,illustration3 ,cover art ,,the ,,conflict ,,of ,,religions ,,in ,,the ,,early ,,roman ,,empire ,,by ,t4 ,r4 ,,glover ,,fellow ,,and ,,classical ,,lecturer ,,of ,,st ,,john',s ,,college1 ,,cambridge ,,hon4 ,,ll4,d41 ,,queen',s ,,university1 ,,canada ,,fourth ,,edition ,,methuen ,,co4 ,,ltd4 #cf ,,essex ,,street ,w4,c4 ,,london ,first ,published 4 4 ,march #ahth1 #aiji ,second ,edition 4 4 ,june #aiji ,third ,edition 4 4 ,august #aiji ,fourth ,edition 4 4 ,october #aiaj ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author ,,life ,,and ,,letters ,,in ,,the ,,fourth ,,century ,,studies ,,in ,,virgil v ,,preface ,a large part of this book formed the course of ,dale ,lectures delivered in ,mansfield ,college1 ,oxford1 in the ,spring of #aijg4 ,for the lecture-room the chapters had to be considerably abridged2 they are now restored to their full length1 while revision and addition have further changed their character4 ,they are published in accordance with the terms of the ,dale foundation4 ,to see the ,founder of the ,christian movement and some of his followers as they appeared among their contemporaries2 to represent ,christian and pagan with equal goodwill and equal honesty1 and in one perspective2 to recapture something of the colour and movement of life1 using imagination to interpret the data1 and controlling it by them2 to follow the conflict of ideals1 not in the abstract1 but as they show themselves in character and personality2 and in this way to discover where lay the living force that changed the thoughts and lives of men1 and what it was2 these have been the aims of the writer1--impossible1 but worth attempting4 ,so far as they have been achieved1 the book is relevant to the reader4 ,the work of others has made the task lighter4 ,german scholars1 such as ,bousset1 von ,dobschuetz1 ,harnack1 ,pfleiderer and ,wernle2 ,professor ,f4 ,c4 ,burkitt and others nearer home who have written of the beginnings of ,christianity2 ,boissier1 ,martha and ,professor ,samuel ,dill2 ,edward ,caird1 ,lecky1 and ,zeller2 with the authors of monographs1 ,croiset1 de ,faye1 ,greard1 ,koziol1 ,oakesmith1 ,volkmann2 these and others have been laid under contribution4 ,in another way ,dr ,wilhelm ,herrmann1 of ,marburg1 and ,thomas ,carlyle have helped the vi book4 ,the references to ancient authorities are mostly of the writer's own gathering1 and they have been verified4 ,lastly1 there are friends to thank1 at ,cambridge and at ,woodbrooke1 for the services that only friends can render--suggestion1 criticism1 approval1 correction1 and all the other kindly forms of encouragement and enlightenment4 ,,st ,,john',s ,,college1 ,,cambridge1 ,february #aiji4 vii ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,roman ,,religion 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,stoics 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cc ,,iii4 ,,plutarch 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ge ,,iv4 ,,jesus ,,of ,,nazareth 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aac ,v4 ,,the ,,followers ,,of ,,jesus 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ada ,,vi4 ,,the ,,conflict ,,of ,,christian ,,and ,,jew 4 4 4 4 #afg ,,vii4 ,,gods ,,or ,,atoms8 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aif ,,viii4 ,,celsus 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bci ,,ix4 ,,clement ,,of ,,alexandria 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bfb ,x4 ,,tertullian 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cje ,,index 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cdi #a ,,the ,,conflict ,,of ,,religions ,,in ,,the ,,early ,,roman ,,empire ,,chapter ,i ,,roman ,,religion ,on the ,ides of ,march in the year #dd ,b4,c4 ,julius ,caesar lay dead at the foot of ,pompey's statue4 ,his body had twenty three wounds4 ,so far the conspirators had done their work thoroughly1 and no farther4 ,they had made no preparation for the government of the ,roman world4 ,they had not realized that they were removing the great organizing intelligence which stood between the world and chaos1 and back into chaos the world swiftly rolled4 ,they had hated personal government2 they were to learn that the only alternative was no government at all4 ,be your own ,senate yourself#a wrote ,cicero to ,plancus in despair4 ,there was war1 there were faction fights1 massacres1 confiscations1 conscriptions4 ,the enemies of ,rome came over her borders1 and brigandage flourished within them4 ,at the end of his first ,georgic ,virgil prays for the triumph of the one hope which the world saw--for the preservation and the rule of the young ,caesar1 and he sums up in a few lines the horror from which mankind seeks to be delivered4 ,right and wrong are confounded2 so many wars the world over1 so many forms of wrong2 no worthy honour is left to the plough2 the husbandmen are marched away and the fields grow dirty2 the hook has its curve straightened into the sword-blade4 ,in the ,east1 ,euphrates is stirring up war1 in the ,west1 ,germany3 nay1 close-neighbouring cities break their mutual league and draw the sword1 and the war-god's unnatural fury rages over the whole world2 even as when in the ,circus the chariots burst #b from their floodgates1 they dash into the course1 and pulling desperately at the reins the driver lets the horses drive him1 and the car is deaf to the curb4#b ,virgil's hope that ,octavian might be spared to give peace to the world was realized4 ,the foreign enemies were driven over their frontiers and thoroughly cowed2 brigandage was crushed1 and finally1 with the fall of ,antony and ,cleopatra1 the government of the whole world was once more1 after thirteen years of suffering1 disorder and death1 safely gathered into the hands of one man4 ,there was peace at last and ,rome had leisure to think out the experience through which she had passed4 ,the thirteen years between the murder of ,caesar and the battle of ,actium were only a part of that experience2 for a century there had been continuous disintegration in the ,state4 ,the empire had been increased1 but the imperial people had declined4 ,there had been civil war in ,rome over and over again--murder employed as a common resource of politics1 reckless disregard of the sacredness of life and property1 and thorough carelessness of the ,state4 ,the impression that ,england made upon ,wordsworth in #ahjb was precisely that left upon the mind of the serious ,roman when he reflected upon his country4 ,all was rapine1 avarice1 expense4 ,plain living and high thinking are no more3 ,the homely beauty of the good old cause ,is gone2 our peace1 our fearful innocence1 ,and pure religion breathing household laws4 ,such complaints1 real or conventional1 are familiar to the readers of the literature of the last century before ,christ4 ,everyone felt that a profound change had come over ,rome4 ,attempts had been made in various ways to remedy this change2 laws had been passed2 citizens had been banished and murdered2 armies had been called in to restore ancient principles2 and all had resulted in failure4 ,finally a gleam of restoration was seen when ,julius began to set things in order1 when he corrected the year by the ,sun and gave promise of as true and deep-going a correction of everything else4 ,his murder put an end to all this at the time1 and it took thirteen years to regain the lost opportunity--and the years were not #c altogether loss for they proved conclusively that there was now no alternative to the rule of the ,prince4 ,sidenote3 ,the cause of ,rome's decline ,accordingly the ,prince set himself to discover what was to be done to heal the hurt of his people1 and to heal it thoroughly4 ,what was the real disease8 was the question that men asked2 where was the root of all the evil8 why was it that in old days men were honest1 governed themselves firmly1 knew how to obey1 and served the ,state8 ,a famous line of ,ennius1 written two centuries before1 said that the ,roman ,commonwealth stood on ancient character1 and on men4-- ,moribus antiquis stat res ,romano1 virisque4 ,both these bases of the national life seemed to be lost--were they beyond recall8 could they be restored8 ,what was it that had made the ancient character8 ,what was the ultimate difference between the old ,roman and the ,roman of the days of ,antony and ,octavian8 ,ovid congratulated himself on the perfect congruity of the age and his personal character-- haec aetas moribus apta meis-- and he was quite right4 ,and precisely in the measure that ,ovid was right in finding the age and his character in agreement1 the age and national character were demonstrably degenerate4 ,it was the great question before the nation1 its statesmen1 patriots and poets1 to find why two hundred years had wrought such a change4 ,it was not long before an answer was suggested4 ,a reason was found1 which had a history of its own4 ,the decline had been foreseen4 ,we are fortunately in possession of a forecast by a ,greek thinker of the second century ,b4,c41 who knew ,rome well--,polybius1 the intimate of the younger ,scipio4 ,in the course of his great summary of the ,rome he knew1 when he is explaining her actual and future greatness to the ,greek world1 he says3--,the most important difference for the better1 which the ,roman ,commonwealth appears to me to display1 is in their religious beliefs1 for ,i conceive that what in other nations is looked upon as a reproach1 ,i mean a scrupulous fear of the gods1 is the very thing which keeps the ,roman ,commonwealth together2 7synechein ta rhomaion praumata74 ,to such an extraordinary height is this carried among them 7ektetragoetai #d kai pareisektai7 both in private and public business1 that nothing could exceed it4 ,many people might think this unaccountable1 but in my opinion their object is to use it as a check upon the common people4 ,if it were possible to form a state wholly of philosophers1 such a custom would perhaps be unnecessary4 ,but seeing that every multitude is fickle and full of lawless desires1 unreasoning anger and violent passion1 the only resource is to keep them in check by mysterious terrors and scenic effects of this sort 7tois adelois phobois kai te toiaute tragodia74 ,wherefore1 to my mind1 the ancients were not acting without purpose or at random1 when they brought in among the vulgar those opinions about the gods and the belief in the punishments in ,hades3 much rather do ,i think that men nowadays are acting rashly and foolishly in rejecting them4 ,this is the reason why1 apart from anything else1 ,greek statesmen1 if entrusted with a single talent1 though protected by ten checking-clerks1 as many seals and twice as many witnesses1 yet cannot be induced to keep faith2 whereas among the ,romans1 in their magistracies and embassies1 men have the handling of a great amount of money1 and yet from pure respect to their oath keep their faith intact4#c ,later on ,polybius limits his assertion of ,roman honesty to the majority--the habits and principles of ,rome were beginning to be contaminated4#d ,sidenote3 ,the political value of religion ,this view of the value of religion is an old one among the ,greeks4 ,critias1 the friend of ,socrates1 embodied it in verses1 which are preserved for us by ,sextus ,empiricus4 ,in summary he holds that there was a time when men's life knew no order1 but at last laws were ordained to punish2 and the laws kept men from open misdeeds1 but they did many things in secret2 and then1 ,i think1 some shrewd and wise man invented a terror for the evil in case secretly they should do or say or think aught4 ,so he introduced the divine1 alleging that there is a divinity 7daimon71 blest with eternal life1 who with his mind sees and hears1 thinks1 and marks these things1 and bears a divine nature1 who will hear all that is said among men and can see all that is done1 and though in silence thou plan some evil1 yet this shall not escape the gods4 ,this was a most pleasant #e lesson which he introduced1 with a false reason covering truth2 and he said the gods abode in that region whence thunder and lightning and rain come1 and so he quenched lawlessness with laws4#e ,this was a shallow judgement upon religion4 ,that it utterly abolished religion altogether was the criticism of ,cicero's ,academic4#f ,but most of the contemporary views of the origin of religion were shallow4 ,euhemerism with its deified men1 and inspiration with its distraught votaries were perhaps nobler1 a little nobler1 but in reality there was little respect for religion among the philosophic4 ,but the practical people of the day accepted the view of ,critias as wise enough4 ,the myths that are told of affairs in ,hades1 though pure invention at bottom1 contribute to make men pious and upright1 wrote the ,sicilian ,diodorus at this very time4#g ,varro#h divided religion into three varieties1 mythical1 physical 7on which the less said in public1 he owned1 the better7 and civil1 and he pronounced the last the best adapted for national purposes1 as it consisted in knowing what gods state and citizen should worship and with what rites4 ,it is the interest1 he said1 of states to be deceived in religion4 ,so the great question narrowed itself to this3--,was it possible for another shrewd and wise man to do again for ,rome what the original inventor of religion had done for mankind8 once more to establish effective gods to do the work of police8 ,augustus endeavoured to show that it was still possible4 ,on the famous monument of ,ancyra1 which preserves for us the ,emperor's official autobiography1 he enumerates the temples he built--temples in honour of ,apollo1 of ,julius1 of ,quirinus1 of ,juppiter ,feretrius1 of ,jove the ,thunderer1 of ,minerva1 of the ,queen ,juno1 of ,juppiter ,liberalis1 of the ,lares1 of the ,penates1 of ,youth1 of the ,great ,mother1 and the shrine known as the ,lupercal2 he tells how he dedicated vast sums from his spoils1 how he restored to the temples of ,asia the ornaments of which they had been robbed1 and how he #f became ,pontifex ,maximus1 after patiently waiting for ,lepidus to vacate the office by a natural death4 ,his biographer ,suetonius tells of his care for the ,sibylline books1 of his increasing the numbers1 dignities and allowances of the priests1 and his especial regard for the ,vestal ,virgins1 of his restoration of ancient ceremonies1 of his celebration of festivals and holy days1 and of his discrimination among foreign religions1 his regard for the ,athenian mysteries and his contempt for ,egyptian ,apis4#i ,his private feelings and instincts had a tinge of superstition4 ,he used a sealskin as a protection against thunder2 he carefully studied his dreams1 was much moved by portents1 and observed days4#aj ,sidenote3 ,rome's debt to the gods ,the most lasting monument 7aere perennius7 of the restoration of religion by ,augustus consists of the odes which ,horace wrote to forward the plans of the ,emperor4 ,they were very different men1 but it is not unreasonable to hold that ,horace felt no less than ,augustus that there was something wrong with the state4 ,his personal attitude to religion was his own affair1 and to it we shall have to return1 but in grave and dignified odes1 which he gave to the world1 he lent himself to the cause of reformation4 ,he deplored the reckless luxury of the day with much appearance of earnestness1 and1 though in his published collections1 these poems of lament are interleaved with others whose burden is sparge rosas1 he was serious in some degree2 for his own taste1 at least when he came within sight of middle life1 was all for moderation4 ,he spoke gravely of the effect upon the race of its disregard of all the virtues necessary for the continuance of a society4 ,like other poets of the day1 he found ,utopias in distant ages and remote lands4 ,his idealized picture of the blessedness of savage life is not unlike ,rousseau's1 and in both cases the inspiration was the same--discontent with an environment complicated1 extravagant and corrupt4 ,better with nomad ,scythians roam1 ,whose travelling cart is all their home1 ,or where the ruder ,getae spread ,from steppes unmeasured raise their bread4 #g ,there with a single year content ,the tiller shifts his tenement2 ,another1 when that labour ends1 ,to the self-same condition bends4 ,the simple step-dame there will bless ,with care the children motherless3 ,no wife by wealth command procures1 ,none heeds the sleek adulterer's lures4#aa ,other poets also imagined ,golden ,ages of quiet ease and idleness1 but the conclusion which ,horace drew was more robust4 ,he appealed to the ,emperor for laws1 and effective laws1 to correct the unreined license of the day1 and though his poem declines into declamation of a very idle kind about useless gold1 as his poems are apt to decline on the first hint of rhetoric1 the practical suggestion was not rhetorical--it was perhaps the purpose of the piece4 ,in another famous poem1 the last of a sequence of six1 all dedicated to the higher life of ,rome and all reaching an elevation not often attained by his odes1 he points more clearly to the decline of religion as the cause of ,rome's misfortunes4#ab ,the idea that ,rome's ,empire was the outcome of her piety was not first struck out by ,horace4 ,cicero uses it in one of his public speeches with effect and puts it into the mouth of his ,stoic in the work on the ,nature of the ,gods4#ac ,later on1 one after another of the ,latin ,apologists for ,christianity1 from ,tertullian#ad to ,prudentius1 has to combat the same idea4 ,it was evidently popular1 and the appeal to the ruined shrine and the neglected image touched--or was supposed to touch--the popular imagination4 ,mankind are apt to look twice at the piety of a ruler1 and the old question of ,satan comes easily1 ,doth ,job serve ,god for naught8 ,why does an ,emperor wish to be called the eldest son of the church8 ,we may be fairly sure in the case of ,augustus that1 if popular sentiment had been strongly against #h the restoration of religion1 he would have said less about it4 ,we have to go behind the ,emperor and ,horace to discover how the matter really stood between religion and the ,roman people4 ,we may first of all remark that1 just as the ,french ,revolution was in some sense the parent of the ,romantic movement1 the disintegration of the old ,roman life was accompanied by the rise of antiquarianism4 ,cicero's was the last generation that learnt the ,twelve ,tables by heart at school ut carmen necessarium2 and ,varro1 ,cicero's contemporary1 was the first and perhaps the greatest of all ,roman antiquaries4 ,so at least ,st ,augustine held4 ,sixteen of his forty-one books of ,antiquities ,varro gave to the gods1 for he says he was afraid they would perish1 not by any hostile invasion1 but by the neglect of the ,roman citizens1 and from this he says they were rescued by himself1 as from a fallen house1 and safely stored and preserved in the memory of good men by books like his2 and that his care for this was of more service than that which ,metellus is said to have shown in rescuing the sacred emblems of ,vesta from the fire or ,a,eneas in saving the penates from the ,fall of ,troy4#ae ,he rescued a good deal more than a later and more pious age was grateful for2 ,augustine found him invaluable1 but ,servius1 the great commentator on ,virgil1 called him everywhere the foe of religion4#af ,the poets1 too1 felt to the full the charm of antiquity4 ,propertius#ag and ,ovid both undertook to write of olden days--of sacred things 7rooted out of ancient annals#ah71 and of the names of long ago4 ,virgil himself was looked upon as a great antiquary4 ,livy wrote of ,rome's early history and told how ,numa put the fear of the gods upon his people as the most effective thing for an ignorant and rough multitude2#ai his history abounds in portents and omens1 but he is not altogether a believer4 ,as early as a generation before ,rome was burnt by the ,gauls it was remarked1 he says1 that foreign religion had invaded the city1 brought by prophets who made money out of the superstitions they roused and the alien and unusual means they employed to procure the peace of the gods4#bj #i ,sidenote3 ,primitive ,roman ritual ,nowhere perhaps is antiquarianism more fascinating than in the sphere of religion4 ,the ,lupercalia had once a real meaning4 ,the sacrifice of goats and young dogs1 and of sacred cakes that the ,vestals made of the first ears of the last year's harvest2 the ,luperci1 with blood on their brows1 naked but for the skins of the slaughtered goats2 the februa of goatskin1 the touch of which would take sterility from a woman--all this is intelligible to the student of primitive religion2 but when ,mark ,antony1 ,consul though he was1 was one of the runners at the ,lupercalia1 it was not in the spirit of the ancient ,latin4 ,it was an antiquarian revival of an old festival of the countryside1 which had perhaps never died out4 ,at all events it was celebrated as late as the fifth century ,a4,d41 and it was only then abolished by the substitution of a ,christian feast by ,pope ,gelasius4#ba ,augustus took pains to revive such ceremonies4 ,suetonius mentions the augury of safety1 the flaminate of ,juppiter1 the ,lupercal rite1 and various sacred games4#bb ,varro in one of his books1 speaks of the ,arval ,brothers2 and ,archaeology and the spade have recovered for us the acta of ninety-six of the annual meetings which this curious old college held at the end of ,may in the grove of ,dea ,dia4 ,it is significant that the oldest of these acta refer to the meeting in #ad ,a4,d41 the year of ,augustus' death4 ,the hymn which they sang runs as follows3-- ,enos ,lases iuvate ,neve lue rue ,marmar sins incurrere in pleores ,satur fu fere ,mars limen sali sta berber ,semunis ,alternis advocapit conctos ,enos ,marmor iuvato ,triumpe4 ,the first five lines were repeated thrice1 and ,triumpe five times4#bc ,quintilian tells us that the hymns of the ,salii were hardly intelligible to the priests themselves1#bd yet they found admirers who amused ,horace with their zeal for mere age and obscurity4#be #aj ,but an antiquarian interest in ritual is not inconsistent with indifference to religion4 ,varro1 as we have seen1 was criticized as an actual enemy of religion in spite of the services he claimed to have rendered to the gods--and the very claim justifies the criticism4 ,so far as the literature of the last century ,b4,c4 and the stories current about the leading men in ,rome allow us to judge1 it is hard to suppose there has ever been an age less interested in religion4 ,cicero1 for example1 wrote--or1 perhaps1 compiled--three books ,on the ,nature of the ,gods4 ,he casts his matter into the form of a dialogue1 in which in turn an ,epicurean and a ,stoic give their grounds for rejecting and for accepting the gods1 and an ,academic points out the inadequacy of the reasoning in both cases4 ,he has also written on the immortality of the soul4 ,but ,cicero's correspondence is a more reliable index to his own beliefs and those of the society in which he moved4 ,no society could be more indifferent to what we call the religious life4 ,in theory and practice1 in character and instinct1 they were thoroughly secular4 ,one sentence will exhibit ,cicero's own feeling4 ,he wrote to his wife from ,brundusium on #cjth ,april #eh ,b4,c41 when he was on his way to foreign exile3 ,if these miseries are to be permanent1 ,i only wish1 my dearest 7mea vita71 to see you as soon as possible and to die in your arms1 since neither gods1 whom you have worshipped with such pure devotion1 nor men1 whom ,i have always served1 have made us any return4#bf ,even when his daughter ,tullia died1 no sign of any hope of re-union escaped him in his letters1 nor did ,servius ,sulpicius1 who wrote him a beautiful letter of consolation1 do more than merely hint at such a thing4 ,if the dead have consciousness1 would she wish you to be so overcome of sorrow8 ,horace1 whose odes1 as we have seen1 are now and then consecrated to the restoration of religion1 was every whit as secular-minded4 ,he laughed at superstition and ridiculed the idea of a divine interest in men1 when he expressed his own feeling4 ,no one was ever more thoroughly ,epicurean in the truest sense of the word2 no one ever urged more pleasantly the ,epicurean theory ,carpe diem2 no one ever had more deeply ingrained in him the belief ,mors ultima linea rerum est4 ,his candour1 his humour1 his friendliness1 combine to give him a very human charm1 but in all that is associated with the #aa religious side of man's thought and experience1 he is sterile and insufficient4 ,and ,horace1 like ,cicero1 represents a group4 ,fuscus ,aristius1 it is true1 declined to rescue the poet from the bore on the ground that it was the thirtieth ,sabbath--and ,horace could not wish to offend the ,jews8 but we realize that this scruple was dramatic4 ,fuscus is said to have been a writer of comedies4#bg ,sidenote3 ,the childhood of a pagan ,but the jest of ,fuscus was the earnest of many4 ,if men were conscious of decay in the sanction which religion had once given to morality1 there was still a great deal of vague religious feeling among the uneducated and partially educated classes4 ,again and again we read complaints of the folly of grandmothers and nurses1 and it was from them that the first impressions of childhood came4 ,four centuries later than the period now under discussion it was still the same4 ,when once vain superstition obsessed the heathen hearts of our fathers1 unchecked was its course through a thousand generations4 ,the tender hope of the house shuddered1 and worshipped whatever venerable thing his hoary grandsires showed him4 ,infancy drank in error with its mother's milk4 ,amid his cries the sacred meal was put between the baby's lips4 ,he saw the wax dripping upon the stones1 the black ,lares trickling with unguent4 ,a little child he saw the image of ,fortune with her horn of wealth1 and the sacred stone that stood by the house1 and his mother pale at her prayers before it4 ,soon himself too1 raised high on his nurse's shoulders1 he pressed his lips to the stone1 poured forth his childish prayers1 and asked riches for himself from the blind rock1 and was sure that1 whatever one wished1 that was where to ask4 ,never did he lift his eyes and his mind to turn to the citadel of reason1 but he believed1 and held to the foolish custom1 honouring with blood of lambs the gods of his family4 ,and then when he went forth from his home1 how he marvelled at the public festivals1 the holy days and the games1 and gazed at the towering ,capitol1 and saw the laurelled servants of the gods at the temples while the ,sacred ,way echoed to the lowing of the victims4 ,so wrote ,prudentius4#bh ,so too wrote ,tibullus--,keep me1 ,lares of my fathers2 for ye bred me to manhood when a tender child ,i played at your feet4#bi #ab ,how crowded the whole of life was with cult and ritual and usage1 how full of divinities1 petty1 pleasing or terrible1 but generally vague and ill-defined1 no one will readily realize without special study1 but some idea of the complexity of the ,roman's divine environment can be gained from even a cursory survey of ,ovid's ,fasti1 for example1 or ,tertullian's ,apology1 or some of the chapters of the fourth book of ,augustine's ,city of ,god4 ,when1 asks ,augustine1 can ,i ever mention in one passage of this book all the names of gods and goddesses1 which they have scarcely been able to compass in great volumes1 seeing that they allot to every individual thing the special function of some divinity8 ,he names a few of the gods of agriculture--,segetia1 ,tutilina1 ,proserpina1 ,nodutus1 ,volutina1 ,patelana1 ,lacturnus1 ,matuta1 etc4 ,i do not mention all4#cj ,satan and his angels have filled the whole world1 said ,tertullian4#ca ,sidenote3 ,fauns1 trees1 and wells ,gods of this type naturally make little figure in literature though ,proserpina1 in consequence of her identification with the ,greek ,persephone1 achieved a great place and is indeed the subject of the last great poem written under the ,roman ,empire4 ,but there were other gods of countryside and woodland1 whom we know better in art and poetry4 ,faunus lover of fugitive ,nymphs is charming enough in ,horace's ode1 and ,fauns1 ,pans and ,satyrs lend themselves readily to grotesque treatment in statue and gem and picture4 ,but the country people took them seriously4 ,lucretius1 speaking of echoes among the hills1 says3--,these spots the people round about fancy that goat-footed ,satyrs and nymphs inhabit2 they say that they are the ,fauns1 whose noise and sportive play breaks the still silence of the night as they move from place to place4444 ,they tell us that the country people far and wide full oft hear ,pan1 when1 nodding the pine-cap on his half-bestial head1 he runs over the gaping reeds with curved lip4444 ,and of other like monsters and marvels they tell us1 that they may not be thought to inhabit lonely places1 abandoned even by the gods4#cb ,cicero #ac makes his ,stoic say their voices are often to be heard4#cc ,pliny1 in his ,natural ,history1 says that certain dogs can actually see ,fauns2 he quotes a prescription1 concocted of a dragon's tongue1 eyes and gall1 which the ,magi recommend for those who are harassed by gods of the night and by ,fauns2#cd for they did not confine themselves to running after nymphs1 but would chase human women in the dark4 ,plutarch has a story of ,king ,numa drugging a spring from which two daemons1 ,picus and ,faunus1 drank--creatures who must be compared to ,satyrs or ,pans in some respects and in others to the ,idaean ,dactyli1 beings of great miraculous power4#ce ,a countryside haunted by inhabitants of more or less than human nature1 part beasts and part fairies or devils1 is one thing to an unbeliever who is interested in art or folk-lore1 but quite another thing to the uneducated man or woman who has heard their mysterious voices in the night solitude and has suffered in crop1 or house1 or herd from their ill-will4#cf ,what the ,greek called ,panic fears were attributed in ,italy to ,fauns4#cg ,trees1 says ,pliny1 were temples of divinities1 and in the old way the simple country folk to this day dedicate any remarkable tree to a god4 ,nor have we more worship for images glittering with gold and ivory than for groves and the very silence that is in them4#ch ,the country people hung rags and other offerings on holy trees--the hedge round the sacred grove at ,aricia is specially mentioned by ,ovid as thus honoured4#ci ,the river-god of the ,tiber had his sacred oak hung with spoils of fallen foes4#dj ,holy wells too were common1 which were honoured with models of the limbs their waters healed1 and other curious gifts1 thrown into them--as they are still in every part of the ,old ,world4 ,horace's fount of ,bandusia is the most famous of these in literature4#da ,it was an old usage to throw garlands into springs and to crown wells on ,october #acth4#db ,streams and #ad wells alike were haunted by mysterious powers1 too often malevolent4#dc ,ovid describes old charms to keep off vampires1 striges1 from the cradles of children4#dd ,in fact the whole of ,nature teemed with beings whom we find it hard to name4 ,they were not pleasant enough1 and did not appeal enough to the fancy1 to merit the name fairies--at least since ,the ,midsummer ,night's ,dream was written4 ,perhaps they are nearer ,the little ,people--the nameless thim ones4#de ,they were neither gods nor demons in our sense of the words1 though ,greek thinkers used the old ,homeric word daimon to describe them or the diminutive of it1 which allowed them to suppose that ,socrates' daimonion was something of the kind4 ,sidenote3 ,the genius ,but these ,nature-spirits1 whatever we may call them1 were far from being the only superhuman beings that encompassed man4 ,every house had its ,lares in a little shrine 7lararium7 on the hearth1 little twin guardian gods with a dog at their feet1 who watched over the family1 and to whom something was given at every meal1 and garlands on great days4 ,legend said that ,servius ,tullius was the son of the family ,lar4#df ,the ,lares may have been spirits of ancestors4 ,the ,emperor ,alexander ,severus set images of ,apollonius1 ,christ1 ,abraham and ,orpheus1 and others of that sort in his lararium4#dg ,not only houses but streets and cross-roads had ,lares2 the city had a thousand1 ,ovid said1 besides the genius of the ,prince who gave them2#dh for ,augustus restored two yearly festivals in their honour in ,spring and ,autumn4 ,there were also the ,penates in every home1 whom it would perhaps be hard to distinguish very clearly from the ,lares4 ,horace has a graceful ode to ,phidyle on the sufficiency of the simplest sacrifices to these little gods of home and hearth4#di ,the worship of these family gods was almost the only #ae part of ,roman religion that was not flooded and obscured by the inrush of ,oriental cults4 ,the ,ancients1 said ,servius1 used the name ,genius for the natural god of each individual place or thing or man1#ej and another antiquary thought that the genius and the ,lar might be the same thing4 ,for some reason men of letters laid hold upon the genius1 and we find it everywhere4 ,why there should be such difference even between twin brothers1 ,he only knows whose influence at our birth ,o'errules each mortal's planet upon earth1 ,the attendant genius1 temper-moulding pow'r1 ,that stamps the colour of man's natal hour4#ea ,the idea of this spiritual counterpart pervades the ancient world4 ,it appears in ,persia as the fravashi4#eb ,it is in the ,syrian ,gnostic's ,hymn of the ,soul1 as a robe in the form and likeness of a man4-- ,it was myself that ,i saw before me as in a mirror2 ,two in number we stood1 but only one in appearance4#ec ,it is also probable that the ,angel of ,peter and the ,angels of the little children in the ,new ,testament represent the same idea4 ,the reader of ,horace hardly needs to be reminded of the birthday feast in honour of the genius1--indulge genio4 ,december1 as the month of ,larentalia and ,saturnalia1 is the month welcome to every genius1 ,ovid says4#ed ,the worship of all or most of these spirits of the country and of the home was joyful1 an affair of meat and drink4 ,the primitive sacrifice brought man and god near one another in the blood and flesh of the victim1 which was of one race with them both4#ee ,it was on some such ground that the ,jews would not eat with blood1 lest the soul of the beast should pass into the #af man4 ,there were feasts in honour of the dead1 too1 which the church found so dear to the people that it only got rid of them by turning them into festivals of the ,martyrs4 ,it was not idly that ,st ,paul spoke of meat offered to idols and said that the ,kingdom of ,god was not eating or drinking4 ,in addition to all these spirits of living beings1 of actions and of places1 we have to reckon the dead4 ,there were ,manes--a name supposed to mean the kindly ones1 a caressing name given with a purpose and betraying a real fear4 ,there were also ghosts1 larvae and lemures4#ef ,it was the thought of these that made burial so serious a thing1 and all the ritual for averting the displeasure of the dead4 ,the ,parentalia were celebrated on the #acth of ,february in their honour1#eg and in ,may the ,lemuria4 ,it is1 we are told1 for this reason that none will marry in ,may4#eh ,closely connected with this fear of ghosts and of the dead is that terror of death which ,lucretius spends so much labour in trying to dissipate4 ,i see no race of men1 wrote ,cicero1 however polished and educated1 however brutal and barbarous1 which does not believe that warnings of future events are given and may be understood and announced by certain persons1#ei and he goes on to remark that ,xenophanes and ,epicurus were alone among philosophers in believing in no kind of ,divination4#fj ,are we to wait till beasts speak8 ,are we not content with the unanimous authority of mankind8#fa ,the ,stoics1 he says1 summed up the matter as follows3-- ,if there are gods and they do not declare the future to men2 then either they do not love men2 or they are ignorant of what is to happen2 or they think it of no importance to men to know it2 or they do not think it consistent with their majesty to tell men2 or the gods themselves are unable to indicate it4 ,but neither do they not love men1 for they are benefactors and friends to mankind2 nor are they ignorant of what they themselves appoint and ordain2 nor is it of no importance to us to know the future--for we shall be more careful if we do2 nor do they count it alien to their majesty1 for there is nothing nobler than kindness2 nor are they unable to foreknow4 ,therefore no #ag gods1 no foretelling2 but there are gods2 therefore they foretell4 ,nor1 if they foretell1 do they fail to give us ways to learn what they foretell2 nor1 if they give us such ways1 is there no divination2 therefore1 there is divination4#fb ,sidenotes3 ,omens ,all this reasoning comes after the fact4 ,the whole world believed in divination1 and the ,stoics found a reason for it4#fc ,the flight of birds1 the entrails of beasts1 rain1 thunder1 lightning1 dreams1 everything was a means of ,divination4 ,another passage from the same ,dialogue of ,cicero will suffice4 ,superstition1 says the speaker1 follows you up1 is hard upon you1 pursues you wherever you turn4 ,if you hear a prophet1 or an omen2 if you sacrifice2 if you catch sight of a bird2 if you see a ,chaldaean or a haruspex2 if it lightens1 if it thunders1 if anything is struck by lightning2 if anything like a portent is born or occurs in any way--something or other of the kind is bound to happen1 so that you can never be at ease and have a quiet mind4 ,the refuge from all our toils and anxieties would seem to be sleep4 ,yet from sleep itself the most of our cares and terrors come4#fd ,how true all this is will be seen by a moment's reflexion on the abundance of signs1 omens and dreams that historians so different as ,livy and ,plutarch record4 ,horace uses them pleasantly enough in his ,odes--like much else such things are charming1 if one does not believe in them4#fe ,but it is abundantly clear that it took an effort to be rid of such belief4 ,a speaker in ,cicero's ,tusculans remarks on the effrontery of philosophers1 who boast that by ,epicurus' aid they are freed from those most cruel of tyrants1 eternal terror and fear by day and by night4#ff ,when a man boasts of moral progress1 of his freedom from avarice1 what1 asks ,horace1 of other like matters8 ,you're not a miser4 ,good--but prithee say1 ,is every vice with avarice flown away8 444 ,does ,superstition ne'er your heart assail ,nor bid your soul with fancied horrors quail8 #ah ,or can you smile at magic's strange alarms1 ,dreams1 witchcraft1 ghosts1 ,thessalian spells and charms8#fg ,horace's conversion is recorded in one of his odes1 but it may be taken too seriously4 ,that superstition so gross was accompanied by paralysing belief in magic1 enchantment1 miracle1 astrology#fh and witchcraft generally1 is not surprising4 ,the historians of the ,early ,empire have plenty to say on this4 ,it should be remembered that the step between magic and poisoning is a very short one4 ,magic1 says ,pliny1 embraces the three arts that most rule the human mind1 medicine1 religion and mathematics--a triple chain which enslaves mankind4#fi ,we have thus in ,roman society a political life of a highly developed type1 which has run through a long course of evolution and is now degenerating2 we have a literature based upon that of ,greece and implying a good deal of philosophy and of intellectual freedom2 and1 side by side with all this1 a religious atmosphere in which the grossest and most primitive of savage conceptions and usages thrive in the neighbourhood of a scepticism as cool and detached as that of ,horace4 ,it is hard to realize that a people's experience can be so uneven1 that development and retardation can exist at once in so remarkable a degree in the mind of a nation4 ,the explanation is that we judge peoples and ages too much by their literature1 and by their literature only after it has survived the test of centuries4 ,in all immortal literature there is a common note2 it deals with the deathless and the vital2 and superstition1 though long enough and tenacious enough of life1 is outlived and outgrown by man's unconquerable mind4 ,but the period before us is one in which1 under a rule that robbed men of every liberating interest in life1 and left society politically1 intellectually and morally sterile and empty1 literature declined1 and as it declined1 it sank below the level of that flood of vulgar superstition1 which rose higher and higher1 as in each generation men were less wishful to think and less capable of thought4 #ai ,sidenote3 ,universal religions ,but our theme is religion1 and so far we have discussed nothing but what we may call superstition--and even ,plutarch would hardly quarrel with the name4 ,that to people possessed by such beliefs in non-human powers1 in beings which beset human life with malignity1 the restoration of ancient cult and ritual would commend itself1 is only natural4 ,to such minds the purpose of all worship is to induce the superhuman being to go peaceably away1 and sacrifice implies not human sin1 but divine irritation1 which may be irrational4 ,to the religious temperament1 the essential thing is some kind of union1 some communion1 with the ,divine2 and sacrifice becomes the means to effect the relation of life to a higher will1--to a holier will1 we might say1 if we allow to the word holy a width of significance more congenial to ancient than to modern thought4 ,and this higher will implies a divinity of wider reach than the little gods of primitive superstition1 a power which may even be less personal if only it is great4 ,religion asks for the simplification of man's relations with his divine environment1 for escape from the thousand and one petty marauders of the spirit-world into the empire of some strong and central authority1 harsh1 perhaps1 or even cruel1 but at least a controlling force in man's experience4 ,if this power is moral1 religion is at once fused with morality2 if it is merely physical1 religion remains non-moral1 and has a constant tendency to decline into superstition1 or at least to make terms with it4 ,in the hereditary religion of ,rome1 the only power that could possibly have been invested with any such character was ,jupiter ,capitolinus1 but he had too great a likeness to the other gods of ,italy--the gods with names1 that is1 for some of the more significant had none--,bona ,dea and ,dea ,dia for example4 ,jupiter had his functions1 but on the whole they were local1 and there was very little or nothing in him to quicken thought or imagination4 ,it was not till the ,stoics made him more or less the embodiment of monotheism1 that he had a chance of becoming the centre of a religion in the higher sense of the word1 and even then it was impossible2 for first1 he was at best little more than an impersonal dogma1 and1 secondly1 the place was filled by foreign goddesses of far greater warmth and colour and activity4 ,stat magni nominis umbra4 #bj ,sidenote3 ,cybele and her priests ,it was during the second ,punic ,war that ,cybele was brought from ,asia ,minor to ,rome and definitely established as one of the divinities of the ,city4#gj ,the ,great ,mother of the gods1 she represented the principle of life and its reproduction1 and her worship appealed to every male and female being in the world4 ,it inspired awe1 and it prompted to joy and merriment2 it was imposing and it was mysterious4 ,lucretius has a famous description of her pageant3-- ,adorned with this emblem 7the mural crown71 the image of the divine ,mother is carried nowadays through wide lands in awe-inspiring state4 ,different nations after old-established ritual name her ,idaean ,mother1 and give for escort ,phrygian bands4444 ,tight-stretched tambourines and hollow cymbals thunder all round to the stroke of their open hands1 and horns menace with hoarse-sounding music1 and the hollow pipe stirs their minds with its ,phrygian strain4 ,they carry weapons before them1 emblems of furious rage1 meet to fill the thankless souls and godless breasts of the rabble with terror for the ,divinity of the ,goddess4 ,so1 when first she rides in procession through great cities and mutely enriches mortals with a blessing not expressed in words1 they straw all her path with brass and silver1 presenting her with bounteous alms1 and scatter over her a snow-shower of roses1 over-shadowing the mother and her troops of attendants4 ,here an armed band1 to which the ,greeks give the names of ,phrygian ,curetes1 join in the game of arms and leap in measure1 all dripping with blood1 and the awful crests upon their heads quiver and shake4#ga ,the invariable features of the worship of ,cybele are mentioned here1 the eunuch priests1 the tambourines1 the shouting and leaping and cutting with knives1 and the collection of money4#gb ,there is no indication of any control being exercised over these priests of ,cybele by a central authority1 and little bands of them strolled through the ,mediterranean lands1 making their living by exhibiting themselves and their goddess and gathering petty offerings4 ,they had a bad name and they seem to have deserved it4 ,in the book called ,the ,ass1 #ba once ascribed to ,lucian1 is a short account of such a band4 ,the ass1 who is really a man transformed1 is the speaker4 ,the next day they packed up the goddess and set her on my back4 ,then we drove out of the city and went round the country4 ,when we entered any village1 ,i1 the god-bearer 7a famous word1 theophoretos#gc7 stood still1 and the crowd of flutists blew like mad1 and the others threw off their caps and rolled their heads about1 and cut their arms with the swords and each stuck his tongue out beyond his teeth and cut it too1 so that in a moment everything was full of fresh blood4 ,and1 ,i1 when ,i saw this for the first time1 stood trembling in case the goddess might need an ass' blood too4 ,when they had cut themselves about in this way1 they collected from the bystanders obols and drachmas2 and one or another would give them figs and cheeses and a jar of wine1 and a medimnus of wheat and barley for the ass4 ,so they lived upon these and did service to the goddess who rode on my back4#gd ,the ,attis of ,catullus gives a vivid picture of the frenzy which this worship could excite4 ,juvenal complains of the bad influence which the priests of ,cybele1 among others1 had upon the minds of ,roman ladies4 ,st ,augustine long afterwards says that till yesterday they were to be seen in the streets of ,carthage with wet hair1 whitened face and mincing walk4 ,it is interesting to note in passing that the land which introduced the ,mother of the ,gods to the ,roman world1 also gave the name ,theotokos 7,mother of ,god7 to the church4 ,egypt also contributed gods to ,rome1 who forced themselves upon the state4 ,the ,senate forbade them the ,capitol and had their statues thrown down1 but the people set them up again with violence4#ge ,gabinius1 the ,consul of #eh ,b4,c41 stopped the erection of altars to them1 but eight years later the ,senate had to pass a decree for the destruction of their shrines4 ,no #bb workman dared lay hand to the work1 so the consul ,paullus stripped off his consular toga1 took an axe and dealt the first blow at the doors4#gf ,another eight years passed1 and the ,triumvirs1 after the death of ,caesar1 built a temple to ,isis and ,serapis to win the goodwill of the masses4#gg ,the large foreign and ,eastern element in the city populace must be remembered4 ,when ,octavian captured ,alexandria1 he forgave the guilty city in honour of ,serapis1 but on his return to ,rome he destroyed all the shrines of the god within the city walls4 ,in time ,isis laid hold of the month of ,november1 which had otherwise no festivals of importance4 ,sidenote3 ,isis and ,serapis ,isis seems to have appealed to women4 ,tibullus complains of ,delia's devotion to her1 and her ritual4 ,there were baths and purifications2 the worshippers wore linen garments and slept alone4 ,whole nights were spent sitting in the temple amid the rattling of the sistrum4 ,morning and evening the votary with flowing hair recited the praises of the goddess4#gh ,isis could make her voice heard on occasion1 or her snake of silver would be seen to move its head1 and penance was required to avert her anger4 ,she might bid her worshippers to stand in the ,tiber in the winter1 or to crawl1 naked and trembling1 with blood-stained knees1 round the ,campus ,martius--the ,iseum stood in the ,campus as it was forbidden within the ,city ,walls2 or to fetch water from ,egypt to sprinkle in the ,roman shrine4 ,they were high honours indeed that ,anubis claimed1 as1 surrounded by shaven priests in linen garments1 he scoured the city and laughed at the people who beat their breasts as he passed4#gi ,the barking ,anubis might be despised by ,virgil and others1 but the vulgar feared him as the attendant of ,isis and ,serapis4#hj ,isis began to usurp the functions of ,juno ,lucina1 and women in childbed called upon her to deliver them4#ha ,she gave oracles1 which were familiar perhaps even so early as ,ennius' day1#hb and men and women slept in the temples of ,isis and ,serapis1 as they did in those of ,a,esculapius1 to obtain in dreams the knowledge they needed to appease the god1 or to #bc recover their health1 or what not4#hc ,it is not surprising that the shrines of ,isis are mentioned by ,ovid and ,juvenal as the resorts of loose women4#hd ,the devotion of the women is proved by the inscriptions which are found recording their offerings to ,isis4 ,one woman1 a ,spaniard1 may be taken as an illustration4 ,in honour of her daughter she dedicated a silver statue to ,isis1 and she set forth how the goddess wore a diadem composed of one big pearl1 six little pearls1 emeralds1 rubies1 and jacinths2 earrings of emeralds and pearls2 a necklace of thirty-six pearls and eighteen emeralds 7with two for clasps72 bracelets on her arms and legs2 rings on her fingers2 and emeralds on her sandals4#he ,there is evidence to show that the ,madonna in ,southern ,italy is really ,isis re-named4 ,isis1 like the ,madonna1 was painted and sculptured with a child in her arms 7,horus1 ,harpocrates74 ,their functions coincide as closely as this inscription proves that their offerings do4#hf ,die ,mutter ,gottes zu ,kevlaar ,traegt heut' ihr bestes ,kleid4 ,at first1 it is possible that ,egyptian religion1 as it spread all over the world1 was little better than ,phrygian1 but it had a better future4 ,with ,plutarch's work upon it we shall have to deal later on4 ,apuleius1 at the end of the second century worshipped an ,isis1 who identified all the ,divinities with herself and was approached through the most imposing sacraments4 ,she was the power underlying all nature1 but there was a spiritual side to her worship4 ,two centuries or so later1 ,julian the ,apostate looks upon ,serapis as ,catholics have done upon ,st ,peter--he is the kindly and gentle god1 who set souls utterly free from becoming or birth 7geneseos7 and does not1 when once they are free1 nail them down to other bodies in punishment1 but conveys them upward and brings them into the #bd ideal world4#hg ,it is possible that some hint of this lurked in the religion from the first1 and1 if it did1 we need not be surprised that it escaped ,juvenal's notice4 ,it was not merely gods that came from the ,east1 but a new series of religious ideas4 ,here were religions that claimed the whole of life1 that taught of moral pollution and of reconciliation1 that gave anew the old sacramental value to rituals1--religions of priest and devotee1 equalizing rich and poor1 save for the cost of holy rites1 and giving to women the consciousness of life in touch with the divine4 ,the eunuch priests of ,cybele and the monks of ,serapis introduced a new abstinence to ,western thought4 ,it is significant that ,christian monasticism and the coenobite life began in ,egypt1 where1 as we learn from papyri found in recent years1 great monasteries of ,serapis existed long before our era4 ,side by side with celibacy came vegetarianism4 ,no polytheistic religion can exclude gods from its pantheon2 all divinities that man can devise have a right there4 ,thus ,cybele and ,isis made peace with each other and with all the gods and goddesses whom they met in their travels--and with all the daemonia too4 ,their cults were steeped in superstition1 and swung to and fro between continence and sensuality4 ,they orientalized every religion of the ,west and developed every superstitious and romantic tendency4 ,in the long run1 they brought ,philosophy to its knees1 abasing it to be the apologist of everything they taught and did1 and dignifying themselves by giving a philosophic colouring to their mysticism4 ,but this is no strange thing4 ,a religion begins in magic with rites and symbols that belong to the crudest ,nature-worship--to agriculture1 for instance1 and the reproductive organs--and gradually develops or absorbs higher ideas1 till it may reach the unity of the godhead and the immortality of the soul2 but the ultimate question is1 will it cut itself clear of its past8 ,and this the religions of ,cybele and ,isis never satisfactorily achieved4 ,in the meantime they promised little towards a moral regeneration of society4 ,they offered men and women emotions1 but they scarcely touched morality4 ,to the terrors of life1 already many enough1 they added crowning fears1 and cramped and dwarfed the minds of men4 #be ,sidenote3 ,lucretius ,o hapless race of men6 cried ,lucretius1 when they attributed such deeds to the gods and added cruel anger thereto6 what groanings did they then beget for themselves1 what wounds for us1 what tears for our children's children6 ,no act of piety is it to be often seen with veiled head turning toward a stone1 to haunt every altar1 to lie prostrate on the ground with hands outspread before the shrines of gods1 to sprinkle the altars with much blood of beasts and link vow to vow--no6 rather to be able to look on all things with a mind at peace4#hh ,and a mind at peace was the last thing that contemporary religion could offer to any one4 ,human life1 he says1 lay visibly before men's eyes foully crushed to earth under the weight of ,religion1 who showed her head from the quarters of heaven with hideous aspect lowering upon men1 till ,epicurus dared first to uplift mortal eyes against her face and first to withstand her4444 ,the living force of his soul gained the day2 on he passed far beyond the flaming walls of the world and traversed in mind and spirit the immeasurable universe4 ,and thence he returns again a conqueror1 to tell us what can and what cannot come into being2 in short on what principle each thing has its powers defined1 its deep-set boundary mark4 ,so ,religion is put under our feet and trampled upon in its turn2 while as for us1 his victory sets us on a level with heaven4#hi ,it was the establishment of law which brought peace to ,lucretius4 ,in the ease of mind which we see he gained from the contemplation of the fixity of cause and effect1 in the enthusiasm with which he emphasizes such words as rationes1 faedera1 leges1 with which he celebrates ,natura gubernans1 we can read the horrible weight upon a feeling soul of a world distracted by the incalculable caprices of a myriad of divine or daemonic beings4#ij ,the force with which he flings himself against the doctrine of a future life shows that it is a fight for freedom4 ,if men would rid themselves of the dread of something after death--and they could if they would1 for reason will do it--they could live in the serene temples of the wise2 the gods would pass from their minds2 bereavement would lose its sting1 and life would no longer be brutalized by the cruelties of terror4 ,avarice1 treachery1 murder1 civil war1 suicide--all these things are the fruit of this fear of death4#ia #bf ,religion1 similarly1 often and often has given birth to sinful and unholy deeds4 ,the illustration1 which he uses1 is the sacrifice of ,iphigenia1 and it seems a little remote4 ,yet ,pliny says that in #ig ,b4,c4 in the consulship of ,lentulus and ,crassus1 a decree of the ,senate forbade human sacrifice--ne homo immolaretur4 ,it cannot be estimated1 he goes on1 what a debt is owed to the ,romans who have done away 7in ,gaul and ,britain7 with monstrous rites1 in which it was counted the height of religion to kill a man1 and a most healthful thing to eat him4#ib ,elsewhere he hints darkly at his own age having seen something of the kind1 and there is an obscure allusion in ,plutarch's life of ,marcellus to unspeakable rites1 that none may see1 which are performed 787 upon ,greeks and ,gauls4#ic ,at the temple of ,aricia1 says ,strabo1 there is a barbarian and ,scythian practice4 ,for there is there established a priest1 a runaway slave1 who has killed with his own hand his predecessor4 ,there he is1 then1 ever sword in hand1 peering round about1 lest he should be attacked1 ready to defend himself4 ,strabo's description of the temple on the lake and the precipice overhanging it adds to the impressiveness of the scene he thus pictures4#id ,if human sacrifice was rare in practice1 none the less it was in the minds of men4 ,tantum religio potuit suadere malorum concludes ,lucretius1 and yet it was not perhaps his last thought4 ,m4 ,patin has a fine study of the poet in which he deals with the anti-,lucretius in ,lucretius4 ,even in the matter of religion1 his keen observation of ,nature frequently suggests difficulties which are more powerfully expressed and more convincing than the arguments with which he himself tries to refute them4 ,when we look up to the heavenly regions of the great universe1 the aether set on high above the glittering stars1 and the #bg thought comes into our mind of the sun and moon and their courses2 then indeed in hearts laden with other woes that doubt too begins to wake and raise its head--can it be perchance1 after all1 that we have to do with some vast ,divine power that wheels those bright stars each in his orbit8 ,again who is there whose mind does not shrink into itself with fear of the gods1 whose limbs do not creep with terror1 when the parched earth rocks under horrible blow of the thunderbolt1 and the roar sweeps over the vast sky8 444 ,when too the utmost fury of the wild wind scours the sea and sweeps over its waters the admiral with his stout legions and his elephants1 does he not in prayer seek peace with the gods8 444 but all in vain1 since1 full oft1 caught in the whirlwind1 he is driven1 for all his prayers1 on1 on to the shoals of death4 ,thus does some hidden power trample on mankind4444 ,again1 when the whole earth rocks under their feet1 and towns fall at the shock or hang ready to collapse1 what wonder if men despise themselves1 and make over to the gods high prerogative and marvellous powers to govern all things8#ie ,that ,lucretius should be so open to impressions of this kind1 in spite of his philosophy1 is ra measure of his greatness as a poet4 ,it adds weight and worth to all that he says--to his hatred of the polytheism and superstition round about him1 and to his judgment upon their effect in darkening and benumbing the minds of men4 ,he understands the feelings which he dislikes--he has felt them4 ,the spectacle of the unguessed power that tramples on mankind has moved him2 and he has suffered the distress of all delicate spirits in times of bloodshed and disorder4 ,he knows the effect of such times upon those who still worship4 ,much more keenly in evil days do they turn their minds to religion4#if #bh ,we have now to consider another poet1 a disciple of ,lucretius in his early years1 who1 under the influence of ,nature and human experience1 moved away from ,epicureanism1 and sought reconciliation with the gods1 though he was too honest with himself to find peace in the systems and ideas that were yet available4 ,sidenote3 ,virgil ,virgil was born in the year #gj ,b4,c4--the son of a little self-made man in a village ,north of the ,po4 ,he grew up in the country1 with a spirit that year by year grew more sensitive to every aspect of the world around him4 ,no ,roman poet had a more gentle and sympathetic love of ,nature2 none ever entered so deeply and so tenderly into the sorrows of men4 ,he lived through forty years of ,civil ,war1 veiled and open4 ,he saw its effects in broken homes and aching hearts1 in coarsened minds and reckless lives4 ,he was driven from his own farm1 and had1 like ,a,eneas1 to rescue an aged and blind father4 ,under such experience his early ,epicureanism dissolved--it had always been too genial to be the true kind4 ,the ,epicurean should never go beyond friendship1 and ,virgil loved4 ,his love of the land in which he was born showed it to him more worthy to be loved than men had yet realized4 ,virgil was the pioneer who discovered the beauty1 the charm and the romance of ,italy4 ,he loved the ,italians and saw poetry in their hardy lives and quiet virtues1 though they were not ,greeks4 ,his love of his father and of his land opened to him the significance of all love1 and the deepening and widening of his experience is to be read in the music1 stronger and profounder1 that time reveals in his poetry4 ,here was a poet who loved ,rome more than ever did ,augustus or ,horace1 and he had no such speedy cure as they for the woes of sorrowful ,hesperia4 ,the loss of faith in the old gods meant more to him than to them1 so his tone in speaking of them is quieter1 a great deal1 than that of ,horace4 ,he took the decline of morals more seriously and more inwardly1 and he saw more deeply into the springs of action2 he could never lightly use the talk of rapid and sweeping reformation1 as his friend did in the odes which the ,emperor inspired4 ,he had every belief in ,augustus1 who was dearer to him personally than to ,horace1 and he hoped for much outcome from the new movement in the ,state4 ,but with all his absorbing interest in #bi his own times--and how deep that interest was1 only long and minute study of his poems will reveal--he was without scheme or policy4 ,he came before his countrymen1 as prophets and poets do in all ages--a child in affairs1 but a man in inward experience2 he had little or nothing to offer but the impressions left upon his soul by human life4 ,he had the advantage over most prophets in being a lord of language2 he drew more music from ,latin words than had ever been achieved before or was ever reached again4 ,he told men of a new experience of ,nature4 ,it is hardly exaggeration to say that he stands nearer ,wordsworth in this feeling than any other poet4 ,he had the same impulses of deeper birth2 he had seen new gleams and heard new voices2 he had enjoyed what no ,italian had before1 and he spoke in a new way1 unintelligible then1 and unintelligible still1 to those who have not seen and heard the same things4 ,the gist of it all he tried to give in the language of ,pantheism1 which the ,stoics had borrowed from ,pythagoras3--,the ,deity1 they tell us1 pervades all1 earth and the expanse of sea1 and the deep vault of heaven2 from ,him flocks1 herds1 men1 wild beasts of every sort1 each creature at its birth draws the bright thread of life2 further1 to ,him all things return1 are restored and reduced--death has no place among them2 but they fly up alive into the ranks of the stars and take their seats aloft in the sky4 ,so ,john ,conington did the passage into ,english4 ,but in such cases it may be said with no disrespect to the commentator who has done so much for his poet1 the original words stand to the translation1 as ,virgil's thought did to the same thought in a ,stoic's brain4 ,deum namque ire per omnis ,terrasque tractusque maris caelumque profundum2 ,hinc pecudes1 armenta1 viros1 genus omne ferarum1 ,quemque sibi tenues nascentem arcessere vitas2 ,scilicet huc reddi deinde ac resoluta referri ,omnia1 nec morti esse locum1 sed viva volare ,sideris in numerum atque alto succedere caelo4 7,georgics1 iv1 #bba47 ,the words might represent a fancy1 or a dogma of the schools and many no doubt so read them1 because they had no #cj experience to help them4 ,but to others it is clear that the passage is one of the deepest import1 for it is the key to ,virgil's mind and the thought is an expression of what we can call by no other name than religion4 ,around him men and women were seeking communion with gods2 he had had communion with what he could not name--he had experienced religion in a very deep1 abiding and true way4 ,there is nothing for it--at least for ,englishmen--but to quote the lines composed a few miles above ,tintern ,abbey-- ,i have felt ,a presence that disturbs me with the joy ,of elevated thoughts2 a sense sublime ,of something far more deeply interfused1 ,whose dwelling is the light of setting suns1 ,and the round ocean1 and the living air1 ,and the blue sky1 and in the mind of man2 ,a motion and a spirit1 that impels ,all thinking things1 all objects of all thought1 ,and rolls through all things4 ,virgil's experience did not stop here2 like ,wordsworth1 he found ,nature's self ,by all varieties of human love ,assisted4 ,he had been a son and a brother2 and such relations of men to men impressed him--they took him into the deepest and most beautiful regions of life2 and one of the charms of ,italy was that it was written all over with the records of human love and helpfulness4 ,the clearing1 the orchard1 the hilltop town1 the bed of flowers1 all spoke to him words that could not be uttered4 ,his long acquaintance with such scripts brought it about that he found in man an object of delight1 ,of pure imagination and of love-- and he came to the ,roman people with a deep impression of human worth--something unknown altogether in ,roman poetry before or after4 ,lucretius was impressed with man's insignificance in the universe2 ,horace1 with man's folly4 ,virgil's #ca poetry throbbed with the sense of man's grandeur and his sanctity4 ,this human greatness1 which his poetry brought home to the sympathetic reader1 was not altogether foreign to the thought of the day4 ,homo sacra res homini#ig was the teaching of the ,stoics1 but man was a more sacred thing to the poet than to the philosopher1 for what the philosopher conceived to be a flaw and a weakness in man1 the poet found to be man's chief significance4 ,the ,stoic loudly proclaimed man to be a member of the universe4 ,the poet found man knit to man by a myriad ties1 the strength of which he realized through that pain against which the ,stoic sought to safeguard him4 ,man revealed to the poet his inner greatness in the haunting sense of his limitations--he could not be self-sufficient 7autarkes7 as the ,stoic urged2 he depended on men1 on women and children1 on the beauty of grass and living creature1 of the sea and sky4 ,and even all these things could not satisfy his craving for love and fellowship2 he felt a hunger for the infinite4 ,here perhaps is the greatest contribution of ,virgil to the life of the age4 ,he1 the poet to whom man and the world were most various and meant most1 came to his people1 and1 without any articulate expression of it in direct words1 made it clear to them that he had felt a gap in the heart of things1 which philosophy could never fill4 ,philosophy could remove this sense of incompleteness1 but only at the cost of love2 and love was to ,virgil1 as his poetry shows1 the very essence of life4 ,yet he gave1 and not altogether unconsciously1 the impression that in proportion as love is apprehended1 its demands extend beyond the present4 ,the sixth book of the ,a,eneid settles nothing and proves nothing1 but it expresses an instinct1 strong in ,virgil1 as the result of experience1 that love must reach beyond the grave4 ,further1 the whole story of ,a,eneas is an utterance of man's craving for ,god1 of the sense of man's incompleteness without a divine complement4 ,these are the records of ,virgil's life1 intensely individual1 but not peculiar to himself4 ,in the literature of his century1 there is little indication of such instincts1 but the history of four hundred years shows that they were deep in the general heart of man4 ,these impressions ,virgil brought before the ,roman world4 #cb ,as such things are1 they were a criticism1 and they meant a change of values4 ,in the light of them1 the restoration of religion by ,augustus became a little thing2 the popular superstition of the day was stamped as vulgar and trivial in itself1 while it became the sign of deep and unsatisfied craving in the human heart2 and lastly the current philosophies1 in the face of ,virgil's poetry1 were felt to be shallow and cold1 talk of the lip and trick of the brain4 ,of course this is not just to the philosophers who did much for the world1 and without whom ,virgil would not have been what he was4 ,none the less1 it was written in ,virgil's poetry that the religions and philosophies of mankind must be thought over anew4 ,this is no light contribution to an age or to mankind4 ,in this case it carries with it the whole story that lies before us4 ,such an expression of a common instinct gave new force to that instinct2 it added a powerful impulse to the deepest passion that man knows2 and1 in spite of the uncertainties which beset the poet himself1 it gave new hope to mankind that the cry of the human heart for ,god was one that should receive an answer4 ,chapter ,i ,footnotes3 #a ,cic4 ad fam4 x1 #af1 #b1 ,ipse tibi sis senatus4 #b ,georgic i1 #eje-ead 7,conington's translation1 with alterations74 #c ,polybius1 vi1 #ef1 ,shuckburgh's ,translation4 #d ,polybius1 xviii1 #ce4 #e ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,adv4 mathematicos1 ix1 #ed4 #f ,cicero1 ,n4,d4 i1 #db1 #aah4 #g ,diodorus ,siculus1 i1 #b4 #h ,quoted by ,augustine1 ,c4,d4 iv1 #bg2 vi1 #e2 also referred to by ,tertullian1 ad ,natt4 ii1 #a4 #i ,suetonius1 ,augustus1 #ca1 #ge1 #ic2 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals1 p4 #cdd4 #aj ,suet4 ,aug4 #ij1 #ib4 #aa ,horace1 ,odes1 iii1 #bd1 #i-bj1 ,gladstone's version4 #ab ,horace1 ,odes1 iii1 #f1 ,delicta maiorum4 #ac ,de ,haruspicum ,responsis1 #i1 #ai2 ,n4,d4 ii1 #c1 #h4 #ad ,e4g4 ,apol4 #be1 with a serious criticism of the contrast between ,roman character before and after the conquest of the world1--before and after the invasion of ,rome by the images and idols of ,etruscans and ,greeks4 #ae ,augustine ,c4,d4 vi1 #b4 #af ,on ,a,eneid1 xi1 #ghe4 #ag ,propertius1 v1 #a1 #fi4 #ah ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i1 #g4 #ai ,livy1 i1 #ai4 #bj ,livy1 iv1 #cj4 #ba ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #ba2 ,caesar1 #fa1 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals1 p4 #caj f4 #bb ,suetonius1 ,aug4 #ca1 ,warde ,fowler1 op4 cit4 p4 #aij4 #bc ,mommsen1 ,history1 i1 p4 #bca1 who translates the hymn4 #bd ,quintilian1 i1 #f1 #dj4 ,see specimen in ,varro1 ,l4,l4 vii1 #bf4 #be ,epp4 ii1 #a1 #bj-bg1 #hf4 #bf ,cicero1 ad fam4 xiv1 #d1 #a4 #bg ,hor4 ,sat4 i1 #i1 #fi3 ,porphyrion is the authority for the comedies4 #bh ,prudentius1 contra ,symmachum1 i1 #aig-bah4 #bi ,tibullus1 i1 #aj1 #ae4 #cj ,c4,d4 iv1 #h4 ,to an early ,greek1 says ,mr ,gilbert ,murray1 the earth1 water and air were full of living eyes3 of theoi1 of daimones1 of ,keres4 ,one early poet says emphatically that the air is so crowded full of them that there is no room to put in the spike of an ear of corn without touching one4--,rise of ,greek ,epic1 p4 #hb4 #ca de ,spect4 #e2 cf4 de ,idol4 #af2 de cor4 mil4 #ac1 gods of the door2 de ,anima1 #ci1 goddesses of child-birth4 #cb ,lucr4 iv1 #ehj f4 ,virg4 ,a,en4 viii1 #cad4 #cc ,cic4 ,n4,d4 ii1 #b1 #f3 cf4 ,de ,div4 i1 #de1 #aja4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals1 pp4 #bef ff4 on the ,fauni4 #cd ,pliny1 ,n4,h4 viii1 #aea2 xxx1 #hd4 #ce ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ae2 de facie in orbe lunae1 #cj2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii1 #bia4 #cf ,horace's ode attests the power of the ,fauns over crops and herds4 #cg ,dionys4 ,hal4 v1 #af4 #ch ,pliny1 ,n4,h4 xii1 #c4 #ci ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii1 #bfg4 ,licia dependent longas velantia saepes1 et posita est meritae multa tabella deae4 #dj ,virgil1 ,a,en4 x1 #dbc4 #da ,horace1 ,odes1 iii1 #ac4 #db ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals1 p4 #bdj4 #dc ,cf4 ,tertullian1 de ,baptismo1 #e4 ,annon et alias sine ullo ,sacramento immundi spiritus aquis incubant1 adfectantes illam in primordio divini spiritus gestationem8 ,sciunt opaci quique fontes1 et avii quique rivi1 et in balneis piscinae et euripi in domibus1 vel cisternae et putei1 qui rapere dicuntur1 scilicet per vim spiritus nocentis4 ,nympholeptos et lymphaticos et hydrophobos vocant quos aquae necaverunt aut amentia vel formidine exercuerunt4 ,quorsum ista retulimus8 ,ne quis durius credat angelum dei sanctum aquis in salutem hominis temperandis adesse4 #dd ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi1 #aee f4 #de ,cf4 7,lucian7 ,asinus1 #bd4 poi badixeis aoria talaipore2 oude ta daimonia dedoikas4 #df ,pliny1 ,n4,h4 xxxvi1 #bjd4 #dg ,lampridius1 ,alex4 ,sev4 #bi4 #b4 #dh ,fasti1 v4 #ade4 ,cf4 ,prudentius1 adv4 ,symm1 ii1 #dde f4 #di ,odes1 iii1 #bc4 ,farre pio4 #ej ,on ,georgic i1 #cjb1 ,see ,varro1 ap4 ,aug4 ,c4,d4 vii1 #ac4 ,also ,tert4 de ,anima1 #ci1 ,sic et omnibus genii deputantur1 quod daemonum nomen est4 ,adeo nulla ferme nativitas munda1 utique ethnicorum4 #ea ,hor4 ,ep4 ii4 #b1 #ahg f4 ,howes' translation4 ,cf4 ,faerie ,queene1 ,,ii1 xii1 #dg4 #eb ,see ,j4 ,h4 ,moulton in ,journal of ,theological ,studies1 ,,iii1 #ead4 #ec ,burkitt1 ,early ,eastern ,christianity1 p4 #bbb4 #ed ,fasti1 iii1 #eg2 ,seneca1 ,ep4 #ah4 #a1 ,december est mensis3 cum maxime civitas sudat1 ius luxuries publicae datum est 444 ut non videatur mihi errasse qui dixit3 olim mensem ,decembrem fuisse nunc annum4 #ee ,cf4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 lect4 xi4 #ef ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals1 pp4 #ajf f4 #eg ,ovid1 ,fasti1 ii1 #dji f4 ,warde ,fowler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cjf f4 #eh ,ovid1 ,fasti1 v1 #dij4 #ei ,de ,divinatione1 i1 #a1 #b4 #fj ib4 i1 #c1 #e4 #fa ib4 i1 #ci1 #hd4 #fb ,de ,divinatione1 i1 #ch1 #hb1 #hc4 ,cf4 ,tertullian1 de ,anima1 #df4 ,sed et ,stoici deum malunt providentissimum humanae institutioni inter cetera praesidia divinatricum artium et disciplinarum somnia quoque nobis indidisse1 peculiare solatium naturalis oraculi4 #fc ,panaetius and ,seneca should be excepted from this charge4 #fd ,cic4 de ,div4 ii1 #gb1 #adi1 #aej4 ,cf4 de ,legg4 ii1 #ac1 #cb4 ,plutarch also has the same remark about sleep and superstition4 #fe ,cf4 ,odes1 iii1 #bg4 #ff ,tusculans1 i1 #ba1 #dh4 #fg ,hor4 ,ep4 ii1 #b1 #bjh2 ,howes4 #fh ,tertullian1 de ,idol4 #i1 seimus magiae et astrologiae inter se societatem4 #fi ,pliny the elder on ,magic1 ,n4,h4 xxx1 opening sections2 ,n4,h4 xxviii1 #aj1 on incantations1 polleantne aliquid verba et incantamenta carminum4 #gj ,livy1 xxix1 #aa1 #ad2 ,ovid1 fasti1 iv1 #agi f4 ,the goddess was embodied in a big stone4 #ga ,lucretius1 ii1 #fjh f4 #gb ,cf4 ,strabo1 c4 #dgj2 ,juvenal1 vi1 #eaa f4 #gc ,see ,ramsay1 ,church in the ,roman ,empire1 p4 #cig4 ,the ,latins used the word divinus in this way--,seneca1 de teata vita1 #bf1 #h4 #gd 7,lucian7 ,asinus1 #cg4 ,the same tale is amplified in ,apuleius' ,golden ,ass1 where the episode of these priests is given with more detail1 in the eighth book4 ,seneca hints that a little blood might make a fair show2 see his picture of the same1 de beata vita1 #bf1 #h4 #ge ,tertullian1 ad ,natt4 i1 #aj2 ,apel4 #f4 ,he has the strange fancy that ,serapis was originally the ,joseph of the book of ,genesis1 ad ,natt4 ii1 #h4 #gf ,valerius ,maximus1 i1 #c1 #d4 #gg ,dio ,c4 xlvii1 #ae4 #gh ,tibullus1 i1 #c1 #bc f4 ,cf4 ,propertius1 ii1 #bh1 #de2 ,ovid1 ,a4,a4 iii1 #fce4 #gi ,juvenal1 vi1 #ebb f4 #hj ,lucan1 viii1 #hca1 ,isin semideosque canes4 #ha ,ovid1 ,am4 ii1 #ac1 #g4 #hb ,unless ,isiaci coniectores is ,cicero's own phrase1 de ,div4 i1 #eh1 #acb4 #hc ,cicero1 ,div4 ii1 #ei1 #aba4 ,for egkolmesis or incubatio see ,mary ,hamilton1 ,incubation 7#aijf7 #hd ,clem4 ,alex4 ,paedag4 iii1 #bh1 to the same effect4 ,tertullian on the temples1 de ,pud4 c4 #e4 ,reference may be made to the hierodules of the temples in ancient ,asia and in modern ,india4 #he ,corp4 ,inscr4 ,lai4 ii1 #cchf4 ,the enumeration of the jewels was a safeguard against theft4 #hf ,flinders ,petrie1 ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #dd2 ,hamilton1 ,incubation1 pp4 #agd1 #ahb f4 #hg ,julian1 ,or4 iv1 #acf ,b4 #hh ,lucr4 v1 #aaid4 #hi ,lucr4 i1 #fb-gi4 #ij ,see ,patin1 ,la ,poesie ,latine1 i1 #abj4 #ia ,lucr4 iii1 #fj f4 #ib ,pliny1 ,n4,h4 xxx1 #ab1 #ac4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals1 pp4 #aaa f4 on the ,argei and the whole question of human sacrifice4 ,for ,plutarch's explanation of it as due not to gods but to evil demons who enforced it1 see p4 #ajg4 #ic ,pliny1 ,n4,h4 xxviii1 #ab2 ,plutarch1 ,marcellus1 #c1 where1 however1 the meaning may only be that the rites are done in symbol2 he refers to the actual sacrifice of human beings in the past4 ,see ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #i on sacrifice of children in ,africa in the reign of ,tiberius4 #id ,strabo1 c4 #bci4 ,strabo was a contemporary of ,augustus4 ,cf4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,adonis ,attis ,osiris1 p4 #fc1 for another instance in this period4 #ie ,lucr4 v1 #abjd-abdj4 ,we may compare ,browning's ,bp4 ,blougram on the instability of unbelief3-- ,just when we are safest1 there's a sunset-touch1 ,a fancy from a flower-bell1 some one's death1 ,a chorus-ending from ,euripides-- ,and that's enough for fifty hopes and fears ,as old and new at once as nature's self1 ,to rap and knock and enter in our soul1 ,take hands and dance there1 a fantastic ring1 ,round the ancient idol1 on his base again1-- ,the grand ,perhaps6 ,we look on helplessly4 #if ,lucr4 iii1 #ec4 #ig ,seneca1 ,ep4 #ie1 #cc4 #cc ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,stoics ,i am entering1 writes ,tacitus1#a upon the history of a period1 rich in disasters1 gloomy with wars1 rent with seditions1 nay1 savage in its very hours of peace4 ,four ,emperors perished by the sword2 there were three civil wars2 there were more with foreigners--and some had both characters at once4444 ,rome was wasted by fires1 its oldest temples burnt1 the very ,capitol set in flames by ,roman hands4 ,there was defilement of sacred rites2 adulteries in high places2 the sea crowded with exiles2 island rocks drenched with murder4 ,yet wilder was the frenzy in ,rome2 nobility1 wealth1 the refusal of office1 its acceptance--everything was a crime1 and virtue the surest ruin4 ,nor were the rewards of informers less odious than their deeds2 one found his spoils in a priesthood or a consulate2 another in a provincial governorship2 another behind the throne2 and all was one delirium of hate and terror2 slaves were bribed to betray their masters1 freedmen their patrons4 ,he who had no foe was destroyed by his friend4 ,it was to this that ,virgil's hope of a new ,golden ,age had come--,redeunt ,saturnia regna4 ,augustus had restored the ,republic2 he had restored religion2 and after a hundred years here is the outcome4 ,tacitus himself admits that the age was not barren of virtues1 that it could show fine illustrations of family love and friendship1 and of heroic death4 ,it must also be owned that the ,provinces at large were better governed than under the ,republic2 and1 further1 that1 when he wrote ,tacitus thought of a particular period of civil disorder and that not a long one4 ,yet the reader of his ,annals will feel that the description will cover more than the year #fi2 it is essentially true of the reigns of ,tiberius1 ,gaius1 ,claudius and ,nero1 and it was to be true again of the reign of ,domitian--of perhaps eighty years of the first century of our era4 ,if it was not true #cd of the whole ,mediterranean world1 or even of the whole of ,rome1 it was true at least of that half-,rome which gave its colour to the thinking of the world4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,imperial court ,through all the elaborate pretences devised by ,augustus to obscure the truth1 through all the names and phrases and formalities1 the ,roman world had realized the central fact of despotism4#b ,the ,emperors themselves had grasped it with pride and terror4 ,one at least was insane1 and the position was enough to turn almost any brain4 ,monarchy1 in ,herodotus' quaint sentence1#c would set the best man outside the ordinary thoughts4 ,plato's myth of ,gyges was fulfilled--of the shepherd1 who found a ring that made him invisible1 and in its strength seduced a queen1 murdered a king and became a tyrant4 ,gaius banished his own sisters1 reminding them that he owned not only islands but swords2 and he bade his grandmother remember that he could do anything he liked and do it to anybody4#d ,oriental princes had been kept at ,rome as hostages and had given the weaker-minded members of the ,imperial family new ideas of royalty4 ,the very word was spoken freely--in his treatise ,on ,clemency ,seneca uses again and again the word regnum without apology4 ,but what gave ,despotism its sting was its uncertainty4 ,augustus had held a curiously complicated set of special powers severally conferred on him for specified periods1 and technically they could be taken from him4 ,the ,senate was the ,emperor's partner in the government of the world1 and it was always conceivable that the partnership might cease1 for it was not a definite institution--prince followed prince1 it is true1 but there was an element of accident about it all4 ,the situation was difficult2 ,senate and ,emperor eyed each other with suspicion--neither knew how far the other could go1 or would go2 neither knew the terms of the partnership4 ,tiberius wrote despatches to the ,senate and he was an artist in concealing his meaning4 ,the ,senate had to guess what he wished2 if it guessed wrong1 he would resent the liberty2 if it guessed right1 he resented the appearance of servility4 ,the solitude of the throne grew more and more uneasy4 #ce ,again1 the republican government had been in the hands of free men1 who ruled as magistrates1 and the imperial government had no means of replacing them1 for one free-born ,roman could not take service with another4 ,the ,emperor had to fall back upon his own household4 ,his ,secretaries of ,state were slaves and freedmen--men very often of great ability1 but their past was against them4 ,if it had not depraved them1 none the less it left upon them a social taint1 which nothing could remove4 ,they were despised by the men who courted them1 and they knew it4 ,it was almost impossible for such men not to be the gangrene of court and state4 ,and as a fact we find that the freedman was throughout the readiest agent for all evil that ,rome knew1 and into the hands of such men the government of the world drifted4 ,under a weak1 or a careless1 or even an absent1 ,emperor ,rome was governed by such men and such methods as we suppose to be peculiar to ,sultanates and the ,east4 ,the honour1 the property1 the life of every ,roman lay in the hands of eunuchs and valets1 and1 as these quarrelled or made friends1 the fortunes of an old nobility changed with the hour4 ,it had not been so under ,augustus1 nor was it so under ,vespasian1 nor under ,trajan or his successors2 but for the greater part of the first century ,a4,d4 ,rome was governed by weak or vicious ,emperors1 and they by their servants4 ,the spy and the informer were everywhere4 ,to this confusion fresh elements of uncertainty were added by the astrologer and mathematician1 and it became treason to be interested in the health of the prince4 ,superstition ruled the weakling--superstition1 perpetually re-inforced by fresh hordes of ,orientals1 obsequious and unscrupulous4 ,seneca called the imperial court1 which he knew1 a gloomy slave-gaol 7triste ergastulum74#e ,reduced to merely registering the wishes of their rulers1 the ,roman nobility sought their own safety in frivolity and extravagance4 ,to be thoughtful was to be suspected of independence and to invite danger4 ,we naturally suppose moralists and satirists to exaggerate the vices of their contemporaries1 but a sober survey of ,roman morals in the first century--at any rate before #gj ,a4,d4--reveals a great deal that #cf is horrible4 7,petronius is not exactly a moralist or a satirist1 and there is plenty of other evidence47 ,marriage does not thrive alongside of terror1 nor yet where domestic slavery prevails1 and in ,rome both militated against purity of life4 ,the ,greek girl's beauty1 her charm and wit1 were everywhere available4 ,for amusements1 there were the gladiatorial shows1--brutal1 we understand1 but their horrible fascination we fortunately cannot know4 ,the reader of ,st ,augustine's ,confessions will remember a famous passage on these games4 ,the gladiators were the popular favourites of the day4 ,they toured the country1 they were modelled and painted4 ,their names survive scratched by loafers on the walls of ,pompeii4 ,the very children played at being gladiators1 ,epictetus said--sometimes athletes1 now monomachi1 now trumpeters4 ,the ,colosseum had seats for #hj1jjj spectators of the games1 and is even now at once the most imposing and the most characteristic relic of pagan ,rome4#f ,sidenote3 ,despotism tempered by epigrams ,life was terrible in its fears and in its pleasures4 ,if the poets drew ,ages of ,gold in the latter days of the ,republic1 now the philosophers and historians looked away to a ,state of ,nature1 to times and places where greed and civilization were unknown4 ,in those happy days1 says ,seneca1 they enjoyed ,nature in common2 the stronger had not laid his hand upon the weaker2 weapons lay unused1 and human hands1 unstained by human blood1 turned all the hatred they felt upon the wild beasts2 they knew quiet nights without a sigh1 while the stars moved onward above them and the splendid pageant of ,night2 they drank from the stream and knew no water-pipes1 and their meadows were beautiful without art2 their home was ,nature and not terrible2 while our abodes form the greatest part of our terror4#g ,in ,germany1 writes ,tacitus1 the marriage-bond is strict2 there are no shows to tempt virtue2 adultery is rare2 none there makes a jest of vice1 nec corrumpere et corrumpi seculum vocatur2 none but virgins marry and they marry to bear big children and to suckle them1 sera invenum venus eoque inexhausta pubertas2 and the children inherit the sturdy frames of their parents4#h ,but whatever their dreams of the ,ideal1 the actual was #cg around them1 and men had to accommodate themselves to it4 ,in ,france before the ,revolution1 men spoke of the government as despotism tempered by epigrams1 and the happy phrase is as true of ,imperial ,rome4 ,verses of unknown authorship reached the public and provoked ,tiberius1#i who complained of the circles and dinner-parties4 ,now and again the authors were discovered and were punished sufficiently4 ,the tone of the society that produced them lives for ever in the ,annals of ,tacitus4 ,it is worth noting how men and women turned to ,tacitus and ,seneca during the ,french ,revolution and found their own experience written in their books4#aj ,others unpacked their hearts with words in tyrannicide declamations and imitations of ,greek tragedy4 ,juvenal laughs at the crowded class-room busy killing tyrants1--waiting himself till they were dead4 ,the tragedies got nearer the mark4 ,here are a few lines from some of ,seneca's own3-- ,who bids all pay one penalty of death ,knows not a tyrant's trade4 ,nay1 vary it-- ,forbid the wretch to die1 and slay the happy4 7,h4,f4 #eae47 ,and is there none to teach them stealth and sin8 ,why6 then the throne will6 7,thyestes #cac47 ,let him who serves a king1 fling justice forth1 ,send every scruple packing from his heart2 ,shame is no minister to wait on kings4 7,phaedra #dcf47 ,but bitterness and epigram could not heal2 and for healing and inward peace men longed more and more1#aa as they felt their own weakness1 the power of evil and the terror of life2 and they found both in a philosophy that had originally come into being under circumstances somewhat similar4 ,they needed some foundation for life1 some means of linking the individual to something that could not be shaken1 and this they found in ,stoicism4 ,the ,stoic philosopher saw a unity in this world of confusion--it was the ,generative ,reason--the spermatikos logos1 the ,divine ,word1 or ,reason1 that is the seed and vital principle1 whence all things come and in virtue of which they #ch live4 ,all things came from fiery breath1 pneuma diapuron1 and returned to it4 ,the whole universe was one polity--politeia tou kosmou--in virtue of the spirit that was its origin and its life1 of the common end to which it tended1 of the absolute and universal scope of the laws it obeyed--mind1 matter1 ,god1 man1 formed one community4 ,the soul of the individual ,roman partook of the very nature of ,god--divinae particula aurae#ab--;and in a way stood nearer to the divine than did anything else in the world1 every detail of which1 however1 was some manifestation of the same divine essence4 ,all men were in truth of one blood1 of one family1--all and each1 as ,seneca says1 sacred to each and all4#ac 7,unum me donavit sc4 ,natura rerum omnibus1 uni mihi omnes47 ,sidenote3 ,harmony with nature ,taught by the ,stoic1 the troubled ,roman looked upon himself at once as a fragment of divinity1#ad an entity self-conscious and individual1 and as a member of a divine system expressive of one divine idea1 which his individuality subserved4 ,these thoughts gave him ground and strength4 ,if he seemed to be the slave and plaything of an ,emperor or an imperial freedman1 none the less a divine life pulsed within him1 and he was an essential part of the world4 ,he had two havens of refuge--the universe and his own soul--both quite beyond the reach of the oppressor4 ,over and over we find both notes sounded in the writings of the ,stoics and their followers--,god within you and ,god without you4 ,jupiter is all that you see1 and all that lives within you4#ae ,there is a ,providence that rules human and all other affairs2 nothing happens that is not appointed2 and to this ,providence every man is related4 ,he who has once observed with understanding the administration of the world1 and learnt that the greatest and supreme and most comprehensive community is the system 7systema7 of men and ,god1 and that from ,god come the seeds whence all things1 and especially rational beings1 spring1 why should not that man call himself a citizen of the world ,socrates' word kosmios1 why not a son of ,god8#af ,and when we consider the individual1 we find that ,god #ci has put in his power the best thing of all1 the master thing--the rational faculty4 ,what is not in our power is the entire external world1 of which we can alter nothing1 but the use we make of it and its appearances#ag is our own4 ,confine yourself to what is in your power 7ta epi soi71 and no man can hurt you4 ,if you can no longer endure life1 leave it2 but remember in doing so to withdraw quietly1 not at a run2 yet1 says the sage1 ,men6 wait for ,god2 when ,he shall give you the signal and release you from this service1 then go to ,him2 but for the present endure to dwell in this place where ,he has set you4#ah ,to sum up2 the end of man's being and his true happiness is what ,zeno expressed as living harmoniously1 a statement which ,cleanthes developed by adding the words with ,nature4 ,harmony with ,nature and with oneself is the ideal life2 and this the outside world of ,emperors1 freedmen1 bereavements and accidents generally1 can neither give nor take away4 ,the end1 says ,diogenes ,laertius1 is to act in conformity with nature1 that is1 at once with the nature which is in us and with the nature of the universe1 doing nothing forbidden by that common law which is the right reason that pervades all things1 and which is1 indeed1 the same in the ,divine ,being who administers the universal system of things4 ,thus the life according to nature is that virtuous and blessed flow of existence1 which is enjoyed only by one who always acts so as to maintain the harmony between the daemon 7daimon7 within the individual and the will of the power that orders the universe4#ai ,this was indeed a philosophy for men1 and it was also congenial to ,roman character1 as history had already shown4 ,it appealed to manhood1 and whatever else has to be said of ,stoics and ,stoicism1 it remains the fact that ,stoicism inspired nearly all the great characters of the early ,roman ,empire1 and nerved almost every attempt that was made to maintain the freedom and dignity of the human soul4#bj ,the government was not slow to realise the danger of men with such a trust in themselves and so free from fear4 ,on paper1 perhaps1 all religions and philosophies may at first glance seem equally good1 and it is not till we test them in life #dj that we can value them aright4 ,and even here there is a wide field for error4 ,every religion has its saints--men recognizable to everyone as saints in the beauty1 manhood and tenderness of their character--and it is perhaps humiliating to have to acknowledge that very often they seem to be so through some happy gift of ,nature1 quite independently of any effort they make1 or of the religion to which they themselves generally attribute anything that redeems them from being base4 ,we have to take1 if possible1 large masses of men1 and to see how they are affected by the religion which we wish to study--average men1 as we call them--for in this way we shall escape being led to hasty conclusions by happy instances of natural endowment1 or of virtues carefully acquired in favourable circumstances of retirement or helpful environment4 ,side by side with such results as we may reach from wider study1 we have to set our saints and heroes1 for while ,st ,francis would have been tender and ,thrasea brave under any system of thought1 it remains that the one was ,christian and the other ,stoic4 ,we need the individual1 if we are to avoid mere rough generalities2 but we must be sure that he is representative in some way of the class and the system under review4 ,as representatives of the ,stoicism of the early ,roman ,empire1 two men stand out conspicuous--men whose characters may be known with a high degree of intimacy4 ,the one was a ,roman statesman1 famous above all others in his age1 and a man of letters--one of those writers who reveal themselves in every sentence they write and seem to leave records of every mood they have known4 ,the other was an emancipated slave1 who lived at ,nicopolis in ,epirus1 away from the main channels of life1 who wrote nothing1 but whose conversations or monologues were faithfully recorded by a disciple4 ,notable ,seneca1 writes ,carlyle1 so wistfully desirous to stand well with ,truth and yet not ill with ,nero1 is and remains only our perhaps niceliest proportioned half-and-half1 the plausiblest ,plausible on record2 no great man1 no true man1 no man at all444 'the father of all such as wear shovel-hats4' ,this was in the essay on ,diderot written in #ahcc2 and we find in his diary for #ajth ,august #ahcb1 when ,carlyle was fresh from reading ,seneca1 an earlier judgment to much the same effect--,he is father of all that work in sentimentality1 and1 by fine speaking #da and decent behaviour1 study to serve ,god and mammon1 to stand well with philosophy and not ill with ,nero4 ,his force had mostly oozed out of him1 or corrupted itself into benevolence1 virtue1 sensibility4 ,oh6 the everlasting clatter about virtue6 virtue66 ,in the ,devil's name be virtuous and no more about it4 ,even in his most one-sided judgments ,carlyle is apt to speak truth1 though it is well to remember that he himself said that little is to be learnt of a man by dwelling only or mainly on his faults4 ,that what he says in these passages is in some degree true1 every candid reader must admit2 but if he had written an essay instead of a paragraph we should have seen that a great deal more is true of ,seneca4 ,as it is1 we must take what ,carlyle says as representing a judgment which has often been passed upon ,seneca1 though seldom in such picturesque terms4 ,it is in any case truer than ,mommsen's description of ,cicero4 ,sidenote3 ,seneca's early life ,seneca was born at ,cordova in ,spain about the ,christian era--certainly not long before it4 ,his father was a rich man of equestrian rank1 a rhetorician1 who has left several volumes of rhetorical compositions on imaginary cases4 ,he hated philosophy1 his son tells us4#ba ,seneca's mother seems to have been a good woman1 and not the only one in the family2 for his youth was delicate and owed much to the care of a good aunt at ,rome2 and his later years were spent with a good wife ,pompeia ,paulina1 who bore him two little short-lived boys4 ,in one of his letters 7#ajh7 ,seneca tells us of his early life in ,rome4 ,he went to the lectures of ,attalus1 a ,stoic teacher1 who laid great stress on simplicity of life and independence of character and was also interested in superstition and soothsaying4 ,the pupil was a high-minded and sensitive youth1 quick then1 as he remained through life1 to take fire at an idea4#bb ,i used to be the first to come and the last to go2 and as he walked ,i would lead him on to further discussions1 for he was not only ready for those who would learn1 but he would meet them4 ,when ,i heard ,attalus declaim against the vices1 errors and evils of life1 ,i would often pity mankind2 and as for him ,i thought of him as one on high1 far above human nature's highest4 ,he himself used to say he was a king a ,stoic #db paradox at which ,horace had laughed2 but he seemed to me more than king1--the judge of kings4 ,when he began to commend poverty1 and to show that whatever is more than need requires1 is a useless burden to him that has it1 ,i often longed to leave the room a poor man4 ,when he attacked our pleasures and praised the chaste body1 the sober table1 the pure mind1 ,i delighted to refrain1 not merely from unlawful pleasures1 but from needless ones too4 ,some of it has stuck by me1 ,lucilius1 for ,i made a good beginning4 ,all his life long1 in fact1 he avoided the luxuries of table and bath1 and drank water4 ,he continues1 ,since ,i have begun to tell you how much more keenly ,i began philosophy in my youth than ,i persevere with it in my old age1 ,i am not ashamed to own what love of ,pythagoras ,sotion waked in me4 ,sotion recommended vegetarianism on the grounds which ,pythagoras had laid down4 ,but you do not believe1 he said1 that souls are allotted to one body after another1 and that what we call death is transmigration8 ,you don't believe that in beasts and fishes dwells the mind 7animum7 that was once a man's8 444 ,great men have believed it2 so maintain your own opinion1 but keep the matter open4 ,if it is true1 then to have abstained from animal food will be innocence2 if it is false1 it will still be frugality4#bc ,so for a year ,seneca was a vegetarian with some satisfaction and he fancied that his mind was livelier than when he was an eater of beef4#bd ,it is as well not to quote some contemporary methods of preparing meat4#be ,however1 after a while some scandal arose about foreign religions1 and vegetarianism was counted a proof of superstition1 and the old rhetorician1 more from dislike of philosophy than from fear of calumny1 made it an excuse to put a little pressure on his philosophic son1 who obediently gave up the practice4 ,such is the ardour of youth1 he concludes1--a good teacher finds idealists ready to his hand4 ,the fault is partly in the teachers1 who train us to argue and not to live1 and partly in the pupils too1 whose aim is to have the wits trained and not the mind4 ,so what was philosophy becomes philology--the love of words4#bf ,there is a certain gaiety and good humour about these #dc confessions1 which is closely bound up with that air of tolerance and that sense of buoyant ease#bg which pervade all his work4 ,here the tone is in keeping with the matter in hand1 but it is not always4 ,everything seems so easy to him that the reader begins to doubt him and to wonder whether he is not after all ,the plausiblest ,plausible on record4 ,we associate experience with a style more plain1 more tense1 more inevitable2 and the extraordinary buoyancy of ,seneca's writing suggests that he can hardly have known the agony and bloody sweat of the true teacher4 ,yet under the easy phrases there lay a real sincerity4 ,from his youth onward he took life seriously1 and1 so far as is possible for a man of easy good nature1 he was in earnest with himself4 ,like other youths of genius1 he had had thoughts of suicide1 but on reflexion1 he tells us1 he decided to live1 and his reason was characteristic4 ,while for himself he felt equal to dying bravely1 he was not so sure that his kind old father would be quite so brave in doing without him4 ,it was to philosophy1 he says1 that he owed his resolution4#bh ,apart from philosophy1 he went through the ordinary course of ,roman education4 ,he wasted time on the grammarians1#bi whom he never forgave1 and at whom1 as guardians of ,latin speech#cj he loved to jest1--and the greatest of all ,roman ,grammarians paid him back in the familiar style of the pedagogue4 ,rhetoric came to him no doubt by nature1 certainly by environment2 it conspicuously haunted his family for three generations4#ca ,he duly made his appearance at the bar--making more speeches there than ,virgil did1 and perhaps not disliking it so much4 ,but he did not like it1 and1 when his father died1 he ceased to appear1 and by and by found that he had lost the power to plead as he had long before lost the wish4#cb ,on the accession of ,claudius to the ,imperial throne in #da ,a4,d41 ,seneca1 now in middle life1 was for some reason banished to ,corsica1 and there for eight weary years he remained1 till the ,empress ,messalina fell4 ,a little treatise1 which he wrote #dd to console his mother1 survives--couched in the rhetoric she knew so well4 ,if the language is more magnificent than sons usually address to their mothers1 it must be remembered that he wrote to console her for misfortunes which he was himself enduring4 ,the familiar maxim that the mind can make itself happy and at home anywhere is rather like a platitude1 but it loses something of that character when it comes from the lips of a man actually in exile4 ,another little work on the subject1 which he addressed later on to ,polybius1 the freedman of ,claudius1 stands on a different footing1 and his admirers could wish he had not written it4 ,there is flattery in it of a painfully cringing tone4 ,the ,emperor did not hurl him down so utterly as never to raise him again2 rather he supported him when evil fortune smote him and he tottered2 he gently used his godlike hand to sustain him and pleaded with the ,senate to spare his life4444 ,he will see to his cause4444 ,he best knows the time at which to show favour4444 ,under the clemency of ,claudius1 exiles live more peacefully than princes did under ,gaius4#cc ,but a little is enough of this4 ,it is clear that ,seneca was not what we call a strong man4 ,a fragile youth1 a spirit of great delicacy and sensibility1 were no outfit for exile4 ,nor is it very easy to understand what exile was to the educated ,roman4 ,some were confined to mere rocks1 to go round and round them for ever and never leave them4 ,seneca had of course more space1 but what he endured1 we may in some measure divine from the diaries and narratives that tell of ,napoleon's life on ,st ,helena4 ,the seclusion from the world1 the narrow range1 the limited number of faces1 the red coats1 the abhorred monotony1 told heavily on every temper1 on gaoler and prisoner alike1 even on ,napoleon2 and ,seneca's temperament was not of stuff so stern4 ,we may wish he had not broken down1 but we cannot be surprised that he did4 ,it was human of him4 ,perhaps the memory of his own weakness and failure contributed to make him the most sympathetic and the least arrogant of all ,stoics4 ,sidenote3 ,nero ,at last ,messalina reached her end1 and the new ,empress1 ,agrippina1 recalled the exile in #di ,a4,d41 and made him tutor of her son1 ,nero2 and from now till within two years of his death ,seneca lived in the circle of the young prince4 ,when ,claudius died in #ed1 ,seneca and ,burrus became the guardians of the #de ,emperor and virtually ruled the ,empire4 ,it was a position of great difficulty4 ,seneca grew to be immensely rich1 and his wealth and his palaces and gardens#cd weakened his influence1 while they intensified the jealousy felt for a minister so powerful4 ,yet perhaps none of his detractors guessed the limits of his power as surely as he came to feel them himself4 ,some measure of the situation may be taken from what befell when the freedwoman ,claudia ,acte became the mistress of ,nero4 ,his older friends did not thwart him1 says ,tacitus1 for here was a girl1 who1 without harm to anyone1 gratified his desires1 since he was utterly estranged from his wife ,octavia4#ce ,later on1 we learn1 ,seneca had to avail himself of ,acte's aid to prevent worse scandals4 ,in ,february #ee ,a4,d4 the young prince ,britannicus was poisoned at ,nero's table4 ,he was the son of ,claudius and the brother of ,octavia--a possible claimant therefore to the ,imperial throne4 ,nero1 not more than eighteen years old1 told the company quite coolly that it was an epileptic seizure1 and the feast went on1 while the dead boy was carried out and buried there and then in the rain--in a grave prepared before he had entered the dining-hall4#cf ,ten months later ,seneca wrote his tractate on ,clemency4 ,nero should ask himself ,am ,i the elected of the gods to be their vice-gerent on earth8 ,the arbiter of life and death to the nations8 and so forth4 ,he is gently reminded of the great light that fronts the throne2 that his anger would be as disastrous as war2 that ,kings gain from kindness a greater security1 while their cruelty swells the number of their enemies4 ,seneca wanders a good deal1 but his drift is clear--and the wretchedness of his position4 ,that ,burrus and he had no knowledge of ,nero's design to do away with his mother1 is the verdict of ,nero's latest historian1 but to ,seneca fell the horrible task of writing the explanatory letter which ,nero sent to the ,senate when the murder was done4 ,perhaps to judge him fairly1 one would need to have been a ,prime ,minister4 ,it may have been a necessary thing to do1 in order to maintain the world's government1 but the letter imposed on nobody1 and ,thrasea ,paetus at once rose from his seat and walked conspicuously out4 ,from the year #ei ,nero was more than ever his own master4 #df ,his guardians' repeated condonations had set him free1 and the lad1 who had wished he had never learned writing when he had to sign his first death-warrant1 began from now to build up that evil fame for which the murders of his brother and his mother were only the foundation4 ,for three years ,seneca and ,burrus kept their places--miserably enough4 ,then ,burrus found a happy release in death1 and with him died the last of ,seneca's influence4#cg ,seneca begged the ,emperor's leave to retire from the ,court1 offering him the greater part of his wealth1 and it was refused4 ,it had long been upon his mind that he was too rich4 ,in #eh a furious attack was made upon him by one who had earned the hate of many1 ,publius ,suillius2 this man asked in the ,senate by what kind of wisdom or maxims of philosophy ,seneca had amassed in four years a fortune equal to two and a half millions sterling2 and he went on to accuse him of intrigue with princesses1 of hunting for legacies1 and of draining ,italy and the provinces by boundless usury4#ch ,there was probably a good deal of inference in these charges1 if one may judge by the carelessness of evidence which such men show in all ages4 ,still ,seneca felt the taunt1 and in a book ,on the ,happy ,life1 addressed to his brother ,gallic1 he dealt with the charge4 ,he did not claim to be a sage 7#ag1 #c72 his only hope was day by day to lessen his vices--he was still in the thick of them2 perhaps he might not reach wisdom1 but he would at least live for mankind as one born for others1#ci would do nothing for glory1 and all for conscience1 would be gentle and accessible even to his foes2 as for wealth1 it gave a wise man more opportunity1 but if his riches deserted him1 they would take nothing else with them2 a philosopher might have wealth1 if it be taken forcibly from no man1 stained with no man's blood1 won by no wrong done to any1 gained without dishonour2 if its spending be as honest as its getting1 if it wake no envy but in the envious4#dj ,the treatise has a suggestion of excitement1 and there is a good deal of rhetoric in it4 ,now he proposed to the ,emperor to put his words into action1 and ,nero would not permit him--he was not ready for the odium of despoiling his guardian1 and the old man's name might still be of use to cover deeds in which he had no share4 ,seneca was not to resign his #dg wealth nor to leave ,rome4 ,nero's words as given by ,tacitus are pleasant enough1 but we hardly need to be told their value4#da ,sidenote3 ,seneca's last days ,it was merely a reservation of the death sentence1 and ,seneca must have known it4 ,the only thing now was to wait till he should receive the order to die1 and ,seneca occupied the time in writing4 ,if what he wrote has a flushed and excited air1 it is not surprising4 ,the uncertainty of his position had preyed upon him while he was still ,minister--there are many1 he had written1 who must hold fast to their dizzy height2 it is only by falling that they can leave it4#db ,he had fallen1 and still he had to live in uncertainty2 he had always been a nervous man4 ,the end came in #fe1 in connexion with the conspiracy of ,piso4 ,tacitus is not altogether distinct as to the implication of ,seneca in this plot1 but modern historians have inclined to believe in his guilt--if guilt it was4#dc ,mr ,henderson1 in particular1 is very severe on him for this want of gratitude to his benefactor and pupil1 but it is difficult to see what ,nero had done for him that he would not have preferred undone4#dd ,perhaps at the time1 and certainly later on1 ,seneca was regarded as a possible substitute for ,nero upon the throne2#de but he was well over sixty and frail1 nor is it clear that the world had yet decided that a man could be ,emperor without being a member of the ,julian or ,claudian house4 ,seneca1 in fact any man1 must have felt that any one would be better than ,nero1 but he had himself conspicuously left the world1 and1 with his wife1 was living the philosophic life--a vegetarian again1 and still a water-drinker4#df ,seneca was ready for the death-summons and at once opened his veins4 ,death came slowly1 but it came2 and he died1 eloquent to the last--novissimo quoque momenta suppeditante eloquentia4 ,such is the story of ,seneca4 ,even in bare outline it shows something of his character--his kindliness and sensibility1 his weakness and vanity2 but there are other features revealed in his books and his many long letters to ,lucilius4 ,no ,roman1 perhaps1 ever laid more stress on the duty of gentleness and forgiveness4#dg ,look at the ,city of ,rome1 he says1 and the #dh crowds unceasingly pouring through its broad streets--what a solitude1 what a wilderness it would be1 were none left but whom a strict judge would acquit4 ,we have all done wrong 7peccavimus71 some in greater measure1 some in less1 some on purpose1 some by accident1 some by the fault of others2 we have not stood bravely enough by our good resolutions2 despite our will and our resistance1 we have lost our innocence4 ,nor is it only that we have acted amiss2 we shall do so to the end4#dh ,he is anxious to make ,stoicism available for his friends2 he tones down its gratuitous harshness1 accommodates1 conciliates4 ,he knows what conscience is2 he is recognized as a master in dealing with the mind at variance with itself1 so skilfully does he analyse and lay bare its mischiefs4 ,perhaps he analyses too much--the angel1 who bade ,hermas cease to ask concerning sins and ask of righteousness1 might well have given him a word4 ,but he is always tender with the man to whom he is writing4 ,if he was1 as ,quintilian suggests1 a splendid assailant of the faults of men1 it is the faults of the unnamed that he assails2 his friends' faults suggest his own1 and he pleads and sympathizes4 ,his style corresponds with the spirit in which he thinks4 ,you complain1 he writes to ,lucilius1 that my letters are not very finished in style4 ,who talks in a finished style unless he wishes to be affected8 ,what my talk would be1 if we were sitting or walking together1 unlaboured and easy1 that is what ,i wish my letters to be1 without anything precious or artificial in them4#di ,and he has in measure succeeded in giving the air of talk to his writing--its ease1 its gaiety1 even its rambling and discursiveness4 ,he always sees the friend to whom he writes1 and talks to him--sometimes at him--and not without some suggestion of gesticulation4 ,he must have talked well--though one imagines that1 like ,coleridge on ,highgate ,hill1 he probably preferred the listener who sat like a passive bucket to be pumped into4 ,happily the reader is not obliged to be quite so passive4 ,but we shall not do him justice if we do not recognize his high character4 ,in an age when it was usual to charge every one with foulness1 natural and unnatural1 ,dio ,cassius alone among writers suggests it of ,seneca2 and1 quite apart from his particular bias in this case1 ,dio is not a high authority1--more #di especially as he belonged to a much later generation4 ,if his talk is of virtue6 virtue6 ,seneca's life was deliberately directed to virtue4 ,in the midst of ,roman society1 and set in the highest place but one in the world1 he still cherished ideals1 and practised self-discipline1 daily self-examination4 ,this is the one goal of my days and of my nights3 this is my task1 my thought--to put an end to my old faults4#ej ,his whole philosophy is practical1 and directed to the reformation of morals4 ,the ,stoic paradoxes1 and with them every part of philosophy which has no immediate bearing upon conduct1 he threw aside4 ,his language on the accumulation of books recalls the amusement of ,st ,francis at the idea of possessing a breviary4 ,and further1 we may note that whatever be charged against him as a statesman1 not his own master1 and as a writer1 not always quite in control of his rhetoric1 ,seneca was fundamentally truthful with himself4 ,he never hid his own weakness2 he never concealed from himself the difficulty of his ideals2 he never tried to delude himself with what he could not believe4 ,the ,stoics had begun long since to make terms with popular religion1 but ,seneca is entirely free from delusions as to the gods of popular belief4 ,he saw clearly enough that there was no truth in them1 and he never sought help from anything but the real4 ,he is a man1 trained in the world1#ea in touch with its problems of government1 with the individual and his questions of character1 death and eternity1--a man tender1 pure and true--too great a man to take the purely negative stand of ,thrasea1 or to practise the virtue of the schools in arrogant indolence4 ,but he has hardly reached the inner peace which he sought4 ,the story of ,epictetus can be more briefly told1 for there is very little to tell4#eb ,he was born at ,hierapolis in ,phrygia3--he was the slave of ,nero's freedman ,epaphroditus1 and somehow managed to hear the lectures of the ,stoic ,musonius4 ,eventually he was set free1 and when ,domitian expelled the philosophers from ,rome1 he went to ,nicopolis in ,epirus1#ec where he lived and taught--lame1 neat1 poor and old4 ,how #ej he taught is to be seen in the discourses which ,arrian took down in the reign of ,trajan1--,whatever ,i heard him say1 ,i tried to write down exactly1 and in his very words as far as ,i could--to keep them as memorials for myself of his mind and of his outspokenness4 ,so they are1 as you would expect1 very much what a man would say to another on the spur of the moment--not what he would write for others to read afterwards4444 ,his sole aim in speaking was to move the minds of his hearers to the best things4 ,if then these discourses should achieve this1 they would have the effect which ,i think a philosopher's words should have4 ,but if they do not1 let my readers know that1 when he spoke them1 the hearer could not avoid being affected as ,epictetus wished him to be4 ,if the discourses do not achieve this1 perhaps it will be my fault1 or perhaps it may be inevitable4 ,farewell4 ,sidenote3 ,epictetus on children and women ,such1 save for a sentence or two omitted1 is ,arrian's preface1--thereafter no voice is heard but that of ,epictetus4 ,to place1 time or persons present the barest allusions only are made4 ,someone said 444 ,and ,epictetus spoke4 ,the four books of ,arrian give a strong impression of fidelity4 ,we hear the tones of the old man1 and can recognize the mind and the outspokenness1 which ,arrian cherished in memory--we understand why1 as we read4 ,the high moral sense of the teacher1 his bursts of eloquence1 his shrewdness1 his abrupt turns of speech1 his apostrophes--,slave6 he cries1 as he addresses the weakling--his diminutives of derision1 produce the most lively sense of a personality4 ,there is wit1 too1 but like ,stoic wit in general it is hard and not very sympathetic2 it has nothing of the charm and delicacy of ,plato's humour1 nor of its kindliness4 ,here and there are words and thoughts which tell of his life4 ,more than once he alludes to his age and his lameness--,a lame old man like me4 ,but perhaps nowhere in literature are there words that speak so loud of a man without experience of woman or child4 ,on a voyage1 he says1 when the ship calls at a port and you go ashore for water1 it amuses you to pick up a shell or a plant by the way2 but your thoughts ought to be directed to the ship1 and you must watch lest the captain call1 and then you must throw away all those things1 that you may not be flung aboard1 tied like the sheep4 ,so in life1 suppose #ea that instead of some little shell or plant1 you are given something in the way of wife or child 7anti bolbariou kai kochlidiou gynaikarion kai paidion7 nothing need hinder4 ,but1 if the captain call1 run to the ship letting them all go and never looking round4 ,if you are old1 do not even go far from the ship1 lest you fail to come when called4#ed ,he bids a man endure hunger2 he can only die of it4 ,but my wife and children also suffer hunger1 7ohi emoi peineousi74 ,what then8 does their hunger lead to any other place8 ,is there not for them the same descent1 wherever it lead8 ,below1 is it not the same for them as for you8#ee ,if you are kissing your child1 or brother1 or friend1 never give full licence to the appearance 7ten phantasian72 check your pleasure 444 remind yourself that you love a mortal thing1 a thing that is not your own 7ouden ton sautou74444 ,what harm does it do to whisper1 as you kiss the child1 ',to-morrow you will die'8 ,this is a thought he uses more than once1#ef though he knows the attractiveness of lively children4#eg ,he recommends us to practise resignation--beginning on a broken jug or cup1 then on a coat or puppy1 and so up to oneself and one's limbs1 children1 wife or brothers4#eh ,if a man wishes his son or his wife not to do wrong1 he really wishes what is another's not to be another's4#ei ,as to women1 a few quotations will show his detachment4 ,he seems hardly to have known a good woman4 ,do not admire your wife's beauty1 and you are not angry with the adulterer4 ,learn that a thief and an adulterer have no place among the things that are yours1 but among those which are not yours and not in your power1#fj and he illustrates his philosophy with an anecdote of an iron lamp stolen from him1 which he replaced with an earthenware one4 ,from fourteen years old1 he says1 women think of nothing and aim at nothing #eb but lying with men4#fa ,roman women liked ,plato's ,republic for the licence they wrongly supposed it gave4#fb ,he constantly speaks of women as a temptation1 nearly always using a diminutive korasion1 korasidion--little girls--and as a temptation hardly to be resisted by young men4 ,he speaks of their softer voices4#fc ,a young philosopher is no match for a pretty girl2 let him fly temptation4#fd ,as to pleasure with women1 abstain as far as you can1 before marriage2 but if you do indulge in it1 do it in the way conformable to custom4 ,do not1 however1 be disagreeable to those who take such pleasures1 nor apt to rebuke them or to say often that you do not4#fe ,all this may be taken as the impression left by ,rome and the household of ,epaphroditus upon a slave's mind4 ,it may be observed that he makes nothing like ,dio ,chrysostom's condemnation of prostitution--an utterance unexampled in pagan antiquity4 ,it is pleasanter to turn to other features of ,epictetus4 ,he has a very striking lecture on personal cleanliness4#ff ,in proportion as men draw near the gods by reason1 they cling to purity of soul and body4 ,nature has given men hands and nostrils2 so1 if a man does not use a handkerchief1 ,i say1 he is not fulfilling the function of a man4 ,nature has provided water4 ,it is impossible that some impurity should not remain in the teeth after eating4 ',so wash your teeth1' says ,nature4 ,why8 ',that you may be a man and not a beast--a pig4' ,if a man would not bathe and use the strigil and have his clothes washed--either go into a desert where you deserve to go1 or live alone and smell yourself4 ,he cannot bear a dirty man1--who does not get out of his way8 ,it gives philosophy a bad name1 he says2 but it is quite clear that that was not his chief reason4 ,he would sooner a young man came to him with his hair carefully trimmed than with it dirty and rough2 such care implied some conception of the beautiful1 which it was only necessary to direct towards the things of the mind2 but if a man comes to me filthy and dirty1 with a moustache down to his knees--what can ,i say to him8 ,but whence am ,i to get a fine cloak8 ,man6 you have water2 wash it6 #ec ,sidenote3 ,fame of ,epictetus ,pupils gathered round him and he became famous1 as we can see in the reminiscences of ,aulus ,gellius4#fg ,sixty or seventy years after his death a man bought his old earthenware lamp for three thousand drachmas4#fh ,even in his lifetime men began to come about the wonderful old man who were hardly serious students4 ,they wished1 he says1 to occupy the time while waiting to engage a passage on a ship--they happened to be passing 7parodos estin7 and looked in to see him as if he were a statue4 ,we can go and see ,epictetus too4--,then you go away and say2 ,oh6 ,epictetus was nothing6 he talked bad ,greek--oh6 barbarous ,greek6#fi ,others came to pick up a little philosophic language for use in public4 ,why could they not philosophize and say nothing8 he asked4 ,sheep do not vomit up their grass to show the shepherd how much they have eaten--no6 they digest it inside1 and then produce wool and milk outside4#gj ,he took his teaching seriously as a matter of life1 and he looked upon it as a service done to mankind--quite equivalent to the production of two or three ugly-nosed children4#ga ,he has a warm admiration for the ,cynic philosopher's independence of encumberments--how can he who has to teach mankind go looking after a wife's confinement--or something to heat the water in to give the baby a bath8#gb ,these then are the two great teachers of ,stoicism1 the outstanding figures1 whose words and tones survive1 whose characters are familiar to us4 ,they are clearly preachers1 both of them1 intent on the practical reformation of their listeners or correspondents4 ,for them conduct is nine-tenths of life4 ,much of their teaching is of course the common property of all moral teachers--the deprecation of anger1 of quarrelsomeness1 of self-indulgence1 of grumbling1 of impurity1 is peculiar to no school4 ,others have emphasized that life is a campaign with a general to be obeyed1 if you can by some instinct divine what he is signalling4#gc ,but #ed perhaps it was a new thing in the ,western ,world1 when so much accent was laid on conduct4 ,the terror of contemporary life1 with its repulsiveness1 its brutality and its fascination1 drove men in search of the moral guide4 ,the philosopher's school was an infirmary1 not for the glad but for the sorry4#gd ,that man1 says ,seneca1 is looking for salvation--ad salutem spectat4 ,sidenote3 ,self-examination ,men sought the help of the philosopher1 and relapsed4 ,he thinks he wishes reason4 ,he has fallen out with luxury1 but he will soon make friends with her4 ,but he says he is offended with his own life6 ,i do not deny it2 who is not8 ,men love their vices and hate them at the same time4#ge ,so writes ,seneca of a friend of ,lucilius and his fugitive thoughts of amendment1 and ,epictetus is no less emphatic on the crying need for earnestness4 ,the ,roman world was so full of glaring vice that every serious man from ,augustus onward had insisted on some kind of reformation1 and now men were beginning to feel that the reformation must begin within themselves4 ,the habit of daily self-examination became general among the ,stoics1 and they recommended it warmly to their pupils4 ,here is ,seneca's account of himself4 ,when the day was over and ,sextius had gone to his night's rest1 he used to ask his mind 7animum73 'what bad habit of yours have you cured to-day8 what vice have you resisted8 in what respect are you better8' ,anger will cease and will be more moderate1 when it knows it must daily face the judge4 ,could anything be more beautiful than this habit of examining the whole day8 ,what a sleep is that which follows self-scrutiny6 ,how calm1 how deep and free1 when the mind is either praised or admonished1 when it has looked into itself1 and like a secret censor makes a report upon its own moral state4 ,i avail myself of this power and daily try my own case4 ,when the light is removed from my sight1 and my wife1 who knows my habit1 is silent1 ,i survey my whole day and ,i measure my words again4 ,i hide nothing from myself2 ,i pass over nothing4 ,for why should ,i be afraid of any of my errors1 when ,i can say3 ',see that you do it no more1 now ,i forgive you4 ,in that discussion1 you spoke too pugnaciously2 after this do not engage with the ignorant2 they will not learn who have never #ee learned4 ,that man you admonished too freely1 so you did him no good2 you offended him4 ,for the future1 see not only whether what you say is true1 but whether he to whom it is said will bear the truth4'#gf ,similar passages might be multiplied4 ,live with yourself and see how ill-furnished you are1 wrote ,persius 7iv1 #eb7 the pupil of ,cornutus4 ,from heaven comes that word 'know thyself1' said ,juvenal4 ,a rather remarkable illustration is the letter of ,serenus1 a friend of ,seneca's1 of whose life things are recorded by ,tacitus that do not suggest self-scrutiny4 ,in summary it is as follows3-- ,i find myself not quite free1 nor yet quite in bondage to faults which ,i feared and hated4 ,i am in a state1 not the worst indeed1 but very querulous and uncomfortable1 neither well nor ill4 ,it is a weakness of the mind that sways between the two1 that will neither bravely turn to right nor to wrong4 ,things disturb me1 though they do not alter my principles4 ,i think of public life2 something worries me1 and ,i fall back into the life of leisure1 to be pricked to the will to act by reading some brave words or seeing some fine example4 ,i beg you1 if you have any remedy to stay my fluctuation of mind1 count me worthy to owe you peace4 ,to put what ,i endure into a simile1 it is not the tempest that troubles me1 but sea-sickness4#gg ,epictetus quotes lines which he attributes to ,pythagoras-- ,let sleep not come upon thy languid eyes ,ere thou has scanned the actions of the day-- ,where have ,i sinned8 ,what done or left undone8 ,from first to last examine all1 and then ,blame what is wrong1 in what is right1 rejoice4#gh ,these verses1 he adds1 are for use1 not for quotation4 ,elsewhere he gives us a parody of self-examination--the reflections of one who would prosper in the world--,where have ,i failed in flattery8 ,can ,i have done anything like a free man1 or a noble-minded8 ,why did ,i say that8 ,was it not in my power to lie8 ,even the philosophers say nothing hinders a man from telling a lie4#gi #ef ,but self-examination may take us further4#hj ,we come into the world1 he says1 with some innate idea 7emphutos ennoia7 of good and evil1 as if ,nature had taught us2 but we find other men with different ideas1--,syrians and ,egyptians1 for instance4 ,it is by a comparison of our ideas with those of other men that philosophy comes into being for us4 ,the beginning of philosophy--with those at least who enter upon it aright--by the door--is a consciousness of one's own weakness and insufficiency in necessary things 7astheneias kai adunamias74 ,we need rules or canons1 and philosophy determines these for us by criticism4#ha ,this reference to ,syrians and ,egyptians is probably not idle4 ,the prevalence of ,syrian and ,egyptian religions1 inculcating ecstatic communion with a god and the soul's need of preparation for the next world1 contributed to the change that is witnessed in ,stoic philosophy4 ,the ,eastern mind is affecting the ,greek1 and later ,stoicism like later ,platonism has thoughts and ideals not familiar to the ,greeks of earlier days4 ,it was with religions1 as opposed to city cults1 that ,stoicism had now to compete for the souls of men2 and while it retains its ,greek characteristics in its intellectualism and its slightly-veiled contempt for the fool and the barbarian1 it has taken on other features4 ,it was avowedly a rule of life rather than a system of speculation2 and it was more1 for the doctrine of the ,spermaticos ,logos 7the ,generative ,reason7 gave a new meaning to conduct and opened up a new and rational way to ,god4 ,thus ,stoicism1 while still a philosophy was pre-eminently a religion1 and even a gospel--,good ,news of emancipation from the evil in the world and of union with the ,divine4 ,sidenote3 ,the true worship of the gods ,stoicism gave its convert a new conception of the relation of ,god and man4 ,one ,divine ,word was the essence of both--,reason was shared by men and gods1 and by pure thought men came into contact with the divine mind4 ,others sought communion in trance and ritual--the ,stoic when he was awake1 at his highest and best level1 with his mind and not his hand1 in thoughts1 which he could understand and assimilate1 rather than in magical formulae1 which lost their value when they became #eg intelligible4 ,god and men formed a polity1 and the ,stoic was the fellow-citizen of the gods1 obeying1 understanding and adoring1 as they did1 one divine law1 one order--a partaker of the divine nature1 a citizen of the universe1 a free man as no one else was free1 because he knew his freedom and knew who shared it with him4 ,he stood on a new footing with the gods1 and for him the old cults passed away1 superseded by a new worship which was divine service indeed4 ,how the gods are to be worshipped1 men often tell us4 ,let us not permit a man to light lamps on the ,sabbath1 for the gods need not the light1 and even men find no pleasure in the smoke4 ,let us forbid to pay the morning salutation and to sit at the doors of the temples2 it is human interest that is courted by such attentions3 ,god1 he worships who knows ,him4 ,let us forbid to take napkins and strigils to ,jove1 to hold the mirror to ,juno4 ,god seeks none to minister to him2 nay6 himself he ministers to mankind2 everywhere he is1 at the side of every man4 ,let a man hear what mode to keep in sacrifices1 how far to avoid wearisomeness and superstition3 never will enough be done1 unless in his mind he shall have conceived ,god as he ought1 as in possession of all things1 as giving all things freely4 ,what cause is there that the gods should do good8 ,nature4 ,he errs1 who thinks they can not do harm2 they will not4 ,they cannot receive an injury nor do one4 ,to hurt and to be hurt are one thing4 ,nature1 supreme and above all most beautiful1 has exempted them from danger and from being dangerous4 ,the beginning of worship of the gods is to believe gods are2 then to attribute to them their own majesty1 to attribute to them goodness1 without which majesty is not1 to know it is they who preside over the universe1 who rule all things by their might1 who are guardians of mankind2 at times#hb thoughtful of individuals4 ,they neither give nor have evil2 but they chastise1 they check1 they assign penalties and sometimes punish in the form of blessing4 ,would you propitiate the gods8 ,be good6 ,he has worshipped them enough who has imitated them4#hc #eh ,this is not merely a statement of ,stoic dogma2 it was a proclamation of freedom4 ,line after line of this fine passage directly counters what was asserted and believed throughout the world by the adherents of the ,eastern religions4 ,hear ,seneca once more4 ,sidenote3 ,providence ,we understand ,jove to be ruler and guardian of the whole1 mind and breath of the ,universe 7animum spiritumque mundi71 lord and artificer of this fabric4 ,every name is his4 ,would you call him fate8 ,you will not err4 ,he it is on whom all things depend1 the cause of causes4 ,would you call him ,providence8 ,you will speak aright4 ,he it is whose thought provides for the universe that it may move on its course unhurt and do its part4 ,would you call him ,nature8 you will not speak amiss4 ,he it is of whom all things are born1 by whose breath 7spiritu7 we live4 ,would you call him ,universe8 ,you will not be deceived4 ,he himself is this whole that you see1 fills his own parts1 sustains himself and what is his4#hd ,some one asked ,epictetus one day how we can be sure that all our actions are under the inspection of ,god4 ,do you think1 said ,epictetus1 that all things are a unity8 7i4e4 in the polity of the cosmos74 ,yes4 ,well then1 do you not think that things earthly are in sympathy 7sympathein7 with things heavenly8 ,yes4 ,epictetus reminded his listener of the harmony of external nature1 of flowers and moon and sun4 ,but are leaves and our bodies so bound up and united with the whole1 and are not our souls much more8 and are our souls so bound up and in touch with ,god 7synapheis to theo7 as parts of ,him and portions of ,him1 and can it be that ,god does not perceive every motion of these parts as being ,his own motion cognate with ,himself 7symphyous78#he ,he bade the man reflect upon his own power of grasping in his mind ten thousand things at once under divine administration2 and is not ,god able to oversee all things1 and to be present with them1 and to receive from all a certain communication8 ,the man replied that he could not comprehend all these things at once4 ,and who tells you this--that you have equal power with ,zeus8 ,nevertheless1 he has placed by every man a guardian 7epitropon71 each man's #ei ,daemon1 to whom he has committed the care of the man1 a guardian who never sleeps1 is never deceived4 ,for to what better and more careful watch 7phylaki7 could ,he have entrusted each of us8 ,when then you 7plural7 have shut your doors and made darkness within1 remember never to say that you are alone1 for you are not2 but ,god is within and your ,daemon 7,greek3 ho hymeteros daimon72 and what need have they of light to see what you are doing8#hf ,here another feature occurs--the question of the daemons4 ,seneca once alludes to the idea--for the present1 he writes to ,lucilius1 set aside the view of some people1 that to each individual one of us a god is given as a pedagogue1 not indeed of the first rank1 but of an inferior brand1 of the number of those whom ,ovid calls 'gods of the lower order' 7de plebe deos72 yet remember that our ancestors who believed this were so far ,stoics1 for to every man and woman they gave a ,genius or a ,juno4 ,later on we shall see whether the gods have leisure to attend to private people's business4#hg ,but before we pursue a side issue1 which we shall in any case have to examine at a later point1 let us look further at the central idea4 ,the thoughtful man finds himself1 as we have seen1 in a polity of gods and men1 a cosmos1 well-ordered in its very essence4 ,in truth1 says ,epictetus1 the whole scheme of things 7ta hola7 is badly managed1 if ,zeus does not take care of his own citizens1 so that they may be like himself1 happy4#hh ,the first lesson of philosophy is that there is a ,god and that he provides for the whole scheme of things1 and that it is not possible to conceal from him our acts--no1 nor our intentions or thoughts4#hi ,god1 says ,seneca1 has a father's mind towards the good1 and loves them stoutly--'let them1' he says1 'be exercised in work1 pain and loss1 that they may gather true strength4' ,it is because ,god is in love with the good 7bonorum amantissimus7 that he gives them fortune to wrestle with4 ,there is a match worth ,god's sight 7pardeo dignum7--a brave man paired with evil fortune--especially if he is himself the challenger4#ij ,he goes on to show that what appear to be evils are not so2 that misfortunes are at once for the advantage of those whom #fj they befall and of men in general or the universe 7universis71 for which the gods care more than for individuals2 that those who receive them are glad to have them--and deserve evil if they are not2 that misfortunes come by fate and befall men by the same law by which they are good4 ,always to be happy and to go through life without a pang of the mind 7sine morsu animi7 is to know only one half of ,nature4#ia ,the fates lead us3 what time remains for each of us1 the hour of our birth determined4 ,cause hangs upon cause4444 ,of old it was ordained whereat you should rejoice or weep2 and though the lives of individuals seem marked out by a great variety1 the sum total comes to one and the same thing--perishable ourselves we receive what shall perish4#ib ,the good man's part is then to commit himself to fate--it is a great comfort to be carried along with the universe4 ,whatever it is that has bidden us thus to live and thus to die1 by the same necessity it binds the gods4 ,an onward course that may not be stayed sweeps on human and divine alike4 ,the very founder and ruler of all things has written fate1 but he follows it3 he ever obeys1 he once commanded4#ic ,to the good1 ,god says1 ,to you ,i have given blessings sure and enduring2 all your good ,i have set within you4 ,endure6 herein you may even out-distance ,god2 he is outside the endurance of evils and you above it4#id ,above all ,i have provided that none may hold you against your will2 the door is open2 nothing ,i have made more easy than to die2 and death is quick4#ie ,epictetus is just as clear that we have been given all we need4 ,what says ,zeus8 ,epictetus1 had it been possible1 ,i would have made both your little body and your little property free1 and not exposed to hindrance4444 ,since ,i was not able to do this1 ,i have given you a little portion of us1 this faculty of pursuing or avoiding an object1 the faculty of desire and #fa aversion and in a word the faculty of using the appearances of things4#if ,must my leg then be lamed8 ,slave6 do you then on account of one wretched leg find fault with the cosmos8 ,will you not willingly surrender it for the whole8 444 ,will you be vexed and discontented with what ,zeus has set in order1 with what he and the ,moirae1 who were there spinning thy nativity 7genesin71 ordained and appointed8 ,i mean as regards your body2 for so far as concerns reason you are no worse than the gods and no less4#ig ,sidenote3 ,the holy spirit within us ,in language curiously suggestive of another school of thought1 ,seneca speaks of ,god within us1 of divine help given to human effort4 ,god is near you1 with you1 within you4 ,i say it1 ,lucilius2 a holy spirit sits within us 7sacer intra nos spiritus sedet71 spectator of our evil and our good1 and guardian4 ,even as he is treated by us1 he treats us4 ,none is a good man without ,god4#ih ,can any triumph over fortune unless helped by him8 ,he gives counsel1 splendid and manly2 in every good man1 ,what god we know not1 yet a god there dwells4#ii ,the gods1 he says elsewhere1 are not scornful1 they are not envious4 ,they welcome us1 and1 as we ascend1 they reach us their hands4 ,are you surprised a man should go to the gods8 ,god comes to men1 nay6 nearer still6 he comes into men4 ,no mind 7mens7 is good without ,god4 ,divine seeds are sown in human bodies1 and will grow into likeness to their origin if rightly cultivated4#ajj ,it should be noted that the ascent is by the route of frugality1 temperance and fortitude4 ,to this we must return4 ,man's part in life is to be the spectator and interpreter of ,god#aja as he is the son of ,god2#ajb to attach himself to ,god2#ajc to be his soldier1 obey his signals1 wait his call to #fb retreat2 or 7in the language of the ,olympian festival7 to join with him in the spectacle and the festival for a short time 7sympompeusonta auto kai syneortasonta pros oligon71 to watch the pomp and the panegyris1 and then go away like a grateful and modest man2#ajd to look up to ,god and say use me henceforth for what thou will4 ,i am of thy mind2 ,i am thine4#aje ,if we had understanding1 what else ought we to do1 but together and severally1 hymn ,god1 and bless him 7euphemein7 and tell of his benefits8 ,ought we not1 in digging or ploughing or eating1 to sing this hymn to ,god8 ',great is ,god who has given us such tools with which to till the earth2 great is ,god who has given us hands1 the power of swallowing1 stomachs1 the power to grow unconsciously1 and to breathe while we sleep4' 444 ,what else can ,i do1 a lame old man1 but hymn ,god8 ,if ,i were a nightingale1 ,i would do the part of a nightingale 444 but ,i am a rational creature1 and ,i ought to hymn ,god2 this is my proper work2 ,i do it2 nor will ,i quit my post so long as it is given me2 and you ,i call upon to join in this same song4#ajf ,herakles in all his toils had nothing dearer to him than ,god1 and for that reason he was believed to be the son of ,god and he was4#ajg ,clear away from your thoughts sadness1 fear1 desire1 envy1 avarice1 intemperance1 etc4 ,but it is not possible to eject all these things1 otherwise than by looking away to ,god alone 7pros monon ton theon apobleponta7 by fixing your affections on him only1 by being dedicated to his commands4#ajh ,this is a peace not of ,caesar's proclamation 7for whence could he proclaim it87 but of ,god's--through reason4#aji ,sidenote3 ,humanity ,the man1 who is thus in harmony with the ,spermaticos1 ,logos1 who has put his ',i' and 'mine'#aaj in the things of the will1 has no quarrel with anything external4 ,he takes a part in the affairs of men without aggression1 greed or meanness4 ,he submits to what is laid upon him4 ,his peace none can take away1 and none can make him angry4 ,there is a fine passage in ,seneca's ninety-fifth letter1 following his account of right worship already quoted1 in which he proceeds to deduce from this the right attitude to men4 ,a sentence or two #fc must suffice4 ,how little it is not to injure him1 whom you ought to help6 ,great praise forsooth1 that man should be kind to man6 ,are we to bid a man to lend a hand to the shipwrecked1 point the way to the wanderer1 share bread with the hungry8 444 ,this fabric which you see1 wherein are divine and human1 is one4 ,we are members of a great body4 ,nature has made us of one blood1 has implanted in us mutual love1 has made us for society 7sociabiles74 ,she is the author of justice and equity4444 ,let that verse be in your heart and on your lip4 ,homo sum1 humani nihil a me alienum puto#aaa ,unhappy man6 will you ever love8 7ecquando amabis7 he says to the irritable4#aab ,a little before1 he said1 ,man1 a sacred thing to man1 is slain for sport and merriment2 naked and unarmed he is led forth2 and the mere death of a man is spectacle enough4#aac ,this was the ,stoic's condemnation of the gladiatorial shows4 ,nor was it only by words that ,stoicism worked for humanity1 for it was ,stoic lawyers who softened and broadened and humanized ,roman law4#aad ,yet ,stoicism in ,seneca and ,epictetus had reached its zenith4 ,from now onward it declined4 ,marcus ,aurelius1 in some ways the most attractive of all ,stoics1 was virtually the last4 ,with the second century ,stoicism ceased to be an effective force in occupying and inspiring the whole mind of men1 though it is evident that it still influenced thinkers4 ,men studied the ,stoics and made fresh copies of their books1 as they did for a thousand years2 they borrowed and adapted2 but they were not ,stoics4 ,stoicism had passed away as a system first and then as a religion2 and for this we have to find some reason or reasons4 ,it may well be true that the environment of the ,stoics was not fit for so high and pure a philosophy4 ,the broad gulf between the common ,roman life and ,stoic teaching is evident enough4 ,the intellectual force of the ,roman world moreover was ebbing1 and ,stoicism required more strength of mind and character than was easily to be found4 ,that a religion or a philosophy #fd fails to hold its own is not a sure sign that it is unfit or untrue2 it may only be premature1 and it may be held that at another stage of the world's history ,stoicism or some similar scheme of thought1--or1 better perhaps1 some central idea round which a system and a life develop--may yet command the assent of better men in a better age4 ,at the same time1 it is clear that when ,stoicism re-emerges1--if it does1--it will be another thing4 ,already we have seen in ,wordsworth1 and 7so far as ,i understand him7 in ,hegel1 a great informing conception which seems to have clear affinity with the ,spermaticos ,logos of the ,stoics4 ,the passage from the ,lines written above ,tintern ,abbey 7quoted in the previous chapter7 may be supplemented by many from the ,prelude and other poems to illustrate at once the likeness and the difference between the forms the thought has taken4 ,it is1 however1 a certain condemnation of a philosophic school when we have to admit that1 whatever its apprehension of truth1 it failed to capture its own generation1 either because of some error of presentment1 or of some fundamental misconception4 ,when we find1 moreover1 that there is not only a refusal of ,stoicism but a reaction from it1 conscious or unconscious1 we are forced to inquire into the cause4 ,sidenote3 ,the individual will ,we shall perhaps be right in saying1 to begin with1 that the doctrine of the ,generative ,reason1 the ,spermaticos ,logos1 is not carried far enough4 ,the immense practical need1 which the ,stoic felt1 of fortifying himself against the world1 is not unintelligible1 but it led him into error4 ,he employed his doctrine of the ,spermaticos ,logos to give grandeur and sufficiency to the individual1 and then1 for practical purposes1 cut him off from the world4 ,he manned and provisioned the fortress1 and then shut it off from supplies and from relief4 ,it was a necessary thing to assert the value and dignity of the mere individual man against the despotisms1 but to isolate the man from mankind and from the world of nature was a fatal mistake4 ,of course1 the ,stoic did not do this in theory1 for he insisted on the polity of gods and men1 the one city1#aae and the duty of the citizen of the universe 7kosmios7--a man is not an independent object2 like the foot in the body he is essentially #fe a part4#aaf ,in practice1 too1 ,stoics were human4 ,seneca tells us to show clemency but not to feel pity1 but we may be sure that the human heart in him was far from observing the distinction--he talked more boldly than he lived1 he says--he was among those whom grief conquered1#aag and1 though he goes on to show why he failed in this way1 he is endeared to us by his failure to be his own ideal ,stoic4 ,yet it remains that the chapters1 with which his book on ,clemency ends1 are a ,stoic protest against pity1 and they can be re-inforced by a good deal in ,epictetus4 ,if your friend is unhappy1 remember that his unhappiness is his own fault1 for ,god has made all men to be happy1 to be free from perturbations4#aah ,your friend has the remedy in his own hands2 let him purify his dogmata4#aai ,epictetus would try to heal a friend's sorrow but not by every means1 for that would be to fight against ,god 7theomachein71 and would involve daily and nightly punishment to himself#abj--;and no one is nearer me than myself4#aba ,in the ,manual the same thought is accentuated4 ,say to yourself ',it is the opinion about this thing that afflicts the man4' ,so far as words go1 do not hesitate to show sympathy1 and even1 if it so happen1 to lament with him4 ,take care1 though1 that you do not lament internally also 7me kai esothen stenaxes74#abb ,we have seen what he has to say of a lost child4 ,in spite of all his fine words1 the ,stoic really knows of nothing between the individual and the cosmos1 for his practical teaching deadens1 if it does not kill1 friendship and family love4 ,everything with the ,stoic turns on the individual4 ta epi soi1 the things in your own power1 is the refrain of ,epictetus' teaching4 ,all is thrown upon the individual will1 upon the universal working in the individual1 according to ,stoic theory1 upon me the plain man would say4 ,if the gods1 as ,seneca says1 lend a hand to such as climb1 the climber has to make his own way by temperance and fortitude4 ,the holy spirit within us is after all hardly to be distinguished from conscience1 intellect and will4#abc ,god1 says ,epictetus1 ordains if you wish good1 get it from yourself4#abd ,once the will 7proairesis7 is right1 #ff all is achieved4#abe ,you must exercise the will 7thelesai7--and the thing is done1 it is set right2 as on the other hand1 only fall a nodding and the thing is lost4 ,for from within 7esothen7 comes ruin1 and from within comes help4#abf ,what do you want with prayers8 asks ,seneca1 make yourself happy4#abg ,the old ,stoic paradox about the folly of mankind1 and the worthlessness of the efforts of all save the sage1 was by now chiefly remembered by their enemies4#abh ,all this is due to the ,stoic glorification of reason1 as the embodiment in man of the ,spermaticos ,logos4 ,though ,nous with the ,stoics is not the pure dry light of reason1 they tended in practice to distinguish reason from the emotions or passions 7pathe71 in which they saw chiefly perturbations1 and they held up the ideal of freedom from them in consequence 7apatheia74#abi ,to be godlike1 a man had to suppress his affections just as he suppressed his own sensations of pain or hunger4 ,every human instinct of paternal or conjugal love1 of friendship1 of sympathy1 of pity1 was thus brought to the test of a ,reason1 which had two catch-words by which to try them--the ,universe and the things in your own power--and the sentence was swift and summary enough4 ,they did not realize that for most men--and probably it is truest of the best men--,life moves onward with all its tender and gracious instincts1 while ,analysis limps behind4 ,the experiment of testing affection and instinct by reason has often been tried1 and it succeeds only where the reason is willing to be a constitutional monarch1 so to say1 instead of the despot responsible only to the vague concept of the ,universe1 whom the ,stoics wished to enthrone4 ,they talked of living according to ,nature1 but they were a great deal too quick in deciding what was ,nature4 ,if the centuries have taught us anything1 it is to give ,nature more time1 more study and more respect than even yet we do4 ,there are words #fg at the beginning of the thirteenth book of the ,prelude wiser and truer than anything the ,stoics had to say of her with their excessive zeal and their quick turns of intellect4 ,carried away by their theories 7none1 we must remember as we criticize them1 without some ground in experience and observation71 the ,stoics made solitude in the heart and called it peace4 ,the price was too high2 mankind would not pay it1 and sought a religion elsewhere that had a place for a man's children4 ,sidenote3 ,sin and salvation ,again1 in their contempt for the passions the ,stoics underestimated their strength4 ,how strong the passions are1 no man can guess for another1 even if he can be sure how strong his own are4 ,perhaps the ,stoics could subordinate their passions to their reason2--ancient critics kept sharp eyes on them and said they were not always successful4#acj ,but there is no question that for the mass of men1 the ,stoic account of reason is absurd4 ,i see another law in my members1 said a contemporary of ,seneca's1 warring against the law of my mind and bringing me into captivity4 ,other men felt the same and sought deliverance in the sacraments of all the religions4 ,that ,salvation was not from within1 was the testimony of every man who underwent the taurobolium4 ,so far as such things can be1 it is established by the witness of every religious mind that1 whether the feeling is just or not the feeling is invincible that the will is inadequate and that religion begins only when the ,stoic's ideal of saving oneself by one's own resolve and effort is finally abandoned4 ,whether this will permanently be true is another question1 probably for us unprofitable4 ,the ancient world1 at any rate1 and in general the modern world1 have pronounced against ,stoic ,psychology--it was too quick1 too superficial4 ,the ,stoics did not allow for the sense of sin4#aca ,they recognized the presence of evil in the world2 they felt that it has its seat within us1 in our inward part2#acb and they remark the effect of evil in the blunting of the faculties--let the guilty1 says ,persius1 see virtue1 and pine that they have lost her forever4#acc ,while ,seneca finds himself growing better and becoming changed1 he still feels there may be much more needing amendment4#acd ,he often #fh expresses dissatisfaction with himself4#ace ,but the deeper realization of weakness and failure did not come to the ,stoics1 and what help their teaching of strenuous endeavour could have brought to men stricken with the consciousness of broken willpower1 it is hard to see4 ,filthy ,natta1 according to ,persius1 was benumbed by vice 7stupet hic vitio74#acf ,when a man is hardened like a stone 7apolithothe71 how shall we be able to deal with him by argument8 asks ,epictetus1 arguing against the ,academics1 who opposed evident truths--what are we to do with necrosis of the soul8#acg ,but the ,stoics really gave more thought to fancies of the sage's equality with ,god and occasional superiority--so confident were they in the powers of the individual human mind4 ,plutarch1 indeed1 forces home upon them as a deduction from their doctrine of the common nature of gods and men the consequence that sin is not contrary to the ,logos of ,zeus--and yet they say ,god punishes sin4#ach ,yet even the individual1 much as they strove to exalt his capabilities1 was in the end cheapened in his own eyes4#aci ,as men have deepened their self-consciousness1 they have yielded to an instinctive craving for the immortality of the soul4#adj ,whether savages feel this or not1 it is needless to argue4 ,no religion apart from ,buddhism has permanently held men which had no hopes of immortality2 and how far the corruptions of ,buddhism have modified its rigour for common people1 it is not easy to say4 ,in one form or another1 in spite of a terrible want of evidence1 men have clung to eternal life4 ,the ,stoics themselves used this consensus of opinion as evidence for the truth of the belief4#ada ,it pleased me1 writes ,seneca1 to inquire of the eternity of souls 7de aeternitate animarum7--nay6 to believe in it4 ,i surrendered myself to that great hope4#adb #fi ,how natural it is6 he says1 the human mind is a great and generous thing2 it will have no bounds set to it unless they are shared by ,god4#adc ,when the day shall come1 which shall part this mixture of divine and human1 here1 where ,i found it1 ,i will leave my body1 myself ,i will give back to the gods4 ,even now ,i am not without them4 ,he finds in our birth into this world an analogy of the soul passing into another world1 and in language of beauty and sympathy he pictures the birthday of the eternal1 the revelation of nature's secrets1 a world of light and more light4 ,this thought suffers nothing sordid to dwell in the mind1 nothing mean1 nothing cruel4 ,it tells us that the gods see all1 bids us win their approval1 prepare for them1 and set eternity before us4#add ,beautiful words that wake emotion yet6 ,sidenote3 ,immortality ,but is it clear that it is eternity after all8 ,in the ,consolation which ,seneca wrote for ,marcia1 after speaking of the future life of her son1 he passed at last to the ,stoic doctrine of the first conflagration1 and described the destruction of the present scheme of things that it may begin anew4 ,then we also1 happy souls who have been assigned to eternity 7felices animae et aeterna sortitae71 when ,god shall see fit to reconstruct the universe1 when all things pass 7labentibus71 we too1 a little element in a great catastrophe1 shall be resolved into our ancient elements4 ,happy is your son1 ,marcia1 who already knows this4#ade ,elsewhere he is still less certain4 ,why am ,i wasted for desire of him1 who is either happy or non-existent8 7qui aut beatus aut nullus est74#adf ,that in later years1 in his letters to ,lucilius1 ,seneca should lean to belief in immortality1 is natural enough4 ,epictetus' language1 with some fluctuations1 leans in the other direction3 ,when ,god does not supply what is necessary1 he is sounding the signal for retreat--he has opened the door and says to you1 ,come6 ,but whither8 ,to nothing terrible1 but whence you came1 to the dear and kin both neuters1 the elements4 ,what in you was fire1 shall go to fire1 earth to earth1 spirit to spirit perhaps1 breath hoson pneumation eis pneumation1 water to water2 #gj no ,hades1 nor ,acheron1 nor ,cocytus1 nor ,pyriphlegethon2 but all things full of gods and daemons4 ,when a man has such things to think on1 and sees sun and moon and stars1 and enjoys earth and sea1 he is not solitary or even helpless4#adg ,this is death1 a greater change1 not from what now is into what is not1 but into what now is not4 ,then shall ,i no longer be8 ,you will be1 but something else1 of which now the cosmos has no need4 ,for you began to be 7egenou71 not when you wished1 but when the cosmos had need4#adh ,on the whole the ,stoic is in his way right1 for the desire for immortality goes with the instincts he rejected--it is nothing without the affections and human love4#adi ,but once more logic failed1 and the obscure grave witnesses to man's instinctive rejection of ,stoicism1 with its simple inscription taurobolio in aeternum renatus4 ,sidenote3 ,the question of the gods ,lastly we come to the gods themselves1 and here a double question meets us4 ,neither on the plurality nor the personality of the divine does ,stoicism give a certain note4 ,in the passages already quoted it will have been noticed how interchangeably ,god1 the gods and ,zeus have been used4 ,it is even a question whether ,god is not an identity with fate1 providence1 ,nature and the ,universe4#aej ,seneca1 as we have seen1 dismisses the theory of daemons or genii rather abruptly--that is what some think4 ,epictetus definitely accepts them1 so far as anything here is definite1 and with them1 or in them1 the ancestral gods4 ,seneca1 as we have seen1 is contemptuous of popular ritual and superstition4 ,epictetus inculcates that as to piety about the gods1 the chief thing is to have right opinions about them1 but1 he concludes1 to make libations and to sacrifice according to the custom of our fathers1 purely and not meanly1 nor carelessly1 nor scantily1 nor above our ability1 is a thing which belongs to all to do4#aea ,why do you1 he asks1 act the part of a ,jew1 when you are a ,greek8#aeb ,he also accepts the #ga fact of divination4#aec ,indeed1 aside perhaps from conspicuous extravagances1 the popular religion suffices4 ,without enthusiasm and without clear belief1 the ,stoic may take part in the ordinary round of the cults4 ,if he did not believe himself1 he pointed out a way to the reflective polytheist by which he could reconcile his traditional faith with philosophy--the many gods were like ourselves manifestations of the ,spermaticos ,logos2 and he could accept tolerantly the ordinary theory of daemons1 for ,chrysippus even raised the question whether such things as the disasters that befall good men are due to negligence on the part of ,providence1 or to evil daemons in charge of some things4#aed ,while for himself the ,stoic had the strength of mind to shake off superstition1 the common people1 and even the weaker brethren of the ,stoic school1 remained saddled with polytheism and all its terrors and follies4 ,of this compromise ,seneca is guiltless4#aee ,it was difficult to cut the connexion with ,greek tradition--how difficult1 we see in ,plutarch's case4 ,the ,stoics1 however1 fell between two stools1 for they had not enough feeling for the past to satisfy the pious and patriotic1 nor the resolution to be done with it4 ,after all1 more help was to be had from ,lucretius than from ,epictetus in ridding the mind of the paralysis of polytheism4 ,but the same instinct that made men demand immortality for themselves1 a feeling1 dim but strong1 of the value of personality and of love1 compelled them to seek personality in the divine4 ,here the ,stoic had to halt1 for after all it is a thing beyond the power of reason to demonstrate1 and he could not here allege1 as he liked1 that the facts stare one in the face4 ,so1 with other thinkers1 impressed at once by the want of evidence1 and impelled by the demand for some available terms1 he wavered between a clear statement of his own uncertainty1 and the use of popular names4 ,zeus had long before been adopted by ,cleanthes in his famous hymn1 but this was an element of weakness2 for the wall-paintings in every great house gave another account of ,zeus1 which belied every attribute with which the ,stoics credited him4 ,the apologists and the ,stoics #gb explained the legends by the use of allegory1 but1 as ,plato says1 children cannot distinguish between what is and what is not allegory--nor did the common people4 ,the finer religious tempers demanded something firmer and more real than allegory4 ,they wanted ,god or ,gods1 immortal and eternal2 and at best the ,stoic gods were to melt like wax or tin in their final conflagration1 while ,zeus too1 into whom they were to be resolved1 would thereby undergo change1 and therefore himself also prove perishable4#aef ,i put myself in the hands of a ,stoic1 writes ,justin ,martyr1 and ,i stayed a long time with him1 but when ,i got no further in the matter of ,god--for he did not know himself and he used to say this knowledge was not necessary--,i left him4#aeg ,other men did not1 like ,justin1 pursue their philosophic studies1 and when they found that1 while the ,stoic's sense of truth would not let him ascribe personality to ,god1 all round there were definite and authoritative voices which left the matter in no doubt1 they made a quick choice4 ,what authority means to a man in such a difficulty1 we know only too well4 ,the ,stoics in some measure felt their weakness here4 ,when they tell us to follow ,god1 to obey ,god1 to look to ,god1 to live as ,god's sons1 and leave us not altogether clear what they mean by ,god1 their teaching is not very helpful1 for it is hard to follow or look to a vaguely grasped conception4 ,they realized that some more definite example was needed4 ,we ought to choose some good man1 writes ,seneca1 and always have him before our eyes that we may live as if he watched us1 and do everything as if he saw4#aeh ,the idea came from ,epicurus4 ,do everything1 said he1 as if ,epicurus saw4 ,it is without doubt a good thing to have set a guard over oneself1 to whom you may look1 whom you may feel present in your thoughts4#aei ,wherever ,i am1 ,i am consorting with the best men4 ,to them1 in whatever spot1 in whatever age they were1 ,i send my mind4#afj ,he recommends ,cato1 ,laelius1 ,socrates1 ,zeno4 ,epictetus has the same advice4 ,what would ,socrates do8 is the canon he recommends4#afa ,though you are not yet a ,socrates1 you #gc ought to live as one who wishes to be a ,socrates4#afb ,go away to ,socrates and see him 444 think what a victory he felt he won over himself4#afc ,comte in a later day gave somewhat similar advice4 ,it seems to show that we cannot do well without some sort of personality in which to rest ourselves4 ,sidenote3 ,plutarch's criticism ,when once this central uncertainty in ,stoicism appeared1 all the fine and true words the ,stoics spoke of ,providence lost their meaning for ordinary men who thought quickly4 ,the religious teachers of the day laid hold of the old paradoxes of the school and with them demolished the ,stoic ,providence4 ,chrysippus1 says ,plutarch1 neither professes himself1 nor any one of his acquaintances and teachers1 to be good 7spoudaion74 ,what then do they think of others1 but precisely what they say--that all men are insane1 fools1 unholy1 impious1 transgressors1 that they reach the very acme of misery and of all wretchedness8 ,and then they say that it is by ,providence that our concerns are ordered--and we so wretched6 ,if the ,gods were to change their minds and wish to hurt us1 to do us evil1 to overthrow and utterly crush us1 they could not put us in a worse condition2 for ,chrysippus demonstrates that life can admit no greater degree either of misery or unhappiness4#afd ,of course1 this attack is unfair1 but it shows how men felt4 ,they demanded to know how they stood with the gods--were the gods many or one8 were they persons or natural laws#afe or even natural objects8 did they care for mankind8 for the individual man8 ,this demand was edged by exactly the same experience of life which made ,stoicism so needful and so welcome to its followers4 ,the pressure of the empire and the terrors of living drove some to philosophy and many more to the gods--and for these certainty was imperative and the ,stoics could not give it4 ,it is easy1 but not so profitable as it seems1 to find faults in the religion of other men4 ,their generation rejected the ,stoics1 but they may not have been right4 ,if the ,stoics were too hasty in making reason into a despot to rule over the #gd emotions1 their contemporaries were no less hasty in deciding1 on the evidence of emotions and desires1 that there were gods1 and these the gods of their fathers1 because they wished for inward peace and could find it nowhere else4 ,the ,stoics were at least more honest with themselves1 and though their school passed away1 their memory remained and kept the respect of men who differed from them1 but realized that they had stood for truth4 ,chapter ,,ii ,footnotes3 #a ,hist4 i1 #b4 #b ,tac4 ,ann4 iv1 #cc1 sic converso statu neque alia re ,romana quam si unus imperitet4 #c ,hdt4 iii1 #hj4 ,cf4 ,tac4 ,a4 vi1 #dh1 #d1 vi dominationis convulsus et mutatus4 #d ,suetonius1 ,gaius1 #bi4 #e ,sen4 de ira1 iii1 #ae1 #c4 #f ,lecky1 ,european ,morals1 i1 #bge2 ,epictetus1 ,d4 iii1 #ae4 #g ,seneca1 ,ep4 #ij1 #cf-dc4 #h ,tacitus1 ,germany1 cc4 #ah-bj4 #i ,tac4 ,a4 i1 #gb4 ,suetonius 7,tib4 #ei7 quotes specimens4 #aj ,see ,boissier1 ,tacite1 #ahh f42 l'opposition sous les ,cesars1 #bjh-bae4 #aa ,persius1 v1 #gc1 libertate opus est4 #ab ,horace1 ,sat4 ii1 #b1 #gi4 #ac ,see ,edward ,caird1 ,evolution of ,theology in the ,greek ,philosophers1 vol4 ii1 lectures xvii to xx1 and ,zeller1 ,eclectics1 pp4 #bce-bde4 ,seneca1 ,b4,v4 #bj1 #c4 #ad ,epictetus1 ,d4 ii1 #h1 su apospasma ei tou theou4 #ae ,lucan1 ix1 #efd-ehf1 contains a short summary of ,stoicism1 supposed to be spoken by ,cato4 #af ,epictetus1 ,d4 i1 #i 7some lines omitted74 #ag phantasiai1 impressions left on the mind by things or events4 #ah ,epictetus1 ,d4 i1 #i4 #ai ,diogenes ,laertius1 vii1 #a1 #ec2 see ,caird1 op4 cit4 vol4 ii1 p4 #abd4 #bj ,see ,lecky1 ,european ,morals1 i1 #abh1 #abi4 #ba ,ep4 #ajh1 #bb1 philosophiam oderat4 #bb ,with these passages compare the fine account which ,persius gives 7,sat4 v7 of his early studies with the ,stoic ,cornutus4 #bc ,plutarch1 de esu carnium1 ii1 #e4 #bd ,plutarch1 de esu carnium1 i1 #f1 on clogging the soul by eating flesh4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,paed4 ii1 #af1 says ,st ,matthew lived on seeds1 nuts and vegetables1 and without meat4 #be ,plutarch1 de esu carnium1 ii1 #a4 #bf ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajh1 #c1 #ac-bc4 #bg ,this is a quality that ,quintilian notes in his style for praise or blame4 ,others 7,gellius1 ,n4,a4 xii1 #b7 found in him levis et quasi dicax argutia4 #bh ,ep4 #gh1 #b1 #c1 patris me indulgentissimi senectus retinuit4 #bi ,ep4 #eh1 #e4 #cj ,ep4 #ie1 #fe #ca ,his nephew ,lucan1 ,quintilian severely says1 was perhaps a better model for orators than for poets4 #cb ,ep4 #di1 #b4 ,virgil made one speech4 #cc ad ,polybium1 #ac1 #b1 #c4 #cd ,juvenal1 x1 #af1 magnos ,seneca praedivitis hortos4 #ce ,ann4 xiii1 #ab1 #b4 #cf ,tac4 ,ann4 xiii1 #ae-ag4 #cg ,tac4 ,ann4 xiv1 #ea4 #ch ,tac4 ,ann4 xiii1 #db4 #ci ,b4,v4 #bj1 #c4 #dj ,b4,v4 #bc1 #a4 #da ,tac4 ,ann4 xiv1 #eb-ef4 #db de tranqu4 animi1 #aj1 #f4 #dc ,tac4 ,ann4 xiv1 #fe2 xv1 #de-fe4 #dd ,b4 ,w4 ,henderson1 ,nero1 pp4 #bhj-c4 #de ,tac4 ,ann4 xv1 #fe2 ,juvenal1 viii1 #bab4 #df ,tac4 ,ann4 xv1 #de1 #f4 #dg ,this is emphasized by ,zeller1 ,eclectics1 #bdj1 and by ,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus1 #cbd1 #cbf4 #dh ae ,clem4 i1 #f4 #di ,transcriber's note3 this footnote missing from book #ej ,ep4 #fa1 #a4 #ea ,lucian1 ,nigrinus1 #ai1 says there is no better school for virtue1 no truer test of moral strength1 than life in the city of ,rome4 #eb ,gellius1 ,n4,a4 ii1 #ah1 #aj4 #ec ,gell4 ,n4,a4 xv1 #aa1 #e4 #ed ,manual1 ,j4 ,i have constantly used ,long's translation1 but often altered it4 ,it is a fine piece of work1 well worth the ,english reader's study4 #ee ,d4 iii1 #bf4 ,compare and contrast ,tertullian1 de ,idol1 #ab1 fides famem nan timet4 ,scit enim famem non minus sibi contemnendam propter ,deum quam omne mortis genus4 ,the practical point is the same1 perhaps2 the motive1 how different6 #ef ,d4 iii1 #bd2 iv1 #a2 ,m4 #aa1 #bf4 #eg ,d4 ii1 #bd4 ,he maintains1 too1 against ,epicurus the naturalness of love for children2 once born1 we cannot help loving them1 ,d4 i1 #bc4 #eh ,d4 iv1 #a4 #ei ,d4 iv1 #e1 thelei ta allotrie me einai allotria4 #fj ,d4 i1 #ah4 ,this does not stop his condemning the adulterer1 ,d4 ii1 #d 7man1 he said1 is formed for fidelity71 #aj4 ,seneca on outward goods1 ad ,marciam1 #aj4 #fa ,m4 #dj4 #fb ,fragment1 #ec4 #fc ,d4 i1 id4 #fd ,d4 iii1 #ab1 classing the korasidion with wine and cake4 #fe ,m4 #cc4 #ff ,d4 iv1 #aa4 #fg ,gell4 ,n4,a4 i1 #b1 #f2 xvii1 #ai1 #a4 #fh ,lucian1 adv4 ,indoct4 #ac4 #fi ,d4 iii1 #i4 #gj ,m4 #df4 #ga ,d4 iii1 #bb1 kakorygka4 #gb ,d4 iii1 #bb4 ,lucian says ,epictetus urged ,demonax to take a wife and leave some one to represent him in posterity4 ,very well1 ,epictetus1 said ,demonax1 give me one of your own daughters 7v4 ,demon4 #ee74 #gc ,epict4 ,d4 iii1 #bd4 strateia tis estin ho bios hekastou1 kai aute makra kai toikile4 terein se dei to stratiotou prosneuma kai tou strategou prassein hekasta1 ei oion44 #gd ,epict4 ,d4 iii1 #bc4 #ge ,sen4 ,ep4 #aab1 #c4 #gf de ira1 iii1 #cf1 #a-d4 #gg ,sen4 de tranqu4 animi1 #a4 #gh ,epict4 ,d4 iii1 #aj4 ,i have here slightly altered ,mr ,long's rendering4 #gi ,d4 iv1 #f4 #hj ,cf4 ,persius1 iii1 #ff-gb1 causas cognoscite rerum1 quid sumus aut quidnam victuri gignimur 444 quem te deus esse iussit et humana qua parte locatus es in re4 #ha ,d4 ii1 #aa4 ,see ,davidson1 ,stoic ,creed1 pp4 #fi1 #ha1 on innate ideas4 ,plutarch1 de coh4 ira1 #ae1 on ,zeno's doctrine1 to sperma summigma kai kerasma ton tes phuches dynameon hyparchein apespasmenon4 #hb ,the qualification may be illustrated from ,cicero's ,stoic1 de ,nat4 ,deor1 ii1 #ff1 #afg1 ,magna di curant parva neglegunt4 #hc ,ep4 #ie1 #dg-ej4 ,cf4 ,ep4 #da2 de ,prov4 i1 #e4 ,a very close parallel1 with a strong ,stoic tinge1 in ,minucius ,felix1 #cb1 #b1 #c1 ending ,sic apud nos religiosior est ille qui iustior4 #hd ,nat4 ,quaest4 ii1 #de4 ,cf4 ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #ba1 on ,zeno's testimony to the ,logos1 as creator1 fate1 ,god1 animus ,iovis and necessitas omnium rerum4 #he ,cf4 ,sen4 ,ep4 #da1 #a4 ,prope est a te deus1 tecum est1 intus est4 ,ita dico1 ,lucili1 sacer intra nos spiritus sedet malorum bonorumque nostrorum observator et custos4 #hf ,epict4 ,d4 i1 #ad4 ,see ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom1 vii1 #cg1 for an interesting account of how phthanei he theia dynamis1 kathaper phos diidein ten phychen4 #hg ,ep4 #aaj1 #a1 paedagogam dari deum4 #hh ,d4 iii1 #bd1 #hi ,d4 ii1 #ad4 #ij de providentia1 #b1 #f-i4 #ia de ,prov4 #d1 #a4 #ib de ,prov4 #e1 #g4 ,see ,justin ,martyr's criticism of ,stoic fatalism1 ,apol4 ii1 #g4 ,it involves1 he says1 either ,god's identity with the world of change1 or his implication in all vice1 or else that virtue and vice are nothing--consequences which are alike contrary to every sane eeenoia1 to logos and to nous4 #ic de ,prov4 #e1 #h4 #id ,plutarch1 adv4 ,stoicos1 #cc1 on this ,stoic paradox of the equality of ,god and the sage4 #ie de ,prov4 #f1 #e-g4 ,this ,stoic justification of suicide was repudiated alike by ,christians and ,neo-,platonists4 #if ,d4 i1 #a4 #ig ,d4 i1 #ab4 ,see also ,d4 ii1 #af ,we say ',lord ,god6 how shall ,i not be anxious8' ,fool1 have you not hands1 did not ,god make them for you8 ,sit down now and pray that your nose may not run4 #ih ,cf4 ,cicero's ,stoic1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #ff1 #afg1 ,nemo igitur vir magnus sine aliquo afflatu divino unquam fuit4 #ii ,ep4 #da1 #a1 #b4 7,the line is from ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii1 #ceb47 ,the rest of the letter develops the idea of divine dependence4 ,sic animus magnus ac sacer et in hoc demissus at propius quidem divina nossemus1 conversatur quidem nobiscum sed haeret origini suae1 etc4 #ajj ,ep4 #gc1 #ae1 #af4 #aja ,epictetus1 ,d4 i1 #f4 #ajb ,d4 i1 #i4 #ajc ,d4 iv1 #a4 #ajd ,d4 iv1 #a4 #aje ,d4 ii1 #af end1 with a variant between sos eimi and isos eimi1 the former of which1 ,long says1 is certain4 #ajf ,d4 i1 #af4 ,contrast the passage of ,clement quoted on p4 #bhf4 #ajg ,d4 ii1 #af4 #ajh ,d4 ii1 #af4 #aji ,d4 iii1 #ac4 #aaj ,d4 ii1 #bb4 #aaa ,ep4 #ie1 #ea-ec4 #aab de ira1 iii1 #bh1 #a4 #aac ,ep4 #ie1 #cc1 homo sacra res homini4 #aad ,see ,lecky1 ,european ,morals1 i1 #bid ff43 ,maine1 ,ancient ,law1 p4 #ed f4 #aae ,see1 by the way1 ,plutarch's banter on this polity--the stars its tribesmen1 the sun1 doubtless1 councillor1 and ,hesperus prytanis or astynomus1 adv4 ,sto4 #cd4 #aaf ,epict4 ,d4 ii1 #e2 ,m4 ,aurelius1 viii1 #cd4 #aag ,ep4 #fc1 #ad4 #aah ,d4 iii1 #bd4 #aai ,d4 iv1 #a4 #abj ib4 #aba ,d4 iv1 #f4 #abb ,m4 #af4 #abc ,cf4 ,theophilus 7the apologist of about #afj ,a4,d471 ii1 #d1 who1 though not always to be trusted as to the ,stoics1 remarks this identification of ,god and conscience4 #abd ,d4 i1 #bi4 #abe ,cf4 ,d4 i1 #a2 iii1 #ai2 iv1 #d2 iv1 #ab1 and very many other passages4 #abf ,d4 iv1 #i1 end4 #abg ,ep4 #ca1 #e4 #abh ,plutarch1 ,progress in ,virtue1 c4 #b1 #gf ,a1 on the absurdity of there being no difference between ,plato and ,meletus4 ,cf4 also de repugn4 ,stoic4 #aa1 #ajcg ,d4 #abi ,unconditional eradication1 says ,zeller1 ,eclectics1 p4 #bbf4 ,i do not hold with those who hymn the savage and hard ,apathy 7ten agrion kai skleran71 wrote ,plutarch4 ,cons1 ad ,apoll4 #c1 #ajb ,c4 ,see ,clem4 ,alex4 ,str4 ii1 #aaj1 on pathe2 as produced by the agency of spirits1 and note his talk of ,christian ,apathy4 ,str4 vi1 #ga-gf4 #acj ,justin ,martyr 7,apol4 ii1 #h7 praises ,stoic morality and speaks of ,stoics who suffered for it4 #aca ,cf4 ,epict4 ,d4 iii1 #be4 #acb ,sen4 ,ep4 #ej1 #d4 #acc ,persius1 iii1 #ch4 #acd ,ep4 #f1 #a4 #ace e4g4 ,ep4 #eg1 #c1 he is not even homo tolerabilis4 ,on the bondage of the soul within the body1 see ,ep4 #fe1 #ba-bc4 #acf ,cf4 ,seneca1 ,ep4 #ec1 #g1 #h--quo quis peius habet minus sentit4 ,the worse one is1 the less he notices it4 #acg ,d4 i1 #e4 #ach ,plut4 de repugn4 ,stoic4 #cd1 #ajej ,c4 ,cf4 ,tert4 de exh4 castit4 #b4 #aci ,cf4 ,plutarch1 non suaviter1 #aajd ,f4 kataphronountes eauton os ephemeron kthe--of the ,epicureans4 #adj ,cf4 ,plutarch1 non suaviter1 #aajd ,c4 tes aidiotetus elpis kai ho pothos tou einai manton epoton prespytatos on kai melstos4 ,cf4 ib4 #ajic ,a4 #ada ,sen4 ,ep4 #aag1 #f4 #adb ,ep4 #ajb1 #b4 #adc ,ep4 #ajb1 #ba2 the following passages are from the same letter4 ,note the ,stoic significance of naturale4 #add ,compare ,cons4 ad ,marc4 #be1 #a1 integer ille1 etc4 #ade ,the last words of the ,consolation4 ,plutarch on resolution into pur noeron1 non suaviter1 #aajg ,b4 #adf ad ,polyb4 #i1 #c4 #adg ,d4 iii1 #ac4 ,plutarch 7non suaviter1 #aajf ,e7 says ,cocytus1 etc41 are not the chief terror but he tou me ontos apeile4 #adh ,d4 iii1 #bd4 #adi ,see ,plutarch on this1 non suaviter1 #aaje ,e4 #aej ,seneca1 ,n4,q4 ii1 #de4 #aea ,manual1 #ca4 ,plutarch1 de repugn4 ,stoic4 #f1 #ajcd ,b1 ,c1 remarks on ,stoic inconsistency in accepting popular religious usages4 #aeb ,d4 ii1 #i4 ,in ,d4 v1 #g1 he refers to ,galilaeans1 so that it is quite possible he has ,christians in view here4 #aec ,m4 #cb2 ,d4 iii1 #bb4 #aed ,plut4 de repugn4 ,stoic4 #cg1 #ajea ,c4 #aee ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #ab1 idem estis qui ,senecam aliquem pluribus et amarioribus de vestra superstitione perorantem reprehendistis4 #aef ,see ,plutarch1 de comm4 not4 adv4 ,stoicos1 c4 #ca1 and de def4 orac4 #dbj ,a1 c4 #ai2 ,justin ,m4 ,apol4 ii1 #g4 #aeg ,dial4 c4 ,tryphone1 #b4 #aeh ,sen4 ,ep4 #aa1 #h4 #aei ,ep4 #be1 #e4 #afj ,ep4 #fb1 #b1 cf4 #ajd1 #ba4 #afa ,m4 #cc1 ti nan epoiesen en touto ,sokrates he ,zenon4 #afb ,m4 #ej4 #afc ,d4 ii1 #ah4 ,the tone of ,tertullian1 e4g4 in de ,anima1 #a1 on the ,phaedo1 suggests that ,socrates may have been over-preached4 ,what too 7ib4 #f7 of barbarians and their souls1 who have no prison of ,socrates1 etc8 #afd ,plut4 de ,stoic4 repugnantiis1 #ca1 #ajdh ,e4 ,cf4 de comm4 not4 #cc4 #afe ,plutarch1 ,amat4 #ac1 #geg ,c4 horas depou ton upolambanonta buthon hemas atheotetos1 an eis pathe kai dynameis kai aretas diagraphomen ekaston ton theon4 #ge ,,chapter ,,iii ,,plutarch ,stoicism as a system did not capture the ancient world1 and even upon individuals it did not retain an undivided hold4 ,to pronounce with its admirers to-day that it failed because the world was not worthy of it1 would be a judgment1 neither quite false nor altogether true1 but at best not very illuminative4 ,men are said to be slow in taking in new thoughts1 and yet it is equally true that somewhere in nearly every man there is something that responds to ideas1 and even to theories2 but if these on longer acquaintance fail to harmonize with the deeper instincts within him1 they alarm and annoy1 and the response comes in the form of re-action4 ,in modern times1 we have seen the mind of a great people surrendered for a while to theorists and idealists4 ,the thinking part of the ,french nation was carried away by the inspiration of ,rousseau into all sorts of experiments at putting into hasty operation the principles and ideas they had more or less learnt from the master4 ,even theories extemporized on the moment1 it was hoped1 might be made the foundations of a new and ideal social fabric4 ,the absurdities of the old religion yielded place to ,reason--embodied symbolically for the hour in the person of ,mme ,momoro--afterwards1 more vaguely1 in ,robespierre's ,supreme ,being1 who really came from ,rousseau4 ,and then--avec ton ,etre ,supreme tu commences a m'embeter1 said ,billaud to ,robespierre himself4 ,within a generation ,chateaubriand1 de ,maistre1 ,bonald1 and de la ,mennais were busy refounding the ,christian faith4 ,the rites of ,christianity1 wrote ,chateaubriand1 are in the highest degree moral1 if for no other reason than that they have been practised by our fathers1 that our mothers have watched over our cradles as ,christian women1 that the ,christian religion has chanted its psalms over our parents' coffins and invoked peace upon them in their graves4 #gf ,alongside of this let us set a sentence or two of ,plutarch4 ,our father then1 addressing ,pemptides by name1 said1 ',you seem to me1 ,pemptides1 to be handling a very big matter and a risky one--or rather1 you are discussing what should not be discussed at all 7ta akineta kinein71 when you question the opinion we hold about the gods1 and ask reason and demonstration for everything4 ,for the ancient and ancestral faith is enough 7arkei gar he patrios kai palaia pistis71 and no clearer proof could be found than itself-- ,not though man's wisdom scale the heights of thought-- but it is a common home and an established foundation for all piety2 and if in one point its stable and traditional character 7to bebainon autes kai nenomismenon7 be shaken and disturbed1 it will be undermined and no one will trust it4444 ,if you demand proof about each of the ancient gods1 laying hands on everything sacred and bringing your sophistry to play on every altar1 you will leave nothing free from quibble and cross-examination 7ouden asykophanteton oud abasaniston74444 ,others will say that ,aphrodite is desire and ,hermes reason1 the ,muses crafts and ,athene thought4 ,do you see1 then1 the abyss of atheism that lies at our feet1 if we resolve each of the gods into a passion or a force or a virtue8'#a ,such an utterance is unmistakeable--it means a conservative re-action1 and in another place we find its justification in religious emotion4 ,nothing gives us more joy than what we see and do ourselves in divine service1 when we carry the emblems1 or join in the sacred dance1 or stand by at the sacrifice or initiation4444 ,it is when the soul most believes and perceives that the god is present1 that she most puts from her pain and fear and anxiety1 and gives herself up to joy1 yes1 even as far as intoxication and laughter and merriment4444 ,in sacred processions and sacrifices not only the old man and the old woman1 nor the poor and lowly1 but ,the thick-legged drudge that sways her at the mill1 and household slaves and hirelings are uplifted by joy and triumph4 ,rich men and kings have always their own banquets and feasts--but the feasts in the temples and at initiations1 when men seem to touch the divine most nearly in their thought1 #gg with honour and worship1 have a pleasure and a charm far more exceeding4 ,and in this no man shares who has renounced belief in ,providence4 ,for it is not abundance of wine1 nor the roasting of meat1 that gives the joy in the festivals1 but also a good hope1 and a belief that the god is present and gracious1 and accepts what is being done with a friendly mind4#b ,sidenote3 ,continuity of religion ,one of ,chateaubriand's critics says that his plea could be advanced on behalf of any religion2 and ,plutarch had already made it on behalf of his own4 ,he looks past the ,stoics1 and he finds in memory and association arguments that outweigh anything they can say4 ,the ,spermaticos ,logos was a mere ,etre ,supreme--a sublime conception perhaps1 but it had no appeal to emotion1 it waked no memories1 it touched no chord of personal association4 ,we live so largely by instinct1 memory and association1 that anything that threatens them seems to strike at our life1 ,so was it when my life began2 ,so is it now ,i am a man2 ,so be it when ,i shall grow old1 ,or let me die6 ,the ,child is father of the ,man2 ,and ,i could wish my days to be ,bound each to each by natural piety4 ,some such thought is native to every heart1 and the man who does not cling to his own past seems wanting in something essentially human4 ,the gods were part of the past of the ancient world1 and if ,reason took them away1 what was left8 ,there was so much1 too1 that ,reason could not grasp2 so much to be learnt in ritual and in mystery that to the merely thinking mind had no meaning1--that must be received4 ,reason was invoked so lightly1 and applied so carelessly and harshly1 that it could take no account of the tender things of the heart4 ,reason destroyed but did not create1 questioned without answering1 and left life without sanction or communion4 ,it was too often a mere affair of cleverness4 ,it had its use and place1 no doubt1 in correcting extravagances of belief1 but it was by no means the sole authority in man's life1 and its function was essentially to be the handmaid of religion4 ,we must take #gh ,reason from philosophy to be our mystagogue and then in holy reverence consider each several word and act of worship4#c ,plutarch is our representative man in this revival of religion1 and some survey of his life and environment will enable us to enter more fully into his thought1 and through him to understand better the beginnings of a great religious movement1 of which students too often have lost sight4 ,for centuries the great men of ,greek letters were natives of every region of the eastern ,mediterranean except ,greece1 and ,plutarch stands alone in later literature a ,hellen of the motherland--,greek by blood1 birth1 home and instinct1 proud of his race and his land1 of their history1 their art and their literature4 ,when we speak of the influence of the past1 it is well to remember to how great a past this man looked back1 and from what a present4 ,long years of faction and war1 as he himself says1 had depopulated ,greece1 and the whole land could hardly furnish now the three thousand hoplites that four centuries before ,megara alone had sent to ,plataea4 ,in regions where oracles of note had been1 they were no more2 their existence would but have emphasized the solitude--what good would an oracle be at ,tegyra1 or about ,ptoum1 where in a day's journey you might perhaps come on a solitary shepherd8#d ,it was not only that wars and faction fights had wasted the life of the ,greek people1 but with the opening of the far ,east by ,alexander1 and the development of the ,west under ,roman rule1 ,commerce had shifted its centres1 and the ,greeks had left their old homes for new regions4 ,still keen on money1 philosophy and art1 they thronged ,alexandria1 ,antioch and ,rome1 and a thousand other cities4 ,the ,petrie papyri have revealed a new feature of this emigration1 for the wills of the settlers often mention the names of their wives1 and these were ,greek women and not ,egyptian1 as the names of their fathers and homes prove4#e ,julius ,caesar had restored ,corinth a century after ,mummius destroyed it1 and ,athens was still as she had been and was to be for centuries1 the resort of every one who loved philosophy and literature4#f ,these were the two #gi cities of ,greece2 the rest were reminders of what had been4 ,in one of these forsaken places ,plutarch was born1 and there he was content to live and die1 a citizen and a magistrate of ,chaeronea in ,boeotia4 ,sidenote3 ,his family circle ,his family was an old one1 long associated with ,chaeronea4 ,from childhood his life was rooted in the past by the most natural and delightful of all connexions4 ,his great-grandfather1 ,nicarchus1 used to tell how his fellow-citizens were commandeered to carry wheat on their own backs down to ,anticyra for ,antony's fleet--and were quickened up with the whip as they went2 and then when they had taken one consignment so1 and the second was already done up into loads and ready1 the news came that ,antony was defeated1 and that saved the city2 for at once ,antony's agents and soldiers fled1 and they divided the grain among themselves4#g ,the grandfather1 ,lamprias1 lived long and saw the grandson a grown man4 ,he appears often in ,plutarch's ,table ,talk--a bright old man and a lively talker--like incense1 he said1 he was best when warmed up4#h ,he thought poorly of the ,jews for not eating pork--a most righteous dish1 he said4#i ,he had tales of his own about ,antony1 picked up long ago from one ,philotas1 who had been a medical student in ,alexandria and a friend of one of the royal cooks1 and eventually medical attendant to a son of ,antony's by ,fulvia4#aj ,plutarch's father was a quiet1 sensible man1 who maintained the practice of sacrificing1#aa kept good horses1#ab knew his ,homer1 and had something of his son's curious interest in odd problems4 ,it is perhaps an accident that ,plutarch never mentions his name1 but1 though he often speaks of him1 it is always of my father or our father--the lifelong and instinctive habit4 ,there were also two brothers4 ,the witty and amiable ,lamprias loved laughter and was an expert in dancing--a useful man to put things right when the dance went with more spirit than music4#ac ,of ,timon we hear less1 but ,plutarch sets ,timon's goodness of heart among the very best gifts ,fortune has sent him4#ad ,he emphasizes the bond that brothers have in the family sacrifices1 #hj ancestral rites1 the common home and the common grave4#ae ,that ,plutarch always had friends1 men of kindly nature and intelligence1 and some of them eminent1 is not surprising4 ,other human relationships1 to be mentioned hereafter1 completed his circle4 ,he was born1 and grew up1 and lived1 in a network of love and sympathy1 the record of which is in all his books4 ,plutarch was born about the year #ej ,a4,d41 and1 when ,nero went on tour through ,greece in #ff ,a4,d41 he was a student at ,athens under ,ammonius4#af ,he recalls that among his fellow-students was a descendant of ,themistocles1 who bore his ancestor's name and still enjoyed the honours granted to him and his posterity at ,magnesia4#ag ,ammonius1 whom he honoured and quoted throughout life1 was a ,platonist#ah much interested in ,mathematics4#ai ,he was a serious and kindly teacher with a wide range of interests1 not all speculative4 ,plutarch records a discussion of dancing by the good ,ammonius4#bj ,he was thrice ,general at ,athens1#ba and had at any rate once the experience of an excited mob shouting for him in the street1 while he supped with his friends indoors4 ,plutarch had many interests in ,athens1 in its literature1 its philosophy and its ancient history--in its relics1 too1 for he speaks of memorials of ,phocion and ,demosthenes still extant4 ,but he lingers especially over the wonders of ,pericles and ,phidias1 still fresh and new and untouched by time1 as if a spirit of eternal youth1 a soul that was ageless1 were in the work of the artist4#bb ,athens was a conservative place1 on the whole1 and a great resort for strangers4 ,the ,athenian love of talk is noticed by ,luke with a touch of satire1 and ,dio ,chrysostom admitted that the ,athenians fell short of the glory of their city and their ancestors4#bc ,yet men loved ,athens4#bd ,aulus ,gellius in memory of his years there1 called his book of collections ,attic ,nights1 and here and there he speaks of student life--,it was from ,a,egina to ,piraeus that some of us who were fellow-students1 ,greeks and ,romans1 were crossing in the same ship4 #ha ,it was night4 ,the sea was calm4 ,it was summertime and the sky was clear and still4 ,so we were sitting on the poop1 all of us together1 with our eyes upon the shining stars1 and fell to talking about their names4#be ,sidenote3 ,his travels ,when his student days were over1 ,plutarch saw something of the world4 ,he alludes to a visit to ,alexandria1#bf but1 though he was interested in ,egyptian religion1 as we shall see1 he does not speak of travels in the country4 ,he must have known ,european ,greece well1 but he had little knowledge1 it seems1 of ,asia ,minor and little interest in it4 ,he went once on official business for his city to the pro-consul of ,illyricum--and had a useful lesson from his father who told him to say ,we in his report1 though his appointed colleague had failed to go with him4#bg ,he twice went to ,italy in the reigns of ,vespasian and ,domitian1 and he seems to have stayed for some time in ,rome1 making friends in high places and giving lectures4 ,of the great ,latin writers of his day he mentions none1 nor is he mentioned by them4 ,but he tells with pride how once ,arulenus ,rusticus had a letter from ,domitian brought him by a soldier in the middle of one of these lectures and kept it unopened till the end4#bh ,the lectures were given in ,greek4 ,he confesses to his friend ,sossius ,senecio that1 owing to the pressure of political business and the number of people who came about him for philosophy1 when he was in ,rome1 it was late indeed in life that he attempted to learn ,latin2 and when he read ,latin1 it was the general sense of a passage that helped him to the meaning of the words4 ,the niceties of the language he could not attempt1 he says1 though it would have been a graceful and pleasant thing for one of more leisure and fewer years4#bi ,that this confession is a true one is shown by the scanty use he makes of ,roman books in his biographies1 by his want of acquaintance with ,latin literature1 poetry and philosophy1 and by blunders in detail noted by his critics4 ,sine patris is a poor attempt at ,latin grammar for a man of his learning1 and in his life of ,lucullus he has turned the streets of ,rome into villages through inattention to the various meanings of vicus4#cj #hb ,but1 as he says1 he was a citizen of a small town1 and he did not wish to make it smaller1#ca and he went back to ,chaeronea and obscurity4 ,a city he held to be an organism like a living being1#cb and he never cared for a man on whom the claims of his city sat loosely--as they did on the ,stoics4#cc ,the world was full of ,greek philosophers and rhetoricians1 lecturing and declaiming1 to their great profit and glory1 but ,plutarch was content to stay at home1 to be magistrate and priest4 ,if men laughed to see him inspecting the measurement of tiles and the carrying of cement and stones--it is not for myself1 ,i say1 that ,i am doing this but for my native-place4#cd ,this was when he was ,telearch--an office once held by ,epameinondas1 as he liked to remember4 ,pliny's letters show that this official inspection of municipal building operations by honest and capable men was terribly needed4 ,but ,plutarch rose to higher dignities1 and as ,archon ,eponymos he had to preside over feasts and sacrifices4#ce ,he was also a ,boeotarch4 ,the ,roman ,empire did not leave much political activity even to the free cities1 but ,plutarch loyally accepted the new era as from ,god1 and found in it many blessings of peace and quiet1 and some opportunities still of serving his city4 ,he held a priesthood at ,delphi1 with some charge over the oracle and a stewardship at the ,pythian games4 ,he loved ,delphi1 and its shrine and antiquities1#cf and made the temple the scene of some of his best dialogues4 ,the kind ,apollo 7ho philos71 he says1 seems to heal the questions of life1 and to resolve them1 by the rules he gives to those who ask2 but the questions of thought he himself suggests to the philosophic temperament1 waking in the soul an appetite that will lead it to truth4#cg ,he does not seem to have gained much public renown1 but he did not seek it4 ,the fame in his day was for the men of rhetoric1 and he was a man of letters4 ,if he gave his time to municipal duties1 he must have spent the greater part of his days in reading and writing4 ,he says that a biographer needs a great many books and that as a rule many of them will not be readily accessible--to have the abundance he requires1 he ought really to be in some famous city where learning is loved and #hc men are many2 though1 he is careful to say1 a man may be happy and upright in a town that is inglorious and humble4#ch ,he must have read very widely1 and he probably made good use of his stay in ,rome4 ,in philosophy and literature it is quite probable that he used hand-books of extracts1 though this must not imply that he did not go to the original works of the greater writers4 ,but his main interest lay in memoirs and travels4 ,he had an instinct for all that was characteristic1 or curious1 or out-of-the-way2 and all sorts of casual references show how such things attached themselves to his memory4 ,discursive in his reading1 as most men of letters seem to be1 with a quick eye for the animated scene1 the striking figure1 the strange occurrence1 he read1 one feels1 for enjoyment--he would add1 no doubt1 for his own moral profit2 indeed he says that he began his ,biographies for the advantage of others and found them to be much to his own4#ci ,he was of course an inveterate moralist2 but unlike others of the class1 he never forgets the things that have given him pleasure4 ,they crowd his pages in genial reminiscence and apt allusion4 ,there is always the quiet and leisurely air of one who has seen and has enjoyed1 and sees and enjoys again as he writes4 ,it is this that has made his ,biographies live4 ,they may at times exasperate the modern historian1 for he is not very systematic--delightful writers rarely are4 ,he rambles as he likes and avowedly passes the great things by and treasures the little and characteristic4 ,i am not writing histories but lives1 he says1 and it is not necessarily in the famous action that a man's excellence or failure is revealed4 ,but some little thing--a word or a jest--may often show character better than a battle with its ten thousand slain4#dj ,but1 after all1 it is the characteristic rather than the character that interests him4 ,he is not among the greatest who have drawn men1 for he lacks the mind and patience to go far below the surface to find the key to the whole nature4 ,when he has shown us one side of the hero1 he will present another and a very different one1 and leave us to reconcile them if we can4 ,the contradictions remain contradictions1 and he wanders pleasantly on4 ,the ,lives of ,pericles and ,themistocles1 for instance1 are little more than mere collectanea from sources widely discrepant1 and often quite worthless4 ,of the mind of ,pericles he had little #hd conception2 he gathered up and pleasantly told what he had read in books4 ,he had too little of the critical instinct and took things too easily to weigh what he quoted4 ,above all1 despite his political energy and enthusiasm1 it was impossible1 for a ,greek of his day to have the political insight that only comes from life in a living state4 ,how could the ,telearch of ,chaeronea under the ,roman ,empire understand ,pericles8 ,archbishop ,trench contrasts his enthusiasm about the gift of liberty to ,greece by ,flamininus with the reflection of ,wordsworth that it is a thing which is not to be given ,by all the blended powers of ,earth and ,heaven4 ,plutarch really did not know what liberty is2 ,wordsworth on the other hand had taken part in the ,french ,revolution1 and watched with keen and sympathetic eyes the march of events throughout a most living epoch4 ,it is worth noting that indirectly ,plutarch contributed to the disasters of that epoch1 for his ,lycurgus had enormous influence with ,rousseau and his followers who took it for history4 ,here was a man who made laws and constitutions in his own head and imposed them upon his fellow-countrymen4 ,so ,plutarch wrote and believed1 and so read and believed thinking ,frenchmen of the eighteenth century1 like himself subjects of a despotism and without political experience4 ,besides ,biographies he wrote moral treatises--some based on lectures1 others on conversation1 others again little better than note-books--pleasant and readable books1 if the reader will forgive a certain want of humour1 and a tendency to ramble1 and will surrender his mind to the long and leisurely sentences1 for ,plutarch is not to be hurried4 ,everything he wrote had some moral or religious aim4 ,he was a believer1 in days of doubt and perplexity4 ,the ,epicurean was heard at ,delphi4 ,even in the second century1 when the great1 religious revival was in full swing1 ,lucian wrote and found readers4 ,men brought their difficulties to ,plutarch and he went to meet them--ever glad to do something for the ancestral faith4 ,nor was he less ready to discuss--or record discussions of--questions much less serious4 ,was the hen or the egg first8 ,does a varied diet or a single dish help the digestion more8 ,why is fresh water better than salt for #he washing clothes8 ,which of ,aphrodite's hands did ,diomed wound8 ,it is always the same man1 genial1 garrulous1 moral and sensible4 ,there are no theatricalities in his style--he is not a rhetorician even on paper4#da ,he discards the tricks of the school1 adoxography1 epigram and1 as a rule1 paradox4 ,his simplicity is his charm4 ,he is really interested in his subject whatever it is2 and he believes in its power of interesting other men1 too much to think it worth while to trick it out with extraneous prettinesses4 ,yet after he has discussed his theme1 with excursions into its literary antecedents and its moral suggestions1 we are not perhaps much nearer an explanation of the fact in question1#db nor always quite sure that it is a fact4 ,everything interests him1 but he is in no hurry to get at the bottom of anything2 just as in the ,lives he is occupied with everything except the depths of his hero's personality4 ,it remains that in his various works he has given us an unexampled pageant of antiquity over a wide reach of time and many lands1 and always bright with the colour of life--the work of a lover of men4 ,i can hardly do without ,plutarch1 wrote ,montaigne2 he is so universal and so full1 that upon all occasions1 and what extravagant subject soever you take in hand1 he will still intrude himself into your business1 and holds out to you a liberal and not to be exhausted hand of riches and embellishments4 ,what ,shakespeare thought of him is written in three great plays4#dc ,sidenote3 ,his wife and children ,but so far nothing has been said of ,plutarch's own home4 ,the lot of the wife of a great preacher or moralist is not commonly envied2 and the tracts which ,plutarch wrote upon historic women and their virtues1 and on the duties of married life1 on diet and on the education of the young1 suggest that ,timoxena must have lived in an atmosphere of high moral elevation1 with a wise saw and an ancient instance for every occurrence of the day4 ,but it is clear that he loved her1 and his affection for their four little boys must have been as plain to her as to his readers--and his joy when1 after long waiting1 at last a little girl was born4 ,you had longed for a daughter #hf after four sons1 he writes to her1 and ,i was glad when she came and ,i could give her your name4 ,the little ,timoxena lived for two years1 and the letter of consolation which ,plutarch wrote her mother tells the story of her short life4 ,she had by nature wonderful good temper and gentleness4 ,so responsive to affection1 so generous was she that it was a pleasure to see her tenderness4 ,for she used to bid her nurse give the breast to other children and not to them only1 but even to toys and other things in which she took delight4 ,she was so loving that she wished everything that gave her pleasure to share in the best of what she had4 ,i do not see1 my dear wife1 why things such as these1 which gave us so much happiness while she lived1 should give us pain and trouble now when we think of them4#dd ,he reminds her of the mysteries of ,dionysus of which they were both initiates4 ,in language that recalls ,wordsworth's great ,ode on the ,intimations of ,immortality1 he suggests that old age dulls our impressions of the soul's former life1 and that their little one is gone from them1 before she had time to fall in love with life on earth4 ,and the truth about this is to be seen in the ancient use and wont of our fathers1 who did not observe the ordinary sad rites of burial for little children1 as if they felt it not right in the case of those who have passed to a better and diviner lot and place4444 ,and since to disbelieve them is harder than to believe1 let us comply with the laws in outward things1 and let what is within be yet more stainless1 pure and holy4#de ,two of the sons had previously died--the eldest ,soclaros1 and the fourth1 our beautiful ,chaeron--the name is that of the traditional founder of ,chaeronea4 ,the other two1 ,autobulus and ,plutarch grew up4 ,some of these names appear in the ,table ,talk1 while others of his works were written at the suggestion of his sons4 ,sidenote3 ,his slaves ,from the family we pass to the slaves1 and here1 as we should expect1 ,plutarch is an advocate of gentleness4 ,in the tract ,on ,restraining ,anger a high and humane character is drawn in ,fundanus1 who had successfully mastered a naturally passionate temper4 ,it has been thought that ,plutarch was drawing #hg his own portrait over his friend's name4 ,a naive tendency to idealise his own virtues he certainly shares with other moralists4 ,fundanus urges that1 while all the passions need care and practice if they are to be overcome1 anger is the failure to which we are most liable in the case of our slaves4 ,our authority over them sets us in a slippery place2 temper here has nothing to check it1 for here we are irresponsible and that is a position of danger4 ,a man's wife and his friends are too apt to call gentleness to the slaves mere easy-going slackness 7atonian kai rhathumian74 ,i used to be provoked by such criticism myself against my slaves4 ,i was told they were going to pieces for want of correction4 ,later on ,i realized that1 first of all1 it is better to let them grow worse through my forbearance than by bitterness and anger to pervert oneself for the reformation of others4 ,and1 further1 ,i saw that many of them1 through not being punished1 began to be ashamed of being bad1 and that forgiveness was more apt than punishment to be the beginning of a change in them--and indeed that they would serve some men more readily for a silent nod than they would others for blows and brandings4 ,so ,i persuaded myself that reasoning does better than temper4#df ,it will be remarked that ,fundanus1 or his recording friend1 does not here take the ,stoic position that the slave is as much a son of ,god as the master1#dg nor does he spare the slave for the slave's sake but to overcome his own temper4 ,so much for theory2 but men's conduct does not always square with their theories1 and in life we see men guilty of kind-heartedness and large-mindedness not at all to be reconciled with the theories which they profess1 when they remember them4 ,it is curious that one of the few stories of ,plutarch that come from outside sources should concern this very tract and the punishment of a slave4 ,gellius heard it from the philosopher ,taurus after one of his classes4 ,plutarch1 ,taurus said1 had a worthless slave and ordered him a flogging4 ,the man loudly protested he had done no wrong1 and at last1 under the stimulus of the lash1 taunted his master with inconsistency--what about the fine book on controlling ,anger8 he was angry enough now4 #hh ,then ,plutarch1 slowly and gently asked what signs of anger he showed in voice or colour or word8 ,my eyes1 ,i think1 are not fierce2 nor my face flushed2 ,i am not shouting aloud2 there is no foam on my lip1 no red in my cheek2 ,i am saying nothing to be ashamed of2 nothing to regret2 ,i am not excited nor gesticulating4 ,all these1 perhaps you are unaware1 are the signs of anger4#dh ,then turning to the man who was flogging the slave1 he said1 ,in the meantime1 while ,i and he are debating1 you go on with your business4#di ,the story is generally accepted1 and it is certainly characteristic4 ,the philosopher1 feeling his pulse1 as it were1 to make sure that he is not angry1 while his slave is being lashed1 is an interesting and suggestive picture1 which it is well to remember4 ,how long ,plutarch lived we do not know4 ,he refers to events of the year #ajd or #aje1 and in his ,solon he speaks of ,athens and ,plato each having an unfinished masterpiece1 so that he cannot have known of the intention of the ,emperor ,hadrian to finish the temple of ,zeus ,olympics4#ej ,all that this need imply is that the ,solon was written before #abe ,a4,d4 ,as to his death1 it is certainly interesting when we recall how full of dreams and portents his ,biographies are1 to learn from ,artemidorus' great work on the ,interpretation of ,dreams 7written some forty years later7 that ,plutarch1 when ill1 dreamed that he was ascending to heaven1 supported by ,hermes4 ,next day he was told that this meant great happiness4 ,shortly after he died1 and this was what his dream and the interpretation meant4 ,for ascent to heaven means destruction to a sick man1 and the great happiness is a sign of death4#ea ,plutarch might well have accepted this himself4 ,such was ,plutarch's life--the life of a quiet and simple-minded ,greek gentleman1 spent amid scenes where the past predominated over the present1--nullum sine nomine saxum1 where ,antiquity claimed him for her own by every right that it has ever had upon man4 ,the land of his fathers1 the literature1 the art1 the philosophy1 the faith1 and the reproduction of the #hi good old life in the pleasant household#eb--;everything conspired to make him what he was4 ,we now come to his significance in the story of the conflict of religions in the ,roman ,empire4 ,sidenote3 ,plutarch not a philosopher ,a good deal has been written about ,plutarch's philosophy4 ,his works are full of references to philosophy and philosophers1 and he leaves us in no doubt as to his counting himself a disciple of ,plato2 his commentaries on ,platonic doctrines give him a place in the long series of ,plato's expositors4 ,but no one would expect a writer of the first century to be a man of one allegiance1 and ,plutarch modifies the teaching of ,plato with elements from elsewhere4 ,it has then been debated whether he should1 or should not1 be called an ,eclectic1 but not very profitably4 ,the essential thing to note is that he is not properly a philosopher at all1 much as the statement would have astonished him4#ec ,his real interest is elsewhere2 and while he1 like the ,greeks of his day1 read and talked ,philosophy interminably1 as men in later ages have read and talked ,theology1 it was not with the philosophic spirit4 ,philosophy is not the mistress--rather1 he avows1 the servant of something else2 and that means that it is not ,philosophy4 ,his test of philosophic thought and doctrine was availability for the moral and religious life--a test which may or may not be sound1 as it is applied4 ,but ,plutarch was an avowed moralist1 didactic in every fibre2 and everything he wrote betrays the essential failure of the practical man and the moralist--impatience1 the short view4 ,from his experience of human life in its manifold relations of love and friendship1 he came to the conclusion that the ancient faith of our fathers suffices4 ,it is also plain that he was afraid of life without religion4 ,so far as a man of his training would--a man familiar with the history of philosophy1 but without patience or depth enough to be clear in his own mind1 he associated truth with his religion2 at all events it was sufficient1 for this he had found in his course through the world4 ,definite upon this one central point1 he approached philosophy1 but not with the true philosopher's purpose of examining his experience1 in accordance with the ,platonic #ij suggestion#ed2 rather1 with the more practical aim of profiting by every serviceable thought or maxim which he could find4 ,and he certainly profited4 ,if he started with preconceptions1 which he intended to keep1 he enlarged and purified them--in a sense1 we may say1 he adorned and enriched them4 ,for whereever he found a moving or suggestive idea1 a high thought1 he adopted it and found it a place in his mind1 though without inquiring too closely whether it had any right to be there4 ,in the end1 it is very questionable whether the sum of his ideas will hold together at all1 if we go beyond the quick test of a rather unexamined experience4 ,we have already seen how he protested against too curious examination4 ,there is no philosophy possible1 wrote ,john ,stuart ,mill1 where fear of consequences is a stronger principle than love of truth4 ,but to such criticisms a reply is sometimes suggested1 which is best made in the well-known words of ,pascal--the heart has its reasons which the reason does not know4#ee ,the experience which led ,plutarch to his conclusion was real and sound4 ,there is an evidential value in a good father1 in wife and children--even in a telearchy with its tiles and cement--which is apt to be under-estimated4 ,for with such elements in life are linked passions and emotions1 which are deeply bound up with human nature1 and rule us as instincts--blind reasons of the heart4 ,like all other things they require study and criticism if they are not to mislead1 and those who most follow them are sometimes the worst judges of their real significance4 ,on the other hand the danger of emotion1 instinct and intuition as guides to truth is emphasized enough1--it was emphasized by the ,stoics2 and a contribution is made to human progress1 when the value of these guides to truth is re-asserted1 even to the extent of obvious exaggeration1 by some one1 who1 like ,plutarch1 has had a life rich in various human experience4 ,it remains however1 in ,plutarch's case as in all such cases1 the fundamental question1 whether the supposed testimony of instinct and intuition is confirmed4 ,if it is not confirmed1 it may be taken to have been misunderstood4 ,keeping the whole life of this man in view1 and realizing its soundness1 its sweetness and its worth1 we must see what #ia he made of the spiritual environment of man's life in general--laying stress on what in his system1 or his attempt at a system1 is most significant1 and postponing criticism4 ,it should be said once for all that a general statement of ,plutarch's views cannot be quite faithful1 for he was a man of many and wandering thoughts1 and also something of an ,academic2 and whatever he affirmed was with qualifications1 which in a short summary must be understood rather than repeated4 ,sidenote3 ,the knowledge of ,god ,our knowledge of ,god and of things divine comes to us1 according to ,plutarch1 from various sources4 ,there is the consensus of mankind4 ,of all customs first and greatest is belief in gods4 ,lycurgus1 ,numa1 ,ion and ,deucalion1 alike sanctified men1 by prayers and oaths and divinations and oracles bringing them into touch with the divine in their hopes and fears4 ,you might find communities without walls1 without letters1 without kings1 without houses1 without money1 with no need of coinage1 without acquaintance with theatres and gymnasia2 but a community without holy rite1 without a god1 that uses not prayer nor oath1 nor divination1 nor sacrifice to win good or avert evil--no man ever saw nor will see4444 ,this is what holds all society together and is the foundation and buttress of all law4#ef ,this evidence from the consensus of mankind is brought to a higher point in the body of myth inherited from the past1 and in custom and law--and is so far confirmed by reason4 ,but we can go further and appeal to the highest and best minds of antiquity1 who in their own highest moments of inspiration confirmed the common view4 ,in the matter of belief in gods1 and in general1 our guides and teachers have been the poets and the lawgivers1 and1 thirdly1 the philosophers--all alike laying down that there are gods1 though differing among themselves as to the number of the gods and their order1 their nature and function4 ,those of the philosophers are free from pain and death2 toil they know not1 and are clean escaped the roaring surge of #ib ,acheron4#eg ,it is likely that the word of ancient poets and philosophers is true1 he says4#eh ,plutarch was a lover of poetry and of literature1 and he attributed to them a value as evidence to truth1 which is little intelligible to men who have not the same passion4#ei ,still the appeal to the poets in this connexion was very commonly made4 ,but men are not only dependent on the tradition of their fathers and the inspiration of poets and philosophers1 much as they should1 and do1 love and honour these4 ,the gods make themselves felt in many ways4 ,there was abundant evidence of this in many established cases of theolepsy1 enthusiasm 7entheos7 and possession4 ,again there were the oracles1 in which it was clear that gods communicated with men and revealed truths not otherwise to be gained--a clear demonstration of the spiritual4 ,men were in anguish and fear lest ,delphi should lose its glory of three thousand years1 but ,delphi has not failed2 for the language of the ,pythian priestess1 like the right line of the ,mathematicians--the shortest between two points1 makes neither declension nor winding1 has neither double meaning nor ambiguity1 but goes straight to the truth4 ,though hard to believe and much tested1 she has never up to now been convicted of error1--on the contrary she has filled the shrine with offerings and gifts from barbarians and ,greeks1 and adorned it with the beautiful buildings of the ,amphictyons4#fj ,the revival of ,delphi in ,plutarch's day1 in so short a time1 was not man's doing--but the ,god came here and inspired the oracle with his divinity4 ,and ,delphi was not the only oracle4 ,the ,stoics perhaps had pointed the way here with their teaching on divination1 but as it stands the argument 7such as it is7 is said to be ,plutarch's own4#fa ,lastly in this connexion1 the mysteries offered evidence1 but here he is reticent4 ,as to the mysteries1 in which we may receive the greatest manifestations and illuminations of the truth #ic concerning daemons--like ,herodotus1 ,i say1 ',be it unspoken4'#fb ,sidenote3 ,absolute being ,philosophy1 poetry1 tradition1 oracles and mysteries#fc bring ,plutarch to belief in gods4 ,there are not ,greek gods and barbarian1 southern or northern2 but just as sun1 moon1 sky1 earth and sea are common to all men and have many names1 so likewise it is one ,reason that makes all these things a cosmos2 it is one ,providence that cares for them1 with ancillary powers appointed to all things2 while in different people1 different honours and names are given to them as customs vary4 ,some use hallowed symbols that are faint1 others symbols more clear1 as they guide their thought to the divine4#fd ,this one ultimate ,reason is described by ,plutarch in terms borrowed from all the great teachers who had spoken to the ,greeks of ,god4 ,the ,demiurge1 the ,one and ,absolute1 the ,world-,soul and the rest all contribute features4#fe ,we1 he says1 have really no share in ,being1 but every mortal nature1 set between becoming and perishing1 offers but a show and a seeming of itself1 dim and insecure2 and he quotes the famous saying of ,heraclitus that it is impossible to descend into the same river twice1 and develops the idea of change in the individual4 ,no one remains1 nor is he one1 but we become many as matter now gathers and now slips away about one phantasm and a common form 7or impress74444 ,sense through ignorance of ,being is deceived into thinking that the appearance is4 ,what then indeed is ,being8 ,the eternal1 free from becoming1 free from perishing1 for which no time brings change4444 ,it is even impious to say ',was' or ',will be' of ,being2 for these are the varyings and passings and changings of that which by nature cannot abide in ,being4 ,but ,god is1 we must say1 and that not in time1 but in the aeon that knows no motion1 time or variation1 where is neither former #id nor latter1 future nor past1 older nor younger2 but ,god is one1 and with one ,now he has filled ,always1 and is alone therein the one that ,is4#ff ,the symbol ,e at ,delphi affords him a text here4 ,it is one of the kind ,apollo's riddles to stimulate thought4 ,plutarch read it as ,epsilon and translates it ,thou ,art1 and from this as from the very name of ,apollo he draws a lesson as to the nature of real ,being4 ,the name ,a-poll-o means of itself the ,not-,many1 and the symbol ,e is the soul's address to ,god--,god is1 and ,god is one4 ,not every one understands the nature of the divine2 men confuse ,god with his manifestations4 ,those who suppose ,apollo and the sun to be one and the same1 we should welcome and love for their pious speech1 because they attach the idea 7epinoia7 of ,god to that thing which they honour most of all they know and crave for1 but we should point them higher1 bid them go upward and see the truth of their dream1 the real ,being 7ten ousian74 ,they may still honour the image--the visible sun4 ,but that a god should do the work of the sun1 that there should be changes and progressions in a god1 that he should project fire from himself and extend himself into land1 sea1 winds and animals1 and into all the strange experiences of animals and plants 7as the ,stoics taught7--it is not holy even to hear such things mentioned4 ,no1 ,god is not like ,homer's child playing on the sand1 making and unmaking2 all this belongs to another god1 or rather daemon1 set over nature with its becomings and perishings4#fg ,to confuse gods and daemons is to make disorder of everything4 ,it is here that the real interest of ,plutarch's theology begins2 for1 as ,christian apologists were quick to point out1 all the philosophers were in the last resort monotheists4 ,but the ultimate ,one ,god is by common consent far from all direct contact with this or any other universe of becoming and perishing4 ,for it was questioned how many universes 7kosmoi7 there might be#fh--some conjecturing there would be one hundred and eighty-three--and if there were more than one1 the ,stoics asked what became of ,fate and ,destiny1 and would there not be many ,zeuses or ,zenes8 ,why should there be8 asked #ie ,plutarch2 why not in each universe a guide and ruler with mind and reason1 such as he who in our universe is called lord and father of all8 ,what hinders that they should all be subjects of the ,fate and ,destiny that ,zeus controls2 that he should appoint to each several one of them his own realm1 and the seeds and reasons of everything achieved in it2 that he should survey them1 and they be responsible to him8 ,that in the whole scheme of things there should be ten universes1 or fifty1 or a hundred1 all governed by one ,reason1 all subordinate to one rule1 is not impossible4 ,the ,ultimate ,god rules through deputies4#fi ,sidenote3 ,the deputies of the supreme ,these deputies are ,plutarch's chief concern in theology4 ,the ,stoics and he were at one about the ,supreme and ,ultimate ,god1 waiving the matter of personality1 which he asserted and which they left open4 ,but when the ,stoics turned the deputy gods into natural forces1 which we might call laws of nature1 or1 still worse1 into natural objects like wine and grain1#gj ,plutarch grew angry and denounced such teaching as atheism4 ,we must not as it were turn them into queen-bees who can never go out1 nor keep them shut up in the prison of matter1 or rather packed up1 as they 7the ,stoics7 do1 when they turn the gods into conditions of the atmosphere and mingled forces of water #if and fire1 and thus beget them with the universe and again burn them up with it2 they do not leave the gods at liberty and free to move1 as if they were charioteers or steersmen2 no6 like images they are nailed down1 even fused to their bases1 when they are thus shut up into the material1 yes1 and riveted to it1 by being made partakers with it in destruction and resolution and change4#ga ,this is one of many assertions of the existence of ancillary gods1 who are not metaphors1 nor natural laws1 but personal rulers of provinces1 which may very well be each a universe1 free and independent4 ,the true ,zeus has a far wider survey than the ,homeric ,zeus who looked away from ,troy to ,thrace and the ,danube1 nor does he contemplate a vacant infinite without1 nor yet 7as some say7 himself and nothing else4 ,to judge from the motions of the heavens1 the divine really enjoys variety1 and is glad to survey movement1 the actions of gods and men1 the periods of the stars4#gb ,sidenote3 ,daemons ,thus under the ,supreme is a hierarchy of heavenly powers or gods1 and again between them and men is another order of beings1 the daemons4#gc ,these1 unlike the gods1 are of mixed nature1 for while the gods are emanations or ,logoi of the ,supreme1 the daemons have something of the perishable4 ,plato and ,pythagoras and ,xenocrates and ,chrysippus1 following the ancient theologians1 say that daemons are stronger than men and far excel us in their natural endowment2 but the divine element in them is not unmixed nor undiluted1 but partakes of the soul's nature and the body's sense-perception1 and is susceptive of pleasure and pain1 while the passions which attend these mutations affect them1 some of them more and others less4 ,for there are among daemons1 as among men1 differences of virtue and wickedness4#gd ,it can be proved on the testimony of wise and ancient witnesses that there are natures1 as it were on the frontiers of gods and men1 that admit mortal passions and inevitable changes1 whom we may rightly1 after the custom of #ig our fathers1 consider to be daemons1 and so calling them1 worship them4#ge ,if the atmosphere were abolished between the earth and the moon 7for beyond air and moon it was generally supposed that the gods lived#gf71 the void would destroy the unity of the universe2 and in precisely the same way those who do not leave us the race of daemons1 destroy all intercourse and contact between gods and men1 by abolishing what ,plato called the interpretive and ancillary nature1 or else they compel us to make confusion and disorder of everything1 by bringing ,god in among mortal passions and mortal affairs1 fetching him down for our needs1 as they say the witches in ,thessaly do with the moon4#gg ,and he1 who involves ,god in human needs1 does not spare his majesty1 nor does he maintain the dignity and greatness of ,god's excellence4#gh ,the ,stoic teaching that men are parts of ,god makes ,god responsible for every human act of wickedness and sin--the common weakness of every pantheistic system4#gi ,thus the daemons serve two purposes in religious philosophy4 ,they safeguard the ,absolute and the higher gods from contact with matter1 and they relieve the ,author of ,good from responsibility for evil4 ,at the same time they supply the means of that relation to the divine which is essential for man's higher life--passing on the prayers and supplications of men thitherward1 and thence bringing oracles and gifts of blessing4#hj ,they say well1 who say that when ,plato discovered the element underlying qualities that are begotten--what nowadays they call matter and nature--he set philosophers free from many great difficulties2 but to me they seem to solve more difficulties and greater ones1 who set the race of daemons between gods and #ih men and discovered that in some such way it made a community of us and brought us together1 whether the theory belongs to the ,magians who follow ,zoroaster1 or is ,thracian and comes from ,orpheus1 or is ,egyptian1 or ,phrygian4#ha ,homer1 he adds1 still uses the terms gods and daemons alike2 it was ,hesiod who first clearly and distinctly set forth the four classes of beings endowed with reason1 gods1 daemons1 heroes and finally men4 ,the daemons1 then1 are the agents of ,providence1 of the ,one ,reason1 which orders the universe2 they are the ministers of the divine care for man4 ,and here perhaps their mediation is helped by the fact that the border lines between themselves and the gods above on the one hand1 and men below on the other1 are not fixed and final4 ,some daemons1 such as ,isis1 ,osiris1 ,herakles and ,dionysos1 have by their virtue risen to be gods1#hb while their own numbers have been recruited from the souls of good men4#hc ,souls which are delivered from becoming 7geneseos7 and thenceforth have rest from the body1 as being utterly set free1 are the daemons that care for men1 as ,hesiod says2#hd and1 just as old athletes enjoy watching and encouraging young ones1 so the daemons1 who through worth of soul are done with the conflicts of life1 do not despise what they have left behind1 but are kindly minded to such as strive for the same goal1--especially when they see them close upon their hope1 struggling and all but touching it4 ,as in the case of a shipwreck those on shore will run out into the waves to lend a hand to the sailors they can reach 7though if they are out on the sea1 to watch in silence is all that can be done71 so the daemons help us while the affairs of life break over us 7baptixomenous hypo ton pragmaton7 and we take one body after another as it were carriages4 ,above all they help us if we strive of our own virtue to be saved and reach the haven4#he ,but this is not all1 for in his letter written to console ,apollonios ,plutarch carries us further4 ,there was1 he says1 a #ii man who lost his only son--he was afraid1 by poison4 ,it perhaps adds confidence to the story that ,plutarch gives his name and home2 he was ,elysios of ,terina in ,southern ,italy4 ,the precision is characteristic4 ,elysios accordingly went to a psychomanteion1 a shrine where the souls of the dead might be consulted4#hf ,he duly sacrificed and went to sleep in the temple4 ,he saw in a dream his own father with a youth strikingly like the dead son1 and he was told that this was the son's daemon1#hg and that the death had been natural1 and right for the lad and for his parents4 ,elsewhere ,plutarch quotes the lines of ,menander-- ,by each man standeth1 from his natal hour1 ,a daemon1 his kind mystagogue through life--#hh but he prefers the view of ,empedocles that there are two such beings in attendance on each of us4#hi ,the classical instance of a guardian spirit was the daimonion of ,socrates1 on which both ,plutarch and ,apuleius wrote books4#ij ,plutarch discusses many theories that had been given of it1 but hardly convinces the reader that he really knew what ,socrates meant4 ,in a later generation it was held that if proper means were taken the guardian spirit would come visibly before a man's eyes4 ,so ,apuleius held1 and ,porphyry records that when an ,egyptian priest called on the daemon of ,plotinus to manifest himself in the temple of ,isis 7the only pure spot the ,egyptian #ajj could find in ,rome71 there came not a daemon but a god2 so great a being was ,plotinus4#ia ,plutarch discusses the question of such bodily appearances in connexion with the legend of ,numa and ,egeria4 ,he can believe that ,god would not disdain the society of a specially good and holy man1 but as for the idea that god or daemon would have anything to do with a human body--that would indeed require some persuasion4 ,yet the ,egyptians plausibly say that it is not impossible for the spirit of a god to have intercourse with a woman and beget some beginnings of life1 though ,plutarch finds a difficulty in such a union of unequals4#ib ,plutarch has comparatively little to say of visible appearances of tutelary or other daemons4 ,to what lengths of credulity men went in this direction will be shown in a later chapter4 ,yet a guardian who does not communicate in some way with the person he guards1 and a series of daemonic and divine powers content to be inert and silent1 would be futile2 and in fact there was1 ,plutarch held1 abundance of communication between men and the powers above them4 ,it was indeed one of the main factors of his religion that man's life is intimately related to the divine4 ,plutarch1 of course1 could know nothing of the language in use to-day1 but it is clear that he was familiar with some or all of the phaenomena1 which in our times have received a vocabulary of their own1 for the moment very impressive4 ,psychopathic1 auto-suggestion1 telepathy1 the subliminal self--the words may tell us something2 whether what they tell us is verifiable1 remains to be seen4 ,plutarch's account of the facts1 for the description of which this language has been invented1 seems even more fantastic to a modern reader1 but it must be remembered that he and his contemporaries were led to it at once by observation of psychical phaenomena1 still to be observed1 and by philosophic speculation on the transcendence of ,god4 ,as a body of theories1 the ancient system holds together as well as most systems in the abstract4 ,it was not in theory that it broke down4 ,plutarch as usual presents it with reservations4 #aja ,sidenote3 ,the mantic art ,the daemons are not slow to speak2 it is we who are slow to hear4 ,in truth we men recognize one another's thoughts1 as it were feeling after them in the dark by means of the voice4 ,but the thoughts of the daemons are luminous and shine for those who can see2 and they need no words or names1 such as men use among themselves as symbols to see images and pictures of what is thought1 while1 as for the things actually thought1 those they only know who have some peculiar and daemonic light4 ,the words of the daemons are borne through all things1 but they sound only for those who have the untroubled nature and the still soul--those1 in fact1 whom we call holy and happy 7daimonious74#ic ,most people think the daemon only comes to men when they are asleep1 but this is due to their want of harmony4 ,the divine communicates immediately 7di autou7 with few and but rarely2 to most men it gives signs1 from which rises the so-called ,mantic art#id--prophecy or soothsaying4 ,all souls have the mantic faculty--the capacity for receiving impressions from daemons--though not in an equal degree4 ,a daemon after all is1 from one point of view1 merely a disembodied soul1 and it may meet a soul incorporated in a body2 and thus1 soul meeting soul1 there are produced impressions of the future1#ie for a voice is not needed to convey thought4 ,but if a disembodied soul can foresee the future1 why should not a soul in a body also be able8 ,in point of fact1 the soul has this power1 but it is dulled by the body4 ,memory is a parallel gift4 ,some souls only shake off the influence of the body in dreams1 some at the approach of death4#if ,the mantic element is receptive of impressions and of anticipations by means of feelings1 and without reasoning process 7asyllogistos7 it touches the future when it can get clear of the present4 ,the state1 in which this occurs1 is called enthusiasm1 god-possession--and into this the body will sometimes fall of itself1 and sometimes it is cast into it by some vapour or exhalation sent up by the earth4 ,this vapour or whatever it is 7to mantikon theuma kai pneuma7 pervades the body1 and produces #ajb in the soul a disposition1 or combination 7krasin71 unfamiliar and strange1 hard to describe1 but from what is said it may be divined4 ,probably by heat and diffusion it opens pores or channels whereby impressions of the future may be received4#ig ,such a vapour was found to issue from the ground at ,delphi--the accidental discovery of a shepherd1 ,coretas by name1 who spoke words with ,god in them 7phonas enthousiodeis7 under its influence2 and it was not till his words proved true that attention was paid to the place and the vapour4 ,there is the same sort of relation between the soul and the mantic vapour as between the eye and light4 ,but does not this vapour theory do away with the other theory that divination is mediated to us by the gods through the daemons8 ,plutarch cites ,plato's objection to ,anaxagoras who was entangled in natural causes and lost sight of better causes and principles beyond them4 ,there are double causes for everything4 ,the ancients said that all things come from ,zeus2 those who came later1 natural philosophers 7physidoi71 on the contrary wandered away from the fair and divine principle1 and made everything depend on bodies1 impacts1 changes and combinations 7krasis72 and both miss something of the truth4 ,we do not make ,mantic either godless or void of reason1 when we give it the soul of man as its material1 and the enthusiastic spirit and exhalation as its tool or plectron4 ,for1 first1 the earth that produces these exhalations--and the sun1 who gives the earth the power of combination 7krasis7 and change1 is by the tradition of our fathers a god2 and then we leave daemons installed as lords and warders and guards of this combination 7kraseos71 now loosening and now tightening 7as if it were a harmony71 taking away excessive ecstasy and confusion1 and gently and painlessly blending the motive power for those who use it4 ,so we shall not seem guilty of anything unreasonable or impossible4#ih #ajc ,plutarch gives an interesting account of a potion1 which will produce the same sort of effect4 ,the ,egyptians compound it in a very mystical way of sixteen drugs1 nearly all of which are fragrant1 while the very number sixteen as the square of a square has remarkable properties or suggestions4 ,the mixture is called ,kyphi1 and when inhaled it calms the mind and reduces anxiety1 and that part of us which receives impressions 7phantastikon7 and is susceptive of dreams1 it rubs down and cleans as if it were a mirror4#ii ,the gods1 he says1 are our first and chiefest friends4#ajj ,not every one indeed so thinks--for see what ,jews and ,syrians think of the gods6#aja ,but ,plutarch insists that there is no joy in life apart from them4 ,epicureans may try to deliver us from the wrath of the gods1 but they do away with their kindness at the same moment2 and ,plutarch holds it better that there should even be some morbid element 7phathos7 of reverence and fear in our belief than that1 in our desire to avoid this1 we should leave ourselves neither hope1 nor kindness1 nor courage in prosperity1 nor any recourse to the divine when we are in trouble4#ajb ,superstition is a rheum that gathers in the eye of faith1 which we do well to remove1 but not at the cost of knocking the eye out or blinding it4#ajc ,in any case1 its inconvenience is outweighed ten thousand times by the glad and joyous hopefulness that counts all blessing as coming from the gods4 ,and he cites in proof of this that joy in temple-service1 to which reference has already been made4 ,those who abolish ,providence need no further punishment than to live without it4#ajd #ajd ,but the pleasures of faith are not only those of imagination or emotion4 ,for while the gods give us all blessings1 there is none better for man to receive or more awful for ,god to bestow than truth4 ,other things ,god gives to men1 mind and thought he shares with them1 for these are his attributes1 and ,i think that of ,god's own eternal life the happiness lies in his knowledge being equal to all that comes2 for without knowledge and thought1 immortality would be time and not life4#aje ,the very name of ,isis is etymologically connected with knowing 7eidenai72 and the goal of her sacred rites is knowledge of the first and sovereign and intelligible1 whom the goddess bids us seek and find in her4#ajf ,her philosophy is hidden for the most part in myths1 and in true tales 7logois7 that give dim visions and revelations of truth4#ajg ,her temple at ,sais bears the inscription3 ,i am all that has been and is and shall be1 and my veil no mortal yet has lifted4#ajh ,she is the goddess of ,ten ,thousand ,names4#aji ,plutarch connects with his belief in the gods the great hypothesis of immortality4 ,it is one argument that at one and the same time establishes the providence of ,god and the continuance of the human soul1 and you cannot do away with the one and leave the other4#aaj ,if we had nothing divine in us1 nothing like ,god1 if we faded like the leaves 7as ,homer said71 ,god would hardly give us so much thought1 nor would he1 like women with their gardens of ,adonis1 tend and culture souls of a day1 growing in the flesh which will admit no strong root of life4 ,the dialogue1 in which this is said1 is supposed to have taken place in ,delphi1 so ,plutarch turns to ,apollo4 ,do you think that1 if ,apollo knew that the souls of the dying perished at once1 blowing away like mist or smoke from their bodies1 he would ordain so many propitiations for the dead1 and ask such great gifts and honours for the departed--that he would cheat and humbug believers8 ,for my part1 ,i will never let go the continuance of the soul1 unless some ,herakles shall come and take away the ,pythia's tripod and abolish and destroy the oracle4 ,for as long as so many oracles of this kind are given even in our day1 it is not holy to condemn the soul to #aje death4#aaa ,and ,plutarch fortifies his conviction with stories of oracles1 and of men who had converse with daemons1 with apocalypses and revelations1 among which are two notable ,descents into ,hades1#aab and a curious account of daemons in the ,british ,isles4#aac ,the theory of daemons lent itself to the explanation of the origin of evil1 but speculation in this direction seems not to have appealed to ,plutarch4 ,he uses bad daemons to explain the less pleasant phases of paganism1 as we shall see1 but the question of evil he scarcely touches4 ,in his book on ,isis and ,osiris he discusses ,typhon as the evil element in nature1 and refers with interest to the views of the ,magian ,zoroaster who1 they say1 lived about five hundred years before the ,trojan ,war4 ,zoroaster held that there were two divine beings1 the better being a god1 ,horomazes 7,ormuzd71 the other a daemon ,areimanios 7,ahriman71 the one most like to light of all sensible things1 the other to darkness and ignorance1 and between them is ,mithras1 for which reason the ,persians call ,mithras the ,mediator4 ,but the hour of ,mithras was not yet come1 and in all his writings ,plutarch hardly alludes to him more than half a dozen times4#aad ,it should be noted that1 whatever his interest in ,eastern dualism with its ,western parallels1 ,plutarch does not abandon his belief in the ,one ,ultimate ,good ,god4 ,this then in bare outline is a scheme of ,plutarch's religion1 though1 as already noted1 the scheme is not of his own making1 but is put together from incidental utterances1 all liable to qualification4 ,it is not the religion of a philosopher2 and the qualifications1 which look like concessions to philosophic hesitation1 mean less than they suggest4 ,they are entrenchments thrown up against philosophy4 ,he is an educated ,greek who has read the philosophers1 but he is at heart an apologist--a defender of myth1 ritual1 mystery and polytheism4 ,he has #ajf compromised where ,plato challenged4 ,his front 7to carry out the military metaphor7 extends over a very long line--a line in places very weakly supported1 and the daemons form its centre4 ,it is the daemons who link men to the gods1 and through them to the ,supreme1 making the universe a unity2 who keep the gods immune from contact with matter and from the suggestion of evil2 and what is more1 they enable ,plutarch to defend the myths of ,greek and ,egyptian tradition from the attack of philosopher and unbeliever4 ,and this defence of myth was probably more to him than the unity of the universe4 ,every kind of myth was finding a home in the eventual ,greek religion1 many of them obscene1 bestial and cruel--revolting to the purity and the tenderness developing more and more in the better minds of ,greece4 ,they could not well be detached from the religion1 so they had to be defended4 ,there are1 for example1 many elements in the myth of ,isis and ,osiris that are disgusting4 ,plutarch recommends us first of all1 by means of the preconceptions supplied by ,greek philosophy upon the nature of ,god1 to rule out what is objectionable as unworthy of ,god1 but not to do this too harshly4 ,myth after all is a sort of rainbow to the sun of reason1#aae and should be received in a holy and philosophic spirit4#aaf ,we must not suppose that this or the other story happened so and was actually done4 ,many things told of ,isis and ,osiris1 if they were supposed to have truly befallen the blessed and incorruptible nature of the gods1 would be lawless and barbarous fancy which1 as ,a,eschylus says-- ,you must spit out and purify your mouth4#aag ,but1 all the same1 myth must be handled tenderly and not in too rationalistic a spirit--for that might be opening the doors to the atheist people4 ,euhemerus1 by recklessly turning all the gods into generals and admirals and kings of ancient days1 has covered the whole world with atheism1#aah and the ,stoics1 as we have seen1 are not much better1 who turn the gods into their own gifts4 ,no1 we may handle myth far too freely--ah6 yet #ajg consider it again6 ,there are so many possibilities of acceptance4 ,and in the rites of ,isis there is nothing unreasonable1 nothing fictitious1 nor anything introduced by superstition1 but some things have an ethical value1 others a historical or physical suggestion4#aai ,sidenote3 ,evil daemons ,in the second place1 if nothing can be done for the myth or the rite--if it is really an extreme case--,plutarch falls back upon the daemons4 ,there are differences among them as there are among men1 and the elements of passion and unreason are strong in some of them2 and traces of these are to be found in rites and initiations and myths here and there4 ,rituals in which there is the eating of raw flesh1 or the rending asunder of animals1 fasting or beating of the breast1 or again the narration of obscene legends1 are to be attributed to no god but to evil daemons4 ,how many such rituals survived1 ,plutarch does not say and perhaps he did not know2 but the ,christian apologists were less reticent1 and ,clement of ,alexandria and ,firmicus ,maternus and the rest have abundant evidence about them4 ,some of these rites1 ,plutarch says1 must have been practised to avert the attention of the daemons4 ,the human sacrifices that used to be performed1 could not have been welcome to the gods1 nor would kings and generals have been willing to sacrifice their own children unless they had been appeasing the anger of ugly1 ill-tempered1 and vengeful spirits1 who would bring pestilence and war upon a people till they obtained what they sought4 ,moreover as for all they say and sing in myth and hymn1 of rapes and wanderings of the gods1 of their hiding1 of their exile and of their servitude1 these are not the experiences of gods but of daemons4 ,it is not right to say that ,apollo fought a dragon for the ,delphic shrine4#abj ,but some such tales were to be found in the finest literature of the ,greeks1 and they were there told of the gods4#aba ,in reply to this1 one of ,plutarch's characters quotes the narrative of a hermit by the ,red ,sea4#abb ,this holy man conversed with men once a year1 and the rest of the time he consorted with #ajh wandering nymphs and daemons--the most beautiful man ,i ever saw1 and quite free from all disease4 ,he lived on a bitter fruit which he ate once a month4 ,this sage declared that the legends told of ,dionysus and the rites performed in his honour at ,delphi really pertained to a daemon4 ,if we call some daemons by the names that belong to gods1--no wonder1 said this stranger1 for a daemon is constantly called after the god1 to whom he is assigned1 and from whom he has his honour and his power--just as men are called ,athenaeus or ,dionysius--and many of them have no sort of title to the gods' names they bear4#abc ,sidenote3 ,superstition ,with ,philosophy so ready to be our mystagogue and to lead us into the true knowledge of divine goodness1 and with so helpful a theory to explain away all that is offensive in traditional religion1 faith ought to be as easy as it is happy and wholesome4 ,but there is another danger beside ,atheism--its exact opposite1 superstition2 and here--apart from philosophical questions--lay the practical difficulty of ,plutarch's religion4 ,he accepted almost every cult and mythology which the ancient world had handed down2 ,polytheism knows no false gods4 ,but to guide one's course aright1 between the true myth and the depraved1 to distinguish between the true and good god and the pseudonymous daemon1 was no easy task4 ,the strange mass of ,egyptian misunderstandings was a testimony to this--some in their ignorance thought the gods underwent the actual experience of the grain they gave men to sow1 just as untaught ,greeks identified the gods with their images2 and some ,egyptians worshipped the animals sacred to the gods2 and so religion was brought into contempt1 while the weak and harmless fell into unbounded superstition1 and the shrewder and bolder into beastly and atheistic reflections4#abd ,and yet on second thoughts ,plutarch has a kindly apology for animal-worship4#abe ,plutarch himself wrote a tract on superstition in which some have found a note of rhetoric or special pleading1 for he decidedly gives the atheist the superiority over the superstitious1 #aji a view which ,amyot1 his great translator1 called dangerous1 for it is certain that ,superstition comes nearer the mean of true ,religion than does ,atheism4#abf ,perhaps it did in the sixteenth century1 but in ,plutarch's day superstition was the real enemy to be crushed4 ,nearly every superstitious practice he cites appears in other writers4 ,superstition1 the worst of all terrors1 like all other terrors kills action4 ,it makes no truce with sleep1 the refuge from other fears and pains4 ,it invents all kinds of strange practices1 immersions in mud1 baptisms1#abg prostrations1 shameful postures1 outlandish worships4 ,he who fears the gods of his fathers and his race1 saviours1 friends and givers of good--whom will he not fear8 ,superstition adds to the dread of death the thought of eternal woes4 ,the atheist lays his misfortunes down to accident and looks for remedies4 ,the superstitious makes all into judgments1 the strokes of ,god1 and will have no remedies lest he should seem to fight against ,god 7theomachein74 ,leave me1 ,sir1 to my punishment6 he cries1 me the impious1 the accursed1 hated of ,gods and daemons--so he sits in rags and rolls in the mud1 confessing his sins and iniquities1 how he ate or drank or walked when the daemonion forbade4 ,wretched man6 he says to himself1 ,providence ordains thy suffering2 it is ,god's decree4 ,the atheist thinks there are no gods2 the superstitious wishes there were none4 ,it is they who have invented the sacrifices of children that prevailed at ,carthage#abh and other things of the kind4 ,if ,typhons and ,giants were to drive out the gods and become our rulers1 what worse could they ask8 ,a hint from the ,conjugal ,precepts may be added here1 as it suggests a difficulty in practice4 ,the wife ought not to have men friends of her own but to share her husband's2 and the gods are our first and best friends4 ,so those gods whom the the husband acknowledges1 the wife ought to worship and own1 and those alone1 and keep the great door shut on superfluous devotions and foreign superstitions4 ,no god really enjoys the #aaj stolen rites of a woman in secret4#abi ,this is a counsel of peace1 but if ugly1 ill-tempered and vengeful spirits seem to the mother to threaten her children1 who will decide what are superfluous devotions8 ,the religion of ,plutarch is a different thing from his morality4 ,for his ethics rest on an experience much more easy to analyse1 and like every elderly and genial person he has much that he can say of the kindly duties of life4 ,every reader will own the beauty and the high tone of much of his teaching1 though some will feel that its centre is the individual1 and that it is pleasant rather than compulsive and inevitable4 ,after all nearly every religion has1 somewhere or other1 what are called good ethics1 but the vital question is1 ,what else8 ,in the last resort is ecstasy1 independently of morality1 the main thing8 ,are words and acts holy as religious symbols which in a society are obviously vicious8 ,what propellent power lies behind the morals8 ,and where are truth and experience8 ,sidenote3 ,apology or truth8 ,what then is to be said of ,plutarch's religion8 ,here his experience was not so readily intelligible1 and every inherited and acquired instinct within him conspired to make him cling to tradition and authority as opposed to independent judgment4 ,his philosophy was not ,plato's1 in spite of much that he borrowed from ,plato1 for its motive was not the love of truth4 ,the stress he lays upon the pleasure of believing shows that his ultimate canon is emotion4 ,he does not really wish to find truth on its own account1 though he honestly would like its support4 ,he wishes to believe1 and believe he will--sit pro ratione voluntas4 ,there is something of the woman in ,plutarch1 says ,mr ,lecky4 ,like men of this temperament in every age1 he surrenders to emotion1 and emotion declines into sentimentalism4 ,he cannot firmly say that anything1 with which religious feeling has ever been associated1 has ceased to be useful and has become false4 ,he may talk bravely of shutting the great door against ,superstition1 but ,superstition has many entrances--indeed1 was indoors already4 ,we have only to look at his treatise on ,isis and ,osiris to see the effects of compromise in religion4 ,he will never take a firm stand2 there are always possibilities1 explanations1 parallels1 suggestions1 symbolisms1 by which he can escape from facing #aaa definitely the demand for a decisive reformation of religion4 ,as a result1 in spite of the radiant mist of amiability1 which he diffuses over these ,egyptian gods1 till the old myths seem capable of every conceivable interpretation1 and everything a symbol of everything else1 and all is beautiful and holy--the foolish and indecent old stories remain a definite and integral part of the religion1 the animals are still objects of worship and the image of ,osiris stands in its original naked obscenity4#acj ,and the ,egyptian is not the only religion1 for1 as ,tertullian points out1 the old rites are still practised every where6 with unabated horrors1 symbol or no symbol4#aca ,plutarch emphasizes the goodness and friendliness of the gods1 but he leaves the evil daemons in all their activity4 ,strange and awful sacrifices of the past he deprecates1 but he shows no reason why they should not continue4 ,god1 he says1 is hardly to be conceived by man's mind as in a dream2 and he thanks heaven for its peculiar grace that the oracles are reviving in his day2 he believes in necromancy1 theolepsy and nearly every other grotesque means of intercourse with gods and daemons4 ,he calls himself a ,platonist2 he is proud of the great literature of ,greece2 but nearly all that we associate in religious thought with such names as ,xenophanes1 ,euripides and ,plato1 he gently waves aside on the authority of ,apollo4 ,it raises the dignity of ,seneca when we set beside him this delightful man of letters1 so full of charm1 so warm with the love of all that is beautiful1 so closely knit to the tender emotions of ancestral piety--and so unspeakably inferior in essential truthfulness4 ,the ancient world rejected ,seneca1 as we have seen1 and chose ,plutarch4 ,if ,plutarch was not the founder of ,neo-,platonism1 he was one of its precursors and he showed the path4 ,down that path ancient religion swung with deepening emotion into that strange medley of thought and mystery1 piety1 magic and absurdity1 which is called the ,new ,platonism and has nothing to do with ,plato4 ,here and there some fine spirit emerged into clearer air1 and in some moment of ecstasy #aab achieved by a leap some fleeting glimpse of ,absolute ,being1 if there is such a thing4 ,but the mass of men remained below in a denser atmosphere1 prisoners of ignorance and of fancy--in an atmosphere not merely dark but tainted1 full of spiritual and intellectual death4 ,chapter ,,iii ,footnotes3 #a ,amatorius1 #ac1 #gef ,a1 ,d2 #geg ,b4 ,the quotation is from ,euripides1 ,bacchae1 #bjc4 #b ,non suaviter1 #ba1 #aaja ,e-#aajb ,a4 #c de ,iside1 #fh1 #cgh ,a4 #d de def4 orac4 #h1 #dad ,a4 #e ,mahaffy1 ,silver ,age of ,greek ,world1 p4 #de4 #f ,horace is the best known of ,athenian students4 ,the delightful letters of ,synesius show the hold ,athens still retained upon a very changed world in #djj ,a4,d4 #g ,life of ,antony1 #fh4 #h ,symp4 i1 #e1 #a4 #i ,symp4 iv1 #d1 #d4 #aj v4 ,ant4 #bh4 #aa ,symp4 iii1 #g1 #a4 #ab ,symp4 ii1 #h1 #a4 #ac ,symp4 viii1 #f1 #e1 hubristes on kai philogelos physei4 ,symp4 ix1 #ae1 #a4 #ad de fraterno amore1 #af1 #dhg ,e4 ,volkmann1 ,plutarch1 i1 #bd1 suggests he was the ,timon whose wife ,pliny defended on one occasion1 ,epp4 i1 #e1 #e4 #ae de frat4 am4 #g1 #dha ,d4 #af de ,e4 #a1 #che ,b4 #ag v4 ,them4 #cb1 end4 #ah ,zeller1 ,eclectics1 #ccd4 #ai de ,e4 #ag1 #cia ,e4 ,imagine the joys of a ,euclid1 says ,plutarch1 in non suaviter1 #aa1 #ajic ,e4 #bj ,symp4 ix1 #ae4 #ba ,symp4 viii1 #c1 ,i4 #bb ,pericles #ac4 #bc ,dio ,chr4 ,rhodiaca1 ,or4 #ca1 #aag4 #bd ,cf4 the ,nigrinus4 #be ,gellius1 ,n4,a4 ii1 #ba1 #a1 vos opici1 says ,gellius to his friends--,philistines4 #bf ,symp4 v1 #e1 #a4 #bg ,polit4 praec4 #bj1 #haf ,d4 #bh de curiositate1 #ae4 #bi ,demosthenes1 #b4 #cj ,see ,volkmann1 i1 #ce1 #cf2 ,rom4 ,qu4 #ajc2 ,lucullus1 #cg1 end4 #ca ,demosthenes1 #b4 #cb de sera1 #ae1 #eei ,a4 #cc de ,stoic4 rep4 #b1 #ajcc ,b1 ,c4 #cd ,pol4 ,praec4 #ae1 #haa ,c4 #ce ,symp4 ii1 #aj1 #a2 vi1 #h1 #a4 #cf ,reference to ,polemo's hand-book to them1 ,symp4 v1 #b1 #fge ,b4 #cg de ,e4 #chd ,f4 #ch ,demosthenes1 #b2 and #a4 #ci ,timoleon1 pref4 #dj ,alexander1 #a4 #da de tranqu4 animi1 i1 #dfd ,f1 ouk akroaseos heneka theromenes kalligraphian--a profession often made1 but in ,plutarch's case true enough as a rule4 #db ,see1 e4g41 variety of possible explanations of the ,e at ,delphi1 in tract upon it4 #dc ,stapfer1 ,shakespeare and ,classical ,antiquity 7tr471 p4 #bii4 ,it may be safely said he followed ,plutarch far more closely than he did even the old ,english chroniclers4 #dd ,cons4 ad ,ux4 #b-c1 #fjh ,c1 ,d4 #de ,cons4 ad ,ux4 #aa1 #fab ,a1 ,b4 ,cf4 non suaviter1 #bf1 #aajd ,c1 on the loss of a child or a parent4 #df de coh4 ira4 #aa1 #dei ,c2 cf4 ,progress in ,virtue1 #hj ,b1 #ha ,c1 on epieikeia and praotes as signs of moral progress4 #dg ,cf4 ,sen4 ,ep4 #dg2 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,paed4 iii1 #ib4 #dh ,a curious parallel to this in ,tert4 de ,patientia1 #ae1 where ,tertullian draws the portrait of ,patience--perhaps from life1 as ,dean ,robinson suggests--after ,perpetua the martyr4 #di ,gellius1 ,n4,a4 i1 #bf4 #ej ,solon1 #cb4 #ea ,artemidorus1 ,oneirocritica1 iv1 #gb4 ,on this author see chapter vii4 #eb ,see non suaviter1 #ag1 #ajih ,d1 on the unspeakably rich joy of such a life of friendly relations with gods and men4 #ec ,progress in ,virtue1 #d1 #gg ,c1 ,love of ,philosophy compared to a lover's passion1 to hunger and thirst4 #ed ,plato1 ,apology1 #ch ,a1 ho de anexetastos bios ou biotos anthropo4 #ee ,pensees1 ,art4 xxiv1 #e4 #ef ,adv4 ,coloten 7foe ,epicurean71 #ca1 #aabe ,d1 ,e4 ,for this argument from consensus1 see ,seneca1 ,ep4 #aag1 #f1 ,multum dare solemus praesumptioni omnium hominum et apud nos veritatis argumentum est aliquid omnibus videri3 tanquam deos esse inter alia hoc colligimus1 quod omnibus insita de dis opinio est1 nee ulla gens usquam est adeo extra leges moresque projecta ut non aliquos deos credat4 ,this consensus rests 7with the ,stoics7 on the common preconceptions of the mind1 which are natural4 ,for ridicule of the doctrine of consensus1 see ,lucian1 ,zeus ,tragaedus1 #db4 #eg ,amatorius1 #ah1 #gfc ,c4 ,cf4 view of ,celsus ap4 ,orig4 c4 ,cels4 vii1 #da4 #eh ,consol4 ad ,apoll4 #cd1 #abj ,b4 #ei ,quomodo ,poetas1 #a1 #ae ,e1 ,f1 poetry a preliminary study to philosophy1 prophilosopheteon tois poiemasin4 #fj de ,pyth4 orac4 #bi1 #djh ,f4 ,cf4 the pagan's speech in ,minucius ,felix1 #g1 #f1 pleni et mixti deo vates futura praecerpunt 444 etiam per guietem deos videmus4444 #fa ,so ,volkmann1 ,plutarch1 ii1 #bij n4 ,cf4 a passage of ,celsus1 ,orig4 c4 ,cels4 viii1 #de4 #fb de def4 or4 #ad1 #dag ,c1 emphaseis and diaphaseis4 #fc ,tertullian sums up the pagan line of argument and adds a telling criticism in his book adversus ,nationes1 ii1 #a3 adversus haec igitur nobis negotium est1 adversus institutiones maiorum1 auctoritates receptorum1 leges dominantium1 argumentationes prudentium1 adversus vetustatem consuetudinem necessitatem1 adversus exempla prodigia miracula1 quae omnia adulterinam istam divinitatem corroboraverint4444 ,maior in huiusmodi penes vos auctoritas litterarum quam rerum est4 #fd de ,iside1 #fg1 #cgg ,f-#cgh ,a #fe ,oakesmith1 ,religion of ,plutarch1 p4 #hh--;a book which ,i have found of great use4 #ff de ,e4 #ah-bj4 ,cf4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #hd4 ,the true ,to-day of ,god is eternity4 ,also ,tert4 ad ,natt4 ii1 #f1 on the axiom of no change in ,god4 #fg de ,e4 #ba4 #fh ,cf4 ,plato1 ,timaeus1 #ee ,d4 #fi ,plutarch1 de4 def4 orac4 #bi1 #dbe ,f-#dbf ,a4 ,celsus has the same view2 7,origen1 c4 ,cels4 v1 #be2 vii1 #fh73 the world's regions are severally allotted to epoptai under ,providence2 so that local usages may well be maintained in such form as pleases them2 to alter these would be impious1 while to worship the daemons is to honour ,god1 who is not jealous of them4 ,cf4 ,plutarch1 de fortuna ,romanorum1 #aa1 #cbd ,b1 ho ,romaion megas daimon 444 te polei synebesas kai synauxetheis1 kthe--the tract is a poor and rhetorical one1 and the phrase may be merely a synonym for luck4 ,see also ,celsus 7,orig4 c4 ,cels4 viii1 #eh7 on the ,egyptian attribution of the human body to thirty-six daemons or gods of aether1 so that by prayer to the right one disease in any part of the body may be cured2 ,celsus gives some of their names4 ,the ,christians assumed a somewhat similar scheme with a rather different development4 ,athenagoras1 an apologist of the second century1 gives the following account in his ,presbeia1 #bd-bg4 ,a system of angels under ,providence existed1 some good and some bad1 enjoying free-will as men also do2 the ruler of matter and of the forms in it lusted after virgins and succumbed to flesh1 and neglected the administration entrusted to him2 others fell with him2 they cannot regain heaven but meantime occupy the air2 their children by mortal women were giants and the souls of these are the daemons2 the ruler of matter directs all things against ,god2 with matter are connected the soul's worse impulses4 ,see also ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 vi1 #aeg1 on angelic governance of individual nations and cities2 and ,lactantius1 ,instit4 ii1 #h1 #ad1 whose account fairly resembles that of ,athenagoras4 ,tertullian1 however1 suggests 7,apol4 #aa7 that the ,creator had no need of ancillary gods to complete his work4 #gj ,for a summary of ,stoic teaching here1 see ,cicero1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #fj-gj4 #ga de def4 orac4 #bi1 #dbf ,b4 ,cf4 de ,iside1 #ff1 #cgg ,d1 ,e4 ,you might as well give the name of steersman to sails1 ropes or anchor4 #gb de def4 orac4 #cj1 #bdf ,d1 ,e4 #gc ,this triple government of the ,universe is worked out in de fato 7a tract whose authorship is questioned71 but from one passage and another of ,plutarch's undoubted works it can be established1 though every statement has a little fringe of uncertainties4 #gd de ,iside1 #be1 #cfj ,e4 #ge de def4 orac4 #ab1 #daf ,c4 #gf ,cf4 ,athenagoras1 ,presb4 #bd 7quoted in note #a on p4 #ie72 and ,apuleius1 de deo ,socr4 #f1 #acb1 cited on p4 #bcb4 #gg de def4 orac4 #ac1 #daf ,f4 #gh de def4 orac4 #i1 #dad ,f4 #gi ,see de comm4 not4 adv4 ,stoicos1 #cc1 and de ,stoicorum repugn4 #cc1 #cd--three very interesting chapters4 ,clement of ,alexandria has the same tone in criticizing this idea--ouk oid hopos anexethi tis epaion toutou theon egnokos apidon eis ton bion ton hymeteron en hosois phyrometha kakois4 ein gar an outos1 ho med eipein themis1 merikos hamartanon ho those1 kthe4 ,strom4 ii1 #gd4 #hj de ,iside1 #bf1 #cfa ,c4 ,cf4 ,plato1 ,sympos4 #bjb ,e1 #bjc ,a 7referred to above71 for the functions of to daimonion1 which is metaxu theou te kai thnetou 444 hermeneuon kai diamorthmeuon theois ta par anthropon kai anthropois ta para theon kthe 444 theos de anthropo ou mignutai 444 ou toi de daimones polloi kai pantodapoi eisin1 eis de touton esti kai ho ,eros4 #ha de def4 orac4 #aj1 #dad ,f-#dae ,a4 #hb de ,iside1 #bg1 #cfa ,e2 de def4 orac4 #aj1 #dae ,c2 cf4 ,tert4 ad ,natt4 ii1 #b4 #hc ,romulus1 #bh2 de def4 orac4 #aj1 #dae ,b4 #hd ,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #aba4 ,but1 asks ,tatian 7c4 #af71 why should they get drastikoteras dynameos after death8 ,see the reply given by ,plutarch1 de def4 orac4 #ci1 #dca ,e4 ,compare also views of ,apuleius 7de deo ,socr4 #ae7 cited on p4 #bcc4 #he de genio ,socratis1 #bd1 #eic ,d-,f4 ,he is thinking of the series of rebirths4 #hf ,on such places and on necromancy in general see ,tertullian1 de anima1 #eg1 who puts it down to illusion of the evil one--nec magnum illi exteriores oculos circumscribere cui interiorem mentis aciem excaecare perfacile est4 #hg ,cf4 p4 #ae on the genius and the fravashi4 #hh de tranqu4 animi1 #ae1 #dgd ,b4 #hi ,cf4 the story of the appearance to ,brutus of his evil genius--ho sos1 o broute1 daimon kakos1 ,brutus1 #cf4 ,basilides the ,gnostic 7the father of ,isidore7 is credited with describing ,man as a sort of ,wooden ,horse with a whole army of different spirits in him 7,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom1 ii1 #aac74 ,plutarch makes a similar jibe at the ,stoic account of arts1 virtues1 vices1 etc41 as corporeal or even animate and rational beings--making a man a ,paradise1 or a cattle-pen1 or a ,wooden ,horse1 de commun4 notit4 adv4 ,stoicos1 #de1 #ajhd ,b4 ,there was a tendency in contemporary psychology to attribute all feelings1 etc41 to daemonic influence2 cf4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 ii1 #aaj1 who suggests that all pathe are imprints 7as of a seal7 made on the soul by the spiritual powers against which we have to wrestle4 ,cf4 ,tert4 de ,anima1 #da1 the evil of soul in part due to evil spirit4 #ij ,clement says 7,strom4 vi1 #ec7 that ,isidore the ,gnostic in the first book of the expositions of ,parchor the ,prophet dealt with the daemon of ,socrates and quoted ,aristotle's authority for such tutelary spirits4 ,for the book of ,apuleius1 see ch4 vii4 #ia ,porphyry1 v4 ,plotini1 #aj4 ,cf4 ,origen1 c4 ,cels4 vii1 #ce1 for ,celsus' views on the visibility of daemons1 e4g4 in the cave of ,trophonius4 #ib ,life of ,numa1 #d--;a most interesting chapter1 when it is remembered what other works were being written contemporaneously4 #ic de genio ,socr4 #bj1 #ehh ,d1 #ehi ,d4 #id de gen4 ,socr4 #bd1 #eic ,d4 #ie de def4 orac4 #ch1 #dca ,c1 phantasias tou mellontos4 #if ,cf4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 vi1 #df1 on preaching of ,christ in ,hades1 where souls1 rid of the flesh1 see more clearly4 #ig de dif4 orac4 #dj1 #dcb ,c-,e1 thermoteti gar kai diachysei porous tinas anoigein phantastikous tou mellontos eikos estin4 ,for these poroi cf4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom1 vii1 #cf1 with ,j4 ,b4 ,mayor's note4 #ih de def4 orac4 #df-dh1 #dce ,a-#dcg ,a 7referring to ,phaedo1 #ig ,d74 ,the curious mixture of metaphors1 the double suggestion of krasis1 the parallel from music1 and the ambiguity of to enthousiastikon 7characteristic of the confusion of spiritual and material then prevalent7 make a curious sentence in ,english4 ,on the relation of daemons to oracles1 see also de facie in orbe lunae1 #cj1 #idd ,d2 also ,tertullian1 de ,anima1 #df1 who gives a lucid account of daemons as the explanation of oracles1 and ,apol4 #bb--;daemons inhabiting the atmosphere have early knowledge of the weather1 and by their incredible speed can pass miraculously quickly from one end of the earth to the other1 and so bring information--strange1 he adds 7c4 #be71 that ,cybele took a week to inform her priest of the death of ,marcus ,aurelius--o somniculosa diplomata6 7sleepy post74 #ii de ,iside1 #hj1 #chc ,e4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 i1 #ace1 says ,greek prophets of old were stirred up by daemons1 or disordered by waters1 fragrances or some quality of the air1 but the ,hebrews spoke by the power and mind of ,god4 #ajj ,praec4 ,conj4 #ai4 ,cf4 ,plato1 ,laws1 #ijf ,a1 symmachoi de hemin theoi te ama kai daimones1 hemeis d' au ktema theon kai daimonon4 #aja de repugn4 ,stoic4 #ch1 #ajea ,e4 #ajb non suaviter1 #bj1 #aaja ,b4 #ajc non suaviter #ba1 #aaja ,c4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,paed4 ii1 #a1 says it is peculiar to man to cleanse the eye of the soul4 #ajd non suaviter1 #bb1 #aajb ,f4 #aje de ,iside1 #a1 #cea ,d4 #ajf de ,iside1 #b1 #ceb ,a4 #ajg de ,iside1 #i1 #ced ,c1 emphaseis kai diaphaseis4 #ajh de ,iside1 #i1 #ced ,c4 #aji de ,iside1 #ec1 #cgb ,e1 ,myrionumos4 #aaj de ser4 num4 vind4 #ah1 #efj ,f4 #aaa de ser4 num4 vind4 #ag1 #efj ,b-,d4 ,justin1 ,apology1 #a1 #ah1 appeals to the belief in the continuance of the soul1 which pagans derive from necromancy1 dreams1 oracles and persons daemoniolept4 #aab ,in de sera numinum vindicta and de genio ,socratis4 ,cf4 also the account of the souls of the dead given in de facie in orbe lunae1 c4 #bh ff4 #aac de def4 orac4 #ah1 #dai ,e4 ,another curious tale of these remote islands is in ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 vi1 #cc4 #aad ,cumont1 ,mysteries of ,mithra 7tr471 p4 #ce4 ,mithraism began to spread under the ,flavians1 but 7p4 #cc7 remained for ever excluded from the ,hellenic world4 #aae de ,iside1 #bj1 #ceh ,f4 #aaf de ,iside1 #aa1 #cee ,c4 #aag de ,iside1 #bj1 #ceh ,e4 ,cf4 the language of ,clement in dealing with expressions in the ,bible that seem to imply an anthropomorphic conception of ,god4 ,see p4 #bia4 #aah de ,iside1 #bc1 #cfj ,a4 #aai de ,iside1 #h1 #cec ,e4 #abj de def4 orac4 #ad1 #ae1 #dag ,b-,f4 ,cf4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #db1 apanthropoi kai misanthropoi daimones enjoying anthropoktonias4 #aba ,so ,tertullian urges1 ad ,natt4 ii1 #g4 #abb ,this man1 or somebody very like him1 appears as a ,christian hermit in ,sulpicius ,severus1 ,dial4 i1 #ag2 only there he is reported to consort with angels4 #abc de def4 orac4 #ba1 #dba ,a-,e4 ,cf4 ,tert4 de ,spect4 #aj4 ,the names of the dead and their images are nothing1 but we know qui sub istis nominibus institute simulacris operentur et gaudeant et divinitatem mentiantur1 nequam spiritus scilicet1 daemones4 ,he holds the gods to have been men1 long deceased1 but agrees in believing in daemonic operations in shrines1 etc4 #abd de ,iside1 #gj1 #ga1 #cgi ,b-,e4 #abe de ,iside1 #gf1 #chb ,a4 #abf ,see discussion in ,oakesmith1 ,religion of ,plutarch1 p4 #ahe4 ,greard1 de la ,morale de ,plutarque1 p4 #bfi1 ranks it with the best works that have come down to us from ,antiquity4 #abg ,tertullian on pagan baptisms--,isis and ,mithras1 de ,baptismo1 #e2 de ,praescr4 ,haer4 #dj4 #abh ,cf4 ,tert4 ,apol4 #i1 on these sacrifices1 in ,africa1 and elsewhere1 and see p4 #bf4 #abi ,conjug4 ,praec4 #ai4 #acj ,cf4 de ,iside1 #ee1 #cgc ,c2 #ah1 #ceh ,b2 the image of ,osiris1 #cf1 #cfe ,b4 ,origen 7c4 ,cels4 v1 #ci7 remarks that ,celsus is quite pleased with those who worship crocodiles in the ancestral way4 #aca ,if the legend is mere fable1 he asks1 cur rapitur sacerdos ,cereris1 si non tale ,ceres passet est8 cur ,saturno alieni liberi immolantur 444 cur ,idaeae masculus amputatur8 ad ,natt4 ii1 #h4 #aac ,,chapter ,,iv ,,jesus ,,of ,,nazareth ,when we hear any other speaker1 even a very good one1 he produces absolutely no effect upon us1 or not much1 whereas the mere fragments of you and your words1 even at second-hand1 and however imperfectly repeated1 amaze and possess the souls of every man1 woman and child who comes within hearing of them4--,plato1 ,symposium1 #bae ,d 7,jowett74 ,dominus noster ,christus veritatem se non consuetudinem cognominavit4--,tertullian1 de virg4 vel4 #a4 ,towards the end of the first century of our era1 there began to appear a number of little books1 written in the ordinary ,greek of every-day life1 the language which the common people used in conversation and correspondence4 ,it was not the literary dialect1 which men of letters affected--a mannered and elaborate style modelled on the literature of ancient ,greece and no longer a living speech4 ,the books were not intended for a lettered public1 but for plain people who wanted a plain story1 which they knew already1 set down in a handy and readable form4 ,the writers did their work very faithfully--some of them showing a surprising loyalty to the story which they had received4 ,like other writers they were limited by considerations of space and so forth1 and this involved a certain freedom of choice in selecting1 omitting1 abridging and piecing together the material they gathered4 ,four only of the books survive intact2 of others there are scanty fragments2 and scholars have divined at least one independent work embodied in two that remain4 ,so far as books can1 three of them represent very fairly the ideas of an earlier generation1 as it was intended they should1 and tell their common story1 with the variations natural to individual writers1 but with a general harmony that is the pledge of its truth4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,gospels ,at an early date1 these books began to be called ,gospels#a and by the time they had circulated for a generation they were #aad very widely known and read among the community for which they were written4 ,apart from a strong instinct which would allow no conscious change to be made in the lineaments of the central figure of the story1 there was nothing to safeguard the little books from the fate of all popular works of their day4 ,celsus1 at the end of the second century1 maintained that a good deal of the story was originally invention2 and he added that the believers had made as free as drunk men with it and had written the gospel over again--three times1 four times1 many times--and had altered it to meet the needs of controversy4#b ,origen replied that ,marcion's followers and two other schools had done so1 but he knew of no others4 ,it may to-day be taken as established that the four gospels1 as we know them1 stand substantially as near the autograph of their authors as most ancient books which were at all widely read1 though here and there it is probable1 or even certain1 that changes on a slight scale have been made in the wording to accommodate the text to the development of ,christian ideas4#c ,this is at first sight a serious qualification1 but it is not so important as it seems4 ,by comparison of the first three gospels with one another1 with the aid of the history of their transmission in the original ,greek and in many versions and quotations1 it is not very difficult to see where the hand of a later day has touched the page and to break through to something in all probability very near the original story4 ,this is the greatest problem of literary and historical criticism to-day4 ,all sorts of objections have been raised against the credibility of the gospels from the time of ,celsus--they were raised even earlier2 for ,celsus quotes them from previous controversialists--and they are raised still4 ,we are sometimes told that we cannot be absolutely certain of the authenticity of any single saying of ,jesus1 or perhaps of any recorded episode in his life4 ,a hypertrophied conscience might admit this to be true in the case of any word or deed of ,jesus that might be quoted1 and yet maintain that we have not lost much4 ,for1 it is a commonplace of historians that an anecdote1 even if false in itself1 may contain historical truth2 it #aae may be evidence1 that is1 to the character of the person of whom it is told2 for a false anecdote depends1 even more than a true story1 upon keeping the colour of its subject4 ,it may be added that1 as a rule1 false anecdotes are apt to be more highly coloured than true stories1 just as a piece of colour printing is generally a good deal brighter than nature4 ,the reader1 who1 by familiarity with books1 and with the ways of their writers1 has developed any degree of literary instinct1 will not be inclined to pronounce the colours in the first three gospels at least to be anything but natural and true4 ,however1 even if one were to concede that all the recorded sayings and doings of ,jesus are fabrications 7a wildly absurd hypothesis71 there remains a common element in them1 a unity of tone and character1 which points to a well-known and clearly marked personality behind them1 whose actual existence is further implied by the ,christian movement4 ,in other words1 whether true or false in detail1 the statements of the gospels1 if we know how to use them aright1 establish for us the historicity of ,jesus1 and leave no sort of doubt as to his personality and the impression he made upon those who came into contact with him4 ,we may not perhaps be able to reconstruct the life of ,jesus as we should wish--it will not be a biography1 and it will have no dates and hardly any procession of events4 ,we shall be able to date his birth and death1 roughly in the reigns of ,augustus and ,tiberius1 more exactly fixing in each case a period of five years or so within which it must have happened4 ,of epochs and crises in his life we can say little1 for we do not know enough of ,john the ,baptist and his work to be able to make clear his relations with ,jesus1 nor can we speak with much certainty of the development of the idea of ,messiahship in the mind of ,jesus himself4 ,but we can with care recapture something of the experience of ,jesus2 we can roughly outline his outward life and environment4 ,what is of more consequence1 we can realize that1 whatever the particular facts of his own career which opened the door for him1 he entered into the general experience of men and knew human life deeply and intimately4 ,and1 after all1 in this case as in others1 it is not the facts of the life that matter1 but the central fact that this man did know life as it is before he made judgment upon #aaf it4 ,it is this alone that makes his judgment--or any other man's--of consequence to us4 ,it is not his individual life1 full of endless significance as that is1 but his realization thereby of man's life and his attitude toward it that is the real gift of the great man--his thought1 his character1 himself in fact4 ,and here our difficulty vanishes1 for no one1 who has cared to study the gospels with any degree of intelligent sympathy1 has failed to realize the personality there revealed and to come in some way or other under its influence4 ,so far in dealing with the religious life of the ancient world1 we have had to do with ideas and traditions--with a well thought-out scheme of philosophy and with an ancient and impressive series of mysteries and cults4 ,the new force that now came into play is something quite different4 ,the centre in the new religion is not an idea1 nor a ritual act1 but a personality4 ,as its opponents were quick to point out1--and they still find a curious pleasure in rediscovering it--there was little new in ,christian teaching4 ,men had been monotheists before1 they had worshipped1 they had loved their neighbours1 they had displayed the virtues of ,christians--what was there peculiar in ,christianity8 ,plato1 says ,celsus1 had taught long ago everything of the least value in the ,christian scheme of things4 ,the ,talmud1 according to the modern ,jew1 contains a parallel to everything that ,jesus said--7and how much else6 adds ,wellhausen74 ,what was new in the new religion1 in this third race of men8 ,the ,christians had their answer ready4 ,in clear speech1 and in aphasia1 they indicated their founder4 ,he was new4 ,if we are to understand the movement1 we must in some degree realize him--in himself and in his influence upon men4 ,in every endeavour made by any man to reconstruct another's personality1 there will always be a subjective and imaginative element4 ,biography is always a work of the imagination4 ,the method has its dangers1 but without imagination the thing is not to be done at all4 ,a great man impresses men in a myriad of different ways--he is as various and as bewilderingly suggestive as ,nature herself--and no two men will record quite the same experience of him4 ,where the imagination has to penetrate an extraordinary variety of impressions1 to seize1 not a series of forces each severally making #aag its own impression1 but a single personality of many elements and yet a unity1 men may well differ in the pictures they make4 ,even the same man will at different times be differently impressed and not always be uniformly able to grasp and order his impressions4 ,hence it is that biographies and portraits are so full of surprises and disappointments1 while even the writer or the painter will not always accept his own interpretation--he outgrows it and detests it4 ,and if it is possible to spend a life in the realization of the simplest human nature1 what is to be said of an attempt to make a final picture of ,jesus of ,nazareth8 ,still the effort must be made to apprehend what he was to those with whom he lived1 for from that comes the whole ,christian movement4 ,sidenote3 ,celsus on coarseness of ,jesus ,celsus denounced ,jesus in language that amazes us2 but when he was confronted with the teaching of ,jesus1 the moral worth of which a mind so candid could not deny1 he admitted its value1 but he attributed it to the fact that ,jesus plagiarized largely from ,greek philosophy and above all from ,plato4 ,he did not grasp1 ,celsus adds1 how good what he stole really was1 and he spoiled it by his vulgarity of phrase4 ,in particular1 ,celsus denounced the saying ,whosoever shall smite thee on the right cheek1 turn to him the other also4 ,the idea came from the ,crito1 where ,socrates compels ,crito to own that we must do evil to no one--not even by way of requital4 ,the passage is a fine one1 and ,celsus quoted it in triumph and asked if there were not something coarse and clownish in the style of ,jesus4#d ,celsus forgot for the moment that the same sort of criticism had been made upon ,socrates4 ',you had better be done1' said ,critias1 'with those shoemakers of yours1 and the carpenters and coppersmiths4 ,they must be pretty well down at the heel by now--considering the way you have talked them round4' ',yes1' said ,charicles1 'and the cowherds too4'#e ,but six centuries had made another man of ,socrates4 ,his ideas1 interpreted by ,plato and others1 had altered the whole thinking of the ,greek world2 his ,silenus-face had grown beautiful by #aah association2 the physiognomy of his mind and speech was no longer so striking2 he was a familiar figure1 and his words and phrases were current coin1 accepted without question4 ,but to ,celsus ,jesus was no such figure2 he had not the traditions and preconceptions which have in turn obscured for us the features of ,jesus2 there was nothing in ,jesus either hallowed or familiar1 and one glance revealed a physiognomy4 ,that he did not like it is of less importance4 ,sidenote3 ,the words of ,jesus ,taking the saying in question1 we find1 as ,celsus did1 absurdity upon the face of it1 and1 as he also did1 something else at the heart of it--a contrast between surface and inner value broad as the gulf between the common sense which men gather from experience and the morality which ,jesus read beneath human nature4 ,among the words of ,jesus there are many such sayings1 and it is clear that he himself saw and designed the contrasts which we feel as we read them4 ,this sense of contrast is one of the ground-factors of humour generally1 perhaps the one indispensable factor2 it is always present in the highest humour4 ,if we then take the words of ,jesus1 as they struck those who first heard them--or as they struck ,celsus--we cannot help remarking at once a strong individual character in them1 one element in which is humour1--always one of the most personal and individual of all marks of physiognomy4 ,humour1 in its highest form1 is the sign of a mind at peace with itself1 for which the contrasts and contradictions of life have ceased to jar1 though they have not ceased to be1--which accepts them as necessary and not without meaning1 indeed as adding charm to life1 when they are viewed from above4 ,it is the faculty which lets a man see what ,plato called the whole tragedy and comedy of life#f--the one in the other4 ,is it not humour that saw the ,pharisee earnestly rinsing1 rubbing and polishing the outside of his cup1 forgetful of the fact that he drank from the inside8 that saw the simple-minded taking their baskets to gather the grape-harvest from bramble-bushes8 ,that pleaded with a nation1 already gaining a name for being sordid1 not to cast pearls before swine1 and to forsake caring for the morrow1 because such care was the mark of the ,gentile world--the distinguishing sign between ,gentile and ,jew8 #aai ,that told the men he knew so well--men bred in a rough world--to turn the other cheek1--to yield the cloak to him who took the coat1 not in irony1 but with the brotherly feeling that his necessity is greater than mine--to go when commandeered not the required mile1 making an enemy by sourness of face1 but to go two--two additional1 the ,syriac version says--and so soften the man and make him a friend8#g ,what stamps the language of ,jesus invariably is its delicate ease1 implying a sensibility to every real aspect of the matter in hand--a sense of mastery and peace4 ,men marvelled at the charm of his words--,luke using the ,greek charis to express it4#h ,the homely parable may be in other hands coarse enough1 but the parables of ,jesus have a quality about them after all these years that leaves one certain he smiled as he spoke them4 ,there is something of the same kind to be felt in ,cowper's letters1 but in the stronger nature the gift is of more significance4 ,at the cost of a little study of human character1 and close reading of the ,synoptists1 and some careful imagination1 it is possible to see him as he spoke1--the flash of the eye1 the smile on the lip1 the gesture of the hand1 all the natural expression of himself and his thought that a man unconsciously gives in speaking1 when he has forgotten himself in his matter and his hearer--his physiognomy1 in fact4 ,we realize very soon his complete mastery of the various aspects of what he says4 ,that he realizes every implication of his words is less likely1 for there is a spontaneity about them--they are out of the abundance of his heart2 the form is not studied2 they are for the man and the moment4 ,but they imply the speaker and his whole relation to ,god and man--they cannot help implying this1 and that is their charm4 ,living words1 flashed out on the spur of the moment from the depths of him1 they are the man4 ,it was not idly that the early church used to say ,remember the words of the ,lord ,jesus4 ,on any showing1 it is of importance to learn the mind of one whose speech is so full of life1 and it is happily possible to do this from even the small collections we possess of his recorded sayings4 #abj ,quite apart from the human interest which always clings about the childhood of a significant man1 the early years of ,jesus have a value of their own1 for it was to them that he always returned when he wished to speak his deepest thought on the relations of ,god and man4 ,in the life and love of the home he found the truest picture of the divine life4 ,this we shall have to consider more fully at a later point4 ,very little is said by the evangelists of the childhood and youth at ,nazareth1 but in the parables we have ,jesus' own reminiscences1 and the scenes and settings of the stories he tells fit in easily and pleasantly with the framework of the historical and geographical facts of his life at ,nazareth4 ,the town lies in a basin among hills1 from the rim of which can be seen the historic plain of ,esdraelon toward the ,south1 ,eastward the ,jordan valley and the hills of ,gilead1 and to the ,west the sea4 ,it is a map of ,old ,testament history4#i ,on great roads ,north and ,south of the town's girdle of hills passed to and fro1 on the journey between ,egypt and ,mesopotamia1 the many-coloured traffic of the ,east--moving no faster than the camel cared to go1 swinging disdainfully on1 with contempt on its curled lip for mankind1 its work and itself4 ,traders1 pilgrims and princes--the kingdoms of the world and the glory of them--all within reach and in no great hurry1 a panorama of life for a thoughtful and imaginative boy4 ,the history of his nation lay on the face of the land at his feet1 and it was in the ,north that the ,zealots throve4 ,was it by accident that ,joseph the carpenter gave all his five sons names that stood for something in ,hebrew history8 ,jesus himself says very little1 if anything1 of the past of his people1 and he does not1 like some of the ,psalmists1 turn to the story of ,israel for the proof of his thoughts upon ,god4 ,but it may be more than a coincidence that his countrymen were impressed with his knowledge of the national literature2 and traces of other than canonical books have been found in his teaching4 ,it implies a home of piety1 where ,god was in all their thoughts4 ,sidenote3 ,his early life ,the early disappearance of the elder ,joseph has been explained by his death1 which seems probable4 ,the widow was #aba left with five sons and some daughters4#aj ,the eldest son was1 according to the story1 more than twelve years old1 and he had probably to share the household burden4 ,the days were over when he played with the children in the market at weddings and at funerals1 and while he never forgot the games and kept something of the child's mind throughout1 he had to learn what it was to be weary and heavy-laden4 ,his parables include pictures of home-life--one of a little house1 where the master in bed can argue with an importunate friend outside the door1 who has come on a very homely errand4#aa ,in a group of stories1 parables of the mother1 we see the woman sweeping the house till she finds a lost drachma1 the recovery of which is joyful enough to be told to neighbours4 ,we see her hiding leaven in three measures of meal1 while the eldest son sat by and watched it work4 ,he never forgot the sight of the heaving1 panting mass1 the bubbles swelling and bursting1 and all the commotion the proof of something alive and at work below2 and he made it into a parable of the ,kingdom of ,god--associated in the minds of the weary with broken bubbles1 and in the mind of ,jesus with the profoundest and most living of realities4 ,it was perhaps ,mary1 too1 who explained to him why an old garment will not tolerate a new patch4 ,whatever is the historical value of the fourth ,gospel1 it lays stress on the close relation between ,jesus and his mother4 ,one of the ,aramaic words1 which the church cherished from the first as the ipsissima verba of ,jesus1 was ,abba4 ,it was what ,mary had taught him as a baby to call ,joseph4 ,the fact that in manhood he gave to ,god the name that in his childhood he had given to ,joseph1 surely throws some light upon the homelife4 ,to this word we shall return4 ,jesus had always a peculiar tenderness for children4 ,suffer little children to come unto me1 is one of his most familiar sayings1 though in quoting it we are apt to forget that come is in ,greek a verb carrying volition with it1 and that ,mark uses another noticeable word1 and tells us that ,jesus put his arms round the child4#ab ,little children1 we may be sure1 came to him of their own accord and were at ease with him2 #abb and it has been suggested that the saying goes back to the ,nazareth days1 and that the little children came about their brother in the workshop there4 ,mr ,burkitt has recently remarked#ac that we may read far and wide in ,christian ,literature before we find any such feeling for children as we know so well in the words of ,jesus2 and in ,classical ,literature we may look as far4 ,to ,jesus the child is not unimportant--to injure a child was an unspeakable thing4 ,indeed1 if the ,kingdom of ,god meant anything1 it was that we must be children again--,god's little children1 to whom their ,father is the background of everything4 ,the ,christian phrase about being born again may be ,jesus' own1 but if so1 it has lost for us something of what he intended by it1 which survives in more authentic sayings4 ,we have to recover1 he said1 what we lost when we outgrew the child2 we must have the simplicity and frankness of children--their instinctive way of believing all things and hoping all things4 ,all things are new to the child2 it is only for grown-up people that ,god has to make all things new4 ,paul has not much to say about children1 but he has this thought--if any man be in ,christ1 it is a new creation1 all things are made new4 ,probably the child's habit of taking nothing for granted--except the love that is all about it--is what ,jesus missed most in grown men4 ,every idealist and every poet is a child from beginning to end--and something of this sort is the mark of the school of ,jesus4 ,sidenote3 ,jesus and nature ,the outdoor life of ,jesus lies recorded in his parables4 ,weinel has said that ,paul was a man of a city--,paul said so himself4 ,but ,jesus is at home in the open air4 ,the sights and sounds of the farm are in his words--the lost sheep1 the fallen ox1 the worried flock1 the hen clucking to her chickens4 ,this last gave a picture in which his thought instinctively clothed itself in one of his hours of deepest emotion4 ,it is perhaps a mark of his race and land that to feed swine is with him a symbol of a lost life1 and that the dog is an unclean animal--as it very generally is elsewhere4 ,he speaks of ploughing1 clearly knowing how it should be done2 and like other teachers1 he uses the analogies of sowing and harvest4 ,the grain growing secretly1 and the harvest1 over-ripe and spilling its wheat1 were to him pictures of human life4 #abc ,wild nature1 too1 he knew and loved4 ,the wild lily1 which the women used to burn in their ovens never thinking of its beauty1 was to him something finer than ,king ,solomon1 and he probably had seen ,herodian princes on the ,galilean roads4 7,it is a curious thing that he has more than one allusion to royal draperies47 ,he bade men study the flowers 7katamanthanein74 ,it is perhaps worth remark that flower-poetry came into ,greek literature from regions familiar to us in the life of ,jesus2 ,meleager was a ,gadarene4 ,the ,psalmist long ago had said of the birds that they had their meat from ,god2 but ,jesus brought them into the human family--,your ,heavenly ,father feedeth them4 ,even his knowledge of weather signs is recorded4 ,not all flowers keep in literature the scent and colour of life2 they are a little apt to become natural objects4 ,but if they are to retain their charm in print1 something is wanted that is not very common--the open heart and the open eye1 to which birds and flowers are willing to tell their secret4 ,there are other things which point to the fact that ,jesus had this endowment1--and not least his being able to find in the flower a link so strong and so beautiful between ,god and man4 ,here as elsewhere he was in touch with his environment1 for he loved ,nature as ,nature1 and was true to it4 ,his parables are not like ,a,esop's ,fables4 ,his lost sheep has no arguments2 his lily is not a ,solomon1 though it is better dressed2 and his sparrows are neither moralists nor theologians--but sparrows1 which might be sold at two for a farthing1 and in the meantime are chirping and nesting4 ,and all this life of ,nature spoke to him of the character of ,god1 of ,god's delight in beauty and ,god's love4 ,god is for him the ever-present thought in it all--real too1 to others1 whenever he speaks of him4 ,an amiable feeling for ,nature is often to be found in sentimental characters4 ,but sentimentalism is essentially self-deception2 and the ,gospels make it clear that of all human sins and weaknesses none seems to have stirred the anger of ,jesus as did self-deception4 ,when the ,pharisees in the synagogue watched to see whether ,jesus would heal on the ,sabbath1 he looked round about upon them all with anger1 says ,mark4 ,this gaze of ,jesus is often mentioned in the ,gospels--almost unconsciously--but ,luke and ,matthew drop the last two words in quoting this passage1 and do so at the cost #abd of a most characteristic touch4 ,matthew elsewhere1 in accordance with his habit of grouping his matter by subject1 gathers together a collection of the utterances of ,jesus upon the ,pharisees1 with the recurring refrain ,scribes and ,pharisees1 actors4 ,the ,mediterranean world was full of ,greek actors2 we hear of them even among the ,parthians in #ec ,b4,c41 and in ,mesopotamia for centuries2 and as there had long been ,greek cities in ,palestine1 and a strong movement for generations toward ,greek ways of life1 the actor cannot have been an unfamiliar figure4 ,to call the ,pharisees actors was a new and strong thing to say1 but ,jesus said such things4 ,of the grosser classes of sinners he was tolerant to a point that amazed his contemporaries and gave great occasion of criticism to such enemies as ,celsus and ,julian4 ,he had apparently no anger for the woman taken in adultery2 and he was the friend of publicans and sinners--even eating with them4 ,sidenote3 ,his sense of the real ,the explanation lies partly in ,jesus' instinct for reality and truth4 ,sensualist and money-lover were at least occupied with a sort of reality2 pleasure and money in their way are real1 and the pursuit of them brings a man1 sooner or later1 into contact with realities genuine enough4 ,whatever illusions publican and harlot might have1 the world saw to it that they did not keep them long4 ,the danger for such people was that they might be disillusioned overmuch4 ,but the ,pharisee lied with himself4 ,if at times he traded on his righteousness to over-reach others1 his chief victim was himself1 as ,jesus saw1 and as ,paul found4 ,paul1 brought up in their school to practise righteousness1 gave the whole thing up as a pretence and a lie--he would no longer have anything to do with his own righteousness4 ,but he was an exception2 ,pharisees in general believed in their own righteousness2 and1 by tampering with their sense of the proportions of things1 they lost all feeling for reality1 and with it all consciousness of the value and dignity of man and the very possibility of any conception of ,god4 ,jesus had been bred in another atmosphere1 in a school of realities4 ,when he said ,blessed are ye poor1 for yours is the ,kingdom of heaven1 his words were the record of experience--the paradox was the story of his life4 ,he had known poverty and hand-labour2 he had been exposed to feel what wretches feel4 ,whatever criticism may make of the story of his feeding #abe multitudes1 it remains that he was markedly sensitive to the idea of hunger--over and over he urged the feeding of the poor1 the maimed and the blind2 he suggested the payment of a day's wage for an hour's work1 where a day's food was needed and only an hour's work could be had2 he even reminded a too happy father that his little girl would be the better of food4 ,no thinker of his day1 or for long before and after1 was so deeply conscious of the appeal of sheer misery1 and this is one of the things on which his followers have never lost the mind of ,jesus4 ,poverty was perhaps even for himself a key to the door into the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,at any rate1 he always emphasizes the advantage of disadvantages1 for they at least make a man in earnest with himself4 ,there is a revelation of the seriousness of his whole mind and nature in his reply to the follower who would go away and return4 ,no man1 having put his hand to the plough and looking back1 is fit for the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,this every one knows who has tried to drive a furrow1 and all men of action know only too well that the man1 whom ,jesus so describes1 is fit for no kind of ,kingdom4 ,it is only the sentimentalism of the church that supposes the flabby-minded to be at home in the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,jesus did not4 ,the same kind of energy is in the parables4 ,the unjust steward was a knave1 but he was in earnest2 and so was the questionably honest man who found treasure in a field4 ,the merchant let everything go for the one pearl of great price4 ,mary chose the one thing needful4 ,we may be sure that in one shop in ,nazareth benches were made to stand on four feet and doors to open and shut4 ,the parables from nature1 as we have seen1 are true to the facts of nature4 ,they too stand on four feet4 ,the church laid hold of a characteristic word1 when it adopted for all time ,jesus' ,amen--in truth4 ,jesus was always explicit with his followers--they should know from the first that their goal was the cross1 and that meantime they would have no place where to lay their heads4 ,they were to begin with hard realities1 and to consort with him on the basis of the real4 ,the world in the age of ,jesus was living a good deal upon its past1 looking to old books and old cults1 as we see in ,plutarch and many others4 ,the ,jews no less lived upon their great books4 ,even ,philo was fettered to the ,old ,testament1 #abf except when he could dissolve his fetters by allegory1 and even then he believed himself loyal to the higher meaning of the text4 ,but nothing of the kind is to be seen in ,jesus4 ,his knowledge of ,psalmist and ,prophet excited wonder2 but in all his quotations of the ,old ,testament that have reached us1 there is no trace of servitude to the letter and no hint of allegory4 ,he does not quote ,scripture as his followers did4 ,here too he spoke as having authority4 ,if sometimes he quoted words for their own sake1 it was always as an argumentum ad hominem4 ,but his own way was to grasp the writer's mind--a very difficult thing in his day1 and little done--and to go straight to the root of the matter1 regardless of authority and tradition4 ,like draws to like1 and an intensely real man at once grasped his kinship with other intensely real men2 and he found in the prophets1 not reeds shaken with the wind1 courtiers of king or of people1 but men in touch with reality1 with their eyes open for ,god1 friends and fore-runners1 whose experience illumined his own4 ,this type of manhood needed no explanation for him4 ,the other sort perplexed him--,why can you not judge for yourselves8 how was it that men could see and yet not see8 ,from his inner sympathy with the prophetic mind1 came his freedom in dealing with the prophets4 ,he read and understood1 and decided for himself4 ,no sincere man would ever wish his word to be final for another4 ,jesus was conscious of his own right to think and to see and to judge1 and for him1 as for the modern temper1 the final thing was not opinion1 nor scripture1 nor authority1 but reality and experience4 ,there lay the road to ,god4 ,hence it is that ,jesus is so tranquil1--he does not strive nor cry--for the man who has experienced in himself the power of the real has no doubts about it being able to maintain itself in a world1 where at heart men want nothing else4 ,sidenote3 ,the temptations of ,jesus ,when so clear an eye for reality is turned upon the great questions of man's life and of man's relations with ,god1 it is apt here too to reach the centre4 ,from the first1 men lingered over the thought that ,jesus had gone to the bottom of human experience and found in this fact his power to help them4 ,he was made like to his brethren2 he was touched with the feeling of our infirmities2 he was able to sympathize 7dynamenon sympathesai7 for he was tempted in all respects like us4 ,in #abg the ,gospel1 as it is handed down to us1 the temptation of ,christ is summed up in three episodes set at the beginning of the story and told in a symbolic form1 which may or may not have been given to them by ,jesus himself4 ,then the devil left him--,luke adding significantly till a time4 ,the interpretation is not very clear4 ,strong men do not discuss their own feelings very much1 but it is possible now and then to divine some experience from an involuntary tone1 or the unconscious sensitiveness with which certain things are mentioned2 or1 more rarely1 emotion may open the lips for a moment of self-revelation1 in which a word lays bare a lifetime's struggle4 ,it will add to the significance of his general attitude toward ,god and man's life1 if we can catch any glimpse of the inner mind of ,jesus4 ,we have records of his being exhausted and seeking quiet4 ,biographers of that day concealed such things in their heroes1 but the ,gospels freely reveal what contemporary critics counted weaknesses in ,jesus4 ,he weeps1 he hungers1 he is worn out4 ,he has to be alone--on the mountain by night1 in a desert-place before dawn4 ,such exhaustion is never merely physical or merely spiritual2 the two things are one4 ,men crowded upon ,jesus1 till he had not leisure to eat2 he came into touch with a ceaseless stream of human personalities2 and those who have been through any such experience will understand what it cost him4 ,to communicate an idea or to share a feeling is exhausting work1 and we read further of deeds of healing1 which1 ,jesus himself said1 took virtue 7dynamin7 out of him1 and he had to withdraw4 ,when the ,syro-,phoenician woman called for his aid1 it was a question with him whether he should spend on a foreigner the virtue that could with difficulty meet the claims of ,israel1 for he was not conscious of the omnipotence which has been lightly attributed to him4 ,it was the woman's brilliant answer about the little dogs eating the children's crumbs that gained her request4 ,the turn of speech showed a vein of humour1 and he consented for this saying4#ad ,if human experience goes for anything in such a case1 contact with a spirit so delicate and sympathetic gave him something of the #abh strength he spent4 ,the incident throws light upon the fluxes and refluxes of feeling within him1 and the effect upon him of a spirit with something of his own tenderness and humour4 ,for the moment1 though1 his sense of having reached his limits should be noticed4 ,the church has never forgotten the agony in the garden1 but that episode has lost some of its significance because it has not been recognized to be one link in a chain of experience1 which we must try to reconstruct4 ,it has been assumed that ,jesus never expected to influence the ,pharisees and scribes2 but this is to misinterpret the common temper of idealists1 and to miss the pain of ,jesus' words when he found his hopes of the ,pharisees to be vain4 ,gradually1 from their pressure upon his spirit1 he grew conscious of the outcome--they would not be content with logomachies2 the end might be death4 ,few of us have any experience to tell us at what cost to the spirit such a discovery is made4 ,the common people he read easily enough and recognized their levity4 ,and now1 in exile1 as ,mr ,burkitt has lately suggested1#ae he began to concentrate himself upon the twelve4 ,it was not till ,peter1 by a sudden flash of insight1 grasped his ,messiahship--a character1 which ,jesus had realized already1 though we do not know by what process1 and had for reasons of his own concealed1--it was not till then that ,jesus disclosed his belief that he would be killed at last4 ,from that moment we may date the falling away of ,judas1 and what this man's constant presence must have meant to ,jesus1 ordinary experience may suggest4 ,shrewd1 clever and disappointed1 he must have been a chill upon his ,master at all hours4 ,his influence upon the rest of the group must have been consciously and increasingly antipathetic4 ,night by night ,jesus could read in the faces which of them had been with ,judas during the day4 ,the sour triumph of ,judas when the ,son of man was told to go on to another village after a day's journey1 and the uncomfortable air of one or more of the others1 all entered into ,jesus' experience2 and night by night he had to undo ,judas' work4 ,he learnt by what he suffered from the man's tone and look that there would be desertion1 perhaps betrayal4 ,the daily suffering involved in trying to recapture the man1 in going to seek the lost sheep in the wilderness of bitterness1 may be #abi imagined4 ,side by side1 ,king1 ,pharisee and disciple are against him1 and the tension1 heightened by the uncertainty as to the how1 when and where of the issue must have been great4 ,luke's graphic word says his face was set for ,jerusalem--it would be1 he knew1 a focus for the growing forces of hatred4 ,day by day the strain increased4 ,finally ,jesus spoke4 ,the where and how of the betrayal he could not determine2 the when he could4 ,at the supper1 he looked at ,judas and then he spoke4#af ,what thou doest1 do quickly4 ,the man's face as he hurried out said ,yes to the unspoken question--and for the moment it brought relief4 ,this is the background of the garden-scene4 ,what the agony meant spiritually1 we can hardly divine4 ,the physical cost is attested by the memory of his face which haunted the disciples4 ,the profuse sweat that goes with acute mental strain is a familiar phenomenon1 and its traces were upon him--visible in the torchlight4 ,last of all1 upon the cross1 ,nature reclaimed her due from him4 ,jesus had drawn1 as men say1 upon the body1 and in such cases ,nature repays herself from the spirit4 ,the worn-out frame dragged the spirit with it1 and he died with the cry--,my ,god1 my ,god1 why hast thou forsaken me8 ,turning back1 we find in ,luke#ag that ,jesus said to his disciples ,ye are they that have continued with me in my temptations4 ,dr ,john ,brown#ah used to speak of ,jesus having a disposition for private friendships4 ,a mind with the genius for friendliness is not only active but passive4 ,we constantly find in history instances of men with such a gift failing in great crises because of it--they yield to the friendly word2 it means so much to them4 ,thus when ,peter1 a friend of old standing and of far greater value since his confession at ,philippi1 spoke and reinforced the impressions made on ,jesus' mind by his prevision of failure and death1 the temptation was of a terrible kind4 ,the sudden rejoinder1 in which ,jesus identifies the man he loved with ,satan1 shows what had happened4 ,but1 if friendship carried with it temptation1 yet when physical exhaustion brought spiritual exhaustion in its train1 the love and tenderness #acj of his friends upheld him4 ,but1 more still1 their belief in him and in his ideas1 their need of him1 drove the tempter away4 ,he could not disappoint them4 ,the faces that softened to him1--all that came to his mind as he thought of his friends name by name--gave him hope and comfort1 though the body might do its worst4 ,it was perhaps in part this experience of the friendship of simple and commonplace men that differentiated the teaching of ,jesus from the best the world had yet had4 ,no other teacher dreamed that common men could possess a tenth part of the moral grandeur and spiritual power1 which ,jesus elicited from them--chiefly by believing in them4 ,here1 to any one who will study the period1 the sheer originality of ,jesus is bewildering4 ,this belief in men ,jesus gave to his followers and they have never lost it4 ,sidenote3 ,man's relations with ,god ,it was in the new life and happiness in ,god that he was bringing to the common people that ,jesus saw his firmest credentials4 ,he laid stress indeed upon the expulsion of devils and the cure of disease--matters explained to-day by suggestion4 ,but the culmination was the good news for the poor4 ,gospel and ,evangelical have in time become technical terms1 and have no longer the pulse of sheer happiness which ,jesus felt in them1 and which the early church likewise experienced4 ,be of good cheer6 is the familiar ,english rendering of one of the words of ,jesus1 often on his lips--,courage6 he said4 ,one text of ,luke represents him as saying it even on the cross1 when he spoke to the penitent thief4 ,summing up what we have so far reached1 we may remark the broad contrast between the attitude of ,jesus to human life and the views of the world around him4 ,a simple home with an atmosphere of love and truth and intelligence1 where life was not lost sight of in its refinements1 where ordinary needs and common duties were the daily facts1 where ,god was a constant and friendly presence--this was his early environment4 ,later on it was the carpenter's bench1 the fisherman's boat1 wind on the mountain and storm on the lake1 leaven in the meal and wheat in the field4 ,everywhere his life is rooted in the normal and the natural1 and everywhere he finds ,god filling the meanest detail of man's life with glory and revelation4 ,philosophers were anxious to keep ,god clear of contact with matter2 ,marcus ,aurelius found decay in the substance #aca of all things--nothing but water1 dust1 bones1 stench4#ai ,jesus saw life in all things--,god clothing the grass and watching over little birds4 ,to-day the old antithesis of ,god and matter is gone1 and it comes as a relief to find that ,jesus anticipated its disappearance4 ,the religious in his day looked for ,god in trance and ritual1 in the abnormal and unusual1 but for him1 as for every man who has ever helped mankind1 the ordinary and the commonplace were enough4 ,the ,kingdom of ,god is among you1 or even within you--in the common people1 of whom all the other teachers despaired4 ,we come now to the central question of man's relation with ,god1 never before so vital a matter to serious people in the ,mediterranean world4 ,jew and ,greek and ,egyptian were all full of it1 and men's talk ran much upon it4 ,men were anxious to be right with ,god1 and sought earnestly in the ways of their fathers for the means of communion with ,god and the attainment of some kind of safety in their position with regard to him4 ,jew and ,greek alike talked of heaven and hell and of the ways to them4 ,they talked of righteousness and holiness--holy is one of the great words of the period--and they sought these things in ritual and abstinence4 ,modern ,jews resent the suggestion that the thousand and one regulations as to ceremonial purity1 and the casuistries1 as many or more1 spun out of the law and the traditions1 ranked with the great commandments of neighbourly love and the worship of the ,one ,god4 ,no doubt they are right1 but it is noticeable that in practice the common type of mind is more impressed with minutiae than with principles4 ,the ,southern ,european to-day will do murder on little provocation1 but to eat meat in ,lent is sin4 ,but1 without attributing such conspicuous sins as theft and adultery and murder to the ,pharisees1 it is clear that in establishing their own righteousness they laid excessive stress on the details of the law1 on ,sabbath-keeping 7a constant topic with the ,christian apologists71 on tithes1 and temple ritual1 on the washing of pots and plates--still rigorously maintained by the modern ,jew--and all this was supposed to constitute holiness4 ,jesus with the clear incisive word of genius dismissed it all as acting4 ,the ,pharisee was essentially an actor--playing to himself the most contemptible little comedies of holiness4 #acb ,listen1 cries ,jesus1 and he tells the tale of the man fallen among thieves and left for dead1 and how priest and ,levite passed by on the other side1 fearing the pollution of a corpse1 and how they left mercy1 ,god's own work--,i will have mercy and not sacrifice was one of his quotations from ,hosea1--to be done by one unclean and damned--the ,samaritan4 ,whited sepulchres6 he cries1 pretty to look at1 but full of what8 of death1 corruption and foulness4 ,how can you escape from the judgment of hell8 he asked them1 and no one records what they answered or could answer4 ,sidenote3 ,jesus the liberator ,it is clear1 however1 that1 outside ,palestine1 the ,jews in the great world were moving to a more purely moral conception of religion--their environment made mere ,pharisaism impossible1 and ,greek criticism compelled them to think more or less in the terms of the fundamental4 ,the debt of the ,jew to the ,gentile is not very generously acknowledged4 ,none the less1 the distinctive badge of all his tribe was and remained what the ,greeks called fussiness 7to psophodees74#bj ,the ,sabbath1 circumcision1 the blood and butter taboos remained--as they still remain in the most liberal of ,liberal ,judaisms--tribe marks with no religious value1 but maintained by patriotism4 ,and side by side with this lived and lives that hatred of the ,gentile1 which is attributed to ,christian persecution1 but which ,juvenal saw and noted before the ,christian had ceased to be persecuted by the ,jew4 ,the extravagant nonsense found in ,jewish speculation as to how many ,gentile souls were equivalent in ,god's sight to that of one ,jew is symptomatic4 ,to this day it is confessedly the weakness of ,judaism that it offers no impulse and knows no enthusiasm for self-sacrificing love where the interests of the tribe are not concerned4#ba ,the great work of ,jesus in this matter was the final and decisive cleavage with antiquity4 ,greek rationalism had long since laughed at the puerilities of the ,greek cults2 but rationalism and laughter are' unequally matched against ,religion1 and it triumphed over them1 and1 as we see in ,plutarch #acc and the ,neo-,platonists1 it imposed its puerilities--yes1 and its obscenities--upon ,philosophy and made her in sober truth procuress to the lords of hell4 ,it was a new thing when ,religion1 in the name of truth and for the love of ,god1 abolished the connexion with a trivial past4 ,jesus cut away at once every vestige of the primitive and every savage survival--all natural growths perhaps1 and helpful too to primitive man and to the savage1 but confusing to men on a higher plane1--either mere play-acting or the damnation of hell4 ,pagan cults he summed up as much speaking4 ,once for all he set ,religion free from all taboos and rituals4 ,paul1 once1 on the spur of the moment1 called ,jesus the ,yes of all the promises of ,god--a most suggestive name for the vindicator and exponent of ,god's realities4 ,it is such a man as this who liberates mankind1 cutting us clear of make-believes and negations and taboos1 and living in the open-air1 whether it is cloud or sun4 ,that ,jesus shocked his contemporaries with the abrupt nakedness of his religious ideas is not surprising4 ,the church made decent haste to cover a good many of them up1 but not very successfully4 ,a mind like that of ,jesus propagates itself1 and reappears with startling vitality1 as history in many a strange page can reveal4 ,we must now consider what was the thought of ,jesus upon ,god and how he conceived of the relation between ,god and man4 ,he approached the matter originally from the standpoint of ,judaism1 and no attempt to prove the influence of ,greek philosophy is likely to succeed4 ,the result of ,greek speculation upon ,god--where it did not end in pure pantheism--was that of ,god nothing whatever could be predicated--not even being1 but that he was to be expressed by the negation of every idea that could be formed of him4 ,to this men had been led by their preconception of absolute being1 and so strong was the influence of contemporary philosophy that ,christian thinkers adopted the same conclusion1 managing what clumsy combinations they could of it and of the doctrine of incarnation4 ,clement of ,alexandria is a marked example of this method4 ,to the philosophic mind ,god remains a difficult problem1 but to the religious temper things are very different4 ,to it ,god is the one great reality never very far away1 and is conceived not as an abstraction1 nor as a force1 but as a personality4 #acd ,it has been and is the strength and redemption of ,judaism1 that ,god is the ,god of ,israel--,oh ,god1 thou art my ,god6 ,how intuition is to be reconciled with philosophy has been the problem of ,christian thinkers in every age1 but it may be remarked that the varying term is philosophy4 ,to the intuition of ,jesus ,christians have held fast--though ,greeks and others have called it folly2 and in the meantime a good many philosophies have had their day4 ,the central thought of ,jesus is the ,fatherhood of ,god4 ,for this1 as for much else1 parallels have been found in the words of ,hebrew thinkers1 ancient and contemporary1 and we may readily concede that it was not original with ,jesus to call ,god ,father4 ,the name was given to ,god by the prophets1 but it was also given to him by the ,stoics--and by ,homer2 so that to speak of ,god's ,fatherhood might mean anything between the two extremes of everything and nothing4 ,christian theology1 for instance1 starting with the idea of the ,fatherhood of ,god1 has not hesitated to speak in the same breath of his vindicating his majesty--a phrase which there is no record or suggestion that ,jesus ever used4 ,there may be fathers who vindicate their majesty1 as there are many other kinds1 but until we realize the connotation of the word for men who speak of ,god as ,father1 it is idle to speak of it being a thought common to them4 ,the name may be in the ,old ,testament and in ,homer1 but the meaning which ,jesus gave to it is his own4 ,jesus never uses the name ,father without an air of gladness4 ,men are anxious as to what they shall eat1 and what they shall drink1 and wherewithal they shall be clothed--your heavenly ,father knoweth that ye have need of all these things4 ,children ask father and mother for bread--will they receive a stone8 ,the women had hid the leaven in the three measures of meal long before the children began to feel hungry4 ,and as to clothes--,god has clothed the flower far better than ,solomon ever clothed himself1 and shall he not much more clothe you1 ,o ye of little faith8 ,the picture is one of the strong and tender parent1 smiling at the child's anxiety with no notion of his own majesty or of anything but love4 ,so incredibly simple is the relation between ,god and man--simple1 unconstrained1 heedless and tender as the talk round a table in ,nazareth4 ,jesus is greater than the men who have elaborated #ace his ideas1 and majesty is the foible of little minds4 ,the great man1 if he thinks of his dignity1 lets it take care of itself2 he is more interested in love and truth1 and he forgets to think of what is due to himself4 ,aristotle said that his magnificent man would never run2 but1 says ,jesus1 when the prodigal son was yet a great way off1 his father saw him1 and ran1 and fell on his neck1 and kissed him4 ,this contrast measures the distance between the thought of ,jesus and some ,christian theologies4 ,it is worth noting that in the two parables1 in which a father directly addresses his son1 it is with the tender word teknon1 which is more like a pet name4 ,it adds to the meaning of the parable of the prodigal1 when the father calls the elder brother by the little name that has come down from childhood4 ,it was a word which ,jesus himself used in speaking to his friends4#bb ,the heavenly ,father does not cease to be a father because his children are ungracious and bad4 ,he sends rain and sun--and all they mean--to evil and to good4 ,the whole ,new ,testament is tuned to the thought of ,jesus--the philanthropy of ,god our saviour4#bc ,plato had long before defined the object of human life as becoming like to ,god4 ,jesus finds the means to this likeness to ,god in the simplest of every day's opportunities4 ,love your enemies and do good1 and ye shall be sons of the ,highest1 for he is good and pitiful4 ,blessed are the peace-makers1 he said1 for they shall be called children of ,god4 ,this is sometimes limited to the reconciliation of quarrels1 but the worst of quarrels is the rift in a man's own soul1 the division of his spiritual substance against itself which is the essence of all tragedy4 ,there are some whose least word1 or whose momentary presence1 can somehow make peace wherever they go1 and leave men stronger for the rest they have found in another's soul4 ,this1 according to ,jesus1 is the family likeness by which ,god's children are recognized in all sorts of company4 ,to have the faculty of communicating peace of mind--and it is more often than not done unconsciously1 as most great things are--is no light or accidental gift4 ,jesus lays a good deal more stress upon unconscious instinct than most moralists do4 ,once only he is reported to have spoken of the ,last ,judgment1 which was a favourite theme #acf with the eschatologists of his period1 ,jewish1 pagan1 and ,christian4 ,he borrowed the whole framework of the scene1 but he changed1 and doubly changed1 the significance of it4 ,for he discarded the national or political criterion which the ,jew preferred1 and he did not have recourse to the rather individualistic moral test which ,greek thinkers proposed1 in imitation of ,plato2 still less did it occur to him to suggest a ,credo4 ,with him the ultimate standard was one of sheer kindness and good-heartedness--inasmuch as ye did it to one of the least of these my brethren4 ,but it is still more interesting to note how this standard is applied4 ,every one at the ,last ,judgment accepts it1 just as every one accepts the propositions of moralists in general4 ,but the real cleavage between the classes of men does not depend on morality1 as the chilly suggestion of the mere word reminds us4 ,men judge other men not by their morality1 professed or practised1 so much as by their unconscious selves--by instinct1 impulse and so forth1 the things that really give a clue to the innermost man4 ,the most noticeable point then in ,jesus' picture of the ,last ,judgment is that1 when sheep and goats are separated1 neither party at once understands the reasons of the decision4 ,these are conscious of duties done2 the others have no very clear idea about it4 ,elsewhere ,jesus suggests that1 when men have done all required of them1 they may still have the feeling that they are unprofitable servants2 and it is precisely the peace-makers and the pure in heart who do not realize how near they come to ,god4 ,the priest and the ,levite in the parable were conscious of their purity1 but ,jesus gives no hint that they saw ,god4 ,the ,samaritan lived in another atmosphere1 but it was natural to him and he breathed it unconsciously4 ,the cultivation of likeness to ,god by ,greek philosophers and their pupils was very different4 ,plutarch has left a tract1 kindly and sensible1 on ,how a man may recognize his own progress in virtue1 but there is no native ,christian product of the kind4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,kingdom of ,god ,from what ,jesus directly says of ,god1 and from what he says of ,god's children1 we may conclude that he classes ,god with the strong and sunny natures2 with the people of bright eyes who see through things and into things1 who have the feeling for reality1 and love every aspect of the real4 ,god has that sense which is peculiar to the creative mind--the keen joy #acg in beauty1 that loves star and bird and child4 ,god has the father's instinct1 a full understanding of human nature1 and a heart open for the prodigal son1 the publican and the woman with seven devils4 ,in his will is our peace1 wrote the great ,christian poet of the middle ages4 ,doing the will we find rest1 said a humble and forgotten ,christian of the second century4#bd ,they both learnt the thought from ,jesus1 who set it in the prayer beginning with ,abba which he taught his disciples1 and who prayed it himself in the garden with the same ,abba in his heart4 ,in the ,lord's prayer1 said ,tertullian1 there is an epitome of the whole ,gospel4#be ,at this point two questions rise1 which are of some historical importance1 and bear upon ,jesus' view of ,god4 ,it is clear1 first of all1 that the expression the ,kingdom of ,god was much upon the lips of ,jesus1 at least in the earlier part of his ministry4 ,it was not of his own coining1 and scholars have differed as to what he really meant4 ,such controversy always rises about the terms in which a great mind expresses itself4 ,the great thinker1 even the statesman1 has to use the best language he can find to convey his ideas1 and if the ideas are new1 the difficulty of expression is sometimes very great4 ,the words imply one thing to the listener1 and another to the speaker who is really trying 7as ,diogenes put it7 to re-mint the currency1 and how far he succeeds depends mostly upon his personality4 ,to-day the ,kingdom1 or more accurately the ,kingship of ,god1 is in some quarters interpreted rather vigorously in the sense which the ordinary ,jew gave to the phrase in the age of ,jesus2 but it is more than usually unsound criticism to take the words of such a man as meaning merely what they would in the common talk of unreflective persons1 who use words as counters and nothing else4 ,there was a vulgar interpretation of the ,kingship of ,god1 and there was a higher one1 current among the better spirits2 and it is only reasonable to interpret this phrase1 or any other1 in the light of the total mind of the man who uses it4 ,it is clear then that1 when ,jesus used the ,kingship of ,god1 he must have subordinated it to his general idea of ,god2 and what #ach that was1 we have seen4 ,to-day the phrase is returning into religious speech to signify the permeation of society by the mind of ,christ1 which cannot be far from what it meant to the earliest disciples4 ,it is significant that the author of the fourth gospel virtually dropped the phrase altogether1 that ,paul preferred other expressions as a rule1 and that it was merged and lost in the idea of the church4 ,closely bound up with the ,kingdom of ,god is the name ,messiah1 with a similarly wide range of meanings4 ,the question has also been raised as to how far ,jesus identified himself with the ,messiah4 ,it might be more pertinent to ask with which ,messiah4 ,on the whole1 the importance of the matter can be gauged by the fate of the word4 ,it was translated into ,greek1 and very soon ,christos1 or ,chrestos1 was a proper name and hardly a title at all except in apologetics1 where alone the conception retained some importance4 ,the ,divine ,son and the ,divine ,logos--terms which ,jesus did not use--superseded the old ,hebrew title1 at any rate in the ,gentile world1 and this could hardly have occurred if the idea had been of fundamental moment in ,jesus' mind and speech4 ,if he used the name1 as seems probable1 it too must have been subordinated to his master-thought of ,god's fatherhood4 ,it would then imply at most a close relation to the purposes of ,god1 and a mission to men1 the stewardship of thoughts that would put mankind on a new footing with ,god4 ,the idea of his being a mediator in the ,pauline sense is foreign to the gospels1 and the later conception of a purchase of mankind from the devil1 or from the justice of ,god1 by the blood of a victim is still more alien to ,jesus' mind4 ,sidenote3 ,the cross ,these are some of the features of the founder of the new religion as revealed in the ,gospels--features that permanently compel attention1 but after all it was not the consideration of these that conquered the world4 ,of far more account in winning the world was the death of this man upon the cross4 ,it was the cross that gave certainty to all that ,jesus had taught about ,god4 ,the church sturdily and indignantly repudiated any suggestion1 however philosophic1 that in any way seemed likely to lessen the significance of the cross4 ,that he should taste the ultimate bitterness of death undisguised1 that he should refuse the palliative wine and myrrh 7an action symbolic of his #aci whole attitude to everything and to death itself71 that with open eyes he should set his face for ,jerusalem1 and with all the sensitiveness of a character1 so susceptive of impression and so rich in imagination1 he should expose himself to our experience--to the foretaste of death1 to the horror of the unknown1 and to the supreme fear--the dread of the extinction of personality2 and that he should actually undergo all he foresaw1 as the last cry upon the cross testified--all this let the world into the real meaning of his central thought upon ,god4 ,it was the pledge of his truth1 and thus made possible our reconciliation with ,god4 ,if we may take an illustration from ,english literature1 ,shakespeare's ,julius ,caesar may suggest something here4 ,it has been noticed how small a part ,caesar plays in the drama--how little he speaks2 what weakness he shows--epilepsy1 deafness1 arrogance1 vacillation2 and how soon he disappears4 ,would not the play have been better named ,brutus8 ,yet ,shakespeare knew what he was doing2 for the whole play is ,julius ,caesar1 from the outbreak of ,cassius at the beginning-- ,why6 man he doth bestride the narrow world ,like a colossus1 to the bitter cry of ,brutus at the end-- ,o ,julius ,caesar1 thou art mighty yet6 ,caesar determines everything in the story4 ,every character in it is a mirror in which we see some figure of him1 and the life of every man there is made or unmade by his mind toward ,caesar4 ,caesar is the one great determining factor in the story2 living and dead1 he is the centre and explanation of it all4 ,what was written in the ,gospels of the life and death of ,jesus1 might by now be ancient history1 if the ,gospels had told the whole story4 ,but they did not tell the whole story2 and they neither were1 nor are1 the source of the ,christian movement1 great as their influence is and has been4 ,the ,jesus who has impressed himself upon mankind is not a character1 however strong and beautiful1 that is to be read about in a book4 ,before the ,gospels were written1 men spoke of the ,spirit of ,jesus as an active force amongst them4 ,we may criticize their phrase and their psychology as we like1 but they were speaking of something they knew1 something they had seen #adj and felt1 and it is that something which changed the course of history4 ,jesus lives for us in the pages of the ,gospels1 but we are not his followers on that account1 nor were the ,christians of the first century4 ,they1 like ourselves1 followed him under the irresistible attraction of his character repeating itself in the lives of men and women whom they knew4 ,the ,son of ,god1 they said1 revealed himself in men1 and it was true4 ,of his immediate followers we know almost nothing1 but it was they who passed him on to the next generation1 consciously in their preaching1 which was not always very good2 and unconsciously in their lives1 which he had transformed1 and which had gained from him something of the power of his own life4 ,the church was a nexus of quickened and redeemed personalities1--men and women in whom ,christ lived4 ,so ,paul wrote of it4 ,a century later another nameless ,christian spoke of ,christ being new born every day over again in the hearts of believers1 and it would be hard to correct the statement4 ,if we are to give a true account of such men as ,alexander and ,caesar1 we consider them in the light of the centuries through which their ideas lived and worked4 ,in the same way1 the life1 the mind and the personality of ,jesus will not be understood till we have realized by some intimate experience something of the worth and beauty of the countless souls that in every century have found and still find in him the ,alpha and ,omega of their being4 ,for the ,gospels are not four but ten thousand times ten thousand1 and thousands of thousands1 and the last word of every one of them is ,lo1 ,i am with you alway1 even unto the end of the world4 ,chapter ,,iv ,footnotes3 #a ,justin1 ,apology1 i1 #ff4 #b ,quoted by ,origen1 contra ,celsum1 ii1 #bf1 #bg4 #c ,cf4 ,mr ,f4 ,c4 ,conybeare's article on the remodelling of the baptismal formula in ,matthew xxviii after the ,council of ,nicaea1 ,hibbert ,journal1 ,oct4 #aijb4 #d ,origen1 c4 ,cels4 vii1 #eh1 agroikoteron4 #e ,xen4 ,mem1 i1 #b1 #cg4 ,cf4 ,plato1 ,symp4 #bba ,e4 ,gorgias1 #dia ,a4 ,see ,forbes1 ,socrates1 #abh2 ,adam1 ,religious ,teachers of ,greece1 i1 #cch4 #f ,plato1 ,philebus1 #ej ,b4 #g ,on playfulness in the words of ,jesus1 see ,burkitt1 the ,gospel ,history1 p4 #adb4 ,see also ,life of ,abp ,temple1 ii4 #fha 7letter to his son #ah ,dec4 #ahif71 on the beam in the eye and the eye of the needle--that faint touch of fun which all ,oriental teachers delight in4 #h ,luke iv1 #bb1 ethaumazon epi tois logois tes charitos4 #i ,george ,adam ,smith1 ,historical ,geography of the ,holy ,land1 ad loc4 #aj ,matthew xiii1 #ef says pasai1 and ,mark uses a plural4 #aa ,luke xi1 #e4 #ab ,mark ix1 #cf1 enagkalisamenos4 #ac ,gospel ,history1 p4 #bhe4 #ad ,i believe that the allusion to dogs has been thrown back into ,jesus' words from the woman's reply1 and that she was the first to mention them4 ,note ,mark's emphatic phrase dia touton ton logon2 vii1 #bi4 #ae ,gospel ,history1 p4 #ic f4 7with map74 #af ,the steady gaze and the pause are mentioned by the ,gospels1 in more than one place1 as preceding utterance4 ,there are of course great variations in the accounts of the last supper4 #ag xxii1 #bh4 #ah ,the author of ,rab and his ,friends4 #ai ix1 #cf4 #bj ,cf4 ad ,diognetum1 cited on p4 #agg4 #ba ,i quote this from a friend to whom a ,jew said as much2 of course every general statement requires modification4 ,still the predominantly tribal character of ,judaism implies contempt for the spiritual life of the ,gentile ,christian and pagan4 ,if the knowledge of ,god was or is of value to the ,jew1 he has made little effort to share it4 #bb e4g4 ,mark x1 #bd4 #bc ,titus iii1 #d4 #bd ,second ,clement 7so-called71 #f1 #g4 #be ,tert4 de ,or4 #a 7end74 ,cf4 also c4 #d1 on the prayer in the ,garden2 and de fuga1 #h4 #ada ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,followers ,,of ,,jesus ,two things stand out1 when we study the character of the early church--its great complexity and variety1 and its unity in the personality of ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,in spite of the general levelling which ,greek culture and ,roman government had made all over the ,mediterranean world1 the age-long influences of race and climate and cult were still at work4 ,everywhere there was a varnish of ,greek literature2 everywhere a tendency to uniformity in government1 very carefully managed with great tenderness for local susceptibilities1 but none the less a fixed object of the ,emperors2 everywhere cult was blended with cult with the lavish hospitality of polytheism2 and yet1 apart from denationalized men of letters1 artists and dilettanti1 the old types remained and reproduced themselves4 ,and when men looked at the ,christian community1 it was as various as the ,empire--,thou wast slain1 runs the hymn in the ,apocalypse1 and thou hast redeemed us to ,god by thy blood out of every kindred and tongue and people and nation4 ,there soon appeared that desire for uniformity which animated the secular government1 and which appears to be an ineradicable instinct of the human mind4 ,yet for the first two centuries--the period under our discussion--the movement toward uniformity had not grown strong enough to overcome the race-marks and the place-marks4 ,there are great areas over which in ,christian life and thought the same general characteristics are to be seen1 which were manifested in other ways before the ,christian era4 ,there is the great ,west of ,italy1 ,gaul and ,africa1 ,latin in outlook1 but with strong local variations4 ,there is the region of ,asia ,minor and ,greece1--where the church is ,hellenistic in every sense of the word1 very ,greek upon the surface and less ,greek underneath1 again with marked contrasts due to geography and race-distribution4 ,again there is the ,christian ,south--,alexandria1 with its ,christian community1 ,greek and #adb ,jewish1 and a little known hinterland1 where ,christian thought spread1 we do not know how4 ,there was ,palestine with a group of ,jewish ,christians1 very clearly differentiated4 ,and ,eastward there rose a ,syrian ,christendom1 which as late as the fourth century kept a character of its own4#a ,into all these great divisions of the world came men eager to tell good news--generally quite commonplace and unimportant people with a treasure in earthen vessels4 ,their message they put in various ways1 with the aphasia of ill-educated men1 who have something to tell that is far too big for any words at their command4 ,it was made out at last that they meant a new relation to ,god in virtue of ,jesus ,christ4 ,from a philosophic point of view they talked foolishness1 and they lapsed now and then1 under the pressure of what was within them1 into inarticulate and unintelligible talk1 from which they might emerge into utterance quite beyond their ordinary range4 ,such symptoms were familiar enough1 but these people were not like the usual exponents of theolepsy and enthusiasm4 ,they were astonishingly upright1 pure and honest2 they were serious2 and they had in themselves inexplicable reserves of moral force and a happiness far beyond anything that the world knew4 ,they were men transfigured1 as they owned4 ,some would confess to wasted and evil lives1 but something had happened1#b which they connected with ,jesus or a holy spirit1 but everything in the long run turned upon ,jesus4 ,clearer heads came about them1 and then1 as they put it1 the holy spirit fell upon them also4 ,these men of education and ideas were converted1 and began at once to analyse their experience1 using naturally the language with which they were familiar4 ,it was these men who gave the tone to the groups of believers in their various regions1 and that tone varied with the colour of thought in which the more reflective converts had grown up4 ,a great deal1 of course1 was common to all regions of the world1--the new story and the new experience1 an unphilosophized group of facts1 which now1 under the stimulus of man's unconquerable habit of speculation1 began to be interpreted #adc and to be related in all sorts of ways to the general experience of men4 ,no wonder there was diversity4 ,it took centuries to achieve a uniform account of the ,christian faith4 ,the unity of the early church lay in the reconciliation with ,god1 in the holy spirit1 and ,jesus ,christ1--a unity soon felt and treasured4 ,there is one body and one spirit1 even as ye are called in one hope of your calling2 one ,lord1 one faith1 one baptism1 one ,god and ,father of all1 who is above all and through all and in you all4#c ,the whole body of ,christians was conscious of its unity1 of its distinctness and its separation4 ,it was a peculiar people#d--;,god's own2 a third race1 as the heathen said4#e ,sidenote3 ,the recruits ,to go further into detail we may consider the recruits and their experience1 their explanations of this experience1 and the new life in the world4 ,the recruits came1 as the ,christians very soon saw1 from every race of mankind1 and they brought with them much that was of value in national preconceptions and characteristics4 ,the presence of ,jew1 ,greek1 ,roman1 ,syrian and ,phrygian1 made it impossible for the church to be anything but universal2 and if at times her methods of reconciling somewhat incompatible contributions were unscientific1 still in practice she achieved the task and gained accordingly4 ,where the ,empire failed in imposing unity by decree1 the church produced it instinctively4 ,it was on ,jewish ground that ,christianity began1 and it was from its native soil and air that it drew1 transmuting as it drew them1 its passionate faith in ,one ,god1 its high moral standard and its lofty hopes of a ,messianic age to come4 ,for no other race of the ,mediterranean world was the moral law based on the categoric imperative4 ,nowhere else was that law written in the inward parts1 in the very hearts of the people1#f and nowhere was it observed so loyally4 ,the absurdity and scrupulosity which the ,greek ridiculed in the ,jew1 were the outcome of his devotion to the law of the ,lord2 and1 when once the law was reinterpreted and taken to a higher plane by ,jesus1 the #add old passion turned naturally to the new morality4 ,it was the ,jew who brought to the common ,christian stock the conception of ,sin1 and the significance of this is immense in the history of the religion4 ,it differentiated ,christianity from all the religious and philosophical systems of the ancient world4 ',tis the faith that launched point-blank her dart ,at the head of a lie--taught ,original ,sin1 ,the ,corruption of ,man's ,heart4 ,seneca and the ,stoics played with the fancy of man's being equal1 or in some points superior1 to ,god--a folly impossible for a ,jewish mind4 ,it was the ,jews who gave the world the oracles of ,god in the ,old ,testament1 who invested ,christianity for the moment with the dignity of an ancient history and endowed it for all time with a unique inheritance of religious experience4 ,nor is it only the ,old ,testament that the church owes to the ,jew2 for the ,gospels are also his gift--anchors in the actual that have saved ,christianity from all kinds of intellectual1 spiritual and ecclesiastical perils4 ,and1 further1 at the difficult moment of transition1 when ,christian ideas passed from the ,jewish to the ,gentile world1 there were ,jews of the ,hellenistic type ready to mediate the change4 ,they of all men stood most clearly at the universal point of view2 they knew the grandeur and the weakness of the law2 they understood at once the ,jewish and the ,greek mind4 ,it is hard to exaggerate what ,christianity owes to men of this school--to ,paul and to ,john1 and to a host of others1 ,christian ,jews of the ,dispersion1 students of ,philo1 and followers of ,jesus4 ,on ,jewish soil the new faith died2 it was transplantation alone that made ,christianity possible2 for it was the true outcome of the teaching of ,jesus1 that the new faith should be universal4 ,the chief contribution of the ,greek was his demand for this very thing--that ,christianity must be universal4 ,he made no secret of his contempt for ,judaism1 and he was emphatic in insisting on a larger outlook than the ,jewish4 ,no man could seem more naturally unlikely to welcome the thoughts of ,jesus than the little ,greek 7,graaeculus7 of the ,roman world2 yet he was won2 and then by making it impossible for ,christianity to remain an amalgam of the ideas of ,jesus and of ,jewish law1 #ade the ,greek really secured the triumph of ,jesus4 ,he eliminated the tribal and the temporary in the ,gospel as it came from purely ,jewish teachers1 and1 with all his irregularities of conduct and his flightiness of thought1 he nevertheless set ,jesus before the world as the central figure of all history and of all existence4#g ,even the faults of the ,greek have indirectly served the church2 for the ,gospels gained their place in men's minds and hearts1 because they were the real refuge from the vagaries of ,greek speculation1 and offered the ultimate means of verifying every hypothesis4 ,the historic ,jesus is never of such consequence to us as when the great intellects tell us that the true and only heaven is ,nephelococcygia4 ,for ,aristophanes was right--it was the real ,paradise of the ,greek mind4 ,what relief the plain matter-of-fact ,gospel must have brought men in a world1 where nothing throve like these cities of the clouds1 would be inconceivable1 if we did not know its value still4 ,while we recognize the real contribution of the ,greek ,christians1 it is good to see what ,christianity meant to men who were not ,greeks4 ,sidenote3 ,tatian ,there was one ,christian of some note in the second century1 whose attitude toward everything ,greek is original and interesting4 ,tatian was born in the land of the ,assyrians4#h ,he travelled widely in the ,graeco-,roman world1#i and studied rhetoric like a ,greek2 he gave attention to the great collections of ,greek art in ,rome--monuments of shame1 he called them4 ,he was admitted to the mysteries1 but he became shocked at the cruelty and licentiousness tolerated and encouraged by paganism4 ,while in this mind1 seeking for the truth1 it befel that ,i lit upon some barbarian writings1 older than the dogmata of the ,greeks1 divine in their contrast with ,greek error2 and it befel too that ,i was convinced by them1 because1 their style was simple1 because there was an absence of artifice in the speakers1 because the structure of the whole was intelligible1 and also because of the fore-knowledge of future #adf events1 the excellence of the precepts and the subordination of the whole universe to ,one ,ruler 7to ton holon monarchikon74 ,my soul was taught of ,god1 and ,i understood that while ,greek literature 7ta men7 leads to condemnation1 this ends our slavery in the world and rescues us from rulers manifold and ten thousand tyrants4#aj ,he now repudiated the ,greeks and all their works1 the grammarians who set the letters of the alphabet to quarrel among themselves1#aa the philosophers with their long hair and long nails and vanity1#ab the actors1 poets and legislators2 and saying good-bye to ,roman pride and ,attic pedantry 7psychrologia7 ,i laid hold of our barbarian philosophy4#ac ,he made the first harmony of the ,gospels--an early witness to the power of their sheer simplicity in a world of literary affectations4 ,another famous ,syrian of the century was ,ignatius of ,antioch1 whose story is collected from seven letters he wrote1 in haste and excitement1 as he travelled to ,rome to be thrown to the beasts in the arena--his guards in the meantime being as fierce as any leopards4 ,the burden of them all is that ,jesus ,christ truly suffered on the cross4 ,men around him spoke of a phantom crucified by the deluded soldiers amid the deluded ,jews4--,no6 cries ,ignatius1 over and over1 he truly suffered1 he truly rose1 ate and drank1 and was no daemon without a body 7daimonion asomaton7--none of it is seeming1 it is all truly1 truly1 truly4#ad ,he has been called hysterical1 and his position might make any nervous man hysterical--death before him1 his ,lord's reality denied1 and only time for one word--,truly4 ,before we pass him by1 let us take a quieter saying of his to illustrate the deepest thought of himself and his age--,he that hath the word of ,jesus truly can hear his silence also4#ae ,the ,roman came to the ,church as he came to a new province4 ,he gravely surveyed the situation1 considered the existing arrangements1 accepted them1 drew up as it were a lex provinciae to secure their proper administration1 and thereafter interpreted it in accordance with the usual principles of ,roman #adg law1 and1 like the procurator in ,achaea1 left the ,greeks to discuss any abstract propositions they pleased4 ,tertullian and ,cyprian were lawyers1 and gave ,latin ,christendom the language1 in which in later days the relations of man with his ,divine ,sovereign were worked out by the great ,latin ,fathers4 ,sidenote3 ,freedom from daemons ,the confession of ,tatian1 above cited1 emphasizes as one of the great features of the barbarian literature--its monarchic teaching--it sets man free from ten thousand tyrants--and this may be our starting-point in considering the new experience4 ,to be rid of the whole daemon-world1 to have left the daemons behind and their hatred of men1#af their astrology1#ag their immorality and cruelty1 their sacrifices1 and the terror of possession and theolepsy and enchantment1#ah was happiness in itself4 ,we are above fate1 said ,tatian1 and1 instead of daemons that deceive1 we have learnt one master who deceiveth not4#ai ,christ1 wrote an unknown ,christian of a beautiful spirit--,christ wished to save the perishing1 and such mercy has he shown us that we the living do not serve dead gods1 but through him we know the ,father of truth4#bj ,orpheus sang to beguile men1 but my ,singer has come to end the tyranny of daemons1 said ,clement4#ba ,the perils of meats offered to idols impressed some1 who feared that by eating of them they would come under daemoniac influence4 ,with what relief they must have read ,paul's free speech on the subject--the earth is the ,lord's and the fullness thereof--for us there is one ,god1 the ,father1 and one ,lord1 ,jesus ,christ1 through whom are all things1 and we through him4#bb ,even the very name of ,jesus is terrible to the daemons#bc--the name that is above every name4 ,in no other name was there salvation from daemons1 for philosophy had made terms with them4 ,no one can read the ,christian ,apologists without remarking the stress which they lay upon the knowledge of ,god1 which the new faith made the free and glad possession of the humblest4 #adh ,they say of us that we babble nonsense among females1 half-grown people1 girls and old people4 ,no6 all our women are chaste and at their distaffs our maidens sing of things divine1 said ,tatian1 and rejoined with observations on famous ,greek women1 ,lais1 ,sappho and others4 ,justin1 always kindlier1 speaks of ,socrates who urged men to seek ,god1 yet owned that it would be a hard task to find the father and maker of this ,all1 and when one had found him1 it would not be safe to declare him to all1#bd but1 he goes on1 our ,christ did this by his power4 ,no man ever believed ,socrates so much as to die for his teaching4 ,but ,christ1 who was known to ,socrates in part1 7for he was and is the ,word that is in everything4447--on ,christ1 ,i say1 not only philosophers and scholars 7philologoi7 believed1 but artisans1 men quite without learning 7idiotai71 and despised glory and fear and death4 ,there is not a ,christian workman but finds out ,god and manifests him1 said ,tertullian4#be ,this knowledge of ,god was not merely a desirable thing in theory1 for it is clear that it was very earnestly sought4 ,to ,justin's quest for ,god1 allusion has been made--,i hoped ,i should have the vision of ,god at once 7katophesthai7 he says4 ,who among men had any knowledge of what ,god was1 before he came8#bf ,this1 wrote the fourth evangelist1 is eternal life--that they may know thee1 the one true ,god and ,jesus ,christ whom thou hast sent4 ,sidenote3 ,the holy spirit ,but it is one thing to be a monotheist1 and another to be a child of ,abba ,father1 and this is one of the notes of the early ,christian4 ,it is impossible to over-emphasize the significance of ,christian happiness amid the strain and doubt of the early ,empire4 ,zeno and ,isis each had something to say1 but who had such a message of forgiveness and reconciliation and of the love of ,god8 ,god is within you1 said ,seneca2 but he knew nothing of such an experience as the ,christian summed up as the grace of ,god1 grace sufficient and grace #adi abounding4 ,it is hard to think of these familiar phrases being new and strange--the coining of ,paul to express what no man had said before--and this at the moment when ,seneca was writing his moral letters to ,lucilius4 ,verbal coincidences may be found between ,paul and ,seneca1 but they are essentially verbal4 ,the ,stoic ,spermaticos ,logos was a cold and uninspiring dogma compared with ,abba ,father and the ,spirit of ,jesus--it was not the same thing at all4 ,the one doctrine made man self-sufficient--in the other1 our sufficiency 7hikanotes7 is of ,god4 ,it was the law of nature1 contrasted with the father of the prodigal son--our kind and tender-hearted father as ,clement of ,rome calls him #bg--the personal ,god1 whose problem is ever to save the flock of men2 that is why the good ,god has sent the good shepherd4#bh ,the more lettered of ,christian writers like to quote ,plato's saying that man was born to be at home with ,god 7oikeios echein pros theon7 and that he was a heavenly plant4 ,falsehood1 they say1 and error obscured all this1 but now that ancient natural fellowship with heaven has leapt forth from the darkness and beams upon us4#bi ,god1 says ,clement1 out of his great love for men1 cleaves to man1 and as when a little bird has fallen out of the nest1 the mother-bird hovers over it1 and if perchance some creeping beast open its mouth upon the little thing1 ,wheeling o'er his head1 with screams the dam ,bewails her darling brood2 so ,god the ,father seeks his image1 and heals the fall1 and chases away the beast1 and picks up the little one again4#cj ,god has anointed and sealed his child and given him a pledge of the new relation--the holy spirit4 ,this is distinctly said by ,st ,paul1#ca and the variety of the phenomena1 to which he refers1 is a little curious4 ,several things are covered by the phrase1 and are classed as manifestations with a common origin4 ,there are many allusions to speaking with tongues2 ,paul1 however1 clearly shows that we are not to understand a miraculous gift in using actual languages1 reduced to grammar and #aej spoken by men1 as the author of the ,acts suggests with a possible reminiscence of a ,jewish legend of the law-giving from ,sinai4 ,the glossolaly was inarticulate and unintelligible2 it was a feature of ,greek mantic1 an accompaniment of over-strained emotion1 and even to be produced by material agencies1 as ,plutarch lets us see4 ,paul himself is emphatic upon its real irrelevance to the ,christian's main concern1 and he deprecates the attention paid to it4 ,other spiritual manifestations were visions and prophecies4 ,with these ,dr ,william ,james has dealt in his ,varieties of ,religious ,experience1 showing that in them1 as in conversion1 there is nothing distinctively ,christian4 ,the content of the vision and the outcome of the conversion are the determining factors4 ,where men believe that an ordinary human being can be temporarily transformed by the presence within him of a spirit1 the very belief produces its own evidence4 ,if the tenet of the holy spirit rested on nothing else1 it would have filled a smaller place in ,christian thought4 ,sidenote3 ,jesus the saviour ,but when ,paul speaks of the holy spirit whereby the ,christians are sealed1 calling it now the spirit of ,god and now the spirit of ,jesus1 he is referring to a profounder experience4 ,explain conversion as we may1 the word represents a real thing4 ,men were changed1 and were conscious of it4 ,old desires passed away and a new life began1 in which passion took a new direction1 finding its centre of warmth and light1 not in morality1 not in religion1 but in ,god as revealed in ,jesus ,christ4 ,to me to live is ,christ1 cried ,paul1 giving words to the experience of countless others4 ,life had a new centre2 and duty1 pain and death were turned to gladness4 ,the early ,christian was conscious of a new spirit within him4 ,it was by this spirit that they could cry ,abba1 ,father2 it was the spirit that guided them into all truth2 it was the spirit that united them to ,god1#cb that set them free from the law of sin and death1 that meant life and peace and joy and holiness4 ,paul trusted everything to what we might call the ,christian instinct and what he called the holy spirit1 and he was justified4 ,no force in the world has done so much as this nameless thing that has controlled and guided and illumined--whatever we call it4 ,any one who has breathed the quiet air of a gathering of men and women consciously surrendered to the influence of ,jesus ,christ1 with all its #aea sobering effect1 its consecration1 its power and gladness1 will know what ,paul and his friends meant4 ,it is hardly to be known otherwise4 ,in our documents the spirit is closely associated with the gathering of the community in prayer4 ,freedom from daemons1 forgiveness and reconciliation with ,god1 gladness and moral strength and peace in the holy spirit--of such things the early ,christians speak1 and they associate them all invariably with one name1 the living centre of all4 ,jesus the beloved is a phrase that lights up one of the dullest of early ,christian pages4#cc ,no6 you do not so much as listen to anyone1 if he speaks of anything but ,jesus ,christ in truth1 says ,ignatius4#cd ,what can we give him in return8 ,he gave us light 444 he saved us when we were perishing 444 ,we were lame in understanding1 and worshipped stone and wood1 the works of men4 ,our whole life was nothing but death4444 ,he pitied us1 he had compassion1 he saved us1 for he saw we had no hope of salvation except from him2 he called us when we were not1 and from not being he willed us to be4#ce ,the blood of ,jesus1 shed for our salvation1 has brought to all the world the grace of repentance4#cf ,ye see what is the pattern that has been given us2 what should we do who by him have come under the yoke of his grace8#cg ,let us be earnest to be imitators of the ,lord4#ch ,these are a few words from ,christians whose writings are not in the canon4 ,jesus is pre-eminently and always the ,saviour2 the author of the new life2 the revealer of ,god2 the bringer of immortality4 ,it made an immense impression upon the ancient world to see the transformation of those whom it despised1--women1 artisans1 slaves and even slave-girls4 ,socrates with the hemlock cup and the brave ,thrasea were figures that men loved and honoured4 ,but here were all sorts of common people doing the same thing as ,socrates and ,thrasea1 cheerfully facing torture and death for the name's sake--and it was a name of contempt1 too4 ,christ's people--,christianoi--was a bantering improvisation by the people of ,antioch1 who were notorious in antiquity for impudent wit3#ci it was a happy shot #aeb and touched the very centre of the target4 ,the name and his name1 are constantly recurring phrases4 ,but it was not only that men would die for the name--men will die for anything that touches their imagination or their sympathy--but they lived for it and showed themselves to be indeed a new creation4 ,our ,jesus#dj was the author of a new life1 and a very different one from that of ,hellenistic cities4 ,that ,christianity retained its own character in the face of the most desperate efforts of its friends to turn it into a philosophy congenial to the philosophies of the day1 was the result of the strong hold it had taken upon innumerable simple people1 who had found in it the power of ,god in the transformation of their own characters and instincts1 and who clung to ,jesus ,christ--to the great objective facts of his incarnation and his death upon the cross--as the firm foundations laid in the rock against which the floods of theory might beat in vain4 ,for now we have to consider another side of early ,christian activity--the explanation of the new experience4 ,the early ,christian community found the unexamined life as impossible as ,plato had1 and they framed all sorts of theories to account for the change in themselves4 ,of most immediate interest are the accounts which they give of the holy spirit and of ,jesus4 ,here we must remember that in all definition we try to express the less known through the more known1 and that the early ,christians necessarily used the best language available to them1 and tried to communicate a new series of experiences by means of the terms and preconceptions of the thinking world of their day--terms and preconceptions long since obsolete4 ,much in the early centuries of our era is unintelligible until we form some notion of the current belief in spiritual beings1 evidence of which is found in abundance in the literature of the day1 pagan and ,christian4 ,a growing consensus among philosophers made ,god more and more remote1 and emphasized the necessity for intermediaries4 ,we have seen how ,plutarch pronounced for the delegation of rule over the universe and its functions to ministering spirits4 ,the ,jews had a parallel belief in angels1 and had come to think of ,god's spirit and ,god's intelligence as somehow detachable from his being4 ,in abstract #aec thought this may be possible just as we think of an angle without reference to matter4 ,the great weakness in the speculation of the early ,empire was this habit of supposing that men can be as certain of their deductions as of their premisses2 and ,god's ,logos1 being conceivable1 passed into common religious thought as a separate and proven existence4 ,sidenote3 ,the holy spirit ,at the same time there was abundant evidence of devil-possession as there is in ,china to-day4 ,modern medicine distinguishes four classes of cases which the ancients 7and their modern followers7 group under this one head3--,insanity1 ,epilepsy1 ,hysteria major and the mystical state4 ,to men who had no knowledge of modern medicine and its distinctions1 the evidence of the possessed was enough1 and it was apt to be quite clear and emphatic as it is in such cases to-day4 ,the man said he had a devil--or even a legion of devils4 ,the priestess at the oracle said that a god was within her 7entheos74 ,in both cases the ocular evidence was enough to convince the onlookers of the truth of the explanation1 for the persons concerned were clearly changed and were not themselves4#da ,plato played with the idea that poetry even might be1 as poets said1 a matter of inspiration4 ,the poet could not be merely himself when he wrote or sang words of such transforming power4 ,the ,jews gave a similar account of prophecy--the ,spirit of the ,lord descended upon men1 as we read in the ,old ,testament4 ,the ,spirit1 says ,athenagoras to the ,greeks1 used the ,hebrew prophets1 as a flute-player does a flute1 while they were in ecstasy 7kat ekstasin7#db--the holy spirit1 he adds1 is an effluence 7aporroia7 of ,god4#dc ,the ,christians1 finding ecstasy1 prophecy1 trance1 and glossolaly among their own members1 and having before them the parallel of ,greek priestesses and ,hebrew prophets1 and making moreover the same very slight distinction as their pagan #aed neighbours between matter and spirit1 and1 finally1 possessing all the readiness of unscientific people in propounding theories1--they assumed an effluence from ,god1 a spirit which entered into a man1 just as in ordinary life evil demons did1 but here it was a holy spirit4 ,this they connected with ,god after the manner familiar to ,jewish thinkers1 and following the same lead1 began to equate it with ,god1 as a separate being4 ,it is not at first always quite clear whether it is the spirit of ,god or of ,jesus--or even a manifestation of the risen ,jesus4#dd ,when we pass to the early explanations of ,jesus1 we come into a region peculiarly difficult4 ,a later age obscured the divergences of early theory4 ,some opinions the church decisively rejected--,christians would have nothing to do with a ,jesus who was an emanation from an absolute and inconceivable ,being1 a ,jesus who in that case would be virtually indistinguishable from ,asclepios the kindly-natured divine healer4 ,nor would they tolerate the notion of a phantom-,jesus crucified in show1 while the divine ,christ was far away--like ,helen in ,euripides' play4#de ,spare1 says ,tertullian1 the one hope of all the world4#df ,they would not have a daimonion without a body4 ,but two theories1 one of older ,jewish1 and the other of more recent ,alexandrian origin1 the church accepted and blended1 though they do not necessarily belong to each other4 ,sidenote3 ,paul ,the one theory is especially ,paul's--sacred to all who lean with him to the ,hebrew view of things1 to all who1 like him1 are touched with the sense of sin and feel the need of another's righteousness1 to all who have come under the spell of the one great writer of the first century4 ,a ,jew1 a native of a ,hellenistic city--and no mean one#dg--;a citizen of the ,roman ,empire1 a man of wide outlooks1 with a gift for experience1 he passed from #aee ,pharisaism to ,christ4 ,the mediating idea was righteousness4 ,he knew his own guilt before ,god1 and found that by going about to establish his own righteousness he was achieving nothing4 ,at the same time a suffering ,messiah was a contradiction in terms1 unspeakably repulsive to a ,jew4 ,we can see this much in the tremendous efforts of the ,apologists to overcome ,jewish aversion by producing ,old ,testament prophecies that ,christ was to suffer4 ,pathetos 7subject to suffering7 was a word that waked rage and contempt in every one1 who held to contemporary views of ,god1 or even had dabbled in ,stoic or similar conceptions of human greatness4 ,but it seems that the serenity and good conscience of ,christian martyrs impressed their persecutor1 who was not happy in his own conscience2 and at last the thought came--along familiar lines--that ,christ's sufferings might be for the benefit of others4 ,and then he saw ,jesus on the road to ,damascus4 ,what exactly happened is a matter of discussion1 but ,paul was satisfied--he was a man in ,christ4 ,much might be said in criticism of ,paul's ,christology--if it were not for ,paul and his followers4 ,they have done too much and been too much for it to be possible to dissect their great conception in cold blood4 ,paul's theories are truer than another man's experiences--they pulse with life1 they have 7in ,luther's phrase7 hands and feet to carry a man away4 ,the man is so large and so strong1 so simple and true1 so various in his knowledge of the world1 so tender in his feeling for men--all things to all men--such a master of language1 so sympathetic and so open--he is irresistible4 ,the quick movement of his thought1 his sudden flashes of anger and of tenderness1 his apostrophes1 his ejaculations--one feels that pen and paper never got such a man written down before or since4 ,every sentence comes charged with the whole man--half a dozen ,greek words1 and not always the best ,greek--and the ,christian world for ever will sum up its deepest experience in ,god forbid that ,i should glory save in the cross of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 by whom the world is crucified unto me and ,i unto the world4 ,close examination reveals a good deal of ,judaism surviving in ,paul1--a curious way of playing with the text of ,scripture1 #aef odd reminiscences of old methods1 and deeper infiltrations of a ,jewish thought which is not that of ,jesus4 ,yet it does not affect our feeling for him--he stands too close to us as a man1 too much over us as the teacher of ,augustine1 ,calvin and ,luther--a man1 whom it took more genius to explain than the church had for fifteen centuries1 and yet the man to whom the church owes its universal reach and unity1 its theology and the best of the language in which it has expressed its love for his master4 ,sidenote3 ,explanation of ,jesus ,paul went back to the ,jewish conception of a ,messiah1 modified1 in the real spirit of ,jesus1 by the thought of suffering4 ,but when we put side by side the ,messiah of ,jesus and the ,messiah of ,paul1 we become conscious of a difference4 ,the latter is a mediator between ,god and man1 making atonement1 transferring righteousness by a sort of legal fiction1 and implying a conception of ,god's fatherhood far below that taught by ,jesus4 ,at the same time ,paul has other thoughts of a profounder and more permanent value4 ,it is hard1 for instance1 to imagine that any change1 which time and thought may bring1 can alter a word in his statement that ,god was in ,christ1 reconciling the world to himself--here there is no local or temporal element even in the wording4 ,it may be noted that ,paul has his own names for ,jesus1 for while he uses ,messiah 7in ,greek7 and ,son of ,god1 he is the first to speak of the ,lord and the ,saviour4 ,paul held the door open for the other great theory of the early church1 when he emphasized the pre-existence of the heavenly ,christ and made him the beginning1 the centre and the end of all history4 ,the ,logos1 as we have seen1 was not an original idea of the ,christian world4 ,it was long familiar to ,greek philosophy1 and ,philo and the ,stoics base much of their thought upon it4 ,it must have come into the church from a ,greek or ,hellenistic source1 perhaps as a translation of ,paul's heavenly ,christ4 ,as it stands1 it is a peculiarly bold annexation from ,philosophy4 ,no ,stoic would have denied that the ,spermaticos ,logos was in ,jesus1 but the bold identification of the ,logos with ,jesus must have been foolishness to the ,greek4 ,still in contemporary thought there was much to dispose men to believe in such an incarnation of the ,logos in a human being1 though there is no suggestion that a spiritual being of any at all commensurate #aeg greatness was ever so incarnated before4 ,but the thought appealed to the ,christian mind1 when once the shock to ,greek susceptibilities was overcome4 ,once accepted1 it solved all questions in the earth and out of it4 ,it permitted the congenial idea of ,greek theology to remain--the transcendence of ,god being saved by this personification of his ,thought4 ,it was a final blow to all theories that made ,jesus an emanation1 a phantom or a demi-god1 and it kept his historic personality well in the centre of thought1 though leaving it now comparatively much less significance4 ,surveying the two accounts1 ,jewish and ,greek1 we cannot help remarking that they belong to other ages of thought than our own4 ,columbus1 ,copernicus and ,darwin were neither philosophers nor theologians1 but they have changed the perspectives of philosophy and theology1 and we think to-day with a totally different series of preconceptions from those of ,jew and ,greek of the first century4 ,the ,greek himself never thought much of the chosen race1 and it was only when he realized that ,jesus was not a tribal hero1 that he accepted him4 ,to the ,greek the ,messiah was as strange a thought as to ourselves4 ,to us the ,logos is as strange as the ,messiah was to the ,greek4 ,we have really at present no terms in which to express what we feel to be the permanent significance of ,jesus1 and the old expressions may repel us until we realize1 first1 that they are not of the original essence of the ,gospel1 and second1 that they represent the best language which ,greek and ,jew could find for a conviction which we share--that ,jesus of ,nazareth does stand in the centre of human history1 that he has brought ,god and man into a new relation1 that he is the personal concern of everyone of us1 and that there is more in him than we have yet accounted for4 ,into the question of the organization adopted by the early ,christians and the development of the idea of the church1 it is not essential to our present purpose to inquire4 ,opinion varies as to how far we should seek the origin of the church in the teaching and work of ,jesus4 ,if his mind has been at all rightly represented in this book1 it seems to follow that he was not responsible either for the name or the idea of the church4 ,minds of the class to which his belongs have as a rule little or no interest in organizations and arrangements1 and nothing can #aeh be more alien to the tone and spirit of his thinking than the ecclesiastical idea as represented by ,cyprian and ,ignatius4 ,that out of the group of followers who lived with ,jesus1 a society should grow1 is natural2 and societies instinctively organize themselves4 ,the ,jew offered the pattern of a theocracy1 and the ,roman of a hierarchy of officials1 but it took two centuries to produce the church of ,cyprian4 ,the series of running fights with ,greek speculation in the second century contributed to the natural and acquired instincts for order and system1--particularly in a world where such instincts had little opportunity of exercise in municipal1 and less in political1 life4 ,the name was1 as ,harnack says1 a masterly stroke--the ecclesia of ,god suggested to the ,greek the noble and free life of a self-governing organism such as the ancient world had known1 but raised to a higher plane and transfigured from a ,periclean ,athens to a ,heavenly ,jerusalem4 ,fine conceptions and high ideals clung about the idea of the church in the best minds1#dh but in practice it meant the transformation of the gospel into a code1 the repression of liberty of thought1 and the final extinction of prophecy4 ,for the view that every one of these results was desirable1 reason might be shown in the vagaries of life and speculation which the age knew1 but it was obviously a departure from the ideas of ,jesus4 ,sidenote3 ,the new life ,the rise of the church was accompanied by the rise of mysteries4 ,there is a growing consensus of opinion among independent scholars that ,jesus instituted no sacraments1 yet ,paul found the rudiments of them among the ,christians and believed he had the warrant of ,jesus for the heightening which he gave to them4 ,ignatius speaks of the ,ephesians breaking one bread1 which is the medicine of immortality 7pharkmakon athanasias7 and the antidote that we should not die--the former phrase reappearing in ,clement of ,alexandria4#di ,that such ideas should emerge in the ,christian community is natural enough1 when we consider its environment--a world without natural science1 steeped in belief in every kind of magic and enchantment1 and full of public and private religious societies1 every one of which had its mysteries and miracles and its blood-bond with its peculiar deity4 ,it was from such a world #aei and such societies that most of the converts came and brought with them the thoughts and instincts of countless generations1 who had never conceived of a religion without rites and mysteries4 ,baptism similarly took on a miraculous colour--men were baptized for the dead in ,paul's time--and before long it bore the names familiarly given by the world to all such rituals of admission--enlightenment 7photismos7 and initiation2 and with the names came many added symbolic practices in its administration4 ,the ,christians readily recognized the parallel between their rites and those of the heathen1 but no one seems to have perceived the real connexion between them4 ,quite naively they suggest the exact opposite--it was the daemons1 who foresaw what the ,christian rites 7hiera7 would be1 and forestalled them with all sorts of pagan parodies4#ej ,but1 after all1 the force of the ,christian movement lay neither in church1 nor in sacrament1 but in men4 ,how did ,christianity rise and spread among men8 asks ,carlyle1 was it by institutions1 and establishments1 and well arranged systems of mechanism8 ,no6 444 ,it arose in the mystic deeps of man's soul2 and was spread by the 'preaching of the word1' by simple1 altogether natural and individual efforts2 and flew1 like hallowed fire1 from heart to heart1 till all were purified and illuminated by it4 ,here was no ,mechanism2 man's highest attainment was accomplished ,dynamically1 not ,mechanically4#ea ,nothing could be more just4 ,the ,gospel set fire to men's hearts1 and they needed to do nothing but live to spread their faith4 ,the ancient evidence is abundant for this4 ,the ,christian had an insatiable passion for doing good#eb--not as yet a technical term--and he did good in the simplest kind of ways4 ,even those things which you do after the flesh are spiritual1 says ,ignatius himself1 for you do all things in ,jesus ,christ4#ec ,christians1 says a writer whose name is lost1 are not distinguishable from the rest of mankind in land or speech or customs4 ,they inhabit no special cities of their own1 nor do they use any different form of speech1 nor do they cultivate any out-of-the-way life4444 ,but while they live in ,greek and barbarian cities as their lot may be #afj cast1 and follow local customs in dress and food and life generally1 444 yet they live in their own countries as sojourners only2 they take part in everything as citizens and submit to everything as strangers4 ,every strange land is native to them1 and every native land is strange4 ,they marry and have children like everyone else--but they do not expose their children4 ,they have meals in common1 but not wives4 ,they are in the flesh1 but they do not live after the flesh4 ,they continue on earth1 but their citizenship is in heaven4 ,they obey the laws ordained1 and by their private lives they overcome the laws4444 ,in a word1 what the soul is in the body1 that is what ,christians are in the world4#ed ,as a rule1 wrote ,galen1 men need to be educated in parables4 ,just as in our day we see those who are called ,christians#ee have gained their faith from parables4 ,yet they sometimes act exactly as true philosophers would4 ,that they despise death is a fact we all have before our eyes2 and by some impulse of modesty they abstain from sexual intercourse--some among them1 men and women1 have done so all their lives4 ,and some1 in ruling and controlling themselves1 and in their keen passion for virtue1 have gone so far that real philosophers could not excel them4#ef ,so wrote a great heathen1 and ,celsus admits as much himself4 ,in life at least1 if not in theory1 the ,christians daily kept to the teaching of their ,master4 ,which is ampler8 asks ,tertullian1 to say1 ,thou shalt not kill2 or to teach1 ,be not even angry8 ,which is more perfect1 to forbid adultery or to bid refrain from a single lustful look8#eg ,there was as yet no flight from the world1 though ,christians had no illusions about it or about the devil who played so large a part in its affairs4 ,they lived in an age that saw ,antinous deified4#eh ,they stood for marriage and family life1 while all around holy men felt there was an unclean and daemonic element in marriage4#ei ,one ,christian writer even speaks of women being #afa saved by child-bearing4#fj ,social conditions they accepted--even slavery among them--but they brought a new spirit into all2 love and the sense of brotherhood could transform every thing4 ,slavery continued1 but the word slave is not found in ,christian catacombs4#fa ,above all1 they were filled with their ,master's own desire to save men4 ,i am debtor1 wrote ,paul1 both to ,greeks and to barbarians1 wise and unwise4#fb ,if modern criticism is right in detaching the missionary commission 7in ,matthew7 from the words of ,jesus1 the fact remains that the early ,christians were going into all the world and preaching the gospel to every creature for half a century before the words were written4 ,why8 ,he that has the word of ,jesus truly can hear his silence1 said ,ignatius2 and if ,jesus did not speak these words1 men heard his silence to the same effect4 ,celsus1 like ,julian long after him1 was shocked at the kind of people to whom the gospel was preached4#fc ,the ,christian came to the helpless and hopeless1 whom men despised1 and of whom men despaired1 with a message of the love and tenderness of ,god1 and he brought it home by a new type of love and tenderness of his own4 ,kindness to friends the world knew2 gentleness1 too1 for the sake of philosophic calm2 clemency and other more or less self-contained virtues4 ,the third race had other ideas--in all their virtues there was the note of going out of oneself1 the unconsciousness which ,jesus loved--an instinctive habit of negating self 7aparnesasthai heauton71 which does not mean medieval asceticism1 nor the dingy modern virtue of self-denial4 ,there was no sentimentalism in it2 it was the spirit of ,jesus spiritualizing and transforming and extending the natural instinct of brotherliness by making it theocentric4 ,christians for a century or two never thought of ataraxia or apathy1 and1 though ,clement of ,alexandria plays with them1 he tries to give them a new turn4 ,fortunately the ,gospels were more read than the ,stromateis and ,christian apathy never succeeded4 ,the heathen recognized sympathy as a ,christian characteristic--,how these #afb ,christians love each other6 they said4 ,lucian bears the same testimony to the mutual care and helpfulness of ,christians4 ,you see1 wrote ,lucian1 these poor creatures have persuaded themselves that they are immortal for all time and will live for ever1 which explains why they despise death and voluntarily give themselves up1 as a general rule2 and then their original law-giver persuaded them that they are all brothers1 from the moment that they cross over and deny the gods of ,greece and worship their sophist who was gibbeted1 and live after his laws4 ,all this they accept1 with the result that they despise all worldly goods alike and count them common property4 ,in a later century ,julian1 perhaps following ,maximin ,daza1 whom he copied in trying to organize heathenism into a new catholic church1 urged benevolence on his fellow-pagans1 if they wished to compete with the ,christians4 ,it was the only thing1 he felt1 that could revive paganism1 and his appeal met with no response4 ,infinite love in ordinary intercourse is the ,christian life1 and it must come from within or nowhere4 ,no organization can produce it1 and1 however much we may have to discount ,christian charity in some directions as sometimes mechanical1 the new spirit of brotherhood in the world presupposed a great change in the hearts of men4 ,it was not ,stoic cosmopolitanism4 ,the ,christian was not the citizen of the world nor the ,friend of ,man2 he was a plain person who gave himself up for other people1 cared for the sick and the worthless1 had a word of friendship and hope for the sinful and despised1 would not go and see men killed in the amphitheatre1 and--most curious of all--was careful to have indigent brothers taught trades by which they could help themselves4 ,a lazy ,christian was no ,christian1 he was a trader in ,christ4#fd ,if the ,christians' citizenship was in heaven1 he had a social message for this world in the meantime4 ,sidenote3 ,woman ,every great religious movement coincides with a new discovery of truth of some kind1 and such discoveries induce a new temper4 ,men inquire more freely and speak more freely the truth they feel4 ,mistakes are made and a movement begins #afc for quenching the spirit4 ,but the gains that have been made by the liberated spirits are not lost4 ,thus the early ,christian rose quickly to a sense of the value of woman4 ,dr ,verrall pronounces that the radical disease1 of which1 more than of anything else1 ancient civilization perished was an imperfect ideal of woman4#fe ,in the early church woman did a good many things1 which in later days the authorities preferred not to mention4 ,thekla's name is prominent in early story1 and the prophetesses of ,phrygia1 ,prisca and ,maximilla1 have a place in ,church ,history4 ,they were not popular2 but the church was committed to the ,gospel of ,luke and the ministry of women to the ,lord4 ,and whatever the ,christian priesthood did or said1 ,jesus and his followers had set woman on a level with man4 ,there is neither male nor female4 ,the same freedom of spirit is attested by the way in which pagan prophets and their dupes classed ,christians with ,epicureans#ff--they saw and understood too much4 ,the ,christians were the only people 7apart from the ,jews7 who openly denounced the folly of worshipping and deifying ,emperors4 ,even ,ignatius1 who is most famous for his belief in authority1 breaks into independence when men try to make the ,gospel dependent on the ,old ,testament--for me the documents 7ta archeia7 are ,jesus ,christ2 my unassailable documents are his cross1 and his death and resurrection1 and the faith that is through him2 in which things ,i hope with your prayers to be saved4#fg ,where the spirit of the ,lord is1 there is liberty1 as ,paul said4 ,god and immortality were associated in ,christian thought4 ,christians1 said a writer using the name of ,peter1 are to be partakers of the divine nature4 ,if the soul1 says ,tatian1 enters into union with the divine spirit1 it is no longer helpless1 but ascends to regions whither the spirit guides it2 for the dwelling-place of the spirit is above1 but the origin of the soul is from beneath4#fh ,god sent forth to us the ,saviour and ,prince of immortality1 by whom he also made manifest to us the truth and the heavenly life4#fi ,the ,christian's life is hid with ,christ in ,god1 and ,christ's resurrection is to the #afd early church the pledge of immortality--we shall be ever with the ,lord4 ,for the transmigration of souls and eternal re-dying1 life was substituted4#gj ,we have believed1 said ,tatian1 that there will be a resurrection of our bodies1 after the consummation of all things--not1 as the ,stoics dogmatize1 that in periodic cycles the same things for ever come into being and pass out of it for no good whatever1--but once for all1 and this for judgment4 ,the judge is not ,minos nor ,rhadamanthus1 but ,god the maker is the arbiter4#ga ,they shall see him 7,jesus7 then on that day1 wrote the so-called ,barnabas1 wearing the long scarlet robe upon his flesh1 and they will say ',is this not he whom we crucified1 whom we spat upon1 and rejected8'#gb ,persecution tempted the thought of what that day would mean for the persecutor4 ,but it was a real concern of the ,christian himself4 ,i myself1 utterly sinful1 not yet escaped from temptation1 but still in the midst of the devil's engines1--,i do my diligence to follow after righteousness that ,i may prevail so far as at least to come near it1 fearing the judgment that is to come4#gc ,immortality and righteousness--the two thoughts go together1 and both depend upon ,jesus ,christ4 ,he is emphatically called our ,hope--a favourite phrase with ,ignatius4#gd ,sidenote3 ,martyrdom and happiness ,some strong hope was needed--some anchor of the soul1 sure and steadfast4#ge ,death lay in wait for the ,christian at every turn1 never certain1 always probable4 ,the daemons whom he had renounced took their revenge in exciting his neighbours against him4#gf ,the whim of a mob#gg or the cruelty of a governor#gh might bring him face to face with death in no man knew what horrible form4 ,one writer spoke of the burning that came for trial1#gi and the phrase was not exclusively a metaphor4 #afe ,away with the atheists--where is ,polycarp8 was a sudden shout at ,smyrna--the mob already excited with sight of the right noble ,germanicus fighting the wild beasts in a signal way4 ,the old man was sought and found--with the words ,god's will be done upon his lips4 ,he was pressed to curse ,christ4 ,eighty-six years ,i have been his slave1 he said1 and he has done me no wrong4 ,how can ,i blaspheme my ,king who saved me8#hj ,the suddenness of these attacks1 and the cruelty1 were enough to unnerve anyone who was not built upon the foundation4 ,nero's treatment of the ,christians waked distaste in ,rome itself4 ,but it was the martyrdoms that made the church4 ,stephen's death captured ,paul4 ,i delighted in ,plato's teachings1 says ,justin1 and ,i heard ,christians abused1 but ,i saw they were fearless in the face of death and all the other things men count fearful4#ha ,tertullian and others with him emphasize that the blood of martyrs is the seed of the church4 ,it was the death of ,jesus over again--the last word that carried conviction with it4 ,with the sentence of death in themselves the early ,christians faced the world1 and astonished it by more than their stubbornness4 ,they were the most essentially happy people of the day--,jesus was their hope1 their sufficiency was of ,god1 their names were written in heaven1 they were full of love for all men--they had become little children1 as ,jesus put it1 glad and natural4 ,jesus had brought them into a new world of possibilities4 ,a conduct that ancient moralists dared not ask1 the character of ,jesus suggested1 and the love of ,jesus made actual4 ,i can do all things1 said ,paul1 in him that strengtheneth me4 ,they looked to assured victory over evil and they achieved it4 ,this is the victory that has overcome the world--our faith4 ,very soon a new note is heard in their words4 ,stoicism was never essentially musical2 ,epictetus announces a hymn to ,zeus1#hb but he never starts the tune4 ,over and over again there is a sound of singing in ,paul--as in the eighth chapter of the ,romans1 and the thirteenth of ,first ,corinthians1#hc and it repeats itself4 ,children of joy is ,barnabas' name for his friends4#hd #aff ,doing the will of ,christ we shall find rest1 wrote the unknown author of ,second ,clement4#he ,praising we plough2 and singing we sail1 wrote the greater ,clement4#hf ,candidates for angelhood1 even here we learn the strain hereafter to be raised to ,god1 the function of our future glory1 said ,tertullian4#hg ,clothe thyself in gladness1 that always has grace with ,god and is welcome to him--and revel in it4 ,for every glad man does what is good1 and thinks what is good4444 ,the holy spirit is a glad spirit 444 yes1 they shall all live to ,god1 who put away sadness from themselves and clothe themselves in all gladness4 ,so said the angel to ,hermas1#hh and he was right4 ,the holy spirit was a glad spirit1 and gladness--joy in the holy spirit--was the secret of ,christian morality4 ,nothing could well be more gay and happy than ,clement's ,protrepticus4 ,augustine was attracted to the church because he saw it non dissolute hilaris4 ,such happiness in men is never without a personal centre1 and the church made no secret that this centre was ,jesus ,christ1 whom you have not seen1 but you love him2 whom yet you see not1 but you believe in him and rejoice with joy unspeakable and glorified4#hi ,chapter ,v ,footnotes3 #a ,see ,burkitt's ,early ,eastern ,christianity4 #b ,see ,justin1 ,apology1 i1 #ad1 a vivid passage on the change of character that has been wrought in men by the ,gospel4 ,cf4 ,tert4 ad ,scap4 #b1 nec aliunde noscibiles quam de emendatione vitiorum pristinorum4 #c ,ephesians iv1 #d4 #d #a ,peter ii1 #g4 #e ,tertullian1 ad ,nationes1 i1 #h1 ,plane1 tertium genus dicimur 444 verum recogitate ne quos tertium genus dicitis principem locum obtineant1 siquidem non ulla gens non ,christiana4 #f ,cf4 ,jeremiah xxxi1 #ca--;a favourite passage with ,christian apologists4 #g ,professor ,percy ,gardner 7,growth of ,christianity1 p4 #di7 illustrates this by comparison of earlier and later stages in ,christian ,art4 ,on some early ,christian sarcophagi ,jesus is represented with markedly ,jewish features2 soon however he is idealized into a type of the highest humanity4 #h ,tatian1 #db4 #i ,id4 #ce4 #aj ,tatian1 #bi4 ,cf4 the account ,theophilus gives of the influence upon him of the study of the prophets1 i1 #ad4 #aa #bf4 #ab #be4 #ac #ce4 #ad ,ignatius1 ,magn4 #aa2 ,trall1 #i1 #aj2 ,smyrn4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #ab4 #ae ,ignatius1 ,eph4 #ae1 logon ,iesoi kektemenos alethos dynatai kai tes hesychias autou akoueis4 #af ,tatian1 #af1 #ag4 ,cf4 ,plutarch 7cited on p4 #ajg7 on malignant daemons4 ,see ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #bb2 ,justin1 ,apol4 ii4 #e2 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #c1 #da1 on the works of daemons4 #ag ,tatian1 #g1 #h4 #ah ,see ,tertullian1 de ,idol4 #i1 on the surprising case of a ,christian who wished to pursue his calling of astrologer--a claim ,tertullian naturally will not allow4 #ai ,tatian1 #i4 #bj ,the so-called second letter of ,clement of ,rome1 c4 #c4 #ba ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #c4 #bb #a ,cor4 vi1 etc4 #bc ,justin1 ,dial4 c4 ,tryph4 #cj4 #bd ,tatian1 #cc2 ,justin1 ,apol4 ii1 #aj4 ,it may be noted that ,justin quotes the famous passage in the ,timaeus 7#bh ,c7 not quite correctly4 ,such passages familiar in his mouth as household words are very rarely given with verbal accuracy4 ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #df1 and ,clement1 ,strom4 v1 #gh1 #ib1 also quote this passage4 #be ,apol4 #df4 ,compare ,theophilus1 i1 #b2 ,if you say ',show me your ,god1' ,i would say to you1 ',show me your man and ,i will show you my ,god1' or show me the eyes of your soul seeing1 and the ears of your heart hearing4 #bf ad ,diogn4 #h1 #a4 #bg ,clem4 ,r4 #bi1 #a1 ton epieike kai eusplagchnon patera hemon4 #bh ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #aaf4 #bi ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #be1 emphytos archaia koinonia4 #cj ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #ia1 citing ,iliad1 #b1 #cae 7,cowper74 #ca #b ,cor4 i1 #bb2 v1 #e4 #cb ,cf4 ,tatian1 #ae4 #cc ,barnabas1 #d1 #h4 #cd ,ign4 ,eph4 #f1 #b4 #ce ,,ii4 ,clem4 #a1 #c-g 7abridged a little74 #cf ,clem4 ,r4 #g1 #d4 #cg ,clem4 ,r4 #af1 #ag4 #ch ,ign4 ,eph4 #aj1 #c4 #ci ,cf4 ,socr4 e4h4 iii1 #ag1 #d1 the ,antiochenes mocked the ,emperor ,julian1 euripistoi gar oi anthropoi eis hubreis4 #dj ,,ii4 ,clem4 #ad1 #b4 #da ,see ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #bb4 #db ,athenagoras1 ,presbeia1 #i4 #dc ,see a very interesting chapter in ,philo's de migr4 ,abr4 #g 7#dda ,m71 where he gives a very frequent experience of his own 7muriakis pathon7 as a writer4 ,sometimes1 though he saw clearly what to say1 he found his mind barren and sterile and went away with nothing done1 with the womb of his soul closed4 ,at other times he came empty and suddenly became full1 as thoughts were imperceptibly sowed and snowed upon him from above1 so that1 as if under ,divine possession 7katoches entheou71 he became frenzied 7korubantian7 and utterly knew not the place1 nor those present1 nor himself1 nor what was said or written4 ,see ,tert4 de ,anima1 #aa1 on the spirits of ,god and of the devil that may come upon the soul4 #dd ,it may be remarked1 in passing1 that the contemporary worship of the ,emperor is to be explained by the same theory of the possibility of an indwelling daimonion4 ,it was helped out by the practice1 which had never so far died out in the ,east and in ,egypt1 of regarding the ,king and his children as gods incarnate4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,early ,history of ,kingship4 #de ,tertullian1 adv4 ,marc1 iii1 #h1 nihil solidam ab inani1 nihil plenum a vacuo perfici licuit 444 imaginarius operator1 imaginariae operae4 #df ,tertullian1 de carne ,christi1 #e4 #dg ,his ,tarsiot feeling is perhaps shown by his preference that women should be veiled4 ,dio ,chrysostom 7,or4 #cc1 #dh7 mentions that in ,tarsus there is much conservatism shown in the very close veiling of the women's faces4 #dh ,tert4 ,apol4 #ci1 ,corpus sumus de conscientia religionis et disciplinae unitate et spei foedere4 #di ,ign4 ,eph4 #bj2 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #ajf4 #ej ,justin1 ,apol4 i1 #ff1 the use of bread and cup in the mysteries of ,mithras2 ,tertullian1 de ,bapt4 #e1 on baptism in the rites of ,isis and ,mithras1 the mysteries of ,eleusis1 etc4 #ea ,carlyle1 ,signs of the ,times1 7,centenary edition of ,essays1 ii1 p4 #gj47 #eb ,clem4 ,r4 #b1 #b1 akorestos pothos eis agathopoiian4 #ec ,ign4 ,eph4 #h1 #b4 #ed ,auctor ad ,diognetum1 #e-f4 #ee ,he apologizes for the use of the name1 as educated people did in his day1 when it was awkward or impossible to avoid using it4 ,it was a vulgarism4 #ef ,galen1 extant in ,arabic in hist4 anteislam4 ,abulfedae 7ed4 ,fleischer1 p4 #aji71 quoted by ,harnack1 ,expansion of ,christianity1 i1 p4 #bff4 #eg ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #de2 cf4 ,justin1 ,apol4 i1 #ae4 #eh ,cf4 ,justin1 ,apol4 i1 #bi4 #ei ,the feeling referred to is associated with the primitive sense of the mystery of procreation and conception surviving1 it is said1 among the ,arunta of ,australia1 and very widely in the case of twins2 see ,rendel ,harris1 ,cult of the ,dioscuri4 #fj ,tim4 #b1 #ae4 ,cf4 ,tert4 adv4 ,marc4 iv1 #ag1 nihil impudentius si ille nos sibi filio faciet qui nobis filios facere non permisit aufercndo conubium4 #fa de ,rossi1 cited by ,harnack1 ,expansion1 i1 #bjh n4 #fb ,romans #a1 #ad4 #fc ,see p4 #bda2 and cf4 ,justin1 ,apol4 i1 #ae4 #fd ,didache1 #ab4 ei de ouk echei technen1 kata ten synesin humon pronoesate1 pos me argos meth hymon zesetai christianos4 ei de ou thelei outo poiein1 christemporos estin prosechete apo ton toiouton4 ,see ,tert4 ,apol4 #ci1 on provision for the needy and the orphan1 the shipwrecked1 and those in jails and mines4 #fe ,euripides the ,rationalist1 p4 #aaa n4 #ff ,lucian1 ,alexander1 #ch1 ,alexander said3 ,if any atheist1 or ,christian1 or ,epicurean comes as a spy upon our rites let him flee6 ,he said exo christianous1 and the people responded exo ,epikoureious4 #fg ,ignatius1 ,philad4 #h4 #fh ,tatian1 #ac4 #fi ,,ii4 ,clem4 #bj1 #e4 #gj ,see ,tertullian1 de ,testim4 ,animae1 #d1 the ,christian opinion much nobler than the ,pythagorean4 #ga ,tatian1 #f4 ,cf4 ,justin1 ,apol4 i1 #h2 and ,tertullian1 de ,spectaculis1 #cj1 quoted on p4 #cje4 #gb ,barnabas1 #g1 #i4 ,cf4 ,rev4 i1 #g4 ,behold he ,cometh with the clouds and every eye shall see him--and they that pierced him4 ,cf4 ,tertullian1 de ,spect4 #cj1 once more4 #gc ,,ii4 ,clem4 #ah1 #b4 #gd ,ignatius1 ,eph4 #ba2 ,magn4 #aa2 ,trall4 int4 #b1 #b2 ,philad4 #aa4 #ge ,hebrews #f1 #ai4 #gf ,justin1 ,apol4 i1 #e1 the daemons procured the death of ,socrates1 kai homoios eph hymon to auto energouoi3 #aj1 they spread false reports against ,christians2 ,apol4 ii1 #ab2 ,minucius ,felix1 #bg1 #h4 #gg ,the mob1 with stones and torches1 ,tert4 ,apol4 #cg2 even the dead ,christian was dragged from the grave1 de asylo quodam mortis1 and torn to pieces4 #gh ,stories of governors in ,tert4 ad ,scap4 #c1 #d1 #e2 one provoked by his wife becoming a ,christian4 #gi ,i4 ,peter #d1 #ab4 #hj ,martyrium ,polycarpi1 #c1 #g-aa4 #ha ,justin1 ,apol4 ii1 #ab4 #hb ,d4 i1 #af1 the hymn he proposes is quoted on p4 #fb4 ,it hardly sings itself1 and he does not return to it4 ,the verbal parallel of the passage with that in ,clement1 ,strom4 vii1 #ce1 heightens the contrast of tone4 #hc ,see ,norden1 ,kunstprosa1 ii1 #eji4 #hd ,barnabas1 #g1 #a4 #he ,,ii4 ,clem4 #f1 #g4 #hf ,strom4 vii1 #ce4 #hg de orat4 #c4 #hh ,hermas1 ,m4 #aj1 #ca1--the word is ilaros2 which ,clement 7l4c47 also uses1 conjoining it with semnos4 ,cf4 ,synesius1 ,ep4 #eg1 p4 #achi1 ,migne1 who says that when he was depressed about becoming a bishop 7#daj ,a4,d471 old men told him hos ilaron esti to pneuma to hagion kai ilarunei tous metochous autou4 #hi #a ,peter1 #a1 #h4 #afg ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,conflict ,,of ,,christian ,,and ,,jew ,it is a much discussed question as to how far ,jesus realized the profound gulf between his own religious position and that of his contemporaries4 ,probably1 since tradition meant more to them1 they were quicker to see declension from orthodox ,judaism than a mind more open and experimental2 and when they contrived his death1 it was with a clear sense of acting in defence of ,god's ,law and ,god's ,covenant with ,israel4 ,from their own point of view they were right1 for the triumph of the ideas of ,jesus was the abolition of tribal religions and their supersession by a new mind or spirit with nothing local or racial about it4 ,the death of ,jesus meant to the little community1 which he left behind him1 a final cleavage with the system of their fathers1 under which they had been born1 and with which was associated every religious idea they had known before their great intimacy began4 ,it was a moment of boundless import in the history of mankind4 ,slowly and reluctantly they moved out into the great unknown1--pilgrim fathers1 unconscious of the great issues they carried1 but obedient to an impulse1 the truth of which history has long since established4 ,once again it was their opponents who were the quickest to realize what was involved1 for affection blinded their own eyes4 ,the career of ,paul raised the whole question between ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,he was the first to speak decisively of going to the ,gentiles4 ,the author of the ,acts cites precedents for his action2 and1 as no great movement in man's affairs comes unheralded1 it is easy to believe that even before ,paul the word reached ,gentile ears4 ,none the less the leader in the movement was ,paul2 and whatever we may imagine might have been the history of ,christianity without him1 it remains that he declared1 decisively and for all time1 the church's independence of the synagogue4 ,it is #afh not unlikely that1 even before his conversion1 he had grasped the fact that church and synagogue were not to be reconciled1 and that1 when it pleased ,god to reveal his ,son in him1 he knew at once that he was in a new creation and that he was to be a prophet of a new dispensation4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,jewish heritage ,there is no doubt that the hostile ,jews very quickly realised ,paul's significance1 but the ,christians were not so quick4 ,paul was a newcomer and very much the ablest man among them--they were not many wise1 not many learned1 and ,paul1 though he does not mention it1 was both4 ,he was moreover proposing to take them into regions far beyond their range2 he had not personally known the ,lord and they had2 and there was no clear word of ,jesus on the ,gentile question4 ,there was a conference4 ,what took place1 ,paul tries in the ,galatians to tell2 but he is far too quick a thinker to be a master of mere narrative2 the question of ,christian freedom was too hot in his heart to leave him free for reminiscence1 and the matter is not very clear4 ,the author of the ,acts was not at the council1 and1 whatever his authorities may have been1 there is a constant suggestion in his writing that he has a purpose in view--a purpose of peace between parties4 ,whether they liked the result or not1 the ,christian community seem loyally to have submitted themselves to the ,spirit of ,jesus4 ,it seemed good to the holy spirit and to us tells the story of their deliberations1 whether they put the phrase at the top of a resolution or did not4 ,paul came to the personal followers of ,jesus with a new and strange conception of the religion of their ,master4 ,they laid it alongside of their memories of their ,master1 and they heard him say ,go ye into all the world2 and they went4 ,the natural outcome of this forward step at once became evident4 ,paul did not go among the ,gentiles to preach circumcision1 and there quickly came into being1 throughout ,asia ,minor and in the ,balkan provinces1 many groups of ,christians of a new type--,gentile in mind and tradition1 and in ,christian life no less ,gentile4 ,they remained uncircumcised1 they did not observe the ,sabbath nor any other distinctive usage of ,judaism--they were a new people1 a third race4 ,their very existence put ,judaism on the defensive2 for1 if their position was justified1 it was hard to see #afi what right ,judaism had to be4 ,it was not yet quite clear what exactly the new religion was1 nor into what it might develope2 but if1 as the ,gentile ,christians and their ,apostle claimed1 they stood in a new relation to ,god1 a higher and a more tender than the greatest and best spirits in ,israel had known1 and this without the seal of ,god's covenant with ,israel and independently of his law1 then it was evident that the unique privileges of ,israel were void1 and that1 as ,paul put it1 there is neither ,jew nor ,greek4 ,that part of the ,jewish race1 and it was the larger part1 which did not accept the new religion1 was in no mind to admit either ,paul's premisses or his conclusions4 ,they stood for ,god's covenant with ,israel4 ,nor did they stand alone1 for it took time to convince even ,christian ,jews that the old dispensation had yielded to a new one1 and that the day of ,moses was past4 ,to the one class the rise of the ,christian community was a menace1 to the other a problem4 ,the one left no means untried to check it4 ,by argument1 by appeals to the past1 by working on his superstitions1 they sought to make the ,christian convert into a ,jew2 and1 when they failed1 they had other methods in reserve4 ,themselves everywhere despised and hated1 as they are still1 for their ability and their foreign air1 they stirred up their heathen neighbours against the new race4 ,again and again1 in the ,acts and in later documents1 we read of the ,jews being the authors of pagan persecution4#a ,the unbelieving ,jew was a spiritual and a social danger to the ,christian in every city of the ,east4 ,the converted ,jew was1 in his way1 almost as great a difficulty within the community4 ,it is not hard to understand the feeling of the ,jews within or without the ,church4 ,other races had their ancient histories1 and the ,jew had his--a history long and peculiar4 ,from the day of ,abraham1 the friend of ,god1 the chosen race had been the special care of ,jehovah4 ,jehovah had watched over them2 he had saved them from their enemies2 he had visited them for their iniquities2 he had sent them prophets2 he had given them his law4 ,in a long series of beautiful images1 which move us yet1 ,jehovah had spoken1 through holy men of old1 of his love for ,israel4 ,to ,israel belonged the oracles of ,god #agj and his promises4 ,for here again the national consciousness of ,israel differed from that of every other race4 ,it was something that in the past ,god had spoken to no human family except the seed of ,abraham2 it was more that to them1 and to them alone1 he had assured the future4 ,deeply as ,israel felt the trials of the present1 the ,roman would yet follow the ,persian and the ,greek1 and the day of ,israel would dawn4 ,the ,messiah was to come and restore all things4 ,he shall destroy the ungodly nations with the word of his mouth1 so that at his rebuke the nations may flee before him1 and he shall convict the sinners in the thoughts of their hearts4 ,and he shall gather together a holy people whom he shall lead in righteousness2 and shall judge the tribes of his people that hath been sanctified by the ,lord his ,god4 ,and he shall not suffer iniquity to lodge in their midst1 and none that knoweth wickedness shall dwell with them4444 ,and he shall possess the nations of the heathen to serve him beneath his yoke2 and he shall glorify the ,lord in a place to be seen of the whole earth2 ,and he shall purge ,jerusalem and make it holy1 even as it was in the days of old4 ,so that the nations may come from the ends of the earth to see his glory1 bringing as gifts her sons that had fainted1 ,and may see the glory of the ,lord1 wherewith ,god hath glorified her4 ,so runs one of the ,psalms of ,solomon written between #gj and #dj ,b4,c4#b ,parallel passages might be multiplied1 but one may suffice1 written perhaps in the lifetime of ,jesus4 ,then thou1 ,o ,israel1 wilt be happy1 and thou wilt mount upon the neck of the eagle1 and the days of thy mourning will be ended1 ,and ,god will exalt thee1 and he will cause thee to approach to the heaven of the stars1 and he will establish thy habitation among them1 ,and thou wilt look from on high1 and wilt see thine #aga enemies in ,gehenna1 and thou wilt recognize them and rejoice1 and wilt give thanks and confess thy ,creator4#c ,no people in the ,mediterranean world had such a past behind them1 and none a future so sure and so glorious before them--none indeed seems to have had any great hope of the future at all2 their ,golden ,ages were all in the past1 or far away in mythical islands of the ,eastern seas or beyond the ,rhine4 ,and if the ,christian doctrine was true1 that great past was as dead as ,babylon1 and the ,messianic ,kingdom was a mockery--,israel was feeding on the east wind1 and the nation was not ,jehovah's chosen4 ,at one stroke ,israel was abolished1 and every national memory and every national instinct1 rooted in a past of suffering and revelation1 and watered with tears in a present of pain1 were to wither like the gardens of ,adonis4 ,no man with a human heart but must face the alternative of surrendering national for ,christian ideals1 or hating and exterminating the enemy of his race4 ,so much for the nation1 and what ,christianity meant for it1 but much beside was at stake4 ,there was the seal of circumcision1 the hereditary token of ,god's covenant with ,abraham1 a sacrament passed on from father to son and associated with generations of faith and piety4 ,week by week the ,sabbath came with its transforming memories--the ,princess ,sabbath1 for ,heine was not the first to feel the magic that at sunset on ,friday restores the ,jew to the halls of his royal father1 the tents of ,jacob4 ,every one of their religious usages spoke irresistibly of childhood4 ,when your children shall say unto you ',what mean ye by this service1' ye shall say4441 so ran the old law1 binding every ,jew to his father by the dearest and strongest of all bonds4 ,to become a ,christian was thus to be alienated from the commonwealth of ,israel1 to renounce a father's faith and his home4 ,if the pagan had to suffer for his conversion1 the ,jew's heritage was nobler and holier1 and the harder to forego4 ,even the friendly ,jew pleads1 ,cannot a man be saved who trusts in ,christ and also keeps the law--keeps it so far as he #agb can under the conditions of the dispersion1--the ,sabbath1 circumcision1 the months1 and certain washings8#d ,sidenote3 ,the ,jewish attack on ,jesus ,but this was not all4 ,israel had stood for monotheism and that not the monotheism of ,greek philosophy1 a dogma of the schools consistent with the cults of ,egypt and ,phrygia1 with hierodules and a deified ,antinous4 ,the whole nation had been consecrated to the worship of ,one ,god1 a personal ,god1 who had1 at least where ,israel was concerned1 no hint of philosophic ,apathy4 ,the ,jew was now asked by the ,christian to admit a second ,god--a ,god beside the ,creator 7allos theos para ton poieten ton holon#e7--;and such a ,god6 ,the ,jews knew all about ,jesus of ,nazareth--it was absurd to try to pass him off even as the ,messiah4 ,sir1 said ,trypho1 these scriptures compel us to expect one glorious and great1 who receives from 'the ,ancient of ,days' the 'eternal ,kingdom' as ',son of ,man'2 but this man of yours--your so-called ,christ--was unhonoured and inglorious1 so that he actually fell under the extreme curse that is in the law of ,god2 for he was crucified4#f ,the whole thing was a paradox1 incapable of proof4#g ,it is an incredible thing1 and almost impossible that you are trying to prove--that ,god endured to be begotten and to become a man4#h ,the ,jews had a propaganda of their own about ,jesus4 ,they sent emissaries from ,palestine to supply their countrymen and pagans with the truth4#i ,celsus imagines a ,jew disputing with a ,christian1--a more life-like ,jew1 according to ,harnack1 than ,christian apologists draw1--and the arguments he uses came from ,jewish sources4 ,jesus was born1 they said1 in a village1 the bastard child of a peasant woman1 a poor person who worked with her hands1 divorced by her husband 7who was a carpenter7 for adultery4#aj ,the father was a soldier called ,panthera4 ,as to the ,christian story1 what could have attracted the attention of ,god to her8 ,was she pretty8 ,the carpenter at all events hated her and cast her out4#aa #agc 7,i do not think ,i need trouble about this argument1 is all ,origen says47 ,who saw the dove1 or heard the voice from heaven1 at the baptism8 ,jesus suffered death in ,palestine for the guilt he had committed 7plemmelesanta74 ,he convinced no one while he lived2 even his disciples betrayed him--a thing even brigands would not have done by their chief--so far was he from improving them1 and so little ground is there for saying that he foretold to them what he should surfer4 ,he even complained of thirst on the cross4 ,as for the resurrection1 that rests on the evidence of a mad woman 7paroistros7--or some other such person among the same set of deceivers1 dreaming1 or deluded1 or wishing to startle the rest with the miracle1 and by a lie of that kind to give other impostors a lead4 ,does the resurrection of ,jesus at all differ from those of ,pythagoras or ,zamolxis or ,orpheus or ,herakles--or do you think that the tales of other men both are and seem myths1 but that the catastrophe of your play is a well-managed and plausible piece of invention--the cry upon the gibbet1 when he died1 and the earthquake and the darkness8#ab ,the ,christians systematically edited and altered the ,gospels to meet the needs of the moment2#ac but ,jesus did not fulfil the prophecies of the ,messiah--the prophets say he shall be great1 a dynast1 lord of all the earth and all its nations and armies4#ad ,there are ten thousand other men to whom the prophecies are more applicable than to ,jesus1#ae and as many who in frenzy claim to come from ,god4#af ,in short the whole story of the ,christians rests on no evidence that will stand investigation4 ,even men who would refrain from the hot-tempered method of controversy1 which these quotations reflect1 might well feel the contrast between the historic ,jesus and the expected ,messiah--between the proved failure of the cross and the world-empire of a purified and glorious ,israel4 ,and when it was suggested further that ,jesus was ,god1 an effluence coming from ,god1 as light is lit by light--even if this were true1 it would seem that the ,jew was asked to give up the worship of the ,one ,god1 which he had learnt of his fathers1 and to turn to a being not unlike the pagan gods around him in every land1 who also1 their apologists said1 came from the #agd ,supreme1 and were his emanations and ministers and might therefore be worshipped4 ,thus everything that was distinctive of their race and their religion--the past of ,israel1 the ,messiah and the glorious future1 the beautiful symbols of family religion1 and the ,one ,god ,himself--all was to be surrendered by the man who became a ,christian4 ,we realize the extraordinary and compelling force of the new religion1 when we remember that1 in spite of all to hold them back1 there were those who made the surrender and suffered the loss of all things to win ,christ and be found in him4 ,paul however rested1 as he said1 on revelation1 and ordinary men1 who were not conscious of any such distinction1 who mistrusted themselves and their emotions1 and who rested most naturally upon the cumulative religious experience of their race1 might well ask whether after all they were right in breaking with a sacred past--whether1 apart from subjective grounds1 there were any clear warrant from outside to enable them to go forward4 ,the ,jew had of course oracles of ,god given by inspiration 7theopneustos#ag71 written by holy men of ,god1 moved by the holy spirit4 ,these were his warrant4 ,here circumcision1 the ,sabbath1 the ,passover1 and all his religious life was definitely and minutely prescribed in what was almost1 like the original two tables1 the autograph of the ,one ,god4 ,the law had its own history bound up with that of the race1 and the experience and associations of every new generation made it more deeply awful and mysterious4 ,had the ,christian any law8 had he any oracles1 apart from the unintelligible glossolalies of men possessed 7enthousiontes78 ,when ,justin spoke of the gifts of the ,spirit1 ,trypho interjected1 ,i should like you to know that you are talking nonsense4#ah ,sidenote3 ,the problem ,not unnaturally then did men say to ,ignatius 7as we have seen71 ,if ,i do not find it in the ancient documents1 ,i do not believe it in the gospel4 ,and when ,ignatius rejoined1 ,it is written2 ,that is the problem1 said they4#ai ,it was their problem1 though it was not his4 ,for him ,judaism is a leaven old and sour1 and to use the name of ,jesus ,christ and yet observe ,jewish customs is absurd 7atopon7 or really to confess we have not received grace4#bj ,his documents were #age ,jesus ,christ1 his cross and death and resurrection1 and faith through him4 ,that is the problem--can it be shown from the infallible ,hebrew ,scriptures that the crucified ,jesus is the ,messiah of prophecy1 that he is a ,god beside the ,creator1 that ,sabbath and ,circumcision are to be superseded1 that ,israel's covenant is temporary1 and that the larger outlook of the ,christian is after all the eternal dispensation of which the ,jewish was a copy made for a time8 ,if this could be shown1 it might in some measure stop the mouths of hostile ,jews1 and calm the uneasy consciences of ,jews and proselytes who had become ,christians4 ,and it might serve another and a distinct purpose4 ,it was one of the difficulties of the ,christian that his religion was a new thing in the world4 ,around him were men who gloried in ancient literatures and historic cults4 ,all the support that men can derive from tradition and authority1 or even from the mere fact of having a past behind them1 was wanting to the new faith1 as its opponents pointed out4 ,if1 by establishing his contention against the ,jew1 the ,christian could achieve another end1 and could demonstrate to the ,greek that he too had a history and a literature1 that his religion was no mere accident of a day1 but was rooted in the past1 that it had been foretold by ,god himself1 and was part of the divine scheme for the destiny of mankind1 then1 resting on the sure ground of ,providence made plain1 he could call upon the ,greek in his turn to forsake his errors and superstitions for the first of all religions1 which should also be the last--the faith of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the one method thus served two ends4 ,justin addressed an ,apology to ,antoninus ,pius1 and one-half of his book is occupied with the demonstration that every major characteristic of ,christianity had been prophesied and was a fulfilment4 ,the thirty chapters show what weight the sheer miracle of this had with the apologist1 though1 if the ,emperor actually read the ,apology1 it was probably his first contact with ,jewish scripture4 ,some difference of treatment was necessary1 according as the method was directed to ,jew or ,gentile4 ,for the ,jew it was axiomatic that ,scripture was the word of ,god1 and1 if he did not grant the ,christian's postulate of allegory1 he was withholding from an opponent what had been allowed to ,philo4 #agf ,the ,greek would probably allow the allegory1 and the first task in his case was to show by chronological reckoning that the greater prophets1 and above all ,moses1 antedated the bloom of ,greek literature1 and then to draw the inference that it was from ,hebrew sources that the best thoughts of ,hellas had been derived4 ,here the notorious interest of early ,greek thinkers in ,egypt helped to establish the necessary1 though rather remote1 connexion4 ,when once the priority of the ,hebrew prophets had been proved1 and1 by means of allegory1 a coincidence 7age by age more striking7 had been established between prophecy and event1 the demonstration was complete4 ,there could be only one interpretation of such facts4 ,a number of these refutations of the ,jew survive from early times4 ,justin's ,dialogue with ,trypho is the most famous1 as it deserves to be4 ,it opens in a pleasant ,platonic style with a chance meeting one morning in a colonnade at ,ephesus4#ba ,trypho accosts the philosopher ,justin--,when ,i see a man in your garb1 ,i gladly approach him1 and that is why ,i spoke to you1 hoping to hear something profitable from you4 ,when ,trypho says he is a ,jew1 ,justin asks in what he expects to be more helped by philosophy than by his own prophets and law-giver4 ,is not all the philosophers' talk about ,god8 ,trypho asks4 ,justin then tells him of his own wanderings in philosophy1--how he went from school to school1 and at last was directed by an old man to read the ,jewish prophets1 and how a fire was kindled in my soul1 and a passion seized me for the prophets and those men who are ,christ's friends2 and so1 discussing their words with myself1 ,i found this philosophy alone to be safe and helpful4 ,and that is how and why ,i am a philosopher4#bb ,trypho smiled1 but1 while approving ,justin's ardour in seeking after ,god1 he added that he would have done better to philosophize with ,plato or one of the others1 practising endurance1 continence and temperance1 than to be deceived by lies and to follow men who are worthless4 ,then the battle begins1 and it is waged in a courteous and kindly spirit1 as befits philosophers1 till after two days they part with prayers and goodwill for each other--,trypho unconvinced4 ,other writers have less #agg skill1 and the features of dialogue are sadly whittled away4 ,others again abandon all pretence of discussion and frankly group their matter as a scheme of proof-texts4 ,in what follows1 ,justin shall be our chief authority4 ,we may start with the first point that ,trypho raises4 ,if you will listen to me 7for ,i count you a friend already71 first of all be circumcised1 and then keep1 in the traditional way1 the ,sabbath and the feasts and new moons of ,god1 and1 in a word1 do all that is written in the law1 and then perhaps ,god will have mercy upon you4 ,as for ,christ1 if indeed he has been born and already exists1 he is unknown--nay6 he does not even know himself yet1 nor has he any power1 till ,elijah come and anoint him and make him manifest to all men4 ,you people have accepted an empty tale1 and are imagining a ,christ for yourselves1 and for the sake of him you are perishing quite aimlessly4#bc ,salvation1 according to the ,jew1 was inconceivable outside the pale of ,judaism4 ,except ye be circumcised1 ye cannot be saved1 men had said in ,paul's time4 ,paul's repudiation of this assertion is to be read in his ,epistle to the ,galatians--in his whole life and mind4 ,but genius such as ,paul's was not to be found in the early church1 and men looked outside of themselves for arguments to prove what he had seen and known of his own experience and insight4 ,sidenote3 ,the letter to ,diognetus ,some apologists merely laughed at the ,jew4 ,thus the brilliant and winsome writer known only by his ,epistle to ,diognetus has a short and ready way of dealing with ,jewish usages1 which is not conciliatory4 ,in the next place ,i think you wish to hear why ,christians do not worship in the same way as the ,jews4 ,now the ,jews do well in abstaining from the mode of service ,i have described paganism1 in that they claim to reverence ,one ,god of the universe and count ,him their master2 but1 in offering this worship to ,him in the same way as those ,i have mentioned1 they go far astray4 ,for the ,greeks offer those things to senseless and deaf images and so give an exhibition of folly1 while the ,jews--considering they are presenting them to ,god as if ,he had need of them--ought in all reason to count it foolery and not piety4 ,for ,he that made the heaven and the earth and all #agh that is in them1 and gives freely to every one of us what we need1 could not ,himself need any of the things which ,he ,himself actually gives to those who imagine they are giving them to ,him4444 ,but again of their nervousness 7psophodees7 about meats1 and their superstition about the ,sabbath1 and the quackery 7aladoneia7 of circumcision1 and the pretence 7eironeia7 of fasts and new moons--ridiculous and worthless as it all is1 ,i do not suppose you wish me to tell you4 ,for to accept some of the things which ,god has made for man's need as well created1 and to reject others as useless and superfluous1 is it not rebellion 7athemiston78 ,to lie against ,god as if ,he forbade us to do good on the ,sabbath day1 is not that impiety8 ,to brag that the mutilation of the flesh is a proof of election--as if ,god specially loved them for it--ridiculous6 ,and that they should keep a look-out on the stars and the moon and so observe months and days and distinguish the ordinances of ,god and the changes of the seasons1 as their impulses prompt them to make some into feasts and some into times of mourning--who would count this a mark of piety towards ,god and not much rather of folly8 ,that ,christians are right to keep aloof from the general silliness and deceit of the ,jews1 their fussiness and quackery1 ,i think you are well enough instructed4 ,the mystery of their own piety towards ,god you must not expect to be able to learn from man4#bd ,this was to deal with the distinctive usages of ,judaism on general principles and from a standpoint outside it4 ,it would doubtless be convincing enough to men who did not need to be convinced1 but of little weight with those to whom the ,scriptures meant everything4 ,accordingly the ,apologists went to the ,scriptures and arrayed their evidence with spirit and system4 ,we may begin1 as the writer to ,diognetus begins1 with sacrifices4 ,here the ,apologists could appeal to the ,prophets1 who had spoken of sacrifice in no sparing terms4 ,tertullian's fifth chapter in his book ,against the ,jews presents the evidence shortly and clearly4 ,i will give the passages cited in a tabular form3-- #agi ,malachi #a1 #aj3 ,i will not receive sacrifice from your hands1 since from the rising sun to the setting my name is glorified among the ,gentiles1 saith the ,lord ,almighty1 and in every place they offer pure sacrifices to my name4 ,psalm #if1 #g3 ,offer to ,god glory and honour1 offer to ,god the sacrifices of his name2 away with victims 7tollite7 and enter into his court4 ,psalm #ea1 #ag3 ,a heart contrite and humbled is a sacrifice for ,god4 ,psalm #ej1 #ad3 ,sacrifice to ,god the sacrifice of praise and render thy vows to the ,most ,high4 ,isaiah #a1 #aa3 ,wherefore to me the multitude of your sacrifices8 4444 ,whole burnt offerings and your sacrifices and the fat of goats and the blood of bulls ,i will not 444 ,who has sought these from your hands8 ,justin has other passages as decisive4 ,does not ,god say by ,amos 7#e1 #ba7 ,i hate1 ,i loathe your feasts1 and ,i will not smell your offerings in your assemblies4 ,when ye offer me your whole burnt offerings and your sacrifices1 ,i will not receive them1 and so forth1 in a long passage quoted at length4 ,and again ,jeremiah #g1 #ba-bb3 ,gather your flesh and your sacrifices and eat1 for neither concerning sacrifices nor drink offerings did ,i command your fathers in the day that ,i took them by the hand to lead them out of ,egypt4#be ,next as to circumcision and the ,sabbath4 ,you need a second circumcision1 says ,justin1 and yet you glory in the flesh2 the new law bids you keep a perpetual ,sabbath1 while you idle for one day and suppose you are pious in so doing2 you do not understand why it was enjoined upon you4 ,and1 if you eat unleavened bread1 you say you have fulfilled the will of ,god4#bf ,even by ,moses1 who gave the law1 ,god cried ,you shall circumcise the hardness of your hearts and stiffen your necks no more2#bg and ,jeremiah long afterwards said the same more than once4#bh ,on the ,sabbath question1 ,tertullian and the others distinguished two ,sabbaths1 an eternal and a temporal1#bi citing3-- #ahj ,isaiah #a1 #ad3 ,my soul hates your sabbaths4 ,ezekiel #bb1 #h3 ,ye have profaned my sabbath4 ,the ,jew is referred back to the righteous men of early days--,was ,adam circumcised1 or did he keep the ,sabbath8 or ,abel1 or ,noah1 or ,enoch1 or ,melchizedek8 ,did ,abraham keep the ,sabbath1 or any of the patriarchs down to ,moses8#cj ,but1 rejoins the ,jew1 was not ,abraham circumcised8 ,would not the son of ,moses have been strangled1 had not his mother circumcised him8#ca ,sidenote3 ,old law or new covenant ,to this the ,christian had several replies4 ,circumcision was merely given for a sign1 as is shown by the fact that a woman cannot receive it1 for ,god has made women as well able as men to do what is just and right4 ,there is no righteousness in being of one sex rather than of the other4#cb ,circumcision then was imposed upon the ,jews to mark you off from the rest of the nations and from us1 that you alone might suffer what now you are suffering1 and so deservedly suffering--that your lands should be desolate and your cities burnt with fire1 that strangers should eat your fruits before your faces1 and none of you set his foot in ,jerusalem4 ,for in nothing are you known from other men apart from the circumcision of your flesh4 ,none of you1 ,i suppose1 will venture to say that ,god did not foresee what should come to pass4 ,and it is all deserved2 for you slew the ,righteous one and his prophets before him2 and now you reject and dishonour--so far as you can--those who set their hopes on him and on the ,almighty ,god1 maker of all things1 who sent him2 and in your synagogues you curse those who believe on ,christ4#cc ,the ,sabbath was given to remind the ,jews of ,god2 and restrictions were laid on certain foods because of the ,jewish proclivity to forsake the knowledge of ,god4#cd ,in general1 all these commands were called for by the sins of ,israel1#ce they were signs of judgment4 ,on the other hand the so-called ,barnabas maintains that the ,jews never had understood their law at all4 ,fasts1 feasts #aha and sacrifices were prescribed1 not literally1 but in a spiritual sense which the ,jews had missed4 ,the taboos on meats were not prohibitions of the flesh of weasels1 hares and hyaenas and so forth1 but were allegoric warnings against fleshly lusts1 to which ancient zoologists and modern ,arabs have supposed these animals to be prone4#cf ,circumcision was meant1 as the prophets showed1 to be that of the heart2 evil daemons had misled the ,jews into practising it upon the flesh4#cg ,the whole ,jewish dispensation was a riddle1 and of no value1 unless it is understood as signifying ,christianity4 ,this line of attack was open to the criticism that it robbed the religious history of ,israel of all value whatever1 and the stronger ,apologists do not take it4 ,they will allow the ,jews to have been so far right in observing their law1 but they insist that it had a higher sense also1 which had been overlooked except by the great prophets4 ,the law was a series of types and shadows1 precious till the substance came1 which the shadows foretold4 ,that they were mere shadows is shown by the fact that ,enoch walked with ,god and ,abraham was the friend of ,god4 ,for this could not have been1 if the ,jewish contention were true that without ,sabbath and circumcision man cannot please ,god4 ,otherwise1 either the ,god of ,enoch was not the ,god of ,moses--which was absurd2 or else ,god had changed his mind as to right and wrong--which was equally absurd4#ch ,no1 the legislation of ,moses was for a people and for a time2 it was not for mankind and eternity4 ,it was a prophecy of a new legislator1 who should repeal the carnal code and enact one that should be spiritual1 final and eternal4#ci ,here1 following the writer to the ,hebrews1 the ,apologists quote a great passage of ,jeremiah1 with the advantage 7not always possible7 of using it in the true sense in which it was written4 ,behold6 the days come1 saith the ,lord1 when ,i will make a new covenant with the house of ,israel and with the house of ,judah2 not that which ,i made with their fathers in the day when ,i took them by the hand to lead them out of ,egypt2 which my covenant they brake1 although ,i was an #ahb husband unto them1 saith the ,lord4 ,but this shall be the covenant that ,i will make with the house of ,israel3 ,after those days1 saith the ,lord1 ,i will put my law in their inward parts and write it in their hearts1 and ,i will be their ,god and they shall be my people4#dj ,with the law1 the privilege of ,israel passes away and the day of the ,gentiles comes4 ,it was foretold that ,israel would not accept ,christ--their ears they have closed2#da they have not known nor understood2#db who is blind but my servants8#dc all these words shall be unto you as words of a book that is sealed4#dd ,by ,isaiah the prophet1 ,god1 knowing beforehand what you would do1 cursed you thus2#de and ,justin cites ,isaiah #c1 #i-ae1 and #e1 #ah-be4 ,leah is the type of the synagogue and of the ,jewish people and ,rachel of our church2 the eyes of ,leah were weak1 and so are the eyes of your soul--very weak4#df ,no less was it prophesied that the ,gentiles should believe on ,christ--in thee shall all tribes of the earth be blest2 ,behold6 ,i have manifested him as a witness to the nations1 a prince and a ruler to the races4 ,races which knew thee not shall call upon thee and peoples who were ignorant of thee shall take refuge with thee4#dg ,by ,david ,he said ',a people ,i knew not has served me1 and hearkened to me with the hearing of the ear4' ,let us1 the ,gentiles gathered together1 glorify ,god1 says ,justin1 because he has visited us 444 for he is well pleased with the ,gentiles1 and receives our sacrifices with more pleasure than yours4 ,what have ,i to do with circumcision1 who have the testimony of ,god8 ,what need of that baptism to me1 baptized with the holy spirit8 ,these things1 ,i think1 will persuade even the slow of understanding4 ,for these are not arguments devised by me1 nor tricked out by human skill1--nay6 this was the theme of ,david's lyre1 this the glad news ,isaiah brought1 that ,zechariah proclaimed and ,moses wrote4 ,do you recognize them1 ,trypho8 ,they are in your books--no6 not yours1 but ours--for we believe them--and you1 when you #ahc read1 do not understand the mind that is in them4#dh ,and with that ,justin passes on to discuss whether ,jesus is the ,messiah4 ,such a passage raises the question as to how far he is reporting an actual conversation4 ,in his #hjth chapter he says to ,trypho that he will make a book 7syntaxis7 of their conversation--of the whole of it--to the best of his ability1 faithfully recording all that he concedes to ,trypho4 ,probably he takes ,plato's liberty to develop what was said--unless indeed the dialogue is from beginning to end merely a literary form imposed upon a thesis4 ,in that case1 it must be owned that ,justin manages to give a considerable suggestion of life to ,trypho's words4 ,sidenote3 ,jesus the ,messiah ,but1 even if the law be temporary1 and the ,sabbath spiritual1 if ,israel is to be rejected and the ,gentiles chosen1 we are still far from being assured on the warrant of the ,old ,testament that ,jesus is the ,messiah1 who shall accomplish this great change4 ,why he rather than any of the ten thousand others who might much more plausibly be called the ,messiah8#di ,to prove the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 a great system of ,old ,testament citations was developed1 the origins of which are lost to us4 ,paul certainly applied ,scripture to ,jesus in a free way of his own1 though he is not more fanciful in quotation than his contemporaries4 ,but he never sought to base the ,christian faith on a scheme of texts4 ,lactantius1 writing about #cjj ,a4,d41 implies that ,jesus is the author of the system4 ,he abode forty days with them and interpreted the ,scriptures1 which up to that time had been obscure and involved4#ej ,something of the kind is suggested by ,luke 7#bd1 #bg74 ,but it is obvious that the whole method is quite alien to the mind and style of ,jesus1 in spite of quotations in the vein of the apologists which the evangelists here and there have attributed to him4 ,we may discover two great canons in the operations of the ,apologists4 ,in the first place1 they seek to show that all things prophesied of the ,messiah were fulfilled in ,jesus of ,nazareth2 and1 secondly1 that everything which befel ,jesus was prophesied of the ,messiah4 ,these canons need only to be stated to show the sheer impossibility of the enterprise to #ahd anyone who attaches meaning to words4 ,but in the early centuries of our era there was little disposition with ,jew or ,greek to do this where those books were concerned1 whose age and beauty gave them a peculiar hold upon the mind4 ,in each case the preconception had grown up1 as about the myths of ,isis1 for example1 that such books were in some way sacred and inspired4 ,the theory gave men an external authority1 but it presented some difficulties2 for1 both in ,homer and in ,genesis as in the ,egyptian myths1 there were stories repugnant to every idea of the divine nature which a philosophic mind could entertain4 ,they were explained away by the allegoric method4 ,plutarch shows how the grossest features of the ,isis legend have subtle and spiritual meanings and were never meant to be taken literally--that the myths are logoi in fact2 and ,philo vindicates the ,old ,testament in the same way4#ea ,the whole procedure was haphazard and unscientific2 it closely resembled the principles used by ,artemidorus for the interpretation of dreams--a painful analogy4 ,but1 in the absence of any kind of historic sense1 it was perhaps the only way in which the continuity of religious thought could then be maintained4 ,it is not surprising in view of the prevalence of allegory that the ,christians used it--they could hardly do anything else4 ,thus with the fatal aid of allegory1 the double thesis of the ,apologists became easier and easier to maintain4 ,the most accessible illustration of this line of apology is to be found in the second chapter of ,matthew4 ,we may set out in parallel columns the events in the life of ,jesus and the prophecies which they fulfil4 7a7 ,the ,virgin-,birth4 ,isaiah #g1 #ad3 ,behold a virgin shall conceive4 7b7 ,bethlehem4 ,micah #e1b3 ,and thou1 ,bethlehem1 etc4 7c7 ,the ,flight into ,egypt4 ,hosea #aa1 #a3 ,out of ,egypt have ,i called my son4 7d7 ,the ,murder of the children4 ,jerem4 #ca1 #ae3 ,rachel weeping4 7e7 ,nazareth4 ,judges #ac1 #e3 ,a ,nazarene4 #ahe ,it is hardly unfair to say that the man who cited these passages in these connexions had no idea whatever of their original meaning1 even where he quotes them correctly4 ,here is a fuller scheme taken from the ,apology which ,justin addressed to the ,emperor ,antoninus ,pius4 7,the numbers on the left refer to the chapter in the first ,apology47 #cb4 ,jesus ,christ foretold by ,gen4 #di1 #aj f3 7the blessing ,judah74 of ,moses4 ,numbers #bd1 #ag3 ,there shall dawn a star1 etc4 ,jesus ,christ foretold by ,isaiah #aa1 i3 the rod of ,jesse1 ,isaiah4 etc4 #cc4 ,jesus ,christ to be born ,is4 #g1 #ad3 7the sign to of a virgin4 ,ahaz74 #cd4 ,jesus ,christ to be born at ,micah #e1 #b3 ,thou1 ,bethlehem1 ,bethlehem4 etc4 #ce4 ,the triumphal entry into ,zech4 #i1 #i3 ,thy king cometh ,jerusalem4 riding on an ass1 etc4 ,the ,crucifixion3 the ,cross4 ,is4 #i1f3 ,the government upon his shoulders4 ,is4 #fe1 #b3 ,i have stretched out my hands1 etc4 ,the ,crucifixion3 the ,is4 #eh1 #b3 ,they ask me for mockery4 judgment1 etc4 ,the ,crucifixion3 the nails ,psalm #bb1 #af1 #ah3 ,they and the casting of lots4 pierced my feet and my hands2 they cast lots upon my raiment4 #ch4 ,the ,crucifixion3 the ,is4 #ej1 #f-h3 ,i gave my back scourging4 to the lashes and my cheeks to blows1 etc4 ,the ,crucifixion3 the ,ps4 #bb1 #g3 they wagged the mocking4 head1 saying1 etc4 ,the ,crucifixion3 the ,ps4 #c1 #e3 ,i slept and slumbered resurrection4 and ,i rose up 7anesten7 because the ,lord laid hold of me4 #ahf #ci4 ,the sending of the twelve ,is4 #b1 #c f43 ,out of ,sion shall ,apostles4 go forth the law4 #dj4 ,the proclamation of the ,ps4 #ai1 #b-e3 ,day unto day1 ,gospel4 etc4 ,christ1 ,pilate1 the ,jews ,psalms #a and #b3 cited in and ,herod4 extenso4 #da4 ,christ to reign after the #a ,chron4 #af1 #bc1 #be-ca3 7a ,crucifixion4 psalm74 ,cf4 ,ps4 #if1 i1 #b1 #d-aa1 with ending3 ,the ,lord hath reigned from the tree4 #de4 ,the ,ascension4 ,ps4 #aaj1 #a-c3 ,sit thou at my right hand1 etc4 #dg4 ,the desolation of ,jerusalem4 ,is4 #fd1 #aj-ab3 ,sion has become desert1 etc4 ,is4 #a1 #g1 and ,jer4 #ej1 #c3 ,their land is desert4 #dh4 ,the miracles of ,christ4 ,is4 #ce1 #e1 #f3 ,the lame shall leap 444 the dead shall rise and walk1 etc4 ,christ's death4 ,is4 #eg1 #a f43 ,behold1 how the ,just ,man has perished1 etc4 #di4 ,the ,gentiles to find ,christ ,is4 #fe1 #a-c3 ,i was visible to but not the ,jews4 them that asked not for me 444 ,i spread out my hands to a disobedient people4 #ej4 ,christ's humiliation and ,is4 #ec1 #ab3 ,for that they gave the glorious second his soul to death 444 he advent4 shall be exalted4 ,is4 #eb1 #ac-ec1 #h3 444 he was wounded1 etc4 #ea4 ,his sufferings1 origin1 ,is4 #ec1 #h-ab4 reign and ascension4 ,his second coming4 ,jeremiah ,daniel #g1 #ac1 as it were a son of man cometh upon the clouds and his angels with him4 #ahg #eb4 ,the final resurrection4 ,ezek4 #cg1 #g-h3 ,bone shall be joined to bone4 ,is4 #de1 #bc3 ,every knee shall bow to the ,lord4 ,is4 #ff1 #bd3 ,the worm shall not sleep nor the fire be quenched4 ,also a composite quotation with phrases mingled from ,isaiah and ,zechariah1 attributed to the latter4 #ec4 ,more ,gentiles than ,jews ,is4 #ed1 #a3 ,rejoice1 ,o barren1 will believe4 etc4 ,isaiah ,jerem4 #i1 #bf3 ,israel uncircumcised in heart4 #fj4 ,the ,cross foretold in the ,num4 #ba1 #h3 ,if ye look at this brazen serpent4 type7typo7 ,i believe ye shall be saved in it 7en auto74 #fa4 ,baptism4 ,is4 #a1 #af3 ,wash you 444 ,i will whiten as wool4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,god beside the ,creator ,what in the ,apology is a bare outline1 is developed at great length and with amazing ingenuity in the dialogue with ,trypho4 ,we may begin with the question of a ,god beside the ,creator4 ,when ,moses wrote in ,genesis 7#a1 #bf7 ,and ,god said1 ',let us make man in our image after our likeness1' and again 7#c1 #bb7 ,and the ,lord ,god said1 ',behold the man is become as one of us1'#eb why did he use the plural1 unless there is a ,god beside ,god8 ,again1 when ,sodom is destroyed why does the holy text say ,the ,lord rained upon ,sodom and ,gomorrha sulphur and fire from the ,lord from heaven8#ec ,and again in the ,psalms 7#aaj7 what is meant by ,the ,lord said unto my ,lord8#ed and by ,thy throne1 ,o ,god1 is for ever and ever 444 therefore ,god1 thy ,god1 hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness above thy fellows8#ee ,the ,old ,testament abounds in theophanies1 which are #ahh brought up in turn4 ,justin cites the three men who appeared to ,abraham--they were angels1 says ,trypho1 and a long argument follows to show from the passage that one of them is not to be explained as an angel1#ef nor of course as the ,creator of all things4 ,trypho owns this4 ,justin pauses at his suggestion to discuss the meal which ,abraham had served1 but is soon caught up with the words3 ,now1 come1 show us that this ,god who appeared to ,abraham and is the servant of ,god1 the ,maker of all1 was born of a virgin1 and became1 as you said1 a man of like passions with all men4 ,but ,justin has more evidence to unfold before he reaches that stage4 ,without following the discussion as it sways from point to point1 we may take the passage in which he recapitulates this line of argument4 ,i think ,i have said enough1 so that1 when my ,god says ',god went up from ,abraham1' or ',the ,lord spoke to ,moses1' or ',the ,lord descended to see the tower which the sons of men had built1' or ',the ,lord shut the ark of ,noah from without1' you will not suppose the unbegotten ,god ,himself went down or went up4 ,for the ineffable ,father and ,lord of all neither comes anywhere1 nor 'walks' as in the garden of ,eden1 nor sleeps1 nor rises1 but abides in his own region wherever it is1 seeing keenly and hearing keenly1 but not with eyes or ears1 but by power unspeakable2 and he surveys all things and knows all things1 and none of us escapes his notice2 nor does he move1 nor can space contain him1 no1 nor the whole universe1 him1 who was before the universe was made4#eg ,sidenote3 ,the virgin-birth ,who then was it who walked in the garden1 who wrestled with ,jacob1 who appeared in arms to ,joshua1 who spoke with ,moses and with ,abraham1 who shut ,noah into the ark1 who was the fourth figure in the fiery furnace8 ,scripture gives us a key4 ,can the ,jew say1 who it is whom ,ezekiel calls the angel of great counsel2 and the man2 whom ,daniel describes as the ,son of man2 whom ,isaiah called child1 and ,david ,christ and ,god adored2 whom ,moses called ,joseph and ,jacob and the star2 whom ,zechariah called the daystar2 whom #ahi ,isaiah again called the sufferer 7pathetos71 ,jacob and ,israel2 whom others have named the ,rod1 the ,flower1 the ,chief ,corner-stone and the ,son of ,god8#eh ,the answer is more clearly given by ,solomon in the eighth chapter of ,proverbs--it is the ,divine ,wisdom1 to whom all these names apply4 ,when it is said ,let us make man1 it is to be understood that the ,ineffable communicated his design to his ,wisdom1 his ,logos or ,son1 and the ,son made man4 ,the ,son rained upon ,sodom the fire and brimstone from the ,father4 ,it was the ,son who appeared to men in all the many passages cited--the ,son1 ,christ the ,lord1 ,god and ,son of ,god--inseparable and unseverable from the ,father1 ,his ,wisdom and ,his ,word and ,his ,might 7dynamis74#ei ,but1 while all this might be accepted by a ,jew1 it still seemed to ,trypho that it was paradoxical1 and foolish1 too1 to say that ,christ could be ,god before all the ages1 and then tolerate to be born a man1 and yet not a man of men4 ,the offence of the ,cross also remained4 ,the ,apologist began by explaining the mysteries of the two comings of ,christ1 first in humiliation1 and afterwards in glory1 as ,jacob prophesied in his last words4#fj ,for the ,first ,coming ,tertullian quotes ,isaiah--he is led as a sheep to the slaughter2 and the ,psalms--made a little lower than the angels1 a worm and not a man2 while the ,second ,coming is to be read of in ,daniel and the forty-fifth ,psalm1 and in the more awful passage of ,zechariah and then they shall know him whom they pierced4#fa ,the paschal lamb is a type of the ,first ,coming--especially as it was to be roasted whole and trussed like a cross2 and the two goats of ,leviticus 7#af7 are types of the two ,comings4#fb ,and now1 says ,justin1 ,i took up the argument again to show that he was born of a virgin1 and that it had been prophesied by ,isaiah that he should be born of a virgin2 and ,i again recited the prophecy itself4 ,this is it3 ',and the ,lord said moreover unto ,ahaz1 saying3 ',ask for thyself a sign from the ,lord thy ,god in the depth or in the height4 ,and ,ahaz #aij said3 ,i will not ask nor tempt the ,lord4 ,and ,isaiah said3 ,hear ye then1 ,o house of ,david6 ,is it a little thing with you to strive with men8 and how will ye strive with the ,lord8 ,therefore shall the ,lord himself give you a sign4 ,behold1 the virgin shall conceive and bear a son1 and they shall call his name ,emmanuel4 ,butter and honey shall he eat4 ,before he shall either have knowledge or choose evil1 he shall choose good2 because1 before the child knows evil or good1 he refuses evil to choose good4 ,because1 before the child knows to call father or mother1 he shall take the power of ,damascus and the spoils of ,samaria before the ,king of the ,assyrians4 ,and the land shall be taken1 which thou shalt bear hardly from before the face of two kings4 ,but ,god will bring upon thee1 and upon thy people1 and upon the house of thy father1 days which have never come1 from the day when ,ephraim removed from ,judah the ,king of the ,assyrians4' ,and ,i added1 ',that1 in the family of ,abraham according to the flesh1 none has ever yet been born of a virgin1 or spoken of as so born1 except our ,christ1 is manifest to all4' ,it may be noted that the passage is not only misquoted1 but is a combination of clauses from two distinct chapters4#fc ,the explanation is perhaps that ,justin found it so in a manual of proof-texts and did not consult the original4 ,similar misquotations in other authors have suggested the same explanation4 ,trypho rejoined3 ',the scripture has not3 ,behold the virgin shall conceive and bear a son2 but3 ,behold the young woman shall conceive and bear a son3 and the rest as you said4 ,the whole prophecy was spoken of ,hezekiah and was fulfilled of him4 ,in the myths of the ,greeks it is said that ,perseus was born of ,danae1 when she was a virgin--after their so-called ,zeus had come upon her in the form of gold4 ,you ought to be ashamed to tell the same story as they do4 ,you would do better to say this ,jesus was born a man of men1 and--if you show from the ,scriptures that he is the ,christ--say that it was by his lawful and perfect life that he was counted worthy of being chosen as ,christ4 ,don't talk miracles of that kind1 or you will be proved to talk folly beyond even that of the ,greeks4'#fd ,trypho has the ,hebrew text behind him1 which says #aia nothing about a virgin1 though the ,septuagint has the word4 ,the sign given to ,ahaz has a close parallel in a prophecy of ,muhammad4 ,before he became known1 an old man foretold that a great prophet should come1 and on being challenged for a sign he pointed to a boy lying in rugs by the camp-fire--,that boy should see the prophet2 and he did4 ,isaiah's sign is much the same2 a young woman shall conceive and have a son1 and before that son is two or three years old1 ,damascus and ,syria will fall before the ,king of ,assyria4 ,but ,justin and the ,apologists are not to be diverted4 ,as for ,danae1 the ,devil 7diabolos7 has there anticipated the fulfilment of ,god's prophecy1 as in many other instances1 e4g43--,dionysus rode an ass1 he rose from the dead and ascended to heaven2 ,herakles is a parody of the verse in ,psalm xix--the strong man rejoicing to run a race1 a ,messianic text2 ,a,esculapius raised the dead2 and the cave of ,mithras is ,daniel's stone cut without hands from the great mountains4 ,i do not believe your teachers2 they will not admit that the seventy elders of ,ptolemy1 ,king of ,egypt1 translated well1 but they try to translate for themselves4 ,and ,i should like you to know that they have cut many passages out of the versions made by ,ptolemy's elders which prove expressly that this man1 who was crucified1 was prophesied of as ,god and man1 crucified and slain4 ,i know that all your race deny this2 so1 in discussions of this kind ,i do not quote those passages1 but ,i have recourse to such as come from what you still acknowledge4#fe ,the objection to the rendering young woman is that it completely nullifies the sign given to ,ahaz1 for children are born of young women every day--what would really be a sign and would give confidence to mankind1--to wit1 that the firstborn of all creations should take flesh and really be born a child of a virgin womb--that was what he proclaimed beforehand by the prophetic spirit4#ff ,the whole story is parable4 ,it would be absurd to suppose that an infant could be a warrior and reduce great states4 ,the spoils are really the gifts of the ,magi1 as is indicated by passages in ,zechariah 7he shall gather all the strength of the peoples round about1 gold and silver1 #ad1 #ad7 and the seventy second ,psalm 7,kings of the ,arabs and of ,saba shall bring #aib gifts to him2 and to him shall be given gold from the ,east74 ,samaria again is a common synonym with the prophets for idolatry4 ,damascus means the revolt of the ,magi from the evil daemon who misdirected their arts to evil4 ,the ,king of ,assyria stands1 says ,justin1 for ,king ,herod1 and so says ,tertullian1 writing against ,marcion1 though in the tract ,against the ,jews 7if it is ,tertullian's7 he says the devil is intended4#fg ,the usual passages from ,micah and ,jeremiah are cited to add ,bethlehem and the ,murder of the infants to the prophetic story4 ,at this ,trypho1 with some hint of annoyance1 but overawed by the ,scriptures1 as his face showed1 said to me3 ',god's words are holy1 but your expositions or translations are artificial--or blasphemous1 ,i should say4'#fh ,to complete the proof1 it is shown that the very name of ,jesus was foretold4 ,when ,moses changed the name of his successor from ,auses to ,jesus1 it was a prophecy1 as ,scripture shows4 ,the ,lord said unto ,moses3 ,say to this people1 ,behold ,i send my angel before thy face that he may guard thee in the way1 that he may lead thee into the land that ,i have prepared for thee4 ,give heed unto him 444 for he will not let thee go1 for my name is in him4#fi ,this is confirmed by ,zechariah's account of the ,high ,priest ,joshua4 ,furthermore1 the chronology of the book of ,daniel1 when carefully worked out1 proves to have contained the prediction of the precise date at which ,christ should come1 and at that precise date ,christ came4 ,barnabas discovers another prophecy of ,jesus in an unlikely place4 ,learn1 children of love1 he says1 that ,abraham1 who first gave circumcision1 looked forward in spirit unto ,jesus1 when he circumcised1 for he received dogmata in three letters4 ,for it saith3 ,and ,abraham circumcised of his house men #ah and #cjj4 ,what then was the knowledge given unto him8 ,mark that it says #ah first1 and then after a pause #cjj4 #ah ,,ih in ,greek notation there thou hast ,jesus4 ,and because the cross in ,t #cjj in ,greek notation was to have grace1 it #aic saith #cjj as well4 ,it shows ,jesus in the two letters1 and in the one the cross4#gj ,we now reach the prophecies of the cross1 and1 as the method is plain1 a few references may suffice1 taken this time from ,tertullian 7c4 #aj73-- ,genesis #bb1 #f3 ,isaac carrying the wood for the sacrifice of himself4 ,genesis #cg1 #bh3 ,joseph sold by his brethren4 ,deuteronomy #cc1ag3 ,moses' blessing of ,joseph4 7,the unicorn's horns1 with some arrangement1 form a cross3 cf4 ,psalm #bb74 ,exodus #ag1 #aa3 ,moses with his arms spread wide4 ,numbers #ba1 #i3 ,the brazen serpent4 ,psalm #if1 #aj3 ,the ,lord hath reigned from the tree1 e ligno 7though the ,jews have cut out the last words74 ,isaiah #i1 #f3 ,the government upon his shoulder4 ,jeremiah #aa1 #ai3 ,let us cast wood 7lignum7 into his bread4 ,isaiah #ec1 #h1 #i3 ,for the transgression of my people is he stricken 444 and his sepulture is taken from the midst 7i4e4 the resurrection74 ,amos #h1 #i3 ,i will cause the sun to go down at noon4 ,for a long time before ,justin was done with his exposition1 ,trypho was silent--the better part1 perhaps1 in all controversy4 ,at last1 writes ,justin1 ,i finished4 ,trypho said nothing for a while1 and then he said1 ',you see1 we came to the controversy unprepared4 ,still1 ,i own1 ,i am greatly pleased to have met you1 and ,i think my friends have the same feeling4 ,for we have found more than we expected1--or anyone could have expected4 ,if we could do it at more length1 we might be better profited by looking into the passages themselves4 ,but1 since you are on the point of sailing and expect to embark every day now1--be sure you think of us as friends1 if you go4'#ga ,so1 with kindly feelings1 ,trypho went away unconvinced4 ,and there were others1 as clear of mind1 who were as little convinced1--,marcion1 for instance1 and ,celsus4 ,the more reasonable among ,jews and ,christians1 says ,celsus1 try to allegorize them the ,scriptures1 but they are beyond being #aid allegorized and are nothing but sheer mythology of the silliest type4 ,the supposed allegories that have been made are more disgraceful than the myths and more absurd1 in their endeavour to string together what never can in any way be harmonized--it is folly positively wonderful for its utter want of perception4#gb ,the modern reader may not be so ready as ,origen was to suggest that ,celsus probably had ,philo in mind4#gc ,sidenote3 ,results ,it is clear that1 in the endeavour to give ,christianity a historical background and a prophetic warrant1 the ,apologists lost all perspective4#gd ,the compelling personality of ,jesus receded behind the vague figure of the ,christ of prophecy2 and1 in their pre-occupation with what they themselves called types and shadows1 men stepped out of the sunlight into the shade and hardly noticed the change4 ,yet there is still among the best of them the note of love of ,jesus--do not speak evil of the crucified1 pleads ,justin1 nor mock at his stripes1 whereby all may be healed1 as we have been healed4#ge ,and after all it was an instinct for the truth and universal significance of ,jesus that carried them away4 ,he must be eternal2 and they1 like the men of their day1 thought much of the beginning and the end of creation1 and perhaps found it easier than we do1--certainly more natural1--to frame schemes under which the ,eternal ,mind might manifest itself4 ,eschatology1 purpose1 foreknowledge1 pervade their religious thought1 and they speak with a confidence which the centuries since the ,renaissance have made more and more impossible for us1 who find it hard enough to be sure of the fact without adventuring ourselves in the possibilities that lie around it4 ,none the less the centre of interest was the same for them as for us--what is the significance of ,jesus of ,nazareth8 ,for them the facts of his life and of his mind had often less value than the fancy that they fulfilled prophecy2 ,celsus said outright that the ,christians altered them1 and there is some evidence that1 in the accommodation of prophecy and history1 #aie the latter was sometimes over-developed4 ,for us1 the danger is the opposite2 we risk losing sight of the eternal significance in our need of seeing clearly the historic lineaments4 ,in the conflict of religions1 ,christianity had first to face ,judaism1 and1 though the encounter left its record upon the conquering faith1 it secured its freedom from the yoke of the past4 ,it gained background and the broadening of the historic imagination4 ,it made the prophets and psalmists of ,israel a permanent and integral part of ,christian literature--and in all these ways it became more fit to be the faith of mankind1 as it deepened its hold upon the universal religious experience4 ,yet it did so at the cost of a false method which has hampered it for centuries1 and of a departure 7for too long a time7 from the simplicity and candour of the mind of ,jesus4 ,in seeking to recover that mind to-day we commit ourselves to the belief that it is sufficient1 and that1 when we have rid ourselves of all that in the course of ages has obscured the great personality1 in proportion as we regain his point of view1 we shall find once more 7in the words of a far distant age7 that his spirit will guide us into all truth4 ,chapter ,,vi ,footnotes3 #a ,justin1 ,trypho1 c4 #ag2 ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #ac4 #b ,psalm4 ,solom4 xvii1 #bg-ce4 ,ed4 ,ryle and ,james4 #c ,assumption of ,moses1 x1 #h-aj1 tr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,charles4 ,gehenna is a restoration which seems probable1 the ,latin in terram representing what was left of the word in ,greek4 ,see ,dr ,charles' note4 #d ,justin1 ,trypho1 #df1 #dg4 ,the question is still asked2 ,i have heard it asked4 #e ,justin1 ,trypho1 #ej4 #f ,justin1 ,trypho1 #cb2 the quotations are from ,daniel4 #g ,justin1 ,trypho1 #dh4 #h ,justin1 ,trypho1 #fh4 #i ,justin1 ,trypho1 #ag1 #ajh4 #aj ,cf4 ,tert4 de ,spect4 #cj1 fabri aut quaestuariae filius4 #aa ,origen1 c4 ,cels4 i1 #bh1 #cb1 #ci4 ,the beauty of the woman is an element in the stories of ,greek demi-gods4 #ab c4 ,cels4 ii1 #ee4 #ac ii1 #bg4 #ad ii1 #bi4 #ae ii1 #bh4 #af i1 #ej4 #ag #b ,tim4 #h1 #ae4 #ah ,trypho1 #ci4 #ai ,ign4 ,philad4 #h1 #b4 #bj ,ign4 ,magn4 #aj1 #c2 #h1 #a4 #ba ,so says ,eusebius1 ,e4,h4 iv1 #ah4 ,justin does not name the city4 #bb ,trypho1 #h4 #bc ,justin1 ,trypho1 #h4 #bd ad ,diogn4 #c1 #d4 #be ,trypho1 #bb4 #bf ,ibid4 #ab4 #bg ,deut4 #aj1 #af1 #ag2 ,trypho1 #af4 #bh ,jerem4 #d1 #d2 #i1 #be2 ,trypho1 #bh4 #bi ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #d4 #cj ,justin1 ,trypho1 #ai2 ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #b2 ,cyprian1 ,testim4 #a1 #h4 ,tertullian had to face a similar criticism of ,christian life--was ,abraham baptized8 de ,bapt4 #ac4 #ca ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #c4 #cb ,trypho1 #bc2 ,cyprian1 ,testim4 #a1 #h4 #cc ,trypho1 #af 7slightly compressed74 #cd ,trypho1 #ai1 #bj2 cf4 ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #ce ,trypho1 #bb4 #cf ,barnabas1 #aj2 cf4 ,pliny1 ,n4,h4 #h1 #bah1 on the hare2 and ,plutarch1 de ,iside et ,osiride1 #cec ,f1 #cfc ,f1 #cgf ,e1 #cha ,a 7weasel71 for similar zoology and symbolism4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,str4 ii1 #fg2 v1 #ea2 refers to this teaching of ,barnabas 7cf4 ib4 ii1 #aje74 #cg ,barnabas1 #i4 #ch ,trypho1 #bc4 #ci ,ibid4 #aa4 #dj ,jerem4 #ca1 #ca2 ,trypho1 #aa2 ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #c4 #da ,is4 #f1 #aj2 ,trypho1 #ab2 ,cyprian1 ,testim4 i1 #c4 #db ,ps4 #hb1 #e2 ,trypho1 #abd2 ,cyprian1 ,testim4 i1 #c4 #dc ,is4 #db1 #ai2 ,trypho1 #abc1 where the plural is used4 #dd ,is4 #bi1 #aa2 ,cyprian1 ,testim4 i1 #d4 #de ,trypho1 #acc4 #df ,trypho1 #acd4 #dg ,cyprian1 ,testim4 i1 #ba2 ,justin1 ,trypho1 #ab2 ,tert4 adv4 ,marc4 iii1 #bj4 #dh ,trypho1 #bi4 #di c4 ,cels4 ii1 #bh1 #ej ,lactantius1 de mort4 persec4 #b4 #ea ,tertullian lays down the canon 7adv4 ,marc4 iii1 #e7 pleraque figurate portenduntur per aenigmata et allegorias et parabolas1 aliter intelligenda quam scripta sunt2 but 7de resurr4 carnis1 #bj7 non omnia imagines sed et veritates1 nec omnia umbrae sed et corpora1 e4g4 the ,virgin-birth is not foretold in figure4 #eb ,trypho1 #fb1 #abi2 ,barnabas1 #e1 #e2 ,tert4 adv4 ,prax4 #ab4 #ec ,trypho1 #ef4 #ed ,ibid4 #ef4 #ee ,ibid4 #ef4 #ef ,trypho1 #ef1 #eg4 #eg ,trypho1 #abg4 ,tert4 adv4 ,marc4 ii1 #bg4 ,quaecunque exigitis deodigna1 habebuntur in patre invisibili incongressibilique et placido et1 ut ita dixerim1 philosophorum deo4 ,quaecunque autem ut indigna reprehenditis1 deputabuntur in filio1 etc4 ,cf4 on the distinction ,tert4 adv4 ,prax4 #ad ff4 ,cf4 the language of ,celsus on ,god descending1 see p4 #bdh4 #eh ,trypho1 #abf4 ,other titles are quoted by ,justin1 ,trypho1 #fa4 #ei ,trypho1 #abh4 ,cf4 ,tertullian1 adv4 ,marc4 ii1 #bg1 ,ille est qui descendit1 ille qui interrogat1 ille qui postulat1 ille qui jurat2 adv4 ,prax4 #ae1 ,filius itaque est qui4444 #fj ,gen4 #di1 #h-ab2 ,trypho1 #eb1 #ec2 ,apol4 i1 #cb2 ,cyprian1 ,testim4 i1 #ba4 #fa ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #ad4 #fb ,trypho1 #dj2 ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #ad2 ,barnabas1 #g4 #fc ,trypho1 #ff4 ,isaiah vii and viii4 #fd ,trypho1 #fg4 #fe ,trypho1 #ga4 #ff ,trypho1 #hd4 ,cf4 ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #i adv4 ,marc4 iii1 #ac4 #fg ,trypho1 #gg3 ,tert4 adv4 ,jud4 #i adv4 ,marc4 iii1 #ac2 both referring to ,psalm #ga4 #fh ,trypho1 #gi4 #fi ,trypho1 #ge2 ,exodus #bc1 #bj4 #gj ,barnabas1 #i1 #h 7the subject of 'saith' may in each case be 'he'74 ,clement of ,alexandria cites this and adds a mystic and mathematical account of this suggestive figure #cah4 ,strom4 vi4 #hd4 #ga ,trypho1 #adb4 #gb ,celsus ap4 ,orig4 c4 ,cels4 iv1 #ej1 #ea4 #gc ,especially when he finds ,celsus referring to the dialogue of ,jason and ,papiscus as more worthy of pity and hatred than of laughter2 c4 ,cels4 iv1 #eb4 #gd ,porphyry 7cited by ,euseb4 ,e4,h4 vi1 #ai71 says they made riddles of what was perfectly plain in ,moses1 their expositions would not hang together1 and they cheated their own critical faculty1 to kritikon tes psyches katagoeteusantes4 #ge ,trypho1 #acg4 #aif ,,chapter ,,vii ,,gods ,,or ,,atoms8 ,in the first two centuries of our era a great change came over the ancient world4 ,a despised and traditional religion1 under the stimulus of new cults coming from the ,east1 revived and re-asserted its power over the minds of men4 ,philosophy1 grown practical in its old age1 forsook its youthful enthusiasm for the quest of truth1 and turned aside to the regulation of conduct1 by means of maxims now instead of inspiration1 and finally1 as we have seen1 to apology for the ancient faith of the fathers4 ,its business now was to reconcile its own monotheistic dogma with popular polytheistic practice4 ,it was perhaps this very reconciliation that threw open the door for the glowing monotheism of the disciples of ,jesus2 but1 whatever the cause1 ,christianity quickly spread over the whole ,roman ,empire4 ,we are apt to wonder to-day at the great political and national developments that have altered the whole aspect of ,europe since the ,french ,revolution1 and to reflect rather idly on their rapidity4 ,yet the past has its own stories of rapid change1 and not the least striking of them is the disappearance of that world of thought which we call ,classical4 ,by #ahj ,a4,d4 nearly every distinctive mark of classical antiquity is gone--the old political ideas1 the old philosophies1 the old literatures1 and much else with them4 ,old forms and names remain--there are still consuls and archons1 poets and philosophers1 but the atmosphere is another1 and the names have a new meaning1 if they have any at all4 ,but the mere survival of the names hid for many the fact that they were living in a new era4 ,sidenote3 ,marcus ,aurelius ,in the reign of ,marcus ,aurelius1 however1 the signs of change became more evident1 and men grew conscious that some transformation of the world was in progress4 ,a great plague1 the scanty records of which only allow us to speak in #aig vague terms of an immense reduction in population#a--;barbarism active upon the frontier of an ,empire not so well able as it had fancied to defend itself--superstitions1 ,egyptian and ,jewish1 diverting men from the ordinary ways of civic duty--such were some of the symptoms that men marked4 ,under the weight of absurdity1 quietism and individualism1 the state seemed to be sinking1 and all that freedom of mind which was the distinctive boast of ,hellenism was rapidly being lost4 ,it happens that1 while the historical literature of the period has largely perished1 a number of authors survive1 who from their various points of view deal with what is our most immediate subject--the conflict of religions4 ,faith1 doubt1 irritation and fatalism are all represented4 ,the most conspicuous men of letters of the age are undoubtedly the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius himself and his two brilliant contemporaries1 ,lucian of ,samosata1 and ,apuleius of ,madaura4#b ,celsus1 a man of mind as powerful as any of the three1 survives in fragments1 but fragments ample enough to permit of re-construction4 ,among the ,christians too there was increased literary activity1 but ,tertullian and ,clement will suffice for our purpose4 ,though not in his day regarded as a man of letters1 it is yet in virtue of his writing that ,marcus ,aurelius survives4 ,his journal1 with the title that tells its nature--,to ,himself1 is to-day perhaps the most popular book of antiquity with those whose first concern is not literature4 ,it is translated again and again1 and it is studied4 ,the peculiar mind of the solitary ,emperor has made him1 as ,mr ,f4 ,w4 ,h4 ,myers put it1 the saint and exemplar of ,agnosticism4 ,meditative1 tender and candid1 yet hesitant and so far ineffectual1 he is sensitive to so much that is positive and to so much that is negative1 that the diary1 in which his character is most intimately revealed1 gives him a place of his own in the hearts of men perplext in the extreme4 ,he is a man who neither believes1 nor disbelieves1--either gods or atoms#c seems to be the necessary antithesis1 and there is so much to be said both for #aih and against each of the alternatives that decision is impossible4 ,he is attracted by the conception of ,providence1 but he hesitates to commit himself4 ,there are arguments--at least of the kind that rest on probability--in favour of immortality1 but they are insufficient to determine the matter4 ,in his public capacity he became famous for the number and magnificence of his sacrifices to the gods of the state2 he owns in his journal his debt to the gods for warnings given in dreams1 but he suspects at times that they may not exist4 ,meanwhile he persecutes the ,christians for their disloyalty to the state4 ,their stubborn convictions were so markedly in contrast with his own wavering mind that he could not understand them--perhaps their motive was bravado1 he thought2 they were too theatrical altogether2 their pose recalled the tragedies composed by the pupils of the rhetoricians--large language with nothing behind it4#d ,in the absence of any possibility of intellectual certainty1 ,marcus fell back upon conduct4 ,here his want of originality and of spiritual force was less felt1 for conduct has tolerably well-established rules of neighbourliness1 purity1 good temper1 public duty and the like4 ,his ,stoic guides1 too1 might in this region help him to follow with more confidence the voice of his own pure and delicate conscience--the conscience of a saint and a quietist rather than that of a man of action4 ,yet even in the realm of conduct he is on the whole ineffectual4 ,pure1 truthful1 kind1 and brave he is1 but he does not believe enough to be great4 ,he is called to be a statesman and an administrator2 he does not expect much outcome from all his energies1 and he preaches to himself the necessity of patience with his prospective failure to achieve anything beyond the infinitesimal4 ,ever the same are the cycles of the universe1 up and down1 for ever and for ever4 ,either the intelligence of the ,whole puts itself in motion for each separate effect--in which case accept the result it gives2 or else it did so once for all1 and everything is sequence1 one thing in another 444 ,the text is doubtful for a line 444 ,in a word1 either ,god1 and all goes well2 or all at random--live not thou at random4 ,a moment1 and earth will cover us all2 then it too in its turn will change2 and what it changes to1 will change again #aii and again for ever2 and again change after change to infinity4 ,the waves of change and transformation--if a man think of them and of their speed1 he will despise everything mortal4 ,the universal cause is like a winter torrent2 it carries all before it4 ,how cheap then these poor statesmen1 these who carry philosophy into practical affairs1 as they fancy--poor diminutive creatures4 ,drivellers4 ,man1 what then8 ,do what now ,nature demands4 ,start1 if it be given thee1 and look not round to see if any will know4 ,hope not for ,plato's ,republic2#e but be content if the smallest thing advance2 to compass that one issue count no little feat4 ,who shall change one of their dogmata the regular word of ,epictetus8 ,and without a change of dogmata1 what is there but the slavery of men groaning and pretending to obey8 ,go now1 and talk of ,alexander1 and ,philip and ,demetrius of ,phalerum2 whether they saw the will of ,nature and schooled themselves1 is their affair2 if they played the tragic actor1 no one has condemned me to copy them4 ,simplicity and modesty are the work of philosophy2 do not lead me astray into vanity4 ,look down from above on the countless swarms of men1 their countless initiations1 and their varied voyage in storm and calm1 their changing combinations1 as they come into being1 meet1 and pass out of being4 ,think too of the life lived by others of old1 of the life that shall be lived by others after thee1 of the life now lived among the barbarian nations2 and1 of how many have never heard thy name1 and how many will at once forget it1 and how many may praise thee now perhaps but will very soon blame thee2 and how neither memory is of any account1 nor glory1 nor anything else at all4444 ,the rottenness of the material substance of every individual thing--water1 dust1 bones1 stench4444 ,and this breathing element is another of the same1 changing from this to that4444 ,either the gods have no power1 or they have power4 ,if they have not1 why pray8 ,if they have1 why not pray for deliverance from the fear1 or the desire1 or the pain1 which the thing causes1 rather than for the withholding or the giving of the particular thing8 ,for certainly1 if they can co-operate with men1 it is for these purposes they can co-operate4 ,but perhaps #bjj thou wilt say1 ,the gods have put all these in my own power4 ,then is it not better to use what is in thine own power and be free1 than to be set on what is not in thy power--a slave and contemptible8 ,and who told thee that the gods do not help us even to what is in our own power8#f ,this handful of short passages all from the same place1 with a few omitted1 may be taken as representing very fairly the mind of ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,the world was his to rule1 and he felt it a duty to remember how slight a thing it was4 ,this was not the temper of ,alexander or of ,caesar1--of men who make mankind1 and who1 by their belief in men and in the power of their own ideas to lift men to higher planes of life1 actually do secure that advance is made1--and that advance not the smallest4 ,yet he speaks of ,alexander as a tragic actor4#g ,for a statesman1 the attitude of ,marcus is little short of betrayal4 ,he worked1 he ruled1 he endowed1 he fought--he was pure1 he was conscientious1 he was unselfish--but he did not believe1 and he was ineffectual4 ,the ,germans it might have been beyond any man's power to repel at that day1 but even at home ,marcus was ineffectual4 ,his wife and his son were by-words4 ,he had almost a morbid horror of defilement from men and women of coarse minds1--a craving too for peace and sympathy2 he shrank into himself1 condoned1 ignored4 ,among his benefactors he does not mention ,hadrian1 who really gave him the ,empire--and it is easy to see why4 ,in everything the two are a contrast4 ,hadrian's personal vices and his greatness as a ruler1 as a man handling men and moving among ideas#h--these were impossible for ,marcus4 ,nor was the personal religion of this pure and candid spirit a possible one for mankind4 ,a genuine eternal ,gospel1 wrote ,renan of this diary of ,marcus1 the book of the ,thoughts will never grow old1 for it affirms no dogma4 ,the ,gospel has grown old in certain parts2 ,science no longer allows us to admit the naive conception of the supernatural which is its base4444 ,yet ,science might destroy ,god and the soul1 and the book of the ,thoughts would remain young in its life and truth4 #bja ,renan is right2 when ,science1 or anything else1 destroys ,god and the soul1 there is no ,gospel but that of ,marcus2 and yet for men it is impossible2 and it is not young--it is senile4 ,duty without enthusiasm1 hope or belief--belief in man1 of course1 for ,god and the soul are by hypothesis destroyed--duty1 that is1 without object1 reason or result1 it is a magnificent fancy1 and yet one recurs to the criticism that ,marcus passed upon the ,christians4 ,is there not a hint of the school about this8 ,is it not possible that the simpler instincts of men1--instincts with a history as ludicrous as ,anthropologists sometimes sketch for us1--may after all come nearer the truth of things than semi-,stoic reflexion8 ,at all events the instincts have ruled the world so far with the co-operation of ,reason1 and are as yet little inclined to yield their rights to their colleague4 ,they have never done so without disaster4 ,the world did not accept ,marcus as a teacher4 ,men readily recognized his high character1 but for a thousand years and more nobody dreamed of taking him as a guide--nobody1 that is1 outside the schools4 ,for the world it was faith or unbelief1 and the two contemporaries already mentioned represent the two poles to which the thoughts of men gravitated1 who were not yet ready for a cleavage with the past4 ,sidenote3 ,lucian ,i am a ,syrian from the ,euphrates1#i wrote ,lucian of himself2 and elsewhere he has a playful protest against a historian of his day1 magnificently ignorant of ,eastern geography1 who has taken up my native ,samosata1 and shifted it1 citadel1 walls and all1 into ,mesopotamia1 and by this new feat of colonization has apparently turned him into a ,parthian or ,mesopotamian4#aj ,samosata lay actually in ,commagene1 and there ,lucian spent his boyhood talking ,syriac1 his native language4#aa ,he was born about #abe ,a4,d4 ,his family were poor1 and as soon as he left school1 the question of a trade was at once raised1 for even a boy's earnings would be welcome4 ,at school he had had a trick of scraping the wax from his tablets and making little figures of animals and men1 so his father handed him over to his mother's brother1 who was one of a family of statuaries4 ,but a blunder and a breakage resulted in his uncle thrashing him1 and he ran home to his mother4 ,it was his first and last day in the sculptor's shop1 and he went to #bjb bed with tears upon his face4 ,in later life he told the story of a dream which he had that night--a long and somewhat literary dream modelled on ,prodicus' fable of the ,choice of ,herakles4 ,he dreamed that two women appeared to him1 one dusty and workmanlike1 the other neat1 charming and noble4 ,they were ,sculpture and ,culture1 and he chose the latter4 ,he tells the dream1 he says1 that the young may be helped by his example to pursue the best and devote themselves to ,culture1 regardless of immediate poverty4#ab ,he was launched somehow on the career of his choice and became a rhetorician4 ,it may be noted however that an instinctive interest in art remained with him1 and he is reckoned one of the best art-critics of antiquity4 ,rhetoric1 he says1 made a ,greek of him1 went with him from city to city in ,greece and ,ionia1 sailed the ,ionian sea with him and attended him even as far as ,gaul1 scattering plenty in his path4#ac ,for1 as he explains elsewhere1 he was among the teachers who could command high fees1 and he made a good income in ,gaul4#ad ,but1 about the age of forty1 he resolved to let the gentlemen of the jury rest in peace--tyrants enough having been arraigned and princes enough eulogized4#ae ,from now onward he wrote dialogues--he had at last found his proper work4 ,sidenote3 ,lucian's ,dialogues ,dialogue in former days had been the vehicle of speculation--had trodden those aerial plains on high above the clouds1 where the great ,zeus in heaven is borne along on winged car4 ,but it was to do so no more1 and in an amusing piece ,lucian represents ,dialogue personified as bringing a suit against him for outrage4 ,had ,lucian debased ,dialogue1 by reducing him to the common level of humanity and making him associate with such persons as ,aristophanes and ,menippus1 one a light-hearted mocker at things sacred1 the other a barking1 snarling dog of a ,cynic1--thus turning ,dialogue into a literary ,centaur1 neither fit to walk nor able to soar8 ,or was ,dialogue really a musty1 fusty1 superannuated creature1 and greatly improved now for having a bath and being taught to smile and to go genially in the company of ,comedy8 ,between the attack and the defence1 the case is fairly stated4#af ,lucian created a new #bjc mode in writing--or perhaps he revived it1 for it is not very clear how much he owes to his favourite ,menippus1 the ,gadarene ,cynic and satirist of four centuries before4 ,menippus however has perished and ,lucian remains and is read2 for1 whatever else is to be said of him1 he is readable4 ,he has not lost all the traces of the years during which he consorted with ,rhetoric2 at times he amplifies and exaggerates1 and will strain for more point and piquancy than a taste more sure would approve4 ,yet he has the instinct to avoid travesty1 and his style is in general natural and simple1 despite occasional literary reminiscences4 ,his characters talk1--as men may talk of their affairs1 when they are not conscious of being overheard1--with a naive frankness not always very wise1 with a freedom and common sense1 and sometimes with a folly1 that together reveal the speaker4 ,they rarely declaim1 and they certainly never reach any high level of thought or feeling4 ,the talk is slight and easy--it flickers about from one idea to another1 and gives a strong impression of being real4 ,if it is gods who are talking1 they become surprisingly human--and even bourgeois1 they are so very much at home among themselves4 ,lucian's skill is amazing4 ,he will take some episode from ,homer and change no single detail1 and yet1 as we listen to the off-hand talk of the gods as they recount the occurrence1 we are startled at the effect--the irony is everywhere and nowhere2 the surprises are irresistible4 ,zeus1 for instance1 turns out to have more literary interests than we suppose2 he will quote ,homer and make a ,demosthenic oration to the gods1 though alas6 his memory fails him in the middle of a sentence2#ag he laments that his altars are as cold as ,plato's ,laws or the syllogisms of ,chrysippus4 ,he is the frankest gentleman of heaven1 and so infinitely obliging6 ,in short1 for sheer cleverness ,lucian has no rival but ,aristophanes in extant ,greek literature4 ,his originality1 his wit1 his humour 7not at all equal1 it may be said1 to his wit71 his gifts of invention and fancy1 his light touch1 and his genius for lively narrative1 mark him out distinctively in an age when literature was all rhetoric1 length and reminiscence4 ,but as we read him1 we become sensible of defects as extraordinary as his gifts4 ,for all his ,attic style1 he belongs to his age4 ,he #bjd may renounce ,rhetoric1 but no man can easily escape from his past4 ,the education had intensified the cardinal faults of his character1 impatience1 superficiality1 a great lack of sympathy for the more tender attachments and the more profound interests of men--essential unbelief in human grandeur4 ,an expatriated adventurer1 living for twenty years on his eloquence1 with the merest smattering of philosophy and no interest whatever in nature and natural science or mathematics1 with little feeling and no poetry1--it was hardly to be expected that he should understand the depths of the human soul1 lynx-eyed as he is for the surface of things4 ,he had a very frank admiration for his own character1 and he drew himself over and over again under various names4 ,lykinos1 for example1 is hardly a disguise at all4 ,free-,speech1 son of ,true-man1 son of ,examiner1 he calls himself in one of his mock trials1 hater of shams1 hater of impostors1 hater of liars1 hater of the pompous1 hater of every such variety of hateful men--and there are plenty of them2 conversely1 he loves the opposites1 when he meets them1 which1 he owns1 is not very often4#ah ,sidenote3 ,lucian and philosophy ,with such a profession1 it is not surprising that a man of more wit than sympathy1 found abundance of material in the follies of his age4 ,men were taking themselves desperately seriously1--preaching interminable ,philosophy1 saving their souls1 and communing with gods and daemons in the most exasperating ways4 ,shams1 impostures1 and liars--so ,lucian summed them up1 and he did not conceal his opinion4 ,granted that the age had aspects quite beyond his comprehension1 he gives a very vivid picture of it from the outside4 ,this is what men were doing and saying around him--but why8 ,why1 but from vanity and folly8 ,gods1 philosophers1 and all who take human life seriously1 are deluged with one stream of badinage1 always clever but not always in good taste4 ,he has no purpose1 religious or philosophic4 ,if he attacks the gods1 it is not as a ,sceptic--the ,sceptics are ridiculed as much as any one else in the ,sale of ,lives--men who know nothing1 doubt of their own experience1 and avow the end of their knowledge to be ignorance4#ai ,if he is what we nowadays loosely call sceptical1 it is not on philosophic grounds4 ,we should hardly expect him in his satirical pamphlets really to #bje grapple with the question of ,philosophy1 but he seems not to understand in the least why there should be ,philosophy at all4 ,he is master of no single system1 though he has the catch-words of them all at his finger-ends4 ,his most serious dialogue on ,philosophy is the ,hermotimus4 ,lykinos meets ,hermotimus on his way to a lecture--a man of sixty who for many years has attended the ,stoics4 ,into their argument we need not go1 but one or two points may be noted4 ,hermotimus is a disciple1 simple and persevering1 who owns that he has not reached the goal of ,happiness and hardly expects to reach it1 but he presses bravely on1 full of faith in his teachers4 ,under the adroit questions of ,lykinos1 he is forced to admit that he had chosen the ,stoics rather than any other school by sheer intuition--or because of general notions acquired more or less unconsciously--like a man buying wine1 he knew a good thing when he tasted it1 and looked no further4 ,yes1 says ,lykinos1 take the first step and the rest is easy--,philosophy depends on a first assumption--take the ,briareus of the poets with three heads and six hands1 and then work him out1--six eyes1 six ears1 three voices talking at once1 thirty fingers--you cannot quarrel with the details as they come2 once grant the beginning1 and the rest comes flooding in1 irresistible1 hardly now susceptible of doubt4 ,so in ,philosophy1 your passion1 like the longing of a lover1 blinded you to the first assumptions1 and the structure followed4#bj ,do not think that ,i speak against the ,stoics1 through any special dislike of the school2 my arguments hold against all the schools4#ba ,the end is that ,hermotimus abandons all ,philosophy for ever--not a very dramatic or probable end1 as ,plato and ,justin ,martyr could have told ,lucian4 ,the other point to notice is the picture of ,virtue under the image of a ,celestial ,city1 and here one cannot help wondering whether the irony has any element of personal reminiscence4 ,virtue ,lykinos pictures as a ,city1 whose citizens are happy1 wise and good1 little short of gods1 as the ,stoics say4 ,all there is peace1 unity1 liberty1 equality4 ,the citizens are all aliens and foreigners1 not a native among them--barbarians1 slaves1 misformed1 dwarfs1 poor2 for wealth and birth and beauty are not reckoned there4 ,in good truth1 we #bjf should devote all our efforts to this1 and let all else go4 ,we should take no heed of our native-land1 nor of the clinging and weeping of children or parents1 if one has any1 but call on them to take the same journey1 and then1 if they will not or cannot go with us1 shake them off1 and march straight for the city of all bliss1 leaving one's coat in their hands1 if they won't let go1--for there is no fear of your being shut out there1 even if you come without a coat4 ,fifteen years ago an old man had urged ,lykinos to go there with him4 ,if the city had been near at hand and plain for all to see1 long ago1 you may be sure1 with never a doubt ,i would have gone there1 and had my franchise long since4 ,but as you tell us1 it lieth far away----and there are so many professed guides and so many roads1 that there is no telling whether one is travelling to ,babylon or to ,corinth4#bb ,so for the future you had better reconcile yourself to living like an ordinary man1 without fantastic and vain hopes4#bc ,lucian never ceases to banter the philosophers4 ,when he visits the ,islands of the ,blest1 he remarks that1 while ,diogenes and the ,epicureans are there1 ,plato prefers his own ,republic and ,laws1 the ,stoics are away climbing their steep hill of ,virtue1 and the ,academics1 though wishful to come1 are still suspending their judgment1 uncertain whether there really is such an island at all and not sure that ,rhadamanthus himself is qualified to give judgment4#bd ,diogenes in the shades1 ,pan in his grotto1 ,zeus in heaven1 and the common man in the streets1 are unanimous that they have had too much ,philosophy altogether4 ,the philosophers have indeed embarked on an impossible quest1 for they will never find ,truth4 ,once ,lucian represents ,truth in person1 and his portrait is characteristic4 ,she is pointed out to him--a female figure1 dim and indistinct of complexion2 ,i do not see which one you mean1 he says1 and the answer is1 ,don't you see the unadorned one there1 the naked one1 ever eluding the sight and slipping away8#be ,sidenote3 ,lucian's ,lover of ,lies ,but still more absurd than ,philosophy was the growth of belief in the supernatural4 ,lucian's ,lover of ,lies is a most illuminating book4 ,here are gathered specimens of the various #bjg types of contemporary superstition--one would suspect the author of the wildest parody1 if it were not that point by point we may find parallels in the other writers of the day4 ,tychiades 7who is very like ,lucian himself7 tells how he has been visiting ,eucrates and has dropped into a nest of absurdities4 ,eucrates is sixty and wears the solemn beard of a student of philosophy4 ,he has a ring made of iron from gibbets and is prepared to believe everything incredible4 ,his house is full of professed philosophers1 ,aristotelian1 ,stoic1 and ,platonic1 advising him how to cure the pain in his legs1 by wrapping round them a lion's skin with the tooth of a field mouse folded within it4#bf ,tychiades asks if they really believe that a charm hung on outside can cure the mischief within1 and they laugh at his ignorance4 ,the ,platonist tells a number of stories to prove the reasonableness of the treatment1--how a vine-dresser of his father's had died of snake-bite and been recovered by a ,chaldaean1 and how the same ,chaldaean charmed 7like the ,pied ,piper7 all the snakes off their farm4 ,the ,stoic narrates how he once saw a ,hyperborean flying and walking on water--with those brogues on his feet that his countrymen habitually wear--a man whose more ordinary feats were raising spirits1 calling the dead from their graves1 and fetching down the moon4 ,ion1 the ,platonist1 confirms all this with an account of another miracle-worker--everybody knows the ,syrian of ,palestine who drives daemons out of men2 he would stand by the patient lying on the ground and ask whence they have come into the body2 and1 though the sick person does not speak1 the daemon answers in ,greek1 or in some barbarian tongue1 or whatever his own dialect may be1 and explains how he entered into the man and whence he came4 ,then the ,syrian would solemnly adjure him1 or threaten him if he were obstinate1 and so drive him out4 ,i can only say ,i saw one1 of a black smoky hue1 in the act of coming out4#bg ,the ,syrian's treatment was expensive1 it appears4 ,celsus1 as we shall see later on1 has some evidence on this matter4 ,the nationality of the magicians quoted in the book may be remarked--they are ,libyan1 ,syrian1 ,arab1 ,chaldaean1 ,egyptian1 and ,hyperborean4 ,other tales of magical statues1 a wife's apparition1 an #bjh uneasy ghost1#bh a charm for bringing an absent lover1 and the familiar one of the man who learns the spell of three syllables to make a pestle fetch water1 but unhappily not that which will make it stop1 and who finds on cutting it in two that there are now two inanimate water-carriers and a double deluge--these we may pass over4 ,we may note that this water-fetching spell came originally from a sacred scribe of ,memphis1 learned in all the wisdom of the ,egyptians1 who lived underground in the temple for three and twenty years and was taught his magic there by ,isis herself4#bi ,interviews with daemons are so common that instances are not given4#cj ,more significant are the stories of the other world1 for here we come again1 from a different point of approach1 into a region familiar to the reader of ,plutarch4 ,eucrates himself1 out in the woods1 heard a noise of barking dogs2 an earthquake followed and a voice of thunder1 and then came a woman more than six hundred feet high1 bearing sword and torch1 and followed by dogs taller than ,indian elephants1 black in colour4 ,her feet were snakes--here we may observe that ,pausanias the traveller pauses to dismiss the silly story that giants have serpents instead of feet1 for a coffin more than eleven ells long was found near ,antioch and the whole body was that of a man4#ca ,so the snake-feet are not a mere fancy of ,lucian's4 ,the woman then tapped the earth with one of these feet of hers1 and disappeared into the chasm she made4 ,eucrates1 peeping over the edge1 saw everything in ,hades1 the river of fire and the lake1 ,cerberus and the dead--what is more1 he recognized some of the dead4 ,did you see ,socrates and ,plato8 asks ,ion4 ,socrates he thought he saw1 but ,plato ,i did not recognize2 ,i suppose one is bound to stick to the exact truth in talking to one's friends4 ,pyrrhias the slave confirms the story as an eye-witness4#cb ,another follows with a story of his trance in illness1 and how he saw the world below1 ,fates1 ,furies1 and all1 and was brought before ,pluto1 who #bji dismissed him with some irritation1 as not amenable yet to his ,court1 and called for the smith ,demylos2 he came back to life and announced that ,demylos would shortly die1 and ,demylos did die4 ,where is the wonder8 says another--the physician1 ,i know a man raised from the dead twenty days after his burial1 for ,i attended him both before his death and after his resurrection4#cc ,in all this1 it is clear that there is a strong element of mockery4 ,mockery was ,lucian's object1 but he probably kept in all these stories a great deal nearer to what his neighbours would believe than we may imagine4 ,a,elian1 for example1 has a story of a pious cock1 which made a point of walking gratefully in the processions that took place in honour of ,a,esculapius2 and he does not tell it in the spirit of the author of the ,jackdaw of ,rheims4 ,sidenote3 ,lucian and the gods ,as one of the main preoccupations of his age was with the gods1 ,lucian of course could not leave them alone4 ,his usual method is to accept them as being exactly what tradition made them1 and then to set them in new and impossible situations4 ,the philosopher ,menippus takes the right wing of an eagle and the left of a vulture1 and1 after some careful practice1 flies up to heaven to interview ,zeus4 ,he has been so terribly distracted by the arguments of the schools1 that he wants to see for himself--,i dared not disbelieve men of such thundering voices and such imposing beards4 ,zeus most amiably allows him to stand by and watch him at work1 hearing prayers as they come up through tubes1 and granting or rejecting them1 then settling some auguries1 and finally arranging the weather--rain in ,scythia1 snow in ,greece1 a storm in the ,adriatic1 and about a thousand bushels of hail in ,cappadocia4#cd ,zeus asks2 rather nervously what men are saying about him nowadays--mankind is so fond of novelty4 ,there was a time1 he says1 when ,i was everything to them-- ,each street1 each market-place was full of ,zeus-- and ,i could hardly see for the smoke of sacrifice2 but other gods1 ,asklepios1 ,bendis1 ,anubis and others1 have set up shrines and the altars of ,zeus are cold--cold as ,chrysippus4#ce ,altogether the dialogue is a masterpiece of humour and irony4 ,in another piece1 we find ,zeus and the other gods in #baj assembly listening to an argument going on at ,athens4 ,an ,epicurean1 ,damis1 and a singularly feeble ,stoic are debating whether gods exist1 and whether they exercise any providence for men4 ,poseidon recommends the prompt use of a thunderbolt to let them see1 but ,zeus reminds him that it is ,destiny that really controls the thunderbolts--and1 besides1 it would look as if we were frightened4 ,so the argument goes on1 and all the familiar proofs from divine judgments1 regularity of sun and season1 from ,homer and the poets1 from the consensus of mankind and oracles1 are produced and refuted there and then1 while the gods listen1 till it becomes doubtful whether they do exist4 ,the ,stoic breaks down and runs away4 ,what are we to do8 asks ,zeus4 ,hermes quotes a comic poet in ,hamlet's vein--there is nothing either good or bad1 but thinking makes it so--and what does it matter1 if a few men are persuaded by ,damis8 we still have the majority--most of the ,greeks and all the barbarians4#cf ,in ,zeus ,cross-examined the process is carried further4 ,cyniscus questions ,zeus1 who is only too good-natured and falls into all the questioner's traps4 ,he admits ,destiny to be supreme1 and gets entangled in a terrible net of problems about fore-knowledge1 the value of sacrifice and of divination1 divine wrath1 sin and so forth1 till he cries ,you leave us nothing6--you seem to me to despise me1 for sitting here and listening to you with a thunderbolt on my arm4 ,hit me with it1 says ,cyniscus1 if it is so destined1--,i shall have no quarrel with you for it1 but with ,clotho4 ,at last ,zeus rises and goes away and will answer no more4 ,but perhaps1 reflects ,cyniscus1 he has said enough1 and it was not destined for me to hear any more4#cg ,the reader feels that ,zeus has said more than enough4 ,from the old gods of ,greece1 we naturally turn to the newcomers4 ,when ,zeus summoned the gods to discuss the question of atheism at ,athens1 a good many more came than understood ,greek1 and it was they who had the best seats as they were made of solid gold--,bendis1 ,anubis1 ,attis and ,mithras for example4 ,elsewhere ,momus 7who is a divine ,lucian7 complains to ,zeus about them--that ,mithras with his ,persian robe and tiara1 who can't talk ,greek1 nor even understand when one drinks #baa to him--what is he doing in heaven8 ,and then the dog-faced ,egyptian in linen--who is he to bark at the gods8 ,of course11 says ,zeus1 ,egyptian religion--yes6 but all the same there are hidden meanings1 and the uninitiated must not laugh at them4 ,still ,zeus is provoked into issuing a decree--on second thoughts1 he would not put it to the vote of the divine assembly1 for he felt sure he would be outvoted4 ,the decree enacts that1 whereas heaven is crowded with polyglot aliens1 till there is a great rise in the price of nectar1 and the old and true gods are being crowded out of their supremacy1 a committee of seven gods shall be appointed to sit on claims2 further1 that each god shall attend to his own function1 ,athene shall not heal nor ,asklepios give oracles1 etc42 that philosophers shall talk no more nonsense2 and that the statues of deified men shall be replaced by those of ,zeus1 ,hera1 etc41 the said men to be buried in the usual way4#ch ,sidenote3 ,lucian's ,alexander ,more than one reference has been made to new gods and new oracles4 ,lucian in his ,alexander gives a merciless account of how such shrines were started4 ,he came into personal contact--indeed into conflict--with ,alexander1 the founder of the oracle of ,abonoteichos1 and his story is full of detail4 ,the man was a quack of the vulgarest type1 and1 yet by means of a tame snake and some other simple contrivances1 he imposed himself upon the faith of a community4 ,his renown spread far and wide4 ,by recognizing other oracles he secured their support4 ,men came to him even from ,rome4 ,through one of these devotees1 he actually sent an oracle to ,marcus ,aurelius among the ,marcomanni and ,quadi1 bidding him throw two lions with spices into the ,danube1 and there should be a great victory4 ,this was done1 ,lucian says2 the lions swam ashore on the farther side1 and the victory fell to the ,germans4#ci ,lucian himself trapped the prophet with some cunningly devised inquiries1 which quite baffled god1 prophet1 snake and all4 ,he also tried to detach an eminent adherent4 ,alexander realized what was going on1 and ,lucian got a guard of two soldiers from the governor of ,cappadocia4 ,under their protection he went to see the prophet who had sent for him4 ,the prophet1 as he usually did with his followers1 offered him #bab his hand to kiss1 and ,lucian records with satisfaction that he bit the proffered hand and nearly lamed it4 ,thanks to his guard1 he came away uninjured4 ,alexander1 however1 after this tried still more to compass his death1 which is not surprising4#dj ,there is other evidence than ,lucian's1 though it is not unnaturally slight1 for the existence of this remarkable impostor4 ,sidenote3 ,lucian and ,peregrinus ,lucian has one or two incidental references to ,christians4#da ,alexander warned them1 in company with the ,epicureans1 to keep away from his shrine4 ,but we hear more of them in connexion with ,proteus ,peregrinus4 ,lucian is not greatly interested in them2 he ridicules them as fools for being taken in by the impostor2 for ,peregrinus1 he tells us1 duped them with the greatest success4 ,he became a prophet among them1 a thiasarch1 a ruler of the synagogue1 everything in fact2 he interpreted their books for them1 and indeed wrote them a lot more2 and they counted him a god and a lawgiver4 ,you know1 ,lucian explains1 they still worship that great man of theirs1 who was put on a gibbet in ,palestine1 because he added this new mystery 7teleten7 to human life4 ,in his mocking way he gives some interesting evidence on the attention and care bestowed by ,christians on those of their members who were thrown into prison4 ,he details what was done by the foolish community for their new ,socrates when ,peregrinus was a prisoner4 ,when he was released1 ,peregrinus started wandering again1 living on ,christian charity1 till he got into trouble with them1 too1--he was caught eating forbidden meats4#db ,lucian differs from ,voltaire in having less purpose and no definite principles4 ,he had no design to overthrow religion in favour of something else2 it is merely that the absurdity of it provoked him1 and he enjoyed saying aloud1 and with all the vigour of reckless wit1 that religious belief was silly4 ,if the effect was scepticism1 it was a scepticism founded1 not on #bac philosophy1 but on the off-hand judgment of what is called common-sense4 ,hidden meanings and mysteries were to him nonsense4 ,how little he was qualified to understand mysticism and religious enthusiasm1 can be seen in his account of the self-immolation of ,peregrinus on his pyre at the ,olympian games#dc--perhaps the most insufficient thing he ever wrote1 full of value as it is4 ,peregrinus was a wanderer among the religions of the age4 ,gellius--who often heard him at ,athens1 calls him a man gravis atque constans1 and says he spoke much that was useful and honest4 ,he quotes in his way a paragraph of a discourse on sin1 which does not lack moral elevation4#dd ,to ,lucian the man was a quack1 an advertiser1 a mountebank1 who burnt himself to death merely to attract notice4 ,lucian says he witnessed the affair1 and tells gaily how1 among other jests1 he imposed a pretty miracle of his own invention upon the credulous4 ,he had taken no pains to understand the man--nor did he to understand either the religious temper in general1 or the philosophic1 or anything else4 ,his habit of handling things easily and lightly did not help him to see what could not be taken in at a glance4 ,what then does ,lucian make of human life8 ,on this he says a great deal4 ,his most characteristic invention perhaps is the visit that ,charon pays to the upper world to see what it really is that the dead regret so much4 ,it is indeed1 as ,m4 ,croiset points out1 a fine stroke of irony to take the opinion of a minister of ,death upon ,life4 ,charon has left his ferry boat and comes up to light4 ,hermes meets him and they pile up some mountains--,pelion on ,ossa1 and ,parnassus on top1 from the two summits of which they survey mankind--a charm from ,homer removing ,charon's difficulty of vision4 ,he sees many famous people1 such as ,milo1 ,polycrates and ,cyrus2 and he overhears ,croesus and ,solon discussing happiness1 while ,hermes foretells their fates4 ,he sees a varied scene1 life full of confusion1 cities like swarms of bees1 where each has a sting and stings his neighbour1 and some1 like wasps1 harass and plunder the rest2 over them1 like a cloud1 hang hopes and fears #bad and follies1 pleasures and passions and hatreds4 ,he sees the ,fates spinning slender threads1 soon cut1 from which men hang with never a thought of how quickly death ends their dreams2 and he compares them to bubbles1 big and little inevitably broken4 ,he would like to shout to them to live with ,death ever before their eyes--why be so earnest about what they can never take away8--but ,hermes tells him it would be useless4 ,he is amazed at the absurdity of their burial rites1 and he astonishes ,hermes by quoting ,homer on the subject4 ,last of all he witnesses a battle and cries out at the folly of it4 ,such1 he concludes1 is the life of miserable men--and not a word about ,charon4#de ,in the same way and in the same spirit ,menippus visits the ,lower ,world1 where he sees ,minos judging the dead4 ,minos too seems to have been interested in literature1 for he reduced the sentence upon ,dionysius1 the tyrant of ,syracuse1 on the very proper ground of his generosity to authors4 ,but the general picture has less humour4 ,we entered the ,acherusian plain1 and there we found the demi-gods1 and the heroines1 and the general throng of the dead in nations and tribes1 some ancient and mouldering1 'strengthless heads' as ,homer says1 others fresh and holding together--,egyptians these in the main1 so thoroughly good is their embalming4 ,but to know one from another was no easy task2 all become so much alike when the bones are bared2 yet with pains and long scrutiny we began to recognize them4 ,they lay pell-mell in undistinguishable heaps1 with none of their earthly beauties left4 ,with so many skeletons piled together1 all as like as could be1 eyes glaring ghastly and vacant1 teeth gleaming bare1 ,i knew not to tell ,thersites from ,nireus the fair4444 ,for none of their ancient marks remained1 and their bones were alike1 uncertain1 unlabelled1 undistinguishable4 ,when ,i saw all this1 the life of man came before me under the likeness of a great pageant1 arranged and marshalled by ,chance1 who assigns the parts and reassigns them as she pleases2 and then the pageant ends1 every one disrobes and all are alike4 ,such is human life1 as it seemed to me while ,i gazed4#df ,over and over again with every accent of irony the one moral is enforced--sometimes with sheer brutality as in the tract on ,mourning4 #bae ,menippus asked ,teiresias in the shades what was the best life4 ,he was a blind little old man1 and pale1 and had a weak voice4 ,he said3 ,the life of ordinary people is best1 and1 wiser2 cease from the folly of metaphysics1 of inquiry into origins and purposes2 spit upon those clever syllogisms and count all these things idle talk2 and pursue one end alone1 how you may well arrange the present and go on your way with a laugh for most things and no enthusiasms4#dg ,in fact1 the unexamined life is the only one1 as many a weary thinker has felt--if it were but possible4 ,sidenote3 ,criticism of ,lucian ,goethe's criticism on ,heine may perhaps be applied to ,lucian--,we cannot deny that he has many brilliant qualities1 but he is wanting in love 444 and thus he will never produce the effect which he ought4#dh ,various views have been held of ,lucian's contribution to the religious movement of the age2 it has even been suggested that his ,dialogues advanced the cause of ,christianity4 ,but when one reflects upon the tender hearts to be found in the literature of the century1 it is difficult to think that ,lucian can have had any effect on the mass of serious people1 unless to quicken in them by repulsion the desire for something less terrible than a godless world of mockery and death1 and the impulse to seek it in the ancestral faith of their fathers4 ,he did not love men enough to understand their inmost mind4 ,the instincts that drove men back upon the old religion were among the deepest in human nature1 and of their strength ,lucian had no idea4 ,his admirers to-day speak of him as one whose question was always ,is it true8 ,we have seen that it was a question lightly asked and quickly answered4 ,it is evident enough that his mockery of religion has some warrant in the follies and superstitions of his day4 ,but such criticism as his1 based upon knowledge incomplete and sympathy imperfect1 is of little value4 ,if a man's judgment upon religion is not to be external1 he must have felt the need of a religion1--he must have had at some time the consciousness of imperative cravings and instincts which only a religion can satisfy4 ,such cravings are open to criticism1 but men can neither be laughed out of them1 nor indeed reasoned out of them2 and however absurd a religion may seem1 and however defective it may be1 if it is #baf still the only available satisfaction of the deepest needs of which men are conscious1 it will hold its own1 despite mockery and despite philosophy--as we shall see in the course of the chapter1 though two more critics of religion remain to be noticed4 ,sidenote3 ,sextus ,empiricus ,lucian was not the only man who sought to bring the age back to sound and untroubled thinking4 ,there was a physician1 ,sextus--known from the school of medicine to which he belonged as ,sextus ,empiricus--who wrote a number of books about the end of the second century or the beginning of the third in defence of ,scepticism4 ,a medical work of his1 and a treatise on the ,soul are lost1 but his ,pyrrhonean ,sketches and his books ,against the ,dogmatists remain--written in a ,greek which suggests that he was himself a ,greek and not a foreigner using the language4 ,physicists1 mathematicians1 grammarians1 moralists1 astrologers1 come under his survey1 and the particular attention which he gives to the ,stoics is a material fact in fixing his date1 for after about #bjj ,a4,d4 they cease to be of importance4 ,his own point of view a short extract from his sketches will exhibit fully enough for our present purpose4 ,the aim of the ,sceptic is ataraxia freedom from mental perturbation or excitement in matters which depend on opinion1 and in things which are inevitable restraint of the feelings 7metriopatheian74 ,for he began to philosophise in order to judge his impressions 7phantasias7 and to discover which of them are true and which false1 so as to be free from perturbation4 ,but he came to a point where the arguments were at once diametrically opposite and of equal weight2 and then1 as he could not decide1 he suspended judgment 7epeschen71 and as soon as he had done so1 there followed as if by accident this very freedom from perturbation in the region of opinion4 ,for if a man opines anything to be good or bad in its essential nature1 he is always in perturbation4 ,when he has not the things that appear to him to be good1 he considers himself tortured by the things evil by nature1 and he pursues the good 7as he supposes them to be72 but1 as soon as he has them1 he falls into even more perturbations1 through being uplifted out of all reason and measure1 and from fear of change he does everything not to lose the things that seem to him to be good4 ,but the man1 who makes no definitions as to what is good or bad by #bag nature1 neither avoids nor pursues anything with eagerness1 and is therefore unperturbed4 ,what is related of ,apelles the painter has in fact befallen the ,sceptic4 ,the story goes that he was painting a horse and wished to represent the foam of its mouth in his picture2 but he was so unsuccessful that he gave it up1 and took the sponge1 on which he used to wipe the colours from his brush1 and threw it at the picture4 ,the sponge hit the picture and produced a likeness of the horse's foam4 ,the ,sceptics then hoped to gain ataraxia by forming some decision on the lack of correspondence between things as they appear to the eye and to the mind2 they were unable to do it1 and so suspended judgment 7epeschen72 and then as if by accident the ataraxia followed---just as a shadow follows a body4 ,we do not say that the ,sceptic is untroubled in every way1 but we own he is troubled by things that are quite inevitable4 ,for we admit that the ,sceptic is cold sometimes1 and thirsty1 and so forth4 ,but even in these matters the uneducated are caught in two ways at once1 viz43 by the actual feelings and 7not less7 by supposing these conditions to be bad by nature4 ,the ,sceptic does away with the opinion that any one of these things is evil in its nature1 and so he gets off more lightly even in these circumstances4#di ,a view of this kind was hardly likely to appeal to the temper of the age1 and the influence of ,scepticism was practically none4 ,still it is interesting to find so vigorous and clear an exponent of the system flourishing in a period given over to the beliefs that ,lucian parodied and ,apuleius accepted4 ,sextus1 it may be added1 is the sole representative of ancient ,scepticism whose works have come down to us in any complete form4 ,one very obscure person of this period remains to be noticed1 who in his small sphere gave his views to mankind in a way of his own4 ,in #ahhd two ,french scholars1 ,,mm4 ,holleaux and ,paris were exploring the ruins of ,oinoanda1 a ,greek city in ,lycia1 and they came upon a number of inscribed stones1 most of them built in a wall4 ,what was unusual was that these were neither fragments of municipal decrees nor of private monuments1 but all formed part of one great inscription which dealt apparently with some philosophic subject4 ,in ,june #ahie two ,austrian #bah scholars1 ,,mm4 ,heberdey and ,kalinka1 re-collated the inscription and found some further fragments1 and now the story is tolerably clear1 and a curious one it is4#ej ,it appears that the fragments originally belonged to an inscription carved on the side of a colonnade1 and they fall into three series according to their place on the wall--one above another4 ,the middle series consists of columns of fourteen lines1 the letters #a-a_/b to #b centimetres high1 fifteen or sixteen in a line1--each column forming a page1 as it were2 and it extends over some twenty-one or two yards4 ,the lowest series is in the same style4 ,on top is a series of columns added later 7as the inscription shows7 and cut in letters of #b-a_/b-c centimetres1 generally ten lines to the column--the larger size to compensate for the greater height above the ground1 for it was all meant to be read4 ,the inscription begins3-- ,diogenes to kinsmen1 household and friends1 this is my charge4 ,being so ill that it is critical whether ,i yet live or live no longer--for an affection of the heart is carrying me off--if ,i survive1 ,i will gladly accept the life yet given to me2 if ,i do not survive1 ,,do444 ,sidenote3 ,diogenes of ,oinoanda ,there ends a column1 and a line or two has been lost at the top of what seems to be the next1 after which come the words a kindly feeling for strangers also who may be staying here1 and the incomplete statement which begins knowing assuredly1 that by knowledge of the matters relating to ,nature and feelings1 which ,i have set forth in the spaces below4444 ,it is evident that ,diogenes had something to say which he considered it a duty to make known4 ,this proves to have been the ,epicurean theory of life2 and here he had carved up for all to read a simple exposition of the philosophy of his choice4 ,the uppermost row contains his account of his purpose and something upon old age--very fragmentary4 ,there follow a letter of ,epicurus to his mother1 and another letter from some one unidentified to one ,menneas1 and then a series of apophthegms and sentences4 ,thus fragment #bg is a column of ten lines to this effect3 ,nothing is so contributive to good spirits1 as not to do many things1 nor take in hand tiresome matters1 nor force oneself in any way beyond one's own strength1 for all these things perturb nature4 ,another column proclaims3 ,acute #bai pains cannot be long2 for either they quickly destroy life and are themselves destroyed with it1 or they receive some abatement of their acuteness4 ,these platitudes are1 as we may guess1 an afterthought4 ,the middle row1 the first to be inscribed1 deals with the ,epicurean theory of atoms--not by apophthegm or aphorism1 but with something of the fulness and technicality of a treatise4 ,herakleitos of ,ephesus1 then1 said fire was the element2 ,thales of ,miletus water2 ,diogenes of ,apollonia and ,anaximenes air2 ,empedocles of ,agrigentum both fire and air and water and earth2 ,anaxagoras of ,clazomenae the homoeomeries of each thing in particular2 those of the ,stoa matter and ,god4 ,but ,democritus of ,abdera said atomic natures--and he did well2 but since he made some mistakes about them1 these will be set right in our opinions4 ,so now we will accuse the persons mentioned1 not from any feeling of illwill against them1 but wishing the truth to be saved 7sothenai74 ,so he takes them in turn and argues at leisure4 ,the large fragment #de discusses astronomy in its four columns--in particular1 the sun and its apparent distance and its nature4 ,fr4 #dh 7four columns7 goes on to treat of civilization1--of the development of dress from leaves to skins and woven garments1 without the intervention of any other god or of ,athena either4 ,need and time did all4 ,hermes did not invent language4 ,in fr4 #ej1 we read that ,protagoras said he did not know if there are gods4 ,that is the same thing as saying he knew there are not4 ,fr4 #ea deals with death--thou hast even persuaded me to laugh at it4 ,for ,i am not a whit afraid because of the ,tityos-es and ,tantalus-es1 whom some people paint in ,hades1 nor do ,i dread decay1 reflecting that the something of the body 444 three broken lines 444 nor anything else4 ,at the end of the row another letter begins 7fr4 #ef7 ,diogenes to ,antipater greeting4 ,he writes from ,rhodes1 he says1 just before winter begins1 to friends in ,athens and elsewhere1 whom he would like to see4 ,though away from his country1 he knows he can do more for it in this way than by taking part in political life4 ,he wishes to show that that which is convenient to ,nature1 viz4 ,ataraxia is the same for all4 ,he is now at the sunset of life1 and all but departing2 so1 since most men1 as in a pestilence1 are diseased with false opinion1 which is very infectious1 he wishes #bbj to help those that shall be after us2 for they too are ours1 even if they are not yet born2 and strangers too4 ,i wished to make use of this colonnade and to set forth in public the medicine of salvation 7ta tes soterias protheinai pharmaka1 fr4 #eh74 ,the idle fears that oppressed him1 he has shaken off2 as to pains--empty ones he has abolished utterly1 and the rest are reduced to the smallest compass4 ,he bewails the life of men1 wasted as it is1 and weeps for it2 and he has counted it a good man's part to help men as far as he can4 ,that is why he has thought of this inscription which may enable men to obtain joy with good spirits 7tes met' euthumias charas71 rather than of a theatre or a bath or anything else of the kind1 such as rich men would often build for their fellow-citizens 7fr4 #ei74 ,the discussion which follows in the third series of columns need not here detain us4 ,diogenes appeals for its consideration--that it may not merely be glanced at in passing 7fr4 #fa1 col4 #c72 but it will suffice us at present to note his statement that his object is that life may become pleasant to us 7fr4 #fc1 col4 #a71 and his protest--,i will swear1 both now and always1 crying aloud to all1 ,greeks and barbarians1 that pleasure is the objective of the best mode of life1 while the virtues1 which these people now unseasonably meddle with 7for they shift them from the region of the contributive to that of the objective7 are by no means an objective1 but contributive to the objective 7fr4 #fg1 col4 #b1 #c74 ,lastly we may notice his reference to the improvement made in the theory of ,democritus by the discovery of ,epicurus of the swerve inherent in the atoms 7fr4 #ha74 ,altogether the inscription is as singular a monument of antiquity as we are likely to find4 ,what the fellow-citizens of ,diogenes thought of it1 we do not know4 ,perhaps they might have preferred the bath or other commonplace gift of the ordinary rich man4 ,it is a pity that ,lucian did not see the colonnade4 ,side by side with ,lucian1 ,sextus and ,diogenes it is interesting to consider their contemporaries who were not of their opinion4 ,perhaps1 while the stone-masons were day by day carving up the long inscription at ,oinoanda1 others of their trade were #bba busy across the ,a,egaean with one of another character4 ,at any rate1 the inscription which ,m4 ,julius ,apellas set up in the temple of ,asklepios in ,epidauros1 belongs to this period4 ,like ,diogenes1 he is not afraid of detail4 ,sidenote3 ,marcus ,julius ,apellas ,in the priesthood of ,poplius ,a,elius ,antiochus4 ,i1 ,marcus ,julius ,apellas of ,idrias and ,mylasa1 was sent for by the ,god1 for ,i was a chronic invalid and suffered from dyspepsia4 ,in the course of my journey the ,god told me in ,a,egina not to be so irritable4 ,when ,i reached the ,temple1 he directed me to keep my head covered for two days2 and for these two days it rained4 ,i was to eat bread and cheese1 parsley with lettuce1 to wash myself without help1 to practise running1 to drink citron-lemonade1 to rub my body on the sides of the bath in the bath-room1 to take walks in the upper portico1 to use the trapeze1 to rub myself over with sand1 to go with bare feet in the bath-room1 to pour wine into the hot water before ,i got in1 to wash myself without help1 and to give an ,attic drachma to the bath-attendant1 to offer in public sacrifices to ,asklepios1 ,epione and the ,eleusinian goddesses1 and to take milk with honey4 ,when for one day ,i had drunk milk alone1 the god said to put honey in the milk to make it digestible4 ,when ,i called upon the god to cure me more quickly1 ,i thought it was as if ,i had anointed my whole body with mustard and salt1 and had come out of the sacred hall and gone in the direction of the bath-house1 while a small child was going before holding a smoking censer4 ,the priest said to me3 ',now you are cured1 but you must pay up the fees for your treatment4' ,i acted according to the vision1 and when ,i rubbed myself with salt and moistened mustard1 ,i felt the pain still1 but when ,i had bathed1 ,i suffered no longer4 ,these events took place in the first nine days after ,i had come to the ,temple4 ,the god also touched my right hand and my breast4 ,the following day as ,i was offering sacrifice1 a flame leapt up and caught my hand1 so as to cause blisters4 ,yet after a little my hand was healed4 ,as ,i prolonged my stay in the ,temple1 the god told me to use dill along with olive-oil for my head-aches4 ,formerly ,i had not suffered from head-aches1 but my studies had brought #bbb on congestion4 ,after ,i used the olive-oil1 ,i was cured of head-aches4 ,for swollen glands the god told me to use a cold gargle1 when ,i consulted him about it1 and he ordered the same treatment for inflamed tonsils4 ,he bade me inscribe this treatment1 and ,i left the ,temple in good health and full of gratitude to the god4#ea ,sidenote3 ,pausanias ,pausanias speaks of the buildings erected in our time by ,antoninus a man of the ,conscript ,senate--a ,roman ,senator in fact1#eb--;in honour of ,asklepios at ,epidauros1 a bath1 three temples1 a colonnade1 and a house where a man may die1 and a woman lie in1 without sin1 for these actions were not holy within the sanctuary precincts1 and had had to be done in the open air hitherto4 ,a more conspicuous patient of ,asklepios is ,a,elius ,aristides1 the rhetorician4 ,this brilliant and hypochondriacal person spent years in watching his symptoms and consulting the god about them4 ,early in his illness the god instructed him to record its details1 and he obeyed with zest1 though in after years he was not always able to record the minuter points with complete clearness4 ,he was bidden to make speeches1 to rub himself over with mud1 to plunge into icy water1 to ride1 and1 once1 to be bled to the amount of #abj litres4 ,as the human body does not contain anything like that amount of blood1 and as the temple servants knew of no one ever having been cut to that extent--at least except ,ischyron1 and his was one of the most remarkable cases1 the god was not taken literally4#ec ,the regular plan was to sleep in the ,temple1 as already mentioned1 and the god came4 ,the impression was that one could touch him1 and perceive that he came in person2 as if one were between asleep and awake1 and wished to look out and were in an agony lest he should depart too soon1--as if one held one's ear and listened--sometimes as in a dream1 and then as in a waking vision--one's hair was on end1 and tears of joy were shed1 and one felt light-hearted4 ,and who among #bbc men could set this forth in words8 ,yet if there is one of the initiated1 he knows and recognises what ,i say4#ed ,none of the cases yet quoted can compare with the miracles of ancient days to be read in the inscriptions about the place--stories of women with child for three and five years1 of the extraordinary surgery of the god1 cutting off the head of a dropsical patient1 holding him upside down to let the water run out and putting the head on again1--a mass of absurdities hardly to be matched outside ,the ,glories of ,mary4 ,they make ,lucian's ,philopseudes seem tame4 ,there were other gods1 beside ,asklepios1 who gave oracles in shrine and dream4 ,pausanias the traveller has left a book on ,greece and its antiquities1 temples1 gods and legends of extraordinary value4 ,a man made of common stuff and cast in a common mould1 as ,dr ,frazer characterizes him1--and therefore the more representative--he went through ,greece with curious eyes and he saw much that no one else has recorded4 ,at ,sparta stood the only temple he knew of which had an upper story4 ,in this upper story was an image of ,aphrodite ,morpho fettered#ee--;a silly thing he thought it to fetter a cedar-wood doll4 ,he particularly visited ,phigalea1 because of the ,black ,demeter--a curious enough image she had been1 though by then destroyed4#ef ,he was initiated in the ,eleusinian mysteries4#eg ,he tells us that the stony remnants of the lump of clay from which ,prometheus fashioned the first man were still preserved1#eh and that the sceptre which ,hephaistos made for ,agamemnon received a daily sacrifice in ,chaeronea1 ,plutarch's city--a table is set beside it covered with all sorts of flesh and cakes4#ei ,he has many such stories4 ,he tells us too about a great many oracles of his day1 of which that of ,amphilochus at ,mallus in ,cilicia is the most infallible#fj--;a curiously suggestive superlative 7apseudestation74 ,he is greatly #bbd interested in ,asklepios1 but for our present purpose a few sentences from his elaborate account of the ceremony with which ,trophonius is consulted at ,lebadea must suffice4 ,after due rites the inquirer comes to the oracle1 in a linen tunic with ribbons1 and boots of the country4 ,inside bronze railings is a pit of masonry1 some four ells across and eight deep1 and he goes down into it by means of a light ladder brought for the occasion4 ,at the bottom he finds a hole1 a very narrow one4 ,so he lays himself on his back on the ground1 and holding in his hand barley cakes kneaded with honey1 he thrusts his feet first into the hole1 and follows himself endeavouring to get his knees through the hole4 ,when they are through1 the rest of his body is immediately dragged after them and shoots in1 just as a man might be caught and dragged down by the swirl of a mighty and rapid river4 ,once they are inside the shrine the future is not revealed to all in one and the same way1 but to one it is given to see and to another to hear4 ,they return through the same aperture feet foremost4444 ,when a man has come up from ,trophonius1 the priests take him in hand again1 and set him on what is called the chair of ,memory1 which stands not far from the shrine2 and1 being seated there1 he is questioned by them as to all he saw and heard4 ,on being informed1 they hand him over to his friends who carry him1 still overpowered with fear1 and quite unconscious of himself and his surroundings1 to the building where he lodged before1 the house of ,good ,fortune and the ,good ,daemon4 ,afterwards1 however1 he will have all his wits as before1 and the power of laughter will come back to him4 ,i write not from mere hearsay3 ,i have myself consulted ,trophonius and have seen others who have done so4 ,all who have gone down to ,trophonius are obliged to set up a tablet containing a record of all they heard and saw4#fa ,a man who has been through such an experience may be excused for believing much4 ,while ,pausanias kept his ,greek habit of criticism and employs it on occasional myths and traditions1 and particularly on stories of hell--though the fact of punishment after death he seems to accept--yet his travels and his inquiries made an impression on him4 ,when ,i began this work1 ,i used to look on these ,greek stories as little better #bbe than foolishness2 but now that ,i have got as far as ,arcadia1 my opinion about them is this3 ,i believe that the ,greeks who were accounted wise spoke of old in riddles1 and not straight out2 and1 accordingly1 ,i conjecture that this story about ,cronos swallowing a foal instead of his child is a bit of ,greek philosophy4 ,in matters of religion ,i will follow tradition4#fb ,sidenote3 ,artemidorus of ,daldia ,pausanias mentions several oracles and temples of ,apollo in ,greece and ,asia ,minor--one obscure local manifestation of the god he naturally enough omitted1 but a fellow-citizen of the god preserves it4 ,it was in obedience to him1 the god of my land1 that ,i undertook this treatise4 ,he often urged me to it1 and in particular appeared visibly to me 7enargos epiotanti71#fc since ,i knew thee1 and all but ordered me to write all this4 ,no wonder that the ,daldian ,apollo1 whom we call by the ancestral name of ,mystes1 urged me to this1 in care for thy worth and wisdom1 for there is an old friendship between ,lydians and ,phoenicians1 as they tell us who set forth the legends of the land4#fd ,so writes ,artemidorus to his friend ,cassius ,maximus of his treatise on the scientific interpretation of dreams--a work of which he is very proud4 ,wonder not1 he says1 at the title1 that the name stands ,artemidorus ,daldianus1 and not 'of ,ephesus1' as on many of the books ,i have already written on other subjects4 ,for ,ephesus1 it happens1 is famous on her own account1 and she has many men of note to proclaim her4 ,but ,daldia is a town of ,lydia of no great renown1 and1 as she has had no such men1 she has remained unknown till my day4 ,so ,i dedicate this to her1 my native-place on the mother's side1 as a parent's due threpteria4#fe ,marcus ,aurelius records his gratitude that remedies have been shown to me by dreams1 both others1 and against blood-spitting and giddiness4#ff ,plutarch1 ,pausanias1 ,aristides--dreams #bbf come into the scheme of things divine with all the devout of our period4 ,artemidorus is their humble brother--not the first to give a whole book to dreams1 but proud to be a pioneer in the really scientific treatment of them--the accuracy of the judgments1 that is the thing for which1 even by itself1 ,i think highly of myself4#fg ,the critic may take it that ,i too am quite capable of neologisms and persuasive rhetoric 7ehuresilogein kai pithaneuthai71 but ,i have not undertaken all this for theatrical effect or to please the speech-mongers2 ,i appeal throughout to experience1 as canon and witness of my words1 and he begs his readers neither to add to his books nor take anything away4#fh ,his writing is1 as he says1 quite free from the stage and tragedy style4 ,artemidorus takes himself very seriously4 ,for one thing1 there is no book on the interpretation of dreams that ,i have not acquired1 for ,i had great enthusiasm for this2 and1 in the next place1 though the prophets 7manteon7 in the market-place are much slandered1 and called beggars and quacks and humbugs by the gentlemen of solemn countenance and lifted eye-brows1 ,i despised the slander and for many years ,i have associated with them--both in ,greece1 in cities and at festivals1 and in ,asia1 and in ,italy1 and in the largest and most populous of the islands1 consenting to hear ancient dreams and their results4#fi ,this patient research has resulted in principles of classification4#gj ,there are dreams that merely repeat what a man is doing 7enuphnia72 and others 7oneipoi7 which are prophetic4 ,these last fall into two classes--theorematic dreams1 as when a man dreams of a voyage1 and wakes to go upon a voyage1 and allegoric dreams4 ,the latter adjective has a great history in regions more august1 but the allegoric method is the same everywhere1 as an illustration will show4 ,a man dreamed he saw ,charon playing at counters with another man1 whom he called away on business2 ,charon grew angry and chased him1 till he ran for refuge into an inn called #bbg ,the ,camel1 and bolted the door1 whereupon the daemon went away1 but one of the man's thighs sprouted with grass4 ,shortly after this dream he had his thigh broken--the one and sole event foretold4 ,for ,charon and the counters meant death1 but ,charon did not catch him1 so it was shown that he would not die2 but his foot was threatened1 since he was pursued4 ,the name of the inn hinted at the thigh1 because of the anatomy of a camel's thigh2 and the grass meant disuse of the limb1 for grass only grows where the earth is left at rest4#ga ,the passage is worth remembering whenever we meet the word allegory and its derivatives in contemporary literature4 ,artemidorus has five books of this stuff--the last two dedicated to his son1 and containing instances that will make you a better interpreter of dreams than all1 or at least inferior to none2 but1 if published1 they will show you know no more than the rest4#gb ,the sentence suggests science declining into profession4 ,sidenote3 ,apuleius ,far more brilliant1 more amusing and more attractive than any of these men1 whom we have considered since we left ,lucian1 is ,apuleius of ,madaura4 ,rhetorician1 philosopher and man of science1 a story-teller wavering between ,boccaccio and ,hans ,andersen1 he is above all a stylist1 a pietist and a humorist4 ,for his history we depend upon himself1 and this involves us in difficulties2 for1 while autobiography runs through two of his works1 one of these is an elaboration of a defence he made on a charge of magic and the other is a novel of no discoverable class but its own1 and through both runs a vein of nonsense1 which makes one chary of being too literal4 ,the novel is the ,golden ,ass--that at least is what ,st ,augustine tells us the author called it4#gc ,passages from this have been seriously used as sources of information as to the author4 ,but there is another ,ass1 long attributed to ,lucian though probably not ,lucian's1 and in each case the hero tells the tale in the first person1 and the co-incidences between the ,greek and the ,latin make it obvious that there is some #bbh literary connexion between them1 whatever it is4 ,the scene is ,greece and ,thessaly1 but not the ,greece and ,thessaly of geography1 any more than the maritime ,bohemia of ,shakespeare4 ,yet in the last book ,apuleius seems to have forgotten ,lucius of ,patrae and to be giving us experiences of his own which have nothing to do with the hero of the ,ass1 ,greek or ,latin4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,apology of ,apuleius ,in the ,apology he comes closer to his own career and he tells us about himself4 ,here he does not venture on the delightful assertion that he is the descendant of the great ,plutarch1 as the hero of the ,ass does1 but avows that1 as his native place is on the frontiers of ,numidia and ,gaetulia1 he calls himself half ,numidian and half ,gaetulian--just as ,cyrus the ,greater was half ,mede and half ,persian4 ,his city is a most splendid colony1 and his father held in turn all its magistracies1 and he hopes not to be unworthy of him4#gd ,he and his brother inherited two million sesterces1 though he has lessened his share by distant travel and long studies and constant liberalities4#ge ,elsewhere he tells us definitely that he was educated at ,athens4#gf ,everybody goes to the litterator for his rudiments1 to the grammarian next and then to the rhetorician--but ,i drank from other vessels at ,athens1 so ,empedocles frames songs1 ,plato dialogues1 ,socrates hymns1 ,epicharmus measures1 ,xenophon histories1 ,xenocrates satires2 your ,apuleius does all these and cultivates the nine ,muses with equal zeal--with more will1 that is1 than skill4#gg ,like many brilliant men of his day he took to the strolling life of the rhetorician1 going from city to city and giving displays of his powers of language1 extemporizing wonderful combinations of words4 ,either he himself or some other admirer made a collection of elegant extracts from these exhibition-speeches1 still extant under the title of ,florida4 ,his fame to-day rests on other works4 ,in the course of his travels he came to ,oea in his native-land1 and there married the widowed mother of a fellow-student of his ,athenian days4 ,her late husband's family resented the marriage2 and affecting to believe that her affections had been gained by #bbi some sort of witchcraft1 they prosecuted ,apuleius on a charge of magic4 ,the charge was in itself rather a serious one1 though ,apuleius made light of it4 ,his defence is an interesting document for the glimpses it gives into ,north ,african society1 with its ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,punic elements4 ,the younger stepson has fallen into bad hands2 he never speaks except in ,punic1--a little ,greek1 perhaps1 surviving from what he learnt of his mother2 ,latin he neither will nor can speak4#gh ,on family life1 on marriage customs1 on the registration of births 7c4 #hi72--on the personal habits of the defendant1 his toothpowder 7and a verse he made in its praise7 and his looking-glass1 we gain curious information4 ,above all the speech sheds great light on the inter-relations of magic and religion in contemporary thought4 ,a few points may be noticed4 ,what1 asks the prosecution1 is the meaning of this curious interest ,apuleius has in fish8 ,it is zoological1 says ,apuleius2 ,i have written books on fish1 both in ,greek and ,latin1--and dissected them4 ,that curious story1 too1 of the boy falling down in his presence8 ,as to that1 ,apuleius knows all about divination by means of boys put under magical influence2 he has read of it1 of course1 but he does not know whether to believe or not2 ,i do think with ,plato1 he owns to the court 7or to his readers71 that between gods and men1 in nature and in place intermediary1 there are certain divine powers1 and these preside over all divinations and the miracles of magicians4 ,nay1 more1 ,i have the fancy that the human soul1 particularly the simple soul of a boy1 might1 whether by evocation of charm or by mollification of odour1 be laid to sleep1 and so brought out of itself into oblivion of things present1 and for a brief space1 all memory of the body put away1 it might be restored and returned to its own nature1 which is indeed immortal and divine1 and thus1 in a certain type of slumber1 foretell the future4#gi ,as for the boy in question1 however1 he is so ricketty that it would take a magician to keep him standing4 ,then those mysterious somethings which ,apuleius keeps #bcj wrapped up in a napkin8 ,i have been initiated in many of the mysteries of ,greece4 ,certain symbols and memorials of these1 given to me by the priests1 ,i sedulously preserve4 ,i say nothing unusual1 nothing unknown4 ,to take one instance1 those among you who are mystae of ,father ,liber ,bacchus know what it is you keep laid away at home1 and worship in secret1 far from all profane eyes4 ,now1 ,i1 as ,i said1 from enthusiasm for truth and duty toward the gods1 ,i have learnt many sacred mysteries1 very many holy rites1 and divers ceremonies--the audience will remember he said as much three years ago in his now very famous speech about ,a,esculapius--then could it seem strange to anyone1 who has any thought of religion1 that a man1 admitted to so many divine mysteries1 should keep certain emblems of those holy things at home1 and wrap them in linen1 the purest covering for things divine8 ,some men--the prosecutor among them--count it mirth to mock things divine2 no1 he goes to no temple1 has never prayed1 will not even put his hand to his lips when he passes a shrine1--why6 he has not so much as an anointed stone or a garlanded bough on his farm4#hj ,one last flourish may deserve quotation4 ,if you can prove1 says ,apuleius1 any material advantage accruing to me from my marriage1 then write me down the great ,carmendas or ,damigeron or his 444 ,moses or ,jannes or ,apollobeches or ,dardanus himself1 or anyone else from ,zoroaster and ,ostanes downwards who has been famous among magicians4#ha ,several of these names occur in other authors1#hb but the corruption is more interesting4 ,has some comparative fallen out1 or does his conceal another name8 ,is it ihs1 in fact1--a reference to ,jesus analogous to the suggestion of ,celsus that he too was a magician8 ,the philosophical works of ,apuleius need not detain us1 but a little space may be spared to his book ,on the ,god of ,socrates1 where he sets forth in a clear and vivid way that doctrine of daemonic beings1 which lies at the heart of ancient #bca religion1 pre-eminently in this period1 from ,plutarch onwards4 ,his presentment is substantially the same as ,plutarch's1 but crisper altogether1 and set forth in the brilliant rhetoric1 to which the ,greek did not aspire1 and from which the ,african could not escape1 nor indeed wished to escape4 ,plato1 he says1 classifies the gods in three groups1 distinguished by their place in the universe4#hc ,of the celestial gods some we can see--sun1 moon and stars#hd 7on which1 like a true rhetorician1 he digresses into some fine language1 which can be omitted74 ,others the mind alone can grasp 7intellectu eos rimabundi contemplamur7--incorporeal natures1 animate1 with neither beginning nor end1 eternal before and after1 exempt from contagion of body2 in perfect intellect possessing supreme beatitude2 good1 but not by participation of any extraneous good1 but from themselves4 ,their father1 lord and author of all things1 free from every nexus of suffering or doing--him ,plato1 with celestial eloquence and language commensurate with the immortal gods1 has declared to be1 in virtue of the ineffable immensity of his incredible majesty1 beyond the poverty of human speech or definition--while even to the sages themselves1 when by force of soul they have removed themselves from the body1 the conception of ,god comes1 like a flash of light in thick darkness--a flash only1 and it is gone4#he ,at the other extremity of creation are men--proud in reason1 loud in speech1 immortal of soul1 mortal of member1 in mind light and anxious1 in body brute and feeble1 divers in character1 in error the same1 in daring pervicacious1 in hope1 pertinacious1 of vain toil1 of frail fortune1 severally mortal1 generally continuous1 mutable in the succession of offspring1 time fleeting1 wisdom lingering1 death swift and life querulous1 so they live4#hf ,between such beings and the gods1 contact cannot be4 ,to whom then shall ,i recite prayers8 to whom tender vows8 to whom slay victim8 on whom shall ,i call1 to #bcb help the wretched1 to favour the good1 to counter the evil8 4444 ,what thinkest thou8 ,shall ,i swear 'by ,jove the stone' 7per ,iovem lapidem7 after the most ancient manner of ,rome8 ,yet if ,plato's thought be true1 that never god and man can meet1 the stone will hear me more easily than ,jupiter4#hg ,nay1 not so far--7for ,plato shall answer1 the thought is his1 if mine the voice7 not so far1 he saith1 do ,i pronounce the gods to be sejunct and alienate from us1 as to think that not even our prayers can reach them4 ,not from the care of human affairs1 but from contact1 have ,i removed them4 ,but there are certain mediary divine powers1 between aether above and earth beneath1 situate in that mid space of air1 by whom our desires and our deserts reach the gods4 ,these the ,greeks call daemons1 carriers between human and heavenly1 hence of prayers1 thence of gifts2 back and forth they fare1 hence with petition1 thence with sufficiency1 interpreters and bringers of salvation4#hh ,to cut short this flow of words1 the daemons are1 as is familiar to us by now1 authors of divination of all kinds1 each in its province4 ,it would ill fit the majesty of the gods to send a dream to ,hannibal or to soften the whetstone for ,attius ,navius--these are the functions of the intermediate spirits4#hi ,justin's explanation of the theophanies of the ,old ,testament may recur to the reader's mind1 and not unjustly4#ij ,the daemons are framed of a purer and rarer matter than we1 of that purest liquid of air1 of that serene element1 invisible therefore to us unless of their divine will they choose to be seen4#ia ,from their ranks come those haters and lovers of men1 whom the poets describe as gods--they feel pity and indignation1 pain and joy and every feature of the human mind2 while the gods above are lords ever of one state in eternal equability1 and know no passions of any kind4 ,the daemons share their immortality and our passion4 ,hence we may accept the local diversities of religious cult1 rites nocturnal or diurnal1 victims1 ceremonies and ritual sad or gay1 ,egyptian #bcc or ,greek1--neglect of these things the daemons resent1 as we learn in dream and oracle4 ,the human soul1 too1 is a daemon in a body--the ,genius of the ,latins4 ,from this we may believe that after death souls good and bad become good and bad ghosts--,lares and ,lemures--and even gods1 such as ,osiris in ,egypt and ,a,esculapius everywhere4#ib ,higher still are such daemons as ,sleep and ,love1 and of this higher kind ,plato supposes our guardian spirits to be--spectators and guardians of individual men1 never seen1 ever present1 arbiters not merely of all acts1 but of all thoughts1 and after death witnesses for or against us4 ,of such was ,socrates' familiar daemon4 ,why should not we too live after the model of ,socrates1 studying philosophy and obeying our daemon8 ,sidenote3 ,the ,golden ,ass ,the ,golden ,ass is the chief work of ,apuleius4 ,lector intende2 laetaberis1 he says in ending his short preface1 and he judged his work aright4 ,the hero1 ,lucius1 is a man with an extravagant interest in magic1 and he puts himself in the way of hearing the most wonderful stories of witchcraft and enchantment4 ,apuleius tells them with the utmost liveliness and humour4 ,magical transformations1 the vengeance of witches1 the vivification of waterskins--one tale comes crowding after another1 real and vivid1 with the most alarming and the most amusing details4 ,for example1 we are told by an eye-witness 7like everybody else in the book he is a master-hand at story-telling7 how he saw witches by night cut the throat of his friend1 draw out the heart and plug the hole with a sponge2 how terrified he was of the hags to begin with1 and then lest he should himself be accused of the murder2 how the man rose and went on his journey--somewhat wearily1 it is true2 and how1 as they rested1 he stooped to drink1 the sponge fell out and he was dead4 ,lucius meddles with the drugs of a witch1 and1 wishing to transform himself to a bird1 by the ill-luck of using the wrong box he becomes an ass4 ,he is carried off by robbers1 and1 while he has the most varied adventures of his own1 he is enabled to record some of the most gorgeous exploits that #bcd brigands ever told one another in an ass's hearing4#ic ,what is more1 a young girl is captured and held to ransom1 and to comfort her for a little1 the old woman who cooks the robbers' food--a witless and bibulous old hag--tells her a story--such a pretty little tale1 that the ass1 who is listening1 wishes he had pen and paper to take it down4 ,for1 while in aspect ,lucius is an ass1 his mind remains human--human enough to reflect sometimes what a genuine ass he is--and his skin has not1 he regrets1 the proper thickness of true ass-hide4 ,the tale which he would like to write down is ,cupid and ,psyche4 ,erant in quadam civitate1 begins the old woman--,there were in a certain city a king and a queen4 ,the old and universal fairy-tales of the invisible husband1 the cruel sisters1 and the impossible quests are here woven together and brought into connexion with the ,olympic pantheon1 and through all runs a slight thread1 only here and there visible1 of allegory4 ,but if ,psyche is at times the soul1 and if the daughter she bears to ,cupid is ,pleasure1 the fairy-tale triumphs gloriously over the allegory1 and remains the most wonderful thing of the kind in ,latin4 ,here1 and in the ,golden ,ass in general1 the extraordinarily embroidered language of ,apuleius is far more in keeping than in his philosophic writings4 ,his hundreds of diminutives and neologisms1 his antitheses1 alliterations1 assonances1 figures and tropes1 his brilliant invention1 his fun and humour1 here have full scope and add pleasure to every fresh episode of the fairy-tale and of the larger and more miscellaneous tale of adventure in which it is set--in the strangest setting conceivable4 ,cupid and ,psyche is his own addition to the story of the ,ass--quite irrelevant1 and like many other irrelevant things in books an immense enrichment4 ,another development of the original story which is similarly due to ,apuleius alone is the climax in the last book4 ,the ass1 in the ,greek story1 becomes a man by eating roses4 ,in the ,latin1 ,lucius1 weary of the life of an ass1 finds himself by moonlight on the seashore near ,corinth1 and amid the silent #bce secrets of opaque night1 he reflects that the supreme goddess rules in transcendent majesty and governs human affairs by her providence4 ,so he addresses a rather too eloquent prayer to the ,queen of ,heaven under her various possible names1 ,ceres1 ,venus1 ,diana and ,proserpine4 ,he then falls asleep1 and at once lo6 from mid sea1 uplifting a countenance venerable even to gods1 emerges a divine form4 ,gradually the vision1 gleaming all over1 and shaking off the sea1 seemed to stand before me4 ,a crown of flowers rests on her flowing hair4 ,glittering stars1 the moon1 flowers and fruits1 are wrought into her raiment1 which shimmers white and yellow and red as the light falls upon it4 ,in one hand is a sistrum1 in the other a golden vessel shaped like a boat1 with an asp for its handle4#id ,she speaks4 ,sidenote3 ,isis ,lo6 ,i come in answer1 ,lucius1 to thy prayers1 ,i mother of ,nature1 mistress of all the elements1 initial offspring of ages1 chief of divinities1 queen of the dead1 first of the heavenly ones1 in one form expressing all gods and goddesses4 ,i rule with my rod the bright pinnacles of heaven1 the healthful breezes of the sea1 the weeping silence of the world below4 ,my sole godhead1 in many an aspect1 with many a various rite1 and many a name1 all the world worships4 ,some of these names she recites1 and then declares her true name1 ,queen ,isis4#ie ,the next day is her festival1 she says1 and her priest1 taught by her in a dream1 will tender ,lucius the needful roses2 he will eat and be a man again4 ,but hereafter all his life must be devoted to the goddess1 and then in the ,elysian fields he shall see her again1 shining amid the darkness of ,acheron1 propitious to him4 ,the next day all falls as predicted4 ,the procession of ,isis is elaborately described4#if ,the prelude of the pomp is a series of men dressed in various characters1--one like a soldier1 another like a woman1 others like a gladiator1 a philospher and so forth4 ,there is a tame bear dressed like a woman1 and a monkey in a ,phrygian garment of saffron4 ,then come women in white1 crowned with flowers1 some with mirrors hanging on their backs1 some carrying ivory combs4 ,men and women follow with torches and lamps2 then a choir of #bcf youths in white1 singing a hymn1 and fluteplayers dedicated to ,serapis4 ,after this a crowd of initiates of both sexes1 of every age and degree1 dressed in white linen and carrying sistra1--the men with shaven heads4 ,then came five chief priests with emblems1 and after them the images of the gods borne by other priests--,anubis with his dog's head1 black and gold--after him the figure of a cow the prolific image of the all-mother goddess 7which one of this blessed ministry bore on his shoulder1 with mimicking gait7--then an image of divinity1 like nothing mortal1 an ineffable symbol1 worthy of all veneration for its exquisite art4 ,at this point came the priest with the promised roses--my salvation--and ,lucius ate and was a man again4 ,the priest1 in a short homily1 tells him he has now reached the haven of quiet2 ,fortune's blindness has no more power over him2 he is taken to the bosom of a ,fortune who can see1 who can illuminate even the other gods4 ,let him rejoice and consecrate his life to the goddess1 undertake her warfare and become her soldier4#ig ,the pomp moves onward till they reach the shore1 and there a sacred ship is launched--inscribed with ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 purified with a burning torch1 an egg1 and sulphur1 on her sail a vow written in large letters4 ,she is loaded with aromatics2 and filled with copious gifts and auspicious prayers she sails away before a gentle breeze and is lost to sight4 ,the celebrants then return to the temple1 but we have perhaps followed them far enough4 ,from now on to the end of the book the reformed ,lucius lives in the odour of sanctity4 ,he never sleeps without a vision of the goddess4 ,he passes on from initiation to initiation1 though the service of religion is difficult1 chastity arduous1 and life now a matter of circumspection--it had not been before4 ,the initiations are1 he owns1 rather expensive4#ih ,perhaps1 my enthusiastic reader1 thou wilt ask--anxiously enough--what was said1 what done4 ,i would speak if it were #bcg lawful to speak1 thou shouldst know if it were lawful to hear4444 ,hear then1 and believe1 for it is true4 ,i drew near to the confines of death2 ,i trod the threshold of ,proserpine2 ,i was borne through all the elements and returned4 ,at midnight ,i saw the sun flashing with bright light4 ,gods of the world below1 gods of the world above1 into their presence ,i came1 ,i worshipped there in their sight4 ,garments1 emblems1 rites1 purifications are the elements of his life now4 ,nor does he grudge the trouble and expense1 for the gods are blessing him with forensic success4 ,in a dream1 ,osiris himself chief among the great gods1 of the greater highest1 greatest of the highest1 ruler of the greatest1 appears in person1 and promises him--speaking with his own awful voice--triumphs at the bar1 with no need to fear the envy his learning might rouse4 ,he should be one of the god's own ,pastophori1 one of his quinquennial decurions4 ,so with my hair perfectly shaved1 ,i performed in gladness the duties of that most ancient college1 established in ,sulla's times1 not shading nor covering my baldness1 but letting it be universally conspicuous4 ,and there ends the ,golden ,ass4 ,was it true--this story of the ass8 ,augustine says that ,apuleius either disclosed or made up these adventures4 ,both he and ,lactantius had to show their contemporaries that there was a difference between the miracles of ,apuleius and those of ,christ4#ii ,the ,emperor ,septimius ,severus1 on the other hand1 sneered at his rival ,albinus for reading the ,punic ,milesian-tales of his fellow-countryman ,apuleius and such literary trifles4#ajj ,sidenote3 ,apuleius and his initiation ,between these two judgments we may find ,apuleius4 ,he is a man of letters1 but he has a taste for religion4 ,ceremony1 mystery1 ritual1 sacraments1 appeal to him1 and there he stands with his contemporaries4 ,but a man1 in whose pages bandit and old woman1 ass and ,isis1 all talk in one ,euphuistic strain1 was possibly not so pious as men of simpler speech4 ,yet his giving such a conclusion to such a tale is significant1 and there is not an absurdity among all the many1 in which he so gaily revels1 but corresponded with something that men believed4 #bch ,in conclusion1 we may ask what ,lucian of ,samosata and ,diogenes of ,oinoanda had to offer to ,aristides and ,pausanias and ,apuleius2 and what they in turn could suggest to men whose concern in religion goes deeper than the cure of physical disease1 trance and self-conscious revelling in ceremony4 ,some spiritual value still clung about the old religion1 or it could not have found supporters in a ,plotinus and a ,porphyry1 but 7to quote again a most helpful question7 how much else8 ,chapter ,,vii ,footnotes3 #a ,on the other hand see a very interesting passage in ,tertullian1 de ,anima1 #cj1 on the progress of the world in civilization1 and population outstripping ,nature1 while plague1 famine1 war1 etc41 are looked on as tonsura insolescentis generis humani4 #b ,marcus ,aurelius was born about #aba ,a4,d4 and died in #ahj4 ,the other two were born in or about #abe4 #c e4g4 viii1 #ag4 #d ,the one passage is in xi1 #c4 #e ,or1 the ,english equivalent1 ,utopia4 #f ,marcus ,aurelius1 ix1 #bh-dj1 with omissions4 ,phrases have been borrowed from the translations of ,mr ,long and ,dr ,rendall4 #g ,this sheds some light on his comparison of the ,christians to actors1 xi1 #c4 #h ,cf4 ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #e1 ,hadrianus omnium curiositatum explorator4 #i ,piscator1 #ai4 #aj ,quomodo historia1 #bd4 #aa ,bis accusatus1 #bg4 #ab ,somnium1 #ah4 #ac ,bis ,accusatus1 #cj1 #bg4 #ad ,apology1 #ae4 #ae ,bis ,acc4 #cb4 ,cf4 ,juvenal1 #g1 #aea1 perimit saevos classis numerosa tyrannos4 #af ,bis ,acc4 #cc1 #cd4 #ag ,zeus ,tragadus1 #ae4 #ah ,piscator1 #ai1 #bj4 #ai ,vit4 auctio1 #bg4 #bj ,hermot4 #gd4 #ba ,ibid4 #he4 #bb ,hermot4 #bb-bh4 #bc ,ibid4 #hd4 #bd ,v4,h41 ii1 #ah4 #be ,piscator1 #af4 #bf ,philopseudes1 #g4 #bg ,ibid4 #af4 #bh ,this ghost appears rather earlier in a letter of ,pliny's1 vii1 #bg1 who says he believes the story and adds another of his own4 #bi ,philopseudes1 #cd4 #cj ,ibid4 #ag4 #ca ,pausanias1 viii1 #bi1 #c4 ,cf4 ,milton's ,ode on ,nativity1 #be1 ,typhon huge1 ending in snaky twine4 ,references to remains of giants1 in ,tertullian1 de resurr4 carnis1 #db2 ,pliny1 ,n4,h4 vii1 #af1 #gc4 #cb ,philopseudes1 #bb-bd4 #cc ,philopseudes1 #be1 #bf4 #cd ,icaromenippus1 #bd-bf4 #ce ,icaromen4 #bd4 #cf ,zeus ,tragadus4 #cg ,zeus ,elenchomenos4 #ch ,deor4 ,eccles4 #ad-ah4 #ci ,alexander1 #dh4 ,the reader of ,marcus will remember that his first book is dated ,among the ,quadi4 #dj ,alexander1 #ec-ef4 #da ,keim1 ,celsus' ,wahres ,wort1 p4 #bcc1 suggests that ,lucian was not quite clear as to the differences between ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,the reference to forbidden meat lends colour to this4 #db ,de morte ,peregrini1 #aa1 #af2 cf4 the ,passio ,perpetuae1 #c and #af1 on attention to ,christians in prison4 ,tertullian1 de ,jejunio1 #ab1 gives an extraordinary account of what might be done for a ,christian in prison1 though the case of ,pristinus1 which he quotes1 must have been unusual1 if we are to take all he says as literally true4 #dc ,cf4 ,tertullian1 ad ,martyras1 #d1 ,peregrinus qui non olim se rogo immisit4 ,athenagoras1 ,presb4 #bf1 ,proteos1 touton d' ouk agnoeite rhipsanta heauton eis to pur peri ten ,olympian4 #dd ,gellius1 ,n4,a4 xii1 #aa2 and summary of viii1 #c4 #de ,charon is the title of the dialogue4 #df ,menippus1 #ae1 #af4 #dg ,menippus1 #ba4 #dh ,eckermann1 #beth ,dec4 #ahbe4 #di ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,hypotyposes1 i1 #be-cj4 #ej ,see ,rheinisches ,museum1 #ahib1 and ,bulletin de ,correspondance ,hellenique1 #ahig4 #ea ,c4,i4,g4 iv1 #iee4 ,translation of ,mary ,hamilton1 in her ,incubation1 p4 #da 7#aijf74 #eb ,i agree with the view of ,schubart quoted by ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer on the passage 7,pausan4 ii1 #bg1 #f7 that this man was neither the ,emperor ,antoninus ,pius nor ,marcus4 ,it is perhaps superfluous to call attention to the value of ,dr ,frazer's commentary1 here and elsewhere4 #ec ,sacred ,speech1 ii1 ,sec4 #dg1 p #cja1 litras eikosi kai ekaton4 #ed ,sacred ,speech1 ii1 ,sec4 #cc1 p4 #bih4 ,for ,aristides see ,hamilton1 ,incubation1 pt4 i4 ch4 #c1 and ,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius1 bk4 iv4 ch4 #a4 ,see also ,richard ,caton1 ,m4,d41 ,the ,temples and ,ritual of ,asklepios 7#aijj74 #ee ,paus4 iii1 #ae1 #aa #ef ,paus4 viii1 #db1 #aa4 #eg ,paus4 i1 #cg1 #d2 #ch1 #g4 #eh ,paus4 x1 #d1 #d2 they smell very like human flesh4 #ei ,paus4 ix1 #dj1 #aa4 #fj ,paus4 i1 #cd1 #c4 ,cf4 ,tertullian1 de ,anima1 #df1 a list of dream-oracles4 ,strabo1 c4 #gfa-b1 represents the practice as an essential feature of ,judaism1 egkoimasthai de kai autous hyper heauton kai humer ton allon allous tous euoneipous2 he compares ,moses to ,amphiaraus1 ,trophonius1 ,orpheus1 etc4 #fa ,paus4 ix1 #ci1 #e-ad1 ,frazer's translation4 #fb ,paus4 viii1 #h1 #c 7,frazer74 ton men de es to theion hekonton tois eireuenois chresometha4 #fc ,the word of ,luke #b1 #i4 #fd ,artemidorus ,dald4 ii1 #gj4 #fe ,artem4 ,dald4 iii1 #ff4 #ff ,marcus1 i1 #ag2 ,george ,long's rendering1 here as elsewhere somewhat literal1 but valuable as leaving the sharp edges on the thought of the ,greek1 which get rubbed off in some translations4 ,see ,tertullian1 de ,anima1 cc4 #dd and following1 for a discussion of dreams1 referring to the five volumes of ,hermippus of ,berytus for the whole story of them4 #fg ,artem4 ,dald4 ii1 pref41 mega phrono4 #fh ,artem4 ,dald4 ii1 #gj4 ,cf4 v4 pref41 aneu skenes kai tragosias4 #fi ,artem4 ,dald4 i1 pref4 #gj ,a very different classification in ,tertullian1 de ,anima1 #dg1 #dh4 ,dreams may be due to demons1 to ,god1 the nature of the soul or ecstasy4 #ga ,artem4 ,dald4 i1 #d4 #gb ,artem4 ,dald4 iv1 pref4 #gc ,see ,augustine1 ,c4,d4 xviii1 #ah1 ,apuleius in libris quos ,asini aurei titulo inscripsit4 ,in the printed texts1 it is generally called the ,metamorphoses4 #gd ,apol4 #bd4 #ge ,apol4 #bc4 #gf ,apol4 #gb2 ,flor4 #ah4 #gg ,flor4 #bj4 #gh ,apol4 #ih4 ,cf4 ,passio ,perpetuae1 c4 #ac1 et caepit ,pirpetua ,graece cum eis loqui1 says ,saturus2 ,perpetua uses occasional ,greek words herself in recording her visions4 #gi ,apol4 #dc4 ,cf4 ,plutarch cited on p4 #aja4 #hj ,apol4 #ee1 #ef4 ,cf4 ,florida1 #a1 an ornamental passage on pious usage4 #ha ,apol4 #ij4 ,many restorations have been attempted4 #hb e4g4 ,tertullian1 de ,anima1 #eg1 ,ostanes et ,typhon et ,dardanus et ,damigeron et ,nectabis et ,berenice4 #hc ,much of this material ,apuleius has taken from the ,timaeus1 #dj ,d to #dc ,a4 #hd ,cf4 ,lactantius1 ,instit4 ii1 de origine erroris1 c4 #e4 ,tertullian1 ad ,natt4 ii1 #b4 ,cicero1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #ae1 #ci-dd4 #he de deo ,socr4 #c1 #abd4 ,cf4 the account 7quoted below7 of what was experienced in initiation1 which suggests some acquaintance with mystical trance--the confines of death and the sudden bright light look very like it4 #hf de deo ,socr4 #d1 #abf4 #hg de deo ,socr4 #e1 #acj-acb4 #hh de deo ,socr4 #f1 #acb4 ,cf4 ,tert4 ,apol4 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 on nature and works of demons1 on lines closely similar4 #hi de deo ,socr4 #g1 #acf4 #ij ,see chapter vi4 p4 #ahh4 #ia de deo ,socr4 #aa1 #add4 #ib de deo ,socr4 #ae4 #ic ,the story of ,lamachus our high-souled leader1 now buried in the entire element1 would make anyone wish to become a brigand1 ,sainte-,beuve said4 ,here one must regretfully omit the robbers' cave altogether4 #id ,metam4 xi1 #c1 #d4 ,apuleius had a fancy for flowing hair4 #ie ,metam4 xi1 #e4 #if ,metam4 xi4 #h ff4 #ig ,metam4 xi1 #ae1 da nomen santae huic militiae cuius 444 sacramento1 etc4 #ih ,tertullian remarks that pagan rituals1 unlike ,christian baptism1 owe much to pomp and expense2 de ,bapt4 #b4 ,mentior si non e contrario idolorum sollemnia vel arcana de suggestu et apparatu deque sumptu fidem et auctoritatem sibi extruunt4 #ii ,augustine1 ,c4,d4 xviii1 #ah2 and cf4 ib4 viii1 7on the de deo ,socr472 and ,lactantius1 v4 #c4 #ajj ,capitolinus v4 ,albini1 #ab4 #bci ,,chapter ,,viii ,,celsus ,deliquit1 opinor1 divina doctrina ex ,judaea potius quam ex ,graecia oriens4 ,erravit et ,christus piscatores citius quam sophistam ad praeconium emittens1--,,tertullian1 de ,anima1 #c4 ,at the beginning of the last chapter reference was made to the spread of ,christianity in the second century1 and then a brief survey was given of the position of the old religion without reference to the new4 ,when one realizes the different habits of mind represented by the men there considered1 the difficulties with which ,christianity had to contend become more evident and more intelligible4 ,lucian generally ignored it1 only noticing it to laugh at its folly and to pass on--it was too inconspicuous to be worth attack4 ,to the others--the devout of the old religion1 whose fondest thoughts were for the past1 and for whom religion was largely a ritual1 sanctified by tradition and by fancy1--the ,christian faith offered little beyond the negation of all they counted dear4 ,we are happily in possession of fragments of an anti-,christian work of the day1 written by a man philosophic and academic in temperament1 but sympathetic with the followers of the religion of his fathers--fragments only1 but enough to show how ,christianity at once provoked the laughter1 incensed the patriotism1 and offended the religious tastes of educated people4 ,it was for a man called ,celsus that ,lucian wrote his book upon the prophet ,alexander and his shrine at ,abonoteichos1 and it has been suggested that ,lucian's friend and the ,celsus1 who wrote the famous ,true ,word1 may have been one and the same4 ,the evidence is carefully worked out by ,keim1#a but it is not very strong1 especially as some two dozen men of the name are known to the historians of the first three centuries of our era4 ,origen himself knew little of ,celsus--hardly more than we can gather from the quotations he made from the book #bdj in refuting it4 ,from a close study of his occasional hints at contemporary history1 ,keim puts ,celsus' book down to the latter part of the reign of ,marcus ,aurelius1 or1 more closely1 to the year #agh ,a4,d4#b ,celsus' general references to ,christianity and to paganism imply that period4 ,he writes under the pressure of the barbarian inroads on the ,northern frontier1 of the ,parthians in the ,east and of the great plague4 ,his main concern is the ,roman ,state1 shaken by all these misfortunes1 and doubly threatened by the passive disaffection of ,christians within its borders4#c ,from what ,turk and ,mongol meant to ,europe in the ,middle ,ages and may yet mean to us1 we may divine how men of culture and patriotism felt about the white savages coming down upon them from the ,north4 ,of the personal history of ,celsus nothing can be said1 but the features of his mind are well-marked4 ,he was above all a man of culture1--candid1 scholarly and cool4 ,he knew and admired the philosophical writings of ancient ,greece1 he had some knowledge of ,egypt1 and he also took the pains to read the books of the ,jews and the ,christians4 ,on the whole he leant to ,plato1 but1 like many philosophic spirits1 he found destructive criticism more easy than the elaboration of a system of his own4 ,yet here we must use caution1 for the object he had set before him was not to be served by individual speculation4 ,it was immaterial what private opinions he might hold1 for his great purpose was the abandonment of particularism and the fusion of all parties for the general good4 ,private judgment run mad was the mark of all ,christians1 orthodox and heretical1--men walling themselves off and isolating themselves from mankind#d--;and his thesis was that the whole spirit of the movement was wrong4 ,a good citizen's part was loyal acceptance of the common belief1 deviation from which was now shown to impair the solidarity of the civilized world4 ,of course such a position is never taken by really independent thinkers2 but it is the normal standpoint of men to whom practical #bda affairs are of more moment than speculative precision--men1 who are at bottom sceptical1 and have little interest in problems which they have given up as insoluble4 ,celsus was satisfied with the established order1 alike in the regions of thought and of government4 ,he mistrusted new movements--not least when they were so conspicuously alien to the ,greek mind as the new superstition that came from ,palestine4 ,he has all the ancient contempt of the ,greek for the barbarian1 and1 while he is influenced by the high motive of care for the ,state1 there are traces of irritation in his tone which speak of personal feeling4 ,the folly of the movement provoked him4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,christian propaganda ,this1 he says1 is the language of the ,christians3 ',let no cultured person draw near1 none wise1 none sensible2 for all that kind of thing we count evil2 but if any man is ignorant1 if any is wanting in sense and culture1 if any is a fool1 let him come boldly4' ,such people they spontaneously avow to be worthy of their ,god2 and1 so doing1 they show that it is only the simpletons1 the ignoble1 the senseless1 slaves and women-folk and children1 whom they wish to persuade1 or can persuade4#e ,those who summon men to the other initiations 7teletas71 and offer purification from sins1 proclaim3 ,whosoever has clean hands and is wise of speech1 or ,whosoever is pure from defilement1 whose soul is conscious of no guilt1 who has lived well and righteously4 ,but let us hear what sort these people invite2 ',whosoever is a sinner1 or unintelligent1 or a fool1 in a word1 whosoever is god-forsaken 7kakodaimon71 him the kingdom of ,god will receive4' ,now whom do you mean by the sinner but the wicked1 thief1 house-breaker1 poisoner1 temple-robber1 grave-robber8 ,whom else would a brigand invite to join him8#f ,but the ,christian propaganda is still more odious4 ,we see them in our own houses1 wool dressers1 cobblers1 and fullers1 the most uneducated and vulgar persons1 not daring to say a word in the presence of their masters who are older and wiser2 but when they get hold of the children in private1 and silly women with them1 they are wonderfully eloquent1--to the effect that the children must not listen to their father1 but believe them and be taught by them2 444 that they alone know how to live1 and if the children will listen to them1 they will be happy themselves1 and will make #bdb their home blessed4 ,but if1 while they are speaking1 they see some of the children's teachers1 some wiser person or their ,father coming1 the more cautious of them will be gone in a moment1 and the more impudent will egg on the children to throw off the reins--whispering to them that1 while their father or their teachers are about1 they will not and cannot teach them anything good 444 they must come with the women1 and the little children that play with them1 to the women's quarters1 or the cobbler's shop1 or the fuller's1 to receive perfect knowledge4 ,and that is how they persuade them4#g ,they are like quacks who warn men against the doctor--take care that none of you touches ,science 7episteue72 ,science is a bad thing2 knowledge 7gnosis7 makes men fall from health of soul4#h ,they will not argue about what they believe--they always bring in their ',do not examine1 but believe1' and ',thy faith shall save thee'#i--;believe that he1 whom ,i set forth to you1 is the son of ,god1 even though he was bound in the most dishonourable way1 and punished in the most shameful1 though yesterday or the day before he weltered in the most disgraceful fashion before the eyes of all men--so much the more believe6#aj ,so far all the ,christian sects are at one4 ,and the absurdity of it6 ,why was he not sent to the sinless as well as to sinners8 ,what harm is there in not having sinned8#aa ,listen to them6 ,the unjust1 if he humble himself from his iniquity1 ,god will receive2 but the just1 if he look up to ,him with virtue from beginning to end1 him ,he will not receive4#ab ,celsus' own view is very different--,it must be clear to everybody1 ,i should think1 that those1 who are sinners by nature and training1 none could change1 #bdc not even by punishment--to say nothing of doing it by pity6 ,for to change nature completely is very difficult2 and those who have not sinned are better partners in life4#ac ,christians in fact make ,god into a sentimentalist--the slave of pity for those who mourn#ad to the point of injustice4 ,sidenote3 ,the ecclesia of worms ,jews and ,christians seem to ,celsus like a swarm of bats--or ants creeping out of their nest--or frogs holding a symposium round a swamp--or worms in conventicle 7ekklesiaxiousi7 in a corner of the mud#ae--;debating which of them are the more sinful1 and saying ',god reveals all things to us beforehand and gives us warning2 he forsakes the whole universe and the course of the heavenly spheres1 and all this great earth he neglects1 to dwell with us alone2 to us alone he despatches heralds1 and never ceases to send and to seek how we may dwell with him for ever4' ,god is1 say the worms1 and after him come we1 brought into being by him 7hup' autou gegonotes71 in all things like unto ,god2 and to us all things are subjected1 earth and water and air and stars2 for our sake all things are1 and to serve us they are appointed4 ,some of us1 continue the worms 7he means us1 says ,origen7--some of us sin1 so ,god will come1 or else he will send his son1 that he may burn up the unrighteous1 and that the rest of us may have eternal life with him4#af ,the radical error in ,jewish1 and ,christian thinking is that it is anthropocentric4 ,they say that ,god made all things for man1#ag but this is not at all evident4 ,what we know of the world suggests that it is not more for the sake of man than of the irrational animals that all things were made4 ,plants and trees and grass and thorns--do they grow for man a whit more than for the wildest animals8 ',sun and night serve mortals1' says ,euripides--but why us more than the ants or the flies8 ,for them1 too1 night comes for rest1 and day for sight and work4 ,if men hunt and eat animals1 they in their turn hunt and eat men2 and before towns and communities were formed1 and tools and weapons made1 man's supremacy was even more questionable4 ,in no way is man better in ,god's #bdd sight than ants and bees 7iv4 #ha74 ,the political instinct of man is shared by both these creatures--they have constitutions1 cities1 wars and victories1 and trials at law--as the drones know4 ,ants have sense enough to secure their corn stores from sprouting3 they have graveyards2 they can tell one another which way to go--thus they have logos and ennoiai like men4 ,if one looked from heaven1 would there be any marked difference between the procedures of men and of ants8#ah ,but man has an intellectual affinity with ,god2 the human mind conceives thoughts that are essentially divine 7theias ennoias74#ai ,many animals can make the same claim--what could one call more divine than to foreknow and foretell the future8 ,and this men learn from the other animals and most of all from birds2 and if this comes from ,god1 so much nearer divine intercourse do they seem by nature than we1 wiser and more dear to ,god4 ,thus all things were not made for man1 just as they were not made for the lion1 nor the eagle1 nor the dolphin1 but that the universe as a work of ,god might be complete and perfect in every part4 ,it is for this cause that the proportions of all things are designed1 not for one another 7except incidentally7 but for the whole4 ,god's care is for the whole1 and this ,providence never neglects4 ,the whole does not grow worse1 nor does ,god periodically turn it to himself4 ,he is not angry on account of men1 just as he is not angry because of monkeys or flies2 nor does he threaten the things1 each of which in measure has its portion of himself4#bj ,sidenote3 ,the ,god of the philosophers ,celsus held that ,christians spoke of ,god in a way that was neither holy nor guiltless 7ouch hosios oud' euagos1 iv1 #aj72 and he hinted that they did it to astonish ignorant listeners4#ba ,for himself1 he was impressed with the thought1 which ,plato has in the ,timaeus1--a sentence that sums up what many of the most serious and religious natures have felt and will always feel to be profoundly true3 ,the maker and father of this #bde whole fabric it is hard to find1 and1 when one has found him1 it is impossible to speak of him to all men4#bb ,like the men of his day1 a true and deep instinct led him to point back to inspired poets1 wise men and philosophers1 and to ,plato a more living 7energesteron7 teacher of theology#bc--though ,i should be surprised if you are able to follow him1 seeing that you are utterly bound up in the flesh and see nothing clearly4#bd ,what the sages tell him of ,god1 he proceeds to set forth4 ,being and becoming1 one is intelligible1 the other visible1 7noeton1 horaton74 ,being is the sphere of truth2 becoming1 of error4 ,truth is the subject of knowledge2 the other of opinion4 ,thought deals with the intelligible2 sight with the visible4 ,the mind recognizes the intelligible1 the eye the visible4 ,what then the ,sun is among things visible1--neither eye1 nor sight--yet to the eye the cause of its seeing1 to sight the cause of its existing 7synistathai7 by his means1 to things visible the cause of their being seen1 to all things endowed with sensation the cause of their existence 7ginesthai7 and indeed the cause himself of himself being seen2 this ,,he is among things intelligible 7noeta71 who is neither mind1 nor thought1 nor knowledge1 but to the mind the cause of thinking1 to thought of its being by his means1 to knowledge of our knowing by his means1 to all things intelligible1 to truth itself1 and to being itself1 the cause that they are--out beyond all things 7panton epekeina on71 intelligible only by some unspeakable faculty4 ,so have spoken men of mind2 and if you can understand anything of it1 it is well for you4 ,if you suppose a spirit descends from ,god to proclaim divine matters1 it would be the spirit that proclaims this1 that spirit with which men of old were filled and in consequence announced much that was good4 ,but if you can take in nothing of it1 be silent and hide your own ignorance1 and do not say that those who see are blind1 and those who run are lame1 especially when you yourselves are utterly crippled and mutilated in soul1 and live in the body--that is to say1 in the dead element4#be ,origen says that ,celsus is constantly guilty of tautology1 and the reiteration of this charge of ignorance and want of #bdf culture is at least frequent enough4 ,yet if the ,christian movement had been confined to people as vulgar and illiterate as he suggests1 he might not have thought it worth his while to attack the new religion4 ,his hint of the propagation of the ,gospel by slaves in great houses1 taken with the names of men of learning and position1 whom we know to have been converted1 shows the seriousness of the case4 ,but to avoid the further charge which ,origen brings against ,celsus of mixing everything up1 it will be better to pursue ,celsus' thoughts of ,god4 ,i say nothing new1 but what seemed true of old 7palai dedogmena74 ,god is good1 and beautiful1 and happy1 and is in that which is most beautiful and best4 ,if then he 'descends to men1' it involves change for him1 and change from good to bad1 from beautiful to ugly1 from happiness to unhappiness1 from what is best to what is worst4 ,who would choose such a change8 ,for mortality it is only nature to alter and be changed2 but for the immortal to abide the same forever4 ,god would not accept such a change4#bf ,he presents a dilemma to the ,christians2 ,either ,god really changes1 as they say1 to a mortal body1--and it has been shown that this is impossible2 or he himself does not change1 but he makes those who see suppose so1 and thus deceives and cheats them4 ,deceit and lying are evil1 taken generally1 though in the single case of medicine one might use them in healing friends who are sick or mad--or against enemies in trying to escape danger4 ,but none who is sick or mad is a friend of ,god's2 nor is ,god afraid of any one1 so that he should use deceit to escape danger4#bg ,god in fact made nothing mortal2 but ,god's works are such things as are immortal1 and they have made the mortal4 ,the soul is ,god's work1 but the nature of the body is different1 and in this respect there is no difference between the bodies of bat1 worm1 frog1 and man4 ,the matter is the same and the corruptible part is alike4#bh ,sidenote3 ,god's anger ,the ,christian conception of the descent of ,god is repulsive to ,celsus1 for it means contact with matter4 ,god's anger1 too1 is an impious idea1 for anger is a passion2 and #bdg ,celsus makes havoc of the ,old ,testament passages where ,god is spoken of as having human passions 7anthropopathes71 closing with an argumentum ad hominem--,is it not absurd that a man ,titus1 angry with the ,jews1 slew all their youth and burnt their land1 and so they came to nothing2 but ,god ,almighty1 as they say1 angry and vexed and threatening1 sends his son and endures such things as they tell8#bi ,furthermore1 the ,christian account of ,god's anger at man's sin involves a presumption that ,christians really know what evil is4 ,now the origin of evil is not to be easily known by one who has no philosophy4 ,it is enough to tell the common people that evil is not from ,god1 but is inherent in matter1 and is a fellow-citizen 7empoliteuetai7 of mortality4 ,the circuit of mortal things is from beginning to end the same1 and in the appointed circles the same must always of necessity have been and be and be again4#cj ,nor could the good or evil elements in mortal things become either less or greater4 ,god does not need to restore all things anew4 ,god is not like a man1 that1 because he has faultily contrived or executed without skill1 he should try to amend the world4#ca ,in short1 even if a thing seems to you to be bad1 it is not yet clear that it is bad2 for you do not know what is of advantage to yourself1 or to another1 or to the whole4#cb ,besides would ,god need to descend in order to #bdh learn what was going on among men8#cc ,or was he dissatisfied with the attention he received1 and did he really come down to show off like a nouveau riche 7oi neoploutoi78#cd ,then why not long before8#ce ,should ,christians ask him how ,god is to be seen1 he has his answer3 ,if you will be blind to sense and see with the mind1 if you will turn from the flesh and waken the eyes of the soul1 thus and thus only shall you see ,god4#cf ,in words that ,origen approves1 he says1 from ,god we must never and in no way depart1 neither by day nor by night1 in public or in private1 in every word and work perpetually1 but1 with these and without1 let the soul ever be strained towards ,god4#cg ,if any man bid you1 in the worship of ,god1 either to do impiety1 or to say anything base1 you must never be persuaded by him4 ,rather endure every torture and submit to every death1 than think anything unholy of ,god1 let alone say it4#ch ,thus the fundamental conceptions of the ,christians are shown to be wrong1 but more remains to be done4 ,let us assume for purposes of discussion that there could be a descent of ,god--would it be what the ,christians say it was8 ,god is great and hard to be seen1 he makes the ,christian say1 so he put his own spirit into a body like ours and sent it down here that we might hear and learn from it4#ci ,if that is true1 he says1 then ,god's son cannot be immortal1 since the nature of a spirit is not such as to be permanent2 nor could ,jesus have risen again in the body1 for ,god would not have received back the spirit which he gave when it was polluted with the nature of the body4#dj ,if he had wished to send down a spirit from himself1 why did he need to breathe it into the womb of a woman8 ,he knew already how to #bdi make men1 and he could have fashioned a body about this spirit too1 and so avoided putting his own spirit into such pollution4#da ,again the body1 in which the spirit was sent1 ought to have had stature or beauty or terror or persuasion1 whereas they say it was little1 ugly and ignoble4#db ,then1 finally1 suppose that ,god1 like ,zeus in the ,comedy1 waking out of long sleep1 determined to rescue mankind from evil1 why on earth did he send this spirit 7as you call it7 into one particular corner8 ,he ought to have breathed through many bodies in the same way and sent them all over the world4 ,the comic poet1 to make merriment in the theatre1 describes how ,zeus waked up and sent ,hermes to the ,athenians and ,lacedaemonians2 do you not think that your invention of ,god's son being sent to the ,jews is more laughable still8#dc ,the incarnation further carried with it stories of ,god eating--mutton1 vinegar1 gall4 ,this revolted ,celsus1 and he summed it all up in one horrible word4#dd ,sidenote3 ,the ignominy of ,jesus ,the ignominy of the life of ,jesus was evidence to ,celsus of the falsity of his claim to be ,god's son4 ,he bitterly taunts ,christians with following a child of shame--,god's would not be a body like yours--nor begotten as you were begotten1 ,jesus6#de ,he reviles ,jesus for the ,passion--unhelped by his ,father and unable to help himself4#df ,he goes to the ,gospels 7,i know the whole story1 he says#dg7 and he cites incident after incident4 ,he reproaches ,jesus with seeking to escape the cross1#dh he brings forward the men who mocked him and put the purple robe on him1 the crown of thorns1 and2 #bej the reed in his hand2#di he taunts him with being unable to endure his thirst upon the cross--which many a common man will endure4#ej ,as to the resurrection1 if ,jesus wished really to display his divine power1 he ought to have appeared to the actual men who reviled him1 and to him who condemned him and to all1 for1 of course1 he was no longer afraid of any man1 seeing he was dead1 and1 as you say1 ,god1 and was not originally sent to elude observation4#ea ,or1 better still1 to show his ,godhead1 he might have vanished from the gibbet4#eb ,what befel ,jesus1 befals his followers4 ,don't you see1 my dear sir8 ,celsus says1 a man may stand and blaspheme your daemon2 and not that only1 he may forbid him land and sea1 and then lay hands on you1 who are consecrated to him like a statue1 bind you1 march you off and impale you2 and the daemon1 or1 as you say1 the son of ,god1 does not help you4#ec ,you may stand and revile the statues of the gods and laugh4 ,but if you tried it in the actual presence of ,dionysus or ,herakles1 you might not get off so comfortably4 ,but your god in his own person they spread out and punished1 and those who did it have suffered nothing4444 ,he too who sent his son 7according to you7 with some message or other1 looked on and saw him thus cruelly punished1 so that the message perished with him1 and though all this time has passed he has never heeded4 ,what father was ever so unnatural 7anosios78 ,ah6 but perhaps he wished it1 you say1 and that was why he endured the insult4 ,and perhaps our gods wish it too1 when you blaspheme them4#ed ,celsus would seem to have heard ,christian preaching1 for beside deriding ,only believe and ,thy faith will save thee1 he is offended by the language they use about the cross4 ,wide as the sects stand apart1 and bitter as are their quarrels and mutual abuse1 you will hear them all say their ',to me the world is crucified and ,i to the world4'#ee ,in one great passage he mixes1 as ,origen says1 the things he has mis-heard1 and quotes ,christian utterances about a soul that lives1 and a heaven that is slain that it may live1 and earth slain with the #bea sword1 and ever so many people being slain to live2 and death taking a rest in the world when the sin of the world dies2 and then a narrow way down1 and gates that open of themselves4 ,and everywhere you have the tree of life and the resurrection of the flesh from the tree--,i suppose1 because their teacher was nailed to a cross and was a carpenter by trade4 ,exactly as1 if he had chanced to be thrown down a precipice1 or pushed into a pit1 or choked in a noose1 or if he had been a cobbler1 or a stone-mason1 or a blacksmith1 there would have been above the heavens a precipice of life1 or a pit of resurrection1 or a rope of immortality1 or a happy stone1 or the iron of love1 or the holy hide4#ef ,sidenote3 ,the ,cross and the miracles ,the miracles of ,jesus ,celsus easily explains4 ,through poverty he went to ,egypt and worked there as a hired labourer2 and there he became acquainted with certain powers or faculties1 on which the ,egyptians pride themselves1 and he came back holding his head high on account of them1 and because of them he announced that he was ,god4#eg ,but1 granting the miracles of healing and of raising the dead and feeding the multitudes1 he maintains that ordinary quacks will do greater miracles in the streets for an obol or two1 driving devils out of men1#eh and blowing away diseases and calling up the souls of heroes1 and displaying sumptuous banquets and tables and sweetmeats and dainties that are not there2--must we count them sons of ,god8#ei ,there are plenty of prophets too1 and it is quite an easy and ordinary thing for each of them to say ',i am ,god--or ,god's son--or a divine spirit4 ,and ,i am come2 for already the world perisheth1 and ye1 oh men1 are lost for your sins4 ,but ,i am willing to #beb save you2 and ye shall see me hereafter coming with heavenly power4 ,blessed is he that has worshipped me now2 but upon all the rest ,i will send eternal fire1 and upon their cities and lands4 ,and men who do not recognize their own guilt shall repent in vain with groans2 and them that have believed me1 ,i will guard for ever4'#fj ,jesus was1 he holds1 an obvious quack and impostor4 ,in fact1 there is little to choose between worshipping ,jesus and ,antinous1 the favourite of ,hadrian1 who had actually been deified in ,egypt4#fa ,the teaching of ,jesus1 to which ,christians pointed1 was after all a mere medley of garbled quotations from ,greek literature4 ,thus when ,jesus said that it is easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to go into the kingdom of ,god1 he was merely spoiling the ,platonic saying that it is impossible for a man to be exceedingly good and exceedingly rich at the same time4#fb ,the kingdom of heaven itself comes from the divinely spoken words of ,plato2 it is the supercelestial region of the ,phaedrus4#fc ,satan is a parody of ,heraclitus' conception of ,war4#fd ,the ,christian resurrection comes from metempsychosis4#fe ,the idea that ,god will descend1 carrying fire 7like a torturer in a law-court7 comes from some confused notion of the teaching of the ,greeks upon cycles and periods and the final conflagration4#ff ,plato has this advantage that he never boasted and never said that ,god had a son who descended and talked with me4#fg ,the son of ,god itself was an expression borrowed in their clumsy way by the ,christians from the ancients who conceived of the universe as ,god's offspring4#fh ,sidenote3 ,resurrection ,christians lay great stress on the immortality1 but it is silly of them to suppose that when ,god--like a cook--brings the fire1 the rest of mankind will be roasted and they themselves will alone remain1 not merely the living1 but even those who died long ago1 rising from the earth with the identical flesh they had before4 ,really it is the hope of worms6 ,for what soul of a man would any longer wish for a body that #bec had rotted8#fi ,the loathsomeness of the idea1 he says1 cannot be expressed1 and besides it is impossible4 ,they have nothing to reply to this1 so they fly to the absurdest refuge1 and say that all is possible with ,god4 ,but ,god cannot do what is foul1 and what is contrary to nature he will not do4 ,though you in your vulgarity may wish a loathsome thing1 it does not follow that ,god can do it1 nor that you are right to believe at once that it will come to pass4 ,for it is not of superfluous desire and wandering disorder1 but of true and just nature that ,god is prince 7archegetes74 ,he could grant immortal life of the soul2 but 'corpses1' as ,heraclitus says1 'are less useful than dung4' ,the flesh is full of--what it is not beautiful even to mention--and to make it immortal contrary to all reason 7paralogos71 is what ,god neither will nor can do4 ,for he is the reason of all things that are1 so that he cannot do anything contrary to reason or contrary to himself4#gj ,and yet1 says ,celsus1 you hope you will see ,god with the eyes of your body1 and hear his voice with your ears1 and touch him with the hands of sense4#ga ,if they threaten the heathen with eternal punishment1 the exegetes1 hierophants1 and mystagogues of the temples hurl back the same threat1 and while words are equal1 they can show proofs in daemonic activities and oracles4#gb ,with those however who speak of the soul or the mind 7whether they choose to call it spiritual1 or a spirit intelligent1 holy and happy1 or a living soul1 or the supercelestial and incorruptible offspring of a divine and bodyless nature--or whatever they please7--with those who hope to have this eternally with ,god1 with such ,i will speak4 ,for they are right in holding that they who have lived well will be happy and the unjust will be held in eternal woes4 ,from this opinion 7dogmatos7 let not them nor any one else depart4#gc ,in this way ,celsus surveys the main points of ,christian history and teaching4 ,they have no real grounds beneath them4 ,the basis of the church is faction 7stasis7 and the profit it brings1 and fear of those without2--those are the things that establish the faith for them4#gd ,faction is their keynote1 taken from the ,jews at first2 and faction splits them up into innumerable sects beside the great church1#ge--the #bed one thing they have in common1 if indeed they still have it1 is the name2 and this one thing they are ashamed to abandon4#gf ,when they all say ',believe1 if you wish to be saved1 or else depart'2 what are those to do who really wish to be saved8 ,should they throw the dice to find out to whom to turn8#gg ,in short1 faction is their breath of life1 and if all mankind were willing to be ,christian1 then they would not4#gh ,sidenote3 ,gods and daemons ,but ,celsus is not content merely to refute2 he will point out a more excellent way4 ,are not all things ruled according to the will of ,god8 is not all ,providence from him8 ,whatever there is in the whole scheme of things1 whether the work of ,god1 or of angels1 or other daemons1 or heroes1 all these have their law from the greatest ,god2 and in power over each thing is set he that has been counted fit4#gi ,probably the various sections are allotted to various rulers 7epoptais7 and distributed in certain provinces1 and so governed4 ,thus among the various nations things would be done rightly if done as those rulers would have them4 ,it is then not holy to break down what has been from the beginning the tradition of one and another place4#hj ,again1 the body is the prison of the soul2 should there not then be warders of it--daemons in fact8#ha ,then will not a man1 who worships ,god1 be justified in serving him who has his power from ,god8#hb ,to worship them all cannot grieve him to whom they all belong4#hc ,over and over ,celsus maintains the duty of living by the ancestral usages1 each people worshipping its own traditional deities4#hd ,to say with the ,christians that there is one ,lord1 meaning ,god1 is to break up the kingdom of ,god and make factions there 7stasiaxein71 as if there were choices to be made1 and one were a rival of another4#he ,ammon is no worse than the angels of the ,jews2 though here the ,jews are so far right in that they hold by the ways of their ancestors--an advantage which the ,jewish proselytes have #bee forfeited4#hf ,if the ,jews pride themselves on superior knowledge and so hold aloof from other men1 ,herodotus is evidence that their supposed peculiar dogma is shared by the ,persians2 and ,i think it makes no difference whether you call ,zeus the ,most ,high1 or ,zeus1 or ,adonai1 or ,sabaoth1 or ,amun1 like the ,egyptians1 or ,papaios like the ,scythians4#hg ,the evidence for the ancillary daemons and gods he finds in the familiar places4 ,why need ,i tell at length how many things prophets and prophetesses at the oracles have foretold1 and other men and women possessed by a voice of a god within them8 the marvels heard from shrines8 revelations from sacrifices and victims1 and other miraculous tokens8 ,and some have been face to face with visible phantoms4 ,the whole of life is full of these things4 ,cities have escaped plague and famine through warnings from oracles1 and have suffered for neglecting them4 ,the childless have gained children1 and the crippled have been healed1 while those who have treated sacred things with contempt have been punished in suicide and incurable diseases4#hh ,let a man go to the shrine of ,trophonius or ,amphiaraus or ,mopsus1 and there he may see the gods in the likeness of men1 no feigned forms 7pseudomenous7 but clear to see1 not slipping by them once1 like him who deceived these people the ,christians1 but ever associating with those who will4#hi ,a great multitude of men1 ,greeks and barbarians1 testify that they have often seen and still do see ,asklepios1 and not merely a phantom of him1 but they see himself healing men1 and doing them good1 and foretelling the future4#ij ,is it not likely that these satraps and ministers of air and earth could do you harm1 if you did them despite8#ia ,earthly rulers too deserve worship1 since they hold their positions not without daemonic influence4#ib ,why should not the ,christians worship them1 daemons and ,emperors8 ,if they worshipped no other but one ,god1 they might have some clear argument against other men2 but1 as it is1 they more than worship the person who lately appeared1 and reckon that ,god is not wronged by the service done to his subordinate1#ic--though in truth he is only a corpse4#id ,in any case1 if idols are nothing1 what harm is there in taking part in the festival8 but if there are daemons1 it is clear they too #bef are of ,god1 and in them we must trust1 and speak them fair1 according to the laws1 and pray that they may be propitious4#ie ,it is characteristic of the candour of ,celsus that he lets slip a caution or two about the service of daemons4 ,christians are as credulous1 he says in one place1 as those who lightly 7alogos7 believe in the roaming priests of ,cybele 7metragurtais7 and wonder-seers1 ,mithras and ,sabadios and the like--phantoms of ,hecate or some other female daemon or daemons4#if ,again1 he has a word of warning as to magic1 and the danger and injury into which those fall who busy themselves with it--,one must be on one's guard1 that one may not1 by being occupied with these matters1 become entangled in the service of them literally2 fused with them1 syntake1 and through love of the body and by turning away from better things be overcome by forgetfulness4 ,for perhaps we should not disbelieve wise men1 who say 7as a matter of fact7 that of the daemons who pervade the earth the greater part are entangled in 'becoming' 7genesei syntetekos7--fused and riveted to it--and being bound to blood and smoke and chantings and other such things can do no more than heal the body and foretell future destiny to man and city2 and the limits of their knowledge and power are those of human affairs4#ig ,sidenote3 ,the rescue of the empire ,at the last comes his great plea4 ,human authority is of divine ordinance4 ,to the ,emperor all on earth is given2 and whatever you receive in life is from him4#ih ,we must not disbelieve one of old1 who long ago said-- ,let one be king1 to whom the son of wise ,kronos has given it4 ,if you invalidate this thought 7dogma71 probably the ,emperor will punish you4 ,for if all men were to do as you do1 nothing will prevent the ,emperor being left alone and deserted1#ii and all things on earth falling into the power of the #beg most lawless and barbarous savages1 with the result that neither of your religion nor of the true wisdom would there be left among men so much as the name4#ajj ,you will hardly allege that if the ,romans were persuaded by you and forsook all their usages as to gods and men1 and called upon your ',most ,high' or whatever you like1 he would descend and fight for them and they would need no other help4 ,for before now that same ,god promised 7as you say7 this and much more to those who served him1 and you see all the good he has done them and you4 ,as for them the ,jews1 instead of being masters of all the earth1 they have not a clod nor a hearthstone left them2 while you--if there is any of you left in hiding1 search is being made for him to put him to death4#aja ,the ,christian sentiment that it is desirable for all who inhabit the ,empire1 ,greeks and barbarians1 ,asia1 ,europe and ,libya1 to agree to one law or custom1 is foolish and impracticable4#ajb ,so ,celsus calls on the ,christians to come to the help of the ,emperor with all their might and labour with him as right requires1 fight on his behalf1 take the field with him1 if he call on you1 and share the command of the legions with him#ajc--yes1 and be magistrates1 if need be1 and to do this for the salvation of laws and religion4#ajd ,it will be noted that1 so far as our fragments serve us1 ,celsus confines himself essentially to the charges of folly1 perversity1 and want of national feeling4 ,an excessive opinion of the value of the human soul and an absurd fancy of ,god's interest in man are two of the chief faults he sees in ,christianity4#aje ,he sees well1 for the love of ,god our ,father and the infinite significance of the meanest and commonest and most depraved of men were after all the cardinal doctrines of the new faith4 ,there can be no compromise between the ,christian conception of the ,ecclesia of ,god and ,celsus' contempt for an ecclesia of worms in a pool2 nor between the ,abba ,father of ,jesus and the aloof and philosophic ,god of ,celsus away beyond everything4 ,these two #beh contrasts bring into clear relief the essentially new features of ,christianity1 and from the standpoint of ancient philosophy they were foolish and arbitrary fancies4 ,that standpoint was unquestioned by ,celsus4 ,sidenote3 ,the failure of ,celsus ,confident in the truth of his premisses and the conclusions that follow from them1 ,celsus charged the ,christians with folly and dogmatism4 ,yet it would be difficult to maintain that they were more dogmatic than himself2 they at least had ventured on the experiment of a new life1 that was to bring ancient ,philosophy to a new test4 ,they were the researchers in spiritual things1 and he the traditionalist4 ,as to the charge of folly1 we may at once admit a comparatively lower standard of education among the ,christians2 yet ,lucian's book ,alexander1 with its curious story of the false prophet who classed them with the ,epicureans as his natural enemies1 suggests that1 with all their limitations1 they had an emancipation of mind not reached by all their contemporaries4 ,if they did not accept the conclusions of ,greek thinkers as final1 they were still less prepared to accept sleight-of-hand and hysteria as the ultimate authority in religious truth4#ajf ,plutarch1 we may remember1 based belief in immortality on the oracles of ,apollo2 and ,celsus himself appeals to the evidence of shrines and miracles4 ,if we say that pagans and ,christians alike believed in the occurrence of these miracles and in daemonic agency as their cause1 it remains that the ,christians put something much nearer the modern value upon them1 while ,celsus1 who denounced the ,christians as fools1 tendered this contemptible evidence for the religion he advocated4 ,his ,greek training was in some degree the cause of this4 ,the immeasurable vanity of the ,greeks did not escape the ,romans4 ,a sense of indebtedness to the race that has given us ,homer1 ,euripides and ,plato leads us to treat all ,greeks kindly--with more kindness than those critics show them whose acquaintance with them has been less in literature and more in life4 ,the great race still had gifts for mankind1 but it was now mainly living upon its past4 ,in ,plutarch the pride of race is genial and pleasant2 in ,celsus it takes another form--that of contempt for the barbarian and the unlettered4 #bei ,the truism may be forgiven that contempt is no pathway to understanding or to truth2 and in this case contempt cut ,celsus off from any real access to the mind of the people he attacked4 ,he read their books2 he heard them talk2 but1 for all his conscious desire to inform himself1 he did not penetrate into the heart of the movement--nor of the men4 ,he missed the real motive force--the power of the life and personality of ,jesus1 on which depended the two cardinal doctrines which he assailed4 ,the extraordinary blunders1 to which the very surest critics in literature are liable1 may prepare us for anything4 ,but to those who have some intimate realization of the mind of ,jesus1 the portrait which ,celsus drew of him is an amazing caricature--the ignorant ,jewish conjuror1 who garbles ,plato1 and makes no impression on his friends1 is hardly so much as a parody4 ,it meant that ,celsus did not understand the central thing in the new faith4 ,the godhead of ,jesus was as absurd as he said1 if it was predicated of the ,jesus whom he drew2 and there he let it rest4 ,how such a dogma could have grown in such a case he did not inquire2 nor1 finding it grown1 did he correct his theory by the fact4 ,thus upon the real strength of ,christianity he had nothing to say4 ,this was not the way to convince opponents1 and here the action of the ,christians was sounder and braver4 ,for they accepted the inspiration of the great men of ,greece1 entered into their spirit 7as far as in that day it was possible71 and fairly did their best to put themselves at a universal point of view4#ajg ,they had the larger sympathies4 ,yet for ,celsus it may be pleaded that his object was perhaps less the reconversion of ,christians to the old faith than to prevent the perversion of pagans to the new4 ,but here too he failed1 for he did not understand even the midway people with whom he was dealing4 ,they were a large class--men and women open to religious ideas from whatever source they might come--,egypt1 ,judaea1 or ,persia1 desirous of the knowledge of #bfj ,god and of communion with ,god1 and in many cases conscious of sin4 ,in none of these feelings did ,celsus share--his interests are all intellectual and practical4 ,plutarch before him1 and the ,neo-,platonists after him1 understood the religious instincts which they endeavoured to satisfy1 and for the cold1 hard outlines of ,celsus' hierarchy of heavenly and daemonic beings they substituted personalities1 approachable1 warm and friendly 7ho philos ,apollon74 ,men felt the need of gods who were ,saviours1--of gods with whom they might commune in sacraments--as the rise of ,mithra-worship shows4 ,they sought for salvation from sin1 for holiness--the word was much on their lips--and for peace with ,god4 ,to ,celsus these seem hardly to have been necessities2 and whether we say that he made no effort to show that they were provided for in the old religion1 or that he suggested1 tacitly or explicitly1 that the scheme he set forth had such a provision1 the effect is the same4 ,he really had nothing to offer4 ,sidenote3 ,the victory of the ,christians ,celsus did not bring against the ,christians the charges of ,o,edipodean unions and ,thyestean banquets familiar to the reader of the ,apologists#ajh--;and to the student of the events that preceded the ,boxer movement in ,china4 ,while he taunted ,jesus with being a bastard and a deceiver1 and roundly denounced ,christians generally for imposing upon the ignorance of men with false religion and false history1 he did not say anything of note against ordinary ,christian conduct4 ,at least the fragments do not show anything of the kind4 ,later on the defenders and apologists of paganism had to own with annoyance that ,christians set their fellow-citizens an example2 ,maximin ,daza and ,julian tried vigorously to raise the tone of pagan society4 ,here lies an argument with which ,celsus could not deal4 ,the ,fatherhood of ,god 7in the sense which ,jesus gave to the words7 and the value of the individual soul1 even the depraved and broken soul1 are matters of argument1 and on paper they may be very questionable2 but when the people1 who held or 7more truly7 were held by these beliefs1 managed somehow or other to show to the world lives transformed and endowed with the power of transforming others1 the plain fact outweighed any number of ,true ,words4 ,whatever #bfa the explanation1 the thing was there4 ,christians in the second century laid great stress on the value of paper and argument1 and to-day we feel with ,celsus that among them1 orthodox and heretical1 they talked and wrote a great deal that was foolish--their allegories were worse than their myths--but the sheer weight of ,christian character carried off allegories and myths1 bore down the school of ,celsus and the more powerful school of ,plutarch1 ,porphyry and ,plotinus and abolished the ancient world1 and then captured and transformed the ,northern nations4 ,celsus could not foresee all that we look back upon4 ,but it stands to his credit that he recognised the dangers which threatened the ancient civilization1 dangers from ,german without and ,christian within4 ,he had not the religious temperament2 he was more the statesman in his habit of mind1 and he clearly loved his country4 ,the appeal with which he closes is a proposal of peace--toleration1 if the ,christians will save the civilized world4 ,it was not destined that his hopes should be fulfilled in the form he gave them1 for it was the ,christian ,church that subdued the ,germans and that carried over into a larger and more human civilization all that was of value in that inheritance of the past for which he pleaded4 ,so far as his gifts carried him1 he was candid2 and if sharp of tongue and a little irritable of temper1 he was still an honourable adversary4 ,he was serious1 and1 if he did not understand religion1 he believed in the state and did his best to save it4 ,chapter ,,viii ,footnotes3 #a ,keim1 ,celsus' ,wahres ,wort 7#ahgc74 #b ,keim1 pp4 #bfd-bgc4 #c ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #ch1 nec ulla res aliena magis quam publica4 ,elsewhere ,tertullian explains this3 laedimas ,romanos nec ,romani habemur qui non ,romanorum deum colimus1 ,apol4 #bd4 #d ,apud ,origen1 c4 ,cels4 viii1 #b4 ,references in what follows will be made to the book and chapter of this work without repetition of ,origen's name4 ,the text used is that of ,koetschau4 #e c4 ,cels4 iii1 #dd4 #f ,ibid4 iii1 #ei4 #g iii1 #ee4 ,i have omitted a clause or two4 ,clem ,a4 ,strom4 iv1 #fg1 on the other hand1 speaks of the difficult position of wife or slave in such a divided household1 and 7#fh7 of conversions in spite of the master of the house4 ,tert4 ad ,scap4 #c1 has a story of a governor whose wife became a ,christian1 and who in anger began a persecution at once4 #h iii1 #ge4 #i i1 #i4 ,cf4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 i1 #dc1 on some ,christians who think themselves euphusis and ask for faith--faith alone and bare4 ,in ,paed4 i1 #bg1 he says much the same himself1 to pisteusai monon kai anagennethunai teleiois estin en zoe4 #aj vi1 #aj4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 ii1 #h1 ,the ,greeks think ,faith empty and barbarous1 and revile it1 but 7ii1 #cj7 if it had been a human thing1 as they supposed1 it would have been quenched4 #aa iii1 #fb4 #ab iii1 #fb4 #ac iii1 #fe1 tous hamartangin pephykotas te kai eithismenous4 #ad iii1 #ga4 #ae ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protr4 #ib1 uses this simile of worms in the mud of swamps1 applying it to people who live for pleasure4 #af iv1 #bc4 #ag iv1 #gd4 #ah ,so ,lucian ,icaromenippus1 #ai1 explicitly4 #ai iv1 #hh4 ,cf4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,paedag4 i1 #g1 to philtron endon estin en to anthropo touth' oper emphysema legetai theou4 #bj c4 ,cels4 iv1 #gd-ii4 ,cf4 ,plato1 ,laws1 #ijc ,b1 hos to tou pantos epimeloumeno pros ten soterian kai areten tou holou pant' esti syntetagmena kte1 explicitly developing the idea of the part being for the whole4 ,also ,cicero1 ,n4,d4 ii1 #ac1 #cd-cf4 #ba ,of4 ,m4 ,aurelius1 xi1 #c1 the criticism of the theatricality of the ,christians4 ,see p4 #aih4 #bb c4 ,cels4 vii1 #db1 ton men oun poieten kai patera toude tou pantos ehurein te epgon kai ehuronta eis pantas adynaton legein2 ,timaeus1 #bh ,c--often cited by ,clement too4 #bc vii1 #db4 #bd vii1 #db4 #be vii1 #de4 #bf iv1 #ad4 #bg iv1 #ah4 ,see ,tertullian's argument on this question of ,god changing1 in de ,carne ,christi1 #c4 ,see ,plato1 ,rep4 ii1 #cha ,b4 #bh iv1 #eb4 ,see ,timaeus1 #cd ,b ff4 on ,god making soul4 #bi iv1 #gc4 ,see ,clem4 ,alex4 ,paed4 i1 ch4 #aj1 on ,god threatening2 and ,strom1 ii1 #gb2 iv1 #aea2 vii1 #cg1 for the view that ,god is without anger1 and for guidance as to the understanding of language in the ,o4,t4 which seems to imply the contrary4 ,for a different view1 see ,tertullian1 de ,testim4 ,animae1 #b1 unde igitur naturalis timor animae in deum1 si deus nan novit irasci8 adv4 ,marc4 i1 #bf1 #bg1 on the necessity for ,god's anger1 if the moral law is to be maintained2 and adv4 ,marc4 ii1 #af1 a further account of ,god's anger1 while a literal interpretation of ,god's eyes and right hand is excluded4 #cj iv1 #fe4 #ca iv1 #fi4 #cb iv1 #gj4 ,long before 7about #ejj ,b4,c47 ,heraclitus had said 7fragm4 #fa73 ,to ,god all things are beautiful and good and just2 but men have supposed some things to be unjust and others just4 ,for this doctrine of the relativity of good and bad to the whole1 cf4 hymn of ,cleanthes to ,zeus3-- alla su kai ta perissa t' epistasai artia theinai1 kai kosmein ta kosma1 kai ou phila soi phila estin4 ode gar eis en panta synermokas esthla kakoisin osth' ena gignesthai panton logon aien eonta4 ,cf4 also the teaching of ,chrysippus1 as given by ,gellius1 ,n4,a4 vii1 #a3 cum bona malis contraria sint1 utraque necessum est opposita inter sese et quasi mutuo adverse quaeque fulta nisu consistere2 nullum adeo contrarium est sine contrario altero 444 situleris unum abstuleris utrumque4 ,see also ,m4 ,aurelius in the same ,stoic vein1 viii1 #ej2 ix1 #db4 ,on the other side see ,plutarch's indignant criticism of this attribution of the responsibility for evil to ,god1 de comm4 not4 adv4 ,sto4 #ad1 #ajfe ,d1 ff4 ,in opposition to ,marcion1 ,tertullian emphasizes the worth of the world2 his position1 as a few words will show1 is not that of ,celsus1 but ,stoic influence is not absent3 adv4 ,marc4 i1 #ac1 #ad2 ,ergo nec mundus deo indignus3 nihil etenim deus indignum st fecit1 etsi mundum homini non sibi fecit1 etsi omne opus inferius est suo artifice2 see p4 #cag4 #cc iv1 #c4 #cd iv1 #f4 #ce iv1 #g4 #cf vii1 #cf4 #cg viii1 #fc4 #ch viii1 #ff4 #ci vi1 #fi4 ,men1 who count themselves wise1 says ,clement 7,strom4 i1 #hh71 count it a fairy tale that the son of ,god should speak through man1 or that ,god should have a son1 and he suffer4 #dj vi1 #gb4 #da vi1 #gc4 ,cf4 the ,marcionite view2 cf4 ,tert4 adv4 ,marc4 iii1 #aa2 iv1 #ba2 v1 #ai1 cuius ingeniis tam longe abest veritas nostra ut 444 ,christum ex vulva virginis natum non erubescat1 ridentibus philosophis et haereticis et ethnicis ipsis4 ,see also de carne ,christi1 #d1 #e1 where he strikes a higher note2 ,christ loved man1 born as man is1 and descended for him4 #db vi1 #ge4 ,cf4 ,tert4 de carne ,christi1 #i1 adeo nec humanae honestatis corpus fuit2 adv4 ,jud4 #ad1 ne aspectu quidem honestus4 #dc vi1 #gh4 ,cf4 ,tert4 adv4 ,marc4 iii1 i1 atquin nihil putem a deo subitum quia nihil a deo non dispositum4 #dd vii1 #ac1 skataophagein4 ,origen's reply is absurd--hina gar kai doxe hoti hesthein1 hos soma phoron ho ,iesous hesthein4 ,so also said ,clement 7,strom4 vi1 #ga74 ,valentinus had another theory no better1 ,strom4 iii4 #ei4 ,marcion1 ,tertullian says 7adv4 ,marc4 iii1 #aj71 called the flesh terrenam et stercoribus infusam4 ,they are all filled with the same contempt for matter--not ,tertullian1 however4 #de i1 #fi4 #df i1 #ed4 #dg i1 #ab4 #dh ii1 #bc1 #bd4 #di ii1 #cd4 #ej ii1 #cg4 #ea ii1 #ff1 #fg4 ,tertullian meets this in ,apol4 #ba4 ,nam nec ille se in vulgus eduxit ne impii errore liberarcntur1 ut et fides1 non mediocri praemio destinata1 difficultate constaret4 #eb ii1 #fh1 #ec viii1 #ci4 #ed viii1 #da4 #ee v1 #fe4 #ef vi1 #cd4 ,cf4 a curious passage of ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #aad1 outos ten dusin eis anatolen metegagen kai ton thanaton eis zoen anestaursen exarpasas de tes apoleias ton anthropon prosekremasen aitheri1 and so forth4 ,cf4 ,tert4 adv4 ,valent4 #bj1 who suggests that the ,valentinians had nut-trees in the sky--it is a book in which he allows himself a good deal of gaiety and free quotation4 #eg i1 #bh4 #eh ,m4 ,aurelius1 i1 #f1 ,from ,diognetus ,i learnt not to give credit to what was said by miracle-workers and jugglers 7goeton7 about incantations and the sending away of daemons and such things4 ,cf4 ,tertullian1 adv4 ,marc4 iii1 #b-d1 on inadequacy of proof from miracles alone1 without that from prophecy2 also de ,anima1 #eg1 on these conjurers1 where he remarks1 nec magnum illi exteriores oculos circumscribere1 an interiorem mentis aciem excalcare perfacile est4 ,see also ,apol4 #bb1 #bc4 #ei i1 #fh4 #fj vii1 #i4 #fa iii1 #cf4 #fb vi1 #af4 ,cf4 ,plato1 ,laws1 v1 #ab1 p4 #gdc ,a4 #fc vi1 #ag-ai2 ,phaedrus1 #bdg ,c4 #fd vi1 #db4 #fe vii1 #cb2 cf4 ,min4 ,felix1 #aa1 #i4 #ff iv1 #aa4 #fg vi1 #h4 #fh vi1 #dg4 ,cf4 ,plato1 ,timaeus 7last words71 #ib ,c1 eis ouranos ode monogenes on4 #fi v1 #ad4 #gj v1 #ad4 #ga vii1 #cd4 #gb viii1 #di4 #gc viii4 #dh4 #gd iii1 #ad4 #ge v1 #ei4 #gf iii1 #ab4 #gg vi1 ,,ii4 #gh iii1 #i4 ,tertullian speaks in a somewhat similar way of heretics1 especially of the ,gnostics3 de praescriptione haeret4 c4 #db4 #gi vii1 #fh4 #hj v1 #be4 #ha viii1 #ec1 #eh4 #hb vii1 #fh4 #hc vii1 #b4 #hd ,cf4 v1 #cd1 #ce4 #he viii1 ii4 ,cf4 ,tert4 adv4 ,prax4 #c1 where it is argued that ,god's monarchy is not impaired tot angelorum numero1 nor by the oikonomia of the ,trinity4 #hf v1 #da4 #hg v1 #da4 #hh viii1 #de4 #hi vii1 #ce4 #ij iii1 #bd4 ,cf4 p4 #bbb4 #ia viii1 #ce4 #ib viii1 #fc4 #ic viii1 #ab4 #id vii1 #fh4 #ie viii1 #bd4 #if i1 #i1 ,mithrais kai ,sabadiois4 #ig viii1 #fj4 ,see note on ch4 iii1 p4 #ajg4 #ih viii1 #fg4 #ii ,cf4 ,tert4 de cor4 mil4 #aa1 if a soldier is converted1 aut deserendum statim ut a multis actum1 aut1 etc4 ,the chapter is a general discussion whether military service and ,christianity are compatible4 ,cf4 also ,tert4 de idol4 #ai1 ,non convenit sacramento divino et humano1 signo ,christi et signo diaboli1 castris lucis et castris tenebrarum 444 quomodo autem bellabit immo quomodo etiam in pace militabit sine gladio quem dominus abstulit8 4444 omnem postea militem dominus in ,petro exarmando discinxit4 ,tertullian1 it may be remembered1 was a soldier's son4 #ajj viii1 #fh4 ,the ,greeks used basileus as ,emperor4 #aja viii1 #fi4 ,for this taunt against the ,jews1 cf4 ,cicero1 pro ,flacco1 #bh1 #fi4 #ajb viii1 #gb4 #ajc viii1 #gc4 #ajd viii1 #ge4 #aje ,cf4 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 i1 #ee1 who says that hardly any words could be to the many more absurd than the mysteries of the faith4 #ajf ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protr4 #ef 7on idols74 ou gar moi themis empisteusai pote tois apsychois tas tes psyches elpidas4 #ajg ,this was at all events the view of ,clement1 ,strom4 i1 #ai4 oude katapsephixesthai ton ,hellenon oion te psile te peri ton dogmatiothenton autois chromenous phrasei1 me synembrainontas eis ten kata meros achri syllnoseos ekkalypsin4 pistos gar eu mala ho met' empeirias elegchos1 hoti kai teleiotate apadeixis ehurisketai he gnosis ton kategnosmenon4 #ajh ,it is regrettable that ,clement should have flung one of these against the school of ,carpocrates1 ,strom4 iii1 #aj4 #bfb ,,chapter ,,ix ,,clement ,,of ,,alexandria ,viderint qui ,stoicum et ,platonicum et dialecticum ,christianismum protulerunt4--,,tertullian1 de praescr4 haeret4 #g4 ,no one can allege that the ,bible has failed to win access for want of metaphysics being applied to it4--,,matthew ,,arnold1 ,literature and ,dogma1 p4 #aba4 ,though ,celsus had much to say upon the vulgar and servile character of the members of the ,christian community1 he took the trouble to write a book to refute ,christianity2 and this book1 as we have seen1 was written from a more or less philosophical point of view4 ,he professed himself doubtful as to whether his opponents would understand his arguments2 but that he wrote at all1 and that he wrote as he did1 is evidence that the new faith was making its way upward through society1 and was gaining a hold upon the classes of wealth and education4 ,sidenote3 ,the rise of the ,church ,it is not hard to understand this4 ,though conditions of industry were not what they are to-day1 it is likely that conversion was followed by the economic results with which we are familiar4 ,the teaching of the church condemned the vices that war against thrift2 and the new life that filled the convert had its inevitable effect in quickening insight and energy4 ,the community insisted on every man having a trade and working at it4 ,with no such end in view1 the church must have numbered among its adherents more and more people of wealth and influence in spite of all defections1 just as to-day ,protestantism in ,france has power and responsibility out of all proportions to mere numbers4 ,the ,emperor ,hadrian1 is said to have made the observation that in ,egypt1 whether men worshipped ,christ or ,serapis1 they all worshipped money4#a ,the remark had probably as much truth as such sayings generally have1 but we may probably infer that many ,christians were punctual in #bfc their observance of the duty laid on them to be not slothful in business4 ,the first four or five generations of ,christians could not1 on the whole1 boast much culture--so far as their records permit us to judge4 ,not many wise1 said ,paul1 and their fewness has left an impress on the history of the church4 ,a tendency to flightiness in speculation on the one hand1 and a stolid refusal to speculate at all on the other1 are the marks of second century ,christianity4 ,the early attempts made to come to terms with human wisdom were not happy1 either at the centre or on the circumference of the body4 ,the adjustment of the ,gospel story to ,old ,testament prophecy was not a real triumph of the human mind1 nor were the efforts at scientific theology any better4 ,docetism1 with its phantom ,christ1 and ,gnosticism with its antithesis of the just ,god and the good ,god1 were not likely to satisfy mankind4 ,simple people felt that these things struck at their life1 and they rejected them1 and began to suspect the intellect4 ,the century saw the growth of ecclesiastical system1 episcopal order and apostolic tradition4 ,men began to speak of the old church1 the original church and the catholic church1 and to cleave to its rule of faith and tradition of sound words4 ,by #bjj ,a4,d4 the church was no longer a new thing in the world2 it had its own ancient history without going back to ,judaism and the old covenant2 it had its legends2 and it could now speak like the ,greeks of the old faith of our fathers4 ,as it rose in the world1 the church came into contact with new problems4 ,as long as men were without culture1 they were not troubled by the necessity of reconciling culture with faith1 but the time had come when it must be done in earnest4 ,wealth was bringing leisure1 and refinement1 and new intellectual outlooks and interests4 ,could the church do with them8 was the urgent question4 ,was it possible for a man to be at once a ,greek gentleman of wealth and culture and a simple ,christian like the humble grandfathers of his fellow-believers--or like his own slaves1 the fuller and the cobbler of his household8 ,we shall understand the problem better if we can make some acquaintance with the daily life and environment of these converts of the better classes4 ,in the second and third books of his ,pedagogue ,clement of #bfd ,alexandria deals with the daily round and deportment of ,christians1 for whom extravagance and luxury might be a real temptation4 ,a few points1 gathered here and there from the two books1 will suffice4 ,he recommends simplicity of diet with health and strength as its objects--the viands1 which the ,gospels suggest1 fish and the honeycomb1 being admirable for these purposes4#b ,wine provokes the passions--,i therefore admire those who have chosen the austere life and are fond of water1 the medicine of temperance4 ,boys and girls should as a general rule abstain from the other drug--wine4#c ,good manners at table--no noisy gulping1 no hiccupping1 no spilling1 no soiling of the couch1 no slobbering of hand or chin--how do you think the ,lord drank1 when he became man for us8#d ,vessels of silver and gold1 furniture of rare woods inlaid with ivory1 rugs of purple and rich colours1 are hardly necessary for the ,christian--the ,lord ate from a cheap bowl and made his disciples lie on the ground1 on the grass1 and he washed their feet with a towel about him--the lowly-minded ,god and ,lord of the universe4 ,he did not bring a silver foot-bath from heaven to carry about with him4 ,he asked the ,samaritan woman to give him to drink in a vessel of clay as she drew it up from the well1--not seeking the royal gold1 but teaching us to quench thirst easily4 ,in general as to food1 dress1 furniture and all that pertains to the house1 ,i say at once1 it should all be according to the institutions of the ,christian man1 fitting appropriately person1 age1 pursuits and time4#e ,sidenote3 ,christian manners ,clement passes from the table to a general discussion of manners and habits4 ,man is a laughing animal1 but he should not laugh all the time4 ,humour is recommended rather than wit 7charientisteon ou gelotopoieteon1 #de1 #d74 ,the orderly relaxation of the face which preserves its harmony is a smile 7#df1 #c7--;giggling and excessive laughter are perversions4 ,care should be taken in conversation to avoid low talk1 and the scoff that leads the way to insolence1 and the argument for barren victory--man is a creature of peace1 as the greeting ,peace with you shows us4 ,some talkers are like old shoes--only the tongue left for mischief4 #bfe ,there are many tricks unfit for a ,christian gentleman--spitting1 coughing1 scratching and other things2 and he would do well to avoid whistling and snapping his fingers to call the servants4 ,fidgetting is the mark of mental levity 7symbolon kouphotetos74#f ,in the care of one's person1 oil may be used2 it is a sign of the luxury of the times that scents and unguents are so universally applied to such various purposes4 ,the heathen crowned their heads with flowers and made it a reproach that ,christians gave up the practice4 ,but1 as ,tertullian said1 they smelt with their noses2 and ,clement urges that on the head flowers are lost to sight and smell1 and chill the brain4 ,a flower-garden in spring1 with the dew upon all its colours1 and all the natural scents of the open air1 is another thing4 ,the ,christian too will remember--,tertullian also has this thought--that it was another crown that the ,lord wore#g--;ex spinis opinor1 et tribulis4 ,the real objection was that the custom was associated with idol-worship4 ,silk and purple and pearls are next dealt with--and earrings1 an outrage on nature--if you pierce the ear1 why not the nose too8#h ,all peculiarity of dress should be avoided1 and so should cosmetics--or else you may remind people of the ,egyptian temple1 outside all splendour1 inside a priest singing a hymn to a cat or a crocodile4#i ,temperance in drink and symmetry in food are wonderful cosmetics and quite natural4#aj ,let a woman work with her hands1 and health will come and bring her beauty4 ,she should go veiled to church1 like ,a,eneas' wife leaving ,troy4#aa ,men may play at ball1 take country walks1 and try gardening and drawing water and splitting billets4#ab ,finger-rings are allowed for them--gold rings1 to be used as seals for security against the slaves4 #bff ,let our seals be a dove1 or a fish1 or a ship running before the wind1 or a lyre1 or a ship's anchor--not an idol's face1 or a sword or a cup or something worse4#ac ,men should wear their hair short 7unless it is curly71 grow their beards and keep their moustaches trimmed with the scissors4#ad ,our slaves we should treat as ourselves1 for they are men as we2 ,god 7as a verse1 perhaps from ,menander1 puts it7 is the same for all1 free or slave1 if you think of it4#ae ,all these admonitions imply an audience with some degree of wealth4 ,the ,christian artisan of ,celsus had no temptation to use a silver foot-bath or to plaster himself with cosmetics4 ,it may also be remarked that the man who gives the advice shows himself well acquainted with the ways of good society--and perhaps of society not so well gifted with taste4 ,with all this refinement went education4 ,the children of ,christian parents were being educated1 and new converts were being made among the cultured classes1 and the adjustment of the new faith and the old culture was imperative4 ,the men to make it were found in a succession of scholars1 learned in all the wisdom of ,greece1 enthusiastic for philosophy and yet loyal to the ,gospel tradition4 ,the first of these1 whose name we know1 was ,pantaenus2 but beyond his name there is little to be known of him4 ,eusebius says that he began as a ,stoic philosopher and ended as a ,christian missionary to ,india4#af ,his pupil1 ,clement1 is of far greater importance in the history of ,christian thought4 ,sidenote3 ,his classical training ,of ,clement again there is little to be learnt beyond what can be gathered from his own writings4 ,he alludes himself to the death of the ,emperor ,commodus as being #aid years1 #a month and #ac days after the birth of ,christ 7it was in #aib ,a4,d472 and ,eusebius quotes a passage from a contemporary letter which shows that ,clement was alive in #baa ,a4,d41 and another written in or about #bae1 which implies that he was dead4#ag ,we have also an indication from ,eusebius that his activity as a teacher in ,alexandria lasted from #ahj #bfg to #bjb or #bjc4ah ,we may then assume that ,clement was born about the middle of the century4 ,epiphanius says that ,clement was either an ,alexandrine or an ,athenian4 ,a phrase to be quoted below suggests that he was not an ,alexandrine1 and it has been held possible that he came from ,athens4#ai ,it also seems that he was born a pagan4#bj ,perhaps he says this himself when he writes3 rejoicing exceedingly and renouncing our old opinions we grow young again for salvation1 singing with the prophecy that chants ',how good is ,god to ,israel4'#ba ,it is obvious that he had the usual training of a ,greek of his social position4 ,if his code of manners is lifted above other such codes by the constant suggestion of the gentle spirit of ,jesus1 it yet bears the mark of his race and of his period4 ,it is ,greek and aristocratic1 and it would in the main command the approval of ,plutarch4 ,he must have been taught ,rhetoric like every one else1--his style shows this as much as his protests that he does not aim at eloquence 7euglottia71 that he has not studied and does not practise ,greek style 7helleixein74#bb ,he has the diffuse learning of his day--wide1 second-hand and uncritical2 and1 like other contemporary writers1 he was a devotee of the note-book4 ,no age of ,greek literature has left us so many works of the kind he wrote--the sheer congeries with no attempt at structure1 no beginning1 middle and end1--easy1 accumulative books of fine miscellaneous feeding1 with titles that playfully confess to their character4 ,like other authors of this class1 ,clement preserves for us many and many a fragment of more interest and value than any original piece of literature could have been4 ,he clearly loved the poetry of ,greece1 and it comes spontaneously and irresistibly to his mind as he writes1 and the sayings of ,jesus are reinforced by those of ,menander or ,epicharmus4 ,the old words charm him1 and #bfh he cannot reject them4 ,his ,stromateis are not like ornamental paradises laid out in rows to please the eye1 but rather resemble some shady and thickly-wooded hill1 where you may find cypress and plane1 bay and ivy1 and apple trees along with olives and figs#bc--trees with literary connotations4 ,such works imply some want of the creative instinct1 of originality1 and they are an index to the thinking of the age1 impressed with its great ancestry4 ,it is to be remarked that the writers of our period care little for the literature of the past two or three centuries2 they quote their own teachers and the great philosophers and poets of ancient ,greece4#bd ,few of them have any new thoughts at all1 and those who have are under the necessity of clothing them in the hallowed phrases of their predecessors4 ,this was the training in which ,clement shared4 ,later on1 he emancipated himself1 and spoke contemptuously of the school--a river of words and a trickle of mind2#be but an education is not easily shaken off4 ,he might quarrel with his teachers and their lessons1 but he still believed in them4 ,it may be noted that in his quotations of ,greek literature his attention is mainly given to the thought which he finds in the words--or attaches to them--that he does not seem to conceive of a work of art as a whole1 nor does he concern himself with the author4 ,he used the words as a quotation1 and it is not unlikely that many of the passages he borrowed he knew only as quotations4 ,in philosophy his training must have been much the same1 but here he had a more living interest4 ,philosophy touched him more nearly1 for it bore upon the two great problems of the human soul--conduct and ,god4 ,like ,seneca and ,plutarch he was not interested in ,philosophy apart from these issues--epistemology1 psychology1 physics and so forth were not practical matters4 ,the philosophers he judged by their theology4 ,with religious men of his day he leant to the ,stoics and truth-loving ,plato--especially ,plato1 whom he #bfi seems to have read for himself--but he avows that ,philosophy for him means not the system of any school or thinker1 but the sum of the unquestionable dogmata of all the schools1 all that in every school has been well said1 to teach righteousness with pious knowledge--this eclectic whole ,i call ,philosophy4#bf ,to this ,philosophy all other studies contribute--they are the handmaidens1 and she the mistress#bg--;and she herself owns the sway of ,theology4 ,sidenote3 ,clement and the mysteries ,at some time of his life ,clement acquired a close acquaintance with pagan mythology and its cults4 ,it may be that he was initiated into mysteries2 in his ,protrepticus he gives an account of many of them1 which is of great value to the modern student4 ,it is probable enough that an earnest man in search of ,god would explore the obvious avenues to the knowledge he sought--avenues much travelled and loudly vaunted in his day4 ,having explored them1 it is again not unlikely that a spirit so pure and gentle should be repelled by rituals and legends full of obscenity and cruelty4 ,it is of course possible that much of his knowledge came from books1 perhaps after his conversion1 for one great part of ,christian polemic was the simple exposure of the secret rites of paganism4 ,yet it remains that his language is permanently charged with technical terms proper to the mysteries1 and that he loves to put ,christian knowledge and experience in the old language--,oh6 mysteries truly holy6 ,oh6 stainless light6 ,the daduchs lead me on to be the epopt of the heavens and of ,god2 ,i am initiated and become holy2 the ,lord is the hierophant and seals the mystes for himself1 himself the photagogue4#bh ,it is again a little surprising to hear of the ,saviour being our mystagogue as in the tragedy-- ,he sees1 we see1 he gives the holy things 7orgia72 and if thou wilt inquire #bgj ,these holy things--what form have they for thee8 thou wilt hear in reply ,save ,bacchus' own initiate1 none may know4#bi ,it is inconceivable that a ,hebrew1 or anyone but a ,greek1 could have written such a passage with its double series of allusions to ,greek mysteries and to ,euripides' ,bacchae4 ,clement is the only man who writes in this way1 with an allusiveness beyond ,plutarch's1 and a fancy as comprehensive as his charity and his experience of literature and religion4 ,he had the ,greek's curious interest in foreign religions1 and he speaks of ,chaldaeans and ,magians1 of ,indian hermits and ,brahmans--and among the ,indians are those that follow the precepts of ,buddha 7,boutta71 whom for his exceeding holiness they have honoured as a god--of the holy women of the ,germans and the ,druids of the ,gauls4#cj ,probably in each of these cases his knowledge was soon exhausted1 but it shows the direction of his thoughts4 ,egypt of course furnished a richer field of inquiry to him as to ,plutarch4 ,he has passages on ,egyptian symbolism1#ca and on their ceremonial1#cb which contain interesting detail4 ,it was admitted by the ,greeks--even by ,celsus--that barbarians excelled in the discovery of religious dogma1 though they could not equal the ,greeks in the philosophic use of it4 ,thus ,pausanias says the ,chaldaeans and ,indian ,magians first spoke of the soul's immortality1 which many ,greeks have accepted1 not least ,plato son of ,ariston4#cc ,in the course of his intellectual wanderings1 very possibly before he became a ,christian1 ,clement investigated ,jewish thought so far as it was accessible to him in ,greek1 for ,greeks did not learn barbarian languages4 ,eusebius remarks upon his allusions to a number of ,jewish historians4#cd ,his debt to #bga ,philo is very great1 for it was not only his allegoric method in general and some elaborate allegories that he borrowed1 but the central conception in his presentment of ,christianity comes originally from the ,jewish thinker1 though ,clement was not the first ,christian to use the term ,logos4 ,clement does not tell us that he was born of pagan parents1 nor does he speak definitely of his conversion4 ,it is an inference1 and we are left to conjecture the steps by which it came1 but without the help of evidence4 ,one allusion to his ,christian teachers is dropped when he justifies his writing the ,stromateis--memoranda treasured up for my old age1 an antidote against forgetfulness1 a mere semblance and shadow-picture of those bright and living discourses1 those men happy and truly remarkable1 whom ,i was counted worthy to hear4 ,and then the reading is uncertain1 but1 according to ,dr ,stahlin's text he says3 ,of these1 one was in ,greece--the ,ionian2 the next 7pl47 in ,magna ,graecia 7one of whom was from ,coele ,syria and the other from ,egypt72 others in the ,east2 and in this region one was an ,assyrian1 and the other in ,palestine a ,hebrew by descent4 ,the last of all 7in power he was the first7 ,i met and found my rest in him1 when ,i had caught him hidden away in ,egypt4 ,he1 the true ,sicilian bee1 culling the flowers of the prophetic and apostolic meadow1 begot pure knowledge in the souls of those who heard him4 ,these men preserved the true tradition of the blessed teaching direct from ,peter and ,james1 ,john and ,paul1 the holy apostles1 son receiving it from father 7'and few be sons their fathers' peers'71 and reached down by ,god's blessing even to us1 in us to deposit those ancestral and apostolic seeds4#ce ,it is supposed that the ,assyrian was ,tatian1 while the ,sicilian bee hidden away in ,egypt was almost certainly ,pantaenus4 ,clement's education had been wide and superficial1 his reading sympathetic but not deep1 his philosophy vague and eclectic1 and now from paganism with its strange and indefinite aggregation of religions based on cult and legend1 he passed to a faith that rested on a tradition jealously maintained and a rule beginning to be venerable4 ,he met men with a definite language in which they expressed a common experience--who had moreover seen a good many efforts made to mend the #bgb language and all of them ending in shipwreck concerning the faith2 who therefore held to the form of sound words as the one foundation for the ,christian life4 ,it says a great deal for ,clement's character--one might boldly say at once that it is an index to his personal experience--that he could sympathize with these men in the warm and generous way he did4 ,now and again he is guilty of directing a little irony against the louder-voiced defenders of faith only1 bare faith#cf and straight opinion--the orthodoxasts1 as they are called4#cg 7,the curious word shows that the terms orthodox and orthodoxy were not yet quite developed47 ,but he stands firmly by the simplest ,christians and their experience4 ,if he pleads for a wider view of things--for what he calls knowledge1 it is1 he maintains1 the development of the common faith of all ,christians4 ,it is quite different from the wisdom that is implanted by teaching2 it comes by grace4 ,the foundation of knowledge is to have no doubts about ,god1 but to believe2 ,christ is both--foundation and superstructure alike2 by him is the beginning and the end4444 ,these1 ,i mean faith and love1 are not matters of teaching4#ch ,as ,jesus became perfect by baptism and was hallowed by the descent of the spirit1 so it befals us also1 whose pattern is the ,lord4 ,baptized1 we are enlightened2 enlightened1 we are made sons2 made sons we are perfected2 made perfect we become immortal all these verbs and participles are in the present4 ',i1' he saith1 'said ye are gods and sons of the ,most ,high1 all of you4' ,this work has many names2 it is called gift or grace1 charisma1 enlightenment1 perfection1 baptism4444 ,what is wanting for him who knows ,god8 ,it would be strange indeed if that were called a gift of ,god which was incomplete2 the ,perfect will give what is perfect1 one supposes4444 ,thus they that have once grasped the borders of life are already perfect2 we live already1 who are separated from death4 ,salvation is following ,christ4444 ,so to believe--only to believe--and to be born again is perfection in life4#ci ,he praises the poet of #bgc ,agrigentum for hymning faith1 which his verses declare to be hard2 'and that is why the ,apostle exhorts 'that your faith may not be in the wisdom of men'--who offer to persuade--'but in the power of ,god'--which alone and without proofs can by bare faith save4#dj ,sidenote3 ,the real polymetis ,it was this strong sympathy with the simplest view of the ,christian faith that made the life-work of ,clement possible4 ,he was to go far outside the ordinary thoughts of the ,christian community round about him--inevitably he had to do this under the compulsion of his wide experience of books and thinkers--but the centre of all his larger experience he found where his unlettered friends1 believing without letters1 found their centre1 and he checked his theories1 original and borrowed--or he aimed at checking them--by life4 ,as in gardening and in medicine he is the man of real learning 7chrestomathes71 who has had experience of the more varied lessons4442 so1 ,i say1 here too1 of him who brings everything to bear on the truth4444 ,we praise the pilot of wide range1 who 'has seen the cities of many men'444 so he who turns everything to the right life1 fetching illustrations from things ,greek and things barbarian alike1 he is the much-experienced 7polypeiros7 tracker of truth1 the real polymetis2 like the touchstone--the ,lydian stone believed to distinguish between the bastard and the true-born gold1 he is able to separate1--our polyidris and man of knowledge 7gnostikos7 as he is1--sophistic from philosophy1 the cosmetic art from the true gymnastic1 cookery from medicine1 rhetoric from dialectic1 magic and other heresies in the barbarian philosophy from the actual truth4#da ,this1 in spirit and letter1 is a very characteristic utterance4 ,beginning with the ,lord as the vine--from which some expect to gather clusters of grapes in the twinkling of an eye--he ranges into medicine and sea-faring1 from ,odysseus of many wiles1 who saw the cities of many men and learnt their mind1 to ,plato's ,gorgias1 and brings all to bear on the ,christian life4 ,what his simple friends made of such a passage--if they were able to read at all1 or had it read to them--it is not easy to guess1 but contact must have shown them in the man a genuine and tender ,christian as ,christocentric as themselves1 if in speech he #bgd was oddly suited1--a gay epitome of ,greek literature in every sentence4 ,this1 then1 is the man1 a ,greek of wide culture and open heart1 who has dipped into everything that can charm the fancy and make the heart beat1--curious in literature1 cult1 and philosophy1 and now submitted to the tradition of the church and the authority of ,hebrew prophet and ,christian apostle1 but not as one bowing to a strange and difficult necessity4 ,rather1 with the humblest of ,god's children--those tender1 simple and guileless children on whom ,god lavishes all the little names which he has for his only ,son1 the lamb and the child#db--;he finds in ,christ thanksgiving1 blessing1 triumph and joy1 while ,christ himself bends from above1 like ,sarah1 to smile upon their laughter4#dc ,such was the range of ,clement's experience1 and now1 under the influence of the great change that conversion brought1 he had to re-think everything and to gather it up in a new unity4 ,thus in one man were summed up all the elements of import in the general situation of the church of his day4 ,he was representative alike in his susceptibility to the ancient literature and philosophy and his love of ,scripture--truth-loving ,isaiah and ,st ,paul--in his loyalty to the faith1 and1 not less1 in his determination to reach some higher ground from which the battle of the church could be fought with wider outlook1 more intelligent grasp of the factors in play1 and more hope of winning men for ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,faith and philosophy ,clement did not come before his time4 ,philosophy had begun to realize the significance of the church4 ,the repression of the harmful superstition was no longer an affair of police2 it was the common concern of good citizens4 ,the model ,emperor himself1 the philosopher upon the throne1 had openly departed from the easy policy laid down by ,trajan and continued by his successors4 ,he had witnessed1 or had received reports of1 executions4 ,writing in his diary of death1 he says3 ,what a soul is that which is ready1 if the moment has come for its separation from the body1 whether it is to be extinguished1 or dissolved1 or to continue a whole4 ,this readiness--see that it come from your own judgment1 not in mere obstinacy1 as with the ,christians1 but reflectively and #bge with dignity1 in a way to persuade another1 with nothing of the actor in it4#dd ,this sentence betrays something of the limitations of a good man--a beautiful spirit indeed1 but not a little over-praised by his admirers in modern days4 ,celsus at once taunts his ,christian opponents with their prospects of painful death and demonstrates the absurdity of their tenets from the point of view of philosophy4 ,the ,apologists say1 too1 that the philosophers lent themselves 7as did also the daemons7 to inciting the mob to massacre4 ,but after all the dialectical weapons of ,philosophy were the more dangerous1 for they shook the faith of the ,christian which death did not shake4 ,again1 the candid and inquiring temper of some notable converts and friends had led them to question the tradition of the church and to examine their ,christian experience with a freedom from prejudice1 at least in the evangelic direction1 which had resulted in conclusions fatal1 it seemed1 to the ,christian movement4 ,their philosophy had carried them outside the thoughts of ,jesus--they had abandoned the idea of the ,abba ,father1 of the divine love1 of the naturalness and instinctiveness of ,christian life4 ,incarnation and redemption they rejected1 at least in the sense which made the conceptions of value to men4 ,jesus they remodelled into one and another figure more amenable to their theories--a mere man1 a demi-god1 a phantom1 into anything but the historic personality that was and could remain the centre and inspiration of ,christian life4 ,of all this mischief philosophy1 men said1 was the cause4#de ,i know quite well1 writes ,clement1 what is said over and over again by some ignorantly nervous people who insist that we should confine ourselves to the inevitable minimum1 to what contains the faith1 and pass over what is outside and superfluous1 as it wears us out to no purpose and occupies us with what contributes nothing to our end4 ,others say philosophy comes of evil and was introduced into life for the ruin of #bgf men by an evil inventor4#df ,they were afraid of philosophy1 as children might fear a ghost1 in case it should take them away#dg--;but this1 as ,clement saw1 was no way to meet the danger4 ,the ,christian must not philosophize1 they said--,tertullian said it too2 but how could they know they must not philosophize unless they philosophized8#dh ,whether philosophy is profitable or not1 you cannot condemn the ,greeks on the basis of mere statements about their opinions1 without going into it with them till point by point you discover what they mean and understand them4 ,it is the refutation based upon experience that is reliable4#di ,sidenote3 ,his defence of philosophy ,so ,clement has first of all to fight the battle of education inside the church1 to convince his friends that culture counts1 that philosophy is inevitable and of use at once for the refutation of opponents and for the achievement of the full significance of faith4 ,then he has to show how philosophy at its best was the foe of superstition and the champion of ,god's unity and goodness--a preparation for the ,gospel4 ,lastly he has to restate the ,christian position in the language of philosophy and to prove that the ,gospel is reaffirming all that was best in the philosophic schools and bringing it to a higher point1 indeed to the highest2 that the ,gospel is the final philosophy of the universe1 the solution of all the problems of existence1 the revelation of the ultimate mind of ,god4 ,clement boldly asserts the unity of all knowledge4 ,everything contributes1 everything is concentric4 ,just as every family goes back to ,god the ,creator1 so does the teaching of all good things go back to the ,lord1 the teaching that makes men just1 that takes them by the hand and brings them that way4#ej ,and again3--,when many men launch a ship1 pulling together1 you could not say there are many causes1 but one consisting of many--for each of them is not by himself the cause of its being launched but only in conjunction with others2 so philosophy1 which is a search for truth1 contributes to the perception 7katalepsis7 of truth1 though it is not the #bgg cause of perception1 except in conjunction and co-operation with other things4 ,yet perhaps even a joint-cause we might call a cause4 ,happiness is one1 and the virtues more than one which are its causes4 ,the causes of warmth may be the sun1 the fire1 the bath and the clothing4 ,so1 truth is one and many things co-operate in the search for it1 but the discovery is by the ,son4444 ,truth is one1 but in ,geometry we have geometrical truth1 in ,music musical2 so in ,philosophy--right ,philosophy--we should have ,greek truth4 ,but alone the sovereign ,truth is unassailable1 which we are taught by the ,son of ,god4#ea ,elsewhere1 when challenged to say what use there is in knowing the causes that explain the sun's motion1#eb geometry and dialectics1 when ,greek philosophy is merely man's understanding1 he falls back upon the mind's instinctive desire for such things1 its free will 7ten proairesin tou nou71 and quickly marshals a series of texts from the ,book of ,wisdom on the divine source of wisdom and ,god's love of it1 concluding with an allegory drawn from the five barley loaves and the two fishes on which the multitude were fed1 the former typifying the ,hebrew ,law 7for barley is sooner ripe for harvest than wheat7 and the fishes ,greek philosophy born and moving amid ,gentile billows4 7,if you are curious1 take one of the fishes as signifying ordinary education and the other the philosophy that succeeds it4444 ,a choir of voiceless fish came sweeping on1 the ,tragic muse says somewhere#ec74 ,his appeal to the mind is a much stronger defence than any such accumulation of texts1 but for the people he had in view the texts were probably more convincing4 ,the impulse to ,philosophy is an inevitable one1 native to the human mind1 and he shows that it is to the ,divine ,reason working in all things1 to ,providence1 that we must attribute it4 #bgh ,everything1 so far as its nature permits1 came into being1 and does so still1 advancing to what is better than itself4 ,so that it is not out of the way that ,philosophy too should have been given in ,divine ,providence1 as a preliminary training towards the perfection that comes by ,christ4444 ',your hairs are numbered' and your simplest movements2 can ,philosophy be left out of the account8 ,an allegory follows from ,samson's hair4 ,providence1 it says1 from above1 from what is of first importance1 as from the head1 reaches down to all men1 as 'the myrrh1' it says1 'that descends upon ,aaron's beard and to the fringe of his garment'--viz43 the ,great ,high ,priest1 'by whom all things came into being1 and without him nothing came'--not1 that is1 on to the beauty of the body2 ,philosophy is outside the people possibly ,israel is meant just as raiment is4 ,the philosophers then1 who are trained by the perceptive spirit for their own perception1--when they investigate not a part of ,philosophy1 but ,philosophy absolutely1 they testify in a truth-loving way and without pride to truth by their beautiful sayings even with those who think otherwise1 and they advance to understanding 7synesin71 in accordance with the divine dispensation1 that unspeakable goodness which universally brings the nature of all that exists onward toward the better so far as may be4#ed ,thought 7phronesis7 takes many forms1 and it is diffused through all the universe and all human affairs1 and in each sphere it has a separate name--,thought1 ,knowledge1 ,wisdom or ,faith4 ,in the things of sense it is called ,right ,opinion2 in matters of handicraft1 ,art2 in the logical discussion of the things of the mind1 it is ,dialectic4 ,those who say that ,philosophy is not from ,god1 come very near saying that ,god cannot know each several thing in particular and that ,he is not the cause of all good things1 if each of them is a particular thing4 ,nothing that is could have been at all without ,god's will2 and1 if with ,his will1 then ,philosophy is from ,god1 since ,he willed it to be what it is for the sake of those who would not otherwise abstain from evil4 ,he seeth all things and he heareth all#ee #bgi and beholds the soul naked within1 and he has through all eternity the thought 7epinoia7 of each several thing in particular1 seeing all things1 as men in a theatre look around and take all in at a glance4 ,there are many things in life that find their beginning in human reason1 though the spark that kindles them is from ,god4#ef ,thus health through medicine1 good condition through training1 wealth through commerce1 come into being and are amongst us1 at once by ,divine ,providence and human co-operation4 ,and from ,god comes understanding too4 ,and the free will 7proairesis7 of good men most of all obeys ,god's will4444 ,the thoughts 7epinoiai7 of virtuous men come by divine inspiration 7epipnoia71 the soul being disposed so and the divine will conveyed 7diadidonenou7 to human souls1 the divine ministers taking part in such services2 for over all nations and cities are assigned angelic governances--perhaps even over individuals4#eg ,philosophy makes men virtuous1 so it cannot be the product of evil--that is1 it is the work of ,god4 ,as it was given to the best among the ,greeks1 we can divine who was the ,giver4#eh ,this is a favourite thought with ,clement1 and1 as he does with all ideas that please him1 he repeats it over and over again1 in all sorts of connexions and in all variety of phrase4 ,when a man is avowedly making patchwork books 7,stromateis71 there is really no occasion on which we can call it irrelevant for him to repeat himself1 and this is a thought worth repeating4 ,before the advent of the ,lord1 ,philosophy was necessary to the ,greeks for righteousness1 and it is still profitable for piety1 a sort of primary instruction for those who reap faith by revelation4444 ,god is the cause of all good things1 of some directly1 as of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 of others indirectly as of ,philosophy4 ,and perhaps even directly it was given in those times to the ,greeks1 before the ,lord called the ,greeks also2 for ,philosophy too was a paidagogos for the ,greek world1 as the ,law was for the ,hebrews1 to bring them to ,christ4#ei #bhj ,generally speaking1 we should not be wrong in saying that all that is necessary and profitable to life comes to us from ,god--and that ,philosophy was more especially given to the ,greeks1 as a sort of covenant 7diatheke7 of their own1 a step 7hypobathra7 toward the ,philosophy according to ,christ1--if ,greek philosophers will not close their ears to the truths1 through contempt of the barbarian speech4#fj ,god is the bestower 7choregos7 of both covenants1 who also gave ,philosophy to the ,greeks1 whereby among the ,greeks the ,almighty is glorified4#fa ,in those times ,philosophy by itself 'justified' the ,greeks--though not to the point of perfect righteousness4#fb ,as in due season the ,preaching now comes1 so in due season the law and the prophets were given to the barbarians and ,philosophy to the ,greeks1 to train their ears for the ,preaching4#fc ,sidenote3 ,the origin of philosophy ,philosophy however fell short of the ,law4 ,those1 who were righteous by the ,law1 still lacked ,faith2 while the others1 whose righteousness was by ,philosophy1 not only lacked ,faith but failed to break with idolatry4#fd 7,this was in many quarters the capital charge against contemporary philosophy47 ,it was for this reason that the ,saviour preached the ,gospel in ,hades1 just as after him1 according to ,hermas1 the apostles and teachers1 when they fell asleep in the power and faith of the ,son of ,god1 preached to those who had fallen asleep before them4#fe ,it is curious that ,clement not only cites ,philosophy as a gift of ,god to the ,gentiles before ,faith came1 that ,god's judgments might be just1 but he also says1 on the authority of the ,law 7quoting inaccurately and perhaps from memory71 that ,god gave them the sun1 the moon and stars to worship1 which ,god made for the ,gentiles that they might not become utterly atheistic and so utterly perish4 ,it was a road given to them1 that in worshipping the stars they might look up to ,god4#ff ,that they fell into idolatry was however only too patent a fact4 #bha ,the exact means1 by which the ,greeks received the truths contained in their philosophy1 is not certain4 ,a favourite explanation with ,christian writers1 and one to which ,clement gives a good deal of thought1 is that ,greek thinkers borrowed at large from the ,old ,testament1 for ,moses lived some six hundred years before the deification of ,dionysos1 the ,sibyl long before ,orpheus4#fg ,clement's illustrations are not very convincing4 ,the idea of bringing ,providence as far down as the moon came to ,aristotle from this ,psalm3 ',lord1 in heaven is thy mercy and thy truth as far as 7heos7 the clouds4' ,epicurus took his conception of ,chance from ,vanity of vanities1 all is vanity2 while the ,sabbath is found in several lines of ,homer--unfortunately spurious4 ,an attempt to convict ,euripides of plagiarism from ,plato's ,republic shows the worth of these suggestions1 and the whole scheme wakes doubts as to the value of ,clement's judgment4#fh ,another theory was angelic mediation4 ,god might have communicated with the ,greeks by inferior angels2#fi or those angels who fell into pleasure might have told their human wives what they knew of divine secrets1 and so the doctrine of ,providence got about4#gj ,or else by happy guess or accident the ,greeks found parts of the truth for themselves--or in virtue of some naturally implanted notion 7ennoia7 or common mind1 and then we know who is the author of nature4#ga ,whatever the explanation1 in any case the hand of ,god was to be traced in it--,providence foreknew all1 and so designed that the wickedness of fallen angels and men should promote righteousness and truth4#gb ,so much for those who quote the text ,all that ever came before me were thieves and robbers1#gc or who say that the devil is the author of #bhb ,philosophy#gd 7though we may admit ,epicureanism to have been sown by the sower of tares74#ge ,we might look far for a more vivid illustration of the contrast between sound instinct and absurd theory4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,protrepticus ,thus he vindicates the right of the ,christian to claim ,philosophy as the manifestation of the ,divine ,logos1 and as a fore-runner of the ,gospel1 and in his ,protrepticus he shows how the ,christian thus re-inforced can deal with paganism4 ,if the ,stromateis weary even the sympathetic reader with their want of plan1 their diffuseness and repetition1 and their interminable and fanciful digressions--faults inherent in all works of the kind--the ,protrepticus makes a different impression4 ,it is written by the same hand and shows the same tendencies1 but they are under better control4 ,allegories1 analogies and allusions still hinder the development of his thought--like ,atalanta he can never let a golden apple run past him4 ,he is not properly a philosopher in spite of all his love of ,philosophy1 and he thinks in colours1 like a poet4 ,yet he is not essentially a man of letters or a poet2 he is too indolent2 his style is not inevitable or compulsive4 ,it is too true a confession when he says that he does not aim at beauty of language4 ,his sentence will begin well1 and then grow intricate and involved--in breaks an allusion1 not always very relevant1 and brings with it a quotation that has captured his fancy and paralyses his grammar--several perhaps--some accommodation is made1 and the sentence straggles on1 and will end somehow--with a pile of long words1 for which others have been patiently waiting since before the quotation1 in pendent genitives1 accusatives and so forth4 ,but in the ,protrepticus--in the better parts of it--something has happened to his style1 for 7to speak after his own manner7 ,nothing of him that doth fade1 ,but doth suffer a sea-change ,into something rich and strange4 ,he is no longer arguing2 he surrenders to a tide of emotion1 and is borne along singing1 and as he sings1 he seems to gather up all the music of the ancient world2 we catch notes that come from ,greek and ,hebrew song1 and the whole is woven together #bhc into a hymn to the ,saviour1 my ,singer1 our new ,orpheus1 that for sheer beauty1 for gladness and purity of feeling is unmatched in early ,christian literature4 ,one comes back to it after years and the old charm is there still4 ,that it can survive in a few translated fragments is hardly to be expected4 ,he begins with the famous singers of ,greek myth--,amphion1 ,arion1 and ,eunomus with the grass-hopper444 ,you will believe empty myths1 he says1 but ,truth's bright face seems to you to be false and falls under eyes of unbelief4 ,but ,cithaeron and ,helicon are old4 ,let us bring ,truth and shining ,wisdom from heaven above to the holy mount of ,god and the holy choir of the prophets4 ,let her1 beaming with light that spreads afar1 illumine all about her them that lie in darkness1 and save men from error4 ,my ,eunomus sings not ,terpander's strain1 nor ,capion's1 not the ,phrygian1 the ,lydian or the ,dorian1 but the eternal strain of the new harmony1 the strain that bears the name of ,god1 the new song1 the song of the ,levite1 with ,a drug infused antidote to the pains ,of grief and anger1 a most potent charm ,for ills of every name1#gf a sweet and true cure of sorrow4 ,orpheus sang to enslave men to idols1 to foolish rites1 to shadows4 ,not such is my singer2 he has come1 soon to end cruel slavery to tyrannic daemons2 he transfers us to the gentle and kindly yoke of piety1 and calls to heaven them that were fallen to earth4#gg ,it was this new song that first made the whole cosmos a harmony1 and it is still the stay and harmony of all things4 ,it was this ,logos of ,god who framed the little cosmos1 man1 setting soul and body together by the holy spirit1 and who sings to ,god upon this organ of many tones--man4 ,the ,logos himself is an organ for ,god1 of all the harmonies1 tuneful and holy4#gh ,what does this organ1 this new song1 tell us8 ,the ,logos1 that was before the ,day-,star was1 has appeared among men as a teacher1--he by whom all things were made4 #bhd ,as ,demiurge he gave life2 as teacher he taught to live well2 that1 as ,god1 he may lavish upon us life forever4 ,many voices and many means has the ,saviour employed for the saving of men4 ,lest you should disbelieve these1 the ,logos of ,god has himself become man that you might learn from man how man may become ,god4#gi ,he casts a glance over ,greek myths and mysteries--cymbals1 tambourines1 emblems1 legends and uncleanness1 the work of men who knew not the ,god who truly is1 men without hope and without ,god in the world4 ,there was from of old a certain natural fellowship of men with heaven1 hidden in the darkness of their ignorance1 but now on a sudden it has leapt through the darkness and shines resplendent--even as that said by one of old1 ,see'st thou that boundless aether there on high ,that laps earth round within its dewy arms8 and again1 ,o stay of earth1 that hast thy seat on earth1 ,whoe'er thou art1 beyond man's guess to see2 and all the rest that the children of the poets sing4#hj ,but wrong conceptions have turned the heavenly plant1 man1 from the heavenly life and laid him low on earth1 persuading him to cleave to things fashioned of earth4 ,so he returns to the discussion of pagan worships--but by now your myths too seem to me to have grown old--and he speaks of the daemon-theory by which the pagans themselves explained their religion4 ,the daemons are inhuman and haters of men2 they enjoy the slaying of men--no wonder that with such a beginning superstition is the source of cruelty and folly4 ,but no6 ,i must never entrust the hopes of the soul to things without souls4#ha ,the only refuge1 it seems1 for him who would come to the gates of ,salvation is the ,divine ,wisdom4#hb #bhe ,he now reviews the opinions of the philosophers about ,god4 ,the ,stoics 7to omit the rest7 saying that the divine goes through all matter1 even the most dishonourable1 shame ,philosophy4#hc ,epicurus alone ,i will gladly forget4#hd ,where then are we to track out ,god1 ,plato8 ',the ,father and maker of this whole it is hard to find1 and1 when one has found him1 to declare him to all is impossible4' ,in his name why8 ',for it is unspeakable4' ,well said6 ,plato6 thou hast touched the truth6#he ,i know thy teachers1 still addressing ,plato1 ,geometry thou dost learn from ,egyptians1 ,astronomy from ,babylonians1 the charms that give health from ,thracians2 much have the ,assyrians taught thee2 but thy laws--such of them as are true--and thy thought of ,god1 to these thou hast been helped by the ,hebrews4#hf ,after the philosophers the poets are called upon to give evidence--,euripides in particular4#hg ,finally he turns to the prophets and their message of salvation--,i could quote you ten thousand passages1 of which 'not one tittle shall pass' without being fulfilled2 for the mouth of the ,lord1 the holy spirit1 spoke them4#hh ,god speaks to men as to his children--gentle as a father1 as ,homer says4 ,he offers freedom1 and you run away to slavery2 he gives salvation1 and you slip away into death4 ,yet he does not cease to plead--,wake1 and ,christ the ,lord shall lighten upon you1 the sun of resurrection4#hi ,what would you have covenanted to give1 oh6 men6 if eternal salvation had been for sale8 ,not though one should measure out all ,pactolus1 the mythic river of gold1 will he pay a price equal to salvation4#ij ,yet you can buy this precious salvation with your own treasure1 with love and faith of life 444 that is a price ,god is glad to accept4#ia ,men grow to the world1 like seaweed to the rocks by the sea1 and despise immortality like the old ,ithacan1 yearning not for ,truth and the fatherland #bhf in heaven1 and the light that truly is1 but for the smoke4#ib ,it is piety that makes us like ,god--a reference to ,plato's familiar phrase4 ,god's function 7ergon7 is man's salvation4 ,the word is not hidden from any4 ,light is common and shines upon all men2 there is no ,cimmerian in the reckoning4 ,let us hasten to salvation1 to re-birth4 ,into one love to be gathered1 many in number1 according to the unity of the essence of the ,monad1 let us hasten4 ,as we are blessed1 let us pursue unity1 seeking the good ,monad4 ,and this union of many1 from a medley of voices and distraction1 receives a divine harmony and becomes one symphony1 following one coryphaeus 7choreutes7 and teacher1 the ,word1 resting upon the ,truth itself1 and saying ',abba ,father4'#ic ,here indeed ,philosophy and the ,gospel join hands1 when the ,monad and ,abba ,father are shown to be one and the same4#id ,it is easy to see which of the thoughts represented by these names means most to ,clement4 ,our tender loving ,father1 the ,father indeed1 ceases not to urge1 to admonish1 to teach1 to love2 for neither does he cease to save--only1 oh6 child6 thirst for thy ,father1 and ,god will be shown to thee without a price4#ie ,man's proper nature is to be at home with ,god2 as then we set each animal to its natural task1 the ox to plough and the horse to hunt1 so man1 too1 who is born for the sight of heaven1 a heavenly plant most truly1 we call to the knowledge of ,god4444 ,plough1 we say1 if you are a ploughman1 but know ,god as you plough2 sail1 if you love sea-faring1 but calling on the heavenly pilot#if ,a noble hymn to ,god is an immortal man1 being built up in righteousness1 in whom are engraved the oracles of truth#ig2 and very soon he quotes ,turn the other cheek as a reasonable law to be written in the heart4#ih #bhg ,god's problem is always to save the flock of men4 ,it was for that the good ,god sent the good ,shepherd4 ,the ,logos has made truth simple and shown to men the height of salvation4#ii ,christ wishes your salvation2 with one word he gives you life4 ,and who is he8 ,hear in brief3 the ,word of truth1 the ,word of immortality1 that gives man re-birth1 bears him up to truth1 the goad of salvation1 who drives away destruction1 who chases forth death1 who built in men a temple that he might make ,god to dwell among men4#ajj ,the last chapter is a beautiful picture of the ,christian life1 full of wonderful language from ,homer1 the ,bacchae of ,euripides1 and the ,mysteries1 and in the centre of it--its very heart--,come unto me1 all ye that labour and are heavy-laden1 and ,i will give you rest4 ,in the passages here quoted from the ,protrepticus some of ,clement's main ideas in the realm of ,christian thought are clearly to be seen2 and we have now to give them further and more detailed examination4 ,we have to see what he makes of the central things in the new religion--of ,god1 and the ,saviour1 and of man1 and how he interprets the ,gospel of ,jesus in the language of ,greek philosophy4 ,it is to be noted that1 whatever happened in the course of his work--and very few books are1 when written1 quite what the writer expected on beginning--,clement looked upon his task as interpretation4 ,the ,scriptures are his authorities--he who has believed the divine ,scriptures1 with firm judgment1 receives in the voice of ,god who gave the ,scriptures a proof that cannot be spoken against4#aja ,amid the prayers and hymns of the ideal ,christian comes daily reading of the sacred books4#ajb ,clement has no formal definition of inspiration1 but he loved the sacred text1 and he made it the standard by which to judge all propositions4 ,it is perhaps impossible to over-estimate the importance of this loyalty in an age1 when ,christian speculation was justly under suspicion on account #bhh of the free re-modelling of the ,new ,testament text that went with it4 ,clement would neither alter1 nor excise1 but he found all the freedom he wanted in the accepted methods of exegesis4 ,allegory and the absence of any vestige of historical criticism--and1 not least1 the inability induced by the training of the day to conceive of a work of art1 or even a piece of humbler literature1 as a whole--his very defects as a student secured his freedom as a philosopher4 ,he can quote ,scripture for his purpose2 the phrase will support him where the context will not2 and sometimes a defective memory will help him to the words he wants1 as we have seen in the case of the worship of sun1 moon and stars4 ,to the modern mind such a use of ,scripture is unwarrantable and seems to imply essential indifference to its real value1 but in ,clement and his contemporaries it is not inconsistent with--indeed1 it is indicative of--a high sense of the value of ,scripture as the ipsissima verba of ,god4 ,and after all a mis-quotation may be as true as the most authentic text1 and may help a man as effectually to insight into the thoughts of ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,logos ,we have seen that ,clement quarrelled with the ,stoics for involving ,god in matter--even the most dishonourable4 ,the ,world-soul was1 in fact1 repugnant to men who were impressed with the thought of ,sin1 and who associated ,sin with matter4 ,this feeling and a desire to keep the idea of ,god disentangled from every limitation led to men falling back 7as we saw in the case of ,plutarch7 on the ,platonic conception of ,god's transcendence4 ,neo-,platonism has its golden chain of existence descending from ,real ,being--,god--through a vast series of beings who are in a less and less degree as they are further down the scale4 ,it is not hard to sympathize with the thoughts and feelings which drew men in this direction4 ,the best thinkers and the most religious natures in the ,mediterranean world 7outside the circle of ,jesus1 and some ,stoics7 found the transcendence of ,god inevitably attractive1 and then their hearts sought means to bridge the gulf their thoughts had made4 ,for now he was out of all knowledge1 and away beyond even revelation2 for revelation involved relation and limitation1 and ,god must be absolute4 #bhi ,we have seen how ,plutarch found in the existence of daemons a possibility of intercourse between gods and men1 while above the daemons the gods1 he implies1 are in communication with the remote ,supreme4 ,but for some thinkers this solution was revolting4 ,philo1 with the great record before him of the religious experience of his race1 was not prepared to give up the thought ,o ,god1 thou art my ,god4#ajc ,linking the ,hebrew phrase the word of the ,lord with the ,stoic ,logos ,spermaticos and ,plato's ,idea1 he found in the resulting conception a divine1 rational and spiritual principle immanent in man and in the universe1 and he also found a divine personality1 or quasi-personality1 to come between the ,absolute and the world4 ,he pictures the ,logos as the ,son of ,god1 the ,first-born1 the oldest of angels1 the idea of ideas1 and again as the image of ,god1 and the ideal in whose likeness man was made4 ,as the ambassador of ,god1 and ,high ,priest1 the ,logos is able to mediate directly between man and ,god1 and bridges the gulf that separates us from the ,absolute4#ajd ,more than anything else1 this great conception of ,philo's prepared the way for fusion of ,greek thought and ,christianity4 ,clement is conspicuously a student and a follower of ,philo--nor was he the first among ,christian writers to feel his influence4 ,clement1 as already said1 professed himself an eclectic in philosophy1 and of such we need not expect the closest reasoning4 ,our plan will be to gather passages illustrative of his thoughts--we might almost say of his moods--and set side by side what he says from time to time of ,god4 ,on such a subject it is perhaps impossible to hope for logic or consistency except at the cost of real aspects of the matter in hand4 ,something will be gained if we can realize the thoughts which most moved the man1 even though their reconciliation is questionably possible4 ,this doubt however does not seem to have occurred to himself1 for he connects the dogmata of the philosophers and the teaching of the ,new ,testament as if it were the most natural thing in the world4 #bij ,to begin with the account of ,god which ,clement gives in philosophical language4 ,the ,lord calls himself 'one' 7hen7--'that they all may be one 444 as we are one2 ,i in them1 and thou in me1 that they may be perfected into one4' ,now ,god is 'one' 7hen7 and away beyond the 'one' 7henos7 and above the ,monad itself4#aje ,again1 after quoting ,solon and ,empedocles and ,john the ,apostle 7no man hath seen ,god at any time71 ,clement enlarges on the difficulty of speaking of ,god3--,how can that be expressed1 which is neither genus1 nor differentia1 nor species1 neither indivisible1 nor sum1 nor accident1 nor susceptive of accident8 ,nor could one properly call him a whole 7holon72 for whole 7to holon7 implies dimension1 and he is ,father of the ,whole 7ton holon74 ,nor could1 one speak of his parts1 for the one is indivisible and therefore limitless1 not so conceived because there is no passing beyond it1 but as being without dimension or limit1 and therefore without form or name4 ,and if we ever name him1 calling him1 though not properly1 one1 or the good1 or mind1 or absolute being1 or father1 or ,god1 or demiurge1 or lord1 we do not so speak as putting forward his name2 but1 for want of his name1 we use beautiful names1 that the mind may not wander at large1 but may rest on these4 ,none of these names1 taken singly1 informs us of ,god2 but1 collectively and taken all together1 they point to his almighty power4 ,for predicates are spoken either of properties or of relation1 and none of these can we assume about ,god4 ,nor is he the subject of the knowledge which amounts to demonstration2 for this depends on premisses 7protera7 and things better known 7gnorimotepa72#ajf but nothing is anterior to the unbegotten4 ,it remains then by divine grace and by the ,logos alone that is from him to perceive the unknowable4#ajg ,again1 ,god has no natural relation 7physiken schesin7 to us1 as the founders of heresies hold 7not though he make us of what is not1 or fashion us from matter1 for that is not at all1 and this is in every point different from ,god7--unless you venture to say that we are part of him and of one essence 7homoousious7 with ,god2 and ,i do not understand how anyone who #bia knows ,god will endure to hear that said1 when he casts his eye upon our life and the evils with which we are mixed up4 ,for in this way 7and it is a thing not fit to speak of7 ,god would be sinning in his parts1 that is1 if the parts are parts of the whole and complete the whole--if they do not complete it1 they would not be parts4 ,however1 ,god1 by nature 7physei7 being rich in pity 7eleos71 of his goodness he cares for us who are not his members nor by nature his children 7mete morion onton autou mete physei teknon74 ,indeed this is the chief proof of ,god's goodness1 that though this is our position with regard to him1 by nature utterly 'alienated' from him1 he nevertheless cares for us4 ,for the instinct of kindness to offspring is natural 7physike7 in animals1 and so is friendship with the like-minded based on old acquaintance1 but ,god's pity is rich towards us who in no respect have anything to do with him1 ,i mean1 in our being 7ousia7 or nature or the peculiar property of our being 7dynamei te oikeia tes ousias hemon71 but merely by our being the work of ,his will4#ajh ,the ,god of the ,whole 7ton helon71 who is above every voice and every thought and every conception1 could never be set forth in writing1 for his property is to be unspeakable4#aji ,it follows that the language of the ,bible is not to be taken literally when it attributes feelings to ,god4 ,clement has cited texts which speak of joy and pity in connexion with ,god1 and he has to meet the objection that these are moods of the soul and passions 7tropas psyches kai pathe74 ,we mistake1 when we interpret ,scripture in accordance with our own experience of the flesh and of passions1 taking the will of the passionless ,god 7tou apathous theou7 on a line with our own perturbations 7kinemasi74 ,when we suppose that the fact in the case of the ,almighty is as we are able to hear1 we err in an atheistic way4 ,for the divine was not to be declared as it is2 but as we1 fettered by flesh1 were able to understand1 even so the prophets spoke to us1 the ,lord accommodating himself to the weakness of men with a mind to save them #bib 7soterios74 ,thus the language of our emotions1 though not properly to be employed1 is used to help our weakness4#aaj ,for ,god is1 in fact1 without emotion1 without wrath1 without desire 7apathes1 athumos1 anepithumetos74#aaa ,clement repeatedly recurs with pleasure to this conception of ,apathy2 it is the mark of ,god1 of ,christ1 of the ,apostles1 and of the ideal ,christian1 with whom it becomes a fixed habit 7hexis74#aab ,god is not like a man 7anthropoeides71 nor does he need senses to hear with1 nor does he depend on the sensitiveness of the air 7to eupathes tou heros7 for his apprehensions1 but the instantaneous perception of the angels and the power of conscience touching the soul--these recognize all things1 with the quickness of thought1 by means of some indescribable faculty apart from sensible hearing4 ,even if one should say that it was impossible for the voice1 rolling in this lower air1 to reach to ,god1 still the thoughts of the saints 7agion7 cleave1 not the air alone1 but the whole universe as well4 ,and the divine power instantly penetrates the whole soul like light4 ,again do not our resolves also find their way to ,god1 uttering a voice of their own8 ,and are not some things also wafted heavenward by the conscience8 444 ,god is all ear and all eye1 if we may make use of these expressions4#aac ,thus it would seem that ,god is not so far from every one of us as we might have supposed from the passages previously quoted1 and the contrast between the two views of ,god grows wider when we recall ,clement's words in the ,protrepticus about the ,heavenly ,father4 ,while a ,greek1 the pupil of the philosophers1 could never use the language of a ,jew about ,god our ,father with the same freedom from mental reservation1 ,clement undoubtedly speaks of ,god at times in the same spirit that we feel in the utterances of ,jesus4 ,he goes beyond what contemporary philosophers would have counted suitable or desirable1 as we can see in the complaints which ,celsus makes of ,christian language about ,god1 though ,celsus1 of course1 is colder than the religious #bic of his day4 ,but the main difference between ,christians and philosophers was not as to ,god the ,father1 but as to ,christ4 ,when ,clement1 in his work of restatement1 came to discuss ,christ1 he found ,philo's ,logos ready to his hand and he was not slow to use it4 ,it is characteristic that1 just as he unquestioningly accepted the current philosophic account of ,god and saw no great difficulty in equating a ,god best described in negations with the ,abba ,father of ,jesus1 so he adopted1 not less light-heartedly1 the conflate conception of the ,logos4 ,whether its ,platonic and ,stoic elements would hold together2 whether either of them was really germane to the ,hebrew part2 whether in any case any of the three sets of constituents corresponded with anything actually to be reached by observation or experience2 or whether1 waiving that point1 the combination was equal to its task of helping man to conceive of ,god at once as immanent and transcendent1 ,clement hardly inquired4 ,so far he followed ,philo4 ,then came in a new factor which might well have surprised ,plato1 ,zeno and ,philo alike4 ,following once more1 but this time another leader1 ,clement equates the ,philonian ,logos with the historic ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,so stated1 the work of ,clement may well look absurd4 ,but after all he is not the only man who has identified the leading of instinct with philosophic proof4 ,in succession he touched the central thoughts of his various leaders1 and he found them answer to cravings within him4 ,he wanted a ,god beyond the contagion of earth1 ,supreme and ,absolute2 and ,plato told him of such a ,god4 ,yet the world needed some divine element2 it must not be outside the range and thought of ,god2 and here the conception of divine ,reason1 linking man and nature with ,god ,himself1 appealed to his longing4 ,lastly the impossibility of thinking ,jesus and his work to be accidental1 of conceiving of them as anything but vitally bound up with the spiritual essence of all things1 with ,god and with ,god's ultimate mind for man and eternity1 was the natural outcome of entering into the thoughts of ,jesus1 of realizing his personality and even of observing his effect upon #bid mankind4#aad ,when one remembers how in every age men have passed through one form and another of experience1 and have then compacted philosophies to account for those experiences1 have thought their constructions final1 and have recommended their theories as of more value than the facts on which1 after reflection1 slight or profound1 but perhaps never adequate1 they have based them1 it will not seem strange that ,clement did the same4 ,ah yet1 when all is thought and said1 ,the heart still overrules the head2 ,still what we hope we must believe1 ,and what is given us receive4 ,the old task is still to do4 ,the old cravings are still within us2 still the imperishable impulse lives to seek some solution of the great question of the relations of ,god and the soul and the universe1 which may give us more abiding satisfaction than ,clement's can now have1 and which will yet recognize those old cravings1 will recognize and meet them1 not some but all of them4 ,most perfect1 and most holy of all1 says ,clement1 most sovereign1 most lordly1 most royal and most beneficent1 is the nature of the ,son1 which approaches most closely to the ,one ,almighty ,being4 ,the ,son is the highest ,pre-eminence1 which sets in order all things according to the ,father's will1 and steers the universe aright1 performing all things with unwearying energy1 beholding the ,father's secret thoughts through his working4 ,for the ,son of ,god never moves from his watch-tower1 being never divided1 never dissevered1 never passing from place to place1 but existing everywhere at all times and free from all limitations4 ,he is all reason1 all eye1 all light from the ,father1 seeing all things1 hearing all things1 knowing all things1 with power searching the powers4 ,to him is subjected the whole army of angels and of gods--to him1 the ,word of the ,father1 who has received the holy administration by reason of ,him who subjected it to him2 through whom also all men belong to him1 but some by way of knowledge1 while others have not yet attained to this2 some as friends1 some as faithful servants1 others as servants merely4#aae #bie ,sidenote3 ,the ,logos ,the ,logos is the source of ,providence1 the author1 as already seen1 of all human thought and activity1 of the beauty of the human body too1#aaf ,saviour and ,lord at once of all men--man being his peculiar work1 for into him alone of animals was a conception of ,god instilled at his creation4 ,being the power of the ,father1 he easily prevails over whomsoever he will1 not leaving even the smallest atom of his government uncared for4#aag ,he it is in truth that devises the bridle for the horse1 the yoke for the bull1 the noose for the wild beast1 the rod for the fish1 the snare for the bird2 he governs the city and ploughs the land1 rules and serves1 and all things he maketh2 ,therein he set the earth1 the heaven1 the sea1 ,and all the stars wherewith the heaven is crowned4 ,o the divine creations6 ,o the divine commands6 ,this water1 let it roll within itself2 this fire1 let it check its rage2 this air1 let it spread to aether2 and let earth be fixed and borne1 when ,i will it4 ,man ,i yet wish to make2 for his material ,i have the elements2 ,i dwell with him my hands fashion4 ,if thou know me1 the fire shall be thy slave4#aah ,all#aai gaze on the supreme ,administrator of the universe1 as he pilots all in safety according to the ,father's will1 rank being subordinated to rank under different leaders till in the end the ,great ,high ,priest is reached4 ,for on one original principle1 which works in accordance with the ,father's will1 depend the first and second and third gradations2 and then at the extreme end of the visible world there is the blessed ordinance of angels2 and so1 even down to ourselves1 ranks below ranks are appointed1 all saving and being saved by the initiation and through the instrumentality of ,one4 ,as then the remotest particle of iron is drawn by the breath 7pneumati7 of the stone of ,heraklea the magnet extending through a long series of iron rings1 so also through the attraction of the holy spirit 7pneumati7 the virtuous are adapted to the highest #bif mansion2 and the others in their order even to the last mansion2 but they that are wicked from weakness1 having fallen into an evil habit owing to unrighteous greed1 neither keep hold themselves nor are held by another1 but collapse and fall to the ground1 being entangled in their own passions4#abj ,this last clause raises questions as to evil and freewill4 ,clement believed in freewill2 for one thing1 it was necessary if ,god was to be acquitted of the authorship of evil4 ,god made all things to be helpful for virtue1 in so far as might be without hindering the freedom of man's choice1 and showed them to be so1 in order that he who is indeed the ,one ,alone ,almighty might1 even to those who can only see darkly1 be in some way revealed as a good ,god1 a ,saviour from age to age through the instrumentality of his ,son1 and in all ways absolutely guiltless of evil4#aba ,clement also brings in the ,platonic ,idea to help to express ,christ4 ,the idea is a thought of ,god 7ennoema71 which the barbarians have called ,god's ,logos4#abb ,all the activity of the ,lord is referred to the ,almighty1 the ,son being1 so to speak1 a certain activity 7energeia7 of the ,father1#abc and a little lower he adds that the ,son is the power 7dynamis7 of the ,father4#abd ,as such he may well be above the whole universe1 or rather beyond the region of thought4#abe ,and yet1 as we have seen1 he leans to the view that the ,logos is a person--the ,great ,high ,priest4 ,in criticizing him1 it is well to remember how divergent are the conceptions which he wishes to keep1 and to keep in some kind of unity4 ,once again1 in many of ,clement's utterances upon the ,logos there is little that ,philo1 or perhaps even a pagan philosopher1 could not have approved2 but through it all there is a new note which is ,clement's own and which comes from another series of thoughts4 ,for it is a distinctive mark of ,clement's work that the reader rises from it impressed with the idea of the ,saviour4 ,the ,protrepticus is full of the thought of that divine love of men1 warm and active1 which #big ,jesus associated with your heavenly ,father1 but which ,clement1 under the stress of his philosophy must connect with the ,logos--cleansing1 saving and kindly2 most manifest ,god indeed1 made equal with the ruler of the universe4#abf ,he is our only refuge 7mone kataphyge71 the sun of resurrection1 the sun of the soul4#abg ,and yet one group of ideas1 familiar in this connection1 receives little notice from ,clement4 ,the ,logos is indeed the ,great ,high ,priest1 but the symbolism of priest and sacrifice and sin-bearer is left rather remarkably unemphasized4 ,he is the all-availing healer of mankind1#abh but his function is more to educate1 to quicken1 and to give knowledge than to expiate4 ,the great and characteristic feature of the ,logos is that he took the mask 7prosopeion7 of a man and moulded it for himself in flesh and played a part in the drama of mankind's salvation2 for he was a true player 7gnesios agonistes71 a fellow-player with the creature2 and most quickly was he spread abroad among all men1 more quickly than the sun1 when he rose from the ,father's will1 and proved whence he was and who he was by what he taught and showed1 he1 the bringer of the covenant1 the reconciler1 the ,logos our ,saviour1 the fountain of life and peace1 shed over the whole face of the earth1 by whom 7so to say7 all things have become an ocean of blessings4#abi ,though essentially and eternally free from passion 7apathes7 for our sake he took upon him our flesh with its capacity for suffering 7ten patheten sarka7#acj and descended to sensation 7aisthesis74#aca ,it is clear that none can in his lifetime clearly apprehend ,god2 but 'the pure in heart shall see ,god' when they come to the final perfection4 ,since1 then1 the soul was too weak for the perception of what is 7ton onton71 we needed a divine teacher4 ,the ,saviour is sent down to teach us how to acquire good1 and to give it to us 7choregos7--the secret and holy knowledge of the great ,providence1#acb--to show ,god to foolish men1 to end corruption1 #bih to conquer death1 to reconcile disobedient children to their ,father4444 ,the ,lord pities1 educates1 encourages1 exhorts1 saves and guards1 and as the prize of learning he promises us out of his abundance the kingdom of heaven--this alone giving him joy in us1 that we are saved4#acc ,all this was foreknown before the foundation of the world2 the ,logos was and is the divine beginning or principle of all things1 but because he has now taken the long-hallowed name1 the name worthy of his power1 the ,christ1 that is why ,i call it the new song4#acd ,and indeed he is right1 for the ,epiphany1 now shining among us1 of the ,word that was in the beginning and before it#ace is new in philosophy2 and it is a new thing also that the doctrine of a ,logos should be essentially musical4 ,the ,incarnation of the divine ,teacher is the central fact for ,clement4 ,the identification of this incarnate ,logos with ,jesus of ,nazareth was part of ,clement's inheritance1 and as usual he accepted the form which the tradition of the ,church had assumed4 ,but ,clement's theology altered the significance of ,jesus4 ,for the ,abba ,father whom ,jesus loved1 he substituted the great ,unknowable1 and then he had to bring in a figure unfamiliar to the thought of ,jesus--the ,logos1 whom he clothed with many of the attributes of the ,father of ,jesus1 and then identified with ,jesus himself4 ,not unnaturally in this combination the historic is outweighed by the theoretic element1 and indeed receives very little attention4 ,the thought of ,incarnation is to ,clement much more important than the ,personality4 ,sidenote3 ,the virgin-birth ,jesus is ,god and pedagogue1 good shepherd1 and mystic ,angel 7or messenger71 the pearl1 the great ,high ,priest1 and so forth4#acf ,in a few passages 7some of them already quoted7 ,clement speaks of the earthly life of ,jesus--of the crown of thorns1 the common ware1 and the absence of a silver foot-bath4 ,but he takes care to make it clear that ,jesus was not an ordinary man1 and that was why he did not marry and have children--this in opposition to certain #bii vain persons who held up the ,lord's example as a reason for rejecting marriage1 which they call simple prostitution and a practice introduced by the devil4#acg ,so far was ,jesus from being an ordinary man that ,clement takes pains to dissociate him from ordinary human experience4 ,to the miraculous birth he refers incidentally but in a way that leaves no mistake possible4 ,most people even now believe1 as it seems1 that ,mary ceased to be a virgin through the birth of her child1 though this was not really the case--for some say she was found by the midwife to be a virgin after her delivery4#ach ,this expansion of the traditional story is to be noted as an early illustration of the influence of dogma4 ,the episode appears in an elaborate form in the apocryphal ,gospels4#aci ,but ,clement goes further4 ,in the case of the ,saviour1 to suppose that his body required1 qua body1 the necessary attentions for its continuance1 would be laughable 7gelos74 ,for he ate--not on account of his body1 which was held together by holy power1 but that it might not occur to those who consorted with him to think otherwise of him--as indeed later on some really supposed him to have been manifested merely in appearance i4e4 the ,docetists who counted his body a phantom4 ,he himself was entirely without passion 7apathes7 and into him entered no emotional movement 7kinema pathetikon71 neither pleasure nor pain4#adj ,a fragment 7in a ,latin translation7 of a commentary of ,clement's upon the first ,epistle of ,john1 contains a curious statement3 ,it is said in the traditions that ,john touched the surface of the body of ,jesus1 and drove his hand deep into it1 and the firmness of the flesh was no obstacle but gave way to the hand of the disciple4#ada ,at the same time we read3 ,it was not idly that the ,lord chose to employ a body of mean form1 in order that no one1 while praising his comeliness #cjj and beauty1 should depart from what he said1 and in cleaving to what is left behind should be severed from the higher things of thought 7ton noeton74#adb ,it is consistent with the general scheme of ,clement's thought that the cross has but a small part in his theology4 ,it was not by the will of his ,father that the ,lord suffered1 nor are the persecuted so treated in accordance with his choice--it is rather in both cases that such things occur1 ,god not preventing them2 this alone saves at once the providence and goodness of ,god4#adc ,yet the blood of the ,lord is twofold2 there is the fleshly1 whereby we have been redeemed from corruption1 and the spiritual1 by which we have been anointed4#add ,the cross is the landmark between us and our past4#ade ,on the whole ,clement has not much to say about sin1 though of course he does not ignore it4 ,it is eternal death2#adf it is irrational2#adg it is not to be attributed to the operation 7energy7 of daemons1 as that would be to acquit the sinner1 still it makes a man like the daemons 7daimonikos74#adh ,god's punishments he holds to be curative in purpose4#adi ,he says nothing to imply the eternity of punishment1#aej and as we have seen he speaks definitely of the ,gospel being preached to the dead4 ,sidenote3 ,the vision of the true gnostic ,the ,christian religion1 according to ,clement1 begins in faith and goes on to knowledge4 ,the heavier emphasis with him always falls on knowledge1 though he maintains in a fine chapter that faith is its foundation4#aea ,the ,greeks1 he says1 consider faith an empty and barbarous thing1#aeb but he is far from such a view4 ,faith must be well-founded--if faith is such as to be destroyed by plausible talk1 let it be destroyed4#aec ,but the word left upon the reader's mind is knowledge4 ,a passage like the following is unmistakable4 ,supposing one were to offer the ,gnostic his choice1 whether he would prefer #cja the knowledge of ,god or eternal salvation1 one or the other 7though of course they are above all things an identity72 without the slightest hesitation he would choose the knowledge of ,god for its own sake4#aed ,the ideal ,christian is habitually spoken of in this way1 as the man of knowledge--the true ,gnostic1 as opposed to the heretics who illegitimately claim the title4 ,a very great deal of ,clement's writing is devoted to building up this ,gnostic1 to outlining his ideal character4 ,he is essentially man as ,god conceived him1 entering into the divine life1 and1 by the grace of the ,logos1 even becoming ,god4 ,this thought of man becoming ,god ,clement repeats very often1 and it is a mark of how far ,christianity has travelled from ,palestine4 ,it begins with the ,platonic ideal of being made like to ,god1 and the means is the knowledge of ,god or the sight of ,god given by the ,logos4 ',nought say ,i of the rest1'#aee glorifying ,god4 ,only ,i say that those ,gnostic souls are so carried away by the magnificence of the vision 7theopia7 that they cannot confine themselves within the lines of the constitution by which each holy degree is assigned and in accordance with which the blessed abodes of the gods have been marked out and allotted2 but being counted as 'holy among the holy1' and translated absolutely and entirely to another sphere1 they keep on always moving to better and yet better regions1 until they no longer greet the divine vision in mirrors or by means of mirrors1 but with loving souls feast for ever on the uncloying never-ending sight1 radiant in its transparent clearness1 while throughout the endless ages they taste a never-wearying delight1 and thus continue1 all alike honoured with an identity of pre-eminence4 ,this is the apprehensive vision of the pure in heart4 ,this1 then1 is the work 7energeia7 of the perfected ,gnostic--to hold communion with ,god through the ,great ,high ,christ being made like the ,lord as far as may be4 ,yes1 and in this process of becoming like ,god the ,gnostic creates and fashions himself anew1 and adorns those that hear him4#aef ,in an interesting chapter ,clement discusses abstraction from material things as a necessary #cjb condition for attaining the knowledge of ,god2 we must cast ourselves into the greatness of ,christ and thence go forward4#aeg ,if a man know himself1 he shall know ,god1 and knowing ,god shall be made like to him4444 ,the man with whom the ,logos dwells 444 is made like to ,god 444 and that man becomes ,god1 for ,god wishes it4#aeh ,by being deified into ,apathy 7apatheian7 a man becomes ,monadic without stain4#aei ,as ,homer makes men poets1 ,crobylus cooks1 and ,plato philosophers2 so he who obeys the ,lord and follows the prophecy given through him1 is fully perfected after the likeness of his ,teacher1 and thus becomes a god while still moving about in the flesh4#afj ,dwelling with the ,lord1 talking with him and sharing his hearth1 he will abide according to the spirit1 pure in flesh1 pure in heart1 sanctified in word4 ',the world to him1' it says1 'is crucified and he to the world4' ,he carries the cross of the ,saviour and follows the ,lord 'in his footsteps as of a god1' and is become holy of the holy4#afa ,we seem to touch the world of daily life1 when after all the beatific visions we see the cross again4 ,clement has abundance of suggestion for ,christian society in ,alexandria1 and it is surprising how simple1 natural and wise is his attitude to the daily round and common task4 ,men and women alike may philosophize1 for their virtue 7in ,aristotle's phrase7 is the same--so may the slave1 the ignorant and the child4#afb ,the ,christian life is not to eradicate the natural but to control it4#afc ,marriage is a state of ,god's appointing--,clement is no ,jerome4 ,nature made us to marry and the childless man falls short of the perfection of ,nature4#afd ,men must marry for their country's sake and for the completeness of the universe4#afe ,true manhood is not proved by celibacy--the married man may fall short of the other as regards his personal salvation1 but he has #cjc the advantage in the conduct of life inasmuch as he really preserves a faint 7oligen7 image of the true ,providence4#aff ,the heathen1 it is true1 may expose their own children and keep parrots1 but the begetting and upbringing of children is a part of the married ,christian life4#afg ,who are the two or three gathering in the name of ,christ1 among whom the ,lord is in the midst8 ,does he not mean man1 wife and child by the three1 seeing woman is made to match man by ,god4#afh ,the real fact about the ,christian life is simply this1 that the ,new ,song turns wild beasts into men of ,god4#afi ,sail past the siren's song1 it works death1 says ,clement1 if only thou wilt1 thou hast overcome destruction2 lashed to the wood thou shalt be loosed from ruin2 the ,word of ,god will steer thee and the holy spirit will moor thee to the havens of heaven4#agj ,to the early ,christian the wood always meant the cross of ,jesus4 ,the new life is doing good for love's sake1#aga and he who shows pity ought not to know that he is doing it4444 ,when he does good by instinctive habit 7en hexei7 then he will be imitating the nature of good4#agb ,god breathed into man and there has always been something charming in a man since then 7philtron74#agc ,so the new people are always happy1 always in the full bloom of thought1 always at spring-time4#agd ,the ,church is the one thing in the world that always rejoices4#age ,clement's theology is composite rather than organic--a structure of materials old and new1 hardly fit for the open air1 the wind and the rain4 ,but his faith is another thing--it rests upon the living personality of the ,saviour1 the love of ,god and the significance of the individual soul1 and it has the stamp of such faith in all the ages--joy and peace in believing4 ,it has lasted because it lived4 ,if ,christianity had depended on the #cjd ,logos1 it would have followed the ,logos to the limbo whither went ,a,eon and ,aporrhoia and ,spermaticos ,logos4 ,but that the ,logos has not perished is due to the one fact that with the ,cross it has been borne through the ages on the shoulders of ,jesus4 ,chapter ,,ix ,footnotes3 #a ,see the letter of ,hadrian quoted by ,vopiscus1 ,saturninus1 #h 7,script4 ,hist4 ,aug474 #b ,paedag4 ii1 #b2 #ac2 #ad4 #c ,paed4 ii1 #bj1 #b1 #c4 #d ,paed4 ii1 #cb1 #b4 #e ,paed4 ii1 #ch1 #a-c4 #f ,paed4 ii1 #de-fj4 #g ,paed4 ii1 #fa-gc2 ,tertullian1 de corona militis1 #e1 flowers on the head are against nature1 etc42 ib4 #aj1 on the paganism of the practice2 ib4 #ac 7end71 a list of the heathen gods honoured if a ,christian hang a crown on his door4 #h ,paed4 ii1 #abi1 #c2 iii1 #ef1 #c2 ,tertullian ironically1 de cultu fem4 ii1 #aj1 scrupulosa deus et auribus vulnera intulit4 #i iii1 #d1 #b4 ,cf4 ,erman1 ,handbook of ,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #bb3 ,in the temple of ,sobk there was a tank containing a crocodile1 a cat dwelt in the temple of ,bast4 ,the simile also in ,lucian1 ,imag4 #aa1 and used by ,celsus ap4 ,orig4 c4 ,cels4 iii1 #ag4 #aj iii1 #fd1 #b4 #aa iii1 #gi1 #e4 #ab iii1 #ej4 #ac iii1 #ei1 #b4 #ad ii1 #fj1 #fa4 #ae iii1 #ib4 ,cf41 in general1 ,tertullian1 de ,cultu ,feminarum4 #af ,euseb4 ,e4,h4 v1 #aj4 #ag ,euseb4 ,e4,h4 vi1 #aa1 #f2 vi1 #ad1 #h4 #ah ,euseb4 ,e4,h4 vi1 #f2 see de ,faye1 ,clement d',alexandrie1 pp4 #ag to #bg1 for the few facts of his life--a book ,i have used and shall quote with satisfaction4 #ai ,epiphanius1 ,haer4 ,i1 ii1 #bf1 p4 #bac2 de ,faye1 ,clement d',alexandrie1 p4 #ag1 quoting ,zahn4 #bj ,euseb4 ,praepar4 ,ev4 ii1 #b1 #fd4 ,klemes 444 panton men dia peiras elthon aner1 thatton ge men planes ananeusas1 hos an pros tou soteriou logou kai dia tes euaggelikes didaskalias ton kakon lelutromenos4 #ba ,paed4 i1 #a1 #a4 #bb ,strom4 i1 #dh1 #a2 ii1 #c1 #a4 #bc ,strom4 vii4 #aaa4 ,such hills are described in ,greek novels2 cf4 ,a,elian1 ,varia ,historia1 xiii1 #a1 ,atalanta's bower4 #bd ,one may perhaps compare the admiration of the contemporary ,pausanias for earlier rather than later art2 cf4 ,frazer1 ,pausanias and other ,sketches1 p4 #ib4 #be ,strom4 i1 #bb1 #e4 #bf ,strom4 i1 #cg1 #f2 and vi1 #ee1 #c4 #bg ,strom4 i1 #bi1 #aj 7the phrase is ,philo's72 ,truth in fact has been divided by the philosophic schools1 as ,pentheus was by the ,maenads1 ,strom1 i1 #eg4 ,cf4 ,milton1 ,areopagitica4 #bh ,protr4 #abj1 #a2 o ton hagion hos alethos mysterion1 o phooos akeratou4 dadouchoumai tous ouranous kai ton theon epopteusai1 hagios ginomai muoumenos1 hierophantei de ho kyrios kai ton musten sphragizetai photagogon4 ,strange as the technical terms seem to-day1 yet when ,clement wrote1 they suggested religious emotion1 and would have seemed less strange than the terms modern times have kept from the ,greek--bishop1 deacon1 liturgy1 diocese1 etc4 #bi ,strom4 iv1 #afb1 #c4 #cj ,strom4 i1 #ga1 #d4 ,the ,brahmans also in iii1 #fj4 #ca ,strom4 v1 #bj1 #c2 #ca1 #e2 etc4 #cb ,strom4 vi1 ch4 iv1 ,sec4 #ce f4 #cc ,origen1 c4 ,cels4 i1 #b4 ,celsus' words3 hikanous ehurein dogmata tous barbarous1 and then krinai de kai bebaiosasthai kai askesai pros areten ta hypo barbaron ehurethenta ameinones eisin hellenes4 ,pausanias1 iv1 #cb1 #d1 ego de ,chaldaious kai ,indon tous magous protous oida eipontas hos athanatos estin anthrotou phyche4 kai sphisi kai ,hellenon alloi te epeisthesan kai ouch hekista ,platon ho ,aristonos4 #cd ,euseb4 ,e4,h4 vi1 #ac4 #ce ,strom4 i1 #aa4 ,the quotation is roughly from ,homer1 ,od4 ii1 #bgf4 #cf ,strom4 i1 #dc1 i4 ,some who count themselves euphueis1 monen kai psilen ten pistin apaitousi4 #cg ,strom4 i1 #de1 #f1 oi orthodoxastai4 #ch ,strom4 vii1 #ee4 #ci ,paedag4 i1 #bf2 #bg4 ,perhaps for he saith1 we should read it saith1 viz4 ,scripture4 #dj ,strom4 v1 #i4 #da ,strom4 #dc1 #c-dd1 #b4 #db ,paed4 i1 #ad1 #b2 #ai4 ,cf4 ,blake's poem4 #dc ,paed4 i1 #bb1 #c4 #dd ,marcus ,aurelius1 xi1 #c4 ,he may have had in mind some who courted martyrdom4 #de ,euseb4 ,e4,h4 v1 #bh1 quotes a document dealing with men who study ,euclid1 ,aristotle and ,theophrastus1 and all but worship ,galen1 and have corrected the ,scriptures4 ,for the view of ,tertullian on this1 see p4 #ccg4 #df ,strom4 i1 #ah1 #b4 #dg ,strom4 vi1 #hj1 #e4 #dh ,strom4 vi1 #afb1 #e4 #di ,strom4 i1 #ai1 #b4 psile te peri ton dogmatisthenton autois chromenous phrasei1 ue synembainontas eis ten kata meros achri syggnoseos ekkalypsin4 #ej ,strom4 vi1 #ei1 #a4 ,the exact rendering of the last clause is doubtful2 the sense fairly clear4 #ea ,strom4 i1 #ig1 #a-d4 #eb ,spherical astronomy4 ,a curious passage on this at the beginning of ,lucan's ,pharsalia1 vii4 #ec ,strom4 vi1 #ic1 #id4 ,the line comes from a play of ,sophocles1 fr4 #fie4 ,it may be noted that ,clement has a good many such fragments1 and the presence of some very doubtful ones among them1 which are also quoted in the same way by other ,christian writers 7e4g4 in ,strom1 v1 #aaa-aac71 raises the possibility of his borrowing other men's quotations to something near certainty4 ,probably they all used books of extracts4 ,see ,justin1 ,coh4 ad4 ,gent4 #ah2 ,athenagoras1 ,presb4 #e1 #bd4 #ed ,strom4 vi1 #aeb1 #c-aed1 #a4 ,cf4 ,strom4 iv1 #afg1 #d1 the soul is not sent from heaven hither for the worse1 for ,god energizes all things for the better4--,if the ,english in some of these passages is involved and obscure1 it perhaps gives the better impression of the ,greek4 #ee ,cf4 ,iliad1 #c1 #bgg4 #ef ,we may note his fondness for the old idea of ,plato that man is an phyton ouranion and has an emphytos archaia pros ouranon koinonia4 ,cf4 ,protr4 #be1 #c2 #ajj1 #c4 #eg ,strom4 vi1 #aef1 #c-aeg1 #e4 #eh ,strom4 vi1 #aei4 ,cf4 vi1 #eg1 #eh1 where he asks ,who was the original teacher1 and answers that it is the ,first-born1 the ,wisdom4 #ei ,strom4 i1 #bh1 kata proegoumenon and kat epakolouthema4 ,see de ,faye1 p4 #afh1 #afi4 ,note ref4 to ,paul1 ,galat4 #c1 #bd4 #fj ,strom4 vi1 #fg1 #a4 #fa ,strom4 vi1 #db1 #a4 #fb ,strom4 i1 #ii1 #c4 #fc ,strom4 vi1 #dd1 #a4 #fd ,strom4 vi1 #dd1 #d4 #fe ,strom4 vi1 #de-g2 ,cf4 ,strom4 ii1 #dd1 citing ,hermas1 ,sim4 ix1 #af1 #e-g4 ,a curious discussion follows 7in ,strom4 vi1 #de-eb7 on the object of the ,saviour's descent into ,hades1 and the necessity for the ,gospel to be preached in the grave to those who in life had no chance of hearing it4 ,could he have done anything else8 7,sec4 #ea74 #ff ,strom4 vi1 #aaj1 #aaa2 ,deuteronomy #d1 #ai1 does not bear him out--neither in ,greek nor in ,english4 #fg ,strom4 i1 #aje and #ajh4 ,cf4 ,tert4 adv4 ,marc4 ii1 #ag1 sed ante ,lycurgos et ,salonas omnes ,moyses et deus2 de anima1 #bh1 mutio antiquior ,moyses etiam ,saturno nongentis circiter annis2 cf4 ,apol4 #ai4 #fh ,for the ,scripture parallels see ,strom4 v1 #ij-ajg4 ,for ,euripides and other inter-,hellenic plagiarisms1 ,strom4 vi1 #bd4 #fi ,strom4 vii1 #f4 #gj ,strom4 v1 #aj1 #b4 ,see an amusing page in ,lecky1 ,european ,morals1 i1 #cdd4 #ga ,strom4 i1 #id1 #a2 kata periptosin2 kata syntychian2 physiken ennoian2 koinon noun4 #gb ,strom4 v1 #aj2 i1 #ah2 #hf2 #id4 #gc ,strom4 i1 #ha1 #a2 ,john #aj1 #h4 #gd ,strom4 vi1 #ff2 #aei4 #ge ,strom4 vi1 #fg1 #b4 #gf ,odyssey1 iv1 #bba1 ,cowper's translation4 #gg ,protr4 #a-c4 #gh ,ibid4 #e2 #f4 #gi ,protr4 #h1 #d1 logos ho tou theou anthropos genomenos hina de kai su para anthropou mathes1 pe pote ara anthropos gentai theos4 #hj ,protr4 #be1 #c2 ref4 to ,euripides1 fr4 #ice1 and ,troades1 #hhd4 ,the latter 7not quite correctly quoted by ,clement7 is one of the poet's finest and profoundest utterances4 #ha ,protr4 #ef1 #f4 #hb ,ibid4 #fc1 #e4 #hc ,protr4 #ff1 #c4 #hd ,ibid4 #ff1 #e4 #he ,ibid4 #fh1 #a4 #hf ,protr4 #gj1 #a2 in ,strom4 i1 #aej1 #d1 he quotes a description of ,plato as ,mouses attikixon4 ,cf4 ,tertullian1 ,apol4 #dg4 #hg ,protr4 #gf4 ,he quotes ,orestes1 #eia f42 ,alcestis1 #gfj2 and concludes 7anticipating ,dr ,verrall7 that in the ,ion gymne te kephale ekkuklei to theatro tous theous1 quoting ,ion1 #ddb-ddg4 #hh ,protr4 #hb1 #a4 #hi ,ibid4 #hd1 #b4 #ij ,ibid4 #he1 #d4 #ia ,ibid4 #hf1 #a4 #ib ,protr4 #hf1 #b4 ,the reference is to ,odyssey1 i1 #eg4 ,one feels that1 with more justice to ,odysseus1 more might have been made of his craving for a sight of the smoke of his island home4 #ic ,protr4 #hh1 #b1 #c4 #id ,elsewhere1 he says ,god is beyond the ,monad1 ,paed4 i1 #ga1 #a1 epekein tou henos kai hyper auten ten monada4 ,see p4 #bij4 #ie ,protr4 #id1 #a1 #b4 ,on ,god making the ,christian his child1 cf4 ,tert4 adv4 ,marc4 iv1 #ag4 #if ,protr4 #ajj1 #c1 #d4 #ig ,ibid4 #ajg1 #a4 #ih ,ibid4 #ajh1 #e4 #ii ,protr4 #aaf1 #a1 hypsos 7height7 is the word used in literature for sublimity1 and that may be the thought here4 ,cf4 ,tert4 de ,bapt4 #b1 simplicitas divinorum operum 444 et magnificentia4 ,see p4 #cbh4 #ajj ,protr4 #aag1 #d4 #aja ,strom4 ii1 #i1 #f4 #ajb ,ibid4 vii1 #di4 #ajc ,psalm #fc1 #a4 #ajd ,see ,caird1 ,evolution of ,theology in the ,greek ,philosophers1 ii1 pp4 #ahc ff2 de ,faye1 ,clement1 pp4 #bca-h4 #aje ,paed4 i1 #ga1 #a2 cf4 ,philo1 ,leg4 ,alleg4 ii1 ,sec4 #a1 #fg ,m4 tattetai oun ho theos kata to en kai ten monada1 mallon de kai he monas kata ton hena theon4 ,cf4 de ,faye1 p4 #bah4 #ajf ,expressions taken from ,aristotle1 ,anal4 ,post4 i1 #b1 p4 #ga b1 #bj4 #ajg ,strom4 v1 #ha1 #e-hb1 #c4 #ajh ,strom4 ii1 #gd1 #a-ge1 #b2 cf4 ,plutarch1 de def4 or4 #dad ,f1 #daf ,f 7quoted on p4 #ig71 on involving ,god inhuman affairs2 and also adv4 ,sto4 #cc1 and de ,sto4 repugn4 #cc1 #cd1 on the ,stoic doctrine making ,god responsible for human sin4 ,cf4 further statements in the same vein in ,strom4 ii1 #f1 #a2 v #ga1 #e2 vii1 #b4 #aji ,strom4 v4 #fe1 #b4 #aaj ,strom4 ii1 #gb1 #a-d4 #aaa ,strom4 iv1 #aea1 #a4 #aab ,see ,strom4 ii1 #ajc1 #a2 iv1 #ach1 #a2 vi1 #ga-gc2 ,paed4 i1 #d1 #a4 #aac ,strom4 vii1 #cg1 ,mayor's translation4 ,the expressions are said to go back to ,xenophanes 7cited by ,sext4 ,empir4 ix1 #add7 oulos gar hora1 oulos de noei1 oulos de t' akouei4 ,cf4 ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 ii1 #g1 #ad1 quisquis est deus1 si modo est alius1 et quacumque in parte1 totus est sensuus1 totus visuus1 totus audituus1 totus animae1 totus animae1 totus sui4 #aad ,cf4 ,strom4 ii1 #cj1 #a1 ei gar anthropinon en to epitedeuma1 hos ,hellenes epelabon1 kan apesbe4 he de auxei 7sc4 he pistis74 ,protr4 #aaj1 #a1 ou gar an outos en oligo chrono tosouton ergon aneu theias komides exenusen ho kurios4 #aae ,strom4 vii1 #e1 ,j4 ,b4 ,mayor's translation4 #aaf ,paed4 i1 #f1 #f1 to de soma kallei kai eurythmia synekerasato4 #aag ,phrases mostly from ,strom1 vii1 #f-i4 ennoian enestachtai theou4 ,see criticism of ,celsus1 p4 #bdd4 #aah ,paed4 iii1 #ii1 #b-ajj1 #a4 ,the quotation is from ,homer's description of ,hephaistos making the shield for ,achilles1 ,il4 #ah1 #dhc4 #aai ,all parts of the universe4 #abj ,strom4 vii1 #i4 ,mayor's translation1 modified to keep the double use of pneuma4 ,for the magnet see ,plato1 ,ion4 #ecc ,d1 ,e4 #aba ,strom4 vii1 #ab4 #abb ,strom4 v1 #af1 #c 7no article with ,logos74 #abc ,strom4 vii1 #g #abd ,strom4 vii1 #i4 #abe ,strom4 v1 #ch1 #f1 ho kurios hyperano tou kosmon1 mallon de epekeino tou noetou4 #abf ,protr4 #aaj1 #a4 #abg ,protr4 #fc1 #e2 #hd1 #b2 #fh1 #d4 #abh ,paed4 i1 #f1 #b1 olou kedetai tou plasmatos1 kai soma kai psychen akeitai autou no panarkes tes anthropotetos iatros4 #abi ,protr4 #aaj1 #b1 #c4 ,cf4 also ,paed4 i1 #d1 #a-b4 #acj ,strom4 vii1 #f4 ,cf4 ,paed4 i1 #d1 #b4 apolutos eis to panteles anthropinon pathon4 #aca ,strom4 v1 #dj1 #c4 #acb ,strom4 v1 #g1 #g-h4 #acc ,protr4 #f1 #a-b1 touto monon apolauon hemon ho sozometha4 #acd ,protr4 #f1 #e4 #ace ,protr4 #g1 #c4 #acf ,the references are 7in order7 ,paed4 i1 #ee2 i1 #ec1 #b2 i1 #ei1 #a2 ii1 #aah1 #e2 ,protr4 #abj1 #b4 #acg ,strom4 iii1 #di1 #a-c1 oude anthropos en koinos4 #ach ,strom4 vii1 #ic4 #aci ,see ,protevangelium ,jacobi1 #ai1 #bj 7in ,tischendorf's ,evangelia ,apocrypha1 p4 #cf71 a work quoted in the #dth century by ,gregory of ,nyssa1 and possibly the source of this statement of ,clement's4 ,tischendorf thinks it may also have been known to ,justin4 ,see also pseudo-,matthei evangelium1 #ac 7,tischendorf1 p4 #ge71 known to ,st ,jerome4 #adj ,strom4 vi1 #ga1 #b4 ,a strange opinion of ,valentinus about ,jesus eating may be compared1 which ,clement quotes without dissent in ,strom4 iii1 #ei1 #c4 ,see p4 #bdi1 n4 #d4 #ada ,printed in ,dindorf's edition1 vol4 iii1 p4 #dhe4 #adb ,strom4 vi1 #aea1 #c4 ,cf4 ,celsus1 p4 #bdi1 and ,tert4 de carne ,christi1 #i1 ,adeo nec humanae honestatis corpus fuit2 ,tertullian however is far from any such fancies as to ,christ's body not being quite human1 see p4 #cdj4 #adc ,strom4 iv1 #hf1 #b1 #c2 contrast ,tertullian's attitude in de ,fuga in ,persecutione1 etc4 #add ,paed4 #ai1 #d4 #ade ,paed4 iii1 #he1 #c4 #adf ,protr4 #aae1 #b4 #adg ,paed4 i1 ch4 #ac4 #adh ,strom4 vi1 #ih1 #a4 #adi ,cf4 ,strom4 i1 #agc2 iv1 #aec1 #b2 ,paed4 i1 #gj1 he gar kolasis ep' agatho kai ep' opheleia tou kolazomenon4 #aej ,cf4 ,j4 ,b4 ,mayor1 ,pref4 to ,stromateis1 vii1 p4 xl4 #aea ,strom4 ii1 ch4 #d4 ,cf4 ii1 #dh4 #aeb ,strom4 ii1 #h1 #d4 #aec ,strom4 vi1 #ha1 #a4 #aed ,strom4 iv1 #acf1 #e4 #aee ,from ,a,esch4 ,agam4 #cf4 #aef ,strom4 vii1 #ac4 7,mayor's translation in the main74 ,cf4 ,protr4 #hf1 #b1 theosebeia exomoiousa to theo2 ,paed4 #a1 #ii1 #a2 ,strom4 vi1 #ajd1 #b4 #aeg ,strom4 v1 #ga1 #c4 #aeh ,paed4 iii1 #a1 #a1 and #e4 #aei ,strom4 iv1 #aeb1 #a4 #afj ,strom4 vii1 #aja4 #afa ,strom4 ii1 #ajd1 #b1 #c1 with reff4 to ,paul ,gal4 #f1 #ad2 and ,odyssey1 #b1 #djf4 ,other passages in which the notion occurs are ,strom4 iv1 #adi1 #h2 vii1 #ef1 #hb4 ,augustine has the thought--all the ,fathers1 indeed1 according to ,harnack4 ,see ,mayor's note on ,strom4 vii1 #c4 ,it also comes in the ,theologia ,germanica4 #afb ,strom4 iv4 #fb1 #d2 #eh1 #c2 the arete in ,paed4 i1 #aj1 #a4 #afc ,paed4 ii1 #df1 #a4 #afd ,strom4 ii1 #aci1 #e4 #afe ,strom4 ii1 #adj1 #a1 a very remarkable utterance4 #aff ,strom4 vii1 #gj1 end4 #afg ,paed4 ii1 #hc1 #a1 tois de bebamekosi skopos he paidopoiia1 telos de he euteknia4 ,cf4 ,tertullian1 adv4 ,marc4 iv1 #ag1 on the impropriety of ,god calling us children if we suppose that he nobis filios facere non permisit auferendo connubium4 ,the opposite view1 for purposes of argument perhaps1 in de exh4 castitatis1 #ab1 where he ridicules the idea of producing children for the sake of the state4 #afh ,strom4 iii1 #fh1 #a4 #afi ,protr4 #d1 #c4 #agj ,protr4 #aah1 #d4 #aga ,strom4 iv1 #ace1 #d4 #agb ,strom4 iv1 #ach1 #b1 #c4 #agc ,paed4 i1 #g1 #b4 #agd ,paed4 i1 #bj1 #c1 #d4 #age ,paed4 i1 #bb1 #b1 mone pute eis tous aionas menei chairous aei4 #cje ,,chapter ,x ,,tertullian ,in his most famous chapter ,gibbon speaks at one point of the affirmation of the early church that those who persisted in the worship of the daemons neither deserved nor could expect a pardon from the irritated justice of the ,deity4 ,oppressed in this world by the power of the ,pagans1 ,christians were sometimes seduced by resentment and spiritual pride to delight in the prospect of their future triumph4 ',you are fond of spectacles1' exclaims the stern ,tertullian1 'expect the greatest of all spectacles1 the last and eternal judgment of the universe4 ,how shall ,i admire1 how laugh1 how rejoice1 how exult1 when ,i behold so many proud monarchs1 and fancied gods1 groaning in the lowest abyss of darkness2 so many magistrates1 who persecuted the name of the ,lord1 liquefying in fiercer fires than they ever kindled against the ,christians2 so many sage philosophers blushing in red-hot flames with their deluded scholars2 so many celebrated poets trembling before the tribunal1 not of ,minos1 but of ,christ2 so many tragedians more tuneful in the expression of their own sufferings2 so many dancers----' ,but the humanity of the reader will permit me to draw a veil over the rest of this infernal description1 which the zealous ,african pursues in a long variety of affected and unfeeling witticisms4#a ,the passage is a magnificent example of ,gibbon's style and method1--more useful1 however1 as an index to the mind of ,gibbon than to that of ,tertullian4 ,he has abridged his translation1 and in one or two clauses he has missed ,tertullian's points2 finally he has drawn his veil over the rest of the infernal description exactly when he knew there was little or nothing more to be quoted that would serve his purpose4 ,he has made no attempt to understand the man he quotes1 nor the #cjf mood in which he spoke1 nor the circumstances which gave rise to that mood4 ,yet on the evidence of this passage and a sonnet of ,matthew ,arnold's1 ,english readers pass a swift judgment on the stern ,tertullian and his unpitying ,phrygian sect4 ,but to the historian of human thought1 and to the student of human character1 there are few figures of more significance in ,latin literature4 ,of the men who moulded ,western ,christendom few have stamped themselves and their ideas upon it with anything approaching the clearness and the effect of ,tertullian4 ,he first turned the currents of ,christian thought in the ,west into channels in which they have never yet ceased to flow and will probably long continue to flow4 ,he was the first ,latin churchman1 and his genius helped to shape ,latin ,christianity4 ,he1 too1 was the first great ,puritan of the ,west1 precursor alike of ,augustine and of the ,reformation4 ,the ,catholic ,church left him unread throughout the ,middle ,ages1 but at the ,renaissance he began once more to be studied1 and simultaneously there also began the great movement for the purification of the church and the deepening of ,christian life1 which were the causes to which he had given himself and his genius4 ,such a man may be open to criticism on many sides4 ,he may be permanently or fitfully wrong in thought or speech or conduct2 but it is clear that an influence so great rests upon something more profound than irritability however brilliant in expression4 ,there must be somewhere in the man something that corresponds with the enduring thoughts of mankind--something that engages the mind or that wins the friendship of men--something that is true and valid4 ,and this1 whatever it is1 is the outcome of many confluent elements--of temperament1 environment and experience1 perhaps1 in chief4 ,the man must be seen as his personal friends saw him and as his enemies saw him2 what is more1 they--both sets of them--must be seen as he saw them4 ,the critic must himself1 by dint of study and imagination1 be played upon by as many of the factors of the man's experience as he can re-capture4 ,impressions1 pleasures1 doubts1 hopes1 convictions1 friendships1 inspirations--everything that goes to shape a man is relevant to that study of character without which1 in the case of #cjg formative men1 history itself becomes pedantry and illusion4 ,particularly in the case of such a man as ,tertullian is it needful to repeat this caution4 ,the impetuous dogmatism in which his mind and1 quite as often1 his mood express themselves1 and his hard words1 harder a great deal than his heart1 no less than his impulsive convictions1 seem1 as ,gibbon put it1 to offend the reason and the humanity of the present age4 ,on the other side1 the church1 which the historian in a footnote saddles with the responsibility of sharing ,tertullian's most harsh beliefs1 is at one with the present age in repudiating him on grounds of her own4 ,yet1 questioned or condemned1 ,tertullian played his part1 and that no little one1 in the conflict of religions2 he stood for truth as he saw it1 and wrote and spoke with little thought of the praise or blame of his contemporaries or of posterity--all that he had abandoned once for all1 when he made the great choice of his life4 ,questioned or condemned1 he is representative1 and he is individual1 the first man of genius of the ,latin race to follow ,jesus ,christ1 and to re-set his ideas in the language native to that race4 ,sidenote3 ,carthage ,tertullian was born about the middle of the second century ,a4,d4 at ,carthage1 or in its neighbourhood4 ,the city at all events is the scene of his life--a great city with a great history4 ,tyre in ,africa is one of his phrases for ,carthage and her sister-cities1 and he quotes ,virgil's description of ,dido's town studiis asperrima belli4#b ,but his ,carthage was not that of ,dido and ,hannibal4 ,it was the re-founded city of ,julius ,caesar1 now itself two hundred years old--a place with a character of its own familiar to the reader of ,apuleius and of ,augustine's ,confessions1--a character confirmed by the references of ,tertullian to its amusements and its daily sights4 ,what sea-captain is there that does not carry his mirth even to the point of shame8 ,every day we see the frolics in which sailors take their pleasure4#c ,scholars have played with the fancy that they could trace in ,tertullian's work the influence of some ,semitic strain1 as others with equal reason have found #cjh traces of the ,celt in ,virgil and ,livy4 ,tertullian himself has perhaps even fewer references to ,punic speech and people than ,apuleius1 while1 like ,apuleius1 he wrote in both ,greek and ,latin1#d and it is possible that1 like ,apuleius1 and ,perpetua the martyr1 he spoke both4 ,jerome tells us that ,tertullian was the son of a centurion4#e ,he tells us himself1 incidentally and by implication1 that he was the child of heathen parents4 ,idolatry1 he says1 is the midwife that brings all men into the world2 and he gives a very curious picture of the pagan ceremonies that went with child-birth1 the fillet on the mother's womb1 the cries to ,lucina1 the table spread for ,juno1 the horoscope1 and finally the dedication of a hair of the child1 or of all his hair together1 as the rites of clan or family may require4#f ,thus from the very first the boy is dedicated to a genius1 and to the evil he inherits through the transmission of his bodily nature is added the influence of a false daemon--though there still is good innate in the soul1 the archetypal good1 divine and germane1 essentially natural2 for what comes from ,god is not so much extinguished as overshadowed4#g ,the children of ,christian parents have so far1 he indicates1 a better beginning2 they are holy in virtue of their stock and of their upbringing4#h ,with himself it had not been so4 ,it is curious to find the great controversialist of later days recalling nursery tales1 how amid the difficulties of sleep one heard from one's nurse about the witch's towers and the combs of the sun--recalling too the children's witticisms about the apples that grow in the sea and the fishes that grow on the tree4#i ,they come back into his mind as he thinks of the speculations of ,valentinus and his followers4 ,sidenote3 ,his training ,his education was that of his day1--lavish rhetoric1 and knowledge of that very wide character which in all his contemporaries is perhaps too suggestive of manual and #cji cyclopaedia#aj--works never so abundant in antiquity as then4 ,but he was well taught1 as a brilliant boy deserved1 and his range of interests is remarkable4 ,nor is he overwhelmed by miscellaneous erudition1 like ,aulus ,gellius for instance1 or like ,clement of ,alexandria1 to come to a man more on his own level4 ,he is master of the great literature of ,rome2 he has read the historians and ,cicero2 he can quote ,virgil with telling effect4 ,usque adeone mori miserum est8 he asks of the ,christian who hesitates to be martyred2#aa a hint from the world he says4 ,sooner or later1 he read ,varro's books1 the armoury of every ,latin ,christian against polytheism4 ,he looked into medicine1 he tells us1 and a good many passages in his treatises remind us of the fact4#ab ,it may help to explain an explicitness in the use of terms more usual in the physician perhaps than in the layman4 ,but his career lay not in medicine but in law1 and he caught the spirit of his profession4 ,it has been debated whether the ,tertullian1 whose treatise de castrensi peculio is quoted in the ,digest1 is the apologist or another1 but no legal treatises are needed to convince the reader how thoroughly a lawyer was the author of the theological works4 ,he has every art and every artifice of his trade4 ,he can reason quietly and soundly1 he can declaim1 he can do both together4 ,he is a master of logic1 delighting in huge chains of alternatives4 ,he can quibble and wrest the obvious meaning of a document to perfection1 browbeat an opponent1 argue ad hominem1#ac evade a clear issue1 and anticipate and escape an obvious objection1 as well as any lawyer that ever practised4 ,again and again he impresses us as a special pleader1 and we feel that he is forcing us away from the evidence of our own sense and intelligence to a conclusion which he prefers on other grounds4 ,his #caj epigrams rival ,tacitus1 and there is even in his rhetoric a conviction and a passion which ,cicero never reaches4 ,the suddenness of his questions1 and the amazing readiness of his jests1 savage1 subtle1 ironic1 good-natured1 brilliant or commonplace1#ad impress the reader again and again1 however well he knows him4 ,yet ,tertullian never loses sight of his object1 whatever the flights of rhetoric or humour on which he ventures4 ,in one case1 he plainly says that his end will best be achieved by ridicule4 ,put it down1 reader1 as a sham fight before the battle4 ,i will show how to deal wounds1 but ,i will not deal them4 ,if there shall be laughter1 the matter itself shall be the apology4 ,there are many things that deserve so to be refuted2 gravity would be too high a compliment4 ,vanity and mirth may go together4 ,yes1 and it becomes ,truth to laugh1 because she is glad1 to play with her rivals1 because she is free from fear4#ae ,then1 with a caution as to becoming laughter1 he launches into his most amusing book--that against the ,valentinians4 ,sidenote3 ,his style ,tertullian rivals ,apuleius in brilliant mastery of the elaborate and artificial rhetoric of the day4 ,he has the same tricks of rhyming clauses and balancing phrases4 ,thus3 attente custoditur quod tarde invenitur2#af or more fully3 spiritus enim dominatur1 caro famulatur2 tamen utrumque inter se communicant reatum1 spiritus ob imperium1 caro ob ministerium4#ag ,here the vanities of his pagan training subserve true thought4 ,elsewhere they are more playful1 as when he suggests to those1 who like the pagans took off their cloaks to pray1 that ,god heard the three saints in the fiery furnace of the ,babylonian king though they prayed cum sarabaris et tiaris suis--in turbans and trousers4#ah ,but when he gives us such a string of phrases as aut ,platonis honor1 aut ,zenonis vigor1 aut ,aristotelis tenor1 aut ,epicuri stupor1 aut ,heracliti moeror1 aut ,empedoclis furor1#ai one feels that he is for the moment little better than one of the wicked4 ,at the beginning of his tract on ,baptism1 after speaking #caa of water he pulls himself up abruptly--he is afraid1 he says1 that the reader may fancy he is composing laudes aquae 7in the manner of rhetorical adoxography7 rather than discussing the principles of baptism4#bj ,his tract de ,pallio is frankly a humorous excursion into old methods1 in which the elderly ,montanist1 who has left off wearing the toga1 justifies himself for his highly conservative and entirely suitable conduct in adopting the pallium4 ,the stern ,tertullian appears here in the character that his pagan friends had long ago known1 and that his ,christian readers might feel somewhere or other in everything that he writes4 ,there is a good-tempered playfulness about the piece1 a fund of splendid nonsense1 which suggest the fellow-citizen of ,apuleius rather than the presbyter4#ba ,but earnestness1 which is not incompatible with humour1 is his strong characteristic1 and when it arms itself with an irony so powerful as that of ,tertullian1 the result is amazing4 ,sometimes he exceeds all bounds1 as when in his ,ad ,nationes he turns that irony upon the horrible charges1 which the pagans1 knowing them to be false1 bring against the ,christians1 while he1 pretending for the moment that they are true1 invites his antagonists to think them out to their consequences and to act upon them4#bb ,or again take the speech of ,christ on the judgment day1 in which the ,lord is pictured as saying that he had indeed entrusted the ,gospel once for all to the ,apostles1 but had thought better of it and made some changes--as of course1 ,tertullian suggests1 he really would have to say1 if it could be supposed that the latest heretics were right after all4#bc ,but1 whatever be said or thought of the rhetoric1 playful or earnest1 it has another character than it wears in his contemporaries4 ,for here was a far more powerful brain1 strong1 clear and well-trained1 and a heart whose tenderness and sensibility have never had justice4 ,in some ways he very much suggests ,thomas ,carlyle--he has the same passion1 the same vivid imagination and keen sensibility1 the same earnestness and the same loyalty to truth as he sees it regardless of #cab consequence and compromise1--and alas6 the same natural faculty for being in a hurry1 which ,carlyle deplored1 and ,tertullian before him--,i1 poor wretch1 always sick with the fever of impatience#bd--the same fatal gift for pungent phrase1 and the same burning and indignant sympathy for the victim of wrong and cruelty4#be ,the beautiful feeling1 which he shows in handling the parables of the lost sheep and the prodigal son1 in setting forth from them the loving fatherhood of ,god1#bf might surprise some of his critics4 ,nor has every great ,christian of later and more humane days been capable of writing as he wrote of victory in battle against foreigners--,is the laurel of triumph made of leaves--or the dead bodies of men8 ,with ribbons is it adorned--or with graves8 ,is it bedewed with unguents1 or the tears of wives and mothers8--perhaps too of some who are ,christians1 for even among the barbarians is ,christ4#bg ,there are again among his books some which have an appeal and a tender charm throughout that haunt the reader--that is1 if he has himself passed through any such experience as will enable him to enter into what was in ,tertullian's mind and heart as he wrote4 ,so truly and intimately does he know and with such sympathy does he express some of the deepest religious emotions4#bh ,sidenote3 ,his early life ,from time to time ,tertullian drops a stray allusion to his earlier years4 ,he was a pagan--de vestris sumus--one of yourselves 7,apol4 #ah72 the kind of man ,i was myself once1 blind and without the light of the ,lord4#bi ,a ,roman city1 and ,carthage perhaps in particular1 offered to a gifted youth of ,roman ways of thinking endless opportunities of self-indulgence4 ,tertullian speaks of what he had seen in the arena--the condemned criminal1 dressed as some hero or god of the mythology1 mutilated or burned alive1 for the amusement of a shouting #cac audience1#cj exulting in human blood4#ca ,we have laughed1 amid the mocking cruelties of noonday1 at ,mercury as he examined the bodies of the dead with his burning iron2 we have seen ,jove's brother too1 with his mallet1 hauling out the corpses of gladiators4#cb ,in later days when he speaks of such things1 he shudders and leaves the subject rather than remember what he has seen--malo non implere quam meminisse4#cc ,he knew the theatre of the ,roman city--the consistory of all uncleanness he calls it4 ,why should it be lawful 7for a ,christian71 he asked1 to see what it is sin to do8 ,why should the things1 which 'coming out of the mouth defile a man1' seem not to defile a man when he takes them in through eyes and ears8#cd ,he speaks of ,tragedies and ,comedies1 teaching guilt and lust1 bloody and wanton2 and the reader of the ,golden ,ass can recall from fiction cases wonderfully illuminative of what could have been seen in fact4 ,when he apostrophizes the sinner1 he speaks of himself4 ,you1 he cries1 you1 the sinner1 like me--no6 less sinner than ,i1 for ,i recognize my own pre-eminence in guilt4#ce ,he is1 he says1 a sinner of every brand1 born for nothing but repentance4#cf ,to say1 with ,professor ,hort1 on the evidence of such passages that ,tertullian was apparently a man of vicious life might involve a similar condemnation of ,bunyan and ,st ,paul2 while to find the charge painfully confirmed by the foulness which ever afterwards infested his mind is to exaggerate absurdly in the first place1 and in the second to forget such parallels as ,swift and ,carlyle1 who both carried explicit speech to a point beyond ordinary men1 while neither is open to such a suggestion as that brought against ,tertullian4 ,with such cases as ,apuleius1 ,hadrian or even ,julius ,caesar before us1 it is impossible to maintain that ,tertullian's early life must have been spotless1 but it is possible to fancy more wrong than there was4 ,the excesses of a man of genius are generally touched by the #cad imagination1 and therein lies at once their peculiar danger1 and also something redemptive that promises another future4 ,tertullian at any rate married--when1 we cannot say2 but1 as a ,christian and a ,montanist1 he addressed a book to his wife1 and in his ,de ,anima he twice alludes to the ways of small infants in a manner which suggests personal knowledge4 ,in the one he speaks with curious observation of the sense-perception of very young babies2 in the other he appeals to their movements in sleep1 their tremors and smiles1 as evidence that they also have dreams4 ,such passages if met in ,augustine's pages would not so much surprise us4 ,they suggest that the depth and tenderness of ,tertullian's nature have not been fully understood4#cg ,sidenote3 ,the evidence of nature ,meanwhile1 whatever his amusements1 the young lawyer had his serious interests4 ,if he was already acquiring the arts of a successful pleader1 the more real aspects of ,law were making their impression upon him4 ,the great and ordered conceptions of principle and harmony1 which fill the minds of reflective students of law in all ages1 were then reinforced by the ,stoic teaching of the unity of ,nature in the indwelling of the ,spermaticos ,logos with its universal scope and power4 ,law and ,stoicism1 in this union1 formed the mind and character of ,tertullian4 ,in later days1 under the stress of controversy 7which he always enjoyed7 he could find points in which to criticize his ,stoic teachers2 but the contrast between the language he uses of ,plato and his friendliness 7for instance7 for ,seneca saepe noster#ch is suggestive4 ,but that is not all4 ,a ,roman lawyer could hardly speculate except in the terms of ,stoicism--it was his natural and predestined language4 ,above all1 the constant citation of ,nature by ,tertullian shows who had taught him in the first instance to think4 ,when1 years after1 in #bab ,a4,d41 he told ,scapula that it is a fundamental human right1 a privilege of ,nature1 that any and every man should worship what he thinks right1 he had sub-consciously gone back to the great ,stoic ,jus ,naturae4#ci #cae ,nature is the original authority--side by side1 he would say in his later years1 with the inspired word of ,god1--yet even so it was not the pen of ,moses that initiated the knowledge of the ,creator4444 ,the vast majority of mankind1 though they have never heard the name of ,moses--to say nothing of his book--know the ,god of ,moses none the less4#dj ,one of his favourite arguments rests on what he calls the testimonium animae naturaliter ,christianae--the testimony of the soul which in its ultimate and true nature is essentially ,christian2 and this argument rests on his general conception of ,nature4 ,let a man reflect on the majesty of ,nature1 for it is from ,nature that the authority of the soul comes4 ,what you give to the teacher1 you must allow to the pupil4 ,nature is the teacher1 the soul the pupil4 ,and whatever the one has taught or the other learnt1 comes from ,god1 who is the teacher of the teacher 7i4e4 ,nature72#da and neither ,god nor ,nature can lie4#db ,an extension of this is to be found in his remark1 in a much more homely connexion1 that if the common consciousness 7conscientia communis7 be consulted1 we shall find ,nature itself teaching us that mind and soul are livelier and more intelligent when the stomach is not heavily loaded4#dc ,the appeal to the consensus of men1 as the expression of the universal and the natural1 and therefore as evidence to truth1 is essentially ,stoic4 ,over and over he lays stress upon natural law4 ,all things are fixed in the truth of ,god1#dd he says1 and our ,god is the ,god of ,nature4#de ,he identifies the natural and the rational--all the properties of ,god must be rational just as they are natural1 that is a clear principle 7regula72#df the rational element must be counted natural because it is native to the soul from the beginning--coming as it does from a rational author 7auctore74#dg ,he objects to ,marcion that everything is so sudden--so spasmodic--in his scheme of things4#dh ,for himself1 he holds with ,paul 7doth not ,nature teach you87 that law is natural and ,nature legal1 that #caf ,god's law is published in the universe1 and written on the natural tables of the heart4#di ,this clear and strong conception of ,nature gives him a sure ground for dealing with antagonists4 ,there were those who denied the reality of ,christ's body1 and declaimed upon the ugly and polluting features in child-birth--could the incarnation of ,god have been subjected to this8#ej ,but ,nature needs no blush--,natura veneranda est non erubescenda2 there is nothing shameful in birth or procreation1 unless there is lust4#ea ,on the contrary1 the travailing woman should be honoured for her peril1 and counted holy as ,nature suggests4#eb ,here once more we have an instance of ,tertullian's sympathy and tenderness for woman1 whom he perhaps never includes in his most sweeping attacks and condemnations4 ,similarly1 he is not carried away by the extreme asceticism of the religions of his day into contempt for the flesh4 ,it is the setting in which ,god has placed the shadow of his own soul1 the breath of his own spirit--can it really be so vile8 ,yet is the soul set1 or not rather blended and mingled with the flesh1 so that it may be questioned whether the flesh carries the soul or the soul the flesh1 whether the flesh serves the soul1 or the soul serves the flesh4444 ,what use of ,nature1 what enjoyment of the universe1 what savour of the elements1 does the soul not enjoy by the agency of the flesh8 ,think1 he says1 of the services rendered to the soul by the senses1 by speech1 by all the arts1 interests and ingenuities dependent on the flesh2 think of what the flesh does by living and dying4#ec ,the ,jove of ,phidias is not the world's great deity1 because the ivory is so much1 but because ,phidias is so great2 and did ,god give less of hand and thought1 of providence and love1 to the matter of which he made man8 ,whatever shape the clay took1 ,christ was in his mind as the future man4#ed ,some of these passages come from works of ,tertullian's later years1 when he was evidently leaning more than of old to ascetic theory4 ,they are therefore the more significant4 #cag ,if he wrote as a pagan at all1 what he wrote is lost2 but it is not pushing conjecture too far to suggest that his interest in ,stoicism precedes his ,christian period1 when such an interest is so clearly more akin to the bent of the ,roman lawyer than the ,christian of the second century4 ,sidenote3 ,the goodness of the ,creator ,the rationality and the order of the ,universe are commonplaces of ,stoic teachers1 and1 in measure1 its beauty4 ,of this last ,tertullian shows in a remarkable passage how sensible he was4 ,marcion condemns the ,god who created this world4 ,but1 says ,tertullian1 one flower of the hedge-row by itself1 ,i think--,i do not say a flower of the meadows2 one shell of any sea you like1--,i do not say the ,red ,sea2 one feather of a moor-fowl--to say nothing of a peacock1--will they speak to you of a mean ,creator8 ,copy if you can the buildings of the bee1 the barns of the ant1 the webs of the spider4 ,what of sky1 earth and sea8 ,if ,i offer you a rose1 you will not scorn its ,creator6#ee ,it is surely possible to feel more than the controversialist here4 ,it was ,goodness that spoke the word2 ,goodness that formed man from the clay into this consistency of flesh1 furnished out of one material with so many qualities2 ,goodness that breathed into him a soul1 not dead1 but alive2 ,goodness that set him over all things1 to enjoy them1 to rule them1 even to give them their names2 ,goodness1 too1 that went further and added delight to man 444 and provided a helpmeet for him4#ef ,of his conceptions of law something will be said at a later point4 ,it should be clear however that a man with such interests in a profession1 in speculation1 in the beauty and the law of ,nature1 could hardly at any time be a careless hedonist1 even if1 like most men converted in mid-life1 he knows regret and repentance4 ,on the side of religion1 little perhaps can be said4 ,he had laughed at the gods burlesqued in the arena4 ,to ,mithras perhaps he gave more attention4 ,in discussing the soldier's crown he is able to quote an analogy from the rites of ,mithras1 in which a crown was rejected1 and in which one grade of #cah initiates were known as soldiers4#eg ,elsewhere he speaks of the oblation of bread and the symbol of resurrection in those rites1 and1 if ,i still remember1 ,mithras there seals his soldiers on the brow4#eh ,si memini is a colloquialism1 which should not be pressed1 but the adhuc inserted may make it a more real and personal record4 ,to ,christian ideas he gave little attention4 ,there were ,christians round about him1 no doubt in numbers1 but they did not greatly interest him4 ,he seems1 however1 to have looked somewhat carelessly into their teaching1 but he laughed at resurrection1 at judgment and retribution in an eternal life4#ei ,he was far from studying the ,scriptures--nobody1 he said later on1 comes to them unless he is already a ,christian4#fj ,justin devoted about a half of his ,apology to prove the fulfilment of ,old ,testament prophecy in the life of ,jesus--an ,apology addressed to a pagan ,emperor4 ,tertullian1 in his ,apology1 gives four chapters to the subject1 and one of these seems to be an alternative draft4 ,the difference is explained by ,justin's narrative of his conversion1 in which he tells us how it was by the path of the ,scriptures and ,judaism that he1 like ,tatian and ,theophilus1 came to the church4 ,tertullian's story is different1 and1 not expecting pagans to pay attention to a work in such deplorable style#fa as the ,latin ,bible1 which he had himself ignored1 he used other arguments1 the weight of which he knew from experience4 ,in his de ,pallio1 addressed to a pagan audience1 as we have seen1 he alludes to ,adam and the fig-leaves1 but he does not mention ,adam's name and rapidly passes on--,but this is esoteric--nor is it everybody's to know it4#fb ,sidenote3 ,the martyrs ,tertullian is never autobiographical except by accident1 yet it is possible to gather from his allusions how he became a ,christian4 ,in his address to ,scapula#fc he says that the first governor to draw the sword on the ,christians of ,africa was ,vigellius ,saturninus4 ,dr ,armitage ,robinson's discovery of the original ,latin text of the ,acts of the ,scillitan ,martyrs1 who #cai suffered under ,saturninus1 has enabled us to put a date to the event1 for we read that it took place in the ,consulship of ,praesens 7his second term7 and of ,claudianus--that is in #ahj ,a4,d41 the year of the death of ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,these ,acts are of the briefest and most perfunctory character4 ,one after another1 a batch of quite obscure ,christians in the fewest possible words confess their faith1 are condemned1 say ,deo ,gratias1 and then--so all of them were crowned together in martyrdom and reign with the ,father and the ,son and the ,holy ,spirit for ever and ever4 ,amen4 ,that is all4 ,they were men and women1 some of them perhaps of ,punic extraction--,nartzalus and ,cittinus have not a ,roman sound4 ,after this1 it would seem that in ,africa1 as elsewhere1 persecution recurred intermittently2 it might be the governor who began it1 or the chance cry of an unknown person in a mob1 and then the people1 wild and sudden as the ,gadarene swine and for the same reason 7,christians said71#fd would fling themselves into unspeakable orgies of bloodshed and destruction4 ,what was more1 no one could foretell the hour--it might be years before it happened again2 it might be now4 ,and the ,christians were surprisingly ready1 whenever it came4 ,sometimes they argued a little1 sometimes they said hardly anything4 ,christiana sum1 was all that one of the ,scillitan women said4 ,but one thing struck everybody--their firmness1 obstinatio4#fe ,some1 like the philosophic ,emperor1 might call it perversity2 he1 as we have seen1 found it thin and theatrical1 and contrasted it with the readiness that proceeded from inward conviction1 of a temper rational and grave#ff--;an interesting judgment from the most self-conscious and virtuous of men4 ,on other men it made a very different impression--on men1 that is1 more open than the ,caesar of the passionless face#fg to impression1 men of a more sensitive and imaginative make1 quicker in penetrating the feeling of others4 ,tertullian1 in two short passages1 written at different dates1 shows how the martyrs--perhaps these very ,scillitan #cbj martyrs--moved him4 ,that very obstinacy with which you taunt us1 is your teacher4 ,for who is not stirred up by the contemplation of it to find out what there is in the thing within8 who1 when he has found out1 does not draw near8 and then1 when he has drawn near1 desire to suffer1 that he may gain the whole grace of ,god1 that he may receive all forgiveness from him in exchange for his blood8#fh ,so he wrote in #aig-h ,a4,d41 and fourteen years later his last words to ,scapula were in the same tenor--,none the less this school 7secta7 will never fail--no6 you must learn that then it is built up the more1 when it seems to be cut down4 ,every man1 who witnesses this great endurance1 is struck with some misgiving and is set on fire to look into it1 to find what is its cause2 and when he has learnt the truth1 he instantly follows it himself as well4#fi ,it would be hard to put into a sentence so much history and so much character4 ,et ipse statim sequitur4 ,the martyrs made him uneasy 7scrupulo74 ,there must be more behind than he had fancied from the little he had seen and heard of their teaching4 ,no one would have wished to be killed unless in possession of the truth1 he says4#gj ,in spite of his laughter at resurrection and judgment1 he was not sure about them4 ,when he speaks in later life of the naturalis timor animae in deum#ga--that instinctive fear of ,god which ,nature has set in the soul--he is probably not himself without consciousness of sharing here too the common experience of men2 and this is amply confirmed by the frequency and earnestness with which he speaks of things to come after death4 ,here however were men who had not this fear4 ,their obstinacy was his teacher4 ,he looked for the reason1 he learned the truth and he followed it at once4 ,that energy is his character--to be read in all he does4 ,like ,carlyle's his writings have the signature of the writer in every word4 #cba ,it is the idlest thing in the world1 he says1 for a man to say1 ',i wished it and yet ,i did not do it4' ,you ought to carry it through 7perficere7 because you wish it1 or else not to wish it at all because you do not carry it through4#gb ,and again3 ,why debate8 ,god commands4#gc ,tertullian obeyed1 and ever after he felt that men had only to look into the matter1 to learn and to obey4 ,all who like you were ignorant in time past1 and like you hated1--as soon as it falls to their lot to know1 they cease to hate who cease to be ignorant4#gd ,sidenote3 ,idolatry ,tertullian's tract ,on ,idolatry illustrates his mind upon this decisive change4 ,there he deals with ,christians who earn their living by making idols--statuaries1 painters1 gilders1 and the like2 and when the plea is suggested that they must live and have no other way of living1 he indignantly retorts that they should have thought this out before4 ,vivere ergo habes8#ge ,must you live8 he asks4 ,elsewhere he says there are no musts where faith is concerned4#gf ,the man who claims to be condidonalis1#gg to serve ,god on terms1 ,tertullian cannot tolerate4 ,christ our ,master called himself ,truth--not ,convention4#gh ,every form of idolatry must be renounced1 and idolatry took many forms4 ,the schoolmaster and the professor litterarum were almost bound to be disloyal to ,christ2 all their holidays were heathen festivals1 and their very fees in part due to ,minerva2 while their business was to instruct the youth in the literature and the scandals of ,olympus4 ,but might not one study pagan literature8 and1 if so1 why not teach it8 ,because1 in teaching it1 a man is bound1 by his position1 to drive heathenism deep into the minds of the young2 in personal study he deals with no one but himself1 and can judge and omit as he sees fit4#gi ,the dilemma of choosing between literature and ,christ was a painful thing for men of letters for centuries after this4#hj ,so ,tertullian lays down the law for others2 what for himself8 #cbb ,under the ,empire there were two ways to eminence1 the bar and the camp1 and ,tertullian had chosen the former4 ,his rhetoric1 his wit1 his force of mind1 and his strong grasp of legal principles in general and the issue of the moment in particular1 might have carried him far4 ,he might have risen as high as a civilian could4 ,it was a tempting prospect1--the kingdoms of the world and the glory of them--and he renounced it2 and never once in all the books that have come down to us1 does he give any hint of looking back1 never so much as suggests that he had given up anything4 ,official life was full of religious usage1 full too of minor duties of ritual which a ,christian might not discharge4 ,tertullian was not the first to see this4 ,a century earlier ,flavius ,clemens1 the cousin of ,domitian1 seems to have been a ,christian--,dio ,cassius speaks of his atheism and ,jewish practices1 and ,suetonius remarks upon his contemptible inertia1 though he was consul4#ha ,in other words1 the ,emperor's cousin found that public life meant compromise at every step4 ,this is ,tertullian's decision of the case--it has the note of his profession about it4 ,let us grant that it is possible for a man successfully to manage that1 whatever office it be1 he bears merely the title of that office2 that he does not sacrifice1 nor lend his authority to sacrifices1 nor make contracts as to victims1 nor delegate the charge of temples1 nor look after their tributes2 that he does not give shows 7spectacula7 at his own or the public cost1 nor preside over them when being given2 that he makes no proclamation or edict dealing with a festival2 that he takes no oath2 that--and these are the duties of a magistrate--he does not sit in judgment on any man's life or honour 7for you might bear with his judging in matters of money72 that he pronounces no sentence of condemnation nor any as legislator that should tend to condemnation2 that he binds no man1 imprisons no man1 tortures#hb no man--if all this can be managed1 a ,christian may be a magistrate4#hc ,tertullian made his renunciation and held no magistracy4 ,it may be said that1 as he held none1 it was easy to renounce it2 but hopes are often harder to renounce than realities4 ,so ,tertullian left the law and the ,stoics1 to study #cbc the ,scriptures1 ,justin and ,irenaeus#hd--the ,bible and the regula fidei his new code1 and the others his commentators4 ,the ,christian is a stranger in this world1 a citizen of the city above1 of ,jerusalem2 his ranks1 his magistracies1 his senate are the ,church of ,christ2 his purple the blood of his ,lord1 his laticlave in ,his cross4#he ,but ,tertullian could speak1 on occasion1 of what he had done4 ,we have no fear or terror of what we may suffer from those who do not know1 he wrote to ,scapula1 for we have joined this school 7sectam7 fully accepting the terms of our agreement2 so that we come into these conflicts with no further right to our own souls4#hf ,the contest was1 as he says elsewhere1 against the institutions of our ancestors1 the authority of usage1 the laws of rulers1 the arguments of the wise2 against antiquity1 custom1 necessity2 against precedents1 prodigies and miracles1#hg and he did not need ,celsus to remind him what form the resistance of the enemy might take4 ,he knew1 for he had seen1 and that was why he stood where he did4 ,but it is worth our while to understand how vividly he realized the possibilities before him4 ,there were the private risks of informers and blackmailers1 ,jews#hh and soldiers1 to which the ,christians were exposed4#hi ,they were always liable to be trapped in their meetings--every day we are besieged2 every day we are betrayed2 most of all in our actual gatherings and congregations are we surprised4#ij ,how are we to meet at all1 asks the anxious ,christian1 unless we buy off the soldiers8 ,by night1 says ,tertullian1 or let three be your church4#ia ,then came the appearance before the magistrate1 where everything turned on the character or the mood of the official4 ,tertullian quotes to ,scapula several instances of kindness on the bench1 rough and ready1 or high-principled4#ib ,anything might #cbd happen--then1 wrote ,perpetua1 he had all our names recited together and condemned us to the beasts4#ic ,what followed in the arena may be read in various ,acts of ,martyrdom--in the story of ,perpetua herself1 as told in tense and quiet language by ,tertullian4 ,he1 it is generally agreed1 edited her visions1 preserving what she wrote as she left it1 and adding in a postscript what happened when she had laid down her pen for ever4 ,the scene with the beasts is not easy to abridge1 and though not long in itself it is too long to quote here2 but no one who has read it will forget the episode of ,saturus drenched in his own blood from the leopard's bite1 amid the yells of the spectators1 ,salvum lotum6 salvum lotum6 nor that of ,perpetua and ,felicitas1 mothers both1 one a month or so1 the other three days1 stripped naked to be tossed by a wild cow4 ,and here comes a curious touch2 the mob1 with a superficial delicacy1 suggested clothing2 rough cloths were put over the women1 and the cow was let loose2 they were tossed1 and then all were put to the sword4 ,sidenote3 ,on martyrdom ,at this present moment1 writes ,tertullian1 it is the very middle of the heat1 the very dog-days of persecution--as you would expect1 from the dog-headed himself1 of course4 ,some ,christians have been tested by the fire1 some by the sword1 some by the beasts2 some1 lashed and torn with hooks1 have just tasted martyrdom1 and lie hungering for it in prison4#id ,cross1 hook1 and beasts#ie--the circus1 the prison1 the rack#if--the vivicomburium1#ig burning alive--and meanwhile the renegade ,jew is there with his placard of the god of the ,christians1 an ugly caricature with the ears and one hoof of an ass1 clad in a toga1 book in hand#ih--the ,gnostic and the nervous ,christian are asking whether the text flee ye to the next may not be ,god's present counsel--and meantime faith glows and the church is burning like the bush4#ii ,yet1 says ,tertullian to the heathen1 we say1 and we say it openly1--while you are torturing us1 torn and bleeding1 we cry aloud ',we worship ,god through ,christ4'#ajj ,to #cbe the ,christian he says3 ,the command is given to me to name no other ,god1 whether by act of hand1 or word of tongue 444 save the ,one alone1 whom ,i am bidden to fear1 lest he forsake me2 whom ,i am bidden to love with all my being1 so as to die for him4 ,i am his soldier1 sworn to his service1 and the enemy challenge me4 ,i am as they are1 if ,i surrender to them4 ,in defence of my allegiance ,i fight it out to the end in the battle-line1 ,i am wounded1 ,i fall1 ,i am killed4 ,who wished this end for his soldier--who but he who sealed him with such an oath of enlistment8 ,there you have the will of my ,god4#aja ,and therefore the ,paraclete is needed1 to guide into all truth1 to animate for all endurance4 ,those1 who receive him1 know not to flee persecution1 nor to buy themselves off2 they have him who will be with us1 to speak for us when we are questioned1 to help us when we suffer4#ajb;a ,he who fears to suffer cannot be his who suffered4#ajb;b ,the tracts ,on ,flight in ,persecution and ,the ,antidote for the ,scorpion are among his most impressive pieces4 ,they must have been read by his friends with a strange stirring of the blood4 ,even to-day they bring back the situation--living as only genius can make it live4 ,but what of the man of genius who wrote them8 ,at what cost were they written8 ,picture the martyr1 he writes1 with his head under the sword already poised1 picture him on the gibbet his body just outspread1 picture him tied to the stake when the lion has just been granted1 on the wheel with the faggots piled about him#ajc--;and no doubt ,tertullian saw these things often enough1 with that close realization of each detail of shame and pain which is only possible to so vivid and sensitive an imagination4 ,he saw himself tied to the stake--heard the governor in response to the cry ,christiana leonem#ajd concede the lion--and then had to wait1 how long8 ,how long would it take to bring and to let loose the lion8 ,how long would it seem8 ,through all this he went1 in his mind1 not once1 nor twice4 ,and meanwhile1 what was the audience doing1 while he stood there tied1 #cbf waiting interminably for the lion8 ,he knew what they would be doing1 for he had seen it1 and in the passage at the end of de ,spectaculis1 which ,gibbon quotes1 every item of the description of the spectator is taken in irony from the actual circus4 ,no man1 trained1 as the public speaker or pleader must be1 to respond intimately and at once to the feelings and thoughts1 expressed or unexpressed1 of the audience1 could escape realizing in heightened tension every possibility of anguish in such a crowd of hostile faces1 full of frantic hatred1#aje cruelty and noise4 ,to this ,tertullian looked forward1 as we have seen1 and went onward--as another did who steadfastly set his face for ,jerusalem4 ,the test of emotion is what it has survived1 and ,tertullian's faith in ,christ and his peace of mind survived this martyrdom through the imagination4 ,whatever criticism has to be passed upon his work and spirit1 to some of his critics he might reply ,ye have not yet resisted unto blood1 striving against sin4 ,so much did martyrdom mean to the individual1 yet it was not merely a personal affair4 ,it was ,god's chosen way to propagate his church--so it had been foretold1 and so it was fulfilled4 ,nothing whatever is achieved1 says ,tertullian to the heathen1 by each more exquisite cruelty you invent2#ajf on the contrary1 it wins men for our school4 ,we are made more as often as you mow us down2 the blood of ,christians is seed4#ajg ,sixteen centuries or so later1 ,thoreau in his ,plea for ,captain ,john ,brown1 a work not unlike ,tertullian's own in its force1 its surprises1 its desperate energy and high conviction1 wrote similarly of the opponents of another great movement4 ,such do not know that like the seed is the fruit1 and that in the moral world1 when good seed is planted1 good fruit is inevitable1 and does not depend on our watering and cultivating2 that when you plant1 or bury1 a hero in his field1 a crop of heroes is sure to spring up4 ,this is a seed of such #cbg force and vitality1 that it does not ask our leave to germinate4 ,sidenote3 ,on baptism ,there were yet other possibilities in martyrdom4 ,it was believed by ,christians that in baptism the sins of the earlier life were washed away2 but what of sins after baptism8 ,they involved a terrible risk--the world is destined to fire like the man who after baptism renews his sins#ajh--;and it was often felt safer to defer baptism to the last moment in consequence4 ,constantine was baptized on his death-bed4 ,the postponement of baptism is more serviceable especially in the case of children2 says ,tertullian1 let them become ,christians when they shall be able to know ,christ4 ,why should the innocent age hasten to the remission of sins8#aji ,as to sins committed after baptism1 different views were held4 ,in general1 as the church grew larger and more comprehensive1 it took a lighter view of sin1 but ,tertullian and his ,montanist friends did not1 and for this they have been well abused1 in their own day and since4 ,they held that adultery and apostasy were not venial matters1 to be forgiven by a bishop issuing an edict1 like a ,pontifex ,maximus1 in the legal style1 ,i forgive the sins of adultery and fornication to such as have done penance1 paenitentia functis4#aaj ,the ,montanist alternative was not so easy2 ,god1 they held1 permitted a second baptism1 which should be final--a baptism of blood4 ,god had foreseen the weaknesses of humanity1 the strategems of the enemy1 the deceitfulness of affairs1 the snares of the world--that faith even after baptism would be imperilled1 that many would be lost again after being saved--who should soil the wedding dress1 and provide no oil for their lamps1 who should yet have to be sought over mountain and forest1 and carried home on the shoulders4 ,he therefore appointed a second consolation1 a last resource1 the fight of martyrdom and the baptism of blood1 thereafter secure4#aaa ,this view may not appeal to us to-day2 it did not appeal to ,gnostic1 time-server and coward4 ,the philosophy of sin involved is hardly deep enough1 but #cbh this doctrine of the second baptism cannot be said to lack virility4 ,but ,tertullian himself did not receive the first baptism with any idea of looking for a second4 ,like men who are baptized of their own motion and understanding1 he was greatly impressed by baptism4 ,there is nothing1 he says1 which more hardens the minds of men than the simplicity of ,god's works1 which appears in the doing1 and the magnificence1 which is promised in the effect4 ,here too1 because1 with such simplicity1 without pomp1 without any novel apparatus1 and without cost1 a man is sent down into the water and baptized1 while but a few words are spoken1 and rises again little or nothing cleaner1 on that account his attainment of eternity is thought incredible4#aab ,it must be felt that the illustration declines from the principle4 ,it may also be remarked that this is a more magical view of baptism than would have appealed to ,seneca or to his contemporaries in the ,christian movement1 and that1 as it is developed1 it becomes even stranger4 ,tertullian's description of baptism is of interest in the history of the rite4 ,the candidate prepares himself with prayer1 watching and the confession of sin4#aac ,the waters receive the mystery 7sacramentum7 of sanctification1 when ,god has been called upon4 ,the ,spirit comes at once from heaven and is upon the waters1 sanctifying them from himself1 and so sanctified they receive 7combibunt7 the power of sanctifying4#aad ,this is due to what to-day we should call physical causes4 ,the underlying matter1 he says1 must of necessity absorb the quality of the overlying1 especially when the latter is spiritual1 and therefore by the subtlety of its substance more penetrative4#aae ,we may compare the enthusiastic spirit1 which1 ,plutarch tells us1 came up as a gas from the chasm at ,delphi1#aaf and further the general teaching of ,tertullian 7,stoic in origin7 of the corporeity of the soul and of similar spiritual beings4 ,he illustrates the influence of the ,spirit in thus affecting the waters of baptism by the analogy of the unclean spirits that haunt streams and fountains1 natural and artificial1 and similarly affect men1 though for evil--lest any should think it a hard thing that ,god's holy angel should be present to temper #cbi waters for man's salvation4#aag ,thus when the candidate has solemnly renounced the devil1 his pomp and his angels1#aah he is thrice plunged1#aai his spirit is washed corporeally by the waters medicated and his flesh spiritually is purified4#abj ,it is not that in the waters we receive the ,holy ,spirit1 but purified in water under the angel1 we are prepared for the ,holy ,spirit4444 ,the angel1 that is arbiter of baptism1 prepares the way for the ,spirit that shall come4#aba ,on leaving the water the ,christian is anointed 7signaculum74 ,the hand of blessing is laid upon him1 and in response to prayer the ,holy ,spirit descends with joy from the ,father to rest upon the purified and blest4#abb ,sidenote3 ,renouncing the world ,tertullian never forgot the baptismal pledge in which he renounced the devil1 his pomp and his angels2 and1 for his part1 he never showed any tendency to make compromise with them--when he recognized them1 for sometimes he seems not to have penetrated their disguises4 ,again and again his pledge comes back to him4 ,what has the ,christian to do with circus or theatre1 who has renounced the devil1 his pomp and his angels1 when both places are specially consecrated to these1 when there1 above all1 wickedness1 lust and cruelty reign without reserve8#abc ,how can the maker of idols1 the temple-painter1 etc41 be said to have renounced the devil and his angels1 if they make their living by them8#abd ,we have seen the difficulty of the schoolmaster here4 ,the general question of trade troubles ,tertullian--its cupidity1 the lie that ministers to cupidity1 to say nothing of perjury4#abe ,of astrologers1 he would have thought1 nothing needed to be said--but that he had within these few days heard some one claim the right to continue in the profession4 ,he reminds him of the source of his magical information--the fallen angels4#abf ,one must not even name them--to say ,meditis fidius is idolatry1 for it is a prayer2 but to say ,i live in the street of ,isis is not sin--it is sense4#abg ,many inventions were attributed by pagans to their gods4 ,if every implement of life is set down to some god1 yet ,i still must recognize ,christ lying on a couch--or when he brings a basin #ccj to his disciples' feet1 or pours water from the jug1 and is girded with linen--,osiris' own peculiar garb4#abh ,in fact1 common utility1 and the service of ordinary needs and comforts1 may lead us to look upon things 7to whomsoever attributed7 as really due to the inspiration of ,god himself who foresees1 instructs and gives pleasure to man1 who is after all ,his own4#abi ,thus common sense and his doctrine of ,nature come to his aid4 ,so amid rocks and bays1 amid the shoals and breakers of idolatry1 faith steers her course1 her sails filled by the ,spirit of ,god4#acj ,sidenote3 ,the ,apology ,tertullian had been a lawyer and a pleader1 as we are reminded in many a page1 where the man of letters is overridden by the man of codes and arguments2 and a lawyer he remained4 ,the ,gospel1 for instance1 bade that1 if any man take the tunic1 he should be allowed to take the cloak also4 ,yes1 says ,tertullian1 if he asks--if he threatens1 ,i will ask for the tunic back4#aca ,a man1 with such habits of mind1 will not take violent measures to repel injustice1 but he may be counted upon to defend himself in his own way4 ,tertullian1 accordingly1 when persecution broke out in the autumn of #aig in ,carthage1 addressed to the governor of the province an ,apology for the ,christians4 ,it is one of his greatest works4 ,it was translated into ,greek1 and ,eusebius quotes the translation in several places4 ,it is a most brilliant book4 ,all his wit and warmth1 his pungency and directness1 his knowledge and his solid sense come into play4 ,as a piece of rhetoric1 as a lawyer's speech1 it is inimitable4 ,but it is more than that1 for it is as full of his finest qualities as of his other gifts of dexterity and humour4 ,it shows the full grown and developed man1 every faculty at its highest and all consecrated1 and the book glows with the passion of a dedicated spirit4 ,he begins with the ironical suggestion that1 if the governors of provinces are not permitted in their judicial capacity to examine in public the case of the ,christians1 if this type of action alone their authority is afraid--or blushes--to investigate in the interests of justice1 he yet hopes that ,truth by the #cca silent path of letters may reach their ears4 ,truth makes no excuse--she knows she is a stranger here1 while her race1 home1 hope1 grace and dignity are in heaven4 ,all her eagerness is not to be condemned unheard4 ,condemnation without trial is invidious1 it suggests injustice and wakes suspicion4 ,it is in the interests of ,christianity1 too1 that it should be examined--that is how the numbers of the ,christians have grown to such a height4 ,they are not ashamed--unless it be of having become ,christians so late4 ,the natural characteristics of evil are fear1 shame1 tergiversation1 regret2 yet the ,christian criminal is glad to be accused1 prays to be condemned and is happy to suffer4 ,you cannot call it madness1 when you are shown to be ignorant of what it is4 ,christians are condemned for the name's sake1 though such condemnation1 irrespective of the proving of guilt or innocence1 is outrage4 ,others are tortured to confess their guilt1 ,christians to deny it4 ,trajan's famous letter to ,pliny1 he tears to shreds2 ,christians are not to be hunted down--that is1 they are innocent2 but they are to be punished--that is1 they are guilty4 ,if the one1 why not hunt them down8 ,if the other1 why punish8 ,of course ,trajan's plan was a compromise1 and ,tertullian is not a man of compromises4 ,if a founder's name is guilt for a school1 look around6 ,schools of philosophers and schools of cooks bear their founders' names with impunity4 ,but about the ,founder of the ,christian school curiosity ceases to be inquisitive4 ,but the authority of laws is invoked against truth--non licet esse vos6 is the cry4 ,what if laws do forbid ,christians to be8 ,if your law has made a mistake1 well1 ,i suppose1 it was a human brain that conceived it2 for it did not come down from heaven4 ,laws are always being changed1 and have been4 ,are you not yourselves every day1 as experiment illumines the darkness of antiquity1 engaged in felling and cutting the whole of that ancient and ugly forest of laws with the new axes of imperial rescripts and edicts8#acb ,roman laws once forbade extravagance1 theatres1 divorce--they forbade the religions of ,bacchus1 ,serapis and ,isis4 ,where are those laws now8 ,you are always praising antiquity1 and you improvise your life from day to day4#acc ,in passing1 one remark may be made in view of what is #ccb said sometimes of ,tertullian and his conception of religion4 ,to ,tertullian the revelation through the ,christ is no more than a law4#acd ,there is truth in this criticism1 of course2 but unless it is clearly understood that ,tertullian drew the distinction1 which this passage of the ,apology and others suggest1 between ,natural law1 as conceived by the ,stoics1 and civil law as regarded by a ,propraetor1 he is likely to be misjudged4 ,he constantly slips into the lawyer's way of handling law1 for like all lawyers he is apt to think in terms of paper and parchment2 but he draws a great distinction1 not so familiar to judges and lawyers--as ,english daily papers abundantly reveal--between the laws of ,god or ,nature and the laws of human convention or human legislatures4 ,the weak spot was his belief in the text of the ,scriptures as the ultimate and irrefragable word and will of ,god1 though even here1 in his happier hours1 when he is not under stress of argument1 he will interpret the divine and infallible code1 not by the letter1 but by the general principles to be observed at once in ,nature and the book4 ,legis injustae honor nullus est#ace is not the ordinary language of a lawyer4 ,the odious charges brought by the vulgar against the ,christians then1 as now in ,china1 and used for their own purposes by men who really knew better1 he shows to be incredible4 ,no one has the least evidence of any kind for them1 and yet ,christian meetings are constantly surprised4 ,what a triumph would await the spy or the traitor who could prove them6 ,but they are not believed1 or men would harry the ,christians from the face of the earth 7c4 #h74 ,as to the idea that ,christians eat children to gain eternal life--who would think it worth the price8 ,no6 if such things are done1 by whom are they done8 ,he reminds his fellow-countrymen that in the reign of ,tiberius priests of ,saturn were crucified in ,africa on the sacred trees around their temple--for the sacrifice of children4 ,and then who are those who practise abortion8 how many of those who crowd around and gape for ,christian blood8 ,and the gladiatorial shows8 is it the ,christians who frequent them8 ,atheism and treason were more serious charges4 ,you do #ccc not worship the gods4 ,what gods8 ,he cannot mention them all--new1 old1 barbarian1 ,greek1 ,roman1 foreign1 captive1 adoptive1 special1 common1 male1 female1 rustic1 urban1 nautical and military--but ,saturn at any rate was a man1 as the historians know4 ,but they were made gods after they died4 ,now1 that implies a ,god more sublime1 true owner 7mancipem71 so to speak1 of divinity1 who made them into gods1 for they could not of course have done it themselves2 and meanwhile you abolish the only one who could have4 ,but why should he8--unless the great ,god needed their ministry and aid in his divine tasks--dead men's aid6 7c4 #aa74 ,no1 the whole universe is the work of ,reason2 nothing was left for ,saturn to do1 or his family4 ,it rained from the beginning1 stars shone1 thunders roared1 and ,jove himself shuddered at the living bolts which you put in his hand4 ,ask the spiders what they think of your gods and their webs tell you 7c4 #ab74 ,to-day a god1 to-morrow a pan1 as domestic necessity melts and casts the metal4 ,and the gods are carried round and alms begged for them--religio mendicans--hold out your hand1 ,jupiter1 if you want me to give you anything6#acf ,does ,homer's poetry do honour to the gods 7c4 #ad7--;do the actors on the stage 7c4 #ae78 ,christians are not atheists4 ,they worship one ,god1 ,creator1 true1 great1 whose very greatness makes him known of men and unknown4#acg ,who he is1 and that he is one1 the human soul knows full well--,o testimonium animae naturaliter ,christianae6 ,but ,god has other evidence--instrumentum litteraturae4 ,he sent into the world men inundated with the divine spirit to proclaim the one ,god1 who framed all things1 who made man1 who one day will raise man from the dead for eternal judgment4 ,these writings of the prophets are not secret books4 ,anyone can read them in the ,greek version1 which was made by the seventy elders for ,ptolemy ,philadelphus4 ,to this book he appeals1--to the majesty of ,scripture1 to the fulfilment of prophecy4 ,zeno called the ,logos the maker of all things--and named him ,fate1 ,god1 mind of ,jove1 ,necessity4 ,cleanthes described him as permeating all things4 ,this the ,christians also hold to #ccd be ,god's ,word1 ,reason and ,power--and his ,son1 one with him in being1 ,spirit as ,he is ,spirit4 ,this was born of a ,virgin1 became man1 was crucified and rose again4 ,even the ,caesars would have believed on ,christ1 if ,caesars were not needful to the world1 or if there could be ,christian ,caesars4#ach ,as for the pagan gods1 they are daemons1 daily exorcised into the confession of ,christ4 ,but the charge of ,atheism may be retorted4 ,are not the pagans guilty of ,atheism1 at once in not worshipping the true ,god and in persecuting those who do8 ,as a rule they conceive1 with ,plato1 of a great ,jove in heaven surrounded by a hierarchy of gods and daemons4#aci ,but1 as in the ,roman ,empire1 with its ,emperor and its procurators and prefects1 it is a capital offence to turn from the supreme ruler to the subordinate1 so may it not involve a charge of irreligion to take away freedom of religion1 to forbid free choice of divinity1 that ,i may not worship whom ,i will8 ,every one else may2 but we are not counted ,romans1 who do not worship the god of the ,romans4 ,it is well that ,god is ,god of all1 whose we are1 whether we will or no4 ,but with you it is lawful to worship anything whatever--except the true ,god4 ,but the gods raised ,rome to be what she is4 ,which gods8 ,sterculus8 ,larentina8 ,did ,jove forget ,crete for ,rome's sake--,crete1 where he was born1 where he lies buried8#adj ,no1 look to it lest ,god prove to be the dispenser of kingdoms1 to whom belong both the world that is ruled and the man who rules4 ,some are surprised that ,christians prefer obstinacy to deliverance--but ,christians know from whom that suggestion comes1 and they know the malevolence of the daemon ranks1 who are now beginning to despair since they recognize they are not a match for us 7c4 #bg74 ,for the ,emperor ,christians invoke ,god1 the eternal1 the true1 the living4 ,they look up1 with hands outspread1 heads bared1 and from their hearts1 without a form of words1 they pray for long life for the ,emperor1 an ,empire free from alarms1 a safe home1 brave armies1 a faithful senate1 an honest people and a quiet world 7c4 #cj74 ,they do this1 for the ,empire stands #cce between them and the world's end4 7,it was a common thought that the world and ,rome would end together47 ,christians however honour ,caesar as ,god's vice-gerent2 he is theirs more than any one's1 for he is set up by the ,christians' ,god4 ,they make no plots and have no recourse to magic to inquire into his health 7c4 #ce74ada ,in fact we are the same to the ,emperors as to our next-door neighbours4 ,we are equally forbidden to wish evil1 to do evil1 to speak evil1 to think evil of anyone4 ,so much for being enemies of the state 7c4 #cf74 ,christians do not retaliate on the mob for its violence1 though1 if they did1 their numbers would be serious4 ,we are but of yesterday1 and we have filled everything1 cities1 islands1 camps1 palace1 forum1 etc42 all we have left you is the temples4 ,but far be it that a divine school should vindicate itself with human fire1 or grieve to suffer that wherein it is proved 7c4 #cg74 ,christians make no disturbances and aspire to no offices4 ,they are content to follow their religion and look after the poor1 the shipwrecked1 and men in mines and prisons4 ,see how they love each other6 say the heathen4#adb ,they are not1 as alleged1 the cause of public disasters2 though if the ,nile do not overflow1 or if the ,tiber do1 it is at once ,christianos ad leonem6 ,but they are unprofitable in business6 ,yes1 to pimps1 poisoners and mathematicians2 still they are not ,brahmans or solitaries of the woods1 exiles from life1 and they refuse no gift of ,god4 ,we sail with you1 take the field with you1 share your country life1 and know all the intercourse of arts and business 7cc4 #db1 #dc74 ,they are innocent1 for they fear ,god and not the proconsul4 ,if they were a philosophic school1 they would have toleration--who compels a philosopher to sacrifice1 to renounce1 or to set out lamps at midday to no purpose8 ,yet the philosophers openly destroy your gods and your superstitions in their books1 and win your applause for it--and they bark at your princes4 ,he then points out how much there is in common to ,christians and philosophers1 and yet 7in a burst of temper7 how unlike they are4 ,no1 where is the likeness between the philosopher and the ,christian8 the disciple of ,greece and of heaven8 the trafficker in fame and in life8 the friend and the foe of error8 7c4 #df74 #ccf ,the ,christian artisan knows ,god better than ,plato did4 ,and yet what is knowledge and genius in philosopher and poet1 is presumption in a ,christian6 ,say the things are false that protect you--mere presumption6 yet necessary4 ,silly6 yet useful4 ,for those who believe them are compelled to become better men1 for fear of eternal punishment and hope of eternal refreshment4 ,so it is inexpedient to call that false or count that silly1 which it is expedient should be presumed true4 ,on no plea can you condemn what does good 7c4 #di74 ,yet1 whatever their treatment1 ,christians would rather be condemned than fall from ,god4 ,their death is their victory2 their obstinacy educates the world2 and while men condemn them1 ,god acquits them4 ,that is his last word--a deo absolvimur 7c4 #ej74 ,such1 in rough outline1 is the great ,apology--not quite the work of the fuller or baker at whom ,celsus sneered4 ,yet it has not the accent of the conventional ,greek or ,latin gentleman1 nor that of the philosophic ,greek ,christian4 ,the style is unlike anything of the age4 ,everything in it is individual2 there is hardly a quotation in the piece4 ,everything again is centripetal2 ,tertullian is too much in earnest to lose himself in the endless periods of the rhetorician1 or in the charming fancies dear to the eclectic and especially to contemporary ,platonists4 ,indeed his tone toward literature and philosophy is startlingly contemptuous1 not least so when contrasted with that of ,clement4 ,for this there are several reasons4 ,first of all1 like ,carlyle1 ,tertullian has to write with his nerves in a kind of blaze1 and1 like ,carlyle1 he says things strongly and sweepingly4 ,it is partly temperament1 partly the ingrown habit of the pleader4 ,something must be allowed to the man of moods1 whose way it is to utter strongly what he feels for the moment4 ,such men do a service for which they have little thanks4 ,many moods go in them to the making of the mind1 moods not peculiar to themselves4 ,in most men feelings rarely find full and living expression1 and something is gained when they are so expressed1 even at the cost of apparent exaggeration4 ,the sweeping half-truth at once suggests its complement to the man who utters it1 and may stir very wholesome processes of thought in the milder person who hears it4 #ccg ,sidenote3 ,the philosophers ,in the next place the philosophers may have deserved the criticism4 ,fine talk and idle talk1 in philosophic terms1 had disgusted ,epictetus2#adc and for few has ,lucian more mockery than for the philosophers of his day--,tertullian's day--with their platitudes and their beards1 their flunkeyism and love of gain4 ,clement of ,alexandria1 who loved philosophy1 had occasional hard words for the vanity of its professors4#add ,for a man of ,tertullian's earnestness they were too little serious4 ,gloriae animal#ade is one of his phrases--a creature of vainglory was not likely to appeal to a man who lived in full view of the lion and the circus4 ,he had made a root and branch cleavage with idolatry1 because no men could die like the ,christians unless they had the truth4 ,the philosophers--to say nothing of their part now and then in stirring the people against the ,christians--had made terms with polytheism1 beast-worship1 magic1 all that was worst and falsest in paganism1 lovers of wisdom and seekers after truth as they professed themselves to be4 ,ancient ,philosophy suggests to the modern student the name of ,heraclitus or ,plato2 but ,tertullian lived in the same streets with ,apuleius1 philosopher and ,platonist1 humorist and gloriae animal4 ,but even ,plato vexed ,tertullian4#adf ,the cock to be offered to ,a,esculapius was too available a quotation in a world where the miracles of the great ,healer were everywhere famous4 ,the triflers and the dogmatists of the day used ,plato's myths to confute the ,christian doctrine of the resurrection4 ,and of course ,plato and ,tertullian are in temperament so far apart1 that an antipathy provoked by such causes was hardly to be overcome4 ,again1 ,tertullian remarks frequently that heresy has the closest connexion with philosophy4 ,both handle the same questions3 ,whence is evil1 and why8 and whence is man and how8 and whence is ,god8#adg ,marcion1 for instance1 is sick 7like so many nowadays and1 most of all1 the heretics7 with the question of evil1 whence is evil8#adh and turns to dualism4 ,or else the heretics begin with questions of the resurrection1 for the resurrection of the flesh they find harder to believe than the unity of the ,godhead4#adi ,what ,celsus1 a typical product of #cch contemporary philosophy1 thought of the resurrection of the flesh we have seen--a hope of worms6 ,lastly1 there was a strong tendency in the church at large for re-statement of the gospel in the terms of philosophy2 and in such endeavours1 as we know1 there is always the danger of supposing the terms and the philosophy of the day to be more permanent and more valid than the experience which they are supposed to express4 ,in ,tertullian's century there seemed some prospect that every characteristic feature of the gospel would be so re-stated as to leave the gospel entirely indistinguishable from any other eclectic system of the moment4 ,jesus became a phantom1 or an aeon2 his body1 sidereal substance1 which offered1 ,clement himself said1 no material resistance to the touch of ,st ,john's hand4 ,god divided1 heaven gone1 no hope or faith left possible in a non-real ,christ even in this life--,christians would be indeed of all men most miserable1 and morality would have no longer any basis nor any motive4 ,what in all this could tempt a man to face the lions8 ,it was not for this that ,christians shed their blood--no1 the ,gnostics recommended flight in persecution4 ,it is easy to understand the sweeping ,viderint--,tertullian's usual phrase for dismissing people and ideas on whom no more is to be said--,let them look to it who have produced a ,stoic and ,platonic and dialectic ,christianity4 ,we need no curiosity who have ,jesus ,christ1 no inquiry who have the gospel4#aej ,it was natural for ,clement and his school to try to bring the gospel and philosophy to a common basis--a natural impulse1 which all must share who speculate4 ,the mistake has been that the church took their conclusions so readily and has continued to believe them4 ,for ,tertullian is1 on his side1 right1 and we know in fact a great deal more about ,jesus than we can know about the ,logos4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,praescription of heretics ,accordingly a large part of ,tertullian's work1 as a ,christian1 was the writing of treatises against heresy4 ,he has in one book--de ,praescriptionibus ,haereticorum--dealt with all heretics together4 ,the ,regula ,fidei1 which is a short creed1#aea was instituted1 he says1 by ,christ1 and is held among ,christians without questions1 save those which heretics raise and which make heretics4 ,on that ,regula rests the ,christian faith4 ,to know nothing against it1 is to know everything4 ,but appeal is #cci made to ,scripture4 ,we must then see who has the title to ,scripture 7possessio71#aeb and whence it comes4 ,jesus ,christ while on earth taught the twelve1 and they went into the world and promulgated the same doctrine of the same faith1 founding churches in every city1 from which other churches have taken faith and doctrine--he uses the metaphors of seed and of layers 7tradux7 from plants4 ,every day churches are so formed and duly counted ,apostolic4 ,thus the immense numbers of churches may be reckoned equivalent to the one first church4 ,no other than the ,apostles are to be received1 as no others were taught by ,christ4 ,thus it is established that every doctrine which agrees with those ,apostolic mother-churches1 the originals of the faith1 is to be set down to truth1 as in accordance with what the churches have received from the apostles1 the apostles from ,christ1 and ,christ from ,god4#aec ,but have the churches been faithful in the transmission of this body of doctrine8 ,suppose them all to have gone wrong1 suppose the ,holy ,spirit to have been so negligent--is it likely that so vast a number should have wandered away into one faith8 ,again let ,marcion and others show the history of their churches4 ,let their doctrines be compared with the ,apostolic1 and their varieties and contradictions will show they are not ,apostolic4 ,if then ,truth be adjudged to those who walk by the ,regula1 duly transmitted through the church1 the ,apostles and ,christ from ,god1 then heretics have no right of appeal to the ,scriptures which are not theirs4 ,if they are heretics1 they cannot be ,christians2 if they are not ,christians1 they have no right 7ius7 to ,christian literature4 ,with what right 7iure7 ,marcion1 do you cut down my wood8 ,by what licence1 ,valentinus1 do you divert my springs8 444 ,this is my estate2 ,i have long held it2 ,i am first in occupation2 ,i trace my sure descent from the founders to whom the thing belonged4 ,i am the heir of the ,apostles4#aed ,in this1 as in most human arguments1 there are strands of different value4 ,the legal analogy gave a name to the book--praescriptio was the barring of a claim--but it is not #cdj the strongest line4 ,law rarely is4 ,but ,tertullian was not content to rule his opponents out of court4 ,he used legal methods and manners too freely1 but he knew well enough that these settled nothing4 ,as a rule he had much stronger grounds for his attack4 ,he wrote five books against ,marcion to maintain the unity of the ,godhead and the identity of the ,father of ,jesus1 the ,god of the ,old ,testament and the ,god of ,nature4 ,his book against the ,valentinians has a large element of humour in it--perhaps the best rejoinder to the framers of a cosmogony of so many aeons1 none demonstrable1 all fanciful1--the thirty of them suggest to him the famous ,latin sow of the ,a,eneid4#aee ,against ,hermogenes he maintains the doctrine of the creation of the world from nothing4 ,the hypothesis that ,god used pre-existing matter1 makes matter antecedent and more or less equal to ,god4 ,and then1 in legal vein1 he asks a question4 ,how did ,god come to use matter8 ,these are the three ways in which another's property may be taken1--by right1 by benefit1 by assault1 that is by title1 by request1 by violence4 ,hermogenes denies ,god's title in this case2 which then of the other means does he prefer8#aef ,sidenote3 ,the incarnation of ,christ ,his best work in the controversial field is in his treatises1 ,on the ,flesh of ,christ1 ,on the ,resurrection of the ,flesh1 and ,on the ,soul4 ,the first of these1 above all1 will appeal to any reader to whom the historic ,jesus is significant4 ,much has changed in outlook and preconceptions since ,tertullian wrote1 but his language on the reality of ,jesus1 as an actual human being and no sidereal or celestial semblance of a man1 on the incarnation1 and the love of ,god1 still glows and still finds a response4 ,away1 he pictures ,marcion saying1 ,away with those census-rolls of ,caesar1 always tiresome1 away with the cramped inns1 the soiled rags1 the hard stall4 ,let the angelic host look to it6#aeg ,and then he rejoins1 ,do you think nativity impossible--or unsuitable--for ,god8 ,declaim as you like on the ugliness of the circumstances2 yet ,christ did love men 7born1 if you like1 just as you say72 for man he descended1 for man he preached1 for man he lowered himself with every humiliation down to death1 and the death of the cross4 ,yes1 #cda he loved him whom he redeemed at so high a price4 ,and with man he loved man's nativity1 even his flesh4 ,the conversion of men to the worship of the true ,god1 the rejection of error1 the discipline of justice1 of purity1 of pity1 of patience1 of all innocence--these are not folly1 and they are bound up with the truth of the ,gospel4 ,is it unworthy of ,god8 ,spare the one hope of all the world1 thou1 who wouldst do away with the disgrace of faith4 ,whatever is unworthy of ,god is all to my good4#aeh ,the ,son of ,god also died--,it is credible because it is foolish4 ,he was buried and rose again2 it is certain because it is impossible4 ,and how could all this be1 if his body were not true8 ,you bisect ,christ with a lie4 ,the whole of him was ,truth4#aei ,the gospel narrative from beginning to end implies that ,christ's body was like ours--he hungered under the devil1 thirsted under the ,samaritan woman1 shed tears over ,lazarus1 was troubled#afj at death 7for1 the flesh1 he said1 is weak71 last of all he shed his blood4 ,how could men have spat in a face radiant with celestial grandeur8 ,wait6 ,christ has not yet subdued his enemies that he may triumph with his friends4 ,jesus is to come again1 as he was1 as he is1 sitting at the ,father's right hand1 ,god and man1 flesh and blood1 the same in essence and form as when he ascended2 so he shall come4#afa ,and men will be raised in the flesh to receive judgment4 ,a storm overhangs the world4#afb ,what the treasure-house of eternal fire will be1 may be guessed from the petty vents men see in ,etna and elsewhere4#afc ,there will be white robes for martyrs2 for the timid a little portion in the lake of fire and sulphur4#afd ,all that ,gibbon thought would offend the reason and humanity of the present age in the last chapter of the de ,spectacutis may recur to the reader4 ,but1 continues ,tertullian in that passage1 my gaze will be upon those who let loose their fury on the ,lord himself--',this1' ,i shall say1 'is he1 the son of the carpenter or the harlot1 ,sabbath-breaker1 ,samaritan1 demoniac4 ,this is he whom you bought from #cdb ,judas2 this is he1 whom you beat with the reed and the palms of your hands1 whom you disfigured with your spittle1 to whom you gave gall and vinegar4 ,this is he whom his disciples stole away1 that it might be said he had risen1--or the gardener took him away1 that his lettuces might not be trodden by the crowds that came4' ,a long variety of affected and unfeeling witticisms1 is ,gibbon's judgment4 ,a mind less intent on polemic will judge otherwise of ,tertullian and his controversies4 ,there is1 first of all1 much more of the philosophic temper than is commonly supposed4 ,he does not1 like ,clement and other ,greeks1 revel in cosmological speculations as to the ,logos1 nor does he loosely adopt the abstract methods of later ,greek philosophy4 ,but in his treatment of the ,soul1 of moral order and disorder1 and of responsibility1 he shows no mean powers of mind4 ,he argues from experience1 and from the two sources1 from which he could best hope to learn most directly the mind of ,god1 ,nature and the ,scriptures4 ,the infallibility of the ,scriptures is of course a limitation to freedom of speculation1 but it was an axiom of the early church1 and a man of experience might accept it1 bound up as it was with sound results in the martyr-death and the changed life4 ,tertullian will get back to the facts1 if he can2 and if he judges too swiftly of ,nature and too swiftly accepts the literal truth of ,scripture1--while these are drawbacks to our acceptance of his conclusions1 there is still to be seen in him more independence of mind than in those ,greek ,fathers for whom ,greek philosophy had spoken the last word in metaphysics4 ,it is psychology that interests ,tertullian more1 and moral questions1 and these he handles more deeply than the ,stoics4 ,he stands in line with ,augustine and ,calvin1 his spiritual descendants4 ,if he speaks more of hell than certain ,greeks do1 it is not unnatural4 ,the man1 who saw such deaths in the amphitheatre as he describes in the ,passion of ,perpetua1 who remembered the expressions he had then seen on the faces of the spectators1 who knew too well the cruelty that went with ,roman lust1 could hardly help believing in hell4 ,what was the origin of evil8 asked philosopher and heretic4 ,what is its destiny8 and what are you to do with it now8 asked ,tertullian2 and1 in all seriousness1 the answer to the former #cdc question is more likely to be found when the answers of the latter are reached4 ,at any rate the latter are more practical1 and that adjective1 with what it suggests of drawback and of gain1 belongs to ,tertullian4 ,sidenote3 ,on conduct ,his application of the test of utility to belief is obviously open to criticism4 ,it is expedient1 said ,varro1 for men to be deceived in religion4 ,no1 ,tertullian would have said1 it is more expedient for them to know the truth2 and he backed his conviction by his appeal to ,nature1 on the one hand1 ,nature1 rational through and through1 and ever loyal to law1 to fixity of principle1 and on the other hand by reference to the verification of his position yielded by experience--once more the martyr-death and the transformed character4 ,these fundamental ideas he may have misused in particulars1 if not in matters more essential2 but1 if he is wrong from the beginning in holding them1 human knowledge1 progress and conduct become fortuitous and desultory at once4 ,nature and verification from life are substantially all we have4 ,to these of course ,tertullian added revelation in a sense distinct4 ,from the question of conduct we pass naturally to the great cleavage of ,tertullian with the church4 ,a change had come in church practice and government since the days when the ,teaching of the ,apostles represented actual present fact1--perhaps even since the ,apology of ,aristides4 ,the church had grown larger1 it had developed its organization1 and it was relying more on the practical men with a turn for administration1 who always appear when a movement1 begun by idealists1 seems to show signs of success4 ,the situation creates them1 and they cannot be avoided4 ,they have their place1 but they do not care for ideas4 ,thus in the church the ministry of the ,spirit1 the ministry of gifts1 was succeeded by the ministry of office1 with its lower ideals of the practical and the expedient4 ,the numbers of the church swelled1 and a theory began to spread1 which ,cyprian took up later on1 and which was almost inevitable on his principles1 that the church was an ark1 with beasts clean and beasts unclean within it4 ,this theory answered to the actual facts1 hardly to the ideal1 and ,tertullian rejected it4#afe ,conduct at once suggested the theory1 #cdd and responded to it4 ,christians fell into adultery and apostasy1 and while at first this meant delivery to ,satan1 restoration became progressively easy4 ,the ,shepherd of ,hermas extended second chances1 till ,tertullian fiercely spoke of that apocryphal shepherd of adulterers4#aff ,from ,phrygia came the suggestion of reformation4 ,our evidence as to the history of ,montanism in its native land is derived from hostile sources1 and the value of it must partly depend on the truth of the witnesses and partly on their intelligence1 and of neither have we any guarantee at all4 ,that they are clearly hostile is plain from the fragments in ,eusebius4 ,that they understood the inner meaning of what they condemned1 we have no indication4 ,montanus1 however1 asserted ,christ's promise of the ,paraclete--his enemies allege that he identified himself with the ,paraclete1 a statement which might be used to show how quotation may lead to suggestio falsi4 ,but the coming of the ,paraclete was not in fact a synonym for fanaticism and the collection of money1 as the enemies of ,montanus hinted4 ,it meant the bracing of ,christian life and character1 and the restoration of prophecy1 new revelation of truth1 power and progress4 ,it appealed to the ,christian world1 and the movement spread--probably with modifications as it spread4 ,the oracles of ,montanus and of two women1 ,prisca and ,maximilla1 became widely known1 and they inculcated a stern insistence on conduct1 which was really needed1 while they showed how reformation was to be reached4 ,to use language of more modern times1 involves risk of misconception2 but if it may be done with caution1 we may roughly say that the ,montanists stood for what the ,friends call the ,inner ,light1 and for progressive revelation--or1 at any rate1 for something in this direction4 ,the indwelling of ,god was not consistent with low living2 and earnest souls1 all over the world1 were invested with greater power and courage to battle with the growing lightness in the church and to meet the never-ceasing hostility of the world--the lion and the cruel faces of the amphitheatre4 ,sidenote3 ,ecstacy ,yet ,montanism failed for want of a clear conception of the real character of primitive ,christianity4 ,aiming at morals1 ,montanists conceived of life and the human mind and ,god in a #cde way very far from that of ,jesus4 ,they laid a stress1 which is not his1 on asceticism and on penance1 and they cultivated ecstasy--in both regions renouncing the essentially spiritual conception of religion1 and turning to a non-,christian view of matter4 ,they thus aimed at obtaining or keeping the indwelling spirit of ,jesus1 known so well in the early church1 but by mechanical means2 and this1 though the later church in this particular followed them for generations1 is not to be done4 ,still1 whatever their methods and their expedients1 they stood for righteousness1 and here lay the fascination of ,montanism for ,tertullian4 ,throughout his later life ,tertullian1 then1 was a ,montanist1 though the change was not so great as might be expected4 ,some of his works1 such as that ,on ,monogamy1 bear the stamp of ,montanism1 for re-marriage was condemned by the ,montanists4 ,elsewhere his citation of the oracles of ,prisca suggests that a book belongs to the ,montanist period2 or we deduce it from such a passage as that in the work ,on the ,soul where he describes a vision4 ,the passage is short and it is suggestive4 ,we have to-day among us a sister who has received gifts 7charismata7 of the nature of revelations1 which she undergoes 7patitur7 in spirit in the church amid the rites of the ,lord's day falling into ecstasy 7per ecstasin74 ,she converses with angels1 sometimes even with the ,lord1 and sees and hears mysteries1 and reads the hearts of certain persons1 and brings healings to those who ask4 ,according to what ,scriptures are read1 or psalms sung1 or addresses made1 or prayers offered up1 the matter of her visions is supplied4 ,it happened that we had spoken something of the soul1 when this sister was in the spirit4 ,when all was over1 and the people had gone1 she--for it is her practice to report what she has seen1 and it is most carefully examined that it may be proved--'amongst other things1' she said1 'a soul was shown to me in bodily form and it seemed to be a spirit1 but not empty1 nor a thing of vacuity2 on the contrary1 it seemed as if it might be touched1 soft1 lucid1 of the colour of air1 and of human form in every detail4#afg ,such a story explains itself4 ,the corporeity of the soul #cdf was a tenet of ,stoicism1 essential to ,tertullian1 for without it he could not conceive of what was to follow the resurrection4 ,he spoke of it and we can imagine how4 ,it would hardly take a vision to see anything of which he spoke4 ,the sister however was1 what in modern phrase is called1 psychopathic1 and the vision occurred1 controlled by the suggestion that preceded it4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusion ,it must be admitted that there is in some of his ,montanist treatises1 particularly where he is handling matters of less importance1 such as re-marriage1 fasting1 and the like1 a bitterness of tone which is not pleasant4 ,as long as his humour and his strong sense control his irony1 it is no bad adjunct of his style1 it is a great resource4 ,but it declines into sarcasm1 and sarcasm1 as ,teufelsdroeckh put it1 is the language of the devil2 and we find ,tertullian1 pleading for ,god and righteousness1 in a tone and a temper little likely to win men4 ,but the main ideas that dominate him still prevail--conduct1 obedience1 ,god's law in ,nature and in the book1 the value of the martyr-death4 ,little is to be got by dwelling on his outbursts of ill temper2 they hardly do more than illustrate what we knew already1 his intensity1 his sensibility1 his passion4 ,they form the negative side of the great positive qualities4 ,let me gather up a few scattered thoughts which come from his heart and are better and truer illustrations of the man1 and with them let chapter and book have an end4 ,conduct is the test of creed 7de ,praescr4 ,haer4 #dc74 ,to lie about ,god is in a sense idolatry 7de ,praescr4 #dj74 ,security in sin means love of it 7de ,pudic4 #i74 ,whatever darkness you pile above your deeds1 ,god is light 7de ,paenit4 #f74 ,what we are forbidden to do1 the soul pictures to itself at its peril 7de ,paenit4 #c74 ,truth persuades by teaching1 it does not teach by making things plausible 7adv4 ,valent4 #a74 ,faith is patience with its lamp lit--illuminata 7de ,pat4 #f74 ,patience is the very nature of ,god4 ,the recognition of ,god understands well enough the duty laid upon it4 ,let wrong-doing be wearied by your patience 7de ,pat4 #c1 #d1 #h74 ,there is no greater incitement to despise money than that the ,lord himself had no wealth 7de ,pat4 #g74 ,love is 'the supreme mystery 7sacramentum7 of faith 7de ,pat4 #ab74 ,faith fears no famine #cdg 7de ,idol4 #ab74 ,prayer is the wall of faith 7de ,or4 #bi74 ,every day1 every moment1 prayer is necessary to men4444 ,prayer comes from conscience4 ,if conscience blush1 prayer blushes 7de exh4 cast4 #aj74 ,good things scandalize none but the bad mind 7de virg4 vel4 #c74 ,give to ,caesar what is ,caesar's--his image on the coin2 give to ,god what is ,god's--his image in man1 yourself 7de ,idol4 #ae74 ,but to this there is no end1 and an end there must be4 ,by his expression of ,christian ideas in the natural language of ,roman thought1 by his insistence on the reality of the historic ,jesus and on the inevitable consequences of human conduct1 by his reference of all matters of life and controversy to the will of ,god manifested in ,nature1 in inspiration and in experience1 ,tertullian laid ,western ,christendom under a great debt1 never very generously acknowledged4 ,for us it may be as profitable to go behind the writings till we find the man1 and to think of the manhood1 with every power and every endowment1 sensibility1 imagination1 energy1 flung with passionate enthusiasm on the side of purity and righteousness1 of ,god and ,truth2 to think of the silent self-sacrifice freely and generously made for a despised cause1 of a life-long readiness for martyrdom1 of a spirit1 unable to compromise1 unable in its love of ,christ to see ,his work undone by cowardice1 indulgence and unfaith1 and of a nature in all its fulness surrendered4 ,that the ,gospel could capture such a man as ,tertullian1 and1 with all his faults of mind and temper1 make of him what it did1 was a measure of its power to transform the old world and a prophecy of its power to hold the modern world1 too1 and to make more of it as the ideas of ,jesus find fuller realization and verification in every generation of ,christian character and experience4 ,chapter ,x ,footnotes3 #a ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall1 c4 #ae 7vol4 ii1 p4 #agg1 ,milman-,smith72 ,tertullian1 de ,spectaculis1 #cj4 #b ,both of these in de ,pallio1 #a4 ,it may be noted that in allusions to ,dido's story he prefers the non-,virgilian version1 more honourable to the ,queen2 ,apol4 #ej2 ad martyras1 #d4 #c adv4 ,valentin4 #ab4 #d ,references to his ,greek treatises 7all lost7 may be found in de cor4 mil4 #f2 de bapt4 #ae2 de virg4 vel4 #a4 #e ,de viris illustribus1 sub nomine4 #f de anima #ci4 #g ,ibid4 #da4 #h ,ibid4 #ci4 #i adv4 ,valent4 #c1 in infantia inter somni difficultates a nutricula audisse lamiae turres et pectines ,solis2 ibid4 #bj1 puerilium dicibulorum in mari poma nasci et in arbore pisces4 #aj e4g4 he alludes to a manual on flowers and garlands by ,claudius ,saturninus1 and another on a similar subject1 perhaps1 by ,leo ,a,egyptius2 de cor4 mil4 #g1 #ab4 ,apart from the ,christian controversy on the use of flowers1 we shall find later on that he had a keener interest in them than some critics might suppose2 adv4 ,marc4 i1 #ac1 #ad4 #aa de juga1 #aj4 #ab de anima1 #b2 cf4 ibid4 #aj1 quotation of a great anatomist ,herophilus who dissected six hundred subjects in order to find out ,nature's secrets2 also ibid4 #be1 a discussion of childbirth to show that the soul does not come into the child with its first breath2 ibid4 #dc1 a discussion of sleep4 ,scorpiace1 #e1 surgery4 #ac e4g4 the end of adv4 ,hermogenem4 #ad ,puns1 e4g41 on areae1 ad ,scap4 #c2 on strophae1 de ,spect4 #bi2 on pleroma1 adv4 ,val4 #ab4 ,see his nonsense on the tears1 salt1 sweet1 and bituminous1 of ,achamoth1 a ,valentinian figure1 adv4 ,val4 #ae2 on the ,milesian tales of his ,a,eons1 de ,anima4 #bc4 #ae adv4 ,valent4 #f4 #af adv4 ,valent4 #a4 #ag de baptismo1 #d4 #ah de oratione1 #ae #ai de anima1 #c4 #bj de bapt4 #c 7end7 #ba ,on de pallio see ,boissier1 ,la ,fin da ,paganisme1 bk4 iii1 ch4 #a4 #bb ad ,natt1 i1 #g2 the charges were incest1 and child-murder for purposes of magic4 #bc de ,praescriptione1 #dd 7end74 ,similarly of resurrection1 virgin-birth1 etc44--recogitavi4 #bd de ,patientia1 #a1 miserrimus ego semper aeger caloribus impatientiae4 #be ,cf4 his tone as to the scortum1 unexampled1 so far as ,i know1 in ,latin literature1 and only approached in ,greek perhaps by ,dio ,chrysostom--the publicae libidinis hostiae 7de ,spect4 #ag71 publicarum libidinum victimae 7de cult4 fem4 ii1 #ab74 ,he alone of all who mention the strange annual scene on the stage1 which ,cato withdrew to allow1 has pity for the poor women4 #bf de ,paenitentia1 #h4 #bg de corona1 #ab4 #bh ,i refer especially to such passages as de ,carne ,christi1 #d-i1 #ad2 de ,resurr4 ,carnis1 #g1 #ab1 etc4 #bi de ,paenit4 #a1 hoc genus hominum quod et ipsi retro fuimus1 caeci1 sine domini lumine4 #cj ,apol4 #ae1 cf4 ad ,natt4 i1 #aj1 another draft of the same matter4 #ca de ,spect4 #ai1 eamus in amphitheatrum 444 delectemur sanguine humano 7ironically74 #cb ,apol4 #ae4 ,the burning-iron was to see whether any life were left in the fallen4 #cc de ,spect4 #ai 7end74 #cd de ,spectaculis1 #ag4 #ce de ,paenit4 #d4 #cf de ,paenit4 #ab1 peccator omnium notarum1 nec ulli rei nisi paenitentiae natus4 #cg de anima1 #ai and #di4 ,add his words on the wife taken away by death1 cui etiam religiosiorem reservas affectionem1 etc41 de exh4 cast4 #aa4 #ch de anima1 #bj4 ,cf4 ibid4 #ag1 on the moderation of the ,stoics1 as compared with ,plato1 in their treatment of the fidelity of the senses4 #ci ad ,scap4 #b4 ,tamen humani iuris et naturalis potestatis est unicuique quod putaverit colere4 #dj adv4 ,marc4 i1 #aj1 major popularitas generis humani4 #da de testim4 animae1 #e4 #db de test4 an4 #f4 #dc de jejunio1 #f4 #dd de spectaculis1 #bj4 #de de cor4 mil4 #e1 ,naturae deus noster est4 #df adv4 ,marc4 i1 #bc4 #dg de anima1 #af4 #dh adv4 ,marc4 iii1 #b2 iv1 #aa4 #di de cor4 mil4 #f1 et legem naturalem suggerit et naturam legalem4 #ej ,cf4 de carne ,christi1 #d4 #ea de anima1 #bg4 #eb de carne ,christi1 #d1 ipsum mulieris enitentis pudorem vel pro periculo honorandum vel pro natura religiosum4 #ec de ,resurr4 ,carnis1 #g4 #ed ,ibid4 #f4 #ee adv4 ,marcion4 i1 #ac1 #ad4 ,compare the beautiful picture at the end of de ,oratione1 of the little birds flying up1 spreading out the cross of their wings instead of hands1 and saying something that seems to be prayer4 #ef adv4 ,marc4 ii1 #d4 #eg de cor4 mil4 #ae4 #eh de praescr4 #dj1 et si adhuc memini1 ,mithra signat1 etc4 #ei ,apol4 #ah4 ,haec et nos risimus aliquando4 ,de vestris sumus4 #fj de test4 animae1 #a4 #fa ,so ,arnobius 7i1 #eh1 #ei7 and ,augustine felt4 ,tertullian does not complain of the style himself1 but it was a real hindrance to many4 #fb de ,pallio1 #c1 ,sed arcana ista nec omnium nosse4 #fc ad ,scap4 #c4 #fd ,the devils entered into the swine4 ,cf4 p4 #afd4 #fe ,pliny to ,trajan1 #if1 #c1 pertinaciam et inflexibilem obstinationem4 #ff ,marcus ,aurelius1 xi1 #c4 ,cf4 ,aristides1 ,or4 #df1 who attributes authadeia1 to oi en te ,palaistine dussebeis4 #fg ,hist4 ,august4 ,m4 ,anton4 #af1 ,erat enim ipse tantae tranquillitatis ut vultum nunquam mutaverit maerore vel gaudio4 #fh ,apol4 #ej1 ,illa ipsa obstinatio quam exprobratis magistra est4 ,quis enim bib contemplatione eius concutitur ad requirendum quid intus in re sit8 quis non ubi requisivit accedit8 ubi accessit pati exoptat1 etc4 #fi ad4 ,scap4 #e4 ,quisque enim tantam tolerantiam spectans1 ut aliquo scrupulo percussus1 et inquirere accenditur1 quid sit in causa1 et ubi cognoverit veritatem et ipse statim sequitur4 #gj ,scorpiace1 #h 7end74 #ga de testim4 animae1 #b4 ,cf4 de cult4 fem4 ii1 #b1 ,timor fundamentum salutis est4 #gb de ,paenitentia1 #c4 #gc de ,paenit4 #dj4 ,quid revolvis8 ,deus praecipit4 #gd ad ,natt4 i1 #a4 #ge de ,idol4 #e4 #gf de cor mil4 #aa1 non admittit status fidei necessitates4 #gg de ,idol4 #ab4 #gh de virg4 vel4 i1 ,dominus noster ,christus veritatem se non consuetudinem cognominavit4 #gi de ,idol4 #aj4 #hj ,see the correspondence of ,ausonius and ,paulinus4 #ha ,dio ,cassius1 #fg1 #ad2 ,suetonius1 ,domit4 #ae2 ,eusebius1 ,e4,h4 iii1 #ah4 ,see ,e4 ,g4 ,hardy1 ,studies in ,roman ,history1 ch4 v41 pp4 #ff1 #fg4 #hb ,to obtain evidence--legal in the case of slaves4 #hc de ,idol4 #ag4 #hd ,cf4 adv4 ,valentin4 #e4 #he de cor4 mil4 #ac1 clavus latus in cruce ipsius4 ,there is a suggestion of a play upon words4 #hf ad ,scap4 i1 opening sentence of the tract4 #hg ad ,nat4 ii1 #a4 #hh ,apol4 #g4 ,cf4 ,scorp4 #aj1 synagogas ,judaeorum fontes persecutionum4 #hi ,cf4 de fuga1 #ab2 ad ,scap4 #e4 #ij ,apol4 #g4 #ia de fuga1 #ad1 sit tibi et in tribus ecclesia4 #ib ad ,scap4 #d4 #ic ,passio ,perpetuae1 #f4 #id ,scorpiace1 #a4 #ie ,apol4 #cj4 #if ,scorp4 #aj4 #ig de anima1 #a4 #ih ,apol4 #af2 ad ,natt4 i1 #ad4 #ii ,scorpiace1 #a2 the reference is to ,moses' bush1 nec tamen consumebatur4 #ajj ,apol4 #ba4 #aja ,scorpiace1 #d 7end74 #ajb;a de fuga1 #ad 7both passages74 #ajb;b de fuga1 #ad 7both passages74 #ajc de pudicitia1 #bb4 #ajd ,for this cry in various forms see ,apol4 #dj2 de res4 carn4 #bb2 de exh4 castit4 #ab2 de spect4 #bg1 conventus et caetus 444 illic guotidiani in nos leones expostulantur4 #aje ,scorpiace1 #aa1 ecce autem et odio habimur ab omnibus hominibus nominis causa2 de anima1 #a1 non unius urbis sed universi orbis iniquam sententiam sustinens pro nomine veritatis4 #ajf ,cf4 de anima1 #a1 de patibulo et vivicombirio per omne ingenium crudelitatis exhauriat4 #ajg ,apol4 #ej1 semen est sanguis ,christianorum4 #ajh de ,bapt4 #h4 #aji ,ibid4 #ah4 #aaj ,ironic chapter in de pudicitia1 #a4 ,the edict is a technical term of the state1 and the ,pontifex ,maximus was the ,emperor1 till ,gratian refused the title in #cge ,a4,d4 #aaa ,scorpiace1 #f2 cf4 de ,bapt4 #af4 #aab de ,bapt4 #b4 #aac ,ibid4 #bj4 #aad ,ibid4 #d4 #aae ,ibid4 #d4 #aaf ,cf4 p4 #ajb4 #aag de ,bapt4 #e4 #aah de ,spectac4 #d2 de cor4 mil4 #c4 #aai de cor4 mil4 #c1 ter mergitamur4 #abj de ,bapt4 #d4 #aba ,ibid4 #f4 #abb de ,bapt4 #h4 ,for other minor details as to food and bathing see de cor4 mil4 #c4 #abc de ,spectac4 #d4 #abd de ,idol4 #f4 #abe de ,idol4 #aa4 ,cf4 ,hermas1 ,mandate1 #c1 on lying in business4 #abf de ,idol4 #i4 #abg ,ibid4 #bj4 #abh de cor4 mil4 #h4 #abi ,ibid4 #h4 #acj de ,idol4 #bd1 inter hos scopulos et sinus1 inter haec vada et freta idololatriae1 velificata spiritu dei fides navigat4 #aca de fuga1 #ac4 #acb ,apol4 #d4 #acc ,apol4 #f4 #acd ,gwatkin1 ,the ,knowledge of ,god 7,gifford ,lectures7 ii1 p4 #afc4 #ace ad ,natt4 i1 #e4 #acf ,cf4 pp4 #bj-bb4 #acg ,apol4 #ag1 ita eum vis magnitudinis et notum hominibus obicit et ignotum4 #ach ,apol4 #ba4 #aci ,chapters #bb to #bd give a good summary of his views on daemons4 #adj ,celsus refers to ,christian discussion of this2 ,origen1 adv4 ,cels4 iii #dc4 #ada ,cf4 ad4 ,scap4 #b1 with argument from end of world4 #adb c4 #ci vide1 inquiunt1 ut invicem se diligant4 #adc ,epictetus1 ,d4 iii1 #bc4 #add ,clement1 ,strom4 vi1 #ef1 philautia4 #ade de anima1 #a4 #adf ,cf4 de anima1 #f1 #ag1 #ah1 #bc1 etc4 #adg de ,praescr4 #g4 #adh adv4 ,marc4 i1 #b4 #adi de res4 carnis1 #b4 #aej de ,praescr4 #g4 #aea de ,praescr4 #ac4 #aeb de ,praescr4 #ae4 #aec de ,praescr4 #ba4 #aed de ,praescr4 #cg1 ,mea est possessio4 ,cf4 definition which says possessions appellantur agri 444 qui non mancipatione sed usu tenebantur et ut quisque occupaverat possidebat4 ,tertullian improves this title as he goes on4 #aee ,this gibe is in adv4 ,marc4 i1 #e2 there are plenty without it in adv4 ,val4 #aef adv4 ,hermog4 #i1 iure1 beneficio1 impetu1 id est dominio precario vi4 #aeg de carne ,christi1 #b4 #aeh de carne ,christi1 #e1 ,quodcunque deo indignum est mihi expedit4 #aei de carne ,christi1 #e1 prorsus credibile est quia ineptum est1 444 certum est quia impossibile4444 ,quid dimidias mendacio ,christum8 ,totus veritas fuit4 #afj de carne ,christi1 #i1 trepidat perhaps represents the agonia of ,luke4 #afa de res4 carnis1 #ea4 #afb de paenit4 #a4 #afc de paenit4 #ab4 #afd ,scorpiace1 #ab #afe de ,idol4 #bd 7end71 ,viderimus enim si secundum arcae typum et corvus et milvus et lupus et canis et serpens in ecclesia erit4 #aff de ,pud4 #bj4 #afg de anima1 #i4 #cdi ,,index ,absolute ,being 7of ,god71 #ic1 #aab1 #acc1 #ahh1 #bca1 #beg1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #bij-bib4 ,actium1 battle1 #b4 ,a,elian1 #bji4 ,a,esculapius 7,asklepios71 #bb1 #aia1 #bji1 #bba-bbc1 #bee1 #ccg4 ,alexander of ,abonoteichos1 #baa1 #bab4 ,alexander ,severus1 #ad4 ,alexandria1 #gh1 #gi1 #ha2 ch4 ix41 beginning4 ,allegoric methods1 #gb1 #abf1 #aha1 #ahd1 #bbf1 #bgh1 #bhh4 ,anaxagoras1 #ajb4 ,ancyra1 monument1 #e4 ,angels1 #ae1 #ie1 #bgi1 #bha1 #cbi4 ,antinous1 #afj1 #agb1 #beb4 ,antoninus1 ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,emperor1 see ,marcus4 ,antony 7,m4 ,antonius1 the ,triumvir71 #b1 #i4 ,anubis1 #bb1 #bji1 #baa1 #bcf4 ,apathy1 #afa1 #bcb1 #bia1 #bib1 #big1 #cjb2 see also ,greek ,index4 ,apellas1 ,m4 ,julius1 #bba1 #bbb4 ,apelles1 the painter1 #bag4 ,apis1 #f4 ,apollo1 #e1 #hb1 #id4 ,apollonius of ,tyana1 #ad4 ,apuleius1 see ch4 vii4 generally1 his origin and history1 #bbh4 his studies1 #bbh4 his mind and style1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bcd1 #bcg1 #ccg4 defence on charge of ,magic1 #bbh1 #bcj4 the ,golden ,ass1 #bbg1 #bcc-bcg4 on philosophy1 #bcj4 on gods1 #bca4 on mysteries1 #bcj4 on human life1 #bca4 on religion1 #bcj4 ,aricia1 #bf4 ,aristides1 ,a,elius1 #bbb4 ,artemidorus of ,daldia1 author of a book on the interpretation of dreams1 #hh1 #bbe-bbg4 ,arval ,brothers1 #i4 ,ass1 book once attributed to ,lucian1 #bj1 #ba1 #bbg4 ,astrology1 #ah1 #ce1 #adg1 #cbi4 ,astronomy1 #bg1 #ig1 #bai1 #bgg1 #bha1 #bhe4 ,ataraxia1 #baf1 #bai4 ,athens1 #gh1 #hj1 #bfg4 students at ,athens1 #gh1 #hj1 #bbh4 ,attalus1 a ,stoic1 #da4 ,attis1 #ba4 ,augustine1 ,st1 #h1 #ab1 #ba1 #aff1 #bcg1 #cjg4 ,augustus1 #a1 #b4 attempts to reform state1 #c4 his monument at ,ancyra1 #e4 his superstitions1 #f4 restoration of religion1 #e-g1 #i1 #ad1 #cb4 his system of government1 #cd4 effects of his system1 #ah1 #cc-cg4 ,baptisms1 #aji1 #aei1 #cbg-cbi4 ,barnabas1 #aea1 #afe1 #ahj1 #aha1 #aib4 ,blood1 eating with1 #ae4 ,brahmans1 #bgj1 #cce4 ,britannicus1 #de4 ,british ,isles1 #bf1 #aje4 ,browning1 ,r41 quoted1 #bg1 #add4 ,buddha1 #bgj4 ,buddhism1 #fh4 ,burrus1 #dd-df4 ,carlyle1 ,thomas1 #dj1 #da1 #aei1 #caa1 #cab1 #cac1 #ccf1 #cdf4 ,carthage1 #aji1 #cjg4 ,catullus1 #ba4 ,celsus1 see ch4 viii4 generally4 who was he8 #bci1 #bdj4 his date1 #bdj4 his mind and style1 #bdj1 #bda1 #beh-bfa4 on folly of ,christians1 #bda-bdc1 #bde4 on vulgarity of ,christians1 #bda1 #bdb4 on only believe1 #bdb1 #bej4 on ,christian account of ,god1 #bdb-bdd4 and ,god's descent1 #bdf4 his own account of ,god1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf-bdh1 #bed4 and of daemons1 #bed-bef4 ,christian thinking anthropocentric1 #bdc1 #bdd4 on evil1 #bdg4 on true religion1 #bdh1 #bed1 #bei1 #bfj4 on ancestral religion1 #bed4 on incarnation1 #bdh1 #bdi4 on the historic ,jesus1 #aag1 #agb1 #agc1 #bdi-beb4 on persecution of ,christians1 #bej1 #bge4 on the sects1 #bej1 #bec4 on miracles and magic1 #bea4 on evidence of oracles1 #bee1 #beh4 on ,christian plagiarisms1 #aag1 #beb4 on immortality1 #beb1 #bec4 his plea for ,roman ,empire1 #bef1 #beg1 #bfa4 misses centre of ,christian movement1 #bei4 quoted ch4 viii4 passim1 and pp4 #ie1 #aad1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aic1 #aid4 ,chaeronea1 #gi1 #hb1 #hf1 #bbc4 ,chaldaeans1 #ag1 #bjg1 #bgj4 ,christ in prophecy1 #ahc-aic4 ,christian community and early ,church1 see chs4 v4 and vi4 generally4 name ,christian1 #aea4 its variety1 #ada1 #adc-adg4 its unity1 #ada1 #adc4 its universality1 #adc1 #add4 the new life1 #adb1 #aeb1 #aei-afb1 #afd-aff1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #cce4 its happiness1 #adb1 #adh1 #afe1 #aff4 conversion1 #adb1 #aej4 ,jewish influence1 #adc1 #add4 ,greek influence1 #add1 #ade1 #afh4 ,roman influence1 #adf4 freedom from daemons1 #adf1 #adg1 #bhc1 #bhd4 daemons retaliate in persecution1 #afd1 #cai4 knowledge of ,god1 #adg1 #cjj1 #cja4 the ,holy ,spirit1 #adb1 #adi-aea1 #agd4 ,jesus the centre1 #ada1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aeg1 #aid1 #bei4 ,jesus the example1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bgb4 theories as to ,jesus1 #aed-aeg1 #bge1 #bhi-bih1 #cdj1 #cda4 the ecclesia of ,god1 #aeh1 #beg4 organization of ,christian society1 #aeg-aei1 #bfc1 #cci4 its sacraments1 #aeh1 #aei4 propagation1 #aei-afb1 #aif1 #bda4 women1 #afc1 #ahj1 #caf4 marriage1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #cad4 immortality1 #afc4 belief in second coming of ,christ1 #afd1 #cda4 persecution1 #afd1 #afe1 #bej1 #bge1 #cai1 #cbc-cbf4 martyrs1 #adf1 #afe1 #cai-cba4 controversy with ,judaism1 #afg-afi ff41 #age4 effect of this1 #aid1 #aie4 admission of ,gentiles1 #afh4 sects1 #bej1 #bec4 the great church1 #bec4 spiritual religion1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahb4 its progress1 #aif1 #bfb1 #bfc f4 daily reading of ,scriptures1 #bhg4 question of philosophy1 #acd1 #ade1 #aef1 #aeg1 #bfc1 #bgd-bgf1 #ccf-cch4 tenacity of historic facts of ,gospel1 #aac-aae1 #aai1 #ade1 #aeb1 #bga4 the regula1 #cch1 #cci4 the ark theory1 #cdc4 ,christian feeling toward the ,empire1 #bdj1 #beg1 #cjc1 #cbb1 #ccd1 #cce4 ,chrysippus1 #ga1 #gc1 #if1 #bji1 #bdg4 ,cicero1 ,m4 ,tullius1 #a1 #g1 #h4 his wife and daughter1 #aj4 on divination1 #af1 #ag4 ,claudia ,acte1 #de4 ,claudius1 ,emperor1 #dc1 #dd4 ,cleanthes1 #ci1 #ga1 #bdg4 ,clement of ,alexandria1 see ch4 ix4 generally4 his writings1 #bfg1 #bgi1 #bhb4 his history1 #bff1 #bfg4 his education1 #bfg-bgd4 the mysteries1 #bfi4 his conversion1 #bga4 his mind and style1 #bfg1 #bgc1 #bhb1 #bic4 his literary interests1 #bfg1 #bgc1 #bgg4 his use of ,scripture1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #bia4 on philosophy1 #bfh1 #bgc1 #bge-bhb4 his references to ,plato1 #bgc1 #bgi1 #bha1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #bif4 to ,euripides1 #bha1 #bhd4 his use of ,philo1 #bhi4 on knowledge1 #bgb1 #cjj1 #cja4 unity of knowledge1 #bge4 on faith1 #bdb1 #bhj1 #cjj4 on ,absolute ,god 7see also ,monad below71 #bij-bib4 on the ,monad1 #bhf1 #bij4 the love of ,god and ,abba ,father1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #bic1 #big4 on the ,logos1 #bhc1 #bhg1 #bhi-bih1 on incarnation1 #big1 #bih4 on ,jesus1 #bhc1 #bic1 #bih-cjj4 on the cross1 #cjj1 #cjb4 on ,christian life1 #bgb1 #bhg1 #cjb1 #cjc4 on manners1 #bfd-bff4 on sin1 #cjj4 on deification1 #cja1 #cjb4 on marriage1 #cjb1 #cjc4 on ,christian tradition1 #bga1 on virgin-birth1 #bii4 ,christocentric1 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bgd4 the ,protrepticus1 #bhb-bhg1 #bif4 ,clement quoted1 ch4 ix4 passim1 and on pp4 #adi1 #aff1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bea1 #beg1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,cleopatra1 #b4 ,consensus of mankind as evidence1 #fh1 #ia1 #baj1 #cae4 ,cf4 ,tertullian 7testimonium animae74 ,cooks1 schools of1 #cjb1 #cca4 ,cornutus1 #da1 #ee4 ,critias1 verses of1 #d1 #e4 ,crocodiles worshipped1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #bfe4 ,cupid and ,psyche1 #bcd4 ,cybele1 #e1 #bj1 #ba1 #ajc4 ,cyprian1 #adg1 #aeh1 #cdc4 ,daemons1 #ad1 #ci1 #ei1 #id-ajb1 #ajc1 #aeb-aed1 #bed-bef4 not gods1 #id1 #bcb4 intermediaries between gods and men1 #if1 #ig1 #ih1 #bbi1 #bcb4 subject to change1 #if4 guardian-daemons 7genius71 #ae1 #ei1 #ii1 #ajj1 #bcc1 #cjh4 may be seen by the physical eye1 #ii1 #ajj1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bcb1 #bee4 communicate with souls directly1 #aja1 #ajb4 authors of pagan cults1 #ajg1 #bcb1 #bed4 relations with oracles1 magic1 etc41 #ajb1 #ajh1 #bbi1 #bec4 resent neglect1 #afd1 #bcc1 #bee4 their tyranny1 #ai1 #ajg1 #adf1 #adg1 #bhd4 some usurp names of gods1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #bcb4 daemon-possession1 #ajj1 #aec4 glossolaly1 #aej4 dangers from daemons1 #bef4 the name of ,jesus and daemons1 #adg4 daemons the fallen angels1 #ie1 #bha4 daemon-theory and ,emperor-worship1 #aed4 daemons misled ,jews as to law1 #aha4 forestalled ,christian sacraments1 #aei4 and facts of ,christian teaching1 #aia4 facts behind daemon-theory1 #ajj1 #aej1 #aec1 #bbb1 #bca4 ,dancing1 secular and sacred1 #gf1 #gi1 #hj4 ,dea dia1 #i1 #ai4 ,delphi1 #hb1 #ib1 #ajb1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,dio ,cassius1 #dh1 #cbb4 ,dio ,chrysostom1 #hj1 #cab4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 #e4 ,diogenes ,laertius1 #ci4 ,diogenes of ,oinoanda1 #bag-bbj4 ,dionysus1 #ih1 #ajh1 #aia1 #bej4 ,divination1 #af1 #ag1 #bbi4 ,docetism1 #adf1 #aed1 #aeg1 #bii4 ,domitian1 #di1 #ha1 #cbb4 ,dreams studied1 #f1 #bbe-bbg4 ,druids1 #bgj4 ,ecstasy1 #aja1 #ajb1 #aec1 #cde4 ,egyptian religion1 #ba1 #be1 #ef1 #baa1 #bfe1 #bgj2 see ,isis1 ,osiris1 ,serapis4 ,emperor-worship1 #afc4 ,ennius1 #c4 ,epictetus1 see ch4 ii4 generally4 his history1 #di-ej4 his solitude1 #ej-eb4 his habits1 #eb4 his celebrity1 #ec4 on cleanliness1 #eb4 a relic of ,epictetus1 #ec1 his teaching1 #ej1 #ec4 quoted throughout ch4 ii4 ,epicurus1 #af1 #ag1 #bah-bbj1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhe4 ,epidauros1 #bba1 #bbb4 ,euclid1 #hj1 #bge4 ,euhemerus1 #e1 #ajf4 ,euripides1 #bdc1 #bgj1 #bha1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bhg4 ,fauns1 #ab1 #ac4 ,flavius ,clemens1 #cbb4 ,francis1 ,st1 #dj1 #di4 ,fravashi1 #ae4 ,freedmen1 #cc1 #ce4 ,gadarenes1 #abc1 #bjc4 ,gaius1 ,emperor1 #cd4 ,galen1 #afj4 ,garlands1 use of1 #bcj1 #bfe4 ,gellius1 ,aulus1 #ec1 #hj1 #hg1 #bac4 ,genius1 see ,daemons4 ,germans1 #cf1 #bjj1 #baa1 #bgj4 ,giants1 #bjh4 ,gibbon1 #cje4 ,gladiatorial shows1 #cf1 #cab1 #cac4 ,stoic criticism1 #fc4 ,christian criticism1 #afb4 ,glossolaly1 see ,tongues4 ,gnosticism and ,gnostics1 #bfc1 see ,marcion and ,valentinus4 ,god1 see ,absolute ,being4 ,golden ,age1 #g1 #cc1 #cf1 #aga4 ,gospels1 #aac-aae4 credibility1 #aad1 #aae4 ,greece1 depopulated1 #gh4 ,guardian1 see ,daemons4 ,gyges1 myth of1 #cd4 ,hades1 value of the belief in it1 #e4 described by those who have seen it1 #aje1 #bjh4 the gospel preached in ,hades by ,christ and apostles1 #aja1 #bhj4 ,hadrian1 #hh1 #bjj1 #beb1 #bfb4 ,heraclitus1 #bai1 #bdg1 #beb1 #bec4 ,herakles1 #fb1 #ih1 #agc1 #aia1 #bej4 ,hermas1 #dh1 #aff1 #bhj1 #cbi1 #cdd4 ,herodotus1 #cd1 #bee4 ,hesiod1 #ih4 ,hierodules1 #bb1 #agb4 ,holy1 #aa1 #ac1 #ai4 ,holy ,spirit1 see ,christian community4 ,horace1 #i1 #ac1 #cj1 #gh4 ,odes on the ,augustan reformation1 #f1 #g4 his own feelings on religion1 #aj1 #bh4 on superstition1 #ag4 his conversion1 #ah4 ,human sacrifices1 #bf1 #ajg4 ,hymn of the ,soul1 ,gnostic1 #ae4 ,idols1 meat offered to1 #af4 ,ignatius1 #adf1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1 #afc1 #agd4 ,immortality1 #ca1 #fh-gj1 #ajd1 #aje1 #afc1 #afd1 #beb1 #bec4 ,incubation1 #bb1 #bc1 #ii1 #bba4 ,indians1 #bgj4 ,inspiration1 #ajc1 #afi1 #agd1 #bhg1 #ccc1 #cdb4 ,irenaeus1 #cbc4 ,isis1 #bb-bd1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #bce-bcg4 ,jesus1 see chapters iv4 and v4 generally2 see ,christ4 ,life of ,jesus hardly possible1 #aae4 dates available1 #aae4 his character can be known1 #aae1 #aaf4 his personality centre of ,christian movement1 #aaf1 #aci1 #ada1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aeg1 #aid1 #beg4 repeated in personality of his followers1 #aci1 #adj4 his style1 criticized by ,celsus1 #aag4 his conversation1 #aag-abj4 humour or playfulness in his talk1 #aah1 #aai1 #abg4 his manner1 #aai4 his fixed gaze1 #abc4 his parables as reminiscences1 #abj4 his childhood and youth1 #abj1 #aba4 his mother and father1 #abj1 #aba4 ,abba1 #aba1 #acg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #beg1 #bfj1 #bhf4 ,amen1 #abe4 on children1 #aba1 #abb4 on being born again1 #abb4 outdoor life1 #abb1 #abc4 on wild nature1 #abc2 cf4 #bfe4 his reality1 #abc-abg4 anger1 #abc4 on self-deception1 #abd4 on vulgar vices1 #abd4 on poverty and hunger1 #abd1 #abe2 cf4 #bfd1 #cdf4 energy of character1 #abe4 on traditional beliefs1 #abe4 his use of ,scripture1 #abf4 his temptations1 #abf-acj4 his weakness1 #abg1 #cdj4 the agony in the garden1 #abh1 #abi4 his betrayal1 #abh1 #abi4 his experience of men1 #abh1 #acj4 his disposition for private friendships1 #abi4 his belief in common men1 #acj happiness in ,god centre of his ,gospel1 #acj1 #acd1 #aej1 #afe1 #aff4 on holiness1 #aca-acc4 on rituals and taboos1 #acc4 on relation with ,god1 #acj1 #acc-ach4 his intuition1 #acd4 on ,fatherhood of ,god1 #acd-ace4 on likeness to ,god1 #ace4 on instinct1 #ace1 #acf4 on ,last ,judgment1 #acf4 on ,kingdom of ,god1 #acg4 on ,messiahship1 #abh1 #ach4 his cross1 #ach1 #aci1 #aec1 #afc1 #bej1 #bea1 #cjj1 #cjb4 the crown of thorns1 #bfe4 the spirit of ,jesus1 #aci1 #aej1 #afh4 ,christian teaching of resurrection1 #adf1 #afc1 #agc1 #cdj4 ,jesus in early ,church1 #aea4 theories as to ,jesus1 #aed-aeg1 #cdj4 second coming1 #afd1 #cda4 connexion with ,judaism1 #afg ,jewish slanders on ,jesus1 #agb1 #agc4 attack of ,celsus1 #agb1 #agc1 #bdi-beb4 better known than the ,logos1 #cch4 ,jews1 see ,judaism4 exiled from ,palestine1 #ahj4 set mobs against ,christians1 #afi1 #cbc1 #cbd4 ,john the ,baptist1 #aae4 ,judaism1 see ch4 vi4 generally4 among ,greeks and ,romans1 #aa1 #gj1 #ajc4 its history1 #afi-agb4 its ,messianic future1 #adc1 #agj-agb4 its morality1 #adc4 its casuistry1 #aca4 its tribal character1 #acb1 #add4 its taboos1 #aca1 #acb1 #agh4 its monotheism1 #adc1 #adf1 #afi1 #agb1 #agc4 its teaching on sin1 #add4 its ,scriptures1 #add1 #agd4 influence on ,greek readers1 #agf4 prophecy of ,christ in ,scriptures1 #ahc-aic4 ,judaism and ,jesus1 #afg4 ,judaism and ,paul1 #afg-afi4 resistance to ,christianity1 #afi-agd1 #ahj4 circumcision1 #aga1 #agg1 #agi1 #ahj4 ,sabbath1 #aa1 #acb1 #aga1 #agg-aha4 anti-,christian propaganda1 #agb1 #agc1 #cbd4 ,christian arguments against ,judaism1 #agf-aic4 ,jewish law temporary1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,julian1 #bc1 #afb1 #bfj4 ,julius ,caesar1 ,c41 #a1 #gh1 #cjg4 ,julius ,caesar 7,shakespeare's71 #aci4 ,juno 7guardian71 #ei4 ,jupiter ,capitolinus1 #ai4 ,justin ,martyr1 #gb1 #adh1 #afe1 #agf-aic1 #cah1 #cbc2 see ch4 vi4 generally4 ,juvenal1 #ba1 #bc1 #bd1 #ee1 #acb1 #bjb4 ,king1 term applied to ,roman ,emperor1 #cd1 #bef4 ,kyphi1 #ajc4 ,lactantius1 #ahc1 #bcg4 ,lares1 #e1 #aa1 #ad1 #bcc4 ,larvae1 #af4 ,lemures1 #af1 #bcc4 ,linen1 in religious ritual1 #bb1 #baa1 #bbd1 #bcj1 #bcf1 #ccj4 ,livy1 #h1 #ag4 ,logos spermaticos 7,stoic71 see ,greek ,index4 ,logos 7,christian71 #ach1 #aef1 #aeg1 #ahi2 see also under ,clement4 ,lucian1 see ch4 vii4 his origin and history1 #bja1 #bjb4 his ,dialogues1 #bjb f4 his mind and style1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bae4 on philosophy1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bji4 on the ,celestial ,city1 #bje4 on the gods1 #bji-baa4 on human life1 #bac-bae4 on superstition1 #bjf-bjh4 ,philopseudes1 #bjf-bjh4 on life after death1 #bad1 #bae4 on ,christians1 #afb1 #bab4 quoted1 pp4 #ec1 #afb1 #afc4 ,lucretius1 #ab1 #af1 #bj1 #cj1 #ga4 on religion1 #be1 #bf1 #bg4 on ,nature1 #be4 ,lupercal1 #e4 ,lupercalia1 #i4 ,magians1 #ac1 #ih1 #aje1 #bgj4 ,magic1 #ah1 #bjg1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bcc1 #bea1 #bef1 #cce4 ,mantic 7see ,oracles and ,daemons71 #aja4 ,marcion1 #aad1 #aic1 #cae1 #cag1 #ccg-cdj4 ,marcus ,aurelius1 ,emperor1 #fc1 #acj1 #aif-bja1 #baa1 #bbe1 #bea1 #cai4 criticism of ,christians1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bdd1 #bgd4 ,marriage1 #afj1 #bbi1 #bii1 #cjb1 #cjc4 ,martyrs1 #adf1 #afe1 #cai-cbf4 ,maximilla1 #afc1 #cdd4 ,maximin ,daza1 #afb1 #bfj4 ,menander1 #ii1 #bff1 #bfg4 ,messalina1 #dc1 #dd4 ,messiah1 #ach1 #aef1 #agj1 #agc4 ,metempsychosis1 #db1 #afd1 #beb4 ,mithras1 #aje1 #aia1 #baj1 #bef1 #bfj1 #cag1 #cah4 ,monarchy1 #cd4 ,monasticism1 #bd4 ,monotheism1 #ai1 #id1 #adc1 #adf1 #adh4 ,montanism1 #cbg1 #cdc1 #cdf4 ,moses before ,greek literature1 #agf1 #bha4 man before ,moses1 #cae4 a magician1 #bcj4 ,mother of the gods1 see ,cybele4 ,muhammad1 #aia4 ,mystagogue1 #gh1 #ii1 #bec1 #bfi ,mysteries1 #f1 #gf1 #ib1 #ade1 #aeh1 #bcj1 #bfi1 #bhd1 #bhg4 ,napoleon1 #dd4 ,nature1 in philosophy1 #cf1 #ci1 #eg1 #eh1 #ff1 #cad-cag4 ,necromancy1 #ii1 #aje4 ,neo-,platonism1 #aaa4 ,nero1 #dd-dg4 ,nicopolis1 #di4 ,numa1 ,king-- inventor of religion1 #h4 and the nymph1 ,egeria1 #ajj4 ,nursery tales1 #cjh4 ,octavian1 see ,augustus4 ,oinoanda1 #bag4 ,oracles1 #bbc1 #bee4 their numbers1 #gh4 their evidence as to gods1 #ib1 #bee4 as to immortality1 #ajd4 daemons and oracles1 #aja1 #ajb1 #bee2 see ,daemons4 oracle of ,trophonius1 #bbd1 #bee4 ,origen1 #aad4 his book against ,celsus2 see ch4 viii4 passim4 ,orpheus1 #ad1 #ih1 #agc1 #bha1 #bhc4 ,osiris1 #ih1 #aaa1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #ccj4 ,ovid1 #c1 #h1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #bc1 #ei4 ,pan and ,pans1 #ab1 #ac4 ,pantaenus1 #bff1 #bga4 ,pantheism1 #bi1 #ch1 #eh4 ,paul1 #adh-aej1 #aed-aef1 #afg-afi1 #agd1 #agg4 ,pausanias1 the traveller1 #bbb-bbe1 #bfh1 #bgj4 ,penates1 #h1 #ad4 ,peregrinus ,proteus1 #bab1 #bac4 ,perpetua1 the martyr1 #hh1 #bbi1 #cjh1 #cbd4 ,persius1 #da1 #ee1 #ef1 #fg1 #fh4 ,philo1 #abe1 #aec1 #aef1 #aid1 #bhi1 #bij4 ,photagogue1 #bfi4 ,piso's conspiracy1 #dg4 ,plagiarism1 #aag1 #beb1 #bha4 ,plato1 #cd1 #ej1 #gb1 #if1 #ig1 #ajb1 #aag1 #aah1 #ace1 #adi1 #bbi-bcb1 #bdd1 #bde1 #beb1 #bgj1 #bhe1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #bic1 #ccf1 #ccg4 ,pliny1 the ,elder1 #ac1 #ah1 #bf4 ,pliny1 the ,younger1 #hb1 #bjh1 #cca4 ,plotinus1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,plutarch1 see ch4 iii4 generally4 his history1 #gh-hh4 his city1 #gi1 #hb4 his family1 #gi-hj4 his friends1 #hj1 #ha4 his wife and children1 #he1 #hf4 his slaves1 #hf-hh4 his travels1 #ha4 his poor ,latin1 #ha4 his studies1 #hc4 his writings1 #hc-he4 his character1 #hc-he1 #hi1 #aje4 his philosophy1 #hi-ia1 #aje1 #aaj4 defect in his thinking1 #hc1 #he1 #aaj1 #aaa4 value of his work1 #ij1 #aaj1 #aaa4 the ancient faith of our fathers1 #gf1 #hi4 on the knowledge of the divine1 #ia-ic4 on ,absolute ,being and transcendence of ,god1 #ic1 #id1 #ig1 #aje4 ,providence and the government of the universe1 #ic-if4 on deputy gods and daemons 7q4v471 #id-ajb4 the guardian1 #ii4 on ,mantic 7oracles1 divination1 etc471 #ajj-ajc4 on superstition1 #ajc4 on pleasures of faith1 #gf1 #ajd4 on immortality1 #ajd1 #aje4 on evil1 #aje4 his apocalypses1 #aje4 on defence of tradition1 #gf1 #ajf-ajh1 #aaa4 on purification of legends1 #ajf-ajh4 on questionable rituals1 #ajg1 #ajh4 on the ,stoics1 #fd1 #ff1 #fh1 #gb1 #gc1 #hb1 #id1 #ie1 #ig1 #ii4 quoted1 ch4 iii4 passim2 also pp4 #db1 #ef1 #fj1 #ff1 #fh1 #gb1 #gc1 #acf4 ,polybius1 on ,roman religion1 #c-d4 ,polycarp1 #afe4 ,pontifex ,maximus1 #f1 #cbg4 ,porphyry1 #ii4 ,prisca1 #afc1 #cdd4 ,propertius1 #h4 ,prudentius1 #g1 #aa4 ,psychomanteion1 #ii4 ,punic language1 etc41 #bbi1 #cjh1 #cai4 ,pythagoras1 #db1 #ee1 #if1 #agc4 ,quintilian1 #i1 #dc1 #dh4 ,religion-- nature of1 #ai4 development of1 #bd4 ,oriental1 #bd4 polytheism knows no false gods1 #be4 how to judge religions1 #dj4 city cults1 #ef4 ,gospels1 #ef4 and philosophy1 #acb4 ,see also ,jesus1 ,christian community1 and ,plutarch4 ,rhetoric1 #cg1 #da1 #dc1 #hb1 #he1 #bjb1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bca1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #caj4 ,rome-- her empire gift of gods1 #g1 #hb1 #ccd4 government of empire1 #a1 #b1 #cc1 #ada4 rise of superstition1 #ah4 under the ,emperors1 #cc-cg4 influence of ,stoics1 #ci4 women of ,rome1 #da1 #ea-eb4 its crowds of people1 #dg1 #dh4 as a school for virtue1 #di4 ,plutarch at ,rome1 #ha4 art collections1 #ade4 ,sabbath1 #aa1 #acb1 #aga4 ,sacrifice1 human1 #bf1 #ajg4 ,salvation1 #ed1 #fg1 #aea4 ,satyrs1 #ab1 #ac4 ,scepticism1 #baf1 #bag4 ,scillitan martyrs1 #cai4 ,scriptures source of ,greek philosophy1 #agf1 #bha1 #bhe4 ,sealskin1 as protection against thunder1 #f4 ,self-examination1 #ed1 #ee4 ,seneca1 see ch4 ii4 generally4 his history1 #da-dg4 his parents1 #da1 #dc4 his teachers1 #da-dc4 his style1 #dc4 exile1 #dc-dd4 minister1 #dd-df4 his end1 #dg4 his character1 #dg-di4 his books1 #de1 #df4 his letters1 #dh4 his teaching1 #di4 on popular gods and superstition1 #ag1 #di4 self-examination1 #ed4 quoted1 ch4 ii4 passim2 also pp4 #ae1 #ca1 #ia4 ,serapis1 #ba-bd4 ,servius1 commentator on ,virgil1 #h1 #ae4 ,servius ,sulpicius1 #aj4 ,servius ,tullius1 #ad4 ,sextus ,empiricus1 #d1 #baf1 #bag4 ,slavery1 #cf1 #eb4 ,socrates1 #ch1 #gb1 #gc1 #aag1 #adh1 #bcc4 ,solomon1 ,psalms of1 #agj4 ,sotion1 a ,pythagorean1 #db4 ,spermaticos ,logos1 see ,greek ,index4 ,sterculus1 #ccd4 ,stoicism1 see chap4 ii4 generally2 see ,epictetus1 ,marcus ,aurelius1 and ,seneca2 see ,greek ,index for ,spermaticos ,logos and other technical terms4 unity of existence1 #cg1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh1 #ig1 #cad4 man a fragment of ,god1 #ch1 #eh1 #fj4 the soul1 #ch4 ,god1 #eh4 polytheism and personality of gods1 #gj1 #gc1 #gf1 #ie4 worship of ,god1 #eg4 ,god within1 #fa1 #adh4 ,holy ,spirit1 #fa1 #fe4 ,providence1 #ch1 #ei-fa1 #ga4 harmony with ,nature1 #ci1 #ff4 argument from consensus1 #fh1 #ia4 divination1 #af1 #ag1 #ib4 daemons1 #ei1 #gj4 the guardian1 #eh1 #ei4 the example1 #gb1 #gc4 fatalism1 #fj4 prayer1 #ff1 #aii1 #bjj4 endurance1 #fj4 duty1 #fa4 the hymn to ,zeus1 #fa1 #afe4 mankind1 #fc4 failure of ,stoicism1 #fc f41 #fg1 #ge4 on pity1 #fe4 the will1 #fe-fh4 the feelings1 #ff4 sin1 #fg1 #fh immortality1 #fh-gj1 #afd4 the final conflagration1 #fi1 #gb1 #afd4 criticism of ,stoicism among the ancients1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga-gc1 #hb1 #ie1 #ig1 #ii1 #afd1 #bje1 #bjf1 #baf1 #bhe1 #bhh1 #bia4 ,strabo1 the ,geographer1 #bf1 #bbc4 ,superstition1 see chs4 i4 and vii4 no refuge in sleep from it1 #ag1 #aji4 practices1 #aji1 #bcj4 beliefs1 #bjf-bjh4 ,syriac1 #bja4 ,syrians1 #ef1 #ajc1 #bjg4 ,taboos1 #aca1 #acb4 ,tacitus1 #cc1 #cg4 ,tatian1 #ade-adg1 #adh1 #afd1 #bga1 #cah4 ,taurobolium1 #fg1 #gj4 ,tertullian1 see ch4 x4 generally4 conventional accounts of him1 #cje1 #cjf1 #cac4 his work1 #cjf4 his history1 #cjg-cbb4 his education1 #cjh-caj4 his rhetoric1 #cji-caa4 his mind and style1 #caa1 #cab1 #cbe1 #ccj1 #cdf4 his literary interests1 #cji1 #cba4 his interest in medicine1 #cji4 his interest in law1 #cji1 #ccj1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cci1 #cdj4 his ,stoicism1 #cad4 on ,nature1 #cad-cag4 ,nature's beauty1 #cag4 as to asceticism1 #caf1 #cde4 on man1 #caf4 his conversion1 #cah-cba4 testimonium animae1 #cae1 #cbj1 #ccc4 on ,god1 #cae-cag1 #cbh4 on sin1 #cbg4 on forgiveness1 #cbg4 on baptism1 #cbg-cbi4 on the ,scriptures1 #cae1 #ccb1 #ccc4 on prophecies of ,christ in ,old ,testament1 #agh-ahj1 #ahd1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aic4 on philosophy and philosophers1 #ccf-cch4 on heresy and heretics1 #cch-cda4 on idolatry1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbi4 on war1 #cab4 on theatre1 #cac4 on amphitheatre1 #cab1 #cac1 #cbd4 on marriage and child-birth1 #cad1 #caf1 #cde4 on ,christian life1 #cce4 on trade1 #cbi4 on persecution1 #cah-cbj1 #cbc-cbf4 on martyrdom1 #cai-cba1 #cbd-cbg4 his ,apology1 #ccj-ccf4 on the ,church1 #cdc f4 on ,montanism1 #cdd f4 on ecstasy1 #cde4 on the ,paraclete1 #cdd4 on pagan gods1 #g4 ,tertullian quoted1 chs4 vi4 and x4 passim2 also pp4 #ag1 #ah1 #ga1 #gc1 #ic1 #ajc1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #acg1 #adb1 #adc1 #adh1 #afj1 #afa1 #afe1 #aff1 #aig1 #bab1 #bdj1 #bdc1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bej1 #bea1 #bed1 #bef4 ,theophilus1 #adh1 #cah4 ,thoreau1 #cbf4 ,thrasea ,paetus1 #dj1 #de1 #aea4 ,tiberius1 #cc1 #cd4 ,tibullus1 #aa4 ,tongues1 speaking with1 #adb1 #adi1 #aec1 #agd4 ,tragedies1 #cg4 ,trajan1 #ce1 #cca4 ,trees1 holy1 #ac1 #bcj4 ,trophonius1 oracle of1 #bbd1 #bee4 ,trypho1 ch4 vi4 passim4 ,valentinus and his school1 #bii1 #cjh1 #cdj4 ,varro-- on national value of deceit in religion1 #e1 #cdc4 his books on the gods1 #h1 #i1 #cji4 counted an enemy of religion1 #h1 #aj ,vegetarianism1 #bd1 #db1 #ajh4 ,virgil1 see ch4 i41 #bh-cb4 his history1 #bh4 the civil wars1 #a1 #bh4 ,italy1 #bh4 on ,nature1 #bi4 on ,man1 #ca4 on religion1 #ca1 #cb4 ,virgin-births1 #ajj1 #ahi-aib1 #bii1 #ccd ,wells1 holy1 #ac4 ,witches1 #ig1 #bcc4 ,wordsworth1 #b1 #cj1 #fd1 #gg1 #hf4 ,xenophanes1 #af1 #aaa1 #bib4 ,zeno1 #ci1 #gb1 #ccc4 ,zoology1 ancient1 #aha1 #bbi4 ,zoroaster1 #ih1 #aje1 #bcj4 #cei ,,greek ,,index apatheia1 #ff1 #cjb4 apathes1 #bia1 #bib1 #big1 #bii4 aporroia1 #aec1 #cjd1 apospasma tou theou1 #ch4 autarkes1 #ca4 genesis1 #bc1 #fa1 #ih4 gignestha1 #gj4 daimon1 #ci2 see ,daemons4 dogmata1 #fe1 #aii4 entheos1 #ib1 #aec2 cf4 #agd4 enthousiodes1 #ajb4 ennoia1 #ef1 #bdd1 #bha1 #bie4 epekeina1 #bde4 theomachein1 #fe1 #aji4 theotokos1 #ba4 theophortos1 #ba4 kosmios1 #ch1 #fd4 krasis1 #ajb4 logos1 see spermatikos logos4 hola1 ta1 #ei1 #bij1 #bia4 pathetos1 #aee1 #ahi1 #big4 pathos1 #ff1 #ajc4 pneuma1 #aja1 #ajb1 #bie4 pneuma diapuron1 #ch4 pneuma enthousiastikon1 #ajb4 politeia tou kosmou1 #ci4 proairesis1 #fe1 #bgi4 spermatikos logos1 #cg1 #ef1 #fd1 #ga1 #gg1 #adh1 #aef4 ta epi soi1 #ci1 #fe1 #ff4 phantasiai1 #ci1 #ea1 #aja1 #baf4 phantastikon1 to1 #ajc4 ,,printed ,,by ,,turnbull ,,and ,,spears1 ,,edinburgh