,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,v>iations 9 spell+ & hyph5ation h be5 left z 9 ! orig9al4 ,words 9 italics 9 ! orig9al are surr\nd$ by und]scores4 ,words 9 bold 9 ! orig9al are surr\nd$ by equal signs4 ,ellipses mat* ! orig9al4 ,a few typographical errors h be5 correct$4 ,a complete li/ z well z o!r notes foll[s ! text4 ,,disease ,,9 ,,plants ,,disease ,,9 ,,plants ,,by ,h4 ,,m>%all ,,w>d1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,fell[ ,,( ,,sidney ,,sussex ,,college1 ,,honor>y ,,fell[ ,,( ,,*ri/',s ,,college ,,& ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,botany ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,cambridge ,,presid5t ,,( ,,! ,,briti% ,,mycological ,,society1 ,,& ,,fell[ ,,( ,,! ,,l9nean ,,& ,,royal ,,horticultural ,,societies2 ,,honor>y ,,fell[ ,,( ,,! ,,man*e/] ,,lit]>y ,,& ,,philosophical ,,society ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,botanical ,,society ,,( ,,ed9burgh ,london ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,new ,,york3 ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company #aija ,all rights ,res]v$ ,,glasg[3 ,,pr9t$ ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,by ,,rob]t ,,maclehose ,,& ,,co4 ,,preface4 ,x has (t5 be5 repres5t$ to me t ! cultivators ( plants1 among :om are to be includ$ plant]s & =e/]s1 z well z agriculturi/s & g>d5]s ( e k9d1 are m p>ticul>ly conc]n$ )1 & int]e/$ 91 ! maladies !mselves ( ! plants !y gr[1 ?an 9 ! life-hi/ory ( ! fungi1 insects or o!r organisms to :i* !y are due1 or 9 ! physiological processes :i* are involv$2 & al?\gh x is impossible to really und]/& any disease unless we also und]/& ! processes by :i* x is br\ght ab\t1 !re is room = sympa?y ) ! po9t ( view ( ! cultivator4 ,he says1 9 effect1 ,i d n want to "k all ab\t ! biology ( ! fungus ( :eat-ru/1 or ( ! phyllox]a1 nor d ,i want to le>n :at exp]ts c tell me ab\t ! action ( bact]ia 9 soil1 or ! process ( />*-=mation 9 ! leaves3 ,i h nei!r ! "t nor ! means to ma/] ^! details4 ,:at ,i want is guidance z to :at is wrong ) my tomatoes1 apple trees1 *rysan!mums1 fir trees1 turnips1 etc41 & :at ,i am to d to set ?+s "r4 ,j s4 ,) ! latt] "p ( ?is cry "o mu/ sympa?ize1 mu* z a doctor does ) ! wail ( ! p>5t :o calls him 9 to cure 8 sick *ild--we ne$ n /op to classify or comp>e ! motives ( ! p>5t & ! cultivator1 & p]haps ,i _h done bett] to select a bre$] ( %eep ) 8 flock & a vet]9>y doctor 9 ! illu/ration1 b we w let x pass2 & z reg>ds ! =m] "p ( ! cry1 ,i d n "k t ! plant-doctor c expect ! cultivator to be initiat$ 9 ! aetiology ( ! disease any m ?an ! physician expects ! p>5t to und]/& ! biology ( ! typhoid bacillus4 ,t bo? ! cultivator & ! p>5t w\ld be ! bett] = a real k ( ! disease 9 ei!r case mu/ be admitt$--nay insi/$ on1 provid$ ! k is real--b we h to deal ) facts1 & x is a fact t ! cli5ts ( bo? doctors are impati5t ( ! details ( ! case4 ,n[1 ( c\rse1 ,i am aw>e t no %ort cut or royal road to sci5ce exi/s1 & if a man is go+ to tra9 up trees or o!r plants1 he ought to "k all ab\t !m 9 heal? & 9 sickness1 9 y\? & 9 old age1 & he ought to le>n ev]y?+ ab\t ! soil !y gr[ 91 ! air t surr\nds !m1 ! enemies t beset !m1 & all ! multif>i\s relations ( ^! "o to ano!r2 b :5 ,i look at my boy & reflect h[ mu* 8 nurse1 8 s*oolma/]1 8 tutor1 8 doctor1 & 8 p>5ts ought to "k successively & simultane\sly ab\t him 9 sickness & 9 heal?1 & ab\t 8 surr\nd+s1 etc41 ,i beg9 to wond] :e!r !re is n aft] all some?+ to be said = ! cultivator's po9t ( view4 ,moreov]1 ! cultivator kn[s a good deal ab\t 8 plants :i* ,i d n "k1 & al?\gh ,i %\ld mu* l to "k x1 8 plea ( want ( "t r+s 9 my e>s & ! conviction /rikes home t "o ought to try & meet 8 views1 & tell him some?+ ab\t disease z manife/$ 9 plants )\t insi/+ on 8 becom+ a pr(essional mycologi/1 entomologi/1 agricultural *emi/1 & philosoph]4 ,( c\rse1 beyond a c]ta9 po9t1 x is 8 look\t h[ mu* ! in=mation is wor?1 & its educational value--a v diff]5t matt]--is sure to suff] f any re/rictions impos$ on ! treatm5t ( ! subject2 b if ! !me ( disease 9 plants1 treat$ f a g5]al po9t ( view--,i 0 ab\t to write treat$ 9 a popul> mann]1 b t is impossible until physiology & mycology are m widely taught--enables him to und]/& bett] ! que/ions he puts to himself1 &1 /ill m1 if x /imulates him to enquire fur!r into ! inexhau/ible field ( sci5ce glimps$ at1 some?+ may come ( x4 ,! purpose ( ^! essays is to treat ! subject ( disease 9 plants ) special ref]5ce to ! pati5t itself1 & to describe ! symptoms x exhibits & ! c\rse ( ! malady1 ) only su* ref]5ces to ! ag5ts :i* induce or cause disease z are necess>y to an intellig5t und]/&+ ( ! subject1 & ( ! k9d ( treatm5t call$ =4 ,consequ5tly ,i h avoid$ any unnecess>y classification or elaborate descriptions ( p>asitic fungi or insects1 hi/ological details ( ! tissues ( plants1 *emical & physical details reg>d+ ! soil1 & ev5 matt]s purely physiological z f> z possible4 ,sev]al admirable works on ^! subjects are already available1 & mu/ be ref]r$ to = fur!r details4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 q out ( ! "q to avoid te*nicalities1 ?\gh ,i h *os5 ! simpl] c\rse :]ev] x 0 f\nd feasible1 & h tri$ to s employ ! examples select$ t ! /ud5t :o wi%es to g fur!r into ! matt]s dealt ) may turn to special treatises = fur!r in=mation4 ,= "o em95tly te*nical section ,i ought p]haps to apologise1 b ! temptation to try & set =?1 9 concrete =m & suitable = ! purposes ( ?is book1 "s acc\nt ( :at is kn[n ( ! mo/ ess5tial & pr(\nd factors conc]n$ 9 ! difficult "q ( ! nature ( life & dea?1 heal? & disease1 0 great4 ,probably my apology %\ld g fur!r1 & apply to :at aft] all mu/ be failure to explore ?is my/]y to ! bottom3 my only excuse mu/ be t x may /imulate o!rs to g fur!r4 ,x 0 an aft]?\ght to add1 9 ,"p ,i41 ! consid]ations on ! factors :i* influ5ce ! plant reg>d$ z a liv+ ma*9e1 s to speak1 9 ord] t ! /ud5t may ! bett] appreh5d ! po9t ( view tak5 ( ! be>+s ( ! matt]s discuss$ 9 ,"p ,,ii4 ,) reg>d to ref]5ces1 x seem$ a bett] plan to give1 9 ! =m ( notes aft] ea* *apt]1 ! titles ( ! pr9cipal books & pap]s on :i* a /ud5t may base a fur!r c\rse ( read+1 ?an to ov]weight ! pages ( :at is1 aft] all1 m]ely an introductory sket* to a huge subject1 ) detail$ quotations f ! num]\s s\rces ( in=mation made use (4 ,i h freely express$ my own op9ions1 b ! s\rces = o!rs are1 ,i hope1 z freely giv54 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be und]/ood t ,i h n aim$ at a complete bibliography1 &1 p>ticul>ly1 ,i h only giv5 =eign ref]5ces :]e x seem$ t adequate treatm5t ( ! subject c\ld n be f\nd 9 ,engli%4 ,my s9c]e ?anks are due to ,mr4 ,f4 ,d>w91 ,f4,r4,s41 :o has k9dly look$ ?r\gh _m ( ! pro(s1 & giv5 me ! b5efit ( sev]al sugge/ions3 & to my wife = ! v mat]ial aid %e has af=d$ me 9 ! prep>ation ( ! index4 ,h4 ,,m>%all ,,w>d4 ,,cambridge1 ,novemb]1 #aijj4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,"p ,i4--,,"s ,,factors4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,page ,,! ,,plant ,,& ,,its ,,surr\nd+s1 #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,plant ,,& ,,its ,,food1 #g ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,plant ,a ,,liv+ ,,ma*9e1 #ae ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,metabolism1 #bc ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,roots ,,& ,,root-,,hairs1 #ce ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,functions ,,( ,,root-,,hairs1 #de ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,biology ,,( ,,soil1 #ef ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,hybridisation ,,& ,,selection1 #fi ,,"p ,,ii4--,,disease ,,9 ,,plants4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,phytopa?ology4 ,,d]ivation ,,& ,,mean+1 #he ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,heal? ,,& ,,disease1 #ia ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,causes ,,( ,,disease1 #ii ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,causes ,,( ,,disease4 ,,! ,,liv+ ,,environm5t1 #ajh ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,nature ,,( ,,disease1 #aai ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,nature ,,( ,,disease 7,cont9u$71 #acj ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,spread+ ,,( ,,disease ,,& ,,epidemics1 #adb ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,factors ,,( ,,an ,,epidemic1 #adi ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,rem$ial ,,measures1 #aei ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,v>iation ,,& ,,disease1 #afh ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,symptoms ,,( ,,disease1 #agi ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,symptoms ,,( ,,disease 7,cont9u$71 #ahf ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,artificial ,,w\nds1 #aid ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,natural ,,w\nds1 #bjd ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,excresc5ces1 #bab ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,excresc5ces 7,cont9u$71 #bbb ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,exudations ,,& ,,rott+1 #bbg ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,necrotic ,,diseases1 #bdj ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,mon/rosities ,,& ,,mal=mations1 #bdf ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,prolif]ations1 #beg ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,grafts1 #bfb ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,life ,,& ,,dea?1 #bga ,,index1 #bic ,,"p ,i4 ,,"s ,,factors4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,plant ,,& ,,its ,,surr\nd+s4 ,! plant ! c5tral object ( /udy--soil1 climate1 atmosph]e1 etc41 are factors ( its environm5t4 ,agricultural *emi/ry4 ,! plant a ma*9e4 ,physiology4 ,if ,i 7 ask$ to sum up ! mo/ important result ( ! num]\s advances made dur+ ! pa/ decade 9 agriculture & =e/ry1 ,i %\ld reply--! cle>] & wid] recognition ( ! fact t ! plant itself is ! c5tre ( ! subject1 & n ! soil1 climate1 season1 or o!r factors ( its environm5t4 ,until comp>atively rec5t times x 0 ! habit ( f>m]s1 =e/]s1 plant]s1 & g>d5]s1 all ! _w ov]1 to look ^u ! plant z a m]e item or z a my/]i\s if important "o 9 _! calculations1 & to reg>d ! soil z ! *ief factor 9 _! /udies4 ,n[ all is *ang+1 & ! _w is gradually awak5+ m & m to ! recognition ( ! tru? t ! soil & ! cl\ds & ! atmosph]e are m]ely res]voirs ( m or less in]t mat]ials1 f :i* ! liv+ plant draws its supplies1 & works !m up1 by means ( en]gy focuss$ f ! sun1 into new plant sub/ance4 ,9 o!r words1 ! m f>-see+ pione]s ( sci5tific agriculture & =e/ry1 etc41 are recognis+ t agricultural *emi/ry is n ! be-all & end-all ( agricultural sci5ce2 b t1 9 place ( ! /udy ( ! *emical analyses ( dead soil1 wat]1 air1 & plant-rema9s1 :i* has s long held sway1 l>gely ow+1 ,i ?9k1 to ! influ5ce ( ,liebig1 ! /ud5t %\ld h 8 att5tion m conc5trat$ on ! liv+ plant itself & on ! physiological actions :i* make up its life4 ,he mu/ reg>d ! liv+ plant z a sort ( work+ ma*9e--inf9itely m complex ?an any ma*9e made by man1 b a ma*9e nev]!less--! purpose ( :i* is to /ore up en]gy f ! sun1 & s to add to our weal? on ?is planet1 at ! exp5se ( ! extra-t]re/rial univ]se4 ,x is n1 be x not$1 t ! new /udy proposes to ignore or ab&on ! old /udies3 mod]n physiology owes too mu* to ! physics & *emi/ry on :i* x is p>tly bas$1 & to ! lab\rs ( ,de ,saussure1 ,+5h\sz1 ,prie/ley1 & o!rs1 = t4 ,b x is t ! new /udy recognises t ! c5tral po9t1 to :i* all views mu/ be focuss$1 is n ! "o t x 0 =m]ly suppos$ to be4 ,! /ud5t is /ill taught t ! *emi/ry ( soils yields valuable in=mation1 & t lessons ( importance are d]iv$ f comp>isons ( ! analyses ( ! a%es1 etc41 ( plants2 b he is no long] able to *]i% ! hope1 h[ev] remotely1 t su* /udies solve 8 mo/ important problems4 ,! sc5e--or r ! po9t to :i* att5tion is n[ direct$--is ! liv+1 work+1 en]gy-accumulat+ plant itself1 & n ! dead /ore ( mat]ials 9 ! soil4 ,! reason = ! *ange is n f> to seek3 x is due to ! enorm\s /rides made 9 ! /udy ( ! physiology ( plants dur+ ! la/ qu>t] ( a c5tury1 & ! subject ab\nds 9 examples illu/rat+ ! m>vell\s advances t h be5 made1 & at ! same "t %[+ h[1 9 ! progress ( rese>*es1 made = _! own sake--i4e4 9 pursuit ( satisfaction = ! int5se curiosity ( ! sci5tific man--all k9ds ( side issues turn up :i* prove to be ( value 9 practice1 & sugge/ive ( fur!r ?9k+4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury--i4e4 ab\t #ahbj--! be/ ?9k]s 7 giv+ up ! old ideas t ! environm5t suppli$ food1 z su*1 to plants1 & _h recognis$ t ! plant takes up sub/ances f )\t & re>ranges ^! 9 its own body4 ,! next tw5ty ye>s or s =m a v d>k int]val 9 plant physiology1 *iefly ow+ to ! influ5ce ( ! assumption ( a special vital =ce1 an assumption :i* 0 n all[$ m]ely to s]ve z a hypo!sis put =w>d to /imulate rese>* & sugge/ bett] ideas1 b :i* ga9$ a hold ov] m5's p[]s ( reason+ to an ext5t :i* n[ appe>s mon/r\s & ph5om5al4 ,_m errors crept 9 dur+ ?is reign ( t]ror1 "o ( ! mo/ fatal ( :i* 0 ,de ,c&olle's revival ( ! idea ( spongioles2 & ano!r1 equally disa/r\s 9 _m ( its effects1 0 ! conception ( a sort ( vegetable food-extract1 humus1 exi/+ 9 ! soil 9 a =m peculi>ly suitable = direct use by plants4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is p]iod t ! confusion betwe5 ! processes ( respiration & c>bon-dioxide assimilation arose1 & ex]t$ its effects = evil into our own day4 ,! n[ a/\nd+ /atem5t t oxyg5-respiration 9 plants did n occur1 laid ! f\ndation ( _m subsequ5t difficulties1 & s did ! positive & au?oritative views on ! uses ( m9]als to ! plant4 ,liebig1 9 fact1 /ood 9 ! invidi\s position ( be+ a high au?ority on purely *emical que/ions1 :o 0 impell$ to give op9ions on matt]s :i* c only be solv$ by physiological exp]im5ts3 8 great s]vice 0 to cle> up mi/akes z reg>ds ! *emi/ry ( soils & ( plants--8 great mi/akes 7 due to 8 pron\nc+ on physiological matt]s2 & x may be d\bt$ :e!r 8 great s]vices to ! purely *emical side ( subjects connect$ ) agricultural matt]s are ! m to be admir$1 or ! disa/r\s influ5ce ( 8 /atem5ts on subjects :i* d n belong to ! doma9 ( *emi/ry %\ld be ! m deplor$4 ,be t z x may1 he h&$ on to succe$+ g5]ations "s weighty errors z reg>ds plant-life1 & taught ! agriculturi/ to reg>d *emical analyses ( soils & plant a%es ) a rev]5ce :i* ob/ruct$ progress = "s "t4 ,z a set-(f to ?is we mu/ place 8 contributions to ! de/ruction ( ! bugbe> vitalism1 :i* 0 simply prev5t+ enquiry1 & 8 s]vices 9 br++ toge!r & sift+ ) p[] & orig9ality all t _h be5 !n acquir$ z reg>ds ! *emi/ry ( ! plant1 ! soil1 & ! atmosph]e4 ,t ,liebig 0 indisp5sable 9 #ahdj-ahej is "o ?+2 b t 8 influ5ce %\ld ext5d to ! pres5t day is q ano!r1 & 8 inevitable mi/akes 7 almo/ z p[]ful = future evil1 z 8 cle> exposition ( ! *emi/ry ( 8 day 0 productive ( imm$iate good4 ,b\ss+ault1 work+ at ! same "t1 #ahcg-ahee1 b exp]im5tally ) ! liv+ plant1 taught u m ab\t ^! matt]s ?an any inve/igator ( ! "t1 ?\gh x is v probable t ! /imulus ( ,liebig's speculations1 good & bad1 _h its effect 9 impell+ ,b\ss+ault to devote 8 spl5did me?ods to problems ( plant-nutrition4 ,b\ss+ault's contributions to our k ( ! composition ( ! dead plant _c be ov]-e/imat$2 b he did m ?an ?is1 because he s cle>ly appreh5d$ ! necessity = ask+ 8 que/ions directly ( ! liv+ plant1 in/ead ( d$uc+ f *emical pr9ciples :at might be suppos$ to occur 9 x2 & al?\gh future rese>*es %[$ t ev5 s c>eful an inve/igator solv$ a problem ( fir/ importance--viz4 ! "q ( ! fixation ( free nitrog5--! wrong way1 x w be f\nd t s f> z he did g 8 conclusions 7 s\nd1 & well calculat$ to inspire ! confid5ce ) :i* ! _w receiv$ !m4 ,z we are "h conc]n$ m especially ) ! botany ( agriculture1 h[ev]1 x is unnecess>y to dwell long] on ^! matt]s1 or on ! simil> & ev5 m ext5sive exp]im5ts1 ( _w-wide reputation1 c>ri$ on = s _m ye>s1 & /ill be+ c>ri$ on "u ! lib]al auspices ( ,sir ,john ,lawes1 at ,ro?am/$4 ,moreov] x may be necess>y to return to "s ( ^! po9ts lat] on4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,i4 ,! read] w f9d a fur!r g5]al acc\nt ( ^! matt]s 9 ,sa*s' ,lectures on ! ,physiology ( ,plants1 especially ,lectures ,i4 & ,,xii41 ,engl4 ed41 ,ox=d1 #ahhg4 ,he may !n proce$ to ,pfeff]'s ,physiology ( ,plants1 ,engl4 ed41 #ahii1 *apt] ,i41 & to ! acc\nt ( ! hi/ory ( ! subject 9 ,sa*s' ,hi/ory ( ,botany1 ,ox=d1 #ahij1 especially pp4 #cei-cge & #dde-ebd4 ,ref]5ces to m special lit]ature w be f\nd 9 ,pfeff]4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,plant ,,& ,,its ,,food4 ,! food ( plants--,vital =ce--,o!r errors--,liebig & ,b\ss+ault--,! botany ( agriculture4 ,! syn!sis ( c>bohydrates--,! physiology ( plant-nutrition4 ,! p]si/5ce ( misconceptions4 ,! ye> #ahfj may be reg>d$ z a l&m>k ( importance 9 ! hi/ory ( plant physiology1 = x 0 9 t ye> t ,sa*s discov]$ t ! br++ toge!r ( wat] & c>bon-dioxide1 9 ! gre5 *lorophyll-corpuscles ( ! plant expos$ to sunlight1 results 9 ! =mation ( ! gra9s ( />* f\nd 9 ^! corpuscles4 ,previ\s to ?is date ,dutro*et 7#ahbf-cg7 _h introduc$ ! !n crude idea ( osmosis into physiology2 vegetable anatomy _h improv$1 & ! mod]n conceptions ( ! liv+ cell1 protoplasm1 nucleus1 etc41 7 sl[ly loom+2 sieve-tubes _h be5 discov]$1 & ! proteids & />* 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! plant exam9$2 & ! sugge/ion 0 abroad1 replac+ ,liebig's idea t plant acids 7 ! fir/ products ( c>bon-assimilation1 t "s sub/ance1 ( a slimy nature1 0 manufactur$ 9 ! cells ( ! leaves & !nce di/ribut$ z ! =mative mat]ial f :i* ! plant con/ruct$ its p>ts4 ,davy & ,b\ss+ault _h ev5 surmis$ t a c>bohydrate might be ! fir/-=m$ product 9 assimilation4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ,sa*s' classical pro(1 by direct physiological obs]vation & exp]im5t1 fir/ br\ght =w>d ! tru? ( organic syn!sis 9 ! plant 9 a concrete & conv9c+ =m4 ,b x did m ?an t4 ,x laid ! f\ndation ( ! mod]n physiology ( plant-nutrition on gr\nd already prep>$ by ,de ,saussure & ! e>li] work]s2 =1 9 addition to emphasis+ ! tru? ( organic syn!sis--a tru? :i* _h be5 gradually impress+ itself on ! _w = "s ye>s--,sa*s' discov]y %[$ cle>ly ! real mean+ ( c>bon-assimilation z a process = obta9+ combu/ible food1 :i* ! plant !n proce$s to make use (4 ,_m po9ts 7 rapidly cle>$ up at once1 or if n expla9$ 7 at lea/ put into a /rong light = fur!r enquiry1 & plant-nutrition soon ceas$ to be ! my/]i\s subject = all k9ds ( wild conjectures t x _h hi!rto be54 ,! mean+ ( ?9 leaves1 ) num]\s /omata & f9ely ramifi$ or divid$ vascul> bundles1 became m app>5t1 z also did ! significance ( ! asc5d+ transpiration curr5t2 ! /orage ( />*-gra9s 9 tub]s1 m$ull>y rays1 roots1 se$s1 etc41 obta9$ mean+s n und]/ood be=e2 ! spread ( roots 9 ! soil1 & ! gradually discov]$ prop]ties ( ! f9] rootlets & ( ! root-hairs1 fitt$ naturally into _! places2 &1 9 %ort1 a ?\s& facts1 o!rwise isolat$1 became collat$ into an intelligible sy/em1 full ( sugge/ions = new "w1 su* z has s9ce gone on & is n[ be+ pursu$ ) an activity & success nev] be=e realis$ 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,z "t w5t on1 :ile ! g5]al tru? ( ,sa*s' views 0 confirm$1 a numb] ( detail$ discov]ies 7 made :i* seem$ to contradict !m 9 c]ta9 po9ts4 ,x 0 f\nd t n all leaves =m />*1 = "s conta9 sug> or oil2 b ,holle & ,godlewski prov$ exp]im5tally t ?is oil may be replac$ by />* if ! conditions ( assimilation are slightly modifi$4 ,m rec5tly ,heb]t discov]$ t ! /alks & leaves ( grasses conta9 a peculi> =m ( gum1 :i* 0 =m]ly conf\nd$ ) />*1 a sub/ance n abundant 9 !m4 ,!n came ,s*imp]'s discov]y ( />*-=m+ corpuscles1 :i*1 if suppli$ ) sug>1 are able to =m />*-gra9s 9 ! d>k1 z 9 tub]s1 etc41 und]gr\nd2 & z subsequ5t rese>*es h prov$ t ! *lorophyll-corpuscles--:i* are morphologically ! same z ! />*-=m+ corpuscles & c be replac$ by !m--are also able to =m />*-gra9s f sug>1 z prov$ by ! exp]im5ts ( ,boehm1 ,acton1 ,mey]1 ,laur5t1 ,bokorny1 ,sapos*nik(f1 & o!rs1 x soon became evid5t t no?+ ess5tial ne$$ alt]+ 9 ,sa*s' view t />* is ! fir/ visible product ( c>bon-dioxide assimilation1 only x became cle>] t ! />*-gra9s are built up by ! protoplasm f glucose or "s simil> body1 & repres5t s _m packets ( res]ve mat]ials put by = ! pres5t because n requir$ = ! imm$iate ne$s ( ! cell4 ,b\ss+ault %[$1 ab\t ?irty ye>s ago1 t assimilation soon /ops 9 gre5 leaves if cut (f f ! plant1 n because ! leaves die1 b ow+ to "s maximum capacity be+ atta9$4 ,sa*s _h %[n t ! />* passes d[n to o!r p>ts ( ! plant 9 solution z glucose4 ,nei!r "t nor space w p]mit me to g into ! enorm\s field ( rese>* & results op5$ up by ^! & simil> obs]vations made betwe5 #ahfj-gj4 ,x mu/ suffice to say t !y l$ to ! discov]y & /udy ( ! dia/atic & o!r enzymes 9 ! leaves & o!r gre5 p>ts ( plants1 & to a cle>] und]/&+ ( :at 0 already kn[n ( !m 9 se$s1 & ?is k react$ at once on our insight into ! processes ( transport ( res]ve mat]ials & con/ructive mat]ials f "o "p ( ! plant to ano!r1 matt]s :i* w be ref]r$ to lat] on4 ,x rema9s to expla9 ,b\ss+ault's difficulty z reg>ds ! cessation ( assimilation4 ,rec5t rese>*es confirm ! view t at lea/ ?ree causes are at "w to br+ ab\t ! inhibition ( ! c>bon-assimilation3 fir/1 ! *lorophyll-corpuscles become fill$ to excess ) />*1 :i* _c get away because all ! passages are full & ! products are inhibit+ ! fur!r action ( ! enzymes :i* %\ld dissolve ! solid granules2 secondly1 ! leaf be+ deta*$ f ! plant expla9s :y ! soluble products _c get away1 = ?is makes a great diff]5ce 9 ! rate ( exhau/ion ( ! leaf2 &1 ?irdly1 ! same fact involves t ! leaf c obta9 no fur!r supply ( salts ( potassium1 etc41 )\t :i* elem5ts ! processes 9 "q _c g on4 ,^! & num]\s o!r deep] insights into ! process ( assimilation1 obvi\sly /r5g!n ! =ce ( ,sa*s' discov]y2 ?\gh x by no means necess>ily foll[s t />*-gra9s are always ! re/+ =m ( ! products ( assimilation1 & we n[ "k t su* is (t5 n ! case3 we n[ h mu* deep] glimpses into ! initial products ( c>bon-assimilation ?an ,sa*s _h 9 #ahfj1 b ?is enhances r ?an detracts f ! importance ( 8 spl5didly work$-out discov]y4 ,put m g5]ally1 we may n[ say t ! process ( c>bon-dioxide assimilation 9 gre5 leaves "u ! influ5ce ( light is a process ( syn!sis--photo-syn!sis--result+ 9 ! build+ up ( a c>bohydrate su* z sug>1 inul9 or />* f ! elem5ts c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! importance ( ,sa*s' discov]y1 & ! rapid consequ5t ext5sions ( our k1 did _! "w =?) 9 disabus+ m5's m9ds ( old & errone\s notions4 ,to say no?+ ( num]\s small] misconceptions :i* /ill held _! gr\nd ow+ to ! /up5d\s ignorance ( plant-physiology :i* prevail$1 we f9d incompet5t tea*]s & text-books 7 /ill propagat+ ideas wor?y ( anci5t times4 ,! confusion betwe5 oxyg5-respiration & ! gas int]*anges 9 c>bon-assimilation 0 by no means elim9at$ ev5 rec5tly1 ?\gh x c no long] )/& ! delib]ate onslaughts n[ made on x4 ,t ! roots take up food z su* f ! soil1 & t t food is directly employ$ by ! plant = its nutrition is ev5 yet impli$ 9 daily conv]sation ar\nd u2 & al?\gh matt]s h advanc$ s f> t ev]yone n[ kn[s t ! sub/ances at ! roots mu/ be 9 solution1 ere !y c be receiv$ into ! plant1 x sometimes leads to a/oni%+ replies1 if we press ! "q v f> z to h[ ! absorption takes place1 9 an elem5t>y exam9ation ( agricultural /ud5ts4 ,t manures are foods to ! plant1 t sap circulates1 t transpiration is ( use to keep ! plant cool1 & wood is a por\s body1 etc41 are only a few ( ! misconceptions /ill curr5t1 9 a decade t has f\nd publi%]s = a "w advocat+ t roots are congeal$ sap1 & t ! leaves ( plants absorb ! moi/ure & du/ ( ! air1 & s provide ! plant ) food1 & = a pap] expla9+ ! action ( root-hairs z tubes ) op5 pores at _! tips4 ,b ! grave/ misappreh5sions curr5t among u are due to ! crude ideas z to :at a plant really is3 ?is1 ,i take x1 is ow+ to ! difficulty ( grasp+ :at physiologi/s mean by organis$ /ructure1 & leads to reg>d+ ! liv+ be+ ei!r z a m]e aggregation ( *emical comp\nds1 built up by ! ord9>y play ( *emical =ces1 z we "k !m1 act+ on dead matt]1 or1 z 9 ! days be=e organic *emi/ry1 z a my/]i\s entity end[$ ) vital =ce1 & ) prop]ties n am5able to sci5tific inve/igation4 ,! mi/ak5 notions z to ! p[]s ( roots to select ^? sub/ances :i* ! plant requires1 & to reject useless ones 0 m]ely an expression ( ?is belief4 ,! rock on :i* all are liable to come to grief--! *emi/ or physici/ :o requires all 8 facts 9 t]ms ( analyses & proportions by weight1 & !re=e takes too me*anical a view ( ! subject1 or ! man :o is n sci5tifically tra9$ at all1 & !re=e is m liable to g to ! o!r extreme & reg>d ! plant z a my/]i\s some?+ :i* gr[s & has poetical associations & traditions--is ! great fact ( organis$ /ructure1 & x is ! recognition ( ?is fact & "s ( its consequ5ces :i* has alt]$ ! :ole position ( ! subject1 & br\ght ! /udy ( ! plant into ! doma9 ( physiology4 ,! liv+ plant1 its /ructure & organisation1 ! functions ( its me*anism1 & its relations to ! environm5t1 ?us =ms a subject ap>t f t :i* conc]ns ! *emical composition ( ! plant & its environm5t1 & ?is di/9ction designates1 9 a ^w1 z x 71 ! *ange :i* has be5 br\ght ab\t by mod]n biology4 ,a po9t to be emphasis$ to ! utmo/ :]e agricultural /ud5ts are conc]n$ is t ! ess5tial process ( fe$+ is ! same 9 a gre5 plant1 a fungus1 & an animal2 ! greate/ confusion /ill exi/s ) reg>d to ?is matt]1 ow+ to misconceptions z to ! real mean+ ( ! functions ( ! *lorophyll-corpuscles :5 suppli$ ) c>bon-dioxide & wat] & ! en]gy ( ! sun's rays4 ,! plant does n fe$ on c>bon-dioxide1 any m ?an x fe$s on oxyg5--x fe$s on ! organic mat]ial aft] x has be5 con/ruct$1 & ! *lorophyll-function is m]ely "o mode ( obta9+ supplies ( su* organic sub/ance4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,9 addition to ! ref]5ces 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! /ud5t %\ld consult ,sa*s' ,lectures1 ,,xvii4-,,xix41 & ,pfeff]'s ,physiology1 pp4 #bhg-cbi1 = ! fur!r developm5t ( ?is subject4 ,an excell5t resume1 ) new facts & po9ts ( view1 w be f\nd 9 ,dr4 ,horace ,br[n's ,address to ! ,*emical ,section1 ,briti% ,association ,reports1 ,dov]1 #ahii2 & ,*emi/ry & ,physiology ( ,foliage ,leaves 9 ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahic1 p4 #fjd4 ,see also ,blackman1 ,exp]im5tal ,rese>*es on ,vegetable ,assimilation & ,respiration1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahie2 & ,p>k91 ,=mation1 etc41 ( ,c>bohydrates 9 ,monocotyl$ons1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahii4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,plant ,a ,,liv+ ,,ma*9e4 ,! plant a ma*9e into :i* en]gy & mat]ial are tak5--,c>bon assimilation--,fe$+--,accumulation & trans=mations 9 ! plant4 ,! action ( light--,! *lorophyll-function4 ,! relations ( ! plant to ! environm5t c only be und]/ood by tak+ into acc\nt ! results ( mod]n physiological discov]ies4 ,^! tea* u t ! liv+ plant is a highly complex ma*9e1 ! details ( its organisation & /ructure be+ mu* m num]\s & mu* m closely correlat$ at num]\s po9ts1 ?an ! p>ts ( any o!r ma*9e kn[n to u4 ,!y also tea* u t x is suppli$ ) en]gy f )\t1 z any o!r ma*9e2 & t :5 s suppli$1 & prop]ly work+1 ! liv+ /ructure or ma*9]y does "w1 also z o!r ma*9es4 ,b mod]n physiology goes fur!r1 9 t x r5d]s "s acc\nt ( ! ways by :i* ! ext]nal en]gy is tak5 into ! plant1 & !re appli$ to d "w1 or /or$ up = a "t 9 ord] t x may be us$ to d "w at "s future "t4 ,! accumulation ( en]gy ?us ensur$ is associat$ ) correspond+ *anges ( mat]ial sub/ance1 & ! pr9cipal means = br++ ?is ab\t is recognis$ 9 ! assimilation ( c>bon-dioxide--photo-syn!sis4 ,9 ?is process en]gy ent]s ! *lorophyll-corpuscle 9 ! =m ( ! radiant en]gy ( ! sun1 x is !re direct$ 9 ! me*anism ( ! protoplasm1 s z to d "w on ! molecules ( wat] & c>bon-dioxide :i* h also be5 br\ght into ! ma*9]y2 ?is x does1 break+ asund] _! /able /ructure into un/able bodies1 :i* !n re-comb9e 9 diff]5t ways to =m a c>bohydrate1 su* z />*1 & ?is />* is tempor>ily /or$ z gra9s1 :ile oxyg5 escapes4 ,ea* />*-gra91 !re=e1 is to be reg>d$ z a packet ( matt] & ( pot5tial en]gy1 z x 71 capable ( yield+ up ! latt] at any future "t1 :5 put "u su* circum/ances t x mu/ d s4 ,su* /ores ( en]gy-yield+ sub/ance1 if ,i may use ! mu*-abus$ phrase1 =m ! pr9cipal food ( ! plant--or ( an animal1 if x /eps 9 & takes !m--& we n[ see t ! process ( c>bon-dioxide assimilation1 z x has p]haps un=tunately be5 call$1 is n ! same ?+ z ! process ( fe$+1 = ! fe$+--i4e4 ! nutrition prop]--( ! plant does n beg9 until ! food has be5 ?us obta9$4 ,we n[ see :at ! real position ( ! plant is1 to its environm5t1 :e!r ! latt] be liv+ or dead4 ,f our po9t ( view1 ! plant s]ves z a c5tre = br++ toge!r ! sub/ances obta9able f ! soil1 & ^? d]iv$ f ! atmosph]e1 & s focuss+ & direct+ ! radiant en]gy ( ! sun ^u ^! sub/ances1 t !y are brok5 up1 & "s ( _! con/itu5ts syn!sis$1 ) absorption ( en]gy1 into a body1 su* z />*1 conta9+ m en]gy ?an did ! orig9al sub/ances tak5 toge!r or sep>ate4 ,x matt]s little :e!r ! actual c>bohydrate ?us syn!sis$ is />*1 or sug> or inul93 ! po9t is t en]gy has be5 ga9$ f outside & b\nd up ) ! acquir$ mat]ial = fur!r use4 ,b mod]n physiology has c>ri$ matt]s mu* fur!r ?an ?is1 & especially 9 ! ?ree foll[+ directions4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x has %[n t mu* ( ! en]gy ?us /or$ f )\t 9 ! plant is aga9 lib]at$ 9 ! process ( oxyg5 respiration1 & exp5d$ p>tly z appreciable heat & p>tly z driv+ =ce = /imulat+ ! ma*9]y ( ! liv+ plant to fur!r activities4 ,9 ! second place1 "p ( x is re>rang$ ) ! re>rangem5t ( ! molecules ) :i* ! en]gy is b\nd up1 z x 71 s t "w ( v>i\s k9ds is done 9 ! ma*9]y ( ! plant3 ,i ref] to v>i\s metabolic & surface-actions result+ f ! peculi> mode ( pres5tm5t ( ! result+ sub/ances1 = in/ance ! production ( osmotic pressures 9 ! cell4 ,&1 ?irdly1 "p ( ! syn!sis$ sub/ance is work$ up into high] bodies1 by processes :i* obvi\sly entail ! fur!r do+ ( "w on ! con/itu5ts4 ,! fur!r pursuit ( ?is !me w\ld evid5tly c>ry u beyond ! m imm$iate subject ( ?is book2 b ,i want to make cle> t rec5t rese>*es r5d] x m & m c]ta9 t ! liv+ plant is a complex piece ( co-ord9at$ ma*9]y :i* br+s toge!r matt] & en]gy f ! ext]nal univ]se1 & !n gets "w out ( ^!4 ,?is proposition is ! m important because ! :ole "q ( ! enri*m5t ( our planet ) new food1 new build+ mat]ials1 & new fuel1 to comp5sate ! daily losses1 dep5ds on x1 & is ( c\rse to be ref]r$ fundam5tally to ! acquirem5t ( new supplies ( en]gy f ! sun4 ,enorm\s activity has be5 display$ by physiologi/s1 s9ce #ahfj1 9 attempt+ to solve ! "q1 :i* ( ! _m diff]5t rays kn[n to proce$ f ! sun are absorb$ by ! *lorophyll-corpuscle1 & direct$ to ! p]=mance ( ! "w above ref]r$ to4 ,! names ( ,drap]1 ,sa*s & ,pfeff] /& =? prom95tly z pione]s 9 ?is2 :ile ^? ( ,lommel1 ,engelmann1 ,timiriazeff & ,langley h be5 among ! mo/ active 9 mak+ important contributions to ! subject1 & 9 attempt+ to answ] ! fur!r que/ions connect$ ) ! mode 9 :i* ! *lorophyll is conc]n$ 9 utilis+ ! en]gy ( ! sol> radiations4 ,! po9t is "o ( supreme importance1 because x goes on all f\rs ) mod]n que/ions z to ! rays ( light absorb$ or disp]s$ 9 our atmosph]e at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>1 or 9 special climatic conditions1 to say no?+ ( its o!r sci5tific aspects4 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 we h no satisfactory explanation ( ! actual role play$ by ! *lorophyll sub/ance itself1 9 spite ( mu* indu/ri\s "w :i* has be5 done 9 ! subject 9 ?is c\ntry & else:]e4 ,z reg>ds ! rays employ$1 x 0 fir/ prov$ t ! mo/ effective belong to ! r$ end ( ! visible spectrum1 & t ! effect z measur$ by ! am\nts ( oxyg5 giv5 (f1 & ( />* =m$ 9 giv5 p]iods ( "t1 is m or less proportionable to ! int5sity ( ! sol> light4 ,!n x 0 e/abli%$ t no mono*romatic light is s p[]ful z ! :ite light f :i* x 0 obta9$1 ?\gh ! relative numb]s express+ ! activity 9 ! r$ & yell[ regions may /& to ^? 9 ! blue z some?+ l #ab3a4 ,! late/ results place ! maximum assimilation 9 ! r$-orange1 & ?is co9cides ) ! maximum absorption 9 ! *lorophyll4 ,if we may accept ! curr5t views z to ! di/ribution ( en]gy 9 ! spectrum ( sol> light1 :i* dep5ds on ! complete absorption ( all ! rays by a black body1 :]e !y are e/imat$ z heat1 we h ! int]e/+ result t ! agricultural or =e/ plant is adapt$ to cat* & reta91 broadly speak+1 j ^? p>ticul> rays :i* possess mo/ en]gy4 ,! probability is increas+ t ! protoplasmic ma*9]y is ! really effective me*anism 9 ! process1 & we may figure ?is ma*9]y z s hold+ or pres5t+ ! molecules ( c>bon-dioxide & wat] to ! impact ( ! light-vibrations1 t ! latt] are enabl$ to undo ! molecul> /ructure2 ! atomic comb9ations !reby lib]at$ may !n be suppos$ to =m a body l =mic-aldehyde1 :i* by polym]isation becomes a c>bohydrate ( ! nature ( a sug> su* z glucose1 :i* ! protoplasm !n builds up into its sub/ance & subsequ5tly deposits z />*1 & /ores tempor>ily 9 ! =m ( gra9s or z amorph\s mat]ial4 ,?is is p>tly hypo!tical1 & is l>gely due to ! c>eful d$uctions ( ! *emi/s1 b !re are v _m facts n[ to h& :i* be> out its probability1 especially ! rec5t advances 9 our k ( ! sug>s1 & ! exp]im5tal fe$+ ( leaves & plants depriv$ ( />* ) su* sub/ances z dextrose1 levulose1 maltose1 & o!r sug>s1 z well z glyc]9e & o!r bodies :i* %\ld be conv]tible into1 or yield !m1 if ! !ory is true4 ,9 ?is la/ connection1 ! c>eful & ext5sive exp]im5ts ( ,acton1 ,a4 ,mey]1 ,boehm1 & ,laur5t %\ld be m5tion$4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to enl>ge ^u ,engelmann's beautiful physiological exp]im5ts 9 connection ) ?is subject ( absorption ( sol> en]gy1 :]e ! maximum accumulation ( oxyg5-lov+ bact]ia at ^? p>ts ( a gre5 alga :i* lie 9 ! r$-orange ( ! spectrum1 are us$ z indicators ( ! maximum oxyg5 evolution 7& !re=e ( ! maximum c>bon-dioxide assimilation71 b space w n admit ( ?is4 ,= a simil> reason ,i mu/ also pass ov] ! same obs]v]'s exp]im5ts ) plants :i* assimilate 9 protoplasm beh9d a r$ in/ead ( a gre5 sub/ance1 & :i* absorb *iefly o!r rays betwe5 ! yell[ & blue1 ) ! rem>k t !y also seem to imply t x is ! protoplasmic ma*9]y :i* turns ! en]gy on to ! c>bon-dioxide molecule1 ! col\r$ scre5 be+ second>y 9 ! matt]4 ,rec5t exp]im5ts :i* %[ t gre5 plants w n assimilate c>bon-dioxide 9 a light :i* has pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( *lorophyll--& !re=e left its r$ rays beh9d2 nor beh9d a scre5 ( iod9e dissolv$ 9 c>bon-dioxide--:i* lets no visible rays betwe5 ! r$ & blue pass--%\ld be notic$1 z %[+ ! importance ( ! *lorophyll & ! special rays ref]r$ to1 h[ev]2 & ,i ought at lea/ to m5tion ,timiriazeff's beautiful pro(1 publi%$ 9 #ahij1 t if1 on ! leaf ( a plant left 9 ! d>k long en\gh to r5d] x free ( />*1 a bright sol> spectrum is /eadily project$ = #c-f h\rs1 ! *lorophyll !n remov$ by alcohol & ! decoloris$ leaf plac$ 9 iod9e1 ! image ( ! spectrum is reproduc$ by ! diff]5t int5sities ( ! />* b&s1 blue ) iod9e1 9 ! diff]5t p>ts4 ,"h1 aga91 ! maximum coloration co9cides ) ! maximum absorption 9 & ne> ! r$4 ,microscopic obs]vations & photo-*emical exp]im5ts alike conv9ce u t ! *lorophyll-corpuscle is itself a complex piece ( protoplasmic ma*9]y1 work+ = & ) ! re/ ( ! plant1 & !re c be little "q z to ! great] accuracy ( our reason+ on ! :ole "q ,i am discuss+1 s9ce ,mey]1 ,s*imp]1 ,pr+%eim1 & o!rs h e/abli%$ ! importance ( its /ructural peculi>ities4 ,i mu/ n[ pass on to consid] ano!r aspect ( ! "q ( c>bon-assimilation4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,9 addition to ! ref]5ces 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! read] may be ref]r$ to ,sa*s' ,lectures1 ,,xxv41 & ,pfeff]'s ,physiology1 pp4 #cbi-cef1 :]e ! volum9\s lit]ature is giv54 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,metabolism4 ,quantities ( />* =m$1 & _! significance = ! plant4 ,! absorption ( en]gy--! conv]sion ( en]gy 9 ! plant4 ,! plant is a complex ma*9e = conc5trat+ & /or+ en]gy & mat]ial f )\t4 ,sa*s measur$ ! increase 9 dry weight 7due to ! c>bohydrates =m$ 9 ! *lorophyll-corpuscles7 p] squ>e met] ( leaf-surface1 expos$ = a def9ite p]iod1 by dry+ rapidly at #ajj deg4 ,c4 equal areas ( ! leaves conc]n$1 & comp>+ ! weights4 ,( c\rse ! results are n to be pu%$ too f>1 9 view ( ! fact t "s ( ! />* is cont9ually pass+ away to be utilis$1 & ( ! difficulties ( comp>+ ! wea!r1 ! int5sity ( light1 curr5ts ( air1 hygroscopic conditions ( atmosph]e1 & o!r v>iable factors :i* influ5ce ! matt]4 ,= in/ance1 ! /omata op5 & close to diff]5t ext5ts accord+ to ! conditions ( light & moi/ure1 & ?is affects ! :ole me*anism ( transpiration especially1 & !re=e ! supplies ( wat] & m9]al salts4 ,nev]!less1 "s int]e/+ & valuable results h be5 obta9$ 9 connection ) ?is important subject4 ,x 0 f\nd1 = in/ance1 t ! foliage ( a sun-fl[] or ( a vegetable-m>r[ may be =m+ />* at a rate ( consid]ably ov] a gram p] h\r 9 e squ>e met] ( leaf-surface expos$ on a f9e day2 :ile 9 p>ticul>ly cle> & w>m sunny wea!r ,sa*s obta9$ z mu* z #bd to #be grams p] squ>e met] p] diem4 ,:5 "o reflects t #bjj squ>e met]s is n an extravagant e/imate = ! area ( leaf-surface expos$ on a tree1 = a p]iod :i* ev5 9 our latitudes may be consid]ably ov] #ajj days (1 say1 t5 h\rs' light1 we ne$ no long] wond] at ! rapidity ) :i* wood is produc$ 9 ! /ems1 & simil> e/imates 7:i* ,i h purposely kept l[] ?an ! e/imates = cont95tal & tropical climates7 may suffice to %[ h[ quickly potatoes or ! e>s ( corn1 etc41 may fill up ) ! />* or o!r c>bohydrates :i* r5d] !m valuable z crops4 ,we want m measurem5ts 9 ^! connections1 moreov]1 = !re are sev]al ways 9 :i* !y are ( sci5tific value & practical importance4 ,x is evid5t f :at has be5 said t e gra9 ( />* =m$ repres5ts s mu* en]gy1 pack$ away = ! mom5t 9 ! /oreh\ses ( ! plant2 & we "k t--q ap>t1 h[ev]1 f int]m$iate trans=mations ( ! en]gy ?us /or$--?is en]gy reappe>s 9 ! k9etic /ate ev5tually1 :5 ! />* is burn$ (f1 9 pres5ce ( oxyg51 & trans=m$ into c>bon-dioxide & wat]4 ,x matt]s n h[ quickly or h[ gradually ?is combu/ion occurs1 or :e!r x is accompli%$ by burn+ 9 a fire1 or by sl[ & complex /ages 9 respiration or metabolism3 ! po9t is t ! unit ( weight ( />* yields s _m units ( heat :5 its /ructure tumbles d[n to ! orig9al compon5ts1 c>bon-dioxide & wat]4 ,cle>ly1 if we "k h[ _m units ( heat are yield$ by ! combu/ion ( "o gram ( />*1 we c obta9 an e/imate ( ! am\nt ( en]gy1 measur$ 9 t]ms ( heat1 :i* ! foliage ga9s & /ores up--an e/imate :i* w approa* ! tru? 9 proportion z our e/imate ( ! total assimilative activity is correct4 ,a ^w ( w>n+ is necess>y "h1 h[ev]1 = ^? be/ acqua9t$ ) physiology recognise t h[ev] useful su* calculations z ! above may be1 & und\bt$ly are1 to give a g5]al idea ( ! fact t ! en]gy repres5t$ is l>ge1 x w\ld be a mi/ake to suppose t su* e/imates give ev5 an approximate measure ( ! en]gy ( pot5tial :i* may be got f ! c>bohydrate1 & /ill less ( ! am\nt ( "w t may be got f its employm5t1 accord+ to ! way x is employ$ or pres5t$ 9 ! plant4 ,to take a s+le in/ance only4 ,if ! c>bohydrate is rapidly burn$ (f to c>bon-dioxide & wat]1 v little is got out ( x 9 ! way ( "w--mo/1 if n all1 ( ! en]gy set free escapes z heat3 :]eas if ! c>bohydrate is sl[ly & gradually oxydis$1 pass+ ?r\gh v>i\s /ages & giv+ rise to p[]fully osmotic bodies 9 ! process1 or if x is built up into protoplasm1 or into ! /ructure ( a cell-wall1 relatively enorm\s quantities ( "w may be got out ( its surface-en]gy1 & heat may be absorb$4 ,:5ce x foll[s t we _c measure ! p[] = physiological "w ( a body by m]ely obta9+ its heat ( combu/ion1 any m ?an we c inf] its significance 9 metabolism f its *emical prop]ties4 ,! g5]al conclusion t ! plant /ores l>ge quantities ( en]gy may ( c\rse be arriv$ at by simply e/imat+ ! enorm\s quantities ( food-mat]ial :i* we obta9 annually f agricultural plants4 ,mod]n physiologi/s h attempt$ to proce$ fur!r ?an ?is1 h[ev]1 9 _! essays to =m an e/imate ( ! relations betwe5 ! available en]gy 9 ! sol> rays & t us$ & /or$ 9 ! plant4 ,if we reflect on su* ph5om5a z ! cool %ade ( a tree1 & ! deep gloom ( a =e/1 & on exp]im5ts :i* %[ t an ord9>y leaf c]ta9ly lets v little ( ! radiant en]gy ( ! spectrum pass ?r\gh x1 x becomes evid5t t _m ( ! rays :i* fall on ! leaf are absorb$ 9 "s =m1 & x becomes v probable t mu* ( ! sol> en]gy1 o!r ?an t we t]m light1 is reta9$ 9 ! leaf = o!r purposes ?an assimilation--or1 at lea/1 no o!r conclusion seems possible 9 view ( all ! facts4 ,engelmann's rese>*es ) purple bact]ia are almo/ conclusive on ?is po9t1 & we may reg>d x z extremely probable t ! plant makes o!r uses ( rays1 p]ceiv$ by u z heat-rays1 z s\rces ( en]gy4 ,rese>*es on ! influ5ces ( temp]ature on assimilation & o!r functions po9t to ! same conclusion2 & ,pfeff] & ,rodemann def9itely /ate t heat is conv]t$ into "w 9 ! osmotic cells4 ,& ! /udy ( ! absorption b&s 9 ! spectrum ( ! liv+ leaf becomes m intelligible 9 ! light ( ^! conclusions4 ,moreov]1 ! fact t a plant /ill c>ries on processes ( metabolism :5 active transpiration has l[]$ its temp]ature bel[ t ( ! surr\nd+ air--& ! plant !re=e receives heat f ! environm5t--po9ts to simil> conclusions4 ,! importance ( ! conclusion is imm5se1 = ev5 if ! plant _h no o!r s\rces ( en]gy ?an ! d>k] heat rays ( ! sol> spectrum1 x is cle> t x ought to be able to d "w4 ,! above may suffice = ! g5]al e/abli%m5t ( ! conclusion t ! plant absorbs m radiant en]gy ?an x employs solely = assimilation1 & emphasises our d$uction t x is a ma*9e = /or+ en]gy4 ,! "q n[ arises1 h[ is ?is relatively enorm\s ga9 9 en]gy employ$ by ! plant8 ,our answ] to ! "q is n complete1 b mod]n discov]ies 9 v>i\s directions h suppli$ clues "h & !re :i* enable u to sket* 9 "s degree ! k9ds ( *anges t mu/ g on4 ,n ! lea/ />tl+ result is t1 important z c>bon-assimilation is z ! *ief mode ( supply+ en]gy1 x is n ! only means t ! plant has ( obta9+ su* f ! environm5t1 & x is ev5 possible--n to say probable--t en]gy f ! ext]nal univ]se may be convey$ into ! body ( ! plant 9 =ms q diff]5t f ^? p]ceptible to our eyes z light4 ,9 ! mo/ rec5t survey ( ?is doma91 x is po9t$ out t we may di/+ui% betwe5 radiant en]gy1 z n necess>ily or obvi\sly connect$ ) pond]able matt]1 & me*anical en]gy1 :i* is always connect$ 9 "s way ) mat]ial sub/ance4 ,all me*anical p]=mances 9 ! plants dep5d on trans=mation ( "s =m ( ^!1 evid5t ei!r z actual en]gy do+ me*anical "w1 or z en]gy ( pot5tial ready to d "w4 ,9 s f> z molecul> movem5ts are conc]n$1 we h ! special =m ( *emical en]gy4 ,! evolution ( heat1 light & electricity by plants are in/ances ( radiant en]gy1 & s on4 ,_m trans=mations ( en]gy 9 ! plants are due to non-vital processes--e4g4 transpiration1 w>p+ actions1 etc41 b we _c always draw %>p l9es betwe5 ! v>i\s cases4 ,nor c we directly measure ! "w done 9 ! liv+ ma*9]y2 b f ! effects ( pressures & /ra9s1 ! lift+ ( heavy weights1 driv+ ( root-tips into soil1 osmotic ph5om5a1 etc41 x is c]ta9 t ! values may be v high4 ,! foll[+ classes ( processes 9 liv+ protoplasm & cells may be tak5 z indicators4 ,fir/ we h trans=mation ( *emical en]gy1 )\t :i* cont9u$ life is impossible3 9 _m cases--e4g4 ! processes connect$ ) oxyg5 respiration--^! result 9 ! developm5t ( heat4 ,secondly1 we h ^? rem>kable manife/ations ( en]gy kn[n z osmotic processes1 :i* dep5d on surface actions1 & ) :i* may be associat$ o!r surface effects1 su* z imbibition1 secretion1 etc41 & 9 connection ) :i* heat may be evolv$ or absorb$4 ,x is true ! sub/ances :i* exhibit ! prop]ties "h ref]r$ to may be produc$1 or plac$ 9 position1 by *emical en]gy1 or !y may be absorb$ by roots1 etc42 b ! proximate en]gy exhibit$ by !m is n d]iv$ f *emical en]gy1 & may be out ( all proportion to ! *emical en]gy ( ! sub/ance or sub/ances conc]n$4 ,moreov] x is significant to note t a highly oxydis$ body may develop mu* osmotic en]gy1 z well z a highly combu/ible "o4 ,x is ( ! greate/ importance to realise ! tru? t mu* "w c be1 & is done 9 ! liv+ plant1 by conv]sions ( en]gy ( pot5tial indep5d5t ( & out ( proportion to ! *emical en]gy available by decompos+ ! sub/ances conc]n$2 ev5 ! heat ( respiration may be sup]flu\s "h1 = ! plant may absorb heat f )\t1 & conv]t x into "w4 ,t5sions (t5 arise 9 ! plant1 & d "w express$ z movem5ts--e4g4 ! spr++ ( ela/ic ,balsam fruits1 /am5s ( ,p>iet>ia1 etc4 ,osmotic en]gy n only results 9 enorm\s pressures & t5sions1 b causes movem5ts by diffusion & diosmosis1 & any giv5 osmotic sub/ance :i* c>ries ?is en]gy ) x is n necess>ily =m$ always 9 ! same way 9 ! cell--e4g4 glucose may arise f />*1 or f c>bon-dioxide1 or f oil4 ,surface-en]gy is also express$ 9 ! p[]ful attractions = wat] exhibit$ 9 imbibition1 swell+1 capill>ity1 absorption1 surface t5sions1 etc4 ,transpiration induces relatively enorm\s di/urbances ( equilibrium1 & does "w 9 mov+ wat] q indep5d5t ( *emical en]gy4 ,aga91 :at may be t]m$ excretion-en]gy1 z express$ 9 ! sep>ation ( a solid body--e4g4 a cry/al--f a solution1 may be = our purposes reg>d$ sep>ately4 ,any *ange 9 ! condition ( aggregation ( a sub/ance 9 ! plant may result 9 movem5ts & ! ov]com+ ( resi/ances4 ,x w be evid5t f ?is %ort digression--& ?is is ! po9t ,i wi% to emphasise--t 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! secur+ ( a gra9 ( />*1 repres5t+ s mu* en]gy won f ! ext]nal univ]se1 & ! reconv]sion ( ?is gra9 into its equival5t c>bon-dioxide & wat]1 by respiration1 result+ 9 ! loss ( ! above en]gy z heat1 ! />* ref]r$ to may h und]gone num]\s trans=mations 9 ! liv+ ma*9]y ( ! plant1 & h play$ at v>i\s times a role 9 connection ) ! mo/ v>i\s evolutions ( en]gy4 ,if we try to picture a possible case1 we may take ! foll[+4 ,a giv5 />*-granule1 aft] be+ built up 9 ! *lorophyll-corpuscle1 is decompos$1 & yields "p ( itself z glucose1 :i* passes d[n into o!r p>ts ( ! plant 9 solution4 ,"p ( x is m]ely re-conv]t$ into />*1 & tempor>ily /or$3 ano!r "p passes into ! ar5a ( oxydation-processes1 ! sum ( :i* con/itute respiration1 & may s]ve = a "t 9 ! molecules ( an organic acid3 yet ano!r "p may be conv]t$ into a con/itu5t ( ! cellulose cell-walls2 :ile "p may be br\ght into play 9 ! recon/ruction ( protoplasm4 ,9 ?is la/ connection a discov]y made by ,s*ulze ab\t #ahgh1 & foll[$ up lat] by ,pfeff]1 ,pallad91 & o!rs is ( importance4 ,se$l+s gr[+ 9 ! d>k1 or 9 an atmosph]e devoid ( c>bon-dioxide 9 ! light1 become sur*>g$ ) nitrog5\s bodies kn[n z amides1 =m$ dur+ ! break+ d[n ( ! proteids 9 ! de/ructive process prec$+ & accompany+ respiration3 if ! se$l+s are all[$ free access to light & c>bon-dioxide1 h[ev]1 ! amides disappe>4 ,! explanation is t !y are comb9$ ) "s ( ! mat]ials ( ! c>bohydrates1 & aga9 built up into ! mat]ial ( ! liv+ protoplasm4 ,return+ to our hypo!tical />*-gra9--or1 r1 its p>ts--we h "s ( x reta9$ z />*1 9 excess1 simply because x is n ne$$ at ! mom5t3 ano!r portion gives up its en]gy 9 respiration1 & ?is does "w on ! spot1 or is lo/ z heat2 or 9 ! body ( an organic acid1 or its salt1 ! "p 9 "q may d lift+ or press+ "w by osmosis1 or cause diffusion-curr5ts f "o cell to ano!r4 ,9 ! con/itution ( ! cell-wall we may h "p ( our />*-gra9 aid+ 9 imbibition or 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ela/ic t5sions 9 turgidity3 &1 f9ally1 p>ts may be built up into ! liv+ protoplasmic ma*9]y ( ! plant4 ,:at is true = ! />*-gra9 is also true = any p>ticle ( salt1 or wat]1 or gas :i* ent]s into ! metabolism ( ! liv+ plant1 reg>d be+ paid to ! p>ticul> case1 & circum/ances 9 ea* case4 ,en\gh has be5 said to %[ t ! plant _c be prop]ly /udi$ m]ely z ! subject ( *emical analysis or ( physical inve/igation2 y might z well expect to und]/& a wat* by assays ( ! gold1 silv]1 /eel & diamonds ( :i* its p>ts are made up1 or to le>n :at c be got out ( ! prop] work+ ( a lace ma*9e by analys+ ! silk put into x1 & ! fabric :i* comes out1 & by tak+ ! specific gravity ( its p>ts & te/+ ! physical prop]ties ( its :eels & lev]s4 ,?is is n ! same ?+ z d5y+ ! value ( su* k1 9 ! case ( ei!r ! dead ma*9e or ! liv+ plant3 x is m]ely emphasis+ ! supreme importance ( ! /udy ( ! /ructure & work+ ( ! active ma*9]y 9 bo? cases4 ,nor is x p]t95t to rem>k on ! app>5t hopelessness ( physiology be+ at pres5t able to expla9 ! seem+ly inf9ite complexity ( ! liv+ ma*9]y ( protoplasm & its activities4 ,! mod]n locomotive is also a complex affair 9 its way1 b x is pr(itable to inve/igate x & to "k all "o c ( its work+ & possibilities1 = obvi\s reasons3 a little reflection w conv9ce u t x is also wor? :ile to inve/igate t complex ma*9e1 ! plant--! work+ organism :i* alone c really enri* a c\ntry4 ,moreov]1 we ought to be enc\rag$ by ! satisfactory progress n[ be+ made1 & ! spl5did practical results :i* are accru+1 r ?an dismay$ by ! prospect ( unflagg+ lab\r :i* w be requir$ 9 ! future4 ,en\gh has p]haps be5 said to e/abli% ! g5]al tru? t ! plant is a complex ma*9e = /or+ en]gy & mat]ial f outside1 & we h se5 t mod]n rese>* has at lea/ gone a long way t[>ds det]m9+ h[ ! liv+ ma*9e works4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to po9t out t important practical consequ5ces may result f ^! ph5om5a ( ! accumulation ( surplus />* or o!r c>bohydrates 9 ! leaves dur+ ! day1 & ( _! disappe>ance dur+ ! night into ! l[] p>ts ( ! plant4 ,= in/ance1 foliage cut = fodd] 9 ! morn+ is f> poor] 9 />* ?an if cut 9 ! ev5+1 & x w\ld be v in/ructive to h exp]im5ts made on a l>ge scale to te/ ! result ( fe$+ cat]pill>s or rabbits1 = in/ance1 ) mulb]ry1 v9e1 or o!r leaves 9 ! two conditions4 ,aga91 we n[ see :at complications may arise if a p>asitic organism ga9s access to ! /ores ( c>bohydrates 9 process ( accumulation1 or attacks & injures ! ma*9]y :i* is build+ up su* mat]ials1 etc4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,! /ud5t :o desires to pursue ?is subject fur!r %\ld read ,sa*s' ,lectures1 ,,xx4 & ,,xxv41 & ,pfeff]'s ,physiology1 pp4 #ddb-eff1 b he w h>dly arrive at ! be/ t has be5 done )\t consult+ ,pfeff]'s ,/udi5 zur ,en]getik d] ,pflanz5 9 ! ,abh&l4 d] ,ma?4-,phys4 ,classe d] ,kgl4 ,sa*ss4 ,gesells*4 d] ,wiss4 7,leipzig1 #ahib71 p4 #aea2 & ,kass[itz1 ,allgeme9e ,biologie 7,vi5na1 #ahii71 ,bk4 ,i41 pp4 #a-abg4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,roots ,,& ,,root-,,hairs4 ,old] views z to root-hairs--,root-hairs & _! developm5t--,surface--,v>iations--,condi tions = maximum =mation--,m9ute /ructure--,adhesion to p>ticles ( soil--,functions4 ,on ! roots ( mo/ plants are to be f\nd delicate1 silky-look+1 tubul> prolongations ( "s ( ! sup]ficial cells1 kn[n z root-hairs4 ,malpighi 7#afhg7 seems to h be5 ! fir/ to obs]ve !m1 & he took !m = capill>y tubes4 ,grew 7#afhb7 seems to h be5 responsible = ! view t ! roots act l sponges 9 tak+ up wat]4 ,simon 7#agfh7 0 probably ! orig9ator ( ! idea t ^! root-hairs 7 excretory tubules1 a view t became v popul> at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury4 ,mey] 7#ahch7 0 p]haps ! fir/ to give a comp>ative acc\nt ( !m1 & he suppos$ !m to be delicate prolongations ( ! root-surface to facilitate ! absorption ( wat]4 ,! real importance ( ^! organs1 h[ev]1 has only become app>5t s9ce ,sa*s1 9 #ahei1 recognis$ _! relations to ! p>ticles ( soil betwe5 :i* !y ext5d & to :i* !y cl+4 ,9 #ahhc ,s*w>z made a v ?or\gh /udy ( _! biological "*1 & 9 #ahhg ,molis* gave u new facts z to _! physiology4 ,our k ( !m has be5 r5d]$ v mu* m intimate by ! rese>*es ( ,pfeff] & ,de ,vries on osmotic & plasmolytic ph5om5a1 & !y s]ve z an excell5t /udy ( "s ( ! be/ results ( mod]n physiology4 ,9 ! normal case1 su* z is exemplifi$ by a se$l+ :eat or bean1 ! root-hairs arise "s di/ance beh9d ! gr[+ tip ( ! root1 an obvi\s adaptation :i* prev5ts _! be+ rubb$ (f by ! soil1 z !y w\ld be if develop$ on p>ts /ill actively l5g!n+4 ,z ^? beh9d die (f1 new ones replace !m 9 front1 & s we f9d a wave ( succession ( functionally active root-hairs "s little di/ance beh9d ! tip ( ! root3 ! same ord] ( ev5ts holds = ea* new rootlet z x em]ges f ! p>5t root1 & s successive bor+s 9 ! soil1 made by ! div]g+ root-tips1 are ?or\ghly explor$ by ^! root-hairs4 ,measurem5ts h %[n t 9 v>i\s plants ! surface ( root on #a mm4 ( l5g? is increas$ by ! root-hairs 9 proportions giv5 9 ! foll[+ table3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,plant4 ,area ( surface ,area ( ,no4 ( times )\t root-hairs4 root & hairs4 great]4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,maize1 #d4eb sq4 mm4 #be4ac sq4 mm4 #e4e ,pea1 #d4ga sq4 mm4 #eh4cc sq4 mm4 #ab4d ,sc9dapsus1 #ad4jb sq4 mm4 #bfa4i sq4 mm4 #ah4g ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ --:i* suffici5tly e/abli%es ! g5]al proposition t ! area ( ! root-surface is enorm\sly increas$ by ^! hairs4 ,b ?is does n give u any def9ite idea ( ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d]s ( soil explor$ by ^! surfaces1 until we f9d t plants su* z an ord9>y sunfl[]1 hemp1 or vegetable-m>r[ may h roots p5etrat+ into a cubic met] ( soil1 9 all directions1 & s closely t probably no volume s l>ge z a cubic c5timet] is left unexplor$4 ,cl>k f\nd by actual measurem5t t ! roots ( a l>ge g\rd1 if put end to end1 ext5d$ ov] #be kilomet]s1 & ,nobbe gives #ebj met]s = ! roots ( a :eat4 ,vet*es may g n9e feet deep1 & oats m ?an ?ree feet4 ,! ,sal1 a tree ( ! =e/s ( ,india1 has roots :i* p5etrate to a dep? ( #ej to #fj feet4 ,"s r\gh notion ( ! l5g?s1 sup]ficies & p5etrat+ capacities ( ! roots ( a l>ge tree may be ga!r$ f ! above1 b x is d\btful :e!r we c =m any adequate ideas z to ! millions ( root-hairs :i* mu/ be develop$ along ! c\rse ( ^! subt]ranean bor+ organs4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ results ( mod]n enquiry into ^! matt]s1 is ! discov]y t ! numb] & sup]ficial area ( ^! root-hairs1 on "o & ! same plant1 may v>y to a l>ge ext5t accord+ to ! /ructure1 z x 71 ( ! soil1 & ! degree ( moi/ure x is capable ( reta9+2 or1 ) ! same soil1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( wat] :i* x receives & holds4 ,correlations h also be5 obs]v$ betwe5 ! developm5t 9 l5g? & surface ( ! rootlets !mselves4 ,! foll[+ illu/rations w suffice to %[ ?is3 ,six "y :eat-plants 9 soil kept con/antly wet1 develop$ roots ! total l5g? ( :i* measur$ #cfe mm4 ea*1 on ! av]age1 & almo/ devoid ( root-hairs4 ,six simil> plants 9 soil only mod]ately moi/1 av]ag$ #ffh mm41 & 7 well furni%$ 7?\gh n d5sely cov]$7 ) root-hairs4 ,six simil> plants 9 soil :i* w\ld be t]m$ dry1 av]ag$ #cga mm41 b 7 d5sely cov]$ ) ri* crops ( root-hairs4 ,fur!r rese>*es h %[n t ! conditions :i* rule ! developm5t ( ! root-sy/em & root-hairs 9 ! soil are v complex1 & n always easy to trace4 ,! mo/ g5]al /atem5ts we c make are ! foll[+3 ,!re is an optimum degree ( moi/ure 9 ! soil :i* promotes ! maximum developm5t ( root-hairs4 ,if ! soil is too wet !y are n develop$4 ,^! facts are ( importance z correlat$ ) ! ease or difficulty exp]i5c$ by ! roots 9 obta9+ wat]1 & plants su* z our ord9>y agricultural plants %[ ?is v di/9ctly4 ,al?\gh1 z %[n 9 ! exp]im5ts ) :eat1 ! %ort roots 9 dry soil 7 m d5sely cov]$ ) root-hairs ?an ! mu* long] roots 9 mod]ately moi/ soil1 subsequ5t clos] inve/igation %[s t ! total quantity & area ( root-hairs is less 9 ! =m] case ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,! greate/ numb] ( root-hairs are develop$ on roots :i* are gr[+ at _! be/3 too mu* moi/ure may prev5t ! =mation ( root-hairs3 too little may induce d5se gr[?s ( root-hairs locally1 b ! total numb] is r$uc$4 ,ano!r set ( ev5ts :i* ex]ts influ5ce on ! developm5t ( root-hairs is ! composition ( ! dilute solution--wat] conta9+ dissolv$ salts--:i* surr\nds !m 9 ! soil4 ,?us1 ,s*w>z f\nd t :5 simil> oat & :eat plants 7 gr[n ) _! roots 9 solutions ( v>i\s salts1 ! results diff]$ z foll[s3 ,oats 9 a #ae p] c5t4 solution ( calcium *loride develop$ no root-hairs1 ?\gh !y =m$ 9 a #e p] c5t4 solution1 & 7 v num]\s 9 a #j4e p] c5t4 solution1 or 9 wat] alone4 ,9 a #aj p] c5t4 nutritive solution ! plants develop$ no root-hairs1 ?\gh !y 7 abundant 9 a #a p] c5t4 solution4 ,:eat plants ) _! roots 9 a #ae p] c5t4 solution ( potassium nitrate bore no root-hairs1 b !y 7 num]\s 9 a #b p] c5t4 solution ( ! same salt4 ,^! are extreme cases1 =1 al?\gh ! roots 7 n kill$1 !y 7 /rongly inhibit$ 9 _! gr[? by ! m conc5trat$ solutions4 ,h[ev]1 exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d at lea/ br+ vividly be=e u :at v>iations are possible1 & sugge/ t simil> ev5ts on a small] scale may occur 9 a soil :i* yields l>ge quantities ( soluble sub/ances1 e4g4 :5 fre%ly manur$4 ,obvi\sly ^! facts h a practical significance z reg>ds k9d ( soil1 dra9age1 season 7e4g4 dr\ght or wet71 etc4 ,b !re are o!r factors :i* rule ! developm5t ( root-hairs1 & "s exp]im5ts by ,lesage %[ t ! correlations betwe5 ! developm5t ( root-hairs & roots are probably mu* m complex ?an _h be5 suspect$2 = he f9ds t if ! lat]al rootlets ( a ,bean1 9 a wat] culture1 are suppress$1 ! ma9 rootlet develops num]\s & v long hairs to comp5sate ! loss 9 surface1 a matt] ( obvi\s importance 9 ! discussion ( cases :]e roots h be5 injur$ 9 ! soil4 ,be=e proce$+ fur!r x is necess>y to look a little m closely into ! /ructure ( a s+le hair4 ,x is a tubul> prolongation ( a s+le cell ( ! ext]nal cov]+ ( ! "y root1 usually ab\t #a to #c mm4 9 l5g?1 & #j4ja to #j4aj mm4 9 diamet]4 ,9 special cases ! root-hairs ( "s wat] plants may rea* #e to #ah mm4 9 l5g?1 b ( c\rse ,i am ref]r+ to ! ord9>y l& plants ( agriculture & =e/ry4 ,?is tubul> prolongation is clos$ & r\nd$ (f at ! di/al free end1 & op5s at ! proximal end into ! cell ( :i* x is a protrusion4 ,! :ole /ructure is b\nd$ by an extremely delicate & ela/ic wall ( cellulose1 :i* ,frank says is ( special composition1 almo/ too ?9 to measure 9 _m cases1 b (t5 some:]e ne> #j4jje to #j4jja mm4 9 ?ickness4 ,?is ?9 membrane is rem>kably p]meable by wat]1 or dilute solutions1 z is %[n by ! rapidity ) :i* a root-hair collapses if expos$ to evaporation1 or ) :i* d5se solutions ab/ract wat] f x1 or ) :i* solutions may be se5 to p5etrate x "u ! microscope4 ,ov]ly+ ! ?9 cell-wall prop]1 on ! outside1 is a ?9 gelat9\s lay]1 a product ( alt]ation ( ! out]mo/ lamellae ( ! =m]4 ,closely l9+ ! prop] cell-wall on ! inside1 is an extremely ?9 lay] ( liv+ protoplasm1 & some:]e 9 ?is protoplasm is a di/9ct cell-nucleus4 ,! int]ior ( ! tube is fill$ ) cell-sap1 & x is ! osmotic pressure ( ?is cell-sap :i* keeps ! :ole liv+ in/rum5t t5se & rigid1 & ! ?9 protoplasmic film close press$ aga9/ ! cellulose cell-wall4 ,no?+ :atev] c pass into ! cell-sap1 or out f x1 )\t trav]s+ bo? ! l9+ ( liv+ protoplasm & ! cell-wall4 ,if we g5tly pull a liv+ root1 ( :eat1 pea1 mu/>d1 etc41 f a normal soil1 we f9d p>ticles ( soil s closely adh]5t to ! root-hairs t !y _c all be wa%$ (f )\t te>+ ! hairs3 ! root-hairs e/abli% relations ( contact ) ^! p>ticles1 s close t !y are cem5t$ to ! solid surfaces by means ( ! gelat9\s lay] already ref]r$ to4 ,?is peculi>ity has ! foll[+ consequ5ces4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! enorm\s holdfa/1 ensur$ by ! millions ( po9ts ( adh]5ce1 enables ! plant to )/& ev5 p[]ful lev] actions f above1 & provides fix$ po9ts aga9/ :i* ! root-tips c "w z !y drive deep] into ! soil4 ,9 ! second place1 ! intimate contact ( ! root-hairs & p>ticles ( soil1 ensures t ! films ( wat] held by surface-action on ! soil-p>ticles & root-hairs %all be 9 cont9uity ) ! wat] saturat+ ! cell-walls ( ! latt]1 & !re=e ) ! protoplasm & cell-sap 9 _! int]ior4 ,! importance ( ?is at p]iods :5 ! soil is dry w be obvi\s1 :5 we reflect t no soil is ev] naturally s dry t surface-films ( wat] are abs5t f ! p>ticles4 ,! fact t ! root-hair conta9s liv+ protoplasm1 enables u to und]/& to a c]ta9 ext5t ! results ( ! foll[+ exp]im5ts4 ,if we h a leafy & heal?y plant1 ) roots1 be>+ num]\s root-hairs1 prop]ly e/abli%$ 9 suitably moi/ soil 9 ! pot1 ! roots cease to absorb wat] if ! temp]ature ( ! soil falls bel[ a c]ta9 m9imum1 ?\gh !y recomm5ce to d s if ! temp]ature is rais$ aga93 ?is has no?+ to d ) ! temp]ature ( ! upp] p>ts ( ! plant1 or ( ! air1 & ! latt] may be s high t ! plant rapidly droops f loss ( wat] at ! leaves1 :i* is n be+ comp5sat$ ow+ to ! inactivity ( ! roots4 ,simil>ly we may h ! air s cold1 at a "t :5 ! soil is w>m en\gh to keep ! root-hairs actively at "w1 t ! plant becomes sur*>g$ ) wat]1 :i* escapes f ! leaves l drops ( dew4 ,! temp]atures necess>y to cause ^! di/urbances 9 ! action ( ! liv+ root-hairs v>y = diff]5t plants1 & ev5 = diff]5t v>ieties ( ! same species4 ,simil> arre/ation ( ! functions ( ! roots may be br\ght ab\t by remov+ ! oxyg5 f ! soil ar\nd ! root-hairs1 & replac+ x by c>bon-dioxide1 or ! vap\r ( *lor(orm4 ,if n kept too long 9 su* a condition1 ! plant recov]s rapidly on admitt+ atmosph]ic oxyg51 :i* is always pres5t 9 a normal well-dra9$ soil bo? z gas 9 ! capill>y int]spaces1 & dissolv$ 9 ! wat] on ! surfaces ( ! p>ticles4 ,if ! access ( oxyg5 is delay$1 h[ev]1 z (t5 happ5s 9 ra9y seasons & 9 wet soils1 ! root-hairs are kill$1 & rot sets 94 ,a good in/ance ( ?is has lately be5 giv5 by ,he9ri*] 9 ! case ( potatoes4 ,,notes ,,on ,,*apt] ,v4 ,= ! fur!r pursuit ( ?is subject ! read] %\ld consult ,sa*s' ,lectures1 ,,ii4 & ,,xv42 ,sorau]1 ,a ,popul> ,treatise on ! ,physiology ( ,plants1 #ahie1 *apt]s ,,ii4 & ,,iv41 & ,pfeff]'s ,physiology1 pp4 #adi-afc4 ,! pr9cipal pap] on root-hairs ref]r$ to 9 ! text is ,s*w>z1 ,die ,wurzelha>e d] ,pflanz51 9 ,unt]s4 aus dem bot4 ,in/4 zu ,wu]zburg1 ,i4 ,heft #b1 #ahhc1 p4 #adj1 :]e a v exhau/ive acc\nt ( ^! organs w be f\nd4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,functions ,,( ,,root-,,hairs4 ,excretions f root-hairs--,osmotic ph5om5a--,turgesc5ce-- ,plasmolysis--,control ( ! protoplasm 9 absorption1 etc4 ,selective absorption4 ,we see !n t ! root-hairs are ! active liv+ in/rum5ts 9 absorb+ ! wat] 7conta9+ small quantities ( dissolv$ sub/ances7 ( ! soil4 ,if ! liv+ root-hairs are s num]\s & s active1 h[ev]1 a natural inf]5ce is t !y mu/ ex]t "s influ5ce on ! composition or arrangem5t ( _! environm5t4 ,all ! tea*+s ( mod]n physiology g to %[ t su* a liv+ cell z ,i h sket*$ _c c>ry on its life1 brief ?\gh x be--! root-hairs are active = ab\t f\r or five days--)\t =m+ sub/ances ( ! nature ( excreta1 & we %\ld expect "s ( ^! to pass out to ! soil4 ,sa*s %[$1 9 #ahfj1 t roots gr[+ 9 contact ) poli%$ m>ble corrode ! surface ( ! m9]al1 & ,nobbe1 9 #ahgf1 %[$ t ! roots ( se$l+s r$uce potassium p]manganate1 a fact :i* ,molis* confirm$ 9 #ahhg4 ,! latt] obs]v] also prov$ t liv+ root-hairs secrete sub/ances :i* col\r a solution ( guaiacum blue1 oxidise pyrogallic acid & o!r organic sub/ances1 & r5d]$ x probable t !y excrete "s sub/ance :i* inv]ts cane-sug>1 & 9 "s cases ev5 small quantities ( a dia/atic enzyme4 ,molis* also confirm$ an old obs]vation1 t roots excrete c>bon-dioxide2 & he & ,czapek %[$ t ! root-hairs excrete acids m p]man5t 9 _! nature ?an c>bonic acid1 & publi%$ a me?od = %[+ ?is by means ( a dilute solution1 slightly alkal9e1 ( ph5olph?ale94 ,molis* decl>$ t ! sub/ances secret$ by root-hairs may ev5 be obs]v$1 dissolv$ 9 drops :i* ooze f ! surfaces ( ! root-hairs4 ,t ^! root-excretions1 & p>ticul>ly ! acids1 may be ( s]vice 9 dissolv+ & r5d]+ m available v>i\s con/itu5ts ( ! soil is an obvi\s sugge/ion1 & x is borne out by ,sa*s' discov]y ( ! corrosion ( m>ble1 & by ,molis*'s obs]vation t liv+ roots sl[ly corrode ivory if cont9u\sly kept 9 contact ) x4 ,b a deep] insight into ! physiology ( ^! organs 0 only possible :5 ! mean+ ( ! ph5om5a ( osmosis _h be5 r5d]$ cle>] by ! rese>*es ( ,pfeff] & ,de ,vries 9 #ahgg4 ,de ,vries %[$ t ! turgesc5ce ( ! liv+ cell c be dim9i%$1 & ev5 r$uc$ to no?+1 by plac+ ! cell 9 contact ) solutions ( sub/ances :i* attract wat] f ! cell-sap3 z ! turgesc5ce dim9i%es1 ! cell contracts1 ow+ to ! ela/icity ( ! cell-wall1 :i* 0 previ\sly di/5d$2 if ! ab/raction ( wat] cont9ues1 ! liv+ protoplasmic membrane l9+ ! cell-wall contracts away f ! latt]4 ,he !n prov$ t no injury ne$ accrue to ! cell by ?is process ( plasmolysis1 s9ce ! turgesc5ce c be re/or$ by wa%+ out ! salt ) a m dilute solution1 or ) pure wat]2 & ! cell may g on liv+ & ev5 gr[+ z be=e4 ,^! ph5om5a c only be produc$ 9 cells :]e ! protoplasmic l9+ is intact & alive4 ,pfeff] %[$ t ! :ole matt] dep5ds on ! prop]ties ( ! liv+ protoplasmic membrane1 :i*1 s long z x is alive1 has ! p[] ( gov]n+ ! entrance or exit ( dissolv$ sub/ances1 b is z a rule freely p]meable = wat]4 ,if1 !n1 sub/ances ) a p[]ful attraction = wat] are =m$ 9 ! cell cavity1 & ( su* a nature t ! protoplasm does n p]mit _! free diffusion to ! ext]ior1 !y attract wat]1 & hold x fa/1 & s set up ! condition ( hydro/atic pressure kn[n z turgesc5ce1 ! limit ( :i* dep5ds on ! atta9m5t ( a /ate ( equilibrium betwe5 ! ela/ic reaction ( ! cell-wall & ! di/5d+ p[] ( ! absorb$ wat]4 ,:5 ?is limit is rea*$1 wat] beg9s to filt] back aga9 ?r\gh ! cell-wall4 ,num]\s rese>*es dur+ ! la/ fifte5 ye>s h %[n t ! sap ( su* a liv+ cell z ! root-hair is *>g$ ) sub/ances ( v>i\s degrees ( osmotic p[]2 bodies l sug>s1 amides1 vegetable acids & _! salts1 be+ =m$ by ! metabolic activity ( ! protoplasm & accumulat$ !re4 ,moreov]1 we n[ "k t ! salts ( ! vegetable acids 9 p>ticul> are effective1 & ! rese>*es ( ,w>burg & ,pallad9 9 #ahhf h plac$ x beyond reasonable d\bt t ^! acids are cont9ually be+ develop$ & de/roy$ 9 ! liv+ cell dur+ normal gr[? & respiration1 & t great v>iations z to quantity may be br\ght ab\t by alt]ations 9 ! conditions ( ! environm5t--e4g4 temp]ature1 oxyg51 etc4 ,if1 n[1 we br+ a solution ( "s salt1 su* z potassium nitrate1 :i* has a p[]ful attraction = wat]1 on ! outside ( ! liv+ root-hair1 ! "q :e!r ! wat] rema9s 9 ! cell1 or passes out ( x1 m]ely dep5ds on :e!r ! sub/ances inside or t outside h ! mo/ p[]ful attraction on ! wat] 9 ! sap1 s9ce ! protoplasm all[s wat] to pass freely4 ,b ! protoplasmic l9+ may affect ! :ole matt] 9 ano!r way2 = x may all[ ! dissolv$ salt1 or o!r sub/ance1 9 ! solution outside or inside ! cell to pass ?r\gh x also1 or x may take x up & fix x1 or break x up or o!rwise alt] x4 ,m rec5t rese>*es1 & especially ^? ( ,pfeff]1 h %[n t ^! diosmotic prop]ties ( ! liv+ protoplasm are ( ! utmo/ importance 9 ! :ole matt] ( absorption ( sub/ances f ! soil4 ,let u suppose ! foll[+ case4 ,a root-hair1 9 full vig\r1 is all[$ to ba! freely 9 a dilute solution ( v>i\s sub/ances1 su* z sug>1 potassium nitrate1 phosphates1 sulphates & c>bonates ( iron1 soda1 lime1 magnesium & o!rs kn[n by exp]im5t to be h>mless to its life4 ,n[ x turns out to be by no means a =egone conclusion t all or any ( ! sub/ances1 ev5 ?\gh freely soluble 9 ! wat]1 c pass ?r\gh ! protoplasm into ! int]ior ( ! cell4 ,"s may be all[$ easy access1 o!rs may only be p]mitt$ to pass 9 small quantities1 & o!rs1 aga91 may be absolutely refus$ access by ! delicate liv+ filt]1 s long z x is vigor\sly alive4 ,nor1 z prov$ by num]\s exp]im5tal cultures s9ce ,de ,saussure's "t1 is ! entrance ( a salt1 etc41 rul$ by its indisp5sability or o!rwise 9 ! economy ( ! plant4 ,& x is important to notice t only exp]im5t c prove ! po9t & det]m9e :i* sub/ances are absorb$ & :i* refus$ by ! root-hair4 ,if we n[ suppose ! protoplasm to give rise to p[]fully osmotic sub/ances :i* accumulate 9 ! sap-vacuole1 b :i* are n p]mitt$ free egress ?r\gh ! protoplasm 7& ! =mation ( su* bodies w occur if ! protoplasm is actively respir+71 ! conditions = absorption ( wat]1 ) or )\t any dissolv$ salts1 :i* ! protoplasm all[s to trav]se x1 are set up4 ,b ! above suppos$ case is realis$1 z ,pfeff] %[$ 9 #ahhf1 :5 he f\nd by a s]ies ( beautiful exp]im5ts t c]ta9 anil9e dyes c accumulate 9 liv+ root-hairs1 & o!r liv+ cells1 :]eas o!rs _c pass ! liv+ protoplasm4 ,aft] accumulat+ = "s "t1 ! dye may ei!r rema9 /or$ !re1 or may ev5tually diffuse out4 ,pfeff] made ano!r discov]y1 ( equal importance1 namely1 t "u ! influ5ce ( dilute organic acids1 su* z citric acid1 ! p]meability ( ! liv+ protoplasm may be alt]$1 s t x all[s sub/ances to pass :i* c\ld n o!rwise h trav]s$ x4 ,de ,vries _h also %[n t ! condition ( ! protoplasm affects its p[] ( reta9+ ! col\r+ matt] 9 ! sap ( ! ,beet3 s long z ! protoplasm is alive1 ! crimson sap is reta9$1 ev5 :5 ! cell is plasmolys$1 b imm$iately x beg9s to die ! col\r escapes ?r\gh x4 ,a simil> case exi/s :5 ! *lorophyll-corpuscles reta9 _! col\r 9 liv+ cells kn[n to be *>g$ ) acids3 s long z ! protoplasm is alive & normally active ! gre5 bodies are protect$4 ,^!1 & num]\s o!r exp]im5ts ( ! same k9d1 prove t ! heal?y root-hair is a liv+ in/rum5t = tak+ up dilute solutions out ( ! soil1 & hold+ !m 9 ! sap-cavity = a "t4 ,if kill$1 by fro/ = in/ance1 x loses ^! p[]s4 ,! rese>*es ( ! la/ t5 ye>s h also %[n t a "t comes :5 ! turgid cell1 if an isolat$ "o1 & if suffici5t supplies ( wat] are pres5t1 is s tightly di/5d$ t ! surplus wat] beg9s to diffuse out aga9 "u ! pressure prop] to ! hydro/atic conditions set up4 ,n[ we arrive at a v critical po9t4 ,:5 ! wat]1 or dilute solution ( v>i\s sub/ances1 beg9s to exude "u pressure f ! liv+ root-hair1 :at is to prev5t its escape into ! soil8 ,& if x ?us diffuses out1 :]e is ! object ( absorption8 ,! que/ions are obvi\sly p]t95t1 & !y may seem ! m s 9 t ! cells adjo9+ ! root-hair on its inn] side are also turgid1 & possess simil> prop]ties to ^? ( ! root-hairs4 ,to e/abli% a condition ( ?+s :i* %all br+ ab\t ! inw>d fl[ ( ! absorb$ wat]1 "o ( ! ?ree foll[+ cases is conceivable4 7#a7 ,! cells1 z we pass radially into ! root1 h diff]5t prop]ties on ! wall ( ! two sides2 or 7#b7 !y are m & m gre$y ( wat] ow+ to "s process ( extraction ( _! wat] by tissues 9 ! c5tre ( ! root2 or 7#c7 ^! successive s]ies ( cells possess osmotically m p[]ful cont5ts at p]iods co9cid5t ) ! escape ( ! wat] f ! n[ osmotically weak] root-hairs4 ,a little reflection w %[ t :]e we h a gr\p ( su* cells z ! above1 all capable ( absorb+ wat] & dilute solutions & ( becom+ turgid1 movem5ts ( ! absorb$ wat] mu/ g on until all ! cells are 9 equilibrium1 z reg>ds _! osmotic pressures4 ,n[ ! liv+ rootlet is j su* a sy/em1 ! v>i\s cells ( :i* are 9 diff]5t conditions ( osmotic pressure at any giv5 "t3 "s ( ^! cells are old1 & _! protoplasm is all[+ sap to filt] out "u pressure3 o!rs are 9 ! height ( _! vig\r1 & _! protoplasm extremely imp]vi\s to ! highly osmotic sap-con/itu5ts :i* x itself is =m+ actively3 o!rs are too "y to h atta9$ _! full turgesc5ce3 :ile o!rs aga9 are 9 /ages int]m$iate betwe5 ! above4 ,!re is ano!r po9t ( importance1 h[ev]1 to expla9 "s peculi>ities 9 ! absorption ( ^! dilute solutions ( salts1 etc41 by ! root-hairs f ! soil1 & by cells ly+ deep] 9 ! plant f ^! root-hairs4 ,x is easy to und]/& t if a root-hair absorbs a giv5 sub/ance--say calcium sulphate1 = illu/ration--& h&s x ov] to o!r cells un*ang$1 a "t mu/ be suppos$ to arrive :51 ! sap ( all ! cells be+ equally *>g$ ) calcium sulphate1 no m c\ld be absorb$3 ! rate ( absorption ( ?is p>ticul> sub/ance1 & ! quantity absorb$1 up to ! hypo!tical po9t ( equilibrium *os51 w\ld !n dep5d simply on ! ease ) :i* its molecules trav]s$ ! liv+ protoplasmic membrane1 & ! degree ( _! solubility 9 ! sap4 ,b n[ suppose ! foll[+ new factor to come 94 ,suppose t calcium sulphate und]goes decomposition 9 "s "o ( ! int]nal cells ( ! sy/em ( absorb+ cells1 or t x is ev5 m]ely cry/allis$ out 9 su* a cell1 or 9 any o!r way remov$ f solution 7e4g4 by deposition 9 cell-walls74 ,?is alt]s ! /ate ( affairs consid]ably4 ,! sep>ation ( ! molecules f ! sap-solution is itself a cause = ! fl[ ( m ( ! solution to ! cell conc]n$1 & su* causes ( diffusion are v common 9 ! plant4 ,! importance ( ?is pr9ciple consi/s 9 t x lies at ! base ( ! :ole "q ( selective absorption1 application ( manures1 & ! rotation ( crops2 & ^? :o are acqua9t$ ) ! excell5t analytical results ( ,de ,saussure1 ,b\ss+ault1 ,wolff1 ,tr9*9etti1 ,go$e*51 etc41 & ! wat]-culture exp]im5ts ( ,sa*s1 ,nobbe1 & o!rs1 w und]/& :at an illum9at+ effect on ^! po9ts 0 produc$ by ! above g5]alisation1 :i* we owe especially to ,pfeff]'s spl5did rese>*es into ! nature ( osmotic ph5om5a4 ,x w n[ be cle>1 ,i hope1 :y we reg>d ! liv+ root-hairs z in/rum5ts--z pieces ( liv+ ma*9]y--= ! active absorption ( wat]1 ) sub/ances dissolv$ 9 x1 f ! soil2 & x w also be evid5t1 ,i ?9k1 t no "o c =m a prop] conception ( ?is matt] ( absorption1 s important 9 all agricultural que/ions1 unless he pays att5tion to ^! biological ph5om5a4 ,x 0 hopeless to expect to und]/& ^! matt]s m]ely 9 ! light ( *emical analyses ( plants & soils1 & "o expression ( ?is hopelessness 0 ! belief 9 ! p[] ( roots to select only ! sub/ances useful to x4 ,we n[ "k t ! expression selective p[] ( roots has a totally diff]5t mean+ f t impli$ 9 ! m9ds ( ! la/ g5]ation ( agriculturali/s1 & x w\ld be easy to devise exp]im5ts1 ) solutions ( diff]5t /r5g?1 :]e ! plant %\ld be made to take up relatively l>ge quantities ( h>mless1 b useless m9]als1 etc41 & to />ve 9 ! mid/ ( pl5ty ( ! elem5ts prop] to its /ructure1 simply because ! =m] are (f]$ 9 a =m 9 :i* !y easily trav]se ! protoplasm ( ! root-hairs1 :ile ! latt] are pres5t$ 9 a =m unsuitable = absorption4 ,t all ^! matt]s are ( importance 9 reg>d to manur+ & *oice ( soils1 etc41 ne$s no emphasis+4 ,^! rem>ks1 ( c\rse1 d n detract f ! value ( good comp>ative *emical analyses1 :5 view$ 9 ! light ( physiological k1 z ,i ne$ h>dly say2 b !y d1 & emphatically s1 attack ! position t su* analyses alone c expla9 ! problems ( agriculture4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ n re/ satisfi$ ) ! sugge/ions s f> put =w>d to acc\nt = ! processes ref]r$ to1 s9ce x is impossible to ov]look ! fact t 9 _! pres5t =m !y m]ely af=d proximate explanations1 & are too crudely me*anical = f9ality4 ,,notes ,,on ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,9 addition to ! works ref]r$ to 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! /ud5t %\ld consult ,pfeff]'s ,physiology1 pp4 #hf-adi1 & pp4 #daj-dda4 ,) ref]5ce to wat] cultures1 ,sa*s' ,lectures1 ,,xvii41 may also be consult$4 ,! /&>d "w on a% con/itu5ts ( plants is ,wolff1 ,as*5-analys51 #ahga & #ahhj1 an indisp5sable book ( ref]5ce 9 ?is connection1 ?\gh !re are o!rs1 quot$ 9 ,pfeff]1 :]e fur!r lit]ature may also be f\nd4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,biology ,,( ,,soil4 ,soil n a dead matrix--,organic mat]ials--,! liv+ organisms ( ! soil--,_! activities--,_! numb]s & importance4 ,ab&onm5t ( ! notion t *emical analysis c expla9 ! problem4 ,x is cu/om>y to reg>d ! soil1 betwe5 ! p>ticles ( :i* ! root-hairs ( plants are di/ribut$1 z if x 7 m]ely a dead matrix ( small] or l>g] pieces ( rock1 su* z s&1 gravel1 /ones1 etc41 & organic rema9s1 su* z bits ( wood1 leaves1 bones1 etc41 ) wat] & air 9 _! int]/ices4 ,z matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 soil is a mu* m complex body ?an 0 suspect$ until comp>atively rec5t times4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 beyond ! scope ( ?is book to g into ! diff]5t v>ieties ( soils1 _! /ructure or arrangem5t1 & ! *emical nature ( _! con/itu5t rocks & ! debris m+l$ ) ! latt]4 ,= ! same reason ,i mu/ pass ov] ! curi\s prop]ties ( soils 9 relation to ! solutions !y yield to wat] 9 contact1 ! mann] 9 :i* !y reta9 "s ( ^! solutions & all[ o!rs to pass easily1 & ! rem>kable d\ble decompositions :i* g on 9 !m4 ,moreov]1 ,i mu/ assume z kn[n ! *ief physical prop]ties ( ord9>y soils ) respect to ! ph5om5a ( capill>ity1 absorption ( heat1 action ( fro/1 & s =?4 ,b all ideas z to ! nature ( soil bas$ m]ely on ! /udy ( its *emi/ry & physics are mislead+1 & x is 9 j ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is tru? t mod]n discov]ies 9 ,agricultural & ,=e/ ,botany h play$ s important a "p4 ,f ! facts t organic debris is f\nd *iefly at ! surface ( ! e>?1 & t ! smalle/ p>ticles are held 9 susp5sion by ! wat] ne> ! surface1 x is compreh5sible :y su* organic rema9s ab\nd 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ! soil1 :]e ! rootlets ) _! absorb+ root-hairs are also f\nd1 because !y mu/ h oxyg54 ,! rule is1 !re=e1 t an ord9>y soil consi/s ( upp] /rata1 ri* 9 organic mat]ials & 9 oxyg51 & a subsoil1 poor] 9 ^! sub/ances4 ,among ^! organic mat]ials are c\ntless myriads ( liv+ be+s1 especially fungi & bact]ia1 :i* require oxyg5 & organic mat]ials = _! subsi/5ce1 & x dep5ds on ! op5 or close1 mod]ately moi/ or damp1 w>m or cold nature ( ! soil1 & on "s obvi\sly connect$ factors1 h[ f> d[n ^! a]obic organisms c ?rive4 ,z we g deep] d[n !y become few] & few]1 & gradually disappe>1 & 7neglect+ c]ta9 ana]obic bact]ia ( putrefaction7 !y are r>ely f\nd 9 m>k$ abundance m ?an a few in*es bel[ ! surface soil4 ,^! a]obic fungi & bact]ia are ! great ag5ts ( cont9u$ f]tility ( a soil1 & x is !y :i*1 liv+ & multiply+ 9 ! moi/ & well-a]at$ w>m int]/ices ( a ri* op5 soil1 c>ry out ! useful de/ruction ( organic matt]1 break+ x up into m9]al & gase\s bodies1 :i* are !n dissolv$ 9 ! wat] ba?+ ! root-hairs or escape into ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ?is "w ( de/ruction !y are aid$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! air & ! sol> heat3 _! own f]m5tative action is also accompani$ by a m>k$ rise ( temp]ature1 & ! c>bon-dioxide & o!r products ( _! activity all g to complicate ! *emical *anges go+ on 9 ! soil ar\nd ! roots4 ,duclaux has calculat$ t ,asp]gillus nig]1 a common m\ld fungus1 c break d[n organic sub/ances1 su* z c>bohydrates1 at su* a rate t a metre cube ( ! fungus w\ld decompose m ?an #cjjj kilogr4 ( />* 9 a ye>1 & ?is may s]ve z an example giv+ "s idea ( ! possibilities 9 soil4 ,analyses ( wat]s conta9+ l>ge quantities ( organic matt]1 z !y ent] su* op5 soils z ^? ref]r$ to1 comp>$ ) ! dra9age wat] aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! upp] /rata1 %[ t ! c>bonace\s & nitrog5\s mat]ials are brok5 d[n to m or less completely oxidis$ simpl] comp\nds1 & t ! foll[+ *ief *anges result4 ,! ammonia & "s o!r nitrog5\s bodies rema9 beh9d 9 ! soil1 z also d ! phosphoric acid & mu* ( ! pota%2 :]eas l>ge quantities ( nitric & nitr\s acids1 toge!r ) mu* sulphuric acid1 *lorides1 & calcium salts pass away 9 ! dra9age4 ,^! facts are obvi\sly highly important 9 agriculture4 ,exp]im5ts on sewage f>ms h %[n also t ! upp] soil reta9s mo/ ( ! bact]ia ( ! sewage4 ,ko* f\nd at ,osmont1 ne> ,b]l91 t :]eas ! diff]5t sewage wat]s conta9$ numb]s s enorm\s t ea* cubic c5timet] probably held #ch1jjj1jjj g]ms1 ! diff]5t dra9age wat]s held only #hg1jjj p] c4cm42 & ! :ole process ( wat]-filtration ?r\gh s&y soils dep5ds on ^! well-kn[n facts4 ,rec5t exp]im5ts 9 connection ) soil-filtration1 h[ev]1 br+ out ! fur!r facts t ! oxidations :i* organic matt]s und]go 9 ! soil--& )\t :i* !y are useless to ! high] plants--are enorm\sly enfeebl$ if ! upp] lay]s ( soil are /]ilis$1 s z to deprive !m ( ! myriads ( a]obic bact]ia1 fungi & yea/s :i* !y normally conta91 & !re c no long] be any d\bt z to ! importance ( ! biology ( ! soil 9 connection ) ! prep>ation ( mat]ials suitable = absorption 9 solution by ! root-hairs ( agricultural & o!r plants4 ,! rese>*es ( ! la/ t5 ye>s h br\ght to light a long li/ ( =ms1 compris+ yea/s1 su* z ,hans5's ,sac*>omyces apiculatus1 fungi & bact]ia :i* live & gr[ 9 ! soil1 f9d+ _! wat] & food supplies 9 ! int]/ices1 & "u conditions :i* we n[ "k to be v div]se4 ,!y are usually m num]\s1 9 species & individuals1 9 cultivat$ f>m & g>d5 soils ?an 9 woods1 prairies1 & untill$ l&s2 b ! geological nature ( ! /rata1 ! clos5ess & o!rwise ( ! soil1 its damp or dry "* & its av]age temp]ature 7:i* dep5ds on _m ?+s besides latitude or altitude7 & o!r factors co-op]ate to rule _! di/ribution & numb]s4 ,! fact t cultivat$ l& is s well suppli$ ) manures1 air1 etc41 is ( great importance 9 relation to _! relative abundance !re1 & x is extremely probable t ! use ( artificial manures less5s _! numb]s consid]ably z comp>$ ) l& on :i* /able & o!r animal manures are employ$4 ,a li/ ( ! soil-bact]ia :i* h be5 isolat$ & m or less c>efully cultivat$ & exam9$ w\ld comprise ab\t fifty species2 b x is c]ta9 t1 z at pres5t classifi$ & nam$1 _m m species are to be discov]$ 9 any ord9>y soil4 ,! fungi are app>5tly ev5 m num]\s ?an ! bact]ia1 & we may re/ satisfi$ = ! pres5t ) ! g5]al /atem5t t ! life-actions ( ! myriads ( individuals ( ^! organisms 9 ! soil completely alt] ! "q ( soil-wat] z und]/ood by ! la/ g5]ation ( agriculturali/s4 ,b !re is ano!r aspect ( ?is "q ( soil-organisms :i* has gr[n 9 importance ( late to su* an ext5t t we are m ?an ev] ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ ! biology ( soil z f> m vital to ! int]e/s ( ! plant ?an its physical or *emical prop]ties4 ,) _m ( ! fungi 9 ! soil ! roots ( plants h to compete--j z plant competes ) plant--= wat]1 salts1 & o!r food-mat]ials4 ,! toad/ools :i* are s conspicu\s 9 fields & =e/s spr+ f mycelia :i* ramify 9 ! gr\nd1 & are busily break+ d[n ! rema9s ( o!r organisms1 & j su* fungi are kn[n to /ore up relatively l>ge quantities ( salts ( potassium & phosphorus--! v salts :i* are s valuable to crops & occur s sp>+ly 9 mo/ soils1 b :i* ! ext5sively spread fungus mycelia c gradually accumulate4 ,"s ( ^! fungi1 moreov]1 are m active 9 _! antagonism1 & actually attack & pi]ce ! roots z de/ructive p>asites1 b ,i pass ^! by = ! pres5t1 z !y =m ! subject = fur!r consid]ation :5 we come to ! diseases ( plants4 ,x is obvi\s t ! competition ( fungi ) root-hairs = m9]al salts1 oxyg51 etc41 may be at times acute1 & x is extremely probable t cases ( s-call$ /]ility ( soil1 :]e a p>ticul> soil is f\nd unsuitable = a crop1 may sometimes be due to ?is ov]-competition4 ,! rese>*es ( rec5t ye>s1 h[ev]1 & especially ^? ( ,frank1 ,w9ogradsky1 ,hellriegel1 & ,/ahl1 h br\ght to light a s]ies ( relation%ips betwe5 c]ta9 ( ^! soil-organisms & ! high] plants :i* place ! matt] ( soil-biology 9 q new lights4 ,on ! "o h& x has be5 discov]$ t gr\ps ( bact]ia are ! active ag5ts 9 br++ ab\t ! de/ruction ( organic nitrog5\s matt] ) ! =mation ( ammonia1 9 oxidis+ ?is ammonia to nitr\s & to nitric acids1 :i* comb9e ) bases 9 ! soil to =m ! correspond+ salts2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 o!r =ms c decompose ! nitrates & r$uce !m to nitrites1 or set free ammonia or ev5 nitrog5 f !m4 ,moreov]1 !re are c]ta9 species :i* c fix ! free nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e1 & />t ! cycle ( up-build+ ( ?is in]t elem5t into ! complex high] comp\nds we t]m organic4 ,x is impossible to ov]-e/imate ! importance ( ^! processes ( nitrification & d5itrification go+ on 9 ! soil ab\t ! root-hairs ( ! high] plants4 ,b1 9 addition to ?is circulation ( nitrog5 9 ! soil1 x turns out t ! life-actions ( bact]ia1 & n m]e *emical decompositions1 are l>gely responsible = ! circulation ( c>bon1 ( iron1 ( sulphur & o!r elem5ts =m$ f ! decomposition--also by bact]ial & fungal ag5cy--( animal & vegetable rema9s 9 ! soil4 ,ev5 m />tl+ are ! biological relations 9 ! soil betwe5 ! absorb+ roots ( ! high] plants & "s ( ^! bact]ia & fungi1 = x has n[ be5 e/abli%$ beyond all d\bt t c]ta9 fungi ent] ! liv+ roots & !re fl\ri% n z m]e de/ructive p>asites1 b z messmates n only tol]at$ by ! plant1 b ev5 indisp5sable to its welf>e4 ,x is probable t ne>ly half ! plants ( our fields1 moors1 & =e/s ent]ta9 su* fungi 9 _! root-tissues4 ,! curi\s1 & long-kn[n nodules on ! roots ( legum9\s plants--peas1 beans1 clov]1 etc4--are fill$ ) bact]ia :i* enable ^! plants to avail !mselves ( ! free nitrog5 ( ! air1 & s enri* ! soil ) nitrog5\s sub/ances4 ,! roots ( mo/ =e/ trees1 or*ids1 & plants ( ! moorl&s1 mead[s & m>%es are simil>ly occupi$ by fungi1 :i* 9 "s way convey salts--probably especially phosphates & potassium comp\nds--to ! plant 9 return = ! small tax ( organic c>bon-comp\nds x exacts f ! latt]4 ,9 "s cases at any rate1 z ,b]n>d has lately %[n1 ! v exi/5ce ( ! plant dep5ds on its se$l+ roots obta9+ ?is advantage\s atta*m5t & co-op]ation 7symbiosis7 ( ! fungus imm$iately on g]m9ation4 ,^! rem>ks mu/ suffice to illu/rate ?is "p ( my subject1 & to emphasise ! /atem5t t ! "q :e!r a giv5 plant c be gr[n 9 a giv5 soil1 is by no means "o ( simply ! physical & *emical con/itution ( ! latt]4 ,! plant w h to run ! gauntlet ( a long s]ies ( vicissitudes br\ght ab\t by ! pres5ce or abs5ce1 relative proportions & vig\r1 & specific nature ( ! organisms 9 ! soil at its roots1 & x is easy to see t _m cases ( disease may be due to ! abs5ce ( advantage\s bact]ia or fungi1 or to circum/ances :i* disfav\r _! life1 z well z to ! pr$om9ance ( compet+ organisms4 ,x w n[ be evid5t t ! old po9ts ( view mu/ be ab&on$1 & ) !m1 especially1 ! widely preval5t notion t *emical analyses ( ! plant & soil c expla9 ! real problems ( agriculture4 ,x 0 ( c\rse an enorm\s advance 9 ! sci5ce :51 ?anks to ! spl5did lab\rs ( ! *emi/s1 at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury & ! beg9n+ ( ?is1 we obta9$ t prelim9>y k ( ! con/itution ( ! air1 & ( ! composition ( ! wat]1 acids & salts1 etc41 :i* plants require = _! food-mat]ials & life-processes4 ,mu* 0 ga9$ by ,de ,saussure's e/abli%m5t ( ! fact ( oxyg5 respiration1 ?\gh we n[ und]/& by ! t]m some?+ v diff]5t f1 & mu* m complex ?an1 :at he und]/ood by x1 z1 also1 mu* _h be5 ga9$ by ! previ\sly acquir$ k ( ! gas-ex*anges 9 c>bon-assimilation3 nor mu/ we =get ! s]vices ( ^? :o prov$1 by labori\s analyses1 cont9u$ = long p]iods1 :at *emical comp\nds are f\nd 9 ! tissues ( plants1 & 9 ! soils at _! roots & ! atmosph]e :i* surr\nd$ !m4 ,we mu/ also rememb] _m o!r contributions :i* h be5 furni%$1 & are /ill be+ furni%$ by ! *emi/2 & ,i = "o hope t 8 lab\rs w cont9ue to g h& 9 h& ) ^? ( ! physiologi/4 ,b1 :5 all due hon\r is paid to ! sci5tific *emi/1 x mu/ /ill be all[$ t 8 problems are diff]5t f ! real problems ( agriculture4 ,to take "o set ( in/ances alone4 ,! *emi/ c analyse a giv5 soil or a giv5 manure1 & c ev5 g a long way t[>ds mak+ !m1 b 8 analyses d n tell u :at conditions are necess>y 9 ord] t _! +r$i5ts may be pres5t$ to ! roots s z to be absorb$ & become built up into ! plant4 ,*emi/ry told u t c>bon 0 fix$ f ! air1 b physiological exp]im5ts det]m9$ h[ ?is meant ! syn!sis ( c]ta9 def9ite c>bohydrates--?is1 too1 9 ! face ( ! p[]ful au?ority ( ! *emi/ ,liebig1 :o suppos$ t ! vegetable acids 7 ! results ( ! assimilation ( c>bon4 ,wolff1 ,de ,saussure1 & o!r *emi/s h done yeoman s]vice 9 %[+ t diff]5t plants1 gr[+ 9 ! same soil1 conta9 diff]5t proportions ( m9]al sub/ances2 b x 0 by means ( wat]-cultures1 & o!r physiological rese>*es1 su* z ^? ( ,pfeff] on osmotic ph5om5a & ( ,s*w>z & ,molis* on root-hairs1 t ! puzzl+ "q ( selective absorption1 by means ( ! liv+ root-hairs1 came into ! ar5a ( our k4 ,9 e case--&1 z already said1 ,i am n und]valu+ ! "w done--! *emi/ has left u only on ! ?re%old ( ! real problem4 ,he has /ood outside ! factory 9 :i* ! real "w we want to "k ab\t is be+ c>ri$ on1 & has told u ( s _m tons ( ?is mat]ial be+ c>ri$ 9 at ! gates1 & ( s _m tons ( t com+ out2 he has ev5 burnt d[n ! factory1 & all its cont5ts & ma*9]y1 & has !n told u h[ _m tons ( ! v>i\s mat]ials 7 !re at ! "t2 b ?is is n :at we want1 valuable z ! in=mation is1 & /ill m w be4 ,:at we want1 & :at we expect to obta91 is m in=mation reg>d+ :at is done ) ! mat]ials 9 ! factory3 :at ma*9]y !y are put into1 & h[ !y are put 93 :at /ages !y g ?r\gh1 & h[ ! /ages foll[ "o ano!r3 :at we> & te> has to be endur$1 & h[ we c /ep 9 & /op ! work+ ( ! ma*9e = our own b5efit at ! be/ possible "t4 ,! physiologi/ proce$s empirically1 by exp]im5t+ ) ! liv+ ma*9]y4 ,he recognises ! p>ts & _! /ructure1 & tries to f9d out :at !y are do+3 he kn[s t ! laws ( physics & *emi/ry _c be trav]s$1 b he sees ^! laws at "w "u special & v complex & peculi> conditions4 ,he !re=e1 z ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts1 sets new que/ions--or old que/ions "u new conditions1 if y l--& und\bt$ly wants ! help ( bo? *emi/ & physici/2 or1 if x is pref]r$1 ! *emi/ & physici/ may attack ! problems1 b !y mu/ famili>ise !mselves ) ! peculi> me*anism ( ! organism conc]n$1 & _c hope to atta9 success )\t exp]im5t+ ) x4 ,i confess x seems to me z reasonable to look ^u sci5tific agriculture z a bran* *iefly ( *emi/ry z x w\ld be to look ^u horse-bre$+ or pigeon-re>+ f ! same po9t ( view2 & :y ! pr(ess$ *emi/'s advice is reg>d$ z s com=t+ & f9al 9 ! "o case & n 9 ! o!r is "o ( ^? my/]ies :i* seem inh]5t 9 human nature4 ,! c5tral po9t 9 agriculture is ! plant3 get ! mo/ out ( x--! en]gy-w9n+ ma*9e :i* alone c keep ! animals & ev]y?+ else connect$ ) ! f>m go+--& all ! re/ foll[s4 ,! old agriculture has tak5 a gloomy view ( ?+s1 & especially on acc\nt ( a l>ge v>iable :i* x blames = _m ills1 namely1 ! season or climate4 ,p]haps ! old agriculture has n suffici5tly recognis$ t ,nature gr[s plants 9 accordance ) ! fact t v>iation is n peculi> to ! wea!r3 if ! seasons v>y1 s d fruit & o!r produce & ! plants :i* yield !m2 & s9ce man _c hope to control ! "o v>iable1 possibly relief w be f\nd 9 do+ m1 )9 8 limits1 t[>ds controll+ o!rs4 ,9 any case he _c hope to succe$ )\t /udy ( ! physiology ( ! plant4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,an admirable %ort acc\nt ( soil 9 its relation to root-hairs is giv5 9 ,sa*s' ,lectures1 ,,xv42 b = a m exhau/ive treatm5t ( ! subject ( soil ! read] is ref]r$ to ,k+1 ,! ,soil 7,wiscons91 #ahie71 or ,w>r+ton1 ,lectures on ! ,physical ,prop]ties ( ,soil 7,ox=d1 #aijj72 ,l>baletri]1 ,l',agriculture 7,p>is1 #ahhh71 *apt]s ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 ,!re is also a v good acc\nt 9 ,bailey1 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,agriculture 7,london1 #ahih71 *apt]s ,i4-,,iii4 ,) ref]5ce to ! organisms 9 soils & ! decompositions !y br+ ab\t1 ! /ud5t %\ld consult ,kram]1 ,die ,bakt]iologie 9 ihr5 ,beziehung5 zur ,l&wir?s*aft 7,wi51 #ahij71 & ,laf>1 ,te*nical ,mycology 7,engl4 edition1 #ahih71 sections ,v41 ,,viii41 & ,,ix4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,hybridisation ,,& ,,selection4 ,! cross+ ( v>ieties ( :eat1 etc4--,! ess5tials ( f]tilisation--,rimpau's exp]im5ts--,hybrids & select$ v>ieties4 ,9 ! m hopeful view ( ! case :i* ! new agriculture w h to take1 x w recognise ! physiological tru? t s9ce ! liv+ plant is ! important & v>iable ma*9e :i* con/ructs ! produce look$ =1 & s9ce t ma*9e w "w be/ 9 proportion z its ne$s are prop]ly satisfi$2 !re=e 9 cases :]e ! ne$s ( a giv5 type ( ! ma*9e _c be effici5tly provid$ =1 x w be well to select "s o!r type :i* w take :at supplies & conditions c be (f]$4 ,( c\rse1 ?is is already recognis$ to a c]ta9 ext5t1 z is impli$ 9 ! practices ( rotation ( crops1 selection ( p$igree :eats & mixtures ( pa/ure grasses1 & 9 decisions z to ! quality ( l& accord+ to ! k9ds ( we$s f\nd on x1 & s =?2 b ,i am conv9c$ t ! agriculturi/ ( ! future--& ! same applies to ! horticulturi/1 plant] & =e/]--w h to conc]n himself m sy/ematically ) ! work+ & ! v>iability ( ! plant1 & p>ticul>ly ) :at ,d>w9 t]m$ ,v>iation "u ,dome/ication1 ?an has always be5 ! cu/om 9 ! pa/4 ,! subject ( ! pla/icity ( cultivat$ plants1 & especially ( hybrids1 is 9 "o s5se an old "o2 b mu* "w is be+ done :i* proves1 z su* "w is apt to d1 t v mu* m may be done by well-plann$ exp]im5ts on ! selection ( new v>ieties rais$ by hybridis+ & cultivation4 ,9 illu/ration ( ?is po9t1 a %ort summ>y ( "s ( ! results ( cross+ diff]5t species ( :eat1 b>ley1 oats1 peas1 beet1 etc41 may s]ve to %[ :at has be5 ga9$ & :at may be hop$ = 9 ^! directions4 ,x %\ld be /at$ t mu* has be5 done & is be+ done 9 ?is c\ntry z well z abroad1 z witness ,engli% v>ieties ( corn1 peas1 & potatoes1 & ! rec5t exp]im5ts on cross+ v>i\s k9ds ( maize 9 ,am]ica4 ,! hybridis] gr[s 8 c]eals1 etc41 9 pots until ready = cross+1 & !n takes !m into ! laboratory1 removes ! weak] spikelets1 & takes out ! "y /am5s f ! fl[]s left on ! plant4 ,! female plant is !n ready1 & ! fl[]s cov]$ ) pap] caps4 ,! poll51 obta9$ by a clean wet bru% f ! plant *os5 z ! fa!r1 is !n c>efully plac$ 9 position on ! /igmas1 & ! caps replac$4 ,! poll9ation is repeat$ occasionally1 & c>e tak5 t no uncross$ fl[]s develop lat]4 ,9 ?is way a few se$s or gra9s are got to />t )4 ,?is w\ld be ! place to introduce an acc\nt ( ! enorm\s advances made by ! botani/s ( ! la/ decade or two 9 ! /udy ( ! microscopic ph5om5a ( f]tilisation4 ,)\t go+ into details--:i* w\ld m ?an occupy all ! space at comm&--,i may recall ! discov]ies ( ,/rasburg] & 8 pupils1 & ( ,guign>d1 :i* h supplem5t$ ! e>li] discov]ies ( ,de ,b>y1 ,cohn1 & ,h(mei/]1 by e/abli%+ ! facts t ! ess5tial po9t 9 f]tilisation is ! fusion ( two nuclei1 & ! br++ toge!r 9 ! fus$ mass ( two extremely m9ute ?read-l coil$ bodies1 ! s-call$ *romatosomes or filam5ts1 "o ( :i* is d]iv$ f ! male & ! o!r f ! female p>5t4 ,! p>ticul>s z to ! m>vell\s adaptations to secure ! union ( ^! two inf9itesimally m9ute ?reads1 _! behavi\r imm$iately be=e & aft] union1 & _m o!r po9ts mu/ be pass$ ov]1 z ,i h only space to emphasise ! "o cr[n+ discov]y t ^! t9y filam5ts ( nucle> sub/ance are ! mat]ial c>ri]s ( all ! h]$it>y prop]ties ( ! p>5ts to ! "y plant :i* _! union initiates4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! above /atem5ts are bas$ on any meagre f\ndation ( facts4 ,! attraction ( ! fus+ nucleat$ masses _h be5 demon/rat$ ov] & ov] aga9 by ,tulasne1 ,de ,b>y1 ,/rasburg] & o!rs2 b ,pfeff] br\ght ! matt] to a crisis by discov]+ ! attractive 7*emotactic7 sub/ance emitt$ 9 giv5 cases1 & by collect+ ! f]tilis+ bodies by its means into artificial tubes4 ,! fusion ( ! nucleat$ bodies 9 ! sexual act 0 obs]v$ by ,/rasburg] 9 ! liv+ plant a few ye>s ago1 & num]\s lat] obs]v]s h confirm$ x4 ,mean:ile all ! /ages ( approa* & contact ( ! ess5tial filam5ts ( ! nucle> sub/ance h be5 trac$1 z also all ! /ages ( ! transf]5ce ( half ( ea* filam5t1 male & female1 into ea* ( ! fir/ two cells ( ! v "y embryo-plant4 ,moreov]1 ! ess5tials are f\nd to be ! same 9 ! animal k+dom also1 & ! be>+ ( all ^! discov]ies on ! ph5om5a ( reproduction1 v>iation1 & h]$ity 9 liv+ organisms has be5 & is ( ! highe/ importance1 = !y support1 control1 expla9 & correct s _m ( ! spl5did results ( ,knight1 ,koelreut]1 ,spr5gel1 ,hildebr& & ,h]mann ,muell]1 & 9 e direction ?r[ side-lights into ! crevices ( t magnific5t /ructure1 ! !ory ( ,natural ,selection1 erect$ = all "t by our c\ntryman1 ,*>les ,d>w94 ,to return n[ to exp]im5ts on cross+4 ,x is f\nd t ! fir/ products ( ! cross+ appe> exactly alike2 !y may h *>act]s int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ! fa!r & "m1 or !y may resemble "o m ?an ! o!r1 b all ! se$s ( ! same cross d x 9 ! same way4 ,on !n s[+ ! se$s ( ! plants produc$ f ?is fir/ cross1 v>iations beg9 to appe>4 ,mo/ ( ! prog5y rev]t to "o or o!r ( ! p>5t =ms1 o!rs %[ all conceivable comb9ations ( _! *>act]s1 & a few may give rise to entirely new *>act]s4 ,9 succe$+ g5]ations ! rev]sions are prepond]ant1 &1 suppos+ no c>e is tak5 to prev5t x1 ! :ole ( ! (fspr+ gradually g back to ! ance/ral type4 ,"s important consequ5ces result1 h[ev]1 if sy/ematic c>e is br\ght to be> on ! matt]4 ,?is t5d5cy to v>iation 9 ! second g5]ation ( cross$ plants has (t5 be5 not$1 & x be>s out v di/9ctly ! conclusions to :i* ,d>w9 came4 ,! hybridis] takes advantage ( ?is v>iation1 z o!rs h done1 to select "s =ms & rigidly suppress o!rs1 9 ord] to obta9 well-m>k$ v>ieties ( ! plants he exp]im5ts )4 ,9 illu/ration1 ,i may take ! foll[+ f ,rimpau's acc\nt ( 8 exp]im5ts on cross+ :eat3 ,by cross+ a :ite ,engli% long-e>$1 d5se :eat1 & celebrat$ z a heavy cropp]1 ) a r$1 loos] ,g]man :eat1 rem>kable = its resi/ance to w9t] cold1 ,rimpau hop$ to obta9 a v>iety unit+ bo? ! above qualities4 ,z reg>ds ! prop]ty ( resi/ance1 he fail$1 & he ev5tually gave up ! attempts 9 face ( ! advantages (f]$ by ! s-call$ ,squ>e-heads1 :i* !n came into ! m>ket4 ,8 exp]im5ts1 ev5 ) ! above v>ieties1 are wor? not+1 h[ev]1 = !y %[ h[ promis+ ! results ( c>efully conduct$ cross+ & selection may be4 ,! cross+ 0 done 9 #ahge1 9 bo? directions4 ,9 #ahgf ! few gra9s obta9$ 7 f\nd to yield plants almo/ all alike1 ) ! long loose e> ( ! ,g]man p>5t1 b ! pal] col\r ( ! ,engli% :eat4 ,9 #ahgg ! plants1 obta9$ by s[+ ! f9e/ gra9s1 7 f\nd to consi/ ( pure :ite1 pure r$1 & ( =ms :i* appe>$ to v>y & rev]t 9 all possible degrees z reg>ds col\r1 d5sity1 & o!r *>act]s int]m$iate betwe5 ^!4 ,by c>efully sep>at+ ! close/ & d5se/ :ite :eats f ! close/ & d5se/ r$ ones1 he got 9 #ahgh a l>ge numb] ( ea* com+ ne>] to ! type s[n ?an did ! mongrel =ms int]m+l$ ) !m3 ^! rev]sions & int]m$iate =ms 7 !n rigidly elim9at$1 & only ! deepe/ col\r$ & d5se/ r$ & :ite =ms aga9 s[n4 ,9 #ahgi ^! two *os5 v>ieties 7 con/ant1 s f> z conc]n$ ^? select$ f ! cross+ ( female ,engli% :ite ) male ,g]man r$ :eat1 & ! foll[+ ye> prov$ ! con/ancy ( ! r$ v>iety 9 ! reciprocal cross4 ,9 #ahhf all f\r v>ieties--i4e4 ! two r$s & ! two :ites ( bo? ! cross+s--_h become con/ant4 ,/ill m in/ructive are ! results ( ! cross betwe5 ! same :ite ,engli% non-be>d$ :eat & a r$ ,g]man be>d$ :eat4 ,! fir/ results ( ! cross+ 9 #ahge %[$ ! loose e> ( ! ,g]man "m1 b 0 pal] 9 col\r2 :ile ! influ5ce ( ! ,engli% fa!r 0 %[n by ! abs5ce ( be>d4 ,f ! rev]sions & mixtures ( ! mongrels %[+ rem9isc5ces ( ! p>5ts 9 all degrees 9 #ahgg1 rigid selections & re-s[+s 7 made z be=e1 & ,rimpau ev5tually got f\r v di/9ct v>ieties1 two r$ & two :ite1 a be>d$ & a be>dless =m ( ea*1 & ^! 7 decl>$ fix$ & con/ant 9 #ahgi-ahhb4 ,pass+ ov] _m simil> results1 & m]ely not+ a v successful v>iety got f a cross betwe5 a v e>ly rip5+ loose r$ ,am]ican :eat & ! d5se heavy cropp+ ,engli% ,squ>e-head--! cross$ v>iety :i* has prov$ v suitable = c]ta9 light soils & dry climates on ! ,cont95t1 :i* dem& v rapid rip5+1 & are !re=e ( great physiological & te*nical int]e/--,i mu/ pass on to note ! curi\s result ( ! successful hybridisation ( :eat & rye4 ,?is cross has be5 effect$ sev]al times1 & fir/ 9 ?is c\ntry accord+ to reports f ,ed9burgh 7#ahge71 ,new ,york 7#ahhf71 & else:]e1 & ,rimpau's c>eful exp]im5ts seem to leave no d\bt on ! matt]4 ,fir/ ,i mu/ rem9d y t :eat 7,triticum7 diff]s f rye 7,secale7 9 sev]al m>k$ *>act]s1 su* z ! bread? & %ape ( ! glumes1 ! numb] ( fl[]s 9 ! spikelet1 etc42 & t ! cultivat$ rye diff]s f cultivat$ :eats 9 ! *>act]s ( ! /raw1 9 hav+ long e>s1 & 9 its fl[]+ glumes rema9+ widely div>icat$ = "s days :5 9 fl[]4 ,9 #ahhh ,rimpau remov$ ! "y /am5s f ! ,g]man :eat ref]r$ to1 & poll9at$ ! /igmas ) poll5 f a long-e>$ rye4 ,f\r s\nd gra9s 7 obta9$1 look+ l :eat-gra9s4 ,! hi/ory ( "o ( ^! gra9s 0 z foll[s3 ,9 #ahhi x yield$ e>s :i* 7 peculi>ly n>r[ & long1 & its /alks 7 also mu* long] ?an ! :eat3 ! fl[]s rema9$ expos$1 ) widely op5 paleae1 = sev]al days1 & ! gra9s 7 v peculi>1 ?\gh :eat-l4 ,fifte5 ( ! be/ gra9s 7 select$1 & 9 #ahij ?ree ( ! result+ plants prov$ to be a :eat ( ! ,squ>e-head type & "o q /]ile4 ,! o!rs reta9$ ! elongat$1 n>r[1 br[ni%-r$ e>s1 ! fl[]+ glumes aga9 op5+ wide = "s days4 ,?is la/ is a *>act]i/ic ( rye1 b n ( :eat4 ,a long s]ies ( natural hybrids ( :eat1 b>ley1 & oats are also describ$ & discuss$ by ,rimpau1 z well z artificial crosses--"s v rem>kable--( b>leys1 b !y mu/ be pass$ ov] "h4 ,peas r>ely become hybridis$ naturally4 ,accord+ to ,d>w91 ,h4 ,muell]1 & ,focke1 ! fl[]s are little visit$ by insects 9 our c\ntries1 ?\gh ! me*anism po9ts to _! adaptation = poll9ation by l>ge bees4 ,rimpau confirms ,d>w91 ,h4 ,muell]1 & ,ogle z to ! self-f]tilisation ( our cultivat$ peas4 ,nev]!less1 z is well kn[n1 m>k$ v>ieties h be5 obta9$ by artificial cross+ by ,ga]tn]1 ,knight1 ,laxton1 & o!rs1 especially 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,at ! same "t exp]im5ts %[ t :ile x is v easy to obta9 artificial hybrids ( su* plants1 & !re is no fe> ( natural int]-cross+1 ! =ms are rem>kably un/able z yet4 ,simil>ly unsatisfactory results 7 obta9$ ) beet4 ,z exp]im5ts are /ill go+ on1 h[ev]1 we may expect to he> m ab\t ^! & o!r results4 ,x is probable1 f rec5t exp]im5ts by ,de ,vries1 ,corr5s1 & o!rs1 t a rem>kable regul>ity1 express$ by ,m5del 9 ! =m ( a law1 obta9s 9 ! v>iations :i* result f hybridis+4 ,9 consid]+ ^! illu/rative cases1 x is necess>y to ?or\ghly appreh5d t two proc$ures are involv$4 ,9 ! fir/ place we h ! cross-poll9ation lead+ to ! =mation ( ! hybrid plant by cross-f]tilisation4 ,b exp]i5ce %[s t ?is w\ld lead to v unc]ta9 results if ! plant-bre$] did n supplem5t !m by ! second & extremely important process ( rigid selection--i4e4 by *oos+ ! be/ ( ! prog5y & bre$+ f !m ap>t f ! p>5t-=ms1 & gradually int5sify+1 z x 71 ! v>iations 9 c]ta9 directions :i* h be5 />t$ by ! cross+4 ,x is by selection1 c>eful culture1 & repeat$ selection t s mu* has be5 done 9 obta9+ ! innum]able new v>ieties ( roses1 sweet-peas1 or*ids1 or*>d fruits1 c]eals1 grapes1 /rawb]ries1 melons1 tomatoes1 e>ly potatoes1 etc41 br\ght =w>d by num]\s bre$]s ( plants 9 all c\ntries1 z w readily be und]/ood if ref]5ce be made to ! "w ( ,hays & ,webb] 9 ,am]ica2 ,saund]s 9 ,canada2 ,g>ton1 ,sutton1 ,veit*1 ,bateson1 & o!rs 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,nor is x necess>y t ! new mat]ials = selection to "w ^u %\ld be />t$ by hybridisation4 ,graft+1 *ange ( conditions1 & ev5 v>iations s vaguely und]/ood t we t]m !m spontane\s1 may supply ! />t+-po9ts = *anges 9 ! *>act]s ( plants1 s rem>kable aft] int5sification by bre$+ t p f9d x difficult to believe !y c h come f "o /ock4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ,i mu/ conclude1 m]ely rem>k+ t ! above sket* is a m]e outl9e ( ! subjects mod]n agriculture & horticulture conc]n !mselves )4 ,!re are hundr$s ( problems connect$ ) ! g]m9ation ( se$s1 on :i* valuable rec5t "w has be5 done by ,klebs1 ,gre51 ,horace ,br[n1 & o!rs2 ) ! resi/ance ( se$s & se$l+s to high & l[ temp]atures1 a subject op5$ out by ,sa*s1 ,kny1 ,de ,vries1 ,krasan1 ,j1 ,hoehnel1 ,dew>1 ,dy]1 & o!rs2 ) ! conditions ( vegetation :i* affect ! v>i\s functions ( gr[?1 respiration1 assimilation1 transpiration1 & s =?1 on :i* ,i _c ev5 t\* 9 ^! pages4 ,mean:ile ,i hope ,i h succe$$ 9 impress+ ^u y ! gr& fact t ! plant is a liv+ & v complex eng9e1 driv5 by ! radiant en]gy ( ! sun1 & capable ( do+ "w !reby1 & ?is j z truly z any heat-eng9e is driv5 by *emical en]gy ga9$ by means ( ! sun's rays1 or z a wat]-mill is driv5 by p[] :i* mu/ be ref]r$ to ! en]gy ( pot5tial 9 ! head ( wat] plac$ 9 position by ! sun's "w 9 evaporation4 ,fundam5tally ! :ole ( life & "w on our planet is to be ref]r$ to ! "o great s\rce ( en]gy :i* r5d]s possible ! e/abli%m5t ( diff]5ces ( pot5tial4 ,?is ma*9e1 !n1 do+ "w 9 v>i\s ways1 adapts itself--or goes to ! wall--to ! conditions ( its "w among compet+ organisms or oppos+ circum/ances4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 :ile 9 "s cases x suff]s f ! competition1 9 o!rs x is b5efit$ by its life-actions fitt+ 9 betwe5 ^? ( o!r organisms1 :i* 9 _! turn supplem5t x4 ,9 o!r words new types ( ?is eng9e1 capable ( do+ ! "w 9 v>i\s ways1 are obta9able2 "s are good types = ! conditions af=d$1 o!rs are bad ones4 ,examples ( bo? w occur 9 ! fur!r exposition ( ! subject4 ,man's position 9 reg>d to ! /ruggle is t ( an intellig5t be+ :o /eps 9 at c]ta9 /ages & protects1 fo/]s1 & 9 e way fav\rs ! agricultural plant--! liv+ ma*9e--& sees t e opportunity is giv5 x to d its be/ "w 9 ! be/ way--f 8 po9ts ( view6 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,! f\ndation ( any c\rse ( read+ on hybridisation & selection %\ld be ,d>w9's ,effects ( ,cross & ,self-,f]tilisation 9 ! ,vegetable ,k+dom1 :i*1 ) 8 books ,on ! ,orig9 ( ,species by means ( ,natural ,selection & ,! ,v>iation ( ,animals & ,plants "u ,dome/ication1 w prep>e ! /ud5t = ! long c\rse ( read+ necess>y = a full appreciation ( :at has be5 done 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( sci5ce4 ,f ! num]\s works :i* foll[$ ^! ,i %\ld select ,bailey's ,survival ( ! ,unlike1 ,london1 #ahif1 & ,evolution ( our ,native ,fruits1 ,new ,york1 #ahih1 z especially useful = ! read] ( ?is book1 to :i* may also be add$ ,plant ,bre$+1 ,new ,york1 #ahif1 by ! same au?or1 z giv+ num]\s facts & practical directions ( value4 ,fur!r1 ! ,hybrid ,conf]5ce ,report1 ,j\rn4 ,roy4 ,hort4 ,soc41 #aijj1 ab\nds 9 facts & in=mation4 ,rimpau1 ,l&w4 ,jahrb41 vol4 xx41 #ahia1 p4 #bci4 ,! /ud5t :o wi%es to get t[>ds ! root ( ! matt] w h>dly be able to disp5se ) ,/rasburg]'s ,neue ,unt]su*ung5 ueb] die ,befru*tungsvorgang bei d5 ,phan]ogam51 ,j5a1 #ahhd4 ,an int]e/+ summ>y ( rec5t "w on ,x5ia & d\ble f]tilisation w be f\nd 9 ,bull4 ,no4 #bb1 ,u4,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agric41 #aijj4 ,see also ,nature1 ,m>4 #ae1 #aijj1 p4 #dgj4 ,if he wi%es to explore ! va/ region ( controv]sial lit]ature t op5s up f ^! po9ts1 & :i* is f> beyond ! purpose ( ?is book1 he may consult ! lit]ature collect$ 9 ,kass[itz' ,allgeme9e ,biologie1 ,wi51 #ahii1 ,b4 ,,ii41 & ! ref]5ces 9 ! works quot$2 also1 ,/rasburg]1 ,! ,p]iodic ,r$uction ( ,*romosomes 9 ,liv+ ,organisms1 ,ann4 ,bot41 viii41 #ahid1 p4 #bha4 ,= ,m5del's ,law1 see ,corr5s 9 ,b]4 d4 deuts*4 bot4 ,gesells*41 vol4 xviii41 #aijj1 p4 #aeh4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,disease ,,9 ,,plants4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,phytopa?ology4 ,,d]ivation ,,& ,,mean+4 ,hi/ory4 ,ref]5ces 9 ! ,bible--,greeks & ,romans-- ,%akespe>e--,r\5 law--,sup]/itions--,malpighi & ,grew-- ,hales--,ung]--,b]keley--,de ,b>y1 etc4 ,physiology & ,biology --,diagnosis--,etiology--,!rapeutics4 ,/udy ( causes4 ,phytopa?ology1 f ,greek words :i* signify to treat ( diseases ( plants1 comprises :at is kn[n ( ! symptoms1 c\rse1 & causes ( ! diseases :i* ?reat5 ! lives ( plants1 or br+ ab\t injuries & abnormalities ( /ructure4 ,z a di/9ct & sy/ematis$ bran* ( botany x is a mod]n /udy1 ! hi/ory ( :i* only dates f ab\t #ahej1 ?\gh ! subject _h be5 treat$ m or less disjo9t$ly by sev]al au?ors dur+ ! prec$+ c5tury1 & isolat$ records ( diseas$ crops1 fruit-trees1 etc41 exi/ f> back 9 ! hi/ory ( ,europe4 ,! exi/5ce ( mildews & blights on c]eals inde$ 0 obs]v$ & record$ by ! writ]s ( ! old] books ( ! ,bible1 half a doz5 ref]5ces to su* blights be+ f\nd 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t1 z well z o!rs to bla/$ fig trees1 etc41 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,ari/otle1 ab\t #cej ,b4,c41 notic$ ! epidemic nature ( :eat-ru/4 ,! ,greeks & ,romans 7 s well acqua9t$ ) su* diseases t _! philosoph]s speculat$ v %rewdly z to causes1 :ile ! p d$icat$ su* pe/s to special gods4 ,z reg>ds ! ,middle ,ages1 we "k little beyond ! fact t blights & mildews exi/$1 b ,%akespe>e's ref]5ce 9 ,k+ ,le> 7,act ,,iii41 ,sc4 #d7 leaves no d\bt z to 8 acqua9tance ) mildew 9 ! #ag? c5tury1 & o!r au?orities be> out ! same4 ,ev5 ! law took cognisance ( ! dang] ( :eat-ru/ 9 #affj 9 ,r\5 7,lov]do74 ,prior to ! #ah? c5tury1 h[ev]1 only meagre notes on ! subject occur scatt]$ "h & !re among o!r matt]s1 & mu* sup]/ition exi/$ !n & lat] reg>d+ ^! z o!r diseases4 ,malpighi1 9 #afgi1 gave excell5t figures ( leaves roll$ by insects & ( num]\s galls1 ! true nature ( :i* he practically discov]$ by obs]v+ ! insect pi]c+ ! tissues2 previ\s obs]v]s--,pl9y knew t flies em]ge f galls1 b ?\ght ! latt] grew spontane\sly--hav+ no?+ b sup]/itions & conjectures to (f]4 ,grew1 9 #afhb1 also gave a capital figure & description ( a leaf m9$ by a small flat insect 4 4 4 :i* nei!r rang+ 9 bread? nor /rik+ deep into ! leaf1 eats s mu* only z lies j be=e x1 & s runs scudd+ along betwixt ! sk9 & ! pulp ( ! leaf1 leav+ a :iti% /reak beh9d x1 :]e ! sk9 is n[ loose1 z ! measure ( its voyage--a by no means inadequate description ( ! injury & its cause4 ,dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury sev]al academic treatises or diss]tations deal+ ) diseases ( plants appe>$4 ,b z a rule we only f9d disjo9t$ notes4 ,hales 7#agbg-cc7 discusses ! rott+ ( w\nds1 cank]1 & a few o!r matt]s1 b mu* _h to be done ) ! microscope ere any sub/antial progress c\ld be made4 ,) ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & ! f\nd+ ( ! mod]n !ories ( nutrition by ,+5h\sz1 ,prie/ley1 & ,de ,saussure1 we f9d a new era />t$4 ,z ! discov]ies ( ! microscopi/s cont9u$ to build up our k ( ! anatomy ( plants & began to elucidate ! biology ( ! fungi & o!r cryptogams1 :ile ! *emi/s & physiologi/s laid ! f\ndations ( our mod]n sci5ce ( plant life1 x gradually became possible to tabulate & classify plant diseases1 & discuss _! symptoms & causes 9 a m sci5tific mann]4 ,ev5 9 #ahcc1 h[ev]1 ,turp91 & a f> bett] obs]v]1 ,ung]1 reg>d$ p>asitic fungi z due to diseas$ outgr[?s ( *lorophyll-corpuscles & p>5*yma cells1 views %>$ by ,mey5 7#ahcg7 & ,s*leid5 7#ahdf74 ,we may pass ov] ! v>i\s treatises ( ,wiegmann 7#ahci71 ,mey5 7#ahda71 ,raspail 7#ahdf71 ,kuehn 7#ahei71 & a numb] ( o!r works ( ! p]iod1 m]ely ref]r+ ) emphasis to ,b]keley's admirable pap]s 9 ! ,g>d5]'s ,*ronicle 7#ahed7 = a summ>y ( :at 0 !n kn[n4 ,all ^! works ant$ate ,de ,b>y's ,morphologie und ,physiologie d] ,pilze1 etc4 7#ahff71 9 :i* he br\ght toge!r ! results ( 8 rese>*es dur+ ! decade1 prov+ ! real nature ( p>asitic diseases & infection z work$ out by exp]im5ts betwe5 #ahec & #ahfc4 ,?is "w put ! :ole subject ( p>asitic diseases ( plants & animals on a new foot+1 & pav$ ! way = ! mod]n treatm5t ( plant pa?ology z elaborat$ 9 ! treatises ( ,frank 7#ahhj & #ahie71 ,sorau] 7#ahhf71 ,kir*n] 7#ahij71 & o!rs1 to :i* ! read] is ref]r$ = fur!r details4 ,i w m]ely quote ! foll[+ passage f ,raspail's ,hi/oire ,naturelle de la ,sante et de la ,maladie1 #ahdf 7vol4 ii41 p4 #agf71 9 illu/ration ( ! views ent]ta9$ by high au?orities j prior to ,de ,b>y's "w3 ,l'insecte qui produit les er9eum1 ur$o1 aecidium1 xyloma1 pucc9ia1 n'e/ donc plus p\r n\s un insecte inconnu1 mais un ac>us 7grise71 un aphis 7puc]on7 ou un ?rips1 qui produit au pr9temps une deviation1 etc4 ,& ?is view1 t fungi already well kn[n to mycologi/s 7 call$ =? by ! punctures ( insects1 0 reg>d$ z n out ( h>mony ) ! idea t ! fungus itself 0 an abnormal outgr[? ( ! tissues ( ! ho/4 ,! prop] /udy ( plant pa?ology presupposes & involves a k ( ! physiology ( plants1 ( ! normal relations ( ! latt] to _! environm5t1 & ( ! biology ( ^? animals & plants 7pr9cipally insects & fungi7 :i* are p>asitic on !m4 ,x is ( ! fir/ importance to und]/& t a disease is a condition ( abnormal physiology1 & t ! b\nd>y l9es betwe5 heal? & ill-heal? are vague & difficult to def9e4 ,z ) ! /udy ( ! diseases ( man & o!r animals1 s ) ^? ( plants1 ! practice resolves itself into ! accurate obs]vation & int]pretation ( symptoms 7,diagnosis7 on ! "o h&1 & ( causes 7,aetiology7 on ! o!r1 be=e any conclusions ( value c be drawn z to prev5tive or rem$ial measures 7,!rapeutics74 ,9 plants1 h[ev]1 symptoms ( disease are apt to exhibit !mselves 9 a v g5]al mann]1 or at any rate x may be t our p]ceptions ( !m diff]5tiate symptoms due to v diff]5t reactions imp]fectly1 probably because ! organisation ( ! plant is less specialis$ ?an t ( animals4 ,! turn+ yell[ & premature fall+ ( leaves1 = in/ance1 is a frequ5t symptom ( disease2 b x may be due to a long s]ies ( diff]5t causes ( ill-heal?--e4g4 dr\ght1 too high or too l[ a temp]ature1 light ( insuffici5t or ( excessive int5sity1 a sup]fluity ( wat] at ! roots1 ! pres5ce 9 ! tissues ( p>asitic fungi1 or t ( worms or insects at ! roots or else:]e1 poison\s gases 9 ! air1 soil1 etc41 & s =?4 ,consequ5tly ! sci5ce ( plant pa?ology is mu* conc]n$ ) ! direct action ( ext]nal causes1 :i* are probably less obscure ?an 9 ! case ( animals1 ?\gh by no means always obvi\s4 ,su* consid]ations at any rate seem to acc\nt = ! fact t mo/ au?orities on plant pa?ology base _! classification on ! causes ( disease1 !re be+ few notewor?y exceptions4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,! bibliography "h quot$ w be f\nd 9 ,b]keley1 ,vegetable ,pa?ology1 ,g>d5]'s ,*ronicle1 #ahed1 p4 #d2 ,pl[right1 ,briti% ,ur$9eae & ,u/ilag9eae1 #ahhi2 ,eriksson & ,h5n+1 ,die ,getreid]o/e1 ,/ockholm1 #ahif2 ,de ,b>y1 ,comp>ative ,morphology & ,biology ( ! ,fungi1 etc41 #ahhg2 ,frank1 ,die ,krankheit5 d] ,pflanz51 #ahie-if1 & scatt]$ 9 ! works ref]r$ to 9 !m & 9 ! text4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,heal? ,,& ,,disease4 ,v>iation--,disease--,comp>ison to a top4 ,heal?--,ext9ction ( species--,natural demise4 ,examples ( complex int]actions 9 heal?--,int]f]5ce1 & t5d5cies to ill-heal?4 ,:5 we come to enquire into ! causes ( disease1 x appe>s at fir/ an obvi\s & easy plan to subdivide !m into gr\ps ( factors :i* int]f]e ) ! normal physiology ( ! plant4 ,sci5tific exp]i5ce %[s1 h[ev]1 t ! easy & ! obvi\s are "h1 z else:]e 9 nature1 only app>5t1 = disease1 l heal?1 is an extremely complex ph5om5on1 involv+ _m reactions & int]actions betwe5 ! plant & its environm5t4 ,if we agree t a liv+ plant 9 a /ate ( heal? is n a fix$ & unalt]+ ?+1 b is ev] v>y+ & und]go+ adaptive *anges z its life works out its labyr9?9e c\rse ?r\gh ! vicissitudes ( ! also ev]-v>y+ environm5t1 !n we _c escape ! conviction t a diseas$ plant1 s long z x lives1 is also v>y+ 9 response to ! environm5t4 ,! pr9cipal diff]5ce betwe5 ! two cases is1 t :]eas ! normal heal?y plant v>ies m or less regul>ly & rhy?mically ab\t a mean1 ! diseas$ "o is t5d+ to v>y too sudd5ly or too f> 9 "s p>ticul> directions f ! mean2 ! heal?y plant may1 = our pres5t purposes1 be r\ghly lik5$ to a prop]ly balanc$ top sp9n+ regul>ly & well1 :]eas ! diseas$ "o is lur*+ "h1 or wobbl+ !re1 to ! great dang] ( its /ability4 ,= we mu/ recognise at ! outset t disease is b v>iation 9 directions dang]\s to ! life ( ! plant4 ,heal? consi/s 9 v>iation also1 b n 9 su* dang]\s grooves4 ,t ! passage f heal? to disease is gradual & ill-def9$ 9 _m cases w readily be se54 ,9 fact we _c completely def9e disease4 ,m]e abnormality ( =m1 col\r1 size1 etc41 is n necess>ily a sign ( disease1 9 ! usual s5se ( ! ^w1 o!rwise ! /rik+ v>iations ( our cultivat$ plants w\ld sugge/ gloomy ?\ghts inde$1 :]eas we h reason to believe t _m cultivat$ v>ieties are m heal?y--9 ! s5se ( resi/+ dang]\s exig5cies ( ! environm5t--?an ! /ocks !y came f4 ,/rictly speak+1 no two buds on a fruit-tree are alike1 & ! %oots !y produce v>y 9 position1 exposure1 numb]1 & vig\r ( leaves1 & s =?4 ,! m9ute v>iations "h ref]r$ to are n se5 by ! ord9>y obs]v]1 b ^? :o bud1 graft & multiply by cutt+s on a l>ge scale "k t su* bud-v>iations are important1 q ap>t f m ext5sive sports :i* occasionally occur4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we h reason to believe t _m species h di$ out gradually z ! environm5t alt]$4 ,^! plants di$ because !y did n v>y suffici5tly1 or did n v>y 9 ! "r directions2 !y became diseas$ ) respect to ! !n prevail+ conditions ( normal physiology or heal?4 ,disease1 !re=e1 may be said to be v>iation ( functions 9 directions1 or to ext5ts1 :i* ?reat5 ! life ( ! plant1 ! normal 9 all cases be+ ! /ate ( ! plant *>act]i/ic ( ! species4 ,ev5 n[1 h[ev]1 we h n obta9$ a complete def9ition1 because1 s9ce all plants die soon] or lat]1 we h n exclud$ ! natural demise ( ! individual or its p>ts1 & no "o w\ld call ! autumnal fall ( leaves1 or ! )]+ ( an annual aft] fl[]+1 dea? f disease4 ,cle>ly !n ! idea ( disease implies dang] ( premature dea?1 & probably ?is is z ne> z we %all get to a satisfactory def9ition4 ,s9ce ?is matt] is ( prim>y importance = our pres5t !me1 ,i w add ! foll[+ in/ances = consid]ation4 ,a plant 9 p]fect heal? & 9 ! fulle/ ex]cise ( all its functions1 has its roots 9 a soil :i* is suitably w>m$ & a]at$1 conta9s ! "r quantities ( wat] :i* dissolve j ! prop] proportions ( all ! ess5tial m9]al salts1 b no?+ poison\s1 :ile ! soil itself has a texture su* t ! roots & root-hairs c ext5d & d _! utmo/ 9 absorb+4 ,! leaves above are expos$ to j ! "r int5sity ( light1 9 air :i* is n too dry1 & is ( suitable temp]ature & composition1 conta9+ no poison\s exhalations1 etc42 & z ! foliage is g5tly mov$ by ! breeze1 x manufactures c>bohydrates at ! optimum rate 9 ! *lorophyll1 & ! s-call$ elaborat$ sap conta9+ ! dissolv$ organic food-supplies is prep>$ 9 ! tissues 9 maximum quantities & ( j ! "r degrees ( conc5tration & quality = use 9 ! buds1 /em1 roots1 etc41 = :i* x is de/9$ z !y draw on ! supplies4 ,betwe5 ^! assimilat+ organs1 ! leaves1 & ! absorb+ roots1 we h 9 ! /em ! wood1 ) its vessels adapt$ 9 quantity & calibre to convey ! wat] conta9+ dissolv$ salts f ! absorb+ roots to ! leaves 7to say no?+ ( o!r p>ts7 &1 sep>at$ f ?is wood by ! cambium1 we f9d ! sieve-tubes & cortical tissues 9 suitable quantity convey+ ! elaborat$ sap--! solutions ( organic food-mat]ials f ! leaves d[n to ! roots1 up to ! buds1 & else:]e4 ,jo9+ ^! cortical & wood tissues are adapt$ s]ies ( m$ull>y rays :i*1 ap>t f o!r connections1 br+ ab\t ! necess>y int]*anges ( wat] & elaborat$ sap ) ! cambium1 ! =mative tissue :i* has to be f$ & s]v$ by !m1 & :i* by its gr[? supplies new vessels & sieve-tubes1 etc41 to c>ry ! cont9ually increas+ quantities ( wat] & food sub/ances z ! roots & leaves increase 9 numb] & area1 & ?us enables ?is ideally correlat$ sy/em to g on work+ at maximum en]gy4 ,n[ suppose ! same plant ) its roots 9 an unsuitable soil--too dry or too poor 9 m9]al supplies1 = in/ance--! transpir+ leaves above _c obta9 suffici5t wat] & salts to supply _! ne$s1 b we w suppose hypo!tically t !y /ill assimilate "u ! same ideal conditions z be=e4 ,! supplies n[ com+ to ! cambium are dim9i%$1 s9ce ! want ( wat] & m9]als compels ! leaves to put aside any excess ( c>bohydrates 7e4g4 z /or$ />*-gra9s71 & ! pla/ic mat]ials :i* d pass to ! cambium s defici5t 9 wat] _c be directly utilis$1 & a />vation p]iod sets 94 ,consequ5tly ! cambium =ms less wood1 & ?is w conta9 few] & small] vessels1 & s r$uce ! conduct+ passages3 few] sieve-tubes also are con/ruct$1 & ! pa?s ( ! wat] curr5t & food supplies n>r[$1 :i* ( c\rse reacts on ! tissues ev]y:]e4 ,! res]ve sub/ances may sl[ly be dissolv$ & di/ribut$1 h[ev]1 & consid]able quantities be pass$ 9 c\rse ( "t into ! roots1 :i*1 z opportunity (f]s1 gradually employ !m 9 mak+ new roots1 & if ! di/urbance has n gone too f> & ! conditions d n become unfav\rable1 an increas$ root-supply may by its l>g] absorb+ area gradually e/abli% ! =m] /ate ( equilibrium ( functions4 ,b ?is at ! exp5se ( ! plant1 :i* is small]1 has few] leaves & n>r[] wat] *annels1 etc41 ?an a plant n ?us *eck$1 & x may take a long "t to make up = ! loss ( "t & /ature ?us incurr$4 ,inde$ if ! plant is an annual no recov]y at all may occur1 ! res]ves pass+ into fruit & se$s in/ead ( sl[ly supply+ ! roots z describ$4 ,if x be ask$1 c su* a condition ( affairs z t describ$ really occur1 we h only to ?9k ( a transplant$ specim5 ) its roots maim$ & put into unsuitable soil1 or ( plants 9 ! op5 ) fe$+ roots gnaw$ by an insect1 etc41 or ( a tree hi!rto 9 equilibrium ) its fell[s 9 a plantation sudd5ly set free by ?9n+ & s =?4 ,n[ take ! case :]e ! roots are ma9ta9+ _! maximum functional activity1 b ! leaves--ow+ to want ( light1 too mu* moi/ure or too l[ a temp]ature ( ! air--are functionally depress$4 ,"h we get a /ate ( ov]-saturation ) wat] set up1 ! tissues are turgid to bur/+ po9t1 :at supplies d trav]se ! sieve-tubes1 cortex1 etc41 d s sl[ly & are excessively dilut$1 & ! cambium aga9 =ms less wood1 b ! lum9a ( ! vessels are l>g] & ! lignification less complete4 ,gr[? 9 l5g? is excessive1 b m leaves are =m$1 ?\gh !y are apt to be abnormally ?9 & may be small4 ,little or no res]ves are /or$ any:]e1 & ! wat]y tissues conta9 dang]\sly diffusible sub/ances :i* may r5d] !m an easy prey to p>asitic fungi4 ,"h aga91 h[ev]1 if ! di/urbance ( equilibrium has n gone too f>1 & if ! season p]mits1 ! new leaves may come into full activity & ! situation be sav$ by transpiration & assimilation gradually increas+ & re/or+ ! equilibrium4 ,b1 z be=e1 ! plant has suff]$1 & %[s ! effect 9 its weak %oots1 ret>d$ fl[]+1 & o!r ways4 ,su* plight z is "h describ$ may actually be atta9$ 9 gre5h\ses :]e ov]-wat]+ is ! fault1 & ev5 9 ! op5 x is n uncommon 9 ra9y summ]s1 or 9 plantations :]e dom9ant trees get ! upp] h& & p>tially %ade m sl[ly gr[+ species1 or 9 fields :]e rank grass is all[$ to ov]:elm crops ( l[] /ature4 ,n[ x w be evid5t t ei!r ( ^! typical cases ( tempor>y di/urbance ( functional equilibrium may be c>ri$ too f>3 9 ! fir/ case ! plant may wilt & )]1 9 ! second x may rupture & rot1 to take ^! ev5tualities only4 ,& yet x is difficult to call ^! indispositions diseases3 !y are r examples ( extreme dep>tures f ! normal /&>d ( heal?1 j on ! bord]l& betwe5 heal? & disease4 ,a /ep fur!r1 z x 71 & disease sup]v5es3 c]ta9 tissues die f want ( wat]1 & a necrotic area is =m$1 or ! cortex bur/s & a w\nd is =m$ 9 ano!r way1 or "s fungus gets a hold1 & s on4 ,^! abnormal /ates are p>ticul>ly apt to pr$ispose ! plant to disease--insects revel 9 su* semi-wilt$ leaves & %oots cramm$ ) res]ves1 & fungi 9 ! wat]-logg$ leaves ( ! second case1 :ile a cold dry w9d is peculi>ly fatal to su* tissues4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,x4 ,! read] may consult ,h>tig1 ,diseases ( ,trees1 ,eng4 ed41 #ahid1 ,introduction2 ,sorau]1 ,pflanz5 ,krankheit51 pp4 #a-ab1 & ,frank1 ,die ,krankheit5 d] ,pflanz51 ,b4 #a1 p4 #e1 = def9itions ( disease4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,causes ,,( ,,disease4 ,a4 ,ext]nal causes--,i4 ,non-liv+ environm5t3 soil1 atmosph]e1 temp]ature--,,ii4 ,liv+ environm5t3 plants1 animals--,complex int]actions--,pr$ispos+ causes--,no "o factor works alone--,tangl$ problems ( natural selection involv$4 ,b4 ,s-call$ int]nal causes4 ,x is cu/om>y to classify ! causes ( disease 9 plants into two pr9cipal gr\ps--7#a7 ^? due to ! action ( ! non-liv+ environm5t--soil1 atmosph]e1 physical conditions su* z temp]ature1 light1 etc42 & 7#b7 ^? br\ght ab\t by ! activities ( liv+ organisms--plants & animals ( v>i\s species4 ,be=e pass+ to fur!r subdivisions "u ^! two heads1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to obs]ve t no disease c be effici5tly caus$ by an organism alone1 s9ce its p[]s = injury z a p>asite1 or o!rwise1 are affect$ by its non-liv+ environm5t z well z by ! ho/-plant4 ,= in/ance1 ! spores ( a p>asitic fungus :i* w\ld infect & rapidly de/roy a potato plant 9 moi/ w>m wea!r may be %[]$ on to su* a plant ) impunity if ! air rema9s dry & cool--or on to a cabbage "u any circum/ances z f> z we "k4 ,aga91 probably no "o factor ( ! non-liv+ environm5t ev] suffices to induce a disease1 possibly because no su* ?+ z only "o *ange at a "t ev] occurs4 ,= in/ance1 x is difficult to say1 :5 a soil becomes sodd5 ) wat]1 :e!r ! excess ( wat] & dissolv$ matt]s1 ! want ( air displac$ by ! wat]1 ! l[]+ ( ! temp]ature1 or ! accumulation ( f\l products1 etc41 is ! pr9cipal factor 9 caus+ ! damage :i* results1 & we h to det]m9e by ! balance ( exp]im5tal evid5ce :i* is ! dom9ant factor 9 all su* cases4 ,! /udy ( aetiology ( disease is 9 fact only a p>ticul> case ( t ( aetiology 9 g5]al4 ,plants at high altitudes 9 ! ,alps acquire v diff]5t *>act]i/ics f ! same species 9 ! pla9s4 ,is ?is due to ! l[ temp]ature1 ! r>] atmosph]e1 ! m int5se illum9ation1 ! *anges 9 moi/ure1 etc41 etc48 ,! "q is m difficult ?an x appe>s at fir/ sight1 & we mu/ rememb] t1 complex z are ! factors work+ on ! ho/1 !y are equally complex 9 _! actions on a p>asite attack+ ! ho/1 :5ce ! result+ disease becomes inde$ a tangl$ problem ( natural selection4 ,f9ally x rema9s to say a few words ab\t a num]\s class ( cases :]e no ext]nal cause ( disease c be discov]$4 ,x 0 =m]ly ! cu/om to gr\p su* cases ( ,int]nal ,causes by !mselves1 b ap>t f ! fact t _m ( ^! my/]i\s diseases h subsequ5tly be5 %[n to be due to ! action ( ext]nal ag5cies1 ! :ole "q ( int]nal causes resolves itself into "o ( relations betwe5 ! plant & its surr\nd+s1 & x becomes evid5t t no inh]it$ or int]nal disease c be reg>d$ z expla9$ until we "k ! ext]nal causes :i* h s modifi$ ! /ructure & work+ ( ! liv+ cells z to make !m abnormal 9 _! reactions to o!r p>ts ( ! plant4 ,int]nal causes ( disease1 !re=e1 is a phrase express+ our ignorance1 b some:at m emphatically ?an usual4 ,if ?is is cle>ly und]/ood !re seems no reason aga9/ its employm5t = ! "t be+ 9 ! artificial s*eme ( classification we require4 ,) reg>d to ext]nal causes due to ! non-liv+ environm5t1 excess or defici5cy ( mat]ials 9 ! soil1 wat]1 or atmosph]e plays an important "p1 &--s9ce we may neglect purely aquatic plants--x is cu/om>y to speak ( diseases due to unsuitable soils or to injuri\s atmosph]ic influ5ces4 ,= in/ance1 any defici5cy 9 ! supplies ( ! necess>y m9]al salts 7comp\nds ( calcium1 magnesium1 potassium ) sulphuric1 nitric & phosphoric acids1 etc47 leads to pa?ological *anges1 z also does ! lack ( ! necess>y traces ( iron4 ,b x is equally true t ! pres5ce ( su* +r$i5ts 9 excess or 9 comb9ations unsuit$ to ! plants also leads to disa/]1 z also does ! pres5ce ( m9]als or o!r comp\nds :i* poison ! root-hairs--e4g4 products ( decomposition1 soluble salts ( copp] & o!r poisons4 ,t ^! matt]s are b\nd up ) ! :ole "q ( manur+ & ( prop] soil-analyses w be evid5t4 ,ano!r ess5tial factor is ! nature & quantity ( organic mat]ials 9 ! soil1 :e!r leaf-m\ld & decompos+ vegetable rema9s1 /able manures1 or o!r animal matt]s1 all ( :i* affect diff]5t species v diff]5tly1 & produce v diff]5t results 9 diff]5t soils4 ,x is necess>y to appreh5d 9 ?is connection :at has be5 /at$ above3 t soil is n a m]e dead /ructureless m$ium1 & t ! root-hairs ( ord9>y plants _c deal ) l>ge quantities ( putrefy+ organic matt]3 t a good soil mu/ ab\nd 9 useful bact]ia & fungi to r5d] su* sub/ances available--& 9 v v>i\s ways--& t x mu/ be op5 & a]at$1 ( prop] temp]ature & suitably suppli$ ) wat]1 & s =?1 or disa/] w result4 ,"h1 aga91 !n we are br\ght into close contact ) all t is kn[n ( f]m5tation1 nitrification1 & ! v>i\s biological *anges go+ on 9 soil1 & ! application ( su* k to ! practice ( manur+ & tillage 9 all its =ms4 ,9 view ( ! above rem>ks1 ! dang] ( ov]-fe$+1 9 ?is s5se1 has a real mean+ = horticulturi/s1 ?\gh x mu/ n be =gott5 t no sub/ance is really a food until x is assimilable into ! protoplasm3 manures1 etc41 are food-mat]ials1 n food4 ,! futility ( m]e *emical analyses to prove :at a plant requires is n[ well kn[n1 & x is only on ! basis ( long & c>efully conduct$ exp]im5ts t we c ev] discov] :at a p>ticul> plant 9 a p>ticul> soil1 situation1 & climate requires = heal?y developm5t4 ,aga91 ! quantity ( wat] 9 soil may be too great or too small = giv5 species1 & ?is ei!r on ! av]age = ! ye>1 or dur+ critical p]iods only2 & x is obvi\sly important :e!r ! excess or defici5cy is due to improp] supplies ( wat]1 ! dep? or %all[ness ( ! soil1 its ret5tive p[]s1 or ! nature ( ! sub-soil & s on1 aga9 br++ ! :ole matt] into connection ) our und]/&+ ( ! physical con/itution & /ructure ( soils1 & ! nature ( soil-dra9age4 ,= in/ance1 a common way ( kill+ f]ns is to keep ! roots & soil wet & ! air & fronds dry1 :]eas ! natural habitats provide = wet & %ad$ fronds & well-dra9$ soil4 ,x may be not$ "h t 9 mo/ cases :]e g>d5]s speak ( plants be+ kill$ "u ! drip ( trees--e4g4 ,bee*1 ! injury is due1 n to ! effects ( wat] b to ! %ade3 ! loss ( light is s great t ! %ad$ plants die ( inanition because _! leaves are n able to provide suffici5t c>bohydrates4 ,closely b\nd up ) ?is is ! "q ( ! gases 9 soils4 ,ap>t f ! disa/r\s effects ( poisons--e4g4 coal gas escap+ f pipes "u pavem5ts 9 t[ns1 etc41 diseas$ conditions (t5 result f defici5cy ( oxyg5 at ! root-hairs1 due to imp]fect a]ation ( soils1 br\ght ab\t by /agnant wat]1 excess ( animal matt]1 & s =?4 ,unsuitable con/itution ( ! atmosph]e is also a fruitful s\rce ( disease1 ?\gh its effects are common] 9 clos$ /oves & gre5h\ses ?an 9 ! op54 ,nev]!less ! cont9ual exhalation ( sulphur\s fumes1 *lor9e1 & o!r poison\s gases 9 ! neighb\rhood ( manufactur+ c5tres or ( l>ge smoky t[ns1 volcanoes1 etc41 play _! "p 9 injur+ plants2 & excessive moi/ure 9 ! =m ( mi/1 ra91 etc41 is also important4 ,all ^! matt]s br+ u at once into ! region ( physiology1 & only an intellig5t appreciation ( :at is kn[n ab\t ! action ( ! atmosph]e on ! soil & ! plant w save ! peasantry ( a c\ntry f a hopeless my/icism b little remov$ f t ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :5 blights & o!r evils 7 vaguely ref]r$ to ! riv]-mi/s1 ?und] cl\ds1 & ea/]ly w9ds4 ,if we summ>ise ! above z ! mat]ial factors ( ! environm5t1 we may classify ano!r set ( ext]nal non-liv+ causes ( disease z ! non-mat]ial factors4 ,su* are pr9cipally ! foll[+3 ,! space at ! disposal ( plants greatly affects _! welf>e4 ,! cr[d+ ( roots 9 ! soil & ( foliage 9 ! air1 result+ 9 ! loss ( light to ! leaves1 involves defici5cy ( all ! mat]ials ref]r$ to above--m9]als1 organic mat]ials1 gases1 & wat]--& no bett] illu/ration ( ! int5se /ruggle = exi/5ce among ^! app>5tly passive & motionless be+s1 plants1 c be giv5 ?an an ov]-cr[d$ se$b$ or plantation4 ,if left to !mselves su* ov]-/ock$ areas exhibit to ! ke5 eye ( ! tra9$ obs]v] all ! phases ( />vation1 weakness1 w\nd+1 rot1 &1 s to speak1 brutal dom9ance ( ! /rong] ov] ! weak] :i* x is ! object ( cultivation to prev5t4 ,"h1 !n1 we are br\ght face to face ) ! true significance ( ?9n+ & we$+ out1 prun+1 & simil> processes4 ,unsuitable temp]ature is "o ( ! commone/ ( all s\rces ( disease1 = e plant is adapt$ to c]ta9 ranges ( temp]ature1 & be/ adapt$ to a giv5 optimum some:]e betwe5 ! maximum & m9imum temp]ature = ea* function4 ,consequ5tly any s]i\s dep>ture f ! mean may br+ ab\t physiological di/urbances ( ! nature ( disease1 & ?is 9 v v>i\s ways1 z exemplifi$ by ! results ( fro/1 sun-scor*+1 dr\ght1 hail-/orms1 =e/ fires1 & s =?4 ,z a pr$ispos+ factor to disease abnormal temp]ature effects play a great "p4 ,_m w\nd-fungi ga9 _! entrance ?r\gh fro/-cracks1 bruises due to hail/ones1 or into tissues *ill$ bel[ ! normal4 ,no less rem>kable are ! diseases prim>ily due to insuffici5t or improp] exposure to light1 :i* affects ! *lorophyll-app>atus & ! process ( c>bon-assimilation & ?r\gh ^! ! :ole well-be+ ( ! plant4 ,e plant is adapt$ to c]ta9 ranges ( light int5sity1 & mo/ cultivators "k h[ impossible x is to gr[ %ade plants 9 fully expos$ situations1 & h[ easily plants :i* live 9 op5 sunny situations are drawn & kill$ by %ade4 ,x is equally important to h ! "r k9d ( light1 z disa/r\s exp]i5ces ) gre5h\ses glaz$ ) glass :i* cut (f c]ta9 rays ( light h taught4 ,"h1 aga91 x is important to notice t ! optimum int5sity or quality ( light may diff] = diff]5t functions & organs ( ! plant1 z is %[n by _m adaptations on ! "p ( species gr[+ 9 natural situations--e4g4 bud protection1 ori5tation ( leaves1 etc4--& x may be tak5 z a rule t etiolat$ plants are peculi>ly susceptible to o!r diseases4 ,z reg>ds o!r factors ( ! inorganic environm5t1 disa/]s :i* come )9 ! scope ( our subject may be br\ght ab\t by _m ag5cies1 ! me*anical effects ( sn[ & hail1 w9d1 avalan*es1 etc41 ! effects ( lightn+1 & s =?1 be+ a few ( !m4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,= o!r detail$ classifications ( ! causes ( disease ! read] is ref]r$ to ! works ( ,sorau] & ( ,frank ref]r$ to 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,also ,kir*n]1 ,pflanz5 ,krankheit51 ,/uttg>t1 #ahij4 ,( m hi/orical importance are ! old] classifications ( ,b]keley1 ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle1 #ahed1 & ,re1 ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle1 #ahdi-ej4 ,^! latt] are int]e/+ z %[+ ! v diff]5t views held by ! e>li] work]s1 & comp>ison ( ^! ) ! mod]n views helps to m>k ! progress ( physiology dur+ ! half c5tury :i* has int]v5$4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,causes ,,( ,,disease4 ,,! ,,liv+ ,,environm5t4 ,causes due to animals--,v]tebrata--,w\nds1 etc4--,inv]tebrata --,insects1 etc4--,plants z causes ( disease--,phan]ogams1 we$s1 etc4--,cryptogams1 fungi--,epidemics1 etc4 ,pass+ n[ to ^? causes ( disease :i* are connect$ ) ! liv+ environm5t1 we may obvi\sly divide !m into two gr\ps ( ag5ts1 animals & plants4 ,among animals1 ! v>i\s v]tebrata1 includ+ man1 are especially responsible = ! l>g] k9ds ( w\nds & :olesale de/ructive processes due to breakage1 /ripp+ ( leaves & b>k1 cutt+ & bit+1 & s =?4 ,cattle1 rabbits1 rats & mice1 squirrels & birds ( v>i\s k9ds /& out prom95tly z enemies to trees & o!r plants1 to :i* !y d imm5se injury 9 v>i\s ways by _! horns1 tee?1 claws1 & beaks2 & ! damage :i* an ignorant g>d5] or =e/] c d ) 8 ill-guid$ foot/eps1 axe1 spade1 & knife c only be appreciat$ by "o :o kn[s ! habits ( plants4 ,x is among ! inv]tebrata1 h[ev]1 especially insects & worms1 t ! mo/ /rik+ ag5ts ( disease 9 plants are to be f\nd1 =1 ) ! exception ( c]ta9 rod5ts--& we may logically include also human invasions--v]tebrate animals d n (t5 appe> 9 su* numb]s z to br+ ab\t ! epidemics & sc\rges only too commonly caus$ by insect pe/s4 ,insects injure plants 9 v v>i\s ways4 ,"s1 su* z locu/s1 simply dev\r all be=e !m2 o!rs1 e4g4 cat]pill>s1 de/roy ! leaves & br+ ab\t all ! ph5om5a ( defoliation4 ,o!rs1 aga91 eat ! buds--e4g4 ,grapholi?a2 or ! roots--e4g4 wire-worms1 & s maim ! plant t its foliage & assimilation suff]1 or its roots become too scanty to supply ! transpiration curr5t4 ,_m aphides1 etc41 puncture ! leaves1 suck out ! sap1 & produce de=mations & arre/ ( leaf-surface1 z well z actual loss ( sub/ance1 & :5 num]\s su* insects induce all ! evils ( defoliation4 ,o!rs1 su* z ! leaf-m9]s1 tunnel into ! leaves1 ) simil> results on a small] scale4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t a s+le complete defoliation ( a h]bace\s annual1 or ev5 ( a tub]\s plant l ! potato1 s incapacitates ! assimilatory ma*9]y ( ! plant1 t no /ores c be put aside = ! se$s1 tub]s1 etc41 ( ano!r ye>1 or at mo/ s little t only feeble plants come up4 ,9 ! case ( a tree ! case is diff]5t1 & s9ce mo/ l>ge trees 9 full foliage h f> m assimilatory surface ?an is actually necess>y = imm$iate ne$s1 a consid]able tax c be paid to p>asites or pr$atory insects be=e ! /ores suff] p]ceptibly4 ,/ill1 x %\ld be recognis$ t ! injury tells 9 "t1 especially 9 se$ ye>s4 ,_m l>vae ( beetles1 mo?s1 etc41 bore into ! b>k & z f> z ! cambium or ev5 into ! wood or pi? ( trees1 ! local damage induc+ g5]al injuries 9 proportion to ! numb] ( insects at "w3 moreov]1 ! w\nds af=d po9ts ( entrance = fungi & o!r pe/s4 ,galls & simil> excresc5ces result f ! hyp]trophy ( "y liv+ tissues pi]c$ by ! ovipositors ( v>i\s insects1 & irritat$ by ! inject$ fluid & ! pres5ce ( ! eggs & l>vae left beh9d4 ,!y may occur on ! buds1 leaves1 /ems1 or roots1 z %[n by v>i\s species ( ,cynips on oak1 ,phyllox]a on v9es1 etc41 9 all cases ! local damage be+ relatively small1 b ! g5]al injury to assimilatory1 absorptive1 & o!r functions is great 9 proportion to ! numb] ( po9ts attack$4 ,_m grubs--l>vae ( flies1 beetles1 etc4--bore into ! %ea?s or int]nodes ( grasses1 or ! pi? ( twigs1 or into buds1 fruits1 & o!r organs ( plants1 & d h>m correspond+ to ! k9d & am\nt ( tissues injur$4 ,v>i\s species ( s-call$ eelworms--,nematodes--also cause gall-l swell+s on "y roots1 or !y invade ! gra9s ( c]eals4 ,f9ally1 v>i\s slugs & snails cause mu* injury by dev\r+ "y leaves & buds & dim9i%+ ! assimilatory area4 ,plants z ag5ts ( disease or injury fall naturally into ! two ma9 categories ( fl[]+ plants 7,phan]ogams7 & ,cryptogams1 among :i* ! fungi are ! especially important pe/s4 ,beg9n+ ) we$s1 we f9d a l>ge class ( injuri\s ag5ts4 ,we$s damage ! plants we value by cr[d+ !m out 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 z already /at$1 & :5 ! we$-action is simply due to sup]flu\s plants ( ! same species1 we speak ( ov]cr[d+4 ,b x mu/ n be ov]look$ t ! competition betwe5 cr[d$ plants ( ! same species--:]e e individual is act+ z a we$ to ! o!rs--may be m dang]\s ?an betwe5 plants & we$s belong+ to o!r species & g5]a1 because 9 ! =m] case !y are /ruggl+ = ! same m9]als & o!r necess>y food-mat]ials3 a matt] ( importance 9 connection ) ! rotation ( crops4 ,! "q ( all[+ grass to gr[ at ! foot ( fruit trees1 z 9 or*>ds1 is a good case 9 po9t4 ,su* grass may increase ! damp & %ade1 ?us fav\r+ fungi at "o season1 & dry up ! moi/ure ( ! soil to ! injury ( ! f9e sup]ficial roots at ano!r1 z well z exhau/ ! soil1 ow+ to ! competition ( ! roots = salts & o!r mat]ials4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! *eck+ ( surface roots by competition ) ! grass has be5 claim$ z advantage\s4 ,9 ?is connection probably ! :ole "q ( ! composition ( ! turf arises1 z well z t ( possible cropp+ = hay1 & manur+4 ,z reg>ds any p>ticul> we$1 ! cultivator %\ld le>n all he c respect+ its duration1 se$+ capacity1 me?od ( dissem9ation1 ! dep? & spread ( its root-sy/em1 & any o!r p>ticul>s :i* enable him to judge :5 & h[ to attack x4 ,x is only necess>y to see ! victory ( su* dr\ght-resi/+ we$s z ,hi]acium pilosella1 ,planta9s1 ,hypo*a]is1 on lawns to realise h[ we$s may w9 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce ) ! f9] grasses4 ,_m s-call$ we$s are1 h[ev]1 p>tially p>asitic1 ) _! roots on ! roots ( o!rs--e4g4 ,rh9an?us1 ,!sium1 etc41 & mu* damage is done to mead[ grasses & h]bage by ! exhau/ive tax :i* ^! semi-p>asites impose4 ,?is is c>ri$ /ill fur!r 9 ! case ( su* root-p>asites z ,oroban*e1 :]e ! ho/-plant is burd5$ ) ! :ole support ( ! pe/1 because ! latt]1 hav+ no *lorophyll1 is entirely dep5d5t on ! =m] = all its food4 ,ev5 ord9>y climb+ plants may injure o!rs by %ad+ !m1 ei!r by scrambl+ ov] _! bran*es--e4g4 ,bramble1 or twi/+ _! t5drils r\nd ! twigs--e4g4 ,bryony1 or tw9+ r\nd !m--e4g4 ,woodb9e1 ,convolvulus1 etc4 ,! pr9cipal direct injury is 9 ^! cases ow+ to ! loss ( light suff]$ by ! %ad$ foliage1 b ! we$-action is (t5 increas$ by ! competition ( _! roots--e4g4 bri>s2 & 9 ! case ( woody climb]s ! gradually increas$ pressure ( ! woody-coils r\nd ! ?ick5+ /ems compresses ! cambium & cortex ( ! support & induces /rictures & abnormalities :i* may be fatal 9 c\rse ( "t4 ,epiphytes1 or plants :i* support !mselves :olly on ! trunks1 bran*es1 or leaves ( o!r plants1 also injure ! latt] m especially by %ad+ _! foliage--e4g4 tropical ,figs1 ,or*ids1 ,aroids1 etc42 & simil> damage is done by our own ,ivy1 ! ma9 roots ( :i* are 9 ! soil1 b ! num]\s adv5titi\s roots ( :i* cl+ to ! b>k4 ,:5 ! climb] or epiphyte is also p>asitic1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,dodd]1 ,loran?us1 ,mi/letoe1 etc41 ! direct loss ( sub/ance /ol5 f ! ho/ by ! p>asite comes 9 to supplem5t any effect ( %ad+ t ! latt] may br+ ab\t if x is a leafy plant4 ,( ,cryptogams1 ap>t f a few epiphytic f]ns1 & ! int5se we$-action ( c]ta9 ,equisetums1 ! rhizomes & roots ( :i* are z tr\blesome z ^? ( twit* & o!r phan]ogamic we$s1 x is especially ! fungi :i* act z ag5ts ( disease1 & :i*1 z we n[ "k1 are p> excell5ce ! causes ( epidemics4 ,! action ( fungi may be local or g5]al2 & re/rict$1 sl[ & insidi\s1 or virul5t & rapidly de/ructive4 ,examples ( local action are furni%$ by ,s*9zia1 :i* =ms gall-l swell+s on ! roots ( ru%es2 ,gymnosporangium1 :i* induces excresc5ces on ! /ems ( junip]s1 & num]\s leaf-fungi 7,pucc9ia1 ,a,ecidium1 ,septoria1 etc471 :i* cause yell[1 br[n1 or black spots on leaves1 z well z by ,u/ilago1 :i* attacks ! an!rs or ! ov>y ( v>i\s plants1 & s =?4 ,9 su* cases ! injury done by a few c5tres ( infection is v slight1 b prolong$ action may br+ into play second>y effects su* z ! gradual de/ruction ( ! cambium r\nd a bran*1 :51 ( c\rse1 ! effect ( r++ results2 or if ! fungus becomes epidemic & myriads ( leaf-spots are =m$1 ! de/ruction ( foli> tissue1 gradual tax+ ( ! assimilatory cells1 etc41 may end 9 rapid defoliation1 & r5ew$ attacks soon exhau/ ! plants & lead to /]ility & dea?1 z (t5 occurs ) ,ur$9eae--e4g4 ! c(fee leaf-disease4 ,x is highly probable t su* fungi are p>ticul>ly exact+ ow+ to _! exhau/+ dem&s = comp\nds ( potassium1 phosphoric acid1 & o!r bodies4 ,examples ( virul5t & rampant g5]al action are af=d$ by f+] & toe 9 turnips1 etc41 :]e ! roots are invad$ by ,plasmodiophora1 :i* induces hyp]trophy & rott+ ( ! roots2 & by ! damp+ (f ( se$l+s1 :]e ! fungus ,py?ium rapidly invades all p>ts ( ! se$l+s & r$uces !m to a wat]-logg$1 putrefy+ mass2 or ! potato-disease1 :i* is due to ! rapid spread ( ,phytoph?ora 9 ! leaves & ?r\gh\t ! plant1 :i* x black5s & rots 9 a few days4 ,_m fungi n 9 !mselves v virul5t or aggressive d enorm\s h>m ow+ to ! second>y effects !y induce4 ,"s ( ! tree-kill+ hym5omycetes1 su* z ,ag>icus melleus1 = in/ance1 p5etrate ! wood ( a p9e at ! coll>1 & ! result ( ! l>ge fl[ ( res9 :i* results is to s block up ! wat] passages t ! tree dies (f above ) all ! symptoms ( dr\ght4 ,simil>ly1 ! ,peziza caus+ ! l>* disease1 hav+ obta9$ access to ! /em ab\t a foot or s above ! gr\nd1 w gradually kill ! cambium fur!r & fur!r r\nd ! /em1 & s girdle ! tree z effectually z if we _h cut out ! new wood all r\nd4 ,9 all su* cases--& ! same applies to ! leaf-diseases ref]r$ to above--! fungus may be comp>$ to an army :i* is n /rong en\gh to invade ! :ole t]ritory1 b :i*1 by /rik+ at ! l9es ( communication1 cuts (f ! supplies ( wat]1 food1 etc41 & s br+s ! /ruggle to an end4 ,inde$ we might comp>e ! cases ( fungi :i* attack ! root & coll>1 & s /rike at & cut (f ! wat] supply1 to a compact army :i* at once cuts (f ! enemy f 8 n>r[ base2 :]eas ! innum]able units :i* br+ ab\t an epidemic attack on ! leaves1 & s surr\nd ! enemy & cut (f 8 food supplies all r\nd1 is r l a mu* l>g] army :i* _c get 9 beyond ! natural b>ri]s ( ! tissues1 & s puts a cordon all r\nd ! t]ritory & seizes ! multitudes ( food-/uffs at ! fronti]s4 ,! end result is simil> 9 bo? cases1 b ! me?ods ( w>f>e diff]4 ,_m fungi1 h[ev]1 ?\gh !y make _! pres5ce noticeable by conspicu\s signs1 _c be said to d mu* damage to ! individual plant attack$4 ,! extraord9>y mal=mations induc$ by p>asites l ,exoascus1 :i* live 9 ! ends ( twigs ( trees & /imulate ! buds to put out d5se tufts ( %oots1 aga9 d5sely bran*$--,wit*es' brooms--are a case 9 po9t4 ,also ! curi\s di/ortions ( nettle /ems swoll5 & curv$ by ,a,ecidium1 ( maize /ems & leaves attack$ by ,u/ilago1 & ( ! infloresc5ces ( ,capsella by ,cy/opus1 etc41 are n individually v de/ructive2 x is ! cumulative effects ( num]\s attacks1 or ( l>ge epidemics1 :i* tell 9 ! end4 ,"s v curi\s effects are due to fungi su* z ,a,ecidium elat9um1 :i*1 liv+ 9 ! cortex ( firs1 /imulate buds to put out %oots ) erect habit1 & ) leaves :i* are radially dispos$1 annually ca/1 & diff]5tly %ap$ f ! normal--*>act]s q =eign to ! species ( fir 9 its natural condition4 ,equally /range are ! %oots ( ,euphorbia infe/$ ) ! aecidia ( ,uromyces1 ^? ( bilb]ries affect$ ) ,calyptospora1 etc4 ,9 all ^! cases we mu/ assume a condition ( tol]ation1 s to speak1 on ! "p ( ! ho/1 :i* adapts itself to ! alt]$ circum/ances by m>k$ adaptations 9 its tissue developm5ts1 mode ( gr[? & s =?4 ,?is tol]ation is p]haps mo/ m>k$ 9 ! case ( ^? c]eals :i*1 ?\gh infect$ by ! m9ute mycelium ( ,u/ilago :ile /ill a se$l+1 nev]!less g on gr[+ z app>5tly heal?y gre5 plants indi/+ui%able f ! re/1 al?\gh ! f9e hyphae ( ! p>asite are 9 ! tissues & keep+ pace ) ! gr[? ( ! %oots j beh9d ! gr[+ po9ts4 ,z ! gra9s ( ! c]eal beg9 to =m & swell1 h[ev]1 ! hyphae sudd5ly assume ! "p ( a dom9ant aggressor1 consume ! endosp]m ( ! enl>g+ se$1 & replace ! cont5ts ( ! gra9 ) ! well-kn[n black spores kn[n z ,smut4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,! read] w f9d a summ>y ( su* fungi z are "h conc]n$ 9 ,massee1 ,a ,text-,book ( ,plant ,diseases1 #ahii1 or ,prillieux1 ,maladies des ,plantes ,agricoles4 ,= fur!r details ! /ud5t %\ld consult ! works ( ,frank & ,sorau] ref]r$ to 9 ! notes to ,*apt] ,,ix41 & ,tubeuf1 ,! ,diseases ( ,plants1 ,engl4 ed4 #ahig1 pp4 #ajd-eci4 ,= exp]im5ts on ! effects ( grass on or*>d trees1 see ,report ( ! ,woburn ,exp]im5tal ,fruit ,f>m1 #aijj1 p4 #afj4 ,= ! fur!r /udy ( we$s1 ! int]e/+ bullet9s ( ! ,kansas ,/ate ,agricultural ,college1 #ahie-ahih1 w %[ ! read] :at may be done 9 ! matt] ( classify+ !m accord+ to _! biological peculi>ities4 ,9 reg>d to insects1 ! read] w f9d ! foll[+ li/ embraces ! subject3 ,som]ville1 ,f>m & ,g>d5 ,insects1 #ahig2 ,!obald1 ,insect ,life1 #ahif2 ,orm]od1 ,manual ( ,injuri\s ,insects1 #ahij1 & ,h&book ( ,insects ,injuri\s to ,or*>ds1 etc41 #ahih4 ,! admirable s]ies ( publications ( ! ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture "u ! editor%ip ( ,riley & ,h[>d1 & entitl$ ,insect ,life1 #ahhh-ahie1 also ab\nds 9 in=mation4 ,fur!r1 ,tas*5b]g's ,praktis*e ,insekt5kunde1 #ahgi-ahhj1 & ,judei* & ,niets*e1 ,lehrbu* d] ,mitteleurop4 ,=/4 ,insekt5kunde1 #ahhi4 ,= an elem5t>y introduction to ! /udy ( fungus diseases1 see ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,diseases ( ,plants1 ,soc4 = ,promot+ ,*ri/ian ,k1 ,london4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,nature ,,( ,,disease4 ,g5]al & local disease--,g5]al dea? ow+ to cutt+-(f supplies1 etc4--,disease ( organs--,tissue-diseases1 e4g4 timb]--,root-diseases--,leaf-diseases1 etc4--,diseases ( ,respiratory1 ,assimilatory1 & o!r organs--,physiological & ,p>asitic diseases--,pa?ology ( ! cell--,cuts--,cork--,callus --,irritation--,/imulation by protoplasm--,hyp]trophy4 ,on go+ m deeply into ! nature ( ^? *anges 9 plants :i* we t]m pa?ological or diseas$1 x seems evid5t t we mu/ at ! outset di/+ui% betwe5 v>i\s cases4 ,a plant may be diseas$ z a :ole because all or practically all its tissues are 9 a morbid or pa?ological condition1 su* z occurs :5 "s fungus invades all ! p>ts or organs--e4g4 se$l+s :5 completely infe/$ by ,py?ium1 or a unicellul> ,alga :5 invad$ by a m9ute p>asite2 or x may die ?r\gh\t1 because "s organ ) functions ess5tial to its life is s]i\sly affect$--e4g4 ! roots are rott5 & _c absorb wat] ) dissolv$ m9]als & pass x up to ! %oot1 or all ! leaves are infe/$ ) a p>asite & _c supply ! re/ ( ! plant ) organic food mat]ials1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* p>ts n directly affect$ by any malady become />v$1 dri$-up1 or poison$ or o!rwise injur$ by ! results or products ( disease else:]e4 ,9 a l>ge numb] ( cases1 h[ev]1 ! disease is purely local1 & nev] ext5ds into ! re/ ( ! organs or tissues--e4g4 :5 an insect pi]ces a leaf at "s m9ute po9t ) its proboscis or its ovipositor1 kill+ a few cells & irritat+ ^? ar\nd s t !y gr[ & divide m rapidly ?an ! re/ ( ! leaf tissues & produce a swoll5 hump ( tissue1 or gall2 or :5 a knife-cut w\nds ! cambium1 :i* =?) beg9s to cov] up ! dead cells ) a simil>ly rapid gr[? ( cells1 ! callus4 ,num]\s m9ute spots due to fungi on leaves1 cortex1 etc41 are fur!r cases 9 po9t1 ! mycelium nev] ext5d+ f> f ! c5tre ( infection4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to classify diseases on a basis :i* assumes ! ess5tial di/9ction ( ! above cases1 & we read ( diseases ( ! v>i\s organs--root-diseases1 /em-diseases1 leaf-diseases1 & s =?2 or ( ! v>i\s tissues--timb]-diseases1 diseases ( ! cambium1 ( ! b>k1 ( ! p>5*yma1 & s on4 ,fur!rmore1 attempts h be5 made to speak ( g5]al functional disease1 ( diseases ( ! respiratory organs1 ( ! absorptive organs1 & s =?1 z oppos$ to local lesions4 ,critical exam9ation1 h[ev]1 %[s t no su* di/9ctions c be consi/5tly ma9ta9$1 p>tly because ! organs & functions ( plants are n s %>ply m>k$ (f z !y are 9 animals1 ! diseases ( :i* h sugge/$ ! above classification1 & p>tly because all disease orig9ates 9 ! cells & tissues1 & x is a matt] ( detail only t 9 "s cases--e4g4 sev]e freez+ or dr\ght ( se$l+s1 or :5 "s +r$i5t is want+ 9 ! soil--! diseas$ condition affects practically e cell alike f ! fir/1 :ile 9 o!rs x spreads m or less rapidly f "s "o spot4 ,ev5 ! di/9ction into physiological diseases v]sus p>asitic diseases _c be ma9ta9$ f ! /&po9t ( ! nature ( ! disease itself4 ,all disease is physiological 9 s f> z x consi/s 9 di/urbance ( normal physiological function1 = pa?ology is m]ely abnormal physiology1 no matt] h[ x is br\ght ab\t4 ,?is is n say+ t no importance is to be atta*$ to ! mode 9 :i* disease is incurr$ or induc$3 x is m]ely insi/+ on ! tru? t ! disease itself consi/s 9 ! liv+ cell-sub/ance--! protoplasm--n work+ normally z x does 9 heal?1 & ?is1 :e!r want ( wat]1 m9]als1 or organic food be ! cause1 or :e!r ! pres5ce ( "s poison or me*anical irritant be ! di/urb+ ag5t1 z also :e!r su* want or irritation be due to "s defect 9 soil or air1 or to ! ravages ( a fungus or an insect4 ,?is be+ und]/ood ,i ne$ n dwell on ! common fallacy ( conf\nd+ ! fungus1 insect1 soil or o!r ag5t ) ! disease itself1 or ( mak+ ! same blund] 9 confus+ symptoms ) maladies4 ,9 ?is s5se1 :eat ru/ is n a disease3 x is a symptom :i* betrays ! pres5ce ( a disease-induc+ fungus1 ! ,ru/ fungus4 ,simil>ly1 *lorosis is n a disease3 x is a symptom ( imp]fect *lorophyll action1 & ! be/ pro( ( ! tru? ( bo? /atem5ts is t 9 bo? cases ! fundam5tal disease-action is ! />vation ( ! cell-protoplasm ( c>bohydrates & o!r ess5tial food matt]s--9 ! "o case because ! fungus /eals ! c>bohydrates z fa/ z ! leaves c make !m1 9 ! second because ! leaf is unable to make !m4 ,! f\ndation ( a k ( disease 9 plants !re=e c5tres 9 ! und]/&+ ( ! pa?ology ( liv+ cells4 ,if a suitable mass ( liv+ cells is neatly cut ) a %>p razor ! fir/ p]ceptible *ange is "o ( col\r3 ! :ite fle% ( a potato or an apple1 = in/ance1 turns br[n z ! air ent]s ! cut cells1 & ! microscope %[s t ?is br[n+ affects cell-walls & cont5ts alike4 ,! cut cells also die =?)2 & ! oxyg5 ( ! air comb9+ ) "s ( _! con/itu5ts =ms ! br[n col\r+ matt] :i* soaks into ! cell-walls4 ,! un9jur$ cells bel[ !m gr[ long]1 pu%+ up ! dead debris1 & divide across by walls p>allel to ! plane ( ! w\nd1 & s =m s]ies ( tabul> cells ) ?9 walls1 :i* also soon turn br[n & die1 ! cell-walls mean:ile und]go+ *anges :i* conv]t !m into cork4 ,! liv+ cells deep] d[n are n[ %ut (f f ! out] _w by a sk91 ( sev]al lay]s1 ( cork-cells1 :i* prev5t ! fur!r free access ( air or moi/ure4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( active cell-division :i* initiates ! cork1 ! temp]ature ( ! gr[+ cells rises3 a sort ( fev] 7w\nd-fev]7 is induc$1 evid5tly ow+ to ! active respiration ( ! gr[+ cells4 ,?is heal+ by cork occurs 9 any tissue ( liv+ cells expos$ by a cut--leaf-tissue1 "y /em or root1 fruit1 cambium1 etc42 & ! same applies to any o!r k9d ( cutt+ or te>+ injury--su* z a prick ) a ne$le or ! proboscis ( an insect1 a /ripp+1 or ev5 a bruise4 ,su* heal+ is prep>$ = & c>ri$ out v ?or\ghly 9 ! case ( fall+ leaves & ca/ bran*es1 ! plane ( sep>ation be+ cov]$ by a cicatrix ( cork4 ,if ! cell-tissue "u ! w\nd is actually gr[+ at ! "t1 h[ev]1 a fur!r process is obs]v$ :5 ! w\nd-cork has be5 =m$4 ,! un9jur$ cells bel[ g on gr[+ outw>ds m vigor\sly ?an ev]1 ! pressure ( ! ov]ly+ tissues tak5 (f by ! cut hav+ be5 remov$1 &1 lift+ up ! cork-lay] z !y d s1 !y rapidly divide into a juicy mass ( ?9-wall$ cells :i* is ( a cu%ion-l nature & is t]m$ a ,callus4 ,?is callus is at fir/ a homog5e\s tissue ( cells :i* are all alike capable ( gr[+ & divid+1 b 9 c\rse ( "t x und]goes *anges 9 diff]5t p>ts :i* result 9 ! =mation ( tra*eids1 vessels1 fibres & o!r tissue-elem5ts1 & ev5 organs1 j z ! embryonic tissues ( ! gr[+ po9ts1 cambium1 etc41 ( ! heal?y plant give orig9 to new gr[?s4 ,su* w\nd-wood1 h[ev]1 is apt to diff] consid]ably 9 ! arrangem5t1 con/itution & h>dness ( its p>ts z comp>$ ) normal wood1 & its peculi> d5sity & cross-gra9+ are (t5 conspicu\s4 ,if in/ead ( a simple tissue1 ! cut or o!r w\nd lays b>e a complex mass su* z wood1 ! resultant *anges are ess5tially ! same to />t )4 ,! liv+ cells bord]+ ! w\nd =m cork1 & !n ^? deep] d[n gr[ out & =m a callus4 ,! exposure ( ! wood h[ev]1 entails alt]ations 9 its non-liv+ elem5ts also4 ,! lignifi$ walls ( tra*eids1 fibres1 etc41 turn br[n to a consid]able dep?1 & ?is br[n+ seems to be--l all su* discolorations 9 w\nds--due to oxidation *anges 9 ! tann9s & o!r bodies pres5t3 ! process is probably simil> to :at occurs 9 humification & 9 ! conv]sion ( sap-wood into he>t-wood 9 trees4 ,su* wood is n m]ely dead1 b x is also incapable ( convey+ wat] 9 ! lum9a ( its elem5ts1 :i* sl[ly fill ) simil>ly d>k-col\r$1 imp]vi\s masses ( mat]ials t]m$ w\nd-gum1 ! nature ( :i* is obscure1 b :i* sl[ly und]goes fur!r *anges into res9-l sub/ances4 ,! exposure ( wood by a w\nd results also 9 ano!r mode ( /opp+ up ! vessels & s h9d]+ ! access ( air1 loss ( wat]1 etc41 = ! liv+ cells ( ! m$ull>y rays & wood-p>5*yma gr[ into ! lum9a ( ! l>g] vessels ?r\gh ! pits1 =m+ ?yloses1 aga9 a ph5om5on met ) 9 he>t-wood4 ,9 ,conif]s ! /oppage ( ! lum9a is increas$ by deposition ( res91 :i* also soaks into ! cell-walls & ! w\nd$ wood becomes semi-transluc5t ow+ to ! infiltration4 ,e liv+ cell 9 an active condition is irritable1 & "o ( ! commone/ physiological reactions ( gr[+ tissues is t ( respond+ to ! t\* ( a resi/ant body1 z is vividly %[n by ! movem5ts ( ! ,s5sitive plant1 ,dionaea1 etc41 & by ^? ( t5drils1 gr[+ root tips1 etc41 on c>eful obs]vation4 ,we h reason = /at+ t if a m9ute insect1 too feeble to pi]ce ! cuticle1 cl+ on to "o side ( ! dome-%ap$ gr[+ po9t ( any %oot1 ! irritation ( contact ( its claws1 hairs1 etc41 w\ld at once cause ! protoplasm ( ! delicate cells to respond by "s abnormal behavi\r2 &1 z matt] ( exp]im5t1 ,d>w9 %[$ long ago t if a m9ute piece ( glass or o!r h>d body is kept 9 contact ) "o side ( ! tip ( a root1 ! gr[? on ! side 9 contact is int]f]$ )4 ,moreov] we "k f exp]im5ts on heliotropism1 !rmotropism1 etc41 t ev5 intangible /imuli su* z rays ( light1 etc41 imp++ unsymmetrically on ^! delicate cells cause alt]ations 9 _! behavi\r--e4g4 arre/ or accel]ation ( gr[?4 ,p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable class ( /imulations1 h[ev]1 is t due to ! pres5ce ( ! entire protoplasmic body ( "o organism 9 ! cell ( ano!r1 ea* liv+ its own life = ! "t be+1 b ! protoplasm ( ! ho/ cell %[+ cle>ly1 by its abnormal behavi\r1 t ! pres5ce ( ! =eign protoplasm is affect+ its physiology4 ,a simple example is af=d$ by ,zopfs' ,pleotra*elus1 ! amoeboid protoplasmic body ( :i* lives 9 ! hypha ( ,pilobolus1 caus+ x to swell up l an inflat$ bladd]1 9 :i* ! p>asite !n =ms its sporangia4 ,! ,pleotra*elus does n kill ! ,pilobolus1 b t its protoplasm alt]s ! metabolic physiology ( ! latt] is %[n by ! hyp]trophy ( ! cells1 & by ! curi\s fact t x /imulates ! ,pilobolus to =m its sexual conjugat+ cells1 o!rwise r>e1 an indication ( v f>-rea*+ int]f]5ce ) ! life-actions ( ! ho/4 ,an equally rem>kable example is t ( ,plasmodiophora1 ! amoeboid nak$ protoplasm ( :i* lives & creeps ab\t 9 ! protoplasm ( a cell ( ! root ( a turnip1 to :i* x ga9s access ?r\gh ! root-hairs4 ,x does n kill ! cell1 b /imulates its protoplasm to increas$ activity & gr[? & division1 itself divid+ also & pass+ new amoebae into ea* new daught]-cell ( ! ho/4 ,"h ! processes ( /imulation1 hyp]trophy & fur!r division are repeat$1 until hundr$s or ?\s&s ( ! turnip root-cells are infect$4 ,! ext]nally visible result is ! =mation ( di/ort$ swell+s on ! root 7,f+] & ,toe71 mo/ ( ! cells ( :i* are abnormally l>ge & fill$ ) amoeboid ,plasmodiophora protoplasm1 :i* f9ally dev\rs ! turnip-protoplasm & itself passes ov] into spores4 ,"h we h mo/ conv9c+ pro( ( ! /imulation ( protoplasm by o!r protoplasm 9 direct contact ) x2 & t ! metabolism ( ! ho/-cells is pr(\ndly alt]$ is %[n n only by ! abnormal gr[? ( ! cells1 b also by ! />vation ( ! re/ ( ! turnip plant z ! ,plasmodiophora gets ! upp] h&4 ,we h "h1 9 fact1 a local intracellul> p>asitic disease1 gradually invad+ l>ge tracts ( tissue & ev5tually induc+ g5]al disease result+ 9 dea?--a /ate ( affairs rem9d+ u ( canc] 9 animals4 ,irritation & hyp]trophy ( cells1 h[ev]1 may be induc$ by p>asites :i* nev] br+ _! protoplasm into direct contact ) t ( ! ho/4 ,_m ,*ytridiaceae p5etrate ! cells ( plants1 & gr[ inside !m z %ort tubes1 vesicles1 etc41 ! protoplasm ( :i* is sep>at$ by _! own cell-walls f t ( ! ho/-cell2 nev]!less hyp]trophy & abnormal cell-divisions & secretions are induc$1 & ! effect ev5 ext5ds to neighb\r+ cells--e4g4 ,syn*ytrium--%[+ t "s influ5ce is ex]t$ ?r\gh cells !mselves n directly affect$4 ,?is latt] po9t ne$ n surprise u n[ we "k t ! cells ( plant-tissues are connect$ by f9e protoplasmic /r&s pass+ ?r\gh ! sep>at+ cell-walls4 ,b ! invad+ plant ne$ n actually ent] ! cells1 & may /ill /imulate !m ?r\gh bo? its own & _! own cell-walls to abnormal gr[?4 ,?is is well %[n by ! int]cellul> mycelium ( ,exoacus & ,exobasidium1 & ! latt] af=ds an excell5t illu/ration ( ! f>-rea*+ effects ( hyphae on ! cells 7( ,vacc9ium7 into :i* !y d n p5etrate4 ,n only are ! cells /imulat$ to gr[ l>g] & divide (t5] ?an normally1 ?us produc+ l>ge gall-l swell+s1 b ! *lorophyll disappe>s1 ! cell sap *anges col\r to r$1 ! num]\s comp\nd cry/als normally f\nd 9 ! tissues dim9i% 9 numb] & are diff]5t 9 %ape1 l>ge quantities ( />* are /or$ up1 & ev5 ! vascul> bundles are alt]$ 9 "*4 ,all ^! *anges indicate v pr(\nd alt]ations 9 ! physiological work+ ( ! protoplasm ( ! cells ( ! ho/1 & yet ! fungus has done its "w ?r\gh bo? its own cell-walls & ^? ( ! ho/4 ,ev5 h>mless endophytic algae 9 ! int]cellul> spaces ( plants may /imulate ! cells 9 _! imm$iate neighb\rhood to increas$ gr[?1 e4g4 ,anaba5a 9 ! roots ( ,cycads4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,) ref]5ce to cork-heal+ & w\nd-fev] ! /ud5t may consult ,%attock ,on ! ,rep>ative processes :i* occur 9 ,vegetable ,tissues1 ,j\rnal ( ! ,l9nean ,society1 #ahhb1 ,vol4 ,,xix41 p4 #a2 & ,%attock ,on ! ,fall ( ,bran*lets 9 ! ,asp51 ,j\rnal ( ,botany1 #ahhc1 ,vol4 ,,xxi41 p4 #cjf4 ,also ,ri*>ds1 ,! ,respiration ( ,w\nd$ ,plants1 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 ,x41 #ahif1 p4 #eca2 & ,! ,evolution ( ,heat by ,w\nd$ ,plants1 ,ann4 ( ,bot41 ,vol4 ,,xi41 #ahig1 p4 #bi4 ,= details & figures respect+ callus1 see ,sorau]1 ,physiol4 ( ,plants1 p4 #age4 ,9 respect to ! irritable movem5ts ref]r$ to see ,d>w91 ,! ,p[] ( ,movem5ts 9 ,plants1 #ahhj1 *apt] ,,iii4 ,! rec5t "w ( ,nawas*91 ,beoba*tung5 ueb] d5 fe9]5 ,bau u4 ,umw&lung5 von ,plasmodiophora1 ,flora1 ,vol4 ,,lxxxvi41 #ahii1 p4 #djd1 %\ld be read = details & lit]ature conc]n+ ,f+] & ,toe4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,nature ,,( ,,disease 7,cont9u$74 ,actions ( poisons 9 small doses--,results ( kill+ a few cells--,mal=mation--,enzymes--,secretion s & excretions-- ,acids1 poisons1 etc4--,*emotactic ph5om5a--,p>asitism-- ,epiphytes & endophytes--,symbiosis--,galls4 ,physiological rese>* has %[n t ! respiratory activity ( cells may be increas$ by small doses ( poisons1 & ev5 t gr[? may be accel]at$ by !m--e4g4 *lor(orm1 e!r--&1 /ill m rem>kable1 t f]m5tative activity may be enhanc$ by m9ute doses ( su* p[]ful m9]al poisons z m]curic *loride1 iod9e salts1 etc41 & t ! cells may be gradually accu/om$ to l>g] doses )\t injury4 ,unf]tilis$ eggs ( insects h be5 />t$ into gr[? by treatm5t ) acids & ^? ( frogs ) m]cury salts1 & ! g]m9ation ( beans quick5$ by v>i\s poison\s alkaloids4 ,9 o!r words1 graduat$ doses ( poison may alt] ! physiological activity ( liv+ cells1 induc+ pa?ological ph5om5a1 :ile l>g] doses kill !m4 ,n[ we "k at lea/ "o p>asitic fungus :i* poisons ! cells ( its ho/1 & kills !m1 ) simil> symptoms to ^? result+ f excessive doses ( ! above-nam$ toxic ag5ts4 ,botrytis hyphae1 liv+ 9 ! cell-walls ( plants1 b n ent]+ ! cells1 excretes a poison :i* kills ! protoplasm1 & ! fungus !n fe$s on ! debris4 ,num]\s o!r fungi =m p[]ful poisons1 b we d n "k :e!r or h[ !y employ !m--e4g4 ,ergot4 ,x is obvi\s t if all ! "y cells ( a root-tip or ( ! apex ( a %oot1 or ^? ( a "y leaf1 are gr[+ & divid+ regul>ly1 ! kill+ ( "o or a few cells at "o po9t on ! side ( ! organ mu/ result 9 irregul>ities--9 mal=mation--( ! adult organ4 ,?is has be5 prov$ exp]im5tally by de/roy+ a few cells ) a ne$le4 ,x c also be done by plant+ a m9ute mycelium ( ,botrytis lat]ally on a "y organ--e4g4 a v "y lily-bud4 ,! fungus adh]es to ! surface1 kills a few epid]mis cells1 & =ms a foxy-r$ spot1 :i* becomes concave z ! dead cells lose wat] & dry4 ,s9ce ! re/ ( ! bud goes on gr[+1 h[ev]1 :ile ?is dead po9t rema9s /ation>y1 ! latt] gradually becomes ! c5tre ( a concavity1 ! gr[+ tissues hav+ gr[n r\nd x3 ! bud is de=m$4 ,num]\s cases ( mal=m$ organs are expla9$ 9 ?is way2 a m9ute insect has bitt5 or pi]c$ ! "y tissue1 or a fungus has kill$ a m9ute area1 or a drop ( acid cond5s$ f fumes 9 ! air is ! le?al ag5t1 & s =?4 ,& ev5 on a mu* l>g] scale we see ! same k9ds ( ag5ts at "w4 ,:]ev] a pat* ( cells is kill$ :il/ ^? ar\nd g on gr[+1 !re mu/ result "s de=mation ( ! result+ organ1 s9ce _h ! injury be5 )held ! numb] & sizes ( ! cells n[ fix$ 9 dea? w\ld h increas$ & cov]$ a l>g] area3 !y n[ s]ve to pull ov] to _! side ! /ill liv+ & gr[+ cells4 ,! same results foll[ on any lat]al w\nd3 ! kill$ spot ( tissue s]ves z a po9t r\nd :i* ! cont9u$ gr[? ( o!r p>ts ( ! organ turns4 ,h5ce ! mal=mation is 9 ^! cases a second>y effect1 & n1 z 9 simple hyp]trophy1 a direct effect ( ! action ( ! cells involv$ 9 ! injury4 ,!re is ano!r class ( bodies secret$ by fungi1 h[ev]1 :i* act directly on cells1 viz4 enzymes--t is1 soluble bodies :i* are able to dissolve cellulose 7cytases71 />* 7dia/ases71 proteids 7proteolytic enzymes71 & o!r sub/ances1 by peculi> alt]ations 9 _! con/itution4 ,x is by means ( its cytase t ,botrytis hyphae pi]ce ! cellulose walls ( plants1 & no d\bt 9 all cases :]e fungi pi]ce cell-walls x is by ! solv5t action ( su* a cytase1 & simil>ly :5 hau/oria p5etrate into ! cells4 ,x is also by means ( ^! />*-dissolv+ enzymes 7dia/ases7 & proteolytic enzymes1 etc41 t ! hyphae inside ! cells are enabl$ to make use ( ! />*1 proteids1 etc41 !y f9d !re4 ,all liv+ cells =m mat]ials1 result+ f ! activity ( ! protoplasm1 :i* we may comp>e ) ! refuse or by-products =m$ 9 any great manufactur+ indu/ry3 ^! by-products h to be got rid ( if !y are injuri\s or noisome 7excretions71 & if n--i4e4 if !y are capable ( fur!r use 7secretions7--!y h to be /or$ away till requir$4 ,"s ( ! mo/ prom95t ( ^! bodies excret$ by fungi are1 z we h se51 poison\s acids1 su* z oxalic acid1 enzymes1 & organic poisons1 su* z ^? 9 ergot4 ,b simil> enzymes1 acids1 poisons1 etc41 to ^? f\nd 9 fungi are also f\nd 9 ! cells ( o!r plants & animals2 = only by means ( _! solv5t actions c processes l dige/ion & assimilation ( ! />*y & o!r mat]ials into ! body-sub/ance be accompli%$1 & we h se5 t x is a g5]al prop]ty ( liv+ cells to =m acids1 & o!r excretions & secretions4 ,n[ we "k v little ab\t :at may happ5 :5 an organism--say a fungus--secret+ especially "o k9d ( enzyme or poison or o!r active sub/ance1 comes into intimate contact ) ano!r--say a leaf-cell--:i* secretes pr$om9antly o!rs1 b :at we d "k po9ts to ! c]ta9ty t v>i\s complications w occur4 ,= in/ance1 if c]ta9 bact]ia :i* pref] an alkal9e m$ium1 & yea/s :i* pref] an acid environm5t are mix$ 9 a sac*>9e solution1 x dep5ds on ! reaction ( ! liquid :i* organism ga9s ! upp] h&3 if ! liquid is acid ! yea/ may dom9ate ! bact]ia2 if alkal9e x may be suppress$ by !m4 ,t a p>asite may be prev5t$ f successfully attack+ a p>ticul> plant is %[n by ! failure ( ,cuscuta to e/abli% its hau/oria 9 poison\s plants su* z ,euphorbia1 ,aloe1 etc41 & x has be5 po9t$ out t poison\s secretions 9 ! cells ( ! plant protect !m aga9/ ! p5etration ( fungi4 ,?is _c be tak5 z mean+ t any poison protects aga9/ any p>asite1 h[ev]1 = ,euphorbia is itself subject to attacks ( ,ur$9eae1 & ,pangium edule1 :i* conta9s prussic acid & is extremely poison\s to mo/ animals1 is eat5 ) avidity by sev]al insects1 :ile nematode worms c live 9 its tissues4 ,?is is no m rem>kable1 h[ev]1 ?an ! fact t ,font>ia1 a myriapod1 secretes prussic acid 9 its own tissues1 or ?an t c]ta9 gl&s ( ! /oma* secrete free hydro*loric acid1 & ,dolium =ms sulphuric acid 9 its gl&s4 ,!re is yet a fur!r po9t to notice "h4 ,x has be5 prov$ t c]ta9 sub/ances =m$ 9 plant-cells1 n necess>ily nutritive1 attract ! hyphae ( p>asitic fungi or repel !m1 accord+ to ! k9d & degree ( conc5tration4 ,s cle> has ?is pro( be5 made t x 0 possible 9 exp]im5ts conduct$ ap>t f a ho/ plant1 to make ! hyphae on "o side ( an artificial membrane--e4g4 collodion--p5etrate x by plac+ "o ( ^! attractive 7*emotropic7 sub/ances 9 suitable proportions on ! o!r side4 ,! hyphae dissolv$ holes 9 ! membrane by means ( enzymes & plung$ into ! attractive sub/ance on ! o!r side4 ,! =ego+ sket* gives u a glimpse into ! causes at "w 9 p>asitism4 ,suppose a fungus on ! outside ( ! epid]mis ( a "y organ--say a leaf4 ,x may be unable to p5etrate into ! plant1 & f9d+ no suitable food outside x dies3 or x may be satisfi$ ) ! traces ( organic matt] on ! epid]mis & !n lives ! life ( a saprophyte4 ,or x may be able to e/abli% a hold-fa/ on ! t5d] epid]mal surface1 b )\t ent]+ ! cells1 & irritate ! develop+ organ by contact /imulation1 induc+ slight abnormalities2 if 9 its fur!r1 purely sup]ficial gr[? su* an epiphyte cov]s l>ge areas ( ! leaf1 & especially if ! hyphae are d>k col\r$--e4g4 ,dematium & o!r ,sooty ,m\lds--injury may be done to ! leaf ow+ to ! %ad+ action :i* deprives ! *lorophyll bel[ ( its full supply ( sol> en]gy4 ,"s epiphytes1 h[ev]1 are able to fix _! hyphae to ! epid]mis by s5d+ m9ute peg-l projections into ! cuticle--,tri*ospha]ia1 ,h]potri*ia--:ile o!rs s5d hau/oria "r ?r\gh ! out] epid]mal walls--e4g4 ,erysiphe--& ?us supplem5t m]e contact-irritation & %ad+ by actual absorption f ! ext]nal cells4 ,"h ! fungus is a p>asitic epiphyte4 ,a /age fur!r is atta9$ 9 ^? fungi :i* ent] ! /omata & live 9 ! int]cellul> spaces--e4g4 _m ,ur$9eae & ,phytoph?ora--& _m su* int]cellul> endophytes increase _! attack on ! cells by pi]c+ _! walls ) m9ute 7,cy/opus7 or l>ge & bran*$ 7,p]onospora7 hau/oria1 or ev5 ev5tually pi]ce ! cells & trav]se !m bodily 7,py?ium74 ,9 all ^! cases x is cle> t conflicts mu/ occur betwe5 poison & antidote1 acid & alkali1 attractive & repell5t sub/ances1 enzyme & enzyme1 etc41 z 0 h9t$ at above2 & ! same mu/ take place :5 ! p>asite is endophytic & intracellul> f ! fir/1 z 9 ,*ytridiaceae1 etc41 ! zoospores ( :i* pi]ce ! out] cell-walls & =?) gr[ into ! cells4 ,!re are also fungi :i*1 :ile able to pi]ce ! out] cell-walls1 & gr[ =w>d 9 ! ?ickness ( ! wall itself1 _c ent] ! liv+ cells !mselves--e4g4 ,botrytis4 ,9 ! example m5tion$1 ! fungus excretes a poison1 oxalic acid1 :i* soaks into & kills ! cells next its po9t ( attack3 into ^! dead cells x !n ext5ds1 &1 invigorat$ by fe$+ on !m1 ext5ds into o!r cell-walls & excretes m poison1 & s on4 ,on ! basis ( ! =ego+ x seems possible to sket* a g5]al view ( ! nature ( p>asitism4 ,9 ord] t a fungus may ent] ! cells x mu/ be able to ov]come n only ! resi/ance ( ! cell-walls1 b t ( ! liv+ protoplasm also3 if x _c d ! latt] x mu/ rema9 outside1 z a m]e epiphyte1 or at mo/ an int]cellul> endophyte4 ,if x c d nei!r x mu/ ei!r cont5t itself ) a saprophytic exi/5ce or fail1 s f> z t p>ticul> ho/-plant is conc]n$4 ,its inability to ent] may be due to !re be+ no *emotropic attraction1 or to its incapacity to dissolve ! cell-walls1 or to ! exi/5ce 9 ! cell ( "s antagoni/ic sub/ance :i* neutralises its acid secretions1 de/roys its enzymes or poisons1 or is ev5 directly poison\s to x4 ,moreov] :5 once inside x does n foll[ t x c kill ! cell4 ,! protoplasm ( ! latt] may h be5 unable to prev5t ! fungus enemy f break+ ?r\gh its fir/ l9e ( def5ce--! cell-wall1 b x may be q capable ( ma9ta9+ ! fight at close qu>t]s1 & we see signs ( ! progress ( ! /ruggle 9 hyp]trophy1 accumulation ( /ores1 & o!r *anges 9 ! invad$ cells & _! cont5ts4 ,f9ally1 ! inve/$ or invad$ cell may s adapt itself to ! dem&s ( ! invad] t a sort ( arrangem5t is arriv$ at by :i* life 9 common--,symbiosis--is e/abli%$1 ea* organism do+ some?+ = ! o!r & ea* tak+ some?+ f ! o!r4 ,9 ?is latt] case1 :i* is (t5 realis$--e4g4 li*5s1 legum9\s plants & ! organisms 9 _! root-nodules1 mycorrhiza1 etc4--we leave ! doma9 ( disease1 :i* sup]v5es inde$ if ! o!r symbiont is lack+4 ,"s int]e/+ facts be>+ on ! matt]s "h "u discussion1 h be5 obta9$ f ! /udy ( ,galls1 ! curi\s outgr[?s f\nd on _m plants & due to ! action ( insects4 ,a typical gall exhibits ?ree di/9ct & *>act]i/ic lay]s ( tissue surr\nd+ ! holl[ *amb] 9 :i* ! l>va ( ! insect lies1 viz41 an out] lay] ( s(t cells =m+ a p>5*yma cov]$ ) an epid]mis1 & frequ5tly also ) a lay] ( cork2 an inn] /ratum consi/+ ( v ?9-wall$ delicate cells fill$ ) protoplasmic & res]ve food-mat]ials on :i* ! l>va fe$s2 & betwe5 ! two a m or less def9ite lay] ( ?ick-wall$ scl]5*yma cells :i* s]ve z a protection aga9/ accid5ts to ! l>va z ! out] lay] %rivels or rots1 or if x is expos$ to ! attack ( m>aud]s4 ,?is lay] may be abs5t f galls :i* h a %ort life only4 ,vascul> bundles run into ! out] lay] f ! leaf-ve9s or ! /ele ( ! %oot1 etc4 ,su* galls ab\nd 9 tann91 & are frequ5tly ( use 9 ! arts on ?is acc\nt3 !y also conta9 />*1 & proteid sub/ances & cry/als ( calcium oxalate4 ,:5 ! l>va has consum$ ! /ores ( food mat]ial & rea*$ ! adult /age x eats its way out & escapes4 ,! gr[? ( su* a gall is prec$$ by ! lay+ ( an egg on or 9 ! embryonic tissue ( a leaf1 /em1 or o!r "y "p1 & x is int]e/+ to note t only organs 9 ! m]i/ematic /age c =m galls1 & t x is by no means necess>y t ! tissues %\ld be w\nd$4 ,moreov]1 ! egg z su* is incapable ( /imulat+ ! plant tissues1 b :5 x hat*es1 ! result+ l>va1 beg9n+ to fe$ on ! cells1 irritates ! tissues & rapid gr[? & cell-division occur1 z 9 ! case ( o!r w\nds or ( fungus attacks4 ,! actual w\nd made by ! ovipositor heals up at once4 ,x is evid5t f num]\s rec5t rese>*es t ^! true galls are n due to any poison\s or irritat+ liquid inject$ by ! p>5t1 b t ! /imulus to ! tissue =mation is simil> to t ex]t$ by a w\nd4 ,! "y gall is 9 fact a callus enclos+ ! liv+ l>va1 & x is ! cont9u$ irritation ( ! latt] :i* keeps up ! /imulation4 ,! f9al %ape & con/itution ( ! gall dep5d on mutual reactions--n z yet expla9$ 9 detail--betwe5 ! species ( plant & ! species ( gall-insect conc]n$1 z may readily be se5 f ! extraord9>y v>iations 9 size1 %ape1 col\r+1 hair9ess & o!r /ructural peculi>ities ( ! galls on "o species (1 = in/ance1 ! common oak4 ,f :at we h le>nt ab\t fungus p>asites1 h[ev]1 !re c be little d\bt t reactions betwe5 ! cells & ! l>va ( ! insect occur1 resembl+ ^? :i* take place betwe5 ! cells & ! hyphae ( ! fungus1 & ?is is borne out by ! /udy ( o!r hyp]trophies due to animals2 e4g4 ,nematode worms 9 roots1 & ! rem>kable galls--! simple/ kn[n--on ,vau*]ia1 caus$ by ! entrance into ?is alga ( a species ( ,notommata1 :i* induces a diff]5t gall on ea* ( ! v>i\s species ( its ho/ plants4 ,x mu/ be conclud$ t ! =mation ( ! ,vau*]ia gall is induc$ by ! me*anical irritation :i* ! ,rotif] causes 9 ! protoplasm4 ,^! galls are comp>able to ! hyp]trophies 9 ,pilobolus caus$ by ! pres5ce ( ,pleotra*elus4 ,attempts to induce ! developm5t ( galls artificially by inject+ =mic1 acetic & o!r vegetable acids1 poisons & o!r sub/ances into ! tissues h1 h[ev]1 fail$1 & ev5 ! sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! insect or gall itself only produc$ negative results4 ,no?+ fur!r 0 obta9$ ?an slight callus =mations 9 "s cases4 ,nor h exp]im5t]s succe$$ 9 obta9+ m ?an slight di/ortions by fix+ insects on ! gr[+ leaves 9 su* positions t !y c\ld scrat* ! epid]mis4 ,we mu/ !re=e conclude t v complex int]actions betwe5 ! plant & insect are "h conc]n$1 among :i* may be ! infiltration ( "s liquid f l>va to plant--_m ( ^! gall l>vae are /rongly sc5t$1 & ,ku/5ma*] says t fluids excret$ by ! l>va are absorb$ by ! gall-tissue app>5tly z nutrim5t4 ,?is w\ld po9t to ! symbiotic "* ( galls & _! gue/s4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,) reg>d to ! action ( poisons 9 small doses see fur!r ,johanns51 ,das ,ae!r-,v]fahr5 beim ,fruhtreib51 ,j5a1 #aijj1 &1 = ,botrytis1 see ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,a ,lily ,disease1 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 #ahhi1 p4 #chh4 ,! subject ( enzymes has be5 exhau/ively treat$ by ,gre51 ,! ,soluble ,f]m5ts & ,f]m5tations1 ,cambridge1 #ahii1 to :i* ! read] is ref]r$ = lit]ature4 ,i h tak5 ! /atem5ts reg>d+ ,font>ia & ,dolium f ,kass[itz1 ,allgeme9e ,biologie1 p4 #ahb4 ,! two mo/ important works on *emotactic ph5om5a are ,pfeff]1 ,ub] ,*emotaktis*e ,bewegung51 etc41 ,unt]s4 aus dem ,bot4 ,in/4 zu ,tub+51 ,b4 ,,ii41 p4 #ehb1 & ,miyo%i1 ,die ,dur*bohrung von ,membran5 dur* ,pilzfad51 ,pr+%4 ,jahrb4 f4 ,wiss4 ,bot41 ,b4 ,,xxviii41 #ahie1 p4 #bfi1 & f ^! ! fur!r lit]ature c be trac$4 ,z reg>ds ! nature ( p>asitism see ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,on ,"s ,relations betwe5 ,ho/ & ,p>asite1 etc41 be+ ! ,croonian ,lecture deliv]$ be=e ! ,royal ,society1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,vol4 #dg1 p4 #cic4 ,on ,symbiosis1 see ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,symbiosis1 ,annals ( ,botany1 #ahii1 ,vol4 ,,xiii41 p4 #edi1 :]e ! lit]ature is collect$4 ,= a g5]al acc\nt ( galls ! read] may consult ,k]n]1 ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,plants1 ,eng4 ed41 #ahie1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #ebg-eed1 & ,adl]1 ,alt]nat+ ,g5]ations1 ,a ,biological ,/udy ( ,oak ,galls1 etc41 #ahid4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,spread+ ,,( ,,disease ,,& ,,epidemics4 ,dissem9ation ( fungi by ! aid ( snails1 rabbits1 bees1 & insects--,man--,di/ribution 9 soil1 on clo!s1 ?r\gh ! po/1 etc4--,worms1 w9d--,puff+ ( spores--,creep+ ( mycelia--,lurk+ p>asites--,spread ( insects & o!r animals--,losses due to epidemics4 ,! dissem9ation ( plant diseases is a subject :i* has be5 f> too mu* neglect$1 b our k ( x is sl[ly increas+4 ,! spores ( fungi su* z ,ru/s & ,erysipheae are (t5 c>ri$ f plant to plant by snails2 ^? ( root-de/roy+ & tree-kill+ ,polyporei by rabbits1 rats1 & o!r mammals :i* rub _! fur aga9/ ! hym5ophores4 ,bees h be5 %[n to c>ry ! spores ( ,scl]ot9ia & infect ! /igmas ( ,bilb]ries1 etc41 ) !m2 & flies convey ! conidia ( ,ergot f gra9 to gra94 ,insects1 inde$1 ( all k9ds are great dissem9ators ( disease--z witness also ! "p play$ by mosquitoes 9 transf]r+ ! mal>ia p>asite to man--& beetles1 bees1 flies1 etc41 ( all sorts probably play m active p>ts 9 ?is "w ?an has yet be5 prov$1 s9ce !y n only c>ry spores atta*$ l poll5 to _! hairy bodies1 b 9 _m cases 9 _! alim5t>y canal1 to be spread lat] 9 ! dung4 ,! "p play$ by man 9 convey+ fungi f plant to plant c\nts = mu*4 ,n only d g>d5]s & f>m lab\r]s c>ry spores on _! boots & clo!s z !y pass f infect$ to non-infect$ areas1 b c>t$ soil & manure are frequ5tly infe/$ ) spores ( ,smuts1 ,fus>ium1 ,polyporus1 & ! scl]otia or rhizomorphs ( ,scl]ot9ia1 ,ag>icus melleus1 ,dematophora1 etc4 ,man also s5ds diseases ?r\gh ! po/1 & by rail & %ip1 by spores or mycelia atta*$ to se$l+s1 bulbs1 fruits1 fl[]s1 etc41 z %[n 9 sev]al cases ( potato1 v9e1 hollyhock1 lily1 & hyac9? diseases4 ,e "t a c>p5t] saws a piece ( fre% timb] ) ! saw :i* has be5 us$ previ\sly = cutt+ wood attack$ ) dry rot1 he risks infect+ x ) ! fungus4 ,simil>ly 9 prun+3 e cut ) a knife :i* ! g>d5] has us$ on infect$ bran*es may infect ! tree4 ,cutt+s made ) a soil-contam9at$ knife & /uck into ord9>y soil 9 dirty boxes cov]$ ) equally dirty glass1 pres5t e *ance = infection by soil organisms2 bact]ia & fungi obta9 access to ! vessels1 & d]ive pl5ty ( food f ! juices1 & ! wond] is n t s _m cutt+s damp (f1 b t any are rais$ at all "u ord9>y conditions4 ,t worms br+ buri$ spores to ! surface c h>dly be d\bt$ aft] ,pa/eur's exp]im5ts ) ,an?rax1 & ! pr9ciple ( ,d>w9's discov]ies ( ! important be>+ ( ! habits ( e>?worms on ?is subject1 & t ! soil atta*$ to ! feet ( ducks & o!r birds teems ) small se$s1 applies to fungi also4 ,w9d is also responsible = di/ribut+ fungus-spores ov] wide areas1 z may be easily prov$ by fix+ a glass slide sme>$ ) glyc]9e 9 ! c\rse ( a breeze pass+ ov] an infect$ area4 ,b al?\gh ! fungi are1 g5]ally speak+1 passive 9 reg>d to _! di/ribution1 su* is by no means always ! case4 ,ap>t f ! fact t "s =ms attract insects by means ( honey dew 7,ergot71 or by sweet od\rs 7,sp]mogonia1 ,scl]ot9ia71 ! zoospores ( ,py?ium1 ,phytoph?ora1 etc41 are motile1 & al?\gh !y _c move f> 9 ! films ( wat] 9 :i* !y travel1 nev]!less 9 a wet potato field1 ) ! w9d flapp+ ! leaves "o aga9/ ! o!r1 "s dissem9ation ( importance mu/ be actively br\ght ab\t1 & simil>ly ) ! amoebae ( ,plasmodiophora 9 ! soil4 ,! %oot+ ( ascospores into ! air by c]ta9 species ( ,peziza1 f ! discs ( :i* ! spores may be se5 to puff out 9 cl\ds1 af=ds fur!r evid5ce t fungi _c be reg>d$ z entirely passive 9 respect to di/ribution ( _! spores4 ,b :5 we come to c]ta9 ( ! soil fungi--e4g4 ,ag>icus melleus1 ,dematophora1 etc4--! active creep+ =w>d by gr[? 9 ! soil ( _! rhizomorphs & mycelial /r&s af=d examples ( active spread+ ( consid]able importance 9 ! v9ey>d & =e/1 s9ce !y pass f root to root & f tree to tree & may infect ! entire area 9 c\rse ( "t4 ,n ! lea/ significant mode ( dissem9ation is t by :i* :at ,i h t]m$ lurk+ p>asites are spread3 su* are fungi :i* atta* !mselves to ! se$s1 fruits1 tub]s1 etc41 ( o!r plants & s obta9 all ! advantages ( be+ c>ri$ & s[n ) ! latt]--e4g4 ,u/ilag9eae & ,ur$9eae :i* adh]e to gra91 ,v]ticillium1 ,nectria1 etc41 9 potatoes & o!r plants4 ,! spread ( diseases due to animals1 especially insects1 is ( c\rse m active1 9 consequ5ce ( ! motility ( ! di/ribut+ ag5ts4 ,?is is mo/ m>k$ 9 ! w+$ species1 ( :i* locu/s1 beetles1 mo?s & butt]flies1 flies & wasps furni% well-kn[n examples2 & is n inconsid]able 9 ! case ( w+less & m]ely creep+ species4 ,x is notewor?y t _m =ms w+less 9 ! p>asitic /age are w+$ at c]ta9 p]iods1 e4g4 ! females ( ,phyllox]a4 ,t man also spreads insect pe/s is well kn[n & act$ ^u1 z witness ! phyllox]a laws--:i*1 h[ev]1 x is to be fe>$ too (t5 only illu/rate once m ! adage conc]n+ ! %utt+ ( ! /able door aft] ! horse has gone4 ,x w\ld be t$i\s to attempt any?+ l a complete acc\nt ( ! e/imates ( loss 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 due to ! ravages ( insects & fungi1 b ! foll[+ examples %\ld surely s]ve to conv9ce anyone ( ! magnitude ( ^! losses & ( ! economic importance ( ! :ole "q1 & ! read] may be ref]r$ to ! special lit]ature = fur!r details4 ,! c(fee leaf-disease ( ,ceylon1 due to ! fungus ,hemileia1 is e/imat$ to h co/ t ,colony consid]ably ov] ,l#a1jjj1jjj p] annum = sev]al ye>s4 ,"o e/imate puts ! loss 9 t5 ye>s at f ,l#ab1jjj1jjj to ,l#ae1jjj1jjj4 ,! hop-aphis is e/imat$ to h co/ ,k5t ,l#b1gjj1jjj 9 ! ye> #ahhb4 ,9 #ahgd ! ,agricultural ,commission] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates e/imat$ ! annual loss1 due to ! ravages ( insects on cotton alone1 to am\nt to ,l#e1jjj1jjj2 & 9 #ahhb ! annual loss to ! ,unit$ ,/ates due to insects1 calculat$ = all k9ds ( agricultural produce1 0 put at ! appall+ figure ( f ,l#dj1jjj1jjj to ,l#fj1jjj1jjj /]l+4 ,9 ,india1 ! annual loss due to :eat-ru/ alone has rec5tly be5 e/imat$ at #d1jjj1jjj to #bj1jjj1jjj rupees1 & "o insect alone is said to h co/ ! cotton plant]s a qu>t] ( ! crop--valu$ at sev5 crores ( rupees--9 bad ye>s4 ,simil>ly1 9 ,au/ralia ! annual loss f :eat-ru/ has be5 put at f ,l#b1jjj1jjj to ,l#c1jjj1jjj4 ,9 #ahia ! loss 9 ,prussia alone f gra9-ru/s 0 (ficially e/imat$ at ov] ,l#bj1jjj1jjj /]l+4 ,ne$ m be said8 ,ev5 all[+ = consid]able exagg]ations 9 su* e/imates x is cle> t ! damage to crops 9 any c\ntry soon am\nts to sums :i* ev5 at l[ rates ( int]e/ w\ld easily yield incomes capable ( support+ ! be/ equipp$ laboratories & /affs = inve/igations direct$ to ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a 9 detail1 ! sole basis on :i* intellig5t prev5tive & !rapeutic measures c be bas$4 ,b x is f> f likely t ! e/imates are exagg]at$4 ,! plant+ & agricultural communities are z a rule oppos$ to ! publication ( /ati/ics--or at lea/ h be5 s 9 v>i\s c\ntries & at diff]5t times--& if we knew ! damage done to all crops ev5 9 our own ,empire1 ! results w\ld probably a/oni% u f> m ?an ! above figures h done4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,on ! dissem9ation ( fungi1 ! read] w f9d ,fulton1 ,disp]sal ( ! ,spores ( ,fungi by ! ,ag5cy ( ,insects1 ,ann4 ,bot41 ,vol4 ,,iii41 #ahhi1 p4 #bjg1 & ,/urgis1 ,on ,"s ,aspects ( ,vegetable ,pa?ology & ! ,conditions :i* ,influ5ce ! ,dissem9ation ( ,plant ,diseases1 ,botanical ,gazette1 ,vol4 ,,xxv41 #ahih1 p4 #ahg1 bo? useful pap]s4 ,fur!r in=mation w be f\nd 9 ,zopf1 ,die ,pilze1 ,breslau1 #ahij1 pp4 #gi-ie & #bbh1 & ,wagn]1 ,ueb] die ,v]breitung d] ,pilze dur* ,s*neck51 9 ,zeits*r4 f4 ,pflanz5 ,krankh41 #ahif1 p4 #add4 ,! e/imates z to losses due to epidemics are tak5 f ,watt1 ,agricultural ,l$g]1 ,calcutta1 #ahie1 p4 #ga2 ,balf\r1 ,! ,agricultural ,pe/s ( ,india1 ,london1 #ahhg1 pp4 #ac-ae2 ,eriksson & ,h5n+1 ,die ,getreid]o/e2 ! publications ( ! ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,! ,kew ,bullet91 & else:]e4 ,! read] w f9d fur!r examples 9 ,massee1 ,text-,book ( ,plant ,diseases1 #ahii1 pp4 #dg-ea4 ,bo? ^! subjects are well wor? fur!r att5tion1 & ,i "k ( no complete acc\nt ( !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,factors ,,( ,,an ,,epidemic4 ,illu/rations af=d$ by ! potato disease--,! l>* disease--,! phyllox]a ( ! v9e4 ,:5 we come to enquire into :at circum/ances br+ ab\t ^? sev]e & app>5tly sudd5 attacks on our crops1 or*>ds1 g>d5s1 & =e/s by ho/s ( "s p>ticul> p>asite1 br++ ab\t all ! dread$ features ( an epidemic disease1 we soon discov] ! exi/5ce ( a s]ies ( complex problems ( int]tw9$ relation%ips betwe5 "o organism & ano!r1 & betwe5 bo? & ! non-liv+ environm5t1 :i* fully ju/ify ! caution already giv5 aga9/ conclud+ t any cause ( disease c be a s+le ag5t work+ alone4 ,! /atem5t ( prophecy t a p>ticul> insect or fungus ne$ n be fe>$1 because x is f\nd to d s little h>m 9 p>ticul> cases or di/ricts exam9$1 w ?us be se5 to be a dang]\s "o3 any pe/ may become epidemic if ! conditions fav\r x6 ,9 #ahdd & #ahde ! potato disease assum$ an epidemic "* s appall+ 9 its effects t x is no exagg]ation to say t x con/itut$ a national disa/] 9 sev]al c\ntries4 ,x 0 /at$ at ! "t t ?is disease _h be5 kn[n = "s "t 9 ,belgium1 9 ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,irel&1 9 ! ,isle ( ,?anet1 & 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,simil>1 b less deva/at+ epidemics h occurr$ 9 v>i\s ye>s s9ce4 ,x 0 g5]ally notic$ dur+ su* epidemics t ! plants !mselves 7 full ( foliage1 sur*>g$ ) moi/ure1 & ( a luxuriant gre5 col\r promis+ abundant crops4 ,! n[ well-kn[n spots1 at fir/ pale & !n br[n & fr+$ ) a :iti% m\ld-l gr[?--! conidiophores ( ! ,phytoph?ora--7 obs]v$ dur+ ! dull cl\dy & wet wea!r1 cool] ?an usual1 :5 ! atmosph]e 0 saturat$ = days toge!r1 9 ,july & ,augu/4 ,! actual am\nt ( ra9 does n appe> to h be5 excessive1 b mo/ obs]v]s seem to agree t dull wea!r ) moi/ air _h succe$$ a w>m =c+ p]iod ( gr[?4 ,s rapidly did ! disease run its c\rse t 9 a few days ne>ly all ! plants 7 a rott+ black5$ mass 9 ! fields1 & ! potatoes dug up aft]w>ds 7 ei!r already rott5 or soon became s 9 ! /ores4 ,fur!r exp]i5ce has confirm$ ?is1 & we n[ "k t ! epidemic is v apt to appe> 9 any region :]e potatoes are gr[n on a l>ge scale1 9 dull moi/ wea!r1 especially 9 fields expos$ to mi/s1 heavy dews1 etc41 ab\t ,july & ,augu/1 :5 ! foliage is full & turgid4 ,simil>ly on heavy wet soils1 unless ! season is rem>kably op5 & dry2 b also on dry light soils 9 ra9y seasons4 ,s evid5t 0 ?is t _m believ$ t ! mi/s & dew br\ght ! disease--h>k+ back to ! sup]/itions ( e>li] days4 ,we mu/ rememb] t prior to #ahfj ! life-hi/ory ( ,phytoph?ora 0 n kn[n4 ,s9ce ,de ,b>y's pro( ( ! g]m9ation ( ! zoospores & ( ! infection ( ! leaves1 ! c\rse ( ! hyphae 9 !m & 9 ! haulms1 ! orig9 ( ! conidia1 etc41 & ! confirmation by num]\s compet5t obs]v]s ( ! true fungus nature ( ?is disease1 we are n[ 9 a position to und]/& ! pr9cipal factors ( ! v>i\s epidemics ( potato disease4 ,x is n m]ely t ! potato-fields af=d pl5ty ( food = ! fungus1 & t ! dull wea!r causes ! tissues to be sur*>g$ ) moi/ure1 ow+ to dim9i%$ transpiration1 b ! mi/s & dew--to say no?+ ( actual ra9 & ! flapp+ ( wet leaves--fav\r ! g]m9ation & spread ( ! zoospores ?r\gh\t ! field4 ,:e!r ! dull light also fav\rs ! accumulation ( sug>s 9 ! tissues1 & ! p>tial etiolation ( ! latt] implies less resi/ance to ! ent]+ hyphae1 may be pass$ ov] "h1 b 9 any case x is cle> t we h sev]al factors ( ! non-liv+ environm5t "h fav\r+ ! p>asite & n improv+ ! *ances ( ! ho/1 ev5 if !y d n directly disfav\r x4 ,z ano!r in/ance ,i w take ! ,l>*-disease1 :i* is due to ! ravages ( a ,peziza 7,dasyscypha ,willkommii7 ! hyphae ( :i* obta9 access by w\nds to ! sieve-tubes & cambium ( ! /em1 & gradually kill !m ov] a l>g] & l>g] area & s r+ ! tree1 ) ! symptoms ( cank] describ$ bel[4 ,n[ ! ,l>* fungus is also to be f\nd on trees 9 _! ,alp9e home1 b !re x does v little damage & nev] becomes epidemic except 9 c]ta9 %elt]$ regions ne> lakes & 9 o!r damp situations4 ,h[ !n are we to expla9 ! ext5sive ravages ( ! ,l>* disease ov] ! :ole ( ,europe dur+ ! latt] half ( ?is c5tury8 ,! ext5sive plant+1 provid+ l>ge supplies = ! fungus1 does n suffice to expla9 x1 because !re are l>ge areas ( pure ,l>* 9 ! ,alps :i* d n suff]4 ,9 its m\nta9 home ! ,l>* loses its leaves 9 ,septemb] & rema9s quiesc5t ?r\gh ! int5sely cold w9t]1 until ,may4 ,!n come ! %ort spr+ & rapid passage to summ]1 & ! ,l>* buds op5 ) rem>kable cel]ity :5 !y d beg9--i4e4 :5 ! roots are ?or\ghly awak5$ to activity4 ,h5ce ! t5d] p]iod ( "y foliage is r$uc$ to a m9imum1 & any ag5cies :i* c only injure ! "y leaves & %oots 9 ! t5d] /age mu/ d _! "w 9 a few days1 or ! opportunity is gone1 & ! tree passes =?) into its summ] /ate4 ,9 ! pla9s1 on ! contr>y1 ! ,l>* beg9s to op5 at v>y+ dates f ,m>* to ,may1 & dur+ ! t>dy spr+ enc\nt]s all k9ds ( vicissitudes 9 ! way ( fro/s & cold w9ds foll[+ on w>m days :i* h />t$ ! root-action--= we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! roots are m easily awak5$ aft] our w>m] w9t]s ?an is safe = ! tree4 ,x am\nts to ?is1 !re=e1 t 9 ! pla9s ! long cont9u$ p]iod ( foliation all[s insects1 fro/1 w9ds1 etc41 "s six weeks or two mon?s 9 :i* to injure ! sl[ly spr\t+ t5d] %oots1 :]eas 9 ! m\nta9 heights !y h only a =tnight or s 9 :i* to d su* damage4 ,t ! l[] altitude & long] summ] are n 9 !mselves inimical to ,l>* is prov$ by ! spl5did gr[?s made by ! trees fir/ plant$ a c5tury ago4 ,!n came ! epidemic ( ,l>*-disease3 ! fungus1 :i* is m]ely endemic--i4e4 obta9s a livelihood "h & !re on odd trees1 or gr\ps ( trees 9 w>m] or damp] nooks--9 ! ,alps1 0 fav\r$ by ! m num]\s po9ts ( attack af=d$ to its spores by injuries due to insects--,coleophora1 ,*]mes1 etc4--& fro/ w\nds1 z well z by ! long] p]iods ( moi/ dull wea!r1 & ! long] season ( foliation4 ,moreov]1 z "t w5t on almo/ e consignm5t ( "y ,l>*-trees s5t abroad 0 already infect$4 ,"h aga91 !n1 we f9d ! factors ( an epidemic consi/+ 9 ev5ts :i* fav\r ! reproduction & spread ( a fungus m ?an !y d ! well-be+ ( ! ho/4 ,z a ?ird illu/ration ,i w take ! case ( an insect epidemic4 ,9 #ahfc a disease 0 obs]v$ on v9es 9 ! ,s\? ( ,france :i* fright5$ ! gr[]s z !y realis$ its de/ructive effects3 ! roots decay$ & ! leaves turn$ yell[ & di$ be=e ! grapes rip5$1 & su* v9es ?rew out few] & feebl] %oots ! foll[+ ye>1 & (t5 none at all aft]w>ds4 ,9 #ahfe ! disease 0 evid5tly becom+ epidemic ne> ,bordeaux1 & 9 #ahfh x 0 %[n to be due to an insect1 ,phyllox]a1 ! female ( :i* lays its eggs on ! roots1 :]e !y hat*4 ,! l\se-l (fspr+ /icks its proboscis into ! tissues z f> z ! c5tral cyl9d]4 ,! irritat$ p]icycle & cortex !n gr[ & =m nodules ( s(t juicy root-tissue at :i* ! insect cont9ues to suck4 ,rapid reproduction results 9 ! majority ( ! "y rootlets be+ ?us attack$1 & s9ce !y _c =m _! normal p]id]m & h>d5 (f prop]ly !y rot1 & admit fungi & o!r evils1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! v9e suff]s also 9 ! p>ts above gr\nd4 ,evid5ce t ! g5]al damage is due to ! dim9i%$ root-action is f\nd 9 ! peculi>ly dry poor wood =m$ 9 ! canes ( diseas$ plants4 ,by #ahgg ! epidemic _h spread to ! nor!rn limits ( ! ,fr5* v9ey>ds1 & by #ahhh half ! v9es 9 ! c\ntry 7 attack$1 & ! yield ( w9e r$uc$ f half a million hectolitres to #ej1jjj only4 ,mean:ile ! disease _h spread to ,italy1 ,g]many1 ,madeira1 ,portugal1 & ev5 to ! ,cape1 ?\gh n 9 epidemic =m z 9 ! ,bordeaux c5tre :5ce x spread4 ,n[ x appe>s t ,phyllox]a has long be5 9 ! habit ( do+ damage to v9es 9 ,am]ica1 :]e1 h[ev]1 x attacks ! leaves1 on :i* x makes pocket-l galls1 r ?an ! roots4 ,moreov]1 !re are species & v>ieties ( ,am]ican v9es :i*1 ev5 :5 plant$ 9 ,europe1 d n suff] at all f ?is insect at ! roots1 ei!r because ! rootlets d n pu% out at ! same season z ^? ( ! ,european =m1 or because !y =m wood m rapidly & completely1 or secrete res9\s & o!r matt]s di/a/eful to ! insect 9 great] quantity & are ?us capable ( heal+ ! w\nds1 or 9 "s o!r way !y d n respond to ! attack or suit ! insect4 ,9 any case ! attack on ! leaf r ?an ! root seems to be ! exception 9 ,european v9ey>ds & ! rule 9 ,am]ican species1 & we appe> to be face to face ) a problem ( specific pr$isposition to ?is p>ticul> malady4 ,t ! resi/ant prop]ties ( ! v9es ( ,am]ica--n all1 only p>ticul> species & v>ieties are ?us immune--c be utilis$ has be5 prov$ by ,european gr[]s2 & n only s1 = ,mill>det & o!rs h %[n t ! ,european v9e graft$ on to ^! resi/ant /ocks suff] less ?an :5 on _! own roots4 ,x has also be5 %[n t hybrids c be obta9$ :i* are resi/ant4 ,b ! mo/ curi\s po9t ( all is t ,phyllox]a 0 itself a native ( ,am]ica1 & came !nce to ,europe4 ,x _h play$ its "p ) c]ta9 fungi 9 ru9+ all ! attempts to introduce ! ,european v9e into ,am]ica _m ye>s ago4 ,a rec5t au?ority on ! evolution ( ,am]ican fruits writes z foll[s3 ,all ! mo/ am5able types ( grapes _h long s9ce p]i%$ 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 & ! types :i* n[ p]si/ are necess>ily ^? :i* are1 f _! v make-up or con/itution1 almo/ immune f injury1 or are lea/ liable to attack 4 4 4 ! ,phyllox]a f9ds t\gh rations on ! h>d1 cord-l roots ( any ( our ea/]n species ( grapes4 ,b an unnaturalis$ & unsophi/icat$ =eign]1 be+ unus$ to ! enemy & undef5d$1 falls a ready victim2 or if ! enemy is transport$ to a =eign c\ntry ! same ?+ occurs4 ,fur!r pro( t x is 9 ! con/itution ( ! ,european v9e t ! want ( resi/ance to ,phyllox]a resides1 is furni%$ by ! fact t 9 ,cali=nia & ! ,pacific /ates ! ,european v9e 0 introduc$ ) m success1 b is n[ suff]+ badly because ,phyllox]a has spread !re also4 ,x mu/ n be ov]look$1 h[ev]1 t we are z yet v ignorant ( all t is impli$ 9 ! ^w con/itution z us$ above4 ,if we enquire fur!r :y ! ,phyllox]a epidemic 0 s mu* worse 9 ! ,s\!rn v9ey>ds ?an 9 ! m ,nor!rn ones ( ,g]many1 ! op9ion seems to prevail t ! w>m] climates fav\r ! insect4 ,fur!r1 x appe>s t1 9 ,italy1 ! v9es 9 loose op5 soil1 provid$ x is equally ri* 9 m9]al food-mat]ials & (f]s no disadvantages z reg>ds dra9age1 suff] less ?an ^? 9 clos] soils1 ! reasons alleg$ be+ t ! "y roots c pu% out m rapidly & widely1 & s obta9 holdfa/s ) great] di/ances betwe5 !m4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,! /ud5t may obta9 fur!r in=mation on ! hi/ory ( ! ,potato disease by consult+ ! foll[+3 ,b]keley1 ,obs]vations1 ,botanical & ,physiological1 on ! ,potato ,murra91 ,j\rnal ( ! ,horticultural ,society1 ,vol4 ,i41 #ahdf1 p4 #i2 ,de ,b>y1 ,die ,geg5wa]tig h]rs*5de ,k>t(fel ,krankheit1 etc41 ,leipzic1 #ahfa2 & ! pages ( ! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle f #ahfj-aijj4 ,= ! ,l>* disease he %\ld consult ,h>tig1 ,unt]s4 aus d] ,foi/4 ,botanis*5 ,in/4 ,mu5*51 ,b4 ,i41 #ahhj2 & ,willkomm1 ,microscop4 ,fe9de des ,waldes1 ,b4 ,,ii41 #ahfh4 ,= ,phyllox]a ! lit]ature is *iefly 9 ! ,comptes ,r5dus & o!r ,fr5* publications s9ce #ahge1 & 9 ! ,reports ( ! ,u4,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture4 ,= a summ>y ( ! facts conc]n+ ! life-hi/ories ( ! p>asites ref]r$ to above1 see ,frank1 ,krankheit5 d] ,pflanz51 & ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,diseases ( ,plants1 p4 #ei1 & ,timb] & ,"s ( its ,diseases1 ,london1 #ahhi1 *apt] ,x4 ,also ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,on "s ,relations betwe5 ,ho/ & ,p>asite 9 c]ta9 epidemic ,diseases ( ,plants1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,vol4 ,,xlvii41 #ahij1 pp4 #cic-ddc2 & ,illu/rations ( ! ,/ructure & ,life-hi/ory ( ,phytoph?ora infe/ans1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,microsc4 ,soc41 ,vol4 ,,xxvii41 #ahhg1 p4 #dac2 also ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,rese>*es on ! ,life-hi/ory ( ,hemileia va/ratrix1 ,j\rn4 ,l9n4 ,soc41 ,vol4 ,,xix41 #ahhb1 p4 #bii2 & ,on ! ,morphology ( ,hemileia va/atrix1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,microsc4 ,soc41 #ahha1 ,vol4 ,,xxi41 p4 #a4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,rem$ial ,,measures4 ,prev5tible diseases--,! pr9ciples ( !rapeutics--,p[d]s & _! application--,spray+ ) liquids--,nature ( *emicals employ$--,employm5t ( epidemics & natural *ecks--,! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,x may be said t 9 no connection is ! prov]b ,prev5tion is bett] ?an cure m applicable ?an ) ?is subject1 & und\bt$ly ! be/ utilit>ian argum5t t c be us$ 9 fav\r ( a ?or\gh /udy ( ! causes ( disease is t only by und]/&+ ^! causes is !re any hope ( avoid+ ! exposure ( crops1 g>d5 plants1 =e/ trees1 etc41 to ! attacks ( prev5tible diseases4 ,moreov]1 only an intellig5t appreciation ( ! causes ( a disease w enable ! cultivator to take /eps to mitigate _! effects :5 once ! damage has begun its c\rse4 ,e cultivator le>ns by exp]i5ce or by precept t !re are "s ?+s he mu/ avoid 9 deal+ ) c]ta9 plants1 or o!rwise !y w n succe$2 9 o!r words !y w succumb to diseas$ conditions & die4 ,x is p>tly ow+ to ! want ( sy/ematisation ( ?is k1 & its ext5sion 9 o!r directions1 t su* extraord9>y blund]s are made 9 ignorant practice1 & trees = in/ance are plant$ 9 l[-ly+ fro/ b$s :i* w\ld succe$ 9 slightly high] situations1 or se$s subject to damp+-(f are s[n 9 b$s rife ) ! spores ( ,p]onospora or ,py?ium1 & s =?4 ,_m diseases1 h[ev]1 are n prev5tible 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 or prevail+ conditions are su* t ! risk mu/ be run ( endemic diseases gradually becom+ epidemic1 & ?us ! natural desire = "s means ( *eck+ ! ravages ( "s pe/ or ano!r has l$ to innum]able trials to m9imise ! effects by prophylactic measures4 ,! proc$ure almo/ inv>iably foll[$ :]e p>asites are conc]n$1 consi/s 9 ei!r du/+ ! plants ) "s *emical 9 ! =m ( a p[d]1 or spray+ x ) a liquid1 or occasionally 9 envelop+ ! plant 9 "s gas1 9 ea* case poison\s to ! insect- or fungus-pe/4 ,! pr9cipal rules to be obs]v$ are3 7#a7 ! poison employ$ mu/ be suffici5tly /rong or conc5trat$ to kill ! p>asite1 b n suffici5tly p[]ful to injure ! ho/2 7#b7 x mu/ be appli$ at ! "r p]iod1 z sugge/$ by a k ( ! life-hi/ory ( ! fungus or insect 9 "q4 ,obvi\sly x is ( no use to apply su* topical rem$ies to a p>asite :ile x is sp5d+ ! great] "p ( its life inside ! tissues ( ! ho/4 ,fur!r1 que/ions ( exp5se ( ! mat]ials employ$ & ( ! lab\r ( apply+ !m help to limit ! adoption ( su* measures4 ,among ! v>i\s k9ds ( p[d]s employ$1 f9ely divid$ sulphur1 or a mixture ( sulphur & lime1 h be5 us$ ) success 9 "s cases--e4g4 aga9/ ,hop mildew & o!r epiphytic ,erysipheae1 & aga9/ r$ spid]1 aphides1 etc41 ! gase\s sulphur dioxide evolv$ be+ ! efficaci\s ag5t4 ,9 o!r cases pyre?rum or tobacco p[d]1 wood a%es1 etc41 h be5 employ$ aga9/ insects4 ,su* p[d]s are appli$ by h& or by means ( bell[s1 & are v easily manipulat$ 9 mo/ cases1 ?\gh1 l all su* applications1 ! dang]s ( conc5tration at p>ticul> spots ow+ to unev5 di/ribution1 or ( dilution & wa%+ (f by ra91 h to be incurr$4 ,f> m num]\s are ! v>i\s liquids :i* h be5 employ$ = wa%+1 spray+1 or /eep+ ! affect$ p>ts ( diseas$ plants4 ,wat] alone1 or aque\s decoctions or emulsions ( v>i\s k9ds--e4g41 quassia1 tobacco1 soap1 or aloes1 h be5 widely employ$ aga9/ insects su* z gre5 fly1 r$ spid]1 etc4 ,9 gre5h\ses1 :]e ! leaves c be wa%$ by h& or ?or\ghly syr+$1 & ! conc5tration & "t ( action ?or\ghly controll$1 su* liquids are (t5 s]viceable1 b great practical difficulties are apt to int]f]e ) _! use 9 ! op5 field4 ,! pr9cipal liquids employ$ aga9/ fungi h be5 copp] sulphate & o!r metallic comp\nds 7,bordeaux mixture1 ,eau ,cele/e1 etc471 v>i\s comp\nds ( ars5ic 7e4g4 ,p>is gre571 potassium sulphite1 p]manganate1 etc41 & emulsions ( c>bolic acid1 petroleum1 & su* l antiseptics1 = ! exact composition ( :i* ! special treatises mu/ be consult$4 ,"s ( ^!1 especially ,bordeaux mixture1 h be5 exp]im5t$ ) on a v l>ge scale1 especially 9 ,am]ica1 & v>i\s =ms ( spray+ ma*9es h be5 introduc$ = deal+ ) l>ge areas4 ,x is cle> t ^! spray+ op]ations are m p>ticul>ly adapt$ to field crops su* z ,turnips1 ,hops1 ,v9es1 ,potatoes1 & to g>d5 & gre5h\se plants ?an to woods & plantations2 z a rule !y _c be appli$ to =e/ trees--?\gh !y h be5 us$ 9 or*>ds--or to roots1 se$s1 & o!r p>ts 9 ! soil1 & _m special =ms ( treatm5t h be5 devis$ = p>ticul> cases ( ^! k9ds4 ,"o ( ! olde/ ( ^! is ! /eep+ ( gra9 9 solutions ( copp]1 or 9 hot wat]1 j be=e s[+1 & ! practical eradication ( ,bunt &1 p>tially1 ( ,smut is due to ?is practice1 :i* has lately be5 adapt$ to potatoes1 ! pr9ciple be+ t ! p>asitic g]ms %all be kill$ :ile /ill adh]+ to ! outside ( ! se$s1 tub]s1 etc41 be=e g]m9ation4 ,f+] & ,toe due to ,plasmodiophora has be5 successfully dealt ) by ! application ( lime1 b we d n "k :e!r ! effect is ow+ to indirect actions 9 ! soil1 to direct actions on ! plasmodia1 or to ! increas$ production ( root-hairs induc$ by lim+4 ,phyllox]a has be5 treat$ by plung+ into ! soil ne> ! roots small blocks ( "s sl[ly-soluble m$ium1 su* z gelat9e1 impregnat$ ) c>bon-bisulphide1 ! volatile fumes ( :i* kill ! insect1 & ev5 m dra/ic rem$ies h be5 tri$ along simil> l9es4 ,9 ,am]ica or*>d trees infe/$ ) insects or fungi h be5 cov]$ "o by "o ) light t5ts1 & ! vap\rs ( prussic acid1 burn+ sulphur1 & o!r poisons all[$ to act inside ! t5t4 ,9 all su* cases x mu/ be rememb]$ t uncontroll$ ignorance ( ! prop]ties ( poisons on ! "p ( ! op]ator may lead to disa/]1 & ! same applies to ! mu* easi] treatm5t ( gre5h\ses1 & cases :]e poison$ food is laid ab\t = insects or v]m94 ,attempts1 n altoge!r unsuccessful on ! small scale1 h also be5 made to introduce epidemic diseases among rats1 mice1 & locu/s & o!r insects1 by inoculat+ "s ( !m ) p>asitic bact]ia or fungi 7,empusa1 ,is>ia1 etc471 & !n all[+ !m to run loose 9 ! hope t !y w communicate ! disease to _! fell[s4 ,! introduction ( lady-birds into di/ricts infe/$ ) ,coccideae & simil> pe/s :i* !y dev\r1 is also record$ z successful1 z also ! importation ( birds into =e/s plagu$ ) cat]pill>s4 ,x mu/ n be ov]-look$1 h[ev]1 t man's int]f]5ce ) ! exi/+ balance ( ev5ts 9 ! natural /ruggle = exi/5ce is occasionally disa/r\s1 z witness ! results ( import+ rabbits into ,au/ralia1 goats into ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 & sp>r[s 9 v>i\s c\ntries4 ,d>w9's well-kn[n illu/ration ( ! int]-relations betwe5 clov]1 bees1 field-mice1 & cats 7,orig4 ( ,species1 #f? ed41 #ahgf1 p4 #eg71 :i* %[s ! a/\nd+ probability ( ! dep5d5ce ( su* a plant on ! numb] ( cats 9 ! neighb\rhood1 well illu/rates ! situation4 ,m]e m5tion mu/ be made ( o!r special treatm5ts4 ,cat]pill>s & l>g] animals are (t5 pick$ by h& or _! natural enemies--e4g4 birds1 are enc\rag$ 9 =e/s4 ,locu/s are caught 9 nets1 tr5*es1 etc41 & buri$4 ,woodlice1 slugs1 etc41 are (t5 trapp$ by lay+ attractive food su* z c>rots & ov]haul+ ! traps daily3 simil>ly ) e>wigs4 ,r+s ( t> r\nd tree /ems h be5 employ$ to prev5t cat]pill>s creep+ up !m4 ,am]ican ,blight has be5 treat$ by rapidly flam+ ! /ems4 ,syr++ ) hot wat] has also be5 employ$ = v9es affect$ ) mildew1 mealy bug1 etc4 ,) reg>d to ! alleg$ immunity f dev\r+ insects ( c]ta9 poison\s plants1 x has be5 po9t$ out t ,pangium edule1 :i* ab\nds 9 prussic acid1 is infe/$ ) a grub1 & ivy is occasionally eat5 by cat]pill>s4 ,ano!r po9t z reg>ds insect pe/s is ! well-kn[n de/ructive effect ( a cold1 wet spr+ on ! "y l>vae4 ,! use ( cyanide ( potassium requires especial c>e1 b has be5 describ$ z easily c>ri$ out ) success 9 gre5h\ses4 ,x seems probable t lady-birds1 ! l>vae ( wasp-flies & lace-w+s1 & i*neumon-flies z well z wr5s c keep d[n aphides4 ,= an example ( ! treatm5t ( a complex case ( *lorosis ) m9]al manures1 ! read] may consult ! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle1 #ahii 7,july71 p4 #dje4 ,_m simil> cases h be5 record$1 b x %\ld n be ov]look$ t v complex int]-relations are "h involv$4 ,*>lock has be5 successfully dealt ) by apply+ #e lbs4 ( copp] sulphate 9 #be gallons ( wat] to ea* acre ( l& :ile ! we$s are "y4 ,9 all ^! cases ! guid+ idea is d]iv$ f accurate k ( ! habits ( ! insect1 fungus1 or pe/ conc]n$1 & obvi\sly ! proc$ure mu/ be tim$ accord+ly4 ,x is a p>ticul> case ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 :]e man /eps 9 z a ?ird & 7s to speak7 unexpect$ liv+ ag5t4 ,x is cle> f our /udy ( ! factors ( an epidemic t "o ( ! prim>y conditions :i* fav\r ! spread ( any disease is provid$ by gr[+ any crop cont9u\sly 9 pure culture ov] l>ge areas4 ,?is is suffici5tly exemplifi$ by ! disa/r\s spread ( su* diseases z ,:eat-ru/1 ,l>*-disease1 ,potato-disease1 ,phyllox]a1 ,hop-disease1 ,sug>-cane disease1 ,c(fee-leaf disease1 & num]\s o!r maladies :i* h n[ become hi/oric 9 agricultural1 plant+1 & =e/ annals4 ,provid+ ! fav\rite food-supply 9 l>ge quantities is n ! only factor ( an epidemic1 b x is a mo/ important "o 9 t x n only facilitates ! gr[? & reproduction ( a pe/1 b af=ds x e opportunity ( spread+ rapidly & widely4 ,moreov]1 ,nature h]self %[s u t su* pe/s are kept 9 *eck 9 h] doma9 by ! /ruggle = exi/5ce entail$ by innum]able b>ri]s & competitors4 ,z matt] ( exp]i5ce also x is f\nd t rotation ( crops1 plant+ =e/s ( mix$ species1 & break+ up l>ge areas ( cultivation into plantations1 fields1 etc41 ( diff]5t species af=d natural & (t5 effici5t *ecks to ! ravages ( fungus & insect pe/s4 ,ov] & ov] aga9 x has be5 f\nd t a fungus or an insect :i* is m]ely endemic s long z x is isolat$ 9 ! =e/1 :]e its ho/ is sep>at$ f o!r plants ( ! same species by o!r plants :i* x _c attack1 becomes epidemic :5 let loose on ! cont9u\s acres s belov$ ( ! plant]4 ,& ! same reason+ applies to ! success ( su* pe/s on op5 areas f :i* ! birds or o!r enemies ( ! pe/ h be5 driv54 ,true1 we _c always trace ! tangl$ ske9 ( int]-relation%ips betwe5 "o organism & ano!r 9 ,nature3 ! recognition ( ! pr9ciple ( natural selection & ! /ruggle = exi/5ce is too rec5t1 & our /udies ( natural hi/ory z yet too imp]fect to lay all ! factors cle>1 b no obs]vant & ?\ghtful man c avoid ! tru? ( ! g5]al pr9ciple "h laid d[n4 ,! hi/ory ( all great plant+ ent]prises tea*es u t he :o und]takes to cultivate any plant cont9u\sly 9 op5 culture ov] l>ge areas mu/ run ! risk ( epidemics4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,! pr9cipal lit]ature1 n[ v volum9\s1 on ?is subject is conta9$ 9 ! publications ( ! ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture f #ahij onw>ds4 ,see especially ,bullet9s1 ,nos4 #c1 #f1 & #i2 ,f>m]s' ,bullet91 ,no4 #ia1 #ahii2 & ,! ,j\rnal ( ,mycology dur+ ! same p]iod4 ,see also ,lodeman1 ,! ,spray+ ( ,plants1 ,london1 #ahif4 ,a summ>y ( ! pr9cipal processes w be f\nd 9 ,massee1 ,text-,book ( ,plant ,diseases1 pp4 #ca-dg4 ,) reg>d to ! hi/ory ( ! subject1 :i* /ill ne$s writ+1 ! read] %\ld n ov]look ,rob]ts1 ,on ! ,!rapeutical ,action ( ,sulphur1 ,/4 ,george's ,hospital ,reports1 date unkn[n1 b subsequ5t to ! foll[+3 ,b]keley1 ,introduction to ,cryptogamic ,botany1 #aheg1 p4 #bgg1 ) ref]5ces4 ,^! are1 ,i believe1 ) ! ref]5ces to /eep+ ( :eat 9 ,de ,b>y1 ,unt]s4 ueb] d4 ,br&pilze1 ,b]l91 #ahec1 among ! fir/ attempts to utilise su* rem$ies4 ,fur!r facts w be f\nd 9 ! pages ( ! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle1 especially s9ce #ahij1 & 9 ,zeits*4 f4 ,pflanz5-krankheit5 s9ce #ahia4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,v>iation ,,& ,,disease4 ,pr$isposition & immunity--,pa?ological conditions v>y--,h>dy v>ieties--,disease-pro( v>ieties--,disease dodg+--,?ick sk9s--,indian :eats1 etc4 ,cell-cont5ts v>y--,citrus1 ,c9*ona1 ,almonds1 etc4 ,d\ble ideals 9 selection--,cultivation ( pe/ & ho/-plant--,v>iations ( fungi--,bact]ia--,specialis$ races--,difficulties--,exp]im5t only w solve ! problems4 ,! num]\s & (t5 exp5sive failures 9 ! application ( any prophylactic treatm5t1 h prov$ an acute /imulus to ! rese>* = o!r ways ( combat+ ! ravages ( plant diseases4 ,x is a matt] ( e-day exp]i5ce t p>ticul> v>ieties ( cultivat$ plants may suff] less f a giv5 disease ?an o!rs 9 ! same di/rict2 also t "o & ! same species may suff] badly 9 "o c\ntry & n 9 ano!r--e4g4 ! ,l>* 9 ! l[l&s ( ,europe z contra/$ ) ! same tree 9 its ,alp9e home1 & ! v>i\s species ( ,am]ican ,v9es 9 ,europe4 ,^! matt]s1 9 ! h&s ( a/ute obs]v]s1 are turn+ ! att5tion ( cultivators & exp]ts to new aspects ( ! "q ( plant diseases1 namely1 ! possible exi/5ce ( immunity1 & ! bre$+ ( disease-pro( v>ieties2 & ! exi/5ce on ! "p ( ! ho/ plant ( pr$ispositions to disease :i* may dep5d on "s factors 9 ! plant or 9 ! environm5t ov] :i* x is possible to ex]cise control1 or :i*1 if kn[n1 c be avoid$4 ,! matt] is complicat$ by ! rec5t demon/ration ( ! fact t p>asites also v>y & c adapt !mselves to alt]$ conditions1 z is %[n by ! hi/ory ( ! c(fee-leaf disease 7,hemileia7 9 ,ceylon1 & by ,eriksson's results ) ,:eat-ru/s 7,pucc9ia7 & v>i\s exp]im5ts ) ,coleosporium & o!r ,ur$9eae2 b !re are good gr\nds = conclud+ t hybridisation1 graft+1 & selection ( v>ieties may d mu* t[>ds ! e/abli%m5t ( races :i* w resi/ p>ticul> diseases1 z %[n by ,mill>det's exp]im5ts ) ,v9es1 & ! results obta9$ by ,cobb & o!rs ) ,:eat4 ,! great difficulty ) s-call$ disease-pro( v>ieties is to te/ !m "u simil> conditions 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & = a suffici5t p]iod ( "t4 ,a p>ticul> race ( ,:eat may behave v diff]5tly 9 ,norfolk1 ,devon%ire1 & ,nor?umb]l&1 & ! rec5t introduction ( ! purely exp]im5tal me?od 9 ?is connection is a m>k$ advance4 ,h[ev] r\gh ! exp]im5ts may ( necessity h to be1 x is only by su* means t data c be gradually accumulat$4 ,hav+ n[ obta9$ "s insight into ! factors conc]n$ 9 disease1 let u enquire fur!r into ! be>+ ( v>iation on ^!4 ,x is evid5t t pa?ological conditions may v>y2 inde$ !y are !mselves symptoms ( v>iation1 z we h se54 ,! hi/ory ( all our cultivat$ plants %[s abundantly t _m ( ! v>iations obta9$ by bre$+ 9 our g>d5s1 or*>ds1 fields1 etc41 involve diff]5ces ( response on ! "p ( ! plant to ! v ag5cies :i* induce disease4 ,e ye> ! flori/s' catalogues (f] new h>dy v>ieties2 b a h>dy v>iety is simply1 = our pres5t purpose1 "o :i* succumbs less readily to fro/1 cutt+ w9ds1 cold damp wea!r1 & s =?4 ,if anyone d\bts t h>dy v>ieties h be5 gradually br$ by selection1 ,i ref] him to ! evid5ce collect$ by ,de ,c&olle1 ,d>w91 ,wallace1 ,bailey & o!rs4 ,:5 we come to enquire into ! causes ( h>d9ess1 h[ev]1 difficulties at once beset u4 ,! adaptation may express itself 9 a diff]5ce 9 ! "t ( fl[]+ or leaf+1 ! exig5cies ( ! season be+ dodg$1 z x 71 9 a mann] :i* 0 impossible ) ! orig9al /ock1 z appe>s to h occurr$ ) ,pea*es 9 ,am]ica2 or x may be express$ 9 deep] root+1 z is said to be ! case 9 "s ,apples1 or 9 ! acquirem5t ( a m decidu\s habit1 or 9 actually increas$ resi/ance to l[ temp]atures4 ,9 su* cases we _c trace :at alt]ations h occurr$ 9 ! cells & tissues conc]n$1 ?\gh we may be sure t "s *anges d occur4 ,no exp]i5c$ cultivator d\bts t "s v>ieties ( ,potato1 ,:eat1 ,v9e1 ,*rysan!mum1 etc41 suff] m f epidemic diseases ?an o!rs1 & our ye>ly catalogues furni% u ) pl5ty ( promises ( disease-pro( v>ieties4 ,"h also we may imag9e sev]al ways 9 :i* a p>ticul> v>iety may resi/ or escape ! epidemic attacks ( fungi :i* 9 ! same neighb\rhood decimate o!r v>ieties4 ,if we c\ld bre$ a v>iety ( ! ,l>* :i* op5$ its buds lat] ?an ! ord9>y =m 9 our nor!rn pla9s1 ! probability ( its escap+ ! ,l>*-disease w\ld be increas$ 9 proportion to ! %ortness ( ! p]iod ( t5d] foliation describ$ on p4 #aec4 ,x has be5 claim$ = c]ta9 v>ieties ( ,:eat t increas$ ?ickness ( ! cuticle & few] /omata p] squ>e unit ( surface h dim9i%$ ! risk ( infection by ,ru/ fungi1 & = c]ta9 v>ieties ( ,potato1 t ! ?ick] p]id]m ( ! tub] protects !m aga9/ fungi 9 ! soil4 ,t c]ta9 ?ick-sk9n$ ,apples1 ,tomatoes1 & ,plums pack & /ore bett] ?an ^? ) a m t5d] epid]mis seems prov$--t is to say1 !y suff] less f fungi :i* ga9 access ?r\gh bruises & o!r w\nds2 b x _c be said t any conv9c+ pro( is yet to h& expla9+ 9 detail :y "s races ( :eat resi/ ,ru/1 or :y ! roots ( ,am]ican ,v9es suff] less f ,phyllox]a ?an o!rs4 ,"o ( ! mo/ extraord9>y cases kn[n to me 9 ?is connection is ! unconsci\s selection on ! "p ( native ,indian cultivators1 p]fectly ignorant ( ! pr9ciples involv$1 ( spr+ & autumn =ms ( ,rice1 ,:eat1 ,ca/or ,oil1 ,sug> ,cane1 ,cotton1 & o!r crops4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ,b5gal alone possesses z _m z #aj1jjj recognisable =ms ( rice4 ,n[ !re is n ! slighte/ gr\nd = d\bt t ^! h be5 unconsci\sly br$ f ! semi-aquatic native species dur+ ! _m c5turies ( ,indian agriculture1 & nev]!less !y h1 among o!r peculi> races1 "s hill-bre$s :i* !y cultivate on dry soils & )\t direct inundation4 ,t is to say1 !y possess tropical & temp]ate races diff]+ f> m ?an our spr+ & summ] :eats4 ,some?+ has be5 ga9$1 !n1 if we c %[ t !re is no?+ absurd or hopeless 9 ! se>* = disease-pro( or resi/ant races1 & ,i ?9k ?is c be done4 ,we mu/ n =get t ! ideal usually set be=e himself by a bre$] ( plants has hi!rto be5 almo/ exclusively "s /&>d ( size1 =m1 col\r+1 & s =?1 ( ! fl[]1 or ( ta/e & texture ( ! fruit1 tub]1 etc41 ?\gh exp]im5ts ) ,c9*ona1 ) brew]y yea/s1 & o!r plants rem9d u t v>iations 9 o!r directions h be5 att5d$ to also4 ,n[ x is obvi\s t 9 bre$+ s\r limes & sweet oranges ! cultivator is select+1 & int5sify+ by selection1 v diff]5t metabolic processes 9 ! cell3 he c te/ ! results ( ^!1 & s ! selection proce$s4 ,! "q is1 ,c\ld he select at ! same "t ^? v>iations 9 cell activity :i* express !mselves 9 prop]ties ( ! fl[]1 fruit1 foliage1 etc41 he desires1 z well z su* v>iations z aid ! cells 9 repell+ fungi1 insects1 or exig5cies ( ! non-liv+ environm5t8 ,t m or less disease-pro( v>ieties c\ld be select$ if t object alone 7 kept 9 view c h>dly be d\bt$2 pl5ty ( examples exi/ already :i* %[ t ! necess>y v>iations to "w ^u exi/ 9 j ^? secretions ( protoplasm1 etc41 :i* we h se5 are conc]n$ 9 repell+ or attract+ p>asites4 ,! ,sweet ,almond has lo/ ! p[] ( produc+ amygdal9 & prussic acid 9 its cells2 ,c9*ona plants v>y imm5sely 9 ! quantity ( qu99e =m$1 & 9 ,european hot-h\ses may ev5 =m none at all2 "s v>ieties ( ,maize h sug> & dextr9e in/ead ( />* 9 _! endosp]ms1 or col\r$ in/ead ( cle> sap 9 ! aleurone lay]1 & rec5t rese>*es prove t !y c transmit ^! peculi>ities to hybrid (fspr+2 non-poison\s bact]ia h frequ5tly be5 got f poison\s species simply by cultivation "u special conditions1 & pigm5t$ =ms c be br$ into non-pigm5t$ races4 ,b we see t ! difficulty ( selection is increas$ 9 ! case po/ulat$ above1 because two ideals are to be work$ up to1 & !y may conceivably be incompatible4 ,n necess>ily s1 h[ev]1 = bre$]s h solv$ su* problems be=e 9 obta9+ e>ly & heavy cropp+ races ( potatoes1 :eat1 etc41 sweet & l>ge grapes1 /rawb]ries1 etc41 h>dy & brilliant fl[]s1 & s =?4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r aspect ( ?is "q ( v>iability 9 organisms 9 ?is connection to be consid]$4 ,ev] s9ce cultivation began man has probably be5 cultivat+ n only ! crops he desires1 b also ! pe/s :i* infe/ !m1 & if v>iation ( 8 *os5 plants occurs--& no "o w d5y t--surely v>iation ( ! fungi & insects :i* live on !m also takes place4 ,t ?is is s c be demon/rat$1 ?\gh1 s9ce x is n "p ( my !me to g into ! "q ( peculi>ities ( species & races ( p>asites1 ! subject mu/ "h be pass$ ov] ) a few rem>ks only4 ,rec5t rese>*es h %[n n only t fungi v>y imm5sely 9 =m & morphological *>act]s accord+ to ! am\nt & k9d ( food-mat]ials put at _! disposal1 ?us br++ ! :ole "q ( polymorphism into ! doma9 ( exp]im5tal physiology1 b t _! capacities = infection1 spore =mation1 etc41 are also capable ( v>iation & are dep5d5t on ! quality & quantity ( food supplies1 wat]1 z well z on ! temp]ature1 illum9ation1 & o!r factors ( ! environm5t4 ,?is is true ( p>asites z well z ( saprophytes4 ,botrytis =ms conidia only 9 d>kness & 9 moi/ air4 ,klebahn f\nd t a ,pucc9ia gr[+ on ,digraphis infect$ ,polygonatum readily & completely1 ,convall>ia imp]fectly1 :]eas if s[n on ,majan!mum x only j infect$ ! plant & !n rema9$ /]ile1 :ile x refus$ to infect ,p>is at all4 ,magnus has %[n t ,p]onospora p>asitica c only infect m]i/ematic tissues1 & t :5 x co-exi/s ) ,cy/opus on ,capsella1 z is usually ! case1 x ent]s ! latt] plant by infect+ ! gall-l pu/ules ( hyp]trophi$ tissue induc$ by t p>asite4 ,num]\s p>asitic fungi c only p5etrate p>ticul> p>ts ( plants4 ,= in/ance1 ! ,u/ilago ( :eat c only infect ! "y se$l+1 & gr[s = weeks z a b>r5 mycelium1 only becom+ a dom9ant fungus 9 ! endosp]m4 ,num]\s o!r examples c\ld be giv51 b ^! suffice to %[ "s ( ! ways 9 :i* ! nature ( ! food sub/ratum suppli$ by ! ho/ affects ! fungus4 ,x is obvi\s t if ! nature ( ?is food *anges1 ! fungus is also affect$1 & no d\bt ?is is ! pr9cipal reason :y ,ru/-fungi1 = in/ance1 v>y s mu* 9 _! vig\r & reproductive p[] on diff]5t :eats & grasses1 ?\gh ! o!r factors ( ! environm5t mu/ also be ( influ5ce on !m z well z on ! ho/s4 ,b--& ?is is ! second po9t--mod]n rese>* is also %[+ t ! v>i\s species ( ,ru/-fungi h split up into diff]5t v>ieties or specialis$ races1 accord+ to ! p>ticul> ho/ plants !y inhabit4 ,= in/ance !re are special v>ieties or races ( ! p>ticul> species kn[n z ,pucc9ia gram9is1 ! :eat ru/1 ea* ( :i* gr[s well on v>i\s k9ds ( gra9 & grasses b refuses to infect o!rs4 ,?us1 ! v>iety :i* infects ,:eat refuses to infect ,b>ley or ,oats1 :ile t v>iety :i* gr[s on ,rye w n take on ,:eat & s =?4 ,n[ x is important to notice t ^! specialis$ races are indi/+ui%able "o f ano!r by _! visible microscopic *>act]s3 !y are all botanically ( ! species ,pucc9ia gram9is :i* =ms its aecida on ! ,b>b]ry4 ,we mu/ !re=e conclude t we h "h ! same ph5om5on z t met ) 9 culture-races ( bact]ia :i*1 hav+ be5 f$ = sev]al g5]ations on m$ia ri* 9 proteids1 refuse to gr[ on m$ia ri* 9 c>bohydrates1 or :5 att5uat$ races are develop$ by culture "u special conditions4 ,n[ s9ce su* physiological races z ,i h describ$ are by no means conf9$ to ,pucc9ia b are also kn[n 9 ,melampsora1 ,gymnosporangium & o!r fungi1 we mu/ conclude f ?is & f :at we "k ( v>iation 9 plants & animals g5]ally1 t v>iation & adaptation are common among p>asites1 insects z well z fungi4 ,^! consid]ations w s]ve to %[ moreov] t ! "q ( bre$+ disease-pro( v>ieties ( our cultivat$ plants is complicat$ by ! dang] ( our bre$+ at ! same "t adapt$ races ( _! pe/s4 ,x appe>s at fir/ sight extremely improbable t we %\ld escape ! dang] by bre$+ f ^? specim5s ( our plants :i* h be/ surviv$ a fungus epidemic4 ,/ill1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t h>dy v>ieties1 & races adapt$ to o!r exig5cies ( ! non-liv+ environm5t1 h be5 br$ by selection--& nev]!less ?is v>iable non-liv+ environm5t is always ) u4 ,! matt] is !re=e simply & solely "o ( exp]im5t1 & ! retort t a disease-resi/+ v>iety ( any p>ticul> plant has n yet be5 rais$ is no m valid ?an ! objection t a true blue primrose has n yet be5 obta9$3 :e!r ! same rem>k c be made ) reg>d to any hope ( a disease-pro( plant may be ano!r matt]1 b 9 any case x mu/ be made m cauti\sly 9 ! light ( our pres5t exp]i5ce4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,! read] w f9d m on ?is subject 9 ,bailey's ,survival ( ! ,unlike & ! lit]ature quot$ 9 ! notes to ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,= v>ieties ( ,indian ,:eats1 etc41 see ,watt1 ,agricultural ,l$g]1 ,calcutta1 #ahie4 ,= a discussion on s-call$ ,disease-pro( ,:eats consult ,eriksson ,h5n+1 ,die ,getreid]o/e4 ,magnus' pap] is 9 ! ,b]i*te d] ,deuts*5 bot4 ,gesells*41 #ahid1 p4 #ci4 ,conc]n+ physiological races & adapt$ v>ieties ( ,pucc9ia1 etc41 see ,eriksson1 ,a ,g5]al ,view ( ! ,pr9cipal ,results ( ,sw$i% ,rese>* into ,gra9 ,ru/1 ,botanical ,gazette1 vol4 #be1 #ahih1 p4 #bf4 ,= an acc\nt ( ,:eat-ru/ see ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,illu/rations ( ! ,/ructure & ,life-hi/ory ( ,pucc9ia gram9is1 etc41 ,ann4 ( ,bot41 #ahhh1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bae4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,symptoms ,,( ,,disease4 ,discolorations--,pallor--,etiolation--, lay+ ( ,:eat-- ,*lorosis--,yell[+--,alb9ism--,v>iegatio n--,uproot+1 ,exposure & ,wilt+ ( se$l+s4 ,ev]ybody kn[s 9 a g5]al way :5 ! g]aniums 9 ! w9d[ pots are droop+ f want ( wat]1 or :5 ! "y ,:eat is sickly1 or ! ,pe>-trees blight$1 & we h n[ to see h[ f> we c sy/ematise ! k t has be5 ga9$ 9 c\rse ( "t reg>d+ ! signs :i* sick plants exhibit4 ,pallor4--,"u ?is head+1 :i* includes all cases :]e ! normal heal?y gre5 col\r is replac$ by a g5]al sickly yell[ or pale hue1 ultimately result+ 9 dea? ( ! p>ts if n arre/$1 we h sev]al totally di/9ct diseases ( ! *lorophyll app>atus1 ea* recognis$ by ! co-exi/5ce ( o!r subord9ate symptoms4 ,! pr9cipal v>ieties ( pallor usually met ) are ! foll[+3 ,etiolation is due to insuffici5t int5sity ( light1 ! pale sickly yell[ organs be+ unusually wat]y & defici5t 9 vascul> tissue1 ! int]nodes abnormally long & ?91 & ! leaves g5]ally r$uc$ 9 size1 or1 9 "s plants also drawn4 ,=c$ ,endive1 ,rhub>b1 ,asp>agus1 & e>!d ,cel]y af=d examples ( etiolation purposely induc$4 ,! want ( light causes ! true *lorophyll col\r+ matt] to rema9 9 abeyance1 & consequ5tly ! plant z a :ole suff]s f c>bohydrate />vation4 ,lay+ ( ,:eat & o!r c]eals is a p>ticul> case ( etiolation4 ,! se$s hav+ be5 s[n too ?ickly1 ! bases ( ! haulms1 ow+ to ! etiolation & consequ5t lack ( c>bohydrates1 suff] f want ( /iff5+ tissues1 & ! top-heavy plants fall ov]4 ,false etiolation dep5ds on a simil> abeyance ( ! *lorophyll1 b 9 ?is case due to too l[ a temp]ature4 ,x is (t5 se5 9 ,:eat & o!r monocotyl$ons :5 ! "y leaves unfold 9 cold wea!r 9 spr+4 ,! symptoms ( draw+ & t5d]ness are h[ev] abs5t4 ,pallor due to too int5se illum9ation mu/ be kept %>ply di/9ct f etiolation1 ! pale gre5 or yell[ hue be+ "h due to ! de/ruction ( ! *lorophyll by insolation1 & ! accessory symptoms ( draw+ are want+4 ,*lorosis is a =m ( pallor :]e ! *lorophyll gra9s !mselves are fully develop$1 b _! gre5 pigm5t rema9s 9 abeyance ow+ to a defici5cy ( iron 9 ! soil1 & c (t5 be cur$ by add+ traces ( a f]r\s salt4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ,ict]us1 :]e ! organs are only yell[1 & ,*lorosis prop]1 :]e !y are ne>ly :ite _c always be ma9ta9$4 ,9 ! typical case only ^? organs ^: cells are /ill "y c become gre5 on add+ iron4 ,yell[+ or ,false ,*lorosis may be exp]im5tally induc$ by too mu* c>bon-dioxide 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x also (t5 ensues :5 ! roots ( plants 9 ! op5 are wat]logg$1 ow+ to ! /agnant wat] n only driv+ air f ! root-hairs b accumulat+ dissolv$ sub/ances :i* poison ! plant4 ,trees frequ5tly ?us suff] f wet feet :5 _! roots h p5etrat$ d[n to a sodd5 imp]vi\s subsoil4 ,yell[+ accompani$ by ,wilt+ is a pr$om9ant symptom 9 mo/ cases :]e transpiration is m active ?an root-absorption beyond a c]ta9 limit1 z is well kn[n 9 cases ( prolong$ dr\ght4 ,x may also be caus$ 9 ev]gre5s by ! foliage transpir+ actively 9 bright ,janu>y wea!r1 = in/ance1 :ile ! gr\nd is froz5 & ! *ill$ root-hairs _c absorb4 ,9 o!r cases simil> appe>ances are traceable to insects dev\r+ ! roots1 e4g4 wireworms1 & ! malady is sometimes enhanc$ by _! accumulations s f\l+ ! wet soil t ! roots die (f1 ow+ to want ( oxyg5 & to ! excess ( c>bon-dioxide & poison\s matt]s4 ,yell[+ may also result f ! pres5ce ( poison\s or acid gases 9 ! atmosph]e or soil1 su* z *lor9e1 hydro*loric acid1 sulphur\s acid1 etc41 9 ! neighb\rhood ( *emical works1 or f ! escape ( coal-gas 9 /reets1 etc41 po9ts ( importance 9 connection ) ! use ( fungicides & insecticides4 ,yell[ness is ! prevail+ symptom 9 _m cases ( fungus attack ( ! roots or coll> ( ! plant1 ! result+ /oppage ( transpiration be+ also sometimes supplem5t$ by rott+ ( ! roots1 & ! consequ5t deprival ( oxyg5 & accumulation ( f\l gases4 ,9 o!r cases ,fungi1 & ev5 ,bact]ia1 h be5 f\nd to h made _! way into ! pr9cipal vessels1 ! lum9a ( :i* !y /op up1 ?us r$uc+ ! transpiration curr5t4 ,c]ta9 insects may also induce a g5]al yell[+ & wilt+ ( plants by ent]+ or de/roy+ ! tissues conc]n$ 9 ! transpiration--e4g4 ,oniscus1 ! ,frit ,fly1 & ,cecidomya1 ! ,hessian ,fly1 :i* attack "y w9t] :eat )9 ! %ea?s & cause ! plants to turn yell[ & wilt4 ,alb9ism & ,v>iegation are app>5tly due to causes totally diff]5t f any yet m5tion$4 ,*ur*'s analyses h %[n t alb9o leaves conta9 m wat] & less organic matt] ?an gre5 ones ( ! same plants1 b n necess>ily less a% con/itu5ts4 ,! composition ( ! a% po9ts to !re be+ m pota% & less lime 9 ! :ite organs ?an 9 ! gre5 ones1 &1 speak+ g5]ally1 ! =m] are relat$ to ! latt] mu* z "y leaves are relat$ to mature ones4 ,! :ole matt] is complicat$ by ! behavi\r ( c]ta9 v>iegat$ plants--e4g4 ,ribbon grass1 ,calla1 ,abutilon1 :i* are usually reg>d$ z p>tial alb9os4 ,mey5 %[$ long ago t su* v>iegat$ plants1 if graft$ on gre5 ones1 may induce ! developm5t ( v>iegat$ leaves on bo? scion & /ock1 & ,morr5 & o!rs h n only confirm$ ?is b h also %[n t v>iegation may be inh]it$ ?r\gh ! se$4 ,nev]!less "s c>e has to be tak5 ) _m ( ^! v>iegations le/ ri* soil1 bright light1 & o!r fav\rable treatm5t fav\r ! re/itution ( ! gre5 col\r4 ,^! facts may be int]pret$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,"s di/urbance ( physiological functions ( ! roots1 due to unfav\rable conditions ( soil1 may be ! cause2 b ,beij]9ck has lately publi%$ "s results :i* %[ t "s ( ^! alb9o diseases c be induc$ by inoculat+ normal plants ) ! juice ( spott$ ones ev5 ?\gh su* juice has be5 filt]$ ?r\gh porcela91 & concludes t a contagium fluidum vivum ( ! nature ( a transmissible enzyme is ! ag5t :i* di/urbs ! physiology ( ! infect$ cells4 ,kon+1 :ile confirm+ ^! results 9 ! ma91 ref]s !m to a micro-organism s small t x trav]ses ! porcela9 filt]4 ,upheaval ( se$l+s4--,?is is a common =m ( injury1 result+ 9 dea? by dr\ght & exposure1 especially 9 se$l+ p9es1 :eat1 etc41 9 soils expos$ to alt]nate freez+ & ?aw+ dur+ spr+ :5 !re is no sn[ to protect ! plants4 ,! soil freezes dur+ ! night1 & dur+ ! ?aw next day wat] accumulates j bel[ ! surface4 ,! freez+ is !n repeat$1 &1 p>tly ow+ to ! expansion ( ! =m+ ice & p>tly to ! me*anical effect ( ! ice-cry/als 9 ! int]/ices1 ! surface ( ! soil is lift$ & draws ! roots ) x4 ,dur+ ! succe$+ ?aw ! soil p>ticles fall away f ! lift$ root-fibres1 & frequ5t repetition ( ^! processes results 9 su* complete exposure ( ! roots to ! full sun t ! plantlet falls ov] & wilts4 ,exposure ( roots is also sometimes effect$ by w9ds displac+ s&y soils liable to %ift+ 9 dry wea!r1 & ! result+ wilt+ ( ! plants ?us expos$ at _! roots may be supplem5t$ by damage due to ! repeat$ impact ( ! w9d-driv5 %>p gra9s ( s&1 :i* act l a s&-bla/ & erode ! tissues4 ,9 _m ( ! cases giv5 above ! pr9cipal result is ! weak5+ or de/ruction ( ! *lorophyll action4 ,?is means a loss ( c>bohydrates--sug>s1 />*es1 etc4--& 9 s f> a />vation ( ! plant4 ,! injuri\s effects are quantitative & cumulative3 if l>ge areas ( foliage are conc]n$1 or if ! effect la/s a long "t1 ! plant suff]s f loss ( food1 & may die4 ,9 ^? cases :]e ! effect is due to ! cutt+ (f ( supplies at ! roots1 & :]e ! yell[+ is a second>y symptom1 ! disease is m g5]al 9 "*1 & recov]y is (t5 impossible1 because ! loss ( wat] _c be comp5sat$1 & ! results may be fur!r complicat$ by ! gradual p5etration ( poison\s matt] into ! cells4 ,x is frequ5tly necess>y1 ?\gh sometimes v difficult1 to decide :i* is ! prim>y & :i* second>y 7or t]ti>y1 etc47 symptoms 9 ! ord] ( _! importance1 & ! diagnosis may be complicat$ by a numb] ( accessory factors :i* x is impossible to treat g5]ally4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,! pr9cipal cases "h describ$ are dealt ) 9 works on plant physiology1 & 9 ! works ( ,sorau] & ,frank already ref]r$ to4 ,z reg>ds damage due to uproot+ ( se$l+s by fro/1 see ,fi%]1 ,=e/ ,protection 7,engl4 ed4 ( ,hess' ,=/*utz71 9 ,s*li*'s ,manual ( ,=e/ry1 ,vol4 ,,iv41 #ahie1 pp4 #dci-ddb4 ,on ,alb9ism1 see ,*ur*1 ,a ,*emical ,/udy ( ,vegetable ,alb9ism1 ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahgi1 #ahhj1 #ahhf4 ,beij]9ck's results are conta9$ 9 8 pap]1 ,ueb] e9 ,contagium vivum fluidum1 etc4 7) ,engli% ab/ract71 9 ,v]h&l4 d4 ,kon4 ,akad4 v4 ,wet5s*1 te ,am/]dam1 #ahih4 ,kon+'s pap] is 9 ,zeits*r4 f4 ,pflanz5krank41 ,vol4 ,,ix41 #ahii1 p4 #fe4 ,see also ,nature1 ,oct4 #aa1 #aijj1 p4 #egf4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,symptoms ,,( ,,disease 7,cont9u$74 ,spott$ leaves--,! col\rs ( spots--,:ite1 yell[1 br[n1 & black spots on leaves--,p>ti-col\r$ spots--,! br[n+1 etc41 ( leaves4 ,discol\r$ spots or pat*es on ! h]bace\s p>ts ( plants1 especially leaves1 furni% ! prom95t symptoms 9 a l>ge class ( diseases1 due to _m diff]5t causes1 & al?\gh we _c ma9ta9 ?is gr\p ( symptoms %>ply ap>t f ! la/1 z se5 f ! consid]ations on alb9ism1 x is (t5 well m>k$ & ( great diagno/ic value4 ,by f> ! great] numb] ( spot-diseases are due to fungi1 b ?is is by no means always ! case4 ,! mo/ g5]ally useful me?od ( subdivid+ ! classes1 ?\gh artificial l all su* classifications1 w be accord+ to ! col\r ( ! spots or flecks1 :i*1 moreov]1 are usually f\nd on ! leaves4 ,x is necess>y to note1 h[ev]1 t v>i\s conditions may modify ! col\r ( spots on leaves4 ,_m fungi1 = in/ance1 induce diff]5t col\r$ spots accord+ to ! age ( ! leaf or o!r organ attack$1 or accord+ to ! species ( ho/1 ! wea!r1 etc4 ,moreov] ! spots due to ^! p>asites are frequ5tly yell[ :5 "y & "s o!r col\r1 especially br[n or black1 :5 old]4 ,scale is ! "n giv5 to ! *>act]i/ic %ield-l insects 7,mytilaspis1 ,aspidiotus1 etc47 :i* atta* !mselves to bran*es ( ,apples1 ,pe>s1 ,oranges1 ,camellias1 & num]\s o!r plants1 & suck ! juices4 ,x is ! female insect :i* has ! body broad5$ out into ! scale1 "u :i* ! "y are br\ght up4 ,enorm\s damage has be5 done by "s =ms--e4g4 ! ,san ,jose scale 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! sup]ficial resemblances ( ! pat*es ( eggs ( "s ,lepidopt]a to ,aecidia & o!r fungi may be not$ 9 pass+--e4g4 ,bombyx neu/ria on ,apple twigs1 ,aporia ,crataegi4 ,:ite or greyi% spots are ! common symptom m>k+ ! pres5ce ( _m ,p]onosporeae & ,erysipheae 9 or on leaves1 e4g4 ,p]onospora ,trifoliorum1 ,p4 p>asitica on ,crucif]s1 etc41 & ,spha]o!ca on ,hops2 also ,septoria piricola1 ,cy/opus1 ,entyloma ,ranunculi1 etc4 ,:ite spots are also caus$ by insects su* z ,tetrany*us 7r$ spid]7 on ,clov] & o!r plants4 ,yell[1 or ,orange-col\r$ ,spots4 ,9 cases :]e ^! occur on leaves1 & 9 ! case ( grasses1 etc41 on ! leaf %ea?s z well1 !y commonly indicate ! pres5ce ( ,ur$9eae1 & sections "u ! microscope w %[ ! mycelium 9 ! tissues b5ea?4 ,species ( ,uromyces1 ,pucc9ia1 etc41 9 ! ,ur$o /ate h ! spots p[d]y ) spores2 ,aecidia %[ ! *>act]i/ic clu/] cups1 & s =?4 ,^! spots are (t5 slightly pu/ul>1 & 9 "s cases m>k$ly s4 ,o!r fungi also induce yell[ spots on leaves--e4g4 ,phyllo/icta on ,beans1 ,exoascus on ,popl>s1 ,cla/]osporium on ,apricot leaves1 ,syn*ytrium ,succisae on ,c5taurea1 etc4 ,yell[ spots are also a frequ5t symptom ( ! pres5ce ( ,aphides1 ( ,r$ ,spid]1 etc4 ,?us ! m9ute gold5 yell[ spots sometimes cr[d$ on ,oak leaves are due to ,phyllox]a punctures4 ,yell[ pat*es are =m$ on ! l>ge leaves ( ,aris>um by a species ( p>asitic ,alga1 ,phyllosiphon1 :i* lives 9 ! mesophyll4 ,_m tropical leaves are spott$ yell[ by epiphytic ,algae--e4g4 ,cephaleuros4 ,x mu/ be notic$ t _m fungi produce yell[ spots or flecks 9 ! e>li] /ages1 :i* turn br[n or black z ! fructifications appe>1 e4g4 ,dilophia gram9is1 ,rhytisma ac]9um4 ,! yell[-spott$ leaves ( ,f>fugium gr&e 7,s5ecio ,kaempf]i7 are s l ^? ( ,petasites attack$ ) ,aecidium 9 its e>ly /ages1 t an exp]t might be deceiv$ until ! microscopic analysis 0 complet$4 ,r$ spots1 v>y+ f ru/y or foxy r$ to bright crimson1 are ! symptomatic accompanim5t ( sev]al fungi1 ! =m] (t5 *>act]is+ ! teleutospore or aecidium /age ( ,ur$9eae--e4g4 ,aecidium ,grossul>iae--! latt] sometimes indicat+ ! pres5ce ( ,*ytridiaceae4 ,r$ spots are also caus$ by ,gloeosporium ,frag>iae on ,/rawb]ry leaves1 ,poly/igma rubrum on ,plums4 ,crimson spots on ,apple & ,pe> leaves are also due to ,phytoptus3 !y turn br[n lat]4 ,br[n spots or flecks1 v>y+ 9 hue f dull slaty br[n to deep r$ br[ns1 are a common symptom ( ,fungus & ,insect diseases1 ! col\r (t5 indicat+ ! dea? ( ! tissues1 r ?an any special peculi>ity ( ! action ( ! p>asite4 ,good examples are furni%$ by ! ,potato-disease1 & by ,p]onospora viticola1 ,spha]ella vitis & o!r disease-fungi ( ! ,grape ,v9e4 ,! teleutospore /age ( _m ,ur$9eae also occurs 9 deep br[n spots4 ,black spots & flecks are exce$+ly common symptoms ( ! pres5ce ( fungi1 e4g4 ,fusicladium on ,apples & ,pe>s1 & ! pycnidial & ascus /ages ( _m ,ascomycetes--e4g4 ,phylla*ora gram9is4 ,! teleutospore /ages ( species ( ,pucc9ia1 ,phragmidium1 etc41 are also s deep 9 col\r z to appe> almo/ black4 ,scab on ,pe>s is due to ! pres5ce ( ,fusicladium1 :i* indurates ! out] sk9 ( ! fruit caus+ x to crack "u pressure f )91 & to dry up1 ! deep br[n to black pat*es ( fungus p]si/+ on ! dead surface4 ,black spots on grasses & s$ges are caus$ by ,u/ilag9eae1 & are commone/ 9 ! gra91 ! soot-l p[d]y spores 7,smut7 be+ v *>act]i/ic4 ,u/ilago longissima induces black /reaks on ! leaves4 ,_m ( ^! fungi cause di/ortions or pu/ules on leaves & o!r organs4 ,br[n & black leaf spots are frequ5tly furni%$ ) conc5tric cont\rs arrang$ r\nd a pal] or o!r col\r$ c5tral po9t--e4g4 ,c]cospora on ,beans1 ,asco*yta on ,peas4 ,br[n spots ) bright r$ m>g9s are =m$ 9 "y ,beans by ,gloeosporium4 ,species ( ,fumago1 ,h]potri*ia1 etc41 may cov] ! entire surface ( ! leaf ) sooty pat*es1 or ev5 weave ! leaves toge!r z if ) black spid]-webs4 ,mal n]o ( ! ,v9e is a p>ticul> case ( black spott+ & /reak+ ( ! leaves = :i* no satisfactory explanation is z yet to h&4 ,z ) ,*e/nuts1 ,walnuts1 & o!r plants conta9+ mu* tann91 ! d>k spots appe> to be due to ?is sub/ance1 b :e!r ! pr$ispos+ cause is a lack ( "s +r$i5ts 9 ! soil1 or "s temp]ature reaction1 or fungi at ! roots1 is z yet unkn[n4 ,! mo/ rec5t explanation puts ! disease d[n to ! action ( bact]ia1 b ! results obta9$ by diff]5t work]s lead to unc]ta9ty4 ,! dy+ back ( leaves1 especially ( grasses1 f ! tip1 is usually accompani$ by a succession ( col\rs--yell[1 r$1 br[n1 to black--& is a common symptom ( p>*+ f summ] dr\ght2 & spots ( simil> col\rs1 frequ5tly comm5c+ at ! m>g9s ( leaves1 are *>act]i/ic symptoms ( ! injuri\s action ( acid gases 9 ! air4 ,br[n & blacki% spots on ,pe>s are caus$ by a species ( ,?rips4 ,9 _m cases ! m9ute spots ( ,ru/-fungi on "o & ! same leaf are bright orange yell[ 7ur$o71 deep br[n1 or almo/ purple-black 7teleutospores71 foxy-r$ br[n 7old] ur$ospores71 or dead slaty black :]e ! old teleutospores h di$ (f--e4g4 ,uromyces ,fabae on ,beans1 ,u4 ,pisi on ,peas1 etc4 ,p>ti-col\r$ leaves4--,! leaves sometimes />t %rivell+ ) r$ edges1 :ile yell[1 r$1 & f9ally br[n & black blot*es appe> on ! lam9a1 f no kn[n cause--e4g4 ,v9es4 ,9 o!r cases simil> mimicry ( ! autumnal col\r+ ( leaves results f ! action ( acid gases4 ,burn+ is a common "n = all cases :]e ! leaves turn r$ or r$-br[n 9 hot1 dry wea!r1 & _m v>ieties are di/+ui%$ 9 diff]5t c\ntries & on diff]5t plants1 because species react dissimil>ly4 ,! prim>y cause is usually want ( wat]--dr\ght4 ,foxy leaves are a common sign ( dr\ght on hot soils1 & ! disease may usually be recognis$ by ! gradual ext5sion ( ! dry+ & fox-r$ col\r proce$+ f ! old] to ! y\ng] leaves1 & f base to apex--e4g4 ,hops4 ,copp]y leaves4--,! leaves ( ! ,hop1 etc41 may %[ yell[ spots & gradually turn r$-br[n--copp]-col\r$--z !y dry2 ! damage is due to ,tetrany*us1 ! s-call$ ,r$ ,spid]4 ,^! cases mu/ ( c\rse be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! normal copp]-br[n ( c]ta9 v>ieties ( ,bee*1 ,beet1 ,coleus1 etc4 ,silv]-leaf4--,! leaves ( ,plum1 ,apple1 & o!r fruit trees (t5 obta9 a peculi> silv]y appe>ance 9 hot summ]s1 ! cause ( :i* is unkn[n4 ,discolorations 9 ! =m ( conflu5t yell[ & orange pat*es1 etc41 resembl+ v>iegations1 are n infrequ5tly due to ! ravages ( ,r$ ,spid] & mites--e4g4 on ,kidney ,beans4 ,sun-spots4--,yell[ spots1 :i* may turn br[n or black accord+ to ! species ( plant affect$ & ! int5sity ( ! action1 are (t5 caus$ by ! focuss+ ( ! sol> rays by l5s-l ?ick5+s due to inequalities 9 ! glass ( gre5h\ses1 or by drops ( wat] on !m or on o!r leaves1 e4g4 ,palms1 ,draca5a1 etc4 ,! action is t ( a burn+ glass1 & ext5ds ?r\gh\t ! leaf-tissues4 ,"y grapes1 etc41 may also be injur$ 9 ?is way4 ,wat]-drops on ! glass c only act long en\gh to produce su* injuries if ! atmosph]e is saturat$4 ,! old idea t a drop on a leaf c ?us focus ! sun's rays into ! tissues b5ea? is n t5able4 ,"h aga9 we see t ! disease-ag5cies conc]n$ 9 produc+ ! symptoms describ$ 9 ?is *apt]1 agree = ! mo/ "p 9 s f> t ! pr9cipal effect is g5]ally ! di/urbance ( *lorophyll action 9 ! spots or flecks on ! leaves1 & ! r5d]+ useless ( ^! areas s f> z provid+ fur!r food-supplies is conc]n$4 ,! effects may be due m]ely to ! %ad+ action ( a p>asite--e4g4 epiphytic fungi--or to actual de/ruction ( ! tissues invad$--e4g4 by endophytic fungi--or ! tissues may be burnt1 poison$1 etc4 ,9 s f> ! results are aga9 quantitative & cumulative1 & ! am\nt ( damage dep5ds on ! numb] & size ( ! spots or o!r areas affect$1 & ! proportion ( foliage involv$1 z well z ! l5g? ( "t ! injuri\s action is at "w4 ,b1 aga91 x mu/ be rememb]$ t sev]al symptoms may co-exi/1 & matt]s may be complicat$ by ! spread ( ! de/ructive ag5t1 or its consequ5ces1 to o!r p>ts1 & 9 "s cases we are q un9=m$ z to ! true nature ( ! disease4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,fur!r in=mation reg>d+ ^! leaf-diseases w be f\nd 9 special works deal+ ) ! fungi & insects :i* cause !m4 ,9 addition to works already quot$1 ! read] may also be ref]r$ = ,fungi to ,massee1 ,a ,textbook ( ,plant-diseases caus$ by ,cryptogamic ,p>asites1 ,london1 #ahii2 or ,prillieux1 ,les ,maladies des ,plantes ,agricoles1 #ahie4 ,see also ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,c(fee-leaf ,disease1 ,sessional ,pap]s1 ,,xvii41 ,ceylon1 #ahha1 & ,j\rn4 ,l9n4 ,soc41 ,vol4 ,,xix41 #ahhb1 p4 #bii4 ,! "q ( ,sun-spots has be5 dealt ) by ,jo5nson 9 ,zeits*r4 f4 ,pflanz5krankh41 #ahib1 p4 #ceh4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,artificial ,,w\nds4 ,! nature ( w\nds & ( heal+ processes--,knife w\nds-- ,simple cuts--,/ripp+--,cutt+s--,bran*-/umps & prun+-- ,/ool-/umps--,r++--,bruises4 ,w\nds4--,all ! p>ts ( plants are expos$ to ! dang] ( w\nds1 f me*anical causes su* z w9d1 fall+ /ones or trees1 hail1 etc41 or f ! bites ( animals su* z rabbits1 worms1 & insects1 & al?\gh su* injuries are r>ely 9 !mselves dang]\s1 !y op5 ! way to o!r ag5cies--wat]1 fungi1 etc41 :i* may "w great havoc2 or ! loss ( ! de/roy$ or remov$ tissues is felt 9 dim9i%$ nutrition1 re/riction ( ! assimilative area1 or 9 "s o!r way4 ,we h se5 t liv+ cells die :5 cut1 bruis$1 or torn2 & t ! cells next bel[ 9 a lay] ( active tissue are /imulat$ by ! exposure to increas$ gr[? & division1 & at once produce a lay] ( cork1 ! imp]vi\s walls ( :i* aga9 protect ! liv+ cells b5ea?4 ,?is is f\nd to occur 9 all cell-tissues provid$ ! cells are /ill liv+1 & x matt]s n :e!r ! w\nd occurs 9 ! mesophyll ( a leaf1 ! /orage p>5*yma ( a ,potato-tub]1 ! cortex ( a root or /em1 or 9 ! fle%y p>ts ( a "y fruit1 ! normal effect ( ! w\nd is 9 all cases to call =? an elongation ( ! un9jur$ cells b5ea?1 9 a direction at "r angles to ! plane ( ! injur$ surface1 :i* cells !n divide by successive walls across _! axis ( gr[?3 ! lay]s ( cells ?us cut (f are !n conv]t$ into cork1 by ! sub]isation ( _! walls4 ,fur!r *anges may !n g on b5ea? ! protective lay] ( w\nd-cork ?us produc$1 & ^! *anges v>y accord+ to ! nature ( ! cells b5ea?3 ! cambium =ms new wood1 ! m$ull>y rays simil> rays1 cortex new cortex1 & s on4 ,knife-w\nds4--,artificial cuts 9 /ems are easily recognis$ & soon heal up unless di/urb$4 ,sev]al cases1 diff]+ 9 complexity1 are to be di/+ui%$4 ,! simple/ is t ( a longitud9al1 oblique1 or horizontal %ort cut 9 :i* ! po9t ( ! knife sev]s all ! tissues ( ! /em d[n to ! wood4 ,! fir/ effect usually obs]v$ is t ! w\nd gapes1 especially if longitud9al1 because ! cortex1 tightly /ret*$ on ! wood cyl9d]1 contracts ela/ically4 ,?is exposes ! liv+ cortex1 phloem & cambium to ! air1 & su* tissues at once behave z already describ$ above3 ! cells actually cut die1 ^? next bel[ gr[ out "u ! releas$ pressure1 & ^! give rise to cells :i* become cork4 ,z ! gr[? & cell-division cont9ue 9 ! cells bel[ ?is ?9 ela/ic cork-lay]1 !y =m a s(t h]bace\s cu%ion or callus look+ l a ?ick5$ lip to ea* m>g9 ( ! cut4 ,ea* lip soon meets its opposite neighb\r1 & ! w\nd is clos$ ov]1 a slight projection ) a m$ian axial depression alone appe>+ on ! surface4 ,! depression conta9s ! trapp$-9 callus-cork squeez$ m & m 9 ! plane ( ! cut z ! two lips ( callus press "o aga9/ ! o!r1 & sections across ! /em & p]p5dicul> to ! axis ( ! cut %[ t ?is ?9 cork1 l a bit ( br[n pap]1 alone int]v5es betwe5 ! cambium1 phloem & cortex respectively ( ea* lip1 z ea* lay] attempts to bridge ov] ! int]val4 ,if ! heal+ proce$s normally1 ^! lay]s1 ea* press+ aga9/ ! trapp$ cork-film1 & gr[+ m & m 9 ?ickness1 %e> ! cork-lay] & te> its cells asund]1 & v soon we f9d odd cells ( ! cambium ( "o lip meet+ cambium cells ( ! o!r1 phloem meet+ phloem1 & cortex cortex1 & ! normal ?ick5+ ( ! n[ fus$ lay]s previ\sly sep>at$ by ! knife goes on z if no?+ _h happ5$1 ! only ext]nal sign ( ! w\nd be+ a slight ridge-l elevation1 &1 int]nally1 traces ( ! dead cells & cork trapp$ "h & !re b5ea? ! ridge4 ,:5 ! conjo9$ cambium resumes ! developm5t ( a cont9u\s lay] ( xylem & phloem1 no fur!r trace ( ! injury is obs]vable1 unless a speck ( dead cells rema9s buri$ b5ea? ! new wood1 & indicates ! l9e :]e ! knife po9t kill$ ! =m] cambium & scor$ ! surface ( ! wood 9 mak+ ! w\nd4 ,/ripp+4--,n[ suppose t1 in/ead ( a m]e slit ) ! knife-po9t1 a /rip ( b>k is remov$ d[n to ! wood4 ,exactly ! same processes ( cork+ & lip-l callus =mation at ! edges ( ! w\nd occur1 b ( c\rse ! occlusion ( ! b>$ wood-surface by ! meet+ ( ! lips occupies a long] "t4 ,moreov]1 ! liv+ cells ( ! m$ull>y rays expos$ by ! w\nd on ! wood-surface also gr[ out "u ! releas$ pressure1 & =m protrud+ callus pads on _! own acc\nt4 ,9 c\rse ( "t ! wood is aga9 completely cov]$ by ! com+ toge!r ov] its face ( ^! v>i\s /rips ( callus1 b two important po9ts ( diff]5ce are f\nd1 z contra/$ ) ! simpl] heal+ ( ! slit-w\nd4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! expos$ wood dries & turns br[n1 or x may ev5 beg9 to decay if moi/ure & putrefactive organisms act on x :ile expos$ to ! air2 &1 9 ! second place1 ! normal annual lay] ( wood--or lay]s1 z ! case may be--=m$ by ! cambium only ext5ds ov] t "p ( ! /em :]e ! cambium is /ill intact1 & is entirely want+ ov] ! expos$ area4 ,?us1 if x takes two ye>s = ! cambium to ext5d across ! w\nd1 a lay] ( wood w be =m$ all r\nd ! intact "p ( ! /em1 f lip to lip ( ! cut tissues dur+ ! fir/ ye>2 !n a second annual lay] outside ?is w be =m$ dur+ ! second ye>1 b ext5d+ fur!r ov] ! edges ( ! w\nd1 & ne>ly complete1 because ! cambium has n[ crept fur!r across ! w\nd$ surface to meet ! opposite lip ( cambium2 & dur+ ! ?ird ye>1 :5 ! cambium has once m become cont9u\s ov] ! face ( ! w\nd1 ! annual wood lay] w be complete4 ,b1 ( c\rse1 ?is la/ lay] cov]s 9 ! edges ( ! two previ\sly develop$ incomplete wood-lay]s z well z ! expos$ & br[n1 dry1 or rott5 dead face ( ! wood4 ,x also cov]s up ! trapp$-9 br[n cork & any debris t accumulat$ 9 ! w\nd1 & ?is blemi%1 ?\gh buri$ deep] & deep] 9 ! wood dur+ succe$+ annual deposits ( wood-lay]s1 always rema9s to rem9d u ( ! exi/5ce ( ! w\nd1 ! date ( :i* c be fix$ at any future "t by c\nt+ ! annual r+s develop$ subsequ5tly to its =mation4 ,obvi\sly1 also1 ! defici5cy ( wood at ?is place makes itself visible on ! outside by a depression4 ,cutt+s4--,:5 a cutt+ ( ,pel>gonium1 ,will[1 or o!r plant is made1 we h a typical knife-w\nd1 ! behavi\r ( :i* is v in/ructive 9 illu/ration ( plant-surg]y1 & may be mo/ easily se5 by keep+ x 9 damp air in/ead ( plung+ x into s& or soil4 ,all ! liv+ cells actually cut or bruis$ turn br[n & die z be=e2 ^? b5ea?--e4g4 ! liv+ pi?1 m$ull>y rays1 cambium1 phloem1 & cortex1 gr[ out "u ! releas$ pressure & =m a callus1 ! out]mo/ lay] ( :i* becomes cork1 :ile ^? bel[1 abundantly suppli$ ) food-mat]ials1 proce$ to spread1 z if fl[+ ov] ! surface ( ! cut wood1 & rapidly occlude ! w\nd4 ,mean:ile new roots are =m$ adv5titi\sly f ! cambium j above ! plane ( section1 & pu% out ?r\gh ! cortex into ! damp air1 & if ! cutt+ _h be5 9 soil x w\ld n[ be capable ( indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,x is important to keep cutt+s upright1 z ! roots only spr+ f ! l[] end4 ,su* cutt+s c be obta9$ n only f /ems1 b also f roots & ev5 leaves4 ,callus-=mation is n conf9$ to ! basal end ( a cutt+2 x has no?+ to d ) position1 b is a reaction to ! w\nd /imuli1 indep5d5t ( light1 gravitation1 etc4 ,z "t goes on1 h[ev]1 ! int]nal organisation ( ! erect cutt+ usually reacts on ! callus at ei!r end1 & roots only rise f ! l[] "o1 :ile %oot-buds may =m 9 ! upp] "o1 ?\gh x is possible to br+ ab\t ! =mation ( buds f ! l[] end also4 ,bran* /umps4--,a m complex example is furni%$ by a bran* cut (f %ort "s di/ance--say a foot--f ! base1 :]e x spr+s f ! trunk4 ,z be=e1 ! imm$iate effect ( ! section is ! =mation ( a callus f ! cambium1 phloem & cortex1 :i* beg9s to rise z a circul> occlud+ rim r\nd ! wood4 ,! transpiration curr5t 9 ! trunk1 h[ev]1 is n deflect$ into ! #ab in*es or s ( amputat$ bran*1 because !re are no leaves to draw ! wat] up x1 & s ! /ump dries up & ! cortex & cambium die back to ! base1 leav+ ! dead wood cov]$ ) %rivell$ cortical tissues only4 ,?is dead /ump gradually rots "u ! action ( wet1 fungi1 & bact]ia1 & s9ce ! pi? & he>t-wood af=d a ready passage ( ! rot-organisms & _! products into ! he>t ( ! trunk1 we f9d 9 a few ye>s a m]e /ump ( t\*-wood & decay$ b>k1 :i* falls out at ! ins]tion l a decay$ too?1 leav+ a rott5 hole 9 ! side ( ! trunk4 ,if1 h[ev]1 in/ead ( all[+ ! basal "p ( ! amputat$ bran* to protrude z a /ump1 we cut x (f close to ! /em1 & %ave ! section flu% ) ! normal surface ( ! latt]1 ! callus =m$ by ! cambium1 etc41 rapidly gr[s ov] ! surface1 & soon =ms a lay] ( cambium cont9u\s ) t ( ! re/ ( ! /em4 ,! w\nd heals1 9 fact1 mu* z if x 7 a /rip-w\nd1 & beyond a slight prom95ce = a ye> or two no signs are visible f ! outside aft] ! occlusion4 ,( c\rse ^! matt]s dep5d on ! relative ?ickness ( bran* & /em1 & if mu* wood is expos$ ! dang]s ( rot & a result+ holl[ 9 ! /em are increas$4 ,x is int]e/+ to note h[ mu* ?ick] ! callus lips are at ! sides ( ! w\nd ?an above & bel[1 ow+ to diff]5ces 9 ! di/ribution ( ! nutri5t mat]ials4 ,/ool-/umps4--,:5 a tree is fell$1 ! /ump may1 if ! section is close to ! gr\nd & kept moi/1 beg9 to =m a ?ick rim-l callus r\nd ! wood1 9 :i* adv5titi\s buds soon make _! appe>ance1 & gr[ out into s-call$ ,/ool-%oots4 ,! products ( assimilation ( ^!1 & ! /ores accumulat$ 9 ! /ump1 (t5 suffice to fe$ ! callus suffici5tly to enable x to gr[ ov] & completely occlude ! w\nd1 if ! wood surface is n too l>ge1 or s long expos$ t rott+ processes h mean:ile set 94 ,r++4--,if ! /rip ( cortical tissues & cambium is remov$ all r\nd ! /em1 expos+ ! wood 9 a =m ( a r+1 complications may ensue ow+ to ! foll[+ circum/ances4 ,a well-m>k$ callus appe>s at ! upp] edge ( ! w\nd1 because1 ! transpiration curr5t up ! "y wood n be+ /opp$1 pl5ty ( wat] & salts f ! soil c rea* ! leaves2 b ! nutritive mat]ials suppli$ by ! latt] are accumulat$ at ! upp] lip ( ! w\nd ow+ to ! /oppage !re ( _! desc5t 9 ! phloem1 cortex1 etc4 ,no su* callus-lip appe>s at ! l[] m>g9 ( ! w\nd ow+ to want ( ^! supplies4 ,consequ5tly ! occlusion & heal+ ( ! r+-w\nd only takes place f above d[nw>ds1 & if ! r+ ( cortical tissues remov$ is a broad "o1 ! heal+ may be a long process1 or may ev5 be indef9itely delay$1 a ?ick] & ?ick] callus project+ ov] f above4 ,= simil> reasons no annual wood lay]s are =m$ bel[1 b only above ! w\nd1 & ?us ! bran* or tree may die4 ,! latt] cont+5cy is ! m likely ! fur!r up ! tree ! r++ takes place1 ow+ to ! risk ( dry+ up :i* ?reat5s ! expos$ wood1 & to ! consequ5t int]ruption ( ! transpiration curr5t1 & ! likelihood t lat]al %oots bel[ ! w\nd may div]t ! wat] to _! own leaves4 ,if ! r++ occurs l[ d[n on a /em1 & ! environm5t rema9s damp1 ! upp] ?ick callus may put out new roots2 ! "p above ! w\nd !n behaves l a cutt+4 ,if ! r++ is done on a "y & vigor\s bran* ( an old tree1 ! l[] lip may receive supplies f ! leaves ( bran*es bel[ ! w\nd1 or f %oots :i* spr+ f adv5titi\s buds close to x1 & ! w\nd may heal ov] normally4 ,su* heal+ may be r5d]$ m c]ta9 by keep+ ! w\nd$ surface moi/--e4g4 by means ( damp moss1 & s enc\rag+ ! =mation ( callus-bridges f ! m$ull>y rays4 ,if on r++ a tree or a bran* ! "y wood is remov$ z well z ! cambium & cortical lay]s1 ! dea? ( ! p>ts above ! w\nd is almo/ c]ta91 ow+ to ! /oppage ( ! transpiration curr5t3 ! exceptions to ?is rule dep5d simply on ! exi/5ce ( o!r *annels ( communication1 su* z int]nal phloems1 v ?ick sap-wood1 & s =?4 ,bruises4--,if a bran* or woody /em is /ruck %>ply1 ) a hamm]1 = in/ance1 ! bruis$ cortex1 phloem & cambium are kill$ by ! bl[1 & ! g5]al effect is z if ^! tissues _h be5 remov$ at t spot by ! knife1 b ) ! foll[+ complications4 ,! bruis$ cortical tissues rapidly dry z !y p]i%1 & may adh]e to ! wood bel[4 ,consequ5tly ! /ill s\nd p>ts bord]+ on ! w\nd are n releas$ f pressure1 b1 on ! contr>y1 h to advance t[>ds ea* o!r ov] ! surface ( ! wood "u /ill great] pressures1 9 "p due to ! tight5+ ( ! :ole cortex z ! dead p>ts dry & contract1 & 9 "p due to ! above-m5tion$ adh]5ce ( ! latt] to ! wood4 ,x results f ?is t su* w\nds heal v sl[ly & badly1 & :5 ! kill$ pat* at la/ ruptures1 w\nd-fungi1 insects1 & o!r injuri\s ag5cies may get 9 & d irrep>able damage1 z has be5 f\nd to occur 9 cases :]e su* w\nds h be5 made 9 /rik+ trees to %ake d[n insects1 fruit1 etc4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,! ess5tial facts reg>d+ w\nds & heal+ by occlusion are giv5 9 ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,timb] & "s ( its ,diseases1 #ahhi1 *apt]s viii4 & ix41 & 9 ,laslett1 ,timb] & ,timb] ,trees1 #ahid1 *apt]s iv4 & v4 ,m detail$ treatm5t w be f\nd 9 ,frank1 ,krankh4 d4 ,pflanz51 ,b4 #a4 cap4 #b1 :]e ! special lit]ature is collect$4 ,! read] may also consult ,h>tig1 ,diseases ( ,trees1 ,engl4 ed4 #ahid1 pp4 #bbe-bfi4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,natural ,,w\nds4 ,burr[s & excavations4 ,b>k-bor+--,wood-bor+--,wood fungi--,leaf-m9]s--,pi? flecks--,erosions4 ,skeleton leaves-- ,irregul> erosions--,%ot holes4 ,fro/ cracks--,/rangulations-- ,spiral groov+4 ,natural w\nds are produc$ 9 a v>iety ( ways dur+ ! life ( ! plant1 &1 g5]ally speak+1 are easily heal$ ov] by ! normal process if ! area de/roy$ is n too l>ge1 & ! p>ts rema9+ un9jur$ are suffici5tly provid$ ) foliage1 or ) supplies ( food-mat]ials /or$ up 9 ! roots1 rhizomes1 m$ull>y rays1 etc41 to fe$ a vigor\s callus4 ,! nature ( su* w\nds & ! mode ( heal+ are expla9$ by :at we "k ( artificial w\nds1 & x only rema9s to po9t out t ! pr9cipal dang] ( ord9>y w\nds is n s mu* ! direct traumatic action1 because ! simpl] organisation ( ! plant does n involve matt]s connect$ ) %ock1 loss ( blood1 etc41 z 9 animals2 ! dang] consi/s1 r1 9 _! af=d+ access to o!r injuri\s ag5ts1 especially fungi1 & ! treatm5t ( w\nds frequ5tly resolves itself into cutt+ or prun+ 9 ord] to get clean surfaces :i* c heal readily4 ,w\nds on leaves imply loss ( foli> surface--i4e4 ( *lorophyll action--& ! rem>ks on page #aic apply4 ,burr[s may be tak5 z compris+ all k9ds ( tunnel-l excavations 9 ! v>i\s organs ( plants1 includ+ ^? cases :]e insects burr[ into holl[ /ems ( grasses1 etc41 z indicat$ by ! p]=ations !y make 9 ! out] tissues4 ,b>k-bor+ is done by _m species ( beetles1 especially ,scolytidae1 :i* excavate *>act]i/ically =m$ bran*+ passages tang5tially 9 ! inn] b>k ( ,conif]s & o!r trees4 ,"s ( !m also bore d[n to ! surface ( ! sap wood 7e4g4 ,tomicus bid5tatus7 or ev5 burr[ "r into ! latt] 7e4g4 ,t4 l9eatum74 ,x commonly happ5s t ! ext]nal ap]tures %[ up cle>ly1 ow+ to ! br[n du/ & excrem5t1 sometimes accompani$ by turp5t9e1 :i* exude f !m4 ,_m ( ^! ,b>k beetles only attack trees :i* are already injur$ by fire1 lightn+1 etc42 possibly !y _c bore ?r\gh a cortex :i* swamps !m ) sap1 z a vigor\s "o might d4 ,wood-bor+ is also done by _m ( ! b>k-beetles z well z by ,longicorns1 e4g4 ,sap]da 9 ,popl>s & ,will[s1 ! "y %oots ( :i* (t5 %[ *>act]i/ic swell+s ) lat]al holes indicat+ ! po9ts ( exit4 ,f ! ext]nal ap]tures comm9ut$ wood1 l saw-du/1 is frequ5tly eject$ 9 quantity & betrays ! pres5ce ( ! insects4 ,c]ta9 wood-wasps 7,sirex7 & ! l>vae ( mo?s 7,cossus7 also make l>ge p]=ations 9 ! wood ( ,will[s & o!r trees1 (t5 de/roy+ x completely4 ,9 ! case ( ^! l>g] bor]s1 ^: tunnels may be z broad z ! little f+]1 ! f\l smell z well z abundant saw-du/ betray ! evil4 ,excavations 9 wood are by no means caus$ only by insects3 sev]al ( ! l>g] ,hym5omycetes--,/]eum1 ,!lephora1 ,polyporus1 etc4--tunnel ! timb] 9 *>act]i/ic ways & (t5 aft] a fa%ion v sugge/ive ( insects4 ,!y usually obta9 access ?r\gh fractures4 ,tunnels 9 leaves are inv>iably due to ! activity ( m9]s belong+ to ! small] mo?s & beetles--e4g4 ,t9ea1 ,or*e/es1 etc4--! l>vae ( :i* eat out ! mesophyll b leave ! cov]+ epid]mis or cuticle unt\*$1 & s9ce ! insect bores =w>ds only1 9 an irregul> track1 & leaves its excrem5t 9 ! w9d+ passage1 ! effect is v *>act]i/ic4 ,:iti% leaf tunnels 9 ,peas are excavat$ by ,phytomyza4 ,*>act]i/ic foxy-r$ tunnels are m9$ 9 ! leaves ( ,apples by ,lyonetia1 ,coleophora1 etc4 ,fall+ ( fruit1 ( ,apples1 ,plums1 ,apricots1 etc41 be=e !y are ripe1 is frequ5tly due to insects1 ( :i* ! v>i\s species ( ,grapholi?a or ,c>pocapsa are conspicu\s3 ! fall5 fruits %[ a small hole lead+ by a labyr9? ( passages to ! core or /one1 & 9 :i* ! grub & its excrem5t are visible4 ,! cutt+ (f ( ! vascul> bundles & di/urbance ( ! wat] supply only p>tly expla9 ! premature fall4 ,pi?-flecks are m9ute br[n specks or pat*es f\nd 9 ! wood-lay]s ( _m trees1 & consi/ ( dead p>5*ymat\s ?ick-wall$ cells1 rem9d+ "o ( ! /ructure ( pi?4 ,!y are expla9$ z due to ! bor+s ( m9ute insects1 ,dipt]a or ,beetles1 ! l>vae ( :i* pi]ce ! cortex & phloem & bore _! way into ! cambium4 ,! latt] !n occludes ! tunnels by fill+ !m up ) cells1 & cont9u+ its wood-=m+ activity gradually buries !m deep] & deep] 9 ! wood4 ,su* pi?-flecks are common 9 ,will[1 ,bir*1 ,ald]1 ,sorbus1 etc4 ,x is possible t !y may be due to o!r causes also 9 o!r trees4 ,erosions or irregul> w\nds on leaves are caus$ by l>ge numb]s ( grubs & cat]pill>s & o!r insects1 su* z e>wigs1 z well z slugs1 snails1 & o!r animals2 b x mu/ by no means be assum$ t all m>g9al leaf w\nds1 = in/ance1 are caus$ by animals1 s9ce _m fungi :i* rot ! tissues1 z expla9$ bel[ 7p4 #bjh71 also cause su* erosions1 ! putresc5t p>ts fall+ out--e4g4 ! ,potato disease4 ,skeleton leaves frequ5tly result f ! ravages ( cat]pill>s1 :i* leave ! co>s] ribs & ve9s unt\*$1 b mu* f9] skeletons ) ! m9ute ve9s almo/ intact may be f\nd on plants infe/$ ) c]ta9 insects--e4g4 ,sel&ria on ,*]ries4 ,skeletonis$ pat*es on ,*]ry leaves1 (t5 p9k or br[n-p9k1 are eat5 out by ?is grub4 ,%ot-holes are p]=ations 9 leaves pres5t+ ! appe>ance1 f _! m or less r\nd$ %ape1 ( gun%ot w\nds4 ,!y may be due to insects :i* bore ?r\gh ! "y leaves :ile /ill fold$ 9 ! bud--e4g4 ,will[ ,beetle--or :i* gnaw out ! tissue--e4g4 ! ,bee* ,m9]4 ,simil> b usually m torn & irregul> holes are eat5 out by _m cat]pill>s--e4g4 ! ,cabbage ,mo?4 ,%ot-holes on ,peas may be ! "w ( ,?rips4 ,leaf p]=ations are commonly caus$ by sev]e hail-/orms1 ! hail-/ones beat+ "r ?r\gh ! ?9 mesophyll4 ,c]ta9 *emicals us$ = spray+ h also be5 kn[n to cause %ot-holes by kill+ ! tissue b5ea? ! /&+ drops4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a class ( %ot-holes 9 ?9 leaves :i* are due to ! action ( m9ute fungi1 ! mycelium ( :i* s rots ! tissues 9 a m or less circul> area r\nd ! po9t ( infection1 t1 9 wet wea!r1 ! decompos+ mass falls out & leaves a r\nd hole--e4g4 c]ta9 ,*ytridiaceae1 ,p]onosporeae1 ,gloeosporium1 ,exoascus1 etc4 ,if dry wea!r sup]v5es ^! holes frequ5tly dry at ! edges1 & ! leaves appe> z if eat5 out4 ,%ot-holes 9 ,*]ry1 ,walnut1 ,tobacco1 & ,plum leaves are due to ,phyllo/icta1 9 ,*]ry leaves also to ,cla/]osporium1 & 9 ,potato leaves to ,haltica4 ,fro/-cracks4--,! trunks ( trees expos$ to ! nor?-ea/1 & occasionally ) o!r aspects1 are apt to %[ longitud9al ridges :i* realise on a l>g] scale ! features ( heal$ w\nds scor$ ) a knife4 ,^! w\nds are due to ! out] lay]s ( wood los+ wat] f _! cell-walls z x congeals to ice 9 _! lum9a1 m rapidly ?an d ! w>m] int]nal p>ts ( ! trunk2 z ?is dry+ ( ! wood causes its %r9kage1 especially 9 ! tang5tial direction1 ! effect ( a sudd5 fro/ & nor?-ea/ w9d is to r5d ! wood1 :i* splits longitud9ally ) a l\d report1 z may (t5 be he>d 9 sev]e w9t]s4 ,s9ce ! cortex & b>k are ruptur$ at ! same "t ! total effect resembles t ( a deep knife-cut1 & ! same heal+ processes result on a l>g] scale :5 ! wood swells & closes up ! w\nd aga9 9 spr+4 ,b ?is rec5tly-clos$ lesion is evid5tly a plane ( weakness1 & if a simil>ly sev]e w9t] foll[s ! w\nd reop5s & aga9 heals1 & s on1 until aft] a succession ( ye>s a prom95t ,fro/-ridge results1 :i* may f9ally heal completely if mild] w9t]s ensue or ! tree be ev5tually protect$4 ,/rangulations4--,we are n[ 9 a position to und]/& ! s-call$ /rangulations :i* result :5 woody climb]s1 telegraph wires1 etc41 kill or injure trees by tightly w9d+ r\nd !m4 ,if /rong wire is twi/$ horizontally r\nd a /em1 ! gr[? 9 ?ickness ( ! latt] causes ! trapp+ ( ! cortex & cambium1 etc41 betwe5 ! wire & ! wood1 & a r++ process is set up 9 consequ5ce ( ! dea? ( ! compress$ tissues4 ,a callus !n =ms above ! w\nd1 z 9 ! case ( true r++ by means ( a cut1 & ev5tually bulges ov] ! upp] side ( ! wire3 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s ?is ov]gr[? may completely cov] 9 ! wire1 &1 press+ on to ! l[] lip ( ! w\nd1 may at l5g? fuse ) ! cambium bel[4 ,h]eaft] ! ?ick5+ r+s ( wood are cont9u\s ov] ! buri$ wire4 ,! process is ob/ruct$ by all ! imp$im5ts ref]r$ to 9 deal+ ) r++1 & ( c\rse ! /em ?ick5s m above ?an bel[ ! wire4 ,if ! sapwood is ?91 & ! b>k is s ?ick z to put great ob/acles 9 ! way ( ! junction ( ! upp] & l[] cambiums1 dea? may result--! tree is p]man5tly r+$4 7,see p4 #bja47 ,spiral grooves are frequ5tly met ) :]e ,wood-b9e or o!r woody climb]s h tw9$ r\nd a "y /em or bran*1 ! upp] lip ( ! groove always protrud+ m ?an ! l[]4 ,if a k9k or a cross+ ( two plants or bran*es ( ! tw9] results 9 a complete horizontal r+1 ! results are z 9 ! above cases ( r++ & /rangulation4 ,naturally groov$ walk+ /icks are (t5 se54 ,buri$ lett]s1 etc4--,^! processes ( heal+ by occlusion enable u to und]/& h[ lett]s ( ! alphabet1 cut into ! wood ( trees1 come to be buri$ deep 9 ! timb] z successive annual r+s cov] !m 9 m & m4 ,*a9s1 nails1 rope1 etc41 h frequ5tly be5 f\nd ?us buri$ 9 wood4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,9 addition to ! notes to ! la/ *apt]1 ! read] may be ref]r$ to ,fi%] 9 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ( ,s*li*'s ,manual ( ,=e/ry1 ,*ap4 ,,vi41 = an acc\nt ( ,hess' excell5t "w on ,bor+ ,beetles1 etc4 ,! au?ority on ,wood-fungi is ,h>tig1 see especially 8 ,z]setzungs-ers*e9ung5 des ,holzes1 ! pr9cipal results ( :i* are cond5s$ 9 8 ,diseases ( ,trees already ref]r$ to4 ,z reg>ds ,pi?-flecks1 ! read] %\ld consult ,frank1 ,krankh4 d] ,pflanz51 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #bab3 ! subject ne$s fur!r inve/igation4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,excresc5ces4 ,h]bace\s excresc5ces1 or galls--,er9eum--,intumesc5ces-- ,corky w>ts1 etc4--,pu/ules--,fro/-bli/]s--,galls & ,cecidia --,root nodules4 ,excresc5ces1 or out-gr[?s ( m or less abnormal "* f ! g5]al surface ( diseas$ organs1 are v common symptoms1 & widely recognis$4 ,!y are due to hyp]trophy ( ! tissues :ile ! cells are "y & capable ( gr[?1 & may be induc$ by a v>iety ( causes1 among :i* ! /imulus ( insect-punctures & ( ! pres5ce ( insect eggs are be/ kn[n2 b t ( fungi1 ?\gh less widely recognis$1 plays an equally important "p1 &1 z we %all see1 galls & o!r excresc5ces may be due to widely diff]5t ag5ts4 ,galls or ,cecidia are protub]ances ( ! mo/ v>i$ %apes1 col\rs1 & sizes f\nd on h]bace\s p>ts attack$ by insects1 fungi1 etc4 ,9 ! simple/ cases ! insects only pi]ce & suck ! "y cellul> tissue--e4g4 ,phytoptus1 ,aphides1 etc4--b 9 o!rs ! /imulus to hyp]trophy />ts by ! puncture ( ! embryonic tissue ( a leaf1 root1 etc41 by ! ovipositor ( ! female insect1 :i* !n lays an egg--e4g4 ,cynips1 ,cecidomyia1 etc4--! pres5ce ( :i* appe>s to int5sify ! irritat+ action1 or su* only occurs :5 ! "y l>va escapes4 ,our k ( ! prim>y cause ( gall-=mation am\nts to v little4 ,g5]ally speak+1 only embryonic or v "y cellul> tissue reacts1 & galls on adult leaves & bran*es h usually be5 initiat$ long be=e4 ,! same gall-insect may induce totally diff]5t galls on diff]5t plants1 or ev5 on diff]5t p>ts ( ! same plant1 & diff]5t insects call =? diff]5t galls on any "o plant4 ,^! facts po9t cle>ly to ! co-op]ation ( bo? plant & insect 9 ! gall-=mation1 & ! be/ hypo!sis yet to h& is to ! effect t a gall is a hyp]trophy ( cells1 ! normal nutrition1 gr[?1 & division ( :i* h be5 di/urb$ ow+ to ! action ( "s poison or o!r irritant d]iv$ f ! insect1 or fungus1 or o!r organism4 ,attempts h be5 made to reproduce galls by inject+ ! juices ( simil> galls into ! tissue1 b z yet )\t success1 & ?is may po9t to ! co-op]ation ( me*anical irritation dur+ ! hyp]trophy 9 normal gall-=mation4 ,galls1 9 ! broad s5se1 are n always prec$$ by a w\nd1 h[ev]4 ,insects on ! outside ( "y tissues may cause su* irritations t ! p>ts 9 contact ) ! animal are arre/$ 9 _! gr[?1 :ile ^? fur!r away gr[ m rapidly--e4g4 :]e ,mites1 etc41 cause puck]s & leaf-roll+4 ,9 true galls ! hyp]trophy may consi/ m]ely 9 ! enl>gem5t ( cells already pres5t1 & no new cell-divisions &1 /ill less1 *anges 9 ! nature ( ! tissues result--e4g4 "s pocket galls on ,viburnum1 ,pyrus1 etc41 & ! hairy outgr[?s ( ! epid]mis kn[n z ,er9eum4 ,9 o!r cases !re is n only hyp]trophy ( exi/+ cells1 b new cell-divisions are in/itut$3 ^! cell-divisions may be conf9$ to ! direction p]p5dicul> to ! epid]mis1 & ! tissues gr[ only 9 ! direction ( ! surface1 produc+ puck]+s--e4g4 ! ,aphis galls on ,ribes1 ,phytoptus galls ( ,salvia1 leaf galls on ,tilia1 ,ac]1 ,alnus1 etc41 & ! curi\s galls on ,plums due to ,cecidomyia ,pruni1 & :i* mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! pocket plums & simil> galls due to ,exoasci4 ,9 a ?ird s]ies ( cases1 cell-divisions occur p>allel to ! surface ( ! leaf1 & galls are =m$ :i* gr[ 9 ?ickness1 & develop ! mo/ extraord9>y & complicat$ new tissues--proteid-cells surr\nd+ ! egg or l>va deposit$ inside1 foll[$ by a protective lay] ( scl]5*yma encas+ ?is food lay]1 & ar\nd ?is aga9 s(t] tissues :i* may assume ! /ructures & functions ( respiratory tissues1 wat]-/or+ tissues1 />* res]voirs1 assimilatory1 or protective tissues ( v>i\s k9ds1 & ov] all may be a well-m>k$ epid]mis1 ) /omata1 or cork ) l5ticels4 ,! *ief seat ( ^! hyp]trophies &--:at is m rem>kable--developm5t ( new tissue elem5ts n f\nd else:]e 9 ! leaves1 or ev5 9 ! species1 is ! mesophyll1 & v>i\s speculations & hypo!sis h be5 f\nd$ on ^! curi\s ph5om5a4 ,er9eum4--,! simple/ excresc5ces on plants are c]ta9 hair-l developm5ts ( epid]mal cells due to ! irritation ( species ( ,phytoptus1 & simil> insects :i* rise 9 clu/]s on ! surfaces ( leaves & by _! col\rs1 consi/5ce1 arrangem5t 9 pat*es1 spots1 etc41 s simulate fungi t ,p]soon 0 deceiv$ by !m & gave !m ! g5us "n ,er9eum4 ,!y occur on mo/ ( our trees1 e4g4 ,popl>1 ,lime1 ,oak1 & are v common 9 ! ,tropics4 ,usually pale or ev5 :ite at fir/1 !y turn br[n z ! hair-l outgr[?s die & lose _! sap1 b s9ce ! latt] may be bright col\r$--yell[1 r$1 purple1--! pat*es are sometimes v conspicu\s objects on smoo? leaves4 ,9 _m cases ^! hairs exactly resemble 9 %ape & o!r *>act]s ! abnormal root-hairs f\nd on roots expos$ to ! effects ( poison\s reag5ts1 or ( unsuitable food-mat]ials1 or ! rhizoids develop$ f w\nd$ ,algae1 etc4 ,intumesc5ces are simil> tri*omat\s outgr[?s n associat$ ) insects or fungi1 & due to "s di/urbance ( ! balance betwe5 transpiratory & assimilatory functions ( _! leaves1 z indicat$ by ! less localis$ occurr5ce & by _! non-appe>ance :5 ! plant is "u fav\rable cultural conditions4 ,/ructures n unlike ^! h be5 artificially induc$ by exposure to p>ticul> lights1 & also by pa9t+ spots ) dilute corrosive sublimate1 indicat+ t poisons may impel ! epid]mis cells to gr[ out abnormally4 ,corky w>ts4--,sev]al =ms ( disease are kn[n 9 :i* ! pa?ological condition is express$ by ! =mation ( cork 9 unwont$ places & quantities4 ,! ,scab or ,scurf ( ,potatoes is a case 9 po9t4 ,! tissue ( ! l5ticels absorbs wat] & ! out]mo/ cells are cut (f by cork & die3 ! cells bel[ !m bur/ ! dead b>k-l masses ?us =m$1 & aga9 cork is =m$ & cuts (f ! out] masses1 & ! r\gh cork w>ts--,scab or ,scurf--are ! result4 ,! causes pr$ispos+ to scab h be5 v>i\sly assign$ to dampness1 want ( lime1 action ( bact]ia & fungi--e4g4 ,sorosporium1 ,oospora1 ,spongospora1--! latt] mak+ _! way into ! ruptur$ tissue ( ! l5ticels & irritat+ ! cells to fur!r gr[?4 ,x seems probable t sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( scab exi/ 9 ,potatoes1 z well z 9 roots--e4g4 ,beets1 & ! :ole subject ne$s fur!r inve/igation4 ,! scab-l r\gh scaly b>k ( ,pe> trees 9 dry di/ricts may also be m5tion$ "h4 ,cork-w+s are well kn[n on ! "y bran*es ( ,elms1 ,maples1 etc41 "s v>ieties ( :i* h receiv$ specific names on ?is acc\nt4 ,corky excresc5ces on leaves occur occasionally 9 ! ,gooseb]ry1 ,holly & o!r plants1 = :i* no cause has be5 discov]$4 ,l5ticels are also =m$ on "s leaf-galls1 & are rem>kable z be+ /ructures n normal on leaves4 ,pu/ules4--,?is t]m may be employ$ g5]ally = all slight upheavals ( ! surfaces ( h]bace\s organs1 :i* subsequ5tly bur/ & give egress to ! spores1 etc41 ( ! organism caus+ !m1 or m]ely fray away at ! top if no organism is discov]able4 ,!y are (t5 due to fungi--e4g4 ,syn*ytrium1 ,protomyces1 ,cy/opus1 & ,u/ilag9eae1--& we may ext5d ! use ( ! g5]al t]m also to ^? cases :]e ! /roma ( ! fungus itself bur/s ?r\gh ! cortex ( old] p>ts & =ms ! pr9cipal "p ( ! pu/ule--e4g4 ,monilia1 =m+ :ite or grey pu/ules on ,apples1 ,roe/elia & o!r ,a,ecidia1 =m+ yell[ or orange pu/ules on leaves1 etc42 ,cucurbit>ia & ,nectria 7r$7 break+ ?r\gh ! cortex ( trees1 & ,phoma & num]\s o!r ,ascomycetes :i* =m black cu%ions4 ,pu/ules on ! leaves ( ,lysima*ia1 ,ajuga1 etc41 are due to ! p>asitic ,alga ,phyllobium4 ,cyl9drical /em swell+s are caus$ by ,calyptospora3 !y are due to ! hyp]trophy ( ! cortex ( ,bilb]ry /ems p]meat$ by ! hyphae4 ,epi*loe1 :i* clo!s ! %ea?s & halms ( grasses ) its /roma1 at fir/ sn[y :ite & lat] o*re-yell[ z ! p]i!cia =m1 is ano!r example4 ,! cyl9drical lay] ( eggs ( a mo? su* z ,bombyx on a twig mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ^! cases4 ,fro/-bli/]s are pu/ule-l upris+s ( ! cortex1 :]e ! liv+ tissues bel[ h =m$ a callus-l cu%ion into ! cavity b5ea? ! dead out] p>ts ( ! cortex :i* 7 kill$ by ! fro/2 !y occur on ! /ems ( "y ,apples1 ,pe>s1 etc4 ,galls 9 ! n>r[] s5se are tissue outgr[?s usually involv+ deep] cell-lay]s4 ,!y are s v>i$ & num]\s t classification is difficult4 ,= symptomatic purposes we may divide !m z foll[s3 ,leaf-galls4--,a well-m>k$ type is t ( ! pocket-galls or bladd]s 9 :i* ! :ole ?ickness ( ! leaf is z x 7 pu%$ up l a glove-f+] at "o spot1 s t if ! upp] surface ( ! leaf =ms ! outside ( ! gall ! l[] surface is its l9+4 ,su* galls are common on ,limes 7,phytoptus71 ,gle*oma 7,cecidomyia71 ,elms 7,tetraneura71 etc4 ,simil> localis$ ext5sion ( ! leaf surface1 compell+ x to rise up l a pocket1 are caus$ by fungi--e4g4 ,taphr9a on ,popl>s1 ,exoascus on ,bir*es1 etc41 ,exobasidium on ,bilb]ries1 ,rhodod5drons1 etc4 ,ano!r type is t ( ! ,gall-apple1 s well kn[n on ,oaks1 :]e ! sph]ical swell+ is solid--except = ! inn] cavity conta9+ ! eggs--,neurotus1 ,cynips1 ,hormomyia1 etc4 ,^! are comp>able 9 g5]al *>act]s to ! nodules on roots4 ,fungus galls ) simil> ext]nal features :5 "y are f\nd on ,maize 7,u/ilago ,maydis71 & betray _! nature by ! black p[d]y spores z !y mature4 ,bud galls on ,will[s are due to ,cecidomyia1 :i* causes sev]al int]nodes to swell out into a gre5i% b>rel-%ap$ mass1 f :i* leaves may spr+4 ,small irregul> excresc5ces on ,will[ /ems are ref]r$ to ,phytoptus1 & ano!r species ( ! same insect induces simil> swell+s on ,p9es :i* are n sur*>g$ ) res94 ,am]ican ,blight1 or ,woolly ,aphis1 on ,apples especially1 causes ! tum\r-l swell+s cov]$ ) /icky :ite fluff1 :i* is a waxy excretion ( ! insect4 ,galls on ,pilea1 9 ,java1 are due to an ,alga--,phytophysa4 ,root-nodules or nodosities are frequ5tly caus$ by insects--e4g4 ,c5?orhyn*us1 a beetle :i* attacks ,crucif]s1 ,cynips & alli$ gallflies ( ,oaks1 & ! notori\s ,phyllox]a4 ,b simil> root-galls are produc$ by ,nematode worms1 ,het]odora1 on ,beets1 ,tomatoes1 ,cucumb]s & num]\s o!r plants1 & by ! ,slime fungus ,plasmodiophora1 & x is n always easy to di/+ui% su* cases f ! fungus-galls 7,mycocecidia7 on ! roots ( ,ald]s1 ,juncus1 & ,legum9oseae :]e ! symbiosis ( bact]ia or fungi ) ! roots are ( b5efit to ! plant4 ,urocy/is ,leimba*ii =ms simil> nodules at ! coll> ( "y plants ( ,adonis4 ,het]odora javanica passes into ! cortex ( sug>-cane roots ?r\gh fissures1 & makes its way to ! place :]e a "y rootlet is ab\t to em]ge2 "h x /icks its beak into ! gr[+-po9t & rema9s fix$4 ,molli>d has %[n t 9 ! roots ( ,melons1 ,coleus1 etc41 ,het]odora causes ! cells 9 imm$iate contact ) its head1 & :i* w\ld normally become vessels ( ! xylem1 to swell up into huge giant-cells1 ) _! walls curi\sly fold$1 & conta9+ l>ge supplies ( proteids & num]\s nuclei1 rem9d+ u ( ! food-lay] ( insect galls & ( ! tapetal lay] ( poll5-sacs4 ,:ile ! /imulus ex]t$ by ! ,nematode ?us induces hyp]trophy & /orage ) food-sub/ances ( ^! cells1 ^? ( ! next lay]s und]go reticulate ?ick5+s ( _! walls4 ,aga9 in/ances ( ! evolution ( new tissue elem5ts by ! action ( ! =eign organism4 ,s f> z galls on leaves are conc]n$ ! am\nt & k9d ( damage done are 9 proportion to ! area ( *lorophyll action put out ( play = ! b5efit ( ! plant1 & ! rem>ks already made on p4 #aic apply "h also4 ,:]e buds are de/roy$ ! effects may ( c\rse ext5d fur!r1 b x r>ely happ5s t leaf-galls are s abundant z to maim a tree p]man5tly4 ,nev]!less we mu/ rememb] t cases l ,phyllox]a are notori\s4 ,f> m dang]\s1 h[ev]1 are ! root-galls due to su* insects1 because "h ! damage is n s local3 ! wat]-supplies are cut (f1 & injuri\s consequ5ces result f ! absorption ( ! products ( decomposition 9 ! soil4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,9 addition to ! lit]ature on galls quot$ 9 ! ,notes to ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ! read] %\ld consult ,dale ,on c]ta9 ,outgr[?s 7,intumesc5ces7 on ! gre5 p>ts ( ,hibiscus1 ,proc4 ,cambr4 ,phil4 ,soc41 ,vol4 ,x41 #ahii1 p4 #aib1 & ,brit4 ,ass4 ,rep41 ,brad=d1 #aijj4 ,! detail$ /udy ( ! anatomy & hi/ology ( ,galls has be5 rec5tly und]tak5 by ,kue/]1 ,beitrage zur ,k5ntniss d] ,gall5anatomie1 ,flora1 ,b4 #hg1 #aijj1 p4 #aag1 :]e ! pr9cipal ref]5ces w be f\nd4 ,on ! root-galls due to ,nematodes see ,atk9son 9 ,sci5ce ,contributions f ! ,agric4 ,expt4 ,/ation1 ,alabama1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #a1 #ahhi2 ,p]cival1 ,an ,eel-worm disease ( ,hops 9 ,natural ,sci5ce1 ,vol4 ,,vi41 #ahie1 p4 #ahg2 & ,molli>d 9 ,revue g5]ale de ,botanique1 ,apl41 #aijj1 p4 #aeg1 :]e ! hi/ology is dealt )4 ,! nodules ( ! roots ( ,legum9oseae are n "p ( ! subject ( ?is "w3 ! lit]ature is collect$ 9 ,sci5ce ,progress1 #ahie1 ,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #beb1 & ,dawson1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #aijj4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,excresc5ces 7cont9u$74 ,cank]s--,burrs--,spha]obla/s1 & o!r excresc5ces ( woody tissues--,wit*es' ,brooms4 ,cank]s are irregul> excresc5ces due to ! p]5nial /ruggle betwe5 tissues attempt+ to heal up a w\nd1 & "s organism or o!r ag5t :i* keeps ! lesion op54 ,a cank] always orig9ates 9 a w\nd affect+ ! cambium1 & usually 9 a small w\nd su* z an insect puncture or fro/ nip2 if undi/urb$ ! dead p>ts w\ld heal ov] by cork & callus1 b if recurr+ fro/-cracks break op5 ! cov]+s1 or if insects or fungi p5etrate ! callus & invade ! cambium1 irregul>ities ( gr[? due to ! occlud+ tissue on ! "o h&1 & cont9u$ gr[? ( ! /ill unimpair$ cambium on ! opposite side ( ! injur$ %oot on ! o!r1 result 9 ! cank]4 ,fro/ cank]s occur on fruit-trees1 ,v9es1 ,bee*es1 etc4 ,cank]s due to insects are f\nd on ,apples1 ! cortex ( :i* is punctur$ by ! woolly ,aphis 7,s*izoneura7 :ile ! twigs are "y1 & ! w\nd is kept op5 by ! insects ne/l+ 9 crevices 9 ! occlusion tissues4 ,species ( ,coccus1 ,la*nus1 & ,*]mes also produce cank]s on =e/ trees4 ,cank]s due to fungi usually orig9ate 9 a w\nd prim>ily due to an insect puncture or bite1 or to fro/1 ! invad+ fungus hyphae mak+ _! way into ! w\nd$ tissues & gradually ext5d+ m & m into ! cambium & ! occlud+ callus4 ,among ! be/ kn[n ( ^! w\nd fungi :i* cause cank]s are ,dasyscypha ,willkommii ! peziza ( ,l>* disease1 ,nectria ditissima & ,n4 cucurbitula on ,bee* & ,conif]s2 less common are ,scl]od]ris on ,will[s1 ,aglaospora on ,oaks & "s o!rs4 ,p]id]mium ,p9i & ,aecidium elat9um also cause cank]s "u c]ta9 conditions1 z also does ,gymnosporangium1 b 9 ^! cases ! fungi are m truly p>asitic4 ,9 "s cases--e4g4 ,a%1 ,p9e1 ,olives--bact]ia are conc]n$ z associat$ organisms 9 ! cank]+ ( trees4 ,burrs or ,knau]s are irregul> excresc5ces1 pr9cipally woody1 ) gn>l$ & w>t$ surfaces4 ,!y are frequ5tly due to "s previ\s injury1 su* z ! cru%+ or graz+ ( cortical tissues by c>t-:eels4 ,! excitation ( ! tissues ?us w\nd$ results 9 ! developm5t ( %oots f adv5titi\s or dormant buds at ! base ( old tree trunks1 or 9 ! />t+ ( ! same process :]e a bran* has be5 brok5 (f4 ,! new bud beg9s to develop a %oot1 b soon dies at its tip ow+ to paucity ( food-supplies to ! weak %oot1 :ile new buds at its base repeat ! process next ye> ) ! same result1 & ea* ( ^! aga9 9 turn1 & s on4 ,! consequ5ce is an extremely complex ne/ ( buds1 all capable ( gr[+ 9 ?ickness & putt+ on wood to "s ext5t1 b n ( gr[+ out 9 l5g?4 ,9 c\rse ( "t ?is mass may atta9 dim5sions measurable by feet1 =m+ huge r\nd$ & extremely h>d-knott$ burrs1 ! cross-section ( :i* %[s ! vascul> tissues runn+ irregul>ly 9 all directions1 &1 ow+ to ! v sl[ gr[?1 extremely d5se & h>d4 ,! d>k spots 9 su* sections--e4g4 ,bird's-eye ,maple--are ! cut bud-axes all fus$ toge!r1 z x 74 ,on old ,elms su* burrs are common at heights on ! /em :i* preclude ! assumption ( any co>se me*anical injury1 & simil> /ructures occur on ! boles ( o!r =e/ trees sudd5ly expos$ to light by ! fell+ ( _! companions1 :i* sugge/s t ^! epicormic %oots result f "s di/urbance due to ! action ( light4 ,wit*es' ,brooms are irregul> tufts ( twigs (t5 f\nd among ! bran*es ( trees su* z ,bir*es1 ,hornbeam1 etc41 :]e !y look l cr[s' ne/s1 & simil> /ructures are to be f\nd on ,silv] ,firs & o!r conif]s4 ,9 ! =m] case !y are due to ,exoascus1 9 ! latt] to ,aecidium1 fungi :i* are p]5nially p>asitic 9 ! %oots1 & /imulate ! twiggy developm5t ( a numb] ( buds :i* w\ld normally h rema9$ 9 abeyance1 or n h be5 =m$ at all1 & only d s n[ 9 a fa%ion diff]5t f t ( normal bran*es4 ,rosette-l =mations1 dep5d+ on simil> di/urb+ causes on ! "p ( insects1 occur 9 conif]s--e4g4 ,ga/ropa*a ,p9i4 ,d5se tufts ( twiggy %oots may be develop$ on _m trees by prun+ 9 su* a way z to /imulate ! %oot+ out ( basal buds :i* w\ld o!rwise rema9 dormant1 e4g4 ,elm1 ,a%1 & ?us x occurs t injuries su* z fro/1 insect bites1 etc41 may induce ! production ( su* tufts 9 a tree cr[n4 ,! d5se ne/s ( /ool-%oots ?r[n up f fell$ tree-/umps are ( ess5tially ! same nature--p>tly adv5titi\s & p>tly dormant buds be+ enabl$ to gr[ out because !y c n[ be suppli$ ) mat]ials previ\sly c>ri$ beyond !m :ile ! trunk 0 /ill !re4 ,suck]s1 if repeat$ly cut d[n1 may also behave simil>ly4 ,wood-nodules or ,spha]obla/s are curi\s m>ble-l masses ( wood :i* protrude ) a cov]+ ( b>k f old trunks ( ,bee*es1 etc41 & c be readily dug out ) a knife4 ,! nodule has aris5 by ! sl[ gr[? ( ! cambium ( a dormant bud1 ! base ( :i* sep>at$ at an e>ly date f ! wood b5ea?2 ! cambium !n clos$ 9 ov] ! base & laid on ?ick5+ r+s all r\nd ! axis ( ! bud except at ! extreme apex4 ,:5 ! sep>ation occurr$ ! cambium ( ! wood b5ea? cov]$ ov] ! previ\s po9t ( junction1 & ?us ! woody bud 0 pu%$ out ) ! b>k1 & n[ protrudes cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( ! latt]4 ,simil> nodules are occasionally f\nd on ,apple trees4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,= fur!r in=mation on ,cank]s ! /ud5t %\ld read ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,timb] & "s ( its ,diseases1 ,*apt] ,x4 ,fur!r1 ! discussion z to ! causes ( cank] 9 ,frank1 ,krankheit5 d] ,pflanz51 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #bjg1 & ,b4 ,,iii41 pp4 #afg & #agb1 & v>i\s pap]s 9 ,zeits*rift fu] ,pflanz5-krankheit54 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,exudations ,,& ,,rott+4 ,tumesc5ce--,rankness--,bur/+ ( fruits1 etc4--,root rot--,rot ( fruits--,bulb diseases--,flux--,honey-dew--,slime flux-- ,res9osis--,gummosis--,manna4 ,i put toge!r 9 "o artificial class a v>i$ gr\p ( diseases1 ! pr9cipal symptom ( :i* is ! escape ( fluids f ! tissues1 "u circum/ances :i* betray an abnormal /ate ( affairs1 (t5 obvi\s1 b sometimes only to be inf]r$4 ,9 _m ( ^! cases bact]ia ab\nd 9 ! putrefy+ mass1 & "s evid5ce exi/s = connect+ ^! microbes causally ) ! disease 9 a few ( ! m ?or\ghly inve/igat$ cases1 b 9 no case has ?is be5 suffici5tly demon/rat$2 & consid]+ ! ease ) :i* bact]ia ga9 access via w\nds caus$ by insects & fungi1 z well z by o!r ag5ts1 ! necessity = rigid pro( mu/ be insi/$ ^u be=e we c accept su* alleg$ examples ( ,bact]iosis4 ,tumesc5ce4--,x occasionally happ5s t h]bace\s p>ts ( plants pass into a condition ( ov]-turgesc5ce f excess ( wat] 9 ! tissues1 an abnormal /ate :i* indicates pa?ological *anges result+ f v>i\s causes1 (t5 n evid5t & !re=e reg>d$ z int]nal4 ,su* disease 0 =m]ly t]m$ ,o$ema or ,dropsy4 ,?is disease is frequ5tly due to ! excessive wat]+ ( pot plants ) l>ge root sy/ems & defici5t foliage1 9 hot-h\ses ) a saturat$ atmosph]e3 x is1 !re=e1 prim>ily ref]able to dim9i%$ transpiration4 ,x c sometimes be br\ght ab\t by cov]+ potato plants1 = in/ance1 ) a bell-j> 9 moi/1 hot wea!r2 & ?is1 & ! preval5ce ( ! disease 9 hot-h\ses z comp>$ ) plants gr[n out ( doors1 po9t to ! above explanation4 ,simil> ph5om5a d occasionally occur out ( doors 9 hot1 moi/ situations or dur+ wet seasons1 h[ev]1 & ! wat]y %oots ( rank vegetation are m]ely p>ticul> cases ( ! same class4 ,moreov]1 ! well-kn[n t5d5cy to succul5ce ( sea-side v>ieties ( plants :i* h ?9 h]bace\s leaves :5 gr[+ inl&1 po9ts to ! action ( ! environm5t 9 ^! matt]s1 excess ( salts be+ no d\bt "o factor 9 su* cases4 ,rankness af=ds ano!r example :]e sup]fluity ( wat] is conc]n$1 ?\gh x does n involve simply ?is1 because ! plant may also conta9 excessive quantities ( nitrog5\s & m9]al matt]s tak5 up by ! roots4 ,rankness is1 9 fact1 9 _m respects analog\s to etiolation 9 s f> z ! tissues are s(t & sur*>g$ ) wat]1 b x diff]s fundam5tally 9 ! deep gre5 ( ! *lorophyll3 ?is may lead to abundant assimilation if free access ( air & dri] conditions c be gradually br\ght ab\t4 ,any sudd5 dry+1 h[ev]1 may be fatal to ! t5d] tissues4 ,rankness commonly dep5ds on excess ( food mat]ials1 especially nitrog5\s manures1 z may be se5 9 mead[s & cornfields :]e ! manure heaps h rema9$ on ! gr\nd & saturat$ x to excess z comp>$ ) ! re/ ( ! soil2 ?is may (t5 be obs]v$ ) we$s1 etc41 9 ! neighb\rhood ( f>m-build+s4 ,if ! p]iod ( rank gr[? is accompani$ & foll[$ by days ( suitably bright sun%9e & dry air1 ! increase ( vegetative /ructures usually results 9 increas$ fl[]+1 heavy crops1 or /rong wood2 b if ! rankness cont9ues too long1 or is accompani$ by wet & dull wea!r1 ! wat]y tissues are peculi>ly susceptible to attacks ( fungi & insects1 & to damage by sudd5 fro/s or *illy w9ds4 ,rankness af=ds1 9 fact1 a typical illu/ration ( pr$isposition to disease4 ,damp+ (f4--,:5 se$l+s are too closely cr[d$ 9 b$s kept too damp1 or 9 moi/ wea!r1 !y are v apt to rot away1 ) all ! symptoms--spread+ f a c5tre1 contagi\s infection1 mycelia on & 9 ! tissues1 etc4--( a fungus attack4 ,! commone/ ag5t conc]n$ is "o ( ! species ( ,py?ium1 ! propagation ( :i* is fav\r$ by ! rank1 ov]-turgid1 & etiolat$ conditions ( ! plants4 ,species ( ,mucor1 ,botrytis1 & o!r fungi1 may also be met )4 ,bur/+ ( fle%y fruits1 su* z ,tomatoes1 ,grapes1 etc41 is due to ov]-turgesc5ce 9 ra9y wea!r or excessively moi/ air4 ,b ! ph5om5on is by no means conf9$ to su* organs4 ,hot-h\se plants :5 o$emat\s n infrequ5tly put out wat]y bli/]s f ! cortex or leaves1 :i* rupture2 & ! /ems ( fle%y fasciat$ 7e4g4 ,asp>agus7 or blan*$ & =c$ plants 7e4g4 ,cel]y1 ,rhub>b7 are p>ticul>ly apt to crack "h & !re f ! pressure ( ! turgesc5t tissues on ! /ra9$ epid]mis4 ,beets1 ,turnips1 & o!r fle%y roots %[ ! same ph5om5a 9 wet seasons4 ,t ^! ruptures & exposures ( wat]y tissues af=d dang]\s po9ts ( entry = p>asites & m\lds w be obvi\s--e4g4 ,edelfaeule1 a rott5 condition ( ! grapes 9 ! ,moselle di/rict4 ,root-rot is a common disease 9 damp1 s\r clay soils aft] a cont9uance ( wet wea!r--e4g4 ,:eat1 especially if root-drawn & expos$ to ?aw wat]4 ,9 ! disease kn[n z ,beet-rot1 ! roots turn black at ! tip1 :]e ! tissues %rivel & become groov$ & wr9kl$ ext5sively4 ,inside ! fle% also black5s & f9ally rots4 ,9 e>li] /ages1 only ! vascul> bundles are br[n & block$ ) gum-l sub/ances4 ,9 advanc$ /ages !re is mu* gummy mat]ial 9 ! lum9a1 & ev5 l>ge cavities fill$ ) ?is gum may be f\nd4 ,! rot ( ,*]ries1 ,pe>s1 ,apples1 ,plums1 etc41 9 /ore may be due to sev]al fungi1 ( :i* ,botrytis1 ,monilia1 ,mucor1 ,p5icillium1 & ,asp]gillus are ! *ief4 ,! fruit may be attack$ :ile /ill on ! tree1 b v (t5 fungi & bact]ia ga9 access to ! tissues1 ?r\gh bruises1 cracks1 etc41 =m$ 9 ! fruit ly+ 9 ! /orage baskets or on ! %elves4 ,rot 9 ,onions1 ,hyac9? bulbs1 etc41 is frequ5tly due to ! access ( ,botrytis or ,scl]ot9ia1 foll[$ by m\lds1 yea/s1 & bact]ia 9 ! /ores4 ,s\r-rot 9 ,grapes1 & o!r fle%y fruits :i* ne$ mu* sun to rip5 !m1 is probably a usual result ( cont9u$ cold1 wet wea!r at ! cropp+ season1 sett+ 9 :5 ! fruits are beg9n+ to swell4 ,flux4--,x is a common ev5t to see fluids ( v>i\s k9ds issu+ f w\nds 9 trees1 or congeal+ 9 m or less solid masses ab\t !m2 & ow+ to ! prevail+ t5d5cy to comp>e plant diseases ) ^? ( animals1 we f9d su* expressions z ,gangr5e1 ,ulc]1 & s =?1 appli$ to ^! op5 sores4 ,9 s f> z su* outfl[+s frequ5tly indicate diseas$ /ates ( injur$ tissues :i* are incapable ( heal+ up1 ! analogy is p]haps a true "o2 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t v diff]5t /ructures & processes 9 detail are conc]n$4 ,moreov]1 liquid excretions m or less indicative ( diseas$ /ates are by no means conf9$ to w\nds or def9itely injur$ tissues1 9 :i* case su* t]ms are :olly misappli$4 ,honey-dew4--,! leaves1 or o!r organs1 ( _m plants are /icky 9 hot wea!r1 ow+ to ! excretion ( a sweet liquid conta9+ sug>1 ! consi/5cy & col\r ( :i* v>y accord+ to circum/ances4 ,?is honey-dew mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! normal viscidity ( c]ta9 insectivor\s plants--e4g4 ,sundew--or ) ! /icky secretion on ! int]nodes ( species ( ,ly*nis1 etc41 :]e x plays ! "p ( a protection aga9/ m9ute creep+ ?+s4 ,honey-dew is (t5 met ) on ,lime trees1 ,roses1 ,hops1 etc4 ,9 _m ( ^! cases ! honey-dew is excret$ by ,aphides1 :i* suck ! juices ( ! leaves & p\r out ! sac*>9e liquid f _! bodies4 ,! sweet fluid is 9 its turn s\ght aft] by ants1 & also s]ves z nutritive mat]ial = v>i\s epiphytic fungi--e4g4 sooty m\ld1 ,capnodium1 ,fumago1 & ,ant5n>ia--:i* give ! leaves & honey-dew a br[n or black col\r4 ,c]ta9 ,coccideae also excrete honey-dew1 especially 9 ! tropics4 ,at lea/ "o case is kn[n :]e honey-dew is =m$ z ! result ( ! p>asitic action ( a fungus1 namely ,claviceps purpurea 9 its conidial /age on ! /igmas ( c]eals1 & ?is may be comp>$ ) ! sweet odor\s fluid excret$ by ! sp]mogonia ( c]ta9 ,aecidia4 ,9 bo? cases ! sweet fluid attracts insects :i* disp]se ! spores4 ,honey-dew may also be =m$ )\t ! ag5cy ( fungi or insects1 :5 hot & dry days are foll[$ by cool nights1 ) a saturat$ atmosph]e1 e4g4 ,caesalp9ia1 ,calli&ra & o!r trees 9 ! tropics1 :i* are call$ ra9 trees ow+ to ! num]\s drops ( fluid :i* drip f ! leaves "u ! abnormally turgesc5t conditions ref]r$ to4 ,cuckoo-spit4--,! leaves ( ,will[s1 ,mead[ grasses & h]bs1 etc41 are (t5 se5 ) fro? on !m1 9 :i* is a gre5 insect1 ,aphrophora1 :i* sucks ! juices f ! tissues & excretes ! fro?y wat]y cuckoo-spit f its body4 ,slime-flux4--,! trunks ( trees may sometimes be obs]v$ to p\r out a slimy fluid f cracks 9 ! b>k1 or f old w\nds1 or bran* sc>s4 ,9 "s cases1 e4g4 9 ,oaks1 ! slime has a be]y od\r & :ite col\r1 & ab\nds 9 yea/s & o!r fungi to ! f]m5tative activity ( :i* ! od\r & fro?9ess are due4 ,9 o!r cases ! slime is r$ e4g4--,hornbeam2 or br[n--e4g4 ,apple & ,elm2 or black--e4g4 ,bee*1 ! col\r 9 su* cases be+ due to ! mixture ( yea/s1 bact]ia1 & fungi ) :i* ^! slimes ab\nd4 ,! ph5om5on appe>s to be due to ! exudation ( l>ge quantities ( sap "u pressure--root pressure--& is prim>ily a normal ph5om5on comp>able to ! ble$+ ( cut trees 9 spr+3 ! fungi1 etc41 are d\btless saprophytes1 b _! activity is conc]n$ ) ! putrefactive processes go+ on 9 ! diseas$ wood1 & :i* may lead to rott+ ( ! timb]4 ,! orig9 ( ! w\nds 9 ! b>k & cortex1 & :i* ext5d into ! wood & o!r tissues z ! putrefactive & f]m5tative processes increase1 appe>s to be 9 "s cases at lea/ due to lightn+4 ,res9-flux or ,res9osis4--,! /ems ( ,p9es & o!r conif]s are apt to exude res9 f any cut or w\nd made by insects1 or by ! gnaw+ ( o!r animals2 b 9 _m cases ! fl[ is due to fungi1 e4g4 ,p]id]mium1 ! hyphae ( :i* invade ! m$ull>y rays & res9 canals & ?us op5 ! way to an outfl[ ?r\gh cracks 9 ! b>k4 ,ag>icus melleus n only invades ! res9 passages1 b /imulates ! tree to produce abnormal quantities ( res91 :i* fl[s d[n to ! coll> & roots1 & exudes 9 great abundance at ! surface ( ! soil4 ,v>i\s o!r plants also exude res9 f w\nds1 & 9 "s cases ! flux seems to be increas$ by deg5]ation ( ! tissues1 e4g4 ,copaif]a4 ,gummosis4--,*]ries1 ,apricots1 ,acacias1 & _m o!r trees are apt to produce abnormal quantities ( gum1 :i* fl[s f any w\nd or exudes ?r\gh cracks 9 ! b>k4 ,deg5]ation ( ! wood-cells1 & especially ( ! cell-walls ( a s(t wood =m$ by abnormal activity ( ! cambium1 po9ts to its orig9 be+ due1 9 "s cases at any rate1 to a conv]sion ( ! cellulose1 & fungi are sometimes f\nd 9 ! masses ( gum2 b beyond ! fact t gummosis is a pa?ological ph5om5on we "k v little ( ! disease4 ,) reg>d to su* gumm+1 x is significant h[ frequ5tly prun$ trees--,*]ries1 ,oranges1 ,lemons1 ,plums1 etc4--suff]4 ,manna flux4--,c]ta9 trees1 su* z ! ,manna ,a%1 species ( ,tam>isk1 etc41 yield manna f w\nds1 & 9 "s cases ! latt] are due to insects1 e4g4 ,cicada4 ,! ,potato-disease is be/ kn[n by ! pale :iti% fr+e1 giv+ an almo/ mealy appe>ance to ! m>g9s ( ! br[n to black pat*es 9 damp wea!r4 ,9 dry wea!r ! br[n pat*es %rivel & dry1 & z !y are apt to be at ! edges & tips ( ! leaflets1 ^! curl up4 ,! "y disease spots are yell[i%1 & ! leaves ( badly affect$ plants are apt to be sickly yell[ ?r\gh\t4 ,?is ,potato-disease due to ,phytoph?ora mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! curl+ & puck]+1 ) wilt+ & br[n+ ( ! leaves & yell[ glassy look ( ! /ems1 due to ! invasion ( ! vessels by a fungus :i* lurks 9 ! tub]s1 & ga9s access !nce to ! %oots4 ,9 ! disease traceable to ,phytoph?ora ! /ock rema9s gre5 & ! leaves plump & plane1 & only ! br[n pat*es sl\gh out 9 wet or %rivel 9 dry wea!r1 & are bord]$ by ! pale :iti% zone ( conidiophores4 ,9 ! leaf-curl ! yell[ & flaccid appe>ance ( all ! leaves ( a /alk1 or ev5 ( ! plant1 is ! /rik+ symptom1 & ! /em soon droops & black5s j above ! soil1 a :ite m\ld appe>+ also at ! black spots4 ,subsequ5tly black spots appe> high] up1 & bact]ia ga9 an entrance4 ,! /olons rot1 & ev5tually ! roots & ! leaves )]4 ,! tub]s appe> s\nd1 b are small2 !y are apt to rot 9 ! /ore1 ! vascul> zones turn+ br[n4 ,?is leaf-curl has be5 ascrib$ to ,pleospora1 ,polydesmus1 ,v]ticillium1 & o!r p>asites1 z well z to excessive manur+ & o!r ag5cies1 b x /ill ne$s explanation4 ,rot ( ,potato tub]s 9 ! soil1 or 9 /ore1 may be br\ght ab\t by v diff]5t ag5ts4 ,if ,phytoph?ora has obta9$ access1 ! fungus hyphae spread betwe5 ! cells1 />t+ f ! haulm1 & cause ! fle% to turn yell[i% & !n br[n 9 pat*es4 ,on ! ext]ior are discol\r$ pat*es1 depress$1 ) ! fle% b5ea? br[n & s(t4 ,! mycelium spreads mo/ly 9 ! out] lay]s1 :i* ?\gh !y turn deep br[n rema9 firm4 ,wet rot ( potatoes may be due to v>i\s fungi1 &1 9 excess ( wat]1 to putrefactive bact]ia 7e4g4 ,clo/ridium71 :i* de/roy ! cell-walls4 ,! fle% becomes s(t1 !n s\p-l1 & f9ally putrefies to a liquid mass ) a vile smell ( butyric acid1 etc41 9 :i* ! />* gra9s may be se5 float+4 ,tub]s are (t5 f\nd ) ! cork bur/ & peel+ 9 %r$s1 ! fle% m or less conv]t$ into a putrid & /9k+ pulp1 ) a spott$ br[n b\nd>y ( p>tly de/roy$ b firm] tissue betwe5 ! d>k utt]ly rott5 & ! :ite & /ill firm heal?y fle%4 ,! pr9cipal ag5t 9 ! de/ruction ( ! tissues is ,clo/ridium1 an ana]obic bacillus :i* consumes ! cell-walls b leaves ! />* intact4 ,h5ce a ?or\ghly decompos$ tub] consi/s ( a cork bag full ( />* & foetid liquid4 ,9 ! dri$ condition ! fle% %[s a br[n m>bl+2 ?is passes into a s(t s\py />*y "p1 & "h & !re may be violet grey cavities l9$ ) ,spic>ia1 ,hypomyces1 etc41 ! :ite /romata ( ! latt] (t5 appe>+ ext]nally4 ,! excavations are fill$ ) loose />* gra9s1 & b\nd$ by cork & cambium =m$ 9 ! p]iph]al cells4 ,! cell-walls ev5tually und]go slimy decomposition4 ,spic>ia1 ,fusisporium1 v>i\s m\lds1 & bact]ia may all be associat$ ) wet-rot4 ,dry-rot ( ,potatoes is also due to v>i\s fungi & bact]ia1 b ! de/ructive action goes on sl[ly1 ow+ to !re be+ no m moi/ure ?an ! tissues af=d4 ,! fle% becomes excavat$ "h & !re1 ow+ to ! sl[ de/ruction ( ! cell-walls by ,clo/ridium3 ! de/roy$ tissues are br[n1 & ! un9jur$ />* gra9s p[d] !m all ov]4 ,f9ally ! :ole %runk5 mass has a crumbly consi/5cy4 ,:5 ! fle% rema9s :ite1 b assumes a p[d]y consi/5cy & dry-rot1 ) ! cork de/roy$ "h & !re1 ,frank ref]s ! damage to ,phellomyces4 ,:]e ! dry-rot is due to ,fus>ium ! *alk-:ite /romata may (t5 be detect$ break+ ?r\gh ! p]id]m2 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! soil-contam9at$1 brok5 sk9 ( a potato-tub] is a fav\rable lurk+ spot = _m fungi1 & ,p]iola1 ,acro/alagmus1 & o!rs h be5 detect$ !re94 ,br[n spots1 depress$ into ! fle%1 sometimes result f ! ravages ( ,tyl5*us1 ! m9ute worms be+ f\nd 9 ! diseas$ tissues4 ,9 "s cases ! fle% turns wat]y & s(t1 grey1 almo/ glass-l1 />t+ at ! haulm end1 & ?is may be ow+ to ! invasion ( ,rhizoctonia4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,! rott+ ( bulbs1 roots1 etc41 has be5 mu* discuss$ dur+ ! la/ few ye>s 9 ! pages ( ! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle1 ,zeits*rift fu] ,pflanz5kh41 & else:]e4 ,! pr9cipal ref]5ces to ,bact]iosis--! rot 9 :i* bact]ia are /at$ to be ! prim>y ag5t caus+ ^! & simil> diseases--may be f\nd 9 ,massee1 ,diseases ( ,plants1 pp4 #cch-cdb1 & m fully 9 ,russell1 ,bact]ia 9 _! ,relation to ,vegetable ,tissue1 ,baltimore1 #ahib2 & 9 ,migula1 ,kritis*e ,ueb]si*t d]j5ig5 ,pflanz5-krankheit51 wel*e ,angebli* dur* ,bakt]i5 v]ursa*t w]d51 ,sem>ang1 #ahib4 ,! mo/ conv9c+ acc\nts1 h[ev]1 are s9ce t date2 see ,smi?1 ,pseudomonas ,campe/ris1 ,c5t4 f4 ,bakt41 ,b4 ,,iii41 #ahig1 p4 #bhd1 & ,ar?ur & ,bolley1 ,bact]iosis ( ,c>nations1 ,p]due ,univ]sity ,agr4 ,expt4 ,/ation1 #ahif1 ,vol4 ,,vii41 p4 #ag4 ,woods has lately %[n t ?is disease is due to ,aphides only1 ! bact]ia hav+ no?+ to d ) ! disease prim>ily1 ,/igmonose1 ,bull4 #ai1 ,u4,s4 ,dept4 ,agr41 #aijj2 b x is necess>y to be> 9 m9d t actual p5etration ( ! cell-walls f )\t mu/ be prov$1 z ,de ,b>y prov$ x = g]m-tubes ( fungi1 be=e ! evid5ce t ,bact]ia are truly p>asitic 9 liv+ plants c be call$ decisive4 ,?is is a difficult matt]1 b until x is settl$ we d n "k :e!r ^! organisms are really p>asitic 9 ! s5se t ,phytoph?ora is1 or m]ely ga9 access by o!r means--,i h trac$ !m ?r\gh dead fungus-hyphae--to ! vessels1 dead cell-walls1 etc4 ,! pro( ( infection via wat] pores & vessels is giv5 = "o species by ,h>d+1 ,die ,s*w>ze ,faulnis d] ,kohls1 etc41 ,c5t4 f4 ,bakt41 ,abh4 ,,ii41 ,b4 ,,vi41 #aijj1 p4 #cje1 ) lit]ature4 ,conc]n+ ! ,damp+ (f ( se$l+s1 see ,m>%all ,w>d1 ,obs]vations on ! ,g5us ,py?ium1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,microsc4 ,soc41 ,vol4 ,,xxiii41 #ahhc1 p4 #dhe1 & ,atk9son1 ,bull4 #id ( ,cornell ,univ]sity ,agric4 ,expt4 ,/ation1 #ahie1 p4 #bcc4 ,on ,bact]iosis 9 ,turnips1 see ,pott]1 ,proc4 ,r4 ,s4 #aija1 ,vol4 ,,lxvii41 p4 #ddb4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,necrotic ,,diseases4 ,pat*es--,fro/-pat*es--,bruis+ due to hail1 %ot1 etc4-- ,fire--,sun-burn or scor*+--,sun-cracks4 ,dy+-back--,fro/-- ,fungi--,w\nd fungi--,defoliation by insects--,defoliation by h&--,/aghead4 ,necrosis4--,?is is a g5]al t]m = cases :]e ! tissues gradually turn br[n or black 9 pat*es :i* die & dry up1 ! dead area sometimes spread+ sl[ly & invad+ ! usually %>ply dem>cat$ heal?y tissues ar\nd4 ,x is a common ph5om5on on ! m sl5d] /ems or bran*es ( trees1 especially ^? ) a ?9 cortex1 & ! t]ms ,br& or ,scor*+ sometimes appli$ signify ! recognis$ resemblance betwe5 burnt pat*es & ^! dead areas ( necrotic tissue4 ,necrosis is (t5 due to fro/1 :i* kills ! cortex ( ,pe>s1 ,bee*1 etc41 9 pat*es ( ?is k9d4 ,! dead cortex & cambium /ick to ! wood b5ea? & contract z !y dry4 ,! liv+ cambium & cortex ar\nd !m !n beg9 to pu% 9 callus t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! necrotic area2 b s9ce ?is callus is =m$ "u ! pressure ( ! cortical tissues x does n =m a ?ick lip or m>g9 to ! heal+ w\nd1 z x does 9 a ,cank]1 b ins9uates itself ) ?9n$-(f edges betwe5 ! wood & ! dead tissue1 or at mo/ traps a little ( ! latt] 9 ! f9al clos+ up ( ! w\nd4 ,x is easy to see h[ su* an area ( ,necrosis may become a ,cank] if ! dead tissues split or sl\gh (f1 & fungi or insects obta9 access to ! callus at ! m>g9s ( ! area1 sett+ up ! di/urbances describ$ on p4 #bbb4 ,z matt] ( fact _m ,cank]s--e4g4 ^? ( ! ,l>* disease1 & ^? due to ,nectria1 or ,aphides1 etc4--(t5 beg9 z flatt5$ or depress$ areas ( ,necrosis />t$ by fro/1 & _m small necrotic pat*es w\ld ev5tually become ,cank]s if n heal$ up by ! callus4 ,necrosis may also be due to ! bruis+ ( ! tissues by l>ge hail/ones1 to gun-%ot w\nds1 or to any =m ( contusion :i* kills ! liv+ cells ( cortex & cambium4 ,necrosis is a natural & common result ( fire1 & x frequ5tly happ5s aft] =e/-fires :i* h run rapidly ?r\gh ! dry und]wood1 fann$ by /eady w9ds1 t ! l[] p>ts ( ! boles are scor*$ on "o side only4 ,! kill$ cambium & cortex !n dry up 9 black necrotic pat*es1 :i* may ev5tually heal up by intrusion ( callus f ! un9jur$ p>ts4 ,sun-burn or ,scor*+4--,if ?9-b>k$ trees1 su* z ,hornbeam1 ,bee*1 ,firs1 etc41 :i* h be5 gr[+ 9 p>tial %ade ow+ to d5se plant+1 are sudd5ly isolat$ by ?9n+1 ! imp+em5t ( ! sun's rays on ! s\?-we/ side dur+ ! hotte/ "p ( summ] days may kill ! cambium1 & produce necrosis ( ! cortical tissues1 & su* necrotic pat*es heal v sl[ly or n at all1 because ! dead tissues h contract$ s tightly on to ! wood bel[ t ! callus _c readily creep betwe54 ,sun-cracks are due to int5se insolation on ! s\? side ( trees 9 cle> wea!r 9 e>ly spr+1 caus+ ! dry+ & contraction ( ! wood & its cov]+s d[n t side ( ! tree3 ! contract$ tissues consequ5tly split1 z 9 ! case ( fro/-cracks1 ! heal+ up ( :i* is v simil>4 ,dy+-back4--,all t is true ( ! necrosis ( cortical tissues 9 small pat*es also applies to cases :]e ! :ole ( ! out] tissues ( ?9 twigs & bran*es die ( inanition ow+ to a premature fall ( leaves--e4g4 aft] a sev]e attack ( "s insect or fungus pe/4 ,! consequ5t arre/ ( ! transpiration curr5t & ! prop] supply ( nutrim5t to ! cambium & cortex expla9 ! ph5om5a4 ,! y\ng] bran*es ( ,c(fee trees suff]+ f sev]e attacks ( leaf-disease are (t5 d5ud$ ( leaves & die back f ! causes m5tion$1 ! :ole ( ! out] tissues becom+ necrotic1 & dry+ up tight on to ! wood1 because o!r bran*es ) functionally active leaves on !m div]t ! transpiration curr5t1 & dr\ght & inanition sup]v5e4 ,dy+-back is frequ5tly also a direct effect ( e>ly fro/s1 :i* kill ! ?9 twigs be=e ! wood is rip5$1 z g>d5]s say4 ,dy+-back is also a frequ5t result ( direct fro/ action on ?9 wat]y %oots or unripe wood1 & is apt to occur e ye> 9 c]ta9 v>ieties ( ,roses1 = in/ance1 9 p>ticul> situations1 su* z fro/-b$s1 or aspects expos$ to cutt+ w9ds1 & s =?4 ,! necrosis :i* results may affect all ! tissues1 or only ! cortex & cambium1 & ! frequ5t accompanim5t ( all k9ds ( saprophytic ,ascomycetes & m\lds or o!r fungi is 9 no way causal to ! ph5om5on4 ,dy+-back may also be caus$ by fungi1 & n necess>ily p>asites1 = cases are (t5 obs]v$ :]e saprophytes only are to be f\nd 9 ! necrotic tissues ( ! cortex1 hav+ made _! way 9 ?r\gh m9ute cracks1 l5ticels1 etc4 ,a simple case is (t5 se5 9 ,*rysan!mums1 ,roses1 etc41 *ill$ & wett$ to dang] po9t1 b n froz51 dur+ ! nights ( autumn4 ,! l[]$ resi/ance ( ! *ill$ tissues enables fungi l ,botrytis c9]ea to ga9 a hold1 & ! p$uncles die-back ) all ! symptoms ( ,necrosis1 ! fungus ga9+ p[] m & m z its mycelium spreads 9 ! dead tissues4 ,_m o!r cases are kn[n :]e w\nd-fungi1 su* z ,nectria1 ,cucurbit>ia1 ,phoma1 etc41 9 !mselves incapable ( true p>asitism1 ga9 a hold on ! necrotic tissue ( a w\nd$ twig1 & hav+ labori\sly accumulat$ a vigor\s mycelium saprophytically1 ext5d into o!r p>ts4 ,9 _m ( ^! cases ! dy+-back ( ! twigs is exp$it$ ow+ to ! mycelium invad+ ! m$ull>y rays & wood vessels1 & s ob/ruct+ ! transpiration curr5t4 ,! mu* m rapid spread ( ! hyphae up into ! p>ts ?us kill$ suffici5tly indicates ! fundam5tally saprophytic "* ( su* fungi4 ,dy+-back 9 all its =ms is a common result ( defoliation by insects1 e4g4 cat]pill>s1 especially if x occurs :5 ! wood is deplet$ ( res]ve mat]ials1 & ?us _c supply ! auxili>y buds & enable ! twigs to clo! !mselves ) a new flu% ( foliage1 a common dang] 9 ,conif]s4 ,any =m ( defoliation--e4g4 excessive pluck+ ( tea & mulb]ry leaves1 br[s+ ( animals1 etc4--exposes ! twigs to ! dang]s ( dy+-back1 ! accessory ph5om5a be+ simil> to ^? already describ$4 ,/ag-head4--,old trees1 ?\gh vigor\s & 9 full foliage ?r\gh\t ! cr[n g5]ally1 frequ5tly lose ! p[] ( be>+ leaves on _! topmo/ bran*es & twigs1 :i* /& out b>e & br[n1 & fancifully resemble ! antl]s ( a /ag3 h5ce ! =e/]'s "n /ag-head4 ,?is top-dry condition is frequ5tly due to ! removal ( litt]1 or to excessive dra9+1 or to ! roots hav+ gradually p5etrat$ into unsuitable soil4 ,! consequ5ce is t "s dry summ] ! dr\ght causes ! breakage ( ! wat] columns above1 & ! twigs die back4 ,tropical trees may also become /ag-head$ ow+ to ! attacks ( ,loran?us & o!r p>asites1 ! portions above ! po9t ( atta*m5t dy+ back f inanition4 ,cases also occur 9 ! tropics :]e ! /ag-head condition is due to ! p]si/5t roo/+ ( frugif]\s bats--fly+ foxes--:i* te> ! b>k & foliage ) _! claws1 & bef\l ! twigs g5]ally4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,! pr9cipal lit]ature z reg>ds fro/ is giv5 9 ! works ( ,frank1 ,sorau]1 & ,h>tig already ref]r$ to4 ,an excell5t summ>y w be f\nd 9 ,h>tig's ,diseases ( ,trees1 p4 #bhb1 & 9 ,fi%] ,=e/ ,protection1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 or ,s*li*'s ,manual1 p4 #dbc4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,mon/rosities ,,& ,,mal=mations4 ,mon/rosities--,t]atology--,atrophy ( organs--,%ank+ ( grapes--,b>r5 fruit trees--,dw>f+--,di/ortions & mal=mations--,fasciations--,flatt5$ roots--,torsions--,curl+ & puck]+--,leaf roll+--,s-call$ spontane\s t]atological *anges4 ,mon/rosities4--,9 a wide s5se ?is t]m is applicable to _m cases "h treat$ "u o!r head+s1 & signifies any dep>ture f ! normal /&>d ( size1 =m1 arrangem5t1 or numb] ( p>ts1 & s =?1 due to arre/ ( gr[?1 excessive gr[? ( p>ts1 or ( ! :ole organs1 etc4 ,su* t]atological conditions are h[ev] by no means always pa?ological3 t is to say1 !y may be v>iations :i* d n ?reat5 ! exi/5ce ( ! plant4 ,9 "s cases !y are cle>ly due to exub]ant nutrition1 & al?\gh !y may occasionally pr$ispose to disease1 9 o!rs !y %[ no evid5ce ( do+ s4 ,! :ole practice ( horticulture & agriculture ab\nds 9 examples ( t]atological sports or v>ieties :i* are transmissible by se$s1 budd+ & graft+1 & o!r means--e4g4 d\ble fl[]s1 hyp]trophi$ floral organs 7caulifl[]s71 se$less grapes & oranges1 cre/$ f]ns1 etc42 & ev5 :5 su* v>ieties c\ld n live z su* 9 a /ate ( nature1 !re is evid5ce to %[ t _m ( !m readily rev]t to ! orig9al se$-be>+ or s+le condition1 & adapt !mselves to ! alt]$ environm5t4 ,e "p ( ! plant may exhibit t]atological *anges1 & ,i %all = ! mo/ "p select cases 9 illu/ration :i* indicate approa* to pa?ological /ates1 & gr\p ) !m cases kn[n to be pa?ological 9 orig94 ,atrophy is a common ph5om5on d5ot+ dw9dl+ or r$uctions 9 size ( organs due to insuffici5t nutrition1 or arre/ ( gr[? f v>i\s causes4 ,atrophy ( leaves is a common result ( ! attacks ( p>asitic fungi1 ev5 :5 ! latt] induce local hyp]trophy--i4e4 excessive gr[? ( p>ticul> p>ts1 e4g4 ,syn*ytrium on ,d&elions & ,anemones4 ,pucc9ia suaveol5s causes p>tial atrophy ( ! leaves ( ,?i/les1 ,aecidium ,euphorbiae ( ^? ( ,euphorbia4 ,! c>pels ( ,anemone are atrophi$ 9 plants attack$ by ,aecidium1 & ! :ole fl[] is suppress$ 9 ,*]ries infe/$ ) ,exoascus ,c]asi1 :ile o!r fungi--e4g4 ,cy/opus1 ,exoasci1 etc4--cause atrophy ( ! se$s1 & num]\s in/ances ( atrophi$ gra9 occur 9 plants infe/$ ) ,u/ilag9eae4 ,atrophy ( ! gra9s ( c]eals is sometimes due to ! direct attack ( animals1 e4g4 eel-worms 7,tyl5*us7 eat out ! gra9s ( ,corn2 weevils & o!r beetles 7,curculio1 ,bru*us1 etc47 simil>ly dev\r ! cont5ts ( gra9 & nuts1 ! fl[]s ( ,peas & ,apples1 & s =?1 induc+ atrophy ( ! p>ts left4 ,/ill m /rik+ cases are af=d$ by small insects :i* bore into ! halms ( c]eals1 & cause atrophy ( ! :ole e>--e4g4 ,cephus 9 ,:eat & ,rye4 ,b>ley occasionally )]s aft] fl[]+1 ! gra9 atrophy+ f no kn[n cause1 t]ms l consumption giv5 to ! disease convey+ no in=mation4 ,atrophy ( "y fruits is commonly due to ! fl[]s n sett+--i4e4 "s ag5t has int]f]$ ) ! normal transf]5ce ( ! poll5 to ! /igma4 ,?is may be due to excessive ra9 wa%+ out ! poll5 7e4g4 ,v9e71 to a lack ( ! necess>y insects :i* effect poll9ation1 (t5 se5 9 gre5h\se plants2 to ! /am5s be+ b>r5--e4g4 c]ta9 v>ieties ( ,v9e--or to ! premature de/ruction ( ! /igmas by fro/1 z 9 ,*]ries1 ,pe>s1 etc41 or by insects1 z 9 ,apples1 or fungi1 e4g4 ! infection ( bilb]ries ) ,scl]ot9ia2 or ev5 by poison\s gases1 z is sometimes se5 9 ,:eat1 etc41 gr[+ ne> alkali works4 ,dr\ght is also a common cause ( atrophy ( "y ,plums4 ,%ank+ ( ,grapes is a p>ticul> case ( atrophy & droop+ ( ! immature fruits1 due to ! supplies be+ cut (f by "s ag5cy4 ,x may arise f v v>i\s causes :i* br+ ab\t disease 9 ! leaves or roots1 & %\ld always be look$ ^u z a sign ( weakness 9 ! ,v9e1 ! /ructure ( :i* is affect$1 e4g4 poor wood--or ! functions int]f]$ )1 e4g4 wat] supplies defici5t ow+ to paucity ( roots4 ,b>r5 ,apple1 ,pe>1 ,plum1 & o!r fl[]s are (t5 f\nd to h be5 bor$ ?r\gh ! petals :ile 9 bud1 & ! :ole he>t ( ! fl[] eat5 out by ! grubs ( ,an?onomus1 leav+ ! unop5$ buds br[n & dead1 z if kill$ by fro/ or dr\ght1 & (t5 errone\sly suppos$ to be s4 ,! wilt+ & %rivell+ ( ,clov] is sometimes due to ,scl]ot9ia1 ! mycelium ( :i* p]vades ! roots & /ock1 on :i* ! scl]otia may be f\nd4 ,luc]ne is simil>ly kill$ 9 ,europe by ! b>r5 mycelium ( ,leptospha]ia1 :i* may be f\nd z a purple mat on ! roots4 ,dw>f+ consi/s 9 p>tial atrophy ( all ! organs1 & is a common result ( />vation 9 poor1 dry1 %all[ soils1 z may (t5 be se5 9 ! case ( we$s on walls or 9 /ony places4 ,dw>fs :i* are ?us develop$ 9 consequ5ce ( p]5nial dr\ght are n1 h[ev]1 necess>ily diseas$1 9 ! m specific s5se ( ! ^w2 _! organs are r$uc$ 9 size proportionally ?r\gh\t 9 adaptation to ! conditions1 & simply c>ry out _! functions on a small] scale4 ,dw>f+ is frequ5tly a consequ5ce ( ! lack ( food mat]ials1 or ( "s p>ticul> +r$i5t 9 ! soil1 & 9 su* cases is a diseas$ condition ( "s dang]2 simil> results may ensue 9 soils conta9+ ! necess>y *emical elem5ts1 b 9 unavailable =ms4 ,dw>f+ may also be br\ght ab\t by repeat$ maim+1 nipp+ (f ! buds1 prun+1 etc41 z 9 ! m9iature trees ( ! ,japanese2 & ! case ( trees cont9ually br[s$ d[n by cattle1 or ( moor plants p]5nially dw>f$ by cutt+ w9ds1 are fur!r illu/rations 9 ! same category1 z are also ^? ( c]ta9 alp9e & mora9e plants1 ^: only *ance ( survival dep5ds on _! adapt+ !mselves to ! repeat$ prun+s suff]$ by e "y %oot :i* rises into ! cutt+ w9ds1 s9ce !re is no "q ( lack ( food-mat]ials 9 ^! cases4 ,! practice ( ! ,japanese is to p9* out ! gr[+ tips ( ! %oots :]ev] !y wi% to prune back1 & x is by ! judici\s use ( ?is head+ 91 & suitable pot-culture1 t ! dw>fs are made1 #f-bj in*es high at f #cj-hj ye>s old4 ,dw>f+ is (t5 br\ght ab\t by graft+ on a sl[-gr[+ /ock1 & ?is me?od is employ$ 9 practice1 z are also head+ 91 prun+ ( roots1 & conf9em5t 9 pots4 ,dw>f+ may also be due to poor or %rivell$--p>tially atrophi$--se$s or su* z h _h _! endosp]ms or embryos injur$ by insects or fungi1 & al?\gh x is possible to nurse su* dw>fs into normal & vigor\s plants ) good culture1 !y d n usually recov] "u natural conditions 9 competition ) m vigor\s plants4 ,di/ortions or ,mal=mations may be def9$ z abnormalities 9 ! =m ( organs :i* conc]n all1 or ne>ly all ! p>ts1 & d n ref] m]ely to swell+s or excresc5ces on !m or excavations1 etc41 9 !m4 ,fasciation4--,%oots ( ,asp>agus1 ,p9e1 ,a%1 & _m o!r plants are occasionally exp&$ into broad ribbon-l /ructures (t5 /udd$ ) m ?an ! normal numb] ( buds or leaves1 etc41 su* z w\ld be f\nd on ! usual cyl9drical %oots4 ,su* fasciations are due to sev]al buds fus+ lat]ally "u compression :5 "y & ! :ole mass gr[+ up 9 common1 or1 9 a few cases1 to ! unilat]al ov]gr[? ( "o side ( ! t]m9al bud4 ,fasciations appe> to dep5d on excessive nutrition 9 ri* soils4 ,!y may spread out above 9 a fan-l mann]1 exagg]at+ ! abnormality1 or !y may rev]t to ! orig9al =m4 ,"s cases are m or less fix$ by h]$ity--e4g4 ,celosia4 ,fasciat$ /ems are frequ5tly curv$ l a crozi]1 ow+ to "o edge gr[+ m rapidly ?an ! o!r4 ,caulifl[]s are really cultivat$ mon/rosities4 ,fasciat$ ,d&elions1 ,crepis1 mon/r\s ,*rysan!mums1 peloric ,l9>ia1 five-leav$ ,clov]s1 spiral ,teazels1 etc41 may all1 if gr[n ) c>e1 be kept m or less con/ant 9 ! mon/r\s /ate4 ,t is to say1 ! p>ticul> k9ds ( v>iation "h manife/$ c be ma9ta9$ 9 proportion z ! ext]nal conditions controll+ ! v>iation are ma9ta9$4 ,su* conditions are *iefly ri* supplies ( food-/uffs1 pl5ty ( wat] & air1 suitable temp]ature & light+1 etc4 ,mutilations1 fav\r+ ! developm5t ( abnormal buds may also induce fasciations4 ,torsions or spiral twi/+s ( /ems also frequ5tly arise among plants gr[n 9 ri* soils1 & are (t5 comb9$ ) fasciations--e4g4 ,asp>agus1 ,dipsacus2 & ,de ,vries has %[n t ! peculi>ity is n only transmissible by se$1 b may be m or less fix$ by appropriate culture4 ,contortions ( /ems are (t5 due to ! unequal gr[? on diff]5t sides ( ! /ems ow+ to ! pres5ce ( fungi--e4g4 ,caeoma on ,p9es1 ,aecidium on ,nettles1 also ,pucc9ia on petioles ( ,mall[1 ,cy/opus on infloresc5ces ( ,capsella1 etc4 ,di/ortions ( roots may be br\ght ab\t 9 v>i\s ways by ! h9drances af=d$ by /ones4 ,spiral roots occur occasionally 9 pot plants4 ,flatt5$ roots usually result f compression betwe5 rocks1 ! "y root hav+ p5etrat$ into a crevice1 & be5 compell$ to adapt itself lat]4 ,! di/ortions ( /ems by con/rict+ climb]s1 wire1 etc41 h be5 describ$1 & fruits--e4g4 ,g\rds--are easily di/ort$ by means ( /r+ ti$ r\nd !m :5 "y4 ,di/ortions ( leaves are v common1 & are sometimes t]atological--i4e4 due to no kn[n cause--e4g4 ! pit*]-l or hood-l cucullate leaves ( ! ,lime1 ,cabbage1 ,pel>gonium1 etc41 & ( fus$ pairs 9 ,crassula4 ,also coh]5t1 bifurcate1 cre/$1 displac$ & twi/$ leaves occasionally met )1 & 9 "s cases fix$ by cultivation1 may be plac$ 9 ?is category4 ,puck]s mu/ be di/+ui%$ f pu/ules1 s9ce !y consi/ 9 local uprais+s ( ! :ole tissue1 n swell+s--e4g4 ! yell[i% gre5 pockets on ,walnut leaves1 due to ,phyll]eum4 ,puck]$ leaves 9 :i* ! area ( mesophyll betwe5 ! v5ation is increas$ by ris+ up 9 an ar*$ or dome-l mann] are sometimes br\ght ab\t by excessive moi/ure 9 a conf9$ space4 ,leaf-curl is a simil> de=mation caus$ by fungi1 su* z ,exoascus on ,pea*es4 ,wr9kl+ or puck]+ ( leaves is also a common symptom ( ! "w ( ,aphides--e4g4 ,hops4 ,*>act]i/ic curl+ & puck]+1 ) yell[ & orange t9ts1 ( ! t]m9al leaves ( ,apples1 ,pe>s1 etc41 are due to insects ( ! g5]a ,aphis1 ,psylla1 etc4 ,small r$ & yell[ spots ) puck]+s & curl+s ( ! "y leaves ( ,pe>s1 ! spots turn+ d>k] lat] on1 are due to ,phytoptus4 ,leaf-roll+4--,! leaves ( ,bee*es1 ,popl>s1 ,limes1 & _m o!r plants1 in/ead ( op5+ out flat1 are (t5 roll$ 9 f ! m>g9s1 or f ! apex1 by v>i\s species ( ,phytoptus1 ,cecidomyia1 or o!r insects1 :i* puncture or irritate ! epid]mis 9 ! "y /ages & s arre/ its expansion 9 proportion to ! o!r tissues4 ,accord+ z ! l[] or upp] surface is attack$ ! roll+ is f ! morphologically upp] surface d[nw>ds1 or vice v]sa4 ,v (t5 ! mesophyll is some:at ?ick5$ :]e roll$ & ,er9eum-l hairs may be develop$--e4g4 ,lime4 ,_m cat]pill>s also roll leaves1 draw+ ! m>g9s inw>d to =m %elt]s--e4g4 ,tortrix viridana1 ! ,oak leaf-roll]4 ,c]ta9 beetles--,rhyn*itis--also roll up sev]al leaves to =m a %elt] 9 :i* ! eggs are laid4 ,webs are =m$ among ! mutilat$ leaves ( ,apples by ! cat]pill>s ( ,hyponomeuta4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t in/ances c be f\nd ( t]atological *ange ( e organ 9 ! plant--e4g4 /am5s trans=m$ into c>pels or into petals2 an!rs p>tly poll9if]\s & p>tly ovulif]\s2 ovules produc+ poll5 9 _! int]ior1 & s on1 be+ simply a few />tl+ examples ( :at may happ54 ,su* abnormalities are frequ5tly reg>d$ z evid5ce ( int]nal causes ( disease1 & ?is may be true 9 giv5 cases2 9 a numb] ( cases inve/igat$1 h[ev]1 x has be5 %[n t ext]nal ag5ts ( v def9ite nature br+ ab\t j su* de=mations z ^? sometimes cit$ z examples ( t]atology due to int]nal causes1 & ! "q is at lea/ an op5 "o :e!r _m o!r cases w n also fall into ?is category4 ,! /udy ( galls has %[n t insects c induce ! =mation ( n only v extraord9>y outgr[?s ( tissues & organs already 9 exi/5ce1 b ev5 ( new =mations & ( tissue elem5ts n f\nd else:]e 9 ! plant or ev5 9 its allies2 & ,solms' inve/igations on ,u/ilago ,treubii %[ t fungi c d ! same1 & ev5 compel new tissues1 :i* ! /imulat+ effects ( ! hyphae h driv5 ! plant to develop1 to take "p 9 rais+ & di/ribut+ ! spores ( ! fungus--i4e4 to assume functions = ! b5efit ( ! p>asite4 ,molli>d has giv5 in/ances ( mites ^: irritat+ pres5ce 9 fl[]s causes !m to und]go t]atological de=mations1 & ,peyrits* has %[n t ! pres5ce ( mites 9 fl[]s induces trans=mations ( petals into sepals1 /am5s into petals4 ,simil>ly ,de ,b>y1 ,molli>d1 ,magnus1 ,mang91 & ,gi>d h giv5 num]\s cases ( ! trans=mation ( floral organs "o into ano!r "u ! irritat+ action ( fungi1 ( :i* ! trans=mation ( normally unisexual 7female7 fl[]s into h]maphrodite ones1 by ! production ( /am5s n o!rwise f\nd !re1 are among ! mo/ rem>kable4 ,^! & simil> examples suffice to awak5 d\bts z to :e!r any t]atological *ange really arises spontane\sly1 especially :5 we le>n h[ slight a me*anical irritation ( ! gr[+ po9t may induce *anges 9 ! fl[]2 e4g4 ,sa*s %[$ t a sunfl[] head is pr(\ndly alt]$ by prick+ ! c5tre ( ! torus1 & ,molli>d got d\ble fl[]s by me*anical irritation4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,= ! details & classification ( ! multitude ( facts1 ! /ud5t is ref]r$ to ,ma/]s' ,vegetable ,t]atology1 ,ray ,society1 #ahfi1 & ! pages ( ! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle s9ce t date4 ,conc]n+ torsions1 etc41 ! /ud5t %\ld read ,de ,vries1 ,on ,bia/repsis 9 its ,relation to ,cultivation1 ,ann4 ( ,bot41 ,vol4 ,,xiii41 #ahii1 p4 #cie1 & ,hybridis+ ( ,mon/rosities1 ,hybrid ,conf]5ce ,report1 ,roy4 ,hort4 ,soc41 #aijj1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv41 p4 #fi4 ,! read] w f9d an excell5t acc\nt ( ! abnormalities 9 fl[]s due to ! action ( p>asitic insects & fungi 9 ,molli>d1 ,cecidies ,florales1 ,ann4 des ,sc4 ,nat41 ,s]4 ,,viii41 ,bot41 ,t4 #a1 #ahie1 p4 #fg4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,prolif]ations4 ,prolif]ations--,vivip>y--,prolepsis--,l ammas %oots--,dormant buds--,epicormic %oots--,adv5titi\s buds--,apospory & apogamy4 ,prolif]ation consi/s 9 ! unexpect$ & abnormal on-gr[+ or budd+ out ( p>ts--/ems1 tub]s1 fl[]s1 fruits1 etc4--:i* 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( ev5ts w\ld h ceas$ to gr[ fur!r or to be> buds or leaf-tufts directly4 ,?us we d n expect a ,/rawb]ry--! swoll5 floral axis--to be> a tuft ( leaves t]m9ally above ! a*5es1 b x occasionally does s1 & simil>ly ,pe>s may be f\nd ) a t]m9al tuft ( leaves1 ,roses ) ! c5tre gr[+ out z a %oot1 ,planta9s 7,plantago7 ) panicles 9 place ( simple spikes1 & s on4 ,we reg>d su* cases z t]atological1 because !y are exceptional = ! p>ticul> species1 & z pa?ological because !y appe> to be connect$ ) ov]-fe$+ 9 soils ) excessive supplies ( available food-mat]ials2 b x %\ld be not$ t conditions q comp>able to prolif]ation are normal 9 ! infloresc5ces ( ,p9e-apples1 "s ,myrtaceae1 ,conif]s1 etc41 & t _m in/ances ( prolif]ations come "u ! head ( injuri\s actions ( fungi1 insects1 & o!r ag5ts4 ,prolif]ation ( tub]s is sometimes se5 9 ,potatoes /ill atta*$ to ! p>5t plant 9 wet wea!r foll[+ a dr\ght4 ,! eyes gr[ out into ?9 /olons1 or =?) into new tub]s sessile on ! old tub]4 ,simil>ly 9 /ore we sometimes f9d ! eyes trans=m$ directly into new tub]s1 & cases occur :]e ! gr[? ( ! eye is direct$ backw>ds into ! s(t5+ tub]1 & a small potato is =m$ inside ! p>5t "o4 ,?read+ is also occasionally met ) 9 ! sets :5 rip5$ too rapidly 9 hot dry soils4 ,vivip>y is a p>ticul> case ( prolif]ation1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 :]e ! se$s appe> to g]m9ate 9 situ1 & we h small plants spr++ f ! fl[]s1 rem9d+ u ( :eat :i* has spr\t$ 9 ! %ocks 9 damp wea!r4 ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 ! gra9s are "h replac$ by bulbils :i* spr\t be=e !y sep>ate f ! infloresc5ce4 ,9 v>ieties ( ,poa1 ,polygonum1 ,allium1 ,gagea1 etc41 ?is ph5om5on is con/ant 9 plants gr[+ 9 damp situations4 ,prolepsis4--,x frequ5tly happ5s t bran*es or :ole plants are sudd5ly defoliat$ 9 summ]1--e4g4 by cat]pill>s or o!r insects--at a "t :5 consid]able /ores ( res]ves _h already be5 accumulat$ dur+ ! p]iod ( active assimilation4 ,9 su* cases ! axill>y buds1 :i* w\ld normally h pass$ into a dormant condition ov] ! w9t] _h ! leaves liv$ till ! autumn-fall1 sudd5ly %oot out into proleptic %oots 7also t]m$ ,lammas %oots71 & reclo! ! tree ) foliage4 ,! wood ( ! ye> 9 :i* ?is occurs may exhibit a d\ble annual r+1 & ! vig\r ( ! tree is likely to suff] 9 ! foll[+ season & no fruit be matur$4 ,proleptic bran*es may also be due to ! %oot+ out ( accessory buds--i4e4 extra buds f\nd 9 or ne> ! leaf-axils ( _m plants1 su* z ,will[1 ,maples1 ,c]cis1 ,rob9ia1 ,syr+a1 ,ari/olo*ia1 etc4--:i* d n normally come to any?+1 or d s only if a surplus ( food mat]ials is provid$4 ,dormant buds1 or prev5titi\s buds1 are su* z receive no suffici5t supply ( wat] & food mat]ials to enable !m to op5 ) ! o!r buds 9 ord9>y ye>s1 = 9 mo/ trees only ! upp] buds on ! bran*es develop into new %oots4 ,! l[] buds d n die1 h[ev]1 b m]ely keep pace ) ! gr[? 9 ?ickness ( ! p>5t bran*1 & may be elongat$ suffici5tly ea* ye> to raise ! m9ute tips level ) ! b>k1 _! prop] cambium only rema9+ alive b n ?ick5+ ! bud4 ,:51 by ! break+ ( ! bran* above ! ins]tion ( ! dormant bud--or by prun+1 defoliation by insects1 etc4--! transpiration curr5t & supplies ( food mat]ials are 9 any way deflect$ to ! m9ute cambium & gr[+ po9ts ( ! dormant buds1 !y are /imulat$ to normal gr[?1 & may gr[ out z epicormic %oots or %oots f ! old wood4 ,9 _m cases su* epicormic %oots are /imulat$ to gr[ out by sudd5ly expos+ an old tree to m fav\rable conditions ( root-action & assimilatory activity1 ow+ to ! fell+ ( compet+ trees :i* previ\sly hemm$ x 9 f light & air1 & re/rict$ ! spread & action ( its roots 9 ! soil4 ,?is is (t5 se5 9 old ,elms1 ,limes1 etc4 ,x is by su* means z ! above t sub/itution bran*es are obta9$ :5 a lead] is brok5 or cut away4 ,adv5titi\s buds are su* z are newly =m$ f callus or o!r tissues 9 places n normally provid$ ) buds1 z is (t5 se5 on occlud+ w\nds--e4g4 /ool %oots4 ,!y may also be develop$ on roots1 a fact utilis$ 9 propagat+ ,b\v>dias1 ,horse-radi%1 etc41 by means ( root-cutt+s1 & ! suck]s ( ,plums & o!r fruit trees are %oots spr++ f adv5titi\s buds on roots4 ,adv5titi\s buds are also common on leaves 7e4g4 ,bryophyllum1 ,f]ns1 etc471 & are frequ5tly induc$ on !m by w\nds--e4g4 ,gesn]ia1 ,glox9ia1 etc4 ,ev5 cut cotyl$ons may develop !m1 & pieces ( leafless infloresc5ce 7,hyac9?71 hypocotyl 7,anagallis71 & 9 fact practically any w\nd$ tissue ) a /ore ( res]ve mat]ials may be made to develop !m3 ?us !y h be5 f\nd aris+ f ! pi? ( ,sea-kale1 & are commonly develop$ f ! cut bulb scales ( ,hyac9?s4 ,apospory & ,apogamy are p>ticul> cases ( ! production ( vegetative buds on ! leaves 9 place ( sporangia 9 ,f]ns 7,apospory71 & on pro?allia 9 place ( ,ar*egonia 7,apogamy71 9 ! latt] case induc$ by dry conditions & /rong illum9ation4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,9 addition to ! lit]ature quot$ 9 ! notes to ,*apt] ,,xxvii41 ! /ud5t %\ld consult ! works on ,=e/ ,botany = ! scatt]$ in=mation reg>d+ adv5titi\s buds4 ,a good acc\nt may be f\nd 9 ,buesg51 ,bau und ,leb5 uns]] ,waldbaeume1 ,j5a1 #ahig4 ,= ,apospory & ,apogamy1 see ,lang ,on ,apogamy & ! ,developm5t ( ,sporangia ^u ,f]n ,pro?alli1 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 #aij1 #ahih1 p4 #ahg1 :]e ! lit]ature is collect$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,grafts4 ,graft+--,comp>ison ) cutt+s--,effects ( environm5t-- ,relations betwe5 scion & /ock--,v>iation 9 grafts-- ,graft+ & p>asitism--,infection--,poll9ation--,gra fts-hybrids --,pr$isposition ( ,natural grafts--,root-fusions4 ,graft+ is a process :i* consi/s 9 br++ ! cambium ( a %oot ( "o plant into direct union ) t ( ano!r1 & is practis$ 9 v>i\s ways1 ! commone/ ( :i* is z foll[s3 ,"o plant--! /ock--root$ 9 ! gr\nd1 is cut (f a %ort di/ance above ! surface ( ! soil1 & a %oot f ! second plant--! scion--cut (f obliquely ) a %>p knife1 is ins]t$ into a cleft 9 ! /ock1 s t ! two cambiums 7& sometimes ! cortex & pi? ( ea* z well7 are 9 close contact3 ! scion is !n ti$ 9 position1 ! w\nds cov]$ ) graft+ wax1 & ! :ole left until union ( ! tissues is complet$4 ,?is union dep5ds on ! =mation ( callus at ! cut surfaces1 & ! intimate union ( ! +r[+ cells f ea* callus4 ,! developm5t ( ! callus foll[s ! c\rse describ$ = w\nds1 cutt+s1 etc41 & ! union is exactly comp>able to ! union ( ! two lips ( a heal+ callus ov] a w\nd 7see p4 #aig74 ,graft+ 0 kn[n & practis$ f> back 9 ! ages4 ,virgil 0 well acqua9t$ ) ! process1 & ,!ophra/us comp>$ x ) propagation by cutt+s4 ,! scion diff]s f a cutt+1 h[ev]1 9 hav+ no roots ( its own3 x is p>asitic ^u1 or r is 9 symbiosis ) ! /ock1 ! root & tissues ( :i* int]v5e betwe5 x & ! soil4 ,consequ5tly ! selective absorption1 size & numb] ( vessels1 & innum]able o!r physiological & anatomical peculi>ities ( ! /ock det]m9e :at & h[ mu* %all g up into ! scion1 :ile ! latt] supplies ! =m] ) organic mat]ials & rules :at & h[ mu* food1 enzymes1 & o!r secretions1 etc41 x %all receive to build up its sub/ance4 ,surely1 !n1 if su* factors z ! nature ( ! soil1 ! wat] & m9]al supplies1 ! illum9ation1 & ! v>i\s climatic factors ( altitude c cause v>iations on a plant direct1 ^! & o!r factors are /ill m likely to be effective on /ock & scion1 & ea* mu/ affect ! o!r4 ,nev]!less op9ions h diff]$ mu* z to :e!r any important effect is to be se51 & on no po9t m ?an on :e!r ! scion c affect ! /ock1 9 spite ( su* examples z ,cytisus ,adami1 ,g>reya on ,aucuba1 ,sunfl[] on ,j]usalem ,arti*oke1 etc4 ,rec5t results1 especially ( exp]im5ts ) h]bace\s plants1 %[ t n only c ! /ock affect ! scion 7& vice v]sa7 directly1 b ! effect ( ! *anges may be invisible on ! graft$ plant & only %[ itself 9 ! prog5y rais$ f ! se$ ( ! graft$ plant4 ,9 o!r words1 v>iation occurs 9 grafts ei!r directly1 z ! results ( ! effects ( ! environm5t on ! graft1 or ow+ to ! int]action ( scion & /ock1 %[+ z *anges 9 g5]al nutrition 9 ! tissues conc]n$1 etc41 ow+ to special reactions ( ! protoplasm ( ! unit+ cells "o on ! o!r1 & ( ! results ( ! fur!r protoplasmic secretions1 sort+s1 & s =?1 on ! cells develop$ z desc5dants ( ^! 9 ! fur!r gr[? ( ! graft3 or indirectly1 9 t "s ( ^! *anges s alt] ! nature ( ! special protoplasm put aside = reproductive purposes1 t ! result+ embryo 9 ! se$ transmits ! effects1 & !y %[ z v>iations 9 ! se$l+4 ,if ^! results are confirm$ !y %\ld meet all objections t h be5 urg$ aga9/ ! transmission ( acquir$ *>act]s4 ,9 fact !re are analogies betwe5 graft+ & p>asitism :i* _c be ov]look$1 & %\ld n be und]e/imat$1 _! commone/ expression appe>+ 9 ! alt]ations 9 /ature1 habit1 p]iod ( rip5+1 & s =?4 ,^! analogies are easily appreh5d$ :5 we comp>e p>asites l ! ,mi/letoe1 ,loran?us1 or ev5 su* root-p>asites z ! ,broom-rapes & ! ,rh9an?oideae ) grafts2 b !y also exi/ 9 ! case ( _m fungus-p>asites1 & we might almo/ z accurately speak ( graft+ "s fungi on _! ho/s z ( infect+ ! latt] ) !m1 especially :5 x is borne 9 m9d t ! effect ( ! scion on ! /ock is by no means always to ! b5efit ( ! latt]1 & t !re are reasons = reg>d+ ! action ( "s su* unions z t ( a sort ( sl[ poison+ ( ! /ock by ! scion4 ,:y d we n "h say t ! /ock has be5 infect$ by ! scion8 ,! resemblances betwe5 poll9ation & ! infection by fungus hyphae may also be insi/$ ^u4 ,if we take into acc\nt ,d>w9's rem>kable exp]im5ts %[+ t 9 illegitimate unions ! poll5 ex]ts a sort ( poison\s action on ! /igmas or ovules1 x is possible to arrange a s]ies ( cases />t+ ) p]fectly legitimate poll9ations :]e ! poll5 tube fe$s z x desc5ds ! /yle on mat]ials provid$ by ! cells1 & proce$+ to cases :]e ! poll5 is m & m m]ely j able to p5etrate ! ov>y & rea* ! ovules1 to ! extreme cases :]e no union at all is possible4 ,side by side ) su* s]ies c\ld be arrang$ analog\s cases :]e fungus spores c ent] & infect ! cells ( ! ho/1 & live symbiotically ) or ev5 9 !m1 or c p5etrate only ) difficulty1 or ) poison\s effects1 & f9ally _c infect ! plant at all4 ,less obvi\sly1 b nev]!less exi/+1 are gradations 9 graft+ to be obs]v$1 :]e "o & ! same /ock may be successfully comb9$ ) a scion :i* improves x--or :i* is improv$ by x--or ! scion may unite b acts injuri\sly on x1 or1 f9ally1 _c be induc$ to unite4 ,b we may g fur!r ?an ?is 9 ^! comp>isons4 ,j z ! results ( poll9ation frequ5tly induce f>-rea*+ effects on di/ant tissues--e4g4 ! swell+ ( ,or*id ov>ies1 & rapid fad+ ( ! floral organs--s also ! effects ( hyphae 9 ! tissues may induce hyp]trophies1 deflection ( nutri5t mat]ials1 & ! atrophy ( di/ant p>ts--e4g4 ! curi\s ph5om5a obs]v$ 9 ,euphorbia attack$ by ,uromyces--& "s ( ! di/ant actions 9 grafts may be comp>$ simil>ly4 ,go+ /ill fur!r1 we may comp>e ! effects ( cross-bre$+ or ( hybridisation1 :]e ! prog5y %[ t *anges h result$ f ! mutual int]actions & reactions ( ! comm+l$ protoplasm1 ) ,daniel's results1 9 :i* he obta9s pro( ( su* int]actions ( ! comm+l$ protoplasmic cell-cont5ts ( grafts 9 ! se$l+ prog5y2 al?\gh !re is no probability--we may ev5 say possibility--9 ?is latt] case t ! effects are due to nucle> fusions1 b only t ! g]m-plasm ( ! se$-be>+ plant has be5 affect$ by ! *anges 9 ! cell-protoplasm :i* n\ri%es x :5 ! reproductive cells are =m+4 ,9 ! case ( graft-hybrids ! matt] appe>s to be some:at diff]5t1 & we may well suppose1 ) ,/rasburg]1 t ! comm+l+ ( *>act]s obs]v$ 9 fl[]s1 fruits1 foliage1 etc41 on %oots borne aft] graft+ are due to ! occurr5ce ( nucle> fusions dur+ ! union ( ! graft$ tissues2 ?\gh x is by no means impossible t :at has really happ5$ is pr(\nd alt]ations 9 ! nucle> sub/ance 7g]m-plasm7 ow+ to its be+ n\ri%$ by cell-protoplasm 7somato-plasm7 :i* has be5 itself affect$ by ! int]*anges ( sub/ance betwe5 scion & /ock1 & !re=e itself furni%es a diff]5t nutri5t m$ium f ! unalt]$ cytoplasm ( ei!r4 ,b ev5 "h we c f9d p>allels among ! ord9>y ph5om5a ( plant reproduction4 ,maize plants ) :ite endosp]m conta9+ />*1 if cross$ by poll5 f o!r plants ) purple endosp]m conta9+ sug>1 be> se$s ) purple endosp]m conta9+ sug>1 & su* ,x5ia may be comp>$ to graft-hybrids 9 _m respects4 ,i "k ( no case among fungus infections :i* c\ld be comp>$ directly ) ^! examples1 & x is n at all likely t we %all meet ) any in/ance ( a fungus-hypha h&+ ov] nucle> sub/ance to an egg-cell1 & s affect+ ! latt] t an embryo results4 ,b ! case is n hypo!tically impossible1 al?\gh ! di/ant relation%ips ( ! two gr\ps ( organisms r5d] x extremely improbable among ! high] plants4 ,x is by no means s improbable1 h[ev]1 t fur!r rese>* may %[ cases :]e ! egg-cell ( a l[] cryptogam--e4g4 ano!r fungus--may be affect$ ei!r directly1 or indirectly1 by ! protoplasm ( a p>asitic or symbiotic hypha1 z sugge/$ by ! extraord9>y ph5om5a ( symbiosis4 ,"s ( ! v>iations 9 graft$ plants are f\nd to pr$ispose ! plant to disease1 or ! rev]se1 & cases may be cit$ :]e ! result+ %oots1 foliage1 or fruits1 or se$l+s m readily fall a prey to1 or resi/1 p>asitic fungi & insects ?an ! ungraft$ plants4 ,daniel gives in/ances ( su*--e4g4 among o!r examples1 ,peas graft$ on ,beans yield se$s :i* suff] m f ,erysipheae ?an ! normal se$l+s4 ,b ! be/ kn[n cases are ^? ( ,v9es 9 _! relations to ,phyllox]a1 already ref]r$ to 7p4 #aee74 ,sev]al in/ances are also kn[n :]e graft$ plants %[ m or less resi/ance to su* factors ( ! environm5t z l[ temp]atures2 graft$ or budd$ ,roses (t5 suff] mu* f ,erysipheae1 & s =?4 ,mu* rese>* is /ill ne$$ to det]m9e h[ f> ^! matt]s dep5d on real alt]ations 9 ! nature ( ! graft1 or are only true = ! localities 9 :i* ! exp]im5ts h be5 made1 a po9t :i* has1 ,i ?9k1 be5 ov]look$ by all obs]v]s4 ,graft$ plants are app>5tly v mu* expos$ to injury by slugs1 insects1 & ! invasions ( p>asites dur+ ! heal+ ( ! callus & ! fusion process4 ,"h aga9 x mu/ n be ov]look$ t ! callus is1 s to speak1 a tit-bit ( lusci\s1 ?9-wall$1 succul5t tissue2 &1 l all w\nds1 ! graft af=ds entrance to p>asites su* z ,nectria & ,ascomycetes ( v>i\s k9ds1 "u circum/ances v fav\rable to _! invasion4 ,natural ,grafts4--,x is by no means an uncommon ev5t to f9d ! bran*es ( ,bee*es1 ,limes1 & o!r trees :i* h be5 accid5tally br\ght into contact dur+ gr[?1 jo9$ :]e !y cross4 ,z !y press "o aga9/ ! o!r1 !y become naturally graft$1 by t =m ( ! process kn[n z in>*+3 except t 9 artificial in>*+ ! op]ator cuts (f ! cortical tissues ( ! two bran*es & br+s _! cambial surfaces toge!r1 :]eas 9 nature ! cambiums only come into contact aft] ! de/ruction by pressure1 or slight abrasion1 ( ! entrapp$ int]v5+ tissues4 ,! fusion occurs1 9 fact1 exactly z 9 ! bury+-9 ( a nail or wire1 ref]r$ to on p4 #baa4 ,natural grafts are v common among ! roots ( trees1 & possibly expla9 "s que] cases ( ! app>5t revivification ( /umps ( trees n usually giv5 to =m+ abundant /ool %oots4 ,x is reg>d$ z probable 9 "s old =e/s t ! majority ( ! roots ( trees ( ! same species are l9k$ up toge!r by su* natural grafts1 a probability n dim9i%$ by ! fact t su* roots cross at _m po9ts1 & are easily graft$4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,! /ud5t %\ld read ,bailey1 ,! ,nurs]y ,book1 #ahif1 = details reg>d+ ! practice ( graft+1 & facts 9 abundance c be obta9$ f ! pages ( ! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle4 ,conc]n+ graft-hybrids & ! v>iations ( graft$ plants see ,j\91 ,c ,hybrids be obta9$ by ,graft+8 & especially ,daniel1 ,la ,v>iation dans la ,greffe1 9 ,ann4 des ,sc4 ,naturelles1 ,s4 ,,viii41 ,vol4 #h1 #ahih1 p4 #a1 & ! lit]ature !re collect$4 ,! :ole subject is l>gely controv]sial1 & mu* "w rema9s to be done4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,life ,,& ,,dea?4 ,protoplasm--,hypo!sis z to its /ructure & behavi\r-- ,assimilation--,gr[?--,respiration--,met abolism--,action ( ! environm5t--,nucle> protoplasm--,poll9ation--,graft+-- ,p>asitism--,graft-hybrids--,life--,dea? --,v>iation--,disease4 ,we h se5 t all ! ess5tial ph5om5a ( disease conc]n only ! liv+ sub/ance--! protoplasm--( ! plant1 & t h[ev] complex ! symptoms ( disease may be1 ! occurr5ce ( discolorations1 lesions1 hyp]trophies1 & s =? are all second>y matt]s subsidi>y to ! fundam5tal alt]ations ( /ructure & function con/itut+ ! disease4 ,x rema9s to see if we c adopt any hypo!sis z to ! nature ( ?is physical basis ( life--! protoplasm--:i* %all help u to und]/& /ill m cle>ly 9 :at mu/ reside ^? processes :i*1 s long z !y proce$ h>moni\sly & un9t]rupt$ly1 con/itute life & heal?1 & :i* :5 int]f]$ ) result 9 disease & dea?4 ,! protoplasm ( ! liv+ plant-cell looks l a slimy transluc5t mass :i* has be5 sup]ficially comp>$ 9 appe>ance to well-boil$ sago or cle> gum4 ,fifty ye>s ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts ) x h conv9c$ physiologi/s t x is n a m]e solution or emulsion1 h[ev]1 or ev5 a *emical comp\nd 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! t]m1 al?\gh *emical analysis gets little out ( x beyond wat]1 proteids1 c>bohydrates & fats1 & traces ( c]ta9 m9]al salts2 = liv+ protoplasm does n respond to ! laws ( physics & me*anics 9 obey+ !m1 simply z d ord9>y solutions & liquids4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mo/ delicate *emical manipulation fails u1 because :5 kill$ x is no long] protoplasm4 ,nor does ! microscope advance matt]s f>1 beyond conv9c+ u t ?is m>vell\s mat]ial mu/ h a /ructure f> m intimate ?an any?+ visible to ! highe/ magnify+ p[]s at our disposal4 ,nev]!less1 "s in=mation is =?com+ f ! comp>ative exam9ation ( ! protoplasm ( num]\s diff]5t k9ds ( organisms1 = we h le>nt t c]ta9 +r$i5ts & no o!rs are necess>y = its composition--namely1 c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 phosphorus1 sulphur1 calcium,note3 ,see note at end ( *apt]41 magnesium1 potassium--& x is z a rule ( no use try+ to foi/ on to x any sub/itute = any "o ( ^!4 ,moreov]1 ^! *emical elem5ts mu/ be giv5 9 c]ta9 def9ite proportions & =ms3 = in/ance x is ( no use to (f] ! c>bon & sulphur 9 su* a =m z c>bon disulphide1 or ! nitrog5 & hydrog5 9 t ( hydrocyanic acid1 b ! c>bon mu/ be giv5 to ! protoplasm 9 ! =m ( a c>bohydrate or 9 "s simil> =m1 ! nitrog5 z an ammonium salt1 nitrate or proteid1 ! sulphur z a sulphate1 & s =?1 & ?us wat]1 air1 c>bohydrates1 & ! nitrates1 sulphates1 & phosphates ( potassium1 calcium1 & magnesium become ! *ief natural s\rces ( ! ess5tial +r$i5ts4 ,aga91 we h le>nt t :ile !re are diff]5t =ms ( protoplasm 9 ! cell1 & t ^! react on ea* o!r1 & g ?r\gh cycles ( arrangem5t & re>rangem5ts1 ! intimate /ructure mu/ be ( t k9d t]m$ molecul>--beyond ! region ( vision1 j z is ! microscopic /ructure ( a cry/al2 b1 :ile l ! latt] af=d+ evid5ce ( ord] & sequ5ce :5 prop]ly exam9$1 ! /ructural arrangem5ts & *anges mu/ be inf9itely m complex4 ,all ^!1 & num]\s o!r results ( enquiry1 h l$ to ! conclusions t we mu/ reg>d liv+ protoplasm z a complex made up ( v l>ge molecul> units1 ea* conta9+ atom-gr\p+s ( ! elem5ts nam$2 &1 p>tly on acc\nt ( ! l>ge numb] ( atoms !y conta91 & p>tly due to ! vibrations ( absorb$ heat1 ^! units mu/ be extremely labile4 ,moreov]1 !y are l9k$ up into an invisible & intricate me%work1 ba!d 9 a wat]y liquid held 9 ! int]/ices some:at z wat] is held 9 a sponge4 ,9 ?is imbib$ liquid are dissolv$ ! sub/ances1 consi/+ ( ! same elem5ts1 :i* are to s]ve z food1 & :i* are to be tak5 up into ! molecul> framework & built up into ! /ructure ( new molecul> units--or1 z !y may be %ortly t]m$1 molecules ( protoplasm3 9 ! ba?+ liquid are also disp]s$ ! fragm5ts--aga9 conta9+ ! elem5ts nam$--:i* h result$ f ! break+ asund] ( "s ( ! complex protoplasm molecules1 & :i* are p>tly de/9$ to be us$ up aga91 p>tly to be burnt (f 9 respiration1 & p>tly to be put aside z metabolic products su* z res]ves1 secretions1 p]man5t /ructure1 etc4 ,among ! elem5ts c>ri$ into ?is liquid & dissolv$ 9 x ! free oxyg5 ( ! air also plays an important "p4 ,z new molecules are =m$1 by mutual comb9ations ( ! food-mat]ials select$ by molecul> attractions1 !y are tak5 up into ! protoplasmic framework1 & built 9 betwe5 ^? already 9 exi/5ce1 ?us di/5d+ ! :ole1 & we say t ! protoplasm ,assimilates food-mat]ials & ,gr[s4 ,:5 di/5d$ beyond a giv5 degree1 or di/urb$ 9 v>i\s o!r ways1 ! molecul> framework breaks1 & "s ( ! molecules are %att]$1 & z !y fall to pieces c]ta9 ( _! con/itu5t p>ts conta9+ c>bon & hydrog5 =cibly comb9e at ! mom5t ( lib]ation ) ! oxyg5 9 ! fluid ar\nd & are burnt (f 9 ! =m ( c>bon-dioxide & wat]1 heat be+ ( c\rse evolv$4 ,?is is ! fundam5tal process ( ,respiration4 ,x is probably ! alt]nation ( ^! processes ( ,assimilation--! build+ up into ! protoplasmic /ructure ( new complex labile molecules--& ,de/ruction--! %att]+ ( su* molecules ) r$i/ribution1 oxidation1 etc41 ( _! fragm5ts--:i* con/itute ! fundam5tal process ( life4 ,diff]5t au?orities attempt to expla9 ! details ( ^! processes 9 v>i\s ways1 b !re is practical agreem5t on ! "o po9t1 t life consi/s 9 ! alt]nate build+ up ( new protoplasm f ! food-mat]ials--,assimilation--& ! break+ d[n ( ! molecul> complexes to simpl] ones--,dis9tegration1 or ,dis-assimilation1 z we may call x4 ,dur+ ! p]iods :5 assimilation prevails1 & ! protoplasm increases 9 mass1 we recognise ,gr[?1 & s9ce ?is is usually associat$ ) ! vigor\s imbibition ( wat]1 ow+ to ! p[]ful osmotic attractions = t liquid exhibit$ by "s ( ! products1 & ) consequ5t fur!r /ret*+ ( ! invisible molecul> plexus1 ! gr[? may be s evid5t 9 increas$ size1 t we are accu/om$ to look ^u ! visible increase 9 volume alone z gr[?2 b x is ess5tial to und]/& t gr[? ( ! protoplasm is always proce$+ dur+ life1 ev5 :5 z _m old] molecules are be+ %att]$ & disp]s$ z new ones are be+ =m$ by assimilation1 & :51 !re=e1 no visible p]man5t enl>gem5t occurs4 ,simil>ly1 dur+ p]iods :5 dis9tegration ( ! molecules prevails1 we mu/ n assume t ! assimilation ( new molecules is n occurr+ & t gr[? is n proce$+4 ,! two processes are always go+ on dur+ ! active life ( ! protoplasm3 9 fact life consi/s 9 ! play ( ^! processes1 z already said4 ,t num]\s *emical re>rangem5ts ( ! atom-complexes take place outside ! protoplasmic molecules--bo? ( ^? left unemploy$ 9 assimilation & ( ^? reject$ dur+ ! de/ructive processes--w be readily und]/ood3 _m ( ! bye-products f\nd 9 plants1 su* z vegetable acids1 alkaloids1 col\r+ matt]s1 cry/all9e bodies1 etc41 etc41 are due to ^!1 s to speak1 =tuit\s comb9ations & re-comb9ations4 ,! "p play$ by respiration has (t5 be5 misund]/ood4 ,x consi/s 9 ! burn+ (f ( "s ( ! c>bon & hydrog5 ( ! %att]$ protoplasm molecules1 by means ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 :i* f9ds its way into ! fluids ar\nd ! protoplasm1 & :5 x is active e act ( combu/ion--:i* is "h an explosion--leads to ! %att]+ ( m protoplasm molecules1 & consequ5tly to m respiratory combu/ion ( ! products4 ,if ! supply ( oxyg5 is limit$ ! break+ d[n ( ! molecules ( protoplasm does n cease1 b ! c>bon & hydrog5 :i* w\ld o!rwise h be5 oxidis$ are n[ 9 "p left to =m o!r comp\nds 9 ! surr\nd+ liquid1 & ?us incompletely oxidis$ bodies1 su* z vegetable acids1 alcohols1 etc41 accumulate4 ,ev5 9 ! complete abs5ce ( atmosph]ic oxyg5 ! protoplasm may g on break+ d[n & accumulat+ v>i\s comp\nds conta9+ relatively mu* c>bon & hydrog5--s-call$ intramolecul> respiration2 b 9 ord9>y plants ?is process soon comes to an end1 because ! block+ up ( ! molecul> plexus leads to ob/ruction & int]f]es ) ! normal assimilation & dis-assimilation1 &1 if prolong$1 leads to pa?ological conditions1 & ev5tually dea?4 ,"h1 !n1 we meet ) a cause ( disease1 or ( pr$isposition to disease4 ,! deprivation ( oxyg5 int]f]es ) ! normal processes ( build+ up & break+ d[n ( ! protoplasmic molecules1 & bodies we t]m poison\s accumulate & may l[] ! vitality or ev5 br+ life to an end4 ,dur+ normal life o!r products ( ! disruption ( ! protoplasm molecules are nitrog5\s bodies1 su* z proteids1 & ^! we h reason to believe are us$ up aga91 act+ z ! nuclei1 s to speak1 ( ! new molecules1 & s be+ built up aga9 ) fre% food-mat]ials into ! plexus1 to be aga9 set free1 & aga9 us$ up1 & s on4 ,o!rs are ! c>bohydrates1 su* z cellulose1 :i* pass out ( ! molecule into an insoluble =m1 & are accumulat$ outside ! protoplasm 9 ! =m ( cellulose membranes1 & s =?4 ,x is ^! =m$ products ( metabolism 7,metabolites71 especially cellulose & bodies :i* result f its subsequ5t trans=mation1 :i* con/itute ! ma9 p]man5t mass ( ! ord9>y plant4 ,we are n[ 9 a position to see h[ ano!r fundam5tal cause ( disease or pr$isposition to disease exi/s 9 ! deprivation ( ! protoplasm ( any ( ! elem5ts ne$$ to supply--9 ! food-mat]ials--! place ( ^? :i* h be5 p]man5tly put aside 9 ! =m ( cell-walls1 or burnt (f 9 respiration1 pass$ out z excretions1 or 9 o!r ways lo/4 ,x is cle> t ! indisp5sability ( an elem5t mu/ mean t ! protoplasmic molecule _c be complet$ )\t x3 ! same conclusion is support$ by ! exp]im5tal pro( t ^! elem5ts _c be replac$ by *emically simil> elem5ts4 ,x does n foll[1 h[ev]1 t ! protoplasm molecule mu/ always h ! same numb] ( atoms ( ^! elem5ts1 & gr\p$ always 9 ! same atom-complexes be=e be+ assimilat$2 nor t ! protoplasm molecule1 :5 once built up1 always breaks d[n 9 exactly ! same way4 ,on ! contr>y1 :ile ! protoplasm ( correspond+ p>ts ( a daisy & ( a rose mu/ conta9 all ! elem5ts nam$1 we mu/ believe t ! atom gr\p+s are diff]5t 9 ! protoplasm molecule 9 ea* case2 & ?\gh ! molecules ( ! cell-protoplasm1 ( ! nucleus1 ( ! *lorophyll-corpuscles1 etc41 ( "o & ! same plant mu/ h all ^! elem5ts1 ! atom gr\p+s & modes ( build+ up & break+ d[n may be v diff]5t 9 ea* case4 ,aga91 ! cell-protoplasm1 ba!d by ! sap tak5 9 by roots f ! soil or f$ directly by t d]iv$ f ! leaves1 mu/ be expos$ to v diff]5t /imuli & modes ( n\ri%m5t1 etc41 f ^? incurr$ by ! protoplasm ( ! nucleus :i* x encloses3 & simil> conclusions mu/ apply 9 turn to ! protoplasm ( ! root 9 ! d>k moi/ soil & ( ! leaf 9 ! light dry air1 or to t ( ! sup]ficial epid]mis cells z contra/$ ) t ( ! deeply imm]s$ pi?1 & s on4 ,x is no d\bt 9 ^! directions t we mu/ seek = ! explanation ( _m life-ph5om5a at pres5t q beyond explanation4 ,?us1 x is tol]ably easy to modify ! action ( ! cell-protoplasm ( a plant1 by expos+ x to diff]5ces ( illum9ation1 temp]ature1 moi/ure1 & s =?1 )9 c]ta9 limits2 at lea/1 s9ce ! *anges 9 /ature1 tissue diff]5tiation1 cell-secretions1 fl[]+ capacity1 etc41 ( plants affect$ by su* factors ( ! environm5t--e4g4 alp9e plants br\ght into ! pla9s--mu/ be due to *anges 9 ! mode ( activity ( ! protoplasm1 we mu/ assume t ! above factors affect ! latt]4 ,b x is extremely difficult to rea* ! nucle>-protoplasm directly by su* /imuli1 z prov$ by ! exp]i5ce t ev5 :]e we all[ ! factors to act = a long "t1 no p]man5t *ange c be detect$ 9 ! behavi\r ( ! nucle>-protoplasm--! ess5tial mat]ial 9 ! reproductive organs & reproductive process4 ,at lea/ we mu/ inf] t no *ange has be5 p]man5tly /amp$ on ?is nucleo-plasm f su* facts z ! *>act]s ( ! se$l+s ( ! prog5y ( ! pla9-rais$ plants3 if !y are aga9 s[n 9 an alp9e situation !y =?) behave aga9 z alp9es4 ,mu/ we n conclude1 !n1 t ?is difficulty ( rea*+ ! nucle>-protoplasm is ow+ to ! fact t x is n\ri%$ & influ5c$ directly only by ! cell-protoplasm8 ,t ! cell-protoplasm is its environm5t1 & n s directly ! out] _w8 ,we may influ5ce ! cell-protoplasm--we may make x "w h>d] or less actively1 respire vigor\sly or sl[ly1 build up & break d[n 9 v>i\s diff]5t ways1 or at diff]5t rates1 & s =?1 )9 limits2 b x is nev]!less cell-protoplasm ( its specific k9d1 ) its own range ( molecul> v>iations & activities )9 ^! limits1 & x supplies ! nucle>-protoplasm ) :at x wants s long z ^! limits are n exce$$4 ,consequ5tly1 :ile x is v easy to make ! cell-protoplasm v>y )9 ! limits ( its range1 x is n easy to induce x to v>y its effects on ! nucle>-protoplasm to su* an ext5t or 9 su* a way t ! latt] is p]man5tly or mat]ially alt]$ 9 con/itution4 ,nev]!less x w\ld appe> t cases d occur :]e ! nucle>-protoplasm is rea*$ & affect$ by ext]nal /imuli1 z ev9c$ by "s ( ! ph5om5a ( hybridisation & ( cross-& self-f]tilisation1 because we f9d ! results express$ 9 ! m+l+ ( ! *>act]s ( p>5ts1 9 /r5g!n$ or enfeebl$ prog5y1 & ev5 9 ! appe>ance ( unexpect$ prop]ties1 :i*1 f ! facts ( ,reproduction1 we "k mu/ h tak5 _! orig9 9 "s alt]ation ( ! nucle> sub/ance ( ! embryo4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we "k 9 mo/ cases t ! pr9cipal ag5t :i* has rea*$ ! nucle>-protoplasm1 is ano!r portion ( nucle>-protoplasm4 ,9 hybridisation1 "o :i* has be5 f$ & influ5c$ by cell-protoplasm ( a v diff]5t plant2 9 cross-f]tilisation1 "o f$ & influ5c$ by ! cell-protoplasm ( a diff]5t plant ( ! same species1 & 9 self-f]tilisation1 "o f$ & influ5c$ by ! same cell-protoplasm4 ,t some:]e1 & someh[1 su* nucle>-protoplasm z induces ! *anges 9 ! *>act]s ( hybrids1 etc41 has be5 influ5c$ by its imm$iate environm5t--! cell-protoplasm ( ! plant--appe>s to be a conclusion f :i* !re is no escape4 ,we may obta9 simil> evid5ce f ! exp]i5ce ( graft+4 ,x is relatively easy to influ5ce ! cell-protoplasm ( a scion by a suitable /ock1 obvi\sly because ! latt]1 :ile h&+ on to ! =m] all necess>y mat]ials f ! soil1 pres5ts ! indisp5sable elem5ts & comp\nds 9 some:at diff]5t proportions1 dilutions1 etc41 f ^? :i* its own roots w\ld h done1 & probably m+les ) !m a c]ta9 am\nt ( its own peculi> products1 z well z affects ! modes ( work+ & int]action ( bo? by ! molecul> impetus impress$ on !m4 ,consequ5tly ! cell-protoplasm ( ! scion1 :ile obta9+ f ! /ock all x ne$s )9 ! limits ( its own v>iations ( /ructure & activity1 nev]!less builds up & breaks d[n 9 ways or at rates slightly diff]5t f ^? hi!rto normal to x1 & p]ceptible v>iations result :5 ! sequ5ces & correlations ( ^! mat]ial & me*anical *anges h affect$ a suffici5tly l>ge mass = ! accumulation ( visible effects4 ,! limits to graft+ sugge/ n t an inappropriate /ock does n (f] to ! protoplasm ( ! scion ! "r mat]ials1 b t x pres5ts !m 9 proportions & 9 =ms :i* are unsuitable = ! assimilable p[]s ( ! latt]1 or1 possibly1 m+l$ ) sub/ances poison\s 9 !mselves or capable ( becom+ s 9 conjunction ) bodies 9 ! scion4 ,:at has be5 said ( ! action ( /ock on scion1 w also be true1 mutatis mut&is1 ( ! reciprocal action ( scion on /ock4 ,"h aga9 we may h causes = disease1 or pr$isposition to disease4 ,x occasionally happ5s1 h[ev]1 t ! nucle> protoplasm ( ! /ock or scion is affect$ 9 graft+1 & we inf] f ! difficulty ( modify+ x 9 any o!r way 9 ord9>y reproduction ?an by means ( o!r nucle> protoplasm--e4g4 9 hybridisation--t 9 su* cases a fusion ( ! nuclei ( /ock & scion has occurr$ dur+ ! graft+1 & a graft-hybrid has result$--e4g4 ,cytisus ,adami4 ,x is n impossible h[ev] t ! nucle> protoplasm has 9 su* graft-hybrids be5 subsequ5tly modifi$ by ! diff]5ces 9 nutrition to :i* x has be5 subject$1 9 ! modifi$ cell-protoplasm affect$ by ! m+l+ ( ! juices1 etc41 ( scion & /ock2 = x is q conceivable t su* mat]ials may affect ! protoplasm f> m pr(\ndly ?an any?+ d]iv$ directly f ! environm5t4 ,if ,daniel's rese>*es are confirm$1 h[ev]1 x appe>s t 9 "s cases1 at any rate1 ! nucle>-protoplasm is s alt]$ by ! graft+ t :5 ! new embryo is develop$1 aft] fusion ) nucle> sub/ance f ano!r plant ( ! same species1 ! results are app>5t only 9 ! prog5y1 & ! effects ( alt]ation 9 ! cell-protoplasm h be5 transmitt$ to ! nucle> protoplasm ( ! g]m-cells--i4e4 acquir$ *>act]s h be5 transmitt$ & fix$ by h]$ity4 ,%\ld ?is prove true ! importance ( ! results c h>dly be ov]-e/imat$4 ,! matt] is too problematical = fur!r discussion "h1 b we see t any su* action may pr(\ndly affect ! con/itution ( ! result+ plant4 ,turn+ n[ to ! case ( fungi or o!r organisms :i* obta9 access to ! cell-protoplasm4 ,at ! "o extreme we h cases :]e ! protoplasm ( ! diseas$ plant is rapidly & directly poison$ & de/roy$1 z 9 ! kill+ (f ( se$l+s 9 ,damp+ ,(f3 ne> ! o!r extreme we h cases :]e ! =eign protoplasm ( ! p>asite1 al?\gh x ga9s complete access to t ( ! ho/1 m]ely /imulates ! latt] to great] activity & itself works = its own ends 9 conjunction ) x--e4g4 ,plasmodiophora4 ,9 su* in/ances we mu/ figure to ourselves ! cells ( ! root ( ! ,crucif] h&+ on food-mat]ials to bo? masses ( protoplasm--t ( ! ,plasmodiophora & t ( ! cell into :i* x p5etrates2 & x is immat]ial :e!r bo? obta9 ! food-mat]ials directly1 or1 :at seems m likely1 ! fungus only at second h& & by ! m$ium ( ! ho/'s protoplasm4 ,9 any case1 ! latt] is = a long "t at lea/ n poison$ or maim$1 or 9 any p]ceptible way injur$ by excreta f ! fungus-protoplasm1 al?\gh x is evid5t t ea* mu/ excrete v>i\s metabolites :i* may soak into & be tak5 up by ! o!r3 on ! contr>y ! ho/-protoplasm gr[s l>g]1 attracts m food supplies1 makes l>g] cells1 & is evid5tly /imulat$ to great] activity = ! "t be+1 its behavi\r rem9d+ u ( ! /imulation ( cells by means ( slight doses ( poison ref]r$ to previ\sly4 ,we mu/ !re=e assume t ! g5]al c\rse ( build+ up & break+ d[n ( its protoplasm-molecules g on z usual--or ne>ly s--9 bo? ! ho/ cell & ! invad]2 & t ! assimilatory1 respiratory1 excretory & o!r functions are c>ri$ on 9 ! =m] z 9 ! normal cell1 or are b slightly modifi$ to an ext5t :i* does no imm$iate injury to its life4 ,b we mu/ fur!r assume t ! same is also true ( ! invad+ protoplasm1 & t ! ,plasmodiophora is also suppli$ ) suitable atom-complexes to build up its protoplasm molecules1 z fa/ z !y are %att]$ & ! rejecta burnt (f 9 respiration4 ,a /ep fur!r1 & we come to in/ances ( ,symbiosis1 :]e ! comm+l$ masses ( protoplasm ( ho/ & invad] cont9ue ?is h>moni\s action dur+ life4 ,cle>ly !re are resemblances betwe5 ^! latt] cases & successful grafts1 & betwe5 bo? & successful sexual unions :]e ! result+ embryo-cell gives rises to a vigor\s & heal?y plant2 & ! m ^! resemblances are exam9$ 9 ! light ( :at we "k ( symbiosis ! m !y support our cont5tion4 ,su* consid]ations z ! =ego+ sugge/1 !n1 t life consi/s 9 ! regul> & progressive build+ up & break+ d[n ( ! complex protoplasm molecules1 & is necess>ily accompani$ by ! influx ( ! indisp5sable food-elem5ts 9 c]ta9 comb9ations & atom-complexes = assimilation1 & by ! combu/ion ( "s ( ! debris ( ! %att]$ molecules1 :i* comb9e ) ! oxyg5 9 respiration & s af=d explosions :i* raise ! temp]ature & enhance ! lability ( exi/+ molecules1 & act z /imuli to ! %att]+ ( fur!r molecules4 ,! results ( ^! rhy?mical build+s up 7assimilation7 & %att]+s 7dis-assimilation7 ( ! protoplasm molecules are ! gr[? ( ! protoplasm1 ) fur!r int]calations ( wat] & new food-supplies1 etc41 on ! "o h&1 & ! =mation ( metabolic products 7proteids1 cellulose1 sug>s1 fats1 etc471 "s ( :i* are aga9 us$ up1 o!rs respir$1 o!rs deposit$ z /ores1 cell-walls1 etc41 on ! o!r4 ,t ! build+-up process dep5ds on ! action ( molecul> =ces comp>able to ^? by :i* a gr[+ cry/al goes on select+ atom-complexes ( its p>ticul> k9d f ! solution ar\nd seems highly probable1 & ?is be+ ! case we c und]/& h[ "u c]ta9 circum/ances sub/itutive selections may occur4 ,t is to say1 j z a cry/al w sometimes build up into its /ructure atom-complexes ( a k9d diff]5t f its normal molecules1 s1 giv5 ! prop] conditions1 a protoplasmic molecul> unit w build up into its /ructure atom-complexes some:at diff]5t f ^? x _h hi!rto tak5 up--i4e4 assimilat$--) consequ5t modifications ( its behavi\r4 ,if ?is occurs1 ! modes ( fur!r build+ up & break+ d[n w be affect$ by ! subsequ5t action ( ^! slightly modifi$ protoplasm units1 & x may well be t ! :ole significance ( v>iation turns on ?is4 ,:e!r ! result+ v>iation makes = ! welf>e or o!rwise ( ! organism w !n be decid$ by ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 & ! natural selection :i* ensues4 ,su* a view also implies t ! en]gy conc]n$ is prim>ily :at is usually t]m$ *emical en]gy1 & t e comp\nd ent]+ into ! protoplasm c>ries 9 a supply ( ?is1 available 9 v>i\s ways4 ,dea?1 on ! contr>y1 is ! cessation ( ^! rhy?mical processes ( build+ up & break+ d[n ( ! protoplasm molecules4 ,x does n imply ! cessation ( *emical *anges ( o!r k9ds1 b t ^! rhy?mical con/ructions ( ! complex & labile protoplasm molecules break+ d[n on /imulation to bodies p>tly re-assimilable1 p>tly combu/ible 9 respiration1 & p>tly excretory1 etc41 h ceas$1 & t fur!r *emical *anges 9 ! mat]ial are !nce=? simpl] & diff]5t 9 k9d & degree1 ev5tually lead+ to total dis9tegration s t no units are left capable ( re/or+ ! rhy?m4 ,if ^! ideas are correct1 we may def9e ,disease z dang]\s di/urbances 9 ! regul>ity1 or int]f]5ce ) ! complet5ess or range ( ! molecul> activities con/itut+ normal ,life--i4e4 ,heal?--& x is evid5t t e degree ( transition may be realis$ betwe5 ! two extremes4 ,n[1 if we fur!r assume1 z ,i ?9k we mu/ d1 t a consid]able range or play mu/ exi/ 9 ! molecul> activities ( ! protoplasm con/itut+ life1 we obta9 a sort ( expression ( :at we mean by limits ( v>iation4 ,! fact t life c g on 9 a giv5 plant at temp]atures betwe5 f #a deg4-#e deg4 & #ce deg4-#dj deg4 ,c41 or 9 lights ( diff]5t int5sity1 or )9 consid]able ranges ( wat] supply1 conc5tration ( salts1 p>tial pressure ( oxyg51 etc41 implies t ! molecul> activities ( ! protoplasm are ( ! normal k9d all ! "t1 ?\gh !y may diff] 9 rapidity1 & ev5 9 quantitative & qualitative respects )9 c]ta9 limits2 & ! mean+ ( ! optimum temp]ature1 illum9ation1 oxyg5 pressure1 etc41 is1 f ?is po9t ( view1 n t ! molecul> activities diff] 9 k9d f ^? ne>] ! m9ima & maxima1 s mu* z t !y are runn+ at ! be/ rates = ! welf>e ( ! plant--i4e4 = p]man5t heal?4 ,if we transc5d ! c>d9al po9ts limit+ ! range ( ?is play1 h[ev]1 & we get v>iations 9 ! k9d z well z rates ( molecul> con/ructions & disruptions1 !n we pass by imp]ceptible gradations into ill-heal?--i4e4 ,disease4 ,& simil>ly 9 relation to o!r protoplasm4 ,t ( ! "r k9d ( poll5 gra9 f ano!r plant ( its own species1 /imulates ! cont5ts ( ! ovule to produce a vigor\s embryo & heal?y se$l+3 t ( a simil> poll5 gra9 9 its own fl[] ei!r does no positive h>m1 b has a feebl] effect1 or x may act l a poison4 ,t ( ano!r poll5 gra9 aga9 may refuse to unite at all2 :ile t ( a fungus hypha--e4g4 ( ,scl]ot9ia on ,vacc9ium--may run d[n ! /yle z does ! poll5 tube & produce dea? & de/ruction ?r\gh\t ! ovule4 ,or aga91 9 ,clov]1 we may h ! hypha ( a ,botrytis ) its protoplasm unable to d m ?an p5etrate into ! cellulose walls & diffuse a poison into ! adjac5t cells1 be+ utt]ly incapable ( directly fac+1 or m+l+ ) ! liv+ protoplasm ( su* cells1 :]eas ! protoplasm ( ano!r organism--e4g4 ,rhizobium--w p5etrate directly into ! cells1 live 9 !m = weeks or mon?s )\t injury--nay ev5 ) advantage to _! life4 ,& hundr$s ( simil> cases c be select$4 ,we may1 !re=e1 conclude t ,v>iation dep5ds fundam5tally on alt]ations 9 ! /ructure or mode ( build+ up & dis9tegration ( ! protoplasmic molecul> unit1 br\ght ab\t ei!r by direct modify+ action ( ! inorganic environm5t--nutrition1 temp]ature1 oxyg5 supply1 light1 etc41 etc4--or by ! m+l+ ) x ( o!r protoplasm1 ! molecules ( :i* s9ce !y h already a slightly diff]5t composition1 configuration1 mode ( break+ d[n & build+ up1 etc41 affect its molecules by supply+ !m ) alt]$ nutritive atom-complexes1 by compet+ ) !m = oxyg51 etc41 etc4 ,once ^! molecules are affect$1 we mu/ assume t long sequ5ces ( o!r *emical & molecul> *anges w be also modifi$2 & al?\gh we h no conception ( h[ ^! *anges br+ ab\t *anges 9 =m1 t !y d s is only a conclusion ( ! same ord] z t :i* we hold reg>d+ ! mu* simpl] *anges conc]n$ 9 ! =mation ( cry/als4 ,t su* v>iations may be ( e degree z reg>ds pr(undity1 p]man5ce1 k9d1 etc41 may well be imag9$2 & !re is no?+ surpris+ 9 our be+ able to induce !m m easily by ! action ( ext]nal factors 9 ! readily accessible cell-protoplasm ?an 9 ! less expos$ nucle>-protoplasm2 because ! latt] is only accessible ?r\gh ! =m]1 or ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( o!r nucle> protoplasm already modifi$4 ,on ^! & simil> ph5om5a dep5d ! relative p]man5cy & transmissibility ( ! v>iations4 ,our measure ( ! latt] only beg9s :5 ! effects ref]r$ to h become manife/ 9 l>ge masses ( cells1 because only !n d !y become appreciable to our s5ses4 ,fur!r1 v>iations ?us induc$ may be ( advantage to ! cont9u$ life ( ! plant1 or 9 all degrees disadvantage\s or ?reat5+ to its exi/5ce4 ,^! latt] v>iations are ,disease1 & if _! int]f]5ce ) ! normal rhy?mical play ( ! build+ up & break+ d[n ( ! protoplasm molecules proce$s beyond c]ta9 limits1 life ceases1 & we h dea? sup]v5+ on disease4 ,,notes ,,to ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,x appe>s probable t calcium is n always ne$$ by liv+ cells1 & may n ent] into ! composition ( protoplasm2 on ! o!r h& traces ( iron are p]haps necess>y4 ,! criticisms & summ>y ( facts on :i* ! hypo!sis reg>d+ protoplasm "h adopt$ is bas$ are develop$ at l5g? 9 ,kass[itz1 ,allgeme9e ,biologie1 ,wi51 #ahii1 ,b4 ,i4 & ,,ii41 :]e ! collect$ lit]ature may be f\nd1 & ! read] introduc$ to ! huge mass ( controv]sial writ+s put =w>d s9ce ,d>w9 & associat$ ) ! names ( ,weismann & o!rs4 ,x w probably be notic$ t ,i h employ$ ! t]m molecul> unit ( protoplasm1 & h n discuss$ ! "q ( organis$ /ructure 9 ! latt]3 ?is is because x seems cle> to me t liv+ protoplasm z su* does n possess organis$ /ructure 9 ! true s5se ( t t]m--x is1 r1 busy prep>+ & mak+ organis$ /ructure1 & a molecul> con/itution w\ld h to be ascrib$ to all physiological units ( ! nature ( micellae1 pang5s1 ids1 etc41 z truly z to ! /ructural units ( a />*-gra9 or cell-wall1 or ev5 ( a cry/al4 ,9 ?is connection1 ! /ud5t w f9d ! necess>y po9ts ( view put =w>d 9 ,pfeff]1 ,physiology1 pp4 #cg-hc4 ,,index4 ,absorption by roots1 #di4 ,absorption ( en]gy1 #bc4 ,absorption ( light1 #bg4 ,absorption ( wat]1 #ej4 ,abutilon1 #ahc4 ,ac>us1 #hh4 ,accessory buds1 #bei4 ,ac]1 #bad4 ,acid gases1 #aha1 #aia4 ,acids1 #acj1 #acf4 ,acquir$ *>act]s1 #bhc4 ,acro/alagmus1 #bch4 ,action ( ! environm5t1 #bga4 ,adaptation1 #agf4 ,adapt$ races1 #agg4 ,adonis1 #bbj4 ,adv5titi\s buds1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #beg1 #bfj4 ,a,ecidium1 #hh1 #aad1 #aaf1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #bag1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bcb1 #bdg1 #beb4 ,a]ation1 #ajd4 ,a]obic organisms1 #eg4 ,aetiology1 #hi1 #ajj4 ,ag>icus melleus1 #aae1 #adc1 #ade1 #bcd4 ,ag5ts ( disease1 #aac4 ,aglaospora1 #bbc4 ,agriculture1 #fe4 ,agricultural ,*emi/ry1 #b4 ,ajuga1 #bag4 ,alb9ism1 #agi1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahf4 ,ald]1 #bjg1 #bai4 ,aleurone lay]1 #agc4 ,algae1 #bae4 ,allium1 #beh4 ,almond1 #afh4 ,alnus1 #bad4 ,aloe1 #acd1 #afa4 ,alp9e plants1 #bej1 #bgi4 ,am]ican blight1 #afd1 #bai4 ,am]ican v9es1 #aee1 #afi1 #agb4 ,amides1 #ca4 ,amoeba1 #add4 ,am\nt ( en]gy /or$1 #be4 ,amygdal91 #agc4 ,anaba5a1 #abh4 ,ana]obic bact]ia1 #eh1 #bcg4 ,anagallis1 #bfa4 ,analyses1 #fe4 ,analyses ( wat]s1 #eh4 ,anemone1 #bdg4 ,animals1 #ii1 #ajh1 #adb1 #bjg4 ,ant5n>ia1 #bcb4 ,an?onomos1 #bdi4 ,an?rax1 #add4 ,antiseptics1 #afb4 ,ants1 #bcb4 ,aphis1 #hh1 #aji1 #afa1 #afe1 #ahh1 #bac1 #bad1 #bcb1 #bda1 #bec4 ,aphrophora1 #bcc4 ,apogamy1 #beg1 #bfa4 ,aporia ,crataegi1 #ahg4 ,apospory1 #beg1 #bfa4 ,apple1 #agj1 #aga1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aib1 #bjf1 #bag1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbc1 #bbf1 #bca1 #bcc1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bec1 #bed4 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,beet1 #aib1 #baf1 #bai1 #bcj4 ,beet-rot1 #bcj4 ,beetles1 #aaj1 #adc1 #ade1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bdh1 #bed4 ,b]keley1 #he4 ,bilb]ries1 #aaf1 #adb1 #bag1 #bah1 #bdh4 ,biology ( soil1 #ef1 #ajb4 ,bir*1 #bjg1 #bah1 #bbd4 ,birds1 #ajh1 #add1 #afd1 #aff4 ,bird's-eye ,maple1 #bbd4 ,black spots on leaves1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aia4 ,bladd]s1 #bah4 ,blemi%1 #aih4 ,blights1 #hf1 #ajd1 #agi4 ,bli/]s1 #bcj4 ,blue rays1 #ba4 ,bombyx1 #ahg1 #bah4 ,bordeaux mixture1 #afb4 ,bor+1 #bjd4 ,botrytis1 #aca1 #acb1 #acf1 #age1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bdc1 #bhh4 ,b\ss+ault1 #e1 #aj4 ,b\v>dia1 #bfj4 ,bramble1 #aab4 ,bran* /umps1 #aid1 #aii4 ,br&1 #bdj4 ,bre$+1 #gh4 ,bri>s1 #aac4 ,broom-rapes1 #bfe4 ,br[n+1 #abb1 #ahf1 #bce4 ,br[n spots1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia4 ,br[s+1 #bdd4 ,bru*us1 #bdh4 ,bruises1 #aid1 #bjc1 #bdj1 #bda4 ,bryony1 #aab4 ,bryophyllum1 #bfj4 ,bud galls1 #bai4 ,bud v>iations1 #ib1 #ic4 ,bulb diseases1 #bbg4 ,buri$ objects1 #baa1 #bfi4 ,burn+1 #aia4 ,burn+-glass effect1 #aib4 ,burr[s1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,burrs1 #bbb1 #bbc1 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,clo/ridium1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,clo!s1 #adb4 ,clov]1 #afd1 #ahg1 #bdi1 #beb1 #bhh4 ,clu/]-cups1 #ahh4 ,coal gas1 #ajd1 #ahb4 ,coccideae1 #afd1 #bcb4 ,coccus1 #bbc4 ,c(fee leaf-disease1 #aad1 #adf1 #aff1 #afi1 #bdb4 ,coleophora1 #aec1 #bjf4 ,coleosporium1 #afi4 ,coleus1 #aib1 #bbj4 ,competition ( fungi1 #fa4 ,complex int]actions1 #ia1 #ii4 ,conif]s1 #abe1 #bje1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bcd1 #beh4 ,con/itution1 #aef1 #bhc4 ,consumption1 #bdh4 ,contact irritability1 #abe1 #ace4 ,contagium fluidum vivum1 #ahc4 ,contortions1 #beb4 ,convall>ia1 #age4 ,convolvulus1 #aab4 ,copaif]a1 #bcd4 ,copp] sulphate1 #afb1 #afe4 ,copp]y leaves1 #aia4 ,cork1 #aai1 #abc1 #aid1 #aii1 #baf1 #bbb4 ,cork w+s1 #bag4 ,corky w>ts1 #bab4 ,corn1 #bdh4 ,corrosion ( m>ble1 #df4 ,cossus1 #bjf4 ,co/ ( epidemics1 #adf1 #adg4 ,cotton1 #agb4 ,crassula1 #bec4 ,creep+ ( mycelia1 #adb4 ,crepis1 #beb4 ,crimson spots1 #ahi4 ,cross-bre$+1 #bff4 ,cross-f]tilisation1 #fi1 #gd1 #gg1 #bha4 ,cross-gra9+1 #abd4 ,crucif]s1 #bai1 #bhd4 ,cryptogams1 #hg1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aac4 ,cuckoo-spit1 #bcc4 ,cucullate leaves1 #bec4 ,cucumb]1 #bai4 ,cucurbit>ia1 #bag1 #bdc4 ,cultivation ( pe/ & ho/ plant1 #afh4 ,curculio1 #bdh4 ,curl+1 #bce1 #bdf4 ,cuscuta1 #acd4 ,cuts1 #aai1 #adc1 #aid4 ,cutt+s1 #aid1 #aih1 #bfb1 #bfc4 ,cyanide ( potassium1 #afe4 ,cycads1 #abh4 ,cynips1 #aaj1 #bac1 #bai4 ,cy/opus1 #aaf1 #acf1 #age1 #ahg1 #bag1 #bdg1 #beb4 ,cytases1 #acb4 ,cytisus ,adami1 #bfd1 #bhc4 ,daisy1 #bgh4 ,damp+ (f1 #aad1 #add1 #afj1 #bbi1 #bhd4 ,d&elion1 #bdg1 #beb4 ,daniel's rese>*es1 #bhc4 ,d>k heat rays1 #bg4 ,d>w91 #gb1 #abe4 ,dasyscypha ,willkommii1 #aeb1 #bbc4 ,dea?1 #bga1 #bgb1 #bhg1 #bij4 ,de ,b>y1 #he1 #aea4 ,defici5cy ( iron1 #ahj4 ,defoliation1 #aji1 #bdj1 #bdd4 ,de=mation1 #acb4 ,dematium1 #ace4 ,dematophora1 #adc1 #ade4 ,d5itrification1 #fb4 ,d]ivation ( ,phytopa?ology1 #he4 ,de/ruction1 #bge4 ,developm5t ( root-hairs1 #dj4 ,dextr9e1 #agc4 ,diagnosis1 #he1 #hi4 ,dia/ases1 #acb4 ,diffusion1 #ec4 ,dige/ion1 #acc4 ,digraphis1 #age4 ,dilophia1 #ahh4 ,dionaea1 #abe4 ,dipsacus1 #beb4 ,dipt]a1 #bjg4 ,dis-assimilation1 #bge1 #bgg1 #bhf4 ,discolorations1 #agi1 #ahf1 #aib4 ,disease1 #fd1 #ia1 #bga1 #bgb1 #bgg1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #bij4 ,disease dodg+1 #afh4 ,disease-fungi1 #ahi4 ,disease ( organs1 #aai4 ,disease-pro( v>ieties1 #afh1 #afi1 #aga1 #agc1 #agg4 ,disease-resi/+ v>ieties1 #agg4 ,diseases ( absorptive organs1 #aba4 ,diseases ( assimilatory organs1 #aai4 ,diseases ( b>k1 #abj4 ,diseases ( cambium1 #abj4 ,diseases ( p>5*yma1 #abj4 ,diseases ( respiratory organs1 #aai1 #aba4 ,dis9tegration1 #bge4 ,di/ortions1 #adj1 #bdf1 #bea1 #beb1 #bec4 ,dissem9ation ( fungi1 #adb4 ,division1 #abg4 ,dodd]1 #aac4 ,dolium1 #acd4 ,dormant buds1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #beg1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,d\ble fl[]s1 #bdg1 #bef4 ,d\ble ideals 9 selection1 #afh4 ,draca5a1 #aib4 ,dra9age1 #ajc4 ,draw+1 #ajf1 #ahj4 ,drip1 #ajc4 ,droop+1 #dc1 #agi4 ,drops ( wat]1 #aib4 ,dropsy1 #bbh4 ,dr\ght1 #aba1 #ahc1 #aij1 #aia1 #bde1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,dry-rot1 #adc1 #bcg4 ,ducks1 #add4 ,dutro*et1 #g4 ,dw>f+1 #bdf1 #bdi4 ,dy+ back1 #aij1 #bdj1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,e>wigs1 #afd1 #bjg4 ,eau ,cele/e1 #afb4 ,edelfaeule1 #bcj4 ,eelworms1 #aaa1 #bdh4 ,effects ( environm5t1 #bfb4 ,eggs ( insects1 #ahg4 ,elaborat$ sap1 #id4 ,elm1 #bah1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bcc1 #bfj4 ,empusa1 #afc4 ,endemic diseases1 #aec1 #afj1 #aff4 ,endive1 #ahj4 ,endophytes1 #acj4 ,endophytic algae1 #abh4 ,endophytic fungi1 #aic4 ,en]gy 9 plants1 #ae1 #be1 #bhg4 ,engelmann1 #bj1 #bg4 ,entyloma1 #ahg4 ,enzymes1 #aj1 #acj1 #acb1 #acf4 ,epi*loe1 #bah4 ,epicormic %oots1 #bbd1 #beg1 #bfj4 ,epidemics1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aac1 #aae1 #adb1 #aec1 #afj1 #afc1 #aff4 ,epiphytes1 #aac1 #acj1 #ace1 #acg4 ,epiphytic algae1 #ahh4 ,epiphytic fungi1 #afa1 #aic1 #bcb4 ,equisetum1 #aac4 ,ergot1 #aca1 #adb1 #add4 ,er9eum1 #hh1 #bab1 #bad1 #bae4 ,erosions1 #bjd1 #bjg4 ,erysipheae1 #ace1 #adb1 #afa1 #ahg1 #bfh4 ,ess5tials ( f]tilisation1 #fi4 ,e/imates ( loss1 #adf4 ,etiolation1 #ajf1 #agi1 #ahj1 #bbi4 ,euphorbia1 #aaf1 #acd1 #bdg1 #bff4 ,excavations1 #bjd4 ,excess ( food1 #bbi4 ,excess ( m9]als1 #ajb4 ,excess ( wat]1 #ajj4 ,excessive gr[?1 #bdf4 ,excessive nutrition1 #bej4 ,excresc5ces1 #aad1 #bab1 #bbb4 ,excreta1 #de1 #acj1 #acc4 ,exobasidium1 #abh1 #bah4 ,exoascus1 #aaf1 #abh1 #ahh1 #bjh1 #bad1 #bah1 #bbe1 #bdg1 #bec4 ,exp5se ( mat]ials1 #afa4 ,exp]im5ts necess>y1 #afh4 ,exposure ( roots1 #agi1 #ahd4 ,ext]nal causes ( disease1 #ii4 ,ext9ction ( species1 #ia4 ,exudations1 #bbg4 ,exudation "u pressure1 #ea4 ,factors ( an epidemic1 #adi1 #afe4 ,fall+ ( fruit1 #bjf4 ,fall+ leaves1 #abc4 ,false *lorosis1 #aha4 ,false etiolation1 #ahj4 ,f>fugium1 #ahh4 ,fasciations1 #bcj1 #bdf1 #bea4 ,fats1 #bgb1 #bhf4 ,fe$+1 #ad1 #af4 ,f]m5tation1 #eh1 #ajb1 #acj1 #bcc4 ,f]ns1 #aac1 #bdg1 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,f]tilisation1 #ga4 ,field-mice1 #afd4 ,figs1 #aac4 ,f+] & toe1 #aad1 #abg1 #afc4 ,fire1 #bdj4 ,flam+1 #afd4 ,flatt5$ roots1 #bdf1 #beb4 ,fle%9ess1 #bbh4 ,flies1 #hf1 #aaj1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade4 ,flux1 #bbg1 #bca4 ,fly+ foxes1 #bdd4 ,focuss+ ( sol> rays1 #aib4 ,foliage1 #aaj4 ,font>ia1 #acd4 ,food1 #ah4 ,=e/-fires1 #bda4 ,=mic-aldehyde1 #bj4 ,f\l products1 #ajj4 ,foxy leaves1 #aia4 ,freez+1 #aba1 #ahc4 ,frit fly1 #ahb4 ,fro/1 #aec1 #afj1 #bbe1 #bbi1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,fro/-b$s1 #bdc4 ,fro/-bli/]s1 #bab1 #bah4 ,fro/ cank]1 #bbb4 ,fro/-cracks1 #bjd1 #bji1 #bdb4 ,fro/-pat*es1 #bdj4 ,fro/-ridge1 #bji4 ,fumago1 #aij1 #bcb4 ,fumes1 #ajd4 ,functions ( roots1 #dc1 #de4 ,functional depression1 #if4 ,fungi1 #hi1 #ajh1 #adc1 #agd1 #ahi1 #bjj1 #bje1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bab1 #baf1 #bai1 #bbc1 #bbi1 #bca1 #bcc1 #bch1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdc1 #bdh1 #bea1 #bee1 #beh1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #bhh4 ,fungus attacks1 #aci4 ,fungus galls1 #bai4 ,fus>ium1 #adc1 #bch4 ,fusicladium1 #ahi4 ,fusisporium1 #bcg4 ,gagea1 #beh4 ,gall-apple1 #bah4 ,gall-flies1 #bai4 ,gall-insect1 #aci4 ,gall-l swell+s1 #abh4 ,galls1 #hf1 #aaj1 #abj1 #acj1 #ach1 #bab1 #bad1 #bah1 #bee4 ,gangr5e1 #bca4 ,g>reya1 #bfd4 ,gas1 #afj4 ,gases 9 soil1 #ajd4 ,ga/ropa*a1 #bbe4 ,gelat9e1 #afc4 ,g5]al dea?1 #aaf4 ,g5]al disease1 #aai1 #abj4 ,g]m-plasm1 #bfg4 ,gesn]ia1 #bfj4 ,gle*oma1 #bah4 ,gloeosporium1 #ahi1 #aij1 #bjh4 ,glox9ia1 #bfj4 ,goats1 #afd4 ,gooseb]ry1 #bag4 ,graft-hybrids1 #bfb1 #bfg1 #bga1 #bhc4 ,graft+1 #gh1 #aee1 #afi1 #ahc1 #bej1 #bfb1 #bga1 #bha4 ,gra9-ru/1 #adf4 ,grapes1 #aib1 #bcj1 #bca4 ,grapholi?a1 #aji1 #bjg4 ,grass1 #aaa1 #ahi1 #aij1 #bje1 #bah1 #bcc4 ,gre5 fly1 #afa4 ,grew1 #he4 ,greyi% spots1 #ahg4 ,gr[?1 #bga1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bhf4 ,grubs1 #aaj1 #bjg4 ,gumm+1 #bce4 ,gummosis1 #bbg1 #bcd1 #bce4 ,gymnosporangium1 #aad1 #agf1 #bbc4 ,hail1 #ajf1 #bdj1 #bda4 ,hales1 #he4 ,haltica1 #bji4 ,h>dy v>ieties1 #afh1 #agj1 #agg4 ,hau/oria1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf4 ,heal+1 #aid1 #aif4 ,heal+ by cork1 #abc4 ,heal?1 #bgb1 #bhg4 ,heal? & disease1 #ia1 #ig1 #bhg4 ,heliotropism1 #abf4 ,hemileia1 #adf1 #afi4 ,h]$ity1 #gb1 #bhc4 ,h]potri*ia1 #ace1 #aij4 ,hessian ,fly1 #ahb4 ,het]odora1 #bai1 #bbj4 ,hi]acium1 #aab4 ,hi/ory ( ,phytopa?ology1 #he4 ,holdfa/ ( roots1 #db4 ,hollyhock disease1 #adc4 ,holly1 #bag4 ,honey dew1 #add1 #bbg1 #bcb1 #bcc4 ,hops1 #afb1 #ahg1 #aia1 #bcb1 #bec4 ,hop-aphis1 #adf4 ,hop-disease1 #aff4 ,hop mildew1 #afa4 ,hormomyia1 #bai4 ,hornbeam1 #bbd1 #bcc1 #bdb4 ,horse-radi%1 #bfj4 ,ho/1 #bhd1 #bhe4 ,hyac9?1 #bca1 #bfa4 ,hyac9? disease1 #adc4 ,hybrids1 #fi1 #aef1 #bha4 ,hybridisation1 #fi1 #ge1 #afi1 #bff1 #bha4 ,hydro*loric acid1 #aha4 ,hydrog51 #bgb4 ,hym5omycetes1 #bjf4 ,hyp]trophy1 #aai1 #abg1 #aci1 #bac1 #bae1 #bdg1 #bff4 ,hypo*a]is1 #aab4 ,hypomyces1 #bcg4 ,hyponomeuta1 #bed4 ,ice1 #ahd1 #bji4 ,i*neumon-flies1 #afe4 ,ict]us1 #aha4 ,illegitimate unions1 #bfe4 ,immunity1 #aee1 #aef1 #afe1 #afh1 #afi4 ,imp]vi\s subsoil1 #aha4 ,in>*+1 #bfi4 ,increase 9 dry weight1 #bc4 ,indian agriculture1 #agb4 ,indian :eats1 #afh4 ,indisp5sability ( elem5ts1 #bgh4 ,infection1 #bfb1 #bfe1 #bfg4 ,+r$i5ts ( protoplasm1 #bgb4 ,insect bites1 #bbe4 ,insect diseases1 #ade1 #adf1 #aed1 #ahi4 ,insect punctures1 #hh4 ,insects1 #hi1 #ih1 #ajh1 #aji1 #abj1 #ach1 #adb1 #aec1 #agd1 #ahg1 #aid1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bab1 #bbc1 #bbi1 #bda1 #bdd1 #bdh1 #bea1 #bed1 #bee1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfi4 ,insolation1 #ahj1 #bdb4 ,int]cellul> endophytes1 #acf1 #acg4 ,int]cellul> mycelium1 #abh4 ,int]f]5ce1 #ia4 ,int]nal causes ( disease1 #ii1 #aja4 ,intracellul> p>asites1 #abg1 #acf4 ,intramolecul> respiration1 #bgg4 ,intumesc5ces1 #bab1 #bae4 ,inul91 #aa1 #ag4 ,inv]tebrata1 #ajh4 ,irritability1 #abe1 #abg4 ,irritation1 #aai1 #aci4 ,is>ia1 #afc4 ,ivy1 #aac1 #afe4 ,japanese trees1 #bej4 ,j]usalem ,arti*oke1 #bfd4 ,juncus1 #bai4 ,junip]1 #aad4 ,kidney bean1 #aib4 ,knau]s1 #bbc4 ,knife w\nds1 #aid1 #aie4 ,lab\r1 #afa4 ,lace-w+s1 #afe4 ,la*nus1 #bbc4 ,lady-birds1 #afd1 #afe4 ,lammas %oots1 #beg1 #bei4 ,l>*1 #afh1 #aga4 ,l>* disease1 #aae1 #adi1 #aeb1 #aff1 #aga1 #bbc1 #bda4 ,l>vae1 #aaj4 ,lat]al w\nds1 #acb4 ,lawns1 #aab4 ,lay+ ( :eat1 #agi1 #ahj4 ,leaf-curl1 #bcf1 #bec4 ,leaf-diseases1 #aad1 #aai1 #abj1 #bdb4 ,leaf-galls1 #bag1 #bah4 ,leaf-m9]1 #hf1 #aji1 #bjd4 ,leaf p]=ations1 #bjh4 ,leaf roll+1 #bad1 #bdf1 #bed4 ,leaf-spots1 #aad1 #aij4 ,legum9oseae1 #acg1 #bai4 ,lemons1 #bce4 ,l5ticels1 #bag4 ,lepidopt]a1 #ahg4 ,leptospha]ia1 #bdi4 ,li*5s1 #acg4 ,liebig1 #d4 ,life1 #bga1 #bhe1 #bhg4 ,life & dea?1 #bga4 ,light1 #bg1 #ajf4 ,lily disease1 #adc4 ,lime1 #afc1 #bae1 #bah1 #bcb1 #bec1 #bed1 #bfj1 #bfi4 ,limes1 #agb4 ,limits ( v>iation1 #bhg4 ,l9>ia1 #beb4 ,liquid antiseptics1 #afj1 #afa1 #afb4 ,liv+ environm5t1 #ii1 #ajh4 ,local action1 #aad4 ,local disease1 #aai1 #aba4 ,locu/s1 #aji1 #ade1 #afc1 #afd4 ,longicorns1 #bje4 ,loran?us1 #aac1 #bde1 #bfe4 ,losses due to epidemics1 #adb4 ,l[]+ ( temp]ature1 #ajj4 ,luc]ne1 #bdi4 ,lurk+ p>asites1 #adb1 #ade4 ,ly*nis1 #bcb4 ,lyonetra1 #bjf4 ,lysima*ia1 #bag4 ,ma*9e1 plant comp>$ to a1 #gi4 ,magnesium1 #bgb4 ,maize1 #aaf1 #agc1 #bai1 #bfg4 ,majan!mum1 #age4 ,mal=mations1 #aaf1 #acj1 #aca1 #bdf1 #bea4 ,mal n]o1 #aij4 ,mall[1 #beb4 ,malpighi1 #he4 ,mammals1 #adb4 ,man & plants1 #ajh1 #adb1 #adc4 ,manna1 #bbg1 #bce4 ,manna ,a%1 #bce4 ,maple1 #bei4 ,maximum1 #bhh4 ,maximum absorption1 #ai4 ,maximum assimilation1 #ai4 ,maximum temp]ature1 #aje4 ,mealy bug1 #afd4 ,melampsora1 #agf4 ,melon1 #bbj4 ,messmates1 #fc4 ,metabolic products1 #bgd4 ,metabolism1 #bc1 #abg1 #bga4 ,metabolites1 #bgh4 ,metallic comp\nds1 #afb4 ,mice1 #ajh1 #afc4 ,microbes1 #bbg4 ,micro-organisms1 #ahc4 ,mildew1 #hf1 #afd4 ,mill>det1 #afi4 ,m9]al salts1 #aja4 ,m9iature trees1 #bej4 ,m9imum1 #bhh4 ,m9imum temp]ature1 #aje4 ,misconceptions1 #ab4 ,mi/letoe1 #aac1 #bfe4 ,mites1 #aib1 #bad1 #bee4 ,mix$ species1 #aff4 ,molecul> /ructure ( protoplasm1 #bgc1 #bgd4 ,mongrel =ms1 #gd4 ,monilia1 #bag1 #bca4 ,mon/rosities1 #bdf4 ,mora9e plants1 #bej4 ,mo?s1 #aaj1 #ade1 #bjf4 ,m\lds1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcg1 #bdc4 ,mucor1 #bcj1 #bca4 ,mulb]ry1 #bdd4 ,mutilations1 #beb4 ,mycelial /r&s1 #ade4 ,mycelium1 #ahh4 ,mycocecidia1 #bai4 ,mycorrhiza1 #acg4 ,myrtaceae1 #beh4 ,mytilaspis1 #ahg4 ,natural *ecks1 #aei4 ,natural demise1 #ia1 #ic4 ,natural ,grafts1 #bfi4 ,natural ,selection1 #gb1 #ii1 #afg1 #bhf4 ,natural ,w\nds1 #bjd4 ,nature ( soil1 #eg4 ,necrosis1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdc4 ,nectria1 #ade1 #bag1 #bbc1 #bda1 #bdc1 #bfi4 ,nematodes1 #aaa1 #acd1 #aci1 #bai1 #bbj4 ,nettle1 #aaf1 #beb4 ,neurotus1 #bai4 ,new =mations1 #bee4 ,nitrate1 #bgc4 ,nitrification1 #fb1 #ajb4 ,nitrog51 #bgb4 ,nodosities1 #bai4 ,nodules on roots1 #fc1 #acg4 ,non-liv+ environm5t1 #ii4 ,notommata1 #adj4 ,nucle> fusion1 #bfg4 ,nucle> protoplasm1 #bga1 #bgi1 #bhj1 #bij4 ,nucle> sub/ance1 #ga4 ,nucleo-plasm1 #bhj4 ,nuts1 #bdh4 ,oak1 #aaj1 #ahh1 #bae1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbc1 #bcc4 ,oak leaf-roll]1 #bed4 ,oat1 #agf4 ,occlusion1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bbb1 #bbc4 ,od\rs1 #add4 ,o$ema1 #bbh4 ,olive1 #bbc4 ,onion1 #bca4 ,oniscus1 #ahb4 ,oospora1 #baf4 ,optimum temp]ature1 #aje1 #bhh4 ,orange1 #agc1 #ahg1 #bce1 #bdg4 ,orange-col\r$ spots1 #ahg4 ,or*>d trees1 #afc4 ,or*e/es1 #bjf4 ,or*ids1 #aac1 #bff4 ,organic acids1 #ej4 ,organisation1 #hi4 ,organis$ /ructure1 #ac4 ,organisms 9 soil1 #fj4 ,oroban*e1 #aab4 ,osmosis1 #bf1 #bi1 #df4 ,osmotic pressures1 #ah1 #da1 #eb4 ,ov]-cr[d+1 #ajd1 #aaa4 ,ov]-fe$+1 #ajb4 ,ov]-wat]+1 #ig4 ,oxalic acid1 #acd1 #acf4 ,oxidation1 #abd4 ,oxyg51 #ajd1 #bgb4 ,oxyg5-respiration1 #ab1 #fd4 ,pallor1 #agi1 #ahj4 ,palms1 #aib4 ,pangium1 #acd1 #afe4 ,p>asites1 #fa1 #aac1 #aai1 #acj1 #aci1 #agd1 #ahg1 #bcj1 #bfe1 #bfi1 #bhd4 ,p>asitic algae1 #ahh1 #bag1 #bai4 ,p>asitic bact]ia1 #afc4 ,p>asitic diseases1 #hh1 #aai1 #aba4 ,p>asitic epiphyte1 #acf4 ,p>asitic fungi1 #hg1 #ig4 ,p>asitism1 #bfb1 #bfd1 #bfh1 #bga4 ,p>is1 #age4 ,p>is gre51 #afb4 ,p>ti-col\r$ leaves1 #aia4 ,p>ti-col\r$ spots1 #ahf4 ,pa/ure grasses1 #fi4 ,pa?ology1 #aba1 #beg4 ,pa?ology ( cell1 #aai4 ,pa?ological conditions1 #afh1 #agj1 #bdf4 ,pea1 #aij1 #aia1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bdh1 #bfh4 ,pea*1 #agj1 #bec4 ,pe>1 #agi1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aia1 #baf1 #bah1 #bca1 #bdj1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bec1 #beg4 ,p$igree :eats1 #fi4 ,pel>gonium1 #aih1 #bec4 ,peloria1 #beb4 ,p5icillium1 #bca4 ,p]id]mium ,p9i1 #bbc1 #bcd4 ,p]iola1 #bch4 ,p]manganate1 #afb4 ,p]onospora1 #acf1 #afj1 #age1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #bjh4 ,petasites1 #ahh4 ,petroleum1 #afb4 ,peziza1 #aae1 #add1 #aeb4 ,phan]ogams1 #ajh1 #aaa4 ,phellomyces1 #bch4 ,phoma1 #bag1 #bdc4 ,phosphorus1 #bgb4 ,photo-syn!sis1 #aa1 #af4 ,phragmidium1 #ahi4 ,phylla*ora1 #ahi4 ,phyll]eum1 #bec4 ,phyllobium1 #bag4 ,phyllosiphon1 #ahh4 ,phyllo/icta1 #ahh1 #bji4 ,phyllox]a1 #aaj1 #ade1 #adi1 #aed1 #aee1 #afc1 #aff1 #agb1 #ahh1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bfh4 ,physiology1 #a1 #ff1 #he4 ,physiological diseases1 #aai1 #aba4 ,phytomyza1 #bjf4 ,phytopa?ology1 #he4 ,phytoph?ora1 #aae1 #acf1 #add1 #aej1 #aea1 #bce1 #bcf4 ,phytophysa1 #bai4 ,phytoptus1 #ahi1 #bac1 #bad1 #bae1 #bah1 #bai1 #bec1 #bed4 ,pilea1 #bai4 ,pilobolus1 #abf1 #adj4 ,p9es1 #ahc1 #bbc1 #bcd1 #bea1 #beb4 ,p9e-apple1 #beh4 ,pi? flecks1 #bjd1 #bjg4 ,plant z ag5t ( disease1 #ii1 #ajh4 ,plant1 agricultural *emi/ry (1 #a4 ,plant & its food1 #g4 ,plant & its surr\nd+s1 #a4 ,plant1 a ma*9e1 #a1 #ae4 ,plant1 c5tral object ( /udy1 #a4 ,plant1 physiology1 #a4 ,plantago1 #beg4 ,planta91 #aab1 #beg4 ,plants1 dy+ out (1 #ic4 ,plasmodia1 #afc4 ,plasmodiophora1 #aad1 #abf1 #abg1 #add1 #afc1 #bai1 #bhd1 #bhe4 ,plasmolysis1 #dg4 ,pleospora1 #bcf4 ,pleotra*elus1 #abf1 #adj4 ,plum1 #aga1 #ahi1 #aib1 #bji1 #bad1 #bjf1 #bca1 #bce1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bfj4 ,poa1 #beh4 ,pocket-l galls1 #aee1 #bad1 #bah4 ,pocket-plums1 #bad4 ,pockets1 #bec4 ,poison1 #ajb1 #acj1 #acf1 #afc1 #baf4 ,poison\s gases1 #aha1 #bdh4 ,poll5 gra91 #bhh4 ,poll9ation1 #bdh1 #bfb1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bga4 ,polydesmus1 #bcf4 ,polygonatum1 #age4 ,polygonum1 #beh4 ,polymorphism1 #agd4 ,polyporei1 #adb4 ,polyporus1 #adc1 #bjf4 ,poly/igma1 #ahi4 ,popl>1 #ahh1 #bjf1 #bae1 #bah1 #bed4 ,po/ & epidemics1 #adb4 ,potassium1 #bgb4 ,potassium sulphite1 #afb4 ,potato1 #afb1 #aga1 #aid1 #bji1 #baf1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #beh4 ,potato-disease1 #aad1 #adc1 #adi1 #aej1 #aff1 #ahi1 #bjg1 #bce4 ,p[d]s1 antiseptic1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa4 ,pr$isposition to disease1 #ih1 #ii1 #aje1 #afh1 #afi1 #bbi1 #bfb1 #bfh1 #bgg1 #bgh1 #bhb4 ,prev5tible diseases1 #aei4 ,prev5titi\s buds1 #bei4 ,prolepsis1 #beg1 #bei4 ,prolif]ations1 #beg1 #beh4 ,prop]ties ( soil1 #eg4 ,prophylactic measures1 #afj4 ,proteids1 #acb1 #ach1 #bgb1 #bgg1 #bhf4 ,proteolytic enzymes1 #acb4 ,protomyces1 #bag4 ,protoplasmic molecules1 #bgf1 #bgh1 #bhf4 ,protoplasm1 #cc1 #da1 #bga1 #bgb1 #bgd1 #bgf4 ,prun+1 #aje1 #adc1 #aid1 #bbe1 #bej4 ,prussic acid1 #afc1 #afe1 #agc4 ,psylla1 #bec4 ,pucc9ia1 #hh1 #aad1 #afi1 #age1 #agf1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #bdg1 #beb4 ,puck]s1 #bad1 #bce1 #bdf1 #bec4 ,puff+ ( spores1 #adb1 #add4 ,punctures1 #bab4 ,pure culture1 #aff4 ,purple-black spots1 #aia4 ,pu/ules1 #ahh1 #aij1 #bab1 #bag4 ,putrefaction1 #bcd4 ,pyre?rum1 #afa4 ,pyrus1 #bad4 ,py?ium1 #aad1 #aai1 #acf1 #add1 #afj1 #bcj4 ,quassia1 #afa4 ,qu99e1 #agc4 ,rabbits1 #ajh1 #adb1 #afd1 #aid4 ,ra9 trees1 #bcc4 ,rankness1 #ig1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,rats1 #ajh1 #afc4 ,rays ( light1 #ah4 ,r$ light1 #ba4 ,r$ spid]1 #afa1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #aib4 ,r$ spots1 #ahh1 #bec4 ,ref]5ces 9 ,bible1 #he4 ,rem$ial measures1 #hi4 ,repell5t sub/ances1 #acf4 ,reproduction1 #gb1 #bha4 ,res]ves1 #bgd4 ,res91 #abe4 ,res9-flux1 #bcd4 ,res9osis1 #bbg1 #bcd4 ,resi/ance to disease1 #aee1 #bfh4 ,resi/ant races1 #agb4 ,respiration1 #ag1 #ca1 #acj1 #bga1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bhe1 #bhg4 ,rev]sions1 #gc4 ,rh9an?oideae1 #bfe4 ,rh9an?us1 #aab4 ,rhizobium1 #bhi4 ,rhizoctonia1 #bch4 ,rhizomorph1 #ade4 ,rhodod5dron1 #bah4 ,rhub>b1 #ahj1 #bcj4 ,rhyn*itis1 #bed4 ,rhytisma1 #ahh4 ,ribbon grass1 #ahc4 ,ribes1 #bad4 ,rice1 #agb4 ,rimpau's exp]im5ts1 #fi1 #gc1 #gg4 ,r++1 #aid1 #bja1 #bjb1 #baj4 ,rip5$ wood1 #bdc4 ,rob9ia1 #bei4 ,rod5ts1 #aji4 ,roe/elia1 #bag4 ,roll$ leaves1 #hf4 ,root1 #i1 #ce1 #if1 #abj1 #bbg1 #bgj4 ,root-absorption1 #aha4 ,root-diseases1 #aai1 #abj4 ,root-excretions1 #df4 ,root-fusions1 #bfb4 ,root-galls1 #bba4 ,root-hairs1 #cd1 #ajb1 #afc4 ,root-nodules1 #bab1 #bai4 ,root-p>asites1 #aab1 #bfe4 ,root-rot1 #bcj4 ,roses1 #bcb1 #bdc1 #beg1 #bfh1 #bgh4 ,rosettes1 #bbe4 ,rot1 #ig1 #ahb1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bca1 #bcf4 ,rotation ( crops1 #fi1 #aff4 ,rotif]1 #adj4 ,rot-organisms1 #bjj4 ,rott+ ( w\nds1 #hg4 ,r\5 law1 #he4 ,ru%es1 #aad4 ,ru/1 #abb1 #adb1 #aga1 #agb1 #age1 #aia4 ,rye1 #agf1 #bdh4 ,sac*>omyces1 #fj4 ,sa*s1 #g1 #cf4 ,salvia1 #bad4 ,san ,jose scale1 #ahg4 ,s&-bla/ action1 #ahd4 ,s&y soils1 #ahd4 ,sap]da1 #bje4 ,saprophytes1 #ace1 #acg1 #age1 #bcd1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,scab1 #ahi1 #baf4 ,scale1 #ahg4 ,s*9zia1 #aad4 ,s*izoneura1 #bbc4 ,scion1 #ahc1 #bfb1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bhb4 ,scl]od]ris1 #bbc4 ,scl]otia1 #adc4 ,s*w>z1 #ci4 ,scl]ot9ia1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #bca1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bhh4 ,scolytidae1 #bje4 ,scor*+1 #bdj1 #bda4 ,scurf1 #baf4 ,sea-kale1 #bfa4 ,secale1 #gf4 ,secretions1 #acj1 #acc1 #agc1 #bgd4 ,s$ges1 #ahi4 ,se$less grapes1 #bdg4 ,sel&ria1 #bjh4 ,selection1 #fi1 #gd1 #gh1 #afi4 ,selective absorption1 #ec1 #fe4 ,self-f]tilisation1 #bha4 ,semi-p>asites1 #aab4 ,s5ecio1 #ahh4 ,s5sitive plant1 #abe4 ,septoria1 #aad1 #ahg4 ,sewage wat]s1 #ei4 ,sexual act1 #gb4 ,%ad$ foliage1 #aac4 ,%ank+1 #bdf1 #bdi4 ,%oots f old wood1 #bfj4 ,%ot holes1 #bjd1 #bjh1 #bji4 ,silv] fir1 #bbd4 ,silv] leaf1 #aib4 ,sirex1 #bjf4 ,skeleton leaves1 #bjd1 #bjg4 ,slime flux1 #bbg1 #bcc4 ,slime fungus1 #bai4 ,slugs1 #aaa1 #afd1 #bjg1 #bfi4 ,smut1 #aag1 #adc1 #afb1 #aij4 ,snails1 #aaa1 #adb1 #bjg4 ,sn[1 #ajf4 ,soap1 z insecticide1 #afa4 ,soil1 #a1 #db1 #ii1 #ajb1 #adb1 #afc4 ,soil-bact]ia1 #fj4 ,soil-filtration1 #ei4 ,soil-organisms1 #fa1 #adc4 ,sol> en]gy1 #ace4 ,somato-plasm1 #bfg4 ,sooty m\lds1 #ace1 #aij1 #bcb4 ,sorbus1 #bjg4 ,sorosporium1 #baf4 ,s\r-rot1 #bca4 ,sp>r[s1 #afd4 ,specialis$ races1 #afh1 #agf4 ,specific pr$isposition1 #aee4 ,spectrum1 #ai1 #ba1 #bf4 ,sp]mogonia1 #add1 #bcb4 ,spha]ella1 #ahi4 ,spha]o!ca1 #ahg4 ,spha]obla/s1 #bbb1 #bbe4 ,spic>ia1 #bcg4 ,spiral groov+1 #bjd1 #baj4 ,spiral gr[?1 #beb4 ,spongospora1 #baf4 ,spontane\s v>iations1 #gh1 #bdf1 #bee4 ,spores1 #add4 ,sports1 #ic1 #bdg4 ,spots on leaves1 #abj1 #ahf4 ,spray+1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb4 ,spread+ ( disease1 #adb4 ,squirrels1 #ajh4 ,/ag-head1 #bdj1 #bdd4 ,/>*1 #i1 #af1 #ag1 #bj1 #bc1 #ach1 #agc4 ,/ati/ics ( epidemics1 #adg4 ,/eep+1 #afa4 ,/em diseases1 #abj4 ,/]eum1 #bjf4 ,/]ility ( soil1 #fa4 ,/imulation1 #aai4 ,/imuli1 #abf1 #abg1 #aci4 ,/ock1 #bfb1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bhb4 ,/omata1 #bc4 ,/ool-%oots1 #bja1 #bbe1 #bfi4 ,/ool /umps1 #aid1 #bja4 ,/rangulations1 #bjd1 #bji4 ,/rawb]ry1 #ahi1 #beg4 ,/ripp+1 #aid1 #aig4 ,/roma1 #bag4 ,/ructure1 #bgd4 ,/ructure ( protoplasm1 #bga4 ,/ructure ( root-hairs1 #dj4 ,/ruggle = exi/5ce1 #aje1 #aei1 #afd1 #afe1 #afg1 #bhf4 ,/udy ( causes1 #he4 ,/umps1 #aid4 ,subsoil1 #eg1 #ajc4 ,sub/itutive selections1 #bhf4 ,suck]s1 #bbe1 #bfj4 ,sug>1 #aa1 #ag1 #bj1 #agc1 #bhf4 ,sug> cane1 #agb4 ,sug> cane disease1 #aff4 ,sulphate1 #bgc4 ,sulphur1 #afa1 #afc1 #bgb4 ,sulphur\s acid1 #aha4 ,sun-burn1 #bdj1 #bda4 ,sun-cracks1 #bdj1 #bdb4 ,sundew1 #bcb4 ,sunfl[]1 #bef1 #bfd4 ,sun-spots1 #aib4 ,sup]/itions1 #he4 ,surface en]gy1 #bf4 ,surface roots1 #aab4 ,sweet almond1 #agc4 ,symbiosis1 #fc1 #acj1 #acg1 #bai1 #bfc1 #bfe1 #bfh1 #bhe4 ,symptoms ( disease1 #hi1 #abb1 #agi1 #ahf4 ,syn*ytrium1 #abg1 #ahh1 #bag1 #bdg4 ,syn!sis1 #fe4 ,syr+a1 #bei4 ,syr++1 #afa1 #afd4 ,tam>isk1 #bce4 ,tann91 #ach4 ,taphr9a1 #bah4 ,t>1 #afd4 ,tea1 #bdd4 ,teazel1 #beb4 ,teleutospore1 #ahi1 #aia4 ,temp]ature1 #ii1 #aje4 ,t5d5cies to ill-heal?1 #ia4 ,t5drils1 #abe4 ,t]atology1 #bdf1 #bec1 #bed1 #beg4 ,tetraneura1 #bah4 ,tetrany*us1 #ahg1 #aib4 ,?aw+1 #ahc4 ,!lephora1 #bjf4 ,!rapeutics1 #he1 #hi1 #aei4 ,!rmotropism1 #abf4 ,!sium1 #aab4 ,?ick-sk9n$ organs1 #afh1 #aga4 ,?9n+1 #if1 #aje4 ,?i/le1 #bdg4 ,?rips1 #hh1 #aia1 #bjh4 ,?yloses1 #abe4 ,tilia1 #bad4 ,timb] diseases1 #aai1 #abj4 ,timiriazeff1 #ba4 ,t9ea1 #bjf4 ,tissue diseases1 #aai4 ,tobacco1 #bji4 ,tobacco p[d]1 #afa4 ,tomato1 #aga1 #bai1 #bcj4 ,top-dry trees1 #bdd4 ,topical rem$ies1 #afa4 ,tomicus1 #bje4 ,torsions1 #bdf1 #beb4 ,tortrix1 #bed4 ,toxic ag5ts1 #acj4 ,trans=mation ( en]gy1 #be1 #bh4 ,trans=mation ( organs1 #bed1 #bee4 ,transmission ( acquir$ *>act]s1 #bfd1 #bhc1 #bij4 ,transplant+1 #if4 ,transpiration1 #aha1 #bbh4 ,trees1 #aji4 ,tri*ospha]ia1 #ace4 ,triticum1 #gf4 ,tumesc5ce1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,tunnels1 #bjf4 ,turgesc5ce1 #dg1 #bbh1 #bcj4 ,turnip1 #abf1 #afb1 #bcj4 ,twit*1 #aac4 ,tyl5*us1 #bch1 #bdh4 ,ulc]1 #bca4 ,ung]1 #he4 ,unsuitable soils1 #aja4 ,upheaval ( se$l+s1 #agi1 #ahc4 ,ur$9eae1 #aad1 #acd1 #acf1 #ade1 #afi1 #ahh1 #ahi4 ,ur$o1 #hh1 #ahh1 #aia4 ,ur$ospores1 #aia4 ,uromyces1 #aaf1 #ahh1 #aia1 #bff4 ,urocy/is1 #bbj4 ,u/ilag9eae1 #ade1 #aij1 #bag1 #bdh4 ,u/ilago1 #aaf1 #aag1 #age1 #aij1 #bai1 #bee4 ,vacc9ium1 #abh1 #bhh4 ,v>iability1 #agd4 ,v>iation1 #fg1 #gb1 #ia1 #ib1 #afh1 #agd1 #agf1 #bdf1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bga1 #bhb1 #bhf1 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,v>iegation1 #agi1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #aib4 ,v>ieties1 #gh1 #bdg4 ,v>ieties ( soil1 #ef4 ,vau*]ia1 #aci1 #adj4 ,vegetable acids1 #dh4 ,v]tebrata1 #ajh4 ,v]ticillium1 #ade1 #bcf4 ,viburnum1 #bad4 ,v9e1 #aaj1 #adi1 #aef1 #afb1 #afd1 #afi1 #aga1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia1 #bbb1 #bdh1 #bfh4 ,v9e disease1 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,botany at ! ,royal ,indian ,eng9e]+ ,college1 ,coop]'s ,hill4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,! ,/ud5t's ,flora ( ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,d4 ,,hook]1 ,m4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,?ird edition4 ,globe #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,a ,prim] ( ,botany4 ,by ! same4 ,pott #hvo4 #as4 ,timb] & ,timb] ,trees1 ,native & ,=eign4 ,by ,,?omas ,,laslett4 ,second edition4 ,revis$ by ,h4 ,,m>%all ,,w>d1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,! ,yew ,trees ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&4 ,by ,,john ,,l[e1 ,m4,d41 ,honor>y ,physician to ,8 ,royal ,highness ! ,pr9ce ( ,wales2 ,fell[ ( ! ,l9nean ,society2 ,fell[ ( ! ,botanical ,society ( ,ed9burgh4 ,illu/rat$4 #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,! ,nature & ,"w ( ,plants4 ,an ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,botany4 ,by ,d4 ,t4 ,,macd\gal1 ,ph4,d4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,introduction to ,/udy ( ,seawe$s4 ,by ,g4 ,,murray4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,briti% ,=e/ ,trees & _! ,sylvicultural ,*>act]i/ics & ,treatm5t4 ,by ,j4 ,,nisbet4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,lessons 9 ,elem5t>y ,botany4 ,! ,"p on ,sy/ematic ,botany bas$ ^u mat]ial left 9 manuscript by ! late ,pr(essor ,h5sl[4 ,by ,,daniel ,,oliv]1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,l4,s41 =m]ly ,keep] ( ! ,h]b>ium & ,libr>y ( ! ,royal ,g>d5s1 ,kew1 & ,pr(essor ( ,botany 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london4 ,illu/rat$4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,fir/ ,book ( ,indian ,botany4 ,by ,,daniel ,,oliv]1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,illu/rat$4 ,ex4 fcap4 #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,laboratory ,practice = ,beg9n]s 9 ,botany4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,set*ell1 ,ph4,d41 ,pr(essor ( ,botany 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,economic ,plants1 ,diction>y ( ,popul> ,names (2 ,_! ,hi/ory1 ,products1 & ,uses4 ,by ,j4 ,,smi?4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,a ,text-,book ( ,botany4 ,by ,dr4 ,e4 ,,/rasburg]1 ,dr4 ,,fritz ,,noll1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,,s*5ck1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,s*imp]4 ,translat$ f ! ,g]man by ,h4 ,c4 ,,port]1 ,ph4,d41 ,assi/ant ,in/ructor ( ,botany1 ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,revis$ & ,edit$ by ,a4 ,c4 ,,sew>d4 ,) #eid illu/rations1 9 "p col\r$4 ,m$ium #hvo4 #ahs4 net4 ,! ,h]b ( ! ,field4 ,by ,,*>lotte ,m4 ,,yonge4 ,new edition1 revis$4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,,london4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,! ^w ,o$ema uses an ,,oe ligature 9 ! orig9al4 ,! foll[+ corrections h be5 made to ! text3 ,page vi3 be ! bett] = a real korig9al has kn[lege ,page #ee3 &orig9al has & & are too crudely me*anical ,page #aag3 ,prillieuxorig9al has ,prilleux1 ,maladies des ,plantes ,agricoles ,page #abh3 ! int]cellul> mycelium ( ,exoascusorig9al has ,exoacus ,page #acd3 subject to attacks ( ,ur$9eaeorig9al has ,ur$9ae ,page #adb3 c>ri$orig9al has c>rri$ f plant to plant ,page #agf3 its aecidiaorig9al has aecida on ! ,b>b]ry ,page #ahb3 e4g4 ,oniscusorig9al has ,osc9is1 ! ,frit ,fly1 & ,cecidomyiaorig9al has ,cecidomya ,page #ahb3 n necess>ily less a% con/itu5tsorig9al has con/itut5ts ,page #ahc3 nature ( a transmissible enzymeorig9al has enyzme ,page #bjc3 ,krankh4 d4 ,pflanz51 ,b4 ,i4orig9al has #a cap4 #b ,page #bjf3 leaves ( ,apples by ,lyonetiaorig9al has ,lyonettia ,page #bah3 ,epi*loeorig9al has ,epi*loe1 :i* clo!s ! %ea?s ,page #bai3 beetle :i* attacks ,crucif]sorig9al has ,crucific]s ,page #bba3 on ! gre5 p>ts ( ,hibiscus1comma miss+ 9 orig9al ,page #bba3 nodules ( ! roots ( ,legum9oseaeorig9al has ,legum9osae ,page #bcj3 ,edelfaeuleorig9al has ,edelfauele1 a rott5 condition ( ! grapes ,page #bce3 giv+ an almo/ mealyorig9al has meally appe>ance ,page #bdc3 z its myceliumorig9al has myceliun spreads ,page #beh3 ,prolepsis4orig9al has ,proplesis--,x frequ5tly ,page #bic3 ,aetiologyorig9al has ,a,etiology1 #hi1 #ajj4 ,page #bic3 ,an?onomusorig9al has ,an?onomos1 #bdi4 ,page #bid3 ,bird's-eyeorig9al has ,birds'-eye ,maple1 #bbd4 ,page #bie3 ,c]cospora1orig9al has ,c]eospora #aij4 ,page #bih3 ,eau ,cele/eorig9al has ,cele/e1 #afb4 ,page #cjj3 ,het]odoraorig9al has ,het]od]a1 #bai1 #bbj4 ,page #cjj3 ,holly1 #bag4p]iod miss+ 9 orig9al ,page #cjj3 ,hypomyces1 #bcg4orig9al has comma ,page #cja3 ,lyonetiaorig9al has ,lyonetra1 #bjf4 ,page #cjc3 ,p]manganateorig9al has ,p]mangate1 #afb4 ,page #cjd3 ,prophylacticorig9al has ,phophylactic measures1 #afj4 ,page #cjd3 ,phytomyza1 #bjf4p]iod miss+ 9 orig9al ,page #cjd3 ,phyll]eumorig9al has ,phyll]eus1 #bec4 ,page #cjd3 ,p9e-appleorig9al has ,p9e apple1 #beh4 ,page #cje3 ,pucc9ia1 #hh1 #aad1 #afi1 #age1 #agf1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #bdg1 #beborig9al has #beb1 #bdg4 ,page #cjg3 ,somato-plasmorig9al has ,somatoplasm1 #bfg4 ,page #cjg3 ,sp]mogoniaorig9al has ,sp]magonia1 #add1 #bcb4 ,page #cjh3 ,tomicusorig9al has ,tornicus1 #bje4 ,! foll[+ index entries 7 out ( alphabetical ord] & h be5 mov$ to ! appropriate locations3 ,phyllox]a ,plants1 dy+ out ( ,poison\s gases ,prev5tible diseases ,prophylactic measures ,sp]mogonia