l self-ma9ta9+   
conduct1 arises gradually out ( t :i* _c
 be call$ conduct4 ,! multitud9\s       
creatures ( all k9ds :i* fill ! e>? are 
engag$ 9 a cont9u\s /ruggle = exi/5ce1 9
 :i* ! adju/m5ts ( acts to ends1 be+    
imp]fectly evolv$1 miss complet5ess     
because !y _c be made by "o creature )\t
 o!r creatures be+ prev5t$ f mak+ !m4   
,?is imp]fectly evolv$ conduct          
introduces u1 by anti!sis1 to conduct   
:i* is p]fectly evolv$1--su* adju/m5ts t
 ea* creature may make !m )\t prev5t+   
o!r creatures mak+ !m also4 ,!          
conditions ( su* conduct _c exi/ 9      
pr$atory savage life2 nor c x exi/ :]e  
!re rema9s antagonism betwe5 individuals
 =m+ a gr\p1 or betwe5 gr\ps (          

individuals1--two traits ( life         
necess>ily associat$1 s9ce ! nature :i* 
prompts int]national aggression prompts 
aggression ( individuals on "o ano!r    
also4 ,h5ce ! limit ( evolution c be    
rea*$ by conduct only 9 p]man5tly       
peaceful societies2 c be approa*$ only z
 w> decreases & dies out4  ,! pr9ciple (
 b5efic5ce is n d]iv$ by ,sp5c] f !     
pr9ciple ( fre$om1 9 ,social ,/atics2 & 
"h1 z 9 ! latt] book1 ,sp5c] has        
difficulty ) x4 ,he says3 ,a gap 9 ?is  
outl9e mu/ n[ be fill$ up4 ,!re rema9s a
 fur!r advance n yet ev5 h9t$4 ,= beyond
 s behav+ t ea* a*ieves 8 ends )\t      
prev5t+ o!rs f a*iev+ _! ends1 ! memb]s 
( a society may give mutual help 9 !    
a*ievem5t ( ends4 ,& if ei!r indirectly 
by indu/rial cooep]ation1 or directly by
 volunte]$ aid1 fell[-citiz5s c make    
easi] = "o ano!r ! adju/m5ts ( acts to  
ends1 !n _! conduct assumes a /ill high]
 phase ( evolution2 s9ce :atev]         
facilitates ! mak+ ( adju/m5ts by ea*   
increases ! totality ( ! adju/m5ts made1

 & s]ves to r5d] ! lives ( all m        
complete4  ,?us1 !n1 says ,sp5c]1 we h  
be5 l$ to see t ,e?ics has = its        
subject-matt] t =m :i* univ]sal conduct 
assumes dur+ ! la/ /ages ( its          
evolution4  ,by comp>+ ! mean+s ( a ^w 9
 diff]5t connections1 & obs]v+ :at !y h 
9 common1 we le>n its ess5tial          
significance4 ,mat]ial objects we are   
accu/om$ to designate z good or bad     
accord+ z !y are well or ill adapt$ to  
a*ieve prescrib$ ends4 ,! good knife is 
"o :i* w cut2 ! good gun is "o :i* w    
c>ry f> & true2 & s on4 ,s ( inanimate  
actions1 & s1 also1 ( liv+ ?+s &        
actions4 ,a good jump is a jump :i*1    
remot] ends ignor$1 well a*ieves !      
imm$iate purpose ( a jump2 & a /roke at 
billi>ds is call$ good :5 ! movem5ts are
 skilfully adju/$ to ! requirem5ts4 ,s  
too our use ( ! words good & bad )      
respect to conduct "u its e?ical aspects
 has reg>d to ! effici5cy or            
non-effici5cy ( ! adju/m5ts ( acts to   
ends4 ,?is la/ tru? is1 ?r\gh !         

entanglem5ts ( social relations1 by :i* 
m5's actions (t5 simultane\sly affect ! 
welf>es ( self1 ( (fspr+1 & (           
fell[-citiz5s1 some:at disguis$4        
,nev]!less1 :5 we dis5tangle ! ?ree     
ord]s ( ends1 & consid] ea* sep>ately1 x
 becomes cle> t ! conduct :i* a*ieves   
ea* k9d ( end is reg>d$ z relatively    
good2 & conduct :i* fails to a*ieve x is
 reg>d$ z relatively bad4 ,! goodness   
ascrib$ to a man ( bus9ess1 z su*1 is   
measur$ by ! activity & ability ) :i* he
 buys & sells to advantage1 & may coexi/
 ) a h>d treatm5t ( dep5d5ts :i* is     
reprobat$4 ,! e?ical judgm5ts we pass on
 su* self-reg>d+ acts are ord9>ily      
little emphasiz$2 p>tly because !       
prompt+s ( ! self-reg>d+ desires1       
g5]ally /rong en\gh1 d n ne$ moral      
en=cem5t1 & p>tly because ! prompt+s ( !
 o!r-reg>d+ desires1 less /rong1 d ne$  
moral en=cem5t4 ,) reg>d to ! second    
class ( adju/m5ts ( acts to ends1 :i*   
subs]ve ! re>+ ( (fspr+1 we no long] f9d
 any obscurity 9 ! application ( ! words

 good & bad to !m1 accord+ z !y are     
effici5t or ineffici5t4 ,& mo/ emphatic 
are ! application ( ! words1 9 ?is s5se1
 ?r\gh\t ! ?ird division ( conduct      
compris+ ! de$s by :i* m5 affect "o     
ano!r4 ,always1 !n1 acts are good or    
bad1 accord+ z !y are well or ill-adapt$
 to ends4 ,t is1 good is ! "n we apply  
to ! relatively m evolv$ conduct2 & bad 
is ! "n we apply to t :i* is relatively 
less evolv$2 = we h se5 t evolution1    
t5d+ ev] t[>ds self-pres]vation1 rea*es 
its limits :5 individual life is !      
greate/1 bo? 9 l5g? & bread?2 & we n[   
see t1 leav+ o!r ends aside1 we reg>d z 
good ! conduct fur!r+ self-pres]vation1 
& z bad ! conduct t5d+ to               
self-de/ruction4 ,) increas+ p[] (      
ma9ta9+ individual life goes increas+   
p[] ( p]petuat+ ! species by fo/]+      
prog5y2 & ! e/abli%m5t ( an associat$   
/ate bo? makes possible & requires a =m 
( conduct su* t life may be complet$ 9  
ea* & 9 8 (fspr+1 n only )\t prev5t+    
completion ( x 9 o!rs1 b ) fur!rance ( x

 9 o!rs2 & ?is is ! =m ( conduct mo/    
emphatically t]m$ good4 ,moreov]1 j z we
 saw t evolution becomes ! highe/       
possible :5 ! conduct simultane\sly     
a*ieves ! greate/ totality ( life 9     
self1 9 (fspr+1 & 9 fell[-m52 s "h we   
see t ! conduct call$ good rises to !   
conduct conceiv$ z be/1 :5 x fulfils all
 ?ree classes ( ends at ! same "t4  ,has
 ?is evolution be5 a mi/ake8 ,! pessimi/
 claims s1 ! optimi/ claims n4 ,b !re is
 "o po/ulate 9 :i* bo? pessimi/s &      
optimi/s agree--namely1 t x is evid5t t 
life is good or bad1 accord+ z x does1  
or does n1 h a surplus ( agreeable      
feel+2 if a future life is includ$ 9 !  
!ory ( ei!r1 ! assumption is /ill !     
same1 t life is a bless+ or a curse     
accord+ z exi/5ce1 n[ consid]$ 9 bo?    
worlds1 conta9s m ( pleasure or ( pa92 &
 ! implication is !re=e t conduct :i*   
conduces to ! pres]vation ( self1 !     
family1 & society1 is good or bad 9 !   
same measure4 ,?us !re is no escape f ! 
admission t conduct is good or bad      

accord+ z its total effects are         
pleasurable or pa9ful4 ,s t if          
self-mutilation fur!r$ life1 & pick+ a  
man's pocket bright5$ 8 prospects1 we   
%\ld reg>d ^! acts z good4 ,approa* to  
su* a con/itution z effects complete    
adju/m5t ( acts to ends ( e k9d is1     
h[ev]1 an approa* to p]fection1 & !re=e 
means approa* to t :i* secures great]   
happ9ess4 ,pleasure some:]e1 at "s "t1  
to "s be+ or be+s1 is an inexpugnable   
elem5t ( ! conception ( moral aim4  ,"h 
foll[ criticisms ( ! religi\s s*ool (   
morals1 :i* bases its sy/em on ! w (    
,god1 & ( ! s*ool ( pure intuitioni/s1  
:o hold t m5 h be5 div9ely end[$ ) moral
 faculties4 ,x mu/ be ei!r admitt$ or   
d5i$ t ! acts call$ good & ! acts call$ 
bad naturally conduce1 ! "o to human    
well-be+ & ! o!r to human ill-be+4 ,is x
 admitt$8 ,!n ! admission am\nts to an  
ass]tion t ! conduciv5ess is %[n by     
exp]i5ce2 & ?is involves ab&onm5t ( !   
doctr9e t !re is no orig9 = morals ap>t 
f div9e injunctions4 ,is x d5i$ t acts  

class$ z good & bad diff] 9 _! effects8 
,!n x is tacitly affirm$ t human affairs
 w\ld g on j z well 9 ignorance ( !     
di/9ction2 & ! alleg$ ne$ = comm&m5ts f 
,god disappe>s4 ,to affirm t we "k "s   
?+s to be "r & o!r ?+s to be wrong1 by  
virtue ( a sup]naturally giv5 consci5ce2
 & ?us tacitly to affirm t we d n       
o!rwise "k "r f wrong1 is tacitly to d5y
 any natural relations betwe5 acts &    
results4 ,= if !re exi/ any su*         
relations1 !n we may asc]ta9 by         
induction1 or d$uction1 or bo?1 :at ^!  
are4 ,& if x be admitt$ t because ( su* 
natural relations happ9ess is produc$ by
 ?is k9d ( conduct1 :i* is !re=e to be  
approv$2 :ile mis]y is produc$ by t k9d 
( conduct1 :i* is !re=e to be condemn$2 
!n x is admitt$ t ! rightness or        
wrongness ( actions is det]m9able1 & mu/
 f9ally be det]m9$1 by ! goodness or    
badness ( ! effects t fl[ f !m1 :i* is  
contr>y to ! hypo!sis4 ,sp5c] also      
repeats & enl>ges ^u 8 =m]ly /at$       
objections to utilit>ianism z           

sup]ficial3 ,! utilit>ianism :i*        
recognizes only ! pr9ciples ( conduct   
rea*$ by induction1 is b prep>atory to !
 utilit>ianism :i* d$uces ^! pr9ciples f
 ! processes ( life z c>ri$ on "u       
e/abli%$ conditions ( exi/5ce4  ,e      
sci5ce beg9s by accumulat+ obs]vations1 
& pres5tly g5]alizes ^! empirically1 b  
only :5 x rea*es ! /age at :i* its      
empirical g5]alizations are includ$ 9 a 
rational g5]alization1 does x become    
develop$ sci5ce4 ,s ) ,e?ics2 a         
prep>ation 9 ! simpl] sci5ces is        
presuppos$4 ,x has a biological aspect2 
s9ce x conc]ns c]ta9 effects1 inn] &    
out]1 individual & social1 ( ! vital    
*anges go+ on 9 ! highe/ type ( animals4
 ,x has a psy*ological aspect2 = its    
subject-matt] is an aggregate ( actions 
t are prompt$ by feel+s & guid$ by      
intellig5ce4 ,& x has a sociological    
aspect2 = ^! actions1 "s ( !m directly1 
& all ( !m indirectly1 affect associat$ 
be+s4 ,belong+ "u "o aspect ( ea* ( ^!  
sci5ces1--physical1 biological1         

psy*ological1 sociological1--x c f9d its
 ultimate int]pretations only 9 ^?      
fundam5tal tru?s :i* are common to all (
 !m1 z diff]5t aspects ( evolv+ life4   
,,! ,,physical ,,view  ,:ile an         
aggregate evolves1 n only ! matt]       
compos+ x1 b also ! motion ( t matt]1   
passes f an indef9ite1 incoh]5t         
homog5eity to a def9ite1 coh]5t1        
het]og5eity4 ,x is s ) conduct4 ,!      
conduct ( l[ly organiz$ creatures has   
its successive portions feebly connect$4
 ,f ^! up to man may be obs]v$ an       
increase 9 cohesion4 ,man1 ev5 9 8 l[e/ 
/ate1 displays 9 8 conduct f> m coh]5t  
comb9ations ( motions2 & 9 civiliz$ man 
?is trait ( develop$ conduct becomes m  
conspicu\s /ill4 ,b an ev5 great]       
coh]5ce among its compon5t motions      
broadly di/+ui%es ! conduct we call     
moral f ! conduct we call immoral4 ,!   
application ( ! ^w dissolute to ! la/1 &
 ( ! ^w self-re/ra9$ to ! fir/1 implies 
?is fact4 ,! sequ5ces ( conduct 9 !     
moral man are m easily to be specifi$1 z

 impli$ by ! ^w tru/wor?y appli$ to !m2 
:ile ^? ( ! less pr9cipl$ man _c be s   
specifi$2 z is impli$ by ! ^w           
untru/wor?y4 ,indef9it5ess accompanies  
incoh]5ce 9 conduct t is little evolv$2 
& ?r\gh\t ! asc5d+ /ages ( evolv+       
conduct !re is an increas+ly def9ite    
coo]d9ation ( ! motions con/itut+ x1    
until we rea* ! consci5ti\s man1 :o is  
exact 9 all 8 transactions4 ,) ?is      
increase ( def9it5ess & coh]5ce goes    
also an increase ( het]og5eity2 ! moral 
man p]=ms m v>i$ duties1 adju/m5ts (    
acts to ends 9 m v>i$ relations1 ?an    
does ! immoral man4  ,evolution 9       
conduct is1 l all o!r evolution1 t[>ds  
equilibrium1--n ! equilibrium rea*$ by !
 individual 9 dea?1 b a mov+            
equilibrium4 ,8 evolution consi/s 9 a   
cont9ual adju/m5t ( inn] to out]        
relations1 until a /ate ( society %all  
be rea*$ 9 :i* ! individual w f9d 8     
nature congru\s ) ! environm5t4   ,,!   
,,biological ,,view  ,! tru? t ! ideally
 moral man is "o 9 :om ! mov+           

equilibrium is p]fect1 or approa*es     
ne>e/ to p]fection1 becomes1 :5         
translat$ ) physiological language1 !   
tru? t he is "o 9 :om ! functions ( all 
k9ds are duly fulfill$4 ,ei!r excess or 
defect 9 ! p]=mance ( function results 9
 a l[]+ ( life1 = ! "t be+ at lea/4     
,h5ce1 ! p]=mance ( e function is1 9 a  
s5se1 a moral obligation4 ,"o te/ (     
action is ?us giv5 u4 ,an action mu/ be 
class$ z "r or wrong 9 respect ( its    
imm$iate be>+s1 accord+ z x does or does
 n t5d ei!r to ! ma9t5ance ( complete   
life = ! "t be+ or ! prolongation ( life
 to its full ext5t4 ,?is is true ev5    
?\gh ! remot] be>+s ( ! action may call 
= a diff]5t classification4 ,! seem+    
p>adoxy ( ?is /atem5t results f !       
t5d5cy1 s difficult to avoid1 to judge a
 conclusion :i* presupposes an ideal    
humanity1 by its applicability to       
humanity z n[ exi/+4 ,9 ! ideal /ate1   
t[>ds :i* evolution t5ds1 any fall+ %ort
 ( function implies deviation f p]fectly
 moral conduct4  ,fit connections betwe5

 acts & results mu/ e/abli% !mselves 9  
liv+ ?+s1 ev5 be=e consci\sness arises2 
& aft] ! rise ( consci\sness ^!         
connections c *ange 9 no o!r way ?an to 
become bett] e/abli%$4 ,at ! v outset1  
life is ma9ta9$ by p]si/5ce 9 acts :i*  
conduce to x & desi/5ce f acts :i* imp$e
 x2 & :5ev] s5ti5ce makes its appe>ance 
z an accompanim5t1 its =ms mu/ be su* t 
9 ! "o case ! produc$ feel+ is ( a k9d t
 w be s\ght--pleasure1 & 9 ! o!r case is
 ( a k9d t w be %unn$--pa94 ,s1 9 ! case
 ( ! seizure ( food1 = example1 !       
pleasurable s5sation1 ev]y:]e :]e x     
arises1 mu/ be itself ! /imulus to !    
contraction by :i* ! pleasurable        
s5sation is ma9ta9$ & increas$2 or mu/  
be s b\nd up ) ! /imulus t ! two        
increase toge!r4 ,& ?is relation1 :i* we
 see is directly e/abli%$ 9 ! case ( a  
fundam5tal function1 mu/ be indirectly  
e/abli%$ ) all o!r functions2 s9ce      
non-e/abli%m5t ( x 9 any p>ticul> case  
implies1 9 s f>1 unfitness to !         
conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,s5ti5t exi/5ce c 

evolve only on condition t pleasure-giv+
 acts are life-su/a9+ acts4  ,x is true 
t1 9 mank9d z at pres5t con/itut$1      
guidance by pres5t or proximate         
pleasures & pa9s fails ?r\gh\t a wide   
range ( cases4 ,?is arises ?r\gh\t      
evolution by *anges 9 ! environm5t1 f   
:i* result p>tial misadju/m5ts ( !      
feel+s1 necessitat+ readju/m5ts4 ,?is   
g5]al cause ( d]angem5t has be5 op]at+  
on human be+s 9 ! *anges f a primitive  
to a civiliz$ condition ?r\gh ! direct  
opposition & /ruggle ( ! militant & !   
indu/rial _s1 9 a mann] unusually       
decid$1 p]si/5t1 & involv$4  ,b !re is a
 /ill fur!r relation betwe5 pleasure &  
welf>e to be consid]$4 ,!re are         
connections betwe5 pleasure 9 g5]al1 &  
physiological exaltation1 & betwe5 pa9 9
 g5]al & physiological depression4 ,e   
pleasure increases vitality1 e pa9      
decreases vitality4 ,non-recognition (  
^! g5]al tru?s vitiates moral           
speculation at l>ge4 ',y h _h y\r       
gratification--x is pa/2 & y are z y 7  

be=e1' says ! morali/ to "o2 & to ano!r 
he says3 ',y h borne ! suff]+--x is ov]2
 & !re ! matt] ends4' ,bo? /atem5ts are 
false2 leav+ out ( view indirect        
results1 ! direct results are t ! "o has
 mov$ a /ep away f dea?1 & ! o!r has    
mov$ a /ep t[>ds dea?4  ,h[ev]1 x is ) !
 indirect results t ! morali/ is        
especially conc]n$2 s9ce remote         
consequ5ces ( action are especially to  
be consid]$ 9 e?ical que/ions4 ,b       
d\btless a bett] und]/&+ ( biological   
tru?s w\ld be to ! b5efit ( moral !ory &
 society at l>ge4  ,sp5c] especially    
combats1 9 a note at ! end ( ?is *apt]1 
,b>ratt's !ory1 /at$ 9 ,physical ,e?ics1
 t movem5ts ( retraction & )drawal &    
movem5ts t secure ! cont9uance ( !      
impression ( any act+ =ce1 are ! ext]nal
 m>ks1 respectively1 ( pa9 & pleasure4  
,a great "p ( ! vital processes1 ev5 9  
creatures ( develop$ n]v\s sy/ems1 are  
c>ri$ on by unconsci\s reflex action1 & 
!re is1 !re=e1 no propriety 9 assum+ !  
exi/5ce ( :at we und]/& by consci\sness 

9 creatures n only devoid ( n]v\s sy/ems
 b devoid ( /ructures 9 g5]al4 ,x is m  
prop] to conceive su* feel+s z aris+    
gradually1 by ! comp\nd+ ( ultimate     
elem5ts ( consci\sness4   ,,!           
,,psy*ological ,,view  ,m9d consi/s (   
feel+s & ! relations among feel+s4#da   
,by compositions ( ! relations1 & ideas 
( relations1 intellig5ce arises4 ,by    
composition ( feel+s1 & ideas ( feel+s1 
emotion arises4 ,&1 o!r ?+s equal1 !    
evolution ( ei!r is great 9 proportion z
 ! composition is great4 ,"o ( !        
necess>y implications is t cognition    
becomes high] 9 proportion z x is remot]
 f reflex action2 :ile emotion becomes  
high] 9 proportion z x is remot] f      
s5sation4#db  ,! m5tal process by :i*1 9
 any case1 ! adju/m5t ( acts to ends is 
effect$ & :i*1 "u its high] =ms1 becomes
 ! subject-matt] ( e?ical judgm5ts1 is1 
z above impli$1 divisible into ! rise ( 
a feel+ or feel+s con/itut+ ! motive1 & 
! ?\ght or ?\ghts ?r\gh :i* ! motive is 
%ap$ & f9ally issues 9 action4 ,! fir/ (

 ^! elem5ts1 orig9ally an excitem5t1    
becomes a simple s5sation2 !n a comp\nd 
s5sation2 !n a clu/] ( p>tially         
pres5tative & p>tially repres5tative    
s5sations1 =m+ an incipi5t emotion2 !n a
 clu/] ( exclusively ideal or           
repres5tative s5sations =m+ an emotion  
prop]2 !n a clu/] ( su* clu/]s =m+ a    
comp\nd emotion2 & ev5tually becomes a  
/ill m involv$ emotion compos$ ( ! ideal
 =ms ( su* comp\nd emotions4 ,! o!r     
elem5t1 beg9n+ ) t imm$iate passage ( a 
s+le /imulus into a s+le motion1 call$  
reflex action1 pres5tly comes to be a   
set ( associat$ dis*>ges ( /imuli       
produc+ associat$ motions2 con/itut+    
in/9ct4 ,/ep by /ep arise m entangl$    
comb9ations ( /imuli1 some:at v>iable 9 
_! modes ( union1 lead+ to complex      
motions1 simil>ly v>iable 9 _!          
adju/m5ts2 :5ce occasional hesitations 9
 ! s5sori-motor processes4 ,pres5tly is 
rea*$ a /age at :i* ! comb9$ clu/]s (   
impressions1 n all pres5t toge!r1 issue 
9 actions n all simultane\s1 imply+     

repres5tation ( results1 or ?\ght4      
,aft]w>ds foll[ /ages 9 :i* v>i\s ?\ghts
 h "t to pass be=e ! composite motives  
produce ! appropriate actions1 until at 
la/ arise ^? long delib]ations dur+ :i* 
! probabilities ( v>i\s consequ5ces are 
e/imat$1 & ! prompt+s ( ! correlative   
feel+s balanc$2 con/itut+ calm judgm5t4 
,t1 "u ei!r ( its aspects1 ! lat] =ms ( 
?is m5tal process are ! high]1 e?ically 
consid]$ z well z o!rwise consid]$1 w be
 readily se54#dc  ,obs]ve1 !n1 :at      
foll[s respect+ ! relative au?orities ( 
motives4 ,?r\gh\t ! asc5t f l[ creatures
 up to man1 & f ! l[e/ types ( man to ! 
highe/1 self-pres]vation has be5        
increas$ by ! subord9ation ( simple     
excitations to comp\nd excitations1--!  
subjection ( imm$iate s5sations to !    
ideas ( s5sations to come1--! ov]rul+ ( 
pres5tative feel+s by repres5tative     
feel+s1 & ( repres5tative feel+s by     
re-repres5tative feel+s4 ,z life has    
advanc$1 ! accompany+ s5ti5ce has become
 increas+ly ideal2 & among feel+s       

produc$ by ! comp\nd+ ( ideas1 ! highe/1
 & ^? :i* are evolv$ late/1 are !       
re-comp\nd$ or d\bly ideal4 ,h5ce x     
foll[s t1 z guides1 ! feel+s h          
au?orities proportionate to ! degrees 9 
:i* !y are remov$1 by _! complexity & _!
 ideality1 f simple s5sations &         
appetites4 ,a fur!r implication is made 
cle> by /udy+ ! intellectual sides ( ^! 
m5tal processes by :i* acts are adju/$  
to ends4 ,:]e !y are l[ & simple1 ^!    
compreh5d ! guid+ only ( imm$iate acts  
by imm$iate /imuli--! entire transaction
 9 ea* case1 la/+ b a mom5t1 ref]s only 
to a proximate result4 ,b ) ! developm5t
 ( intellig5ce & ! gr[+ ideality ( !    
motives1 ! ends to :i* ! acts are adju/$
 cease to be exclusively imm$iate4 ,! m 
ideal motives conc]n ends t are m       
di/ant2 & ) approa* to ! highe/ types1  
pres5t ends become increas+ly subord9ate
 to ^? future ends :i* ! ideal motives h
 = _! objects4 ,h5ce !re arises a c]ta9 
presumption 9 favor ( a motive :i* ref]s
 to a remote good1 9 comp>ison ) "o :i* 

ref]s to a proximate good4#dd  ,out ( ! 
?ree controls ( conduct1 ! political1 ! 
religi\s1 & ! social1 ! fir/ & ! la/ (  
:i* are g5]at$ 9 ! social /ate ?r\gh !  
supremacy ( individuals 9 ! mid/ ( a    
control t is also1 9 "s degree1 ex]t$ by
 ! :ole community1 ! moral consci\sness 
gr[s2 ! feel+ ( moral obligation 9 g5]al
 aris+ 9 a mann] analog\s to t 9 :i*    
ab/ract ideas are g5]at$1 out ( concrete
 in/ances4 ,z 9 su* gr\p+s ( in/ances ! 
diff]5t compon5ts are mutually cancell$ 
to =m ! ab/ract idea1 s 9 gr\p+s ( !    
emotions1 !re takes place a mutual      
cancell+ ( div]se compon5ts2 ! common   
compon5t is made relatively appreciable1
 & becomes an ab/ract feel+4 ,t :i* !   
moral feel+s--! feel+s t prompt hone/y1 
tru?fulness1 etc4--h 9 common1 is       
complexity & re-repres5tative "*4 ,!    
idea ( au?oritativ5ess has1 !re=e1 come 
to be connect$ ) feel+s hav+ ^! traits3 
! implication be+ t ! l[] & simpl]      
feel+s are )\t au?ority4 ,ano!r         
elem5t--t ( co]civ5ess--orig9at$ f      

exp]i5ce ( ^? sev]al =ms ( re/ra9t t h  
e/abli%$ !mselves 9 ! c\rse (           
civilization--! political1 religi\s1 &  
social4 ,by puni%m5t is g5]at$ ! s5se ( 
compulsion :i* ! consci\sness ( duty    
includes1 & :i* ! ^w obligation         
indicates4 ,?is s5se1 h[ev]1 becomes    
indirectly connect$ ) ! feel+s di/+ui%$ 
z moral2 & sl[ly fades z ^! em]ge f     
amid/ ! political1 religi\s1 & social   
motives1 & become di/9ct & pr$om9ant4 ,!
 s5se ( duty is1 !re=e1 transitory1 fad+
 z a motive z pleasure 9 "r-do+ is      
evolv$4   ,,! ,,sociological ,,view  ,n 
= ! human race only1 b = e race1 !re are
 laws ( "r liv+4 ,giv5 its environm5t & 
its /ructure1 & !re is1 = ea* k9d (     
creature1 a set ( actions adapt$ 9 _!   
k9ds1 am\nts1 & comb9ations1 to secure !
 highe/ cons]vation its nature p]mits4  
,yet 9 man we f9d an additional factor 9
 ! =mula = life3 = man is sociable to a 
degree n f\nd any:]e else among animals4
 ,! conditions ( ! associat$ /ate h     
!re=e call$ = an emphasiz+ ( ^? re/ra9ts

 on conduct entail$ by ! pres5ce (      
fell[-m54 ,f ! sociological po9t ( view1
 !n1 ,e?ics becomes no?+ else ?an a     
def9ite acc\nt ( ! =ms ( conduct t are  
fitt$ to ! associat$ /ate1 9 su* wise t 
! lives ( ea* & all may be ! greate/    
possible1 alike 9 l5g? & bread?4 ,b "h  
we are met by a fact :i* =bids u ?us to 
put 9 ! =egr\nd ! welf>e ( citiz5s1     
individually consid]$1 & requires u to  
put 9 ! =egr\nd ! welf>e ( ! society z a
 :ole4 ,! life ( ! social organism mu/1 
z an end1 rank above ! lives ( its      
units4 ,^! two ends are n h>moni\s at ! 
outset1 s9ce z long z communities are   
endang]$ by rival communities1 a        
sacrifice ( private to public claims is 
necess>y4 ,:51 h[ev]1 antagonism betwe5 
communities %all cease1 !re w cease to  
be any public claims at v>iance )       
private claims2 ! ne$ = ! subord9ation (
 individual lives to ! g5]al life w     
cease1 & ! latt]1 hav+ f ! beg9n+ _h    
fur!rance ( individual lives z its      
ultimate purpose1 w come to h ?is z its 

proximate purpose4 ,betwe5 ! comm&s (   
duty t[>ds memb]s ( ! same community &  
t[>ds ^? ( diff]5t communities z betwe5 
! s5tim5ts answ]+ to ^! relations1 !re  
is1 at pres5t1 conflict4 ,9 ! c\rse (   
evolution1 h[ev]1 ! v>i\s =ms (         
subjection c\nt5anc$ by a w>like        
regime--slav]y1 ! subjection ( wom5 to  
m51 & pat]nal absolutism1 become m & m  
unpopul>1 & are done away )4 ,= ea* k9d 
& degree ( social evolution1 !re is an  
appropriate compromise betwe5 ! moral   
code ( enmity & t ( amity2 ?is is1 = !  
"t be+1 au?oritative4#de ,b su*         
compromise belongs to incomplete        
conduct2 ! end ( evolution is 9 !       
annihilation ( enmity betwe5 societies z
 betwe5 individuals4 ,nor is a m]e      
ab/95ce f mutual injury en\gh4 ,)\t     
cooep]ation = satisfy+ wants ! social   
/ate loses its raison d'etre4 ,9 all    
ef=ts = cooep]ation equival5ce ( ex*ange
 is a necess>y basis2 all failure to    
fulfil su* equival5ce causes antagonism 
& ?us a dim9ution ( social coh]5ce2 9 ! 

social1 z 9 ! animal organism1 wa/e )\t 
repair de/roys ! equilibrium ( ! p>ts2  
fulfilm5t ( contract is1 !re=e1 ! prim>y
 condition ( ! welf>e ( society4  ,& ev5
 mutual punctili\sness 9 ! fulfilm5t (  
contract is n suffici5t to ! moral      
ideal4 ,daily exp]i5ce proves t e "o    
w\ld suff] _m evils & lose _m goods1 did
 none give him unpaid assi/ance4 ,!     
limit ( ! evolution ( conduct is n rea*$
 until1 beyond avoidance ( direct &     
indirect injuries to o!rs1 !re are      
spontane\s ef=ts to fur!r ! welf>e (    
o!rs4 ,! =m ( nature :i* ?us adds       
b5efic5ce to ju/ice1 is "o :i*          
adaptation to ! social /ate produces4 ,!
 social man has n rea*$ t h>monization (
 con/itution ) conditions =m+ ! limit ( 
evolution1 s long z !re rema9s space = !
 gr[? ( faculties :i*1 by _! ex]cise1   
br+ positive b5efit to o!rs &           
satisfaction to self4 ,if ! pres5ce (   
fell[-m51 :ile putt+ c]ta9 limits to ea*
 man's sph]e ( activity1 op5s c]ta9 o!r 
sph]es ( activity 9 :i* feel+s1 :ile    

a*iev+ _! gratifications1 d n dim9i% b  
add to ! gratifications ( o!rs1 !n su*  
sph]es w inevitably be occupi$4#df ,b ( 
b5efic5ce1 z well z ( ju/ice1 sympa?y is
 ! root4  ,! assumption t feel+s c be   
arrang$ 9 a scale ( desirability1 aga9/ 
:i* ,mr4 ,sidgwick especially argues 9 8
 objections to 7empirical7 egoi/ic      
h$onism1 is n necess>ily an elem5t ( su*
 h$onism1 al?\gh ,b5?am1 9 nam+         
int5sity1 duration1 c]ta9ty1 & proximity
 z traits ent]+ into an e/imation ( !   
relative value ( a pleasure or pa91 has 
committ$ himself to x4 ,b if a debtor :o
 _c pay (f]s to comp\nd = 8 debt by mak+
 ov] to me any "o ( v>i\s objects (     
prop]ty1 w ,i n endeavor to e/imate _!  
relative value1 ?\gh ,i may n be able to
 d x exactly2 & if ,i *oose wrongly is  
!re=e ! gr\nd ( *oice to be ab&on$8 ,mr4
 ,sidgwick's argum5t aga9/ empirical    
h$onism mu/ tell1 moreov]1 9 a /ill     
great] degree1 aga9/ 8 own              
utilit>ianism1 s9ce ?is is applicable1 n
 to ! individual simply1 b to _m classes

 ( diff]+ individuals4 ,to ?is          
difficulty mu/ be add$1 moreov]1 !      
future indet]m9at5ess ( ! means = obta9+
 su* univ]sal happ9ess4 ,mr4 ,sidgwick's
 objection conta9s1 h[ev]1 a p>tial     
tru?2 = guidance 9 ! pursuit ( happ9ess 
?r\gh ! m]e balanc+ ( pleasures & pa9s  
is1 if p>tially practicable ?r\gh\t a   
c]ta9 range ( conduct1 futile ?r\gh\t a 
mu* wid] range4 ,x is q consi/5t to     
ass]t t happ9ess is ! ultimate aim (    
action1 & at ! same "t to d5y t x c be  
rea*$ by mak+ x ! imm$iate aim4 ,i g )  
,mr4 ,sidgwick z f> z ! conclusion t 'we
 mu/ at lea/ admit ! desirability (     
confirm+ or correct+ ! results ( su*    
comp>isons 7( pleasures & pa9s7 by any  
o!r me?od ^u :i* we may f9d reason to   
rely'2 & ,i !n g fur!r1 & say t ?r\gh\t 
a l>ge "p ( conduct guidance by su*     
comp>isons is to be entirely set aside &
 replac$ by o!r guidance4  ,! fact cit$ 
by ,mr4 ,sidgwick z ! fundam5tal p>adox 
( h$onism1 t to get ! pleasures (       
pursuit "o mu/ =get !m1 is expla9$ by ! 

fact t ! pleasures ( pursuit lie greatly
 9 ! consci\sness ( capability 9 !      
effici5t use ( means1 & ! s5se ( !      
admiration excit$ !reby 9 o!rs4 ,& s !  
fundam5tal p>adox disappe>s4 ,yet ! tru?
 ( ! pleasure d]iv$ f means z di/+ui%$ f
 ends is ( significance4 ,?r\gh\t !     
evolution ( conduct we f9d a gr[+       
complexity ( adju/m5t ( acts to ends1 ! 
int]position ( m & m complex means1 ea* 
z a /ep to ! next1 & lead+ to ! f9al    
atta9m5t ( ev5 remot] ends4 ,( ^! means1
 ea* set1 ) its accompany+ satisfaction1
 develop$ ) ! function1 comes at la/ to 
be reg>d$ z proximate end1 & con/itutes 
an obligation2 & ea* lat] & high] ord] (
 means comes to take prec$5ce 9 "t &    
au?oritativ5ess ( ea* e>li] & l[] ord] (
 means4 ,9 ?is mann] arises !           
au?oritativ5ess ( moral requirem5ts1 z  
designat+ ! late/ & highe/ ord] ( means4
  ,su* means are m det]m9able ?an !     
end--happ9ess--= any society4 ,:at      
con/itutes happ9ess is m difficult (    
det]m9ation ?an :at con/itutes ! means (

 its atta9m5t4 ,we may n[ see our way to
 reconcil+ sundry conflict+ e?ical      
!ories1 :i* g5]ally embody portions ( ! 
tru?1 & simply require to be comb9$ 9   
prop] ord] 9 ord] to embody ! :ole tru?4
 ,! !ological !ory conta9s a "p4 ,if = !
 div9e w1 suppos$ to be sup]naturally   
reveal$1 we sub/itute ! naturally       
reveal$ end t[>ds :i* ! ,p[] manife/$   
?r\gh\t ,evolution works2 !n1 s9ce      
evolution has be51 & is /ill1 work+     
t[>ds ! highe/ life1 x foll[s t con=mity
 to ^? pr9ciples by :i* ! highe/ life is
 a*iev$1 is fur!rance ( t end4 ,!       
doctr9e t p]fection or excell5ce (      
nature %\ld be ! purpose ( pursuit1 is 9
 "o s5se true2 = x tacitly recognizes t 
ideal =m ( be+ :i* ! highe/ life        
implies1 & to :i* evolution t5ds4 ,!re  
is a tru?1 also1 9 ! doctr9e t virtue   
mu/ be ! aim2 = ?is is ano!r =m ( !     
doctr9e t ! aim mu/ be to fulfil !      
conditions to a*ievem5t ( ! highe/ life4
 ,t ! intuitions ( a moral faculty %\ld 
guide our conduct is a proposition 9 :i*

 a tru? is conta9$2 = ^! intuitions are 
! sl[ly organiz$ results ( exp]i5ces    
receiv$ by ! race :ile liv+ 9 pres5ce ( 
^! conditions4 ,& t happ9ess is !       
supreme end is beyond "q true2 = x is ! 
concomitant ( t highe/ life :i* e !ory (
 moral guidance has1 di/9ctly or        
vaguely1 9 view4  ,?us1 ^? e?ical sy/ems
 :i* make virtue1 "r1 obligation1 !     
c>d9al aims1 are se5 to be complem5t>y  
to ^? e?ical sy/ems :i* make welf>e1    
happ9ess1 pleasure1 ! c>d9al aims4      
,sp5c] foll[s up ?is argum5t ) a *apt]  
on ! relativity ( pleasures & pa9s1 & !n
 proce$s ) an argum5t aga9/ excessive   
altruism z1 9 ! end1 selfi%1 s9ce x is  
de/ructive to ! p[] = "w & to individual
 life1 dim9i%es ! vigor ( (fspr+1 &     
f9ally results 9 ! survival ( ! less    
altrui/ic z ! fitte/2 ?is *apt] is "u ! 
head+ ,egoism v]sus ,altruism4 ,x is    
foll[$ by a *apt] on ,altruism v]sus    
,egoism1 9 :i* is %[n t "s individual   
self-sacrifice1 at lea/ to (fspr+1 is   
f\nd f> d[n 9 ! scale ( be+2 t altruism 

is1 !re=e1 no less primordial ?an       
self-pres]vation1#dg & h5ce no less     
imp]ative2 t ?is altruism1 at fir/      
unconsci\s1 becomes1 9 high] /ages (    
evolution1 consci\s2 & t if (t5 selfi% 9
 motive1 x may be )\t any elem5t (      
consci\s self-reg>d1 al?\gh x conduces  
greatly to egoi/ic satisfaction4 ,inde$1
 pure egoism defeats itself1 s9ce       
pleasure palls by ov]-indulg5ce1 is     
dull$ by maturity1 & almo/ de/roy$ by   
old age4 ,he t c f9d pleasure 9 m9i/]+  
to t ( o!rs has1 h[ev]1 a s\rce (       
pleasure :i* may s]ve 9 place ( p]sonal 
pleasure4 ,9 ! associat$ /ate1 a c]ta9  
altruism is1 & mu/ necess>ily be1 an    
advantage to ea* memb] ( ! community4   
,:atev] conduces to ! well-be+ ( ea* is 
conducive to ! well-be+ ( all4  ,"h     
foll[s a criticism ( utilit>ianism z "o 
=m ( pure altruism1 s9ce1 accord+ to !  
utilit>ian doctr9e1 ea* individual is to
 c\nt = "o1 n m ?an "o1 & ! individual  
%>e ( happ9ess ?us becomes inf9itesimal 
z comp>$ ) g5]al happ9ess4 ,%all ,a1 :o 

has1 by labor1 acquir$ "s mat]ial       
happ9ess1 take ! attitude ( a dis9t]e/$ 
spectator ) reg>d to _! use1 z ,mr4     
,mill recomm5ds8 ,& w he1 z su*1 decide 
on a division ( ^! means to happ9ess )  
,b1 ,c1 & ,d1 :o h n labor$ to produce  
!m8 ,f ! conclusion t a really dis9t]e/$
 spectator w\ld n decree any su*        
division1 ,sp5c] seems to draw !        
conclusion t ,mr4 ,mill's position is   
unt5able4 ,he fur!r illu/rates !        
unt5ability ( utilit>ianism 7z pure     
altruism7 by ! figure ( a clu/] ( bodies
 g5]at+ heat1 ea* ( :i* w h1 z long z x 
g5]ates heat = itself1 a c]ta9 am\nt (  
prop] heat & a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat d]iv$ 
f ! o!rs2 :]eas ! :ole clu/] w become   
cold z soon z ea* ceases to g5]ate heat 
= itself & dep5ds on ! heat g5]at$ by ! 
re/4 ,utilit>ianism involves ! fur!r    
p>adox t1 to a*ieve ! greate/ sum (     
happ9ess1 ea* individual mu/ be m       
egoi/ic ?an altrui/ic4 ,=1 speak+       
g5]ally1 sympa!tic pleasures mu/ ev]    
cont9ue less int5se ?an ! pleasures )   

:i* !re is sympa?y4 ,& :ile ! individual
 mu/ be extremely unegoi/ic 9 t he is   
will+ to yield up ! b5efit = :i* he has 
labor$1 he mu/1 at ! same "t1 be        
extremely egoi/ic1 s9ce he is s selfi% z
 will+ly to let o!rs yield up to him !  
b5efits !y h labor$ =4 ,to assume t     
egoi/ic pleasures may be rel9qui%$ to   
any ext5t is to fall into "o ( ^? _m    
errors ( e?ical speculation :i* result f
 ignor+ ! laws ( biology4444 ,to yield  
up normal pleasure is to yield up s mu* 
life2 & !re arises ! "q3--to :at ext5t  
may ?is be done8444 ,surr5d]1 c>ri$ to a
 c]ta9 po9t1 is extremely mis*iev\s1 &  
to a fur!r po9t1 fatal4#dh ,aft] beg9n+1
 h[ev]1 ) ?is ass]tion t to assume t    
egoi/ic pleasure may be rel9qui%$ to any
 ext5t is to fall1 f ignorance (        
biology1 into an error ( e?ical         
speculation1 ,sp5c] rea*es only !       
conclusion t1 if ! individual is to     
cont9ue liv+1 he mu/ take c]ta9 am\nts (
 ^? pleasures :i* g along ) ! fulfilm5t 
( ! bodily functions1 & t ! portion (   

happ9ess :i* x is possible = him to     
yield up = r$i/ribution is a limit$     
portion4 ,he fur!r argues t a p]fectly  
moral law mu/ be "o :i* becomes p]fectly
 practicable z human nature becomes     
p]fect2 b t ! law ( utilit>ianism does n
 s become practicable1 s9ce             
opportunities = practis+ altruism1 :i*  
orig9ate 9 imp]fection 9 o!rs1 w dim9i% 
& f9ally disappe> 9 ! ideal /ate4 ,!re  
is no addition to happ9ess by           
r$i/ribution1 & !re is ! additional     
labor & loss ( "t ( su* r$i/ribution4 ,!
 conclusion mu/ be t g5]al happ9ess is  
to be a*iev$ ma9ly ?r\gh ! adequate     
pursuit ( _! own happ9ess by            
individuals1 :ile reciprocally1 !       
happ9ess ( individuals is to be a*iev$ 9
 "p by _! pursuit ( ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,!
 *apt] on ! conciliation ( altruism &   
egoism is occupi$ ) ! developm5t (      
sympa?y1 z ! militant _s gr[s less4 ,!  
expression ( emotion1 z also ! p[] (    
int]pret+ su* expression1 mu/ become    
great] z ! impell+ cause to concealm5t  

f\nd 9 lack ( sympa?y1 disappe>s4 ,:5   
conditions require any class (          
activities to be relatively great1 !re w
 arise a relatively great pleasure      
accompany+ t class ( activities2 ! scope
 = altrui/ic activities w n exce$ !     
desire = altrui/ic satisfaction4 ,su*   
altrui/ic satisfaction1 ?\gh 9 a        
transfigur$ s5se egoi/ic1 w n be pursu$ 
egoi/ically--t is1 f egoi/ic motives4   
,g5]al altruism w resi/ too great       
altruism 9 ! individual1 & z ! occasion 
= self-sacrifice disappe>s1 altruism w  
take on ! ultimate =m ( sympa?y ) !     
pleasure ( o!rs produc$ by ! successful 
activities ( ^!4 ,& s !re w disappe> !  
app>5tly p]man5t opposition betwe5      
egoism & altruism4  ,! la/ two *apt]s ( 
,! ,data ( ,e?ics deal ) ,e?ics z ! law 
( ! ideal man 9 an ideal society1 &     
treat ( ! atta9m5t ( g5]al pr9ciples 9  
?is sci5ce z 9 o!r sci5ces by ! neglect 
( conflict+ factors1 & ! recognition (  
fundam5tal factors1 9 ! gradually       
accumulat$ k ( society4 ,on acc\nt ( !  

div]sity ( m5 & societies1 a code (     
p]fect p]sonal conduct c nev] be made   
def9ite2 only c]ta9 g5]al conditions (  
p]fection c be po9t$ out4 ,z life is n[ 
c>ri$ on1 ! conflict ( claims is        
cont9ual2 & e?ical sci5ce1 "h necess>ily
 empirical1 c d no m ?an aid 9 mak+ lea/
 objectionable compromises4 ,absolute   
,e?ics1 :i* supplies ! law ( p]fect     
"r-do+ possible only 9 an ideal /ate1   
does n greatly aid ,relative ,e?ics1 yet
 x aids some:at1 z keep+ be=e           
consci\sness an ideal conciliation (    
claims1 & sugge/+ se>* = ! be/ =m (     
compromise possible "u ! circum/ances4  
,ju/ice1 :i* con/itutes ,"p ,,iv4 ( ,!  
,pr9ciples ( ,e?ics1 & to :i* ,! ,data (
 ,e?ics belongs z ,"p ,i41 0 publi%$    
7#ahia7 9 advance ( ,p>ts ,,ii4 & ,,iii4
 ,! argum5t ( ! book runs z foll[s3--   
,e?ics prop]ly involves a consid]ation (
 ! conduct ( animals z well z ( human   
be+s1 = ! prim>y subject-matt] ( ,e?ics 
is conduct consid]$ z produc+ good & bad
 results to self or o!rs1 or bo?1 n1 z  

mo/ p believe1 conduct z call+ =?       
approbation or disapprobation4 ,& ev5 on
 ?is latt] view1 ,e?ics includes ,animal
 ,e?ics1 s9ce we feel approbation or    
disapprobation ) reg>d to _m actions (  
animals4  ,animal ,e?ics includes1 z its
 two c>d9al pr9ciples1 ! oppos$ classes 
( altrui/ic & egoi/ic acts4 ,=          
pres]vation ( ! species1 b5efits receiv$
 mu/ be1 dur+ immaturity1 inv]sely      
proportionate to m]it or capacities     
possess$1 m]it be+ measur$ by p[]s (    
self-su/5tation1 & aft] maturity1       
directly proportionate to wor? z measur$
 by fitness to ! conditions ( exi/5ce4  
,fur!rmore1 ?\gh ! species is made up ( 
individuals1 _m ( ^! individuals may    
disappe> & ! species /ill be pres]v$1   
:]eas its disappe>ance z a :ole involves
 absolute failure 9 a*iev+ ! end1 s t1  
:]e pres]vation ( individuals conflicts 
) pres]vation ( ! species1 ! individuals
 mu/ be sacrific$4  ,! pr9ciple t among 
adults b5efits mu/ be 9 proportion to   
m]its1 implies 9 its biological aspect  

survival ( ! fitte/4 ,its violation     
involves d\ble h>m to ! species by      
sacrifice ( ! sup]ior to ! inf]ior1 &   
consequ5t increase ( ! inf]ior4         
,int]pret$ 9 e?ical t]ms1 x is t ea*    
individual ought to be subject to !     
effects ( its own nature & result+      
conduct2 & ?r\gh\t sub-human life ?is   
rule holds )\t qualification4 ,! same   
pr9ciple is display$ 9 ! mutual         
relations ( ! p>ts ( organisms1 e "p be+
 n\ri%$ 9 proportion to its use or      
function1 a balanc+ ( ! relative p[]s ( 
! p>ts be+ ?us effect$1 & ! organism    
fitt$ z a :ole to its exi/5ce by hav+   
its p>ts cont9u\sly proportion$ to !    
requirem5ts4 ,9 a p>allel mann]1 !      
species z a :ole is fitt$ to its        
environm5t by ! great] prosp]ity to self
 & (fspr+ t comes to ^? bett] adapt$4   
,b sub-human ju/ice is extremely        
imp]fect1 alike 9 g5]al & 9 detail4  ,9 
g5]al x is imp]fect1 9 t ! su/5tation ( 
multitud9\s species dep5ds on ! :olesale
 de/ruction ( o!rs2 s t1 9 ! species    

s]v+ z prey1 ! relations betwe5 conduct 
& consequ5ce are s habitually brok5 t 9 
v few individuals are !y long ma9ta9$4  
,x is true ! de/ruction ( ! species s]v+
 z prey is ! result ( _! natures2 b ?is 
viol5t end+ ( ! imm5se majority implies 
t ! species is "o 9 :i* ju/ice1 z above 
conceiv$1 is display$ 9 b small measure4
 ,sub-human ju/ice is also imp]fect 9   
detail1 9 t ! relation betwe5 conduct & 
consequ5ces is1 9 su* an imm5se         
proportion ( cases1 brok5 by            
accid5ts1--su* z sc>city ( food1        
inclem5cies ( wea!r1 invasions by       
p>asites1 attacks ( enemies1--:i* fall  
indiscrim9ately on ! sup]ior & !        
inf]ior4 ,z organization becomes high]1 
sub-human ju/ice becomes m decid$2 z    
g5]al sup]iority increases1 !re is less 
dep5d5ce on accid5t1 & individual       
diff]5ces become m important4  ,) !     
beg9n+ ( greg>i\sness1 we f9d ! new     
elem5t ( cooep]ation1 passive or active1
 :i* is an advantage to ! species4 ,?is 
involves s mu* re/ra9t ( conflict+ acts 

z w leave a balance ( advantage2 else   
survival ( ! fitte/ w ext]m9ate ! v>iety
 9 :i* association beg9s4 ,! exp]i5ce ( 
! evils ( n ma9ta9+ su* limits to action
 results 9 an inh]it$ t5d5cy to ma9ta9  
!m4 ,! g5]al consci\sness ( ! ne$ =     
ma9ta9+ !m results 9 puni%m5t ( _!      
disreg>d4 ,self-subord9ation among      
solit>y animals is f\nd only 9 p>5?ood2 
among greg>i\s animals !re is a fur!r   
subjection ( ! individual to 8 k9d1 &   
:]e an occasional sacrifice ( life      
fur!rs ! pres]vation ( species1         
sub-human ju/ice may rightly h ?is      
second limitation4  ,9 ord] ( priority1 
! law ( relation betwe5 conduct &       
consequ5ce1 ! pr9ciple t ea* individual 
ought to receive ! good & evil result+ f
 8 own nature1 /&s fir/2 x is ! prim>y  
law hold+ ( all creatures4 ,! law ( !   
re/ra9t1 9 greg>i\s animals1 ( int]f]+  
acts1 is second 9 "t & au?ority1 & is   
simply a specification ( ! =m :i* !     
prim>y law takes "u conditions (        
greg>i\s life1 s9ce1 9 ass]t+ re/riction

 ( ! int]actions ( conduct & consequ5ce1
 x tacitly reass]ts t ^! int]actions mu/
 be ma9ta9$ 9 o!r individuals1 t is1 9  
all individuals4 ,! ?ird law1 ( !       
occasional sacrifice ( individuals to _!
 k9d1 is lat] & n>r[] 9 application1 & a
 qualification ( ! fir/ law4 ,! fir/ law
 is absolute = animals 9 g5]al2 ! second
 is absolute = greg>i\s animals2 b !    
?ird is relative to ! exi/5ce ( enemies 
( su* k9ds t1 9 cont5d+ ) !m1 ! species 
ga9s m ?an x loses by ! sacrifice ( a   
few memb]s2 & 9 ! abs5ce ( su* enemies  
?is qualification impos$ by ! ?ird law  
disappe>s4  ,z human life is a          
developm5t ( sub-human life1 s human    
ju/ice is a developm5t ( sub-human      
ju/ice4 ,accord+ to pure ju/ice1 !      
individual %\ld suff] ! consequ5ces ( 8 
acts1 & t su* is ! g5]al op9ion is      
impli$ 9 su* common expressions z3 ,he  
has no "o to blame b himself2 ,he has   
made 8 own b$1 & n[ he mu/ lie on x2 ,he
 has got no m ?an he des]v$2 or1 ,he has
 fairly e>n$ 8 rew>d4  ,! tru? t1 )     

high] organization1 dang] f accid5t     
becomes less1 longevity is great]1 & s  
diff]5ces c\nt = m1 %[+ _! effects =    
long] p]iods1 & ju/ice !re=e becomes    
great]1 applies also to human be+s4 ,!  
rate ( mortality decreases ) man1 &     
accord+ to 8 civilization4  ,m cle>ly 9 
! case ( human be+s ?an 9 t ( o!r       
animals is x %[n t greg>i\sness         
e/abli%es itself because x pr(its !     
v>iety4 ,:]e a v>iety live on wild food1
 !y associate only 9 small gr\ps2 game &
 fruit1 widely di/ribut$1 c support ^!  
only4 ,b great] greg>i\sness arises :]e 
agriculture makes possible ! support ( a
 l>ge numb] on a small area2 & :]e !    
accompany+ developm5t ( indu/ries       
introduces _m & v>i\s cooep]ations4 ,!  
advantages ( cooep]ation c be _h only by
 con=mity to ! conditions :i*           
association imposes--by su* limitation (
 ! pursuits ( individuals z to leave a  
surplus ( advantage to associat$ life4  
,?is tru? is illu/rat$ by ! unprosp]\s  
or decay+ /ate ( communities 9 :i* !    

trespasses ( individuals on "o ano!r are
 s num]\s & great z g5]ally to prev5t !m
 f sev]ally receiv+ ! normal results (  
_! labors4 ,mutual re/ra9t be+ m        
imp]ative ) human be+s ?an ) animals1   
!re is ) !m a /ill m m>k$ habit (       
puni%m5t4  ,?r\gh all :i* sets ( facts  
is manife/$ ! tru?1 recogniz$           
practically if n !oretically1 t ea*     
individual1 c>ry+ on ! actions :i*      
subs]ve 8 life1 & n prev5t$ f receiv+ _!
 normal results1 good & bad1 %all c>ry  
on ^! actions "u su* re/ra9ts z are     
impos$ by ! c>ry+ on ( k9dr$ actions by 
o!r individuals1 :o h simil>ly to       
receive su* normal results1 good & bad4 
,& vaguely1 if n def9itely1 ?is is se5  
to con/itute :at is call$ ju/ice4  ,9 ! 
highe/ greg>i\s creature1 ! necessity   
:i* we f\nd1 ( an occasional sacrifice (
 ! individual 9 def5ce ( species1       
assumes l>ge proportions1 ! def5ce be+ n
 only aga9/ enemies ( o!r k9ds1 b also  
aga9/ enemies ( ! same k9d4 ,?is        
obligation is less ?an t ( c>e = (fspr+1

 or mutual re/ra9t4 ,x exi/s only z     
necess>y to protect ! society aga9/     
de/ruction1 h5ce only = def5sive1 n =   
(f5sive1 w>4 ,x may be object$ t w>     
peoples ! e>? ) ! /rong]1 b ?is is n    
necess>ily s1 s9ce ! conqu]$ may m]ely  
be few] 9 numb]4 ,& fur!r1 x is only    
dur+ ! e>li] /ages ( human progress t ! 
developm5t ( /r5g?1 c\rage1 & cunn+ are 
( *ief importance4 ,b = an accid5t1     
,p]sia w\ld h conqu]$ ,greece2 & ,t>t>  
hordes once v ne>ly ov]:elm$ ,european  
civilization4 ,! races be/ fitt$ =      
social life d n necess>ily conqu]1 & !re
 are injuri\s moral reactions on bo?    
conqu]+ & conqu]$4 ,only def5sive w>    
reta9s a quasi-e?ical ju/ification4 ,x  
belongs1 h[ev]1 to a transitional /ate1 
& is n ju/ifi$ by ,absolute ,e?ics4  ,z 
! organs ( inf]ior animals are m\ld$    
into fitness = ! requirem5ts ( life1 s1 
simultane\sly1 ?r\gh n]v\s              
modifications1 _! s5sations1 in/9cts1   
emotions1 & intellectual aptitudes are  
also m\ld$ to ^! requirem5ts1--9 !      

greg>i\s animals to ! conditions (      
greg>i\s life4 ,_m evolutioni/s appe> to
 reg>d ! v>iability ( man z ceas+ )     
civiliz$ life1 b ! :ole analogy ( nature
 is aga9/ su* a !ory2 we mu/ assume t   
man1 l o!r animals1 is m\ld$ to suit 8  
requirem5ts1 & t moral *anges are among 
^? ?us wr\ght out4 ,aggressive actions  
(t5 entail suff]+ on ! individuals ( a  
gr\p p]=m+ !m1 z well z on ! gr\p z a   
:ole1 & on ! o!r h&1 h>moni\s           
cooep]ation 9 a gr\p pr(its ! av]age (  
its memb]s2 s t !re is a t5d5cy to      
survival ( gr\ps hav+ su* adaptation (  
nature4 ,& j z a love ( prop]ty1 =m]ly  
gratifi$ by possession ( food & %elt]1  
came lat] to be ext5d$ to ! weapons =   
obta9+ ^!1 &1 lat]1 ev5 to ! raw        
mat]ials1 ! pleasure 9 own]%ip becom+ m 
& m ab/ract & remote f mat]ial          
satisfaction1 s ! natural impati5ce (   
animal nature at re/ra9t ( its p[]s     
becomes 9 man a s5tim5t ( egoi/ic       
ju/ice1 = ju/ice requires ! free play ( 
all =ces 9 ord] t ! results ( "* may    

fall ^u ! individual4 ,x is m difficult 
to und]/& h[ ! altrui/ic s5tim5t (      
ju/ice comes into be+4 ,on "o h&1 its   
implication is t x c be develop$ only by
 adaptation to social life2 on ! o!r1 x 
appe>s t social life is impossible )\t !
 ma9t5ance ( ^? equitable relations :i* 
imply a s5tim5t ( ju/ice4 ,^!           
requirem5ts are fulfill$ by a           
pro-altrui/ic s5tim5t ( ju/ice1 :i*     
takes its place4 ,! fir/ det]r5t f      
aggression1 among animals1 is fe> (     
retaliation2 a fur!r re/ra9t1 ) man1 is 
fe> ( reprobation or social disgrace4   
,to ^! are to be add$ ! feel+s aris+ "u 
political & religi\s au?ority--! dread (
 legal puni%m5t & ! dread ( div9e       
v5geance2 & ^! f\r k9ds ( feel+s        
cooep]ate1 =m+ a body ( feel+1 :i* *ecks
 ! primitive t5d5cy to pursue ! objects 
( desire )\t reg>d to ! int]e/s (       
fell[-m51 & ?\gh conta9+ no?+ ( !       
altrui/ic s5tim5t ( ju/ice1 makes social
 cooep]ation possible4 ,creatures :i*   
become greg>i\s1 t5d to become sympa!tic

 9 degrees proportionate to _!          
intellig5ce--by sympa?y be+ meant !     
ar\s+ ( k9dr$ feel+ by ! witness ( a    
display ( feel+ 9 o!rs1 sympa?y be+     
fo/]$ by common enjoym5ts & suff]+s4 ,! 
altrui/ic s5tim5t ( ju/ice is sl[ 9     
assum+ a high =m1 p>tly because its     
prim>y compon5t does n become highly    
develop$ until a late phase ( progress1 
p>tly because x is relatively complex1 &
 p>tly because x implies a /ret* (      
imag9ation n possible = l[ intellig5ces4
 ,z1 until pa9 has be5 felt1 !re _c be  
sympa?y ) pa91 s ! altrui/ic s5tim5t (  
ju/ice _c be develop$ until ! egoi/ic   
s5tim5t has aris52 moreov]1 ! s5tim5t ( 
ju/ice is conc]n$1 n only ) concrete    
pa9s & pleasures1 b also ) _!           
conditions1 & h5ce ?is s5tim5t dem&s a  
developm5t ( ! p[] ( m5tal              
repres5tation4  ,!re is a close         
connection betwe5 ! s5tim5t ( ju/ice & !
 social type4 ,pr$om9ant militancy af=ds
 no scope = ! egoi/ic s5tim5t ( ju/ice1 
& at ! same "t sympa?y is p]petually    

se>$ by militant activities4 ,on ! o!r  
h&1 z fa/ z volunt>y cooep]ation1 :i*   
*>act]izes ! indu/rial type ( society1  
becomes m g5]al ?an compulsory          
cooep]ation1 :i* *>act]izes ! militant  
type ( society1 individual activities   
become less re/ra9$1 & ! s5tim5t :i*    
rejoices 9 ! scope = !m is enc\rag$2    
:ile simultane\sly1 ! occasions =       
repress+ ! sympa?ies become less        
frequ5t4  ,! idea ( ju/ice is diff]5t f 
! m]e s5tim5t ( ju/ice2 ! =m] gradually 
aris+ f ! latt]1 9 ! c\rse ( g5]ations1 
by exp]i5ce ( ! limits to :i* action c  
be c>ri$ )\t caus+ res5tm5t f o!rs4 ,b  
s9ce ! k9ds ( activity are _m & become  
increas+ly v>i\s ) ! developm5t ( social
 life1 x is a long "t be=e ! g5]al      
nature ( ! limit common to all cases c  
be conceiv$4 ,a fur!r reason = ! sl[ness
 ( developm5t is1 t ! aris+ ideas (     
ju/ice h be5 p]petually confus$ by !    
conflict+ requirem5ts ( int]nal amity & 
ext]nal enmity4  ,two elem5ts1 a        
positive & a negative1 con/itute ! idea 

( ju/ice--t ( man's recognition ( 8     
claims to unimp$$ activities & ! results
 !y br+1 & t ( ! limits :i* ! pres5ce ( 
o!r m5 necessitate4 ,! primordial ideal 
sugge/$ is inequality1 = s9ce ! pr9cipal
 is t ea* %\ld receive ! results due to 
8 own nature1 !n1 s9ce m5 diff] 9 _!    
p[]s1 unequal b5efits are impli$4 ,b    
mutual limitations sugge/ a contr>y     
idea1 exp]i5ce %[+ t ! b\nds to :i* "o  
may pursue 8 own ends are1 on ! av]age1 
! same = all1 s t ! idea ( equality     
arises4 ,unbalanc$ appreciations ( ^!   
two factors 9 human ju/ice lead to      
div]g5t moral & social !ories4  ,among !
 rude/ m5 ! appreciations are no high]  
?an among inf]ior greg>i\s animals4 ,:]e
 w> has develop$ political organization 
! idea ( inequality pr$om9ates1 b ! idea
 is "o1 n ( natural1 b ( artificial     
apportionm5t4 ,& 9 g5]al1 we f9d t !    
prim>y or brute factor 9 ju/ice is b    
little qualifi$ by ! human factor4  ,all
 movem5ts are rhy?mical1 social movem5ts
 includ$1 & aft] ! idea ( ju/ice 9 :i*  

inequality pr$om9ates comes a conception
 9 :i* ! idea ( equality unduly         
pr$om9ates--z 9 ,b5?am's e?ical !ory1   
:]e "o p]son's happ9ess1 suppos$ equal 9
 degree 7) prop] all[ance made = k9d71  
is acc\nt$ = exactly z mu* z ano!r's2 & 
?is is ! !ory :i* ,communism w\ld r$uce 
to practice4 ,x is an absolute d5ial ( !
 pr9ciple ( inequality1 & mu/ apply     
alike to ! wor?y & unwor?y1 z well z to 
! sup]ior & inf]ior 9 physical &        
intellectual capacities1 s9ce moral     
inequalities are z mu* inh]it$ z o!rs4  
,"h we h a delib]ate abolition ( t      
c>d9al di/9ction betwe5 ! e?ics ( !     
family & ! e?ics ( ! /ate emphasiz$ at !
 outset--an abolition :i*1 z we saw1 mu/
 ev5tuate 9 decay & disappe>ance ( !    
species or v>iety 9 :i* x takes place4  
,! true pr9ciple %[s an amalgamation (  
^! two4 ,! equality conc]ns ! mutually  
limit$ sph]es ( action :i* mu/ be       
ma9ta9$ if associat$ m5 are to cooep]ate
 h>moni\sly4 ,! inequality conc]ns !    
results :i* ea* may a*ieve by c>ry+ on 8

 actions )9 ! impli$ limits4 ,no        
incongruity exi/s :5 ! ideas ( equality 
& inequality are appli$1 ! "o to ! b\nds
 & ! o!r to ! b5efits4 ,contr>iwise1 !  
two may be1 & mu/ be1 simultane\sly     
ass]t$4  ,any consid]able acceptance ( s
 def9ite an idea ( ju/ice is n to be    
expect$4 ,x is an idea appropriate to an
 ultimate /ate1 & c be b p>tially       
ent]ta9$ dur+ transitional /ates2 = !   
prevail+ ideas mu/1 on ! av]age1 be     
congru\s ) exi/+ in/itutions &          
activities4 ,dur+ ! ?irty1 or r =ty     
ye>s' peace1 & weak5+ ( militant        
organization1 ! idea ( ju/ice became    
cle>]2 b s9ce !n ! idea ( regim5tation  
has spread4 ,x is pr$om9ant 9 !         
conception ( socialism ) its army (     
work]s ) appo9t$ tasks & apportion$ %>es
 ( products1 & e act ( ,p>liam5t :i*    
takes money f ! individual = public     
purposes %[s a t5d5cy 9 ! same          
direction4 ,9 ! c\ntries :]e militancy  
is mo/ pron\nc$1 socialism is mo/ highly
 develop$4 ,sympa?y1 :i*1 a g5]ation    

ago1 0 tak+ ! %ape ( ju/ice1 is relaps+ 
into g5]osity2 & ! g5]osity is ex]cis$  
by inflict+ inju/ice4 ,daily legislation
 betrays little anxiety t ea* %all h t  
:i* belongs to him1 b great anxiety t he
 %all h t :i* belongs to somebody else4 
,! =mula ( ju/ice may be express$ ?us3  
,e man is free to d t :i* he wills1     
provid$ he infr+es n ! equal fre$om (   
any o!r man4  ,?is is n to be int]pret$ 
z mean+ t aggression is p]missible z    
long z retaliation is p]mitt$2 = ! =mula
 means t int]f]5ce ) ano!r's life is    
limit$1 t life %all n be imp$$ 9 "o case
 fur!r ?an is necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( 
o!r lives2 x does n c\nt5ance a         
sup]flu\s int]f]5ce on ! gr\nd t an     
equal int]f]5ce may balance x4 ,9 e>li] 
/ages1 ! conception ( ju/ice 0 ?is      
errone\s "o ( a balanc+ ( injuries--an  
eye = an eye & a too? = a too?4 ,by     
oscillations :i* become gradually less1 
social equilibrium is approa*$2 & ) ?is 
approa* to equilibrium comes approa* to 
a def9ite !ory ( equilibrium4  ,9 !     

reign+ s*ool ( politics & morals1 scorn 
is express$ = e doctr9e :i* implies     
re/ra9t ( imm$iate exp$i5cy1 or :at     
appe>s to be su*2--contempt =           
g5]alizations & ab/ract pr9ciples1 )    
unlimit$ fai? 9 political ma*9]y4       
,/rangely en\gh1 we f9d ?is approval (  
political empiricism & disbelief 9 any  
o!r guidance1 9 ! _w ( sci5ce also4 ,!  
accept$ sci5tific fact t causation holds
 ( ! actions ( incorporat$ m5 z ( o!r   
p>ts ( nature1 rema9s a dead lett]2 !re 
is no attempt to id5tify ! causation1 & 
ridicule is visit$ ^u ^? :o endeavor to 
f9d a def9ite expression = ! fundam5tal 
pr9ciple ( h>moni\s social ord]4        
,peoples ) :om confusion is n caus$ by !
 conflict+ discipl9es ( out] w> &       
int]nal peace1 e>ly arrive at ! pr9ciple
 ( equity1 & accord+ly "s unciviliz$    
tribes %[ a /rong] s5se ( x ?an is f\nd 
among civiliz$ peoples4 ,nev]!less1 !   
conception ( ju/ice has sl[ly evolv$ to 
"s ext5t1 & is express$ 9 su* =mulae z1 
,d unto o!rs z ye w\ld t o!rs %\ld d    

unto y 7too sweep+ a /atem5t ( !        
equality ( claims1 s9ce x implies no    
recognition ( ! inequality necess>y 9 ! 
%>es ( good respectively appropriate71  
or 9 ! ,kantian rule1 :i* is an         
allotropic =m ( ! ,*ri/ian rule4        
,juri/s1 too1 h recogniz$ a natural law 
( equity und]ly+ human law4 ,to !       
reproa* t belief 9 su* a law is an a    
priori belief1 x may be answ]$ t a      
priori beliefs are expla9$ by ! !ory (  
evolution1 z aris+ ) det]m9ation ( !    
n]v\s sy/em & c]ta9 result+ necessities 
( ?\ght1 & t !y diff] f a po/]iori      
beliefs m]ely 9 ! circum/ance t !y are !
 products ( ! exp]i5ces ( innum]able    
successive individuals1 in/ead ( !      
exp]i5ces ( a s+le individual4 ,if we   
ask = ! gr\nd ( ! greate/ happ9ess      
pr9ciple1 we come to an a priori belief 
also2 = :5ce is ! po/ulate8 ,if x is an 
induction1 :]e & by :om has ! induction 
be5 drawn2 & if x is a tru? ( exp]i5ce  
d]iv$ f c>eful obs]vation1 !n :at are ! 
obs]vations1 & :5 0 !re g5]aliz$ t va/  

mass ( !m on :i* all politics & morals  
%\ld be built8 ,n only are !re no su*   
exp]i5ces1 no su* obs]vations1 no su*   
inductions1 b x is impossible t any %\ld
 be assign$4 ,! l is true ( ,b5?am's    
rule3 ,ev]ybody to c\nt = "o1 nobody = m
 ?an "o1 & also ( ! objection to ?is    
rule1 t happ9ess _c be divid$1 or       
greate/ happ9ess obta9$1 by equal       
division ( ! means to happ9ess2 !y all  
lead1 9 ! la/ analysis1 to an a priori  
belief4 ,moreov]1 ! rule ( natural      
equity1 ! fre$om ( ea* limit$ only by ! 
l fre$om ( all1 is n an exclusively a   
priori belief1 b al?\gh ! imm$iate      
dictum ( ! human consci\sness aft]      
subjection to ! discipl9e ( prolong$    
social life1 x is d$ucible f !          
conditions to be fulfill$1 fir/ly = !   
ma9t5ance ( life at l>ge1 & secondly = !
 ma9t5ance ( social life4  ,rights1     
prop]ly s-call$1 are coroll>ies f ! law 
( equal fre$om1 & s f> is x f its be+   
true1 z "s claim1 t ! w>rant = :at are  
prop]ly call$ rights is d]iv$ f law1 x  

is1 conv]sely1 true t law d]ives its    
w>rant f !m4  ,9 ! application ( ?is    
!ory to practical que/ions1 ,mr4        
,sp5c]'s ,ju/ice diff]s f ,social       
,/atics1 :i* x resembles 9 =m & me?od1 9
 g5]al 9 ! greatly increas$ cons]vatism 
( ! views express$4 ,?is is %[n 9 all   
p>ts ( ! book1 ?\gh p]haps mo/ cle>ly 9 
^? p>ts relat+ to ! ,rights ( ,wom51 to 
! ,l& ,"q1 & to ! ,limits (             
,/ate-,duties4 ,social ,/atics advocat$ 
l&-nationalization2 b ,ju/ice1 ?\gh /ill
 ass]t+ ! orig9al "r ( ! aggregate ( m5 
=m+ ! community to ! use ( ! e>?1 z t f 
:i* all mat]ial objects capable ( be+   
own$ are d]iv$ & s t on :i* ! "r to     
prop]ty is orig9ally dep5d5t1 d5ies !   
exp$i5cy & ! ju/ice ( a pres5t          
r$i/ribution ( ! l& accord+ to ?is      
pr9ciple2 & ?is because ( ! confusion ( 
claims at ! pres5t "t1 ! impossibility (
 asc]ta9+ ^: ance/ors 7 ! robb]s & ^: ! 
robb$ 9 ! gradually aris+ monopoly1 !   
wrong ( mak+ desc5dants responsible = ! 
s9s ( _! ance/ors1 & leav+ ^? n[ dep5d5t

 on ! l& )\t comp5sation = _! loss1 & ! 
fact t any claim to ! l& is m]ely a     
claim to x 9 its orig9al condition1 n 9 
its pres5t /ate ( dra9age & cultivation 
effect$ by ! labor ( g5]ations4         
,moreov]1 "u ! exi/+ sy/em ( own]%ip1 ^?
 :o manage ! l& exp]i5ce a direct       
connection betwe5 ef=t & b5efit1 :ile1 7
 x "u /ate-own]%ip1 ^? :o manag$ x w\ld 
exp]i5ce no su* direct connection4 ,!   
vices ( (ficialism w\ld inevitably      
entail imm5se evils4  ,! :ole ( !       
practical "p ( ,ju/ice is especially    
direct$ aga9/ ,socialism2 9 g5]al1 !    
c\rse ( hi/ory %[s a less & less        
int]f]5ce ) p]sonal fre$om1 & gr[+      
b5efit f ?is cause4 ,! practicality (   
woman suffrage & ( univ]sal man suffrage
 at ! pres5t "t is d5i$4 ,if e>li]      
legislation 0 too mu* = ! b5efit (      
weal?y & rul+ classes1 rec5t ext5sions (
 ! suffrage h result$ 9 /ill m injuri\s 
class-legislation ( ano!r sort4  ,9 ?is 
book1 ,mr4 ,sp5c] seems to adh]e to 8   
!ory ( a f9al p]fect adaptation to !    

conditions ( social life4 ,n only is !  
di/9ction betwe5 ,relative & ,absolute  
,e?ics /ill drawn1 b !re are num]\s     
ref]5ces to an ultimate /ate1 ?\gh c]ta9
 ( ^! ref]5ces might sugge/ ! view t by 
su* a /ate 0 meant only ! atta9m5t ( s  
great a degree ( civilization z w\ld    
involve ! cessation ( w>s4#di ,o!r      
passages1 h[ev]1 seem to contradict ?is 
view4 ,"o may be especially cit$2 x is z
 foll[s3 ,?is law ( ! gradual           
ree/abli%m5t ( d]ang$ h>mony1 ?r\gh     
adaptation & h]$ity1 hold+ ( human be+s 
among o!rs1 implies t ! nature :i* we   
inh]it f an unciviliz$ pa/1 & :i* is    
/ill v imp]fectly fitt$ to !            
p>tially-civiliz$ pres5t1 w1 if all[$ to
 d s1 sl[ly adju/ itself to !           
requirem5ts ( a fully-civiliz$ future4  
,& aft] "s consid]ation ( adaptation up 
to ! pres5t "t1 ! p>agraph concludes3   
,if1 9 ! c\rse ( ^! few ?\s& ye>s1 !    
discipl9e ( social life has done s mu*1 
x is folly to suppose t x _c d m--folly 
to suppose t x w n1 9 c\rse ( "t1 d all 

t has to be done4#ej ,b 9 ! abridg$ &   
revis$ edition ( ,social ,/atics        
7#ahib71 ! foll[+ passage occurs z "p ( 
a note at ! end ( ! *apt] on ,!         
,evanesc5ce 78 ,dim9ution7 ( ,evil4 ,!  
rate ( progress t[>ds any adapt$ =m mu/ 
dim9i% ) ! approa* to complete          
adaptation1 s9ce ! =ce produc+ x mu/    
dim9i%2 s t o!r causes ap>t1 p]fect     
adaptation c be rea*$ only 9 inf9ite    
"t4#ea  ,vol4 ,i4 ( ,! ,pr9ciples (     
,e?ics1 includ+ ,p>ts ,i41 ,,ii41 &     
,,iii41 appe>$ 9 ,augu/1 #ahib4 ,9 ?is  
volume1 ,! ,data ( ,e?ics1 repr9t$ z ,"p
 ,i41 rema9s un*ang$1 except = "o or two
 unimportant s5t5ces4 ,to ?is ,"p ,i4   
is1 h[ev]1 app5d$ a *apt] :i* 01 accord+
 to ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 writt5 = ! fir/        
publication ( ,! ,data ( ,e?ics1 b 0    
ei!r put aside = "s reason1 or else     
ov]look$1 probably ! latt]1 says !      
au?or1 s9ce x conta9s mat]ial :i* %\ld h
 be5 embodi$4 ,! *apt] is head$ ,!      
,conciliation1 & seems to correspond to 
! two *apt]s on ,trial & ,compromise &  

,conciliation :i* foll[ ! *apt]s on     
,egoism v]sus ,altruism1 & ,altruism    
v]sus ,egoism2 = x beg9s ) a            
consid]ation ( ! conflict ( claims %[n  
by ! la/ two *apt]s1 ! app>5t           
impossibility ( ! e/abli%m5t ( an       
equilibrium1 & ! consequ5t app>5t       
necessity ( self-sacrifice4 ,b ?is      
conflict betwe5 egoism & altruism is    
m]ely transitional & is 9 process (     
gradual disappe>ance1 9 ! same mann] 9  
:i* ! pres5t degree ( conciliation ( !  
two has be5 rea*$1--namely1 by ! gr[? ( 
su* a con/itution 9 ea* creature z      
entails pleasure 9 altrui/ic action4    
,ev5 ) ! l[] animals1 ! acts :i* are    
necess>y to c>e = ova or "y are !       
fulfilm5t ( an in/9ct :i* is gratifi$ by
 ! act2 & 9 ! human race1 conciliation  
betwe5 egoism & altruism1 :i* goes h& 9 
h& ) evolution1 has rea*$ a high degree4
 ,9 ! evolution ( ! human race itself1 f
 savag]y to its pres5t condition1 !re   
has be5 a m>k$ increase ( ?is           
conciliation2 ?is is true n only 9 !    

family1 b to a small ext5t also ) reg>d 
to ! l>g] gr\ps ( m5 con/itut+          
societies4 ,!re is decrease ( cruelty1  
increase ( ju/ice1 bo? 9 ! =m ( /ate    
in/itutions & 9 _! me?ods (             
adm9i/ration1 m active b5evol5ce1 & a   
public s5tim5t t leads l>ge numb]s ( p  
to f9d egoi/ic gratification 9 ! pursuit
 ( ! g5]al good ev5 to ! neglect (      
private int]e/s4 ,self-sacrifice ?us    
ceases to be sacrifice 9 ! ord9>y s5se (
 ! ^w1 s9ce x comes to br+ ) x m        
pleasure ?an pa94 ,! future mu/ hold 9  
/ore *anges analog\s to ^? ( ! pa/1 b ^!
 mu/ g on mu* m rapidly "u ! pres5t     
comp>atively peaceful organization (    
society ?an !y h dur+ ! militant life ( 
! pa/4 ,?is moral developm5t is ret>d$1 
h[ev]1 n only by ! degree ( militancy   
yet exi/+1 b also by ! necessity = a    
c]ta9 degree ( bluntness ( feel+1 too   
great s5sitiv5ess to ! suff]+ ( o!rs    
entail+1 :ile ! pressure ( population is
 z great z at pres5t1 a mis]y t w\ld    
make life intol]able4 ,x is likely t1 ) 

social progress1 human f]tility w       
decrease z c]ebral activity increases1  
until a comp>ative balance ( f]tility & 
mortality is rea*$ z human evolution    
approa*es its limit ( complete          
adaptation to ! social /ate2 & sympa?y w
 increase 9 proportion1 no long] entail+
 on its possessor m ( pa9 ?an (         
pleasure1 b ! contr>y4 ,sympa?y is !    
root ( e o!r k9d ( altruism ?an t :i*1 f
 ! beg9n+1 orig9ates ! p>5tal           
activities4 ,x is ! root ( t high]      
altruism :i*1 ap>t f ! philoprog5itive  
in/9ct1 produces desire = ! happ9ess (  
o!rs & reluctance to inflict pa9 ^u !m4 
,^! two traits are inevitably associat$4
 ,! same m5tal faculty :i* reproduces 9 
! individual consci\sness ! feel+s t are
 be+ display$ by o!r be+s1 acts equally 
to reproduce ^? /ates :5 !y are         
pleasurable or :5 !y are pa9ful4  ,!    
g5]al coroll>y f ! above-describ$       
process ( evolution is t1 ) ! increase (
 sympa?y !re arises ! d\ble result1 t by
 its increase x t5ds to decrease !      

causes ( human mis]y1 & 9 proportion z x
 does ?is1 x becomes itself ! cause (   
fur!r reflect$ happ9ess receiv$ by ea* f
 o!rs4 ,& ! limit t[>ds :i* ?is         
evolution approa*es is "o "u :i*1 z !   
am\nt ( pa9 suff]$ by ^? ar\nd f        
individual imp]fections & f imp]fections
 ( social arrangem5t & conduct1 becomes 
relatively small1 & simultane\sly ! gr[?
 ( sympa?y goes on ) little *eck1 !     
sympa?y becomes at ! same "t almo/      
exclusively a s\rce ( pleasure receiv$ f
 ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 & n ( pa9s receiv$ f
 _! pa9s4 ,& z ?is condition is         
approa*$1 ! function ( sympa?y is n t ( 
/imulat+ to self-sacrifice & ( entail+  
^u its possessor positive or negative   
pa91 b its function becomes t ( mak+ him
 a recipi5t ( positive pleasure4 ,?us   
altruism w ov]gr[ egoism1 becom+ itself 
a s\rce ( egoi/ic pleasure1 & ev5tually1
 ) ! dim9ution ( ! pressure (           
population1 !re w come a /ate 9 :i*     
egoism & altruism are s conciliat$ t !  
"o m]ges 9 ! o!r4  ,among ! social      

animals1 ) ! ant & ! bee1 = in/ance1 :o 
_c be suppos$ to possess a s5se ( duty1 
we see t ?is id5tification ( egoism &   
altruism1 z necess>y to social life1 has
 tak5 place to a consid]able ext5t2 &   
s9ce pleasure ( e k9d is ! concomitant (
 n]v\s /ructure1 we c und]/& ! pleasure 
9 altrui/ic z well z 9 egoi/ic          
activities1 z soon z !re exi/s ! n]v\s  
/ructure answ]+ to ^! activities4 ,z    
c]ta9ly z !re yet exi/ 9 civiliz$ m5    
in/9cts ( ! *ase inh]it$ f savage       
ance/ors1 !re are gr[+ up & w cont9ue to
 gr[ up 9 m51 ^! o!r /ructures :i* w    
prompt to altrui/ic activities4  ,"p    
,,ii4 ( ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,e?ics is       
conc]n$ ) ,! ,inductions ( ,e?ics4 ,x   
op5s ) a *apt] on ! confusion ( e?ical  
?\ght due to ! fact t1 con=m+ to ! g5]al
 law ( evolution1 ! set ( conceptions   
con/itut+ e?ics1 toge!r ) ! associat$   
s5tim5ts1 arise out ( a relatively      
incoh]5t & indef9ite consci\sness2 &    
sl[ly acquire coh]5ce & def9it5ess at ! 
same "t t ! aggregate ( !m diff]5tiates 

f ! l>g] aggregate ) :i* x orig9ally    
m+l$4 ,long rema9+ undi/+ui%$1 & !n b   
vaguely disc]nible z some?+ indep5d5t1  
e?ics mu/ be expect$ to acquire a di/9ct
 embodim5t only :5 m5tal evolution has  
rea*$ a high /age4 ,orig9ally1 e?ics has
 no exi/5ce ap>t f religion1 :i* holds x
 9 solution4 ,religion itself1 9 its    
e>lie/ =m1 is undi/+ui%$ f              
ance/or-wor%ip1 :i* passes1 9 ! second  
/age1 into wor%ip ( dead rul]s1 & is a  
me?od ( propitiation1 prompt$ by        
self-int]e/4 ,among "s peoples1 ! idea (
 s9 is limit$ to (f5ces aga9/ ! gods2 & 
9 ^? o!r cases :]e !re are e?ical       
comm&s1 ! propriety ( n (f5d+ ,god is ! 
prim>y reason giv5 = obey+ !m4 ,?is la/ 
phase ( ?\ght is illu/rat$ by ! religion
 ( ! ,hebrews1 among :om good & bad     
conduct 0 b little associat$ ) !        
intr9sic natures ( "r & wrong4 ,! popul>
 belief is /ill t "r & wrong become su* 
by div9e fiat4  ,! gods ( primitive1    
w>like peoples 7 gods ( w>1 & ! belief 9
 ! moral virtue & honor ( w> /ill holds 

l>ge place 9 ! ?\ght ( ! _w4 ,! e?ics ( 
enmity1 ?us taught at ! same "t ) !     
e?ics ( amity necess>y to ! int]nal life
 ( society1 gave rise to utt]ly         
inconsi/5t & contradictory s5tim5ts &   
ideas1 :i*1 9 consid]able measure1 /ill 
exi/ side by side1 9 our *ur*es &       
outside !m4  ,b1 toge!r ) ^! e?ical     
conceptions1 !re h sl[ly evolv$ o!r1    
utilit>ian conceptions1 d]iv$ f a       
recognition ( ! natural consequ5ces (   
acts4 ,au?ority has be5 introduc$ into  
^! conceptions z ! s\rce ( ! duty (     
action 9 accordance ) !m2 yet !re has   
g5]ally be5 also "s p]ception ( _!      
fitness4 ,su* utilit>ian conceptions are
 to be f\nd 9 ! lat] ,hebrew writ+s1    
among ! ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 etc4 ,!    
div]g5ce ( exp$i5cy-e?ics f !ological   
e?ics is well illu/rat$ 9 ,paley1 :o 9 8
 (ficial "* d]iv$ "r & wrong f div9e    
comm&s1 & 9 8 un(ficial "* d]iv$ !m f   
obs]vation ( consequ5ces4 ,s9ce 8 day1 !
 la/ ( ^! views has spread at ! exp5se (
 ! fir/4  ,a /ill fur!r simultane\s     

orig9 ( moral dictates is f\nd 9 !      
s5tim5ts :i* h aris5 ) su* habits (     
con=mity to rules ( conduct z h be5     
fur!r$ by survival ( ! fitte/4 ,we ?us h
 a conflict ( e?ical ideas aris+ f !    
conflict ( ^! v>i\s sanctions2 & also f 
! fur!r conflict t ensues :]e a lat]    
religion has be5 graft$ on a m primitive
 "o1 z is ! case ev]y:]e 9 ,*ri/5dom4   
,among mod]n writ]s :o ass]t ! exi/5ce (
 a moral s5se1 !re is a division betwe5 
^? :o reg>d ! dicta ( consci5ce z       
supreme1 & ^? :o hold !m to be          
subord9ate to div9e comm&s4 ,! two are  
agre$ 9 s f> z !y reg>d consci5ce z hav+
 a sup]natural orig92 &1 9 t !y bo?     
recognize ! moral s5tim5t z innate &    
suppose human nature to be ev]y:]e !    
same1 !y are also1 by implication1 alike
 9 suppos+ t ! moral s5tim5t is id5tical
 9 all m54  ,b z a matt] ( fact1 ! moral
 s5tim5t is connect$ ) entirely diff]5t 
rules among diff]5t peoples1 prescrib+  
monogamy among "o p1 polygamy among     
ano!r2 dem&+ fai?fulness & *a/ity on !  

"p ( wom5 among "o p1 enc\rag+ adult]y  
among ano!r1 etc4  ,common elem5ts 9 all
 codes ( rules = conduct are !          
consci\sness ( au?ority1 :e!r t ( a     
,god1 ( a rul] or gov]nm5t1 or (        
consci5ce1 ! m or less def9ite s5se (   
p[] or co]cion on ! "p ( ?is au?ority1 &
 ! repres5tation ( public op9ion4 ,^!   
elem5ts1 comb9$ 9 diff]5t proportions1  
result 9 an idea & a feel+ ( obligation1
 =m+ a body ( ?\ght & feel+ :i* may be  
t]m$ pro-e?ical1 & :i*1 ) ! mass (      
mank9d1 /&s 9 place ( ! e?ical4  ,= n[  
let u obs]ve t ! e?ical s5tim5t & idea1 
prop]ly s-call$1 are indep5d5t ( ! ideas
 & s5tim5ts above describ$ z d]iv$ f    
ext]nal au?orities1 & co]cions1 &       
approbations--religi\s1 political1 or   
social4 ,! true moral consci\sness :i*  
we "n consci5ce does n ref] to ^?       
extr9sic results ( conduct :i* take !   
%ape ( praise or blame1 rew>d or        
puni%m5t1 ext]nally aw>d$2 b x ref]s to 
! intr9sic results ( conduct :i* 9 "p & 
by "s intellectually p]ceiv$1 are ma9ly 

& by mo/ intuitively felt4 ,! moral     
consci\sness prop] does n contemplate   
obligations z artificially impos$ by an 
ext]nal p[]2 nor is x *iefly occupi$ )  
e/imates ( ! am\nts ( pleasure & pa9 :i*
 giv5 actions may produce1 ?\gh ^! may  
be cle>ly or dimly p]ceiv$2 b x is      
*iefly occupi$ ) recognition (1 & reg>d 
=1 ^? conditions by fulfilm5t ( :i*     
happ9ess is a*iev$ or mis]y avoid$4 ,x  
may or may n be 9 h>mony ) ! pro-e?ical 
s5tim5t2 b 9 any case x is vaguely or   
di/9ctly recogniz$ z ! rightful rul]1   
respond+ z x does to consequ5ces :i* are
 n artificial & v>iable1 b to           
consequ5ces :i* are natural & p]man5t4  
,) ! e/abli%$ supremacy ( ?is e?ical    
s5tim5t1 ! feel+ ( obligation retires   
into ! backgr\nd1 "r actions be+ p]=m$  
spontane\sly or f lik+4 ,?\gh1 :ile !   
moral nature is imp]fectly develop$1 !re
 may (t5 arise con=mity to ! e?ical     
s5tim5t "u a s5se ( compulsion by x2 &  
?\gh1 9 o!r cases1 non-con=mity to x may
 cause subsequ5t self-reproa* 7z in/ance

 a rememb]$ lack ( gratitude1 :i* may be
 a s\rce ( pa9 )\t !re be+ any ?\ght (  
extr9sic p5alty72 yet ) a moral nature  
completely balanc$1 nei!r ( ^! feel+s w 
arise1 because t :i* is done is done 9  
satisfaction ( ! appropriate desire4    
,:]e ! really e?ical s5tim5t conflicts )
 ! factiti\s idea & s5tim5t ( ob$i5ce to
 legal au?ority1 ! latt] may rule at !  
exp5se ( ! =m]1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! case (
 a p$l] condemn$ = sell+ )\t a lic5se4  
,8 act ( sell+ is morally ju/ifiable1 & 
=bidd+ him to sell )\t a lic5se is      
morally unju/ifiable--is an int]f]5ce ) 
8 due lib]ty :i* is e?ically unw>rant$4 
,! rema9d] ( ,"p ,,ii4 ( ! ,pr9ciples ( 
,e?ics is occupi$ ) data cit$ to %[ t ! 
am\nt ( int]nal aggression1 ( rev5ge &  
robb]y1 is great] among peoples mu*     
occupi$ ) ext]nal aggression1 & t ^!    
decrease1 :ile ju/ice1 g5]osity 7:i*    
,mr4 ,sp5c] def9es z hav+ a d\ble root1 
9 ! philoprog5itive in/9ct & !          
relatively mod]n feel+ ( sympa?y71      
humanity 7includ+ k9dness1 pity1 m]cy71 

filial ob$i5ce1 & indu/ry1 increase z m 
peaceful habits are rea*$4 ,a great]    
v]acity is also indirectly ! result (   
?is evolution1 s9ce a co]cive int]nal   
/ructure ( society is connect$ ) ext]nal
 enmity1 & su* co]cive /ructure is      
unfavorable to v]acity4 ,*a/ity also    
increases ) ! social evolution1 ?\gh x  
does n necess>ily *>act]ize societies ( 
! non-militant type4 ,its increase is   
connect$ ) ! gr[? ( ! high] moral &     
ae/hetic feel+s2 romantic love plays a  
pr$om9ant "p 9 our art4 ,intemp]ance1 z 
caus+1 indirectly1 social evil by a l[]+
 ( social effici5cy1 mu/1 9 l mann]1    
decrease ) social advancem5t4  ,9 summ+ 
up 8 inductions1 ,sp5c] says3 ,?\gh1 z  
%[n 9 my fir/ "w1 ',social ,/atics1' ,i 
once esp\s$ ! doctr9e ( ! intuitive     
morali/s1444 yet x has gradually become 
cle> to me t ! qualifications requir$   
practically oblit]ate ! doctr9e z       
enunciat$ by !m4 ,x has become cle> to  
me t if1 among ourselves1 ! curr5t      
belief is t a man :o robs & does n rep5t

 w be et]nally damn$1 :ile an accept$   
prov]b among ! ,bilo*s is1 t ',god w n  
favor a man :o does n /eal & rob'2 x is 
impossible to hold t m5 h 9 common an   
innate p]ception ( "r & wrong4  ,b n[1  
:ile we are %[n t ! moral s5se doctr9e 9
 its orig9al =m is n true1 we are also  
%[n t x adumbrates a tru?1 & a mu* high]
 tru?4 ,= ! facts cit$444 unite 9 prov+ 
t ! s5tim5ts & ideas curr5t 9 ea*       
society become adju/$ to ! k9ds (       
activity pr$om9at+ 9 x4444 ,if ! life ( 
int]nal amity cont9ues unbrok5 f        
g5]ation to g5]ation1 !re mu/ result n  
only ! appropriate code1 b ! appropriate
 emotional nature4444 ,m5 s condition$ w
 acquire1 to ! degree ne$ful = complete 
guidance1 t innate consci5ce :i*        
intuitive morali/s errone\sly suppose to
 be possess$ by mank9d at l>ge4 ,!re    
ne$s b a cont9uance ( absolute peace    
ext]nally1 & a rigor\s insi/ance on     
non-aggression int]nally1 to insure !   
m\ld+ ( m5 into a =m naturally *>act]iz$
 by all ! virtues4 ,complete exemption f

 w> has already be5 atta9$ by "s few    
isolat$ peoples4 ,may we n reasonably   
inf] t ! /ate rea*$ by ^! small         
uncultur$ tribes may be rea*$ by ! great
 cultur$ nations1 :5 ! life ( int]nal   
amity %all be unqualifi$ by ! life (    
ext]nal enmity8  ,"p ,,iii4 ( !         
,pr9ciples ( ,e?ics is occupi$ )        
practical consid]ations conc]n+ ,!      
,e?ics ( ,individual ,life1 "u ! head+s 
,activity1 ,re/1 ,nutrition1            
,/imulation1 ,culture1 ,amusem5ts1      
,m>riage1 ,p>5?ood4 ,( ! g5]al e?ical   
relation ( ! individual to society1     
,sp5c] says3--,integration be+ ! prim>y 
process ( evolution1 we may expect t !  
aggregate ( conceptions con/itut+ e?ics 
enl>ges at ! same "t t its compon5ts    
acquire het]og5eity1 def9it5ess1 & t k9d
 ( cohesion :i* sy/em gives to !m4 ,z   
fulfill+ ?is expectation1 we may fir/   
note t :ile draw+ )9 its range ( judgm5t
 num]\s actions ( m5 t[>ds "o ano!r :i* 
at fir/ 7 n recogniz$ z "r or wrong1 x  
f9ally takes into its sph]e ! v>i\s     

divisions ( private conduct--^? actions 
( ea* individual :i* directly conc]n    
himself only1 & 9 b remote ways conc]n 8
 fell[s4  ,e?ics has be5 commonly reg>d$
 z m]ely a sy/em ( int]dicts on c]ta9   
k9ds ( acts :i* m5 w\ld l to d & (      
injunctions to p]=m c]ta9 acts :i* !y   
w\ld l n to d4 ,x says no?+ ab\t ! great
 mass ( acts con/itut+ normal life1 ?\gh
 ^! h _! e?ical aspect4 ,! pleasurable  
has be5 too (t5 reg>d$ z outside !      
legitimate sph]e ( e?ical approval1 :]e 
n directly ! rightful subject ( e?ical  
disapproval4 ,b pleasure is an          
accompanim5t ( vitality1 & fur!rs !     
vital activities2 & if ! g5]al happ9ess 
is to be ! aim ( action1 !n ! happ9ess (
 ea* unit is a fit aim2 & !re is        
unque/ionably a division ( e?ics :i*    
yields sanction to all ! normal actions 
( individual life1 :ile x =bids !       
abnormal ones4 ,!re is an altrui/ic z   
well z an egoi/ic ju/ification ( ! c>e =
 self1 s9ce ! heal? ( desc5dants & !    
ability to provide = (fspr+ is directly 

conc]n$2 & s9ce su* c>e is ne$ful to    
exclude ! risk ( becom+ a burd5 to o!rs4
 ,& !re is a fur!r positive ju/ification
 ( egoism :i* results f ! obligation to 
exp5d "s ef=t = o!rs1 & to become1 z f> 
z possible1 a s\rce ( social pleasure to
 o!rs4  ,x w be se51 f ! above analysis1
 t ! *apt] app5d$ to ,"p ,i4 /ill speaks
 ( an ultimate /ate ( complete adju/m5t 
to social life#eb2 ?is *apt] 01 h[ev]1  
publi%$ f ! orig9al ,,ms4 )\t alt]ation4
 ,"s passages 9 ,"p ,,ii4 seem to       
involve ! same idea ( a possible        
complete atta9m5t ( ! e?ical end1#ec b  
,"p ,,iii4 closes ) ref]5ce to an       
approximately complete adju/m5t ( !     
nature to ! life :i* has to be l$4      
,,footnotes3  #ch ,sp5c] else:]e says   
due ex]cise1 vide p4 #gf4  #ci ,essay on
 ,morals & ,moral ,s5tim5t4  #dj ,p4    
#aje4  #da ,vide ,pr9ciples (           
,psy*ology4  #db ,p4 #ajd4  #dc ,pp4    
#ajd1aje4  #dd ,pp4 #ajh1 #aji4  #de    
,pp4 #acd1 #adh4  #df ,p4 #adg4  #dg    
,pp4 #bjb1 #bjc4  #dh ,p4 #bca4  #di    

,see pp4 #ga1 #aic4  #ej ,pp4 #beh1     
#bei4  #ea ,z ! revision ( ! !oretical  
"p ( ?is book *iefly consi/s1 l its     
abridgm5t1 9 ! elim9ation ( ! ref]5ces  
to ,div9e ,w & o!r e>li] views held be=e
 acqua9tance ) ,d>w9's !ory ( life1 !re 
is no?+ 9 ! book1 9 di/9ction f ,mr4    
,sp5c]'s o!r lat] works1 t ne$s         
especially to be consid]$ "h4  #eb ,see1
 = in/ance1 supra1 p4 #gj4  #ec ,see    
supra1 p4 #ge4     ,,john ,,fiske   ,z  
,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s close/ foll[]1 ,john    
,fiske des]ves to /& next him 9 ord] (  
analysis4 ,fiske accepts1 ?\gh evid5tly 
) reluctance1 :at he t]ms ! t]rible !ory
 ( evolution1 :i* e/abli%es ! fact (    
man's consangu9ity ) dumb bea/s4 ,9 8   
book on ,! ,de/9y ( ,man 7#ahhd71 he    
sets =? 8 !ory ( ! evolution ( society z
 =e%[+ man's f9al de/9y4 ,) reg>d to !  
beg9n+s ( psy*ical developm5t 9 ! c\rse 
( evolution1 he ?us expresses himself3  
,at l5g? !re came a wond]ful            
mom5t2--sil5t & unnotic$1 ev5 z ! day ( 
! ,"l :i* come? l a ?ief 9 ! night1 !re 

arriv$ t wond]ful mom5t at :i* psy*ical 
*anges began to be ( m use ?an physical 
*anges to ! brute ance/or ( man4 ,?r\gh 
fur!r ages ( ceaseless /ruggle !        
pr(itable v>iations 9 ?is creature      
occurr$ (t5] & (t5] 9 ! bra91 & less (t5
 9 o!r p>ts ( ! organism1 until bye &   
bye ! size ( 8 bra9 _h be5 d\bl$ & its  
complexity ( /ructure increas$ a        
?\s&fold1 :ile 9 o!r respects 8         
appe>ance 0 n s v diff]5t f t ( 8 bro!r 
apes4444 ,no fact 9 nature is fraught ) 
deep] mean+ ?an ?is two-sid$ fact ( !   
extreme physical simil>ity & enorm\s    
psy*ical div]g5ce betwe5 man & ! gr\p ( 
animals to :i* he traces 8 p$igree4 ,x  
%[s t :5 humanity began to be evolv$1 an
 entirely new *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( !      
univ]se 0 op5$4 ,h5ce=? ! life ( !      
nasc5t s\l came to be fir/ 9 importance1
 & ! bodily life became subord9at$ to x4
 ,h5ce=? x appe>$ t ! process (         
zooelogical *ange _h come to an end1 & a
 process ( psy*ological *ange 0 to take 
its place4 ,h5ce=? along ?is supreme l9e

 !re 0 to be no fur!r evolution ( new   
species ?r\gh physical v>iation1 b ?r\gh
 ! accumulation ( psy*ical v>iations "o 
p>ticul> species 0 to be indef9itely    
p]fect$4444 ,h5ce=?1 9 %ort1 ! dom9ant  
aspect ( evolution 0 to be1 n ! g5esis (
 species1 b ! progress (                
civilization4444 ,9 ! deadly /ruggle =  
exi/5ce1 :i* has rag$ ?r\gh\t c\ntless  
aeons ( "t1 ! :ole creation has be5     
groan+ & travail+ toge!r 9 ord] to br+  
=? t la/ consummate specim5 ( ,god's    
h&iwork1 ! ,human ,s\l4  ,& fur!r1 ( !  
g5esis ( ?is ,human ,s\l3 ,) ! gr[? ( ! 
high] c5tres1 ! capacities ( action     
become s v>i\s & indet]m9ate t def9ite  
direction is n giv5 to !m until aft]    
bir?4 ,by ! increase ( c]ebral surface1 
infancy1 :i* is ! p]iod ( pla/icity1 is 
prolong$1 ,man becomes tea*able1 & ?\gh 
inh]it$ t5d5cies & aptitudes /ill =m !  
f\ndations ( "*1 yet ! c>e] ( !         
individual is no long] :olly pr$et]m9$  
by ! c>e]s ( its ance/ors1 b individual 
exp]i5ce comes to c\nt z an enorm\s     

factor 9 modify+ ! c>e] ( mank9d f      
g5]ation to g5]ation4  ,! psy*ical      
developm5t ( humanity s9ce its e>li]    
/ages has be5 l>gely due to ! reaction (
 individuals ^u "o ano!r 9 ^? v>i\s     
relations :i* we *>act]ize z social4    
,=e%ad[+s ( social relations occur 9 !  
animal _w4 ,rudim5t>y moral s5tim5ts are
 also cle>ly disc]nible 9 ! highe/      
memb]s ( v>i\s mammalian ord]s & 9 all b
 ! l[e/ memb]s ( our own ord]4 ,b 9     
respect ( def9it5ess & p]man5ce1 !      
relations betwe5 animals 9 a /ate (     
greg>i\sness fall f> %ort ( ! relations 
betwe5 individuals 9 ! rude/ human      
society4 ,! primordial unit ( human     
society is ! family1 ! e/abli%m5t ( :i* 
0 made necess>y & took place ?r\gh !    
l5g!n+ ( infancy4 ,:5 *ildhood _h come  
to ext5d ov] a p]iod ( t5 or a doz5     
ye>s1 a p]iod :i* w\ld h be5 d\bl$ :]e  
sev]al *ildr5 7 born 9 succession to !  
same p>5ts1 ! relation%ips betwe5 fa!r &
 "m1 bro!rs & si/]s1 mu/ h become firmly
 knit2 ?us ! family came into exi/5ce1 &

 ! way 0 op5$ = ! gr[? ( sympa?ies &    
e?ical feel+s4 ,! rudim5t>y =m ( !      
e?ical feel+s 0 t ( ! transi5t affection
 ( a female bird or mammal = its "y4    
,fir/ giv5 a def9ite direction ?r\gh !  
g5esis ( ! primitive human family1 !    
developm5t ( altruism has yet sc>cely   
kept pace ) ! g5]al developm5t (        
intellig5ce2 ! advance ( civiliz$ man 9 
ju/ice & k9dness has be5 less m>k$ ?an 8
 advance 9 quick intellig5ce4 ,b !      
creative en]gy :i* has be5 ?us at "w    
?r\gh ! bygone et]nity is n go+ to      
become quiesc5t to-morr[2 ! psy*ical    
developm5t ( man is de/9$ to g on 9 !   
future z x has 9 ! pa/4 ,& f ! ,orig9 ( 
,man1 :5 ?or\ghly compreh5d$1 we may    
cat* "s glimpses ( 8 de/9y4  ,! e>li]   
condition ( ?+s 0 a /ate ( univ]sal     
w>f>e1 on acc\nt ( ! limitation ( !     
food-supply4 ,?is w>f>e 0 *eck$ by !    
beg9n+s ( indu/rial civilization1 :i*   
made x possible = a va/ly great]        
population to live ^u a giv5 area1 & 9  
_m ways favor$ social compactness4 ,a   

new basis ( political comb9ation 0 n[   
furni%$ by t]ritorial cont9uity & by    
community ( occupation4 ,! supply ( food
 0 no long] /rictly limit$1 = x c\ld be 
indef9itely increas$ by peaceful        
indu/ry2 &1 moreov]1 9 ! free ex*ange ( 
! products ( labor1 x ceas$ to be true t
 "o man's int]e/ 0 oppos$ to ano!r's4   
,m5 did n1 x is true1 at once recognize 
?is fact1 b h done s only gradually4 ,:5
 ! clan _h gr[n into ! /ate1 & ! /ate   
into ! empire1 9 :i* _m /ates 7 br\ght  
toge!r 9 pacific relations1 ! recogniz$ 
sph]e ( moral obligation became enl>g$1 
until at l5g? x compreh5d$ all mank9d4  
,! coalesc5ce ( gr\ps ( m5 into l>g] &  
l>g] political aggregates has be5 ! *ief
 "w ( civilization2 & ! *ief ob/acle to 
su* coalesc5ce has be5 w>f>e4 ,great    
political bodies h aris5 9 ?ree ways4 ,!
 fir/1 conque/ )\t incorporation1 prov$ 
itself suicidal4 ,! second way 0 conque/
 ) incorporation1 b )\t repres5tation2 &
 ?is lack+1 ! gov]nm5t retrograd$ &     
gradually became a despotism4 ,! ?ird   

me?od1 f$]ation1 has be5 ! policy ( !   
,engli% gov]nm5t4 ,! advantage ( ! habit
 ( self-gov]nm5t has be5 %[n 9 ,engl&'s 
wide conque/ & colonization4 ,! f$]ative
 me?od ( political union1 pacific 9 its 
v conception1 is assum+ an unque/ionable
 sway & de/9$ to become univ]sal2 !     
progress ( ! race w be1 z x has be51 ) !
 gradual elim9ation ( w>f>e4  ,9 a race 
( inf]ior animals1 any maladju/m5t is   
quickly remov$ by natural selection4 ,b 
9 man !re is a wide int]val betwe5 !    
highe/ & l[e/ degree ( complet5ess :i*  
are compatible ) ma9t5ance ( life2 9 all
 grades ( civilization above ! l[e/1 !re
 are s _m k9ds ( sup]iorities :i*       
sev]ally enable m5 to survive1 not)/&+  
accompany+ inf]iorities1 t natural      
selection _c1 by itself1 rectify any    
p>ticul> unfitness4 ,h5ce1 ! action (   
natural selection ^u man has long s9ce  
be5 ess5tially dim9i%$ ?r\gh ! op]ation 
( social conditions4 ,!re=e ! wick$     
fl\ri%4 ,vice is b sl[ly elim9at$1      
because mank9d has s _m o!r qualities1  

besides ! bad ones1 :i* enable x1 9     
spite ( !m1 to subsi/ & a*ieve progress4
  ,! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 civiliz$
 man & ! savage lies 9 ! repres5tative  
p[]1 ! imag9ation1 by :i* m5 compreh5d  
pleasure & pa9 9 o!rs4 ,use & disuse1 9 
place ( natural selection1 h come to be 
p>am\nt ) man2 & ?\gh ! e?ical emotions 
are /ill too feeble1 !y w be m & m      
/r5g!n$ by use1 :ile ! manife/ation (   
selfi% & hateful feel+s w be m & m      
weak5$ by disuse4 ,man is sl[ly pass+ f 
a primitive social /ate1 9 :i* he 0     
little bett] ?an a brute1 t[>d an       
ultimate social /ate1 9 :i* 8 "* %all h 
become s trans=m$ t no?+ ( ! brute c be 
detect$ 9 x4 ,! orig9al s9 ( !ology is !
 brute inh]itance1 :i* is be+ gradually 
elim9at$2 & ! message ( ,*ri/ianity3    
,bless$ are ! meek1 = !y %all inh]it !  
e>? w be realiz$ 9 ! /ate ( univ]sal    
peace t[>ds :i* mank9d is t5d+4 ,/rife &
 ,sorr[ %all disappe>4 ,peace & ,love   
%all reign supreme4 ,! goal ( evolution 
is ! p]fect+ ( man1 :]eby we see1 m ?an 

ev]1 t he is ! *ief object ( div9e c>e1 
! fruition ( t creative en]gy :i* is    
manife/$ ?r\gh\t ! kn[able univ]se4  ,we
 "k s\l only 9 connection ) body4 ,yet  
no?+ c\ld be m grossly unsci5tific ?an !
 fam\s rem>k ( ,cabanis t ! bra9        
secretes ?\ght z ! liv] secretes bile2 !
 molecul> movem5ts ( ! bra9 & ! ph5om5a 
( ?\ght & feel+ are m]ely concomitants  
relat$ 9 "s unkn[n way4 ,x is n ev5     
correct to say t ?\ght goes on 9 ! bra94
 ,he :o reg>ds man z ! consummate       
fruition ( creative en]gy & ! *ief      
object ( div9e c>e1 is almo/ irresi/ibly
 driv5 to ! belief t ! s\l's c>e] is n  
complet$ ) ! life ^u ! e>?4             
,difficulties to ?is !ory he w meet2 yet
 ! alt]native view conta9s difficulties 
at lea/ z great2 nor is !re any problem 
9 ! simple/ & mo/ exact dep>tm5ts (     
sci5ce :i* does n spe$ily lead u to a   
transc5d5tal problem t we c nei!r solve 
nor elude4 ,a broad common s5se argum5t 
has (t5 to be call$ 91 :]e ke5-edg$     
metaphysical analysis has confess$      

itself baffl$4 ,! doctr9e ( evolution   
does n all[ u to take ! a!i/ic view ( ! 
position ( man2 ! ,d>w9ian !ory1 prop]ly
 und]/ood1 replaces z mu* teleology z x 
de/roys4 ,9 ! ,titanic ev5ts ( !        
developm5t ( worlds f ! nebul> mi/ & _! 
aft]-de/ruction1 we may f9d no signs (  
purpose1 or ev5 ( a dramatic t5d5cy2 b  
on ! e>? we d f9d di/9ct indications ( a
 dramatic t5d5cy2 ?\gh d\btless n (     
purpose 9 ! limit$ human s5se4 ,are we  
to reg>d ! ,creator's "w z l t ( a *ild1
 :o builds h\ses out ( blocks j = !     
pleasure ( knock+ !m d[n aga98 ,on su* a
 view ! riddle ( ! univ]se becomes a    
riddle )\t a mean+4 ,i c see no         
insup]able difficulty 9 ! notion t at "s
 p]iod 9 ! evolution ( humanity ?is     
div9e sp>k ! s\l may h acquir$ suffici5t
 conc5tration & /ead9ess to survive !   
wreck ( mat]ial =ms & endure =ev]4 ,su* 
a cr[n+ wond] seems to me no m ?an ! fit
 climax to a creative "w t has be5      
ineffably beautiful & m>vell\s 9 all its
 myriad /ages4  ,fiske gives "s fur!r   

def9ition ( social evolution 9 man1 9 8 
,cosmic ,philosophy 7#ahgd74 ,he !re    
d5ies ! incompatibility ( free-w )      
causation1 say+ t x is ! doctr9e (      
lawlessness1 & n ! causationi/ doctr9e1 
:i* is incompatible ) lib]ty &          
de/ructive ( responsibility4#ed  ,he    
fur!r po/ulates het]og5eity ( !         
environm5t z ! *ief proximate det]m9+   
cause ( social progress1 & def9es su*   
evolution z a cont9u\s e/abli%m5t (     
psy*ical relations )9 ! community1 9    
con=mity to physical & psy*ical         
relations aris+ 9 ! environm5t1 dur+ :i*
 bo? ! community & ! environm5t pass f a
 /ate ( relatively indef9ite1 incoh]5t  
homog5eity to a /ate ( relatively       
def9ite1 coh]5t het]og5eity2 & dur+ :i* 
! con/itu5t units ( ! community become  
ev] m di/9ctly individual4#ee ,!        
progress ( a community1 z ( an organism1
 is a process ( adaptation--! cont9u\s  
e/abli%m5t ( inn] relations 9 con=mity  
to out] relations4 ,if we contemplate   
mat]ial civilization "u its wide/       

aspect1 we discov] its legitimate aim to
 be ! atta9m5t & ma9t5ance ( an         
equilibrium betwe5 ! wants ( m5 & !     
outw>d means ( satisfy+ !m4 ,& :ile     
approa*+ ?is goal1 society is ev]       
acquir+ 9 its economic /ructure bo?     
great] het]og5eity & great]             
specialization4 ,x is n only t          
agriculture1 manufactures1 comm]ce1     
legislation1 ! acts ( ! rul]1 ! judge1 &
 ! physician1 h1 s9ce anci5t times1 gr[n
 immeasurably multi=m1 bo? 9 _!         
processes & 9 _! appliances2 b x is also
 t ?is specialization has result$ 9 !   
greatly increas$ ability ( society to   
adapt itself to ! em]g5cies by :i* x is 
n[ beset4#ef ,religion1 too1 is         
adju/m5t2 =m aft] =m has be5 outgr[n &  
p]i%$1 yet ! life ( ,*ri/ianity1        
incorporat$ 9 ev] high] =ms1 is         
cont9ually r5ew$4 ,! omission ( ! moral 
feel+1 z a factor1 f ,comte's           
int]pretation ( ! progress ( society1 is
 a fatal defect1 s9ce moral & social    
progress dep5d m on feel+s ?an on ideas4

 ,z ,wallace %[s1 tribes :i* comb9$ =   
mutual help & protection1 re/ra9$       
appetite by =esight1 & felt sympa?y1    
w\ld h an advantage 9 ! /ruggle =       
exi/5ce4  ,z surely z ! a/ronom] c      
pr$ict ! future /ate ( ! heav5s1 !      
sociologi/ c =esee t ! process (        
adaptation mu/ g on until1 9 a remote   
future1 x comes to an end 9 proximate   
equilibrium4 ,! increas+ int]dep5d5ce ( 
human int]e/s mu/ ev5tually g f> to     
realize ! dream ( ! philosophic poet1 ( 
a ,p>liam5t ( ,man1 a ,f$]ation ( ! ,_w4
  ',:5 ! k9dly e>? %all slumb]1 lapt 9  
univ]sal law1' & :5 ! desires ( ea*     
individual %all be 9 proximate          
equilibrium ) ! means ( satisfy+ !m & ) 
! simultane\s desires ( all surr\nd+    
individuals4#eg  ,,footnotes3  #ed ,vol4
 ,,ii4 p4 #ahi4  #ee ,ibid4 p4 #bbc1    
#bbd4  #ef ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bab4  #eg    
,ibid4 pp4 #bbg1 #bbh4     ,w4 ,h4      
,,rolph  ,,biological ,,problems        
7,biologis*e ,probleme1 #ahhd7   ,= :at 
purpose are we 9 ! _w8 asks !           

philosoph]1 & lays1 ) ?is "q1 !         
f\ndation = lat] errors4 ,9 ! ef=t to   
rescue f de/ruction ! !ory ( a creative 
intellig5ce1 teleology has adapt$ itself
 to _m =ms ( sci5tific !ory1 n except+ t
 ( evolution4 ,x reads into evolution   
progress t[>ds :at is1 9 "o way or      
ano!r1 assum$ to be an end4 ,b we really
 "k1 9 ! univ]se1 no?+ b cont9uity1     
et]nal *ange accord+ to natural law1 & s
 only causae effici5tes1 nev] causae    
f9ales2 & organic developm5t z well z   
processes 9 inorganic nature are to be  
expla9$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! assumption t !  
result ( a process is an end t[>ds :i* !
 process 0 direct$ is unw>rant$4 ,! "q (
 sci5ce is n3 ,:]e=e is any creature 9 !
 _w8 b3 ,:at is he8 ,:at is 8 actual    
aim1 t is1 8 endeavor8  ,9 ! answ] to   
?is "q1 all philosophical s*ools h      
some?+ 9 common4 ,happ9ess1 9 "o =m or  
ano!r1 is ackn[l$g$ to be ! end ( life 9
 ?is s5se4 ,a foll[] ( ! utilit>ian     
s*ool may def9e happ9ess z ! sublime    
feel+ t "o has tak5 "p 9 ! cont9u\s     

improvem5t ( humanity1 & ! increase (   
human happ9ess1 b 8 words are less a    
def9ition ( ! concept ?an a designation 
( ! way 9 :i* happ9ess is to be arriv$  
at4 ,! sublime feel+ c be repres5t$ only
 z a feel+ ( happ9ess1 ( joy4 ,!        
religi\s !ory1 too1 :i* repres5ts ! joys
 ( religion on e>? & 9 heav51 z         
comp5sat+ = ! evils ( ?is life1 makes   
happ9ess ! end ( life1 ?\gh 9 a diff]5t 
mann]4 ,sp5c] is "r 9 decl>+ t happ9ess1
 h[ev] x may be def9$1 always means1 9 !
 end1 a great] am\nt ( pleasure ?an (   
pa94 ,at ?is po9t1 h[ev]1 ! h>mony ( !  
s*ools ceases4 ,! "q z to ! me?od by :i*
 ?is surplus ( pleasure is to be obta9$ 
is answ]$ 9 diff]5t ways4 ,all say1     
inde$1 by seek+ good & avoid+ evil4 ,b  
op9ion is divid$ z to :at is good & :at 
is evil4  ,rolph "h introduces a long   
criticism ( ! diff]5t s*ools4 ,aga9/    
utilit>ianism he urges t1 9 s f> z x    
makes ! happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] its  
pr9ciple1 x ass]ts ! "r ( ! majority ov]
 a m9ority1 & s advocates1 by           

implication1 an absolute subjection to  
au?ority4  ,our :ole moral education has
 = its aim to give ! "y z high a        
conception z possible ( ! happ9ess :i*  
spr+s f virtue &1 on ! o!r h&1 to decry 
! pleasure :i* may result f =bidd5 acts4
 ,we seek1 9 ?is mann]1 to dim9i% !     
inw>d /ruggle & br+ ab\t ! "r result4   
,he :o has gr[n up "u good influ5ces    
escapes _m temptations to :i* a man (   
less moral education falls a prey4      
,accord+ to ,wallock1 :o makes ! degree 
( inn] /ruggle ! measure ( virtue1 ! man
 ( bett] education 9 ?is case1 ! m moral
 man1 mu/ h less m]it ?an ! less moral  
man4 ,wallock ?us f\nd]s on ! rock :i*  
,kant s skilfully avoids2 accord+ to !  
=m]1 ! man ^: lu/s h be5 ma/]$ by       
education c\ld nev] equal ! man ( evil  
in/9cts1 & ! *a/ity ( a ,magdal5 mu/ be 
reg>d$ z m moral ?an t ( a pure woman4  
,sp5c]'s !ory1 t ! conduct ( ! high]    
animals is bett] adju/$ to ends ?an t ( 
l[] species1 is errone\s2 ! l[] animals 
are exactly z well organiz$ = ! ends (  

_! exi/5ce z are ! high] animals = !irs2
 ! tapeworm is relatively j z p]fect z !
 human be+1 9 comp>ison ) :om he        
possesses _m sup]ior qualities4 ,!      
common judgm5t t ! human be+ is sup]ior 
does n accord ) ! real adju/m5t ( ?+s1 b
 ) our human conception ( ! ideal end ( 
organization1 our an?ropoc5tric idea ( !
 aim ( life4 ,we fooli%ly believe t !   
tapeworm & e o!r animal has ! same end z
 ! human be+1 & rank ! animals accord+  
to ?is pr9ciple1 in/ead ( trac+ !       
diff]5t g5ealogical bran*es to a l      
height & !n comp>+ !m4 ,n ! fitness =   
ends1 b ! k9d & multiplicity ( ! ends = 
:i* !re is fitness1 det]m9e our judgm5t2
 & ! ends by :i* we judge are ^? ( our  
own life4 ,we judge subjectively &      
absolutely in/ead ( objectively &       
relatively4 ,we are ev] unconsci\sly    
influ5c$ by ! conception t nature1 9    
creat+ ! tapeworm1 m]ely made a false   
/ep & a /ep backw>ds 9 h] way t[>ds !   
creation ( man4 ,t all animals are      
adapt$1 "s 9 a great]1 "s 9 a less      

degree1 to ! ends ( _! exi/5ce1 is prov$
 by ! simple fact ( _! exi/5ce1 t is1 ( 
_! survival 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce2 b :i*
 are 9 a high]1 & :i* are 9 a less      
degree s adapt$1 is1 9 ! individual     
in/ance1 extremely difficult to det]m9e4
 ,9 any attempt at su* an e/imate1 we   
mu/ meet ) peculi> difficulties1 result+
 f ! fact t we judge ( ! adaptation to  
ends ) less c]ta9ty ! fur!r f u any     
animal is 9 its organization4 ,a        
comp>ison su* z ,sp5c] in/itutes is     
possible only ) respect to l functions (
 simil> organs 9 closely relat$ =ms4  ,!
 ass]tion t increase ( ability =        
self-pres]vation leads to bett] c>e = ! 
"y1 & makes ( su* c>e a duty1 is        
likewise errone\s4 ,=1 up to ! highly   
organiz$ class ( ! cru/acea1 we h no    
example ( c>e = ! "y4 ,9 ! /ruggle =    
exi/5ce1 ! species :i* survive mu/ be   
su* z n only are 9 !mselves be/ fitt$ = 
survival1 b z also br+ =? be/ fitt$     
prog5y4 ,nor has ,sp5c] made cle> on :at
 gr\nd natural process is to be reg>d$ z

 id5tical ) duty4 ,9 tru? he has succe$$
 9 %[+ only t c>e = ! "y is wide-spread 
9 ! animal k+dom1 f :i* fact naturally  
foll[s t x is a quality :i* t5ds to !   
pres]vation ( species4  ,x _c be conc$$ 
t su* a p]fection z ,sp5c] pictures1 :]e
 ea* %all fulfil all ! functions ( 8 own
 life 9 ! mo/ p]fect & complete mann]   
)\t int]f]+ ) a l fre$om 9 o!rs1 is     
possible4 ,! ass]tion involves !        
ext5sion to all liv+ be+s ( t ideal     
pr9ciple ( equal claims :i* ,sp5c]      
repudiates ) reg>d to man1--%[+ t n all 
m5 are capable ( a l degree ( happ9ess &
 t individuals desire1 moreov]1 pleasure
 diff]+ 9 quality4 ,fur!rmore1 a _w (   
be+s :i*1 l ! animals & _m plants1 c    
support life only by means ( organic    
mat]ial1 mu/1 9 ord] to exi/1 de/roy    
organic life1 ei!r animal or vegetable4 
,! !ory does n ev5 hold ) reg>d to      
individuals ( ! same species2 ,sp5c]    
himself ackn[l$ges ! tru? ( ! pr9ciples 
( ,mal?us & ( ,d>w91 accord+ to :i*1 ev5
 ) ! l[e/ rate ( increase1 a /ruggle (  

competition mu/ soon arise betwe5       
individuals ( ! same species4  ,nor does
 ,sp5c]'s pro( ( ! fundam5tal "* (      
altruism hold1 on inve/igation4 ,he     
demon/rates t ?r\gh ! animal species up 
to man1 !re is less & less              
self-sacrifice ( ! "m animal 9 giv+ bir?
 to (fspr+4 ,b ?is physical sacrifice is
 n altruism2 altruism lies 9 consci\s   
c>e = ! "y aft] bir?1 & ?is is n less5$1
 b increas$1 ! high] we asc5d4  ,t      
morality is b great] adju/m5t ( acts to 
ends _c be admitt$4 ,if1 9 ord9>y spee*1
 ! ^w good ref]s to greate/ adju/m5t to 
ends1 :atev] ! ends may be1 t is no pro(
 t x mu/ h ! same significance 9 ,e?ics4
 ,a good %ot may be a good "o 9 t x hits
 ! m>k2 b :at if x kill a man8 ,! acts (
 crim9als may be z well adju/$ to _!    
ends & z easy to pr$ict z ^? ( a good   
man4 ,sp5c]'s !ory w\ld lead1 consi/5tly
 c>ri$ out1 to ! pr9ciple t ! means     
ju/ify ! end1 an ass]tion t is ev5 m    
dang]\s ?an its opposite4 ,! fact is1 t 
9 ,e?ics x is ! nature ( ! end :i* is ( 

importance4  ,sp5c] endeavors to %[ t   
only normal ex]cise ( function is       
favorable to life1 & s moral2--t excess 
& deprivation are bo? injuri\s4 ,x is n 
true1 h[ev]1 t excess is always         
injuri\s2 )9 c]ta9 b\nds x is made up = 
by res]ves 9 ! animal organism4 ,or1 if 
,sp5c] %\ld answ] to ?is objection1 t 8 
normal is n to be repres5t$ by a %>p    
l9e1 difficult to keep to1 b by a broad 
road )9 :i* excess is safe1 su* a       
repres5tation w\ld bo? burd5 8 !ory )   
two divid+-l9es1 & moreov] w\ld n save  
x4 ,= he has n deem$ x necess>y to treat
 ! concept normal to an exact def9ition1
 & we f9d him us+ x 9 8 lat] d$uctions 9
 an entirely new s5se--n z equilibrium  
betwe5 capacity ( function & its        
ex]cise1 b 9 ! ideal significance ( a   
h>mony betwe5 ! claims ( ! individual on
 ! "o side1 & ^? ( ! environm5t on !    
o!r4 ,?is normal is n[h]e actually to be
 f\nd & _c1 f ! nature ( ?+s1 be arriv$ 
at4 ,by addition ( ?is significance1 !  
^w normal becomes indef9ite 9 mean+1 &  

is us$1 n[ 9 "o s5se1 n[ 9 ! o!r4       
,normal ex]cise ( function has1 h[ev]1  
no?+ to d ) ! claims ( ! environm5t1 :i*
 g5]ally dem&s1 inde$1 a deviation f !  
normal4  ,nor is ,sp5c]'s analysis ( !  
beg9n+ ( ! process ( food-seizure1      
adduc$ 9 support ( ! !ory t happ9ess &  
morality are comm5surable1 confirm$ by  
facts4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 ! process (
 food-tak+ beg9s ) ! contact ( animal & 
food1 9 :i* act ! comm5cem5t ( diffusion
 ( food 9 ! body ( ! animal causes a    
pleasure :i* leads to ! seizure ( its   
prey & ! fur!r act ( dev\r+ x4 ,! !ory  
might hold ( ! l[e/ organisms1 b c\ld n 
be true ( any animal furni%$ ) an       
imp5etrable %ell or sk94 ,nor w\ld !    
seizure foll[ ) suffici5t promptness if 
x 7 left to ! action ( ! pleasure caus$ 
by diffusion4 ,moreov]1 we %\ld expect  
to f9d1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 a mu* m    
g5]al & f9] developm5t ( ! organ ( ta/e 
among ! animals1--to f9d x z a special  
organ on ! l[e/ planes ( animal life2 x 
is1 on ! contr>y1 ! late/ ( ! special   

s5ses to develop4 ,x is ! reaction on ! 
s5se ( t\*1 ! l[e/ & mo/ g5]al ( !      
special s5ses1 :i* causes ! seizure (   
n\ri%m5t4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 d5y t pleasure
 is ! motive to ! seizure ( food1 & s1  
too1 reject ! conclusion t x is ! motive
 to e o!r act4  ,besides argu+ t normal 
function br+s pleasure1 ,sp5c] has      
attempt$ to prove t all pleasure has its
 spr+ 9 normal function1 & is !re=e     
moral4 ,c\ld he succe$ 9 s do+1 h$onism 
w\ld be prov$4 ,= s9ce all s*ools agree 
9 reg>d+ happ9ess z ! end ( life1 & s9ce
 all ^!1 9 common1 ackn[l$ge happ9ess to
 be an excess ( pleasure ov] pa91       
enjoym5t might be reg>d$ z ! absolute   
guide4 ,b if1 z ,sp5c] ackn[l$ges1      
pleasure & morality are only 9 a        
p]fectly adapt$ society comm5surate1 !n 
9 only su* a society c pleasure be !    
crit]ion2 & s9ce we d n live 9 a        
p]fectly adapt$ society1 ! !ory is n    
applicable to u1 & if practicably appli$
 w\ld be fatal to society4  ,aga9/      
,sp5c]'s !ory ( ! f9al spontaneity (    

morality1 _m objections may be urg$1    
among o!rs especially ! "o t su* a      
morality ceases to be morality at all1  
virtue be+ possible1 z ,kant has        
demon/rat$1 only :]e a c]ta9 conque/ (  
desire is a*iev$4 ,su* a morality is1   
moreov]1 unatta9able1 an extravagant    
fancy4   ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,food-,,tak+
  ,rolph ?9ks ,sp5c]'s !ory awakes !    
conjecture t x 0 n fir/ arriv$ at ?r\gh 
inve/igation1 b re/s ^u a preconceiv$   
op9ion1 z d to a great] or less ext5t   
all !ories on ?is subject4 ,x seems z if
 ! au?or _h fir/ atta*$ himself to t    
!ory :i* be/ accord$ ) 8 sci5tific bias1
 & !n tri$ :e!r ?is !ory might be prov$ 
or support$ by facts ( biology &        
psy*ology4 ,"o might surmise1 f ! v     
skilful1 b (t5 too artificial argum5t1 t
 ! au?or pursu$ ! foll[+ tra9 ( ?\ght4  
,pleasure1 & inde$ ! greate/ possible   
pleasure1 is ! end ( endeavor 9 !       
organic _w1 t is1 ! psy*ical cause (    
endeavor4 ,may x n also be ! physical   
cause8  ,rolph answ]s ?is "q ) a d5ial1 

& endeavors to %[ t ! tak+ ( food has   
its cause 9 ! insatiability ( all       
organic sub/ance4 ,! !ory ( ,spontane\s 
,g5]ation conta9s no?+ impossible or    
improbable2 is1 on ! contr>y1 a necess>y
 logical assumption n to be disprov$ by 
! m]e result ( exp]im5t "u conditions ( 
! laboratory4 ,x is easy to imag9e t    
organic elem5ts1 :i* are to be f\nd 9   
great quantities 9 inorganic nature1 may
 come toge!r by *ance1 or r 9 ! natural 
ord] ( ?+s1 to ! =mation ( protoplasm4  
,! movem5t ( ^! masses ( protoplasm     
seems1 at fir/ glance1 to set ! law (   
gravitation at defiance1 b we may answ] 
t an asc5d+ balloon might seem1 to an   
un9/ruct$ obs]v]1 to d ! same1 al?\gh   
its movem5t is m]ely ! natural result ( 
t =ce2 x is n necess>y1 !re=e1 to assume
 a free inn] motive1 ! s\l1 z ! cause ( 
! "o motion or ! o!r4 ,! fir/           
assimilation ( food has its beg9n+ 9 !  
process ( endosmose & exosmose1 9 :i* ! 
protoplasm1 z 9 g5]al ! d5s] fluid1     
increases 9 volume1 tak+ up m ?an x     

gives out2 ! process occurr+1 9 detail1 
accord+ to ! special relations (        
attraction 9 ! p>ts4 ,! organism always 
takes up ! greate/ am\nt possible "u !  
circum/ances1 exactly z1 9 ! inorganic  
_w1 wat] takes up ! greate/ am\nt       
possible ( salt or any o!r soluble      
sub/ance2 ! gr[? ( a cry/al1 & !        
oxidation ( iron are illu/rations ( !   
same pr9ciple4 ,( ! limit ( ?is capacity
 to take up new matt] into ! organism we
 "k no?+2 all rec5t exp]im5ts g to %[ t 
! organism is capable1 "u propiti\s     
circum/ances1 ( an enorm\s receptivity1 
su* z1 "u natural conditions1 x nev]    
rea*es4 ,! l[] animals fe$ cont9ually1 &
 _! :ole lives are pass$ 9 ?is          
employm5t4 ,9 plants ! t5d5cy is se5    
/ill m cle>ly4 ,exp]im5ts ) electric1   
violet1 & ultra-violet light %[ an      
enorm\s gr[? 9 plants expos$ to its     
action4 ,b ?is c be only an indirect    
gr[?1 namely1 ! exorbitant accel]ation (
 organic *ange & assimilation4 ,?is fact
 is prov$ by exp]im5ts turn+ on increase

 ( w>m? 9 soil2 f :i* is se5 to result  
an unusual developm5t ( t "p ( ! plant  
to :i* gr[? is especially direct$ at !  
"t4 ,:5 ! w>m? ( an incubator is        
increas$1 ! animal organ especially     
engag$ 9 developm5t at ! "t is affect$ 9
 l mann]4 ,s t we may assume t !        
organism is capable ( respond+ to e dem&
 t nature makes ^u x "u normal          
conditions2 & s9ce ! greate/ possible   
assimilation "u ! exi/+ conditions is   
?us remov$ f ! control ( ! creature1 !  
latt] appe>s practically insatiable4    
,?is insatiability mu/ appe> to ! obs]v]
 an inn] impulse ( ! organism1 an ef=t  
t[>ds increase ( n\ri%m5t4 ,x may be    
call$ me*anical hung] 9 di/9ction f     
psy*ical hung]1 ( :i* x is ! basis4 ,x  
is n necess>y to take into consid]ation1
 9 ! "q z to ! degree ( assimilation    
possible1 ! am\nt ( excretion ( sub/ance
 by ! organism2 we mu/1 on ! contr>y1   
ass]t t ?is is dep5d5t ^u ! am\nt (     
assimilation4 ,! measure ( gr[? dep5ds1 
!re=e1 on ! degree ( assimilation ( new 

mat]ial4 ,?is degree1 h[ev]1 l ! degree 
to :i* ! matt] may be dissolv$ 9 a      
liquid 9 ! case ( inorganic matt]1 is   
especially affect$ by light & w>m?4 ,!  
creature :i* comes into exi/5ce 9 ! sun 
w exp]i5ce a decrease ( organic *ange :5
 plac$ 9 ! %ade2 & ! creature :i* comes 
into exi/5ce 9 ! %ade w exp]i5ce an     
increase ( su* *ange "u ! influ5ce ( !  
sun1 a decrease aga9 ) a return to !    
%ade4 ,?is decrease means hung]1--h>m4  
,exp]im5ts ) zooespores ?r[ an int]e/+  
light ^u ^! relations4 ,!y %[ t !       
zooespores1 al?\gh suit$ to v diff]5t   
degrees ( light1 all %un d>kness4       
,al?\gh :5 9 ! light !y soon come to    
re/1 divide1 & copulate1 !y rema91 9 !  
d>kness1 9 a /ate ( cont9ual unre/ &    
motion4 ,!y gr[ s ?9 t !y almo/ excite  
pity 7,/rassburg]71 & f9ally p]i% (     
hung]4 ,only su* zooespores z are       
di/+ui%$ by sex & copulate come to re/1 
or ^? ( su* sorts z prey ^u o!rs4 ,x is 
easy to p]ceive t ! unre/ ( ! zooespores
 9 ! d>kness spr+s f lack ( n\ri%m5t1 f 

hung]2 !y seek fev]i%ly = ! light1 )\t  
:i* assimilation foll[s ) insuffici5t   
en]gy to satisfy ne$ & r5d] life        
possible4 ,9 d>kness1 copulation alone c
 d ?is2 copulation takes1 !n1 ! place ( 
normal n\ri%m5t4  ,or let u consid] !   
case ( an organism :i* has orig9at$ 9 ! 
%ade4 ,heat1 z we "k1 increases *emical 
*ange1 9 inorganic z well z organic     
matt]2 x ha/5s ! dis9tegration ( c]ta9  
comp\nds1 & alone r5d]s x possible 9 _m 
cases4 ,9 g5]al1 we may ass]t t increase
 ( temp]ature )9 c]ta9 limits increases 
assimilation2 t is1 capacity to         
assimilate4 ,!re=e1 if an animal is     
plac$ 9 ! sun1 its capacity1 t is1 its  
ne$1 to assimilate is increas$1 al?\gh  
assimilation is mu* m en]getic ?an be=e4
 ,ne$ to assimilate or hung] is1 !re=e1 
dep5d5t ^u ! supply ( food1 al?\gh1     
d\btless1 also on o!r conditions1       
especially ^? ( light & temp]ature4 ,if 
?is is true1 ! hung] ( a simple organism
 t assimilates en]getically mu/ be m    
int5se ?an t ( "o :i* assimilates sl[ly1

 9 spite ( ! consumption ( an enorm\s   
quantity ( food 9 ! case ( ! =m]4       
,botani/s "k 7,sa*s1 ,lehrbu* d]        
,botanik1 p4 #fac7 t gr[? may be s ha/5$
 by too high a temp]ature t assimilation
 7especially "u scanty light7 does n    
suffice to provide ! necess>y mat]ial = 
x4 ,! transpiration ( ! leaves may be s 
increas$ t ! roots _c repair ! loss4 ,& 
on ! o!r h&1 a too l[ temp]ature ( !    
soil may s dim9i% ! action ( ! roots t  
ev5 a small loss by transpiration _c be 
repair$4  ,at :at /age ( organization   
psy*ical hung] is add$ to me*anical     
hung]1 or :e!r x may be id5tifi$ ) x1 we
 _c say4 ,9 any case1 ! =m] appe>s      
exce$+ly e>ly1 = excitations ( hung] may
 be obs]v$ 9 creatures v l[ 9 ! scale ( 
be+4 ,c]ta9ly hung] is nev] abs5t :]e   
!re is movem5t4  ,hung]1 a s5se ( pa91  
is1 !re=e1 ! fir/ impulse to action4#eh 
,) a l ef=t 9 ! attempt to obta9 food1 t
 organism w be be/ n\ri%$ :i* comm&s !  
be/ means ( obta9+ & prep>+ its food1--!
 be/ app>atus = ! seizure & gr9d+ (     

food1 & ! be/ saliv>y gl&4 ,& f9ally1   
great] surface ( sk91 ( lungs1 ( gills1 
or ( inte/9es1 causes great] capacity = 
assimilation1 & s9ce ?is surface is     
increas$ by cell-division or            
propagation1 ! capacity ( ! organism =  
assimilation gr[s ) its capacity (      
propagation4#ei ,protoplasm is nev]     
entirely homog5e\s1 & we mu/ suppose "s 
diff]5ce ev5 9 ! beg9n+2 su* diff]5ce   
is1 inde$1 fundam5tal ?r\gh ! v         
composition ( protoplasm f ! f\r        
fundam5tal elem5ts1 & ?is or t o!r      
elem5t4 ,^! diff]5t elem5ts mu/ be held 
toge!r by =ces ( attraction1 & !        
direction ( ^! =ces mu/ h "s common     
c5tre repres5t$ by "s diff]5tiation ( ! 
protoplasm1 :e!r z cle>] spot1 or z     
nucleus4 ,?is spontane\sly g5]at$       
organism1 nei!r animal nor plant1 is    
n\ri%$1 z we h se51 by diffusion1 by !  
trans=mation ( inorganic into organic   
sub/ance4 ,! l[e/ organisms possess no  
def9ite organs = tak+ food2 !y manife/1 
h[ev]1 ph5om5a ( movem5t :i* are exactly

 l ^? ( ! animal organism1 = !y appe>   
uncondition$ & h5ce volunt>y4           
,locomotion is1 9 ! l[e/ animal =ms1 !  
only means ( obta9+ n\ri%m5t4 ,! amoeba 
surr\nds & takes 9 :atev] is by *ance   
met )4 ,animals a little high] 9 ! scale
 swim ab\t & seek _! food2 or1 rema9+ 9 
"o place1 !y cause1 by means ( cilia1 a 
movem5t ( ! wat] t[>ds a c]ta9 "p ( !   
body1 a sort ( m\? :]e ! protoplasm is  
op5 & c take up ! prey 9 ! same mann] z 
does ! amoeba4 ,asc5d+ ! scale ( life1  
we f9d m & m complicat$ app>atus = !    
seizure ( food1 = its prep>ation &      
dige/ion1 & ! beg9n+ ( a n]v\s sy/em1   
fir/ z ! diff]5tiation ( c]ta9          
muscle-cells1 !n 9 connection ) a       
special s5se1 t ( he>+4 ,if we assume   
any pleasure to be connect$ ) ! e>lie/  
acts ( assimilation1 x mu/ be t ( !     
satisfaction ( a want1 ! /ill+ ( pa9 9 !
 =m ( hung]4   ,,! ,,problem ,,(        
,,p]fectibility  ,9 ! e>lie/ =ms (      
propagation1 ! y\ng] organism is a true 
copy ( t f :i* x spr+s1 ! trifl+        

diff]5ces be+ due1 z ,s*mankewicz has   
%[n1 to out] influ5ces4 ,! diff]5ces (  
male1 female1 work]1 & soldi] are due to
 su* out] influ5ces4 ,! diff]5ces 9 !   
y\ng] organism1 :]e propagation takes   
place ?r\gh copulation1 may be expla9$  
by ! mixture ( types1 ?r\gh :i*1 by     
action & reaction1 "s qualities are     
int5sifi$1 :ile "s o!rs become lat5t or 
are entirely de/roy$4 ,to ^! mutual     
influ5ces are to be add$ su* z come f   
)\t1 especially ^? ( w>m?1 & ( quantity 
& quality ( food4 ,"u too great an      
increase 9 temp]ature1 ! "y organism may
 ev5 be de/roy$1 ! process (            
assimilation n be+ able to keep pace )  
x4 ,^? v>iations :i* h l$ to !          
developm5t ( exi/+ =ms1 t is1 :i* 7     
favorable to life1 are *iefly su* z c\ld
 be br\ght ab\t by relative or absolute 
increase ( assimilation4 ,?is is true ( 
m5tal1 z well z ( physical1 qualities4  
,x is a fact e/abli%$ )\t d\bt1 t ! mo/ 
common & mo/ widely di/ribut$ species %[
 ! greate/ v>iability1 & t ^? species1  

on ! contr>y1 :i* are n[ r>e1 al?\gh !y 
71 p]haps1 at e>li] p]iods1 ! mo/ common
 & extremely v>iable1 v>y1 at ! pres5t  
date1 ! lea/ ( all4 ,foll[+ ,d>w91 "o   
g5]ally draws ! conclusion t ! sev]ity (
 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce favors ! =mation ( 
v>ieties4 ,=1 x is said1 ! mo/ common   
species fight ! sev]e/ battle ) "o      
ano!r1 :ile ! scanty repres5tatives (   
r>] species come ! lea/ into competition
 & cont9ue un*ang$4 ,b ?is !ory is1 9   
two ways1 errone\s4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 no 
att5tion is paid to ! fact t a r>e      
species may be expos$ to a sev]e /ruggle
 aga9/ ano!r species = ! same n\ri%m5t1 
:ile a common species may1 on ! o!r h&1 
be expos$ to no su* /ruggle1 &1 support+
 life f a g5]\s supply ( food1 be       
subject$ to b slight pressure4 ,!       
conception ( ! ,d>w9ians means no?+ m or
 less ?an t ! individuals ( a species   
v>y ! m1 ! less favorable ! conditions (
 n\ri%m5t2 & ?is _c be conc$$4 ,aga91 ! 
fact is to be tak5 into consid]ation1 t 
! species at pres5t common mu/ h pass$  

?r\gh a favorable p]iod 9 :i* food 0 s  
pl5tiful t x n only af=d$ an abundance  
to individuals pa/ ! dang]s ( infancy & 
y\?1 b all[$1 9 addition1 ! exi/5ce ( an
 ev]-increas+ numb] ( individuals4 ,& x 
is ?is p]iod ( increase1 ( abundance1 n 
a p]iod ( /ruggle1 :i* has develop$ !   
v>iations we n[ h be=e our eyes4 ,9 !   
same mann] "o mu/ conclude1 ) reg>d to !
 r>] species1 t ! =m]ly exi/+ num]\s    
v>ieties 7 de/roy$ dur+ ! p]iod (       
decl9e1 t is1 ( ov]p[]+ pressure4 ,we h 
abundant pro( ( ?is 9 ! fact t          
dome/icat$ species1 :i* are c>efully    
t5d$ & f$1 & s :olly )drawn f ! /ruggle 
= exi/5ce1 v>y enorm\sly1 & produce !   
mo/ wond]ful mon/rosities4  ,to :at     
direct causes ! appe>ance ( a v>iety is 
due1 is a "q z yet unansw]$4 ,b         
,weismann's inve/igations h %[n u t     
climate plays a l>ge "p 9 _! developm5t4
 ,embryology tea*es u1 moreov]1 t !     
developm5t ( ! "y organism does n take  
place ) ! same uni=mity 9 all organs1 b 
t1 on ! contr>y1 9 "o p]iod "o organ1 9 

ano!r1 ano!r1 und]goes a m rapid gr[?1  
:i* may be influ5c$ by v>iations 9 food 
or temp]ature4 ,?r\gh su* v>iations !   
developm5t ( mon/rosities is expla9$4   
,we "k t influ5ces ( n\ri%m5t are       
op]ative 9 ! developm5t ( ! l>vae ( bees
 to work]s or to que5s1 & we c easily   
conceive t o!r organs besides ! sexual  
are subject to ^! influ5ces4 ,! field 9 
:i* su* influ5ces may be op]ative is1   
inde$1 b\ndless4  ,all ^! consid]ations 
lead u to ! conclusion t v>iability 9   
g5]al1 b especially t v>iability result+
 9 a s-call$ improvem5t ( ! v>ieties    
produc+ x1 is an accompanim5t ( prosp]\s
 conditions4 ,?is is a conclusion n yet 
rea*$ 9 zooelogy1 al?\gh botani/s long  
ago recogniz$1 9 abundance ( food1 ! mo/
 ess5tial condition = ! developm5t (    
v>iations4  ,d>w9ism fails to acc\nt =  
any ne$ ( n\ri%m5t beyond t necess>y = !
 ma9t5ance ( ! /atus quo ( life4        
,accord+ to ,d>w91 ! animal c acquire   
only suffici5t = ! repair ( loss4 ,!    
/ruggle = exi/5ce is1 !re=e1 accord+ to 

him1 a /ruggle ( self-def5ce1 & its     
results c\ld be1 at ! be/1 only !       
ma9t5ance ( species 9 _! pres5t position
 or1 9 a less favorable case1 _! decl9e1
 & f9ally _! de/ruction4 ,b ?is view is 
:olly false4 ,! animal acquires n only  
en\gh to repair loss1 b mu* m4 ,h[ c\ld 
! fir/ amoeba h propagat$ itself1 if x  
consum$ no m ?an x ne$$ = m]e           
self-ma9t5ance1 & h[ c\ld evolution h   
tak5 place8 ,we h se5 t1 ev5 9 !        
inorganic _w1 !re is n an equality (    
loss & repair1 b t1 9 osmose1 ! d5s]    
fluid takes up m ?an x gives1 :ile !    
fluid t is less d5se loses m ?an x      
receives1 & ! mutual ex*ange rea*es !   
maximum possible "u ! exi/+             
circum/ances4 ,x is ?is *>act]i/ic :i*  
r5d]s ! involunt>y & =c$ t5d5cy ( !     
organism to satiation indep5d5t ( !     
am\nt ( wa/e2 ?is me*anical hung] is !  
spr+ ( ! insatiability ( organisms1 &   
expla9s to u _! increase 9 numb]1 !     
process ( increas+ p]fection1 &         
individual developm5t4 ,)\t x1 an       

et]nity w\ld n h suffic$ = evolution2 we
 %\ld /ill h only a _w ( primitive      
amoebae4  ,?is !ory ( developm5t is1 !n1
 ! opposite ( t ord9>ily assum$4 ,!     
latt] ass]ts t increase ( gr[? dem&s    
increase ( n\ri%m5t1 :]eas ?is ass]ts ! 
fact t increase ( n\ri%m5t det]m9es     
gr[?4 ,! /ruggle = exi/5ce is n a       
/ruggle = ! m]e necess>ies to ma9ta9    
life1 b a /ruggle = increase (          
acquisition1 increase ( life2 x is n a  
/ruggle ( def5ce1 b an attack :i* only  
"u c]ta9 circum/ances becomes a def5ce4 
,! rule ) :i* we advise our fri5ds is1  
,=w>d6 /rive to bett] y\rself6 ?\gh we  
may endeavor1 9 hypocritical _s1 to     
p]suade to cont5tm5t ^? :o come into    
competition ) our int]e/s4  ,! *ief     
po9ts1 !re=e1 9 :i* ?is !ory diff]s f t 
( ,d>w91 are z foll[s3--  ,! /ruggle =  
exi/5ce is really a /ruggle = increase (
 n\ri%m5t1 ( life2 & indep5d5t ( !      
supply ( ! mom5t1 x goes on at all      
times1 h5ce ev5 9 a /ate ( abundance4   
,limitation ( supply by competition     

leads to fixation ( ! species &1 9 !    
end1 to its decrease & disappe>ance4    
,sickness1 climate1 & direct enemies are
 ! de/ructive ag5cies1 & mu/ secure m   
propiti\s conditions = survivors1 !     
/rong] _! effect4  ,only "u conditions (
 prosp]ity c ! survivors propagate      
l>gely1 & p]fect !mselves1 sep>at+ into 
v>ieties & species4  ,! increase &      
diff]5tiation ( ! organic _w %[s u t    
conditions ( prosp]ity h be5 ! rule1 ^? 
( want ! exception4  ,rolph's extremely 
int]e/+ *apt] on ,propagation traces !  
sexual in/9ct to ! me*anical hung]4 ,!  
e>lie/ example :i* may be adduc$ 9      
support ( ?is !ory is t ( ! zooespores  
:i*1 by copulation1 su/a9 life = a "t "u
 ! unfavorable conditions ( d>kness1 !  
?9n] male repres5t+1 z does also !      
sp]matozoo51 ! seek+ individual suff]+ f
 want1 ! female repres5t+ a means (     
su/5ance4 ,! sex ( ! "y organism is 9 l 
mann] ref]r$ by ,rolph to conditions (  
n\ri%m5t dur+ developm5t4 ,we n[ come to
 ! *apt] on   ,,animal ,,or ,,natural   

,,e?ics  ,! exi/5ce ( morality          
presupposes ! exi/5ce ( comm&m5ts (     
duty1 & ( an au?ority4 ,among animals1 z
 well z among human be+s1 we f9d        
recogniz$ au?ority & c disc]n !         
pr9ciples ( action :i* con/itute ! duty 
( any p>ticul> animal4 ,au?ority among !
 l[] animals is bas$ on might1 :i* is1  
inde$1 ! univ]sal s\rce ( au?ority1 )\t 
:i* no au?ority c exi/4 ,p]sonal        
au?ority is b a p>ticul> =m ( ! au?ority
 ( circum/ances2 & to ?is au?ority e    
creature mu/ be subject4 ,x consi/s (   
two factors3 ! out] au?ority ( !        
environm5t1 & ! inn] au?ority ( impulse4
 ,duty is ob$i5ce to au?ority4 ,! duty (
 ! organism consi/s 9 action t          
corresponds to ^! two au?orities1 foll[+
 ! direction giv5 z ! resultant ( !     
mixture ( ! two compon5ts4 ,t is1 t     
mann] ( life is "r or moral :i* r5d]s ! 
life ( ! organism ! fulle/ possible "u !
 circum/ances4 ,! unreason+ organism is 
unconsci\sly drawn to seek ?is maximum1 
:ile ! reason+ be+ seeks x ?r\gh        

reflection4 ,! impulse to happ9ess      
includes1 !re=e1 = ! reason+ be+1 !     
impulse to morality2 or1 ideally        
express$1 ! relative morality equals !  
relative happ9ess2 morality & happ9ess  
are ! same ?+4  ,an au?ority )\t ! means
 ( en=c+ itself is a self-contradiction4
 ,! means by :i* nature makes its       
au?ority felt is organic excitation4 ,9 
proportion to its /r5g?1 an excitation  
produces s5sation1 9 case x is n too    
weak to make itself felt at all4 ,e     
excitation has a def9ite significance & 
may come f )\t or )94 ,pleasant         
excitations are always1 prim>ily1 !     
feel+ ( ! /ill+ ( pa91 ?\gh !re are     
pa9s1 su* z1 = in/ance1 t ( a w\nd1 !   
too?a*e1 heada*e1 an a*+ corn1 :i* h no 
correspond+ feel+ ( pleasure4 ,nor is   
pleasure ! only (fspr+ ( pa91 s9ce pa9  
may br+ =? pa94 ,pleasure dep5ds1 9 its 
"* z pleasure z well z 9 its /r5g?1 on !
 feel+ prec$+ x 9 ! organism2 t is1 its 
quality is ! result1 n ( ! degree (     
organic excitation1 b ( ! ord] (        

succession ( ! feel+s4 ,= ?is reason1 ! 
same feel+ :i* br+s pleasure to "o      
individual may br+ pa9 to ano!r4  ,?is  
:ole d$uction is at v>iance ) ,sp5c]'s  
!ory t pleasurable excitations are      
favorable to life1 pa9ful ones injuri\s4
 ,& s9ce obs]vation is 9 direct         
opposition to 8 ass]tion1 8 foll[]s h   
be5 oblig$ to supplem5t x ) ! conception
 t pa9 is gradually we$$ out by natural 
selection4 ,on ! contr>y1 we ne$ pa9 at 
e in/ant1 s9ce x is ! impulse to action2
 p]si/5ce 9 ! same condition ?r\gh lack 
( excitation1 mu/ result 9 dea?2        
pleasure c nev] orig9ate action1 x c    
only cause p]si/5ce 9 action already    
begun4 ,! fact has be5 too (t5 ov]look$1
 t ! motive & ! end ( an action are by  
no means ! same4 ,! motive is pa91 & !  
end is ei!r simply ! /ill+ ( pa9 or an  
additional positive pleasure4 ,!re are1 
!re=e1 _m actions :i* are direct$ to no 
concrete positive end1 b only to !      
purely negative end ( escape f pa9 )\t  
consid]ation ( ! fur!r results2 a /rik+ 

example ( su* action is suicide4 ,ev5   
:]e positive pleasure appe>s z an end1 x
 is nev] 9 itself ! motive to action4 ,9
 ord] to become a motive1 x mu/ fir/ be 
trans=m$ into an excitation1 into desire
 = pleasure2 & ?is desire = a def9ite or
 an indef9ite pleasure is1 9 its ess5ce1
 pa9--! pa9 ( ! abs5ce ( pleasure4#fj   
,! pleasure s\ght may be "o already kn[n
 ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 or x may be "o n yet   
exp]i5c$4 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! desire is  
awak5$ by in/ruction or reflection1 or  
else induc$ by in/9ct4 ,b ! motive is   
always ! same1 namely1 a seek+ aft]     
pleasure1 h5ce a feel+ ( pa94  ,?is view
 furni%es u ) a psy*ical explanation ( !
 association ( ideas1 ! my/]i\s s-call$ 
transf]r5ce ( ! feel+ ( pleasure f ! end
 to ! means4 ,pleasure beg9s z soon z we
 h begun ! action :i* w br+ u ) c]ta9ty 
to ! end desir$1 & ?is pleasure may rea*
 su* a degree ( /r5g? at "s po9t ( !    
process z to conqu] ! desire = ! real   
end1 hem fur!r action1 & dispose to     
cont9uance at ! po9t rea*$4 ,! action ( 

! mis] may be ?us expla9$4  ,! objection
 t1 if pa9 is ! motive1 ! organism is   
no?+ b a bundle ( pa9s1 is by no means  
valid1 = x ov]looks ! fact t pa9 rema9s1
 9 an imm5se numb] ( cases1 bel[ !      
?re%old ( consci\sness2 z 9 ! case (    
organic action1 :]e x is rhy?mic4 ,!    
same is true ( reflex action4 ,to any   
close obs]v] ( ! l[] organisms1 x seems 
mo/ probable t ^! possess consci\sness  
7see ,wundt1 ,physiologis*e             
,psy*ologie71 nor is x by any means     
prov$ t ! plants d n possess x likewise4
 ,x is c]ta9ly rem>kable t exactly !    
l[e/ plants1 :i* /& s ne> ! animals 9 ! 
ph5om5a ( _! life1 exhibit movem5ts     
closely resembl+ ^? ( animals4 ,& x is1 
moreov]1 a fact t automatic & reflex    
actions increase ) ! degree (           
organization1 & are mo/ num]\s 9 human  
be+s4 ,) increas$ ex]cise1 "o *a9 (     
movem5ts aft] ! o!r is )drawn f         
consci\sness2 & ?r\gh ?is removal f     
consci\sness action ga9s 9 c]ta9ty &    
rapidity1 & 9 en]gy also1 s9ce ! "p ( ! 

=ce :i* 0 be=e lo/ 9 induc+ consci\sness
 is n[ releas$4 ,su* removal f          
consci\sness is1 !re=e1 a b5efit to !   
organism1 z an adaptation to ! increas$ 
dem&s ( circum/ances4 ,movem5ts :i* ?us 
become unconsci\s are ea* & e "o ( !m   
movem5ts :i* h b "o def9ite end & an    
int]ruption ( :i* ei!r kills or s]i\sly 
injures ! organism1 or at lea/ br+s     
disord] into its life = ! "t be+4 ,an   
easily excit$ consci\sness w\ld be an   
exce$+ dang] to ! animal4 ,consci\s     
action is direct$ to ! atta9m5t (       
v>iable ends by means :i* are also      
v>iable4 ,x _c1 !re=e1 a/oni% u t       
consci\sness disappe>$ 9 plants aft] !  
loss ( free motion4  ,by ! regul>       
ex]cise ( c]ta9 actions or ( tra9s (    
?\ght1 ei!r ?r\gh necessity or by habit 
c]ta9 tracks are worn or tak5 possession
 (1 s t ! :ole process1 f ! excitation  
to ! action result+ ^u x1 takes place ) 
su* rapidity t we are no long] consci\s 
( its sep>ate phases & s ( ! gr[? ( !   
result4  ,! fir/ comm&m5t ( animal e?ics

 is1 !re=e3 ,flee pa92 & closely        
associat$ ) x is a second comm&m5t      
furni%$ by ! insatiability ( ! organism1
 ! impulse to happ9ess1 to increase (   
life4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,sp5c]'s e?ics1     
accord+ to :i* normal liv+ is "r liv+1  
w\ld result 9 /agnation4 ,"r liv+       
consi/s1 on ! contr>y1 9 progress1 9    
pass+ beyond ! normal4 ,no educator w\ld
 hesitate = an in/ant to pron\nce !     
cont9uance ( a pupil ^u a pres5t normal 
immoral1 & to oppose x ) all 8 p[]s4 ,f 
day to day ! develop+ organism advances 
! l9e ( its normal activity4 ,& z 9 !   
individual1 s 9 ! species3 e new        
g5]ation exce$s 9 a c]ta9 measure !     
activity ( ! la/4 ,n re/1 b motion1     
con/itutes ! normal2 n re/1 b motion1 is
 happ9ess1 & ! spr+ ( happ9ess4 ,n t be+
 :i* has no wants1 b t :i* develops &   
satisfies ! greate/ possible numb] (    
wants1 is ! happie/1 leads ! mo/        
pleasurable life4 ,:5 we apply ^!       
pr9ciples to ! animals1 we rea* !       
conception t all su* z lead a solit>y   

life live morally :5 !y endeavor1 ) all 
_! p[]s1 to bett] _! own condition4 ,t  
!y injure plants & o!r animals 9 s do+  
ne$ n tr\ble u1 s9ce !y are =c$ to d s 9
 ord] to ma9ta9 life4 ,! pr9ciple on :i*
 animal life is bas$ is h5ce preem95tly 
egoi/ic & ackn[l$ges no o!r "r ?an t (  
might4 ,sp5c]1 9 speak+ ( altruism on ! 
l[e/ plane ( animal life1 makes !       
fundam5tal & q fatal mi/ake t he does n 
fir/ %>ply & di/9ctly def9e egoism4 ,_h 
he done ?is1 he w\ld c]ta9ly h f\nd t1 =
 egoism1 z = altruism1 ! crit]ion (     
consci\sness1 ( w1 is indisp5sable4 ,9 8
 def9ition ( altruism z consi/+ 9 ^?    
acts :i* 9 any way b5efit o!rs1 he does 
no?+ less ?an get rid ( egoism altoge!r1
 s9ce !re are no acts :i* d n1 9 ! end1 
b5efit o!rs ?an ! p]=m]4 ,! great] numb]
 ( ! "y br\ght =? by l[e/ organisms s]ve
 z food = o!r species1 & h5ce ! p>5t    
animal1 9 br++ =? su* numb]s1 favors ^! 
species r ?an h] own fle% & blood4 ,!   
fly w\ld act altrui/ically1 accord+ to  
,sp5c]'s def9ition1 9 be+ caught 9 ! net

 ( ! spid]4  ,a creature :i* gets its   
food1 z d _m ( ! l[] species1 )\t       
ex]tion ( its own1 does n act           
egoi/ically1 nor does ! animal :i*1 9 ! 
natural c\rse ( its gr[?1 br+s =? "y by 
spontane\s division2 b t animal may d s 
:i* acquires its food by means ( any    
volunt>y actions1 h[ev] insignificant1  
or :i* volunt>ily protects & c>es = its 
"y2 & su* volunt>y action increases r   
?an decreases ) great] organization4    
,real egoism beg9s ) ! volunt>y         
acquisition ( food1 a process cont9u$ 9 
! =c$ excretion ( ! "y4 ,b s9ce ?is     
action b5efits ! second g5]ation1 we may
 reg>d x z ! connect+ l9k betwe5 egoism 
& altruism4 ,x is n purely altrui/ic2   
altruism prop] beg9s ) ! n\ri%m5t & c>e 
( ! "y4 ,& to :at degree we h a "r to   
consid] ev5 ?is z really altrui/ic c be 
det]m9$ only by fur!r inve/igation4 ,!  
empty+ ( ! milk-gl&s is comb9$ )        
pleasure2 x may !re=e be reg>d$ z       
prim>ily egoi/ic1 & furni%es u ) a fur!r
 example ( ! developm5t ( altruism f    

egoism4 ,altruism increases1 n only )   
high] organization1 b also ) a high]    
developm5t ( social life4  ,! beg9n+s ( 
society are to be f\nd 9 ! family life (
 animals2 ! mo/ primitive =m ( ?is is ! 
tempor>y1 volunt>y association ( male & 
female among ! high] species2 t is1 !   
an?ropoids & v]tebrates4 ,on ?is m]ely  
tempor>y association foll[s1 z a high]  
/age1 ! la/+ family union1 :i* exi/s    
among comp>atively few animals4 ,!      
s-call$ /ates ( ! animals are1 9 _! mo/ 
typical in/ances1 no?+ b families liv+ 9
 a condition ( poly&ry4  ,clos]         
association gives opportunity = a misuse
 ( ! p[]s & aims ( ! individual1 be=e   
impossible4 ,examples ( ?is are ! !ft ( 
honey f "o hive ( bees by ! work]s (    
ano!r1 & ! c>ry+ (f ( ! "y by wasps &   
ants1 z also ! slaught] ( ! drones4     
,s9ce ! robb] ( ye/]day may be ! robb$ (
 to-day1 su* acts are h>mful to         
individuals1 to ! family1 & to !        
species4 ,!y dim9i% ! degree ( life1 &  
are oppos$ to animal e?ics4 ,!          

association ( male & female1 s9ce only  
tempor>y1 af=ds little opportunity =    
immorality1 & ! duties ( p>5ts to _! "y 
are1 = ! mo/ "p1 fai?fully p]=m$4 ,9    
/rik+ contra/ to ! natural morality (   
wild animals is ! immorality ( dome/ic  
animals1 :i* give !mselves up to e sort 
( vice :5 n re/ra9$4 ,! moral conditions
 ( any associat$ animals n "u control1  
:e!r 9 zooelogical g>d5s1 9 ! t[n1 or 9 
! c\ntry1 is1 9 fact1 mon/r\s4          
,immorality increases ) ! clos]         
association ( animals4 ,! clos] !       
contact & ! loos] ! bond betwe5 !       
individuals ( a species1 ! great] !     
opportunity = immorality1 & ! worse !   
result+ habits4 ,! c>eless life (       
pleasure l$ by animals t live 9         
solitude1 is int]f]$ )1 9 a /ate (      
association1 by c]ta9 duties4 ,h[ f> !  
p]=mance ( su* duties spr+s f a conceal$
 pleasure1 or f in/9ct1 or foll[s ^u !  
comm& ( au?ority1 we1 un=tunately1 _c   
say4 ,! limitation ( gratification      
signifies1 h[ev]1 decrease ( pleasure4  

,! ne$s ( diff]5t animals diff] accord+ 
to diff]+ organization2 high]           
organization means great] & m complicat$
 desire1 ! satisfaction ( :i* is (t5    
impossible1 b x means also ! atta9m5t ( 
capacity = great] pleasure 9 =m &       
int5sity4 ,h5ce ev5 ! p>tly atta9$      
pleasure ( ! high] animals is1 9        
int5sity z well z 9 fulness1 mu* great] 
?an ! completely atta9$ pleasure ( ! l[]
 animals4   ,,humane ,,e?ics  ,rolph    
conte/s ,lubbock's !ory t ! e>ly type ( 
man liv$ 9 a condition ( sexual         
promiscuity1 & gives z a reason = 8     
op9ion ! /rict monogamy ( ^? animals :i*
 are mo/ closely relat$ to man4 ,!      
cu/oms ( su* animals %\ld h z mu*       
weight1 z evid5ce1 z ^? ( any ( ! pres5t
 tribes ( savages1 s9ce ^! tribes are z 
old z civiliz$ races1 & _! cu/oms _c1   
!re=e1 be unhesitat+ly reg>d$ z prim>y  
ones4  ,! real ne$s ( m51 ^? !          
gratification ( :i* is indisp5sable to !
 ma9t5ance ( life1 are few4 ,by         
exp]i5ce1 & by exp]i5ce alone1 c man    

le>n t pres5t gratification may mean    
future pa91 & s be )held f su*          
gratification2 = only dis9cl9ation to "o
 =m ( pleasure c induce incl9ation to   
ano!r =m4 ,9 ! simplicity ( primitive   
social conditions & ! uni=m "* ( action 
"u su* conditions1 rules ( exp]i5ce mu/ 
h be5 e>ly =m$1 :i*1 inh]it$ by succe$+ 
g5]ations1 became ! rules ( conduct4#fa 
,) ! developm5t ( au?ority1--fir/ !     
pat]nal au?ority1 !n t ( ! family1 &    
f9ally t ( ! eld]s ( ! tribe1--!        
possibility ( e/abli%+ rules ( action1 &
 induc+ morality1 increas$4 ,! v        
nom9ation ( eld]s1 to :i* primitive     
au?ority may almo/ ev]y:]e be trac$1 %[s
 h[ great 0 ! respect = exp]i5ce4       
,sp5c] rem>ks1 9 "o place 9 8 ,data (   
,e?ics1 t human be+s fir/ b&$ !mselves  
toge!r because !y f\nd x m advantage\s  
to cooep]ate4 ,?is is only conditionally
 true4 ,be=e human be+s c\ld f9d        
association advantage\s1 !y mu/ h       
accumulat$ exp]i5ce ( x4 ,t !y did ?is  
by _! own incl9ation is c]ta9ly n true4 

,:]ev] we f9d two solit>y be+s com+     
toge!r by *ance1 enmity is ! fir/ feel+ 
excit$1 & w> ! result4 ,ev]y?+ new1     
ev]y?+ unkn[n1 causes av]sion1 & ?is    
av]sion mu/ lead to misund]/&+s & w> ! m
 surely because ea* ( ! oppon5ts feels  
himself di/urb$ 9 8 suppos$ "r to       
limitless possession4 ,human be+s mu/   
fir/ h w>r$ ) "o ano!r be=e !y came to !
 k1 n t social life1 t is1 mutual       
=be>ance1 0 m advantage\s1 b t m closely
 associat$ individuals ga9$ 9 p[] aga9/ 
a common enemy by _! association4 ,man  
did n *oose society1 b 01 on ! contr>y1 
=c$ into x1 = good or evil1 ?r\gh       
increase ( 8 k9d4 ,! discov]y ( ! fir/  
tools mu/ h _h an imm5se influ5ce ^u    
increase 9 ! numb] ( individuals1 :i* 0 
be=e limit$ by /ruggle ) wild animals1 &
 by ! re/riction ( food to fruit4 ,we   
mu/ conclude t1 "u su* circum/ances1 a  
la/+ contract 0 inevitable1 & t1 ) x1   
vices sudd5ly appe>$ :i* _h be=e exi/$  
only pot5tially1 z pr$isposition4 ,w> or
 !ft mu/ h foll[$ ! mutual limitation ( 

rights1 b aga9/ ?is di/urbance ( ! peace
 o!r memb]s ( ! society mu/ h b&$       
!mselves toge!r4 ,! weak] mu/ soon h be5
 driv5 f _! possessions by ! /rong]1 &  
mu/ !n h unit$ = ! purpose ( obta9+1 by 
association1 :at !y 7 unable to acquire 
o!rwise4 ,! gr[+ *ildr5 settl$ ne> _!   
p>5ts1 ) :om !y ent]$ into a family     
union1 9 :i* ! fa!r repres5t$ !         
au?ority4 ,9 ?is arrangem5t is ! g]m (  
civil ord]1--( ! ideas ( "r & wrong4    
,inn] conflicts c at fir/ sc>cely h     
occurr$1 s9ce ! possessions ( ! family 7
 9 common1 & a conception ( !ft betwe5  
memb]s ( ! family c\ld n exi/4          
,fur!rmore1 !re 0 sc>cely any?+ wor?    
/eal+1 = ! implem5ts mu/ h be5 s        
primitive t ea* individual c\ld easily  
manufacture !m = himself4 ,only wom5    
c\ld h be51 9 ! beg9n+1 an object (     
conflict1 & = avoidance ( ?is conflict  
laws & cu/oms arose1 :i* are1 to our    
mod]n m9ds1 inexplicable4 ,real poly&ry 
may d\btless be expla9$ by ! idea ( !   
common "r ( possession among bro!rs2 x  

has1 9 mo/ cases1 ?is significance4 ,x  
is ext5d$1 inde$1 lat]1 to m di/ant     
relatives1 & ga9s f9ally a solemn       
significance1 ! pres5tation ( ! wife1 or
 ( "o ( a numb] ( wives1 be+ a symbol ( 
frat]nity by :i* ! gue/ is honor$4  ,) !
 manufacture ( bett] tools & weapons1   
temptation to !ft 0 increas$1 & au?ority
 began to be direct$ inw>ds to ! society
 itself1 s9ce inn] conflict injur$ !    
family 9 its conte/s ) out] enemies4    
,:at is true ( ! family 9 ?is           
connection1 is true ( ! tribe4 ,a jo9t  
egoism ( ! society z a :ole mu/ ?us h   
be5 develop$1 z soon z ! fir/ /ep (     
association 0 tak54 ,! e>lie/ law is    
always negative1 a prohibition1 n a     
positive comm&4  ,w> _h its good z well 
z its evil side1 s9ce x made diff]5t    
peoples acqua9t$ & gave !m k ( ea* o!r's
 tools1 weapons1 & cu/oms4 ,w> 01 at    
fir/1 ! only means by :i* peoples le>n$ 
to "k ea* o!r4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( peace l$ 
to ! union ( diff]5t peoples1 or at lea/
 to peaceful int]c\rse by ex*ange1 :i*  

unit$ ! tribes by common int]e/s1       
correct$ ideas1 & temp]$ cu/oms4  ,!    
egoi/ic impulses1 ! feel+ (             
unconditional "r to possession1 are !   
impulses ) :i* ! *ild is born2 morality 
is n inborn1 b mu/ be develop$ by       
education1 z is %[n by ! example ( su*  
*ildr5 z are neglect$ 9 education4#fb   
,or1 if !re is any?+ innate 9 !         
direction ( morality1 x is m]ely a c]ta9
 inh]it$ pr$isposition acquir$ 9 ! c\rse
 ( ! ?\s&s ( ye>s ( social int]c\rse1   
:i* makes x easi] = u to respond to     
education4 ,if ?is is n s1 & ! impulse  
to morality is innate1 :y has x requir$ 
s _m c5turies = man to make ! simple    
connection ( ideas1 t :at is j t[>ds "o 
man is j t[>ds ano!r4 ,9 ?is feel+ (    
ju/ice1 acquir$ ?r\gh an ext5sion (     
egoism1 is ! root ( all virtue4 ,x is ! 
spr+ ( sympa?y or b5evol5ce1 :i* c be   
develop$ only :]e ! feel+ ( ! l rights (
 o!rs is /rong4  ,b an unconsid]$       
ov]-e/imate ( ?is feel+ is ! s\rce (    
,sp5c]'s ,utopia1 z x is ( t ( pres5t   

socialism4 ,we h se5 t au?ority is a    
prim>y & necess>y factor ( society4     
,au?ority1 virtue1 & duty are           
int]dep5d5t1 & mu/ be ( ab\t ! same     
antiquity4 ,f all compulsion impos$ by  
au?ority1 ! creature1 by its nature1    
attempts to escape1 & ! feel+ :i*       
prompts ?is attempt has be5 falsely     
call$ ! in/9ct ( fre$om4 ,au?ority      
exce$s its b\nds1 :]e x issues comm&s n 
dem&$ by ! g5]al conditions exi/+ 9 !   
society4 ,b ?\gh ^! conditions may dem& 
a limitation ( p]sonal fre$om1 _!       
requirem5ts mu/1 nev]!less1 9 g5]al1 be 
en=c$4  ,natural & ,humane ,e?ics may   
?us be at v>iance 9 "s ?+s2 may 9 o!rs1 
co9cide4 ,!re is no necess>y conflict & 
no necess>y agreem5t betwe5 !m2 !re=e ! 
!ological !ory ( an absolute            
contradiction betwe5 !m is false1 z is  
also ! teleological !ory ( _! co9cid5ce4
 ,! latt] !ory1 n be+ able to d5y t !   
moral & ! natural d n always co9cide "u 
pres5t circum/ances1 endeavors to avoid 
! difficulty by call+ ^! conditions     

abnormal4 ,! !ory falls into two errors3
 9 ! fir/ place1 x ignores ! fact t we h
 our organs1 n = use b by use2 & t our  
inh]it$ *>act]i/ics may be reg>d$ z an  
adju/m5t to ! conditions ( our ance/ors1
 b n an adju/m5t to our own2 & 9 !      
second place1 !re are no abnormal       
conditions4 ,!re are new or *ang$       
conditions1 b ei!r !re are no abnormal  
ones1 or all are abnormal4  ,b al?\gh   
increase ( life means also increase (   
desire1 al?\gh ! organism is insatiable1
 yet !re is1 z we h se51 an increase (  
happ9ess1 bo? 9 quantity & quality1 )   
high] organization4 ,! absolute am\nt is
 increas$1 b n ! relative am\nt1 ! am\nt
 realizable 9 proportion to desire4     
,want does n lead to improvem5t1 z ,d>w9
 ma9ta9s1 & ! individual _c be j or     
sympa!tic 9 a condition ( want4 ,! fre] 
he is f ! direct c>e ( ! acquirem5t (   
necessities1 ! m manifold capabilities w
 he develop1 & ! great] w be 8 happ9ess4
  ,! task :i* au?ority mu/ set itself1 9
 ord] to secure great] ju/ice 9 society1

 & s great] happ9ess1 is tw(old1 a      
positive & a negative task4 ,! positive 
task consi/s 9 su* an education ( ! "y z
 w enable !m by _! own ef=t to advance  
t[>ds _! individual ideal ( happ9ess1 & 
9 ! inculcation ( su* an ideal z        
corresponds to _! individual tal5ts &   
means1 & is atta9able "u ! exi/+        
circum/ances4 ,! negative task1 already 
impli$ 9 ! positive "o1 is ! imposition 
( necess>y re/rictions 9 ! means us$ = !
 atta9m5t ( happ9ess4 ,)9 ! limits set  
by ju/ice1 ! individual has a natural "r
 to seek 8 own pleasure1 & = ea*        
individual an atta9able maximum may be  
reckon$4 ,?is is n say+1 h[ev]1 t !     
individual has a j claim to ?is maximum1
 9 case he _c1 or w n1 be suffici5tly   
en]getic to ga9 x by 8 own ef=ts4 ,x is 
an error ( mod]n times to suppose t !   
realization ( happ9ess re/s 9 any o!r h&
 ?an t ( ! individual himself--t ! /ate 
c make & decree happ9ess4 ,happ9ess _c  
be secur$ by means ( decrees1 by a      
division ( goods1 or by gifts4 ,division

 is always unju/1 s9ce x leaves out (   
consid]ation t individuality ( "* :i* is
 ! only measure ( s5sibility to         
pleasure4 ,! negative "p ( ! task is to 
be accompli%$ less by inculcation ( _m  
special virtues ?an by ! cont9ual       
direction ( ! att5tion to ! fundam5tal  
virtue ( ju/ice4 ,! positive task is to 
be accompli%$ by ! mo/ ?or\gh education 
( ! intellig5ce ( ! individual1 ?r\gh   
:i* he %all le>n to inquire ! reason (  
moral precepts1 to judge = himself1 & !n
 to act on ! decision he arrives at4 ,we
 h se5 t ! e?ical education ( ! pres5t  
"t t5ds to r$uce inn] /ruggle1 r5d]+ !  
results ( wrong-do+ z repellant z       
possible4 ,"o 9 :om has be5 in/ill$ a v 
t]rible conception ( ! suff]+s result+1 
9 ! pres5t & future life1 f wrong-do+1 w
 p]haps automatically avoid ! evil2 & ! 
means = a moral education seem ?us      
atta9$4 ,h[ev]1 x is n s2 = :5 !        
individual accu/oms himself to be+      
direct$ 9 action1 n by 8 own c>efully   
won exp]i5ce1 b by feel+s in/ill$ by    

o!rs1 conc]n+ ! e?ical "* ( :i* 8 own   
insight does n1 & _c1 af=d him any      
explanation1 he op5s ! way to e *ance   
influ5ce1 & becomes ! play?+ ( unkn[n   
=ces2 :ile he at ! same "t dive/s       
himself ( t p]sonal responsibility )\t  
:i* no society c exi/4 ,! true ideal (  
education is su* z %>p5s ! judgm5t &    
accu/oms ! individual to consid] 8      
action f all sides1 9 ! consci\sness (  
p]sonal responsibility4 ,only ?r\gh su* 
action is man ! possessor ( fre$om4 ,he 
:o acts )\t reflection1 f unreliable    
emotion1 is n free4 ,! free/ possible   
decision is t :i* is rea*$ z ! result ( 
su* a c>eful consid]ation ( all ! s+le  
compon5ts ( reflection t no "o ( !m     
exce$s 9 its influ5ce its real wor?4 ,! 
ideal ( education is n1 !re=e1 !        
production ( spontane\s decision &      
action1 b ( reason+1 consci\s action4 ,t
 ?is pr9ciple is ! only "r "o is %[n by 
our =m] obs]vations1 accord+ to :i*1 z  
society develops1 m & m actions are !   
result ( reflection4 ,& 9 case a /ate ( 

moral p]fection is atta9able1 x c be    
arriv$ at only z ea* memb] ( ! society  
acts f p]fect reflection1 n f impulse or
 in/9ct4 ,9 attempt+ social improvem5t1 
we mu/ take example by ! *emi/1 :o does 
n attempt a *emical comb9ation by =ce b 
endeavors to atta9 ! conditions "u :i* !
 elem5ts w unite1 ?r\gh _! own inn]     
laws1 to ! desir$1 homog5e\s body4 ,?is 
is a we>isome process2 b x is ! %orte/ &
 swifte/1 = x leads u to ! desir$ end4  
,! s+le virtues _c be reg>d$ z ideal    
pr9ciples4 ,!y contradict ea* o!r1 &    
:e!r ! "o or ! o!r %\ld h ! pref]5ce    
dep5ds on ! individual case & c be      
decid$ only by reflection4 ,! =mulation 
( ^! g5]al rules ( conduct "u ! "n (    
virtues has1 practically1 only !        
advantage ( r$uc+ ! numb]less           
possibilities ( action to a few2 b su*  
pr9ciples c nev] be exhau/ive4 ,:]ev] ! 
individual =gets ?is fact & is l$ to    
reg>d virtue z an end1 in/ead ( z !     
means to an innoc5t happ9ess1 virtue    
ceases to be virtue & becomes its       

opposite4 ,?us ?rift becomes av>ice1    
g5]osity extravagance1 c\rage           
foolh>d9ess1 op5ness want (             
consid]ation1 g5tl5ess weakness1 &      
*a/ity celibacy4 ,! s+le virtues are    
only ab/ractions f special circum/ances 
g5]aliz$ to an ideal ( action4 ,b 9     
practical life1 we h to d ) individual  
cases ^: conditions are by no means     
ideal1 & _c be treat$ z ideal4 ,we mu/  
act1 9 ea* case1 = ! relative be/1 n =  
absolute good2 & :at is be/ = "o sex or 
9 "o society may n be be/ = ! o!r sex or
 9 ano!r society4 ,a compromise betwe5  
idealism & realism is ev]y:]e necess>y2 
& su* a compromise is made1 despite all 
f9e words to ! contr>y1 by e "o1--by "o 
only m op5ly or consci\sly ?an ano!r4 ,x
 is com=t+ to rem>k t mank9d %[s itself1
 & always has %[n itself1 in/9ctively   
tak+ ! road to ! atta9m5t ( ! end4      
,?r\gh an ext5sion ( relations1         
au?ority1 at fir/ repres5t$ by a s+le   
individual1 ! head ( ! family or tribe1 
rea*es ! po9t ( developm5t :]e ! "o rul]

 is unable to rule all p>ts1 & decide   
all que/ions1 alone1 s t he is oblig$ to
 call 9 help4 ,he naturally *ooses m5   
ne> to him1 ) ^: "* he is acqua9t$4 ,b  
!re arises1 by ?is division ( au?ority1 
! dang] ( its misuse to ! disadvantage (
 ! rul] himself4 ,s9ce despotic gov]nm5t
 dep5ds on might alone1 & ! voice ( ! p 
has no influ5ce1 e p]son 9 any way      
relat$ to ! rul] repres5ts a dang]4     
,nev]!less1 ! e/abli%m5t ( new p[]s to  
assi/ ! rul] 0 ! />t+-po9t (            
con/itutional gov]nm5t4 ,= by ?is       
division ( p[] ! rul] r5d]$ x impossible
 = himself to gov]n )\t help f o!rs1 &  
op5$ ! way to a contract ( compromise ) 
! p4 ,! influ5ce ( individuals ^u ! /ate
 spread1 ?us1 to ! p itself4            
,self-gov]nm5t1 pure p>liam5t>ism1 is ! 
ultimate end to be rea*$ by ! process4  
,we h se5 t nei!r pleasure1 nor utility1
 nor virtue1 nor1 f9ally1 religion1 c be
 reg>d$ z ! absolute means1 b only z !  
relative means to ! atta9m5t ( happ9ess4
 ,bo? ! h$oni/ & ! utilit>ian ne$ to    

correct & fur!r def9e _! pr9ciple1 z    
well 9 respect to ! end to be atta9$1 z 
9 respect to ! means propos$4 ,_!       
pr9ciples are n to be reject$1 b        
fanaticism is to be condemn$4 ,pr9ciples
 may h exceptions2 b fanaticism         
recognizes no exceptions4  ,z to man's  
f9al end4 ,?\gh he has atta9$ to ! p[] (
 %ap+1 to "s ext5t1 8 own environm5t &  
means ( exi/5ce1 yet he does n occupy an
 exceptional position 9 ! animal k+dom1 
& mu/ cease to exi/ unless he submits to
 adapt himself4 ,x has be5 almo/ ! rule 
t ! highe/ animals ( an epo* h lat] di$ 
out & be5 replac$ by "s new ari/ocracy1 
develop$ f some:at l[] =ms4 ,x is to be 
suppos$ t man1 also1 w be de/roy$1 :e!r 
by a new ice-age or by a p]iod ( heat4  
,by ! v fact ( 8 supremacy1 he di/urbs !
 primal equilibrium1 & orig9ates        
conditions :i*1 ev5 n[1 press h>d ^u    
s+le l&s & may easily become dang]\s to 
all civilization4 ,de/ruction may also  
?reat5 mank9d morally1 = ! developm5t ( 
morality hi!rto gives no surety ( its   

cont9uance4 ,e advancem5t br+s ) x "s   
evil1 e virtue conta9s ! g]ms ( "s vice4
 ,mod]n humanity has giv5 u an unreason+
 s(t-he>t$ness1 ) an extravagant malady 
( =giv5ess :i* is no?+ less ?an         
immorality itself1 s9ce x on ! "o h&    
und]m9es ! g5]al s5se ( ju/ice1 :ile on 
! o!r x prompts & enc\rages wrong-do+4  
,,footnotes3  #eh ,= fur!r argum5ts 9   
support ( ?is ass]tion1 see ,biologis*e 
,probleme1 pp4 #fd-ff1 etc4  #ei ,und da
 diese ,flae*e dur* ,zell!ilung od]     
,=tpflanzung v]groess]t wird1 s wae*/   
die ,aufnahmefaehigkeit des ,organismus 
mit d] ,=tpflanzungsfaehigkeit desselb5 
7p4 #fg74  #fj ,und diese ,begi]de444 i/
 ihrem inn]/5 ,k]ne na*1 e9e ,unlu/1 e9 
,leid3 das ,leid des ,entbehr5s des     
,g5usses 7p4 #agf74  #fa ,bei d]        
,b9fa*heit d] primitiv5 social5         
,v]haeltnisse und d] ,e9fo]migkeit d]   
,leb5/aetigkeit muess5 si* bald         
,erfahrungsregeln gebildet hab51 die nun
 dur* ,v]]bung ueb]trag5 und damit zu   
,leb5sregeln v]tieft wurd5 7p4 #aie74   

#fb ,comp>e supra1 p4 #ajj1 note4       
,,alfr$ ,,b>ratt   ,alfr$ ,b>ratt's     
,physical ,e?ics 7#ahfi7 deals ) ,fir/  
,pr9ciples1 ,pure1 z di/+ui%$ f ,appli$1
 ,e?ics1 ! aim ( ! sci5ce1 z /at$ by !  
au?or1 be+ to try to e/abli% ! fir/     
pr9ciple :i* is ! condition ( fur!r     
progress4 ,if we c e/abli% a pr9ciple a 
priori1 & !n v]ify its univ]sality by an
 appeal to m5tal ph5om5a & to           
philosophical !ories1 its exi/5ce z a   
fact w be made c]ta92 if1 9 addition to 
?is1 we c connect x ) laws /ill m g5]al 
& ) ! family ( natural sci5ces1 x w be  
no long] a fact1 b become a sci5tific   
law1 a section ( ! univ]sal code2 & !   
title ( ?is essay w be ju/ifi$4  ,"p    
,fir/ ( ,physical ,e?ics is occupi$ ) ! 
/atem5t ( axioms1 def9itions1 &         
propositions d]iv$ f g5]al exp]i5ce4 ,!y
 are z foll[s3--  ,axiom #a4--;,actions1
 l objects1 are capable ( be+ classifi$ 
accord+ to _! prop]ties1 & ( be+ measur$
 by a def9ite /&>d4  ,obs4--,?is axiom  
m]ely means t ! qualities ( actions1 l  

^? ( objects1 are fix$ & con/ant1 s t ! 
same action has always ! same prop]ties 
& moral value1 &1 "u ! same             
circum/ances1 always produces ! same    
effect4444 ,x foll[s f ?is axiom t x is 
possible to act s z to atta9 a def9ite  
object1 & ?us a g5]al end ( action may  
be arriv$ at4444  ,axiom #b4--,! end (  
action 7be+ "s common prop]ty or effect7
 is a possible object ( k4  ,axiom      
#c4--,we are capable ( be+ affect$ by   
any ext]nal object only ?r\gh our       
faculties1 or 79 o!r words7 z a "p ( our
 consci\sness4  ,axiom #d4--;,faculties 
are kn[n only by _! action1 or 79 o!r   
words7 s f> z !y are portions ( our     
consci\sness4  ,axiom #e4--,! sph]e (   
action lies 9 ! adaptation ( 'inn]' to  
'out]' sequ5ces1 ( faculties to ! laws (
 nature4  ,axiom #f4--,! con/itution (  
man & o!r animal be+s is an organism    
consi/+ ( a numb] ( p>ts1 ea* hav+ its  
appropriate function1 & ! end ( ea* "p  
results f ! p]=mance ( its function4    
,axiom #g4--;,approbation is ! /&>d     

:]eby we judge ( ! moral value (        
actions1 & is ! univ]sal m>k ( ! due    
p]=mance ( a function & ( ! atta9m5t (  
an end4   ,,def9itions  #a4 ,good is !  
object ( moral approbation4 ,! highe/   
good is1 !re=e1 ! ultimate object ( su* 
approbation1 ! end ( action4  #b4       
,pleasure is t /ate ( consci\sness :i*  
foll[s ^u ! unimp$$ p]=mance 7z su*7 (  
its function1 by "o or m ( ! p>ts ( our 
organism4   ,,proposition ,i  ,! ,good  
is relative to our faculties4 ,= no     
object c affect u except ?r\gh our      
faculties 7,axiom #c72 b to be kn[n by u
 is to affect u2  ,!re=e1 no?+ c be kn[n
 except ?r\gh our faculties1 or 79 o!r  
words7 except 9 relation to our         
faculties2  ,b ! ,good1 or ,end (       
,action1 is a possible object ( k       
7,axiom #b72  ,h5ce ! ,good is relative 
to our faculties4  ,coroll>y #a4--,!    
highe/ good ( man at any "t is relative 
to 8 faculties at t "t4  ,coroll>y      
#b4--,s9ce ideas d]ive _! elem5ts f     
exp]i5ce1 ! idea ( p]fect ,good1 or     

,god1 c only be an idealization (       
humanity4   ,,proposition ,,ii  ,! ,good
 is a /ate ( ,consci\sness4 ,=1 ! ,good 
is a possible object ( k 7,axiom #b72 b 
all objects ( k are /ates (             
consci\sness2  ,h5ce ! ,good is a /ate (
 ,consci\sness4 ,or1 ! ,good exi/s 7or  
is capable ( be+ kn[n7 only by affect+  
our faculties1 or1 9 o!r words1 only z  
an affection ( our faculties            
7,proposition ,i72  ,b an affection (   
our faculties is a /ate ( consci\sness2 
,h5ce ! ,good exi/s only z a /ate (     
consci\sness4  ,obs4--444 ,to speak (   
any?+ exi/5t ext]nal to our             
consci\sness1 is1 z we saw1 a pure      
hypo!sis1 incapable ( pro(1 p]fectly    
un9telligible & void ( utility4 ,:51    
!re=e1 we make use ( ! ord9>y duali/ic  
phraseology1 we mu/ rememb] t ! two     
worlds !re di/+ui%$ are m]ely two       
divisions ( ! univ]se ( self consid]$ z 
di/9ct = conv5i5ce ( language1 b diff]+ 
only z two classes compreh5d$ "u a      
common g5us4   ,,proposition ,,iii  ,!  

,good is relative to circum/ances4 ,=1 !
 ,good is det]m9$ by1 & !re=e lies 9    
action 7,axioms #g1 #f1 ,obs472 b       
,action is relative to circum/ances     
7,axiom #e74 ,h5ce ! ,good is relative  
to circum/ances4   ,,proposition ,,iv   
,! ,good dep5ds ^u ! adaptation (       
faculties to circum/ances4  ,=1 ! ,good 
is id5tical ) ! end 7,def472 :i* results
 f ! p]=mance ( function by ea* "p ( !  
organism 7,axiom #f74  ,b ! function (  
ea* "p is its adaptation to circum/ances
 7,axioms #e1 #f73 ,h5ce ! ,good dep5ds 
^u ! adaptation ( faculties to          
circum/ances4  ,coroll>y4--,s9ce man is 
an organism compos$ ( p>ts 7,axiom #f71 
! :ole good ( man is ! sum ( ! goods ( 8
 p>ts1 & !re=e dep5ds ^u ! adaptation ( 
all 8 p>ts to _! correspond+            
circum/ances4   ,,proposition ,v  ,!    
,good is ,pleasure4  ,= ! good results f
 ! due p]=mance ( functions 7,prop4     
,,iv72 b ! ,good is a /ate (            
consci\sness 7,prop4 ,,ii71 !re=e !     
,good is ! /ate ( consci\sness :i*      

results f ! due p]=mance ( functions 7z 
su*74 ,h5ce 7by ,def9ition71 ! ,good is 
,pleasure4  ,obs4--,by our def9itions ( 
,good & ,pleasure x 0 evid5t t !y 7     
coext5sive1 be+ bo? m>ks ( ! same ?+2 to
 prove _! id5tity x 0 necess>y to %[ t  
,good is a /ate ( consci\sness4  ,( ^!  
propositions ,b>ratt says t ,i & ,,ii   
are p]haps ! mo/ important1 s9ce !y     
ass]t ! impossibility (                 
,transc5d5talism4  ,"p ,second (        
,physical ,e?ics is a ,v]ification by   
,special ,exp]i5ce4   ,,! ,,orig9 ,,(   
,,! ,,moral ,,s5se  ,! assumption ( a   
moral s5se has already be5 made 9 !     
def9ition ( ,good z ! object (          
,approbation4  ,our previ\s reason+ w\ld
 lead u nev]!less to guess t ?is s5se is
 n1 9 its nature1 a simple &            
indecomposable faculty4 ,h[1 !n1 did ?is
 s5se arise1 & :at is its nature &      
composition8  ,9 ! l[e/ animal          
organization1 !re are m]ely vague &     
indef9ite /ates ( consci\sness          
correspond+ to ! undevelop$ /ate (      

physical function4 ,) ! developm5t &    
specialization ( advanc+ evolution      
arises ,p]ception2 by :i* lik5ess &     
unlik5ess among s5sations are di/+ui%$1 
& classification is begun4  ,at fir/    
only ! mo/ obvi\s resemblances are      
notic$1 b z exp]i5ce progresses1 wid] & 
wid] classes ev] t5d to be =m$1 till at 
la/ we arrive at ^? highe/ ideas :i* are
 coext5sive ) exp]i5ce4 ,^!1 ?\gh ! la/ 
9 ord] ( bir?1 become ! />t+-po9ts (    
sci5ce--j z m5 =m$ ! idea ( /ones fall+ 
long be=e !y discov]$ ! law (           
attraction1 yet by t law !y aft]w>ds    
'expla9' ! =m] fact4 ,?us we trace !    
:ole ( ,p]ception or ,k to ?is p[] (    
comp>ison & not+ lik5esses1 & ?is we see
 to be co9cid5t ) ! organization (      
consci\sness into c5tral meet+-places or
 ganglia1 9 :i* diff]5t s5sations are   
pres5t$ to a common tribunal & s comp>$ 
toge!r4 ,we see1 !re=e1 t ,p]ception    
does n orig9ate consci\sness2 x only    
organizes & develops x4 ,we _c1 !re=e1  
agree ) ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 :o w n all[ 

consci\sness to ! l[e/ animals4#fc  ,!  
process ( p]ception or ,k works1 n only 
on /ates ( consci\sness !mselves1 b on !
 *anges f "o /ate to ano!r1 or1 9 o!r   
words1 on relations4 ,?us results1 on ! 
"o h&1 recognition ( objects2 on ! o!r1 
argum5t & reason+1 = ! mo/ ab/ruse      
reason+ is no?+ m ?an a classification (
 relations4  ,we h n[1 !re=e1 two di/9ct
 divisions ( ,consci\sness3 ,s5sation1  
:i* z be=e consi/s only ( pleasure &    
pa91 ?\gh n[ ( diff]5t k9ds2 &          
,p]ception1 :i* classifies /ates (      
consci\sness & _! relations1 & is !re=e 
conc]n$ only ) *ange4 ,k1 !re=e1 has    
orig9ally no o!r object ?an diff]5t     
pleasures & pa9s1 b ev5tually x att5ds s
 mu* to ! diff]5ces & resemblances t x  
ceases to rememb] ! pleasure or pa92 9  
its absorption 9 ! relation x well-nigh 
=gets ! ?+s relat$4 ,?is process is     
fur!r$ by ! fact t1 z ! m$ium gets m    
ext5d$1 ea* "p ( x has less av]age      
effect ^u ! organism3 ! prim>y pleasures
 & pa9s be+ spread ov] a l>g] surface   

are less int5se1 & s obtrude !mselves   
less4 ,?is is exemplifi$ by ! common    
obs]vation t s5sation & p]ception t5d to
 exclude ea* o!r4444 ,nev]!less pleasure
 & pa9 ev] rema9 indissolubly connect$ )
 consci\sness1 ?\gh _! pres5ce is (t5   
unhe$$1 & only ! m viol5t =ms =ce       
!mselves on ! att5tion4  ,:at is true ( 
^! simple =ms ( consci\sness1 is true ( 
_! lat] developm5t4 ,! relation (       
s5sation to p]ception is ! same z t     
betwe5 ! faculties ( :i* ^! are         
respectively ! g]ms1 emotion &          
intellect4 ,= emotion is associat$      
s5sations ( pleasure & pa92 & intellect 
is associat$ p]ceptions ( *ange &       
relation4 ,h5ce by _! v nature ^! are at
 once mutually exclusive & insep>able4  
,a /rong emotion drives out reason1 &   
mu* reason+ *ills emotion4444 ,yet we c 
give "s reason = any emotion2 & we feel 
"s emotion 9 work+ a ma!matical         
problem4444 ,9 e int5tional act x is    
evid5t t bo? are involv$2 ! end be+ giv5
 by emotion1 ! means by reason+4        

,reason+ c give no end1 x c only        
arrange1 elicit1 sugge/2 emotion c give 
no means1 = x _c classify or obs]ve     
relations4 ,9 ! build+ up1 !re=e1 ( any 
moral faculty1 bo? ^! elem5ts mu/ take a
 "p4 ,h5ce x w be well to trace1 a      
little m closely1 _! mode ( =mation1 &  
_! connection ) muscul> activity4  ,:5 9
 ! c\rse ( exp]i5ce a c]ta9 sequ5ce (   
s5sation frequ5tly recurs1 !            
consci\sness becomes habituat$ to x1 & !
 return ( ! fir/ s5sation is foll[$ by  
an idea or associative image ( !        
o!rs4444 ,h5ce ! idea ( pleasure or pa9 
n actually felt comes to be associat$ ) 
objects1 :i*1 if plac$ 9 c]ta9 diff]5t  
positions1 w\ld effect u 9 ! way        
imag9$4444 ,pleasure may ?us be         
associat$ ?r\gh a tra9 ( ideas ( any    
l5g?4444 ,aft] a "t ?is process becomes 
organic1 ! int]m$iate t]ms are lo/1 &   
pleasure is directly connect$ )         
s5sations & ideas t are 9 !mselves n    
di/9ctly pleasurable4  ,n[ by v>i\s     
tra9s ( association1 v>i\s pleasures &  

pa9s are connect$ ) ! same object4 ,^!  
diff]5t comb9ations ( pleasures & pa9s1 
"s ( :i* arise1 be=e reason+1 by        
un9t5tional association1 b ! high] ( :i*
 are ! results ( automatization (       
reason+1 =m ! diff]5t emotions4444      
,action 9 its orig9 is simply !         
correlative ( s5sation4 ,contractility &
 irritability are ! two g5]al prop]ties 
( vital tissue1 or r are two sides ( "o 
fundam5tal prop]ty :i* is also kn[n "u !
 "n ( s5sibility--! p[] ( contraction "u
 irritation1 or ( express+ impress$ =ce4
 ,irritability means m]ely ! ph5om5a (  
consci\sness1 ! developm5t ( :i* we h   
hi!rto be5 trac+1 ?\gh we h be5 ?r\gh\t 
oblig$ to express ourselves 9 ! language
 ( ! inn]1 & n ( ! out] exp]i5ce4444    
,?is int]nal developm5t we h already    
exam9$2 we mu/ n[ turn to ! obv]se      
ext]nal developm5t :i* takes its orig9 9
 contractility4  ,! connection betwe5 ^!
 two fundam5tal prop]ties is exce$+ly   
intimate1 t ( ultimate id5tity or at any
 rate insep>ability4 ,= n only is       

contraction univ]sally ! result (       
irritation1 b ! only evid5ce t we h (   
irritation is ! contraction :i* foll[s1 
& 9 _! e>ly /ages ! two repres5t "o & ! 
same process4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! expression1 
9 action1 ( =ce impress$ 9 s5sation1    
becomes indirect & imm$iate1 ! "n (     
irritability is giv5 to ! imm$iate1     
int]nal results ( its impression1 :ile  
contractility expresses ! action        
ultimately express$4 ,h5ce ! seat (     
irritability is preem95tly ! n]v\s      
sy/em1 :ile contractility1 or ! vis     
musculosa1 is ! "n ( ! special prop]ty (
 ! muscul> tissue4  ,consid]+ !m h[ev] 9
 _! orig91 !y toge!r repres5t a c]ta9 =m
 ( ! transmission ( =ce4444 ,"s k9ds (  
impress$ =ce are foll[$ by movem5ts (   
retraction & )drawal1 o!rs by su* z     
secure a cont9uance ( ! impression4 ,^! 
two k9ds ( contraction are ! ph5om5a &  
ext]nal m>ks ( pa9 & pleasure           
respectively4 ,h5ce ! tissue acts s z to
 secure pleasure & avoid pa9 by a law z 
truly physical & natural z t :]eby a    

ne$le turns to ! pole1 or a tree to !   
light4444 ,h5ce1 ! law (                
,self-,cons]vation1 or ( ! direction (  
,action1 is m]ely ano!r mode ( express+ 
! fundam5tal prop]ty ( animal tissue1   
:i* we h e reason to believe is d]iv$ f 
! m elem5t>y physical prop]ties ( matt]4
 ,! c\rse ( action is j z dep5d5t on    
physical laws z t ( a /one :i* falls to 
! gr\nd4 ,! belief 9 ext]nal            
consci\sness makes no diff]5ce ei!r way2
 ! e>lie/ ph5om5a ( su* consci\sness are
 ^? ( pleasure & pa91 !re=e we c suppose
 x to exi/ only z pleasure & pa94 ,9 !  
"o case we say t action aims at1 or     
naturally results 91 ! ph5om5a (        
pleasure2 9 ! o!r case t x aims at !    
actual consci\sness ( pleasure4  ,!     
expression ( impress$ =ce1 or !         
connection ( action & s5sation1 is at   
fir/ 9 ! unorganiz$ tissue direct &     
imm$iate1 )\t ! ag5cy ( n]v\s           
communication1 or to return aga9 to !   
ord9>y psy*ological language1 is        
un9t5tional or involunt>y4444 ,! e>lie/ 

modification is due to association1     
:]eby second>y s5sations1 or 7z !y are  
call$ lat] :5 !y become p]ceiv$7 ideas  
are produc$4 ,^! manife/ !mselves z     
weak] repetitions ( ! prim>y pleasures &
 pa9s1 &1 !re=e1 are naturally foll[$ by
 l results4444 ,! process is ?is3 ! =ce 
orig9ally impress$ by ! fir/ s5sation1  
in/ead ( be+ all express$ 9 action1 is  
p>tly induc$ by habituation into an     
int]nal *annel1 & s trans=m$ into ! k9d 
( =ce :i* g5]ally impresses ! second k9d
 ( s5sation1 & ?is n[ produces its      
appropriate action4 ,h5ce "p ( ! orig9al
 =ce has und]gone two trans=mations     
in/ead ( "o2 ! imm$iate antec$5t (      
action be+ ! =ce produc$ by association1
 or 9 o!r words1 ! associat$ pleasure4  
,?is is ! rudim5t ( motive1 :i*1 h[ev]1 
is n g5]ally call$ by t "n till x is    
p]ceiv$4 ,! same process may g on ?r\gh 
two or m l9ks ( association2 ! fir/     
trans=m$ =ce be+ aga9 trans=m$ int]nally
 in/ead ( express$1 & ! second aga9 9   
its turn1 until ev5tually a trans=mation

 is rea*$ :i* f9ds its easie/ way (     
escape 9 action2 ! imm$iate motive p[]  
be+ t trans=mation ( =ce1 or t associat$
 pleasure1 :i* imm$iately prec$es !     
action4 ,actions ( ?is k9d con/itute !  
l[] ph5om5a ( in/9ct3 & we see !re=e t  
!y may dep5d on any numb] ( l9ks (      
unp]ceiv$1 or1 z we say1 unconsci\s     
reason+2 & t _! motive is also          
'unconsci\s4' ,^! actions /& half way   
betwe5 ,reflex & ,volunt>y ,actions4444 
,we n[ come to ! ?ird & la/ developm5t (
 associat$ action4 ,"h n only is ea*    
associat$ idea p]ceiv$1 b ! *ange1 9 ea*
 case1 is also a fre% c5tre (           
association2 :]eby simil> *anges are    
connect$ ) x1 & x is ref]r$ to a class4 
,h5ce ! :ole tra9 is p]ceiv$1 n only by 
! classification ( ea* ( its p>ts )     
simil> previ\s s5sations1 b by !        
classification ( ea* ( its sequ5ces )   
previ\s l sequ5ces3 9 o!r words1 x is n[
 a *a9 ( reason+ f ! pa/ to ! pres5t4 ,t
 associat$ pleasure f :i* ?is reason$   
tra9 comm5ces is n[ call$ ! motive 7?\gh

 really ! imm$iate motive p[] lies 9 !  
la/ trans=mation :i* directly prec$es ! 
active expression7 & ! s]ies ( ideas    
int]v5+ betwe5 ?is & ! action is call$ !
 means4 ,h5ce ! motive associates !     
means1 & ! motive p[] is transmitt$     
?r\gh !m till x is f9ally express$ 9 !  
action :i* is appropriate to ! atta9m5t 
( ! pleasurable /ate ^: idea is its     
s\rce4 ,?is association ( means ) ends  
is at fir/ sight oppos$ to ! natural    
direction1 :i* is f antec$5t to         
consequ5t2 b :5 a l9e ( n]v\s connection
 is =m$1 a curr5t may be transmitt$     
indiff]5tly 9 ei!r direction4 ,an effect
 may lead u to ?9k ( its cause1 z easily
 z a cause associates its effect4 ,by ! 
sequ5ce ( action & s5sation1 a          
connection is e/abli%$ betwe5 _! ideas1 
:i* is indep5d5t ( ! ord] ( excitation4 
,?is la/ k9d ( action is t :i* we call  
volunt>y1 & ! s]ies ( classifi$ ideas & 
relations :i* lead to x is call$        
,reason+4 ,if at any po9t ! curr5t is   
attract$ 9 two or m directions by       

diff]5t tra9s ( association1 delib]ation
 is ! result2 & ! ev5tual victory ( "o &
 ! consequ5t transmission ( ! =ce along 
x is entitl$ ,w4  ,we h !re=e di/+ui%$  
f\r k9ds ( action3 ,reflex ,action1 :i* 
is purely physical & indep5d5t (        
association1 & :i* is ! la/ l9k 9 all ! 
d]iv$ v>ieties2 ,l[] ,in/9ctive ,action1
 :i* is caus$ by ! fir/ introduction (  
association1 & is h>dly to be di/+ui%$ 9
 its ph5om5a f ! la/2444 ,high]         
,in/9ctive ,action1 :i* involves        
p]ception ( qualities or objects2444 &  
f9ally1 ,volunt>y or ,int5tional        
,action1 su* z we f9d x 9 man4444 ,?\gh 
we h sep>at$ ^! classes f ea* o!r =     
cle>ness ( description1 !re is no di/9ct
 l9e to be drawn any:]e betwe5 !m4 ,ea* 
fades ins5sibly into ! next4444         
,evolution1 we mu/ rememb]1 does n      
advance by /ages2 ^! are m]ely m>ks t we
 make ourselves1 l ! con/ellations 9    
a/ronomy1 = conv5i5ce ( /udy4  ,f9ally1 
we mu/ rem>k t ! la/ two k9ds ( ,action 
ev] t5d to relapse into ! second1 :i*   

subjectively is a m]e =m ( ! fir/4      
,association ( all k9ds t5ds to become  
organic4 ,by ?is we mean t1 z !         
connection becomes m def9itely m>k$ &   
easy1 ! p]petual radiation :i* occurs z 
! curr5t passes ! diff]5t po9ts on its  
pa?1 disappe>s2 & ! :ole curr5t passes  
unimpair$4 ,fir/1 ! radiation caus$ by !
 *anges disappe>s1 & reason+ becomes    
in/9ct1 z 9 do+ a ma!matical example f  
m]e memory ( ! diff]5t /eps4 ,secondly1 
! radiation f ! diff]5t n]v\s c5tres    
also disappe>s1 & ! curr5t :i* ends 9   
action becomes n only unreason+ b       
unp]ceiv$1 z 9 walk+ or read+ al\d :ile 
?9k+ ( some?+ else4444  ,long           
habituation has two effects3 x increases
 ! numb] ( tra9s connect$ ) ea* object1 
& also ! l5g? ( ea*4 ,if we suppose !   
simpl] emotions to h1 by ?is "t1 become 
organic or app>5tly simple /ates (      
consci\sness1 a cont9uance ( association
 t5ds to connect !m toge!r 9 bundles1 z 
!y !mselves 7 orig9ally bundles (       
elem5t>y pleasures & pa9s4 ,h5ce !      

emotions become organiz$ 9 _! turn s z  
to =m high] emotions1 & ev5tually1 :5   
association has complet$ its "w1444 ?is 
organization ends 9 "o supreme emotion1 
:i* is ! head ( ! emotional or s5sitive 
side ( ! consci\sness4444  ,turn+ next  
to ! second effect ( prolong$           
habituation1 we f9d t1 ) objects or     
actions ) :i* pleasure 0 at fir/        
associat$ & :i* s 7 call$ pleasurable1  
fur!r association (t5 connects a        
subsequ5t pa9 :i* increas$ exp]i5ce has 
%[n always to foll[ ^u ! imm$iate       
pleasure4 ,?is pa9 (t5 m ?an            
c\nt]balances ! prec$+ pleasure2 h5ce :5
 x is tak5 into ! emotion1 t emotion    
becomes "o no long] ( appetition b (    
av]sion1 & ! object or action is        
rememb]$ z "o n to be s\ght aft] b      
avoid$4 ,x _c1 h[ev]1 be call$ pa9ful1  
because x causes imm$iate pleasure1 s a 
new "n has to be inv5t$1 & x is call$   
,bad1 or ,evil4 ,simil>ly1 _m ?+s :i*   
are imm$iately associat$ ) pa9 are f\nd 
to be ev5tually foll[$ by pleasure :i* m

 ?an c\nt]balances ! pa91 & z ?is       
exp]i5ce becomes consolidat$ by ! p[] ( 
association1 !y attract r ?an repel1 & =
 a "n :]eby to di/+ui% !m1 are call$    
,good2 s t ,good & ,evil are correlative
 t]ms l ,pleasure & ,pa91 & mean        
respectively ! greate/ total ,pleasure1 
& ! greate/ total ,pa94 ,n[ ?is exp]i5ce
 :5 once acquir$ is nev] lo/1 b by      
virtue ( h]$it>y transmission desc5ds f 
p>5ts to *ildr54 ,b1 z 9 ! case ( !     
simpl] emotions1 only ! results survive1
 & n ! means :]eby !y 7 arriv$ at2 s t1 
9 a %ort "t1 ! words ,good & ,evil come 
to be q sep>at$ f ,pleasant & ,pa9ful2  
nay1 z might be expect$ f _! orig91 !y  
t5d to acquire exactly opposite mean+s2 
= ,pleasure & ,pa9 come to signify only 
imm$iate pleasure & pa92 & ! f9al       
reckon+ is (t5 consid]ably at v>iance ) 
! fir/ item2 z 9 a race ! man :o leads =
 ! fir/ lap seldom w9s 9 ! end4444      
,?is1 !n1 is ! orig9 ( ! ,moral         
,s5se4444 ,! ,moral ,s5se1 !re=e1 is    
m]ely "o ( ! emotions1 ?\gh ! la/ ( all 

9 ! ord] ( evolution2 x c only claim a  
life ( "s two or ?ree c5turies2 & !re   
are ev5 "s :o /ill d\bt its exi/5ce4    
,man at any rate is ! only animal :o    
possesses x 9 its late/ developm5t2 =   
ev5 9 horses & dogs we _c believe t x   
has pass$ ! int5tional or consci\s      
/age4444 ,good1 ) !m1 has no artificial 
mean+2 x is simply id5tical ) ! greate/ 
pleasure4  ,only by complete & p]fect   
ob$i5ce to all emotions c p]fect fre$om 
f regret be obta9$ 9 ! gratification (  
all desire4 ,man is at pres5t passion's 
slave1 because he is s only 9 "p2 = !   
cause ( rep5tance is nev] ! atta9m5t (  
"s pleasure1 b always ! non-atta9m5t (  
m3 n ! satisfaction ( "o desire1 b !    
inability to satisfy all4 ,! highe/     
virtue1 !re=e1 consi/s 9 be+ l$1 n by "o
 desire1 b by all2 9 ! complete         
organization ( ! ,moral ,nature4   ,,(  
,,! ,,social ,,relation ,,( ,,!         
,,individual  ,:5 we ass]t ! end (      
,action to be ,pleasure1 d we mean !    
pleasure ( ! individual1 or univ]sal    

happ9ess8 ,good has be5 %[n to foll[    
imm$iately on ! adaptation ( an organism
 to circum/ances2 x is evid5t t ext]nal 
objects c affect x only 9 s f> z !y =m  
"p ( ^! circum/ances4 ,h5ce x foll[s t !
 pleasure & pa9 ( o!rs c come 9 only    
incid5tally2 f ! fact t ea* man is n an 
isolat$ unit1 b a memb] ( society4 ,b   
fur!r1 ?is social m$ium itself is1 aft] 
all1 no?+ b a "p ( ! individual affect$ 
by x2 x is "o division ( t prim>y side (
 8 nature1 by :i* ! o!r side1 !         
emotional1 ! intellectual1 ! moral1 is  
be+ cont9ually m\ld$ & fa%ion$2 & ev5 if
 we take ! n>r[] mean+ ( self1 !        
pleasures & pa9s ( o!rs _c possibly     
affect a man's actions or emotions      
except 9 s f> z !y become a "p ( 84 ,if 
man aims at pleasure m]ely by ! physical
 law ( action1 t pleasure mu/ evid5tly  
be ultimately 8 own2 & :e!r x be or be n
 prec$$ by ph5om5a :i* he calls !       
pleasures & pa9s ( o!rs1 is a "q n (    
pr9ciple b ( detail1 j z ! =ce ( a p\nd 
weight is unalt]$ :e!r x be compos$ (   

lead or ( fea!rs1 or :e!r x act directly
 or ?r\gh pulleys4  ,! pr9ciple1 !re=e1 
is cle> en\gh1 t ! happ9ess ( o!rs c h  
only an indirect influ5ce ^u ! good (   
ea* individual4 ,b x is equally cle> t  
?is direct influ5ce mu/ be ( no mean    
ext5t1 & t x is n[ our duty to trace its
 hi/ory4 ,"h foll[s a s*eme ( !         
developm5t ( ! /ate f ! family1 :i* la/ 
0 necessitat$ by ! helplessness (       
infancy1 & f :i* arose ! habit ( human  
association4 ,we h no evid5ce f hi/ory  
or sci5ce t mank9d has n always exi/$ 9 
a /ate ( society2 !re is no w>rant =    
assum+ an e>li] condition ( isolation4  
,h5ce to ! human race ! e>lie/ ,good 0  
insep>ably b\nd up ) :at we n[ call !   
,family ,virtues4#fd ,! /ate1 ?us       
orig9at$1 develop$ z a social organism1 
) ev] great] integration1 het]og5eity1 &
 complexity ( p>ts1 & ! ,end or ,good ( 
ea* individual became l>gely modifi$ by 
! ext5sion ( ! m$ium to :i* 8 actions _h
 to be adapt$2 man became a memb]1 n    
only ( ! family b ( ! /ate1 & !         

conceptions ( 8 nature & duty became    
wid]1 s t at la/ ! m p]fectly ea* atta9s
 8 own int]e/1 & ! m pleasure he ga!rs  
to 8 own /ore1 ! m c]ta9ly does he      
secure ! univ]sal happ9ess ( mank9d4 ,if
 a man aims1 z ,sp9oza rem>ks1 at do+   
real good to himself1 he w be sure to d 
mo/ good to o!rs4   ,,! ,,unselfi%      
,,emotions  ,"u ?is head is trac$ !     
g5esis ( sympa?y ?r\gh repres5tation ( !
 pa9s & pleasures ( o!rs & int]pretation
 ( !m by individual exp]i5ce 9 ! same   
environm5t2 & ! g5esis ( b5evol5ce1 !   
active side ( sympa?y1 ?r\gh habit      
associat$ ) ! ideas ( ! pleasures & pa9s
 ( o!rs4 ,love is def9$ z orig9ally !   
association ( _m pleasures ) "o         
individual4 ,f ! wid] exp]i5ce ( man z a
 memb] ( a /ate is develop$ ju/ice or ! 
s5se ( equality ( "r1 patriotism1 etc4  
,all ^! feel+s are h]$it>y4   ,,( ,,!   
,,relation ,,( ,,man ,,to ,,nature  ,?is
 portion ( ! book treats ( ! gradual    
developm5t ( k to wid] & wid]           
g5]alization2 ( ! ext5sion ( sympa?y f  

man to ! animal _w also2 ( ! univ]sality
 ( consci\sness1 :i* exi/s 9 ! inanimate
 z well z ! animate _w2 ( ! p]fection ( 
morality ?r\gh ! p]fection ( k1 s9ce k  
m\lds emotion1 & absolute virtue is no?+
 b absolute correspond5ce ) nature 9    
action result+ f ?\ght2 & ( ! evolution 
( religion1 ?r\gh k1 to a religion ( k (
 ! real univ]se or ( humanity4   ,,( ,,!
 ,,w  ,"u ?is head+ ! metaphysical      
doctr9e ( fre$om ( ! w is combat$ z a   
contradiction ( ! laws ( ,cause &       
,effect4 ,praise & blame1 rew>d &       
puni%m5t1 are desirable because ( _!    
effect on action4   ,,( ,,obligation    
,b>ratt def9es obligation z a viol5t    
motive4 ,paley says3 ,if a man f9ds !   
pleasure ( s9 to exce$ ! remorse (      
consci5ce1 ( :i* he alone is ! judge1 ! 
moral-in/9ct man1 s f> z ,i c und]/&1   
has no?+ m to (f]4 ,:at1 !n1 asks       
,b>ratt1 has he himself to (f] if a man 
f9ds ! pleasure ( s9 to exce$ ! pa9     
entail$ by disob$i5ce to ! ext]nal      
comm&8 ,x may1 inde$1 be ! fact t       

p>ticul> k9ds ( motive only come f      
p>ticul> s\rces1 b unless we c prove t  
^? com+ f a comm& are always ! /ronge/1 
we _c claim = !m a position su* z t     
impli$ by ! ^w obligation1 ( be+ !      
highe/ or mo/ univ]sal motives4 ,9 a    
conte/ betwe5 two motives1 x is n ! k9d 
b ! quantity :i* decides4 ,= if two     
pleasures or pa9s be equal1 :at does x  
matt] :]e !y came f8 ,& if !y be n      
equal1 ! great]1 :atev] its s\rce1 w    
always be ! /rong] motive4  ,h5ce       
obligation is no?+ m ?an a 'viol5t      
motive4' ,prud5ce & duty are bo? !      
foll[+ ( ! greate/ pleasure2 b s f> z 9 
ord9>y language we make a di/9ction     
betwe5 !m1 ! pleasure aim$ at 9 prud5ce 
is proximate & only slightly great] ?an 
! pa91 :]eas 9 duty x is n only v       
consid]ably great]1 b ! greatness is    
fur!r glorifi$ by a dim aureole (       
magnific5t g5]alities & ! halo ( an     
unfa?omable future4444  ,& z ! result ( 
a motive is 9 no way dep5d5t on its     
ext]nal s\rce1 s nei!r is x influ5c$ by 

its mode ( int]nal op]ation4 ,a motive  
may be /rong ei!r by its own natural =ce
 z a l>ge excess ( associat$ pleasure 9 
"o direction1 or by ! facility          
artificially giv5 to its expression by !
 long-cont9u$ cu/om1 ei!r 9 ourselves or
 9 our fa!rs1 ( act+ 9 a c]ta9 way on   
c]ta9 occasions4 ,9 o!r words1 ! /r5g? (
 a motive is n absolute1 x is relative  
to ! habits & pr$ispositions ( our      
organisms2 b ! /ronge/ motive1 :atev]   
its k9d1 prevails 9 all cases4          
,obligation is (t51 aga91 conf\nd$ )    
compulsion3 b submission to physical =ce
 is n morally an act at all1 because its
 ,greek3 ar*e or imm$iate antec$5t is   
ext]nal to u1 & !re=e indep5d5t ( our   
moral laws4   ,,( ,,pleasures ,,t ,,are 
,,call$ ,,bad  ,we saw t ,good diff]s f 
,pleasure simply by a wid5+ ( ! field ( 
calculation2 :]eby ! pleasure ( ! mom5t 
is (t5 f\nd to entail future pa9 great] 
?an itself 7all[ance be+ made =         
p]spective71 & is !re=e condemn$ z ,bad4
 ,:51 !re=e1 we speak ( ,pleasure z     

oppos$ to ,good1 we always mean !       
pleasure ( ! mom5t2 or v (t5 by a /ill  
fur!r n>r[+ ( ! t]m1 s5sual z oppos$ to 
intellectual pleasures4  ,,footnotes3   
#fc ,pp4 #ci1 #dj4  #fd ,p4 #gc4        
,,leslie ,,/eph5  ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,(      
,,e?ics 7#ahhb7   ,:ile ) reg>d to !    
matt] ( ,e?ics1--! g5]al classifications
 ( "r & wrong conduct1--morali/s are    
almo/ unanim\s1 ) reg>d to its =m1--!   
ess5ce & crit]ion ( "r & wrong1--!re is 
great disagreem5t4 ,all widely spread   
op9ions des]ve respect by _! m]e        
exi/5ce2 !y are ph5om5a to be acc\nt$ =4
 ,on ! subject ( morals1 z on all o!r   
subjects1 op9ions gradually modify &    
approa* ea* o!r2 b a p]fect agreem5t w  
probably n be arriv$ at4  ,leav+ aside  
metaphysical que/ions1 h[ev]1 we may be 
able to f9d1 z 9 physical sci5ce1 "s    
con/ants or ultimate elem5ts :i*1 ?\gh  
!y1 accord+ to ! metaphysician's view1  
require fur!r analysis1 yet con/itute1  
)9 _! sph]e1 sci5tific k indep5d5t (    
metaphysics4 ,! foll[] ( ,hegel means1 9

 all probability1 precisely ! same ?+ z 
! foll[] ( ,hume1 :5 he says t a "m     
loves h] *ild2 ?\gh1 :5 !y come to      
reflect ^u c]ta9 ult]ior imports ( !    
phrases us$1 !y may come to diff]5t     
conclusions4 ,! =mula rema9s ! same2 =  
all purposes ( conduct x evokes ! same  
impressions1 s5tim5ts1 & s5sible images1
 & x !re=e repres5ts a /age at :i* all  
!ories mu/ co9cide1 ?\gh !y />t1 or     
pr(ess to />t1 f ! mo/ opposite bases4  
,mo!rs love _! *ildr5 is n              
unconditionally true2 "s mo!rs d n love 
_! *ildr52 b ! /atem5t is ( wor? z      
approximat+ sci5tific tru?4 ,x may be   
well to attempt to asc]ta9 9 h[ f> x may
 be r5d]$ sci5tific4  ,9 ! physical     
sci5ces1 ! /atem5ts ( laws arriv$ at by 
! labor ( g5]ations are ideal /atem5ts1 
9 :i* a mass ( modify+ circum/ances are 
disreg>d$ = ! sake ( simplification4    
,ev5 9 ^! sci5ces1 ! p[] ( pr$iction is 
small4 ,( ! complicat$ conditions (     
human action we h ev5 less accurate k   
?an ( ^? ( physical ph5om5a1 ?\gh ?is   

does n lead u1 any m ?an 9 ! physical   
sci5ces1 to suppose t pr$iction w\ld n  
be possible if we knew ! conditions4 ,s 
f> z man is a ?+ or an animal1 x is     
comp>atively easy to det]m9e 8 conduct4 
,giv5 a />v+ dog & a lump ( meat 9      
contact1 y c pr$ict ! result4 ,b to     
det]m9e ! behavior ( a human be+ ) a    
glass ( wat] pres5t$ to 8 lips1 y mu/ be
 able to calculate ! action ( human     
motive & to unravel ! tangl$ ske9 (     
?\ght & feel+ 9 its v>iation 9 !        
individual "u consid]ation4 ,moreov]1   
mu* ( ! life ( ! individual is rul$1 n  
by consci\s motive1 b by automatic      
habit1 acquir$ ?r\gh education4 ,!      
pr$iction ( action 9 society z a unit is
 n less difficult ?an ! pr$iction (     
individual action1 = if individual      
diff]5ces neutralize ea* o!r1 s t a     
c]ta9 uni=mity 9 ! influ5ce (           
circum/ances is %[n by /ati/ics1 x is n 
! less difficult to pr$ict :at ^!       
uni=mities w be4 ,society z an organism1
 n a m]e aggregate1 pres5ts1 9 !        

int]action ( m complicat$ conditions1   
great] difficulties ?an does !          
individual z su*2 & x may be said t     
pr$iction ( ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 ev5 9     
g5]al t]ms & = a brief p]iod1 w\ld      
require an intellect z mu* sup]ior to t 
( ,socrates z ! intellect ( ,socrates is
 sup]ior to t ( an ape4  ,& yet mank9d  
does possess k ( conduct1 :i* does n    
diff] 9 k9d f sci5tific k2 !re is1 9    
fact1 b "o k9d ( k1 :i* passes into     
sci5tific k z x becomes m def9ite &     
articulate4 ,! k t mank9d possesses     
consi/s 9 :at we h ?us f> tak5 = grant$1
 t "u ! same circum/ances ( outw>d      
environm5t & inw>d "*1 human conduct    
does n *ange4 ,( society1 z ( an        
organism1 we _c say a priori t x is s & 
c\ld n h be5 o!rwise2 we c only %[1 a   
po/]iori1 h[ diff]5t p>ts mutually imply
 ea* o!r1 s t1 giv5 ! :ole1 we c see t  
any p>ticul> "p c\ld n h be5 o!rwise4   
,our ga9 f su* k is ! recognition t !re 
may be discov]able laws ( gr[?          
ess5tially relevant to our inve/igation 

( conduct4 ,s long z reason+ 0 conduct$ 
^u ! tacit assumption t social ph5om5a c
 be satisfactorily expla9$ by /udy+ _!  
con/itu5t elem5ts sep>ately1 att5tion 0 
div]t$ f ! important pr9ciples ( !      
int]relation ( p>ts to ! :ole4 ,! !ory (
 evolution br+s out ! fact t e organism1
 :e!r social or individual1 repres5ts ! 
product ( an indef9ite s]ies ( adju/m5ts
 betwe5 x & its environm5t4 ,e race or  
society is "p ( a l>g] sy/em1 product ( 
! cont9u\s play ( a numb] ( =ces        
con/antly %ift+ ) an ef=t t[>ds g5]al   
equilibrium1 s t e p]man5t prop]ty      
repres5ts1 n an accid5tal simil>ity1 b a
 correspond5ce betwe5 ! organism & "s   
p]man5t conditions ( life4 ,to solve !  
problem ( exi/5ce by calculation is an  
impossibility2 b our own lives are work+
 x out2 ! evolution ( hi/ory is !       
solution ( our problem4 ,& :5 we fully  
recognize t a problem is be+ solv$1 we h
 only to ga9 "s appreciation ( its g5]al
 nature & conditions1 9 ord] to rea* "s 
important1 ?\gh limit$1 conclusions1 :i*

 may fairly be call$ sci5tific1 z to !  
mean+ ( ! answ]4 ,^! conclusions are n  
sci5tific 9 ! s5se ( giv+ u quantitative
 & precise =mulae1 b !y may be s f>     
sci5tific z to be c]ta9 & reliable4     
,?us we may be able to %[ h[ a giv5 set 
( in/9cts corresponds to c]ta9 p]man5t  
conditions "u :i* !y 7 develop$1 &      
7return+ to ! problem ( diff]+ !ories ( 
morals ) :i* we />t$7 to %[ :at is !    
cause ( diff]+ op9ions4 ,our            
inve/igations ( ! problem ( morality h  
no?+ to d1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ) moral    
pr9ciples :i* are1 or pr(ess to be1     
d$uc$ f pure logic1 indep5d5t ( any     
p>ticul> fact2 !y deal ) actual moral   
s5tim5ts z hi/orical facts4 ,! ^w moral1
 z us$ 9 our consid]ations1 does n1     
!re=e1 ref] to an ideal moral code1 b to
 ! "o actually exi/+ 9 ! case consid]$4 
,e?ical speculation1 z ?us und]/ood1 mu/
 be conc]n$ ) psy*ological              
inquiries--inquiries 9 regions :]e !    
vague doctr9es ( common s5se h n yet    
cry/alliz$ into sci5tific coh]5ce2 we   

mu/ !re=e proce$ ) caution4  ,!         
cont5tion betwe5 mat]iali/ & ideali/ is 
irrelevant to our discussion4 ,! fact t 
me*anical processes und]lie all m5tal   
process does n make ! latt] ! less a    
fact2 nor c ! me*anical /atem5t ev]     
sup]s$e ! psy*ological /atem5t4 ,!      
proposition t hung] makes m5 eat w      
express tru?1 :atev] mat]ial            
implications are involv$ 9 ! /atem5t4   
,conduct is det]m9$ by feel+2 we fly f  
pa91 we seek pleasure2 life is a        
cont9u\s /ruggle to m9imize suff]+ & lay
 a firm grasp ^u happ9ess4 ,good means  
ev]y?+ t favors happ9ess1 & bad ev]y?+ t
 is conducive to mis]y2 nor c any o!r   
intelligible mean+ be assign$ to !      
words4 ,! difficulty ( prov+ ^!         
propositions lies 9 ! fact t !y are     
prim>y doctr9es1 = pro( ( :i* we mu/    
appeal to ! direct te/imony (           
consci\sness4 ,b critics oppose1 n s mu*
 ! propositions !mselves1 z c]ta9       
suppos$ implications4 ,by pa9 & pleasure
 is "h meant e conceivable =m (         

agreeable or disagreeable feel+4 ,!     
ass]tion t conduct is det]m9$ by pa9 &  
pleasure is n meant z a d5ial t x is    
also1 9 "s s5se1 det]m9$ by ! reason2 b 
a /ate ( consci\sness :i* is nei!r      
pa9ful or pleasurable _c be an object ( 
desire or av]sion4 ,! reason is (t5     
contra/$ ) ! feel+s 9 its det]m9ation ( 
conduct1 ! reasonable man be+ def9$ z "o
 :o1 in/ead ( be+ ! slave ( imm$iate    
impulse1 is capable ( adapt+ means to   
ends & foll[+1 ?us1 c\rses ( conduct n 9
 !mselves agreeable b promis+ a great]  
total ( happ9ess4 ,! fact is1 h[ev]1 t  
all happ9ess t det]m9es ! w is future2  
conduct is det]m9$1 9 e case1 n by a    
future feel+ ( pleasure1 :i*1 z future1 
does n yet exi/1 b by pres5t feel+4 ,x  
is !re=e m accurate to say t conduct is 
det]m9$ by ! pleasante/ judgm5t ?an to  
say t x is det]m9$ by ! judgm5t ( :at is
 pleasante/4 ,! int5tion ( ! ag5t is    
def9$ by ! =ese5 consequ5ces ( 8        
conduct2 8 end is def9$ by t "p ( !     
=ese5 consequ5ces :i* he actually       

desires2 & ! end def9es ! motive1 t is1 
! feel+1 :i* actually det]m9es conduct4 
,! pleasante/ end is adopt$ because !   
=eta/e ( ! pleasure is itself           
pleasurable4 ,! intellect & ! emotions  
are 9 reality relat$ z =m & sub/ance1 & 
_c be divid$4  ,9 ! action ( pa9 &      
pleasure1 x seems to be an obvi\s fact t
 pa91 z pa91 repres5ts t5sion1 t is1 a  
/ate ( feel+ f :i* !re is a t5d5cy to   
*ange2 pleasure repres5ts equilibrium1  
or a /ate 9 :i* !re is a t5d5cy to      
p]si/4 ,! worm wri!s on ! hook1 & ! m9d 
may be said to wri! "u a pa9ful emotion 
9 ! ef=t to wri! into "s m tol]able     
position4 ,9 ! act ( *oice1 ea* mode (  
action is tri$ ideally1 & ! individual  
settles into t :i* is1 on ! :ole1 !     
easie/4 ,! analogy :i* naturally (f]s   
itself & seems to give ! be/ acc\nt ( ! 
facts is ! me*anical pr9ciple ( lea/    
resi/ance4 ,x is n1 p]haps1 sup]flu\s to
 rem>k t ! volition may ex]cise a v     
small influ5ce1 ev5 :5 ! limit+         
conditions are 9 a great "p ideal4 ,! m 

pa9ful is n necess>ily ! less p]man5t   
condition4 ,x is "o 9 :i* !re is an     
additional *ance aga9/ p]man5ce4 ,t]ror 
sets up s di/urb$ a condition t ! m9d _c
 settle into any def9ite c\rse4 ,we c no
 m alt] arbitr>ily ! circum/ances ( our 
microcosm ?an ^? ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,x is z
 difficult to avoid brood+ 9 va9 regret 
z to evade a physical con/ra9t4  ,reason
 & feel+ are b\nd toge!r 9 insep>able   
unity4 ,b reason1 :atev] its nature1 is 
! faculty :i* enables u to act ) a view 
to ! di/ant & ! future4 ,a great "p (   
conduct is automatic2 x is ei!r n       
det]m9$ by consci\s motives1 or x is    
det]m9$ by motives :i*1 ?\gh !y rise = a
 mom5t to ! surface ( consci\sness1 are 
=gott5 z soon z felt4 ,( our consci\s   
conduct1 aga91 "p may be call$ in/9ctive
 & "p reasonable4 ,^! modes ( action    
pass into ea* o!r by imp]ceptible       
degrees4 ,! in/9ctive may be conv]t$    
into reason$ z ! consequ5ces become     
manife/1 & ! reason$ become in/9ctive z 
! consequ5ces are left out ( acc\nt4 ,s1

 aga91 ! in/9ctive action becomes       
automatic :5 x is p]=m$ )\t leav+ any   
trace ^u consci\sness4 ,x may /ill be   
volunt>y 9 ! s5se t ! ag5t may be able  
to refra9 f x if 8 att5tion happ5s to be
 ar\s$4 ,habitual actions pass ?r\gh all
 ^! gradations4 ,:5 ! reason is call$   
into action1 x is n 9 virtue ( a purely 
logical op]ation t x conqu]s if x does  
s2 x is 9 virtue ( ! fact t x reveals a 
new set ( =ces ready to spr+ into action
 to ! necess>y degree4  ,we may be said 
to feel by signs z well z to reason by  
signs4 ,! sight ( a r$ flag may det] u f
 cross+ a rifle range )\t call+ up to   
our imag9ation all ! effects ( a bullet 
trav]s+ ! body4 ,if ! motive :i* prompts
 u to run ! risk be /rong1 x may be     
necess>y to conv]t a great] volume (    
lat5t1 into active emotion2 & z we      
frequ5tly fail to d ?is1 we (t5 run     
risks :i* we %\ld avoid 7 ! consequ5ces 
di/9ctly contemplat$4  ,! developm5t ( !
 :ole nature implies a developm5t ( bo? 
! emotional & ! intellectual nature2 new

 s5sibilities imply new s5tim5ts2 &     
increas$ range ( ?\ght is associat$ ) an
 equal gr[? 9 complexity & v>iety (     
emotion4 ,! m reasonable be+ acts )     
emotion1 b 8 emotions h m complex &     
ref9$ me?ods4 ,! reasonable man is a    
bett] mirror ( ! _w )\t him1 8 conduct  
%[s a bett] adaptation to ends & a      
great] logical consi/5cy 9 its p>ts2 m  
h>mony ( action betwe5 ! diff]5t        
in/9cts4 ,! important "q is n solv$ by  
^! facts4 ,we may /ill ask3 ,h[ is !    
relation betwe5 ! diff]5t in/9cts1 !    
influ5ce ex]t$ by ea* memb] ( !         
f$]ation1 det]m9$8  ,we />t ) c]ta9 fix$
 relations betwe5 our v>i\s in/9cts2 &  
h[ev] ^! may *ange aft]w>ds1 our "* is s
 f> det]m9$ f ! />t4 ,aga91 x is pla9 t 
?is inh]it$ balance v>ies greatly )     
diff]5t peoples & gives rise to diff]5t 
types4 ,9 "o man ! s5sual passions h a  
great] relative importance ?an 9 8      
neighbor1 & s =?4 ,& ! "q arises1 :e!r  
we c det]m9e :i* ( ^! types is mo/      
reasonable4  ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! b[1 we

 may suppose t1 f rude beg9n+s1 ?r\gh   
discov]y ( bett] & bett] =ms z adapt$ to
 ends 9 view 9 its con/ruction1 a =m (  
b[ w\ld f9ally be rea*$ :i* w\ld        
repres5t ! maximum ( effici5cy4 ,?is b[ 
may be call$ ! typical b[4 ,z           
exquisitely adapt$ to its purpose1 x    
ar\ses 9 u ae/hetic satisfaction4 ,l !  
b[1 e organism repres5ts ! solution ( a 
problem1 z well z a set ( data = a new  
problem4 ,z ! b[ is felt out1 s ! animal
 is always feel+ itself out4 ,! problem 
:i* x solves is h[ to hold its own aga9/
 ! surr\nd+ pressure & ! active         
competition ( innum]able rivals4 ,?\gh  
we _c apply an a priori me?od1 _c def9e 
! mat]ials ( :i* m5 are made or ! end   
:i* !y h to fulfil1 we c det]m9e to "s  
ext5t _! typical excell5ce4 ,recogniz+ !
 g5]al nature ( ! great problem :i* is  
be+ work$ out1 we c discov] :at is      
impli$ 9 "s ( ! results4 ,! process (   
evolution mu/ be1 at e mom5t1 a process 
( discov]+ a maximum ( effici5cy2 ?\gh !
 conditions are always v>y+ sl[ly1 & an 

absolute maximum is inconceivable4 ,at e
 po9t ( ! process1 !re is a c]ta9       
det]m9ate direction along :i* developm5t
 mu/ take place4 ,! =m :i* repres5ts ?is
 direction is ! typical =m1 any         
deviation f :i* is a defect4 ,x is      
conceivable t ! highe/ effici5cy 9      
diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( conduct may imply   
consi/5t conditions4 ,! greate/         
philosoph] may also be ! greate/ a?lete 
& ! greate/ poet4 ,x is equally cle> t  
!re is no necess>y connection4 ,:at1 !n1
 is ! relative value ( diff]5t k9ds (   
effici5cy8 ,a complete answ] to ! "q    
might br+ out ! fact1 :i* seems on o!r  
gr\nds probable1 t x is an advantage to 
a race to include a great v>iety (      
diff]5t types4 ,x is en\gh1 h[ev]1 to   
say t1 9 speak+ ( a type1 ! ass]tion is 
n int5d$1 t !re is "o special type      
con=mity to :i* is a condition (        
effici5cy1 b t evolution is always !    
work+ out ( a problem1 ! solution ( :i* 
implies ! atta9m5t ( c]ta9 g5]al        
qualities4  ,we h *ang$ our po9t ( view 

f ! consid]ation ( pa9 & pleasure to t (
 ! conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,! fact is     
simply1 t ! con/ants 9 "o problem are   
v>iables 9 ! o!r4 ,giv5 a c]ta9 "*1 !   
ag5t does :at gives him pleasure4 ,b if 
we ask h[ he comes to h t "*1 ! only    
mode ( answ]+ is by ref]r+ to !         
conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,8 "* mu/ be su* z
 to fit him = ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,!re 
mu/ !re=e be a correlation betwe5 pa9ful
 & p]nici\s actions on ! "o h&1 &       
pleasurable & temporal on ! o!r4 ,!     
useful 9 ! s5se ( ! pleasure-giv+ mu/   
approximately co9cide ) ! useful 9 !    
s5se ( ! life-pres]v+4 ,all conduct may 
be consid]$ z a set ( habits1 to ea* (  
:i* !re is a correspond+ in/9ct--! ^w   
habit be+ us$ to designate any mode (   
conduct1 automatic or volunt>y1 :i* may 
be br\ght "u a g5]al rule1 in/9ct d5ot+ 
all consci\s impulses to action1 :e!r   
includ+ m or less reason$ *oice1 & :e!r 
innate or acquir$4 ,habits graduate f ! 
ess5tial processes :i* con/itute life r 
?an ma9ta9 x1 & :i* are1 = ! mo/ "p1    

automatic1 to ! mo/ sup]ficial &        
transitory4 ,9 ord] t ! proposition ,?is
 habit is a bad "o may h any real mean+1
 we mu/ assume t ! organism c exi/ )\t  
x4 ,a habit _c be remov$ z "o takes (f a
 coat1 z has be5 too (t5 assum$2 ! :ole 
"* ( ! man is affect$ by its removal4   
,a capacity is ess5tial if x is ess5tial
 "u normal conditions ( environm5t4 ,!  
quality :i* makes a race survive may n  
always be a s\rce ( advantage to e      
individual1 or ev5 to ! av]age          
individual4 ,s9ce ! animal :i* is bett] 
adapt$ = cont9u+ its species w h an     
advantage 9 ! /ruggle1 ev5 ?\gh x may n 
be s well adapt$ = pursu+ its own       
happ9ess1 an in/9ct gr[s & decays n on  
acc\nt ( its effects on ! individual1 b 
on acc\nt ( its effects ^u ! race4 ,!   
qualities ( ! individual & ^? ( ! race  
mutually imply ea* o!r1 s9ce !          
individual c no m be consid]$ ap>t f    
society ?an ! apple c be consid]$ ap>t f
 ! tree on :i* x gr[s4 ,x rema9s true1  
h[ev]1 t c]ta9 qualities ( ! apple may  

v>y :il/ ! relation to ! tree rema9s    
approximately ! same1 z also t !        
individual may v>y 9 8 qualities to "s  
ext5t1 8 relation to society rema9+     
approximately con/ant2 & qualities ?us  
v>iable may be reg>d$ z1 9 s f>1        
indep5d5t ( society4  ,social developm5t
 takes place )\t correspond+ *ange (    
individual organization4 ,we _c int]pret
 ! *anges f savage life arriv$ at 9     
pres5t civilization1 z repres5t+ an     
ess5tial1 great1 or correspond+ diff]5ce
 9 ! innate faculties ( ! civiliz$ man f
 ^? ( ! savage1 b mu/ reg>d !m r z      
repres5t+ ! accumulation ( m5tal &      
mat]ial weal?4 ,! *ild1 le>n+1 ) ! words
 ( 8 language1 _! implicit mean+s1 has 8
 feel+s modifi$ by !m1 is ?us a         
philosoph] & metaphysician 9 ! cradle by
 ! associations giv5 him1 & is educat$ f
 infancy by ! necessity ( con=m+ 8      
activities to ^? ( ! surr\nd+ mass4 ,all
 organization implies uni=mities (      
conduct1 & !re=e cont9u\s discipl9e4    
,society is an organism 9 ?is s5se1 n 9 

any my/ical s5se4 ,x is n an organism ) 
a s+le c5tre ( consci\sness4  ,an       
organization implies organs2 & ^! are to
 be f\nd 9 ! v>i\s organizations1       
political1 religi\s1 etc41 by :i*1 ?r\gh
 a great] or less division ( labor1     
c]ta9 special functions are relegat$ to 
p>ticul> associations4 ,we ?us h n only 
to g beyond ! individual & ref] to !    
organs 9 ord] to det]m9e ! law or =m (  
any in/9ct develop$ ?r\gh ! social      
factor1 b we h also to classify ! v>i\s 
social in/9cts by ref]5ce to ! complex  
/ructure ( society1 :i* implies a       
di/ribution into mutually dep5d5t       
organs4 ,moreov]1 su* organs1 ?\gh      
prim>ily direct$ to a specific end1     
acquire a vitality indep5d5t ( any      
special end1 become organs dis*>g+ a    
complex function1 & imply ! exi/5ce ( a 
correspond+ly complex set ( in/9cts4 ,we
 come really to love an organization    
because x supplies u ) a means (        
cultivat+ c]ta9 emotions & ( enjoy+ !   
society ( our fell[s2 x w\ld be an      

entirely inadequate acc\nt ( ! facts if 
we reg>d$ x simply z ! means ( atta9+ t 
pleasure :i* has giv5 ! pretext = its   
=mation4  ,! organs ( society are n1    
h[ev]1 di/9ct f ea* o!r z ! physical    
organs are di/9ct2 ! same individuals   
may be memb]s ( v>i\s organizations4 ,! 
race is n1 9 fact1 analog\s to ! high]  
organism1 :i* =ms a :ole sep>at$ f all  
simil> :oles1 b to an organism ( ! l[]  
type1 :i* consi/s ( mutually connect$   
p>ts spread+ indep5d5tly 9 dep5d5ce ^u  
ext]nal conditions1 & capable (         
indef9ite ext5sion1 n ( unit$ gr[?4 ,we 
may consid] ! race1 ?us1 z =m+ social   
tissue1 r ?an con/itut+ an organism4 ,! 
tissue is built up ( m51 z ! tissue (   
physiology is said to be built up (     
cells4 ,! laws ( gr[? & vitality ( !    
organs ( society are always relative to 
! und]ly+ prop]ties ( ! tissue2 al?\gh1 
9 p>ticul> cases1 ! m civiliz$ race may 
be supplant$ by ! less civiliz$1 we may 
assume t ^! accid5tal & cont+5t         
advantages w be elim9at$ on ! av]age1 & 

! g5]al t5d5cy w be to ! pr$om9ance ( ^?
 races :i* h intr9sically ! /ronge/     
tissue4 ,n ! /ate z su*1 & 7z we h se57 
n ! individual1 is ! unit ( evolution2 !
 /ate may develop :5 ! ext]nal pressure 
is little or no?+2 ! social tissue is t 
prim>y unit ^u :i* ! process ( social   
evolution imp+es4 ,! family is n1       
itself1 a mode ( organization coo]d9ate 
) o!r social organs1 b r repres5ts !    
imm$iate & primitive relation :i* holds 
m5 toge!r4 ,x is q possible to suppose  
m5 liv+ toge!r )\t any political &      
social organization2 b "s association   
betwe5 ! sexes1 h[ev] tempor>y & casual1
 & "s protection ( infants by p>5ts1 are
 absolutely necess>y to ! cont9uance ( !
 race beyond a s+le g5]ation4 ,a *ange 9
 family associations implies a          
correspond+ *ange ( va/ importance 9 !  
intimate /ructure ( society itself1 9 ! 
social tissue4 ,! /ate may make a       
m>riage law1 b x _c create or modify !  
family tie beyond c]ta9 n>r[ limits4 ,x 
c be/[ privileges ^u "s "o k9d (        

association1 b x _c orig9ate x1 _c en=ce
 fidelity & *a/ity4  ,! social tissue is
 its own end1 or dep5ds ^u ! :ole sy/em 
( in/9cts possess$ by man z a social &  
rational creature4  ,! developm5t (     
society z an organic /ructure implies ! 
developm5t ( cu/oms 9 ! race1 & habits 9
 ! individuals =m+ x4 ,!re mu/ be c]ta9 
rules ( conduct :i* are obs]v$ by all1 9
 ord] t correspond+ rules may be obs]v$ 
by ea*4  ,cu/om 9 ! civiliz$ society may
 be di/+ui%$ f positive law4 ,9         
primitive /ates1 ! di/9ction is         
imp]ceptible4 ,! au?ority ( law itself  
mu/ re/ ^u cu/om1--! cu/om ( ob$i5ce4 ,b
 physical =ce alone1 or ! dread ( its   
application1 _c produce ob$i5ce2 !      
application ( su* =ce is s little       
ess5tial t a /ate ( society is          
conceivable1 9 :i* x %\ld disappe>      
altoge!r2 m5 might be will+ to obey _!  
rul]s simply f respect & affection4 ,!  
p[] ( apply+ co]cion 9 case ( ne$ mu/ no
 d\bt increase z ! /r5g? ( ! social bond
 increases2 b t bond is also ! /rong]1 9

 proportion z ! ne$ ( apply+ x becomes  
less4 ,! :ole social /ructure1 !n1 mu/  
re/1 9 ! la/ resort1 ^u ! exi/5ce (     
c]ta9 organic cu/oms1 :i* _c be expla9$ 
f )\t4 ,!y dep5d1 = _! =ce & vitality1  
^u ! in/9cts ( ! individual z modifi$ by
 ! social factor2 !y correspond to a    
giv5 /ate ( ! social tissue4 ,a legal   
sanction may be add$ to any cu/om       
:atev]1 & ?us x may seem t a /ate c make
 its own con/itution & def9e its own    
organic laws2 9 reality1 h[ev]1 ! p[] ( 
mak+ a c]ta9 con/itution presupposes a  
read9ess to act toge!r & accept c]ta9   
rules z b9d+1 & ?us implies a :ole set (
 e/abli%$ cu/oms1 ess5tial to ! life ( !
 society & giv+ rise to special types ( 
"* 9 its memb]s4 ,e law ( conduct m or  
less affects ! "* ( ! p]sons subject to 
x1 s long z x is en=c$2 & necess>ily1 e 
v>iation 9 ! "* m or less affects !     
s5tim5ts f :i* ! ext]nal law d]ives its 
=ce4 ,! correspond5ce1 h[ev]1 is n s    
intimate t "o mode ( /atem5t c always be
 r5d]$ into ! o!r4 ,= laws1 inde$       

elaborate codes1 are develop$ )\t       
s]i\sly affect+ ! g5]al "* ( ! und]ly+  
cu/oms1 & 9 ! same way in/9cts may v>y  
widely )\t produc+ any normal *ange 9 ! 
ext]nal ord]1 ?\gh !y affect ! mode 9   
:i* x works4 ,! ess5ce ( any law is 9 ! 
mutual pressure ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( !    
social /ructure4 ,any association ) a   
giv5 end w h laws det]m9$ ) ref]5ce to t
 end4 ,:5 we pass1 h[ev]1 f ! organ to !
 tissue1 we /ill h an organic /ructure )
 c]ta9 rules ( conduct & correspond+    
in/9cts1 b we no long] h a def9ite end  
or a fix$ mat]ial4 ,! mat]ial1 t is1 is 
to be reg>d$ z develop+ & det]m9+ !     
developm5t ( ! subsidi>y organs4 ,& s9ce
 ! mo/ effici5t society normally        
survives1 we may inv]sely inf] f !      
survival ( a society t x has develop$ ! 
prop]ties on :i* its effici5cy dep5ds4  
,! actual laws exi/+ at any p]iod may n 
repres5t ! greate/ degree ( effici5cy   
possible2 b !y mu/ be an approximate    
/atem5t ( ! ess5tial conditions4  ,!    
moral law1 z applicable to all memb]s ( 

a society1 def9es "s ( ! mo/ important  
qualities ( ! social tissue4 ,x is z    
indep5d5t ( ! legislature z are !       
movem5ts ( ! planets4 ,?is is true :e!r 
y resolve morality into reason or make x
 dep5d5t ^u utility4 ,! action ( any set
 ( p c no m *ange ! nature ( facts ?an t
 ( logical necessities4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 
fully true only ( morality z x ought to 
be 9 correspond5ce ) facts4 ,actual     
morality corresponds to m5's !ories ab\t
 facts1 & x may1 !re=e1 deviate f :at ! 
code w\ld be if !y 7 incapable ( error4 
,b x is pla9 t1 ?\gh x v>ies1 x mu/ v>y 
)9 incomp>ably n>r[] limits ?an o!r     
sy/ems ( law1 because its v>iation is   
det]m9$ by f> m g5]al conditions2 x     
ma9ta9s itself1 s to speak1 by ! direct 
action ( ! organic in/9cts4 ,! doctr9es 
( ! greate/ moral tea*]1 ?\gh some:at 9 
advance ( prevail+ /&>ds1 are successful
 only 9 proportion z !y are cong5ial to 
exi/+ s5tim5ts1 give articulate %ape to 
?\ghts already obscurely pres5t 9 !     
social m$ium4 ,l ,socrates1 ! re=m] mu/ 

be some?+ ( a midwife4 ,morality gr[s1 &
 is n made2 t is1 x is ! fruit ( a      
gradual evolution ( ! organic in/9ct    
cont9u$ ?r\gh _m g5]ations4 ,! ord9>y   
m9d resi/s any *ange 9 pr9ciples in/ill$
 into x f bir?2 ! great masses are      
sluggi% 9 movem5t4  ,! moral law has to 
be express$ 9 ! =m3 ,be ?is1 n ,d ?is4  
,! exi/5ce ( a "* su* t v>iations (     
circum/ances w cause no deviation f     
morality is ! only security = morals4 ,!
 legislator is =c$ to classify conduct  
by its objective manife/ations4 ,b !    
cunn+ ( ! man :o desires to evade ! code
 c /ill devise innum]able me?ods (      
accompli%+ 8 end indirectly4 ,law p]mits
 :at x does n prohibit1 & is1 !re=e1 9  
dang] ( produc+ hypocrisy in/ead (      
virtue4  ,! process by :i* ! moral law  
7or r1 ! law ( conduct :i* includes1 b  
is n co9cid5t ) ! moral law7 is         
develop$1 is a process ( g5]alization4  
,x corresponds to a va/ induction c>ri$ 
on by ! race z organiz$ 9 society4      
,beg9n+ ) modes ( conduct :i* are se5 to

 be bad1 society gradually p]ceives t ! 
ultimate pr9ciple ( classification mu/  
be by ! prim>y feel+s1 t rules ( conduct
 mu/ be express$ 9 t]ms ( "*1 & o!r     
rules :i* conc]n ! application ( ^! to m
 special cases mu/ take a subord9ate    
position & be reg>d$ z only (           
conditional value4 ,all ^! rules mu/    
necess>ily correspond1 )9 v n>r[ limits1
 to a /atem5t ( ! conditions ( vitality 
( ! tissue :i* !y *>act]ize4 ,9 an ideal
 /ate ( society1 e g5]al pr9ciple w\ld  
also be recogniz$ 9 e p>ticul> rule4    
,?is is a result a gradual approximation
 to :i*1 r ?an its actual atta9m5t1 mu/ 
be anticipat$4  ,morality implies action
 = ! good ( o!rs 9 "s s5se4 ,society may
 be reg>d$ bo? z an aggregate & z an    
organism4 ,!re are c]ta9 qualities :i*  
we may suppose to v>y 9 ! individual )\t
 necess>ily involv+ a *ange 9 ! social  
/ructure4 ,h[ is ! g5]al rule1 z        
di/+ui%$ f o!r rules1 d$uc$ f ! g5]al   
pr9ciple ( social vitality8  ,! law (   
nature has b "o precept1 ,be /rong4 ,b  

:5 we reg>d ! individual 9 8 relations  
to society1 ! law takes on diff]5t =ms4 
,?is may be express$ by say+ t ! law ,be
 /rong1 has two ma9 bran*es1 ,be prud5t 
& ,be virtu\s1 ! fir/ apply+ to cases 9 
:i* ! individual is prim>ily affect$1 ! 
o!r to ^? 9 :i* ! units are affect$     
?r\gh society & ! social factor mu/ be  
tak5 into acc\nt4  ,to f9d a            
classification ( ! virtues t w n run    
into inf9ite detail or be a simple      
affirmation ( ! g5]al pr9ciple1 !       
int]nal developm5t ( moral "* "u its    
emotional & intellectual aspects may    
furni% a suffici5t me?od4 ,! g5]al =mula
 ( prim>y individual virtues is3 ,be    
/rong4 ,! condition ( vitality ( !      
individual z a complex ( in/9cts1 is    
express$ by ! =mula3 ,be temp]ate4 ,& ! 
class ( virtues ref]r+ to ! conditions (
 intellectual effici5cy1 has ! g5]al    
rule3 ,be tru?ful4  ,cet]is p>ibus1 an  
increase ( individual en]gy is an       
advantage to society2 &1 z a matt] (    
fact1 we f9d t civiliz$ society diff]s  

conspicu\sly f ! rud] 9 /imulat+ m      
vigor\sly & sy/ematically ! v>i\s       
en]gies ( its memb]s4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s 
virtue ( ?is class is ! virtue ( c\rage4
 ,9 m primitive conditions1 c\rage1 z   
necess>y to ! pres]vation ( society1 is 
reg>d$ z a virtue 9 itself2 lat]1 "s    
mixture ( judgm5t & reason is requir$ 9 
its ex]cise2 & f9ally1 s9ce x may be    
comb9$ ) o!r anti-social qualities1 x is
 n approv$ 9 ! same mann] z ! m directly
 social virtues4 ,c\rage is n[ reg>d$   
m]ely z "o manife/ation ( a "* :i* is   
fitt$ = all ! requirem5ts ( social      
exi/5ce4  ,! c\rage ( ! bulldog is bl9d 
in/9ct4 ,:]e su* an in/9ct exi/s1 !     
animal survives by reason ( x1 n because
 he =ms any consci\s judgm5t ( its      
advantages4 ,x seems necess>y to suppose
 t races ow$ _! survival to milit>y     
pr[ess :5 reflection 0 /ill 9 ! mo/     
rudim5t>y /age4 ,! utility ( c\rage mu/ 
h be5 a v obvi\s discov]y z soon z      
reflection became possible2 b ! quality 
mu/ h exi/$1 9 "s degree1 be=e x c\ld be

 discov]$1 al?\gh ! exi/5ce ( a di/9ct  
moral s5tim5t d\btless implies "s       
reflection4 ,moreov]1 ! in/9cts :i*     
imply a p]ception ( utility mu/ !mselves
 comply ) ! conditions ( exi/5ce1 mu/   
!mselves be useful4 ,increas$           
intellig5ce might act to ! disadvantage 
( ! race by increas+ selfi% c[>dice     
?r\gh a ke5] p]ception ( p]sonal1 z     
di/9ct f social1 risk2 b ?is _c be true 
ultimately1 s9ce we p]ceive t intellig5t
 races h an advantage2 we may suppose t 
^? races are mo/ successful 9 :i* a     
p]ception ( ! vitality ( c\rage goes    
along ) an increase ( c\rage4 ,?is      
pr9ciple mu/ be reg>d$1 !re=e1 z work+1 
n only ?r\gh ! less consci\s in/9ct ( ! 
l[] races1 b also ^u ! judgm5ts ( a     
highly civiliz$ society4 ,! l is true1  
mutatis mut&is1 ( o!r qualities 7su* z  
indu/ry1 en]gy1 & s =?7 :i* belong to ! 
same class4  ,! e/imate ( c\rage diff]s 
) respect to ! two sexes1 z does also t 
( *a/ity4 ,! hi/orical explanation is   
simple2 c\rage 0 necess>y 9 m5 9 e>ly   

social /ages1 to race-pres]vation2 to   
wom51 on ! o!r h&1 has be5 giv51 f e>ly 
times1 a class ( social functions n     
requir+ c\rage4 ,! e/imate1 once fix$1  
survives ev5 :5 "s ( its e>ly conditions
 disappe>4 ,! savage acquir$ 8 wife by  
knock+ h] d[n2 to him ! ideal fem99e "* 
mu/ h includ$ read9ess to be knock$ d[n1
 or at lea/ unread9ess to /rike aga92 &1
 z "s ( ! =ms ( m>riage recall ! e>ly   
sy/em1 s 9 ! s5tim5ts ) :i* x is reg>d$ 
!re may /ill l+] some?+ ( ! e>ly in/9ct 
associat$ ) /rik+ & be+ /ruck4  ,!      
virtues ( *a/ity & temp]ance occupy an  
int]m$iate position betwe5 ! virtues (  
/r5g? & ! directly social virtues4 ,"s (
 !m are a "p ( ! prud5tial1 & o!rs ( !  
directly moral code4 ,temp]ance is      
prim>ily prud5tial1 b ! sexual & p>5tal 
in/9cts conc]n ! mo/ intimate /ructure (
 society4 ,our in/9ctive classification 
( temp]ance z high] ?an c\rage has good 
reason2 ! classification ( x z a p]sonal
 virtue _c be ma9ta9$4 ,a man ^: vice   
injures only himself 9 ! fir/ place1    

becomes incapable ( b5efit+ o!rs4 ,z we 
condemn ! man ^: "* is bad1 :e!r ext]nal
 circum/ances d1 or d n1 give him an    
opportunity ( display+ x1 s we object   
logically to ! man :o is de/roy+ 8      
social qualities1 :e!r ! imm$iate effect
 ( 8 conduct tells ^u himself or ^u     
o!rs4 ,ano!r elem5t1 an in/9ctive disgu/
 at s5suality1 seems to prec$e judgm5t  
^u intemp]ance1 ) a /r5g? n to be       
acc\nt$ = by a m]e summ+ up (           
consequ5ces4 ,! human hog revolts u z ! 
smell ( ! /y turns our /oma*4 ,!        
ju/ification ( ! in/9ct is n t x implies
 a judgm5t ( :at is useful1 b r t x is a
 useful judgm5t4 ,z m5 become m         
intellectual1 sympa!tic1 & s =?1 !y ga9 
fre% s5sibilities1 :i* are n simple     
judgm5ts ( consequ5ces b z direct1      
imp]ative1 & sub/antial1 z any ( !      
primitive s5sibilities4 ,to get rid ( ! 
s5sibility y mu/ l[] ! :ole tone ( ! "*4
 ,asceticism1 :i* has aris5 *iefly at   
times ( great indulg5ce1 may h be5 ( use
 if only z a demon/ration ( !           

possibility ( conqu]+ ! prevail+        
passions4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 we may ?9k 
a great re=m]1 a ,h[>d = example1       
admirable1 ?\gh he neglects duties :i*  
mu/ be p]=m$ 9 ! ord9>y case4 ,we ?us   
admit t ! g5]al moral code ( b5evol5ce  
prescribes diff]5t conduct accord+ to a 
man's opportunities & tal5ts4  ,tru? is 
a virtue ( sl[ gr[?2 ! savage1 l ! *ild1
 is unable to di/+ui% cle>ly ! diff]5ce 
betwe5 imag9ation1 hypo!sis1 & hi/orical
 /atem5t4 ,! p]ception ( ! utility (    
tru? fir/ takes ! ext]nal =m3 ,lie n1   
:i* corresponds approximately b n       
p]fectly to ! int]nal rule3 ,be         
tru/wor?y4 ,! int]nal rule1 z su*1 is ! 
high]2 ! ext]nal may h exceptions4  ,we 
come1 at la/1 to ! directly social      
virtues ( ju/ice & b5evol5ce4 ,s f> z   
tru? & temp]ance are /rictly virtu\s1 !y
 may be class$1 ! "o "u ju/ice1 ! o!r "u
 b5evol5ce4 ,!re is no real conflict    
betwe5 ju/ice & b5evol5ce2 s f> z a man 
is really b5evol5t1 he w n wi% to b5efit
 "s to ! injury ( o!rs4 ,ju/ice seems to

 consi/ 9 ! application to conduct ( !  
pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason4  ,x is n   
safe to inf] altrui/ic int5tion m]ely f 
altrui/ic consequ5ces4 ,! sexual        
appetite appe>s to be ! mo/ selfi% (    
impulses1 9 t x prompts to conduct (t5  
ru9\s to its objects4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is
 ! root ( all social virtues4 ,we _c be 
sure t ! h5 :o cov]s h] *icks reg>ds !m 
z m ?an com=table furniture 9 ! ne/4    
,altruism beg9s ) ! capability (        
b5evol5t int5tion2 :]e ! conf]r+ (      
pleasure ^u o!rs becomes a possible     
motive4 ,! g5]ation ( pleasure 9 o!rs'  
happ9ess has be5 trac$ to association2  
b1 ?\gh ! pleasant association d\btless 
prep>es ! way = ! high] s5tim5t1 ! latt]
 is some?+ m4  ,x is true t all conduct 
is egoi/ic1 9 ! s5se t all conduct has  
its s\rce 9 ! pa9 & pleasure ( ! do]2 b 
!re is great diff]5ce betwe5 conduct t  
reg>ds human be+s z m]e means to p]sonal
 pleasure & t :i* takes into acc\nt _!  
feel+s z s5ti5t be+s4 ,sympa?y spr+s f !
 prim>y intellectual p[] (              

repres5tation4 ,i _c prop]ly "k a man   
)\t k ( 8 ?\ghts & feel+s4 ,cruelty is1 
9 _m cases1 simple ins5sibility1        
incapacity = project+ ourselves into !  
position ( o!r be+s4 ,we may desire !   
pa9 ( o!rs :5 x is useful z a det]r5t1  
or secures our own safety2 yet to ?9k   
ab\t o!r be+s is1 9 g5]al1 to /imulate  
our sympa?ies1 our s5sibility be+ ?us   
quick5$ by ! same p[] :i* implies       
intellectual progress4  ,to believe 9 ! 
exi/5ce ( s5ti5t be+s is to take into   
acc\nt _! feel+s1 to believe t !y h     
feel+s1 :i* may p]si/ :5 ,i am n aw>e ( 
!m4 ,a real belief1 aga91 implies t1 at 
! mom5t ( belief1 ,i h repres5tative    
s5sations or emotions correspond+ to ^? 
:i* imply ! actual pres5ce ( ! object4  
,to take s5ti5ce into acc\nt is to      
sympa?ize1 to feel )4 ,! only condition 
necess>y = ! sympa?y to exi/1 & to be   
capable1 !re=e1 ( becom+ a motive1 is t 
,i %\ld really believe 9 ! object1 &    
h5ce h repres5tative feel+s4            
,sy/ematically to ignore ^! relations is

 to act z ,i %\ld act if ,i 7 an egoi/ 9
 ! extreme/ s5se & held t !re 7 no      
consci\sness 9 ! _w except my own4 ,b   
really to c>ry out ?is pr9ciple is to be
 an idiot2 = an ess5tial "p ( ! _w z    
int]e/+ to me is con/itut$ by ! feel+s (
 o!r consci\s ag5ts1 & ,i c ignore _!   
exi/5ce only at ! co/ ( los+ all !      
intellig5ce :i* di/+ui%es me f ! l[]    
animals4 ,x is true t ?is vic>i\s       
sympa?y1 ?is pa9 at ano!r's pa91 may    
result 9 our simply gett+ rid ( our own 
pa9 by go+ away f ! suff]]1 remov+ him1 
or dismiss+ him f our m9d2 z a fact1 ^! 
me?ods are (t5 pursu$4 ,b 9 _m cases1   
su* a c\rse is impossible )\t !         
r5unciation1 at ! same "t1 ( _m         
pleasures4 ,if a man is to live ) 8     
fri5ds1 he mu/ %>e _! joys & sorr[s2 !  
*oice is n betwe5 a p>ticul> pa9 & its  
abs5ce1 b involves ! :ole "q ( !        
r5unciation ( companion%ip4 ,emotions   
are inevitable1 :e!r sympa!tic or n1 9  
proportion1 n simply to ! pa9 & pleasure
 at ! mom5t1 b to ! int5sity & degree 9 

:i* !y =m "p ( ! _w ( ! individual1--!  
_w con/itut$1 n by m]e s5sations1 b by !
 :ole sy/em ( ?\ghts & emotions su/a9$  
by ! framework ( p]ception4 ,! exi/5ce (
 pure malignity mu/1 x is true1 be      
admitt$2 x may be p>tly expla9$ z love (
 ! s5sational1 ! novel2 ! full          
explanation mu/ be left to ! psy*ologi/4
 ,sympa?y is ! natural & fundam5tal     
fact4 ,if intellectual progress c>ri$ ) 
x inf]ior sociability1 x w\ld t5d to be 
elim9at$2 ! _w w\ld be to ! /upid2 x mu/
 c>ry ) x some?+ :i* c\nt]balances !    
anti-social t5d5cy4 ,reason is t :i*    
enables a human be+ to take acc\nt (    
future1 z well z pres5t pleasures4 ,!   
work+ ( ! in/9cts or feel+s1 :i*        
dictates conduct1 approximately co9cides
 ) ! prevision z to ! maximum ( happ9ess
 obta9able by ! ag5t2 normally1 x is    
prud5t to be virtu\s2 & ! sympa!tic     
motives1 s to speak1 always develop )9 !
 framework provid$ by ! o!r motives4 ,to
 become reasonable is to act on g5]al   
pr9ciples1 & to act consi/5tly2 & ?is   

includes ! condition t a /atem5t ( !    
real cause ( my action %\ld equally     
assign ! reason ( my action4 ,! law :i* 
my feel+s actually foll[ mu/ co9cide ) !
 pr9ciple :i* comm5ds itself to my      
reason4 ,9 ord]1 !n1 t a be+ provid$ ) !
 social in/9cts %\ld act reasonably x is
 necess>y t he %\ld take t c\rse (      
conduct :i* gives ! greate/ *ances (    
happ9ess to ! organization ( :i* he =ms 
a "p4 ,z ! pa9 or pleasure 9 ano!r's pa9
 or pleasure is direct1 s ! end will$ is
 will$ z pleasurable to ! subject1 & !  
/atem5t t altruism involves !           
contradiction ( aim+ at some?+ else ?an 
! real end--! pleasure ( ! subject--9   
ord] to secure t end1 is errone\s4 ,!   
fact probably is t ! m9d flick]s1 tak+  
into consid]ation v>i\s consi/5t &      
mutually dep5d5t ends1 "s ( :i* may be  
prim>ily egoi/ic1 "s altrui/ic4 ,!      
physician is n b5evol5t en\gh to cure me
 unless he expects a fee2 b he may act  
also out ( sympa?y2 he ne$ n be always  
?9k+ ( 8 fee4 ,our sympa?ies w\ld be    

/ifl$1 if x 7 n = ! cooep]ation (       
motives ( a diff]5t k9d4  ,altruism is !
 faculty ess5tially necess>y to moral   
conduct2 b ! altrui/ic s5tim5t is n to  
be id5tifi$ ) morality4 ,! elem5t>y     
sympa?y mu/ be regulat$ & discipl9$1 9  
ord] t x may give rise to true morality4
 ,virtues1 = in/ance1 :i* belong to !   
type ( tru?fulness & ju/ice1 g5]ally    
imply a sev]e re/ra9t ( ! imm$iate      
sympa!tic impulses4  ,we recognize !    
int]nal motive z desirable1 & recognize 
a diff]5ce betwe5 ! man :o acts only f  
prud5tial motives & ! "o :o acts f moral
 motives4 ,we consid] ! latt] m]itori\s1
 t is1 t he has a c]ta9 claim ^u        
society1 inasmu* z he has done = no?+   
:at ano!r man w only d = pay1 or has    
refra9$ f action f :i* a less moral man 
c be re/ra9$ only by co]cion4 ,:]ev]    
society f9ds sacrifice ( ! individual   
necess>y1 x pays = x 9 t]ms ( m]it4     
,m]it is ! value put ^u virtue2 x is a  
function ( ! social =ces1 by :i* our    
*>act]s are m\ld$4  ,e "* is develop$ "u

 circum/ances1 & dep5ds ^u mutual       
adju/m5t ) ^!2 we _c dis5tangle ! two   
factors4 ,^u ! p[] to inf] future action
 ! sci5ce ( ,e?ics dep5ds4 ,! action ( !
 individual is n a matt] ( *ance2 9 ?is 
s5se x is caus$4 ,b ! in/9ct f :i* !    
action spr+s is n some?+ ext]nal to !   
man1 :i* moves him2 !re is n ! man plus 
! in/9ct2 ! :ole man1 includ+ ! in/9ct1 
acts 9 a c]ta9 way1 9 :i* he w\ld n act 
if he did n possess ! in/9ct4 ,we are   
accu/om$ to say t a man has inh]it$     
c]ta9 qualities2 b ! man is n "o ?+ & ! 
inh]it$ qualities ano!r2 ! :ole man is  
inh]it$4 ,m]it implies ef=t4 ,?is does n
 mean t ef=t1 tak5 absolutely1 is !     
measure ( m]it4 ,su* an assumption w\ld 
lead to our excus+ m5 = ! v qualities t 
make !m wick$1--! murd]] because ( 8    
spiteful disposition1 = in/ance4 ,! man 
is mo/ m]itori\s :o is virtu\s ) ! lea/ 
ef=t--provid$ always t he has ! normal  
passions ( a man4 ,by ^!1 h[ev]1 s9ce !y
 are morally neutral1 he is accessible  
to temptation & to a c]ta9 /ruggle4     

,consci5ce appe>s1 hi/orically1 z a     
developm5t ( simpl] in/9cts2 x is n a   
prim>y or a sep>ate faculty2 mat]ial    
morality makes its appe>ance long be=e !
 consci\s recognition ( a moral law4 ,! 
exi/5ce ( consci5ce is und5iable4 ,yet  
morali/s are mu* giv5 to exagg]ate !    
sorr[ :i* x actually excites4 ,9 almo/ e
 case1 ! pa9 :i* we feel = a bad act is 
complex1 & due only 9 "p to our         
conviction t we h brok5 ! moral law4 ,if
 we reg>d consci5ce z a sep>ate faculty 
judg+ ( action by "s inh]5t p[]1 we h to
 attribute to x reason & feel+4 ,x is n 
a prim>y attribute ( ! ag5t 7to borr[   
,sp9oza's language71 b a mode ( !       
attributes4  ,!re is1 inde$1 a          
s5sibility :i* seems to h z good a claim
 z any to be reg>d$ z elem5t>y1 & :i* is
 cle>ly conc]n$ 9 mo/ ( our moral       
judgm5ts3 ! s5se ( %ame4 ,?is is excit$ 
by ! consci\sness ( ! judgm5t ( o!rs4 ,x
 op]ates1 h[ev]1 n only 9 cases ( a     
brea* ( morality2 b (t5 m /rongly ev5 9 
cases n conc]n$ directly ) morality2 &  

may ev5 op]ate aga9/ ! moral code4 ,b ! 
v>iation is cle>ly n indef9ite4 ,social 
developm5t implies ! developm5t ( a     
c]ta9 type ( "*1 :i* includes1 z        
ess5tial1 c]ta9 moral qualities2 !      
consci\sness ( ! code & ( ! condemnation
 ( c]ta9 classes ( acts1 :i* x w\ld     
cause1 is impli$ 9 ! s5se ( %ame4 ,!    
s5se is closely connect$ ) ! in/9ctive  
disgu/ be=e notic$4 ,x seems to h       
especial ref]5ce to dec5cy & indec5cy4  
,! value ( ! s5se ( dec5cy _c be measur$
 by a consid]ation ( a p>ticul> set (   
bad consequ5ces f indec5t actions o!r   
?an ! %ock to dec5cy2 we mu/ consid] !  
:ole diff]5ce betwe5 a /ate ( society   
:i* does1 & "o :i* does n1 possess x2 x 
is an ess5tial symptom ( ref9em5t &     
delicacy4 ,aga91 ! judgm5ts ( consci5ce 
may be comp>$ to ae/hetic judgm5ts4 ,!  
diff]5ce betwe5 ! ae/hetic & o!r        
pleasures dep5ds ^u ! =m (              
gratification1 n ^u ! in/9cts gratifi$1 
& seems to correspond to ! diff]5ce     
betwe5 "w & play4 ,! arti/ may appeal to

 our moral emotions1 giv+ u imag9>y     
ideals2 b emotion at ! contemplation (  
su* types is 9 ! ae/hetic phase :5 we   
simply enjoy _! contemplation1 & x      
passes into ! practical phase z soon z x
 beg9s to h a def9ite relation to !     
conduct ( our lives4 ,only 9 s f> z !   
moral law has become int]nal1 is !      
delight 9 h]oic or b5evol5t en]gy       
spontane\s2 9 s f>1 we may speak ( !    
exi/5ce ( a moral1 z ( an ae/hetic1     
s5se4 ,a man ( f9e moral s5sibility may1
 inde$1 l ! arti/1 p]ceive f9] moral    
discords ?an c be measur$ by =mulae2 &  
may ?us supply a m delicate te/4 ,b !   
complex problem ( a diff]5ce 9 moral    
judgm5t may yet be solv$ approximately  
by ref]5ce to ! te/ ( social welf>e2 !  
highe/ type is t :i* is be/ fitt$ = !   
conditions ( social welf>e4 ,!          
collective exp]i5ce ( ! race is always  
progress+ t[>ds a m accurate solution ( 
! problem4  ,! utilit>ian !ory1 :i*     
makes happ9ess ! crit]ion ( morals1     
co9cides approximately ) ! evolutioni/  

!ory :i* makes heal? ( ! society !      
crit]ion2 =1 z we h se51 heal? &        
happ9ess approximately co9cide4 ,!      
utilit>ian !ory fails1 h[ev]1 9 "o or   
two respects4 ,x gets rid1 z mu* z      
possible1 ( a priori tru?s1 & rejects   
intuitions2 x bases its argum5t on !    
assumption t all k is empirical & !     
e?ical problem to be solv$ by a summ+ up
 ( ! consequ5ces ( action4 ,x ?us       
neglects ! tru? :i* is impli$ by        
evolution1--t ! organism itself is solv+
 ! problem2 x neglects ! in/9ctive s5se 
g5]at$ by social evolution4 ,moreov]1 x 
consid]s society z an aggregate ( simil>
 individuals1 tak+ little acc\nt ( !    
v>iability ( human desire4 ,&1 fur!r1 ! 
utilit>ian !ory lays its /ress ^u       
morality z extr9sic2 accord+ to x1 love 
( morality = its own sake1 z love ( !   
means to ! end1 mu/ be z unreasonable z 
! mis]'s love = 8 gold4 ,association1 9 
?is s5se1 means illusion2 & ! m         
reasonable we become1 ! m we %\ld deliv]
 ourselves f ! bondage ( su* errors2 !  

!ory fails j at ! po9t :]e true morality
 beg9s4 ,fur!rmore1 9 sub/itut+ !       
ext]nal rule3 ,d ?is1 = ,be ?is1 x seems
 to fall into ! error ( exp$i5cy4 ,?\gh 
ly+ is assum$ to be1 on ! :ole1         
detrim5tal to happ9ess1 tru? is ma9ta9$ 
to be desirable only :]e x contributes  
to happ9ess4 ,! utilit>ian de/roys1 to  
"s ext5t1 ! =ce ( ! objection to ?is by 
ass]t+ ! dang] ( tru/+ ourselves4 ,! =ce
 ( ?is objection is only se51 h[ev]1 :5 
x is appli$1 n to ! ext]nal1 b to !     
int]nal code2 we in/9ctively feel !     
dang] to "* 9 ! lie1 & hesitate to tru/ 
human nature 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( su* a     
prec$5t1 j z we object to p]mitt+ ! tak+
 ( life ev5 9 cases :]e prolong$ life   
means prolong$ mis]y1 because we _c tru/
 human nature ) ! decision z to life &  
dea?4 ,we make b9d+ laws ( morality1 &  
leave x to ! man ( exceptional qualities
 to break !m2 = ! g5]ality ( mank9d1 !  
/rict] code is saf]4  ,:at is ! sanction
 ( morality8 ,:y %\ld a man be virtu\s8 
,! answ] dep5ds ^u ! answ] to ! previ\s 

"q3 ,:at is x to be virtu\s8 ,if1 =     
example1 virtue means all su* conduct z 
promotes happ9ess1 ! motives to virtu\s 
conduct mu/ be all su* motives z impel a
 man to aim at increas+ ! sum (         
happ9ess4 ,^! motives con/itute !       
sanction1 & ! sanction may be def9$ ei!r
 z an intr9sic1 or z an extr9sic1       
sanction2 t is1 x may be argu$ ei!r t   
virtu\s conduct leads to consequ5ces :i*
 are desirable to e man1 :e!r he be or  
be n virtu\s2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 t virtu\s
 conduct z su*1 & irrespectively ( any  
future consequ5ces1 makes ! ag5t happi]4
 ,! problem is1 ?us1 to f9d a sci5tific 
basis = ! art ( conduct4 ,! sanction mu/
 supply ! motive p[] by :i* individuals 
are to be made virtu\s4 ,?is is1 = !    
practical morali/1 ! culm9at+ po9t ( all
 e?ical inquiry4 ,n[ !re is1 by our     
!ory1 a necess>y & imm$iate relation    
betwe5 social vitality & morality4 ,b x 
does n foll[ t !re is ! same intimate   
connection 9 ! individual case4 ,!      
sacrifice ( "s ( its memb]s may be      

ess5tial to ! welf>e ( ! society itself4
  ,we h1 !n1 to answ] ?ree que/ions3    
fir/1 :e!r ! virtu\s man1 z su*1 is     
happi] ?an ! vici\s2 second1 :e!r x is  
wor? :ile1 on prud5tial gr\nds1 = !     
vici\s man to acquire ! virtu\s "*2 &   
?ird1 :e!r x c be wor? :ile1 9 ! same   
s5se1 = ! vici\s man to obs]ve ! moral  
law4  ,if any man outside ! pulpit 7 to 
ask himself :at 7 ! ma9 conditions (    
happ9ess1 ! answ] w\ld c]ta9ly include  
heal? z ! fir/1 mo/ ess5tial1 mo/       
suffici5t condition4 ,b ! :ole process (
 nature1 ^u ! evolutioni/ doctr9e1      
implies a correlation betwe5 ! pa9ful & 
! p]nici\s1 & ?us ! elaboration ( types 
9 :i* ?is problem is solv$ by an        
ev]-increas+ effici5cy & complexity (   
organization4 ,h5ce we may inf] t !     
typical or ideal "*1 at any giv5 /age ( 
developm5t1 ! organization :i*1 z we may
 say1 repres5ts ! true l9e ( advance1   
corresponds to a maximum ( vitality4 ,x 
seems1 aga91 t ?is typical =m1 z !      
heal?ie/1 mu/ repres5t n only ! /ronge/ 

type--t is1 ! type mo/ capable ( resi/+ 
unfavorable influ5ces--b also ! happie/ 
type2 = e deviation f x af=ds a /rong   
presumption1 n m]ely ( liability to !   
de/ructive processes :i* are di/9ctly   
morbid1 b also to a dim9i%$ effici5cy "u
 normal conditions4 ,h[ev]1 ! typical   
man1 ?\gh he is1 on ?is !ory1 ! virtu\s 
man1 is also mu* m ?an is g5]ally       
und]/ood by t "n4 ,happ9ess is ! rew>d  
(f]$1 n = virtue alone1 b = con=mity to 
! law ( nature1 ,be /rong4 ,beauty1     
/r5g?1 intellectual vigor1 ae/hetic     
s5sibility1 prud5ce1 indu/ry1 & s =?1   
are all impli$ 9 ! be/ type1 & are1 s   
f>1 conducive to happ9ess4 ,if virtue be
 tak5 9 ! n>r[] s5se z imply+ *iefly !  
negative quality ( habitual ab/95ce f   
=bidd5 actions1 !re is no reason to     
suppose t x co9cides ) happ9ess4 ,y c   
raise a presumption t moral excell5ce   
co9cides closely ) a happy nature only  
:5 y ext5d moral to include all         
admirable qualities4 ,x is *iefly       
practical reasons :i* cause an attempt$ 

evasion ( ?is conclusion2 ! practical   
morali/ holds t ! non-social qualities  
may be left to take c>e ( !mselves1 b t 
/ress mu/ be laid ^u ! social qualities 
z ! m important1 9 ord] to obta9 !m 9   
society4  ,sympa!tic motives may lead to
 self-sacrifice2 b ?is is also true (   
selfi% motives2 g9 is a m pot5t s\rce ( 
imprud5ce1 ev5 9 a mod]ate s5se1 ?an    
family affection2 & ! sympa!tic motives 
h on _! side ! f> great] intr9sic       
advantage1 t !y promote ends m p]man5t1 
f> ri*] 9 int]e/1 & giv+ a prop]        
employm5t to all ! faculties ( our      
nature1 besides ! intr9sic advantages t 
spr+ f fri5dly relations ) ! society (  
:i* we =m a "p4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 true t    
high] activity ( any sort may cause pa9 
9 an uncong5ial m$ium1 & t1 h5ce1 ! man 
:o is morally 9 advance ( 8 age may     
suff] ?r\gh 8 morality2 e re=m] :o      
breaks ) ! _w1 ?\gh = ! _w's good1 mu/  
expect mu* pa94 ,be good if y w\ld be   
happy1 seems to be ! v]dict ev5 (       
worldly prud5ce2 b x adds 9 an emphatic 

aside1 ,be n too good4 ,we mu/ ackn[l$ge
 t excessive virtue _c be recomm5d$ to !
 selfi% p]son ^u gr\nds intelligible to 
him4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a g5]al advantage 9
 possess+ m v>i$ possibilities (        
enjoym5t1 & 9 be+ on ! side ( ! /ronge/ 
=ces1 ^? ( progress4  ,extreme          
self-sacrifice is sometimes dem&$ ( a   
man by 8 moral pr9ciples4 ,is !         
sacrifice wor? mak+8 ,w\ld ,regulus h   
suff]$1 f remorse1 pa9 worse ?an dea?1  
_h he *os5 life at ! co/ ( honor1 or    
w\ld he h f\nd1 z _m d1 t remorse is    
among/ ! passions mo/ easily liv$ d[n8  
,to ^! que/ions c only be answ]$ t      
morality mu/ (t5 involve pa91 b t !     
virtu\s man nev]!less *ooses x4  ,we mu/
 ?us conclude1 leav+ "o great difficulty
 unsolv$2 & ?is is because ?is          
difficulty is intr9sically insoluble2   
!re is no absolute co9cid5ce betwe5     
virtue & happ9ess4 ,! sci5tific morali/ 
has to d ) facts2 beyond ^! he _c g4 ,f 
! sci5tific po9t ( view1 we may hold t  
evolution implies progress1 & t progress

 implies a solution ( _m discords & an  
extirpation ( _m evils2 b !re is no     
reason = suppos+ t all evil w be        
extirpat$ & p]fect h>mony atta9$4 ,new  
s5sibilities br+ ) !m new dang]s2 ev5   
sympa?y1 :5 n guid$ by k1 may lead to   
ra% *anges productive ( evil z well z   
good4 ,to improve1 :e!r = ! race or !   
individual1 :e!r 9 k or 9 sympa?y1 is to
 be put 9 a position :]e a new set (    
exp]im5ts has to be tri$1 & exp]i5ce to 
be b\ght at ! price ( pa94  ,x is true t
 beyond ! sci5ce lies ! art2 we mu/     
incite ! intr9sic motives to good ?r\gh 
! pressure ( ! social factor4 ,a c]ta9  
disadvantage to ! individual _c =m a    
reason = our n endeavor+ to make him    
moral z f> z possible2 ! good ( society 
z a :ole is involv$2 & ev5 ! man :o is  
himself immoral sees ! advantage ( liv+ 
9 a moral m$ium1 & w\ld pref] t ! _w at 
l>ge %\ld n be guid$ by 8 own pr9ciples4
     ,b4 ,,c>n]i   ,c>n]i beg9s 8 book  
on ,morality & ,d>w9ism 7,sittli*keit   
und ,d>w9ismus1 #ahga71 ) ! rejection ( 

! old] ,spiritualism 9 favor (          
,idealism1 on ! gr\nd t mod]n           
inve/igation has made x impossible =    
philosophy to assume any f\ndation b "o 
sanction$ by sci5ce2 & ) a rejection (  
dualism 9 favor ( monism1 on ! gr\nd t !
 inve/igations ( ,wundt & o!rs h %[n !  
psy*ical & ! physical to be id5tical4   
,in/9ct is def9$ by ,c>n]i z ?\ght ^u ! 
/&po9t ( m]e s5sation1 b foll[+ ! laws (
 ! same logic z gov]ns consci\s ?\ght4  
,!re is1 ?us1 accord+ to 8 view1 no     
exception to be tak5 to ! conception :i*
 repres5ts in/9ct z ! action ( m5tal    
=ce1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 x & human reason 
z "o ( degree only4 ,x is nev]!less a   
confusion :i* ascribes reason to !      
animals4 ,ev5 _! intellig5ce is "o-sid$1
 s9ce x does n rea* self-consci\sness1 &
 x is n to be reg>d$ z an unqualifi$    
improvem5t ^u in/9ct1 s9ce ! latt] loses
 bo? 9 int5sity & 9 c]ta9ty ( action :5 
x no long] gov]ns undi/urb$ by o!r      
influ5ces3 only su* animals z are end[$ 
) intellig5ce ev] eat ( injuri\s food4  

,9 human be+s in/9ct has almo/          
disappe>$2--almo/1 we say1 s9ce savages 
d _m ?+s 9 an in/9ctive mann]1 & ev5    
civiliz$ m5 at times p]=m acts :i*1 on  
acc\nt ( ! exce$+ rapidity ( _!         
execution1 _c be reg>d$ z ! results (   
reflection4 ,in/9ct may be comp>$ to    
pol>ity 9 magnetism1 accord+ to :i*     
opposites are attract$4 ,in/9ct 0 evolv$
 by natural selection4 ,b intellig5ce & 
judgm5t are d\btless also to be f\nd ev5
 f> d[n 9 ! scale ( species4 ,! brute   
consci\sness is1 nev]!less1 only a      
transition-/age1 9 :i* ! individual is  
/ill lo/ 9 ! species2 &1 z su*1 x is n  
to be confus$ ) human reason4           
,consci\sness 9 ! brutes is purely      
subjective1 a consci\sness fu] si*2 :ile
 9 human be+s x is consci\sness an und  
fu] si*1 consci\sness t becomes         
subject-object ?r\gh ! concepts develop$
 by language4  ,man is z unconditionally
 subject to ! law ( causality1          
psy*ically & physically1 z ! m]e/ atom4 
,!re is no su* ?+ z *ance2 b 9 ?is v    

fact lies a consolation4 ,9 ! concept ( 
individualization 9 its broade/ s5se1 is
 includ$ ! conception ( fre$om1 & 9 ! v 
nature ( man !re is an inde/ructible    
impulse to fre$om2 8 be+1 z             
self-consci\s1 is id5tical ) ! latt]    
impulse4 ,?is increases ) increas+      
civilization1 & has f9ally become !     
problem by ! solution ( :i* alone man c 
atta9 to self-satisfaction4 ,x is true t
 ! p[] ( *oice is inconsi/5t ) ! law (  
causality2 b 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! man1 z a 
?9k+ be+1 takes 8 /& ov] aga9/ !        
species1 he becomes a p]son1 an         
individuality4 ,z "o ( ! species1 he    
%>es ! *>act]i/ics ( ! species1 is an   
expression ( ! species-idea1 & 8 action 
is det]m9$ outw>dly by ?+s2 b x is s    
det]m9$ only m$iately by means ( ?\ght1 
( concepts2 ^! are ! imm$iate           
det]m9ants4 ,h5ce1 man's relation to ?+s
 is a diff]5t "o accord+ to ! grade ( 8 
k4 ,9 s f> z ?is is adequate1 t is1     
corresponds to ! tru? ( actuality1 8    
relation is an active "o2 9 s f> z x is1

 on ! contr>y1 inadequate1 ! relation is
 a passive "o4  ,"* is inborn & c nev]  
be effac$ b only cl>ifi$1 ?\gh ?is lea/ 
?r\gh ! bitt] exp]i5ce ( ! results (    
action4 ,z ! horse loses 8              
sure-foot$ness aft] "o fall1 & falls    
aga9 m easily1 s we lose1 ?r\gh _m a    
de$1 ! motive furni%$ by ! consci\sness 
( nev] hav+ committ$ x1 & h a great]    
t5d5cy to repeat x4 ,if an act has bad  
results1 x is m likely t an attempt to  
avoid ^! results by cunn+ w be made at  
lat] opportunities = ! act1 ?an t ! act 
itself w be avoid$4 ,& ev5 if x 7 to be 
avoid$1 su* avoidance w\ld n con/itute  
an improvem5t ( ! "*2 ! latt] w\ld b    
hide itself "u a mask to reappe> at !   
fir/ prospect ( exemption f puni%m5t4 ,t
 :i* alone c modify "* is a consid]able 
ext5sion ( k4 ,=1 s9ce all ?+s influ5ce 
u only 9 proportion to ! wor? we        
attribute to !m1 _! p[] ov] u mu/ diff] 
accord+ to ! correctness or             
incorrectness ( our judgm5t4 ,!re=e1 ! m
 we reg>d ?+s 9 ! light ( _! actual wor?

 & h5ce also 9 _! relations to ea* o!r1 
! m our "*1 behold+ 9 ^! relations !    
g5]al z ! true1 w incl9e to avoid       
extremes 9 action4 ,a prepond]antly     
s5sual "* rema9s su* ?r\gh life2 b !re  
is no d\bt t a c>eful education1 :i*    
makes x acqua9t$ ) nobl] pr9ciples &    
develops a s5sibility to true beauty1   
may ennoble x2 :ile1 if ! education is1 
on ! contr>y1 neglect$1 x mu/ s9k deep] 
& deep] into ! mire ( co>s5ess &        
vulg>ity4  ,"* is ! sum ( its           
affections1 t is1 ( all /ates & motions 
( ! disposition4 ,^! are divisible into 
passions1--includ$ "u selfi%ness1 :i* is
 ! g5]al1 all-embrac+ passion1--& !     
active conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,^! two    
divisions are also id5tical ) pa9 &     
pleasure1 passion ) pa91 & activity )   
pleasure4 ,all desires h _! root 9 !    
prim>y in/9ct ( self-pres]vation &      
self-propagation1 ! in/9ct (            
self-propagation be+ only ! racial =m ( 
! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation4 ,! in/9ct (
 self-propagation is ! highe/ ( all !   

passions1 yet1 z ,sp9oza says1 e =m (   
love :i* recognizes ano!r cause ?an     
m5tal fre$om is easily turn$ to         
hate1--if x is n already a sort (       
madness1 n\ri%$ r by discord ?an        
concord4 ,! v>i\s =ms ( family love1 !  
love ( c\ntry1 & fri5d%ip1 noble si/]s (
 love 9 ! n>r[] s5se1 result 9 desirable
 activity only z !y exi/ 9 ! =m (       
concepts4 ,civilization is no?+ b !     
/ruggle ( inadequate & adequate         
concepts1 9 :i*1 z 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce
 9 nature1 only t is triumphant :i*1    
in/ead ( assum+ a position ( sep>ation1 
makes ! g5]al & ! conditions ( exi/5ce  
its own2 s t *>ity 9 ! wide/ s5se ( !   
t]m is1 ( all humane feel+s1 t to :i* ! 
palm has be5 giv54 ,9 ?is feel+1 !      
dialectic movem5t ( ! concept man is    
complet$ & p]fect$1 ! s+le man1 in/ead (
 p]i%+ 9 ! /ruggle ( all aga9/ all1 fir/
 work+ 8 way upw>d out ( 8 species & !n 
tak+ up1 9 8 own be+1 ! :ole ( mank9d   
?r\gh ! m$ium ( b5evol5ce4 ,by ?is      
evolution he raises himself to ! level (

 ! g5]al4 ,f> high] ?an t confus$       
sympa?y :i*1 9 l5d+ tempor>y aid to "o1 
br+s la/+ h>m to _m1 is ?is adequate    
concept2 true b5evol5ce is f\nd$ ^u !   
cle>e/ reason+1 & is ! activity ( !     
m9d's fulle/ p[]4 ,! discord :i*        
self-consci\sness has caus$ 9 man c be  
done away ) only by ! greate/ possible  
cl>ification ( self-consci\sness3 man   
returns m5tally to ! bosom ( ! univ]sal1
 :5 e liv+ ?+ causes him to exclaim 9 ! 
words ( ! ,indian philosoph]3 ,behold   
?yself4  ,e?ics ranks high] ?an morals1 
! latt] m]ely compris+ a collection (   
p>ticul> rules ( conduct :i*1 z         
p>ticul>1 be> ! /amp ( ! individual1 !  
non-univ]sal4 ,! details ( morality     
*ange accord+ to epo*s & peoples4 ,?is  
*ange has be5 reg>d$ z an argum5t t !re 
is no absolute b only relative good4 ,b 
! concept ( ! ,good is1 l ! concept ( ! 
,beautiful1 ! fruit ( education2 t is1 x
 is ! product ( m9d1 :i*1 ?r\gh its own 
evolution1 arrives at ,k4 ,:5 we d away 
) all concessions to "o-sid$1           

extravagant desires1 ab/a9 f plac+ m9d  
above ! univ]sal law ( causality1 & are 
cont5t ) ! facts made kn[n to u by      
sci5ce1 we p]ceive t ! absolute ,true1  
,beautiful1 & ,good1 be>s ! "* ( !      
,univ]sal4 ,9 ?is univ]sal "* x has     
always f9ally f\nd expression 9 human   
life1 & 9 ?is "* x w always f9d         
expression4 ,! idea :i* rea*es p]fect   
expression 9 ! dialectic movem5t ( ^!   
?ree concepts1 ! ,true1 ! ,beautiful1 & 
! ,good1 has come into exi/5ce by !     
m$iation ( ! self-individualiz+         
self-consci\sness1 j z ! evolution on ! 
e>?1 :i* rea*es its completion 9 man1 is
 ! outcome ( ! fir/ *emical process4 ,n 
only h ! two "o law1--7m9d is only 9 s  
f> realiz$#fe z nature is express$ ?r\gh
 x1 & ! actuality ( nature is its       
expression 9 m9d7 b bo? are1 9 fact1 "o1
 ! succession 9 _! developm5t on ! e>?  
be+ a succession only 9 relation to !   
e>?1 & = u 9 ?is respect4 ,al?\gh to our
 notion ( "t1 ?\s&s ( millions ( ye>s   
lie betwe5 ! two1 _! sep>ation does n   

repres5t a second = ! univ]se & its     
et]nity1 = ! compreh5sion ( :i* x mu/ be
 disreg>d$4  ,! good man is he :o does  
good = its own sake1 )\t ef=t1 n out (  
mom5t>y caprice1 b out ( p]fect k &     
conviction4 ,he is free1 s9ce he acts   
out ( 8 own "*1 ! law ( nature appe>+ z 
! law ( 8 own m9d2 fre$om lies 9 !      
abs5ce ( discord & /rife 9 ! m9d4 ,!    
good man has /r5g? ( s\l1 j z ! man :o  
lifts a weight )\t ef=t1 n he :o lifts x
 only ) ! greate/ ef=t1 possesses /r5g? 
( body4  ,!re is no absolute ,evil 9    
contra/ to ! absolute ,good4 ,evil is   
negative4 ,! p]fection ( man is id5tical
 ) ! atta9m5t ( absolute ,good ?r\gh    
evolution4  ,morality kn[s no?+ ( ei!r  
rew>d or puni%m5t2 = x !re are only     
causes & effects4 ,?is tru?1 on :i*     
morality is bas$1 l5ds to ! fre$om out (
 :i* its activity proce$s a deep] wor?4 
,! et]nal laws ( m9d po9t ! way by :i*  
mank9d has to proce$2 x is ! same way by
 :i* man has become man & by :i* he mu/ 
proce$1 ev5 if he did n w to advance    

?us4 ,9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 :i* kn[s   
only victory or de/ruction1 progress is 
a necessity ( nature1 b x is less pa9ful
 & m rapid ! m cle>ly ^! laws come to be
 p]ceiv$ by consci\sness4 ,yet1 h[ev]   
cle> !y may be1 x is only by a tireless 
endeavor :i* %r9ks f no sacrifice1 t    
progress takes place4 ,! end :i*        
morality has 9 view is di/ant1 = x is   
high2 b only ) its atta9m5t w mank9d    
fully des]ve its "n :5 /ruggle has be5  
trans=m$ to labor1 :5 no insignia are   
recogniz$ b ^? ( "r1 no weapon us$ b    
intellig5ce1 no bann] rais$ b t (       
civilization4  ,9 ! volume1 ,man !      
',end' ( ,man 7,d] ,m5s* als            
,selb/zweck1 #ahgg71 a positive         
criticism ( ,h>tmann's ,philosophy ( !  
,unconsci\s1 ,c>n]i def9es in/9ct z no  
=m ( real ?\ght1 no?+ dep5d5t ^u        
p]ception1 b m]ely an inh]it$1 me*anical
 dext]ity dep5d5t ^u s5sation4 ,= !     
assumption t ?\ght is ! s\rce ( in/9ct  
mu/ lead u naturally1 on acc\nt ( !     
exi/5ce ( ! latt] :]e ! c5traliz+ organ 

( ?\ght is abs5t1 to ! !ory t ?\ght is  
univ]sal 9 nature2 t is1 we %all arrive 
at a !ory ( atom-s\ls4 ,x is evid5t "h t
 n ,c>n]i's def9ition ( in/9ct s mu* z 8
 conception ( ?\ght is *ang$ f ! "o     
adopt$ 9 ,sittli*keit und ,d>w9ismus1   
?\ght be+ n[ limit$1 z x 0 n 9 ! =m]    
book1 to self-consci\s m5tal activity1  
assum$ to be dep5d5t ^u n]v\s           
c5tralization 9 ! bra94 ,9 ?is book     
also1 ! au?or def9es ! idea z some?+    
hav+ m5tal exi/5ce1 ?\gh n1 he says1 9  
any metaphysical s5se4 ,8 idealism is n 
( su* sort t he recognizes any o!r way  
to ! atta9m5t ( ideas ?an t ( sci5ce2 & 
to him ! s]vice ( ! mat]iali/ :o gives u
 in=mation conc]n+ ! function ( !       
smalle/ n]ve-fibres is ( m wor? ?an t ( 
! ideali/ :o orig9ates a :ole           
philosophical sy/em4 ,! "w ( philosophy 
lies 9 ! rejection ( all t is contr>y to
 sci5ce1 & ! cl>ification ( ideals4  ,! 
w may be def9$1 n z a def9ite1 sep>ate  
p[]1 b z ! self-consci\s impulse to     
action result+ f excitation4 ,any o!r   

def9ition is inconsi/5t ) ! !ory (      
evolution1 accord+ to :i* t             
individuation :i* is ! fir/ condition ( 
! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 is nev]!less b !   
expression ( all previ\sly exi/+        
oppositions4 ,to make ( ! w or ( !      
impulse to self-pres]vation any?+       
sep>ate & individual1 is z *ildi% z to  
p]sonify dea?4 ,! individual is totality
 z unity4 ,d>w9ism tea*es u1 n t ! _w   
toge!r ) man has be5 creat$ accord+ to  
any teleological pr9ciple1 b t x has    
develop$ by virtue ( motion4 ,! human   
be+ moves by virtue ( reciprocal action 
& reaction ) ! _w4 ,yet only by virtue (
 8 unity z feel+ does he ?9k & w4       
,individuality is t :i* /amps all our   
activity ) ! m>k ( ! ego1 :i* causes u  
to recognize e impulse t moves 9 u z our
 impulse1 to call all our will+ ours4 ,!
 psy*ical1 ! summation ( functions to   
:i* we give ?is "n1 rea*es consummation 
9 ! cl>ification ( feel+ to             
consci\sness1 9 :i* ! desire ( an action
 or ( ab/95ce f an action appe>s to u z 

our w4 ,z ?\ght is bas$ on p]ception1 s 
w is bas$ on impulse2 & s9ce ?\ght & w  
appe> z ! two highe/ opposites ( feel+1 
& ?is1 accord+ to our def9ition1 spr+s f
 s5sation by way ( p]ception1 ! w1      
includ+ action & ab/95ce f action1      
arises out ( ! g5]al s5sitivity4 ,!     
progress ( sci5ce au?orizes !           
expectation t ! close relation (        
s5sitivity to simple reaction w "o day  
be discov]$4  ,! conceptions ( teleology
 are gr\ndless4 ,! s-call$ ends ( nature
 h ! peculi>ity t !y are accord+ to !   
means4 ,x does n ra9 9 ord] t !re may be
 vegetation1 b vegetation exi/s because 
x is condition$ by ! ra94 ,only ) ?9k+  
man1 9 8 /ruggle = exi/5ce1 arises !    
concept ( ends2 man has n atta9$ to     
civilization by help ( a fri5d2 r has he
 wrung civilization f nature z an enemy2
 compell$ by x to ! ex]tion ( 8 :ole    
/r5g?1 & gr[+ 9 cunn+ by ex]cise1 he has
 le>n$ to use ! weaknesses ( 8 foe to 8 
own advantage4 ,to want he owes !       
greate/ ?+s t he has accompli%$4 ,by way

 ( labor alone c victory ov] nature be  
a*iev$ & salvation won4  ,! /&po9t (    
fai? is *ildlike4 ,fai? does n reason1 &
 may n d s if x wi%es to rema9 fai?4 ,! 
*ild c compreh5d nature & man's relation
 to x only by ! language ( fai?1 & !re  
are l>ge classes ( p :o1 = a long "t1 w 
be accessible to no o!r language b ?is4 
,b fai? mu/ decrease 9 ! same ratio z   
mank9d outgr[s intellectual *ildhood4 ,9
 ! same measure1 ! wor? ( !             
philosophical solution ( c]ta9 problems 
mu/ increase2 & among ! mo/ important ( 
^! problems mu/ be reckon$ t ( bridg+ ! 
*asm betwe5 ! individual & ! _w1 :i* has
 gr[n wid] ) ! awak5+ ( consci\sness4 ,x
 lies 9 ! nature ( self-consci\s ?\ght  
to rea* out beyond itself1 j z x lies 9 
! nature ( s5se-p]ception to reg>d ?is  
beyond z ! _w to come4 ,h5ce ! endless  
long+ :i* seeks ! rul] ( ! _w to come1 &
 despairs )\t him2 until ! suppos$ "r to
 a future life is p]ceiv$ to be ! "r to 
! ,only ,:ole1 & an end is set 9 !      
atta9m5t ( ?is :ole4 ,= ! ?9k+ man an   

aimless life has no mean+2 !re is only  
"o means ( bridg+ ! *asm2 namely1 t     
mank9d %all set itself an end4  ,a f9al 
de/ruction ( life ^u ! e>? mu/ surely   
come1 :e!r x be 9 ! %ape ( a sudd5      
cata/rophe or z ! result ( a sl[        
process4 ,b su* an end c no m be reg>d$ 
z ! end 9 ! philosophical s5se ?an dea? 
c be reg>d$1 9 ! same s5se1 z ! end ( ! 
individual life4 ,by ! developm5t (     
ideas1 :i* are concepts ( reason 9      
di/9ction f concepts ( ! und]/&+1 we    
arrive at a notion ( ! ideal z end4  ,9 
! e?ical ideal1 !re is conta9$ m ?an !  
empirici/ c (f]4 ,! en?usiasm ) :i* !   
true arti/ />ves = 8 art1 or ! m>tyr    
p]i%es = 8 conviction1 c nev] be fully  
expla9$ f ! empirical /&po9t4 ,"o does n
 ev5 ne$ to be an ideali/ 9 ord] to act 
?us2 b ! mat]iali/ or ! reali/ :o       
possesses true love ( beauty & a he>t   
fram$ = great de$s1 m]ely deceives      
himself :5 he refuses to ackn[l$ge !    
,all-embrac+ :i* !re9 ov]:elms him4     
,sociology & ! ,hi/ory ( ,civilization c

 only po9t out h[ man has atta9$ to !   
ideas ( ! ,beautiful & ! ,good2 :at ^!  
are & :]e=e _! influ5ce is s p[]ful1--! 
real wor? ( ! ,beautiful & !            
,good1--?\ght by concepts alone c %[4   
,! ,idea ( ,man1 z he has already       
develop$ & may yet develop1 is1 z f> z  
our k rea*es1 ! highe/ ( human ?\ghts4  
,we are !re=e =mulat+ no metaphysical   
!ory 9 p]sonify+ mank9d1 & po9t+ out t !
 p]fect+ ( :i* x is capable is ! great  
end :i* x has set itself4 ,we "k1 by our
 k ( human nature1 t mank9d w always    
endeavor to be happy1 & t x w approa*   
ne>] p]fection ! m real & g5]al its     
happ9ess becomes4  ,! p>ticul> rules (  
morality may & mu/ *ange2 b ! highe/    
pr9ciple ( all morality is *angeless4 ,f
 ! pure/ moral feel+ came ,s*ill]'s     
words3 ,live ) ?y g5]ation1 b be n its  
creature2 s]ve ?y contempor>ies1 b 9 t  
:i* !y ne$1 n t :i* !y prize4 ,)\t hav+ 
%>$ _! guilt1 %>e ) noble resignation _!
 puni%m5ts1 & yield ?yself freely to !  
yoke :i* !y bo? illy c\ld d )\t & illy  

be>4 ,by ! /eadfa/ c\rage ) :i* ?\      
refuse/ _! pleasure1 ?\ %alt prove to !m
 t x is n c[>dice :i* causes ?y         
submission4 ,9 ^! ?ree s5t5ces !re lies 
a :ole sy/em ( e?ics4  ,9 ! w to good1  
indivisible f a feel+ ( fre$om1 ( :i* no
 p[] on e>? c rob u1 lies true happ9ess4
  ,= m9d1 z = matt]1 ! law ( !          
inde/ructibility ( =ce1 ( "w1 is true4  
,t :i* appe>s z =ce or en]gy is motion2 
e impulse to motion is motion1 & only 9 
s f> z x appe>s1 c ! quantity ( motion1 
=ce1 en]gy1 increase or dim9i%2 z a     
matt] ( fact1 x always rema9s ! same4 ,b
 j z ! activity & =ce ( matt] increase )
 its diff]5tiation1 s ! activity & en]gy
 ( ! m9d increase ) intellig5ce4 ,x is  
?r\gh intellig5ce t we come to a        
compreh5sion ( ! di/9ction betwe5 good &
 evil1 & ?r\gh intellig5ce t we are able
 to increase social prosp]ity1 & s      
morality4  ,!re are no innate1 prim>y   
human rights2 !re are only acquir$      
rights :i* man has ga9$ = himself 9 !   
process ( developm5t4  ,if we 7 to      

express negatively ! end :i* mank9d sets
 itself1 we %\ld def9e x z ! greate/    
possible r$uction ( pa94 ,consci\s      
exi/5ce is accompani$ by a feel+ (      
pleasure2 b ! g5]al progress he$lessly  
ov]rides ! individual be+1 & we !re=e h 
to erect b>ri]s aga9/ ! /ream :i* ?us   
turns pleasure into pa94  ,pa9 &        
pleasure are relative to ! individual4  
,e s5sation is pleasurable z long z x   
does n exce$ 9 /r5g? a c]ta9 limit      
correspond+1 9 ea* case1 to ! nature ( !
 individual4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 e s5sation   
becomes1 by p]ception1 feel+1 ?\ght     
appe>s z a modify+ factor 9 all pa9 :i* 
does n arise f too extreme physical     
injury4 ,! mann] 9 :i* our p]ceptions1  
?\ght-images1 are =m$1 ! /ore (         
?\ght-images & concepts :i* we possess1 
& h5ce our ?\ght-capacity1 comb9$ ) !   
ext5t & cle>ness ( our k1 are decisive n
 only ) respect to ! avoidance ( pa9 &  
atta9m5t ( pleasure1 b also ) respect to
 our attitude t[>ds pa9 & pleasure 9    
g5]al2 e pa9 & e pleasure has1 9 ! la/  

analysis1 su* wor? alone z we attribute 
to x4 ,! univ]salization ( true         
education1 ! increase ( intellig5ce1 is1
 !re=e1 ! means by :i* man's lot may be 
bett]$4  ,?r\gh ! conditions ( ! e>?'s  
atmosph]e1 man has gr[n to be ! glori\s 
creature t he is4 ,if we gradually give 
him1 by education1 an advantage\s love (
 life & pleasure !re91 & at ! same "t d 
n neglect ! cultivation ( e?ical        
pr9ciples1 virtue w become1 ) ! increase
 ( happ9ess1 a necessity4  ,if          
intellig5ce is to be> ! fruit :i* we ?us
 dem& ( x1 its nature mu/ be su* z n    
only to be n\ri%$ by actual life1 b also
 to uplift by its increase ! :ole man4  
,& ?is is1 9 fact1 ! case2 :]e x is n s1
 we h to d ) a "o-sid$ developm5t su* z 
exi/+ circum/ances (t5 condition1 b :i* 
_c be reg>d$ z normal4 ,?is po9t ( view 
is ! necess>y consequ5ce ( ! unity :i*  
we po/ulate ( man4 ,if ?\ght & w h _!   
orig9 9 feel+1 & if w cl>ifies itself   
?r\gh ! cl>ification ( ?\ght1 !n all    
advance 9 ?\ght leads1 9 g5]al1 to an   

advance 9 feel+1 & true intellig5ce is  
insep>able f true love4 ,we use ! ^w    
love "h1 z designat+ intellig5ce 9 its  
highe/ s5se1 & decl>e1 moreov]1 t we    
w\ld desire to see ?is mean+ alone      
atta*$ to love4 ,ov] aga9/ ! conception 
( love :i* we f9d 9 ,h>tmann &          
,s*op5hau]1 we place ! conception (     
,sp9oza1 :o designates x z a free1      
reasonable activity1 & says ( x z       
di/+ui%$ f passion t ! love ( bo? man & 
wife has = its cause1 n a pleas+ ext]ior
 m]ely1 b especially fre$om ( s\l4  ,if 
we reg>d intellig5ce & love 9 _! highe/ 
anti!sis1 ! "o appe>s z ! appropriative1
 ! o!r z ! self-devot+ conception ( ?+s4
 ,b s9ce we =m a conception ( ?+s & make
 !m our own only 9 proportion to our    
intellig5ce1 our attitude t[>ds !m mu/  
be accord+ to ?is measure2 & s9ce !re is
 no action )\t reaction1 intellig5ce mu/
 be broad5$ by love z well z love       
cl>ifi$ by intellig5ce4 ,! highe/ ( all 
is intellig5ce2 b x is love t fir/ l5ds 
x creative p[]2 )\t love x _c create1 b 

only de/roy4 ,ev]y?+ great & noble t man
 c po9t out z 8 "w is due to love--love 
( mank9d1 love ( c\ntry1 love ( k1 love 
( art1 love ( labor 9 g5]al4 ,if !      
devotion is defici5t 9 purity1 det]m9$  
by extrane\s motives1 ! "w w be> m>ks ( 
! defici5cy4 ,! reason :y ! p[] ( love  
is s mu* great] ?an e o!r p[] is t its  
all-embrac+1 b\ndless "* reacts ^u x z a
 feel+ ( et]nity1 enabl+ x to und]take  
all ?+s1 z if x might conqu] ev5 dea?4  
,life1 consid]$ 9 its p>ts1 is *e]less2 
b love1 reg>d+ x 9 its totality1 po9ts  
out to x ! way ( salvation ?r\gh itself4
 ,love is ! concrete elem5t :i* exalts !
 ab/raction ( ,intellig5ce to inc>nate  
,idea2 !re=e is love ! idealiz+ pr9ciple
 f :i* intellig5ce draws belief 9 its   
own aims4 ,& if "o que/ions :5ce comes !
 conception ( immortality1 impossible to
 be won f exp]i5ce1 love mu/ confess    
itself guilty ( orig9at+ x1 be+ unable1 
to exi/ )\t ?is self-delusion4  ,c>n]i  
?us places himself 9 direct opposition  
to ,s*op5hau]'s & ,h>tmann's notion (   

love1 :i*1 he says1 falls l a deep %ad[ 
ov] _! :ole conception ( ! _w2 & he     
pleads 9 favor ( a /&po9t :i* %all make 
self-p]fection ! aim ( exi/5ce = woman z
 = man4 ,he prop\nds a !ory ( education 
= woman :i*1 accord+ to 8 own /atem5t1  
places him at "o 9 _s ) ,mill2 b he av]s
 t he _c foll[ ! latt] 9 8 m extreme    
views1 :i*1 he says1 7 evid5tly assum$  
by ,mill only 9 view ( ! /r5g? ( ! enemy
 ) :i* he _h to cont5d4 ,! book ends ) !
 foll[+ p>agraph3--  ,we d n run aft]   
ideals2 h5ce no plan floats be=e u1     
accord+ to :i* ! _w %\ld be %ap$ anew4  
,he :o und]/&s h[ to read ! book (      
,hi/ory kn[s t1 9 no "o place does !    
id5tity ( =m & cont5t come m cle>ly into
 view ?an 9 o!rs1 & t1 ) e new cont5t1  
!re is always a new =m also4 ,! mod]n   
/ate has by no means outliv$ itself yet1
 & ^? :o endeavor to d away ) x "k n :at
 !y are ab\t4 ,in/ead ( ?9k+ ^u a new   
=m1 let u devote our c>e to !           
cl>ification ( ! cont5t4 ,no "o deceives
 himself z to ! suff]+ 9 ! _w2 b he     

deceives himself :o ?9ks t he alone c   
br+ ab\t a bett] condition4 ,only !     
action ( all c bett] ?+s4 ,!re=e1 t :i* 
rema9s = u to d c be summ$ up 9 ^! few  
words3 ,let u make e ef=t possible to   
place e "o 9 a position to help himself4
 ,?is is ! only e?ical conception (     
univ]sal re=m4 ,let u prize k above all 
?+s1 & let u %[ t we s prize x by       
increas+ x & diffus+ x z mu* z lies 9   
our p[]2 let u prize x above all ?+s1 & 
prove t we d s by us+ x = ! good (      
mank9d4 ,by k we h become human be+s1   
because k has br\ght u to a compreh5sion
 ( ! ,beautiful & ! ,good4 ,x is k t    
sets life an end 9 ! atta9m5t ( ! ,good1
 & k t glorifies our pa? to t end4 ,let 
u educate = ourselves wives t %all n    
m]ely dimly feel :at we ?9k1 b su* z w  
br+ to ! execution ( our w a cle>       
und]/&+4 ,let u educate = ourselves     
wives :o1 fir$ by ! same feel+s z our   
own1 w unite _! ef=ts ) ours 9 !        
education ( a g5]ation t %all take      
morally ! /& ^u :i* ! sci5ce ( ! c5tury 

f9ds itself4 ,let u seek true happ9ess  
if we w\ld f9d virtue4 ,x is to no      
wisdom1 b x is likewise to no fooli%ness
 t we owe ! exi/5ce ( ! _w4 ,man c be   
fooli%2 b he c also be wise2 & if he is 
wise1 !n ! _w too is wisely arrang$4    
,c>n]i beg9s 8 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples ( ,e?ics
 7,grundlegung d] ,e?ik1 #ahha7 ) an    
inve/igation ( ! orig9 ( prim>y concepts
 & our k ?r\gh ^!4 ,9 ord] to br+ light 
into our conception1 we mu/ fir/ ( all  
le>n ! way to ! concept2 = !n only c we 
see h[ ! concept completes itself 9 !   
judgm5t1 & becomes1 9 reason+1 !        
crit]ion ( its own wor?4  ,! problem :i*
 fir/ pres5ts itself to u is t ( ,life 9
 g5]al4 ,! problem is insep>able f t (  
corporeality4 ,if we foll[ ph5om5a to _!
 la/ conceivable r$uction1 we f9ally    
pass f ! p]ception ( mass to ! concept (
 matt]2 b fur!r ?an ?is we _c g4 ,at    
lea/1 we c p]ceive only mat]ial ?+s1 & t
 :i* we call ! spiritual 9 di/9ction f !
 corporeal has always some?+ corporeal z
 its basis2 & if we d n wi% to disp5se )

 ! reliable guidance ( exp]i5ce1 we %all
 n ov]leap ?is b>ri]4 ,sci5ce _c reckon 
) sup]natural factors4  ,:at matt] is we
 _c "k2 t x exi/s1 h[ev]1 t ! ph5om5a ( 
nature are no empty seem+1 s5sation1 z !
 felt result ( ! mutual relation betwe5 
u & ! out] _w1 te/ifies4 ,s5sation is ! 
basis ( our self-consci\sness1 ( ! only 
full & irrefutable c]ta9ty t we possess4
 ,z to :at true ,be+ or ,exi/5ce is1 !re
 is disagreem5t2 b !re c be none reg>d+ 
! fact t we are consci\s ( our          
s5sations2 & ^u ?is consci\sness re/s ! 
po/ulate ( ! mat]iality#ff ( all        
exi/5ce4 ,9 ord] to ass]t ! mat]iality (
 all ph5om5a1 we are =c$ to di/+ui%     
betwe5 a corporeal & a non-corporeal    
action ( matt]2 matt] op]ates m5tally :5
 its division or diff]5tiation proce$s s
 f> t ! result+ ph5om5a c no long] be   
p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses1 b only conceiv$ by  
?\ght4 ,! indivisibility ( m9d f        
corporeality foll[s directly f ?is      
def9ition ( ! m5tal side ( nature4 ,we  
di/+ui% betwe5 ! two only = conv5i5ce'  

sake4 ,! new] ,psy*ology kn[s no?+ (    
,s5suality 9 ! old s5se ( ! ^w1 s9ce !  
basis ( all psy*ical effects is         
physical4  ,= matt] op]at+ m5tally1 z = 
matt] op]at+ corporeally1 !re are no    
specific en]gies2 x is1 z ,wundt        
expresses x1 functionally indiff]5t4 ,! 
diff]+ results ( a high diff]5tiation ( 
c5traliz$ organisms arise 9 accordance )
 ! *ang+ comb9ations ( elem5t>y p>ts &  
n]ve activities4 ,^! results are n1     
h[ev]1 to be reg>d$ z ! m]e effects (   
matt]1 b z ph5om5a ( ! same1 9 fact1 z !
 consummation & cr[n ( ! :ole evolution 
( nature4 ,ev5 9 ! s5se-organs we see ! 
diff]5tiation ( matt] advance beyond !  
sph]e ( s5se-p]ception4 ,!re=e1 9       
di/+ui%+ betwe5 m9d & matt]1 we are /ill
 9 ! realm ( ! natural1 & foll[ ! pa? ( 
exp]i5ce1 if by exp]i5ce is und]/ood n  
alone imm$iate exp]i5ce1 b also !       
conclusions :i* directly or by /rict    
analogy may be drawn f x4  ,! !ory ( an 
atom-s\l & ! !ory ( an organiz+ pr9ciple
 mu/ be ab&on$ z teleological1 & s      

inconsi/5t ) ! facts ( evolution4 ,!    
!ory :i* holds =ce to be a transc5d5tal 
exi/5ce1 a some?+ outside ( matt]1 mu/  
also be reject$4 ,) ! endless           
divisibility is giv5 an endless motion1 
inw>d or outw>d2 ! endlessly divisible  
matt] exi/s 9 endless motion1 or :at is 
! same1 ! endless motion is ! endlessly 
divid$ matt]4 ,h5ce motion1 l matt]1 c  
nev] dim9i%2 only ! =m ( its appe>ance  
*anges4  ,! ord] 9 nature _c be us$ z ! 
basis ( a teleological argum5t2 :at we  
call ord] ( nature is necessity z       
di/+ui%$ f *ance4 ,= example1 ! /atem5t 
t ! life ( ! e>? requires ! alt]nation (
 day & night means m]ely t1 s9ce day &  
night alt]nate ^u ! e>?1 only su* be+s  
c\ld arise & cont9ue 9 exi/5ce !reon z  
fl\ri% "u ?is alt]nation4  ,! fir/      
appe>ance ( protoplasm introduces no    
/rictly new ?+1 b only a new =m ( matt] 
) life-motion2 & ! =mation ( g]ms is    
only a fur!r /ep ( ! process4 ,! mo/    
important *>act]i/ic ( all life is      
s5sation4 ,?is is ! =m 9 :i*1 9 all liv+

 ?+s1 t :i* 9 ! re/ ( nature we call    
reaction1 appe>s4 ,t x is s easy = u to 
say 9 ! same brea?1 ! animal possesses  
s5sation2 &1 by ?is p>ticul> excitation 
we produce 9 him ?is p>ticul> s5sation1 
has its reason 9 ! fact t ! animal is n 
only capable ( s5sation1 b is1 moreov]1 
cont9ually 9 a /ate ( s5sation4 ,by !   
fact ( its cont9ual reaction ^u         
s5sation1 x keeps itself alive4 ,h5ce ! 
two concepts co9cide1 s to speak2       
s5sation is to life :at divisibility is 
to matt]4 ,we express ) ^! words m ?an a
 similitude1 s9ce all s5sation is bas$  
^u motion1 is1 inde$1 motion1 & e motion
 may be r$uc$ to a division or          
diff]5tiation 9 ! broade/ s5se ( ! ^w4  
,all fur!r di/9ctions1 z1 = in/ance1 )  
respect to ! mode ( s5sation 7:i*       
belongs1 )\t d\bt1 to plants z well z to
 animals71 we leave unnotic$2 all       
diff]5ces 9 ! =ms ( life are b ^? (     
degree1 ?\gh !y may be wide diff]5ces ( 
degree2 !y are to be ascrib$ to !       
influ5ce ( out] circum/ances4  ,s5sation

 develops 9 ! direction ( lea/          
resi/ance4 ,9 ! animal _w1 we h to      
di/+ui% betwe5 out] & inn] factors1 ) ! 
latt] ( :i* a new elem5t seems to be    
introduc$4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two is  
n1 h[ev]1 "o ( ess5ce1 s9ce ! w1 too1 is
 det]m9$ by outw>d circum/ance4 ,! inn] 
factors ( evolution are compris$ 9 !    
g]m1 f :i* ! individual is produc$2 :ile
 ! environm5t con/itutes ! out] factors4
 ,! individual ent]s ! _w ) a c]ta9     
res]ve quantity ( =ce1 :i* repres5ts 8  
p[] ( resi/ance to outside =ces1 & he   
passes ! m rapidly f y\? to age ! m     
rapidly ?is =ce is consum$4 ,?is        
accumulation ( =ce is1 !re=e1 id5tical )
 ! impulse to self-pres]vation1 :i*1 z  
modifi$ by v>i\s inn] & out]            
excitations1 manife/s itself 9 v>i\s    
=ms4 ,b he :o1 z unimpassion$ ?9k]1     
desires progress1 desires also          
retrogression2 he :o desires y\? desires
 age1 s9ce ! two concepts are           
correlative & ! "o includes ! o!r2 old  
age1 & f9ally dea?1 mu/ come to our     

planet z a :ole1 z well z to ! human    
individual4 ,! orig9al t5d5cies ( !     
total "* det]m9e1 = ! mo/ "p1 ! mann] 9 
:i* ! individual su/a9s ! /ruggle =     
exi/5ce2 yet ! environm5t is 9 no less  
degree active 9 ?is det]m9ation4 ,n less
 important ?an ! mann] ( reaction is !  
diff]+ susceptibility to p>ticul> k9ds (
 excitation2 ! "* result+ f ! mutual    
action & reaction ( individual & _w     
dep5ds ^u ! mann] 9 :i* ! individual    
adapts himself to circum/ances1 ennobles
 & discipl9es himself4  ,9 idealism1 z  
long z x rema9s )9 prop] b\nds1 !re is  
c]ta9ly tru?2 he :o d]ides x1 d]ides    
himself4 ,b realism has also its tru?1 z
 long z x does n misjudge ! wor? (      
concepts1 by :i* alone we cle>ly        
recognize :at ?+s are to u1 :at _!      
relations to u are1 & s h[ we h to deal 
) !m4 ,concrete concepts in=m u z to :at
 is true & :at is n true 9 ph5om5a4 ,!re
 is no great] mi/ake ?an to suppose t   
:at ?+s are 9 !mselves1 n :at !y are =  
u1 is ( importance to u2 z if we c\ld h 

an int]e/ 9 t :i* ?+s are n = u4 ,!     
decisive po9t is ! fact t1 n ?+s z !y   
appe> to u1 b _! rightly conceiv$       
appe>ance1 _! appe>ance z und]/ood by   
adequate concepts1 is ! beg9n+ & end (  
k4 ,h5ce ! true /ud5t ( nature c no m d 
)\t ! concept ?an ! true philosoph] c   
leave mat]ial p]ception out ( acc\nt4   
,/iff-neck$ ,mat]ialism is z "o-sid$ z  
old-"t ,metaphysics2 ! "o has no mean+ =
 its =m1 ! o!r no =m = its cont5t2 ! "o 
is a corpse1 ! o!r a gho/1 & ea* /rives 
9 va9 to atta9 ! w>m? ( life4 ,natural  
,sci5ce & ,philosophy mu/ tread diff]5t 
pa?s1 9 s f> z division ( labor requires
 !m to d s2 b !y labor at ! two sides ( 
"o :ole4 ,nature is n a ma*9e1 b life 9 
its fulle/ =m1 & ! task set u is to     
und]/& h] z %e is1 n to pat* toge!r a   
nature out ( disconnect$ scraps4  ,c>n]i
 adopts ! def9ition giv5 by ,claude     
,b]n>d1 to :om life is nei!r a pr9ciple 
nor a result1 b a conflict4 ,to !       
*emical syn!sis1 f :i* protoplasm       
results1 is add$1 ?r\gh me*anical       

integration1 morphological syn!sis1 to  
^: special =m inh]it$ *>act]i/ics are   
relat$ z elem5ts4 ,?r\gh ! conflict )9  
liv+ =ms1 & betwe5 ^! & ! re/ ( ! _w1   
motion1 atta9+ to ! "* ( function1      
appe>s z cont9u\s consumption4          
,de/ruction & r5ewal are insep>able     
correlative concepts4 ,?is fact is      
conta9$ 9 ! concept ( ! cons]vation (   
=ce1 "w1 & motion4 ,we may di/+ui%      
betwe5 7#a7 lat5t life1 su* z t         
accumulat$ 9 ! g]m1 7#b7 ! m]ely        
oscillat+ plant-life1 & 7#c7 free animal
 life4 ,) ?is di/9ction1 we place       
ourselves ^u ! /&po9t ( ! individual1 = 
:om !re is bo? beg9n+ & end1 & to :om   
r5ewal is subord9at$ to de/ruction2 =   
consumption1 dea? is ! *>act]i/ic ( liv+
 9 di/9ction f non-liv+ matt]4 ,if1     
!re=e1 we reg>d life z id5tical ) dea?1 
we m]ely ass]t t we consid] dea?        
id5tical ) life1 & t1 9 ! broad] s5se ( 
! ^w1 = ! univ]se z a :ole1 !re is no   
dea?4 ,t :i* ,claude ,b]n>d designates z
 ,con/ruction is ! diff]5tiation &      

division ( labor aris+ 9 ! process (    
integration4 ,! cell con/itutes ! fir/  
integration ( protoplasm4 ,9 x1 motion  
takes place 9 a p>ticul> =m1 organizes  
accord+ to ?is =m1 causes division &    
syn!sis1 & impresses features ( "* t1 by
 _! action & reaction ) ! environm5t1   
ei!r effect _! own de/ruction1 or else  
ma9ta9 _! exi/5ce1 propagate !mselves1  
become fix$1 & und]go fur!r evolution4  
,9 ?is mann] species arise & v>y3 & ! m 
primitive ! =m1 ! m v>iable x is2 ! m   
advanc$1 ! m fix$4 ,h5ce ! inv>iable "* 
( ! g]m-cells4 ,9 bone-=mation1 x is    
cle>ly %[n t special /ructure beg9s v   
e>ly1--9 ! cell1 namely2 b x is pres]v$ 
only :]e x is aid$ by ! necess>y action 
& reaction4 ,autonomic 9 itself1 life   
submits itself to ! g5]al laws (        
evolution4#fg ,z ! direction ( motion is
 det]m9$ = :ole gr\ps ( cells by !      
direction ( ! motion ( ! protoplasm 9 ! 
s+le cells1 s organic function is       
det]m9$ by ! gr\p+ ( ! irritable1       
contractile1 s5sible cells4 ,f ! fir/   

orig9 ( life up to its mo/ p]fect       
developm5t1 ev]y?+ is =m$ at ! co/ ( o!r
 =ms4 ,if life is1 !re=e1 to be conceiv$
 z a conflict1 x is a conflict z wide z 
! univ]se itself1 & we say1 ) ,claude   
,b]n>d1 t life may be *>act]iz$1 b n    
def9$4  ,ev]y?+ t has s5sation lives4 ,z
 life dep5ds ^u p>ticul> comb9ations (  
p>ticul> elem5ts1 s s5sation is !       
*>act]i/ic m>k ( su* comb9ations1 & a   
high] =m ( t simple reaction common to  
nature 9 g5]al4 ,reaction has its reason
 9 ! motion aris+ f ! endless           
divisibility ( matt]1 ?r\gh :i* ! mo/   
diff]5t comb9ations & reactions are     
produc$4 ,s9ce we h be=e u1 9 our       
contemplation ( corporeal nature1 n     
ab/ract matt] 9 g5]al1 b "s sixty or m  
special *emical elem5ts1 we mu/1 9 ?9k+ 
( atoms1 h 9 m9d atoms ( ^! p>ticul>    
elem5ts1 & n atoms ( ab/ract matt] 9    
g5]al2 ( su* atoms ( matt] 9 g5]al1 or1 
if "o w1 ( primordial matt]1 we c "k    
only t !y w\ld 9 g5]al attract & repel4 
,only by degrees c a p>ticul> reaction (

 ! elem5ts h be5 develop$2 & s9ce our   
kn[n elem5ts h p>ticul> diff]5t         
reactions1 !y mu/ be ! product ( diff]5t
 comb9ations4 ,s5sation is due to c]ta9 
comb9ations ( ^! elem5ts2 :5 !          
comb9ations no long] exi/1 ! atoms ( ^! 
elem5ts /ill react accord+ to _!        
*>act]i/ic me?od z atoms ( p>ticul>     
elem5ts1 b ! s5sation dep5d5t on _!     
peculi> comb9ations is de/roy$4 ,! atom 
z su* is devoid ( s5sation1 & we may    
conv]t our e>li] proposition1 mak+ x    
read3 ,only t :i* lives is s5sible4 ,we 
"k q well h[ mu* ( ?is c\rse ( reason+  
is ( hypo!tic nature2 b ! /ricte/       
consi/5cy _c be d5i$ x4 ,! me?od :i*    
expla9s life by ! assumption ( s5sible  
atoms is a mu* %ort] & easi] "o2 b is x 
n likewise a me?od ( great] risk8 ,& is 
!re no dang] t1 9 reject+ a me?od by :i*
 all *anges 9 ph5om5a are ref]r$ to     
functions ( comb9ations ( elem5ts1 we   
may seek1 9 matt] itself1 some?+ t is n 
matt]8 ,! above !ory ( life1 also1 takes
 its dep>ture f ! assumption t all 01   

orig9ally1 9 ! =mation ( ! _w1 liv+ 9 ! 
broad] s5se ( ! ^w4 ,b "h we are conc]n$
 ) life 9 ! n>r[] s5se ( ! ^w1 z        
di/+ui%$ f :at we call dead nature4     
,s\l is1 !re=e1 accord+ to our          
def9ition1 equival5t to animal life1 9  
contra/ to ! life ( ! plant4 ,!         
significance ( ! di/9ction lies 9 !     
int]m$iation ( ! g5]al organic unity1 n 
9 a qualitative division4 ,! elem5ts are
 ! same2 only _! connection is diff]5t1 
& t :i* di/+ui%es ! animal is a         
c5tralization ( ! organs4 ,9 ref]r+ to !
 possession ( s\l by ! animal1 we simply
 po9t out ! indep5d5t mann] 9 :i*1 by   
reason ( s5sation1 its impulses gov]n1 &
 develop1 ?r\gh ! scale1 up to          
consci\sness & w4 ,( c\rse ! gradations 
are v num]\s1 inasmu* z ! functions ( ! 
s\l are det]m9$ by ! developm5t ( !     
organism4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 animals ^: 
s5sation atta9s cle> consci\sness & su* 
z d n atta9 to m ?an a me*anical action1
 does n conc]n u1 z long z we reg>d !   
psy*ical ph5om5a 9 _! mo/ g5]al =m4 ,e  

animal possesses s\l2 we avoid !        
expression a s\l1 z giv+ ! s\l !        
significance ( some?+ by itself4 ,9 l   
mann]1 we d n say t a life1 b t life    
belongs to ! animal4 ,! *ief condition  
necess>y to s\l z to life consi/s 9     
union to a :ole1 & s\l repres5ts !      
gradation by :i* life lifts itself to ! 
plane :]e x becomes a mirror ( ! _w4    
,s5sation1 z c5traliz$ 9 ! bra91 becomes
 p]ception1 ! s5sation ( a "p becom+ !  
s5sation ( ! :ole1 a feel+ ( !          
individual4 ,x is p]ceptions :i* cause  
movem5t4 ,to f9d a connection betwe5    
p]ception z g5]ally und]/ood & ! action 
( ! muscle w\ld be z difficult z to %[ !
 connection betwe5 body & s\l 9 ! s5se (
 ,_s4 ,b if we reg>d p]ception z feel+1 
!n ! awak5+ ( a correspond+ impulse1 & !
 trans=mation ( ?is into w1 :i* f9ds    
expression 9 a correspond+ motion1 is   
some?+ s natural t x ne$s b a glance at 
! n]ve-app>atus 9 ord] to compreh5d !   
rapidity ( ! :ole process4 ,) reg>d to !
 unconsci\s "* ( ! great] "p ( !        

process1 & its correspond+ rapidity1 we 
h to consid] ! gradual nature ( !       
developm5t ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 ! gradual   
drill ( ! p>ts1 until ! :ole process    
becomes p]fect4 ,by feel+ is "h n meant 
necess>ily feel+ z pa9 or pleasure4 ,?is
 quality ( feel+ does n necess>ily      
belong to e p]ception1 else ?\ght1 z a  
tra9 ( p]ceptions1 w\ld be unbe>able2 a 
c]ta9 /r5g? ( feel+ is necess>y 9 ord] t
 x may atta9 ! "* ( pa9 or pleasure2 z  
we recognize a b\nd>y at :i* s5sation   
beg9s1 s we recognize "o at :i* feel+   
beg9s to atta9 ! "* ( pleasure & f :i*1 
up to a second b\nd>y-l9e1 x cont9ues to
 appe> z pleasure2 beyond ?is l9e x     
appe>s z pa94 ,mod]ate feel+ is         
b5eficial to ! organism1 immod]ate feel+
 h>mful2 h5ce ! appe>ance ( ! "o z      
pleasure1 & ( ! o!r z pa94 ,we say      
expressly mod]ate1 n weak feel+1 because
 too weak feel+ may also1 "u c]ta9      
conditions1 be pa9ful4 ,horwicz rightly 
prote/s aga9/ any attempt to arrange !  
feel+s 9 an exact scale1 s9ce a p>ticul>

 feel+ may lead to q diff]5t ph5om5a (  
emotion1 accord+ to ! p>ticul>          
circum/ances & ! p>ticul> developm5t :i*
 x und]goes 9 ! organism1 & s9ce x is   
fur!rmore no?+ *angeless & di/9ct1 b    
m]ely an en]gy t necess>ily leads to    
activity4 ,h5ce x is t ! excitation :i* 
does n pass ! /age ( s5sation rema9s    
localiz$1 b :5 x atta9s to ! /age (     
feel+ takes possession ( ! :ole         
individual1 & br+s ! ess5tial t5d5cy ( 8
 be+#fh to expression4  ,z ,c>n]i t5ds  
to int]pret ! s5sation :i* he pr$icates 
( ! l[] animals z a m]e high] reaction (
 liv+ matt]1 & ?us :olly me*anical1 s he
 t5ds to reg>d ! activity ( all animals 
:i* lack bra9 7"u :i* he und]/&s        
especially ! n]v\s developm5ts f\nd 9 ! 
gray matt] :i* conta9s ,haeckel's       
s\l-cells7 z devoid ( pleasure & pa91 & 
due to m]e inh]itance & =ce ( habit4 ,s 
! action ( ! ants is n to be attribut$  
to intellig5ce1 b to m]e reaction ^u    
s5sation due to inh]itance & ex]cise2 & 
s ! movem5ts ( a butt]fly impal$ ^u a   

r$-hot ne$le w\ld be attributable to !  
h9drance ( its flight1 n to pa94#fi     
,?us1 ) ,c>n]i1 ! words s5sation1 s\l1  
p]ception1 & feel+1 lose _! ord9>y      
significance2 & ?is fact mu/ be held 9  
m9d 9 ! int]pretation ( 8 ass]tions t   
all animals h s\l1 & all animals h      
s5sation4  ,c>n]i fur!r cites ,haeckel's
 def9ition ( ! organism z a cell-mon>*y1
 9 :i* diff]5t individuals1 & diff]5t   
gr\ps ( individuals1 hav+ diff]5t       
duties1 are guid$ by a c5tral p[]4 ,he  
does n int5d ?us to assume special      
c5tres = consci\sness & w1 b only to    
ass]t t1 ?r\gh su* c5tralization1 !     
expression ( ! :ole individual1 z total 
consci\sness & total w1 takes place4  ,n
 only ! bra91 b o!r p>ts ( ! n]v\s      
sy/em1 are affect$ 9 p]ception2 & ! same
 p>ts are op]ative 9 remembrance4 ,?us !
 association ( ideas is expla9$4  ,z    
long z ! animal rema9s ^u ! plane ( m]e 
in/9ct1 x has only bl9d impulses4#gj    
,only 9 ! mo/ highly organiz$ animals d 
we f9d ! fir/ traces ( consci\s1 ?\gh n 

yet ( self-consci\s1 w4 ,9 t ! animal   
kn[s :at x w1 x di/+ui%es cle>ly !      
objects ( its w1 & h5ce its own         
impulses4 ,^u ! e>li] plane ( m]e       
self-pres]vation1 ! b5eficial1 h>mful1 &
 indiff]5t 7 n yet made inw>d1 b only   
di/+ui%$ outw>dly by nature 9 ! /ruggle 
= exi/5ce1 9 :i* ! fitte/ surviv$2 9    
consci\sness1 h[ev]1 ! h>mful &         
advantage\s become inw>d1 tak+ ! =m (   
pa9 & pleasure4 ,b ! animal nev] gets   
beyond ! concrete case1--9 :i* 8 inh]it$
 in/9cts1 work+ ) a rapidity & fre$om we
 (t5 see imitat$ 9 ! passions ( m51     
sometimes act s advantage\sly z almo/ to
 deceive u into believ+ !m ! result (   
reflection2 yet sometimes1 aga91 br+ mo/
 disa/r\s results4 ,! animal nev] atta9s
 to a notion ( ! ,:ole4 ,associations & 
g5]al p]ceptions ! high] animal species 
h1 b n concepts4  ,impulses appe>1 9 _! 
prim>y =m 9 ! animals1 z passions4#ga ,!
 fir/ beg9n+ ( ! e?ical may be f\nd 9 ! 
passion ( love 9 ! broade/ s5se ( ! ^w1 
z sexual love & ! love ( (fspr+4 ,! fir/

 is *iefly exact+1 ! second is high]1 9 
t x gives4  ,t :i* divides man          
physically f ! brutes is m]ely ! union (
 qualities1 all ( :i*1 b nev] all ( :i* 
unit$1 we f9d among ! animals2 t :i*    
divides him m5tally f !m is             
self-consci\s ?\ght1 develop$ by means (
 spee*4 ,?r\gh ! developm5t ( att5tion1 
:i* arises 9 connection ) a great] &    
great] c5tralization1 s5sation becomes  
p]ception1 ?is develops fur!r to g5]al  
p]ceptions1 & is /ill fur!r p]fect$ to  
concepts4  ,c>n]i believes primitive man
 to h be51 n m b5evol5t ?an ! animals1 b
 less s4 ,leav+ out ( acc\nt ! c>nivor\s
 animals1 ! brutes seem to satisfy _!   
own wants )\t int]f]+ ) ! satisfaction (
 o!rs1 &1 except :]e ! possession (     
females is conc]n$1 to live 9 peace )   
ea* o!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! influ5ce ( man 
^u ! dome/ic animals may be se5 9 ! gre$
 ( ! dog1 :o1 z capable ( in/ruction1   
takes on himself all ! evil qualities ( 
8 ma/]4 ,! cat1 :o is n s intellig5t z !
 dog1 is n ?us influ5c$4  ,= nature !re 

is no good & evil4 ,! animal :i* te>s & 
dev\rs its prey is no worse ?an ! swoll5
 /ream1 t uproots ! trees 9 its c\rse4  
,) consci\sness1 int5tion awakes2 yet 9 
! brute ?is is only second>y2 ! brute   
di/+ui%es betwe5 pa9 & pleasure1 b n    
betwe5 ^! z ! result ( its own action 9 
di/9ction f t ( nature outside itself4  
,only ! self-consci\sness ( ! human be+ 
kn[s good & evil2 nature does n "k evil1
 = %e does n "k ! opposition on :i* x is
 bas$4 ,!re is wisdom 9 ! /ory (        
,g5esis1 :i* sees 9 ! beg9n+ ( k1 !     
comm5cem5t ( evil4 ,! awak5+ (          
self-feel+ is ! beg9n+ ( a *asm1 ?r\gh !
 full developm5t ( :i* ! individual is  
at l5g? sep>at$ f nature4 ,)            
self-consci\sness & ! feel+ ( b\ndless  
isolation t !re9 comes ov] him1 man     
beg9s 8 e?ical developm5t4  ,b ! e?ical 
does n beg9 ) ! human be+ kn[n to u by  
natural hi/ory2 ev5 yet !re are races ( 
man :i* /& l[] ?an _m species ( animals2
 & ! e>ly developm5t ( moral activity 0 
( necessity mu* m ( ! nature ( t :i* we 

call evil ?an ( t :i* we call good4 ,!  
m9d is a sort ( light2 & z w>m? is      
indivisible f ! motion :i* we call      
light1 & ! fir/ w>m? ( ! sun c\ld only  
burn1 s ! motion :i* we call m9d c\ld at
 fir/ only h de/roy$2 self-consci\sness1
 9 its e>lie/ /ages1 c h produc$ only ! 
int5se feel+s :i* lie ne>] pa9 ?an      
pleasure4 ,z man came to h int5tion1 &  
ga9$ new wants 9 developm5t1 he c\ld    
reg>d ! int5tions ( 8 fell[-m5 only )   
di/ru/4 ,envy1 hatr$1 dislike1 7        
develop$ long be=e ! family1 &1 lat]1 ! 
tribe furni%$ opportunity = love4       
,self-consci\sness c\ld1 at fir/1       
int]pret good & evil only z hav+ ref]5ce
 to self1 j z x also conceiv$ its fre$om
 z t ( its own caprice4 ,! desire =     
happ9ess & endeavor to atta9 x is !     
prim>y inc5tive to all human und]tak+s4 
,x is errone\s to suppose t man is ne>] 
to ! brutes by ?is impulse2 ! animal    
does n possess x1 has only ! impulse to 
self-pres]vation4  ,! idea t man & wife 
toge!r fir/ con/itute ! complete human  

be+1 & t ! real future ( ?is human be+  
lies 9 ! *ildr5--! idea ( ! family is1  
c]ta9ly1 ( all ideas1 primordial1 ?\gh x
 probably came late to consci\sness4 ,f 
! family develop$ ! tribe ) ! elde/ at  
its head4 ,! m peaceful ! tribe1 ! m    
o!rs comb9$ aga9/ x1 & by _! comb9ation 
compell$ x /ill fur!r to /r5g!n its     
res\rces4 ,! feel+ ( p[] awak5$ by !    
gr[+ concord ext5d$ fur!r & fur!r1 &    
f9ally made its way to ! individual ) ! 
full =ce ( ! ,idea4 ,?is developm5t1 b m
 especially ! compell+ p[] ( ! /ruggle =
 exi/5ce1 soon call$ ! brave/ to comm& 9
 place ( ! elde/ ( ! tribe4  ,x is by ! 
ag5cy ( no o!r be+ t1 9 ! mutual        
relation ( physical & m5tal activity1   
consci\sness is atta9$2 man himself     
comes to a feel+ ( himself4 ,9 ! be+    
end[$ ) s\l1 :o on ! "o h& atta9s1 ?r\gh
 integration1 an indep5d5ce t appe>s z !
 impulse to self-pres]vation1 on ! o!r  
h& becomes consci\s ( ?is impulse to    
self-pres]vation ?r\gh a c5traliz$ n]v\s
 sy/em t raises ! "p-s5sations to feel+s

 ( ! :ole1 s5sation divides into two    
*ief functions1 :i* appe> z passion &   
?\ght4 ,we are n conc]n$1 9 ?\ght &     
passion1 ) opposites1 b ) an opposition 
:i* a s+le ph5om5on develops ?r\gh      
manifold action & reaction ) ! re/ ( !  
_w ( ph5om5a4 ,! di/9ction is m]ely a   
conv5i5ce 9 f9] inve/igations2 !re is1 9
 fact1 z little ?\ght )\t emotion z     
emotion )\t ?\ght4 ,& s9ce emotion      
always manife/s itself z w1 ?is highe/  
opposition is be/ def9$ z t ( ?\ght & w4
 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! human be+1 we mu/  
analyze ^! two sides ( consci\sness4    
,c>n]i's exam9ation ( ! prim>y laws (   
?\ght c be only t\*$ ^u "h4 ,9 ! law (  
,id5tity1 or1 negatively speak+1 ! law (
 ,consi/5cy1#gb !re comes to our        
consci\sness a m g5]al ,species :i*     
includes a det]m9ate species4 ,!        
adequate1 cle>1 correct1 correspond+#gc 
concept is consi/5t ) itself1 means1 !  
adequate concept f9ds itself aga9 9 e   
object :i* x includes4 ,! law ( ,id5tity
 expresses1 !re=e1 n entire sam5ess1 )  

:i* ! cessation ( all ?\ght w\ld be     
rea*$1 b simple consi/5cy4 ,x af=ds u1  
?us1 ! means ( recogniz+ ! ,untrue 9 t  
:i* is n :at x is call$1 h5ce also !    
means ( recogniz+ ! ,true4 ,! law (     
,exclud$ ,middle conta9s an ext5sion or 
d\bl+ ( ! law ( ,id5tity1 9 t ! id5tity 
"h appe>s1 n 9 ! =m ( consi/5cy1 b 9 t (
 contradiction2 z1 ei!r--or4 ,n "o1 b   
two cases are suppos$1 only "o ( :i* c  
exi/ or be true4 ,! disjunctive         
proposition :i* corresponds to x is n   
less det]m9ate ?an ! categorical        
proposition :i* corresponds to ! law or 
judgm5t ( ,id5tity1 b is r1 on !        
contr>y1 a m =cible affirmation ( x4 ,9 
?is det]m9ate nature lies ! wor? ( !    
,exclud$ ,middle4 ,du ,bois ,raymond's  
address on ! ,limits ( ,k has caus$ mu* 
joy to cons]vative ?9k]s2 b ^! h made   
mu* m out ( x ?an x really means4 ,!re  
is ei!r = u a transc5d5tal1 or !re is n2
 & if n1 !n we are limit$ to ! k (      
nature4 ,! sci5tific limit set to our k 
by our hypo!ses & !ories is1 h[ev]1     

m]ely a limit set = ! purpose ( r\nd+ k 
to a :ole1 n ( clos+ x to a fur!r       
advancem5t2 b su* hypo!ses mu/ be       
consi/5t ) exp]i5ce & f\nd$ ^u x2       
o!rwise we leave k beh9d u & ab&on !    
hope ( x4 ,we _c say :at1 )9 ! prov9ce (
 sci5ce1 man w n "k1 except t he nev] w 
"k ev]y?+4  ,! law ( ,causality is ! mo/
 important law ( ?\ght1 aft] t (        
,id5tity4 ,reason & result are (t5      
confus$ ) cause & effect4 ,! reason on  
acc\nt ( :i* we d a ?+ is n1 h[ev]1 !   
cause by :i* x occurs4 ,! cause is !    
complexity ( all conditions :i* make x  
possible1 & ! reason ( its p]=mance     
co9cides ) a consci\s design on our "p t
 con/itutes our purpose4 ,causality has 
no?+ 9 common ) ! concept ( purpose4 ,! 
pr9cipal ( ,suffici5t ,reason has be5   
made ! bridge betwe5 ,causality &       
,design4 ,probably human exp]i5ce rea*$ 
fir/ ! conception t no?+ occurs )\t     
suffici5t reason1 & only lat]1 by a     
fur!r m5tal /ep1 ! conviction t ev]y?+ =
 :i* ! necess>y conditions exi/ takes   

place4 ,) ?is conviction1 ! concept (   
causality became cle>2 b1 at ! same "t !
 bridge :i* connects x ) ! !ory ( design
 9 ! succession ( ev5ts 0 de/roy$1 s t  
only a logical leap c re/ore u to ?is   
incomplete conception ( e>li] exp]i5ce4 
,causal necessity excludes purpos$      
necessity4 ,t :i* takes place may be    
reg>d$ z1 9 "o direction1 con=mable to  
an end1 b may1 on ! o!r h&1 con=m to no 
end 9 any direction4 ,a succession (    
ev5ts con=ms to purpose only 9 s f> z x 
is reg>d$ by a p>ticul> consci\sness :i*
 comb9es x 9 ?\ght ) ends ( its own or  
su* z x ascribes to ano!r consci\sness4 
,9 ! law ( ,causality1 z 9 ! law (      
,id5tity1 ! necessity ( self-consi/5cy &
 ! self-consi/5cy ( ,necessity rea*es   
expression4 ,! suffici5t reason is      
simply ! complet5ess ( ! conditions1 ) !
 exi/5ce ( :i* ! ev5t takes place1 & !  
abs5ce ( :i* ! ev5t fails to take place4
  ,sp9oza's ,w & intellect are "o & !   
same is ! e?ical law ( ,id5tity4 ,all   
?\ght is will$2 t is1 indivisible f a   

c]ta9 color+ :i* x has 9 virtue ( its   
id5tity ) ! w1 j z all w is connect$ )  
?\ght2 !re is1 inde$1 a w-less ?\ght1   
:i* might1 h[ev]1 j z correctly be call$
 un?9k+ ?\ght1#gd j z un?9k+ will+ is1 9
 reality1 w-less will+4 ,9 all m5tal    
op]ations1 ! id5tity ( ! two functions  
is f\nd4 ,a w is un?9kable )\t some?+   
will$--an end1 giv5 by ?\ght4 ,x is !   
fact t1 9 8 practical life1 man         
recognizes purpose z a necessity1 :i*   
causes him to read purpose into nature4 
,at ! basis ( id5tity lies a concept :i*
 ?r[s light ^u ! teleological pr9ciple4 
,?is is ! concept ( ! ,g5]al4 ,! basis (
 ! pr9ciple ( id5tity is a concept (    
species :i* embraces ! g5]al 9 contra/  
to ! s+ul> & p>ticul>2 j z ! judgm5t (  
,id5tity con/itutes an advance to /ill  
great] ,g5]ality4 ,! concept ( ! ,g5]al 
:i* rea*es expression 9 species co9cides
 ) ! concept3 ,law ( ,nature4 ,! ,law   
is1 = a p>ticul> circle ( ev5ts1 :at !  
,species is = a p>ticul> circle (       
objects4 ,z 9 ! ,species1 ! *>act]i/ics 

are express$ :i* an object mu/ exhibit 9
 ord] to belong to x1 s 9 ! ,law !      
conditions are express$ :i* mu* exi/ 9  
ord] t ! in/ance includ$ "u x may take  
place4 ,! relation ( ,id5tity to        
,causality is unmi/akable4 ,species &   
,law include no m]e plurality ( objects 
& in/ances1 = z (t5 z ! in/ance comes to
 pass ! law is fulfill$1 & ! numb]      
belong+ to a species is1 9 conception1  
limitless4 ,worlds l our e>? may come   
into exi/5ce aga9 & aga92 h5ce specim5s 
( a c]ta9 species1 et]nally de/roy$1 may
 et]nally r5ew !mselves1 & in/ances :i* 
fall "u a c]ta9 law may et]nally occur4 
,simply _! conditions mu/ exi/ 9 ord] t 
!y may occur4 ,su* cases =m1 !re=e1 a   
:ole2 & ?is is ,totality 9 ,little4 ,!  
importance ( e :ole :i* sets itself ov] 
aga9/ ! great] :ole has already be5     
notic$4 ,! =m] :ole con/itutes ! concept
 ( ,individuality :i*1 z ,undivid$      
,unity1 becomes indep5d5t4 ,!           
limitlessness :i* we claim = ! :ole is  
"o ( conception2 we ?us seek to make t  

:i* is incompreh5sible conceivable4 ,!  
concept does n ne$ to be imag9$2 x may  
be ?\ght4 ,e "o kn[s :at he means :5 he 
opposes ! :ole to ! "p4 ,! :ole is n a  
l>g] "p1 b ! opposite ( ! "p1 z 'all'   
con/itutes ! opposite ( ! _m & !        
p>ticul>4  ,:at we aim at1 9 ?is        
analysis1 is a true ,realism 9 !        
conception ( ! ,purposeful4 ,!          
,purposeful is t :i* conduces to an end1
 ! ,useful4 ,f ,individuality foll[s !  
individual nature ( ends4 ,e man has 8  
own ends1 & 9 ! attempt to atta9 8 ends 
does n hesitate to set himself 9        
opposition to all ! re/ ( mank9d4 ,if he
 is suffici5tly en]getic & cunn+1 he may
 ev5 succe$1 = a "t1 9 8 endeavors1 to !
 h>m ( humanity4 ,yet to h ! :ole (     
humanity aga9/ oneself is to endeavor to
 proce$ 9 ! direction ( great]          
resi/ance1 & ! process mu/1 soon] or    
lat]1 result 9 ! triumph ( ! /rong] p[]4
 ,9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 9 its l>g] z   
well z its small] manife/ations1 !      
individual seeks1 ) all 8 p[]1 to       

satisfy ! impulse to happ9ess :i* arises
 ) consci\s exi/5ce2 :ile ! species1 z !
 complex ( all en]gies develop$ by its  
p>ts1 has an impulse to self-pres]vation
 ( its own1 :i*1 by its action z type1  
has orig9at$ & pres]v$ = c5turies !     
conception ( *angeless k9d4  ,"h is !   
beg9n+ ( ! dawn1 ^: sun1 h[ev]1 9 ord]  
to become visible & imp>t w>m?1 mu/ rise
 /ill high]4 ,! c]ta9ty af=d$ 9 ! law ( 
,id5tity 9 positive =m1 9 ! law (       
,contradiction 9 negative =m1 9 ! law ( 
,exclud$ ,middle 9 ! =m ( an opposition1
 & 9 ! law ( ,suffici5t ,reason 9       
conditional =m1 is bas$ ^u ,causality1  
,community ( ,species1 or ,totality4 ,= 
?is reason1 d$uction & induction are    
only !n to be reli$ ^u :5 ! fir/ =m (   
reason+ has = its middle proposition "o 
t expresses causality1 community (      
species1 or totality1 & ! latt] =m (    
reason+ takes ^! = its po9t ( dep>ture4 
,! analysis ( ,d$uction is ( wor? z     
cl>ify+ & confirm+ ?\ght1 & ?us ext5d+  
its field z (t5 z ! syn!ses ( ,induction

 /& ! pro( ( ! process ( cl>ification4  
,! sup]naturalism ( ,dualism leads to a 
dead1 ! natural "* ( ,monism to a liv+1 
dialectic1--to ! dialectic ( ,becom+4 ,!
 concept assumes a concrete =m1 &1 z    
high] & high] ris+ sun1 enables u to    
conceive :at x w be to u z ,idea4 ,!    
und]/&+ kn[s no?+ ( ideas2 _! realm is t
 ( ! reason2 yet s9ce ! reason is b a   
high] developm5t ( ! und]/&+1 !         
comm5cem5t ( ?is dawn mu/ be p]ceptible 
9 x4 ,moreov]1 ! division :i* we make   
betwe5 ! two orig9ates 9 our g5etic     
treatm5t ( ! subject1 :i* seeks to      
expla9 ! concept by %[+ ! c\rse ( its   
developm5t4 ,yet ! di/9ction is no empty
 ab/raction :i* may n claim life & =m to
 a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,! human be+ is always !
 :ole human be+2 b he is n always       
uni=mly develop$1 ei!r physically or    
m5tally4 ,9 "o individual ! und]/&+1 9  
ano!r ! reason1 manife/s itself m pla9ly
 9 ?\ght4 ,?is is also true ( ! race1 ! 
p1 & ! epo*1 z ( ! individual4 ,mod]n   
developm5t has turn$ m & m f ! ideal to 

mat]ial int]e/s2 we seem to be progress+
 t[>ds a reaction1 b :at t reaction w   
be1 we _c say2 x may be a reaction 9 !  
wor/ s5se4 ,! mi/akes ( ! und]/&+ _c be 
pr$ict$4 ,) ! po9t ( culm9ation1 !      
extreme is rea*$1 & 9 ,spiritualism may 
be f\nd traces ( a t\*+ ( extremes4 ,yet
 ! influ5ce ( ! und]/&+ is to be reli$  
on 9 s f> z x is ! cle> mirror (        
,necessity4 ,! und]/&+ may err1 j       
because x is consci\s2 b exp]i5ce always
 corrects ^! mi/akes4 ,nature1 z gift$ )
 m9d1 is no new nature2 ! laws ( ?\ght  
are ! natural laws ( ! m9d4 ,9 _! mirror
 ! w sees ! accompli%m5t ( ! fir/ m5tal 
developm5t1 & le>ns to compreh5d ?is1 on
 high] m5tal planes1 z ,common ,weal4   
,! opposition ( ! individual to ! re/ ( 
! _w :i* arises ) self-consci\sness &   
individuality is great]1 ! great] !     
individuality4 ,to ! /ruggle = exi/5ce  
is add$ ! /ruggle = happ9ess1 :i*1      
sep>at+ into numb]less desires t ga9 9  
attractiv5ess ) e ob/acle oppos$ to _!  
satisfaction1 is ! orig9 ( all !        

passions1--( gre$1 jeal\sy1 envy1 hatr$1
 etc4 ,?r\gh passion1 :i* is !          
exagg]ation ( activities t1 9 a normal  
=m1 are good1 man is l$ into a /ruggle =
 false happ9ess1 j z ! concepts "u :i* 8
 passions arise are false4 ,! individual
 aga9/ ! _w _c atta9 happ9ess = himself4
 ,! greate/ good1 peace ( s\l1 fre$om f 
passion1 is atta9$ only ?r\gh k1 by :i* 
! concepts ( ! individual are correct$2 
x is atta9$1 n z dead incapability (    
emotion1 b only z cle> enjoym5t ( life  
aft] pa/ /orm4 ,labor & education are ! 
pa? to true happ9ess &1 ?r\gh true      
happ9ess1 to virtue4 ,! passions are n  
sep>ate exi/5ces2 ! :ole man is !       
passion ( 8 he>t2 ! :ole man feels1 j z 
! :ole man ?9ks4 ,b j = ?is reason1     
because ( ! id5tity ( w & und]/&+1 !    
correction ( ! concept is ! correction (
 w4 ,?is is n say+ t w & und]/&+ are    
nev] 9 opposition to ea* o!r2 ! app>5t  
opposition is1 h[ev]1 m]ely a hesitation
 ( ! w1 :i* does n "k :at x really w4 ,x
 is true t "o passion c be conqu]$ only 

by ano!r2 we _c w an emotion t leads to 
a c]ta9 c\rse ( action2 b we c fix our  
att5tion on ! objects :i* produce x1 &  
by ?us rea*+ a cle> recognition ( _!    
actual & necess>y relations1 affect our 
own action4 ,x is true t man does z he  
wills2 b he wills necess>ily z he does4 
,accord+ to ! doctr9e ( fre$om1 x mu/ be
 exactly ^? :o act )\t kn[+ :]e=e !y    
act1 & :o are ?us driv5 by bl9d impulse1
 :o are ! mo/ fully self-det]m9$4 ,a    
real fre$om & conque/ ( necessity c1 on 
! contr>y1 be atta9$ only by ob$i5ce4 ,j
 z1 9 ! animal1 ! summation ( impulses &
 desires rea*es a focus 9 feel+1 s 9    
man1 9 proportion to 8 developm5t1 !    
summation is 9 consci\sness1 ! focus (  
:i* is ! po9t ( conc5tration ( ! w's    
activity4 ,sp9oza's ,w & und]/&+ are "o 
means3 ! activity ( ! w is ! realization
 ( ! activity ( ?\ght4 ,e "o1 ! m       
self-sacrific+1 z ! less self-sacrific+ 
man1 does t :i* is to him ! pleasante/2 
egoism turns ! scale 9 bo? cases2 only 9
 ! "o case ! egoism has a basis ( broad]

 love4 ,& s9ce we act accord+ to our    
conception ( ?+s1 ! "q ( our            
responsibility is ! "q ( our full       
possession ( consci\sness4 ,! necessity 
( nature mu/ take away our des]t1 z f> z
 a future life & its rew>d are conc]n$2 
b f ! /&po9t ( a be+ :o desires happ9ess
 & atta9s to x ?r\gh evolution1         
necessity ga9s a new aspect4 ,natural   
,selection is ,natural ,necessity4  ,yet
 n 9 ! und]/&+1 z su*1 b 9 ! reason1 is 
! reconciliation ( ! same ) w4 ,reason 9
 ! n>r[] s5se is a high] developm5t ( ! 
und]/&+1 con/itutes its completion &    
p]fection1 & presupposes a high degree (
 culture2 ?\gh 9 a wid] s5se1 z !       
half-unconsci\s modification ( !        
impulses by adju/m5t to ! ne$s ( !      
species1 x develops e>ly 9 man4 ,by x   
alone man becomes man 9 ! full s5se ( ! 
^w4 ,! activity ( ! m]e und]/&+ is an   
analytical1 t ( ! reason a syn!tical "o1
 ! return ( cold consci\sness to w>m    
feel+1 ( ab/ract m9d to concrete nature4
 ,tru? lies1 = ! reason1 9 ,totality2   

h5ce1 to x1 ! ,g5]al alone is           
compreh5sible4 ,x has to d1 n ) ab/ract 
concepts1 to :i* no?+ 9 ! realms ( !    
m5tal or physical corresponds1 b )      
concepts ( species1 concrete concepts1  
:i* we call1 9 di/9ction f ab/ract      
concepts1 ideas4 ,by ideas is n meant   
exi/5ces 9 ! ,platonic s5se1 b !        
,typical 9 species4  ,! impulse to      
happ9ess :i* arises ) consci\sness z    
?\ght & w1 calls itself ,i4 ,x is !     
individual :o1 ) e n]ve-cell & e drop ( 
blood1 attempts 8 own realization4 ,b   
all individuals are alike 9 ?is1 t !y   
rea*1 at la/1 a po9t :]e !y recognize ! 
fact t _! ego is b a mis]able half :i*  
ne$s a ,?\ to its completion4 ,9 ! union
 ( ! ,?\ & ! ,i1 ! fir/ ,i becomes a    
complete & p]fect ,i4 ,man & woman bo?  
realize t only toge!r d !y repres5t !   
:ole human be+4 ,i & ,?\ toge!r         
con/itute a ,we4 ,! ego rema9s aft]1 z  
be=e ! union1 ! axis ^u :i* ! :ole _w   
turns4 ,b ! egoism ( m]e und]/&+ is1 by 
a broad] ?\ght1 elevat$ to ! altruism ( 

reason4 ,z ! highe/ union ( ?\ght & w1 !
 reason becomes ,idea 9 & = itself1     
actual1 absolute ,idea4 ,) ! ,we 0 born 
! ,savi\r :o %\ld reconcile ! %>ply     
oppos$ factors ( awak+ consci\sness4 ,! 
light ( 8 gospel spread 9 wid] & wid]   
circles2 man & woman no long] beheld1   
ea*1 m]ely 8 own happ9ess 9 ! o!r2 !y   
saw _! mutual happ9ess 9 _! *ildr51 & _!
 own & _! *ildr5's happ9ess 9 fri5ds1 & 
_! own & _! *ildr5's & _! fri5ds'       
happ9ess 9 _! fell[-m54 ,! ,i ( ! reason
 is ! self-consci\s ,we4  ,! /ruggle =  
happ9ess has br\ght =?1 out ( !         
privileges & endeavors ( individuals1   
civilization 9 its pres5t =m4 ,want & ! 
necessity = labor h be5 ! spur to       
endeavor & advance4 ,?r\gh ! concepts ( 
ends & ( int5tion1 ! self-consci\s w    
fur!r evolv$ ideas1 :i* !mselves und]go 
a /ruggle 9 ! activities to :i* !y give 
rise2 & ?is is no long] ! /ruggle =     
exi/5ce1 b ! /ruggle = civilization4    
,!re are ?ree ,ideas :i*1 aris+ out ( ! 
ext5sion ( ! ,i to ,?\ & ,we1 are ! spr+

 ( all e?ical conceptions2 ^! are ,love1
 ,humanity1 & ,public ,_s4#ge ,love is !
 passion ( passions & is ! spr+ ( all   
capacity to altrui/ic emotion4 ,love is 
life 9 its highe/ degree2#gf & by !     
mann] 9 :i* a human be+ loves "o may "k 
:at mann] ( man he is1 & :at w be !     
nature ( 8 feel+s t[>ds 8 fell[-m5 9 o!r
 relations ( life4 ,a man's conduct     
t[>ds wom5 is ! sure/ te/ ( 8 "*4 ,t :i*
 ,sp5c] calls ,integration1 t :i* has   
creat$ all nature1 f ! fir/ g]m to !    
p]fect human be+1 &1 z pres]vative      
cell-labor1 /ill cont9ues to            
create1--?is inf9ite ,some?+ comes to   
consci\sness 9 ! human be+1 z ,love4 ,on
 ! l[e/ plane x c appe> only z simple   
impulse2 b :at1 develop+ f /age to /age1
 x c accompli%1 ! hi/ory ( ,love %[s u4 
,to ^! ?ree ideas ( ,love1 ,humanity 7or
 ,b5evol5ce71 & ,public ,_s correspond  
?ree outw>d ph5om5a1 :i* be> su*        
relation to !m 9 ! developm5t ( morality
 z ! body be>s to ! s\l4 ,^! are3 !     
,family1 ! ,/ate-=m1 & ! ,repres5tatives

 ( ,great ,ideas4 ,^! latt]1 ! m5 :o h  
be5 pione]s ( civilization1 we d n ne$  
to pity or reg>d z victims1 ?\gh life 0 
to !m a mighty /ruggle & a re/less      
labor2 9 _! suff]+ 0 _! pleasure2 & t   
:i* impell$ !m & compell$ !m to atta9 _!
 end 0 ! impulse to happ9ess4 ,!re9 lies
 ! wond]ful secret ( ! cl>ifi$ impulse  
to happ9ess1 t x f9ds its highe/        
satisfaction 9 itself4 ,su*             
repres5tatives ( great ideas are ^? 9   
:om ! species ov]comes ! individual1 &  
out ( ! species man ! species-man is    
develop$4 ,t :i* !y express is ! ,true1 
if only ! ,true =1 & 91 mank9d4 ,9 ?is  
lies _! wor?2 z wor? 9 ,sci5ce also1 & 9
 ! ,beautiful1 lies 9 ! tru? ( ! ,idea t
 is !re9 express$4 ,! ,true becomes     
practical 9 ! ,good4  ,! reason is ?us !
 fir/ condition ( happ9ess1 & fre$om ( !
 w lies 9 ! e?ical ennoblem5t ( reason1 
:i* is no?+ m nor less ?an ob$i5ce1 z ! 
total result ( all natural causes2 by x 
! individual is lo/ 9 ! species z a     
:ole4 ,?is e?ical height does n consi/ 9

 impulse1 b 9 ! self-consci\s activity (
 w4 ,its m5tal expression is an ,e?ical 
,s5se1 9 di/9ction f ! ,moral ,s5se ( ! 
,intuitioni/s4 ,?r\gh x man is at "o )  
himself z ) 8 k9d4  ,! ,e?ical ,s5se is 
n ! common prop]ty ( ! species4 ,j z x  
has1 h[ev]1 rea*$ expression 9 a few1 s 
x is m & m realiz$ 9 ! _m by ! process (
 evolution1 ?r\gh :i* a common w1       
purpose1 & good are necess>ily f9ally   
evolv$ f all /riv+ ( individual wills   
aft] happ9ess4 ,e?ical ideas arise z !  
result ( exp]i5ce1 & 9 !m man gradually 
atta9s reason4  ,= ! ,reason to :i*     
,love1 ,public ,_s1 & ,humanity are !   
natural elem5t1 ! ,g5]al 7,common7 z    
tru?1 is no empty conception1 b a       
promise ^: fulfilm5t is ! ,good & !     
,beautiful4 ,! fai?fulness ( ?is ,reason
 nev] sw]ves1 s9ce x dep5ds on no fe>1 b
 spr+s f ! cle>e/ conviction1 & !re=e is
 "o ) ! love :i* x feels & inspires4    
,its fri5d%ip is z /rong z x is         
unselfi%1 = x does n call any?+ fri5d%ip
 t is bas$ on o!r relations ?an ^? (    

m9d4 ,its g5]osity is always /r5g?1 its 
m]cy nev] weakness4 ,z f> z its p[]     
rea*es1 s f> & no f>!r d its remorse &  
pity ext5d2 = all passions :i* r$uce or 
dim ! activity ( ! s\l are unreasonable4
 ,! way to ! atta9m5t ( ! e?ical _s is  
pleasure1 :i* guides1 ?\gh x (t5        
misguides u2 =tunately1 on ! wrong pa?s 
we soon] or lat] meet ) pa91 :ile on !  
"r pa? we are ev] accompani$ by pleasure
 z transition f less to great]          
p]fection1 to quote ,sp9oza4 ,! feel+ ( 
,responsibility consi/s 9 ! s\l's       
recognition ( all its action & omission 
( action z its own1 & 9 ! c\rage to     
endure ! consequ5ces ( ^!4  ,! e?ical   
,ideal1 :i* ! e?ical imag9ation z       
sci5tific conceives1 is ! truly happy   
man1 ! man fully 9 h>mony ) himself4    
,?is idea is to be reg>d$ z a /> by :i* 
we are to %ape our c\rse1 n z an end to 
be fully atta9$4 ,?r\gh labor mank9d    
approa*es ?is ideal1 atta9s k f         
exp]i5ce1 & cl>ifies ! concept (        
happ9ess4 ,! ,i ext5ds itself to an ,i (

 mank9d1 s t ! individual1 9 mak+ self 8
 end1 comes to make ! :ole ( mank9d 8   
end4 ,! ideal _c be fully realiz$2 !    
happ9ess ( all _c be atta9$2 s t !re is 
always *oice betwe5 two evils1 nev]     
*oice ( p]fect good1 & x is necess>y to 
be cont5t ) ! greate/ good ( ! greate/  
numb] z pr9ciple ( action4  ,?is is an  
ideal :i* is actually & necess>ily      
evolv$4 ,b5evol5ce has become m g5]al1 &
 has atta9$ a degree n conceiv$ ( 9 =m] 
times4 ,! ideal ( a happy humanity has  
ga9$ def9ite outl9es1 & has become an   
e>ne/ aim t[>ds :i* we /e] ) fill+      
sails4 ,! end is n to be rea*$ by =ce1  
:i* br+s 9 its tra9 evil t _c be gott5  
rid ( = g5]ations1 b mu/ be atta9$ )9 ! 
b\nds prescrib$ by ! /ate1 ?r\gh        
education & increase ( intellig5ce4 ,nor
 c ! /ate decl>e & ensure happ9ess2 !   
duties ( ! /ate are *iefly negative1 z  
,b5?am has said4 ,ea* individual        
sacrifices a portion ( 8 happ9ess 9 ord]
 t ! re/ may be secur$ to him by ! /ate2
 ! fir/-nam$ "p comprises 8 duties1 !   

re/ con/itutes 8 rights2 ! (fice ( !    
/ate is to hold ea* to 8 duties & secure
 to ea* 8 rights4 ,!re is no p]fect     
/ate1 j z !re is no p]fectly good       
individual2 b !re is progress 9 /ates z 
9 individuals4  ,! m]ely ,useful c nev] 
furni% a full solution ( ! problem (    
,e?ics1 any m ?an ,ma!matics & ,me*anics
 or ,physics & ,physiology c d s4 ,!    
,p]fect is mu* m ?an ! m]ely ,useful4   
,sp5c] f9ds ! condition ( happ9ess 9 !  
ex]cise ( function4 ,b he reg>ds        
happ9ess z ! f9al end ( morality1 :ile1 
accord+ to our sy/em1 ! latt] is !      
product ( ! =m]4  ,c>n]i aga9 pleads1 9 
?is book1 = ! l "r ( woman ) man to     
m5tal culture1 & to labor :i* %all make 
h] indep5d5t ( ! caprice ( man2 ! good (
 ! family alone to be reg>d$ z ! limit+ 
factor4  ,! ext5t ( ,c>n]i's "w on !    
subject ( ,e?ics makes x impossible to  
consid] m9or po9ts ( 8 !ory1 su* z are  
includ$1 = in/ance1 9 8 criticism (     
,h>tmann1 ( ,s*op5hau]1 ,feu]ba*1 &     
o!rs2 or to def9e m cle>ly ?an has be5  

done 8 relation to ,sp9oza1 ,kant1      
,hegel1 etc4 ,8 book ,entwicklung und   
,glueckseligkeit1 publi%$ 9 #ahhf1 is a 
collection ( essays :i* fir/ appe>$     
sep>ately 9 ,kosmos1 & :i*1 z su*1 d n  
hold to ea* o!r ! relation ( p>ts ( an  
organic :ole4 ,!y are *iefly a          
recapitulation ( ! views already        
express$ 9 ! ,grundlegung d] ,e?ik1 ) "s
 ext5sions & possibly "s                
modifications2--^! la/1 h[ev]1 *iefly ( 
an extrane\s "*4 ,9 ^! essays ,c>n]i    
dem&s a sy/ematic moral tra9+ 9 ! common
 s*ool1 to ! end ( ! developm5t (       
consci5ce1 su* tra9+ to be non-religi\s1
 ?\gh n anti-religi\s except+ 9 case !  
religion itself be se5 to transgress !  
laws ( "r e/abli%$ by humane reason2 he 
prote/s aga9/ ! error ( ,mat]ialism1 z  
likewise aga9/ t ( ! ,apriori/s & !     
,ideologi/s or ,ideali/s 9 ! n>r[] s5se 
( ! ^w2 & he reaffirms1 def9es1 & fur!r 
def5ds 8 /&po9t z t ( a ,real-ideali/2 t
 is1 ( "o to :om ,kant is ! po9t (      
dep>ture 9 a f>!r evolution ( !ory4 ,he 

reaffirms ! on5ess ( ! univ]se1 s ( man 
) nature1 re/ates ! self-id5tity ( !    
individual 9 w & ?\ght1 limits ! k ( man
 to nature z x is = u1 b inve/s x )     
c]ta9ty )9 ^! b\nds1 & reass]ts !       
necessity ( ! progress ( ! :ole ?r\gh ! 
ef=ts ( ! _m = happ9ess4 ,he lays fur!r 
/ress ^u ! abs5ce ( morality1 n only    
among ! animals1 9 :om at lea/ g5]al    
e?ical feel+s1 9 di/9ction f ^? t[>ds   
individuals1 are n f\nd1 b also among   
savages2 morality be+ n ! inc5tive to1 b
 ! product ( ! /ate4 ,f ?is /&po9t1 he  
combats ,socialism z propos+ impossible 
ideals1 s9ce x presupposes e?ically     
p]fect m5 z gov]n+ & be+ gov]n$ by !    
laws1 & s9ce x disposes ( ! fre$om ( !  
individual4 ,! !ory ( compulsion reckons
 )\t ! w ( man z he is & mu/ be4 ,man   
has no primordial rights 7except1       
p]haps1 ! "r to get & keep all he c72 he
 has only rights t he has ga9$ by ! help
 ( ! /ate4 ,!re is no "o comm&m5t 9 :i* 
man's :ole duty may be express$1 unless 
x be1 p]haps1 "s su* new r5d]+ ( ,kant's

 words z ?is3 ,act always 9 su* a mann] 
t ! maxims ( ?y w might be tak5 z !     
pr9ciple by :i* to r5d] happy ! greate/ 
possible numb] ( human be+s4 ,b ?is c   
nev] become a categorical imp]ative =   
all m54 ,morality lies 9 ! ,w to ,good1 
:i* becomes 9 ! moral1 or accord+ to    
,c>n]i's phrase1 ! e?ical man1 a second 
nature3 8 s5se ( duty is joy 9 duty1    
highe/ satisfaction ( 8 desire =        
happ9ess4 ,x might p]haps be claim$ t   
,c>n]i1 9 8 !ory ( ! ,consci5ce1 has 9  
?is book laid m /ress on feel+ ?an 9 8  
o!rs2 h[ev]1 x is to be recollect$ t1 ) 
him1 ?\ght & feel+ are no di/9ct        
faculties1 b t consci5ce means less an  
impulse unconsci\s ( f9al ends ?an a    
self-consci\s attitude or read9ess ( ! w
 z ! result ( conviction4  ,c>n]i's     
late/ book1 ,die ,leb5sfuehrung des     
mod]n5 ,m5s*5 7#ahia71 is practical r   
?an !oretical1 a consid]ation ( g5]al   
problems & rules ( action4  ,,footnotes3
  #fe ,wirkli*4  #ff ,/(fli*keit2 by ?is
 ^w ,c>n]i designates das ,geme9same    

all] ,geg5/a5dli*keit4  #fg ,an si*     
autonom1 unt]wirft si* das ,leb5 d5     
,cesetz51 die aus d] allgeme95          
,entwicklung si* ergeb54  #fh           
,dase9/rieb4  #fi ,pp4 #aab1 #aac4  #gj 
,dunkle ,triebe4  #ga ,affecte4  #gb    
,wid]spru*slosigkeit4  #gc ,entspre*5d4 
#gd ,g$ank5loses ,d5k54  #ge ,geme9s9n  
od] ,geme+ei/1 pp4 #cdj1 #daj4 ,c>n]i   
expla9s ?is ^w z equival5t to ! ,engli% 
common-s5se1 b def9es ! latt] z feel+ = 
! g5]al1 ! univ]sal4  #gf ,pot5z4       
,,h>ald ,h,oe,f,f,d,i,n,g  ,,e?ics      
7,e?ik1 #ahhg7   ,e?ical judgm5ts conta9
 an e/imate ( ! wor? ( human actions4 ,e
 su* e/imate presupposes ! exi/5ce ( a  
ne$1 a feel+ :i* spurs u on to ! judgm5t
 ( ! action1 z also ! exi/5ce ( a /&>d1 
an ideal1 accord+ to :i* we judge4 ,!   
motive to ! e?ical judgm5t may be call$ 
! basis ( ,e?ics4 ,! /&>d involv$ 9 !   
e?ical judgm5t det]m9es ! cont5t (      
,e?ics1 9 t x decides :i* actions1 :i*  
directions & modes ( life1 are to be    
call$ good 9 ! e?ical s5se4 ,! e?ical   

basis is ! subjective1 ! /&>d !         
objective1 pr9ciple 9 ,e?ics2 ! "* ( an 
e?ical conception dep5ds ^u ?is         
presuppos$ basis1 ! appli$ /&>d1 & !    
relation betwe5 ! two4  ,! feel+s &     
impulses ( ! individual are n only      
influ5c$ by 8 own exp]i5ce1 b be> also a
 "* d]iv$ f ! exp]i5ce ( ! :ole species2
 h5ce ! e?ical judgm5ts deliv]$ by !    
individual are ! result ( ! :ole        
exp]i5ce ( 8 k9d4 ,x is by virtue ( ?is 
circum/ance t ! e?ical sy/em ( !        
individual ga9s its p[]2 z e?ics ( !    
species1 x is a condition ( ! heal? &   
vitality ( human life4  ,?is actual     
work+ ,e?ics ( ! species & ( life has   
be5 nam$ ,positive ,morality4 ,su*      
,positive ,morality manife/s itself 9 ! 
e-day judgm5ts & pr9ciples ( m51 (t5 9 !
 =m ( prov]bs1 & may express ei!r !     
endur+ worldly wisdom ( a nation1 a     
tribe1 or a religi\s society1 or ! less 
endur+ public op9ion ( a c5tury or an   
epo*4  ,is x well to treat su* ,positive
 ,morality to a criticism1 :i*1 ar\s+1 z

 x mu/1 d\bts & que/ions1 w int]f]e ) ! 
c]ta9ty & en]gy ( action t *>act]ize    
unreflect+ in/9ct8 ,is x well to exam9e 
! pr9ciples ( su* a sy/em f a sci5tific 
/&po9t8 ,we may answ]3 ,life itself     
leads naturally to su* que/ion+s2 only  
:]e ! view is n>r[ & ! problems simple  
is !re full security f d\bt4 ,) ! gr[? (
 exp]i5ce beg9s a comp>ison ( ! diff]5t 
laws & ideals1 ! diff]+ in/itutions (   
diff]5t epo*s & peoples ( :i* "o le>ns2 
or new exp]i5ce pres5ts problems :i* _c 
be solv$ by means ( ! sy/em h&$ d[n2 or 
! individual seeks "s ord]ly arrangem5t 
( ! great multiplicity ( e?ical judgm5ts
 :i* he himself pron\nces or he>s o!rs  
pron\nce1 = ! purpose ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 
! m & ! less important ones4 ,x is      
c]ta9ly a s]i\s po9t 9 an individual's  
or a nation's developm5t :5 reflection &
 criticism beg92 b :]e life leads       
naturally to su* que/ion+s1 we mu/ ei!r 
f9d "s answ] to !m or else "s reason :y 
!y %all n be answ]$4 ,moreov]1 x is to  
be notic$ t c]ta9ty & =ce ( action are n

 absolute ,goods4 ,! greate/ en]gy may  
take a mo/ disa/r\s direction1 & mu/ !n 
be *eck$4 ,to a new & bett] insight1 :5 
atta9$1 "o mu/ endeavor to secure all ! 
en]gy possible4 ,all evolution consi/s 9
 ! div]sion ( en]gy f l[] to high] ends4
  ,a sci5tific sy/em ( ,e?ics does n1 & 
_c1 take ! place ( ,positive ,morality2 
x only supplies ! latt] ) a basis (     
reason1 broad5s1 & develops x4 ,su* a   
sci5tific sy/em only endeavors to       
discov] 9 accordance ) :at pr9ciples we 
direct our life1 & to secure = ^!1 :5   
asc]ta9$1 great] cle>ness & inn] h>mony4
 ,9 ! m5tal life ( ! human be+1 a       
cont9u\s action & reaction ( ! consci\s 
& ! unconsci\s takes place1 z well z (  
p]ception1 feel+1 & w4 ,:at is won 9 !  
"o prov9ce may pr(it ! o!rs also4  ,two 
tasks ( ,sci5tific ,e?ics1 z ,hi/orical 
,e?ics & z ,philosophical ,e?ics1 are to
 be di/+ui%$4 ,hi/orical ,e?ics has to d
 ) ! description & explanation ( !      
developm5t ( ,positive ,morality4       
,philosophical ,e?ics has to decide ^u !

 wor? ( ! v>i\s =ms assum$ by ! latt]4  
,philosophical ,e?ics is a practical    
sci5ce1 & is bas$ ^u ! supposition t we 
set ourselves ends :i* may be rea*$     
?r\gh human action4 ,e e?ical judgm5t   
presupposes su* an end1 = feel+ is set 9
 motion by ! sight or ! ?\ght ( an act  
only :5 ! latt] promotes1 or /&s 9 ! way
 ( some?+1 ! exi/5ce & success ( :i* are
 desir$ by u4 ,n all t is develop$ z    
practical morality c be pron\nc$ good4  
,on ! o!r h&1 cu/oms :i* 7 at fir/      
assum$ f motives :i* mu/ be condemn$ by 
,philosophical ,e?ics1 may yet prove    
!mselves good1 & may be practis$1 lat]1 
f high] motives2 & su* cu/oms _c !n be  
condemn$ on acc\nt ( _! orig94 ,h5ce1   
,philosophical ,e?ics is bo? cons]vative
 & radical2 x respects no?+ simply      
because x exi/s2 b s9ce x endeavors to  
furni% guidance beyond pres5t /&>ds1 x  
attempts to %[ h[ t :i* has be5 develop$
 hi/orically may be giv5 new =ms & ?us  
us$ = fur!r progress4 ,x is difficult1 f
 a broad] view1 to di/+ui% p]fectly     

betwe5 ,hi/orical & ,philosophical      
,e?ics2 ! hi/orian has an ideal :i* he  
applies m or less 9 8 rese>*es2 & !     
philosoph] 9 ,e?ics is m or less rul$ by
 ! prevail+ op9ions ( 8 "t4 ,?is        
necessitates a cont9ual re-discussion ( 
problems4 ,yet x does n prev5t !        
exi/5ce1 9 any sy/em1 ( la/+ pr9ciples  
among ! less endur+ ones4  ,!ological   
,e?ics is directly oppos$ to ,hi/orical 
,e?ics z well z to ,philosophical       
,e?ics4 ,x builds ^u tradition1 ^u tru? 
z some?+ hi/orically reveal$4 ,s f>1 x  
might appe> z if ,!ological ,e?ics 7    
relat$ to ,hi/orical ,e?ics4 ,b ! sy/em 
( ! =m] does n recognize ! me?od (      
sci5tific rese>*1 s9ce ! revelation on  
:i* x is bas$ is due1 accord+ to its    
doctr9e1 to an int]position (           
sup]natural =ces n to be expla9$ by !   
physical1 psy*ological1 & social laws t 
s]ve z ! f\ndation ( hi/orical sci5ce4  
,x dem&s a unique position = its        
hi/orical basis1 & ass]ts t ?is mu/ be  
look$ at 9 an entirely diff]5t light f t

 9 :i* ! re/ ( ! hi/ory ( ! _w is       
reg>d$4 ,x appe>s to approa*            
,philosophical ,e?ics 9 in/itut+ an     
exam9ation ( ! wor? ( hi/oric acts &    
modes ( life4 ,b x und]takes ?is        
exam9ation1 n accord+ to any pr9ciple t 
c be f\nd 9 nature1 b f ! po9t ( view ( 
a sup]natural revelation ( an ideal4    
,its f\ndation is an absolute pr9ciple (
 ,au?ority2 its good is t :i* is ,god's 
w4 ,b h[ is ! individual to be sure z to
 :at1 9 ! s+le case1 is ,god's w8 ,by ! 
inw>d te/imony8 ,h[ is he to di/+ui%    
c]ta9ly betwe5 su* & 8 own natural      
?\ghts & feel+s2 :at means ( di/9ction c
 be appli$8 ,9 pass+ ?us to ! prov9ce ( 
,psy*ology1 we assume a human means (   
di/9ction1 & ! pr9ciple ( ,au?ority     
loses its =ce4 ,or if x be said t we    
%\ld receive ?is pr9ciple ( ,au?ority   
because x answ]s to a ne$ ( our nature1 
we may ask h[ we "k t ! ne$ is "o t %\ld
 be satisfi$8 ,its m]e exi/5ce _c       
gu>antee t4 ,or h[1 !n1 are we to       
di/+ui% :i* ( o!r wi%es & ne$s ( our    

nature %\ld1 & :i* %\ld n1 be gratifi$8 
,is ! pr9ciple ( ,au?ority to decide    
?is8 ,!n we argue 9 a circle4  ,a simil>
 circle is adopt$ by su* !ologians z    
attempt to comb9e ! two ass]tions3 ,!   
good is good because ,god wills x2 &    
,god wills x because x is good4 ,if !   
good is id5tical ) ,god's w1 ?is means t
 he wills x because x is 8 w2 if he1    
h[ev]1 fir/ recognizes some?+ z good1 & 
!re=e wills x1 !n 8 w b[s to a law &    
rule1 & is n1 9 itself1 ! cause :]eby ! 
,good is good4  ,h we n1 z a fact1      
already brok5 ) ! absolute pr9ciple (   
,au?ority z soon z we beg9 to reflect1  
to endeavor to br+ ! v>i\s comm&m5ts (  
,au?ority into h>mony ) ea* o!r1 ?us    
apply+ ! measure ( our own reason to !m8
  ,b x is n ^! inn] contradictions alone
 :i* h9d] ,philosophical ,e?ics f mak+  
use ( !ological assumptions2 t :i* has  
call$ ,philosophical ,e?ics into exi/5ce
 & l5ds x int]e/1 is ! conviction t !   
ultimate reason ( ! e?ical mu/ lie 9 man
 himself4 ,h[ev] l(ty may be ! ideal1 x 

c become man's ideal only ?r\gh 8 own   
recognition ( x z ideal4 ,= ?is reason  
,socrates 0 ! f\nd] ( ,e?ics by ! comm&3
 ,"k ?yself6 ,9 ?is comm& is express$ ! 
pr9ciple ( free inve/igation1 ! opposite
 to t ( bl9d ob$i5ce4 ,! desire to make 
,e?ics z f> z possible indep5d5t (      
assailable assumptions is likewise      
active 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( a sy/em (       
,philosophical ,e?ics4  ,9 ! great1     
sometimes too great1 reg>d paid to !    
di/9ction betwe5 ! subjective & !       
objective wor? ( actions1 & ! conte/ z  
to ! relative importance ( ! two        
factors1 ! fact is (t5 ov]look$1 t !    
/&>d by :i* e?ical judgm5t is pron\nc$  
is itself ( subjective nature4 ,! "q    
arises z to :]e=e we seek a g5]al &     
objective /&>d4  ,x is a fact t human   
be+s reflect ^u _! own acts1 pron\nc+   
!m1 accord+ to ! result ( ?is           
reflection1 good or bad4 ,h[ are su*    
judgm5ts z ^! possible8  ,we w suppose1 
fir/1 ! simple/ conceivable case1       
namely1 t ! act+ subject pron\nces      

judgm5t on 8 own act )\t consid]ation ( 
! exi/5ce ( o!r be+s4 ,su* a judgm5t mu/
 presuppose memory2 b x presupposes     
some?+ m1 namely pa9 or pleasure ?r\gh  
memory2 an end is aim$ at only because !
 ?\ght ( a result causes pleasure4 ,9 ! 
simple case suppos$1 ! feel+ :i*        
det]m9es ! end c be only t ( !          
individual himself1 & ! latt] w judge ! 
act z good or bad accord+ z x has       
affect$ 8 own life4 ,! "* & significance
 ( ! judgm5t w dep5d on :e!r ! feel+ (  
pa9 or pleasure is det]m9$ only by !    
s+le mom5t or has ref]5ce to ! life ( ! 
individual z a :ole4 ,! l[] ! life (    
consci\sness1 ! m isolat$ & indep5d5t   
are ! s+le mom5ts ( "t 9 relation to ea*
 o!r1 & ! less is ! significance ( !    
memory & ! ?\ght ( ! ego z a :ole       
embrac+ ! s+le mom5ts ) _! cont5t4 ,only
 a half-unconsci\s in/9ct h9d]s !       
individual f los+ himself 9 ! mom5t2 !  
in/9ct ( self-pres]vation leads him to  
consid] ! future & to make use ( !      
exp]i5ce ( ! pa/4 ,! m he loses himself 

9 ! mom5t1 ! less is ! p[] ( judgm5t1   
s9ce comp>ison & action & reaction ( !  
diff]5t /ates _c take place4 ,! s+le    
mom5t be>s to all o!rs ! relation ( an  
absolute egoi/1 :o does n wi% to        
rel9qui% any "p ( its satisfaction = _! 
advantage4  ,& "h we may p]ceive !      
possibility ( a /&po9t ^u :i* all       
judgm5t is disp5s$ )4 ,su* a /&po9t is  
repres5t$ by ,ari/ippus ( ,cyr5e1 :o    
ass]ts ! sov]eignty ( ! mom5t4 ,x is n  
)\t its ju/ification4 ,e?ics itself mu/ 
%[ cause = ! rel9qui%m5t ( !            
satisfaction ( ! mom5t 9 favor ( o!r    
mom5ts4  ,if ! pr9ciple ( ! sov]eignty (
 ! mom5t c\ld be practically c>ri$ out1 
no reason+ c\ld ov]?r[ x4 ,h[ev]1 !re c 
sc>cely be a consci\s individual 9 :om  
!re are n in/9cts & impulses :i* rea*   
beyond ! mom5t4 ,:5 a mom5t>y /ate (    
feel+1 z ! effect ( an act ( ! subject1 
comes toge!r 9 consci\sness ) ! feel+   
det]m9$ by ! conception ( ! life z      
totality 7! result ( memory &           
comp>ison71 a new feel+ arises :i* is   

ei!r "o ( h>mony or "o ( discord4 ,!    
/&>d by :i* judgm5t is pron\nc$ is      
det]m9$ by ?is feel+4 ,! capacity = su* 
feel+s is consci5ce1 z ?is may manife/  
itself 9 entirely isolat$ individuals4  
,consci5ce1 9 ! broade/ s5se ( ! ^w1 is 
a feel+ ( relations1 & requires only a  
relation betwe5 c5tral & p]iph]al       
feel+s1--feel+s ( wid]1 & feel+s ( n>r[]
 ?\ght-connection4 ,! s+le mom5t & !    
s+le act are judg$ accord+ to _! wor? z 
p>ts ( ! individual life z totality4  ,&
 "h ! individual is confront$ by !      
necessity ( br++ ! s+le p>ts ( 8 life   
into h>mony4 ,! problem is c]ta9ly nev] 
solv$ by any individual involunt>ily4 ,!
 e/imation ( e>li] acts accord+ to !    
assi/ance !y give 9 ?is task is1 !re=e1 
at ?is po9t1 ( great importance to !    
individual4 ,! judgm5t pron\nc$ is ?us n
 only made possible ?r\gh ! c5tral feel+
 :i* corresponds to ! life z totality1 b
 is det]m9$ by x4 ,an acute s5se = t :i*
 b5efits ! individual life ^: s+le      
memb]s are ! mom5ts1 is a condition ( ! 

cont9uance & developm5t ( ! life2 x is a
 high] sort ( in/9ct ( self-pres]vation1
 & ne$ n be conf9$ to ! cont9uance (    
physical life1 b may also ref] to !     
ideal ne$s4  ,& "h we come ^u ! /&po9t (
 ,individuali/ic ,e?ics4 ,f su* a       
/&po9t1 ! problem is to det]m9e1 n only 
h[ mu* en]gy may be us$ 9 ! s+le mom5ts 
( "t1 b also 9 :at mann] x %\ld be us$ 9
 ord] to secure z great v>iety &        
_m-sid$ness z may be consi/5t ) !       
int]e/s ( ! life z totality4 ,nor are ! 
int]e/s ( ! life to be summ$ up 9       
physical self-pres]vation2 ! individual 
acquires1 9 ! natural c\rse ( ?+s1      
int]e/s ( increas$ ideality &           
complexity1 ?r\gh :i* ! life ga9s 9     
cont5t4  ,! e?ical law1 f ! /&po9t (    
,individualism1 is express$ by a =mula  
:i* requires h>moni\s relation betwe5 ! 
int]e/ ( ! life z totality & ! impulse (
 ! mom5t2 x consi/s ( two *ief m&ates3  
7#a7 ,! s+le in/ant %\ld h no great]    
indep5d5ce ?an corresponds to its       
significance 9 ! life z totality2 7#b7  

b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! s+le mom5ts %\ld be z 
ri*ly & int5sely liv$ z is consi/5t ) ! 
pres]vation ( ! life's totality4  ,(    
,individualism1 or ! pr9ciple ( !       
,sov]eignty ( ! ,individual1 ! same is  
true z ( ! sov]eignty ( ! mom5t1 t no   
reason+ c ov]?r[ x2 if ! individual     
recognizes no end b 8 own life1 !re is  
no logical way ( transition to ano!r    
/&po9t4 ,a *ange ( aim c take place only
 ?r\gh su* a *ange 9 ! c5tral feel+s :i*
 det]m9e ! /&>d ( ! individual t a wid] 
circle ( conceptions ent] into 8        
reflections4 ,until ?is takes place1 !re
 is no use 9 appeal+ to consci5ce4  ,!  
sci5ce ( ,e?ics has (t5 claim$ to be a  
sci5ce ( pure reason4 ,?is claim is     
oppos$ to its "* z a practical sci5ce1  
s9ce action c be judg$ only accord+ to !
 ends x _h 9 view1 & ends presuppose    
feel+s ( pa9 & pleasure4 ,on ! o!r h&1  
!re is1 9 ! m]e capacity = pa9 &        
pleasure1 no limitation ( ! ext5t ( !   
circle ( conceptions ) :i* ! feel+s (   
pa9 & pleasure are connect$4            

,individualism c be c>ri$ out 9 practice
 only approximately2 ! individual has 8 
orig9 9 ! species1 & lives 8 :ole life z
 a "p ( ! life ( 8 k9d1 ) an            
organization 9 :i* ! results ( ! action 
& passion ( e>li] g5]ations are inh]it$1
 & 9 a m5tal atmosph]e :i* has induc$ ! 
developm5t ( 8 species4 ,& j z ! in/9ct 
( self-pres]vation did away ) !         
isolation ( ! s+le mom5ts ( ! individual
 life1 becom+1 ?us1 ! basis ( feel+s    
det]m9$ by ! int]e/s ( ! life z         
totality1 s ! sympa!tic in/9cts d away )
 ! isolation ( ! s+le individuals &     
det]m9e ! conditions ( ! life ( !       
species 9 ! m9ds ( its individuals4 ,!  
mo/ primitive =m ( ! sympa!tic in/9cts  
is exhibit$ 9 ! family4 ,"h1 h[ev] loose
 & v>iable ! relation ( man & wife may  
be1 t ( "m & *ild _c1 by its nature1 be 
done away ) or ess5tially *ang$4 ,9 ?is 
case1 ! sympa!tic feel+ spr+s imm$iately
 f ! natural in/9ct1 & ! relation is !  
nucleus :i* makes possible ! high] =ms (
 family life4 ,9 ! family circle1 !     

sympa!tic feel+s are cultivat$1 & arrive
 at su* /r5g? t !y come to include ev]  
wid] & wid] circles ( human be+s4       
,inde$1 ! "m-love rema9s =ev] ! image & 
crit]ion ( all sympa?y1 z well 9 respect
 to /r5g? z to purity4  ,:5 sympa?y has 
rea*$ full purity1 x is a feel+ ( pa9 or
 pleasure det]m9$ by ! fact t o!r be+s  
feel pa9 or pleasure4 ,! mo/ important  
po9t ( its developm5t 0 :5 x s broad5$ z
 to include all mank9d4 ,! ,p]ipatetic &
 ! ,/oic s*ools ( ,greek philosophy l$  
to ?is idea ( love to all humanity & !  
natural union ( all m5 9 "o great       
society4 ,b ?is idea acquir$ great]     
hi/oric importance :5 x became a *ief   
comm&m5t ( a great religion1--(         
,*ri/ianity4 ,to ?is sympa!tic feel+ !  
crit]ion ( good & evil is no long] to be
 f\nd 9 ! individual life1 b is dep5d5t 
on ! life ( ! :ole society ( :i* !      
individual is a memb]4  ,yet sympa?y is 
n1 f ?is /&po9t1 id5tical ) ! e?ical    
feel+1 consci5ce4 ,consci5ce is "h1 too1
 a feel+ ( relations det]m9$ by !       

relation betwe5 ! rul+ or c5tral feel+ (
 ! individual & ! results ( action4 ,:5 
! individual feels 8 own int]e/s        
subord9ate to ! good ( ! :ole ( :i*1    
?r\gh sympa?y1 he reg>ds himself z a "p1
 ! e?ical feel+ appe>s z ! feel+ ( duty4
 ,a feel+ ( duty may be spok5 (1        
likewise1 f ! /&po9t ( pure             
,individualism1 = ! concept ( duty      
expresses only ! relation ( a l[]1 n>r[]
 consid]ation to a high]2 & ?is is      
repres5t$1 9 ,individualism1 by !       
relation ( ! s+le mom5ts to ! life z a  
:ole4  ,f ano!r po9t ( view1 ! e?ical   
feel+ appe>s1 9 its high] developm5t1 z 
! feel+ ( ju/ice1 :i*1 :ile reg>d+ !    
good ( ! :ole z ! *ief end1 consid]s    
also ! peculi>ities ( individuals4      
,sympa?y 9 its active =m is impulse to  
%>e4 ,?is %>+ mu/ be c>ri$ out accord+  
to fix$ pr9ciples2 :]e sympa?y is       
univ]sal1 diff]5ces ( division c be     
ju/ifi$ only by ! fact t ! ,goods       
divid$1 if o!rwise divid$1 w\ld n be 9 s
 high a degree ,goods to ^? to :om !y   

rev]t$1 or w\ld n conduce to s great    
progress ( ! society z a :ole4 ,! e?ical
 law ^u ?is /&po9t1 ! /&po9t ( ,humane  
,e?ics1 c be no o!r z to cont5t1 ?an t  
action %all conduce to ! greate/        
possible welf>e & ! greate/ possible    
progress ( ! greate/ possible numb] (   
consci\s be+s2 & ?is law includes two   
*ief m&ates1 a negative & a positive    
m&ate3 7#a7 ,! individual may n receive 
m ?an befits ! position :i*1 9          
consequ5ce ( 8 peculi> qualities1 he    
occupies among 8 k9d2 7#b7 b1 on ! o!r  
h&1 ! capacities & impulses ( e         
individual %all be z fully & ri*ly      
develop$ & satisfi$ z is consi/5t ) !   
dem&s ( ! life ( ! species z a :ole4 ,^!
 two m&ates foll[ ) logical necessity f 
! concept ( society z a multiplicity (  
consci\s be+s unit$ into "o :ole4 ,x is 
contr>y to ! unity ( society1 t an      
individual1 or t individuals1 %\ld be   
wilfully pref]r$ to o!rs2 e exceptional 
position mu/ be ju/ifi$ by ! dem&s ( !  
g5]al conditions ( life2 on ! o!r h&1 a 

society is ! m p]fect ! m freely & m    
indep5d5tly ! s+le memb]s move1 & ! l>g]
 ! numb] ( diff]5t possibilities x      
realizes1 if1 at ! same "t1 unity is    
pres]v$ & atta9s an ev] high] "* & ev]  
increas+ validity4  ,:5 ! e?ical feel+  
develops1 ^u ! basis ( sympa?y1 to !    
feel+ ( duty & ju/ice1 ! pr9ciple       
includ$ 9 ! above law becomes ! /&>d    
accord+ to :i* ! individual judges 8 own
 actions z well z ^? ( o!rs1 & pron\nces
 !m good or bad4 ,! good is t :i*       
pres]ves & develops ! welf>e ( consci\s 
be+s4  ,! e?ical pr9ciple n[ arriv$ at  
applies to ! de$s ( consci\s be+s1      
presuppos+ an end 9 view4 ,unconsci\s   
nature affects man's life1 b its work+s 
h no e?ical "*4 ,! e?ical judgm5t is    
itself det]m9$ by ! pr9ciple on :i* x is
 pron\nc$1 & h5ce x s]ves to produce    
great] welf>e4 ,?is is especially to be 
se5 :]e ! judg+ & ! act+ individual are 
"o & ! same p]son2 9 o!r cases1 x       
becomes a special problem to br+ ! act+ 
individual to ! recognition ( !         

pr9ciple2 ?is is a problem (            
psy*ologic-p$agogical nature4  ,! ^w    
welf>e is us$ 9 pref]5ce to utility or  
happ9ess 9 ord] to prev5t misund]/&+1 & 
may be def9$ z includ+ all t s]ves to   
satisfy ! ne$s ( man's nature4 ,e?ics   
mu/ take into consid]ation all !        
gradations ( life1 & _c1 !re=e1 di/+ui% 
9 ! beg9n+ betwe5 out] & inn]1 high] &  
l[]1 welf>e4 ,su* a di/9ction is already
 an e?ical judgm5t1 & c be made only    
aft] det]m9ation ( ! e?ical crit]ion4   
,ano!r mi/ake is ! /ress (t5 laid ^u    
mom5t>y feel+s ( pa9 & pleasure4 ,pa9   
signifies1 x is true1 ! beg9n+ ( !      
dis9tegration ( life1 & pleasure its    
normal & h>moni\s developm5t2 yet ea*   
mu/ be consid]$ 9 its relation to ! :ole
 consci\sness1 ! :ole "*1 & ! :ole      
social /ate4 ,s-call$ utilit>ianism has 
injur$ its own cause by resolv+         
consci\sness into a sum ( feel+s1 &     
society into a collection ( individuals4
 ,! significance ( s+le feel+s ( pa9 &  
pleasure = ! welf>e ( society _c be     

det]m9$ z if ! problem 7 a simple       
ari?metical "o4  ,! reason+ (           
,philosophical ,e?ics mu/ n be confus$ )
 practical reflection4 ,9 ! la/ we are  
l$ by in/9cts & impulses1 by motives (  
:i* we are1 = ! mo/ "p1 :olly           
unconsci\s1 by ?\ghts & feel+s ! fir/   
orig9 ( :i* we _c designate4 ,we foll[ !
 positive morality to :i* we h accu/om$ 
ourselves & :i* is1 9 "p1 an inh]itance 
( our species4 ,e?ics z an art prec$es  
,e?ics z a sci5ce2 ! aim ( ! latt] is   
p>tly to %[ by :at pr9ciples ! =m] is   
guid$1 & p>tly to correct ^! pr9ciples4 
,! e?ical pr9ciple broad5s out1 ?us1 f !
 s+le mom5t ( ! individual life until x 
embraces ! :ole ( mank9d2 b !re are _m  
po9ts 9 ! c\rse ( ! developm5t at :i* we
 c make a /&1 & !re may1 !re=e1 be z _m 
philosophical sy/ems z !re are l>g] or  
small] totalities4 ,! position ( ! man  
:o holds fa/ consi/5tly to a pr9ciple t 
det]m9es ! crit]ion by ! family1 ! ca/e1
 ! nation1 a sect1 z highe/ totality1 is
 z unassailable z we h se5 t ( !        

individuali/ to be4 ,!                  
psy*ologic-hi/orical evolution alone c  
br+ u1 ?r\gh ! *anges :i* x produces 9 !
 feel+s1 beyond ^! crit]ions4 ,9 o!r    
words1 e crit]ion has a                 
psy*ologic-hi/orical basis4 ,he :o is to
 recognize & c>ry out practically !     
pr9ciple ( ! greate/ possible welf>e1   
mu/ be no egoi/ or individuali/1 no     
fanatical patriot or sect>ian2 ?is is ! 
subjective condition necess>y to !      
objective pr9ciple4 ,! consci5ce :i* is 
to be regulat$ by ! objective pr9ciple  
is always itself ! condition ( !        
recognition ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,a sy/em :i*
 leaves ?is fact out ( consid]ation     
takes on a dogmatic "*4 ,! basis ( all  
e?ical judgm5ts is feel+4 ,by ?is is n  
meant1 h[ev]1 t ! /&po9t ( an individual
 _c be influ5c$ by argum5t2 ! feel+s are
 always connect$ ) concepts1 &          
discussion ( ^! concepts is bo? possible
 & mu/ react ^u !m ev5 if only v        
gradually4  ,consci5ce is n infallible 9
 its application ( ! objective pr9ciple2

 a wid] exp]i5ce may %[ x to h err$4    
,consci5ce is highe/ au?ority1 b /ill an
 au?ority :i* may cont9ually p]fect     
itself4 ,! objective pr9ciple makes     
possible ! mutual correction ( diff]5t  
consci5ces & ! self-correction ( !      
consci5ce ( ! individual ?r\gh          
self-judgm5t4  ,! diff]5ce betwe5       
,subjective ,e?ics & ,objective ,e?ics1 
z "h expla9$1 does n co9cide ) !        
diff]5ce betwe5 ,individual ,e?ics &    
,social ,e?ics4 ,objective ,e?ics       
includes bo? ! latt]1 s9ce x recognizes 
individual peculi>ities4 ,x has yet to  
be decid$ :e!r1 )9 ! b\nds ( ,objective 
,e?ics1 ,individual ,e?ics & ,social    
,e?ics are dep5d5t ^u ea* o!r1 or :e!r  
"o1 & if "o !n :i* "o1 det]m9es ! o!r4  
,x has to be decid$ :e!r1 accord+ to !  
pr9ciple ( welf>e1 ! free               
self-developm5t ( ! individual is to be 
limit$ by ! conditions ( social life1 or
 vice v]sa4 ,)9 ! limits ( ,objective   
,e?ics1 !re may arise an ,individualism 
( ano!r sort ?an t be=e m5tion$1 f\nd$1 

n ^u ! sov]eignty ( ! individual1 b ^u !
 pr9ciple ( welf>e1 :i* dem&s z _m      
indep5d5t & peculi> po9ts ( dep>ture =  
action z possible4 ,! l is true1 also1 (
 ! "q ( small] organizations )9 l>g]    
ones4  ,! hi/ory ( ,e?ics %[s u t !     
e?ical judgm5t ( actions at fir/ reg>d$ 
! out] act itself & its results1 b 0    
gradually ext5d$ to include ! motive1 ! 
disposition1 ! "* ( ! act+ subject4 ,x  
is p]fectly natural t reg>d %\ld fir/ be
 attract$ to t :i* is ! object (        
s5se-p]ception4 ,moreov]1 action at an  
e>li] /age ( developm5t is ess5tially   
reflex action1 & ! expression ( in/9ct2 
! motives are simple & transp>5t1 &     
int]e/ does n l+] long ) !m4 ,! great   
revolutions 9 ,e?ics appe> z ess5tially 
progress ) reg>d to ! importance        
accord$1 9 e?ical judgm5t1 to ! inn]    
factors ( action4 ,?is great] inw>dness 
is comb9$ ) a g5]alization2 = !         
rejection ( a motive is ! rejection (   
all action occasion$ by x1 & ! e?ical   
acceptance ( a motive ! acceptance ( all

 action spr++ f x4 ,h5ce ! transf]5ce ( 
reg>d to inn] conditions repres5ts a    
great simplification ( ! e?ical law4    
,examples ( su* a transf]5ce may be f\nd
 9 ! rupture betwe5 ,*ri/ianity &       
,judaism1 & betwe5 ,prote/antism &      
,ca?olicism4  ,9 ?is way1 too1          
,objective ,e?ics leads to ,subjective  
,e?ics4 ,! objective judgm5t n only     
presupposes a subjective basis1 b also  
f9ds "s ( its be/ objects 9 actions :i* 
spr+ f ! same m5tal con/itution :i* is !
 basis ( ! judgm5t4 ,"h1 ! basis ( m5tal
 con/itution & ! motive co9cide2 !      
e?ical law dem&s ! exi/5ce ( ! moral    
disposition by :i* x itself exi/s 9 !   
species4 ,?is ,kant expresses 9 !       
ass]tion t x is a duty to possess       
consci5ce4 ,s9ce ! recognition ( duties 
presupposes ! exi/5ce ( consci5ce1 x    
might seem z if "h 7 an argum5t 9 a     
circle4 ,b t ?is is an illusion may be  
se5 f ! fact t ! basis ( e?ical judgm5t 
& ! motive d n necess>ily co9cide & t x 
is n necess>ily an imp]fection :5 !y d n

 co9cide4 ,x may be necess>y 9 "s cases1
 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciple ( welf>e1 t  
o!r motives ?an ! s5se ( duty %all guide
 ! action2 x may be necess>y & heal?ful1
 = example1 t 9 "s cases man %\ld be l$ 
by ! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation1 or by an
 imm$iate sympa?y1 to labor = ! welf>e (
 o!rs1 & t consci5ce %\ld n be ar\s$ 9 e
 s+le act4 ,x may ev5 be a sign (       
p]fection :5 actions t dem& ex]tion &   
sacrifice are c>ri$ out )\t ! int]v5tion
 ( a s5se ( duty4 ,inde$1 m5tal drill 9 
! end r5d]s t :i* at fir/ took place by 
means ( a long psy*ological process (   
reflection & w1 direct & )\t special    
consci\sness ( its reason4  ,all ,e?ics 
is practical ,idealism4 ,all sy/ems     
assume an end1 & an end is n any?+ at   
pres5t exi/+1 b some?+ :i* ought to be4 
,all sy/ems assume1 !re=e1 /rong feel+1 
impulse1 & endeavor1 comb9$ ) ! image ( 
t :i* is ! object ( ! endeavor4 ,b !    
ideal mu/ h po9ts ( contact ) actuality1
 s t at lea/ an approa* to x is         
practicable2 x mu/ be physically1       

psy*ologically1 & hi/orically possible4 
,e?ical ideals deviate f ! actual 9 ?ree
 ways4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re is (t5 9    
actual will+ & do+ some?+ directly      
oppos$ to ! pr9ciple ( welf>e4 ,9 ?is   
case1 ! (fice ( ,e?ics is to re/ra9 &   
=bid4 ,to ?is function corresponds1 9 ! 
practical life ( ! w1 ! hemm+ by :i*    
involunt>y1 orig9al1 or acquir$ impulses
 & incl9ations are repress$4 ,aga91     
actual will+ & do+ (t5 exhibit only a   
weak & imp]fect realization ( t :i*     
,e?ics dem&s4 ,"h !re mu/ be an increase
 9 ! degree z well z 9 ! ext5t ( !      
realization4 ,to ?is corresponds1 9 !   
practical life ( ! w1 ef=t & att5tion1 !
 p[] ( ! w1 ?r\gh its influ5ce ^u       
conceptions & feel+s1 to react ^u       
itself4 ,& f9ally1 !re may be1 9 will+ &
 do+1 a lack ( unity & h>mony2 v>i\s    
oppos$ t5d5cies & impulses may make     
!mselves felt4 ,"h a process ( h>moniz+ 
& conc5tration is necess>y4 ,& to ?is   
corresponds1 9 ! practical life ( ! w1 a
 drill+ 9 connect$ action & tra9s (     

?\ght1 & 9 ! p[] to make an end (       
reflection by decision4 ,9 all ?ree     
cases1 ! pr9ciple ( welf>e is to be     
foll[$2 & ! ?ree processes are to be    
appli$ n only 9 ! developm5t ( !        
individual b also 9 t ( societies1 & ( !
 species4  ,t :i* manife/s itself 9     
consci5ce is a species-in/9ct4 ,9 !     
feel+ ( judgm5t1 ! relation betwe5      
c5tral & p]iph]al factors f9ds          
expression1 nei!r ( :i*1 & lea/ ( all ! 
c5tral factors1 are develop$ by         
individual exp]i5ce1 b bo? ( :i* are1 on
 ! contr>y1 ! product ( ! exp]i5ce ( !  
species4 ,:at ,kant call$ ! ,categorical
 ,imp]ative is1 9 fact1 an in/9ct2 & e  
in/9ct speaks unconditionally1          
categorically1 gives no reasons & admits
 ( no excuse4  ,no in/9ct f9ds          
expression )\t ! exi/5ce ( conditions   
:i* call x =?2 b all mann] ( individual 
& social circum/ances may furni% su*    
conditions4  ,:5 consci5ce beg9s to be  
consci\s ( its (fice1 x manife/s itself 
z an ,impulse4#gg ,! ?\ght ( actions :i*

 ! in/9ctive judgm5t has recogniz$1 or  
to ! p]=mance ( :i* x has p]haps incit$1
 is comb9$ ) pleasure1 ! conception (   
actions ( ! opposite nature ) pa94 ,!   
t5d5cy arises to l+] ) ! =m] & to repeat
 !m1 & to turn f ! latt]1 if no /rong]  
impulses ( ano!r sort make !mselves     
felt4  ,consci5ce may develop1 )\t los+ 
entirely its in/9ctive or impulsive "*1 
to practical reason4 ,?is takes place   
?r\gh ! developm5t ( ! conceptions :i*  
det]m9e ! consci5ce z impulse1 to great]
 cle>ness & di/9ctness4 ,:5 consci5ce   
acts z in/9ct1 ! individual does n "k   
:at he does4 ,if x acts z impulse1 he   
has a dawn+ consci\sness ( 8 acts4 ,& :5
 x becomes practical reason1 !re arises 
a cle> consci\sness ( e?ical laws &     
e?ical ideals4 ,9 diff]5t individuals1  
consci5ce may appe> 9 v diff]5t =ms &   
degrees1 z in/9ct1 impulse1 practical   
reason1 s5se ( duty1 s5se ( ju/ice4     
,sometimes x appe>s z ma9ly negative &  
re/ra9+1 sometimes aga9 z *iefly        
positive1 p>tly h>moniz+ & p>tly        

increas+4 ,"h x appe>s z en?usia/ic     
devotion1 !re z quiet & cont9u\s t5d5cy4
 ,x w\ld be impossible to "n ev5 !      
pr9cipal =ms 9 :i* x may manife/ itself1
 b x is ( great importance to call      
att5tion to ! fact ( ^! individual      
diff]5ces1 s9ce we suff] at pres5t f a  
dogmatism t has b "o measure = all ^!   
diff]5t manife/ations4  ,we mu/ g a /ep 
f>!r /ill4 ,!re may be m5 :o possess no 
/rictly e?ical feel+ & :o d n ne$ x4    
,su* m5 d :at !y c ) _! :ole he>t )\t   
apply+ any reflective /&>d to _! own or 
o!rs' acts4 ,!y entirely absorb !mselves
 ) unflagg+ zeal 9 a "w t p]fectly      
corresponds to _! capabilities &        
impulses1 )\t any d\bt ( its            
rightfulness & import4 ,!y may devote   
!mselves to art & sci5ce1 to ! s]vice ( 
society1 or to _! family4 ,or !y belong 
to ! class ( happy natures :o spread    
light & joy by _! m]e exi/5ce4 ,!y act 9
 accordance ) ! law1 )\t be+ 9          
possession ( ! law1 & :at objection c   
,e?ics h to (f] to ?is8 ,e?ics is = !   

sake ( life1 n life = ! sake ( ,e?ics4  
,s9ce all e?ical judgm5ts h consci5ce = 
_! psy*ological basis1 consci5ce is     
highe/ au?ority1 highe/ law-giv]1 9     
comp>ison ) :i* e o!r au?ority is       
subord9ate & d]iv$4 ,to wi% to g beyond 
"o's consci5ce is to wi% to g beyond    
oneself4 ,:5 ,i yield to ano!r human be+
 ^: judgm5t ,i tru/ m ?an my own1 ?is c 
be ju/ifi$ only z x takes place ?r\gh my
 consci5ce4 ,consci5ce is infallible1 if
 "o und]/&s by infallibility t x is1 at 
e in/ant1 ! highe/ judge2 ?is           
infallibility does n mean1 h[ev]1 t x   
does n err4 ,e e>ne/ conviction takes ! 
=m ( consci5ce2 ! tru? is n1 h[ev]1     
secur$ by ! m]e =m4 ,0 x n f conviction 
t ,ari/otle ass]t$ ! "r ( slav]y1 &     
,calv91 ) ,melanc?on's approval1 s5t    
,s]vetus to ! /ake8  ,n less dogmatic   
?an ,fi*te's ass]tion t consci5ce nev]  
deceives u1 is ! view :i* reg>ds a sy/em
 ( ,e?ics z m]ely ! sci5ce ( ! =ms (    
society & ( outw>d acts1 & ?us decl>es  
consci5ce to be )\t au?ority 9 comp>ison

 ) out] circum/ances & _! dem&s4 ,! law 
:i* we obey mu/ always express itself 9 
! =m ( consci5ce4 ,! light :i* illum9es 
= u all o!r ?+s mu/ be )9 ourselves4    
,"h we p]ceive ! possibility ( a        
conflict betwe5 ,subjective ,e?ics &    
,objective ,e?ics1 betwe5 ! two         
pr9ciples ^u :i* ,e?ics is f\nd$4 ,!re c
 be no o!r solution to ! problem ?an t  
we %all foll[ ! comm& ( consci5ce1      
provid$ x speaks cle>ly & aft] suffici5t
 delib]ation4 ,x may be add$ t consci5ce
 c correct & control itself1 ! lat] & m 
exp]i5c$ consci5ce criticis+ ! e>li]4 ,z
 long z ! individual acts accord+ to 8  
be/ conviction1 he is morally heal?y2   
h5ce1 f an e?ical po9t ( view1 a        
p]nici\s action c>ri$ out "u !          
conviction t x is good is to be pref]r$ 
to a good action p]=m$ ) ! conviction t 
x is bad4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! spr+ is pure2
 9 ! latt] x is corrupt4 ,only he :o has
 c\rage to make mi/akes c accompli%     
any?+ great4 ,x is n ! cold & n>r[1 b ^?
 :o are zeal\s = ! true & good1 :o ?us  

err4  ,! p[] ( self-correction c be     
develop$ only :5 "s def9ite pr9ciple or 
crit]ion may be f\nd4 ,su* a pr9ciple is
 t ( welf>e4 ,! problem ( ! application 
( ?is pr9ciple to action is1 h[ev]1 l t 
( ! application ( ! pr9ciple ( causality
 to actual ph5om5a1 an endless "o4  ,9  
close relation to ! concept ( ,au?ority 
/&s t ( ,sanction4 ,! ,au?ority comm&s  
or =bids1 ! ,sanction enables ! comm& or
 prohibition to rema9 9 =ce4 ,! sanction
 consi/s 9 ! pa9 or pleasure connect$ ) 
! obs]vation or transgression ( ! comm&1
 9 ! rew>d or puni%m5t :i* "o br+s on   
oneself ?r\gh "o's action1 9 ! heav5 or 
hell :i* "o approa*es by ! action4 ,x is
 only1 h[ev]1 :5 ! au?ority itself is an
 outw>d "o t ! sanction holds ?is outw>d
 relation to ! action4 ,9 ?is outw>d =m 
x has no imm$iate e?ical significance4  
,! e?ical "* ( an action is dep5d5t1 9  
subjective reg>d1 on its orig9 9 !      
int5tion ( ! p]=m]1 9 objective reg>d1  
on its h>mony ) ! pr9ciple ( welf>e4    
,:at e?ical significance c\ld x h t "h a

 feel+ ( pa9 or pleasure n aris+ f !    
action itself1 is add$ to x8 ,! out]    
sanction ( rew>d & puni%m5t is ?us b an 
educat+ sanction4 ,! inn] sanction      
consi/s 9 a feel+ ( h>mony & unity )    
"o's own highe/ convictions1 ( consi/5cy
 betwe5 "o's ideas & "o's actual will+4 
,?us arises an inn] peace t may be      
/rong] ?an all contradiction &          
opposition f )\t4  ,su* an inn] sanction
 is n only an effect ( ! action1 b a    
feel+ already pres5t be=e ! action4 ,x 0
 ! pres]vation & full developm5t ( ?is  
feel+ t l$ to ! decision & made x       
possible4 ,bless$ness1 says ,sp9oza1 is 
n ! rew>d ( virtue1 b virtue itself4  ,!
 mann] 9 :i* ! e?ical is s (t5 made     
dep5d5t ^u c]ta9 fix$ religi\s or       
speculative assumptions mu/ be1 f an    
e?ical po9t ( view1 matt] = great       
solicitude4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is easy  
to suppose t ! man :o no long] respects 
^! dogmas may h emancipat$ himself also 
f ! e?ical maxims dep5d5t ^u !m1 & w\ld 
be mo/ consi/5t if he act$ 9 accordance 

) ! pr9ciple3 ,let u eat & dr9k1 =      
to-morr[ we die4 ,9 ! second place1     
action is reft ( its e?ical "* :5 !     
att5tion is direct$ to ?+s outside its  
ess5ce & orig91 & consid]ations ( rew>d 
& puni%m5t are decl>$ to be a necess>y  
motive4 ,n ev5 a belief 9 progress )9 ! 
_w ( exp]i5ce c h any absolute wor? =   
,e?ics4 ,x may be !oretically difficult 
to ma9ta9 su* a belief2 & ev5 if !      
victori\s direction ( evolution 7 %[n to
 be unfavorable to ,e?ics1 e?ical       
pr9ciples w\ld n be de/roy$4 ,simply !  
problems w\ld be diff]5t2 pity &        
resignation w\ld acquire great]         
importance4 ,:]ev] ! e?ical disposition 
7 pres5t1 x w\ld take ! side ( ! conqu]$
 & rema9 ^u t side ?\gh ! gods !mselves 
7 ) ! conqu]ors4 ,e?ical wor? does n    
dep5d ^u m]e might4  ,! bir?-h\r (      
consci5ce is ! "t :51 ?r\gh ! diff]5ce  
betwe5 ideal & actuality1 a c]ta9 feel+ 
arises4 ,its dea?-h\r w\ld be ! in/ant 9
 :i* ! diff]5ce =ev] disappe>$4 ,su* a  
disappe>ance might occur 9 two ways1    

ei!r ?r\gh ! conque/ ( ! ideal by       
actuality or ?r\gh t ( actuality by !   
ideal4 ,! objection has be5 made to !   
!ory ( evolution t x fulfill$ ! fir/ (  
^! possibilities1 & s left no room =    
,e?ics4 ,b ! v fact ( ! exi/5ce ( e?ical
 impulses z ! actual result ( evolution 
w\ld seem to belie ?is !ory4 ,& inde$1  
we see t evolution is n physical gr[?   
alone1 b m5tal z well2 & t ! important  
feature ( man's developm5t consi/s 9 8  
aspiration ?r\gh desires & impulses1 :i*
 act z mov+ =ces 9 8 life4 ,aspiration  
is necess>y to 8 evolution1 & indiff]5ce
 & lack ( s5sibility an ob/acle to x4 ,!
 !ory ( evolution leads directly to     
,e?ics1 9 t x %[s t ! /ruggle = exi/5ce 
becomes1 9 its high] =ms1 a common      
/ruggle = ! cont9uance & developm5t (   
human life4 ,! !ory ( evolution takes u1
 inde$1 n only to1 b beyond1 ,e?ics2 =1 
accord+ to ,sp5c]1 ! e?ical s5se is b an
 int]m$iate condition 9 a developm5t    
t[>d a /ate ( organic morality1 :]e     
"r-do+ w be involunt>y & natural1 & a   

special e?ical s5se no long] exi/5t or  
necess>y4 ,su* a /ate w\ld con/itute !  
realization ( ! second alt]native       
m5tion$ above1 ) :i* ,e?ics w\ld come to
 an end4 ,?is /ate is conceivable1 &    
,e?ics c\ld h no objection to (f] to x4 
,yet we are /ill f> f su* a condition1 &
 ?\gh we may /r5g!n our c\rage & hope ) 
! ?\ght ( a cont9ual progress ( human   
nature1 yet ! assumption ( su* an end to
 evolution _c h an ess5tial influ5ce ^u 
! me?od ( ,e?ics4  ,we mu/1 9 fact1     
suppose t progress w br+ u new problems 
& new ideals1 t1 z ! ,e?ics ( ! civiliz$
 man includes :ole prov9ces unkn[n to ! 
savage1 s _m relations w c]ta9ly pres5t 
!mselves 9 ! future ^: e?ical           
significance our pres5t ?ick-sk9n$      
condition1 our ignorance & egoism1      
prev5t u f compreh5d+4  ,c "o d m ?an   
"o's duty8 ,f ! /&po9t ( e?ical sy/ems  
:i* are f\nd$ on au?ority or any outw>d 
pr9ciple1 ?is "q may be answ]$ 9 !      
affirmative4 ,! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*   
di/+ui%es1 = in/ance1 betwe5 t :i* is   

comm&$ & t :i*1 beyond ! comm&1 is m]ely
 advis$4 ,b he :o foll[s an inw>d       
sanction _c b feel t he has done no m   
?an 8 duty :5 he has done all t lies 9 8
 p[] = ! welf>e ( mank9d4 ,x may be "r1 
f a p$agogical /&po9t1 to give especial 
praise to actions t t[] above ! usual2  
he :o p]=ms !m1 h[ev]1 only !n possesses
 ! "r _s :5 he feels t he has done no m 
?an 8 duty1 & c\ld n h done o!rwise4    
,ev5 f a p$agogical /&po9t1 ! diff]5ce  
betwe5 duty & m]ely c\nsell$ action1    
beyond ! duty comm&$1 c be only a       
relative "o2 t :i* is1 ^u a l[] plane ( 
developm5t1 m]ely advis$1 becomes1 ^u a 
high] plane1 "o ( ! mo/ elem5t>y duties2
 m]cy to ! conqu]$ may be a high virtue 
9 a savage1 b to ! civiliz$ man x is a  
prim>y rule ( morals4  ,x is ( ! highe/ 
importance to keep 9 m9d ! fact t       
consci5ce itself is a cause1 & t e?ical 
judgm5t1 aris+ z a feel+1 takes "p1 by  
its influ5ce ^u ! w1 9 ! e?ical         
evolution t[>ds highe/ welf>e4 ,keep+   
?is 9 m9d1 x is easy to see t ,e?ics n  

only calls = no limitation ( ! law (    
,causality1 b t su* a limitation w\ld be
 p]nici\s1 ev5 de/ructive1 to ,e?ics4   
,!re are at lea/ six diff]5t            
significations 9 :i* ! expression fre$om
 ( ! w may be us$4  ,x may be us$ to    
d5ote abs5ce ( outw>d con/ra9t2 b ?is   
might r be call$ a fre$om ( action ?an a
 fre$om ( ! w4  ,x may be us$ to d5ote  
abs5ce ( inn] con/ra9t2 ! w :i* spr+s f 
pa9 or fe> is (t5 call$ unfree 9        
di/9ction f ! w :i* spr+s f pleasure or 
hope4  ,x may ref] to en]gy & vitality (
 ! w4 ,"h ! /ress is laid ^u ! am\nt :i*
 ! w c accompli%1 n1 h[ev]1 ^u its      
indep5d5ce ( causes4 ,"o c be a det]m9i/
 & yet conc$e t ! w plays an important  
"p 9 ! _w2 or "o c be an indet]m9i/ &   
yet assume t free w plays b a small "p 9
 ! _w4  ,by fre$om ( ! w is (t5 meant ! 
p[] ( *oice4 ,?is fre$om is n oppos$1   
h[ev]1 to causality1 b to bl9dness (    
action1 subjection to mom5t>y impulses4 
,free w d5otes1 9 ?is case1             
self-consci\s w4  ,or ! ^w fre$om may   

ref] to ! w z rul$ by e?ical motives4 ,9
 ?is s5se1 only ! good man is free4 ,?is
 significance ( ! ^w is ! olde/1 comes  
d[n to u f ,socrates1 & is us$ by       
,augu/9e1 ,sp9oza1 & _m o!rs4  ,b ! s5se
 ( ! ^w fre$om ) :i* ! /rife betwe5     
,det]m9ism & ,indet]m9ism has to d is t 
9 accordance ) :i* a free w is n subject
 to ! law ( ,causality1 is n1 l o!r     
ph5om5a1 a l9k 9 ! *a9 ( causes1 b is1  
on ! contr>y1 a cause1 )\t be+ an       
effect4 ,to be free 9 w is1 accord+ to  
?is def9ition1 to w )\t                 
cause1--indep5d5t ( all t has gone be=e4
  ,indet]m9ism de/roys ! bond betwe5 !  
individual & 8 k9d1 betwe5 ! individual 
& ! re/ ( exi/5ce4 ,indet]m9ism is h5ce 
unable to reg>d exi/5ce z a totality4 ,e
 deep] philosophical or religi\s        
conception becomes1 ?us1 impossible2 !  
only religi\s conception consi/5t )     
,indet]m9ism is ,poly!ism1 s9ce e be+ t 
c =m ! absolute beg9n+ ( a *a9 ( causes 
is a little god1 an absolute be+4 ,?is  
fact is to be not$1 = ! reason t        

,det]m9ism is sometimes designat$ z a   
godless doctr9e4  ,! ass]tion t ! w is  
)\t cause1 & ! ass]tion t we ourselves  
are ! cause ( our will+1 are two diff]5t
 ass]tions4 ,! la/ f9ds a cause 9 our   
nature4 ,?\ghts & feel+s1 t5d5cies1     
in/9cts1 & impulses arise 9 u1 & 9 ^! ! 
orig9 ( ! acts ( ! w is to be s\ght4    
,if ! w1 or a "p ( x1 is n subject to ! 
law ( ,causality1 x /&s 9 relation to ! 
:ole p]sonality z some?+ isolat$ &      
accid5tal4 ,! ,indet]m9i/ :o ass]ts t   
,det]m9ism makes man a m]e ma*9e1       
himself makes ( him some?+ mu* mean]1   
some?+ incoh]5t & accid5tal4 ,e?ical    
judgm5t is bas$ ^u ! assumption t my    
action is m9e2 x is1 !re=e1 cle> & c]ta9
 only :5 motives & ! decision !y cause  
are kn[n4 ,! less my actions c be       
und]/ood by k ( my "*1 ! m easily ,i may
 be reg>d$ z irresponsible4 ,al?\gh law 
reg>ds1 by its nature1 action & n       
motive1 yet ev5 ! judge mu/ ga9 an      
insight into ! motives1 ! out] & inn]   
relations f :i* ! de$ orig9at$1 bo? 9   

ord] to det]m9e ! degree ( puni%m5t     
necess>y1 & 9 ord] ev5 to be fully      
p]suad$ t ! action really took place4   
,_m rec5t ,indet]m9i/s designate !      
fre$om ( ! w z exce$+ly small4 ,!y ?us  
ext5d ! dissolution ( ! unity ( exi/5ce 
& ( ! unity ( p]sonality to ! act (     
will+ itself4 ,moreov]1 if              
responsibility dep5ds ^u fre$om1 x is   
impossible to see h[ rew>d & puni%m5t   
are to be ju/ifi$ ^u ?is /&po9t2 s9ce ! 
individual c say ) reason t he is n     
guilty ) respect to ! :ole1 b only )    
respect to a v small "p ( 8 act4  ,!    
words ,responsibility1 ,guilt1          
,acc\ntability1 are tak51 l s _m o!r    
e?ical expressions1 f ,jurisprud5ce1 or 
r !y come to u f a "t :5 ! di/9ction    
betwe5 ! prov9ce ( ,jurisprud5ce & t (  
,e?ics _h n yet be5 recogniz$4 ,t ,i am 
made acc\ntable = my action means t ,i  
/& z ! "o to :om rew>d or puni%m5t = !  
de$ is met$ out4 ,= :at reason ! action 
is rew>d$ or puni%$ is a "q by itself4  
,9 relation to ,e?ics1 ! feel+ ( guilt1 

( responsibility or acc\ntability1      
signifies t my act is subject$ to !     
judgm5t ( consci5ce4 ,if ,i f9d discord 
betwe5 my act & t :i* ,i recognize z    
good1 remorse arises1--a feel+ ( inn]   
di%>mony1 unwor?9ess1 & self-contempt   
:i* may increase until x becomes !      
greate/ psy*ical pa94 ,?is feel+ may be 
def9$1 f a det]m9i/ic /&po9t1 z         
dissatisfaction ) oneself because "o has
 n act$ o!rwise1 & ! wi% t "o _h done s4
 ,?is wi% arises 9 ! mom5t ( reflection1
 :5 "o weighs "o's act4 ,f ! pres5t wi% 
is n1 h[ev]1 to be conclud$ t "o c\ld j 
z well h act$ o!rwise at ! mom5t ! act  
took place4 ,su* an illusion dates !    
exp]i5ce de>ly b\ght ) mi/ake & remorse 
back to an e>li] p]iod4 ,accord+ to !   
!ory ( retribution1 remorse mu/ be      
greate/ 9 him :o has committ$ ! greate/ 
crime4 ,?is is n s1 h[ev]2 s9ce remorse 
arises f a contra/ betwe5 ideal & act1  
:i* contra/ c take place only :5 !      
conception ( ! ideal is /rong2 ! pure/ &
 be/ *>act]s (t5 h ! /ronge/ feel+s (   

remorse4  ,remorse fir/ arises :5 a new 
attitude ( m9d is atta9$ diff]5t f t :i*
 rul$ at ! "t ( ! action4 ,"t is        
necess>y = ?is new feel+ to replace !   
old1 if x is to be m ?an a mom5t>y      
passion1 & dur+ ?is int]val ! two feel+s
 are bo? active 9 consci\sness4 ,?is is 
! "t ( ! bir?-pa9s by :i* ! new "* comes
 into be+4 ,! significance ( remorse    
lies 9 ! fact t x urges =w>d1 t x gives 
bir? to impulse & endeavor aft] a high] 
plane4 ,only because remorse is a       
motive1 is x ( e?ical nature4  ,if ! law
 ( ,causality 7 n active 9 ! realm ( !  
psy*ical1 ?is e?ical endeavor w\ld be   
hopeless4 ,only :]e ord] reigns c ! w   
accompli% any?+4 ,only z we "k ! law (  
out] nature1 & "k :at conditions mu/ be 
produc$ 9 ord] to br+ ab\t a c]ta9      
result1 c we s]ve our own ends 9 ?is    
prov9ce2 & ! l is true 9 our relation to
 human nature4 ,"h ! problem is to f9d  
motives ( ! "r sort & ( suffici5t /r5g?4
 ,( :at use 7 all possible ex]tion if1  
"u giv5 conditions1 ! same motive 7     

foll[$ by n[ ?is1 n[ ! o!r entirely     
diff]5t decision4 ,i am ma/] ( my future
 will+ only 9 s f> z a causal relation  
exi/s betwe5 my pres5t & my future w4   
,we f9d1 !re=e1 t ! reason :y           
responsibility goes no fur!r back 9 !   
causal *a9 ?an ! w1 is ?is3 t x is ! w  
:i* is to be act$ on & alt]$4 ,t :i*    
prec$es ! act ( ! w int]e/s u1 e?ically1
 only 9 s f> z x influ5ces ! w4  ,x is a
 /range ass]tion1 sometimes made1 t !   
consi/5t ,det]m9i/ mu/ be a m]e         
spectator ( 8 own & o!rs' lives4 ,z if  
"o c\ld feel no pa9 or pleasure & no    
desire to int]f]e1 because "o believes  
life to be subject to law4 ,x is true t 
!oretical /udy may weak5 practical      
int]e/2 b ,indet]m9ism is a !ory z well 
z ,det]m9ism4  ,:at ! e?ically bad is   
foll[s f :at has already be5 said4 ,x   
consi/s ( a m or less consci\s isolation
 ( ! s+le mom5t 9 ! life ( ! individual1
 or ( ! s+le individual 9 ! life ( !    
species1 su* t n only a h9drance to !   
welf>e ( individual or species arises1 b

 also a relaxation ( en]gy & a dim9ution
 ( ! coh]5ce ( individual or species4 ,9
 mo/ su* cases1 in]tia is at "w4 ,! "o  
mom5t dem&s to be liv$ )\t any          
consid]ation ( o!rs1 ! individual w n   
move outside ! circle ( 8 own int]e/s4  
,su* a resi/ance to influ5ce may be     
unconsci\s4 ,x may be au?oriz$ 9 s f> z 
x is a condition ( ! developm5t ( real  
will+ t action %all n imm$iately respond
 to impression4 ,9 ?is resi/ance lies1  
!re=e1 ! g]m ( ! e?ical z well z !      
non-e?ical life ( ! w4 ,! cle>]         
consci\sness becomes1 ! m ?is in]tia    
takes on ! "* ( defiance4 ,or ! discord 
felt ?r\gh consci\sness ( ! good may be 
s pa9ful t ! individual desires to free 
himself at any price4 ,9 ?is case1 no   
remorse is felt2 on ! contr>y1 !        
individual seeks to dull ! awak5$       
consci\sness1 or to get rid ( x4  ,x is 
important to note t conceptions develop1
 9 ?is connection1 fa/] ?an feel+s4 ,& z
 long z ! =m] d n f9d po9ts ( connection
 ) ! exi/+ feel+s1 !y w h no practical  

influ5ce4 ,! bad consi/s 9 ! p]si/5ce1 f
 in]tia or defiance1 ^u a l[] plane (   
developm5t aft] ! consci\sness ( a high]
 has aris54 ,evil is ! animal 9 man1 !  
rema9s ( an e>li] plane ( life4 ,f !    
in/9cts ( self-pres]vation &            
self-propagation 9 _! mo/ primitive =ms1
 ! e?ically bad is produc$1 & (f]s fi]ce
 resi/ance to h>moniz+ influ5ces4  ,evil
 is1 fur!rmore1 a sociological ph5om5on2
 ! g5]al psy*ological elem5ts take on   
diff]5t =ms "u diff]5t hi/orical        
conditions2 society1 9 its diff]5t =ms &
 functions1 is always "o ( ! det]m9+    
factors ( its developm5t4 ,! crim9al is1
 l ! sa9t1 ! *ild ( 8 "t4  ,x appe>s1   
!re=e1 t ! t]m bad is appli$ f a /&po9t 
n %>$ by him to :om x is appli$4 ,if !  
man :o /&s ^u ! l[] plane ( morals      
possess$ ! full & cle> consci\sness t ! 
pr$icate ( badness appli$ to 8 conduct1 
! correspond+ feel+s & impulses mu/     
arise 9 him1 & 8 conduct be alt]$4 ,x is
 psy*ologically impossible to act aga9/ 
our fix$ & full conviction1 if ?is is n 

blunt$ by o!r impulses4  ,! def9ition ( 
! good mu/ be1 on diff]5t e?ical planes1
 a diff]5t "o4 ,b :5 a dis9t]e/$ &      
univ]sal sympa?y det]m9es ! e?ical      
judgm5t1 only t c be good :i* pres]ves &
 adds to ! welf>e ( consci\s be+s1      
increases _! pleasure or dim9i%es _!    
pa94 ,e action :i* t5ds 9 ?is direction 
)\t produc+ fur!r results ( an opposite 
nature1 is au?oriz$2 e action ( :i* !   
opposite is true is to be reject$4      
,s9ce1 9 g5]al1 pleasure is connect$ ) !
 heal?y & natural use ( ! p[]s1 ) t :i* 
pres]ves & b5efits life1 & pa9 is       
connect$ ) ! opposite ( ?is1 ,e?ics     
m]ely cont9ues ! "w begun by nature1 9  
aim+ at human progress1 at z ri* &      
h>moni\s a developm5t ( human p[]s z is 
possible4 ,! problems ( ,e?ics conc]n1  
!re=e1 ! pleasures ( ! mom5t z well z ^?
 ( ! :ole life1 ! pleasures ( !         
individual z well z ^? ( ! :ole species4
 ,?is rema9s true ev5 if we accept !    
pessimi/ic view t all life is pa92 !    
good w\ld consi/1 f ?is po9t ( view1 9 z

 great alleviation ( pa9 z possible4    
,ev5 ! ascetic tortures himself only 9  
ord] to ga9 great] good4  ,! e?ical end 
z welf>e is n to be conceiv$ z a /ate ( 
cont9uance on ! same plane4 ,su* a      
cont9uance is impossible2 evolution does
 n /& /ill2 e /ep ( progress creates new
 ne$s1 ! satisfaction ( :i* aga9 dem&s  
endeavor2 p]fect satisfaction is        
impossible4 ,ev5 ! developm5t ( sympa?y 
makes x easi] to w\nd u 9 _m ways & br+s
 u l>g] duties4 ,! ne$ ( v>iety alone   
w\ld make cont9uance ^u "o plane        
impossible2 we labor n only 9 ord] to   
arrive at consci\s ends1 b also 9 ord]  
to relieve ourselves ( accumulat$ en]gy4
 ,! highe/ end t we c conceive is a     
progress 9 :i* ea* /ep is felt z a good 
because x af=ds scope = action )\t      
ov]-ex]tion4  ,activity is also welf>e4 
,b x is s only 9 s f> z x is heal?ful   
activity2 :5 ! p[]s are ov]-ex]t$ or    
dissipat$ 9 action1 hav+ no common end1 
or :5 _! application 9 "o direction is  
at ! co/ ( o!r m important directions1  

progress ceases to be welf>e4 ,!        
evolution ( civilization conta9s an     
elem5t ( bl9dness & he$lessness :i* is  
b\nd up ) bo? its excell5cies & its     
faults4 ,b civilization is n an act (   
*oice2 x is ! cont9uance ( ! evolution (
 nature4 ,progress is necess>y2 x is    
impossible to rema9 ^u any level atta9$4
 ,e?ics mu/1 !re=e1 accept progress z a 
fact4 ,x does n feel an admiration = an 
ord] ( nature 9 :i* no advance appe>s   
possible )\t "o-sid$ness & dissipation (
 en]gy4 ,x is n s h>d-he>t$ t x c\ld    
=get1 9 ! seem+ spl5dor ( outw>d        
results1 ! anxiety & pa91 ! sweat &     
blood1 ) :i* ^! 7 won4 ,x dem&s1 !re=e1 
t ! heavy burd5s be light5$1 ! scatt]$  
=ces unit$1 & all capabilities t are (  
wor? develop$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,e?ics is n
 s s5tim5tal & %ort-sight$ t x c\ld =get
 t progress c take place only ?r\gh     
ex]tion & suff]+4 ,its *ief task ) reg>d
 to progress is to impress ^u ! m9d !   
fact t life %\ld n be made a m]e means  
to ! solution ( imp]sonal problems4     

,civilization is a means = ! individual1
 n vice v]sa4  ,! natural division (    
,e?ics is into ,individual ,e?ics &     
,social ,e?ics4 ,x has sometimes be5    
assum$ t ! :ole duty ( man c\ld be summ$
 up 9 ,individual ,e?ics4 ,h[ev]1 x is n
 necess>ily true t t :i* assi/s ! be/   
developm5t ( ! individual s]ves society 
z a :ole also4 ,:5 ! att5tion is direct$
 s excessively to oneself1 ! g5]al      
welf>e is likely to be =gott54 ,on ! o!r
 h&1 a too great subjection ( individual
 int]e/s makes a man a m]e p>asite1     
robb+ him ( all self-dep5d5ce4 ,:5      
,e?ics condemns ! in/9ct (              
self-pres]vation1 x condemns its own    
means4 ,if ! impulse to                 
self-pres]vation1 self-ass]tion1 &      
self-developm5t 7 evil1 !n our ess5tial 
nature w\ld be evil1 & ,e?ics w\ld be   
impossible4 ,! "r relation ( ! two      
pr9ciples is giv5 9 ! pr9ciple ( welf>e4
 ,mill's book ,on ,lib]ty d5ies ! e?ical
 significance ( self-developm5t & =gets 
! individual's on5ess ) 8 k9d1 9 decl>+ 

p]sonal vices ( no importance to ! g5]al
 welf>e4 ,t :i* ,mill wi%$ to def5d 0 ! 
fre$om ( ! individual1 ! loss ( :i*     
?r\gh ! compulsion ( society & ! moral  
police he fe>$4 ,b he might h accompli%$
 ?is purpose )\t d5y+ ! e?ical value (  
self-developm5t4 ,!re is no?+ t is a    
gr\nd = great] solicitude ?an ! mi/ake t
 public op9ion & ,e?ics are "o1 & t a   
condition ( ?+s is no long] a subject = 
e?ical condemnation :5 no out] p[] has !
 "r to d5\nce x4  ,! fir/ "q :i* pres5ts
 itself 9 ,individual ,e?ics is3 ,h[ is 
! individual to educate himself to an   
e?ical p]sonality8 ,"h ! developm5t &   
/r5g!n+ ( ! e?ical pr9ciple z gov]n+ &  
det]m9+ ! life ( ! individual is        
conc]n$4 ,! problem is "o ) !           
det]m9ation ( ! *ief virtue :i* includes
 all o!r e?ical qualities4 ,?is virtue  
is ju/ice1 :i* includes 9 itself ! two  
gr\ps conta9$ "u ,self-ass]tion &       
,self-sacrifice4#gh  ,9 ! application ( 
?is g5]al !ory ( ,e?ics1 ,hoeffd+       
ma9ta9s ! radical-cons]vative &         

individual-social position already /at$4
 ,! pr9ciple ( welf>e dem&s !           
reconciliation ( ! free developm5t ( !  
individual & ! progress ( society z a   
:ole2 ! individual does n live to       
himself alone1 h5ce ! /ate has a "r to  
dem& sacrifices2 b x mu/ always be able 
to %[ good reason = su*2 ! burd5 ( pro( 
lies ) ! side :i* w\ld take away ! mo/  
valuable possession ( ! individual1--!  
"r to free self-developm5t 9 ! ev]-%ift+
 direction ( 8 ne$4 ,?is v *>act]i/ic ( 
*ange makes x impossible = ! /ate to    
decide = ! individual :at are 8 ne$s1 & 
h[ !y may be satisfi$2 h5ce ! be/ c\rse 
( ! /ate is a *iefly re/rictive "o4 ,!  
relation betwe5 /ate-help & self-help   
mu/ be exactly ! rev]se ( t :i*         
,socialism1 9 rem>kable agreem5t )      
,bureaucracy & ,absolutism1 ass]ts4     
,socialism presupposes n only p]fection 
9 ! gov]n$ b also p]fection 9 ! p]sons  
to :om ! gov]nm5t is entru/$4 ,x        
assumes1 moreov]1 t pleasure 9 activity 
& its result+ p[] ( orig9ality &        

inv5tion w\ld n be weak5$ if m5's "r (  
initiative 7 tak5 f !m & _! ne$s det]m9$
 by o!rs4 ,mu* ( ! good ev5 n[          
accompli%$ by ! /ate 9 its functions is 
due to ! competition ) individual       
und]tak+s4  ,philan?ropy1 on ! "p (     
individuals z on t ( ! /ate1 w be/ foll[
 ?is same pr9ciple ( indirect aid1 9    
ord] to obta9 ! be/ results ?r\gh       
education ( "*4 ,organization is        
desirable on ! "p ( individuals1 b !    
/ate w a*ieve be/ results by act+ ?r\gh 
small] organizations :i* af=d a wid]    
field & ! possibility ( m intellig5t "w4
 ,9 its me?ods ( puni%m5t1 also1 ! /ate 
mu/ h reg>d1 n only to prev5tion ?r\gh  
fe>1 b also & *iefly to ! bett]+ ( !    
crim9al "*2 capital puni%m5t & life-long
 imprisonm5t _c be ju/ifi$ f a high]    
e?ical /&po9t4 ,fre$om %\ld be all[$ &  
tol]ance %[n ! v>i\s religi\s sects z   
correspond+ to v>i\s ne$s4 ,! m lib]al  
education ( woman1 :i* w make h] capable
 ( great] indep5d5ce ( ?\ght & action1  
is "o ( ! *ief means to ! solution ( !  

m>riage-"q4 ,! ideal ( m>riage is free  
monogamy2 9 polygamy1 ! purely physical 
mu/ always rule2 t "p ( self :i* "o c   
surr5d] to _m c be only ! animal2 long  
association & sympa?y alone admit to !  
sanctu>y ( love4 ,x belongs to ! nature 
( true love to believe 9 its own        
endlessness2 x is1 !re=e1 incompatible )
 its nature to arrange = a m]e tempor>y 
union4 ,yet :]e an unhappy union exi/s1 
divorce %\ld be p]mitt$4 ,/rict divorce 
laws h always fett]$ & burd5$ nobl]     
natures1 :ile light-m9d$ p h easily f\nd
 means ( escape4  ,! view t ! arti/     
occupies a peculi> position 9 8 ideal   
_w1 mu/ free himself f ! actual _w1 &   
live only = 8 ideal1 is e?ically false2 
art %\ld l5d =m to actual life1 def9+ & 
cl>ify+ x1 broad5+ ! view & educat+     
sympa?y4 ,a great arti/ is1 at ! same   
"t1 half a prophet2 8 :ole p & epo* mu/ 
le>n to "k !mselves ?r\gh him4 ,fre$om  
is to be reg>d$ z bo? means & end4 ,a   
repres5tative gov]nm5t is n only an     
education = ! p1 :o ?r\gh fre$om alone c

 le>n to use fre$om1 b af=ds ! /ate1    
moreov]1 a firm] f\ndation 9 !          
consci\sness ( its citiz5s t !y are     
responsible = ! exi/+ condition ( ?+s4  
,! developm5t ( consci5ce 9 =ce & ext5t 
takes place ?r\gh ?\ght & imag9ation4 ,k
 alone is n en\gh2 x mu/ be fix$ by     
ex]cise1--made a p]si/5t ?\ght1 until x 
becomes1 by means ( ! laws (            
association1 su* a ?\ght z w easily come
 9 play :5ev] ! case requires x4        
,,footnotes3  #gg ,trieb4  #gh          
,selb/behauptung und ,h+ebung4          
,,georg ,,von ,,gizycki  ,,moral        
,,philosophy 7,moralphilosophie1 #ahhi7 
,moral ,philosophy has a sci5tific & a  
practical (fice4 ,its sci5tific task is 
to supply ! human be+ ) a cle>]1 m      
?or\gh und]/&+1 f\nd$ on ultimate       
reasons1 ( 8 moral life4 ,its practical 
task is to answ] ! important "q3 ,h[ am 
,i to act8 ,h[ %all ,i ord] my life8  ,x
 0 n left to sci5ce fir/ to direct human
 action4 ,cu/om & law seek to ord] ! do+
 & leav+ undone ( ! memb]s ( society4   

,e?ical philosophy asc]ta9s means ( te/+
 ! actually exi/+ ideas ( morality1 &   
?us enables u to bett] law & cu/om4  ,a 
highe/ crit]ion1 "o only1 is necess>y1  
by :i* to judge ( ! morality ( a de$4   
,if !re 7 m ?an "o1 ! judgm5t might fall
 out diff]5tly f ! diff]5t /&po9ts      
furni%$ by ^!4  ,:5 ,i reg>d ! qualities
 :i* ,i consid] morally good1 ,i p]ceive
 t !y all h a direction conducive to !  
g5]al welf>e or happ9ess2 & :5 ,i reg>d 
! qualities :i* ,i consid] morally bad1 
,i f9d t !y all h an aim prejudicial to 
! g5]al welf>e or happ9ess4  ,:5 ,i     
attempt to conv9ce any "o t c]ta9       
conduct :i* he consid]s "r is wrong1 by 
%[+ him t x is oppos$ to ! g5]al welf>e1
 my f9al appeal is to 8 consci5ce4 ,& 9 
! same mann]1 :5 ,i correct "s ( my own 
moral conceptions1 x is my consci5ce :i*
 det]m9es me to ! pro( ( !m1 & my       
consci5ce :i* is ! /&>d t det]m9es my   
decision4 ,consci5ce is ! pr9ciple      
und]ly+ my moral convictions4 ,b ,i d n 
possess1 9 consci5ce1 a moral p[] :i*   

nev] errs2 h5ce x behooves me to judge  
c>efully4 ,body & m9d bo? h _! laws on  
:i* dep5d ! welf>e & happ9ess ( society2
 ! la/ results ( sci5ce & human exp]i5ce
 give u ^! laws4  ,!re are few ?+s 9    
reg>d to :i* !re is s great unanimity z 
!re is 9 reg>d to ! "r & good4 ,9 !     
fundam5tal que/ions1 all ! m highly     
civiliz$ peoples are1 = ! mo/ "p1 agre$4
  ,on ! l[e/ planes ( civilization1 only
 ! n>r[e/ tribal association is tak5    
into consid]ation 9 morals1 b gradually1
 ) ! gr[? ( exp]i5ce1 gr[? ( ! und]/&+1 
:i* p]mits ! recognition1 9 a mu* high] 
degree1 ( ! results ( action & ! p[] (  
sympa?y1 ev] l>g] circles ( human be+s  
are reg>d$1--! tribe1 ! nation1 ! :ole (
 mank9d1 all s5ti5t be+s4 ,9 ?is        
developm5t ( consci5ce & b5evol5ce1 !re 
is no?+ to cause moral unc]ta9ty or     
contempt ( consci5ce2 =1 9 t case1 !    
fact t !re 0 once a "t :5 human be+s 7 n
 on ! e>? mu/ be a reason = contempt (  
ev]y?+ human4  ,we call v>i\s diff]5t   
?+s good1 ( wor?1 o!rs bad1 evil2 !re   

mu/ be some?+ common to all ^!1 on      
acc\nt ( :i* we apply ! common t]m to   
!m4 ,t :i* is ?us common to !m is _!    
relation to a consci\sness = :i* !y are 
good or bad1 & n to a m]ely p]ceiv+     
consci\sness1 b to "o t feels & wills4  
,z true & false relate to ! intellectual
 side ( human nature1 s d good & bad    
relate to ! side ( feel+ & w4 ,su* ?+s  
are good z are ! m$iate or imm$iate     
cause ( agreeable /ates ( consci\sness  
or ( ! prev5tion or removal (           
disagreeable /ates2 & on ! o!r h&1 su*  
?+s are bad z are ! cause ( pa9 or !    
h9drance ( pleasure4 ,we say ( ^! ?+s t 
!y are agreeable or disagreeable4 ,or we
 may use1 in/ead ( agreeable1 ! t]m     
object ( desire1 & in/ead (             
disagreeable1 ! t]m object ( av]sion2 = 
all t is agreeable has an attractive    
influ5ce ^u ! w1 & all t is disagreeable
 or pa9ful has a repellant "o4 ,joy is t
 condition ( consci\sness :i* we seek to
 atta9 & pres]ve1 ^: exi/5ce we pref] to
 its non-exi/5ce2 & pa9 is t /ate (     

consci\sness :i* we seek to avoid &     
de/roy1 ^: non-exi/5ce we pref] to its  
exi/5ce4  ,! good is (t5 def9$ z t :i*  
conduces to "s end2 b an end is no?+ o!r
 ?an some?+ will$2 t :i* conduces to an 
end is ! cause ( some?+ t is will$1 s t 
?is explanation also ref]s back to a    
consci\sness4  ,:atev] is exi/5t = u mu/
 be exi/5t 9 u1 9 our consci\sness4 ,our
 /ates ( consci\sness are ei!r pa9ful1  
or indiff]5t1 or pleasant4 ,we mu/ turn1
 !re=e1 9 ! la/ analysis1 n to ?+s1 b to
 ! m9d1 if we wi% to di/+ui% :at is good
 & :at is bad2 & accord+ to ! diff]+    
con/itution ( diff]5t m9ds1 ! same ?+s  
may be good or bad4 ,!re is good & bad )
 respect to our body or s5ses1 & good & 
bad ) respect to our m9d4 ,a moral good 
is "o :i* causes consci\s /ates ( moral 
satisfaction4  ,! good has (t5 be5      
divid$ into ! useful & ! agreeable4 ,!  
agreeable is t :i* causes imm$iate1 !   
useful t :i* causes m$iate pleasure4 ,a 
?+ may be bo? useful & agreeable2 & ! l 
is true ( ! disagreeable & ! h>mful4 ,! 

useful & ! h>mful 9 ?is1 z x 7 inn]1    
7subjective7 s5se1 are to be di/+ui%$ f 
! useful & ! h>mful 9 an objective s5se2
 9 ! la/ s5se1 t is useful :i* t5ds to !
 pres]vation ( life4 ,betwe5 ! useful & 
h>mful1 & ! pleasurable & pa9ful1 9 ?is 
s5se1 !re mu/ exi/1 z ! !ory ( evolution
 tea*es u1 a wide-rea*+ correspond5ce4  
,liv+ be+s d t :i* is pleasurable to !m2
 !y avoid t :i* is pa9ful2 !y cont9ue   
alive :5 !y d t :i* is conducive to life
 & avoid t :i* is h>mful to life4 ,?is  
cont9u\s process ( ext]m9at+ ^? be+s to 
:om ! h>mful is agreeable & ! useful    
pa9ful1 mu/ t5d to make ! h>mful co9cide
 ) ! pa9ful1 & ! useful ) ! pleasurable4
 ,! agreem5t is1 h[ev]1 f> f be+ a      
p]fect "o2 & x is ! less s1 ! m         
complicat$ are ! conditions ( life4 ,x  
is ! mo/ imp]fect 9 human be+s4  ,good  
is t :i* causes pleasure or prev5ts pa92
 t is bett] :i* causes m pleasure or    
prev5ts m pa94 ,a ?+ may cause bo? joy &
 pa92 9 ?is case1 ! excess decides :e!r 
a ?+ is good or bad2 & ! great] !       

excess1 ! bett] or ! worse is ! ?+4 ,!  
greate/ possible excess ( satisfi$ /ates
 ( consci\sness 9 ! life ( a human be+  
"o may call 8 greate/ possible happ9ess4
 ,! greate/ possible happ9ess is h5ce ! 
/&>d by :i* good & evil are det]m9$4  ,f
 ^! reflections is to be se5 t a        
di/9ction is to be made betwe5 t :i* is 
desir$ & t :i* is desirable4 ,all t is  
desir$ is pleasurable1 yet mu* t is     
pleasurable has pa9 = its result1--pa9 t
 is f> great] ?an ! mom5t>y pleasure4   
,! good is (t5 consid]$ z oppos$ to !   
agreeable1 & ! bad z oppos$ to !        
disagreeable or pa9ful4 ,9 ?is case1 by 
pa9 & pleasure are und]/ood feel+s ( !  
mom5t1 by good & bad are und]/ood       
endur+1 or at lea/ long-cont9u+ causes (
 la/+ or (t-recurr+ pa9 or pleasure2    
mom5t>y pleasure may be b\ght at !      
exp5se ( long suff]+2 & %ort pa9 may be 
! condition ( ! prev5tion ( great] evil4
  ,a ?+ may be good z reg>ds "o         
individual1 bad z reg>ds ano!r4 ,a ?+ is
 truly good z reg>ds a society :5 its   

total effect has = ! society la/+       
b5eficial results1 t is1 accords ) !    
happ9ess ( ! society dur+ its :ole      
exi/5ce2 & t is = mank9d truly good :i* 
is1 9 its total effect1 b5eficial to    
pres5t & future humanity4  ,9 g5]al1 we 
may say t1 :5 we ord] our conduct by !  
?\ght to s]ve mank9d to ! be/ ( our     
ability1 we h a satisfi$ consci\sness1 a
 good consci5ce4 ,9 s f>1 !re=e1 a noble
 de$ is good = ourselves z well z =     
society4 ,! "q :e!r or n ! p]=mance (   
our duty corresponds to our greate/     
possible happ9ess1 is a diff]5t "o4 ,b !
 good man does n all[ ?is ?\ght ! *ief  
role 9 consci\sness2 he is fill$ ) !    
?\ght ( do+ 8 duty 9 devot+ himself to !
 happ9ess ( mank9d1 & !re is b "o =m ( 8
 own happ9ess :i* he w n =ego1 namely1 !
 bless$ness ( a good consci5ce4 ,?is    
consci\sness1 ?is bless$ness :i* unites 
! human be+ to mank9d1 he %\ld reg>d z 8
 highe/ good2 = x is a moral good2 & !  
dissatisfaction :i* lies 9 !            
consci\sness ( hav+ violat$ 8 duty t[>ds

 mank9d he %\ld reg>d z ! greate/ evil4 
,x may be object$ t ?is morally satisfi$
 consci\sness1 ?is sort ( joy1 _c be    
call$ a good4 ,a good is ! cause (      
pleasurable /ates ( consci\sness4 ,b x  
w\ld appe> /range to claim t joy1       
happ9ess1 are n goods1 & pa91           
unhapp9ess1 n evils2 ! t]ms good & evil 
& wor? ref] n only to joy & suff]+1 b   
also to desire & w2 & no "o d\bts t     
happ9ess is an object ( desire1 & pa9 an
 object ( av]sion4  ,f :at has be5 said 
x appe>s t happ9ess _c be def9$ z       
satisfaction ( ! desires4 ,su*          
satisfaction may h unhapp9ess z its     
result4 ,n all desires are to be        
satisfi$ simply because !y are desires4 
,! /udy ( ! hi/ory ( moral conceptions  
appe>s to %[ u t mo/ *anges 9 ?is       
prov9ce are ! result ( a *ange ( views  
conc]n+ ! effects ( actions ) reg>d to !
 welf>e ( society2 h5ce1 t !y 7 ! fruit 
( exp]i5ce4 ,?is process ( *ange takes  
place1 h[ev]1 v gradually2 ! rules :i*  
are ! result ( exp]i5ce are h&$ d[n1 = !

 mo/ "p1 )\t /atem5t ( reasons2 & only 9
 a v limit$ measure d ! new g5]ations   
labor = a progressive developm5t ( moral
 conceptions4 ,we _c wond] t a cle>     
consci\sness ( ! highe/ reasons ( moral 
precepts is seldom to be f\nd4 ,yet 9   
civiliz$ societies1 ! conviction is     
g5]al t at lea/ an av]age con=mity to   
rules ( morality is ! indisp5sable      
condition ( ! safety & ! good ( society4
 ,! answ] to ! "q3 ,:at w\ld happ5 if e 
"o 7 to act ?us8 has be5 reg>d$1 f      
e>lie/ times1 z decisive ) reg>d to !   
moral quality ( an act4  ,:5 we         
recognize t actions :i* we call good &  
bad are s call$ because ( _! causal     
relation to pa9 & pleasure1 ! belief mu/
 arise 9 u1 t ! wor? ( qualities ( "*   
dep5ds on ! promise !y conta9 ( future  
action4 ,! mo/ important p[] = !        
happ9ess or mis]y ( humanity is ! "* (  
human be+s4 ,h5ce ! morally good1       
excell5ce ( "*1 is to be reg>d$ z       
preem95tly ,good4 ,& s x appe>s t our   
in/9ctive judgm5ts are ju/ifi$ by !     

delib]ations ( calm reason4  ,! "q3 ,:y 
%all ,i act 9 accordance ) ! g5]al      
welf>e8 is answ]$ by ^! consid]ations2  
because su* action is "r & reasonable1  
enjo9$ by consci5ce & reason1 by human  
nature itself 9 its high] developm5t4   
,he :o does n recognize ?is fact1 :o    
does n f9d 9 x ! highe/ & holie/ (      
comm&m5ts1 & :o yet desires to act      
reasonably & well1 recogniz+ duties to  
all m51 does n see :at he himself really
 w4  ,! conception ( "r-do+ is ! motive 
( ! human be+1 9 s f> z he is good4 ,!  
tea*] :o desires to h moral influ5ce w  
endeavor to awak5 ?is motive 9 8 he>]s  
or read]s4 ,= ?is purpose he mu/ appeal 
to _! actual *>act]s4 ,& x is z mu* a   
petitio pr9cipii to assume1 9 ,e?ics1 ! 
exi/5ce ( moral feel+s1 z to assume1 9  
,optics1 ! exi/5ce ( sight4 ,j z !re are
 bl9d p]sons1 s !re are p]sons )\t moral
 feel+s4 ,^! are1 h[ev]1 comp>atively   
few2 "s trace ( moral feel+1 (          
consci5ce1 is to be f\nd 9 almo/ e memb]
 ( society4  ,! g5]al welf>e1 t is1 !   

greate/ possible true happ9ess ( all1 n 
! greate/ happ9ess ( ! smalle/ numb] :i*
 is (t5 ! rul+ pr9ciple ( /ate laws1 nor
 ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]   
)\t consid]ation ( ! m9ority1--is !     
highe/ e?ical crit]ion4 ,x may be       
difficult to asc]ta9 :]e9 ?is happ9ess  
consi/s2 ,b5?am dem&s1 = ! det]m9ation (
 ! wor? ( an action1 a calculation ( !  
int5sity1 duration1 c]ta9ty1 fecundity1 
& purity1 ( ! feel+s produc$ by x4 ,b ! 
happ9ess & mis]y ( mank9d is surely !   
mo/ important object ( mank9d2 x mu/ be1
 !re=e1 our highe/ c>e to asc]ta9 !     
results ( an action z f> z we are able4 
,&1 9 fact1 ! mo/ important results (   
any =m ( action are g5]ally asc]ta9able4
  ,to make endeavor aft] "o's own &     
o!rs' p]fection ! crit]ion ( morality is
 to set up a false /&>d1 a =m )\t a     
cont5t1 s9ce p]fection designates m]ely 
a /ate t accords ) "s preconceiv$       
concept or end4 ,! "q is3 ,:at end %all 
human p]fection realize8 ,! crit]ion (  
g5]al welf>e alone c def9e human        

p]fection4 ,x is su* a con/itution (    
man's bodily & spiritual *>act]i/ics z  
conduces 9 ! highe/ degree to g5]al     
happ9ess4  ,too long & detail$ a        
consid]ation ( possible results is n    
desirable 9 e case :]e action is call$  
=4 ,!re is seldom "t = a consid]ation ( 
! int5sity1 duration1 etc41 ( result+   
pa9 & pleasure4 ,x is well1 9 mo/ cases1
 to foll[ ! g5]al moral rules we h      
atta9$ to ?r\gh previ\s reflection4 ,9  
cases ( d\bt1 we ne$ to appeal to our   
highe/ crit]ion4 ,(t5 su* d\bt may be   
caus$ by selfi%ness1 by ! hidd5 desire  
to act1 aft] all1 = our own b5efit2 we  
ne$1 !re=e1 to put to ourselves ! "q3   
,h[ w\ld we judge ! action ( ano!r 9 our
 own position8 ,?us we arrive at !      
highe/ moral comm&m5t1 :i* is3 ,s act t 
?y conduct1 if made g5]al1 w\ld be = !  
good ( mank9d4 ,& ! =ce ( example is "h 
"o ( ! factors to be consid]$4  ,x has  
be5 ask$ :at "r "o has to ass]t ! rule t
 ea* "o is to c\nt = "o1 & no "o = m ?an
 "o1 9 moral decisions4 ,may n "o human 

be+'s capacity = happ9ess be great] ?an 
ano!r's1 & 8 happ9ess1 !re=e1 m to be   
consid]$8 ,x may be answ]$ t bad m5 h   
nev] be5 emb>rass$ = an excuse =        
selfi%ness1 b t ! arrogance ( reg>d+    
"o's own happ9ess z ( great] wor? ?an t 
( o!rs has br\ght incalculable h>m into 
! _w1 & t ! only safe me?od (           
calculation = ! purpose ( fur!r+ ! g5]al
 welf>e1 is ! rule above giv51--t ea* "o
 %all c\nt z "o & no m4  ,! rule t !    
greate/ possible happ9ess ( all is to be
 /riv5 =1 is an ass]tion t ! happ9ess ( 
e "o is to be consid]$1 t n t ( ! l[e/  
human be+ is to be int]f]$ ) unless su* 
int]f]5ce is necess>y 9 ord] to prev5t  
/ill great] h>m to o!rs2 & t no su*     
int]f]5ce %all be great] ?an is         
positively necess>y 9 accordance ) ?is  
aim4 ,! highe/ moral law is ?us no?+ m  
?an ! ,*ri/ian comm&m5t ( love to all   
m54 ,& ! rule ,to c\nt ea* z "o1 no m1  
may receive ! re/rictive clause 9 s f> z
 ! good ( ! :ole ( society is n dim9i%$ 
by s do+4  ,"s ,d>w9ians are incl9$ to  

reg>d ! pres]vation ( exi/5ce z !       
crit]ion by :i* to judge ! moral quality
 ( action4 ,aim = ! pres]vation ( !     
species w\ld be1 f _! /&po9t1 ! moral   
law4 ,b m]e exi/5ce is n happ9ess2 t is 
%[n by ! fact ( suicide4 ,h[ev]1 x is   
true t heal? is "o ( ! conditions (     
happ9ess4 ,pessimi/s are g5]ally m5 ( an
 unhappy temp]am5t1 (t5 ( morbid        
physical con/itution2 m$ical sci5ce mu/1
 9 its progress1 help to prev5t !       
developm5t ( su* morose dispositions4   
,want ( love may also be a cause (      
pessimism2 mo/ pessimi/s h be5 lonely   
m54 ,& want ( employm5t may also lead to
 pessimism4 ,if we foll[ ,r\sseau's     
advice n to li/5 to ^? :o are 9         
exceptional abnormal positions1 b appeal
 to ^? :o con/itute ! great majority1 we
 %all conclude t1 9 g5]al1 ! happ9ess ( 
m5 greatly exce$s _! mis]y4 ,! increase 
( suicide is (t5 us$ z an argum5t t     
civilization has n caus$ an increase1 b 
a decrease1 ( happ9ess4 ,to ?is argum5t 
x may be answ]$ t ! religi\s scruples   

:i* =m]ly )held m5 f ?is extreme /ep h  
dim9i%$1 t m5 h gr[n m self-consci\s &  
indep5d5t 9 action2 & t1 moreov]1 our   
age is "o ( unre/1 a transition-p]iod   
su* z no o!r p]iod has be54 ,:5 we      
exam9e ! lives ( tribes on a l[ plane ( 
civilization1 we f9d _! exi/5ce full (  
unc]ta9ty & ( sup]/iti\s fe>1 & at !    
m]cy ( ! =ces ( nature4 ,)\t d\bt1 mu*  
mis]y exi/s2 a great "p ( x1 h[ev]1 is  
caus$ by ! disappo9tm5t ( too extreme   
dem&s = happ9ess2 ! individual mu/ n    
require t life %all be cont9u\s rapture4
  ,! recognition ( :at "r action is1 is 
n its accompli%m5t4 ,pa9 & pleasure     
det]m9e ! w1--! pa9 & pleasure ( ! p]son
 :o wills1 s9ce he _c feel ) ! feel+s ( 
o!rs or w ) _! w any m ?an he c move )  
_! limbs4 ,he may h a conception ( !    
welf>e or suff]+ ( o!rs1 b a m]e m5tal  
image does n det]m9e ! w4 ,only :5 su* a
 conception ar\ses pleasure or pa9 9 !  
subject himself1 are w & action         
possible4  ,love consi/s 9 joy 9 ! ?\ght
 ( ! belov$ p]son1 ) joy 9 8 joy1 & pa9 

9 8 pa94 ,he :o seeks to r5d] happy "o  
:om he loves does n1 z a rule1 consid] !
 fact t he w himself h a joy 9 !        
happ9ess ( t o!r2 8 aim is to give      
pleasure1 n to himself1 b to ! o!r4 ,b !
 ?\ght ( do+ = him is comb9$ ) pleasure1
 ! ?\ght ( n do+ = him is comb9$ ) pa92 
& ^! pres5t feel+s det]m9e ! w4  ,t :i* 
di/+ui%es ! moral f ! immoral man is t1 
9 ! =m]1 ! notions ( ! "r & good r\se   
/rong feel+s1--feel+s ( pa9 at ! ?\ght (
 act+ contr>y to !m1 ( pleasure at !    
?\ght ( act+ 9 accordance ) !m1 feel+s  
:i* may ov]p[] all o!rs2 :ile 9 !       
immoral man ^! conceptions call =? no   
feel+s or only su* weak ones z (f] no   
suffici5t opposition to ! influ5ce ( o!r
 feel+s4 ,bo? m5 act f feel+1 b n f !   
same feel+s4  ,d we1 by prov+ t ! moral1
 z well z ! immoral man is det]m9$ 9 8  
action by feel+s1 %[ t ! "o approximates
 to1 or is id5tical ) ! o!r8 ,by no     
means4 ,9 t case1 ! pro( t bo? ! moral  
man & ! immoral man w ) _! own w1 & act 
?r\gh _! own limbs1 t bo? possess arms1 

h&s1 s5ses1 feel+s1 und]/&+1 9 %ort1 t  
bo? are human be+s1 mu/ %[1 9 ! same    
mann]1 an approximation ( ! moral to !  
immoral man4 ,a p]ceptive1 intellectual1
 objective side1 & an emotional1 inn]1  
subjective side are to be di/+ui%$ 9 all
 action2 & only ! confusion ( ! two has 
l$ to ! fancy t1 ) ! pro( t all action  
proce$s f ! pa9 or pleasure ( ! p]son :o
 wills1 x is %[n t all action1 e human  
be+1 is selfi%1 & t unselfi%ness is a   
figm5t ( ! imag9ation4 ,x is n ! expect$
 pleasure t moves ! w2 x is only :5 !   
conception ( future happ9ess or mis]y   
awak5s pres5t feel+s /rong] ?an o!r     
pres5t feel+s :i* w\ld move ! w 9 ano!r 
direction1 t will+ & action c foll[ 9   
accordance ) t conception4 ,h5ce1 !re is
 no?+ s rem>kable 9 ! sacrifice ( "o's  
own happ9ess4 ,x is n morally desirable 
t self-love %\ld be weak1 b only t      
consci5ce & g5]al b5evol5ce %\ld be     
/rong] /ill4  ,_m :o h recogniz$ !      
reality ( sympa?y & b5evol5ce h n reg>d$
 !m z prim>y b z evolv$ f egoism4       

,h[ev]1 if ! ^w egoism is to h a di/9ct 
mean+1 x mu/ be int]pret$ z ! consci\s  
pref]5ce ( "o's own good to t ( o!rs4 ,b
 ) self-consci\sness is likewise        
develop$ ! consci\sness ( o!r be+s1 & ! 
latt]1 z ! =m]1 clo!s itself ) feel+s--)
 egoi/ic feel+s1 & ) sympa!tic feel+s z 
well4  ,x is fur!r to be rem>k$ t ! pro(
 t an action is dis9t]e/$1 is no pro( ( 
its moral wor?4 ,! wor/ action1--an     
action ( pure cruelty1 envy1 or hatr$1  
may be dis9t]e/$1 t is1 x may h = its   
end ! pa9 ( ano!r )\t consid]ation ( !  
advantage ( ! do]4  ,! effects1 z pa9 or
 pleasure1 ( conduct oppos$ to1 or 9    
h>mony )1 civil or moral law1 9 s f> z  
su* effects c be pr$ict$ &1 z ?us       
pr$ict$1 !y influ5ce ! w1 are call$     
,sanctions4 ,"o may di/+ui% betwe5 a    
physical1 a political1 a social1 a      
sympa!tic1 & a moral sanction4 ,d\btless
 ! conduct recomm5d$ by self-love1 z a  
result ( ^! sanctions1 co9cides1 to a v 
l>ge ext5t1 to a l>g] ext5t ?an egoi/s 9
 ! rule p]ceive1 ) t :i* ! good (       

society dem&s2 b x is j z c]ta9 t1 9 _m 
cases1 ! way ( selfi% cunn+ & t ( virtue
 div]ge4 ,! out] sanctions d n insure ! 
co9cid5ce ( duty & "o's own happ9ess2   
nor does ! sympa!tic sanction secure    
?is1 = sympa?y is (t5 on ! side oppos$  
to duty4 ,!re is b "o sanction :i* is   
ev] on ! side ( action 9 accordance )   
duty3 ! moral sanction1 ! peace & joy   
:i* accompany ! k ( hav+ done "r4 ,duty 
& self-int]e/ co9cide ! m ne>ly1 ! bett]
 & m unanim\s ! v>i\s sanctions are1 &1 
especially1 ! m /rongly ! moral feel+s  
are develop$ 9 a society2 "o ( ! tasks  
society has to set itself is to labor = 
! greate/ possible concord ( duty &     
self-int]e/4 ,b ?is h>mony w nev] become
 an absolutely p]fect "o &              
self-sacrifice impossible4 ,man ne$s1   
!re=e1 "s end :i* %all dep5d ^u himself 
alone1 if he is to be kept f            
disc\ragem5t & despair4 ,su* an end is !
 consci\sness ( "r-do+4 ,he :o *ooses   
?is z highe/ end mu/ devote himself to !
 s]vice ( mank9d1 z well z he :o makes !

 advancem5t ( ! good ( mank9d 8 end4 ,! 
?\ght ( ?is end w prev5t him f be+ bl9d$
 by self-int]e/ 9 answ]+ ! "q z to :at  
"r & duty are1 & w also pres]ve him f   
p]mitt+ himself "o or ! o!r pet s9 "u ! 
excuse t he w atone = x by o!r good     
actions2 x w compel him to ! endeavor to
 fulfil e duty4 ,& ?\gh he may n be     
p]fectly happy1 he w be happi] ?an ! man
 :o makes ! good ( humanity 8 end2 s9ce 
he is less dep5d5t ^u out] ev5ts4       
,b5evol5ce & consci5ce are n ! same4 ,! 
latt] con/ra9s u to d "r1 t is1 to p]=m 
actions ! expect$ results ( :i* are 9   
h>mony ) ! g5]al welf>e2 x has atta9$   
its end :5 ! "r action is p]=m$1 & x has
 fail$ to atta9 its end :5 ?is aim is   
fru/rat$4 ,man has a deep inn] long+ =  
happ9ess ( "s sort4 ,:5 he does n f9d x 
^u e>?1 he seeks x 9 "s o!r _w4 ,he has 
(t5 a deep inn] ye>n+ = hol9ess1 & a    
secret dissatisfaction 9 8 own conduct4 
,e?ics satisfies ?is d\ble long+ 9      
comm&+ him to r5\nce 8 greate/ happ9ess 
& endeavor to atta9 moral bless$ness1 ! 

happ9ess ( hol9ess4  ,p]haps "s "o may  
object t ?is is a selfi% view ( ! moral 
life4 ,is x selfi% to r5\nce "o's       
greate/ happ9ess 9 ord] to atta9 only   
peace ( consci5ce8 ,t no "o 7 )\t su*   
selfi%ness6 ,he :o sets himself ?is end 
w act bett]1 m 9 accordance ) ! good (  
humanity1 ?an he :o makes ! advancem5t (
 human welf>e 8 ultimate aim4 ,h5ce !   
human be+ %\ld *oose ?is end4 ,!re=e1 ! 
highe/ moral comm&m5t1 ! ,categorical   
,imp]ative1 receives ?is =m3 ,/rive to  
atta9 peace ( consci5ce 9 devot+ ?yself 
to ! s]vice ( mank9d4  ,by "r we und]/& 
:at is 9 con=mity ) a /&>d ( action :i* 
we recognize1 by wrong1 :at is 9        
opposition to x4 ,! recognition &       
application ( ! /&>d belong to ! reason4
 ,b n to reason alone2 e rule is !      
outcome ( feel+s2 & ?is is ! reason :y  
ideas ( "r possess ! p[] ( motives4     
,judgm5t ( action may take place 9 two  
ways3 imm$iately1 ?r\gh ! feel+2 &      
m$iately1 ?r\gh moral rules1 ! adoption 
( :i*1 h[ev]1 presupposes feel+4        

,accord+ to ! disposition1 ! education1 
! circum/ances1 ( a man1 ! "o or ! o!r  
=m ( judgm5t prevails4 ,! words         
obligation1 comm&m5t1 duty1 law1 express
 ! fact t some?+ lies )\t ! m]e free    
pleasure ( ! act+ individual1 is )drawn 
f its sph]e4  ,x has be5 said t a       
di/9ction is to be made betwe5 duty & ! 
s5se ( duty--t an objective duty /ill   
exi/s1 ev5 :5 no correspond+ inn] s5se (
 duty is pres5t4 ,?is m]ely means t "s  
"o else 9 di/9ction f ! act+ p]son      
recognizes a moral law1 by :i* he may   
blame ! action4 ,duties are actions     
sanction$ by "o or ano!r sort (         
puni%m5t4 ,! moral sanction is          
self-blame4 ,b n ! p]=m] ( an act alone1
 o!rs also1 pron\nce judgm5t on 8       
action1 & 9 ! rule !re exi/s a great] or
 less h>mony betwe5 8 judgm5t & t (     
o!rs4 ,to self-condemnation is add$ !   
consci\sness ( hav+ des]v$ ! blame (    
o!rs4  ,human actions are n only an     
object ( displeasure or ( indiff]5ce1 b 
also ( praise1 gratitude1 love1         

admiration4 ,actions :i* reveal a "*    
above ! av]age are reg>d$ z m]itori\s   
accord+ to ! measure ( _! sup]iority2 !y
 des]ve recognition1 respect1 praise1   
honor4  ,?ree classes ( actions to :i*  
public op9ion applies its sanction may  
be di/+ui%$3 actions blam$2 ^? ! neglect
 ( :i* is blam$2 & ^? :i* are prais$4 ,!
 fir/ two classes1 sanction$ by a       
puni%m5t1 are reg>d$ z duty2 ! la/      
class1 sanction$ by at lea/ m5tal rew>d1
 are actions ( des]t4 ,actions !        
omission ( :i* is puni%$ or blam$ are n 
actions ( des]t1 b ( duty & obligation4 
,! b\nd>y-l9e betwe5 duty & des]t is n  
fix$ & def9ite2 9 ! measure 9 :i* !     
moral condition ( a society is p]fect$1 
! prov9ce ( t :i* is reg>d$ z duty is   
ext5d$ into t :i* 0 =m]ly reg>d$ z      
des]t4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 duty & des]t 
has1 9 g5]al1 only an outw>d            
significance2 x has reg>d to ! relation 
to o!rs1 to ! social sanction4 ,! moral 
human be+ does n inquire :at entitles   
him to praise1 b simply :at is "r2 & he 

does n comp>e himself ) o!rs b ) 8 moral
 ideal4 ,h5ce he recognizes1 ) reg>d to 
himself1 only duty1 n des]t4 ,he aspires
 to atta91 n ! approbation ( o!rs1 b 8  
own1 & he atta9s ?is only :5 he has done
 t :i* he holds to be ! be/ possible4   
,! moral significance ( ! outw>d        
sanction lies 9 its educat+ influ5ce2 x 
acts z c\nt]poise to incl9ation to      
action oppos$ to ! moral law1 &         
facilitates1 ?us1 ! victory ( ! moral   
motives1 :i* increase 9 /r5g? ?r\gh use4
 ,if x is true t a condition ( het]onomy
 always prec$es t ( autonomy1 !n ! out] 
sanction is ! indisp5sable condition ( !
 evolution ( moral feel+s4  ,x has      
sometimes be5 said t ! human be+ is "u  
obligation to o!rs only4 ,b x seems t   
?is view has proce$$ f a confusion ( !  
moral ) ! juridic significance ( ! ^w   
duty4 ,x is n to be d\bt$ t !           
consci\sness ( duty w\ld n develop 9 an 
individual :o grew up 9 solitude1--b    
spee* & reason likewise w\ld n become 84
 ,! law ( morality applies n only to    

social conduct b also to conduct hav+   
ref]5ce to self4  ,by moral law is n    
meant a law 9 ! s5se t x is impos$ on   
human be+s f )\t1 by ano!r2 x is exactly
 ! peculi>ity ( ! moral law t x is      
self-impos$ z ! voice ( consci5ce4      
,virtue is relat$ to duty z ! endur+    
*>act]i/ic to ! s+le action1 or ! la/+ w
 to obligation1 to ! ought2 virtue is a 
disposition to act 9 accordance ) duty4 
,vice is a *>act]i/ic :i* cont9ually    
det]m9es actions oppos$ to duty4  ,!re  
may be exceptional cases :]e vice is    
innate1 z is idiocy or insanity1 b !    
records ( prisons & re=matories :]e a   
moral influ5ce has be5 attempt$1 %[ u t 
g]ms ( good may exi/ ev5 9 ^? app>5tly  
:olly giv5 ov] to vice4 ,x is true t !  
capacity = moral education is n>r[$ ) e 
add$ ye> ( life2 b x is impossible = u  
to say1 ) c]ta9ty1 h[ great ?is decrease
 ( capacity may be4#gi  ,! mo/ ess5tial 
influ5ce = moral bett]m5t is t :i* !    
p]sonality ( an e>ne/ human be+ ex]ts by
 example & precept4 ,! awak5+ & /r5g!n+ 

( good impulses is n1 h[ev]1 ! imm$iate 
de/ruction ( ! bad2 & /ruggle is (t5    
necess>y if ! good %all conqu]4 ,! m    
frequ5t ! victory1 ! easi] x becomes4 ,e
 virtue c be acquir$ at lea/ 9 "s       
degree1 if ! wi% to acquire x be        
suffici5tly /rong & p]si/5t4  ,b al?\gh 
su* /ruggle z ?is is (t5 necess>y1      
exactly ! sign ( ! atta9m5t ( virtue    
consi/s 9 ! abs5ce ( self-compulsion2 by
 ?is abs5ce1 its p]fection is measur$4  
,! ass]tion1 occasionally he>d1 t virtue
 is 9 proportion to /ruggle1 am\nts to !
 contradictory ass]tion t ! m p]fect !  
man is1 ! less is 8 virtue4 ,! tru?s    
:i*1 imp]fectly compreh5d$1 lead to ?is 
op9ion1 are ^!3 ,we di/+ui% by ! "n (   
virtue t moral con/itution :i* rises    
above ! av]age4 ,x is presuppos$1 h[ev]1
 t its possessor has1 9 g5]al1 !        
impulses & capacities belong+ to human  
nature2 he c\ld n be call$ temp]ate 9   
any p>ticul> direction1 if he did n     
possess ! capacity ( enjoym5t :i* leads 
_m to intemp]ance4 ,moreov]1 ! control (

 /rong impulses f a desire to d "r      
presupposes a /rong s5se ( duty2 & x is 
on acc\nt ( ?is s5se ( duty t we respect
 a man4 ,b if an individual di/+ui%$ by 
a /rong s5se ( duty gradually succe$s 9 
temp]+ 8 impulses & ridd+ himself ( 8   
faults1 8 virtue is n less1 b m p]fect4 
,& f9ally1 ! fact is also to be tak5    
into consid]ation t1 :ile "o _c         
necess>ily conclude1 f a man's innate   
love = "s especial class ( good actions1
 t he w d 8 duty 9 o!r directions also1 
?is is an inf]5ce :i* c be drawn :]e    
actions are p]=m$ f a s5se ( duty4  ,a  
c]ta9 degree ( intellig5ce is a         
condition ( virtue2 a be+ )\t reason is 
n a moral be+1 z ! animal is n2 b       
morality requires only av]age human     
intellig5ce4  ,!re is no great] error   
?an ! op9ion t virtue is n conc]n$ )    
action2 = virtue is excell5ce ( "* :i*  
leads to "r action2 action is ! te/ (   
moral wor?4  ,9 old5 times1 an attempt 0
 (t5 made to set up "o especial =m ( "* 
z univ]sal ideal4 ,su* an attempt is    

inju/ifiable1 s9ce ! nature &           
circum/ances ( individuals diff]4 ,9    
morality1 too1 !re may be orig9ality4   
,9 ! judgm5t ( an action1 two que/ions  
mu/ be di/+ui%$3 ! "q :e!r ! action is  
"r or wrong1 & ! "q z to :at inf]5ce    
%all be drawn f x ) reg>d to ! "* ( !   
p]=m]4  ,9 ! action1 !re mu/ be di/+ui%$
 ! foll[+ po9ts3 ! movem5t ( ! body2 !  
results ( ! act2 ! act ( ! w2 ! int5t2 !
 pres5ce or abs5ce ( a conviction t !   
action w n h evil results2 ! "p ( !     
int5t will$1 n m]ely z means b z end2 & 
! inc5tive1 or feel+ f :i* ! action     
spr+s4 ,! *ief end & ! inc5tive toge!r  
are (t5 call$ ! motive4 ,! movem5t ( !  
body is n an object ( moral judgm5t1 z  
are n1 also1 ! out] results ( ! action z
 su*4 ,nor is a m]e act ( ! w z su*1 b  
its nature1 ( moral importance4  ,no    
human motive or inc5tive is1 9 itself1  
bad4 ,n ev5 ang] & hatr$ are 9 !mselves 
evil2 s9ce wra? aga9/ wrong is          
ju/ifiable4 ,yet motives are by no means
 morally ( ! same wor?2 :ile :]e motives

 direct$ to ! good ( ! individual are at
 "w1 ! action w be1 9 n9e cases out (   
t51 9 accordance ) ! g5]al good2 x w be1
 let u say1 9 n9e cases out ( t51       
contr>y to ! g5]al good :]e motives (   
malevol5ce are active4 ,& = ?is reason !
 motive 9 ! s+le case gives u a clue to 
! "*4 ,!re exi/s a c]ta9 /ability ( "*  
:i* makes x likely t ! individual :o    
acts out ( good motives on "o occasion w
 d s aga94 ,( greate/ wor? are ! motives
 :i* spr+ f desire = ! g5]al good2 ^!   
are moral motives4 ,actions may be "r1  
yet immoral1 & moral yet wrong4 ,yet !  
!ory t ! objective judgm5t ( an action1 
& ! judgm5t ( ! "* ( ! do] h no?+ 9     
common is errone\s2 = 9 bo? cases !     
highe/ gr\nd ( reasonable judgm5t is !  
same2 namely1 ! g5]al good4  ,blame is n
 m]ely = ! sake ( prev5tion ?r\gh fe>2  
s9ce we may blame a de$ & n its do]4 ,:5
 a man does :at we consid] wrong "u !   
impression t he is act+ = ! g5]al good1 
we d n endeavor to fright5 him f 8      
conduct by blame1 b to conv9ce him ( 8  

error4  ,b ! significance ( ! motives ( 
an action does n lie m]ely 9 our inf]5ce
 f !m to ! "* ( ! do]2 f ! actual1 or   
inf]r$1 motives ( ! action spr+ its mo/ 
important results2 namely1 its influ5ce 
^u ! morality ( human be+s4 ,e moral    
action reacts = good ^u ! p]=m]1 /r5g!n+
 8 t5d5cy to su* conduct2 & x is1       
besides1 an incit+ example4  ,x is n    
necess>y = morality t all actions %\ld  
take place directly f desire = ! g5]al  
good1 b only t ! belief be pres5t t !y  
are 9 h>mony ) ! g5]al good2 duty ne$ n 
be ! only motive1 b simply ! rul+ "o2 "o
 may act imm$iately f o!r motives4  ,!  
ae/hetic judgm5t ( a "* is to be        
di/+ui%$ f ! moral judgm5t ( x4 ,mu* t  
pleases "o ae/hetically 9 "* is morally 
indiff]5t2 & mu* t is morally ( !       
greate/ wor? has little or no ae/hetic  
value4 ,! talk ( an id5tity ( !         
beautiful & ! good has caus$ mu*        
confusion4  ,?+s h p>ticul> qualities   
accord+ to :i* !y affect u & are        
affect$4 ,all t ,i c pr$icate ( ?+s1 all

 _! be+ is _! effect4 ,& :5 ,i say t a  
c]ta9 ?+1 z long z x does n *ange1 w1 "u
 ! same circum/ances1 op]ate 9 ! same   
way1 ,i ass]t m]ely t ?is c]ta9 ?+1 z   
long z x rema9s un*ang$1 is ?is c]ta9   
?+4 ,x may (t5 be difficult or          
impossible to det]m9e :e!r or n ! ?+ has
 *ang$1 b if x has n *ang$1 x mu/1 "u ! 
same circum/ances1 op]ate 9 ! same mann]
 z =m]ly4 ,z ev]y?+ is1 at ea* mom5t1 a 
def9ite ?+1 s is also e human be+2 he   
has def9ite qualities1 & if ^! d n      
*ange1 nei!r does 8 action "u ! same    
circum/ances2 if x c\ld *ange1 he w\ld  
act accord+ to t :i* he is n4  ,diff]5t 
individuals h diff]5t innate t5d5cies2 &
 diff]+ circum/ances develop simil>     
t5d5cies 9 diff]5t ways4 ,! hi/ory ( !  
human be+ is 8 "*1 if we add :at he has 
inh]it$ to 8 own hi/ory4 ,to reflect ^u 
human nature is to assume its con=mity  
to law2 to d5y su* con=mity involves    
ceas+ f ?\ght on x2 = ?\ght means !     
conclusion ( l f l4 ,?\gh ! action ( !  
human be+ dep5ds1 9 a high degree1 ^u   

circum/ances1 we c (t5 pr$ict1 f a k ( 8
 "*1 ! g5]al nature ( 8 action4 ,& if   
our expectation %\ld be1 = once1        
disappo9t$1 we d n say t 8 "* has       
sudd5ly pass$ into its opposite1 b t we 
_h an insuffici5t k ( ! circum/ances1 or
 t we imput$ to him a "* :i* he did n   
really possess4 ,we h ?us to di/+ui% two
 gr\ps ( facts 9 ! contemplation ( a    
p>ticul> action3 ! pres5t con/itution ( 
! do] ( ! action1 & t ( ! outw>d        
circum/ances conc]n$2 if a *ange occurs 
9 ei!r1 ! conduct w also *ange4 ,crim9al
 /ati/ics are evid5ce ( ! effects (     
simil> circum/ances ^u simil> *>act]s4  
,^? :o d5y ! action ( cause & effect 9 !
 conduct ( m5 z contradictory ( fre$om1 
_c ref] to physical or political lib]ty1
 s9ce ! abs5ce ( ^! does n involve !    
abs5ce ( cause & effect4 ,! free w :i*  
is said to be peculi> to ! human be+ & n
 possess$ by ! animals1 is an abs5ce (  
subjection to ! impressions ( ! mom5t1 &
 ?is has be5 reg>d$ z an activity ( pure
 reason4 ,b1 z ,hoeffd+ says1 ! conte/ (

 ! reason ) ! passions is really a      
conte/ betwe5 feel+s comb9$ )           
reflections ( reason & o!r viol5t feel+s
 t are comb9$ ) few ?\ght-elem5ts4 ,?is 
free w is ! capacity ( reflection ga9$  
by exp]i5ce4 ,x is n a negation ( cause 
& effect1 = ! act ( ! w is det]m9$ by ! 
feel+s1 ?\ghts1 incl9ations1 :i* prec$e 
x2 x may be det]m9$ by reflection z     
oppos$ to ! impressions ( ! mom5t4 ,! ^w
 fre$om is also us$ to d5ote moral      
fre$om1 or ! fre$om f det]m9ation by    
immoral motives2 9 su* case1 h[ev]1     
moral motives det]m9e4  ,b x mu/ be     
rememb]$ t ! natural law ( cause &      
effect is n l a law 9 ! s5se ( !        
political law2 x is n some?+ impos$ f ! 
outside4 ,natural laws are rules =m$ by 
m5 to express ! regul>ity ( ev5ts 9 "o  
s5t5ce2 ?+s d n obey ! laws1 b ! laws   
are accord+ to ?+s4 ,:5 we say3 ,gunp[d]
 mu/ explode :5 x comes 9 contact ) a   
flame1 ! explosion is necess>y2 we d n  
mean t ! gunp[d] is compell$1 "u c]ta9  
circum/ances1 to explode2 x explodes (  

its own ess5tial nature4 ,necessity     
designates1 n a /ate ( ?+s1 b a /ate ( !
 und]/&+ reg>d+ !m4 ,! same is true ( ! 
words possible & accid5tal4 ,! accid5tal
 is ! un9t5tional4 ,! bullet :i*        
accid5tally kill$ a man 0 n s5t ) !     
int5tion ( kill+ him4 ,or accid5t is us$
 ( t ) reg>d to :i* we are ignorant & _c
 pr$ict2 ! ^w does n1 9 ?is s5se ei!r1  
d5ote an abs5ce ( cause4 ,objectively1  
no?+ is possible2 ei!r x is1 or x is n4 
,great confusion is1 h[ev]1 caus$ by a  
want ( cle>ness 9 ! int]pretation ( !   
words possible1 impossible1 necess>y1   
etc41 ) reg>d to ! w4 ,:5 ,i say3 ,x is 
possible = ! good man to p]=m ev5 ! wor/
 action1 he c p]=m x2 &3 ,x is n        
possible = ! good man to p]=m a bad act1
 he _c d x2 ,i use ! words possible & c 
9 two q diff]5t s5ses4 ,! fir/ s5t5ce   
means3 ,ev5 ! be/ man c p]=m ! wor/ act 
if he w2 ! second3 ,! good man nev] has 
! w2 x foll[s f 8 nature t he does n    
possess x2 x w\ld be a                  
self-contradiction to say t he has x4 ,!

 human be+ c d ?is or t if he wills1    
provid$ no out] =ce opposes 8 w2 b :e!r 
he wills or n dep5ds ^u 8 "*4 ,8 w is n 
uncaus$4  ,x has be5 said t "o %\ld n   
all[ himself to be det]m9$1 b %\ld      
himself det]m9e 8 act4 ,?is ass]tion    
makes self some?+ di/9ct f "o's ?\ghts &
 feel+s4 ,free w has also be5 int]pret$ 
z *oice betwe5 motives4 ,! human be+    
does n1 h[ev]1 *oose betwe5 motives b   
betwe5 acts1 & 8 *oice is free 9 t he c1
 z has be5 said1 *oose ?is or t act if  
he w2 b 8 *oice is n ! less caus$4 ,:51 
9 reflection on a pa/ act1 ! human be+  
says to himself3 ,x 0 possible = me to  
act o!rwise1 he means1 z a rule1 simply3
 ,if ,i _h ?\ght z ,i d n[1 ,i %\ld n h 
act$ ?us2 b ,i did n ?9k z ,i d n[4 ,!  
delusion t he might h act$ diff]5tly "u 
! same out] circum/ances & ) ! same     
?\ghts & feel+s1 arises f ! difficulty (
 realiz+1 f 8 pres5t /&po9t1 8 position 
at ! "t ( action4 ,x may1 inde$1 seem to
 u1 aft] we h *os5 a c]ta9 c\rse1 t     
ano!r 0 ! easi]2 b c x be possible t "o 

pref]r$ ! =m] c\rse :5 he yet really    
pref]r$ ! latt]8 ,x is ! /ronge/ motive 
t det]m9es ! action4 ,or1 if x be       
object$ to ?is ass]tion1 t our only     
crit]ion ( ! /r5g? ( motives is _!      
effect z ov]com+ o!r motives1 ! ass]tion
 t ! w foll[s ! /ronge/ motive w\ld /ill
 exclude accid5t 9 *oice2 ! ass]tion    
w\ld am\nt to ?is3 t ! motive :i*       
det]m9es ! w 9 ! "o in/ance w always1 "u
 ! same out] & inn] circum/ances1       
det]m9e x4 ,s ,mill rem>ks t1 :5 we say 
t ! heavi] weight w weigh d[n ! o!r1 we 
und]/& by heavi] weight1 m]ely ! "o :i* 
w weigh d[n ! o!r4 ,nev]!less1 ! s5t5ce 
is n s5seless1 s9ce x means t !re is1 9 
_m or mo/ cases1 a heavi] weight1 & t   
its action is always ! same4 ,education 
by o!rs1 & self-education w\ld be       
useless1 if ! same ?\ghts & feel+s c\ld1
 "u ! same circum/ances1 produce n[ ?is1
 n[ t totally diff]5t result1 & n always
 ! same "o4  ,kant's doctr9e ( fre$om   
includes practical fre$om 7:i* is n1    
accord+ to 8 def9ition1 oppos$ to       

causality7 & transc5d5tal fre$om2 he    
seems1 h[ev]1 n always to h kept !      
di/9ction betwe5 ! two cle>ly 9 view4 ,8
 !ory ( transc5d5tal fre$om is gr\nd$ ^u
 ! doctr9e ( ! pure ideality ( "t4 ,!   
only me?od ( sav+ ! doctr9e ( fre$om is1
 accord+ to ,kant1 ! !ory t ! law (     
necessity applies to ?+s z ph5om5a b n  
to ?+s 9 !mselves4 ,if ph5om5a are n to 
be reg>d$ z ?+s 9 !mselves1 b z m]e     
?\ght-images1 !y mu/ !mselves h reasons 
:i* are n ph5om5a4 ,su* a cause = pure  
reason#hj is n det]m9$ by ph5om5a1      
al?\gh its effects appe> z ph5om5a4 ,!  
causal action ( reason does n h a beg9n+
 9 "t1 b is ! con/ant condition1 outside
 "t1 ( all free action ( ! w4  ,kant    
fail$1 h[ev]1 to prove ! pure ideality (
 "t1 z ,riehl has suffici5tly %[n4      
,moreov]1 7 ! intelligibile "* ( reason 
! cause ( action z ph5om5on1 !re w\ld be
 no possibility ( moral improvem5t1 s9ce
 ! n\m5on is n affect$ by ph5om5a1--an  
inf]5ce :i* ,s*op5hau] makes 9 adopt+   
,kant's !ory4 ,moreov]1 if space has1 z 

,kant also assumes1 transc5d5tal        
ideality1 plurality is n conceivable2   
h5ce1 ! moral diff]5ce ( *>act]s1 & !   
sci5ce ( ,e?ics itself1 c\ld h no       
transc5d5tal significance4 ,x is evid5t 
t ,kant argues f ! /&po9t ( an          
assumption ( a s\l-?+1 a con/ant        
sub/ratum ( psy*ical ph5om5a1--a /&po9t 
:i* he himself criticizes4 ,he id5tifies
 ?is ?+-9-itself1 moreov]1 ) ! reason1  
al?\gh he himself decl>es t ! concept ( 
! ?+-9-itself is b a concept limit+     
reason4#ha ,he makes ! reason a         
?+-9-itself outside "t1 al?\gh x is an  
activity1 a process ( consci\sness 9 "t4
 ,! ?\ght ( duty1 ( ! categorical       
imp]ative1 is a ph5om5on1 & if ! w is   
det]m9$ !reby1 x is det]m9$ by some?+ 9 
"t4 ,kant takes b little acc\nt1        
moreov]1 ( ! fact ( bir?4 ,is !         
intelligibile "* born8 ,if s1 x is      
prec$$ by some?+ 9 "t2 if n1 x mu/ be   
et]nal1 exi/+ be=e bir? z well z aft]   
dea?4 ,& h[ c he ass]t1 too1 t an action
 might h be5 o!r ?an x 01 if x dep5d$ ^u

 ! con/itution ( ! intelligibile "*1 &  
?is is z x is1 & op]ates z x is8        
,s*op5hau]'s argum5t = transc5d5tal     
fre$om conta9s _m self-contradictions1 &
 is f\nd$ on ! fiction ( a fir/ free    
*oice ( "*4 ,s*op5hau] ass]ts1 h[ev]1 t 
"* is innate4 ,if s1 h[ is x *os58 ,!   
!ory assumes t "o is be=e he is4 ,an act
 ( *oice presupposes a *oos]1 &1 accord+
 to 8 own words1 ,e exi/5tia presupposes
 an ess5tia2 t is1 e exi/5ce mu/ h a    
p>ticul> be+1 ess5ce4  ,acc\ntability   
assumes t "s "o is held answ]able = an  
action or ev5t1 & is1 z answ]able1      
am5able to puni%m5t4 ,! puni%m5t may be 
"o ( law1 ( society1 or a moral         
puni%m5t4 ,! concept ( responsibility is
 closely alli$ to t ( acc\ntability2 x  
assumes1 9 g5]al1 t a p]son is ! au?or (
 a de$4 ,responsibility may be imm$iate1
 :5 ! au?or ( ! de$ 0 also its p]=m]1 or
 m$iate1 :5 ! p]=m] 0 ano!r p]son4      
,remorse is pa9 at ! recognition ( !    
immorality ( a pa/ action4 ,) ! pa9 is  
(t5 connect$ ! wi% t ! action _h n be5  

p]=m$4 ,?is wi% is naturally            
unreasonable1 s9ce x is direct$ to !    
impossible4 ,yet x is n idle1 z         
,s*op5hau] ass]ts1 s9ce x has an effect 
^u future action4 ,!re is (t5 also an   
egoi/ic regret1 or "o n call$ =?        
especially by ! consci5ce1 = a pa/      
action4 ,?is may or may n be moral1     
accord+ z x is or is n 9 h>mony ) !     
g5]al welf>e4  ,! fri5ds ( ! !ory (     
*ance z reg>ds ! w h ass]t$ t %ame1     
remorse1 w\ld be impossible1 if ! human 
be+ recogniz$ ! fact t 8 act 0 necess>y4
 ,!y h neglect$1 h[ev]1 to give any     
reasons = ?is rem>kable ass]tion4 ,if a 
man recognizes t ! con/itution ( 8 m9d 0
 su* z to lead unavoidably to vici\s    
acts1 ?is is ! /ronge/ motive =         
condemnation ( 8 own moral con/itution1 
= pa9 at x1 & an endeavor to bett] x4 ,b
 if ! act _h no necess>y f\ndation 9 8  
"*1 if x 0 m]ely an accid5t t 8 w *ose  
?us1 !n1 s9ce ! act is pa/ & !re is no  
reason = draw+ conclusions f x ) reg>d  
to future action1 h[ does x conc]n him8 

,blame & puni%m5t1 z well z self-blame1 
h reg>d to "* & s to ! future4 ,acts are
 n blamewor?y & puni%able if !y h no    
cause4 ,puni%m5t is inflict$ f two      
motives3 z a prev5tive1 & z an          
expression ( ! felt ne$ ( retribution4  
,orig9ally1 mank9d puni%$ f a desire =  
rev5ge4 ,?is is n ! moral motive4 ,n !  
crim9al alone1 b ! :ole con/itution (   
society1 is responsible = 8 crime4 ,if1 
!n1 puni%m5t is all[able = ! sake (     
prev5tion1 x _c1 z an evil1 be          
p]missible fur!r ?an is 9 accordance )  
?is end4 ,puni%m5t ( ! insane c\ld be   
ju/ifi$ only 9 case x c\ld prev5t       
insanity4  ,nor is des]t bas$ ^u an     
uncaus$ "* ( ! w4 ,we d n admire1       
praise1 & rew>d great g5ius ! less      
because g5ius is inborn2 nor d we admire
 ! moral man ! less because 8 fa!r be=e 
him 0 di/+ui%$ by de$s ( philan?ropy4   
,we admire him = :at he is4  ,! doctr9e 
( causality 9 human action is f> f be+  
:at x is sometimes call$1 a doctr9e (   
fatalism4 ,fatalism assumes t1 :atev] a 

man may d1 a p[] outside him det]m9es ! 
ev5t2 b ! recognition ( cause & effect 9
 human action is ! recognition ( ! fact 
t ! actions ( human be+s are nev] )\t   
result4  ,x is (t5 said t morality is   
f\nd$ ^u religion4 ,assum+ t1 by        
religion1 is meant ! belief 9 a p]sonal 
,god & 9 ! immortality ( ! s\l1 is ?is  
true8  ,if a mighty tyrant comm&$ a man 
to d :at 0 contr>y to 8 consci5ce1 if he
 promis$ ri* rew>d = ob$i5ce & fe>ful   
torture = disob$i5ce1 w\ld ob$i5ce !re=e
 be moral8 ,:y is x repres5t$ z wrong to
 foll[ ,satan's comm&s & "r to foll[    
,god's w8 ,evid5tly n because ,god is   
mighty b because he is good1 & ,satan is
 bad4 ,b if x is1 ?us1 a matt] ( duty1 &
 n m]ely "o ( selfi% cunn+1 to obey     
,god's w1 !n 8 w mu/ be direct$ to !    
good2 & ?is presupposes ! good to be    
some?+ 9 itself1 )\t reg>d to ! fact t  
,god wills x4 ,if ,god is a moral be+1  
?is mu/ be s4  ,?is is1 9 fact1 an      
assumption :i* ! moral memb]s ( society 
h1 9 g5]al1 made4 ,!y boa/ ( ! morals ( 

_! religion1 comp>+ x1 9 ?is respect1 ) 
o!r religions2 & ?us !y subject x to !  
te/ ( morality4 ,moreov]1 :5 we exam9e !
 ,*ri/ian gospel1 we f9d t x 9 g5]al    
assumes ! moral laws z already exi/5t & 
only urges ob$i5ce to !m4 ,! good is1 z 
we h se51 t :i* conduces to ! g5]al     
welf>e4 ,! e>lie/ religions _h no       
connection ) rules ( morality2 ^! h     
develop$ ) ! social life ( human be+s & 
h1 9 x1 _! root4  ,z to ! belief 9      
immortality1 _c ! human be+ d "r )\t !  
?\ght ( ! rew>d & puni%m5t ( ano!r life8
 ,z a matt] ( fact1 _m good m5 h n      
possess$ su* a belief4 ,! di/ance ( su* 
an end (t5 makes its effect a weak "o1 &
 ! motive may easily become selfi%4 ,yet
 x is true t a loss ( fai? may include a
 loss ( morality1 9 case ! belief exi/ t
 !re is no basis = morality outside     
religion2 ! responsibility ( su* a loss 
( morality lies ) ^? :o tea* ?is latt]  
doctr9e4 ,?r\gh love to o!rs & ! ?\ght (
 ! immortality ( influ5ce1 ! moral man  
ga9s a l>g] life & loses ! fe> ( dea?4  

,he :o has ?us fac$ ! ?\ght ( dea? f9ds 
life m e>ne/ b n less happy4 ,ea* h\r   
has n ! less its own joy because !re is 
an end1 at la/4 ,nor1 9 spite ( ! deep  
pa9 ! loss ( fri5ds causes u1 d we lose 
!m :olly1 s9ce ! memory ( all t 0 be/ 9 
!m may rema9 ) u4 ,our own pa9 may br+  
to u a deep] sympa?y )1 & love =1 o!rs4 
,if we are able to love ! good 9 ,god1  
we may also le>n to love ! good 9 ^?    
ab\t u1 & be incit$1 by x1 to emulation4
 ,! love ( ! good 9 m5 has always _h    
/rong] effect ?an love = a di/ant ,god (
 :om b little 0 kn[n4 ,x 0 ! ?\ght ( !  
man ,buddha :i* ex]t$ an ennobl+        
influ5ce ^u ?\s&s1 & x 0 ! ?\ght ( ano!r
 human be+ t mov$ ! *ri/ians m /rongly  
?an did t ( a ,fa!r 9 ,heav54 ,d we love
 fa!r & "m1 bro!r or si/]1 wife or *ild1
 or our fri5ds1 = ,god's sake8 ,:y may  
we n love all m51 z we love our fri5ds &
 *ildr51 = _! own sake8  ,x has be5 said
 t !re is no acc\ntability1 if n to     
,god4 ,b if ,god is ! au?or ( ! _w1 he  
mu/ himself be ! cause ( evil1 ei!r by  

direct influ5ce or by neglect to av]t4  
,:]e1 !n1 is ! ju/ice ( 8 puni%m5t8 ,x  
does n suffice to answ] t ,god's ju/ice 
is n our ju/ice2 = 9 t case1 :at "r h we
 to apply ! ^w to him at all8  ,hi/ory  
demon/rates ! fact t morality is by no  
means necess>ily connect$ ) religion4 ,9
 ! "n ( religion millions ^u millions ( 
human be+s1 & ^! (t5 ! mo/ upright &    
consci5ti\s m5 ( _! nation1 h be5 put to
 dea?1 & ?us ! civilization ( :ole      
peoples has be5 ret>d$4 ,slav]y 9       
,am]ica _h no /rong] fri5ds ?an !       
*ur*es4 ,h[ is ! =giv5ess ( s9s by ,god 
to be ju/ifi$8 ,are ! evils :i* !y caus$
 any ! less exi/5t because ( su*        
=giv5ess1 & is x well = ! do] to escape1
 9 ?is way1 ! s5se ( responsibility8    
,only labor = ! good ( humanity is ! way
 ( atonem5t4 ,we ourselves are !        
creators ( ! k+dom ( righte\sness4  ,_m 
claim t ,e?ics is n inde$ bas$ ^u       
,!ology1 b t x ne$s a metaphysical1 a   
teleological1 f\ndation4 ,= x           
presupposes t human life has an end4 ,if

 we wi% to asc]ta9 h[ our life %\ld be  
conduct$1 we mu/ asc]ta9 :at is ! end   
,nature has 9 view = u4  ,b an end is an
 effect imag9$ be=eh& & will$1 :i* we _c
 br+ ab\t imm$iately b only ?r\gh a *a9 
( causes4 ,^! causes we call ! means to 
! end4 ,!y too are will$1 b only        
indirectly & because ! end is atta9able 
only ?r\gh !m4 ,^! processes to an end  
are sometimes treat$ z if ! causal      
succession 9 !m 7 rev]s$1 s t ! la/     
effect appe>s z ! beg9n+1 & ! future    
det]m9es ! pres5t2 9 ?is s5se1 ! end has
 be5 call$ ! end-cause1 because ! f9al  
l9k ( ! process causes ! beg9n+4 ,b ?is 
is a s5seless conception1 s9ce ! future1
 t :i* does n yet exi/1 _c n[ op]ate4 ,9
 fact1 ! succession ( causes & effects  
is no m brok5 into 9 ! processes lead+  
to an end ?an 9 any o!r processes4 ,:5 a
 human be+ imag9es to himself a result &
 endeavors to br+ x ab\t1 ^! m5tal      
processes are n future b pres5t2 & !y   
are n det]m9$ by an influ5ce ( ! future 
^u ! pres5t1 b by an influ5ce ( ! pa/ ^u

 ! pres5t2 !y foll[ f exp]i5ce1 t is1 f 
t :i* has already occurr$4 ,!y are      
causal processes 9 :i* ! activities (   
und]/&+ & w h "p4 ,h5ce ends exi/ 9     
nature 9 s f> z !y exi/ 9 man & ! high] 
animals2 b outside ^!1 ends _c be       
pr$icat$1 unless ,nature is reg>d$ ei!r 
z gift$ ) imag9ation & w or z ! creation
 ( a be+ possess+ ^!4 ,b imag9ation & w 
require1 accord+ to all our exp]i5ce1 a 
highly develop$ n]v\s sy/em1 & to assume
 _! exi/5ce :]e su* a c5traliz$ sy/em   
does n exi/ is sci5tifically            
inju/ifiable4 ,moreov]1 ! laws ( ?\ght  
by no means det]m9e u to inquire aft] a 
cause ( ! :ole _w1 s9ce ! concept (     
cause is applicable only to *anges1 n1  
h[ev]1 to endur+ exi/5ces & _!          
qualities4  ,or let u assume t we _h    
discov]$ an end set by ,nature4 ,!n1    
ei!r x w\ld appe> useless to int]f]e )  
its atta9m5t & unnecess>y to assi/ 9 x1 
or x w\ld appe> to u possible to oppose 
?is end4 ,9 ?is latt] case1 cause mu/ be
 %[n :y we %\ld assi/1 or %\ld resi/1 ! 

process ( ,nature4  ,_m philosoph]s h   
said t man %\ld live accord+ to 8 own   
nature4 ,if ! ^w nature "h d5otes !     
totality ( 8 *>act]i/ics1 x is evid5t t 
! wor/ actions are n less natural ?an ! 
be/4 ,!re=e1 ! ^w nature _c1 z "h us$1 h
 ?is s5se2 ! natural 9 ?is s5se is n    
id5tical ) ! moral4 ,nor c ! t]m z "h   
us$ ref] to ! usual1 = 9 t case !       
greate/ moral excell5ce1 z unusual1 mu/ 
be reject$4 ,nor c x be us$ to designate
 ! m prim>y1 = 9 t case1 aga91 ! lat]   
developm5ts ( b5evol5ce & tru?fulness   
%\ld be reject$4  ,! ^w c h b "o o!r    
s5se1 namely1 z oppos$ to artificial4 ,b
 :at is 9 man artificial & :at is       
natural8 ,x seems t ! natural is        
und]/ood z t :i* is n ! "w ( human      
int5tion & reflection1 ( labor1 & (     
education4 ,innate impulses w\ld be1    
accord+ to ?is def9ition1 natural4 ,b x 
is evid5t t "o _c ab&on himself to 8    
bl9d impulses2 society c\ld n exi/ "u   
su* circum/ances4  ,or if x be said t1  
s9ce all organs & impulses ( ! human be+

 t5d to pres]vation ( ! species1 & t ?is
 mu/1 !re=e1 be ! end1 !n let u say !   
pres]vation ( ! species1 or ! good (    
mank9d b n ! natural life1 is ! end =   
man to attempt4  ,nature z a :ole is    
nei!r good nor bad4 ,h] cruelty 9 !     
/ruggle = life is cont9u\s4 ,yet ?is is 
n cruelty1 9 s f> z x is n will$4 ,%e   
has (t5 select$ ! be/ m5 = h]           
sacrifices4 ,yet ?is is n all t is to be
 said ( ! relation ( ,d>w9ism to ,e?ics4
 ,! law ( natural selection regulates n 
only ! life ( ! individual b also t (   
peoples & nations4 ,evil may arise &    
prosp] 9 society4 ,b x has no p]man5t   
exi/5ce4 ,! *ances t ! desc5dants (     
human be+s possess+ evil *>act]i/ics w  
long survive1 t !y w n1 soon] or lat]1  
p]i% z ! result ( conflict ) ! m&ates ( 
heal?1 or ! laws ( ! /ate1 or ! dem&s ( 
society1 are n great4 ,9 ! life (       
nations1 x appe>s m cle>ly ?an 9 ! life 
( ! individual1 t ,dea? is ! price ( s94
 ,%\ld 9 any society ! op9ion ga9 p[] t 
! /ruggle = exi/5ce au?orizes or dem&s a

 reg>dless pursuit ( "o's own int]e/s1  
an oppression & robb]y ( ! weak by !    
/rong1 an annihilation ( pa9 ?r\gh !    
annihilation ( ! suff]+ individuals1 an 
outroot+ ( consci5ce1 & ! natural voice 
( pity :i* raises prote/ aga9/ su* a    
c\rse2 %\ld selfi%ness be br$1 &        
physical /r5g? & ref9$ cunn+ become !   
highe/ ideal2 su* a community w\ld be on
 ! v]ge ( its own de/ruction2 x w\ld h  
labor$ = ?is result by ju/ify+ ! /ruggle
 ( all aga9/ all1 p]mitt+ ?is ! mom5t t 
a conflict ( int]e/s arose4 ,let times (
 ne$ & dang]1 times ( national w>1 come1
 & we %all see :at is ! fate ( a society
 9 :i* love ( c\ntry1 self-sacrifice1 a 
s5se ( ! ideal1 respect = tru? & ju/ice1
 are only subjects = scorn4 ,! _w's     
hi/ory is its judgm5t-day4  ,all        
positive human au?orities are subject to
 ! au?ority ( ! conditions ( life4 ,if  
!y d n take note ( ! nature ( ?+s1 if !y
 di/urb ! f\ndations ( social life1 _!  
endeavors mu/ f9ally suff] %ipwreck on !
 rock ( ?is p[]ful imp]sonal au?ority4  

,natural selection is !re=e a p[] (     
judgm5t1 9 t x pres]ves ! j & lets !    
evil p]i%4 ,w ?is w> ( ! good ) ! evil  
always cont9ue8 ,or w ! p]fect k+dom (  
righte\sness "o day prevail8 ,we hope   
?is la/ b we _c "k c]ta9ly4  ,we        
ourselves %all decide our future1 by our
 acts4         99       99       99     
99       99  ,9 an essay writt5 = !     
,society = ,e?ical ,culture1 & read     
,octob] #aj1 #ahia1 be=e ! ,london bran*
 ( t society1 ,gizycki recon/ructs 8    
!ory ( ! "r f9al end ( life1 advocat+ z 
su* ! ,g5]al ,welf>e1 in/ead ( ,peace ( 
,consci5ce 9 ! pursuit ( ! same4 ,!     
objections to 8 own =m] !ory (f]$ are1  
*iefly1 t if peace ( consci5ce is reg>d$
 z ! f9al end1 ! individual is likely to
 take too little acc\nt ( ! outw>d      
effects ( 8 action1 to be too little    
impress$ by ! evil results :i* %\ld tea*
 him great] c>e4 ,! good ( society is   
reg>d$ by ! virtu\s man z m important   
?an 8 own happ9ess1 z t = :i* he is     
will+ to sacrifice 8 own peace4         

,,footnotes3  #gi ,! ref]5ces "h are to 
,lombroso1 ,d] ,v]bre*]1 deuts*e        
,ausgabe1 ,s4 #abi u4 f42 ,h4 v4        
,val5t9i1 ,das ,v]bre*]?um im preussis*5
 ,/aate1 ,s4 #bbf u4 f4  #hj            
,intelligibile ,ursa*e4  #ha            
,gr5zbegriff4     ,s4 ,,alex&]  ,,moral 
,,ord] ,,& ,,progress 7#ahhi7   ,! prop]
 bus9ess ( ,e?ics is ! /udy ( moral     
judgm5ts--or1 if we say ( human conduct1
 !n ( conduct z submitt$ to ! praise or 
blame ( moral judgm5ts4 ,b ^! judgm5ts  
are n m]e op9ions2 conduct is n t :i* is
 judg$ to be "r 9 di/9ction f t :i* is  
"r2 & ?us ! analysis ( su* judgm5ts is a
 sy/ematization ( bo? conceptions &     
facts4  ,! task ( ,e?ics falls into two 
p>ts4 ,x has 7#a7 to supply a catalogue 
raisonne ( ! moral obs]vances ( life1 ! 
v>i\s moral judgm5ts :i* make up !      
cont5ts ( ! moral consci\sness1 & 7#b7  
to discuss :at x is t ! moral judgm5t1 z
 su*1 expresses4  ,no?+ is m /rik+ at ! 
pres5t "t ?an ! conv]g5ce ( diff]5t     
s*ools ( ,e?ics--,engli% ,utilit>ianism 

develop+ into ,evolutional ,e?ics1 on ! 
"o h&1 & ! idealism associat$ ) ! ,g]man
 philosophy d]iv$ f ,kant on ! o!r4 ,!  
conv]g5ce is n1 ( c\rse1 9 m]e practical
 precepts1 b 9 me?od also4 ,x consi/s 9 
an objectivity or imp>tiality (         
treatm5t1 commonly call$ sci5tific4 ,!re
 is also a conv]g5ce 9 g5]al results :i*
 consi/s 9 a recognition ( a k9d (      
proportion betwe5 individual & society1 
express$ by ! phrase organic connection4
 ,! !ory ( egoism1 pure & simple1 has   
be5 long dead2 ,utilit>ianism succe$$ x 
& enl>g$ ! moral end4 ,evolution cont9u$
 ! process ( enl>g+ ! individual int]e/1
 & has giv5 precision to ! relation     
betwe5 ! individual & ! moral law4 ,b 9 
?is x has add$ no?+ new2 = ,hegel1 9 !  
e>ly "p ( ! c5tury1 gave life to ,kant's
 =mula by treat+ ! law ( morality z     
realiz$ 9 ! society & ! /ate4 ,! *ange 9
 e?ical conception is n due to          
biological rese>* alone1 b to ! /udy (  
hi/ory also1 & to o!r g5]al *anges 9 !  
practical data on :i* its pr9ciples are 

built4 ,! social & political hi/ory ( ! 
c5tury repres5ts ! gr[? ( ! idea (      
fre$om1 :i* has prop]ly two sides--t (  
individual lib]ty ( heal?y developm5t1 &
 t ( ! solid>ity ( society & !          
responsibility ( ! individual to x4 ,) !
 increas+ complexity ( int]e/s & ! gr[? 
( individual fre$om1 has come1 h[ev]1 a 
c]ta9 s5se ( lonel9ess to ! individual 9
 ! mid/ ( mod]n competition1 & ?is      
expla9s1 to a great ext5t1 ! increase ( 
suicide 9 ! pres5t c5tury4  ,! conv]g5ce
 ( dissimil> !ories af=ds u "s prospect 
( obta9+ a satisfactory /atem5t ( !     
e?ical tru?s t[>ds :i* !y seem to move4 
,our inquiry falls into two p>ts1       
accord+ z we analyze ! conceptions :i*  
relate to ! exi/5ce ( ! moral judgm5t or
 ^? connect$ ) its gr[?1 ma9t5ance1 &   
*ange--! /atics or ! dynamics (         
morality4 ,to ^! two divisions is to be 
add$ a ?ird1 prelim9>y division1 m      
closely alli$ ) ! /atical exam9ation (  
morality4 ,^! ?ree p>ts are repres5t$ by
 ! que/ions3 7#a7 ,:at is x t is good8  

,to :at are ! t]ms good & bad appli$8   
7#b7 ,:y is x good8 ,:at does its       
goodness mean8 7#c7 ,h[ does goodness   
come into be+2 h[ is x ma9ta9$2 h[ does 
x advance8  ,moral judgm5ts apply to    
volunt>y action1 t is1 action di/+ui%$  
by ! pres5ce ( an idea ( ! end to be    
atta9$ n m]ely 9 consci\sness b to      
consci\sness1 & ! conv]sion ( ! idea    
into ! actual reality ( pres5tation4 ,! 
t]ms good & bad1 inde$1 are appli$1 n   
only outside ! realm ( morals1 b also1  
)9 x1 to desires & ?\ghts2 b to ^! only 
z !y are ! objects ( volition1 9 t ! w  
at pres5t all[s !m to p]si/ 9           
consci\sness or 9 t _! pres5t occurr5ce 
is reg>d$ z ! result ( pa/ will+4  ,!   
conduct to :i* we apply moral judgm5t is
 a :ole made up ( _m p>ts--& actions1   
consequ5ces1 & int]nal feel+s h value = 
morality only 9 s f> z !y are its       
elem5ts4  ,ext]nal action conc]ns       
conduct only 9 s f> z ! object (        
volitions 7:i* may be ei!r int]nal or   
ext]nal7 is d]iv$ f ?is s\rce4 ,volunt>y

 ext]nal action is n ext]nal only1 b has
 also an int]nal side2 & n :e!r ,i      
succe$ 9 p]=m+ a c]ta9 action or am     
prev5t$ 9 ! middle ( x1 b :e!r ,i will$ 
x1 is ( importance to moral judgm5t4    
,conduct is sometimes consid]$ sep>ately
 f "*2 b ?is sep>ation results f confus+
 conduct ) m]e action4 ,a "* exi/s only 
9 its conduct1 & all moral actions issue
 f "*4  ,! consequ5ces _c be sep>at$ f  
conduct 9 ! moral judgm5t1 except 9 s f>
 z !y c\ld n h be5 =ese54 ,! consequ5ces
 ( conduct are a mo/ important "p (     
action1 9 t !y %\ld be consid]$ by !    
p]son will+1 & %\ld influ5ce ! nature ( 
8 conduct4  ,! int]nal side ( conduct is
 repres5t$ by ! moral s5tim5ts4 ,^! are 
to be di/+ui%$ f ! m]e motives1 :i*1    
def9$ z some?+ t has propulsive =ce1    
:e!r a feel+ or a passion1 does n ent]  
into moral action except z absorb$ into 
volition4 ,no emotion is1 9 itself1 "r  
or wrong1 b is only indirectly judg$ z  
su* z x makes a diff]5ce to ! action--z 
an aptitude ( m9d :i* t5ds to ?is or t  

pr$om9at+ =m ( conduct4 ,moral s5tim5ts1
 on ! o!r h&1 z moral aptitudes         
effective = p>ticul> conduct1 conta9 an 
additional elem5t4 ,moral s5tim5ts1 ?us 
def9$1 be+ equival5t to conduct1 x      
foll[s t ! m]e possession ( s5tim5ts _c 
con/itute ! diff]5ce betwe5 intr9sic or 
int]nal1 & cu/om>y morality2 cu/oms are 
!mselves a matt] ( s5tim5t4 ,?us conduct
 z a concrete :ole has an inw>d elem5t (
 s5tim5t & an outw>d elem5t ( action1 & 
^! are diff]5t1 on ! "o h& f m]e giv5   
feel+s1 on ! o!r f m]e action4 ,conduct 
is ?is unity ( feel+ & action 9 :i* m]e 
feel+ is modifi$ by ! idea ( action1 &  
m]e action becomes a m5tal1 or1 if we l1
 a spiritual ?+4 ,conduct & "* are !    
same ?+ fac+ diff]5t ways4 ,?9k ( a     
man's conduct 9 relation to ! m5tal     
conditions f :i* x proce$s1 & y ?9k ( 8 
"*2 ?9k ( 8 "* z x produces results     
beyond ^! s5tim5ts !mselves1 & y h      
conduct4  ,!re are no morally indiff]5t 
acts2 :5 view$ 9 g5]al & broad] lights1 
all acts are ei!r good or bad2 ?\gh !re 

are "s cases ( really indiff]5t means   
aris+ f ! me*anism ( action2 z1 =       
in/ance1 t ,i am to g to ,london is n   
indiff]5t1 b we may suppose t ! fact t  
,i may g by ! road or by ! riv] makes no
 diff]5ce to my volition4 ,!re is no    
di/9ction betwe5 virtue & prud5ce z     
reg>d = self1 b prud5ce1 9 s f> z x is  
compatible ) social requirem5ts1 is a   
duty & a virtue4  ,e?ics1 !n1 has to d )
 conduct z a :ole 9 its ext]nal & its   
int]nal aspects4 ,9 di/9ction f         
,psy*ology1 x has to d ) x n m]ely z a  
fact to be analyz$1 b ) ref]5ce to its  
nature1 quality1 or cont5t1 judg$ by a  
/&>d ( value4 ,x is n dep5d5t ^u        
,metaphysics1 b prec$es x 9 ord] ( "t1  
:atev] may be said ( ! ord] (           
importance2 ,metaphysics exam9es1       
prop]ly1 ! ultimate que/ions left ov]   
unansw]$ by ! o!r sci5ces4 ,f ! purely  
physical me?od1 ,e?ics has advanc$ to a 
biological me?od2 & ! doctr9e t pleasure
 is ! end ( "r action has be5 replac$ by
 ! idea ( social vitality z ! end4      

,,/atical ,,analysis--,,moral ,,ord]  ,!
 recognition ( ! ref]5ce 9 morality to  
society has be5 impli$ 9 all e?ical     
!ories2 !ories ( selfi% pleasure        
!mselves recognize ! social elem5t 9    
individual gratification1 ev5 ,cyr5aic  
!ories recomm5d+ selection & ref9em5t ( 
pleasures1 & conta9+ a ref]5ce to       
p]sonal dignity :i* implies a conception
 ( man z typical ( a p]fection t o!rs   
may sympa?ize 9 & atta94 ,individualism 
& ,univ]salism 9 morals diff] only 9 !  
ord] 9 :i* !y take _! t]ms4 ,to ! =m]1 !
 individual comes fir/ & is ! measure ( 
! law2 to ! latt]1 ! law or society     
comes fir/1 & is ! measure ( ! wor? ( ! 
individual4 ,nev]!less1 ! e?ical problem
 is v diff]5tly conceiv$ by ! two       
s*ools4 ,b ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy %[s a
 t5d5cy to h>monization ( ! two2 we f9d 
t ,individualism becomes m & m          
sociali/ic1 :ile ,univ]salism becomes m 
& m consci\s ( individuality4 ,we may   
trace ?is movem5t1 9 ! case (           
,individualism1 9 ! developm5t ( !      

philosophic !ory ( morality z true      
b5evol5ce f ! !ory ( b5evol5ce z m]ely  
ano!r =m ( self-love4 ,! e>li]          
conceptions ( ,univ]salism1 emphasiz+ ! 
good z some?+ b9d+ irrespective ( !     
incl9ations ( ! individual1 issue 9     
p>ticul> =mulae ( virtue2 lat]          
conceptions recognize ! diff]5ces (     
individual cases :ile /ill insi/+ on !  
univ]sal or au?oritative "* ( morality4 
,! problem receives its def9ite %ape :5 
! explanation ( au?ority is s\ght1 n 9  
"s categorical imp]ative1 b 9 ! v nature
 ( society itself1 :i*1 if a :ole1 is   
yet a :ole made up ( individuals4       
,e?ical inquiry ?us naturally breaks up 
into two p>ts1 accord+ z we consid] !   
mean+ ( "r & wrong = ! individual1 or = 
society z embrac+ _m individuals4  ,z f>
 z morality conc]ns itself ) !          
individual1 ! good act implies a c]ta9  
adju/m5t ( functions to "o ano!r1 too   
mu* 9 any "o direction imply+ a defect 9
 o!rs4 ,! good life z a :ole is a sy/em 
( consecutive acts1 :]e ea* function has

 its limits prescrib$ = x by ! dem&s (  
all ! o!r functions4 ,& ! good "* is an 
ord] or sy/ematic arrangem5t (          
volitions4 ,! goodness ( an act is ?us a
 matt] ( equilibration or adju/m5t ( !  
elem5ts ( an individual's nature4 ,9 ?is
 proportion or adju/m5t consi/s !       
reasonabl5ess1 rationality 7ratio1      
,greek3 logos7 ( good conduct4 ,?is does
 n mean t ! pr9ciple ( morality is !    
result ( reason1 = moral adju/m5t is no 
m specially ! "w ( reason ?an ( any o!r 
m5tal faculty4  ,?is acc\nt ( good "*   
uses ideas :i* apply1 mutatis mut&is1 to
 ! life ( any organism1 z well z to !   
m9d ( man2 x m]ely expla9s1 9 t]ms (    
human exp]i5ce1 ! elem5ts involv$ 9 !   
conception ( organization2 ! diff]5ce   
lies simply 9 ! nature ( ! elem5ts      
involv$ 9 ! adju/m5t1 ! elem5ts be+1 9 !
 case be=e u1 consci\s acts4 ,to ! "q   
:e!r su* a def9ition ( morality w\ld n  
apply r to conduct ?an to "*1 & :e!r1 ! 
volitions be+ conceiv$ z a s]ies 9 "t1 x
 does n dissolve ! unity ( "*1 may be   

answ]$ t conduct & "* h already be5 %[n 
to be id5tical1 & t unity c no m be d5i$
 to ! s]ies ( acts involv$ ?an x c be   
d5i$ to ! gr[+ plant or animal ^:       
functions are successive4 ,! unity      
condition$ by "t is a unity *>act]iz$ by
 succession1 z t ( space by ext5sion4 ,!
 objection1 z x ga!rs its /r5g? f a     
p]suasion t ! good "* %\ld be describ$  
by ! feel+s or s5tim5ts ( any "o "t1 is 
legitimate2 good conduct is built ^u a  
man's ne$s or desires & is def9$ z      
satisfy+ e "p ( 8 nature 9 its          
proportion2 s t an equilibrium ( !      
emotions & ! moral s5tim5ts is involv$ 9
 morality1 & any s5tim5t is moral :i* c 
be equilibrat$ ) ! re/4 ,! good man may 
be describ$ ei!r z an equilibrat$ ord] (
 conduct1 or z an equilibrium ( moral   
s5tim5ts or ( ! p>ts ( 8 nature4        
,nev]!less1 ! ord] ( conduct is a prior 
conception to t ( /ructural equilibrium4
 ,9 a ma*9e1 ! comb9ation ( p>ts is made
 9 ord] to produce ! motion ( ! eng9e1 &
 ! equilibrium is ma9ta9$ by ! motion4  

,9 ! organism1 ! bodily /ructure reta9s 
its proportion only 9 s f> z x is 9     
physiological action1 & ?is             
physiological action subs]ves ! conduct 
( ! organism1 :ile 9 l mann] !          
equilibrium ( moral s5tim5ts exi/s only 
?r\gh conduct & is det]m9$ by !         
requirem5ts ( conduct4 ,! equilibrium is
 effect$ simultane\sly bo? = conduct & !
 moral /ructure4 ,! ideal is a plan (   
conduct1 ideal 9 t x is nev] fully      
atta9$4 ,! ideal is hypo!tical 9 two    
s5ses4 ,x supposes t e memb] ( ! ord] is
 good1 :]eas no life conta9s good acts  
only2 & t ! ord] itself rema9s p]man5t1 
:]eas morality is necess>ily            
progressive4 ,nev]!less1 x is to be     
obs]v$ t ! ideal is a realiz$ ideal4 ,x 
is realiz$ 9 e good act1 s9ce ! good act
 is ! act :i* has ! %ape x w\ld we> 9 ! 
ideal ord]4 ,?\gh x is adju/$ to imag9>y
 elem5ts1 x realizes ! :ole s f> z its  
own p>ticul> %>e is conc]n$4  ,morality 
implies ! exi/5ce ( society4 ,x is      
useless to inquire :at w\ld be moral 9  

case ! human individual 7 an isolat$    
be+2 ! fact is t he is n s1 & t all     
moral judgm5t implies n only ! judgm5t (
 o!r individuals besides ! act+         
individual1 b also ! function ( ! act+  
individual z a memb] ( a society4 ,yet  
ea* memb] ( a society has 8 special     
individual "w1 s t duty v>ies accord+ to
 individual circum/ances1 & s f> f its  
be+ true t morality is n a respect] (   
p]sons1 x is a fact t x is always a     
respect] ( p]sons4 ,?is does n d5y t !re
 are c]ta9 common b\nds ( morality1 :i* 
all[ ! =mation ( "s g5]al propositions2 
nor does x mean t ea* individual is at  
lib]ty to con/ruct 8 own moral precepts4
 ,! individuality ( morality1 :i* f9ds a
 place or vocation = ea* individual1    
involves an equilibrium betwe5 ! memb]s 
( society1 9 :i* consi/s ! morality ( ! 
:ole4  ,! s-call$ self-reg>d+ virtues   
are social z well z self-reg>d+2 _!     
disreg>d involves evil1 n to !          
individual alone1 b to o!rs also4 ,x may
 be object$ t acts & ?\ghts :i* c nev]  

be kn[n to o!rs are condemn$ by         
consci5ce4 ,9 answ] x mu/ be obs]v$3--  
7#a7 ,t ! k ( o!rs is a matt] ( degree2 
my fri5ds "k my actions2 & 9 ord] to    
judge an action1 x is n necess>y to     
suppose ! :ole nation look+ on4  7#b7 ,t
 z p]sonal morality becomes m & m       
complex1 & h5ce k by o!rs less & less   
possible1 we leave ! judgm5t ( an act m 
to ! consci5ce ( ! individual1 z        
viceg]5t ( ! moral law4 ,acts :i* are   
wrong :5 nobody kn[s !m h come to be s  
by a process beg9n+ ) simple acts :i*   
are kn[n1 t is1 kn[n 9 _! outw>d        
appe>ance4 ,! act1 kn[n or unkn[n1      
leaves its impress ^u "*1 rais+ or l[]+ 
! effici5cy ( ! ag5t2 & h5ce is judg$   
good or bad4 ,! /udy ( art & sci5ce has1
 ?us1 moral value1 z influ5c+ "*4  ,good
 & bad acts & conduct are ?us to be     
di/+ui%$ by _! adju/m5t or non-adju/m5t 
to ! social ord]4 ,! adju/m5t takes     
place 9 a simil> mann] z 9 a trial (    
/r5g?1 & ! compromise betwe5 ! diff]5t  
individuals mu/ be tak5 z measur+ !     

actual =ces :i* 7 engag$4  ,! social    
organism has bo? its morphological1 or  
/ructural1 & its physiological or       
functional aspect2 & "h1 once m1 ! ord] 
( functions is a prior conception to !  
/ructural ord]2 9 ! society1 conduct    
be>s to /ructure ! relation :i*         
physiological action 9 ! body be>s to ! 
bodily /ructure4 ,! social ideal is     
d\bly hypo!tical1 imply+ t all memb]s ( 
! society are good & t society is       
/atical4  ,t to :i* moral judgm5t       
applies ) reg>d to ! individual's       
relation to society1 is ! adju/m5t (    
individual wills reg>d$ ei!r z directly 
appe>+ or z lat5t & capable ( act+1 !   
occasion be+ giv54 ,! moral pr9ciple 9  
society z a :ole is ?us1 z 9 ! case ( ! 
individual1 a rational "o1 & ,ari/otle  
rightly gives ! same "n 7,greek3 or?os  
logos7 to x z to ! pr9ciple ( individual
 action4 ,! moral individual is !       
reproduction 9 small ( ! social ord]4 ,b
 ! two conditions t ! individual mu/ be 
a h>mony )9 himself1 & t he mu/ possess 

all ! p[]s t are requir$ ( him = !      
purposes ( society1 are n diff]5t1 b    
id5tical4 ,= ! abs5ce ( su* p[]s implies
 ! abs5ce ( adju/m5t to 8 conditions1   
fail+ :i* adju/m5t ! inn] h>mony is     
impossible1 al?\gh life may be cont9u$1 
j z x may be cont9u$ "u diseas$ physical
 conditions4  ,good m5 may ?us be said  
to con=m to a c]ta9 type or ideal2 b ?is
 type is n m]ely some?+ to :i* !y are   
fa%ion$1 b to :i* !y !mselves are !     
contributory elem5ts4 ,h5ce ! social    
ideal is a species ( :i* all good m5 are
 ! individual in/ances2 & ! species     
exi/s1 n1 z 9 ! case ( natural sci5ce1 z
 a g5]alization 9 ! m9d ( ! obs]v] or z 
an id5tical plan ^u :i* ! memb]s are    
organiz$1 n z a m]e collection (        
individuals1 b z 9 itself an organism4  
,let x n be object$ t1 s9ce no society  
is 9 p]fect equilibrium1 & ! ideal exi/s
 only 9 good m51 ! ideal is !re=e z mu* 
a creation ( ! obs]v]'s m9d z a natural 
species4 ,an ideal implies no contra/ ( 
obs]v] & obs]v$3 conduct is some?+      

m5tal3 ! ideal is a reality ( m9d1 exi/+
 9 ! m9ds ( ^? :o act ^u x4 ,! social   
ideal has ?us a concrete exi/5ce 9 !    
collective action ( good m54  ,9 ?is    
mann]1 ! suppos$ indep5d5ce ( ! t5d5cies
 t[>ds ,individualism & ,univ]salism    
disappe>s1 ! h>mony ( ! individual & 8  
h>mony ) society be+ id5tical--a true   
indep5d5ce be+ equival5t to true        
cooep]ation4  ,morality imply+ adju/m5t 
to ! ideal ord]1 a realization ( ! be>+s
 ( our acts is important4 ,b we ne$ no  
special moral faculty to tea* u         
morality2 x is prompt$ by ?\ghts &      
feel+s t1 z ! result ( a process (      
compromise1 are ?\ghts & feel+s adju/$  
to a social ord]4  ,obligation expresses
 t an act is ! act requir$4 ,x is t     
relation 9 :i* ! s+le "p ( ! ord] /&s to
 ! :ole ord]1 :5 x is confront$ by !    
:ole1 :e!r we consid] ! s+le act 9      
relation to ! :ole "* ( ! individual1 or
 ! s+le individual 9 8 relations to     
society4 ,duty 9 ! ab/ract is ! "n :i*  
compreh5ds obligation 9 all its details2

 a duty 9 ! concrete is any good act    
reg>d$ 9 its relation to ! :ole4 ,on !  
o!r h&1 ! :ole has au?ority aga9/ its   
p>ts1 & e p>ticul> duty is said to h    
au?ority j s f> z x is back$ by ! :ole  
mass ( duties1 z ! comm& ( a sov]eign   
has au?ority because x gives expression 
to ! w ( ! :ole society ov] :i* he      
presides4 ,obligation corresponds to !  
necessity "u :i* an organism lies ( act+
 9 a c]ta9 mann] 9 ord] to con=m to its 
type4 ,duty is ?us n necess>ily         
antagoni/ic to incl9ation1 z ,kant      
conceiv$ x1 s9ce1 9 ! good man1         
incl9ations are adju/$ to ! requirem5ts 
( social life2 & obligation is ?us      
diff]5t f compulsion1 :i*1 z att5dant on
 au?ority1 applies to ! bad1 n ! good1  
man4 ,! negative side ( compulsion is   
responsibility1 :i* implies t1 9 ! case 
( transgression1 ! p]son w be call$ to  
acc\nt4 ,duty1 ?\gh ?us free f ! idea ( 
antagonism1 is itself always negative1  
imply+ subjection ( ! individual to !   
l>g] ord]4 ,x is f ?is negativity t duty

 l5ds itself to ! legal idea (          
compulsion1 & 9 g5]al we>s a legal g>b4 
,9 law1 rights & duties are correlative1
 ! "r ( "o imply+ duties ( o!rs1 & vice 
v]sa2 b 9 morals1 rights & duties are n 
m]ely correlative b id5tical2 x is a    
duty to insi/ on rights 9 s f> z ^!     
rights are moral1 n m]ely legal1 & !    
individual has a "r to ! p]=mance (     
duty4  ,! moral judgm5t is a judgm5t on 
a fact1 b expresses1 nev]!less1 a fact  
also2 x expresses an adju/m5t to an     
ideal ord]1 :i*1 if ideal1 is yet a     
fact1 al?\gh nev] realiz$ 9 its         
entirety4 ,?us morality is n a m]e matt]
 ( op9ion4 ,op9ions may diff] ) reg>d to
 a fact ( morality z diff]5t individuals
 diff] 9 ! appreh5sion ( a physical     
fact4 ,an action is n "r simply because 
,i ?9k x is s2 b ! op9ion ( ! good man  
repres5ts :at is really good4  ,goodness
 is a m5tal fact2 ! appreh5sion (       
goodness1 z ! pass+ ( judgm5t ^u x1 is  
diff]5t f x2 b x is nev]!less1 9 ano!r  
s5se1 ! goodness ( ! good man :i*       

approves or is ! approbation ( ! good   
act2 & badness exi/s 9 ! m9d ( ! good   
man & is kn[n z disapprobation4 ,!      
quality ( an action is t :i* excites    
approbation2 its goodness or adju/m5t is
 no?+ b ! approbation ( ! good man1 b n 
( o!r m54 ,9 l mann]1 duty & ! s5se (   
duty are ! same ?+4 ,:5 ! act judg$ is  
pres5t$ to ! m9d only z idea1 ! feel+ ( 
approbation or disapprobation is t :i*  
we "k z ! work+ ( ! moral s5se or       
consci5ce4  ,x is ?is tru? t goodness & 
approbation are id5tical t ,intuitionism
 builds ^u4 ,intuitionism1 h[ev]1 reg>ds
 goodness z "s new quality ( action1    
peculi> & inexplicable2 :ile a true     
analysis looks ^u goodness z no new     
quality1 ! moral judgm5t m]ely plac+ a  
m>k ^u any action z con=m+ to a c]ta9   
ord] or equilibrat$ sy/em want$4  ,!re  
is 9 ! good man a vague mass ( moral    
s5tim5ts & emotions2 & :5 ! idea ( any  
act comes 9 contact ) ^!1 a feel+ (     
satisfaction or dissatisfaction arises1 
accord+ z ! idea fuses ) ?is mass (     

s5tim5ts or fails 9 adju/m5t to !m4     
,moral prompt+s are m]ely prompt+s :i* h
 be5 adju/$ on "o side & ! o!r until !y 
h come to be 9 h>mony ) social          
conditions2 !y gr[ out ( ! natural      
feel+s by ! process ( adju/m5t4 ,! ^w   
consci5ce1 z x is m g5]ally us$1 seems  
to emphasize ! elem5t ( reflection 9 a  
great] degree ?an moral s5se4 ,!        
explanation ( ! app>5t indep5d5ce (     
consci5ce is m]ely t1 9 ! good man1 !   
moral ord] is realiz$1 & action f moral 
pr9ciple takes place spontane\sly4 ,9 s 
f> z ?is is true1 he is1 9 ! e?ical     
s5se1 free1 yet n free 9 ! s5se t he is 
to be b\nd by 8 own consci5ce alone 9   
opposition to ! judgm5t ( all o!r       
consci5ces2 on ! contr>y1 ! consci5ce   
sits z a tribunal on a man's acts or    
int5tions1 j because x is !             
repres5tative ( ! moral ord]4  ,9 speak+
 ( a p]v]t$ consci5ce1 morality condemns
 ! isolation ( a man's ideas ab\t "r    
conduct1 f ! judgm5t ( 8 fell[s4  ,!    
consci5ce1 by reason ( ! elem5t (       

reflectiv5ess1 is high] ?an ! moral     
s5se2 & ! cultivation ( a ref9$         
consci5ce is ! basis ( all morality4    
,yet ?is v reflectiv5ess involves dang]1
 9 t1 atta*+ itself z x does to !       
negative side ( duty1 x t5ds to         
associate ! latt] ) ! idea ( pa9fulness 
r ?an ( pleasure1 & to induce fe>1 &    
also 9 t x t5ds to develop a morbid     
subjectivity ( feel+ ?r\gh too mu*      
self-exam9ation4  ,good conduct1 z good 
9 virtue ( ! equilibrium x e/abli%es    
betwe5 ! v>i\s p>ts ( conduct itself1   
%\ld conta9 )9 itself ! :ole            
ju/ification ( morality4 ,z su*1 x is ! 
end ( morality1 9 t x is bo? ! object & 
purpose1 ! aim or desire2 & 9 t x is    
also ! /&>d1 crit]ion1 or result by :i* 
conduct is measur$4  ,good conduct      
involves a common good z "p ( ! moral   
ord]1 & s creative ( a tie betwe5 all   
memb]s ( society4 ,! common good is ?us 
n to be conceiv$ z some?+ t might be1 z 
x 71 cut up & di/ribut$1 b z common 9 t 
x involves an adju/m5t ( claims4 ,!     

common good is ?us1 9 a s5se1 objective1
 or objectively valid1 ?\gh n objective 
9 ! s5se t x exi/s outside ! m9ds ( m51 
b 9 ! s5se t x is a compromise betwe5   
wills1 9 :i* ea* m9d surr5d]s m]ely     
p]sonal :ims = a common agreem5t4  ,s9ce
 !re seems a discrepancy betwe5 my own  
good & ! good ( o!rs1 h[ d ,i make !    
good ( o!rs my object1 go+ beyond myself
 9 ! range ( my int]e/8 ,& h[ is        
self-sacrifice possible8 ,! answ] to !  
fir/ "q is t morality reconciles ! likes
 & dislikes ( individuals1 s t self-love
 & love ( o!rs describe ! moral relation
 f opposite ends2 e act ( respect = o!rs
 is an act ( self-fur!rance4  ,we are   
entitl$ to assume1 z n ne$+ pro(1 t !   
in/9cts ( altruism are z fundam5tal &   
orig9al z ^? ( self-love4 ,b if we use  
/rict] reason+1 we c see h[1 9 ei!r     
case1 we id5tify ourselves ) o!rs4      
,altruism is m]ely a =m ( conduct 9 :i* 
! egoi/ic elem5t1 ?\gh pres5t1 retires  
into ! backgr\nd2 :ile 9 all "r egoism1 
we aim at ! good ( o!rs z well z our own

 good1 ?\gh our own good appe>s z ! m   
prom95t feature 9 ! act ( will+4 ,we mu/
 n be und]/ood z will+1 9 altruism1     
ano!r's good 9 any my/ical s5se1 9 !    
s5se ( any id5tification ( self ) o!rs2 
we w ! good ( o!rs 9 q a diff]5t s5se f 
t 9 :i* we w our own good1 ! idea ( _!  
good be+ a repres5tation 9 our m9d f !  
analogy ( our own exp]i5ce2 & ! good    
atta9$ by ea* p>ty to ! transaction is  
diff]5t & incommunicable4 ,nei!r mu/    
egoism or altruism be int]pret$ 9 ! s5se
 t1 9 ei!r1 reflection on ! end z       
di/9ctively ! good ( self or ( o!rs is  
involv$2 ! moral ag5t 9 g5]al ?r[s 8    
en]gies into ?is or t c\rse ( action1   
because x is felt to be :at is want$1   
)\t fur!r reflectiv5ess4  ,human be+s1 z
 pla/ic %apes1 m\ld$ by contact1 adju/  
!mselves to ea* o!r1 & ?us x comes ab\t 
t c]ta9 p]sonal claims are waiv$4       
,self-sacrifice is a real fact1 a fact  
atte/$ by ! exi/5ce ( ! bad1 to :om su* 
sacrifice involves a loss ( happ9ess &  
is impossible4 ,x means ! ab&onm5t ( a  

real good :i* ! individual w\ld seize "u
 o!r circum/ances4 ,x is sometimes      
cont5d$ t real self-sacrifice is        
impossible1 ei!r 7#a7 because !         
sacrifice is really pleasant] to ! ag5t1
 or 7#b7 because he is comp5sat$ = 8    
loss4 ,b ! evid5t fact t self-sacrifice 
is pleasant] to ! ag5t does n involve ! 
seek+ ( 8 own pleasure by ! ag5t1 & ev5 
if x be admitt$ t !re is always ! =eca/ 
( comp5sation 9 ! m9d ( ! ag5t1 yet "p (
 ! =eca/ is ! picture ( happ9ess =egone4
 ,b "h1 z be=e1 x may be said t ! elem5t
 ( reflection1 ! weigh+ ( "o's own &    
o!rs' happ9ess aga9/ ea* o!r is read    
into ! act by ! onlook]1 & is n         
necess>ily involv$4 ,t 8 own            
self-sacrifice1 ! comp5sation ( 8 own   
consci\sness ( "r-do+ outweighs1 to !   
moral man1 ! pleasure ( l[] aims1 does n
 mean t ! individual is selfi% 9 seek+  
self-sacrifice4 ,&1 9 fact1 t any       
ult]ior aim ( self-satisfaction beyond !
 act itself is s\ght1 9 self-sacrifice1 
by ! moral man1 is false2 ! greate/ acts

 ( h]oism are *>act]iz$ by complete     
absorption 9 ! imp]sonal end s\ght1 !   
good ( ! ag5t ?us n ly+ beyond1 b       
consi/+ 9 8 action4 ,acts *>act]iz$ by  
ano!r _s ?an ?is we d n t]m             
self-sacrifice4  ,z all conduct is a    
matt] ( w1 s morality is conc]n$ n m]ely
 ) ! virtues1 ! practical deal+s ( m51 b
 also ) all t /r5g!ns or weak5s ! w &1 9
 g5]al1 conduces to "*4 ,9 judg+ a man1 
! significance ( 8 individual gifts1 & !
 responsibility :i* att5ds ! cultivation
 ( ^! gifts mu/ be recogniz$4 ,n special
 virtues alone mu/ be consid]$1 b ! :ole
 man mu/ be judg$ & ! significance ( 8  
self-cultivation 9 ?is or t direction   
obs]v$4 ,?is does n mean t ! exceptional
 faults ( exceptional m5 are to be      
condon$4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re is no reason
 to suppose t special gifts conf] a     
special privilege r ?an a special       
responsibility4 ,judg$ 9 ! entirety ( _!
 "*1 su* m5 may n be worse ?an o!rs1 &  
?is fact %\ld be reg>d$2 b we %\ld n    
def5d _! s9s z su*4 ,! neglect (        

self-cultivation 9 "o direction may be  
necess>y to action 9 ano!r direction2 b 
! moral crit]ion ( su* self-cultivation 
or action is to be f\nd 9 morality z an 
equilibrium ( p[]s4  ,p]fection is n    
itself suffici5t to def9e ! end4 ,p]fect
 is t :i* is ! be/ possible2 p]fection z
 a p]fect activity r ?an a p]fect /ate  
7z we mu/ conceive x7 is equival5t to ! 
be/ possible conduct4 ,b ! moral end c  
be und]/ood z p]fection only :5 by ! be/
 possible conduct is und]/ood t :i* is !
 be/ possible "u circum/ances det]m9$ by
 morality itself4 ,! fulle/ developm5t z
 dem&$ by morality is n necess>ily !    
p]fection ( developm5t 9 any p>ticul>   
case1 t is1 ) reg>d to any p>ticul> gift
 or individual4 ,or1 9 o!r words1       
p]fection 9 bo? its absolute & its      
comp>ative mean+1 is a conception :i*   
belongs1 n to morality z su*1 b to !    
mat]ials out ( :i* morality is          
con/itut$4 ,take p]fect z equival5t to  
be/1 !n p]fection is equally involv$ 9 e
 good action4 ,! good is always ! be/2  

:at is "r is p]fect2 morality disc>ds   
degrees ( comp>ison4 ,b ! degree (      
p]fection to :i* any p[] or individual  
is to be develop$ is det]m9$1 morally1  
by ! pr9ciple ( equilibrium4 ,moreov]1  
we may recognize degrees ( p]fection 9  
individuals :o are1 nev]!less1 n to be  
classifi$ z ( less or great] moral      
value4  ,!re are two diff]5t conceptions
 ( m]it1 ! "o z appli$ to magnitude (   
actual a*ievem5t1 ! o!r to magnitude (  
ef=t4 ,! app>5t discrepancy vani%es on  
reflection1 s9ce bo? conceptions apply  
to :at passes beyond ! av]age & measures
 ! di/ance betwe5 ! two4  ,aga9/ !      
h$oni/ic doctr9e1 x has be5 urg$ by     
,gre5 t pleasure z su* is n ! end (     
action1 = ev5 :]e ! s+le pleasure is    
desir$ !re is always ! ?\ght ( a p]man5t
 self ^: good is suppos$ to lie 9 !     
direction ( ?is pleasure2 :ile a sum (  
pleasures _c1 z su*1 be an object (     
desire1 s9ce pleasures1 z sep>ate &     
transitory 9 contradi/9ction f ! p]man5t
 self1 _c be add$ toge!r 9 fact1 b only 

9 ?\ght2 & ) reg>d to a greate/ sum (   
pleasures ! difficulty is /ill great]1  
s9ce pleasures admit ( indef9ite        
increase1 & _! sum c nev] be ! greate/  
possible4 ,9 s f> z desire is suppos$ to
 be = pleasures & no?+ else1 ! argum5t t
 a sum ( pleasures _c be desir$ mu/ be  
admitt$4 ,! transi5cy ( ! pleasures has1
 h[ev]1 no?+ to d ) ! "q2 ! reason :y a 
sum ( pleasures _c =m a s+le pleasure is
 t !y are pleasures ) a high] idea--t ( 
a s]ies involv+ a plan4 ,?is does n     
prove t a sum ( pleasures might n be !  
crit]ion ( conduct4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t 
sum is an un=tunate ^w1 s9ce x seems to 
imply t ! pleasures mu/ be comb9$ 9 "o  
total result2 b su* an int]pretation ( !
 ^w is n necess>y4 ,a s]ies ( pleasures 
is prop]ly no?+ m ?an an aggregate or   
comb9ation ( pleasures1 p>tly           
successive1 p>tly coexi/5t4 ,nor does ! 
greate/ possible happ9ess mean a        
happ9ess ?an :i* no great] is possible1 
b ! greate/ possible "u ! giv5          
conditions4 ,! polemic is direct$ aga9/ 

! individuali/ic psy*ology1 :i* reg>ds  
m5tal /ates z a m]e succession ( ev5ts4 
,s f> ! argum5ts en=ce a great pr9ciple2
 a m]e succession ( feel+s or s5sations 
c\ld nev] yield a conception ( a sum    
appreh5d$ z a sum4 ,b ?is is irrelevant4
 ,= su* an idea we require mu* m ?an    
s5sation3 we require memory1 p]ception1 
! idea ( a self4 ,b ?is is only say+ t  
morality requires m ?an m]e s5sation1 & 
! argum5t assumes ! /&po9t x is fight+1 
treat+ m5tal /ates z m]e ev5ts4 ,x1     
moreov]1 introduces ! idea ( a p]man5t  
self z some?+ sup]ior to m]e s5sations1 
:]eas p]haps ?is self is elaborat$ f    
s5sational elem5ts4 ,fur!rmore1 if !    
proposition means t a m9d :i* _h only   
s5sations c\ld n h a sum ( s5sations1   
?is may be d5i$4 ,a sum is possible f   
?ree positions--t ( ! conception ( a    
spectator1 t ( a reflect+ consci\sness1 
& t ( a feel+ consci\sness :i* feels its
 /ates cont9u\sly1 ?\gh x may n feel !m 
z cont9u\s1 = su* a feel+ w\ld argue    
comp>ison & reflection4 ,! polemic1     

!re=e1 :ile 9 s f> "r z x is direct$    
aga9/ individuali/ic psy*ology1 seems to
 assign wrong reasons = a rejection (   
h$onism2 ,utilit>ians1 :ile speak+ (    
pleasures 9 ! language ( psy*ology1     
treat !m really z some?+ m ?an m]e      
ev5ts--treat !m z we really comb9e !m by
 processes mu* high] ?an s5sation4 ,a   
refutation ( h$onism mu/ consi/ 9 %[+ t 
pleasures really diff] 9 k9d1 & _c1     
!re=e1 be comp>$ 9 int5sity4 ,pleasure  
is (t5 us$ z equival5t to a pleasant    
s5sation2 su* pleasures diff] 9 k9d1 z 9
 ! case ( gratifi$ hung]1 ambition1 & ! 
l1 & _c be actually add$1 ei!r 9 ?\ght  
or 9 enjoym5t1 because incomm5surable4  
,pleasure is (t5 us$1 also1 to ref]1 n  
to ! s5sation itself1 b to its          
pleasantness1 & "h ! same ?+ is true2 if
 we di/+ui% ! quality & ! tone ( feel+1 
z usual 9 psy*ology1 ! classification ( 
tones z pleasurable & pa9ful is         
insuffici5t4 ,! tones ( colors & s\nds1 
= in/ance1 are m naturally repres5t$ by 
! mood ( m9d !y sugge/3 r$ has a w>m    

tone1 black a sad1 gray a sob]1 ! organ 
a solemn tone4#hb ,! tone ( "s feel+s is
 too indef9ite = description1--a vague  
com=t or discom=t1--:ile ! tone may rise
 to a condition to be describ$ only by  
bliss or rapture4 ,pleasure & pa9 dep5d1
 moreov]1 n only on ! quality & quantity
 ( ! feel+1 b on ! :ole condition ( !   
m9d1 pleasure indicat+ agreem5t ) ! m9d1
 pa9 non-agreem5t4 ,e pleasure be+ a    
function ( ! s5sation 9 :i* x is an     
elem5t1 ! suppos$ sum ( pleasures mu/ be
 made up ( pleasures e "o ( :i* is      
qualifi$ z t :i* is produc$ by a c]ta9  
activity4 ,! sum ( pleasures1 !re=e1    
re-introduces ! di/9ctions & cont5ts ( !
 moral ord]1 &1 ?\gh an expression ( !  
crit]ion ( conduct1 is !re=e1 l         
p]fection1 n an indep5d5t crit]ion4 ,!  
elem5t ( quality 9 pleasure may be      
v]ifi$ m easily z :at may be call$      
pref]ability4 ,! t]m pref]ability does n
 mean t !re is an inh]5t moral value 9 e
 pleasure1 9 virtue ( :i* pleasures may 
be di/+ui%$ z high] or l[]--obvi\sly an 

errone\s view1 = high] & l[] is an      
anti!sis e/abli%$ by morality itself2 ! 
value dep5ds on ! k9d ( pleasure1 & !   
pref]ability is t 9 ! good man's m9d4   
,x might be object$ t ev5 ?\gh pleasures
 diff] 9 k9d1 a comp>ison & summation ( 
!m might be possible1 j z comp>ison &   
summation ( weights is possible1 al?\gh 
weight dep5ds n on bulk alone b also on 
specific gravity4 ,x _c be d5i$ t "s    
num]ical expression = qualities (       
pleasure may yet be f\nd1 by :i* !y may 
be comp>$4 ,b x is to be not$ t1 ! high]
 we g 9 ! scale ( exi/5ce1 ! m di/9ct   
becomes ! gr[? ( a pr9ciple ( selection 
or di/ribution :i* ! memb]s ( a         
comb9ation mu/ foll[ 9 ord] to produce a
 giv5 quantitative result4 ,9 *emi/ry we
 may obta9 ! atomic equival5t (         
sulphuric acid 7#ih7 9 _m ways1 b we c  
obta9 ! acid itself only by specific    
comb9ations 9 specific proportions4 ,9  
det]m9+ :at food to give an animal1 we  
mu/ consid] n bulk alone b !            
nutriti\sness ( v>i\s sorts4 ,we might  

express ! nutriti\sness ( v>i\s foods by
 numb]s1 b ! num]ical equival5t w\ld    
tell u no?+1 unless we knew ! k9ds (    
food to be comb9$4 ,& 9 ! same way we   
might express ! sum ( pleasures z end   
num]ically1 b until we "k ! k9ds (      
activities & s ( pleasures to be comb9$ 
to ?is sum1 ! =mula is useless to in=m u
 z to ! end or me?od ( atta9+ x4 ,!     
popul> conception ( happ9ess avoids all 
! difficulties & p]plexities caus$ by   
sett+ up pleasure z ! end1 because 9 t  
conception pleasures & pa9s are nev]    
consid]$ ap>t f conduct & "*4 ,?us1 ?\gh
 ! end involves pleasure1 ! crit]ion is 
good conduct4 ,! good conduct necess>ily
 involves pleasure1 = conduct :i* only  
outw>dly con=ms to ! moral rule1 & 9 :i*
 ! ag5t does n take pleasure1 is n      
really good4  ,! pleasure-=mula ?us     
repres5t$ z ! /&>d ( conduct is to be   
di/+ui%$1 z actual e?ical pleasure 9 !  
act1 f ! pleasures att5dant on ! act z  
results1 & :i* may be t]m$ pa?ological 9
 a ,kantian s5se4 ,! e?ical pleasure ne$

 n be unmix$1 = ! act :i* satisfies "o  
"p ( a man's nature does n necess>ily   
satisfy all ! o!r p>ts4 ,b ! e?ical     
pleasure mu/ be pres5t z ! total        
reaction ( "* consid]$ ap>t f !         
incid5tals ( result4  ,pleasures & pa9s 
may be divid$ into two classes1 active &
 passive2 active pleasures be+ ^?       
att5dant on an act1 z gratification ( an
 impulse1 passive pleasures ^? :i* come 
to u z enjoym5ts1 n z ! gratification ( 
! impulse produc+ an act1 ?\gh p]haps   
result+ f our act4 ,active pa9s are ^? (
 want1 passive ^? ( suff]+4 ,! pleasures
 accompany+ an act z pleasures (        
atta9m5t are always pleasures (         
gratification1 b n ( gratification      
m]ely1 = !y gratify a s5tim5t direct$   
t[>ds an object previ\sly pres5t to !   
m9d 9 idea2 & x is because ! volition   
realizes ! idea t ! pleasures are call$ 
pleasures ( atta9m5t1 & 9 ?is fact lies 
also _! e?ical value4 ,! e?ical pleasure
 9 ! action itself is n to be confus$ ) 
! m]e pleasure 9 ! explicit consci\sness

 ( "r-do+1 :i* argues special           
reflectiv5ess4 ,! e?ical pleasure meant 
is id5tical ) ! feel+ ( approbation1 n z
 a reflection on ! act z idea1 b z      
pres5t 9 ! act itself4 ,b ! e?ical      
pleasures are n indep5d5t ( ! incid5tal 
pleasures1 b dep5d ^u !m1 ! latt]       
!mselves be+ consid]$ 9 det]m9+ :at acts
 are to be p]=m$4  ,! pleasure-=mula ( !
 end repres5ts ! end 9 t]ms ( all !     
e?ical pleasures secur$ by good action2 
& n[ we c see h[ morality c be express$ 
9 t]ms ( all ! pleasures & pa9s involv$ 
9 action1 ! purely e?ical pleasures be+ 
reckon$ among ! re/4 ,e pleasure is an  
inducem5t to p]si/5ce1 e pa9 an         
inducem5t to *ange2 h5ce1 s9ce ! society
 ( good p]sons1 or ! k+dom ( p[]s )9 a  
man's own m9d acquiesce 9 ! moral ord] z
 ! equilibrium 9 :i* all _! claims are  
gratifi$ z f> z may be1 x foll[s t !    
ord] ( good conduct repres5ts ! maximum 
( happ9ess4 ,! end ?us involves !       
greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]4  ,if
 pleasure is b a "p ( ! /&>d ( morality1

 is x1 !n1 ! object ( conduct8 ,if !    
idea be=e ! m9d to be realiz$ 9 action  
is call$ ! object ( ! action1 !n 9 !    
same s5se ! pleasure connect$ ) ! idea1 
:i* mu/ be pleasant1 is ! object (      
conduct4 ,! difficulty 9 agree+ t !     
pleasure ( ! idea is "p ( ! object (    
desire arises f two causes3 7#a7        
confusion ( ! object ( desire ) ! "* or 
crit]ion ( ! object2 7#b7 a misund]/&+ (
 h[ ! ideal object is relat$ to !       
result4 ,z to ! latt] cause1 x may be   
said t ! idea is only 9 ?is s5se an idea
 ( ! result1 t ! result is ! idea z x is
 realiz$2 ! elem5ts ( ! idea are d]iv$ f
 ! pa/1 & ! desire is n = ! prospective 
pleasure ( ! end4 ,z to ! fir/ cause1   
?\gh x is false t ! prospective pleasure
 mu/ necess>ily be "p ( ! idea1 !       
opposite conclusion is n necess>ily     
legitimate t desire is n = pleasure at  
all4 ,x is true t1 9 ord] to di/+ui% "o 
object f ano!r1 we ne$ to "k :at k9d (  
an object x is2 b to conclude t1 !re=e1 
! desire is n = pleasure1 is to confuse 

! actual idea be=e ! m9d 9 desire ) its 
quality4 ,t we d n make pleasure an     
object 9 ! s5se t ! pleasantness ( !    
object itself is :at we h be=e u 9      
desire1 is obvi\s4 ,su* a desire w\ld   
argue a reflectiv5ess :i* has be5 %[n n 
to be necess>ily *>act]i/ic ( action4   
,nor is x ! pleasure ( an act :i* is !  
cause ( ! desire1 ev5 if we suppose ?is 
n 9 ! s5se t reflection appreh5ds x z   
cause4 ,to suppose ?is is to confuse !  
cause ) its sign4 ,! pleasure is a      
function ( ! quality ( ! object4 ,!     
elem5t ( reflectiv5ess may ent] into a  
consid]ation ( ! object1 & ! prospective
 pleasure ?us become an elem5t ( !      
object ( desire4 ,b x is only a "p2 !   
pleasure alone _c be ! object ( desire4 
,! pleasure :i* is ?us a "p ( ! object  
is n a future pleasure1 b t :i* is      
actually pres5t 9 our m9ds1 belong+ to !
 ideal object z "p ( x--! repres5t$     
pleasure ( atta9m5t4 ,to call ! pleasure
 desir$ ! prospective pleasure is to    
conf\nd ! reflection ( ! spectator ) !  

actual fact 9 ! m9d ( ! ag5t to an act4 
,! pleasure is1 moreov]1 n pleasure 9   
g5]al1 b ! pleasure ( ! ag5t2 b ?is is n
 /at+ t ! act is necess>ily selfi%4     
,s9ce e object ( desire & w includes    
pleasure1 ! s-call$ p>adox ( h$onism--t 
pleasure is lo/ by seek+ aft] x--_c be  
expla9$ by hold+ t pleasure is n itself 
! object ( desire1 & t consequ5tly      
pleasure is nev]1 9 enjoym5t1 :at x is 9
 idea4 ,?is la/ is true1 = no idea is 9 
reality :at x is z idea4 ,b !           
explanation lies r 9 po9t+ out h[ fooli%
 x is to seek = :at is a sign or effect 
r ?an = its cause4  ,9 ! good man1 !    
pleasure ( atta9m5t is ! e?ical s5se (  
approbation1 & ?is is also goodness4 ,x 
may1 h[ev]1 be ass]t$ t x is n ?is      
e?ical pleasure1 ?is goodness z su*1 t  
is desir$ by ! good man2 aga91 x is only
 9 exceptional cases ( reflectiv5ess t  
goodness or ! "r action z su* is        
di/9ctively desir$2 & h]e9 lies ,kant's 
mi/ake 9 ass]t+ t a moral act mu/ be    
done f a s5se ( duty4  ,active pa9s1 z  

wants1 are :at prompt to action1 & are1 
s1 ! conditions ( conduct4 ,?\gh 9      
!mselves evil1 z pa91 !y _c be consid]$ 
by !mselves ap>t f ! action to :i* !y   
lead4 ,z = passive pa9s1 9 s f> z !y are
 ! result ( evil action on ! "p ( o!rs1 
!y ought n to h occurr$1 & we try to    
prev5t _! repetition by puni%m5t4 ,^?   
suff]+s incid5tal to "r conduct are to  
be borne1 9 s f> z !y are inevitable1 z 
a necess>y evil 9 t :i*1 consid]$ z a   
:ole1 is good4 ,z soon z !y cease to be 
inevitable1 !y are to be remov$4 ,we d n
 imag9e1 h[ev]1 t pa9 may ev] be :olly  
remov$4 ,b ! /atem5t t pa9 is inevitable
 to "r conduct is n to be int]pret$ z an
 ass]tion t x is = ! sake ( goodness1 z 
a discipl9e1--a metaphysical conception 
dep5d+ on ! idea ( a div9e purpose4     
,morality is ?us a k9d ( optimism1 n    
ignor+ ! reality ( pa9s 9 "r conduct1 b 
treat+ !m z "p ( ! giv5 conditions :i* x
 has to turn to ! be/ acc\nt1 by !      
creation ( a conduct & "* involv+ e?ical
 pleasures4 ,pessimi/ic !ories d n      

ignore ?is optimism ( morality2 b 9 su* 
!ories ! fact ( pa9 is emphasiz$ & dwelt
 ^u1 & morality is reg>d$ only z a means
 ( less5+ pa91 or1 z 9 ! case ( ,von    
,h>tmann1 f9ally gett+ rid ( x altoge!r 
by a univ]sal suicide4 ,x is impossible 
to det]m9e :e!r exi/5ce repres5ts an    
excess ( pa9 or ( pleasure1 s9ce ! answ]
 to ! problem is a matt] ( individual   
temp]am5t2 &1 moreov]1 pleasures & pa9s 
_c be 7z yet7 m]ely quantitatively      
comp>$4 ,ano!r error ( pessimism consi/s
 9 comp>+ pleasures & pa9s 9 detail &   
suppos+ ! result to hold good 9 ! g5]al 
sum2 b ev5 9 cases :]e pleasures are    
greatly outweigh$ by pa9s1 ! pa9s may   
s9k 9 value consid]$ 9 connection ) !   
re/ ( life4 ,! desirability (           
non-exi/5ce c\ld be ma9ta9$ only z a    
race %\ld be develop$ desir+ x2 b ! :ole
 c\rse ( hi/ory is 9 ! opposite         
direction4  ,! "q1 ,is life wor? liv+8  
involves two3 7#a7 ,is x actually       
pref]able to ! creature :o lives x8 7#b7
 ,c any life be said to h a real value2 

is any life subjectively1 is any        
objectively1 pref]able8 ,! answ] to !   
fir/ "q is ! fact ( life1 = ! my/]i\s   
in/9ct ( self-pres]vation call$ 9 to    
acc\nt = ! cont9uance ( exi/5ce is "o ( 
! elem5ts to be consid]$ 9 ! problem1 _c
 be exclud$4 ,x is true t only c]ta9    
k9ds ( life are pref]able1 b ! v mean+ (
 ! pr9ciple ( selection is ! secur+ ( ! 
life t is wor? liv+4  ,hav+ arriv$ at   
?is answ]1 we c no long] comp>e exi/5ce 
& non-exi/5ce 9 respect to pref]ability1
 & ! second problem pres5ts itself to u 
z ! "q z to :at exi/5ce is ( value4 ,!  
answ] is ! moral life1 goodness1 z      
includ+ all ! activities ( "*4  ,! moral
 end has sometimes be5 def9$ z social   
vitality4 ,vitality is1 9 /rictness1 !  
en]gy to live1 & has two aspects4 ,x is 
7#a7 ! =ce :i* keeps a creature alive1  
or 7#b7 ! =ce :i* keeps x well4 ,z      
imply+ ! keep+ up ( vital functions1 !  
notion ( cont9u$ exi/5ce repres5ts !    
end1 b repres5ts x 9 its l[e/ aspect1   
its lea/ & poore/ significance1 & is an 

insuffici5t description2 = n exi/5ce c  
be ! end1 b exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 sort4     
,exi/5ce1 9 fact1 is an ab/raction to   
:i* no?+ corresponds 9 exp]i5ce3 no?+   
exi/s except ^u c]ta9 t]ms4 ,giv5 !     
type1 ! end ( ! creature is to cont9ue !
 exi/5ce ( t type2 b cont9uance (       
exi/5ce is no?+ m nor less ?an !        
p]=mance ( ^? functions :i* con/itute ! 
type ( life 9 "q3 x is n sep>at$ f ^?   
functions z some?+ :i* !y subs]ve4 ,if !
 functions 9 man or animal are said to  
be det]m9$ by ! ne$ ( ma9ta9+ 8 exi/5ce1
 x may be answ]$ t 8 exi/5ce is ^!      
functions4 ,9 ?is s5se ( cont9u$ exi/5ce
 z ! repetition ( vital functions 9 _!  
ord]1 x is true1 b only second>ily true1
 t ! end is to pres]ve life4 ,b !       
doctr9e ( evolution implies mu* m ?an   
su* pres]vation4 ,x means ! victori\s   
cont9uance ( life4 ,b because a type is 
victori\s1 we _c inf] t ! end ( ! type  
is to ma9ta9 its victori\s exi/5ce 9 !  
s5se ( aim+ at victory4 ,to d ?is is to 
read into ! end a !ory ( h[ ! type came 

into exi/5ce4 ,! end ( a type is to act 
accord+ to ! type2 ! victory ov] rivals 
af=ds ! opportunity ( ?is4 ,!           
pres]vation ( exi/5ce is a condition ( !
 end1 n ! end itself2 to reg>d x z su*  
is to confuse cause ) effect4  ,vitality
 z heal?1 on ! o!r h&1 implies !        
equilibrium :i* con/itutes good conduct 
good4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be obs]v$ t heal?  
is n a fur!r specification or a         
limitation ( cont9u$ life1 b is         
coext5sive ) x4  ,b heal?1 z appli$ to  
morals1 is a metaphorical t]m4 ,morality
 does n consi/ 9 m]e physical vitality2 
on ! contr>y1 "s sacrifice ( su*        
vitality may be necess>y1 ! p]fect      
physical vitality may be inconsi/5t ) ! 
developm5t ( high] & f9] m5tal          
functions4 ,) ?is proviso1 vitality z   
heal? is simply ano!r "n = ! "* ( good  
conduct :i* w9s x ! title ( good4  ,!re 
is (t5 a di/9ction made betwe5 virtue & 
duty1 ! =m] ^w seem+ to include ! latt] 
& g beyond x4 ,h[ev]1 x is n only       
virtu\s to d "o's duty1 b x is also !   

duty ( ! individual to d 8 be/4 ,9 fact1
 ! two1 virtue & duty1 are coext5sive1 !
 t]m virtue describ+ conduct by !       
quality ( ! ag5t's m9d1 ! t]m duty by ! 
nature ( ! act p]=m$4 ,nev]!less1 !re   
are actions to :i* x is m natural to    
apply ! t]m virtue1 duty be+ color$ by  
legal implications4 ,9 ! legal s5se1    
duty fixes1 n ! highe/ l9e ( conduct1 b 
! l[e/ limit1 b5ea? :i* conduct mu/ n   
fall4 ,virtue1 z contra/$ ) duty 9 !    
legal s5se1 seems to be coext5sive )    
m]it4 ,negative m]it1 h[ev]1 :]e a man  
is good 9 spite ( "s great disadvantage1
 does n make an act virtu\s 9 di/9ction 
f dutiful conduct4 ,x is ! duty ( a man 
) a passion = dr9k to repress x2 b we d 
n t]m 8 p]=mance virtu\s1 ?\gh x may be 
m]itori\s4 ,m]it1 t is1 implies a scale 
)9 ! range ( good acts !mselves4 ,virtue
 & duty co9cide1 h[ev]1 only s long z ! 
moral value ( actions are consid]$4 ,=  
we di/+ui% two diff]5t classes (        
virtues1 or two s5ses ( ! ^w virtue1    
correspond+ to ! di/9ction ( e?ical &   

pa?ological1 ! pa?ological virtues be+  
c]ta9 gifts ( emotion or s5tim5t1 :i*   
are sometimes ?\ght to make action m    
virtu\s1 b d n alt] its real "*4 ,?us1 =
 example1 ! virtue ( b5evol5ce may be   
?\ght imp]fect )\t k9dly feel+1 ?\gh a  
man may be b5evol5t )\t any su*         
spontane\s movem5t4 ,*a/ity1 aga91 may 9
 "s natures be accompani$ by1 & fl[ f1 a
 delicacy ( feel+ :i* makes all unlawful
 sugge/ions impossible4 ,n[1 if ^!      
emotions 7 necess>y to _! respective    
virtues1 we %\ld h to admit t duty 0    
less ?an virtue4 ,b we mu/ ma9ta9 t !y  
are excell5ces :i* d n alt] ! moral "* (
 conduct1 & may be abs5t altoge!r &     
leave ! ag5t z virtu\s z if !y 7 pres5t4
 ,"s p]sons1 inde$1 w\ld say t !re 0    
less virtue 9 *>act]s :i* possess$ ^!   
emotional end[m5ts4444 ,9 !mselves1 !y  
are n virtues 9 ! e?ical s5se1 b only   
'add a lu/re' to habits ( w4 ,!y may ev5
 be ineffectual1 z (t5 happ5s ) v       
good-natur$ p]sons1 or !y may be        
positively bad4 ,c\rage1 = in/ance1 we  

admire ev5 9 a villa94 ,we may conclude1
 !n1 t ^! excell5ces ( disposition are  
only valuable 9 s f> z !y are helps to  
virtue1 & we praise ! brave villa9 on   
acc\nt ( a quality :i* is ( ! utmo/     
importance = actual goodness4 ,!y ent]  
into our ideal ( ! p]fect or complete   
"*1 ?\gh1 if we e/imate our ideal (     
p]fection1 we %all f9d1 ,i ?9k1 t we    
atta* less value to !m :5 !y are native 
?an :5 !y h be5 produc$ by a con/ant    
discipl9e4  ,x might seem1 !n1 t we c\ld
 classify duties "u virtues4 ,to a      
consid]able ext5t su* a classification  
is possible4 ,b x mu/ be imp]fect1      
because !re are duties--= example1      
filial duty1 or ! duty ( ca/+ "o's vote 
9 a political conte/--:i* d n correspond
 to any g5]al head ( virtue1 or may be  
rank$ "u sev]al heads3 & aga91 we may   
rank along ) virtues :i* /& = duties    
qualities ( conduct :i* d n correspond  
to duties 9 ! same s5se2 z1 = in/ance1 9
 a li/ ( heads ( duties1 wisdom &       
self-control4 ,! enum]ation mixes up two

 classifications1 9 ! "o ( :i* we gr\p  
obs]vances toge!r "u c]ta9 heads1 9 !   
o!r ( :i* we enum]ate c]ta9 elem5ts (   
good action 9 g5]al1 c]ta9 aspects :i* e
 good action pres5ts1 & we exhibit !m z 
qualities 9 ! ag5t's m9d4 ,! two        
classifications are comb9$ 9 ! anci5t   
description ( morality "u ! heads (     
wisdom1 c\rage1 temp]ance1 & ju/ice4 ,! 
bett] classification is by moral        
in/itutions1 :]e ! moral life is already
 mapp$ out = u into its diff]5t p>ts4   
,su* a s*eme ( classification w consid] 
7a7 ! ,individual1 7b7 ! ,family1 7c7 ! 
,society1 7d7 ! ,/ate2 ! f\r? division  
includ+ int]national duties1 ! ?ird n   
be+ necess>ily limit$ to a p>ticul>     
society1 b ext5d+ to all mank9d4        
,,dynamical ,,analysis--,,moral ,,gr[?  
,,& ,,progress  ,! previ\s description (
 morality supposes x to be /ation>y1 &  
is l a section tak5 across ! pa? (      
morality at any "o "t4 ,x gives u no    
idea ( ! process & progress ( morality4 
,we h yet to %[ h[ ! moral ord] is      

produc$1 & to exam9e ! mean+ & ! law (  
moral progress4  ,z ! moral organism may
 be comp>$ to a species ( :i* ! v>i\s   
moral individuals are ! memb]s1 s !     
moral ideal may be reg>d$ z a species ( 
:i* ! v>i\s ideals 9 ! m9ds ( good m5   
are ! diff]5t individuals4 ,we %\ld ?us 
expect to f9d ! orig9 & gr[? ( morality 
analog\s to or1 m /rictly speak+1       
id5tical )1 ! gr[? ( natural species4   
,if an ultimate ideal 7 admissible1 x   
w\ld be impossible to ass]t t morality  
is ess5tially progressive4 ,morality1 9 
! s5se ( an equilibrium1 has at e /age a
 c]ta9 f9ality1 9 ! s5se t x is1 = t    
/age1 ! ideal adju/m5t4 ,b we _c        
conceive ( any ideal z f9al 9 ! s5se (  
/ation>y4 ,! good is always ultimate b  
always 9 motion4 ,moral progress admits 
( only two degrees ( comp>ison1 !       
sup]lative be+ id5tical ) ! positive4   
,by be/ we d n imply a great] rightness 
9 ! ultimate condition1 b only a highe/ 
developm5t4 ,sp5c]'s conception ( !     
di/9ction betwe5 ,absolute & ,relative  

,e?ics involves ! conception ( an       
ultimate ideal congruity1 or complete   
adaptation ( man to 8 conditions1 a     
mobile equilibrium includ+ p]fection z  
well z goodness1 pres5t *oice be+ nev]  
betwe5 wrong & an absolute "r1 b always 
betwe5 two wrongs1 ! less] ( :i* is to h
 ! pref]5ce4 ,! picture is1 9 itself1   
p]fectly legitimate2 & 9 s f> z ,sp5c]  
conceives t ! only ideal is ! absolutely
 "r conduct1 8 conception is n only     
legitimate1 b true4 ,!re is always1     
h[ev]1 an absolute "r t may be *os52 &  
us+ ! conception ( a mobile equilibrium1
 we f\nd x to be1 n a goal ( progress1 b
 ! mean+ ( goodness at any "t4 ,!       
di/9ction ( good & bad 7"r & wrong7     
arises )9 ! limit$ range ( conditions t 
are to be met by good action4 ,t1 z     
,sidgwick ass]ts1 !re is always "s c\rse
 ( conduct :i* is "r1 ! moral           
consci\sness decl>es ) c]ta9ty1 & is ?us
 aga9/ ! relativity ( morality4 ,mr4    
,sp5c] holds t any concomitant ( pa9    
makes an action wrong1 !re=e x is       

natural = him to reg>d all pres5t       
morality z only relative4 ,b to ! good  
man ! pleasure ( do+ "r exce$s !        
possible att5dant pa9s ( an action2 &   
except ^u ! und]/&+ t1 9 a society (    
good m51 e "o w adju/ himself )         
equanimity to ! ne$s ( o!rs1 n ev5 !    
acts :i* are decl>$ to be typical (     
absolutely "r conduct c be free f       
concomitant pa94 ,w ! ideal /ate exhibit
 no competitions1 su* z rivalry 9 love1 
:i* c be end$ inde$ ) ! cont5tm5t ( all 
p]sons1 b assur$ly n )\t att5dant pa98  
,! g5]al error 9 !ory on ?is subject    
lies 9 a misconception ( ! idea (       
adju/m5t to environm5t1 ! fact n be+    
not$ t ! environm5t is n itself fix$ &  
p]man5t4 ,:at ! environm5t is dep5ds ^u 
! nature & faculties ( ! individual1 !  
same environm5t be+ a diff]5t "o =      
amoeba & human be+1 = ! bl9d man & ! man
 possess+ sight2 & :at environm5t is &  
:at ! individual does are settl$ at "o &
 ! same "t1 ! process ( selection be+ "o
 f bo? sides1 & ! v>iation ( bo?4 ,!    

adaptation :]ev] x exi/s & s f> z x     
exi/s is1 h5ce1 p]fect adaptation2 if ! 
l[] organism is adapt$ to its           
environm5t1 its adaptation is z p]fect z
 t ( ! high] organism to its environm5t4
  ,e successful life means adaptation4  
,e animal :i* c ma9ta9 its life is 9    
adaptation to its environm5t4 ,! b>e    
=mula ( adaptation means no?+ m ?an !   
fact ( exi/5ce4 ,adaptation to !        
conditions z su* tea*es u no?+ z to !   
nature ( ! organism2 = all functions are
 reactions ^u ! conditions1 & !re=e1 s  
f>1 adaptations4 ,b x po9ts to some?+   
beh9d4 ,x means t all ! functions ( !   
animal are adapt$ to ! conditions1 & ?is
 means t its functions are adapt$ or    
adju/$ to "o ano!r "u ! conditions4  ,! 
moral ideal consi/s 9 a c]ta9           
equilibrium e/abli%$ on ! basis ( c]ta9 
conditions--wants & s5tim5ts 9 moral    
ag5ts4 ,x involves advance j = ?is      
reason1 because ! act ( adju/m5t impli$ 
9 good conduct itself alt]s ! s5tim5ts (
 ! ag5t1 & creates new ne$s dem&+ a new 

satisfaction4 ,! *ange is n always 9 !  
same direction1 h[ev]2 = cultivation 9  
"o direction may cause ! individual to  
become aw>e ( capacities or wants 9 q   
ano!r direction1 or ! advocacy ( "o side
 ( a "q1 p]sev]$ 91 may s op5 up ! o!r  
side z to end 9 complete *ange ( view4  
,9 any case1 h[ev]1 !re is an enl>gem5t 
( exp]i5ce1 & ! old facts are !mselves  
*ang$ by x z well z are ! individuals   
subject to x4  ,?is *ange or adju/m5t   
leads to a maladju/m5t requir+ a new    
adju/m5t4 ,?is maladju/m5t is to be     
di/+ui%$ f ! rea]rangem5ts :i* are      
contemplat$ by ! /atical ideal & due to 
! m]e rotation ( wants 9 society2 !     
latt] are )9 ! moral sy/em z a sy/em (  
mobile equilibrium4 ,! maladju/m5t is ( 
ano!r sort4 ,! good act ceases to be    
good by its p]=mance4 ,! moral ideal    
ceases to satisfy4 ,! two =ms ( *ange   
may be comp>$ respectively to a %ift+ ( 
position on ! same locus1 & to su* a    
%ift+ ( position z involves a %ift+ (   
locus4 ,?us1 by *ange aft] *ange ( ?is  

sort1 a new v>iety replaces its p>5t1 & 
?is v>iety 9 "t produc+ a fre% v>iety1  
!re is f9ally rea*$ a new species4      
,progress ?us becomes a necess>y fact1 &
 ! diff]5ce ( s-call$ /ation>y societies
 f progressive ones c lie only 9 !      
comp>ative sl[ness ( *ange4  ,z !re is a
 diff]5ce betwe5 diff]5t societies 9    
rate ( *ange1 s !re is a simil> diff]5ce
 z betwe5 diff]5t p>ts ( conduct4 ,law1 
a "p ( morality1 lags beh9d 9 moral     
progress4 ,h[ev]1 !re is nev]!less      
always advancem5t1 o!rwise legislators  
w\ld be unnecess>y4 ,& ! direct outw>d  
*ange ( =m is prec$$ by o!r *ange1 laws 
:i* fall into disfavor by means ( moral 
progress be+ modifi$1 9 application1 )9 
! possible limits ( int]pretation1 &    
less & less rigidly en=c$4 ,!re is good 
reason :y law %\ld h a c]ta9 p]man5ce4  
,! moral /&>d appe>s to h a simil> m or 
less fix$ "*1 :ile morality itself is 9 
cont9u\s *ange4 ,!re are two reasons =  
?is appe>ance3 7#a7 ! *anges 9 ! moral  
ord] are inf9itesimal & n p]ceiv$ by u  

except z accumulat$ ?r\gh "s p]iod ( "t2
 &1 moreov]1 :at is commonly call$ !    
moral /&>d is only a k9d ( g5]alization 
f ! extremely v>i\s op9ions ( diff]5t   
p]sons z to :at is "r1 & diff]s f ! real
 /&>d :i* regi/]s ! conduct con/itut+   
equilibrium1 & is possess$ by ! good    
man4 ,p]fectly good m5 are impossible4  
,! /&>d curr5t is !re=e no?+ m ?an a    
common und]/&+1 :i* e "o1 ev5 e good    
man1 expresses diff]5tly2 x is no m an  
exact expression ( ! tru? ?an is1 let u 
say1 a great sci5tific conception 7l    
developm5t7 :i* regulates all k1 b is   
among/ ! educat$ little m ?an ! "n ( a  
g5]al way ( ?9k+1 :ile ! ?+ itself is   
becom+1 at ! h&s ( m5 ( sci5ce1 modifi$ 
or ev5 trans=m$4 7#b7 ,! mi/ake is (t5  
made ( describ+ morality1 n by          
in/itutions1 b 9 t]ms ( virtues1 & :ile 
! "n appli$ to diff]5t virtues rema9s ! 
same1 _! cont5t *anges f age to age4    
,?is idea ( v>iability affects ! /atical
 conception ( ord] ) reg>d to habit--!  
moral requirem5t be+ t ! fix$ habits (  

morality %\ld n be s fix$ z to be       
incapable ( advancem5t2 & ) reg>d to    
consci5ce1 ( :i* x might be said t1     
in/ead ( repres5t+ ! moral ord]1 x 0 m  
occupi$ 9 *ang+ ?an 9 ma9ta9+ x1 b :i* 9
 reality ?us repres5ts ! moral ord]1 to 
:i* ! ideal is a *ang+ "o4  ,two        
difficulties or objections may arise )  
reg>d to ?is idea ( a *ang+ ideal4 ,!   
progress has be5 repres5t$ by p]sonify+ 
! ideal & suppos+ ! p]son to *ange ) ea*
 new ideal4 ,aga91 goodness consi/s1 we 
saw1 ( a sy/em ( conduct 9 ! individual 
himself or 9 society1 & ?is sy/em =ms a 
s]ies 9 "t4 ,x w\ld seem to foll[ t1 if 
goodness is always progressive1 no      
second act w\ld be p]=m$ "u ! same law1 
al?\gh ! v idea ( ! law means a s]ies ( 
acts4 ,b we are n to suppose t1 if fifty
 good m5 9 a society act rightly1 fifty 
new ideals are e/abli%$1 = ! ideal      
repres5ts ! equilibrium ( ! memb]s ( !  
society1 & x dep5ds on :e!r ! new ideals
 ( ! fifty m5 repres5t ! new equilibrium
 :e!r we %all call ! p]sons good or bad4

 ,aga91 ! ideal at any mom5t w\ld be 9  
fact realiz$ 9 a s]ies1 suppos+ !       
conditions did n alt] mean:ile2 & :ile !
 sy/em ( conduct is s]ial1 x is realiz$ 
at any "o mom5t 9 ! m9d ( ! man ^:      
s5tim5ts correspond to its requirem5ts4 
,9 ?is process we see exhibit$ !        
int]play ( ! elem5t ( goodness or       
rightness ) t ( p]fection4 ,9 all actual
 goodness1 we h p]fection atta9$ z well2
 b 9 ! /atical notion ( goodness        
p]fection is subord9ate--only t ex]cise 
is p]fect :i* is legitimate4 ,b 9 !     
notion ( progressive goodness1 p]fection
 rega9s its rights4 ,= goodness1 hav+   
secur$ p]fection1 creates new mat]ials  
:i* de/roy ! old equilibrium & call = a 
new "o4 ,goodness det]m9es p]fection1 b 
*ange 9 p]fection det]m9es1 !re=e1      
*anges 9 goodness4 ,morality is !       
creation ( a bett]2 ?is bett] is *ange f
 a l[] to a high] developm5t1 n ! gr[? (
 a great] rightness4 ,all good conduct  
is absolutely good1 & ! good man ( =m]  
days 0 z good z ! good man ( to-day1    

al?\gh he p]=m$ acts n all[able by !    
high] moral /&>d atta9$ z highe/        
developm5t4 ,accord+ly1 !re is no su* ?+
 z an absolute morality1 9 comp>ison )  
:i* o!r conduct is v>iable & relative4  
,! relativity ( good conduct1 in/ead (  
be+ a reproa*1 is 9 reality its highe/  
praise1 = x implies t ! conduct takes   
acc\nt ( exactly ^? conditions to :i* x 
is meant to apply4 ,?is conception (    
morality z absolute runs into t (       
morality z an et]nal & id5tical law3    
et]nal1 = ! morality ( giv5 conditions  
rema9s et]nally true = ^? conditions2   
id5tical1 = al?\gh x _c be call$        
id5tical 9 ! s5se t virtues d n *ange ) 
in/itutions1 x is id5tical 9 =m1--z an  
equilibrium ( social =ces 9 an ord] (   
conduct4 ,! m important conception ( !  
moral law is its unity 9 :i*1 z ! /ages 
( "o cont9u\s law1 its id5tity consi/s4 
,progress is n m]e de/ruction ( ! l[]1 b
 fulfilm5t4  ,9 consid]+ h[ morality    
arises1 x w\ld be errone\s to suppose t 
x comes into exi/5ce by an actual       

compromise4 ,x arises ?r\gh a process ( 
cont9u\s *ange1 p>ts ( :i* may be an    
ins5sible gr[?1 p>ts ! self-consci\s    
adoption ( a propos$ new s*eme4 ,9 !    
latt] case1 a slight re=m may be adopt$ 
) b little opposition f memb]s ( !      
society o!r ?an ! propos]1 z meet+ a    
recogniz$1 common want2 or1 9 ! case ( a
 m ext5d$ re=m1 ! idea z fir/ propos$   
may be long cont5d$ aga9/1 & only f9ally
 adopt$ aft] mu* alt]ation by reason (  
contact ) su* opposition4 ,9 its        
acceptance innum]able =ces are comb9$1  
innum]able diff]5t motives det]m9e its  
acceptation by diff]5t p]sons4 ,:atev] !
 motive1 h[ev]1 ! conduct ( ! p]son     
accept+ x alt]s 9 accordance ) its      
acceptation4  ,! *ief importance (      
pleasure & pa9 lies 9 ! "p !y take 9 su*
 *oice4 ,!y are ! te/s ( ! act be+      
suitable or ! rev]se to ! "* 79 ! wide/ 
s5se7 ( ! ag5t4 ,if a re=m does n suit !
 "*1 x w cause pa9 & urge to removal ( !
 pa9 by resi/ance2 & on ! o!r h&1 :5 !  
re=m is accept$1 x mu/ be t x gives     

pleasure to ! p]sons conc]n$4 ,b 9 say+ 
?is we h to rememb] ! di/9ction betwe5  
e?ical 7or effective7 & pa?ological 7or 
incid5tal7 pleasures & pa9s4 ,! total   
reaction ( "* on a /imulus may be       
pleasurable1 b ?is pleasure results f a 
mixture ( pleasures & pa9s weigh$ aga9/ 
"o ano!r4 ,?is balanc+ ( pleasures &    
pa9s is n reflective1 b takes place by a
 k9d ( intuitive act 9 :i* only         
subsequ5t reflection may be able to     
di/+ui% ! elem5ts4 ,! pleasure or pa9   
involv$ 9 acceptance or rejection is n !
 gr\nd ( acceptance or rejection4 ,!    
cause ( ! acceptance or rejection is !  
nature ( ! re=m itself1 its congruity or
 incongruity ) ! natures ( ! p]sons     
accept+ or reject+ x4 ,:5 ! new ideal is
 def9itely e/abli%$1 ^? :o d n obey x   
are bad1 ^? :o d are good4 ,^? :o 7 good
 "u ! old may ?us be bad "u ! new ideal1
 & vice v]sa4  ,! gradual re=m ?r\gh !  
*oice ( individuals :o act ^u _! feel+s 
)\t kn[+ ! :ole aim or be>+ ( _! conduct
 is simil> to t :]e a def9ite re=m is ! 

end 9 view4 ,x is a gradual adju/m5t (  
wills "u new conditions & repres5ts !   
position ( equilibrium :i* w\ld be      
completely realiz$ if all ! society 7   
good4  ,! new ideal is n to be def9$ z  
m]ely ! w ( ! majority1 ! possession ( a
 majority be+ no?+ b ! fact ( its       
preval5ce4 ,! gr\nd ( preval5ce is t x  
repres5ts ! equilibrium4 ,!re is no     
virtue 9 m]e prepond]ance2 x is n t     
re=ms foll[ ! majority1 b t a majority  
is attract$ by a suitable re=m4  ,a new 
ideal arises by a /ruggle ( v>ieties    
analog\s to t 9 ! organic _w1--! ^w     
/ruggle be+ metaphorical 9 bo? cases1   
s9ce actual conflict is n necess>y to   
ei!r4 ,! di/9ction ( good & bad         
corresponds to ! dom9ation ( "o         
v>iety444 :i* has come to prevail 9     
virtue ( its be+ a social equilibrium1 &
 ?us repres5t+ suitability to all !     
conditions ( life4 ,evil is simply t :i*
 has be5 reject$ & defeat$ 9 ! /ruggle )
 ! good4  ,! re=m]1 z n repres5t+ !     
pr$om9at+ ideal & s ! social            

equilibrium1 & ! man :o turns out to be 
bad by ! new ideal1 ?us /& orig9ally ^u 
! same level4 ,ea* is an in/ance ( a    
v>iety ( ! orig9al species1 b ! =m] is !
 successful v>iety2 8 ideal repres5ts ! 
real =ces ( society & c be adopt$ by !  
:ole4 ,! /ruggle is "o ( "* & conduct1 &
 results n necess>ily 9 ! ext9ction (   
life1 b 9 ! ext9ction ( unsuitable      
ideals4  ,! di/9ction ( ! =mally bad f !
 mat]ially good re/s ^u ! transition f !
 old ideal to ! new1 ?\gh sometimes we  
use ^? t]ms z describ+ :at is only      
legally wrong ?\gh morally approv$4 ,a  
re=m]1 until 8 re=m is e/abli%$1 is     
=mally wrong4 ,he c be consid]$         
mat]ially "r only prospectively2444 "t  
only c prove :e!r he _h really =eca/ !  
movem5t ( 8 society4 ,sometimes a       
society may be s divid$1 z 9 our civil  
w>1 t nei!r v>iety is pr$om9ant4 ,9 su* 
a case we mu/ say1 n t !re 0 no rule (  
"r1 b t !re 0 a diff]5t rule = ea* ( !  
two halves ( ! nation4 ,!re does n arise
 any ne$ = ! di/9ction ( =mally &       

mat]ially "r conduct1 until ! limits h  
be5 ov]/epp$1 )9 :i* x is 9 any age     
consid]$ "r = a man to act ^u 8 own     
conviction4 ,^! limits are plac$ v      
diff]5tly 9 diff]5t ages4  ,does good   
action1 !n1 dep5d on ! bad man z well z 
on ! good8 ,good & evil arise toge!r1 & 
good is !re=e always relative to evil1 b
 we d n !re=e take our morality f ! bad4
 ,we _c1 9 fact1 "k :o is bad until !   
/&>d is creat$1 b once creat$1 we ma9ta9
 x aga9/ bad m5 by puni%m5t4 ,b1 on !   
o!r h&1 ! moral /&>d does dep5d ^u !    
=ces :i*1 :5 all[$ free play1 are       
di/+ui%$ z bad4444 ,a l>ge "p ( conduct 
consi/s ( precautions :i* x is n only   
legitimate b incumb5t to take1 b :i* we 
%\ld disp5se ) "u happi] conditions4444 
,& 9 a second way1 morality dep5ds on   
'badness1' = :5 a habit ( action :i* we 
dislike & call bad comes to be /rong    
en\gh to make itself felt1 we seek to   
satisfy its claims z reasonable4 ,!re   
is444 no ext]nal /&>d by :i* we c settle
 once & = all :at claims are legitimate 

& :at are n4 ,we d]ive our conception ( 
! reasonabl5ess ( ?+s f our exp]i5ce (  
_! vitality & effective p[]s4 ,a wise   
man :o ?9ks ! feel+s & beliefs ( 8      
neighbors ridicul\s w1 by p]suasion or  
=ce1 resi/ !m ) all 8 en]gies1 b :5 he  
f9ds !m p]si/ 9 spite ( all 8 ef=ts1 he 
w recognize t !re are m ?+s 9 human     
nature ?an /ir )9 ! n>r[ limits ( 8 own 
brea/4 ,if :at we n[ call bad conduct1  
murd]1 adult]y1 !ft1 c\ld be conceiv$ to
 become pr$om9ant "u greatly *ang$ & (  
c\rse impossible conditions1 x w\ld     
cease to be bad & w\ld be ! ideal (     
life4  ,f ! view t morality dep5ds ^u   
victory1 misconceptions may arise4 ,! "q
 may be ask$3 ,%\ld "o1 9 case ( d\bt1  
foll[ "o's own conviction1 or jo9 ! side
 x is ?\ght w prevail8 ,b t good is     
creat$ by pr$om9ance is a !ory ( ! means
 by :i* ideals come into exi/5ce1 n a   
/atem5t ( ! motive ( ^? :o p>ticipate 9 
! /ruggle4 ,! /ruggle is betwe5 *>act]s 
& _! =ces1 & n victory is ! end1 b !    
ass]tion ( c]ta9 pr9ciples4  ,int]e/ or 

good 9 g5]al is a diff]5t conception f !
 "r or ! morally good4 ,int]e/ means :at
 is good = an individual consid]$ f 8   
own po9t ( view1 & )\t reg>d to simil>  
claims ( o!r individuals4 ,x is !       
maximum ( happ9ess or satisfaction :i*  
he c secure "u 8 conditions4 ,by        
'maximum happ9ess' is meant t           
di/ribution ( satisfactions or ( !      
en]gies :i* produce !m1 any deviation f 
:i* on ei!r side implies a less fulness 
( life4 ,x ref]s1 h[ev]1 to 8 good z a  
social1 n z an isolat$ individual4  ,z a
 g5]al rule1 int]e/ is 9 agreem5t )     
goodness2 misde$s are unpr(itable4 ,b   
!re are in/ances :]e goodness & int]e/ d
 n co9cide1 ?\gh n 9 ! case ( ! good    
man4 ,t virtue & int]e/ are 9 g5]al     
id5tical means1 /atically1 t morality is
 a reconciliation ( int]e/s by :i* wants
 are satisfi$1 & is e/abli%$ by !       
creation ( a new type ( "*1 :i* has     
wants ( only c]ta9 k9ds2 &1 dynamically1
 x repres5ts ! fact t =ces are array$ on
 ! side ( ! good :i* are too p[]ful = ! 

bad4 ,good is ! victori\s ideal2 & ?\gh 
we may say t x w\ld really be to ! bad  
man's int]e/ to be bad1 if circum/ances 
7 su* t 8 v>iety c\ld ma9ta9 itself1 we 
may add t su* hypo!tical int]e/s _c be  
secur$4 ,h[ev]1 int]e/ does n co9cide ) 
morality--  7#a7 ,:]e ! individual does 
n c>e = puni%m5ts & social c5sures4 7#b7
 ,:]e a man1 by reason ( c]ta9          
sup]iorities ( =ce ov] o!rs ) :om he is 
m directly 9 contact1 is able to obta9  
p[] & suppress _! resi/ance1 or :]e !   
moral weakness ( o!rs leaves him        
unpuni%$4 ,9 ^! exceptional cases1 we h 
! contradictory ph5om5on t an ideal :i* 
c ma9ta9 its exi/5ce is yet decl>$ to be
 bad4 ,su* cases m>k a /age ( transition
 9 ! process by :i* ! di/9ction ( good  
or bad is e/abli%$4 ,9 ! /ruggle (      
animal species1 ! same ph5om5on may be  
f\nd2 an exceptional individual ( a     
vani%+ v>iety ma9ta9s 8 exi/5ce = a "t  
by reason ( 8 exceptional end[m5t or (  
com+ 9 contact m]ely ) ! weak] memb]s ( 
! successful v>iety4  ,!re are two ways 

9 :i* ! moral ideal is ma9ta9$1--by     
education & by puni%m5t4 ,puni%m5t is ! 
condemnation ( wrong-do+ by c5sure or by
 legal p5alties4 ,! unpleasant          
consequ5ces ( neglect ( ! self-reg>d+   
virtues are n puni%m5t2 b ! reaction ( !
 good =ces ( society aga9/ wrong-do+ is 
z natural z ! unpleasant physical       
effects ( imprud5ce4  ,if ! "q z to :at 
moral sanction is means1 ',:at reason is
 !re :y morality exi/s8' ! answ] lies n 
9 enum]at+ ! p5alties ( wrong-do+1 b 9  
trac+ ! orig9 ( morality z an           
equilibrium ( ! =ces ( society4444 ,b ! 
"q1 ',:y %\ld ,i be moral8' means1 mo/  
naturally & usually1 ,:at inducem5ts are
 !re to me to d "r8 ,! answ] is t       
motives diff] = diff]5t individuals4 ,) 
"s1 out] social inducem5ts1 ) o!rs1 !   
approbation & disapprobation ( consci5ce
 are /rong]4 ,^! latt] e?ical pa9s &    
pleasures :i* are felt at ! idea ( an   
action /& on a diff]5t foot+ f feel+s   
hav+ reg>d to ext]nal rew>ds & puni%m5ts
 & also ! prospective pleasures & pa9s (

 consci5ce4 ,! man :o does "r because he
 %r9ks f prospective pa9s ( consci5ce is
 n a good man1 b int]m$iate morally     
betwe5 ! bad man :o seeks only to escape
 legal puni%m5t & ! good man ^: pa9s (  
consci5ce felt at ! idea ( a wrong act  
prev5t 8 p]=m+ x4  ,puni%m5t we>s       
diff]5t %apes accord+ to ! po9t ( view f
 :i* x is reg>d$1 b1 9 ! di/9ctively    
moral view1 is re=matory4 ,all puni%m5t 
is retribution1 b n 9 ! s5se t x is     
p]sonal v5geance4 ,! value ( ?is idea ( 
retribution lies 9 ! fact t x places    
puni%m5t on a l9e ) ! process (         
self-ass]tion by :i* species ma9ta9 _!  
life2 x is a "p ( ! reaction ( !        
organism aga9/ any?+ :i* imp$es its     
vitality4 ,if1 h[ev]1 puni%m5t av5ges ! 
evil de$1 x is a confusion to say t x is
 = ! sake ( v5geance4 ,! purpose 9 ! m9d
 ( ^? puni%+ is n necess>ily v5geance1 &
 ! idea ( m]e retribution is repugnant  
to ! good man4 ,f ! juridic po9t ( view1
 ! object ( puni%m5t is prev5tion2 f !  
moral po9t ( view1 re=mation4 ,!        

re=mation seeks to de/roy a bad ideal1 &
 does n necess>ily de/roy ! individual 9
 :om x is f\nd2 b 9 "s cases !          
wrong-do]'s m9d is s p]v]t$ t only dea?1
 x is judg$1 w suffice4 ,"h1 too1       
p>adoxical z x may seem1 ?\gh p]haps !  
*ief object ( our puni%m5t is ! indirect
 "o ( bett]+ o!rs1 we puni% ) dea? 9    
ord] to make him a good man & to br+ him
 )9 ! ideal ( society4444 ,! p5alty (   
dea? is ?\ght necess>y to br+ home to   
him ! enormity ( 8 guilt4  ,! object (  
puni%m5t is n always a*iev$1 b ?is      
matt]s n = its moral "*1 :i* lies 9 its 
consci\s object4 ,! idea ( puni%m5t z   
reconcil+ ! crim9al ) society includes !
 aspect ( retribution or expiation1 "u  
:i* puni%m5t may be view$ f )\t2 b x is 
only :5 ! suff]+ is att5d$ by re=mation 
t x c be consid]$ 9 a prop] s5se        
expiation or atonem5t4  ,responsibility 
diff]s f obligation by introduction ( ! 
elem5t ( puni%m5t4 ,obligation is !     
necessity ( good conduct :i* arises out 
( ! relation ( ! act to ! ord] ( :i* x  

=ms a "p4 ,responsibility is ! negative 
aspect ( ?is relation4 ,:5 ,i ?9k (     
conduct z requir$ ( me1 ,i ?9k ( x z my 
duty2 :5 ,i ?9k ( x z conduct :i* if ,i 
d n p]=m1 ,i %all be rightly puni%$1 ,i 
h ! s5se ( responsibility4 ,! s5se (    
responsibility is ?us a k ( !           
requirem5ts ( ! law1 & x is only z we h 
law-abid+ in/9cts t we feel x2 & we feel
 x diff]5tly accord+ z we ?9k ( !       
au?ority ( ! law z d]iv$ f its m]e      
enactm5t or z f\nd$ ^u ! social good1 or
 z e/abli%$ 9 our own consci5ce &       
self-respect1 :i* repres5t ! social     
good4 ,z includ+ recognition ( c]ta9    
conduct z "r1 ! s5se ( responsibility is
 m ?an ! m]e k & fe> ( puni%m5t4 ,x is  
only ^? :o c appreciate t puni%m5t w be 
des]v$ to :om ! idea ( responsibility   
applies4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no diff]5ce    
betwe5 ! fact ( responsibility & ! s5se 
( responsibility1 any m ?an !re is      
betwe5 goodness & ! feel+ ( approbation1
 or duty & ! s5se ( duty4 ,:5 we decl>e 
a bad man responsible1 we mean t ! good 

man holds him to be ju/ly puni%$4       
,responsibility dep5ds1 !n1 on two      
?+s1--t a man is capable ( be+ influ5c$ 
by :at is "r1 & t :atev] he does is     
det]m9$ by 8 "*4 ,?is capacity dep5ds on
 8 be+ aw>e ( ! mean+ ( 8 acts1 & s ( _!
 connection ) o!r acts1 & conta9s ?us an
 elem5t n pres5t 9 ! relations (        
animals4  ,except = ! au?ority ( "o or  
two great names1 !re seems to be a g5]al
 agreem5t t ! w is det]m9$ by "*4 ,if "*
 means ! pr9ciple ( volition1 z x is    
reg>d$ 9 our analyses1 ! ass]tion is a  
truism4 ,x is no less true if "* is     
def9$ z disposition2 all our deal+s )   
our fell[-m5 reckon on _! act+ 9        
accordance ) _! "*4 ,! di/9ction made by
 ,gre5 t ! m9d acts f its own nature 7! 
motive & ! :ole process ( will+ be+ )9 !
 m9d7 is no m & no less true ( ! action 
( o!r bodies4 ,! em]g5ce ( new s5tim5ts 
9 "* might be urg$ z an argum5t = free  
w2 b ?is is ( no m significance ?an !   
budd+ ( trees 9 spr+time4 ,! s5se (     
fre$om is ! s5se ( *oice betwe5 two     

motives2 b ?is m]ely dep5ds ^u !        
intellectual prop]ty t ! object will$ is
 pres5t to consci\sness1--9 case ( *oice
 two objects be+ pres5t to ! m9d4 ,s f> 
is ! consci\sness ( fre$om f be+ a gr\nd
 = assum+ an arbitr>y or undet]m9$ p[] (
 volition t x is exactly :at w\ld be    
expect$ to accompany ! process (        
det]m9ation :5 ! object conc]n$ 0 a     
consci\s m9d4 ,pull a body to ! "r ) a  
=ce ( twelve p\nds & to ! left ) a =ce (
 eight2 x moves to ! "r4 ,imag9e t body 
a m9d aw>e ( ! =ces :i* act ^u x2 x w   
move 9 ! direction ( t :i*1 = :atev]    
reason1 appeals to x mo/2 & 9 do+ s x w1
 j because x is consci\s1 act ( itself1 
& w h ! consci\sness ( fre$om4 ,b :i*   
motive is *os5 is fix$ & dep5d5t ^u "*1 
t _c *oose o!rwise ?an x does2 & ! s5se 
( fre$om is a %e] delusion4 ,! feel+ t  
"o ought to h act$ o!rwise implies ano!r
 sort ( fre$om1 accord+ to :i* he only  
is truly free :o *ooses ! "r2 9 su*     
*oice x is1 h[ev]1 ! "* :i* acts1 & ?\gh
 a man is free1 9 ?is s5se1 if he       

*ooses1 8 *oice is det]m9$4 ,! argum5t (
 free w 9 reg>d to puni%m5t does n      
expla9 puni%m5t1 b r5d]s x inexplicable4
 ,x w\ld be s5seless to puni% except z1 
by s do+1 we c influ5ce a man's "*4     
,det]m9ism does n make puni%m5t wrong2 x
 is n cruelty1 b k9dness to puni%3 x    
saves a man f worse1 f degradation ( "*1
 enabl+ him to *ange 8 ideal1 & ?us br++
 himself into equilibrium ) 8 k9d4 ,!   
reason ( c]ta9 d\bts :i* are beg9n+ to  
be felt to-day ) reg>d to puni%m5t is ! 
l>g] k ( ! dep5d5ce ( m5 on _!          
surr\nd+s1 h5ce ( ! culpability (       
society z a :ole2 x is n an objection to
 responsibility z su*1 b to !           
di/ribution ( responsibility4           
,education1 ! second means by :i* !     
moral ideal is def5d$1 is n id5tical )  
social progress1 by :i* ! moral ideal is
 itself *ang$1 b is ! individual        
progress includ$ )9 ea* def9ite moral   
ideal4 ,education & progress are1 h[ev]1
 insep>ably b\nd toge!r1 9 t education  
goes h& 9 h& ) puni%m5t1 & 9 t x leads  

to ! discov]y ( new ideals4 ,if we take 
only ! irregul> l9e :i* includes ! good1
 & disc>d ! ideals :i* are ext]m9at$ or 
left beh9d1 ! movem5t ( ideals is       
cont9u\s ) education1 & progress may    
!re=e be describ$ z an education (      
society4 ,! education ( *ildr5 has to   
put !m 9 possession ( ! pres5t moral    
a*ievem5t1 & to make !m indep5d5t       
individuals1--s to p5etrate !m ) ! moral
 ord] t x %all appe> 9 !m z spontane\s  
"*4 ,x is an evolv+ ( an ideal already  
pres5t2 =1 to be capable ( education1 a 
p]son mu/ h already set foot on ! "r    
pa?4  ,z 9 ! physical _w1 s 9 ! moral1  
we h ! survival ( _m diff]5t g5]a &     
species1--v>i\s ideals ( conduct or     
in/itutions ( life1 "s ( :i* may be     
gr\p$ toge!r by /rong resemblances1 o!rs
 ( :i* /& to ea* o!r 9 ! relation ( l[] 
to high] organisms2 ! survival ( ar*aic 
in/itutions 9 ! high] z well z _! hi/ory
 ( progress %[+ _! aff9ities ) ! l[]4   
,hi/ory is ! palaeontology ( moral      
ideals1 & provides u ) a bett] means (  

/udy+ ! gr[? ( morality ?an exi/s = !   
/udy ( ! gr[? ( species4 ,z 9 ! organic 
_w1 v>ieties develop f species by a     
gradual & cont9u\s movem5t ( s5tim5t1   
ea* successful v>iation =m+ ! basis ( a 
new v>iation1 & ! diff]5ces ( ! v>ieties
 f ea* o!r & f ! orig9al species        
increas+ ) _! di/ance f ! orig9al       
species1 until ! diff]5ce am\nts to a   
diff]5ce ( species4 ,we may call ^!     
modifications accid5tal1 b1 z 9 !       
physical _w1 !y are s only z we reg>d !m
 f ! position occupi$ by a p]son be=e ! 
ev5t2 !y h _! causes if we c f9d !m4 ,^!
 causes are to be f\nd 9 ! contact (    
diff]5t m9ds4 ,v>iability dep5ds to a   
consid]able ext5t on ! size ( a g5us1 b 
only 9 s f> z great] size involves      
great] complexity & v>iety ( int]e/s2 ! 
va/ b homog5e\s societies ( ! ,ea/ be+  
less progressive ?an ! small] b m       
complex ones ( ! ,we/4 ,:]e fre] scope  
is left to individual incl9ations or    
aptitudes1 !re ! friction ( m9d aga9/   
m9d is m int5se4 ,new ideas are g5]at$ 9

 ! m vivid consci\sness ( ! p1 & life   
becomes m inv5tive4  ,species develop$ f
 a common g5us w %[ "s common traits &  
"s rules ( mutual obs]vance1 savage     
peoples :i* h divid$ into tribes be+ an 
exception to ! latt] "p ( ! /atem5t1 = !
 reason t l[] societies h v little moral
 cohesion2 !y may be comp>$ to l[]      
organisms :i* reproduce !mselves by     
fission1 or to homog5e\s colonies (     
animals1 l sponges4 ,"u ! g5]ic         
in/itutions we mu/ n include ^? :i*     
arise m]ely z ! result ( simil>         
circum/ances4 ,ideals once =m$ advance  
at v diff]5t rates1 ?\gh ! t5d5cy to    
div]g5ce is always be+ correct$ by !    
diffusion ( ideas4 ,b :]e "o nation     
takes ideas f ano!r1 ^! ideas are n     
borr[$1 9 ! s5se t !y come :olly f ! o!r
 nation2 !re mu/ h be51 9 ! borr[+      
nation1 a developm5t ( ideas up to !    
po9t t makes ! borr[+ possible1--a      
simil> developm5t to t ( ! nation f :i* 
! borr[+ takes place1 due to simil>     
circum/ances4 ,! communication ( moral  

ideas does n dep5d ^u race-community1 z 
is %[n by ! ready adoption ( ,we/]n     
ideas by su* nations z ! ,h9doos &      
,japanese4  ,9 g5]al language1 we       
id5tify developm5t & progress2 & ?is is 
true also 9 ! case ( morality4 ,goodness
 means progress2 wick$ness1             
retrogression or else /agnation1 :i*1   
comp>$ ) advance1 is retrogression4 ,9  
*ang+ f "o =m to ano!r1 morality *anges 
f :at is "r "u "o set ( conditions to   
:at is "r "u ano!r set1 & su* *ange f   
good to good is :at we mean by becom+   
bett]4 ,to d5y ?is is to f9d "s o!r /&>d
 ( advance ?an 9 ! actual movem5t :i*   
has tak5 place1 to put an a priori      
conception ( developm5t 9 place ( !     
facts4 ,! moral ideal is always1 !re=e1 
a progress1 = ei!r ! society is s+le1 & 
goodness repres5ts ! law ( its advance1 
or if ! society is "p ( a l>g] "o1 its  
ideal c be retrogressive only because ! 
society is s f> bad4 ,& s9ce goodness & 
badness exhau/ ! field ( moral          
possibilities1 if ! propositions t      

goodness means progress1 & badness      
regress1 are bo? true1 we mu/ be able to
 conv]t !m1 & ma9ta9 t all progress is  
due to goodness & all regress to        
badness4 ,to d ?is1 we mu/ di/+ui%      
betwe5 degradation & a m]e deg5]ation   
:i* involves a return to simpl]         
conditions z an adaptation to *ang$     
environm5t4 ,su* deg5]ation z adaptation
 to circum/ances1 9 an individual or a  
society z a :ole1 is progress4 ,fi% :o  
become bl9d by liv+ 9 ! d>k become ?us  
bett] fitt$ to _! circum/ances1 & ! l is
 true ( moral deg5]ation "u simpl]      
conditions4 ,old age & dea? are         
*>act]i/ic ( ! high] type ( organism1 9 
di/9ction f ! l[] types :i*1 multiply+  
by fission1 are practically et]nal2 !y  
are conditions ( ! advantage ( type1 9  
:i* ! individual is p>tak]4 ,s a good   
society "u simpl] conditions is on !    
side ( progress1 ?\gh x may lie outside 
! ma9 l9e ( advance4  ,x is true t bad  
p]sons (t5 help on progress1 b ! good !y
 d lies 9 _! repres5tation ( ! w (      

society = progress1 ! evil lies 9 _! use
 ( ?is w z means to _! own ends4 ,x may 
be object$1 too1 t ! good man is        
sometimes a h9drance to progress ?r\gh  
/upidity2 b to ?is is to be answ]$ t    
intellect itself becomes morally        
*>act]iz$ 9 action4  ,all ev5ts &       
in/itutions are ?us det]m9$ by _!       
conditions2 b !re is a movem5t =w>d     
di/+ui%able f ! delay ( /raggl]s & !    
resi/ance ( enemies1 & ?is di/9ction is 
en=c$ by ! moral pr$icates ( good & bad4
  ,our !ory does n imply t :atev] is1 is
 "r2 su* a /atem5t involves ! use ( ! ^w
 "r 9 ! s5se ( correct1 or intelligible1
 acc\ntable by reflection4 ,nor is !    
doctr9e fatali/ic4 ,fatalism implies t  
m5 act at ! impulse ( "s =ce :i* !y d n 
und]/&2 b ! hi/ory ( mank9d is ! hi/ory 
( be+s :o1 ?r\gh _! own gift (          
consci\sness1 subdue circum/ances to _! 
own *>act]s4 ,9 judg+ a nation's        
developm5t1 we mu/ n int]pret x accord+ 
to our own lik+s1 z progression or      
retrogression2 nor mu/ we imag9e        

retrogression f relaxation ( duties 9 "s
 c]ta9 directions1 b mu/ reg>d ! society
 & its in/itutions z a :ole4  ,! te/ (  
high] organization usually giv5 is t (  
increas+ diff]5tiation ( p>ts )         
correspond+ specialization ( function4  
,b ! ma9 c\rse ( progress is n l9e>1 or 
9 "o cont9u\s direction2 app>5t         
rev]sions to =m] types are only app>5t2 
! new type /&s high] ?an ! old4 ,9 o!r  
words1 hi/ory moves 9 cycles4 ,x foll[s1
 f ?is1 t m]e diff]5tiation is          
insuffici5t = def9ition4 ,:ile !        
diff]5tiation advances1 its significance
 alt]s1 or1 let u say1 ! relative places
 ( specialization & ( unity alt]4 ,along
 ) diff]5tiation goes a process (       
integration4 ,great revolutions         
simplify4 ,! result ( great] & great]   
het]og5eity is to produce a new         
pr9ciple1 :i* comb9es ! w>r+ elem5ts4 ,!
 def9ition ( progress by increas$       
diff]5tiation is lack+ 9 two ways3 ,x   
tells u no?+ ( ! =ces by :i* progress is
 produc$1 & x gives no connect$ view ( !

 actual facts ( hi/orical developm5t4 ,a
 g5]al /atem5t ( progress 9 its =mal    
s5se is f\nd 9 ! conception ( a /ruggle 
( ideals4 ,b z 9 ?is /ruggle ! survival 
( ! fitte/ does n necess>ily mean !     
de/ruction ( ^? :o repres5t$ ! defeat$  
ideal1 b ! supplant+ ( _! ideal by      
ano!r1 ! movem5t is "o ( compreh5sion1 &
 we %\ld expect to f9d1 & d f9d1 !      
hi/ory ( morality exhibit ! gradual     
developm5t ( a univ]sal moral ord]1 good
 n = "o gr\p ( m5 b = all4 ,x w\ld be a 
misappreh5sion to reg>d ?is *ange z     
m]ely quantitative1 z if ! virtues 7 !  
same :e!r !y appli$ on a l>g] or a      
small] scale4 ,! quantitative ext5sion  
is p>allel )1 & 9 reality proce$s f1 a  
*ange 9 ! conception ( ! human p]son    
himself4 ,9 primitive communities1 !    
individual is s limit$ t he c h>dly be  
call$ an individual at all4 ,fir/ among 
! ,greeks d we f9d ! p]son ! embodim5t (
 ! social ord]1 b 9 a limit$ s5se4 ,:5  
?is limitation breaks d[n1 & !          
individual /&s =? z indep5d5t &         

self-consci\s1 ! au?or ( ! laws he      
obeys1 we h at ! same "t ! ext5sion ( ! 
area ( p]sons ) :om he is 9 moral       
relation4  ,x matt]s little t ! ,we/]n  
ideal ( a society ( humanity is realiz$ 
to s slight an ext5t4 ,! ideal exi/s &  
implies ! inclusion ( mank9d4 ,!        
pr9ciple ( democracy1 :i* we are engag$ 
9 work+ out1 cont9ues1 or p]haps        
sup]s$es1 "u mu* m complex conditions & 
ov] a wid] range ( in/itutions1 ! same  
pr9ciple z ,*ri/ianity introduc$4 ,x is 
n m]ely an id5tical elem5t 9 _m         
individual /ates1 b a compreh5sive      
ideal4 ,! p[] ( naturalization1         
extradition laws1 int]national action   
among ! work+ classes1 etc41 imply ?is4 
,?is compreh5sion is n m]ely "o (       
bread?1 b ( dep? z well3 ! ideal        
includes n only ! pres5t ( mank9d1 b its
 :ole future also4 ,duties h always be5 
recogniz$ to po/]ity1 b ! range (       
g5]ations to :om !y appli$ 0 small1 & ! 
int]e/s :i* x 0 believ$ c\ld be secur$ 7
 limit$ also4 ,apres moi le deluge      

describes a =m ( selfi%ness ( all ages1 
b diff]5t ages h und]/ood ! apres moi q 
diff]5tly4 ,at ! pres5t day1 ! range (  
responsibility is ext5d+ indef9itely4   
,a common political ideal does n mean a 
univ]sal peace4 ,co>s] =ms ( dispute    
disappe>1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 z nations gr[ 
m ref9$ 9 _! ideals1 !y gr[ m           
susceptible4 ,:at a political humanity1 
or a political community ( ,europe1 w\ld
 mean1 is ! sub/itution ( int]national  
puni%m5t = ! self-will$ conflicts (     
irresponsible nations4  ,we _c say :at !
 future ( society & ( morality may      
be1--:e!r mank9d w be able to take      
me*anical means aga9/ a p]iod ( ice1 or 
:e!r human society may n1 z a :ole1 be  
de/roy$1 to be replac$ by a high] type (
 exi/5ce1 :i* may arise on ! e>? f !    
developm5t ( humanity1 or may1 on "s o!r
 planet1 take up ! tale ( human         
civilization z we take up t ( !         
civilization ( ,greece & ,rome4  ,two   
?+s foll[ f ! progressive "* ( ! moral  
ideal3 7#a7 t ! classification &        

description ( duties w v>y ) ea* age2   
7#b7 t1 z ! ideal *anges f age to age1 !
 highe/ moral pr9ciple or s5tim5t w     
*ange ) x4  ,at ! pres5t "t1 a belief   
has ga9$ great au?ority1 t ! s5se ( duty
 is transitory & w f9ally disappe>2 b   
:e!r we1 ) ,sp5c]1 id5tify obligation ) 
co]cion1 or und]/& x z ! relation ( a "p
 ( conduct to ! re/1 9 nei!r s5se is !  
proposition true z x /&s4 ,if duty means
 con/ra9t1 x by no means foll[s t       
con/ra9t w cease ) progress2 = con/ra9t 
arises f confront+ "o incl9ation ) a    
high] idea1 & its disappe>ance w\ld mean
 t incl9ations _h become con/ant2 ?is   
is1 h[ev]1 impossible4 ,! fiction ( a   
f9al /age ( mobile equilibrium is an    
unw>rant$ conclusion f ! fact t all     
morality involves a cycle ( conduct 9   
mobile equilibrium4 ,b ! !ory repres5ts 
a tru?1--! tru? t morality at no "t     
implies 9 itself ! s5se ( duty4 ,! s5se 
( duty1 z involv+ ! h>d feel+ (         
compulsion1 ( subjection to au?ority1 & 
b\nd up ) ! s5se ( s91 a s5se /rong] 9  

proportion to m]it or ! int]val betwe5  
fir/ incl9ation & f9al moral will+1 may 
& is giv+ place to a high] conception4  
,9 ! family1 ?is may already be f\nd1   
:]e self-sacrifice & aid are matt]s (   
affection & r5d]$ freely4 ,9 ! high]    
ideal1 we h t love ( man = a high] &    
l>g] ord] ?an himself :i* morality      
repres5ts z solid>ity ) society1 a      
cont9ually progressive society ( free   
individuals2 :i* religion repres5ts z ! 
love = & ( ,god4  ,& at ! la/ two       
que/ions may be ask$3 7#a7 :e!r !       
difficulties 9 :i* ,*ri/ianity is plac$ 
at ! pres5t day d n arise f absorption (
 its highe/ idea into ! conceptions & ! 
practice ( morality1 s t ! religi\s     
s5tim5t is />v$2 & 7#b7 :e!r ! ideal ( a
 free cooep]ation 9 ! progress (        
humanity may n be us$ to int]pret !     
belief 9 immortality1 putt+ 9 ! place ( 
individual immortality ! cont9uance (   
life 9 ! p]sons :om ! individual may    
affect4 ,9 ,! ,int]national ,j\rnal (   
,e?ics ,july1 #ahib1 ,alex&] combats "s 

mis9t]pretations ( ,natural ,selection 9
 ,morals1 :i* he says are p>tly due to  
,sp5c]'s ,individualism4 ,natural       
,selection 9 social life does n mean    
necess>ily de/ruction ( individuals1 b  
is a /ruggle ( ideals1 su* z t betwe5   
,individualism & ,collectivism1--9 :i*  
,selection seems to favor ,collectivism4
  ,,footnotes3  #hb ,! ref]5ce is "h to 
,wundt1 ,phys4 ,psy*41 ,i4 p4 #dhe 7ed4 
,,ii474     ,,app5dix ,,to ,,"p ,i      
,,paul ,,ree   ,dr4 ,paul ,ree's ,s\rce 
( ! ,moral ,feel+s 7,ursprung d]        
moralis*5 ,empf9dung51 #ahgg71 is writt5
 f a pessimi/ic & me*anical /&po9t4 ,!  
connection ( ?\ght & feel+ 9 ! region ( 
morals is1 accord+ to ,ree1 a purely1 or
 v ne>ly a purely1 outw>d "o1 moral     
judgm5ts n be+ ! result ( sympa?y or    
antipa?y1 or relat$ to ^! feel+s 9 m ?an
 an ext]nal mann]1 b aris+ f            
associations ( ideas eng5d]$ by         
education2 ! ,s5se ( ,ju/ice be+1 9 ?is 
mann]1 ! effect ( ,puni%m5t4 ,a def9ite 
di/9ction is likewise made by ,ree1     

betwe5 vice1 :i* affects ! individual   
only1 & badness1 :i* affects society1 ! 
pr(ligate :o satisfies 8 lu/ 9 ! mo/    
unre/ra9$ mann] be+ reg>d$ z p]haps     
unwise1 b n bad1 z long z he does n     
s$uce ! pure4 ,! au?or fails1 h[ev]1 to 
%[ u h[ vice c be practis$ )\t social   
injury1 & necess>ily fails also--s9ce 8 
position takes into acc\nt no organic   
relations ( *>act]i/ics--to notice !    
significance ( pr(ligacy z an inh]5t    
feature ( "*4 ,he t\*es at "o or two    
po9ts1 only1 on ,habit1 & at "o po9t    
alone on ,h]$ity1 :]e he raises ! "q ( !
 h]$it>y "* ( ,vanity1 b arrives at no  
conclusion4 ,he also makes ! division ( 
,egoism f ,non-egoism a def9ite "o1     
fully id5tify+ ! ,good ) ! ,non-egoi/ic1
 ! ,bad ) ! ,egoi/ic4 ,! ,non-egoi/ic   
really exi/s2 a man may relieve ano!r's 
suff]+ 9 ord] to free himself f ! sight 
( x2 or he may relieve x = ! o!r's sake4
 ,nev]!less1 non-egoi/ic action is r>e2 
m5 are mu* m egoi/ic ?an ! apes1 :o are 
rivals only ) reg>d to food & sexual    

desire1 :ile m5 are rivals n only )     
respect to ^! primitive wants1 b )      
respect to _m o!rs besides1 especially  
s9ce !y n only reg>d ! pres5t b provide 
= ! future also4  ,vanity1 accord+ to   
,ree1 gives rise to envy1 hatr$1 &      
malignity4 ,b1 ! action ( ^! passions   
be+ oppos$ to ! safety ( society1 "s    
p]sons#hc introduc$ puni%m5t = its      
protection1 & fe> ( puni%m5t1 & ex*ange 
( labor unit$ m5 9 peace4 ,de$s & nev]  
motives 7 at fir/ consid]$ 9 !          
infliction ( puni%m5t1 b1 out]          
compulsion n secur+ safety1 ! ideal ( an
 inn] condition ( "* :i* %\ld secure x  
arose4 ,good & useful are synonyms1 b m5
 ( lat] g5]ations1 receiv+ laws )\t     
explanation ( _! orig91 fail to und]/& t
 ! ,good 01 9 its orig91 simply !       
,useful1 t ! ,bad 01 9 l mann]1 !       
,h>mful1 & t ,puni%m5t is = ! purpose ( 
prev5tion & n 9 ! nature ( a return =   
?+s done4 ,! k ( ?is tru? takes f life  
"s ( its gr&eur2 b ! tru? rema9s ! tru?1
 nev]!less4  ,! w is n free2 ! mi/ake ( 

reg>d+ x z free is ! result ( ! failure 
to p]ceive t puni%m5t looks to ! future1
 n to ! pa/1--is a means ( prev5tion1 n 
a requital4 ,! "r to puni% does n re/1  
!re=e1 ^u ! ,s5se ( ,ju/ice2 b puni%m5t 
is ju/ifiable z a means ( prev5tion4    
,its *oice1 l t ( o!r evils z !         
alt]natives ( great] ones1 is ! practice
 ( ! pr9ciple1 ,! end ju/ifies ! means4 
,^? :o repudiate ?is pr9ciple h n       
g5]ally look$ deeply into its mean+2    
moreov]1 x has be5 misus$4 ,9 putt+ x 9 
practice1 sev]al ?+s mu/ be obs]v$3--   
#a4 ,! end to be s]v$ mu/ be a good "o2 
#b4 ,! *oice ( means caus+ pa9 is       
p]missible only :5 no o!r means are     
possible2  #c4 ,! pa9 mu/ be r$uc$ to ! 
lea/ possible2  #d4 ,! pa9 mu/ be less  
?an w\ld be involv$ 9 ! omission ( ?is  
p>ticul> *oice4         99       99     
99       99       99  ,! doctr9e (      
et]nal puni%m5t is unt5able1 because3-- 
#a4 ,x presupposes ! exi/5ce ( a ,god4  
#b4 ,suppos+ a ,god to be exi/5t1 we _c 
"n him ei!r good or bad4 ,god is good   

means ,he does good to ! _w & its       
inhabitants2 b ( ! _w we "k only !      
little e>?1 & ( ,god we "k no?+4  #c4   
,if we w1 nev]!less1 pr$icate goodness  
or badness ( ,god1 we mu/ call him bad1 
s9ce all be+s kn[n to u suff] mu* pa9 & 
h little pleasure4 ,! gods ( ! savages1 
:o are n yet l$ away by !ological       
hair-splitt+1 are evil4  #d4 ,b if we   
/ill p]si/ 9 nam+ ,god good1 !n we _c   
suppose him to be also cruel1 & ev5 m   
cruel ?an ! h>de/-he>t$ ( mortals4  #e4 
,! doctr9e ( et]nal puni%m5t assumes !  
exi/5ce ( a s\l2 b ! diff]5ce betwe5    
human be+s & ! high] animals is n s     
great t "o c ascribe an especial s\l to 
m54  #f4 ,b if a s\l exi/s1 x _c be     
tortur$1 s9ce x is immat]ial4  #g4 ,& ! 
de$s :i* ,god w ?us puni% des]ve1 on !  
!ory ( puni%m5t z prev5tion1 no         
requital4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,x is n immat]ial to u :e!r
 m5 h a good or an evil op9ion ( u4  #a4
 ,because we hope = advantages f a good 
op9ion4  #b4 ,because we are va94       

,vanity arose1 9 ! fir/ place1 because  
admiration 0 useful to m51 j z x is     
useful to ! birds at pair+-"t1 & habit  
r5d]$ x agreeable 9 itself4 ,m5 !re=e   
desire x1 ev5 :5 x has no especial use1 
because !y "k t all admiration is foll[$
 by a /rong feel+ ( pleasure4#hd ,!     
diff]5ce betwe5 man & ! peacock 9       
respect to vanity is m]ely t he desires 
to be admir$ = o!r ?+s ?an out]         
appe>ance alone1--= c\rage1 /r5g?1      
clev]ness1 ! tools ( battle1 & _m o!r   
?+s4 ,s9ce1 among human be+s1 m5 & n    
wom5 *oose _! mates1 endeavor+ to obta9 
"o or m ( ! mo/ beautiful wom5 possible1
 wom5 endeavor to r5d] !mselves         
beautiful1 exp5d+ great] ef=ts z ! /ake 
is great] 9 _! case ?an 9 t ( ! peacock4
 ,!y endeavor to supplem5t _! outw>d    
attractiv5ess by amiability1 clev]ness1 
h\sehold indu/ry1 &1 9 our days1 weal?2 
b beauty always makes ! /ronge/         
impression ^u ! man4 ,m5 desire to be   
admir$ r = o!r ?+s ?an outw>d appe>ance1
 ?\gh = ?is1 too1 to "s ext5t4  ,b      

vanity may be object$ to 7#a7 on ! gr\nd
 t x is a desire to create envy1 & envy 
is pa9 & gives rise to hatr$2 7#b7 on ! 
h$oni/ic gr\nd t ! va9 man m (t5 suff]s 
pa9 f n be+ admir$ ?an exp]i5ces        
pleasure f admiration2 7#c7 on !        
intellectual gr\nd t vanity r5d]s a man 
incapable ( imp]sonal int]e/ 9 ,nature1 
,art1 ,philosophy1 & ,sci5ce4 ,entire   
fre$om f vanity c\ld1 h[ev]1 be atta9$  
only by a life ( complete isolation4    
,because ( ^! reasons = blame1 m5 d n   
confess t !y act f vanity1 b give o!r   
reasons = de$s prompt$ by ?is feel+4#he 
,ambition may be blam$ on gr\nds simil> 
to ^? on :i* vanity is blam$4 ,h[ev]1   
?is feel+ urges to _m useful acts1 & )\t
 x few w\ld f9d int]e/ = great ef=t4 ,& 
s9ce1 because ( its usefulness1 ambition
 is less blam$ ?an vanity1 m5 are m     
ready to ackn[l$ge t !y possess x4  ,we 
desire to appe> well 9 ! eyes ( o!rs1   
!re=e we conceal our envy & hatr$1 &    
affect high c\rage1 great hone/y1 &     
*>ity4 ,su* hypocrisy is bad2 b x is    

necess>y4 ,= if m5 7 to %[ !mselves z !y
 are1 ) he>ts full ( ho/ility1 !y c\ld n
 at all associate4 ,9 ord] to make      
frankness & peace bo? possible1 m5 mu/  
become :at !y n[ pret5d to be2 b ?is    
does n lie 9 _! p[]4  ,malignant        
pleasure 9 o!rs' pa9 arises f a         
comp>ison ) our own m agreeable         
situation1 or f ! pleasure 9 our own    
sup]iority 9 any respect4  ,:5 a woman  
is s$uc$1 x is 9 ! int]e/ ( o!r wom5 to 
o/racise h]1 s9ce1 if m>riage 7 to be   
aboli%$1 wom5 w\ld lose 9 position2 !   
man :o s$uces h] is blam$ = br++ %ame on
 h]1 b n = un*a/ity1 = m5 h no int]e/ 9 
ma9ta9+ *a/ity 9 _! own sex4  ,caprice  
arises1 n f *ange ( mood1 b f ! pleasure
 ( p[] exp]i5c$ 9 n[ *>m+ by amiability1
 n[ caus+ gloom by coldness1 & aga9     
inspir+ fe> ?r\gh ang]4  ,if "o desires 
any?+ f ano!r1 "o %\ld n say1 ,x is a   
little ?+1 b ,x is v mu* t ,i ask2 s9ce 
he :o is ask$ gives m readily :5 he ?9ks
 he w appe> v k9d4  ,natural ,selection 
does n pref] ! individual z f> z morals 

are conc]n$1 b only nations4 ,moral     
rules are v>iable1 b n /eadily          
progressive4 ,man is by nature selfi%2  
simply habit tames m5 & makes !m1 by    
*ange 9 n]ves & muscle1 m am5able to    
rule4  ,! good man is probably worse (f 
?an ! bad man4 ,pa9 exce$s pleasure 9   
all be+s4 ,ev]y?+1 love includ$1 becomes
 wor?less :5 atta9$1 & labor beg9s aga9 
= new atta9m5t4 ,man is1 moreov]1 ! mo/ 
unhappy ( all be+s1 = he feels mo/      
/rongly1 & 9 8 complicat$ organism !re  
is almo/ always some?+ out ( ord]4 ,=   
?is reason1 sympa?y#hf br+s m pa9 ?an   
pleasure4 ,! bad man has only pangs (   
consci5ce to di/urb him1 &1 if he is    
sup]/iti\s1 ! fe> ( puni%m5t aft] dea?4 
,x is difficult to say :e!r ! bad man or
 ! good man is happi]4 ,9 fact1 happ9ess
 dep5ds r on temp]am5t1 p[] (           
self-control1 & heal?4 ,possibly ^!     
tru?s may seem h>mful2 & if ! good man  
is high] ?an ! bad man1 & goodness %\ld 
be s\ght1 only s mu* ( ! tru? %\ld be   
reveal$ z is n antagoni/ic to ?is end4  

,b ! good man is n ! high]1 al?\gh1     
because goodness is useful1 our         
education has attempt$ to make u believe
 ?is4 ,! animals may be unselfi% z well 
z man2 on ! o!r h&1 ! dis9t]e/$ se>* =  
tru? is n f\nd among ! animals4 ,!      
atta9m5t ( tru? is1 moreov]1 pleasurable
 to ! se>*]1 turn+ pa9ful desire = tru? 
to pleasurable fulfilm5t4  ,dr4 ,ree's  
lat] book1 ,! ,orig9 ( ,consci5ce 7,die 
,ent/ehung des ,gewiss5s1 #ahhe71 does n
 add any?+ di/9ctly new 9 !ory to ?is   
fir/ book2 x is r noticeable = :at x    
omits ( ! pessimism ( ! e>li] book1 = a 
m mod]ate1 ?\ghtful1 & less ass]tive    
tone1 ?an = additional !ories or ev5 mu*
 fur!r elaboration ( ! old !ories1      
except z reg>ds ! d]ivation ( ! ,s5se ( 
,ju/ice4 ,x traces ! savage cu/om ( !   
rev5ge ( dea? ?r\gh its displacem5t by !
 paym5t ( blood-money1 up to ! f9al     
sub/itution ( /ate puni%m5t4 ,puni%m5t  
does n gr[ out ( rev5ge1 b succe$s x4 ,x
 is n rev5ge1 ?\gh ! desire t ! guilty  
may be puni%$ & ! desire = rev5ge may be

 mix$1 9 "s cases4 ,pa91 n ! ,s5se (    
,ju/ice1 drives ! savage to rev5ge4     
,puni%m5t does n gr[ out ( ! ,s5se (    
,ju/ice1 b ! latt] out ( ! =m]4 ,!      
int]f]5ce ( ! /ate ) ! rev5ge ( !       
individual is at fir/ a m$iation betwe5 
! two p>ties = ! ma9t5ance ( peace 9 !  
int]e/ ( ! community2 lat]1 ! /ate      
arrives at a me?od ( puni%m5t = !       
purpose ( prev5tion4  ,hume's !ory ( !  
orig9 ( religion has be5 confirm$ by    
,an?ropology4 ,! savage sees 9 natural  
ph5om5a ! action ( liv+ be+s end[$ )    
m5tal faculties l 8 own1 & he gradually 
comes to transf] ?is action to be+s n 91
 b1 accord+ to 8 new idea1 beh9d1       
ph5om5a4 ,! gods ( primitive religions  
are moral only z ! peoples ^: gods !y   
are1 are moral4 ,z society progresses1  
religion falls beh9d1 & a new           
int]pretation ( old doctr9es mu/ be     
introduc$ 9 ord] to br+ x up to ! lat]  
/&>d4 ,!n ! gods1 z moral ) ! morality (
 ?is lat] date1 are imag9$ z comm&+ !   
lat] /&>d1 & to ! fe> ( puni%m5t by !   

/ate is add$1 z a prev5tive =ce1 t ( !  
puni%m5t ( ! gods4 ,! gods comm& :at m5 
comm&1 =bid :at m5 =bid4 ,! ,god ( !    
,old ,te/am5t1 ,jahveh1 01 l ,zeus1 a   
nature-god1 & took rev5ge z m5 did4 ,:5 
a lat] date dem&$ a /&>d ( great]       
humanity1 ,*ri/ came1 & he repres5t$ !  
,god ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 no long] z      
rev5geful & passionate1 b z possess+ !  
attributes ( sympa?y :i* he felt 9      
himself4 ,! lat] /&>d ( ! ,new ,te/am5t 
takes into consid]ation motives z well z
 de$s1 & comm&s positively z well z     
=bids4 ,b ! ,god ( ! ,new ,te/am5t is n 
:olly love2 if 8 love is unreturn$1 he  
becomes angry1 l m54  ,! ,categoric     
,imp]ative 9 ! individual is m]ely !    
result ( 8 individual education4        
,consci5ce alone accompli%es little2 o!r
 motives ?an ! desire to d "r--fe> (    
puni%m5t1 etc4--are /rong]4 ,no?+ is1 9 
itself1 good or bad1 b only s f> z x is 
useful or h>mful4  ,sympa?y is to "s    
degree innate1--h[ x arose we _c say2 b 
x has be5 pres]v$ by natural selection4 

,,footnotes3  #hc ,p4 #df4  #hd ,p4 #gh4
  #he ,see1 9 contradi/9ction to ,ree's 
!ory ( vanity1 ,sigw>t's admirable essay
 on ?is subject1 conta9$ 9 8 ,kle9e     
,s*rift54  #hf ,dr4 ,ree appe>s to dep>t
 f 8 g5]al !ory "h & id5tify sympa?y )  
morality4     ,a ,,review ,,(           
,,evolutional ,,e?ics  ,,"p ,,ii        
,,introduction   ,tw5ty ye>s ago1 any "o
 ab\t to deal ) moral sci5ce f ! /&po9t 
( ! ,!ory ( ,evolution1 might h deem$ x 
necess>y to preface 8 "w ) a /atem5t (  
cog5t reasons = ! assumption ( su* a    
/&po9t4 ,at a "t :5 ,!ology saw 9       
,d>w9ism only a weapon ( !              
anti-!ological p>ty1 & :5 ev5 _m        
sci5ti/s 7 n yet decid$ z to ! wor? ( ! 
new ideas1 ! "r ( ! /ud5t to make use ( 
!m 9 psy*ological & e?ical inve/igations
 might h be5 a subject = dispute4 ,yet  
ev5 9 ! beg9n+ ! attitude ( apology 0   
assum$ (t5] )\t1 ?an )91 ,engli%-speak+ 
c\ntries1 = ! v reason t exactly among !
 race f :i* ,d>w9 sprang1 ! w>f>e ( 8   
conception ( animate nature ) old]      

sy/ems 0 fi]ce/4 ,at ! pres5t date1 !   
attitude ( op9ion is *ang$ 9 all        
c\ntries4 ,! ,!ory ( ,evolution has few1
 if x c be said to h any1 enemies among 
! /ud5ts ( sci5ce4 ,) ,l\is ,agassiz di$
 ! la/ oppon5t ( ,d>w9ism des]v+        
sci5tific notice1 says ,haeckel4#hg     
,!ology itself has ceas$ f extreme      
ho/ilities1 & _m !ologians h ev5 f\nd 9 
! idea ( ,evolution an argum5t ) :i* to 
def5d teleological doctr9e4 ,! pres5t   
oppon5ts ( ,d>w9ism z appli$ to         
psy*ology & e?ics r conte/ its special  
wor? = ^! prov9ces ?an d5y its validity 
9 !m4 ,nev]!less1 a univ]sal acceptance 
_c be claim$ = ! !ory2 & s9ce e?ics is1 
above all o!r sci5ces1 ! "o t %\ld mo/  
desire to p]suade r ?an to ali5ate1--&  
?is ! m1 ! /rong] its conviction ( its  
own tru?1--x may be well to /ate or     
re/ate "s ( ! reasons :i* ju/ify1 f     
almo/ all mod]n /&po9ts1 at lea/ a      
t5tative application ( ! ideas (        
,evolution to e?ical !ory4 ,su* a       
/atem5t1 or re/atem5t1 mu/ be an attempt

 to demon/rate ! validity ( ! !ory 9 ?is
 prov9ce1 & to give "s good reasons =   
suppos+1 a priori1 t a survey ( e?ical  
que/ions f ! po9t ( view x furni%es may 
be ( e?ical utility4 ,! pro( ( su*      
utility c be f\nd1 ultimately1 only 9 ! 
results ( ! inve/igation itself4  ,!re  
is b "o phase ( ! !ological doctr9e (   
,creation ) :i* ! m]e idea ( an         
evolution ( life1 by itself consid]$1 is
 directly at v>iance2 ?is is ! doctr9e (
 ,creation z taught by ! old] ,!ology1  
:i* accept$ ! op5+ *apt]s ( ,g5esis z   
lit]al hi/ory1 n z1 by any possibility1 
an ori5tal allegory4 ,betwe5 ! !ory (   
,evolution & ! idea ( ,creation z a     
primal =mation ( matt] ) =ce or motion 9
 accordance ) fix$ laws1 betwe5 x & !   
idea ( an initial application ( =ce f   
)\t1--an impulsion :i* set ! univ]se 9  
motion1--betwe5 x & ! conception ( a    
transc5d5tal guidance ?r\gh natural law 
or ( a pan!i/ic ord] ( developm5t1 !re  
is no su* necess>y contradiction z c\ld 
ju/ify ! d5ial ( ,evolution f ! /&po9t (

 any ( ^! !ories4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ) !     
def5d]s ( ! old] !ological doctr9e (    
creation only t an a priori def5ce (    
,evolution has to deal4  ,! argum5t :i* 
?is doctr9e has always reg>d$ z "o ( its
 /ronge/ def5ces is t ( ! univ]sality ( 
! notion ( a ,creat+ ,_s4 ,b ?is def5ce 
is no long] available2 mod]n rese>* has 
prov$ ! idea to be by no means univ]sal4
 ,sir ,john ,lubbock says1 ,! l[] races 
h no idea ( a ,creation2 & among ^?     
some:at m advanc$ x is1 at fir/1 v      
incomplete4 ,! l[] savages reg>d _! gods
 z sc>cely m p[]ful ?an !mselves2444 !y 
are n creators2 !y are nei!r omnisci5t  
nor all-p[]ful2 f> f conf]r+ immortality
 on man1 !y are n ev5 9 all cases       
immortal !mselves4#hh ,/uhr1 :o 01 z    
,muell] says1 a good obs]v] ( su*       
matt]s1 reports t ! ,sib]ians _h no idea
 ( a ,creator4 ,:5 ,bur*ill sugge/$ !   
idea ( creation to ! ,ba*ap9 ,kaffirs1  
^! 'ass]t$ t ev]y?+ made itself1' & t   
trees & h]bage grew by _! own w4#hi ,z  
reg>ds ,tahiti1 ,williams obs]ves t !   

'orig9 ( ! gods & _! priority ( exi/5ce 
9 comp>ison ) ! =mation ( ! e>?1 be+ a  
matt] ( unc]ta9ty ev5 among ! native    
prie/s1 involves ! :ole 9 ! greate/     
obscurity4'#ij ,:5 ! ,capu*9 mission>y1 
,m]olla1 ask$ ! que5 ( ,s+a 9 ,we/]n    
,africa :o made ! _w1 %e1 ')\t ! lea/   
hesitation1 readily answ]$1 ,my         
ance/ors4'#ia ,! ,bongos ( ,sudan _h no 
conception ( !re be+ a ,creator1#ib !   
,adipones1 ! ,cali=nian ,indians1 be=e  
!y came 9 contact ) :ite m51 ! ,crees1 !
 ,zulu ,kaffirs1 ! ,hott5tots1 _h no    
idea ( a creation4 ,ev5 9 ,sanscrit1 !re
 is no ^w = creation1 nor does any su*  
appe> 9 ! ,rigv$a1 ! ,z5dave/a1 or 9    
,hom]4#ic ,! idea ( a creation 9 any    
s5se is n1 !n1 univ]sal1 & _c be ass]t$ 
to be innate1 a priori1 primordial1 or  
ess5tial to human nature4 ,nor1 assum+ !
 /&po9t ( belief 9 a ,creator1 is !re   
any gr\nd = suppos+ t he w\ld h *os5 !  
"o r ?an any o!r me?od ( creation4 ,!   
int]nal z well z ! ext]nal difficulties 
9 ! way ( a too lit]al exegesis ( ! ,old

 ,te/am5t are rapidly caus+ ! ab&onm5t (
 dogmatism ) respect to ?is po9t2 & any 
o!r int]pretation ?an a lit]al "o _c1 z 
has be5 said1 logically object to a !ory
 ( ,becom+ bas$ on sci5tific gr\nds4  ,x
 is 9 ! nature ( _m ( our greate/       
sci5tific !ories t _! simplicity &      
naturalness 9 ! explanation ( facts fill
 u ) a s5se ( wond] t !y _h n long be=e 
sugge/$ !mselves to sci5ti/s4 ,if1 =    
in/ance1 we 7 to attempt1 9 a ,c>tesian 
_s1 to free ourselves f all ! prejudice 
( previ\s dogma & reg>d only ! g5]al    
c\rse ( nature1 we c\ld n logically     
avoid ! conclusion1 ev5 f a sup]ficial  
view1 t a !ory ( ! gradual developm5t ( 
exi/+ =ms has f> m probability on its   
side ?an t ( a creation f )\t :i* broke 
9 ^u natural process1 & plac$ ready-made
 suns & planets 9 ! heav5s1 & f9i%$     
bea/s & m5 ^u ! e>?4 ,ev]y:]e 9 !       
organic _w we behold ! process ( gr[?1 !
 developm5t ( g]ms1 ! passage ( !       
inorganic into ! organic1 & ( ! organic 
into ! inorganic aga91--*ange &         

trans=mation "u natural law4  ,!        
difficulty :i* diff]5ce ( =m & function 
9 ! v>i\s species (f]s to a !ory (      
,evolution is by no means s l>ge z has  
(t5 be5 claim$2 z great diff]5ce exi/s  
betwe5 ! oak & ! acorn1 f :i* we "k x1  
nev]!less1 to spr+2 z mu* contra/ is    
exhibit$ betwe5 ! br[n twigs ( ! trees &
 %rubs 9 w9t] & ! brilliant foliage &   
fl[]s :i* !y put =? "u ! w>m] sun (     
spr+2 q z great contra/s may be f\nd1 9 
! life ( e human be+1 betwe5 ! s+le cell
 & ! individual complet5ess atta9$ at   
bir?1 betwe5 infancy & morally *>act]iz$
 manhood & womanhood1 betwe5 ! vigor (  
full maturity & ! det]ioration ( age4   
,ev5 ! *asm betwe5 ! organic & !        
inorganic is n logically impassable4 ,! 
necessity ( n\ri%m5t is ! natural bridge
 betwe5 ! two1 & ! equival5ce (         
conditions & result1 ! inde/ructibility 
( matt] & motion1 e/abli% at once !     
necessity ( ! inf]5ce t ! organic c exi/
 only at ! ultimate exp5se ( !          
inorganic1 f :i* x is cont9ually r5ew$4 

,7 our s5ses su* t1 hav+ be=e be5 clos$1
 !y 7 sudd5ly op5$ to ! p]ception ( !   
daily obs]vable facts ( gr[?1 ^! w\ld   
probably appe> to u v ne>ly z /range1   
anomal\s1 & impossible z ! *anges :i*1  
accord+ to ! ,d>w9ian ,!ory1 h result$ 9
 ! exi/5ce ( diff]5t species2 & x is    
obvi\s t ! public m9d1 becom+ gradually 
accu/om$ to ! conception ( ! latt]      
*anges1 does n n[ reg>d !m z s wond]ful 
& anomal\s z !y appe>$ to x 9 ! beg9n+4 
,processes involv+ complete *ange ( =m  
may be obs]v$1 at ! pres5t "t1 ev]y:]e 9
 nature2 b !y are obs]vable1 ev]y:]e 9 !
 organic1 z gr[? )\t brea*es2 ev5 a     
primitive sci5ce has always recogniz$ ! 
gradual "* ( motion1 ! abs5ce ( gaps 9 !
 causal *a91 at lea/ outside ( !        
initiative action ( human w4 ,su* a     
natural hypo!sis ( creation z we h above
 suppos$1 =m$ ^u crude & sup]ficial1 b z
 f> z x goes1 logical reason+ f facts ( 
obs]vation1 c\ld n reg>d ! process z o!r
 ?an a gradual "o1 9 :i* simpl] =ms &   
conditions mu/ be suppos$ to h prec$$ m 

complex ones2 9 o!r words1 x c\ld n     
logically conceive ! process z o!r ?an  
an evolution4  ,traces ( an idea (      
,evolution may be f\nd 9 v>i\s crude =ms
 9 ne>ly all ! e>li] ,greek philosoph]s1
 especially 9 ,anaxim&]1 ,h]aclitus1    
,democritus1 ,emp$ocles1 & lat] 9       
,ari/otle4 ,su* traces may ev5 be f\nd 9
 _m hea!n my?ologies 9 contradi/9ction f
 ! ,judaic4 ,! progress ( inve/igation1 
e/abli%+ ! univ]sality ( natural law &1 
9 e prov9ce1 ! gradual "* ( *ange 01    
be=e ,d>w91 z x has be5 s9ce 8 "w1 9 !  
direction ( su* a !ory1 z 0 %[n by !    
ready acceptance ) :i* ,d>w9ism met1 if 
n by ! _w at l>ge1 at lea/ by ! majority
 ( sci5ti/s4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,france1 &      
,g]many1 !re 7 o!rs at "w "u ! influ5ce 
( ?\ghts simil> to if n id5tical ) ^? t 
inspir$ ! rese>*es & exp]im5ts ( ,d>w92 
& ! nebul> !ory ( ,kant _h already      
claim$ 9 ,a/ronomy :at ! ,d>w9ian claim$
 9 ,biology4 ,:5 ,kant1 9 8 ,natural    
,hi/ory ( ! ,heav5s1 :i* has become !   
fundam5t ( mod]n ,a/ronomy1 says1 ',give

 me matt] & ,i w make y a _w1' :at he   
int5d$ to express 0 t ! natural laws (  
matt] are p]fectly compet5t to r5d]     
compreh5sible to u ! developm5t ( our   
well-kn[n sol> sy/em4#id  ,9 ! v beg9n+1
 ! !ory ( ,evolution may be said to h _h
 ?ree di/9ct bran*es1 repres5t$ by !    
,nebul> ,!ory 9 ,a/ronomy1 ,haeckel's   
,ontog5y1 & ! ,biology ( ,lam>ck1 ,d>w91
 ,wallace1 & ,huxley2 & to ^! %\ld      
prop]ly be add$ ! ,sociological ,e?ics (
 ,sp5c]1 :i* 0 n1 h[ev]1 work$ out to a 
complete sy/em4 ,b ,du ,prel says ( lat]
 rese>*3 ,9 ! progress ( mod]n sci5ce1  
no pr9ciple has prov$ s fruitful z t (  
evolution4 ,all bran*es compete ) "o    
ano!r 9 its use1 & h br\ght ab\t by its 
aid ! mo/ gratify+ results4 ,geology    
int]prets ! significance ( sup]impos$1  
h>d5$ /rata ( ! e>?'s cru/ 9 ! s5se ( a 
hi/ory ( ! e>?'s developm5t2 ,biology1 9
 union ) ! /udy ( fossils1 arranges !   
liv+ & petrifi$ specim5s ( plants &     
animals 9 _! ord]1 & con/ructs a hi/ory 
( ! evolution ( organic life2 ,philology

 prep>es a g5ealogical tree ( languages1
 & f9ds 9 x signs :i* ?r[ light on      
prehi/oric times1 & reveal facts =gott5 
= ?\s&s ( ye>s2 ,an?ropology discov]s 9 
! =m & expression ( human be+s rudim5t>y
 signs t po9t to a !ory ( developm5t f  
l[] =ms2 &1 f9ally1 ,hi/ory reveals !   
evolution ( civilization 9 f>-di/ant    
hi/oric times2 & 9 all ^! bran*es x     
becomes app>5t t we only !n und]/&      
ph5om5a :5 we h compreh5d$ _!           
,becom+4#ie  ,x is due to ! gradual     
p]ception ( ! fact t "s su* !ory z t (  
,evolution is impli$ 9 ! v conception ( 
! con/ancy ( nature t !re has be5 a     
cont9ual decrease ( t negative =m (     
criticism :i* has made mu* ( ! gaps 9 ! 
direct pro(4 ,mod]n sci5ce has s gr[n   
to1 & by1 ! !ory ( ,evolution t ! ov]?r[
 ( ! latt] means no?+ m nor less ?an !  
de/ruction ( sci5ce itself 9 its highe/ 
results4 ,ev5 ^? :o reject ! conclusions
 ( ,evolution are f\nd to make use ( its
 me?ods1 & mu/ d s p]=ce4 ,z ! bread? & 
dep? & height ( ! !ory come to be       

p]ceiv$1 x is se5 t ! dem& = complete   
pro( is no?+ m nor less ?an a dem& = !  
p]fection ( all bran*es ( k1 ! refusal (
 cr$it )\t su* pro( a refusal to place  
any confid5ce 9 ! fir/ pr9ciples (      
sci5tific !ory until x has fully explor$
 ! univ]se & left no?+ fur!r to be      
discov]$4 ,b sci5ce w\ld h less gr\nd = 
compla9t1 if ! oppon5ts ( ,d>w9ism      
consi/5tly refus$1 on ! gr\nd ( !       
incomplet5ess ( our k1 to =m any !ory   
:atev] on ! subject ( man's nature &    
developm5t1 p]mitt+ ! wor? ( !          
evolutional !ory to be det]m9$ by its   
future results 9 application z hypo!sis4
 ,b ! peculi> spectacle is af=d$ u ( a  
p>ty reject+ a !ory support$ by         
numb]less facts 9 all bran*es1 & ^: v   
brea*es ! direction ( discov]y          
cont9ually t5ds to bridge1 9 favor ( a  
dogma :i* _c po9t to "o sci5tific fact 9
 its support1--a p>ty dem&+ absolute    
p]fection ( pro( z ! condition ( its    
acceptance ( "o !ory1 :ile x at ! same  
"t fi]cely def5ds a conception ( nature 

( :i* x _c furni% ! mo/ imp]fect pro(4  
,x is true t mank9d has n beheld !      
evolution ( ! :ole vegetable & animal   
k+dom4 ,b nei!r _h any human eye ev] yet
 beheld ! planet ,neptune :5 ,le ,v]ri] 
prophesi$ its exi/5ce & calculat$ its   
size & position4 ,! !ory ( ,evolution is
 a reason+ f ! con/ancy ( nature1 z 0 t 
( ,le ,v]ri]1 only1 9 ! case ( ! =m]1 we
 h ! obs]vation & calculations ( n "o   
sci5ti/ alone1 b ( ?\s&s1 on :i* to     
rely4 ,to dem& ( ! sci5ti/ t he %all    
produce ! organic f ! inorganic1 &      
practically demon/rate ! *ange ( =m &   
function1 & ! process ( sep>ation (     
species1 be=e ! possibility ( su*       
developm5t is conc$$1 is on a p> ) dem&+
 ( him an actual reproduction ( !       
,glacial ,p]iod be=e ! !ory ( its       
previ\s exi/5ce %all be accept$4 ,!re is
 no reason = suppos+ t1 if spontane\s   
g5]ation once took place1 ! peculi>     
complication ( conditions :i* produc$ x 
w ev] aga9 recur or c be artificially   
con/ruct$4  ,b sci5ce has no desire to  

be dogmatic4 ,x readily ackn[l$ges !    
total abs5ce ( direct & e/abli%$ pro( at
 ?is p>ticul> juncture ( ! beg9n+ (     
life4 ,x c only po9t to ! indirect      
te/imony ( ,physiological ,*emi/ry &    
,cry/allog5y1 to ! simplicity ( /ructure
 & movem5t 9 c]ta9 =ms ( life1 & f9ally 
to ! obs]v$ con/ancy ( nature4 ,b an    
exagg]at$ significance has be5 giv5 to  
?is *ief flaw 9 ! !ory ( ,evolution1 by 
^? :o1 />t+ ) ! int5tion ( def5d+       
,!ology or ! dignity ( ! ,human1 h be5  
driv5 back1 /ep by /ep1 to ?is po9t1 &  
fail to p]ceive t1 arriv$ "h1 !y h      
already ab&on$ ! gr\nd on :i* conte/ 0  
possible4 ,:at significance a primal    
creation m]ely ( l[e/ organisms c h1 =  
ei!r a def5ce ( human dignity or =      
,*ri/ian ,!ology1 x is difficult to     
p]ceive4 ,z a matt] ( *oice1 x w\ld seem
 to be m consi/5t ) ! omnipot5ce &      
dignity ( a ,creator to suppose t ^! v  
simple organisms arose1 l o!r =ms1 "u ! 
action ( natural law ?an t special      
int]f]5ce 0 necess>y 9 j _! case4 ,b1   

suppos+ su* a special ,creation1 !      
foll[+ que/ions imm$iately pres5t       
!mselves f ! !ological /&po9t3 ,are ^!  
special creations end[$ ) s\l8 ,if s1 !y
 mu/ be immortal2 if n1 !n s\l arises 9 
! process ( evolution2 if x arises z d  
all o!r ?+s1 qualities1 functions1 by   
gr[?1--t is1 by ! addition (            
inf9itesimal increm5ts 7z we mu/1 inde$1
 suppose x to arise if we reg>d x z     
evolv$7--!n :5ce come ^! increm5ts8 ,if 
!y come direct f a ,creator1 !n surely  
no special favor t[>ds man 9 ! be/[m5t (
 s\l c be alleg$2 & if !y arise by      
natural causes1 out ( nature1 !n :y may 
n _! fir/ beg9n+1 _! fir/ inf9itesimal  
appe>ance1 also be suppos$ to be due to 
su* causes8  ,! pro( ( an increase1 a   
gr[?1 ( :at h be5 call$ di/9ctively !   
m5tal faculties1 ?r\gh\t ! animal k+dom1
 is e day /rong]4 ,no "o believes1 at ! 
pres5t date1 ) ,desc>tes1 t ! animals   
are automata4 ,diff]5ces ( m5tal p[]    
w\ld seem to be b diff]5ces ( degree2 ! 
facts all po9t to su* a !ory4 ,! m      

sci5tific !ologians h1 inde$1 ab&on$ ?is
 ) ! o!r m9or po9ts ( conte/ above      
discuss$1 & devot$ _! ef=ts to argum5t f
 ! moral nature ( man4 ,philology1      
,an?ropology1 & ,geology te/ify to m5tal
 progress1 ev5 9 ! human species2 & if  
su* a progress is a fact1 x _c h be5 )\t
 influ5ce ^u ! moral nature ( man1 ev5  
suppos+ ! latt] to be ,god-giv54 ,inde$1
 a m]ely physical progress or *ange _c h
 be5 )\t su* influ5ce2 = ! mo/          
cons]vative !ologians admit ! /rong     
action ( ! body ^u ! m9d4 ,x w\ld seem1 
!n1 = all reasons1 t an inve/igation ( !
 process ( m5tal evolution1 or (        
evolution 9 g5]al1 ought n to be )\t    
results significant = any sy/em (       
morality4 ,if x is true t we le>n wisdom
 & morality f human hi/ory1 ?is c be s  
only because hi/ory gives u increas$ k (
 ! con/ancy ( nature 9 ^? ( its         
manife/ations :i* specially conc]n !    
human1 & ?us enables u bett] to judge ! 
pres5t & pr$ict ! future4 ,we %\ld      
suppose t a /ill wid] k ( our m5tal &   

physical evolution mu/ be ( yet great]  
wor? to u 9 ! same mann]1--t !          
disclosure ( m ext5d$ fields ( nature to
 our vision mu/ af=d u new & valuable   
lessons ) reg>d to ourselves2 j z !     
telescope makes no discov]y 9 ! mo/     
di/ant regions ( space t does n prove to
 h1 9 ! end1 its peculi> significance = 
our own planet4 ,if our inve/igations   
%\ld prove fruitless1 z all su*         
inve/igations h be5 said by "s to be1 ! 
fact1 e/abli%$ a po/]iori1 c\ld n be    
disput$4 ,b1 consid]+ all ! po9ts above 
notic$1 su* a result c\ld n b a/oni% u2 
& we %\ld ev5 be incl9$1 aft] all t has 
be5 said1 to suspect t ! fault lay r 9 !
 p>ticul> me?od ?an 9 ! direction ( our 
rese>*4  ,,footnotes3  #hg ,natu]li*e   
,s*oepfungsges*i*te1 #h? ed41 p4 #aji4  
#hh ,orig9 ( ,civilization1 p4 #cia4    
#hi ,orig9 ( ,civilization4  #ij ,ibid4 
#ia ,ibid4  #ib ,ibid4  #ic ,ibid4  #id 
,du ,prel3 ,die ,entwicklungsges*i*te   
des ,weltalls4  #ie ,die                
,entwicklungsges*i*te des ,weltalls4    

,,*apt] ,i  ,,! ,,concepts ,,(          
,,evolution   ,! prec$+ consid]ations h 
made x evid5t t ! idea ( ,evolution has 
und]gone a broad5+ process s9ce ,d>w9   
fir/ br\ght x be=e ! _w4 ,x is necess>y 
to glance briefly at "s ( ! *ief phases 
& ! g5]al significance ( ?is process 9  
ord] to def9e ! ext5t & int5t ( !       
concept z f> z sci5ce has made su*      
def9ition possible4  ,to ,d>w9 himself !
 /ruggle = exi/5ce 0 always betwe5 !    
unities repres5t$ by complete organisms 
:e!r z isolat$ individuals1 or 9 family1
 tribal1 or national gr\ps4 ,ev]y:]e 9 8
 calculations1 appe>+ un*ang$ 9 8       
results1 is f\nd ! unkn[n quantity (    
v>iation f ance/ral type1 ! kn[n factors
 be+ h]$ity1 & natural & sexual         
selection 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4        
,wallace's ideas z to color 9 birds     
deprive ! !ory ( sexual selection ( "o (
 its mo/ important po9ts ( application 9
 ,d>w9's "w4 ,x is1 9 fact1 easy to see 
t sexual selection _c neutralize natural
 selection1 t any p>ticul> =m ( sexual  

selection c arise & f9ally survive only 
by a h>mony ) ! direction ( natural     
selection1 & t ! two mu/ !re=e appe>1   
ev5 f any /&po9t ( fre$om ( ! w1 z      
cont9ually atta9+ co9cid5ce4 ,x has be5 
said1 above1 t ! /ruggle = exi/5ce 01 = 
,d>w91 betwe5 ! organisms z unities4    
,?is consi/5t position ( ! speciali/ has
 be5 criticis$1 f a m g5]al po9t ( view1
 by ,lewes 9 8 essay on ! ,nature (     
,life1#if 9 :i* he ass]ts t we mu/      
logically ext5d our conception ( !      
/ruggle = exi/5ce beyond t ( !          
competition & antagonism ( organisms--! 
ext]nal /ruggle2 & include "u x !       
competition & antagonism ( tissues &    
organs--! int]nal /ruggle4 ,mr4 ,d>w91  
he says1 has s pati5tly & pr(\ndly      
m$itat$ on ! :ole subject1 t we mu/ be v
 sl[ 9 presum+ him to h ov]look$ any    
important po9t4 ,i "k t he has n        
altoge!r ov]look$ ?is :i* we are n[     
consid]+2 b he is s preoccupi$ ) ! trac+
 out ( 8 spl5did discov]y 9 all its     
be>+s1 t he has ?r[n ! emphasis ma9ly on

 ! ext]nal /ruggle1 neglect+ ! int]nal  
/ruggle2 & has ?us1 9 _m passages1      
employ$ language :i* implies a radical  
di/9ction :]e--z ,i conceive--no su*    
di/9ction c be recogniz$4 ',natural     
,selection1' he says1 'dep5ds on !      
survival1 "u v>i\s & complex            
circum/ances1 ( ! be/-fitt$ individuals1
 b has no relation :atev] to ! prim>y   
cause ( any modification ( /ructure4'#ig
 ,on ?is we may rem>k1 fir/1 t selection
 does n dep5d on ! survival1 b is t     
survival2 secondly1 t ! be/-fitt$       
individual survives because ( t         
modification ( its /ructure :i* has giv5
 x ! sup]iority2 !re=e1 if ! prim>y     
cause ( ?is modification is n due to    
selection1 ! selection _c be ! cause (  
species4 ,! facts :i* are reli$ on 9    
support ( ! idea ( 'fixity ( species'   
%[1 at any rate1 t a giv5 sup]iority w  
rema9 /ation>y = ?\s&s ( ye>s2 & no "o  
supposes t ! prog5y ( an organism w v>y 
unless "s ext]nal or int]nal cause (    
v>iation accompanies ! inh]itance4 ,mr4 

,d>w9 agrees ) ,mr4 ,sp5c] 9 admitt+ !  
difficulty ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! effects (
 "s def9ite action ( ext]nal conditions1
 & ! accumulation ?r\gh natural         
selection ( inh]it$ v>iations s]viceable
 to ! organism4 ,b ev5 9 cases :]e !    
di/9ction c\ld be cle>ly e/abli%$1 ,i   
?9k we %\ld only see an hi/orical       
di/9ction1 t is to say1 "o betwe5       
effects produc$ by p>ticul> causes n[ 9 
op]ation & effects produc$ by v complex 
& obscure causes 9 op]ation dur+        
ance/ral developm5t4444 ,natural        
,selection is only ! expression ( !     
results ( obscure physiological         
processes4  ,! la/ /atem5t is "o to :i* 
,d>w9 himself w\ld c]ta9ly n h object$4 
,x is an ext5sion ( ! pr9ciple          
implicitly involv$ 9 all 8 "w &         
explicitly /at$ 9 8 lat] "w1 al?\gh !   
*ief emphasis is laid on out]           
conditions4 ,! ext5sion ( ! idea (      
competition f ! out] condition (        
organisms to ! m ultimate physiological 
unities ( organ & tissue is a           

philosophic ga94 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t 
t = :i* ,d>w9 is seek+ is n a           
philosophical g5]alization :i* %all     
include out] & inn] *ange "u "o highe/  
law1 b1 fir/ ( all1 ! p>ticul> causes ( 
p>ticul> v>iation int]e/+ to ! speciali/
 9 biology4 ,x is made too cle> = mi/ake
 9 ,! ,v>iation ( ,animals & ,plants "u 
,dome/ication t ! unc]ta9ty ) reg>d to  
su* p>ticul> =ms ( cause is ! spr+ ( 8  
decl>ation ( our ignorance z to         
v>iation4 ,! possibility ( an inclusion 
( l[] 9 high] g5]alizations he w\ld n   
d5y2 ?\gh ! special laws fir/ occupy 8  
att5tion4 ,d\btless1 8 "w is n1 z is no 
man's1 :olly free f inconsi/5cies &     
contradictions1--:i* are due1 9 "p1 to !
 fact t e sci5tific !ory is1 ev5 9 !    
?\ght ( ! individual1 an evolution4 ,b !
 decl>ation ( my/]y 9 ! "q ( v>iation is
 n equival5t to a !ory ( accid5t1 (     
transc5d5tal my/]y1 or ( "s special     
organic or vital =ce1 su* z ,claude     
,b]n>d especially oppos$2 x is m]ely &  
simply a /atem5t ( ! my/]y ( pres5t     

ignorance4 ,?is fact is expressly /at$ 9
 ,d>w9's lat] "w4 ,we f9d1 = in/ance1 9 
! introduction to a lett] to ! editor ( 
,nature1 writt5 9 #ahgc1 ! orig9 ( _m   
in/9cts ref]r$ to modifications or      
v>iations 9 ! bra91 :i* we1 9 our       
ignorance1 mo/ improp]ly call spontane\s
 or accid5tal2 & we h1 9 ,! ,v>iation ( 
,animals & ,plants "u ,dome/ication1#ih 
su* passages z ! foll[+3 ,:5 we reflect 
on ! individual diff]5ces betwe5 organic
 be+s 9 a /ate ( nature1 z %[n by e wild
 animal kn[+ its mate2 & :5 we reflect  
on ! inf9ite div]sity ( _m v>ieties (   
our dome/icat$ productions1 we may well 
be incl9$ to exclaim1 ?\gh falsely1 z ,i
 believe1 t v>iability mu/ be look$ at z
 an ultimate fact1 necess>ily cont+5t on
 reproduction4 ,^? au?ors :o adopt ?is  
latt] view w\ld probably d5y t ea*      
sep>ate v>iation has its own prop]      
excit+ cause4 ,al?\gh we c seldom trace 
! precise relation betwe5 cause &       
effect1 yet ! consid]ations pres5tly to 
be giv5 lead to ! conclusion t ea*      

modification mu/ h its own di/9ct cause4
 ,x is probable t v>iability ( e k9d is 
directly or indirectly caus$ by *ang$   
conditions ( life4 ,or1 to put ! case "u
 ano!r po9t ( view1 if x 7 possible to  
expose all ! individuals ( a species    
dur+ _m g5]ations to absolutely uni=m   
conditions ( life1 !re w\ld be no       
v>iability4444 ,! causes :i* induce     
v>iability act on ! mature organism1 on 
! embryo1 &1 z we h good reason to      
believe1 on bo? sexual elem5ts be=e     
impregnation has be5 effect$4 ,d>w9     
fur!r consid]s1 9 ?is same book1 "s ( ! 
probable p>ticul> causes ( v>iation1 z  
giv5 9 climate & food4 ,& x may be      
rem>k$1 9 ?is connection1 t ,rolph's    
criticism ( ! impossibility ( progress  
"u conditions ( want is irrelevant z    
appli$ to ,d>w91 s9ce ! latt] himself   
says expressly3 ,( all causes :i* induce
 v>iability1 excess ( food1 :e!r or n   
*ang$ 9 nature1 is probably ! mo/       
p[]ful2#ii aga93 ,we h reason to suspect
 t an habitual excess ( highly nutritive

 food1 or an excess relatively to ! we> 
& te> ( ! organization f ex]cise1 is a  
p[]ful excit+ cause ( v>iability4#ajj   
,rolph's criticism is probably due to   
=getfulness ( ! fact t ,d>w9 limit$ !   
/ruggle = exi/5ce to t ( complete       
organisms ) "o ano!r1 & t1 "u su* a     
limitation ( ! conception to ext]nal    
/ruggle1 a condition ( want _c be       
conceiv$ z necess>ily preclud+ a        
monopoly ( abundance by be/-fitt$       
individuals4  ,!ories ) reg>d to !      
special out] causes & result+           
physiological conditions ( v>iation h   
be5 gradually add$ to1 z facts on ?is   
score h accumulat$4 ,b1 z inve/igation  
advances1 ! "q is se5 to involve all !  
problems ( ! intricate *emical &        
me*anical nature ( physiological        
/ructure 9 its manifold =ms & degrees ( 
organization4 ,! field /ret*es out 9 ?is
 direction1 "u our contemplation1 to an 
indef9ite di/ance2 & sci5ce appe>s z yet
 to h pass$ only ! out] limits ( its    
t]ritory4  ,x is c]ta9 t ! comp>atively 

rec5t sci5ce ( ,physiological ,*emi/ry w
 h _m ( ! decisive words to say on ?is  
score1 9 ! future4 ,:5 we see !         
symmetrical & complex outgr[?s caus$ by 
a s+le atom ( ! poison ( a gall-insect1 
we may believe t slight *anges 9 !      
*emical nature ( ! sap or blood w\ld    
lead to extraord9>y modifications (     
/ructure1 says ! great se] ( evolution  
himself4#aja  ,among special !ories (   
,evolution1 a di/9ction may be made     
betwe53 7#a7 su* special !ories z aim at
 biological simplification by r$uction (
 all organic v>iation to "o prim>y =m ( 
cellul> process2 7#b7 su* !ories z are  
cont5t ) less ultimate laws1 by :i* !   
v>i\s asc]ta9$ =ms ( *ange are includ$ 9
 "o g5]al /atem5t n involv+ special     
physiological or physical !ory b        
applicable to all =ms ( life2 7#c7 su*  
!ories z aim to give di/9ctive          
philosophic expression to a g5]alization
 l ! la/ nam$1 includ+ 9 ?is /atem5t bo?
 psy*ical & physiological ph5om5a2 &    
7#d7 su* !ories z aim at an ultimate    

expression ( ! direction ( evolution t  
%all include ! ph5om5a ( life1 bo?      
physiological & psy*ical1 "u "o head )  
all o!r natural ph5om5a4 ,to ! fir/     
class belong only provisional hypo!ses1 
among ! be/ kn[n ( :i* are ^? (         
,pang5esis1 ,p]ig5esis1 & ! ,cont9uity (
 ! ,g]m-,plasm4 ,to ! second1 :i* are n 
m]ely t5tative b h a broad f\ndation 9  
kn[n fact1 belongs ,haeckel's !ory (    
,inh]itance & ,adaptation1 a !ory re/at$
 9 sub/ance1 f indep5d5t rese>*1 by     
,eim]1 ^: ultimate g5]al factors (      
analysis are ! same ) ,haeckel's1 ?\gh  
he deals1 beyond ^!1 ) special facts &  
special !ories ( 8 own4 ,phases ( !     
second class (t5 entitle !m to inclusion
 9 ! ?ird4 ,an example ( ! ?ird class is
 f\nd 9 ,sp5c]'s def9ition1 ,life is !  
cont9ual adju/m5t ( inn] relations to   
out] relations4 ,! f\r? & la/ class     
includes ,fe*n]'s ,t5d5cy to ,/ability &
 ,sp5c]'s !ory ( ! rhy?m ( motion 7see 8
 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples71 simil> to :i* are   
c]ta9 ideas ( ,zoelln]1 ,du ,prel1 &    

o!rs2 & simil> elem5ts to :i* are to be 
f\nd 9 ,haeckel's ,pla/idule-,!ory4 ,9  
connection ) ?is class1 ref]5ce may be  
made to an article by ,dr4 ,j4 ,petzoldt
 9 ! ,vi]teljahrs*rift fu]              
wiss5s*aftli*e ,philosophie "u ! title  
,maxima1 ,m9ima1 und ,oekonomie1 9 :i*1 
among o!rs1 ,fe*n]'s views especially   
are discuss$ ) ref]5ce to an ultimate   
pr9ciple ( evolution4 ,! fir/ pages on !
 ,t5d5cy to ,/ability 9 ,fe*n]'s ,ideas 
conc]n+ ! ,evolution ( ! ,organic       
7,e9ige ,ide5 zur ,s*oepfungs- und      
,entwicklungsges*i*te d] ,organism57 are
 z foll[s3--  ,= ! sake ( brevity ,i    
call relations ( position & motions     
recurr+ at regul> p]iods1 t is aft] l   
int]vals1 9 ! p>ticles =m+ a mat]ial    
sy/em or 9 ! c5tres ( :ole masses       
conceiv$ z =m+ a l>g] sy/em1 '/able     
relations4' ,among su* relations is to  
be reckon$ ! condition ( re/ ( !        
p>ticles or masses 9 relation to ea*    
o!r1 z ! extreme case1 :i* we may call !
 /ate ( 'absolute /ability'2 :ile a     

dissipation ( ! p>ticles or masses1 to  
inf9ity1 9 diff]5t directions1          
con/itutes ! o!r extreme ( absolute     
in/ability4  ,we d n speak ( 'absolute  
/ability1' b ( 'full /ability1' 9 cases 
:]e motion /ill takes place1 b ?is br+s 
cont9ually1 9 exactly ! same p]iods (   
"t1 ! same relations ( p>ticles or      
masses1 n only z reg>ds position1 b also
 z reg>ds velocity & direction ( !      
motion & *ange ( velocity &             
direction4444  ,to absolute & full      
/ability may be add$1 z ?ird case1 t (  
great] or less approa* to full /ability1
 :i* we may t]m briefly 'aproximate     
/ability'444 & ( :i* we h an example 9 !
 *ief bodies ( our sol> sy/em4  ,x may  
s]ve z a simplification ( ! consid]ation
 ( /able relations ( motion to rem>k444 
t1 9 an isolat$ sy/em or "o "u con/ant  
out] conditions1 exactly or v ne>ly !   
same relations ( velocity & direction   
recur :5 exactly or v ne>ly ! same      
relations 9 ! position ( ! p>ticles or  
masses return4 ,z reg>ds ! velocity1 ?is

 foll[s directly f ! pr9ciple ( !       
cons]vation ( en]gy2 z reg>ds !         
direction1 x is indisputably possible to
 assume ! connection ( its recurr5ce ) t
 ( ! o!r relations1 al?\gh ,i _c rememb]
 t a direct g5]al pro( ( ?is has be5    
f\nd4  ,) ^! introductory specifications
 9 m9d1 let u assume any numb] ( mat]ial
 p>ticles to be re/rict$1 by =ces ( "s  
sort1 to motion )9 limit$ space1 & !    
sy/em ei!r )drawn f out] influ5ces or "u
 su* z are con/ant2 let u1 moreov]1     
suppose ! sy/em undi/urb$ by ! int]f]5ce
 ( psy*ic fre$om1 or ! latt] impossible4
 ,9 su* case1 c]ta9 initial positions1  
velocities1 & directions ( ! p>ts ( !   
sy/em be+ assum$1 all foll[+ /ates w be 
det]m9$ by ^!4 ,& n[1 if !re are among  
^! conditions1 ei!r pres5t at ! beg9n+1 
or atta9$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! motion1 any su* 
z h = _! result a return ( ! same /ates 
aft] a giv5 "t1 !n ! motion1 & s also ! 
positions ( ! p>ts conceiv$ z at fir/   
und]go+ alt]ation 9 =m & velocity1 w1   
unless !y conta9 ! imm$iate condition ( 

p]iodic recurr5ce1 cont9ue alt]+ until  
^? ( all ! possible /ates are rea*$ :i* 
conta9 ! condition ( recurr5ce2 until   
?is po9t is atta9$1 ! sy/em w1 s to     
speak1 "k no re/4 ,has ! recurr5ce once 
tak5 place )9 a giv5 "t1 !n x mu/ always
 take place anew )9 ! same "t1 because !
 same conditions are !re to det]m9e x4  
,& s9ce ^! conditions are det]m9ative ( 
! :ole c\rse ( motion f "o recurr5ce to 
! next1 ! same c\rse mu/ be repeat$2 t  
is1 9 e l phase ( ! p]iod a l /ate (    
motion w exi/4 ,b ?is gives u full      
/ability ( ! sy/em1 a *ange1 a deviation
 f ! atta9$ /ability be+ possible only  
?r\gh *anges 9 out] influ5ces1 ! assum$ 
con/ancy ( :i* r5d]$ ! atta9m5t (       
/ability possible4  ,?is pr9ciple appe>s
 at fir/ purely a priori2 b ! assumption
 %\ld n be ov]look$ t !re are among !   
conditions det]m9+ ! motion su* z lead  
to _! own recurr5ce1 & ?is is to be tak5
 = grant$1 s9ce x is necess>y to assume 
t a sy/em mu/ cont9ue to *ange until1 b 
only until1 ! conditions ( full /ability

 are atta9$1 9 case x is atta9able2 & t 
?is full /ability1 :5 once rea*$1 _c be 
aga9 de/roy$ by ! action ( ! sy/em      
itself4 ,! "q pres5ts itself z to h[ f> 
calculation & exp]i5ce p]mit u to lay   
d[n a m g5]al pr9ciple4  ,9 a sy/em 9   
:i* only two p>ticles or masses1 )drawn 
f out] influ5ces1 are det]m9$ to motion 
by mutual attraction & ! influ5ce ( a   
prim>y impulse 9 ano!r direction1       
calculation %[s u t1 motion to inf9ity  
be+ exclud$1 ! atta9m5t1 & inde$ !      
imm$iate atta9m5t1 ( full /ability is a 
necessity2 & = sw++ p5dula & vibrat+    
/r+s x may be calculat$1 f ! nature ( ! 
mov+ =ces1 t !y w\ld rema9 9 a condition
 ( fully /able motion if out] resi/ance 
7 remov$2 =1 su* ob/acles pres5t1 !y    
pass ?r\gh an approximately /able       
condition to "o ( absolute /ability4 ,! 
p[] ( purely ma!matical calculation does
 n g beyond su* comp>atively simple     
cases4444  ,b if we call exp]i5ce to our
 aid1 x may be ass]t$1 9 accordance ) v 
g5]al facts1 t1 9 a sy/em left to itself

 or "u con/ant out] conditions1 & />t+ f
 any conceivable /ate1 if n full        
/ability at lea/ a great] or less       
approximation to x is rea*$ z f9al      
condition1 f :i* no retrogression takes 
place ?r\gh ! inn] work+s ( ! sy/em     
itself4 ,! t5d5cy to approximately /able
 conditions appe>s1 or ! actual /ate is 
atta9$1 accord+ to ! measure 9 :i*      
v>iable out] influ5ces are )drawn4 ,s t 
s little is lack+ to our hypo!sis1 t1   
al?\gh x has at ?is po9t to make up = ! 
impossibility ( p]fect demon/ration1 we 
are nev]!less ju/ifi$ 9 lay+ d[n !      
foll[+ law or pr9ciple3--  ,9 e sy/em ( 
mat]ial p>ts left to itself or "u       
con/ant out] influ5ces1 s1 !n1 9 !      
mat]ial sy/em ( ! univ]se1 9 s f> z we  
reg>d x z isolat$1 !re takes place1     
motion to inf9ity be+ exclud$1 a        
cont9u\s progress f m un/able to m /able
 conditions1 up to ! atta9m5t ( a f9al  
condition ( full or approximate         
/ability4  ,f ! union ( ! pr9ciple ?us  
/at$ & t ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy x      

foll[s t no unlimit$ progress ( !       
univ]se to absolute /ability1 :i*       
consi/s 9 p]fect re/ ( ! p>ts1 c take   
place4444 ,! en]gy manife/$ 9 ! univ]se 
_c be alt]$1 9 g5]al1 9 its am\nt1 b    
only 9 ! =m 9 :i* x manife/s itself4 ,x 
_c be ass]t$ t ! atta9m5t ( full        
/ability 9 ! univ]se w\ld be ! atta9m5t 
( an et]nal re/1 b only ( ! mo/ p]fectly
 adju/$ motions1 & !re=e su* motions z  
w\ld give rise to no v>iations4444 ,b a 
condition :i* br+s ) x et]nal repetition
 _c be rea*$ 9 f9ite "t4  ,to           
elucidation ( ?is pr9ciple ( ! ,t5d5cy  
to ,/ability1 says ,dr4 ,petzoldt       
analyz+ ,fe*n]'s "w1 we h only to call  
to remembrance a numb] ( natural        
ph5om5a1 su* z ! ebb & fl[ ( ! tide1 !  
circulation ( moi/ure1 p]iodic *anges ( 
temp]ature1 & s =?1 :i* exhibit great   
p]iods ( approximate /ability & 9 :i* we
 notice 9 g5]al no retrogression4  ,n   
less does ! con/itution ( organisms :i* 
are1 's to speak1 con/itut$ dep5d5t ^u  
p]iodicity ( _! functions1 & s ^u /able 

relations ( _! life1' s]ve to confirm ! 
!ory4 ,only ! concept ( /ability mu/ be 
ext5d$ 9 _! case1 s9ce n always ! same1 
b only sub/itutive p>ts ( ! organic     
sy/ems t5d t[>ds /ability4  ,exp]i5ce   
nev] gives u an example ( an isolat$    
sy/em2 on ! contr>y1 e sy/em is a "p (  
high] sy/ems4 ,! inn] relations ( its   
/ability are n condition$ by its own    
p>ts only1 b also1 m or less1 by ^? (   
o!r sy/ems1 s t ! de/ruction ( "o       
"p-sy/em is always only 9 ! direction   
t[>ds ! /ability ( a high]1 ultimately (
 ! highe/1 sy/em2 t is1 ( ! sy/em ( !   
univ]se4  ,?us ! teleological pr9ciple  
co9cides ) ! pr9ciple ( ! ,t5d5cy to    
,/ability1 & at ! same "t ! latt]       
con/itutes ! l9k betwe5 ! =m] & ! law ( 
,causality4 ,?\gh1 9 tru?1 ?is mann] (  
look+ at ! matt] signifies a            
g5]alization ( ! concept ( 'end1' s9ce x
 def9es all /able conditions z ends4 ,! 
view is ju/ifi$1 h[ev]1 by ! fact t !   
greate/ possible physical               
satisfaction--= u1 ! crit]ion (         

teleology--is always b\nd up ) ! longe/ 
possible pres]vation or sl[ *ange ( a   
/able organic condition4 ,! physical    
,t5d5cy to ,/ability 'be>s ) x a        
psy*ical t5d5cy to ! atta9m5t &         
cons]vation ( j ^? conditions' t[>ds :i*
 ! physical t5d5cy is direct$4  ,( !    
fact t ,lange feels ! lack ( ! pro( (   
?is ',t5d5cy to ,/ability1' ,dr4        
,petzoldt says3 ,b h[ is !re a ne$ (    
pro( "h8 ,to prove is to ref] back to   
kn[n facts4 ,b :at is !re 9 ,fe*n]'s    
rem>ks t /&s 9 ne$ ( su* a ref]5ce8 ,!y 
simply draw our att5tion to ! result (  
evolution z a /ate :i* be>s1 9 itself1 !
 gu>antee ( "s cont9uance4 ,c any "o    
conte/ ?is8 ,is !re any?+ fur!r to      
prove8 ,x is said t ,gauss once rem>k$ t
 ,lagrange's equations ( motion are n   
prov$1 b only hi/orically /at$4 ,! case 
is exactly ! same "h4 ,! fact is atte/$1
 m]ely1 t evolution ends 9 a /able      
condition2 & h]e9 lies ! pi? & ! great  
m]it ( ! !ory ( ! ,t5d5cy to ,/ability4 
,dr4 ,petzoldt criticises1 among o!r    

?+s1 especially ,fe*n]'s concept (      
approximate /ability1 9 t no di/9ction  
is made by ! au?or betwe5 ?ree diff]5t  
cases4 ,! fir/ case comprises =ms (     
motion 9 :i* p]iodicity is only         
approximate1 b 9 :i*1 nev]!less1 no     
retrogression 9 /ability takes place2   
?is case is illu/rat$ by our sol> sy/em4
 ,! second case comprises =ms ( motion 9
 :i* ! /ability increases up to a c]ta9 
po9t1 b beyond ?is1 despite relative    
con/ancy 9 out] conditions1 decreases   
aga9 until complete de/ruction ( ! sy/em
 sup]v5es2 an illu/ration ( ?is =m (    
motion is f\nd 9 all organisms4 ,! ?ird 
case comprises =ms ( motion :i* we _c   
conc$e to be /able4 ,=1 if we ascribe   
p]iodic motion to p5dula & musical /r+s 
:i* vibrate 9 a resi/+ m$ium1 ?is is    
nev]!less a p]iodicity1 :i* cont9ually  
*anges 9 ! same s5se1 & we c]ta9ly _c   
say t p5dula & /r+s approa*1 9 a resi/+ 
m$ium1 a condition ( absolute1 ?r\gh a  
condition ( approximate1 /ability4 ,we  
recognize 9 ^! vibrations1 decreas+ 9   

amplitude1 m]ely un/able *anges :i* t5d 
t[>d a f9al /able condition1--namely t (
 re/4  ,! au?or f9ds a fur!r gr\nd (    
criticism 9 ,fe*n]'s ass]tion t         
organisms are entirely dep5d5t ^u !     
p]iodicity ( _! functions4 ,only a "p ( 
su* functions are p]iodic4 ,p]iodicity  
is n conceivable )\t /ability1 b        
/ability is conceivable )\t p]iodicity4 
,9 ! process ( evolution t[>ds a /able  
=m ( movem5t1 ,dr4 ,petzoldt recognizes 
briefly two factors1 ,t5d5cy &          
,competition4#ajb ,t5d5cy is def9$1 9   
g5]al1 z ! direction1 actual or         
pot5tial1 ( mat]ial p>ts or ( m5tal or  
physical function2 competition1 z !     
conflict ( t5d5cies1 f :i* a t5d5cy ( a 
high] ord] results4 ,! concept (        
,competition is1 l t ( ,t5d5cy1 to be   
tak5 9 a g5]al significance4 ,a numb] ( 
=ces :i* act ^u a s+le po9t compete4    
,diff]5t m5tal images1 obs]vations1     
concepts1 laws1 come into competition1 f
 :i* result concepts & laws ( l[] &     
high] ord]s4 ,! /ruggle = exi/5ce is    

only a special case ( competition4 ,?\gh
 ?is (t5 ends ) ! imm$iate or gradual   
de/ruction ( sy/ems ent]+ ^u x1         
nev]!less only a middle wor? betwe5 all 
! compet+ t5d5cies c be ascrib$ to !    
resultant4 ,ev5 ! conqu]or is1 aft] !   
/ruggle1 o!r ?an :at he 0 be=e x2 a "p (
 ! t5d5cy de/roy$ by him lives on 9 him1
 has comb9$ ) 8 orig9al t5d5cy to a     
resultant4 ,t5d5cies c z little disappe>
 )\t comp5sation z c =ces1 :e!r !       
comp5sation consi/s 9 a /r5g!n+ or 9 a  
weak5+ ( o!rs1 & ! cons]vation ( compet+
 t5d5cies might be reg>d$ z a fur!r     
qualitative addition to ! law ( !       
cons]vation ( =ce4 ,h5ce1 9 ! exam9ation
 ( ! effects ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 ! l 
claim ( all t5d5cies tak+ "p 9 x is n to
 be left out ( consid]ation4 ,ea* makes 
its full =ce felt4 ,b n all atta9 to    
competition2 ( ! num]\s t5d5cies b\nd up
 9 "o organism1 only a few unite1 9 !   
s+le case1 to a resultant1 :i* has a    
direction t[>ds a def9ite issue4 ,! less
 ! opposition ( compet+ t5d5cies (      

concepts or laws1 ! less ! deviation ( !
 resultant f its compon5ts1 & ! less !  
*ange ^! h to und]go4 ,! high] concepts 
& laws are1 ! less are ! numb] (        
di/+ui%+ m>ks :i* !y take f all s+le    
conceptions2 = !y are ! resultants ( v  
/rongly oppos$ compon5ts4#ajc  ,fe*n]'s 
views are relat$ to1 &1 to "s ext5t1    
dep5d5t ^u1 c]ta9 ones ( ,zoelln] adduc$
 9 connection ) a consid]ation (        
sun-spots4#ajd ,du ,prel1 :o also       
ackn[l$ges special indebt$ness to       
,zoelln]1 attempt$ 9 8 ,/ruggle =       
,exi/5ce 9 ! ,heav5s 7,d] ,kampf ums    
,dase9 am ,himmel7 to demon/rate ! fact 
( a /ruggle & selection among ! heav5ly 
bodies analog\s to t claim$ = life ^u ! 
e>?4 ,! title ( ! book 0 aft]w>ds *ang$ 
to ,! ,hi/ory ( ! ,evolution ( !        
,univ]se1#aje its scope hav+ gr[n f>    
beyond ! limit ( ! =m] title4 ,du ,prel 
f9ds "o ( ! *ief advantages ( an        
application ( ,d>w9ian ideas to a/ronomy
 9 ! fact t1 unlike our e>?1 ! heav5s 9 
_! imm5sity af=d u exi/+1 or to our eye 

exi/+1 examples ( ! v>i\s /ages ( _!    
evolution1 9 nebul> mi/1 comets1 suns1  
fix$ />s1 planets1 r+s1 & moons1--all   
subject to processes ( developm5t1 :i*  
we may to "s ext5t obs]ve4 ,9 ! fir/    
*apt] ( ?is book1 ,du ,prel says3 ,!    
exi/+ condition ( ! ,cosmos ) respect to
 all =ms ( ! ,purposeful#ajf--:e!r we   
reg>d ! realm ( ! organic or !          
inorganic--c be look$ ^u only z an      
atta9$1 mov+ equilibrium ( =ces4        
,imman5t 9 ,nature lies ! capacity to   
develop f *aotic conditions to          
teleologic =ms2 =1 9 ! ceaseless play ( 
=ces1 all o!r ?an su* comb9ations are by
 _! nature giv5 ov] to de/ruction1 :ile 
x lies1 on ! contr>y1 9 ! ess5ce ( all  
purposeful comb9ations to be pres]v$4 ,9
 e sy/em ( me*anical =ces an adju/m5t ( 
! same mu/ f9ally be arriv$ at ?r\gh !  
removal ( all imman5t oppositions4 ,x is
 impossible = nature to rema9 9 *aotic  
conditions4 ,e sy/em ( =ces t5ds to a   
/ate ( equilibrium4 ,?is is z true ( !  
conflict ( images 9 a human bra91 f ^:  

mutual accommodation ! resultant ( a    
unifi$ !ory ( ! univ]se arises1 z (     
oppositions 9 ! social organism1 ( !    
conditions ( p[] & civilization (       
neighbor+ peoples1 ( ! meteorologic     
/ates ( ! e>?1 ( ! me*anical =ces ( a   
sol> sy/em1 or ! atoms ( a cosmic mi/4  
,e w> ( ! elem5ts ends ) an adju/m5t (  
ideal ju/ice1 = e 'mom5t' ( =ce has     
influ5ce proportion$ to its p[] & !     
duration ( its activity4#ajg  ,!re is "o
 portion ( ,fe*n]'s !ory z above /at$   
7its metaphysical phases be+ beyond !   
scope ( ! pres5t *apt] h n be5 t\*$ ^u7 
t raises a "q :i* may p]haps appe> to h 
9 itself no special significance1 b :i* 
nev]!less op5s up1 by its implications1 
new fields ( inquiry1 & may possibly    
lead to fur!r !ory4 ,! condition (      
/ability :i* evolution 9 ! univ]se z a  
:ole gradually approa*es b c nev] atta9 
to 9 f9ite "t is decl>$1 namely1 to be  
"o n ( re/1 b ( motion4 ,a "q might be  
rais$1 "h1 z to ! def9ition ( ! inf9ite 
"t ass]t$ to be necess>y to ! atta9m5t (

 su* full /ability1--:e!r ! phrase be   
us$ 9 ! ma!matical or ! philosophic     
s5se2 & ! "q w\ld be f\nd1 ,i believe1  
to involve ! unansw]able problem ( !    
f9ite or inf9ite "* ( ! univ]se 9 space4
 ,( a univ]se conceiv$ "u ! philosophic 
concept ( spatial inf9itude1 obvi\sly no
 f9al /ate z ! result ( evolution c be  
pr$icat$1 ! evolution suppos+ a progress
 :i*1 z involv+ inf9ite matt]1 _c be    
accompli%$ 9 f9ite "t4 ,if we1 h[ev]1   
conceive ! univ]se z occupy+ f9ite space
 & und]go+ cont9ual evolution z a :ole 9
 ! direction ( equilibrium1 x is a "q   
:e!r ! end mu/ n be atta9$ 9 f9ite "t4  
,= a univ]se conceiv$ z f9ite1 h[ev]    
imm5se1 !re mu/ be a f9ite numb]1 h[ev] 
great1 repres5t+ ! *anges necess>y to ! 
atta9m5t ( f9al equilibrium2 & if       
progress 9 ! direction ( su* equilibrium
 is ( necessity cont9ual1 ! f9al        
equilibrium mu/ be atta9able 9 f9ite "t4
 ,! "q ( ! nature ( su* a /ate ( f9al1  
univ]sal /ability is b\nd up ) ! problem
 ( motion ?r\gh a p]fect void1 & ( !    

possibility ( ! =mation ( su* a void    
?r\gh ! conc5tration ( matt]4 ,leav+ out
 ( consid]ation ! problem 9 its         
metaphysical =m1 :i* conc]ns !          
possibility ( conceiv+ int]-mat]ial     
space1 x may be said t x is n n[ suppos$
 t ! heav5ly bodies move ?r\gh an       
absolute void2 & ! exi/5ce ( any m$ium  
oppos+ resi/ance1 h[ev] slight1 is a    
condition r5d]+ impossible ! atta9m5t ( 
absolute /ability ( motion or a full    
/ability :i* suff]s no dim9ution & is1  
!re=e1 9 effect1 an absolute /ability4  
,x may be que/ion$ :e!r ! v nature (    
motion is n co9cid5t ) *ange1 & ?is )   
action & reaction1 or competition4 ,su* 
a view w\ld r$uce evolution to a s+le   
ultimate pr9ciple1 9 place ( ,d>w9's    
,v>iation & ,selection ?r\gh /ruggle1 or
 ,petzoldt's ,t5d5cy & ,competition4 ,we
 %\ld h left1 in/ead ( ^!1 only ! f9al  
pr9ciple involv$ 9 mov+ matt] consid]$ 9
 its ultimate p>ts4 ,! metaphysical     
problem ( ! inf9ite divisibility ( matt]
 ne$ n "h conc]n u2 ! ultimate p>ts ( an

 organism c\ld n be1 h[ev]1 its organs z
 ,lewes def9$ !m1 b r1 f a positive     
/&po9t1 ! ultimate units recogniz$ by   
sci5ce 9 cell & cell-p>ts4 ,we may1     
inde$1 s9ce we "k no beg9n+ ( motion1   
legitimately reg>d all t5d5cy z itself  
resultant4 ,j z we _c sep>ate matt] &   
motion1 except by ab/raction f reality1 
s1 too1 we _c conceive ( motion except z
 hav+ def9ite direction2 & ?us we       
arrive1 by a f9al analysis1 at !        
ultimate philosophic pr9ciples ( matt] &
 its motion4 ,i use ^! t]ms 9 no        
metaphysical s5se1 b m]ely z g5]ic t]ms 
includ+ "u "o head specific =ms (       
mat]ial comb9ation & ! specific =ms (   
motion ( _! :oles or p>ts4  ,! "q ( ! "*
 ( a conceiv$ /ate ( f9al equilibrium   
may be approa*$ f a some:at diff]5t     
side1 ?\gh ! emphasis falls1 z be=e1 on 
! solid>ity ( ! univ]se & ! nature (    
motion z *ange4 ,we may1 = in/ance1     
reg>d ! e>? z an isolat$ sy/em ^:       
isolation makes possible ! cont9ual     
progress ( ! evolution tak+ place on its

 surface4 ,b ?is :ole evolution is1 on !
 o!r h&1 dep5d5t ^u ! light & heat ( !  
sun4 ,aga91 ! sun is und]go+ an         
evolution ^: cont9u\s progress may be   
reg>d$ z 9 a c]ta9 s5se dep5d5t ^u      
isolation2 b we see1 on reflection1 t   
?is v process is ! result ( ! cool+     
nature ( ! sun's surr\nd+s1 & t x is    
s5d+ its motion 9 e direction ?r\gh     
space4 ,! moon1 :i* has pass$ ?r\gh bo? 
! evolution t ! sun is und]go+ & t :i*  
is 9 progress ^u ! e>?1 is n[ pass+     
?r\gh ano!r /age :i* ! e>? mu/ rea* 9 "t
 by diffusion ( its atmosph]e1 9 case   
its de/ruction is n accompli%$ by "s    
cata/rophic ev5t be=e ! arrival ( t     
di/ant p]iod4 ,suns & planets1 all !    
heav5ly bodies1 are s5d+ _! influ5ce 9 e
 direction ?r\gh ! unfa?omable dep?s (  
space2 & j z ! capacity ( ! e>? to be   
w>m$ by ! influ5ce ( ! sun involves its 
reciprocal capacity to act z a cool+    
m$ium = t body1 s ! conditions ?r\gh\t !
 univ]se mu/ be reg>d$ z ev]y:]e        
int]dep5d5t & mutually imply+ "o ano!r4 

,?us we aga9 arrive f9ally at a univ]sal
 action & reaction among ! p>ts ( !     
univ]se1 all motion imply+ *ange ( !    
direction ( motion4 ,or1 s9ce we may &  
are1 9 fact1 oblig$ to reg>d e direction
 or =m ( motion z a resultant1--= (     
motion z ( matt] we "k no absolute      
beg9n+1--ev5 ?is simple assumption may  
supply u ) ! conclusion :i* we h rea*$ 9
 a m r\ndab\t way4 ,we may reg>d motion 
9 any direction z c\nt]balanc$ by a     
resi/ance 9 e o!r direction suffici5t to
 produce x 9 ?is "o2 9 o!r words1 motion
 takes place at e in/ant1 9 ! direction 
( lea/ resi/ance1 ev5 ?\gh ?is direction
 may repres5t1 9 ! next in/ant1 ?r\gh ! 
action ( new mom5ts ( =ce1 ! greate/    
resi/ance4 ,any direction z well z any  
*ange ( direction implies1 !n1          
resi/ance2 resi/ance is equival5t to !  
int]f]5ce ( =ce1 or1 9 o!r words1 to    
competition2 & competition may1 at any  
mom5t1 become cata/rophe4 ,! diff]5ce   
betwe5 competition & cata/rophe is "o   
m]ely ( degree1 or r x is a subjective  

diff]5ce dep5d+ ^u ! po9t ( view ( !    
obs]v]4 ,9 o!r words1 all t we c te/ify 
to is a c]ta9 p]iodicity ( motion1 all  
motion meet+ ) resi/ance1 ! accumulation
 ( :i* f9ally induces motion 9 ano!r    
s5se4 ,l>g] p]iodicities are made up (  
small] p]iodicities1 &1 accord+ to !    
po9t ( view tak51 any p]iod ( su* motion
 may be reg>d$ z an evolution1 t :i*    
,fe*n] t]ms full /ability be+ only !    
maximum t[>ds :i* motion dur+ t p]iod   
t5ds4 ,absolute /ability c be conceiv$  
only z p]fect re/1 :e!r we conceive x z 
m]ely an ab/raction1 its realization z  
r5d]$ impossible by ! cons]vation (     
en]gy1 or :e!r we conceive x z possible 
9 a univ]se reg>d$ z f9ite2 an absolute 
/ability ( motion is a                  
self-contradiction1 & a full /ability   
:i* kn[s no retrogression is equally a  
self-contradiction4 ,p]iodicity is1 !n1 
all into :i* ! ,t5d5cy to ,/ability     
resolves itself = nature z we "k x4  ,we
 p]ceive1 9 ! actual univ]se1 ! fact ( a
 c]ta9 imp]fect p]iodicity4 ,?is wave =m

 ( movem5t 9 great & little plays1 z    
,sp5c] has %[n f> m elaborately ?an     
,fe*n]1 a l>ge "p 9 ! univ]se4  ,b !    
evid5t fact ( a pres5t p]iodicity (     
imp]fect =m sugge/s ano!r possible      
conception4 ,we are "u no necessity to  
reg>d ! univ]se z f9ite ei!r 9 space or 
"t4 ,on ! contr>y4 ,we t5d naturally to 
conceive ( x z f9ite aft] ! analogy (   
p>ticul> ?+s :i* we p]ceive cont9ually  
to arise & p]i%2 b z conc]ns space1 we h
 no k ( any limit1 &1 z conc]ns "t1 !   
conception ( any actual beg9n+ or end to
 ! univ]se z a :ole is only ! anci5t    
naive idea :i* sci5ce has disprov$ 9 %[+
 t nei!r matt] nor motion ev] p]i%4 ,an 
inf9ite univ]se is conceivable1 9 :i* n 
exactly ! same b v simil> =ms1 or =ms ( 
:i* ! successive ones closely resemble  
ea* o!r ?\gh ^? widely sep>at$ may be v 
dissimil>1 cont9ue to arise & be de/roy$
 to all et]nity4 ,! conception ( a      
primal nebul> mi/ is n a necess>y       
inf]5ce f a/ronomic ph5om5a2 x is z easy
 & z logical to reg>d ! v>i\s phases (  

planet>y developm5t reveal$ to u by !   
telescope z s _m phases ( an evolution &
 dissolution cont9ually recurr+ 9       
diff]5t p>ts ( ! univ]se1 "o extreme (  
:i* is repres5t$ by ! nebul> mi/1 ! o!r 
by ! cold & lifeless rema9s ( planets   
gradually suff]+ dissolution z !y       
revolve ?r\gh space4 ,! great] !        
imm5sity ( ! univ]se is conceiv$ to be1 
! ne>] our conception ( x mu/ approa* to
 ?is type4 ,b ! t]m ,t5d5cy to ,/ability
 is misappli$ :5 appli$ to su* inf9ite &
 imp]fect p]iodicity--to ! motion1 ?us  
conceiv$1 ( ! univ]se z a :ole4  ,!     
p]iodicity 9 ! life ( organic species   
may be comp>$ to ! wave-motions ( light 
& heat z di/+ui%$ f ^? ( wat]1 !        
individual repres5t+ ! s+le wave-l5g?4  
,! analogy is n1 h[ev]1 int5d$--to speak
 ) ,bacon--z "o ( nature1 b m]ely z "o (
 m9d4 ,& j "h x may be que/ion$ :e!r    
,fe*n] may n h be5 "r1 aft] all1 9 8    
ass]tion ( ! dep5d5cy ( ! organism ^u   
p]iodicity ( function1 :e!r ! p]iodic "*
 ( ! individual life1 dep5d5t1 z x mu/  

be suppos$ to be1 on adaptation to a    
m$ium to "s degree resi/+1 does n       
sacrifice its /ability 9 s f> z !       
increm5ts ( resi/ance lack uni=mity4    
,?is is evid5tly ! case 9 l>ge          
relations2 is x n logically necess>y to 
suppose x s 9 m9ute relations1 ?\gh !   
fact may n be s evid5t to ! co>se       
measurem5t ( ! s5ses8 ,exp]i5ce seems to
 prove t an approximate p]iodicity 9    
l>g] relations1 is mo/ consi/5t ) heal?2
 & x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! non-p]iodic    
relations are subord9at$ to p]iodic     
ones1 t n only 9 ! case ( wak+ & sleep+1
 work+ & eat+1 b also 9 ^? ( re/ &      
labor1 a c]ta9 uni=mity is necess>y to !
 be/ m5tal & physical condition4 ,a     
close obs]vation w1 ,i ?9k1 reveal a    
great] p]iodicity ?an 0 at fir/         
suspect$2 s9ce mu* ( x is ( s-call$     
automatic1 unconsci\s1 or half-consci\s 
nature4 ,x is to be notic$1 "h1 t !     
t]m9ation ( individual lives is (t5 9 ! 
nature ( a cata/rophe1 & a uni=m        
p]iodicity ( individual developm5t &    

decay _c be assign$1 except 9 ! =m ( an 
av]age t falls mu* bel[ ! figure atta9$ 
by ! ?or\ghly heal?y individual4 ,!re is
 e reason to believe t if we c\ld sleep1
 rise1 eat1 ba!1 ex]cise1 "w1 & re/ ) ! 
regul>ity ( a clock1 we %\ld be ! bett] 
= x physically4 ,b ! irregul>ities      
outside ! prov9ce ( our w-p[] r5d] x    
impossible = u to ord] our lives 9 ?is  
mann]4 ,nor d we desire to d s4 ,= ^! v 
irregul>ities1 z repres5t+ great] or    
less *ange to :i* adaptation is         
necess>y1 are1 9 _m cases & )9 c]ta9    
l9es1 ! conditions & signs ( progress2  
?\gh !y may con/itute 9 o!r cases &     
beyond ^! l9es--t is1 :]e !y are ( too  
great int5sity or duration--conditions (
 retrogression1 ! imp]fection 9         
p]iodicity becom+ cata/rophe1 :i* may   
ext5d beyond ! individual to 8 (fspr+4  
,we may ?us inf] t ! f9al de/ruction ( !
 individual organism is condition$ by   
its own progress & ! progress ( its     
species1 b t on ! o!r h&1 :5 !          
de/ruction ( ! individual is too abrupt1

 x may mean cata/rophe to ! species     
also1 or at lea/ to a "p ( x1 ?r\gh     
h]$ity4  ,our consid]ations s f> h be5 (
 a nature to conv9ce u t n isolation1 b 
a con/ancy 9 ! cont9ual action ( l      
relatively small increm5ts ( =ce 9 !    
same directions1 is ! condition ( /eady 
evolution4 ,! less con/ant & ! l>g] !   
increm5ts1 ! ne>] ! *anges involv$      
resemble cata/rophe1 ?\gh ! cata/rophes 
!mselves may be reg>d$ 9 ano!r light z  
=m+ "p ( an evolution ( a high] ord]4 ,!
 *anges ! sun is und]go+ may be reg>d$ z
 evolution 9 s f> z ! influ5ce ( ! cool+
 m$ium is a con/ant "o4 ,! e>? z a :ole 
& 9 its p>ts may be reg>d$ z pass+ ?r\gh
 a process ( evolution t[>ds full       
/ability 9 s f> z ! sun's heat is a     
con/ant quantity1 ! p]iodic *anges (    
seasons & ( day & night ! same4 ,!      
relation w\ld seem1 !re=e1 to be "o (   
"t--! "t-relation involv$ 9 ! duration (
 out] conditions z con/ant ) ref]5ce to 
! p]iod requir$ = ! atta9m5t ( /ability4
 ,?us ! sun's influ5ce ^u ! e>? might   

appe> approximately con/ant to ! human  
individual1 b might repres5t a rapid    
*ange 9 relation to "s /up5d\s &        
long-cont9u$ evolution 9 "s o!r "p ( !  
univ]se4 ,consid]ations :i* we h already
 notic$ =bid our reg>d+ any conditions (
 full z di/+ui%$ f absolute /ability z  
any?+ o!r ?an peculi> /ates s+le 9 !    
sy/em & ?us un5dur+ maxima succe$$ by   
decrease1 al?\gh ! process may be1 )    
ref]5ce to any o!r p>ticul> process1 s  
sl[1 ! retrogression f ! culm9at+ po9t s
 gradual1 z to be1 ) respect to ?is o!r 
process1 inappreciable4  ,& :ile we are 
busi$ ) matt]s :i* involve ! :ole       
multiplicity ( relations 9 ! univ]se1 j 
a ^w ) ref]5ce to cause & effect4 ,:i*  
"o ( ^! myriad mat]ial p>ts int]act+ at 
any mom5t %all we s+le out z ! cause ( !
 succe$+ /ate8 ,! solid>ity ( ! univ]se 
z f> z ! complete int]dep5d5ce ( all its
 p>ts is conc]n$ is cle> to u4 ,x is    
true we _c reckon ) all factors ( !     
univ]se at once2 & ! concept ( cause &  
effect is !re=e a useful "o4 ,b ! cause 

( any?+ mu/ be1 f a positive po9t (     
view1 j :at ! me?ods prescrib$ = its    
discov]y 9 any p>ticul> case %[s x to   
be3 namely1 a factor1 m]ely1 9 !        
manifold conditions det]m9+ a foll[+    
/ate1 ! removal ( :i* means ! prev5tion 
( ! succession ( exactly t /ate4 ,:i*1 =
 in/ance1 %all we reg>d z ! cause ( an  
evil act--! "* ( a man or ! temptation  
(f]$ by circum/ances8 ,! *ange or       
removal ( ei!r means ! *ange or removal 
( ! act4 ,nei!r is complete )\t ! o!r1 &
 bo? are involv$ 9 ! :ole complexity ( !
 univ]se1 ?r\gh h]$ity on ! "o h& & !   
action ( nature ext]nal to life on !    
o!r4  ,& j "h we may glance at ,sp5c]'s 
def9ition ( life z ! cont9ual adju/m5t (
 inn] relations to out] relations4 ,?\gh
 emphasiz+ an important side (          
evolution1 x is evid5tly incomplete4    
,evolution is n only ! adju/m5t ( inn]  
relations to out] relations1 x is also !
 adju/m5t ( out] relations to inn]      
relations z well z ( inn] relations     
among !mselves2 or x is a process (     

mutual adju/m5t ( all ! p>ts engag$ 9 x4
  ,our analysis1 ?\gh crude & imp]fect1 
may n[ be reg>d$ z complete4 ,our scope 
w n all[ ( a m elaborate "o4 ,x is      
fitt+1 !re=e1 t we proce$ to syn!sis4 ,!
 fir/ matt] :i* pres5ts itself to u1 9  
?is connection1 is ! !ory ( ,h]$ity &   
,adaptation m5tion$ above4  ,! !ory is n
 a new "o1 :olly outside ,d>w9's        
conception ( evolution4 ,! concept (    
,adaptation repres5ts simply !          
g5]alization ( all ^? special causes )  
:i* ,d>w9 m p>ticul>ly occupi$ himself1 
& is1 9 ess5ce1 only a proclamation ( t 
univ]sal subjection to natural law :i*  
,d>w9 himself pla9ly ass]t$4 ,z su* a4  
g5]alization x is1 h[ev]1 a useful "o2 x
 furni%es u ) an expression1 = ! organic
 _w1 ( t univ]sal action & reaction     
?r\gh :i* oppos+ =ces move t[>ds        
/ability by mutual adju/m5t4  ,! law (  
,h]$ity1 aga91 may be reg>d$ z an       
organic expression ( ! m g5]al pr9ciple 
accord+ to :i* motion t1 9 ! s5se def9$ 
above1 suff]s only a m9imum ( int]f]5ce1

 t is1 motion :i*1 by a c]ta9           
equilibrium ( mutual relations1 is      
approximately or fully /able1 t5ds to   
cont9ue to take place 9 ne>ly ! same    
directions1 or ne>ly to repeat itself4  
,x is ?us app>5t1 also1 t ,h]$ity is    
closely relat$ to ! m special pr9ciple (
 ,habit1 or also ( ,use & ,disuse1 if   
only we rememb] t1 :atev] ! metaphysical
 tru?s ( ,fre$om or ,det]m9ation1 !     
psy*ical is always accompani$ by :at may
 be call$ equival5ts ( ! physical "u    
natural law4 ,! special laws ( ,h]$ity  
are /ill envelop$ 9 my/]y2 ,i ref]1 n to
 t my/]y :i* may be reg>d$ z surr\nd+   
all ultimate facts1 if we *oose to      
conceive !m z express+ or conceal+      
some?+ fur!r unkn[able1 b to ! sci5tific
 my/]y ( ignorance1 :i* "t may dissolve4
 ,biologi/s disagree on ?is "q1 !       
ultimate decision ( :i* mu/ be left to  
!m4 ,/ill "s g5]al criticism on !       
results ( rese>* 9 ?is direction may be 
all[able f a philosophic /&po9t4  ,!    
*ief po9t at issue betwe5 v>i\s !ories (

 ,h]$ity seems to be ! degree (         
importance to be atta*$ to ,adaptation3 
h[ev] we may express ! "q1 ?is is !     
ultimate =m to :i* x is r$ucible4 ,n[ x 
is obvi\s1 f ! =ego+ analysis1 t ! =m ( 
!ory :i* w\ld be mo/ useful to u1 if su*
 7 atta9able1 w\ld be "o 9 :i* ! degree 
( t5d5cy to inh]itance z well z ! /r5g? 
( inh]it$ t5d5cy is express$ 9 t]ms ( ! 
int5sity & duration ( ex]cise1 use1     
function1 habit1 or =m ( motion or      
action 7h[ev] we may *oose to t]m x72 & 
v>iation is reg>d$ z ! resultant ( su*  
t5d5cy & *ange 9 ! environm5t1 or1 9 o!r
 words1 deviation f con/ancy ( influ5ce4
 ,x may be useful to inquire to :at     
ext5t su* a g5]al !ory is au?oriz$ by   
special ones4  ,we h ! te/imony ( two ( 
! ackn[l$g$ greate/ au?orities--,d>w9 & 
,haeckel--z well z t ( a score ( o!r    
biologi/s1 & speciali/s 9 relat$        
bran*es1 to ! inh]itance ( peculi>ities 
acquir$ dur+ ! life ( ! individual4#ajh 
,eim] lays especial /ress on ! fact1    
long witness$ to by "o class (          

speciali/s1 ( ! h]$it>y "* (            
bra9-diseases1 among :i* may be reckon$ 
"s t are )\t d\bt due to direct influ5ce
 ( ! environm5t4#aji ,haeckel & ,eim]   
ev5 in/ance cases 9 :i* mutilation has  
be5 inh]it$4#aaj ,"o su* in/ance w\ld be
 suffici5t1 9 ov]?r[+ ! g5]al d5ial ( ! 
inh]itance ( individual adaptation1 to  
make probable ! direct influ5ce ( !     
environm5t 9 o!r cases1 ! uni=mity      
discov]able 9 ! work+s ( natural law    
lead+ u to suppose t ! "o in/ance w\ld n
 be isolat$4 ,x mu/ h weight1 too1 z an 
argum5t1 9 ! judgm5t ( _m d\btful cases4
 ,n "o su* case alone is furni%$ u1     
h[ev]1 b _m well-au!nticat$ ones4 ,& x  
is to be rem>k$ t ev5 ,weismann has     
gradually p>t$ f 8 orig9al !ory1        
recogniz+ m & m cle>ly ! elem5t (       
adaptation 9 inh]itance4 ,x seems op5 to
 "q1 inde$1 :e!r ,weismann's !ory1 9    
)draw+ ! g]m-plasm f ! direct influ5ce (
 ! environm5t ) :i* ! p>5t individual is
 9 contact does n exempt x f ! univ]sal 
law ( action & reaction4 ,eim]          

designates su* an opposition z ,weismann
 po/ulates ( ! g]m-plasm to ! re/ ( !   
organism z a physiological miracle1 & ! 
artificial l9e ?us drawn betwe5 !       
g]m-cells be=e & aft] ! beg9n+ (        
developm5t z oppos$ to t con=mity to law
 %[n 9 ! morphological & physiological  
unity ( liv+ be+s4#aaa ,anci5t ideas    
seldom conceiv$ ( a univ]sality ( action
 & reaction2 & anci5t belief1 isolat+   
ph5om5a1 inve/$ ea* ) "s special guid+  
p[]4 ,?is belief 0 ma9ta9$ z !          
conception ( a special vital =ce long   
aft] ! increas+ k ( nature _h caus$ x to
 be ab&on$ ) reg>d to inorganic ph5om5a2
 & ! !ory ( ! cont9uity ( ! g]m-plasm   
seems to be a survival1 ) reg>d to !    
comp>atively unexplor$ prov9ce (        
,embryology1 ( ! idea ( su* a =ce4  ,!  
elem5ts ( :i* ! organism is compos$ are 
n /range ess5ces or entities peculi> to 
! organic2 !y are ! same ) ^? (         
inorganic matt]1 ?\gh _! comb9ations    
diff] some:at f ^!1 bo? 9 *emical       
composition & 9 ! morphological         

arrangem5t ( ! composites4 ,we c easily 
conceive ^! diff]5ces z coo]d9ate )     
diff]5ces ( g5]al =m & function2 b x is 
inconceivable t ! cont9ual assimilation 
( matt] 9 gr[? %\ld be at any "t )\t    
result 9 function1 h[ev] comp>atively   
small ?is result may be 9 high] =ms     
repres5t+ an accumulation ( en]gy f     
previ\s conditions4 ,! sep>ation ( =m & 
function is an ab/raction1 z is t (     
matt] & motion2 we _c suppose !         
connection ( p>ticul> functions )       
p>ticul> =ms1--p>ticul>                 
organization1--to be accid5tal1 any m   
?an we c suppose ! p>ticul> prop]ties ( 
p>ticul> inorganic composites & elem5ts 
to be accid5tal or ^! p>ticul> prop]ties
 to be )\t result 9 ! organic matt] into
 :i* ! p>ticul> composites & elem5ts are
 tak5 up4  ,! environm5t mu/ conta9     
complem5t>y conditions ( function 9 ord]
 t ! individual may ev5 come into       
exi/5ce & survive at all4 ,! great "q   
is1 !n1 h[ mu* is to be all[$ = orig9al 
t5d5cy 9 primal organisms & h[ mu* is to

 be reckon$ to ! acc\nt ( ! action ( !  
environm5t 9 ! c\rse ( evolution4 ,ev5  
if we g back beyond ! organic1 assum+ a 
developm5t ( ! organic f ! inorganic1 we
 mu/ come1 9 ! la/ analysis1 to         
irresolvable elem5ts ^: motion1 z di/9ct
 & p>ticul> action & reaction1 mu/ h    
def9ite =m4 ,if we beg9 ) a             
supposititi\s simple organism conceiv$ z
 l[e/1--! primal =m to :i* ! "n organism
 may be appli$1--we mu/ likewise        
conceive ( ?is z embody+ motion         
di/9ctive z its =m1 :i* may be reg>d$ z 
concomitant & coo]d9ate ) t =m1--or1 t  
is1 z function4 ,! ultimate elem5ts (   
?is organism repres5t positive factors &
 ! primal organism itself mu/ be reg>d$ 
z a positive factor 7or positive        
composite7 )\t :i* ! evolution ( highe/ 
organisms w\ld be impossible4 ,we may1  
!re=e1 reg>d x z 9 ?is s5se embrac+ !   
pot5tialities ( evolution4 ,b are we to 
reg>d x z repres5t+ pot5tiality 9 a     
fur!r s5se--9 ! s5se t1 beyond !        
p>ticul> life-motion coo]d9ate ) its    

p>ticul> composition & =m1 x repres5ts  
an indep5d5t =ce t prefigures ! :ole    
animate evolution8 ,to su* an assumption
 ! analogy--:i* is some?+ f> m ?an a m]e
 analogy--( ,embryology logically r$uces
 u1 on ,weismann's !ory1 unless we      
assume a fixity ( species t practically 
does away ) ! :ole !ory ( ,evolution &  
returns to ! orig9al d>kness t on :i*   
,d>w9 ?rew light4 ,or1 if we leave out (
 acc\nt ?is analogy & beg9 ) sexual     
propagation1 ! problem1 on ,weismann's  
!ory1 is v ne>ly z difficult4 ,are we to
 look ^u ! conditions involv$ 9 !       
environm5t z m]e negatives & simply     
develop+ ! positive pot5tialities ( !   
g]m-plasm8 ,if we resolve ! environm5t  
into its elem5ts1 ev5 ! ultimate        
analysis mu/ %[ x compos$ ( positive    
factors ( matt] & motion1 ea* "o ( :i*  
has its full wor? 9 any resultant (     
incid5ce4 ,! positivity ( ^! elem5ts    
takes f ! primal g]m-plasm any          
sup]iority ( pot5tiality2 ! pot5tiality 
lies also 9 ! environm5t4 ,t ! organism 

is 9 con/ant contact ) ! environm5t is  
evid5t2 & t ?is contact1 involv+        
incid5ce ( =ce1 _c be )\t result1 &     
result repres5t+ a full equival5t ( all 
! factors1 is also evid5t4 ,x may seem z
 if we c\ld und]/& human progress1 or   
progress 9 o!r species1 9 ! limit$      
prov9ce op5 to direct obs]vation1 on    
,weismann's !ory2 b evolution z a :ole  
becomes1 on ?is !ory1 a my/]y1 & inde$1 
z ,eim] t]ms x1 a miracle4 ,logical     
consi/5cy ?us tells aga9/ ! !ory2 &     
und5iable exceptions to its fundam5tal  
conception1 furni%$ by su* au?orities z 
,d>w9 & ,haeckel1 raise a fur!r         
presumption aga9/ x1 t1 tak5 9          
connection ) ! logical inconsi/5cies    
notic$1 con/itutes ! /ronge/ probability
 aga9/ its tru?4  ,! g5]al exp]i5ce (   
mank9d has recogniz$1 9 a ?\s& ways1 t !
 individual is a creature ( habit4 ,!   
/r5g? ( ! muscle1 ! cunn+ ( h& or eye or
 e>1 m5tal acut5ess1 & ev5 liability to 
temptation 9 any direction1 or1 on ! o!r
 h&1 moral /r5g?1 all are co9cid5t )    

ex]cise )9 ! b\nds set by ! normal ( !  
organ1--t is1 )9 its ability to repair  
its wa/e 9 labor1 an ability def9$ by ! 
food-supply & its p[] ( assimilation2 = 
ev5 ! moral /ruggle t is s great z to   
exhau/ physically ends 9 a weakness :i* 
may repres5t ! v condition ( conque/ by 
! temptation oppos$1 if ?is pres5t      
itself aga9 be=e ! sy/em has _h "t to   
repair its loss4 ,we may reg>d ?is      
weakness z a less5+ ( =ce 9 "o p>ticul> 
direction1 ! resultant ( action deviat+ 
9 favor ( ! o!r ( ! oppos+ =ces or      
t5d5cies manife/$ 9 ! /ruggle4 ,9 ?is   
connection ,i _c d bett] ?an ref] to !  
,kritik d] re95 ,erfahrung already      
m5tion$1 9 :i* ! influ5ce ( ! environm5t
 on ! individual is m9utely trac$4 ,!   
special feature ( ! "w is its entire    
fre$om f ! ?\s& metaphysical            
implications :i* h gradually ga!r$ ab\t 
our philosophical vocabul>y & :i* r5d] x
 well-nigh impossible to write f any new
 /&po9t )\t dang] ( misund]/&+4 ,?is    
p]spicuity & exactness are secur$ by a  

new vocabul>y :i* may seem at fir/      
glance1 on acc\nt ( its unfamili>ity1   
elaborate & incompreh5sible1 b :i* is1  
:5 ma/]$1 ! greate/ possible aid to     
und]/&+4 ,nev]!less1 ! t]m9ology ( !    
book & ! exce$+ clos5ess ( its analysis1
 :ile r5d]+ x peculi>ly valuable to !   
exp]t 9 ,philosophy1 place x beyond !   
grasp ( ! av]age read]2 & ,e?ics is a   
sci5ce :i* conc]ns1 n ! speciali/ 9     
,philosophy alone1 b all ?9k+ m9ds4  ,! 
influ5ce ( ex]cise ev5 beyond !         
individual has long be5 recogniz$4      
,lam>ck advanc$ ! !ory t ! developm5t ( 
organs & _! =ce ( action is 9 ratio to  
_! employm5t4 ,d>w9 also laid /ress1    
p>ticul>ly 9 8 lat] works1 on ,use &    
,disuse1 b he (t5 def9$ ! t]m m         
specifically ?an _m o!r au?ors1 ,lam>ck 
among !m1 seem to h done4 ,! v mass &   
magnitude ( ,d>w9's k made x1 z ,huxley 
has said1 some:at unwieldy1 &1 9 div]t+ 
! att5tion to m9ute features1 sometimes 
prev5t$ di/9ctness 9 broad              
g5]alizations2 ! v virtue ( ,d>w9's "w  

condition$ also its defect4 ,if we beg9 
) ! g5]al !ory ( use & disuse1 we may   
reg>d ea* pres5t =m ( organic action or 
function1 :e!r consci\s or unconsci\s1 z
 9 "s mann] ! result ( ex]cise1 !       
processes ( food-tak+1 dige/ion1 repair 
( wa/e1 be+ class$1 n z1 9 any case1 m]e
 negative reactions1 b z positive       
organic functions4 ,if we apply ! t]m   
habit to all ^!1 x is evid5t t we mu/1 9
 s do+1 ext5d ! significance ( ! ^w     
beyond its ord9>y int]pretation4 ,f our 
pres5t po9t ( view1 su* an ext5sion (   
mean+ might be claim$ to be legitimate2 
! "q "h is1 9 reality1 only "o (        
exp$i5cy1 namely1 :e!r x is n bett] to  
reta9 ! m specific significance ( ! ^w4 
,x may be useful1 at lea/1 to indicate !
 relations ( ,habit to ,use & ,disuse4  
,9 its ord9>y int]pretation1 ! t]m habit
 ref]s m p>ticul>ly to a =m ( action    
acquir$ dur+ ! life ( ! individual1 &   
may be us$ to imply ! action ( ! w 9 its
 =mation1 or may simply h 9 view !      
organic concomitants ( :atev] m5tal     

action is includ$ 9 su* =mation4 ,s9ce  
our pres5t /&po9t supposes a c]ta9      
equival5ce ( ! m5tal & physical1 t is1  
uni=mity 9 _! connection 7)\t ent]+ into
 ! "q ( _! dep5d5ce or indep5d5ce1 or   
consid]+ :i*1 9 case ( dep5d5ce1 is to  
be reg>d$ z dep5d5t1 :i* z fundam5tal & 
indep5d5t71 we may leave = ! mom5t !    
m5tal side ( function out ( acc\nt1 to  
take x up lat]4 ,d>w9's def9ition (     
habit 01 z we h se51 no di/9ct &        
inv>iable "o1 & :ile he speaks ( inh]it$
 habit1 ref]r+ bo? to =ms ( action      
acquir$ dur+ ! life ( ! individual & to 
su* acquir$ ?r\gh use favor$ by con/ancy
 ( environm5t dur+ sev]al g5]ations1 x  
is n always pla9 :e!r he has 9 m9d !    
action ( ! w1 or only its organic       
equival5ts4 ,he incl9es1 l _m o!r       
au?ors1 to give prom95ce to ! physical  
side ( action 9 l[] species1 to ! m5tal 
side 9 high]4 ,if we use ! t]m habit 9 !
 s5se ( t5d5cy to function acquir$ by   
use1 we employ :at is c]ta9ly a useful  
t]m9ology1 yet we are 9 dang]1 if we d n

 c>efully def9e our t]ms1 ( elevat+ to !
 position ( a reality an ab/raction t   
has none4 ,function & ,t5d5cy to        
,function are n sep>able2 ! di/9ction is
 n an inn]1 b an out] "o1 ( favorable or
 unfavorable environm5t by :i* t5d5cy to
 function becomes function or vice v]sa4
 ,to habit1 !n1 we c atta*1 f our pres5t
 /&po9t1 no di/9ctive implication beyond
 t ( individual acquirem5t1--an         
implication obvi\sly n fundam5tal 9 a   
!ory ( organic function4 ,use & disuse  
are r ! fundam5tal concepts ) :i*1 9 a  
consid]ation ( function "u ,h]$ity &    
,adaptation1 we h to d4  ,b1 9 ?is      
connection1 x is also obvi\s t1 :5 we1 f
 our po9t ( view1 di/+ui% betwe5 !      
organism z act$ on by ! environm5t & !  
environm5t z act+1 we make a di/9ction t
 may be bo? useful & necess>y = _m      
purposes1 b t is yet an arbitr>y "o4 ,! 
organism is n ! dep5d5t1 passive1 !     
environm5t ! indep5d5t1 =mative factor 9
 ! process ( developm5t1 ! organism is n
 purely reactive1 ! environm5t active1 b

 ! two are int]active2 & f _! int]action
 arises *ange1 z resultant1 9 bo?       
organism & environm5t4 ,s1 too1 if we   
return to ,fe*n]'s conception1 !        
sep>ation ( function z effect f use &   
disuse z cause is an arbitr>y "o4 ,e    
function1 z repres5t+ a /ate ( m or less
 p]fect1 mov+ equilibrium1 may be reg>d$
 ei!r z ! f9al =m issu+ f a long process
 ( action & reaction or1 z det]m9$ at   
pres5t1 by su* a comp>ative con/ancy (  
all its conditions z makes ! l9e foll[$ 
by ! resultant approximately a          
repetition ( t :i* x has foll[$ be=e2 & 
we may lay /ress ^u ei!r ! inf]ior      
resi/ance 9 ?is l9e or ! cont9ual       
application ( sup]ior =ce1 !            
accumulation ( en]gy1 9 its direction4  
,use or ex]cise is function2 long       
cont9uance ( ! same or approximately !  
same =m ( function may be reg>d$ z      
concomitant ) a c]ta9 con/ancy (        
environm5t1 suffici5t to furni% !       
complem5t>y condition always necess>y4  
,! pres5t =m ( function may be reg>d$ z 

! result ( an evolution ( function 9 !  
s5se t x is ! end-=m assum$ by ! same1 b
 n 9 a s5se t sep>ates x f previ\s =ms (
 function by a di/9ction ( k9d2 s9ce ea*
 ( ^! may be reg>d$1 9 l mann]1 z !     
result ( ! prec$+ evolution4 ,z 9 !     
def9ition ( ,habit1 s 9 t ( ,use1 !     
elem5t ( animal w or ( a di/9ct vital   
pr9ciple is likely to be consci\sly or  
unconsci\sly includ$1 l5d+ x ?us a      
sup]ior significance to t ( m]e organic 
function reg>d$ z its result4 ,aga9 x   
mu/ be said1 h[ev]1 t1 :atev] !         
metaphysical tru? ( fre$om1 w does n    
int]f]e ) ! equival5ce ( physical       
conditions & results or prev5t p]fect   
uni=mity ( relation betwe5 ! physical & 
! psy*ical1 & t a special vital =ce _c  
be demon/rat$4 ,disuse may be def9$ ei!r
 z ! m]e discont9uance ( ,use or z ,use 
9 a s5se oppos$ to ! =m ( function      
p>ticul>ly "u consid]ation4  ,! idea (  
"s special vital pr9ciple d\btless has  
its orig9 9 ! my/]i\s t5d5cy ( e organic
 =m to develop along c]ta9 l9es4 ,!     

my/]y involv$ is "h1 aga91 besides t (  
ultimate fact on :i* ! metaphysician    
lays /ress1 ! lack ( ! ability ( pres5t 
sci5ce to furni% su* a description ( !  
process z %all resolve x into its       
elem5ts & demon/rate ! uni=mities (     
relation among ^! elem5ts 9 ?is la/     
analysis4 ,b x is to be rem>k$ t !      
metaphysician is apt to confuse ^! two  
mean+s ( ! ^w my/]y1 & reg>d ! my/]y ( !
 organism z a great] metaphysical "o ?an
 t ( simpl] processes ^: elem5ts are    
bett] kn[n2 & ?is 9 spite ( ! fact t he 
himself does n at all d5y ! uni=mity 9  
natural process :i* we t]m ,law1 or     
expect to f9d x less 9 an ultimate      
analysis ?an 9 a m sup]ficial "o4 ,we   
und]/& ! simple p>allelogram by :i* !   
physici/ repres5ts to u ! action ( two  
=ces at incid5ce1 we may repres5t to    
ourselves ! motion ( any "o ( ! heav5ly 
bodies z ! resultant ( ! c5trifugal &   
c5tripetal =ces1 b :5 we come to consid]
 ! =mation ( a cry/al1 & wat* !         
regul>ity ( %ape & gr\p+1 ?is v uni=mity

 :i* _h be5 be=e an explanation n[ seems
 all at once to repres5t an insoluble   
my/]y sep>at+ ! process =ev] f ^? o!rs4 
,! m complicat$ ! process becomes1 ! m !
 my/]y appe>s to increase1 until we     
build up1 out ( a negative ignorance1 "s
 positive new entity to baffle u4 ,& yet
 nei!r d we d5y1 z has be5 said1 !      
con/ancy ( nature 9 its mo/ f9al        
elem5ts1 nor c x at all be %[n or       
suppos$ t ^? simpl] processes we seem$  
to und]/& 7 less along fix$ l9es ?an ! m
 complicat$ ones4 ,if we grant1 !n1 !   
insoluble my/]y ( ! transc5d5tal mean+ (
 ?+s claim$ by ! metaphysician1 we _c   
admit ! pres5ce ( ?is my/]y 9 ! organic 
m ?an 9 ! inorganic1 nor discov] 9 !    
sci5ce ( ! =m] any fur!r elem5t lack+   
?an 9 t ( ! latt]1 except a rem$iable   
ignorance :i*1 :5 rem$i$1 c only reveal 
9 new p>ticul>s ! work+s ( natural law4 
,x may be rem>k$1 9 ?is connection1 t ^?
 :o are s ready to claim ! work+s ( "s  
special =ce or p[] 9 ! developm5t ( !   
organism make no ass]tion ( su* 9 ! s   

analog\s gr[? ( ! cry/al4 ,! passage ( !
 inorganic into ! organic & back into ! 
inorganic is1 9 fact1 no m 7if !        
metaphysician w1 no less7 my/]i\s ?an ! 
evaporation ( wat] & its recond5sation1 
! propagation ( animal =m no great]     
my/]y ?an ! cont9u$ fl[+ ( a /ream 9    
spite ( evaporation1 or ! gr[? ( a      
cry/al to ! =m ( its k9d4 ,! propagation
 ( species is1 9 "o s5se1 an isolat$    
fact2 b s1 9 l s5se1 is ! evaporation ( 
wat] or ! =mation ( ! cry/al ( a        
p>ticul> *emical3 b none ( ^! ph5om5a   
are isolat$ 9 any o!r s5se1 z less or m 
?an a "p ( a univ]sal :ole4 ,we c>ry our
 notion ( human importance into all our 
sci5ce1 & s inve/ ) great] weight &     
my/]y ignorance t conc]ns our own life &
 t ( alli$ =ms4 ,z we h se51 a          
connection ( use1 or ( duration &       
int5sity ( function1 ) its /r5g? is     
evid5t 9 ! individual1 & we are compell$
 to suppose ! connection a con/ant "o   
ev5 :]e su* con/ancy _c be directly     
demon/rat$4 ,!re is evid5tly a relation 

likewise betwe5 degree1 or duration &   
int5sity1 ( use or ex]cise ( function1 &
 /r5g? ( t5d5cy 9 ! species1 :i* we mu/ 
also suppose to be con/ant4 ,d>w9       
di/9ctly recognizes ?is1 ev]y:]e 9 8 "w1
 9 ass]t+ t su* function z is favor$ by 
! environm5t = sev]al g5]ations is m    
likely to be transmitt$4 ,b ?\gh !      
sep>ation ( organism & environm5t into  
cause & effect may be useful 9 !        
solution ( "s problems1 x is yet to be  
kept 9 m9d t ! di/9ction is an arbitr>y 
selection ( "s factors z dep5d5t1 o!rs z
 indep5d5t v>iables1 :ile all are1 9    
fact1 int]dep5d5t4 ,function may be     
reg>d$ z at e mom5t det]m9$ by ! factors
 giv5 9 environm5t & organism1 9 :i*    
ei!r may seem ! m important1 accord+ to 
! p>ticul> case or ! po9t ( view f :i* x
 is reg>d$4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! organism may  
repres5t su* an accumulation ( pot5tial 
en]gy t a slight favorable elem5t 9 !   
environm5t may be l a sp>k 9 a magaz9e (
 gunp[d]1 foll[$ by results seem+ly mo/ 
disproportionate to its own             

significance2 yet ! accumulation ( en]gy
 9 ! organism c h tak5 place only "u    
previ\s favorable circum/ances ( !      
environm5t2 & if we reg>d ! organism 9  
its relation to ! :ole environm5t1 t is1
 to ! univ]sal conditions outside x1 !  
prim>y importance may seem to atta* to  
^!4 ,b yet1 :i* is1 9 ! la/ analysis1 ! 
m important to ! explosion ( !          
magaz9e--sp>k or p[d]8 ,ei!r is         
insuffici5t )\t ! o!r2 ! two are simply 
complem5t>y & bo? indisp5sable to !     
result4 ,s too habit1 use1 or ex]cise ( 
function & influ5ce ( ! environm5t _c be
 held di/9ct2 ex]cise ( function is     
impossible )\t a suffici5t complem5t>y  
factor 9 ! environm5t1 b ?is is evid5tly
 suffici5t only ) ! exi/5ce ( t t5d5cy 9
 ! organism ( :i* x is ! complem5t4     
,reg>d+ /rong t5d5cy z ! result ( a long
 process ( evolution 9 :i* ! environm5t 
has pres5t$ suffici5t complem5t>y       
elem5ts to condition its developm5t1 !  
/r5g? ( t5d5cy be+ coo]d9ate ) !        
duration & int5sity ( ! process (       

evolution1 we c und]/& t any su* *ange 9
 ! environm5t z %all prev5t su* function
 may be ( s mu* significance1 !         
suppression ( ! function repres5t s     
great dep>ture f :at 0 previ\s          
resultant1 t ev5 ! de/ruction ( !       
organism may sup]v5e 9 cases :]e longe/ 
ex]cis$ & /ronge/ functions are prev5t$2
 & we c und]/&1 f ! same /&po9t1 !      
slight comp>ative importance ( !        
exp]i5ce ( individuals z influ5c+ _!    
desc5dants1 except "u especially        
favorable conditions ( ! organism4  ,all
 biologi/s make mu* ( ! mixture ( types 
9 sexual propagation2 & ,rolph1 p]haps1 
lays especial /ress on x 9 connection ) 
progressive h]$ity4 ,he calls att5tion  
to ! intricacy ( int]action ( =ces at   
once introduc$ by x 9 its action &      
reaction ) ! environm5t1 & %[s1 9 ?is   
connection1 ! extreme simil>ity ( !     
y\ng] g5]ation to ! p>5t :]e propagation
 is non-sexual1 t is1 does n involve su*
 mixture ( types4 ,x may be said t e new
 factor 9 developm5t introduces a       

complexity great] z ! complexity ( !    
conditions already atta9$ by ! organism 
is great]1 s9ce its influ5ce on !       
diff]5t elem5ts & comb9ations ( elem5ts 
v>ies2 or 7if we *oose to put x ?us7    
s9ce ! possible *emical comp\nds &      
especially ! possible comb9ations &     
p]mutations ( elem5ts & p>ts increase   
enorm\sly ) ! increase ( ! latt] 9      
numb]4 ,b ! importance ( ! pres5ce ( any
 p>ticul> new elem5t 9 ^! complexities  
dep5ds1 fur!r1 on its p>ticul> nature4  
,! f9al decision ( ! pr9cipal "q (      
progressive h]$ity :i* our argum5t      
conc]ns mu/ be left to ,biology2 b      
biologi/s !mselves h z yet discuss$ ^!  
que/ions *iefly f a philosophical       
/&po9t1--on g5]al1 z di/+ui%$ f         
specific1 gr\nds4 ,all !ory is at ?is   
po9t t5tative4 ,b if only = ?is reason  
we h a "r1 9 assum+ a work+ !ory1 to    
select t :i* seems be/ to accord )      
philosophic pr9ciples ( univ]sal        
application z well z ) g5]al biological 
fact4 ,= ! re/1 x has at lea/ be5 made  

evid5t1 by all t has be5 said above     
conc]n+ ! con/ant contact & int]action (
 organism & environm5t1 t ! selection ( 
"o ( ^! two factors z ! positive & "o z 
! negative1 "o z ! =mative ! o!r z !    
=m$1 "o z ! active ! o!r z ! passive    
factor1 "o z indep5d5t ! o!r z dep5d5t1 
"o z inv>iable ! o!r z alone v>iable1 is
 an arbitr>y "o4 ,9 deal+ ) ! complexity
 ( ! univ]se1 :e!r ma!matically or      
logically1 we _c grasp all factors at   
once1 & s are oblig$ to reg>d "s sides  
to ! exclusion ( o!rs1 to disreg>d !    
v>iable & dep5d5t nature ( "s factors 9 
! consid]ation ( t ( o!rs4 ,! me?od is  
useful z well z necess>y1 useful because
 necess>y2 b we are too apt to =get t we
 are deal+ ) half-tru?s1 devices (      
reason1 & come to reg>d !m z :ole tru?s4
 ,?us ! ab/raction ( ,natural ,selection
 is too (t5 elevat$ to a sep>ate entity1
 a p>ticul> p[] resid+ 9 ! environm5t z 
su*4 ,x is1 on ! contr>y1 a m]e fiction1
 a device = assi/+ our compreh5sion (   
complex action & reaction4 ,n only does 

! action ( ! environm5t alt] ! organism1
 ! action ( ! organism also alt]s !     
environm5t2 or1 to put x m pla9ly1 !    
/ate ( organism & environm5t at any     
mom5t is ! result ( ! int]action (      
prec$+ /ates ( organism & environm5t4   
,mat]ial comb9ations1 :e!r organic or   
inorganic1 :5 fitt$ to _! environm5t1   
survive2 ^? be/ fitt$1 :]e p]fect       
fitness does n exi/1 ?rive be/2 ?is is  
only ano!r me?od ( say+ t abs5ce (      
resi/ance is coo]d9ate ) ! pres]vation (
 =m & its inh]5t motion to ! ext5t ( !  
non-int]f]5ce4 ,z organic =ms survive   
only to ! ext5t to :i* !y are 9 h>mony )
 ea* o!r & ) inorganic conditions1 s    
inorganic =ms or comb9ations survive    
unalt]$ only :5 !y are 9 h>mony ) o!r   
inorganic conditions & un9t]f]$ ) by    
organic =ms4 ,matt] & motion 9 "s =m mu/
 survive1 bo? be+ inde/ructible4        
,natural ,selection 9 ?is s5se1 z at ea*
 mom5t regulat+ inorganic comb9ations & 
motions & organic =m & function1 is ei!r
 ultimately ! orig9 ( v>iation1 or else 

x is n its pres]v]4 ,x is to be rememb]$
 t ! organism is1 f ! physical po9t (   
view1 simply =m 7t is1 organization7 &  
function2 :5 we h subtract$ ^!1 we h    
subtract$ ! organism4  ,! inability ( ! 
reason to grasp all sides ( ! complexity
 ( natural processes at once1 ev5 :]e ^!
 are kn[n1 is a ?+ to be kept 9 m9d 9   
our future inve/igations2 we are apt to 
take our analyses = ! syn!ses ( nature4 
,9 ! prec$+ consid]ations1 an equival5ce
 ( ! ,physical & ! ,psy*ical has be5    
assum$1 :i*1 ?\gh already 9 a measure   
def9$1 %\ld h be51 p]haps1 m fully      
expla9$4 ,x may be repeat$ t1 9 su*     
equival5ce1 no mat]iali/ic assumption is
 made ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! ,psy*ical on !   
,physical2 nor is ! int5tion to ass]t t 
! ,psy*ical c be measur$ by ! weights & 
measures ( ! ,physical4 ,! ass]tion is  
int5d$ 9 ! s5se t !re is always a       
physical function connect$ ) ! psy*ical1
 & t ! relation ( ! two is n an         
accid5tal or v>iable1 b a con/ant "o4   
,all t is claim$ is1 9 o!r words1 t1    

:atev] ! metaphysical tru? z to ! fre$om
 ( ! w1 su* fre$om _c int]f]e ) !       
con/ancy ( nature4 ,b1 9 fact1 all t is 
po/ulat$ by physical sci5ce 9 ! ass]tion
 ( ! equival5ce ( physical =ces is su* a
 uni=mity or con/ancy ( relation z we   
po/ulate ( ! ,psy*ical & ,physical2 = ! 
diff]5t =ms ( physical =ce c no m be    
measur$ by ! same /&>ds ?an c ?\ght &   
bra9-process4  ,x may be add$1 fur!r1 t 
by =ce z us$ 9 ! above argum5ts1 no     
metaphysical entity is impli$2 ! ^w     
simply s]ves z ! g5]ic t]m embrac+      
diff]5t =ms ( motion & ! equival5t (    
motion 9 resi/ance1 & enables u to deal 
) motion reg>d$ z pot5tial z well z )   
motion actually exi/5t4  ,,footnotes3   
#if ,problems ( ,life & ,m9d1 second    
s]ies1 *ap4 on ,evolution4  #ig ,!      
,v>iation ( ,plants & ,animals "u       
,dome/ication1 #ahfh1 ,,ii4 #bgb4  #ih  
,vol4 ,,ii4 ,*ap4 ,,xxii4  #ii ,v>iation
 ( ,animals & ,plants "u ,dome/ication1 
,,ii4 p4 #beg4 ,see also ,orig9 (       
,species1 #f? ed41 ,i4 pp4 #g-i1 etc4   

#ajj ,v>iation ( ,animals & ,plants "u  
,dome/ication1 ,,ii4 p4 #dah4  #aja     
,ibid4  #ajb ,= elaboration ( def9ition 
& !ory1 vide ! article 9 "q1            
,vi]teljahrs*rift fu] wiss5s*aftli*e    
,philosophie1 #ahij4  #ajc ,z confirm+  
?is analysis ( evolution1 ref]5ce is    
made to ,ma*3 ,die ,me*anik 9 ihr]      
,entwicklung51 p4 #abh1 & ,beitrage zur 
,analyse d] ,empf9dung51 pp4 #be1 #aed2 
also ,av5>ius3 ,kritik d] re95          
,erfahrung4  #ajd ,see above essay by   
,petzoldt4  #aje ,die                   
,entwicklungsges*i*te des ,weltalls1    
#ahhb4  #ajf ,ge/altung5 des            
,zweckmaessig54  #ajg ,die              
,entwicklungsges*i*te des ,weltalls1    
*ap4 ,i4  #ajh ,see especially ,d>w93 ,!
 ,v>iation ( ,animals & ,plants "u      
,dome/ication2 ,haeckel3 ,natu]li*e     
,s*oepfungsges*i*te1 #h? ed41 #ahhi1 p4 
#agi et seq4  #aji ,die ,ent/ehung d]   
,art5 auf ,grund von ,v]]b5 erworb5]    
,eig5s*aft51 p4 #bjd et seq4  #aaj      
,ibid4 p4 #aij et seq4  #aaa ,ent/ehung 

d] ,art51 p4 #ae4     ,,*apt] ,,ii      
,,intellig5ce ,,& ,,end   ,x is int]e/+ 
to notice ! op9ions ( diff]5t sci5ti/s &
 philosoph]s z to ! ext5t to :i* reason 
is diffus$ 9 ! univ]se1 :]e ! po9t lies 
at :i* ! b\nd>y l9e is to be drawn      
betwe5 reason & an automatism ( in/9ct  
or organic action1 or :e!r any su* po9t 
c be f\nd at all1 :e!r reason1 at lea/ z
 consci\sness & w1 is n inh]5t 9 all    
life1 or at lea/ 9 all animal life1 or  
:e!r x is n1 inde$1 to be reg>d$ z !    
cause ( motion ev5 outside life1 9 !    
inorganic z well z ! organic4 ,!re is no
 ne$ to rem9d ourselves ( ! philosophic 
conception ( ! ,_w z ,w1 ! ,philosophy (
 ! ,unconsci\s1 or ! ,!ory ( ,monads4 ,!
 !ories t speciali/s 9 physical sci5ce h
 arriv$ at1 ?r\gh ! results ( wide-rea*+
 inve/igations 9 _! own peculi> bran*1  
are z v>i\s z ^? ( philosoph]s4 ,d>w9   
c>efully avoids draw+ any di/9ct        
limit-l9e betwe5 reason & in/9ct1 b     
rem>ks t ,a little dose ( judgm5t or    
reason1 z ,pi]re ,hub] expresses x1 (t5 

comes into play1 ev5 ) animals l[ 9 !   
scale ( nature4#aab ,haeckel says3      
,unbiass$ comp>ison & unprejudic$ te/ & 
obs]vation place x beyond d\bt t s-call$
 'in/9ct' is no?+ else ?an a sum (      
s\l-activities :i*1 orig9ally acquir$ by
 adaptation1 h be5 fix$ by habit & c>ri$
 d[n f g5]ation to g5]ation by          
inh]itance4 ,orig9ally p]=m$ )          
consci\sness & reflection1 _m in/9ctive 
actions ( ! animals h become1 9 ! c\rse 
( "t1 unconsci\s1 exactly z is ! case ) 
! habitual activities ( human reason4   
,^!1 too1 may1 ) l ju/ice1 be look$ ^u z
 ! work+s ( innate in/9ct1 z1 inde$1 !  
impulse to self-pres]vation1 mat]nal    
love1 & ! social in/9ct (t5 are reg>d$4 
,aga91 in/9ct is nei!r di/9ctively an   
attribute ( ! bra9 ( ! animal1 nor is ! 
reason an especial end[m5t ( human be+s4
 ,on ! contr>y1 an imp>tial doctr9e (   
s\l recognizes a long1 long1 desc5d+    
scale ( gradual evolution 9 ! life ( !  
s\l1 :i* leads f high] to l[] human     
be+s1 f m p]fect to m imp]fect animals1 

/ep by /ep1 d[n to ^? =ms ^: simple     
n]ve-ganglion furni%es ! />t+-po9t ( all
 ! cell-less bra9-=ms ( ?is scale4#aac  
,! lecture 9 :i* ?is passage occurs n   
only argues fur!r t ! s\l is compos$ (  
s\l-activities z ! bra9 is compos$ (    
cells1 b f9ds 9 all liv+ cells1 all     
protoplasm1 ! fir/ elem5t ( all s\l     
life1 s5sation 9 ! simple =ms ( pa9 &   
pleasure1 movem5t 9 ! simple =ms (      
attraction & repulsion4 ,only ! degrees 
( developm5t & comb9ation ( s\l are     
diff]5t 9 diff]5t be+s4 ,du ,prel1      
impress$ ) ! evolution ( ord] f disord] 
9 ! heav5s z on ! e>?1 ascribes ?is to  
univ]sal s5sation z a fundam5tal quality
 ( all matt]1 :i* makes x cont9ually t5d
 t[>ds a /ate ( equilibrium 9 :i*       
collision is r$uc$ to a m9imum4#aad ,"s 
biologi/s ascribe s5sation1 or          
consci\sness1 to animal life alone2 "s  
ascribe consci\sness to su* animals only
 z possess a n]v\s sy/em2 "s philosoph]s
 make a di/9ction betwe5 s5sation1      
consci\sness1 & self-consci\sness1 z %[n

 9 ! scale ( animal life2 "s1 aga91     
approa*+ ! problem f ano!r side1 lay    
emphasis on ! diff]5ce betwe5 automatic 
& organic action1 in/9ct1 bl9d impulse1 
& w4 ,c>n]i1 z we h se51#aae holds t ev5
 ! action ( an animal s high 9 ! scale z
 ! butt]fly may be pure automatism1 its 
flutt]+ :5 impal$ m]ely ! motion ( a    
cont9u$ attempt at flight4  ,^!         
diff]5ces 9 op9ion seem to dep5d1 9     
great measure1 ^u ! end ( ! scale ( be+ 
*os5 z ! />t+-po9t 9 ! developm5t (     
!ory4 ,if we beg9 ) man & assume        
intellig5ce to be ! cause ( design1--( !
 purposeful1 ! self-pres]v+1--9 8       
action1 we %all be likely to inf]       
intellig5ce z ! cause ( self-pres]v+    
function 9 all animals1 & we %all f9d   
great difficulty 9 draw+ any di/9ct l9e 
betwe5 intellig5ce & automatism4 ,if we 
are n /ud5ts ( inorganic nature1 !      
evolution to be f\nd also 9 x1 up to !  
atta9m5t ( pres]vative =ms ( motion1 may
 escape our obs]vation1 preoccupation ) 
man & ! self- or r human-int]e/$ bias ( 

obs]vation bl9d+ u to x2 b if we c>ry   
our consid]ations1 9 an unprejudic$ _s1 
on beyond ! prov9ce ( life1 we may1 l   
,du ,prel & o!rs1 arrive at a !ory (    
intellig5ce z a univ]sal prop]ty (      
matt]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we beg9 )       
inorganic matt] & assume automatism to  
be ! cause ( its motion1 we are likely1 
asc5d+ ! scale ( organic exi/5ce1 to    
int]pret mu* ( its function z due to    
mat]ial action & reaction1 & may aga91 f
 ?is side1 f9d s great difficulty 9     
draw+ ! l9e :]e intellig5ce beg9s1 t we 
may fall1 z ,c>n]i has done1 into !     
opposite extreme to t la/ notic$1 &     
int]pret ne>ly all animal action z      
un9tellig5t or ev5 ins5ti5t4  ,let u    
look at ! dilemma a little m closely4   
,might x n seem1 f "o po9t ( view1 z if 
! h>moni\s movem5ts ( ! />s1 by :i* !y  
avoid _! own de/ruction1 mu/ be ref]r$  
to desire & w to avoid x8 ,if all sy/ems
 ( mat]ial p>ts1 )\t exception or       
di/9ction1 t5d1 z ,fe*n]1 ,du ,prel1 &  
,petzoldt ass]t1 t[>ds h>mony ( ! p>ts  

su* t ! motion ( ^! p>ts w become       
self-pres]vative1 does x n seem         
logically necess>y to assume t ?is      
self-pres]vation1 aris+ 9 inorganic     
matt] 9 ! same mann] z 9 organic matt]1 
mu/ be due to ! same causes z ^? to :i* 
we ascribe action t[>ds an end1 action t
 involves self-pres]vation1 9 ! broade/ 
s5se ( ! ^w1 9 man8 ,may n ! heav5ly    
bodies1 le>n+ f exp]i5ce 9 "s way1 z man
 does1 gradually come to *oose1 ?\gh    
/ill 9 accordance ) natural laws 7z man 
also inv>iably *ooses7 t orbit :i*      
pres]ves !m f collision8 ,true1 !y mu/  
f9ally suff] de/ruction1 b s1 also1 mu/ 
! human individual1 & ! race ( human    
be+s4 ,! diff]5ce ( evolution &         
dissolution 9 ! two cases is only "o (  
"t4 ,among diff]5t species ( n]v\sly    
organiz$ be+s1 ! duration ( life also   
diff]s4 ,or1 if we d5y ! exi/5ce (      
intellig5ce 9 inorganic nature1 c we1 at
 lea/1 desc5d+ ! scale ( organic be+1   
f9d any po9t ( :i* we c say1 ,"h        
intellig5ce ends & automatism beg9s8    

,%all we d5y ! exi/5ce ( intellig5ce 9  
plants1 & if s1 h[ %all we f9d t divid+ 
l9e betwe5 ! plant & animal k+doms :i* !
 advancem5t ( sci5ce 9 _m directions is 
r5d]+1 n m di/9ct1 b less & less s8 ,g4 
,?4 ,s*neid] says1 9 8 book on ,! ,human
 ,w3 ,! movem5ts ( t\* & locomotion 9 ! 
se>* = food are ! fir/ movem5ts 9 :i* ! 
specific animal-life may be recogniz$4  
,9 no plant is ! grop+ caus$ by hung] to
 be obs]v$4#aaf ,b is ?is true8 ,!      
insectivor\s plants1 = in/ance1 op5 _!  
leaves :5 _! prey is dige/$1 wait+ =    
fre% prey2 & !y close !m aga9 :5 prey   
has aga9 ent]$1 ?us practically grasp+  
_! victim & hold+ him fa/4 ,al?\gh !    
nature ( ! plant prev5ts its mov+ f !   
spot :]e x gr[s1 are ^! movem5ts less a 
se>* = & capture ( food ?an ^? ( !      
animal8 ,to say t ! clos+ ( ! leaves    
dep5ds ^u ! beg9n+ ( "s *emical process 
9 ! plant furni%es u ) no m>k (         
di/9ction betwe5 ! two1 = x is equally  
true t *emical processes und]lie animal 
motion2 & to object t ! reop5+ ( !      

leaves is ! result ( ! completion (     
assimilation gives u1 also1 no di/9ctive
 m>k1 s9ce ! animal's se>* = food is    
likewise ! result ( hung] & s connect$ )
 a p>ticul> /ate ( ! dige/ive organs4 ,!
 action ( insectivor\s plants draws our 
att5tion because ! process (            
assimilation involv$ s resembles animal 
dige/ion2 b1 z a po9t ( fact1 ! op5+ (  
petals to receive ! air & sun is z mu* a
 se>* = food z ! op5+ ( leaves to       
receive insect prey4  ,s*neid] adds to !
 passage above quot$1 ,a fur!r diff]5ce 
betwe5 psy*ical & physiological movem5ts
 is ?is1 t ! latt] always rema9 ! same1 
h[ev] ! excitation *anges1 :ile ! =m] h1
 n[ ! "* ( attraction1 n[ t ( repulsion4
 ,x may be que/ion$ :e!r ?is diff]5ce   
ei!r c be demon/rat$ to be a di/9ctive  
m>k4 ,we h only to g into a d>k cell>   
:]e ! potatoes h begun to spr\t1 9 ord] 
to see h[ plants t ord9>ily gr[ upw>d w 
take e curve & angle 9 ord] to rea*     
t[>ds ! light ( "s di/ant w9d[4 ,& if we
 turn "o ( ! tub]s ab\t1 we may wat* !  

pallid spr\t aga9 turn to gr[ t[>ds !   
f>-away sunlight4 ,?omas ,a4 ,knight    
relates exp]im5ts 9 :i* plants ( !      
,virg9ia creep] 7,ampelopsis            
qu9quefolia7 7 remov$ f "o side ( ! h\se
 to ! o!r1 be+1 9 ea* case1 scre5$ f    
p]p5dicul> rays ( ! sun1 & records t1 9 
all cases1 ! t5drils turn$ 9 a few h\rs 
9 a direction po9t+ to ! c5tre ( ! h\se4
 ,"o plant aft] be+ ?us exp]im5t$ )1 0  
remov$ to ! c5tre ( ! h\se & fully      
expos$ to ! p]p5dicul> light ( ! sun2 & 
a piece ( d>k-color$ pap] 0 plac$ ^u "o 
side ( x1 j )9 rea* ( its t5drils2 & to 
?is sub/ance !y soon appe>$ to be       
/rongly attract$4 ,! pap] 0 !n plac$ ^u 
! opposite side1 "u simil> circum/ances1
 & a piece ( plate glass 0 sub/itut$2 b 
to ?is sub/ance ! t5drils did n indicate
 any disposition to approa*4 ,! position
 ( ! glass 0 !n *ang$1 & c>e 0 tak5 to  
adju/ its surface to ! v>y+ position ( !
 sun1 s t ! light reflect$ might cont9ue
 to /rike ! t5drils2 :i* !n rec$$ f !   
glass1 & appe>$ to be /rongly repuls$ by

 x4#aag ,d>w9 writes ( ! insectivor\s   
,dros]a rotundifolia3 ,if "y & active   
leaves are select$1 inorganic p>ticles n
 l>g] ?an ! head ( a small p91 plac$ on 
! c5tral gl&s1 sometimes cause ! out]   
t5tacles to b5d inw>ds4 ,b ?is foll[s   
mu* m surely & quickly1 if ! object     
conta9s nitrog5\s matt] :i* c be        
dissolv$ by ! secretion4 ,on "o         
occasion1 ,i obs]v$ ! foll[+ unusual    
circum/ance4 ,small bits ( raw meat 7:i*
 acts m en]getically ?an any o!r        
sub/ance71 ( pap]1 dri$ moss1 & ( !     
quill ( a p51 7 plac$ on sev]al leaves1 
& !y 7 all embrac$ equally well 9 ab\t  
two h\rs4 ,on o!r occasions ! above-nam$
 sub/ances1 or m commonly p>ticles (    
glass1 coal-c9d] 7tak5 f ! fire71 /one1 
gold-leaf1 dri$ grass1 cork1 blott+     
pap]1 cotton-wool1 & hair roll$ into    
little balls1 7 us$1 & ^! sub/ances1    
?\gh !y 7 sometimes well embrac$1 (t5   
caus$ no movem5t :atev] 9 ! out]        
t5tacles1 or an extremely slight & sl[  
movem5t4 ,yet ^! same leaves 7 prov$ to 

be 9 an active condition1 z !y 7 excit$ 
to movem5t by sub/ances yield+ nitrog5\s
 matt]1 su* z bits ( raw or roa/ meat1 !
 yolk or :ite ( boil$ eggs1 fragm5ts (  
insects ( all ord]s1 spid]s1 etc4 ,i w  
give only two in/ances4  ,m9ute flies 7 
plac$ on ! discs ( sev]al leaves1 & on  
o!rs balls ( pap]1 bits ( moss & quill (
 ab\t ! same size z ! flies1 & ! latt] 7
 well embrac$ 9 a few h\rs2 :]eas aft]  
tw5ty-five h\rs only a v few t5tacles 7 
inflect$ ov] ! o!r objects4 ,! bits (   
pap]1 moss1 & quill 7 !n remov$ f ^!    
leaves1 & bits ( raw meat plac$ on !m2 &
 n[ all ! t5tacles 7 soon en]getically  
inflect$4  ,aga91 p>ticles ( coal-c9d]  
7weigh+ r m ?an ! flies us$ 9 ! la/     
exp]im5t7 7 plac$ on ! c5tres ( ?ree    
leaves3 aft] an int]val ( n9ete5 h\rs1  
"o ( ! p>ticles 0 tol]ably well embrac$2
 a second by a v few t5tacles2 & a ?ird 
by none4 ,i !n remov$ ! p>ticles f ! two
 latt] leaves1 & put on !m rec5tly kill$
 flies4 ,^! 7 fairly well embrac$ 9 sev5
 & "o-half h\rs1 & ?or\ghly aft] tw5ty &

 "o-half h\rs2 ! t5tacles rema9+        
inflect$ = _m subsequ5t days4 ,on ! o!r 
h&1 ! "o leaf :i* _h 9 ! c\rse ( n9ete5 
h\rs embrac$ ! bit ( c9d] mod]ately     
well1 & to :i* no fly 0 giv51 aft] an   
additional ?irty-?ree h\rs 7i4e4 9      
fifty-two h\rs f ! "t :5 ! c9d] 0 put   
on7 0 completely reexp&$ & ready to act 
aga94#aah  ,f ^! & _m o!r exp]im5ts     
,d>w9 concludes t inorganic & "s organic
 sub/ances n attack$ by ! secretion ( ! 
leaf act mu* less quickly & effici5tly  
?an organic sub/ances yield+ soluble    
matt]1 :i* is absorb$4  ,he also writes 
( ! curvature ( radicles :i* come 9     
contact ) ob/acles at "r angles3--  ,!  
fir/ & mo/ obvi\s explanation ( !       
curvature is t x results m]ely f !      
me*anical resi/ance to ! gr[? 9 its     
orig9al direction4 ,nev]!less1 ?is      
explanation did n seem to u             
satisfactory4 ,! radicles did n pres5t !
 appe>ance ( hav+ be5 subject$ to a     
suffici5t pressure to acc\nt = _!       
curvature4 ,sa*s has %[n t ! gr[+ "p is 

m rigid ?an ! "p imm$iately above1 :i*  
has ceas$ to gr[1 s t ! latt] might h   
be5 expect$ to yield & become curv$ z   
soon z ! apex enc\nt]$ an unyield+      
object2 :]eas x 0 ! /iff1 gr[+ "p :i*   
became curv$4 ,moreov]1 an object :i*   
yields ) ! greate/ ease w deflect a     
radicle3 ?us1 z we h se51 :5 ! apex ( ! 
radicle ( ! bean enc\nt]$ ! poli%$      
surface ( extremely ?9 t9-foil on s(t   
s&1 no impression 0 left on x1 yet !    
radicle became deflect$ at "r angles4 ,a
 second explanation occurr$ to u1       
namely1 t ev5 ! g5tle/ pressure might   
*eck ! gr[? ( ! apex1 & 9 ?is case gr[? 
c\ld cont9ue only on "o side1 & ?us !   
radicle w\ld assume a rectangul> =m2 b  
?is view leaves :olly unexpla9$ !       
curvature ( ! upp] "p1 ext5d+ = a l5g? (
 #h-aj mm4  ,we 7 !re=e l$ to suspect t 
! apex 0 s5sitive to contact1 & t !     
effect 0 transmitt$ f x to ! upp] "p ( !
 radicle1 :i* 0 excit$ to b5d away f !  
t\*+ object4 ,z a little loop ( f9e     
?read1 hung on a t5dril or on ! petiole 

( a leaf-climb+ plant1 causes x to b5d1 
we ?\ght t any h>d object affix$ to !   
tip ( a radicle1 freely susp5d$ & gr[+ 9
 damp air1 might cause x to b5d if x 7  
s5sitive1 & yet w\ld n (f] any me*anical
 resi/ance to its gr[?4444 ,sa*s        
discov]$ t ! radicle a little above !   
apex is s5sitive & b5ds l a t5dril t[>ds
 ! t\*+ object4 ,b :5 "o side ( ! apex  
is press$ by any object1 ! gr[+ "p b5ds 
away f ! object4#aai  ,act+ on ?is idea1
 ,d>w9 f\nd1 9 _m exp]im5ts1 t !        
radicles ( plants freely susp5d$ 9      
bottles1 :5 br\ght into contact ) ! mo/ 
yield+ sub/ances1 bits ( pap]1 etc41 7  
deflect$1 9 a v few h\rs1 f _! orig9al  
c\rse1 & (t5 at "r angles to ?is4 ,he   
says1 fur!r3--  ,z ! apex ( a radicle 9 
p5etrat+ ! gr\nd mu/ be press$ on all   
sides1 we wi%$ to le>n :e!r x c\ld      
di/+ui% betwe5 h>d]1 or m resi/+1 & s(t]
 sub/ances4 ,a squ>e ( s&$ pap] almo/ z 
/iff z c>d1 & a squ>e ( extremely ?9    
pap] 7too ?9 = writ+ on7 ( exactly !    
same size 7ab\t "o-tw5tie? ( an in*71 7 

fix$ ) %ellac on opposite sides ( !     
apices ( twelve susp5d$ radicles4444 ,9 
eight out ( ! twelve cases1 !re c\ld be 
no d\bt t ! radicle 0 deflect$ f ! side 
to :i* ! c>d-l pap] 0 atta*$ & t[>ds !  
opposite side be>+ ! v ?9 pap]4  ,?is   
occurr$1 9 "s in/ances1 9 n9e h\rs1 b 9 
o!rs n until tw5ty-f\r h\rs _h elaps$4  
,moreov]1 "s ( ! f\r failures c h>dly be
 consid]$ z really failures3 ?us1 9 "o (
 !m 9 :i* ! radicle rema9$ q /raight1 ! 
squ>e ( ?9 pap] 0 f\nd1 :5 bo? 7 remov$ 
f ! apex1 to h be5 s ?ickly coat$ )     
%ellac t x 0 almo/ z /iff z ! c>d2 9 !  
second case1 ! radicle 0 b5t upw>d into 
a semicircle1 b ! deflection 0 n        
directly f ! side be>+ ! c>d1 & ?is 0   
expla9$ by ! two squ>es hav+ become     
cem5t$ lat]ally toge!r1 =m+ a sort (    
/iff gable f :i* ! radicle 0 deflect$2 9
 ! ?ird case1 ! squ>e ( c>d _h be5 fix$ 
by mi/ake 9 front1 & ?\gh !re 0         
deflection1 ?is might h be5 due to      
,sa*s's curvature2 9 ! f\r? case alone1 
no reason c\ld be assign$ :y ! radicle  

_h n be5 at all deflect$4  ,d>w9 f\nd1  
moreov]1 by exp]im5t1 t1 :5 ! tip ( a   
radicle is burnt or cut1 x transmits an 
influ5ce to ! upp] adjo9+ "p1 caus+ x to
 b5d away f ! affect$ side4 ,?is        
deflection resembles1 9 a v /rik+ mann]1
 ! avoidance ( s\rces ( injury & pa9 on 
! "p ( animals4  ,& at ! end ( 8 book on
 ! ,movem5ts ( ,plants1 :i* conta9s v _m
 o!r exp]im5ts be>+ on ! "q ( s5sitivity
 9 plants1 ! au?or writes1 ,x is h>dly  
an exagg]ation to say t ! tip ( !       
radicle ?us end[$1 & hav+ ! p[] (       
direct+ ! movem5ts ( ! adjo9+ p>ts1 acts
 l ! bra9 ( "o ( ! l[] animals4  ,x is  
true t ! plant does n react ) ! rapidity
 :i* *>act]izes ! animal2 ,d>w9 f\nd t  
radicles are n s5sitive to tempor>y     
contact1 b only to long1 ?\gh to slight 
pressure4 ,x is also true t ! physical  
basis ( ! movem5t is m simple1 & s m    
easily traceable 9 ! plant ?an 9 !      
animal organism2 yet :y lay su* especial
 /ress ^u ?is side ( plant-life1 s9ce x 
is ackn[l$g$ t ! physical basis is by no

 means peculi> to x1 b t1 on ! contr>y1 
all life-processes1 9 ! animal z well z 
9 ! plant1 h _! physical side1 al?\gh   
great] complexity ( organization may    
make ?is m difficult to foll[ 9 ! "o    
case ?an 9 ! o!r8  ,b we may beg9 at !  
o!r end ( ! scale & exam9e ! facts      
pres5t$ f ! opposite po9t ( view4 ,!    
physici/ demon/rates t =ce is           
inde/ructible2 t is1 t ! sum ( ! motion 
& resi/ance to motion resid+ 9          
inde/ructible matt] is also imp]i%able1 
t all pres5t motion mu/ be reg>d$ z !   
resultant ( previ\s conditions ( motion 
& resi/ance1 z f> back z we may g1 until
 we rea* "s assum$ primal /ate 7:i* is  
only assum$ & _c be prov$ to h exi/$7 9 
:i* ! matt] compos+ ! univ]se is suppos$
 to h be5 at complete re/2 & t e        
resultant be>s relations to its compon5t
 factors ( =ce t are con/ant1 e compon5t
 f9d+ its full value 9 ! resultant4 ,:at
 evid5ce has ! pres5t /ate ( our sol>   
sy/em & ! o!r sy/ems ( heav5ly bodies   
reveal$ to u by ! telescope to (f] u 9  

pro( ( _! consci\sness or s5ti5ce8 ,h[  
are ! :irl & conc5tration ( nebul> mi/s1
 ! cra% & collision ( elem5tal bodies1 f
 :i*1 by simple action & reaction1 aft] 
ages ( di%>mony1 only a comp>ative      
h>mony is arriv$ at z inevitable result1
 evid5ce ( aim1 int5tion1 w1            
consci\sness1 9 ! matt] subject to ?is  
evolution8 ,d we f9d any?+ "h except    
bl9d law8 ,! movem5ts ( plants1 (t5     
directly favorable to self-pres]vation1 
may be expla9$ by ! arrangem5t ( ! cells
 & _! *emical action4 ,or1 if s5ti5ce   
mu/ be assum$ to be ! cause ( movem5t   
atta9+ ends ( self-pres]vation 9 plants1
 h[ are we to acc\nt = organic &        
in/9ctive action 9 animals8 ,h[ is x1 = 
in/ance1 t ! new-born infant sucks1 & ! 
*ick5 b a few h\rs old1 ev5 ?\gh x has  
be5 hat*$ 9 an incubator ap>t f its k9d1
 picks at ! food /rewn be=e x1 aim+1    
too1 ) consid]able precision8#abj ,h[   
does x happ5 t ! process ( brea?+ &     
dige/ion1 ! beat+ ( ! he>t & !          
circulation ( ! blood1 all s necess>y to

 life1 g on ) regul>ity1 ?\gh n direct$ 
by reason8 ,has ! newly hat*$ *ick5 any 
exp]i5ce to tea* x :at food is1 & h[ x  
is to be seiz$2 or does ! cat]pill>1 :i*
 sp9s itself a cocoon1 d ?is ) ! und]/&+
 t x is ab\t to ent] a new phase (      
exi/5ce8 ,or1 if su* important &1 at    
fir/ view1 seem+ly intellig5t action c  
be expla9$ z unreason+ in/9ct1 :y _c _m 
o!r actions ( ! l[] animals be ?us      
expla9$8 ,:y may n ne>ly all1 if n all (
 !m1 be ?us expla9$1 & consci\sness be  
reg>d$ z ! exclusive prop]ty ( man8  ,b 
h[ mu* ( ! action we t]m automatic1     
in/9ctive1 or organic1 reflex or m]ely  
functional1 c be positively ass]t$ to h 
no admixture ( consci\sness8 ,if we     
exam9e our own action closely we %all   
(t5 f9d t we 71 9 fact1 consci\s ( mu* t
 seems1 at fir/ glance1 purely          
automatic4 ,x may appe> to u1 = in/ance1
 t reflection on ! notes ( a musical    
composition :i* we h kn[n = a long "t by
 he>t h9d]s r ?an helps u1 ev5 caus+ u  
sometimes to fail completely 9 our      

p]=mance4 ,b if we exam9e our condition 
at ! "t ( su* a failure1 d we n usually 
f9d t1 :5 we began to ?9k ab\t :at we 7 
play+1 we 7 sudd5ly seiz$ ) a fe> (     
fail+ & t ! fe> confus$ u8 ,or d we n   
f9d1 at lea/1 t )drawal ( our att5tion f
 ! music by conv]sation t requires any  
conc5tration ( ?\ght is z likely to     
confuse u z too great att5tion to x8 ,a 
fri5d ( m9e "o day relat$ to me ! foll[+
 exp]i5ce3 ,hav+ a felon ^u 8 f+]1 he   
submitt$ to a surgical op]ation1 = :i* !
 op]ator pref]r$ to adm9i/] an          
anae/hetic4 ,:5 he awoke to consci\sness
 aga91 he 0 pleas$ to f9d ! pa9ful      
op]ation completely f9i%$ & ! h& newly  
dress$4 ,ask$ :e!r he _h exp]i5c$ any   
pa91 he answ]$1 ,n a tw+e1 :]eat !      
surgeon rem>k$ t he _h scream$ & groan$ 
dur+ ! op]ation4 ,to ?is he repli$ t 8  
action mu/ h be5 m]ely reflex4 ,an h\r  
or s lat]1 h[ev]1 z he 0 at "w1 a sudd5 
recollection ( ! :ole op]ation came to  
him4 ,p]sons und]go+ d5tal op]ations "u 
! influ5ce ( laugh+-gas (t5 scream &    

make convulsive movem5ts z if 9 pa91    
?\gh !y decl>e1 aft]w>ds1 9 l mann]1 t  
!y h felt no?+2 b may n ?is be due1 z 9 
! case j cit$1 to a m]e lapse ( memory8 
,:y1 inde$1 %\ld ! pati5t scream if n 9 
pa98 ,aga91 !re is a poison--cur>9e1 !  
,indian arr[ poison--:i* has p[] to     
deprive its victim ( all motion1 :ile   
leav+ him1 z has be5 asc]ta9$ 9 cases 9 
:i* x has be5 us$ z a m$ic9e1 a         
consci\sness t is m or less dimm$4 ,may 
n ! seem+ dimness1 h[ev]1 be due to !   
incomplete function ( memory :5 turn$ to
 ev5ts t transpir$ "u its influ5ce8 ,&  
may n ! action ( s-call$ anae/hetics (  
all sorts involve simply a p>alysis (   
action simil> to t caus$ by ! ,indian   
arr[ poison1 toge!r ) a m complete lapse
 ( memory ?an t ensu+ ^u ! latt]8 ,to   
answ] t anae/hetics affect ! bra91 & t  
!re=e consci\sness is n possible1 is    
begg+ ! "q1 = x is by j su* exp]im5ts & 
exp]i5ce ( ! app>5t m5tal effects (     
anae/hetics 9 connection ) peculi> bra9 
conditions t !ories ( non-s5sibility "u 

^! conditions h be5 arriv$ at4 ,/ates ( 
somnambulism g5]ally us$ to be class$ z 
outside ! sph]e ( memory & 7 !re=e      
sometimes call$ unconsci\s2 b rec5t     
exp]im5ts 9 hypnotism h %[n t simil>    
/ates to ^! may be rememb]$ or n        
rememb]$ accord+ to ! individual case1 &
 t p]sons :o1 :5 awak5$1 ord9>ily recall
 no?+ ( t :i* has pass$ 9 ! hypnotic    
/ate may be made to recall all ! ev5ts (
 t /ate if comm&$ to d s be=e awak5+4   
,pflueg] has attempt$ to demon/rate1 by 
_m exp]im5ts1 t consci\sness is n conf9$
 to ! bra9 b is also connect$ ) ! sp9al 
cord2#aba :y1 h[ev]1 draw a l9e at !    
sp9al cord8 ,is n n]ve sub/ance ! same )
 t f :i* ! sp9al cord & ! bra9 develop1 
are n all n]ve cells prim>ily m]e       
modifications ( cells ( ! out] sk98  ,( 
unconsci\sness 9 ourselves we c h no m  
an imm$iate & direct k ?an (            
unconsci\sness outside ourselves1 s9ce1 
9 ord] to be imm$iately kn[n1 x w\ld h  
to be pres5t 9 consci\sness2 & a        
consci\s unconsci\sness is a            

self-contradiction4 ,we c only witness  
to a failure ( memory at c]ta9 po9ts    
7:i* failure has already be5 %[n to be  
untru/wor?y z evid5ce7 or to movem5ts ( 
our body to :i* we c supply no          
correspond+ consci\s /ates z            
prem$itation4 ,b our inability to te/ify
 to su* is m]ely negative4 ,a great deal
 has be5 made1 9 "o way & ano!r1 ( !    
fact t !re are l9ks 9 prem$itat$ action 
:i* d n come into consci\sness1 !re be+ 
no k1 = in/ance1 ( ! processes 9 n]ve & 
muscle betwe5 ! movem5t ( ! arm 9 writ+ 
& ! prem$itation ( su* movem5t4 ,z a    
fact1 h[ev]1 none ( ! physiological     
processes :i* accompany ! psy*ical are  
pres5t to our consci\sness except z giv5
 ?r\gh ! s5ses or ?r\gh                 
n]ve-transmission simil> to t (         
s5se-p]ception4 ,! consci\s elem5ts (   
any pres5t /ate ( ?\ght d n include !   
*anges 9 bra9-matt] concomitant ) !m4 ,b
 ! "q may be rais$1 z ,haeckel raises   
x1--?\gh p]haps some:at diff]5tly1--9 8 
essay on ,s\l-cells & ,cell-s\ls1 z to  

:e!r ! bra9-cells !mselves are n end[$ )
 consci\sness2 & any answ] 9 ! negative 
is1 evid5tly1 an assumption1 ( :i* we c 
give no pro(4 ,inde$1 ! "q may be ask$1 
& has be5 ask$1 :e!r ! rem>kable :ite   
blood corpuscles :i* trav]se our body1 &
 are s simil> to c]ta9 l[] =ms ( life1  
are n to be reg>d$ z di/9ct be+s1 or    
:e!r1 9 fact1 all ! cells ^: comb9$ life
 & movem5t make up our own are n end[$ )
 di/9ct be+ & consci\sness4 ,aga9 an    
answ] 9 ! negative is evid5tly a m]e    
assumption4 ,& :y /op1 9 ?is case1      
exactly ) ! cells ( animal life2 :y n   
apply our "q to ^? ( plant life also8   
,:y n1 inde$1 suppose all =ms to be     
end[$ ) consci\sness1 all h>moni\s      
motion to be accompani$ by pleasure1 all
 dissolution & conflict by pa98 ,f      
analogy we may conclude some?+1 b f m]e 
non-analogy no?+4 ,our exp]i5ce may     
entitle u to ! ass]tion t all be+s      
possess+ a n]v\s sy/em are end[$ )      
consci\sness1 b we _c conclude1 !re=e1 t
 all be+s n possess+ a n]v\s sy/em are n

 end[$ ) consci\sness4 ,we h associat$  
consci\sness ) acts peculi> to man1 &   
h5ce inf]r$ its pres5ce 9 simil>        
movem5ts ( animals simil>ly con/ruct$4  
,b if we c\ld exam9e ! physiological    
accompanim5ts ( our own ?\ght & feel+ & 
_! issue 9 action1 if we c\ld look on at
 all ! details1 ! *emical & me*anical   
*anges ( ! physiological processes1 :at 
h9t %\ld we f9d 9 ^! m ?an 9 any o!r    
physical processes1 f :i* to inf]       
consci\sness8 ,!y are n ! less rigidly 9
 accordance ) natural law ?an any o!r4  
,b our obs]vation ( all o!r processes   
?an ^? ( our own organism is a m]e      
extrane\s "o1 l ?is we h imag9$ ( !     
processes ( our own body2 if !re 7      
consci\sness 9 o!r =ms we c\ld n ent]   
into x2 & h[ c we prove extrane\sly its 
non-exi/5ce8 ,our own /ability (        
function & ! /ability ( all life-motion 
has be5 develop$ 9 a p]fectly simil>    
mann] to t by :i* ! /ability ( ! heav5ly
 bodies has be5 develop$1 ! physical    
side ( ! process be+ j z fully a matt] (

 action & reaction1 & our action t[>ds  
ends ! sl[ly progressive result ( ?is   
c\rse ( action & reaction1 j z is ! case
 ) ! h>moni\s movem5ts ( ! sy/ems ( !   
heav5s4 ,x w\ld1 moreov]1 be p]fectly   
easy to =mulate a purely physical &     
me*anical explanation ( our action1 z   
,c>n]i does ( ! action ( ants & o!r     
species1--to expla9 ! pluck+ ( a rose1 =
 in/ance1 z m]e reaction ^u ! s5se (    
smell & sight1 or z ! m]e me*anical     
action ( cell-matt]4  ,b1 aga91 on ! o!r
 h&3 ,if x is true t ! n]v\s sy/em is   
develop$ f cells ( ! out] cov]+ ( !     
body1 x is1 nev]!less1 n true t ^?      
prim>y cells are ! n]v\s sy/em1 any m   
?an x is true t ! l[e/ =ms ( life1 f :i*
 man has develop$1 are human be+s4      
,rudim5t>y eyes exi/ 9 "s animals 9 ! =m
 ( m]e pigm5t spots1 b we d n suppose ^!
 pigm5t spots to end[ ! animal ) sight z
 we und]/& x4 ,sight is n a function (  
all =ms ( life1 nei!r is he>+1 & ^! p[]s
 h develop$ out ( =ms ( animal life 9   
:i* !y did n exi/2 :y !n is x necess>y  

to suppose consci\sness to be a prop]ty 
( all =ms ( life because we "k x to     
appe> 9 "s high] developm5ts ( life8 ,:y
 may x n arise1 z d sight & he>+1 by    
gradual evolution1 z a function (       
special organisms8 ,h we any direct k ( 
consci\sness except 9 connection ) c]ta9
 normal conditions ( our own bra98 ,&1  
?is be+ said1 h we any means left by :i*
 we c prove ! exi/5ce ( consci\sness1   
except 9 connection ) a bra9 simil> to  
our own8  ,:at gr\nds h we = assum+ !   
exi/5ce ( consci\sness :]e ! analogy (  
our own organization does n furni% u )  
an argum5t8 ,if we argue f ! analogy (  
our own exp]i5ce to ! exi/5ce (         
consci\sness 9 animals ^: organization  
is simil> to our own1 & !n1 foll[+ d[n !
 scale ( life1 f9d no pause or gap at   
:i* to draw an exact l9e1 we mu/ n !    
less =get t ) ! dim9i%+ analogy ! =ce ( 
our inf]5ce dim9i%es 9 l degree4 ,or :]e
 is ! logical necessity ( inf]r+ t      
consci\sness mu/ exi/ 9 ! inorganic ei!r
 because ! organic orig9ally develop$ f 

! inorganic1 or because x suff]s        
cont9ually a r5ewal by n\ri%m5t1 :i* is1
 9 effect1 z mu* a developm5t f !       
inorganic z ! suppos$ primal "o8 ,!     
pigm5t spot f :i* ! eye arises is n !   
eye1 simple protoplasm is n ! organiz$  
human be+2 :5ce does ! physical         
organization arise8 ,are we to suppose  
x1 too1 z preexi/5t1 9 a weak] =m1 or 9 
any =m1 9 ! inorganic8 ,:5ce h we any   
gr\nds = assum+ t t :i* we "k only 9    
connection ) a c]ta9 peculi>            
organization exi/s else:]e8 ,are we to  
suppose ! color blue to be pres5t 9     
c]ta9 *emical elem5ts because _! *emical
 comp\nd is blue8 ,or h[ is x t ev5     
isom]ic comp\nds may exhibit diff]5t    
qualities8 ,%all we reg>d ! color z n   
ess5tially connect$ ) ! *emical         
con/itution ( ! suppos$ comp\nd8 ,z a   
matt] ( fact1 color is "o ( ! *emi/'s   
means ( recognition4 ,or %all we expla9 
! color by ! l5g? ( light-waves or !    
con/ruction ( ! eye1 correct+1 ?us1 "o  
"p ( our exp]i5ce by ano!r1 & assum+ "o 

z fundam5tal & ess5tial1 ! o!r z        
non-ess5tial8 ,we expla9 s\nd z         
wave-movem5t 9 "s out] m$ium & 9 ! e>1  
correct+1 ?us1 ! he>+ by sight or t\*2  
does ?is mean t t "p ( our exp]i5ce giv5
 u ?r\gh ! eye or h& alone is tru?1 & to
 be reli$ on & recogniz$ z su*1 :ile !  
exp]i5ce giv5 u ?r\gh ! o!r s5ses is    
non-ess5tial & n to be accept$ or reli$ 
on8 ,b if ! eye gives u ! tru?1 !n :y d 
we1 9 ! case ( color1 correct x aga9 by 
ano!r phase ( our exp]i5ce8 ,h[ are we  
to decide :i* is ess5tial1 !            
wave-movem5t t is 7or may be made7      
p]ceptible to our eye1 or ! s\nd he>d by
 our e>1 ! color directly se5 or ! l5g? 
( ! light-wave conclud$ f exp]im5t8 ,z a
 matt] ( fact1 we emphasize "o or ! o!r 
accord+ to ! end we h 9 view 9 our      
exp]im5t4 ,is x ! l5g? ( ! wave :i*     
causes ! color1 or ! color :i* causes ! 
p>ticul> wave-l5g?8 ,if we analyze      
bra9-action z *emical action1 d we prove
 !reby t ! consci\sness concomitant )   
?is peculi> *emical action "u ^! peculi>

 conditions mu/ exi/ else:]e "u o!r     
conditions8 ,are ! *>act]i/ics ( "o     
*emical comp\nd ! same z ^? ( ano!r     
because bo? comp\nds are matt] & motion8
 ,if we prove t ! bra9 conta9s cells    
simil> to cells 9 o!r p>ts ( ! n]v\s    
sy/em1 t ! :ole n]v\s sy/em arises1 9 ! 
fir/ in/ance1 f epi!lium cells1 t ! :ole
 animal is desc5d$ f "s primal          
protoplasmic cell1 & t ! cells ( plants 
are simil>1 9 _m ways1 to ^? ( animals1 
d we !reby prove t consci\sness exi/s   
except z coo]d9ate ) ! peculi> cells &  
arrangem5ts ( cells 9 ! bra98 ,we h no  
prec$5t f :i* to argue1 s9ce            
consci\sness is to u a unique feature ( 
! univ]se2 we "k x imm$iately only z    
exi/5t 9 ourselves1 & 9 ord] to obta9   
any prec$5t mu/ be guilty ( assum+ x 9  
ord] to prove x4  ,! dilemma seems1 ?us1
 z we analyse & inquire into x m        
closely1 to increase r ?an decrease 9   
significance4 ,h[ is any solution to be 
arriv$ at8  ,if we return to ! beg9n+ ( 
our consid]ations on ?is po9t1 we %all  

f9d t1 9 com+ at ! "q f ei!r side1 we h 
made an assumption4 ,our fir/ premises 7
 z foll[s3 ,assum+ t consci\sness is !  
cause ( movem5t by :i* man attempts to  
arrive at 8 ends1 :at reason h we =     
suppos+ consci\sness to exi/ outside    
man8 &1 on ! o!r h&3 ,assum+ me*anical  
action & reaction to be ! cause (       
movem5t 9 inorganic nature1 :at reason h
 we = assum+ ?is to be ! cause ( action 
9 organic exi/5ce8 ,let u exam9e ^!     
assumptions m closely4  ,we may return  
to ! !ory ( ! gradual developm5t ( /able
 out ( un/able conditions z /at$ 9      
diff]5t ways by ,zoelln]1 ,fe*n]1 & ,du 
,prel4 ,z has be5 %[n1 ! pr9ciple       
applies to organic z well z to inorganic
 nature1 & is only a broad] pr9ciple    
includ+ t ( ! ,survival ( ! ,fitte/4    
,!re is a physical side to all psy*ical 
functions1 & ev]y:]e our inve/igation   
%[s u ! physical foll[+ un*ang+ laws4 ,!
 developm5t ( ! ,/able f ! ,un/able     
expla9s to u ! evolution ( function 9 ! 
direction ( ! pres]vation ( ! organic   

=ms ( :i* x is ! function1 z well z !   
evolution ( h>moni\s movem5t 9 ! heav5ly
 bodies4 ,! explanation ( ! natural &   
necess>y elim9ation ( ! inh>moni\s cov]s
 ! :ole gr\nd1 & seems to assign a cause
 = e =m ( pres]vative action1 = !       
h>moni\s conduct :i* pres]ves ! /ate or 
! family z a collection ( individuals1 z
 well z = ! h>mony ( function t pres]ves
 ! individual4 ,z long z reason c *ange 
no smalle/ detail 9 ! work+s ( ! laws ( 
nature1 z long z x c nev] r5d] any      
motion o!r ?an ! exact resultant ( !    
=ces repres5t$ 9 x1 :at room rema9s =   
reason z a cause8 ,ought we n r1 ?\gh f 
a mu* broad] & !re=e m conv9c+1 9 fact f
 ! broade/ & h5ce mo/ conv9c+ view ( !  
matt]1 to reg>d consci\sness1 z d _m    
physiologi/s on n>r[] gr\nds1 z ! m]e   
accompanim5t ( mat]ial processes8  ,b   
?is br+s u aga9 to a consid]ation ( !   
concept ( cause4 ,:at d we mean by      
cause8 ,above1 we spoke ( ! cause (     
motion2 d we designate by ?is t]m ^?    
factors ( prec$+ motion :i*1 cont9u$1   

produce x z composite resultant8 ,if s1 
:y n sub/itute = ! t]m cause ( motion1  
compon5t factors ( motion8 ,b is ?is1 9 
fact1 all we meant by cause8 ,0 !re n1 9
 our m9d1 z we made use ( ! t]m1 a vague
 half-conception ( "s additional =ce    
beyond ^? s exactly summ$ up 9 !        
resultant1 :i*1 9 "s indef9able mann]1  
guid$ ! process8 ,z has be5 suffici5tly 
demon/rat$1 no su* additional =ce c be  
%[n to exi/1 or be logically assum$ 9   
!ory1 except 9 "s transc5d5tal s5se2    
nature gives u only p]fect equival5ce ( 
=ces4 ,a cause ( motion except z ! m]e  
sum ( its prec$+ compon5ts is1 !re=e1 a 
natural impossibility4 ,h5ce ! reason or
 consci\sness _c be assum$ to be su* a  
cause4 ,b if consci\sness _c be reg>d$ z
 su* a cause additional to ! compon5t   
factors ( motion1 nei!r c any?+ outside 
consci\sness be reg>d$ z su* a cause4   
,natural laws are (t5 treat$ z if !y    
con/itut$ a cause2 b !y are n entities  
:i* control nature3 !y are m]ely =ms by 
:i* we express nature's con/ancy1       

uni=mity4 ,nei!r is con/ancy or uni=mity
 a controll+ entity3 x is simply a      
g5]alization1 if a univ]sal "o1 :e!r we 
reg>d x z a priori or z a po/]iori4 ,x  
appe>s1 !n1 t we h no great] reason =   
reg>d+ ! con/ancy ( nature or natural   
law z cause ?an we h = ass]t+ reason to 
be su*4  ,9 ?is connection ! "q may be 9
 ord]1 z to :y ! /ud5t ( ! natural      
sci5ces1 :o is 9 ! habit ( proclaim+1 s 
l\dly1 ! necessity or at lea/ ! con/ancy
 ( ev]y?+ 9 nature1 %\ld yet elect to   
assign to consci\sness ! "* ( !         
non-ess5tial1 t is ! accid5tal4 ,action 
& reaction are1 accord+ to him1 ess5tial
 inh]5t prop]ties ( bra9 matt] z su*1 b 
consci\sness is m]ely a dep5d5t4 ,b :o  
%all decide :at "p or =m ( =ce1 :at     
factors ( ! univ]se are accid5tal & :at 
ess5tial8 ,if our ass]tion ( con/ancy 9 
natural ph5om5a means any?+ at all1 x   
means t no?+ is accid5tal1 b t all      
factors ( ph5om5a are ess5tial4 ,is !   
bell ! less silv] to my eye because x   
appeals to my e> ) s\nd1 or ! ball !    

less r\nd to t\* because my field (     
vision is flat8 ,ev5 if we suppose =ms (
 matt]1 & organic =ms1 to exi/ )\t      
consci\sness1 c we !re=e ass]t          
consci\sness to be any ! less ess5tial1 
any ! less inh]5t 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 any 
! less exi/5t & actual1 :]e x appe>s8   
,if s1 :at physiological function c we  
call inh]5t & ess5tial1 s9ce ^! all also
 arise ) evolution8 ,heat may exi/ )\t  
light1 b is light !re=e less ess5tial   
?an heat1 :]e x arises8 ,! v con/ancy   
:i* psy*ical ph5om5a exhibit w\ld %[ _! 
ess5tial "* z factors ( ! univ]se4      
,p]haps x is ! attempt ( ! spirituali/  
to assign to consci\sness some?+ m ?an  
su* a "* :i* has l$ 8 adv]s>y into !    
opposite error ( ass]t+ x to be some?+  
less2 b ! two extremes ( doctr9e are q  
equally f> f t sci5tific me?od :i* holds
 to giv5 ph5om5a4 ,mat]ialism is z mu*  
metaphysics z ,spiritualism is2 & !     
mat]iali/ :o condemns metaphysics       
condemns himself4 ,consci\sness belongs 
to ! ,actual2 & ! ,mat]ialism :i*       

assigns x a place subord9ate to t ( o!r 
actual ph5om5a is z mu* dogmatism z is  
any !ory :i* subord9ates ! o!r phases ( 
! ,actual to x4 ,! fact t consci\sness  
be>s con/ant relation to c]ta9          
physiological ph5om5a is no gr\nd =     
pron\nc+ x ! effect & ! physiological   
ph5om5a ! cause1 x ! dep5d5t & !        
physiological ph5om5a ! indep5d5t       
factors2 ! relations ( all =ms ( =ce to 
ea* o!r are con/ant4 ,heat is con/ant 9 
its accompanim5t ( light2 & yet :o %all 
say ! "o is dep5d5t1 ! o!r indep5d5t1 ! 
"o cause1 ! o!r m]ely effect8  ,we h    
only to reg>d ! !ories ( speciali/s 9   
ord] to discov] h[ easily habitual      
occupation ) "o p>ticul> side1 =m1      
factor1 or phase ( ph5om5a incl9es "o to
 reg>d t side z ! only ess5tial "o1 &   
all o!rs z non-ess5tial1 dep5d5t ^u x1  
m]e effect ( :i* x is ! cause4 ,!       
physici/ t5ds to int]pret ev]y?+ by     
me*anical action & reaction2 ! *emi/    
lays m p>ticul> /ress on ! *emical      
prop]ties ( organic z ( inorganic matt]2

 ! physiologi/ emphasizes cellul>       
/ructure & comb9ation1 & makes mu* (    
bra9 cells1 ! sp9al cord1 ! n]vus       
sympa?icus1 & ! special s5se-organs2 !  
biologi/ (t5 reg>ds ! attraction &      
repulsion involv$ 9 ! s-call$ s5sibility
 ( all =ms ( liv+ matt] z ! cause ( all 
life ph5om5a2 ! anatomi/ calls att5tion 
to ! arrangem5t ( organs ) respect to   
ea* o!r1 ! me*anical adju/m5t ( p>ts =  
function1 ! size & %ape ( bones z caus$ 
by weight & ! angle ( its incid5ce1     
etc41 etc42 :ile ! psy*ologi/ on ! o!r  
h& ref]s ev]y?+ to m5tal causality4 ,=  
complete sci5ce1 h[ev]1 we ne$ ! aid ( e
 special sci5ce1--( ,physics1 ,*emi/ry1 
,biology1 ,physiology1 ,anatomy1        
,psy*ology1 & all ! o!r bran*es :i* c   
contribute to any side ( our k ( nature4
 ,! desire )9 u = unity is /rong1 !     
impulse to simplify by ref]r+ ev]y?+ to 
a s+le pr9ciple almo/ irresi/ible2 & 9 s
 f> z we d ?is ?r\gh a conviction ( !   
on5ess ( ! univ]se z consi/+ (          
int]dep5d5t p>ts we are 9 a c]ta9 s5se  

ju/ifi$2 b until we c grasp ?is unity 9 
its totality1 our "o-sid$ r$uctions mu/ 
rema9 false 9 s f> z !y make claim to   
include ! :ole ( tru?4 ,x may be mo/    
useful to *oose out t side or phase (   
ph5om5a = any p>ticul> inve/igation :i* 
is mo/ accessible to su* inve/igation2  
:]e ! l9ks ( ! psy*ical fail1 x may be  
necess>y to sci5tific complet5ess or    
cle>ness to complete ! *a9 ) ! aid ( !  
physical1 b x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ?is 
is a device ( reason = conv5i5ce' sake4 
,x may be possible to imag9e two worlds1
 "o 9 :i* ! physical evolution alone    
takes place & all ph5om5a peculi> to    
organic function arise ?r\gh ! action & 
reaction ( organic matt]2#abb b ! "q is 
n :at we c imag9e b :at is3 we c imag9e 
_m ?+s :i* d n exi/ & are impossible to 
nature4 ,! human reason has also f\nd x 
possible to conceive ( _s unconnect$ )  
body4  ,! mat]iali/ calls triumphant    
att5tion to ! con/ancy ( mat]ial        
ph5om5a1 & proves1 by c>eful comp>ison )
 coo]d9ate psy*ical ph5om5a1 !          

uni=mities 9 ! latt]4 ,disease ( e k9d1 
b p>ticul>ly ^? =ms ( disease :i* attack
 especially ! n]v\s sy/em--bra9 & sp9al 
cord & ! n]ve end+s--furni% ! /rong     
po9ts ( 8 argum5t1 :i* is ?us bas$ on   
facts no lov] ( tru? desires to ga9say2 
b :5 ! mat]iali/ has %[n u all ^! facts1
 has he n prov$1 ) reg>d to ! psy*ical1 
exactly t con/ancy :i* entitles x to    
consid]ation z a "p ( ! actual univ]se  
subject to natural law8  ,! mat]iali/   
objects t if ! physical side ( nature is
 ! ess5tial "o1 ! psy*ical _c be        
ess5tial4 ,on :at gr\nds is ?is claim   
bas$8 ,is ! color ( an object n ess5tial
 to x because its %ape is ess5tial1 or d
 ! actual exi/5ce & *ange ( color       
accord+ to natural law int]f]e ) !      
actual exi/5ce & *ange ( %ape accord+   
also to natural law8 ,does only "o ( our
 s5ses give u tru?8  ,logic is v ready )
 its def9itions ( ?+s & _! prop]ties &  
accid5ts1 z ,physics is v ready ) its   
analyses ( light & color & s\nd1 &      
,physiology ) its analyses ( ! s5se     

organs & _! relations to color & s\nd4  
,b %all we accept only ! physiological  
analysis ( cell =m & action1 & reject ! 
s5se-syn!sis ( sight or he>+ z less     
important1 less actual8 ,or are we to   
believe t ! s5se-function alone is      
ess5tial & n also "s actuality 9 its    
object1 z ( ?is or t color8 ,are we to  
believe t any prop]ty or accid5t ( a ?+ 
may *ange1 & ! ?+ rema9 yet actually !  
same ?+8 ,:at are our ess5ces z sep>at$ 
f _! prop]ties & accid5ts8 ,z a matt] ( 
fact1 we "k no?+ except we "k x z "s    
p>ticul> ?+1 e *ange 9 :i* leaves x     
some?+ diff]5t f :at x 0 be=e4 ,*anges (
 p>ticul> =m or color are *anges to "s  
o!r p>ticul> =m or color1 unless !y are 
su* *anges z )draw ! object f ! rea* ( !
 special s5se ( sight be=e appeal$ to1 z
 = in/ance 9 ! case ( evaporation4 ,t "o
 =m ( =ce may accompany or pass into    
ano!r makes nei!r "o ( ! concomitants & 
nei!r ! prec$+ nor ! succe$+ =m less    
real4 ,z a fact1 h[ev]1 mu* sup]/ition  
/ill rema9s ) u z unconsci\s result ( j 

su* )drawals f ! p]ception ( "o s5se &  
analog\s new appeals to "s hi!rto       
unaffect$ s5se1 al?\gh we are accu/om$  
to flatt] ourselves t sci5ce has long   
ov]come ?is sup]/ition4 ,!re is no *ange
 t is n a p>ticul> *ange1 t is n accord+
 to con/ant laws ( nature1 &1 z su*1    
ess5tial to nature4 ,!re is no phase (  
nature t exact sci5ce c consi/5tly reg>d
 z non-ess5tial4 ,s t1 ev5 if reason    
does n exi/ 9 comb9ation ) all matt]1 we
 h no gr\nd = reg>d+ x z non-ess5tial   
:]e x does exi/1 & no m reason = def9+ x
 z effect ?an we h = def9+ x z cause4   
,result x may be1 z physiological       
function is result1--t is1 an end-=m (  
processes ( *ange :i* we call evolution4
  ,b we h f\nd our dispro( & also our   
pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( reason outside !     
human species fail u :]ev] ! direct     
evid5ce ( extreme analogy is want+1 z   
soon z we cease to reg>d reason z a     
cause ( physiological *ange4 ,p]haps x w
 be well = u to def9e m closely !       
prov9ce ( reason1 be=e we proce$ fur!r 9

 our consid]ations4 ,an exhau/ive       
analysis is n necess>y to our purpose & 
x w\ld be useless to attempt x at ?is   
po9t ( our argum5t4 ,! relation ( reason
 to action is :at *iefly conc]ns u "h1 &
 9 ?is connection ,mr4 ,leslie ,/eph5's 
def9ition ( x z t faculty :i* enables u 
to act ) reg>d to ! di/ant & future     
might seem to designate its important   
function4#abc ,simple reaction on !     
pres5t action ( =ce belongs to all      
matt]4 ,h[ev]1 :5 we consid] fur!r1 a   
c]ta9 d\bt may rise z to ! exact        
correctness ( ?is def9ition or          
description1 = does n t :i* we call     
in/9ct (t5 p]=m ! same (fice = ! animal 
z t :i* we h designat$ z ! (fice (      
reason8 ,let u look into ?is "q a little
 m closely4 ,we may take1 = in/ance1 !  
case ( ^? insects & o!r animals :i*1    
?\gh nev] c>+ = or inde$ see+ _! (fspr+ 
aft] ! hat*+ ( ! latt]1 make provision  
at ! lay+ ( ! eggs = _! n\ri%m5t dur+ ! 
helplessness ( ! fir/ p]iod ( _! life2  
are we to suppose t ^! animals h any    

means ( kn[+ t !y are provid+ = _!      
(fspr+8 ,c !y h le>n$ ! fact f _! own   
p>5t :om !y nev] saw1 or f o!rs ( _! own
 species :o are 9 ! same pr$icam5t z    
!mselves8 ,z ,s*neid] po9ts out1#abd !  
human infant mu/ h suck$ be=e x c\ld h  
_h any ideas1 z individual1 ( ! act (   
suck+4 ,! newly hat*$ *ick5s ( ,eim]'s  
exp]im5ts above ref]r$ to c\ld sc>cely h
 _h any conception ( ! act ( eat+ be=e  
!y pick$ at _! food4 ,h[ happ5s x t ! "y
 ( _m ( ! l[] animals :i* give no c>e to
 eggs or (fspr+ yet "k h[ to c>e =      
!mselves aft] ! peculi> mann] ( _! k9d8 
,once x is admitt$ t any acts :i* atta9 
results t con/itute desirable ends = !  
act+ subject ne$ n be reg>d$ z caus$ by 
k ( ! ends1 !re is no reason to suppose 
t ! pr9ciple may n hold ( _m acts 9 :i* 
a di/9ct k ( ! end seems to play a "p4  
,b :at d we mean by end8  ,let u take1 =
 in/ance1 ! act ( eat+4 ,! biologi/ & ! 
physiologi/ tell u t ! end :i* eat+     
s]ves is ! pres]vation ( life2 & !      
biologi/ may fur!r add--n ! life ( !    

individual1 alone1 b t ( ! species4 ,! v
 consi/5t physiologi/ may pr9cipally h 9
 view1 9 eat+1 ! pres]vation ( 8 own    
heal?1 & may ev5 take into consid]ation1
 9 a degree1 8 possible future (fspr+1  
gu>d+ 8 own heal? ) a view to !irs4 ,) a
 m9ority ( o!r m5 ^! m g5]al & di/ant   
results may to "s ext5t be kept 9 view z
 ends4 ,b x is evid5t t1 ) ! majority ( 
p1 !y are1 :]e ends at all1 subord9ate  
ones1 ! imm$iate satisfaction ( hung]1 !
 pleasure ( eat+1 or ! relief ( physical
 depression1 appe>+ (t5] z *ief end4 ,& 
:at is to be said ( ! new-born infant1  
:i* sucks :5 ! brea/ is plac$ betwe5 its
 lips8 :at is ! end :i* x has 9 view 9  
tak+ n\ri%m5t8 ,%all we suppose x1 z    
individual1 to h any def9ite conception 
( ! contra/ betwe5 /ates ( hung] & /ates
 ( satisfaction1 & to possess ! k t !   
act ( suck+ is ! prop] means to !       
atta9m5t ( satisfaction z an end8 ,z !  
infant becomes ! boy seat+ himself at   
table ) a di/9ct conception ( pleasure  
to be atta9$ by ! gratification ( a     

vigor\s appetite1 s ! boy may become !  
physiologi/ eat+ ) a view *iefly to 8   
own heal? & to ! fur!r end ( heal? 9 8  
(fspr+4 ,h[ does x happ5 t1 ?us1 ! same 
act1 ! significance ( :i* rema9s ! same1
 may be p]=m$ & by ! same individual yet
 ) q diff]5t ends1 or p]haps 9 "s cases 
7t ( ! infant7 no end at all1 9 view8   
,:5 we p]ceive ! sphex provid+ its eggs1
 z is its wont1 ) liv+ & yet motionless 
& helpless insects1 we c sc>cely refra9 
f believ+ t x is inspir$ by p>5tal      
affection ?us to provide = its future   
"y2 & yet we might1 ) q equal reason1   
suppose t ! act ( copulation1 9 ! case (
 ! sphex1 mu/ h 9 view ! propagation (  
(fspr+ & ! pres]vation ( ! species1 s9ce
 ?is is its result also2 we refra9 f s  
suppos+1 simply because a common        
exp]i5ce furni%es u ) ! k t ! act (     
copulation1 mo/ necess>y to !           
propagation ( (fspr+ & ! pres]vation ( !
 species1 may yet be p]=m$ ) no direct  
view to ei!r ( ^! ends1 ! bir? ( (fspr+ 
be+ ev5 reg>d$1 9 _m cases1 z some?+ to 

be avoid$ if possible4 ,) respect to all
 mann] ( acts1 we cont9ually fall into  
error by imput+ :at w\ld be our own end1
 9 case we p]=m$ ! act1 to ano!r        
individual ( our own species p]=m+ x2 & 
! dang] ( error is d\btless increas$ :5 
we attempt to judge ! ends ( an entirely
 diff]5t species by ends 9 a degree     
common to our own species4 ,!re is no   
reason :y we %\ld n suppose t "s less   
ultimate end ?an t ( ! pres]vation (    
(fspr+ may be pres5t to ! consci\sness (
 ! sphex plac+ food ab\t its eggs1 j z  
"s ne>] end ?an pres]vation ( ! species1
 heal? ( (fspr+1 or ev5 individual heal?
 may be pres5t to ! human individual 9 !
 acts ( copulation or ( food-tak+4 ,&   
!re rema9s /ill ! fur!r "q z to :e!r !  
c>e ( ! sphex = its eggs may n be1 &    
cont9ue =ev]1 on ! plane ( ! fir/ act ( 
food-tak+ 9 ! human infant2 & !n ! "q   
aga9 arises z to :at ! nature ( t plane 
( action may be4  ,^! que/ions mu/      
rema91 ,i believe1 9 great "p unansw]$1 
consid]ations su* z ^? notic$ above mak+

 ! inf]5ce ev5 ( l ends f l acts v      
untru/wor?y1 ! inf]5ce ( simil> ends f  
simil> acts /ill m s1 & ! inf]5ce ( !   
exi/5ce ( no end or consci\sness at all 
a logical impossibility4 ,h[ev]1 a c]ta9
 g5]al clew is giv5 u 9 ! con/ant       
coo]d9ation ( our own n]v\s sy/em )     
psy*ical processes1 f :i* we may inf]   
psy*ical processes 9 "s mann] & degree  
simil> to our own 9 species ^: n]v\s    
sy/em greatly resembles our own2 !      
simil>ity ne$ n be t ( ends1 h[ev]4 ,!  
decreas+ simil>ity ( n]v\s organization 
z we desc5d ! animal scale may be       
suppos$ to be coo]d9ate ) "s decrease ( 
psy*ical simil>ity4 ,:]e9 ?is increas+  
dissimil>ity consi/s1 h[ev]1 we h yet to
 inquire4  ,if we return to ! act (     
food-tak+ 9 ! individual1 we p]ceive t1 
avoid+ any exact assumption z to !      
def9ite nature ( ! act 9 its fir/       
appe>ance 9 ! infant1 we may make !     
g5]al ass]tion t1 z 9 ! case ( ! suppos$
 physiologi/ :o f9ally comes to eat ) a 
direct view to ! pres]vation ( heal? 9 8

 (fspr+ z well z 8 own pres]vation &    
heal?1 ! act itself1 :ile rema9+ un*ang$
 9 nature1 connects itself1 9 ! process 
( developm5t1 ) v>i\s ends4 ,z !        
individual becomes consci\s ( f>!r &    
f>!r rea*+ & m & m complicat$ results ( 
! act1 he po/ulates ^! z ends1 n =gett+1
 h[ev]1 important ends e>li] po/ulat$4  
,he may eat1 z a boy1 = ! pleasure (    
eat+1 lat] ) 8 heal? & ! capacity =     
useful "w 9 view1 & f9ally to ! end     
also1 or p]haps prim>ily1 ( secur+      
heal?y (fspr+2 b he eats1 9 all ^!      
cases2 & x is ev5 supposable t he may   
eat ! same k9ds ( food1 heal?ful food   
be+1 f ! beg9n+1 agreeable to him4 ,!   
wid5+ ( k by exp]i5ce1 9 ! case ( !     
human individual1 furni%es him ) m      
di/ant & m complex ends1 :i* 7 e>li]    
impossible to him1 s9ce he knew no?+ (  
!m4  ,some?+ simil> appe>s to be ! tru? 
9 ! case ( ! m5tal progress ( ! human   
species z a :ole4 ,! gr[? ( k is1 9     
fact1 a gr[? ( consci\sness ( ! con/ant 
connection ( p>ticul> processes )       

p>ticul> results1 & ( human acts z      
affect+ ^!2 ) :i* increase ( k a fur!r  
coo]d9ate developm5t 9 ! s5se ( a       
po/ulation ( fur!r & fur!r & m & m      
complex ends keeps pace4 ,we are        
cont9ually mak+ discov]ies1--p]=m+ or   
obs]v+ op]ations "s or all ( ! obs]v$   
results ( :i* are un=ese5 by u1 ?\gh ^! 
v results may be lat] s\ght z ends4 ,we 
are (t5 able to pr$ict ! results ev5 (  
entirely new exp]im5ts2 b we =esee1 & c 
!re=e assume z end1 no results ! elem5ts
 ( :i* 9 _! connection ) _! conditions h
 n fir/ come1 9 "s way1 )9 our k4 ,no?+ 
is a discov]y :i* does n involve "s new 
elem5t or new comb9ation ( elem5ts4 ,!  
gr[? ( k1 9 individual & species1 & !   
increase 9 di/ance & complexity ( ends  
nev] atta9 complet5ess1 n all results   
become kn[n2 new discov]ies are         
con/antly be+ made :i* %[ u t we h      
hi!rto be5 bl9d to results cont9ually   
be=e our eyes1 action 9 accordance ) :i*
 w\ld h be5 mo/ advantage\s to u4  ,)   
all ^! facts be=e u1 h[ are we to decide

 z to ! end 9 view 9 any non-human act8 
,h[ c we be sure :e!r ! bird :i* cov]s  
its eggs is act+ ) a view to !          
production ( (fspr+ or m]ely1 z "s      
au?ors h assum$1 to ! m imm$iate end (  
cool+ its own brea/4#abe ,h[ d we "k    
:e!r any feel+ :i* we might t]m "m-love 
is active 9 ! sphex's c>e = h] eggs1    
:e!r !y are1 z "s au?ors h sugge/$1 a "p
 ( h] own ego & !re=e c>$ =1 or :e!r !  
act ( c>+ = !m has n f9ally come to h "s
 imm$iate pleasure connect$ ) x1 su* z  
accompanies ! satisfaction ( hung] or ! 
sexual in/9ct1 ! pleasure itself be+    
s\ght z an end8 ,h[ d we "k ev5 :e!r !  
impal$ butt]fly is endeavor+ to escape  
pa9 or m]ely attempt+ to cont9ue its    
flight8  ,!re appe> to be "s g5]al l9es 
t we may draw4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 all     
facts seem to ju/ify ! assumption t !   
possession ( a n]v\s sy/em involves     
s5sibility & susceptibility to pa9 &    
pleasure2 & ?us x is h>dly consi/5t to  
suppose t ! /ruggle ( ! impal$ butt]fly 
c be )\t pa94 ,x might be at times m    

agreeable to our selfi%ness to suppose  
animals insusceptible ( pa91 b ,i ?9k we
 c sc>cely lay t flatt]+ unction to our 
s\l1 & mu/ face ! assumption ( _!       
s5sibility & feel+4 ,! "q z to :e!r !   
butt]fly has any di/9ct idea ( escape z 
an end to be /riv5 = is a diff]5t "o & n
 s easily solv$4 ,yet z reg>ds consci\s 
ends1 too1 we may be able to arrive at  
"s g5]al conclusions ) respect to ! acts
 ( animals1 ev5 ( ^? l[ 9 ! scale4 ,"s  
su* conclusions h already be5 rea*$ 9   
our consid]ations4 ,b x is to be not$ t 
all ^! are purely negative--exclusions n
 inclusions4 ,we may be able to say1 =  
in/ance1 aft] c>eful exp]im5t &         
obs]vation1 t ?is or t act takes place  
:]e !re is no possibility ( previ\s k1  
on ! "p ( ! animal p]=m+ x1 ( ?is or t  
result 7:i* we may1 h[ev]1 reg>d z an   
end t %\ld especially be desir$ by !    
animal71 & t ?is p>ticul> result _c1    
!re=e1 be an end pres5t to ! animal m9d1
 z su*1 9 p]=m+ ! act4 ,lubbock believes
 t ! passive /ate ( ! cat]pill> 9 its   

cocoon dur+ its trans=mation to a       
butt]fly is a necess>y condition ( its  
pres]vation1 s9ce ! m\? :ile und]go+    
*ange to an organ adapt$ to suck+1 & !  
dige/ive organs dur+ _! prep>ation = !  
assimilation ( honey1 mu/ be useless1 & 
!re=e ! animal 9 an active /ate mu/ p]i%
 ( />vation4 ,x is sc>cely to be        
suppos$1 h[ev]1 t ! insect is aw>e ( ^! 
ends ( self-pres]vation involv$ 9 ! /ate
 ( passivity 9 ! cocoon & kn[+ly seeks  
!m z ends4 ,s9ce ! metamorphosis takes  
place b once 9 ! individual life1 !     
insect has no means ( le>n+ any?+ ab\t x
 be=eh& f 8 individual exp]i5ce 7?\gh1  
ev5 if ?is 7 n true1 !re w\ld /ill rema9
 ! fir/ in/ance ( cocoon-sp9n+ to be    
expla9$72 & x is bo? difficult to       
suppose t ! cat]pill> has always _h     
opportunity to be in/ruct$ 9 "s way by  
butt]flies ( 8 k9d1 z well z unnecess>y 
to suppose ?is1 s9ce we see1 9 o!r      
cases1 t acts useful to ! individual may
 take place )\t previ\s in/ruction or   
exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! case ( ! sphex1 too1 z 9 

t ( _m o!r l[] species t provide =      
(fspr+ !y w nev] see1 x is n to be      
suppos$ t ! welf>e ( ! (fspr+ b r "s    
result ne>] ?an ?is is ! end 9 view1 if 
any end be pres5t to consci\sness4  ,)  
reg>d to prim>y acts ( in/9ct su* z ^? (
 ! newly hat*$ *ick51 & ! new-born      
infant1 x w\ld seem z if an argum5t l ! 
foll[+ might hold2 x is1 9 fact1 (t5    
made use ( 9 a some:at diff]5t =m4 ,we h
 se5 t n only ! progress ( ! individual 
b also t ( ! human species z a :ole has 
involv$ an ev] increas+ k ( ! connection
 ( processes ) _! results & ! coo]d9ate 
assumption ( ^! increas+ly di/ant &     
complex results z ends4 ,! ends :i*     
animals ) a less ext5sive k ( natural   
processes may po/ulate1 mu/ be ne>] &   
less complex ?an our own1 ! ends ( ^? ^:
 exp]i5ce af=ds !m lea/ ext5sive k be+  
ne>e/ & simple/1 until we arrive ?us at 
^? l[e/ =ms ( animal life :i* _c be     
suppos$ to h any k t may be t]m$ su*1 ^:
 action & reaction1 9 its psy*ical      
aspect1 c be figur$ only z vague        

s5sation4  ,b fir/ z to ?is vague       
s5sation4 ,among our own acts1 9 :i*    
bl9d in/9ct seems to play a r l>g] "p   
?an reason1 !re are ^? 9 :i* !          
gratification ( ! in/9ct involv$ is     
att5d$ ) a peculi> pleasure1 :ile !     
d5ial ( gratification to a suffici5t    
degree is correspond+ly pa9ful2 ^! are !
 acts connect$ ) ! gratification ( !    
prim>y appetites ( hung]1 ?ir/1 & sex4  
,! /r5g? ( ! appetites1 ! degree (      
emotion involv$ 9 !m1 seems to be       
directly coo]d9ate ) _! "* z connect$ ) 
prim>y functions4 ,?is be+ ! case1 :y   
may we n suppose ! functions ( ! simple/
 =ms ( life1 :i* we believe to h be5    
pass$ on f g5]ation to g5]ation almo/   
un*ang$1 = ! :ole p]iod ( "t occupi$ 9 !
 evolution ( ! human race1 to be        
connect$ ) feel+s equally z /rong z any 
( our own1 or ev5 /rong] s9ce function  
has be5 ex]cis$ on ^! few l9es only8    
,feel+ *anges direction ) ! gr[? ( man's
 k1 ) ! developm5t ( reason2 x may be   
connect$ ) new & m complex processes2 b 

x w\ld be difficult to prove t /r5g? (  
feel+ has increas$ except z connect$ )  
increas$ ex]cise ( p>ticul> function--t 
is1 x w\ld be difficult to prove t !    
:ole sum ( feel+ has increas$4 ,& if we 
may assume t x has n increas$1 !n we mu/
 suppose z great a degree ( feel+ to be 
possible 9 ! l[e/ animals z 9 man2 & no 
reason appe>s :y we %\ld n suppose x to 
exi/ also 9 z great a degree 9 ! plants 
& 9 ! inorganic matt] f :i* bo? ^! =ms (
 ! organic h sprung4#abf  ,& we h to    
notice a second fact3 ,if ! ends pres5t 
to human reason are ne>] ones accord+ z 
! k ( ! individual p]=m+ !m is n>r[]1 ^!
 ne>] ends & ! means ( _! atta9m5t may  
yet be v cle>ly & ?or\ghly kn[n1 ! n>r[]
 k includ+ ! m9ute1 (t5 ! m9ute/        
p>ticul>s1 z f> z x goes2 & :y may we n 
suppose ! s-call$ in/9ctive movem5ts (  
animals v l[ 9 ! scale ( be+1 :i*       
exhibit a mo/ p]fect adaptation z f> z x
 rea*es1 to be connect$ ) a l p]fect1 if
 v n>r[1 action ( reason8 ,or :y %\ld we
 draw a l9e "h betwe5 ! movem5ts (      

animals & all o!r movem5ts8  ,we are ?us
 br\ght face to face ) a dilemma to :i* 
!re appe>s to be no solution4 ,if !     
solution is impossible1 h[ev]1 :y       
attempt x8 ,9 ?is case1 any?+ we may t]m
 solution c be only dogmatic ass]tion or
 else m]e speculation4 ,if ! "q is      
unansw]able1 x is unansw]able1 & !re is 
no use 9 fur!r endeavor 9 ?is direction4
 ,b1 9 review+ our argum5ts1 we %all    
f9d1 ,i ?9k1 t t :i* l$ u a/ray at e    
turn & induc$ u to hope = an answ]1 n[  
on ?is side1 n[ on t1 0 ! t5d5cy to look
 = "s indep5d5t cause1 "s ess5ce1       
effect+ *ange r ?an be+ effect$1 or (   
:i* ph5om5a 7 only ! prop]ties4 ,x 0 ?is
 :i* made u believe t we _h f\nd ! means
 to an answ] 9 reason z ! cause ( action
 t[>ds ends1 z also1 aga91 t we _h f\nd 
x 9 ! developm5t ( ! high] organism f ! 
l[]1 & ( ! organic f ! inorganic4 ,we "k
 no su* indep5d5t cause1 no su* ess5ce4 
,we "k only v>iables1 prec$+ conditions 
& succe$+ conditions1 all ( :i* prec$+ &
 succe$+ conditions we mu/ reg>d z      

equally ess5tial s9ce !y are equally    
actual2 & we "k 9 all v>iation a c]ta9  
con/ancy ( relations1 :i* we1 by        
ab/raction1 t]m law4  ,! argum5t :i*    
/>ts ) ! dep5d5ce ( ends ^u reason1 & s 
inf]s a necess>y int]v5tion ( reason :]e
 motion is su* z to atta9 results reg>d$
 by ! onlook] z ends to be desir$1 is   
(t5 appli$ 9 a /ill wid] =m 9 ,!ology4  
,( c\rse if we />t ) a def9ition ( ends 
z results actually desir$ & prem$itat$1 
!n we may inf] reason f ! assum$ exi/5ce
 ( ends 9 any case2 b su* a =m ( argum5t
 is evid5tly a gross case ( petitio     
pr9cipii2 we assume t :i* is to be      
prov$1--namely1 ! desire & prem$itation 
( ! results atta9$4 ,?is fallacy        
ord9>ily escapes ! eye ?r\gh ! d\ble    
significance ( ! ^w end z x is g5]ally  
us$2 9 ! premises ( ! argum5t ! use ( ! 
^w is ju/ifiable if no implications (   
reason & w are associat$ ) x2 b1 ) su* a
 non-committal def9ition ( ! ^w1 !      
conclusion notic$ c\ld nev] be rea*$1 we
 %\ld f9d ourselves at ! end ( ! argum5t

 no ne>] x ?an we 7 at ! beg9n+4  ,!    
gradual developm5t ( /ability f         
in/ability1 h>mony f di%>mony1 a /ate   
:]e collision is at a m9imum f "o :]e x 
0 at a maximum1 may be reg>d$ z furni%+ 
! be/ phase possible ( a teleological   
argum5t4 ,ev5 ! dissolution ( any sy/em 
is "p1 accord+ to ! !ory1 ( ! evolution 
( "s high] sy/em ( /ability1 t is1 ( "o 
includ+ m elem5ts4 ,?is leads u1 h[ev]1 
to ! "q ( ! def9ition ( high]2 ! fri5ds 
( !ological ,teleology are v ready to   
def9e ! developm5t ( life up to man z ! 
developm5t ( high] f l[] =ms1 b are !y  
will+ to reg>d a succe$+ /age ( /ill    
great] /ability1 a /ate ( b>r5 &        
lifeless re/ l t ( ! moon's surface1 :i*
 our e>? w probably "o day atta91 z a   
yet high] /age ( developm5t1 !          
de/ruction ( man & ( ! e>? z "p ( a     
high] evolution8 ,we h to consid]1      
fur!r1 t1 unless we assume "s f9al /ate 
( absolute /ability = ! univ]se1 we c   
suppose only an asymptotic evolution    
t[>ds x1 9 :i* high] & high] sy/ems (   

/ability are develop$ only to be aga9   
de/roy$4 ,we "k nature only z involv+   
su* processes ( evolution & dissolution2
 we "k no endur+ /ability4 ,if we reg>d 
m]ely ! side ( evolution 9 ^! processes1
 we may seem to h a /rong argum5t =     
design2 b if we give att5tion to !      
dissolution succe$+ e evolution1 !      
argum5t loses its =ce4 ,&1 aga91 if we  
assume ! cont9ual ord] ( de/ruction1    
recon/ruction1 & re-de/ruction f9ally to
 give place to a condition ( absolute   
/ability1 ! "q may be recurr$ to :e!r   
?is /ate c\ld be "o ( motion1 :e!r x mu/
 n r be conceiv$ z "o ( absolute re/1 "s
 froz5 peace ( :i* ! moon's is b an     
imp]fect type4 ,we may ask1 !n1 :e!r !  
fri5ds ( ! teleological argum5t w\ld    
agree to designate ?is /ate1 :i* is     
highe/ f a ma!matical po9t ( view s9ce x
 includes all ! elem5ts ( ! univ]se1 z  
highe/ 9 any po9t ( view favor+ a       
!ological !ory ( design4 ,! teleological
 argum5t is accu/om$ to take into       
consid]ation only ! evolution side (    

natural process2 ! pessimi/ic argum5t   
lays emphasis1 on ! o!r h&1 on all =ms (
 dissolution1--bo? views correspond+    
?us1 z a matt] ( fact1 to b half ! tru?4
 ,ev5 if we d n look beyond ! evolution 
^u ! e>?1 x is evid5t t ea* /ep 9       
advance is m>k$ by wide-spread          
de/ruction1 ea* survival ( ! few b\ght  
at ! exp5se ( ! slaught] ( ! _m4 ,we may
 ov]look ! slaught]1 b x does n ! less  
exi/2 we may egoi/ically %ut our eyes to
 ! pa91 :5 x is n our pa91 b x is n !   
less a fact4  ,b fur!r ?an ?is3 ,our    
previ\s inve/igations h %[n u           
difficulties on e side1 :5 we h attempt$
 to assume reason 9 matt] z ! cause (   
/ability or h>mony1 pres]vative action1 
or ! survival ( ! fitte/4 ,we may argue 
t m]e matt] & motion _c h produc$ su*   
results z ^!2 b h[ d we "k ?is8 ,h[ h we
 su* an intimate acqua9tance ) ! nature 
( matt] & motion t we c ass]t ?is8 ,:]e 
7 we at ! orig9 ( ! univ]se 7if we      
suppose su*7 or :]e 7 we at ! orig9 (   
life1 t we %\ld be able to be assur$ (  

?is8 ,or h[ d we "k 9 any case1 f an    
orig91 :at might evolve ) "t8 ,we       
obvi\sly _c argue f ! analogy ( man's   
action1 s9ce he is a "p ( ! problem     
itself1 includ$ 9 ! "q1 & su* an analogy
 is a petitio pr9cipii4 ,if we h f\nd x 
impossible to assume reason z cause 9 8 
case1 h[ c we1 by ! analogy ( 8 action &
 by a univ]sal g5]alization1 assume x z 
a ,univ]sal ,cause8 ,we h1 9 fact1      
absolutely no prec$5t f :i* to argue1 & 
may answ]1--:5 ,wallace ass]ts t        
comb9ations ( *emical comp\nds might    
produce protoplasm1 b t no su*          
comb9ations c\ld produce liv+ or        
consci\s protoplasm1#abg--;,h[ d y "k t 
!y c\ld n8 ,we h1 inde$1 no evid5ce to !
 contr>y3 we d n "k4 ,if we assume !    
creation ( protoplasm or ! creation ( ! 
_w to h be5 analog\s to any ( ! ph5om5a 
( our exp]i5ce1 9 :i* we f9d only c]ta9 
con/ant results ( ! =ces resid5t 9      
matt]1 !n c]ta9ly we h no prec$5t =     
ass]t+ ! necessity ( div9e creation2 &  
if we assume ! creation to h be5        

ess5tially diff]5t f any ( ! ph5om5a (  
our exp]i5ce1 !n c]ta9ly we h no data ^u
 :i* to base any !ory :atev] conc]n+ x4 
,b ! assumption t ! creation (          
protoplasm1 ( ! e>?1 or ( ! univ]se1 0  
ess5tially diff]5t f any ( ! processes t
 we "k1 is a m]e assumption1 )\t basis3 
we h no data f :i* to argue 9 ?is       
direction2 any hypo!sis ( su* sort is   
made purely & absolutely a priori4 ,a   
fir/ appe>ance ( protoplasm ^u ! e>? we 
mu/ inf] f ! facts furni%$ u by ,geology
 & ,a/ronomy2 b a creation ( ei!r matt] 
or motion is a m]e assumption4 ,z we "k 
matt]1 x c nei!r be creat$ nor de/roy$4 
,we _c draw any inf]5ce f man's w1 = man
 creates no?+2 8 action is itself a "p (
 nature4 ,advanc$ !ological doctr9e t5ds
 m & m to limit ! creation to ! fir/    
communication ( motion to matt] or to   
assume "s transc5d5tal gov]nm5t ( !     
univ]se1 kn[n1 accord+ to ! assumption1 
transc5d5tally1 or inf]r$ f ! exi/5ce ( 
moral t5d5cy or f desire = !            
transc5d5tal 9 man4 ,) ,transc5d5talism 

we h1 z yet1 no?+ to d2 & ) moral       
pr9ciple 9 its be>+s on ?is matt] we _c 
deal until lat]4 ,b z = ! hypo!sis ( a  
fir/ communication ( motion to dead     
matt]1 we may rem>k1 z be=e1 t ?is is a 
m]e hypo!sis ) no facts to support x4   
,we "k no?+ ( motion ap>t f matt]1 or ( 
matt] except ?r\gh motion2 ! two _c be  
sep>at$ 9 fact1 & !re is no reason = _! 
sep>ation 9 hypo!sis or !ory4 ,du ,prel 
says3 ,:e!r causeless motion is         
sci5tifically conceivable1 dep5ds on    
:e!r we h to reg>d re/ or motion z !    
natural condition ( matt]2 = a motion t 
is n prim>y mu/1 z newly appe>+ *ange1  
be prec$$ by a cause4 ,b ?\gh exp]i5ce  
might incl9e u to reg>d re/ z ! orig9al 
condition ( matt]1 & !re=e to seek a    
cause = e motion1 ?is is1 nev]!less1    
only ! result ( an incomplete induction4
 ,= if x is true t we nev] see a        
motionless body pass into a /ate (      
motion )\t a cause1 on ! o!r h&1 x is j 
z c]ta9 t a mov+ body c nev] pass into a
 /ate ( re/ )\t cause2 & if ?is axiom c 

nev] be directly prov$ 9 processes on ! 
e>?1 we c1 nev]!less1 %[ reason = x3    
motion on ! e>? _c be imag9$ )\t        
resi/ance f ob/acles1 s9ce ! attraction 
( ! e>? & ! mom5ts ( friction c nev] be 
remov$4 ,b ! axiom is inde$ indirectly  
prov$ by ! fact t we see ! velocity ( a 
body decrease 9 proportion to !         
resi/ance ( ob/acles2 ! body c only !n  
atta9 to a condition ( re/ :5 ! mov+ =ce
 is consum$ to ! la/ remnant4 ,h5ce1 if 
we subtract ! :ole sum ( resi/ance to ! 
motion1 we h aga9 ! =m] condition1 !    
motion ) its orig9al velocity4444 ,:i*  
condition ( matt] is ! orig9al "o1 re/  
or motion1 exp]i5ce _c in=m u4 ,we h z  
good reason = reg>d+ re/ z arre/$       
motion1 z = reg>d+ motion z di/urb$ re/4
 ,! requirem5t ( an out] cause = ! fir/ 
impulsion ( matt] !re=e has mean+ only 9
 s f> z re/ is claim$ to be ! orig9al1  
natural condition ( matt]2 b ?is claim  
_c be sub/antiat$1 & ! opposite is j z  
conceivable1 namely1 t re/ is only      
arre/$ motion1 & t all cosmic matt] _h  

motion f ! beg9n+4#abh  ,wallace        
practically ab&ons 8 own gr\nd1 n only 9
 8 lat] works 9 ascrib+ mu* to natural  
selection :i* he 0 at fir/ incl9$ to    
believe ! effect ( "s sup]natural cause1
 & omitt+ f 8 *apt]s on ! application ( 
! conception ( evolution to man sev]al  
argum5ts = sup]natural int]cession      
employ$ 9 8 e>li] "w1 b ev5 9 8 fir/    
book1 by admitt+ t natural selection    
takes advantage ( m5tal sup]iority j z x
 does ( physical sup]iority4 ,we may    
notice at ?is po9t1 h[ev]1 a consi/5t   
inconsi/5cy ( 81 9 t1 ?\gh he d5ies !   
exi/5ce ( consci\sness 9 matt]1 he      
leaves no logical room = ! opposite !ory
 ( a gradual developm5t ( consci\sness1 
s9ce he ass]ts t all in/9ctive actions 7
 at fir/ self-consci\s4 ,?is position is
 held by o!rs also4  ,we may note "h an 
objection ( ,wallace's t because man's  
physical /ructure has be5 develop$ f an 
animal =m by natural selection1 x does n
 necess>ily foll[ t 8 m5tal nature1 ev5 
?\gh develop$ p>i passu ) x1 has be5    

develop$ by ! same causes only4 ,! "q   
may be aga9 repeat$ z to :at is meant by
 cause2 & x w be well to keep di/9ct1 9 
our ?\ght1 transc5d5tal cause & cosmic  
conditions4 ,we mu/ admit t we h no pro(
 ( ! abs5ce ( transc5d5tal causes4      
,nei!r ! con/ancy ( nature nor !        
insep>ability & inde/ructibility ( matt]
 & motion c prove ! abs5ce ( su* causes1
 :i* might be entirely consi/5t ) ^!    
?+s2 we h no data f :i* to argue t !y   
are n s4  ,b ?\gh ! law ( ,exclud$      
,middle mu/ hold good "h z else:]e1 x is
 also to be notic$ t ! abs5ce ( pro( 9 !
 natural ord] ( ?+s1 ) respect to !     
non-exi/5ce ( transc5d5tal causes1 is n 
equival5t to ! pres5ce ( pro( ( !       
opposite4 ,we _c inf]1 f ! fact t no    
pro( c be giv5 ( ! non-exi/5ce (        
transc5d5tal causes1 t !re=e pro( c be  
giv5 ( ! exi/5ce ( su* causes2 or1 f !  
fact t transc5d5tal causes may be1 t    
!re=e transc5d5tal causes are2 !y may   
also n be4 ,!re is1 9 fact1 abs5ce (    
pro( = ei!r view4 ,( ! transc5d5tal1 if 

x exi/s1 we c "k by def9ition absolutely
 no?+4 ,! man :o endeavors to prove its 
exi/5ce g5]ally bases 8 argum5t on ?is v
 fact 9 ord] to disprove ! validity (   
any argum5t ( 8 oppon5t f natural facts2
 :5 he1 !re=e1 aft] legitimately sil5c+ 
8 oppon5t1 goes on himself to prove !   
transc5d5tal1 he is guilty (            
self-contradiction4 ,:5 ,fiske ass]ts t 
!re is no problem 9 ! simple/ & mo/     
exact dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce :i* does n     
spe$ily lead u to a transc5d5tal problem
 t we c nei!r solve nor elude1#abi we   
may admit ! po9t1 b surely x does n     
foll[1 because we _c solve x1 t !re=e we
 mu/ solve x1 f> less t we mu/ solve x 9
 "o p>ticul> way4 ,if we _c solve x1 we 
_c solve x1 & !re is an end to ! matt]1 
unless we f9d new pro(4 ,we may n be    
able1 z ,fiske says1 to elude ! problem1
 b we c]ta9ly are able to elude ! answ]+
 ( x1 & mu/ d s p]=ce if ! fir/ "p ( !  
ass]tion1--namely1 t we _c answ] x1--be 
correct4 ,:5 ,fiske urges u to accept "o
 view because ! alt]native view conta9s 

difficulties at lea/ z great1 we fail to
 p]ceive any gr\nds 9 ?is position = su*
 acceptance4 ,to ,fiske's "q z to :e!r  
we are to reg>d ! "w ( ! ,creator z l t 
( ! *ild1 :o builds h\ses j = ! pleasure
 ( knock+ !m d[n aga91 we may answ] t ! 
exi/5ce ( a ,creator mu/ fir/ be prov$  
be=e we1 f a sci5tific basis1 may make  
any inf]5ce z to 8 purpose2 & t we      
c]ta9ly _c use an assumption ( 8 exi/5ce
 9 ord] to prote/ aga9/ a !ory (        
,di/eleology1--z ,fiske seems to d1--if 
we use ! teleological argum5t to prove 8
 exi/5ce4  ,we may fur!rmore prote/     
aga9/ ! elevation ( any negative t]m1 z1
 = in/ance1 ,sp5c]'s ,unkn[able1 to a   
t]m signify+ a positive exi/5ce4 ,we d n
 "k :e!r !re is any positive            
,transc5d5tal t is to u unkn[able2 ?is  
m]e negative t]m is admissible only on !
 assumption t x expresses su* an abs5ce 
( k4 ,! ,unkn[able assum$ z exi/5t      
entity is ! ,unkn[able kn[n1--a         
self-contradiction4  ,a simil> criticism
 may be appli$ to ,sp5c]'s use 9 8 ,fir/

 ,pr9ciples ( ! ^w ,=ce1 spell$ ) a     
capital1 & def9$ z designat+ ,absolute  
,=ce1 an ,absolute1 ,uncondition$       
,reality1 ,uncondition$ ,cause1#acj etc4
 ,! attribution ( reality to a m]e m5tal
 ab/raction is a survival ( old         
conceptions repudiat$ by ,sp5c] 9 _!    
old] =m4 ,( =ces we "k mu*1 b ( ab/ract 
,=ce no?+1--except z an ab/raction f    
reality2 & ! dang]s 9 ! use ( su* a t]m 
are made manife/ by ,sp5c]'s elevation (
 ?is concept to ! "* assign$ x by ! o!r 
t]ms quot$4  ,to sum up4 ,we h f\nd 9   
nature only v>iables1 no con/ant &      
inv>iable factor1 no indep5d5t "o       
accord+ to :i* ! o!rs v>y2 we h f\nd no 
cause t 0 n also an effect2 t is1 we h  
discov]$ no?+ b a *a9 ( ph5om5a be>+    
con/ant relations to ea* o!r1 no causes 
except 9 ?is s5se4 ,we h no prec$5t or  
data f :i* to ass]t t *emical           
comb9ations c\ld n h result$ 9          
protoplasm & 9 liv+ protoplasm1 no data 
f :i* to ass]t t m]e evolution c\ld n h 
produc$ consci\sness4 ,z a matt] ( fact1

 h[ev]1 we f9d ! relations (            
consci\sness & physiological process z  
con/ant z ^? ( ! diff]5t =ms ( mat]ial  
=ce1 & :ile discov]+ no gr\nds ^u :i* to
 pron\nce ei!r consci\sness or          
physiological process ! m ess5tial1 f9d 
none1 ei!r1 = pron\nc+ "o m ?an ! o!r   
indep5d5t ( :at we call natural law4 ,! 
logic ( all our exp]i5ce leads u to     
believe t nei!r protoplasm1 nor ! e>?1  
nor any ( ! p>ts ( ! univ]se1 c\ld h    
orig9at$ o!rwise ?an "u natural law1 t  
is1 z ! result ( prec$+ natural         
conditions :i* mu/ h conta9$ all !      
factors unit$ 9 ! result1 & w\ld ?us    
expla9 to u1 if we knew !m1 9 z f> z any
 process is expla9$ by analysis1 !      
results aris+ f !m4 ,we "k matt] &      
motion only z unit$2 we "k no /ate (    
absolute re/1 & we h no gr\nds = suppos+
 any initial /ate ( su* absolute re/1 or
 any /ate 9 :i* motion n previ\sly      
exi/5t 9 ! univ]se ent]$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 
we h no pro( ( ! abs5ce ( consci\sness  
outside animal life1 & no pro( ( !      

non-exi/5ce ( transc5d5tal causes1 ?\gh 
likewise no pro( ( _! exi/5ce4          
,,footnotes3  #aab ,orig9 ( ,species1   
#f? ed41 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cbj4  #aac       
,lecture on ,cell-s\ls & ,s\l-cells1    
#ahgh4  #aad ,entwicklungsges*i*te des  
,weltalls1 p4 #cdi et seq4  #aae ,see   
,"p ,i4 p4 #afa4  #aaf ,d] m5s*li*e     
,wille1 p4 #ac4  #aag ,on ! ,motions ( !
 ,t5drils ( ,plants2 among ! essays (   
,knight publi%$ "u ! title1 ,a          
,selection f ,physiological &           
,horticultural ,pap]s1 #ahda4  #aah ,see
 ,insectivor\s ,plants1 ,*aps4 ,i4 &    
,,ii4  #aai ,! ,movem5ts ( ,plants1     
,*ap4 ,,iii4  #abj ,see exp]im5ts made  
by ,eim]3 ,ent/ehung d] ,art51 etc41 p4 
#bfc et seq4  #aba ,e4 ,pflueg]3 ,die   
s5soris*5 ,function5 des ,rueck5m>ks d] 
,wirbel?i]e1 #ahec4  #abb ,see ,lange3  
,ges*i*te des ,mat]ialismus1 ,,ii4 ,!il1
 p4 #dhf4  #abc ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 p4 
#fj4  #abd ,d] ?i]is*e ,wille1 p4 #afa4 
#abe ,see1 = in/ance1 ,eim]3 ,ent/ehung 
d] ,art51 p4 #bhc4  #abf ,c>n]i's       

in/ance1 cit$ 9 support ( 8 !ory ( !    
possibility ( s5sation )\t pleasure or  
pa91 t c]ta9 n]ves connect$ ) f9e       
s5se-p]ception1 may yet be cut )\t      
special pa9 to ! own]1 is a poor "o1    
fir/1 because highly develop$ n]ves1 !  
m$ia ( f9e p]ceptions1 are especially   
inapt examples = citation 9 support (   
any !ory ( primitive s5sation 9 l[]     
organisms1 &1 second1 because ! problem 
( pa9 & pleasure 9 su* cases is v       
diff]5t f ! problem ( pa9 & pleasure 9  
connection ) ord9>y excitation ( n]ve   
end+s or ! out] cov]+ ( ! organism f :i*
 ! n]v\s sy/em has develop$4 ,! fact t1 
9 highly develop$ organisms1 "s p>ts are
 less susceptible ( pleasure & pa9 might
 z easily be con/ru$ into an argum5t t  
correspond+ p>ts ( l[] organisms diff]1 
9 ! same mann]1 9 susceptibility4       
,fur!rmore1 s5sation be+ admitt$1 z     
,c>n]i admits x1 or r ass]ts x1 ( all   
=ms ( animal life1 x is difficult to    
conceive h[ he c int]pret ! ph5om5a (   
appetition & repulsion z devoid ( feel+4

 ,mo/ au?ors h argu$1 ) mu* m reason1 t 
pleasure & pa9 are primordial4 ,c>n]i's 
fur!r argum5t t he :o conceives ! l[]   
species z feel+ pleasure & pa9          
introduces an imm5se am\nt ( pa9 into ! 
_w 7p4 #aac1 ,grundlegung d] ,e?ik7 is q
 aside f ! "q z to ! facts ( ! case4    
,nor c man create pa9 by 8 conception ( 
its exi/5ce1 or de/roy x1 if x exi/s1 by
 a refusal to ackn[l$ge its exi/5ce4    
#abg ,see ,"p ,i4 pp4 #ai1 #bb4  #abh   
,die ,entwicklungsges*i*te des          
,weltalls1 p4 #cej et seq4  #abi ,see   
,"p ,i4 p4 #hj4  #acj ,pp4 #agj1 #aib;d4
     ,,*apt] ,,iii  ,,! ,,w   ,9 any    
discussion ( ! w1 we are met at ! outset
 by ! difficulties ( def9ition1 on :i*  
:ole *apt]s might be1 & h be51 writt54  
,b "o great difficulty has already be5  
consid]$ 9 ! discussions ( ! previ\s    
*apt]1 9 ! que/ions z to ! exi/5ce (    
consci\sness 9 inorganic nature1 9      
organisms :i* diff] f our own 9 n       
possess+ a c5traliz$ n]v\s sy/em1 & 9   
connection ) actions ( our own body kn[n

 to our c5traliz$ consci\sness only z   
results4 ,leav+ ^! que/ions op51 z we h 
f\nd x necess>y to d1 & conf9+          
ourselves1 9 speak+ ( consci\sness1 to  
consci\sness z we imm$iately "k x1 or z 
we may1 ) "s degree ( probability1 inf] 
x 9 animals con/itut$ simil>ly to       
ourselves1 we f9d "o ob/acle to our     
def9ition remov$4 ,= by w is g5]ally    
meant a psy*ical faculty2 & to speak (  
unconsci\s w is ei!r a                  
self-contradiction or a m]e figure (    
spee*4  ,we %all also f9d1 ,i ?9k1 t !  
mo/ ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( ! w z a       
psy*ical faculty is t x is connect$ )   
action :i* has 9 view "s end consci\sly 
s\ght2 action to :i* !re corresponds no 
consci\s end1 :e!r a long prem$itat$ end
 or an end in/antane\sly compreh5d$ &   
assum$ 9 ! mom5t ( ne$1 we t]m reflex4  
,! "q may arise z to :e!r !re are n acts
 :i* we "n m]ely involunt>y1 :i* mu/ be 
classifi$1 f a pys*ological /&po9t1 z   
midway betwe5 ! volunt>y & ! reflex4 ,b 
x may be answ]$ t "h1 z ev]y:]e 9       

connection ) ! organic1 !re is          
difficulty 9 draw+ di/9ct l9es2 !re are 
psy*ical conditions 9 :i* "s /rong      
emotion1 = in/ance1 t]ror1 s takes      
possession ( ! m9d z almo/ to exclude   
plan ( action1 & ! individual appe>s to 
act1 z we say1 unconsci\sly2 b ,i ?9k   
?is v adv]b solves1 = u1 to all         
practical purposes1 ! "q we h put4 ,:5  
we analyze su* psy*ical conditions1 we  
(t5 f9d t1 besides emotion1 !re 0 "s    
degree ( preconception ( action1 ?\gh ! 
emotion s absorb$ our att5tion at ! "t t
 ! o!r appe>$ subord9ate & 0 easily     
=gott52 b ! fact t we t]m action ( ?is  
sort1 :]e we fail to discov]            
preconception1 unconsci\sly p]=m$1 w\ld 
g to confirm ! def9ition ) :i* we began1
 ?\gh we may h difficulty 9 decid+ :e!r 
or n a p>ticul> action comes "u ! head (
 will$ action1 t is1 action to a        
preconceiv$ end4  ,ano!r "q :i* has be5 
frequ5tly ask$1 9 analyses ( ! w1 is    
:e!r m]e ab/95ce f action1 ! negation ( 
action1 c be class$ z an in/ance (      

will+1 will+ be+1 by def9ition1 an      
active1 n a passive /ate4 ,x may be     
answ]$ t1 f ! physiological po9t ( view1
 a po9t ( view n to be :olly disreg>d$  
ev5 by ! cons]vative psy*ologi/1 !      
arre/+ action ( ! w z ! control ( l[] by
 high] c5tres1 is its mo/ important     
function4 ,& to ?is physiological fact  
corresponds ! psy*ological fact t no    
/rong] ex]tion ( w-p[] is kn[n to u ?an 
t sometimes necess>y to ! atta9m5t ( m]e
 passivity4 ,a def9ition t w\ld exclude 
su* passive /ates f ! prov9ce ( ! w mu/ 
exclude1 on ! same pr9ciple1 all o!r    
will+ n issu+ 9 muscul> action1 & s all 
volunt>y control ( ?\ght4 ,! *oice      
betwe5 activity & passivity may be z    
real & z difficult z betwe5 two diff]5t 
=ms ( activity4  ,we h "h introduc$ !   
concept ( *oice1 & x may be well to     
def9e ?is1 & its significance 9 our     
def9ition ( w1 m exactly4 ,volunt>y     
action is1 we say1 (t5 prec$$ by long   
delib]ation & sev]e /ruggle1 end+ f9ally
 9 ! *oice ( "o ( ! _m modes ( action   

delib]at$4 ,we c conceive ( ?is /ruggle 
z n s long1 z %ort] & %ort]1 until x    
occupies s little "t & att5tion z to be 
sc>cely p]ceptible4 ,b we c conceive1   
also1 ( a prem$itation :i* includes no  
/ruggle1 9 :i* "o motive appe>s s /rong 
z to exclude consid]ation ( any b ! "o  
end1 & ! delib]ation has ref]5ce only to
 ! be/ means ( atta9+ t end4 ,! murd]]1 
inspir$ by a desire = rev5ge1 may seek 8
 end ) ! same directness1 if n ! same   
in/antane\sness1 or ) ! same directness 
& in/antane\sness1 z ! dog :o snaps at a
 piece ( meat2 yet we call 8 action     
volunt>y1 :atev] we may ?9k ( ! dog's   
action1 our conception ( :i* may be     
r5d]$ indi/9ct by our unc]ta9ty z to !  
nature ( in/9ct & ! "p x plays 9 !      
action ( o!r species4 ,we call ! action 
( ! murd]] volunt>y because we conceive 
t he consci\sly s\ght ! end involv$4 ,we
 are ev5 incl9$ to call x volunt>y 9    
cases :]e ! crim9al is mov$ by mom5t>y  
passion1 s9ce we conceive t he might h  
ex]t$ self-control4  ,our conception ( w

 is1 !re=e1 closely b\nd up ) !         
conception ( consci\s end1 di/ant or    
ne>4 ,our association ( *oice ) ! act is
 n always exact2 we may conceive ( !    
*oice z actually tak+ place betwe5 "o ( 
sev]al ends delib]at$ ^u1 or z involv$ 9
 ! consci\s det]m9ation ( any end1 ev5  
?\gh no o!r 0 delib]at$ ^u1 ev5 ?\gh all
 o!rs 7 exclud$ f consci\sness by       
passion2 s9ce we conceive t z all       
def9ition is1 9 fact1 exclusion1 s !    
det]m9ation ( "o end is 9 effect !      
negation ( o!rs t might h be5 s\ght1 if 
only 9 ! =m ( ! contr>y ( action1       
inaction4  ,we are ?us br\ght1 fir/ (   
all1 to a consid]ation ( ! mean+ ( ! t]m
 end4 ,z we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt]1 an end 
is t "p ( ! results ( an action :i*     
consci\sness especially holds 9 view 9 !
 p]=mance ( an act4 ,! end 9 view has   
sometimes be5 call$ ! cause ( ! act1 b x
 is evid5t1 z bo? ,gizycki & ,/eph5 h   
%[n1 t a future /ate1 t is1 some?+ :i*  
at ! "t ( will+ does n exi/1 _c move !  
w2 ?\gh ! repres5tation ( a hop$-= end  

is conc]n$ 9 action1--9 j :at capacity  
we h yet to det]m9e4 ,x has also be5    
urg$ t no?+ ext]nal c act ^u ! w1 b only
 int]nal /ates ( consci\sness4 ,all     
dep5ds1 "h1 ^u ! def9ition ( ext]nal &  
int]nal4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! two is a 
legitimate "o :]e x calls att5tion to ! 
diff]5ce betwe5 t :i* is at pres5t      
p]ceiv$ & t :i* is only rememb]$1 or    
imag9$ f ! elem5ts giv5 by memory4 ,b   
:at is an object1 z pres5t to me1 beyond
 :at x is to my consci\sness8 ,my k ( a 
?+ is made up ( v>i\s elem5ts contribut$
 ?r\gh ! diff]5t s5ses2 & ?is ass]tion  
is exactly ! same z ! /atem5t t a ?+ is 
! sum ( its qualities4 ,my idea ( !     
fire1 ! lamp1 or any o!r object z       
ext]nal1 arises f ! fact t x appeals to 
m ( my s5ses ?an "o1 t1 if )drawn f "o  
or f all b "o1 x may /ill be p]ceiv$ by 
! o!r or o!rs1 or t1 if )drawn f all (  
!m = a "t by "s ob/acle1 x may be       
p]ceiv$ aga9 :5 ?is ob/acle is remov$2 b
 beyond p]ception or memory ( p]ception1
 9 any case1 ,i h no consci\sness ( !   

object4 ,! p]ception is n1 h[ev]1 some?+
 di/9ct f consci\sness1 b is            
consci\sness4 ,! error above notic$     
arises f ! conception ( consci\sness z a
 sort ( place1 ano!r space into :i* we  
_c get objects f ext]nal space2 !       
conception is a crude "o1 yet x (t5     
ent]s into psy*ological speculation4 ,! 
p]ceiv$1 t is ! ext]nal1 does1 z a matt]
 ( fact1 affect our w4  ,!re may ?us be 
two def9itions ( ! t]m int]nal & two (  
ext]nal1 z ! words are g5]ally us$4     
,int]nal may mean ei!r )9 ! body or )9  
consci\sness1 ext]nal may mean ext]nal  
to ! body or ext]nal to consci\sness4 ,!
 two mean+s are1 9 bo? cases1 commonly  
confus$1--t is1 consci\sness is look$   
^u1 z has be5 said1 z a sort ( int]nal  
space )9 ! body to :i* ext]nal ?+s _c   
get admission4 ,ext]nal to consci\sness 
%\ld ref] simply to t :i* ! individual  
or individuals consid]$ d n p]ceive1 (  
:i* !y are unconsci\s4 ,t ( :i* we are  
consci\s is 9 consci\sness4 ,b all mann]
 ( +5i\s juggl]y is play$ ) ! help ( !  

metaphysical dualism impli$ 9 ! o!r     
def9ition ( ! t]ms4 ,! objection ( a    
possibility ( ?is duality ( mean+       
applies to ,b>ratt's use ( ! t]m ext]nal
 at ! op5+ ( 8 book on ,e?ics1 & !      
objection ( a possibility ( a simil>    
duality applies to _m o!r expressions 9 
! propositions & def9itions ) :i* he    
beg9s1--to su* expressions1 = in/ance1 z
 relative to our faculties1 /ate (      
consci\sness1 etc4#aca ,objection may   
also be tak5 to su* quantification ( !  
pr$icate z is f\nd 9 ,cor4 #a ( ,prop4  
,i4  ,to return to ! "q ( ! w4 ,!       
?\ght-image1 memory or p]ception1 ) its 
associations1 has be5 t]m$ ! excitation 
or ! motive & said to move or det]m9e ! 
w to "s end4 ,?us ! p]ception ( ! burn+ 
h\se is said to be t :i* leads me to    
give an al>m1 or ! p]ception ( ! smok+  
lamp t :i* moves me to turn x d[n4 ,to  
?is =m ( /atem5t is (t5 object$ t m]e   
?\ght or p]ception c nev] move ! w1 b t 
feel+ is requir$ to d ?is4 ,a fur!r     
discussion may arise z to :e!r x is     

feel+ 9 ! =m ( pleasure or ( pa9 :i*    
moves ! w4 ,_m au?ors reg>d anticipat$  
pleasure z a con/ant motive2 ,rolph1 on 
! contr>y1 z we h se51 incl9es to ! view
 t x is always "s pres5t pa9 by :i* we  
are mov$ to action4 ,& x is argu$ t1    
s9ce ! direction ( ! w is det]m9$ by    
pleasure or by pa91 t is by motives1 ! w
 is n free4  ,aga91 ! physiologi/ calls 
att5tion to ! fact t ! s-call$ free     
action ( ! w has = its basis            
physiological processes1 all ( :i* are 9
 accordance ) ! /rict uni=mity ( nature1
 all subject to law1 & all1 z we mu/    
believe1 capable ( exact pr$iction f !  
conditions :i* produce !m1 if we b      
compreh5d$ ^! conditions4 ,!re is no gap
 9 ^! processes :]e free w might        
int]pose2 ! :ole ?\ght-process1 !       
delib]ation prec$+ decision1 ! moral    
/ruggle if !re is "o1 ! decision itself1
 & its realization 9 action1 h = _!     
f\ndation physiological function1 :i* is
 z mu* det]m9$ by necessity z any ( !   
processes 9 inorganic nature4 ,! results

 ( pa/ exp]i5ce1 n ( ! exp]i5ce ( !     
individual only b ( t ( ! :ole species  
inh]it$ z inborn t5d5cy & capacity &    
modifi$ by individual circum/ances1 are 
/or$ up 9 ! organism1 ! po9t (          
c5tralization be+ ! bra92 any s+le      
excitation sets ?is :ole complicat$     
ma*9]y 9 motion & ! result is ! act4 ,! 
individual1 n und]/&+ ?is complicat$    
process ( reaction1 n be+ able to trace 
! results ( exp]i5ce to _! s\rce1 to    
desc5d ! :ole scale ( be+ to ! beg9n+s (
 life & note ! gradual developm5t (     
t5d5cy1 & see+ ! inadequacy ( !         
excitation 9 itself to acc\nt = ! action
 foll[+1 attributes to ?is a peculi> "*1
 reg>d+ t :i* is really result z        
absolute beg9n+1 indep5d5t cause4  ,we  
may consid] ! matt] f /ill ano!r po9t ( 
view4 ,we may inquire :e!r ! fre$om     
pr$icat$ ( ! human w is pr$icat$ ( t    
alone1 or ( w 9 ! :ole range ( animal   
life4 ,& if x be pr$icat$ ( ! human w   
alone1 we may ask at j :at po9t ( !     
evolution ?is is suppos$ to arise1 :e!r1

 9 ! gradual developm5t1 any p>ticul>   
po9t c be f\nd or assum$ to exi/1 ( :i* 
we c say3 ,"h ! animal ceases & man     
beg9s4 ,or if fre$om is ass]t$ ( ! :ole 
range ( animal w1 n1 h[ev]1 ( plant     
movem5t or ! motions ( ! inorganic1 we  
may aga9 inquire z to ! po9t ( exact    
division betwe5 ! animal & ! plant4     
,evolution is1 by def9ition1 a gradual  
process1 a gr[? 9 :i* !re are no gaps1 &
 ( :i* our f9e/ & mo/ m9ute calculations
 by inf9itesimals c give u only a fa9t  
conception4 ,:]e is !re any po9t ( su* a
 process at :i* we c suppose ! entrance 
( a totally new pr9ciple t _c be reg>d$ 
z ano!r expression ( =ce or m]ely a new 
=m ( animal function1 b z directly      
oppos$ to develop$ function & to ! =ce t
 is subject to natural law8  ,!         
,evolutioni/ may /ate ! problem 9 /ill a
 new =m1 z foll[s3 ,! survival ( any    
organism at a giv5 p]iod is det]m9$ by !
 fitness ( t organism = ! conditions ( !
 environm5t at t p]iod4 ,! =m & function
 ( ! animal are ?us1 at ea* mom5t1      

det]m9$ by ! environm5t4 ,& s9ce only   
functions 9 h>mony ) ! environm5t r5d] !
 organism capable ( survival "u t       
environm5t1 ! functions ( surviv+       
organisms are 9 a direction favorable to
 ! pres]vation ( ! =m ( :i* !y are !    
functions4 ,s9ce1 moreov]1              
self-pres]vation 9 "s =m1 :e!r z        
pres]vation ( ! :ole organism or z      
pres]vation ( a "p ?r\gh satisfaction ( 
its function 7r5d]$ possible only ?r\gh 
h>mony betwe5 ! function & !            
environm5t71 always con/itutes ! end    
s\ght by ! w1 ! individual appe>s to    
himself to w ends1 :]eas ^! are all     
det]m9$ = him by ! survival ( ! fitte/1 
^: function he inh]its & c>ries out     
subject only to ! modification ( !      
peculi> elem5ts ( 8 own environm5t4 ,if 
we suppose1 at any po9t ( developm5t1 an
 action n 9 accord ) t :i* ! laws (     
nature necessitate decid$ ^u by ! w1 su*
 an action _c be c>ri$ out4 ,b ev5 a    
decision is impossible contr>y to       
natural law1 s9ce 9 prec$+ evolution !re

 has be5 no po9t at :i* nature has n 9 l
 mann] det]m9$ action1 & ! pres5t       
decision1 be+ ! expression ( function   
atta9$ z ! result ( evolution1 mu/ be z 
mu* det]m9$ z ! action :i* foll[s4  ,or 
if we return to our conception ( !      
developm5t ( /able f un/able conditions1
 we may consid] all evolution ( high]   
function z increas$ adaptation1 t is1 z 
h>mony ) an ev] wid] circle ( nature1 ! 
reason appe>+ z correspond+ concomitant 
k ( ?is wid5+ circle1 to :i* ! function 
( ! organism is adju/$4 ,! reflection   
prec$+ decision on an end consi/s 9 !   
imag9ation1 by aid ( ! memory ( pa/     
exp]i5ce1 ( "s ( ! con/ant results (    
p>ticul> function1 to :i* function1     
h[ev]1 ! organism is irresi/ibly mov$4  
,?us t :i* is g5]ally reg>d$ z ! greate/
 indep5d5ce ( nature is1 9 reality1 !   
greate/ subjection to nature consid]$ z 
a :ole1 al?\gh ?is wid] subjection means
 an increas+ indep5d5ce ( ! m]e         
excitation ( ! mom5t4 ,! ability to     
weigh all sides ( a "q1 sometimes t]m$  

,fre$om1 is r ! wide/ adaptation1 :i*   
means ! wide/ det]m9ation by nature4 ,! 
l[] organisms may be1 z ,rolph & ,alex&]
 ass]t1 z well adapt$ to _! p>ticul>    
environm5t z ! high]2 b ! high] are     
adapt$ to a wid] environm5t1 to m ( !   
v>iations ( ! conditions on ! e>?'s     
surface4 ,man is ! mo/ widely adapt$ (  
all animals4 ,?is is a fact :i* we      
express :5 we say t man's p[] (         
adaptation is greate/1--t is1 t !re are 
lat5t t5d5cies 9 him1 ! result ( =m]    
adaptations1 :i* may correspond         
suffici5tly to new environm5t1 i4e4 to  
environm5t involv+ _m new elem5ts1 to   
enable him to survive4 ,?is wid]        
adaptation expresses itself especially 9
 ! high] developm5t ( ! n]v\s c5tres1 to
 :i* man's high] reason corresponds2 x  
is ?r\gh ! reason especially t 8        
adaptiv5ess comes to light4  ,!         
/ati/ician (t5 has consid]able to say   
aga9/ a doctr9e ( fre$om ( ! w4 ,he     
calls att5tion to ! necess>y "* ( human 
action z evid5c$ by its uni=mities "u   

uni=m circum/ances1 9 ! v>i\s important 
relations ( life4 ,^! uni=mities are n  
less ?an ^? :i* /ati/ics reveal 9       
disease & dea? & o!r ev5ts class$ z n "u
 ! control ( ! w4  ,& to all ?is evid5ce
 we may add t ( ! hi/ory ( ! m5tal life 
( ! species1 d]iv$ f ! comb9$ labors ( !
 geologi/1 ! e?nologi/1 ! philologi/1 & 
! hi/orian4 ,ev]y?+ goes to prove an    
evolution 9 ! m5tal life ( man1 z       
gradual1 & z mu* subject to ! influ5ce (
 ! environm5t1 z 8 physical evolution   
has be54 ,c>n]i says1 ,! et]nal laws (  
m9d po9t out ! way ^u :i* man has to    
proce$2 x is ! same way by :i* man has  
become man1 & by :i* mank9d mu/ g =w>d  
ev5 if x does n w ?us to proce$4#acb  ,&
 aga91 ! au?orities on m5tal disease    
demon/rate ! con/ant relations1 n only (
 g5]al heal? ( bra9 to heal? ( m9d1 & ( 
disease ( bra9 to m5tal uns\ndness1 b   
also ( p>ticul> physical symptoms to    
p>ticul> m5tal symptoms4 ,?is con/ancy (
 relations is reveal$ ) m c]ta9ty &     
di/9ctness by e /ep 9 ! progress (      

m$ical k4 ,! speciali/ 9 m5tal disease  
inquires ) reason h[ we c ackn[l$ge !   
physical processes ( ! body to be gov]n$
 by natural law1 yet ass]t !            
emancipation f law ( ! psy*ical         
processes :i* v>y concomitantly ) ^! 9 a
 mann] t sci5ce %[s to be p]fectly      
con/ant4 ,to ! te/imony ( ,psy*iatry may
 be add$ t ( ! comp>atively new sci5ce (
 ,crim9ology4  ,&1 f9ally1 ,evolutional 
,e?ics demon/rates ! con/ancy ( "*1 !   
p]si/5ce ( habit1 & ! uni=mity ( its    
*ange "u ! influ5ce ( environm5t4 ,if   
!re is no p]si/5ce ( "* & uni=mity 9 its
 action1 we h no reason1 z v>i\s au?ors 
h %[n1 = tru/ or di/ru/1 = praise or    
blame2 &1 ,i ?9k we may add1 none = love
 or dislike1 rev]5ce or contempt1       
en?usiasm or coldness1 9 ! contemplation
 ( "* or conduct4 ,if ! fact t a man    
acts honorably1 k9dly1 nobly1 9 "o      
in/ance is n a w>ranty t we may ) reason
 expect him to act simil>ly aga9 "u     
simil> circum/ances1 all[ance be+ made =
 error 9 our int]pretation ( motive 7:i*

 may h be5 m]ely self-int]e/$ :]e we    
?\ght x dis9t]e/$7 & = *anges produc$ 9 
"* by ! environm5t betwe5 ! fir/ act & !
 opportunity ( ! second1 !n "* is m]ely 
a jumbl$ *aos ( *ance1 & ! "n habit a   
contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,we may1 p]haps1  
respect ! s+le act1 b we h no reason =  
respect+ ! individual p]=m+ x1 s9ce !   
individual _c be reg>d$ z coext5sive ) a
 s+le act ( 8 life1 & lea/ ( all :5 !   
act gives no clew to a p]man5t basis    
issu+ 9 uni=m action ( :i* law c be     
pr$icat$4 ,9 ?is case1 ! noble de$1 or  
any numb] ( noble de$s1 af=d u no       
security t ! next act ( ! p]son p]=m+   
!m1 or all ! re/ ( ! acts ( 8 life1 may 
n be :olly ignoble1 base1 & vile4  ,9 ! 
face ( all ! consid]ations ?us (f]$ u1  
we _c well f9d reason = accr$it+ ! w ) a
 peculi> position 9 ! univ]se1 z        
emancipat$ f ! natural law :i* we       
discov] 9 all o!r ph5om5a4 ,b x behooves
 u1 9 ?is connection1 to inquire z to j 
:at is ! significance ( ! t]m natural   
law4 ,x has already be5 implicitly def9$

 9 our previ\s consid]ations4 ,lewes &  
sev]al o!r mod]n philosophical writ]s h 
giv5 excell5t def9itions ( ! expression4
 ,lewes writes z foll[s3 ,law is only "o
 ( two conceptions1 7#a7 a notation ( ! 
process obs]v$ 9 ph5om5a1 :i* process we
 m5tally deta* & g5]alize by ext5d+ x to
 all simil> ph5om5a2 7#b7 an ab/ract    
,type1 :i*1 ?\gh orig9ally con/ruct$ f !
 obs]v$ ,process1 does nev]!less dep>t f
 :at is really obs]v$1 & sub/itutes an  
,ideal ,process1 con/ruct+ :at w\ld be !
 c\rse ( ! process 7 ! conditions       
diff]5t f ^? actually pres5t4 ,! fir/   
conception is s f> real t x expresses ! 
obs]v$ s]ies ( positions4 ,x is !       
process ( ph5om5a1 n an ag5t ap>t f !m1 
n an ag5cy det]m9+ !m1 b simply ! ideal 
summation ( _! positions4444 ,ph5om5a1 9
 s f> z !y are rul$1 regulat$1 det]m9$ 9
 ?is direction r ?an 9 t1 & necess>ily  
det]m9$ 9 ! direction tak51444 are      
det]m9$ by no ext]nal ag5t correspond+  
to ,law1 b by _! cooep]ant factors      
int]nal & ext]nal2 alt] "o ( ^! factors 

& ! product w be diff]5tly det]m9$4 ,x  
is ow+ to ! v g5]al misconception ( !   
nature ( ,law1 t !re arises !           
misconception ( ,necessity2 ! fact t    
ev5ts arrive irresi/ibly :5 _!          
conditions are pres5t is conf\nd$ ) !   
conception t ! ev5ts mu/ arrive :e!r !  
conditions be pres5t or n1 be+ fatally  
pr$et]m9$4 ,necessity simply says t     
:atev] is1 is1 & w v>y ) v>y+           
conditions4#acc ,nei!r ,natural ,law nor
 ,necessity is an entity extrane\s to   
ph5om5a :i* gov]ns or compels !m2 ! two 
are g5]alizations m]ely by :i* we       
express a c]ta9 uni=mity t we f9d       
univ]sal4  ,let u return to our analysis
 ( ! organic z matt] & ( function z its 
motion4 ,g z f> z we l 9 our analysis1 &
 we /ill h left positive entities (     
matt] & =ce1 or matt]1 motion1 & !      
equival5t ( motion 9 resi/ance2 moreov]1
 we _c suppose ei!r matt] or =ce to     
decrease by our analysis4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we
 h inde/ructible entities1 & ^!1 n ,law 
& ,necessity1 are ! positive factors4 ,b

 if ! f9al divisions ( matt] leave u    
/ill positive factors1 !n ! comb9ations 
( ^! mu/ be positive also2 n only !     
!oretical atoms ( ! *emi/1 or ! organic 
cells ) _! motions & functions1 b !     
comb9ations ( ^! 9 organisms1 mu/ be    
positive4  ,x is said t ! organism      
answ]s to its environm5t z ! clay to !  
m\ld2 t x is =m$ by ! environm5t &      
adju/$ to x4 ,"h we may inquire :e!r !  
adju/m5t ref]r$ to is pres5t adju/m5t or
 t ( ! :ole developm5t ( ! organism4 ,if
 pres5t action ( ! environm5t is all t  
is _h 9 view1 x may be object$ t n any?+
 9 ! environm5t1 & n ! :ole environm5t1 
is m positive ?an ! organism4 ,! "o ( ! 
two factors _c be reg>d$ z positive1 !  
o!r z m]ely negative1 ! environm5t z !  
active & =mative1 ! organism z ! passive
 & =m$1 ! environm5t z det]m9+1 !       
organism z det]m9$4  ,b we may also     
consid] ! organism 9 ! process (        
developm5t4 ,9 ?is case1 we seem to f9d 
reason = reg>d+ x z purely ! product ( !
 environm5t 9 :i* x has aris54 ,!       

product x c]ta9ly is 9 "o s5se2 t is1 x 
is ! end-=m ( a s]ies ( *anges :i* we   
may suppose orig9ally inorganic matt]1  
or 7if we pref] to beg9 ) ! l[e/ =m (   
life7 simple/ =ms ( organic matt]1 to h 
und]gone4 ,b ! pres5t =ms ( matt]       
ev]y:]e are1 9 l mann]1 ! products ( !  
pa/ *anges ( matt]2 if we trace ^!      
*anges :i* h produc$ pres5t =ms1 9 !    
case ( ! inorganic z well z t ( !       
organic1 back to any po9t ( "t :i* we   
may *oose z a beg9n+1 we %all f9d 9     
nei!r case m matt] or a great] am\nt (  
=ce ?an at ! pres5t p]iod2 we %all f9d !
 same matt] 9 diff]5t comb9ations1 !    
same =ce 9 o!r =ms4 ,pres5t =ms are n   
great] or less ?an pa/ ones1 b _! exact 
equival5ts2 ! beg9n+ 0 n great] ?an !   
end2 ! produc+ =ms & =ces 7 n great] ?an
 are _! products4 ,by a backw>d c\rse ( 
?\ght compreh5d+ evolution we may br+   
unity into our conception ( ! organic1 b
 we f9d no new factors ( =ce1 & ne$ to  
avoid lay+ /ress ^u ! process to !      
depreciation ( ! importance ( ! product4

 ,we may be l$ to suspect t our se>*    
aft] new & m important factors 0 only   
ano!r =m ( ! se>* aft] an indep5d5t     
cause accord+ to :i* all o!r ph5om5a may
 be said to v>y4 ,our ma!matical habit (
 select+ "s "o side ( natural process z 
indep5d5t1 9 ord] to trace1 by its      
v>iation1 ! v>iation ( ! o!rs1 leads u  
to reg>d ! "o side1 phase1 or portion1 (
 ph5om5a z actually ?us indep5d5t2      
al?\gh we =get1 9 ?is assumption1 t we  
may select any phase = our ma!matical   
indep5d5t1 & are n conf9$ to any        
p>ticul> "o4 ,! organism is itself a "p 
( ! environm5t reg>d$ z condition+1 :5  
we consid] ! developm5t ( o!r organisms1
 or *ange 9 inorganic matt]1 ) :i* x is 
9 contact4 ,our m9ds are unable to      
compreh5d ! :ole ( nature z v>iation    
only1 & we fa/5 on "s "o "p ( ! process 
z indep5d5t ( ! g5]al *ange or z hold+ a
 unique position 9 x1 f :i* to consid] !
 v>iation ( ! re/4 ,& ! conception ( "s 
"o "p ( ph5om5a z cause disappo9t+ u1 on
 clos] inve/igation1 z f> z m]ely pres5t

 ph5om5a are conc]n$1 we remove !       
conception f>!r back into a dim pa/ :i* 
we fail to analyze 9 ?\ght ) ! same     
complet5ess ) :i* we analyze ! pres5t4  
,we are n1 h[ev]1 9 ! habit ( trac+ back
 any o!r ?an j ! organic =ms to an      
arbitr>y po9t :i* we call ! beg9n+1 &   
emphasiz+ ?is 9 di/9ction f pres5t      
conditions2 9 consid]+ ! inorganic1 we  
simply notice pres5t conditions & m>k ! 
result ( action & reaction betwe5 ?is & 
t o!r =m ( matt] ) :i* x comes 9        
contact4  ,! action ( ! animal at any   
mom5t may be said to be det]m9$ by !    
t5d5cy or pot5tial en]gy inh]5t 9 x at !
 mom5t1 & ! influ5ce ex]t$ by a p>ticul>
 excitation2 ?is is a matt] ( action &  
reaction2 b ! =ce repres5t$ by bo?      
sides1 by t ( organism & by t (         
environm5t1 is equally positive &       
equally repres5t$ aga9 9 ! result4      
,p>ticul> emphasis has be5 laid1 n[ on !
 positive activity ( ! organism by "o   
s*ool ( writ]s1 n[ on ! activity ( !    
environm5t z mov+ ! organism to action  

by ano!r s*ool2 b bo? sides contribute  
to ! result4 ,:]e action & reaction 9   
inorganic matt] are consid]$1 we d n    
reg>d ei!r ( two incid5t =ces z alone   
positive2 nor d we reg>d "o z ov]come by
 ! o!r 9 ! s5se t x is n fully repres5t$
 9 ! result4  ,aga91 if we return to !  
dispute z to ! importance ( !           
physiological basis ( action1 ! rem>k   
may be repeat$1 t x is m]e dogmatism to 
select "s "o phase ( ph5om5a z ! only   
ess5tial phase1 :ile all o!r phases are 
reg>d$ z non-ess5tial or subord9ate4 ,! 
mat]iali/ :o d]ides ! idea ( a          
,d+-an-si* is himself assum+ some?+ v l 
x1 :5 he endeavors to prove matt] to be 
! cause1 ess5ce1 or indep5d5t1 ( :i*    
consci\sness is ! m]e effect1 prop]ty1  
or dep5d5t4  ,ev5 if x c\ld be said )   
tru? t ! bra9 secretes ?\ght z ! liv]   
secretes bile 7& ! analogy does n hold71
 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! bile is no   
m]e dep5d5t creation ( ! liv]1 b t1 be=e
 x became bile1 x exi/$ 9 ano!r =m1 01 9
 fact1 a "p ( ! liv] ( :i* x is reg>d$ z

 ! dep5d5t creation4 ,matt] & =ce h     
simply *ang$ =m2 t is all4 ,! lat] =m is
 n r5d]$ second>y 9 importance or less  
positive by ! fact ( its sequ5ce ^u !   
o!r =m4 ,! conditions equal ! result2 !y
 are n great] ?an x4 ,:]e is !re1 on    
clos] analysis1 passivity z di/+ui%$ f  
activity8 ,all =ce is1 by def9ition1    
active2 & all matt] repres5ts =ce4 ,we  
f9d simple equival5ce1 t is1 a uni=mity 
( relation betwe5 prec$+ conditions &   
succe$+ conditions4 ,our ,natural ,law &
 ,necessity resolve !mselves into ?is4  
,yet ! conception ( law z some?+        
extrane\s to ?+s1 some?+ )\t !m n       
includ$ 9 _! prim>y nature b controll+  
!m1 is a v common conception4 ,?us ,du  
,prel1 ?\gh reject+ o!r =ms (           
teleological argum5t1 bases a :ole c\rse
 ( teleological reason+ ^u ! m]e fact ( 
law4#acd ,h[ev]1 we "k ( natural law    
m]ely z an expression ( uni=mities1 a   
g5]alization f ! relations ( ?+s2 we h  
no reason = treat+ x z extrane\s to !   
nature ( ?+s !mselves2 & nature itself  

furni%es u ) no reason = suppos+ !      
relations ( ?+s to be ( m significance  
?an ?+s !mselves2 relations are n       
entities4  ,if man be "p ( nature1 x is 
/range t ! =ce )9 him %\ld be reg>d$ z s
 %ap$ & compell$1 ! =ce )\t him1 on !   
o!r h&1 z s compell+ & mighty4 ,no "p ( 
nature is1 z a matt] ( fact1 compell$4  
,all ?+s act & react spontane\sly f _!  
own nature1 & man 9 ! same mann] acts f 
84 ,law _c be def9$ z det]m9+ action &  
reaction1 nor c ,necessity2 !y are n    
entities4 ,=ce is sometimes call$ !     
det]m9+ factor1 b an ab/ract ,=ce we d n
 "k2 we "k =ce only z motion or !       
equival5t ( motion 9 resi/ance1 or z !  
conceiv$ pot5tiality ( motion4 ,!       
concept ( pot5tiality ( motion is1      
h[ev]1 aga9 only a device ( reason =    
br++ unity into our conception ( ?+s by 
acc\nt+ = ! appe>ance ( motion :]e be=e 
x 0 n4 ,pot5tiality is no exi/5ce1 no   
reality2 actual pot5tiality is a        
contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,nature conta9s   
only actualities4 ,=ce is ! ab/ract t]m 

by :i* we include motion1 resi/ance1 & !
 conceiv$ pot5tiality ( motion1 "u "o   
head4 ,motion aga9 is (t5 def9$ z !     
cause ( movem5t2 b su* a conception     
makes ! ab/ract notion ( a ?+ ! cause ( 
! ?+ itself1 unless by motion z ! cause 
we und]/& ! prec$+ motion1 & by movem5t 
z ! effect we mean ! succe$+ motion1 9  
:i* case we h to be> 9 m9d ! equival5ce 
( conditions & results4 ,nor d we "k    
motion z some?+ ap>t f matt]1 mov+ x2 we
 "k no ab/ract motion2 we "k only ?+s z 
mov+1 *ang+1 & resi/+ motion4 ,!re is no
 outside cause giv5 u 9 our exp]i5ce z !
 mov]1 f :i* ?+s are to be di/+ui%$ z ! 
passive mov$4 ,?+s move4 ,& 9           
correspond5ce ) ! activity ( ?+s is     
d\btless ! s5se ( fre$om 9 ! ex]tion ( !
 w4 ,out] compulsion1 resi/ance to !    
c>ry+ out ( a c\rse decid$ ^u or desir$1
 has sometimes be5 int]pret$ z !        
negation ( fre$om ( ! w2 b x has )      
reason be5 object$ to ?is def9ition t ! 
v /ronge/ s5se ( inn] fre$om may exi/ 9 
connection ) su* compulsion4 ,x may be  

suppos$ t1 z long z !re is action 9 !   
bra91 ! correspond+ s5se ( fre$om w     
exi/2 or1 le/ ?is /atem5t be int]pret$ z
 mat]iali/ic1 we may say in/ead3 ,z long
 z consci\sness exi/s1 x mu/ by         
def9ition exi/ z activity1 ) :i* ! s5se 
( fre$om is indissolubly connect$4  ,b  
we may look at ! matt] f ! m purely     
psy*ological side4 ,! oppon5ts ( a !ory 
( fre$om make mu* ( ! det]m9ation ( ! w 
by motives4 ,9 _! argum5t1 ! w is treat$
 z if x 7 "s sep>ate mat]ial ?+1 !      
motive ano!r equally sep>ate ?+ :i*1 :5 
br\ght into contact ) ! w1 sets x 9     
motion 9 some:at ! same mann] z ! p[d] 9
 ! gun drives ! ball4 ,b ! motive is n  
some?+ ext]nal to consci\sness1 some?+  
=eign1 t1 introduc$1 impels ! w to      
action2 nor c ! w be comp>$ to an organ 
( ! body1 ! motion ( :i* is giv5 u ?r\gh
 our s5ses z ! motion ( a "p1 n ( ! :ole
 body4 ,! functions ( ! body are1 9 ?is 
s5se1 a "p ( ! mat]ial _w to u4 ,b ! w  
is no mat]ial ?+1 no sep>ate organ (    
consci\sness 9 ?is s5se4 ,9 ! w1        

consci\sness expresses itself2 & we _c  
say t x is only a "p ( consci\sness t   
?us expresses itself4 ,! motive1 z      
consci\s1 belongs to t consci\sness :i* 
f9ds expression 9 ! w4  ,a simil> =m (  
!ory to t j notic$ reg>ds ! w z det]m9$ 
especially by feel+4 ,b feel+ belongs z 
evid5tly to consci\sness z does w1 nor c
 we say t "o "p ( consci\sness feels &  
ano!r wills1 ! "o "p be+ ! active mov]1 
! o!r ! passive mov$2 ! division into   
p>ts is a mat]ial "o applicable to ?+s  
occupy+ space1 b n to consci\sness4 ,!  
notion "h ( mov] & mov$ is v simil> to t
 notic$ above1 ( motion z cause1 movem5t
 z effect4  ,x is sometimes said t !    
desirability ( an object moves or       
det]m9es ! w4 ,"h arises ! "q z to :e!r 
! desirability ( an object lies 9 !     
object or is only dep5d5t ^u            
consci\sness z a quality ( feel+4 ,?us  
we come1 by clos] analysis1 to !        
fundam5tal problem ( ! connection (     
consci\sness ) ! ext]nal _w4 ,x is (t5  
said t desirability is a m]e pr$ication 

( consci\sness & does n lie 9 ! object  
or end itself4 ,t desirability is a     
pr$ication ( consci\sness is true 9 a   
s5se4 ,& yet x is evid5t t ?is          
pr$ication corresponds to actualities   
exi/+ 9 ! ?+ or end1 on acc\nt ( :i* x  
is pron\nc$ desirable or1 "u prop]      
conditions1 desir$4 ,:5 we analyze !    
/ate ( consci\sness itself1 we f9d x    
impossible to sep>ate ! desirability z  
pr$icat$ by consci\sness & !            
desirability z pr$icat$ ( ! end1 !      
excit$ feel+ & ! feel+ z excit$ by !    
object4 ,f "o po9t ( view1 excitation & 
consci\sness are ! two sides ( !        
conditions1 bo? ( :i* are ess5tial to ! 
result2 b1 f ano!r po9t ( view1 x is    
equally true t ! desire ( ! end is      
always a "p ( consci\sness1 :i*         
expresses itself 9 ! w accord+ to its   
own inh]5t nature4  ,! act ( ! w1 z     
foll[+ excitation1 is sometimes treat$ z
 its m]e result1 h5ce subject to x1     
subord9ate & passive2 on ?is pr9ciple1  
we c\ld also def9e bra9-action z subject

 to n]ve-action & passive 9 comp>ison1  
:]ev] x foll[s4 ,! m]e conception ( !   
cons]vation ( =ce w\ld make x impossible
 to suppose a result ( =ce to be less   
?an prec$+ =ce ( :i* x is ! result4 ,we 
d n call ! evolution ( organic life on !
 e>? subject or subord9ate to ! motion (
 ! nebul> mi/s1 or passive ) respect to 
!m4 ,! m]e sequ5ce ( "o ev5t ^u ano!r 9 
"t does n ju/ify our pron\nc+ ! "o      
subord9ate to ! o!r or passive ) respect
 to x1 ! :ole sum ( matt] & =ce rema9+  
always ! same1 & a resultant 9 any      
p>ticul> in/ance exactly repres5t+ its  
factors4  ,f our exam9ation ( ! above   
argum5ts1 we p]ceive t ! mat]iali/ uses 
bo? ! concomitance ( consci\sness )     
mat]ial processes1 &1 aga91 ! sequ5ce ( 
p>ticul> consci\s /ates ^u mat]ial      
processes1 z pro( ( ! subord9ation &    
passivity or dep5d5ce ( consci\sness1 z 
pro( t ! latt] is effect ( ! mat]ial z  
cause2 inde$1 we are n at all sure t he 
does n (t5 confuse ! two argum5ts f     
sequ5ce & f concomitance4 ,on ! o!r h&1 

! argum5t ( sequ5ce is (t5 us$ to prove 
! great] importance & activity (        
consci\sness 9 contra/ to matt]1        
consci\sness be+ reg>d$ z antec$5t to   
excitation 9 g5]al or to "s p>ticul>    
excitation4 ,b consci\sness is n ! prius
 ( its excitation 9 "t1 s9ce its v      
def9ition includes activity & ?is is n  
possible )\t excitation2 consci\sness is
 always ! consci\sness ( some?+4 ,to    
reg>d consci\sness z ! logical prius (  
matt] or ( excitation by matt] may be   
possible1 b ! /&po9t is ei!r a purely   
fanciful or a purely dogmatic "o4 ,)    
reg>d to its priority 9 respect to a    
p>ticul> excitation1 ! rem>ks made above
 hold good1 t m]e sequ5ce does n prove  
subord9ation or passivity z di/+ui%$ f  
activity4 ,! fact ( concomitance is also
 sometimes treat$ z a "p ( !ories ( !   
causal nature ( consci\sness1 ! bra9 be+
 reg>d$ z ! m]e organ ( m9d1 ! passive  
in/rum5t ^u :i* x acts4 ,9 ?is case1    
h[ev]1 z 9 ! opposite argum5t t         
consci\sness is dep5d5t ^u bra9-action1 

!re is probably "s indi/9ct idea (      
sequ5ce at "w4 ,! argum5t applies       
equally well1 inde$1 9 ei!r direction1 !
 mat]iali/ic or its opposite1 & m]ely   
?is fact w\ld lead u to suspect t x c be
 conclusive 9 nei!r4  ,?us1 9 hunt+ = "s
 cause & effect 9 ! activity ( ! w1 we  
br+ to light1 9 ! end1 only a c]ta9     
concomitance & sequ5ce4 ,t :i* we call  
explanation ( natural process is1 9     
fact1 9 all cases1 m]ely a f9] analysis 
( concomitance or sequ5ce1 or ! analysis
 ( "s new phase ( x4 ,we h only ! f9]   
elem5ts ( ! process analyz$ be=e u 9 any
 case1 al?\gh we are (t5 incl9$ to treat
 ^! elem5ts z if !y 7 ! ess5ce & cause (
 ! process to :i* !y belong4 ,we expla91
 = in/ance1 ! gre5 color ( ! leaf by !  
cont9ually r5ew$ pres5ce ( a c]ta9      
*emical comb9ation2 yet ! gre5 color is 
n less real & ess5tial ?an ! *emical    
composition :i* con/antly accompanies x4
 ,! musical note is n ! less real to our
 e> because we c make ! vibrations ( !  
/r+ & ! air p]ceptible to our eye1 or   

because we c obs]ve to "s ext5t1 & inf] 
fur!r1 vibrations ( p>ts ( ! e> t are ! 
physiological accompanim5t ( ! note     
he>d4 ,! light ( ! fire is n ! less real
 because ( ! heat t ,i feel f x1 nor is 
ei!r less actual because ,i c analyze ! 
process ( combu/ion 9 ! case4 ,! %ape ( 
! leaf to my t\* does n make its        
gre5ness ( color ! less real to my eye1 
nor does *ange ( =m prev5t *ange ( color
 or prove x less ess5tial 9 any case4 ,!
 smell ( ! rose does n r5d] its color   
less real & ess5tial1 &1 vice v]sa1 !   
color does n r5d] ! smell less an       
ess5tial "p ( reality4 ,nei!r does !    
activity ( ! bra9 r5d] ! activity (     
consci\sness less real1 or int]f]e ) its
 fre$om1 any m ?an ! activity ( !       
consci\sness r5d]s t ( ! bra9 less      
actual or int]f]es ) its free action &  
reaction4 ,my k ( a ?+ giv5 me ?r\gh "o 
s5se is totally diff]5t f ! k ( x giv5  
me ?r\gh o!r s5ses2 yet ,i d n f9d ?is  
v>i\s k contradictory or irreconcilable4
 ,:y1 !n1 d ,i f9d su* great difficulty 

9 reconcil+ ! simple facts (            
consci\sness & bra9-activity8 ,& :y %\ld
 !re be su* an incl9ation to give great]
 prom95ce to physiological process ?an  
to m5tal process1 to reg>d ! only me?od 
( reconcil+ ! two t ( proclaim+ !       
dep5d5ce ( consci\sness8  ,! solution ( 
! "q is n s difficult to f9d4 ,9 ! fir/ 
place1 our k ( ! concomitance (         
bra9-process & consci\sness1 or at lea/ 
( ! con/ant uni=mity ( ?is concomitance1
 is only comp>atively rec5t4 ,fur!r1 ?is
 k is n giv5 u imm$iately1 b is !       
conclusion ( a process ( reason+4 ,:ile 
su* concomitance z we imm$iately        
p]ceive--! concomitance ( c]ta9         
impressions on "o s5se ) c]ta9 o!r      
impressions ^u o!r s5ses--appe>s to u s 
natural z to ne$ no comm5t1 ! newness & 
m$iate nature ( our k ( ?is o!r         
concomitance incl9e u to reg>d x z      
/range & ne$+ "s especial explanation4  
,:ile ! concomitant impressions ^u !    
s5ses1 :]ev] !y are con/ant1 become     
unit$ 9 our conception to a s+le :ole1  

we fail to unite ! elem5ts ( ?is        
m$iately kn[n concomitance to su* a     
:ole2 d\btless1 h[ev]1 if a p]ception ( 
all ! details ( our own bra9-activity 7 
! inv>iable accompanim5t ( ?\ght1 we    
%\ld ?us unite !m4 ,we c no m expla9 :y 
! two activities are concomitant1 except
 z we %[ x to be a fact & analyze x into
 its elem5ts1 ?an we c %[ :y j ,prussian
 blue %\ld be ! *>act]i/ic ( "o *emical 
comp\nd & ! gre5 ( plant-life ( ano!r1  
:y ! connection ( ! colors %\ld n be !  
rev]se4 ,! importance we accord !       
physiological accompanim5ts ( m5tal     
process is p>tly acc\nt$ = by !         
significance :i* atta*es to m rec5t k z 
con/itut+ sci5tific progress2 9 ! ef=t  
to br+ toge!r 9 our conception ! two    
elem5ts ( consci\sness & bra9-action1 to
 ^: association we are n accu/om$ by    
imm$iate p]ception1 we are l$ to lay    
especial weight ^u ! facts ( rec5t      
discov]y1 :i* are connect$ ) s great    
advance 9 sci5ce & h done away ) s _m   
sup]/itions4 ,&1 f9ally1 9 ! reb\nd f ! 

old sup]/itions1 ! t5d5cy is to         
exagg]at$ views 9 ! opposite direction4 
,! attempt to correct spirituali/ic     
ideas ( a s\l sup]ior to ! re/ ( nature 
& no "p ( x has result$ 9 mat]ialism4 ,&
 by ! physiological basis we n[ ?9k to  
expla9 ! facts ( psy*ology4 ,notable    
en\gh1 says ,c>lyle1 wilt ?\ f9d !      
pot5cy ( ,names2 ,wit*craft1 & all mann]
 ( ,spectre-"w & ,demonology1 we h n[   
nam$ ,madness1 & ,diseases ( ! ,n]ves4  
,seldom reflect+ t /ill ! new "q comes  
^u u3 ,:at is ,madness1 :at are ,n]ves8 
,ev]1 z be=e1 does ,madness rema9 a     
my/]i\s-t]rific1 altoge!r inf]nal       
boil+-up ( ! ,ne!r ,*aotic ,deep1 ?r\gh 
?is fair-pa9t$ ,vision ( ,creation1 :i* 
swims !reon1 :i* we "n ! ,real4 ,0      
,lu!r's ,picture ( ! ,devil less a      
,reality1 :e!r x 7 =m$ )9 ! bodily eye  
or )\t x8  ,if ! connection (           
physiological & psy*ological processes  
requires explanation1 beyond t (        
analysis1 :y %\ld we n feel ourselves   
equally requir$ to expla91 9 l mann]1 ! 

connection ( light ) heat & s\nd1 & =m )
 color8 ,:y is x m compreh5sible t !    
ball c be at ! same "t r\nd to my t\* & 
r$ or gray to my eye1 & t ! rose c bo?  
smell sweet & be yell[ 9 t9t8 ,:y %\ld  
we1 9 ?is p>ticul> in/ance1 make su* a  
/r5u\s ef=t to f9d reasons :i* c nev] be
 giv5 9 ?is case any m ?an 9 ! o!rs1 &  
:i* we d n1 moreov]1 dem& 9 ! o!rs8 ,:y 
_c we accept ! simple fact (            
concomitance 9 ?is case also8 ,our      
attempts to %[ ! reason ( bra9-activity 
by means ( m9d-activity1 or1 vice v]sa1 
to expla9 m5tal activity z caus$ by1 &  
dep5d5t ^u1 physiological activity1 mu/ 
end equally 9 failure1 9 a "o-sid$      
dogmatism4 ,x is ! concomitance ( ! two1
 to ! ?\ght ( :i* we are n yet us$1 t   
?w>ts u4 ,& yet ,z5o1 ! sceptic1 f\nd z 
great difficulties 9 sequ5ce1 & prov$1  
to 8 satisfaction & t ( 8 foll[]s1 !    
utt] impossibility ( _m ?+s :i* we      
accept z simple facts )\t tr\bl+        
ourselves to solve 8 problems4  ,we h   
se5 t any explanation ( facts beyond    

analysis1 except z we assume "s         
transc5d5tal intuition1 is impossible4  
,! se>* = "s fur!r explanation embodies 
! la/ remnant ( ! idea ( "s special     
sep>ate ag5t beh9d ea* s+le ev5t &      
process1 ) :i* e>ly sup]/ition 0        
animat$4 ,driv5 by ! gradual spread ( k 
to m & m obscure details 9 concomitance1
 & to ev] great] di/ance ( "t 9 sequ5ce1
 x has rea*$ ! f9al %ad[s ( ! "o1 & !   
fur!/ ends ( evolution1 :i!r ?\ght      
seldom travels1 9 ! o!r4 ,t we expect   
o!r explanation ?an analysis1 or read   
into analysis m ?an its real wor?1 is ! 
result ( an indi/9ctness & confusion 9  
our ?\ght1 :i* has n yet lo/ ! habit (  
infus+ into g5]alizations & ab/ractions 
a vitality ( _! own ap>t f reality4 ,we 
cont9ually hope & /rive = "s explanation
 t %all give u m ?an nature1 & yet1     
/range to say1 we endeavor to f\nd our  
!ories 9 & on nature4 ,we ackn[l$ge !   
sci5tific tru? ( ! inde/ructibility (   
matt] & =ce1 ! con/ancy ( _! sum1 & yet 
we nev]!less cont9ue to con/ruct our    

_m-/ori$ !ories ( causes & ess5ces1     
fail+ to notice t we are br++ all our   
concepts f a "t :5 ! equival5ce (       
results & conditions1 ( results & _!    
factors1 0 n yet compreh5d$4            
,,footnotes3  #aca ,see ,"p ,i4 p4 #ajg 
et seq4  #acb ,sittli*keit und          
,d>w9ismus1 p4 #cfc4 ,see also1 h[ev]1 !
 ,grundlegung d] ,e?ik1 p4 #bhi4  #acc  
,problems ( ,life & ,m9d1 ,s]4 ,i4 ,vol4
 ,i4 pp4 #cjh1 #cji4  #acd ,die         
,entwicklungsges*i*te des ,weltalls1 pp4
 #ceb et seq4     ,,*apt] ,,iv  ,,!     
,,mutual ,,relations ,,( ,,?\ght1       
,,feel+1 ,,& ,,w ,,9 ,,evolution        
,hume1 9 8 essay on ! ,passions1 writes3
 ,:at is commonly1 9 a popul> s5se1     
call$ reason1 & is s mu* recomm5d$ 9    
moral disc\rses1 is no?+ b a g5]al &    
calm passion :i* takes a compreh5sive & 
a di/ant view ( its object1 & actuates !
 w1 )\t excit+ any s5sible emotion4 ,a  
man1 we say1 is dilig5t 9 8 pr(ession f 
reason2 t is1 f a calm desire ( ri*es & 
=tune4 ,a man adh]es to ju/ice f reason2

 t is1 f a calm reg>d to public good1 or
 to a "* ) himself & o!rs4 ,! same      
objects :i* recomm5d !mselves to reason 
9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w1 are also ! objects ( 
passion1 :5 !y are br\ght ne> to u1 &   
acquire "s o!r advantages1 ei!r (       
ext]nal situation1 or congruity to our  
int]nal temp]2 & by t means excite a    
turbul5t & s5sible emotion4 ,evil at a  
great di/ance is avoid$ we say f reason2
 evil ne> at h& produces av]sion1       
horror1 fe>1 & is ! object ( passion4   
,we "k no /ate ( consci\sness f :i*     
elem5ts ( ?\ght are exclud$2            
consci\sness is n a /ate ( re/1 b a     
cont9ual passage f p]cept to concept1 or
 f concept to p]cept1 or if f p]cept to 
p]cept ev5 !n ) ! int]v5tion ( concepts4
 ,judgm5t1 exclusion & inclusion1 has "p
 9 all consci\sness2 & ?us pleasure &   
pa9 mu/ be reg>d$ z always accompani$ by
 ?\ght-elem5ts1 ?\gh ! ?\ght-factors may
 escape notice because ( ! prom95ce (   
viol5t emotion1 j z1 9 l mann]1 feel+   
may draw less att5tion :5 ( a less      

turbul5t nature4 ,?is is n equival5t to 
say+ t emotion mu/ always be accompani$ 
by a repres5tation ( its object4 ,to ?is
 la/ /atem5t might be object$ t emotion 
may n be1 at fir/1 connect$ ) its prop] 
object1 j z s-call$ purely physical pa9 
may n be1 9 ! beg9n+1 comb9$ ) any      
p]ception ( ! object produc+ x1 may n   
ev5 be localiz$1 9 fact4 ,b to ?is      
objection may be answ]$ t our conception
 ( its object1 9 ! case ( emotion1 is   
simil> to our conception ( ! end ( any  
p>ticul> act2 t :i* we reg>d z ! object 
( ! emotion may be entirely diff]5t f ! 
object 9 ! consci\sness ( ! be+ subject 
to ! emotion4 ,t is to say1 emotion     
spe$ily connects itself ) "s object1 or 
ev5 if felt = "s "t z vague want is yet 
comb9$ ) ?\ght1 9 t we make m5tal se>* =
 its object or1 :]e x is too fa9t to    
induce ?is action1 t5d to turn to       
memories or imag9ations sad or joyful1  
accord+ z ! feel+ t+es our mood )       
exhil>ation or sadness2 b ! objects )   
:i* x connects itself 9 ?\ght may be q  

o!r ?an ^? :i* onlook]s reg>d z its     
prop] object4 ,into _m an emotion (     
*ildhood & gr[+ adolesc5ce1 = in/ance1 !
 adult reads a mean+ & object ( :i* he  
is aw>e ! individual subject to !       
emotion has no ?\ght4 ,physical feel+   
may n be connect$ ) any di/9ct p]ception
 ( ! object produc+ x 7z1 = in/ance1 :5 
"o bruises oneself 9 ! d>k71 b x is nev]
 unconnect$ ) ?\ght-images4 ,!          
int]m$iate l9ks betwe5 ?is outw>dly     
/imulat$ physical feel+ & s-call$ purely
 m5tal emotion are repres5t$ by localiz$
 organic feel+s1 pass+ by imp]ceptible  
degrees into non-localiz$ feel+ exp]i5c$
 z mood4 ,b feel+ on any plane is n1 z  
consci\s1 uncomb9$ ) ?\ght4  ,x foll[s  
t1 z connect$ ) ! human w1 emotion is   
nev] uncomb9$ ) ?\ght4 ,?is fact is     
impli$ 9 ! def9ition ( w z ! consci\s   
det]m9ation on "s def9ite c\rse (       
conduct :i*1 z def9ite1 is an exclusion 
( o!r c\rses1 & ?us involves judgm5t4   
,:]e action takes place )\t consci\s    
pr$et]m9ation1 we call x organic1       

automatic1 reflex1 or involunt>y1 ! pa9 
or pleasure connect$ ) ! act ris+ into  
our individual1 c5traliz$ consci\sness  
:5 ! action has already tak5 place or   
dur+ its progress4 ,9 ! latt] case1 "p (
 ! act rises into consci\sness z result1
 z already p]=m$1 & ! w may !n int]pose 
to *eck & prev5t ! elem5ts n yet p]=m$4 
,! "q z to :e!r ?\ght is always         
accompani$ by feel+1 at lea/ by feel+ z 
pleasure or pa91 may appe> m difficult  
?an ! previ\s "o4 ,t ?\ght is n always  
connect$ ) viol5t emotion z pleasure or 
pa9 is evid5t4 ,b1 z ,hoeffd+ says1     
feel+ may be /rong & deep )\t be+       
viol5t4 ,if we exam9e c>efully any tra9 
ev5 ( ab/ract & app>5tly1 at fir/       
glance1 :olly unemotional reason+1 we c 
g5]ally trace a di/9ct ve9 ( v>y+ feel+ 
accompany+ ! ?\ght1--p]haps extreme     
int]e/ 9 ! problem involv$ & pleasure 9 
its solution1 hope z we seem to be on ! 
po9t ( f9d+ ! key to x1 disappo9tm5t :5 
! hope proves a delusive "o1 %ame or    
impati5ce at our failure1 or pride 9 our

 read9ess1 & exultation :5 we h f9i%$   
our "w4 ,all ^! feel+s may relate to !  
m]e solution ( ! problem z end1 or may  
pass beyond x to ends m or less di/ant &
 complicat$1 to :i* ! solution ( !      
problem !n appe>s z means4 ,ev5 if we   
c\ld suppose all o!r feel+ to be        
exclud$1 we _c conceive ( a tra9 ( ?\ght
 unt+$ ) mood1--int]e/ or we>9ess1      
exhil>ation or depression1--! dim       
complex ( p]haps _m elem5ts1 b admitt+ (
 g5]al classification on ! side ( ei!r !
 pleasurable or ! pa9ful1 ! agreeable or
 ! disagreeable4  ,is feel+ ! result (  
?\ght1 or ?\ght ! result ( feel+8 :i* ( 
! two is to be accord$ ! great]         
importance ) reg>d to ! w8 & :at is !   
significance ( feel+ z pleasure & (     
feel+ z pa9 ) respect to ! w8 ,^! are "s
 ( ! que/ions g5]ally consid]$ 9 "o =m  
or ano!r 9 ! discussion ( ! relations ( 
m5tal functions4 ,! fir/ "q may be      
int]pret$ 9 any "o ( sev]al diff]5t     
ways4 ,x may be reg>d$ z ref]r+ to      
p>ticul> excitations1 objects1 or ends1 

or to prec$5ce at ! e>lie/ beg9n+ (     
consci\sness 9 g5]al1 or to ! initial   
/ate ( consci\sness 9 ! case ( !        
individual organism4 ,s9ce we are n able
 to det]m9e z to :]e consci\sness does  
beg91 ei!r absolutely 9 nature z a :ole 
or relatively 9 ! individual1 :e!r !re  
is1 inde$1 any su* ?+ z an initial /ate1
 & s9ce we c pr$icate no?+ c]ta9ly z to 
! nature ( su* a /ate if !re be "o1 !   
int]pretation ( ! "q :i* has ref]5ce to 
?is relative or absolute beg9n+ (       
consci\sness _c be answ]$4 ,if we reg>d 
! "q1 h[ev]1 z hav+ ref]5ce to p>ticul> 
excitations1 objects1 or ends1 x is     
evid5t t sometimes "o1 sometimes ! o!r (
 ! two functions appe>s m prom95t 9 !   
beg9n+2 pa9 or pleasurable excitation   
sometimes makes itself felt be=e x is   
connect$ 9 consci\sness ) any di/9ct    
object1 & aga9 p]ception may give u     
?\ght-images :i* only consid]ation r5d]s
 pa9ful or pleasurable4 ,b !re is no    
real beg9n+ 9 ei!r case2 9 consci\sness 
z we "k x1 ?\ght & feel+ are cont9ually 

int]m+l$1 & only _! direction v>ies )   
v>y+ excitation1 n[ ?\ght1 n[ feel+1    
assum+ ! great] prom95ce4  ,?is la/     
consid]ation has important be>+s on a "q
 :i* we h previ\sly discuss$ & to :i* we
 may1 at ?is po9t1 rev]t = a mom5t4 ,!  
fact alone t we "k no?+ ( a beg9n+ (    
consci\sness1 b only its v>iation1 is   
suffici5t to make u d\bt :e!r we are 9  
possession ( any data f :i* to pron\nce 
dogmatically on ! abs5ce ( consci\sness 
9 ! case ( organisms diff]+ f our own1  
or ev5 9 ! case ( inorganic matt]4 ,:y  
may we n equally well suppose m]ely a   
diff]5ce 9 ! direction ( consci\sness   
correspond+ to diff]+ organization &    
function 9 ! "o case & diff]+           
composition or con/itution & correspond+
 motion 9 ! o!r8 ,our error beg9s 9     
assum+ no ends possible 9 action except 
su* z we ourselves w\ld set1 & s 9      
assum+ no end to be pres5t 9 cases :]e  
no end w\ld exi/ = ! human be+1 or :]e !
 end :i* w\ld be involv$ = u _c h come  
)9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! organism p]=m+ ! act4 

,9 ! latt] case1 we speak ( bl9d in/9ct 
or ( automatism4 ,we =get t an end is   
m]ely "s "o ( su* con/ant results (     
function z are br\ght )9 ! circle ( our 
exp]i5ce2 :i* end may come to lie f>!r &
 f>!r away1 = ! same act1 z ! circle (  
exp]i5ce wid5s & v>ies 9 direction1 ev5 
9 be+s z simil> z individuals ( ! human 
species4 ,) ! atta9m5t ( manhood &      
womanhood1 :ole regions ( ?\ght & feel+1
 :ole classes ( motives1 are op5$ up :i*
 are :olly unkn[n to ! *ild & w\ld be   
incompreh5sible to him2 ! ends ( !      
sci5ti/1 ! man ( lett]s1 ! ideali/ 9    
morals1 ! s5suali/1 & ! boor1 may diff] 
radically 9 p]=m+ ! same or v simil>    
acts4 ,h[ev]1 !re is a c]ta9 community (
 ends 9 human be+s1 due to common       
organization & exp]i5ce1 :i* enables !m 
to judge to "s ext5t ( ea* o!r's ends4  
,b ^! data ( organization & exp]i5ce    
fail u :5 we come to judge ( be+s n     
human1 & h5ce we are liable to error 9  
_! case4 ,a sup]ior be+ ( an entirely   
diff]5t species f our own might be      

greatly puzzl$ to disc]n ! motives :i*  
c\ld gov]n "s ( our acts1--^?1 =        
in/ance1 :i* incite ! mis] to />ve 9    
mis]y ) a =tune hidd5 9 ! cell>4 ,a     
sup]ior be+ ( ano!r species gift$ )     
pessimi/ic views1 if we c suppose su*1  
reg>d+ our action ext]nally z we reg>d  
brute-action & plant-function1 might    
imag9e our :ole action to be direct$ to 
! atta9m5t ( our own dea?1 s9ce t is :at
 we f9ally a*ieve z ! result ( action1 &
 sometimes ) mo/ purposeful rapidity2 & 
he might suppose ! suicide1 & ! mis]1 & 
! opium-eat]1 & ! drunk>d1 & ! glutton1 
to be only ! m intellig5t memb]s ( !    
species1 ! o!rs to be l$ *iefly by bl9d 
in/9ct4 ,x is a fundam5tal mi/ake to    
suppose t !re c be no ends b ^? ( :i* we
 are consci\s4  ,! "q z to ! exi/5ce (  
any causal relations 9 ! old s5se betwe5
 ?\ght & feel+ has already be5 answ]$ 9 
previ\s consid]ations2 all we c ass]t is
 sequ5ce or simultaneity4 ,inde$1 z     
psy*ology has r>ely tr\bl$ itself ) any 
direct "q ( ?is sort1 its introduction  

may appe> fooli%4 ,yet feel+ is         
sometimes1 by imputation1 treat$ z a m]e
 attribute ( ?\ght1 :ile aga91 z we %all
 see1 x is (t5 consid]$ z an indep5d5t1 
direct+1 if n p]ception1 at lea/ !      
subsumption ( p]cepts 9 ?\ght4 ,&1      
inde$1 x is difficult to p]ceive :y1 if 
feel+ & ?\ght be reg>d$ z two q di/9ct  
yet simultane\s activities1 ! same      
problem z to prec$5ce might n arise1 "u 
! concepts ( cause & effect1 z 9 ! case 
( physiological process & consci\sness z
 a :ole4  ,b a "q ) :i* ,psy*ology &    
,e?ics h occupi$ !mselves z a mo/       
important "o is t ( ! relation (        
pleasure & pa9 to ! w4 ,a po9t ar\nd :i*
 /rife p>ticul>ly rages is ! problem z  
to :e!r x is ! pleasurabl5ess ( ! end   
:i* moves ! w to seek x2 & on ! view    
tak5 z to ! tru? on ?is po9t !ories (   
fre$om or det]m9ation ( ! w are (t5     
bas$1 ! advocate ( free w argu+ t ! p[] 
( *oos+ ! pa9ful proves 8 !ory1 !       
det]m9i/ decl>+ t ! inv>iable might ( ! 
pleasurable ov] ! w %[s ! subord9ation (

 ! latt]4 ,b ,i _c1 = my own "p1 see h[ 
! demon/ration ( ! fact t ! w may be    
mov$ by ! imag9ation ( a pa9ful end r   
?an1 or z well z1 by t ( a pleasurable  
"o is a pro( ( its fre$om2 z ,i also    
fail to p]ceive h[ x is prov$ t ! w is  
det]m9$ because x inv>iably *ooses !    
pleasurable r ?an ! pa9ful end4 ,9 ei!r 
case1 *oice may be said equally to dep5d
 on motive1 & 9 ei!r case ! w may be    
said equally to *oose4 ,x is true 9 ei!r
 case t ! /ronge/ motive moves2 x is    
true 9 ei!r case t ! w decides ^u ! act 
) a feel+ ( its own spontaneity &       
fre$om1 & guides ! movem5t ( ! body 9 ! 
p]=mance ( ! act4 ,t :i* is %[n 9 an    
inv>iable connection ( ! w ) pleasurable
 motives is a con/ancy :i* we f9d       
else:]e 9 nature & :i* =bids u to reg>d 
w z some?+ outside & above ! re/ (      
nature4 ,z we h se51 h[ev]1 ! !ory ( a  
compulsion ( nature any:]e by con/ancy  
or law1 or ( ! compulsion ( "o p>ticul> 
"p by ! re/1 is unt5able4  ,9 speak+ ( !
 pleasurable & pa9ful1 we h introduc$ ! 

conception ( ends into our              
consid]ations1 & may emphasize1 9 ano!r 
=m1 ! fact t we _c consid] indef9ite    
feel+ alone z ! mov] ( ! w to an end4 ,!
 pleasurabl5ess or pa9fulness is        
pr$icat$ ( "s def9ite object or ev5t1 & 
corresponds to def9ite actualities      
p]ceiv$ 9 ! object or imag9$ ) ! help ( 
=m] exp]i5ce4 ,?\ght & feel+ are ?us    
inextricably comm+l$ 9 ! /ate (         
consci\sness lead+ to *oice1 & ! nature 
( ! act+ individual & t ( ! ext]nal     
objects conc]n$ are equally ess5tial to 
! result4  ,we h hi!rto treat$ ?\ght1   
feel+1 & w1 z sep>ate p>ts (            
consci\sness1 def9+ ea*1 by implication1
 mu* z we w\ld def9e :eel1 tongue1 &    
:iffletree1 z p>ts ( a wagon4 ,b ! ?ree 
are indissolubly connect$ 9 ! act ( ! w1
 & ?\ght & feel+ are n1 z we h se51 ev] 
disconnect$4 ,nor c we say t x is "o "p 
( consci\sness t feels1 ano!r t ?9ks1 & 
/ill ano!r t wills4 ,fur!r1 a clos]     
analysis may r5d] x d\btful :e!r t :i*  
we call w is only an occasional act (   

consci\sness1 or :e!r x is n r involv$ 9
 all op]ations ( consci\sness z we h se5
 ?\ght & feel+ to be4 ,! id5tity ( w & t
 :i* is (t5 call$ involunt>y att5tion   
has already be5 ass]t$ by "s au?ors1 & n
 ! id5tity ( w & outw>d att5tion alone1 
b also ( w & att5tion to ! inn] process 
( consci\sness4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! divid+ l9e
 g5]ally s\ght betwe5 will$ & unwill$1  
involunt>y1 or1 z we say1 drift+ ?\ght1 
becomes dim & unc]ta94 ,b x is evid5t t 
att5tion is giv5 to t :i* int]e/s u = "o
 reason or ano!r2 & ! "q logically      
pres5ts itself z to :e!r ?\ght ev]      
foll[s a direction :olly un9t]e/+ to u1 
or :e!r x does n ! r always turn f su*  
direction to "o :i* has = u at lea/ "s  
degree ( int]e/1 :e!r1 9 %ort1 ! w does 
n 9 ?is mann]1 z ! inn]vation (         
att5tion1 accompany & direct all m5tal  
process4 ,! s5se ( ef=t involv$ 9 *oice1
 9 ! /ruggle ( int]f]+ impulses1 may br+
 into prom95ce m5tal activity at po9ts  
:]e su* ob/acles & int]f]5ces occur2 b  
is n ! m5tal =ce :i* we1 9 ?is case1    

especially notice ! same ) t involv$ 9  
all processes ( consci\sness8 ,j z !    
physiological process 9 n]ve & muscle ) 
:i* ! limbs are mov$ 9 action1 or eye or
 e> inn]vat$ 9 ! ef=t ( att5tion1 is    
only ! outcome ( ! processes :i* are    
con/antly go+ on 9 ! bra91 s !          
concomitant process ( w or att5tion is b
 ! expression1 9 ano!r =m1 ( ! activity 
involv$ 9 all consci\sness4  ,! division
 ( consci\sness into sep>ate entities or
 p>ts has (t5 be5 c>ri$ mu* fur!r ?an   
?is ?reefold "o2 ! division has v>i$ ) !
 p>ticul> !ory & fancy ( ! /ud5t1 until 
"s "o has sugge/$ t we might1 on !      
pr9ciple us$1 assume a di/9ct faculty = 
danc+1 = eat+1 sleep+1 dress+1 read+1   
writ+1 & s on1 ad inf9itum1--! faculty1 
9 ea* case1 be+ def9$ z ! special       
activity t dis*>ges ! p>ticul> function 
assign$ to x by ! "n4 ,only by          
ab/raction & by ! inve/iture ( our      
ab/ractions ) a life ( _! own d we      
arrive at a !ory ( ?\ght1 feel+1 & w1 z 
sep>ate entities1 or p>ts2 9 ! m5tal    

process itself1 !y are indissolubly     
unit$4  ,we h se5 t ?\ght acquires new  
directions ) ! evolution ( ! individual1
 t pleasure & pa9 atta* !mselves to new 
objects1 & t w is direct$ to new ends4  
,if we c discov] 9 ^! *anges any        
uni=mities ( relation ev]y:]e manife/ z 
f> z exp]i5ce ext5ds1 ! con/ancy (      
nature may admit ( our conclusion t !   
relation is fundam5tal1 & we may be able
 to =mulate ?us a g5]al law ( evolution 
) respect to ! m5tal processes4 ,su* a  
law mu/1 ( c\rse1 be int]pret$1 n z     
gov]n+ ! *anges :i* x reg>ds1 b simply z
 ! expression ( g5]al facts ( _!        
developm5t4 ,our consid]ations on ?is   
po9t are 9 a l9e ) ^? ( ,*apt] ,i2      
inde$1 !y are only a m special          
application & m c>eful d]ivation &      
expansion ( po9ts !re notic$4  ,if we   
beg9 ) our own exp]i5ce1 & /udy ! gr[? (
 ?is or t p>ticul> habit gradually      
acquir$1 we notice t x n only becomes   
/rong] ) "t1 acquir+ an int5sity less & 
less easy to *eck1 b also t ?is increas+

 /r5g? ( t5d5cy is accompani$ ) a       
correspond+ increase ( pleasure 9 !     
p]=mance ( ! act4 ,! drunk>d may h d]iv$
 no especial pleasure f 8 fir/ glass2 he
 may1 inde$1 h f\nd ! ta/e little to 8  
lik+1 & ! slight succe$+ dizz9ess       
disagreeable2 b1 ) habituation1 bo?     
gradually become agreeable4 ,! fir/ fit 
( intoxication may be felt z unpleasant1
 n only 9 ! succe$+ %ame & physical     
depression1 b 9 itself2 ?\gh x is also  
conceivable t ! /ate ( ?or\gh           
intoxication may h be5 l$ up to s sl[ly1
 by su* imp]ceptible degrees1 t x may be
 comb9$1 ev5 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ) a c]ta9
 degree ( pleasure4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 evid5t
 t ?is pleasure increases ) fur!r lapse 
( "t4 ,if we /udy ! habits (            
individuals1 we %all f9d a ?\s& little  
peculi>ities ( habit 9 :i* o!rs ?an _!  
p]=m]s w\ld be puzzl$ to discov] any?+  
attractive1 & 9 :i*1 inde$1 ! latt]     
!mselves w\ld f9d difficulty 9 po9t+ out
 ! s\rce ( ! gratification t !y         
nev]!less exp]i5ce4 ,our habits are ?+s 

we are lo? to break )2 & we gr[ m lo? z 
"t passes1 until f9ally no consid]ation1
 no %ame ( scorn or pa9 ( puni%m5t 9 any
 =m1 c suffice to c\nt]balance ! crav+ (
 desire & ! fi]ce pleasure (            
satisfaction1 or ! less turbul5t b n    
less /rong impulse t c>ries u /eadily 9 
! c\rse :i* pa/ cu/om has worn = u4     
,cu/om>y acts are !mselves agreeable to 
u1 ?\gh _! results may br+ ) !m         
disagreeable factors4  ,aga91 ?is same  
pr9ciple is directly traceable 9 h]$ity4
 ,we say1 = in/ance1 ( ! drunk>d ^: fa!r
 & gr&fa!r 7 drunk>ds be=e him1 t he has
 inh]it$ a ta/e = intoxicants1 mean+1 n 
t he c feel _! attraction be=e he has   
ta/$ !m & exp]i5c$ _! influ5ce1 b t !   
habit ( drunk5ness is "o m easily =m$ 9 
him ?an 9 ! av]age individual1          
con/itutional peculi>ities correspond+  
to a pleasure d]iv$ f ! alcohol4 ,we (t5
 notice /rik+ resemblances1 n only 9    
g5]al appe>ance b also 9 m5tal          
*>act]i/ics & habits1 ext5d+ ev5 to     
attitude & ge/ure1 betwe5 *ildr5 & p>5ts

 deceas$ :5 ! *ildr5 7 yet infants4 ,i h
 kn[n v peculi> physical habits to      
appe>1 9 "o in/ance 9 ?ree1 9 ano!r 9   
f\r1 g5]ations1 ) ! av[al ( satisfaction
 9 _! practice on ! "p ( ! p]sons       
subject to !m1 al?\gh nei!r !y c\ld     
expla91 nor onlook]s compreh5d1 !       
pleasure d]iv$ f !m4 ,imitation is n    
always possible 9 su* cases2 9 "o case (
 ^! two j cit$1 x 01 9 ! ?ird g5]ation  
at lea/1 impossible2 & ev5 :]e !re is   
imitation1 x is by no means prov$ t an  
innate t5d5cy does n l5d read9ess to !  
=mation ( ! habit4 ,x may "h be object$ 
t we are v5tur+ on too unc]ta9 gr\nd 9  
endeavor+ to =mulate any g5]al law ( !  
gr[? ( habit 9 relation to h]$ity1      
op9ions diff]+ s mu* z to ! relative    
importance to be accord$ to environm5t &
 innate t5d5cy 9 ! =mation ( "*1 &      
especially z to ! possibility ( !       
inh]itance1 by succe$+ g5]ations1 ( new 
peculi>ities n common to ! species z a  
:ole b acquir$ by individual p>5ts4 ,z  
f> z ! =m] "q is conc]n$1 x may be said 

t ! :ole developm5t ( plant or animal 9 
organization & correspond+ functions mu/
 be reg>d$ z directly dep5d5t ^u pres5t 
environm5t1 nev] indep5d5t ( x2 b t1    
:ile x mu/ be conc$$ t ! environm5t is  
greatly conc]n$ 9 ! developm5t ( habit1 
& t no innate t5d5cy c manife/ itself   
unless ! complem5t>y conditions ( its   
appe>ance are pres5t$ by circum/ance1 x 
may likewise be claim$ t ! influ5ce (   
environm5t no m excludes h]$ity ?an     
h]$ity excludes ! influ5ce ( !          
individual environm5t4 ,we t5d1 g5]ally1
 to emphasize h]$ity 9 ! case ( ! plant 
& ! animal1 & environm5t 9 ! case ( !   
human be+4 ,?is is because our k (      
species o!r ?an our own is m]ely an     
outw>d "o1 :ile ! ideas ( h]$ity 9 our  
own case are confus$ by our consci\sness
 ( ! influ5ce t ev5 m9ute circum/ances  
may h ^u our inn] life & "*4 ,& yet j ^?
 :o are incl9$ to lay mo/ /ress ^u ! p[]
 ( good influ5ces are g5]ally1 /range to
 say1 ! v ones :o w\ld mo/ prote/ at !  
ass]tion ( ! sup]iority ( out]          

conditions ov] inn] ones4 ,x c sc>cely  
be suppos$ t any law ( h]$ity :i*       
applies to ! re/ ( ! animal k+dom does n
 apply to man also4 ,) respect to !     
second ( ! two que/ions notic$ above1   
some?+ has already be5 said f "o po9t ( 
view1 & m w be said lat] f ano!r4 ,at   
pres5t x w be suffici5t = our purpose to
 notice "s g5]ally admitt$ facts4 ,d>w9 
uses a c]ta9 caution :5 he comes to !   
consid]ation ( ! conditions (           
inh]itance1 & makes ! g5]al /atem5t t ! 
t5d5cy to inh]itance ( any function is  
increas$ by ! cont9uation ( ! action ( !
 induc+ conditions ( environm5t = sev]al
 g5]ations4 ,b x may be que/ion$ :e!r an
 innate t5d5cy may n h favor$ & assi/$ !
 action ( ! environm5t 9 ! lat] ( ^!    
g5]ations1 :e!r1 inde$1 ! cont9uity     
ev]y:]e suppos$ 9 evolution does n      
compel u to assume1 betwe5 ! fir/       
appe>ance ( any function1 trait1 or     
habit1 & its atta9m5t1 aft] sev]al      
g5]ations1 ( suffici5t /r5g? to r5d] its
 h]$it>y "* noticeable1 int]m$iate      

degrees ( /r5g? 9 ! int]m$iate          
g5]ations4 ,on ! same pr9ciple on :i* we
 accept ! !ory ( evolution z a logical  
necessity1 despite ! gaps 9 ! pro(1 we  
mu/ also1 ,i believe1 consid] developm5t
 ( any sort to be cont9u\s increase4  ,b
 ev5 ! !ory ( ! increas$ probability ( !
 inh]itance ( any m>k1 function1 trait1 
or habit1 aft] sev]al g5]ations ( induc+
 environm5t1 is suffici5t = our pres5t  
purpose4 ,x /ill rema9s true1 if we     
reg>d ! developm5t ( function or habit 9
 its broad features1 t ! t5d5cy to      
inh]itance1 ! organic significance ( any
 function or habit is increas$ )        
increas$ ex]cise4 ,m]ely 9 ! "o case we 
reg>d ! increm5ts ( increase z          
inf9itesimal1 :ile1 9 ! o!r case1 we    
reg>d !m z ( mu* great] ?an inf9itesimal
 value4 ,ev5 ! !ory ( ,weismann1 :i*    
reg>ds ev]y?+ z pres5t 9 ! g]m1 mu/     
=mulate "s su* !ory z ?is ( ! environm5t
 z ! condition ( ! developm5t ( g]m9al  
possibilities4  ,n only are ! /ronge/ & 
mo/ infallibly recurr+ functions ^? :i* 

h be5 mo/ /rongly & longe/ ex]cis$1 b ^!
 /ronge/ functions1 ^? to :i*1 z we say1
 ! t5d5cy is /ronge/1 are connect$ ) !  
/ronge/ pleasures ( gratification & !   
mo/ extreme pa9 ( d5ial4 ,! sexual      
appetite is an example ( su* a function 
fundam5tal to all ! high] =ms ( animal  
life4 ,hung] & ?ir/1 if long unsatisfi$1
 are connect$ ) int5se/ suff]+ &1 if n  
dull$ by g5]al ill-heal? or too great   
satiety1 involve a ke5 pleasure (       
satisfaction4 ,muscul> ex]cise is a     
s\rce ( ke5 enjoym5t1 & physical        
inaction results 9 g5]al depression t   
may become extreme if ! inaction be long
 cont9u$4  ,9 ?is pa9 ( inaction1 a new 
conception has be5 introduc$ into our   
consid]ations4 ,! conv]se ( ?is pa9 is t
 involv$ 9 ! ov]-ex]cise ( any function4
 ,we ?us p]ceive t ! pleasure involv$ 9 
! ex]cise ( function lies betwe5 two    
extremes1 beyond ei!r ( :i* is pa91     
discom=t4 ,su* pa9 is connect$ ) !      
vacillations 9 ! relations (            
food-assimilation to ! use ( accumulat$ 

en]gy4 ,^! two g5]al processes or       
functions ( all organic matt] are       
reciprocal or complem5t>y1 & ! too mu*  
or too little on ei!r side :i* involves 
pa9 may be look$ ^u z a di/urbance (    
equilibrium4 ,excess on ei!r side means 
want on ! o!r4#ace  ,& ?is br+s u aga9  
to ! conception ( normal function z a   
/able =m ( motion4 ,long-ex]cis$        
function1 fundam5tal functions ( animal 
or plant life are =ms ( motion t = a v  
long p]iod h f\nd _! suffici5t          
complem5t>y conditions 9 ! environm5t1 h
 met ) b little int]f]5ce 9 ?is         
environm5t4 ,& ?us we atta9 a conception
 ( pleasure z t =m ( feel+ accompany+   
=ms ( physiological motion ) :i* !re is 
a m9imum ( int]f]5ce4 ,pleasure appe>s z
 ! accompanim5t ( unimpair$ & unimp$$   
function ev]y:]e z f> z our k ext5ds4   
,function & habit are ess5tially ! same2
 habit is m]ely function4 ,! functions (
 ! species furni% ! f\ndation ( ! habits
 ( ! individual1 :i* v>y accord+ to     
individual surr\nd+s & ! family         

peculi>ities acquir$ ?r\gh peculi>      
circum/ances4 ,! degree ( pleasure 9 !  
ex]cise ( any function or habit be>s    
con/ant relations to ! /r5g? ( ! acquir$
 function1 :ile ?is aga9 be>s con/ant   
relations to degree ( ex]cise1 9 :i* !  
"t relation plays a prom95t "p4 ,"h we  
h1 too1 by implication1 ! explanation ( 
! disagreeable "* ( ! /range & new      
except z x corresponds to "s t5d5cy ( ! 
organism1 "s capability n yet ex]cis$1 9
 :i* case x appe>s z no?+ /rictly new b 
only z pleas+ v>iety4 ,f a physiological
 po9t ( view1 ! new appe>s z t :i* dem&s
 a readju/m5t involv+ ! fre% action (   
natural selection1 & ! possible         
de/ruction ( ! organism 9 case !        
readju/m5t dem&$ is too great4 ,f !     
physical & me*anical view1 ! new may be 
reg>d$ z a di/urb] ( equilibrium4  ,to  
?is analysis ! objection may possibly be
 urg$ t ob/acles (t5 increase pleasure4 
,if1 h[ev]1 a def9ition ( ob/acle be    
dem&$1 x w soon appe> t :at is meant by 
an ob/acle t increases pleasure is n    

any?+ t int]f]es ) function b r t :i* is
 exactly its occasion & opportunity4 ,to
 a man 9 heal? & vigor :o sets (f = a   
walk ?r\gh ! fields1 a h$ge or f5ce 9 ! 
way is no real ob/acle1 b furni%es r an 
agreeable div]sion1 a new me?od ( try+ 8
 /r5g? & gett+ rid ( sup]flu\s muscul>  
secretions2 x adds b ! spice ( "s slight
 v>iety to 8 ex]cise4 ,t :i* is an      
int]ruption ( "o function1 may be !     
opportunity ( ano!r2 & if ! dem&s ( !   
fir/ function = satisfaction are n too  
imp]ative1 ! int]ruption ( too great    
duration1 ! ob/acle may n be felt to be 
disagreeable4 ,b pa9 & pleasure are (t5 
mix$1 s9ce ! satisfaction ( "o function 
may be ! prev5tion ( ano!r4 ,if1 9 ?is  
case1 ! function :i* is satisfi$ is a   
fundam5tal "o1 ! function :i* is prev5t$
 a subord9ate "o1 ! pleasure exce$s !   
pa94 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! function       
prev5t$ is a fundam5tal "o1 ! function  
satisfi$ a m]ely subord9ate "o1 ! pa9   
exce$s ! pleasure4  ,) ! ideas (        
unimpair$ & unimp$$ function z          

pleasurable1 & ( ! new z dem&+          
readju/m5t1 we arrive at ! consid]ation 
( heal? & disease4 ,! free p]=mance (   
any p>ticul> function is ! fir/         
condition ( ! heal? ( ! organ ( :i* x is
 ! function1 ! regul> p]=mance ( all    
physical functions accord+ to ! mutual  
adju/m5t ( ! organs ( ! body ! condition
 ( ! heal? ( ! organism z a :ole4 ,& ?us
 aga9 we come r\nd to ! conception (    
pleasure z connect$ ) ! action t accords
 ) ! heal? ( ! organism4 ,& ?is leads u 
to "s rem>ks conc]n+ ! act ( food-tak+  
:i* may answ] a possible objection to ! 
/atem5ts made above ) reg>d to !        
pleasure involv$ 9 ! act4 ,! morali/ &  
ideali/ are wont to prote/ aga9/ any    
!ory t may seem to give prom95ce to !   
purely animal side ( human life4 ,b     
fir/1 we h to d1 at pres5t1 m]ely )     
facts on :i* e?ical !ory may be f\nd$1 n
 z yet ) su* !ory itself4 ,fur!rmore1 ! 
selection ( ! appetites ( hung]1 ?ir/1 &
 sex1 z illu/rat+ ! g5]al !ory ( !      
relations ( pleasure & pa9 to function  

is n made 9 ord] to lay special /ress ^u
 ^! appetites b because !y af=d1 z      
fundam5tal1 especially good examples4   
,&1 f9ally1 x may be notic$ t ! pleasure
 connect$ ) ! /ill+ ( hung] & ?ir/ is n 
t ( ta/e alone1 ?\gh d\btless !re are _m
 ) :om ?is pleasure is "o ( ! mo/       
important ( life2 on ! tak+ ( suffici5t 
& prop] n\ri%m5t dep5ds ! pleasure      
involv$ 9 ! g5]al heal? ( ! body2 ! pa9 
( non-satisfaction 9 ?is case is n      
simply t ( a s+le organ b t ( ! :ole    
organism4 ,ev5 ! def]m5t ( a s+le meal  
beyond ! usual h\r (t5 l[]s ! tone ( !  
:ole body1 & ! v>iations ( too mu* or   
too little /rongly influ5ce ! mood &    
g5]al happ9ess ( ! individual4 ,on ! "r 
use ( n\ri%m5t dep5d1 9 great measure1 !
 ability to cope ) circum/ances & !     
moral p[] ( *e]fulness4  ,9 connection )
 ! idea ( a c]ta9 equilibrium betwe5    
ex]cise & n\ri%m5t1 wa/e & repair1 z    
normal1 heal?ful1 & pleasurable1        
,rolph's pr9ciple ( ! ,insatiability (  
life may be consid]$4 ,evid5tly ! facts 

( evolution demon/rate ! p[] ( !        
organism to advance by sl[ degrees      
beyond its orig9al normal4 ,b ! progress
 is an exce$+ly sl[ "o1 & ! p[] (       
advance 9 ! individual organism1 at any 
p>ticul> po9t1 by no means limitless1 b 
v def9itely limit$4 ,! limitations ( !  
p[] ( assimilation are evid5c$ by ! evil
 results ( ov]-eat+1 ( ov]-satiety (    
function 9 any direction4 ,ev5 at an    
e>ly p]iod ( life1 :5 gr[? is mo/ m>k$1 
! capacity = assimilation is by no means
 limitless4 ,! idea ( insatiability is  
advanc$ by ,lewes#acf 9 a some:at       
diff]5t =m4 ,x may possibly be an aid to
 ! compreh5sion ( ! process ( gr[? to   
reg>d "o factor1 namely ! organism1 z ! 
active side ( ! developm5t t5d+ to      
indef9ite gr[? 9 all directions1 & ! o!r
 factor1 ! environm5t1 z ! regulat+1    
resi/+ factor1 limit+ su* gr[?2 !       
conception may1 p]haps1 be legitimately 
resort$ to z we resort to v>i\s o!r     
devices :i* br+ into prom95ce "s "o side
 ( a process to ! neglect ( o!rs b to ! 

simplification ( our concepts &         
calculations4 ,a simil> device is us$ by
 ,zoelln] 9 8 consid]ation (            
sun-spots4#acg ,b ^! repres5tations %\ld
 n be mi/ak5 = actuality4 ,! limitless  
expansion ( ! organism is z mu* a       
fiction z a !ory ( ! limitless co]cion (
 ! environm5t resi/$ by ! organism w\ld 
be4 ,! latt] fiction is involv$ 9 "o    
int]pretation ( ! ,/ruggle = ,exi/5ce4  
,ei!r view is "o-sid$2 environm5t &     
organism bo? alike repres5t active =ces1
 ( bo? :i* comb9$1 gr[? is1 at ea*      
mom5t1 ! exactly condition$ resultant4  
,we may notice ano!r ass]tion (         
,rolph's1 namely1 t gr[? is produc$ by  
increase ( n\ri%m5t r ?an t x dem&s#ach 
increase ( n\ri%m5t z ! ,d>w9ians /ate4 
,i d n "k h[ ! ,d>w9ians come to be     
accr$it$ ) ?is /atem5t 9 ! s5se :i* is  
evid5tly criticis$ by ,rolph4 ,9 s f> z 
! /atem5t may be int]pret$ z mean+ t    
gr[? takes place fir/1 & )\t n\ri%m5t1 &
 t ! dem& = n\ri%m5t !n ensues on ?is   
gr[?1 ! criticism is evid5tly valid4 ,b 

! ^w dem&s may be int]pret$ 9 q a       
diff]5t way z designat+ ! ne$ ( gr[? =  
its conditions1 or r 7= ?is is !        
ultimate significance ( ! ^w 9 ?is s5se7
 ! logical dem& ( ! reason1 :i* _c      
suppose any?+ to take place 9 ! abs5ce (
 its conditions4 ,any o!r signification 
( ! ^w is contr>y to ! :ole _s (        
,d>w9ism1 & w\ld accord mu* bett] ) a   
!ory ( ,insatiability or ) o!r =ms (    
!ory t imply a special vital pr9ciple ( 
"s sort4 ,if1 :5 ,rolph makes ! ass]tion
 t increase ( n\ri%m5t produces gr[?1 he
 ref]s1 by increase ( n\ri%m5t1 to ! m]e
 act ( ma/ication1 x is true t gr[? mu/ 
be reg>d$ z foll[+ ^u ?is z its         
condition2 b gr[? & ! assimilation (    
n\ri%m5t are id5tical4 ,&1 9 fact1      
assimilation beg9s 9 ! action ( ! saliva
 9 ! act ( ma/ication4 ,analysis (      
assimilation gives u sequ5ce 9 "o s5se1 
s9ce ! p>ts ( ! act foll[ ^u "o ano!r2 b
 any int]pretation :i* t5ds to draw a   
di/9ct l9e at any po9t 9 ! physiological
 process1 or to di/+ui% betwe5          

assimilation z active1 p]=m$1 & gr[? z  
passive1 suff]$1 %\ld be avoid$4  ,we   
may return to ! consid]ation ( pleasure 
& pa9 z connect$ ) function 9 g5]al1 ) a
 view to a solution1 if possible1 ( !   
problem ( its especial connection ) ! w4
 ,! bra9 may be def9$1 f ! po9t ( view (
 ! !ory ( evolution1 z ! organ (        
c5tralization ?r\gh :i* ! unity ( !     
organism is e/abli%$1 & ! adaptation (  
p>ts or ! developm5t ( special function 
becomes ! adaptation or function ( !    
:ole4 ,) ?is physiological adaptation1  
an increas+ bread? ( k by exp]i5ce1 !   
deviation ( feel+ f old into new        
*annels1 & ! atta9m5t ( new ends (      
action1 are associat$4 ,j z pa/         
adaptations mu/ h _! physiological      
repres5tation 9 bra9-organization1 s    
psy*ical exp]i5ce is /or$ up to be      
rememb]$ on suffici5t sugge/ion1 & f9ds1
 ?us1 its expression 9 consci\s w1 j z  
its physiological concomitants mu/ be   
suppos$ to f9d _! expression 9 n]v\s &  
muscul> action4 ,z we h se51 pleasure   

foll[s ! l9e ( evolution ( function1    
/ronge/ pleasure appe>+ 9 ! direction ( 
mo/ /rongly develop$ function1 s t1 j z 
any conflict ( t5d5cies to function 9 ! 
bra9 mu/ result 9 conque/ by ! /ronge/  
t5d5cy1 ! l9e ( action mu/ always       
correspond ) t ( ! greate/ pleasure4 ,& 
j z ! mo/ /rongly inh]5t function is    
comb9$ ) ! greate/ pleasure1 s !        
repres5tation ( ! p]=mance ( ?is mo/    
/rongly inh]5t function is1 9 ! conflict
 ( t5d5cies be=e action1 comb9$ ) !     
greate/ pleasure ( anticipation4 ,?is   
/atem5t co9cides ) ,/eph5's rem>k t x is
 n ! repres5tation ( ! greate/ pleasure1
 b ! pleasante/ repres5tation1 :i*      
furni%es ! decisive motive to w4        
,cont+5t circum/ances may introduce into
 ! actual c>ry+ out ( ! act det]m9$ ^u  
an elem5t ( pa9 n be=e exp]i5c$1 9 :i* !
 wi% may arise t ! act _h n be5 p]=m$2 &
 ! /r5g? ( ! t5d5cy to action 9 ?is     
direction is ?us dim9i%$4  ,) reg>d to  
?is analysis1 sev]al ?+s are to be not$4
 7#a7 ,x is no m claim$ t ! /ronge/     

pleasure ( anticipation is unmitigat$   
pleasure ?an t ! pleasure involv$ 9 !   
atta9m5t ( ! end is necess>ily          
unmitigat$4 ,:]ev] !re is int]f]5ce1 !re
 is also pa94 ,:]e any /ruggle is       
involv$1 :]e any conflict ( t5d5cies &  
wi%es prec$es *oice1 ! /ruggle itself & 
! rel9qui%m5t ( "o or m c\rses 9 favor (
 ! "o *os5 involve disagreeable elem5ts1
 & ! fi]c] ! /ruggle ! great] ! pa94    
,:]e two extremely /rong t5d5cies ?us   
come into collision1 ! pa9 involv$ may  
am\nt to agony4 ,our /atem5t t ! m      
pleasurable end or r ! "o ! imag9ation (
 :i* is ! m pleasurable is ! "o s\ght by
 w ne$s !re=e to be put into a some:at  
diff]5t =m1 s9ce1 among all ! me?ods (  
action op5 to *oice 9 any case1 !re may 
be none ! ?\ght ( :i* involves any      
positive pleasure1 ?\gh !re is 9 all or 
mo/ cases "s "o :i* promises at lea/ a  
negative excess ( pleasure1 t is1 lea/  
pa94 7#b7 ,no assumption is made z to ! 
p>ticul> k9d ( repres5tation or !       
p>ticul> k9d ( end ) :i* ! greate/      

pleasure ( anticipation or ( realization
 is comb9$1 :e!r ^! are high] or l[]1   
s5sual or intellectual1 moral or        
immoral4 ,x is n by any means ass]t$ t !
 mo/ moral end may n be t :i* is *os54  
7#c7 ,x is n ass]t$ t any direct        
calculation ( ! pleasure to self involv$
 9 any c\rse ( action necess>ily        
contributes to *oice4 7#d7 ,! pleasure  
or pa9 connect$ ) ! imag9ation ( a      
future ev5t is n to be confus$ ) !      
actual pleasure or pa9 ( ! ev5t itself4 
,! feel+ exp]i5c$ 9 ! ev5t may be :olly 
diff]5t f t ( anticipation4  ,9         
connection ) ! second po9t1 ref]5ce may 
be made to an ass]tion ( ,sidgwick's 9 8
 attack ^u ,h$onism4 ,he writes z       
foll[s1 ,we h to obs]ve t m5 may & d    
judge remote z well z imm$iate results  
to be 9 !mselves desirable1 )\t consid]+
 !m 9 relation to ! feel+s ( s5ti5t     
be+s4#aci ,! "q = u "h is1 fir/1 :e!r ! 
emphasis ( ! ass]tion is on ! ^w        
consid]+1--a "q ! context does n answ]4 
,x is c]ta9ly true t decisions are      

rea*$1 judgm5ts pron\nc$1 )\t           
introspection & self-analysis1 & )\t    
long reflection ( any sort4 ,x is true  
t1 ev5 :]e reflection does take place1  
!re is n necess>ily any di/9ct atta*m5t 
( ! concept pleasurable to results      
consid]$1 :e!r ) relation to self or to 
o!rs4 ,! dog :o snat*es at a piece (    
meat does n probably wa/e any "t 9      
reflect+ on ! pleasure he w exp]i5ce 9  
eat+ x2 & yet we d n ! less believe t if
 ! act 7 n pleasurable to him he w\ld n 
p]=m x4 ,x may also be true t a man (t5 
pron\nces results to be desirable )\t   
not+ or c>+ = _! relations to o!r s5ti5t
 be+s2 b if ^! results are reg>d$ by him
 z desirable1 !n !y mu/ be 9 "s way     
desirable to himself1 t is1 mu/ h a     
pleasurable relation to 8 own feel+s4   
,desire app]ta9s to s5ti5t be+s & to    
s5ti5t be+s z su*2 a ?+ :i* is desirable
 mu/ be desirable to a s5ti5t be+2 !    
desirable :i* is n desirable to a s5ti5t
 be+ is ! desirable :i* is n-desirable1 
a self-contradiction4  ,9 connection ) !

 ?ird ( ! po9ts above notic$1 ,rolph's  
ass]tion t n pleasure b pa9 is ! motive 
to action1 may be consid]$4 ,! au?or    
does n mean any?+ else ?an t action is 9
 ! direction f want1 hung]1 pa91 to ends
 involv+ pleasure1 s t ?is !ory does n1 
:5 analyz$1 diff] fundam5tally f !ories 
:i* assume ! motive to w to be furni%$  
by ! mo/ pleasurable end or by ! mo/    
pleasurable repres5tation ( an end4 ,!  
*ief po9t ( diff]5ce is ! conception ( !
 /ate ( consci\sness prec$+ w z         
inv>iably "o ( pa91 ! want ( ! end will$
 z inv>iably pa9ful4 ,n[ x is evid5t t !
 satisfaction ( a function may be s long
 def]r$ z to involve ! sev]e/ pa92      
hung]1 ?ir/1 may rea* a degree (        
int5sity t is fr5zy1 muscul> inaction1 9
 an ord9>ily active individual1 if long 
p]sev]$ 91 may be comb9$ ) extreme      
discom=t & depression4 ,& x is also true
 t all desire involves want 9 ! s5se t  
an end is s\ght because its abs5ce is   
felt z undesirable4 ,b want 9 ?is s5se  
means m]ely desire1 & is n necess>ily   

comb9$ ) any real pa9 ( deprivation4 ,! 
/ate ( consci\sness prec$+ action may   
be1 on ! contr>y1 "o ( exhil>ation1 (   
exce$+ joy ( anticipation2 !            
gratification ( a desire may take place 
s soon aft] ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! desire1
 or ! gratification ( ! desire become s 
c]ta9 s soon aft] ! desire is fir/ felt1
 t no pa9 ( want is felt at all4 ,rolph1
 inde$1 f9ds great difficulty 9         
demon/rat+ 8 !ory1 & f9ally resorts to !
 def9ition ( ! pa9 :i*1 z he ass]ts1    
furni%es ! motive to action z ! pa9 ( ! 
abs5ce ( pleasure4 ,he says1 moreov]1 t 
n all pa9 is felt z su*1 s9ce mu* feel+ 
is bel[ ! ?re%old ( consci\sness4#adj ,b
 unconsci\s pa9 & feel+ bel[            
consci\sness are m]e                    
self-contradictions4 ,specification ( t 
( :i*1 z unconsci\s1 we "k no?+ is a v  
easy way ( deliv]+ oneself f ! necessity
 ( positive pro(1 b x is a v unsci5tific
 "o4 ,) respect to ,rolph's ass]tion t  
pa9 c n be disp5s$ )1 s9ce x is ev]y:]e 
! motive to action1 x may be rem>k$ t   

?is /atem5t seems to accord ill )       
,rolph's o!r !ory t nev] ! /ruggle =    
exi/5ce b always /ates ( pl5ty & com=t  
are ! conditions ( gr[?1 & ! l5g?y      
demon/ration t p]iods ( want mu/        
condition decl9e1 retrogression1 &      
f9ally ! ext9ction ( ! species suff]+ ! 
want4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ,d>w91 ! /ruggle =  
exi/5ce is n inconsi/5t ) ! possession (
 pl5ty on ! "p ( favor$ individuals &   
species1 b ,rolph expressly d5ies !     
compatibility ( ! two pr9ciples4  ,9 8  
!ory ( want z ! univ]sal motive to      
action1 ,rolph cites suicide z an       
extreme case ( ?is want4 ,our analysis  
has already tak5 into consid]ation "s ( 
! cases ( m5tal /ruggle & po/ponem5t ( !
 satisfaction ( desire involv+ pa94 ,b  
:]e "o end greatly desir$ is            
unatta9able1 *oice may yet be possible (
 ano!r end af=d+ p>tial satisfaction ( !
 function correspond+ to ! desire1 &1 9 
cases :]e *oice is necess>y betwe5 two  
or m conflict+ ends1 ! gratification (  
"o may be att5d$ ) a suffici5t degree ( 

pleasure to cause p>tial =getfulness ( !
 disappo9tm5t 9 ! necess>y rel9qui%m5t (
 ! o!r ends4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 ! function    
d5i$ is "o ( ! mo/ fundam5tal ( !       
organism1 its d5ial may be comb9$ )     
int5se/ pa9 & a gradual physical        
deg5]ation1 or ev5 a sudd5 collapse ( ! 
organism1 end+ 9 dea?2 or x may induce  
an act t secures ?is end ?r\gh !        
m$iation ( self-consci\s w4 ,:at is     
true1 9 ?is case1 ( ! d5ial ( "s "o     
fundam5tal function1 is true also ( an  
accumulation ( co9cid5t d5ials ( a numb]
 ( less] ones4 ,our desires are1 inde$1 
9 all cases1 m or less complex1 &       
involve ! fulfilm5t ( v>i\s functions2 b
 we c easily imag9e su* an accumulation 
( small ills z to lead to desp]ation4   
,:]e no *oice ( action seems left u by  
:i* we may atta9 "s "o end deeply       
desir$1 or :]e a co9cid5ce ( ob/acles   
makes x appe> z if !re 7 no *oice (     
action t[>ds any desirable ends1 dea?   
may be *os5 z a less] evil ?an life1 !  
equival5t ( a less] pa9 9 ! abs5ce (    

feel+ altoge!r4 ,x may be not$1 h[ev]1 t
 :]e suicide is prev5t$ 9 ! fir/ mom5t (
 desp]ation1 ! individual plann+ x may n
 only nev] aga9 attempt x1 b may        
aft]w>ds ev5 f9d mu* pleasure 9 life4 ,z
 !re is a high degree ( pleasure        
connect$ ) ! p]=mance ( deeply root$    
function or habit1 s ! p]=mance ( all   
function is att5d$ ) "s modicum (       
pleasure1 except 9 su* isolat$ mom5ts z 
r5d] suicide possible4 ,e end desir$ is 
"o ( function1 & all function furni%es  
ends to ! w4 ,! pessimi/ lays emphasis  
^u ! fact ( ! spe$y loss ( pleasure 9   
ends atta9$4 ,b h]e9 lies ! high]       
pleasure ( life1 t x is n re/ b         
progress4 ,! pleasures we atta9 may be  
cont9ually r5ew$ if rightly s\ght1 b !y 
_c be un9t]mitt5tly su/a9$4 ,we _c re/  
at ends atta9$ & f9d unless5$ rapture 9 
!m4 ,re/ is n an attribute ( life2 life 
is ess5tially motion1 t phase ( x :i* we
 t]m re/ be+ m]e *ange ( function = a   
"t4 ,! intimate relation1 betwe5        
pleasure & an equilibrium ( wa/e &      

repair r5d]s x impossible to obta9      
pleasure except z occupation is v>i$ 9  
ord] to af=d opportunity ( recup]ation  
to organs & cells be=e us$4 ,prop]      
v>iation1 h[ev]1 may enable u to return 
to old pleasures ) ev] r5ew$ & ev5      
increas$ enjoym5t4 ,b x is conceivable t
 ! pleasures ( gratification & ! pa9s ( 
disappo9tm5t may be s ne>ly balanc$ z to
 make life possible & yet end[ x1 at    
lea/ = a p]iod1 ) b little joy4 ,x is to
 be notic$1 h[ev]1 t int5se pa9 _c      
endure1 unmodifi$1 = any great l5g? (   
"t4 ,z pleasure foll[s ! l9e ( cu/om>y  
action1 s pa9 dim9i%es ) long-cont9u$   
lack 9 any direction1 unless ?is        
direction be t ( too fundam5tal         
function1 9 :i* case ! organism succumbs
 entirely & p]i%es4 ,ei!r we gr[        
gradually us$ to our disappo9tm5t & =get
 x to a great degree 9 o!r              
gratification1 or we die "u x4 ,c]ta9ly 
!re are losses ! pa9 ( :i* is nev]      
entirely =gott51 aft] :i* life is nev] q
 ! same aga92 b ! fir/ agony ( su*      

losses is mat]ially modifi$ ) "t2 & _m (
 ! losses :i* h seem$ wor/ to u at ! "t 
!y occurr$ are lat] look$ back ^u )\t   
regret4 ,we progress to ano!r /age1 & ! 
ends we desire to ga9 are *ang$4 ,!     
habitual misan?rope1 inde$1 g5]ally     
d]ives a great deal ( satisfaction f 8  
own mis]y2 & ?is leads u to ! app>5tly  
anomal\s rem>k t ev5 pa9 z function may 
come to be comb9$ ) pleasure2 we feel a 
satisfaction 9 our own capacity (       
emotion4 ,! s5sitivity ( ! poet to pa9 z
 well z 8 s5sitivity to pleasure is a   
s\rce ( (t5 v ke5 gratification & pride 
to him4 ,( ! weak & ag$ :o h no especial
 pleasure 9 life1 x may be said t !y h  
also1 9 g5]al1 no fi]ce pa9s1 at lea/   
seldom su* z br+ desp]ation 9 y\?4 ,hav+
 le>n$ f exp]i5ce1 !y are n subject to  
su* exagg]at$ expectations1 & h5ce      
disappo9tm5ts1 z accompany y\?1 vigor1 &
 ignorance ( ! realities ( life2 & (t5  
!y d]ive enjoym5t f ?+s :i* w\ld h no   
attraction = ! "y4  ,! old "q z to !    
relation betwe5 heal? & happ9ess may be 

answ]$ by ! /atem5t t ! two co9cide4 ,! 
/atem5t is n meant1 h[ev]1 9 ! s5se t ! 
happ9ess :i* we at pres5t atta9 is      
co9cid5t ) heal? 9 an absolute s5se or  
t1 vice v]sa1 p]fect happ9ess is1 or c  
be1 co9cid5t ) t :i* we ord9>ily t]m    
heal?4 ,! two t]ms are g5]ally v        
ill-def9$2 sometimes ! "o1 sometimes !  
o!r1 is us$ 9 an absolute s5se 9        
connection ) ! discussion ( ! p>allel   
t]m 9 a comp>ative s5se4 ,p]fect        
happ9ess mu/ co9cide ) p]fect heal?2 =  
p]fect heal? mu/ co9cide ) p]fect       
fulfilm5t ( all function1 & ?is co9cides
 ) ! gratification ( all desire4 ,at    
pres5t desires conflict1 & !            
gratification ( "o is b\ght at ! exp5se 
( o!rs4 ,?is p>tial gratification       
corresponds to a p>tial heal?2 b we too 
(t5 =get1 9 ! discussion ( heal? &      
happ9ess1 t heal? is no m p]fect ?an is 
happ9ess4 ,! individual is n yet 9      
h>mony ) himself4 ,b ?is means t he also
 is n 9 h>mony ) ! environm5t4  ,9 !    
developm5t ( ?\ght1 feel+1 & w1 we h    

notic$ a c]ta9 p>allelism1 ! atta9m5t ( 
new k1 ! deviation ( feel+ into new     
*annels1 & ! direction ( w to new ends2 
inde$1 our analysis mu/ br+ u to reg>d  
?is developm5t z some?+ m ?an a         
p>allelism1 s9ce1 z we h se51 ?\ght1    
feel+1 & w1 _c be def9$ z sep>ate organs
 ( m9d4 ,& we are "h l$ to notice a !ory
 sometimes advanc$1 t ! feel+s ( "o     
individual c nev] be *ang$ by ano!r4 ,y 
may pres5t a man ) argum5ts1 say !      
advocates ( ?is !ory1 b ?is is all2 y _c
 br+ him to act on ! argum5ts unless 8  
feel+ is already ( ! "r sort be=e y     
pres5t y\r argum5ts2 if x is n1 y _c 9  
any way alt] x4 ,n[ a c]ta9 g5]al       
f\ndation ( "*1 ( fundam5tal feel+1 mu/ 
always be conc$$2 b ?is is n :at ^!     
!ori/s mean :5 !y say t argum5ts c nev] 
alt] feel+4 ,( :at use w\ld x be to     
argue ) my *ild & tell h] t ?is or t act
 ( h]s is selfi%1 said a man to me n    
long ago ( 8 ?ree-ye>-old daught]2 if %e
 is selfi%1 argu+ ) h] w n make h] less 
s2 %[+ h] t %e is selfi% w nev] h any   

effect ^u h] selfi%ness2 y may *ange    
op9ions by argum5t1 b n feel+s4 ,! !ory 
rem9ds u ( ! old idea ( ! w z some?+    
above o!r phases ( nature & s supreme   
above _! influ5ce2 x replaces ?is !ory (
 ! uncaus$ nature ( ! w by "o ( ! l     
absolute indep5d5ce ( feel+4 ,& yet1    
/range to say1 ?is !ory is (t5e/ advanc$
 by j ^? :o ass]t ! v>iability ( w 9    
accordance ) law1 "u ! influ5ce ( !     
environm5t1 & unite ) ^! already        
incongru\s !ories ! :olly contradictory 
"o t x is feel+ :i* furni%es ! motive to
 w4 ,to appeal to any "o except ?r\gh ! 
m$ium ( ?\ght is c]ta9ly impossible2 !  
feel+s _c be influ5c$ except by         
repres5tation & argum5t4 ,feel+ _c be   
tak5 by itself & s influ5c$4 ,b ! p]son 
endeavor+ to conv9ce does n desire to   
ar\se indef9ite feel+2 he inv>iably     
wi%es to excite x ) reg>d to "s def9ite 
end4 ,to *ange op9ion is also to *ange  
feel+ 9 "s degree4 ,:e!r an appeal to   
ano!r is successful or n dep5ds on !    
nature ( ! appeal & ^u ! consci\sness ( 

! individual to :om ! appeal is made2 b 
?is means t n ! nature ( consci\sness   
alone decides ! result4 ,9 any          
excitation by ! environm5t1 ! result is 
condition$1 n by ! "o factor alone b by 
bo?2 & no excitation c leave !          
individual entirely un*ang$2 !          
multiplication ( inf9itesimal s+le      
excitations con/itutes ! :ole (         
evolution4 ,a fir/ appeal or argum5t may
 be felt only z disagreeable int]f]5ce2 
b an accumulation ( appeals at fir/     
disagreeable & met only ) rebuffs may   
ev5tually result 9 total *ange ( bo?    
ends & feel+s4 ,! am\nt ( appeal        
necess>y diff]s ) ! p]son appeal$ to2 x 
may be l>ge or small1 excessively l>ge  
or excessively small1 b ! g5]al fact    
rema9s1 t feel+s v>y z ?\ght wid5s1 & t 
an accompany+ *ange ( ends takes place4 
,?\ght & feel+ are n two sep>ate &      
indep5d5t ?+s1 b are1 on ! contr>y1     
vitally unit$4  ,we may put our old     
famili> "q ) reg>d to cause & effect 9 a
 new =m 9 respect to ! developm5t (     

?\ght1 feel+1 & w4 ,9 consid]+ ! process
 ( evolution1 w1 &1 !re=e1 ! consci\s   
ex]cise ( function1 is ord9>ily treat$ z
 ! effect ( pleasure2 b our c\rse (     
analysis id5tifies function & its       
ex]cise & r br+s function into !        
=egr\nd1 ?\gh ! ass]tion ( prec$5ce 9   
importance has be5 avoid$4 ,! c\rse 0   
*os5 p>tly because x af=ds an           
opportunity ( prop\nd+ ! foll[+         
que/ions3 ,is lapse ( "t1 am\nt (       
ex]cise1 or pleasure1 ! cause ( habit8  
,or is habit ! cause ( function8 ,or is 
pleasure ! cause ( cont9u$ ex]cise (    
function8 ,or is function ! cause (     
pleasure8 ,or is a m9imum ( int]f]5ce ! 
cause ( pleasure & ( function 9 a       
p>ticul> direction8 ,or is n1 r1 cont9u$
 ex]cise ( function ! cause ( ! abs5ce (
 int]f]5ce :]ev] & z f> z x exi/s8 ,we  
f9d all ^! v>i\s sugge/$ !ories         
advocat$1 by direct /atem5t or by       
implication1 9 ! treatm5t ( ! evolution 
( function by diff]5t au?ors1 & inde$ we
 frequ5tly f9d sev]al ( ! !ories        

includ$1 by implication1 9 ! "w ( ! same
 au?or4 ,! vital connection ( unimp$$   
function & pleasure is app>5t1 & !      
necessity ( ! "t elem5t 9 ! developm5t (
 function may also be ass]t$2 b !re is  
n1 accord+ to our !ory1 any reason =    
introduc+ ! concept ( cause into !      
relations4  ,our analysis ( ! developm5t
 ( ?\ght1 feel+1 & w1 has an important  
be>+ on ! teleological argum5t4 ,if all 
habit comes1 9 "t1 to be pleasurable1 if
 pleasure m]ely foll[s ! l9e ( ex]cise (
 function1 :atev] t l9e may be1 & ends  
are ?us m]e matt]s ( habit1 & habit1    
ex]cise1 is a matt] ( ! action &        
reaction ( all conditions1 !n x is      
evid5t t ! =ce ( ! teleological argum5t 
is at once de/roy$4 ,we _c pass beyond  
nature1 by ?is r\te1 to ! inf]5ce ( a   
transc5d5tal cause4 ,man's action be+ a 
"p ( nature & ! result ( all conditions 
z mu* z is ! motion ( ! w9d or ! waves1 
! results he produces1 l !irs1 only     
*ange & nev] creation1 ! only inf]5ce we
 c\ld make f 8 w to o!r w mu/ be an     

inf]5ce to w t is a "p ( nature1 a      
result if also a condition1 a l9k 9 !   
*a9 ( nature1 its ends coo]d9ate ) habit
 b n ! cause ( x1 & no m det]m9+ ?an    
det]m9$4  ,,footnotes3  #ace ,see       
,av5>ius' =mulae ( complete vital       
ma9t5ance3 f7,r7  -f7,s72 f7,r7  f7,s7  
o1 ,kritik d] re95 ,erfahrung4  #acf    
,problems ( ,life & ,m9d1 ,s]4 ,,ii4 p4 
#ajc4  #acg ,see essay by ,petzoldt     
above consid]$4  #ach ,biologis*e       
,probleme1 p4 #if2 er=d]n4  #aci ,me?ods
 ( ,e?ics1 #d? ed4 p4 #ig4  #adj        
,biologis*e ,probleme1 p4 #agg et seq4  
,,*apt] ,v  ,,egoism ,,& ,,altruism ,,9 
,,evolution   ,c>n]i1 9 consi/5cy ) 8   
scepticism z to feel+ 9 animals1 rem>ks 
t1 ) man1 ! /ruggle = happ9ess is add$  
to ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,wallace & o!rs 
reg>d man z comp>atively )drawn f !     
/ruggle = exi/5ce & ! op]ation ( natural
 selection4 ,mu* dep5ds on def9ition 9  
any /atem5t2 b x may be repeat$ t !     
analogy ( n]v\s organization does n     
p]mit u to suppose ! abs5ce ( pleasure &

 pa9 9 _m species1 & t man is no        
exception to ! rule t ! di%>moni\s is ! 
un/able1 & doom$1 by its nature1 to     
de/ruction4  ,h[ev]1 analogy does n1 z  
we h se51 c>ry u f> 9 decid+ ^u !       
pres5ce or abs5ce ( consci\sness1 or 9  
det]m9+ ! exact nature ( ! ends x posits
 ev5 :]e we may suppose x to be pres5t &
 consci\s ( ends4 ,if1 !n1 we apply !   
t]ms egoism & altruism to ! action (    
plants or ev5 ( o!r animal species1     
mean+1 by ^! t]ms1 t1 9 ! action ref]r$ 
to1 su* ends are s\ght & will$ z r5d]   
human conduct :at we call altrui/ic1 we 
may be fall+ into error4 ,h[ev]1 9      
consid]+ egoism & altruism 9 _!         
relations to human developm5t1 x may be 
useful to note _! prototypes1 z f> z    
ext]nal =m is conc]n$1 9 life on l[]    
planes1 )\t mak+ any assumption z to !  
int]nal mean+ ( ^! prototypes1 except 9 
s f> z1 9 special in/ances1 we may be   
w>rant$ by fur!r p>ticul> exam9ation (  
facts4  ,x is evid5t t ! action (       
animals is ( a sort t has z its imm$iate

 & mo/ prom95t result _! own protection 
& pres]vation1 & t !y %[ !mselves       
g5]ally ho/ile to o!r k9ds & ev51 9 _m  
cases1 if n ho/ile1 at lea/ indiff]5t1  
"u mo/ circum/ances1 to _! own k9d4 ,yet
 a c]ta9 am\nt ( mutual support may     
occasionally be obs]v$ ev5 among l[]    
species4 ,"o ( ! =ms ( su* aid mo/      
common 9 ! :ole range ( animal species  
is ! c>e ( ! p>5t animal = its (fspr+4  
,?is c>e is m usual on ! "p ( ! female  
?an on t ( ! male1 & :]e x is ex]cis$ x 
is n ! exception1 b r ! rule1 t ! "m w  
sacrifice life itself 9 ! def5ce ( h]   
"y4 ,su* c>e & self-sacrifice1          
especially m>k$ 9 mammals & birds1 are  
too well kn[n to ne$ illu/ration "h4    
,mutual aid betwe5 ! sexes is n s common
 or s /rongly m>k$ z ! c>e ( p>5t       
animals = _! "y4 ,!re is (t5 no         
companion%ip at all betwe5 ! sexes1 &   
ev5 at ! "t ( mat+ male & female may %[ 
!mselves ho/ile to ea* o!r4 ,x (t5      
happ5s ) c]ta9 ,epeiridae ! males ( :om 
are small] ?an ! females1 t1 aft]       

copulation or sometimes ev5 be=e1 !     
female seizes ^u ! male & makes a meal (
 him4 ,sometimes1 also1 dur+ ! battle ( 
two males = ! possession ( a female1 !  
latt] ?r[s h] web ab\t bo? & dev\rs     
!m4#ada ,female de] w&]+ 9 ! company ( a
 male h be5 obs]v$ to wat* ) indiff]5ce 
! conte/ ( ! latt] ) "s newly arriv$    
male1 & on 8 dea? to lick ! w\nds ( _!  
new suitor & foll[ him z !y be=e foll[$ 
8 pr$ecessor4 ,! relations ( male &     
female among ! birds1 especially among  
"s sorts ( birds1 h1 on ! o!r h&1 (t5   
be5 made ! !me ( ! poet4  ,b mutual aid 
among ! animals is n conf9$ to !        
relations ( p>5ts & (fspr+1 & male &    
female4 ,:e!r or n we expla9 ! societies
 ( animals z m]ely huge families1 z "s  
au?ors are incl9$ to d1 ! fact ( !      
association rema9s1 & x cont9ues to be  
true t1 9 ?is association1 mu* mutual   
assi/ance is giv54 ,9 ?is connection1   
h[ev]1 may be cit$ ! exp]im5ts (        
,lubbock1 %[+ ! exce$+ irregul>ity &    
app>5t caprice ) :i* su* assi/ance is   

r5d]$ among ev5 su* creatures z ! ants1 
) :om organization is g5]ally reg>d$ z  
hav+ arriv$ at an unusual degree (      
developm5t4 ,lubbock f\nd t1 :]ev] a    
regul> battle 0 9 progress1 ! ants gave 
aid to ea* o!r1 b t :]e a s+le ant 0    
attack$ by an enemy1 ! o!rs ( ! ne/     
g5]ally took no "p 9 ! matt]4 ,9 _m     
cases1 !y pass$ by w\nd$ or helpless    
memb]s ( _! own colony1 leav+ !m to p]i%
 :]e a v small am\nt ( help w\ld h sav$ 
!m4 ,9 "s cases1 !y c>$ = ! slightly    
w\nd$2 b ^? :o 7 sev]ely w\nd$ !y ?rew f
 ! ne/4 ,9 _! ho/ility to _! enemies1 !y
 7 m]ciless & m p]si/5t ?an 9 _! help ( 
fri5ds4#adb ,lubbock1 argu+ f su* facts 
z ^!1 diff]s 9 op9ion f ,grote1 :o      
reg>ds x z necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( any
 society t "s moral feel+ %\ld exi/4    
,inde$1 t :i* ,c>n]i ass]ts ) reg>d to !
 c>e ( (fspr+ might be claim$ 9 ?is     
case1 namely1 t ! assi/ance rea*es      
exactly s f> z is necess>y = !          
pres]vation ( species4 ,! implication is
 t all ?is app>5t altruism is m]e       

automatism4  ,9 support ( a view simil> 
to ?is1 ,b5no ,s*eitz quotes ! foll[+   
case1#adc :i* ,dr4 ,altum relates f 8   
own exp]i5ce3 ',9 ! ,g5s d',armes ,m>ket
 9 ,b]l91 ,i saw sev]al l>ks & a rob9 9 
a cage2 ! =m] c[]$ sorr[fully1 ) some:at
 r\gh5$ fea!rs1 9 a corn]1 b ! rob9 0 9 
full activity4 ,x ran to ! food-cup1    
seiz$ z _m ant-l>vae z x c\ld grasp 9   
its bill1 & ha/5$ ) ^! to ! ne>e/ l>k4  
,! latt]1 h[ev]1 did n honor ! solicit\s
 rob9 & its food ) z mu* z a look4 ,b   
sc>cely _h ! rob9 (f]$ its disda9$ food 
?an x let ?is fall & ha/5$ aft] fre%    
food1 (f]$ ?is1 let x fall1 fet*$ fre%  
aga91--only to beg9 ! same p]=mance     
anew4 ,z long z ,i wat*$ ?is int]e/+    
spectacle1 ! rob9 0 ?us employ$1 & v    
soon ! great] portion ( ! ant-l>vae _h  
be5 c>ri$ f ! food-vessel & lay scatt]$ 
be=e ! diff]5t l>ks4 ,& :at 0 "h !      
motive ( ! r$brea/ 9 p]mitt+ itself no  
n\ri%m5t 7,i did n see t x ate a s+le "o
 ( ! ant-l>vae itself71 b c>ry+ x all to
 its fell[-prison]s1--sympa?y & love = !

 l>ks1 :o disda9$ all food1 & :o c\ld h 
tak5 ! same food = !mselves1 9 ! same   
mann]1 & ) exactly ! same am\nt (       
tr\ble8 ,! r$brea/ _h be5 caught & c>ri$
 away f its "y2 ! impulse to fe$ 0      
/rongly awak5$ & _h be=e be5 /rongly    
active1 b n satisfi$2 ! bird 0 oblig$1  
!re=e1 to cont9ue to br+ food1 al?\gh   
!re 0 no long] any?+ to fe$4' ,! c>e :i*
 female animals ( _m species1 :5 depriv$
 ( _! "y1 (t5 %[ = ! "y ( o!r animals ( 
! same or o!r species t come 9 _! way is
 well kn[n4 ,among dome/ic animals1 !   
cat appe>s p>ticul>ly susceptible 9 ?is 
respect1 ?\gh comp>isons "h are p]haps  
sc>cely fair1 s9ce1 ( all dome/ic       
animals t are habitually depriv$ ( _!   
"y1 ! cat is ab\t ! only "o t has !     
*ance ( com+ 9 contact ) "y animals ne> 
! size ( its own k9d4 ,! cat has be5    
kn[n to adopt "y rats1 *ick5s1 puppies1 
ducks1 & w g5]ally1 dur+ ! "t ( suckl+1 
take up readily ) kitt5s ( ano!r litt]4 
,galton1 9 8 ,inquiry into ,human       
,faculty1 m5tions t ! records ( _m      

nations h leg5ds l t ( ,romulus &       
,remus1 ^! be+ surpris+ly confirm$ by   
,g5]al ,sleeman's n>rative ( six cases  
:]e *ildr5 7 nurtur$ = _m ye>s by       
wolves1 9 ,oude4 ,! work+ ants ( c]ta9  
species %[ z great c>e = ! slave-l>vae  
robb$ f o!r ne/s z d _m p>5t animals =  
_! own (fspr+4 ,aga91 ! c>e = _! eggs   
%[n by _m animals :o give no c>e to _!  
"y may be cit$ z evid5ce 9 favor ( !    
!ory ( automatism4 ,9 ! vegetable _w    
also1 simil> protection is af=d$ fl[] & 
fruit1 ! mo/ wond]ful in/ances ( su*    
protection be+1 p]haps1 ^? ( !          
insectivor\s plants4  ,b to all ^!      
argum5ts 9 favor ( automatism may be    
answ]$3 7#a7 t functions :i* are pres]v$
 & inh]it$ mu/ evid5tly be1 n only 9    
animals & plants1 b also & equally 9    
man1 su* z favor ! pres]vation ( !      
species2 ^? :i* d n s favor x mu/ p]i% )
 ! individuals or species to :i* !y     
belong2 7#b7 t x _c1 inde$1 be assum$ t 
a result :i* has nev] come )9 ! exp]i5ce
 ( ! species c be will$ z an end1       

al?\gh1 ) ! species1 function secur+    
results :i*1 f a human po9t ( view1     
might be reg>d$ z ends1 may be pres]v$2 
b 7#c7 t1 z f> z we assume ! exi/5ce (  
consci\sness at all 9 any species or    
individual1 we mu/ assume pleasure &    
pa91 pleasure 9 cu/om>y function1 pa9 9 
its h9drance2 & 7#d7 t1 z f> z we c     
assume memory1 we may also feel au?oriz$
 to assume t a rememb]$ action may be   
associat$ ) rememb]$ results t come )9 !
 exp]i5ce ( ! animal1 "s phases ( :i*   
may ?us become1 z comb9$ ) pleasure or  
pa91 ends to seek or consequ5ces to     
avoid4 ,!re is no reason to be giv5 :y  
c>e = ! "y %\ld be m pleasurable ?an c>e
 = eggs2 ! "o may be z pleasurable to "s
 species z ! o!r is to o!r species4 ,if 
we assume consci\sness 9 ,dr4 ,altum's  
rob91 we may assume pleasure 9 ! c>e (  
its "y & also1 z a possibility1 pleasure
 9 ! results ( su* c>e1 ! pres]vation & 
prosp]ity ( ! "y2 :e!r ! consci\sness ( 
! rob9 includes ab/ract concepts (      
pres]vation & prosp]ity1 is ano!r "q4 ,!

 human "m1 too1 is wont to be peculi>ly 
t5d] to *ildr5 9 g5]al1 b we d n = t    
reason inf] t h] k9dness t[>ds !m is m]e
 automatism4 ,!re is no necess>y        
opposition betwe5 reason & in/9ct1 &    
c]ta9ly none betwe5 emotion & in/9ct4   
,to ! v functions f :i* we d]ive ! mo/  
pleasure we are impell$ by an           
irresi/ible innate t5d5cy4 ,9 any       
p>ticul> case1 x may be v difficult to  
det]m9e ! am\nt ( reason+ p[] possess$  
by ! animal1 ! exact relation ( ends to 
means 9 its consci\sness2 b x may be    
rem>k$ t !re are human mo!rs :o reason  
little ) reg>d to ! pres]vation ( !     
species or o!r s-call$ ends secur$ by ! 
c>e !y give _! (fspr+2 ! c>e is         
spontane\s1 b may n be ! less a matt] ( 
w>m affection4 ,x appe>s /range1 !re=e1 
t exactly t con/ancy & /r5g? ( t5d5cy1 )
 ne$ ( satisfaction by o!r *annels if ! 
usual ones fail1 :i* we use z pro( (    
extreme "m-t5d]ness 9 ! case ( human    
be+s %\ld1 9 ! case ( o!r species1 be   
turn$ into an argum5t to disprove !     

exi/5ce ( ?is feel+4  ,x is sometimes   
argu$ t ! feel+ ( ! p>5t animal 9 ! c>e 
( its "y is1 9 any case1 m]ely "o (     
pleasure 9 ! activity1 & has no         
connection ) ! good ( ! (fspr+4 ,9 su* a
 case z t ( ! rob91 :]e ! effects ( !   
c>e come )9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! "m1 ?is is a 
m]e arbitr>y assumption1 al?\gh direct  
pro( ( ! contr>y may be impossible4     
,naturally1 9 ! case ( an animal :i*    
c>es = its eggs1 b nev] comes 9 contact 
) ! (fspr+ t are hat*$ f !m1 x w\ld be  
impossible to suppose any affection = ! 
(fspr+ z su*2 _! exi/5ce does n come )9 
! range ( ! animal's exp]i5ce4 ,) reg>d 
to an animal ^: connection ) its "y is  
con/ant1 ! !ory t pleasure 9 _! c>e has 
no ref]5ce to _! welf>e1 has no evid5ce 
to support x & is unju/ifiable4 ,if we  
_c directly disprove x1 we h1 at lea/1 !
 evid5ce ( _m facts unfavorable to x4 ,!
 di/ress manife/$ n only by _m mammals  
7:o might be suppos$ to f9d physical    
discom=t m]ely 9 ! abs5ce ( ! means (   
relief ( ! milk-gl&s71 b also by o!r    

animals & notably birds1 9 ! loss ( _!  
"y & ev5 9 any dang] t ?reat5s !m1--!   
indescribably m\rnful s\nds at          
deprivation1 ! aft] depression1 & !     
capacity = self-sacrifice 9 _! def5ce1  
w\ld lead u naturally1 f an unprejudic$ 
/&po9t1 to a belief 9 some?+ v l :at we 
t]m "m-love 9 human be+s4 ,f            
,let\rneau's ,sociology bas$ ^u         
,e?nography1#add ,i quote ! foll[+3 ,a  
female wr51 obs]v$ by ,montagu1 sp5t    
sixte5 h\rs a day 9 look+ = food = h]   
little ones4 ,at ,delft1 :5 !re 0 a fire
 rag+1 a female :ite /ork1 n be+ able to
 c>ry away h] "y ones1 all[$ h]self to  
be burnt ) !m4444 ,j4 ,j4 ,hayes tells u
 ( a female :ite be> =gett+ ! ,esquimaux
 dogs1 ! huntsm51 & h] own w\nds1 9 ord]
 to hide h] own little be> ) h] body1 to
 lick h] & to protect h]4 ,9 ,c5tral    
,africa1 a female elephant1 all cov]$ & 
pi]c$ ) javel9s1 hurl$ at h] by ! escort
 ( black m5 att5d+ ^u ,liv+/one1 0 all !
 :ile protect+ h] "y "o ) h] trunk :i*  
h] own l>ge body enabl$ h] to cov]4444  

,9 ,sumatra1 a female orang-outang1     
pursu$ ) h] little "o by ,capta9 ,hall &
 w\nd$ by a gun%ot1 ?rew h] infant on to
 ! highe/ bran*es ( ! tree on to :i* %e 
_h climb$1 & cont9u$1 until %e di$1     
exhort+ h] "y "o to escape4 ,9 ,brazil1 
,sphix saw a female ( ! /5tor nig] :o1  
w\nd$ by a gun%ot1 collect$ h] la/      
rema9+ /r5g? to ?r[ h] "y "o on to "o ( 
! bran*es close by2 :5 %e _h p]=m$ ?is  
la/ act ( duty1 %e fell f ! tree & di$4 
,9 ,romanes' ,animal ,intellig5ce1      
occurs ! foll[+ quotation f ,dr4        
,frankl93#ade ',i h kn[n two p>rots1'   
said he1 ':i* _h liv$ toge!r f\r ye>s1  
:5 ! female became weak & h] legs       
swell$4 ,^! 7 symptoms ( g\t1 a disease 
to :i* all birds ( ?is family are v     
subject 9 ,engl&4 ,x became impossible =
 h] to desc5d f ! p]*1 or to take h]    
food z =m]ly1 b ! male 0 mo/ assidu\s 9 
c>ry+ x to h] 9 8 beak4 ,he cont9u$ fe$+
 h] 9 ?is mann] dur+ f\r mon?s1 b !     
infirmities ( 8 companion increas$ f day
 to day1 s t at la/ %e 0 unable to      

support h]self on ! p]*4 ,%e rema9$ at !
 bottom ( ! cage1 mak+1 f "t to "t1     
ineffectual ef=ts to rega9 ! p]*4 ,!    
male 0 always ne> h]1 & ) all 8 /r5g?   
aid$ ! attempts ( 8 de> bett] half4     
,seiz+ ! poor invalid by ! beak or !    
upp] "p ( ! w+1 he tri$ to raise h]1 &  
r5ew$ 8 ef=ts sev]al times4 ,8 con/ancy1
 8 ge/ures1 & 8 cont9u$ solicitude1 all 
%[$ 9 ?is affectionate bird ! mo/ ard5t 
desire to relieve ! suff]+s & assi/ !   
weakness ( 8 companion4 ,b ! sc5e became
 /ill m int]e/+ :5 ! female 0 dy+4 ,h]  
unhappy sp\se mov$ ar\nd h] incessantly1
 8 att5tion & t5d] c>es r$\bl$4 ,he ev5 
tri$ to op5 h] beak to give h] "s       
n\ri%m5t4 ,he ran to h]1 !n return$ ) a 
tr\bl$ & agitat$ look4 ,at int]vals1 he 
utt]$ ! mo/ pla9tive cries2 !n1 ) 8 eyes
 fix$ on h]1 kept a m\rnful sil5ce4 ,at 
l5g? 8 companion brea!d h] la/2 f t     
mom5t he p9$ away1 & di$ 9 ! c\rse ( a  
few weeks4'  ,moreov]1 c>e ( animals =  
o!r animals %[s itself (t5 :]e nei!r !  
relation ( p>5t to (fspr+1 nor !        

relation ( sex1 nor ev5 t ( species1    
furni%es ! basis4 ,aside f ! fri5d%ip & 
self-sacrifice ( dome/ic animals = man1 
fri5d%ips1 "u dome/ication1 betwe5      
individuals ( all mann] ( ord9>ily mo/  
ho/ile species are report$4 ,su*        
fri5d%ip is n at all infrequ5t betwe5   
dog & cat4 ,9 ! family ( a relative ( my
 own 7 once a quail & cat :o 7 mo/      
devot$ to ea* o!r4 ,!y w\ld sp5d h\rs   
play+ toge!r1 & 7 (t5 left alone toge!r 
= long p]iods4 ,! cat nev] manife/$ any 
t5d5cy to reg>d ! bird 9 ! light ( food2
 %e seem$1 h[ev]1 well aw>e ( ! dang] x 
might be "u f o!r cats1 & inv>iably     
drove ^! away :5 !y endeavor$ to approa*
 ! h\se4 ,?is cat 0 also fri5dly to a   
tame rob9 :i* prec$$ ! quail z pet 9 !  
same family4  ,& fur!rmore1 assi/ance is
 frequ5tly giv5 spontane\sly :]e !re has
 be5 no association be=e ! act4 ,!re are
 a numb] ( in/ances on record1 &        
support$ by good au?ority1 :]e dogs h   
br\ght suff]+ individuals ( _! own k9d  
to places :]e !y _h !mselves receiv$    

aid4 ,romanes cites f ,mr4 ,oswald ,fit*
 ! /ory ( a dome/ic cat :o 0 obs]v$ to  
take out "s fi%-bones f ! h\se to !     
g>d51 &1 be+ foll[$1 0 se5 to h plac$ !m
 9 front ( a mis]ably ?9 & evid5tly     
hungry /rang] cat1 :o 0 dev\r+ !m2 n    
satisfi$ ) t1 our cat return$1 procur$ a
 fre% supply1 & repeat$ its *>itable    
(f]1 :i* 0 app>5tly z gratefully        
accept$4 ,?is act ( b5evol5ce ov]1 our  
cat return$ to its cu/om>y d9+-place1 ! 
scull]y1 & ate its own d9n] (f ! rema9d]
 ( ! bones4#adf ,romanes says fur!r3 ,an
 almo/ precisely simil> case has be5    
indep5d5tly communicat$ to me by ,dr4   
,all5 ,?omson1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,! only        
diff]5ce 0 t ,dr4 ,?omson's cat drew !  
att5tion ( ! cook to ! fami%+ /rang]    
outside by pull+ h] dress & lead+ h] to 
! place4 ,:5 ! cook suppli$ ! hungry cat
 ) "s food1 ! o!r "o p>ad$ r\nd & r\nd  
:ile ! meal 0 be+ discuss$1 purr+ l\dly4
 ,mr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,macph]son writes me t 9  
#ahgf he _h an old male cat & a kitt5   
ag$ a few mon?s4 ,! cat1 :o _h long be5 

a favorite1 0 jeal\s ( ! kitt5 & '%[$   
consid]able av]sion to x4' ,"o day !    
floor ( a room 9 ! basem5t ( ! h\se 0   
tak5 up 9 ord] to repair "s pipes4 ,!   
day aft] ! bo>ds _h be5 replac$1 ! cat  
'ent]$ ! kit*5 7he liv$ almo/ :olly on !
 draw+-room floor above71 rubb$ aga9/ ! 
cook1 & mew$ )\t ceas+ until he _h      
engag$ h] att5tion4 ,he !n1 by runn+ to 
& fro1 drew h] to ! room 9 :i* ! "w _h  
tak5 place4 ,! s]vant 0 puzzl$ until %e 
he>d a fa9t mew f b5ea? h] feet4 ,on !  
bo>ds be+ lift$1 ! kitt5 em]g$ safe &   
s\nd1 ?\gh half-/>v$4 ,! cat wat*$ !    
proce$+s ) ! greate/ int]e/ until !     
kitt5 0 releas$2 b1 on asc]ta9+ t x 0   
safe1 he at once left ! room1 )\t ev9c+ 
any pleasure at its return4 ,nor did he 
subsequ5tly become really fri5dly ) x4' 
,i cite /ill "o o!r in/ance ( animal    
affection f ,romanes3 ,"o ( a %oot+-p>ty
 "u a banian tree kill$ a female monkey1
 & c>ri$ x to 8 t5t1 :i* 0 soon surr\nd$
 by =ty or fifty ( ! tribe1 :o made a   
great noise & seem$ dispos$ to attack ! 

aggressor4 ,!y retreat$ :5 he pres5t$ 8 
f[l+-piece1 ! dreadful effect ( :i* !y  
_h witness$1 & appe>$ p]fectly to       
und]/&4 ,! head ( ! troop1 h[ev]1 /ood 8
 gr\nd1 *att]+ furi\sly2 ! sportsman1 :o
 p]haps felt "s little degree (         
compunction = hav+ kill$ "o ( ! family1 
did n l to fire at ! creature1 & no?+   
%ort ( fir+ w\ld suffice to drive him   
(f4 ,at l5g? he came to ! door ( ! t5t1 
& f9d+ ?reats ( no avail1 began a       
lam5table moan+ & by ! mo/ expressive   
ge/ure seem$ to beg = ! dead body4 ,x 0 
giv5 him2 he took x sorr[fully 9 8 arms 
& bore x away to 8 expect+ companions4  
,!y :o 7 witnesses ( ?is extraord9>y    
sc5e resolv$ nev] aga9 to fire at "o ( !
 monkey race4#adg  ,z to ! *angeable &  
caprici\s appe>ance ( ! assi/ance r5d]$ 
9 animal associations1 by "o memb] to   
ano!r1 x may be said t any be+ ( a      
diff]5t species :o c\ld look into our   
t[ns & cities might easily f9d z great  
problems ( caprice "h z among ! ants &  
bees4 ,we1 too1 leave our fell[s to p]i%

 unaid$2 we1 too1 kill (f1 by neglect & 
h>d usage1 (t5 n only or *iefly our     
drones1 b ev5 "s ( our mo/ indu/ri\s1   
useful memb]s ( society4 ,) u1 too1 !re 
is v (t5 great] ho/ility t[>ds enemies  
?an k9dness t[>ds fri5ds4 ,_m savage    
tribes1 t we c]ta9ly conc$e to be end[$ 
) intellig5ce1 c\ld le>n ( ! ants1 r ?an
 tea* !m1 ) reg>d to ! duties ( mutual  
aid4 ,) reg>d to o!r species ?an 8 own1 
ev5 s-call$ civiliz$ man is (t5 em95tly 
selfi% & cruel4 ,among ! savages ! mo/  
extreme cruelty is (t5 %[n4 ,ba91 9 an  
essay entitl$ ,is !re ,su* a ,?+ z ,pure
 ,malevol5ce8 cites f a book1 ,sib]ian  
,pictures1 toge!r ) m5tion ( ! pleasure 
%[n by onlook]s 9 ! dr[n+ ( a man1 an   
in/ance :]e boys seem$ to f9d a g5u9e & 
peculi> delight 9 sl[ly roa/+ a dog to  
dea?4#adh ,& ,bruce describes 9 8       
travels ! fea/s ( ! ,abyss9ians1 :]e !  
fle% 0 cut f an ox alive & bell[+ ) pa94
 ,b our police c\rts frequ5tly be>      
witness to ! possibility ( ! mo/ wanton 
cruelty p]=m$ by p )9 our own mo/       

enlight5$ societies1 al?\gh we may claim
 t cruelty is n s g5]al 9 civiliz$      
societies4 ,i p]sonally h kn[n ( a case 
:]e1 a horse becom+ sudd5ly ill & fall+ 
^u ! road1 x 0 prodd$ by its own] ) a   
pit*=k until x di$ ( its w\nds2 & (     
ano!r case :]e a man fa/5$ to a tree a  
h>mless kitt5 t _h w&]$ into 8 y>d1 &   
delib]ately /on$ x to dea?4 ,surely we h
 v little "r to criticise ! slaught] (  
animals by o!r species1 :ile we         
ourselves "n ! tak+ ( life sport4 ,our  
criticism ( ! play ( ! cat ) ! m\se z   
cruel is humor\s--if !re c be any humor 
connect$ ) cruelty--z long z we         
ourselves f9d delight 9 ! prolong$      
/ruggle ( ! tr\t & ! torture ( !        
fox-*ase4 ,p]haps ! cat may be "u !     
impression t ! m\se takes pleasure 9 be+
 play$ )2 c]ta9ly we c believe t ?is is 
possible1 :5 be+s :o claim to possess s 
mu* high] intellig5ce c gravely ass]t t 
! fox enjoys ! *ase4  ,among/ s-call$   
civiliz$ human be+s1 too1 ! c>e ( p>5ts 
= (fspr+ is by no means univ]sal1 &     

mo!rs are kn[n :om n ev5 ! fe> ( ! law c
 h9d] f sacrific+ _! *ildr5 by ! sl[    
torture ( />vation = ! ga9 ( a few p\nds
 or = ev5 simple relief f ! tr\ble ( _! 
re>+4 ,! reports ( ! ,society = !       
,prev5tion ( ,cruelty to ,*ildr5 %[ t n 
/rang]s b p>5ts are ! mo/ frequ5t s9n]s 
aga9/ ! *ild4 ,nor is infanticide &     
neglect conf9$ to ! poor] classes4 ,i   
repeat1 if a be+ ( "s o!r species enabl$
 to obta9 only su* ext]nal k ( u z we h 
( o!r species1 "s be+ behold+ u1 =      
in/ance1 f di/ant planets1 %\ld endeavor
 to =m a !ory ( our inn] egoism &       
altruism1 ( s5tim5t & motive1 he might  
be z puzzl$ z we are :5 we /udy !       
conduct ( bees & ants4 ,ev5 !           
helplessness ( ! ant species1 ,poly]gus 
rufesc5s1 at :i* we (t5 wond] z         
/upidity1 has its p>allel 9 "s ( ! =m]  
slave-own]s ( ! s\!rn /ates ( ,nor?     
,am]ica1 :o live 9 ! utmo/ pov]ty &     
ignorance because !y h lo/ ! habits (   
indu/ry & consid] "w b5ea? !m4 ,"m-love 
is c]ta9ly ! rule among/ u2 b x is n m  

con/ant or self-sacrific+ ?an ) "s o!r  
species1 ?\gh x1 9 g5]al1 accompanies ! 
*ild f>!r 9 8 c>e]4 ,?is rule is n1     
h[ev]1 univ]sal4 ,human mo!rs ( a l[]   
type1 :o %[ fondness = _! *ildr5 :5 !y  
are little1 (t5 exhibit little or none =
 !m aft] !y h gr[n out ( arms4  ,x is   
claim$ t altruism 01 9 its orig91       
egoism4 ,ev]y?+ dep5ds1 9 !ory on ?is   
po9t1 on our def9ition ( ! t]ms orig9 & 
altruism4 ,if we reg>d ! life ( animals 
9 g5]al or ! life ( any p>ticul> species
 z hav+ be5 non-social be=e x 0 social1 
& z hav+ become social ?r\gh increase ( 
numb]s1 ! *ance association :i* arose   
naturally 9 ?is way be+ favor$ by       
natural selection1 we mu/ assume        
function fundam5tally advantage\s to    
self )\t reg>d to ! results to o!r be+s 
to h be5 prim>y1 :e!r or n we call ?is  
function egoism4 ,) reg>d to animal life
 9 g5]al1 we _c avoid adopt+ "s su* view
 z ?is1 s9ce we f9d few species =m+ la/+
 bonds ( association1 a l>ge numb] =m+  
only exce$+ly %ort ones1 & "s =m+ none  

at all1 & s9ce we mu/ fur!rmore suppose 
a sc>city ( liv+ individuals to h prec$$
 _! multiplicity4 ,moreov]1 we _c       
suppose consci\sness to h be5 abs5t1 9 !
 case ( _m ( ! animal species1 dur+ !   
:ole ( ?is developm5t4 ,& :]e !re is    
consci\sness1 pleasure mu/ be a         
concomitant along ! l9e ( developm5t1 & 
cu/om>y =ms ( action come to pres5t     
ends1 :e!r or n ! individual has !      
ab/ract concept ( ends4  ,b we ne$ to   
rememb] t ev5 ! human race has n yet    
arriv$ at p]fection1 & t ev5 moral      
altruism 7= n all altruism is necess>ily
 moral7 is n yet absolutely atta9$ 9 any
 species4 ,our ord9>y use ( ! t]m is    
progressive2 t :i* is altrui/ic at "o   
p]iod ( hi/ory is (t5 look$ ^u1 at a    
lat] p]iod1 z m]ely a high] =m ( egoism4
 ,?is fact %\ld be borne 9 m9d :51 9    
,e?ics or ,political ,economy1 we       
inquire :e!r man 01 9 ! beg9n+1         
altrui/ic4 ,:at d we mean "h by         
altruism1 & :at by beg9n+8 ,a simil>    
criticism may be made on ! r m usual "q 

z to :e!r man 01 9 ! beg9n+1 social2 :at
 is ! beg9n+ ( our species1 & :at degree
 ( association is necess>y 9 ord] t !   
individuals associat+ may be t]m$       
social8 ,! "q is a difficult "o to answ]
 f any po9t ( view4 ,:ile ! majority (  
human be+s1 ev5 ! mo/ savage1 %[ "s     
degree ( greg>i\sness1 !re appe> to be  
"s tribes t are ev5 less social 9 _!    
habits ?an ! mo/ ( our ape-c\s9s4 ,mr4  
,dalton says ( ! savages ( ,inn] ,borneo
 t !y live 9 ! mo/ p]fect /ate ( nature1
 d n cultivate ! e>? or live 9 huts1 d n
 eat ei!r rice or salt1 & d n associate 
) ea* o!r1 b w&] l wild animals 9 ! =e/4
 ,! sexes meet 9 ! jungle1 or ! man     
c>ries away a woman f "s campong4 ,:5 ! 
*ildr5 are old en\gh to %ift = !mselves1
 !y usually sep>ate1 nei!r "o aft]w>ds  
?9k+ ( ! o!r4#adi  ,z to j :at =m !     
developm5t ( altruism f egoism may h    
assum$ 9 ! case ( any p>ticul> species1 
or h[ ! individuals ( ! species may fir/
 h be5 l$ to association1 ! /ate (      
sci5ce does n1 at pres5t1 enable u to   

say4 ,mo/ au?ors1 inde$1 incl9e to class
 all social developm5t z hav+ its orig9 
9 "s "o =m ( family relation4 ,rolph1 = 
in/ance1 ref]s x to ! necess>y          
association ( ! sexes1 at c]ta9 times1 =
 ! purpose ( copulation4 ,o!rs reg>d !  
c>e ( ! female = its "y z ! prim>y =m f 
:i* all social organization has         
develop$4 ,inasmu*1 h[ev]1 z ! l9e (    
asc5t f primitive protoplasm to man _c  
be reg>d$ z /raight1 b has v _m bran*es1
 x is q conceivable t ! developm5t may h
 tak5 place 9 diff]5t ways 9 diff]5t    
bran*es or diff]5t species2 & ! v v>i\s 
=ms :i* social organization %[s 9       
diff]5t species is direct evid5ce 9     
favor ( su* a supposition4 ,?us x is n1 
= in/ance1 9 "s species1 ! "m animal1 b 
! male1 :o c>es = ! "y1 & aga91 9 o!r   
cases1 affectionate relations ( ! sexes 
are n a prom95t feature ( ! social      
/ructure4 ,! attitude ( a sw>m ( bees   
t[>ds ! que51 h] prog5y1 & ! drones1    
pres5ts aspects entirely diff]5t f ^? ( 
ant-ne/s or human tribal or /ate        

organization4 ,9 "s species :]e ! female
 exhibits consid]able c>e & conc]n = h] 
eggs or (fspr+1 !re is no especial      
fri5dl9ess betwe5 ! sexes1 & 9 o!r      
cases1 :]e no c>e is giv5 to (fspr+1 !re
 is /ill app>5tly "s degree (           
fri5dl9ess1 or at lea/ ( physical       
attraction1 betwe5 male & female4 ,x is 
n only conceivable t ! habit (          
association may h be5 develop$ by       
diff]5t means 9 diff]5t species1 b x is 
also conceivable t1 9 "s cases1 sev]al  
=ms ( family relation may h assi/$      
equally1 & 9 o!r cases h unit$1 ev5 if n
 9 equal measure1 9 produc+ ! result4 ,!
 association ( p>5t ) (fspr+1 = in/ance1
 is 9 mo/ cases impossible )\t "s degree
 ( association betwe5 ! (fspr+4  ,h[ev] 
we may suppose social relations to h    
orig9at$ 9 ! case ( any p>ticul>        
species1 :e!r ?r\gh ! sexual or ! p>5tal
 relations or ?r\gh bo? comb9$1 & :e!r  
we trace ^! relations !mselves back1 9 !
 "o in/ance1 to ! orig9al union ( !     
sexes 9 ! individual1 & propagation z   

self-division1 9 ! o!r to ! unity ( "m &
 (fspr+ be=e ! individual life comm5ces1
 or :e!r we simply beg9 ) "s non-ho/ile 
contact ( individuals z already exi/5t1 
x is evid5t t1 ) increas+ competition1  
cooep]ation mu/ be to ! advantage ( ^?  
cooep]at+4 ,^? individuals ^: s+le /r5g?
 is supplem5t$ by ! aid ( o!rs mu/      
succe$ be/ 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4       
,moreov]1 ) ! ex]cise ( altrui/ic =ms ( 
action1 we mu/ suppose pleasure 9 its   
ex]cise to increase1 9 s f> z we suppose
 any consci\sness at all 9 ! animal     
p]=m+ ! action4 ,! great] ! degree (    
ex]cise1 ! great] ! pleasure connect$ ) 
! action1 & ! m readily ! organism w    
respond to conditions p]mitt+ its       
accompli%m5t2 :ile repetition1 aga91 mu/
 increase t5d5cy to repetition4 ,?is is 
true n only ( exactly ! same =m (       
action1 b also ( simil> =ms1 t is1 ( =ms
 hav+ "s l elem5ts4 ,! conditions (     
action are nev] exactly ! same2 !       
environm5t is cont9ually *ang+2 b !     
animal t5ds to *oose1 among possible =ms

 ( action1 t :i* corresponds mo/ ne>ly  
to mo/ ex]cis$ & pleasurable =ms4  ,at j
 :at p]iod we are to reg>d ! altrui/ic  
=ms ( action z becom+ 9 _s altrui/ic    
dep5ds1 z has already be5 said1 on our  
def9ition ( ! degree ( dis9t]e/$ feel+  
necess>y to altruism prop]1 aside f our 
!ories ( ! exi/5ce & =m ( consci\sness 9
 ! case ( any p>ticul> species at any   
p>ticul> po9t ( developm5t4 ,9 ! case ( 
ev5 dis9t]e/$ human action1 ! altruism  
is n g5]ally1 or at lea/ 9 v _m cases1  
:olly unmix$ ) any ?\ght ( self1 ?\gh   
?is ?\ght may n hold fir/ place4 ,if    
self-sacrifice be ! te/ ( altrui/ic     
feel+1 !n we mu/ suppose ! latt] to     
exi/1 9 "s relations1 ev5 f> d[n 9 !    
scale ( be+4 ,9 ?is case1 j z 9 o!r     
cases :]e *oice is necess>y1 ! /rong]   
t5d5cy conqu]s ev5 ) ! result ( pa9 (   
disappo9tm5t 9 "s o!r direction4 ,! case
 ( altrui/ic action is h5ce n unique 9  
?is respect1 & x might p]haps be argu$ t
 su* self-sacrifice w\ld !re=e be       
possible )\t any consid]ation or        

consci\sness ( ! good accru+ to o!rs    
?r\gh its p]=mance4 ,b if we analyze !  
developm5t ( any habit1 we f9d t !      
pleasure ( ! act spe$ily connects itself
 ) all ! con/ant results ( ! act t come 
)9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! p]=m] ( ! act & are   
recogniz$ z its results4 ,any result at 
fir/ unpleasant mu/1 if x is con/ant1   
ei!r lead to ! discont9uance ( ! act or 
else1 ) "t1 lose mu* ( its quality (    
unpleasantness4 ,ei!r ! expect$ pa9 (   
?is "o factor is suffici5t to           
c\nt]balance ! pleasure await$ 9 ! act1 
& a repetition ( ! act is ?us avoid$1   
or1 z 9 all o!r cases ( habitual        
exp]i5ce1 ! pa9 or discom=t gradually   
dim9i%es1 until1 if ! habit be long     
en\gh cont9u$1 pleasure takes its place4
 ,! pleasure ( o!rs mu/ be a con/ant    
result ( action t secures _! welf>e1 &  
if ?is result comes )9 ! consci\s       
exp]i5ce ( ! p]=m] ( ! action1 we c     
sc>cely avoid suppos+ t1 ev5 if 8 action
 is 9 ! beg9n+ purely selfi%1 ! pleasure
 ( ^? b5efit$ mu/ come 9 "t to play a "p

 9 ! pleasure ( ! p]=m]4 ,! "p x plays w
 n be1 9 ! beg9n+1 naturally1 a v       
important "o1 b its importance w        
increase ) "t4 ,if ?is is true 9 a      
measure ev5 ( ! individual1 x is d\bly  
true ( ! species4 ,:]ev]1 !re=e1 we may 
suppose ! exi/5ce ( suffici5t           
intellig5ce = ! inf]5ce ( pleasure f its
 out] signs 9 o!rs1 x mu/ be admitt$ to 
be possible & ev5 probable t con/ant    
habits ( self-sacrifice & helpfulness to
 o!rs w be accompani$ by "s measure (   
altrui/ic feel+4 ,& ev5 if we suppose an
 insuffici5cy ( intellig5ce = su*       
inf]5ce1 x is /ill possible & ev5       
probable t ! con/ant symptoms ( pleasure
 9 o!rs w come to be a "p ( ! conditions
 ( ! pleasure ( ! individual or !       
species 9 :om habits ( self-sacrifice h 
become con/ant1 al?\gh _! inn]          
significance is n recogniz$4 ,x may be  
object$ t1 if actual altrui/ic feel+ 7  
pres5t 9 animals :i* %[ a c]ta9 am\nt ( 
helpfulness t[>ds o!rs ( _! k9d1 ?is    
altruism w\ld n des]t ^! o!rs at ! v "t 

( _! greate/ ne$ or :5 any great p]il to
 self is involv$1 or t x w\ld %[ itself 
9 _m o!r acts ?an j ^? :i*1 z 9 ! case (
 ! ants1 secure ! pres]vation ( a       
society1 or 9 t ( "s o!r species give a 
c]ta9 protection to ! female dur+ bre$+ 
"t4 ,! argum5t is :olly inconclusive1 & 
has already be5 answ]$4 ,! action (     
natural selection 9 ! pres]vation ( ^?  
=ms ( t5d5cy t secure ! pres]vation ( ! 
species does n annul ! action ( ! w or  
r5d] ! pres5ce ( /rong emotion 9 !      
direction ( ! t5d5cy ?us pres]v$        
impossible2 on ! contr>y1 we mu/ suppose
 all t5d5cy1 9 man equally ) o!r animal 
species1 to be ! result ( natural       
selection4 ,& 9 man1 too1 altruism t is 
suffici5t = "s degree ( sacrifice is    
insuffici5t = a great]4 ,9 man1 z 9 o!r 
species1 altrui/ic feel+ & altrui/ic    
action v>y accord+ to ! p>ticul>        
directions 9 :i* habit 9 ! species & 9 !
 individual has be5 cultivat$4 ,m5 &    
wom5 :o are n k9d to ea* o!r w frequ5tly
 be k9d to little *ildr54 ,! av]age     

,engli%man is k9d to 8 dog 9 spite ( 8  
total indiff]5ce to ! pa9 inflict$ on ! 
v ne>ly if n q z intellig5t fox2 & he w 
gr[ indignant to ! v]ge ( te>s ov] abuse
 ( a horse1 :ile he w reg>d ! l abuse ) 
little or no emotion :5 x is inflict$ on
 a mis]able donkey4 ,i d\bt if ! av]age 
,engli%man w\ld %oot horses or dogs1 ev5
 if !y 7 good = food & useless o!rwise1 
& ab\nd$ wild 9 ,great ,brita94 ,b ?is  
is m]ely because association & habit h  
made him acqua9t$ ) ! capacity ( feel+ 9
 ! horse & dog1 & h accu/om$ him to     
humane treatm5t ( !m4  ,an argum5t      
sometimes advanc$ aga9/ ! !ory ( a      
d]ivation ( altruism f egoism is t su*  
altruism has no premises or reasons2 if1
 say ! advocates ( ?is argum5t1 a man   
p]=ms an app>5tly altrui/ic act to-day f
 selfi% motives1 & p]=ms ! same act     
to-morr[ )\t calculation ( ! b5efit to  
self to be ga9$ f x1--if su* a *ange 7  
possible1--!n ?is man mu/ simply h      
=gott5 8 motives = ! act4 ,b ?is is n   
altruism prop]4 ,su* action is ! result 

( a logical confusion1 b x c nev] be    
altruism4 ,altruism prop] has a motive1 
& ?is motive is ! desire to d good to   
o!rs4 ,) reg>d to ?is argum5t x may     
simply be said t x is :olly unt5able f  
any evolutioni/ /&po9t2 x de/roys at    
once ! possibility ( any moral progress4
 ,int5d$ to def5d altruism & moral      
pr9ciple 9 g5]al f :at is designat$ z   
degradation1 x is itself degrad+ 9 its  
d5ial ( ! compatibility ( natural &     
moral advance4 ,x posits ! ass]tion t   
no?+ c ev] become t :i* x 0 n f !       
beg9n+1 an ass]tion utt]ly inconsi/5t ) 
any !ory ( gr[?1 :e!r evolutional or    
o!rwise4 ,x is contradictory1 too1 ( !  
directly obs]v$ e-day facts ( individual
 exp]i5ce4 ,! ends ) :i* we p]=m our    
acts1 & ! same acts1 c]ta9ly *ange f day
 to day4 ,! adult w\ld h reason = %ame 7
 ! ends ) :i* he p]=ms c]ta9 acts ! same
 ) ^? ) :i* he p]=m$ ^? same acts :5 he 
0 a *ild4 ,! emotions ) :i* we reg>d    
life & its v>i\s relations alt] e day4  
,if ! *ange f egoism to altruism c\ld be

 pron\nc$ logical confusion1 !n all     
m5tal evolution mu/ con/itute an        
increase ( intellectual disord]1 a      
cont9u\s progress t[>ds less in/ead (   
great] intellig5ce4 ,:]e is ! beg9n+ (  
feel+ & :at 0 feel+ 9 ! beg9n+8 ,( :at  
nature 7 ! motives ( our ape-l          
prog5itors1 & ( :at nature ! fir/ motive
 t appe>$ 9 ! univ]se8 & h[ h we ev]    
arriv$ at ! possession ( o!r motives ?an
 ^!8 ,:at a confusion worse conf\nd$ mu/
 be our pres5t motives1 & ( :at a *aos (
 ?\ght & emotion mu/ ! human intellect  
consi/6 ,! orig9 ( any su* argum5t z    
?is1 int5d$ to disprove ! !ory ( a      
d]ivation ( altruism f egoism1 is       
probably 9 ! failure to di/+ui% ! fact t
 bo? altruism & egoism1 z we "k !m1 are 
comp>ative1 n absolute4 ,naturally1     
absolute altruism c\ld n develop        
imm$iately f absolute egoism1 t is1 ! "o
 c\ld n *ange imm$iately into ! o!r4 ,b 
!re are v few human be+s 9 :om "s degree
 ( altruism does n exi/2 & all we may   
note directly ( *ange ( motive 9        

ourselves1 z well z all we ev] c\ld note
 ( *ange 9 ext]nal action 9 o!r species1
 is gradual increase 9 ?is direction4 ,9
 ! individual case x is q possible =    
*ange to take place 9 ! opposite        
direction ( ! developm5t ( great]       
egoism4  ,9 connection ) ! discussion ( 
! developm5t ( motives1 we may inquire  
:at is ! f9al end ( action2 ,i ref] n to
 ! ideal end b ! actual end1 al?\gh !   
two are n always di/+ui%$ 9 ! answ] to  
?is "q4 ,! confusion ( ! two g5]ally    
arises f =getfulness ( ! fact t an end  
is ! "p ( ! result ( an act p>ticul>ly  
will$ by ! p]=m]4 ,! concept is aga9 a  
teleological "o1 al?\gh (t5 advanc$1 9  
"s =m1 by p]sons ( mat]iali/ic views4   
,?us "s au?ors1 look+ at ! process (    
evolution z cont9ual survival ( !       
fitte/1 & obs]v+ t natural selection ?us
 t5ds cont9ually t[>ds heal?1 s t !     
action ( exi/+ species is1 9 a l>ge &   
ev] increas+ measure1 favorable to      
heal?1 ass]t t ! latt] is ! end (       
action4 ,o!rs1 9 l mann] & f simil>     

premises1 argue t ! pres]vation ( !     
species is ! end ( action2 or sometimes 
! logical inaccuracy involv$ 9 mak+     
heal? or ! pres]vation ( species !      
univ]sal end ( action is p>tly conceal$ 
by giv+ ! ass]tion ! =m t "o or ! o!r ( 
^! is ! end atta9$ by action4 ,to ^!    
/atem5ts may be answ]$3 ,! heal? ( !    
individual1 al?\gh x sometimes appe>s z 
! end will$1 is by no means ! con/ant & 
univ]sal end1 b1 on ! contr>y1 r an     
infrequ5t end4 ,z to ! pres]vation ( !  
species1 ! concept has nev] be5 he>d (  
by a majority ( human be+s1 & a ?+ _c be
 an end to ^? :o h n he>d ( x4 ,x is    
d\btful1 moreov]1 :e!r ev5 ^? to :om x  
is famili> (t51 if ev]1 make x ! end (  
action4 ,) reg>d to pleasure1 x has     
already be5 said t special calculation (
 ! pleasure to accrue to self is by no  
means a necess>y "p ( ! motive to       
action4 ,att5tion may aga9 be call$ to !
 fact t x is n ! future pleasure t      
decides ! w to action 9 ! case ( /ruggle
 ( conflict+ t5d5cies1 b t x is ! m     

pleasurable repres5tation1 & t x is     
pres5t pleasure :i* decides 9 any case4 
,or1 r1 x is n ! pleasure1 ! feel+      
alone1 t decides1 = feel+ is nev] f\nd  
alone2 x is always comb9$ )             
?\ght-images4 ,! /r5g? ( pleasurable    
feel+ is ! tone 9 :i* ! int5sity ( !    
function manife/s itself1 & accord+ to  
:i* x t5ds to fur!r expression 9 action4
 ,9 ! imag9ation ( action & its results1
 or ! ?\ght ( x1 reflection may l+]     
especially on any "o ( its elem5ts1--on 
any "p ( ! action or its results z      
inf]r$ f ! analogy ( pa/ exp]i5ce2 !    
pleasure to self is n necess>ily !      
elem5t on :i* ! m9d lays /ress1 & !     
pleasure to o!rs may be ! elem5t ) :i*  
?\ght is p>ticul>ly occupi$ & :i* turns 
! scale ( *oice2 j z1 also1 9 ! actual  
action & its results1 ! pleasure 9      
pleasure or b5efit accru+ to o!rs may m 
?an c\nt]balance ! pa9 :i* "s o!r       
inevitable phase ( ! action or its      
results br+s ) x4  ,mu* t has be5 said (
 ! developm5t ( egoism f altruism /ill  

holds true ( ! individual1 ev5 if ! idea
 ( a progress 9 altruism ?r\gh h]$ity be
 surr5d]$4 ,! consid]ation ( ! "q (     
h]$ity is1 h[ev]1 necess>y to any       
complete or wide-rea*+ !ory ( moral     
progress4 ,hi!rto1 ! actuality ( !      
inh]itance ( altrui/ic t5d5cy has be5   
assum$ on ! /r5g? ( previ\s             
consid]ations ) reg>d to h]$ity 9 g5]al1
 accord+ to :i* we c\ld n conceive all !
 multif>i\s diff]5ces :i* appe> 9 all ! 
species & v>ieties ( animal nature to h 
be5 pres5t 9 simple/ primal organisms1  
or all ! diff]5ces ( ! diff]5t species &
 v>ieties :i* h aris5 ?r\gh sexual      
propagation f common ance/ors to h be5  
pres5t z inh]5t pot5tialities 9 !       
g]m-plasm1 z su*1 ( _! common ance/ors1 
& s _c consid] ! less] v>iations :i* g  
to make up ! l>g] ones z due m]ely to ! 
g]m-plasm4 ,x rema9s = u to exam9e !    
facts m p>ticul>ly ) respect to ?is     
special =m ( t5d5cy4 ,/eph5 says3 ,an   
unreason+ animal c only adapt itself to 
new circum/ances1 except )9 a v n>r[    

range1 by acquir+ a new organization2   
or1 9 o!r words1 by becom+ a diff]5t    
animal4 ,its habits & in/9cts may !re=e 
rema9 fix$ ?r\gh c\ntless g5]ations4 ,b 
man1 by accumulat+ exp]i5ces1 c         
virtually alt] bo? 8 faculties & 8      
surr\nd+s )\t alt]+ 8 organization4 ,:5 
?is accumulation ext5ds beyond !        
individual1 x implies a social          
developm5t1 & expla9s ! enorm\s *anges  
wr\ght )9 hi/orical times1 & :i* def9e !
 diff]5ce betwe5 ! savage & ! civiliz$  
man4#aej ,briefly1 society exi/s z x    
exi/s 9 virtue ( ?is organization1 :i*  
is z real z ! organization ( any mat]ial
 in/rum5t1 ?\gh x dep5ds ^u habits &    
in/9cts in/ead ( arrangem5ts ( tangible 
& visible objects4#aea ,*ildr51 no d\bt1
 />t ) inf9itely v>y+ aptitudes = moral 
culture1 z !y />t ) /oma*s ( v>y+ /r5g? 
( dige/ion2 b1 9 e case1 ! action ( !   
social m$ium is an ess5tial factor ( !  
result4#aeb ,n[1 9 ! fir/ place1        
objection may be made to ! t]m unreason+
 animal1 9 t1 :atev] we may ?9k ) reg>d 

to inorganic matt] & plant-life or ev5 )
 reg>d to ! l[] =ms ( animal-life1 !    
:ole !ory ( evolution is oppos$ to !    
supposition t reason sudd5ly arises 9   
man2 & 9 t we h1 moreov]1 9 ! case ( _m 
( ! high] species1 v conclusive evid5ce 
( ! pres5ce ( "s degree ( reason4 ,mr4  
,/eph5 does n else:]e make any positive 
ass]tion ( ! entire abs5ce ( reason 9   
animals2 yet to 8 rem>k t ,x may be t   
g]ms ( ?is capacity i4e4 ! capacity to  
le>n by exp]i5ce & imp>t ?is k to o!rs  
are to be f\nd 9 ! l[] animals he adds1 
b we %all make no s5sible error if we   
reg>d x1 z x has always be5 reg>d$1 z ! 
exclusive pr]ogative ( humanity4#aec ,t 
is1 we make no s5sible error if we reg>d
 ! progress ( o!r animal species ?an our
 own to be :olly organic1 t ( our own   
species1 on ! o!r h&1 to be :olly an    
accumulation ( common k4 ,! division    
betwe5 man & ! re/ ( ! animal k+dom is  
?us made a v di/9ct & absolute l9e4 ,x  
may be notic$1 second1 t ! ?ird         
quotation ( ! ?ree cit$ consecutively   

above conta9s a v diff]5t /atem5t f t ( 
! fir/ quotation4 ,& x may be said1     
?ird1 t ! second quotation1 :ile seem+  
to be> out ! fir/1 is 9 reality a       
contradiction ( x1 s9ce x makes social  
organization dep5d5t ^u habits &        
in/9cts4  ,exactly :at is x t is meant  
by ! alt]ation ( organization :i* is    
pron\nc$ unnecess>y to ! virtual        
alt]ation ( human faculties8 ,f ! mod]n 
spirituali/ic1 ! mat]iali/ic1 !         
positivi/ic1 or any mod]n /&po9t at all1
 x is difficult to p]ceive h[ m5tal     
alt]ation c be suppos$ )\t ! assumption 
( an exactly correspond+ physiological  
*ange4 ,9 view ( ! exce$+ly m9ute       
/ructure ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 :i* is *iefly 
affect$ by su* *ange1 we may suppose ?is
 *ange to be s f9e z to be imp]ceptible 
to s5se-p]ception1 b1 s9ce x mu/1 9 any 
case1 be exactly coo]d9ate ) ! psy*ical 
*ange1 ,i fail to see h[ we c           
sci5tifically reg>d ! "o & at ! same "t 
ignore ! o!r & pron\nce x ( no          
significance4 ,& if we suppose any      

fixation ( psy*ical alt]ation1 we _c    
avoid likewise suppos+ an exactly       
coo]d9ate fixation ( physiological      
alt]ation4 ,( c\rse ! "q rema9s z to !  
ext5t to :i* fixation takes place 9 ei!r
 case1 & ?is "q we h yet to consid]4 ,! 
weakness ( ,mr4 ,/eph5's position lies 9
 8 assumption ( fixation on ! "o side & 
8 d5ial ( x on ! o!r4  ,h[ f> are !     
moral qualities acquir$ 9 "o g5]ation   
inh]it$ by ! next8 ,inasmu* z all       
developm5t is by inappreciable          
increm5ts1 all *ange ( organization     
gradual1 or1 9 psy*ical t]ms1 inasmu* z 
"* v>ies only sl[ly f ! grooves (       
e/abli%$ habit1 !re is a g5]al tru? 9 ! 
/atem5t t all habit prom95t en\gh to be 
notic$ z su* c g5]ally be trac$ f>!r    
back ?an ! next g5]ation only4          
,nev]!less1 "h are a few cases = !      
,weismannites3--  ,gall speaks ( a      
,russian family 9 :i* ! fa!r & gr&fa!r  
_h di$ prematurely1 ! victims ( ta/e =  
/rong dr9k4 ,! gr&son1 at ! age ( five1 
manife/$ ! same lik+ 9 ! highe/ degree4 

,trelat1 9 8 "w ',folie ,lucide1' /ates 
t a lady ( regul> life & economical     
habits 0 subject to fits (              
uncontrollable dipsomania4 ,loa?+ h]    
/ate1 %e call$ h]self a mis]able        
drunk>d1 & mix$ ! mo/ disgu/+ sub/ances 
) h] w9e1 b all 9 va92 ! passion 0      
/rong] ?an h] w4 ,! "m & ! uncle ( ?is  
lady _h also be5 subject to dipsomania4 
,*>les ,x----1 son ( an ecc5tric &      
intemp]ate fa!r1 manife/$ in/9cts (     
great cruelty f infancy4 ,he 0 s5t at an
 e>ly age to v>i\s s*ools1 b 0 expell$ f
 !m all4 ,be+ =c$ to enli/ 9 ! army1 he 
sold 8 uni=m = dr9k & only escap$ a     
s5t5ce ( dea? on ! te/imony (           
physicians1 :o decl>$ t he 0 ! victim ( 
an irresi/ible appetite4 ,he 0 plac$ "u 
re/ra9t1 & di$ ( g5]al p>alysis4  ,a man
 belong+ to ! educat$ class1 & *>g$ )   
important functions1 succe$$ = a long "t
 9 conceal+ 8 alcoholic habits f ! eyes 
( ! public2 8 family 7 ! only suff]]s by
 x4 ,he _h five *ildr51 only "o ( :om   
liv$ to maturity4 ,in/9cts ( cruelty 7  

manife/$ 9 ?is *ild1 & f an e>ly age its
 sole delight 0 to torture animals 9 e  
conceivable way4 ,he 0 s5t to s*ool1 b  
c\ld n le>n4 ,9 ! proportions ( ! head  
he pres5t$ ! "* ( microcephalism1 & 9 ! 
field ( intellectual acquisition he c\ld
 only rea* a c]ta9 l[ /age1 beyond :i*  
fur!r progress 0 impossible4 ,at ! age (
 n9ete5 he _h to be s5t to an asylum = !
 insane4  ,a man ( an excell5t family ( 
labor+ p 0 e>ly addict$ to dr9k1 & di$ (
 *ronic alcoholism1 leav+ sev5 *ildr54  
,! fir/ two ( ^! di$1 at an e>ly age1 ( 
convulsions4 ,! ?ird became insane at   
tw5ty-two1 & di$ an idiot4 ,! f\r?1 aft]
 v>i\s attempts at suicide1 fell into ! 
l[e/ grade ( idiocy4 ,! fif?1 (         
passionate & misan?ropic temp]1 broke (f
 all relations ) 8 family4 ,8 si/]      
suff]s f n]v\s disord]1 :i* *iefly takes
 ! =m ( hy/]ia1 ) int]mitt5t attacks (  
insanity4 ,! sev5?1 a v intellig5t      
workman1 b ( n]v\s temp]am5t1 freely    
gives expression to ! gloomie/ =ebod+s z
 to 8 intellectual future4  ,dr4 ,morel 

gives ! hi/ory ( a family liv+ 9 !      
,vosges1 9 :i* ! great-gr&fa!r 0 a      
drunk>d1 & di$ f ! effects (            
intoxication2 & ! gr&fa!r1 subject to ! 
same passion1 di$ a maniac4 ,he _h a son
 f> m sob] ?an himself1 b subject to    
hypo*ondria & ( homicidal t5d5cies2 !   
son ( ?is latt] 0 /upid1 idiotic4 ,"h we
 see1 9 ! fir/ g5]ation1 alcoholic      
excess2 9 ! second1 h]$it>y dipsomania2 
9 ! ?ird1 hypo*ondria2 & 9 ! f\r?1      
idiocy & probable ext9ction ( !         
race4#aed  ,x is ! g5]al te/imony (     
au?orities t m5tal disease may ?us appe>
 9 "o g5]ation z g5]al t5d5cy to excess1
 9 ano!r z homicidal mania1 9 ano!r z   
microcephalism1 etc4 ,"h we h examples (
 ! h]$it>y "* ( :at we recognize z n]v\s
 disease1 :i* yet has its moral z well z
 its intellectual side4 ,!re are few :o 
d n recognize ! p[] ( ! p>5t1 ?r\gh     
injury to 8 own heal?1 to affect ! heal?
 ( 8 *ildr52 & yet t :i* we call disease
 is n m physical ?an t :i* we call moral
 *>act]i/ic4 ,h[ev]1 ! physical side ( t

 :i* we call normal moral *>act]i/ic is 
m )drawn f obs]vation2 t :i* is         
recogniz$ z m5tal disease =ms1 9 ?is    
respect1 a l9k betwe5 :at we t]m        
ill-heal? & m5tal *>act]i/ic4 ,!        
physical features ( :at we t]m ill-heal?
 attract our att5tion especially because
 ( ! weakness & incapacity or ! di/9ct  
physical pa9 involv$2 ! physical side ( 
insanity comes also m or less di/9ctly  
to our notice1 b ! physical             
accompanim5ts ( normal *>act]i/ic       
attract less att5tion4 ,& yet all ^!    
?ree conditions h ea* a psy*ical & ea* a
 physiological side4 ,x is !re=e        
difficult to und]/& h[ ! possibility ( !
 inh]itance ( ill-heal? f want or excess
 c be ackn[l$g$ & yet ! possibility ( ! 
inh]itance ( psy*ical *>act]i/ic acquir$
 by ! p>5t be d\bt$2 ! latt] has its    
organic side z mu* z ! =m]4 ,& no bett] 
illu/ration ( ?is fact c be f\nd ?an 9 j
 su* cases z ^? above cit$1 :]e t :i*   
appe>s 9 ! fir/ place z m]e excess1 t   
is1 moral *>act]i/ic z we ord9>ily t]m  

x1 takes f9ally ! =m ( microcephalism1  
idiocy1 or insanity4  ,man's e>ly       
exi/5ce z an individual is di/+ui%$ by !
 l5g? ( duration ( a condition (        
helplessness1 at ! beg9n+ ( :i*1 beyond 
! fundam5tal s-call$ organic action1    
only a few simple activities manife/    
!mselves4 ,! human be+ is born ) almo/  
ev]y?+ to acquire1 & ! e>li] ye>s1 dur+ 
:i* habits are sl[ly accumulat+1 appe>  
peculi>ly adaptive or =mative4 ,! human 
*ild is peculi>ly susceptible1 z reg>ds 
m5tal & moral acquirem5ts1 to ! nature (
 8 surr\nd+s4 ,b ?is fact does n        
necess>ily mean any m ?an :at ,/eph5    
ass]ts 9 ! la/ ( ! ?ree quotations above
 cit$1 namely1 t ! social m$ium is an   
ess5tial factor ( ! result2 x does n    
necess>ily exclude ! inh]itance ( moral 
or immoral t5d5cy acquir$ "u            
civilization or ev5 by ne> ance/ors4    
,ev5 9 cases ( ! inh]itance ( ! mo/     
extreme passion = alcohol1 we _c suppose
 t ! ta/e w\ld ev] h manife/$ itself1 _h
 alcohol nev] come )9 ! rea* ( ! inh]it+

 individual4 ,! "y kitt5 t has nev] ta/$
 meat w snat* at a piece z soon z x     
sc5ts x2 b we _c suppose t ! evid5tly   
inh]it$ ta/e = fle% w\ld ev] appe>1 did 
fle% nev] come )9 ! range ( its         
s5se-p]ception4 ,s9ce a suitable        
environm5t mu/ always be conceiv$ z     
ess5tial to ! developm5t ev5 ( ! mo/    
invet]ate inh]it$ qualities1 & s9ce     
man's m5tal & especially 8 moral        
sup]iority has be5 develop$ 9 connection
 ) social conditions1 x is conceivable  
t1 ^! conditions fail+1 8 m5tal & moral 
developm5t may %[ a lack coo]d9ate ) !  
degree ( su* failure4 ,& "h is an answ] 
to ^? :o1 9 conte/+ ! !ory ( any moral  
inh]itance1 /ate _! views 9 ! f9al =m t 
if any inh]itance at all c be claim$1 x 
c only be z a c]ta9 degree ( read9ess 9 
respond+ to ! conditions ( civilization2
 no inh]itance c ev] be any?+ m ?an ?is2
 ! exi/5ce1 to a suffici5t degree1 (    
complem5t>y conditions 9 ! environm5t is
 always necess>y to ! developm5t (      
t5d5cy4 ,x is1 !re=e1 conceivable t !   

*ild ( civiliz$ p>5ts ( a high] type (  
morality1 if c>ri$ (f1 9 infancy1 by    
savages1 might fail to exhibit ! high "*
 ( its p>5ts1 j z x is conceivable & m  
?an probable t x w\ld fail to exhibit _!
 high] intellectual gifts4 ,x is also   
conceivable t ! *ild ( moral p>5tage may
 inh]it ! capacity ( high moral         
developm5t & yet fall into crime1 if    
circum/ances af=d him no education save 
t ( association ) h>d5$ crim9als4 ,we   
might only ) reason expect to f9d1 9 !  
case ( ! suppos$ *ild abduct$ by        
savages1 a c]ta9 m5tal acut5ess appli$  
to savage affairs & "s great] degree (  
humane feel+1 dom9at$1 h[ev]1 by savage 
conceptions2 z also great] ease 9 !     
acquirem5t ( civiliz$ ideas & cu/oms 9  
case ( a return to high] surr\nd+s be=e 
maturity2 & we might only expect to f9d1
 9 ! case ( ! *ild br\ght up among      
crim9als1 a great] degree ( t primitive 
honor & fai?fulness :i* may exi/ among  
crim9als4 ,mod]n re=matories h te/ifi$  
to ! possibility ( ! r$emption ( a l>ge 

numb] ( crim9als f _! evil life1 b !y h 
%[n1 nev]!less1 t !re is a lu/ (        
cupidity1 a love ( meanness1 & an       
animality f :i* rescue is almo/ if n q  
impossible4 ,! reaction ( m5 ^: pa/     
opportunities h be5 ab\t equal1 ^u ef=t 
= _! re=m1 exhibits also v diff]5t      
degrees ( read9ess4 ,! te/imony (       
re=matories = ! "y is especially ( wor? 
on ?is po9t2 & ,i once he>d ,mrs4 ,m>y  
,a4 ,liv]more1 ^: int]e/ 9 re=matories &
 prisons is well kn[n1 describe ! faces 
( _m ( ! *ildr5 to be f\nd 9 a c]ta9    
in/itution ( ?is sort1 z be>+ fe>ful    
witness to ! fact t !y _h be5 mortgag$  
to ! devil be=e !y 7 born4 ,i rememb] a 
numb] ( cases cit$ by ! matron ( a c]ta9
 orphan asylum %[+ t *ildr5 tak5 f _!   
home at too e>ly an age to h le>n$ ! s9s
 ( _! p>5ts by imitation may yet repeat 
^? s9s4 ,out ( ?ree *ildr5 ( ! same     
p>5ts1 ! "o ( :om 0 a drunk>d &         
pro/itute1 ! o!r a ?ief1 "o develop$1 at
 a v e>ly age1 a t5d5cy to di%one/y1    
ano!r an extreme morbid eroticism1 & !  

?ird *ild appe>$ to h escap$ ! evil     
inh]itance2 b he 0 /ill v "y :5 ,i la/  
he>d ( him4 ,! two *ildr5 did n exhibit 
^! evil traits at _! entrance to ! home1
 b develop$ !m lat]4  ,& "h x may be    
notic$ t ! fact ( ! un=m$ "* ( ! infant 
does n prove t ! t5d5cies :i* make _!   
appe>ance 9 lat] life are :olly ! result
 ( ! environm5t4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ by   
biologi/s & pa?ologi/s t inh]it$        
*>act]i/ics t5d to appe> at an age      
correspond+ to t at :i* !y appe>$ 9 !   
prog5itor4 ,! cat]pill> does n und]go   
metamorphosis ) a less regul>ity because
 x is n1 9 ! beg9n+1 a butt]fly1 & !    
be>d does n ! less appe> 9 ! adult human
 male because he 0 n born be>d$4        
,diseases ( ! bra9 (t5 develop1 = sev]al
 g5]ations1 at ne>ly ! same age1 & !re  
seems to be no reason :y we %\ld n      
suppose ! l to be true 9 ! case ( _m    
normal *>act]i/ics4 ,ribot cites f      
,voltaire ! foll[+ case3 ',i h ) my own 
eyes1' he writes1 'se5 a suicide t is   
wor?y ( ! att5tion ( physicians4 ,a     

?\ghtful pr(essional man1 ( mature age1 
( regul> habits1 hav+ no /rong passions1
 & beyond ! rea* ( want1 committ$       
suicide on ! #ag? ( ,octob]1 #agfi1     
leav+ beh9d him1 address$ to ! c\ncil ( 
8 native city1 an apology = 8 volunt>y  
dea?1 :i* x 0 n ?\ght advisable to      
publi%1 le/ m5 %\ld be enc\rag$ to quit 
a life :]e( s mu* evil is spok54 ,s f>  
!re is no?+ extraord9>y1 s9ce in/ances (
 ?is k9d are ev]y:]e to be f\nd2 b "h is
 ! a/oni%+ feature ( ! case3 8 fa!r & 8 
bro!r _h committ$ suicide at ! same age 
z himself4 ,:at hidd5 disposition ( m9d1
 :at sympa?y1 :at concurr5ce ( physical 
laws1 caus$ ?is fa!r & 8 two sons to    
p]i% by _! own h& & by ! same =m ( dea?1
 j :5 !y _h acquir$ ! same ye> ( _!     
age8'#aee ,ribot cont9ues3--  ,s9ce     
,voltaire's day1 ! hi/ory ( m5tal       
disease has regi/]$ a great numb] (     
simil> facts4 ,!y ab\nd 9 ,gall1        
,esquirol1 ,moreau ( ,t\rs1 & 9 all !   
writ]s on insanity4 ,esquirol knew a    
family 9 :i* ! gr&mo!r1 "m1 daught]1 &  

gr&son1 committ$ suicide4 ',a fa!r (    
taciturn disposition1' says ,falret1 '_h
 five sons4 ,! elde/1 at ! age ( =ty1   
?rew himself out ( a ?ird-/ory w9d[2 !  
second /rangl$ himself at ! age (       
?irty-five2 ! ?ird ?rew himself out ( a 
w9d[2 ! f\r? %ot himself2 a c\s9 ( !irs 
dr[n$ himself = a trifl+ cause4 ,9 !    
,orot5 family1 ! olde/ 9 ,t5]iffe1 two  
si/]s 7 affect$ ) suicidal mania1 & _!  
bro!r1 gr&fa!r1 & two uncles1 put an end
 to _! own lives4'444 ,! po9t :i* excit$
 ,voltaire's surprise1 viz4 ! h]$ity (  
suicide at a def9ite age1 has be5 (t5   
notic$3 ',m4 ,l----1 a monomaniac1' says
 ,moreau ( ,t\rs1 'put an end to 8 life 
at ! age ( ?irty4 ,8 son _h h>dly atta9$
 ! same age :5 he 0 attack$ ) ! same    
monomania1 & made two attempts at       
suicide4 ,ano!r man1 9 ! prime ( life1  
fell into a melan*oly /ate & dr[n$      
himself2 8 son1 ( good con/itution1     
weal?y1 & ! fa!r ( two gift$ *ildr51    
dr[n$ himself at ! same age4 ,a w9e-ta/]
 :o _h made a mi/ake z to ! quality ( a 

w9e ?rew himself into ! wat] 9 a fit (  
desp]ation4 ,he 0 rescu$1 b aft]w>ds    
accompli%$ 8 purpose4 ,! physician :o _h
 att5d$ him asc]ta9$ t ?is man's fa!r & 
"o ( 8 bro!rs _h committ$ suicide at !  
same age & 9 ! same way4'444  ,a woman  
nam$ ,olhav5 fell ill ( a s]i\s disord]1
 :i* oblig$ h] to wean h] daught]1 six  
weeks old4 ,?is compla9t ( ! "m began by
 an irresi/ible desire to kill h] *ild4 
,?is purpose 0 discov]$ 9 season to     
prev5t x4 ,%e 0 next seiz$ ) a viol5t   
fev] :i* utt]ly blott$ ! fact f h]      
memory1 & %e aft]w>ds prov$ a mo/ devot$
 "m to h] daught]4 ,?is daught]1 become 
a "m 9 h] turn1 took two *ildr5 to      
nurse4 ,= "s days %e _h suff]$ f fatigue
 & f 'movem5ts 9 ! /oma*1' :5 "o ev5+ z 
%e 0 9 h] room ) ! infants1 "o ( !m on  
h] lap1 %e 0 sudd5ly seiz$ by a /rong   
desire to cut its ?roat4 ,al>m$ by !    
horrible temptation1 %e ran f ! spot ) !
 knife 9 h] h&1 & s\ght 9 s++1 danc+1 & 
sleep1 a refuge f ! ?\ghts t haunt$ h]4 
,h>dly _h %e fall5 asleep :5 %e />t$ up1

 h] m9d fill$ ) ! same idea1 :i* n[ 0   
irresi/ible4 ,%e 01 h[ev]1 controll$1 & 
9 a measure calm$4 ,! homicidal delirium
 recurr$1 & f9ally gave way1 only aft]  
_m rem$ies _h be5 employ$4  ,^! are only
 a few out ( ! _m in/ances t might be   
giv5 ( recurr5ce1 at ! same age or "u ! 
/imulation ( simil> conditions1 (       
s-call$ pa?ological /ates4 ,sci5ce has  
hi!rto giv5 m /udy to su* cases ?an to !
 inh]itance ( heal?ful conditions1 ?\gh 
! l9e betwe5 heal?ful m5tal conditions &
 m5tal disease is v difficult to draw1 &
 ! assumption t all suicides are m      
insane ?an _m ( ! p :o are reg>d$ z sane
 is unw>rant$2 ( c\rse if "o />ts ) !   
premise t suicide is always a symptom ( 
insanity1 !n ! conclusion foll[s        
naturally t all suicides are insane2 b  
?is is a m]e argum5t 9 a circle4 ,z f> z
 ! inh]itance ( heal?y or normal m5tal  
*>act]i/ics is conc]n$1 we d "k at lea/1
 f g5]al obs]vation1 t a *ild (t5       
exhibits1 z x develops1 m & m r ?an less
 & less ! *>act]i/ics ( "s prog5itor2 & 

?is1 moreov]1 9 _m cases :]e !          
possibility ( imitation is exclud$4     
,obs]vations might possibly be made "h 9
 a l9e ) =m] reflections on man's       
adaptability & ,haeckel's !ory ( !      
pr5atal exi/5ce ( ! individual z repeat+
 ! hi/ory ( 8 species4 ,9 ! case (      
po/natal z well z 9 t ( pr5atal exi/5ce1
 ! action ( ! environm5t c no m be left 
out ( acc\nt ?an c t ( h]$ity2 & !      
influ5ce ( favorable or ( unfavorable   
conditions at correspond+ p]iods (      
developm5t may expla9 ! exagg]at$ gr[?  
or1 on ! o!r h&1 ! dw>f$ "* or          
non-appe>ance ( t5d5cies associat$ 9 _! 
developm5t ) ^! p]iods4 ,b at pres5t su*
 obs]vations c be little m ?an          
speculation4 ,we may at lea/ say1 h[ev]1
 t ,mr4 ,leslie ,/eph5's /atem5t ( !    
case1 namely1 t *ildr5 />t ) inf9itely  
v>y+ capacities b t ! environm5t (      
civilization is t :i* f9ally makes !m   
:at !y become morally & m5tally1 %\ld r 
be rev]s$2 = x is r true t *ildr5 are   
born into ! _w on ab\t ! same level     

m5tally & morally 7= we obs]ve b little 
diff]5ce 9 ! faculties ( new-born       
babes71 b t !y by no means react1 9     
developm5t1 ^u ! same or a simil>       
environm5t 9 a simil> mann]4 ,! case ( !
 ,a!nian baby1 ^: probable equality ) ! 
mod]n infant is us$ by ,mr4 ,/eph5 z an 
argum5t t ! human race has made no      
progress z f> z innate qualities are    
conc]n$1 w\ld !re=e sc>cely be a case 9 
po9t1 ev5 if x 7 capable ( pro(1--z x is
 n4 ,b x _c be call$ a case 9 po9t 9 any
 s5se1 ! ,engli% baby ) :i* ,mr4 ,/eph5 
comp>es ! ,a!nian infant n be+ ( ,a!nian
 desc5t4 ,any comp>ison ( ?is sort1 to  
be ( wor? 9 ! discussion ( ! elem5t (   
h]$ity 9 human progress1 mu/ be betwe5 !
 baby ( ! primitive savage ,briton & !  
mod]n ,briti% infant4 ,! ,a!nians arriv$
 at a high degree ( social developm5t2 b
 ! v fact t nei!r _! civilization nor   
ev5 t ( ,rome 0 acquir$ by ! less       
civiliz$ races :o 7 _! conqu]ors is r   
te/imony 9 favor ( ! !ory ( ! h]$it>y1  
organic "* ( ! habits & capacities      

acquir$ 9 ! c\rse ( civilization4 ,nor h
 ! ,a!nians transmitt$ _! type unmix$2  
!re is no pure ,a!nian or ,greek race at
 ! pres5t day ) :i* we c\ld comp>e !    
anci5t ,greeks1 ev5 if we desir$ to     
affirm s great an indep5d5ce (          
circum/ances z w\ld assure to su* a race
 ! unimpair$ faculties ( _! ance/ors 9  
spite ( all ! *anges 9 _! environm5t :i*
 hi/ory records4 ,n only ! environm5t 0 
*ang$ & mix$2 ! /ock1 also1 ( t race :i*
 once reg>d$ all /rang]s z b>b>ians     
became equally impure4 ,& assur$ly !    
comp>ison ( ! av]age *ild ( to-day ) an 
,ar*im$es or a ,!mi/ocles is any?+ b a  
fair "o4#aef ,tak5 ) ! qualification ( !
 pr$icate :i* ,mr4 ,/eph5 cauti\sly     
introduces 9 ass]t+ t ! innate qualities
 ( ! av]age mod]n *ild are n radically  
sup]ior to ^? ( ! greate/ anci5ts1 x    
leads u to suspect t ,mr4 ,/eph5 is n1  
himself1 v ?or\ghly conv9c$ ( :at he    
attempts to prove4 ,we may agree ) ,mr4 
,/eph5 t ,if ,hom] or ,plato _h be5 born
 among/ ! ,hott5tots1 !y c\ld no m h    

compos$ ! ',iliad' or ! ',dialogues' ?an
 ,bee?ov5 c\ld h compos$ 8 music1 h[ev] 
f9e 8 e> or delicate 8 organization1 9 !
 days :5 ! only musical in/rum5t 0 !    
tom-tom#aeg2 = c]ta9ly no "o c rea* !   
same heights "u an unfavorable          
environm5t t he might h atta9$ "u a     
favorable "o2 & t ,hom] c\ld h express$1
 9 ! rud] poetry :i* he might /ill h    
compos$ among ,hott5tots1 ! s5tim5ts ( !
 ,iliad1 or ,bee?ov5 h produc$ 8 sonatas
 ) ! assi/ance ( ! tom-tom 7provid$ t   
rema9$ ! only in/rum5t aft] ! appe>ance 
( an individual ( su* musical capacity z
 a ,bee?ov571 _c be conceiv$4 ,b x is   
also inconceivable t a ,bee?ov51 a      
,hom]1 or a ,plato1 c\ld be born among !
 ,hott5tots1 if to be born among !m     
means to be born ( _! /ock4  ,9 ord] to 
make any direct comp>ison betwe5 !      
capacities ( ! desc5dants ( civiliz$    
p>5ts & ^? ( unciviliz$ prog5itors1 we  
ought to be able to comp>e av]age       
results obta9$ 9 savage infants remov$1 
9 e>lie/ infancy1 to ! advantages (     

civilization1 ) ! av]age m5tal & moral  
acquirem5ts ( individuals born "u ^?    
influ5ces4 ,we ne$ to comp>e av]ages1 ,i
 say1 & n "o or two individual cases    
alone2 =1 9 ord] to ass]t ! organic &   
h]$it>y "* ( human progress up to & "u  
civilization1 we are by no means        
compell$ to prove a l advance 9 all p>ts
 ( a nation or p1 or ev5 advance at all 
9 e "p4 ,x is conceivable1 & :olly 9    
accordance ) ! g5]al c\rse ( evolution1 
t types %\ld rema9 /ation>y :ile o!r    
types are advanc+1 t l[] types %\ld     
cont9ue to exi/ side by side ) high]    
ones t h develop$ out ( !m1 & ev5 t1 9  
"s l9es ( desc5t1 retrogression %\ld    
take place :ile ! species or a society z
 a :ole is progress+4 ,b our data =     
comp>ison ( av]ages are n1 by any means1
 z satisfactory z c\ld be wi%$2 = n[h]e 
are ! direct desc5dants ( unciviliz$    
races giv5 equal advantages ) ^? ( !    
desc5dants ( peoples already civiliz$4  
,galton's comp>ison ( ! negro ) ! :ite  
man is1 = ?is reason1 too extreme 9 its 

conclusions z to ! h]$it>y "* (         
intellect4 ,yet "s g5]al facts may be   
not$4 ,& p]haps no bett] field =        
comp>ison is af=d$ u ?an ! ,unit$       
,/ates1 :]e ! :ite population is n ! m]e
 (f%oot & tribut>y ( a nation ! great   
majority ( ^: bett] repres5tatives      
inhabit a di/ant l&1 b an indep5d5t &   
successful nation1 & :]e ! negro race1  
:ile yet untutor$1 0 sudd5ly end[$ ) a  
lib]ty nom9ally z great z t ( ! :ite    
man1 toge!r ) a "p 9 ! gov]nm5t & a "r  
to /ate education4 ,?is lib]ty may be1  
inde$ is1 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,s\?1 a m]e     
pret5ce1 ?\gh ev5 !re tol]ation is      
gradually be+ acquir$2 b 9 ! ,nor? !    
negro is treat$ on v ne>ly ! same foot+ 
) ! :ite man1 ! indignities (f]$ him    
hav+ _! orig91 = ! mo/ "p1 ) =m]        
slave-hold]s1 n ) ! born & br$ ,nor!rn]4
 ,negro *ildr5 h free access to ! nor!rn
 s*ools1 :]e !y may (t5 be se5 sitt+    
side by side ) :ite *ildr52 & ! be/ (   
,am]ican univ]sities are op5 to negro   
/ud5ts4 ,if1 !n1 ! av]age ( op9ion1 ev5 

9 ! ,nor?1 ma9ta9s a c]ta9 am\nt (      
condesc5sion t[>ds ! ,african1 ?is      
condesc5sion is no great] 9 degree ?an t
 ma9ta9$ by ! ari/ocracy ( ,europe t[>ds
 ! s-call$ l[] 7n ! l[e/7 classes1 & 9  
spite ( :i* _m h ris5 to prom95ce f ^?  
classes4 ,inde$1 ! measure (            
condesc5sion is r less ?an ! av]age     
manife/$ by ma/] to und]l+ 9 _m         
,european c\ntries n s democratic z     
,engl&2 x w\ld comp>e favorably ) !     
attitude ( ! petty ,g]man (ficials to ! 
ord9>y citiz5 ( ! less well-to-d        
classes4 ,x may mean disc\ragem5t1 b !re
 is no reason :y x %\ld1 9 all cases1   
mean failure4 ,yet1 z a fact1 v few (   
pure negro blood h ris5 to any prom95ce 
:atev]1 & ! av]age ( intellig5ce appe>s 
comp>atively l[2 ! l>ge majority ( ^? :o
 h ris5 to em95ce h _h "s admixture ( ! 
blood ( ! :ite race4 ,! ,am]ican ,indian
 appe>s to be m capable ( cultivation2 b
 he has enjoy$ few] advantages ?an !    
negro4 ,! ,indian *ildr5 at ! s*ools    
provid$ = !m d n1 h[ev]1 appe> to       

exhibit ! degree ( intellig5ce possess$ 
by :ite *ildr54 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mixture 
( :ite & ,indian blood seems to produce1
 sometimes1 r m ?an ! av]age (          
intellig5ce4 ,! writ] is acqua9t$ ) two 
cases ( ?is k9d4 ,! fir/ 0 t ( ! daught]
 ( an ignorant ,indian fa!r1 :o liv$    
entirely by hunt+ & fi%+1 & ( an almo/ z
 ignorant :ite "m4 ,! *ild1 :o _h at    
fir/ no advantages save ^? af=d$ by a   
primitive di/rict s*ool1 nev]!less e>ly 
develop$ an insatiable love ( /udy1 ga9$
 access to a high] s*ool1 & f9ally to   
:at 01 9 h] "t1 ! highe/ s*ool = wom5 9 
! c\ntry4 ,"h %e did h\sework1 dur+ a   
c\rse ( f\r ye>s1 9 ord] p>tly to pay h]
 exp5ses1 supply+ ! rema9+ sum = tuition
 aft]w>ds out ( h] e>n+s z a tea*]4 ,by 
clo?+ h]self1 summ] & w9t]1 9 *eap      
pr9ts1 %e also sav$ en\gh to buy ! "t ( 
a si/] :o _h be5 b\nd out1 assi/$ 9 !   
education ( ! re/ ( ! family1 & taught a
 s*ool ^: excell5ce is rememb]$ & prais$
 to ?is day4 ,b ! ,indian is commonly   
suppos$ to be ( high] /ock ?an !        

,african negro2 he c]ta9ly exhibits1 ev5
 9 8 unciviliz$ /ate1 a cunn+1 a c\rage1
 & a p]si/5ce1 ( a high] type ?an t ( ! 
,african2 & ! sup]iority ( a mixture    
betwe5 ?is al]t type & ! intellig5ce ( !
 :ite man is ?us expla9$4 ,i repeat1    
?\gh ! subtle results ( _m m9ute        
accumulat+ influ5ces ( individual       
environm5t mu/ und\bt$ly be tak5 into   
consid]ation 9 our judgm5t ( diff]5t    
races1 ! diff]5ce ( opportunity does n  
seem to acc\nt fully = ! great diff]5ce 
( atta9m5t4  ,x mu/ be notic$1 too1 t1 9
 comp>+ ! negro ) ! :ite man 9 ! ,unit$ 
,/ates1 we h n comp>$ a :olly savage p )
 a civiliz$ "o2 = ! negro has be51 =    
sev]al g5]ations1 9 contact )           
civilization1 & mu/ h ga9$ some?+ f ?is 
contact4 ,x is to be greatly d\bt$ :e!r 
! infants ( ^? ,sib]ians ( ^: pleasure 9
 ! suff]+ ( o!r be+s an in/ance 0 giv5  
above w\ld1 ev5 "u ! be/ ( influ5ces1   
develop into individuals ( mu* real     
b5evol5ce4 ,! av]age *ild ( civiliz$    
society is some:at call\s to ! suff]+s (

 animals1 p>tly because he does n       
realize ! reality ( ^? suff]+s2 yet ,i h
 se5 lo/ kitt5s t5d]ly c>$ = by ragg$   
little /reet ur*9s2 & ,i h m ?an once   
he>d small boys1 play+ 9 ! gutt]1       
exclaim at ! beat+ ( a donkey or a      
horse4 ,! *ild repeats1 p]haps1 to "s   
ext5t1 ! hi/ory ( 8 race's orig9 9      
savag]y4 ,yet x is to be s]i\sly d\bt$  
:e!r ! *ildr5 ( ! savages describ$ z    
delight+ 9 cutt+ _! meat f liv+ animals 
w\ld atta91 ev5 "u ! mo/ c>eful tra9+1 !
 av]age spontane\s humanity ( ! lad (   
civiliz$ prog5itors1 or w\ld ev] become 
truly humane m5 & wom54 ,x is           
conceivable t sup]ior m5tal & moral     
capacity may rema9 comp>atively         
undevelop$1 prop] environm5t lack+1 b we
 beg9 to see ! fallacy ( conclud+1 f su*
 cases1 ! non-h]$it>y "* ( capacity :5  
we suppose su* cases z ^? above1 ( !    
re>+ ( savage infants "u civilization4  
,x mu/ be add$ ( ! v isolat$ cases--(   
:i* mu* is (t5 made--9 :i* ! *ildr5 (   
civiliz$ p>5ts h be5 /ol5 by savages1 at

 an e>ly age1 7#a7 t x is n1 & _c be1   
ma9ta9$ t all ! desc5dants ( civiliz$   
prog5itors are end[$ ) sup]ior m5tal &  
moral t5d5cy2 & 7#b7 t su* in/ances are 
too few 9 numb] to furni%1 alone1 !     
basis ( any !ory4 ,! evid5ce furni%$ u  
by ! g5]al results ( neglect 9 ! mid/ ( 
civilization is m to ! po9t2 b1 ev5 9 ^!
 cases1 x mu/ be %[n t ! *ildr5 came (  
good p>5tage 9 ord] t ! evid5ce may be  
admitt$ z tell+ aga9/ ! !ory ( h]$ity4  
,e bre$] ( animals c\nts ) ! greate/    
confid5ce ^u ! action ( ! laws ( h]$ity2
 & no reason c be giv5 :y ^! laws %\ld n
 "w 9 ! case ( man1 :y he %\ld be ! "o  
species exempt f !m4 ,x is impossible to
 cross ! dog ) ! wolf )\t p]ceiv+ !     
result ( ! cross+1 9 ! m5tal z well z ! 
physical *>act]i/ics ( ! (fspr+2 & ! dog
 does n diff] m f ! wolf ?an does       
civiliz$ man1 9 ! mo/ advanc$ nations1 f
 ! savage4 ,ev5 8 physical *>act]i/ics1 
! cont\r ( ! head & face especially1 !  
=m ( ! features z well z ! expression1  
are diff]5t & imply a high] type4  ,&1 9

 discuss+ l[] types 9 ! mid/ (          
civilization1 we _c d bett] ?an give "s 
consid]ation to ,dugdale's rem>kable    
book on ! ,jukes1 :i* has already be5   
m5tion$4 ,9 ?is book is trac$ ! hi/ory (
 five hundr$ & =ty p]sons belong+ to    
sev5 g5]ations ( desc5dants ( five      
si/]s1 !re be+ mu* int]m>ry+ among !m4  
,out ( two hundr$ & fifty-two ,juke     
wom51 ^: hi/ory is trac$1 ?irty-?ree 7  
illegitimate1 eighte5 7 mo!rs ( ba/>ds  
be=e m>riage1 twelve ! mo!rs ( ba/>ds   
aft] m>riage1 fifty-?ree 7 pro/itutes 7!
 cases ( eight be+ unasc]ta9$71 ?irte5 7
 b>r51 elev5 kept bro!ls1 ?irty-sev5 _h 
syphilis1 =ty-five receiv$1 at "s "t1   
outdoor relief1 ! total numb] ( ye>s    
am\nt+ to two hundr$ & =ty-two1         
tw5ty-f\r receiv$ alm%\se relief1 ! "t  
rea*+ a total ( ?irty-five ye>s1 &      
sixte5 7 committ$ = crimes = a total (  
"o & ?ree-f\r?s ye>s1 ! numb] ( (f5ces  
be+ tw5ty-f\r4 ,out ( two hundr$ &      
tw5ty-five ,juke m51 =ty-n9e 7          
illegitimate1 tw5ty 7 pro/itutes1 "o    

kept a bro!l1 f\rte5 7 afflict$ )       
syphilis1 fifty receiv$ outdoor relief1 
! "t be+1 9 total1 two hundr$ & sev5ty  
ye>s1 tw5ty-n9e 7 9 ! alm%\se = a total 
( =ty-six ye>s1 & ?irty-?ree 7 committ$ 
= crime = a total ( eighty-n9e & a half 
ye>s1 ! numb] ( (f5ces be+ fifty-n9e4 ,!
 l9es ) :i* ! ,jukes cohabit$ or        
int]m>ri$ 7 naturally ( a l[ moral type1
 b !y d n %[ ne>ly z high a p]c5tage (  
crime & paup]ism2 ?us among !           
m>riageable wom5 ( ! ,jukes1 we f9d !   
p]c5tage ( h>lotry to be #eb4dj1 among  
^? ( ! int]m>ry+ or cohabit+ l9es only  
#da4gf4 ,( ! /ock ( ,ada ,juke1 kn[n to 
! police z ,m>g>et1 ! "m ( crim9als1 n9e
 (f5d]s 7 s5t to prison = a total (     
sixty ye>s1 _! crimes con/itut+         
fifty-f\r p] c5t ( all ! crimes aga9/   
prop]ty record$ ( ! ,jukes1 & includ+   
burgl>y1 gr& l>c5y1 & highway robb]y2   
besides "o murd] & ?ree attempts at     
rape4 ,dugdale ?us describes 8 fir/     
acqua9tance ) ! ,jukes4 ,9 ,july1 #ahgd1
 ! ,new ,york ,prison ,association hav+ 

deput$ me to visit ?irte5 ( ! c\nty     
jails ( ?is /ate & report !reupon1 ,i   
made a t\r ( inspection 9 pursuance ( t 
appo9tm5t4 ,no specially /rik+ cases (  
crim9al c>e]s1 traceable ?r\gh sev]al   
g5]ations1 pres5t$ !mselves till ----   
,c\nty 0 rea*$4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 7 f\nd six  
p]sons1 "u f\r family names1 :o turn$   
out to be blood relations 9 "s degree4  
,! olde/1 a man ( =ty-five1 0 wait+     
trial = receiv+ /ol5 goods2 8 daught]1  
ag$ eighte51 held z witness aga9/ him2  
h] uncle1 ag$ =ty-two1 burgl>y 9 ! fir/ 
degree2 ! illegitimate daught] ( !      
latt]'s wife1 ag$ twelve ye>s1 ^u :i*   
*ild ! latt] _h attempt$ rape1 to be s5t
 to ! re=matory = vagrancy2 & two bro!rs
 9 ano!r bran* ( ! family1 ag$          
respectively n9ete5 & f\rte51 accus$ (  
an assault ) int5t to kill1 !y hav+     
malici\sly pu%$ a *ild ov] a high cliff 
& ne>ly kill$ him4 ,^u trial1 ! olde/ 0 
acquitt$1 ?\gh ! goods /ol5 7 f\nd 9 8  
h\se1 8 previ\s good "* sav+ him2 !     
guilt belong$ to 8 bro!r-9-law1 ! man   

ag$ =ty-two above-m5tion$1 :o 0 liv+ 9 !
 h\se4 ,?is bro!r-9-law is an           
illegitimate *ild1 an habitual crim9al1 
& ! son ( an unpuni%$ & cauti\s ?ief4   
,he _h two bro!rs & "o si/]1 all ( :om  
are ?ieves1 ! si/] be+ ! contriv] (     
crime1 !y its executors4 ,! daught] (   
?is woman1 ! girl ag$ eighte5           
above-m5tion$1 te/ifi$1 at ! trial :i*  
result$ 9 convict+ h] uncle & procur+ 8 
s5t5ce = tw5ty ye>s to /ate prison1 t %e
 0 =c$ to jo9 him 9 8 la/ =ay1 t he _h  
load$ h] ) ! booty & beat h] on ! j\rney
 home1 ov] two miles1 because %e lagg$  
"u ! load4 ,:5 ?is girl 0 releas$1 h]   
family 9 jail1 & ?us left )\t a home1 %e
 0 =c$ to make h] lodg+ 9 a bro!l on !  
outskirts ( ! city4 ,next morn+ %e      
appli$ to ! judge to be recommitt$ to   
prison '= protection' aga9/ c]ta9       
specifi$ c>nal outrages requir$ ( h] &  
submitt$ to4 ,%e has s9ce be5 s5t to !  
h\se ( refuge4 ,( ! two boys1 "o 0      
dis*>g$ by ! gr& jury2 ! o!r 0 tri$ &   
receiv$ five ye>s' imprisonm5t 9 ,s+    

,s+4  ,^! six p]sons belong$ to a long  
l9eage1 rea*+ back to ! e>ly coloni/s1 &
 _h int]m>ri$ s slightly ) ! emigrant   
population ( ! ,old ,_w t !y may be     
call$ a /rictly ,am]ican family4 ,!y _h 
liv$ 9 ! same locality = g5]ations1 & 7 
s despis$ by ! respectable community t  
_! family "n _h come to be us$ g5]ically
 z a t]m ( reproa*4  ,t ?is 0 des]v$    
became manife/ on slight inquiry4 ,x 0  
f\nd t out ( tw5ty-n9e males1 9 ages    
rang+ f fifte5 to sev5ty-five1 !        
imm$iate blood-relations ( ^! six       
p]sons1 sev5te5 ( !m 7 crim9als1 or     
fifty-eight p] c5t2 :ile fifte5 7       
convict$ ( "s degree ( (f5ce1 & receiv$ 
sev5ty-"o ye>s ( s5t5ce4444 ,! crimes & 
misdemeanors !y committ$ 7 assault &    
batt]y1 assault ) int5t to kill1 murd]1 
attempt at rape1 petit l>c5y1 gr& l>c5y1
 burgl>y1 =g]y1 cruelty to animals4  ,b 
?is book ( ,dugdale's1 :i* traces s     
cle>ly & ?or\ghly long l9es ( crim9al   
desc5t1 makes manife/1 also1 ! influ5ce 
( environm5t4 ,we f9d1 = in/ance1 9 !   

l9e ( ! illegitimate po/]ity ( ,ada     
,juke1 g5]ation five1 ! case ( a male   
desc5dant1 :o 0 s5t5c$ to ,s+ ,s+ = ?ree
 ye>s at ! age ( tw5ty-two1 b :o1 leav+ 
prison at ! expiration ( 8 s5t5ce1      
ab&on$ crime & settl$ d[n to /eady      
employm5t4 ,a second case is t ( ano!r  
male desc5dant ( ,ada1 :o assi/$ 8 bro!r
 9 burgl>y at ! age ( twelve1 & s]v$    
probably "s ?irte5 or f\rte5 ye>s 9     
prison1 b lat] re=m$ & took to          
/one-qu>ry+1 hav+ le>n$1 says ,dugdale1 
indu/ri\s habits 9 prison4 ,a bro!r (   
?is man1 :o _h also s]v$ s5t5ces 9 jail 
= assault & batt]y1 & a t]m ( two ye>s  
at ,s+ ,s+ = burgl>y 7! t]m beg9n+ at ! 
age ( tw5ty-two71 mov$ at ! age (       
?irty-"o into ! same c\nty z 8 bro!r1 & 
w5t into ! bus9ess ( qu>ry+4 ,a female  
desc5dant 9 ! illegitimate l9e ( ,ada1  
g5]ation five1 :o seems to h foll[$ a   
dissolute life up to ! age ( fifte51 at 
?is po9t m>ri$ a ,g]man1 a /eady1       
indu/ri\s1 plodd+ man1 & settl$ d[n into
 a reputable woman4 ,9 ! legitimate l9e 

( ,ada1 aga91 g5]ation five1 we f9d !   
case ( a girl said to h be5 born 9 !    
poorh\se1 :o 0 adopt$ out f !re into a  
weal?y family1 & is do+ well4 ,9 all ^! 
cases1 ! re=m 0 ! result ( contact1 dur+
 ! e>li] p]iod ( life1 ) new elem5ts    
induc+ indu/ry & sobriety4 ,su* cases   
might lead u to d\bt ! conclusions we   
%\ld o!rwise feel ju/ifi$ 9 draw+ )     
reg>d to ! action ( h]$ity1 & mu/       
c]ta9ly r5d] u cauti\s n to impute !    
:ole "* ( ! individual to h]$ity alone4 
,b ! complicat$ nature ( all social     
relations %\ld re/ra9 u f lay+ all /ress
 ^u any "o elem5t 9 ^? relations1 9 any 
case4 ,"h1 aga91 we recur to !          
conception ( conditions & results 9     
di/9ction f t ( cause & effect4 ,if     
/ati/ics su* z ^! ( ! ,jukes includ$    
m9ute & c>eful /atem5ts z to m5tal &    
physical *>act]i/ics & resemblances1 !y 
w\ld und5iably be mu* m reliable basis =
 conclusions z to ! h]$it>y nature ( "*4
 ,nev]!less1 incomplete ?\gh ?is evid5ce
 be1 x is by no means su* t x c be      

logically disreg>d$4 ,x is to be said ( 
su* cases ( re=m & respectability z ^?  
notic$ "u favorable influ5ces 7#a7 t we 
are n in=m$ z to its exact ext5t &      
motive & h no means ( kn[+ :at ^! 72    
7#b7 t1 if rev]sion to ance/ral types is
 possible 9 ! s5se ( det]ioration1 !re  
is no reason :y x %\ld n be possible 9 !
 opposite s5se also1--no reason :y bett]
 *>act]s %\ld n1 ?r\gh1 p]haps1 "s      
favorable pr5atal influ5ce at exactly ! 
"r p]iod ( developm5t1 occasionally crop
 out 9 a l9e ( g5]al bas5ess2#aeh & 7#c7
 t ! admixture ( a /ra9 ( some:at bett] 
blood may produce1 or "s especial cross+
 be favorable to1 ! developm5t ( high]  
"* 9 a "p1 ?\gh n necess>ily all1 ( !   
(fspr+4 ,:5 ! dome/ic pig & ! wild bo>  
or ! wolf & ! dog are cross$1 says      
,ribot1#aei "s ( ! prog5y inh]it !      
savage1 & o!rs ! dome/ic in/9cts4       
,simil> facts h be5 obs]v$ by ,gir\ 9 ! 
cross+ ( diff]5t races ( dogs & cats4   
,we "k q well t ! same law gov]ns !     
transmission ( "* 9 human be+s4 ,9 a    

family ( *ildr51 "s w inh]it !          
*>act]i/ics ( ! fa!r1 "s ^? ( ! "m4 ,mr4
 ,j5k9s ( ! ,bureau ( ,police (         
,brooklyn1 ,n4,y41 relat$ to me a case t
 _h come "u 8 notice4 ,( a family       
consi/+ ( fa!r1 "m1 two sons1 & a       
daught]1 ! "m 0 a h>d-work+1 hone/      
wa%]woman1 :ile ! fa!r 0 deprav$ 9 8    
t5d5cies2 & ( ! ?ree *ildr5 ! daught]   
resembl$ ! "m 9 "*1 ! sons1 on ! o!r h&1
 _! fa!r4 ,"o ( ! sons 0 s5t5c$ to      
prison = a bad case ( burgl>y1 & 0 %ot  
:ile attempt+ to escape2 & on ! same day
 on :i* 8 picture 0 remov$ f ! rogues'  
gall]y1 8 bro!r's 0 hung 9 its place1 ! 
latt] hav+1 ) calm delib]ation &        
prep>ation1 murd]$ a girl ) :om he _h "s
 relation4 ,a simil> case is record$ by 
,gall1 :]e ! "m repres5t$ ! good1 ! fa!r
 ! evil /ock1 & ( five *ildr5 ?ree 7    
condemn$ to sev]e p5alties = ?iev+1 !   
o!r two liv$ correct lives4 ,x is to be 
notic$ t1 ( ! ?ree cases ( bett] "*     
among ! ,jukes cit$ above1 ! two re=m$  
*>act]s 7 bro!rs4 ,x is by no means     

prov$ by ^! cases t all or a majority ( 
! ,jukes 7 capable1 ev5 "u ! be/ (      
influ5ces1 ( a l bett]m5t ( "*4 ,on !   
contr>y3 ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( extreme  
lic5ti\sness atta*+ to ! :ole family1 on
 :i* ,dugdale lays special /ress1--a    
lic5ti\sness ext5d+ ev5 to cohabitation 
& m>riage ) ! negroes at a "t :5 ! latt]
 7 yet 9 slav]y & reg>d$ z little m ?an 
animals1--z well z ! exce$+ vici\sness &
 inhumanity exhibit$ 9 "s ( ! crimes    
7witness ! attempt$ rape on ! niece (   
twelve & ! pu%+ ( ! *ild ov] ! cliff71  
%[ a t5d5cy ( "* mu* bel[ ! av]age4 ,nor
 0 ! prison discipl9e :i* accompli%$ !  
re=m ( ! two bro!rs ! only opportunity (
 /eady indu/ry1 or ! prison ! only      
re=matory environm5t af=d$4 ,dugdale    
m5tions an ext5sive employ] ( labor1    
locat$ ne> ! orig9al settlem5t ( !      
,jukes1 :o employs sev]al memb]s ( x1   
treat+ !m ) firmness & unv>y+ly         
scrupul\s fairness1 int]pos+ 8 au?ority 
& *eck+ !m 9 incipi5t crime4 ,he acts z 
_! bank] &1 z s*ool tru/ee1 arranges1   

:]e wid[s dep5d ^u _! boys = support1 t 
!y %all "w = him & g to s*ool alt]nate  
weeks4 ,if1 inde$1 ! family is locat$1 z
 x seems to be1 9 ! r sp>sely settl$    
di/ricts ( nor!rn ,new ,york1 x is      
sc>cely likely to suff] great isolation1
 z x might 9 ! mid/ ( a city1 or to be  
exclud$ f means ( hone/ livelihood4     
,dugdale m5tions1 inde$1 t ?is employ]  
has n tak5 up ?is "w z a 'mission1' b   
/rictly z a bus9ess man1 :o1 f9d+       
himself plac$ :]e he mu/ employ ! rude  
labor]s ( 8 locality1 deals ) !m on !   
s\nd & heal?y basis ( comm]cial         
contract1 hone/ly c>ri$ out & rigidly   
en=c$4 ,un=tunately1 ,dugdale does n    
furni% u ) any exact in=mation z to !   
result ( ?is v humane c\rse ( treatm5t4 
,we c only rev]t to 8 rem>k t1 ?\gh !   
,jukes _h liv$ 9 ?is neighborhood =     
g5]ations :]e "w 0 evid5tly n lack+ nor 
k9d & judici\s treatm5t abs5t1 _! "n 0  
us$ g5]ically1 by ! reputable community1
 z a t]m ( reproa*4  ,we h already      
notic$ "s inconsi/5cies 9 ,/eph5's !ory 

( human progress z m]ely t ( an         
accumulation ( k4 ,b he practically     
contradicts1 else:]e 9 8 "w1 ?is view ( 
advancem5t4 ,on page #bja ( ! ,sci5ce ( 
,e?ics1 he says di/9ctly3 ,z m5 become m
 intellectual1 sympa!tic1 & s =?1 !y ga9
 fre% s5sibilities1 :i* are n simple    
judgm5ts ( consequ5ces hi!rto improv$1 b
 z direct1 imp]ative1 & sub/antial z any
 ( ! primitive s5sibilities4 ,ev5 if ?is
 /atem5t 7 meant to apply to !          
individual alone1 a great difficulty mu/
 lie 9 ! way ( any !ory t s5sibilities s
 inh]5t1 s5sibilities z direct1         
imp]ative1 & sub/antial z any ( !       
primitive s5sibilities1 w n affect ! "* 
( desc5dants ?r\gh inh]itance1 9 ! same 
mann] z ^! primitive s5sibilities are   
ackn[l$g$ to affect x4 ,b else:]e ,/eph5
 rem>ks3 ,an in/9ct gr[s & decays n on  
acc\nt ( its effects on ! individual1 b 
on acc\nt ( its effects ^u ! race4 ,!   
animal :i*1 on ! :ole1 is bett] adapt$ =
 cont9u+ its species1 w h an advantage 9
 ! /ruggle1 ev5 ?\gh x may n be s well  

adapt$ = pursu+ its own happ9ess4 ,he is
 c>eful to use ! ^w happ9ess "h1 b !    
division "u :i* ! s5t5ce appe>s is      
head$1 ,social & ,individual ,utility1 &
 he di/9ctly /ates1 on ! prec$+ page1 t 
! social in/9cts may be a disadvantage  
to ! individual 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4  
,he writes1 9 ?is connection3 ,! process
 by :i* ! correlation ( p]nici\s &      
pa9ful /ates is work$ out is "o :i*1 by 
its v nature1 mu/ take a numb] (        
g5]ations4 ,races survive 9 virtue ( !  
complet5ess ( ?is correlation4#afj ,?is 
is ,d>w9ism appli$ to humanity2 &1      
surely1 s9ce ! human race has exi/$ 9 ! 
social /ate = v _m g5]ations1 we mu/    
suppose1 accord+ to ! !ory ?us /at$1    
cont9u\s organic advance1 ev5 if we did 
n consid] ! passage 9 connection ) !    
ass]tion ( ! ga91 ) increas+ intellig5ce
 & sympa?y1 ( s5sibilities z direct1    
imp]ative1 & sub/antial z any primitive 
ones4 ,aga9 ,mr4 ,/eph5 writes3 ,x is   
true1 g5]ally1 t ea* man has c]ta9      
capacities = moral z = e o!r k9d (      

developm5t1 & capacities :i* v>y f ! top
 to ! bottom ( ! scale4 ,no process (   
education or discipl9e :atev] w\ld      
conv]t a ,judas ,isc>iot into a ,paul or
 ,john4#afa ,!n education1 ! environm5t 
( civilization1 is n ! only factor 9 !  
production ( "*4 ,nor is x1 accord+ to  
,mr4 ,/eph5's own words1 ! only         
important factor4 ,if capacities v>y f !
 top to ! bottom ( ! scale1 !n surely   
?is v>iation _c be an unimportant elem5t
 ( developm5t4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ,mr4  
,/eph5 himself lays especial /ress ^u   
inh]it$ *>act]i/ic z ! basis ( "*4 ,he  
says1 = example3 ,! "* is det]m9$ = ea* 
individual by its orig9al con/itution1  
?\gh ! "* is modifi$ z ! reason acts4444
 ,b1 aft] all1 we />t ) a c]ta9 balance 
( feel+1 ) c]ta9 fix$ relations betwe5  
our v>i\s in/9cts2 &1 h[ev] ^! may *ange
 aft]w>ds1 our "* is s f> det]m9$ f !   
/>t4 ,aga91 x is pla9 t ?is v>ies       
greatly ) diff]5t peoples & gives rise  
to diff]5t types4#afb ,surely ! =mation 
( types at lea/ _c be a matt] ( !       

individual alone4 ,fur!rmore1 ,mr4      
,/eph5 di/9ctly ass]ts a gr[? (         
intellig5ce 9 ! savage--:i* we _c       
suppose to /op %ort ) ! beg9n+ (        
civilization--:ile he especially        
emphasizes ! fact t ! emotions develop  
concomitantly ) ! intellect4 ,he says   
also3 ,we assume an organic *ange to    
occur--no matt] h[--9 c]ta9 individuals 
( a species1 & t *ange to be inh]it$ by 
_! desc5dants2 & ?us two compet+        
v>ieties to arise1 "o ( :i* may be      
supplant$ by ! o!r1 or ea* ( :i* may    
supplant ! o!r 9 a c]ta9 "p ( ! common  
doma94 ,"s su* process is cle>ly occurr+
 9 ! case ( human v>iations4 ,ev]y:]e we
 see a competition betwe5 diff]5t races1
 & ! m savage vani%+ "u ! approa* ( ! m 
civiliz$4 ,c]ta9 races seem to possess  
enorm\s expansive p[]s1 :il/ o!rs rema9 
limit$ )9 fix$ regions or are sl[ly     
pass+ out ( exi/5ce4 ,s f> z human      
developm5t supposes an organic *ange 9 !
 individual 81 we may suppose t ?is     
process is actually go+ on & t1 =       

example1 ! :ite man may be sl[ly pu%+   
savage races out ( exi/5ce4 ,i d n ask  
:e!r ?is is ! fact1 because = my purpose
 x is irrelevant4 ,we are consid]+ !    
*anges :i* take place )\t su* organic   
developm5t1 n z d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( organic
 developm5ts1 b simply because !y are s 
sl[ & _! influ5ce s gradual t !y d n    
come )9 our sph]e4 ,!y belong1 z        
a/ronom]s say1 to ! secul>1 n to !      
p]iodic *anges4 ,conf9+ ourselves1      
!re=e1 to ! *anges :i* are1 9 my phrase1
 products ( ! 'social factor1' & :i*    
assume ! con/ancy ( ! individual        
organism1#afc etc4 ,! passage is (      
importance z ackn[l$g+ ! reality (      
organic progress2 b x is full ( !       
self-contradictions :i* we h already    
notic$4 ,x />ts ) ! ,d>w9ian assumption 
t organic *ange occurr+ 9 individuals is
 directly inh]itable by _! desc5dants2  
?is assumption1 hav+ done its (fice1    
h[ev]1 is disc>d$1 & we are told t any  
organic *ange _c be t ( individuals b   
mu/ be t ( societies1 or at lea/ t x mu/

 be ( su* sort t we h n only no ne$ to  
consid] x ) reg>d to ! individual life1 
b ev5 no ne$ to consid] x 9 ! /udy ( !  
:ole developm5t ( a society "u          
civilization1 or r t we h no ne$ to /udy
 x at all z soon z we h ! social m$ium  
to fall back ^u = an explanation (      
progress2 & f9ally1 9 direct            
contradiction to ! assumption fir/ made1
 a con/ancy ( ! individual organism is  
ass]t$4 ,?is ass]tion is also 9 direct  
contradiction to ! ass]tion be=e notic$ 
t "* is det]m9$ by orig9al con/itution &
 t orig9al capacity diff]s inf9itely#afd
 9 diff]5t individuals4 ,we are indebt$ 
to ,mr4 ,/eph5 = a v m9ute analysis ( ! 
influ5ce ( ev5 smalle/ details (        
circum/ance ^u "*2 surely1 :ile we are  
?us emphasiz+ ! delicacy ( n]v\s        
organization t answ]s1 ) ! s5sibility ( 
a gold-leaf electroscope1 to ! slighte/ 
v>iations 9 ! environm5t1 we _c         
logically leave out ( acc\nt ! results (
 su* v>iation 9 inh]itance because ^!1  
too1 are m9ute4 ,& surely we _c conceive

 t an organism s s5sitive to ! influ5ce 
( environm5t is yet s inflexible &      
unalt]able z f> z ! transmission ( its  
*anges to (fspr+ is conc]n$4 ,on any    
s\nd physiological !ory1 we _c avoid    
suppos+ t all ^! m9ute *anges 9 "* :i*  
,/eph5 ref]s to ! action ( ! social     
environm5t are accompani$ by exact      
physiological equival5ts4 ,!n ei!r ^!   
*anges ( organization are n             
inh]itable1--9 :i* case ! organism does 
n propagate itself b some?+ diff]5t f   
itself1 & we h no alt]native b to resort
 to "s su* !ory z t ( ,weismann1--or    
else ^! *anges are inh]itable 7subject1 
( c\rse1 to all ! v>iations :i*         
individual circum/ances ( developm5t mu/
 induce71 9 :i* case _! inh]itance mu/  
be ( q z mu* importance z _! orig9 to   
any !ory ( social progress4 ,z we h     
said1 ,weismann has gradually come to   
admit "s influ5ce ( ! environm5t on !   
g]m-plasm4 ,we c inde$ conceive ( !     
repres5tation ( all previ\s developm5t (
 ! species 9 ! individual1 & ( !        

det]m9ation ( ! degree ( importance     
assum$1 9 ! organism1 by any p>ticul>   
acquirem5t or t5d5cy by ! co9cid5ce (   
circum/ance1 b we c sc>cely conceive    
logically ( a propagation ( organization
 t does n repres5t all ! influ5ces :i* h
 made t organization :at x is4 ,ev5 f   
,/eph5's /&po9t1 x is difficult to      
und]/& h[ ! organization ( society1 :i* 
he admits to be no organization on !    
plane ( ! high] animal1 b ( a mu* l[]   
type1 c be ( s mu* importance 9 !       
advance ( mank9d1 its v>iations !       
condition ( progress1 & yet ! mu* m     
int]dep5d5t organization ( ! animal body
 be suppos$ to rema9 con/ant & take no  
"p 9 ?is progress4 ,x is difficult to   
compreh5d h[ s mu* /ress c be laid on ! 
m]e ext]nal influ5ce ( ! units ( society
 on ea* o!r1 &1 at ! same "t1 ! f> m    
intimate & direct influ5ce ( p>5ts on _!
 (fspr+ c be deem$ ( s little importance
 z to w>rant our disreg>d+ x altoge!r4  
,x is especially difficult to und]/& h[ 
x is t h]$ity c be disreg>d$1 n m]ely 9 

its influ5ce on ! individual or ev5 on !
 g5]ation1 b 9 all its manifold1        
intricate1 & prolong$ work+s s9ce man   
fir/ ext5d$ family life to tribal       
organization2 & ?is1 too1 9 spite ( !   
ackn[l$gm5t t progress ?r\gh h]$ity is  
real if sl[4 ,x is /range t !re %\ld    
always be a t5d5cy to draw a di/9ct l9e 
betwe5 social man & all ! re/ ( ! animal
 k+dom1 z if1 :5 society began1 all =m] 
laws ceas$ f op]ation4 ,?us x is        
sometimes said t natural selection no   
long] acts on ! individual because x    
acts on societies z :oles also2 z well  
say t x _c act on inn] organization     
because x acts on ! organism z a :ole4  
,z a matt] ( fact1 x affects society    
?r\gh individuals1 & ! individual ?r\gh1
 or r 91 8 organization4 ,if x is true1 
z ,/eph5 ass]ts1 t *ange ( social tissue
 is prim>y & fundam5tal to all ext]nal  
social *ange1 x is n ! less true t *ange
 ( individual organization is fundam5tal
 to all *ange ( ext]nal action4 ,no !ory
 ( developm5t :i* goes beyond !         

individual life & consid]s ! progress ( 
society z a :ole c sci5tifically        
disreg>d ! elem5t ( h]$ity 9 ?is        
progress4  ,,footnotes3  #ada ,i am     
indebt$ = ^! facts to ,dr4 ,augu/e ,=el4
  #adb ,ants1 ,wasps1 & ,bees1 ,*ap4 ,v4
  #adc ,zur psy*ologis*5 ,wu]digung d]  
d>w9's*5 ,!orie4  #add ,pp4 #ada1 #adb1 
translation by ,h5ry ,m4 ,trollope4     
#ade ,eng4 ed4 ,int]nat4 ,sci5tific     
,s]41 p4 #bgf2 quot$ f ,! ,zooelogi/4   
#adf ,m5tal ,evolution 9 ,animals1 p4   
#cde2 cit$ f an article 9 ,nature1      
#ahhc4  #adg ,animal ,intellig5ce1 p4   
#dgb4  #adh ,m9d1 ,vol4 ,,viii4  #adi   
,lubbock3 ,! ,orig9 ( ,civilisation1 pp4
 #i1 #aj4  #aej ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 pp4
 #ajc1 #ajd4  #aea ,ibid4 p4 #aji4  #aeb
 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 p4 #dai4  #aec    
,ibid4 p4 #ajc4  #aed ,ribot3 ,h]$ity4  
,"h we h examples :i* %[ t disease1 z   
well z heal?ful organization & function1
 are subject to v>iation2 & x may occur 
to u to wond] t no "o has ?\ght ( ref]r+
 ^! v>iations to "s sup]natural         

int]f]5ce or special inn] spontaneity2 t
 !ories :i* assume "s transc5d5tal ag5cy
 or "s spontane\sly act+ vital pr9ciple 
z ! cause ( normal1 heal?ful v>iation h 
yet ei!r left ! v>iations ( disease out 
( consid]ation or else simply ref]r$ !m 
to influ5ce ( ! environm5t4 ,! reason = 
?is1 z f> z transc5d5tal int]f]5ce is   
conc]n$1 is evid5t2 any !ory ( teleology
 9 su* cases mu/ po9t to malevol5t n    
b5evol5t design4  #aee ,h]$ity1 pp4     
#abd1 #abe4 ,quot$ f ! ,dictionnaire    
,philosophique1 article ,caton4  #aef ,!
 ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 pp4 #ajb1 #ajc4  #aeg
 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 p4 #ajg4  #aeh    
,see previ\s obs]vations on ?is subject1
 p4 #djh4  #aei ,h]$ity1 ,engl4 trans41 
p4 #hd4  #afj ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 pp4  
#ia1 #ib4  #afa ,ibid41 p4 #dcb4 ,!     
italics are m9e4  #afb ,ibid41 pp4 #gb1 
#gc4  #afc ,p4 #aba4  #afd ,see above1  
p4 #djj4     ,,*apt] ,,vi4  ,,consci5ce 
,! exact circum/ances :i* l$1 9 any     
p>ticul> l9e ( desc5t1 to ! f9al        
production ( self-consci\s altruism we  

_c "k4 ,we may1 p]haps1 z has be5 h9t$1 
trace ! :ole developm5t to ! orig9al    
union ( ! sexes 9 l[]1 asexual species1 
& ( "m & (fspr+2 & we may suppose ! f9al
 self-consci\s altruism to h be5 l$ up  
to gradually by habit1 9 any case1 !    
hi/ory ( all function be+ gradual       
evolution4 ,?us we may suppose x        
possible t1 9 "s cases1 ! c>e ( (fspr+  
may h be5 prec$$ by a habit ( c>e1 on ! 
"p ( ! female animal1 = h] eggs1 :i*1 z 
habit1 0 pleasurable1 b 0 connect$ ) no 
consci\sness ( ! (fspr+ produc$ f ! eggs
 until "s new circum/ance ( environm5t  
br\ght !m )9 k54 ,( ! developm5t ( habit
 9 g5]al & ( pleasure 9 x1 we h pl5ty ( 
illu/rations 9 our own individual       
exp]i5ce1 & we c ev5 wat*1 9 our own    
case1 ! process ( ! increase ( altruism 
along old l9es z well z its gr[? 9 new  
directions2 & we may ?us ga9 a          
conception ( :at mu/ h be5 ! g5]al      
nature ( its e>lie/ developm5t1 9 any   
case4  ,9 ,volume ,,iii ( ,m9d1 ,paul   
,fri$mann has an int]e/+ essay on ,!    

,g5esis ( ,dis9t]e/$ ,b5evol5ce1 9 :i*  
he relates ! foll[+3 ,a man _h to ?r[   
away "s wat] &1 /epp+ out ( 8 h\se1 ?rew
 x ^u a heap ( rubbi%1 :]e "s fad$      
plants 7 ne>ly dy+4 ,at t mom5t1 he paid
 no att5tion to !m1 took no int]e/ 9 _! 
pitiable /ate4 ,! next day1 hav+ aga9 "s
 wat] to ?r[ away1 ! man /epp$ out at ! 
same place1 :5 he rem>k$ t ! plants _h  
rais$ _! /ems & rega9$ "s life4 ,he     
und]/ood t ?is 0 ! result ( 8 act ( !   
day be=e1 8 int]e/ 0 awak5$1 & z he held
 a j> ) wat] 9 8 h&1 he aga9 ?rew its   
cont5ts ov] ! plants4 ,on ! foll[+ day !
 same took place2 ! b5evol5t feel+1 !   
int]e/ 9 ! recov]y & welf>e ( ! plants  
augm5t$1 & ! man t5d$ ! plants )        
increas+ c>e4 ,:5 he f\nd1 "o day1 t !  
rubbi% & plants _h be5 c>t$ away1 he    
felt a real annoyance4 ,! feel+ ( ! man 
0 9 ?is case real dis9t]e/$ b5evol5ce4  
,! plants 7 nei!r f9e nor useful1 & !   
place :]e !y /ood 0 ugly & out ( ! way1 
s t ! man _h no advantage f _! gr[?4    
,nor _h ! man a g5]al wi% to re> plants1

 = !re 7 a numb] ( o!r plants sorely 9  
want ( c>e1 b to :i* ! man did n transf]
 8 affections4 ,he _h lov$ ^! individual
 plants4 ,fri$mann says fur!r3 ,=m]ly r 
ho/ile to dogs1 n[ t ,i h a dog myself1 
,i feel well incl9$ t[>ds ! :ole can9e  
species1 b mo/ to t "p ( x :i* has "s   
*>act]i/ic feature 9 common ) my        
favorite4 ,features ( ! fir/ quotation  
may rem9d u ( "s =m] consid]ations (    
ours 9 :i* att5tion & int]e/ 7 f\nd to  
run p>allel4 ,we may take exception1    
h[ev]1 to ,fri$mann's def9ition ( !     
ext5sion ( b5evol5t feel+ f an          
individual ( a class to ! :ole ( ! class
 or to be+s resembl+ !m 9 any way z a   
sort ( logical confusion4 ,?is view has 
already be5 criticis$4 ,! adult be+ at  
lea/ does n confuse individuals1 or ev5 
if he may occasionally d s1 su*         
confusion is n at all ! di/+ui%+ feature
 ( progress 9 altruism2 x is m]ely an   
accid5t1 n any?+ t is *>act]i/ic4 ,!    
recognition ( old features 9 new objects
 is ! opposite ( confusion2 x w\ld r    

indicate a logical confusion1 a lack (  
intellig5ce1 if we fail$ to rememb] t   
:i* has =m]ly giv5 u pleasure1 & to f9d1
 9 simil> objects1 "s r5ewal ( t        
pleasure4 ,x w\ld h be5 j z logical1 =  
in/ance1 & m truly b5evol5t1 if ! man :o
 t5d$ ! plants _h c>$ also = ! o!r      
plants m5tion$ z sorely 9 want ( c>e1 & 
:i* he seems to h left to p]i%4  ,we may
 (t5 notice ! gr[? ( altrui/ic f egoi/ic
 z well z ( egoi/ic f altrui/ic motives1
 9 ourselves2 = retrogression z well z  
progression 9 altruism is possible ) !  
individual4 ,if we feel bitt]ly t[>ds "s
 human be+1 = in/ance1 ! be/ & sure/    
rem$y is to p]=m "s act ( k9dness t[>ds 
him4 ,we may contemplate & c>ry out !   
de$ ) m]ely a s5se ( gratification &    
egoi/ic elation at our own g5]osity1 b  
we are m ?an likely to exp]i5ce "s      
degree ( *ange ( feel+ be=e we h f9i%$4 
,on ! o!r h&1 our he>t (t5 seems to h>d5
 & fill ) great] animosity t[>ds ^? we h
 injur$1 ! long] we cont9ue ?is c\rse ( 
injuri\s action & ! m positive ! injury 

inflict$4 ,a c]ta9 degree ( g5]osity    
mu/1 x is true1 already exi/ 9 ord] t we
 may be able to %[ k9dness to an enemy1 
j z ho/ility mu/ also be pres5t 9 ord] t
 we may be able to comm5ce a c\rse (    
injury or unk9dness2 b bo? k9dly feel+ &
 animosity increase con/antly ) _!      
ex]cise4 ,we are nev] exactly ! same    
aft] our de$s t we are be=e !m4  ,says  
,george ,eliot3 ,x w\ld be a poor result
 ( all our angui% & our wre/l+ if we won
 no?+ b our old selves at ! end ( x--if 
we c\ld return to ! same bl9d loves1 !  
same self-confid5t blame1 ! same light  
?\ghts ( human suff]+1 ! same frivol\s  
gossip ov] blight$ human lives4#afe ,&  
aga93 ,! creature we help to save1 ?\gh 
only a half-re>$ l9net1 bruis$ & lo/ by 
! wayside--h[ we wat* & f5ce x1 & dote  
on its signs ( recov]y4#aff  ,:atev] !  
p>ticul> circum/ances t l$1 9 ! p>ticul>
 l9e ( animal desc5t by :i* ! species we
 di/9ctively t]m human f9ally came into 
exi/5ce1 to ! ext5sion ( tempor>y to    
life-long association1 & :e!r ?is       

life-long association began only ) man1 
or e>li] ) 8 ape-l prog5itors1 c]ta9 x  
is t increase ( numb]s mu/ f9ally       
condition society4 ,! int]nal1 l !      
ext]nal process1 is a gradual "o1 an    
evolution2 & we _c1 !re=e1 suppose      
society z life-long association to h    
begun ) ! exi/5ce ( no altrui/ic feel+  
:atev]4 ,9 s f>1 ,d>w9's ass]tion t !   
social in/9ct l$ m5 to society conta9s a
 measure ( tru?2 b x is to be rememb]$ t
 ! social in/9ct at ! beg9n+ ( social   
life _c h be5 ! same ) ! social in/9ct (
 pres5t civilization1 :i* is ! product (
 long developm5t2 pleasure 9 function1  
its ends1 & objects1 increases          
concomitantly ) ex]cise4 ,d>w9's /atem5t
 is1 h5ce1 liable to miscon/ruction4    
,!re is a simil> tru? 9 ,rolph's        
criticism ( ,sp5c]'s !ory t m5 adopt$   
social life because !y f\nd x           
advantage\s1 on ! gr\nd t m5 mu/ fir/ h 
_h exp]i5ce ( ! advantages ( association
 be=e !y c\ld h be5 aw>e ( !m4 ,b !     
exp]i5ce :i* cont9ually leads to a /ep 9

 advance may n be1 at e po9t1 = e /ep1 !
 exp]i5ce ( ! individual or individuals 
tak+ ! /ep2 x is q possible t "s /eps   
may be tak5 f ! obs]vance ( ! exp]i5ce (
 o!rs2 at lea/ ?is is possible if we    
suppose any degree ( intellig5ce &      
reason 9 ! individuals tak+ ! /ep4 ,!   
introduction ( ! idea ( a calculation ( 
advantages is1 fur!rmore1 exce$+ly      
useful4 ,=1 :ile ! social in/9ct1 !     
desire = & pleasure 9 all ! v>i\s       
function connect$ ) association ) o!r   
be+s1 may be ( assi/ance 9 br++ ab\t any
 advance 9 association1 ! selfi% in/9ct1
 already 9 exi/5ce be=e ! evolution (   
any consid]able degree ( altrui/ic      
impulse1 may influ5ce & induce !        
advance1 :]e ! social in/9ct is n1      
alone1 ( suffici5t /r5g?4 ,at ! beg9n+ (
 social life1 z at e lat] po9t (        
advancem5t1 motives are mix$1 &         
selfi%ness may prep>e ! way =           
unselfi%ness4  ,at any po9t ( evolution1
 !re mu/ be1 among cont5d+ species or   
individuals1 "s :o are /rong] or :o h1  

?r\gh "s circum/ance1 ! advantage ov] ! 
o!rs2 giv5 ev5 a mod]ate numb] (        
individuals1 & x is h>dly possible t all
 %\ld be defeat$ & de/roy$ 9 any        
/ruggle1 l ! fam\s cats ( ,kilk5ny4 ,?is
 be+ ! case1 & *ange ( organization be+ 
cont9ually condition$ by contact ) new  
elem5ts ( environm5t1 advancem5t1       
evolution1 becomes a necessity1 no      
natural cata/rophe occurr+ to de/roy all
 life4 ,!re is no my/]y ab\t evolution 9
 ?is s5se4 ,advancem5t 9 society is /ill
 m compreh5sible to u by ! fact ( !     
elem5t ( reason involv$ 9 x2 f ! beg9n+ 
( life-association among human be+s or  
_! imm$iate prog5itors1 ! exi/5ce ( "s m
 intellig5t individuals ?an ! re/1 :o w 
p]ceive ! advantages ( association1 may 
be assum$4 ,& ?us at ea* /ep1 z ! gr[+  
d5sity ( population cont9ually r5d]s    
increas+ cooep]ation increas+ly         
advantage\s1 we may suppose ! vangu>d to
 be compos$ ( ! m intellig5t & ! m      
social4  ,sympa?y prompts n only to !   
conf]r+ ( pleasure1 x prompts also to ! 

prev5tion ( injuri\s conduct1 on ! "p ( 
o!rs1 t[>ds ! be+ or be+s ) :om sympa?y 
is felt4 ,a conception ( ! advantage (  
mutual aid may assi/ z a motive 9 ?is4  
,! e>lie/ mutual aid 01 to a great      
ext5t1 "o ( cooep]ation aga9/ enemies4  
,9 "o way & ano!r1 ?is mutual def5ce mu/
 h ext5d$ to ! compulsion ( positive    
b5eficial conduct1 on ! "p ( o!rs1 t[>ds
 ! be+ or be+s ) :om sympa?y 0 felt4    
,su* compulsion may be ex]t$ by diff]5t 
tribes1 or by diff]5t memb]s ( ! same   
tribe1 on ea* o!r2 ! means ( compulsion 
are rev5ges ( diff]5t sorts1 b5efit1    
assi/ance ( "s sort1 be+1 on ! o!r h&1  
(t5 ! rew>d ( ready compliance4 ,?is    
compulsion may be felt z great] or less 
accord+ to ! degree ( reluctance to p]=m
 any =m ( action requir$ "u pa9 ( !     
p5alty4 ,if ! ?\ghts are occupi$ ) !    
possible rew>d1 & n ) ! puni%m5t1 !n no 
out] compulsion is felt1 b a *oice (    
advantage is made4 ,?is *oice aga9 may n
 be :olly "o ( selfi% calculation2 "s   
altrui/ic feel+ may be involv$4 ,a =m ( 

action at fir/ *os5 ) reluctance1 &     
m]ely because ( ! fe> ( puni%m5t or     
rev5ge1 may come to be p]=m$ lat] )\t   
hesitation1 & m "u ! hope ( rew>d ?an ! 
fe> ( puni%m5t2 & ?is same =m ( action  
may come to be p]=m$ f9ally ) sympa?y z 
! prom95t feel+1 ! hope ( rew>d becom+ m
 & m second>y4 ,ea* increase ( sympa?y1 
aga91 reacts ^u ! environm5t z repres5t$
 by o!r individuals1 & ?us ! relations &
 influ5ce ( m5 on ea* o!r become m & m  
complicat$4 ,any habit ( cruelty or     
ho/ility :i* has be51 at =m] /ages1     
unit$ ) prosp]ity may ?us become1 ?r\gh 
! action & reaction ( increas+ altruism1
 a disadvantage to ! individual memb] ( 
any society2 or x is also conceivable t 
a =m]ly advantage\s egoi/ic =m ( action 
may become disadvantage\s ?r\gh ! adv5t 
( "s new influ5ce f outside ! p>ticul>  
society 9 :i* x is practis$4 ,fa!r      
,phil1 9 ,lov]'s /ory ( ,h&y ,&y1       
relates an anecdote ( an engagem5t 9    
,spa91 9 :i* ! dragoons ( a regim5t1    
retreat+ "u hot fire1 paus$ at ! cross+ 

( a riv] to take up beh9d !m "s wom5 ( !
 camp-foll[]s1 :o _h difficulty 9       
cross+1 & !reupon f\nd !mselves foll[$  
by *e]s1 in/ead ( %ots1 f _! ,fr5* foes4
 ,i d n int5d to intimate t ! motive = !
 de$ 0 self-int]e/2 b x is easy to      
conceive simil> in/ances 9 :i* humanity 
might become an advantage & be practis$ 
at fir/ f self-int]e/1 n by individuals 
m]ely b by a :ole tribe2 ?is mu/ be     
frequ5tly ! case :5 less civiliz$       
peoples come 9 contact ) m civiliz$     
peoples4 ,& ?is leads u to rem>k t      
habits ( sympa?y & ju/ice ex]cis$ )9 a p
 w be likely to manife/ !mselves 9      
relations ) o!r peoples also1 9 degree z
 ! sympa?y is real & ! b5evol5ce inw>d4 
,b ! attitudes ( diff]5t peoples t[>ds  
ea* o!r rema9 long ho/ile1 s9ce ! p>tial
 surr5d] ( tribal or national int]e/s   
necess>y to compact (t5 involves too    
great sacrifices to be acquiesc$ 9 at an
 e>ly /age ( developm5t4 ,& ! individual
 is necess>ily influ5c$1 to a great     
ext5t1 by ! feel+s ( ^? among :om he is 

born1 ) reg>d to ! ho/ile nation4 ,b ?is
 is retrac+ our analysis4  ,altruism is 
?us increas$ directly by ! p]ception &  
*oice ( cooep]ation z advantage\s1 by ! 
spread ( altrui/ic feel+ & ! compulsion 
( ! social environm5t1 z well z by !    
high] means ( p]suasion & affection1 9  
:i* altruism itself affects ! increase (
 altruism2 & x is also increas$         
indirectly by ! aid ( natural selection 
betwe5 individuals1 families1           
neighborhoods1 & gr\ps ( all sorts1     
cooep]ation becom+ m & m advantage\s ) !
 increas$ d5sity ( population4  ,x is   
sc>cely necess>y to rem>k t natural     
selection acts also ) reg>d to ! egoi/ic
 or p]sonal virtues2 = ^! h reg>d1      
prim>ily1 to ! pres]vation ( !          
individual 9 ! be/ condition = labor &  
*e]fulness4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ?is        
direction also ! moral mu/ cont9ually   
ga9 ! advantage4 ,ei!r ! injuri\s is    
p]ceiv$ & avoid$1 or ! individual fail+ 
to p]ceive & avoid x suff]s physical    
injury & det]ioration1 &1 unless a      

diff]5t c\rse is adopt$ 9 "t1 br+s at   
la/ de/ruction to himself or to 8 /ock4 
,b our analysis goes fur!r2 = ! egoi/ic 
virtues are evid5tly n purely egoi/ic2 &
 society w come ) "t to insi/ on ?is    
fact1 & to r5d] ^! virtues /ill m       
advantage\s & _! neglect /ill m         
disadvantage\s2 :ile ! gr[? ( !         
altrui/ic feel+s w infuse ! individual )
 ! desire to p]=m 8 duty to o!rs 9 ?is  
respect also4 ,! purely egoi/ic "* (    
s-call$ p]sonal virtues1 = ! ass]tion ( 
:i* s mu* has be5 writt51 is a my?4 ,no 
man c make a sot ( himself or inde$     
injure himself 9 any way )\t r$uc+ 8 p[]
 to b5efit society & h>m+ ^? ne>e/ to   
him4 ,self-pres]vation & ! pres]vation (
 "o's own heal? may conflict ) altrui/ic
 virtues at times2 t is to say1 virtues 
bo? ( :i* are altrui/ic1 ?\gh !         
altrui/ic "* ( "o is m direct ?an ! o!r1
 may conflict2 9 :i* case1 *oice is     
necess>y4 ,& x is /range to note1 at ?is
 po9t1 t j ^? sy/ems :i* lay mo/ /ress  
on individual welf>e1 t is1 emphasize ! 

fact t ! pres]vation ( individual heal? 
& ! developm5t ( individual capacity are
 advantage\s to society1 are ! v ones t 
also def5d ! fre$om ( ! individual to   
practise s-call$ p]sonal vice4 ,! two   
!ories d n well accord2 surely1 if !    
individual is ( s mu* importance to     
society1 8 vice _c be )\t injuri\s      
results to x4 ,only :5 egoi/ic c>e =    
heal? has become infus$ ) ! high]       
altruism1 does x become truly virtue2 !n
 c>e = self ceases to be ! m]e means to 
isolat$ pleasure1 & becomes ! means to !
 happ9ess ( o!rs :]e x 0 (t51 be=e1 !   
means to _! mis]y1 & ev5 _! de/ruction4 
,9 ! evolution ( high] animal =ms f l[]1
 ! l[] d n necess>ily pass out ( exi/5ce
 ) ! developm5t ( ! high]2 9 society1   
h[ev]1 ! contact is close & cont9u\s1 & 
! competition unremitt+2 !re is1 !re=e1 
"s elim9ation1 ?\gh a v gradual "o1 (   
l[] types4 ,! l[] =ms may exi/ = a long 
"t beside ! high]2 9 o!r words1 society 
z a :ole progresses sl[ly on acc\nt ( ! 
imm5se complication ( relations )9 x4   

,we f9d x includ+ _m grades ( altrui/ic 
& egoi/ic virtue1 & c te/ify only to a  
progress t r5d]s ! extremes ( vice &    
cruelty less & less ! rule & m & m !    
exception4  ,& ?is br+s u to ! fur!r    
consid]ation ( a po9t n long ago t\*$   
^u1 namely1 ! high degree ( civilization
 atta9$ by c]ta9 anci5t peoples4 ,n !   
:ole race ( man1 x is evid5t1 advances  
toge!r to high] grades ( civilization1 z
 n all individuals or all l9es ( desc5t 
9 ! same society fall "u ! same         
influ5ces & advance at a l rate4 ,at !  
pres5t date1 ! great] "p ( ,africa z    
well z portions ( o!r c\ntries are      
inhabit$ by rude & savage tribes1 ! re/ 
( ! _w1 n class$ z savage1 repres5t+ v  
_m diff]5t grades & phases ( progress4  
,aft] ! conque/ ( ,greece by ,rome & (  
,rome by ! tribes f ! ,nor?1 ! high]    
degree ( civilization ( ! conqu]$       
nations 0 p>tly lo/ by !m & p>tly       
acquir$ by _! conqu]ors2 t is1 no?+ 0   
really lo/1 b two diff]5t =ces met &    
p>tly neutraliz$ ea* o!r2 ! resultant   

repres5t$1 9 ?is case z 9 all o!rs1 !   
complication1 ! algebraic sum1 ( ! two4 
,9 ! essay be=e ref]r$ to1 ,dr4         
,petzoldt calls att5tion to ! extremely 
unique "* ( ! productions (             
,inn]-,african tribes be=e !y h come 9  
contact ) :ite m51 & cites ,ba/ian's    
te/imony t ev5 "o %ort visit f a :ite   
man is (t5 en\gh to de/roy ! peculi>ity 
( ! type4 ,new t5d5cies are introduc$1 &
 ! /ability is imm$iately dim9i%$1 ?\gh 
only to progress gradually to a new]1   
high] =m4 ,! comp>ative sp>sity ( !     
human race 9 anci5t times r5d]$ x       
possible = s+le isolat$ peoples to atta9
 to a high degree ( culture :ile !      
great] "p ( ! e>? 0 inhabit$ by !       
unciviliz$2 & ! increase ( ! species    
s9ce t "t1 ?\gh necessitat+ wid] contact
 & clos] relations1 & s r5d]+ ! new]    
civilization necess>ily a wid] "o1 has  
yet n be5 suffici5t to make isolat$     
savag]y 9 l&s n rea*$ by ! spread+      
circle1 impossible4 ,! anci5t           
civilization 0 lo/1 b n lo/ 9 ! s5se t  

its =ce ev] p]i%$2 x f\nd its full      
repres5tation--b no m--9 ! result t     
arose f bl5d+ ) a l[] grade4 ,! same    
process is be+ repeat$ :]ev] civiliz$   
man1 on ! bord]s ( civilization1 comes 9
 contact ) savage or half-civiliz$ man4 
,! two races may dwell side by side1    
sep>at$ f intimate association1 b _!    
contiguity is yet m>k$ by a c]ta9 am\nt 
( *ange on bo? sides1--a *ange ! great] 
! great] ! degree ( association & !     
great] ! isolation ( ^? on ! bord]-l&s f
 ! re/ ( ! civiliz$ _w1 & ! long] ?is   
/ate ( ?+s p]si/s4 ,we are "h rem9d$    
p>ticul>ly ( ,fe*n]'s =mula ( ! process 
( evolution1 9 :i* ! concepts (         
isolation z favor+ ! /eady advancem5t ( 
! process on its own peculi> l9es1 & (  
new contact z new di/urbance f :i*      
issues new developm5t1 are mo/ prom95t4 
,if we reg>d especially ! e?ical        
features ( ?is contact at ! bord]s1 x   
may be rem>k$ bo? t savages ga9         
gradually m humanity f contact )        
civiliz$ nations1 & t :ite m51 on ! o!r 

h&1 lose1 9 con/ant contact ) savages1  
"s ( ! humanity :i* !y h display$ 9 !   
mid/ ( _! own nation4 ,!y gr[ us$ to    
sights ( cruelty1 mu* ( :i* x is        
impossible = !m to prev5t2 !y are r\s$  
to ang]1 hatr$1 & retaliation by acts ( 
deception1 trea*]y1 & cruelty1 & !y f9d1
 moreov]1 t k9dness is (t5 mi/ak5 =     
weakness by ! bloody & rev5geful p ) :om
 !y h to d1 :o are (t5 us$ to respect   
only or *iefly ! brute =ce :i* c compel 
ob$i5ce4 ,i d n int5d "h to repres5t !  
:ite man z ! inc>nation ( sympa?y &     
humanity2 ev5 9 ! mid/ ( society1 z we h
 already suffici5tly notic$1 8 app>5t   
altruism may be1 to a l>ge degree1 !    
outcome ( selfi% motives1 natural t5d5cy
 be+ re/ra9$ ?r\gh fe> ( puni%m5t or    
hope ( ga9 ( "s sort4 ,!re are grades )9
 societies z well z grades repres5t$ by 
societies z :oles4 ,b sev]al ?+s are to 
be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! comp>ison ( !   
:ite man ) ! savage "u circum/ances (   
contact4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we h to       
rememb] t1 :ile ! :ite man is1 to a     

great ext5t1 )drawn f ! control ( !     
society to :i* he belongs1 secure f _!  
judgm5t = ! "t be+ & ) ! prospect1 (t51 
( probable security f x = all "t1 s9ce  
reports ( 8 actions may nev] rea* ! e>s 
( m civiliz$ societies1 ! individual    
savage is /ill re/ra9$ by :atev] ( law &
 moral s5tim5t exi/s 9 8 own tribe2 8   
v5geance1 :atev] x is1 is to a great    
ext5t "u ! control ( 8 *iefs4 ,aga91 !  
p[] ( ! savage to inflict injury is n s 
great z t ( ! :ite man1 :o has all !    
implem5ts ( advanc$ cooep]ation at 8    
disposal4 ,! m]e love ( p[] always      
pres5ts a temptation1 & pleasure 9      
demon/rat+ sup]iority is a common human 
emotion4 ,fur!rmore1 x mu/ be consid]$ t
 ! opportunities = selfi%ness af=d$ on !
 bord]s ( civilization are likely to    
attract1 9 ! majority1 j ^? m5 ^: social
 ties & social in/9ct are weake/1 ^:    
gre$ p]ceives "h ! opportunity (        
unscrupul\s gratification1 & is drawn by
 x4 ,& la/ly1 x is to be notic$ t n by  
any means all ! individuals belong+ to m

 advanc$ societies :o come 9 contact )  
savages use !m ) inhumanity1 or ev5     
retaliate on trea*]y & injury4 ,! great 
diff]5ces exhibit$1 "u su* circum/ances1
 by p]sons ^: opportunities h be5 v     
simil> is a /rong argum5t 9 favor (     
inh]5t1 innate grades ( altruism1 & s ( 
h]$it>y "*4 ,! same is true ( ! fact t !
 ,greeks & ,romans did reta9 mu* ( _!   
culture ev5 9 contact ) l[] grades (    
civilization1 h&+ x d[n1 9 a degree1 to 
?is day2 & t _! conqu]ors only 9 ! lapse
 ( _m g5]ations pull$ !mselves up to ?is
 level1 :i* 0 atta9$1 at la/1 r 9       
c\ntries remov$ f direct contact ) x &  
s1 we may argue1 to a great ext5t1 ?r\gh
 _! own natural evolution4 ,! g5]al     
analysis ( ! amalgamation at ! bord]s ( 
civilization /ill rema9s true 9 ! long  
run1 h[ev] individual savages &         
individual :ite m5 may repres5t         
exceptions to x4  ,mr4 ,/eph5's analysis
 ( ! developm5t ( altruism f egoism1    
:ile 9 ! ma9 true & "o ( ! mo/ m9ute    
analyses on ?is subject t we possess1   

op5s1 ?r\gh its ambiguity ( t]ms1 ! way 
to inaccuracy ( ?\ght & to errors ( !ory
 into :i* ,i am n at all sure t ! au?or 
does n himself fall at "s po9ts4 ,/>t+ )
 an impli$ def9ition ( sympa?y z actual 
feel+ ) o!r s5ti5t be+s ?r\gh !         
intellectual compreh5sion ( _! emotions1
 & ackn[l$g+ t sympa?y 9 ?is s5se may n 
lead directly to altruism1 he uses !    
same ^w also1 lat] 9 ! analysis1 9 !    
high] s5se1 & at "s po9ts appe>s to     
conf\nd ! two mean+s2 s t1 z !re is a   
simil> ambiguity 9 ! use ( ! ^w idiot1  
or moral idiot1 9 ! same connection1 8  
!ory seems to fall into ! mi/ake (      
ass]t+ ! normal association (           
intellectual compreh5sion ) altruism4   
,he writes3--  ,x is n m true t to ?9k (
 a fire is to revive ! s5sations ( w>m? 
?an x is true t to ?9k ( a man is to    
revive ! emotions & ?\ghts :i* we       
attribute to him4 ,to ?9k ( him 9 any   
o!r s5se is to ?9k ( ! m]e doll or      
/atue1 ! outside framework1 n ( !       
organiz$ mass ( consci\sness :i*        

det]m9es all ! relations 9 :i* he is mo/
 deeply int]e/+ to u4 ,! prim>y sympa?y 
is1 ( c\rse1 modifi$ 9 a ?\s& ways--by !
 ease or difficulty ) :i* we c adopt 8  
feel+s2 by ! attractiv5ess or           
repulsiv5ess ( ! feel+s reveal$2 by !   
degree 9 :i* circum/ances =ce u into    
cooep]ation or antagonism2 & by         
innum]able incid5tal associations :i*   
make x pleasant or pa9ful to %>e 8      
feel+s4 ,if by sympa?y we mean ?is p[] (
 vic>i\s emotion1 x may give rise to    
antipa?y1 to hatr$1 rivalry1 & jeal\sy1 
& ev5 to ! diabolical p]v]sion (        
pleasure 9 ano!r's pa94#afg ,! pa9 giv5 
by y\r pa9 may simply induce me to %ut  
my eyes4 ,! ,ph>isee :o pass$ by on !   
o!r side may h dislik$ ! sight ( ! w\nd$
 travell] z mu* z ! good ,sam>itan4     
,inde$1 ! sight ( suff]+ (t5 directs    
irritation aga9/ ! suff]]4 ,dives is (t5
 angry ) ,laz>us = expos+ 8 sores be=e a
 respectable mansion1 & sometimes goes s
 f> z to ?9k1 illogically p]haps1 t !   
begg> mu/ h cultivat$ 8 mis]y 9 ord] to 

irritate ! n]ves ( 8 neighbors4 ,to give
 ! ord]3 ',take away t damn$ ,laz>us1'  
may be z natural an impulse z to say3   
',give him ! means ( cur+ 8             
ailm5ts4'#afh ,to believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( 
a s5ti5t be+ is to believe t x has      
feel+s :i* may p]si/ :5 ,i am n aw>e (  
!m4 ,a real belief1 aga91 implies t1 at 
! mom5t ( belief1 ,i h repres5tative    
s5sations or emotions correspond+ to ^? 
:i* imply ! actual pres5ce ( ! object4  
,aga91 a mat]ial object has an int]e/   
only s f> z x is a condition ( "s k9d ( 
feel+1 &1 :5 ! sympa?ies are n conc]n$1 
( "s feel+ ( my own1 :e!r imply+ or n   
imply+ any =eta/e ( ! future4 ,to take  
any int]e/ 9 any mat]ial object1 except 
9 ?is relation1 is unreasonable1 z x is 
unreasonable to desire food :i* _c n\ri%
 or fire :i* _c w>m4 ,i want some?+ :i* 
has by hypo!sis no relation to my wants4
 ,! same is true ( ! s5ti5t object s    
long1 & only s long1 z ,i d n take its  
s5ti5ce into acc\nt4 ,b to take !       
s5ti5ce into acc\nt is to sympa?ize1 or 

at lea/ ! sympa?y is impli$ 9 ! normal  
or only possible case4 ,! only condition
 necess>y = ! sympa?y to exi/ & to be   
capable !re=e ( becom+ a motive1 is t ,i
 %\ld really believe 9 ! object1 & h1   
!re=e1 repres5tative feel+s4 ,to believe
 9 x is to feel = x1 to h sympa?ies :i* 
correspond to my repres5tations1 less   
vivid z ! object is m di/ant & fur!r f !
 sph]e ( my possible influ5ce1 b /ill   
real & !re=e effective motives4         
,sy/ematically to ignore ^! relations1  
!n1 is to act z if ,i 7 an egoi/ 9 !    
extreme/ s5se1 & held t !re 0 no        
consci\sness 9 ! _w except my own4 ,b   
really to c>ry out ?is pr9ciple is to be
 an idiot1 = an ess5tial "p ( ! _w z    
int]e/+ to me is con/itut$ by ! feel+s (
 o!r consci\s ag5ts1 & ,i c only ignore 
_! exi/5ce at ! co/ ( los+ all !        
intellig5ce :i* di/+ui%es me f ! l[]    
animal4#afi ,a simil> use ( ! ^w idiot  
occurs 9 ! foll[+ passage ) reg>d to !  
relations ( moral action to conviction3 
,x is a simple 'objective' fact t a man 

acts rightly or wrongly 9 a giv5 case1 &
 a fact :i* may be prov$ to him2 &1     
fur!r1 ?\gh ! pro( w be ?r[n away if he 
is a moral idiot1 t is1 entirely )\t !  
capacities ^u :i* morality is f\nd$1 !  
pro( is "o :i* mu/ always affect 8 "* if
 we suppose ! tru? to be assimilat$1 & n
 ! v]bal =mula to be m]ely le>n$ by     
rote4#agj ,to le>n really to appreciate 
! g5]al be>+s ( moral conduct is to le>n
 to be moral 9 ! normally con/itut$ man4
 ,"h ! au?or adds1 h[ev]1 ?\gh we mu/   
always make ! condition t a c]ta9       
aptitude ( "* exi/s4#aga ,aga9 he       
writes3 ,b x rema9s to be admitt$ t !re 
is app>5tly su* a ?+ z pleasure 9 ! pa9 
( o!rs--pure malignity--:i* we call     
'devili%' to m>k t x is abnormal &      
significant ( a p]v]t$ nature4#agb ,& 9 
! same connection--:]e he is1 at fir/1  
seem+ly int5t on prov+ only ! normal    
connection ( pa9 ) ! sight ( suff]+1    
admitt+ t ?is sympa!tic pa9 may lead to 
brutality in/ead ( altrui/ic action     
t[>ds ! suff]]--he says3 ,sympa?y is !  

natural & fundam5tal fact4 ,ev5 ! mo/   
brutal ( mank9d are g5]ally sympa!tic s 
f> z to feel r pa9 ?an pleasure at !    
sight ( suff]+4 ,! scum ( a civiliz$    
population ga!r$ to pick pockets on a   
race-c\rse w\ld be pa9$ at ! sight ( a  
*ild 9 dang] ( be+ run ov] or brutally  
assault$ by a ruffian1 & w\ld be dispos$
 to rescue x1 or at lea/ to *e] a       
rescu]1 unless _! spontane\s emotion 7  
ov]p[]$ by "s extr9sic s5tim5t4#agc ,&  
f9ally3 ,! direct & normal case is t 9  
:i* sympa?y leads to g5u9e altruism1 or 
feel+ 9 accordance ) t :i* x            
reflects4#agd  ,! t]ms 9 ^! passages are
 ?us evid5tly v loosely us$1 & ! *>ge   
above made is1 ,i ?9k1 sub/antiat$1--t !
 au?or himself f9ally falls into ! error
 foll[+ ^u a confusion ( ! v>i\s mean+s1
 & comes to ass]t :at he else:]e        
di/9ctly d5ies1 namely1 ! normal        
connection ( intellect & morality1 ( !  
compreh5sion ( suff]+ ) t =m ( sympa?y  
:i* issues 9 altrui/ic action4 ,!       
problem is an int]e/+ "o1 & x may be    

well = u to look into x a little fur!r4 
,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s a numb] ( books h  
be5 writt5 9 :i* ! attempt has be5 made 
to prove ! g5]al physical1 & especially 
! c]ebral1 & s ! intellectual inf]iority
 ( a l>ge numb] ( crim9als4 ,!re may be 
a diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! value ( exact
 weights & measures except 9 s f> z !y  
demon/rate an actual n]v\s de=mity ( "s 
sort2 & x may be said t ! cases exam9$ =
 di/9ctly c]ebral defect are too few to 
admit ( ! =mation ( any univ]sal1       
def9ite1 !ory or law4 ,b "s degree (    
importance mu/ assur$ly be atta*$1 by ! 
unprejudic$ read]1 to ! m purely        
psy*ological evid5ce obta9$ 9 _m cases1 
z well z to ! evid5ce ( ! t5d5cy to     
bra9-disease (t5 f\nd 9 ! direct l9e (  
desc5t4 ,inde$1 9 ! case ( "s ( !       
photographs issu$ ) ,lombroso's         
,l',homme ,crim9el1 n m ?an a glance is 
ne$$ to conv9ce "o t ! possessors ( su* 
heads & faces _c be normal m5 & wom54   
,to ?is te/imony f ! crim9ologi/s may be
 add$ t ( _m em95t speciali/s 9 m5tal   

diseases1 ^: evid5ce goes to %[ !       
deg5]ation ( ! moral s5se 9 cases (     
bra9-disease4 ,maudesley says1 =        
in/ance1 ( moral feel+3 ,:oev] is       
de/itute ( x is1 to t ext5t1 a defective
 be+2 he m>ks ! beg9n+ ( race-deg5]acy2 
& if propiti\s influ5ce d n *ance to    
*eck or to neutralize ! morbid t5d5cy1 8
 *ildr5 w exhibit a fur!r degree (      
deg5]acy1 & be actual morbid v>ieties4  
,:e!r ! p>ticul> outcome ( ! morbid /ra9
 %all be vice1 or madness1 or crime1 w  
dep5d mu* on ! circum/ances ( life4 ,:5 
we make a sci5tific /udy ( ! fundam5tal 
mean+ ( ^? deviations f ! s\nd type :i* 
issue 9 insanity & crime1 by se>*+      
inquiry into ! laws ( _! g5esis1 x      
appe>s t ^! =ms ( human deg5]acy d n lie
 s f> asund] z !y are commonly suppos$  
to d4 ,moreov]1 !ory is "h confirm$ by  
obs]vation2 = x has be5 po9t$ out by ^? 
:o h made crim9als _! /udy1 t !y        
(t5times spr+ f families 9 :i* insanity1
 epilepsy1 or "s alli$ neurosis exi/s1 t
 _m ( !m are weak-m9d$1 epileptic1 or   

actually insane1 & t !y are apt to die f
 diseases ( ! n]v\s sy/em & f tub]cul>  
diseases4#age ,to ! hi/ory prop] ( !    
,jukes1 ,dugdale has app5d$ a s]ies (   
tables giv+ fur!r in=mation z to ! /ock1
 environm5t1 & pres5t condition ( "s two
 hundr$ & ?irty-?ree crim9als committ$ =
 v>i\s crimes1 ea* ( :i* crimes heads a 
sep>ate li/4 ,^! li/s are decid$ly      
int]e/+1 p>ticul>ly z af=d+ u "s        
consid]able in=mation ) reg>d to        
psy*ological *>act]i/ics & environm5t1  
"u ! head+s3 ,neglect$ ,*ildr51         
,orphans1 ,habitual ,crim9als1 ,fir/    
,(f5d]s1 ,re=mable1 ,hopeless1 etc4 ,f !
 table ( p]c5tages we rem>k t1 9 !      
,neurotic ,/ock1 ! highe/ p]c5tage      
7#dj4dg7 is rea*$ 9 arson & ! crimes    
aga9/ p]sons1 or crimes ( impulse1 z    
,dugdale t]ms !m1 :ile #bc4jc is !      
p]c5tage ( neurotic /ock 9 ! :ole numb] 
( crim9als exam9$4 ,?is close           
relation%ip betwe5 n]v\s disord]s &     
crime1 says ,dugdale1 runs p>allel ) !  
exp]i5ce ( ,engl&1 :]e '! ratio ( insane

 to sane crim9als is ?irty-f\r times z  
great z ! ratio ( lunatics to ! :ole    
population ( ,engl&1 or1 if we take half
 ! population to repres5t ! adults :i*  
supply ! convict prisons1 we %all h !   
crim9al lunatics 9 excess 9 ! high      
proportion ( sev5te5 to "o4' ,dugdale   
fur!r quotes f ,dr4 ,bruce ,?omson1     
surgeon to ! ,g5]al ,prison ( ,scotl&1 !
 foll[+ words3 ,on a close acqua9tance )
 crim9als1 ( eighte5 ye>s' /&+1 ,i      
consid] t n9e 9 t5 are ( inf]ior        
intellect1 b t all are excessively      
cunn+4 ,dr4 ,?omson says also3 ,9 all my
 exp]i5ce1 ,i h nev] se5 su* an         
accumulation ( morbid appe>ances z ,i   
witness 9 ! po/-mortem exam9ations ( !  
prison]s :o die "h4 ,sc>cely "o ( !m c  
be said to die ( "o disease1 = almo/ e  
organ ( ! body is m or less diseas$2 & !
 wond] to me is t life c\ld h be5       
support$ 9 su* a diseas$ frame4  ,b )   
reg>d to ?is la/ quotation1 x may be    
rem>k$ t1 al?\gh _m mod]n /ud5ts ( crime
 t5d to look ^u ! g5]al diseas$         

condition ( body among crim9als z !     
cause ( _! crim9ality1 x is g5]ally1 z a
 matt] ( fact1 a cumulative gr[?1 vici\s
 acts appe>+ n[ z condition1 n[ z       
result1 9 its increase4 ,vice is        
directly connect$ ) disease1 & crime    
aga9/ o!rs1 ev5 :]e x does n itself     
directly involve vice1 is /ill likely to
 be connect$ ) x1 s9ce ! man :o is      
immoral 9 "o direction is n likely to be
 re/ra9$ f immorality 9 :at is ord9>ily 
consid]$ a direction ( less] wrong2 & ! 
self-gratification ( vice always pres5ts
 a temptation to ! man ( co>s] fibre4   
,dugdale notices t paup]ism (t5 appe>s 9
 ! y\ng] memb]s ( a family :]e crime    
appe>s 9 ! eld] bran*es1 8 explanation  
be+ t crime is a sign ( comp>ative      
vigor1 paup]ism ( great] physical       
weakness4  ,we h f\nd "s connection     
betwe5 intellectual incapacity & moral  
lack 9 ! %ape ( crime1 b ! cases are    
extreme ones4 ,! "q is n3 ,are !        
extremes ( crim9ality connect$ ) m5tal  
incapacity8 b1 ,is ! p[] ( intellectual 

compreh5sion1 is intellig5ce1 always    
associat$ ) sympa?y & altruism8 ,is !   
connection ( ^! two g5]al8 ,or1         
conv]sely3 ,is lack ( sympa?y & altruism
 9 g5]al a sign ( m5tal incapacity1 ( ! 
p[] ( compreh5sion = ano!r's suff]+8  ,!
 individual may be suppos$ to be        
naturally end[$ ) a c]ta9 basis (       
t5d5cy1 :i*1 z coo]d9ate ) a n]v\s      
organization t1 z organization1 is (    
def9ite nature1 is also def9ite4 ,i d n 
int5d1 "h or else:]e1 to lay especial   
/ress on ! physical1 z di/+ui%$ f !     
psy*ical2 m]ely1 x is conv5i5t =        
ref]5ce4 ,! individual "* & life mu/ be 
! cont9ual progressive issue ( ?is basis
 ( t5d5cy or capacity & ! develop+ &    
modify+ factors ( environm5t4           
,individuals w1 !re=e1 b 9 v diff]5t    
degrees & mann]s1 reflect ! moral /&>d (
 ! society z organization1 ! class1 & ! 
family1 to :i* !y belong1 ! importance  
assum$ by ! class or family relations   
be+ accord+ to ! clos5ess & duration (  
association1 & ! natural aptitude ( !   

individual = "o or ano!r sort (         
influ5ce4 ,aside f altrui/ic            
consid]ations1 ! individual w f9d x to 8
 advantage to con=m to ! /&>ds ( ^!     
environm5ts1 at lea/ 9 a consid]able    
degree4 ,! /&>ds may1 h[ev]1 conflict1 s
 t !re is also a conflict ( advantages4 
,moreov]1 circum/ances may arise su* t  
con=mity to all or any ( ^! /&>ds       
pres5ts mu* great] disadvantage ?an     
advantage1 involv+ great sacrifice1 :i* 
may rea* ev5 to p]sonal de/ruction4 ,b  
:ile a s+le anti-social act to av]t     
p]sonal de/ruction may involve great]   
advantage to ! individual1 z life       
repres5ts an advantage ov] dea?1 & :ile 
su* an act is m an advantage & less a   
disadvantage z x involves less conflict 
) social /&>ds 7if x is ! !ft ( food1 = 
in/ance1 r ?an murd]71 any cont9u$ c\rse
 ( crime 9 s-call$ civiliz$ society mu/ 
be att5d$ ) _m risks to ! evil-do]1 &   
pres5t ga9 may mean future loss ( a mu* 
high] degree4 ,de$s conflict+ ) g5]al   
social /&>ds are puni%$ by p5alties :i* 

are l>g] z ! conflict is great] 9 ! eye 
( ! /ate4 ,! individual :o lays himself 
liable to legal puni%m5t or social      
o/racism is fooli% z well z1 9 v _m     
cases1 bad2 ( c\rse1 x is possible t 8  
conduct may rise above ! moral /&>ds z  
well z t x may fall bel[ !m4 ,b we are  
n[ consid]+ cases :]e x is1 by !        
assumption1 suppos$ to fall bel[ !m4 ,x 
is easy to p]ceive1 f ?is /&po9t1 t     
great & p]si/5t crim9als are likely to  
be ( inf]ior intellect1 z well z want+ 9
 moral aptitude1 al?\gh1 :atev] reason+ 
capacity !y possess be+ develop$ 9 ! l9e
 ( _! own int]e/ 9 _! accu/om$          
occupation1 !y may appe> to ! m moral1  
:o are n practis$ 9 ?is direction1 to   
possess a high degree ( cunn+4  ,! hone/
 man has g5]ally a bett] *ance ?an !    
habitual crim9al1 h[ev] small 8 *ance   
may be4 ,fur!r1 education ( any sort1   
:i* is also intellectual elevation1     
gives ! individual bett] *ances ( e>n+ 8
 own liv+ hone/ly1 & s r5d]s !          
advantages on ?is side great]1 & also   

end[s ) ! p[] ( p]ceiv+ ^! advantages4  
,b ^! are only g5]al tru?s1 apply+1     
aga91 to extreme cases4 ,!re may be     
cases 9 :i* !re seems1 at lea/1 to be no
 *oice left betwe5 crime & a life       
cont9ually on ! v]ge ( />vation2 & ?\gh 
! crime means also cont9ual risk1 &     
high] risk z ! crime is great] & s1 9   
g5]al1 m lucrative1 ! advantage may /ill
 be reckon$ by ! individual z on its    
side4 ,9 ?is case1 ! individual may     
discov]1 9 ! end1 t 8 calculation 0     
mi/ak52 b ! mi/ake may n be s great1 !  
balance ( disadvantage on ! side (      
con=mity ) social /&>ds s excessive1 z  
to prove him bel[ ! av]age ( intellect 9
 8 mi/ak+4 ,! wise/ m5 make _m mi/akes 9
 calculat+ ! results ( _! action4 ,aga91
 ! clev]] a man is1 ! great] is 8 p[] to
 cope ) ! risk ( detection & to avoid x4
 ,x may be object$ t ! s+le individual  
_c hope to compete cont9ually ) !       
organiz$ action ( all society1 & t !    
crim9al mu/1 at times1 submit to "s     
degree ( puni%m5t1 ev5 if escap+ its    

wor/ phases4 ,b if he feels no %ame at !
 disgrace ( ! puni%m5t1 x may n mean to 
him ! great] disadvantage4  ,b "h we    
come r\nd to ! altrui/ic & moral        
emotions1 = %ame is pres5t only :]e !   
individual has a desire to please1 & is 
pa9$ at ! disapproval ( o!rs2 t is1 %ame
 implies & requires1 9 ! degree 9 :i* x 
exi/s1 social & altrui/ic capacity4     
,fur!rmore1 :5 we come to exam9e !      
concept ( advantage1 we f9d t x is z    
relative z t ( end1 & w be judg$ accord+
 to ! individual pr$ilections2 to !     
non-sympa!tic1 %ameless man x is an     
advantage to get on at :atev] co/ to    
o!rs2 to ! moral man no ga9 appe>s an   
advantage at ! exp5se ( pr9ciple4 ,&1 z 
!re are all degrees ( altruism 9 ! bases
 ( "* ( diff]5t individuals1 s !        
advantage1 9 any p>ticul> case1 w lie at
 v diff]5t po9ts accord+ to ! individual
 m9d reflect+ on x4 ,only ! g5]al tru?s 
may be ass]t$1 t1 ev5 to ! man ( less   
?an ! av]age moral aptitude1 great      
puni%m5t mu/ appe> a disadvantage1 :ile 

ev5 to ! man ( consid]able moral        
pr9ciple dea? = ! sake ( 8 convictions  
is a ?+ to be hesitat$ at4  ,we may     
return to view ! "q 9 ! light ( ! g5]al 
facts ( social evolution4 ,we f\nd t    
only ! g5]al ass]tion c\ld be made1 t ! 
advantages ( cooep]ation1 !             
disadvantages ( /rife & discord1        
increase ) ! clos] relations ( m51 & t !
 adoption ( cooep]ation foll[s ?is l9e (
 advantage by individual *oice1 & by !  
disadvantage "u :i* ! less social z !   
less fit1 labor1 ! latt] t5d+ gradually 
to disappe> leav+ ! field to ! m social4
 ,?us ! :ole progress is ! result ( ! w 
( ! human be+1 z well z ( ! o!r =ces (  
nature2 x is only z ! individual *ooses1
 t progress is possible4 ,b l[] types   
survive long beside ! m progressive1    
high] ones4 ,! individual is n s        
reasonable t he always p]ceives 8 own m 
endur+ advantage1 or always *ooses x ev5
 :5 he p]ceives x2 he may *oose mom5t>y 
gratification at ! ackn[l$g$ risk1 & ev5
 ) ! c]ta9ty1 ( great future loss4 ,nor 

c x be av]r$ t ! individual always      
suff]s s]i\sly f action at v>iance ) ev5
 ! av]age /&>d2 simply1 ! l9e ( survival
 gradually *anges 9 favor ( altruism1 s 
t escape is less frequ5t & less         
probable2 & ! l9es ( greate/ deviation f
 ! altruism dem&$ at any p]iod by ! l9e 
( advance t5d to disappe>2 b ! altruism 
dem&$ by any l9e ( advance is n1 up to !
 pres5t "t1 an absolute altruism1 nor d 
all deviations f x result 9 de/ruction  
to ! individual ev5 9 extreme cases4 ,! 
fact ( ! gr[+ disadvantage ( selfi%ness1
 & its de/ructive t5d5cy1 rema9s1       
nev]!less4 ,x may be express$ 9 ano!r =m
 9 ! /atem5t t p[] ( all sorts is       
increas$ by civilization1 & :]e a       
coo]d9ate increase ( self-re/ra9t does n
 accompany ! increas$ p[]1 x mu/ lead to
 de/ruction1 ei!r 9 ! case ( !          
individual1 or if n s abruptly1 !n 9 !  
case ( 8 desc5dants4 ,! clos] contact ( 
human be+s & increas$ k & cooep]ation   
mean gr[+ opportunity ( good or evil1 to
 self & o!rs4 ,! de/ructive =ces lie z  

well 9 ! work+s ( social organization1 9
 ! w ( man1 z 9 nature outside man4     
,legal ju/ice1 public op9ion1 & ! op9ion
 ( ! small] circle ( p]sonal fri5ds &   
acqua9tances1 all h _! "p4 ,any degree (
 social in/9ct develop$ 9 ! c\rse (     
social evolution only assi/s 9 r5d]+    
social puni%m5ts ( all sorts ! m felt2 &
 ?us ea* increm5t ( advance assi/s 9    
fur!r advance4 ,m5 :o p]si/ 9 action    
antagoni/ic to social dem&s1 action :i* 
!y !mselves ackn[l$ge to be immoral1 may
 yet feel ! condemnation ( society s    
mu*1 t1 ev5 :ile yet p]si/+1 !y de/roy  
_! vitality by alcoholism or o!r        
excesses to dr[n regret & remorse2 habit
 *a9s !m1 9 _m cases1 :]e ! condemnation
 ( o!rs rea*es !m only late4 ,b ! :ole  
process ( social evolution is "o ( v    
gradual assimilation1 & nei!r 9 ! _w z a
 :ole1 9 ! nation or race1 or 9 ! tribe1
 clan1 family1 locality1 or class1 is x 
"o ( equal advance on all sides4 ,!     
cooep]ation adopt$ may be1 at diff]5t   
po9ts1 t ( individuals aga9/            

individuals1 ( tribes aga9/ tribes1 (   
nations aga9/ nations1 or ( classes     
aga9/ classes4  ,f /ill ano!r po9t (    
view1 we may look ^u ! evolution ( man z
 an intellectual z well z a moral "o4   
,we may c\nt ! cont9ual ga9 ( new       
exp]i5ce1 & ! v>iation ( ?\ght1 feel+1 &
 w 9 accordance ) k1 z adju/m5t to new  
elem5ts ( ! environm5t1 & s1 z organic  
progress4 ,s9ce1 inde$1 k & !           
application ( k to m & m di/ant & m & m 
complex & g5]al ends is j :at we        
designate z high] reason 9 man z comp>$ 
) o!r animal species1 we _c logically   
reg>d ! fur!r progress ( ?is same sort 9
 ! human species itself z o!r ?an an    
increase ( reason4 ,"h1 aga91 x is      
/range t an exact l9e ( division betwe5 
! human species & ! re/ ( life %\ld s   
(t5 be drawn2 t1 al?\gh we ackn[l$ge !  
necessity ( an intellectual evolution   
hav+ tak5 place f ! l[] species up to   
man1 & recognize ?is intellectual       
evolution z ! concomitant ( wid]        
adaptation1 & al?\gh we recognize also  

man's cont9u+ adaptation or exp]i5ce z  
coo]d9ate ) progress 9 k1 we yet %\ld be
 able to reg>d ! human race z /ation>y z
 f> z reason1 intellect1 is conc]n$4    
,evolution no m /&s /ill 9 man ?an x did
 be=e 8 adv5t 7if we may /ill use a ^w  
d5ot+ a def9ite beg9n+1 ( ! evolution ( 
a species74 ,& ! reality ( an           
intellectual evolution at ! same "t ) ! 
moral evolution be+ ackn[l$g$1 x foll[s 
t ! two mu/ to "s ext5t co9cide4#agf ,b 
we h aga9 to rememb] t ! evolution is n 
on exactly ! same l9es 9 all individuals
 or p>ts ( society1 t n all l9es (      
desc5t may be call$ also ^? ( progress4 
,sympa?y is a progressive t]m2 !re are  
numb]less degrees ( x repres5t$ by !    
diff]5t individuals :o =m society1 at _!
 diff]5t p]iods ( developm5t & 9 _!     
diff]5t moods4 ,nor c we di/+ui% betwe5 
natural sympa?y & extr9sic s5tim5t :i*  
may int]f]e ) x2 s9ce feel+s are no     
sep>ate entities1 all s5tim5t t be>s on 
a subject is intr9sic1 & ! f9al sympa?y 
or non-sympa!tic feel+ is a fusion & n a

 m]e mixture ( ! v>i\s emotions :i* g to
 make x4 ,we _c ass]t t g5u9e altruism  
is ! normal case1 ev5 ( ! pres5t p]iod (
 social developm5t1 & c]ta9ly n :5 we   
are consid]+ morality z an evolution4   
,we may hope t ! /&>d ( future g5]ations
 w come to be z mu* sup]ior to our      
pres5t /&>d z t /&>d is sup]ior to !    
savage /&>d2 b x is sc>cely to be       
expect$ t ! m5 ( t bett] "t1 al?\gh !y  
may look back at ?is age ) z mu* horror 
z t ) :i* we reg>d ! savage *ildr5 roa/+
 _! dog = sport1 w pron\nce x "o ( g5]al
 idiocy or ev5 ( moral idiocy4 ,! virtue
 ( ,/eph5's analysis lies 9 ! especial  
notice x takes ( ! diff]5t degrees &    
phases ( t :i* we t]m sympa?y2 its fault
 lies 9 n suffici5tly di/+ui%+ betwe5 ^!
 phases1 by def9ition1 ?r\gh\t !        
argum5t2 & ?is fault leads1 z we h se51 
to a f9al confusion ( ! diff]5t mean+s1 
! sub/itution ( ! "o = ! o!r1 & s !     
prov+ ( ! high] mean+ by ! l[]4 ,x is   
sc>cely true1 ev5 9 civiliz$ society1 t 
a compreh5sion ( ! feel+s ( o!rs is     

naturally associat$ ) a feel+ ) !m1 ev5 
9 ! l[] s5se2 & x is c]ta9ly n true t x 
is naturally associat$ ) g5u9e altruism4
  ,! ass]tion t1 9 ignor+ ! s5ti5ce (   
liv+ be+s 9 ?\ght ab\t !m1 a man is     
ignor+ a ?+ ( importance to himself1 is 
coo]d9ate ) ! ass]tion t1 9 s do+1 he is
 ignor+ an ess5tial "p ( ! _w z int]e/+ 
to him2 = t :i* appe>s ( importance to a
 man is t :i* int]e/s him2 & x is true t
 int]e/ & att5tion are coo]d9ate4 ,b "o 
?+ may appe> to "o man important1 ano!r 
to ano!r4 ,we g5]ally consid] a ?+ 9 !  
relations & phases :i* int]e/ u1 b n all
 its relations or phases always int]e/  
u4 ,we d n foll[ out all ! possible l9es
 ( ?\ght connect$ ) a ?+1 we d n reg>d x
 9 all its aspects e "t we ?9k ab\t x2  
we ?9k m or less by symbols or p>ts2 &  
,/eph5 says t we feel by symbols        
also4#agg ,x is by no means true ( all  
m51 or true ( any man at all times1 t   
o!rs are mo/ deeply int]e/+ to him 9 _! 
relations ( ?\ght & feel+2 !re are _m   
cases :]e !y w\ld be q z int]e/+ if !y 7

 m]e automata1 provid$ only t !y c\ld be
 dep5d$ on to p]=m ! same actions4 ,& x 
is p]fectly possible to reg>d !m 9 !    
light ( _! actions & ! significance ( ^!
 = u1 leav+ q out ( acc\nt ! psy*ical   
mean+ ( ! actions1 & ?is also )\t at all
 los+ all ! intellig5ce :i* di/+ui%es "o
 f ! l[] animal4 ,nor is sympa?y        
coo]d9ate ) int]e/ 9 ! ?\ghts & emotions
 ( o!rs2 rev5ge is v normal1 yet x      
rejoices 9 j ! fact t ! liv+ be+ c be   
made to suff]4  ,! irritation notic$ by 
,/eph51 z sometimes direct$ aga9/ o!rs  
^: suff]+ is a s\rce ( pa91 is (        
especial int]e/ z be>+ on ! habit ( "s  
animals--wild cattle1 = in/ance--( sett+
 ) fury on a w\nd$ comrade1 & putt+ him 
to a viol5t dea?4 ,a rec5t writ] has    
attempt$ to expla9 ?is habit z a frantic
 & un9tellig5t endeavor to r5d] "s      
assi/ance to a suff]+ fri5d2 b !        
explanation seems improbable1 especially
 z we f9d a correspond+ impulse to      
cruelty ev5 9 human society ( a high]   
type4 ,9 ! action ( ! animal1 !re is !  

possibility & ev5 ! probability ( /ill  
ano!r impulse--t excitem5t & exhil>ation
 :i* seems to possess _m species at !   
sight & smell ( blood1 & :i* f9ds its   
c\nt]p>t 9 ! peculi> pleasure t _m m5 ( 
co>s] s5sibilities d]ive f bull-fights1 
prize-fights1 cock-fights1 etc41 & t    
d\btless comes d[n to u f a "t :5 !     
/ruggle = exi/5ce 0 cont9ually a bloody 
"o4 ,j h[ ! two in/9cts may be relat$ 9 
! animal1 x is difficult1 f a human     
/&po9t1 to say4  ,our analysis has      
hi!rto omitt$ all def9ition ( morality &
 consci5ce4 ,! words %\ld prop]ly1 = "s 
reasons1 h be5 def9$ be=e ?is4 ,b any   
def9ition mu/ h assum$ t :i* c\ld       
logically be ass]t$ only at ! end ( !   
prec$+ consid]ations4 ,! def9itions are 
involv$ 9 ^! consid]ations4 ,x is evid5t
 t morality1 z we ord9>ily def9e x1 has 
a v intimate connection ) ! relations ( 
individuals to ea* o!r2 & ?\gh we may   
conceive ( a morality ( ! individual    
pass+ an entire exi/5ce 9 solitude on a 
des]t isl& devoid ( animal-life1 we     

become aw>e1 :5 we reflect on !         
condition ( su* an imag9>y p]sonage1 t  
_m ( ! ord9>y gr\nds ( moral action1 &  
moral judgm5t ( action1 are want+ 9 8   
case4 ,su* a p]son _c1 by our           
assumption1 beget o!rs :o may inh]it 8  
psy*ical & physical qualities1 & _c     
injure man or bea/ directly or          
indirectly4 ,he has only 8 own welf>e to
 consid]1 & if he *ooses r an animal    
indulg5ce 9 su* pleasures z may be )9 8 
rea*1 we may possibly disapprove ( 8    
conduct1 b we _c f9d especial gr\nds =  
ass]t+ t he has n a "r to 8 *oice4 ,x   
may be said t ?is case is only imag9>y1 
& t1 9 all actual cases ( su* isolation 
!re is no c]ta9ty t ! individual may n1 
at "s future "t1 come 9 contact ) o!r   
liv+ animals or ) human be+s4 ,b ?is be+
 admitt$1 we imm$iately come back aga9  
to ! conception ( morality z dep5d5t ^u 
our relations to o!rs4 ,9 spite ( all t 
has be5 said 9 favor ( egoi/ic morality1
 ( duties to self z ! s\rce & reason (  
morality1 x becomes evid5t t altruism is

 a mo/ important elem5t ( ev5 t :i* we  
t]m egoi/ic or p]sonal morality4 ,9     
fact1 we f9d difficulty 9 di/+ui%+1 on a
 high] plane1 betwe5 ! duties ( egoism &
 ^? ( altruism2 9 bo? we h to consid]   
o!rs z well z ourselves4 ,& we beg9 to  
suspect t we are mak+ a mi/ake 9        
sep>at+1 9 a def9ition1 ?+s :i* mu/ be  
indissolubly unit$ 9 actual practice2 & 
we surmise t su* a mi/ake may lie at !  
root ( ! _m disagreem5ts z to :e!r !    
pref]5ce is to be giv5 to egoism or to  
altruism 9 ,e?ics4 ,9 all evolution1 !  
results ( =m] adaptation are n lo/ 9    
new2 m]ely ! old assumes a high] =m4 ,s 
egoism is n lo/ 9 altruism1 b assumes a 
high] =m2 ! c>e = self becomes id5tical1
 accord+ to ! degree ( altruism1 ) ! c>e
 = o!rs4 ,?is fact has be5 utiliz$ = !  
ass]tion t all altruism is m]ely egoism4
 ,! argum5t commits ! fallacy ( us+ ! ^w
 egoism 9 two s5ses1 ! "o ( :i*1 ! high]
 s5se1 is us$ to prove ! o!r4 ,we ne$ to
 rememb] t ! fact ( developm5t implies  
degrees1 & t nei!r egoism nor altruism  

is an absolute t]m4 ,a c]ta9 c>e ( self1
 physically & m5tally1 is necess>y to   
*e]fulness1 heal?1 sympa?y1 & ! due     
p]=mance ( labor & k9dnesses2 j z1      
conv]sely1 9 society1 ! heal? & happ9ess
 ( ! individual are dep5d5t ^u ! aid (  
o!rs4 ,! antagoni/ic "* ( ! two         
pr9ciples is gradually modifi$ 9        
evolution & disappe>s altoge!r 9 "s     
cases ( action2 9 ! contemplation ( !   
ideal1 x vani%es completely4 ,c>e = self
 ga9s a new significance 9 ! light (    
love or affection = any o!r be+1 & 9 !  
action & reaction ( "* 9 human society1 
?is new] significance gradually spreads1
 leav5+ ! :ole ( mank9d4 ,our analysis  
is unable to trace its work+s &         
significance 9 all ! complicat$         
relations ( m54 ,9 l mann] x is         
difficult to decide1 9 any p>ticul>     
case1 :at ! exact c\rse is1 :i*1 9 view 
( ! f>-rea*+ results ( an act ?r\gh !   
action & reaction ( ^! relations1 is !  
"r "o4 ,! moral decision mu/ be rea*$   
?r\gh a consid]ation :i* %\ld be ne>] ! 

ideal1 ! ne>] x comes to a consid]ation 
( all results1 a due all[ance be+ made =
 ! unc]ta9ty ( di/ant results4 ,?is     
unc]ta9ty mu/1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 dim9i%
 ! influ5ce ( consid]ations ( ! f>      
future on ! decision1 & %\ld prop]ly d  
s2 al?\gh relative importance may1 aga91
 r5d] ! m]e possibility ( "s "o result a
 suffici5t reason = *oos+ or ab/a9+ f an
 act 9 ! face ( all o!r c]ta9ties &     
probabilities4 ,aga91 ! p[] ( calculat+ 
di/ant results is increas$ ) ! gr[? ( k1
 & man comes1 ?us1 to obta9 great] &    
great] p[] to %ape ! _w ab\t him & m\ld 
8 own life to ! atta9m5t ( 8 ends4 ,)   
?is p[] responsibility is also increas$2
 ! adult ?ief :o re>s *ildr5 to !ft be>s
 ! *ief responsibility 9 ! beg9n+ ( _!  
c>e]1 & a v l>ge %>e ( x lat] on2 !     
exp]i5c$ man ( ! _w1 :o und]/&s :i!r he 
is t5d+1 is mu* m responsible ?an !     
ignorant girl :om he s$uces4  ,! highe/ 
morality dem&s1 !re=e1 c>eful judgm5t4  
,! factors to be consid]$ are !         
complicat$ relations ( m5 9 ! society ( 

:i* ! judge & actor himself is a memb]2 
morality may ?us be id5tifi$ ) ju/ice 9 
! highe/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,! decision is    
always a difficult "o on acc\nt ( !     
great complexity ( ! factors conc]n$2   
?is e man p]ceives :o endeavors1 )      
unbiass$ m9d1 to discov] exactly :at !  
mo/ moral c\rse is 9 any p>ticul> case4 
,"s "o c\rse may be evid5tly immoral2 b 
t does n necess>ily decide :at ! moral  
c\rse is1 = !re may be v _m c\rses op5  
to *oice1 or !re may be at lea/ m ?an "o
 o!r z alt]native to ! manife/ly immoral
 "o4 ,moreov]1 ! necessity = action     
=bids t we sp5d all our "t 9 reflection 
& *oice4 ,moral responsibility dem&s1   
h[ev]1 t we nev] cease f ! endeavor to  
discov] :]e ju/ice lies4  ,a c]ta9      
con/ancy 9 ! con/itution ( society1 & ! 
necessity = con/ancy or consi/5cy 9 !   
action ( ! individual1 give rise to     
c]ta9 g5]al rules ( conduct t develop & 
*ange some:at z society *anges2 special 
rules ( conduct :i* supplem5t ^! g5]al  
rules *ange con/antly4 ,9 ! societies ( 

a primitive sort1 held toge!r by only ! 
loose/ ( bonds1 p]sonal retaliation is 9
 vogue & is consid]$ moral4 ,rev5ge is a
 duty4 ,9 societies ( a high] sort      
retaliation is tak5 f ! h&s ( !         
individual 9 all matt]s ( importance1 at
 lea/ z f> z ! rev5ge consi/s 9 def9ite 
action1 ! motive ( :i* c be demon/rat$4 
,! ,engli%man may /ill knock d[n ! man  
:o insults him1 b he may n av5ge a      
murd]4 ,n only ! negative morality (    
ab/95ce f viol5ce is dem&$ ( ! citiz5 ( 
a s-call$ civiliz$ society1 a c]ta9     
reliability 9 ! relations ( cooep]ation 
is also necess>y = ! g5]al welf>e1 & ?us
 hone/y comes to be enc\rag$ & di%one/y 
to be disc\rag$ by legal puni%m5t &     
social contempt4 ,di%one/y 9 ^w is n s  
(t5 puni%$ directly by law z di%one/y ( 
act1 b !re are _m cases :]e x is        
impossible to di/+ui% betwe5 ! two1 &   
o!r cases :]e ! lie is directly         
puni%able because ( ! consequ5ces :i* x 
involves4 ,beyond ?is1 society beg9s    
e>ly to disc\rage ly+ 9 "s sort1 ?\gh ! 

love ( & respect = tru? obvi\sly gr[s ) 
social developm5t4 ,coo]d9ately ) !     
developm5t ( cooep]ation & mutual       
dep5d5ce1 con/ancy 9 all ! multif>i\s   
directions & complex relations ( t      
cooep]ation & dep5d5ce1 becomes m & m   
desirable4  ,b con/ancy is n to be      
secur$ z an outw>d fact except z x      
becomes a "p ( ! inw>d "* ( m51 a       
con/ant habit4 ,! man :o lies           
occasionally is 9 at lea/ "s dang] (    
develop+ a habit 9 ! direction ( ly+1 z 
he is also 9 dang] ( de/roy+ ! confid5ce
 ( o!rs if !y discov] t he sometimes    
lies2 = !y h no means ( kn[+ to exactly 
:at ext5t untru?fulness is1 or is       
becom+1 a habit 9 8 case1 or 9 :at      
in/ances x may manife/ itself1 9 :at n4 
,moreov]1 ! di/ru/ s eng5d]$ may lead to
 anticipatory deception on _! side1 & s 
! circle ( di/ru/ & untru?fulness       
spreads until x is met some:]e by       
det]m9$ tru? t dem&s tru? 9 return4     
,?us1 9 spite ( all t is said 9 favor ( 
! occasional lie1 we in/9ctively feel ! 

dang] ( x1 ?\gh we may n be able1 until 
aft] mu* consid]ation1 to assign ! exact
 reason = our feel+4 ,we may admit t !re
 are occasions :5 ! lie may be          
ju/ifiable2 b we feel t ^! occasions    
mu/1 !n1 be v exceptional4 ,9 g5]al1 x  
is desirable to discipl9e ourselves to z
 close an approa* to ! tru? z possible4 
,if ,i lie 9 a doz5 in/ances1 9 :at ,i  
consid] a good cause1 ,i am v likely to 
lie aga9 :5 ! temptation ( "s m]ely     
p]sonal ga9 pres5ts itself4 ,! habit (  
tru? or falsehood is1 fur!r ?an ?is1 "o 
( ! mo/ subtle & intricate relations 9  
our "*3 no?+ is m difficult ?an ! fac+ (
 ! exact tru? ) reg>d to ourselves2     
c[>dice & self-deception ) reg>d to our 
own traits & motives are v common1 &    
only ! mo/ e>ne/ & con/ant ef=t c enable
 u to ga9 t moral c\rage t is ! fir/    
requisite ( self-k & s self-control4    
,any weak5+ ( ! w 9 ! contr>y direction 
is dang]\s4 ,tru? is n an easy ?+2 x is 
z difficult z ju/ice2 9 fact1 t :i* is  
ju/ice 9 action & ! judgm5t :i* leads to

 action1 is tru? 9 ! premises ( :i* !   
judgm5t is ! issue4 ,we h mo/ ( u kn[n  
p]sons :o _h s accu/om$ !mselves to ly+ 
t !y seem$ no long] able to di/+ui%     
betwe5 tru? & falsehood1 facts & m]e    
impressions4 ,c]ta9ly :]e matt]s ( high 
importance :i* deeply conc]n ! public   
welf>e are at /ake1 we _c admit         
falsehood to be desirable = ! sake ( any
 p]sonal ga92 & ev5 ?\gh we may f9d     
excuses = ! failure ( human c\rage 9 !  
face ( mortal dang]1 !re are ^? ( u :o w
 /ill cont9ue to ?9k a ,bruno's defiance
 ( dea? = ! sake ( 8 conviction ! nobl] 
& bett] *oice4 ,i h he>d x argu$ t ?is  
philosoph] might h contribut$ m to ! _w 
?r\gh a cont9uation ( 8 life ?an he did 
?r\gh 8 dea?4 ,b surely x 0 "o ( !      
highe/ s]vices t he c\ld d mank9d to %[ 
a sup]/iti\s & dogmatic age t high moral
 purpose & /eadfa/ness 7 n necess>ily   
associat$ ) ?is or t religi\s dogma4 ,8 
dea? drew ! att5tion ( ?\ghtful & good  
m5 z no?+ else c\ld h drawn x4 ,b beyond
 ?is consid]ation1 & ev5 leav+ out (    

acc\nt ! desirability ( ! habit ( tru? &
 ! necessity ( its action 9 ! s+le      
in/ance1 x is d\btful :e!r !re is any   
o!r b5efit we c conf] on our fell[-m5 s 
great z j ! assurance t !y c rely on u4 
,! bitt] cry ( human nature ev]y:]e     
repeats ! fai?lessness ( ^? on :om tru/ 
has be5 /ak$2 & ! rescue ( _m a man f   
despair & wa/e ( life has be5 ?r\gh !   
discov]y ( "s "o s\l ^: tru? & con/ancy 
7 /eadfa/ & un*angeable4 ,belief 9 o!rs 
is belief 9 our own possibilities2 &    
di/ru/ ( o!rs is di/ru/ ( self1 at lea/ 
= ! mo/ ?\ghtful & introspective m54 ,! 
examples ( su* m5 z ,socrates & ,bruno  
/& to ! _w z pl$ges ( ! p[] (           
fai?fulness 9 humanity4 ,!y are ! rocks 
on :i* pessimism mu/ %att]1 & ! betray$ 
& sorr[ful may build _! fai?4 ,?is is1  
,i believe1 ! secret ( our v5]ation =   
su* m5 z ^!1 :o di$1 n 9 an ec/asy (    
religi\s emotion or "u ! hope ( especial
 glory z a rew>d = m>tyrdom1 b fai?ful  
to a calm conviction1 & su/a9$ only by !
 love ( tru? & _! fell[-m54  ,& ?is br+s

 u to a consid]ation ( ! sacrifice ( !  
individual4 ,! cases may be few :]e !   
highe/ /&>d c dem& ( a man su* entire & 
f9al sacrifice z ! in/ances we h j not$1
 ev5 ?\gh x may look ^u ?is sacrifice z 
! highe/4 ,b x is evid5t t "s degree (  
self-sacrifice is (t5 necess>y to !     
welf>e ( society1 & h[ev] important we  
may consid] ! welf>e ( ! individual1 x  
_c be reg>d$ z m important ?an ! welf>e 
( ! :ole ( society z an aggregate ( _m  
individuals1 or ev5 z m important ?an ! 
welf>e ( a l>ge numb] ( o!r individuals1
 a consid]able portion ( society4 ,!    
legitimate degree ( sacrifice1 :]e      
int]e/s conflict & *oice is necess>y    
betwe5 ! sacrifice ( ! s+le individual &
 ! sacrifice ( _m1 is a "q t c be decid$
 only accord+ to ! p>ticul> circum/ances
 ( ! case4 ,ev]y?+ dep5ds ^u ! numb] (  
individuals on bo? sides1 ^: int]e/s    
conflict1 on ! nature ( ! sacrifices    
necess>y1 & ! results ( ^! sacrifices to
 ! society z a :ole1 z well z1 9 "s     
cases1 on ! "* ( ! individuals conc]n$4 

,x is (t5 d5i$ t ! nature ( !           
individuals ^: int]e/s conflict1 betwe5 
:om *oice mu/ be made1 c ev] affect t   
*oice if x is made "u pr9ciples (       
ju/ice4 ,& 9 g5]al1 d\btless1 !re is    
dang] ( inju/ice 9 di/9ctions betwe5    
individuals2 b x is sc>cely to be d\bt$ 
t1 if x 7 necess>y to *oose betwe5 !    
life ( a great philan?ropi/ & t ( a     
p]si/5t & h>d5$ crim9al1 if1 = in/ance1 
bo? 7 dr[n+ & x 7 possible to save only 
"o1 ! *oice ( mo/ w\ld fall1 & fall     
rightly1 on ! philan?ropi/4 ,! fact t   
moral *oice mu/ take diff]5t directions 
"u diff]5t circum/ances is sometimes    
con/ru$ into an argum5t aga9/ any fixity
 ( moral comm&m5ts1 an argum5t = a n>r[ 
exp$i5cy4 ,x c]ta9ly e/abli%es ! rule t 
ob$i5ce to any rule ( action %\ld nev]  
be bl9d4 ,nev]!less1 if our prec$+      
consid]ations be correct1 ! uni=mities 9
 social relations admit ( ! e/abli%m5t (
 c]ta9 g5]al rules :i* ! moral man w    
foll[ "u mo/ circum/ances4  ,we come    
f9ally to ! def9ition ( consci5ce4 ,9   

humanity z a :ole1 & 9 ! s+le societies 
( :i* x is compos$1 a c]ta9 moral       
evolution may be p]ceiv$ :i* we h f\nd  
reasons = believ+ to be int]nal z well z
 ext]nal1 a matt] ( h]$ity z well z (   
in/ruction4 ,9 ?is int]nal s5se1        
consci5ce1 z innate capacity1 or t5d5cy1
 may be said to be an in/9ct4 ,we may n 
be able to expla9 h[ ! inh]itance takes 
place 9 ?is case any m ?an we are able  
to expla9 h[ x is possible t ! *ick5 j f
 ! %ell may pick at 8 food )\t          
in/ruction1 & j :at psy*ical process1 if
 any1 accompanies ! fir/ p]=mance ( !   
act2 or to expla9 h[ x is t ! sexual    
in/9ct appe>s 9 lat] life z an          
inh]itance ( species1 & :y x acts       
uni=mly4 ,we c only say t1 ! prop]      
conditions ( /imulation 7:i* are always 
necess>y 9 ! case ( any in/9ct7 be+     
pres5t1 ! action takes place4 ,we are   
unable to analyze ! e>lie/ appe>ance (  
sympa?y1 b5evol5ce1 & ! s5se (          
obligation1 9 our individual exp]i5ce1 !
 p[] ( self-analysis appe>+ mu* lat] 9  

life4 ,t :i*1 :5 we become capable (    
reflection1 we t]m consci5ce1 consi/s 9 
pleasure 9 =ms ( action fur!r+ ! welf>e 
( society--=ms gradually m\ld$ to habit 
) ! developm5t ( social relations1--& 9 
a correspond+ pa9 at ! realization (    
hav+ fail$ ( su* action2 ! k ( ! dem&1  
by society z a :ole or by a "p (        
society1 ( action 9 accord ) ! g5]al    
welf>e1 & ! s5se ( ! ju/ice ( ?is dem&1 
con/itut+ ! feel+ ( obligation & duty4  
,?is feel+ is e>ly n\ri%$ 9 ! family1 ! 
obligation we ackn[l$ge be+ t[>ds our   
p>5ts fir/ & =emo/4 ,we h f\nd motives  
to be (t5 ( a mix$ "*2 & ?is is (t5 also
 ! case ) remorse1 ! pa9 we exp]i5ce at 
hav+ fail$ 9 our duty4 ,x may conta9 an 
egoi/ic elem5t ( regret or dread at hav+
 r5d]$ ourselves liable to puni%m5t or  
loss ( "s sort4  ,our :ole analysis ( ! 
c\rse by :i* consci5ce is develop$ t5ds 
to %[ ! tru? ( t :i* ,d>w9 claim$1      
namely1 t ! moral in/9ct is a developm5t
 & organization ( _m special in/9cts4 ,b
 !re are ^? :o claim consci5ce to be a  

special s5se1 & :o g5]ally mean mu* m   
?an m]ely t x is1 at pres5t1 an         
organization ( subord9ate in/9cts4 ,a   
dim analogy ( ! special s5se organs     
g5]ally has "p 9 _! conception1 &       
religi\s ref]5ce is (t5 made to !       
orig9al con/itution ( man4 ,b evolution 
kn[s no?+ ( an orig9al con/itution (    
man2 x kn[s only ( a gradual developm5t 
( ! human4 ,& x mu/ be rememb]$ t1 9    
evolution1 t may become inh]5t :i* 0 n s
 be=e4 ,any !ory :i* reg>ds ev5 an      
organization ( special in/9cts z a      
special s5se may1 moreov]1 be object$ to
 on ! same gr\nds on :i* ! old idea (   
special faculties ( ?\ght1 feel+1 & w 0 
criticiz$4 ,! old argum5t1 us$ to prop !
 belief 9 consci5ce z an orig9al1 high] 
gift1 & s1 9 ! orig9al creation ( fix$  
species1--! argum5t t ! same fundam5tal 
rules ( moral conduct are to be f\nd 9  
all societies1--has already be5 answ]$ 9
 ! demon/ration t uni=mities ( human    
nature & necess>y simil>ities 9 all     
social con/itution r5d] ! fundam5tal    

rules ( =be>ance1 aid1 hone/y1 & tru?   
necess>y to all societies alike2 :ile   
our analysis ( ! c\rse ( developm5t by  
:i* social organization gr[s m & m      
complex1 %[s ! necessity z well z !     
reality ( progress 9 outw>d & inw>d     
obs]vance ( ^! rules4 ,du ,prel argues t
 ev5 life on any ( ! heav5ly bodies1    
suppos+ su* to exi/1 mu/ h "s po9ts (   
resemblance to our own1 al?\gh !        
diff]5ces due to diff]5t planet>y       
conditions may be great2 b resemblances 
mu/ assur$ly be consid]able :]e !re is a
 common basis ( species4  ,!            
,utilit>ians are d\btless "r 9 ass]t+ t 
all rules ( morality may be trac$ to    
utility4 ,h[ev]1 !re is consid]able     
ambiguity ab\t ! ^w utility4 ,mr4       
,sp5c]'s e>li] objections to            
,utilit>ianism1 giv5 9 ,social          
,/atics1--namely1 t we _c make ! greate/
 good ( ! greate/ numb] our object      
because x is impossible to p]ceive1 )\t 
omnisci5ce1 :]e ! greate/ good lies1 &  
because ! /&>d ( utility is a *ang+ "o1 

_c be reg>d$ z apposite1 = we might z   
well say t a man _c endeavor to secure 8
 own heal?1 or t x is n well = him to d 
s1 because he does n possess a k ( all !
 intricate work+s ( ! organs ( 8 body & 
s may make mi/akes1 or t he _c seek x   
to-day because ! conditions necess>y to 
secure x w h *ang$ by to-morr[2 b ,mr4  
,sp5c]'s lat] objections to             
,utilit>ianism t\* an important tru?4   
,he says1 = in/ance1 9 8 ,rec5t         
,discussions 9 ,sci5ce1 ,philosophy1 &  
,morals3 ,utility1 conv5i5t a ^w z x is 
f its compreh5siv5ess1 has v inconv5i5t 
& mislead+ implications4 ,x vividly     
sugge/s uses & means & proximate ends2 b
 v fa9tly sugge/s ! pleasures1 positive 
or negative1 :i* are ! ultimate ends1 & 
:i*1 9 ! e?ical mean+ ( ! ^w1 are alone 
consid]$4 ,/eph5 has ano!r p]t95t       
criticism ( ,utilit>ianism1 namely t !  
utilit>ian1 9 8 anxiety to h 8 feet on  
solid e>?1 & to assign def9ite &        
tangible gr\nds = e conclusion1 is      
likely to favor ! prosaic r ?an !       

poetical1 & to leave out ( acc\nt1 or   
rank z ( little importance1 f9] sorts ( 
pleasure4#agh ,! utilit>ian is1 9 fact1 
liable to fall into a simil> error to t 
already notic$ on ! "p ( ^? :o claim t  
egoism is ! f\ndation ( all morality1   
pres5t z pa/4 ,:ile accept+ ! !ory (    
evolution1 ! utilit>ian fails to        
p]ceive1 9 _m cases1 t ?is l5ds to 8    
t]ms a progressive & increas+ly complex 
mean+4 ,! error has its s\rce1 d\btless1
 9 ! fact t ! utilit>ian s*ool repres5ts
 a recoil f ! old]1 sup]/iti\s          
,intuitionalism1 :i* n only def5d$ a    
doctr9e ( consci5ce z a sort (          
sup]natural or half-sup]natural in/9ct1 
on a plane above ord9>y in/9ct1 b1 rely+
 ^u x z ( su* "*1 practically d5i$ to   
reason any au?ority 9 matt]s ( morality4
 ,9 ! /rong reaction f ^! ideas1 & "u ! 
fe> ( c$+ any gr\nd ( advantage to !    
enemy1 ,utilit>ianism has gone to an    
equally inadmissible extreme ( disreg>d+
 m]e impulses ( sympa?y1 & has t5d$ to  
reject all conceptions ( morality :]e x 

0 n possible to unravel1 beyond !       
criticism ( oppon5ts1 ! intricate web ( 
social conditions4 ,x is = ?is reason   
also t ,utilit>ianism is (t5 egoi/ic2 9 
! endeavor to analyze back to tangible  
gr\nds ( action1 x 0 mu* easi] to adopt 
! evid5tly orig9al basis ( sympa?y &    
altruism--t is1 egoism--z ! pres5t basis
 also1 ?an to trace out lat] developm5ts
 9 ! _m-sid$ organization ( society4 ,9 
reject+ in/9ct1 x 0 b consi/5t & natural
 to ov]look also ! significance ( habit 
9 matt]s ( morality2 & ?us ! poet1 !    
moral en?usia/1 ! m>tyr1 & ! rigid      
adh]5t ( tru?1 came to be look$ at      
askance4 ,i d n mean to av] t all       
,utilit>ianism has fall5 into ^! errors1
 ?\gh ! t5d5cy is di/9ctly 9 ?is        
direction2 nei!r ! connection ( a !ory (
 utility ) a disreg>d ( ! f9] sorts (   
happ9ess1 & ! m di/ant & complex work+s 
( social =ces1 nor ! connection ( a !ory
 ( moral in/9ct ) sup]/ition1 is a      
necess>y "o4  ,a re-reaction aga9/ ?is  
bald ,utilit>ianism has set 92 b "s ( ! 

=ms :i* x takes on c no m be indors$ by 
! consi/5t evolutioni/ ?an c ! sy/em f  
:i* x is a revolt4 ,:5 ,sidgwick def5ds 
,intuitionalism ) ! argum5t t !         
rightness ( "s k9ds ( action is kn[n )\t
 consid]ation ( ult]ior consequ5ces1 we 
may answ] t x is true t tradition       
furni%es u ) _m rules t we may foll[ )\t
 consid]ation ( ! consequ5ces ( our     
acts1 b t x is v d\btful :e!r we act ) !
 highe/ degree ( morality 9 s do+4 ,z to
 ! kn[+ ( ! rightness ( ! acts1 ?is is  
surely a matt] ( judgm5t1 mu/1 !re=e1   
involve ! consid]ations ( consequ5ces 9 
"s =m1 ?\gh ! c\rse ( reason+ foll[$ to 
! atta9m5t ( :at is (t5 t]m$ k 9 ?is    
s5se may n be elaborate1 & may1 inde$1 g
 no f>!r ?an a reflection on ! approval 
& disapproval ( society4  ,! t]ms high] 
& l[] h be5 us$ 9 our previ\s           
consid]ations ) reg>d to pleasures4 ,!  
legitimacy ( _! use 9 ?is connection has
 (t5 be5 que/ion$4 ,f an evolutional    
/&po9t1 h[ev]1 ei!r !y are legitimate   
"h1 or else objection may be made1 on   

simil> gr\nds1 to _! application to man 
z di/+ui%$ f ! brutes or ev5 f ! orig9al
 protoplasmic cell ) :i* evolution      
began4 ,! lat] developm5ts ( ! desires1 
! new] social ends1 are z mu* high] z ! 
human species is high] ?an ! species f  
:i* x has be5 evolv$ ?r\gh cont9u$      
adaptation4 ,z1 9 ! atta9m5t ( altruism1
 egoism is n lo/ 9 ! s5se t ! individual
 no long] seeks t :i* is mo/ pleasurable
 to him1 b simply rea*es a high] plane1 
s ! fundam5tal animal desires & in/9cts 
/ill move u1 b 9 a q diff]5t =m1 be+    
closely int]wov51 9 _! lat] developm5t1 
) all ! ideals & aspirations ) :i*      
social life has suppli$ u4 ,! advocates 
( a return to nature make1 !re=e1 a     
fundam5tal mi/ake 9 !ory4 ,human        
developm5t is also natural4 ,! same     
mi/ake is made :5 we are told t we mu/  
be animals 9 practice because we are    
animals by nature1 or t we mu/ copy     
nature because we are a "p ( x4 ,! =m]  
ass]tion ord9>ily commits ! fallacy (   
us+ ! ^w animal 9 two s5ses4 ,! latt]   

ass]tion involves ! fallacy ( fir/ mak+ 
man a "p ( ! nature1 :i* he is to copy1 
9 ord]1 !n1 to prove t he mu/ reg>d     
himself z some?+ outside nature & mu/1  
!re=e1 slavi%ly foll[4 ,b if man is     
himself a "p ( ! nature he mu/ copy1 "o 
may "q :y he may n simply copy himself r
 ?an any o!r "p2 = obvi\sly he is unable
 to copy all p>ts1 !re be+ _m           
antagonisms 9 nature4 ,i h he>d !       
argum5t us$ 9 def5ce ( cruelty to       
animals2 nature is cruel1 !re=e man mu/ 
be cruel4 ,b z a matt] ( fact1 !re is no
 m reason :y man %\ld copy any o!r "p ( 
nature1 ?an !re is reason :y ! horse    
%\ld imitate ! habits ( ! hog1 or       
turtle-doves take example by ! tig]4    
,necessity may sometime compel a *oice  
betwe5 two cruelties1 to :i* !re is no  
?ird alt]native2 b ?is is a diff]5t     
argum5t2 let u say1 9 ?is case1 t we are
 s compell$ 7if1 inde$1 !re is no o!r   
alt]native2 = ?is argum5t1 l ! o!r1 is  
(t5 us$ z a conv5i5t excuse = m]e       
selfi%ness1 :]e !re are alt]natives72   

let u n employ a :olly fallaci\s &      
mislead+ argum5t :i* op5s ! way to !    
free ex]cise ( selfi% disposition4      
,objections are (t5 made to !ories ( !  
developm5t ( high] moral qualities f    
egoism1 on ! gr\nd t su* a d]ivation is 
degrad+ to t :i* is be/ 9 man4 ,"s color
 is l5t to ?is view by argum5ts l t j   
notic$4 ,b we may "q :e!r facts c be    
logically *os5 or reject$ accord+ to _! 
agreeabl5ess1 or ev5 _! moral utility1 9
 any case4 ,&1 aga91 "s ( u may fail to 
discov] any degradation 9 ?is !ory (    
evolution4 ,! fl[] may gr[ f c>rion1 b  
we d n f9d x ! less beautiful1 ! less   
pleas+ to our v>i\s s5ses4 ,& we %\ld h 
exactly z good reason to reg>d ! c>rion 
z elevat$ by its (fice z to reg>d ! fl[]
 z degrad$ by ! s\rce ( its life4 ,z a  
matt] ( fact1 we m]ely f9d ! fl[] pleas+
 & ! c>rion abhorr5t4 ,we are us$ to ?is
 p>ticul> connection ( ! pleas+ ) !     
abhorr5t1 & accept x z we accept mu* t  
may be to u disagreeable 9 our own      
physical organization2 b we h n yet     

accu/om$ ourselves to ! ideas ( m5tal & 
moral evolution1 & our recoil f !m is an
 illu/ration ( ! displeas+ "* ( ! :olly 
,new4 ,! same argum5t ( degradation 0 at
 fir/ br\ght =w>d also aga9/ ! !ory ( an
 evolution ( ! human =m f t ( l[]       
species1 & ( ! purely intellectual      
faculties f ! animal m9d4  ,! "q z to   
:e!r /ruggle is an ess5tial elem5t (    
virtue has be5 s ?or\ghly answ]$ by     
,gizycki1 ,/eph51 & o!rs1 t x w\ld be   
sup]flu\s to say mu* ab\t x "h2 h[ev]1  
our analysis w\ld n be complete )\t "s  
consid]ation ( x4 ,! man is ! /ronge/1  
writes ,/eph51 :o c lift ! heavie/      
weight or :o c lift a giv5 weight ) !   
greate/ ease4 ,b 7& x is a pro( ( !     
loose argum5t :i* has (t5 be5 accept$ 9 
e?ical disputes7 ! two cases h sometimes
 be5 conf\nd$4 ,x w\ld pla9ly be absurd 
to say1 ',! man is /ronge/ :o lifts !   
greate/ weight1 !re=e ! man :o makes !  
greate/ ef=t2 !re=e ! man :o makes !    
greate/ /ruggle to lift a giv5 weight4' 
,b x has occasionally be5 said t a man  

is mo/ virtu\s :o resi/s ! greate/      
temptation2 !re=e ! man :o has ! greate/
 /ruggle2 !re=e ! man :o has ! greate/  
difficulty 9 resi/+ a giv5 temptation4  
,?\gh ! fallacy does n occur 9 ?is b>e  
=m1 x is n infrequ5tly impli$ 9 !       
assumption t ! ef=t1 tak5 absolutely1 is
 ! measure ( m]it4444 ,we are ?us l$ to 
excuse a man = ! v qualities :i* make   
him wick$4 ,true1 he committ$ a murd]1 b
 he 0 s spiteful t he c\ld n help x2 or 
he 0 exce$+ly k9d1 b he is s good-natur$
 t x co/ him no ef=t4#agi  ,! difficulty
 lies 9 ! fact t ! /ruggle aris+ 9 any  
p>ticul> case may result f any "o (     
sev]al g5]al conditions ( "*1 betwe5 :i*
 x is (t5 difficult to di/+ui%4 ,an     
abs5ce ( /ruggle may mean simply a g5]al
 weakness ( "* :i* makes a man ready to 
yield to any & almo/ all mom5t>y        
influ5ces1 good or evil2 ! agreem5t )   
ano!r's argum5t may signify abs5ce ( !  
p[] to reason = oneself2 b1 on ! o!r h&1
 x may mean ! highe/ intellectual p[] ( 
unbiass$ judgm5t2 ! act t foll[s su*    

agreem5t z its result may mean w-p[]1 or
 x may mean vacillat+ weakness t1 if l$ 
by a good influ5ce at ! pres5t mom5t1 w 
be z easily or ne>ly z easily sway$ by  
an evil "o1 ! next4 ,we are all acqua9t$
 ) p]sons :o inv>iably agree ) all      
sides1 & %illy-%ally 9 a correspond+    
mann] 9 _! action1 accompli%+ little or 
no positive good 9 any direction1 ?\gh  
(t5 positive evil4 ,= ! reason ( ?is    
frequ5t weakness ( "* 9 :at we call !   
good-natur$ p]son1 ! t]m good-natur$ has
 come to h a c]ta9 idea ( m5tal & moral 
inf]iority connect$ ) x4 ,9 a simil>    
mann]1 "s m5 :o are g5]ally call$ good  
are sway$ to a great] ext5t by tradition
 & lack ( c\rage to act = !mselves ?an  
by /rong desire to "k & d ! "r1 & ?us1 v
 un=tunately1 ! excell5t ^w good ev5    
comes to be look$ ^u ) a c]ta9 degree ( 
disda94 ,on ! o!r h&1 a man may f9d mu* 
difficulty 9 do+ "r 9 a c]ta9 in/ance1  
because ( ! /r5g? ( emotions t w\ld be1 
"u ord9>y circum/ances1 morally         
desirable & are1 9 !mselves1 admirable  

ev5 9 ! mom5t ( 8 temptation1 al?\gh a  
yield+ to ?is temptation w\ld1          
nev]!less1 involve great wrong4 ,no "o  
c\ld blame ! agony & /ruggle ( !        
swit*man :o1 9 ! mom5t :5 he is ab\t to 
rescue a pass5g]-tra9 f imm95t collision
 by swit*+ x to ano!r track1 sudd5ly    
p]ceives 8 baby-girl seat$ ^u ! rails4  
,/rong & ennobl+ love betwe5 man & woman
 may involve1 "u c]ta9 conditions1      
temptation & /ruggle2 ev5 ! be/ ( our   
impulses may n always be foll[$1 if we  
desire to act morally4 ,few1 if any     
p]sons c\ld refuse admiration & respect 
to ! love betwe5 ,phillip ,tr$5nis &    
,mrs4 ,amory 9 ,mrs4 ,burnett's ,?r\gh  
"o ,adm9i/ration4 ,b n all /rong feel+  
is ( an admirable nature2 !             
rev5gefulness ( ! murd]]1 ! vici\s lu/ (
 a ,joseph ,phillippe1 ! impati5ce ( !  
con/itutionally bellig]5t man1 are n to 
be prais$1 b condemn$4 ,/eph5's argum5t1
 !re=e1 t /ruggle is adjudg$ an elem5t (
 virtu\s "* 9 _m cases because its      
abs5ce w\ld %[ a defect 9 "s faculty (  

enjoym5t1 includes too mu*2 = ,jack !   
,ripp]1 & o!rs :o especially delight 9  
crime1 possess faculties ( enjoym5t !   
entire abs5ce ( :i* 9 o!r m5 we d n look
 ^u z a defect4#ahj ,/eph5 re/ates 8    
position 9 ano!r =m1 say+ t ,if a man   
resi/s any inducem5t because x has no   
*>ms = him1 8 act does n prove virtue   
unless ! inducem5t be su* z to appeal   
only to ! wick$4 ,x is only because1    
incid5tally1 ^? qualities m\ld$ 9 human 
society1 & !re=e fundam5tally good1 may 
come into conflict ) ea* o!r1 t we fall 
into ! habit ( connect+ ! idea ( /ruggle
 ) morality2 9 face ( ! fact t readi]   
response to moral /imulus mu/ con/itute 
all moral advancem5t4  ,& ^! reflections
 lead u to rem>k on ! common fallacy t  
/r5g? ( emotion means necess>ily a lack 
( ! moral direction ( emotion1 & t      
conv]sely moral self-direction argues   
weakness ( emotional capacity4 ,!       
direction ( emotion is *ang$ )          
evolution1 z we h se51 b ?is does n mean
 t emotion is less5$ 9 =ce4 ,9 ! man (  

highe/ morality1 ! emotions are m]ely   
m\ld$ to a great] h>mony ) social ne$s1 
a h>mony t is n weakness b /r5g?1 n m]e 
n>r[ reaction ^u mom5t>y impulse or     
"o-sid$ sympa?y ) a few to ! exclusion (
 ! _m1 b1 9 contra/ to ?is l[]          
impulsiv5ess1 an all-sid$ness t is !    
result ( reflection & *oice4 ,i say ?is 
all-sid$ness is ! result ( reflection2 =
 ,i d n mean to intimate t ! moral man  
is less impulsive ?an ! immoral man1 or 
t he is oblig$ to consid] long be=e e   
act4 ,m]ely 8 impulsiv5ess is ( a high] 
sort2 9 x bo? racial & individual       
adju/m5ts to social ne$s f9d expression2
 & reason always /&s1 figuratively      
speak+1 9 ! backgr\nd1 ready to suppress
 ! spontaneity :]e ! conditions are su* 
t x ceases to be moral4 ,x has be5 "p ( 
our :ole analysis to %[ t reason &      
in/9ct1 ?\ght & feel+1 are by no means  
antagoni/ic4 ,simply1 feel+ may take "o 
direction 9 "o man1 ano!r 9 ano!r2 9 !  
crim9al1 x is develop$ 9 ! direction (  
anti-social acts2 9 ! pr(ligate1 x takes

 ! same direction1 b 9 a less degree2 ! 
orig9al savage is /rong] 9 him ?an 9 !  
moral man1 :o belongs to a lat] & high] 
type1 & f9ds 8 pleasure 9 acts 9        
accordance ) ! welf>e ( 8 fell[-m5 &    
fell[-wom54 ,z ! human be+ is a high]   
developm5t ?an o!r species because he is
 adapt$ to a wid] circle ( nature1 s j z
 truly ! moral man is a high] human     
developm5t1 because function is1 9 him1 
adju/$ to a wid] circle ( conditions--to
 complex social requirem5ts :i* repres5t
 ! happ9ess ( 8 fell[-m54 ,altruism is  
n1 because a lat] developm5t1           
artificial1 z ,b>ratt calls x1 any m ?an
 man is artificial 9 comp>ison ) ! ape1 
or ! ape is artificial 9 comp>ison )    
orig9al protoplasm4 ,nor c virtue       
consi/1 z ,b>ratt conceives1 9 a yield+ 
to all emotions1#aha z long z man has n 
yet atta9$ ! highe/ summit ( morality   
:]e all emotions foll[ moral directions1
 )\t conflicts & )\t con/ra9t4 ,b nei!r 
c morality be di/+ui%$ z a con/ra9+ p[] 
oppos$ to in/9ct & emotion 9 g5]al1#ahb 

z ,/eph5 at "o po9t def9es x4 ,/ruggle &
 con/ra9t are n necess>ily elem5ts (    
moral action2 k9d & moral action (t5    
foll[s ^u impulse ) no ef=t :atev]2 &1  
on ! o!r h&1 ! base/ *>act]s may "k     
/ruggle ( an extreme nature :5 !        
directions ( self-int]e/ conflict4  ,we 
h already notic$ ! orig9 ( puni%m5t 9   
rev5ge1 :i* is ! outcome ( a fundam5tal1
 egoi/ic in/9ct ( self-def5ce2 & we h   
trac$ its developm5t up to !            
monopolization ( its extrem] =ms by     
society z a :ole ?r\gh /ate             
organization4 ,x is impossible =        
analysis to give any adequate           
repres5tation ( ! work+s ( ,rew>d &     
,puni%m5t 9 society1 except z we draw an
 exact l9e betwe5 legal & o!r =ms4 ,b   
su* a di/9ction1 h[ev] conv5i5t =       
p>ticul> purposes1 is obvi\sly          
sci5tifically inju/ifiable 9 a g5]al    
!ory ( social morals4 ,! con/ra9t (     
family dis9h]itance & social o/racism1 (
 ?reats ( all sorts1 ( vitup]ation1 (   
disapproval & coldness1 are only high]  

=ms ( rev5ge or puni%m5t1 by :i* m5     
influ5ce ea* o!r's action1 z savages    
influ5ce ea* o!r ?r\gh physical suff]+ &
 ! fe> ( x1 9 a m primitive & less      
humane mann]2 & /ate rew>d = s]vices1   
praise1 & approval1 are all =ms (       
enc\ragem5t1 by :i* m5 simil>ly incite  
ea* o!r n m]ely to a negative ab/5tion f
 undesirable acts1 b to a positive      
p]=mance ( desirable acts4 ,) !         
developm5t ( sympa?y1 puni%m5t t5ds to  
become less brutal on ! "o side1 :ile1  
on ! o!r1 ! less brutal =ms come to h z 
great influ5ce z ! m brutal ones =m]ly  
_h4 ,fur!rmore1 ! di/9ct calculation ( !
 atta9m5t ( egoi/ic ends gives place to 
! impulsive reaction ( ! s5se ( ju/ice  
on ! "o h&1 &1 on ! o!r1 to ! readi]    
response to disapproval & to ! desires (
 o!rs1 ?r\gh social pr$ispositions &    
affections :i* are m altrui/ic ?an      
egoi/ic4  ,b !re are two diametrically  
oppos$ s*ools1 nei!r ( :i* p]fectly     
agrees ) ! !ory ( w z /at$ 9 a prec$+   
*apt] ( ?is "w1 & bo? ( :i* may !re=e   

take exception to ! !ory ( recomp5se :i*
 foll[s naturally ^u t !ory4 ,! "o1 !   
s*ool :i* ass]ts ,free ,w n 9 a natural1
 b 9 a sup]natural1 or half sup]natural 
s5se1 may object to ! gr\nds = puni%m5t 
assum$ 9 our analysis2 ?is s*ool is     
answ]$ by ! demon/ration ( ! actual     
c\rse ( developm5t tak5 by rew>d &      
puni%m5t4 ,! o!r s*ool ma9ta9s1 on !    
gr\nd t man is a "p ( nature1 t !re is  
no m]it 9 consci5ti\sness1 & t evil-do+1
 be+ z mu* dep5d5t ^u organization &    
social environm5t z disease1 _c1 on     
sci5tific gr\nds1 be puni%able4 ,x is to
 be notic$1 h[ev]1 t _m ( ! advocates ( 
! !ory t /ate puni%m5t is inju/ifiable  
yet inflict puni%m5t ^u _! own *ildr52 &
 we may rem9d !m1 9 ?is connection1 t !y
 c sc>cely claim ! w ( ! *ild to be fre]
 or less ! result ( g5]al social        
conditions ?an t ( ! adult1 & t1        
moreov]1 !y !mselves are ! mo/ imm$iate 
l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( conditions produc+ ?is w4
 ,fur!rmore1 !y are inconsi/5t 9 _!     
practice if !y visit any blame on       

evil-do]s or crim9als2 !y are logically 
re/rict$ to1 at mo/1 an ,i diff] ) y 9  
op9ion1 to ,jack-!-,ripp]1 to ! cruele/ 
( slave hunt]s1 or to ! ,*9ese :o are   
said to h reg>d$ ) indiff]5ce ! burn+ ( 
_! fell[-m5 on ! %ip ,%anghai1 :ile !y  
ex]t$ !mselves to secure ! wreckage4    
,nor1 if puni%m5t & blame are           
inadmissible1 on ! gr\nd ( ! det]m9ation
 ( ! w1 c !y consi/5tly %[ great]       
consid]ation to b5evol5t ?an to         
malevol5t m51 no matt] h[ great ! public
 b5efits ^! m5 h conf]r$1 or :at aid !y 
h giv5 to ! advancem5t ( society8 ,if x 
is unju/ to puni% crim9als because _!   
acts are det]m9$1 !n x is also :olly    
unju/ to ! re/ ( mank9d to praise a     
,bruno1 or a dy+ ,sir ,philip ,sidney   
giv+ ! cup ( wat] (f]$ him to ano!r4 ,if
 good m5 might be crim9als1 _h !y !     
crim9al organization1 x is equally true 
t ord9>y & selfi% m5 might be ,brunos & 
,sir ,philip ,sidneys if !y _h !        
organization ( ,brunos & ,sir ,philip   
,sidneys2 :y !n d ord9>y m5 ! inju/ice (

 prais+ & admir+ su* nobility ( "*8 ,nor
 c a !ory ( det]m9ism :i* refuses to    
blame ! individual consi/5tly lay !     
blame ( crime & badness on society z a  
:ole1 z x (t5 does2 = society z a :ole  
is compos$ ( individuals1 all ( :om are 
equally det]m9$ 9 _! action4 ,or1 if we 
*oose to reg>d society z a unit1 !n x   
may be said t x is z mu* ! product (    
nature z a :ole z ! individual is its   
product4 ,if x be object$ t we d n blame
 nature z a :ole because x is s\lless1  
we may inquire :at is meant by s\lless2 
society has no composite s\l1 no s\l    
except 9 its individuals4 ,! real       
significance ( ! objection is t we _c   
influ5ce nature1 by our blame1 to !     
production ( bett] *>act]s2 b x is also 
true t we _c influ5ce society except    
?r\gh ! individuals compos+ x2 & "h we  
h1 aga91 9 a nut%ell1 ! real reason &   
ju/ification ( puni%m5t & blame4  ,!    
,sociali/s h be5 prom95t ( late 9       
disclaim+ ! "r ( ! /ate to puni%1 on !  
gr\nd t society z a :ole is responsible 

= ! evil ( individual *>act]s4 ,b x is n
 noticeable t all ,sociali/s refra9 f   
blam+ non-sociali/ic & cons]vative      
individuals1 al?\gh x is obvi\sly true t
 ^! are q z mu* det]m9$1 & z            
irresponsible f a det]m9i/ic po9t (     
view1 z are ! crim9als4 ,moreov]1 ev5 ! 
milde/ ,sociali/s advocate ! measure (  
d5y+ food to ! man :o c "w b w n d s4   
,by :at "r d ^! det]m9i/s make use ( !  
expression c b w n8 ,& :at "r h !y1 on  
_! own %[+1 to adm9i/] ?is *a/isem5t to 
! lazy man8 ,surely slo? _c be int]pret$
 z preem95tly a p[] ( w1 :i* no o!r man 
possesses2 & surely slo? is1 z mu* z    
crim9ality1 ! product ( social          
conditions4 ,if x be object$ t ?is d5ial
 ( food is no puni%m5t b m]ely a lett+  
alone1 we may inquire :e!r ! />vation   
:i* us$ to be inflict$ on prison]s = "s 
(f5ces 0 n a positive =m ( puni%m5t4 ,& 
if x be said t ! slo?ful man has x 9 8  
p[]1 at any "t1 to escape />vation by   
beg9n+ to "w1 we may answ] t ! /ate says
 to ! crim9al1 also1 t he has no?+ to d 

) its p5alties z long z he ab/a9s f !   
acts = :i* !y are impos$4 ,:y %\ld !    
v9dictive man1 ! ,joseph ,phillippes1 ! 
,jukes1 & ,eyrauds ( ! future receive   
su/5ance1 c>e1 & k9dness1 9 homes set   
ap>t = _! especial use1 :ile ! man :o is
 m]ely indol5t is driv5 to solitude & ! 
roots & h]bs ( ! =e/ = ! support (      
exi/5ce8 ,p]haps1 9 su* case1 ! indol5t 
man may claim society's great] indulg5ce
 by tak+ to crime4  ,^! det]m9i/s are   
sometimes he>d to make ! ass]tion t !   
puni%m5t ( crim9als is wrong1 b t       
puni%m5t ( *ildr5 mu/ /ill be resort$ to
 = _! own sake z well z = t ( society1  
s9ce _! "* c be discipl9$ & bett]$ by x4
 ,:5 we arrive at ?is inconsi/5cy1 we   
get at ! root ( ! :ole objection to /ate
 puni%m5t ( crim9als4 ,!re is a gr[+    
dissatisfaction ) pres5t me?ods (       
puni%m5t1 & ?is dissatisfaction1        
insuffici5tly analyz$1 takes ! =m (     
objection to puni%m5t altoge!r4         
,b5evol5ce is progress+ beyond pres5t   
laws1 & dem&s _! *ange2 t is ! gi/ ( !  

:ole matt]4  ,9 ! light ( our analysis (
 ! evolution ( morality1 we may repeat !
 inquiry1 left unansw]$ at ! beg9n+ (   
?is "w1 z to :e!r1 9 ! prov9ce ( morals 
m ?an 9 o!r prov9ces1 we f9d a          
sup]natural elem5t or an elem5t :i*1 9  
any way1 gives u an intimation ( !      
sup]natural or transc5d5tal4 ,! "q mu/  
be repli$ to 9 ! negative4 ,if x be     
object$ t we mu/ n expect to f9d !      
sup]natural 9 ! natural1 we may reply t 
t is j :at we h n expect$ to d4 ,!      
fallacy ( su* an expectation does n lie 
) u4 ,nature gives u no intimation ( a  
sup]nature1 :5 we cease to see x ) !    
uncompreh5d+ eye ( ! untutor$ savage4   
,nor c ! gross1 cruel1 & sup]/iti\s     
savage be reg>d$ z1 9 contra/ to m      
social & humane man1 bett] fitt$ to be !
 m$ium ( spiritual tru?4  ,& ?is br+s u 
to ! discussion ( ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( 
consci5ce 9 l[] animal species4 ,we h   
f\nd t "s species h social organization 
q z elaborate z t ( _m savage tribes1 & 
ev5 m elaborate ?an t ( "s tribes4 ,we  

are able to view ^! organizations only 9
 _! ext]nal features2 we _c1 h[ev]1 9   
mo/ cases1 suppose ! species to be      
devoid ( consci\sness ( "s sort1 &      
consci\sness involves1 9 any case1      
pleasure 9 accu/om$ function & 9 its    
con/antly exp]i5c$ results2 ! two1      
action & exp]i5ce ( its results1 are1 9 
fact1 bo? functional4 ,! argum5t (      
incon/ancy1 & ( incon/ancy at po9ts at  
:i* x is n f\nd among m51 has be5 %[n to
 be absolutely valueless z direct$ aga9/
 any !ory ( ! exi/5ce ( sympa?y & social
 in/9ct among o!r animal species4 ,we   
too are incon/ant 9 our altruism2 &     
habits ( altrui/ic action d n necess>ily
 take ! same c\rse ) o!r species t !y d 
) u1 diff]5ces 9 social organization    
r5d]+ diff]5ces ( habit necess>y4 ,if   
o!r species fall bel[ u 9 self-sacrifice
 = ! community 9 "s respects1 !y (t5    
surpass u 9 o!rs4 ,we may conclude1 !n1 
t habits ( mutual assi/ance1 habits :i* 
we p]ceive to be ext]nally altrui/ic1   
mu/ also be suppos$ to be connect$ 9 _m 

cases ) "s int]nal correspond+ feel+s ( 
! same nature z ^? :i* we t]m1 9 man1   
altrui/ic & social4 ,i d n see h[ we c  
avoid ?is conclusion unless we d5y all  
consci\sness to o!r species2 =          
consci\sness mu/ involve1 on any plane1 
feel+ z pleasure & pa94 ,& on !         
supposition ( memory1 & ( ! connection 9
 memory ( ^? ?+s & ev5ts :i* are        
con/antly connect$ 9 exp]i5ce1 we mu/   
suppose ! seek+ ( ends1 also1 ?\gh !y   
are1 probably1 9 mo/ cases1 mu* ne>]    
ends ?an our human ones4 ,x may be true1
 z ,pr(essor ,morgan ?9ks1 t animals h  
no g5]al concept ( ends & means2 b a    
g5]al concept ( ends & means is n       
necess>y to ! recognition ( ! fact t ?is
 or t p>ticul> =m ( action w h ?is or t 
p>ticul> result4 ,x is n necess>y to    
apply ! t]ms ends & means to ev5ts 9    
ord] to und]/& _! connection z foll[+ ^u
 ea* o!r ) con/ancy4 ,moreov]1 we are   
accu/om$ to c\nt only our own ends z    
ends prop]1 & s1 only our own wisdom z  
wisdom2 & ?us we t]m o!r species /upid =

 n und]/&+ j our wisdom & act+ on a l9e 
) u2 b c]ta9ly !re are pl5ty ( human    
be+s :om we d n t]m want+ 9 reason+ p[]s
 :o seek _! own de/ruction or h>m mu* m 
/upidly ?an _m animals2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 
!re are _m animals :o act mu* m         
consi/5tly = _! own & o!rs' welf>e ?an a
 l>ge numb] ( mank9d d4 ,if ! failure ( 
o!r species to compreh5d our language & 
und]/& our action is to be t]m$ /upid1  
!n :at %all we t]m our failure to und]/&
 _! me?ods ( communication & motives (  
action8 ,x is "t = u to emancipate      
ourselves f ?is n>r[ an?ropomorphism 9  
:i* we are accu/om$ to live1 & to       
realize & ackn[l$ge t !re may be o!r    
consci\sness ?an our own1 ) q o!r       
?\ghts1 feel+s1 habits1 ends1 & motives4
 ,x is a "p ( our cu/om>y egoism t we   
pref] to exalt ourselves2 x is m        
gratify+ to our vanity1 z well z m      
conv5i5t to our consci5ce1 to reg>d o!r 
species z half-automatic & b5ea? our    
sympa?y2 we ?us h excuse = us+ !m z we  
l4 ,s we call ! tig] cruel because he is

 c>nivor\s z we ourselves are2 we call !
 fox cunn+ & sly = ly+ 9 ambu% = 8 prey2
 b :5 we g out to take1 by simil> means1
 our special prey1 we call our action a 
triumph ( sup]ior reason4 ,we t]m ! fox 
a ?ief1 too1 :5 he takes aga9 f u :at we
 are cont9ually tak+1 & :at we took     
orig9ally1 f ! bea/s4 ,:at we reg>d z "r
 & ju/ifiable & ev5 admirable 9         
ourselves we reg>d z wrong1 cruel1 mean1
 selfi%1 und]h&$1 abhorr5t1 & wor?y (   
all puni%m5t 9 ! animals4 ,z = !        
fai?fulness unto dea? display$ by _m    
animals1 we d n reg>d t z h]oism or     
wor?y our admiration1 al?\gh we might   
(t5 take patt]n f x4 ,h[ %\ld we und]/& 
o!r species8 ,we are n accu/om$ to      
associate ?is or t feel+ ( pleasure 9   
ourselves ) a prick+ up ( e>s or a wagg+
 ( tail1 or our deepe/ despond5cy & pa9 
at repulse ) ?is or t peculi> po/ure or 
animal cry4 ,a fa9t trembl+ ( ! human h&
 f fe> or pa9 w /ir u ) ! mo/ pr(\nd    
sympa?y2 b ! s5sitive quiv] ( ! :ole    
body 9 "s helpless1 hopeless animal1 t  

_c speak its fe> or crave = m]cy 9 !    
human tongue1 t\*es b seldom an answ]+  
*ord 9 our he>ts4 ,%ame on our vanity & 
our h>d-he>t$ness6  ,! :ole ( our       
analysis has t5d$ to lay emphasis on    
habit4 ,& ?is leads u to comm5t on a    
c]ta9 disda9 & contempt = habit & cu/om 
:i* is cont9ually aris+ 9 "s qu>t]s4 ,! 
:ole hi/ory ( mank9d is ! hi/ory ( !    
=mation1 gradual *ange1 & spread ( !    
*ange1 ( habit1 & ( cu/om z ! social =m 
( ! latt]4 ,) ! progress ( society1     
habits & cu/oms gr[ old & mu/ be        
disc>d$2 b only c>eful consid]ation c %[
 u :5 *ange is desirable4 ,x is1 !re=e1 
bo? /upid & fooli% to inveigh aga9/ a   
habit m]ely because x is habit or       
because x is ( long /&+4 ,orig9ality1   
intellectual sup]iority1 does n consi/ 9
 a contempt = cu/om m]ely z cu/om1 b 9 !
 p[] to weigh all sides1 to view a matt]
 9 all lights1 )\t reg>d to its age or  
newness1 & to decide on its wor? accord+
 to its inh]5t m]its or defects4 ,9 !   
rebellion f ! slav]y to tradition z su*1

 ! opposite1 equally unreasonable       
extreme ( d5unciation ( all exi/+ cu/om 
is (t5 rea*$4 ,?us1 "s foll[]s (        
,socrates1 adh]+ slavi%ly to ! ^w ( _!  
ma/] b fail+ to compreh5d its inn]      
mean+1 disp5s$ ) all ! social usages (  
_! nation1 & despis$ its laws4 ,( late  
patriotism is d5\nc$ z m]e              
race-prejudice f\nd$ on habit &         
association4 ,b all our affections are  
matt]s ( habit & association4 ,d\btless1
 patriotism may (t5 involve n>r[ness &  
inju/ice2 s also may a "m's love = h]   
*ild1 or any o!r ( ! =ms ( ! pref]5ce ( 
affection4 ,h[ev]1 x does n foll[1      
!re=e1 t "m-love is to be d5\nc$ &      
reject$2 :at we ne$ is n less "m-love1  
or fa!r-love1 b a c\nt]balanc+ sympa?y =
 o!r human be+s outside ! family1 also4 
,& s too we d n want less love ( c\ntry1
 b ! infusion ( x ) a broad] humanity & 
ju/ice4 ,! love ( a "m ne$ n r5d] h]    
less1 b may1 on ! contr>y1 r5d] h] m1   
sympa!tic2 & ! love ( c\ntry may be     
comb9$ ) a wide-rea*+ reg>d = ! welf>e (

 o!r m5 outside ! nation to :i* !       
patriot belongs4 ,9 fact1 ! "m :o is    
incapable ( peculi> love = h] own *ild  
is n likely to be capable ( deep sympa?y
 ) o!r human be+s2 & ,i am incl9$ to    
believe t !re mu/ be some?+ lack+ 9 a   
man's g5]al moral con/itution :5 he     
feels no peculi> reg>d = ! l& to :i* he 
belongs4 ,if x is fooli%1 z is sometimes
 ass]t$1 to love "o c\ntry m ?an ano!r1 
simply because we happ5 to h be5 born 9 
x1 !n x is also equally fooli% to love  
our "m simply because %e happ5s to be   
our "m4 ,!re may be o!r l&s z good z    
ours1 & possibly !re may be o!r mo!rs z 
good z ours2 b affection does n reason  
?us4  ,is social developm5t ! cause ( an
 increase 9 sympa?y1 or is ! increase ( 
sympa?y ! cause ( social progress &     
prosp]ity8 ,or is increase ( population 
! cause ( bo? by =c+ m5 to companion%ip8
 ,or is n1 r1 increase ( population !   
effect ( prosp]ity8 ,9 8 "w on ,rec5t   
,discussions 9 ,sci5ce1 ,philosophy1 &  
,morals1 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] writes ( !       

altrui/ic s5tim5ts3 ,! developm5t ( ^!  
has gone on only z fa/ z society has    
advanc$ to a /ate 9 :i* ! activities are
 ma9ly peaceful4 ,! root ( all !        
altrui/ic s5tim5ts is sympa?y1 & sympa?y
 c\ld h become dom9ant only :5 ! mode ( 
life1 in/ead ( be+ "o t habitually      
inflict$ direct pa91 became "o :i*      
conf]r$ direct & indirect b5efits2 !    
pa9s inflict$ be+ ma9ly incid5tal &     
indirect2 & 9 an essay on ,progress1 !  
au?or writes3 ,social progress is       
suppos$ to consi/ 9 ! produce ( a great]
 quantity & v>iety ( ! articles requir$ 
= satisfy+ m5's wants2 9 ! increas+     
security ( p]son & prop]ty2 9 wid5+     
fre$om ( action2 :]eas1 rightly         
und]/ood1 social progress consi/s 9 ^?  
*anges ( /ructure 9 ! social organism   
:i* h entail$ ^! consequ5ces4 ,! two    
p>agraphs appe> contradictory ( ea* o!r1
 ! fir/ lay+ emphasis ^u out] conditions
 z cause ( inn] *ange1 ! second seem+ to
 emphasize inn] conditions z cause2 b ! 
t]ms ( ! second quotation are some:at   

ambigu\s4 ,z to ! fir/1 to d ,mr4 ,sp5c]
 full ju/ice1 he corrects ?is a little  
f>!r d[n1 :]e he says t sympa?y is !    
concomitant ( greg>i\sness1 ! two hav+  
all along increas$ by reciprocal aid4   
,! root ( ! :ole difficulty1 ) reg>d to 
our !ories ( cause & effect 9 social    
developm5t1 z ) reg>d to our !ories (   
cause & effect 9 o!r p>ts ( nature1 lies
 9 our desire = unity & simplicity4     
,in/ead ( attempt+ to unravel !         
intricate web ( ! conditions1 we fix our
 att5tion on "s "o feature or side ( !  
process1 & reg>d ! :ole developm5t z    
revolv+ r\nd ?is pivot4  ,x is easy to  
f9d examples1 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce &     
op9ion1 ( ! errors into :i* ! concepts (
 cause & effect h l$ m51 & ( ! repeat$  
recurr5ce ( unc]ta9ty to :i* ! unveil+ (
 ^! errors 9 ! fur!r m>* ( k1 has l$4 ,=
 in/ance1 we f9d "s writ]s on n]v\s     
diseases adh]+ to ! view t insanity is  
sometimes ! effect ( a weak yield+ to a 
viol5t disposition2 m cont5d+ t !       
viol5ce is itself ! effect ( incipi5t   

insanity2 & /ill o!rs op9+ t bo? viol5ce
 ( disposition & insanity are ! effect (
 a g5]al diseas$ /ate ( ! sy/em4 ,anci5t
 s*ools ( m$ic9e trac$ all diseases to !
 blood1 & s dra9$ (f ! fluid2 & ! pat5t 
m$ic9es ( to-day g5]ally select "s "o   
organ z ! s\rce ( all disease4 ,i once  
he>d ! ass]tion t a c]ta9 woman _h di$ )
 grief conte/$ by a physician on ! gr\nd
 t ! cause ( h] dea? 0 consumption2 he  
add$ t dea?s f sudd5 m5tal %ock 7 kn[n  
to m$ic9e1 b ! cases 7 r>e2 ano!r m$ical
 man sugge/$ t ! sy/em might n h be5 9 a
 p]fectly heal?y condition at ! "t ( !  
%ock1 9 ^? cases2 & ! fir/ man seem$ a  
little puzzl$ :5 a ?ird p]son sugge/$ t 
!re 0 d\btless a physical basis 9 e     
case4  ,,footnotes3  #afe ,adam ,b$e4   
#aff ,daniel ,d]onda4  #afg ,! ,sci5ce (
 ,e?ics1 pp4 #bch1 #bci4 ,! italics are 
m9e4  #afh ,ibid4 pp4 #bdb1 #bdc4  #afi 
,z above1 pp4 #bee1 #bef4 ,! italics are
 m9e4  #agj ,ibid4 p4 #ddc4  #aga ,ibid4
 p4 #dda4 ,! italics are m9e4  #agb     
,ibid4 p4 #bcf4 ,! italics are m9e4     

#agc ,ibid4 p4 #bcg4  #agd ,ibid4 p4    
#bci4 ,! italics are "h also m9e4  #age 
,! ,pa?ology ( ,m9d1 #ajb et seq4  #agf 
,9 ?is g5]al & limit$ s5se1 b only 9 ?is
 g5]al & limit$ s5se1 does ,sp5c]'s     
ass]tion t m moral conduct %[s a great] 
adju/m5t ( means to ends1 correspond to 
! facts4  #agg ,see ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1
 p4 #fb4  #agh ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 pp4 
#cge1 #cgf4  #agi ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1  
p4 #cjj4  #ahj ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 p4  
#cja4  #aha ,see ,"p ,i1 ?is book1 p4   
#aag4  #ahb ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 p4     
#caj4     ,,*apt] ,,vii  ,,! ,,moral    
,,progress ,,( ,,! ,,race ,,z ,,%[n ,,by
 ,,hi/ory   ,! necessity ( ! con/ant    
assimilation ( savage tribes1 ( ! peopl+
 ( ?9ly inhabit$ areas1 r5d]s social    
evolution z a :ole exce$+ly sl[4 ,nor c 
!re be1 ev5 9 isolat$ peoples1 any sudd5
 leap f savag]y to civilization2 9 o!r  
words ! t]m civilization is n ( absolute
 b ( comp>ative1 progressive1 import4   
,nor c we suppose ! social evolution to 
h be5 only outw>d2 we _c suppose t our  

cave-dwell+1 man-eat+1 rude ance/ors1 if
 !y c\ld h be5 sudd5ly transport$1 9    
infancy ev51 into ! mid/ ( mod]n        
civilization by means ( a ,c>lylean     
wi%+-cap1 or by "s me?od ( projection 9 
"t simil> to t by :i* m5 promise to     
knock ea* o!r into ! middle ( next week1
 w\ld h be5 able to equal mod]n m5 9    
m5tal & moral atta9m5t4 ,we may ga9 "s  
idea ( ! g5tle mann]s & moral "* ( our  
e>ly prog5itors f ! cu/oms ( savage     
peoples ( ! pres5t day2 al?\gh a v l>ge 
numb] ( ^! /& ^u a high] plane ?an did !
 anci5t savages kn[n to geology4 ,i     
ins]t a few extracts f ,lubbock3--  ,mr4
 ,galbrai?1 :o liv$ = _m ye>s1 z ,indian
 ag5t1 among ! ,si\x 7,nor? ,am]ica71   
?us describes !m3 ',!y are bigot$1      
b>b>\s1 & exce$+ly sup]/iti\s4 ,!y reg>d
 mo/ ( ! vices z virtues4 ,!ft1 arson1  
rape1 & murd]1 are among !m reg>d$ z !  
means ( di/9ction2 & ! "y ,indian f     
*ildhood is taught to reg>d kill+ z !   
highe/ ( virtues4 ,9 _! dances & at _!  
fea/s1 ! w>riors recite _! de$s ( !ft1  

pillage1 & slaught]1 z preci\s ?+s2 & ! 
highe/1 inde$ ! only1 ambition ( a "y   
brave is to secure ! fea!r1 :i* is b a  
record ( 8 hav+ murd]$ or p>ticipat$ 9 !
 murd]1 ( "s human be+--:e!r man1 woman1
 or *ild1 x is immat]ial2 & aft] he has 
secur$ 8 fir/ fea!r1 appetite is :ett$  
to increase ! numb] 9 8 cap1 z an       
,indian brave is e/imat$ by ! numb] ( 8 
fea!rs4'#ahc  ',consci5ce1' says        
,burton1 'does n exi/ 9 ,ea/]n ,africa1 
& rep5tance expresses regret = miss$    
opportunities ( mortal crime4 ,robb]y   
con/itutes an honorable man2 murd]--! m 
atroci\s ! midnight crime ! bett]--makes
 ! h]o4'#ahd  ,9 ,tahiti1 ! mission>ies 
consid]$ t 'n less ?an two-?irds ( !    
*ildr5 7 murd]$ by _! p>5ts4' ,mr4      
,ellis adds1 ',i d n recollect hav+ met 
) a female 9 ! isl&s1 dur+ ! :ole p]iod 
( my resid5ce !re1 :o _h be5 a "m :ile  
idolatry prevail$1 :o _h n imbru$ h] h&s
 9 ! blood ( h] (fspr+4' ,mr4 ,nott also
 makes ! same ass]tion4 ,girls 7 m (t5  
kill$ ?an boys1 because !y 7 ( less use 

9 fi%+ & 9 w>4#ahe  ,williams tells u t 
'(f5ces1 9 ,fijian e/imation1 are light 
or grave accord+ to ! rank ( ! (f5d]4   
,murd] by a *ief is less he9\s ?an a    
petty l>c5y committ$ by a man ( l[      
rank4'#ahf  ,among ! ,khonds ( ,c5tral  
,india1 human sacrifices prevail$ until 
q lately4 ',a /\t /ake is driv5 into !  
soil & to x ! victim is fa/5$1 seat$1 & 
ano9t$ ) ghee1 oil1 & turm]ic1 decorat$ 
) fl[]s1 & wor%ipp$ dur+ ! day by !     
assembly4 ,at nightfall ! lic5ti\s      
revelry is resum$1 & on ! ?ird morn+ !  
victim gets "s milk to dr9k1 :5 !       
presid+ prie/ implores ! goddess to %[] 
h] bless+s on ! p4 ,aft] ! mock c]emony1
 nev]!less1 ! victim is tak5 to ! grove 
:]e ! sacrifice is to be c>ri$ out2 & to
 prev5t resi/ance1 ! bones ( ! arms &   
legs are brok51 or ! victim drugg$ )    
opium or datura1 :5 ! janni w\nds 8     
victim ) ! axe4 ,?is act is foll[$ up by
 ! cr[d4 ,a numb] n[ press =w>d to obta9
 a piece ( 8 fle%1 & 9 a mom5t he is    
/ripp$ to ! bones4'  ,an almo/ id5tical 

cu/om prevails among ! ,m>imos1 a tribe 
( ,s\? ,africa mu* resembl+ !           
,be*uanas4444 ,s*oolcraft m5tions a444  
sacrifice to ! ',_s ( ,corn' among !    
,pawnees4 ,! victim 0 fir/ tortur$ by   
be+ susp5d$ ov] a fire4 ',at a giv5     
signal1 a hundr$ arr[s 7 let fly1 & h]  
:ole body 0 pi]c$4 ,^! 7 imm$iately     
)drawn1 & h] fle% cut f h] bones 9 small
 pieces :i* 7 put into baskets & c>ri$  
into ! cornfield1 :]e ! gra9 0 be+      
plant$1 & ! blood squeez$ out on ea*    
hill4'#ahg ,human sacrifices occurr$ 9  
,gu9ea1 & ,burton saw 'at ,b59 ,city a  
"y woman la%$ to a scaffold+ ^u ! summit
 ( a tall bla/$ tree1 & be+ dev\r$ by ! 
turkey-buzz>ds4 ,! p decl>$ x to be a   
feti* or *>m = br++ ra94'444  ,capta9   
,cook describes human sacrifices z      
preval5t among ! isl&]s ( ! ,pacific1 & 
especially 9 ! ,s&wi* gr\p4444 ,w>      
captives 7 frequ5tly sacrific$ 9        
,brazil4#ahh  ,! l[e/ races h no        
in/itution ( m>riage4 ,true love is     
almo/ unkn[n among !m1 & m>riage 9 its  

l[e/ phases is by no means a matt] (    
affection & companion%ip4444 ,9 ,nor?   
,am]ica1 ! ,t9ne ,indians _h no ^w =    
'de>' & 'belov$'2 & ! ,algonqu9 language
 is /at$ to h conta9$ no v]b mean+ 'to  
love1' s t :5 ! ,bible 0 translat$ by ! 
mission>ies into t language x 0 necess>y
 to inv5t a ^w = ! purpose4#ahi  ,!     
position ( wom5 9 ,au/ralia seems1      
inde$1 to be wret*$ 9 ! extreme4 ,!y are
 treat$ ) ! utmo/ brutality1 beat5 &    
spe>$ 9 ! limbs on ! mo/ trivial        
provocation4 ',few wom51' says ,eyre1 'w
 be f\nd1 ^u exam9ation1 to be free f   
frightful sc>s ^u ! head or ! m>ks (    
spe>-w\nds ^u ! body4 ,i h se5 a "y     
woman :o1 f ! numb] ( ^! m>ks1 appe>$ to
 h be5 almo/ riddl$ ) spe>-w\nds4'#aij  
,coll9s ?us describes ! mann] 9 :i* !   
natives ab\t ,sydney us$ to procure     
wives3 ',! poor wret* is /ol5 ^u 9 !    
abs5ce ( h] protectors4 ,be+ fir/       
/upefi$ ) bl[s1 inflict$ ) clubs or     
wood5 swords1 on ! head1 back1 & %\ld]s1
 e "o ( :i* is foll[$ by a /ream (      

blood1 %e is !n dragg$ ?r\gh ! woods by 
"o arm1 ) a p]sev]ance & viol5ce t x    
might be suppos$ w\ld displace x f its  
socket4 ,?is outrage is n res5t$ by !   
relations ( ! female1 :o only retaliate 
by a simil> outrage :5 !y f9d an        
opportunity4'#aia  ,inde$1 says         
,lubbock1 ,i d n rememb] a s+le in/ance 
9 :i* a savage is record$ z hav+ %[n any
 symptoms ( remorse2 & almo/ ! only case
 ,i c call to m9d1 9 :i* a man belong+  
to "o ( ! l[] races has acc\nt$ = an act
 by say+ explicitly t x 0 "r1 0 :5 ,mr4 
,hunt ask$ a "y ,fijian :y he _h kill$ 8
 "m4#aib  ,we h direct evid5ce1 9 _m    
pres5t or rec5t cu/oms1 ( s-call$       
civiliz$ or half-civiliz$ nations1 t !  
b>b>\s cu/oms describ$ 9 ,! ,orig9 (    
,civilization1 & 9 ! books ( _m         
travell]s1 are n ! orig9al & special    
inv5tions ( mod]n savages m]ely1 b t    
simil> cu/oms prevail$ among our        
prog5itors4 ,lubbock notices _m ( ^!4 ,!
 m>riage c]emonies ( _m peoples are     
p>ticul>ly sugge/ive ( a "t :5 viol5t   

capture 0 ! means ( obta9+ a wife1 &    
cruelty ( treatm5t 0 h] usual           
portion4#aic ,human sacrifices 7 common 
among _m peoples ( anci5t ,europe2 & !  
cancellation ( responsibility = murd] ) 
f9es 7(t5 nom9al 9 ! case ( ! murd] ( a 
man ( l[] rank7 0 a widely spread cu/om4
 ,9 ,russia1 writes ,lubbock1 z 9       
,sc&9avia1 human sacrifices cont9u$ d[n 
to ! introduction ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,9     
,mexico & ,p]u !y seem to h be5         
peculi>ly num]\s4 ,muell] has sugge/$ t 
?is may h p>tly aris5 f ! fact t ^!     
nations 7 n s(t5$ by ! possession (     
dome/ic animals4#aid ,v>i\s e/imates h  
be5 made ( ! numb] ( human victims      
annually sacrific$ 9 ! ,mexican temples4
 ,muell] ?9ks #bejj is a mod]ate        
e/imate2 & 9 "o ye> x appe>s to h exce$$
 #ajj1jjj4 ,9 ,nor!rn ,europe1 human    
sacrifices 7 n uncommon4 ,! ,y>l ( !    
,orkneys is record$ to h sacrific$ ! son
 ( ! ,k+ ( ,norway to ,od9 9 ! ye> #hic4
 ,9 #iic1 ,hakon ,y>l sacrific$ 8 own   
son to ! gods4 ,donald1 ,k+ ( ,sw$51 0  

burnt by 8 p z a sacrifice to ,od91 9   
consequ5ce ( a sev]e fam9e4 ,at ,upsala 
0 a celebrat$ temple1 r\nd :i* an       
eye-witness assur$ ,adam ( ,brem5 t he  
_h se5 ! corpses ( sev5ty-two victims   
hang+ up at "o "t4#aie  ,a peculi>      
confusion z to ! def9ition ( morality   
sometimes gives rise to su* vag>ies (   
!ory z ! def5ce ( murd] committ$ by     
savages1 & o!r cruelties practis$1 on ! 
gr\nd t ^! ?+s are n consid]$ s9s 9 !   
moral code ( ! peoples among :i* !y are 
practis$2 murd] is ?us excus$ on ! plea 
t wreck+ is also look$ ^u z             
p]missible2#aif & ,wallace ?9ks t       
savages live up to _! simple moral code 
z well z civiliz$ human be+s to _!      
elaborate "o1 s t !y are1 9 reality1 z  
moral z ^! latt]4 ,x %\ld n be =gott51  
h[ev]1 t ! moral code is itself !       
product ( ! tribe & repres5ts its moral 
s5tim5t4 ,lubbock rem>ks t if a man's   
simple moral code p]mits him to rob &   
murd]1 ! code is at lea/ an un=tunate "o
 = ! victims4#aig ,on ! o!r h&1 ,lubbock

 himself def5ds human sacrifice z !     
result ( deep & e>ne/ religi\s          
feel+4#aih ,b if sympa?y 7 /rong1 su*   
sacrifices w\ld be impossible1 & !      
religi\s code w\ld be alt]$ j z !       
religi\s code ( ,*ri/ians is alt]$ to   
keep up ) social progress4 ,op9ion &    
feel+ are n two sep>able ?+s1 "o ( :i*  
may advance :ile ! o!r rema9s beh9d2 :5 
feel+ becomes /rong en\gh1 ! op9ion     
arises t ?is or t cu/om be=e practis$ is
 wrong4 ,z long z man is cruel by       
nature1 h[ev]1 consci5ce w n torm5t him 
= cruelty1 & x is possible = him to     
reg>d x z :olly ju/ifiable4  ,b ,i am ( 
! op9ion t moral progress has be5 made n
 only s9ce ! "t ( our savage ance/ors1 b
 ev5 also s9ce ! "t ( ! great anci5ts1 9
 spite ( ! ob/acles to su* advancem5t   
pres5t$ 9 ! necessity ( ! moral         
assimilation ( imm5se races (           
savages1--! leav5+ ( ! :ole ( ,europe4  
,i believe t mod]n civilization has     
caught up to & surpass$ ! anci5t4 ,! k  
we h ( anci5t peoples is necess>ily mo/ 

imp]fect2 nev]!less1 we may1 ,i believe1
 discov] consid]able evid5ce ( g5]al    
moral inf]iority to ! pres5t day4 ,any  
advance t has be5 made w be likely to be
 mo/ obs]vable 9 ^? g5]al virtues :i*   
lie at ! f\ndation ( all social         
cooep]ation--tru?fulness 9 ^w & hone/y 9
 act1 & ! gradual wid5+ ( concepts (    
ju/ice f individual & class privilege & 
race prejudice1 to ! inclusion ( mank9d 
z a :ole4 ,& ! gr[? ( sympa?y w be mo/  
noticeable 9 ! treatm5t ( ^? classes (  
be+s :i* possess lea/ physical means (  
compell+ respect = _! rights--animals1  
*ildr51 wom51 ! poor1 & ignorant1 &     
sick1 & ag$4  ,we may beg9 ) ! *ildr54  
,! ,lac$emonian cu/om ( giv+ ov] ! weak 
& defective *ildr5 to de/ruction is     
famili> to u all4 ,be=e ,solon1 *ildr5 7
 (t5 sold by ,a!nian p>5ts = debt2 & ev5
 dur+ ! ages ( greate/ culture1 !       
exposure ( *ildr5 seems to h be5 a      
common ,a!nian practice1 reg>d$ ) little
 or no disapproval by ! g5]al public4   
,mahaffy writes3 ,! cool way 9 :i*      

,plato 9 8 ,republic speaks ( expos+    
*ildr51 %[s t1 z we %\ld expect1 ) !    
increase ( luxury1 & ! decay ( ! means (
 satisfy+ x1 ! de/ruction ( infants came
 m & m into ! fa%ion4 ,:at c be m       
pa9fully affect+ ?an ! practice impli$  
by ,socrates1 :5 he is comp>+ himself to
 a midwife 7,!aet4 #aea ,b474 ',& if ,i 
ab/ract & expose y\r fir/-born1 because 
,i discov] t ! conception y h =m$ is a  
va9 %ad[1 d n qu>rel ) me1 z ! mann] (  
wom5 is1 :5 _! fir/ *ildr5 are tak5 f   
!m4 ,= ,i h actually kn[n "s m5 ready to
 bite me :5 fir/ ,i h depriv$ !m ( a    
d>l+ folly4'#aii ,t ! exposure ( *ildr5 
is g5]ally m5tion$ only incid5tally by  
,greek writ]s1 is p]haps ! /ronge/      
argum5t ( all t ! cu/om 0 reg>d$ )      
indiff]5ce by ! majority4 ,a consid]able
 numb] ( ! expos$ *ildr5 seem to h be5  
rescu$ to be br\ght up z pro/itutes1 b  
_m mu/ h p]i%$ mis]ably4 ,we h reason = 
d\bt+ :e!r ! av]age ,greek w\ld h %[n an
 equal sympa?y to t ( ,mr4 ,/eph5's     
mod]n pickpockets1 9 ! suppos$ case (   

dang] to a *ild on !                    
race-c\rse2#bjj--unless1 inde$1 ! *ild 7
 an especially f9e bit ( animal fle%4   
,! same n>r[ sort ( exp$i5cy 9 morals   
:i* p]mitt$ ! exposure ( *ildr5 is      
exhibit$1 aga91 9 ! lack ( reg>d = ! ag$
 %[n by ! ,a!nians at all p]iods ( _!   
hi/ory2--9 ,sp>ta ! old m5 7 treat$ ) "s
 consid]able respect4 ,says ,mahaffy3 ,!
 /ronge/ case aga9/ ! ,p]iclean ,greeks1
 & "o :i* m>ks _! p>5tage mo/ cle>ly f  
_! ,hom]ic ance/ors1 is ! treatm5t ( _! 
old m54 ,= "h x is no inf]ior class1 b  
_! equals1 nay ev5 ^? to :om !y directly
 ow$ _! greatness1 :om !y ca/ aside )   
contempt :5 _! days ( usefulness _h     
pass$ by4444 ,! ,greek lawgiv]s 7       
accord+ly mo/ explicit 9 enjo9+ ^u      
*ildr5 ! nurture & support ( ag$ p>5ts  
:o c\ld o!rwise expect little f ! y\ng] 
g5]ation4 ,! ,attic law alone add$ a    
qualification1 t ! *ildr5 7 to be )\t   
responsibility if _! p>5ts _h neglect$  
to educate !m4 ,ari/ophanes describes ! 
treatm5t ( ! ag$ 9 8 ,wasps1--:]e he    

decl>es t ! only *ance ( respect or ev5 
safety is to reta9 ! p[] ( act+ z a     
juryman1 s extort+ homage f ! accus$ &  
support+ himself by 8 pay )\t dep5d+ on 
8 *ildr54 ,:5 he comes home ) 8 fee1 !y 
are glad to see him1 9 fact he is able  
to support a second wife & y\ng] *ildr51
 z ! passage pla9ly implies1 :]eas      
o!rwise ! fa!r mu/ look t[>ds 8 son & 8 
son's /ew>d to give him 8 daily bread1  
'utt]+ imprecations & mutt]+s le/ he    
knead me a deadly cake1' a d>k          
ins9uation :i* op5s to u t]rible        
suspicions4#bja  ,! wom5 ( ,greece 7    
comp>atively well c>$ =1 z might be     
expect$ 9 a nation & c\ntry peculi>ly   
susceptible to ! influ5ce ( grace &     
beauty2 !y 7 consequ5tly ( a            
comp>atively admirable type4 ,h[ev]1 we 
are fond1 ,i ?9k1 ( indulg+ 9 ?is       
respect1 our pref]5ce = believ+ !       
romantic2 s t we usually select c>efully
 ! be/ in/ances & inf] t ! /&>d ( all   
,greece 0 on ?is plane4 ,! reasons = ?is
 are manifold4 ,we h ! habit ( imag9+1 f

 ,greek art1 t all ,greek wom5 7        
beautiful2 & x is unpleasant to         
associate moral inf]iority ) great      
beauty1 or to imag9e its be+ treat$ )   
unk9dness or disrespect4 ,aga91 we are  
pleas$ at discov]+ examples ( love &    
fai?fulness ev5 9 ! f>-away ages1 & !   
pleasure ( ! discov]y exalts ! few      
in/ances ) :i* ,greek lit]ature provides
 u to a disproportionate importance &   
significance4 ,disappo9t$ at n f9d+ _!  
p]fect ideal 9 _! own age & nation1 m5 h
 pleas$ !mselves ) ! imag9ation (       
p]fection 9 an object belong+ to ano!r  
age1 ) reg>d to :i* no sordid reality ( 
e-day relation & common1 vulg> ne$s c\ld
 int]v5e to *eck en?usiasm4 ,fur!rmore1 
x is saf] to admire ^? di/ant f u 9 "t &
 place1 s9ce we are secure f any dem& ( 
fai?fulness & self-sacrifice f _! side4 
,poets & arti/s h assi/$ u 9 ?is lic5se 
( agreeable fancy4 ,s we dwell1 )       
special emphasis1 on ! beauty (         
,p5elope's "*1 :i* is n at all          
exceptionally fai?ful z measur$ by mod]n

 /&>ds2 we w>m ov] ! /ory ( ,antigone   
:ile we pass by1 )\t special en?usiasm1 
a ?\s& in/ances z admirable 9 our own   
day & )9 our own obs]vation2 & we read1 
) delight1 ! tale ( ! ,greek :o enc\rag$
 8 ignorant *ild-wife by g5tle treatm5t 
until %e ov]came h] timidity1 became    
tame & docile1 & 0 p]suad$ to disc>d    
cosmetics & high-heel$ %oes & devote    
h]self to h] h\sehold duties2 ?\gh ! mo/
 ( u w\ld reg>d ! =c$ m>riage ( su* a   
*ild1 if x occurr$ 9 our own day1 z no m
 ?an *ild-b>t]1 & ! conduct ( ! husb&   
7d\btless n wors5$ by 8 repres5tation ( 
x7 z b a mod]ate exhibition ( common    
dec5cy4 ,mahaffy says ( ! ,greeks ( !   
,hom]ic age3 ,!re is ample evid5ce t !  
l[]-class wom51 ! slaves & ev5 ! free   
s]vants1 7 subject$ to ! h>de/ & mo/    
di/ress+ sorts ( "w1 ! c>ry+ ( wat]1 & !
 gr9d+ ( h&-mills2 9 fact we see !m /&+ 
to m5-s]vants ne>ly 9 ! same relation t 
! ,nor?-,am]ican squaw /&s to h]        
husb&--ov]-tax$1 slave-driv51 worn out  
ev5 ) field-"w1 :ile he is idl+1 or     

smok+1 or sleep+4#bjb ,! wives ( ,a!ns (
 all p]iods 7 little m ?an a high] class
 ( h\sehold s]vants1 ) almo/ no %>e1 by 
education1 9 ei!r ! sci5ce or ! art t 0 
! delight ( _! nation & made its        
sup]iority4 ,! position ( ! hetairai 0  
bett] 9 "s respects2 b ! app>5tly widely
 spread pref]5ce ( ! ,greeks ( ! cultur$
 classes = :at we t]m unnatural crime   
argues aga9/ any consid]able degree (   
education ev5 9 _! case4 ,wom5 7        
sometimes f\nd 9 ! ,greek s*ools (      
philosophy1 b ^! 7 evid5tly isolat$     
cases4 ,! passage f ! ,!aetetus above   
quot$ %[s u ! unhappy & subs]vi5t       
position ( ,a!nian wom5 9 "o respect2 & 
_m o!r passages ( ,plato ?r[ an         
unfavorable light ^u _! lot2 ?\gh we h1 
p]haps1 to rememb] t ! c5tral figure ( !
 ,dialogues _h "s p]sonal reason = be+ a
 woman-hat]4 ,! outca/s f society z we  
call !m 7 n ! immoral & ! pr(ligate1 b !
 honorable & virtu\s4 ,accord+ly1 :5 we 
consult ! lit]ature ( ! day1 we f9d wom5
 treat$ ei!r ) contemptu\s ridicule 9   

com$y1 or ) /ill m contemptu\s sil5ce 9 
hi/ory4#bjc  ,human sacrifices 7 n      
unkn[n to ! e>li] ,greeks4 ,( ! lat]    
days1 ( ,a!nian culture1 ,mahaffy says3 
,plut>* tells u t ,!mi/ocles 0 =c$ by ! 
acclamations ( ! army to sacrifice ?ree 
,p]sian prison]s ( di/9ction br\ght 9 j 
be=e ! battle ( ,salamis1 ?\gh he 0     
greatly affect$ at ! t]rible nature ( ! 
sacrifice1 s t x appe>s to h be5 !n     
unusual4 ,b ,ari/ophanes1 long aft]1    
makes allusions to :at he calls ,greek3 
ph>makoi1 z /ill rememb]$ at ,a!ns1 if n
 /ill 9 use 7,ran4 #gcb71 & :i* !       
s*olia/s expla91 *iefly f ,hipponax1 z a
 sort ( human scapegoat1 *os5 = ugl9ess 
or de=mity 7a v ,greek /&po9t7 &        
sacrific$ = ! expiation ( ! /ate 9 days 
( fam9e & pe/il5ce1 or ( o!r public     
disa/]4 ,i ?9k t ,ari/ophanes alludes to
 ! cu/om z bygone1 ?\gh ! s*olia/s d n  
?9k s2 b its v famili>ity to 8 audi5ce  
%[s a disreg>d ( human life /range en\gh
 9 s advanc$ a legal sy/em z t (        
democratic ,a!ns4#bjd  ,mahaffy calls   

att5tion to ! exce$+ cruelty practis$ by
 ! ,greeks 9 ! ,peloponnesian w>1 &     
adds3 ,x 0 n m]ely among ,corcyreans1 or
 among ,?racian m]c5>ies1 b among !     
lead]s ( ,greece t we f9d ?is disgu/+   
feature4 ,! ,sp>tans put to dea? 9 cold 
blood #bbe prison]s :om !y took 9       
,plataea aft] a long & h]oic def5ce4444 
,b ?is is a m]e trifle :5 we he> f      
,plut>* t ,lys&]1 aft] ! battle (       
,a,egospotami1 put to dea? #cjjj        
prison]s 7,alcib4 c4 #cg cp4 ! details 9
 8 ,lys&]1 c4 #ac71444 ,a!nians1 m5 (   
education & ( culture4444 ,! un=tunate  
,a!nian g5]al1 accord+ to ,!ophra/us    
7,plut4 ,lys4 #ac71 submits ) dignifi$  
resignation to a fate :i* he confesses  
w\ld h att5d$ ! ,lac$emonians _h !y be5 
vanqui%$4  ,= ! ,a!nians1 ) _! boa/$    
clem5cy & culture1 7 v ne>ly z cruel z  
_! enemies4 ,9 ! celebrat$ affair ( !   
,mityl5aeans1 :i* ,?ucydides tells at   
l5g? 9 8 ?ird book1 ! fir/ decree ( !   
,a!nians 0 to massacre ! :ole male      
population ( ! captur$ city4 ,!y rep5t$ 

( ?is decree1 because ,diodotus prov$ to
 !m1 n t x 0 inhuman1 b t x 0 inexp$i5t4
 ,mahaffy argues1 9 opposition to       
,grote1 t !re 0 no real s5tim5t (       
sympa?y 9 ! rep5tance ( ! ,a!nians 9 ?is
 affair1 = h[ c\ld ! imag9$ details ( ! 
massacre ( #fjjj m5 9 ,lesbos h be5 a   
motive1 :5 ! ,a!nians did1 at ! same "t1
 h ! r+lead]s execut$ at ,a!ns1 & !y 7 m
 ?an #ajjj m5 7,?uc4 ,,iii4 #cj74 ,^! 7 
execut$ toge!r1 by ! h&s ( ,a!nians1 n )
 fire-arms b ) swords & knives4 ,a few  
ye>s aft]1 ! inhabitants ( ,melos1 _m   
hundr$s 9 numb]1 7 put to ! sword1 :5   
conqu]$ aft] a brave resi/ance 7,?uc4   
,v4 #aaf71 & "h1 ,i fe>1 m]ely = !      
purpose ( mak+ way = a colony ( ,a!nian 
citiz5s1 :o w5t out to occupy ! h\ses & 
l&s ( _! victims4#bje  ,! practice (    
tortur+ witnesses 9 c\rt 0 common 9     
,p]iclean ,a!ns4 ,on ?is po9t1 ,mahaffy 
writes3 ,our be/ au?orities on ?is "q   
are1 ( c\rse1 ! e>ly orators1 especially
 ,antiphon1 9 ^: spee*es on cases (     
homicide ?is feature con/antly recurs4  

,x is well kn[n t 9 su* cases ! accus$  
might (f] 8 own slaves to be tortur$1 9 
ord] to *all5ge evid5ce aga9/ himself2 &
 x 0 ?\ght a weak po9t 9 8 case if he   
refus$ to d s :5 *all5g$4 ,x is also    
well kn[n t ! accus]s 7 b\nd to make    
good any p]man5t injury1 su* z maim+1   
done to ^! slaves4  ,b !re 7 bo?        
re/rictions & ext5sions ( ?is practice z
 yet b little notic$4 ,x 0 n ! cu/om to 
torture slaves :o gave evid5ce to a     
fact1 b only if !y d5i$ any k1 or appe>$
 to suppress x 9 ! int]e/ ( _! ma/]     
7,antiphon1 ,tetral4 ,a1 ,greek3 g74 ,on
 ! o!r h&1 x 0 common en\gh to torture  
female slaves & also free m54444  444   
,almo/ all ! orators speak ( x z an     
infallible means ( asc]ta9+ ! tru?4     
,demo/h5es says x has nev] be5 kn[n to  
fail4#bjf ,! re/rictions on c]ta9       
extremities ( torture 9 c\rt dim9i% 9   
importance :5 we consid] t ! poor slave 
/ood1 9 reality1 9 all cases1 betwe5 two
 alt]natives ( suff]+1 t inflict$ by !  
c\rt & t likely to be inflict$ by 8 ma/]

 9 case 8 evid5ce displeas$ ! latt]4 ,t 
he 0 a piece ( prop]ty ( "s value 0     
d\btless no m a safegu>d to ! ,greek    
slave "u ! h&s ( 8 ma/] ?an x has be5 9 
any mod]n slave-hold+ c\ntry2 ! ,greek 0
 d\btless at lea/ z liable z ! man (    
to-day to =get ultimate loss 9 ! rage ( 
pres5t ang] & ! malevol5t pleasure (    
rev5ge4  ,! condition ( slaves among !  
,greeks furni%es u1 inde$1 ) "o ( our   
/ronge/ argum5ts aga9/ _! moral code4   
,we d n ne$ to m5tion ! ,helots1 ^: "n  
has become a synonym ( degradation &    
mis]y4 ,slaves =m$ ! great] "p ( ! work+
 population ( ,a!ns1 & 7 mu* m num]\s   
?an ! freem54 ,nor 7 !y necess>ily ev5 (
 inf]ior race or education4 ,n only did 
all prison]s tak5 9 w> become slaves1 ) 
_! desc5dants =ev]1 except z _! ma/]s   
*ose to emancipate !m 7& ! possession ( 
su* a sup]fluity sometimes r5d]$ !      
,a!nians g5]\s 9 ?is respect71 b1 until 
! "t ( ,solon1 freem5 might be sold into
 bondage = debt1--& n alone = a l>ge    
debt1 b also = a small "o1 & n m]ely    

until ! debt 0 paid1 b = all "t4 ,nor h 
we reason to suppose t freem5 7 treat$1 
ev5 9 ! days ( ,a!ns' greate/ culture1 )
 great humanity4 ,at ! op5+ ( !         
,eu?ryphro !re is a /ory told :i* is n  
int5d$ to be any?+ exceptional1 & :i*   
%[s t ! free labor]1 or dep5d5t1 _h n   
bett]$ 8 position s9ce ! days :5        
,a*illes cit$ him z ! mo/ mis]able      
creature ^u e>?4 ',n[ ! man :o is dead1'
 says ,eu?ryphro1 '0 a poor dep5d5t (   
m9e :o work$ = u z a free field-labor]  
at ,naxos1 & "o day1 9 a fit ( drunk5   
passion1 he got into a qu>rel ) "o ( our
 dome/ic s]vants slaves & slew him4 ,my 
fa!r b\nd him h& & foot & ?rew him into 
a dit*1 & !n s5t to ,a!ns to ask ( a    
div9] :at he %\ld d ) him4 ,meantime1 he
 _h no c>e or ?\ght ( him1 deem+ him a  
murd]]1 & t ev5 if he did die1 !re w\ld 
be no great h>m4 ,& ?is 0 j :at happ5$4 
,= su* 0 ! effect ( cold & hung] & *a9s 
^u him t be=e ! mess5g] return$ f !     
div9] he 0 dead4 ,& my fa!r & family are
 angry ) me = tak+ ! "p ( ! murd]] &    

prosecut+ my fa!r4'#bjg  ,we h n mu*    
evid5ce z to ! treatm5t ( animals 9     
anci5t ,greece4 ,race-horses are likely 
to h be5 well c>$ =1--z long z !y 7 "y &
 swift or beautiful4 ,b x does n appe>  
probable1 f :at we "k ( ! ,greek        
attitude t[>ds slaves & dep5d5ts1 wom5 &
 *ildr51 t a ,society = ! ,prev5tion (  
,cruelty to ,animals w\ld h fl\ri%$ 9   
,greece4  ,:5 we come to inquire z to ! 
moral /atus ( ! ,greeks ) reg>d to      
hone/y1 tru?fulness1 & reliability 9    
g5]al1 we f9d !m p>ticul>ly lack+4 ,_!  
failure to come up ) mod]n /&>ds 9 ?is  
respect e s*oolboy kn[s4 ,ulysses is    
call$ ! man ( _m wiles1 ) evid5t int5t  
to complim5t4 ,9 ! poems ( ,!ognis1     
favorites ) ! ,greek nobility1 x 0 op5ly
 recomm5d$ to fawn ^u y\r enemy1 to     
deceive him till he 0 9 y\r p[]1 & !n   
wreak v5geance ^u him4 ,x is usual1     
among critics1 to speak ( ?is z !       
attitude ( ,!ognis1 & ( ! special       
ari/ocracy to :i* he belong$4 ,!y =get t
 we f9d ! same attitude 9 ! moral ,p9d> 

7,py?4 ii4 #hd74 ,x is exp\nd$ by       
,hesiod z proximate 799,greek3 ,erg4    
#afe sqq471 by ,?ucydides z univ]sal1 at
 a lat] epo*4#bjh ,mahaffy says ( !     
,greeks up to ! "t ( ,?ucydides1 t !y _h
 be5 (t5 trea*]\s & cruel1 g5]ally      
di%one/ & selfi%2 b1 )al1 (t5 g5]\s &   
g5tlemanly1 always clev] & agreeable1 & 
always c>ri$ away by a love ( beauty m  
?an by a respect = tru?4#bji ,at ! "t ( 
,d>ius1 ! ,milesians1 :o _h involv$ t k+
 9 a bloody & exp5sive w>1 & burn$ 8    
,lydian capital1 7 yet treat$ k9dly by  
him :5 tak5 prison]s1 & settl$ 9 8 own  
c\ntry4 ,9 return !y 7 always try+ to   
beg or embezzle ! treasure ( ! k+ at    
,susa4 ,!re 01 inde$1 a s+le exception1 
,scy!s1 tyrant ( ,zancle--:o ask$ leave 
to visit ,sicily1 & return$ to die 9    
,p]sia4 ',him ,d>ius consid]$ to be !   
mo/ righte\s ( all ^? :o _h gone up to  
him f ,greece1 9 t he kept 8 promise to 
! great k+4'  ,:at an evid5ce ( ,greek  
di%one/y4 ,we c well fancy ! ,aryan     
b>ons ( ,d>ius' c\rt speak+ 9 ! tone ( !

 ,roman ,juv5al4 ,to !m1 too1 !         
,graeculus esuri5s 0 b too well kn[n1--)
 8 fasc9ation1 8 clev]ness1 &1 )al1 8   
mean & selfi% knav]y4 ,i ne$ h>dly rem9d
 ! ,greek s*ol>1 cont9ues ,mahaffy1 t   
all ?r\gh ! ,ionic revolt1 & ?r\gh !    
,p]sian w>s1 ?is trea*]y & ?is          
selfi%ness 7 ! ma9/ays ( ! ,p]sians2 9  
fact1 _h !y dep5d$ ^u ^! m completely1 !
 subjugation ( ,greece w\ld h be5 a m]e 
"q ( "t4#baj  ,!re 0 a c]ta9 ,glaucus at
 ,sp>ta1 celebrat$ = ju/ice1 z well z 9 
o!r respects1 to :om a ,milesian1 :o _h 
he>d ( 8 fame1 came & entru/$ a         
treasure1 wi%+ z he said1 to get !      
b5efit ( 8 ju/ice1 s9ce ,ionia 0        
di/urb$4 ,( c\rse1 su* a temptation 0   
too mu* ev5 = ?is p>agon ( ,greek       
hone/y4 ,:5 ! heirs ( ! ,milesian came )
 _! tok5s & claim$ ! treasure1 he       
pr(ess$ to "k no?+ ( ! affair1 ?\gh :5  
!y _h gone away1 he consult$ ! oracle z 
to :e!r he might sp5d ! money1 & 0 s    
/rongly rebuk$1 t he f9ally gave x      
back4#baa ,?is ,mahaffy m5tions z an    

in/ance :]e ! influ5ce ( ! oracle 0 a   
moral "o4  ,!re rema9s "o g5]al &       
especially significant criticism to be  
made on ,greek morals z a :ole2 ! great 
mass ( ! p 7 little c>$ = & 9 a /ate (  
unfre$om4 ,pr(essor ,robi\ ( ,r5nes     
aptly rem>ks t ! democracy ( anci5t     
times1 & t ( ,a!ns 9 p>ticul>1 _h little
 9 common ) mod]n democracy4 ,! v l>ge  
majority ( ! work+ population 7 slaves1 
& _h1 consequ5tly1 no rights ( any sort1
 s t ! 'labor]s1' at ^: political rights
 ,x5ophon & ,ari/ophanes je/1 7 g5]ally 
:at we call patrons4444  ,z = ! labor]s 
& ! inhabitants ( ! environs & villages1
 s9ce political rights c\ld be ex]cis$  
only at ! ,a!nian ,pnyx & !re 0 no idea 
( a repres5tative sy/em1 x is cle> t !  
pres5ce ( _m ( !m 9 ! assembly c\ld be  
only an exception1 9 spite ( ! mode/    
indemnity :i* 0 (f]$ !m2 among ! c\ntry 
p ! l>ge & middle-class proprietors     
alone 7 9 a condition to take "p        
regul>ly4 ,t is to say1 "o has no       
difficulty 9 conclud+ t1 9 comp>ison )  

o!r times & o!r c\ntries1 ! ,a!nian     
democracy 0 an ari/ocracy4#bab ,& we may
 add t1 all ?+s consid]$1 ! great mass (
 ! p _h less ( lib]ty & privilege1 7 f> 
m subject to ! despotism & caprice ( !  
few1 ?an 9 mo/ mod]n mon>*ies4 ,9 :at   
mod]n c\ntry n inhabit$ by savages w\ld 
a man be p]mitt$1 at ! pres5t day1 to   
?r[ ev5 a murd]] into a dit* & leave him
 to p]i% ( hung] & cold8 ,! c>elessness 
( ! ,greeks 9 reg>d to ! inn] _s (      
morals is (t5 excus$ on ! gr\nd t x 0 at
 lea/ comb9$ ) a l>ge degree ( tol]ance2
 b ?is tol]ance appe>s to be1 to a great
 ext5t1 my?ical4 ,! politics ( ,a!ns    
o/raciz$ m5 ^: op9ion 0 fe>$ by ! /ate1 
or r by a c]ta9 numb] ( citiz5s1 & !    
,greek religion /a9$ its records ) !    
dea? ( ,socrates & ! p]secution ( o!r   
philosoph]s4 ,/ilpo 0 exil$ = d\bt+ :e!r
 ! ,a!ne ( ,phidias 0 a goddess & !     
books ( ,anaxagoras & ,protagoras 7     
publicly burn$4 ,!re 01 moreov]1 an     
inquisitorial bureau at ,a!ns4#bac      
,h[ev]1 x is true t ! ,greeks 71 z a p1 

too little 9 e>ne/ & too sup]/iti\s to  
fall into d\bt ( ! national my?ology4   
,we h less difficulty 9 %[+ ! sup]iority
 ( mod]n to ,roman civilization1 & = !  
reason1 p>tly1 t we "k m ab\t ,roman1   
?an we d ab\t ,greek civilization4  ,!  
,romans 71 f ! beg9n+1 a robu/ & w>like 
p1 & ! milit>y discipl9e :i* made !m    
conqu]ors ext5d$ into _! social         
relations & ev5 into _! family life4 ,! 
exposure ( *ildr5 appe>s to h be5 a     
common practice1 & look$ ^u l5i5tly ev5 
aft] direct infanticide 0 visit$ ) "s   
degree ( g5]al disapproval4 ,p>5ts 7 !  
absolute ma/]s ( _! *ildr51 hav+ ! p[]  
to put !m to dea?1 or to sell !m z      
slaves2 & ?is 0 n only true ( *ildr5 9  
_! y\ng] ye>s1 b dur+ ! :ole life ( !   
fa!r4 ,livy & ,val]ius ,maximus give    
num]\s in/ances ( p>5ts :o _h put _!    
*ildr5 to dea?4 ,x is record$1 h[ev]1 t 
,hadrian bani%$ a man :o _h kill$ 8 son1
 & decre$ t :atev] a son might e>n 9    
milit>y s]vice %\ld belong to himself2  
:ile ,alex&] ,sev]us =bade ! kill+ (    

adult sons1 & ,diocletian r5d]$ ! sale (
 *ildr5 illegal4#bad ,lecky h[ev] rem>ks
 t ! sale ( *ildr5 9 case ( great       
necessity1 ?\gh d5\nc$ by ! ,fa!rs1     
cont9u$ long aft] ! "t ( ,!odosius1 nor 
does any ,*ri/ian emp]or appe> to h     
en=c$ ! humane enactm5ts (              
,diocletian4#bae  ,human sacrifices     
occurr$ among ! ,romans f> m frequ5tly  
?an among ! ,greeks1 & cont9u$ ev5 d[n  
to a late date1 says ,mahaffy4 ,9 ! ye> 
#df ,b4,c41 ,caes> sacrific$ two soldi]s
 on ! alt> 9 ! ,campus ,m>tius4 ,augu/us
 is said to h sacrific$ a maid5 nam$    
,gregoria4 ,ev5 ,trajan1 :5 ,antio* 0   
rebuilt1 sacrific$ ,calliope1 & plac$ h]
 /atue 9 ! !atre4 ,"u ,commodus1 & lat] 
emp]ors1 human sacrifices appe> to h be5
 m common2 & a gladiator appe>s to h be5
 sacrific$ to ,jupit] ,latialis ev5 9 ! 
"t ( ,con/ant9e4 ,yet ^! awful rites _h 
be5 expressly =bidd5 ,b4,c4 #ie2 & ,pl9y
 ass]ts t 9 8 "t !y 7 nev] op5ly        
solemniz$4#baf  ,if1 h[ev]1 ! direct    
sacrifice ( human victims came 9 "t to  

be =bidd51 !re grew out ( x1 at a       
comp>atively e>ly p]iod1 a cu/om v ne>ly
 if n q z b>b>\s1 :i* 0 practis$ on an  
imm5se scale & d[n to a late date2      
namely1 ! gladiatorial conte/s4 ,! m5 :o
 took "p 9 ^! conte/s 7 ei!r slaves1    
crim9als1 milit>y captives1 or m5       
especially tra9$ = ! pr(ession4 ,_m ( ^!
 la/ 7 expos$ *ildr5 :o _h be5 rescu$ = 
! purpose2 _! numb] be+ also recruit$ f 
o!r ranks4 ,lecky seems to excuse !     
condemnation ( milit>y captives to ^!   
%[s1 say+ t _! fate c\ld n /rike ! e>ly 
,romans ) ! horror x w\ld n[ inspire1 = 
! "r ( ! conqu]ors to massacre _!       
prison]s 0 almo/ univ]sally admitt$4#bag
 ,! argum5t is simil> to t notic$ &     
criticis$ above--"o bad pr9ciple _c be  
an excuse = ano!r1 ?\gh ! two are1      
d\btless1 9 ?is case1 coo]d9ate4 ,e     
crim9al c give u a reason = 8 crime out 
( ! uni=mity ( 8 own "*4 ,! "q is1      
simply1 :e!r we are consid]+ ! facts f a
 purely indiff]5t /&po9t1 z hi/orical1  
or f an e?ical /&po9t2 & if f ! latt]1  

!n we mu/ h "s /&>d ( measurem5t4 ,we   
may *oose to make ?is1 9 all cases1 !   
av]age ( ! p]iod & nation2 ?\gh !re w   
be1 9 t case1 consid]able difficulty 9  
det]m9+ ! av]age4 ,or we may use "s     
ideal /&>d1 :i*1 z ideal1 does n v>y )  
all v>iations ( ! society consid]$1 b is
 con/ant4 ,b we h no logical "r1 hav+   
assum$ ! "o /&>d1 to confuse x ) ! o!r1 
treat+ ! two z int]*angeable4 ,! /&>d ( 
any age by :i* m5 judg$ _! de$s is also 
"p ( ! morality ( ! age1 by :i* we may  
judge x4 ,z = ! crim9als :o f\ght 9 !   
ar5a1 !y 7 sometimes p>don$1 :5         
victori\s1 s t society receiv$ back aga9
 its mo/ muscul>1 or skilful & al]t     
crim9als4 ,( all ,roman au?ors & rul]s1 
,lecky m5tions only ,s5eca1 ,plut>*1    
,petronius1 ,junius ,mauricus1 & ,m>cus 
,aurelius1 :o condemn ! games4#bah      
,cic]o is undecid$ on ! subject2 r 9    
favor ( !m4 ,! great satiri/1 ,juv5al1  
?\gh he repeat$ly m5tions1 does n       
condemn !m4 ,& ( all ! great hi/orians  
:o record$ !m n "o seems to h be5       

consci\s t he 0 record+ a b>b>ity1 n "o 
appe>s to h se5 9 !m any great] evils   
?an an increas+ t5d5cy to pleasure & an 
excessive multiplication ( a dang]\s    
class4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! attempt to       
introduce !m into ,a!ns 0               
unsuccessful4#bai  ,an imm5se increase (
 gladiators & gladiatorial %[s took     
place 9 ! e>li] days ( ! empire1 :5 !   
increase ( slav]y fre$ a l>ge portion ( 
! ,roman population f ! necessity (     
labor1 & m5 came to occupy !mselves )   
amusem5ts1 on ! "o h& z a pr(ession1 on 
! o!r z means ( pass+ ! "t4 ,9 ! days ( 
! ,republic1 ! slaves 7 comp>atively few
 9 numb] & probably treat$ ) m c>e1 ?\gh
 sc>cely ) mu* consid]ation2 all ?+s 7  
p]mitt$ ! ma/] by law1 says ,lecky1 ?\gh
 probably ! c5sor might int]f]e 9       
extreme cases4 ,! eld] ,cato speaks (   
slaves simply z in/rum5ts = obta9+      
weal?1 & he enc\rag$ ma/]s1 bo? by 8    
precept & 8 example1 to sell !m z       
useless :5 ag$ & infirm4#bbj ,"u ,titus 
& ,trajan probably occurr$ ! greate/    

numb] ( %[s t 7 compress$ into a %ort   
"t1444 & no ,roman seems to h imag9$ t !
 fact ( #cjjj m5 hav+ be5 compell$ to   
fight "u ! "o1 & #aj1jjj "u ! o!r1 ca/ !
 fa9te/ %ad[ ^u _! *>act]s4#bba         
,moreov]1 ! m]e desire = novelty impell$
 ! p to e excess or ref9em5t ( b>b>ity4 
,! simple combat became at la/ insipid1 
& e v>iety ( atrocity 0 devis$ to       
/imulate ! flagg+ int]e/4 ,at "o "t a   
be> & a bull1 *a9$ toge!r1 roll$ 9 fi]ce
 conte/ along ! s&2 at ano!r1 crim9als  
dress$ 9 ! sk9s ( wild bea/s 7 ?r[n to  
bulls1 :i* 7 madd5$ by r$-hot irons1 or 
by d>ts tipp$ ) burn+ pit*4 ,f\r hundr$ 
be>s 7 kill$ on a s+le day "u ,caligula2
 ?ree hundr$ on ano!r day "u ,claudius4 
,"u ,n]o1 f\r hundr$ tig]s f\ght ) bulls
 & elephants2 f\r hundr$ be>s & ?ree    
hundr$ lions 7 slaught]$ by 8 soldi]s4  
,9 a s+le day1 at ! d$ication ( !       
,colosseum by ,titus1 five ?\s& animals 
p]i%$4444 ,lions1 tig]s1 elephants1     
rh9oc]oses1 hippopotami1 giraffes1      
bulls1 /ags1 ev5 crocodiles & s]p5ts1 7 

employ$ to give novelty to ! spectacle4 
,nor 0 any =m ( human suff]+ want+4 ,!  
fir/ ,gordian1 :5 edile1 gave twelve    
spectacles1 9 ea* ( :i* f "o hundr$ &   
fifty to five hundr$ pair ( gladiators  
appe>$4 ,eight hundr$ pair f\ght at !   
triumph ( ,aurelian4 ,t5 ?\s& m5 f\ght  
dur+ ! games ( ,trajan4444 ,"u          
,domitian1 an army ( feeble dw>fs 0     
compell$ to fight1 & m ?an once female  
gladiators desc5d$ to fight 9 ! ar5a4 ,a
 crim9al p]sonat+ a fictiti\s "* 0 nail$
 to a cross1 & !re torn by a be>4       
,ano!r1 repres5t+ ,scaevola1 0 compell$ 
to hold 8 h& 9 a real flame4 ,a ?ird1 z 
,h]cules1 0 burnt alive ^u ! pile4 ,s   
int5se 0 ! crav+ = blood1 t a pr9ce 0   
less unpopul> if he neglect$ !          
di/ribution ( corn ?an if he neglect$ ! 
games2 & ,n]o himself1 on acc\nt ( 8    
munific5ce 9 ?is respect1 0 probably !  
sov]eign :o 0 mo/ belov$ by ! ,roman    
multitude4 ,heliogabalus & ,gal]ius are 
report$1 :5 d9+1 to h regal$ !mselves ) 
! sight ( crim9als torn by wild bea/s4  

,x 0 said ( ! latt] t 'he nev] supp$ )\t
 human blood4' ,moreov]1 ! pr9ce 0 mo/  
popul> :o1 at ! %[ ( ?umbs1 p]mitt$ no  
consid]ation ( economy to make him      
hesitate to sanction ! popul> aw>d4#bbb 
,ev5 9 ! clos+ ye>s ( ! f\r? c5tury1 !  
prefect ,symma*us1 :o 0 reg>d$ z "o ( ! 
mo/ e/imable pagans ( 8 age1 collect$ "s
 ,saxon prison]s to fight 9 honor ( 8   
son4 ,!y /rangl$ !mselves 9 prison1 &   
,symma*us lam5t$ ! mis=tune t _h befall5
 him f _! 'impi\s h&s1' b endeavor$ to  
calm 8 feel+s by recall+ ! pati5ce (    
,socrates & ! precepts ( philosophy4#bbc
  ,! conque/ ( ,greece is alleg$ to h   
bett]$ some:at ! position ( ,roman      
slaves1 s9ce x involv$ ! introduction ( 
_m slaves :o 7 ! intellectual sup]iors (
 _! ma/]s4 ,b :atev] good ?is may h     
effect$ seems to h be5 c\nt]act$ by !   
increase 9 numb] ( ! slaves & !         
consequ5t dim9ution 9 value ( !         
individual slave z a piece ( prop]ty4   
,on ! :ole1 ! position ( ! slaves (     
,nor? ,am]ica1 be=e ! w> ( emancipation1

 bad z x 0 9 "s cases1 seems to h be51  
on ! av]age1 q p>adisiacal :5 comp>$ ) t
 ( _! ,roman =]unn]s4 ,x has already be5
 m5tion$ t ,cato urg$ 8 compatriots to  
sell _! ag$ slaves4 ,old & infirm slaves
 7 con/antly expos$ to p]i% on an isl& 9
 ! ,tib]4 ,x 0 also cu/om>y1 9 case ( ! 
murd] ( ! ma/]1 to put all ! slaves ( ! 
h\sehold to dea? :o 7 n 9 *a9s or       
helpless at ! "t ( ! murd]4 ,! te/imony 
( ! slave 0 g5]ally receiv$ only "u     
torture2 he might be tortur$ 9 ! attempt
 to compel evid5ce aga9/ 8 ma/]2 b1 if  
he1 ( 8 own free w1 accus$ 8 ma/] ( any 
crime1 except treason1 he 0 condemn$ to 
! ar5a4 ,!re 7 diff]5t puni%m5ts =      
slaves & = m5 ( rank4 ,num]\s acts ( !  
mo/ odi\s b>b>ity 7 committ$4 ,!        
well-kn[n anecdotes ( ,flam9ius ord]+ a 
slave to be kill$ to gratify1 by !      
spectacle1 ! curiosity ( a gue/2 (      
,v$ius ,pollio fe$+ 8 fi% on ! fle% (   
slaves2 & ( ,augu/us s5t5c+ a slave :o  
_h kill$ & eat5 a favorite quail1 to    
crucifixion1 are ! extreme examples t   

are record$2 = we ne$ 6 n reg>d z an    
hi/orical fact ! fam\s picture 9 ,juv5al
 ( a ,roman lady 9 a mom5t ( caprice1   
ord]+ h] un(f5d+ s]vant to be crucifi$4 
,we h1 h[ev]1 _m o!r v horrible glimpses
 ( slave life at ! close ( ! ,republic &
 9 ! e>ly days ( ! ,empire4 ,! m>riage (
 slaves 0 entirely unrecogniz$ by law1  
&1 9 _! case1 ! words adult]y1 ince/1 or
 polygamy _h no legal mean+4444 ,:5     
execut$ = a crime1 _! dea?s 7 ( a mo/   
hide\s k9d4 ,! erga/ula1 or private     
prisons ( ! ma/]s1 7 frequ5tly _! only  
sleep+ places4444 ,we read ( slaves *a9$
 z port]s to ! doors1 & cultivat+ !     
fields 9 *a9s4 ,ovid & ,juv5al describe 
! fi]ce ,roman ladies te>+ _! s]vants'  
faces1 & ?ru/+ ! long p9s ( _! broo*es  
into _! fle%4 ,! ma/]1 at ! close ( !   
,republic1 _h full p[] to sell 8 slave z
 a gladiator or z a combatant ) wild    
bea/s4#bbd  ,lecky admoni%es u t we %\ld
 n judge ! :ole in/itution ( ,roman     
slav]y by ?is "o side ( ! picture4 ,he  
calls att5tion to ! respect 9 :i* le>n$ 

,greek slaves 7 (t5 held1 z %[+ a bett] 
phase ( ! sy/em2 b x is q possible t    
c]ta9 slaves or classes ( slaves %\ld be
 held 9 respect & t ! re/ ( ! slaves    
%\ld be treat$1 nev]!less1 ) any?+ b    
respect or k9dness4 ,! great wond] to ! 
mod]n m9d is t ! ,romans felt at lib]ty 
to hold le>n$ ,greeks slaves at all4    
,lecky po9ts out t slaves 7 emancipat$ 9
 great numb]s2 b we mu/ rememb]1 fir/1 t
 slaves 7 v pl5tiful1 fur!r1 t fre$m5 & 
_! desc5dants rema9$ b\nd1 by a sort (  
feudal tie1 to _! =m] ma/]s until ! ?ird
 g5]ation1 & moreov] t x 0 consid]$ an  
honor to h _m fre$m5 9 "o's foll[+2 s t 
! advantage ( manumission 0 (t51 z      
,lecky himself says1 on ! side ( ! ma/]4
 ,slaves 7 sometimes emancipat$ to      
prev5t _! reveal+ crimes ( _! ma/]s "u  
torture1 & _m slaves 7 giv5 _! lib]ty   
especially 9 ord] t !y might make a %[ 9
 ! fun]al tra94 ,augu/us1 inde$1 f\nd x 
necess>y to re/rict emancipation by w to
 "o hundr$ slaves4#bbe ,s5eca m5tions t 
ma/]s :o ill-treat$ _! slaves 7 ! object

 ( public odium2 b !n x may occur to u  
to inquire :at ! ,romans consid]$       
ill-treatm5t2 "s ( ! laws :i* ,lecky    
cites 9 evid5ce ( ! improvem5t ( !      
slave's position 9 ! ?ird or la/ ( !    
p]iods "u :i* he consid]s ?is position  
may appe> to 8 read]s z mu* evid5ce     
aga9/1 z 9 favor (1 k9dness on ! "p ( ! 
ma/]s4 ,! ,petronian law1 he says1 :i* 0
 issu$ by ,augu/us1 or m probably by    
,n]o1 =bade ! ma/] to condemn 8 slave to
 combat ) wild bea/s )\t a s5t5ce f a   
judge4 ,we may inquire z to h[ difficult
 x 0 to obta9 su* a s5t5ce4 ,"u         
,claudius "s citiz5s expos$ _! sick     
slaves on ! isl& ( ,a,esculapius 9 !    
,tib] to avoid ! tr\ble ( t5d+ !m1 & !  
emp]or decre$ t if 6 ! slave s expos$   
recov]$ f 8 sickness1 he %\ld become    
free1 & also t ma/]s :o kill$ _! slaves 
in/ead ( expos+ !m %\ld be puni%$ z     
murd]]s4444 ,"u ,n]o1 a judge 0 appo9t$ 
to he> _! compla9ts1 & 0 in/ruct$ to    
puni% ma/]s :o treat$ !m ) b>b>ity1 made
 !m ! in/rum5ts ( lu/1 or )held f !m a  

suffici5t quantity ( ! necess>ies (     
life4444 ,domitian made a law1 :i* 0    
aft]w>ds reit]at$1 =bidd+ ! ,ori5tal    
cu/om ( mutilat+ slaves = s5sual        
purposes1 & ! re=ms 7 r5ew$ ) great     
en]gy 9 ! p]iod ( ! ,anton9es4#bbf      
,hadrian & 8 two successors =mally      
depriv$ ma/]s ( ! "r ( kill+ _! slaves2 
=bade !m to sell slaves to ! lani/ae or 
speculators 9 gladiators2 de/roy$ !     
erga/ula or private prisons2 ord]$ t1 :5
 a ma/] 0 murd]$1 ^? slaves only %\ld be
 tortur$ :o 7 )9 he>+2 appo9t$ (fic]s   
?r\gh all ! prov9ces to he> ! compla9ts 
( slaves2 enjo9$ t no ma/] %\ld treat   
slaves ) excessive 8 sev]ity2 & comm&$  
t1 :5 su* sev]ity 0 prov$1 ! ma/] %\ld  
be compell$ to sell ! slave he _h       
ill-treat$4#bbg ,! humanity ( ! la/ law 
is op5 to dispute4 ,moreov]1 ,lecky does
 n notice1 "h1 t ,con/ant9e nev]!less   
felt x necess>y to limit ! puni%m5t (   
slaves by prohibit+ its adm9i/ration ) a
 cudgel1 ?\gh n ) ! la%1 & =bidd+       
poison1 mortal w\nds1 v>i\s k9ds (      

torture1 /on+1 hang+1 mutilation1 or    
?r[+ f a height4#bbh ,b he m5tions two  
facts :i* indicate "s degree ( humanity 
9 c]ta9 directions1 & namely3 t1 ?\gh ! 
law did n recognize ! m>riage ( a slave1
 x appe>s n to h be5 common to sep>ate 8
 family2 also1 t ! private prop]ty (    
slaves 0 recogniz$ by _! ma/]s1 ?\gh "p 
or all ( x usually rev]t$ to ! ma/] on !
 dea? ( ! slave4 ,! great mass ( evid5ce
 goes to %[1 h[ev]1 t :at ! ,romans t]m$
 humanity to slaves w\ld h be51 9 ! eyes
 ( mod]n civiliz$ peoples1 extreme      
b>b>ity4  ,wom51 among ! ,romans1 71 l  
_! *ildr51 "u ! control ( ! head ( !    
family--fa!r or husb&4 ,! fa!r dispos$  
absolutely ( ! h& ( 8 daught] &         
sometimes ev5 possess$ ! p[] ( break+ (f
 m>riages t _h be5 actually contract$4  
,9 ! =ms ( m>riage1 h[ev]1 :i* 7 usual 9
 ! e>li] p]iods ( ,rome1 ! absolute p[] 
pass$ into ! h&s ( ! husb&1 & he _h !   
"r1 9 "s cases1 ( putt+ h] to dea?4 ,!  
p[] appe>s to h become q obsolete dur+ !
 ,empire2 b ! fir/ legal act 7:i* 0 r ( 

! nature ( an exhortation ?an ( a comm&7
 aga9/ x 0 issu$ by ,anton9us ,pius1 & x
 0 only def9itely aboli%$ "u            
,diocletian4#bbi ,roman wom5 _h1 at     
fir/1 no %>e by law 9 ! h]itage ( _!    
fa!rs2 b public op9ion revolt$1 9 "s    
cases1 f ! law1 & gradually ?is 0       
consid]ably alt]$4 ,:5 m>riage became1  
"u ! ,empire1 a m]e matt] ( mutual      
cons5t1 divorce a m]e matt] (           
repudiation1 ! daught]1 ?\gh m>ri$1 (t5 
rema9$ 9 h] fa!r's h\se1 hav+ full      
control ov] h] own prop]ty4             
,practically1 if n always legally1 !    
position ( wom5 among ! ,romans seems to
 h be5 consid]ably bett] ?an among !    
,greeks2 ,roman wives became1 gradually1
 f> m ne>ly ! equals ( _! husb&s ?an    
,greek wives ev] 71 & appe> to h receiv$
 a proportionately great] degree ( love4
 ,_! position1 h[ev]1 falls f> beh9d t (
 ev5 ,g]man wom5 at ! pres5t day1 &     
c]ta9ly mu* beh9d t ( e o!r civiliz$    
nation4  ,aft] record+ ! use ( animals 9
 ! public games1 !re is little ne$ (    

consid]+ ! subject ( _! treatm5t        
specially2 !re c be no d\bt z to its    
probable nature2 ?\gh c]ta9 fam\s       
,romans _h _! brute favorites4  ,x is   
sometimes argu$ t1 ?\gh we are morally  
sup]ior to ! ,greeks & ,romans 9 "s     
respects1 we fall %ort ( _! /&>d 9 o!r  
respects4 ,d\btless new =ms ( evil may  
arise 9 lat] p]iods1 :i* 7 impossible "u
 old =ms ( gov]nm5t & ! social relations
 ( e>li] peoples4 ,ea* p]iod & nation w1
 accord+ to its circum/ances1 h its own 
peculi> =ms ( vice & mis]y4 ,b ! "q :i* 
we are consid]+ is n :e!r or n we h "s  
=ms ( evil :i* ! anci5ts did n possess1 
b :e!r ! p>ticul> =ms :i* prevail among 
u are or are n worse ?an ^? :i* prevail$
 9 ,greece & ,rome1 &1 9 g5]al1 :e!r !  
av]age ( sympa?y & altrui/ic action 9   
mod]n times & among ! =emo/ peoples is  
great] ?an ! av]age among ! ,greeks &   
,romans4 ,& x mu/ be recollect$1        
moreov]1 9 consid]+ ! "q1 t :ile ! evil 
9 our mid/ is br\ght v vividly be=e our 
eyes ?r\gh ! m$ium ( our _m me?ods (    

news-c>ry+ & ( wide p]sonal             
obs]vation1--?r\gh our railways1 our    
telegraphs1 our _m newspap]s &          
p]iodicals1--we h1 9 reality1 :5 all is 
told1 v scanty k ( ! daily life ( !     
common p1 ( ! ord9>y1 e-day mis]ies &   
suff]+s1 among ! ,greeks & ,romans4 ,b  
!re are "s features ( ^! facts t tell 9 
favor ( mod]n times2 = ! anci5ts 7 b    
little impress$ by ! mis]ies ( ! poor]  
classes2 & j ! _s t notes & makes mu* ( 
our mod]n inhumanity is evid5ce ( a     
broad] sympa?y peculi> to our lat]      
times4  ,( ,europe z a :ole 9 ! c5turies
 aft] ,rome's decl9e & its loss ( p[]1 x
 is n necess>y to say mu*1 9 ord] to    
prove ! moral sup]iority ( mod]n times4 
,we are all acqua9t$ ) ! fi]ce conte/s  
betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & its oppon5ts1 ) !  
mutual p]secutions1 ! m>tyrdoms (       
,*ri/ians & ! retaliation ( ,*ri/ians ^u
 h]etics1 ) ! lic5se & bigotry ( !      
cl]gy1 ! robb]y & oppression ( ! poor & 
dep5d5t by ^! z well z by ! titl$       
ca/le-own]s1 ! burn+ ( wit*es1 ! g5]al  

intellectual & moral d>kness :i* spread 
& cov]$ ev5 ! l&s ( =m] comp>ative      
civilization & 0 lift$ only z ,europe z 
a :ole advanc$ to a high] /age4  ,b )\t 
ent]+ into any ext5d$ discussion ( ?is  
complicat$ process ( developm5t z a     
:ole1 aft] ! di/urbance ( ! old         
equilibrium1 x may n be undesirable to  
note ! g5]al c\rse ( ev5ts 9 "s "o      
c\ntry z typical1 n 9 its special       
features1 b 9 its g5]al moral import1 ( 
! c\rse ( developm5t 9 ! o!r c\ntries ( 
,europe also4  ,! mann] ( ! gr[? ( /ate 
& social recomp5se = evil out (         
individual & tribal v5geance has already
 be5 t\*$ ^u4 ,! enemy )91 & ! enemy )\t
 ! tribe1 ! foe ( ! battle-field & !    
crim9al 7 reg>d$1 at _m /ages1 ) mu* !  
same feel+ ( animosity1 ! advantage be+ 
r 9 favor ( ! crim9al4 ,to ! ,greek all 
^? :o 7 n ,greeks 7 b>b>ians1 aga9/ :om 
b little ju/ice or m]cy 0 necess>y2 &1 z
 we h se51 ! ,romans condemn$ to ! ar5a 
_! w>-captives equally ) _! crim9als1   
toge!r ) slaves :o 7 also1 orig9ally1   

w>-captives4 ,crime is1 9 rud]          
societies1 h>dly di/+ui%$ f o!r =ms (   
aggression t are1 lat]1 n includ$ "u ?is
 head4 ,! def9ition ( crime diff]s      
greatly 9 diff]5t p]iods ( a p's hi/ory1
 *ang+ z ! conceptions ( morality z duty
 to society z a :ole em]ge f ! crude    
conceptions ( individual & tribal       
con/ra9t ?r\gh rev5ge4 ,x is = ?is      
reason t ! hi/ory ( crim9al law & !     
adm9i/ration ( ju/ice con/itute1 9      
reality1 a hi/ory ( moral evolution4    
,!re is no?+ t is a cle>] index ( !     
moral /atus ( a p ?an its treatm5t ( ^? 
consid]$ to be malefactors4  ,caes> &   
,tacitus bo? m5tion human sacrifices z  
tak+ place 9 ,engl& be=e ! ,roman       
conque/2 b little is kn[n c]ta9ly on !  
subject4 ,! ,romans1 ( c\rse1 introduc$ 
_! own laws & cu/oms1 :i* exi/$ side by 
side ) _m anci5t ones n :olly aboli%$4  
,! torture & burn+ ( slaves = v>i\s     
(f5ces 0 cu/om>y4 ,^! p5alties 7        
gradually mitigat$4 ,b ! invasion ( !   
,teutonic tribes seems to h introduc$ _m

 new b>b>ities4 ,9 ! fir/ half ( ! t5?  
c5tury1 = in/ance1 appe>s a law :i*     
condemn$ to ! /ake female slaves :o _h  
/ol5 f any b _! ma/]s1 ! wood to be pil$
 ab\t !m by eighty o!r slaves ( _! own  
sex2 ?is la/ (fice be+ design$1         
d\btless1 to impress ! lesson ^u ! m9ds 
( ! eighty att5dants4 ,lat]1 _m h]etics 
7 burn$1 & ! writ = ! burn+ ( h]etics 0 
n aboli%$ until ! reign ( ,*>les ,,ii41 
?\gh x 0 practically annull$ by ! laws (
 #afdh4 ,h[ev]1 9 #afdi1 a numb] ( wom5 
7 burn$ = wit*craft 9 ,b]wick%ire1 &    
burn+ cont9u$ to be practis$1 mu* lat]1 
9 cases ( h]esy & wit*craft2 /ill lat] 9
 cases ( high & petty treason1 & up to !
 "t ( ,george ,,iii41 = murd]4 ,9 !     
?irtie? ye> ( ! latt]'s reign1 a /atute 
0 pass$ sub/itut+ hang+ = burn+4 ,9     
#aghd1 a woman 0 burnt at ,portsm\? = ! 
murd] ( h] husb&4 ,dur+ ! la/ ye>s1     
h[ev]1 9 :i* ! s5t5ce 0 c>ri$ out1 x    
seems to h be5 cu/om>y = ! execution] to
 wr+ ! malefactor's neck be=e ! burn+4  
,b comp>atively trivial (f5ces1 among ^!

 false co9+1 7 class$ z treason1 & x is 
noticeable also t ! /ake seems to h be5 
a favorite puni%m5t 9 ! case (          
wom5-(f5d]s1 ev5 9 lat] days4#bcj ,9 !  
ye> #aecj1 two p]sons ( ! h\sehold ( !  
,bi%op ( ,ro*e/] hav+ di$ f poison ?r[n 
into "s porridge by ! cook1 an ,act (   
,poison+ 0 pass$1 accord+ to :i* (f5d]s 
com+ "u its def9ition 7 to be boil$ to  
dea?4 ,! /atute 0 %ortly aft]w>ds       
repeal$1 b ! bi%op's cook 0 publicly    
execut$ 9 accordance ) its              
provision4#bca  ,b simple burn+ or hang+
 01 = ! mo/ "p1 consid]$ mu* too good = 
! man :o _h committ$ high treason2 he 0 
giv5 ! m]e mock]y ( a trial1 &1 if      
convict$1 0 hang$1 0 tak5 d[n :ile yet  
alive1 disemb[ell$1 & 8 entrails burnt1 
0 behead$1 & qu>t]$4 ,law modify+ ?is   
p5alty fir/ comes into prom95ce 9 !     
reign ( ,william ,,iii4#bcb ,:5 ,ri*>d  
,i4 sail$ ) 8 army = ! ,holy ,l&1 x 0   
orda9$ t :oev] kill$ a man on bo>d %ip 0
 to be ti$ to ! corpse & ?r[n into !    
sea1 :osoev] kill$ a man on %ore 0 to be

 burnt alive ) ! corpse1 :ile simply    
draw+ blood ) a knife 0 to be puni%$ ) !
 loss ( a h&1 & a ?ief 0 to be %av$1    
treat$ to a head-ba? ( boil+ pit* &     
fea!rs1 & put a%ore at ! fir/ place !   
vessel t\*$ at4#bcc  ,! paym5t (        
blood-money 0 a common cu/om among !    
,teutons1 & s little di/9ction 0 made   
betwe5 great] & less] crime t1 :ile a   
murd]] c\ld commonly buy (f ! relatives 
( 8 victim1 ! petty ?ief (t5 suff]$ dea?
 or mutilation = 8 (f5ce4 ,pike says (  
^! puni%m5ts 9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( ,brita93 
,x 0 = ! free man ( l[ e/ate1 = ! slave1
 & = wom51 t ! greate/ atrocities 7     
res]v$4 ,m5 br&$ on ! =ehead1 )\t h&s1  
)\t feet1 )\t tongues1 liv$ z an example
 ( ! dang] :i* att5d$ ! commission (    
petty crimes1 & z a w>n+ to all :o _h ! 
mis=tune ( hold+ no high] position ?an t
 ( a *url4 ,! horrors ( ! ,dani%        
invasions _h no t5d5cy to mitigate ^!   
sev]ities2 & ^? :o 7 *a/is$ ) :ips be=e 
7 *a/is$ ) scorpions aft]w>ds4 ,new     
+5uity 0 br\ght to be> ^u ! art (       

mutilation1 :i* 0 practis$ 9 e =m4 ,!   
eyes 7 pluck$ out2 ! nose1 ! e>s1 & !   
upp] lip 7 cut (f2 ! scalp 0 torn away2 
& sometimes ev51 !re is reason to       
believe1 ! :ole body 0 flay$ alive4#bcd 
,! law ( ! t5? c5tury1 accord+ to :i* a 
female slave :o _h committ$ !ft 0 burnt 
alive by eighty wom5-execution]s1 has   
already be5 m5tion$2 p>allel to ?is law 
0 ! law t a male slave :o 0 a ?ief 0 to 
be /on$ to dea? by eighty slaves1 any "o
 ( :om1 :o miss$ ! m>k ?ree times1 0 to 
be :ipp$ ?ree times4 ,if a ?ief 0 a free
 woman1 %e 0 to be ?r[n d[n a precipice 
or dr[n$4#bce ,! law did n favor wom54  
,! divid+ l9e betwe5 mutilation &       
torture is a difficult "o to draw4 ,"o (
 ! e>li] =ms ( trial 0 by ordeal4 ,!    
accus$1 ) 8 h& b\nd 9 clo?1 0 compell$  
to snat* a /one f elb[ or wri/-dep? 9 a 
caldron ( boil+ wat]1 or to lift a      
weight ( heat$ metal4 ,if1 at ! end (   
?ree days1 :5 ! clo? :i* b\nd ! arm 0   
remov$1 no scald or burn 0 visible1 !   
accus$ 0 pron\nc$ innoc5t4 ,^! ordeals  

took place 9 ! *ur* ) mu* spr9kl+ ( holy
 wat] & o!r c]emony4 ,! cl]gy !mselves  
seem to h _h less try+ sub/itutes = ^!  
ordeals1 (t5 be+ compell$ only to take  
oa? on ! sacram5t1 or to p>take (       
consecrat$ bread or *eese :i* 0 suppos$ 
to produce evil results 9 case ( guilt4 
,z ,pike sugge/s1 x is q possible t1 z  
prie/s _h ! prep>+ ( ?is bread or *eese1
 x may sometimes h come up to           
expectations 9 ?is respect2 z x is also 
possible t ! clo?s b\nd on ! arm ( !    
layman :o 0 to und]go ! ordeal ( fire or
 wat] may h be5 diff]5tly arrang$ 9     
diff]5t cases4#bcf ,z late z ! reign (  
,k+ ,john1 trial 0 made by ordeal1 &    
m5tion is also made ( x 9 ! reign (     
,h5ry ,,ii4 ,x 0 n =mally aboli%$ until 
! ye> #abai4bcg ,= rema9+ mute be=e     
accus]s 9 c\rt1 ! dire p5alty (         
imprisonm5t ) />vation 0 inflict$1 9 !  
reign ( ,edw>d ,i41 & to ?is puni%m5t 0 
add$1 ab\t ! "t ( ,h5ry ,,iv41 torture  
by ! press4#bch ,9 #aegj1 a man f\nd    
guilty ( =g+ w>rants = ! arre/ ( two    

p]sons 0 s5t5c$ to ! pillory = two days1
 on ! fir/ ( :i* "o e>1 on ! second !   
o!r1 0 to be nail$ to ! pillory 9 su* a 
mann] t he mu/ by 8 own prop] motion te>
 x away4#bci ,! rack is suppos$ to h be5
 introduc$ into ,engl& 9 ! reign ( ,h5ry
 ,,vi41 & 9 ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,viii4 0   
add$ ,skev+ton's ,daught]1 an in/rum5t  
by :i* (f5d]s 7 compress$ r ?an ext5d$  
until ! mis]able human be+ lo/ all =m b 
t ( a globe4 ,blood 0 =c$ f f+]s1 toes1 
no/rils1 & m\?1 & ribs & brea/-bone 7   
commonly brok5 94 ,! ?umb-screw 0 also 9
 use1 & !re 0 a ,dungeon among ,rats1 & 
a *amb] 9 ! ,t[] call$ ,little ,ease1 9 
:i* x 0 impossible ei!r to /& upright or
 to lie at full l5g?4#bdj ,! press 0 n  
aboli%$ until ! reign ( ,george         
,,iii4#bda ,x is record$ ( ! case (     
,burnwor?1 tri$ = murd] 9 #agbf1 t he   
bore pressure ( ne>ly f\r hundr$ weight1
 = an h\r & ?ree-qu>t]s1 be=e begg+ =   
m]cy & plead+ ,n ,guilty4 ,he 01 h[ev]1 
f\nd guilty & hang$4#bdb ,9 #afcj1      
,alex&] ,leighton 0 puni%$ = fram+1     

publi%+1 & disp5s+ a sc&al\s book aga9/ 
k+s1 pe]s1 & prelates1 9 ! foll[+ mann]3
 he 0 :ipp$1 put 9 ! pillory1 _h "o ( 8 
e>s cut (f & "o side ( 8 nose slit1 0   
br&$ on "o *eek ) a r$-hot iron1 0      
aft]w>ds return$ to ! ,fleet to be kept 
9 close cu/ody1 & sev5 days lat] 0 :ipp$
 aga9 at ! pillory1 _h ! o!r e> cut (f1 
8 o!r no/ril slit1 & 8 o!r *eek         
br&$4#bdc ,z late z #agcd1 ,john        
,durant1 :o ei!r 01 or pret5d$ to be1   
deaf & unable to read1 _h 8 ?umbs ti$ & 
! knot drawn h>d because he did n answ] 
! accusation ( ! c\rt2 he 0 also ?reat5$
 ) ! press4#bdd ,except+ 9 cases :]e !  
press 0 us$1 torture 0 n1 accord+ to    
,pike1 practis$ 9 ,engl& aft] ! fir/ "p 
( ! sev5te5? c5tury2 b ! case j cit$ is 
a contradiction ( s broad an ass]tion4  
,! introductions ( cu/oms ( p5ance did  
mu* t[>ds r5d]+ ! diff]5ces 9 ! puni%m5t
 & g5]al treatm5t ( ! poor & ri*1 !     
humble & noble1 m conspicu\s4 ,z = !    
cl]gy1 !y _h special b5efits giv5 !m1 & 
7 accu/om$1 9 ! e>ly days ( ,brita91 to 

murd]1 rob1 & indulge _! passions v     
ne>ly z !y *ose1 )\t int]f]5ce f !      
/ate4#bde ,b ! ,b5efit ( ,cl]gy1 :i*    
r5d]$ any "o subject to x1 practically  
exempt f ! ord9>y puni%m5ts = mo/ ( !   
great] crimes1 0 applicable1 9 lat]     
c5turies1 n only to cl]gym5 prop]1 b    
also to all cl]ks1 ! t]m includ+ e "o :o
 _h be5 m>ri$ & c\ld read4#bdf ,!       
position ( ! slave aft] ! ,teutonic     
invasion has be5 notic$4 ,! position ( !
 *url 0 ne>ly z bad4 ,! infliction ( a  
p5alty :i* he c\ld n pay1 & :i* none    
w\ld pay = him1 r5d]$ him utt]ly        
bankrupt 9 fre$om4444 ,if he left !     
place assign$ to him x 0 held t he _h   
/ol5 8 own body4 ,he c\ld be summ>ily   
hang$ :5 caught1 & 8 life 0 wor? no?+ to
 8 "l1 or ev5 to 8 k9dr$1 unless !y     
r$eem$ him4 ,?is 0 ! fate :i* 0         
cont9ually imp5d+ ov] ! free man ( l[   
e/ate if he _h ! mis=tune to make       
enemies among ^? :o _h ! p[] to save or 
condemn him4#bdg ,9 ! reign ( ,edw>d    
,i41 a /atute 0 pass$ :i* made x a grave

 (f5ce to devise or tell any false news 
( prelates1 dukes1 e>ls1 b>ons1 or      
nobles ( ! realm4 ,o!rs1 too1 7 enum]at$
 z be+ )9 ! mean+ ( ! act--! ,*ancellor1
 ! ,ju/ices ( ei!r ,b5*1 & all ! great  
(fic]s ( /ate4 ,"u ,ri*>d ,,ii41 !      
/atute 0 re5act$ & made m /r+5t4#bdh  ,=
 mo/ trivial (f5ces ( all sorts1 extreme
 puni%m5t 0 met$ out4 ,mutilation 0 (t5 
inflict$ m]ely = ! kill+ ( game belong+ 
to ! ,k+'s =e/s1 & ?\gh ! ,=e/ ,*>t] (  
,h5ry ,,iii4 provid$ t no "o %\ld1 9    
future1 lose life or limb = ! sake ( !  
,k+'s de]1 ! p5alty does n seem to h    
gone out ( use at ?is p]iod1 = o!r      
(f5ces4 ,9 ! reign ( ,edw>d ,,iii41 a   
tailor 0 s5t5c$1 = brawl+ 9 c\rt1 to    
imprisonm5t 9 ! ,t[] ( ,london = life & 
! loss ( 8 "r h&2 & ! rolls ( ,gaol     
,deliv]y ( ?is p]iod %[ conclusively t !
 ord9>y puni%m5ts 7 hang+1 ! pillory1 & 
! tumbrel or dung-c>t4#bdi ,late 9 !    
reign ( ,h5ry ,,viii41 an act 0 pass$   
condemn+ any p]son :o /ruck ano!r s t   
blood 0 drawn1 )9 ! limits ( ! ,k+'s    

h\se1 to ! loss ( 8 "r h&4 ,! pillory 0 
9 use up to ! reign ( ,que5 ,victoria2 x
 c\ld be appli$ to p]jur]s & suborn]s ( 
p]jury until ! ye> #ahcg4 ,x 0 ev5      
appli$ to wom5 = no great] crime ?an    
=tune-tell+1 late 9 ! eighte5?          
c5tury4#bej ,( ! o!r puni%m5ts associat$
 ) ! old _s ( viol5ce1 & inflict$ 9     
public1 ! *ief 0 :ipp+4 ,x 0 commonly   
aw>d$ to m5 guilty ( petty !fts4444     
,in/ances 9 :i* wom5 7 :ipp$ 7 by no    
means uncommon at ! v end ( ! eighte5?  
c5tury4 ,until #ahjh1 pocket-pick+1     
until #ahaa1 /eal+ f blea*+-gr\nds1 7   
puni%$ ) dea?4 ,9 #ahac1 #ahaf1 & #ahah1
 a bill 0 introduc$ to aboli% capital   
puni%m5t = a !ft ( five %ill+s f %ops2 b
 x 0 defeat$ 9 ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,9     
#ahbj1 ! am\nt necess>y to ! dea?-s5t5ce
 0 rais$ to ,l#ae4 ,until #ahcb1 horse1 
cattle1 & %eep /eal+1 !ft f a           
dwell+-h\se1 & =g]y1 7 capital (f5ces4  
,9 #ahcc1 h\se-break+2 9 #ahcd1 return+ 
f transportation be=e expiration ( !    
s5t5ce2 &1 9 #ahce1 sacrilege &         

lett]-/eal+ ceas$ to be puni%$ ) dea?4  
,b x 0 n until #ahfa t hang+ 0 limit$ by
 law to cases ( murd] & treason4#bea  ,!
 wor/ elem5t ( ! puni%m5t by pillory or 
9 any mann] 9 public did n lie s mu* 9 !
 puni%m5t itself1 z 9 ! viol5ce ( ! mob1
 :i* appe>s to h be5 reg>d$ z a         
legitimate "p ( ! c]emony1 & aga9/ :i* !
 crim9al seldom receiv$ any protection4 
,sometimes1 ! man or woman s5t5c$ to !  
pillory = a petty (f5ce di$ ( /on+ at ! 
h&s ( ! onlook]s2 & ,pike writes ( !    
burn+ ( a woman 9 #agba1 = co9+3 ,h] la/
 wi% 0 t %e might say a pray] 9 peace4  
,b ! mob :i* _h come out to take its    
ease & its pleasure _h no m9d to        
sacrifice its rights = ! com=t ( a      
crim9al4 ,a woman at ! /ake 0 a good    
butt = fil?y missiles & ribald je/s2 !  
yell+ rabble w\ld n p]mit ! poor wret*  
to collect h] ?\ghts1 or to he> h] own  
words1 & in/ead ( sympa?y !y gave h]    
/ones4 ,:5 ! fire 0 k9dl$1 ev5 ! consum+
 flames mu/ h seem$ less cruel ?an ! m5 
& wom5 /&+ ar\nd4#beb  ,we all "k !     

condition 9 :i* ,h[>d f\nd ! prisons ( 8
 day2 & if we possess /rong p[]s (      
imag9ation1 we may p]*ance be able p>tly
 to conceive :at mu/ h be5 _! /ate 9    
days :5 ! p knew b v little ( :at pass$ 
)9 prison-walls1 & ! keep]s wield$ an   
almo/ absolute p[] ov] ! prison]s4 ,if !
 abuses :i* 7 common ev5 two c5turies   
ago 7 to occur 9 only a few in/ances    
to-day1 ! :ole ,engli% nation w\ld flame
 ) indignation4 ,9 ! f\rte5? c5tury1    
jail-break+ 0 frequ5t 9 cases :]e !     
prison] c\ld af=d to pay = 8 escape2    
judges 7 (t5 brib$2 a cl]k :o 0 deliv]$ 
ov] to ! bi%op be=e or aft] s5t5ce1     
accord+ to ! ,b5efit ( ,cl]gy1 c\ld /ill
 be acquitt$ by ! bi%op 9 case !        
requisite numb] ( compurgators 7 f\nd to
 swe> to belief 9 8 innoc5ce2 &1        
moreov]1 cl]ks :o _h be5 convict$ c\ld n
 aft]w>ds be tri$ = any (f5ce committ$  
be=e _! conviction4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if a  
woman attempt$ to obta9 s5t5ce aga9/ !  
murd]] ( a relative1 %e _h n only to fe>
 ! rev5ge ( ! man's allies1 :o seem to h

 _h ?+s v mu* _! own way2 b 9 case      
c\rage des]t$ h] at ! la/1 & %e fail$ to
 appe> aga9/ ! accus$1 %e 0 waiv$ or    
outlaw$2 aga9 x may be rem>k$ t ! laws (
 ,engl& did n favor wom54#bec ,writs 7  
=g$1 juries 7 pack$1 judges1 ju/ices1 & 
%]iffs brib$4 ,9 ! reign ( ,james ,i41 !
 "y c\ntess ( ,essex1 :o1 hav+ fall5 9  
love ) ,"l ,ro*e/] dur+ ! abs5ce ( h]   
husb&1 _h obta9$ a divorce to m>ry him1 
became angry ) a fri5d ( h] lov] :o     
c\nsell$ him aga9/ ! m>riage1 caus$ him 
to be imprison$ 9 ! ,t[]1 _h !          
,lieut5ant & "u-keep] ( ! ,t[] replac$  
by fri5ds ( h]s1 & ?r\gh ! aid ( ^!     
adm9i/]$ poison to him4 ,! c\ntess & h] 
husb& 7 arre/$ on *>ge ( caus+ ! dea?1 &
 ! =m] plead$1 ! latt] 0 prov$1 guilty4 
,yet ! two 7 p>don$1 ?\gh "s ( _!       
accomplices 7 execut$4#bed  ,x is       
impossible t su* cu/oms %\ld exi/1 9    
legal relations1 9 connection ) great   
ju/ice & sympa?y 9 o!r relations4 ,"s   
all[ance may be made = idiosyncrasy1 =  
individual & national peculi>ities2 x is

 possible t a bloody-m9d$ & cruel rul]  
may f9d pleasure 9 pett+ pigeons1 b 8   
pleasure w be likely to be r ( an       
egoi/ic ord]1 & 8 app>5t k9dness easily 
turn$ to cruelty if ang] comes ^u him4  
,s1 too1 ! cruel pot5tate may prove a   
k9d husb& & fri5d1 z long z 8 own       
int]e/s co9cide1 & d n conflict1 ) ^? ( 
8 fri5ds or 8 family4 ,b ! man :o is    
consi/5tly trea*]\s & unfeel+ 9 any "o  
relation w n1 z a rule1 %[ consid]ation 
& t5d]ness 9 o!r relations1 except 9 s  
f> z ^! o!r relations subs]ve 8 own ends
 ( ga9 or vanity2 ! po9t :]e !y "p      
company ) su* ends is ! po9t :]e he w   
resort to ano!r mode ( action4 ,! same  
is true ( nations4 ,accord+ly1 we f9d   
brig&age & op5 robb]y common ev5 d[n to 
! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 & n only on ! "p (
 ! poor] classes1 or r n s mu* on _! "p 
z on t ( pr9ces1 nobles1 & ev5 ! cl]gy2 
we f9d pirat+ & wreckage common on !    
sea2 we f9d intrigue ^u intrigue at     
c\rt1 nobles & memb]s ( ! royal family  
cont9ually plott+ ea* o!r's murd]1 b    

nev]!less escap+ puni%m5t & receiv$ )   
adulation2 we f9d ! mu*-prais$ h]oes ( !
 ,crusades deva/+ ! l&s ?r\gh :i* !y    
pass$1 violat+ wives & daught]s ( _!    
ho/s1 & des]t+ to ! enemy = bribes2 we  
f9d :olesale massacres ( un(f5d+ ,jews2 
we f9d p]jury a pr(ession1 /ation an    
excuse = ne>ly e crime1 religion a cloak
 = extortion & vice1 & oppression ( !   
poor & l[ly univ]sal4 ,& yet we weep ov]
 mod]n det]ioration6  ,we =get1 :5 we   
read--p]haps ) an exclamation t man is z
 mu* a savage z ev]--h[ ! onlook]s at ! 
burn+ ( ! ,%anghai made no ef=t to save 
lives b only to secure spoil1 t x is    
only a %ort "t s9ce su* sc5es mu/ h be5 
common en\gh on all ! %ores ( ,europe2  
we =get1 :5 we %udd] ) horror at an     
exceptional case ( unju/ or brutal      
puni%m5t on ! bord]s ( our civilization1
 t x is n long s9ce torture &           
mutilation1 b>b>ities ( e sort1 7       
practis$ among ! =emo/ nations ( ! _w1 &
 = ! mo/ trivial (f5ces4 ,nor d we      
always rememb]1 :5 we gr[ indignant at !

 h>d case ( our poor1 t !re 0 a "t :5 ! 
excess ( indig5t population 0 prev5t$   
only by fam9es & pe/il5ces :i* kill$ _! 
?\s&s ^u ?\s&s1 & ( :i* we v seldom see 
! l 9 mod]n times2 we =get t !re 0 a "t 
:5 ! desp]ate ris+ ( ! cont95tal        
peasantry aga9/ ! bitt] oppression ( !  
l&[n]s drew f ev5 ! re=m] ,lu!r !       
exclamation t ! revolt]s ought to be    
?rottl$ collectively4 ,i h no int5tion  
to und]rate pres5t evils or to excuse !m
 by pa/ ones4 ,i see no reason = believ+
 t ! pres5t age %\ld re/ ^u its laurels2
 on ! contr>y1 ,i believe t we are only 
at ! beg9n+ ( civilization2 b ,i see no 
ne$ = d5y+ pa/ evolution 9 ord] to make 
?is ass]tion4 ,/>vation is n easi] to a 
man to-day1 because x is prov$ to him t 
_m m m5 di$ ( hung] 9 ! pa/ ?an die ( x 
9 ! pres5t c5tury4 ,b j = ?is reason1 ,i
 fail to und]/& :y !re %\ld be s mu*    
ef=t exp5d$ by c]ta9 re=m]s 9 ! attempt 
to disprove :at hi/ory & obs]vation yet 
s pla9ly %[1--namely1 t ! condition ( ! 
masses at pres5t1 tak5 = all 9 all1 is  

mu* bett] ?an x has ev] be5 be=e2 t     
mis]y is n s extreme or proportionately 
s widely spread2 t ! wor/ sorts ( crime 
are decreas+2 t ju/ice is m g5]al1 & t  
sympa?y is w>m]1 ?an 9 any previ\s age4 
,x is true t we h new me?ods ( exploit+ 
! poor2 b we ne$ to consid] h[ our      
ance/ors w\ld h us$ ^? opportunities _h 
!y possess$ !m2 & we ne$ also to        
rememb]1 ) reg>d to a p>ticul> =m (     
evil1 t "s "t is necess>y = society z a 
:ole to gr[ to a compreh5sion ( its     
increase & importance1 & to rea*        
unanimity ( op9ion z to action = its    
removal4 ,z =ms ( evil *ange1 "s "o     
p>ticul> =m may increase = a "t1 swall[+
 up 9 itself1 z ! l>g] wave accumulates 
sev]al small ones1 v>i\s o!r =ms1 until 
! sl[ly ga!r$ resi/ance ( public op9ion 
br+s ! reaction4  ,we may ga!r valuable 
evid5ce z to our progress1 ev5 9        
comp>ison ) rec5t times1 by ref]5ce to  
our arti/ic lit]ature4 ,true1 ! great   
writ]s h (t5 be5 f> ahead ( _! times4 ,b
 if we reg>d ! av]age1 we %all soon     

p]ceive ! signs to :i* ,i ref]4 ,! /ilt$
 mann]isms ( ! anci5t novel m>k ! abs5ce
 ( democratic feel+1 & witness to ! less
 g5]al diffusion ( true k9dness1 :i*1   
:]ev] x appe>s1 t5ds to simplicity1 hav+
 no ne$ ( mann]isms4 ,no?+1 too1 is m   
indicative ( our advancem5t ?an ! *ange 
9 conceptions ( humor2 = to "k :at a    
nation laughs ab\t is to "k :at are its 
ideals & %ortcom+s4 ,e>li] humor is (t5 
m]e vulg>ity or brutality1 or a mixture 
( ! two2 obsc5ity1 vice1 & ! he>tless   
torture ( ! weak & helpless are its     
favorite !mes1 & appe> 9 ! *>act]s ( its
 h]oes & ideals4 ,! tru?fulness (       
,victor ,hugo's description ( e>li]     
,briti% fun1 9 8 ,l',homme qui rit1 is  
borne witness to by ,engli% lit]ature4  
,all mod]n lit]ature m>ks ! progress ( !
 democratic idea4 ,our hi/ory & our art 
are full ( ! p4 ,! v unre/ &            
dissatisfaction ( ! "t are signs ( a m  
g5]al & a bett] education1 an increase (
 sympa?y 9 degree & ext5t1 &1 ,i        
believe1 ( bett] n\ri%m5t & a m en]getic

 physique4 ,! high] ideals :i* 7 once ! 
prop]ty ( ! few are become ! prop]ty ( !
 _m4 ,our in/itutions are gr[n m        
democratic & humane4 ,we h our free     
hospitals & disp5s>ies1 our s\p-kit*5s &
 *eap lodg+-h\ses1 our asylums = ! deaf1
 ! dumb1 ! bl9d1 old p & orphans1 ! weak
 & afflict$ ( all k9ds1 our guilds1     
,settlem5ts1 & ,op5-air *>ities1 our    
cre*es1 our refuges & re=matories1 our  
societies = ! ,prev5tion ( ,cruelty to  
,*ildr5 & to ,animals1 our ,op5 ,doors1 
& ,midnight ,missions1 our trade &      
indu/rial s*ools1 & our free s*ools &   
s*ol>%ips & free libr>ies4 ,9 times (   
fam9e1 disease1 & disa/]1 we b& toge!r  
to aid1 & funds = ! di/ress$ p\r 9 f e  
side1 & n only f p ( ! nation to :i* !  
suff]]s belong1 b (t5 also f ^? ( di/ant
 p>ts ( ! _w4 ,fancy ! ,greeks subscrib+
 to a fund 9 aid ( *ol]a-/rick5         
b>b>ians2 imag9e ! ,romans1 ev51 clubb+ 
toge!r1 9 e "p ( ! _w to :i* !y _h w&]$1
 to succ\r ! suff]]s by a ,john/[n      
flood2 or conceive ( ! weal?y classes ( 

! ,middle ,ages furni%+ fires & food z  
did ! ,p>isians dur+ ! unusual w9t] cold
 ( #ahij-ia6  ,n only has sympa?y become
 m wildly diffus$ )9 ! /ate2 x has      
spread outside x also4 ,national        
n>r[ness is sl[ly disappe>+4 ,! f$]ation
 ( ! /ates ( ,europe & ( ! civiliz$ _w  
is no long] look$ ^u z a mad-man's fancy
 b z a sob] possibility or ev5 a        
probability4 ,x is n[ agre$ t w> betwe5 
! ,engli%-speak+ nations ( !            
e>?1--betwe5 ,engl& & h] colonies1 or   
,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is v ne>ly1 if
 n q1 an impossibility4 ,! union ( ?ree 
( ! mo/ p[]ful nations ( ,europe1 n = w>
 b = peace1 is assur$ly ( great         
political importance 9 itself2 b ( ev5 m
 importance 9 ! influ5ce ins5sibly ex]t$
 by its cont9uance ^u ! op9ions ( ! _w4 
,! masses ( ! p !mselves are becom+ m & 
m cosmopolitan1 & we h an ev]-increas+  
numb] ( int]national unions &           
congresses1 political1 sci5tific1       
arti/ic1 & e?ical4  ,on ! :ole1 x is1   
p]haps1 z mu* a lack ( imag9ation z     

any?+ :i* makes u fall into ! mi/ake (  
und]e/imat+ our own age & ov]e/imat+ all
 o!rs4 ,! crimes & abuses f> away 9     
times diff]5t f our own are difficult to
 conceive1 & /ir our blood ev5 less ?an 
^? di/ant 9 space2 ! suff]+s ( ! ,middle
 ,ages1 or ev5 ( "o or two c5turies ago1
 are m difficult to realize & move u    
less ?an a fam9e or flood 9 ,*9a or a   
murd] 9 ! he>t ( ,africa4 ,! ?+s        
imm$iately be=e our eyes affect u mo/2 &
 x is well1 = _m reasons1 t ?is is s4   
,nev]!less1 idealization ( ! pa/ is evil
 9 its consequ5ces4 ,=1 if pres5t       
progress is to "s m5 an excuse =        
easy-go+ inactivity1 ! ext5t ( exi/+    
evil is ev5 m (t5 an excuse = ! same    
selfi% c\rse4  ,man has _h1 9 all       
p]iods1 ! t5d5cy1 9 8 discont5t ) !     
pres5t1 to inve/ ) ideal attributes ( e 
sort "s pa/ p]iod 9 :i* ! special evils 
he deplores did n1 p]haps1 exi/2 !      
dissatisfi$ ( all times h imag9$ a gold5
 age some:]e 9 ! pa/4 ,! old1 :o look on
 ! innovations ( a y\ng] g5]ation )     

di/ru/1 & are likely to mi/ake1 9       
remembrance1 ! gold ( _! own life's     
morn+ = an out] radiance indep5d5t ( _! 
y\?1 add to our delusion2 :ile ! "y     
confuse _! increas+ k ( ! evil ( ! _w ) 
an increase ( ! evil itself4 ,b ! m     
sci5ce progresses1 & ! great] our       
acqua9tance ) ! facts ( hi/ory becomes1 
! m ^! delusions t5d to disappe>4 ,!    
mu*-prais$ simplicity ( our ance/ors 01 
9 tru?1 a half-savag]y1 :]e ! high] =ms 
( ju/ice 7 n practis$1 t f9] tact &     
consid]ation :i* makes life be/ wor?    
liv+ 0 unkn[n1 & _m ( ! faults :i* we   
mo/ deplore 9 our own day 7 consid]$ r  
virtues ?an o!rwise4 ,x is a moral pity 
t poets & philosoph]s h l5t ! beauty (  
_! v]se & ! dignity ( _! eloqu5ce to !  
idealization ( ! pa/4 ,inde$1      ,i d 
di/ru/ ! poet :o disc]ns     ,no "* or  
glory 9 8 times1     ,& trundles back 8 
s\l five hundr$ ye>s1     ,pa/ moat &   
drawbridge1 into a ca/le-c\rt1     ,to  
s+--oh1 n ( liz>d or ( toad     ,alive  
i' ! dit* !re1--'tw]e excusable1     ,b 

( "s black *ief1 half knight1 half      
%eep-lift]1     ,"s beaute\s dame1 half 
*attel & half que51     ,z dead z mu/   
be1 = ! great] "p1     ,! poems made on 
_! *ivalric bones4#bee  ,x is an        
especial pity t ! re=m] %\ld ev] devote 
8 ef=t to ! uphold+ ( ! old idea ( !    
inf]iority ( ! pres5t to ! pa/4 ,n 9 !  
pa/1 b 9 ! future1 lies ! ,gold5 ,age ( 
man4  ,,footnotes3  #ahc ,! ,orig9 (    
,civilization1 pp4 #cig1 #cih4  #ahd    
,ibid4 pp4 #djb1 #djc4  #ahe ,ibid4 p4  
#cih4  #ahf ,ibid4 p4 #djg4  #ahg ,see1 
z above1 pp4 #cfh1 #cfi4  #ahh ,ibid4 p4
 #cga4  #ahi ,ibid4 p4 #fi4  #aij ,ibid4
 p4 #gb4  #aia ,ibid4 pp4 #aab1 #aac4   
#aib ,see1 z above1 p4 #dje4  #aic ,see 
,lubbock1 ,prehi/oric ,times1 also      
especially ,*aps4 ,,iii4 & ,,iv4 ( ,!   
,orig9 ( ,civilization4  #aid ,cause or 
effect1 :i*8 ,mexico is n a c\ntry poor 
9 animal life4  #aie ,! ,orig9 (        
,civilization1 pp4 #cgb1 #cgc4  #aif    
,see ,! ,orig9 ( ,civilization1 p4 #cif4
  #aig ,ibid4 p4 #cih4  #aih ,ibid4 p4  

#cga4  #aii ,social ,life 9 ,greece1    
#c;d ed4 p4 #bgb4  #bjj ,! ,sci5ce (    
,e?ics1 p4 #bcg4  #bja ,social ,life 9  
,greece1 p4 #bdc et seq4  #bjb ,lectures
 on ,primitive ,civilization1 p4 #bai et
 seq4  #bjc ,mahaffy3 ,?ree ,epo*s 9 !  
,social ,developm5t ( ! ,anci5t ,greeks1
 pp4 #ca1 #cb4  #bjd ,social ,life 9    
,greece1 p4 #bch4  #bje ,social ,life 9 
,greece1 p4 #bcd et seq4  #bjf ,ibid4 p4
 #bci et seq4 ,! italics are m9e4  #bjg 
,social ,life 9 ,greece1 p4 #bgb et seq4
  #bjh ,social ,life 9 ,greece1 p4 #ig  
et seq4  #bji ,ibid4 p4 #aeg4  #baj     
,social ,life 9 ,greece1 p4 #afj et seq4
  #baa ,ibid4 p4 #afb et seq4  #bab ,les
 ,in/itutions de la ,grece1 p4 #dg et   
seq4  #bac ,lecky1 ,hi/ory ( ,european  
,morals1 ,i4 p4 #cih4  #bad ,ibid4 p4   
#bii et seq4  #bae ,lecky1 ,hi/ory (    
,european ,morals1 ,,ii4 p4 #ca4  #baf  
,! ,orig9 ( ,civilization1 p4 #cgb4     
#bag ,hi/ory ( ,european ,morals1 ,i4 p4
 #bhe4  #bah ,hi/ory ( ,european        
,morals1 ,i4 p4 #bhf et seq4  #bai      

,ibid4 p4 #bgf4  #bbj ,ibid4 p4 #cja4   
#bba ,hi/ory ( ,european ,morals1 ,i4 p4
 #bhg et seq4  #bbb ,ibid4 p4 #bhj et   
seq4  #bbc ,hi/ory ( ,european ,morals1 
,i4 p4 #bhg4  #bbd ,hi/ory ( ,european  
,morals1 ,i4 p4 #cjb et seq4  #bbe      
,ibid4 p4 #bcf4  #bbf ,comp>e1 h[ev]1   
,hi/ory ( ,european ,morals1 ,i4 p4     
#bfc3 ,ionian slaves ( a surpass+       
beauty1 ,alex&rian slaves1 fam\s = _!   
subtle skill 9 /imulat+ ! jad$ s5ses ( !
 confirm$ & sat$ lib]t9e1 became !      
ornam5ts ( e patrician h\se1 !          
companions & in/ructors ( ! "y4444 ,!   
slave population 0 itself a hotb$ (     
vice1 & x contam9at$ all ) :i* x came 9 
contact4  #bbg ,hi/ory ( ,european      
,morals1 ,i4 p4 #cjc et seq4 ,! italics 
are m9e4  #bbh ,l4 ,o4 ,pike1 ,crime 9  
,engl&1 ,i4 p4 #bj4  #bbi ,hi/ory (     
,european ,morals1 ,,ii4 p4 #bii4  #bcj 
,l4 ,o4 ,pike1 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,crime 9    
,engl&1 ,i4 pp4 #ea1 #cdd et seq42 ,,ii4
 pp4 #ach1 #agf1 #agg1 #bhg1 #cgi et    
seq4  #bca ,ibid4 ,,ii4 pp4 #ha1 #hb4   

#bcb ,ibid4 ,i4 p4 #bbf2 ,,ii4 pp4 #he1 
#hf1 #agd et seq41 #cbd et seq4  #bcc   
,ibid4 ,i4 pp4 #afh1 #afi4  #bcd ,hi/ory
 ( ,crime1 ,i4 p4 #ej4  #bce ,ibid4 p4  
#ea4  #bcf ,hi/ory ( ,crime1 ,i4 p4 #eb 
et seq4  #bcg ,ibid4 ,i4 pp4 #bjd1 #baj4
  #bch ,ibid4 ,i4 p4 #baj et seq4  #bci 
,ibid4 ,,ii4 p4 #he4  #bdj ,ibid4 ,,ii4 
pp4 #hg-hi4  #bda ,ibid4 ,,ii4 p4 #cdf4 
#bdb ,ibid4 ,,ii4 p4 #bhc4  #bdc ,hi/ory
 ( ,crime1 ,,ii4 pp4 #afb1 #afc4  #bdd  
,ibid4 ,,ii4 p4 #bhd4  #bde ,ibid4 ,i4  
p4 #eb et seq41 p4 #adf et seq4  #bdf   
,ibid4 ,i4 p4 #big et seq4  #bdg ,ibid  
,i4 p4 #hi et seq4  #bdh ,hi/ory (      
,crime1 ,,ii4 p4 #cih et seq4  #bdi     
,ibid4 ,i4 p4 #bac4  #bej ,ibid4 ,,ii4  
pp4 #hb1 #hc1 #cgg et seq4  #bea ,ibid4 
,,ii4 p4 #dej et seq4  #beb ,see z      
above1 ,,ii4 p4 #bhh4  #bec ,z above1   
,i4 p4 #bgj et seq4  #bed ,ibid4 ,,ii4  
p4 #ade et seq4  #bee ,mrs4 ,br[n+1     
,aurora ,leigh4     ,,*apt] ,,viii  ,,! 
,,results ,,( ,,e?ical ,,inquiry ,,on   
,,an ,,evolutional ,,basis   ,9         

,pr(essor ,alex&]'s /atem5t t ! good man
 ( =m] days 0 z good z ! good man (     
to-day1#bef ! /&>d appli$ to ! two cases
 comp>$ is n ! same2 ! comp>ison is n a 
direct "o betwe5 ! two m51 accord+ to "s
 common rule1 b resembles a ma!matical  
/atem5t ( proportion1 or comp>ison (    
ratios2 ! man nam$ good accord+ to !    
/&>d ( "o age /&s to ! social conditions
 ( t age z ! man nam$ good by ! /&>d ( a
 lat] age to ! social conditions ( 8    
age4 ,! implication ( ?is d\ble /&>d is1
 h[ev]1 easily ov]look$1 s t ! /atem5t  
/&s 9 dang] ( ! reproa* ( mislead+ z a  
begg+ ( ! "q2 9 ! good man ( =m] days1 !
 moral v]dict is already deliv]$4 ,a "q 
( moral exp$i5cy arises "h4 ,h[ are we  
to def9e ! good man ( =m] days8 ,%all we
 decl>e1 = in/ance1 t t cannibal :o     
fulfill$ ! ideal ( pity 9 8 society by  
sp>+ 8 conqu]$ foe to abject & mis]able 
slav]y1 in/ead ( cook+ him = d9n]1 0    
good1 & z good z ! man ( highe/         
b5evol5ce ( ! pres5t day8 ,or suppose an
 ,au/ralian savage :o v>ies ! tribal    

cu/om ( woo+ by c>efully c>ry+ home 8   
victim aft] r$uc+ h] to unconsci\sness1 
in/ead ( dragg+ h] ov] ! gr\nd at risk (
 life & limb1 ?us fulfill+ a high tribal
 ideal2 %all we comp>e su* a man ) lov]s
 l ,mill or ,br[n+ & pron\nce him z good
 z ! latt]8 ,or1 to take less extreme   
cases1 %all we comp>e ! ,sp>tan ( "o    
p]iod1 ) 8 ideal ( successful !ft1 ) a  
,socrates or a ,bruno dy+ = sake ( :at  
!y believ$ to be ! tru?1 & pron\nce "o  
no bett] ?an ! o!r8 ,no "o d5ies ! "r ( 
! individual to fix ! significance ( 8  
own t]ms1 provid$ he adh]es to ?is      
significance consi/5tly2 b mank9d ?9ks  
sl[ly & pa9fully1 & ! d\ble purpose (   
language1 9 ! communication ( ?\ght to  
o!rs & ! regi/ration ( x z a /epp+-/one 
to our own fur!r reason+1 is likely to  
be fru/rat$ by a too peculi> use ( t]ms4
 ,9 ,e?ics1 ?is "q ( exp$i5cy takes on a
 moral aspect2 & ,alex&]'s def9ition (  
absolute "r & wrong z action 9          
accordance )1 or opposition to1 a /&>d  
fix$ by ! age & nation is likely to lead

 to moral z well z intellectual         
confusion--to ! excuse ( wrong-do+      
because ( circum/ances1 on ! "o h&1 & ! 
dogmatic ass]tion ( infallibility on !  
o!r1 or at lea/ to ! confusion ( ! ideal
 /&>d ) ! easy-go+ /&>d ( ! av]age man (
 8 age4  ,b x is true t ?is criticism is
 sc>cely conclusive alone4 ,= !         
def9itions criticis$ are on a l9e ) !   
idea ( progress z at ea* mom5t e/abli%+ 
! equilibrium ( ! society1 & fulfil !   
dem& = self-consi/5cy4 ,a criticism ( ! 
use1 9 e?ical !ory1 ( a cont9ually *ang+
 /&>d ( moral judgm5t1 mu/ conc]n ! m   
fundam5tal idea ( a cont9ually e/abli%$ 
equilibrium4  ,to ! practical           
consid]ations ( ! possible confusion ( !
 ideal ) ! av]age /&>d ?r\gh ,alex&]'s  
idea ( ! judgm5t ( an age by its own    
/&>d1 x might be object$ t ! moral /&>d 
impli$ 9 8 !ory is n at all ! av]age    
/&>d1 b ! /&>d z repres5t$ by ! ideal 9 
! m9d ( ! good man ( 8 age4#beg  ,to ?is
 may be answ]$ t he :om we reg>d z !    
good man ( 8 age is by no means         

necess>ily 9 h>mony ) 8 age1 z is prov$ 
by ! p]secution t _m good m5 endure2 & !
 /atem5t t ! good man is n 9 h>mony ) 8 
age means t he does n repres5t ! "* ( 8 
society z a :ole1 & _c1 !re=e1 be said  
to express an atta9$ equilibrium ( !    
society4 ,8 s5tim5ts & ideal are n !    
s5tim5ts & ideal ( ! society z a :ole   
consid]$ z an adju/m5t ( s5tim5ts &     
ideals4 ,if x be repli$1 to ?is1 t !    
good m5 ( _! age :o und]go p]secution   
mu/ be reg>d$1 accord+ to ,alex&]'s     
!ory1 z only prospectively good1--z     
repres5t+ an ideal t has n yet be5 prov$
 to be ! victori\s v>iety1#beh !n we are
 driv5 to return to ! conclusion t1 by !
 good man ( 8 age :o repres5ts ! social 
equilibrium1 ,alex&] designates1 n ! man
 :o leads ! moral van1 or he :o plans an
 advance1 b he :o is c>ri$ on by x1 !   
man :o repres5ts ! prepond]at+ mass (   
op9ion1 ! ideal ( ! majority or ! av]age
 ideal2 & ! practical criticisms above  
made hold good4 ,:atev] may be said (   
our judgm5t ( a pa/ age by pres5t /&>ds1

 ! /&>d by :i* we judge pres5t action is
 n at all ! av]age /&>d1 b ! highe/     
moral ideal we c discov]2 & 9 ?is fact  
lies ! :ole significance ( ,e?ics4  ,or 
!re is ano!r =m 9 :i* ,alex&] comb9es 8 
idea ( ! good man & t ( a social        
equilibrium4 ,accord+ to ?is            
int]pretation1 ! equilibrium ! good man 
repres5ts is n an actually atta9$       
equilibrium1 b m]ely "o t w\ld be secur$
 7 8 ideal univ]sally c>ri$ out1--an    
equilibrium realiz$ only 9 s f> z m5 are
 good4#bei ,9 ?is case1 inde$1 ! ideal  
may be rescu$ f ! reproa* ( repres5t+   
only ! av]age1 easy-go+ morality2 b1 at 
! same "t1 all ! rem>ks t make pres5t   
morality absolute because x repres5ts & 
ma9ta9s a pres5t social equilibrium1 & !
 argum5t 9 a l9e ) su* rem>ks t all     
ma9t5ance ( exi/5ce means adju/m5t to ! 
conditions1 or equilibrium1 become      
inapplicable4 ,x might be cont5d$ t !   
:ole dilemma is avoid$ by ,alex&] 9 !   
ass]tion t wick$ness has b little %>e 9 
! life ( society#bfj--t is1 t goodness  

prevails2 b su* a /atem5t may be        
disput$1 except z morality is judg$ by !
 av]age /&>d2 &1 9 ?is case1 ! argum5t  
begs ! "q1 & ! old problem recurs4 ,x   
may fur!r be add$ t ! action ( ! good   
man 9 any o!r s5se _c repres5t ! c\rse t
 w\ld be foll[$ by e man1 7 all m5 good 
l himself1 = 8 action takes into        
consid]ation ! fact t all m5 are n good 
l himself & is a compromise ) inideal   
conditions4  ,!re is1 9 fact1 & has be5 
up to ! pres5t "t1 no full equilibrium (
 any society z a :ole1 & c]ta9ly no     
absolute equilibrium su* z mu/ coexi/ ) 
an absolute "r1 :i* w\ld be its         
expression4 ,du ,prel1 to illu/rate 8   
conception ( ! evolution ( ! sy/ems ( ! 
heav5s1 imag9es a gr\p ( danc]s1 ea* (  
:om sets out to dance a figure ( h] own 
)\t ref]5ce to ! movem5ts ( ! o!rs2 & he
 po9ts out t if1 9 all cases (          
collision1 ! collid+ p>ties ei!r )draw f
 ! gr\p or else move f ?is po9t toge!r1 
a h>mony ( movem5t mu/ f9ally be        
atta9$4#bfa ,we may conceive ( mom5t>y  

equilibrium ( small portions ( a        
society1 j z1 9 ! case ( su* a gr\p (   
danc]s1 we may conceive ( any mom5t z   
possibly repres5t+ an abs5ce ( collision
 9 "s "o "p ( ! company1 al?\gh1 9 o!r  
p>ts1 _m collisions are tak+ place4 ,b  
!re is1 at pres5t1 no g5]al equilibrium 
( ideals1 no common ideal = any society 
z a :ole1 b1 on ! contr>y1 a mass (     
conflict+ ideals cont9ually at w> ) "o  
ano!r2 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 !re may be      
calculat$ an av]age ideal made up f all 
extremes1 & !re may be disc]n$ a        
prepond]at+ ideal 9 small] portions ( a 
society t =m a body by !mselves4 ,!     
isolation ( su* portions is1 h[ev]1 only
 relative1 & any equilibrium t c be     
spok5 ( z atta9$ by !m is mo/ imp]fect4 
,! good man1 9 s f> z we reg>d 8        
goodness z inh]it$1 may be said to      
repres5t an equilibrium2 b x is only !  
equilibrium ( "s "o favor$ l9e ( desc5t1
 & n an absolute1 b a relative1         
equilibrium4 ,9 s f> z we reg>d ! good  
man's goodness z ! fur!r result (       

especial association ) good m51 x may   
be1 to a l>ge ext5t1 9 h>mony ) _!      
ideals1 & may h5ce repres5t a c]ta9     
equilibrium among m5 :o pres]ve !mselves
 f intimacy ) individuals ( l[ ideals or
 only av]age morality1 ?us =m+ a p>tly  
isolat$ body2 b ?is equilibrium1 aga91  
is only a relative equilibrium1 j z !   
isolation ( ! gr\p is only p>tial4 ,if  
our def9ition ( morality is progressive 
& n /atical1 ! good man mu/ be he :o    
leads ! advance4 ,b su* a man is n      
repres5tative ( 8 society z a :ole4     
,alex&] reg>ds ! infliction ( incid5tal 
pa9s z ( little consequ5ce = ! absolute 
rightness ( conduct4 ,b ! necessity ( ^!
 pa9s has a reactive influ5ce on "*4 ,t1
 9 ord] to d ! "w :i* ,i c d be/ & :i*1 
!re=e1 ,i ought to d = society1 ,i mu/  
pass _m begg>s 9 ! /reet )\t inquiry    
into _! cases1 & mu* mis]y ( all sorts  
)\t mat]ially less5+ x1 has a c]ta9     
detrim5tal result to myself4 ,all pa91 !
 sight ( :i* is endur$ )\t ! tak+ (     
active measures = its alleviation1      

vitiates ! sympa?ies2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 a 
c]ta9 h>dness ( he>t is necess>y to !   
endurance ( m]e exi/5ce1 at ! pres5t "t2
 a c]ta9 selfi%ness to ! enjoym5t ev5 ( 
a life sp5t 9 moral ef=t2 = p]fect      
sympa?y w\ld make life unbe>able 9 sight
 & he>+ ( ! suff]+ ( _m ( our           
fell[-creatures4 ,! ne$ = self-def5ce   
has be5 felt at all /ages ( ! _w's      
progress--9 old5 times = self-def5ce ( a
 brutal sort1 9 mod]n days = a less &   
less brutal self-def5ce2 su* self-def5ce
 is at pres5t imp]ative1 le/ ! yield+ to
 "o p]son result n only 9 a lack (      
fulfilm5t ( our own duties to o!rs ?an !
 "o1 b also 9 ! /r5g!n+1 9 t "o1 ( a    
selfi%ness & dogmatism :i* may issue 9  
fur!r evil to o!rs4 ,& yet all          
resi/ance1 :]e & 9 s f> z c>ri$ out1    
vitiates temp] & b5evol5ce4  ,alex&]'s  
position is positivi/ic 9 t x aims n to 
g beyond ! facts2 & ?is position might  
seem to lead naturally to ! judgm5t (   
ea* age by a /&>d possible to !         
individuals ( t age1 t is1 exi/5t1 9 "s 

=m1 9 ! society judg$2 & x might seem to
 lead1 also1 to ! ass]tion ( an absolute
 "r :]e ! exi/5ce ( wrong is unfelt4 ,b 
to ?is might be answ]$ t1 z soon z !    
high] /&>d does exi/1 ! wrong may be    
judg$ by x2 & t ! judgm5t ( a "r z yet  
includ+ elem5ts ( wrong implies !       
exi/5ce ( ano!r & high] /&>d z "o ( !   
facts4 ,if ,du ,prel's company ( danc]s 
7 automata1 incapable ( =eca/+          
collisions1 we might reg>d a mom5t>y    
abs5ce ( collision 9 "s "o "p ( !       
company1 f ! /&po9t ( ! automata        
conc]n$1 z absolute equilibrium1 s9ce   
our judgm5t w\ld h no reg>d to ! re/ ( !
 company or ! next move ( ! figures at  
pres5t 9 equilibrium4 ,b human be+s are 
n automata1 & ! !ory :i* reg>ds ! moral 
evolution f ! /&po9t ( ! ideals actually
 exi/5t 9 society mu/ take into         
consid]ation ! actual realization :i*   
ent]s into ! practical ideals ( a l>ge  
"p ( society1 ( ! contra/ ( ^? ideals ) 
a conceiv$ high] /&>d at pres5t         
impracticable4 ,x is true t !           

consci\sness ( pa/ ages1 n compreh5d+ 9 
s great a degree ! complexity ( human   
int]e/s1 or look+ s f> into ! future to 
di/ant results z does pres5t mank9d1 _h 
n s /rong a s5se ( ?is contra/4 ,b !    
contra/ has aris51 0 vaguely conceiv$   
ev5 9 f>-di/ant times1 & has cont9ually 
gr[n m def9ite & pron\nc$ 9 human ?\ght4
 ,s f> f its be+ true1 z ,pr(essor      
,alex&] conceives1 t consci5ce always   
ass]ts ! possibility ( an absolutely "r 
c\rse1#bfb x may be said t1 al?\gh      
d\btless ! m9d always conceives1 among/ 
! c\rses op5 to *oice1 "s be/ c\rse1 !re
 is a gr[+ realization ( ! evil to      
conduct & "*1 ( self & o!rs1 involv$ 9  
any c\rse possible "u pres5t conditions4
 ,! ass]tion ( an absolute "r1 ) an     
exact b\nd>y-l9e divid+ x f wrong1      
belongs to pa/ ,e?ics2 ! appreciation ( 
pres5t evil d\btless diff]s 9 degree 9  
diff]5t p]sons2 b x is increas+ bo? 9   
ext5t & 9 int5t1 & is ! explanation ( ! 
t5d5cy to believe ! pres5t age worse ?an
 all pa/ ages4 ,x is n ! sign ( gr[+    

evil1 b is1 on ! contr>y1 a "p ( a gr[+ 
good2 nev]!less1 x regi/]s ! exi/5ce (  
pres5t evil4 ,!re are few m5 ( ! pres5t 
date1 except+ ! v "y & exceptionally    
heal?y & happy1 :o w\ld agree ) ,alex&]1
 t x is ridicul\s to suppose t wick$ness
 occupies a consid]able space 9 ! life (
 a society4  ,pr(essor ,alex&] himself  
ackn[l$ges ! progress ( society t[>ds a 
/ate ( good t %all be good n = a "p ( ! 
human race m]ely b = ! :ole2 & he       
recognizes also ! fact t ?is ext5sion ( 
! ideal to ! :ole race means a progress 
9 int5t also4 ,su* an ultimate /ate is  
c]ta9ly n ultimate 9 ! s5se t x is      
et]nal2 b x may be consid]$ p]man5t 9 ! 
same s5se z ! equilibrium ( ! sol> sy/em
 is p]man5t--9 ! s5se t x rema9s        
practically ! same = a p]iod long to    
human ?\ght4 ,x expresses a p]fect1 ?\gh
 n an absolute1 equilibrium4 ,z su*1 x  
does n involve absolute happ9ess any m  
?an absolute pres]vation ( exi/5ce1     
immortality3 x implies only ! r$uction (
 pa9 to a m9imum ?r\gh increas+ wisdom &

 sympa?y2 ?r\gh ! endeavor1 on ! "o h&1 
( a f>-see+ & sympa!tic society to      
protect ! individual f disappo9tm5t1 &  
?r\gh su* increase1 on ! o!r1 ( ! e?ical
 pleasures t :at ,alex&] t]ms incid5tal 
pa9s become inappreciable by contra/4   
,! evolution ( human society is n an    
evolution ( "o /ate or c\ntry alone b ( 
! habitable globe2 a condition ( full   
equilibrium c be rea*$ only :51 9 "o way
 or ano!r1 all c\ntries are ga!r$ into !
 circle ( civilization & sympa?y4 ,until
 ?is happ5s1 ! isolation ( s+le         
societies mu/ be repeat$ly brok5 9 ^u & 
! process ( equilibration di/urb$ by !  
introduction ( new elem5ts to :i*       
adju/m5t mu/ take place2 ! new adju/m5t 
be+ 9 ! s5se ( progress t[>ds a high]   
sy/em ( equilibrium1 t is1 "o ( m       
elem5ts1 & ! :ole process con/itut+ a   
cont9ual progress 9 ! direction ( a full
 /ability ( ,life ^u ! e>?4 ,:ile       
despotisms exi/ to p\r into o!r1 fre]   
c\ntries _! hunt$ & mis]able subjects1  
unus$ to ! responsibilities (           

self-gov]nm5t1 & (t5 z unfit = peace z  
is ! dog :o has be5 always *a9$ &       
torm5t$1 democracy mu/ feel ! evils (   
tyranny ev5 9 h] own sy/em4 ,:ile       
unciviliz$1 or m5tally1 morally1 &      
physically degrad$ human be+s exi/ 9 "o 
c\ntry1 m5 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w are n      
secure f contact ei!r directly ) ^! l[e/
 ord]s1 or1 at lea/1 ) ^? :o h be5 r5d]$
 less honorable or m call\s to suff]+ by
 _! influ5ce or habituation to _!       
suff]+4 ,& :ile w> r\ses hatr$1 & hatr$ 
results 9 w>1 !re w also be1 9          
societies1 int]nal fluctuations1        
jeal\sies1 hatr$s4 ,lack ( sympa?y1     
viol5ce1 or indiff]5ce to suff]+ 9 "o   
respect or direction is likely to be    
accompani$ by lack ( sympa?y1 viol5ce1  
indiff]5ce1 9 o!r respects3 :ile1 aga91 
viol5ce is likely to beget viol5ce1     
indiff]5ce indiff]5ce1 betwe5           
individuals1 classes1 p>ties1 or        
nations4 ,diff]5t degrees ( progress may
 be visible 9 diff]5t c\ntries2 b ! m   
facilities ( communication increase1 ! m

 inevitable x w become t ! evils exi/+ 9
 any "o nation w affect all1 z also t ! 
progress ( any "o nation w affect all2 9
 o!r words1 progress mu/ t5d1 m & m1 to 
equalization 9 all c\ntries4 ,fe*n]'s   
ideas ( ! ,t5d5cy to ,/ability ?us      
expla9 ! loss ( ,greek & ,roman         
civilization1 z well z ! insoluble my/]y
 :i* ,wallace f9ds 9 ! fact ( ! atta9m5t
 ( greatness among e>li] peoples1 !re   
be+ no ag5cy at "w1 !n or n[1#bfc       
calculat$ to d m ?an we$ out ! l[]      
types4#bfd  ,increas+ sympa?y is a      
cont9ual accompanim5t ( ! increas+ly    
close relations ( m5 to ea* o!r ?r\gh ! 
gradual peopl+ ( all p>ts ( ! e>?1 b    
especially ?r\gh ! increas+ facilities (
 communication by :i* ! di/ant is br\ght
 into contact ) u2 b ! sympa?y is (     
gradual gr[?1 & ! cont9ual r5ewal ( !   
/ruggle = exi/5ce induces r5ew$ evils1 s
 t x might seem1 at fir/ glance1 z if ! 
evil mu/ cont9ue indef9itely &          
undim9i%$1 only *ang+ its =m4 ,z long z 
no absolute equilibrium has be5 atta9$1 

d\btless evil ( "s sort mu/ exi/2 *ange 
is inevitably accompani$ by             
disadvantages z well z advantages1      
ev]y:]e4 ,b sev]al facts are to be      
notic$4 ,fir/3 ,! /atem5t :i* has (t5   
be5 made1 t ! sev]ity ( ! /ruggle =     
exi/5ce is increas$ 9 ! social /ate &   
gr[s ) ! gr[? ( society1 is errone\s4 ,t
 is to say1 m is d\btless cont9ually    
dem&$ ( ! individual1 b x is no ab/ract 
pr9ciple or law outside man :i* makes   
?is dem&3 x is ! increas$ p[] ( ! av]age
 ( society :i* makes x2 or1 t is1 !     
increas$ requirem5ts ( ! age are met )  
increas$ capacity1 & ?is w\ld /ill rema9
 true if we reckon$ capacity z m]ely    
dep5d5t ^u ! inh]itance ( k & implem5ts4
 ,cooep]ation increases res\rces2 & !   
av]age l5g? ( life is %[n to increase ) 
! progress ( civilization4 ,!re is a    
lagg+ m9ority :o suff]1 = "o reason or  
ano!r1 9 ! advance2 ^! repres5t !       
inh]5tly inf]ior types1 or ! types :i*  
suff] tempor>ily f out] disadvantage4 ,!
 evils ( competition 9 human society are

 n great]1 !y are simply m evid5t to    
human be+s ?an ! evils else:]e 9 nature4
 ,! trag$ies ( ! woods are bloody b     
%ort2 dea? puts a spe$y end to suff]+s1 
& ! e>? quickly hides ! victims4 ,9     
society1 on ! o!r h&1 cooep]ation       
pres]ves n only ! ag$ & feeble1 ! de=m$ 
& idiotic1 ( ! m privileg$ classes2 x   
ev5 suffices to enable ! mo/ mis]able to
 drag out a =lorn exi/5ce some:at long]4
 ,x =bids ! "m :o f9ds h] *ild a burd5  
simply to leave x by ! roadside z !     
savage "m does1 & x w give a p5ny or two
 aga9/ />vation :]e x w n be/[ en\gh =  
com=t4 ,?is prolongation ( suff]+ is ?us
 ! sign ( an increas$ b n yet suffici5t 
sympa?y2 9 o!r words1 evil n only *anges
 its =m ) social evolution2 x also      
gradually loses its =ce4 ,to suppose1   
inde$1 t r5ew$ progress mu/ always be   
att5d$ ) z great evils z to-day att5d x1
 is to make ! errone\s supposition t "* 
has no con/ancy1 & ! sympa?y = "o's     
fell[-m5 ga9$ 9 "o relation w :olly fail
 to act 9 o!rs4  ,aga91 x might possibly

 be ?\ght t increase 9 d5sity (         
population1 ev5 z condition ( ! clos]   
contact necess>y to increase ( sympa?y1 
mu/ g on ad inf9itum1 ) ev]-increas+1 or
 at lea/ ev]-r5ew$1 mis]y1 until !      
individual be left ) b>ely /&+-room2    
inde$1 ! picture ( su* a d5\em5t has    
occasionally be5 drawn4 ,b x is to be   
rememb]$ t ! conditions ( mutual        
compreh5sion1 dep5d5ce1 & sympa?y1 come 
to lie1 9 lat] social /ages1 less & less
 9 m]e d5sity ( population & m & m 9 ^? 
_m devices ( mod]n life :i* we h t]m$   
means ( communication4 ,! increase ( !  
human species mu/ t5d1 9 "t1 to         
self-correction2 ! only alt]native is ! 
ext9ction ( ! race ?r\gh gr[+           
unheal?fulness ( conditions4 ,b ?is     
alt]native is an impossibility2 ! human 
species _c be annihilat$ z a :ole except
 ?r\gh "s cata/rophic ev5t :i* int]f]es 
) ! pres5t c\rse ( evolution by !       
de/ruction ( ! e>?--or ?r\gh t f9al     
gradual decay :i* mu/ accompany ! e>?'s 
decl9e 9 p[] ( n\ri%m5t4 ,f int]nal     

causes we _c expect ! species to p]i%2 =
 aga9 9 ?is case x is impossible t a    
/ruggle %\ld be cont9u$ until ! la/     
individuals are de/roy$4 ,inde$1 ! idea 
( de/ruction ?r\gh insanit>y cr[d+ gives
 u at once a contradiction ( !          
supposition ( limitless increase1 & a   
p>tial solution ( ! "q4 ,b ! lat] &     
high] solution ( ! "q is ano!r4 ,!      
fitte/ w survive2 & ! fitte/ w be ^? :o 
p]ceive ! evils ( ov]cr[d+ & take active
 measures to avoid x4 ,! fitte/ w be ^? 
:o p]ceive t !y are act+ = ! good ( _!  
*ildr51 & t ( society z a :ole1 if !y d 
n br+ into ! _w m (fspr+ ?an !y c furni%
 ) a heal?y con/itution1 good moral     
tra9+1 & a suffici5t education =        
self-support & com=t "u conditions (    
normal labor4 ,! t]m heal? is n an      
absolute "o2 b if we once suppose a />t 
made 9 ! direction ( ! decrease (       
pressure1 we mu/ suppose1 o!r ?+s be+   
equal1 t ^? l9es ( desc5t & p>ts (      
society 9 :i* x arises w be favor$ 9 !  
/ruggle = exi/5ce1 & w come to supplant 

o!r p>ts4 ,to suppose t ! increase (    
pressure c g on ad inf9itum is1 inde$1  
to reckon--if we look at ! matt] f !    
purely psy*ological side--)\t man's     
reason4 ,social developm5t & moral !ory 
h n favor$ any limitation ( prog5y z    
long z population 0 sp>se4 ,b c]ta9     
facts are beg9n+ to be recogniz$3 7#a7 t
 ! propagation ( _! k9d by ! crim9ally  
con/itut$ & by ! hopelessly diseas$ is  
immoral2 7#b7 t ! propagation ( (fspr+  
to su* pov]ty & ignorance z /unts !m    
physically1 & makes _! entrance into !  
crim9al or paup] classes a probability1 
is also immoral2 & 7#c7 t duty does n   
dem& ( m5 & wom5 t !y %all sacrifice    
heal? & happ9ess1 & drag out a mis]able1
 ov]work$1 joyless exi/5ce 9 illy re>+  
an ov]-l>ge & probably weakly family4 ,!
 greate/ favor1 privilege1 & luxury t   
p>5ts c conf] ^u *ildr5 is t ( heal?1 & 
! next greate/ is t ( heal?y p>5ts1     
nei!r ill-temp]$ ) c>e nor morbid & dull
 ) ov]work1 b al]t to p]ceive & ready to
 sympa?ize 9 all _! trials &            

aspirations1 & end[$ ) suffici5t leisure
 to give "s att5tion to t q z important 
duty z *ild-be>+--! "*-tra9+ ( *ildr54  
,selfi%ness is1 ( c\rse1 possible 9 !   
direction ( limitation ( increase z 9 e 
o!r direction1 & 9 ?is case x mu/ defeat
 ! end to a great ext5t2 b su*          
selfi%ness mu/ t5d to correct itself z  
sympa?y develops & society1 9 its       
approval1 recognizes & dem&s m & m :at  
is = ! good ( all4  ,! c\rse ( our      
reason+ does n pret5d to pr$ict an      
absolute social equilibrium1 :i* mu/    
include ! immortality ( man on ! e>?1   
toge!r ) ! prev5tion ( e accid5t & ( e  
disappo9tm5t :atsoev]4 ,a ^w has already
 be5 said z to ! probable necessity ( ! 
dea? ( ! individual2 & ) dea? are giv5  
also disease & age & _! att5dant m5tal  
evils4 ,we may suppose1 h[ev]1 "u an    
increas$ heal?fulness ( g5]al           
conditions1 an increase ( vitality :i*  
%all make dea?1 9 an ev] great]         
proportion ( cases1 r ! issue ( a       
gradual failure ( ! p[]s ?an ! result ( 

viol5t illness4 ,t ! t5d5cy is 9 ?is    
direction is demon/rat$ by ! gradual    
increase ( ! l5g? ( life4 ,a high degree
 ( m5tal1 moral1 & physical h>mony 9    
human society is no m wond]ful or       
inconceivable ?an ! high degree ( h>mony
 already atta9$ 9 ! movem5ts ( our own  
sol> sy/em4 ,on ! "o h&1 social progress
 means ! atta9m5t ( results :i* call    
less & less = re=m2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 we  
are accu/om+ ourselves to social *ange2 
re=ms1 ! l ( :i* w\ld once h convuls$ ! 
_w are n[ accompli%$ ) little           
inconv5i5ce1 & we are able to g =w>d ) a
 rapidity ( :i* no =m] age 0 capable4   
,we may look at social developm5t f /ill
 ano!r po9t ( view1 z a process by :i* !
 pres]vation ( ! individual gradually   
becomes coo]d9ate ) ! pres]vation &     
welf>e ( ! species4 ,d>w9 surmises t !  
"w ( ! b5evol5t or intellectually great 
man = 8 p may be z important = its      
welf>e & ! det]m9ation ( its conque/ 9 !
 /ruggle = exi/5ce z is ! propagation ( 
(fspr+4 ,z social organization          

progresses1 & ! relations ( m5 become m 
intimate & complex1 all ! acts ( !      
individual gr[ to be ( great] & great]  
significance = 8 k9d1 :ile1             
reciprocally1 ! heal? & happ9ess ( !    
individual increase 9 importance = 8    
k9d4 ,& ?us1 f bo? sides1 virtue &      
heal?1 virtue & happ9ess1 also t5d t[>ds
 co9cid5ce 9 ! individual life1 &       
environm5t comes m & m to favor !       
virtu\s4 ,sympa?y1 :i* is = ! g5]al good
 9 _m relations1 increases 9 /r5g? z    
inw>d *>act]i/ic & acts ) m & m c]ta9ty 
& univ]sality1 s t ! society :i* has be5
 m]ciful & helpful 9 a degree t[>ds _m  
individuals comes to %[ m]cy &          
helpfulness 9 a great] degree1 & ) m    
uni=mity1 t[>ds m & m individuals2 :ile1
 at ! same "t1 ! welf>e & ! happ9ess ( !
 individual become m & m coo]d9ate ) !  
welf>e ( society z a :ole1 & ! latt] is 
accord+ly m univ]sally s\ght4 ,?is does 
n necess>ily mean t x is s\ght f motives
 ( self-int]e/2 on ! contr>y1 z society 
progresses1 ! individual is m & m m\ld$ 

to su* h>mony ) its ne$s t he f9ds 8    
happ9ess 9 seek+ its welf>e4  ,! e>li]  
puni%m5ts ( (f5d]s 7 extreme & cruel2 ! 
majority1 9 endeavor+ to protect itself1
 _h little reg>d = ! individual1 z !    
individual also _h little reg>d = !     
welf>e ( ! majority4 ,) social progress1
 h[ev]1 ! majority become m humane ev5  
t[>ds _! enemy1 ! crim9al4 ,! *ecks :i* 
! fe> ( extreme physical puni%m5t alone 
c\ld impose at an e>li] p]iod are       
gradually succe$$ by ! *ecks furni%$ 9 !
 approval & disapproval ( society z a   
:ole1 & ( ^? to :om ! individual is b\nd
 by ties ( affection & ( respect4 ,t is1
 9 ! sympa!tic feel+s !mselves a        
dep5d5ce on o!rs is develop$ :i* acts z 
an effectual prev5tive & /imulus1 & mu/ 
become m & m effectual z society        
advances & ! range ( sympa?y wid5s4 ,?is
 increas+ly altrui/ic =m ( ev5 ! *ecks  
to evil is tak5 no acc\nt ( by !        
pessimi/4 ,z ! necessity = sev]ity      
decreases1 sev]ity ev5 9 social         
disapproval mu/ less52 z ! individual   

comes to yield m readily & promptly to a
 slight spur1 extrem] me?ods w be       
disc>d$4 ,?us fe> w be1 by degrees1     
replac$ by hope4 ,?is developm5t is se5 
n only 9 sect>ian matt]s b also 9 !     
hi/ory ( religi\s ?\ght2 ne>ly e        
religion has _h its heav5 & its hell1 b 
) social progress & ! broad5+ ( sympa?y1
 ! hell falls m & m into disrepute1 !   
motive ( heav5ly rew>d be+ r emphasiz$4 
,z sympa?y broad5s1 we come to feel1 n  
alone pa9 at ! pa9 ( o!rs1 b 9 an       
increas$ degree & ) reg>d to ev] wid]   
circles1 pleasure also 9 _! pleasure4 ,!
 altrui/ic pleasure af=d$ by ! relief ( 
pa91 z ! m necess>y to ! pres]vation (  
exi/5ce1 has be5 ! e>lie/ develop$4 ,a  
great good 9 its prov9ce1 x may conta91 
nev]!less1 an elem5t ( vanity t opposes 
itself to a fur!r evolution4 ,!re is no 
d\bt t a c]ta9 k9d ( b5evol5ce w\ld     
greatly miss ! gratification &          
self-aggr&izem5t exp]i5c$ 9 ! relief (  
pov]ty & suff]+4 ,! high] b n yet s     
univ]sal capacity is t ( rejoic+ 9 o!rs'

 good & happ9ess z well z sympa?iz+ 9 _!
 sorr[4 ,?is capacity %[s itself z yet  
*iefly 9 ! m intimate relations ( love &
 fri5d%ip4 ,9 ^!1 too1 ! influ5ce (     
approval & disapproval is p[]ful1 & !   
pleasure we give a fri5d 9 be+ wor?y ( 8
 e/eem may make our be/ happ9ess4 ,"h we
 h a h9t ( an increas+ union ( love = ! 
individual & love = ! ideal :i* mu/ t5d 
to raise fri5d%ip itself to ! highe/    
plane4  ,z a result ( our consid]ations1
 we may d5y ! tru? ( ,rolph's ass]tion t
 ! /imulus ( want w be =ev] necess>y 9  
ord] to secure ex]tion--t is1 if by want
 is meant mis]y or great pa9 ( any sort2
 if m]ely desire is meant1 :i* !        
anticipation & e>ly accompli%m5t (      
satisfaction may prev5t f becom+ pa91 we
 may admit ! /atem5t4 ,9 ?is case1      
h[ev]1 ! argum5t :i* ,rolph d$uces aga9/
 ! possibility ( a f9al /ate ( social   
h>mony is invalid4  ,b x is n ! int5tion
 ( our argum5t to ass]t t all desires   
)\t exception w be fulfill$ 9 any future
 condition ( society4 ,:at may be said  

is t1 9 an increas+ degree1 sympa?y w   
endeavor to satisfy ! wants ( !         
individual1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 !        
approval & fell[-feel+ ( society1 & !   
consci\sness ( hav+ p]=m$ 8 duty1 w come
 to repres5t to ! individual1 9 a great]
 & great] degree1 recomp5se = p]sonal   
loss4 ,?is *ange ( direction 9 desire & 
gratification is no weak5+ ( x3 x is no 
m necess>ily true t ! man ( p]fect      
pr9ciple is poor] 9 emotion ?an ! man ^:
 passions lead him to sacrifice 8 fell[ 
m5 ?an x is true t ! av]age man (       
civiliz$ society is poor] 9 emotion ?an 
! brutal savage4 ,m]ely1 human evolution
 is a cont9ual developm5t ( high] & m   
complex emotions1 :i* rise into =ce on !
 prop] occasion to modify ! m primitive 
ones1 or1 m accurately speak+1 ! l[]    
emotions ( ! savage !mselves take on a  
high] =m ?r\gh organization ) lat] ones4
  ,sp5c]1 9 criticis+ !ories ( altrui/ic
 morals1 endeavors to %[ t "t & en]gy   
are lo/ 9 ! di/ribution1 ?r\gh o!rs1 ( !
 happ9ess or means ( happ9ess :i* might 

) m pr(it1 because a bett] und]/&+ (    
ne$1 be s\ght by ! individual himself2 &
 he rem>ks1 t x is a "q h[ mu* ( !      
happ9ess :i* means also vitality !      
individual may rightly sacrifice to     
society4 ,b ! refusal ( individuals to  
sacrifice any?+ ( p]sonal gratification 
mu/ lead1 "u pres5t conditions ( desire1
 to extreme sacrifice on ! "p ( o!r     
individuals2 s t ! pr9ciple ( !         
illegitimacy ( sacrifice logically      
contradicts itself4 ,x is n p]fectly    
cle> :at is meant by a division &       
r$i/ribution ( happ9ess1 or ! means (   
happ9ess1 aga9/ :i* ,sp5c] directs 8    
argum5t4 ,x is probable t ! au?or has 9 
m9d1 & is especially oppos+1 a p>ticul> 
s*ool ( !ori/s ^: ideas we w consid]    
lat] on4 ,suffice x to say1 at ?is po9t1
 t social h>mony c nev] be rea*$ by !   
/ubborn cont9uance ( ea* 9 8 l9e (      
inh>moni\s conduct1 b c only be atta9$  
by su* gradual m\ld+ ( habit & desire t 
by natural organization individuals w   
come to be 9 h>mony ) ea* o!r4 ,x is !  

hi/ory ( social evolution t !           
individual1 ?\gh always det]m9+ :at are 
8 own ne$s1 z x is obvi\s t he c be/ d1 
is increas+ly aid$ 9 satisfy+ !m by     
cooep]ation1 :ile he also gives increas+
 aid 9 return4 ,aga9/ ! li/ ( !         
advantages ( egoism enum]at$ by ,sp5c] &
 o!rs1 ,i w\ld mu/] ! advantages (      
altruism1 = by cooep]ation alone c !    
individual atta9 ! pleasures :i* n[ s   
(t5 lie beyond 8 rea*2 by x alone c     
society atta9 a high] plane2 & !        
pleasures ( altruism are ! highe/ & !   
mo/ unfail+4 ,! selfi% man w suff]      
disappo9tm5t & loss z well z ! b5evol5t 
man1 & he w lack ! refuge ( sympa?y & ( 
! p[] to f9d happ9ess 9 ! happ9ess (    
o!rs4 ,:at man :o has felt ! joys (     
sympa?y w\ld ex*ange ev5 ! h>d%ips x    
br+s = ! brutal lib]ty & unmov$         
selfi%ness ( ! savage6 :at man :o has   
kn[n ! joys ( ! high]1 ! m unselfi%     
love1 w\ld ex*ange !m = ! ungov]n$ &    
quickly-pall+ pleasures ( ! pr(ligate6  
,^! joys fir/ l5d life wor? & mean+2    

?r\gh association & altruism1           
cooep]ation 9 action & feel+1 man fir/  
becomes a p[] 9 ! _w4 ,yet ! man :o is  
capable ( ! high] sympa?y is incapable (
 a selfi% calculation ( its p]sonal     
advantages to him4  ,wundt has an       
objection to ,evolutional ,e?ics z x is 
und]/ood by ?is treatise1 on ! score ( !
 assumptions ) reg>d to moral inh]itance
 involv$4 ,h[1 out ( t5d5cies /or$ up 9 
! n]v\s sy/em1 moral conceptions arise1 
is1 & rema9s1 a my/]y1 he says4#bfe ,!  
problem is no?+ m or less ?an t ( !     
connection ( bra9-function & psy*ical   
process1 9 inh]itance2 & we may say aga9
 t we no m p]ceive ! necessity ( expla9+
 ! h[ ( ?is be=e accept+ ! evid5t facts1
 ?an we see ! necessity ( expla9+1 9 !  
same s5se1 ! connection betwe5 light &  
heat1 or betwe5 ! se5 vibrations & !    
he>d note4 ,moreov]1 ! my/]y belongs z  
mu* to ! cons]vation ( "* 9 ! individual
 life z to its cons]vation 9 ! race2 if 
an explanation be necess>y be=e         
acceptance ( ! facts 9 ! "o case1 x is  

assur$ly necess>y 9 ! o!r also2 & its   
necessity mu/ be fatal to ,physiological
 ,psy*ology4 ,x is "t t t anci5t sc>ecr[
 ( sup]/ition1 a my/]y1 7 remov$ f !    
field ( sci5ce4 ,:5 ,wundt fur!r proce$s
 to int]pret ,sp5c]'s !ory ( h]$ity z "o
 ( ! inh]itance ( di/9ct & def9ite ideas
 9 _! orig9al =m1 he reads into ! !ory  
:at ,sp5c] himself1 ) 8 conceptions (   
in/9ct & reflex action1 nev] put !re1 & 
:at1 moreov]1 no mod]n writ] on         
philosophy has di/9ctly ass]t$4 ,?is    
pres5t treatise is mu* m op5 to ,wundt's
 criticism ?an is ,sp5c]'s "w1 ?\gh x   
makes no positive ass]tion z to ! nature
 ( in/9ct & s-call$ automatism1 b leaves
 ! "q z to _! unconsci\s "* op54 ,!     
appe>ance ( common psy*ical ph5om5a at !
 p]iod ( pub]ty1 & ) *>act]i/ics        
peculi>1 moreov]1 to ! p>ticul> l9es (  
desc5t1 w\ld be en\gh to e/abli% ! fact 
( h]$ity1 if no o!r te/imony 7 =?com+2 &
 yet no "o c expla9 ! sudd5 appe>ance ( 
^! ph5om5a at a c]ta9 age4  ,b ! mo/ ( !
 objections to ,evolutional ,e?ics are n

 on su* score z ?is4 ,a :ile ago1 !     
cons]vatives 9 ,e?ics decl>$ t ! !ory ( 
,evolution1 ev5 if true1 _h no?+ to d ) 
morals1 :i* occupi$ a region f> above ! 
plane ( sci5ce4 ,n[1 ! mo/ ( !          
cons]vative s*ools cont5t !mselves )    
m]ely ass]t+ t evolution may be true ev5
 9 application to ,e?ics1 b t x is      
useless 9 ?is prov9ce1 s9ce x adds no?+ 
( value to !ory or practice4 ,x may be  
well to exam9e into ?is ass]tion4 ,a    
priori1 we c\ld sc>cely suppose t       
increas$ k 9 any bran* c\ld fail to be (
 importance to t bran* & to affect x 9  
"s mann]4 ,k is p[]1 & we %\ld presume n
 less s 9 ,e?ics ?an 9 any o!r sci5ce4  
,! ass]tion t ,evolution adds no?+ to   
!ory w\ld inde$ be z j ) reg>d to o!r   
sci5ces z ) reg>d to ,e?ics2 or1 r1 x   
w\ld be m j ) reg>d to ! natural        
sci5ces4 ,= !y at lea/ recogniz$1 be=e !
 appe>ance ( ! !ory ( ,evolution1 !     
elem5t ( con/ancy ord9>ily call$ law1 & 
attempt$ to =mulate ?is con/ancy z a    
basis ( ?\ght & action4 ,to ^! concepts 

( con/ancy & ! pr$ictions f\nd$ ^u !m1 !
 !ory ( ,evolution m]ely add$ great]    
c]ta9ty & a m ext5d$ range1 supply+ !   
bond ( union betwe5 v>i\s bran*es1 & %[+
 ! inn] relation ( _m be=e disconnect$  
!ories2 its :ole =ce 0 "o (             
cl>ification4 ,b ! "w ( ,evolution =    
,e?ics1 ?\gh ( a simil> nature1 has be5 
( ev5 great] degree & significance2 x   
has unifi$ & cl>ifi$ ! attempts made to 
discov] a basis = moral pr9ciples & has 
r5d]$ t f\ndation = ! fir/ "t secure2 x 
has cle>$ away1 ) "o sweep1 ! rubbi% (  
anci5t sup]/ition1 made exact me?ods    
possible1 & rais$ ,e?ics to ! plane ( a 
,sci5ce4 ,if x _h add$ any?+ absolutely 
new & entirely unconnect$ ) previ\s     
!ory1 x w\ld be z un9telligible to u z  
,calculus to a ,fiji-,isl&]2 if x _h no 
intimate & vital connection ) =ego+     
ideas1 x w\ld meet ) no compreh5sion or 
acceptance4 ,sci5ce1 too1 is an         
evolution1 n a creation4 ,! value ( !   
!ory ( ,evolution lies 9 ! v fact t x is
 simply an addition1 ?\gh a l>ge "o1 to 

previ\s ?\ght1 a high] phase (          
conception :i* rises naturally out ( !  
old4 ,b ! cavill]s say on ! "o h&3 ,x   
tea*es a !ory ( consci5ce z in/9ct1     
!re=e we may /ill cl+ to ! old & unalt]$
 doctr9e ( ! veil$ & sacr$ 'my/]y (     
,feel+'2 & on ! o!r h&3 ,we already     
accept$ a basis ( reason & ,utility1    
!re=e our !ory1 n be+ ov]?r[n1 ne$s no  
alt]ation4 ,bo? s*ools =get t1 9 sci5ce 
z else:]e1 ! new develops f ! old1 b    
evolution br+s ) x1 nev]!less1 a        
diff]5ce ( degree t f9ally issues 9     
diff]5ce ( k9d4 ,x has be5 said ev5 by  
"o belong+ to ! advanc$ s*ool ( ,e?ics1 
t1 if ! c\rse ( ,evolution c\ld be %[n  
to prescribe immoral conduct1 ! duty ( !
 moral man w\ld be to oppose evolution  
ev5 if he p]i%$ 9 ! attempt4 ,!         
conception :i* lies at ! basis ( ?is    
ass]tion is z errone\s z t :i* ass]ts t 
man mu/ g =w>d on ! pa? tak5 by         
evolution :e!r he w or no4#bff ,to      
suppose ! w ( society oppos+ ! c\rse (  
,evolution is to suppose a              

self-contradiction4 ,nature & man's w   
are n two diff]5t ?+s 9 ?is process2 man
 is ! "p ( nature :i* is involv$ 9 !    
evolution consid]$4 ,our pr$iction ( !  
direction ( social developm5t is a      
pr$iction ( 8 w2 he w w 9 c]ta9 ways    
con/ant 9 ! broad s5se 9 :i* all nature 
is con/ant1 con/ant z "* & reason are   
con/ant4 ,! individual has assur$ly !   
p[] to oppose himself to all o!r        
individuals1 if he s wills2 & 8 influ5ce
 w n be lo/2 b x is exactly ?is will+ & 
! mutual influ5ce ( individuals ^u ea*  
o!r :i* ! !ory ( ,evolution1 z appli$ to
 ,e?ics1 endeavors to take into acc\nt4 
,! result 9 pr$iction _c be prop]ly     
lik5$1 z x is lik5$ by ,/eph51#bfg to ! 
inf]5ce ( ! future ( an organic :ole f  
its pres5t p>ts4 ,x does n def9e !      
progress 9 society z a :ole f a /udy ( !
 individual2 x is1 on ! contr>y1 an     
inf]5ce ( ! future ( ! :ole f its pa/ & 
pres5t consid]$ 9 ! light ( g5]al       
natural laws1 & is z legitimate z !     
computation ( ! future position (       

heav5ly bodies f _! obs]v$ pa/ movem5ts 
& pres5t position2 ?\gh we c d\btless   
make only g5]al pr$ictions f g5]al      
obs]vations4 ,or1 if we approa* ! "q f  
ano!r side1 we may say t ! sci5ce (     
,e?ics endeavors to asc]ta9 ! ideal by  
:i* ! welf>e ( all may be atta9$1 & t ! 
solution ( ?is problem _c be giv5       
o!rwise ?an ?r\gh rules = ! atta9m5t ( !
 g5]al heal? 9 ! broade/ s5se ( ! ^w2 = 
?is corresponds to a f9al h>mony (      
desires ?r\gh survival ( ! fitte/4  ,!  
p[] ( pr$iction is1 ?us1 evid5tly n to  
be int]pret$ z if ! evolution ( morality
 w\ld g on except ?r\gh ! human w1 &    
?r\gh ?is w 9 individuals4 ,9 any       
ass]tion to ! contr>y1 ! same old       
contradictory division is assum$1 (     
nature z active oppos$ to nature z      
passive2 man is fir/ reg>d$ z a "p (    
nature & !n aga9 z outside nature &     
compell$ by x4 ,we divide him into two  
p>ts3 ! "o necess>ily co9cid5t ) !      
nature 9 himself1 ! o!r antagoni/ic to  
x2 ! "o absolutely passive1 ! o!r       

active2 & yet ^! two are ! same1 & we   
reg>d !m z ! same f o!r po9ts ( view4   
,nor does pr$iction impose any laws ^u !
 w f )\t2 x is simply inf]5ce f ! obs]v$
 relations 9 ! action ( individuals3 x  
does n create or alt] ^? relations4 ,x  
reckons1 n f man z compell$ by          
,necessity1 b f man z possess+ w & act+ 
f reason4 ,if man is reasonable1 he w   
p]ceive t x is = ! good ( himself z well
 z = t ( ! re/ ( 8 race to atta9 a /ate 
( h>mony2 z he is reasonable1 he w      
p]ceive t social progress is = 8 b5efit 
z well z = t ( o!rs4 ,! increas+        
solid>ity ( society cont9ually r5d]+    
progress desirable1 & ! l9e ( ! fitte/1 
t is1 ( ^? :o w 9 a mann] t be/ fits !m 
= social conditions1 cont9ually t5d+ to 
co9cid5ce ) ! l9e ( moral progress1 !   
f9al triumph ( ! moral is assur$4 ,x is 
n 9 any way d5i$ t man *ooses ?is c\rse 
( advancem5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 :]ev] we   
beg9 9 our analysis1 we come r\nd f9ally
 to ! v>iation ( reason1 emotion1 & w4  
,z above notic$1 ! false int]pretation (

 ! significance ( ,evolutional ,e?ics on
 ! subject ( man's w 9 relation to      
progress sometimes gives rise to !      
opposite errone\s impression to t j     
notic$1 to ! impression1 namely1 t      
progress w g on :e!r m5 /rive = x or n1 
& t x is ( no p>ticul> consequ5ce :at ! 
individual does1 or at lea/ t           
,evolutional ,e?ics c furni% no?+ b     
/ati/ics & pr$ictions1 nev] motives to  
"r-do+4 ,?is confusion has caus$ mu*    
self-contradiction1 has giv5 rise to !  
mo/ ( ! discussion on ! subject (       
,absolute & ,relative ,e?ics1 & has     
impell$ c]ta9 au?ors to close _! books )
 some?+ v l a half d\bt ( ! efficacy (  
_! own me?od except z "o ( obs]vation4  
,b ! value ( ,evolutional ,e?ics lies n 
only 9 ! fact t x goes deep] ?an any o!r
 sy/em & analyzes m cle>ly ! gr\nd (    
moral conduct1--?us remov+ d\bt ) ^? :o 
are op5 to conviction1 & furni%+ a less 
fallible crit]ion to ^? :o desire to    
p]ceive :]e "r lies 9 ord] to p]=m x1--b
 9 t x also r5d]s obvi\s ! fact t       

conduct oppos$ to ! welf>e ( society    
becomes1 ) "t1 m & m disadvantage\s4 ,! 
individual may escape puni%m5t = 8      
misde$s3 b ! *ances aga9/ him are       
great]1 ! great] ^! misde$s & ! long] !y
 are p]si/$ 92 x is ! av]age ( ! l9e (  
moral progress t is favor$ by natural   
selection4 ,a sy/em ( ,e?ics is a "p ( !
 environm5t :i* acts on ! individual2   
its =ce is no m lo/ ?an is t ( any o!r  
"p ( ! environm5t1 al?\gh ! result 9 !  
p>ticul> case w dep5d1 also1 on ! "* ( !
 individual appeal$ to4 ,b if           
,evolutional ,e?ics _c br+ any su* =ce  
to be> on ! individual z w *ange 8 "* 9 
an in/ant1 r5d]+ him apt & ready to act 
accord+ to ! ideal1 :atev] may h be5 8  
previ\s "*1 !re is nei!r any o!r sy/em (
 ,e?ics :i* c d ?is1 & !re has seldom   
be5 "o s sangu9e z to hope to d x4      
,!ological ,e?ics1 or r1 ,!ology1 has   
ass]t$ ! possibility ( su* in/ant       
trans=mation1 & ! doctr9e ( ,socrates t 
! k ( "r w secure its p]=mance is a mu* 
less extreme in/ance ( a simil> idea4 ,b

 ,evolutional ,e?ics1 :ile r5d]+ manife/
 ! necessity ( unceas+ endeavor1 af=ds u
 enc\ragem5t by its assurance ( !       
possibility ( progress1 & its           
demon/ration ( ! fact t ! =ce ( endeavor
 c no m be lo/ ?an any o!r =ce4 ,x adds 
dignity to ! smalle/ acts1 & l5ds       
e>ne/ness & wor? to life4 ,x nei!r      
conta9s any excuses = inaction nor      
leaves any reason op5 to pessimism      
except a selfi% "o2 to ! man to :om 8   
own selfi% gratification is all 9 all1 !
 k ( social evolution is n a matt] (    
enc\ragem5t & rejoic+2 b to ! lov] ( 8  
k9d x mu/ be4 ,evolutional ,e?ics       
admoni%es u to labor1 yet tea*es u !    
necessity ( pati5ce1 s9ce1 h[ev] !      
individual w1 no?+ arises all at once1 &
 ! evolution ( morals 9 society z a :ole
 mu/1 l all o!r evolutions1 be a        
gradual1 because a _m-sid$ "o4 ,x       
admoni%es u1 too1--& ?is is well1--t we 
_c s9 )\t leav+ ineffaceable /a9s ^u our
 own "*4 ,! pa/ is nev] dead1 ei!r 9 its
 results outside ourselves or 9 our     

habit2 & x is n ! drunk>d only :o "o day
 awak5s to f9d himself irrevocably      
m\ld$1 by /eps ( habit s slight z to h  
be5 almo/ imp]ceptible1 to t :i* he once
 loa!d & dete/$4 ,our de$s are l *ildr5 
t are born to u2 !y live & act ap>t f   
our own w4 ,nay1 *ildr5 may be /rangl$1 
b de$s nev]2 !y h an inde/ructible life 
bo? 9 & out ( our consci\sness4#bfh ,we 
may n be a m]e spectator ( ! /ruggle =  
exi/5ce ev5 if we w2 ! dead weight (    
inaction is itself a =ce oppos$ to o!r  
=ce4 ,willy1 nilly1 s long z we live we 
mu/ be> ! responsibility ( tak+ a "p =  
or aga9/ ! progress & welf>e ( ! _w4  ,b
 !re is1 z ,i h said1 a sy/em :i* ass]ts
 ! possibility ( in/ant entire *ange (  
"*1 z well z ( ! =giv5ess & oblit]ation 
( pa/ s9s4 ,:at mann] ( oblit]ation is  
?is8 ,n ! oblit]ation ( ! consequ5ces ( 
! acts1 s9ce t is impossible1 b an      
oblit]ation ( responsibility = !m su* t 
! do] may erase !m f 8 consci5ce4 ,!    
innoc5t on :om ! evil results fall are1 
!n1 accord+ to ?is view1 ! only ones :o 

%all suff] = !m4 ,! doctr9e ( !         
,atonem5t takes away t s5se ( p]sonal   
responsibility :i* is mo/ ess5tial to   
morality1 & ?is removal ( responsibility
 expla9s ! ease ) :i* ,*ri/ians ( all   
ages h comb9$ a f]vid religiosity ) vice
 & crime4 ,*ri/ian !ories ( morals ( !  
pres5t day =bid ! issue ( indulg5ces2 b 
! consci\sness t full & free =giv5ess is
 always wait+ to receive ! (f5d] :5ev]  
he gets ready to rep5t1 ev5 if x is n   
until 8 dea?-b$1 is mo/ p]nici\s 9 its  
results4 ,s we le>n1 = in/ance1 t !     
,mollie ,maguires1 a league =m$ 9 ! m9es
 ( ,p5nsylvania a few ye>s ago1 = !     
express purpose ( murd] by cooep]ation1 
7 9 ! habit ( op5+ _! meet+s ) pray]1 & 
( )draw+ regul>ly f ! society1 = "o     
qu>t] ( ! ye>1 to att5d *ur*1 9 ord] !n 
to murd] ) an easy consci5ce = ! o!r    
?ree qu>t]s4 ,! s5ior memb] ( ,conan    
,doyle's ,firm ( ,girdle/one is no m]e  
fiction ( ! imag9ation4 ,i h no desire  
to jo9 ) ^? :o pron\nce all ,*ri/ians1  
or ev]y?+ 9 ,*ri/ian doctr9e1 morally   

uns\nd2 ,i only ma9ta9 t ! doctr9e ( !  
,atonem5t is 9 itself p]nici\s1 & is %[n
 to be s by its easy reconciliation )   
evil action4  ,!ological ,e?ics is      
defective 9 o!r respects also4 ,a sy/em 
:i* repres5ts ,god z accompli%+ 8 own w 
9 ! _w 9 my/]i\s ways1 to "q :i* is     
sacrilege1 has necess>ily l$ to ! excus+
 ( mu* evil z puni%m5t or discipl9e1 & s
 to inaction aga9/ x4 ,m5 c d s little  
!mselves to make ! _w bett]1 said a     
f]v5t ,*ri/ian to me n long s9ce2 we mu/
 leave ^! ?+s to ,god4 ,s1 pov]ty has   
be5 held to be a my/]i\s disp5sation (  
,provid5ce :i* x 0 n necess>y to d away 
) ev5 if its aboli%m5t 7 possible1 b !  
slight alleviation ( :i* 0 c\nt$ among !
 means ( atonem5t = o!r s94 ,?us x has  
be5 9 o!r ways ?an 9 itself a curse to  
mank9d1 furni%+ a sort ( indulg5ce = !  
immoralities ( ! ri*4 ,pov]ty has ev5   
be5 repres5t$ z a bless+1 s9ce x 0 to be
 comp5sat$ ) d\ble joy 9 ! h]eaft]4 ,!  
,*ri/ian1 po9t+ ! mis]able & />v+ to    
,heav5 z a recomp5se = pa91 exp]i5c$1   

)\t l>gely inconv5i5c+ himself1 a s5se (
 8 own piety & des]t1 & ex]t+ himself to
 no radical cure b only to a meagre dole
 ( *>ity1 %ift$ all responsibility ( !  
cure or its omission1 by pray]1 to ,god4
 ,s ,salt] is l$ to exclaim3 ,if we mu/ 
pray1 let u pray to m52 = !re all !     
tr\ble lies4 ,c\ld y1 ,o *ur*es1 b op5 !
 he>ts ( y\r wor%ipp]s z y seek to move 
! he>t ( ,god1 ! ne$ = all o!r pray]    
w\ld soon be gone4#bfi  ,aga91 ,!ology  
has cont9ually taught t man's fir/ duty 
0 to save 8 own s\l f hell1 & 9 ?is     
doctr9e1 ideas ( rep5tance & r$emption1 
fai? & wor%ip1 h play$ a l>g] "p ?an m]e
 morality4 ,! t5d5cy has1 !re=e1 be5    
t[>ds an o!r-worldl9ess1 an egoism ( !  
,h]eaft]1 r ?an a fulfilm5t ( ! comm&m5t
 ( love4 ,fai? has be5 exalt$ above love
 ( ,tru?1 & bl9d ob$i5ce above reason+  
morality4 ,?us x 0 t ,*ri/ians ent]$1 ) 
su* zeal1 into ! p]secution ( h]etics4  
,_h ! comm&m5t ( ju/ice3 d unto o!rs z  
ye w\ld t !y %\ld d unto y1 be5 foll[$1 
! ,inquisition c\ld nev] h tak5 place4  

,b ,*ri/ians =get1 :5 !y po9t to ?is    
comm&m5t 9 evid5ce ( ! sup]iority (     
,*ri/ian ,e?ics1 t x is n ! only comm&  
or doctr9e t ! ,bible conta9s4 ,nor is  
?is conception ( love to o!rs1 :i*      
,*ri/ians h cont9ually cit$ z te/imony (
 ! div9e orig9 ( _! religion1 conf9$ to 
,*ri/ianity or ev5 orig9al ) x4 ,_m o!r 
religions conta9 x4 ,! ,buddhi/ religion
 enjo9s t[>ds all creatures su* love z t
 ) :i* a "m wat*es ov] h] own *ild1 h]  
only *ild4  ,x is true t ! majority ( ! 
objectionable po9ts ( ,*ri/ian ,e?ics   
are f\nd 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,?is te/am5t
 is1 h[ev]1 accept$ z ! expon5t ( div9e 
tru?1 ?\gh ! au?ority x n[ possesses is 
slight 9 comp>ison ) t :i* x =m]ly held4
 ,yet ,*ri/ himself says3 ,?9k n ,i am  
come to de/roy ! ,law 7i4e41 !          
,p5tateu*71#bgj or ! ,prophets1 ,i come 
n to de/roy1 b to fulfil4 ,=1 v]ily1 ,i 
say unto y1 ,till heav5 & e>? pass1 "o  
jot or "o tittle %all 9 no wise pass f !
 ,law till all be fulfill$4 ,:osoev]1   
!re=e1 %all break "o ( ^! lea/ comm&m5ts

 & %all tea* m5 s1 he %all be call$ !   
lea/ 9 ! k+dom ( heav52 b :osoev] %all d
 & tea* !m1 ! same %all be call$ great 9
 ! k+dom ( heav54 ,repeat$ly1 ,*ri/ %[s 
himself a /rict con=mant to ! ,jewi%    
code4 ,b if we exam9e ! ,p5tateu*1 !    
,jewi% ,law1 we %all easily f9d on :at  
gr\nds ! burn+ ( h]etics & wit*es1 & all
 ! o!r cruelties ( ! ,middle ,ages 7    
committ$ 9 ! "n ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,lubbock 
writes1 = in/ance3#bga ,among ! ,jews1  
we f9d a sy/em ( animal sacrifice on a  
great scale1 & symbols ( human sacrifice
 :i* c1 ,i ?9k1 only be und]/ood on !   
hypo!sis t ! latt] 7 once usual4 ,! case
 ( ,jeph?ah's daught] is g5]ally look$  
^u z exceptional2 b ! tw5ty-eigh? &     
tw5ty-n9? v]ses ( ! tw5ty-sev5? *apt] ( 
,leviticus appe> to indicate t human    
sacrifices 7 at "o "t habitual1 among ! 
,jews4 ,see also #b ,sam4 xxi4 #a1 #e-i1
 #ad4 ,9 ,lev4 xx4 #bg2 ,ex4 xxii4 #ah1 
! /on+ ( wit*es is comm&$4 ,9 ,ex4 xxii4
 #bj2 ,deut4 xiii4 #a-e1 #f-aj1 #ad1    
#ae2 xvii4 #a-e2 xviii4 #bj1 x 0 comm&$ 

t m5 be put to dea? = idolatry or h]esy 
or = dream+ dreams 9 ! s]vice ( ano!r   
god1 & t idolatr\s cities %\ld be utt]ly
 de/roy$ ev5 to ! cattle )9 !m4         
,sup]/ition & insanity mu/ h f>$ ill    
among ! ,jews4 ,ex4 xxxi4 #ad1 #ae2     
xxxv4 #b1 #c2 s5t5ce ( dea? is pron\nc$ 
on any :o %all p]=m ev5 s mu* labor z ! 
k9dl+ ( a fire on ! ,sabba?2 & ,num4 xv4
 #cb-cf1 describe h[ a man 0 put to     
dea?1 by ,god's comm& to ,moses1 = ga!r+
 /icks on t day4 ,dea? 0 also comm&$ =  
murmur+ & = all sorts ( c]emonial       
(f5ces2 see1 = in/ance1 ,ex4 xii4 #ae1  
#ai2 xxx4 #cc-ch2 ,lev4 vii4 #bj-bg2    
xvii4 #h-aj1 #ac-af2 xix4 #e-h2 xxiii4  
#bi1 #cj2 xxiv4 #aj-af1 #bc2 ,num4 i4   
#ea2 iii4 #aj1 #ch2 iv4 #ae1 #ah-bj2 xi4
 #a2 xvii4 #ac2 xviii4 #c1 #g1 #bb2 see 
also especially ,deut4 xxviii4 #ae-fh2  
xxxii4 #bb-db4 ,comm& ( subjection to ! 
prie/hood on pa9 ( dea? is f\nd 9 ,deut4
 xvii4 #h-ab1 & examples ( fe>ful       
puni%m5t = prote/ aga9/ its supremacy   
are giv5 9 ,num4 xvi4 #c-ae1 #bj1 #ba1  

#bf-ce1 #da-dg1 #di4 ,x may be notic$1 t
 "h ! *ildr5 are repres5t$ z p]i%+ ) !  
p>5ts by ,god's express comm& & miracle4
 ,_m in/ances ( ! /on+ & putt+ to dea? (
 :ole families = ! s9s ( "s memb] or    
memb]s ( ! family are record$ 9 ! ,old  
,te/am5t1 & prove t ! expression visit+ 
! s9s ( ! fa!rs ^u ! *ildr51 & ^u !     
*ildr5's *ildr51 unto ! ?ird & to ! f\r?
 g5]ation1 is n to be int]pret$ z a m]e 
ref]5ce to h]$ity1 z _m h endeavor$ to  
prove x to be4 ,see on ?is po9t ,is4    
xiv4 #ba2 also ,ps4 cix4 #g-bj2 cxxxvii4
 #i4 ,! orig9 ( ordeals may be trac$ to 
,num4 v4 #aa-ca4  ,! ,old ,te/am5t also 
sanctions slav]y1 & makes no prote/     
aga9/ ! sell+ ( *ildr5 into slav]y2 see 
,ex4 xxi4 #b-f1 #g2 ,lev4 xxv4 #dd-dg2  
al?\gh ! ,israelites 7 to treat slaves &
 s]vants ( _! own nation ) mu* great]   
k9dness ?an t us$ t[>ds ^? ( o!r        
nations4 ,ex4 xxi4 #bj1 #ba1 prescribes 
t a man %all n be puni%$ = beat+ 8      
s]vant to dea?1 provid$ ! s]vant does n 
die directly "u 8 h&1 b l+] a day or    

two2 = he is 8 money4 ,*ri/ians h (t5   
prote/$ t _! religion _c be held        
responsible = ! s9s ( ! prophets1--=    
,david's murd] ( ,uriah 9 ord] to obta9 
! wife ) :om he _h already committ$     
adult]y2 = 8 torture ( ! ,ammonites )   
saws & axes & h>r[s & fire1 & 8 h\gh+ ( 
! horses ( a ?\s& ,moabiti% *>iots2 =   
,solomon's concub9age & 8 slaught] (    
,joab accord+ to ,david's la/ ord]s2 =  
,elijah's :olesale slaught] ( ! prie/s (
 ,baal2 or = ! ?\s& o!r vices1 crimes1 &
 atrocities describ$ 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t z
 committ$ by ,god's *os5 m51 g5]ally )\t
 puni%m5t or prote/ f him4 ,h[ev]1 !    
case is n s easily dismiss$ :5 we f9d j 
z great cruelties & atrocities directly 
ascrib$ to ,god's express comm& or      
miracul\s int]position4 ,a l>ge numb] ( 
su* are includ$ 9 ! passages already    
notic$2 & we fur!r f9d descriptions ( a 
de/ruction f ,god = ! crime (           
c5sus-tak+#bgb--a ,*ron4 xxi4 #a1       
#aa-ae--;= t\*+ ! ark 9 ! endeavor to   
save x f a fall--#b ,sam4 vi4 #f1       

#g1--;& = _m o!r trifl+ (f5ces4 ,god is 
always repres5t$ z favor+ ! ,israelites 
9 _! w>s & massacres1 & (t5 z comm&+ !  
slaught] ( ?\s&s2 s t we c easily und]/&
 h[ x happ5$ t ! c[>dly murd]]s ( !     
,duke ( ,gl\ce/]1 9 ! "t ( ,ri*>d ,,ii41
 swore ^u ! ,body ( ,*ri/ be=e a c]ta9  
*apla9 ( ,/4 ,george 9 ! *ur* ( ,our    
,lady ( ,calais1 t !y w\ld n disclose ! 
murd] !y 7 ab\t to p]petrate1#bgc z     
also1 on :at prec$5t ,russia1 at !      
pres5t day1 has h] w>-eng9es bless$ by  
prie/s ( ! ,god ( ,battles4 ,deut4 xx4  
#aj-ae1 comm&s ! slaught] ( males       
captur$ 9 a siege1 b ! sp>+ alive ( wom5
 & *ildr5 z booty2 & ,num4 xxxi4        
describes a case 9 :i* ! comm& 0 c>ri$  
out1 ) ! res]vation ( a c]ta9 portion ( 
"y girls = ! prie/s4 ,see also ,deut4   
xxi4 #aj-ad4 ,fur!rmore1 a religion t   
makes man absolute rul] ( ! e>? & all   
liv+ ?+s1 & sanctions animal sacrifice1 
_c conduce to a s5se ( ! duty (         
self-re/ra9t t[>ds o!r species1 & is1 9 
fact1 (t5 us$ z an excuse = ! autocracy 

& cruelty ( man4  ,x is1 inde$1 /range  
to see civiliz$ peoples ( ! n9ete5?     
c5tury proclaim+ ! div9e orig9 ( laws & 
beliefs l ^!--laws & beliefs at lea/ z  
b>b>\s z ^? ( ! ,greeks & ,romans ^:    
gods ! ,*ri/ians d]ide1 & f> beh9d !    
,e?ics ( "s philosophical sy/ems produc$
 among ^? hea!n peoples4 ,z has be5     
said1 v>i\s attempts h be5 made to      
expla9 away ^! b>b>ities1 or to )draw   
all responsibility = !m f ,god1 to :om !
 ,old ,te/am5t (t5 directly ascribes !m4
 ,b 9 ! light ( :at we "k ( o!r         
primitive peoples ! cu/oms ( ! ,jews are
 only too easily compreh5sible2 ! same  
b>b>ities ( human & animal sacrifice1   
slav]y1 murd] )\t pity1 & unscrupul\s   
cruelty ( e sort1 7 to be f\nd1 z we h  
se51 among _m o!r anci5t peoples4 ,z =  
)draw+ ! responsibility f ! ,god ( !    
,jews1 ,*ri/ians =get t1 9 d5y+ ! div9e 
orig9 ( ! cruel1 brutal1 & obsc5e laws  
ascrib$ to ,god toge!r ) o!r laws ( less
 b>b>ity b ( organic gr[? ) ^!1 !y are  
=ev] de/roy+ ! gr\nds ( belief 9 any    

ass]tion ( div9e sup]vision1 & ?r[+     
d\bt1 by implication1 on ! ,new ,te/am5t
 z well1 s9ce ,*ri/ & 8 foll[]s 7       
believ]s 9 ! ,law & ! ,prophets1 & (t5  
ref] to _! ass]tions & acc\nts ( div9e  
direction4 ,b mo/ religions h claim$1 & 
d claim1 ! div9e orig9 & ratification ( 
_! laws1 z a means ( en=c+ !m4  ,! ,god 
( ! ,jews1 ,jehovah1 0 orig9ally a      
nature-god1 ! god ( ! heav5s1 l ,zeus1  
,jupit]1 & _m o!r ( ! greate/ gods ( o!r
 peoples4 ,sci5ce has explod$ anci5t    
ideas ( ! sky2 b ! ,*ri/ians /ill cl+ to
 ! old t]ms br\ght into use at a "t :5  
m5 believ$ 9 a flat e>? & a region (    
spirits above floor$ by an opaque heav54
 ,! ,god ( ! ,jews 01 l ! gods ( all    
primitive peoples1 a jeal\s & rev5geful 
god1 r to be fe>$ ?an lov$2 = to su*    
peoples1 possess+ few res\rces aga9/ !  
p[]s ( nature & ignorant ( _! "*1 !     
de/ructive =ces ( ! elem5ts appe>$ at   
fir/ r evil ?an good1 & !re=e to be     
conciliat$ & appeas$2 ! gods take on _! 
fri5dly "* only z man comes to le>n h[ !

 =ces ( nature may be employ$ = 8       
b5efit1 & z he sl[ly atta9s1 9 himself1 
to sympa!tic & moral feel+4 ,accord+ly1 
! ,jews 7 cont9ually occupi$ ) all mann]
 ( propitiatory (f]+s ( _! mo/ valuable 
possessions--_! h]ds & ! fruits ( ! e>?2
 & ^! 7 burnt "u ! impression common to 
ne>ly all primitive & savage tribes1 t  
!y suff]$ by fire a sort ( dea? & ent]$ 
! spiritual _w4 ,gradually1 ! ,jews     
became m civiliz$1 & took on ! high]    
ideals ( ,ea/]n religions ) :i* !y came 
9 contact2 b ev5 to v rec5t date1 ! fe> 
( ,god 0 reg>d$ z ! *ief ess5tial       
emotion on ! "p ( ! wor%ipp]4 ,( late1 z
 social ideals h become high]1 & sympa?y
 m g5]al1 ! idea ( love1 lo/ = a "t     
?r\gh ! mixture ( ,ea/]n peoples ) m    
b>b>ic ones1 has come to ! =e4 ,t a     
doctr9e ( poly!ism is cle>ly taught 9   
,g54 iii4 #bb2 vi4 #a-d1 ,*ri/ians d n  
g5]ally ev5 notice4 ,! idea ( demigods1 
f\nd 9 ! latt] v]se1 is call$ by !m1 :5 
!y meet ) x 9 ! ,greek or ,roman        
religion1 a my?2 & ! idea ( sexual      

int]c\rse betwe5 m5 & gods1 also taught 
9 ^! v]ses1 is held wor?y ( all         
abhorr5ce1 :5 ^! hea!n religions are "u 
consid]ation4 ,! fact is1 t exegesis1   
=c$ to advance by progress+             
civilization1 has left f> beh9d ! simple
 orig9al mean+ ( bible-texts1--su*      
obvi\s mean+ z ,*ri/ians f9d 9 !        
,buddhi/1 ,p]sian1 or ,egyptian         
,scriptures1 :5 !y p]use !m4 ,?is is    
true ( ! ,new ,te/am5t z well z ( !     
,old4 ,! ,*ri/ian religion has inde$    
develop$ into a sy/em ( ,*ri/ian        
philosophy z diff]5t f ! ,*ri/ianity    
w>rant$ by ! ,old & ,new ,te/am5ts z 7 !
 lat] ,buddhi/ philosophies f orig9al   
,buddhism4  ,:5 ,*ri/ conf]r$ ^u 8      
,apo/les ! p[] to =give s9s1 he laid !  
f\ndation = papal au?ority1 & confirm$ !
 anci5t au?ority ( ! prie/hood1 prep>+ !
 way = t organization ( prie/craft :i*  
figur$ s prom95tly 9 all ! sorr[ful     
hi/ory ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,moreov]1 !   
ve9 ( sadness & ! subord9ation ( natural
 modes ( life :i* m>k 8 tea*+ z !y m>k  

only 9 a great] degree ^? ( ! ,buddha1  
easily l$ to ! celibacy & mortification 
( ! fle% :i* s long condemn$ ! mo/      
aspir+ f a moral po9t ( view1 ! mo/     
g5tle & consci5ti\s1 to a life (        
lonel9ess1 & peopl$ ! _w ) ! prog5y ( ! 
less moral4 ,inde$1 if we read ,matt4   
xix4 #ab correctly1 ,*ri/ di/9ctly      
taught emasculation z a high religi\s   
virtue4  ,! ,new ,te/am5t tol]at$ !     
slav]y upheld by ! ,old ,te/am5t1 & we n
 only f9d no prote/ :atev] aga9/ x1 b we
 ev5 f9d ,paul return+ a runaway slave  
to 8 ma/]4 ,n only ,paul1 b ,john also1 
taught bo? pr$e/9ation & hell-fire =    
idolat]s & unbeliev]s1 z well z = !     
fe>ful & d\btful1 equally ) murd]]s1    
:oremong]s1 & li>s3 ,rev4 xvii4 #h2 xx4 
#ae4 ,*ri/ himself pla9ly proclaims !   
damnation ( unbeliev]s--,matt4 xxii4    
#ac1 #ad2 xxiii4 #ad1 #cc2 ,m>k xvi4    
#af2 etc4--& he at ! same "t ass]ts a v 
positive doctr9e ( pr$e/9ation1 av[+ t  
he himself takes special pa9s t _m ( ^? 
to :om he prea*es %all n be able to     

und]/& him1 believe1 & be sav$3 ,m>k iv4
 #aa1 #ab2 ,john xii4 #ci1 #dj4 ,8      
language on ^! subjects is v cle>1 &    
be>s no sign ( be+ int5d$ z figurative1 
?\gh mod]n ,*ri/ians pref] to reg>d x z 
su* r ?an to rel9qui% a religion !      
morals ( :i* w\ld1 by o!r int]pretation1
 be prov$ inadequate to ! dem&s ( !     
/&>ds ( high] civilization2 ! same me?od
 ( exegesis appli$ to ! sacr$ books (   
,confucianism or ( ,buddhism1 f :i* x n[
 appe>s probable t v _m ( ! ,*ri/ian    
ideas 7 d]iv$1 w\ld suit !m ill4 ,b ev5 
if ,*ri/'s language 7 figurative1 x mu/ 
h "s mean+2 ! wra? & v5geance ( ,god are
 cont9ually spok5 ( 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t z 
well z 9 ! ,old4 ,su* expressions 7 n   
look$ ^u1 until ( late1 z figurative1 & 
!y d\btless did mu* to ju/ify1 to ! m9ds
 ( e>li] ,*ri/ians1 ! burn+ ( h]etics4  
,! ju/ification ( all s9 9 ,god's elect1
 a p]man5t indulg5ce1 is pla9ly taught  
by ,paul1 ,rom4 viii4 #cc2 iv4 #e-h2 #a 
,cor4 vi4 #ab4 ,let u take ! ,buddhi/   
,scriptures1 &1 9 ! light ( ! bett]     

passages1 or 9 ! light ( ,siddh>?a's    
devotion to tru? & to 8 fell[ m51       
int]pret ! passages :i*1 morally1 we f9d
 want+1 & we %all f9d ?is religion z    
beautiful z ! ,*ri/ian4  ,a *ief reason 
(t5 advanc$ by ,*ri/ians = cont9u$ fai? 
9 _! religion1 is ! com=t conf]r$ by a  
belief 9 immortality & ! =giv5ess ( s9s 
?r\gh ,*ri/2 t is1 ! rescue ( m5 f !    
wra? ( ,god ?r\gh ! (f]+ ( an innoc5t   
be+1 a human sacrifice1 :i* 0 to be> ?is
 wra?1 & appease x1 accord+ to ! old    
,jewi% idea ( ! scapegoat4 ,! morality (
 ! la/ doctr9e we h already condemn$2   
!re is no real mak+ atonem5t 9 ?is _w2  
we %\ld recognize ?is fact1 be> !       
responsibility ( our de$s1 & 9 ! light (
 pa/ exp]i5ce1 avoid ! repetition ( our 
old s9s4 ,& ! moral "q z to mortality or
 immortality is n3 ,:at is ! pleasant]  
to believe8 b ,:at is ! tru?8 ,9 ?is    
recomm5dation ( ! pleasant 9 belief1 we 
h b an illu/ration ( "o ( ! *ief defects
 ( ,*ri/ian !ory1 :i* lays mo/ /ress ^u 
fai? & f> less ^u a love ( ! ,tru? at   

all co/s4 ,! peace ( ! ,*ri/ian's       
dea?-b$ is (t5 made "o ( ! *ief argum5ts
 9 favor ( ! ,*ri/ian religion4 ,b ! m9d
 9 :i* !re exi/s ! noble love ( tru? w  
seek ?is only at ! co/ ( all peace &    
bl9d cont5t4  ,on ! g5]al connection (  
fai? & morals1 ,clif=d writes3 ,belief 9
 ,god & 9 a future life is a s\rce (    
ref9$ & elevat$ pleasure to ^? :o c hold
 x4 ,b ! =ego+ ( a ref9$ & elevat$      
pleasure1 because x appe>s t we h no "r 
to indulge 9 x1 is n 9 itself1 & _c     
produce z its consequ5ces1 a decl9e (   
morality4#bgd ,inde$1 ,*ri/ianity1 z has
 be5 already rem>k$1 & z is conclusively
 %[n by any consci5ti\s & unprejudic$   
exam9ation ( ! ,bible itself1 leaves    
room = an ease ( consci5ce & a          
self-excuse 9 ev5 v great s9s1 :i* no   
high /&>d ( morals c tol]ate4 ,h[ _m (  
^? :o att5d *ur* regul>ly1 on ,sunday1  
are re/ra9$ by _! religion f practis+   
vice & inju/ice on week-days1 "u !      
consolation1 if _! consci5ce tr\bles !m 
at all1 t _! pray]s = =giv5ess & !      

be/[al ( *>ity1 or ev51 9 extremity1 a  
dea?-b$ rep5tance w make _! peace )     
,god8 ,9 place ( an attempt at rep>ation
 t[>ds m51 aga9/ :om s9 is really done1 
,*ri/ians are taught to seek ! =giv5ess 
( ,god4 ,"s !re are1 inde$1 :o rememb]  
only ! law ( love & endeavor to foll[ x4
 ,all honor to !m4 ,b !y are adh]5ts ( a
 mod]n ,*ri/ian ,philosophy1 ! product (
 _m good m5 :o h w9n[$ out ! :eat ( _!  
religion & left ! *aff2 !y are n foll[]s
 ( ! ,bible1 or ev5 ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 z
 a :ole4 ,_m !re are :o are p]ceiv+ ?is1
 & ! old sy/em ne$s replacem5t ) a new] 
& high]--) a sy/em :i* af=ds cle> &     
evid5t gr\nds = moral action1 leaves no 
room = my/icism1 self-ju/ification1 or  
inaction1 (f]s no opiate to consci5ce4  
,su* a sy/em mu/ be f\nd$ on ! solid    
rock ( sci5tific ,tru?2 n on any doctr9e
 ( bl9d ob$i5ce to traditions2 x mu/    
take into acc\nt man's evolution1 t x   
may progress ) 8 progress4  ,_m t]m !   
,e?ics ( sci5ce dry & un9spir+1 & turn1 
) pref]5ce1 to religions :i*1 if !y give

 u my/icism or pessimism1 give u poetry 
also2 = man is an emotional z well z an 
intellectual be+2 & !re may be mu*      
poetry 9 pessimism4 ,b aga91 x may be   
said t ! ,tru? is t :i* we %\ld fir/    
seek4 ,& especially let x be rememb]$ t1
 if poetry is lack+1 x may be t !       
defici5cy is 9 ourselves4 ,x is a hi/ory
 _m times repeat$1 t m5 call _! age &   
its ideas dry & un9t]e/+1 & seek _!     
ideals & inspirations 9 ! pa/1 until !  
ma/]-m9d arises1 :o boldly faces &      
int]prets ! realities ab\t him2 & !n m5 
exclaim & wond]1 & f9d t _! own         
bl9dness1 & n ! age1 0 at fault4 ,we cl+
 by habit to ! old & fe> ! new2 & s we h
 yet to inspire ^! new ideals ) ! beauty
 ga9$ by association & habit2 9         
!mselves1 !y d n lack beauty4 ,9 tru?1 z
 ,i believe t !re is m ( poetry 9 ! gray
 wires /rung across our /reets & guid+ !
 swift1 sil5t1 fe>ful =ces 9 :i* lies   
p[] to light a city or de/roy a life1   
?an ev] 0 9 any feeble-flam$ ,grecian   
lamp1 s ,i believe also t1 9 ! dry1 h>d1

 cold-seem+ facts ( mod]n sci5ce !re    
lurks m poetry ?an all ! ages gone h    
kn[n2 ?\gh we may ne$ ! poet to int]pret
 x to u4 ,! highe/ poetry is t ( love2 &
 x is ! realization ( ?is poetry t !    
,e?ics ( ,evolution tea*es1 promises1 & 
enjo9s4 ,c]ta9ly ! sup]ficial           
,utilit>ianism :i* looks only at ext]nal
 =ms ( gov]nm5t & cu/oms & !            
ari?metically calculat$ relations ( m51 
n at _! inn] "* & ! organic complexity (
 moral que/ions1 _c satisfy 9 ! long    
run4 ,nor c ! bald ,mat]ialism satisfy  
:i*1 /&+ by its analysis 9 physical t]ms
 l ! physiologi/ 9 ! dissect+-room ) 8  
*emicals ab\t him & ! dead n]ves &      
muscles 9 8 h&1 exclaims ) a triumph t  
is half a sne]3 ,?is is all4 ,x is n    
all4 ,! syn!sis ( nature & ( life _c be 
repres5t$ by its p>ts m]ely2 ! bond (   
organization want+1 all is want+4 ,nor  
is ! action 9 ! bra9 m real1 m =ceful1 m
 spontane\s1 or fre]1 ?an ! love = a    
fri5d1 ! ?\ght ( him1 or ! w to d him a 
k9dness4  ,,footnotes3  #bef ,moral     

,ord] & ,progress1 p4 #bib2 ,"p ,i41 ?is
 book1 pp4 #bej1 #bea4  #beg ,moral     
,ord] & ,progress1 p4 #bhg1 etc42 ,"p   
,i4 p4 #bdi1 ?is book4  #beh ,moral     
,ord] & ,progress1 pp4 #cjg1 #cab2 ,"p  
,i4 pp4 #bej1 #beb1 #bec1 ?is book4     
#bei ,moral ,ord] & ,progress1 ,book ,i4
 ,*ap4 ,,ii42 ,"p ,i4 pp4 #bca1 #bcb1   
?is book4  #bfj ,moral ,ord] &          
,progress1 p4 #ccb4  #bfa ,see ,die     
,entwicklungsges*i*te des ,weltalls4    
#bfb ,moral ,ord] & ,progress1 p4 #bgj2 
,"p ,i41 ?is book1 p4 #bdg4  #bfc ,on ! 
!ory ( ,weismann4  #bfd ,human          
,progress1 ,pa/ & ,pres5t1 ,! ,ar5a =   
,jan41 #ahib4  #bfe ,e?ik1 p4 #cdd4     
#bff ,see ,"p ,i4 p4 #adg4  #bfg ,!     
,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 pp4 #cb-cd4  #bfh     
,george ,eliot1 ,romola4  #bfi ,salt]1  
,e?ical ,religion4  #bgj ,x is /range t 
ev5 enlight5$ ,*ri/ians (t51 )\t ?9k+1  
int]pret ! ,scriptures ref]r$ to by     
,*ri/ z if !y1 9 "s way1 includ$ ! ,new 
,te/am5t1 :i* 0 n writt5 till long aft] 
8 dea?4  #bga ,! ,orig9 ( ,civilization1

 p4 #cgc4  #bgb ,sup]/iti\s fe>s are (t5
 awak5$ 9 savage tribes1 & among !      
ignorant ( our own m advanc$ societies1 
by attempts at c5sus-tak+4  #bgc ,pike1 
,hi/ory ( ,crime1 ,i4 p4 #dje4  #bgd    
,essays & ,lectures1 ,! ,influ5ce ^u    
,morality ( a ,decl9e 9 ,religi\s       
,belief4     ,,*apt] ,,ix  ,,! ,,ideal  
,,& ,,! ,,way ,,( ,,its ,,atta9m5t      
,mr4 ,/eph5 que/ions ! possibility ( our
 det]m9+ at all :at a /ate ( ideal      
morality %\ld be4 ,i %\ld cont5d1 on !  
contr>y1 t !re w\ld be little           
disagreem5t 9 op9ions z to :at ! ideal  
%\ld be1 b t r our *ief difficulties mu/
 lie 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! c\rse to be    
pursu$ 9 ord] to atta9 to ! ideal4 ,!   
pr(ligate1 x is true1 w n be likely to  
ackn[l$ge t self-control & fai?fulness  
are p>ts ( an ideal condition if he ?9ks
 t ! ackn[l$gm5t b9ds him 9 any way to  
fai?fulness & self-control 9 8 own      
conduct2 & ! di%one/ man w be *>y (     
admitt+ t hone/y is desirable if 8      
consci\sness sugge/s t he ought !re=e to

 practise unv>y+ hone/y himself4 ,b !   
di%one/ man is g5]ally v ?or\ghly       
conv9c$ ( ! desirability ( honor &      
uprightness 9 e "o else2 & ! pr(ligate  
also is g5]ally bo? among ! l\de/ 9 8   
d5unciation ( unfai?fulness 9 ^? he     
feels %\ld be true to him1 & suffici5tly
 ready to ackn[l$ge ! social advantages 
( pr9ciples opposite to 8 own1 if y c b 
conv9ce him t x is only a matt] ( pure  
!ory y are discuss+1 :i* w d\btless nev]
 be put 9 practice by society z a :ole1 
& :i* 9 no way int]f]es ) y\r ?or\gh    
approval ( 8 own action4 ,s1 too1 !     
cruel1 ! r\gh1 & ! rude1 w easily       
confess t unselfi%ness1 unfail+ k9dness1
 tact1 & consid]ation 9 ! re/ ( society1
 are :at ! _w ne$s4 ,did ^! virtues     
exi/1 !re w\ld be no ne$ ( ! *oice      
betwe5 evils n[ necess>y4 ,t :i* really 
tr\bles u is ?is *oice1 ! difficulty (  
asc]ta9+ j :at c\rse is ! be/1 :i* br+s 
u ne>e/ to our ideal1 assi/s mo/        
effectually 9 ha/5+ developm5t t[>ds t  
goal4 ,= !re is no c\rse1 "u exi/+      

conditions1 :i* is :olly advantage\s to 
society1 none :i* does n involve "s     
evil4 ,x foll[s1 f ?is1 t x is          
insuffici5t to %[ t any p>ticul> c\rse  
involves "s advantage to "s "o 9 ord] to
 demon/rate t x is ! "r "o1 z also t x  
is insuffici5t to %[ t a c\rse involves 
evil to "s "o 9 ord] to demon/rate t x  
is wrong4 ,x is n prov$ t1 because !    
re/ra9t ( any p>ticul> desire or passion
 is att5d$ ) pa9 to ! individual1 x is  
wrong4 ,! argum5t has (t5 be51 & is     
/ill1 advanc$--seem+ly ) ! idea t x is  
conclusive--t ! indulg5ce ( physical    
passion 9 y\? t5ds to sobriety &        
/ead9ess 9 lat] ye>s2 &1 ) a simil> idea
 app>5tly1 a dramatic critic falls into 
a rhapsody ov] ! mann] 9 :i* ! *>act]s 9
 a rec5t play come out purifi$ by ! evil
 !y h wr\ght or endur$4#bge ,b ev5 if   
?is argum5t 7 sci5tifically s\nd1 x w\ld
 n prove ! desirability (               
self-indulg5ce1 s9ce n ! individual     
alone is to be consid]$4 ,! argum5t is1 
h[ev]1 errone\s4 ,) advanc+ ye>s comes 9

 g5]al1 9 any case1 a dim9ution (       
passion1 or at lea/ a great] admixture (
 reason2 b ap>t f ?is1 indulg5ce t5ds to
 increase desire & t5d5cy1 except z     
excess may lead to morbid conditions1 or
 ! disreg>d ( high] in/9cts to          
disappo9tm5t & cynicism4 ,:5 we are     
told1 9 ano!r play ?an ! "o m5tion$     
above1 & app>5tly ) ! idea t ! /atem5t  
is an excuse1 t ! h]o c\ld f9d no o!r   
outlet = ! exub]ance ( 8 y\? ?an !      
s$uction ( an innoc5t girl1 we may see  
no reason to d\bt ! ass]tion1 b we may  
"q :e!r society has n a "r1 nev]!less1  
to suppress a little ( su* exub]ance or 
turn x into o!r *annels4 ,! man born )  
fi]ce & ungov]nable fury 9 8 disposition
 may likewise feel a /rong prop5sity to 
express ! exub]ance ( 8 y\? 9 a murd] or
 two2 b ,i see no reason :y society %\ld
 p]mit him to d s4 ,! passion ( ang] is 
also a p]fectly natural "o1 & !         
ungov]nable fury :i* l$ to murd] 0 n an 
exception ) our ance/ors ( ! savage     
plane1 b ! rule4 ,n all natural passion 

is to be indulg$ simply because x is    
natural2 & ev5 ! fact t a t5d5cy is good
 9 mod]ation & "u c]ta9 re/rictions is  
no pro( t x is good or to be indulg$ 9  
immod]ation1 or )\t ^! re/rictions4 ,x c
 h be5 only by re/riction ( ! natural   
savage fury t ?is fury grew less prom95t
 9 "*4 ,! cannibal transport$ into      
civiliz$ society may /ill h a /rong &   
p]fectly natural hung] = my sp>]ibs1 b t
 is no suffici5t reason :y he %\ld get  
!m4 ,jack ! ,ripp] is end[$1 evid5tly1 )
 a v passionate love = 8 human          
vivisection1 & f9ds x an outlet = an    
exub]ance :i* also bubbles out o!rwise 9
 _m ways2 yet ,i ?9k society w be       
ju/ifi$ 9 putt+ a p]emptory end to t    
exub]ance1 :5 x gets ! opportunity4     
,morality is inde$ a matt] ( welf>e1 &  
s1 ( ! gratification ( desire & t5d5cy2 
b nei!r ! pres5t alone1 nor ! s+le      
individual 9 pref]5ce to all ! re/ (    
society1 is to be consid]$4 ,ef=t %\ld  
be ex]t$ cont9ually = ! r$uction ( pa9  
to a m9imum1 9 e respect possible1 )    

reg>d to ! individual & ! m9ority z well
 z ) reg>d to ! majority1 ?\gh ! great] 
good & ! great] numb] mu/ always take   
prec$5ce4 ,! rule ( ! majority may be   
ass]t$ to be moral 9 t x is ! be/       
possible exp$i5t :]e !re is disagreem5t 
( desires4 ,! necessity = *oice betwe5  
evils is ! orig9 ( ! pr9ciple ( !       
,greate/ ,good to ! ,greate/ ,numb]1 &  
?is1 z has be5 said1 cov]s all ! gr\nd1 
if rightly appli$4 ,b x (f]s a          
temptation to /op ) ! m]e comp>ison (   
two sums ( individuals & degrees (      
happ9ess = ! "t be+1 )\t tak+ into !    
problem ! wid] results ( a p>ticul>     
*oice to society z a :ole1 ?r\gh habit &
 p]sonal influ5ce4 ,! consid]ation ( ^! 
la/ important factors has l$1 on ! o!r  
h&1 to su* rules z t ( ,kant1--,act s t 
! maxims ( ?y w might be tak5 z !       
pr9ciple ( univ]sal action2 & ?is rule1 
because x goes deep]1 is less likely to 
lead to error4 ,! moral requirem5t (    
cont9ual ef=t to f9d ! be/ me?od ( r$uc+
 ! evil /ill rema9+1 ( recomp5s+ !      

individual & ! m9ority = ! good ( :i* !y
 are necess>ily depriv$1 ne$s especial  
emphasis2 = ! cont9ual direction (      
att5tion to ef=t = progress1 ev5 :]e no 
outw>d *ange is1 = ! mom5t1 possible1   
con/itutes an inw>d progress 9 "* :i* is
 ev] ready to issue 9 ext]nal progress !
 in/ant opportunity pres5ts itself4     
,pres5t pa9 to individuals is ! sign (  
imp]fection 9 ^? p]mitt+ x & ^? suff]+  
x1 & mu/ result 9 increase ( t5d5cy 9   
?is direction ( imp]fection unless x    
takes place only 9 spite ( ! mo/ vigor\s
 ef=t = its prev5tion4 ,ev5 ! re=m] mu/ 
*oose t to :i* he w\ld *iefly apply 8   
endeavor1 ) "s necess>y )drawal ( ef=t f
 o!r directions4 ,yet ! neglect ( any   
pres5t opportunity ( re=m or b5efit1    
?\gh x may sometimes be necessitat$ = ! 
ga9 ( "s m important future good1 is    
/ill an out]1 & also1 especially1 an    
inn] evil1 :i* c be comp5sat$ only by a 
high degree ( sup]iority 9 ! future good
 to be obta9$4 ,z ! man :o1 p]haps f !  
fe> ( fail+ 9 ?or\ghness1 leaves all    

orig9al "w until middle age1 is likely  
to f9d 8 p[] ( orig9ality mu* det]iorat$
 by t "t1 s ! man :o is cruel to-day1 9 
ord] to be k9d 9 "s wid] respect lat]   
on1 is likely to f9d1 on ! f9al arrival 
( opportunity1 if ! p]iod ?r\gh :i* !   
unk9dness is ex]cis$ be a long "o1 t 8  
capacity = k9dness has dim9i%$4 ,e      
neglect ( pres5t opportunity is a loss  
to "* z well z an ext]nal loss4 ,:5 !   
pres5t good pass$ ov] = ! sake ( !      
future includes ! welf>e ( :ole lives1 !
 "q ( *oice & ! po/ponem5t ( good       
becomes /ill grav]2 :5 x includes       
g5]ations1 we ne$ to consid] e>ne/ly    
be=e we take on ourselves !             
responsibility ( a *oice t %all pref] ! 
future4 ,i _c agree ) ^? :o believe or  
practically live out ! idea t ! pres5t  
g5]ation is only or *iefly = ! sake ( ! 
future g5]ation1 ! p>5ts only = ! sake (
 _! *ildr51 or ! individual only = !    
sake ( society z a :ole4 ,we ne$ to     
rememb] t ! race includes pres5t &      
future1 & p>5ts & *ildr51 & has no      

exi/5ce outside ! individuals t compose 
x4 ,x is difficult to reconcile ! _m    
conflict+ pr9ciples2 & ?us x appe>s t   
morality is n easy1 ev5 :]e e>ne/ desire
 = x exi/s1 & t diff]5t views ) reg>d to
 x may be consci5ti\sly held4 ,!        
difficulty only increases ! duty (      
cont9ual endeavor to reconcile ! _m     
diff]5t conditions ( happ9ess & welf>e4 
,we come ?us naturally to a "q ( !      
day1--! conte/ betwe5 ! ,individuali/ & 
! ,sociali/4  ,:at has already be5 said 
makes x suffici5tly evid5t t1 if        
,individualism is to be ma9ta9$ at all1 
x _c be upheld on ! gr\nd t ! do+s ( !  
individual are ( no importance to       
society1 & 8 s9s may !re=e n be int]f]$ 
) by society4 ,9 ,social ,/atics1 ,mr4  
,sp5c] secures fre$om = p]sonal vice by 
turn+ 8 pr9ciple t a man has a "r to    
seek 8 own ends z long z he does n      
prev5t o!rs f ! pursuit ( _! ends1 into 
! entirely diff]5t "o1 t a man has a "r 
to seek a c]ta9 end if he does n prev5t 
o!rs f seek+ ! same end4#bgf ,! argum5t 

9 ?is =m is appli$ to drunk5ness1 b x   
c\ld z well be us$ to prove ! moral     
rightness ( murd] or any o!r crime1 !   
sole condition be+ t ! murd]] did n     
prev5t o!rs f committ+ ! crime also4    
,nor is ! ,individualism less           
self-contradictory :i* bases its !ory on
 ! pr9ciple t x is ! (fice ( civil law  
to gu>d ! rights ( ! individual4 ,:at   
individual8 ,all individuals8 ,if s1 !n 
assur$ly x is ! duty ( ! ,/ate to see t 
! labor] is paid a fair price = 8 "w4   
,nor c x be %[n1 z ,hoeffd+ ass]ts1 t   
intellectual labor b5efits ! :ole (     
society1 :ile manual labor is less      
valuable because x is = a few4 ,!       
intellectual labor] kn[s well ( :at     
value to him & 8 ilk is ! manual labor  
:i* fe$s him1 clo!s him1 & manufactures 
! ?\s& & "o ?+s necess>y = 8 com=t1     
leav+ him leisure to pursue 8 /udies )  
all mat]ial wants provid$ =4 ,!         
satisfaction ( our mat]ial wants is ! v 
fir/ requisite ( life1 )\t :i*          
intellectual labor w\ld be an           

impossibility4  ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m     
degrees & %ades ( ,individualism4 ,z    
,hoeffd+ says1 ,individualism may be    
id5tical ) ,egoism1 b x ne$ n be s4 ,&1 
moreov]1 z has be5 notic$1 ! adh]5ts (  
!ories ( ,egoi/ic ,morals are n         
necess>ily adh]5ts ( any !ory (         
selfi%ness4  ,! !ories be>+ ! "n (      
,socialism are also v v>i\s1--q z mu* s 
z ^? includ$ "u ! head ( ,individualism4
 ,x is1 !re=e1 bo? confus+ to consid]   
,socialism )\t "s notice ( ! di/9ction  
betwe5 ^! v>i\s phases ( !ory1 & is     
likely to lead to prote/ f "o side or ! 
o!r4 ,b no s+le p>ty ( ,sociali/s c be  
treat$ exclusively z ! ,sociali/s2 a    
m9ority ( ! p>ty _c expect to be reg>d$ 
z any?+ b a m9ority4  ,( ! t5d5cy to    
repres5t ! :ole ( ! pres5t ord] (       
society z utt]ly bad1--a t5d5cy n conf9$
 to ! ,sociali/ p>ty1 b nev]!less       
/rongly develop$ 9 _m p>ts (            
x1--consid]able has already be5 said4 ,z
 ,hoeffd+ rem>ks1 x is difficult to     
p]ceive h[1 9 an utt]ly corrupt society1

 any f\ndation may be f\nd on :i* to    
build ! almo/ flawless society !        
,sociali/ proposes to in/itute4 ,if !   
c\rse ( evolution has hi!rto be5        
propiti\s to ! increase ( evil1 x is    
difficult to f9d any sci5tific gr\nds = 
a belief t evolution w n[ proce$ to     
favor ! good4 ,if man1 z a be+ possess+ 
reason1 has hi!rto *os51 9 increas+     
degree1 inju/ice t[>ds 8 fell[-man1 x is
 sc>cely possible = any "o :o proce$s ^u
 ! supposition ( con/ancy 9 ! action (  
man z a "p ( nature to hope t future    
ev5ts w exhibit exactly opposite        
*>act]s4 ,assur$ly1 we are f> en\gh f ! 
goal yet1 b 9 ord] to demon/rate ?is    
fact x is n necess>y to prove t we are  
worse ?an any previ\s age has be54 ,!   
t5d5cy to lay /ress1 by e means1 on     
pres5t evil1 9 ! endeavor to impress its
 reality & undesirability ^u ! m9d (    
society1 is compreh5sible2 & d\btless1  
too1 z ! tr\bles ( ! individual are     
likely to appe> to himself among ! h>de/
 possible1 s to ^? on :om ! evils ( !   

age press mo/ sev]ely ^! are likely to  
seem great] ?an ! evils ( any o!r times4
 ,b ?is me?od ( reg>d+ hi/ory is n !    
less errone\s4 ,9 ! age ( *ivalry m5 _h 
at lea/ a common ideal1 said a ,sociali/
 to me1 n long s9ce4 ,b :at an ideal6 ,&
 unity ( purpose is n by any means      
necess>ily a sign ( a high plane4 ,x    
may1 on ! contr>y1 signify /upidity1    
lack ( ! p[] ( indep5d5t ?\ght4 ,! fir/ 
result ( ?\ght on any p>ticul> subject  
is sure to be a division ( op9ion1      
al?\gh mutual criticism gradually       
evolves h>mony f ! /rife1 & br+s ab\t a 
degree ( unity aga91 on a high] plane2 =
 ! mutual criticism is sure to h be5 (  
intellectual use4 ,! ,sociali/s !mselves
 h demon/rat$ ! fact t division ( op9ion
 necess>ily arises :5 m5 beg9 to ?9k ^u 
any "q1 = ) ! developm5t ( _! p>ty _m   
diff]5t phases ( sociali/ic !ory h      
appe>$4 ,! hi/ory ( ! division ( ! ,*ur*
 into sects1 & ( ! mutual criticism ( ^!
 sects1 has be5 ! hi/ory ( religi\s     
progress4  ,) "s ,sociali/s1 aga91 !    

already criticis$ idea ( a return to    
nature plays a conspicu\s "p4 ,b we h   
nev] dep>t$ f nature2 we are z mu* a "p 
( nature1 z natural1 z we ev] 74 ,or1 if
 we are to return1 :o %all tell u at j  
:at po9t we leave ! artificial & arrive 
at ! natural8 ,!re are no /opp+-places1 
no /ations or pauses1 9 ! scale (       
evolution4 ,!re is only cont9ual *ange  
by inappreciable increm5ts4 ,! !ory (   
evolution c>ries ) x no significance :i*
 c\ld au?orize u to consid] t we _h     
arriv$ at our goal at "o po9t r ?an at  
ano!r4 ,&1 aga91 if we are to give up ! 
artificial cu/oms ( lat] developm5t &   
return to e>li] habits1 !n cu/oms (     
altrui/ic action1 z ! mo/ di/9ctive &   
*>act]i/ic ( lat] =ms ( conduct1 mu/ be 
*iefly affect$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 by a return 
to nature is meant ! adoption ( a simpl]
 mode ( life 9 "s classes 9 ord] t a    
less simple b m heal?ful "o may become  
possible 9 o!r classes1 ! "q ( !        
desirability ( su* a *ange is1 ( c\rse1 
op5 to discussion2 b let u consid] x "u 

^! t]ms !n4 ,to designate ! propos$ mode
 ( life z a return to ! natural1 ?us    
mak+ pres5t modes ( life artificial1 is 
to smuggle 9 an illegitimate assumption 
aga9/ ! latt]4  ,x is ! habit ( a       
portion ( ! ,sociali/ p>ty to repres5t !
 labor] z ! epitome ( all ! virtues1 !  
capitali/ z 8 moral opposite4 ,?is view 
_c be o!r ?an errone\s1 consid]$ f any  
/&po9t4 ,moral evil _c affect "o "p ( a 
closely unit$ society )\t affect+ ! o!r 
p>ts also1 ?\gh x may assume diff]5t =ms
 9 diff]5t p>ts4 ,?is %\ld be1 9        
reality1 ! ,sociali/'s /ronge/ argum5t1 
& is1 inde$1 "o :i* he con/antly makes  
use ( 9 o!r connections4 ,if ! /eady    
labor ( "o class is (t5 associat$ )     
c]ta9 virtues1 !re are _m elem5ts ( its 
surr\nd+s :i* t5d to develop & enc\rage 
c]ta9 vices also2 & if1 on ! o!r h&1    
excessive weal? is (t5 ! condition1 z   
well z ! result1 ( selfi%ness1 /ill !   
relief f mat]ial anxieties may be us$1  
on ! o!r h&1 z opportunity = o!r useful 
labor1 & leaves room1 inde$1 = a        

developm5t ( f9] intellectual & moral   
qualities4 ,to reply t mu* great] good  
w\ld accompany o!r conditions is        
irrelevant2 = we are n n[ comp>+        
actualities ) ideals1 b "o class ( p )  
ano!r "u exi/+ circum/ances4  ,a some:at
 simil> phase ( idea to t j consid]$ is 
f\nd 9 ! agitation aga9/ ma*9]y4 ,?is   
agitation is n ( rec5t date1 h[ev]2 x   
began ov] two c5turies ago1 & w\ld1 if x
 _h succe$$1 h depriv$ ! _w ( ne>ly all 
! com=ts & conv5i5ces :i* h1 s9ce !n1   
become possible4 ,d\btless ! aboli%m5t (
 ma*9]y w\ld tempor>ily furni% labor to 
all ! unemploy$4 ,inde$1 x has be5      
comput$1 f facts suppli$ by ! /ati/ical 
bureau ( ,b]l91 t x w\ld require ab\t   
d\ble ! numb] ( inhabitants n[ on ! face
 ( ! globe to p]=m ! labor accompli%$ by
 ! /eam works ( ! pr9cipal civiliz$ l&s4
 ,b ! increase ( ! e>?'s inhabitants    
dep5ds1 to a great ext5t1 on ! favorable
 or unfavorable circum/ances ( !        
environm5t2 & we _c suppose o!rwise ?an 
t ! sudd5 accession ( abundant means (  

livelihood w\ld cause a v great         
accel]ation ( ! rate ( increase & s a   
spe$y return ( ! old problem4 ,ev5      
suppos+ t a c]ta9 recklessness ( sexual 
indulg5ce w\ld be done away ) "u bett]  
circum/ances :i* af=d$ access to o!r    
means ( pleasure ?an ! purely physical1 
?is ov]-indulg5ce leads q z (t5 to      
/]ility & disease z to excess ( (fspr+4 
,habit & op9ion n be+ matt]s (          
in/antane\s or ev5 rapid *ange1 ! new   
ord] ( society w\ld v l>gely dep5d ^u ! 
"* & ideas acquir$ "u ! old ord]1 &     
population mu/ increase ) a rapidity    
fo/]$ by an imm5se multiplication (     
regul> m>riages1 & by m heal?ful        
surr\nd+s = (fspr+ at all ages4         
,un*eck$1 z hi!rto1 by ! excessive      
mortality due to fam9e1 fil?1 & neglect1
 x mu/ soon arrive at a po9t :]e !      
que/ions ( competition aga9 pres5t      
!mselves4 ,b ma*9]y is a relative t]m4  
,e tool & device = light5+ labor is1 9  
fact1 a ma*9e1 & takes1 by def9ition1 f 
! labor ( ! _w4 ,:51 !re=e1 we %\ld f9d 

ourselves face to face ) ! =m]          
conditions1 ,i d n see t any consi/5t   
c\rse w\ld lie be=e u b ! do+ away ) our
 m complicat$ tools1 &1 lat]1 ) our less
 complicat$ ones1 & s on1 z ! increase (
 ! _w's inhabitants br\ght aga9 & aga9 !
 recurr5ce ( que/ions ( competition1    
until we %\ld arrive1 at l5g?1 at t     
anci5t /ate ( ?+s :]e all transport w\ld
 be made by port]s1 l& pl\gh$ by ! po9t$
 /ick1 & clo!s--if we cons5t$ to )draw  
labor f ! cultivation ( ! e>? = !       
manufacture ( su* luxuries--w\ld require
 = ! prep>ation ( ea* g>m5t sev]al      
weeks1 mon?s1 or ev5 ye>s ( "w4 ,i d n  
see :]e else ! !ory ( ! aboli%m5t (     
ma*9]y = ! sake ( supply+ labor to !    
unemploy$ c logically & practically     
lead1 especially z ! )drawal ( ma*9]y   
mu/ mean1 9 ! end1 ! )drawal ( ^?       
opportunities = cultivat+ ! arts &      
sci5ces :i* ! leisure f m]ely me*anical 
pursuits alone c give4 ,"u m primitive  
conditions ( labor1 ! ignorance ( !     
masses mu/ spread m & m1 until its wid5+

 circle mu/ take 9 ! great majority (   
m51 z 0 ! case :5 ^! primitive          
conditions prevail$4 ,9 o!r words1 !    
aboli%m5t ( ma*9]y means social         
retrogression1 &1 if af=d+ tempor>y     
relief1 leaves ! race1 9 ! end1 on a l[]
 plane ( evolution1 ) ! "w ( advancem5t 
to its =m] plane all to d ov] aga94  ,& 
?is br+s u to ! consid]ation ( ano!r    
po9t1 namely1 ! agitation aga9/         
luxury1--an agitation c>ri$ on n1 l t   
aga9/ ma*9]y1 by only a portion1 if a   
consid]able portion1 ( ! ,sociali/ p>ty1
 b by t p>ty z a :ole4 ,we may inquire1 
!n1 z to :at luxury is4 ,! ,sociali/s   
f9d consid]able tr\ble 9 def9+ x2 !y    
g5]ally cont5t !mselves ) ! ^w alone1   
leav+ x undef9$ or ref]r+1 ) a g5]al    
indef9it5ess1 to velvets1 jewels1 &     
laces1 or diamonds & silks2 ! ,g]man    
,sociali/s h sometimes %[n p>ticul>     
antipa?y to ! glace glove2 & a society (
 ,engli% ,sociali/s li/5$1 n long ago1  
to a lecture 9 :i*1 z an example ( !    
re=ms propos$ by ,socialism1 x 0        

prophesi$ t ! ev5+-dresses ( ! future   
w\ld be made ( m la/+ ?\gh n less       
delicate & beautiful mat]ial4 ,?is la/  
w\ld assur$ly be desirable1 if x c\ld be
 c>ri$ out2 b x rema9s to be se5 9 h[ f>
 x is practicable4 ,! ?+s :i* are ! mo/ 
delicate1 :e!r !y be clo?+ or o!r       
articles1 are ord9>ily likewise ! mo/   
p]i%able2 ! union ( delicacy ( texture )
 endurance is a problem t c be solv$    
only by gradual improvem5t if at all2 & 
x is probable t x c be solv$ only       
relatively 9 "s cases & n at all 9 o!rs2
 yet !re are few p :o w n f9d delicacy  
an attribute ( beauty4 ,few w disagree )
 ,m4 de ,laveleye t beauty ( co/ume mu/ 
consi/ r 9 h>mony ( colors & purity (   
l9e ?an 9 ! m]e co/l9ess ( ! goods2     
h[ev]1 9 a l>ge numb] ( cases1 excess ( 
price corresponds to "s actual          
sup]iority ( color1 durability1 or      
texture1 9 ! goods4 ,d\btless x is true 
t "s ?+s 7,m4 de ,laveleye in/ances     
opium7 may co/ mu* money & yet be       
useless or ev5 h>mful2 b ?is v limit$   

ass]tion _c1 by any logical me?od1 be   
conv]t$ into an ass]tion t ! price ( an 
article is an argum5t aga9/ x4 ,ev5 !   
extra price dem&$ & paid = novelties    
corresponds to an actual1 g5]al desire =
 v>iety1 & if ?is is (t5 c>ri$ too f>1 !
 fact /ill rema9s t ! want is inh]5t 9  
all human nature1 inde$1 9 all life1 &  
_c be entirely disreg>d$4 ,! proposal ( 
,m4 de ,laveleye to re9/itute a national
 dress is1 = ?is reason1 a fooli% &     
in>ti/ic "o4 ,no two p are suit$ to     
exactly ! same co/ume2 & ! m society    
develops ! m ! individual %[s a desire =
 individuality 9 dress4 ,no nation ) a  
s5se ( beauty w ev] cons5t to et]nal    
sam5ess4  ,luxury is relative1 z ,m4 de 
,laveleye himself ackn[l$ges4 ,we might 
def9e x1 z he does at "o po9t1#bgg by   
excess ( price or labor exp5d$4 ,9 t    
case1 su* articles z ^? ,african dresses
 :i* x takes sev]al ye>s to manufacture 
w\ld assur$ly come "u ! head ( luxuries1
 & mu/1 z su*1 be condemn$ f ! /&po9t ( 
! tribal plane ( advancem5t2 ?\gh !y are

 n equal 9 texture or ta/e (            
ornam5tation to _m ( ! *eape/ ( ,engli% 
goods1 )9 ! rea* ( all b ! v poore/4    
,:at are1 ) ,europeans1 ! b>e           
necessities1 or com=ts ( l[e/ grade1    
repres5t ! extreme ( luxury to !        
,africans on ^: plane our ance/ors once 
/ood4 ,_m ( ! ?+s :i* are reg>d$ by !   
av]age individual ( to-day z            
indisp5sable--e-day com=ts--7 )9 ! rea* 
( only ! weal?y few1 a c5tury ago1 &    
c\ld be _h only z r>e & *oice articles1 
to be pres]v$ ) ! greate/ c>e4 ,! com=ts
 ( a c5tury ago repres5t1 aga91 !       
luxuries ( a prec$+ age1 & s on4 ,almo/ 
all products ( labor are co/ly & r>e    
be=e !y c become *eap & abundant4 ,_h   
our ance/ors ent]ta9$ a sociali/ic      
prejudice aga9/ ! luxuries ( _! age1 &  
resolv$1 ) "o accord1 to =ego _!        
manufacture z supply+ only artificial   
ne$s1 we %\ld n h _h !m to-day2 b x is  
d\btful :e!r ! social problem w\ld be   
any ne>] solution ?an x is4 ,! agitation
 aga9/ ma*9]y1 at lea/1 is ill comb9$ ) 

an agitation aga9/ luxury2 = e removal (
 ma*9]y mu/ make luxuries out ( :at 71  
be=e1 m]e com=ts1 & advance ! ?+s n[    
reg>d$ z necessities to ! plane ( !     
pres5t com=ts1 z f> z exp5diture ( labor
 is reg>d$4 ,m4 de ,laveleye di/+ui%es  
betwe5 rational & primitive ne$s &      
irrational1 sup]flu\s1 or spuri\s1 ones2
 & he def9es ! rational ones z ^? :i*   
reason ass]ts & hygi5e det]m9es4#bgh ,b 
f ! m]ely hygi5ic po9t ( view1 e ne$    
be>s ) x1 by its v exi/5ce1 a title to  
"s consid]ation1 heal? & ! gratification
 ( desires be+ mo/ intimately connect$4 
,c]ta9ly luxury is n necess>ily         
inconsi/5t ) ! mo/ heal?y physique1 or !
 longe/ life4 ,_m ( ! ?+s ord9>ily look$
 ^u z luxuries pres5t unusually         
favorable conditions = heal?4 ,nor c !  
"q be decid$ by arbitr>ily pron\nc+ all 
desires = luxury spuri\s4 ,to ,m4 de    
,laveleye & a m9ority ( o!rs !y may     
appe> s2 b :at "r has ! individual to ! 
assumption t all ne$s beyond 8 own are  
spuri\s8 ,ev5 ! poor] classes ( society 

w\ld1 = ! mo/ "p1 be v glad to possess !
 luxuries ( ! ri*1 & f9d !m desirable2 9
 o!r words1 ^? desires :i* ,m4 de       
,laveleye pron\nces spuri\s app]ta9 to v
 ne>ly all human be+s :o h at all =m$ a 
conception ( _! possibility4 ,! savage  
does n desire :at we t]m luxury 9 z f> z
 he kn[s no?+ ( x4 ,! argum5t t luxury  
is wrong or irrational simply because m5
 once 7 able to d )\t x is by no means  
conclusive4 ,! conditions ( life1 !     
employm5ts ( human be+s1 are f> diff]5t 
n[ f ^? ( ! "t :5 m5 liv$ 9 h\ses (     
osi]4 ,primitive ! desire = luxury may n
 be2 b if we attempt to det]m9e :at is  
primitive 9 man1 we %all meet )         
excessive difficulties4 ,& aga91 if we  
decide ! "q on ! basis ( any assumption 
aga9/ ! non-primitive1 we mu/1 9 all    
consi/5cy1 exclude1 z has already be5   
said1 all high] e?ical emotion & ! love 
( art & sci5ce2 none ( ^! c be pron\nc$ 
primitive4 ,possibly we might def9e     
hung]1 ?ir/1 sexual appetite1 & ! desire
 = a com=table degree ( w>m?1 z ! mo/   

primitive human ne$s2 & ^!1 inde$1 are  
soon satisfi$2 b ! man :o has no ne$s   
beyond ^! c n repres5t ! social ideal4  
,! :ole hi/ory ( civilization f c5tury  
to c5tury is ! hi/ory ( ! =mation ( new 
ne$s & ! gradual satisfaction ( ^! 9    
l>g] & l>g] circles1 until _! objects1 f
 co/ly & h>dly obta9able r>ities1 h     
become articles ( common use4 ,) ?is    
c\rse ( developm5t1 co>s5ess has        
decreas$1 ref9em5t & ta/e h become m    
g5]al4 ,nor c we1 z has be=e be5 /at$1  
divide ! human be+ into 8 sep>ate       
desires & functions1 & assume t he c get
 rid ( ?is or t "o )\t influ5c+ all4 ,! 
desires ( ! human be+ are ( organic     
gr[?1 & ! desire = luxury has an organic
 connection ) ! ta/e & ref9em5t ) :i* x 
has gr[n4 ,x is impossible t ! love (   
beauty 9 g5]al %\ld develop )\t !       
appe>ance ( a desire = beauty 9 !       
details ( e-day life1--9 ut5sils1 clo?+1
 surr\nd+s ( e sort2 z x is impossible1 
also1 t ?is desire = beauty 9 p>ticul>s 
%\ld be disp5s$ ) )\t a correspond+     

retrogression 9 ref9em5t & love ( beauty
 9 g5]al4 ,"o ( ! *ief exp5ses (        
,am]ican ent]ta9m5ts is ! pr(usion (    
fl[]s us$ 9 decoration1 & (t5 mo/       
arti/ically arrang$2 & :atev] else may  
be said on ! subject1 ! pleasure d]iv$ f
 !m c sc>cely be t]m$ spuri\s or        
irrational4 ,n all l>ge sums sp5t by !  
ri* are giv5 = m]e display or =         
s5suality2 !y may be sp5t = sci5tific   
exp]im5ts on a l>ge scale1 l ^? (       
,edison1 = travel1 = books1 = /atu>y &  
f9e pictures1 = f9e ar*itecture1 = ri*  
tape/ries & c>pets1 & ev5 9 great       
measure = appliances & me?ods t secure  
great] cleanl9ess & m heal?ful ways (   
liv+ altoge!r4 ,nor are ! appliances (  
art & culture z desirable 9 huge museums
 or draughty & ill-v5tilat$ libr>ies1 or
 any:]e else :]e ! individual is =c$    
into ! noise & num]\s o!r annoyances ( a
 promiscu\s cr[d1 z 9 8 own home1       
arrang$ accord+ to 8 own peculi>ities ( 
ta/e1 & associat$ ) all ! joys ( love & 
dome/ic fre$om4 ,:5 sympa?y has become s

 g5]al & s /rong t n only m5 b wom5 also
 c f9d _! be/ intellectual enjoym5t 9   
public places1 ^! reasons w cease to be 
( any =ce1 b at pres5t !y h ev5 moral   
=ce2 & s9ce inh]5t "* is a matt] (      
evolution1 a condition ( g5]al sympa?y &
 mutual consid]ation1 & ev5 ( univ]sal  
common dec5cy1 mu/ be ( sl[ gr[?4 ,x may
 fur!r be said1 9 p>ticul>1 t !re is no 
mat]ial m us$ by arti/s ?an !           
s-mu*-decri$ velvet2 aga91 _m p ( ta/e1 
:o o!rwise sp5d money = little m ?an !  
necessities ( life1 f9d a peculi>       
delight 9 ! delicacy ( f9e laces1 & are 
will+ to =ego _m o!r pleasures 9 ord] to
 possess !m4 ,george ,eliot's ,doro!a1  
o!rwise simple ( habit1 cont5t ) h] pla9
 wool g[n1 f\nd a peculi> fasc9ation 9 !
 colors ( an em]ald bracelet1 & num]\s  
p]sons confess to a simil> pleasure 9 ! 
*ang+ ra9b[ ( ! diamond1 or ! cle> blue 
( ! sapphire4 ,^! desires & pleasures   
exi/2 !y exi/ 9 p ( comp>ative ta/e2 !y 
exi/ z ! result ( human progress2 !y are
 n conf9$ to a few individuals2 & !y _c 

be dismiss$ ) a m]e arbitr>y def9ition (
 !m z artificial1 sup]flu\s1 irrational1
 or spuri\s4  ,! m cultivat$ ,sociali/  
compla9s ( ! lack ( ta/e 9 society2 & an
 arti/ :o is also a ,sociali/ n long ago
 express$ 8 regret t art 0 at pres5t    
unable to prev5t ! we>+ ( unbecom+ =ms (
 dress1 etc4 ,b we tru/ t ?is is n a h9t
 t sociali/ic gov]nm5t w\ld und]take to 
decree :at =ms ( dress %\ld be adopt$2 &
 we sc>cely ?9k t x c\ld supply ta/e    
itself to all p1 or r5d] diff]5ces (    
ta/e impossible4 ,ta/e is1 l ev]y?+     
else1 a matt] ( evolution2 x mu/ make   
its exp]im5ts1 & und]go _m failures = e 
/ep 9 advance4 ,! mod]n av]age ( ta/e is
 z mu* 9 advance ^u ! av]age ( our      
savage ance/ors z ! mod]n av]age (      
morals is an advance ^u savage morals4  
,! ideal ( ta/e is1 by def9ition1 above 
! av]age2 & x may be d\bt$ :e!r ! "t w  
ev] come :5 !re w n be bo? degrees &    
diff]5ces ( ta/e1 & also an ae/hetic    
sup]iority ( ta/e among ^? :o devote _! 
lives to art t w r5d] ! av]age poor to  

!m4  ,if1 !n1 we are to condemn luxury  
on any t5able sci5tific gr\nds1 we mu/  
face ! fact t x is an organic feature ( 
! progress ( human society 9            
intellectual & moral "*1 & a "p ( human 
happ9ess2 & we mu/ %[1 ov] aga9/ ^!     
und5iable facts1 outweigh+ reasons =    
condemn+ x4 ,! matt] is m difficult ?an 
a sup]ficial ,utilit>ianism p]ceives4   
,! "q seems to be "o ( ! rel9qui%m5t (  
c]ta9 ?+s on ! "p ( "o class1 9 ord] t  
ano!r may be elevat$ to a high] plane4  
,c]ta9ly1 no "o c d5y t ! pres5t mis]y &
 degradation 9 society is a moral wrong1
 & t x is our duty to seek "s me?od by  
:i* x may be remov$ z spe$ily z         
possible4 ,b :at is ! degree (          
rel9qui%m5t :i* w suffice to raise all !
 poor to a plane ( com=t8 ,)\t def9+ !  
ta/es = ! ref9em5ts or elegancies ( life
 z spuri\s1 or1 except z !y are         
p]sonally injuri\s or associat$ )       
idl5ess1 z 9 !mselves bad1 we mu/ admit 
t !re are _m exagg]ations ( exp5diture =
 ! m]e pleasure ( ! mom5t to a v small  

m9ority ( individuals1 :i*1 9 view ( !  
joys ! same sums might secure =         
multitudes1 _c be ju/ifi$4 ,b suppose t 
we d away ) ! sp5d+ ( imm5se sums = !   
ent]ta9m5t ( pr9ces & pot5tates1 ) !    
lavi%+ ( weal? on a s+le d9n]1 on a s+le
 reception1 on c>riages built = ! m]e   
purpose ( c>ry+ a s+le millionaire bride
 to ! *ur*-door1 & ) ! o!r exp5ses ( ?is
 ord]2 %all we be able1 z a result1 to  
supply all ! de/itute ) com=ts8 ,or to  
:at l5g? mu/ we g1 to :at grade ( luxury
 mu/ we desc5d 9 our re=ms1 9 ord] to   
secure ?is8 ,x w\ld c]ta9ly n be = !    
g5]al good t society z a :ole %\ld      
rel9qui% all ! ref9em5ts t x has won 9  
its evolution & be r$uc$ to a m]e       
bread-&-butt] level 9 ! equaliz+        
process4 ,beyond ! sup]ficial utilit>ian
 comp>ison ( ! two classes we h to      
consid] also ! welf>e ( society z a     
:ole4 ,if we _c morally def5d !         
sacrifice ( ! g5]al good to "o class1   
nei!r c we def5d its sacrifice to ano!r 
class4  ,& "h we come aga9 to !         

population "q4 ,x is fooli% to suppose t
 "*1 z already =m$1 at any p]iod1 9     
adults1 z inh]it$ correlative ) physical
 organization1 & z fur!r influ5c$ by !  
contact ( *ildr5 ) p>5ts1 husb&s )      
wives1 fri5ds ) fri5ds1 & classes )     
classes1 c\ld be *ang$ 9 ! tw9kl+ ( an  
eye4 ,x is fooli% to suppose t m5 w\ld  
become all at once1 ) ! accession (     
com=t1 wise1 prud5t1 self-controll$1 &  
unselfi%4 ,on ! contr>y1 ^? unus$ to    
prosp]ity are g5]ally ! ones :o use x   
lea/ well :5 _! lot is sudd5ly *ang$4   
,_m w\ld n p]ceive or realize :at       
results _! action w\ld h on ! condition 
( future g5]ations1 & _m w\ld n c>e z   
long z !y !mselves escap$ ^? results4   
,we _c1 !re=e1 conceive o!rwise ?an t ! 
rate ( increase ( population w\ld suff] 
an imm5se accel]ation1 7 prosp]ity to be
 all at once secur$ to all classes4     
,suppos+1 !n1 t ! equalization ( weal?1 
or t ev5 com=t to ! poor] classes1 7    
possible )\t a return to too primitive a
 /&>d ( life = all society1 w\ld ! re=m 

be a p]man5t "o8  ,! population "q is "o
 t ! majority ( ,sociali/s sy/ematically
 avoid4 ,b h[ev] avoid$ !oretically1 x  
_c be avoid$ :5 we come to practice2 & =
 ?is reason practical m5 are likely to  
/e] cle> ( !ories t take no acc\nt ( x4 
,!re is a reason = ?is almo/ univ]sal   
avoidance ( ! population "q by          
,sociali/s2 x is1 9 fact1 a "q :i* /&s 9
 ! way ( ! v l>ge majority ( sociali/ic 
projects4 ,b ev5 ! m advanc$ (          
,sociali/s take b little notice ( its   
importance4 ,at a rec5t meet+ ( !       
,london ,fabian ,society1 a l>ge numb]  
pres5t seem$ to agree ) a memb] :o argu$
 t population might be left to take its 
own c\rse s9ce !re is only a t5d5cy to  
too rapid increase4 ,naturally1 !re is  
only a t5d5cy to increase beyond ! food 
supply1 s9ce beyond ?is limit           
comes--dea? f privation & disease2 &    
s9ce ev5 beyond ! limit ( com=t come    
morbid conditions :i* gradually br+     
dea?4 ,if ! !ory ( ! ,fabian 9 "q is n  
laiss] faire1 !n ,i d n "k :at is4 ,b ! 

population "q nev] has solv$ itself &   
nev] w2 x c only be solv$ by def9ite    
int5tion4  ,at ! same discussion m5tion$
 above1 ano!r debat] object$ to any     
decrease 9 ! size ( ! families (        
labor]s1 on ! gr\nd t su* decrease w\ld 
t5d to l[] wages & s also to l[] ! /&>d 
( life4 ,b ! paym5t ( high] wages1 ei!r 
on an av]age to correspond ) an actual  
av]age ( l>g] families1 or 9 p>ticul>   
cases 9 view ( ! size ( family 9 ^!     
cases1 c nev] con/itute a rais+ ( ! /&>d
 ( life2 on ! contr>y1 ! wages w\ld be  
paid on ! old /&>d = ! individual1 &    
competition w\ld be increas$ by ! actual
 increase ( population4 ,! /&>d ( life  
is1 & c be1 rais$ only z a high] /&>d = 
! individual is dem&$ & obta9$4  ,b to  
^! v>i\s argum5ts may be object$ by !   
,sociali/s t "u sociali/ic gov]nm5t !   
:ole environm5t ( human society w\ld be 
*ang$1 & s ! old rules w\ld be ( no =ce4
 ,& ?is br+s u to ano!r po9t4  ,a ^w    
cont9ually 9 ! m\? ( c]ta9 ( !          
,sociali/s is environm5t4 ,man is :at he

 is1 say !y1 by virtue ( 8 environm5t4  
,*ange ! environm5t1 & he mu/ *ange4 ,! 
pres5t bad condition ( ?+s is due to !  
environm5t2 crime is ! effect ( pov]ty1 
selfi%ness ( competition2 !re=e1 we h b 
to introduce ! sociali/ic =m ( gov]nm5t 
9 ord] to d away ) pov]ty & crime at !  
same "t ) competition4 ,! argum5t is    
attractive & seems to solve ! "q z      
easily & indisputably z if x 7 a m]e    
elem5t>y problem 9 ,geometry4 ,b !      
solution does n at all h>monize ) !     
c\rse ( analysis foll[$ 9 ?is essay4 ,f 
! idea ( an individual introduc$ into   
social conditions :]e pov]ty is abs5t1 x
 g5]alizes to ! :ole ( society introduc$
 to a new set ( laws4 ,x =gets1 9 its   
def9ition ( environm5t1 t m5 !mselves   
are ! mo/ important factor ( !          
environm5t1 & t1 9 ord] to *ange !      
environm5t1 "o mu/ *ange ! moral "* ( m5
 ) respect to ea* o!r4 ,! :ole argum5t  
makes ! mi/ake ( *oos+ ! "o ( two       
concomitants z alone cause & reg>d+ !   
o!r z alone effect4 ,x is p]fectly true 

t1 if y c aboli% pov]ty1 y w also h     
aboli%$ crime & s92 &1 )\t look+ f>!r1 !
 ,sociali/ reg>ds ?is z conclusive      
evid5ce t ! sy/em he proposes is        
logically demon/rat$ to be ! "r & sure  
cure = pres5t evil2 b x may be add$ t x 
is q equally true t1 if y c aboli% crime
 & s91 y w h aboli%$ pov]ty1 also2 & !n 
x may be fur!r said t nei!r c be        
aboli%$1 z a :ole1 fir/1 9 ord] t ! o!r 
may be gott5 rid ( ?r\gh its            
disappe>ance4 ,competition is no m !    
cause ( selfi%ness1 ?an selfi%ness is ! 
cause ( competition2 ! pres5t legal     
sy/em1 ! pres5t =m ( gov]nm5t is no m ! 
cause ( ! evils 9 society ?an ! o!r     
evils 9 society are ! cause ( ! defects 
9 ! pres5t =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,man's nature 
is no m ! effect ( ! social environm5t  
?an ! social conditions are ! effect ( 8
 nature4 ,extreme pov]ty & crime or vice
 "w reciprocally = ea* o!r's increase1  
or !y increase & decrease ) :at may be  
t]m$ oscillations2 pov]ty results 9 vice
 & vice 9 pov]ty1 or vice 9 pov]ty1 &   

pov]ty aga9 9 vice2 9 ! individual1 ei!r
 may be prim>y1 may prec$e ! o!r4 ,x is 
z true t y mu/ *ange m5's *>act]s 9 ord]
 to *ange all ! out] evils ( !          
environm5t z x is t y mu/ *ange ! out]  
evils 9 ord] to *ange m5's *>act]s4 ,x  
is z true t y mu/ get rid ( crime & vice
 9 ord] to get rid ( pov]ty z x is t y  
mu/ get rid ( pov]ty 9 ord] to get rid (
 crime & vice4 ,"h is ! new v]sion ( !  
s]p5t ) its tail 9 its m\?2 b "h x is n 
a symbol ( et]nity1 b ( evolution4 ,!re 
is no "o cause ( ! evils 9 society1 b   
all exi/+ ?+s are int]dep5d5t           
conditions4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no          
possibility ( gett+ rid ( any "o ( !m at
 "o /roke1 its aboli%m5t to be foll[$ by
 ! disappe>ance ( ! o!rs2 z !y increase1
 s !y mu/ decrease1--by reciprocal      
action1 or complex action & reaction4   
,if we imag9e1 = a mom5t1 a :ole society
 ( savages sudd5ly introduc$ to a set ( 
ideal laws by--we w say--"s "o          
individual f out an ideal society1 :o   
proclaims ^! laws & !n returns to 8 own 

l&1 we %all n be able to imag9e su* laws
 rema9+ 9 =ce = any great l5g? ( "t4 ,if
 we suppose our own ance/ors ( ! /one   
age introduc$ to our own laws by "s "o f
 out ! pres5t c5tury return+ to !m z    
,m>k ,twa9's ,yankee return$ to ! c\rt (
 ,k+ ,ar?ur1 we %all n imag9e ^? laws z 
v long b9d+2 & no?+ c\ld be tru] to     
facts ( psy*ology ?an ! gigantic trag$y 
) :i* ,mr4 ,clem5s' book closes4 ,no set
 ( ideal laws introduc$ to an inideal   
society c be reg>d$ z ! environm5t ( t  
society1 :i* %all r5d] x ideal4 ,! m    
democratic a c\ntry1 ! m ! pass+1 ev51 (
 a law or measure dep5ds on ! g5]al     
s5tim5t2 b _m laws h be5 pass$ & _m     
measures ( gov]nm5t project$ :i* h fail$
 completely 9 adm9i/ration because !y 7 
too f> 9 advance ( ! g5]al moral /atus4 
,ext]nal morality ( in/itutions &       
int]nal morality ( "* 9 society z a     
union ( _m individuals c only increase  
toge!r1 & gradually1 by reciprocal      
action4 ,9 o!r words1 ! evolution       
necess>y to ! atta9m5t ( any ideal      

condition :]e pov]ty & crime are        
elim9at$ mu/ be int]nal z well z        
ext]nal2 & ?is is a fact t few          
,sociali/s recognize1 at lea/           
practically1 & t ev5 ! ,fabians1 accept+
 z !y d ! !ory ( evolution1 cont9ually  
fail to take acc\nt ( 9 ! application ( 
_! !ories4 ,!y h inde$ receiv$ ! !ory ( 
evolution z reg>ds ext]nal in/itutions2 
b1 ) p]haps a few exceptions1 !y h n    
reg>d$ x 9 its inn]1 psy*ical           
significance4 ,?is is made evid5t by !  
cont9ual recurr5ce ( su* ref]5ces &     
rem>ks z we h criticis$1 :i* trace all  
evil to our artificial sy/em1 ref] to "*
 z bad because saturat$ ) immoral       
pr9ciples by our comm]cial sy/em1#bgi & 
reckon ^u a *ange 9 ?is artificial sy/em
 :i*1 fir/ accompli%$1 w cause a        
revolution 9 "*4 ,! ackn[l$gm5t ( !     
necessity ( evolution is1 = ! mo/ "p1   
=gott5 9 practical discussion2 & !      
reason ( ?is =getfulness is easily      
und]/ood f j ! fact notic$--t !         
evolution1 ! necessity ( :i* is         

recogniz$1 is ! m]e ext]nal "o ( /ate   
in/itutions4 ,"* is reg>d$ 9 any case z 
a dep5d5t1 an effect2 & ?is is 9        
accordance ) ! old !ory ( ! w z passive 
& z det]m9$ by ! re/ ( nature1 nev] z ! 
active & indep5d5t factor det]m9+ &     
in/itut+4 ,?us1 ev5 a ,fabian is likely 
to look ) only half-approval at         
in/itutions l ! ,society = ,e?ical      
,culture1 :i* has = its fir/ object !   
cultivation ( "*2 & _m ,sociali/s1 until
 v lately ! great majority1 h reg>d$ all
 improvem5ts :i* did n be> directly     
t[>ds ,socialism z m]e temporiz+4 ,!    
sociali/ic gov]nm5t 0 to be fir/        
e/abli%$1 & ?is w\ld p]=m all ! re=ms   
necess>y2 or1 r1 evils w\ld disappe> (  
!mselves :5 once x 0 e/abli%$4          
,=tunately1 ,socialism is itself und]go+
 an evolution4  ,b aga91 ev5 ^?         
,sociali/s :o talk ( an evolution up to 
sociali/ic =ms are cont9ually f\nd      
repres5t+ ! ease ) :i* gov]nm5t might1  
at pres5t1 take ov] ! bus9ess ( !       
nation4 ,?is is ! natural result ( !    

fact t ! evolution recogniz$ z necess>y 
is only t ( in/itutions1 n t ( "*4 ,!   
p]ception1 on ! o!r h&1 t "* is n1 at   
pres5t1 capable ( receiv+ or adm9i/]+ a 
sociali/ic =m ( gov]nm5t1 is ! reason ( 
mu* ( ! resi/ance oppos$ to a p>ty :i*1 
:atev] a v small m9ority may claim z to 
!ory1 is practically endeavor+ to =ce a 
sy/em ( gov]nm5t ^u peoples n prep>$ =  
c>ry+ x out ) success4 ,!re are few     
gov]nm5ts1 z yet1 :]e ev5 ! democratic  
idea has suffici5tly tak5 root to r5d] !
 p at all us$ to self-gov]nm5t2 & :]e !y
 exi/1 ! good !y conf] is n unmix$4 ,i  
am n advanc+ an argum5t aga9/ democracy2
 b ! defects ( human nature :i* r5d] its
 b5efits ( a mix$ "* mu/ h9d] 9 an      
incomp>ably great] measure a s*eme :i*  
w\ld place all p[]1 ev5 to ! control (  
all weal?1 9 ! h&s ( ! adm9i/ration2 9  
o!r words1 ,socialism1 if introduc$     
to-day1 c\ld no m get rid ( pov]ty &    
crime ?an democracy c get rid ( !m2 & ! 
gulf betwe5 ! old & ! new ord] be+ s    
great a "o1 ! dang] att5d+ ! new        

in/itutions w\ld be p>ticul>ly great4 ,z
 ,hoeffd+ rem>ks1 x is n prov$1 because 
we intru/ _m ?+s to /ate-gov]nm5t 7)    
mix$ good & evil7 t x w\ld be well to   
intru/ ! managem5t ( all matt]s to x4 ,!
 ,sociali/s propose to secure !         
p]fection ( sy/em by mak+ ! gov]nm5t    
responsible to ! p & ! executive        
responsible to ! gov]nm5t2 b 9          
democratic gov]nm5ts ?is pr9ciple is    
already c>ri$ out4 ,are we to suppose t 
! possession ( /ill great] p[] & s /ill 
l>g] opportunities = fraud w\ld af=d ! p
 great] security8 ,or h[ c\ld !         
responsibility ( ! legislative &        
adm9i/rative functions to ! p be /ill   
bett] secur$ ?an x is any:]e at pres5t8 
,! p[] ( ! p might be ext5d$ to include 
int]f]5ce ) bo? functions4 ,b !         
sociali/ic gov]nm5t mu/1 9 any case1 be 
excessively complicat$2 ev5 ,bellamy1 ^:
 gov]nm5t is mu* simplifi$ by !         
supposition ( ! imm$iate atta9m5t ( an  
ideal "* ?r\gh ! action ( ! social      
environm5t1 designates ! s*eme z v      

elaborate4 ,! difficulties ( direct     
int]f]5ce ) ! legislative functions 9   
c\ntries l>g] ?an ,switz]l& 7:]e !      
ref]5dum is occasionally resort$ to71 ! 
difficulties ( decid+ on evid5ce be=e ! 
c\rt ( ! :ole c\ntry 9 cases :]e ! p[] (
 deposition might be us$1 ! labor (     
arriv+ at a g5]al v]dict ab\t :i* !re   
%\ld be no dispute1 ! /rife & p>ty feel+
 :i* mu/ be ?us cont9ually eng5d]$ 9 !  
conte/ ( op9ions z long z m5 h n atta9$ 
to an ideal "*1 w\ld be likely1 if su*  
p[]s ( national int]f]5ce 7 (t5 ex]cis$1
 to keep ! c\ntry 9 a /ate ( cont9ual   
upro>2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 if peace 7    
pur*as$ at ! sacrifice ( ! p[] ( direct 
int]f]5ce1 ! ma*9]y ( /ate w\ld no m ?an
 at pres5t secure ! nation f fraud1 :i* 
mu/ be great] z ! p[] 9 ! h&s ( a       
sociali/ic gov]nm5t w\ld be l>g]4 ,to ! 
man ( pr9ciple1 x w\ld d\btless appe>   
fooli% z well z wrong to sacrifice      
position1 comp>ative com=t1 & ! e/eem ( 
fell[-citiz5s1 = m]e ga9 9 weal? by     
di%one/ means2 b z long z !re are _m m5 

by :om tempor>y gratification is (t5    
pref]r$ ev5 at ! sacrifice ( m la/+     
pleasure1 & selfi% pleasure is ( m      
acc\nt ?an public e/eem1 z long z !re   
are m5 to :om ! elem5t ( excitem5t 9    
crime is an attraction1 z long z wom5   
are (t5 unscrupul\s & m5 ! slaves (     
passion1 z long z !re are ^? :o f9d !   
p[] to comm& by means ( weal? m         
desirable ?an security 9 mod]ation1 & z 
long z !re rema9 o!rs :o w b[ d[n to    
weal? fraudul5tly acquir$1 z long1 too1 
z !re are c\ntries any:]e ^u ! e>? 9 :i*
 malefactors may f9d refuge1 ! *ances ( 
fraud "u a sociali/ic gov]nm5t are l>ge4
 ,!y mu/ be p>ticul>ly l>ge :]e         
inord9ate luxury & ! hope ( x are       
aboli%$2 =1 leav+ out ( acc\nt all "q z 
to ! morality ( luxury1 !re are         
und\bt$ly _m m5 :o desire z mu* ( x z !y
 c obta94 ,bellamy discreetly supposes 8
 ideal gov]nm5t to be adopt$ at once by 
all nations1 ?us pay+ no att5tion to !  
obvi\sly v diff]5t degrees ( social     
developm5t repres5t$ by ^? diff]5t      

nations4 ,b z long z any communication (
 trade :atev] exi/$ ) nations /ill "u ! 
old regime1 +5uity c\ld devise ways (   
!ft1 & =eign l&s w\ld con/itute a goal =
 ! enjoym5t ( ! spoil4 ,!re are1 & w be 
= v _m ye>s yet1 pl5ty ( places ( refuge
 = ! clev] ?ief4 ,moreov]1 communication
 & comm]ce ) o!r l&s n only be+ necess>y
 b becom+ daily m & m desirable1 a law  
exclud+ all =eign]s w\ld be difficult to
 e/abli%2 & ?is be+ ! case1 ! social    
equilibrium mu/ be cont9ually di/urb$1 &
 inn] "* affect$ by ! influx f o!r      
nations4  ,!re is ano!r g5]al objection 
to sociali/ic s*emes :i* be>s on ! po9t 
( _! application to pres5t conditions1  
namely1 _! arbitr>y nature1 ! mann] 9   
:i* !y w\ld decide summ>ily _m que/ions 
on :i* society is at pres5t mo/ at      
v>iance & diff]5t individuals ent]ta9 ! 
mo/ conflict+ op9ions1 ! comp>ative     
value ( :i* c be te/$ only by exp]im5t4 
,?is feature ( ,socialism is insep>able 
f ! g5]al condition ( ?+s4 ,_m feel1    
!re=e1 & feel ) reason1 t sympa?y is n  

yet suffici5tly g5]al & /rong to w>rant 
! entru/+ ( all int]e/s ( ! individual  
to a majority ( 8 fell[-m54 ,x is ev5 a 
"q :e!r free sci5tific inve/igation w\ld
 n be imp]ill$ if "s ,sociali/s _h _!   
way4 ,x is n long s9ce t ,i he>d an     
evolution>y ,sociali/ express+ 8 op9ion 
emphatically t ! wa/e ( "t & en]gy 9 !  
pursuit ( ambitions nev] to be realiz$ 0
 s undesirable t he que/ion$ :e!r !     
individual ought to be p]mitt$ to *oose 
a vocation 9 :i* x is believ$ he w fail4
 ,b ! elem5t ( int]e/ t causes a man to 
*oose a giv5 occupation is ! v factor   
:i* mo/ (t5 results 9 effici5t labor2 & 
x is ! te/imony ( _m t ! p]sev]ance     
possible ?r\gh love ( _! "w has prevail$
 9 direct opposition to ! pr$ictions (  
onlook]s4 ,?\s&s ( m5 h succe$$ aga9/   
all expectations4 ,x is by no means ^?  
:o app>5tly possess mo/ ability :o      
succe$ be/ or pr(it ! _w mo/ by _! "w4  
,!re are projects ( arbitr>9ess v simil>
 9 sort & ne>ly z great 9 degree 9 all !
 ,sociali/ic s*emes 9 :i* ! que/ions ( !

 day are furni%$ ) cut & dri$ answ]s4 ,x
 is /range1 = in/ance1 t ,am]ican       
advocates ( wom5's "r to a free *oice ( 
a vocation h fail$ to discov] ) :at     
dext]ity ,bellamy avoids ! :ole "q (    
wom5's capacity1 by ! discreetly bl9d   
rem>k t !y are n only inf]ior to m5 9   
/r5g?1 b fur!r disqualifi$ 9 special    
ways 7a =mula :i* ! au?or f9ds s        
successful t he repeats ! words 9 a     
subsequ5t essay71 :ile he appe>s        
practically to side ) ! ,cons]vatives 9 
?\ght on ! matt]4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ,bellamy
 provides1 fur!rmore1 t "o c *ange 8    
vocation only up to ! age ( ?irty-five1 
& ev5 to ?is date only "u prop]         
re/rictions2 ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d has    
%[n1 h[ev]1 t a man's be/ inspirations  
may come to him aft] ?is age1 & lead to 
a developm5t ( tal5ts h]et(ore          
unsuspect$ ev5 by himself4 ,! aids to   
*oice 9 a /ate may be z num]\s z y l2 b 
!y c nev] give a man ( ?irty ! exp]i5ce 
& m5tal developm5t ( ! man ( ?irty-five1
 ?irty-sev51 or =ty4 ,! assi/ance :i* ! 

judgm5t ( o!rs c give 9 ! *oice ( a     
vocation is1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( little use to
 ! adult2 & :atev] ! m9or advantages (  
an elim9ation ( ! c]ta9 am\nt (         
di/urbance consequ5t on *anges (        
occupation1 ! h>m to society (          
re/riction on ef=ts 9 any direction (   
useful labor mu/ m ?an c\nt]balance ^!4 
,! me?od ( newspap]-edit+ 9 ,bellamy's  
/ate is also peculi>4 ,! p :o desire any
 special int]e/ to be br\ght be=e !     
public *oose an editor1 e/abli% a       
newspap] reflect+ _! op9ions & devot$   
especially to _! locality1 trade1 or    
pr(ession1 & :5 ! editor fails to give  
satisfaction 9 8 publications1 simply   
remove him4 ,?is me?od w\ld1 ,i fe>1    
sc>cely meet ! desires ( any editor     
possess$ ) a bra91 & to :om 8 pr(ession 
0 some?+ m ?an a matt] ( m]e automatism4
  ,inde$1 ! :ole ord] ( ,bellamy's /ate 
is ( too milit>y & automatic a "*2 ?\gh 
x is easy1 9 a "w ( fiction1 to repres5t
 ! memb]s ( 8 indu/rial army z          
univ]sally cont5t & univ]sally virtu\s4 

,x is 9 consequ5ce ( ! m or less di/9ct 
p]ception t1 = all ^! reasons1 human    
nature ( ! pres5t "t is unsuit$ to !    
absolute cooep]ation involv$ 9          
,socialism1 t _m ,individuali/s advocate
 a cont9uation ( ! sy/em ( competition4 
,f anci5t savag]y up to our pres5t      
half-civilization has be5 a gradual     
evolution1 n ( gov]nm5t ) "* z its      
effect1 b ( gov]nm5t & "* z coo]d9ates1 
or 7if we view !m 9 ano!r light7 z      
advanc+ by mutual action & reaction2 &  
our future mu/ con/itute a l gradual    
evolution 7?\gh ) cont9ual accel]ation (
 velocity7 ( "* & gov]nm5t z coo]d9ates2
 ! attempt ( individuals or p>ties to   
=ce "o ( ^! coo]d9ates be=e ! o!r mu/   
always result 9 failure4 ,x is true1 z  
,mr4 ,grant ,all5 /at$ 9 a lecture be=e 
! ,london ,fabians--design$ z refutation
 ( ! ,individuali/ic !ory t competition 
is necess>y = ! be/ social evolution--t 
natural selection favors                
cooep]ation1#bhj t is1 t ^? societies 9 
:i* ! ef=ts ( individuals are mo/       

supplem5t$ by ! aid ( o!rs1 h ! be/     
*ance ( life & heal? bo? z :oles & 9 _! 
individual units2 b ?is fact does n d   
away ) ! necessity ( ! evolution (      
cooep]ation coo]d9ate ) "*4 ,we "k n[1  
says ano!r ,fabian1 t 9 natural         
selection at ! /age ( developm5t :]e !  
exi/5ce ( civiliz$ man is at /ake1 !    
units select$ f are n individuals b     
societies4#bha ,?is1 h[ev]1 we d n "k4  
,natural selection acts on cell1 on     
individual1 & on all ! v>i\s social     
units to :i* m5 comb9e1 9 _!            
multiplicity ( relations4 ,x does n     
cease to act on individuals because x   
acts also on social organizations1 any m
 ?an x ceases to act on cells 9 act+ on 
organisms z :oles2 x is only true t !   
l9e ( ! pres]vation ( ! individual & t (
 ! pres]vation ( ! :ole ( society       
approa* ea* o!r m & m ne>ly ) social    
progress4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! :ole ( social   
evolution has be5 "o ( increas+         
cooep]ation coo]d9ate ) increas+ social 
in/9ct or sympa?y 9 all its complex     

relations & dep5d5ces2 & ) ! atta9m5t ( 
! maximum ( sympa?y we c n well imag9e  
or suppose any?+ else ?an ! maximum (   
cooep]ation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! gradual    
nature ( social evolution up to ?is     
maximum1 & ! conte/ ( diff]+ op9ions1   
secures a suffici5t exp]im5t1 & s !     
protection ( ! p f tyranny "u ano!r "n2 
= x is n ! emotional nature ( man alone 
:i* mu/ gr[ to great] h>mony1 x is also 
8 intellectual nature2 z op9ions are    
br\ght ne>] & ne>] to ea* o!r by mutual 
criticism1 m5 become m capable (        
cooep]ation2 & ?is intellectual agreem5t
 repres5ts ! l9e ( adju/m5t or natural  
selection1 s9ce x is ! conclusion rea*$ 
by means ( exp]i5ce--! common k b\ght   
?r\gh ! practical application ( v>i\s   
pr9ciples4 ,a tribe ( savages w\ld be   
incapable ( adm9i/ration ( ! gov]nm5t ( 
our s-call$ civiliz$ /ates1 z also (    
ob$i5ce to x3--bo? because ! individual 
w\ld rebel 9 op9ion & 9 emotion at !    
b>ri]s impos$ by x1 & because !         
functions ( adm9i/ration 9 ! h&s (      

savages w\ld t5d to inju/ice t w\ld be  
great] z ! sph]e ( gov]nm5t exce$$ t to 
:i* ! tribe _h be5 us$2 & = simil>      
reasons1 ! pres5t age is incapable ( t  
maximum ( cooep]ation 9 all relations   
:i* is involv$ 9 ,socialism4 ,ev5 !     
ae/hetic use ( weal?1 mod]ation & ta/e 9
 enjoym5t1 mu/ be le>n$ by degrees2 x _c
 be infus$ by any gov]nm5t4 ,! savage   
envies1 9 our m civiliz$ /ates1 *iefly !
 opportunities = ! gorg+ ( good ?+s & = 
self-adornm5t :i* !y af=d2 & ! savage   
lack ( self-control :]e alcohol is      
conc]n$1 is prov]bial2 ! av]age ( m     
civiliz$ societies %[s a mu* great]     
self-control & mod]ation 9 ! face (     
opportunities ( purely s5sual           
gratification1 & a mu* great] love ( m  
ae/hetic & m moral pleasures4 ,or r1 we 
%\ld p]haps say1 z be=e1 ! s5suality    
becomes m ref9$1 & is gratifi$ 9 m moral
 ways1 ?r\gh its organization ) high]   
in/9cts4 ,x is n among ! weal?i]        
classes1 :o h _h ! use ( weal?1 t ta/e  
is poore/2 on ! contr>y1 ! av]age ( ta/e

 is small]1 ! outlay = fooli% ornam5t ( 
all sorts l>g] 9 proportion to means1 9 
! poor] classes2 & 7 ^! classes to come 
)\t *ange ( "* into possession (        
consid]able means ( enjoym5t1 x is to be
 suspect$ t exp5diture = ta/eless       
adornm5ts w\ld1 9 _m cases1 & especially
 among ! wom51 prec$e & exce$ exp5diture
 = high] ?+s4  ,& ?is br+s me to a m    
especial consid]ation ( t v l>ge portion
 ( ! ,sociali/ p>ty :o ackn[l$ge no     
necessity = an evolution up to          
,socialism 9 any s5se1 b desire a       
revolution4 ,bellamy di/9ctly d5ies !   
necessity ( an evolution1 & _m ( 8      
foll[]s agree ) him on ?is po9t2 b !    
revolution he believes 9 & hopes = is a 
bloodless & peaceful "o4 ,to ?is        
conception ! prec$+ objections          
suffici5tly apply4  ,a revolution 9 !   
ord9>y s5se ( ! ^w is always1 h[ev]1 !  
sign ( p[]ful opposition betwe5 two     
p>ties1 ( :i* "o may ga9 ! imm$iate     
asc5dancy by =ce2 b w surely be expos$1 
aft]w>ds1 to ! long-endur+ hatr$1       

opposition1 & rev5ge ( a /rong m9ority1 
t w make itself felt ) an en]gy greatly 
increas$ by ! v9dictiv5ess :i* naturally
 foll[s on w> & defeat4 ,france is /ill 
suff]+ f h] revolutions ev5 at ?is l5g? 
( "t aft] _! occurr5ce4 ,:]e ! p h no   
vote & real influ5ce ^u ! gov]nm5t1 &   
ev5 ! expression ( op9ion is re/rict$ by
 law1 s t to ga9 an influ5ce is         
practically impossible1 a political     
revolution may take place2 b its        
results1 bo? imm$iate & remote1 mu/     
conta9 a v l>ge modicum ( evil ev5 if "s
 advance is accompli%$ by x4 ,a         
revolution to obta9 ! e/abli%m5t (      
absolute cooep]ation w\ld be            
self-contradictory1 & !                 
self-contradiction ( "* impli$ 9 x w\ld 
result 9 its failure2 x c\ld n happ5 9 a
 c\ntry at all prep>$ = absolute        
cooep]ation1 or ev5 = a v high degree ( 
cooep]ation4 ,a revolution 9 any c\ntry 
at ! pres5t "t w\ld h to reckon ) all   
sorts ( deprav$ ta/es & vici\s *>act]s1 
matt]s ( organization & inh]itance :i*  

nei!r 9 ! individual1 nor 9 ! l9e (     
desc5t1 c\ld be gott5 rid ( 9 a day2 :i*
 mu/1 inde$1 affect society = _m        
g5]ations1 & be=e !y c\ld be eradicat$  
w\ld d away ) ,socialism or de/roy its  
success4 ,pov]ty & crime _c be bani%$ by
 any device ( m]e legislation2 only ) "t
 & by gradual means c !y be gott5 rid (4
  ,socialism is1 !n1 z a :ole1 too      
impetu\s1 if ,individualism is1 z a     
:ole1 too reluctant4 ,b ,socialism is   
und]go+ an evolution1 z has be5 said4   
,aris+ z ! voice ( ! poor1 ! oppress$1 !
 mis]able1 ! hungry1 x has made itself  
he>d & has mat]ially modifi$ public     
op9ion1 :ile x has1 at ! same "t1 be5   
itself modifi$1 accord+ to ! univ]sal   
law ( ! equilibration ( =ces4 ,=c$ by   
necessity practically1 & gradually alt]$
 by criticism z to !ory1 x is com+ to   
give its en]gies less & less to a       
consid]ation ( ! f9al sociali/ic        
gov]nm5t :i* %\ld d away ) ! necessity (
 fur!r re=ms because accompli%+ an      
imm$iate & univ]sal "o1 & devot+ !m m & 

m to pres5t measures ( re=m1 _m ( :i*   
are simply lib]al measures propos$ by   
non-,sociali/s & su* z w\ld h _h no     
mean+ to ! majority ( ,sociali/s ( a few
 ye>s pa/1 or w\ld h be5 reg>d$ by !m z 
useless temporiz+4 ,9 its mutual action 
& reaction ) ,individualism1 x w        
d\btless /ill m modify & be modifi$1 s t
 m & m gr\nd = unit$ action w be won4 ,!
 cause ( ! labor] is ! mo/ urg5t ( our  
times2 b increase ( wages w be ( v      
little use except z x is /eadily        
accompani$ by aids to k &               
self-direction1 aids 9 ! =mation ( "*1 9
 ! use ( self & ( ! means ( enjoym5t2   
o!rwise1 ! labor] mu/ cont9ually defeat 
8 own cause1 & r5ew ! old problems4  ,! 
education ( self-control mu/ beg9 ) !   
*ild4 ,! education ( ! *ild is nev] to  
be consid]$ by itself2 ! *ild is n "o   
individual & ! adult ano!r1 nei!r is !re
 any divid+ l9e betwe5 *ildhood &       
maturity2 & t :i* ! individual is to    
become 9 lat] life he mu/ gr[ t[>ds z a 
*ild4 ,! habits :i* ! man w\ld ex]cise !

 *ild mu/ le>n4 ,9 ,g]many1 :]e !       
milit>y _s prevails1 implicit ob$i5ce to
 au?ority is rank$ among ! highe/       
virtues1 & habits ( /rict milit>y       
discipl9e are c>ri$ into ! family z well
 z ex]cis$ 9 all public relations4 ,9   
c\ntries :]e m democratic ideas are     
/rong1 ! old] me?ods are giv+ way to    
mild] ones4 ,^! sometimes deg5]ate into 
! opposite extreme ( c>eless indulg5ce1 
) bad results2 b tak5 on ! av]age1 _!   
b5eficial influ5ce is se5 9 ! great]    
al]tness1 orig9ality1 & op5ness ( !     
*ildr5 br\ght up "u !m4 ,frankness &    
orig9ality are on ! av]age incompatible 
) h>% or /]n treatm5t2 ! latt] is m     
likely to g5]ate craft9ess1 fawn+       
hypocrisy1 or an unlov+ & unlovable     
rigidity ( "*2 & any ( ^! qualities is  
compatible ) secret self-indulg5ce 9 any
 =m1 :]ev] ?is is possible4 ,only an    
education 9 fre$om c tea* ! use (       
fre$om4 ,! old1 h>d1 religi\s idea (    
break+ ! w 7! natural outcome ( a       
religion bas$ on bl9d fai?1 fe>1 &      

unque/ion+ ob$i5ce7 0 a sad blund]2 :at 
we ne$ is n less b m w1 ) bett]         
direction ( x4 ,true1 ! wisdom (        
exp]i5ce mu/ always guide ! "y2 b its   
guidance1 to atta9 ! be/ results1 %\ld  
make itself z little felt z au?ority z  
possible1 & %\ld )draw into ! backgr\nd 
z e>ly z possible4 ,n t x %\ld deg5]ate 
into slip%od yield+ to importunities1 b 
t x %\ld endeavor to give reasons r ?an 
m]e rules ( conduct1 to in/il pr9ciples 
& ideas r ?an laws1 & s to develop ! p[]
 ( self-direction4 ,x is (t5 object$ t !
 "y *ild is incapable ( compreh5d+      
pr9ciples2 b s is ! infant incapable (  
compreh5d+ spee*1 & yet x is ?r\gh ! use
 ( spee* to ! infant t compreh5sion is  
gradually atta9$2 z s\nds are fix$ 9 !  
receptive memory ( ! infant1 & sl[ly    
acquire mean+1 s e?ical pr9ciples1      
simply /at$1 may be communicat$1 & w be 
bett] & bett] und]/ood z ! *ild         
develops4 ,?is me?od ( in/ruction is1   
rightly und]/ood1 z f> f weakness z x is
 f tyranny & dogmatism2 inde$1 no me?od 

dem&s 9 ! in/ructor s mu* c>e1 ?\ght1 & 
pati5ce4 ,x mu/ be judici\s & consi/5t1 
nev] caprici\s1 & its fundam5tal        
pr9ciple mu/ be ! cultivation ( ju/ice  
?r\gh ju/ice1 & s ( k9dness ?r\gh       
k9dness4 ,especially %\ld ! "y be prep>$
 9 ! home1 by self-k1 = ! trials &      
temptations :i* m5ace 9 ! _w outside1   
?r\gh ! passions ( maturity4 ,to ! e>ne/
 man or woman1 no?+ appe>s m trivial ?an
 ! false %ame :i* h9d]s1 ev5 9 ! home & 
betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr51 ! moral          
discussion ( "s ( ! mo/ important (     
human relations = good or evil4 ,to !   
pure all ?+s are pure2 b1 un=tunately1 x
 is also true t to ! impure all ?+s are 
impure4 ,no?+ is m injuri\s to *ildr5   
?an ! morbid curiosity /imulat$ ?r\gh ! 
secrecy & deception :i* are ord9>ily    
practis$1 & :i* inspires !m ) ! s5se ( a
 my/]y t is half crim9al1 half sacr$4   
,curiosity gr[s "u su* tuition1 a       
disproportionate int]e/ is awak5$ & (t5 
comes to be satisfi$ f s\rces outside ! 
home1 ) an admixture ( deplorable       

vulg>ity1 ! influ5ce ( :i* is n soon    
lo/4 ,su* a tuition t5ds1 n to purity ( 
?\ght1 b to impurity1 & (t5 directly to 
vice4 ,! my/]y ) :i* natural1 & :at may 
be p]fectly moral1 relations is ?us     
inve/$1 is (t5 ! s\rce ( a fatal        
attraction to ignorant y\?4 ,:at we ne$ 
to make out ( our *ildr5 is n puppets ( 
:i* ! _w z well z ourselves may pull !  
wires1 b e>ne/ & self-compreh5d+ m5 &   
wom51 self-reliant & fe>less because    
life is no /range c\ntry fill$ ) unkn[n 
%ad[s & pitfalls1 b a pleasant l&1 ^:   
dang]s1 kn[n1 may be avoid$1 & ! road   
?r\gh :i* leads to a compreh5d$ &       
desirable goal4  ,p>5tal p[] 0 once held
 sacr$ & beyond int]f]5ce2 nev]!less !  
use made ( x does n seem to h be5 always
 a sacr$ "o4 ,! ,roman law all[$ p>5ts  
to put _! *ildr5 to dea?4 ,! mod]n /ate 
has t5d$1 on ! o!r h&1 to take away m & 
m p[] f ! p>5ts1 ext5d+ its protection  
to ! helpless *ild4 ,& ?is is well2 !   
*ild1 z well z ! adult1 %\ld h ! "r (   
protection aga9/ abuse4 ,nev]!less1 !   

!ories :i* w\ld relegate ! :ole         
education & c>e ( ! *ild to ! /ate mu/  
be reg>d$ z too extreme4 ,:atev]        
disadvantages !re may be 9 ! gov]nm5t ( 
p>5ts1 especially at ! pres5t day :5 !  
education ( wom5 is /ill s inadequate1  
!re is yet no?+ :i* ! *ild _c bett] miss
 out ( 8 education ?an ! influ5ce (     
p>5tal love1 ! lack ( :i* no /ate       
in/itution c ev] supply4 ,grant$ t      
p>5tal gov]nm5t is ( a mo/ mi/ak5 sort 9
 "s cases1 & t x is n p]fect 9 any case1
 x /ill rema9s true t family affection  
furni%es "o ( mank9d's greate/ joys1 & t
 ! love ( ! p>5t %\ld1 & ev5 does1 on ! 
av]age1 make ! be/ protection & educator
 weak & cl++ *ildhood c h4 ,no "o :o has
 at all /udi$ ! condition ( *ildr5 9    
orphan asylums & o!r in/itutions "u !   
c>e ( ! /ate1 c h fail$ to notice1 ev5 9
 ^? in/itutions manag$ ) ! greate/      
k9dness1 ! imm5se diff]5ce 9 happ9ess & 
attractiv5ess betwe5 _! inmates & !     
*ildr5 us$ to family love & "m's        
c>esses4 ,! lack ( love makes ! *ild    

unlovable4 ,! fundam5tal me?od ( re=m   
lies1 n 9 ! )drawal ( all p[] f p>5ts1 b
 r 9 ! bett] prep>ation ( m51 &         
especially ( wom51 to fulfil ! duties ( 
p>5tage4 ,su* a prep>ation mu/ consi/1  
h[ev]1 less 9 any p>ticul> /udy ?an 9   
su* g5]al physical1 intellectual1 &     
moral discipl9e & education z %all exp& 
all ! p[]s 9 heal? & h>mony1 ?us secur+ 
to *ildr5 a good physical inh]itance &  
an e>ly guidance bo? wise & moral4 ,a   
high] morality mu/ p>ticul>ly emphasize 
! fact t n self alone or ev5 m]ely ! two
 p>ties to a m>riage are to be consid]$2
 t ! welf>e ( possible (fspr+ mu/ be    
reg>d$2 & t1 !re=e1 m>riage ) ! morally 
unfit is a crime aga9/ future g5]ations 
z well z aga9/ self1 & m>riage ( !      
physically unfit1 :]e (fspr+ are        
p]mitt$1 is equally a wrong4 ,! old     
idea1 enc\rag$ 9 wom51 t x 0 a good &   
noble use ( life to m>ry a man 9 ord] to
 re=m him1 is beg9n+ to g out ( vogue2 &
 future /&>ds w n tol]ate ! pres5t      
social dogma t1 h[ev] mu* ( a pr(ligate 

a man may h be51 :atev] associates he   
may h affect$1 h[ev] he may h betray$ ! 
innoc5t & debau*$ 8 own moral s5se1 he  
is /ill fit to mate ) any pure & good   
woman4  ,! necessity ( a bett] physical 
& intellectual education = ! mo!rs ( !  
race1 z a prep>ation = ! adequate       
p]=mance ( _! duties1 mu/ be1 at !      
pres5t "t1 especially emphasiz$4 ,! task
 ( ! "m 9 ! e>ly tra9+ ( *ildr5 is "o t 
requires practical k ( ! _w1 broad      
views1 & t p[] ( judgm5t :i* is possible
 only ?r\gh m5tal discipl9e4            
,sup]/ition1 n>r[ness1 subjection to    
tradition & dogma1 are incompatible )   
effici5t mo!rhood4 ,! education mu/1 !n1
 be real1 no cramm+ ) /ale facts & /al] 
!ories2 x mu/ advance ) ! sci5ce ( !    
day1 & deal ) its vital que/ions4  ,b ! 
/&po9t :i* reg>ds wom5 only z means to  
ends outside !mselves1 :i* calculates   
all ! advantages to be p]mitt$ !m by !  
measure alone ( _! usefulness to husb&s 
or *ildr51 is a poor "o4 ,to af=d to all
 individuals ! full & free developm5t ( 

capacity mu/ be ! ideal ( society4 ,!   
anci5t conceptions :i* laid little      
emphasis practically1 :atev] !y might d 
!oretically1 ^u ! woman's "r to         
opportunities = h] own sake1 :i* made   
meekness & self-abnegation h] *ief      
virtues1 & fix$ its reg>d always ^u     
future g5]ations 9 h] case1 is "o t _c  
be def5d$ f a high] e?ical /&po9t4 ,if  
no man lives unto himself alone1 nei!r  
%\ld any man1 or woman ei!r1 be expect$ 
to sp5d 8 life m]ely z a means to o!rs &
 hav+ no end 9 himself4 ,e human be+ has
 a "r to a %>e 9 ! g5]al privileges &   
pleasures4 ,= _! own sake1 & t ( society
 z a :ole1 z well z = t ( _! imm$iate   
fri5ds & family1 wom5 %\ld %>e equally )
 m5 ! b5efits ( m5tal culture1 its      
ae/hetic enjoym5ts1 its consolations &  
di/ractions1 & ! calm & self-poise be/[$
 by its broad outlook4 ,to wom5 z well z
 to m5 applies :at has already be5 said 
( ! folly & s9 ( ignorance ( ! _w4 ,we h
 only to look at ,france 9 ord] to      
p]ceive ! evils ( a sy/em :i* br+s girls

 to maturity 9 a condition ( seclusion1 
ignorance1 & dep5d5ce1 & !n sudd5ly     
laun*es !m ^u society :olly unprep>$ to 
)/& ! temptations x pres5ts4 ,! evil    
results ( a less degree ( ! same sy/em  
are visible all ov] ! _w4 ,on ! o!r h&1 
x is 9 j t c\ntry--,am]ica--:]e wom5 h  
_h ! mo/ fre$om1 t !y are also mo/      
capable ( endur+ fre$om1 & t _! civiliz+
 influ5ce is mo/ visible4 ,!y are n !   
less womanly = ?is lib]ty1 & society is 
v mu* ! bett] = x4 ,inde$1 _!           
attractiv5ess & ! p[] !y wield ?r\gh x  
is n equall$ 9 any o!r c\ntry4 ,i wond]1
 writes ,george ,eliot1 :e!r ! subtle   
measur+ ( =ces w ev] come to measure !  
=ce !re w\ld be 9 "o beautiful woman ^: 
m9d 0 z noble z h] face 0 beautiful--:o 
made a man's passion = h] ru% 9 "o      
curr5t ) all ! great aims ( 8 life4 ,x  
is t]rible--! ke51 bright eye ( a woman 
:5 x has once be5 turn$ ) admiration on 
:at is sev]ely true2 b !n ! sev]ely true
 r>ely comes )9 its range ( vision4  ,! 
que/ions ( m>riage & pro/itution may be 

r$uc$ to ! s+le "q ( ! desirability (   
monogamy4 ,no "o c well d5y ! evils     
att5d+ ! exi/5ce ( a class ( pro/itutes 
isolat$ f moral associations1 despis$ & 
ill-treat$1 daily s9k+ l[] & l[] ?r\gh  
?is isolation1 & contam9at+1 by _!      
influ5ce1 ^? :o come 9 contact ) !m4 ,! 
practical "q is1 !n1 w\ld x be well =   
society z a :ole to assume ano!r        
attitude1 ( op5 approval1 t[>ds         
pro/itution1 to admit ^? :o are n[      
outca/s to a position on a p> ) fai?ful 
wives & pure maid5s4 ,?is 0 ! position (
 ,a!nian pro/itutes1 & x exi/$ toge!r )1
 we may suppose1 comp>ative *a/ity on ! 
"p ( maid5s & fai?fulness on ! "p (     
wives4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 did n take "p 9 !    
social life ( ! m51 b liv$ 9 seclusion 9
 _! homes2 x w\ld be impossible to      
accord a simil> position to pro/itutes 9
 mod]n society unless ) ! practical     
surr5d] ( any dem& or expectancy (      
fai?fulness on ! "p ( wives1 or ( *a/ity
 on ! "p ( maid5s4 ,ev5 9 ,france1 :]e !
 position ( pro/itutes mo/ ne>ly        

approximates ! ,a!nian1 a v di/9ct      
divid+-l9e is drawn betwe5 ! demi-monde 
& ! re/ ( society2 &1 inde$1 special    
precautions are tak5 to secure ! *a/ity 
( girls4 ,9 l mann]1 purity might p]haps
 /ill be secur$ 9 girls1 aft] !         
admission ( pro/itutes to a position (  
equality ) o!r wom51 by a conv5t        
education & ! greate/ wat*fulness2 b !  
lack ( self-dep5d5ce w\ld be likely to  
be foll[$1 z x n[ s (t5 is 9 ,france1   
only 9 f> great] degree1 by excesses    
aft] ! atta9m5t ( comp>ative            
self-direction ) m>riage4 ,! pr(ligate  
soon tires ( ! pro/itute1 & desires     
high] game2 unbridl$ lic5se begets      
morbid passion2 ! s5se ( honor is       
blunt$2 ! pure cease to be safe except z
 f> z !y are able1 by self-control &    
self-def5ce1 to protect !mselves2 & =   
su* self-poise only an education (      
fre$om1 ( k ( ! _w & ( self1 c prep>e4  
,nor c\ld ev5 su* a sy/em ( seclusion z 
we h imag9$ exi/ = any l5g? ( "t side by
 side ) ! full acceptance ( pro/itution 

z p]fectly honorable & "r2 ! two ?+s are
 self-contradictory & incompatible2 9   
,france1 fai?fulness is n less desir$ ( 
wives ?an 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,inde$1 !     
majority ( m5 9 civiliz$ c\ntries w\ld  
nev] cons5t to a sy/em ( g5]al          
promiscuity2 !y desire wom51 t is1 a    
l>ge numb] ( wom51 a suffici5t numb] to 
supply !m ) wives1 to rema9 pure1 :atev]
 lib]ty !y dem& = !mselves4 ,! :ole     
progress ( society has be5 9 ! direction
 ( monogamy1 & ! reason ( ?is is obvi\s3
 z reason & ta/e develop1 man ceases to 
be satisfi$ ) ! m]e enjoym5ts ( !       
animal2 he develops high] p[]s & in/9cts
 :i* also dem& _! satisfaction2 ^! p[]s1
 too1 are n sep>ate entities1 b are     
organiz$ ) ! m primitive capacities & ! 
:ole organization becomes ano!r ?r\gh _!
 appe>ance4 ,z ! social in/9ct gr[s1 &  
intellect comes to take a high] place1 !
 m]e or *iefly physical passion felt    
betwe5 ! sexes ( l[] species becomes !  
high] human love1 an organiz$ in/9ct 9  
:i* all ! moral & intellectual desires1 

! highe/ aims & emotions ( ! individual 
are fus$ to a :ole4 ,moreov]1 mom5t>y   
pleasure becomes1 ) social progress1    
inde$ ) all evolution1 less & less !    
rul+ p[]2 man1 above all creatures1     
comes to dem& endur+ s\rces (           
satisfaction4 ,fai?fulness 9 love is z  
necess>y to p]fect satisfaction z is    
fai?fulness 9 fri5d%ip2 & ! long z well 
z ! close companion%ip ( cong5ial       
natures is n[1 & mu/ m & m become1 !    
spr+ ( our highe/ human joys4           
,disappo9tm5t 9 m>riage may incl9e !    
individual to d\bt1 by a univ]salization
 f 8 own case1--to :i* disappo9tm5t is  
prone1--:e!r life-long love &           
fai?fulness are possible2 b he /ill mu/ 
feel t ?is is ! ideal4 ,x has be5 said t
 m5 are naturally polygam\s1 wom5       
monogam\s2 b ?is /atem5t is obvi\sly    
errone\s1 s9ce m5 by no means favor     
g5]al polygamy2 ev5 ! savage is capable 
( jeal\sy1 & m5 h cont9ually us$ !      
sup]ior p[] !y h possess$ 9 law & public
 op9ion to emphasize ! exclusive claim  

!y h ^u ! wom5 !y take to wife4 ,x is   
only true t1 hav+ also _h ! p[] 9 _! h&s
 ( refus+ a l fai?fulness to t :i* !y   
dem& f wom51 !y h us$ ?is p[] to _! own 
advantage4 ,wom5 desire fai?ful love on 
! "p ( m5 q z mu* z m5 desire x on ! "p 
( wom52 & wom5 are q z capable (        
physical excesses & ( fickl5ess z are   
m51 :5 ! re/ra9ts ( public op9ion &     
social law are once brok5 ov]4  ,a      
condition ( promiscuity is impossible 9 
an ideal society1 & c nev] be ! goal    
t[>ds :i* we t5d4 ,m5 w\ld n submit to x
 9 ! wom5 !y lov$2 & if x is n possible 
= wives1 !n we h left u only !          
alt]native ( pro/itution 9 its pres5t   
=m1 increas+ly worse 9 "* z ! ideal (   
fai?fulness is m univ]sally dem&$ & m   
completely c>ri$ out 9 wives1 & !       
necess>y coo]d9ate social o/racism &    
disgrace ( ! pro/itute increases4 ,b ?is
 also _c assur$ly be our ideal2 !       
increas+ mis]y ( ! class ( pro/itutes is
 n a ?+ to be s\ght4 ,! :ole !ory :i*   
tol]ates pro/itution is1 9 fact1        

illogical & only devis$ z a prop = !    
selfi%ness ( m51 :o are cont5t to take  
_! pleasure at ! exp5se ( s mu* mis]y4  
,! same ?+ _c be1 z "s "o has said1 at  
once "r = ! man to dem& & infam\s = !   
woman to p]mit4 ,:]e ! act is "o to :i* 
bo? sexes are necess>y1 x mu/1 if x be  
"r at all1 be "r = bo?1 & if x is wrong1
 !n wrong = bo?4 ,& ?is w\ld rema9 true 
ev5 if x 7 prov$ t1 because ( great]    
/r5g? or = any o!r reason1 ! sexual     
passion ( m5 ought n to be re/ra9$2 =1 !
 responsibility ( ! pro/itute's mis]y is
 ?us laid at ! door ( m52 if ! wom5 :o  
ply ?is traffic are prompt$ by no       
passion1 b only compell$ by de/itution1 
!n ! blame ( _! unhappy compulsion to   
su* a traffic re/s m ?an ev] on ! heads 
( ^? :o furni% ! dem& to :i* _! supply  
answ]s4 ,9 any case1 ! man is an        
accessory be=e ! fact to a ?+ :i* he    
ackn[l$ges wrong on ! "p ( its p]=m]4   
,b ! plea t passion is /rong] 9 ! man = 
an act :i* dates back to ! po9t 9       
evolution :]e sexual propagation fir/   

began1 & :i* has be5 p]=m$ equally by   
bo? sexes ?r\gh all ! range ( species up
 to man1 & ev5 equally by bo? sexes ( ! 
human species except dur+ ! comp>atively
 %ort p]iod ( high] civilization1 is    
absurd4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! sexes 9    
degree ( sexual gratification is1 among 
^? :o transmit _! in/9cts to (fspr+1 n  
great ev5 "u civilization4 ,!re is      
probably m excess 9 m>riage ?an outside 
x4 ,b ap>t f ?is fact1 ! fact (         
cross-h]$ity is to be tak5 into         
consid]ation4 ,! sexual is no m ?an any 
o!r in/9ct a sep>ate "p ( ! individual  
"*2 x is organically int]wov5 ) all o!r 
in/9cts & t5d5cies2 & x is sc>cely      
supposable t ?us fus$ ) ! re/ ( "*1 x   
w\ld n be subject1 z all o!r traits1 to 
cross-inh]itance f fa!r to daught] z    
well z f "m to son1--t ! fa!r's life    
w\ld n1 9 _m cases1 affect 8 daught]'s  
prop5sities1 & ! "m's life h] son's4    
,?is a priori reason+ is support$ by    
facts ( obs]vation1 among :i* ^? (      
pa?ology & crim9ology are naturally !   

mo/ m>k$4 ,man is an animal2 b1 z we h  
said be=e1 he is n a bea/1 nor does he  
ne$ to imitate ! bea/s4 ,he has 8 own   
social organization & mu/ det]m9e 8 own 
moral laws4 ,! old !ory1 t any re/ra9t  
at all ( sexual passion is a crime aga9/
 nature1 & likely to result 9 great     
physical evil1 is n[ explod$4 ,ev5 if x 
7 true t "s evil to ! individual 0      
always ! result ( any re/ra9t1 ! good ( 
! individual is n ! absolute crit]ion ( 
"r1 & _c /& aga9/ ! claim ( society z a 
:ole2 ! unre/ra9$ indulg5ce ( sexual    
passion c\ld no m be ju/ifi$ on ?is     
gr\nd1 & because ( ! fact t x is a      
natural in/9ct1 ?an ! absolute indulg5ce
 ( ang] c be ju/ifi$ because ang] is a  
natural passion1 & its expression       
d\btless a great satisfaction & relief  
to ! individual4 ,b v _m m$ical m51 &   
among !m su* m5 z ,pr(essor             
,krafft-,ebb+1 ! ,g]man au?ority on     
n]v\s diseases1 are n[ d5y+ t           
self-re/ra9t has su* evil results z h   
be5 attribut$ to x4 ,krafft-,ebb+ says1 

on ! contr>y1 t :ile physical excess is 
v (t5 ! precursor ( h>m1 self-re/ra9t is
 seldom s1 except 9 cases ( abnormal &  
morbid appetite4#bhb  ,9 o!r c\ntries   
?an ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,engl&1 ! plea (  
poetry or romance is (t5 he>d 9 def5ce (
 pro/itution1 & z an excuse = ! s$uction
 ( pure wom54 ,b if ?is is poetry1 :i*  
mu/ s end 9 ! bitt] mis]y1 ! %ame1      
degradation1 despair1 & ev5 (t5 ! utt]  
de/ruction ( its h]o9es1 !n1 9 ! "n (   
pity1 let u h less ( poetry & m ( common
 humanity4 ,to a man ( any?+ b selfi%   
in/9cts1 poetry or romance c\ld nev] be 
an excuse = connivance at su* mis]y1    
ei!r by direct act or 9 any way by      
influ5ce4 ,nor is ! poetry or romance ( 
! highe/ ord]1 9 any case4 ,!re is no   
romance s p[]ful1 no poetry s ?rill+1   
nor any passion s /rong1 z t to :i* all 
! spr+s ( intellectual aspiration &     
moral aim conv]ge1 & :i* draws its      
sweetness & =ce f a purity ta9t$ by no  
degradation ( ideals1 gall$ by no bitt] 
& humiliat+ recollections1 *eck$ by no  

self-consci\sness ( concealm5t & deceit4
 ,comp>$ ) su* a feel+1 ! romance ( !   
man ( ! _w is tame & flat1 8 poetry b ! 
dogg]el j+le ( ! ?ird-rate v>iety-%[4   
,physical passion ! human be+ %>es ) e  
dog & o!r brute d[n to ne>ly ! l[e/ =ms 
( animal life2 love is z truly ( high]  
species z ! ae/hetic s5se ( ! arti/ is (
 high] nature ?an ! delight ( ! savage 9
 gauds4 ,! old idea t /rong emotion (   
any k9d 0 incompatible ) p]fect morality
 has already be5 suffici5tly discuss$4  
,b ?is delusion has be5 ! excuse ( _m a 
life ( pr(\nd selfi%ness4 ,x has l$ to !
 !ory t ! arti/ic nature mu/ necess>ily 
be unre/ra9$ 9 ! gratification ( its    
impulses1 & has furni%$ ! lib]t9e ) a   
f9e s5se ( k9%ip ) ! poet ?r\gh !       
imitation ( 8 s9s4 ,p]haps ! poetry ( ! 
lives ( ,rob]t & ,elizabe? ,b>rett      
,br[n+ has be5 to ! _w z great a        
gratification & ( z high wor? z any t !y
 ev] wrote on pap]4 ,x has dispell$ once
 & =ev] ! false !ory ( ! necessities ( !
 arti/ic temp]am5t1 & has enabl$ u to   

p]ceive ! high] beauty ( endur+ love4   
,x is (t5 urg$ 9 def5ce ( ! sexual s9s (
 ! poet or ! musician1 t !y are natural 
to 8 temp]am5t & t1 moreov]1 he mu/ be  
acqua9t$ ) all phases ( life4 ,b :y is x
 n also urg$1 !n1 t he ought to be at   
lib]ty to give way to ungov]n$ fury1 if 
he has inh]it$ a t5d5cy 9 t direction1  
or t he is ju/ifi$ 9 committ+ murd]1    
arson1 & all ! o!r crimes 9 ! catalogue 
= ! sake ( ! exp]i5ce & ! great] p[] (  
portrayal ?us ga9$8 ,if ! excuse        
suffices = "o crime aga9/ ! welf>e (    
human be+s1 x %\ld suffice also = o!rs4 
,dick5s might possibly h be5 able to    
draw ! "* ( ,bill ,sykes1 to depict 8   
crime & ! succe$+ emotions ) great] p[] 
& fai?fulness1 _h he himself exp]i5c$   
all t :i* he wi%$ to portray2 nev]!less1
 society _c conc$e t he w\ld h be5      
ju/ifi$ 9 kill+ = ! sake ( 8 art2 &     
nei!r c x conc$e1 f a high] e?ical      
/&po9t1 t any o!r act 9 direct          
opposition to ! g5]al welf>e is         
ju/ifiable = ! sake ( art4 ,x may be    

possible = ! arti/1 by tortur+ a slave  
to dea?1 to pa9t a m reali/ic picture ( 
dy+ agony2 b h[ev] glori\s ! art1 ! man 
( f9] s5se & /rong] sympa?ies mu/ be    
revolt$ by x4 ,society c ev5 bett] miss 
a little ( its art ?an take x at ! price
 ( human mis]y4  ,b x is to be que/ion$ 
:e!r ! arti/ does n lose z mu* z he     
ga9s1 or ev5 m1 by an immoral lic5se (  
any sort4 ,true1 ! arti/ mu/ "k human   
nature2 b ! be/ portray]s ( crim9al     
*>act]s h n !mselves be5 crim9als2 & if 
ev] we %\ld h a murd]]-poet1 we %\ld 9  
all probability feel ! lack1 9 8 v]se1 (
 v>i\s ?+s1 among ^! ( ! high] realism  
:i* compreh5ds high] z well z l[] types4
 ,x is impossible to be m]ely !         
spectator ( "o's own life ev5 if "o is  
an arti/2 & especially is ?is true :]e  
passion is conc]n$4 ,! emotions "o      
feels1 ! acts "o p]=ms1 mu/ m\ld "o's   
"*1 "o's ?\ght1 op9ion1 ! m5tal _w 9 :i*
 "o lives1 & s "o's creative g5ius4     
,nature is by no means all dunghill or  
reptile-haunt$ swamp1 or ev5 common     

kit*52 %e has also h] seas & m\nta9s1 & 
skies1 h] fields & woods1 & ev5 h] sunny
 g>d5s & da9ty p>lors4 ,! sn[-m\nta9    
gl[+ "u ! flu% ( dawn is z real z !     
reek+ dunghill2 b ! p[] to appreciate & 
portray ! "o may be lo/ by too close    
association ) ! o!r1 z ! f9e s5se (     
smell is dull$ by soj\rn+ 9 f\l odors4  
,to ! rake1 ! "* ( ! self-controll$ &   
virtu\s becomes incompreh5sible &       
*im]ical2 & 8 attempts to repres5t x are
 likely to be t+$ ) an atmosph]e (      
unreality4 ,( ?is we h mu* evid5ce 9    
lit]ature4 ,to raise oneself to ! high] 
/&>d 9 practice & compreh5sion requires 
an ef=t2 b x is comp>atively easy to    
all[ oneself to s9k to a level = :i*    
g5]ations ( "o's ance/ors has prep>$    
innate if lat5t t5d5cies4 ,on ! o!r h&1 
?\gh we desire to "k m5 & ?+s ?r\gh art1
 we desire to keep ) u ?r\gh its aid1   
above all1 t :i* mo/ pleases u 9 !      
actual _w--! beautiful 9 =m1 color+1 &  
idea1 9 nature outside man & 9 man      
himself2 ! good1 if x is ! truly good1 &

 n cant or hypocrisy1 is also !         
beautiful1 & ! loss ( ! p[] to portray x
 is a l>ge "o4 ,& beyond ! m easily     
def9able loss :i* we h notic$1 !re is a 
/ill fur!r "o1 felt 9 a subtle tone1 a  
%ade1 an atmosph]e2 & :i*1 if closely   
knit ) our moral p]ceptions1 is /ill an 
ae/hetic z well z a moral "o4 ,!        
evolution ( morality1 c\ld1 inde$1 no m 
take place )\t leav+ its impress on art 
?an )\t leav+ x on humor4 ,! high] s5se 
( humor1 9 v proportion to its ke5ness1 
exp]i5ces a revulsion at ! grotesque &  
gross vulg>ity :i* passes = humor among 
! savage & half-civiliz$2 & ) "t1 !     
immoral comes to revolt too mu* to p]mit
 ( ae/hetic enjoym5t4 ,_h ,dick5s be5 a 
murd]] himself1 in/ead ( ! t5d]-he>t$   
man he 01 ! _w w\ld d\btless h lo/ 9 e  
way ae/hetically z well z morally by !  
fact4 ,! old !ory ( ! total emancipation
 ( art f all claims ( morality _c be    
ma9ta9$ f ev5 ! ae/hetic /&po9t1 &      
c]ta9ly n f ! e?ical /&po9t4 ,art has e 
"r to be non-moral 7if t :i* delights   

innoc5tly is ev] any?+ b positively     
moral71 b x has none to be immoral1--to 
use ! mighty p[] x possesses 9 ! cause (
 evil ( any sort4  ,nor is x ev5 true t 
all nature belongs to art4 ,9 all its   
hi/ory1 sculpture has nev]1 except 9 a  
few isolat$ cases1 reproduc$ ! =ms ( !  
)]$ & decrepit4 ,! pa9t] ( ! extreme    
reali/ic s*ool may occasionally portray 
! sc5es ( ! dissect+-room1 b pictures ( 
sores & ulc]s are left to adorn ! pages 
( m$ical works or pat5t-m$ic9e          
adv]tisem5ts4 ,!re are moral sores &    
ulc]s z little suit$ to arti/ic         
lit]ature1 & belong+ prop]ly to works on
 social heal+ alone4 ,! depiction ( evil
 9 due proportion & ) su* limitations   
belongs to ! accurate repres5tation (   
human "*4 ,b let its portrayal include  
no s9 aga9/ man2 let n ! arti/ dip 8 h&s
 9 ! dunghill1 = humanity's sake & also 
= 8 art's sake2 le/ 8 picture reek ( x1 
& we f9d ! (fal mix$ ) ! colors4  ,!    
cant & sup]/ition ) :i* m>riage has (t5 
be5 inve/$ has d\btless be5 ! s\rce ( ! 

rebellion ( _m vigor\s & orig9al m9ds f 
! old morality2 ! morality f\nd$ on     
tradition & n on reason & sympa?y has   
always ?is disadvantage4 ,und\bt$ly1 !  
sale ( human fle% = gold or any o!r     
sordid consid]ation1 is evil1 :e!r done 
"u ! sanction ( ! m>riage-law or )\t x4 
,und\bt$ly also1 ! m>riage-rite p]=ms no
 miracle or magic spell1 z ! sup]/ition 
( ! pa/ has imag9$4 ,nev]!less1 x is (  
importance z a civil contract1 a public 
ackn[l$gm5t1 :i* furni%es data to !     
/ate1 & places x 9 a position to protect
 any injur$ p>ty1 & to fix !            
responsibility = ! ma9t5ance & education
 ( (fspr+4 ,consid]+ ! numb] (          
individuals ^: welf>e is s]i\sly conc]n$
 9 ^! mo/ intimate relations ( life1 )  
all _! passions1 ! /ate _c rel9qui% ?is 
"r ( arbitration1 :i* %\ld especially be
 employ$ = ! protection ( ! weak]       
individuals conc]n$--! wife & *ildr54   
,un=tunately1 x has1 z yet1 too (t5 be5 
us$ r 9 secur+ ! p[] ( tyranny & abuse  
?an 9 protect+4 ,?is fact is p]ceptible 

ev5 9 mod]n law1 z1 = in/ance1 9 !      
unequal divorce-laws ( ,engl&1 & 9 !    
fact t wife-beat]s are (t5 treat$ )     
great l5i5cy by ,engli% magi/rates1 :ile
 ! man :o abuses 8 mi/ress is liable to 
relatively sev]e puni%m5t z hav+ no     
especial p[] ov] ! latt]4 ,x is1        
und\bt$ly1 ! result ( su* laws1 toge!r )
 o!r evils incid5tal to ! av]age (      
m>riages "u ! pres5t conditions ( human 
"*1 t on "s sides a !ory has gr[n up 9  
favor ( ! total abolition ( m>riage4 ,b 
nei!r 9 its g5]al application1 nor 9 ?is
 p>ticul> in/ance1 is ! ,an>*i/ic       
conception :i* f9ds ! s\rce ( all evil 9
 law1 sci5tifically ju/ifiable4 ,!      
conditions ( ! evil lie 9 human nature  
itself1 9 ! incomplet5ess ( its         
evolution2 ( ! pres5t /age ! inju/ice ( 
pres5t law is a "p4 ,! rem$y lies1      
!re=e1 z f> z ! law is conc]n$1 9 its   
correction1 n 9 its aboli%m5t4  ,! ideal
 ( love is endur+ fai?fulness4 ,b :5 t  
ideal is n only unfulfill$1 b m>riage   
br+s1 in/ead ( happ9ess1 only mis]y1    

%all ! bond be indissoluble1 difficult1 
or easy to loose8  ,9 c\ntries :]e wom5 
are :olly dep5d5t ^u m51 p]fect facility
 ( divorce means sub/antially ! p[] (   
repudiation on ! "p ( m54 ,z long z wom5
 are incapable ( effici5t self-support1 
! advantage ( v easy divorce lies l>gely
 on ! side ( ! husb&4 ,m>riage conc]ns1 
9 any case1 ! welf>e1 n ( "o p]son alone
 b t ( husb&1 wife1 & *ildr51 & society 
z a :ole mu/ place "s re/rictions on !  
selfi% action ( ! individual :i* may be 
to ! la/+ disadvantage ( all o!rs       
conc]n$4 ,b z society advances1 z !     
education & social indep5d5ce ( wom5    
increase1 too great /r+5cy becomes      
undesirable1 its advantages cont9ually  
dim9i% 9 comp>ison ) its disadvantages4 
,=c$ family relations :]e all !         
affection t might r5d] !m = ! good ( ^? 
?us relat$ is lack+1 are obvi\sly 9     
!mselves undesirable1 & 9 mo/ cases :]e 
wife & *ildr5 c be provid$ = indep5d5tly
 ( su* relations1 an evil to be avoid$4 
,assur$ly1 x is undesirable t ! moral   

%\ld be ti$ indissolubly1 or practically
 s1 to ! immoral1--t a "m1 = in/ance1   
%\ld n only be =c$ to br+ =? *ildr5 to a
 fa!r ^: evil qualities !y may inh]it1 b
 be compell$ to endure ! fur!r ru9 ( _! 
"* ?r\gh 8 influ5ce1 besides be>+ !     
p]sonal agony ( ! en=c$ companion%ip ) a
 man ^: pr9ciples %e c b despise4 ,b all
 "* is at pres5t faulty2 & a desire =   
p]fection 9 husb& or wife !re=e c]ta9 to
 disappo9tm5t2 h5ce1 ! rel9qui%m5t ( all
 divorce-re/rictions :atsoev] is too    
likely to lead to promiscuity2 & unless 
su* appe>s desirable to society1 nei!r  
public op9ion nor /ate-law c place ! p[]
 ( repudiation 9 ! h&s ( individuals4 ,x
 is a *oice ( evils2 ! /ate mu/ take    
human nature z x f9ds x1 & deal ) x on  
?is basis4 ,x has sometimes be5 propos$ 
to make "s sub/itution = ! old =m (     
m>riage1 z1 = in/ance1 by ! adoption ( a
 p]iod ( probation1 ( two1 ?ree1 or five
 ye>s' m>riage be=e ! sign+ ( ! f9al    
life-contract2 by ?is me?od1 x 0 propos$
 to obviate ! necessity = divorce4 ,z f>

 z ?is la/ proposal is conc]n$1 x may be
 rem>k$ t applications = divorce are by 
no means always made 9 ! e>li] p]iod (  
m>ri$ life1 & t1 fur!rmore1 any su*     
arrangem5t w\ld (f] ! v be/             
opportunities = ! unscrupul\s lib]t9e4  
,b beyond ?is1 x may be repeat$ t1 z    
,hoeffd+ has said1 x is n 9 ! nature (  
love wor?y ! "n to calculate !          
possibility ( its own end+1 & t ! highe/
 =m ( love is endur+4 ,endur+ relation  
mu/1 !n1 =m ! ideal on :i* we mu/ fix   
our eyes1 ev5 :ile fail+ to atta9 x2    
divorce1 :ile giv5 9 cases :]e union    
seems no long] desirable1 mu/ be look$  
^u z indicat+ a failure ( m>riage to    
fulfil its end4 ,! influ5ce ( an ideal  
held 9 m9d is ! cont9ual m\ld+ ( reality
 to a =m m ne>ly resembl+ x4 ,b to      
desc5d to a =m ( contract :i* />ts ) !  
assumption ( sep>ation z possible or    
probable is to lose sight ( ! ideal1 to 
rel9qui% x f imag9ation1 & to d away )  
its influ5ce ^u public op9ion1 & s ^u ! 
evolution ( in/itutions & habits4 ,we   

c]ta9ly ne$ bett] divorce-laws & ! wid] 
recognition ( ! desirability ( divorce 9
 _m cases1 b n ! practical acceptance ( 
an ideal ( promiscuity4  ,! plan ( su*  
%ort contracts c\ld nev] be c>ri$ out   
practically = any l5g? ( "t1 9 any mod]n
 civiliz$ society4 ,ev5 if adopt$ = a   
"t1 x w\ld spe$ily be aboli%$4 ,man     
naturally desires & takes means ( en=c+1
 at fir/ ) ! l[] means ( compulsion1 !n 
) ! high] ?r\gh ! sympa?ies !mselves1   
fai?fulness 9 woman2 woman also1 &      
equally1 desires fai?fulness 9 man1 b is
 n able to secure x4 ,! gradual gr[? (  
woman's social indep5d5ce mu/1 h[ev]1   
place h] m & m 9 a position to "k ( !   
life ( m5 & to en=ce ! fai?fulness %e   
desires2 t is1 to puni% unfai?fulness ) 
! same p5alties ( disability = m>riage  
by :i* m5 h hi!rto en=c$ fai?fulness 9  
wom54 ,we may easily p]ceive t ?is is ! 
direction ( developm5t4 ,9 c\ntries :]e 
wom5 are :olly dep5d5t ^u m51 ! "* ( a  
suitor 9 any respect is a ?+ little     
inquir$ into1 ! *ief object ( ! p>5ts1  

:o ord9>ily h ! mo/ to say ab\t ! matt]1
 be+ to secure a husb& = ! girl at any  
co/4 ,) ! progress ( society1 wom5      
become less & less ready to accept !    
kn[n drunk>d or ! confess$ lib]t9e1 & x 
is only ! seclusion ( wom5 & _!         
consequ5t ignorance ( ! lives ( m5 t    
makes m>riage1 at pres5t1 /ill          
comp>atively easy to ! discreet & clev] 
pr(ligate4 ,! coo]d9ate increase ( reg>d
 = purity 9 wives ) ! aggravation ( ! "*
 ( pro/itution1 suppos$ above = ! sake (
 ! discussion1 is possible only up to a 
c]ta9 po9t1 z an oscillation 9 "o       
direction resi/ance to :i* is cont9ually
 accumulat+1 & mu/ result 9 reaction 9 !
 opposite direction4 ,! two pr9ciples   
are mutually contradictory1             
incompatible1 & impossible z endur+     
factors 9 ! same society4 ,! gr[? ( a m 
widely diffus$ & /rong] s5tim5t aga9/   
pro/itution & 9 favor ( fai?fulness has1
 inde$1 z yet l$ *iefly to ! great]     
exclusion ( pro/itutes f association ) !
 re/ ( society1 & made pr(ligacy m & m  

secret2 b1 at ! same "t1 ! gradually    
increas+ sympa?y has =m$ an accumulat+  
resi/ance :i* is rapidly tak+ %ape 9 !  
realization t ! pro/itute is n m guilty 
9 furni%+ ! supply ?an is ! man ^: dem& 
makes self-pr(anation a s\rce ( income1 
t ! mis]y ( pro/itution is immoral1 & t 
! only rem$y is prev5tion4 ,!re is no   
alt]native to ?is rem$y t progress c    
realize except1 z has be5 %[n1 g5]al    
promiscuity4 ,x is be/1 !n1 t we %\ld   
make up our m9ds betwe5 ^! two & act    
accord+ly2 = ! action ( e individual    
tells1 = good or ill1 ^u society z a    
:ole4 ,:at is ! ideal8 ,i ?9k ! answ] is
 pla92 no man :o has any conception ( ! 
high] joys ( love :i* is also fri5d%ip1 
intellectual companion%ip1 c hesitate2 &
 if ?is is s1 !n duty is pla9 also4 ,no 
man has a "r to deplore ! evil by ^w :o 
enc\rages x 9 any way by 8 act4  ,x is  
sometimes av]r$ by ^? :o oppose !       
economic indep5d5ce & educational       
equality ( wom5 ) m51 t wom5 c m+le ) ! 
_w on a plane ( equality ) m5 only at ! 

sacrifice ( all ! *ivalry & admiration  
:i* m5 n[ give to wom54 ,b ?is objection
 opposes e /ep ( wom5's progress1 f !   
h>em upw>ds1 & e /ep has prov$ its      
fals5ess4 ,true1 9 ! l&s :]e wom5 are   
free/1 !y are less favor$ ) ins9c]e &   
fulsome complim5ts1 ) v[s & prote/ations
 :i*1 :5 put to ! te/1 mean no?+1 or    
worse ?an no?+4 ,! case is1 h[ev]1 f>   
o!rwise ) ! att5tions :i* m>k s9c]e     
reg>d1 & ! consid]ation paid by physical
 /r5g? to comp>ative weakness4 ,x w\ld1 
inde$1 be peculi> if high] intellectual 
p[]s1 a cle>] insight into ! sev]ely    
true1 ! cultivation ( t nobility ( "*   
:i* results f self-k ?r\gh k ( o!rs & ! 
habit ( self-reliance1 %\ld r5d] wom5   
less attractive4 ,! pione]s 9 any cause 
ne$ to be ! h>di] individuals1 & s are  
(t5 ^? :o please little ae/hetically2 & 
! kicks & sc(fs ( ! _w may take f !     
disposition :at little grace x at fir/  
possess$2 b ?is does n prove ! moral    
rightness ( ! kicks & sc(fs1 or ! moral 
culpability ( ^? :o d>e to adh]e to _!  

purpose 9 spite ( !m4 ,9 ! c\ntries :]e 
excessive difficulties are plac$ 9 ! way
 ( wom5's "w 9 ! high] pr(essions 7!re  
are v few plac$ 9 ! way ( h] ov]work 9  
o!r directions71 ^! h result$ naturally 
9 ! suppression ( ef=t on ! "p ( !      
majority ( ! m f9ely con/itut$ & m      
s5sitive1 & h left ! field to ! h>di] & 
less f9e2 b 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e wom5 
are free/ 9 e way1 !y h lo/ nei!r 9     
natural grace nor 9 ! att5tion & reg>d (
 m52 on ! contr>y1 !y h ga9$ 9 bo?1 & !y
 h1 fur!rmore1 left ! m>k ( _! ref9+    
influ5ce on ! :ole civilization ( !     
c\ntry4 ,z long z wom5 are weak] ?an m5 
physically1 a high] moral /&>d mu/ h    
reg>d = ?is weakness4 ,:51 ?r\gh a m    
heal?ful life1 wom5 become m ne>ly equal
 to m5 9 endurance1 c]ta9 =ms ( att5tion
 w be less necess>y1 & w1 d\btless1 fall
 (f some:at1 only to make room = a high]
 plane ( mutual helpfulness4 ,yet ,i    
d\bt :e!r ! "t w ev] come :5 ! grace &  
beauty ( wom51 ! associations ( love & !
 memories ( family affection1 w n /ir m5

 ( f9] fibre to peculi> k9dness1 repaid 
z ! appreciation ( wom5 c well repay4   
,!re is ano!r prote/--:i* comes         
especially f ! p>ty t mo/ exclaims aga9/
 ! evils ( competition--aga9/ !         
sup]/iti\s respect = age4 ,! reason is1 
obvi\sly1 t age t5ds by nature to       
cons]vatism4 ,b ! evils ( ! /ruggle =   
exi/5ce are n ^? alone ( outw>d         
conditions2 ^! are (t5 f> less h>d ?an !
 bitt] _s ( m5tal antagonism t se>s &   
sadd5s ! he>t4 ,y\? is d>+ & orig9ative2
 middle age is less v5turesome1 b x     
possesses1 on ! o!r h&1 a wid] range (  
exp]i5ce4 ,betwe5 y\? & y\?1 or y\? &   
middle age1 ! battle is m equal4 ,b age 
no long] possesses ! p[] to cope ) ! _w 
physically or m5tally2 x is fix$ 9      
habit1 & apt to foll[ "o accu/om$ r\nd (
 ?\ght2 we are c]ta9ly n likely to      
conv9ce x by viol5ce4 ,x has borne its  
%>e ( viol5ce & has done its "p 9 !     
battle4 ,x has advanc$ ) its g5]ation1  
?\gh x may n be able to advance any     
long] ) ours4 ,our ideal %\ld c]ta9ly be

 t ( =be>ance1 n ( intol]ance t[>ds x4  
,mod]n op9ion is becom+ dissatisfi$ ) ! 
old me?ods ( deal+ ) crim9als--) !      
me?ods :i* cont9ually return ! crim9al  
to society n bett]$ by inc>c]ation1 &   
ready to commit all mann] ( crimes aga94
 ,bo? ! protection ( society & ! welf>e 
( ! crim9al w\ld be bett] s]v$ by a     
c\rse ( discipl9e t %\ld only !n give   
him back to society :5 he is fitt$ to   
live 9 h>mony ) x & to enjoy !          
advantages conf]r$ by su* h>mony4 ,rec5t
 exp]im5ts 9 re=matories h demon/rat$ ! 
imm5se advantage ( me?ods :i* attempt   
some?+ l ?is4 ,among ! improv$          
re=matories = *ildr51 _m ( !m )\t walls1
 bolts1 or b>s1 "s h s5t out cur$ f     
eighty to eighty-five p] c5t ( ! (f5d]s 
committ$ to !m4 ,! ,elmira re=matory    
deals especially ) (f5d]s s5t5c$ = _!   
fir/ /ate's prison (f5ce1 & its me?od is
 at once em95tly humane & rem>kably     
successful4 ,(f5d]s may be s5t to x at !
 discretion ( ! judges4 ,x conta9s ?ree 
grades4 ,memb]s ( ! fir/ ( ^! we> bett] 

clo?+1 eat bett] food1 enjoy v>i\s      
special privileges1 & are us$1 to "s    
ext5t1 z (fic]s & monitors = ! o!r      
grades4 ,memb]s ( ! second grade are    
less well provid$ = & honor$ ?an ^? ( ! 
fir/2 & memb]s ( ! ?ird grade are wor/  
clo!d & f$1 & h ! fewe/ privileges4 ,e  
man :o ent]s ! prison is submitt$ to a  
m9ute exam9ation z to 8 antec$5ts1 8    
m5tal1 moral1 & physical condition &    
capabilities4 ,he is !n plac$ 9 ! second
 grade1 f :i* he may g up or d[n1       
accord+ to 8 "w & conduct4 ,eight h\rs' 
"w a day are requir$1 & compulsory s*ool
 is held 9 ! ev5+1 at :i* ! common      
,engli% bran*es are taught1 & elem5t>y  
in/ruction giv5 9 ,law1 ,political      
,economy1 ,e?ics1 etc4 ,discussion &    
?\ght on ! subjects taught are enc\rag$1
 & ev]y?+ possible is done to awak5     
int]e/4 ,p]fect "w & conduct = six      
mon?s--! /&>d ( p]fection is high--& a  
m>k ( #ge 9 a scale ( #ajj 9 ! s*ool    
secure a man advance into ! next high]  
grade2 & ! same /&>d ma9ta9$ = six mon?s

 9 ! highe/ grade entitle a man to      
release on p>ole2 s t ! t]m (           
imprisonm5t ne$ n exce$ a ye>4 ,! man   
mu/ be will+1 indu/ri\s1 good-temp]$1   
ob$i5t1 en]getic1 :o gets release 9 ?is 
"t4 ,"w is f\nd = e man releas$2 he is  
closely wat*$ = six mon?s m1 & if 8     
conduct does n keep up ! /&>d requir$1  
he is return$ to ! re=matory & mu/ beg9 
ov] aga92 if1 on ! o!r h&1 8 conduct &  
"w1 an atte/$ report ( :i* mu/ be h&$ 9 
ea* mon?1 is satisfactory = ^! six      
mon?s1 he is honorably dis*>g$4 ,!      
obdurate malefactors s]ve out _! full   
s5t5ce1 z !y w\ld 9 /ate's prison4 ,( ^?
 :o g out f ! in/itution1 eighty p] c5t 
return to society re=m$2 & ! sup]9t5d5t 
is ( ! op9ion t ?is p]c5tage c\ld /ill  
be rais$ 7 ! "t ( det5tion made         
indet]m9ate & :olly dep5d5t ^u re=m4    
,all prison re=m]s are com+ to recognize
 ! desirability ( su* indet]m9ate       
s5t5ces4 ,! "w ( ! m5 at ,elmira pays   
ov] two-?irds ( ! exp5ses ( !           
in/itution1 & ev5 if we consid] only    

doll>s & c5ts1 ?is me?od ( deal+ ) crime
 is evid5tly ! *eape/2 = "u ! old me?od 
we h to take into acc\nt ! exp5ses ( !  
lat] crimes ( ! m5 releas$ )\t          
improvem5t ( "*4 ,! me?od ( p>ole ( fir/
 (f5d]s1 newly introduc$ into ,france1 &
 9 use to "s ext5t 9 o!r c\ntries also1 
seems to h r less to recomm5d x1 except 
9 special cases2 s9ce ! moral1          
intellectual1 & indu/rial discipl9e ( ! 
re=matory are lack+4  ,9 all su*        
re=matory "w x may be rem>k$ t h>d labor
 & /r+5t discipl9e1 z well z consi/5t   
k9dness1 are f\nd absolutely necess>y2 &
 x is to be not$ t ! dis9cl9ation (     
crim9als = labor & regul>ity ( life is  
"o ( ! greate/ ob/acles 9 ! way ( _!    
re=m4#bhc ,judge ,gre5 quotes f ,mr4    
,h\gh on ?is po9t3 ,^? :o are 9 control 
( p5al in/itutions meet ) no m p]nici\s 
influ5ce ?an t ex]t$ by c]ta9 well-mean+
 b mi/ak5 philan?ropi/s :o are impell$  
by k9dly he>ts to slop ov] ) s5tim5t4   
,no crim9al is s h>d to rea* z ! "o :o  
fancies himself injur$ or has a         

grievance aga9/ society4 ,aside f       
treatm5t t compels him to feel res5tm5t1
 !re is no "o ?+ t w s quickly br+ ?is  
feel+ z to h "s t5d]-he>t$1 b5evol5t    
p]son tell him t !y ?9k 8 p5alty is f> m
 sev]e ?an 8 (f5ce w>rants1 especially  
n[ t he has promis$ to pray regul>ly &  
ab&on 8 wick$ ways4#bhd ,9 connection ) 
?is po9t1 we may notice ,bellamy's !ory 
( crime z ,atavism1 to be treat$ 9 !    
hospitals4 ,:e!r or n we reg>d crime z  
disease1 a di/9ction mu/ be drawn betwe5
 ! disease t may be reg>d$ z physical   
weakness & t :i* does n necess>ily imply
 su* weakness1 ?\gh x may imply "s      
physical defect 9 ! s5se t ! psy*ical   
*>act]i/ic has always its physical      
coo]d9ate4 ,we may call ! places :]e our
 crim9als are treat$ prisons1 or we may 
call !m hospitals2 b ! "n w n alt] !    
fact t crime1 & ev5 ! crime ! t5d5cy to 
:i* manife/s itself e>ly 9 life & is mo/
 incorrigible1 ne$s1 = ! mo/ "p1 a :olly
 diff]5t treatm5t f t pursu$ ) ! sick or
 ! insane4 ,discipl9e & labor may come  

into play 9 ! insane asylum1 & m$ic9e & 
hygi5e 9 ! prison2 b ! me?ods are1      
nev]!less1 widely sep>at$1 & ne$ to be s
 9 ord] to atta9 any success4 ,bellamy's
 conception ( ! "* ( ! crim9al by       
nature--su* z he imag9es z alone exi/+  
"u ! conditions ( 8 ideal /ate--z r>ely 
untru?ful1 does n at all accord ) !     
facts ( ,psy*ology & ,crim9ology4 ,total
 unreliability is "o ( ! *ief           
*>act]i/ics ( ! crim9al by nature4 ,he  
lies ev5 :]e !re is no?+ to be ga9$ by  
ly+ & (t5 mu* to be lo/2 he lies        
app>5tly = ! m]e pleasure ( ly+2 or he  
is crafty & cunn+1 & ! smalle/ ga9      
suffices to furni% him ) a motive =     
falsehood4 ,9 mank9d1 z a :ole1 ! love (
 tru?1 "o ( ! late/ developm5ts ( !     
moral s5se1 is likewise "o ( ^? e>lie/  
lo/ 9 any moral det]ioration2 & to      
suppose m51 z a rule1 /rictly tru?ful & 
yet capable ( committ+ crimes ( any     
sort1 especially 9 a g5]al ideal /ate ( 
society & morals1 is to suppose a       
psy*ological contradiction4 ,moreov]1 ! 

antipa?y ( ! crim9al to und]go+ ! p5alty
 ( 8 crime w\ld /ill rema9 z long z !   
discipl9e & labor ( ! places = crim9al  
treatm5t 7 n aboli%$2 & ev5 !           
re/rictions ( inc>c]ation w\ld r5d] !   
p5alty disagreeable1 s9ce lib]ty is     
always pref]able to conf9em5t4 ,& if we 
consid] ! indef9ite s5t5ce1 :i* all     
prison re=m]s n[ reg>d z ! fir/         
condition ( ! successful treatm5t (     
crime1 to be introduc$1 ! reasons =     
plead+ ,n ,guilty w\ld by no means be   
remov$4 ,b ,i d\bt :e!r a society ( high
 moral developm5t w\ld sanction ! d\bl+ 
( ! p5alty :i* ,bellamy conceives1 z !  
puni%m5t ( simply a lie to escape x4  ,!
 "q ( capital puni%m5t is m difficult   
?an at fir/ glance appe>s4 ,"o ( !      
argum5ts (t5 advanc$ 9 opposition to ?is
 =m ( puni%m5t is t ! fe> ( x is no     
prev5tive ( ! crime ( murd] 7= :i*      
alone1 9 times ( peace1 x is /ill impos$
 9 civiliz$ c\ntries71 s9ce murd] /ill  
takes place4 ,b ! argum5t 9 ?is =m is   
practically wor?less2 we might z well   

say t art exhibitions d no?+ to =m ta/e1
 s9ce _m p :o visit !m are /ill lack+ 9 
ae/hetic feel+4 ,! fact t m5 h gone away
 f public executions & committ$ murd] is
 m to ! purpose1 z an indication t !    
influ5ce ( ! spectacle is probably a bad
 "o4 ,z to ! private execution )9       
prison-walls1 x is difficult to suppose 
t ! m]e k ( x c\ld ar\se a desire =     
blood1 z ! sight ( x may be imag9$ to d4
 ,if we ab&on capital puni%m5t on ?is   
gr\nd m]ely1 ought we n1 9 consi/5cy1 to
 d away ) all repres5tations ( viol5t   
dea? on ! /age & all description ( x 9  
fiction1 s9ce ^! ?+s mu/ affect !       
imag9ation full z vividly4 ,!           
gladiatorial %[s ( ,rome 7 d\btless     
undesirable f a humanit>ian po9t ( view1
 n only 9 !mselves1 b also 9 _! results2
 & x might be undesirable = mo/         
individuals to accu/om !mselves to !    
spectacle ( ! but*]+ ( _! meat2 b1 :e!r 
or n we agree ) ! veget>ians z to !     
social significance & influ5ce ( ! use (
 animal-food 7necess>ily1 ( c\rse1 we   

mu/ conc$e t e fact has an influ5ce ( "s
 sort1 & 9 "s degree1 ^u ! m9d71 x c    
sc>cely be claim$ t ! m]e k t beeves are
 slaught]$ some:]e is likely to influ5ce
 ! m9d to su* an ext5t z to lead to a   
morbid desire to imitate ! de$2 nor1 !  
/imulat+ excitem5t ( ! actual spectacle 
( execution lack+1 is x likely t ! m]e k
 ( its actuality %\ld incite to ! tak+ (
 human life4 ,on ! contr>y1 x appe>s f> 
m likely t ! w\ld-be murd]] %\ld connect
 ! ?\ght ( x ) ! possibilities ( 8 own  
future 9 case ( detection & arre/1 & t  
he %\ld1 ?us1 be r det]r$ f crime by x4 
,! vital que/ions appe> to be :e!r we h 
a "r ?us to sacrifice life1 & :e!r !    
evil :i* ! murd]] br+s ^u society may n 
be bett] prev5t$ 9 "s o!r way4 ,leav+   
out ( consid]ation1 = a mom5t1 a po9t   
:i* w be consid]$ lat]1 ! two que/ions w
 be se5 to resolve !mselves into "o4 ,if
 ,i %\ld p]ceive an innoc5t man ab\t to 
be murd]$ by a villa91 :o 0 on ! po9t ( 
plung+ 8 knife into 8 victim's he>t1 &  
,i _h 9 my h& at ! "t a load$ revolv]1  

my duty w\ld be pla94 ,i %\ld h no *oice
 z to ! responsibility = "o man's life2 
only ! *oice w\ld be left me z to :i*   
life ,i w\ld be responsible =2 & to sp>e
 ! murd]] w\ld be to make myself an     
accomplice 9 ! murd]4 ,! responsibility 
lies ) e society to d ! utmo/ 9 its p[] 
to prev5t ! murd] ( citiz5s :o are1 9 ! 
majority ( cases1 bett] m5 ?an _!       
murd]]2 & ! life1 ev51 ( ! murd]] _c /& 
out aga9/ ! life ( bett] m54 ,if1 !n1 ! 
dea? s5t5ce is ! be/ prev5tive ( murd]1 
& society refuses to inflict x          
nev]!less1 x makes itself ! accomplice (
 ! murd]] z mu* z is ! man :o /&s by &  
p]mits ! knife to be plung$ into !      
victim's he>t1 r ?an %oot d[n its       
wield]4 ,x is n m]cy t sp>es ! guilty to
 sacrifice ! innoc5t4 ,if1 !n1 we mu/ be
 responsible = ! dea? ( any man1 let x  
be = t ( ! murd]] r ?an = t ( 8 victims4
 ,x is easy en\gh to say1 z d "s on ?is 
po9t1 t x %\ld nev] become a pr9ciple ( 
society to d evil 9 ord] t good may     
come2 b z long z !re are conflict+      

conditions 9 society1 !re c be no *oice 
( absolute good2 ! only *oice is betwe5 
less] & great] evils4 ,=gett+ ?is1 &    
look+ only on ! "o side ( ! "q on :i* _!
 sympa?y has especially be5 excit$1     
re=m]s are sometimes guilty ( *oos+ !   
great] evil 9 ord] t a less] good may   
come4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n suffici5t to br&  
capital puni%m5t a relic ( b>b>ism1 9   
ord] to prove t x %\ld be aboli%$4  ,!  
problem ( prev5tion ( murd] includes    
v>i\s elem5ts3 x includes ! "q ( !      
possible repetition ( ! crime by !      
individual on trial1 ! "q ( 8 influ5ce  
by precept & example1 & t ( 8 possible  
propagation ( (fspr+ :o may inh]it 8    
evil prop5sities2 & x also includes ! "q
 ( ! *eck ( fe> 9 o!r w\ld-be murd]]s4  
,x has be5 claim$ t imprisonm5t = life  
w\ld act z an effectual prev5tive 9 all 
^! respects4 ,!re may be1 h[ev]1 v>i\s  
objections to ?is p5alty4 ,9 ! fir/     
place1 an unconditional life-s5t5ce )\t 
hope ( p>don is difficult to e/abli%1   
especially 9 democratic c\ntries2 & its 

ju/ice is d\btful1 9 case x 7 possible4 
,ev5 if s5t5ces ( ?is sort 7 to be      
pass$1 pity w\ld be likely to int]f]e   
lat] ) _! execution4 ,& !n ! mom5t\s "q 
arises z to :e!r x w\ld always be       
well-direct$ pity4 ,! m5 9 :om ! "r (   
p>don is ve/$ are n always wise 9 _! use
 ( x1 & 9 democratic c\ntries !y are    
guid$ to a consid]able ext5t by ! w (   
importunate portions ( society :i* is   
(t5 /ill less wise4 ,! s5tim5tality :i* 
n[ v5ts itself 9 load+ d[n viol5t       
crim9als ) fl[]s1 fruit1 gifts ( all    
sorts1 lett]s1 photographs1             
commis]ations = _! mis=tune1 & ev5 (f]s 
( m>riage1 is likely to /& 9 ! way ( !  
safety ( society 9 case ! murd]] lives4 
,?is s5tim5tality1 :i* 9 _m c\ntries    
exalts ! crim9al into a h]o1 & 9 ,france
 turns ! police c\rt into a fa%ionable  
place ( amusem5t1 7 x n to be foll[$ by 
! dread end+ :i* ! /]n] memb]s ( society
 exact1 & 7 ! hope ( p>don /ill op51    
might inve/ arre/ ) ev5 "s attractions  
to ! murd]]1 :o is frequ5tly a h]o 9 8  

own eyes4 ,! prom95ce ( a desire =      
notoriety is evid5t 9 crim9als ( !      
,jack-!-,ripp] & o!r types4 ,!          
s5tim5tality :i* is unable to di/+ui%   
betwe5 a legitimate m]cy1 & ! m]cy to ! 
individual :i* am\nts to ! wor/ (       
cruelty to _m o!rs1 is1 inde$1 a        
cont9ual dang] to society & a h9drance  
to useful re=ms4  ,aga91 if ! crim9al be
 condemn$ to life-imprisonm5t1 !re is   
always ! possibility ( 8 escape to be   
consid]$1 & ! fact t he w probably /ick 
at no?+ to accompli% 8 escape4 ,! dang]s
 ( ultimate success may n be s l>ge2 our
 prisons are n[adays /rongly built1 !   
w>d]s & o!r (fic]s are v seldom op5 to  
bribes1 & ! proportion ( escapes is     
extremely small4 ,nev]!less1 !          
hopelessness ( a life-s5t5ce mu/        
con/itute a /rong motive = ! /imulation 
( ef=t & +5uity2 & x c sc>cely be hop$ t
 a man :o has n be=e hesitat$ at murd]1 
& :o has no great] p5alty to fe> 9 case 
( any numb] ( repetitions ( ! crime1 w  
hesitate :5 8 lib]ty & all x means to   

him ( fre$om f irksome discipl9e &      
re/ra9t ( vice1 is at /ake4 ,& 9 case ( 
escape society has to fe>1 n only       
repetitions ( ! crime1 b also !         
numb]less & complex work+s ( ! crim9al's
 influ5ce on o!rs1 & ! propagation (    
(fspr+ :o may inh]it 8 evil prop5sities4
  ,&1 fur!rmore1 if ! s5t5ce (          
life-imprisonm5t is c>ri$ out1 !        
murd]]'s influ5ce on ! o!r t5ants ( !   
prison is to be consid]$1 9 case he is n
 kept 9 solit>y conf9em5t4 ,!           
pres]vation ( a l>ge numb] ( desp]ate   
crim9als1 9 contact ) ! less corrupt    
ones ^: re=m is be+ attempt$1 has _m    
objections4 ,crim9als h m ?an once /at$ 
t !y le>n$ _! wor/ pr9ciples f          
companions 9 prison1 & _m ( our prisons 
& _m ( our re=matories h be5 call$ m]e  
s*ools ( vice4 ,moreov]1 9 ma9ta9+ our  
desp]ate crim9als1 we are sp5d+ l>ge    
sums = _! com=t :ile hundr$s ( bett] m5 
are left to />ve1 & ?\s&s are m poorly  
clo!d & f$4  ,! fact t murd] has n      
increas$ 9 "s c\ntries :]e ! dea?-s5t5ce

 has be5 aboli%$ may be admitt$ z       
evid5ce 9 ! matt]1 b _c be reg>d$1      
alone1 z conclusive4 ,=1 fir/1 t :i* is 
= ! g5]al good 9 "o c\ntry may n be s 9 
ano!r1 ! national temp]am5t1 =m (       
gov]nm5t1 & g5]al habits ( :i* are      
diff]5t4 ,&1 fur!rmore1 x may be said t1
 al?\gh /ati/ics und\bt$ly mu/ h "s     
mean+ 9 all cases1 ! complication (     
social conditions r5d]s x (t5 difficult 
to say j :at ! significance may be 9 !  
p>ticul> case4 ,9 ! dim9ution ( murd]s1 
o!r circum/ances may h be5 at "w :i*    
w\ld h less5$ ! numb] ev5 if !          
dea?-s5t5ce _h n be5 aboli%$4 ,at lea/1 
exp]im5ts ) reg>d to ! abolition ( !    
dea?-p5alty h be5 too few to r5d] any   
categorical ass]tion on ! subject       
possible4  ,b "s ( ! above-/at$         
objections to ! abolition ( capital     
puni%m5t might be remov$ by ! provision 
( sep>ate prisons = malefactors condemn$
 to life-imprisonm5t1 ) sep>ate w>ds    
accord+ to ! moral condition ( !        
prison]s1 little communication be+ all[$

 betwe5 ev5 ^? 9 ! same w>d1 or         
communication only "u sup]vision1 & su* 
in/ruction be+ giv5 z w\ld enable !     
individual to occupy ! h\rs n devot$ to 
labor 9 /udy1 read+1 or o!r m5tal       
recreation4  ,gre51 9 8 book on crime1  
calls att5tion to ! v undesirable       
v9dictiv5ess sometimes ar\s$1 by s5t5ce 
( dea?1 9 ! m9ds ( ! condemn$ & ( 8     
fri5ds1 & notices ! g5]al evil ( ! feel+
 9 ! m9ds ( crim9als t ! /ate is _!     
deadly foe1 defiance ( ! laws be+ ?us   
rais$ to ! plane ( legitimate w>f>e ^u  
an enemy4 ,! ,hon4 ,john ,j4 ,:eel]1 9 a
 pap] quot$ by ,gre51 lays especial     
/ress on ! desirability ( conv9c+ !     
crim9al t n rev5ge b ! protection (     
society is aim$ at 9 /ate-puni%m5t4     
,aga91 ! "q may be ask$ :e!r ! s5tim5tal
 t5d5cy to reg>d ! crim9al z a h]o is n 
fo/]$ by ! dea?-s5t5ce--:e!r ! pity     
ar\s$ at s extreme a fate w\ld n be     
incl9$ to take a less h>mful =m if !    
treatm5t ( ! crim9al 7 at once firm &   
humane b less s5sational4 ,d\btless1 !  

glory ( crime & half its attractiv5ess =
 a l>ge class ( morbid crim9als w\ld be 
dep>t$1 if we c\ld come to reg>d ! latt]
 ) commis]ation z ( a l[] & abnormal    
type ( humanity & to treat !m z su*4 ,b 
x mu/ be rememb]$ t society1 z a :ole1  
is yet f> f s sci5tific a conception2 & 
t comb9$ firmness & k9dness ( treatm5t  
is difficult to secure1 bo? 9           
prison-(ficials & 9 ^? (fic]s :o h ! p[]
 ( p>don at pres5t plac$ 9 _! h&s4 ,we  
ne$ obvi\sly _m re=ms 9 our sy/em (     
s5t5ce & p>don1 z well z 9 ! managem5t (
 our prisons4 ,we ne$ m m5 l ,mr4       
,brockway ( ,elmira1 ,mr4 ,w>dwell (    
,virg9ia1 & ^? o!r mod]n re=m]s (       
prison-life ^: (fice is to !m a matt] ( 
humanity & n m]ely ( bus9ess4 ,&        
especially1 we ne$ m firmness 9 society 
z a :ole2 sympa?y & m]cy may be evils 9 
! pa? ( human progress :5 !y det]iorate 
into a weakness :i* sacrifices ! innoc5t
 9 a mi/ak5 humanity t[>ds ! guilty4 ,9 
ord] to be well direct$1 sympa?y mu/    
consid] all m51 & n ! individual alone2 

only !n is x an unmitigat$ good4  ,b z =
 ! argum5t notic$ above ) reg>d to !    
employm5t ( l>ge sums ( money = !       
ma9t5ance ( ! crim9al classes :ile !    
class ( hone/ labor]s is yet 9          
de/itution1 x _c be consid]$1 on close  
inspection1 z ( great weight4 ,c]ta9ly x
 w\ld n be well to ma9ta9 ! crim9al 9   
luxury :ile o!r re=ms 7 wait+4 ,b if we 
act on ! pr9ciple ( def]r+ all less     
important re=ms until all ! m important 
ones are accompli%$1 we %all be 9 dang] 
( n re=m+ at all4 ,any re=m t is        
well-tim$ & possible is important2 = !  
complication ( social relations makes   
all re=ms ( weight 9 _! wid]            
significance4 ,no re=ms c or %\ld be    
made 9 a lump2 improvem5t mu/ come f all
 sides & little by little2 sympa?y mu/  
be consi/5t & influ5ce social conditions
 9 e direction gradually z x gradually  
increases4 ,x is ! sup]ficial           
,utilit>ianism :i* bids u wait su* a    
re=m z ?is1 ?\gh possible1 = ano!r1--!  
same sort ( ,utilit>ianism :i* advocates

 ! introduction ( ! ,sp>tan cu/om (     
pres]v+ only well-=m$ & vigor\s infants1
 & advises ! adm9i/ration ( pa9less     
poisons to ^? hopelessly ill & suff]+4  
,all ^! ?+s h _! relation to "*1 &1     
!re=e1 to o!r social evils1 or re=ms4   
,& "h we are br\ght f9ally to !         
consid]ation ( ! po9t hi!rto left out ( 
acc\nt1--a po9t :i* be>s1 h[ev]1 a /rong
 argum5t2 namely1 ! fact ( ! possible   
condemnation ( innoc5t m5 to dea?4 ,ev5 
s9ce ! limitation ( capital puni%m5t to 
cases ( murd] ! innoc5t h be5 hung or   
guillot9$ 9 mi/ake = ! guilty4 ,& = su* 
mi/akes !re is no rep>ation2 ! grave    
nev] gives up its dead4 ,m5 h sometimes 
be5 discov]$ to be innoc5t 9 spite ( !  
/ronge/ evid5ce aga9/ !m2 human         
obs]vation is defective1 human memory   
fallible1 human "*--especially su* z (t5
 appe>s 9 evid5ce aga9/ ! murd]]--by no 
means always /rictly honorable & hone/4 
,ev5 confessions ( guilt h sometimes be5
 prov$ false4 ,z ) reg>d to o!r         
propositions to place ! p[] ( ! life or 

dea? ( individuals 9 ! h&s ( _! fell[   
m51 ! "q pres5ts itself z to :e!r ! use 
( s great p[] is n dang]\s4 ,& ?is      
appe>s to me ! decisive po9t ( our      
inquiry4  ,societies are be+ =m$ = !    
abolition ( capital puni%m5t1 & feel+ is
 gr[+ /rong 9 its favor4 ,let u hope1   
h[ev]1 t ! re=m]s w adopt a policy /r+5t
 & judici\s z well z m]ciful2--t !y w n 
=get t1 9 ord] to r5d] ! pres]vation ( !
 murd]] h>mless to society we ne$ o!r   
re=ms 9 law & prison managem5t4  ,9     
g5]al1 x may be said ( all que/ions1 t !
 conflict betwe5 ! pr9ciples ( ju/ice & 
m]cy1 kn[n to !ological ,e?ics1 resolves
 itself1 f a high] po9t ( view1 into !  
"q ( ju/ice only4 ,! m]cy :i* is n      
ju/ice1 is ei!r m]cy to "o at ! exp5se (
 o!rs1 or m]cy t sp>es ! (f5d] 9 "o     
respect to 8 own great] disadvantage 9  
ano!r4 ,! ideal "* is ?us at once g5tle 
& /rong4  ,we h foll[$ ! developm5t (   
altruism f egoism up to ! po9t :]e !    
?\ght ( puni%m5t ensu+ ^u ! non-p]=mance
 ( duty ceases to play a l>ge "p 9 !    

motive to action1 ! rew>d ( ! pleasure (
 o!rs & ( _! gratitude & love =m+ a     
complex motive4 ,b beyond ev5 !         
inc5tives ( love !re lies /ill a high]  
motive :i*1 9 cases ( conflict1 mu/     
figure z ! highe/ morally4 ,9 an ideal  
/ate1 ! social sanction c\ld n conflict 
) duty2 b until we rea* su* a /ate1 !   
indep5d5ce ( moral motive mu/ be obs]v$1
 ! moral man mu/ d :at appe>s to him "r1
 9 spite ( public op9ion4 ,! c\rse has  
its dang]s1 & ! pr9ciple mu/ be c>ri$   
out ) caution1 ! que/ions involv+ su* a 
c\rse be c>efully consid]$ f all sides &
 9 all lights4 ,b :5 ?is has be5 done1 !
 s5se ( duty rema9s supreme4 ,9 ! ideal 
man1 ! consci\sness ( duty p]=m$ %\ld   
con/itute ! /ronge/ pleasure1 !         
consci\sness ( failure 9 duty ! sev]e/  
pa94 ,?is is ! solution ( ! problem     
,ibs5 gives u 9 ,rosm]%olm2 society has 
n advanc$ f savag]y by p]mitt+ all      
pleasures :i* ! individual desires2 nor 
c x advance fur!r t[>ds ! ideal by      
p]mitt+ ! individual to *oose ^?        

pleasures :i* ! future %all reg>d z     
evid5ce ( our pres5t semi-b>b>\s /ate1  
s9ce !y are pleasures inimical to !     
peace ( o!rs & ! g5]al good ( society2 z
 9 ! pa/1 s 9 ! pres5t & future1 !      
h>mony betwe5 pleasure & duty 7t is     
betwe5 ! conflict+ pleasures (          
individuals7 c be atta9$ only by habit  
:i* %all br+ ! desires ( ! individual   
into h>mony ) duty4 ,?us only c all     
desires1 ! happ9ess ( all individuals1  
atta9 to h>mony1--to full equilibrium4  
,& ?is leads me to rem>k t we h reason  
to d\bt ! moral conviction ( v _m :o    
prote/ aga9/ ! immoral & sup]/iti\s     
re/riction ( p]sonal pleasure 9 c]ta9   
directions4 ,7 su* individuals morally  
conv9c$1 7 duty to _! fell[ m5 really   
upp]mo/ 9 _! m9ds1 !y w\ld n *oose      
d>kness & secrecy = _! de$s1 b aft]     
c>eful & ?or\gh /atem5t ( _! op9ions &  
reasons w\ld %[ ! e>ne/ness ( _! belief 
by op5 act4 ,! man ^: moral conviction  
is to him ! highe/ duty does n fe>      
public op9ion1 b d>es to foll[ t :i*    

seems to him "r1 9 ! face ( sl&]2 !re=e1
 we suspect ! man :o hides 8 de$s1 (    
seek+ 8 own pleasure & n t ( society z a
 :ole4      ,consci5ce is h>d] ?an our  
enemies1     ,kn[s m1 accuses ) m       
nicety1     ,nor ne$s to "q ,rumor if we
 fall     ,bel[ ! p]fect level ( our    
?\ght4     ,i fe> no outw>d arbit]1     
says ,don ,silva 9 ,! ,spani% ,gypsy4   
,b = our enc\ragem5t1 let u contemplate 
! h]oic *>act]s :i* progress has        
develop$4 ,f ^! we may take hope &      
c\rage1 9 ^! we may f9d ! be/ results ( 
! moral evolution ( our race1 & !       
promise ( ! bett] future :i* man alone c
 "w out by ev]-r5ew$ ef=t4 ,! love ( su*
 *>act]s1 & ev5 ! k t !y exi/1 is !     
highe/ joy ( human association1 a joy   
:i* ! pres5t age may feel 9 a degree t  
no =m] age has kn[n2 & h]e9 lies !      
great] beauty ( ! pres5t "t ov] all     
o!rs4 ,! ?\ght ( su* *>act]s c su/a9 u  
ev5 9 our own self-d\bt4 ,:at man has   
done1 man c d4 ,nay1 he %all d m1 mu* m4
  ,! "q z to ! f9al de/ruction ( ! human

 race1 :e!r by sudd5 cata/rophe or sl[  
decay1 c little affect happ9ess1 at     
pres5t1 or = v _m ages to come4 ,z yet1 
evolution is 9 ! direction ( a great]   
h>mony t means cont9ually great]        
pleasure to life4 ,we h n rea*$ our     
maximum1 we are evolv+ upw>ds t[>ds x4  
,! pessimi/ is fond ( mak+ mu* ( ! f9al 
end ( our planet2 b ! heal?y &          
successful w be happy 9 spite ( future  
ages1 & ! ext5t & degree ( happ9ess w   
cont9ue to increase = su* an imm5se     
p]iod ( "t t !re is no reason = consid]+
 ! de/ruction ( our race z ex]t+ any    
important influ5ce on e?ical !ory4 ,!   
loss ( our fai? 9 individual immortality
 is a f> great] s\rce ( pres5t pa94 ,x  
leaves dea? a h>d] sorr[2--b x l5ds life
 new mean+4 ,! good we /rive = lies no  
long] 9 a _w ( dreams on ! o!r side !   
grave2 x is br\ght d[n to e>? & waits to
 be realiz$ by human h&s1 ?r\gh human   
labor4 ,we are call$ on to =sake ! f9]  
egoism t c5tr$ all its c>e on           
self-salvation1 = a love ( our own k9d t

 %all triumph ov] dea?1 & leave its     
impress on ! joy ( g5]ations to come4   
,!re is some?+ lo/ 9 ! dissolution ( !  
old fai? to u :o 7 re>$ 9 x4 ,! hope (  
re/itution1 to ! individual1 f          
sup]natural cause1 "h or h]eaft]1 is    
=ev] done away )4 ,!re is no re/itution4
 ,9 our favorite novel1 :5 ! doors are  
clos$ & ! lights ext+ui%$1 t "s         
unspeakable sorr[ may hide itself 9     
d>kness & sil5ce1 we c always turn back 
! leaves till we are aga9 9 ! mid/ (    
light & music & danc+1 & ! he>t = :i* ! 
tragic knife is pitilessly %>p5+ 9 ! h& 
( ,de/9y1 is yet unt\*$4 ,b 9 ! book (  
,reality1 !re is no turn+ back2 ! pages 
are burn$ be=e our eyes z we read4      
,soon] or lat]1 we all ( u rea* ! po9t  
:]e t :i* made life mo/ wor? liv+ has   
pass$ away f u =ev]4 ,!re is no help    
save ! k ( ! fact1 t %all make u all    
draw clos] 9 sympa?y & by mutual k9dness
 r5d] loss less bitt]4 ,z we accept !   
,tru?1 & b[ our head to ! ,inevitable1  
we may le>n a less n>r[ happ9ess = ?is  

life & = ! ,h]eaft]1 f ! great pione]s (
 ,sci5tific ,d\bt & pure                
,humanit>ianism1 "o ( :om has writt53-- 
,oh1 may ,i jo9 ! *oir invisible     ,( 
^? immortal dead :o live aga9     ,9    
m9ds made bett] by _! pres5ce2 live     
,9 pulses /irr$ to g5]osity1     ,9 de$s
 ( d>+ rectitude1 9 scorn     ,=        
mis]able aims t end ) self1     ,9      
?\ghts sublime t pi]ce ! night l />s1   
,& ) _! mild p]si/5ce urge man's se>*   
,to va/] issues4                   ,s to
 live is heav53     ,to make undy+ music
 9 ! _w1     ,brea?+ z beaute\s ord] t  
controls     ,) gr[+ sway ! gr[+ life ( 
man4      99444499444499444499          
,?is is life to come1     ,:i* m>tyr$ m5
 h made m glori\s     ,= u :o /rive to  
foll[4 ,may ,i rea*     ,t pure/ heav51 
be to o!r s\ls     ,! cup ( /r5g? 9 "s  
great agony1     ,enk9dle g5]\s ardor1  
fe$ pure love1     ,beget ! smiles t h  
no cruelty1--     ,be ! sweet pres5ce ( 
a good diffus$1     ,& 9 diffusion ev] m
 int5se4     ,s %all ,i jo9 ! *oir      

invisible1     ,^: music is ! gladness (
 ! _w4  ,,footnotes3  #bge ,x %\ld be   
said1 9 ju/ice to ! play 9 "q1 t ! idea 
( purification by evil 0 evid5tly n     
pres5t to its au?or4  #bgf ,see ,"p ,i4 
p4 #cc1 ?is book2 ,social ,/atics1      
#hg-hi4  #bgg ,le ,luxe1 p4 #b4  #bgh   
,le ,luxe1 p4 #ab4  #bgi ,fabian ,essays
 9 ,socialism1 pp4 #bg1 #ade1 etc4  #bhj
 ,i h us$ ! ^w "h z else:]e 9 its m     
g5]al1 n 9 its specific1 te*nical s5se4 
#bha ,fabian ,essays1 p4 #eg4  #bhb ,see
 ,jahrbue*] fu] ,psy*iatrie1 #ahhi1     
,ueb] ,neuros5 und ,psy*os5 dur*        
sexuelle ,ab/95z4  #bhc ,see essay by   
,*>les ,dudley ,w>n] 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican 
,review = ,april1 #ahhe4  #bhd ,s4 ,m4  
,gre53 ,crime1 ,art4 ,,iii4 ,*ap4 ,v4   
,works on ,philosophy  ,,publi%$ ,,by   
,,macmillan  ,,co4                      
,,e?ics4--,,metaphysics4--,,logic4--,,ps
y*ology4  ,,ari/otle3 ,outl9es ( !      
,philosophy ( ,ari/otle4 ,compil$ by    
,,edw9 ,,wallace1 ,m4,a4 ,?ird edition  
enl>g$4 ,pitt ,press ,s]ies4 #afmo4     

#a4aj1 net4  ,,bacon3 ,novum ,organon & 
,advancem5t ( ,le>n+4 ,edit$ ) notes by 
,j4 ,,devey1 ,m4,a4 ,bohn ,libr>y4      
#a4ej1 net4  ---- ,novum ,organon4      
,translat$ by ,g4 ,w4 ,,kit*91 ,m4,a4   
#hvo4 ,bohn ,libr>y4 #b4ej1 net4        
,,balf\r 7,a4 ,j473 ,a ,def5ce (        
,philosophic ,d\bt4 ,an ,essay on !     
,f\ndations ( ,belief4 #hvo4 #c4ej1 net4
  ,,bax4 ,,works ,,by ,e4 ,,bel=t ,,bax3
  ,a ,manual ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 
= ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts4 ,bohn ,libr>y4      
#a4ej1 net4  ,! ,problem ( ,reality4    
#abmo4 #ij c5ts4  ,,birks4 ,,works ,,by 
,,?omas ,r4 ,,birks3  ,fir/ ,pr9ciples (
 ,moral ,sci5ce4 #abmo4 #b4ej4  ,mod]n  
,utilit>ianism2 or1 ! ,sy/ems ( ,paley1 
,b5?am1 & ,mill ,exam9$ & ,comp>$4      
#abmo4 #b4jj4  ,mod]n ,physical         
,fatalism & ! ,doctr9e ( ,evolution4    
,includ+ an exam9ation ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s
 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 #abmo4 #b4jj4        
,,boole 7,g473 ,a ,treatise on !        
,calculus ( ,f9ite ,diff]5ces4 ,?ird    
edition1 #abmo4 #b4fj1 net4             

,,bosanquet4 ,,works ,,by ,,b]n>d       
,,bosanquet1 ,m4,a43  ,logic2 or1 !     
,morphology ( ,k4 #b vols4 #e4be1 net4  
,! ,hi/ory ( ,a,esthetics4 ,! ,libr>y ( 
,philosophy4 #hvo4 #b4ge1 net4  ,,burnet
 7,j473 ,e>ly ,greek ,philosophy4 #hvo4 
#b4ej1 net4  ,,caird 7,e473 ,! ,critical
 ,philosophy ( ,emmanuel ,kant4 #b vols4
 #hvo4 #g4ej1 net4  ,essays on          
,lit]ature & ,philosophy4 #b vols4      
#c4jj4  ,,cald]wood4 ,,works ,,by ,,h5ry
 ,,cald]wood1 ,,ll4,d43  ,a ,h&book (   
,moral ,philosophy4 ,f\rte5? edition4   
#abmo4 #a4ej1 net4  ,! ,relations ( ,m9d
 & ,bra94 ,?ird edition4 #hvo4 #d4jj4   
,,clif=d4 ,,works ,,by ,,william ,,k+don
 ,,clif=d3  ,lectures & ,essays4 ,edit$ 
by ,,leslie ,,/eph5 & ,f4 ,,pollock1 )  
an ,introduction4 ,new edition4 #b4ej4  
,see+ & ,?9k+4 ,) ,diagrams4 ,nature    
,s]ies4 #a4ej4  ,,comte',s ,philosophy (
 ! ,sci5ces1 be+ an ,exposition ( !     
,pr9ciples ( ! ,c\rs de ,philosophie    
,positive4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,,lewes1 au?or ( 
,! ,life ( ,goe!1 ,biographical ,hi/ory 

( ,philosophy1 etc4 ,bohn ,libr>y4      
#a4ej1 net4  ,,devey 7,j473 ,logic2 or1 
! ,sci5ce ( ,inf]5ce4 ,a ,sy/ematic     
,view ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,evid5ce & !     
,me?ods ( ,inf]5ce 9 ! ,v>i\s ,dep>tm5ts
 ( ,human ,k4 ,a ,popul> ,manual4 ,)    
,index4 ,bohn ,libr>y4 #a4ej1 net4      
,,erdmann 7,j4 ,e473 ,a ,hi/ory (       
,philosophy4 ,engli% translation edit$  
by ,,willi/on ,s4 ,,h\gh1 ,pr(essor (   
,philosophy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,m9nesota4 
,! ,libr>y ( ,philosophy4 #c vols4 #hvo4
 #aj4ej1 net4  ---- ,an ,outl9e (       
,erdmann's ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,by   
,,h5ry ,c4 ,,k+1 ,pr(essor ( ,philosophy
 9 ,ob]l9 ,college4 #cj c5ts4  ,,f[l]   
7,t473 ,! ,elem5ts ( ,logic1 ,d$uctive &
 ,inductive4 #afmo4 #a4ge1 net4  ----   
,progressive ,morality4 ,an ,essay 9    
,e?ics4 #abmo4 #a4ej4  ,,f[l] 7,t47 &   
,,wilson 7,j4 ,m473 ,! ,pr9ciples (     
,morals4 #hvo4      ,,"p ,i4            
7,introductory ,*apt]s47 #a4be4         
,,ii4 7,be+ ! ,body ( ! ,"w47 #b4ge4    
,,gre5 7,t4 ,h473 ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics4

 ,edit$ by ,a4 ,c4 ,,bradley1 ,m4,a4    
,?ird edition4 #hvo4 #c4be1 net4        
,,h>tmann 7,e4 ,,von73 ,philosophy ( !  
,unconsci\s4 ,speculative ,results      
accord$ to ! ,inductive ,me?od (        
,physical ,sci5ce4 ,translat$ 9 ,engli% 
by ,w4 ,c4 ,,c\pl&1 ,m4,a4 #c vols4     
#hvo4 #g4ej1 net4  ,,hegel3 ,logic4     
,translat$ f ! ,encyclopa$ia ( !        
,philosophical ,sci5ces4 ,) ,prolegom5a 
by ,w4 ,,wallace1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #hvo4 
,,vol4 ,i4 ,prolegom5a4 ,new edition 9  
prep>ation4     ,,ii4 ,translation4 ,new
 edition4 #b4ej1 net4  ,,hegel3         
,lectures on ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory4   
,translat$ by ,j4 ,,sibree1 ,m4,a4 ,bohn
 ,libr>y4 #a4ej1 net4  ,h,oe,f,f,d,i,n,g
 7,pr(4 ,h473 ,outl9es ( ,psy*ology4    
,translat$ by ,m4 ,g4 ,,l[ndes4 #abmo4  
#a4ej1 net4  ,,j>d9e 7,r473 ,! ,elem5ts 
( ! ,psy*ology ( ,cognition4 ,second    
edition1 revis$4 #abmo4 #a4ej1 net4     
,,jevons4 ,,works ,,by ,w4 ,,/anley     
,,jevons4  ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,sci5ce4 ,a  
,treatise on ,logic & ,sci5tific ,me?od4

 #abmo4 #b4ge1 net4  ,elem5t>y ,lessons 
9 ,logic3 ,d$uctive & ,inductive4 ,)    
copi\s ,que/ions & ,examples1 & a       
,vocabul>y ( ,logical ,t]ms4 ,new       
edition4 #ahmo4 #dj c5ts1 net4  ,/udies 
9 ,d$uctive ,logic4 ,a ,manual =        
,/ud5ts4 ,second edition4 #abmo4 #a4fj1 
net4  ,pure ,logic2 & o!r ,m9or ,works4 
,edit$ by ,,rob]t ,,adamson1 ,m4,a41    
,,ll4,d41 & ,,h>riet ,a4 ,,jevons4      
,preface by ,pr(4 ,,adamson4 #hvo4      
#b4ej1 net4  ,,kant3 ,critique ( ! ,pure
 ,reason4 ,translat$ into ,engli% by ,f4
 ,,max ,m,ue,l,l,e,r4 ,) an             
,introduction by ,,ludwig ,,noire4 #b   
vols4 #hvo4 #h4jj4  ---- ,!             
,translation4 ,complete4 ,sold          
sep>ately4 #c4ej4  ---- ,kant's         
,critical ,philosophy = ,engli% ,read]s4
 ,by ,,john ,p4 ,,mahaffy1 ,d4,d41 &    
,,john ,h4 ,,b]n>d1 ,b4,d4 ,a new &     
complete edition4  ,,vol4 ,i4 ,! ,kritik
 ( ! ,pure ,reason ,expla9$ & ,def5d$4  
#a4ge1 net4  ,,ii4 ,translation ( !     
,prolegom5a4 ,) ,notes & ,app5dices4    

#a4ej1 net4  ---- ,critique ( ,judgm5t4 
,translat$ by ,j4 ,h4 ,,b]n>d4 #hvo4    
#c4ej4  ---- ,critique ( ,pure ,reason4 
,translat$ by ,j4 ,m4 ,d4 ,,meiklejohn4 
,bohn ,libr>y4 #a4ej1 net4  ----        
,prolegom5a & ,metaphysical ,f\ndations 
( ,natural ,sci5ce4 ,translat$1 )       
,biography & ,memoir1 by ,e4 ,,bel=t    
,,bax4 ,bohn ,libr>y4 #a4ej1 net4  ---- 
,! ,philosophy ( ,kant4 ,z conta9$ 9    
,extracts f 8 own ,writ+s4 ,select$ &   
translat$ by ,,john ,,watson1 ,,ll4,d4  
#a4ge1 net4  ,,keynes 7,j4 ,n473 ,/udies
 & ,ex]cises 9 ,=mal ,logic4 #abmo4     
#b4ge1 net4  ,,k+ 7,pr(4 ,h4 ,c473 ,an  
,outl9e ( ,erdmann's ,hi/ory (          
,philosophy4 ,by ,,h5ry ,c4 ,,k+1       
,pr(essor ( ,philosophy1 ,ob]l9         
,college4 #cj c5ts4  ,,laurie 7,s4 ,s473
 ,! ,in/itutes ( ,education1 compris+ a 
,rational ,introduction to ,psy*ology4  
#afmo4 #a4jj4  ,,leibnitz3 ,critique (  
,locke4 ,new ,essays on ! ,und]/&+4 ,by 
! ,au?or ( ! ,sy/em ( ,pre-e/abli%$     
,h>mony4 ,translat$ f ! ,fr5* by ,,alfr$

 ,g4 ,,langley1 ,a4,m4 #abmo4 ,9 !      
press4  ,,libr>y ,,( ,,philosophy 7,,!73
 ,edit$ by ,j4 ,h4 ,,muirhead1 ,m4,a4   
,a ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,by ,,johann  
,,edu>d ,,erdmann1 ,pr(essor (          
,philosophy1 ,univ]sity ( ,halle4       
,engli% translation edit$ by ,,willi/on 
,s4 ,,h\gh1 ,ph4,m41 ,pr(essor (        
,philosophy1 ,univ]sity ( ,m9nesota4 #c 
vols4 ,l>ge #hvo4 #aj4ej1 net4          
,developm5t ( ,!ology4 ,9 ,g]many s9ce  
,kant1 & ,great ,brita9 s9ce #ahbe4 ,by 
,,otto ,,pfleid]]1 ,d4,d41 ,pr(essor (  
,!ology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l94         
,translat$1 "u ! au?or's sup]vision1 by 
,j4 ,,fr$]ick ,,smi?4 ,l>ge #hvo4 #b4ge1
 net4  ,! ,hi/ory ( ,a,esthetics4 ,by   
,b4 ,,bosanquet1 ,m4,a41 ,au?or (       
,logic2 or1 ! ,morphology ( ,k2         
,translator ( ,lotze's ,sy/em (         
,philosophy4 #b4ge1 net4  ,,locke3      
,philosophical ,works4 ,) ,prelim9>y    
,disc\rse1 ,analysis ( ,locke's ,doctr9e
 ( ,ideas1 ,notes by ,j4 ,a4 ,/4 ,john1 
,index1 & ,portrait ( ! ,au?or4 ,bohn   

,libr>y4 #b vols41 ea* #a4jj1 net4      
,,lotze',s ,,sy/em ,,( ,,philosophy4    
,,"p ,i4 ,logic4 ,9 ,?ree ,books4 ,(    
,?\ght1 ,( ,inve/igation1 & ,( ,k4      
,engli% translation by ,,bosanquet4 #b  
vols4 #abmo4 #c4jj1 net4  ,,"p ,,ii4    
,metaphysic4 ,9 ,?ree ,books3 ,ontology1
 ,cosmology1 & ,psy*ology4 ,engli%      
translation by ,,bosanquet4 #b vols4    
#c4jj1 net4  ,outl9es ( a ,philosophy ( 
,religion4 ,by ,,h]man ,,lotze4 ,edit$  
by ,f4 ,c4 ,,conybe>e1 ,m4,a4 #ij c5ts4 
,,mack5zie3 ,an ,introduction to ,social
 ,philosophy4 ,by ,,john ,s4 ,,mack5zie1
 ,m4,a41 ,b4,a41 ,assi/ant ,lectur] on  
,philosophy 9 ,ow5s ,college1 ,man*e/]1 
=m]ly ,exam9] 9 ,philosophy 9 !         
,univ]sity ( ,glasg[4 #hvo4 #b4fj1 net4 
,,mahaffy 7,j4 ,p47 & ,,b]n>d 7,j4 ,h473
 ,kant's ,critical ,philosophy = ,engli%
 ,read]s4  ,,vol4 ,i4 ,! ,kritik ( !    
,pure ,reason ,expla9$ & ,def5d$4 #a4ge1
 net4  ,,ii4 ,translation ( !           
,prolegom5a4 ,) ,notes & ,app5dices4    
#a4ej1 net4  ,,m>%all3 ,a ,%ort ,hi/ory 

( ,greek ,philosophy4 ,by ,,john        
,,m>%all1 ,m4,a41 ,oxon41 ,,ll4,d4      
#abmo4 #a4aj1 net4  ,,m>t9eau4 ,,works  
,,by ,,james ,,m>t9eau1 ,,ll4,d43       
,types ( ,e?ical ,!ory4 ,new & *eap]    
edition4 ,9 "o volume4 #abmo4 #b4fj1    
net4  ,sp9oza3 ,a ,/udy (4 ,) portrait4 
,second edition4 #b4jj4  ,,masson 7,d473
 ,rec5t ,briti% ,philosophy4 ,a ,review 
) ,criticisms4 ,?ird edition4 #a4ge4    
,,maudsley 7,,h5ry1 ,m4,d473 ,body &    
,m9d4 ,an ,inquiry into _! ,connection &
 ,mutual ,influ5ce4 ,second edition1    
enl>g$4 #b4jj4  ,,maurice 7,f4 ,d473    
,moral & ,metaphysical ,philosophy4 #b  
vols4 #hvo4 #f4jj4  ,,vol4 ,i4 ,anci5t  
,philosophy f ! ,fir/ to ! ,?irte5?     
,c5turies4  ,,ii4 ,f\rte5? ,c5tury & !  
,fr5* ,revolution1 ) a ,glimpse into !  
,n9ete5? ,c5tury4  ,,mayor 7,j4 ,b473 ,a
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to ,cic]o4 ,pitt ,press ,s]ies4 #afmo4  
#ij c5ts1 net4  ,,mill] 7,pr(essor73    
,hi/ory ,philosophically ,illu/rat$1 f !
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,revolution4 ,bohn ,libr>y4 #d vols41   
ea* #a4jj4  ,,murphy 7,j4 ,j473 ,habit &
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,life & ,m9d4 ,second edition1 revis$ & 
rewritt54 ,) illu/rations4 #hvo4 #e4jj4 
,,pfleid]]3 ,! ,developm5t ( ,!ology 9  
,g]many s9ce ,kant1 & its ,progress 9   
,great ,brita9 s9ce #ahbe4 ,by ,,otto   
,,pfleid]]1 ,d4,d4 ,translat$1 "u !     
au?or's sup]vision1 by ,j4 ,,fr$]ick    
,,smi?4 ,! ,libr>y ( ,philosophy4 #hvo4 
#b4ge1 net4  ,,ray 7,p4 ,k473 ,a        
,text-,book ( ,d$uctive ,logic =        
,/ud5ts4 #a4be1 net4  ,,ryl& 7,f473 ,!  
,/ud5t's ,manual ( ,psy*ology & ,e?ics4 
,clo?1 r$ edges4 #e? edition1 revis$ &  
enl>g$4 #abmo4 #a4jj4  ,,s*legel4       
,,works ,,by ,f4 ,,s*legel3  ,on !      
,philosophy ( ,hi/ory4 ,translat$1 ) a  
,memoir ( ! ,au?or1 by ,j4 ,b4          
,,rob]tson4 ,bohn ,libr>y4 #a4jj1 net4  
,on ! ,philosophy ( ,life & ,!          
,philosophy ( ,language4 ,translat$ by  
,a4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,morrison1 ,m4,a4 ,bohn    
,libr>y4 #a4jj1 net4  ,,s*op5hau]4      

,,works ,,by ,a4 ,,s*op5hau]3  ,on !    
,f\rfold ,root ( ! ,pr9ciple (          
,suffici5t ,reason & ,on ! ,w 9 ,nature4
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#a4ej1 net4  ,essays4 ,select$ &        
translat$ by ,e4 ,,bel=t ,,bax4 ,bohn   
,libr>y4 #a4ej1 net4  ,essays4 ,select$ 
& translat$ by ,t4 ,,bailey ,,saund]s4  
,five volumes 9 a box1 #d4ej2 or1 #ij   
c5ts ea*3      ,! ,wisdom ( ,life4      
,c\nsels & ,maxims4     ,religion3 ,a   
,dialogue4     ,! ,art ( ,lit]ature4    
,/udies 9 ,pessimism4  ,,sidgwick4      
,,works ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,h5ry          
,,sidgwick3  ,! ,me?ods ( ,e?ics4 ,f\r? 
edition4 #hvo4 #c4ej1 net4  ,outl9es ( !
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#a4be1 net4  ,,sp9oza3 ,a ,/udy (4 ,by  
,,james ,,m>t9eau4 #b4jj4  ---- ,*ief   
,works4 ,translat$1 ) ,introduction1 by 
,r4 ,h4 ,m4 ,,elwes4 #b vols4  ,,vol4   
,i4 ,tractatus ,!ologico-,politicus2    
,political ,treatise4 #a4ej1 net4  ,,ii4
 ,improvem5t ( ! ,und]/&+2 ,e?ics2      
,lett]s4 #a4ej1 net4  ,,/ew>t 7,j4 ,h473

 ,notes on ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics (       
,ari/otle4 #hvo4 #b vols4 #h4jj1 net4   
,,/ew>t & ,,tait4 ,,works ,,by          
,,pr(essor ,,balf\r ,,/ew>t & ,p4 ,g4   
,,tait3  ,! ,unse5 ,univ]se3 ,physical  
,speculation on a ,future ,/ate4 #a4be4 
,p>adoxical ,philosophy3 ,a ,sequel to  
,! ,unse5 ,univ]se4 #a4ge4  ,,?ornton   
7,w4 ,t41 ,c4 ,b473 ,old-,fa%ion$ ,e?ics
 & ,common-,s5se ,metaphysics4 #hvo4    
#b4ej4  ,,v5n4 ,,works ,,by ,,john      
,,v5n1 ,m4,a43      ,! ,logic ( ,*ance4 
,?ird edition4 #b4ge1 net4     ,symbolic
 ,logic4 #b4ge1 net4     ,pr9ciples (   
,empirical or ,inductive ,logic4 #hvo4  
#d4ej1 net4  ,,w>n] 7,f473 ,a ,c\rse (  
,lectures on ! ,gr[? & ,means ( ,tra9+ !
 ,m5tal ,faculty4 ,deliv]$ 9 !          
,univ]sity at ,cambridge4 #abmo4 ,clo?4 
#ij c5ts1 net4  ,,watson4 ,,works ,,by  
,,john ,,watson1 ,,ll4,d43  ,kant & 8   
,engli% ,critics4 ,a ,comp>ison (       
,critical & ,empirical ,philosophy4     
#hvo4 #d4jj4  ,! ,philosophy ( ,kant1 z 
conta9$ 9 ,extracts f 8 own ,writ+s4    

,select$ & ,translat$4 #a4ge1 net4      
,,williams 7,c4 ,m473 ,a ,review ( !    
,sy/ems ( ,e?ics f\nd$ on ! ,!ory (     
,evolution4 #abmo4 ,%ortly4  ,,wilson   
7,j4 ,m47 & ,,f[l] 7,t473 ,! ,pr9ciples 
( ,morals4 #hvo4      ,,"p ,i4          
7,introductory ,*apt]s47     ,,ii4 7,be+
 ! ,body ( ! ,"w47 #b4ge4  ,,zieh5      
7,pr(4 ,t473 ,introduction to           
,physiological ,psy*ology4 ,translat$ by
 ,c4 ,c4 ,,van ,,lieuw & ,dr4 ,,otto    
,,bey]4 #a4ej1 net4   ,,macmillan       
,,co41 #aab ,f\r? ,av5ue1 ,new ,york4